 Valkyria Chronicles III =

Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Unrecorded Chronicles ( Japanese : 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 ) , commonly referred to as Valkyria Chronicles III outside Japan , is a tactical role @-@ playing video game developed by Sega and Media.Vision for the PlayStation Portable . Released in January 2011 in Japan , it is the third game in the Valkyria series . Employing the same fusion of tactical and real @-@ time gameplay as its predecessors , the story runs parallel to the first game and follows the " Nameless " , a penal military unit serving the nation of Gallia during the Second Europan War who perform secret black operations and are pitted against the Imperial unit " Calamaty Raven " .

The game began development in 2010 , carrying over a large portion of the work done on Valkyria Chronicles II . While it retained the standard features of the series , it also underwent multiple adjustments , such as making the game more forgiving for series newcomers . Character designer Raita Honjou and composer Hitoshi Sakimoto both returned from previous entries , along with Valkyria Chronicles II director Takeshi Ozawa . A large team of writers handled the script . The game 's opening theme was sung by May 'n .

It met with positive sales in Japan , and was praised by both Japanese and western critics . After release , it received downloadable content , along with an expanded edition in November of that year . It was also adapted into manga and an original video animation series . Due to low sales of Valkyria Chronicles II , Valkyria Chronicles III was not localized , but a fan translation compatible with the game 's expanded edition was released in 2014 . Media.Vision would return to the franchise with the development of Valkyria : Azure Revolution for the PlayStation 4 .

= = Gameplay = =

As with previous Valkyira Chronicles games , Valkyria Chronicles III is a tactical role @-@ playing game where players take control of a military unit and take part in missions against enemy forces . Stories are told through comic book @-@ like panels with animated character portraits , with characters speaking partially through voiced speech bubbles and partially through unvoiced text . The player progresses through a series of linear missions , gradually unlocked as maps that can be freely scanned through and replayed as they are unlocked . The route to each story location on the map varies depending on an individual player 's approach : when one option is selected , the other is sealed off to the player . Outside missions , the player characters rest in a camp , where units can be customized and character growth occurs . Alongside the main story missions are character @-@ specific sub missions relating to different squad members . After the game 's completion , additional episodes are unlocked , some of them having a higher difficulty than those found in the rest of the game . There are also love simulation elements related to the game 's two main heroines , although they take a very minor role .

The game 's battle system , the BliTZ system , is carried over directly from Valkyira Chronicles . During missions , players select each unit using a top @-@ down perspective of the battlefield map : once a character is selected , the player moves the character around the battlefield in third @-@ person . A character can only act once per @-@ turn , but characters can be granted multiple turns at the expense of other characters ' turns . Each character has a field and distance of movement limited by their Action Gauge . Up to nine characters can be assigned to a single mission . During gameplay , characters will call out if something happens to them , such as their health points ( HP ) getting low or being knocked out by enemy attacks . Each character has specific " Potentials " , skills unique to each character . They are divided into " Personal Potential " , which are innate skills that remain unaltered unless otherwise dictated by the story and can either help or impede a character , and " Battle Potentials " , which are grown throughout the game and always grant boons to a character . To learn Battle Potentials , each character has a unique " Masters Table " , a grid @-@ based skill table that can be used to acquire and link different skills . Characters also have Special Abilities that grant them temporary boosts on the battlefield : Kurt can activate " Direct Command " and move around the battlefield without depleting his Action Point gauge , the character Reila can shift into her " Valkyria Form " and become invincible , while Imca can target multiple enemy units with her heavy weapon .

Troops are divided into five classes : Scouts , Shocktroopers , Engineers , Lancers and Armored Soldier . Troopers can switch classes by changing their assigned weapon . Changing class does not greatly affect the stats gained while in a previous class . With victory in battle , experience points are awarded to the squad , which are distributed into five different attributes shared by the entire squad , a feature differing from early games ' method of distributing to different unit types .

= = Plot = =

The game takes place during the Second Europan War . Gallian Army Squad 422 , also known as " The Nameless " , are a penal military unit composed of criminals , foreign deserters , and military offenders whose real names are erased from the records and thereon officially referred to by numbers . Ordered by the Gallian military to perform the most dangerous missions that the Regular Army and Militia will not do , they are nevertheless up to the task , exemplified by their motto , Altaha Abilia , meaning " Always Ready . " The three main characters are No.7 Kurt Irving , an army officer falsely accused of treason who wishes to redeem himself ; Ace No.1 Imca , a female Darcsen heavy weapons specialist who seeks revenge against the Valkyria who destroyed her home ; and No.13 Riela Marcellis , a seemingly jinxed young woman who is unknowingly a descendant of the Valkyria . Together with their fellow squad members , these three are tasked to fight against a mysterious Imperial unit known as Calamity Raven , consisting of mostly Darcsen soldiers .

As the Nameless officially do not exist , the upper echelons of the Gallian Army exploit the concept of plausible deniability in order to send them on missions that would otherwise make Gallia lose face in the war . While at times this works to their advantage , such as a successful incursion into Imperial territory , other orders cause certain members of the 422nd great distress . One such member , Gusurg , becomes so enraged that he abandons his post and defects into the ranks of Calamity Raven , attached to the ideal of Darcsen independence proposed by their leader , Dahau . At the same time , elements within Gallian Army Command move to erase the Nameless in order to protect their own interests . Hounded by both allies and enemies , and combined with the presence of a traitor within their ranks , the 422nd desperately move to keep themselves alive while at the same time fight to help the Gallian war effort . This continues until the Nameless 's commanding officer , Ramsey Crowe , who had been kept under house arrest , is escorted to the capital city of Randgriz in order to present evidence exonerating the weary soldiers and expose the real traitor , the Gallian General that had accused Kurt of Treason .

Partly due to these events , and partly due to the major losses in manpower Gallia suffers towards the end of the war with the Empire , the Nameless are offered a formal position as a squad in the Gallian Army rather than serve as an anonymous shadow force . This is short @-@ lived , however , as following Maximilian 's defeat , Dahau and Calamity Raven move to activate an ancient Valkyrian super weapon within the Empire , kept secret by their benefactor . Without the support of Maximilian or the chance to prove themselves in the war with Gallia , it is Dahau 's last trump card in creating a new Darcsen nation . As an armed Gallian force invading the Empire just following the two nations ' cease @-@ fire would certainly wreck their newfound peace , Kurt decides to once again make his squad the Nameless , asking Crowe to list himself and all under his command as killed @-@ in @-@ action . Now owing allegiance to none other than themselves , the 422nd confronts Dahau and destroys the Valkyrian weapon . Each member then goes their separate ways in order to begin their lives anew .

= = Development = =

Concept work for Valkyria Chronicles III began after development finished on Valkyria Chronicles II in early 2010 , with full development beginning shortly after this . The director of Valkyria Chronicles II , Takeshi Ozawa , returned to that role for Valkyria Chronicles III . Development work took approximately one year . After the release of Valkyria Chronicles II , the staff took a look at both the popular response for the game and what they wanted to do next for the series . Like its predecessor , Valkyria Chronicles III was developed for PlayStation Portable : this was due to the team wanting to refine the mechanics created for Valkyria Chronicles II , and they had not come up with the " revolutionary " idea that would warrant a new entry for the PlayStation 3 . Speaking in an interview , it was stated that the development team considered Valkyria Chronicles III to be the series ' first true sequel : while Valkyria Chronicles II had required a large amount of trial and error during development due to the platform move , the third game gave them a chance to improve upon the best parts of Valkyria Chronicles II due to being on the same platform . In addition to Sega staff from the previous games , development work was also handled by Media.Vision. The original scenario was written Kazuki Yamanobe , while the script was written by Hiroyuki Fujii , Koichi Majima , Kishiko Miyagi , Seiki Nagakawa and Takayuki Shouji . Its story was darker and more somber than that of its predecessor .

The majority of material created for previous games , such as the BLiTZ system and the design of maps , was carried over . Alongside this , improvements were made to the game 's graphics and some elements were expanded , such as map layouts , mission structure , and the number of playable units per mission . A part of this upgrade involved creating unique polygon models for each character 's body . In order to achieve this , the cooperative elements incorporated into the second game were removed , as they took up a large portion of memory space needed for the improvements . They also adjusted the difficulty settings and ease of play so they could appeal to new players while retaining the essential components of the series ' gameplay . The newer systems were decided upon early in development . The character designs were done by Raita Honjou , who had worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When creating the Nameless Squad , Honjou was faced with the same problem he had had during the first game : the military uniforms essentially destroyed character individuality , despite him needing to create unique characters the player could identify while maintaining a sense of reality within the Valkyria Chronicles world . The main color of the Nameless was black . As with the previous Valkyria games , Valkyria Chronicles III used the CANVAS graphics engine . The anime opening was produced by Production I.G.

= = = Music = = =

The music was composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , who had also worked on the previous Valkyria Chronicles games . When he originally heard about the project , he thought it would be a light tone similar to other Valkyria Chronicles games , but found the themes much darker than expected . An early theme he designed around his original vision of the project was rejected . He redid the main theme about seven times through the music production due to this need to reassess the game . The main theme was initially recorded using orchestra , then Sakimoto removed elements such as the guitar and bass , then adjusted the theme using a synthesizer before redoing segments such as the guitar piece on their own before incorporating them into the theme . The rejected main theme was used as a hopeful tune that played during the game 's ending . The battle themes were designed around the concept of a " modern battle " divorced from a fantasy scenario by using modern musical instruments , constructed to create a sense of atonality . While Sakimoto was most used to working with synthesized music , he felt that he needed to incorporate live instruments such as orchestra and guitar . The guitar was played by Mitsuhiro Ohta , who also arranged several of the later tracks . The game 's opening theme song , " If You Wish for ... " ( もしも君が願うのなら , Moshimo Kimi ga Negauno Nara ) , was sung by Japanese singer May 'n . Its theme was the reason soldiers fought , in particular their wish to protect what was precious to them rather than a sense of responsibility or duty . Its lyrics were written by Seiko Fujibayashi , who had worked on May 'n on previous singles .

= = = Release = = =

In September 2010 , a teaser website was revealed by Sega , hinting at a new Valkyria Chronicles game . In its September issue , Famitsu listed that Senjō no Valkyria 3 would be arriving on the PlayStation Portable . Its first public appearance was at the 2010 Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) , where a demo was made available for journalists and attendees . During the publicity , story details were kept scant so as not to spoil too much for potential players , along with some of its content still being in flux at the time of its reveal . To promote the game and detail the story leading into the game 's events , an episodic Flash visual novel written by Fujii began release in January 2011 . The game was released January 27 , 2011 . During an interview , the development team said that the game had the capacity for downloadable content ( DLC ) , but that no plans were finalized . Multiple DLC maps , featuring additional missions and recruitable characters , were released between February and April 2011 . An expanded edition of the game , Valkyria Chronicles III Extra Edition , released on November 23 , 2011 . Packaged and sold at a lower price than the original , Extra Edition game with seven additional episodes : three new , three chosen by staff from the game 's DLC , and one made available as a pre @-@ order bonus . People who also owned the original game could transfer their save data between versions .

Unlike its two predecessors , Valkyria Chronicles III was not released in the west . According to Sega , this was due to poor sales of Valkyria Chronicles II and the general unpopularity of the PSP in the west . An unofficial fan translation patch began development in February 2012 : players with a copy of Valkyria Chronicles III could download and apply the patch , which translated the game 's text into English . Compatible with the Extra Edition , the patch was released in January 2014 .

= = Reception = =

On its day of release in Japan , Valkyria Chronicles III topped both platform @-@ exclusive and multi @-@ platform sales charts . By early February , the game sold 102 @,@ 779 units , coming in second overall to The Last Story for the Wii . By the end of the year , the game had sold just over 152 @,@ 500 units .

Famitsu enjoyed the story , and were particularly pleased with the improvements to gameplay . Japanese gaming site Game Watch Impress , despite negatively noting its pacing and elements recycled from previous games , was generally positive about its story and characters , and found its gameplay entertaining despite off @-@ putting difficulty spikes . 4Gamer.net writer Naohiko Misuosame , in a " Play Test " article based on the game 's PSN demo , felt that Valkyria Chronicles III provided a " profound feeling of closure " for the Valkyria Chronicles series . He praised its gameplay despite annoying limitations to aspects such as special abilities , and positively noted its shift in story to a tone similar to the first game .

PlayStation Official Magazine - UK praised the story 's blurring of Gallia 's moral standing , art style , and most points about its gameplay , positively noting the latter for both its continued quality and the tweaks to balance and content . Its one major criticism were multiple difficulty spikes , something that had affected the previous games . Heath Hindman of gaming website PlayStation Lifestyle praised the addition of non @-@ linear elements and improvements or removal of mechanics from Valkyria Chronicles II in addition to praising the returning gameplay style of previous games . He also positively noted the story 's serious tone . Points criticized in the review were recycled elements , awkward cutscenes that seemed to include all characters in a scene for no good reason , pacing issues , and occasional problems with the game 's AI .

In a preview of the TGS demo , Ryan Geddes of IGN was left excited as to where the game would go after completing the demo , along with enjoying the improved visuals over Valkyria Chronicles II . Kotaku 's Richard Eisenbeis was highly positive about the game , citing is story as a return to form after Valkyria Chronicles II and its gameplay being the best in the series . His main criticisms were its length and gameplay repetition , along with expressing regret that it would not be localized .

= = Legacy = =

Kurt and Riela were featured in the Nintendo 3DS crossover Project X Zone , representing the Valkyria series . Media.Vision would return to the series to develop Valkyria : Azure Revolution , with Ozawa returning as director . Azure Revolution is a role @-@ playing video game for the PlayStation 4 that forms the beginning of a new series within the Valkyria franchise .

= = = Adaptations = = =

Valkyria Chronicles 3 was adapted into a two @-@ episode original video animation series in the same year of its release . Titled Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Taga Tame no Jūsō ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア３ 誰がための銃瘡 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The Wound Taken for Someone 's Sake ) , it was originally released through PlayStation Network and Qriocity between April and May 2011 . The initially @-@ planned release and availability period needed to be extended due to a stoppage to PSN during the early summer of that year . It later released for DVD on June 29 and August 31 , 2011 , with separate " Black " and " Blue " editions being available for purchase . The anime is set during the latter half of Valkyria Chronicles III , detailing a mission by the Nameless against their Imperial rivals Calamity Raven . The anime was first announced in November 2010 . It was developed by A @-@ 1 Pictures , produced by Shinji Motoyama , directed by Nobuhiro Kondō , and written by Hiroshi Ōnogi . Sakimoto 's music for the game was used in the anime .

The anime 's title was inspired by the principle purpose of the Nameless : to suffer in battle for the goals of others . A subtitle attached to the project during development was " The Road to Kubinka " , which referenced the Kubinka Tank Museum in Moscow . The game 's main theme was how the characters regained their sense of self when stripped of their names and identities , along with general themes focused on war and its consequences . While making the anime , the production team were told by Sega to make it as realistic as possible , with the consequence that the team did extensive research into aspects such as what happened when vehicles like tanks were overturned or damaged . Due to it being along the same timeline as the original game and its television anime adaptation , the cast of Valkyria Chronicles could make appearances , which pleased the team . The opening theme , " Akari ( Light ) -Tomoshibi- " ( 灯 @-@ TOMOSHIBI- ) , was sung by Japanese singer Faylan . The ending theme , " Someday the Flowers of Light Will Bloom " ( いつか咲く光の花 , Itsuka Saku Hikari no Hana ) , was sung by Minami Kuribayashi . Both songs ' lyrics were written by their respective artists .

Two manga adaptations were produced , following each of the game 's main female protagonists Imca and Riela . They were Senjō no Valkyria 3 : Namo naki Chikai no Hana ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 名もなき誓いの花 , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 : The Flower of the Nameless Oath ) , illustrated by Naoyuki Fujisawa and eventually released in two volumes after being serialized in Dengeki Maoh between 2011 and 2012 ; and Senjō no Valkyria 3 : -Akaki Unmei no Ikusa Otome- ( 戦場のヴァルキュリア3 -赤き運命の戦乙女- , lit . Valkyria of the Battlefield 3 -The Valkyrie of the Crimson Fate ) , illustrated by Mizuki Tsuge and eventually released in a single volume by Kadokawa Shoten in 2012 .

= Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal =

The Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal , also known as U.S. Arsenal Building , is a building located in MacArthur Park in downtown Little Rock , Arkansas . Built in 1840 , it was part of Little Rock 's first military installation . Since its decommissioning , The Tower Building has housed two museums . It was home to the Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities from 1942 to 1997 and the MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History since 2001 . It has also been the headquarters of the Little Rock Æsthetic Club since 1894 .

The building receives its name from its distinct octagonal tower . Besides being the last remaining structure of the original Little Rock Arsenal and one of the oldest buildings in central Arkansas , it was also the birthplace of General Douglas MacArthur , who became the supreme commander of US forces in the South Pacific during World War II . It was also the starting place of the Camden Expedition . In 2011 it was named as one of the top 10 attractions in the state of Arkansas by Arkansas.com.

= = Construction = =

The arsenal was constructed at the request of Governor James Sevier Conway in response to the perceived dangers of frontier life and fears of the many Native Americans who were passing through the state on their way to the newly established Oklahoma Territory . Thirty @-@ six acres were appropriated on the outskirts of Little Rock by Major Robert B. Lee of the U.S. Army . The land had been previously used as a racetrack by the local jockey club . John Wormley Walker , a builder for the Federal Government , supervised the construction . Originally $ 14 @,@ 000 was allocated for the construction of the arsenal , but proved inadequate . The budget was later increased to $ 30 @,@ 000 . Work began on the Tower Building in 1840 , and it was the first permanent structure of the arsenal to be built . Being originally constructed to store ammunition , the building was designed with 3 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) exterior walls . The original plans called for it to be built of stone , however , masonry was used instead . The Arkansas Gazette referred to the structure as " A splendid specimen of masonry " .

= = Civil War = =

For several years the arsenal , which was owned by the federal government , served as a simple arms depot and was staffed with only a handful of soldiers . But in November 1860 , with the American Civil War on the horizon , a company of the Second United States Artillery , consisting of sixty @-@ five men , was transferred to Little Rock under the command of Captain James Totten . On January 15 , 1861 , the state legislature decided to hold a referendum to determine if a state convention should be held to consider the issue of secession and to elect delegates to such a convention . It was planned for February 18 ; however , events at the arsenal , would not wait . On January 28 , then Governor Henry Massey Rector informed Captain Totten that he and his soldiers would be " permitted to remain in the possession of the Federal officers until the State , by authority of the people , shall have determined to sever their connection with the General Government , " Totten responded to this by telling the Governor that his orders came from the United States Government and began a desperate but ultimately futile dispatch of letters and telegrams asking for reinforcements , although rumors were widely spread that they were already coming . The first telegraph wire to span between Little Rock and Memphis had recently been completed . Local attorney John M Harrel was asked to compose the first telegraph dispatched from Arkansas 's capital . In his message , Harrel reported unconfirmed rumors that more federal troops had been sent to reinforce the Little Rock Arsenal .

The United States troops at the outposts of the western frontier of the state and in the Indian nation have all been recalled from winter quarters to reinforce the garrison at Fort Smith . The garrison at Fort Smith had been previously transferred to the United States Arsenal in this city ( Little Rock ) . The arsenal is one of the richest depositories of military stores in the United States and is supposed to be the ultimate destination of the tropps [ sic ] ordered from the frontier .

-John M Harrel Telegram , January 31 , 1861

The item was intended simply as a piece of news , but telegraph lines quickly spread the news throughout the state , fueling procession sentiment . The rumor was interpreted by some Arkansans as a call from the governor to assemble to help expel the federal troops from the arsenal . By February 5 , six militia units , consisting of 1 @,@ 000 men , with a guarantee that the numbers could be increased to 5 @,@ 000 if the situations deemed it necessary , had assembled in Little Rock . Governor Rector vehemently denied ordering the troops to assemble or giving any order at all in connection with the troops . Faced with the fact that the military had assembled believing they were following his orders and the consensus of the citizens of Little Rock against any armed conflict between the civilian army and federal troops , Governor Rector was forced to take control of the situation . On February 6 , he sent a formal demand for surrender of the arsenal to Captain Totten ,

This movement is prompted by the feeling that pervades the citizens of this State that in the present emergency the arms and munitions of war in the Arsenal should be under the control of the State authorities , in order to their security . This movement , although not authorized by me , has assumed such an aspect that it becomes my duty , as the executive of this Sate , to interpose my official authority to prevent a collision between the people of the State and the Federal troops under your command . I therefore demand in the name of the State the delivery of the possession of the Arsenal and munitions of war under your charge to the State authorities , to be held subject to the action of the convention to be held on the 4th of March next .

Perhaps because Abraham Lincoln had not yet been inaugurated as President , Captain Totten received no instructions from his superiors and was forced to withdraw his troops . He agreed to surrender the arsenal as long as the governor agreed to three provisions :

The governor would take possession of the arsenal in the name of the United States .

The soldiers would be allowed safe passage in any direction carrying any personal and public property besides munitions of war .

The soldiers would be allowed to march away as men leaving under orders , not as conquered and surrendering soldiers .

On the morning of February 8 , 1861 , Rector and Totten signed an agreement placing the arsenal in the hands of state officials . That afternoon , the citizen militia marched to the arsenal with Governor Rector at its head . All of the federal troops had left at this point , except Totten who had stayed behind to listen to the Governor 's speech and to hand the arsenal over in person .

The Little Rock Arsenal was classified in 1860 as an " arsenal of deposit , " meaning that it was simply a warehouse for the storage of weapons intended for the use of the state militia in times of crisis . Thus there were no substantial operations for ordnance fabrication or repairs , nor for the manufacture of cartridges at the time the Arsenal fell into State hands . Most of these operations were started from scratch through the efforts of the Arkansas Military Board .

Inside the Little Rock Arsenal after its seizure in February , 1861 , the Confederates inventoried some 10 @,@ 247 weapons , 250 @,@ 000 musket cartridges , and 520 @,@ 000 percussion caps , as well as the four bronze cannon of Totten 's battery . Long arms in the Arsenal 's inventory consisted of :

M1822 .69 cal ( flintlock ) 5 @,@ 625

M1822 .69 cal ( percussion @-@ converted ) 53

M1842 .69 cal smoothbore ( percussion ) 357

M1855 .58 cal rifle @-@ muskets 900

M1817 common rifles 125

M1841 rifle ( " Mississippi Rifle " ) 54

M1847 musketoon 2

Hall 's carbines 267

Hall 's rifles ( flintlock ) 2 @,@ 864

Total 10 @,@ 247

Of this number , approximately 9600 weapons were serviceable , or ready @-@ for @-@ issue . Note there were only 1 @,@ 364 percussion weapons available . Disposition of the weapons found in the Arsenal is somewhat sketchy , but from various records it can be surmised that the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 8th Arkansas Infantry Regiments , mustered in June , 1861 , were issued M1816 / M1822 .69 caliber flintlocks . The 9th and 10th Arkansas , four companies of Kelly 's 9th Arkansas Battalion , and the 3rd Arkansas Cavalry Regiment were issued flintlock Hall 's Rifles . The units comprising the infantry force of Van Dorn 's Army of the West were the 1st and 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles were also armed with M1822 flintlocks from the Little Rock Arsenal . By the time the 11th and 12th Arkansas Infantry Regiments mustered in at Little Rock , the supply of arms had been almost completely exhausted , and only old " junker " weapons were left .

Most of the equipment , arms , and machinery at the Little Rock Arsenal was removed to east of the Mississippi River by order of Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn in April and May 1862 , and accountability for it is lost at that point . By all appearances , the equipment was sent down the river to Napoleon , Arkansas , and from there to Jackson Mississippi , where it was probably destroyed during the Vicksburg campaign in the early summer of 1863 .

Major General Thomas C. Hindman , sent to command the district of Arkansas in May , 1862 , found the state nearly destitute of military material . Hindman established another armory at Arkadelphia , and revived the Little Rock Arsenal as a collection point and depot for armaments and ammunition manufacture for small arms . Hindman recorded :

" Machinery was made for manufacturing percussion caps and small arms , and both were turned out in small quantity , but of excellent quality . Lead mines were opened and worked , and a chemical laboratory was established and successfully operated in aid of the Ordnance Department and in the manufacture of calomel , castor oil , spirits of nitre , the various tinctures of iron , and other valuable medicines . Most of these works were located at or near Arkadelphia on the Ouachita River , 75 miles south from Little Rock . The tools , machinery , and the material were gathered piecemeal or else made by hand labor . Nothing of this sort had been before attempted on Government account in Arkansas to my knowledge , except for the manufacture of small arms , the machinery for which was taken away by General Van Dorn and there was neither capital nor sufficient enterprise among the citizens to engage in such undertakings � A further supply , along with lead and caps , was procured from the citizens of Little Rock and vicinity by donation , purchases , and impressments .

This ammunition , and that which I brought with me , was rapidly prepared for use at the Laboratory established at the Little Rock Arsenal for that purpose . As illustrating as the pitiful scarcity of material in the country , the fact may be stated that it was found necessary to use public documents of the State Library for cartridge paper . Gunsmiths were employed or conscripted , tools purchased or impressed , and the repair of the damaged guns I brought with me and about an equal number found at Little Rock commenced at once . But , after inspecting the work and observing the spirit of the men I decided that a garrison 500 strong could hold out against Fitch and that I would lead the remainder - about 1500 - to Gen 'l Rust as soon as shotguns and rifles could be obtained from Little Rock instead of pikes and lances , with which most of them were armed . Two days elapsed before the change could be effected . "

The Confederate ordnance establishment at Little Rock was reactivated in August , 1862 . Looking around for a suitable person to head this activity , General Hindman turned to the Confederate Navy and borrowed Lieutenant John W. Dunnington . Lt. Dunnington was the commander of the gunboat C.S.S. Ponchartrain , which had been brought to Little Rock in hopes of converting it to an ironclad . Dunnington was selected to head the ordnance works at Little Rock , and although he continued to draw his pay from the Confederate Navy Department , he was placed in charge of all Confederate ordnance activities ( which included artillery functions ) there with the rank of lieutenant colonel .

Lt. Col. Dunnington 's " Returns for the month of August , 1862 , at Little Rock Arsenal , C.S.A. , " are found in Vol . 149 , Chapter IV of the " Captured Rebel Ordnance Records , " and are most enlightening as to the scope of Confederate ordnance activities at Little Rock during this crucial time . According to Dunnington , " When I assumed command at this Post , all material had been removed to Arkadelphia . There were no persons employed . No shops were open for repair of arms or for fabricating ammunition . Material , tools , etc . , had to be procured as well as the employment of laborers . Work commenced the last part of the month . "

The military force at Little Rock under Dunnington 's command consisted of four officers : himself , Major John B. Lockman , Captain C.C. Green , and 2nd Lt. W.W. Murphy . In addition to these , he had 20 enlisted men and a civilian force composed of a foreman , 2 clerks , 3 gunsmiths for repairing small arms , a laboratorian , 26 laborers in the ammunition laboratory , and a carpenter for making packing boxes .

During the month of August , 1862 , the following work was performed : " Fabricated : one pair of musket bullet moulds ; 10 @,@ 000 buck & ball shot cartridges ; repaired : 750 muskets , shotguns , and rifles ; received and repaired : ordnance stores and ordnances ; performed : guard , office , and police duties ; inspected : Posts at Camden and Arkadelphia . "

Lt. Col. Dunnington continued to build up his works at Little Rock until November 1862 , when Captain Sanford C. Faulkner ( composer of The Arkansas Traveler ) was placed in charge of the Arsenal . Dunnington presumably returned to his naval duties and the Ponchartrain .

A " Summary of the Work Done for November , 1862 , Little Rock Arsenal " shows : Fabrication :

75 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - percussion

14 @,@ 000 buck & ball cartridges - flint

275 paper fuzes

117 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder canister shot

130 rounds , 6 @-@ pounder ball shot

96 ammunition packing boxes

Repaired :

2 @,@ 236 shotguns and rifles ( repaired mostly for troops in service )

23 pistols ( repaired mostly for troops in service )

Received & Issued :

752 packages of ordnance and ordnance stores received and mostly issued to troops in service .

Repaired and painted :

4 gun carriages

Performed :

Guard , office , and police duties .

Perhaps the most illuminating points of the above " Summary of Work " and those for following months are that the standard ammunition made was . " buck & ball " , indicating that the .69 caliber smoothbores and shotguns remained the predominant caliber weapon in use , and of this , nearly one sixth or more of all small arms ammunition was still for flintlock weapons , indicating that no less than a sixth of the Confederate troops in this vicinity were still armed with obsolete flintlock weapons .

The " Summaries of Work done at Little Rock Arsenal , C.S.A. " continue at about the same pace and scale from August 1862 until August 1863 . Appended to the " Summary " for August , 1863 is the ominous notation , " During the last week in the month , nearly all stores at the Arsenal have been packed and sent to Arkadelphia , in obedience to orders from Chief of Ordnance , District of Arkansas . " This then marks the beginning of the evacuation of ordnance activities from Little Rock , with the city being surrendered to the advancing Federal troops of Frederick Steele 's Arkansas Expedition on September 11 , 1863 .

In 1864 , after Little Rock fell to the Union Army and the arsenal had been recaptured , General Fredrick Steele marched 8 @,@ 500 troops from the arsenal beginning the Camden Expedition .

The arsenal was briefly seized once more by Joseph Brooks loyalists during the Brooks @-@ Baxter War of 1874 .

= = Decommissioning = =

In 1873 , the building was renamed Little Rock Barracks and used as a barracks for married officers and their families . The building was drastically altered the inside and outside . Prior to renovation , a rear basement door provided the only entrance to the building , while the tower served as a hoist to move munitions between floors . By 1868 , front and rear porches had been added to the building , as well as interior walls and stairs , some of which remain today , including the central staircase . In 1880 , Douglas MacArthur was born on the northwest upper floor of this building while his father , Captain Arthur MacArthur , was stationed there .

In the 1880s , the federal government began closing many small arsenals around the country in favor of smaller ones built near railroads for quick deployment . The arsenal commander received word from Washington that the Little Rock site must be abandoned " not later than October 1 , 1890 . " On April 12 , 1893 the tower building and the surrounding buildings were traded to the city of Little Rock for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in North Little Rock under the condition that the building and land be " forever exclusively devoted to the uses and purposes of a public park " for 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km ² ) in Big Rock Mountain on the north side of the Arkansas River , present day North Little Rock . That site later became Fort Logan H. Roots . All of the original buildings surrounding the Tower Building were demolished .

= = Æsthetic Club = =

In 1894 the Little Rock Æsthetic Club , one of the oldest women 's societies west of the Mississippi River , moved into the Tower Building . This was prompted due to increased membership and a need for larger , more permanent quarters . The previous year , club members working with women 's organizations throughout the state , raised money to furnish the Arkansas Building of the Columbian Exposition at The Chicago World 's Fair . At the fair 's conclusion , artifacts from the exhibit were displayed in the Tower Building , with the Æsthetic Club invited to meet in the " Columbian Room . "

Except for Æsthetic Club meetings , the Tower Building remained largely unoccupied for almost fifty years and suffered significant deterioration . The Æsthetic Club provided much @-@ needed financial support during the period and even paid the electric bill during the Great Depression . The Æsthetic Club is still headquartered in the Tower Building .

= = Public use = =

The building and the surrounding park were used for many public purposes throughout the early 20th century . The Tower Building served as headquarters for the United Confederate Veterans Reunion , May 15 – 18 , 1911 . Over 106 @,@ 000 Civil War veterans , the largest popular gathering in the history of the city up to that time , attended and were housed in the building or camped in the park , which had also become a popular camping area . Later the building served as an armory for the Arkansas National Guard . In 1912 , the second floor of the Tower Building became Little Rock 's first public library . In 1917 , Little Rock built a fire station in the park , that building is now gone . A band shell named for H. H. Foster also was built in the park during this time , but also no longer exists . In 1936 , Works Progress Administration built the Museum of Fine Arts , now called the Arkansas Arts Center , just south of the Tower Building .

The arsenal was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . Due to its association with the Camden Expedition of 1864 , the arsenal may be included in the Camden Expedition Sites National Historic Landmark designated in 1994 .

In 1942 , the Tower Building was renovated due to the efforts of the Æsthetic Club , Little Rock philanthropist Frederick W. Allsop , and the Works Progress Administration . It became the new home of The Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities , which had been located in Little Rock City Hall . The museum remained in the tower building for approximately fifty @-@ five years . The area surrounding the Tower Building had been known as Arsenal Park when the first decommissioned and then later renamed City Park . Due to the efforts of Bernie Babcock , however , the city finally named it MacArthur Park in 1942 in honor of Douglas MacArthur .

In 1997 , the Museum of Science and Natural History merged with the Little Rock Children 's Museum , which had been located in Union Station , to form the Arkansas Museum of Discovery . The new museum was relocated to a historic building in the Little Rock River Market District . The MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History opened on May 19 , 2001 in the Tower Building . The new museum 's goal is to educate and inform visitors about the military history of Arkansas , preserve the Tower Building , honor servicemen and servicewomen of the United States and commemorate the birthplace of Douglas MacArthur .

= Cicely Mary Barker =

Cicely Mary Barker ( 28 June 1895 – 16 February 1973 ) was an English illustrator best known for a series of fantasy illustrations depicting fairies and flowers . Barker 's art education began in girlhood with correspondence courses and instruction at the Croydon School of Art . Her earliest professional work included greeting cards and juvenile magazine illustrations , and her first book , Flower Fairies of the Spring , was published in 1923 . Similar books were published in the following decades .

Barker was a devout Anglican , and donated her artworks to Christian fundraisers and missionary organizations . She produced a few Christian @-@ themed books such as The Children ’ s Book of Hymns and , in collaboration with her sister Dorothy , He Leadeth Me . She designed a stained glass window for St. Edmund 's Church , Pitlake , and her painting of the Christ Child , The Darling of the World Has Come , was purchased by Queen Mary .

Barker was equally proficient in watercolour , pen and ink , oils , and pastels . Kate Greenaway and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites were the principal influences on her work . She claimed to paint instinctively and rejected artistic theories . Barker died in 1973 . Though she published Flower Fairy books with spring , summer , and autumn themes , it wasn 't until 1985 that a winter collection was assembled from her remaining work and published posthumously .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life = = =

Barker was born the second daughter and youngest child of Walter Barker , a partner in a seed supply company and an amateur artist , and his wife Mary Eleanor ( Oswald ) Barker on 28 June 1895 at home at 66 Waddon Road in Croydon , Surrey , England . Barker was an epileptic as a child , and cared for at home by her parents . Later , her sister and elder by two years , Dorothy Oswald Barker , continued the care .

The family of four was moderately well off , and belonged to the lower end of the upper middle class . A nanny , a governess , and a cook to prepare special meals for Barker were hired . She spent much time in bed at home amusing herself with painting books and a nursery library that included the works of Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott – two artists who exerted strong influences on her later art .

= = = Art education and first professional work = = =

Barker took correspondence courses in art , probably until about 1919 . In 1908 at 13 years , she entered an evening class at the Croydon School of Art , and attended the school into the 1940s . In time , she received a teaching position .

In 1911 , Raphael Tuck & Sons bought four of Barker 's " little drawings " for half a sovereign , and published them as postcards . In October 1911 , she won second prize in the Croydon Art Society 's poster competition , and shortly afterward was elected the youngest member of the Society . The art critic for the Croydon Advertiser remarked , " Her drawings show a remarkable freedom of spirit . She has distinct promise . "

Following her father ’ s death in June 1912 , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Barker submitted art and poetry to My Magazine , Child ’ s Own , Leading Strings , and Raphael Tuck annuals in an effort to support both her mother and sister . Her sister Dorothy taught kindergarten in two private schools before opening a kindergarten at home . She brought in some money for the family 's support while supervising the household .

= = = Flower Fairies of the Spring , 1923 = = =

Fairies became a popular theme in art and literature in the early 20th century following the releases of The Coming of the Fairies by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Peter Pan by J.M. Barrie , and the fairy @-@ themed work of Australian Ida Rentoul Outhwaite . Queen Mary made such themes even more popular by sending Outhwaite postcards to friends during the 1920s . In 1918 , Barker produced a postcard series depicting elves and fairies .

In 1923 , Barker sent her flower fairy paintings to various publishers . Blackie paid £ 25 for 24 paintings with accompanying verses , but it wasn 't until publication of Flower Fairies of the Summer in 1925 that Barker received royalties for her work . Mary Violet Clayton Calthrop , wife of author Dion Clayton Calthrop , wrote in April 1925 about Barker and Flower Fairies of the Spring : " She has such exquisite taste , besides draughtsmanship . "

= = = The Waldrons = = =

In 1924 , the family moved into a four @-@ level , semi @-@ detached Victorian house at 23 The Waldrons . Barker had a studio built in the garden and her sister conducted a kindergarten in a room at the back of the house . The family lived frugally and attended both St. Edmund 's and St. Andrew 's in Croydon – " low " churches for the less privileged . Barker sometimes incorporated portraits of her fellow parishioners in her religious works . She was described by Canon Ingram Hill as " one of the pillars " of St. Andrew 's .

The children in the kindergarten modelled for the Flower Fairies until the kindergarten closed in 1940 . In an interview in 1958 , Barker said , " My sister ran a kindergarten and I used to borrow her students for models . For many years I had an atmosphere of children about me – I never forgot it . " She also painted the children of relatives as well as Gladys Tidy , the Barkers ' young housekeeper , who posed for the Primrose Fairy in 1923 . The plants were painted from life , and if a specimen was not readily at hand , Kew Gardens staff would provide her the specimens needed . Barker designed and built the Flower Fairy costumes , and based each on the flowers and leaves of the particular plant to be illustrated . The costumes were kept in a trunk in her studio along with wings made of twigs and gauze . Each was broken down after an illustration was completed and the parts recycled for other costumes . She often referred to Dion Clayton Calthrop 's English Costume .

= = = Middle years = = =

In the late 1920s , Barker began to doubt she was doing enough for the church and considered focusing solely on sacred works . Family and friends recommended she continue secular and sacred works , which she did .

Barker continued to attend evening classes at the Croydon Art School between the 1920s and the 1940s , eventually receiving a teaching position . She took sketching trips to Amberley and Storrington in Sussex and to Cornwall and the southern coast with family and friends . She visited and stayed with artist Margaret Tarrant in Gomshall , Surrey and with family in Ugglebarnby , Near Whitby , North Yorkshire .

In 1940 , the Barker 's live @-@ in maid retired , and Dorothy Barker closed her school at the back of the house in The Waldrons . She continued to supervise the household , and to give both her mother and sister the care they needed . Dorothy and her sister collaborated upon only two books : Our Darling 's First Book and the Christian @-@ themed , He Leadeth Me . In 1954 Dorothy Barker died of a heart attack . Barker was unable to pursue her art to any significant extent following her sister 's death , as all the care of her aged mother devolved upon her , but she did manage to begin planning a stained glass window design in her sister 's memory for St. Edmund 's , Pitlake .

= = = Later life and death = = =

Barker 's mother died in 1960 , and , in 1961 , Barker moved from 23 The Waldrons to 6 Duppas Avenue in Croydon . She restored a maisonette in Storrington , Sussex , England , bequeathed by her friend Edith Major , and named it St. Andrew 's . After taking up residence , her health began to deteriorate . She was in and out of nursing and convalescent homes , and tended by relatives and friends .

Barker died at Worthing Hospital on 16 February 1973 , aged 77 years . Two funeral services were held – one in Storrington Church and one in Barker 's maisonette . Her ashes were scattered in Storrington churchyard . In 1989 , Frederick Warne , a division of Penguin Books since 1983 , acquired the Flower Fairies properties .

= = Art = =

Barker worked principally in watercolor with pen @-@ and @-@ ink , but she was equally competent in black @-@ and @-@ white , in oils , and in pastels . She carried a sketchbook with her for capturing interesting children . She once indicated , " I have always tried to paint instinctively in a way that comes naturally to me , without any real thought or attention to artistic theories . "

Kate Greenaway was a childhood favorite and an influence on her art . Barker 's child subjects wear nostalgic clothing as Greenaway 's children do , though Barker 's children are less melancholy and less flat in appearance , due perhaps to advances in printing technology . Barker studied flowers with an analytical eye and was friend to children 's illustrator , Margaret Tarrant . Along with Greenaway , illustrator Alice B. Woodward also influenced Barker 's work .

The Pre @-@ Raphaelites were a strong , lifelong influence on Barker . She once indicated , " I am to some extent influenced by them — not in any technical sense , but in the choice of subject matter and the feeling and atmosphere they could achieve . " She admitted a fondness for the early paintings of John Everett Millais and " the wonderful things " of Edward Burne @-@ Jones .

= = = Depictions of children = = =

Barker 's sketches , drawings , and paintings of children were given to friends or to the parents of the subjects , donated to charitable institutions and church sponsored events , or exhibited through various art organizations . She illustrated magazine covers , dust jackets , and produced series of postcards for Raphael Tuck and other publishers such as Picturesque Children of the Allies ( 1915 ) , Seaside Holidays ( 1918 ) , and Shakespeare 's Boy and Girl Characters ( 1917 , 1920 ) . Her own Old Rhymes for All Times ( 1928 ) and The Lord of the Rushie River ( 1938 ) , a tale about a girl who lives among swans on a riverbank , were critically well received . Set about 1800 , Groundsel and Necklaces ( 1943 ) tells of a girl named Jenny who rescues her family from poverty through the agency of the fairies . The story features an old Scrooge @-@ like man called Mr. Petercoo and tonally suggests a Dickensian social consciousness . Simon the Swan , intended as a sequel to Rushie River was outlined in 1943 with Groundsel , but only developed in 1953 . It was published posthumously in 1988 and is critically considered less successful than Groundsel .

= = = Christian @-@ themed works = = =

Barker was a devout Christian , and produced religious @-@ themed works throughout her life . She published eight postcards and five guardian angel birthday cards for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge in 1916 and in 1923 respectively . Christmas cards were designed for The Girls ' Friendly Society over a 20 @-@ year period , and the first three designs sold out a combined printing of 46 @,@ 500 in 1923 . An original design for the society called The Darling of the World Has Come was purchased by Queen Mary for ₤ 5 @.@ 5 @.@ 0 in 1926 . The Croydon Art Society hung Barker 's booklet cover design for the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in its November 1919 exhibition .

Religious @-@ themed books include The Children 's Book of Hymns ( 1929 ) and He Leadeth Me ( 1933 ) , the latter written in collaboration with her sister . Major religious works include the triptychs in oil , The Feeding of the Five Thousand ( 1929 ) , for the chapel in Llandaff House , a home for destitute women at Penarth , Wales , and The Parable of the Great Supper ( 1934 ) for St. George 's Chapel , Waddon . The Feeding has since disappeared , and only a black @-@ and @-@ white photograph dated 1929 reproduces the work . In 1941 , she completed oil panels on the subject of the seven sacraments for the baptismal font at St. Andrew 's , South Croydon . She designed baptismal rolls for the wall behind the font in 1948 and 1962 . In 1946 , she completed the 4 x 7 ft. oil painting , Out of Great Tribulation , for the Memorial Chapel of Norbury Methodist Church . Following the death of her sister in 1954 , Barker began designs for a stained glass memorial window depicting Christ preparing to wash the feet of his disciples . Her last religious @-@ themed work , it was installed in St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , in 1962 .

= = Works = =

= = = Cards = = =

Picturesque Children of the Allies ; J. Salmon , 1916

National Mission ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1916

Shakespeare 's Boy Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1917

Shakespeare 's Girl Characters ; C. W. Faulkner , 1920

Seaside Holiday ; J. Salmon , 1918 , 1921

Elves and Fairies ; S. Harvey , 1918

Guardian Angel ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1923

Christmas cards ; Girls ' Friendly Society , 1920s , 1930s

Christmas cards ( US ) ; Barton @-@ Colton , 1920s , 1930s

Beautiful Bible Pictures ; Blackie , 1932

= = = Books = = =

Flower Fairies of the Spring ; Blackie , 1923

Spring Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1923

Flower Fairies of the Summer ; Blackie , 1925

Child Thoughts in Picture and Verse ( by M. K. Westcott ) ; Blackie , 1925

Flower Fairies of the Autumn ; Blackie , 1926

Summer Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1926

The Book of the Flower Fairies ; Blackie , 1927

Autumn Songs with Music ; Blackie , 1927

Old Rhymes for All Times ; Blackie , 1928

The Children ’ s Book of Hymns ; Blackie , 1929 ; rep . 1933

Our Darling ’ s First Book ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1929

The Little Picture Hymn Book ; Blackie , 1933

Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1933

A Flower Fairy Alphabet ; Blackie , 1934

A Little Book of Old Rhymes ; Blackie , 1936

He Leadeth Me ( written in collaboration with Dorothy Barker ) ; Blackie , 1936

A Little Book of Rhymes New and Old ; Blackie , 1937

The Lord of the Rushie River ; Blackie , 1938

Flower Fairies of the Trees ; Blackie , 1940

When Spring Came In at the Window ; Blackie , 1942

A Child ’ s Garden of Verses ( Robert Louis Stevenson ) ; Blackie , 1944

Flower Fairies of the Garden ; Blackie , 1944

Groundsel and Necklaces ; Blackie , 1946 ; reprinted as Fairy Necklaces

Flower Fairies of the Wayside ; Blackie , 1948

Flower Fairies of the Flowers and Trees ; Blackie , 1950

Lively Stories ; Macmillan , 1954

The Flower Fairy Picture Book ; Blackie , 1955

Lively Numbers ; Macmillan , 1957

Lively Words ; Macmillan , 1961 .

The Sand , the Sea and the Sun ; Gibson , 1970

= = = = Posthumously published = = = =

Flower Fairies of the Winter ; Blackie , 1985

Simon the Swan ; Blackie , 1988

Flower Fairies of the Seasons ; Bedrick / Blackie , 1988

A Little Book of Prayers and Hymns ; Frederick Warne , 1994

A Flower Fairies Treasury ; Frederick Warne , 1997

Fairyopolis ; Frederick Warne , 2005

Wild Cherry Makes A Wish ; ( collaboration with Pippa Le Quesne ) Frederick Warne , 2006

How to find Flower Fairies ; Frederick Warne , 2007

Return to Fairyopolis ; Frederick Warne , 2008

= = = Book covers = = =

A New Epiphany ; Society for the Preservation of Christian Knowledge , 1919

43 Annuals ; Blackie , 1920s , 1930s

= = = Religious works = = =

St. Cecily 's Garden ; 1920

Cradle roll design ; St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1922

Banner design ; St. Mary 's , Sanderstead , 1923

The Feeding of the Five Thousand ; reredos triptych , chapel at Penarth , Wales ; 1929

The Parable of the Great Supper ; triptych , St. George 's chapel , Waddon

The Seven Sacraments ; baptismal font panels , St. Andrew 's , Croydon

St. John the Baptist ; central banner panel , Abesford church , 1943

Lettering , sword , and shield ; mount for a list of men and woman serving in the Forces , St. Andrews , Croydon , 1943

Baptismal rolls ; St. Andrews , Croydon , 1948 , 1962

The font in St Andrew 's Church , South Croydon

Out of Great Tribulation ; memorial chapel , Norbury Medthodist church , 1948

I Am Among You As He That Serveth ; stained glass window design , St. Edmund 's , Pitlake , 1962

= Gambia women 's national football team =

The Gambia women 's national football team represents the Gambia in international football competition . The team , however , has not competed in a match recognised by FIFA , the sport 's international governing body , despite that organised women 's football has been played in the country since 1998 . The Gambia has two youth teams , an under @-@ 17 side that has competed in FIFA U @-@ 17 Women 's World Cup qualifiers , and an under @-@ 19 side that withdrew from regional qualifiers for an under @-@ 19 World Cup . The development of a national team faces challenges similar to those across Africa , although the national football association has four staff members focusing on women 's football .

= = The team = =

In 1985 , few countries had women 's national football teams . While the sport gained popularity worldwide in later decades , the Gambia 's national team only played its first game in 2007 . That game was not FIFA @-@ recognised . As of March 2012 , the team was unranked by FIFA , and as of the following month the Gambia had not played in a FIFA @-@ sanctioned match . The team has not participated in major regional and international tournaments , including the Women 's World Cup , the 2010 African Women 's Championship or the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games .

The country did not have a FIFA @-@ recognised youth national team until 2012 , when the Gambia under @-@ 17 women 's team competed in Confederation of African Football qualifiers for the FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup , to be held in Azerbaijan in September 2012 . The Gambia had fielded an under @-@ 17 team of 24 players , narrowed from an initial pool of 49 young women . Two girls from the SOS Children ’ s Village Bakoteh were chosen as a members of the team . The Gambia first played Sierra Leone in a pair of qualifying matches for the tournament . Gambia won the first match 3 @-@ 0 in Banjul , the Gambia 's capital . The return match was delayed in for 24 hours and played in Makeni . The Gambia beat Sierra Leone 4 @-@ 3 to qualify for the final round . The Gambia then beat Tunisia 1 @-@ 0 at home and won 2 @-@ 1 in Tunisia . Adama Tamba and Awa Demba scored the Gambia 's goals . Tunisia 's only goal was a Gambian own goal . The win qualified Gambia for the 2012 Azerbaijan World Cup .

The Gambia also has an under @-@ 19 team that was to play in the African Women 's U @-@ 19 Championship in 2002 . The Gambia 's first match was against Morocco , but the team withdrew from the competition .

= = Background and development = =

The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women , inequalities and human rights abuses targeting women . Funding is another issue impacting the game in Africa , where most financial assistance comes from FIFA and not national football associations . Another challenge is the retention of football players . Many women footballers leave the continent to seek greater opportunity in Europe or the United States .

Gambia 's national football association was founded in 1952 , and became affiliated with FIFA in 1968 . Football is the most popular women 's sport in the country , and was first played in an organized system in 1998 . A national competition was launched in 2007 , the same year FIFA started an education course on football for women . Competition was active on both the national and scholastic levels by 2009 . There are four staffers dedicated to women 's football in the Gambia Football Association , and representation of women on the board is required by the association 's charter .

= Plain maskray =

The plain maskray or brown stingray ( Neotrygon annotata ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in shallow , soft @-@ bottomed habitats off northern Australia . Reaching 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) in width , this species has a diamond @-@ shaped , grayish green pectoral fin disc . Its short , whip @-@ like tail has alternating black and white bands and fin folds above and below . There are short rows of thorns on the back and the base of the tail , but otherwise the skin is smooth . While this species possesses the dark mask @-@ like pattern across its eyes common to its genus , it is not ornately patterned like other maskrays .

Benthic in nature , the plain maskray feeds mainly on caridean shrimp and polychaete worms , and to a lesser extent on small bony fishes . It is viviparous , with females producing litters of one or two young that are nourished during gestation via histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . This species lacks economic value but is caught incidentally in bottom trawls , which it is thought to be less able to withstand than other maskrays due to its gracile build . As it also has a limited distribution and low fecundity , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Near Threatened .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The first scientific description of the plain maskray was authored by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) researcher Peter Last in a 1987 issue of Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria . The specific name annotatus comes from the Latin an ( " not " ) and notatus ( " marked " ) , and refers to the ray 's coloration . The holotype is a male 21 @.@ 2 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) across , caught off Western Australia ; several paratypes were also designated . Last tentatively placed the species in the genus Dasyatis , noting that it belonged to the " maskray " species group that also included the bluespotted stingray ( then Dasyatis kuhlii ) . In 2008 , Last and William White elevated the kuhlii group to the rank of full genus as Neotrygon , on the basis of morphological and molecular phylogenetic evidence .

In a 2012 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA , the plain maskray and the Ningaloo maskray ( N. ningalooensis ) were found to be the most basal members of Neotrygon . The divergence of the N. annotata lineage was estimated to have occurred ~ 54 Ma . Furthermore , the individuals sequenced in the study sorted into two genetically distinct clades , suggesting that N. annotata is a cryptic species complex . The two putative species were estimated to have diverged ~ 4 @.@ 9 Ma ; the precipitating event was likely the splitting of the ancestral population by coastline changes .

= = Description = =

The pectoral fin disc of the plain maskray is thin and diamond @-@ shaped with narrowly rounded outer corners , measuring 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 times longer than wide . The leading margins of the disc are gently concave and converge at a broad angle to the pointed tip of the snout . The small eyes are placed close together , and behind them are the spiracles . The nostrils are elongated and have a skirt @-@ shaped flap of skin between them . The small mouth bears prominent furrows at the corners and contains two slender papillae on the floor . Small papillae are also found around the outside of the mouth . There are five pairs of gill slits . The pelvic fins are fairly large and pointed .

The tail is short , barely exceeding the length of the disc when intact , and has a broad and flattened base leading to usually two stinging spines . After the stings , the tail becomes slender and bears a long ventral fin fold and a much shorter , lower dorsal fin fold . Most of the body lacks dermal denticles ; a midline row of 4 – 13 small , closely spaced thorns is present behind the spiracles , and another row of 0 – 4 thorns before the stings . The dorsal coloration is grayish green , becoming pinkish towards the disc margins ; there is a dark mask @-@ like shape around the eyes and a pair of small dark blotches behind the spiracles . The tail behind the stings has alternating black and white bands of variable width , ending with black at the tip . The underside is plain white and the ventral fin fold is light grayish in color . This species grows to 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) across and 45 cm ( 18 in ) long .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The plain maskray inhabits the continental shelf of northern Australia from the Wellesley Islands in Queensland to the Bonaparte Archipelago in Western Australia , including the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Timor and Arafura Seas . There are unsubstantiated reports that its range extends to southern Papua New Guinea . It is the least common of the several maskray species native to the region . This species is a bottom @-@ dweller that prefers habitats with fine sediment . It has been recorded from between 12 and 62 m ( 39 and 203 ft ) deep , and tends to be found farther away from shore than other maskrays in its range .

= = Biology and ecology = =

The plain maskray generally hunts at the surface of the bottom substrate , rather than digging for prey . Its diet consists predominantly of caridean shrimp and polychaete worms . Small bony fishes are also eaten , along with the occasional penaeid prawn or amphipod . Larger rays consume a greater variety of prey and relatively more polychaete worms when compared to smaller rays . This species is parasitized by the tapeworm Acanthobothrium jonesi .

Like other stingrays , the plain maskray is viviparous with the developing embryos sustained to term by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Mature females have a single functional ovary and uterus , on the left . Litter size is one or two ; the newborns measure 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) across . Males and females reach sexual maturity at disc widths of 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) and 18 – 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) respectively . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 9 years for males and 13 years for females .

= = Human interactions = =

The main conservation threat to the plain maskray is incidental capture by commercial bottom trawl fisheries . In the present day , this is mostly caused by Australia 's Northern Prawn Fishery , which operates throughout its range . Although this species is discarded when caught , it is more delicate @-@ bodied than other maskrays and is thus unlikely to survive encounters with trawling gear . Historically , this species may also have been negatively affected by Japanese , Chinese , and Taiwanese trawlers that fished intensively off northern Australia from 1959 to 1990 . These factors , coupled with the plain maskray 's limited distribution and low reproductive rate , have resulted in its being assessed as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .

= 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season =

The 2011 – 12 Columbus Blue Jackets season was the team 's 12th season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . The Blue Jackets ' record of 29 – 46 – 7 [ note 1 ] was the worst record in the NHL for 2011 – 12 and the first time in franchise history they finished in last place . It also marked the third straight year that they missed the playoffs . Consequently , they had the best chance to receive the first overall selection in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft lottery , but lost out to the Edmonton Oilers and received the second pick instead .

The Blue Jackets began the year with the worst start in franchise history and the worst by any team in an NHL season in 19 years . After an 11 – 25 – 5 start , Head Coach Scott Arniel was fired and replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards . The poor season prompted several personnel changes including the trade of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter , who was acquired with much fanfare during the off @-@ season . With the prospect of another rebuild looming the Blue Jackets ' captain and best player , Rick Nash , requested to be traded , though he would remain with the team for the entire season .

The team was involved in a controversial loss to the Los Angeles Kings , when the Staples Center clock appeared to freeze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds allowing the Kings time to score the tying goal , before winning in overtime . During the season Columbus managed only two winning streaks of three or more games . One of which came towards the end of the year helping the Blue Jackets finish with 65 points , the third worst point total in franchise history .

= = Off @-@ season = =

In the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets ' approach to building their team changed , moving from a team of young developing players into one with established players . The first deal General Manager Scott Howson made was the acquisition of All @-@ Star forward Jeff Carter on June 23 , 2011 . The deal sent Jakub Voracek , Columbus ' first @-@ round draft choice , the eighth overall , and their third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for Carter . The trade received a positive response in Columbus from fans and management who felt they finally had a number one center to play alongside of their best player , Rick Nash . Next , they traded for the negotiating rights of soon to be free agent James Wisniewski . Wisniewski scored a career high 51 points during the 2010 – 11 season , splitting time between the New York Islanders and Montreal Canadiens . The point total was fifth @-@ highest in the league for defenseman scoring , tying Tobias Enstrom . The Blue Jackets came to terms with Wisniewski , just an hour prior to the start of free agency , signing him to a six @-@ year , $ 33 million deal .

Columbus also traded former first round draft pick Nikita Filatov to the Ottawa Senators for a third @-@ round pick in the 2011 Draft . Filatov had failed to live up to expectations in Columbus , playing in only 44 games over three seasons scoring six goals . Prior to the start of the season , the Blue Jackets were questioned for not signing a veteran back @-@ up to starting goaltender Steve Mason , as the former Calder Memorial Trophy winner had struggled in consecutive seasons . The Blue Jackets signed Mark Dekanich as the back @-@ up who had only 50 minutes of NHL experience prior to the start of the season . Columbus did sign a veteran Curtis Sanford to be their third string goaltender and to start for their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Springfield Falcons . Sanford had not played in the NHL since 2009 . During training camp , Dekanich suffered a high ankle sprain that was expected to keep him out of the line @-@ up for a month . Additionally , Sanford suffered a groin injury , leaving Allen York as the back @-@ up . York had only played four professional games , all in the AHL , entering the season .

= = Regular season = =

= = = October – December = = =

After the first five games , all losses , Jeff Carter suffered a broken foot that kept him out of the line @-@ up for 10 games . While Carter was injured , the Blue Jackets continued to lose games . In the eighth game of the year , they had a chance to end the losing streak against the Ottawa Senators . Columbus held a 3 – 2 lead with under a minute to play . Jason Spezza tied the game on a late power play , and with just 4 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , Milan Michalek notched the winning goal for the Senators . The loss helped set a franchise record for futility with a 0 – 7 – 1 record to start a season . [ note 1 ] The losing streak came to an end three days later with a win over the Detroit Red Wings . During the game , several milestones were reached . James Wisniewski made his Columbus debut , Ryan Johansen and John Moore scored their first career NHL goals and Grant Clitsome had a career @-@ high three assists . Columbus was unable to create any momentum from the win , however , and continued to struggle , culminating in a 2 – 12 – 1 record , which was the worst start to an NHL season for any team in 19 years . With the team struggling , management attempted to " shake things up " by making some roster moves . The first move was the acquisition of center Mark Letestu from the Pittsburgh Penguins . Next , they traded defenseman Kris Russell to the St. Louis Blues for Nikita Nikitin . As the clubs slow start continued , there were rumors that Head Coach Scott Arniel would be fired and replaced with Ken Hitchcock . Hitchcock had previously coached the Blue Jackets to their only playoff appearance in club history and was still under contract with the franchise through to the end of the season . Before any of these rumors came to fruition , the St. Louis Blues asked Columbus for permission to hire Hitchcock , which the Blue Jackets allowed . Hitchcock began his Blues coaching career with a 6 – 1 – 2 record in his first nine games , while Columbus amassed a 6 – 13 – 3 record to start the season .

During the same time frame as the Hitchcock rumors , goaltender Curtis Sanford returned from his groin injury on November 13 . He made his first start of the season against the Boston Bruins , losing 2 – 1 in a shootout . Sanford continued his strong play , posting a 3 – 1 – 2 record , 1 @.@ 38 goals against average and .947 save percentage over his next six games . Sanford started 12 consecutive games before Steve Mason made his next start . The number of starts might not have been as numerous , but prior to the November 23 game , Mason was hit in the head by a shot from Rick Nash during pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups and suffered a concussion . Mason returned from his concussion after two games , making a start against the Vancouver Canucks . Mason allowed only one goal in the game despite suffering from cramping in the third period , temporarily being replaced by Sanford for just over three minutes . Columbus won the game 2 – 1 in a shootout , breaking a nine @-@ game losing streak to the Canucks . After the game , Arniel stated that Sanford was still seen as the team 's number one goaltender . However , Mason started four of the next six games with the Blue Jackets going 0 – 5 – 1 during that stretch .

= = = January – February = = =

With the losing continuing , more rumors began to surface . Unlike before , the rumors were about player moves rather than coaching changes . The majority of rumors were that the Blue Jackets would trade Rick Nash . While Howson stated that he had never brought up trading Nash in discussions , other teams had inquired about his availability . Nash stated that if Columbus felt it would make the franchise better than he would be willing to waive his no @-@ trade clause . Howson publicly stated that he had no intention of trading Nash . More rumors came to light when reports attributed to Réseau des sports stated that Carter was unhappy in Columbus and demanded a trade . Howson , Carter and his agent all denied that a trade request was ever made , and they were unsure where the reports were coming from . With the trade deadline approaching , speculation picked up on the Blue Jackets trading Carter . Reports were that Columbus was trying to trade Carter and that he was " 100 percent available . "

At the halfway point of the season , with the Blue Jackets barely into double digit wins with an 11 – 25 – 5 record , worst in the league , and sitting 20 points out of playoff position , Columbus fired Arniel . He was replaced by Assistant Coach Todd Richards on an interim basis . Richards had previously coached the Minnesota Wild . He recorded his first coaching victory for the Blue Jackets in his second game , a 4 – 3 win over the Phoenix Coyotes . The change in coaching did not change the fortunes of the team , as they reached the All @-@ Star break with a 13 – 30 – 6 record . At the break , Blue Jackets ' owner John P. McConnell sent out a letter to fans stating his understanding of their frustration . He added that action would be taken around the trade deadline , the Entry Draft and free agency to take the team in a new direction . When speaking of the season , McConnell stated " disappointing is not a strong enough word " and that he was committed to giving fans a team of which they can be proud of . He also thanked them for their dedication and passion , while reiterating that the team goal was to " win consistently and compete for the Stanley Cup . " Days later , a 250 @-@ person protest occurred outside of Nationwide Arena . Fans were upset with the Blue Jackets ' management and were calling for changes at the top . The same day the fans protested , it was announced that the franchise would host the 2013 All @-@ Star Game . Columbus was without a representative for the 2012 All @-@ star Game , but Ryan Johansen represented the club as a rookie participant in the Super Skills Competition . In the competition , Johansen participated in the Allstate Insurance NHL Breakaway Challenge , a shootout themed event judged by the fans . He received just 1 % of the vote and finished last .

Following the break , the Blue Jackets were on the road playing the Los Angeles Kings , and with the score tied late in the game , Kings ' defenseman Drew Doughty scored with just 0 @.@ 4 seconds remaining to win the game . Upon review of the goal it , was determined that the clock at Staples Center froze at 1 @.@ 8 seconds for over a full second , which would have resulted in time expiring prior to the goal being scored . Kings ' General Manager Dean Lombardi stated that the clock was correct and no extra time had been added due to the way the clock self @-@ corrects at various times . Howson stated on the team 's blog that " It is an amazing coincidence that with the Kings on a power play at Staples Center and with a mad scramble around our net in the dying seconds of the third period of a 2 – 2 hockey game that the clock stopped for at least one full second , " adding that , " Either there was a deliberate stopping of the clock or the clock malfunctioned . " NHL Senior Vice President of Hockey Operations Colin Campbell stated that the Blue Jackets were wronged , but that the outcome of the game could not be changed , and that the delay was not noticed by the off @-@ ice officials or the situation room in Toronto . To determine the true cause of the clock pause , the NHL launched an investigation , talking with the clock 's manufacturer and interviewing Staples Center staff .

Two weeks prior to the NHL trade deadline , Columbus announced that unlike earlier in the season , they would listen to trade proposals involving Rick Nash , though they were not actively shopping him . Howson stated that the team was open to all options for improving the team , including trading Nash . Speculation was that in return for Nash the Blue Jackets would ask for a " combination of young , proven players , high @-@ end prospects and draft picks . " Leading up to the trade deadline , the Blue Jackets dealt Antoine Vermette to the Phoenix Coyotes for two draft picks and goaltender Curtis McElhinney . Despite being injured at the time , the acquisition of McElhinney was believed to give Columbus the flexibility to trade Curtis Sanford . The following day , on February 23 , Columbus traded Jeff Carter to the Kings . In the deal , Columbus acquired defenseman Jack Johnson and a first @-@ round draft pick ; the team was given the choice of taking the pick in either 2012 or 2013 . At the deadline , Columbus was unable to come to terms on a deal involving Nash , but they did make one more move ; they sent center Samuel Pahlsson to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for two fourth @-@ round draft picks and minor league defenseman Taylor Ellington . Following the trade deadline , Howson announced that the team had attempted to trade Nash at the player 's request . Nash stated that he had requested the trade after being informed that the franchise was going into another rebuilding phase . He further noted that he felt that he " could be a huge part of that towards bringing assets in , " and in his view " it was the best thing for the team , the organization , and personally for [ his ] career . " After the personnel changes , the Blue Jackets closed out the month with a three @-@ game losing streak .

= = = March – April = = =

Columbus started March with a 2 – 0 shutout against the Colorado Avalanche . They proceeded to win their next game against the Phoenix Coyotes 5 – 2 , which marked the first time that the Blue Jackets posted back @-@ to @-@ back regulation victories during the season . Columbus again defeated the Coyotes three days later to earn their first three @-@ game win streak of the season . They extended the streak to four with a win over the Los Angeles Kings before it came to an end with a 4 – 1 loss to the St. Louis Blues . It was the only four @-@ game win streak of the season for the Blue Jackets . They immediately matched their four @-@ game win streak with a four @-@ game losing streak and with ten games remaining , the Blue Jackets were the first team eliminated from playoff contention . Shortly after being eliminated , they were defeated by the Edmonton Oilers 6 – 3 ; the loss clinched last place in the NHL for Columbus . It was the first time in franchise history the Blue Jackets finished in 30th place .

Three days later , on March 28 , goaltender Steve Mason was injured in the morning skate when a shot from Colton Gillies hit him in the mask . With Sanford again injured , York made an emergency start . Playing against the Detroit Red Wings , York made 29 saves , including 17 in the third period , helping Columbus to a 4 – 2 victory and giving York his first career NHL win . York remained the starter and led the Blue Jackets to a second three @-@ game winning streak . In his fourth start , Columbus was shutout by the Coyotes despite a franchise @-@ record 54 shots on goal , losing 2 – 0 . The 54 saves by Phoenix goaltender Mike Smith set an NHL record for a regulation shutout . Mason returned to the starter 's role for the final two games , winning both . The two victories gave Columbus 65 points for the year , their third @-@ lowest total in franchise history .

The Blue Jackets struggled in shorthanded situations , allowing the most power @-@ play goals in the League , with 64 , and having the lowest penalty @-@ kill percentage , at 76 @.@ 64 %

= = Post @-@ season = =

Finishing with the worst record in the NHL , Columbus had the best chance of receiving the first overall pick in the 2012 draft . With the NHL 's weighted draft lottery the Blue Jackets had a 48 @.@ 2 % chance of drafting first overall . However , the lottery was won by the Edmonton Oilers , who proceeded to leapfrog Columbus and secure the number one draft pick for a third consecutive year . It was the fifth time that the Blue Jackets were dropped one draft position in the franchise 's 12 lottery participations .

A month later , on May 14 , the Blue Jackets announced that Richards would remain as head coach and signed him to a two @-@ year contract . During the press conference , Howson noted , " Our team continuously improved under Todd and he has earned the opportunity to build upon the work he started . " Columbus posted an 18 – 21 – 2 record under Richards , including winning seven of their final 11 games .

= = Standings = =

Since being founded as an expansion team , the Blue Jackets have played in the Central Division of the Western Conference . Division rivals Chicago Blackhawks , Detroit Red Wings , Nashville Predators and St. Louis Blues , all made the playoff during the 2011 – 12 season , which helped Columbus finish 36 points behind fourth place Chicago and 44 points out of first .

Divisions : CE – Central , NW – Northwest , PA – Pacific

bold - qualified for playoffs , y – Won division , p – Won Presidents ' Trophy ( best record in NHL )

= = Schedule and results = =

= = = Pre @-@ season = = =

= = = Regular season = = =

Green background indicates win ( 2 points ) .

Red background indicates regulation loss ( 0 points ) .

Silver background indicates overtime / shootout loss ( 1 point ) .

= = Player statistics = =

In ice hockey , a combination of a player 's goals and assists are collectively called points . Penalty minutes are the total number of minutes assigned to a player for infractions assessed during the season.Plus @-@ minus is a statistic that tracks when a player was on the ice while goals were scored , both for and against their team , though some in game situations will not effect the statistic . Below is a listing of all player statistics for the Blue Jackets during the season .

= = = Skaters = = =

Note : Pos

= Position ; GP =

Games played in ; G

= Goals ; A =

Assists ; Pts

= Points ; PIM =

Penalty minutes ; + / - = Plus / minus

= = = Goaltenders = = =

Note : GP

= Games Played ; TOI =

Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W

= Wins ; L =

Losses ; OT

= Overtime Losses ; GA =

Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV

= Saves ; Sv % =

Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts

† Denotes player spent time with another team before joining Blue Jackets . Stats reflect time with the Blue Jackets only . ‡ Traded mid @-@ season

= = Milestones = =

When Mason was injured in warm @-@ ups late in the year , Columbus was without an active goaltender on their roster . To remedy the situation , the team signed former University of Michigan goaltender Shawn Hunwick to a one @-@ day , amateur tryout contract . After being eliminated from the NCAA Tournament just days prior , Hunwick skipped an astronomy class and drove his worn down 2003 Ford Ranger to Columbus to make the game . He served as the back @-@ up to Allen York during the game , and the following day , he signed a contract for the remainder of the year . With Mason returning from injury , Hunwick was third on the team 's depth chart when an injury to York allowed Hunwick to remain as the back @-@ up for the final two games of the year . In the final game of the season , the Blue Jackets were leading the Islanders 7 – 3 with 2 : 33 remaining when , at the behest of his teammates , Head Coach Todd Richards put Hunwick in to finish the game . He did not face a shot . Hunwick was the franchise record ninth player to make his NHL debut during the season . Conversely , Vaclav Prospal played in his 1,000th NHL game during the year .

= = Transactions = =

During the off @-@ season the Blue Jackets parted ways with defensemen Jan Hejda , Anton Stralman , Sami Lepisto and Mike Commodore . Hejda , who played four of his first five NHL seasons with the Blue Jackets , was offered a contract by Columbus , but felt that the organization undervalued him and left via free agency . Columbus had offered him a three @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 5 million contract . He instead signed a four @-@ year , $ 13 million deal with the Colorado Avalanche . Stralman and Lepisto were not given qualifying offers which made them unrestricted free agents , and both signed with other teams . Commodore had originally signed a big contract with the Blue Jackets in 2008 , but fell out of favor . He was waived , sent to the minors and eventually had his contract bought out . In order to replace the departed players , Columbus not only acquired James Wisniewski , but also signed ten @-@ year NHL veteran Radek Martinek . Martinek played only seven games with the Blue Jackets before suffering a concussion and missing the remainder of the season . Brett Lebda was brought in to replace him .

= Gregorian Tower =

The Gregorian Tower ( Italian : Torre Gregoriana ) or Tower of the Winds ( Italian : Torre dei Venti ) is a round tower located above the Gallery of Maps , which connects the Villa Belvedere with the Apostolic Palace in Vatican City . The tower was built between 1578 and 1580 to a design by the Bolognese architect Ottaviano Mascherino ( who was credited with building the Apostolic Palace ) mainly to promote the study of astronomy for the Gregorian Calendar Reform which was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII and promulgated in 1582 . It was then also known as the Tower of Winds . The tower is now called the " Specola Astronomica Vaticana " , the Vatican Observatory . Four stages of progressive development have occurred since it was first established . The tower was an edifice of great value for astronomical observations made using a sundial as they provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar .

= = Early history = =

The first stage of building of the tower , as recorded by Leo XIII in his motu proprio Ut mysticam of 1891 , is credited to Pope Gregory XIII , Pope from 1572 to 1585 . The directive was to build a tower at a suitable location in the Vatican and equip it with the " greatest and best instruments of the time " . The design was effected after a series of meetings of the experts who had been appointed to reform the Julian calendar , in use since 45 BC , to verify their proposed reforms . Fr . Christoph Clavius , a Jesuit mathematician from the Roman College , was the expert on the committee who suggested the new system for the observations . The 73 metres ( 240 ft ) tower was then built above the museum and library , flanked by the Belvedere and della Pigna courtyards . The instrumentation for the observation of the sun rays falling over it consisted of a meridian line designed by Ignazio Danti of Perugia . It was in the form of a circular marble plate in the centre , embellished with scientific designs . The tower still remains today , but has undergone improvements over the centuries .

= = Second stage = =

The second stage of construction in the 17th and 18th centuries , when the tower was under the charge of the Vatican librarian , involved Mgr . Filippo Luigi Gilii , a clergyman of St. Peter 's Basilica . Earlier in 1797 , Pius VI gave approval to placing a Latin inscription Specula Vaticana at the entrance to the upper part of the tower , which was implemented by Cardinal Zelada with plans to enhance the instrumentation system in the tower 's observatory . The original observatory was then set up above the second level of the tower with the agreement of Pope Pius VI . Its instrumentation , apart from many normal devices ( such as meteorological and magnetic equipment , with a seismograph and a small transit and pendulum clock , ) was noted for the Dolland Telescope . The instrumentation facilitated recording of occurrences of eclipse , appearance of comets , Satellites of Jupiter and Mercury ’ s transit . As an addition , under the patronage of Pope Pius X , four rotary observatory domes were also added at strategic locations on the 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) long fortification walls , more than a thousand years old . Mgr . Gilii , highly respected as a polyglot with a knowledge of physics , biology , archeology and the Hebrew language , was in charge of the observatory from 1800 to 1821 . He carried out continuous meteorological observations ( twice a day at 6 AM and 2 PM ) conforming to the programme of the Mannheim Meteorological Society . While the observation records for seven years were published , the balance data in a manuscript form was preserved in the Vatican Library . Subsequent to Gilii 's death in 1821 , the observatory on the tower was discontinued and the instruments were moved to the observatory at the Roman College . Established in 1787 , it was considered more suitable for making observations than the Vatican .

= = Third stage = =

The revival of the observatory on the Gregorian Tower was initiated by the Barnabite Francesco Denza with the approval of Pope Leo XIII . High quality instruments were procured , partly with generous donations from Hicks of London , and the automatic recording instruments were procured from Richard in Paris . A four @-@ inch equatorial , a three @-@ inch transit instrument , and four pendulum clocks with two chronometers , were also procured from the observatory at Modena . In 1888 , the gift of a 16 inch long telescope to Pope Leo XIII , became a part of the observatory . Father Denza joined the observatory in 1889 after it was upgraded with more modern instruments . The same year , a second tower was built some 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away from the main Gregorian Tower , overlooking the Vatican Gardens behind St. Peter 's Basilica on the south @-@ west border . It was built to a diameter of 17 metres ( 56 ft ) with a lower wall thickness of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) , which could bear the load of a 13 inch photographic refractor , newly procured from Paris . Augustinian Father Rodriguez was the expert meteorologist who held the post of director from 1898 to 1905 . In 1891 , Pope Leo XIII , promulgating the motu proprio Ut mysticam , designated the second tower as the seat of the newly established Vatican Observatory , a decision which required altering the roof to provide a flat terrace for astronomical observations .

= = Fourth stage = =

The fourth stage involved remedying the problem of communicating between the two towers during the time of Pope Pius X. His plans were to make the Gregorian Tower into a historical tower and to record and carry out observations at the second tower by linking the two towers along the fortified wall with a 83 metres ( 272 ft ) iron bridge spanning the gap . At the west end of this bridge , a four @-@ inch equatorial was installed on semicircular bastion . The east end of the bridge , above the barracks of the gendarmes , had a heliograph , with a camera attached , used to photograph the Sun ( photoheliograph ) . A new 16 @-@ inch visual telescope , called Torre Pio X , was erected in the second tower . As a result of these modifications , the original library was moved to the Pontifical Academy Lincei , and the old meteorological and seismic instruments were shifted to the Valle di Pompei observatory . The new Astronomical Library was housed in two rooms of the building . The two new Repsold machines were used for recording on the astrographic plates . The recorded observations were published along with explanatory notes together with the last two series of the atlas of stars . Charts were printed on silver bromide paper .

= = Features = =

The tower had two floors and a mezzanine . On the first floor was the famous Sundial Room or Meridian Room , which was initially an open loggia . Pope Urban VIII had it enclosed and it was subsequently decorated with long sequences of frescoes painted between 1580 and 1582 by Simon Lagi and the two Flemish artists Paul and Matthijs Bril . Today the tower has paintings by Cristoforo Roncalli and Matteino da Siena .

The Sundial Room , also called the Meridian Hall , was once the residence of Queen Christina of Sweden , then newly converted to Catholicism . The room was further modified by two additions which gave it its current name : a sundial , and a delicate but sophisticated anemoscope which was fixed to the ceiling of the Meridian Hall . These were created by Ignazio Danti , the papal cosmographer , in association with the Gregorian Calendar Reform . The sundial consisted of a straight line in white marble running across the floor in a north @-@ south direction , intended to measure the height of the Sun at noon according to the seasons of the year . The observations made with the sundial provided essential confirmation of the need to reform the Julian calendar . The anemoscope , in contrast , was a complex mechanism attached to the ceiling which was used to measure the strength and direction of the wind but soon stopped functioning . The instrument may have led to the other name of the tower , Tower of the Winds ; however , an ancient observatory at Athens was also called the Tower of the Winds and might have been the source for inspiration .

The interior walls and ceiling of the hall were richly decorated , in some cases with gaudy frescoes of the hills and Roman countryside , the Pantheons , religious themes , the buildings surrounding the area , and naval shipwrecks with Jesus calming the storm and so forth .

= There 's Got to Be a Way =

" There 's Got to Be a Way " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . Columbia released it as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It was one of four songs Carey wrote with Ric Wake during their first recording session together , but " There 's Got to Be a Way " was the only composition to make the final track listing . It is a socio @-@ political conscious R & B @-@ pop song which addresses the existence of poverty , racism and war in the world which gradually becomes more aspirational and positive as it progresses . The track garnered a mixed reception upon the album 's release in 1990 . While Carey 's vocals were praised , it was seen as too political . An accompanying music video highlights social injustices . The song reached number 54 on the UK Singles Chart .

= = Background and release = =

" There 's Got to Be a Way " was written by Mariah Carey and Ric Wake for Carey 's self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 1990 ) . It was written during Carey and Wake 's first recording session together . They composed four songs , but only " There 's Got to Be a Way " was chosen for the final track listing . Co @-@ produced by Wake and Narada Michael Walden , it appears as the second of ten songs on the track listing . The track was recorded and engineered by Bob Cadway at Cove City Sound Studios and The Power Station , both located in New York City . He was assisted by Dana Jon Chappelle . It was mixed by David Frazer at Tarpan Studios in San Rafael . The keyboards , bass and rhythm engineering was carried out by Louis Biancaniello , while Joe Franco performed the percussion , Vernon " Ice " Black played the guitar , and Rich Tancredo also performing on the keyboards . Walter Afanasieff played the synth horns . Carey provided her own background vocals along with Billy T. Scott , Jamiliah Muhammed and The Billy T. Scott Ensemble . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album in the United Kingdom . It is available to purchase as a CD single while the remixes are available on vinyl .

= = Composition = =

" There 's Got to Be a Way " is an R & B @-@ pop music song with elements of gospel . The theme of social activism can be heard in the lyrics " There ’ s got to be a way / to connect this world today . " The song begins with Carey publicly denouncing the existence of poverty and racism in the world , and she uses the bridge to shift the lyrics towards an uplifting and aspirational tone . Carey suggests we should be more tolerant of each other and not resort so readily to war in the lyrics " Couldn 't we accept each other / Can 't we make ourselves aware . "

= = Critical reception = =

Music critic Robert Christgau felt that Carey was being too political in her " brave , young , idealistic attack " on war and destitution . Ralph Novak , David Hiltbrand and David Grogan of People wrote that it is a " testimony to her talent that she does so much with so little . " They continued to write that Carey 's " tone and clarity " makes " There 's Got to Be a Way " a " mesmerizing " track . To mark twenty @-@ five years since the release of Mariah Carey in June 1990 , Billboard writer Trevor Anderson wrote a track @-@ by @-@ track review of the album in June 2015 . He noted that " There 's Got to Be a Way " follows the same melodic tone as the album 's opener " Vision of Love " but highlighted their stark lyrical differences , as the former is about social activism and the latter is about love . Although he praised Carey 's vocals , writing that she " deploys " one of her best whistle notes of her career , he felt that " the aim for broad appeal comes at the expense of memorable lyrics . "

= = Music video = =

The accompanying music video begins with a shot of an empty street , followed by clips of disadvantaged and poorer members of society going about their daily activities . Two men play dominoes on a wooden crate outside a building , a gang make fun of an elderly man hanging newspapers outside his store and an obese woman walks down the street . Clips of Carey leaning against a wall and sitting on some steps looking on at what is happening are shown . As the first chorus begins , everyone starts to dance joyfully in the street and help those in need . A gospel choir comes out of one of the buildings as the street becomes more crowded with people of all ages and backgrounds rejoicing and getting along with each other . One of the shops in the background has a neon light outside the entrance which says " Jesus Saves " .

= = Track listings = =

" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Original album version ) – 4 : 52

" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 7 " remix )

" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( 12 " remix )

" There 's Got to Be a Way " ( Alternative Vocal Dub Mix )

= = Charts = =

= Nebraska Highway 88 =

Nebraska Highway 88 ( N @-@ 88 ) is a highway in northwestern Nebraska . It has a western terminus at Wyoming Highway 151 ( WYO 151 ) at the Wyoming – Nebraska state line . The road travels eastward to N @-@ 71 , where it turns south . N @-@ 88 continues east to south of Bridgeport . The road turns north , ends at an intersection with U.S. Highway 385 ( US 385 ) and N @-@ 92 in Bridgeport . The route was designated in 1937 , before the official state highway system was created . It was extended to the state line in 1986 .

= = Route description = =

N @-@ 88 starts at the Nebraska – Wyoming state line in Banner County , where WYO 151 ends , and travels northeast . The road quickly bends east after less than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and continues in a straight line . For the next twenty miles ( 32 km ) , N @-@ 88 intersects minor streets , through rural farmland . The route turns south at N @-@ 71 , and becomes concurrent . Four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) later , N @-@ 88 turns east , ending the concurrency with N @-@ 71 . The route continues to travel through farmland for sixteen miles ( 26 km ) , where it enters Morrill County . The road crosses over Pumpkin Creek four times , and enters the unincorporated community of Redington . Two rock formations , Courthouse and Jail Rocks , become visible from the road . N @-@ 88 turns north toward Bridgeport soon after . The road crosses over Pumpkin Creek for the fifth time , and enters into Bridgeport five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) later . The road intersects a railroad owned by BNSF Railway . N @-@ 88 turns northeast soon after , and ends at the intersection of US 385 and N @-@ 92 . In 2012 , Nebraska Department of Roads ( NDOR ) calculated as many as 2 @,@ 410 vehicles traveling on the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency , and as few as 315 vehicles traveling east of the Banner – Morrill county line . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . Only the N @-@ 71 / N @-@ 88 concurrency is part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation .

= = History = =

N @-@ 88 was unofficially designated around 1937 , connecting from N @-@ 29 , to N @-@ 86 and N @-@ 19 in Bridgeport . The route remained relatively the same as the state highway system was officially designated . Before 1955 , Nebraska did not have an adequate legal instrument to define the state highway system . By 1960 , N @-@ 19 was renumbered to US 385 , and US 26 was rerouted north near Bridgeport . The old alignment became part of N @-@ 92 . Two years later , N @-@ 29 was renumbered to N @-@ 71 . Between 1981 @-@ 82 , a road appeared on the official state map , extending from WYO 151 to N @-@ 71 . That road became part of N @-@ 88 by 1986 . No significant changes have been made since .

= = Major intersections = =

= USS Atlanta ( 1861 ) =

Atlanta was a casemate ironclad that served in the Confederate and Union Navies during the American Civil War . She was converted from a Scottish @-@ built blockade runner named Fingal by the Confederacy after she made one run to Savannah , Georgia . After several failed attempts to attack Union blockaders , the ship was captured by two Union monitors in 1863 when she ran aground . Atlanta was floated off , repaired , and rearmed , serving in the Union Navy for the rest of the war . She spent most of her time deployed on the James River supporting Union forces there . The ship was decommissioned in 1865 and placed in reserve . Several years after the end of the war , Atlanta was sold to Haiti , but was lost at sea in December 1869 on her delivery voyage .

= = Description and career as Fingal = =

Fingal was designed and built as a merchantman by J & G Thomson 's Clyde Bank Iron Shipyard at Govan in Glasgow , Scotland , and was completed early in 1861 . She was described by Midshipman Dabney Scales , who served on the Atlanta before her battle with the monitors , as being a two @-@ masted , iron @-@ hulled ship 189 feet ( 57 @.@ 6 m ) long with a beam of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . She had a draft of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) and a depth of hold of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . He estimated her tonnage at around 700 tons bm . Fingal was equipped with two vertical single @-@ cylinder direct @-@ acting steam engines using steam generated by one flue @-@ tubular boiler . The engines drove the ship at a top speed of around 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . They had a bore of 39 inches ( 991 mm ) and a stroke of 30 inches ( 762 mm ) .

The ship briefly operated between Glasgow and other ports in Scotland for Hutcheson 's West Highland Service before she was purchased in September 1861 by James D. Bulloch , the primary foreign agent in Great Britain for the Confederacy , to deliver the military and naval ordnance and supplies that he had purchased . To disguise his control of Fingal , and the destination of her cargo , Bulloch hired an English crew and captain and put out his destination as Bermuda and Nassau in the Bahamas . The cargo was loaded in Greenock in early October , although Bullock and the other passengers would not attempt to board until they rendezvoused with the ship at Holyhead , Wales . On the night 14 / 15 October , as she was slowly rounding the breakwater at Holyhead , Fingal rammed and sank the Austrian brig Siccardi , slowly swinging at anchor without lights . Bulloch and the passengers embarked in the steamer while Bulloch dispatched a letter to his financial agents instructing them to settle damages with the brig 's owners because he could not afford to take the time to deal with the affair lest he and Fingal be detained . The ship reached Bermuda on 2 November and , after leaving port on 7 November , Bulloch informed the crew that the steamer 's real destination was Savannah , Georgia ; he offered to take anyone who objected to the plan to Nassau . However , all of the crew agreed to join in the effort to run the Union blockade . Fingal was able slip safely into the Savannah estuary in a heavy fog on the night of 12 November without sighting any blockaders .

While Fingal was discharging her cargo , Bulloch went to Richmond to confer with Stephen Mallory , Secretary of the Navy . Mallory endorsed Bulloch 's plan to load Fingal with cotton to sell on the Navy Department 's account to be used to purchase more ships and equipment in Europe . He returned to Savannah on 23 November and it took him almost a month to purchase a cargo and acquire enough coal . He made one attempt to break through the blockade on 23 December , but it proved impossible to do as the Union controlled every channel from Savannah , aided by their occupation of Tybee Island at the mouth of the Savannah River . Bulloch reported to Mallory in late January 1862 that breaking out was hopeless so Mallory ordered him to turn the ship over to another officer and to return to Europe some other way .

= = As Atlanta = =

The brothers Asa and Nelson Tift received the contract to convert the blockade runner into an ironclad in early 1862 with the name of Atlanta , after the city in Georgia . This was largely financed by contributions from the women of Savannah . Fingal was cut down to her main deck and large wooden sponsons were built out from the sides of her hull to support her casemate . After the conversion , Atlanta was 204 feet ( 62 @.@ 2 m ) long overall and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 m ) . Her depth of hold was now 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) and she now had a draft of 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 8 m ) . Atlanta now displaced 1 @,@ 006 long tons ( 1 @,@ 022 t ) and her speed was estimated at 7 – 10 knots ( 13 – 19 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 – 11 @.@ 5 mph ) .

The armor of the casemate was angled at 30 ° from the horizontal and made from two layers of railroad rails , rolled into plates 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and 7 inches ( 180 mm ) wide . The outer layer ran vertically and the inner layer horizontally . Her armor was backed by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of oak , vertically oriented , and two layers of 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 191 mm ) of pine , alternating in direction . The bottom of the casemate was some 20 inches ( 508 mm ) from the waterline and its top was 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) above the waterline . The pyramidal pilothouse was armored in the same way and had room for two men . The upper portion of Atlanta 's hull received two inches of armor .

The rectangular casemate was pierced with eight narrow gun ports , one each at the bow and stern and three along each side . Each gun port was protected by an armored shutter made of two layers of iron riveted together and allowed the guns to elevate only to a maximum of + 5 to + 7 ° . Atlanta was armed with single @-@ banded , 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) Brooke rifles on pivot mounts at the bow and stern . The middle gun port on each side was occupied by a single @-@ banded , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 163 mm ) Brooke rifle . The 17 @-@ caliber , seven @-@ inch guns weighed about 15 @,@ 000 pounds ( 6 @,@ 800 kg ) and fired 80 @-@ pound ( 36 kg ) armor @-@ piercing " bolts " and 110 @-@ pound ( 50 kg ) explosive shells . The equivalent statistics for the 18 @.@ 5 @-@ caliber , 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch gun were 9 @,@ 110 pounds ( 4 @,@ 130 kg ) with 80 @-@ pound bolts and 64 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) shells . Atlanta was also armed with a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , solid iron , ram that was reinforced by a series of vertical steel bars . In front of the ram was a spar torpedo that carried 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) of black powder on a wooden pole connected to an iron lever that could be raised or lowered by means of pulleys .

On 31 July 1862 , under the command of Lieutenant Charles H. McBlair , Atlanta conducted her sea trials down the Savannah River toward Fort Pulaski . The ship proved to be difficult to steer , and the additional weight of her armor and guns significantly reduced her speed and increased her draft . This latter was a real problem in the shallow waters near Savannah . She also leaked significantly , and her design virtually eliminated air circulation . One report said that " it was almost intolerable on board the Atlanta , there being no method of ventilation , and the heat was intense . " Scales commented in his diary , " What a comfortless , infernal and God @-@ forsaken ship ! ! "

Attempts were made to fix the problems and were at least partially successful in stopping many of the leaks . The ship was commissioned on 22 November and became the flagship of Flag Officer Josiah Tattnall , commander of the naval defenses of Georgia . Under pressure from Mallory to engage the blockading ships , Tattnall attempted to engage them before any ironclads arrived on 5 January 1863 , but army engineers could not clear the obstacles blocking the channel in a timely manner , despite early coordination being made by Tattnall to do so . It took another month to actually clear the obstacles and two monitors arrived before the end of January . Nonetheless Tattnall attempted to pass through the obstructions during high tide on 3 February , but high winds prevented the water from rising enough to allow the ship to do so . After Atlanta successfully passed through them on 19 March , Tattnall planned to attack the Union base at Port Royal , South Carolina while the monitors were attacking Charleston . Deserters revealed Tatnall 's plan while he was waiting at the head of Wassaw Sound and he was forced to retreat when three monitors augmented the defenses at Port Royal . Dissatisfied with Tattnall 's perceived lack of aggressiveness , Mallory replaced Tattnall as commander of the Savannah squadron later that month with Commander Richard L. Page . Page , in his turn was relieved in May by Commander William A. Webb ; Atlanta remained the squadron flagship throughout this time .

Webb demonstrated his aggressiveness when he attempted to sortie on the first spring tide ( 30 May ) after taking command , but Atlanta 's forward engine broke down after he had passed the obstructions , and the ship ran aground . She was not damaged although it took over a day to pull her free . He planned to make another attempt on the next full tide , rejecting Mallory 's idea that he wait until the nearly complete ironclad Savannah was finished before his next sortie . In the meantime , Rear Admiral Samuel F. Du Pont , commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron , had ordered the monitors Weehawken and Nahant into Wassaw Sound . Commander John Rodgers in Weehawken had overall command of the two ships .

In the early evening of 15 June , Webb began his next attempt by passing over the lower obstructions in the Wilmington River and spent the rest of the night coaling . He moved forward the next evening to a concealed position within easy reach of the monitors for an attack early the following morning . Webb planned to sink one of the monitors with his spar torpedo and then deal with the other one with his guns . The gunboat Isondiga and the tugboat Resolute were to accompany him to tow one or both of the monitors back to Savannah .

A lookout aboard Weehawken spotted Atlanta at 04 : 10 on the morning of 17 June . When the latter ship closed to within about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the two Union ships , she fired one round from her bow gun that passed over Weehawken and landed near Nahant . Shortly afterward , Atlanta ran aground on a sandbar ; she was briefly able to free herself , but the pressure of the tide pushed her back onto the sandbar . This time Webb was unable to get off and the monitors closed the range . When Weehawken , the leading ship , closed to within 200 – 300 yards ( 180 – 270 m ) she opened fire with both of her guns . The 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) shell missed , but the 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) shell struck the ironclad above the port middle gun port , penetrated her armor and broke the wooden backing behind it , spraying splinters and fragments that disabled the entire gun crew and half the crew of the bow gun , even though it failed to cleanly penetrate through the backing . The next shot from the 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren gun struck the upper hull and started a small leak even though it failed to penetrate the two @-@ inch armor there . The next shell from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren glanced off the middle starboard gun shutter as it was being opened , wounding half the gun 's crew with fragments . The final shell was also from the 15 @-@ inch Dahlgren and it struck the top of the pilothouse , breaking the armor there and wounding both pilots in it . By this time , Atlanta had been able to fire only seven shots , none of which hit either Union ship , and was hard aground with high tide not due for another hour and a half . Weehawken and Nahant were able to freely maneuver into positions from which the Atlanta 's narrow gun ports would not allow her to reply and the damage already inflicted by the former ship made further resistance futile . Webb surrendered his ship within 15 minutes of opening fire , before Nahant even had a chance to fire . Of the ironclad 's 21 officers and 124 enlisted men , one man was killed and another sixteen were wounded badly enough to require hospitalization .

= = In the Union Navy = =

Atlanta was easily pulled free by the Union ships and she reached Port Royal under her own power . Not badly damaged , she was repaired and bought by the Union Navy . The prize money of $ 350 @,@ 000 was shared between the crews of Weehawken , Nahant and the gunboat Cimarron , the only ships within signaling distance . The ship retained her name and was commissioned again on 2 February 1864 , rearmed with a pair of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifles in the bow and stern and 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch , 100 @-@ pound Parrott rifles amidships . The 150 @-@ pound Parrott rifle weighed 16 @,@ 500 pounds ( 7 @,@ 500 kg ) and was 17 calibers long . The 100 @-@ pounder weighed 9 @,@ 800 pounds ( 4 @,@ 400 kg ) and was 20 calibers long . It fired a 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shell a distance of 6 @,@ 900 yards ( 6 @,@ 300 m ) at an elevation of + 25 ° . All four of her Brooke rifles are currently located in Willard Park in the Washington Navy Yard . Atlanta was assigned to the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron and spent most of her time stationed up the James River where she could support operations against Richmond and defend against a sortie by the ironclads of the James River Squadron . On 21 May 1864 , she and the gunboat Dawn fired on and dispersed Confederate cavalry that was attacking Fort Powhatan and she was deployed further upriver in February 1865 after the Battle of Trent 's Reach to better blockade the Confederate ironclads at Richmond .

After the end of the war in April , Atlanta was decommissioned in Philadelphia on 21 June 1865 and placed in reserve at League Island . She was sold to Sam Ward on 4 May 1869 for the price of $ 25 @,@ 000 and subsequently delivered to representatives of Haiti on 8 December by Sydney Oaksmith , a lawyer who had received an advance of $ 50 @,@ 000 on her purchase price of $ 260 @,@ 000 . The ship was briefly seized by the Customs Service , possibly for violations of neutrality laws as she had just loaded four large guns and a number of recruits for the forces of Sylvain Salnave , President of Haiti , who was embroiled in a civil war . Atlanta was released and sailed for Port @-@ au @-@ Prince three days later . She broke down in Delaware Bay and had to put in at Chester , Pennsylvania for repairs . The ship , now renamed either Triumph or Triumfo , departed on 18 December 1869 and vanished en route , apparently sinking with the loss of all hands , either off Cape Hatteras or the Delaware Capes .

= Jacqueline Fernandez =

Jacqueline Fernandez ( born 11 August 1985 ) is a Sri Lankan actress , former model , and the winner of the 2006 Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant . As Miss Universe Sri Lanka she represented her country at the 2006 world Miss Universe pageant . She graduated with a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney , and worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka .

While on a modelling assignment in India in 2009 , Fernandez successfully auditioned for Sujoy Ghosh 's fantasy drama Aladin , which marked her acting debut . Fernandez ' breakthrough role was in Mohit Suri 's psychological thriller Murder 2 ( 2011 ) , her first commercial success . This was followed by glamorous roles in the ensemble @-@ comedy Housefull 2 ( 2012 ) and its sequel Housefull 3 , and the action thriller Race 2 ( 2013 ) , all of which were box @-@ office successes . Her performance in the first of these garnered her an IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination . In 2014 , Fernandez played the leading lady in Sajid Nadiadwala 's Kick , which is one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time .

One of the most popular actresses in India , she was the recipient of the IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year – Female in 2010 . Alongside her screen acting career , Fernandez has participated in stage shows , and is active in humanitarian work .

= = Early life and modeling career = =

Fernandez was born on 11 August 1985 , in Manama , Bahrain , and was raised in a multi @-@ ethnic family . Her father , Elroy , is Sri Lankan , and her mother , Kim , is of Malaysian descent . Her grandfather , on her mother 's side of the family , is Canadian and her great grandparents were from Goa , India . Her father , who was a musician in Sri Lanka , moved to Bahrain in the 1980s to escape civil unrest between the Tamils and Sinhalese and subsequently met her mother who was an air hostess . She is the youngest of four children with one elder sister and two elder brothers . She hosted television shows in Bahrain at the age of fourteen . After receiving her early education in Bahrain , she pursued a degree in mass communication from the University of Sydney in Australia . After graduating she worked as a television reporter in Sri Lanka . She also attended the Berlitz school of languages , where she learnt Spanish and improved her French and Arabic .

According to Fernandez , she had aspired to become an actress at a young age and fantasized about becoming a Hollywood movie star . She received some training at the John School of Acting . Although , she was a television reporter , she accepted offers in the modeling industry , which came as a result of her pageant success . In 2006 , she was crowned the winner of the Miss Universe Sri Lanka pageant and represented Sri Lanka at the world Miss Universe 2006 pageant held in Los Angeles . In a 2015 interview , Fernandez described the modeling industry as " a good training ground " and said : " It is a medium that is about shedding your inhibitions , knowing your body , confidence " . In 2006 , she appeared in a music video for the song " O Sathi " by music duo Bathiya and Santhush .

= = Acting career = =

= = = 2009 – 2013 = = =

In 2009 , Fernandez traveled to India for a modeling assignment . She studied acting under the mentorship of theatre director Barry John , and successfully auditioned for Sujoy Ghosh 's fantasy film Aladin ( 2009 ) her acting debut . She played the love interest of Riteish Deshmukh 's character , a role based on the Princess Jasmine character . Fernandez garnered mixed reviews for her performance . Anupama Chopra of NDTV called her a " plastic debutant [ e ] " , and Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN felt that she was : " easy on the eyes and appears confident but has precious little to do " . Although the film was a critical and commercial failure , she won the IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year - Female .

In 2010 , Fernandez appeared opposite Deshmukh in the science fiction romantic comedy Jaane Kahan Se Aayi Hai . She was cast as a girl from Venus , who lands on Earth in search of love . The film , along with Fernandez 's performance , received poor reviews ; Rediff.com 's Sukanya Verma noted : " She gamely makes a fool of herself whilst aping the actions of movie stars , ranging from Sridevi 's Naagin dance , Mithun Chakravarthy 's Disco Dancer moves , to Big B 's violent headshake in Hum . Her Tara could be a keeper if only Jaane Kahan Se Aayi Hai wasn 't so intent on turning her into a love @-@ struck Barbie . " Critic Anupama Chopra also criticized Fernandez , calling her " a pin @-@ prick on a balloon " . Later that year , she made a cameo appearance in Sajid Khan 's Housefull in the song " Dhanno " .

Mahesh Bhatt 's thriller Murder 2 was Fernandez 's first commercial success and marker a turning point in her career . She took on the role of Priya , a lonely model who is in a confused relationship with Arjun Bhagwat ( played by Emraan Hashmi ) . Fernandez was praised for the her performance , and for the boldness and sex appeal she displayed in the film . Gaurav Malini of The Times of India stated that she was " tastefully tempting " but noted that her romance with Hashmi was " literally half @-@ baked " . The following year , Fernandez appeared in the ensemble comedy Housefull 2 alongside Akshay Kumar , John Abraham , and Asin . It became one of the top grossing productions of India that year and earned ₹ 1 @.@ 86 billion ( US $ 28 million ) worldwide . Fernandez received mostly negative reviews for her performance . While Gaurav Malini praised her for her looks , NDTV called her a " blathering bimbo " who " find [ s ] no pleasure in [ her role ] " . Despite the negative reviews , Fernandez received a Best Supporting Actress nomination at the 14th IIFA Awards for her performance .

Fernandez 's first release of 2013 was Race 2 , an ensemble action thriller ( alongside Saif Ali Khan , John Abraham , Deepika Padukone , Ameesha Patel , and Anil Kapoor ) ) , described as the " cinematic equivalent of a trashy novel " by critic Rajeev Masand . She played Omisha , a femme fatale , a role which required her learn fencing and some acrobatics . The film emerged as a commercial success , with the domestic gross of more than ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) . In a particularly scathing review , Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV wrote that both Fernandez and Padukone " strut around like wound @-@ up automatons that are all decked @-@ up but have nowhere to go . " Fernandez also appeared in an item number ( music video ) titled " Jaadu Ki Jhappi " for Prabhu Deva 's Ramaiya Vasta Vaiya .

= = = 2014 – present = = =

In 2014 , Fernandez appeared in Sajid Nadiadwala 's directorial debut — the action film Kick , a remake of a 2009 Telugu film of same name . She starred opposite Salman Khan , playing Shaina , a psychiatry student . She retained her real voice for the first time in Kick . While Sneha May Francis commented that she is : " incredibly dazzling , and moves like a magic " , Raja Sen of Rediff.com was more critical of her dialogue delivery , calling it " unfortunate . " The film received mixed reviews from critics , but with worldwide revenue of over ₹ 3 @.@ 75 billion ( US $ 56 million ) , it became the fourth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film . The film established Fernandez as one of the most popular Bollywood actresses .

In 2015 , Fernandez featured in Vicky Singh 's Roy , a romantic thriller , which critic Sarita A. Tanwar described as a " boring , exhausting and pretentious " film . Fernandez played dual roles , Ayesha Aamir , a filmmaker in a relationship with another filmmaker ( played by Arjun Rampal ) and Tia Desai , a girl in love with a thief ( played by Ranbir Kapoor ) . While India TV called it " her best act till date " , critic Rajeev Masand felt that she " appears miscast in a part that required greater range . " Roy failed to meet its box @-@ office expectations , and was a commercial failure . Later that year , she appeared in a guest appearance for the comedy @-@ satire Bangistan .

Karan Malhotra 's action drama Brothers was Fernandez 's next release . Co @-@ starring alongside Akshay Kumar and Sidharth Malhotra , Fernandez played Jenny , a fearless mother struggling for her child , a role which she described as " challenging " , " intense " , and " difficult " . The role marked a departure from the glamorous characters that she had a reputation for portraying . Film critics praised her performance , though their response to the film was mixed . Dhriti Sharma of Zee News called her character " soft , timid and promising " , and praised her for : " convincingly pull [ ing ] off a pleasing character of a street fighter 's wife " . Film critic Subhash K. Jha noted that she : " ... in a limited role gives her finest emotive shot " , while critic Raja Sen remarked : " [ she ] plays Kumar 's long @-@ sobbing wife who gets so deliriously happy on seeing a text message that it may well have contained news about a Kick sequel . "

As of September 2015 , Fernandez has several projects in various stages of production . She has completed shooting for Chandran Rutnam 's English @-@ Sri Lankan crime @-@ thriller According to Mathew , and the horror thriller Definition of Fear , which marks her Hollywood debut . Fernandez has also signed on to appear in three other projects — Rohit Dhawan 's Dishoom opposite Varun Dhawan and John Abraham as a part of three @-@ film deal with Nadiadwala Grandson Entertainment , Remo D 'Souza 's Flying Jat opposite Tiger Shroff , and in an Indo @-@ Chinese film starring opposite Abhay Deol , Amitabh Bachchan , and Jackie Chan titled Gold Struck .

= = Personal life and other work = =

Fernandez shares a close bond with her family , and admits to missing being around them . She says : " I miss them so much everyday . You don 't realise when you live away from home how difficult life can be [ ... ] At the same time , staying away from them has taught me to be more responsible . It has taught me so many things about myself , about priorities and time management . " In March 2012 , Fernandez turned vegetarian for a 40 @-@ day period to observe Lent , a period from Ash Wednesday to Holy Saturday .

In 2008 , Fernandez started dating Bahraini prince Hassan bin Rashid Al Khalifa , whom she met at a mutual friend 's party ; they separated in 2011 . While filming Housefull 2 in 2011 , Fernandez began a romantic relationship with director Sajid Khan . The relationship attracted media coverage in India and there was speculation of an impending wedding . However , the relationship ended in May 2013 .

In addition to acting in films , Fernandez has supported charitable organisations and a number of causes . In 2011 , on the behalf of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , she sent a letter to the Mumbai Municipal Commissioner asking for an end to horse @-@ drawn carriage rides in Mumbai . In early 2013 , she asked the consulate general of the Philippines , William John T Perera in Colombo , to hasten the transfer of an elephant from its inadequate housing at the Manila Zoo to a humane sanctuary . Later that year , she auctioned a breakfast in Mayfair , London , where she raised around £ 4000 for the Pratham NGO , which helps children 's primary education . In 2014 , Fernandez was named " Woman Of The Year " by PETA ( India ) for advocating the protection of animals . The following year , she auctioned her outfits on an online portal for a philanthropic cause . Some of her outfits included the ones she wore in the song " Party On My Mind " ( from Race 2 ) and " Hangover " ( from Kick ) . In March 2016 , she was part of " Jacqueline Builds " campaign that raised funds for the victims of the 2015 South Indian floods .

Fernandez has participated in several concert tours and televised award ceremonies . In 2013 , she performed at the Temptations Reloaded in Auckland , Perth , and Sydney alongside Shah Rukh Khan , Rani Mukerji , and Madhuri Dixit . She also performed at the live talent show " Got Talent World Stage Live " with Khan , Priyanka Chopra and Varun Dhawan the following year . In July 2014 , Fernandez opened a restaurant in Colombo , Kaema Sutra , in collaboration with chef Dharshan Munidasa , which specialises in contemporary Sri Lankan cuisine .

= = In the media = =

In the early 2013 , Fernandez became the ambassador for HTC One , which she endorses in India . She was the face of Indian Bridal Fashion Week — IBFW of 2013 . Later that year , she became the spokesperson for Gareth Pugh 's designed Forevermark Diamonds in Mumbai , and was at the inaugural opening of the Forever 21 store in Mumbai . That year , she also launched Gillette Shaving System with Arbaaz Khan and Aditya Roy Kapur . While analysing Fernandez 's career , India TV noted : " Slowly and steadily Jacqueline Fernandez is climbing up the ladder of success [ ... ] Jacqueline is comfortably grasping every aspect of the work , which an actress is required to do and is accordingly giving results . " On the contrary , Charu Thakur of India Today criticized her acting skills , but remarked that : " [ she has ] managed to find her feet in Bollywood now by banking on glamorous roles " .

In 2008 and 2011 , Fernandez featured in the UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list , ranking twelfth . She was ranked third on The Times of India 's listing of the " Most Desirable Woman " in 2013 and 2014 , after being ranked eighth , seventh and fourteenth , respectively , in the preceding three years . In 2013 , Rediff.com placed her on their list of " Bollywood 's Best Dressed Actresses " . The following year , she held the sixty second position in the Indian edition of the Forbes ' Celebrity 100 , a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She has been the cover model for many Indian editions of magazines , including : Vogue , FHM , Maxim , Cosmopolitan , Grazia , Elle , Verve , Harper 's Bazaar , Women 's Health , and L 'Officiel among others .

= = Filmography = =

= = TV Appearances = =

= = Awards = =

= John Cullen =

Barry John Cullen ( born August 2 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Pittsburgh Penguins , Hartford Whalers , Toronto Maple Leafs and Tampa Bay Lightning . He was a standout player for Boston University and is the school 's all @-@ time leading scorer . After the Buffalo Sabres selected him in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft but chose not to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season where he was named the IHL 's co @-@ Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player after leading the league in scoring .

His career was halted in 1997 when he was diagnosed with Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . He attempted a brief comeback in 1998 after an 18 @-@ month battle with the disease , for which the NHL awarded him the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , before retiring to serve as an assistant coach for a year with the Lightning . Cullen played in two NHL All @-@ Star Games in his career . He joined his brother in the car dealership business after leaving the game , and briefly operated his own dealership until forced to close during the automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 10 .

= = Early life = =

Cullen was born in Puslinch @-@ Ontario on August 2 , 1964 . He is one of six children of Barry and Loretta Cullen . His father and uncles Brian and Ray all played in the NHL , and while Cullen and his three brothers all played as well , their father never pressured them , preferring that they enjoy the game .

He idolized his elder brother Terry , who was considered a top NHL prospect until Terry 's career was ended when he suffered a broken neck after being hit from behind into the boards during a college game . While his brother was highly sought by American universities , John received only two scholarship offers , choosing to play for Boston University ( BU ) in 1983 .

At the same time , his mother Loretta was diagnosed with skin cancer . Following her death early in his freshman year , Cullen contemplated returning to his Ontario home , but was convinced by his father to continue with both school and hockey . He used the game to cope with the loss and dedicated every game he played to his mother 's memory . Cullen felt that the inspiration he drew from his mother 's battle allowed him to become a better player .

= = Playing career = =

Cullen was a standout with BU ; he was named the East Coast Athletic Conference Rookie of the Year in 1983 – 84 after leading his team in scoring with 56 points . The National Hockey League passed him over , however , as he went unclaimed in the 1984 NHL Entry Draft . He was named to the Hockey East All @-@ Star Teams in 1985 , 1986 and 1987 , and a National Collegiate Athletic Association East Second Team All @-@ American in 1986 . He graduated as BU 's all @-@ time scoring leader with 241 points , and was named to BU 's Hockey East 25th anniversary team in 2009 .

Passed over in the Entry Draft , Cullen was finally selected by the Buffalo Sabres in the 1986 NHL Supplemental Draft . When the Sabres failed to offer him a contract , Cullen signed with the Flint Spirits of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1987 – 88 season . He led the league with 157 points , scoring 48 goals , and won the James Gatschene Memorial Trophy as league most valuable player while sharing the Gary F. Longman Memorial Trophy with Ed Belfour as rookie of the year . Cullen 's outstanding season in Flint caught the attention of the Sabres and the Pittsburgh Penguins . He signed a contract with the Penguins for the league minimum , passing up a superior contract offer from Buffalo as he remained upset at how they released him the year before .

= = = National Hockey League = = =

Cullen made his NHL debut in 1988 – 89 , appearing in 79 games with the Penguins and scoring 49 points . He was given a greater role with the Penguins the following year after Mario Lemieux missed 21 games due to a back injury and responded by scoring 32 goals and 92 points to finish third in team scoring . Additionally , he played for Team Canada at the 1990 World Championship , scoring four points in ten games . Cullen had his best season in 1990 – 91 . As one of the team 's top offensive centres , he scored 94 points in the Penguins ' first 65 games and played in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . However , when Lemieux returned after missing an additional 50 @-@ games due to injury , Cullen 's playing time and production declined .

The Penguins ' needs led them to complete a blockbuster trade on March 1 , 1991 . Cullen was sent to the Hartford Whalers , along with Zarley Zalapski and Jeff Parker in exchange for Hartford 's all @-@ time leading scorer , Ron Francis , along with Ulf Samuelsson and Grant Jennings . The Penguins almost turned down the deal as they were concerned about giving up Cullen 's playmaking and leadership abilities , while his former teammates credited Cullen as being the primary reason they were in a playoff position at the time the trade happened . After the Penguins won their first Stanley Cup that season , Phil Bourque later said it " broke his heart " that Cullen was not able to share in that championship .

In Hartford , Cullen worked to overcome the team 's fans ' disappointment at losing Francis . The Hartford fans initially booed him to show their dissatisfaction with the trade . He scored 16 points in 13 regular season games to finish the season with 110 points combined between the Penguins and Whalers , and was the team 's best player in their first round loss to the Boston Bruins in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs . He initially accepted an invitation to join the Canadian team at the 1991 Canada Cup , but subsequently chose not to participate as his contract had expired , leading to greater insurance concerns . Still without a contract when the 1991 – 92 season began , Cullen missed the first four games before signing a four @-@ year deal with Hartford worth a total of $ 4 million . He returned to score 77 points in 77 games in his first full season with the Whalers and represented the team at the 1992 All @-@ Star Game .

Midway through the 1992 – 93 NHL season , the Whalers sent Cullen to the Toronto Maple Leafs for Toronto 's second round selection at the 1993 NHL Entry Draft . Cullen was excited to play for his father 's old team , but injuries reduced his ability to perform . His most significant injury was a herniated disc in his neck that doctors initially feared would end his career . A bulky neck brace allowed Cullen to return and play out his contract in Toronto . When the Leafs chose not to re @-@ sign him following the 1993 – 94 season , he returned to the Penguins for one season before Tony Esposito convinced him to sign with the Tampa Bay Lightning in 1995 .

Cullen enjoyed immediate success with linemates Shawn Burr and Alexander Selivanov as the trio combined to score 130 points and helped lead the Lightning to the first playoff appearance in franchise history . They were eliminated by the Philadelphia Flyers in five games while Cullen led the team in playoff scoring with three goals and three assists . The Lightning looked to improve in 1996 – 97 ; Cullen was leading the team in scoring , but was suffering flu @-@ like symptoms that he could not shake . As Tampa was fighting for a playoff spot , he played through his condition for weeks .

= = = Cancer and comeback = = =

After two months of quietly dealing with his symptoms , Cullen 's wife finally called team trainers and asked them to check into his illness . The team took an x @-@ ray and found a large black shadow in his chest . He underwent a CAT scan which revealed Cullen had a baseball @-@ sized tumor ; he was diagnosed as having Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . The diagnosis ended his season , and he immediately began chemotherapy treatments that quickly reduced his cancer . The tumor was gone by September 1997 , but a precautionary test prior to training camp revealed that Cullen still had cancer cells in his body . He missed the entire 1997 – 98 NHL season as he continued to battle the disease , while his teammates wore a uniform patch with his # 12 in support throughout the year .

On one day during his treatments , as his wife was wheeling him down a hospital corridor , Cullen went into cardiac arrest , requiring doctors to use a defibrillator to revive him . He underwent a bone marrow transplant that briefly reduced his immune system to the point that he could have very little human contact . Another examination in April 1998 revealed that the cancer was finally gone , and Cullen immediately began training for a comeback .

The Lightning signed Cullen to a one @-@ year , $ 500 @,@ 000 contract for the 1998 – 99 season . He played his first game in nearly 18 months on September 18 , 1998 , in an exhibition game between the Lightning and Sabres at Innsbruck , Austria . Cullen scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 1 victory , after which he said he sat on the bench in disbelief over how he was given a second chance . He was named to the roster and was greeted with a loud standing ovation by the fans in Tampa Bay when he was introduced prior to their season opening game .

Cullen appeared in four of the Lightning 's first eight games , but it was evident that he had lost much of his speed and strength . The Lightning assigned him to the IHL 's Cleveland Lumberjacks , but also gave him the option of retiring and taking up a position as an assistant coach . He chose to accept the demotion , giving himself one month to determine if he could continue playing . He appeared in six games for Cleveland , and in one game against the Chicago Wolves tied an IHL record when he scored seven points in a 7 – 3 victory .

However , a bout of bronchitis led Cullen to fear that his cancer had returned . Tests came back negative , but after spending time with his family , he realized that neither he nor his family were interested in returning to Cleveland . Cullen announced his retirement on November 28 , 1998 , and accepted the Lightning offer to become an assistant coach . In recognition of his comeback attempt , the NHL named him the 1999 winner of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and perseverance , while the IHL renamed its Comeback Player of the Year award the John Cullen Award .

Former Lightning head coach Terry Crisp has stated publicly that Cullen was a player that stood out as something special saying “ John Cullen ... beat cancer and came back to play and helped us win . ”

= = Off the ice = =

Cullen and his wife Valerie have three daughters , Kennedy and twins Karlyn and Kortland . Unwilling to spend so much time away from his family , he left the Lightning in 1999 and settled in the Atlanta area , joining his brother 's car dealership in Jonesboro , Georgia . He had always expected to become a car dealer after his hockey career , as his father , uncles and brother all worked in the industry . After apprenticing under his brother for five years , he bought a Dodge dealership in Newnan , Georgia in 2007 . However , he owned the dealership for less than two years before Chrysler closed him down as part of its recovery plan in response to the Automotive industry crisis of 2008 – 2010 . He has since returned to his brother 's dealership , serving as its general manager .

Cullen 's battle with cancer inspired Timm Harmon of the Moffitt Cancer Centre to partner with the Lightning to raise awareness and money for cancer research . The NHL itself joined the cause in the winter of 1998 , creating the Hockey Fights Cancer program to raise money for research . Cullen has spent time promoting the initiative .

Prior to marrying his wife Valerie , John dated Carolyn Bessette the future wife of John F. Kennedy , Jr . The two met while attending University in Boston .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =

= = = International = = =

= = Awards = =

Cullen is the namesake of the John Cullen Award , previously given to key IHL players .

= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =

For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .

SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty 's ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .

For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .

= = Design = =

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .

= = Service history = =

At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .

A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .

Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships were handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .

= Ancient Egyptian deities =

Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , who claimed to be the gods ' representative and managed the temples where the rituals were carried out .

The gods ' complex characteristics were expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities ' diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .

In different eras , various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars have argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power that lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten .

Gods were assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans ' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society .

= = Definition = =

The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition who might be labeled as deities are difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature is unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods who are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz says there are " thousands upon thousands " of gods .

The Egyptian language 's terms for these beings were nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars have tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but none of these suggestions has gained acceptance , and the terms ' origin remains obscure . The hieroglyphs that were used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits that the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs is a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects were placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods who were depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities .

The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may have applied to any being that was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans were called nṯr because they were considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt 's lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depicts places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities that were important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .

Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars have proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , says that a deity has a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , who was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , who entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt .

= = Origins = =

The first written evidence of deities in Egypt comes from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 BC ) . Deities must have emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depicts a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , are reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases there is not enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images that resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon that represents Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows that stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " that represents Set .

Many Egyptologists and anthropologists have suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must have been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz ' hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , are difficult to prove .

Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times were strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars have suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling the worship of the old local deities . But others have argued that the most important predynastic gods were , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it .

The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion .

New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities were sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings were said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans were said to have the favor of the gods and were venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu were regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as were some other officials .

Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may have come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .

= = Characteristics = =

Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation 's scribes and priests . These people were the elite of Egyptian society and were very distinct from the general populace , most of whom were illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas that the elite developed . Commoners ' perceptions of the divine may have differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , have mistaken the religion 's symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief is consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .

= = = Roles = = =

Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods were generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world 's air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and were involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river that was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the nation 's farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter 's wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it .

Not all aspects of existence were seen as deities . Although many deities were connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way that Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , were not represented by gods ; neither were elements like fire and water or many other components of the world .

The roles of each deity were fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods ' roles are difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos that he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods , was not omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argues that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the world in a way that other deities did not .

The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although there is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker draws a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , who have a more dangerous character . Many demons are hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence .

= = = Behavior = = =

Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities who disrupted the divine order , the gods ' actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They did this work using a force the Egyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves .

The gods ' actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly concerns the gods ' actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods were present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences were tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus ' accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths are metaphors for the gods ' actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth are part of the Egyptians ' many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods .

In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . Some have unique character traits . Set is aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , is prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods are more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior is inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling .

The first divine act is the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , who represent the chaos that precedes creation , give birth to the sun god , who establishes order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , who embodies thought and creativity , gives form to all things by envisioning and naming them ; Atum produces all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation were not seen as contradictory . Each gives a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , is the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place .

A recurring theme in these myths is the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme is the gods ' death and revival . The clearest instance where a god dies is the myth of Osiris ' murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he comes into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts that depict Ra 's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the gods periodically died and were reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .

= = = Locations = = =

Gods were linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world includes the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them is the dark formlessness that existed before creation . The gods in general were said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles were linked with other parts of the universe were said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods ' withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods who dwell there have difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .

In the time after myth , most gods were said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples were their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues that depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples were the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city 's main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities ' spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity 's main cult center in historical times is not necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes ' patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .

= = = Names and epithets = = =

In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet means " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun means " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , who was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , means " she of Nekheb " . But many other names have no certain meaning , even when the gods who bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth .

The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts renders the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts says the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity .

The gods were believed to have many names . Among them were secret names that conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poisons the superior god Ra and refuses to cure him unless he reveals his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she tells it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power .

In addition to their names , gods were given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , that describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods ' multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles expresses the gods ' multifarious nature .

= = = Relationships = = =

Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god 's connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as the patroness of kings . Such relationships were the base material from which myths were formed .

Family relationships are a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern that connects divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , were assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like these are changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god 's daughter .

Other divine groups were composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . There were sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts that are part of a greater unity . Ra , who is dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , who is static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .

Nine , the product of three and three , represents a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which incorporates many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt 's deities .

This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or who were mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , who was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods were most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .

= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =

The gods were believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods were composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul that affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god 's power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity 's ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods that were the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals that represented certain deities , were believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which were sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god 's nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the kas of Atum the creator god , who originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other 's power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which were personified as goddesses .

Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods ' manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms were sometimes counted as independent deities .

Gods were combined with each other as easily as they were divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods were linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions were combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes were joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations were not permanent ; a god who was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , who became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .

= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =

In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods ' names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may not have been full monotheism , which totally excludes belief in other deities . There is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture is further complicated by Atenism 's apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In any case , Atenism 's aberrant theology did not take root among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten 's successors returned to traditional beliefs .

= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =

Scholars have long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities . Another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners were polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , who wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history .

In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting these views . He points out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , were described as superior to all others . He also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god were constantly shifting , they were always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung says , describes Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .

Hornung 's arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows . Jan Assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians described the universal god in a different way , one that coexisted with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods were aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen says that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He says that the Egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . "

= = Descriptions and depictions = =

Egyptian writings describe the gods ' bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair is lapis lazuli . They give off a scent that the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities ' true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians ' visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity 's character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring alludes to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .

Most gods were depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , are common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress that was originally Hathor 's alone .

Certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god 's identity . The head of a given divine image is particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represents the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess is a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , is a man who has assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods ' heads , are another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods ' hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .

The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures that are widespread in Egypt were never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals that were absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images . For instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented a god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses .

The basic anthropomorphic form varies . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi alludes to the Nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , have a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .

= = Interactions with humans = =

= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =

In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings were equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings were equated with these elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs were worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .

However much it was believed , the king 's divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt 's representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things were provided by the cults that the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh 's work , as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead . These acts were a part of the king 's fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live .

= = = Presence in the human world = = =

Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication .

The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object that was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the Apis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature .

Temples , where the state rituals were carried out , were filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues were usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods ' bodies . Many temples had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city 's primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own , although some were represented in the temples of other gods .

To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .

= = = Intervention in human lives = = =

Egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations were under Egyptian control , foreigners were said to be under the sun god 's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were .

Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives , including Meskhenet , who presided over birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person 's " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities were also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into a set of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities were the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans ' moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out .

Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force that manifested the god 's power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments were seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : Shed , who emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrongdoing .

Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events . Some deities who were closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods ' defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraws from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator is distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans ' direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods ' power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods ' favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs were regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods ' will .

= = = Worship = = =

Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , who sought the gods ' help for their personal problems .

Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites were performed every day , whereas others were festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues were clothed , anointed , and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities ' life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .

Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals for a god were often based in that deity 's mythology . Such rituals were meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection were ritually reenacted at a time when crops were beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god 's own life .

Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that were supposed to convey gods ' answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons that might threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god 's positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used heka , the same force of magic that the gods used , which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help .

Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety is scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which are theophoric , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines that represented the gods they were praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god 's cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition .

The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions were under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , were often syncretized with native gods , who in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs were built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , were syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia 's independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods were incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they were in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses were linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun 's oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region .

Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods were adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — were adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire 's complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , who was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus were both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition that grew from the Roman religious world .

Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at Philae , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , were adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors ' gods .

= South of Heaven =

South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band 's second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood had helped the band 's sound evolve .

South of Heaven was Slayer 's second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records ' refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .

In order to offset the pace of the group 's previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album 's tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , have become permanent features of the band 's live setlist .

= = Background = =

South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin 's production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo 's drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on albums before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer 's official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "

King has since been critical of his performance , which he describes as his " most lackluster . " King attributes this to the fact he had recently married , and moved to Phoenix , Arizona . Describing himself as " probably the odd man out at that point " , he admitted he " didn ’ t participate as much because of that . " Hanneman said : " We go through dry spells sometimes , but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without . I guess at that time , Kerry was hitting a dry spell . " King has also been critical of the album in general , describing it as one of his least favorite Slayer albums . He feels vocalist Tom Araya moved too far away from his regular vocal style , and " added too much singing . " Drummer Dave Lombardo has since observed : " There was fire on all the records , but it started dimming when South of Heaven came into the picture . And that 's me personally . Again , I was probably wanting something else . "

Judas Priest 's " Dissident Aggressor " is the only cover version to appear on a Slayer studio album . The song was chosen due to its war @-@ themed lyrics . Hanneman described the track as " more just like one of those odd songs that a lot of people didn 't know , but it was a favorite of Kerry and I , so we just picked that one . " Meanwhile , " Cleanse the Soul " has been heavily criticized by King who said that he hates the track : " That 's one of the black marks in our history , in my book . I just fucking think it 's horrible . [ Laughs ] I hate the opening riff . It 's what we call a ' happy riff . ' It 's just like ' la @-@ lala @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la . ' I can 't see myself playing it , but after that , where it gets heavier , I like that section . If we ever did a medley , I 'd put part of that in there . " The Slayer boxset Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featured , along with four songs of the album , an early version of the title track , recorded at Hanneman 's home .

= = Photography and illustration = =

Artist Larry Carroll and Illustrator Howard Schwartzberg designed the cover artwork for South of Heaven , having designed the artwork for Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood . Photographer Glen E. Friedman took the promotional shot which surfaced as the back cover of South of Heaven around the time of 1986 's Reign in Blood . Lombardo felt it made Slayer seem as though they " had matured a little bit " , while Friedman himself deemed it " a really cool back cover " and " one of the most classic shots of them [ Slayer ] ever . "

= = Critical reception = =

South of Heaven was released on July 5 , 1988 , and was the final Slayer album distributed via Def Jam Records . When label co @-@ founders Russell Simmons and Rubin parted ways , Slayer signed to Rubin 's newly founded Def American Recordings label . The album peaked at number 57 on the Billboard 200 album chart , and on November 20 , 1992 , became Slayer 's second album to be certified gold in the United States . South of Heaven was awarded silver certification in the United Kingdom on January 1 , 1993 , Slayer 's first record to do so in that country . Slayer 's official biography states that " some critics praised the album as demonstrating Slayer 's desire to grow musically and avoid repeating themselves . " Alex Henderson of AllMusic described the record as " disturbing and powerful , " while Joe Matera of Ultimate Guitar deemed the album a slight departure ; he wrote that while the pace was slowed down , it " didn 't sacrifice any of the heaviness inherent in Slayer 's music . "

Reviewing the 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described the album as " their most underrated , and on this set , its five selections show how highly the band thinks of the record . " KNAC.com 's Peter Atkinson was also positive , saying the album has a " grandiosity and imposing presence " which makes the record " so magnificent . " Grave 's Ola Lindgren and Bolt Thrower 's Karl Willetts both rate South of Heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time , while Max Kolesne of Brazilian death metal group Krisiun remembers hearing the song " Silent Scream " for the first time : " It just blew me away . It was like fast double @-@ bass , fast kicks during the whole song . That was very inspiring for me . " When discussing Slayer in an October 2007 interview , Evile frontman Matt Drake stated that while Reign in Blood " was just speed " , South of Heaven proved that the group could write " slow material as well . " Metal Forces reviewer gives " the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career " , creating " one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long while " . He remarks , however , that " if you ’ re expecting to hear Reign in Blood Part Two , you ’ ll be in for a major disappointment " .

Kim Neely of Rolling Stone dismissed the album as " genuinely offensive satanic drivel . " Slayer 's official biography states : " The new sounds disappointed some of the band 's fans who were more accustomed to the style of earlier releases . " Michael Roberts of Westworld Online said this was due to some of the numbers moving " at the sludgier speed of Black Sabbath . " Araya commented that the " album was a late bloomer — it wasn 't really received well , but it kind of grew on everybody later . "

= = Cover versions = =

The title track and the song " Mandatory Suicide " have received various cover interpretations , particularly on Slayer tribute albums . Toni Ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album The String Quartet Tribute to Slayer : The Evil You Dread , with the former cover being described as having " menacing chord shifts " by AllMusic 's Johnny Loftus .

1995 Slayer tribute album Slatanic Slaughter featured three tracks which originally appeared on South of Heaven , with the title track , " Mandatory Suicide " and " Spill the Blood " interpreted by Cemetary , Crown of Thorns and Grope respectively . Its 1998 follow up Slatanic Slaughter , Vol . 2 only featured two tracks originally from the album ; namely " Silent Scream " arranged by Vader and " Read Between the Lies " interpreted by Anathema . 1999 's Straight to Hell : A Tribute to Slayer collected four Slayer renditions which originated on the album , with versions of South of Heaven performed by Abaddon ( Venom ) and Electric Hellfire Club , " Mandatory Suicide " cut by Chapter 7 and " Behind the Crooked Cross " adapted by Gigantor . 2006 Argentine tribute album Al Sur Del Abismo ( Tributo Argentino A Slayer ) saw Nafak and Climatic Terra also respectively cover " South of Heaven " and " Mandatory Suicide " . Hatebreed covered the song " Ghosts of War " for their 2009 cover album For the Lions . They released a music video for it also . Korn has covered the title track at least twice live , once with Kid Rock on vocals and another using the intro to follow into one of their songs live .

The title track itself has also been covered by Integrity 2000 , Modest Mouse and Califone , Pro @-@ Pain , and Universe Eye . Polish death metal band Decapitated covered the song " Mandatory Suicide " on their first full @-@ length album Winds of Creation . In 2003 , " Silent Scream " was covered by Children of Bodom for their album Hate Crew Deathroll in his UK version . Hardcore Punk band , The Mongoloids opened their set with the beginning of " South of Heaven " at Heartfest 7 on May 4 , 2013

= = Live performances = =

Two songs taken from the album ( " Mandatory Suicide " and " South of Heaven " ) have become near constant fixtures in the band 's live setlist , notching up appearances on the following : the live DVDs Live Intrusion , War at the Warfield , Still Reigning , Soundtrack to the Apocalypse 's deluxe edition 's bonus live disc , and the live double album Decade of Aggression . Lombardo guested with Finnish cellist group Apocalyptica on a live medley of the two tracks at 1998 's Headbanger 's Heaven festival in the Netherlands . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described " South of Heaven " as " an unorthodox set opener in theory " , noting " the song went over like a megaton bomb detonating the place : dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum riser , the sinewy opening notes kicked in , followed by an overture of bass , cymbal crashes , and tom fills , leading up to the slowly building crescendo " in a concert review . Lombardo remembers listening to a live rendition of " South of Heaven " and thinking " ‘ Man ! There 's just so much groove in that song . ’ To my kids I was saying , ‘ Listen to that ! Listen to how groovy that is ! ’ And it 's heavy . " A rare live version of the track featured on the JÄGERMUSIC Rarities 2004 promotional CD , given away to attendees at the Spring 2004 Jägermeister Music Tour . A live rendition of " South of Heaven " was also included on a bonus DVD which came with the group 's 2007 re @-@ release of ninth studio album Christ Illusion , shot in Vancouver , British Columbia during 2006 's Unholy Alliance tour .

" Behind the Crooked Cross " is rarely played live as Hanneman hates the track , though King has always wanted to play it " because it 's got a cool intro " despite it not being his favorite song . King said " that 's fine " when speaking of the situation , noting " there are songs that he wants to play that I always shoot down . " " Ghosts of War " isn 't King 's favorite song either , which he attests " everybody always wants to hear " performed live . He confessed ; " I like the ending , you know , I like the big heavy part and I always say , ‘ Let 's put the heavy ending at the end of " Chemical Warfare " and just do the last half . ’ But I could never make that fly . "

Slayer has toyed with the idea of creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990 's Seasons in the Abyss , though Hanneman said it 's something which hasn 't been " seriously considered . " Metal Maniacs asked Slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing South of Heaven in the footsteps of the Still Reigning tour , to which Araya replied , " It 's becoming a trendy thing now . I don 't know . We have some really cool albums , but I don 't think we 'll ever do that again . " King was equally unsure , commenting , " Probably not . And I just don 't like enough songs off South of Heaven . "

= = Track listing = =

= = Personnel = =

= = = Slayer = = =

Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals

Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar

Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar , backing vocals

Dave Lombardo – drums

= = Charts and certifications = =

= General aviation in the United Kingdom =

General aviation in the United Kingdom has been defined as a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule or military aviation . Although the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) excludes any form of remunerated aviation from its definition , some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation ( GA ) in the UK . The sector operates business jets , rotorcraft , piston and jet @-@ engined fixed @-@ wing aircraft , gliders of all descriptions , and lighter than air craft . Public transport operations include business ( or corporate ) aviation and air taxi services , and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector . Other commercial GA activities are aerial work , such as surveying and air ambulances , and flight training , which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport ( CAT ) industry . Private flying is conducted for personal transport and recreation . It includes a strong vintage aircraft movement , and encompasses a range of air sports , such as racing , aerobatics , and parachuting , at which British teams and individuals have succeeded in international competition .

Of the 21 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent are engaged in GA operations , and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 35 million hours flown . The single most common class of aircraft is the fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , but the main area of growth over the last 20 years has been in the use of more affordable aircraft , such as microlights , amateur built aeroplanes , and smaller helicopters . There are 28 @,@ 000 Private Pilot Licence holders , and 10 @,@ 000 certified glider pilots . Some of the 19 @,@ 000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities . Although GA operates from more than 1 @,@ 800 aerodromes and landing sites , ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips , over 80 per cent of GA activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodromes . The GA industry , which is around 7 per cent the size of its CAT cousin , employs 12 @,@ 000 people , and contributes £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy .

GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) , although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) . The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing , and the objective is to promote high standards of safety . At the lighter end of the GA spectrum some regulatory authority is devolved to representative bodies , and gliding is in transition from a self @-@ regulatory model to more formal governance by EASA . Airspace regulation necessary to protect an increasing number of CAT operations has reduced the area in which GA flights can be freely conducted . The growth in CAT is also making access to larger airports more difficult for the GA sector , and smaller aerodromes are vulnerable to closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system has no remit to consider the national significance of GA public transport operations , and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodromes catering to the GA market . The planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome @-@ related environmental issues which , particularly regarding noise , are the main subjects of public criticism levelled at GA .

= = Definitions = =

The International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) defines general aviation ( GA ) as " an aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation . " It defines commercial air transport ( CAT ) as " an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers , cargo or mail for remuneration or hire " , and aerial work as " an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture , construction , photography , surveying , observation and patrol , search and rescue , aerial advertisement , etc . "

Organisations in the United Kingdom ( UK ) describe GA in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation . The British Business and General Aviation Association interprets it to be " all aeroplane and helicopter flying except that performed by the major airlines and the Armed Services " . The General Aviation Awareness Council applies the description " all Civil Aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non @-@ scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire " . For the purposes of a strategic review of GA in the UK , the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) defined the scope of GA as " a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule " , and considered it necessary to depart from the ICAO definition and include aerial work and minor CAT operations .

= = History = =

The first aerodrome in the UK was established by the Aero Club at Muswell Manor on the Isle of Sheppey , and in May 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a British pilot , John Moore @-@ Brabazon . In 1910 the Aero Club was granted the Royal prefix , took responsibility for controlling all private flying in the UK , and started issuing the first British pilot licences . The introduction of the de Havilland DH.60 Moth in 1925 revolutionised light aviation , and the Royal Aero Club , recognising the " vital necessity of promoting civil flying " , formed the Light Aeroplane Club scheme . Between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying clubs were started , and more than 5 @,@ 000 pilots were trained .

During World War II civil aerodromes were taken over for military use , existing military airfields were expanded , and new ones were built . This resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war . Pre @-@ war civil aerodromes , for example Sywell , were returned to civilian use . Surplus military airfields were closed , and in some cases , for example Beccles , subsequently re @-@ opened as civil aerodromes . The Ministry of Civil Aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation in the UK , and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of the independent CAA in 1972 .

With an expanded infrastructure in place , GA became established after the war when manufacturers such as Cessna and Piper introduced light aircraft designed for the private market . The Cessna 172 , developed from the late 1940s Cessna 170 , was introduced in 1956 , and became the world 's best selling single @-@ engine aeroplane . Single piston @-@ engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the UK GA fleet . The development of the Rogallo wing in the 1950s fostered the development of hang @-@ gliding during the 1960s and 1970s . The 1960s also saw experiments with motorised hang gliders , but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature , resulting in the birth of the microlight movement . Another milestone in the development of GA was the 1964 introduction of the Learjet 23 . Although it was not the first business jet , it popularised corporate aviation , and established the personal jet as a " whole new class of aircraft " .

= = Activities = =

The GA sector operates a range of aircraft , including balloons and airships , gliders , hang gliders , paragliders , microlights , gyrocopters , helicopters , amateur built and mass @-@ produced light aircraft , ex @-@ military aircraft , and business jets . Flights can be broadly categorised as public transport , aerial work , and private flying , the first two of which are commercial activities .

= = = Commercial operations = = =

Commercial operations are remunerated activities which fall within the ICAO definition of CAT . Some are , however , closely aligned to , and considered part of , the GA sector . Public transport operations are non @-@ scheduled , on @-@ demand services flying between points specified by the customer , providing a more flexible service than airline travel . Air taxi operations offer charter services for third parties , and business or corporate aviation uses company @-@ owned aircraft to transport employees and clients . Aircraft used in these operations include business jets , helicopters , and twin piston @-@ engine aeroplanes carrying between six and ten people . An example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the British Formula One grand prix at Silverstone . This involves so many flights that , according to Cranfield Aviation Services , on race day the heliport is temporarily the world 's busiest airport . Aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial GA sector , characterised in its simplest form as remunerated non @-@ transport activities , such as surveying , crop spraying , and emergency services work ( air ambulance and police ) .

= = = Flying schools = = =

Flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilots , both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally . They make widespread use of fixed @-@ wing light aircraft associated with traditional GA , not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights . School @-@ owned aircraft account for a significant amount of GA activity , both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements . The pilot training element is regarded by the GA community as a key benefit that is critical to the supply of pilots for the airline industry . It is claimed by the General Aviation Awareness Council that 60 – 70 per cent of professional pilots have self @-@ financed their flight training at GA schools , and one UK airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70 – 80 per cent of new pilots coming from the GA sector . The CAA estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the unsponsored training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent . The counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the UK , and that the airline industry is not therefore dependent on a healthy GA sector in the UK for its supply of pilots . The CAA concludes that a severe reduction in GA would give " some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened " , but that the data on flying hours " does not support such a gloomy outlook . " Of course , reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the UK foregoes the economic benefit of the training activity .

= = = Private flying = = =

Private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport , using aircraft that are owned individually , collectively as part of a syndicate , or rented from a flying club . A survey of pilots conducted between 2001 and 2002 indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights near the base aerodrome , visits to other aerodromes , and day trips away . Half of all flights landed at the same aerodrome they departed from , and only 9 per cent involved an overnight stay away from home .

Private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory @-@ produced two and four @-@ seater , single piston @-@ engine training and touring aircraft . Examples of these are the Cessna 152 , Cessna 172 , and Piper PA28 Cherokee , all with their origins in the 1950s , and the more modern designs of Cirrus . The average cost per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £ 133 , compared to an estimated £ 77 per hour for gliders , and a reported £ 35 per hour for microlights . Recent trends have seen an increase in the use of microlights , and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the Robinson R22 and R44 . Another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft , such as the Van 's Aircraft RV @-@ 4 and the Europa .

There is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the UK , with two @-@ thirds of the 500 registered historic aircraft active . These cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation , examples being the de Havilland Dragon Rapide airliner of the 1930s , and the World War II ( WWII ) Spitfire fighter . There are many post @-@ WWII aircraft which could also be considered historic under a looser definition , including for example 60 ex @-@ military jets such as the Hawker Hunter . Historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays , which are claimed to be the second most popular spectator activity after football in the UK .

= = = Sports = = =

Competitive gliding in the UK takes place between May and September . Regionals are local competitions , organised and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region , and represent the entry level to glider racing . Races are handicapped according to glider performance , and normally take place over nine days . Success in the regionals allows pilots to progress to the nationals , where there are five classes of competition . These are based on glider performance , the lowest being club class , and then progressing through standard ( maximum 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wingspan , and flaps not permitted ) , 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ( as standard , but flaps are permitted ) , 18 metres ( 59 ft ) ( maximum 18 metres ( 59 ft ) wingspan ) , and finally open @-@ class ( no restrictions ) . Success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level . In 2007 the British gliding team was ranked number one , and British pilots took two women 's world championships and the open class European championship .

Handicapped air racing is open to any propeller @-@ driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles ( 160 km ) per hour in level flight . Races are a case of " fly low , fly fast , turn left " , consisting of 4 – 5 laps round a 20 – 25 mile ( 32 – 40 km ) circuit . Faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after slower aircraft , the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together . There are up to 16 races per year , conducted at airfields in the UK , France and the Channel Islands , for prizes that include the Schneider Trophy and King 's Cup , and the season culminates with the British Air Racing and European Air Racing Championships .

Aerobatic competitions take place for both powered aircraft and gliders , with up to 30 events each year in the UK and Ireland . Starting at the Beginner level , pilots can move up to Standard ( powered aircraft ) or Sports ( glider ) levels , and then on to Intermediate , Advanced , and finally Unlimited classes . Each step up requires a wider repertoire of aerobatic figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft . National championships are awarded annually at Standard / Sports , Intermediate , Advanced ( powered aircraft only ) , and Unlimited levels , and pilots who have reached Advanced and Unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the UK in international competition .

Parachute competitions are held at club , regional , national and international levels , and include the disciplines of accuracy landings , freefall gymnastics , formation skydiving , canopy formation , freestyle and freeflying , and skysurfing . British teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships , and a British team took the 2006 world championship in women 's 4 @-@ way formation skydiving .

= = Aerodromes = =

Aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place , although more specific terminology can be used to characterise its purpose . The CAA strategic review of GA applies the term airport to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations , and airfield to locations which predominantly support GA operations . The General Aviation Small Aerodrome Research Study ( GASAR ) analysed 687 aerodromes in England which come under the scope of GA , classifying 374 into six types . These range in size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip , although 84 per cent of GA flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodromes in the first four categories .

= = = GASAR aerodrome classification = = =

The factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is categorised by the GASAR study are based broadly on size and facilities . The six types of aerodrome are described , in size order , as : regional airports ( e.g. East Midlands ) ; major GA airports ( e.g. Oxford ) ; developed GA airfields ( e.g. Andrewsfield ) ; basic GA airfields ( e.g. Rufforth ) ; developed airstrips ( e.g. Tilstock ) ; and basic airstrips ( e.g. Chilbolton in Hampshire ) . The actual criteria used to categorise aerodromes were complex , using 28 different parameters , backed up with a peer review by experienced GA pilots .

Airports generally have long , fully lit , hard @-@ surfaced runways , full air traffic control , and navigation and landing aids . They are usually located on urban fringes , support commercial and business operations , and often exclude certain types of light aircraft . At the more rurally located airfields , the lighter end of aviation , such as microlight and gliding activities , becomes increasingly prevalent , and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools . At this level runways are generally shorter , and grass surfaces are increasingly common . Navigation aids are increasingly scarce , being more basic where they are available , and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control . The smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose Ordnance Survey ( OS ) maps , and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance . The majority of airstrips are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities , although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples . They do not feature on OS maps , and are owned by private clubs or , more commonly , individuals .

= = = Aerodrome licensing = = =

Most aerodromes used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the CAA . To be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the CAA that : the physical conditions at the aerodrome , and its environs , are acceptable ; the scale of equipment , and facilities provided , are adequate for the flying activities which are expected to take place ; an effective safety management system is in place ; and that staff are competent and , where necessary , suitably qualified . Aerodromes classified as developed GA airfields or larger by the GASAR study are , with few exceptions , licensed . Only two basic GA airfields , Silverstone and Duxford , are licensed , and all airstrips are unlicensed . The Light Aviation Airports Study Group , a joint CAA @-@ industry initiative , was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodromes . A particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on unlicensed aerodromes . The group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed aerodromes should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and European requirements . It also recommended that restrictions on flight training at unlicensed aerodromes should be lifted , and this was permitted from April 2010

= = Scale of the sector = =

There are an estimated 27 @,@ 000 civil aircraft registered in the UK , 96 per cent of which are engaged in GA activities . In 2005 the GA fleet comprised 9 @,@ 000 fixed @-@ wing aircraft , 4 @,@ 100 microlights , 1 @,@ 300 helicopters , 1 @,@ 800 airships / balloons , 2 @,@ 500 gliders and some 7 @,@ 000 hang gliders . Estimates put the number of foreign @-@ registered GA aircraft based in the UK at 900 .

The number of pilots licensed by the CAA to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47 @,@ 000 , of whom 28 @,@ 000 held a Private Pilot Licence . The remainder held professional pilot licences , either a Commercial Pilot Licence or an Airline Transport Pilot Licence , although not all of these would be engaged in GA activities . In addition , there are 10 @,@ 000 active glider pilots , and estimates put the membership of aviation @-@ related sport and recreational associations at 36 @,@ 000 .

The number of aerodromes that support GA in the UK is difficult to establish with certainty . Pooleys 2008 United Kingdom Flight Guide lists 355 , and the Airplan Flight Equipment UK VFR Flight Guide 2008 lists nearly 500 . Lockyears Farm ' Strips ' and Private Airfields Flight Guide lists more than 300 landing sites . The GASAR study estimates 1 @,@ 100 formal flying sites in England alone , a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides . It estimates another 759 informal sites known only to land owners , customs , and members of the enthusiast group Air @-@ Britain .

The sector was estimated to employ nearly 12 @,@ 000 people and directly contribute £ 1 @.@ 4 billion to the UK economy in 2005 , making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the CAT industry . Nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation .

= = Trends = =

Most sectors of GA for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades . The lighter end of the GA spectrum : microlights , amateur built , and airships and balloons , have in particular shown strong growth , although the last of these activities was severely curtailed during the foot @-@ and @-@ mouth outbreak in 2001 , when access to farmland was denied . After strong growth in the late 1980s , traditional flying has shown a slight decline recently , reflecting a move amongst recreational flyers towards microlight aircraft , and increased numbers of foreign @-@ registered aircraft . Recreational helicopter usage has grown primarily due to the introduction of smaller and cheaper aircraft . Glider activity has remained relatively static , although there has been a gradual increase in the number of self @-@ launching motor gliders .

Business aviation has shown strong growth , although the numbers of aircraft on the UK register have declined . This reflects a shift away from turboprop aircraft towards foreign @-@ registered business jets based in the UK , which are estimated to be growing in numbers . However , twin piston @-@ engined aircraft numbers have declined significantly , reflecting pressures on the light air @-@ taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services , and a more sophisticated corporate charter business . The amount of flight training conducted by UK schools has declined , largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools , which benefit from lower costs and better weather .

Since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the GA sector has remained in the range 1 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 35 million , the dominant sector being traditional GA flying , which accounts for 0 @.@ 6 million per year . An overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours flown has brought the annual average utilisation per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002 . The decline in asset utilisation has led to speculation that the economic health of the GA industry is weakening , though the lack of data on profitability makes this difficult to confirm .

= = Regulation = =

The objective of regulation is to " promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation " , and this is the main area of interaction between the CAA and the GA sector . Efforts focus on assuring appropriate standards of airworthiness , pilot qualification , the rules for the movement of aircraft , and equipment to be carried . The CAA was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the UK in 1972 . In 1991 it started working within the Joint Aviation Authorities ( JAA ) framework to implement agreed common standards , known as the Joint Aviation Requirements ( JAR ) , throughout the European Union ( EU ) . In 2003 this was taken a step further when the European Aviation Safety Agency ( EASA ) was established as the central EU regulator , taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities . The CAA acts as an agency of EASA on these issues , retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to EASA . Proposed developments seek to establish EASA as the single authority throughout the EU , taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of EASA .

= = = Devolved and self @-@ regulation = = =

Within this framework certain sectors of GA are governed on a devolved basis . In all cases the CAA / EASA retains responsibility for safety regulation , but representative bodies , particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of EASA , are granted greater oversight of their activities . The majority of microlight aircraft are regulated by the British Microlight Aircraft Association ( BMAA ) , although a significant number are regulated by the Light Aircraft Association ( LAA ) , formerly known as the Popular Flying Association . The LAA is the primary regulator for amateur built aircraft , as well as vintage and classic aircraft . Parachuting is governed by the British Parachute Association , although the aircraft used in this activity are generally CAA @-@ regulated . Balloon and airship flying is overseen by the British Balloon and Airship Club . The UK @-@ specific National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) is administered by the National Pilots Licensing Group Ltd . , supported by the LAA , the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association UK , the British Gliding Association , and the British Microlight Aircraft Association . Separate from these devolved groups , gliding in the UK is self @-@ regulated . The British Gliding Association was until recently responsible for glider airworthiness , now formally regulated as a result of EASA legislation , and still retains control of pilot certification . Hang gliding and paragliding activities ( i.e. foot @-@ launched gliders ) are governed by the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association .

= = = Airworthiness = = =

Under CAA and EASA rules , all aircraft are required to meet certain standards of airworthiness to fly safely and legally . Aircraft that meet these standards are issued with a Certificate of Airworthiness . However , British @-@ registered aircraft which are excluded from the scope of EASA , and which cannot satisfy the requirements for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness , may be issued with a Permit to Fly . This allows them to fly in UK airspace subject to certain limitations , for example being restricted to day @-@ time flights under visual flight rules only . A number of organisations ( e.g. the British Microlight Aircraft Association and the Light Aircraft Association ) have obtained a standing over @-@ flight permission for Permit to Fly aircraft within their area of interest with some European countries , notably France . Permits are typically issued to vintage and historic aircraft , amateur built aircraft , and microlights .

= = = Pilot licensing = = =

The pilot qualification most relevant to GA is the Private Pilot Licence ( PPL ) , which permits the holder to fly for recreational purposes without remuneration . In addition to the European @-@ wide Joint Aviation Regulations Flight Crew Licensing ( JAR @-@ FCL ) standard , the CAA also issues UK @-@ specific national licences . In the absence of European standards for gyroplane , balloon , and airship pilots , the CAA licenses these according to the original UK PPL standard . As a response to the perception that JAR pilot licensing standards are excessively bureaucratic and expensive for the purposes of recreational pilots , the National Private Pilot Licence ( NPPL ) was introduced in 2002 . The NPPL is easier to obtain than the JAR @-@ FCL licence , has less stringent medical requirements , is more restrictive in the privileges it grants , and is valid only for flights in British @-@ registered aircraft flying in UK and French airspace . Although there are plans to bring glider pilot licensing within the regulatory framework of EASA , the gliding sector is currently self @-@ regulating in this respect . The British Gliding Association is responsible for defining the standards of initial training , and certifying , via a badge system , pilots who meet those standards . Pilots working in sectors of GA that are commercial operations , such as aerial work and business aviation , are required to hold a professional pilot licence which , at a minimum , is the Commercial Pilot Licence .

= = Safety = =

Between 1995 and 2004 there were 2 @,@ 630 accidents involving GA aircraft , of which 139 were fatal , resulting in the loss of 317 lives . The majority of accidents involved small fixed @-@ wing aircraft engaged in private flights , and analysis attributes the most common causes of these to : flight handling skills ; poor judgement or airmanship ; lack of training or experience ; and omission of , or inappropriate , action .

There were 27 fatal accidents involving GA aircraft in 2007 , resulting in the loss of 48 lives . These compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year , and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average , they are not exceptional .

= = Issues = =

The growth in Commercial Air Transport ( CAT ) has eroded the operational freedom of GA , both in the air and on the ground at larger airports . Difficulty with access to larger airports is compounded by a decline in the number of aerodromes generally , and existing sites are often threatened with closure and re @-@ development for more profitable uses . The UK planning system is designed to focus on local issues , and consideration of the national impact of GA operations is not within its remit . This makes aerodrome development difficult , often subjecting those that successfully negotiate the process to restrictions in use .

= = = Airspace access = = =

Airspace is shared by CAT , military and GA users . It is divided into controlled airspace , in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller , and uncontrolled airspace , in which aircraft can operate autonomously . Although GA flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace , they operate mainly outside of it .

Controlled airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of CAT . A CAA review found that " mixing [ commercial ] operations with other users is considered undesirable , even untenable " by commercial operators . However this position has resulted in extensive Class A controlled airspace with complex boundaries , including some running down to the ground , prohibiting VFR access to airspace , resulting in high numbers of GA flights operating close to the borders of controlled airspace who could not get formal receipt of an air traffic service . Coupled with pilot navigation errors , hundreds of airspace infringements have been recorded every year .

Increases in the number of CAT operations , and in the number of airports they operate from , has resulted in a corresponding increase in Class A controlled airspace . Between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per cent nationally , and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above England and Wales , leading to a perception within the GA community of being squeezed out . There are particular problems for GA around large airports , where Class A controlled airspace extends to ground level . The concentration of commercial operations and high demand for GA in the South East of England have also resulted in extensive areas of Class A controlled airspace there , which serve to channel uncontrolled GA operations through high @-@ collision @-@ risk hot spots .

= = = Aerodrome access = = =

Regional airports , such as Edinburgh Airport , have experienced strong growth in CAT operations in recent years . These operations are commercially and operationally incompatible with GA , and although there is no evidence of deliberate discrimination , the effect has been to discourage or exclude it . GA aircraft are being subject to significant increases in charges , including the imposition of handling fees in some cases . Some airports restrict or deny GA parking , and others limit or refuse certain GA activity . As a result , light GA aircraft are now rarely or never seen at large , busy international airports such as Heathrow , Stansted , Gatwick and Manchester .

In addition to this de facto loss of facilities , the number of aerodromes in the UK has been in decline over the last 50 years , as a result of increasing urbanisation and the closure of airfields built during WWII . Alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodromes being threatened with closure , for example North Weald , or actually being closed , as happened to Ipswich Airport. and Bristol Filton Airport . Referring to the importance of a " functioning national network of GA airfields " , especially where GA performs an air transport role , the CAA states that " there could be cause for concern if a significant further loss of airfields were to continue , especially if crucial nodes on the transport network were to be lost . "

= = = Planning system = = =

The planning system is critical to the viability and operation of GA aerodromes . With many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them , and with GA access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive , a viable network of aerodromes supporting GA air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue . However , there is no unified national planning policy specific to GA aerodromes , and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact . Because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation , the only recourse for people affected by aircraft noise is through the planning process , and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to GA land use are made . GA is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to Local Planning Authorities , and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission , or grant it with restrictive conditions . Little Gransden is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted , thereby inhibiting further development . Such restrictions , if poorly conceived , can make GA operations unviable or even unsafe .

= = Criticism = =

Public opinion towards aviation generally is worsening , based on increasing environmental concerns relating to emissions and noise , and private flying has been criticised by respondents to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a frivolous or selfish activity . In terms of environmental complaints and enquiries made to the CAA that relate specifically to GA , noise is " by far " the most common subject . Half of the 2 @,@ 000 noise complaints made annually to the CAA concern GA operations , most of which relate to aerobatics , helicopters using private sites , air balloon incidents , parachute dropping , and alleged low flying .

Planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that " in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more disturbing than similar levels around major airports . " This is a result of the tonal characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in , including : repetitive circuit flying at low @-@ altitude near an aerodrome , during which aircraft are audible for long periods ; slow climbing aircraft engaged in parachute drop or glider tug activities concentrated around the drop zone or aerodrome , also audible for long periods ; erratic and repetitive engine noise from aircraft engaged in aerobatics ; and piston @-@ engines on full power in areas of low background noise , leading to the perception that such noise is more intrusive . In an attempt to alleviate these problems , the majority of aerodromes implement noise abatement procedures designed to route aircraft away from noise sensitive areas , and more than 50 are required by the government to provide consultative facilities in which local concerns can be raised with aerodrome operators .

= SMS Zrínyi =

SMS Zrínyi ( " His Majesty 's ship Zrínyi " ) was a Radetzky @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship ( Schlachtschiff ) of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) , named for the Zrinski , a noble Croatian family . Zrínyi and her sisters , Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand and Radetzky , were the last pre @-@ dreadnoughts built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy .

During World War I , Zrínyi saw action in the Adriatic Sea . She served with the Second Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's battleships and shelled Senigallia as part of the bombardment of the key seaport of Ancona , Italy , during May 1915 . However , Allied control of the Strait of Otranto meant that the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was , for all intents and purposes , effectively bottled up in the Adriatic . Nonetheless , the presence of the Zrínyi and other battleships tied down a substantial force of Allied ships .

With the war going against the Austrians by the end of 1918 , Zrínyi was prepared to be transferred to the new State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs . On 10 November 1918 — just one day before the end of the war , navy officers sailed the battleship out of Pola ( Pula ) and eventually surrendered to a squadron of American submarine chasers . Following the handover to the United States Navy , she was briefly designated USS Zrínyi . In the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , the transfer was not recognized ; instead , Zrínyi was given to Italy and broken up for scrap .

= = Design and construction = =

Zrínyi was built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino dockyard in Trieste , the same place where her sister ships were built earlier . She was laid down on 15 November 1908 and launched from the slipway on 12 April 1910 . The teak used on Zrínyi 's deck was the only material Austria @-@ Hungary had to purchase abroad to build the ship . The ship was completed by 15 July 1911 , and on 22 November 1911 she was commissioned into the fleet . She was the last ship of the class to be completed and had a crew of 880 to 890 officers and men .

Zrínyi was 138 @.@ 8 m ( 455 ft 4 in ) long , and had a beam of 24 @.@ 6 m ( 80 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 1 m ( 26 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 508 long tons ( 14 @,@ 741 t ) normally , and up to 15 @,@ 845 long tons ( 16 @,@ 099 t ) with a full combat load . She was powered by two @-@ shaft four @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower . The ship had a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . Zrínyi was the first warship in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to use fuel oil to supplement her 12 Yarrow @-@ type coal @-@ fired boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .

The ship 's primary armament consisted of four 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . This was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets . The tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm L / 50 guns in casemated single mounts , four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 85 in ) L / 44 and one 47 mm L / 33 quick @-@ firing guns . Furthermore , the ship 's boats were equipped with two 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) landing guns for operations shore . Three 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , one on each broadside and one in the stern .

= = Service history = =

The ship was assigned to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Fleet 's 1st Battle Squadron after her 1911 commissioning . In 1912 , Zrínyi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern Mediterranean Sea . On the second cruise into the Aegean Sea , conducted from November to December , Zrínyi and her sister ships were accompanied by the cruiser SMS Admiral Spaun and a pair of destroyers . After returning to Pola , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the Balkans .

In 1913 , Zrínyi participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force .

During that year , the first of four new dreadnoughts , SMS Viribus Unitis , that made up the Tegetthoff class — the only dreadnoughts built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy — came into active service . With the commissioning of these dreadnoughts , Zrínyi and her sisters were moved from the 1st Division to the 2nd Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .

= = = World War I = = =

At that time of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , the battleships in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of the Radetzky class , the Tegetthoff class ( which still had one ship , SMS Szent István , under construction ) , the Erzherzog Karl class and finally , the older Habsburg class . Along with the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Zrínyi was mobilized in late July 1914 to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships broke out of Messina , which was surrounded by the British navy and reached Turkey . The flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern Italy when news of the successful breakout reached Vienna . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were then recalled before seeing action .

On 23 May 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , Zrínyi and the rest of the fleet departed to bombard the Italian and Montenegrin coast . Their focus was on the important naval base at Ancona , and later the coast of Montenegro . The bombardment of Montenegro was part of the larger Austro @-@ Hungarian campaign against the Kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia , who were members of the Entente , during the first half of 1915 . The attack on Ancona was an immense success , and the ships were unopposed during the operation . The bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an Italian steamer in the port of Ancona itself , and an Italian destroyer , Turbine , was severely damaged further south . On the shore , the infrastructure of the port of Ancona , as well as the surrounding towns , were severely damaged . The railroad yard in Ancona , as well as the port facilities in the town , were damaged or destroyed . The local shore batteries were also suppressed . During the bombardment , Zrínyi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at Senigallia . Additional targets that were damaged or destroyed included wharves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . Sixty @-@ three Italians , both civilians and military personnel , were killed in the bombardment . By the time Italian ships from Taranto and Brindisi arrived on the scene , the Austro @-@ Hungarians were safely back in Pola .

The objective of the bombardment of Ancona was to delay the Italian Army from deploying its forces along the border with Austria @-@ Hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . The surprise attack on Ancona succeeded in delaying the Italian deployment to the Alps for two weeks . This delay gave Austria @-@ Hungary valuable time to strengthen its Italian border and re @-@ deploy some of its troops from the Eastern and Balkan fronts .

Aside from the attack on Ancona , the Austro @-@ Hungarian battleships were largely confined to Pola for the duration of the war . Their operations were limited by Admiral Anton Haus , the commander of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any Italian attempt to seize the Dalmatian coast . Since coal was diverted to the newer Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw Zrínyi and the rest of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy acting as a fleet in being . This resulted in the Allied blockade of the Otranto Strait . With his fleet blockaded in the Adriatic Sea , and with a shortage of coal , Haus followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the Allied navies .

= = = Post @-@ war fate = = =

After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire collapsed in 1918 , the Austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( later to become a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the Italians from claiming the ships as spoils of war . However , the victorious Allies refused to acknowledge the conversations between the Austrians and the south Slavs and , in due course , reallocated the ships . The ship had been boarded by a scratch Yugoslav crew on 10 November 1918 , one day before the Armistice , and had left Pola with her sister ship , Radetzky . They were soon spotted by heavy Italian ships , so the two battleships hoisted American flags and sailed south along the Adriatic coast to Castelli Bay near Spalato ( also known as Split ) . They appealed for American naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of United States Navy ( USN ) submarine chasers in the area did . She had apparently been turned over to the fledgling south Slav state , as it was a Croat naval officer , Korvettenkapitän Marijan Polić , who presented the ship as a prize of war to representatives of the United States Navy on the afternoon of 22 November 1919 at Spalato ( Split ) in Dalmatia . Simultaneously she was commissioned as USS Zrínyi and Lieutenant E.E. Hazlett , USN , assumed command . The initial American complement consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the latter entirely composed of United States Navy Reserve Force personnel . The ship remained at anchor at Spalato for nearly a year while the negotiations that would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . Only once did she apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale that struck Spalato on 9 February 1920 .

On the morning of 7 November 1920 , Zrínyi was decommissioned . USS Chattanooga took her in tow and , assisted by Brooks and Hovey , towed the battleship to Italy . Under the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain , Zrínyi was ultimately turned over to the Italian government at Venice . She was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 .

= Geopyxis carbonaria =

Geopyxis carbonaria is a species of fungus in the genus Geopyxis , family Pyronemataceae . First described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @-@ cup , dwarf acorn cup , stalked bonfire cup , or pixie cup . The small , goblet @-@ shaped fruitbodies of the fungus are reddish @-@ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) across . They have a short , tapered stalk . Fruitbodies are commonly found on soil where brush has recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . The fungus is distributed throughout many temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . It is found in Europe , Turkey , and North America . Although it is primarily a saprotrophic species , feeding on the decomposing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also forms biotrophic associations with the roots of Norway spruce .

= = Taxonomy = =

The fungus was first described scientifically in 1805 by Johannes Baptista von Albertini and Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza carbonaria . Mordecai Cubitt Cooke illustrated the fruitbodies , spores , and asci in his 1879 work Mycographia , seu Icones fungorum . Figures of fungi from all parts of the world . In 1889 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred the fungus to the genus Geopyxis , giving the species its current name . Pustularia carbonaria , published by Heinrich Rehm in 1884 , is a synonym of G. carbonaria . Louis @-@ Joseph Grélet proposed the variety Geopyxis carbonaria var. sessilis in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruitbodies without a stalk , but the taxon is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance . In 1860 Miles Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis described the species Peziza lepida from collections made in Japan as part of the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . This taxon was synonymized with G. carbonaria by Mien Rifai in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion corroborated by Donald Pfister about a decade later .

The specific epithet carbonaria derives from the Latin word for " charcoal " . Common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @-@ cup " , " dwarf acorn cup " , " pixie cup " , and the British Mycological Society approved " stalked bonfire cup " .

= = Description = =

The fruitbodies ( ascocarps ) of Geopyxis carbonaris are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and have fringed whitish margins . The inner spore @-@ bearing surface of the cup , the hymenium , is brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface is a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or have blister @-@ like spots ( pustules ) . The stipe is small ( 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and expands abruptly into the cup . The brownish flesh of the fungus is thin and brittle . It does not have any distinctive taste , but has an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . The edibility of the fungus is not known , but the fruitbodies are insubstantial and unlikely to be harvested for eating .

= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =

In mass , the spores are whitish . The spores are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , devoid of oil droplets ( eguttulate ) , and have dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µm . They are thin walled and germinate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli . The asci are 190 – 225 by 9 – 10 µm . The paraphyses are slightly club @-@ shaped , unbranched , and have irregular orange @-@ brown granules , with tips up to 5 µm wide , and are not forked or lobed . The hypothecium , the layer of cells below the hymenium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells .

= = = Similar species = = =

The closely related vulcan elf cup ( Geopyxis vulcanalis ) has a pale orange to yellowish fruitbody that is deeply cup shaped before flattening in maturity , and its crushed flesh often has an odor of sulfur . It may be distinguished microscopically by its paraphyses , which lack the orange @-@ brown granules characteristic of G. carbonaria . It also has larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µm . Unlike G. carbonaria , it grows on substrates other than burned wood , including mosses , and needle duff . Tarzetta cupularis , which grows habitats similar to G. carbonaria , is distinguished microscopically by its spores that contain two oil droplets . Other genera with similar species with which G. carbonaria may be confused in the field include Aleuria , Caloscypha , Melastiza , and Sowerbyella .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Geopyxis carbonaria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . It is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . The charred litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil pH as well as the availability of minerals . Fruitbodies are produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with coniferous trees . Most fruitbodies are produced in the first year after a burn . The fungus prefers fruiting in microhabitats with thin postfire duff near standing burned tree trunks . Geopyxis carbonaria fruitbodies are often found in the same post @-@ fire stands as morels , although the former is usually more abundant . Because the pixie cup fruits earlier than morels , it may serve as an indicator of imminent morel fruiting . Other cup fungi often found fruiting in the same area as G. carbonaria include those from the genera Aleuria , Anthracobia , Peziza , and Tarzetta .

The fungus is found in Europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and is widespread throughout North America . The North American distribution extends north to Alaska . In 2010 , it was reported for the first time from Turkey .

= = Ecology = =

Although primarily a saprotrophic fungus involved in the post @-@ fire breakdown of duff and coniferous roots , Geopyxis carbonaria has been shown to be capable of forming ectomycorrhizae with Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) . It had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a biotrophic interaction with lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta ) . The hyphae of G. carbonaria were able to infect the cortex of the tree seedling , but did not penetrate the endodermis . These traits suggest that the fungus is a moderate pathogen , with limited ability to cause reductions in seed germination . Additionally , the fungus produces the enzyme polyphenol oxidase , and can break down the complex organic polymer lignin — features characteristic of saprotrophic fungi . The formation of a rudimentary Hartig net , a characteristic of mycorrhizal fungi , indicated that G. carbonaria might be capable of forming mutualistic relationships under the right conditions . Vrålstad and colleagues suggest that its below @-@ ground association with spruce roots protects it from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the extensive fruitbody production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the fungus no longer can maintain its biotrophic association " .

Large fruitings of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which occurs with burning . A field study conducted in Norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in clearcut areas . Fruiting was much denser in spruce forests — with up to 700 – 1000 fruitbodies per square meter — than in pine forests , where fruitbodies were sporadic . Fruitbodies grew by the millions in the year following the Yellowstone fires of 1988 .

= Gold dollar =

The gold dollar or gold one @-@ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1849 to 1889 . The coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The Type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any United States coin ever minted .

A gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s , but was not initially adopted . Congress was finally galvanized into action by the increased supply of bullion caused by the California gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . In its early years , silver coins were being hoarded or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . Silver again circulated after Congress in 1853 required that new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a rarity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation because of the economic disruption caused by the American Civil War .

Gold did not again circulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did , the gold dollar did not regain its place . In its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by hoarders . It was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . The regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the following year , Congress ended the series .

= = Background = =

In proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @-@ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . Congress followed Hamilton 's recommendation only in part , authorizing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold .

In 1831 , the first gold dollar was minted , at the private mint of Christopher Bechtler in North Carolina . Much of the gold then being produced in the United States came from the mountains of North Carolina and Georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by Bechtler circulated through that region , and were now and then seen further away . Additional one @-@ dollar pieces were struck by August Bechtler , Christopher 's son .

Soon after the Bechtlers began to strike their private issues , Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury became an advocate of having the Mint of the United States ( " Mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @-@ dollar denomination in gold . He was opposed by the Mint Director , Robert M. Patterson . Woodbury persuaded President Andrew Jackson to have pattern coins struck . In response , Patterson had Mint Second Engraver Christian Gobrecht break off work on the new design for the silver one @-@ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . Gobrecht 's design featured a Liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the other .

Consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the revisionary legislation that became the Mint Act of 1837 . The Philadelphia newspaper Public Ledger , in December 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient , and as it would be eminently so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " Nevertheless , after Mint Director Patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision authorizing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill .

= = Inception = =

In January 1844 , North Carolina Representative James Iver McKay , the chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means , solicited the views of Director Patterson on the gold dollar . Patterson had more of Gobrecht 's pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . He told Treasury Secretary John C. Spencer that the only gold coins of that size in commerce , the Spanish and Colombian half @-@ escudos , were unpopular and had not been struck for more than twenty years . This seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was done for the time , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , McKay 's committee recommended against it .

Even before 1848 , record amounts of gold were flowing to American mints to be struck into coin , but the California Gold Rush vastly increased these quantities . This renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . In January 1849 , McKay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . There was much discussion in the press about the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal for an annular gold dollar , that is , with a hole in the middle to increase its small diameter . McKay amended his legislation to provide for a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to Patterson , who replied stating that the annular gold dollar would not work , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold plug in a silver coin . Nevertheless , Gobrecht 's successor as chief engraver , James B. Longacre , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle .

McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill to authorize the gold dollar and the double eagle in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same day . The dollar was attacked by congressmen from the Whig Party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would be counterfeited and in bad light might be mistakenly spent as a half dime , the coins being similar in size . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would not be called for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations , and that the idea had been repeatedly turned down , whenever considered . Another Whig , Massachusetts 's Charles Hudson , related that Patterson had sent a real and a counterfeit gold dollar to his committee and the majority of members had been unable to tell the difference . McKay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including New York Congressman Henry Nicoll , who assured the House that the counterfeiting allegations were greatly exaggerated . The point was , he indicated , that the double eagle and gold dollar were wanted by the public , and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money circulate in small communities where banknotes were not accepted . Connecticut Representative John A. Rockwell , a Whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . The bill passed easily , and met only minimal opposition in the Senate , becoming law on March 3 , 1849 .

= = Preparation = =

The officers at the Philadelphia Mint , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun .

When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . Longacre wrote the following year that he had been warned by a Mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly Peale ) planned to undermine the chief engraver 's position by having the work of preparing designs and dies done outside Mint premises . Accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , Longacre apprised Patterson that he was ready to begin work on the gold dollar . The Mint Director agreed , and after viewing a model of the head on the obverse , authorized Longacre to proceed with preparation of dies . According to Longacre ,

The engraving was unusually minute and required very close and incessant labor for several weeks . I made the original dies and hubs for making the working dies twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coining machinery . I had a wish to execute this work single handed , that I might thus silently reply to those who had questioned my ability for the work . The result , I believe , was satisfactory .

= = Original design = =

The Type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of Liberty , facing left , with a coronet or tiara on her head bearing her name . Her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . The reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the rim .

Contemporary reviews of the Type 1 design were generally favorable . The New York Weekly Tribune on May 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the neatest , tiniest , lightest , coin in this country ... it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes , and sauerkraut , and salt pork . Oberon might have paid Puck with it for bringing the blossom which bewitched Titania . " Willis ' Bank Note List stated that " there is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . " The North Carolina Standard hoped that they would be struck at the Charlotte Mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @-@ denomination bank notes from out of state . Coin dealer and numismatic author Q. David Bowers notes that the head of Liberty on the Type 1 dollar is a scaled @-@ down version of that on the double eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar is beautiful to behold " .

= = Modifications = =

Mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on May 7 , 1849 ; Longacre 's diary notes state instead that the first were struck on May 8 . A few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day , along with about 1 @,@ 000 for circulation . There are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from Philadelphia , made as Longacre continued to fine @-@ tune the design . Mintmarked dies were sent by Longacre 's Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to the branch mints at Charlotte , Dahlonega ( in Georgia ) , and New Orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble some of the types issued from Philadelphia , depending on when the dies were produced . Of the coins struck at the branch mints in 1849 , only pieces struck at Charlotte ( 1849 @-@ C ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the " Closed Wreath " variety . Approximately five of the 1849 @-@ C Open Wreath are known ; one , believed the finest surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @,@ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series as of 2013 . One of the changes made during production was the inclusion of Longacre 's initial " L " on the truncation of Liberty 's neck , the first time a U.S. coin intended for full @-@ scale production had borne the initial of its designer . All issues beginning in 1850 bear the Closed Wreath . Beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new San Francisco Mint .

The continued flow of gold from California made silver expensive in terms of gold , and U.S. silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow that accelerated over the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . By 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @,@ 042 worth of bullion . As silver coins vanished , the gold dollar became the only federal coin in circulation between the cent and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 piece ) . As such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . According to Bowers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 were the high @-@ water mark of the gold dollar , the glory years of the denomination when the little gold coins took the place of half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " This time came to an end in 1853 when Congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of them to circulate .

As early as 1851 , New York Congressman William Duer alleged that that Patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . Patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , George N. Eckert , annular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were struck . Public Ledger reported that although gold dollars would not be struck in annular form , gold half dollars would be , to help fill the need for change . With the new Pierce administration , Thomas M. Pettit took office as Mint Director on March 31 , 1853 . In April , Treasury Secretary James Guthrie wrote to Pettit that there were complaints that the gold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and enquiring about reports the Mint had experimented with annular dollars . Pettit replied , stating that none had been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . He noted that while there would be technical difficulties in the production of the annular dollar , these could be overcome . In a letter dated May 10 , Pettit proposed an oval @-@ shaped holed piece , or an angular @-@ shaped coin , which would lessen the production problems . Pettit died suddenly on May 31 ; Guthrie did not let the issue fall , but queried Pettit 's replacement , James Ross Snowden , concerning the issue on June 7 . As U.S. coins were required to bear some device emblematic of liberty , the secretary hoped that artists could be found who could find some such design for an annular coin .

The Act of February 21 , 1853 , that had lightened the silver coins also authorized a gold three @-@ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . To ensure that the three @-@ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and Longacre put a distinctive design with an Indian princess on it . Longacre adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . An adaptation of Longacre 's princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . The idea of making the gold dollar larger in this way had been suggested in Congress as early as 1852 , and had been advocated by Pettit , but Guthrie 's desire for an annular coin stalled the matter . In May 1854 , Snowden sent Guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an annular coin , especially in getting the coins to eject properly from the press , were more than trivial .

Nevertheless , the Type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved unsatisfactory as the mints had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out . This was due to the high relief of the design — the three Southern branch mints especially had trouble with the piece . Many of the Type 2 pieces quickly became illegible , and were sent back to Philadelphia for melting and recoinage . On most surviving specimens , the " 85 " in the date is not fully detailed . The Type 2 gold dollar was struck only at Philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three Southern branch mints in the latter year , and at San Francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated for replacement . To correct the problems , Longacre enlarged the head of Liberty , making it a scaled @-@ down version of the three @-@ dollar piece , and moved the lettering on the obverse closer to the rim . This improved the metal flow and design sharpness so much that early numismatic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the Type 2 and Type 3 reverses are identical .

= = = Design of Type 2 and 3 dollars = = =

The Type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict Liberty as a Native American princess , with a fanciful feathered headdress not resembling any worn by any Indian tribe . This image is an inexact copy of the design Longacre had made for the three @-@ dollar piece , and is one of a number of versions of Liberty Longacre created based on the Venus Accroupie or Crouching Venus , a sculpture then on display in a Philadelphia museum . For the reverse , Longacre adapted the " agricultural wreath " he had created for the reverse of the three @-@ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the produce of North and South . This wreath would appear , later in the 1850s , on the Flying Eagle cent .

Art historian Cornelius Vermeule deprecated the Indian princess design used by Longacre for the obverses of the Types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the three @-@ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a banknote engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything that saw the Western frontiers , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . "

= = War years = =

The gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mintages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . Only about 51 @,@ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 , with over two @-@ thirds of that figure at Philadelphia , just under a third at San Francisco , and 1 @,@ 566 at Dahlonega . Roughly a hundred are known of the last , creating one of the great rarities from Dahlonega in the series .

The other candidate for the rarest from that mint is the 1861 @-@ D , with an estimated mintage of 1 @,@ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . Two pairs of dies were shipped from Philadelphia to Dahlonega on December 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on January 7 , 1861 , two weeks before Georgia voted to secede from the Union , as the American Civil War began . Under orders from Governor Joseph E. Brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles were produced . Records of how many coins were struck and when have not survived . Since dies crack in time , and all the mints were supplied with them from Philadelphia , coining could not last , and in May 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at Dahlonega were turned over to the treasury of the Confederate States of America , which Georgia had by then joined . Gold coins with a face value of $ 6 were put aside for assay . Normally , they would have been sent to Philadelphia to await the following year 's meeting of the United States Assay Commission , when they would be available for testing . Instead , these were sent to the initial Confederate capital of Montgomery , Alabama , though what was done with them there , and their ultimate fate , are unknown . The rarity of the 1861 @-@ D dollar , and the association with the Confederacy , make it especially prized .

Dahlonega , like the other two branch mints in the South , closed its doors after the 1861 strikings . It and the Charlotte facility never reopened ; the New Orleans Mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold dollars again . After 1861 , the only issuance of gold dollars outside Philadelphia was at San Francisco , in 1870 .

The outbreak of the Civil War shook public confidence in the Union , and citizens began hoarding specie , gold and silver coins . In late December 1861 , banks and then the federal Treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . By mid @-@ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , had vanished from commerce in much of the country . The exception was the Far West , where for the most part , only gold and silver were acceptable currencies , and paper money traded at a discount . In the rest of the nation , gold and silver coins could be purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the Treasury for a premium in the new greenbacks the government began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the war .

= = Final years , abolition , and collecting = =

Since gold did not circulate in the United States ( except on the West Coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the United States was double eagles for export . Accordingly , although 1 @,@ 361 @,@ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million — the mintage fell to 6 @,@ 200 in 1863 and remained low for the rest of the coin 's existence , excepting 1873 and 1874 . The Mint felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by Congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny numismatic community ) from specially @-@ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the proof coins would not be unduly rare . In 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the government were melted and recoined , generating large mintages of that denomination . This was done in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , which did not occur until the end of 1878 . Once specie again circulated at face value , the gold dollar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from hoarding or newly struck by the Mint . The government expected that the resumption of specie payments would cause the dollar and other small gold coins to circulate again , but the public , allowed to redeem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins .

In the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @-@ mintage gold dollar . Collecting coins was becoming more popular , and a number of numismatists put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . The Mint most likely channeled its production through some favored Philadelphia dealers , though proof coins could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 25 at the cashier 's window at the Philadelphia facility . Banks charged a premium for circulation strikes . They were popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . The coins were often exported to China or Japan , where such jewelry was made . The dollars were often damaged in the process ; the Mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hinder it . Nevertheless , Mint officials concluded that jewelers were successful at getting the majority of each issue . Proof mintages exceeded 1 @,@ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of jewelers , willing to pay the Mint 's premium of $ .25 per coin . Another use for the gold dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present .

James Pollock , in his final report as Mint Director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to depositors who specifically requested it . " The gold dollar is not a convenient coin , on account of its small size , and it suffers more proportionately from abrasion than larger coins . " His successors called for its abolition , with James P. Kimball , before he left office in 1889 , writing to Congress that except as jewelry , " little practical use has been found for this coin " . Later that year , the new director , Edward O. Leech , issued a report stating that the gold dollar " is too small for circulation , and ... [ is ] used almost exclusively for the purposes of ornament . The last year in which the gold dollar was struck was 1889 . Congress abolished the gold dollar , along with the three @-@ cent nickel and three @-@ dollar piece , by the Act of September 26 , 1890 .

A total of 19 @,@ 499 @,@ 337 gold dollars were coined , of which 18 @,@ 223 @,@ 438 were struck at Philadelphia , 1 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , 109 @,@ 138 at Charlotte , 90 @,@ 232 at San Francisco and 72 @,@ 529 at Dahlonega . According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of The Numismatist , gold dollars brought $ 1 @.@ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank ; the teller , aware of the value , credited the account with $ 1 @.@ 60 per coin . In 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each for any quantity . As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2 , with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in that condition ; the other two types have dates valued at $ 300 in that grade .

= = Commemorative gold dollars = =

The gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of Early United States commemorative coins . Between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced , with a total mintage of 99 @,@ 799 . These were minted for various public events , did not circulate , and none used Longacre 's design .

= Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction =

The Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the Corey – Chaykovsky reaction or CCR ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of epoxides , aziridines , and cyclopropanes . It was discovered in 1961 by A. William Johnson and developed significantly by E. J. Corey and Michael Chaykovsky . The reaction involves addition of a sulfur ylide to a ketone , aldehyde , imine , or enone to produce the corresponding 3 @-@ membered ring . The reaction is diastereoselective favoring trans substitution in the product regardless of the initial stereochemistry . The synthesis of epoxides via this method serves as an important retrosynthetic alternative to the traditional epoxidation reactions of olefins .

The reaction is most often employed for epoxidation via methylene transfer , and to this end has been used in several notable total syntheses ( See Synthesis of epoxides below ) . Additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and enantioselective variants of the reaction . Several reviews have been published .

= = History = =

The original publication by Johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @-@ dimethylsulfonium fluorenylide with substituted benzaldehyde derivatives . The attempted Wittig @-@ like reaction failed and a benzalfluorene oxide was obtained instead , noting that " Reaction between the sulfur ylid and benzaldehydes did not afford benzalfluorenes as had the phosphorus and arsenic ylids . "

The subsequent development of ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SOCH2 and ( dimethylsulfaniumyl ) methanide , ( CH3 ) 2SCH2 ( known as Corey – Chaykovsky reagents ) by Corey and Chaykovsky as efficient methylene @-@ transfer reagents established the reaction as a part of the organic canon .

= = Mechanism = =

The reaction mechanism for the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction consists of nucleophilic addition of the ylide to the carbonyl or imine group . A negative charge is transferred to the heteroatom and because the sulfonium cation is a good leaving group it gets expelled forming the ring . In the related Wittig reaction , the formation of the much stronger phosphorus @-@ oxygen double bond prevents oxirane formation and instead , olefination takes place through a 4 @-@ membered cyclic intermediate .

The trans diastereoselectivity observed results from the reversibility of the initial addition , allowing equilibration to the favored anti betaine over the syn betaine . Initial addition of the ylide results in a betaine with adjacent charges ; density functional theory calculations have shown that the rate @-@ limiting step is rotation of the central bond into the conformer necessary for backside attack on the sulfonium .

The degree of reversibility in the initial step ( and therefore the diastereoselectivity ) depends on four factors , with greater reversibility corresponding to higher selectivity :

Stability of the substrate with higher stability leading to greater reversibility by favoring the starting material over the betaine .

Stability of the ylide with higher stability similarly leading to greater reversibility .

Steric hindrance in the betaine with greater hindrance leading to greater reversibility by disfavoring formation of the intermediate and slowing the rate @-@ limiting rotation of the central bond .

Solvation of charges in the betaine by counterions such as lithium with greater solvation allowing more facile rotation in the betaine intermediate , lowering the amount of reversibility .

= = Scope = =

The application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction in organic synthesis is diverse . The reaction has come to encompass reactions of many types of sulfur ylides with electrophiles well beyond the original publications . It has seen use in a number of high @-@ profile total syntheses , as detailed below , and is generally recognized as a powerful transformative tool in the organic repertoire .

= = = Types of ylides = = =

Many types of ylides can be prepared with various functional groups both on the anionic carbon center and on the sulfur . The substitution pattern can influence the ease of preparation for the reagents ( typically from the sulfonium halide , e.g. trimethylsulfonium iodide ) and overall reaction rate in various ways . The general format for the reagent is shown on the right .

Use of a sulfoxonium allows more facile preparation of the reagent using weaker bases as compared to sulfonium ylides . ( The difference being that a sulfoxonium contains a doubly bonded oxygen whereas the sulfonium does not . ) The former react slower due to their increased stability . In addition , the dialkylsulfoxide by @-@ products of sulfoxonium reagents are greatly preferred to the significantly more toxic , volatile , and odorous dialkylsulfide by @-@ products from sulfonium reagents .

The vast majority of reagents are monosubstituted at the ylide carbon ( either R1 or R2 as hydrogen ) . Disubstituted reagents are much rarer but have been described :

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an electron @-@ withdrawing group ( EWG ) , the reagent is referred to as a stabilized ylide . These , similarly to sulfoxonium reagents , react much slower and are typically easier to prepare . These are limited in their usefulness as the reaction can become prohibitively sluggish : examples involving amides are widespread , with many fewer involving esters and virtually no examples involving other EWG 's . For these , the related Darzens reaction is typically more appropriate .

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an aryl or allyl group , the reagent is referred to as a semi @-@ stabilized ylide . These have been developed extensively , second only to the classical methylene reagents ( R1 = R2 = H ) . The substitution pattern on aryl reagents can heavily influence the selectivity of the reaction as per the criteria above .

If the ylide carbon is substituted with an alkyl group the reagent is referred to as an unstabilized ylide . The size of the alkyl groups are the major factors in selectivity with these reagents .

The R @-@ groups on the sulfur , though typically methyls , have been used to synthesize reagents that can perform enantioselective variants of the reaction ( See Variations below ) . The size of the groups can also influence diastereoselectivity in alicyclic substrates .

= = = Synthesis of epoxides = = =

Reactions of sulfur ylides with ketones and aldehydes to form epoxides are by far the most common application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction . Examples involving complex substrates and ' exotic ' ylides have been reported , as shown below .

The reaction has been used in a number of notable total syntheses including the Danishefsky Taxol total synthesis , which produces the chemotherapeutic drug taxol , and the Kuehne Strychnine total synthesis which produces the pesticide strychnine .

= = = Synthesis of aziridines = = =

The synthesis of aziridines from imines is another important application of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction and provides an alternative to amine transfer from oxaziridines . Though less widely applied , the reaction has a similar substrate scope and functional group tolerance to the carbonyl equivalent . The examples shown below are representative ; in the latter , an aziridine forms in situ and is opened via nucleophilic attack to form the corresponding amine .

= = = Synthesis of cyclopropanes = = =

For addition of sulfur ylides to enones , higher 1 @,@ 4 @-@ selectivity is typically obtained with sulfoxonium reagents than with sulfonium reagents . Many electron @-@ withdrawing groups have been shown compatible with the reaction including ketones , esters , and amides ( the example below involves a Weinreb amide ) . With further conjugated systems 1 @,@ 6 @-@ addition tends to predominate over 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition .

= = = Other reactions = = =

In addition to the reactions originally reported by Johnson , Corey , and Chaykovsky , sulfur ylides have been used for a number of related homologation reactions that tend to be grouped under the same name .

With epoxides and aziridines the reaction serves as a ring @-@ expansion to produce the corresponding oxetane or azetidine . The long reaction times required for these reactions prevent them from occurring as significant side reactions when synthesizing epoxides and aziridines .

Several cycloadditions wherein the ylide serves as a " nucleophilic carbenoid equivalent " have been reported .

Living polymerizations using trialkylboranes as the catalyst and ( dimethyloxosulfaniumyl ) methanide as the monomer have been reported for the synthesis of various complex polymers .

= = Enantioselective variations = =

The development of an enantioselective ( i.e. yielding an enantiomeric excess , which is labelled as " ee " ) variant of the Johnson – Corey – Chaykovsky reaction remains an active area of academic research . The use of chiral sulfides in a stoichiometric fashion has proved more successful than the corresponding catalytic variants , but the substrate scope is still limited in all cases . The catalytic variants have been developed almost exclusively for enantioselective purposes ; typical organosulfide reagents are not prohibitively expensive and the racemic reactions can be carried out with equimolar amounts of ylide without raising costs significantly . Chiral sulfides , on the other hand , are more costly to prepare , spurring the advancement of catalytic enantioselective methods .

= = = Stoichiometric reagents = = =

The most successful reagents employed in a stoichiometric fashion are shown below . The first is a bicyclic oxathiane that has been employed in the synthesis of the β @-@ adrenergic compound dichloroisoproterenol ( DCI ) but is limited by the availability of only one enantiomer of the reagent . The synthesis of the axial diastereomer is rationalized via the 1 @,@ 3 @-@ anomeric effect which reduces the nucleophilicity of the equatorial lone pair . The conformation of the ylide is limited by transannular strain and approach of the aldehyde is limited to one face of the ylide by steric interactions with the methyl substituents .

The other major reagent is a camphor @-@ derived reagent developed by Varinder Aggarwal of the University of Bristol . Both enantiomers are easily synthesized , although the yields are lower than for the oxathiane reagent . The ylide conformation is determined by interaction with the bridgehead hydrogens and approach of the aldehyde is blocked by the camphor moiety . The reaction employs a phosphazene base to promote formation of the ylide .

= = = Catalytic reagents = = =

Catalytic reagents have been less successful , with most variations suffering from poor yield , poor enantioselectivity , or both . There are also issues with substrate scope , most having limitations with methylene transfer and aliphatic aldehydes . The trouble stems from the need for a nucleophilic sulfide that efficiently generates the ylide which can also act as a good leaving group to form the epoxide . Since the factors underlying these desiderata are at odds , tuning of the catalyst properties has proven difficult . Shown below are several of the most successful catalysts along with the yields and enantiomeric excess for their use in synthesis of ( E ) -stilbene oxide .

Aggarwal has developed an alternative method employing the same sulfide as above and a novel alkylation involving a rhodium carbenoid formed in situ . The method too has limited substrate scope , failing for any electrophiles possessing basic substituents due to competitive consumption of the carbenoid .

= Treaty of Ciudad Juárez =

The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was a peace treaty signed between the then President of Mexico , Porfirio Díaz , and the revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21 , 1911 . The treaty put an end to the fighting between forces supporting Madero and those of Díaz and thus concluded the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution .

The treaty stipulated that Díaz , as well as his vice president Ramón Corral , were to step down by the end of May , and that he was to be replaced by Francisco León de la Barra as interim president and hold presidential elections . Those who had suffered losses due to the revolution would be the indemnified , and there would be a general amnesty . Díaz resigned on May 25 , and interim president Francisco León de la Barra was the new incumbent . Díaz and his family , his vice president Corral , plus José Yves Limantour and Rosendo Pineda left Mexico for exile .

Significantly , the treaty did not mention or institute any social reforms that Madero had vaguely promised on previous occasions . It also left the Porfirian state essentially intact . Additionally , Madero supported the unpopular idea that all land disputes were to be settled through the courts , staffed by the old judges , a decision that led to outbreaks of sporadic violence , particularly in rural areas .

On June 7 , 1911 , Madero entered Mexico City . In October 1911 he was elected president , under the banner of the Partido Constitucional Progresista , along with José María Pino Suárez , his new running mate as vice @-@ president . Madero pushed aside Francisco Vázquez Gómez , the vice presidential candidate for the Anti @-@ Reelectionist Party in 1910 , as being too moderate .

= = Military developments leading up to the treaty = =

The rebellion against the government of Porfirio Díaz broke out in late 1910 , after Díaz had his rival Francisco Madero imprisoned and had announced his own victory in a falsified election . Madero 's earlier vague promises of agrarian reforms had attracted many supporters . He himself escaped from prison and fled to Texas , from where he issued his famous Plan of San Luis Potosí . This manifesto called for an armed uprising against the Porfiriato and establishment of free and democratic elections . As a response to Madero 's proclamation , violent clashes began throughout Mexico in November 1910 .

In the Guerrero district of Chihuahua , Pascual Orozco attacked Federal troops and sent dead soldiers ' clothing back to Díaz with the message , " Ahí te van las hojas , mándame más tamales " ( " Here are the wrappers , send me more tamales . " ) He then began operations which threatened Ciudad Juárez . Additionally , political support for Madero 's rebellion came from Abraham González , who accepted the Plan of San Luis Potosí .

At roughly the same time , agrarian unrest in the state of Morelos turned into a full blown rebellion under the leadership of the Zapata brothers , Emiliano and Eufemio .

= = = Orozco and Villa take Ciudad Juárez = = =

Encouraged by the news of the uprisings , Madero crossed the border back into Mexico in February 1911 . He was joined by Pancho Villa and Orozco and in April the army began approaching Ciudad Juárez . Orozco and Villa led the way with 500 men each , while Madero followed up with 1 @,@ 500 riders . The city was besieged by the end of the month , after Madero 's army encountered some resistance in the Chihuahuan countryside . Madero asked the commander of the city 's garrison to surrender but the latter refused , hoping that the fortifications he had constructed would allow him to defend the city until reinforcements arrived . Concerned also with the possibility that a direct attack on the town would cause artillery shells to cross the border into the United States which could provoke an outside intervention , and faced with a series of peace proposals from Díaz , Madero hesitated in attacking the city . He in fact ordered his commanders to lift the siege . Orozco , however disregarded the order and , joined by Villa , attacked . After two days of fighting the city fell to the insurrectionists . Madero intervened personally to spare the life of the city 's commander , Gen. Navarro , whom both Orozco and Villa wanted executed for his previous killing of rebel POWs . This , coupled with the fact that both leaders were ignored by Madero in his political appointments , outraged and estranged them from him .

= = = Zapata in south and central Mexico = = =

At about the same time that Villa and Orozco were marching on Ciudad Juárez , the Zapatista revolt gathered strength and spread to the states of Puebla , Tlaxcala , Mexico , Michoacán and Guerrero . On April 14 , Madero had Emiliano Zapata officially designated as his representative in the region . However , Zapata was worried that if he did not fully control all the major towns in Morelos by the time that Madero concluded negotiations with Díaz , the demands of his agrarian movement and the issue of the autonomy of Morelos would be ignored or sidelined . Zapata 's first military action was to take the town of Chinameca where he obtained essential supplies . Subsequently Zapata , for political and strategic reasons , decided to attack the city of Cuautla . In order to mislead his opponents however , he initially attacked and captured the towns of Izúcar de Matamoros ( which was subsequently retaken by federal forces ) and Chietla . From there he made a wide circle around Cuautla and captured Yautepec and Jonacatepec where he gathered more supplies , munitions and soldiers . By May , out of all the major urban centers in the region , only Cuautla and the capital of Morelos , Cuernavaca , remained outside of his control .

Zapata began the attack on Cuautla on May 13 with 4000 troops against 400 elite soldiers of the so @-@ called " Golden Fifth " ; the Fifth Cavalry Regiment of the Federal Army . The battle took almost a week and has been described as " six of the most terrible days of battle in the whole Revolution " . It consisted of house to house fighting , hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and no quarter given by either side . General Victoriano Huerta arrived in nearby Cuernavaca with 600 reinforcements , but decided not to come to the relief of Cuautla as he was afraid that the capital would revolt in his absence . On May 19 , the remains of the " Golden Fifth " pulled out of the town which was then occupied by Zapata 's soldiers .

The successful capture of Cuautla made Zapata a hero to ordinary people throughout Mexico and new corridos were written about him . After Zapata 's taking of Cuautla , the federal government controlled only five states and some urban areas . Porfirio Díaz himself later stated that , while he felt that he could defend against Villa and Orozco in Chihuahua , the fall of Cuautla was the event which persuaded him to agree to peace with Madero .

= = The compromise = =

As early as March 1911 , Madero 's representatives met in New York with Díaz 's finance minister , José Yves Limantour , and the Mexican ambassador to the US in order to discuss the possibility of peace between the two sides . Limantour proposed an end to the hostilities and offered an amnesty for all revolutionaries , the resignation of the then vice president Ramón Corral , the replacement of four Díaz cabinet ministers and ten state governors by ones chosen by Madero , and the establishment of the principle of " no @-@ reelection " which would prevent Díaz from seeking yet another term as president ( which would have been his ninth ) . Madero responded positively although he also stated that any kind of peace deal had to include an immediate resignation by Díaz .

Faced with the siege of Ciudad Juárez and the outbreak of rebellion in Morelos , Díaz and members of his cabinet became more willing to negotiate and launched a " skillful peace offensive " aimed at Madero . This was largely a result of panic among the large landowners associated with the Díaz regime ( the hacendados ) and the financial elite , which represented a " moderate " wing within the government . Some among the Porfiristas in fact , expected that Zapata would soon march on Mexico City itself , unless peace was concluded with Madero .

The moderate view within the Díaz government was represented by Jorge Vera Estañol who in a memo to the minister of foreign affairs wrote that there were two revolutions taking place in Mexico : a political revolution , based mostly in the north , whose aim was mostly to establish free elections and remove Díaz himself from power , and a social revolution whose aim was " anarchy " which was spreading throughout the Mexican countryside . Estañol recommended coming to terms with the first group of revolutionaries , by agreeing to the principle of no re @-@ election and a general amnesty , in order to prevent the second group from succeeding . In addition to his fear of " anarchy " , Estañol was also worried that the social revolution would lead to a military intervention by the United States .

Estañol 's views represented those of the portion of the upper class which was willing to come to terms with at least a portion of the middle class in order to crush the peasant uprisings , as exemplified by those of Zapata , which were erupting throughout Mexico . Limantour , who broadly agreed with Estañol , had the support of the Mexican financiers , who feared the downgrading of Mexican international credit and a general economic crisis as a result of ongoing social unrest , as well as that of the large landowners who were willing to come to terms with Madero if it would put an end to the agrarian uprisings .

These social group were in turn opposed by the more reactionary elements within Díaz 's government , mostly concentrated in the federal army , who though that the rebels should be dealt with through brute force . This faction was represented by General Victoriano Huerta , who would later carry out an attempted coup d 'état against Madero . Likewise , the general , and potential successor to Díaz , Bernardo Reyes stated in a letter to Limantour that " the repression ( against the insurrectionists ) should be carried out with the greates energy , punishing without any pity anyone participating in the armed struggle " . In the end however , Díaz dismissed the advice from his generals as " Custer @-@ like bluster " and chose to seek peace with the moderate wing of the revolution . Limantour had finally managed to persuade him to resign .

At the same time there was also disagreement among the rebels . The " left wing " of the revolutionary movement , represented by Zapata and Orozco ( Villa for the time being tended to support Madero ) , warned against any possible compromises with Díaz . In the end their suspicions proved correct as the treaty that was eventually signed neglected issues of social and agrarian land reform that were central to their struggle .

= = The treaty 's terms = =

The most significant point of the treaty was that Porfirio Díaz , and his vice president , Ramón Corral , resign and that de la Barra , acting as interim president organize free elections as soon as possible .

Additionally , the treaty stipulated that :

An amnesty for all revolutionaries be declared , with the option for some of them to apply for membership in the rurales .

The revolutionary forces were to be demobilized as soon as possible and the federal forces were to be the only army in Mexico . This was in order to appease the army , which had opposed a compromise with Madero .

Madero and his supporters had the right to name fourteen provisional state governors , and to approve la Barra 's cabinet .

Pensions were to be established for relatives of the soldiers who had died fighting the rebels .

Policemen and judges , as well as state legislators , that had been appointed or " elected " under Díaz were to retain their offices .

= = Implementation and results = =

The treaty was signed on May 21 . Díaz resigned accordingly on May 25 . Francisco de la Barra became the interim president . Madero entered Mexico City on June 7 .

Zapata however refused to recognize the interim government of de la Barra , and for the time being the fighting in Morelos continued . Madero met with Zapata on several occasions during June . While initially Zapata trusted Madero , with time he became increasingly concerned that the goals of " his revolution " were not being fulfilled . He was particularly angry that Madero did not plan on carrying out any kind of agrarian reform , or the breakup of large hacendias . Additionally , the press in Mexico City , controlled by the landowners began referring to Zapata as a bandit and federal generals , such as Huerta , continued attacking his troops under the pretext that Zapata failed to demobilize in violation of the treaty . Sporadic fighting in southern Mexico continued . In November 1911 , shortly after Madero 's inauguration , Zapata issued the famous Plan of Ayala , in which the Zapatistas denounced Madero and instead recognized Pascual Orozco as the rightful president and leader of the revolution .

Madero also earned the great displeasure of other revolutionaries , including , Pascual Orozco . Madero 's first act after the treaty was signed was a gesture of reconciliation with the Díaz regime . As a result of the treaty he was given the right to appoint members of the la Barra cabinet . He chose mostly upper class Maderistas , including his wife for the post in the treasury . He also maintained the existing federal system , by keeping the sitting judges of the Supreme Court , the legislators in federal and state assemblies and the bureaucrats of the various federal agencies . Venustiano Carranza , who was going to become a major revolutionary in his own right and a future president of Mexico , stated that , after the treaty , Madero had " deliver ( ed ) to the reactionaries a dead revolution which will have to be fought over again " . Díaz , after leaving for exile in France , observed that " Madero has unleashed a tiger , let us see if he can control him " .

Orozco , who saw himself as being instrumental in Madero 's victory over Díaz , was merely appointed as a commander of the rurales in Chihuahua , which increased his resentment . When he tried to run for governor of the state , Madero supported his opponent , Abraham González and eventually pressured Orozco to drop out of the race . When , in the aftermath of the Plan of Ayala , Madero ordered Orozco to lead federal troops to suppress Zapata , Orozco refused . In March 1912 , Orozco issued his Plan of Empacadora and formally declared himself in rebellion against Madero .

= The Feast of the Goat =

The Feast of the Goat ( Spanish : La fiesta del chivo , 2000 ) is a novel by the Peruvian Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Mario Vargas Llosa . The book is set in the Dominican Republic and portrays the assassination of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo , and its aftermath , from two distinct standpoints a generation apart : during and immediately after the assassination itself , in May 1961 ; and thirty five years later , in 1996 . Throughout , there is also extensive reflection on the heyday of the dictatorship , in the 1950s , and its significance for the island and its inhabitants .

The novel follows three interwoven storylines . The first concerns a woman , Urania Cabral , who is back in the Dominican Republic , after a long absence , to visit her ailing father ; she ends up recalling incidents from her youth and recounting a long @-@ held secret to her aunt and cousins . The second story line focuses on the last day in Trujillo 's life from the moment he wakes up onwards , and shows us the regime 's inner circle , to which Urania 's father once belonged . The third strand depicts Trujillo 's assassins , many of whom had previously been government loyalists , as they wait for his car late that night ; after the assassination , this story line shows us the assassins ' persecution . Each aspect of the book 's plot reveals a different viewpoint on the Dominican Republic 's political and social environment , past and present .

Readers are shown the regime 's downward spiral , Trujillo 's assassination , and its aftermath through the eyes of insiders , conspirators , and a middle @-@ aged woman looking back . The novel is therefore a kaleidoscopic portrait of dictatorial power , including its psychological effects , and its long @-@ term impact . The novel 's themes include the nature of power and corruption , and their relationship to machismo and sexual perversion in a rigidly hierarchical society with strongly gendered roles . Memory , and the process of remembering , is also an important theme , especially in Urania 's narrative as she recalls her youth in the Dominican Republic . Her story ( and the book as a whole ) ends when she recounts the terrible events that led to her leaving the country at the age of 14 . The book itself serves as a reminder of the atrocities of dictatorship , to ensure that the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation .

Vargas Llosa interlaces fictional elements and historical events : the book is not a documentary , and the Cabral family , for instance , is completely fictional . On the other hand , the characters of Trujillo and Trujillo 's assassins are drawn from the historical record ; Vargas Llosa weaves real historical incidents of brutality and oppression into these people 's stories , to further illuminate the nature of the regime and the responses it provoked . In Vargas Llosa 's words , " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . [ . . . ] I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . "

The Feast of the Goat received largely positive reviews , with several reviewers commenting on the book 's depiction of the relationship between sexuality and power , and on the graphic descriptions of violent events .

A film version of the novel was released in 2005 , starring Isabella Rossellini , Paul Freeman , and Tomas Milian . Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana wrote a theatrical adaptation in 2003 .

= = Background = =

The Feast of the Goat is only the second of Vargas Llosa 's novels to be set outside Peru ( the first being The War of the End of the World ) . It is also unusual because it is the first to have a female protagonist : as critic Lynn Walford writes of the leading character in The Feast of the Goat , and also Vargas Llosa 's subsequent book The Way to Paradise , " both are utterly unlike any of the other female characters in his previous novels " .

The novel examines the dictatorial regime of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina in the Dominican Republic . Trujillo was , in historian Eric Roorda 's words , " a towering influence in Dominican and Caribbean history " who presided over " one of the most durable regimes of the twentieth century " during the thirty @-@ one years between his seizure of power in 1930 and his assassination in 1961 . Trujillo had trained with the United States Marine Corps during the United States occupation of the island , and graduated from the Haina Military Academy in 1921 . After the U.S. departed in 1924 , he became head of the Dominican National Police which , under his command , was transformed into the Dominican National Army and Trujillo 's personal " virtually autonomous power base " .

Trujillo was officially dictator only from 1930 to 1938 , and from 1942 to 1952 , but remained in effective power throughout the entire period . Though his regime was broadly nationalist , Daniel Chirot comments that he had " no particular ideology " and that his economic and social policies were basically progressive .

The novel 's title is taken from the popular Dominican merengue Mataron al chivo ( " They Killed the Goat " ) , which refers to Trujillo 's assassination on May 30 , 1961 . Merengue is a style of music created by Ñico Lora in the 1920s and actively promoted by Trujillo himself ; it is now considered the country 's national music . Cultural critics Julie Sellers and Stephen Ropp comment about this particular merengue that , by envisaging the dictator as an animal who could be turned into a stew ( as frequently happened with goats struck down on the Dominican Republic 's highways ) , the song " gave those performing , listening to and dancing to this merengue a sense of control over him and over themselves that they had not experienced for over three decades . " Vargas Llosa quotes the lyrics to Mataron al chivo at the beginning of the novel .

= = Plot summary = =

The novel 's narrative is divided into three distinct strands . One is centred on Urania Cabral , a fictional Dominican character ; another deals with the conspirators involved in Trujillo 's assassination ; and the third focuses on Trujillo himself . The novel alternates between these storylines , and also jumps back and forth from 1961 to 1996 , with frequent flashbacks to periods earlier in Trujillo 's regime .

The Feast of the Goat begins with the return of Urania to her hometown of Santo Domingo , a city which had been renamed Ciudad Trujillo during Trujillo 's time in power . This storyline is largely introspective and deals with Urania 's memories and her inner turmoil over the events preceding her departure from the Dominican Republic thirty @-@ five years earlier . Urania escaped the crumbling Trujillo regime in 1961 by claiming she planned to study under the tutelage of nuns in Michigan . In the following decades , she becomes a prominent and successful New York lawyer . She finally returns to the Dominican Republic in 1996 , on a whim , and finds herself compelled to confront her father and elements of her past she has long ignored . As Urania speaks to her ailing father , Agustin Cabral , she recalls more and more of the anger and disgust that led to her thirty @-@ five years of silence . Urania retells her father 's descent into political disgrace , and the betrayal that forms the crux of both Urania 's storyline and that of Trujillo himself .

The second and third storylines are set in 1961 , in the weeks prior to and following Trujillo 's assassination on 30 May . Each assassin has his own background story , explaining his motivation for his involvement in the assassination plot . Each has been wronged by Trujillo and his regime , by torture and brutality , or through assaults on their pride , their religious faith , their morality , or their loved ones . Vargas Llosa weaves the tale of the men as memories recalled on the night of Trujillo 's death , as the conspirators lie in wait for " The Goat " . Interconnected with these stories are the actions of other famous Trujillistas of the time : Joaquín Balaguer , the puppet president ; Johnny Abbes García , the merciless head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) ; and various others — some real , some composites of historical figures , and some purely fictional .

The third storyline is concerned with the thoughts and motives of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina himself . The chapters concerning The Goat recall the major events of his time , including the slaughter of thousands of Dominican Haitians in 1937 . They also deal with the Dominican Republic 's tense international relationships during the Cold War , especially with the United States under the presidency of John F. Kennedy , and Cuba under Castro . Vargas Llosa also speculates upon Trujillo 's innermost thoughts and paints a picture of a man whose physical body is failing him . Trujillo is tormented by incontinence and impotence ; and this storyline intersects with Urania 's narrative when it is revealed that Urania was sexually assaulted by Trujillo . He is unable to achieve an erection with Urania , and in frustration and anger he rapes her with his hands . This event is the core of Urania 's shame , and her hatred towards her father . In addition , it is the cause of Trujillo 's repeated anger over the " anemic little bitch " that witnessed his impotence and emotion , and the reason he is en route to sleep with another girl on the night of his assassination .

In the novel 's final chapters , the three storylines intersect with increasing frequency . The tone of these chapters is especially dark as they deal primarily with the horrific torture and death of the assassins at the hands of the SIM , the failure of the coup , the rape of Urania , and the concessions made to Trujillo 's most vicious supporters allowing them to enact their horrific revenge on the conspirators and then escape the country . The book ends as Urania prepares to return home , determined this time to keep in touch with her family back on the island .

= = Characters = =

= = = Modern day = = =

Urania Cabral and her father Agustín Cabral appear in both the modern day and historical portions of the novel . In the year 1996 , Urania returns to the Dominican Republic for the first time since her departure at the age of 14 . She is a successful New York lawyer who has spent most of the past 35 years trying to overcome the traumas of her childhood , a goal she pursues through an academic fascination with Trujillo and Dominican history . Urania is deeply troubled by the events of her past , and is compelled to confront her father Agustín about his role in those events . Urania visits her father , finding him weakened by age and a severe stroke , so much so that he is barely able to respond physically to her presence , let alone speak . Agustín listens helplessly as Urania recounts his past as " Egghead Cabral " , a high @-@ ranking member of Trujillo 's inner circle , and his drastic fall from grace . Urania details Agustín 's role in the events that led to her rape by the Dominican leader , and to her subsequent lifetime of celibacy and emotional trauma . Agustín 's character in the modern day portion of the novel serves primarily as a sounding board for Urania 's recollections of the Trujillo era and the events that surrounded both Agustín Cabral 's disgrace and Urania 's escape from the country . His responses are minimal and non @-@ vocal , despite the ardency of Urania 's accusations and the enormity of his own actions during Trujillo 's reign .

= = = The Trujillo regime = = =

Rafael Trujillo , known also as The Goat , The Chief , and The Benefactor , is a fictionalized character based on the real dictator of the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961 and the official President of the Republic from 1930 to 1938 and 1943 to 1952 . In The Feast of the Goat , Vargas Llosa imagines the innermost thoughts of the dictator , and retells The Goat 's last hours from his own perspective . Trujillo 's character struggles with aging and the physical problems of incontinence and impotence . Through fictional events and first person narrative , the reader is given insight into the man who , during his " thirty @-@ one years of horrendous political crimes " , modernized the country 's infrastructure and military , but whose regime 's attacks against its enemies overseas ( particularly the attempted assassination of Rómulo Betancourt , president of Venezuela ) led to the imposition of economic sanctions on the Dominican Republic by the Organization of American States in the 1950s . The resultant economic downturn , in conjunction with other factors , leads to the CIA supported assassination plot that ends Trujillo 's life on May 30 , 1961 .

Trujillo 's regime is supported by Johnny Abbes García , the head of the Military Intelligence Service ( SIM ) , a brutal man to whom many " disappearances , ... executions , ... sudden falls into disgrace " are attributed . Abbes and his intelligence officers are notorious for their cruelty , particularly their habit of killing dissidents by throwing them into shark @-@ infested waters . Colonel Abbes " may be the devil , but he 's useful to the Chief ; everything bad is attributed to him and only the good to Trujillo " . Trujillo 's son , Ramfis Trujillo , is a loyal supporter of the Chief . After unsuccessful attempts at schooling in the United States , Ramfis returns to the Dominican Republic to serve in his father 's military . He is a well @-@ known womanizer . Upon Trujillo 's death , Ramfis seeks revenge , even going so far as to torture and kill his uncle by marriage , General Jose Roman , for his part in the assassination conspiracy .

Joaquín Balaguer , Trujillo 's puppet president is also a supporter , and initially his seemingly innocuous character holds no real power . Following Trujillo 's death , the calm and serenity of Balaguer bring about real change in his character , and General Román comments that " this insignificant man whom everyone had always considered a mere clerk , a purely decorative figure in the regime , began to acquire surprising authority " . It is Balaguer who guides much of the action in the last sections of the book .

= = = Conspirators = = =

The storyline concerning the assassination primarily follows the four conspirators who directly participate in Trujillo 's death . Antonio Imbert Barrera is one of the few conspirators who survives the violent reprisals that follow Trujillo 's assassination . Imbert is a politician who becomes disillusioned with the deception and cruelty of the Trujillo regime . His first plan to kill Trujillo was foiled by the unsuccessful attempted overthrow of the regime by Cuban paramilitary forces . Now convinced of the difficulty of his task , Imbert joins the other conspirators in plotting Trujillo 's death . Among the others is Antonio de la Maza , one of Trujillo 's personal guards . Antonio 's brother is killed as part of a government cover @-@ up and Antonio swears revenge upon Trujillo . Salvador Estrella Sadhalá , known as " Turk " , is a devout Catholic who , in indignation at the regime 's many crimes against God , swears an oath against Trujillo . Turk eventually turns himself in for fear that the regime was torturing his family . Both Turk and his innocent brother are then tortured for months . His father remains loyal to Trujillo and disowns Turk to his face . Despite all of this , Turk refuses to commit suicide and does not lose faith in God . He is later executed by Ramfis and other high level government men . Turk 's close friend , Amado García Guerrero , known as Amadito , is a Lieutenant in the army who gave up his beloved as proof of his loyalty to Trujillo , and then later was forced to kill her brother to prove himself to Trujillo . Amadito 's disgust with himself and disillusionment with the regime lead to his decision to help to kill Trujillo . Following the assassination he hides out with de la Maza and dies fighting . In the aftermath of the assassination , Amadito and Antonio de la Maza choose to fight the members of SIM who come to arrest them , opting to die in battle rather than be captured and tortured .

= = Major themes = =

The Feast of the Goat 's major themes include political corruption , machismo , memory , and writing and power . Olga Lorenzo , reviewer for The Melbourne Age , suggests that overall Vargas Llosa 's aim is to reveal the irrational forces of Latin tradition that give rise to despotism .

= = = Political corruption = = =

The structure of Dominican society was hierarchical , with strongly gendered roles . Rafael Trujillo , the ruler , was a cruel dictator who haunts the people of Santo Domingo even 35 years after his death . He is a true caudillo , ruling with brutality and corruption . He creates a personality cult in his capitalist society and encourages decadence within his regime . Prior to promotion to a position of responsibility , an officer is required to pass a " test of loyalty " . His people are to remain loyal to him all cost , and are periodically tested by public humiliation and censure even though acts of disloyalty were rare . Trujillo violates women and children as an expression of political and sexual power , and in some cases takes the wife or child of his lieutenants , many of whom still remain blindly loyal . Even the church and military institutions are employed to give women to the tyrant for pleasure .

Many of the assassins had belonged to the Trujillo regime or had at one point been its staunch supporters , only to find their support for him eroded by the state 's crimes against its people . Imbert , one of the assassins , sums up this realization in a comment prompted by the murder of the Mirabal sisters : " They kill our fathers , our brothers , our friends . And now they 're killing our women . And here we sit , resigned , waiting our turn . " In an interview , Vargas Llosa describes the corruption and brutality of Trujillo 's regime : " He had more or less all the common traits of a Latin American dictator , but pushed to the extreme . In cruelty , I think he went far far away from the rest — and in corruption , too . "

= = = Machismo = = =

According to literary scholar Peter Anthony Niessa , the two important components of machismo are aggressive behaviour and hyper @-@ sexuality . Aggressive behaviour is exhibited by displays of power and strength , while hyper @-@ sexuality is revealed through sexual activity with as many partners as possible . These two components shape the portrayal of Trujillo and his regime in The Feast of the Goat . As Lorenzo observes , Vargas Llosa " reveals traditions of machismo , of abusive fathers , and of child @-@ rearing practices that repeat the shaming of children , so that each generation bequeaths a withering of the soul to the subsequent one . "

In a display of both aspects of machismo , Trujillo demanded of his aides and cabinet that they provide him with sexual access to their wives and daughters . Mario Vargas Llosa wrote of Trujillo 's machismo and treatment of women , " [ h ] e went to bed with his ministers ' wives , not only because he liked these ladies but because it was a way to test his ministers . He wanted to know if they were ready to accept this extreme humiliation . Mainly the ministers were prepared to play this grotesque role — and they remained loyal to Trujillo even after his death . " Trujillo 's sexual conquests and public humiliations of his enemies also serve to affirm his political power and machismo . In Niessa 's words , " The implication is that maximum virility equals political dominance . "

Trujillo 's attempted sexual conquest of Urania is an example of both political manipulation of Agustín Cabral and sexual power over young women . However , as Trujillo 's penis remains flaccid throughout the encounter and he is humiliated in front of the young girl , the encounter fails to satisfy his requirements for machismo .

= = = Memory = = =

All of the novel 's storylines concern memory in some sense or another . The most apparent confrontation of memory is on the part of Urania Cabral , who has returned to the Dominican Republic for the first time in 30 years , and is forced to confront her father and the traumas that led her to leave the country at 14 . She was the victim of sexual abuse at the hands of the dictator himself , a sacrifice her father made to try to gain favor with the dictator again , a fact to which she alludes throughout the book , but which is only revealed at the very end : the book concludes with her recounting the memory of that night to her aunt and cousins , who never knew the true reason she left the country . When her aunt is surprised that she remembers all these details , she responds that while she forgets many things , " I remember everything about that night . " For Urania , forgetting the atrocities committed by the regime is unacceptable . Her father , on the other hand , is not capable of joining her in this process of remembering , since he has suffered a stroke and is not capable of speaking ; however , Urania is angry that he chose to forget these things while he was still capable of acknowledging them .

Memory is also important in the sections of the novel that deal with the assassins . Each recalls the events that led him to take part in the assassination of Trujillo . These incidents included the 1956 Galindez kidnapping and murder , the 1960 murder of the Mirabal sisters , and the 1961 split with the Catholic Church . These historical events are used by Vargas Llosa to connect the assassins with specific moments that demonstrate the violence of Trujillo 's regime . Trujillo , too , is shown reflecting on the past , not least his own formation and training at the hands of the US Marines .

But above all Mario Vargas Llosa uses the fictional Urania to facilitate the novel 's attempt at remembering the regime . The novel opens and closes with Urania 's story , effectively framing the narrative in the terms of remembering the past and understanding its legacy in the present . In addition , because of her academic study of the history of the Trujillo regime , Urania is also confronting the memory of the regime for the country as a whole . This is in keeping with one purpose of the book , which is to ensure that the atrocities of the dictatorship and the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation .

= = = Writing and power = = =

In her treatment of the novel , María Regina Ruiz claims that power gives its wielder the ability to make prohibitions ; prohibitions that are reflected in history , the study of which reveals what is and what is not told . The government 's actions in The Feast of the Goat demonstrate the discourse of prohibition : foreign newspapers and magazines were prohibited from entering Trujillo 's country as they were seen as a threat to the government 's ideas . Mario Vargas Llosa takes part in this discourse by recounting what was prohibited .

Ruiz notes that writing also has the power to transform reality . It brings the reader back to the past , allowing the reader to comprehend myths or distorted stories told by historians . Ruiz contends that knowing the past is crucial to one 's understanding of the present that takes us to postmodernism , and argues that The Feast of the Goat can thus be seen as a postmodern discourse that gives power to history recreation .

The construction of fictions surrounding the events of Trujillo 's regime allow a degree of freedom from the horrors that took places . Author Julia Alvarez contends that these events can " only finally be understood by fiction , only finally be redeemed by the imagination " , while Richard Patterson claims that Vargas Llosa " reconfigures , and to a large degree demythologizes " Trujillo and his brutal reign through use of narrative structure . Vargas Llosa 's writing acts as a cathartic force for this period in history .

= = Fact and fiction = =

The novel is a combination of fact and fiction . Blending together these two elements is important in any historical novel , but especially in The Feast of the Goat because Vargas Llosa chose to narrate an actual event through the minds of both real and fictional characters . Some characters are fictional , and those that are non @-@ fictional still have fictionalized aspects in the book . The general details of the assassination are true , and the assassins are all real people . While they lie in wait for the Dictator to arrive , they recount actual crimes of the regime , such as the murder of the Mirabal sisters . However , other details are invented by Vargas Llosa , such as Amadito 's murder of the brother of the woman he loved .

Those within the regime are also a mix of fictional characters and real people . President Balaguer is real , but the entire Cabral family is completely fictional . According to Wolff , Vargas Llosa " uses history as a starting point in constructing a fictionalized account of Trujillo 's " spiritual colonization " of the Dominican Republic as experienced by one Dominican family . The fictional Cabral family allows Vargas Llosa to show two sides of the Trujillo regime : through Agustin , the reader sees ultimate dedication and sacrifice to the leader of the nation ; through Urania , the violence of the regime and the legacy of pain it left behind . Vargas Llosa also fictionalized the internal thoughts of the characters who were non @-@ fictional , especially those of the Goat himself . According to literary scholar Richard Patterson , " Vargas Llosa 's expands all the way into the very " dark area " of Trujillo 's consciousness ( as the storyteller dares to conceive it ) . "

Vargas Llosa also built an image of the regime with the troubled historical events . With regard to the historical accuracy of the book , Vargas Llosa has said " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . The only limitation I imposed on myself was that I was not going to invent anything that couldn 't have happened within the framework of life in the Dominican Republic . I have respected the basic facts , but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive — and I have not exaggerated . "

= = Critical reception = =

The realist style of The Feast of the Goat is recognized by some reviewers as being a break from a more allegorical approach to the dictator novel . The novel received largely positive reviews , most of which were willing to accept sacrifices of historical accuracy in favour of good storytelling .

A common comment on the novel is the graphic nature of the many acts of torture and murder which are depicted in the novel . Vargas lets the reader see the realities of an oppressive regime with a degree of detail not often used by his compatriots in Latin American literature , as Michael Wood suggests in the London Review of Books : " Vargas Llosa ... tells us far more about the details of day @-@ to @-@ day intrigue , and the sordid , sadistic minutiae of torture and murder . " Walter Kirn of the New York Times suggests that the " grisly scenes of dungeon interrogations and torture sessions " cast other aspects of the novel in a pale light , draining them of their significance and impact . Similarly , Kirn implies that the " narrative machinery " mentioned by Wood as being somewhat unwieldy also produces a largely superfluous storyline . The plot line centered on Urania Cabral is described by Sturrock as being an emotional centre that focuses the novel , and Wood agrees that her confrontations with past demons hold the readers attention . In contrast , Kirn 's review states that Urania 's segments are " talky and atmospheric ... [ and ] seem to be on loan from another sort of book . "

Most reviews of The Feast of the Goat make either indirect of direct reference to the relationship between sexuality and power . Salon reviewer Laura Miller , writer for The Observer Jonathan Heawood , Walter Kirn , and Michael Wood each detail the connection between Trujillo 's gradual loss of ultimate control , both over his body and his followers . The means by which Trujillo reinforces political power through sexual acts and begins to lose personal conviction as his body fails him are topics of frequent discussion among reviewers .

In 2011 Bernard Diederich , author of the 1978 non @-@ fiction book Trujillo . The Death of the Goat , accused Vargas @-@ Llosa of plagiarism .

= = Adaptations = =

An English @-@ language film adaptation of the novel was made in 2005 , directed by Luis Llosa , Mario Vargas Llosa 's cousin . It stars Isabella Rossellini as Urania Cabral , Paul Freeman as her father Agustin , Stephanie Leonidas as Uranita and Tomas Milian as Rafael Leonidas Trujillo . It was filmed in both the Dominican Republic and in Spain . Reviewing the film for the trade paper Variety , critic Jonathan Holland called it " less a feast than a somewhat rushed , but thoroughly enjoyable , three @-@ course meal " , commenting that the main difference from the source novel was the sacrifice of psychological nuance .

The novel has also been adapted for the stage , by Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana , directed by Jorge Triana : the play was put on ( in Spanish , but with simultaneous translation to English ) at Repertorio Español ( www.repertorio.org / chivo ) in New York in 2003 ; and the production moved to Lima in 2007 . A feature of the novel 's stage version is that the same actor plays both Agustin Cabral and Rafael Trujillo . For reviewer Bruce Weber , this makes the point " that Trujillo 's control of the nation depended on gutless collaborators " .

= Charles Eaton ( RAAF officer ) =

Charles Eaton , OBE , AFC ( 21 December 1895 – 12 November 1979 ) was a senior officer and aviator in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , who later served as a diplomat . Born in London , he joined the British Army upon the outbreak of World War I and saw action on the Western Front before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917 . Posted as a bomber pilot to No. 206 Squadron , he was twice captured by German forces , and twice escaped . Eaton left the military in 1920 and worked in India until moving to Australia in 1923 . Two years later he joined the RAAF , serving initially as an instructor at No. 1 Flying Training School . Between 1929 and 1931 , he was chosen to lead three expeditions to search for lost aircraft in Central Australia , gaining national attention and earning the Air Force Cross for his " zeal and devotion to duty " .

In 1939 , on the eve of World War II , Eaton became the inaugural commanding officer of No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron at the newly established RAAF Station Darwin in Northern Australia . Promoted group captain the following year , he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1942 . He took command of No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , Northern Territory , in 1943 , and was mentioned in despatches during operations in the South West Pacific . Retiring from the RAAF in December 1945 , Eaton took up diplomatic posts in the Dutch East Indies , heading a United Nations commission as Consul @-@ General during the Indonesian National Revolution . He returned to Australia in 1950 , and served in Canberra for a further two years . Popularly known as " Moth " Eaton , he was a farmer in later life , and died in 1979 at the age of 83 . He is commemorated by several memorials in the Northern Territory .

= = Early life and World War I = =

Charles Eaton was born on 21 December 1895 in Lambeth , London , the son of William Walpole Eaton , a butcher , and his wife Grace . Schooled in Wandsworth , Charles worked in Battersea Town Council from the age of fourteen , before joining the London Regiment upon the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . Attached to a bicycle company in the 24th Battalion of the 47th Division , he arrived at the Western Front in March 1915 . He took part in trench bombing missions and attacks on enemy lines of communication , seeing action in the Battles of Aubers Ridge , Festubert , Loos , and the Somme .

On 14 May 1915 , Eaton transferred to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , undergoing initial pilot training at Oxford . While he was landing his Maurice Farman Shorthorn at the end of his first solo flight , another student collided with him and was killed , but Eaton emerged uninjured . He was commissioned in August and was awarded his wings in October . Ranked lieutenant , he served with No. 110 Squadron , which operated Martinsyde G.100 " Elephant " fighters out of Sedgeford , defending London against Zeppelin airships . Transferred to the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1918 , he was posted the following month to France flying Airco DH.9 single @-@ engined bombers with No. 206 Squadron . On 29 June , he was shot down behind enemy lines and captured in the vicinity of Nieppe . Incarcerated in Holzminden prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , Germany , Eaton escaped but was recaptured and court @-@ martialled , after which he was kept in solitary confinement . He later effected another escape and succeeded in rejoining his squadron in the final days of the war .

= = Between the wars = =

Eaton remained in the RAF following the cessation of hostilities . He married Beatrice Godfrey in St. Thomas 's church at Shepherd 's Bush , London , on 11 January 1919 . Posted to No. 1 Squadron , he was a pilot on the first regular passenger service between London and Paris , ferrying delegates to and from the Peace Conference at Versailles . Eaton was sent to India in December to undertake aerial survey work , including the first such survey of the Himalayas . He resigned from the RAF in July 1920 , remaining in India to take up employment with the Imperial Forest Service . After successfully applying for a position with the Queensland Forestry Service , he and his family migrated to Australia in 1923 . Moving to South Yarra , Victoria , he enlisted as a flying officer in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) at Laverton on 14 August 1925 . He was posted to No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Point Cook , as a flight instructor , where he became known as a strict disciplinarian who " trained his pilots well " . Here Eaton acquired his nickname of " Moth " , the Air Force 's basic trainer at this time being the De Havilland DH.60 Moth . Promoted flight lieutenant in February 1928 , he flew a Moth in the 1929 East @-@ West Air Race from Sydney to Perth , as part of the celebrations for the Western Australia Centenary ; he was the sixth competitor across the line , after fellow RFC veteran Jerry Pentland .

Regarded as one of the RAAF 's most skilful cross @-@ country pilots and navigators , Eaton came to public attention as leader of three military expeditions to find lost aircraft in Central Australia between 1929 and 1931 . In April 1929 , he coordinated the Air Force 's part in the search for aviators Keith Anderson and Bob Hitchcock , missing in their aircraft the Kookaburra while themselves looking for Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm , who had force landed the Southern Cross in north Western Australia during a flight from Sydney . Three of the RAAF 's five " ancient " DH.9 biplanes went down in the search — though all crews escaped injury — including Eaton 's , which experienced what he labelled " a good crash " on 21 April near Tennant Creek after the engine 's pistons melted . The same day , Captain Lester Brain , flying a Qantas aircraft , located the wreck of the Kookaburra in the Tanami Desert , approximately 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Wave Hill . Setting out from Wave Hill on 23 April , Eaton led a ground party across rough terrain that reached the crash site four days later and buried the crew , who had perished of thirst and exposure . Not a particularly religious man , he recalled that after the burial he saw a perfect cross formed by cirrus cloud in an otherwise clear blue sky above the Kookaburra . The Air Board described the RAAF 's search as taking 240 hours flying time " under the most trying conditions ... where a forced landing meant certain crash " . In November 1930 , Eaton was selected to lead another expedition for a missing aircraft near Ayers Rock , but it was called off soon afterwards when the pilot showed up in Alice Springs . The next month , he was ordered to search for W.L. Pittendrigh and S.J. Hamre , who had disappeared in the biplane Golden Quest 2 while attempting to discover Lasseter 's Reef . Employing a total of four DH.60 Moths , the RAAF team located the missing men near Dashwood Creek on 7 January 1931 , and they were rescued four days later by a ground party accompanied by Eaton . Staying in nearby Alice Springs , he recommended a site for the town 's new airfield , which was approved and has remained in use since its construction .

Eaton was awarded the Air Force Cross on 10 March 1931 " in recognition of his zeal and devotion to duty in conducting flights to Central Australia in search of missing aviators " . The media called him the " ' Knight Errant ' of the desert skies " . Aside from his crash landing in the desert while searching for the Kookaburra , Eaton had another narrow escape in 1929 when he was test flying the Wackett Warrigal I with Sergeant Eric Douglas . Having purposely put the biplane trainer into a spin and finding no response in the controls when he tried to recover , Eaton called on Douglas to bail out . When Douglas stood up to do so , the spin stopped , apparently due to his torso changing the airflow over the tail plane . Eaton then managed to land the aeroplane , he and his passenger both badly shaken by the experience . In December 1931 , he was posted to No. 1 Aircraft Depot at Laverton , where he continued to fly as well as performing administrative work . Promoted squadron leader in 1936 , he undertook a clandestine mission around the new year to scout for suitable landing grounds in the Dutch East Indies , primarily Timor and Ambon . Wearing civilian clothes , he and his companion were arrested and held for three days by local authorities in Koepang , Dutch Timor . Eaton was appointed commanding officer ( CO ) of No. 21 Squadron in May 1937 , one of his first tasks being to undertake another aerial search in Central Australia , this time for prospector Sir Herbert Gepp , who was subsequently discovered alive and well . Later that year , Eaton presided over the court of inquiry into the crash of a Hawker Demon biplane in Victoria , recommending a gallantry award for Aircraftman William McAloney , who had leapt into the Demon 's burning wreckage in an effort to rescue its pilot ; McAloney subsequently received the Albert Medal for his heroism .

Following a 1937 decision to establish the first north Australian RAAF base , in April 1938 Eaton , now on the headquarters staff of RAAF Station Laverton , and Wing Commander George Jones , Director of Personnel Services at RAAF Headquarters , began developing plans for the new station , to be commanded by Jones , and a new squadron that would be based there , led by Eaton . The next month they flew an Avro Anson on an inspection tour of Darwin , Northern Territory , site of the proposed base . Delays meant that No. 12 ( General Purpose ) Squadron was not formed until 6 February 1939 at Laverton . Jones had by now moved on to another posting but Eaton took up the squadron 's command as planned . Promoted to wing commander on 1 March , he and his equipment officer , Flying Officer Hocking , were ordered to build up the unit as quickly as possible , and established an initial complement of fourteen officers and 120 airmen , plus four Ansons and four Demons , within a week . An advance party of thirty NCOs and airmen under Hocking began moving to Darwin on 1 July . Staff were initially accommodated in a former meatworks built during World War I , and life at the newly established air base had a " distinctly raw , pioneering feel about it " according to historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark . Morale , though , was high . On 31 August , No. 12 Squadron launched its first patrol over the Darwin area , flown by one of seven Ansons that had so far been delivered . These were augmented by a flight of four CAC Wirraways ( replacing the originally planned force of Demons ) that took off from Laverton on 2 September , the day before Australia declared war , and arrived in Darwin four days later . A fifth Wirraway in the flight crashed on landing at Darwin , killing both crewmen .

= = World War II = =

Once war was declared , Darwin began to receive more attention from military planners . In June 1940 , No. 12 Squadron was " cannibalised " to form two additional units , Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin and No. 13 Squadron . No. 12 Squadron retained its Wirraway flight , while its two flights of Ansons went to the new squadron ; these were replaced later that month by more capable Lockheed Hudsons . Eaton was appointed CO of the base , gaining promotion to temporary group captain in September . His squadrons were employed in escort , maritime reconnaissance , and coastal patrol duties , the overworked aircraft having to be sent to RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , after every 240 hours flying time — with a consequent three @-@ week loss from Darwin 's strength — as deep maintenance was not yet possible in the Northern Territory . Soon after the establishment of Headquarters RAAF Station Darwin , Minister for Air James Fairbairn visited the base . Piloting his own light plane , he was greeted by four Wirraways that proceeded to escort him into landing ; the Minister subsequently complimented Eaton on the " keen @-@ ness and efficiency of all ranks " , particularly considering the challenging environment . When Fairbairn died in the Canberra air disaster shortly afterwards , his pilot was Flight Lieutenant Robert Hitchcock , son of Bob Hitchcock of the Kookaburra and also a former member of Eaton 's No. 21 Squadron .

As senior air commander in the region , Eaton sat on the Darwin Defence Co @-@ ordination Committee . He was occasionally at loggerheads with his naval counterpart , Captain E.P. Thomas , and also incurred the ire of trade unionists when he used RAAF staff to unload ships in Port Darwin during industrial action ; Eaton himself took part in the work , shovelling coal alongside his men . On 25 February 1941 , he made a flight north to reconnoitre Timor , Ambon , and Babo in Dutch New Guinea for potential use by the RAAF in any Pacific conflict . By April , the total strength based at RAAF Station Darwin had increased to almost 700 officers and airmen ; by the following month it had been augmented by satellite airfields at Bathurst Island , Groote Eylandt , Batchelor , and Katherine . Handing over command of Darwin to Group Captain Frederick Scherger in October , Eaton took charge of No. 2 Service Flying Training School near Wagga Wagga , New South Wales . His " marked success " , " untiring energy " , and " tact in handling men " while in the Northern Territory were recognised in the new year with his appointment as an Officer of the Order of the British Empire . Eaton became CO of No. 1 Engineering School and its base , RAAF Station Ascot Vale , Victoria , in April 1942 . Twelve months later in Townsville , Queensland , he formed No. 72 Wing , which subsequently deployed to Merauke in Dutch New Guinea , comprising No. 84 Squadron ( flying CAC Boomerang fighters ) , No. 86 Squadron ( P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers ) . His relations with North @-@ Eastern Area Command in Townsville were strained ; " mountains were made out of molehills " in his opinion , and he was reassigned that July to lead No. 2 Bombing and Gunnery School in Port Pirie , South Australia .

On 30 November 1943 , Eaton returned to the Northern Territory to establish No. 79 Wing at Batchelor , comprising No. 1 and No. 2 Squadrons ( flying Bristol Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Bristol Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . He developed a good relationship with his Dutch personnel , who called him " Oom Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , Eaton 's forces participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 , in which he regularly flew on missions himself . Through March – April , his Beaufighters attacked enemy shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations Reckless and Persecution , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . On 19 April , he organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , employing thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters to destroy the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , the results earning him the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole , for his " splendid effort " . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment in the days leading up to it . In June – July , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on Noemfoor . Eaton was recommended to be mentioned in despatches on 28 October 1944 for his " Gallant and distinguished service " in NWA ; this was promulgated in the London Gazette on 9 March 1945 .

Completing his tour with No. 79 Wing , Eaton was appointed Air Officer Commanding Southern Area , Melbourne , in January 1945 . The German submarine U @-@ 862 operated off southern Australia during the first months of 1945 , and the few combat units in Eaton 's command were heavily engaged in anti @-@ submarine patrols which sought to locate this and any other U @-@ boats in the area . The Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , considered the sporadic attacks to be partly " nuisance value " , designed to draw Allied resources away from the front line of the South West Pacific war . In April , Eaton complained to Bostock that intelligence from British Pacific Fleet concerning its ships ' movements eastwards out of Western Area was hours out of date by the time it was received at Southern Area Command , leading to RAAF aircraft missing their rendezvous and wasting valuable flying hours searching empty ocean . There had been no U @-@ boat strikes since February , and by June the naval authorities indicated that there was no pressing need for air cover except for the most important vessels .

= = Post @-@ war career and legacy = =

Eaton retired from the RAAF on 31 December 1945 . In recognition of his war service , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau with Swords by the Dutch government on 17 January 1946 . The same month , he became Australian consul in Dili . He had seen an advertisement for the position and was the only applicant with experience of the area . While based there , he accompanied the provincial governor on visits to townships damaged in Allied raids during the war , taking care to be circumspect about the part played by his own forces from No. 79 Wing . In July 1947 , Dutch forces launched a " police action " against territory held by the fledgling Indonesian Republic , which had been declared shortly after the end of the war . Following a ceasefire , the United Nations set up a commission , chaired by Eaton as Consul @-@ General , to monitor progress . Eaton and his fellow commissioners believed that the ceasefire was serving the Dutch as a cover for further penetration of republican enclaves . His requests to the Australian government for military observers led to deployment of the first peacekeeping force to the region ; the Australians were soon followed by British and US observers , and enabled Eaton to display a more realistic impression of the situation to the outside world . The Dutch administration strongly opposed the presence of UN forces and accused Eaton of " impropriety " , but the Australian government refused to recall him . Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949 , he became Australia 's first secretary and chargé d 'affaires to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia . In 1950 , he returned to Australia to serve with the Department of External Affairs in Canberra . After retiring from public service in 1951 , he and his wife farmed at Metung , Victoria , and cultivated orchids . They later moved to Frankston , where Eaton was involved in promotional work .

Charles Eaton died in Frankston on 12 November 1979 . Survived by his wife and two sons , he was cremated . In accordance with his wishes , his ashes were scattered near Tennant Creek , site of his 1929 forced landing during the search for the Kookaburra , from an RAAF Caribou on 15 April 1981 . His name figures prominently in the Northern Territory , commemorated by Lake Eaton in Central Australia , Eaton Place in the Darwin suburb of Karama , Charles Eaton Drive on the approach to Darwin International Airport , and the Charles Moth Eaton Saloon Bar in the Tennant Creek Goldfields Hotel . He is also honoured with a display at the Northern Territory Parliament , and a National Trust memorial at Tennant Creek Airport . At the RAAF 's 2003 History Conference , Air Commodore Mark Lax , recalling Eaton 's search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions between the wars , commented : " Today , we might think of Eaton perhaps as the pioneer of our contribution to assistance to the civil community — a tradition that continues today . Perhaps I might jog your memory to a more recent series of rescues no less hazardous for all concerned — the amazing location of missing yachtsmen Thierry Dubois , Isabelle Autissier and Tony Bullimore by our P @-@ 3s that guided the Navy to their eventual rescue . My observation is that such activities remain vital for our relevance in that we must remain connected , supportive and responsive to the wants and needs of the Australian community . "

= Tina Fey =

Elizabeth Stamatina " Tina " Fey ( / feɪ / ; born May 18 , 1970 ) is an American actress , comedian , writer , and producer . She is best known for her work on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live ( 1998 @-@ 2006 ) , for her impression of former Alaska Governor and 2008 Vice @-@ Presidential candidate Sarah Palin , and for creating acclaimed series 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) and Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt ( 2015 – present ) . She is also well known for appearing in films such as Mean Girls ( 2004 ) , Baby Mama ( 2008 ) , Date Night ( 2010 ) , Muppets Most Wanted ( 2014 ) , and Sisters ( 2015 ) .

Fey broke into comedy as a featured player in the Chicago @-@ based improvisational comedy group The Second City . She then joined SNL as a writer , later becoming head writer and a performer , known for her position as co @-@ anchor in the Weekend Update segment . In 2004 , she co @-@ starred in and wrote the screenplay for Mean Girls , which was adapted from the 2002 self @-@ help book Queen Bees and Wannabes . After leaving SNL in 2006 , she created the television series 30 Rock for Broadway Video , a situation comedy loosely based on her experiences at SNL . In the series , Fey portrays the head writer of a fictional sketch comedy series . In 2008 , she starred in the comedy film Baby Mama , alongside former SNL co @-@ star Amy Poehler . Fey next appeared in the 2010 comedy film Date Night and the animated film Megamind . In 2015 , she created and produced the television series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt , originally for NBC and eventually for Netflix . Her recent films include Sisters and Whiskey Tango Foxtrot .

Fey has received eight Emmy Awards , two Golden Globe Awards , five Screen Actors Guild Awards , and four Writers Guild of America Awards and was nominated for a Grammy Award for her autobiographical book Bossypants , which topped The New York Times Best Seller list for five weeks . In 2008 , the Associated Press gave Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year award for her satirical portrayal of Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin in a guest appearance on SNL . In 2010 , Fey was awarded the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor , becoming the youngest @-@ ever recipient of the award . On January 13 , 2013 , Fey hosted the 70th Golden Globe Awards with her long @-@ time friend and fellow comedian , Amy Poehler , to critical acclaim . The duo hosted again the following two years , generating the highest ratings for the annual ceremony in a decade and receiving similar acclaim .

= = Early life = =

Fey was born on May 18 , 1970 , in Upper Darby , Pennsylvania , a suburb of Philadelphia . Her mother , Zenobia " Jeanne " ( née Xenakes ) , is a brokerage employee ; her father , Donald Henry Fey ( died 2015 , age 82 ) , was a university grant proposal writer . She has a brother , Peter , who is eight years older . Fey 's mother , who was born in Piraeus , Greece , is the daughter of Greek immigrants : Vasiliki Kourelakou , Fey 's maternal grandmother , left Petrina , Laconia , Greece on her own , arriving in the United States in February 1921 .

Fey 's father had English , German , and Northern Irish ancestry ; one of Fey 's paternal great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfathers was John Hewson ( 1744 – 1821 ) , a textile manufacturer who immigrated to America with the support of Benjamin Franklin , enabling Hewson to quickly open a quilting factory in the Kensington neighborhood of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . According to a genealogical DNA test arranged by the television series Finding Your Roots , Fey 's ancestry is 94 % European , 3 % Middle Eastern , and 3 % from the Caucasus .

Fey was exposed to comedy early :

At age 11 , Fey read Joe Franklin 's Seventy Years of Great Film Comedians for a school project about comedy . She grew up watching Second City Television , and has cited Catherine O 'Hara as a role model .

Fey attended Cardington @-@ Stonehurst Elementary School and Beverly Hills Middle School in Upper Darby . By middle school , she knew she was interested in comedy . Fey attended Upper Darby High School , where she was an honors student , a member of the choir , drama club , and tennis team , and co @-@ editor of the school 's newspaper , The Acorn . She also anonymously wrote the newspaper 's satirical column , The Colonel . Following her graduation in 1988 , Fey enrolled at the University of Virginia , where she studied play @-@ writing and acting and was awarded the Pettway Prize . She graduated in 1992 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama .

After college , she worked as a receptionist during the day at the Evanston YMCA and took classes at Second City at night .

= = Career = =

= = = Saturday Night Live ( 1997 – 2006 ) = = =

While performing shows with The Second City in 1997 , Fey submitted several scripts to NBC 's variety show Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , at the request of its head writer Adam McKay , a former performer at Second City . She was hired as a writer for SNL following a meeting with SNL creator Lorne Michaels , and moved to New York from Chicago . Fey told The New Yorker , " I 'd had my eye on the show forever , the way other kids have their eye on Derek Jeter . " Originally , Fey " struggled " at SNL . Her first sketch to air starred Chris Farley in a Sally Jessy Raphael satire . Fey went on to write a series of parodies , including one of ABC 's morning talk show The View . She co @-@ wrote the " Sully and Denise " sketches with Rachel Dratch , who plays one of the teens .

Fey was an extra in a 1998 episode , and after watching herself , decided to diet and lost 30 pounds . She told The New York Times , " I was a completely normal weight , but I was here in New York City , I had money and I couldn 't buy any clothes . After I lost weight , there was interest in putting me on camera . " In 1999 , McKay stepped down as head writer , which led Michaels to approach Fey for the position . She became SNL 's first female head writer that year .

In 2000 , Fey began performing in sketches , and she and Jimmy Fallon became co @-@ anchors of SNL 's Weekend Update segment . Fey said she did not ask to audition , but that Michaels approached her . Michaels explained that there was chemistry between Fey and Fallon , though the decision was " kind of risky " at the time . Her role in Weekend Update was well received by critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote : " ... Fey delivers such blow darts – poison filled jokes written in long , precisely parsed sentences unprecedented in Update history – with such a bright , sunny countenance makes her all the more devilishly delightful . " Dennis Miller , a former cast member of SNL and anchor of Weekend Update , was pleased with Fey as one of the anchors for the segment : " ... Fey might be the best Weekend Update anchor who ever did it . She writes the funniest jokes " . Robert Bianco of USA Today , however , commented that he was " not enamored " of the pairing .

In 2001 , Fey and the rest of the writing staff won a Writers Guild of America Award for SNL 's 25th anniversary special . The following year at the 2002 Emmy Awards ceremony , they won the Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Program .

When Fallon left the show in May 2004 , he was replaced on Weekend Update by Amy Poehler . It was the first time that two women co @-@ anchored Weekend Update . Fey revealed that she " hired " Poehler as her co @-@ host for the segment . The reception was positive , with Rachel Sklar of the Chicago Tribune noting that the pairing " has been a hilarious , pitch @-@ perfect success as they play @-@ off each other with quick one @-@ liners and deadpan delivery " .

The 2005 – 2006 season was her last ; she departed to develop 30 Rock for Broadway Video . At the time she left , the 117 episodes she co @-@ hosted made her SNL 's longest @-@ serving Weekend Update anchor , a mark that would later be passed by her replacement , Seth Meyers . In Rolling Stone Magazine 's February , 2015 appraisal of all 141 SNL cast members to date , Fey was ranked third in importance ( behind John Belushi and Eddie Murphy ) . They credited her with " salvaging ' Update ' from a decade @-@ long losing streak , " and " slapping SNL out of its late @-@ nineties coma . "

= = = 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) = = =

In 2002 , Fey suggested a pilot episode for a situation comedy about a cable news network to NBC , which rejected it . The pilot was reworked to revolve around an SNL style series , and was accepted by NBC . She signed a contract with NBC in May 2003 , which allowed her to remain in her SNL head writer position at least through the 2004 – 2005 television season . As part of the contract , Fey was to develop a prime @-@ time project to be produced by Broadway Video and NBC Universal . The pilot , directed by Adam Bernstein , centered on Liz Lemon , the head writer of a variety show on NBC , and how she managed her relationships with the show 's volatile stars and the new head of the network . In October 2006 , the pilot aired on NBC as 30 Rock . Although the episode received generally favorable reviews , it finished third in its timeslot .

The network renewed the series for a second season , which began in October 2007 . The show 's third season premiered on October 30 , 2008 . The premiere episode drew 8 @.@ 5 million viewers , the highest ratings of the series .

In 2007 , Fey received an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series . The show itself won the 2007 Emmy for Outstanding Comedy Series ( and did so again for two subsequent years ) . In 2008 , she won the Golden Globe , Screen Actors Guild , and Emmy awards all in the category for Best Actress in a Comedy Series . The following year , Fey again won the Golden Globe and Screen Actors Guild Award in the same categories , and was nominated for an Emmy Award . In early 2010 , Fey received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress , and won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Lead Actress . 30 Rock was renewed for the 2010 – 2011 season in March 2010 . The series returned for the 2011 – 2012 season , though due to Fey 's pregnancy with her second child , the season premiere was delayed until midseason . Fey 's performance on the show was inspired by Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , and later used Louis @-@ Dreyfus to play the stand @-@ in for the character of Liz Lemon in flashback scenes during the live episode of the fifth season . On May 11 , 2012 , it was announced that the show had been renewed for a seventh and final season , to premiere October 4 , 2012 , with 13 episodes . After receiving 13 Emmy Award nominations and two wins for this final season , 30 Rock ended its critically acclaimed run with 112 Emmy award nominations . It has been cited as one of the greatest TV series of all time and it is considered to have one of the greatest finales in television history .

= = = Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt = = =

In 2015 , Fey created and produced the television comedy Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt with fellow 30 Rock @-@ alumnus Robert Carlock . The series stars Ellie Kemper as the titular character who escapes from a doomsday cult and moves to New York . It also stars Fey 's former co @-@ star Jane Krakowski , as well as Tituss Burgess ( who had previously appeared in four 30 Rock episodes ) and Carol Kane . Although it was originally produced for NBC , it was eventually sold to Netflix and immediately renewed for a second season . The show premiered on March 6 , 2015 to critical acclaim .

On July 16 , 2015 , the series was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards , including Outstanding Comedy Series . Fey herself was nominated both as the creator / executive producer of the series and for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her guest performance as Marcia , a bumbling prosecutor in reference to Marcia Clark .

= = = Feature films = = =

In 2002 , Fey appeared in the surreal comedy Martin & Orloff . She made her debut as writer and co @-@ star of the 2004 teen comedy Mean Girls . Characters and behaviors in the movie are based on Fey 's high school life at Upper Darby High School and on the non @-@ fiction book Queen Bees and Wannabes by Rosalind Wiseman . The cast includes other past cast members of SNL including Tim Meadows , Ana Gasteyer , and Amy Poehler . The film received favorable reviews , and was a box office success , grossing US $ 129 million worldwide .

In a 2004 interview , Fey expressed that she would like to write and direct movies . In 2006 , Fey worked on a movie script for Paramount Pictures , which was to feature Sacha Baron Cohen , by the name of Curly Oxide and Vic Thrill , based loosely on the true story of a Hasidic rock musician . In 2007 , she was cast in the animated comedy film Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters as the Aqua Teens ' mother , a giant burrito .

She received her SAG card after appearing in Artie Lange 's Beer League released in 2006 , in which she was compelled to join for " ... a thousand dollars " .

Fey and former SNL castmate Amy Poehler starred in the 2008 comedy Baby Mama . The movie was written and directed by Michael McCullers . The plot concerns Kate ( Fey ) , a business woman , who wants a child but , discovering she has only a million @-@ to @-@ one chance of getting pregnant , decides to find a surrogate : Angie ( Poehler ) , a white @-@ trash schemer . Baby Mama received mixed reviews , but critics enjoyed Fey 's performance . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote : " Fey is a delight to watch throughout . Able to convey Kate 's intentions and feelings through the simple looks and inflections , she never melodramatizes her situation ; nor does her efficient , perfectionist side become overbearing . " The movie grossed over US $ 64 million at the box office .

Fey 's projects after 2008 include a voice role in the English @-@ language version of the Japanese animated film Ponyo . In 2009 , she appeared in The Invention of Lying , alongside Ricky Gervais , Jennifer Garner , Rob Lowe , and Christopher Guest . Her next film role was in Shawn Levy 's 2010 comedy Date Night , a feature that focuses on a married couple , played by Fey and Steve Carell , who go on a date ; however , the night goes awry for the two . Also in the same year , she voiced Roxanne Ritchie , a television reporter , in the DreamWorks animated film Megamind ( 2010 ) . With a total worldwide gross of US $ 321 million , Megamind is Fey 's most commercially successful picture to date . It earned US $ 173 million outside the U.S. and US $ 148 million domestically .

In 2013 , Fey starred alongside Paul Rudd in the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Admission , based on the Jean Hanff Korelitz novel by the same name . The film was directed by Paul Weitz . Fey later starred in the 2014 comedy @-@ drama This Is Where I Leave You , helmed by Date Night director Shawn Levy . As was the case with Baby Mama , although both of these films received generally mixed reviews , Fey 's performances were well received by film critics .

In 2015 , it was announced Fey would be the narrator for the Disney Nature film Monkey Kingdom , which was released in theaters on April 17 , 2015 . She then re @-@ teamed with Poehler , starring in the 2015 comedy film Sisters as the title characters , and received positive reviews for her role . In 2016 , Fey starred in the biographical war comedy @-@ drama Whiskey Tango Foxtrot , based on the memoir The Taliban Shuffle : Strange Days in Afghanistan and Pakistan , to positive reviews .

= = = Subsequent SNL appearances = = =

On February 23 , 2008 , Fey hosted the first episode of SNL after the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . For this appearance , she was nominated for an Emmy in the category of Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program . Fey hosted SNL for a second time on April 10 , 2010 , and for her appearance she received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series .

From September to November 2008 , Fey made multiple guest appearances on SNL to perform a series of parodies of Republican vice @-@ presidential candidate Sarah Palin . On the 34th season premiere episode , aired September 13 , 2008 , Fey imitated Palin in a sketch , alongside Amy Poehler as Hillary Clinton . Their repartee included Clinton needling Palin about her " Tina Fey glasses " . The sketch quickly became NBC 's most @-@ watched viral video ever , with 5 @.@ 7 million views by the following Wednesday . Fey reprised this role on the October 4 show , on the October 18 show where she was joined by the real Sarah Palin , and on the November 1 show , where she was joined by John McCain and his wife Cindy . The October 18 show had the best ratings of any SNL show since 1994 . The following year Fey won an Emmy in the category of Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her impersonation of Palin . Fey returned to SNL in April 2010 , and reprised her impression of Palin in one sketch titled the " Sarah Palin Network " . Fey once again did her impression of Palin when she hosted Saturday Night Live on May 8 , 2011 .

In December 2009 , Entertainment Weekly put her Palin impersonation on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade " best @-@ of " list , writing , " Fey 's freakishly spot @-@ on SNL impersonation of the wannabe VP ( and her ability to strike a balance between comedy and cruelty ) made for truly transcendent television . " Rolling Stone called her Palin impression " [ arguably ] the most brilliant move SNL ever made " .

= = = Other work = = =

In 1997 , Fey and other members of The Second City provided voices for the pinball game Medieval Madness .

In 2000 , Fey partnered with fellow SNL cast member Rachel Dratch in the Off Broadway two @-@ woman show Dratch & Fey at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theater in New York City . The production was well received by critics . Tim Townsend of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the fun part of watching Fey and Dratch perform was " seeing how comfortable they are with each other " . He concluded that the production " isn 't about two women being funny ... Dratch and Fey are just funny . Period . " One of the SNL sketches , " Sully and Denise " , originated at The Second City .

On August 13 , 2007 , Fey made a guest appearance in the Sesame Street episode " The Bookaneers " . She appeared as a guest judge on the November 25 , 2007 episode of the Food Network program Iron Chef America .

Fey has appeared as Tinker Bell in Disney 's campaign " Year of a Million Dreams " . She has also done commercials for American Express and Garnier Nutrisse .

On April 5 , 2011 , Fey 's autobiography , Bossypants , was released to a positive review from The New York Times .

In 2011 , Fey narrated The Secret Life of Girls , a two @-@ hour @-@ long radio documentary produced by The Kitchen Sisters . She introduced stories of women and girls from around the world , and also shared memories of her own girlhood and mother .

In 2012 , Fey made her rapping debut on the Childish Gambino ( Donald Glover ) mixtape Royalty . Glover is a former writer on 30 Rock , on which he worked with Fey . Fey was also featured as herself in the iCarly episode " iShock America " .

= = Comedic and acting style = =

Fey is known for her deadpan humor and delivery ; her " sardonic wit " has become a trademark of hers , upon which several critics have commented in their reviews of Fey 's work . According to Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara , Fey " project [ s ] both oblivious security and hyper @-@ alert insecurity with the same expression " in her performances , while The Chronicle 's Dillon Fernando wrote that the actress specializes in " delectable , situational and ironic comedy " . On Fey 's comedic prowess , Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels enthused that his former employee " has a very clear take on things ... It always comes from a place of intelligence and there is just an edge to it . " Michaels concluded , " It 's not fearful . It 's strong and confident and you recognise the voice and most of the time you agree with it . " Writing for The Guardian , Christopher Goodwin believes that Fey " fashioned her comic persona around her glasses " , which she has worn since 1995 ; Fey joked that " Glasses make anyone look smarter " .

Seldom hesitating to use herself as the butt of her own jokes , Fey is also well known for practicing self @-@ deprecating humor , as demonstrated throughout her performance as Liz Lemon in 30 Rock . In an article ranking Fey 's six greatest jokes , David Renshaw of The Guardian wrote that the performer 's work continues to feature her " trademark mix of snark , self @-@ deprecation and pop @-@ culture smarts . " Fey 's self @-@ deprecating comedic style inspired Ashley Fetters of The Atlantic to recognize her as comedian Phyllis Diller 's successor because of their similar humor . Critics have been divided in their opinions and discussions of Fey 's use of self @-@ deprecating humor , and its effect on women as a female comic ; while blogger Kate Harding disapproved of Fey 's performance in 30 Rock because " I 'm torn between being sad that she apparently doesn 't see [ beauty ] in herself and being pissed off that she 's reinforcing the idea that having brown hair , glasses , and a figure that 's maybe a size 2 instead of a 0 actually equals ugly " , Jessica G. of Jezebel defended the actress , writing that Fey 's performance is " supposed to be parodying precisely the kinds of media that reinforce ideas that unconventional women are unworthy . " Writing that Harding misunderstood Fey 's intentions , the author concluded that her self @-@ deprecation " is precisely what makes her relatable " , elaborating that " [ women ] have many moments of self @-@ doubt , and seeing someone as successful as Tina Fey be self @-@ deprecating gives us all permission to be imperfect . " Sophie Caldecott of Verily defended Fey 's modesty and tendency to downplay her own physical appearance : " She mocks her own appearance , sure , but she does so in a way that consistently shows up our culture for placing so much importance on how women look , as if that ’ s the most interesting thing about us ... Her comic persona on 30 Rock , Liz Lemon , can be laughed at for many things , but her career managerial style and ability is not one of them . " Caldecott concluded , " In reality , self @-@ deprecation is an art that comedians everywhere dabble in ... In fact , I defy you to find a good male comedian who isn ’ t a master of self @-@ deprecation . Comedians make fun of themselves for many reasons , mostly because it is the most readily accessible source of inspiration but also because it is the most generous one . " Observing that Fey 's material lacks " whining " , Gina Barreca of the Hartford Courant wrote that Fey 's comedy " is not simply an iteration of self @-@ deprecating femininity passing itself off as humor . In itself , this demarcates the current generation of female humorists from earlier generations of performers who were told , more or less , to use themselves not as a sounding board for ideas but as a punching bag for insults . "

As an actress , Fey has developed a reputation for portraying " the hilarious , self @-@ deprecating unmarried career woman " in most of her films to @-@ date . The Boston Globe 's Janice Paige defended her limited filmography by writing that , unlike most film actors , Fey remains " realistic about her range as a leading lady and says she ’ s been deliberate about only taking on parts for which she actually seems suited . " Fey explained that she approaches each role asking herself , " Would I be plausible in this role , in this job ? " However , her role as Kate Ellis in 2015 's Sisters provided Fey with an opportunity to stray from playing the type @-@ A female characters for which she has become known . The New York Times film critic A. O. Scott wrote , " We ’ re used to seeing Ms. Fey ... as an anxious overthinker using her caustic sarcasm as a weapon against both her own insecurities and the flakes and train wrecks who surround her . This time , she gets to be the train wreck . " In 30 Rock , Fey 's comedic acting was heavily influenced by both physical and improvisational comedy while , as a writer , her " carefully written scripts " were often quirky and character @-@ driven .

= = In the media = =

In 2002 , Fey was ranked in the Hot 100 List at number 80 on Maxim magazine , which used photos taken earlier by Rolling Stone calling her " the thinking man 's sex symbol " . She was named one of People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People in 2003 , and one of People magazine 's 100 Most Beautiful People in 2007 , 2008 , and 2009 . In 2007 , Fey placed seventh on the Hot 100 List on AfterEllen.com. She repeated the appearance the following year , being voted as number one on the list .

In 2001 , Entertainment Weekly named Fey as one of their Entertainers of the Year for her work on Weekend Update . In 2007 , she was named one of the magazine 's Entertainers of the Year , and placed number two in 2008 . In 2009 , Fey was named as Entertainment Weekly 's fifth individual in their 15 Entertainers of the 2000s list . In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly crowned Fey as " The Once and Future Queen " ( an allusion to The Once and Future King ) in their feature on " Women Who Run TV , " calling her " the funniest woman in the free world . " EW quoted Mindy Kaling as saying , " I always feel unoriginal bringing up Tina as my inspiration , but she 's everyone 's inspiration for a reason . " The column also quoted praise by Zooey Deschanel and Lena Dunham .

The newspaper editors and broadcast producers of the Associated Press voted Fey the AP Entertainer of the Year as the performer who had the greatest impact on culture and entertainment in 2008 , citing her impression of Sarah Palin on SNL . She has appeared on Forbes ' annual Celebrity 100 list of the 100 most powerful celebrities in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , and 2012 at No. 99 , No. 86 , No. 90 , No. 92 , and No. 79 respectively .

In 2007 , the New York Post included Fey in New York 's 50 Most Powerful Women , ranking her at number 33 . Fey was among the Time 100 , a list of the 100 most influential people in the world , in 2007 and 2009 , as selected annually by Time magazine . Fey 's featured article for the 2009 list was written by 30 Rock co @-@ star , Alec Baldwin . She was selected by Barbara Walters as one of America 's 10 Most Fascinating People of 2008 .

In September 2011 , Fey was ranked at the top of Forbes magazine 's list of the highest @-@ paid TV actresses .

In June 2010 , it was announced Fey would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2011 .

In 2014 , Fey was recognized by Elle Magazine during The Women in Hollywood Awards , honoring women for their outstanding achievements in film , spanning all aspects of the motion picture industry , including acting , directing , and producing .

= = Charity work = =

Fey 's charity work includes support of Autism Speaks , an organization that sponsors autism research . In April 2008 , she participated in Night of Too Many Stars , a comedy benefit show for autism education .

Fey is also a supporter of Mercy Corps , a global relief and development organization , in their campaign to end world hunger . Fey narrated a video for Mercy Corps 's Action Center in New York City , describing hunger as a symptom of many wider world problems . She also supports the Love Our Children USA organization , which fights violence against children , who named her among their Mothers Who Make a Difference , in 2009 . She was the 2009 national spokesperson for the Light the Night Walk , which benefits the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society .

= = Personal life = =

In 1994 , two years after Fey joined Chicago 's Second City improvisational theatre troupe , she began dating Jeff Richmond , a piano player who later became Second City 's musical director and then a composer on 30 Rock . They married in a Greek Orthodox ceremony on June 3 , 2001 . They have two daughters : Alice Zenobia Richmond ( born September 10 , 2005 ) and Penelope Athena Richmond ( born August 10 , 2011 ) . In April 2009 , Fey and Richmond purchased a US $ 3 @.@ 4 million apartment on the Upper West Side in New York City .

Fey has a scar a few inches long on the left side of her chin and cheek , the cause of which remained unexplained to the public until a 2008 Vanity Fair profile by Maureen Dowd , and subsequently in her autobiographical book , where she revealed that " during the spring semester of kindergarten , I was slashed in the face by a stranger in the alley behind my house " .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= = = Video games = = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= WASP @-@ 44 =

WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star in constellation Cetus that has the Jupiter @-@ size planet WASP @-@ 44b in orbit . The star is slightly less massive and slightly smaller than the Sun ; it is also slightly cooler , but is more metal @-@ rich . The star was observed by SuperWASP , an organization in search of planets , starting in 2009 ; manual follow @-@ up observations used WASP @-@ 44 's spectrum and measurements of its radial velocity led to the discovery of the transiting planet WASP @-@ 44b . The planet and its star were presented along with WASP @-@ 45b and WASP @-@ 46b on May 17 , 2011 by a team of scientists testing the idea that Hot Jupiters tend to have circular orbits , an assumption that is made when the orbital eccentricity of such planets are not well @-@ constrained .

= = Observational history = =

WASP @-@ 44 was observed between July and November 2009 by the WASP @-@ South , a station of the SuperWASP planet @-@ searching program based at the South African Astronomical Observatory . Observations of the star revealed a periodic decrease in its brightness . WASP @-@ South , along with the SuperWASP @-@ North station at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the Canary Islands , collected 15 @,@ 755 photometric observations , allowing scientists to produce a more accurate light curve . Another set of observations yielded a 6 @,@ 000 point photometric data set , but the light curve was prepared late and was not considered in the discovery paper .

In 2010 , a European science team investigated the star using the CORALIE spectrograph and collected seventeen spectra of WASP @-@ 44 . From the spectra , radial velocity measurements were extrapolated . Analysis of collected CORALIE data ruled out the possibility that the detected radial velocity was caused by the blended spectrum of a spectroscopic binary star , supporting the possibility that the body orbiting WASP @-@ 44 was indeed a planet , designated WASP @-@ 44b .

The Leonhard Euler Telescope at La Silla Observatory in Chile was used to follow up on the discovery circling WASP @-@ 44 , searching for a point at which the planet transited , or crossed in front of , its host star . One transit was detected .

WASP @-@ 44 , its recently discovered planet , the planets orbiting WASP @-@ 45 and WASP @-@ 46 , and a discussion exploring the validity of the common assumption amongst scientists that closely orbiting Hot Jupiter planets have highly circular orbits unless proven otherwise , were reported in a single discovery paper that was published on May 17 , 2011 by the Royal Astronomical Society . The paper was submitted to the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society on May 16 , 2011 .

= = Characteristics = =

WASP @-@ 44 is a G @-@ type star ( the same class of star as the Sun ) that is located in the Cetus constellation . WASP @-@ 44 has a mass that is 0 @.@ 951 times that of the Sun . In terms of size , WASP @-@ 44 has a radius that is 0 @.@ 927 times that of the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 has an effective temperature of 5410 K , cooler than the Sun . However , the star is metal @-@ rich with relation to the Sun . Its measured metallicity is [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 06 , or 1 @.@ 148 times that the amount of iron found in the Sun . WASP @-@ 44 's chromosphere ( outermost layer ) is not active . The star also does not rotate at a high velocity .

The star has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 9 . It cannot be seen from Earth with the naked eye .

= = Planetary system = =

There is one known planet in the orbit of WASP @-@ 44 : WASP @-@ 44b . The planet is a Hot Jupiter with a mass of 0 @.@ 889 Jupiters . Its radius is 1 @.@ 14 times that of Jupiter . WASP @-@ 44b orbits its host star every 2 @.@ 4238039 days at a distance 0 @.@ 03473 AU , approximately 3 @.@ 47 % the mean distance between the Earth and Sun . With an orbital inclination of 86.02º , WASP @-@ 44b has an orbit that exists almost edge @-@ on to its host star with respect to Earth . WASPA @-@ 44b 's orbital eccentricity is fit to 0 @.@ 036 , indicating a mostly circular orbit .

= Elephanta Caves =

Elephanta caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri ( literally " the city of caves " ) in Mumbai Harbour , 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the east of the city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Maharashtra . The island , located on an arm of the Arabian Sea , consists of two groups of caves — the first is a large group of five Hindu caves , the second , a smaller group of two Buddhist caves . The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures , representing the Shaiva Hindu sect , dedicated to the Lord Shiva .

The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries , although the identity of the original builders is still a subject of debate . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All the caves were also originally painted in the past , but now only traces remain .

The main cave ( Cave 1 , or the Great Cave ) was a Hindu place of worship until Portuguese rule began in 1534 , after which the caves suffered severe damage . This cave was renovated in the 1970s after years of neglect , and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 to preserve the artwork . It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) .

= = Geography = =

Elephanta Island , or Gharapuri , is about 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) east of the Apollo Bunder ( Bunder in Marathi means a " pier for embarkation and disembarkation of passengers and goods " ) on the Mumbai Harbour and 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Pir Pal in Trombay . The island covers about 10 km2 ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) at high tide and about 16 km2 ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) at low tide . Gharapuri is small village on the south side of the island . The Elephanta Caves can be reached by a ferry from the Gateway of India , Mumbai , which has the nearest airport and train station . The cave is closed on Monday .

The island is 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) in length with two hills that rise to a height of about 150 m ( 490 ft ) . A deep ravine cuts through the heart of the island from north to south . On the west , the hill rises gently from the sea and stretches east across the ravine and rises gradually to the extreme east to a height of 173 m ( 568 ft ) . This hill is known as the Stupa hill . Forest growth with clusters of mango , tamarind , and karanj trees cover the hills with scattered palm trees . Rice fields are seen in the valley . The fore shore is made up of sand and mud with mangrove bushes on the fringe . Landing quays sit near three small hamlets known as Set Bunder in the north @-@ west , Mora Bunder in the northeast , and Gharapuri or Raj Bunder in the south .

The two hills of the island , the western and the eastern , have five rock @-@ cut caves in the western part and a brick stupa on the eastern hill on its top composed of two caves with a few rock @-@ cut cisterns . One of the caves on the eastern hill is unfinished . It is a protected island with a buffer zone according to a Notification issued in 1985 , which also includes " a prohibited area " that stretches 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from the shoreline .

= = History = =

Since no inscriptions on any of the island have been discovered , the ancient history of the island is conjectural , at best . Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , and Banasura , the demon devotee of Shiva , are both credited with building temples or cut caves to live . Local tradition holds that the caves are not man @-@ made .

The Elephanta caves are " of unknown date and attribution " . Art historians have dated the caves in the range of late 5th to late 8th century AD . Archaeological excavations have unearthed a few Kshatrapa coins dated to 4th century AD . The known history is traced only to the defeat of Mauryan rulers of Konkan by the Badami Chalukyas emperor Pulakesi II ( 609 – 642 ) in a naval battle , in 635 AD . Elephanta was then called Puri or Purika , and served as the capital of the Konkan Mauryas . Some historians attribute the caves to the Konkan Mauryas , dating them to the mid @-@ 6th century , though others refute this claim saying a relatively small kingdom like the Konkan Mauryas could not undertake " an almost superhuman excavation effort , " which was needed to carve the rock temples from solid rock and could not have the skilled labor to produce such " high quality " sculpture .

Some other historians attribute the construction to the Kalachuris ( late 5th to 6th century ) , who may have had a feudal relationship with the Konkan Mauryas . In an era where polytheism was prevalent , the Elephanta main cave dedicates the monotheism of the Pashupata Shaivism sect , a sect to which Kalachuris as well as Konkan Mauryas belonged .

The Chalukyas , who defeated the Kalachuris as well as the Konkan Mauryas , are also believed by some to be creators of the main cave , in the mid @-@ 7th century . The Rashtrakutas are the last claimants to the creation of the main cave , approximated to the early 7th to late 8th century . The Elephanta Shiva cave resembles in some aspects the 8th @-@ century Rashtrakuta rock @-@ temple Kailash at Ellora . The Trimurti of Elephanta showing the three faces of Shiva is akin to the Trimurti of Brahma , Vishnu and Mahesh ( Shiva ) , which was the royal insignia of the Rashtrakutas . The Nataraja and Ardhanarishvara sculptures are also attributed to the Rashtrakutas .

Later , Elephanta was ruled by another Chalukyan dynasty , and then by Gujarat Sultanate , who surrendered it to the Portuguese in 1534 . By then , Elephanta was called Gharapuri , which denotes a hill settlement . The name is still used in the local Marathi language . The Portuguese named the island " Elephanta Island " in honour of a huge rock @-@ cut black stone statue of an elephant that was then installed on a mound , a short distance east of Gharapuri village . The elephant now sits in the Jijamata Udyaan zoo in Mumbai .

Portuguese rule saw a decline in the Hindu population on the island and the abandonment of the Shiva cave ( main cave ) as a regular Hindu place of worship , though worship on Mahashivratri , the festival of Shiva , continued and still does . The Portuguese did considerable damage to the sanctuaries . Portuguese soldiers used the reliefs of Shiva in the main cave for target practice , sparing only the Trimurti sculpture . They also removed an inscription related to the creation of the caves . While some historians solely blame the Portuguese for the destruction of the caves , others also cite water @-@ logging and dripping rainwater as additional damaging factors . The Portuguese left in 1661 as per the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza , daughter of King John IV of Portugal . This marriage shifted possession of the islands to the British Empire , as part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles .

Though the main cave was restored in the 1970s , other caves , including three consisting of important sculptures , are still badly damaged . The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 as per the cultural criteria of UNESCO : the caves " represent a masterpiece of human creative genius " and " bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilisation which is living or which has disappeared " .

= = Overview = =

The island has two groups of caves in the rock @-@ cut architectural style . The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock . All caves were painted in the past , but only traces remain . The larger group of caves , which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island , is well known for its Hindu sculptures . The primary cave , numbered as Cave 1 , is about 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) up a hillside , facing the ocean . It is a rock @-@ cut temple complex that covers an area of 5 @,@ 600 m2 ( 60 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and consists of a main chamber , two lateral chambers , courtyards , and subsidiary shrines . It is 39 metres ( 128 ft ) deep from the front entrance to the back . The temple complex is the abode of Shiva , depicted in widely celebrated carvings which reveal his several forms and acts .

On the eastern part of the island , on the Stupa Hill , there is a small group of caves that house Buddhist monuments . This hill is named after the religious Stupa monument that they display . One of the two caves is incomplete , while the other contains a Stupa made in brick .

= = Main cave = =

The main cave , also called the Shiva cave , Cave 1 , or the Great Cave , is 27 metres ( 89 ft ) square in plan with a hall ( mandapa ) . At the entrance are four doors , with three open porticoes and an aisle at the back . Pillars , six in each row , divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers . The roof of the hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals . The cave entrance is aligned with the north – south axis , unusual for a Shiva shrine ( normally east – west ) . The northern entrance to the cave , which has 1 @,@ 000 steep steps , is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period . The left panel depicts Yogishvara ( The Lord of Yoga ) and the right shows Nataraja ( Shiva as the Lord of Dance ) . The central Shiva shrine ( see 16 in plan below ) is a free @-@ standing square cell with four entrances , located in the right section of the main hall . Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves . The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance .

Each wall has large carvings of Shiva , each more than 5 metres ( 16 ft ) in height . The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall and is flanked by Ardhanarisvara ( a half @-@ man , half @-@ woman representation of Shiva ) on its left and Gangadhara to its right , which denotes the River Ganges ' descent from Shiva 's matted locks . Other carvings related to the legend of Shiva are also seen in the main hall at strategic locations in exclusive cubicles ; these include Kalyanasundaramurti , depicting Shiva 's marriage to the goddess Parvati , Andhakasuravadamurti or Andhakasuramardana , the slaying of the demon Andhaka by Shiva , Shiva @-@ Parvati on Mount Kailash ( the abode of Shiva ) , and Ravananugraha , depicting the demon @-@ king Ravana shaking Kailash .

The main cave blends Chalukyan architectural features such as massive figures of the divinities , guardians , and square pillars with custom capitals with Gupta artistic characteristics , like the depiction of mountains and clouds and female hairstyles .

Layout :

= = = Shiva @-@ Parvati on Kailash and Ravana lifting Kailash = = =

The carving on the south wall to the east of the portico depicts Shiva and Parvati seated on their abode Mount Kailash . The four @-@ armed Shiva is seen with a crown and a disc behind it ( all damaged ) , the sacred thread across his chest , and a dressing gown covering up to the knee . Parvati , dressed in her finery with her hair falling to the front , looks away . Behind her at the right is a woman attendant holding the child , identified with her son Kartikeya , the war @-@ god . Many male and female attendants are seen behind the main figures . Shiva 's attendant , the skeleton @-@ like Bhringi , is seated at his feet . Other figures , not distinct , depict , among others , a royal @-@ looking tall person , ascetics , a fat figure , a dwarf , a bull ( the mount of Shiva ) , features of a Garuda , and two monkeys . The scenic beauty of the mountain is sculpted with the sky background amidst heavenly beings showering flowers on Shiva @-@ Parvati . This scene is interpreted as a gambling scene , where Parvati is angry as Shiva cheats in a game of dice .

The carved panel facing this one is a two @-@ level depiction of Ravana lifting Kailash . The upper scene is Mount Kailash , where Shiva and Parvati are seated . The eight @-@ armed , three @-@ eyed Shiva wears headgear with a crescent and disc behind it . Most of his arms are broken , two of them resting on attendants ' heads . The Parvati figure , seated facing Shiva , remains only as a trunk . The panel is flanked by door keepers . Attendants of Shiva are also seen in the relief but mostly in a damaged state . Bhringi is seated near Shiva 's feet and to his left is the elephant @-@ headed son of Shiva , Ganesha . In this ensemble , the ten @-@ headed demon @-@ king Ravana is seen , with only one head left unscathed , and out of his twenty arms , only a few are discernible . Around Ravana are several demons . Numerous figures are seen above Shiva : the god Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , to his left ; a skeleton @-@ figure ; and in a recess , Parvati 's mount , a tiger is depicted .

A legend relates to both these panels . Once , Parvati was annoyed with Shiva . At this moment , Ravana , who was passing by Mount Kailash , found it as an obstruction to his movement . Upset , Ravana shook it vigorously and as a result , Parvati got scared and hugged Shiva . Enraged by Ravana 's arrogance , Shiva stamped down on Ravana , who sang praises of Shiva to free him of his misery and turned into an ardent devotee of Shiva . Another version states that Shiva was pleased with Ravana for restoring Parvati 's composure and blessed him .

= = = Trimurti , Gangadhara and Ardhanarishvara = = =

Described as a " masterpiece of Gupta @-@ Chalukyan art " , the most important sculpture in the caves is the Trimurti , carved in relief at the back of the cave facing the entrance , on the north @-@ south axis . It is also known as Trimurti Sadashiva and Maheshmurti . The image , 6 m ( 20 ft ) in height , depicts a three @-@ headed Shiva , representing Panchamukha Shiva . The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva : creation , protection , and destruction . The right half @-@ face ( west face ) shows him as a young person with sensuous lips , embodying life and its vitality . In his hand he holds an object resembling a rosebud , depicting the promise of life and creativity . This face is closest to that of Brahma , the creator or Uma or Vamadeva , the feminine side of Shiva and creator of joy and beauty . The left half @-@ face ( east face ) is that of a moustached young man , displaying anger . This is Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava , the one whose anger can engulf the entire world in flames , leaving only ashes behind . This is also known as Rudra @-@ Shiva , the Destroyer . The central face , benign and meditative , resembles the preserver Vishnu . This is Tatpurusha , " master of positive and negative principles of existence and preserver of their harmony " or Shiva as the yogi Yogeshwar in deep meditation praying for the preservation of humanity . The aspects Sadyojata and Ishana ( not carved ) faces are considered to be at the back and top of the sculpture . The Trimurti sculpture , with the Gateway of India in the background , has been adopted as the logo of the Maharashtra Tourism Department ( MTDC ) .

The Gangadhara image to the right of the Trimurti is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati , the former bearing the River Ganges as she descends from heaven . The carving is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 5 @.@ 207 m ( 17 @.@ 08 ft ) high . The image is highly damaged , particularly the lower half of Shiva seen seated with Parvati , who is shown with four arms , two of which are broken . From the crown , a cup with a triple @-@ headed female figure ( with broken arms ) , representing the three sacred rivers Ganges , Yamuna , and Sarasvati , is depicted . Shiva is sculpted and bedecked with ornaments . The arms hold a coiling serpent whose hood is seen above his left shoulder . Another hand ( partly broken ) gives the semblance of Shiva hugging Parvati , with a head of matted hair . There is a small snake on the right hand and a tortoise close to the neck , with a bundle tied to the back . An ornamented drapery covers his lower torso , below the waist . Parvati is carved to the left of Shiva with a coiffured hair dress , fully bedecked with ornaments and jewellery , also fully draped , with her right hand touching the head of a female attendant who carries Parvati 's dress case . The gods Brahma and Indra , with their mystic regalia and mounts , are shown to the right of Shiva ; Vishnu , riding his mount Garuda , is shown to the left of Parvati . Many other details are defaced but a kneeling figure in the front is inferred to be the king who ordered the image to be carved . There are many divinities and attendant females at the back . The whole setting is under the sky and cloud scenes , with men and women , all dressed , shown showering flowers on the deities .

In the chamber to the east of the Trimurti is the four @-@ armed Ardhanarishvara carving . This image , which is 5 @.@ 11 m ( 16 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , has a headdress ( double @-@ folded ) with two pleats draped towards the female head ( Parvati ) and the right side ( Shiva ) depicting curled hair and a crescent . The female figure has all the ornamentation ( broad armlets and long bracelets , a large ring in the ear , jewelled rings on the fingers ) but the right male figure has drooping hair , armlets and wristlets . One of his hands rests on Nandi ’ s left horn , Shiva 's mount , which is fairly well preserved . The pair of hands at the back is also bejewelled ; the right hand of the male holds a serpent , while the left hand of the female holds a mirror . The front left hand is broken but conjectured as holding the robe of the goddess . The central figure is surrounded by divinities .

= = = Shiva slaying Andhaka and Wedding of Shiva = = =

The engraved panel in the north end of the aisle is considered to be a unique sculpture , and shows Bhairava , or Virabhadra , a frightful form of Shiva . In the carved panel Shiva 's consort is seen sitting next to him , looking terrified . A female attendant is next to her . The central figure , which is much ruined below the waist , is 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) high and posed as if running . His headgear has a ruff on the back , a skull and cobra over the forehead , and the crescent high on the right . His facial expression is of intense anger discerned from his furrowed brow , swollen eyes , and tusks . The legs and five of the eight arms are broken , attributed to Portuguese vandalism . The smaller broken image Andhaka is seen below Bhairava 's image . It is interpreted that Shiva is spearing him with the front right hand , as conjectured by the spear seen hanging without any hold . Also seen is the back hand lifted up and holding an elephant 's skin as a cover ; the elephant 's head , carved tusk , and trunk are seen hanging from the left hand . The second left hand depicts a snake coiled round it . The hand holds a bowl to collect the blood dripping from the slain Andhaka . Furthermore , pieces of a male and two female forms , figures of two ascetics , a small figure in front , a female figure , and two dwarfs are also seen in the carved panel . An unusual sculpture seen above the head of the main figure of Shiva is of a " very wide bottle with a curved groove in the middle of it " , which can interpreted variously as : the aum or the linga or a Shiva shrine .

The niche image carved on the south wall is an ensemble of divinities assembled around the central figures of Shiva and Parvati shown getting married ( Kalyanasundara icon ) . Parvati is seen standing to Shiva 's right , the ordained place for a Hindu bride at the wedding . The carvings are substantially damaged ; only one of Shiva 's four hands is fully seen and the right leg is missing . Shiva has a headdress with a shining disc attached to it . His garments are well @-@ draped , and well @-@ tied at the waist . The sacred thread is seen across his chest . Parvati is carved as a perfect figure with coiffured hair dress , well adorned with jewellery and is draped tightly to display depressions below the waist only . She is seen with a coy expression and is led by her father who has his right hand on her shoulder . Even though both her hands are damaged , it is inferred that her left hand clasped Shiva 's right hand as a mark of holy alliance . Brahma is sitting as the officiating priest for the marriage . Vishnu is witness to the marriage . Mena , the mother of Parvati , is seen standing next to Vishnu . The moon @-@ god Chandra , seen with a wig and a crescent , is standing behind Parvati holding a circular pot with nectar for the marriage ceremony . Just above the main images , a galaxy of divinities , bearded sages , apsaras ( nymphs ) , Vidyadharas , Yakshis , Gandharvas , Bhringi , and other male and female attendants are seen as witness to the marriage ceremony showering flowers on the divine couple .

= = = Yogishvara and Nataraja = = =

The panel to the east of the north portico is Shiva in a Yogic position called Yogisvara , Mahayogi , Dharmaraja and Lakulish . Resembling a Buddha , Shiva is in a dilapidated condition with only two broken arms . Shiva is seated in padmasana yogic posture ( cross legged ) on a lotus carried by two Nāgas . His crown is carved with details adorned by a crescent , a round frill at the back , and hair curls dropping on either side of the shoulders . His face is calm in mediation , his eyes half @-@ closed . This represents Shiva in penance sitting amidst the Himalayan mountains after the death of his first wife Sati , who was later reborn as Parvati . He is surrounded by divinities in the sky and attendants below . Also seen is a plantain with three leaves already open and one opening , as well as a sunflower blossom . These are flanked by two attendants . Other figures discerned from a study of the broken images are : Vishnu riding Garuda on a plantain leaf ; the Sun @-@ god Surya riding a fully saddled horse ( head missing ) ; a saint with a rosary ; two female figures in the sky draped up to their thighs ; a faceless figure of the moon with a water container ; three identical figures of a male flanked by two females ; the skeleton of a sage ; Brahma ( without one arm ) riding a swan ; and Indra without his mount ( elephant missing ) .

The panel carving in the west niche opposite Yogishvara depicts Shiva as Nataraja performing the Tandava ( cosmic dance ) . The niche is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) high and set low on the wall . He wears well @-@ decorated headgear . The Shiva image displays a dance pose and had ten arms , but the first right and third left hands are missing . The remaining first right arm is held across the breast and touches the left side , the second right hand that is seen damaged with an out @-@ flaying pose is broken at the elbow . The third arm is damaged at the elbow , and the fourth is also broken but inferred to have held a Khatvanga ( skull @-@ club ) . The left arms , seen hanging , are damaged near the wrists . The third hand is bent ( but broken ) towards Parvati standing on the side and the fourth hand is raised up . The right thigh ( broken ) is lifted up , and the left leg is not seen at all , the elaborate armlets are well @-@ preserved and a skirt round the waist is tied by a ribbon . A tall figurine of Parvati stands to the left of Shiva , which is also seen partly broken but well bejewelled . An airborne female figure is seen behind Parvati . Other figures seen in the relief are : Vishnu riding a Garuda ; Indra riding his elephant ; the elephant @-@ headed Ganesha ; Kartikeya ; Bhrngi ; sages and attendants .

= = = Main cave shrine = = =

The central shrine is a free @-@ standing square cell , with entrances on each of its sides . Each door is flanked by two dvarapalas ( gate keepers ) . The Linga , the symbol of Shiva in union with the Yoni , and the symbol of Parvati together symbolise the supreme unity that is deified by the shrine . The Linga is set on a raised platform above the floor of the shrine by 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) . Six steps lead to this level from the floor level . The height of the eight dvarapalas varies from 4 @.@ 521 – 4 @.@ 623 m ( 14 @.@ 83 – 15 @.@ 17 ft ) . All are in a damaged condition except those at the southern door to the shrine . The southern gate statue has many unusual features – unusual headgear ; a large skull above the forehead ; lips parted with protruding teeth ; statues adorned with a single bead necklace , earrings , plain twisted armlets and thick wristlets ; a stooped right shoulder ; a globe held at navel level ; the robe is held at the right thigh by the left hand , and the legs are shapeless .

= = = East wing = = =

Several courtyards to the east and west of the main cave are blocked , though there is a 17 m ( 56 ft ) -wide courtyard that is accessible by entering the eastern part and climbing nine steps . A temple on the southern wall of the court depicts a well @-@ preserved fresco . The circular pedestal seen in the courtyard in front of the Shiva 's shrine near the east end , in the open area , is said to be the seat of Nandi , Shiva 's mount .

On each side of the steps leading to the temple @-@ cave portico is a winged lion , or leogriff , each seated with a raised forepaw . The portico has chambers at each end and a Linga @-@ shrine at the back . Five low steps and a threshold lead into the central Linga @-@ shrine which is 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) wide and 5 m ( 16 ft ) deep and has a circumambulatory path ( Pradakshina @-@ path ) around it . At the back of the portico , near the east end , is a gigantic statue of a four @-@ armed doorkeeper with two attendant demons . At the north end is a standing figure holding a trident . His left hand rests on a defaced demon @-@ figure . The west wall depicts the Ashta @-@ Matrikas ( eight mother goddesses ) , flanked by Kartikeya and Ganesha , the sons of Shiva . Some of Matrikas are depicted with children , but all of them are shown by their respective mounts ( bull , swan , peacock , a Garuda , etc . ) which identify them . At the east end of the portico is another chapel with a plain interior and sunken floor . Water drips in this chapel .

= = = West wing = = =

The west wing , entered through the main cave , is in a semi @-@ ruined state . It has a small chapel and a cistern enclosed within the pillared cave , which is believed to be Buddhist . Another shrine to the west of the courtyard , with a portico , has carvings of Shiva in a yogic pose seated on a lotus carried by “ two fat , heavy , wigged figures ” . This carving also depicts a three @-@ faced bearded Bramha and several other figurines . Entering through the back door of the portico is a cave enshrined with a multifaceted Shiva Linga erected over roughly hewn salunkhs . At the door entrance on both flanks , statues of gatekeepers standing over demons and two fat , poised figures are seen . On the southern side of the door is an ensemble of a number of statues . Prominent among these is the Shiva carving , which is depicted with six arms and the third eye in the forehead . Though in a partly ruined state , the carving shows Shiva with an ornamented crown fixed with a crescent , seen carrying a cobra in the left hand , a club in another hand , and discerned to be in a dancing pose . Next to this image are a figure under a plantain tree and a Shiva image ( Yogishvara ) seated on a lotus . Also seen in the panel are a male figure riding a bull with a bell fastened to its neck , a female figure and another carving to left of Shiva , a female figure with a jewel on her forehead with neatly looped headdress , Indra riding an elephant , Vishnu with four arms , holding a discus in one of his left hands and riding on Garuda flanked by a small flying figure , and a male figure with crescent in his hair .

= = Other notable caves = =

To the south @-@ east of the Great Cave is the second excavation , which faces east @-@ northeast . It includes a chapel at the north end . The front of this cave is completely destroyed ; only fragments of some semi @-@ columns remain . The interior has suffered water damage . The portico is 26 m ( 85 ft ) long and 11 m ( 36 ft ) deep . The chapel is supported by eight eight @-@ cornered columns and two demi @-@ columns and is irregular in shape . At the back of the portico are three chambers ; the central one has an altar and a water channel ( pranalika ) , though the Linga is lost . The shrine door has some traces of sculpture ( a boy , a fat figure , alligators on the frieze , and broken animal figures at the head of a doorjamb ) . The door @-@ keepers of the shrine are now in fragments .

A little to the south of the last cave is another cave in worse condition , with water damage . It is a portico in which each end probably had a chapel or room with pillars in front . Two of them have cells at the back . The central door at the back of the portico leads to a damaged shrine . The shrine door has door @-@ keepers at each side , leaning on dwarfs with flying figures over the head , with door @-@ keepers and demons on the jamb and architrave . The shrine is a plain room 6 m ( 20 ft ) deep by 5 @.@ 7 m ( 19 ft ) wide with a low altar , holding a Linga . South of this cave is a cavern that may be used as a cistern .

Above these caves is a tiger sculpture , which was worshipped as the tiger goddess Vaghesheri . This sculpture may be a guardian of the north entrance of Cave 1 . A Linga is also found near a small pond at top of the hill . Sculptures depicting a stone with a sun and a moon and a mother suckling a child ( now moved ) were also found nearby .

Across the top of the ravine from Cave 1 is large hall known as Sitabai 's Temple ( cave ) . The portico has four pillars and two pilasters . The hall has 3 chambers at the back , the central one a shrine and the rest for priests ( both are plain rooms ) . The door of the central shrine has pilasters and a frieze , with the threshold having lion figures at the end . The shrine has an altar , a water channel , and hole in the centre , in which a statue of Parvati may have been worshipped . A 17th @-@ century record states that " this cave [ has ] a beautiful gate with a porch of exquisitely wrought marble " and two idols , one of goddess Vetal Candi and a head being in a large square seat .

Passing along the face of the eastern hill to the north of Sitabai 's cave is a small Hindu excavation with a veranda , which was probably to be three cells , but was abandoned following the discovery of a flaw in the rock . Towards the east of hill is a dry pond , with large artificial boulders and Buddhist cisterns along its banks . At the end of the north spur of the main hill is a mound that resembles a Buddhist stupa .

= = Preservation = =

The threats to Elephanta Caves have been identified as the following : developmental pressures ( mainly due to its location within the Mumbai harbour ) , anthropogenic pressure due to growth of population of the communities residing on the island , industrial growth of the port facilities close to the island , no risk preparedness plan to address natural calamities such as earthquake , cyclones and terrorist attacks , unsustainable tourism and tourist facilities on the island , and poor management of the heritage monument .

Preservation of Elephanta Island as a whole with its monuments has been ensured both through legislation and by physical restoration of the caves and its sculptures . The basic legislations enacted are : The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act of 1958 and Rules ( 1959 ) ; The Elephanta Island ( Protected Monument ) Rules of 1957 , which prohibits mining , quarrying , blasting , excavation and other operations near the monument ; the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act promulgated in 1972 with its Rules promulgated in 1973 ; a Notification issued in 1985 declaring the entire island and a 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) area from the shore as " a prohibited area " ; a series of Maharashtra State Government environmental acts protecting the site ; the 1966 Regional and Town Planning Act ; and the 1995 Heritage Regulations for Greater Bombay .

The Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) , Aurangabad Circle , on the basis of the above legislation and rules , maintain and manage the monuments . The physical measures undertaken for conservation cover include stabilisation of the rock face , construction of supports to the cave structures where pillars have collapsed , and consolidation of cave floors and construction of a parapet wall surrounding the site . In addition , visitor facilities at the site have been upgraded ( such as toilet facilities , railing construction , pathways , and a flight of steps from the jetty to the caves ) . An on @-@ site museum has been established and a conservation plan has been put in place . Overall , conservation of the property is stated to be good . The site receives approximately 25 @,@ 000 visitors per month . Public information brochures are also available at the venue of the monuments . During the World Heritage Day on 18 April and World Heritage Week between 19 and 25 November there are special events held at the caves . Another popular event organised is an annual traditional dance festival that attracts many visitors .

After declaring the caves a World Heritage Site , UNESCO granted $ 100 @,@ 000 to document the site 's history and draw up a site plan . A part of the grant was used for conservation of the caves . Based on assessments by UNESCO , management plans include : better communication and collaboration between the ASI , on @-@ site staff , and other responsible government departments ; improved public information and awareness programs ; monitoring environmental impact of tourists on the cave and island environment ; greater attention to the maintenance of the rocks to address water leakages into the caves ; and daily monitoring of both structural and chemical conservation measures .

The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage ( INTACH ) is also involved with the Archaeological Survey of India in improving the local conditions at the cave site . A book has been published jointly by UNESCO , INTACH and the Government of India which presents a comprehensive site plan for restoration and a brief history of each sculpture constructed inside the caves .

= Devin Townsend =

Devin Garret Townsend ( born May 5 , 1972 ) is a Canadian musician , songwriter and record producer . He was the founder , songwriter , vocalist , and guitarist in extreme metal band Strapping Young Lad from 1994 to 2007 and has an extensive career as a solo artist .

After performing in a number of heavy metal bands in high school , Townsend was discovered by a record label in 1993 and was asked to perform lead vocals on Steve Vai 's album Sex & Religion . After recording and touring with Vai , Townsend was discouraged by what he found in the music industry , and vented his anger on the solo album Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing released under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He soon assembled a band under the name , and released the critically acclaimed City in 1997 . Since then , he has released three more studio albums with Strapping Young Lad , along with solo material released under his own independent record label , HevyDevy Records .

Townsend 's solo albums , a diverse mix of hard rock , progressive metal , ambient , and new @-@ age , have featured a varying lineup of supporting musicians . In 2002 he formed the Devin Townsend Band , a dedicated lineup which recorded and toured for two of his solo releases . In 2007 , he disbanded both Strapping Young Lad and the Devin Townsend Band , taking a break from touring to spend more time with his family . After a two @-@ year hiatus , he began recording again , and soon announced the formation of the Devin Townsend Project . The project began with a series of four albums , released from 2009 to 2011 , each written in a different style , and Townsend continues to record and tour under the new moniker .

Across all his bands and projects , Townsend has released twenty @-@ three studio albums and three live albums . Townsend 's trademark production style , featuring a heavily multitracked wall of sound , has been compared to the styles of Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . His versatile vocal delivery ranges from screaming to an opera @-@ esque singing , and his songwriting is similarly diverse . Townsend 's musical style is rooted in metal , and his albums are written to express different aspects of his personality .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early musical career ( 1972 – 1994 ) = = =

Devin Townsend was born in New Westminster , British Columbia , on May 5 , 1972 . Townsend picked up the banjo when he was five , and began playing guitar when he was 12 . As an early teenager he befriended Brian " Beav " Waddell , who would later play guitars as part of the Devin Townsend Band and bass on the Devin Townsend Project . He participated in several metal bands while he was in high school , and founded Grey Skies at the age of 19 . Around the same time he joined a popular local group called Caustic Thought , replacing Jed Simon on guitar and playing alongside bassist Byron Stroud , both of whom would later become members of Townsend 's flagship band , Strapping Young Lad . In 1993 , Townsend began writing material under the name Noisescapes , a project he later described as " just as violent as Strapping Young Lad " .

Townsend recorded a Noisescapes demo and sent copies to various record labels . Relativity Records responded to Townsend with a record deal and Townsend began work on what was to be the first Noisescapes album , Promise . Shortly afterward , the label introduced him to musician Steve Vai . Impressed with Townsend 's vocal work , Vai offered him the role of the lead vocalist on his new album Sex and Religion . After recording Sex and Religion , Townsend accompanied Vai on a world tour in support of the album . Townsend soon landed a second touring gig , this time with the opening band of Vai 's tour , the Wildhearts . He played live with the band throughout half of 1994 in Europe , and appeared as a guest musician on their single Urge . Ginger , the band 's frontman , remained close friends with Townsend , later co @-@ writing several songs on Infinity and the Christeen + 4 Demos EP .

While on tour with the Wildhearts , Townsend formed a short @-@ lived thrash metal project with Metallica 's then @-@ bassist Jason Newsted . The band , known as IR8 , featured Newsted on vocals and bass , Townsend on guitar , and Tom Hunting of Exodus on drums . The group recorded a few songs together , although Townsend says that they never intended to go further than that . " People heard about it and thought we wanted to put out a CD , which is absolutely not true , " he explains . " People took this project way too seriously . " A demo tape was put together , but the material was not released until 2002 , when Newsted published the IR8 vs. Sexoturica compilation .

Though Townsend was proud of what he had accomplished so early in his career , he was discouraged by his experience with the music industry . " I was becoming a product of somebody else 's imagination , and it was mixing with my own personality , " he later reflected . " This combination was appalling . " He pushed to get his own projects off the ground . Despite getting notable touring gigs with other musicians , however , Townsend continued to face rejection of his own music . Relativity Records dropped Noisescapes from their label shortly after Townsend accepted Vai 's offer , seeing no commercial appeal in Townsend 's music . " I have a hunch they only offered me a deal to get me to sing with Steve , " he mused . While touring with the Wildhearts , Townsend received a phone call from an A & R representative for Roadrunner Records , expressing an interest in his demos and an intention to sign him . The offer was ultimately rescinded by the head of Roadrunner , who regarded Townsend 's recordings as " just noise " .

= = = Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing through Infinity ( 1994 – 1998 ) = = =

In 1994 , Century Media Records offered Townsend a contract to make " some extreme albums " . He agreed to a five @-@ album deal with the record label , and also provided much of the guitar work on the 1994 album Millennium and the 1995 album Hard Wired by Vancouver industrial band Front Line Assembly . Townsend began to record material under the pseudonym Strapping Young Lad . He avoided using his real name at this point in career , looking for a fresh start after his high @-@ profile Vai gig . " At the beginning , I wanted to avoid at all cost to use my name because I was known as the singer for Steve Vai and it wasn 't the best publicity to have , " he later explained . " I was playing somebody else 's music and I was judged in respect to that music . " Townsend produced and performed nearly all the instruments on the debut studio album , Heavy as a Really Heavy Thing , which was released in April 1995 .

Following the release of the record , Townsend and several other musician friends he knew in Vancouver recorded his first solo album in 1996 entitled Punky Brüster – Cooked on Phonics . Written and recorded in under a month , the album was produced as a parody of punk rock bands and documents the act of selling out for mainstream success . Townsend founded his own independent record label , HevyDevy Records , to release the album . Townsend assembled a permanent lineup of Strapping Young Lad to record City , including prolific metal drummer Gene Hoglan , along with Townsend 's former bandmates Jed Simon on guitar and Byron Stroud on bass . The industrial @-@ influenced album was released in 1997 . To this day , the album is widely considered Strapping Young Lad 's best work , with Metal Maniacs calling it " groundbreaking " and Revolver naming it " one of the greatest metal albums of all time " . Townsend himself considers it the band 's " ultimate " album . Later that year , Townsend released his second solo album , Ocean Machine : Biomech . The album featured a mix of hard rock , ambient , and progressive rock .

After the completion of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , Townsend began to approach a mental breakdown . " I started to see human beings as little lonesome , water based , pink meat , " he explained , " life forms pushing air through themselves and making noises that the other little pieces of meat seemed to understand . " In 1997 , he checked himself into a mental @-@ health hospital , where he was diagnosed with bipolar disorder . The diagnosis helped him understand where the two sides of his music were coming from ; he felt his disorder " gave birth to the two extremes that are Strapping 's City record and Ocean Machine : Biomech . " After being discharged from the hospital , Townsend found that " everything just clicked " and he was able to write his third solo album , Infinity , which he described as " the parent project " of City and Ocean Machine : Biomech , with music influenced by Broadway . Townsend returned to the studio , accompanied by Hoglan , to work on the album , on which Townsend played most of the instruments . Infinity was released in October 1998 . Later in his career , Townsend has cited Infinity as his favorite solo record .

With Infinity , Townsend began to label all albums outside of Strapping Young Lad under his own name , dropping the Ocean Machine moniker , to reduce confusion . He wanted to show that despite the highly varied nature of his projects , they are all simply aspects of his identity . The album Biomech was relabeled and redistributed as Ocean Machine : Biomech , under Townsend 's name , to reflect the new arrangement . Townsend 's bandmates began to play two sets at their shows , one as Strapping Young Lad , and one as the Devin Townsend Band , playing songs from Townsend 's solo albums .

= = = Physicist and Terria ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =

Townsend 's next project took several years to come to fruition . After the creation of the IR8 demo tape , Townsend and Jason Newsted had begun work on a new project called Fizzicist , which they described as " heavier than Strapping Young Lad " . When the IR8 tape was leaked , Newsted 's Metallica bandmates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich learned of the project . Hetfield was " fucking pissed " that Newsted was playing outside the band , and Newsted was prevented by his bandmates from working on any more side projects . With the project stalled , Townsend instead wrote the album himself , entitling it Physicist . Townsend assembled his Strapping Young Lad bandmates to record it , the only time this lineup was featured on a Devin Townsend album . The thrash @-@ influenced Physicist was released in June 2000 , and is generally considered a low point in Townsend 's career . Hoglan and the rest of the band were dissatisfied with the way the sound was mixed , and Townsend considers it his worst album to date .

Feeling he had " ostracized a bunch of fans " with Physicist , Townsend felt he had the chance to make a more personal and honest record . Townsend was inspired one morning while driving across Canada with his band , and looked to write an " introspective " album dedicated to his homeland . He produced and recorded Terria , a " highly illustrated stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness " album , with Gene Hoglan on drums , Craig McFarland on bass and Jamie Meyer on keyboards . Townsend cited Ween 's White Pepper as an inspiration for the album . Terria was released in November 2001 .

= = = Strapping Young Lad through Synchestra ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = =

Townsend 's solo run lasted until 2002 . After a five @-@ year break from recording , Strapping Young Lad reunited to record a new album . Townsend credits the album , Strapping Young Lad , as an emotional response to the attacks of September 11 , 2001 , in the United States . " If the world 's about to blow up , " said Townsend , " let 's write the soundtrack for it . " The album 's lyrics were based more around fear and insecurity than the " hostile " lyrics of City . Musically , Strapping Young Lad was less industrial than City , and more reminiscent of death metal , with a " larger @-@ than @-@ life " rock production style . Townsend cited Front Line Assembly , Grotus , and Samael 's Passage as influences . The self @-@ titled album was released in February 2003 . It received lukewarm reviews , with critics finding it inferior to City , but it was the band 's first charting album , entering at 97th place on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart .

While Strapping Young Lad was being reunited , Townsend formed a new , permanent band " on par with Strapping " to record and tour for his solo releases . The Devin Townsend Band consisted of Brian " Beav " Waddell on guitar , Mike Young on bass , Ryan Van Poederooyen on drums , and Dave Young on keyboards . Townsend performed guitar , vocals , and production , as he did in Strapping Young Lad . Townsend worked on the band 's first album , Accelerated Evolution , at the same time he was working on Strapping Young Lad , spending half the week on one and half on the other . Accelerated Evolution , named for the pace of putting a new band together in under a year , was released a month after Strapping Young Lad . Mike G. of Metal Maniacs called it " the album of the year " , praising it for " the hard @-@ to @-@ accomplish trick of being extreme yet accessible , simultaneously heavy ' n ' rockin ' yet majestic and beautiful . " Prior to the formation of the Devin Townsend Band , Townsend had represented his solo releases live with the Strapping Young Lad lineup ; the band would play one set of Strapping Young Lad songs and one set of Devin Townsend songs . After the release of Accelerated Evolution , Townsend 's two bands toured separately for their separate albums .

Strapping Young Lad began working on their next album , Alien , in March 2004 . Feeling that the band 's previous album did not live up to expectations , Townsend decided to take his music to a new extreme . To prepare for the new album , Townsend stopped taking the medication prescribed to treat his bipolar disorder . " I think that as an artist , in order for me to get to the next plateau , I kind of feel the need to explore things and sometimes that exploration leads you to places that are a little crazy , " he explains . " And Alien was no exception with that . " Although Townsend considered the album an " impenetrable mass of technicality " , it was well received on its release , selling 3 @,@ 697 copies in its first week and appearing on several Billboard charts . Around this time , Townsend also contributed to the soundtrack of the video game Fallout : Brotherhood of Steel .

Shortly thereafter Townsend began putting together the next Devin Townsend Band record , with the working title Human . Townsend intended the album as the more " pleasant " counterpart to Alien . " It 's basically a record about coming back down to earth after being in space with Alien for a while . " The album ended up being renamed Synchestra and was released in January 2006 . Townsend showcased a wide variety of musical styles in Synchestra , blending his trademark " pop metal " with influences from folk , polka , and Middle Eastern music . The final Strapping Young Lad album , The New Black , was released later in 2006 .

= = = Ziltoid the Omniscient and hiatus ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = =

Townsend withdrew from touring to spend time with his family . From home , Townsend completed his second solo ambient album , The Hummer , releasing it exclusively on his website in November 2006 .

In May 2007 , Townsend released Ziltoid the Omniscient , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek rock opera about the eponymous fictional alien . This was truly a solo album ; he programmed the drums using Drumkit from Hell , a software drum machine that uses samples recorded by Tomas Haake of Meshuggah and played all other instruments himself . Shortly after the album 's release , Townsend announced that he no longer planned to tour or make albums with Strapping Young Lad or the Devin Townsend Band . He explained that he was " burnt out on travelling , touring , and self promotion " and wished to do production work , write albums , and spend time with his family without the stress of interviews or touring .

In 2008 , Townsend lent his voice to characters in several episodes of the Adult Swim cartoon Metalocalypse ( see Musician cameos in Metalocalypse for more ) . The original character design for Pickles the Drummer , one of the series ' main characters , bore a striking resemblance to Townsend . The series ' co @-@ creator Brendon Small acknowledged the similarity , and altered the design before the series began . " We made sure he didn 't look like Devin Townsend . We gave him the goatee and the dreadover so he wouldn 't look like that . "

= = = Devin Townsend Project ( 2008 – 2012 ) = = =

After removing himself from the music industry , Townsend cut his trademark hair off and gave up drinking and smoking . Townsend found it " disconcerting " that he had difficulty writing music without drugs , and that he had trouble identifying his purpose as a musician . He spent a year producing albums in absence of writing , but found it unrewarding and decided to " pick up the guitar and just write " . This began a period of " self discovery " where he learned " how to create without drugs " .

Over two years , Townsend wrote over 60 songs , and found that they fit into " four distinct styles " . In March 2009 , Townsend announced his plans for a four @-@ album series called Devin Townsend Project , with the goal of clarifying his musical identity and being " accountable " for the persona he projects to the public . The project 's concept includes a different " theme " and a different group of musicians on each album .

Ki , the first album of the Devin Townsend Project tetralogy was written to " set the stage " for the subsequent albums . Townsend channelled his new @-@ found control and sobriety into Ki , a " tense , quiet " album , which contrasts with much of the music he had been known for . Additional female vocals were provided by Ché Aimee Dorval ( Casualties of Cool ) . Ki was released in May 2009 .

The second entry , a " commercial , yet heavy " album called Addicted , was released in November 2009 and features lead vocals from Townsend and Dutch singer Anneke van Giersbergen . Brian " Beav " Waddell was recruited from the Devin Townsend Band to play bass .

Townsend returned to the stage in January 2010 , touring North America with headliner Between the Buried and Me as well as Cynic and Scale the Summit . This was followed by a headlining tour in Australia and a series of high @-@ profile shows in Europe ( for example co @-@ headlining the Brutal Assault festival in Czech Republic ) . He headlined a North American tour with UK label mates TesseracT supporting , which began in October 2010 , and toured in Europe with support from Aeon Zen and Anneke van Giersbergen .

The third and fourth albums in the Devin Townsend Project series , Deconstruction and Ghost , were released simultaneously on June 21 , 2011 . In December 2011 all four Devin Townsend Project albums with additional material were released as the Contain Us box set . Townsend performed all four of Devin Townsend Project albums in London and recorded them for a DVD box set called By a Thread : Live in London 2011 that was released on June 18 , 2012 . The first three shows were held at the University of London Union , November 10 – 12 , 2011 . Ki , Addicted , and Deconstruction were each performed on one night , respectively . The show for Ghost was held at the Union Chapel , Islington on November 13 , 2011 . These four shows were each entitled " An Evening with the Devin Townsend Project " .

Despite the Devin Townsend Project being originally a four @-@ album series , Townsend decided to continue working under the moniker and released the fifth album , Epicloud on September 18 , 2012 . Again featuring Anneke van Giersbergen on vocals , Epicloud appeared on several European charts , peaking at number 8 in Finland . On October 27 , 2012 , Devin Townsend performed a one @-@ off show covering his musical career called The Retinal Circus at Roundhouse in London . The 3 @-@ hour performance was recorded in high definition and released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on September 30 , 2013 . Also in 2012 , Townsend played bass on the debut Bent Sea album Noistalgia . He also produced the record .

Another project Townsend has mentioned several times between 2009 and 2012 is Obviouser , an album featuring " creepy , bass driven apocalyptic music " created with an " Ampeg rig " and an " Icelandic choir " . Working with many projects simultaneously at that time , Townsend stated in 2012 the Obviouser project is vying for pole position until " he wakes up and says ' he wants to do it ' " .

= = = Casualties of Cool and Z2 ( 2012 – present ) = = =

After Deconstruction and Ghost , Townsend announced a new album , Casualties of Cool , with which he started to work after the release of Epicloud . The album features Ché Aimee Dorval ( from Ki ) on vocals and Morgan Ågren on drums . Townsend described the album sounds like " haunted Johnny Cash songs " and " late night music " , highlighting it will be different than anything he has done before . Townsend referred the music of the album to be " closest to his heart " at this point of his life , and that it is an important and satisfying project he doesn 't want to rush .

The album was completed on November 2013 , and a bonus disc was also made for the album , containing the leftover material from the main album as well as songs from Ghost 2 , the unreleased compilation of leftover tracks from Ghost . Originally in 2012 , Townsend stated that this album will be the sixth and the last album in the Devin Townsend Project series , but he ultimately confirmed that Casualties of Cool is its own project . Townsend also started a crowdfunding campaign through PledgeMusic to support the release of the album . The funding quickly reached its goal , and all additional funds were put directly to Townsend 's upcoming projects . Casualties of Cool was released on May 14 , 2014 . The album was re @-@ issued worldwide on January 15 , 2016 containing an additional DVD with live footage from the 2014 concert at the Union Chapel in London .

From 2009 , Townsend worked on a long @-@ running album project called Z ² , a sequel to the album Ziltoid the Omniscient ( 2007 ) . Originally in 2012 , he teased he " may have just written the heaviest thing he 's ever done " for the album , and told there might a surprising lack of Ziltoid himself appearing on the album . However , in August 2013 , a London @-@ based radio station TeamRock Radio aired the first episode of Ziltoid Radio , a satirical radio show hosted solely by Ziltoid , this being one element of the Z ² project . Townsend also discussed a " ZTV " or " Ziltoid TV " is preceding the album . Later Townsend stated he has found the project hard to schedule and work with amidst touring and writing , stating " it takes a lot of effort " to keep the content with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humour entertaining .

After writing ideas for over 70 songs , Townsend stated he is finally going to finish the whole project , followed by the announcement the album will be released on October 27 , 2014 . The recording process started in May 2014 , and the final project includes the album , a Ziltoid TV program and a live show , with a " big graphic novel comic " and a documentary . The album itself is a double album , with disc one being the main album and disc two featuring Devin Townsend Project material ; according to Townsend , the album 's theme is " Ziltoid against the world " . The Devin Townsend Project disc is called Sky Blue and the Ziltoid disc is called Dark Matters .

After finishing the album , Townsend stated the project was " punishing " and an " absolute nightmare to complete " due to amount of material against tight schedules . He also described the hardship of the project by telling " if he was ever going to start drinking [ again ] , the last months would have been it " , but now " he 's starting to get excited again " . Later , " after the chaos of finishing it had subsided " , Townsend stated he is really satisfied with the result .

Townsend recently discussed at least a year @-@ long hiatus , beginning after the Z ² show taking place at the Royal Albert Hall on April 13 , 2015 . During the indefinitely long break Townsend intends to " recharge his batteries " , " get some inspiration and experiences " and to " see what the next chapter holds " for him .

In 2014 , Devin recorded a ' poppy sounding ' song in Los Angeles with producer Brian Howes , but has decided against releasing . Devin mentioned he is against the project being contrived due to the current hard rock undertones in popular music . He described it as a " lukewarm heavy metal Devin song " . On December 11 , 2015 Townsend announced via Twitter that he was recording vocals for a song by Steve Vai .

As of April 2016 , Devin is in the middle of recording the seventh DTP album , entitled Transcendence at Armoury Studios in Vancouver .

= = Personal life = =

Townsend has been married to Tracy Turner , his girlfriend since he was 19 . She gave birth to their first son , Reyner Liam Johnstan Townsend , on October 4 , 2006 . He is a vegetarian .

= = Musical style = =

= = = Projects = = =

Townsend designed his two main projects , the aggressive Strapping Young Lad and his more melodic solo material , as counterparts . Strapping Young Lad 's music was a diverse mix of extreme metal genres : death metal , thrash metal , black metal and industrial metal . Townsend 's solo material blends many genres and influences , with elements of atmospheric ambient music , hard rock and progressive rock , along with pop metal and arena rock . He described it as " a highly orchestrated type of expansive music based in hard rock and heavy metal . Dense and produced with a large amount of ambient elements . " Despite Strapping Young Lad 's greater mainstream acceptance , Townsend identifies more with his solo material , and has never intended Strapping Young Lad to be the focus of his music .

= = = Production style = = =

As a self @-@ proclaimed " fan of multitracking " , Townsend has developed a trademark production style featuring an atmospheric , layered " wall of sound " . Townsend has drawn critical praise for his productions , which " are always marked by a sense of adventure , intrigue , chaotic atmospherics and overall aural pyrotechnics " , according to Mike G. of Metal Maniacs . Townsend mainly uses Pro Tools to produce his music , alongside other software suites such as Steinberg Cubase , Ableton Live , and Logic Pro . Townsend 's musical ideas and production style have drawn comparisons to Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . Townsend has carried out the mixing and mastering for most of his solo work himself . He has also mixed and remixed work for other artists such as Rammstein , August Burns Red and Misery Signals .

= = = Playing style = = =

Townsend mainly uses Open C tuning for both six and seven string guitar . He now also uses Open B tuning and Open B flat tuning ( Open C tuning tuned a half and a whole step down respectively ) on his six string guitars . Townsend 's technique varies from fingerpicking , power chords and polychords to sweep @-@ picked arpeggios and tapping techniques . He is also known for his heavy use of reverb and delay effects . He has expressed that he has no taste for shred guitar , saying that " Musically it doesn 't do anything for me " and that he only solos when he thinks that he can within the context of the song .

= = = Vocals = = =

Townsend 's employs a variety of vocal techniques in his work , including screaming , growling or even falsetto . His vocal range has been noted to be over 5 octaves ( C2 to F7 ) .

= = = Influences = = =

Townsend draws influence from a wide range of music genres , most prominently heavy metal . Townsend has cited , among others , Judas Priest , W.A.S.P. , Frank Zappa , Broadway musicals , ABBA , new @-@ age music , Zoviet France , King 's X , Morbid Angel , Barkmarket , Grotus , Jane 's Addiction , Metallica , Cop Shoot Cop and Fear Factory as his influences , and has also expressed his admiration for Meshuggah on several occasions , calling them " the best metal band on the planet " . Townsend lists Paul Horn and Ravi Shankar as the " two most important musicians in his life " . The two songs that Townsend credits with changing the way he thought about music are " The Burning Down " by King 's X , and " Up the Beach " by Jane 's Addiction . City was influenced by bands such as Foetus and Cop Shoot Cop , and The New Black 's influences were Meshuggah , and " more traditional metal " like Metallica . He is also influenced by orchestral and classical composers such as John Williams , Trevor Jones and Igor Stravinsky .

= = Discography = =

= Zagreb Synagogue =

The Zagreb Synagogue ( Croatian : Zagrebačka sinagoga ) was the main place of worship for the Jewish community of Zagreb in modern @-@ day Croatia . It was constructed in 1867 in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia within the Austrian Empire , and was used until it was demolished by the fascist authorities in 1941 in the Axis @-@ aligned Independent State of Croatia .

The Moorish Revival synagogue , designed after the Leopoldstädter Tempel in Vienna , was located on modern @-@ day Praška Street . It has been the only purpose @-@ built Jewish house of worship in the history of the city . It was one of the city 's most prominent public buildings , as well as one of the most esteemed examples of synagogue architecture in the region .

Since the 1980s , plans have been made to rebuild the synagogue in its original location . Due to various political circumstances , very limited progress has been made . Major disagreements exist between the government and Jewish organizations as to how much the latter should be involved in decisions about the reconstruction project , including proposed design and character of the new building .

= = History = =

Encouraged by the 1782 Edict of Tolerance of Emperor Joseph II , Jews first permanently settled in Zagreb in the late eighteenth century , and founded the Jewish community in 1806 . In 1809 the Jewish community had a rabbi , and by 1811 it had its own cemetery . As early as 1833 , the community was permitted to buy land for construction of a synagogue , but did not have sufficient money to finance one at the time .

By 1855 , the community had grown to 700 members and , on October 30 of that year , the decision was made to build a new Jewish synagogue . The construction committee , appointed in 1861 , selected and purchased a parcel of land at the corner of Maria Valeria Street ( now Praška Street ) and Ban Jelačić Square , the central town square . However , a new urban planning scheme of 1864 reduced the area available for construction , and the community decided to buy another parcel of 1 @,@ 540 square metres ( 16 @,@ 600 sq ft ) in Maria Valeria Street , approximately 80 metres ( 260 ft ) south of the original location .

= = = Design and construction = = =

Franjo Klein , a Vienna @-@ born Zagreb architect , was commissioned to build the synagogue . Klein , a representative of romantic historicism , modeled the building on the Viennese Leopoldstädter Tempel ( 1858 ) , a Moorish Revival temple designed by Ludwig Förster . It became a prototype for synagogue design in Central Europe . Zagreb Synagogue used the already developed round arch style ( Rundbogenstil ) , but did not adopt Förster 's early oriental motifs .

The composition of the main facade , with its dominant drawn @-@ out and elevated projection and the two symmetrical lower lateral parts , reflects the internal division into three naves . At ground @-@ floor level , the front was distinguished by the three @-@ arch entrance and bifora , whereas the first @-@ floor level had a high triforium with an elevated arch and the quadrifoliate rosettes on the staircases .

The synagogue occupied the greater part of the plot , facing west . It receded from the street regulation @-@ line in accordance with the rule then still enforced in Austria – Hungary , prohibiting non @-@ Catholic places of worship from having a public entrance from the street . The synagogue had a wider and slightly higher central nave and two narrower naves ; unlike Förster 's synagogue in Vienna , it did not have a basilical plan .

Construction began in 1866 and was completed the following year . The synagogue was officially consecrated on September 27 , 1867 , a ceremony attended by representatives of city and regional authorities , Zagreb public figures , and many citizens . It was the first prominent public building in Zagreb 's lower town , and its architecture and scale aroused general admiration and praise .

= = = 19th and early 20th century = = =

With the new synagogue , an organ was introduced into religious service . The small minority of Orthodox Jews found this change to be intolerable , and they began to hold their services separately , in rented rooms .

In the 1880 earthquake , the synagogue suffered minor damage and was repaired the following year .

Largely due to immigration from Hungary , Bohemia and Moravia , the Jewish population of Zagreb quickly grew in size : from 1 @,@ 285 members in 1887 to 3 @,@ 237 members in 1900 , and then to 5 @,@ 970 members in 1921 . The synagogue became too small to accommodate the needs of the ever @-@ growing community . In 1921 a renovation was undertaken to increase the number of available seats . A 1931 plan to increase the capacity to 944 seats was ultimately abandoned . A central heating system was installed in 1933 .

= = = Demolition during World War II = = =

During the 1941 collapse of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia under the Axis invasion in the April War , the Independent State of Croatia was created . It was ruled by the extreme nationalist Ustaša regime . The Ustaša quickly started with the systematic persecution of the Jews , modeled after the Nazi Germany approach , and at times even more brutal . Racial laws were introduced , Jewish property was confiscated , and the Jews were subjected to mass arrests and deportations to death camps in Croatia and abroad .

In October 1941 , the newly installed mayor of Zagreb , Ivan Werner , issued a decree ordering the demolition of the Praška Street synagogue , ostensibly because it did not fit into the city 's master plan . The demolition began on October 10 , 1941 , proceeding slowly so as not to damage the adjacent buildings ; it was finished by April 1942 . The whole process was photographed for propaganda purposes , and the photographs were shown to the public at an antisemitic exhibition first held in Zagreb . It was also shown in Dubrovnik , Karlovac , Sarajevo , Vukovar and Zemun , as an illustration of the " solution of the Jewish question in Croatia " .

A fragment of the film footage of the demolition was discovered five decades later by the film director Lordan Zafranović during research for his 1993 documentary feature , Decline of the Century : Testimony of L. Z. ; 41 seconds of the film survives . This footage was also shown in Mira Wolf 's documentary , The Zagreb Synagogue 1867 @-@ 1942 ( 1996 ) , produced by Croatian Radiotelevision .

The synagogue 's eight valuable Torah scrolls were saved due to an intervention by Leonardo Grivičić , an entrepreneur and industrialist who lived next door from Mile Budak , a minister in the Ustaša government . He was also close to Poglavnik Ante Pavelić and the Third Reich 's ambassador to Croatia , Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau . Although Grivičić did not have a significant political role in the Independent State of Croatia , he was considered trustworthy . On October 9 , 1941 , he learned about the regime 's plan to start the demolition of the synagogue on the following morning . By that evening , Grivičić secretly relayed the information to the synagogue 's chief cantor , Grüner , and during the night , the Torah scrolls were moved to safety .

Shortly after the destruction of the synagogue , the Catholic archbishop of Zagreb Aloysius Stepinac delivered a homily in which he said : " A house of God of any faith is a holy thing , and whoever harms it will pay with their lives . In this world and the next they will be punished . " .

The only surviving fragments of the building — the wash @-@ basin and two memorial tables from the forecourt , as well as some parts of a column — were saved by Ivo Kraus . He pulled them from the rubble shortly after the end of World War II . The wash @-@ basin and the memorial tables are now in the Zagreb City Museum . The column fragments are kept by the Jewish Community of Zagreb .

= = Reconstruction efforts = =

= = = 1945 – 1990 = = =

Only one in five Croatian Jews survived the Holocaust of World War II . Between 1948 and 1952 , nearly one half of the surviving members of Jewish Community of Zagreb opted for emigration to Israel , and the community dropped to one @-@ tenth of its pre @-@ war membership . The Yugoslav communist regime nationalized virtually all real estate owned by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , including the plot in Praška Street . All this , combined with the new regime 's general hostility toward religion , made reconstruction of the synagogue nearly impossible .

After World War II , the vacant site of the former synagogue was used as a makeshift volleyball court . The volleyball court made way for a prefabricated department store building , constructed in 1959 . The department store was completely destroyed in a fire on December 31 , 1980 , and was subsequently dismantled . Despite some earlier ideas about a permanent department store building on the same spot , and a 1977 architecture competition for its design , no construction took place . Instead , the parcel was turned into a parking lot , which it remains to this day .

After 1986 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb began to consider a Jewish cultural center and a memorial synagogue . Two architects , Branko Silađin and Boris Morsan , both of whom participated in the failed 1977 department store competition , came forward on their own accord and contributed their ideas for a new Jewish center in Praška Street . Silađin 's vision was ultimately not accepted by the Jewish community ; instead , plans were being made for the construction of the cultural center and a synagogue , following an international architecture competition . However , despite support for the project both within Yugoslavia and abroad , the issuance of necessary permits was either stalled or denied by the municipal government . The project was not developed .

= = = 1990 – present = = =

By the autumn of 1990 , after the first democratic elections in Croatia , the municipal government finally approved the project . An architectural competition was planned for January 1991 . Political turmoil in the country , followed by the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Croatian War of Independence ( 1991 – 1995 ) , caused the project to be put on hold again . In 1994 President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman said to Jakov Bienenfeld , Council member of the Zagreb Jewish community , that they should build the new synagogue at the site of the former synagogue , which will be funded by the Croatian government . Bienenfeld declined the offer believing to be inappropriate when 1800 Catholic churches are left destroyed at the time , during Croatian War of Independence .

In the meantime , the Jewish Community of Zagreb sought to legally reacquire its property . The Croatian denationalization law was enacted in 1996 , and the Praška Street parcel was finally returned to the community on December 31 , 1999 . By 2000 , reconstruction activities were invigorated again . An investment study was submitted to the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb in July 2004 and revised in October 2004 . The architecture competition was planned for 2005 . However , a 2005 rift in the Jewish Community of Zagreb resulted in formation of a splinter Jewish community , Bet Israel , led by Ivo and Slavko Goldstein .

In September 2006 , the Government of Croatia formed a construction workgroup . It was decided that the project , estimated at the time at HRK 173 million ( US $ 30 million ) , would be partially financed by the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb , and that both Jewish organizations should be represented in the workgroup . However , the involvement of Bet Israel was deemed unacceptable by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , which is the sole owner of the Praška Street property , and which also sees itself as the sole legal representative of the Zagreb Jewish community . As a consequence , the community and its president , Ognjen Kraus , refused further participation in the project under the set conditions .

Further disagreements existed about the design and character of the new building . Facsimile reconstruction , while feasible , was not seriously contemplated . There was a general agreement that the new building should also have a cultural as well as commercial purpose . While the Jewish Community of Zagreb envisioned a modern design reminiscent of the original synagogue , the Bet Israel advocated building a replica of the original synagogue 's facade , perceiving it as having a powerful symbolism . Opinions of architects , urban planners , and art historians were also divided along similar lines .

In 2014 and 2015 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb presented new plans for a 10 @,@ 600 m2 ( 114 @,@ 000 sq ft ) multi @-@ purpose Jewish center and synagogue in Praška Street .

= 1806 Great Coastal hurricane =

The 1806 Great Coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the East Coast of the United States which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of Massachusetts . First observed east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August , the hurricane arrived at the Bahamas by 19 August . The disturbance continued to drift northward and made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina on 22 August . The storm soon moved out to sea as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , persisting off of New England before dissipating south of Nova Scotia on 25 August as a markedly weaker storm . Several French and British military ships were damaged out at sea . In the Carolinas , salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries suffered considerably , and several individuals were killed . Wharves and vessels endured moderate damage , with many ships wrecked on North Carolinan barrier islands . A majority of the deaths caused by the hurricane occurred aboard the Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , with 21 of the ship 's 48 passengers killed and $ 171 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) in damage to its cargo . Upon arriving in New England , reports indicated extreme rainfall , though no deaths were reported ; in all , the hurricane killed more than 24 individuals along the entirety of its track .

= = Meteorological history = =

The Great Coastal hurricane of 1806 was first noted far east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August . Weather historian David M. Ludlum followed the disturbance 's track to the Bahamas by 19 August ; intense winds persisted until 21 August , however , approximately 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the Bahamian island of Eleuthera . Steering currents brought the storm northward , and it approached Charleston , South Carolina on 22 August , where a generally easterly flow preceded the storm indicated its passage far east of the city . The hurricane made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina later that day , though the earliest impacts from the storm started several days earlier , with gusts initially toward the northeast but later curving southwestward . Reports of similar wind shifts throughout the region suggested that the gale persisted , stationary , for several hours . It eventually moved back out to sea while south of Norfolk , Virginia , departing the region on 24 August . The hurricane maintained 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while offshore , equivalent to a Category 2 system on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . While offshore New England , the gale featured a swath of winds 90 mi ( 150 km ) wide , and was last observed just south of Nova Scotia on 25 August slightly weaker , with sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) .

= = Impact = =

The hurricane damaged several vessels while still drifting at sea , dispersing and damaging Jérôme Bonaparte 's fleet and dismasting the 74 @-@ gun French ship of the line Impétueux , which later landed near Cape Henry .

In Charleston , South Carolina , the hurricane washed aground several ships and uprooted numerous trees , though damage to the city harbor was minimal . The lighthouse on North Island flanking Winyah Bay collapsed under high winds , and in Georgetown proper , the hurricane was considered to be the worst since the 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane , despite its storm surge being of a lesser size . A cotton field covering 94 acres was ruined nearby . At Smithville , North Carolina , numerous ships experienced damage , while considerable destruction to structures was observed , with many wharves wrecked . Meanwhile , at Wilmington , the hurricane inflicted widespread damage , with many wharves severely damaged , and significant losses sustained by salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries . The gable sections of three masonry houses were destroyed by wind or water , and wooden houses suffered especially badly , with many obliterated and those under construction flattened . One individual died after a wall collapsed and several slaves were killed , one by drowning , at local plantations . At Bald Head Island , the United States Revenue Cutter Service vessel Governor Williams was stripped of its foremast and subsequently ran ashore before being repaired and continuing on its journey . A second boat owned by the agency , the Diligence , was tethered at port in Wilmington and endured no damage ; similarly , little impact occurred at New Bern . Throughout the storm , several vessels and supplies of stranded sailors were driven aground along the North Carolinan coast . On the Bogue Banks , the remains of the Adolphus and Atlantic were discovered , and at the Core Banks , a dead body was washed ashore , partially eaten by fish .

Moderate damage occurred upon the hurricane 's arrival in Norfolk , Virginia . Winds toppled a number of newly built structures and chimneys , uprooted trees and fences , and washed two watercraft aground . After the storm , alterations to the shoreline around the Chesapeake Bay permitted the full establishment of a town at Willoughby Spit . The Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom was caught in the hurricane while offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , en route to New York City from Charleston , but was struck by a large wave which overturned the ship , resulting in the deaths of 21 of its 48 passengers and the loss of $ 171 @,@ 000 of its $ 180 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) cargo . The vessel only barely stayed afloat , with 30 bales of cotton preventing it from sinking entirely ; survivors were ferried to New York by the British brig Swift , which had then been traveling toward St. John 's , Newfoundland . The hurricane produced strong gusts within the vicinity of New York City , and at Belleville , New Jersey , several peach trees were defoliated and uprooted . Cape Cod , Massachusetts was struck by heavy rain and observed minor damage to its port . At Edgartown , meanwhile , an individual witnessed torrential rainfall , recording that a barrel was filled with 30 in ( 76 cm ) of water , and estimating total rainfall reached 36 in ( 91 cm ) there , where the storm devastated local crops and beached five cargo ships . At Brewster , meanwhile , severe damage to crops and salterns was noted , and 18 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall was recorded . Reports in Boston , however , indicate more modest rainfall amounts , with a precipitation rate of 0 @.@ 40 in ( 1 @.@ 0 cm ) per hour noted .

= Forward Intelligence Team =

Forward Intelligence Teams ( FITs ) are two or more police officers who are deployed by UK police forces to gather intelligence on the ground and in some circumstances , to disrupt activists and deter anti @-@ social behaviour . They use cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . An unsuccessful legal challenge has been made against their use of overt surveillance , but in 2009 the Court of Appeal ruled that they must justify retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . Any retained information is recorded on the Crimint database .

Political activists have criticised FITs and said that they feel the aim of FIT deployment during protests is to prevent legal protests . Journalists have also complained that FITs attempt to stop them photographing protests and that they conduct surveillance of journalists . A campaign group , Fitwatch , formed in 2007 that aim to obstruct FITs and conduct sousveillance on the officers . Two members of the group were arrested at the 2008 Climate Camp on obstruction charges . A similar police surveillance unit , the Video Intelligence Unit is operated by Greater Manchester Police . In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing .

= = History and Purpose = =

FITs were first formed in the early 1990s , as part of the Public Order Intelligence Unit ( CO11 ) , a section of the Public Order Branch of the Metropolitan Police . They initially targeted football fans , hunt saboteurs and political protesters ( since at least 1996 ) , using cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . The police officers wear full uniform , and are intended to be a highly visible presence . Their uniform is sometimes different from normal police officers in that the upper half of their yellow fluorescent jackets is blue . Civilian photographers are also employed by the police to work alongside FITs . According to Scotland Yard , the aim of FIT teams at protests is to record evidence of protesters in case disorder occurs later on at a protest .

More recently the teams ' purpose has been extended to routine police work on low @-@ level crime and anti @-@ social behaviour and police forces throughout the UK now have their own FITs . Despite the implication in their name that their function is to merely gather intelligence , they are also intended to have a deterrent effect . This approach has been reported to work in reducing reports of anti @-@ social behaviour at times when FITs are deployed in specific neighbourhoods . Jacqui Smith , then Home Secretary praised Operation Leopard that used FITs to target youths , in Laindon , Essex stating :

" Operation Leopard is exactly the sort of intensive policing that can bring persistent offenders to their senses ... Relentless filming of them and their associates throughout the day and night "

Linda Catt , an activist , has suggested that their tactics are " designed to intimidate people and prevent lawful dissent " . This view is echoed by a police debriefing of their operations at the 2008 Camp for Climate Action which praised FITs at the event for disrupting activists .

In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing . The move was influenced by the discovery that information collected by FITs , included that which was unrelated to suspected crimes , for example recording who made speeches at demonstrations .

In October 2010 , FIT officers in plain clothes were spotted by a press photographer at a protest against companies avoiding tax , despite Commander Bob Broadhurst telling a parliamentary committee in May 2009 , that only uniformed officers distinguishable by their blue and yellow jackets were involved in gathering intelligence at protests . The Metropolitan Police told The Guardian that it was necessary to deploy plain @-@ clothed officers to " gather information to provide us with a relevant and up @-@ to @-@ date intelligence picture of what to expect " . It was the first time that FITs are known to have been deployed in plain clothes .

= = Legal issues = =

Liberty brought a judicial review of the overt surveillance practices in May 2008 , which was decided in favour of the police , however the police were asked to clarify their evidence to the Court of Appeal , following an investigation by The Guardian newspaper .

In May 2009 , the Court of Appeal ruled that photographs collected by FITs of people who have not committed a criminal offence can no longer be kept . The ruling was made after Andrew Wood , an arms trade activist , was photographed after challenging the management of Reed Elsevier at their AGM over them organising arms trade exhibitions . Wood argued that police had harassed him and infringed his right to privacy by photographing him . Lord Collins of Mapesbury said that the police presence had a " chilling effect " on people who were protesting lawfully . FITs have not been banned but they must now justify the retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . As a result of the ruling the Metropolitan Police 's public order unit , CO11 was forced to delete 40 % of the photos of protesters that it held .

In a report about the policing of the 2009 G @-@ 20 London summit protests , Denis O 'Connor , the chief inspector of constabulary , stated that the routine use of FITs at protests " raises fundamental privacy issues and should be reviewed " . He also said that there was " confusion " over the role of FITs and advised that the Home Office should issue guidance over the legality of the surveillance of protesters and the retention of images .

= = Information processing = =

The information that FITs collect is stored on the Crimint database , which is used daily by police officers to catalogue criminal intelligence . People are listed by name allowing police to determine which events individuals have attended . Photographs obtained by FITs are used to produce " spotter cards " consisting of people 's photographs which allows officers to identify people at future events that they attend . For £ 10 , people are able to obtain a list of protests that they have attended from the data held on Crimint under laws in the Data Protection Act 1998 .

= = Academic response = =

A 2006 report , The Economics of Mass Surveillance calculated that the use of FITs at mass gatherings involves gathering intelligence on roughly 1 @,@ 200 people to record the actions of one person . The report also noted that most of the people on " spotter cards " , used by the police photographers , were those involved in the organisation of protests and that FITs also attend meetings where demonstrations are organised .

= = Criticism = =

Fitwatch ( formed in early 2007 ) campaign against FITs by actively obstructing their operations , and by passively opposing their operations by photographing units ( a form of sousveillance ) .

In June 2009 , The Guardian released video evidence recorded by a FIT at the 2008 Climate Camp of alleged police brutality against two female members of Fitwatch . The women had asked police officers to reveal their shoulder numbers , as at least four officers had not displayed them . The women attempted to photograph the police officers for evidence , but were forced to the ground , restrained with handcuffs , and had their legs bound with straps . They were then placed in restraint positions , arrested , charged and held in custody for four days , including three days in HMP Bronzefield , before they were released on bail . The police later retracted all the charges against the women . The women lodged a complaint with the IPCC over the incident . The journalist George Monbiot commented on this case , saying that " the police are turning activism into a crime " and that " the FITs ' methods appear to have been lifted from a Stasi training manual " . He claimed that " anybody who is politically active is filmed , identified , monitored , logged , and cross @-@ checked " . A police debrief into the operation at Kingsnorth praised the deployment of FITs saying that they were " highly effective and gained good intelligence and disruption " .

Three members of Fitwatch were convicted for obstructing FIT officers in June 2008 as they attempted to photograph those attending a No Borders meeting in London . In July 2010 the Inner London Crown Court overturned the men 's convictions , with the judge stating that the protesters ' human rights may have been violated by the FIT officers .

On 15 November 2010 , the hosts of the Fitwatch blog were asked by the Police National E @-@ Crime Unit to take down the website due to it " being used to undertake criminal activities " . The request came after a post on the blog after the 2010 student protest in London , which advised students of actions they should take if they were concerned that they were photographed at the demonstration , such as cutting their hair and disposing of clothing they were wearing . Emily Apple , one of the founders of the site told The Guardian , " Nothing in that post [ giving guidance to student protesters ] has not been said before on our blog or on other sites " . On 17 November 2010 , the Fitwatch website returned , hosted on a web server outside of the UK .

The National Union of Journalists ( NUJ ) has criticised FITs for their surveillance and sometimes violent harassment of working journalists . Marc Vallee , who was hospitalised by police after documenting a protest , has said that the teams limit freedom of the press and called on the Home Office to confirm that the police had no right to restrict the work of photojournalists . Bob Broadhurst , who is in charge of public order policing at the Metropolitan Police , said in a statement to the NUJ in 2008 that journalists , " on the production of a valid form of accreditation will be able to continue with their work " . The NUJ are to make a formal complaint to the Information Commissioner due to the Metropolitan Police failing to provide details on the surveillance of journalists under the Freedom of Information Act . Bob Broadhurst told photographers at an NUJ conference that he had no faith in the National Press Card ( a form of press pass ) despite journalists needing to prove that they are bona @-@ fide newsgatherers to an independent authority before they are issued .

The BBC TV series Panorama produced an episode entitled What ever happened to people power ? in July 2009 which discussed the use of FITs in targeting activists and journalists .

= = Similar police units = =

Greater Manchester Police operate a Video Intelligence Unit , whose plainclothes officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences . They also record footage of people involved in anti @-@ social behaviour on the streets . The aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law . Video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on TV screens in rooms where officers complete their paperwork . Footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto YouTube in an attempt to catch people they believe have reoffended . This has resulted in several offenders being sent back to prison after breaching licence conditions . Since the unit was launched in 2006 more than 900 people have been filmed by the unit . Not all of these people are suspects in crime however , people can be filmed if they are thought to associate with prolific offenders or if they have been stopped in an area of high crime under suspicious circumstances . Kieran Walsh , a civil liberties lawyer , said the unit 's work " could have implications " for the force under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights - the right to privacy . He believes that filming must be a " proportionate and reasonable " response to a crime and that this does not appear to be the case as people are being targeted over what they might do in the future . It is uncertain as to how long data collected by the unit is to be kept but GMP currently anticipate it will be stored for 5 years .

= Trinsey v. Pennsylvania =

Trinsey v. Pennsylvania 941 F.2d 224 was a case decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit that confirmed the validity of special elections held without a primary under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the United States Constitution . The case came about due to the death of H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , in a plane crash on April 4 , 1991 . Under the Seventeenth Amendment , state legislatures may give the Governor the power to appoint officials to fill temporarily vacant Senate seats until a special election can be held , and Pennsylvanian law contained a statute executing this and requiring no primaries for the special election . Instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidates . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a voter and potential candidate , asked the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania to declare the statute unconstitutional as a violation on the Fourteenth and Seventeenth amendments , because the lack of a primary removed his right to properly vote for candidates and delegated that power to political parties .

After deciding that the statute 's subject matter necessitated the strict scrutiny approach , the District Court decided on June 10 , 1991 that it was an unconstitutional violation of the right to vote for and select Senate candidates . This decision was appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , who decided against the use of the strict scrutiny approach and , in its absence , ruled that the statute was not a violation of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments . Academics have been critical of both the decision reached and the approach used , with one suggesting that the " substantial state interests " test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller would be more appropriate .

= = Background = =

On April 4 , 1991 H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , was killed when his chartered plane collided with a helicopter inspecting its landing gear . Under the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the legislature of each state has the power to permit the governor to fill the vacant seat until a special election can be held . In Pennsylvania , this power had been delegated , and Governor Robert P. Casey signed a writ on May 13 , 1991 , declaring November 5 the date for a special election and temporarily appointing Harris Wofford to fill Heinz 's now @-@ vacant seat . Under Pennsylvanian law , there was no need for a primary in such a situation ; instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidate , who would run in the special election . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a member of the Pennsylvanian electorate and potential candidate , challenged the constitutionality of this law , claiming that it violated his rights under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments .

Trinsey argued that , by failing to allow for primaries , the state legislation prevented him from getting to select a candidate of his choice , and that this violated the Fourteenth Amendment ; the terms of the statute ( and absence of a requirement for primaries ) also allegedly infringed the rights of the electorate under the Seventeenth Amendment , which required the selection of Senators by popular vote ; Trinsey 's complaint was that the legislation had effectively delegated the power to choose candidates to political parties rather than the electorate . Accordingly , Trinsey filed a motion for a declaratory judgment to state that the statute was unconstitutional , and also requested that Wofford be removed from his seat . Counsel for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , joined by the office of the Governor , argued that the constitution did not require the holding of primary elections to fill vacancies , and that the statute " protected valid and compelling state interests in protecting the validity of the electoral process and limiting the term of a [ governor- ] appointed Senator " .

= = Judgment = =

The case was first heard in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania , where , following oral arguments , the judge dismissed both Trinsey 's motion to remove Wofford and the Commonwealth 's motion to dismiss . On June 10 , 1991 , however , the District Court declared the statute unconstitutional , stating that it violated both the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments due to the failure to ensure " popular participation " through the use of primary elections . This decision was reached following an analysis of the legislative history of the Seventeenth Amendment and electoral processes ; based on this analysis , the court concluded that the Pennsylvanian use of a nomination process before a special election implied a right to vote , which was violated by the lack of a primary and necessitated a strict scrutinising of the legislation . After considering the evidence , the court concluded that " the interests the Commonwealth put forth in support of the statute could not outweigh the infringement of the right to vote " , leading to the conclusion that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional .

With this " the public , press and political parties quickly turned their attention to the case " , with the Republican State Committee of Pennsylvania ( supported by their Democratic counterparts ) and several prominent politicians intervening . They moved to expedite an appeal to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit . In a unanimous opinion , the Court of Appeals ( consisting of Sloviter , Greenberg and Seitz ) confirmed that there was no restriction of any fundamental right , and therefore that the strict scrutiny process did not need to be applied . In the absence of this process , they held that the Seventeenth Amendment did not require primary elections to fill vacancies , and more broadly gave state legislatures wide discretion as to how to hold elections ; as such , the statute did not violate the constitution . In December 1991 the Supreme Court denied a writ of certiorari , presumably because the special election had already taken place in November and the issue was thus moot .

= = Significance = =

Laura E. Little , writing in the Temple Law Review , notes the dearth of guidance for either the District Court or Court of Appeals in Trinsey , with no " explicit direction and no direct precedent " from either the constitutional provisions or prior case law to rely on . In the absence of guidance , the Court of Appeals took a narrow view of the issues , something she criticises . Under Pennsylvanian law , primaries are mandatory in all other elections , and in her opinion the lack of a primary in this case should have been judged to be a violation of Trinsey 's fundamental rights . Combined with the purpose of the Seventeenth Amendment - to ensure direct election - this should have led to the application of the strict scrutiny test , and the decision that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional . Kevin M. Gold instead suggests that the test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller , an analogous decision over the validity of New York state electoral law . In Valenti , the judiciary applied the " substantial state interests " test , which involves simply looking at whether the statute in question furthers the interests of the states , who under the Seventeenth Amendment are given some discretion as to the electoral process they use .

= Michael Jordan =

Michael Jeffrey Jordan ( born February 17 , 1963 ) , also known by his initials , MJ , is an American retired professional basketball player . He is also a businessman , and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets . Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards . His biography on the NBA website states : " By acclamation , Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . " Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s .

Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina . He was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982 . Jordan joined the NBA 's Chicago Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick . He quickly emerged as a league star , entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring . His leaping ability , demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests , earned him the nicknames " Air Jordan " and " His Airness " . He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball . In 1991 , he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls , and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993 , securing a " three @-@ peat " . Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 – 94 NBA season to pursue a career in baseball , he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996 , 1997 , and 1998 , as well as a then @-@ record 72 regular @-@ season wins in the 1995 – 96 NBA season . Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999 , but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards .

Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Awards , ten All @-@ NBA First Team designations , nine All @-@ Defensive First Team honors , fourteen NBA All @-@ Star Game appearances , three All @-@ Star Game MVP Awards , ten scoring titles , three steals titles , six NBA Finals MVP Awards , and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award . Among his numerous accomplishments , Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average ( 30 @.@ 12 points per game ) and highest career playoff scoring average ( 33 @.@ 45 points per game ) . In 1999 , he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN , and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century . Jordan is a two @-@ time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame , having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career , and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ( " The Dream Team " ) . He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015 .

Jordan is also known for his product endorsements . He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers , which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today . Jordan also starred in the 1996 feature film Space Jam as himself . In 2006 , he became part @-@ owner and head of basketball operations for the then @-@ Charlotte Bobcats , buying a controlling interest in 2010 . In 2015 , as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises , Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history and the world 's second @-@ richest African @-@ American .

= = Early years = =

Jordan was born in Brooklyn , New York , the son of Deloris ( née Peoples ) , who worked in banking , and James R. Jordan , Sr. , an equipment supervisor . His family moved to Wilmington , North Carolina , when he was a toddler .

Jordan is the fourth of five children . He has two older brothers , Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan , Jr . , one older sister , Deloris , and a younger sister , Roslyn . Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army .

= = High school career = =

Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington , where he anchored his athletic career by playing baseball , football , and basketball . He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year , but at 5 ' 11 " ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) , he was deemed too short to play at that level . His taller friend , Harvest Leroy Smith , was the only sophomore to make the team .

Motivated to prove his worth , Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad , and tallied several 40 @-@ point games . The following summer , he grew four inches ( 10 cm ) and trained rigorously . Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster , Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play . As a senior , he was selected to the McDonald 's All @-@ American Team after averaging a triple @-@ double : 29 @.@ 2 points , 11 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 10 @.@ 1 assists .

Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs , including Duke , North Carolina , South Carolina , Syracuse , and Virginia . In 1981 , Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina , where he majored in cultural geography .

= = College career = =

As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team @-@ oriented system , he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13 @.@ 4 points per game ( ppg ) on 53 @.@ 4 % shooting ( field goal percentage ) . He made the game @-@ winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown , which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing . Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career . During his three seasons at North Carolina , he averaged 17 @.@ 7 ppg on 54 @.@ 0 % shooting , and added 5 @.@ 0 rebounds per game ( rpg ) . He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All @-@ American First Team in both his sophomore ( 1983 ) and junior ( 1984 ) seasons . After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984 , Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft . The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick , after Hakeem Olajuwon ( Houston Rockets ) and Sam Bowie ( Portland Trail Blazers ) . One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center . However , the Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center , but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan , in part because Portland already had a guard with similar skills to Jordan , Clyde Drexler . ESPN , citing Bowie 's injury @-@ laden college career , named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history . Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986 .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Early NBA years ( 1984 – 1987 ) = = =

During his first season in the NBA , Jordan averaged 28 @.@ 2 ppg on 51 @.@ 5 % shooting . He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas , and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading " A Star Is Born " just over a month into his professional career . Jordan was also voted in as an All @-@ Star starter by the fans in his rookie season . Controversy arose before the All @-@ Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players , led by Isiah Thomas , were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving . This led to a so @-@ called " freeze @-@ out " on Jordan , where players refused to pass him the ball throughout the game . The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play , and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year . The Bulls finished the season 38 – 44 , and lost in the first round of the playoffs in four games to the Milwaukee Bucks .

Jordan 's second season was cut short by a broken foot in the third game of the season , which caused him to miss 64 games . Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 – 52 record ( at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history ) , the Bulls made the playoffs . Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return . Against a 1985 – 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history , Jordan set the still @-@ unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2 . The Celtics , however , managed to sweep the series .

Jordan had recovered completely by the 1986 – 87 season , and had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history . He became the only player other than Wilt Chamberlain to score 3 @,@ 000 points in a season , averaging a league high 37 @.@ 1 points on 48 @.@ 2 % shooting . In addition , Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess , as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocks in a season . Despite Jordan 's success , Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award . The Bulls reached 40 wins , and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year . However , they were again swept by the Celtics .

= = = Pistons roadblock ( 1987 – 1990 ) = = =

Jordan led the league in scoring again in the 1987 – 88 season , averaging 35 @.@ 0 ppg on 53 @.@ 5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award . He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year , as he had averaged 1 @.@ 6 blocks and a league high 3 @.@ 16 steals per game . The Bulls finished 50 – 32 , and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career , as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games . However , the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons , who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the " Bad Boys " .

In the 1988 – 89 season , Jordan again led the league in scoring , averaging 32 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 8 % shooting from the field , along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game ( apg ) . The Bulls finished with a 47 – 35 record , and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals , defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way . The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series . However , the Pistons again defeated the Bulls , this time in six games , by utilizing their " Jordan Rules " method of guarding Jordan , which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball .

The Bulls entered the 1989 – 90 season as a team on the rise , with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant , and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson . Jordan averaged a league leading 33 @.@ 6 ppg on 52 @.@ 6 % shooting , to go with 6 @.@ 9 rpg and 6 @.@ 3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 – 27 record . They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers . However , despite pushing the series to seven games , the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season .

= = = First three @-@ peat ( 1991 – 1993 ) = = =

In the 1990 – 91 season , Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31 @.@ 5 ppg on 53 @.@ 9 % shooting , 6 @.@ 0 rpg , and 5 @.@ 5 apg for the regular season . The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season . With Scottie Pippen developing into an All @-@ Star , the Bulls had elevated their play . The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs . They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival , the Detroit Pistons , awaited them . However , this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four @-@ game sweep . In an unusual ending to the fourth and final game , Isiah Thomas led his team off the court before the final seconds had concluded . Most of the Pistons went directly to their locker room instead of shaking hands with the Bulls .

The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face Magic Johnson and James Worthy and beat the Los Angeles Lakers four games to one , compiling an outstanding 15 – 2 playoff record along the way . Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when , attempting a dunk , Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid @-@ air to lay the shot in . In his first Finals appearance , Jordan posted per game averages of 31 @.@ 2 points on 56 % shooting from the field , 11 @.@ 4 assists , 6 @.@ 6 rebounds , 2 @.@ 8 steals and 1 @.@ 4 blocks . Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award , and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy .

Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 – 92 season , establishing a 67 – 15 record , topping their franchise record from 1990 to 91 . Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 4 rebounds and 6 @.@ 1 assists per game on 52 % shooting . After winning a physical 7 @-@ game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games , the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals . The media , hoping to recreate a Magic – Bird rivalry , highlighted the similarities between " Air " Jordan and Clyde " The Glide " during the pre @-@ Finals hype . In the first game , Jordan scored a Finals @-@ record 35 points in the first half , including a record @-@ setting six three @-@ point field goals . After the sixth three @-@ pointer , he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside . Marv Albert , who broadcast the game , later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying , " I can 't believe I 'm doing this . " The Bulls went on to win Game 1 , and defeat the Blazers in six games . Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35 @.@ 8 ppg , 4 @.@ 8 rpg , and 6 @.@ 5 apg , while shooting 53 % from the floor .

In the 1992 – 93 season , despite a 32 @.@ 6 ppg , 6 @.@ 7 rpg and 5 @.@ 5 apg campaign , Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley . Coincidentally , Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals . The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game @-@ winning shot by John Paxson and a last @-@ second block by Horace Grant , but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader . He averaged a Finals @-@ record 41 @.@ 0 ppg during the six @-@ game series , and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards . He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series , including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games . With his third Finals triumph , Jordan capped off a seven @-@ year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships , but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non @-@ basketball hassles in his life .

= = = = Gambling controversy = = = =

During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993 , controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City , New Jersey , the night before a game against the New York Knicks . In that same year , he admitted to having to cover $ 57 @,@ 000 in gambling losses , and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $ 1 @.@ 25 million from Jordan on the golf course . In 2005 , Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions . Jordan stated , " Yeah , I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope . Is that compulsive ? Yeah , it depends on how you look at it . If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family , then yeah . " When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family , Jordan replied , " No . "

= = = First retirement and baseball career ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = =

On October 6 , 1993 , Jordan announced his retirement , citing a loss of desire to play the game . Jordan later stated that the murder of his father earlier in the year also shaped his decision . Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23 , 1993 , at a highway rest area in Lumberton , North Carolina , by two teenagers , Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery . The assailants were traced from calls they made on James Jordan 's cellular phone , caught , convicted , and sentenced to life in prison . Jordan was close to his father ; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work . He later adopted it as his own signature , displaying it each time he drove to the basket . In 1996 , he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father .

In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game , Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992 . The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever @-@ growing celebrity status . Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world .

Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7 , 1994 . He reported to spring training in Sarasota , Florida , and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31 , 1994 . Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father , who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player . The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf , who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball .

In 1994 , Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons , a Double @-@ A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox , batting .202 with three home runs , 51 runs batted in , 30 stolen bases , 114 strikeouts , 51 base on balls , and 11 errors . He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League , batting .252 against the top prospects in baseball . On November 1 , 1994 , his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center .

= = = " I 'm back " : Return to the NBA ( 1995 ) = = =

In the 1993 – 94 season , the Bulls , without Jordan , achieved a 55 – 27 record , and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs . But the 1994 – 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier . Struggling at mid @-@ season to ensure a spot in the playoffs , Chicago was 31 – 31 at one point in mid @-@ March . The team received help , however , when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls .

In March 1995 , Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike , as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player . On March 18 , 1995 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two @-@ word press release : " I 'm back . " The next day , Jordan wore jersey number 45 ( his number with the Barons ) , as his familiar 23 had been retired in his honor following his first retirement . He took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis , scoring 19 points . The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975 .

Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half , Jordan played well upon his return , making a game @-@ winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back . He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28 , 1995 . Boosted by Jordan 's comeback , the Bulls went 13 – 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic . At the end of Game 1 , Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind , leading to the game @-@ winning basket for the Magic ; he would later comment that Jordan " didn 't look like the old Michael Jordan " and that " No. 45 doesn 't explode like No. 23 used to . " Jordan then returned to wearing his old number in the next game , scoring 38 points in a Bulls win . The Bulls were fined $ 30 @,@ 000 for the game : $ 25 @,@ 000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA and $ 5 @,@ 000 for Jordan wearing different shoes . Jordan averaged 31 points per game in the series , but Orlando won the series in 6 games .

= = = Second three @-@ peat ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = =

Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat , Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 – 96 season . Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman , the Bulls dominated the league , starting the season 41 – 3 , and eventually finishing with the then @-@ best regular season record in NBA history ( later surpassed by the 2015 – 16 Golden State Warriors ) : 72 – 10 . Jordan led the league in scoring with 30 @.@ 4 ppg , and won the league 's regular season and All @-@ Star Game MVP awards .

In the playoffs , the Bulls lost only three games in four series ( Miami Heat 3 @-@ 0 , New York Knicks 4 @-@ 1 , Orlando Magic 4 @-@ 0 ) . They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 @-@ 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship . Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time , surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards . He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All @-@ Star Game , regular season and NBA Finals , Willis Reed having achieved the first , during the 1969 – 70 season . Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder , and it was won on Father 's Day , Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title , including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball .

In the 1996 – 97 season , the Bulls started out 69 – 11 , but missed out on a second consecutive 70 @-@ win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 – 13 . However , this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone . The Bulls again advanced to the Finals , where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz . The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career . He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer @-@ beating jump shot . In Game 5 , with the series tied at 2 , Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus . In what is known as the " Flu Game " , Jordan scored 38 points , including the game @-@ deciding 3 @-@ pointer with 25 seconds remaining . The Bulls won 90 – 88 and went on to win the series in six games . For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances , Jordan received the Finals MVP award . During the 1997 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Jordan posted the first triple double in All @-@ Star Game history in a victorious effort ; however , he did not receive the MVP award .

Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 – 20 record in the 1997 – 98 season . Jordan led the league with 28 @.@ 7 points per game , securing his fifth regular @-@ season MVP award , plus honors for All @-@ NBA First Team , First Defensive Team and the All @-@ Star Game MVP . The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season , including surviving a seven @-@ game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals ; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks . After winning , they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals .

The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14 , 1998 , leading the series 3 – 2 . Jordan executed a series of plays , considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history . With the Bulls trailing 86 – 83 with 41 @.@ 9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter , Phil Jackson called a timeout . When play resumed , Jordan received the inbound pass , drove to the basket , and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders , cutting the Utah lead to 86 – 85 . The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone , who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman . Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass , but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal . Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused , eyeing his defender , Jazz guard Bryon Russell . With 10 seconds remaining , Jordan started to dribble right , then crossed over to his left , possibly pushing off Russell , although the officials did not call a foul . With 5 @.@ 2 seconds left , Jordan gave Chicago an 87 – 86 lead with a game @-@ winning jumper , the climactic shot of his Bulls career . Afterwards , John Stockton missed a game @-@ winning three @-@ pointer . Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three @-@ peat . Once again , Jordan was voted the Finals MVP , having led all scorers averaging 33 @.@ 5 points per game , including 45 in the deciding Game 6 . Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record ; Shaquille O 'Neal , Magic Johnson , LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece . The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history . Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history .

= = = Second retirement ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =

With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring , the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming , and being in the latter stages of an owner @-@ induced lockout of NBA players , Jordan retired for the second time on January 13 , 1999 . On January 19 , 2000 , Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player , but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards . Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive . He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations , and had the final say in all personnel matters . Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed . He managed to purge the team of several highly paid , unpopular players ( such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland ) , but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown , who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons .

Despite his January 1999 claim that he was " 99 @.@ 9 % certain " that he would never play another NBA game , in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback , this time with his new team . Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter , Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training , holding several invitation @-@ only camps for NBA players in Chicago . In addition , Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach , Doug Collins , as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season , a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return .

= = = Washington Wizards comeback ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =

On September 25 , 2001 , Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards , indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11 , 2001 attacks . In an injury @-@ plagued 2001 – 02 season , he led the team in scoring ( 22 @.@ 9 ppg ) , assists ( 5 @.@ 2 apg ) , and steals ( 1 @.@ 42 spg ) . However , torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games , the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 – 95 season . Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season , averaging 24 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 4 assists , and 6 @.@ 0 rebounds , and shooting 41 @.@ 9 % from the field in his 53 starts . His last seven appearances were in a reserve role , in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game .

Playing in his 14th and final NBA All @-@ Star Game in 2003 , Jordan passed Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar as the all @-@ time leading scorer in All @-@ Star Game history ( a record since broken by Kobe Bryant ) . That year , Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games , starting in 67 of them . He averaged 20 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 1 rebounds , 3 @.@ 8 assists , and 1 @.@ 5 steals per game . He also shot 45 % from the field , and 82 % from the free throw line . Even though he turned 40 during the season , he scored 20 or more points 42 times , 30 or more points nine times , and 40 or more points three times . On February 21 , 2003 , Jordan became the first 40 @-@ year @-@ old to tally 43 points in an NBA game . During his stint with the Wizards , all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out , and the Wizards were the second most @-@ watched team in the NBA , averaging 20 @,@ 172 fans a game at home and 19 @,@ 311 on the road . However , neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards , and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him . At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media , citing their lack of focus and intensity , notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft , Kwame Brown .

With the recognition that 2002 – 03 would be Jordan 's final season , tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA . In his final game at his old home court , the United Center in Chicago , Jordan received a four @-@ minute standing ovation . The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11 , 2003 , even though Jordan never played for the team . At the 2003 All @-@ Star Game , Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson , but refused both . In the end he accepted the spot of Vince Carter , who decided to give it up under great public pressure .

Jordan 's final NBA game was on April 16 , 2003 in Philadelphia . After scoring only 13 points in the game , Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers , 75 – 56 . Just after the start of the fourth quarter , the First Union Center crowd began chanting " We want Mike ! " . After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins , Jordan finally rose from the bench and re @-@ entered the game , replacing Larry Hughes with 2 : 35 remaining . At 1 : 45 , Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow , and stepped to the line to make both free throws . After the second foul shot , the 76ers in @-@ bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons , who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later , stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench . Jordan received a three @-@ minute standing ovation from his teammates , his opponents , the officials and the crowd of 21 @,@ 257 fans .

= = Olympic career = =

Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal @-@ winning American basketball teams . As a college player he participated , and won the gold , in the 1984 Summer Olympics . The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing , Sam Perkins , Chris Mullin , Steve Alford , and Wayman Tisdale . Jordan led the team in scoring , averaging 17 @.@ 1 ppg for the tournament .

In the 1992 Summer Olympics , he was a member of the star @-@ studded squad that included Magic Johnson , Larry Bird , and David Robinson and was dubbed the " Dream Team " . Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics . Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts , Jordan averaged 14 @.@ 9 ppg , finishing second on the team in scoring . Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold as amateurs and professionals .

= = Post @-@ retirement = =

After his third retirement , Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position of Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards . However , his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard " Rip " Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse ( although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002 ) . On May 7 , 2003 , Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations . Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed , and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards .

Jordan kept busy over the next few years by staying in shape , playing golf in celebrity charity tournaments , spending time with his family in Chicago , promoting his Jordan Brand clothing line , and riding motorcycles . Since 2004 , Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports , a professional closed @-@ course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association ( AMA ) until the end of the 2013 season . Jordan and his then @-@ wife Juanita pledged $ 5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School in 2006 , and the Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America .

= = = Charlotte Bobcats / Hornets = = =

On June 15 , 2006 , Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats , becoming the team 's second @-@ largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson . As part of the deal , Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation , with the title " Managing Member of Basketball Operations . " Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser , he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns . A decade earlier , Jordan had made a bid to become part @-@ owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team , the Charlotte Hornets , but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations .

In February 2010 , it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats . As February wore on , it emerged that the leading contenders for the team were Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos . On February 27 , the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group , MJ Basketball Holdings , to buy the team pending NBA approval . On March 17 , the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase , making him the first former player ever to become the majority owner of an NBA team . It also made him the league 's only African @-@ American majority owner .

During the 2011 NBA lockout , The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners wanting to cap the players ' share of basketball @-@ related income at 50 percent and as low as 47 . Journalists observed that , during the labor dispute in 1998 , Jordan had told Washington Wizards then @-@ owner Abe Pollin , " If you can 't make a profit , you should sell your team . " Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a " sellout " wanting " current players to pay for his incompetence . " He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison .

During the 2011 – 12 NBA season , which was shortened to 66 games , the Bobcats posted a 7 – 59 record . Their .106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history . " I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year . It 's very , very frustrating " , Jordan said later that year .

On May 21 , 2013 , Jordan filed papers to change the Bobcats ' name to the Hornets , effective with the 2014 – 15 season . The Hornets name had become available when the original Hornets , who had moved to New Orleans in 2002 , changed their name to the New Orleans Pelicans for the 2013 – 14 season . The NBA approved the change on July 18 . The name change became official on May 20 , 2014 . On the same day , the team announced that it had reclaimed the history and records of the original 1988 – 2002 Hornets .

= = Player profile = =

Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward ( the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards ) , and as a point guard . Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer . With the Bulls , he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds , including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests . His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash @-@ talk and well @-@ known work ethic . As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan , management had to trade away players who were not " tough enough " to compete with him in practice . To help improve his defense , he spent extra hours studying film of opponents . On offense , he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time . Noted as a durable player , Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 – 87 to 2001 – 02 , when he injured his right knee . He played all 82 games nine times . Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson , Walter Davis , and Jerry West as influences . From the start of his career , Jordan was unique among NBA players in that he had a special " Love of the Game Clause " written into his contract , which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time , anywhere .

Jordan had a versatile offensive game . He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket , as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate ; his 8 @,@ 772 free throw attempts are the ninth @-@ highest total of all time . As his career progressed , Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot , using his leaping ability to " fade away " from block attempts . According to Hubie Brown , this move alone made him nearly unstoppable . Despite media criticism as a " selfish " player early in his career , Jordan 's 5 @.@ 3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates . In later years , the NBA shortened its three @-@ point line to 22 feet ( from 23 feet , 9 inches ) , which coupled with Jordan 's extended shooting range to make him a long @-@ range threat as well — his 3 @-@ point stroke developed from a low 9 / 52 rate ( .173 ) in his rookie year into a stellar 111 / 260 ( .427 ) shooter in the 1995 – 96 season . For a guard , Jordan was also a good rebounder ( 6 @.@ 2 per game ) .

In 1988 , Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career ( since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon , David Robinson , and Kevin Garnett ; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season ) . In addition he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard , and combined this with his ball @-@ thieving ability to become a standout defensive player . He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2 @,@ 514 , trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd . Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones . He was also known to have strong eyesight ; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 @-@ inch television clearly from about 50 feet away .

= = NBA career statistics = =

= = = Regular season = = =

= = = Playoffs = = =

= = Legacy = =

Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season . In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks , Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation , a rarity for an opposing player . After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20 , 1986 , Celtics star Larry Bird described him as " God disguised as Michael Jordan . "

Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons ( NBA record ) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles . He was also a fixture on the NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team , making the roster nine times ( NBA record shared with Gary Payton , Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant ) . Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30 @.@ 1 and 33 @.@ 4 points per game , respectively . By 1998 , the season of his Finals @-@ winning shot against the Jazz , he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer . In the regular season , Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs , Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time . Jordan 's total of 5 @,@ 987 points in the playoffs is the highest in NBA history . He retired with 32 @,@ 292 points in regular season play , placing him fourth on the NBA 's all @-@ time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Karl Malone , and Kobe Bryant .

With five regular @-@ season MVPs ( tied for second place with Bill Russell ; only Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar has won more , six ) , six Finals MVPs ( NBA record ) , and three All @-@ Star MVPs , Jordan is the most decorated player ever to play in the NBA . Jordan finished among the top three in regular @-@ season MVP voting a record 10 times , and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996 . He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship , an NBA championship , and an Olympic gold medal ( doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams ) .

Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time . In 1999 , an ESPN survey of journalists , athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century , above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali . Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes . In addition , the Associated Press voted him as the basketball player of the 20th century . Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times . In the September 1996 issue of Sport , which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue , Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years .

Jordan 's athletic leaping ability , highlighted in his back @-@ to @-@ back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988 , is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players . Several current NBA All @-@ Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up , including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade . In addition , commentators have dubbed a number of next @-@ generation players " the next Michael Jordan " upon their entry to the NBA , including Anfernee " Penny " Hardaway , Grant Hill , Allen Iverson , Kobe Bryant , LeBron James , Vince Carter , and Dwyane Wade . Although Jordan was a well @-@ rounded player , his " Air Jordan " image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills , defense , and fundamentals of young players , a fact Jordan himself has lamented .

I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan ; the marketing of Michael Jordan . Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see , which was scoring and dunking . That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all @-@ around game , but it was never really publicized .

Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game , some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting . Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league , and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship @-@ winning season .

In August 2009 , the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield , Massachusetts , opened a Michael Jordan exhibit containing items from his college and NBA careers , as well as from the 1992 " Dream Team " . The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in baseball . After Jordan received word of his being accepted into the Hall of Fame , he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him . As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009 , growing up in North Carolina , he was not a fan of the Tar Heels , and greatly admired Thompson , who played at rival North Carolina State . He was inducted into the Hall in September , with several former Bulls teammates in attendance , including Scottie Pippen , Dennis Rodman , Charles Oakley , Ron Harper , Steve Kerr , and Toni Kukoč . Former coaches of Jordan 's , Dean Smith and Doug Collins , were also among those present . His emotional reaction during his speech , when he began to cry , was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme .

= = Personal life = =

He married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989 , and they have two sons , Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James , and a daughter , Jasmine . Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4 , 2002 , citing irreconcilable differences , but reconciled shortly thereafter . They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29 , 2006 , commenting that the decision was made " mutually and amicably " . It is reported that Juanita received a $ 168 million settlement ( equivalent to $ 197 million in 2015 ) , making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement in history at the time on public record .

In 1991 , Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park , Illinois , to build a 56 @,@ 000 square foot mansion , which was completed four years later . Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy , a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette , Illinois . Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11 , 2007 , for the University of Illinois . After two seasons , Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009 . He later rejoined the team for a third season , then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida , where Marcus was attending . Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009 . He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009 , and played three seasons of basketball for the school .

On July 21 , 2006 , a judge in Cook County , Illinois , determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $ 5 million in a breach of contract claim . Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $ 250 @,@ 000 to keep their relationship a secret . Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $ 5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991 . A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child .

He proposed to his longtime girlfriend , Cuban @-@ American model Yvette Prieto , on Christmas Eve , 2011 , and they were married on April 27 , 2013 , at Bethesda @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea Episcopal Church . It was announced on November 30 , 2013 , that the two were expecting their first child together . Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012 . On February 11 , 2014 , Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel .

Jordan 's private jet features a stripe in Carolina blue , the " Air Jordan " logo on the tail , and references to his career in the identification number .

= = Media figure and business interests = =

Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history . He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike , Coca @-@ Cola , Chevrolet , Gatorade , McDonald 's , Ball Park Franks , Rayovac , Wheaties , Hanes , and MCI . Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade , appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991 , including the " Be Like Mike " commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan .

Nike created a signature shoe for him , called the Air Jordan . One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon . In the commercials Lee , as Blackmon , attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that " it 's gotta be the shoes " . The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of " shoe @-@ jackings " where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint . Subsequently , Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the " Jordan Brand " . The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers . The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina , Cal , Georgetown , and Marquette .

Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters . A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball . The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam , which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball . They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI . Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's " Jam " ( 1992 ) .

Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars . In addition , when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point , the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games . Due to this , Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $ 30 million per season . An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $ 1 billion .

Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals , including his first deal with Nike , were engineered by his agent , David Falk . Jordan has described Falk as " the best at what he does " and that " marketing @-@ wise , he 's great . He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan . ' "

In June 2010 , Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th @-@ most powerful celebrity in the world with $ 55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010 . According to the Forbes article , Jordan Brand generates $ 1 billion in sales for Nike . In June 2014 , Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire , after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89 @.@ 5 % . On January 20 , 2015 , Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014 . As of November 2015 , his current net worth is estimated at $ 1 @.@ 1 billion by Forbes . Jordan is the second @-@ richest African @-@ American in the world as of 2015 .

= = Awards and honors = =

= Polish culture during World War II =

Polish culture during World War II was suppressed by the occupying powers of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union , both of whom were hostile to Poland 's people and cultural heritage . Policies aimed at cultural genocide resulted in the deaths of thousands of scholars and artists , and the theft and destruction of innumerable cultural artifacts . The " maltreatment of the Poles was one of many ways in which the Nazi and Soviet regimes had grown to resemble one another " , wrote British historian Niall Ferguson .

The occupiers looted and destroyed much of Poland 's cultural and historical heritage , while persecuting and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite . Most Polish schools were closed , and those that remained open saw their curricula altered significantly .

Nevertheless , underground organizations and individuals – in particular the Polish Underground State – saved much of Poland 's most valuable cultural treasures , and worked to salvage as many cultural institutions and artifacts as possible . The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works . Despite severe retribution by the Nazis and Soviets , Polish underground cultural activities , including publications , concerts , live theater , education , and academic research , continued throughout the war .

= = Background = =

In 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an sovereign nation and throughout the 19th century remained partitioned by degrees between Prussian , Austrian and Russian empires . Not until the end of World War I was independence restored and the nation reunited , although the drawing of boundary lines was , of necessity , a contentious issue . Independent Poland lasted for only 21 years before it was again attacked and divided among foreign powers .

On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded Poland , initiating World War II in Europe , and on 17 September , pursuant to the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact , Poland was invaded by the Soviet Union . Subsequently Poland was partitioned again – between these two powers – and remained under occupation for most of the war . By 1 October , Germany and the Soviet Union had completely overrun Poland , although the Polish government never formally surrendered , and the Polish Underground State , subordinate to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , was soon formed . On 8 October , Nazi Germany annexed the western areas of pre @-@ war Poland and , in the remainder of the occupied area , established the General Government . The Soviet Union had to temporarily give up the territorial gains it made in 1939 due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union , but permanently re @-@ annexed much of this territory after winning it back in mid @-@ 1944 . Over the course of the war , Poland lost over 20 % of its pre @-@ war population amid an occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic .

= = Destruction of Polish culture = =

= = = German occupation = = =

= = = = Policy = = = =

Germany 's policy toward the Polish nation and its culture evolved during the course of the war . Many German officials and military officers were initially not given any clear guidelines on the treatment of Polish cultural institutions , but this quickly changed . Immediately following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the Nazi German government implemented the first stages ( the " small plan " ) of Generalplan Ost . The basic policy was outlined by the Berlin Office of Racial Policy in a document titled Concerning the Treatment of the Inhabitants of the Former Polish Territories , from a Racial @-@ Political Standpoint . Slavic people living east of the pre @-@ war German border were to be Germanized , enslaved or eradicated , depending on whether they lived in the territories directly annexed into the German state or in the General Government .

Much of the German policy on Polish culture was formulated during a meeting between the governor of the General Government , Hans Frank , and Nazi Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels , at Łódź on 31 October 1939 . Goebbels declared that " The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation " . He and Frank agreed that opportunities for the Poles to experience their culture should be severely restricted : no theaters , cinemas or cabarets ; no access to radio or press ; and no education . Frank suggested that the Poles should periodically be shown films highlighting the achievements of the Third Reich and should eventually be addressed only by megaphone . During the following weeks Polish schools beyond middle vocational levels were closed , as were theaters and many other cultural institutions . The only Polish @-@ language newspaper published in occupied Poland was also closed , and the arrests of Polish intellectuals began .

In March 1940 , all cultural activities came under the control of the General Government 's Department of People 's Education and Propaganda ( Abteilung für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda ) , whose name was changed a year later to the " Chief Propaganda Department " ( Hauptabteilung Propaganda ) . Further directives issued in the spring and early summer reflected policies that had been outlined by Frank and Goebbels during the previous autumn . One of the Department 's earliest decrees prohibited the organization of all but the most " primitive " of cultural activities without the Department 's prior approval . Spectacles of " low quality " , including those of an erotic or pornographic nature , were however an exception — those were to be popularized to appease the population and to show the world the " real " Polish culture as well as to create the impression that Germany was not preventing Poles from expressing themselves . German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized " Polish " performances that were specifically designed to be boring or pornographic , and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities . Polish @-@ German cooperation in cultural matters , such as joint public performances , was strictly prohibited . Meanwhile , a compulsory registration scheme for writers and artists was introduced in August 1940 . Then , in October , the printing of new Polish @-@ language books was prohibited ; existing titles were censored , and often confiscated and withdrawn .

In 1941 , German policy evolved further , calling for the complete destruction of the Polish people , whom the Nazis regarded as " subhumans " ( Untermenschen ) . Within ten to twenty years , the Polish territories under German occupation were to be entirely cleared of ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists . The policy was relaxed somewhat in the final years of occupation ( 1943 – 44 ) , in view of German military defeats and the approaching Eastern Front . The Germans hoped that a more lenient cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken the Polish Resistance . Poles were allowed back into those museums that now supported German propaganda and indoctrination , such as the newly created Chopin museum , which emphasized the composer 's invented German roots . Restrictions on education , theater and music performances were eased .

Given that the Second Polish Republic was a multicultural state , German policies and propaganda also sought to create and encourage conflicts between ethnic groups , fueling tension between Poles and Jews , and between Poles and Ukrainians . In Łódź , the Germans forced Jews to help destroy a monument to a Polish hero , Tadeusz Kościuszko , and filmed them committing the act . Soon afterward , the Germans set fire to a Jewish synagogue and filmed Polish bystanders , portraying them in propaganda releases as a " vengeful mob . " This divisive policy was reflected in the Germans ' decision to destroy Polish education , while at the same time , showing relative tolerance toward the Ukrainian school system . As the high @-@ ranking Nazi official Erich Koch explained , " We must do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian , he will be willing to kill the Ukrainian and conversely , the Ukrainian will be willing to kill the Pole . "

= = = = Plunder = = = =

In 1939 , as the occupation regime was being established , the Nazis confiscated Polish state property and much private property . Countless art objects were looted and taken to Germany , in line with a plan that had been drawn up well in advance of the invasion . The looting was supervised by experts of the SS @-@ Ahnenerbe , Einsatzgruppen units , who were responsible for art , and by experts of Haupttreuhandstelle Ost , who were responsible for more mundane objects . Notable items plundered by the Nazis included the Altar of Veit Stoss and paintings by Raphael , Rembrandt , Leonardo da Vinci , Canaletto and Bacciarelli . Most of the important art pieces had been " secured " by the Nazis within six months of September 1939 ; by the end of 1942 , German officials estimated that " over 90 % " of the art previously in Poland was in their possession . Some art was shipped to German museums , such as the planned Führermuseum in Linz , while other art became the private property of Nazi officials . Over 516 @,@ 000 individual art pieces were taken , including 2 @,@ 800 paintings by European painters ; 11 @,@ 000 works by Polish painters ; 1 @,@ 400 sculptures , 75 @,@ 000 manuscripts , 25 @,@ 000 maps , and 90 @,@ 000 books ( including over 20 @,@ 000 printed before 1800 ) ; as well as hundreds of thousands of other objects of artistic and historic value . Even exotic animals were taken from the zoos .

= = = = Destruction = = = =

Many places of learning and culture — universities , schools , libraries , museums , theaters and cinemas — were either closed or designated as " Nur für Deutsche " ( For Germans Only ) . Twenty @-@ five museums and a host of other institutions were destroyed during the war . According to one estimate , by war 's end 43 % of the infrastructure of Poland 's educational and research institutions and 14 % of its museums had been destroyed . According to another , only 105 of pre @-@ war Poland 's 175 museums survived the war , and just 33 of these institutions were able to reopen . Of pre @-@ war Poland 's 603 scientific institutions , about half were totally destroyed , and only a few survived the war relatively intact .

Many university professors , as well as teachers , lawyers , artists , writers , priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed , or transported to concentration camps , during operations such as AB @-@ Aktion . This particular campaign resulted in the infamous Sonderaktion Krakau and the massacre of Lwów professors . During World War II Poland lost 39 % to 45 % of its physicians and dentists , 26 % to 57 % of its lawyers , 15 % to 30 % of its teachers , 30 % to 40 % of its scientists and university professors , and 18 % to 28 % of its clergy . The Jewish intelligentsia was exterminated altogether . The reasoning behind this policy was clearly articulated by a Nazi gauleiter : " In my district , [ any Pole who ] shows signs of intelligence will be shot . "

As part of their program to suppress Polish culture , the German Nazis attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland , with a particular emphasis on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland , Poles were restricted , or even forbidden , from attending religious services . At the same time , church property was confiscated , prohibitions were placed on using the Polish language in religious services , organizations affiliated with the Catholic Church were abolished , and it was forbidden to perform certain religious songs — or to read passages of the Bible — in public . The worst conditions were found in the Reichsgau Wartheland , which the Nazis treated as a laboratory for their anti @-@ religious policies . Polish clergy and religious leaders figured prominently among portions of the intelligentsia that were targeted for extermination .

To forestall the rise of a new generation of educated Poles , German officials decreed that the schooling of Polish children would be limited to a few years of elementary education . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler wrote , in a memorandum of May 1940 : " The sole purpose of this schooling is to teach them simple arithmetic , nothing above the number 500 ; how to write one 's name ; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans .... I do not regard a knowledge of reading as desirable . " Hans Frank echoed him : " The Poles do not need universities or secondary schools ; the Polish lands are to be converted into an intellectual desert . " The situation was particularly dire in the former Polish territories beyond the General Government , which had been annexed to the Third Reich . The specific policy varied from territory to territory , but in general , there was no Polish @-@ language education at all . German policy constituted a crash @-@ Germanization of the populace . Polish teachers were dismissed , and some were invited to attend " orientation " meetings with the new administration , where they were either summarily arrested or executed on the spot . Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools , while others were sent to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid laborers , usually on German @-@ run farms ; speaking Polish brought severe punishment . It was expected that Polish children would begin to work once they finished their primary education at age 12 to 15 . In the eastern territories not included in the General Government ( Bezirk Bialystok , Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine ) many primary schools were closed , and most education was conducted in non @-@ Polish languages such as Ukrainian , Belorussian , and Lithuanian . In the Bezirk Bialystok region , for example , 86 % of the schools that had existed before the war were closed down during the first two years of German occupation , and by the end of the following year that figure had increased to 93 % .

The state of Polish primary schools was somewhat better in the General Government , though by the end of 1940 , only 30 % of prewar schools were operational , and only 28 % of prewar Polish children attended them . A German police memorandum of August 1943 described the situation as follows :

Pupils sit crammed together without necessary materials , and often without skilled teaching staff . Moreover , the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel . Of twenty @-@ thirty spacious school buildings which Kraków had before 1939 , today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day , pupils have to study in several shifts . Under such circumstances , the school day , which normally lasts five hours , is reduced to one hour .

In the General Government , the remaining schools were subjugated to the German educational system , and the number and competence of their Polish staff was steadily scaled down . All universities and most secondary schools were closed , if not immediately after the invasion , then by mid @-@ 1940 . By late 1940 , no official Polish educational institutions more advanced than a vocational school remained in operation , and they offered nothing beyond the elementary trade and technical training required for the Nazi economy . Primary schooling was to last for seven years , but the classes in the final two years of the program were to be limited to meeting one day per week . There was no money for heating of the schools in winter . Classes and schools were to be merged , Polish teachers dismissed , and the resulting savings used to sponsor the creation of schools for children of the German minority or to create barracks for German troops . No new Polish teachers were to be trained . The educational curriculum was censored ; subjects such as literature , history and geography were removed . Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed . The new educational aims for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was hopeless , and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans . This was accomplished through deliberate tactics such as police raids on schools , police inspections of student belongings , mass arrests of students and teachers , and the use of students as forced laborers , often by transporting them to Germany as seasonal workers .

The Germans were especially active in the destruction of Jewish culture in Poland ; nearly all of the wooden synagogues there were destroyed . Moreover , the sale of Jewish literature was banned throughout Poland .

Polish literature faced a similar fate in territories annexed by Germany , where the sale of Polish books was forbidden . The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those seized from libraries , but also included those books that were confiscated from private homes . The last Polish book titles not already proscribed were withdrawn in 1943 ; even Polish prayer books were confiscated . Soon after the occupation began , most libraries were closed ; in Kraków , about 80 % of the libraries were closed immediately , while the remainder saw their collections decimated by censors . The occupying powers destroyed Polish book collections , including the Sejm and Senate Library , the Przedziecki Estate Library , the Zamoyski Estate Library , the Central Military Library , and the Rapperswil Collection . In 1941 , the last remaining Polish public library in the German @-@ occupied territories was closed in Warsaw . During the war , Warsaw libraries lost about a million volumes , or 30 % of their collections . More than 80 % of these losses were the direct result of purges rather than wartime conflict . Overall , it is estimated that about 10 million volumes from state @-@ owned libraries and institutions perished during the war .

Polish flags and other symbols were confiscated . The war on the Polish language included the tearing down of signs in Polish and the banning of Polish speech in public places . Persons who spoke Polish in the streets were often insulted and even physically assaulted . The Germanization of place names prevailed . Many treasures of Polish culture – including memorials , plaques and monuments to national heroes ( e.g. , Kraków 's Adam Mickiewicz monument ) – were destroyed . In Toruń , all Polish monuments and plaques were torn down . Dozens of monuments were destroyed throughout Poland . The Nazis planned to level entire cities .

= = = = Censorship and propaganda = = = =

The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and anticommunist novels .

Censorship at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . Banned literature included maps , atlases and English- and French @-@ language publications , including dictionaries . Several non @-@ public indexes of prohibited books were created , and over 1 @,@ 500 Polish writers were declared " dangerous to the German state and culture " . The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki , Stanisław Wyspiański , Bolesław Prus , Stefan Żeromski , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Władysław Reymont , Stanisław Wyspiański , Julian Tuwim , Kornel Makuszyński , Leopold Staff , Eliza Orzeszkowa and Maria Konopnicka . Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment . Door @-@ to @-@ door sale of books was banned , and bookstores — which required a license to operate — were either emptied out or closed .

Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Germans . Such a thorough destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history . The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press that was disseminated by the German occupation administration . Cinemas , now under the control of the German propaganda machine , saw their programming dominated by Nazi German movies , which were preceded by propaganda newsreels . The few Polish films permitted to be shown ( about 20 % of the total programming ) were edited to eliminate references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers . Several propaganda films were shot in Polish , although no Polish films were shown after 1943 . As all profits from Polish cinemas were officially directed toward German war production , attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground ; a famous underground slogan declared : " Tylko świnie siedzą w kinie " ( " Only pigs attend the movies " ) . A similar situation faced theaters , which were forbidden by the Germans to produce " serious " spectacles . Indeed , a number of propaganda pieces were created for theater stages . Hence , theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground . In addition , actors were discouraged from performing in them and warned that they would be labeled as collaborators if they failed to comply . Ironically , restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos , given that the Germans wished to distract ghetto inhabitants and prevent them from grasping their eventual fate .

Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Numerous musical performances were permitted in cafes and churches , and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas . Visual artists , including painters and sculptors , were compelled to register with the German government ; but their work was generally tolerated by the underground , unless it conveyed propagandist themes . Shuttered museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes .

The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at fostering anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes .

= = = Soviet occupation = = =

After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " Kresy " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,@ 612 sq mi ) and a population of 13 @.@ 299 million . Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of obliterating Poland 's political and cultural life , so that Poland would , according to historian Niall Ferguson , " cease to exist not merely as a place , but also as an idea " .

The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule . More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many to Gulag concentration camps , for years or decades . Others died , including over 20 @,@ 000 military officers who perished in the Katyn massacres .

The Soviets quickly Sovietized the annexed lands , introducing compulsory collectivization . They proceeded to confiscate , nationalize and redistribute private and state @-@ owned Polish property . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as " enemies of the people " . In line with Soviet anti @-@ religious policy , churches and religious organizations were persecuted . On 10 February 1940 , the NKVD unleashed a campaign of terror against " anti @-@ Soviet " elements in occupied Poland . The Soviets ' targets included persons who often traveled abroad , persons involved in overseas correspondence , Esperantists , philatelists , Red Cross workers , refugees , smugglers , priests and members of religious congregations , the nobility , landowners , wealthy merchants , bankers , industrialists , and hotel and restaurant owners . Stalin , like Hitler , worked to eliminate Polish society .

The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . The name " Poland " was banned . Polish monuments were torn down . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian directors . Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching . Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities , and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian . Polish @-@ language books were burned even in the primary schools . Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools , and many were arrested . Classes were held in Belorussian , Lithuanian and Ukrainian , with a new pro @-@ Soviet curriculum . As Polish @-@ Canadian historian Piotr Wróbel noted , citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear , majority of scholars believe that " In the Soviet occupation zone , conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans . " In September 1939 , many Polish Jews had fled east ; after some months of living under Soviet rule , some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland .

All publications and media were subjected to censorship . The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radio station . Polish cultural activities in Minsk and Wilno were less organized . These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities , which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government .

The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of Russification . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . This policy was , however , reversed at times — first before the elections in October 1939 ; and later , after the German conquest of France . In November 1940 , the Poles of Lwów observed the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz 's death . Soon , however , Stalin decided to re @-@ implement the Russification policies . He reversed his decision again , however , when a need arose for Polish @-@ language pro @-@ Soviet propaganda following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ; as a result Stalin permitted the creation of Polish forces in the East and later decided to create a Communist People 's Republic of Poland .

Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . They included Jerzy Borejsza , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz Brandys , Janina Broniewska , Jan Brzoza , Teodor Bujnicki , Leon Chwistek , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina Górska , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stefan Jędrychowski , Stanisław Jerzy Lec , Tadeusz Łopalewski , Juliusz Kleiner , Jan Kott , Jalu Kurek , Karol Kuryluk , Leopold Lewin , Anatol Mikułko , Jerzy Pański , Leon Pasternak , Julian Przyboś , Jerzy Putrament , Jerzy Rawicz , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz Słobodnik , Włodzimierz Sokorski , Elżbieta Szemplińska , Anatol Stern , Julian Stryjkowski , Lucjan Szenwald , Leopold Tyrmand , Wanda Wasilewska , Stanisław Wasilewski , Adam Ważyk , Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer .

Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet persuasions and instead published underground : Jadwiga Czechowiczówna , Jerzy Hordyński , Jadwiga Gamska @-@ Łempicka , Herminia Naglerowa , Beata Obertyńska , Ostap Ortwin , Tadeusz Peiper , Teodor Parnicki , Juliusz Petry . Some writers , such as Władysław Broniewski , after collaborating with the Soviets for a few months , joined the anti @-@ Soviet opposition . Similarly , Aleksander Wat , initially sympathetic to communism , was arrested by the Soviet NKVD secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan .

= = Underground culture = =

= = = Patrons = = =

Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław Lorentz ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social Welfare ( under Jan Stanisław Jankowski and , later , Stefan Mateja ) and a Department for Elimination of the Effects of War ( under Antoni Olszewski and Bronisław Domosławski ) , became underground patrons of Polish culture . These Departments oversaw efforts to save from looting and destruction works of art in state and private collections ( most notably , the giant paintings by Jan Matejko that were concealed throughout the war ) . They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and their publications and to support their families . Thus , they sponsored the underground publication ( bibuła ) of works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and of 10 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish primary @-@ school primer and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork ( which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities ) . Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions , theater performances and concerts .

Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish aristocrats , who likewise supported artists and safeguarded Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and a former politician , Janusz Radziwiłł ) . Some private publishers , including Stefan Kamieński , Zbigniew Mitzner and the Ossolineum publishing house , paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war .

= = = Education = = =

In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska , TON ) was created as early as in October 1939 . Other organizations were created locally ; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON , working closely with the Underground 's State Department of Culture and Education , which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by Czesław Wycech , creator of the TON . Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues . By 1942 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 students took part in underground primary education ; in 1944 , its secondary school system covered 100 @,@ 000 people , and university level courses were attended by about 10 @,@ 000 students ( for comparison , the pre @-@ war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30 @,@ 000 for the 1938 / 1939 year ) . More than 90 @,@ 000 secondary @-@ school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6 @,@ 000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government ( centered on the cities of Warsaw , Kraków , Radom and Lublin ) . Overall , in that period in the General Government , one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations ; the number rose to about 70 % for children old enough to attend secondary school . It is estimated that in some rural areas , the educational coverage was actually improved ( most likely as courses were being organized in some cases by teachers escaped or deported from the cities ) . Compared to pre @-@ war classes , the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable , as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos ; there was , however , underground Jewish education in the ghettos , often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON . Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance .

In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doctoral ones and 16 habilitations . Jagiellonian University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees , employed over 100 professors and teachers , and served more than 1 @,@ 000 students per year . Throughout Poland , many other universities and institutions of higher education ( of music , theater , arts , and others ) continued their classes throughout the war . Even some academic research was carried out ( for example , by Władysław Tatarkiewicz , a leading Polish philosopher , and Zenon Klemensiewicz , a linguist ) . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State , enabling them to continue their research .

The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably prioritizing resources to dealing with the armed resistance . For the most part , closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans . In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools , particularly rural ones , was difficult , due to lack of manpower , transportation , and the activities of the Polish resistance . Some schools semi @-@ openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities . Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a " mortal enemy " of the German states , they could not all be disposed of immediately . It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories , as it hindered the process of Germanization ; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence to a concentration camp .

= = = Print = = =

There were over 1 @,@ 000 underground newspapers ; among the most important were the Biuletyn Informacyjny of Armia Krajowa and Rzeczpospolita of the Government Delegation for Poland . In addition to publication of news ( from intercepted Western radio transmissions ) , there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics , economics , education , and literature ( for example , Sztuka i Naród ) . The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of Biuletyn Informacyjny printed in 43 @,@ 000 copies ; average volume of larger publication was 1 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 copies . The Polish underground also published booklets and leaflets from imaginary anti @-@ Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading disinformation and lowering morale among the Germans . Books were also sometimes printed . Other items were also printed , such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters , ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats .

The two largest underground publishers were the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of Armia Krajowa and the Government Delegation for Poland . Tajne Wojskowe Zakłady Wydawnicze ( Secret Military Publishing House ) of Jerzy Rutkowski ( subordinated to the Armia Krajowa ) was probably the largest underground publisher in the world . In addition to Polish titles , Armia Krajowa also printed false German newspapers designed to decrease morale of the occupying German forces ( as part of Action N ) . The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw ; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses ( whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps ) . The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków . There , writers and editors faced similar dangers : for example , almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na Ucho was arrested , and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on 27 May 1944 . ( Na Ucho was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire ; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943 . ) The underground press was supported by a large number of activists ; in addition to the crews manning the printing presses , scores of underground couriers distributed the publications . According to some statistics , these couriers were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans .

Under German occupation , the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated , as they had little opportunity to publish their work . The Underground State 's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals , enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication . Novels and anthologies were published by underground presses ; over 1 @,@ 000 works were published underground over the course of the war . Literary discussions were held , and prominent writers of the period working in Poland included , among others , Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Leslaw Bartelski , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Maria Dąbrowska , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz , future Nobel Prize winner Czesław Miłosz , Zofia Nałkowska , Jan Parandowski , Leopold Staff , Kazimierz Wyka , and Jerzy Zawieyski . Writers wrote about the difficult conditions in the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps ( Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński , Stefan Flukowski , Leon Kruczkowski , Andrzej Nowicki and Marian Piechała ) , the ghettos , and even from inside the concentration camps ( Jan Maria Gisges , Halina Gołczowa , Zofia Górska ( Romanowiczowa ) , Tadeusz Hołuj , Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian Kubicki ) . Many writers did not survive the war , among them Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Wacław Berent , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Juliusz Kaden @-@ Bandrowski , Stefan Kiedrzyński , Janusz Korczak , Halina Krahelska , Tadeusz Hollender , Witold Hulewicz , Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski , Włodzimierz Pietrzak , Leon Pomirowski , Kazimierz Przerwa @-@ Tetmajer and Bruno Schulz .

= = = Visual arts and music = = =

With the censorship of Polish theater ( and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry ) , underground theaters were created , primarily in Warsaw and Kraków , with shows presented in various underground venues . Beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret Theatrical Council . Four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war , even in the Gestapo 's Pawiak prison in Warsaw and in Auschwitz ; underground acting schools were also created . Underground actors , many of whom officially worked mundane jobs , included Karol Adwentowicz , Elżbieta Barszczewska , Henryk Borowski , Wojciech Brydziński , Władysław Hańcza , Stefan Jaracz , Tadeusz Kantor , Mieczysław Kotlarczyk , Bohdan Korzeniowski , Jan Kreczmar , Adam Mularczyk , Andrzej Pronaszko , Leon Schiller , Arnold Szyfman , Stanisława Umińska , Edmund Wierciński , Maria Wiercińska , Karol Wojtyła ( who later became Pope John Paul II ) , Marian Wyrzykowski , Jerzy Zawieyski and others . Theater was also active in the Jewish ghettos and in the camps for Polish war prisoners .

Polish music , including orchestras , also went underground . Top Polish musicians and directors ( Adam Didur , Zbigniew Drzewiecki , Jan Ekier , Barbara Kostrzewska , Zygmunt Latoszewski , Jerzy Lefeld , Witold Lutosławski , Andrzej Panufnik , Piotr Perkowski , Edmund Rudnicki , Eugenia Umińska , Jerzy Waldorff , Kazimierz Wiłkomirski , Maria Wiłkomirska , Bolesław Woytowicz , Mira Zimińska ) performed in restaurants , cafes , and private homes , with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while evading German patrols . Patriotic songs were written , such as Siekiera , motyka , the most popular song of occupied Warsaw . Patriotic puppet shows were staged . Jewish musicians ( e.g. Władysław Szpilman ) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps . Although many of them died , some survived abroad , like Alexandre Tansman in the United States , and Eddie Rosner and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union .

Visual arts were practiced underground as well . Cafes , restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums ; some were closed , with their owners , staff and patrons harassed , arrested or even executed . Polish underground artists included Eryk Lipiński , Stanisław Miedza @-@ Tomaszewski , Stanisław Ostoja @-@ Chrostowski , and Konstanty Maria Sopoćko . Some artists worked directly for the Underground State , forging money and documents , and creating anti @-@ Nazi art ( satirical posters and caricatures ) or Polish patriotic symbols ( for example kotwica ) . These works were reprinted on underground presses , and those intended for public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti . Many of these activities were coordinated under the Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda . In 1944 three giant ( 6 m , or 20 ft ) puppets , caricatures of Hitler and Benito Mussolini , were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw . Some artists recorded life and death in occupied Poland ; despite German bans on Poles using cameras , photographs and even films were taken . Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station , underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems . Underground postage stamps were designed and issued . Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities , underground sport clubs were created ; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw , Kraków and Poznań , although these were usually dispersed by the Germans . All of these activities were supported by the Underground State 's Department of Culture .

= = = Warsaw Uprising = = =

During the Warsaw Uprising ( August – October 1944 ) , people in Polish @-@ controlled territory endeavored to recreate the former day @-@ to @-@ day life of their free country . Cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population , with theaters , cinemas , post offices , newspapers and similar activities available . The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising , with prizes being weaponry ( most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance ) . Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz , the Home Army 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three newsreels and over 30 @,@ 000 metres ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) of film documenting the struggle .

Eugeniusz Lokajski took some 1 @,@ 000 photographs before he died ; Sylwester Braun some 3 @,@ 000 , of which 1 @,@ 500 survive ; Jerzy Tomaszewski some 1 @,@ 000 , of which 600 survived .

= = Culture in exile = =

Polish artists also worked abroad , outside of occupied Europe . Arkady Fiedler , based in Britain with the Polish Armed Forces in the West wrote about the 303 Polish Fighter Squadron . Melchior Wańkowicz wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy . Other writers working abroad included Jan Lechoń , Antoni Słonimski , Kazimierz Wierzyński and Julian Tuwim . There were artists who performed for the Polish forces in the West as well as for the Polish forces in the East . Among musicians who performed for the Polish II Corps in a Polska Parada cabaret were Henryk Wars and Irena Anders . The most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the Allies was the Czerwone maki na Monte Cassino ( The Red Poppies on Monte Cassino ) , composed by Feliks Konarski and Alfred Schultz in 1944 . There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West . Several Polish painters , mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps , kept working throughout the war , including Tadeusz Piotr Potworowski , Adam Kossowski , Marian Kratochwil , Bolesław Leitgeber and Stefan Knapp .

= = Influence on postwar culture = =

The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may have strengthened it instead . Norman Davies wrote in God 's Playground : " In 1945 , as a prize for untold sacrifices , the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before . " Similarly , close @-@ knit underground classes , from primary schools to universities , were renowned for their high quality , due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers . The resulting culture was , however , different from the culture of interwar Poland for a number of reasons . The destruction of Poland 's Jewish community , Poland 's postwar territorial changes , and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities . The multicultural nation was no more .

The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a generation of Polish artists that became known as the " Generation of Columbuses " . The term denotes an entire generation of Poles , born soon after Poland regained independence in 1918 , whose adolescence was marked by World War II . In their art , they " discovered a new Poland " – one forever changed by the atrocities of World War II and the ensuing creation of a communist Poland .

Over the years , nearly three @-@ quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity . Many Polish works of art created since the war have centered on events of the war . Books by Tadeusz Borowski , Adolf Rudnicki , Henryk Grynberg , Miron Białoszewski , Hanna Krall and others ; films , including those by Andrzej Wajda ( A Generation , Kanał , Ashes and Diamonds , Lotna , A Love in Germany , Korczak , Katyń ) ; TV series ( Four Tank Men and a Dog and Stakes Larger than Life ) ; music ( Powstanie Warszawskie ) ; and even comic books – all of these diverse works have reflected those times . Polish historian Tomasz Szarota wrote in 1996 :

Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation . Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV , on radio and in the print media . The theme remains an important element in literature and learning , in film , theater and the fine arts . Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it . Probably no other country marks anniversaries related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly .

= Arihant @-@ class submarine =

The Arihant class ( Sanskrit , for Killer of Enemies ) is a class of nuclear @-@ powered ballistic missile submarines being built for the Indian Navy . They were developed under the US $ 2 @.@ 9 billion Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project to design and build nuclear @-@ powered submarines .

The lead vessel of the class , INS Arihant was launched in 2009 and after extensive sea trials , was confirmed as ready for operations on 23 February 2016 . Arihant is the first ballistic missile submarine to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council .

= = History = =

In December 1971 , during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , the US President Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group named Task Force 74 , led by the nuclear @-@ powered USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India . In response , the Soviet Union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force . The event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . Following the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear test , the Director of Marine Engineering ( DME ) at Naval Headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system ( Project 932 ) .

The Indian Navy 's Advanced Technology Vessel project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s . Then Defence Minister George Fernandes confirmed the project in 1998 . The initial intent of the project was to design nuclear @-@ powered fast attack submarines , though following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 at Pokhran Test Range and the Indian pledge of no first use , the project was re @-@ aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete India 's nuclear triad .

= = Description = =

The Arihant @-@ class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project . They will be the first nuclear submarines designed and built by India . The submarines are 112 m ( 367 ft ) long with a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft ) , a draught of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , displacement of 6 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 900 long tons ; 6 @,@ 600 short tons ) and a diving depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The complement is about 95 , including officers and sailors . The boats are powered by a single seven blade propeller powered by an 83 MW ( 111 @,@ 000 hp ) pressurised water reactor and can achieve a maximum speed of 12 – 15 knots ( 22 – 28 km / h ) when surfaced and 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) when submerged .

The submarines have four launch tubes in their hump and can carry up to 12 K @-@ 15 Sagarika missiles with one warhead each ( with a range of 750 km or 470 mi ) or 4 K @-@ 4 missiles ( with a range of 3 @,@ 500 km or 2 @,@ 200 mi ) . The submarines are similar to the Akula @-@ class submarine of Russia . The Indian Navy will train on INS Chakra , an Akula @-@ class submarine leased from Russia in 2012 .

= = Development = =

The submarines are powered by a pressurised water reactor with highly enriched uranium fuel . The miniaturized version of the reactor was designed and built by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ( BARC ) at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research ( IGCAR ) in Kalpakkam . It included a 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) section of the submarine 's pressure hull containing the shielding tank with water and the reactor , a control room , as well as an auxiliary control room for monitoring safety parameters . The prototype reactor became critical on 11 November 2003 and was declared operational on 22 September 2006 . Successful operation of the prototype for three years enabled the production version of the reactor for Arihant . The reactor subsystems were tested at the Machinery Test Center in Visakhapatnam . Facilities for loading and replacing the fuel cores of the naval reactors in berthed submarines were also established .

The detailed engineering of the design was implemented at Larsen & Toubro 's submarine design center at their Hazira shipbuilding facility . Tata Power SED built the control systems for the submarine . The steam turbines and associated systems integrated with the reactor were supplied by Walchandnagar Industries . The lead vessel underwent a long and extensive process of testing after its launch in July 2009 . The propulsion and power systems were tested with high @-@ pressure steam trials followed by harbor @-@ acceptance trials that included submersion tests by flooding its ballast tanks and controlled dives to limited depths . INS Arihant 's reactor went critical for the first time on 10 August 2013 . On 13 December 2014 , the submarine set off for its extensive sea trials .

= = Ships in class = =

Exact number of planned submarines remains unclear , according to media reports about three to six submarines are planned to be built . The first boat of the class , INS Arihant is expected to be commissioned by 2016 . The first four vessels are expected to be commissioned by 2023 . In December 2014 , the work on a second nuclear reactor began and the second boat , INS Aridhaman is being prepared for sea trials . The next three ships in the class , after the lead ship , will be larger and have 8 missile launch tubes to carry up to 8 K4 and a more powerful pressurized water reactor than INS Arihant . A larger follow on class to the arihant class is also planned , these new boats will be capable of carrying 12 to 16 ballistic missiles .

= = Timeline = =

= SMS Markgraf =

SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I. The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 1914 , just over two months after the outbreak of war in Europe . Markgraf was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Markgraf was named in honor of the royal family of Baden . The name Markgraf is a rank of German nobility and is equivalent to the English Margrave , or Marquess .

Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst , and Kronprinz , Markgraf took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . At Jutland , Markgraf was the third ship in the German line and heavily engaged by the opposing British Grand Fleet ; she sustained five large @-@ caliber hits and her crew suffered 23 casualties . Markgraf also participated in Operation Albion , the conquest of the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 . The ship was damaged by a mine while en route to Germany following the successful conclusion of the operation .

After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Markgraf and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Unlike most of the scuttled ships , Markgraf was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still sitting on the bottom of the bay .

= = Construction and design = =

Markgraf was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Weissenburg and built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen under construction number 186 . Her keel was laid in November 1911 and she was launched on 4 June 1913 . At her launching ceremony , the ship was christened by Frederick II , Grand Duke of Baden , the head of the royal family of Baden , in honor of which the ship had been named . Fitting @-@ out work was completed by 1 October 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks .

Markgraf displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @.@ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She was powered by three Bergmann steam turbines , three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 40 @,@ 830 shp ( 30 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 095 enlisted sailors .

She was armed with ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Markgraf 's 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced with four 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates .

= = Service history = =

Following her commissioning on 1 October 1914 , Markgraf conducted sea trials , which lasted until 12 December . By 10 January 1915 , the ship had joined III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet with her three sister ships . On 22 January 1915 , III Squadron was detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . The ships returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank .

In the aftermath of the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl from his post as fleet commander on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet ; von Pohl carried out a series of sorties with the High Seas Fleet throughout 1915 . The first such operation — Markgraf 's first with the fleet — was a fleet advance to Terschelling on 29 – 30 March ; the German fleet failed to engage any British warships during the sortie . Another uneventful operation followed on 17 – 18 April , and another three days later on 21 – 22 April . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 29 May , when the fleet conducted another two @-@ day advance into the North Sea . On 11 – 12 September , Markgraf and the rest of III Squadron supported a minelaying operation off Texel . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October .

Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer became commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Admiral von Pohl became too ill from liver cancer to continue in that post . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Another sortie followed three weeks later on the 26th , with another on 21 – 22 April . On 24 April , the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .

= = = Battle of Jutland = = =

Markgraf was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Markgraf was the third ship in the German line , behind her sisters König and Grosser Kurfürst and followed by Kronprinz . The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . The III Squadron was followed by the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron .

Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .

Markgraf opened fire on the battlecruiser Tiger at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . Markgraf and her two sisters fired their secondary guns on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . Markgraf continued to engage Tiger until 18 : 25 , by which time the faster battlecruisers managed to move out of effective gunnery range . During this period , the battleships Warspite and Valiant of the 5th Battle Squadron fired on the leading German battleships . At 18 : 10 , one of the British ships scored a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell hit on Markgraf . Shortly thereafter , the destroyer Moresby fired a single torpedo at Markgraf and missed from a range of about 8 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . Malaya fired a torpedo at Markgraf at 19 : 05 , but the torpedo missed due to the long range . Around the same time , Markgraf engaged a cruiser from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron before shifting her fire back to the 5th Battle Squadron for ten minutes . During this period , two more 15 @-@ inch shells hit Markgraf , though the timing is unknown . The hit at 18 : 10 struck on a joint between two 8 @-@ inch @-@ thick side armor plates ; the shell burst on impact and holed the armor . The main deck was buckled and approximately 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of water entered the ship . The other two shells failed to explode and caused negligible damage .

Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to position his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The obsolescent armored cruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron also joined in the melee . Markgraf and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive them off . Markgraf fired both her 30 @.@ 5 cm and 15 cm guns at the armored cruiser Defence . Under a hail of fire from the German battleships , Defence exploded and sank ; credit is normally given to the battlecruiser Lützow , though Markgraf 's gunners also claimed credit for the sinking .

Markgraf then fired on the battlecruiser Princess Royal and scored two hits . The first hit struck the 9 @-@ inch armor covering " X " barbette , was deflected downward , and exploded after penetrating the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The crew for the left gun were killed , the turret was disabled , and the explosion caused serious damage to the upper deck . The second shell penetrated Princess Royal 's 6 @-@ inch belt armor , ricocheted upward off the coal bunker , and exploded under the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The two shells killed 11 and wounded 31 . At the same time , Markgraf 's secondary guns fired on the cruiser Warrior , which was seriously damaged by 15 heavy shells and forced to withdraw . Warrior foundered on the trip back to port the following morning .

Around 19 : 30 , Admiral John Jellicoe 's main force of battleships entered the battle ; Orion began firing at Markgraf at 19 : 32 ; she fired four salvos of 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Armor @-@ Piercing , Capped ( APC ) shells and scored a hit with the last salvo . The shell exploded upon impacting the armor protecting the No. 6 15 cm gun casemate . The shell failed to penetrate but holed the armor and disabled the gun . The explosion seriously injured two and killed the rest of the gun crew . A heavy shell nearly struck the ship at the same time , and at 19 : 44 , a bent propeller shaft forced Markgraf 's crew to turn off the port engine ; naval historian John Campbell speculated that this shell was the one that damaged the shaft . Her speed dropped to 17 or 18 kn ( 31 or 33 km / h ; 20 or 21 mph ) , though she remained in her position in the line .

Shortly after 20 : 00 , the German battleships engaged the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Markgraf fired primarily 15 cm shells . In this period , Markgraf was engaged by Agincourt 's 12 @-@ inch guns , which scored a single hit at 20 : 14 . The shell failed to explode and shattered on impact on the 8 @-@ inch side armor , causing minimal damage . Two of the adjoining 14 @-@ inch plates directly below the 8 @-@ inch armor were slightly forced inward and some minor flooding occurred . The heavy fire of the British fleet forced Scheer to order the fleet to turn away . Due to her reduced speed , Markgraf turned early in an attempt to maintain her place in the battle line ; this , however , forced Grosser Kurfürst to fall out of formation . Markgraf fell in behind Kronprinz while Grosser Kurfürst steamed ahead to return to her position behind König . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . Several British light cruisers and destroyers stumbled into the German line around 21 : 20 . In the ensuing short engagement Markgraf hit the cruiser Calliope five times with her secondary guns . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Grosser Kurfürst the 13th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships .

Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line . Markgraf initially held her fire as the identities of the destroyers were unknown . But gunners aboard Grosser Kurfürst correctly identified the vessels as hostile and opened fire while turning away to avoid torpedoes , which prompted Markgraf to follow suit . Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw . At 05 : 06 , Markgraf and several other battleships fired at what they thought was a submarine .

The High Seas Fleet managed to punch through the British light forces without drawing the attention of Jellicoe 's battleships , and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven , Markgraf went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead . The ship was transferred to Hamburg where she was repaired in AG Vulcan 's large floating dock . Repair work was completed by 20 July . In the course of the battle , Markgraf had fired a total of 254 shells from her main battery and 214 rounds from her 15 cm guns . She was hit by five large @-@ caliber shells , which killed 11 men and wounded 13 .

= = = Subsequent operations = = =

Following repairs in July 1916 , Markgraf went into the Baltic for trials . The ship was then temporarily assigned to the I Scouting Group for the fleet operation on 18 – 19 August . Due to the serious damage incurred by Seydlitz and Derfflinger at Jutland , the only battlecruisers available for the operation were Von der Tann and Moltke , which were joined by Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst , and the new battleship Bayern . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close engagement at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .

Markgraf was present for the uneventful advance in the direction of Sunderland on 18 – 20 October . Unit training with the III Squadron followed from 21 October to 2 November . Two days later , the ship formally rejoined III Squadron . On the 5th , a pair of U @-@ boats grounded on the Danish coast . Light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and III Squadron , which was in the North Sea en route to Wilhelmshaven , was ordered to cover them . During the operation , the British submarine J1 torpedoed both Grosser Kurfürst and Kronprinz and caused moderate damage . For most of 1917 , Markgraf was occupied with guard duties in the North Sea , interrupted only by a refit period in January and periodic unit training in the Baltic .

= = = Operation Albion = = =

In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The II Squadron consisted of the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The IV Squadron consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men .

Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . Three British C @-@ class submarines where also stationed in the Gulf . The Irben Strait , the main southern entrance to the Gulf of Riga , was heavily mined and defended by a number of coastal artillery batteries . The garrison on Ösel numbered nearly 14 @,@ 000 men , though by 1917 it had been reduced to 60 to 70 percent strength .

The operation began on 12 October , when Moltke and the four König @-@ class ships covered the landing of ground troops by suppressing the shore batteries covering Tagga Bay . Markgraf fired on the battery located on Cape Ninnast . After the successful amphibious assault , III Squadron steamed to Putziger Wiek , although Markgraf remained behind for several days . On the 17th , Markgraf left Tagga Bay to rejoin her squadron in the Gulf of Riga , but early on the following morning she ran aground at the entrance to Kalkgrund . The ship was quickly freed , and she reached the III Squadron anchorage north of Larina Bank on the 19th . The next day , Markgraf steamed to Moon Sound , and on the 25th participated in the bombardment of Russian positions on the island of Kynö . The ship returned to Arensburg on 27 October , and two days later was detached from Operation Albion to return to the North Sea .

Markgraf struck a pair of mines in quick succession while in the Irben Strait and took in 260 metric tons ( 260 long tons ; 290 short tons ) of water . The ship continued on to Kiel via Neufahrwasser in Danzig ; she then went on to Wilhelmshaven , where the mine damage was repaired . The work was completed at the Imperial Dockyard from 6 to 23 November . After repairs were completed , Markgraf returned to guard duty in the North Sea . She missed an attempted raid on a British convoy on 23 – 25 April 1918 , as she was in dock in Kiel from 15 March to 5 May for the installation of a new foremast .

= = = Fate = = =

Markgraf and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy in order to obtain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships , including Markgraf , mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . "

Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men .

The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Markgraf sank at 16 : 45 . The British soldiers in the guard detail panicked in their attempt to prevent the Germans from scuttling the ships ; they shot and killed Markgraf 's captain , Walter Schumann , who was in a lifeboat , and an enlisted man . In total , the guards killed nine Germans and wounded twenty @-@ one . The remaining crews , totaling some 1 @,@ 860 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned .

Markgraf was never raised for scrapping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were scuttled . Markgraf and her two sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made any salvage attempt more difficult . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that salvaging the deeper wrecks was financially impractical . The rights to future salvage operations on the wrecks were sold to Britain in 1962 . Owing to the fact that the steel that composed their hulls was produced before the advent of nuclear weapons , Markgraf and her sisters are among the few accessible sources of low @-@ background steel , which has occasionally been removed for use in scientific devices . Markgraf and the other vessels on the bottom of Scapa Flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barring divers from recovering items from the wrecks .

= Coldrum Long Barrow =

The Coldrum Long Barrow , also known as the Coldrum Stones and the Adscombe Stones , is a chambered long barrow located near to the village of Trottiscliffe in the south @-@ eastern English county of Kent . Constructed circa 4000 BCE , during Britain 's Early Neolithic period , today it survives only in a ruined state .

Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe . Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe , the Coldrum Stones belong to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the River Medway , now known as the Medway Megaliths . Of these , it is in the best surviving condition , and lies near to both Addington Long Barrow and Chestnuts Long Barrow on the western side of the river . Three further surviving long barrows , Kit 's Coty House , the Little Kit 's Coty House , and the Coffin Stone , are located on the Medway 's eastern side .

Built out of earth and around fifty local sarsen megaliths , the long barrow consisted of a sub @-@ rectangular earthen tumulus enclosed by kerb @-@ stones . Within the eastern end of the tumulus was a stone chamber , into which human remains were deposited on at least two separate occasions during the Early Neolithic . Osteoarchaeological analysis of these remains has shown them to be those of at least seventeen individuals , a mixture of men , women , children and adults . At least one of the bodies had been dismembered prior to burial , potentially reflecting a funerary tradition of excarnation and secondary burial . As with other barrows , Coldrum has been interpreted as a tomb to house the remains of the dead , perhaps as part of a belief system involving ancestor veneration , although archaeologists have suggested that it may also have had further religious , ritual , and cultural connotations and uses .

After the Early Neolithic , the long barrow fell into a state of ruined dilapidation , perhaps experiencing deliberate deposition in the late medieval period , either by Christian zealots or treasure hunters . Local folklore grew up around the site , associating it with the burial of a prince and the countless stones motif . The ruin attracted the interest of antiquarians in the 19th century , while archaeological excavation took place in the early 20th . After limited reconstruction , in 1926 ownership was transferred to heritage charity The National Trust . It is open without charge to visitors all year around .

= = Name and location = =

The Coldrum Stones are named after a nearby farm , Coldrum Lodge , which has since been demolished . The monument lies in a " rather isolated site " north @-@ east of the nearby village of Trottiscliffe , about 500 metres from a prehistoric track known as the Pilgrim 's Way . The tomb can be reached along a pathway known as Coldrum Lane , which is only accessible on foot . The nearest car park to Coldrum Lane can be found off of Pinesfield Lane in Trottiscliffe . Another nearby village is Addington , which is located one and a quarter miles away .

= = Context = =

= = = Early Neolithic Britain = = =

The Early Neolithic was a revolutionary period of British history . Beginning in the fifth millennium BCE , it saw a widespread change in lifestyle as the communities living in the British Isles adopted agriculture as their primary form of subsistence , abandoning the hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle that had characterised the preceding Mesolithic period . Archaeologists have been unable to prove whether this adoption of farming was because of a new influx of migrants coming in from continental Europe or because the indigenous Mesolithic Britons came to adopt the agricultural practices of continental societies . Either way , it certainly emerged through contact with continental Europe , probably as a result of centuries of interaction between Mesolithic people living in south @-@ east Britain and Linear Pottery culture ( LBK ) communities in north @-@ eastern France . The region of modern Kent would have been a key area for the arrival of continental European settlers and visitors , because of its position on the estuary of the River Thames and its proximity to the continent .

Between 4500 and 3800 BCE , all of the British Isles came to abandon its former Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle , to be replaced by the new agricultural subsistence of the Neolithic Age . Although a common material culture was shared throughout most of the British Isles in this period , there was great regional variation regarding the nature and distribution of settlement , architectural styles , and the use of natural resources . Throughout most of Britain , there is little evidence of cereal or permanent dwellings from this period , leading archaeologists to believe that the Early Neolithic economy on the island was largely pastoral , relying on herding cattle , with people living a nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic way of life . Although witnessing some land clearance , Britain was largely forested in this period , and it is unclear what level of deforestation the area of Kent had experienced in the Early Neolithic ; widespread forest clearance only took place on the chalklands of south @-@ east Britain in the Late Bronze Age . Environmental data from the area around the White Horse Stone supports the idea that the area was still largely forested in the Early Neolithic , covered by a woodland of oak , ash , hazel / alder and Maloideae .

= = = The tomb building tradition = = =

Across Western Europe , the Early Neolithic marked the first period in which humans built monumental structures in the landscape . These were tombs that held the physical remains of the dead , and though sometimes constructed out of timber , many were built using large stones , now known as " megaliths " . Individuals were rarely buried alone in the Early Neolithic , instead being interned in collective burials with other members of their community . The construction of these collective burial monumental tombs , both wooden and megalithic , began in continental Europe before being adopted in Britain in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE .

The Early Neolithic people of Britain placed far greater emphasis on the ritualised burial of the dead than their Mesolithic forebears had done . Many archaeologists have suggested that this is because Early Neolithic people adhered to an ancestor cult that venerated the spirits of the dead , believing that they could intercede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants . Archaeologist Robin Holgate stressed that rather than simply being tombs , the Medway Megaliths were " communal mouments fulfilling a social function for the communities who built and used them . " Thus , it has furthermore been suggested that Early Neolithic people entered into the tombs – which doubled as temples or shrines – to perform rituals that would honour the dead and ask for their assistance . For this reason , historian Ronald Hutton termed these monuments " tomb @-@ shrines " to reflect their dual purpose .

In Britain , these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the surrounding landscape , perhaps at the junction between different territories . Archaeologist Caroline Malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of a variety of markers in the landscape that conveyed information on " territory , political allegiance , ownership , and ancestors . " Many archaeologists have subscribed to the idea that these tomb @-@ shrines served as territorial markers between different tribal groups , although others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herding society . Instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herding pathways . Many archaeologists have suggested that the construction of such monuments reflects an attempt to stamp control and ownership over the land , thus representing a change in mindset brought about by Neolithicisation . Others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers .

Archaeologists have differentiated these Early Neolithic tombs into a variety of different architectural styles , each typically associated with a different region within the British Isles . Passage graves , characterised by their narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in earth or stone , were predominantly located in northern Britain and southern and central Ireland . Alternately , across northern Ireland and central Britain long chambered mounds predominated , while in the east and south @-@ east of Britain , earthen long barrows represented the dominant architectural trend . These earthen long barrows were typically constructed of timber because building stone was scarce in southern Britain ; archaeologist Aubrey Burl argued that these timber tombs might have been " even more eye @-@ catching " than their stone counterparts , perhaps consisting of " towering carved poles , flamboyantly painted " , but that evidence of such sculptures has not survived . The Medway Megaliths represent just one of these regional groups within the wider West European tradition of tomb building in this period .

= = = The Medway Megaliths = = =

Although now all in a ruinous state and not retaining their original appearance , at the time of construction the Medway Megaliths would have been some of the largest and most visually imposing Early Neolithic funerary monuments in Britain . Grouped along the River Medway as it cuts through the North Downs , they constitute the most south @-@ easterly group of megalithic monuments in the British Isles , and the only megalithic group in eastern England . Archaeologists Brian Philp and Mike Dutto deemed the Medway Megaliths to be " some of the most interesting and well known " archaeological sites in Kent , while archaeologist Paul Ashbee described them as " the most grandiose and impressive structures of their kind in southern England " .

They can be divided into two separate clusters : one to the west of the River Medway and the other on Blue Bell Hill to the east , with the distance between the two clusters measuring at between 8 and 10 km . The western group includes Coldrum Long Barrow , Addington Long Barrow , and the Chestnuts Long Barrow . The eastern group consists of Kit 's Coty House , Little Kit 's Coty House , the Coffin Stone , and several other stones which might have once been parts of chambered tombs . It is not known if they were all built at the same time , or whether they were constructed in succession , while similarly it is not known if they each served the same function or whether there was a hierarchy in their usage .

The Medway long barrows all conformed to the same general design plan , and are all aligned on an east to west axis . Each had a stone chamber at the eastern end of the mound , and they each probably had a stone facade flanking the entrance . The chambers were constructed from sarsen , a dense , hard , and durable stone that occurs naturally throughout Kent , having formed out of silicified sand from the Eocene . Early Neolithic builders would have selected blocks from the local area , and then transported them to the site of the monument to be erected .

Such common architectural features among these tomb @-@ shrines indicate a strong regional cohesion with no direct parallels elsewhere in the British Isles . For instance , they would have been taller than most other tomb @-@ shrines in Britain , with internal heights of up to 10 ft . Nevertheless , as with other regional groupings of Early Neolithic tomb @-@ shrines ( such as the Cotswold @-@ Severn group ) , there are also various idiosyncrasies in the different monuments , such as Coldrum 's rectilinear shape , the Chestnut long barrow 's facade , and the long , thin mounds at Addington and Kit 's Coty . This variation might have been caused by the tomb @-@ shrines being altered and adapted over the course of their use ; in this scenario , the monuments would represent composite structures .

It seems apparent that the people who built these monuments were influenced by pre @-@ existing tomb @-@ shrines that they were already aware of . Whether those people had grown up locally , or moved into the Medway area from elsewhere is not known . Based on a stylistic analysis of their architectural designs , Stuart Piggott thought that they had originated in the area around the Low Countries , while Glyn Daniel instead believed that the same evidence showed an influence from Scandinavia . John H. Evans instead suggested an origin in Germany , and Ronald F. Jessup thought that their origins could be seen in the Cotswold @-@ Severn megalithic group . Ashbee noted that their close clustering in the same area was reminiscent of the megalithic tomb @-@ shrine traditions of continental Northern Europe , and emphasised that the Medway Megaliths were a regional manifestation of a tradition widespread across Early Neolithic Europe . He nevertheless stressed that a precise place of origin was " impossible to indicate " with the available evidence .

= = Design and construction = =

The monument originally consisted of a sarsen stone chamber , covered by a low earthen mound , which was bounded by prostrate slabs . As such , the archaeologist Paul Ashbee asserted that the monument could be divided into three particular features : the chamber , the barrow , and the sarsen stone surround . It is located on the edge of a large lynchet scarp , although it is difficult to ascertain what views would have been possible from the monument at the time of construction , due to a lack of information on how densely forested the vicinity was . However , if the area was not highly wooded , then 360 ° views of the surrounding landscape would have been possible . The monument 's axis points toward both the North Downs and the Medway Valley , which is similar to the other Medway Megaliths . Archaeologist Sian Killick suggested that the Coldrum Long Barrow might have been built within view of a nearby settlement , and that this " may have been a key factor in the experience of ceremonies and rituals taking place at the tombs and may also have defined a link between the tomb builders and the landscape . "

It had been built using about 50 stones . The barrow is sub @-@ rectangular in plan , and about 20 meters ( 64 feet ) in length . At its broader , eastern end , where the chamber is located , the monument measures 15 metres ( 50 feet ) , while at the narrower , western end , it is 12 metres ( 40 feet ) in breadth . As such , the barrow is a " truncated wedge @-@ shape " . The megalithic builders responsible for the Coldrum Stones positioned it on the top of a small ridge adjacent to the North Downs , and constructed it facing eastward , towards the River Medway .

The chamber of the monument measures 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 13 feet ) in length , and 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 feet 6 inches ) in width , although it was potentially much larger when originally constructed . The chamber 's internal height would have been at least 2 metres ( 6 feet 6 inches ) . In its current state , the northern side of the chamber is made up of two slabs , one being 8 feet long , 7 feet , 6 inches deep , and 1 foot , 9 inches thick , and the other 5 feet long , 6 feet deep , and 2 feet thick . Conversely , the chamber 's southern side consists of a single slab , measuring 11 feet , 4 inches in length , 7 feet , 3 inches in depth , and 1 foot , 9 inches in depth at its thicker , eastern end . The western end of the chamber is closed off with a slab measuring about 14 feet , 6 inches wide , with a thickness of 1 foot and a depth of around 8 feet . A collapsed , broken slab lies at the opening eastern end of the chamber . It is also possible that a largely rectangular slab at the bottom of the slope had once been part of the eastern end of the chamber . Excavation has revealed that flint masonry was used to pack around the chamber and support its sarsens ; twentieth @-@ century renovation has seen this largely replaced with cement , allowing the stones to continue standing upright .

It is possible that there was a facade in front of the chamber , as is evident at other chambered tombs in Britain , such as West Kennet Long Barrow and Wayland 's Smithy . It is also possible that there was a portal stone atop the chamber , as was apparent at Kit 's Coty House and Lower Kit 's Coty House . Many of the larger slabs of stone that have fallen down the slope on the eastern end of the monument may have been parts of this facade or portal .

The earthen mound that once covered the tomb is now visible only as an undulation approximately 1 foot , 6 inches in height . In the nineteenth @-@ century , the mound was higher on the western end of the tomb , although this was removed by excavation to reveal the sarsens beneath during the 1920s . It is likely that in the Early Neolithic , the mound had a quarry ditch surrounding it , and it is inside this ditch that the kerb @-@ stones now sit .

The kerb @-@ stones around the tomb display some patterning ; those on the northern side are mostly rectilinear , while those on the southern side are smaller and largely irregular in shape . It is probable that there was an ancillary dry @-@ stone wall constructed using blocks of ironstone from the geological Folkestone beds , as is evident at Chestnuts Long Barrow . Given that such blocks of stone rarely occur naturally , it may have been quarried .

A concave line of abrasion and polishing can be found on both one of the central kerb @-@ stones on the western end of the monument and a kerb @-@ stone on the south @-@ east of the monument . These have been attributed to the sharpening of flint and other stone axe @-@ blades on these sarsens . It is possible that these tools were sharpened for use in cutting and carving the timber levers and struts which would have been used in erecting the stones and constructing the tomb . Similar evidence for the sharpening of tools has been found at West Kennet Long Barrow , as well as later prehistoric monuments such as Stonehenge .

Coldrum Long Barrow is comparatively isolated from the other Medway Megaliths ; in this it is unique , given that the other surviving examples are clustered into two groups . However , it is possible that another chambered tomb was located nearby ; a razed , elongated earthen mound with an east @-@ west orientation is located in a hollow at the foot of the downs just under a quarter of a mile to the north of the Coldrum Stones . It may be that this represents the remnants of another such monument which has had its stones removed or buried . Several large sarsens to the south of the Coldrums might represent the remnants of a further such tomb , since destroyed .

= = Human remains = =

= = = Demographics = = =

Ashbee suggested that given its size and comparisons with other long barrows , such as Fussell 's Lodge , the Coldrum tomb could have housed the remains of over a hundred individuals . Excavations conducted in the early 20th century have led to the methodical discovery and removal of what was believed to be the remains of twenty @-@ two human individuals . These remains were examined by Sir Arthur Keith , the conservator of the museum at the Royal College of Surgeons . He published his results in 1913 , in a paper largely concerned with discerning racial characteristics of the bodies .

A subsequent re @-@ analysis of the bones was conducted in the early 21st century , and published in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society in 2013 : the project presented " osteological analysis , Bayesian modelling of radiocarbon dates , and carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis to inform on the demography , burial practices , diet and subsistence , and chronology of the Coldrum population " . Disputing earlier conclusions , it stated that the minimum number of individuals was seventeen . These were then further identified as probably belonging to nine adults ( probably five males and four females ) , two sub @-@ adults , four older children , and two younger children ( one around five years old , the other between 24 and 30 months old ) .

Keith had suggested that the crania he examined displayed similar features , which he attributed to the different individuals belonging to " one family - or several families united by common descent . " Similar observations had been made regarding the crania from other long barrows in Britain , although osteoarchaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley noted that this was not necessarily representative of a family group . Instead , they stated that it would also be consistent with " a population that was still relatively small and scattered " , in which most individuals were interrelated .

Wysocki 's team noted that in all but one case , the fracture morphologies are consistent with dry @-@ bone breakage . Three of the skulls exhibited evidence that they had experienced violence ; a probable adult female had an unhealed injury on the left frontal , while an adult of indeterminate sex had an unhealed fracture on the left frontal , and a second adult female had a healed depressed fracture on the right frontal .

Isotope analysis of the remains revealed δ13C values that were typical of those found at many other Southern British Neolithic sites , albeit with significantly higher values of δ15C , which grew over time . Although this data is difficult to interpret , it was identified as probably reflecting a terrestrial diet high in animal protein that over time was increasingly supplemented with freshwater river or estuarine foods . In the case of the older individuals whose remains were interned in the tomb , the tooth enamel was worn away and the dentine had become exposed on the chewing area of the crowns .

Radiocarbon dating of the remains suggested Early Neolithic activity began at the site during 3980 – 3800 calibrated BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3960 – 3880 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) , when the first human remains were buried at the site . It then suggested that after an interval of either 60 – 350 years ( 95 % probability ) or 140 – 290 years ( 68 % probability ) , further depositions of human remains were made inside the tomb . This second phase probably began in 3730 – 3540 cal BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3670 – 3560 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) . The radiocarbon dating of the human remains does not provide a date for the construction of Coldrum Long Barrow itself ; it is possible that the individuals died either some time before or after the monument 's construction .

= = = Post @-@ mortem deposition = = =

Cut @-@ marks were identified on a number of the bones ( two femora , two innominates , and one cranium ) , with osteoarchaeological specialists suggesting that these had been created post @-@ mortem as the bodies were dismembered and the bones removed from their attached ligaments . However , they further suggested that the lack of such cut @-@ marks on certain bones was suggestive that the body had already undergone partial decomposition or the removal of soft tissues prior to the process of dismemberment . The precision of the cut @-@ marks suggests that this dismemberment was done carefully ; " they do not suggest frenzied hacking or mutilation . " None of the criteria that osteoarchaeologists deem diagnostic of cannibalism were found on the bones .

This cut @-@ marked human bone assemblage represented the largest yet identified from within a Neolithic long barrow in Southern Britain , although similar evidence for dismemberment has been found from a number of other Neolithic British sites , such as West Trump , Eyford , Aldestrop , and Haddenham . There are two possibilities for how this material developed . The first is that the bodies of the dead were excarnated or exposed to the elements , followed by a secondary burial within the tomb . The second is that they were placed in the tomb , where the flesh decomposed , before the bodies were then rearranged within the tomb itself . These practices may have been accompanied by necrophagy , shamanism , or magical practices , direct evidence for which does not survive .

The inclusion of occupational debris over the bones was not unique to the site but common in chambered tombs from southern England . On the basis of an example discovered at Kit 's Coty House , Ashbee thought it apparent that the contents of the Coldrum 's chamber would have been compartmentalised by medial slabs , which served the same purpose as the side chambers of West Kennet and Wayland 's Smithy .

= = Damage and dilapidation = =

All of the surviving megalithic tombs from the Early Neolithic period have suffered from neglect and the ravages of agriculture . Although archaeologist Paul Ashbee noted that the Coldrum Stones represent " Kent 's least damaged megalithic long barrow " , it too has suffered considerable damage , having become dilapidated and fallen apart over the six millennia since its original construction . Most prominently , the eastern side has largely collapsed , with the stones that once helped to hold up the side of the barrow having fallen to the bottom of the slope . Conversely , it is possible that the sarsens at the bottom of the slope were not part of the original monument , but were stones found in nearby fields which were deposited there by farmers .

Excavation of Chestnuts Long Barrow revealed that it had been systematically destroyed in one event , and Ashbee suggested that the same may have happened to the Coldrum Stones . He believed that the kerb @-@ stones around the barrow were toppled , laid prostrate in the surrounding ditch , and then buried during the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century , by Christians seeking to obliterate non @-@ Christian monuments . Conversely , the archaeologist John Alexander — who excavated Chestnuts — suggested that the Medway tombs were destroyed by robbers seeking to locate treasure within them . As evidence , he pointed to the Close Roll of 1237 , which ordered the opening of barrows on the Isle of Wight in search for treasure , a practice which may have spread to Kent around the same time . Alexander believed that the destruction n Kent may have been brought about by a special commissioner , highlighting that the " expertness and thoroughness of the robbery " at Chestnuts would have necessitated resources beyond that which a local community could likely produce . Ashbee further suggested that in subsequent centuries , locals raided the damaged Coldrum tomb for loamy chalk and stone , which was then re @-@ used as building material .

= = Folklore and folk tradition = =

In a 1946 paper published in the Folklore journal , John H. Evans recorded the existence of a local folk belief that a battle was fought at the site of the Coldrum Stones , and that a " Black Prince " was buried within its chamber . He suggested that the tales of battles taking place at this site and at other Medway Megaliths had not developed independently among the local population but had " percolated down from the theories of antiquaries " who believed that the Early Medieval Battle of Aylesford , which was recorded in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , took place in the area .

Evans also recorded that there was a folk belief in the area that applied to all of the Medway megaliths and which had been widespread " up to the last generation " ; this was that it was impossible for any human being to successfully count the number of stones in the monuments . This " countless stones " motif is not unique to this particular site , and can be found at various other megalithic monuments in Britain . The earliest textual evidence for it is found in an early sixteenth @-@ century document , where it applies to the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although in an early seventeenth @-@ century document it was being applied to The Hurlers , a set of three stone circles in Cornwall . Later records reveal that it had gained widespread distribution in England , as well as a single occurrence each in Wales and Ireland . The folklorist S. P. Menefee suggested that it could be attributed to an animistic understanding that these megaliths had lives of their own .

In the early twenty @-@ first century , a tradition developed in which the Hartley Morris Men , a morris dancing side , travel to the site at dawn every May Day in order to " sing up the sun " . This consists of a number of dances performed within the stones on top of the barrow , followed by a song performed at the base of the monument .

= = Antiquarian and archaeological investigation = =

= = = Early antiquarian descriptions = = =

The earliest antiquarian accounts of Coldrum Long Barrow were never published . There are claims that at the start of the nineteenth century , the Reverend Mark Noble , Rector of Barming , prepared a plan of the site for Gentleman 's Magazine , although no copies have been produced to verify this . Between 1842 and 1844 , the Reverend Beale Post authored Druidical Remains at Coldrum , in which he described the monument , although it remained unpublished at the time . Associating the site with the druids of Britain 's Iron Age , Post 's suggestion was that the name " Coldrum " derived from the linguistically Celtic " Gael @-@ Dun " , and that the chiefs of some of the Belgic Gauls were interned there . He further reported that in both 1804 and 1825 , skulls had been found at the site . In 1844 , an antiquarian named Thomas Wright published a note on the Coldrum Stones and other Medway Megaliths in The Archaeological Journal . Wright had been alerted to their existence by a local vicar , the Reverend Lambert B. Larking , and proceeded to visit them with him . Describing the Coldrums , Wright mentioned " a smaller circle of stones " to the others in the area , with " a subterranean cromlech in the middle " . He further added that " it is a tradition of the peasantry that a continuous line of stones ran from Coldrum direct to the well @-@ known monument called Kit 's Cotty [ sic ] House " , attributing this belief to the variety of megaliths which were scattered throughout the landscape .

In 1857 , the antiquarian J. M. Kemble excavated at the site with the help of the Reverend Larking , providing a report of their findings to the Central Committee of the British Archaeological Association . Describing the monument as a stone circle , they asserted that they discovered Anglo @-@ Saxon pottery at the site , and noted that as well as being called the Coldrum Stones , the monument also had the name of the Adscombe Stones , which Kemble believed originated with the Old English word for funeral pile , ad . In August 1863 , the Archaeological Institute , who were then holding their week @-@ long meeting in Rochester , took a tour to visit the site , guided by the antiquary Charles Roach Smith . That year , the monument was described in a copy of Gentleman 's Magazine by Yorkshire antiquary Charles Moore Jessop , who believed it to be a " Celtic " stone circle .

In 1869 , the antiquarian A. L. Lewis first visited the site , and was informed by locals that several years previously a skull had been uncovered from inside or near to the chamber , but that they believed it to be that of a gypsy . A later account elaborated on this , stating that two individuals excavated in the centre of the dolmen without permission , discovering a human skeleton , the skull of which was then re @-@ buried in the churchyard at Meopham . In an 1878 note published in The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland , Lewis noted that while many tourists visited Kit 's Coty House , " very few goes to or ever hears of a yet more curious collection of stones at Colderham or Coldrum Lodge " . He believed that the monument consisted of both a " chamber " and an " oval " of stones , suggesting that they were " two distinct erections " . In 1880 , the archaeologist Flinders Petrie included the existence of the stones at " Coldreham " in his list of Kentish earthworks ; although noting that a previous commentator had described the stones as being in the shape of an oval , he instead described them as forming " a rectilinear enclosure " around the chamber . He then included a small , basic plan of the monument .

In August 1889 , two amateur archaeologists , George Payne and A. A. Arnold , came across the monument , which they noted was known among locals as the " Coldrum Stones " and " Druid Temple " ; according to Payne , " the huge stones were so overgrown with brambles and brushwood that they could not be discerned " . He returned the next year , noting that at this point , the brushwood had been cut away to reveal the megaliths . In his 1893 book Collectanea Cantiana , Payne noted that although it had first been described in print in 1844 , " since that time no one seems to have taken the trouble to properly record them or make a plan " , an unusual claim given that a copy of Petrie 's published plan existed in his library . For this reason , after gaining permission from the landowner , he convinced Major A. O. Green , Instructor in Survey at Brompton , to conduct a survey of the monument in August 1892 . He also wrote to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , encouraging him to schedule the Coldrum Stones as a legally protected site under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 . Payne described the Coldrum Stones as " the finest monument of its class in the county , and one worthy of every care and attention . " Comparing it to other monuments of its type in Britain , he asserted that it was undoubtedly " of sepulchral origin , belonging to a period anterior to the Roman domination of Britain . " Payne also noted a folk tradition that there were stone avenues connecting Coldrum to the Addington Long Barrow , although added that he was unable to discover any evidence for the existence of this feature .

In 1904 , George Clinch published a note on the Medway Megaliths in the Royal Anthropological Institute 's journal , Man , in which he referred to the Coldrum Stones as " at once the most remarkable and the least known of the whole series . " Suggesting that its design indicates that it was built during " a late date in the neolithic age " , he compared the workmanship in producing the megaliths to that at the stone circle of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , although noted that they differed in that the Coldrum Stones clearly represented " a sepulchral pile " . Ultimately , he ended his note by urging for the site to be protected under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 . In that same issue , Lewis included an added note in which he rejected the idea that the monument had once been covered by an earthen tumulus because he could see " no evidence that anything of that kind ever existed " , and instead he interpreted the site as a stone circle , comparing it to the examples at Avebury , Arborlow , and Stanton Drew , suggesting that the central chamber was a shrine .

= = = Archaeological excavation = = =

The Coldrum Stones have been excavated on multiple occasions . On 16 April 1910 , the amateur archaeologist F. J. Bennett began excavation at the site , after previously having uncovered some Neolithic lithics from Addington Long Barrow . He soon discovered human bones " under only a few inches of chalky soil " . He returned to the site for further excavation in August 1910 , this time with his niece and her husband , both of whom were dentists with an interest in craniology ; on that day they discovered pieces of a human skull , which they were able to largely reconstruct . A few days later he returned to excavate on the north @-@ west corner of the dolmen with the architect E. W. Filkins ; that day , they found a second skull , further bones , a flint tool , and pieces of pottery .

Later that month , George Payne and F. W. Reader met with Bennett to discuss his finds . With the aid of two other interested amateur archaeologists , Mr Boyd and Miss Harker , both from Malling , excavation resumed in early September . In 2009 , the archaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley asserted that Bennett 's excavations had taken heed of the advice of Pitt @-@ Rivers that excavations should be recorded in full . They noted that Bennett had provided " clear plan and section drawings , photographs of the monument and careful attempts to consider site formation processes . " Suggesting that the monument was constructed on agricultural land , in his published report Bennett cited the ideas of anthropologist James Frazer in The Golden Bough to suggest that the Coldrum Stones " monument may at one time have been dedicated , though not necessarily initially so , to the worship of the corn god and of agriculture . " He proceeded to theorise that the human remains found at the site were the victims of human sacrifice killed in fertility rites . However , Evans later stated that " we have no means of knowing " whether human sacrifice had taken place at the site .

In September 1922 , Filkins once again began excavating at the site , this time with the aid of a resident of Gravesend , Charles Gilbert . Their project was financed through grants provided by the British Association and the Society of Antiquaries , with Filkins noting that at the time of its commencement , " a miniature jungle " had grown up around the site which had to be cleared . Excavation continued sporadically until at least 1926 . Human remains were discovered , and placed into the possession of Sir Arthur Keith of the Royal College of Surgeons . This excavation revealed all the existing sarsens surrounding the monument , a number of which had previously been buried beneath earth . The stones of the dolmen were shored up with concrete foundations where Filkins deemed it necessary . Although Filkins ' excavation was comprehensive , it did ignore stone holes , packing stones , and their relationship to the mound . In 1998 , Ashbee noted that while from " a present @-@ day perspective , it is possible to see shortcomings [ ... ] in terms of the general standards of the early part of this century , there is much to commend . "

= = = Management by The National Trust = = =

In his 1924 publication dealing with Kent , the archaeologist O. G. S. Crawford , then working as the archaeological officer for the Ordnance Survey , listed the Coldrum Stones alongside the other Medway Megaliths . In 1926 , the Coldrum Stones were given to The National Trust , who dedicated it as a memorial to the Kentish historian Benjamin Harrison . A plaque was erected to mark this , which erroneously termed the monument a stone circle ; in 1953 , the archaeologist Leslie Grinsell expressed the view that " it is hoped that this error may be rectified in the near future " . Still owned by the Trust , the site is open to visitors all year round , free of charge . On their website , the Trust advises visitors to look for " stunning views from the top of the barrow " . John H. Evans characterised the site as " the most impressive " of the Medway Megaliths , while Grinsell described it as " the finest and most complete " of the group .

= Soviet cruiser Krasnyi Kavkaz =

Krasnyi Kavkaz ( from Russian : " Красный Кавказ " - " Red Caucasus " ) was a cruiser of the Soviet Navy that began construction during World War I , but was still incomplete during the Russian Revolution . Her design was heavily modified by the Soviets and she was completed in 1932 . During World War II she supported Soviet troops during the Siege of Odessa , Siege of Sevastopol , and the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941 — 42 . She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April 1942 . She was reclassified as a training ship in May 1947 before being used as a target in 1952 .

= = Service history = =

Laid down on 18 October 1913 at the Rossud Dockyard as Admiral Lazarev for the Imperial Russian Navy as a cruiser of the Svetlana class , she was launched on 8 June 1916 . Construction was abandoned in 1917 during the October Revolution when the ship was 63 % complete . In the second half of 1918 , the Marine Department of Hetman Pavlo Skoropadskyi was engaged in completion of ship . On 25 January 1919 , the ship was formally renamed in " Hetman Petro Doroshenko " , but Mykolaiv was captured shortly afterward by the Entente . The hull was relatively undamaged and the Soviets decided to finish the ship to a modified design . She was renamed Krasnyi Kavkaz on 14 December 1926 , and completed to a modernized design , being commissioned on 25 January 1932 .

Krasnyi Kavkaz was initially intended to accommodate eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns in four twin turrets , but this was impossible given her small and lightly constructed hull . Three twin turrets mounting the new 57 @-@ caliber 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) B @-@ 1 @-@ K gun under development also proved impracticable and the Soviets had to settle for four MK @-@ 1 @-@ 180 single 180 mm gun turrets , two at each end . Her superstructure was massively revised to fit these turrets and all of the original casemated 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns were removed . As completed her secondary armament was only four 30 @-@ caliber 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns mounted between her funnels . Her original internal torpedo tubes were replaced by four triple 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mounts mounted on each side of the main deck abaft the forecastle break . She was given an aircraft @-@ handling crane , but a catapult wasn 't installed aft of her rear funnel until 1935 when a Heinkel catapult was imported from Germany . She was also fitted for mine rails with a capacity of up to 120 mines .

The light cruiser Komintern collided with her in May 1932 , shortly after her commissioning , and badly damaged her bow . It was extensively rebuilt and increased her overall length by over 11 metres ( 36 ft ) . In 1933 she made port visits in Turkey , Greece and Italy .

She was refitted before Operation Barbarossa , probably about 1940 , her catapult was removed , and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly increased . Her four 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns were exchanged for four Italian Minizini twin gun 50 @-@ caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) AA mounts and she received four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 76 @.@ 2 mm 34 @-@ K were fitted as well as six 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) AA machine guns . Two single mounts for 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K guns were also fitted , one on each side of the quarterdeck just aft of the rearmost main gun turret . Some of these guns may have been received earlier , the sources are unclear . While under repair at Poti in late 1942 she landed her aft pair of torpedo tubes and received two more Minizini mounts salvaged from the sunken cruiser Chervona Ukraina . Ten single mounts for the naval version of the 37 mm AA gun was also fitted . By 1944 she was also carrying one quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun MK III mount on top of each of her superfiring main gun turrets and she may have been using Oerlikon 20 mm cannon .

= = = World War II = = =

Krasnyi Kavkaz , in company with the cruisers Chervona Ukraina , Komintern and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June . She provided gunfire support to Soviet forces defending Odessa and escorted convoys bringing the 157th Rifle Division into Odessa during the month of September 1941 . She also transported one battalion of the 3rd Marine Regiment from Sevastopol in a successful amphibious assault behind Romanian lines to destroy Romanian coastal batteries near Fontanka and Dofinovka . She escorted convoys from 3 — 6 October that evacuated the 157th Rifle Division from Odessa to Sevastopol and escorted the final evacuation convoy during the night of 15 – 16 October . During the Siege of Sevastopol she provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . She helped to transport the 388th Rifle Division from Novorossiysk and Tuapse to Sevastopol between 7 and 13 December and the 354th Rifle Division between 21 and 22 December , bombarding German positions in the interim .

During the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation Krasnyi Kavkaz sailed into the harbor of Feodosiya on 29 December 1941 and disembarked reinforcements and provided gunfire support for Soviet troops already ashore . She was hit seventeen times by Axis artillery and mortar fire in retaliation . On 1 and 3 January she ferried supplies and reinforcements for the Soviet bridgehead on the Kerch Peninsula . On the return voyage she was severely damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers from II . / StG 77 . Four near @-@ misses close to her stern damaged her steering , her left propeller shaft , blew off one propeller and put enough holes in her stern that flooding caused her draft to increase by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . She made it to Novorossiysk , escorted by the destroyer Sposobnyi , where she was patched up enough to make to Poti where more permanent repairs could be made . These took until October 1942 and the opportunity was taken to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament .

She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April in recognition of her performance . Between 20 and 23 October , Krasnyi Kavkaz , her half @-@ sister Krasnyi Krym , and three destroyers ferried 12 @,@ 600 men of the 8th , 9th and 10th Guards Rifle Brigades from Poti to Tuapse to reinforce the defenses there . On the night of 4 February 1943 the Soviets made a series of amphibious landings to the west of Novorossiysk , behind German lines . Krasnyi Krym , Krasnyi Kavkaz , and three destroyers provided fire support for the main landing , but the Soviet troops there were wiped out by 6 February , although one secondary landing was successful . The loss of three destroyers attempting to interdict the German evacuation of the Taman Bridgehead on 6 October 1943 caused Stalin to forbid the deployment of large naval units without his express permission and this meant the end of Krasnyi Kavkaz 's active participation in the war .

= = = Post @-@ war history = = =

Little is known about her activities after the end of the war other than she was redesignated as a training ship on 12 May 1947 . She was sunk as a target ship by SS @-@ N @-@ 1 missiles on 21 November 1952 .

= Rhode Island Route 4 =

Route 4 , also known as the Colonel Rodman Highway , is a 10 @.@ 37 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 69 km ) long numbered state highway located in Washington County and southern Kent County , Rhode Island , United States . The route is a major north – south freeway in the southern Providence metropolitan area , directly linking Providence with eastern Washington County , the beaches of Narragansett and South Kingstown , and the city of Newport . Route 4 begins as a two @-@ lane divided highway at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in the town of North Kingstown , becoming a limited @-@ access freeway after 1 @.@ 89 miles ( 3 @.@ 04 km ) . The route has four numbered interchanges before terminating in the city of Warwick , where the northbound lanes merge into Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) .

The origins of Route 4 date back to 1952 , when construction began on a short , unnumbered arterial from US 1 to the modern location of exit 5 at Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford . In 1965 , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works began work on a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) freeway from modern exit 6 north to the merge with I @-@ 95 . The freeway , designated as Route 4 , was completed in 1972 . At that time , the Route 4 designation was also applied to the Wickford arterial . In 1988 , the missing link in Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 was completed and opened . The Rhode Island Department of Transportation has long @-@ term plans to upgrade the southernmost portion of Route 4 to freeway status by constructing overpasses at Oak Hill Road and West Allenton Road and a grade separation with US 1 . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely .

= = Route description = =

Route 4 begins at a fork in the alignment of U.S. Route 1 in the community of North Kingstown ; the two left lanes of US 1 default onto Route 4 north , with the right @-@ hand lane carrying Tower Hill Road and US 1 north into the village of Wickford . Route 4 heads in a northwestern direction as a four @-@ lane divided highway , crossing West Allenton Road at an at @-@ grade intersection with a traffic signal after approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . The highway continues on a northwesterly projection , passing to the northeast of Kettle Hole Pond and to the southwest of Secret Lake in a heavily forested region . After Secret Lake , the highway curves to the north , crossing Oak Hill Road at another at @-@ grade intersection .

Shortly after the intersection with Oak Hill Road , Route 4 transitions from a divided arterial highway into a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access freeway . The freeway passes to the west of Belleville Pond and begins to parallel the alignment of Route 102 ( Ten Rod Road ) near the community of Lafayette . Route 4 passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad before entering the business district of Wickford Junction . The freeway interchanges with Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 , a partial cloverleaf interchange . After the interchange , Route 4 bends to the northeast , beginning a parallel alignment with Route 2 that continues to its northern terminus . Route 4 crosses into the town of East Greenwich , passing under South Road before interchanging with Route 2 at exit 6 , a partial cloverleaf interchange .

After exit 6 , Route 4 passes the Rhode Island Army National Guard base to the east and to the Hunt River to the west . Route 4 northbound interchanges with Route 403 at exit 7 ; Route 403 , or the Quonset Freeway , is a four @-@ lane , limited access freeway and spur route of Route 4 that serves the Quonset Business Park and the village of Davisville . Heading southbound , exit 7 is split into exit 7B , which serves the Quonset Freeway , and exit 7A , which serves Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , another spur route connecting the highway to US 1 and Route 2 . After exit 7 , Route 4 continues northward as a six @-@ lane expressway , passing farmlands to the west and entering a suburban region of East Greenwich . The highway crosses under an overpass at Middle Road before interchanging with Route 401 , the freeway 's final spur , at another partial cloverleaf interchange . Exit 8 is also used to access Route 2 and I @-@ 95 south , which has no direct freeway connection with Route 4 north . Shortly after exit 8 , the Route 4 designation ends and the mainline of the highway defaults onto I @-@ 95 north .

= = History = =

In 1950 , the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a $ 12 million ( equivalent to $ 118 million in 2016 ) bond issue to fund the construction of a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , four @-@ lane divided arterial bypass of U.S. Route 1 in Wickford . Construction on the highway began in 1952 and was completed in 1954 , at which time the roadway opened as an unnumbered state highway leading from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 in Wickford .

During the late 1950s , a few years after the completion of the arterial , the Rhode Island Department of Public Works ( RIDPW ) proposed a relocation of Route 2 , which , at the time , was the major thoroughfare in the area . No action was taken until 1964 , when the RIDPW introduced a study for the " Relocated Route 2 " proposal . During the study , drivers who used the Colonel Rodman Highway arterial and were bound for the state capital of Providence were redirected onto Route 2 , an accident @-@ prone , four @-@ lane undivided highway near the modern exit 5 . In 1965 , the planned Route 2 freeway was given the new number of Route 4 , leaving Route 2 on its existing alignment . A public hearing was held by the state of Rhode Island on the proposed freeway , which was to be four lanes and have a divided , grassy median . This proposal was later accepted , and construction began two years later .

Construction of a 5 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) long section of Route 4 from what is now exit 6 in East Greenwich to I @-@ 95 in Warwick began in 1967 and was completed in 1972 . That year , the 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) arterial south of the modern exit 5 was also designated as part of Route 4 . The divided highway remains largely intact to this date as the stretch of Route 4 from US 1 to Routes 2 and 102 at exit 5 ; the only piece of the arterial that has been significantly altered is the construction of a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor line . By the early 1970s , Route 4 was complete north of exit 6 and south of what would become exit 5 , but there was a still a missing piece in the highway between the two exits . In the 1970s , the state of Rhode Island faced several budget problems and environmental concerns , both of which delayed the construction of the missing link for nearly eleven years . Environmental studies on the missing link began in 1977 , and the state estimated that the 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long section of freeway would cost $ 15 – 21 million ( equivalent to $ 59 – 82 million in 2016 ) to construct .

In 1983 , the Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) began construction of the new segment of Route 4 between exits 5 and 6 . The project , which ultimately went over budget at $ 24 million ( equivalent to $ 52 million in 2016 ) ) , was financed from a $ 63 million federal grant . In 1986 , during excavation for the new right @-@ of @-@ way , the Department of Transportation found archeological items from the Narragansett Indians dating from about 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 500 years prior . Although the findings were not centralized in the area , this caused delays for the extension of the freeway . On August 6 , 1988 , RIODT completed construction and performed a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony for the new highway .

In January 1990 , two police cruisers were severely damaged during a chase on Route 4 . A driver was speeding in the southbound lanes of Route 4 near exit 7 ; when the driver exited at Route 402 ( Frenchtown Road ) , two police officers got into serious accidents in their attempts to pursue the vehicle . After the crashes , the American Civil Liberties Union restarted efforts to amend police chase policy and avoid further crash @-@ related injuries for officers in the line of duty .

In 2000 , construction began on the Quonset Freeway , a relocated Route 403 that serves the Quonset Business Park from Route 4 . The project included the reconstruction and reworking of exit 7 off Route 4 , which was a southbound @-@ only exit serving both Route 403 and Route 402 when constructed . The exit was converted into a trumpet interchange with new ramps between Route 4 , Route 403 and Route 402 and was completed in December 2008 , one year ahead of schedule . The project included the construction of a new northbound exit 7 serving Route 403 east .

= = Future = =

The Rhode Island Department of Transportation ( RIDOT ) has laid out long @-@ term plans for improvements to both the southern and northern termini of Route 4 . During the 1980s and 1990s , RIDOT announced plans to eliminate the three traffic lights along the southern end of the highway . The department planned to replace the existing signalized US 1 and Route 4 merge , converting it into a grade @-@ separated interchange with an extensive overpass . This would cut @-@ off access to three local roads that intersect US 1 near the signal . The plan also included the replacement of the two other signaled intersections at West Allenton Road and Oak Hill Road with overpasses ; the overpass for West Allenton Road is planned to be constructed as a new exit 4 . In the 1990s , the state purchased and demolished several houses in the region to allow for an expanded Route 4 right @-@ of @-@ way in the vicinity of West Allenton Road .

The upgrade proposal proved to be very unpopular with North Kingstown residents who lived on the affected local roads . Additionally , RIDOT laid the highway out so that Route 4 would cross through wetlands in the area . This sparked environmental concerns , as one of the large wetlands that would be affected , Froberg 's Marsh , was deemed to be of high value by Rhode Island environmentalists . Despite local and environmental concerns , RIDOT still considers the Route 4 upgrade to be the safest way to improve traffic flow in the region . While the Department of Transportation considered upgrading nearby Route 2 to freeway standards as a potential alternative , this plan was ultimately rejected because of its effects on wells in the area . Although the project was originally scheduled to be completed by 2007 , the $ 55 million project has been postponed indefinitely .

RIDOT also has long @-@ range plans to construct direct freeway connections linking Route 4 north with I @-@ 95 south and I @-@ 95 north with Route 4 south . As of November 2010 , environmental studies are being prepared for a reconfiguration of the interchange .

= = Exit list = =

Italics denote future exit numbers .

= West End Girls =

" West End Girls " is a song by British pop duo Pet Shop Boys . Written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe , the song was released twice as a single . The song is influenced by hip hop music , with lyrics concerned with class and the pressures of inner @-@ city life which were inspired partly by T. S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land . It was generally well received by contemporary music critics and has been frequently cited as a highlight in the duo 's career .

The first version of the song was produced by Bobby Orlando and was released on Columbia Records ' Bobcat Records imprint in April 1984 , becoming a club hit in the United States and some European countries . After the duo signed with EMI , the song was re @-@ recorded with producer Stephen Hague for their first studio album , Please . In October 1985 , the new version was released , reaching number one in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1986 .

In 1987 , the song won Best Single at the Brit Awards , and Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , 20 years after its release , the song was awarded Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 by the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters . In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's 12th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV .

The song was performed by Pet Shop Boys at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony and was included as part of the soundtrack of the 2013 game Grand Theft Auto V on the Non @-@ Stop @-@ Pop radio station .

= = Background = =

= = = Recording and production = = =

In 1983 , Neil Tennant met producer Bobby Orlando , while on an assignment in New York interviewing Sting for Smash Hits . After listening to some demos , Orlando offered to produce for the duo .

In 1983 – 84 , the duo recorded eleven songs with Orlando , at Unique Studios in New York , " West End Girls " , " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " , " One More Chance " , " I Want A Lover " , " A Man Could Get Arrested " , " I Get Excited " , " Two Divided by Zero " , " Rent " , " It 's A Sin " , " Pet Shop Boys " , and " Later Tonite " . Orlando played most of the instruments on " West End Girls " , including the jazz riff at the end . Lowe played one chord and the bassline . It included a drum part lifted from Michael Jackson 's " Billie Jean " , and an arrangement involving what Tennant called " Barry White chords " . Orlando was thrilled by the song 's production ; his idea was to make a rap record in a British accent .

In April 1984 , " West End Girls " was released , becoming a club hit in Los Angeles and San Francisco , and a minor dance hit in Belgium , and France , but was only available in the United Kingdom as a 12 " import . In March 1985 , after long negotiations , Pet Shop Boys cut their contractual ties with Orlando , and hired manager Tom Watkins , who signed them with EMI . They re @-@ recorded " West End Girls " with producer Stephen Hague , and re @-@ released the song in late 1985 , topping the charts in both the UK and the U.S.

In an interview on BBC4 's Synth Britannia programme ( Video on YouTube at 1h 21m 19s ) , Neil Tennant explains the role of the then new sampling technology on the track and how every single sound came from the newly introduced E @-@ mu Emulator keyboard .

= = = Music and lyrics = = =

" West End Girls " is a synthpop song influenced by hip hop music . The song 's socially conscious streak , as well as the propulsive bass line , derives from Grandmaster Flash 's protest rap song " The Message " . Lowe and Hague created a " snaky , obsessive rhythm punch " for the music , replacing the song 's previously sparse beats and minimal keyboard lines .

Tennant started to write the song when he was staying at his cousin 's house in Nottingham while watching a gangster film . Just when he was going to sleep he came up with the lines : " Sometimes you 're better off dead , there 's a gun in your hand and it 's pointing at your head " . The lyrics were inspired by T.S. Eliot 's poem The Waste Land , particularly in the use of different narrative voices and arcane references . The song 's lyrics are largely concerned with class , inner @-@ city pressure . Tennant later said that some listeners had assumed the song referred to prostitutes , but was actually , " about rough boys getting a bit of posh . "

The lyric " From Lake Geneva to the Finland Station " refers to the train route taken by Vladimir Lenin when he was smuggled by the Germans to Russia during World War I , a pivotal event in the Russian Revolution . Indeed , it is highly likely the lyric was inspired by the book To the Finland Station by Edmund Wilson , a very famous work on the history of revolutionary thought and Socialism that Tennant would have at least heard of , if not read , as a student . The Bobby Orlando @-@ produced version of the single included another line , " All your stopping , stalling and starting , / Who do you think you are , Joe Stalin ? " which was removed for the 1985 version .

= = Critical reception = =

" West End Girls " has been generally well received by music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic in a review of the album Please called the song " hypnotic " , adding that " it 's not only a classic dance single , it 's a classic pop single " . In a review for the group 's second studio album Actually , Rob Hoerburger from Rolling Stone magazine commented that " West End Girls " was " as catchy as anything on the radio in 1986 " , praising " its enticing bass line and foreboding synth riffs " , but felt that it was almost " nullified by peevish spoken asides and the cryptic posturing of the duo 's lyrics " . In a review of the live album Concrete , Michael Hubbard from musicOMH said that " West End Girls " was one of the songs that " round out a collection that never feels too long or superfluous " , adding that it " goes some way to installing Tennant and Lowe as national treasures " .

Nitsuh Abebe from Pitchfork Media , in a review of their compilation album PopArt : Pet Shop Boys - The Hits commented that in the song " we meet Tennant not as a singer , but as a speaker " , adding that " he mumbles the verses to us not like a star , but like a stranger in a raincoat , slinking alongside you and pointing out the sights " .

In 1987 , " West End Girls " won for Best Single at The BRIT Awards , and for Best International Hit at the Ivor Novello Awards . In 2005 , the British Academy of Composers and Songwriters gave to West End Girls the Ivor Novello Award for Song of The Decade between the years 1985 and 1994 .

= = Music video = =

The video was directed by Andy Morahan and Eric Watson , and consists of shots of the duo around London . At the beginning of the video , noises from the city can be heard , a camera passes Lowe on the street , and focus on two vintage dolls in a shop window . Then appears a sequence of quick cuts with shots of the city 's different sub @-@ cultures , the video freezes and cuts to Tennant and Lowe , who walk through an empty Wentworth Street in Petticoat Lane Market . They stand in front of a red garage door , Tennant is in front dressed with a long coat , white shirt and dark necktie , directly addressing the camera , with Lowe standing behind him with a blank expression . Lowe is filmed in double @-@ exposure and appears almost ghostlike . In other shots , Tennant walks imperiously while Lowe follows behind , as if one were a master and the other an apprentice .

Then the video shows various shots at Waterloo station , as the chorus starts . In slow motion , the camera pans across the WHSmith shop on the station concourse as the duo walk past . It cuts to a brief shot of a No. 42 red double @-@ decker bus , showing the destination as Aldgate , also advertising the stage @-@ show Evita , then black and white shots of the Tower Bridge , Westminster and the Westminster Palace Clock Tower from the sky . The duo poses on the South Bank of the River Thames in a pastiche of a postcard image , with the Houses of Parliament as a background .

The camera shows shots of young women , and passes through arcades and cinemas in Leicester Square . The camera now passes South Africa House showing protestors in the Non @-@ Stop Picket , an anti @-@ apartheid vigil . The video cuts to a closeup of Tennant singing the chorus , with a purple neon sign passing across his face . At the end the camera passes again through Leicester Square , where people queue to see Fletch and Desperately Seeking Susan . The video was nominated for Best New Artist in a Video at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to a @-@ ha 's Take On Me .

= = Chart performance = =

" West End Girls " was first released in April 1984 through writer and producer Bobby Orlando 's label . The song was a club hit in the United States , and in some European countries , such as Belgium , where it debuted at number 24 on the VRT Top 30 chart on 28 July 1984 , peaking at 17 four weeks later . In Canada , " West End Girls " first entered the RPM singles chart in April 1985 , reaching a peak position of 81 in June 1985 .

Having signed with EMI , the group released their first major label single " Opportunities ( Let 's Make Lots of Money ) " in mid @-@ 1985 , but it failed to attract attention . The Pet Shop Boys then decided to re @-@ record " West End Girls " , and issue this new version as a single . Producer Stephen Hague helmed the new , re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " .

The re @-@ recorded version of " West End Girls " was released in the United Kingdom in October 1985 , debuting on the UK Singles Chart at number 80 , and within eight weeks of its release it had reached the top of the chart . It maintained the number one position for two weeks and received a gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in January 1986 . Across Europe , " West End Girls " also topped the singles chart in Norway , as well as peaking in the top three in Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Netherlands , Sweden , and Switzerland .

In Canada , where the original recording of " West End Girls " had already been a minor hit in 1985 , the re @-@ recorded version was issued as a single in early 1986 . The re @-@ recorded song entered the chart in March 1986 , peaking at number one for one week on 17 May 1986 . In the United States , West End Girls debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 71 , reaching the number one position on 10 May 1986 , and remained on the chart for 20 weeks . The song also peaked at number one on Billboard 's Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart for two weeks .

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Neil Tennant – vocals , lyrics

Chris Lowe – keyboards , artwork design

Helena Springs – additional vocals

Bobby Orlando – producer , ( 1984 release )

Stephen Hague – producer ( 1985 release )

Steve Jerome – engineer – 1984 release

David Jacob – engineer

Frank Roszak – remixing

Eric Watson – photography

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = = Chart positions = = =

= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =

= = = Certifications = = =

= = East 17 version = =

In 1993 East 17 covered " West End Girls " for their album Walthamstow , with limited chart success .

= = = Track listings = = =

7 "

. West End Girls ( Faces on Posters Mix )

. West End Girls ( Kicking in Chairs )

= = = Charts = = =

= Wrapped in Red =

Wrapped in Red is the sixth studio album by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson , released on October 25 , 2013 , by RCA Records . The album is a follow @-@ up to her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One , and its companion extended play , The Smoakstack Sessions Vol . 2 . Produced by Greg Kurstin , it is her first Christmas album and her first record to be solely released by RCA . Wrapped in Red consists of sixteen tracks , featuring five co @-@ penned original songs and eleven cover versions of Christmas standards and carols , two of which are duets featuring recording artists Ronnie Dunn , Reba McEntire and Trisha Yearwood .

Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , Clarkson had long @-@ desired to record a Christmas album as a means to defy genre limitations . She commissioned Kurstin , who had studied jazz music under the tutelage of Jaki Byard , to produce the entire album . Drawing inspirations from the soundtracks to the features A Charlie Brown Christmas and White Christmas , as well as the Christmas albums by Mariah Carey , McEntire , and Phil Spector , they experimented on various styles and sounds using Spector 's famed Wall of Sound technique to a create a contemporary holiday theme to classics . The Christmas music of Wrapped in Red comprises a variety of the genres such pop , jazz , country , and soul , marking a departure from the pop rock sound established from her previous studio albums ; while its lyrics share a singular theme of the color red , which represents a plethora of emotions during the holidays .

Wrapped in Red debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 and topped the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , Wrapped in Red stayed on the top ten of both charts and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and Music Canada . By the end of 2013 , it became the year 's best @-@ selling Christmas release in the United States and the second best @-@ selling Christmas release in Canada . Its lead single " Underneath the Tree " became an international top forty Christmas hit song and was radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 . In promoting Wrapped in Red , she appeared in red dresses on various televised appearances ; and filmed an accompanying television special , Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , at The Venetian Las Vegas , which premiered on NBC on December 11 , 2013 . In 2014 , Clarkson released the title track as the second single and hosted an annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena on December 20 , 2014 .

= = Background = =

Clarkson had expressed interest in recording a Christmas album for years , having recorded various Christmas songs such as " Oh Holy Night " and " My Grown Up Christmas List " on the American Idol : The Great Holiday Classics ( 2003 ) , " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " on iTunes Session ( 2011 ) , and being featured on Blake Shelton 's Christmas album Cheers , It 's Christmas ( 2012 ) . Weary of constantly being asked for her primary genre , she felt that recording a Christmas album would finally pave a way for her to explore other different genres . She remarked , " I always get asked what genre I 'm in : ' Is this country or pop or rock ? What are you ? ' And what 's cool about making the Christmas album was , ' Oh , there are no limitations ! We can do whatever we want ! ' " . She further added , " The thing about Christmas is that it almost doesn 't matter what mood you 're in or what kind of a year you 've had — it 's a fresh start . I 'm going to clear the air and take stock of the good that 's happened . "

Discussions about making her sixth studio album being a Christmas record began on December 2012 , a month after releasing her first greatest hits album , Greatest Hits – Chapter One . Having found the opportunity to do so , Clarkson commissioned producer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Greg Kurstin , whom she had previously collaborated with on her albums Stronger and Chapter One , to solely produce the whole album . Despite having been raised in a Jewish faith and unfamiliar with Christmas songs , Kurstin still agreed to produce the project . As a result , the record marked the second time her studio album only had a single producer ( the first being David Kahne solely producing My December in 2007 ) . It also marked the fourth time Kurstin had solely produced an entire studio album apart from being a member of the musical groups The Bird and the Bee and Geggy Tah ( the first three being Lily Allen 's It 's Not Me , It 's You in 2009 , Sia 's We Are Born in 2010 , and The Shins ' Port of Morrow in 2012 ) .

= = Recording = =

Recording sessions of the basic instrumental tracks for Wrapped in Red took place in Kurstin 's Echo Studio in Los Angeles while orchestral sessions were recorded at EastWest Studios in Hollywood and featured vocals recorded in The Barn studio in Nashville . In recording tracks for the album , Clarkson and Kurstin wanted to showcase as many different styles as they could by experimenting in various sounds and styles to create fresh , contemporary sound to classic @-@ sounding music . He recalled , " It was a lot of fun for us because we got to go back to our roots . When Kelly started singing , it was clear she had the chops and had been trained to do anything . " Further adding , " We really experimented . It was so much fun and liberating . And it pays off . " Kurstin , who studied with jazz musician Jaki Byard at The New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music , recruited various jazz and soul musicians such as James Gadson , Kevin Dukes , Roy McCurdy , and Bill Withers to perform on the record to resonate a Memphis soul sound . He also collaborated with Joseph Trapanese to arrange and conduct a chamber orchestra .

In providing instrumentation for the record , Kurstin used all of his instruments such as a Mellotron and a Chamberlin , taping them from a distance to stimulate the Wall of Sound , a recording technique originally developed by Phil Spector that was popular in the early 1960s . He enlisted Clarkson to provide all the background vocals herself . Clarkson , who grew up singing in a chorus , was pleased with the aspect ; saying , " Blending is something I knew how to do from childhood . Sometimes I 'd have to do an alto instead of a soprano because they needed a bigger sound . But I 've never had to do anything like this before — doing all my backup vocals , essentially being my own choir . " Together , they began to record in May 2013 and continued through the summer of that year , beginning by recording " White Christmas " with Clarkson in the vocal booth and with Kurstin on a piano . She commented , " The production is all him . I would be just like ' Hey , can we make this more jazz ? Hey , can we make this more bluesy . And he just , like Harry Potter , made this happen . It 's so weird . "

= = Composition = =

= = = Theme and influences = = =

Clarkson has cited the color red as the album 's only theme . A color traditionally associated with Christmas , she affiliated the color to various emotions in the holidays . Wanting to stray away from her usual pop sound , she described Wrapped in Red 's music as a representation to explore different genres such as jazz , country and Memphis soul . She recalled , " What 's cool about Christmas albums is you can do jazz , rock and roll , you can do pop , you can do blues , like you can do all that stuff and it works — cause it 's all classic and it 's Christmasy sounding . " She also noted that the album 's multitude of styles positively contributes to her artistic goal , saying , " My best friend from childhood heard it and said , ' This is what you sound like , before everything else . ' And I agree , It 's my core sound . Back in the day , when artists came out with things like " Fall to Pieces " and " Bridge over Troubled Water " , those songs transcended genres . It wasn 't , ' Where is it going to fit ? ' You catered to whatever the song calls for . And that 's exactly what I did — without having to have an umbrella for everything . "

In gathering inspirations for Wrapped in Red , Clarkson started by listening to Bing Crosby 's and Rosemary Clooney 's soundtracks from the 1954 feature film White Christmas as well as Mariah Carey 's Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) and Merry Christmas to You ( 1997 ) by Reba McEntire . While Kurstin , who used to play in a jazz band , took influences from A Charlie Brown Christmas by the Vince Guaraldi Trio and A Christmas Gift for You by Phil Spector as his inspirations , which resulted to the album 's Wall of Sound resonance . Clarkson also cited that her relationship with her then @-@ fiancé Brandon Blackstock had inspired some of the album 's lyrical content .

= = = Song analysis = = =

Clarkson shares writing credits on all five original songs on Wrapped in Red , some of which were written in December 2012 to avoid writing Christmas tunes during the 2013 summer season . She co @-@ wrote the opening and the title track , " Wrapped in Red " , with Ashley Arrison , Aben Eubanks , and Shane McAnally . A Christmas ballad , the song was inspired by a scene in the holiday feature film Love Actually ( 2003 ) , in which someone confesses unrequited love towards another . Critics singled out the track the one that resonates the Wall of Sound the most . The second track , " Underneath the Tree " , was written by Clarkson and Kurstin , making it the first time they had co @-@ written a track together . Clarkson remarked , " Greg and I have worked a lot together , but usually I just come in and I just sing . We 've never have actually written a song together at this point . And he and I were like , ' Let 's just try to write something for the record . " RCA Records chief executive Peter Edge remarked that its release as a single was partly inspired by the success of " All I Want for Christmas Is You " by Carey . The following track is a rendition of the holiday standard " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , which Clarkson had selected for its saccharine content .

Clarkson favored " Run Run Rudolph " as her favorite classic , saying " Just because it got to be a little more rock and roll . " She also remarked that " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " , was the first song selected for inclusion after her mother 's recommendation and the song 's melancholic lyrics . Written by Clarkson and Eubanks , " Every Christmas " , was the first song to be written for the album . She revealed that the song narrates of her holiday life prior to meeting Blackstock , McEntire 's stepson , saying " Every Christmas , I was just like , ' This is going to be different , right ? I 'm going to actually find someone and not be pathetically alone for the rest of my life ? ' " . The seventh track is a cover of Elvis Presley 's " Blue Christmas " . Its follow @-@ up , a rendition of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , features Ronnie Dunn . Clarkson had approached Dunn thinking that his personality suited the song 's content well , saying " Like , it 's straight @-@ up his personality to say all of that to try and get you to stay , and have a drink . " " Winter Dreams ( Brandon 's Song ) " was written by Clarkson , Arrison , and Eubanks as a companion piece to " Every Christmas " . Dedicated to Blackstock , the song accounts her holiday after meeting him . She remarked , " Christmas changes , it morphs , it comes to life a little more … It ’ s just a happier time . "

The tenth track , " White Christmas " , was the first song to be recorded for Wrapped in Red . A cover of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's " My Favorite Things " follows up as the eleventh track . Clarkson opted for the Broadway performance of the song to stray away from Julie Andrews 's version , citing " I think you shouldn 't go near anywhere of what she 's doing because she 's so good . " Clarkson and Kurstin co @-@ wrote " 4 Carats " with Cathy Dennis and Livvi Franc . Originally written a pop song , they converted it as a Christmas song to fit the album 's theme , describing it as a crossover between Eartha Kitt 's " Santa Baby " ( 1953 ) and Madonna 's " Material Girl " ( 1984 ) . A rendition of Imogen Heap 's " Just for Now " was described by Clarkson as her highly dysfunctional environment , saying " Can we just stop for like five minutes and have like a normal Christmas setting ? " The song begins by sampling the melody of the Christmas tune " Carol of the Bells " . The closing track , a rendition of the traditional carol " Silent Night " , features McEntire and Trisha Yearwood and ends in an a capella setting between the trio . In addition , two tracks were also included in the deluxe edition of the album : the first , Clarkson 's cover of " I 'll Be Home for Christmas " from iTunes Session ; and the second , her rendition of the first stanza of the ecclesiastical hymn " Oh Come , Oh Come Emmanuel " .

= = Release = =

Wrapped in Red was first released internationally on October 25 , 2013 by RCA Records through Sony Music Entertainment . It then received a North American release on October 29 , 2013 by RCA as part of its holiday promotional campaign with the soundtracks to the feature films Black Nativity and The Best Man Holiday , with Wrapped in Red being promulgated as the one that will transcend formats and become a new holiday classic . In an interview with Billboard , RCA marketing executive Aaron Borns remarked that the album was their main release of the holidays , quoting " The angle on this album is that , like all great Christmas records , it 's about amazing vocal performances . That 's what this is intended to be @-@ an album launched this year but timeless and genre @-@ defying . " In preparation for its release in the United States , RCA shipped a half @-@ million units on Amazon.com and Target , which exclusively released a deluxe edition . A red LP pressing of Wrapped in Red by United Record Pressing followed the CD release on November 25 , 2013 , marking the first time an album by Clarkson was released on a vinyl record . A deluxe LP and CD edition was also released on the Sony Music store which included a scarf , a holiday ornament , and a snow globe , all of which were decorated in red as inspired from the album . A international promotion campaign was also planned for Clarkson , but was later halted due her pregnancy . On October 21 , 2014 , Wrapped in Red was reissued by RCA with a special edition CD + DVD release exclusive to Walmart stores in the United States . A green LP pressing of the album will also have a limited 500 @-@ copy release on December 9 , 2014 .

= = = Promotion = = =

On October 15 , 2013 , " White Christmas " was released as a promotional single from Wrapped in Red . Three days after , " Underneath the Tree " premiered on Clarkson 's Vevo channel . A television Christmas special , titled Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , was filmed by concert director Hamish Hamilton on October 30 , 2013 , the eve after its street date , at The Venetian Las Vegas . A pastiche of A Christmas Carol , the Christmas special featured live performances of selections from Wrapped in Red ( one of which features McEntire and Yearwood ) . Produced by Done and Dusted , Cautionary Christmas Music Tale premiered on NBC in the United States and Global in Canada on December 11 , 2013 , being pegged by RCA as the album 's primary promotional medium . NBC 's premiere broadcast of the special was seen by 5 @.@ 31 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It also received a 1 @.@ 4 share among adults between the ages of 18 to 49 , generated NBC ’ s second biggest overall audience its time slot . NBC had also a rerun broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale on Christmas Day , which was seen by an additional 3 @.@ 54 million viewers .

Clarkson had also promoted Wrapped in Red in various televised performances , all of which she was dressed in red attire . She first performed " Underneath the Tree " on the The Today Show on November 26 , 2013 . On December 4 , 2013 , she performed " Run Run Rudolph " and " Blue Christmas " on the Christmas at Rockefeller Center television special . Clarkson had then performed " Underneath the Tree " on more televised events : such as on the fifth season of the The Voice on December 3 , 2013 , The Ellen DeGeneres Show on December 5 , 2013 , and on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on December 12 , 2013 . On December 25 , 2013 , Clarkson returned to The Today Show on its Christmas Day broadcast , performing " Blue Christmas " . Selected tracks from the album were also used in advertisements , such as " Run Run Rudolph " , which was used in a Belk holiday advertisement , and " Underneath the Tree " , which was featured in an Amazon.com and Amazon Kindle Fire HDX advertisement with an appearance by Clarkson performing the song . On December 20 , 2014 , She will host a Christmas concert , Miracle on Broadway , at the Bridgestone Arena . An annual Christmas benefit concert , Miracle on Broadway , will feature live performances of various Christmas songs by McEntire , Yearwood , Garth Brooks , Ronnie Dunn , Kacey Musgraves , Hayley Williams , Charles Esten , and Meghan Trainor , some of whom will also join Clarkson in performing selections from Wrapped in Red .

Wrapped in Red 's lead single , " Underneath the Tree " , was released to radio airplay on November 5 , 2013 . Praised in its initial release , music critics approvingly compared the song to " All I Want for Christmas is You " and blazoned it as a future Christmas standard . Reviewing for Slant Magazine , Sal Cinquemani wrote that track is likely to become Clarkson 's very own contemporary standard ; while The Independent 's Hugh Montgomery applauded it as " a winner on all fronts . " After debuting on the Billboard Holiday 100 chart at number 34 , it became holiday top ten hit by peaking at number eight on the chart . It also topped the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart for four consecutive weeks , becoming Clarkson 's third track and the fifteenth holiday song to top the chart . " Underneath the Tree " also charted on the main Billboard Hot 100 chart at number seventy @-@ eight and became a top forty hit internationally : including the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart , the Dutch Top 40 chart , and the Official UK Singles Chart . USA Today reported that " Underneath the Tree " was American radio 's most @-@ played new holiday song of 2013 , while Edison Media Research reported that the single was the first holiday song to receive a considerable support on mainstream contemporary hit radio in almost 20 years . Wrapped in Red 's second single , the title track , was serviced to radio airplay on November 25 , 2014 . On the week ending December 28 , 2014 , it debuted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart at number 11 on the week ending December 13 , 2014 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 6 reviews , and scoring higher than any other album by Clarkson . AllMusic 's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave it a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars . He described its uptempo arrangements , as well as Clarkson 's vocal performance , as " bold and brassy " and its mid @-@ tempo arrangements as " even more alluring " . He also noted the track selection " favors the bold , " but that " she fares well in this setting , always sounding like the strongest element in the mix " Towards the end of his review , he wrote that " Perhaps the concept and execution are conventional , but even in this utterly expected setting , Clarkson retains her fiery , individual spirit , and that 's what makes Wrapped in Red appealing : to the letter , it delivers what it promises . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also gave it a similar rating . He noted that the album " largely offers a respite from the pop @-@ rock template she 's been relentlessly pursuing since Breakaway , with less shouting and more of the varied range and texture on full display that helped coronate her the winner of the inaugural season of American Idol . For better or worse , a decade of recording and touring has roughed up the edges of her voice , lending a lived @-@ in quality that imbues lyrics about love and longing with an authenticity that might have otherwise been missing had she recorded these songs just a few years earlier . "

NPR 's Ken Tucker described the album as a " glossy but heartfelt work " and approvingly compared its contrasting philosophy to Nick Lowe 's Quality Street : A Seasonal Selection for All the Family , both of which he described as " will put you in a holiday mood " . Matt Casarino of PopMatters gave the album a generally favorable review , claiming that " Clarkson plays it safe and spends too much time showing off her upper register , but Wrapped in Red is a warm and romantic addition to the Christmas pop Zeitgeist , " adding " Wrapped in Red doesn ’ t need edge ; it ’ s just dynamic and varied enough to be satisfying , and it ’ s light @-@ years better than any of the whitewashed Christmas crap Simon Cowell has inflicted on the world " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe gave a favorable review , particularly lauding " Underneath the Tree " , and described Clarkson 's rendering the Christmas standards as " fairly straight " . She added , " She starts gently on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " before belting out the money notes . She ambles assuredly through the soulful favorite " Please Come Home for Christmas ( Bells Will Be Ringing ) " and hangs by the piano for a torchy “ White Christmas . " Newsday 's music columnist Glenn Gamboa wrote that " Clarkson handles it all expertly — hitting remarkably high notes on " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " and swinging jazzily on " Baby It 's Cold Outside " with Dunn . The new songs make Wrapped in Red a real gift , as the title track and " Underneath the Tree " channel the Phil Spector Christmas albums ; and " 4 Carats " somehow blends " Stronger " and " Santa Baby " . Reviewing for HitFix , Melinda Newman gave the album an " A " rating , praising Clarkson 's vocal performances and noting that she and Kurstin " have clearly studied legendary Christmas albums of yore — most notably Spector 's A Christmas Gift For You and Andy Williams ' Merry Christmas — to lovingly recreate Christmas standards , as well as craft new ones in the image of those sets . " Chris Klimek of Slate declared Wrapped in Red as the best of 2013 's new Christmas records , noting for its vintage sound . He also observed that its five original tracks , most notably " Wrapped in Red " and " Underneath the Tree " , have reasonable odds of remaining in the yuletide rotation five years from now . In his review for The New York Times , Jon Caramanica wrote that Clarkson is very likely the only singer working in pop with a real possibility of creating a modern holiday classic along the lines of Carey 's " All I Want for Christmas Is You . " and remarked that her takes on familiar songs , however accomplished , are " also faithful in the way that someone mindful of pop history would be . "

= = = Commercial performance = = =

Wrapped in Red became a commercial success in the United States . Prior it its release , music commercial analysts predicted that the album would likely sell at least 60 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the region , and foresaw it to be the front @-@ runner as the bestselling holiday release of the season . On the week ending November 16 , 2013 , it debuted on the Billboard 200 chart at number 3 with 70 @,@ 000 copies sold in all retailers , a 93 @,@ 000 decrease from Stronger 's first week sales of 163 @,@ 000 copies in 2011 . Nielsen Music analyst Dave Bakula attributed its low performance to the falling market share of the holiday music in general , which saw 3 @.@ 8 percent decrease in 2012 . The album 's chart debut on the Billboard 200 earned Clarkson her sixth consecutive top three studio album as well as the highest debut for a Christmas record by a female artist since Susan Boyle 's first Christmas album The Gift debuted at the top of the chart in 2010 . Wrapped in Red also debuted three other different charts , most notably at the top of the Billboard Top Holiday Albums chart . On the week ending November 30 , 2013 , by charting at number six on the Billboard 200 , the album became the lone Sony release inside the chart 's top ten , with the others being Universal Music Group releases .

Despite its modest debut week , Wrapped in Red began to gain traction at the beginning of the holiday season , selling up to 131 @,@ 000 copies during the Thanksgiving week . It experienced its best sales week after benefiting from NBC 's premiere broadcast of Cautionary Christmas Music Tale , selling up to 136 @,@ 000 copies on its seventh week of release . For nine consecutive weeks , it stayed in the top ten of the Billboard 200 , the most by any studio album by Clarkson . On December 5 , 2013 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , making it her fifth platinum studio album . Wrapped in Red subsequently became the bestselling Christmas release of 2013 by selling over 763 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen Soundscan , making her the first American female artist to have the number @-@ one Christmas album of the Soundscan era . Twelve of the album cuts from Wrapped in Red have also entered the Billboard Holiday Digital Songs chart during its first week of release — led by " Silent Night " , " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " , and " Underneath the Tree " at numbers one , two , and four , respectively . Other songs have also appeared in various Billboard charts throughout the holiday season : songs such as " Blue Christmas " and " Please Come Home for Christmas " charted on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at numbers 5 and 6 , respectively ; whereas " My Favorite Things " , " Run Run Rudolph " , " Please Come Home for Christmas " , " Silent Night " and " Wrapped in Red " peaked on the Billboard Canada AC chart at numbers eight , seven , 14 , 22 , and 49 , respectively . Tracks such as " My Favorite Things " have charted on the Billboard Mexico Inglés Airplay chart at number 49 ; while " Silent Night " attained a position in both the Billboard Holiday 100 and the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts , peaking at numbers 86 and 51 , respectively . Amazon.com listed Wrapped in Red as their second bestselling album during the holiday season , and listed it as their sixth bestselling title of 2013 . The album has sold 785 @,@ 300 copies in the US as of November 2014 . And in 2014 peaked at 7 on the holiday chart .

Internationally , Wrapped in Red had a relatively limited commercial performance . In Canada , the album debuted on the Billboard Canadian Albums chart at number 6 on the week ending November 16 , 2013 , making it her fifth top ten debut on the Nielsen @-@ tracked chart . It peaked on the chart at number 5 on the week ending December 28 , 2013 . Wrapped in Red became the second bestselling Christmas album of 2013 in Canada with 67 @,@ 000 copies sold in the region , behind A Christmas Gift to You by Johnny Reid . In Australia , the album debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number 82 on the week ending November 4 , 2013 , and peaked at number 29 on the week ending December 30 , 2013 . In Switzerland , it debuted on the Schweizer Hitparade at number 97 on the week ending November 10 , 2013 . In the United Kingdom , Wrapped in Red charted on the Official UK Albums Chart at number 65 on the week ending December 14 , 2013 . Despite its limited performance , Sony Corporation listed the album as their fifth bestselling release worldwide during the holiday season , which included albums , album cut tracks , and singles sales .

= = Track listing = =

All tracks were produced by Greg Kurstin , with vocal production on " Every Christmas " made by Jason Halbert .

Note

" Just for Now " contains a portion of the composition " Carol of the Bells " , written by Peter J. Wilhousky .

Tracks from the concert DVD were filmed from the television special Kelly Clarkson 's Cautionary Christmas Music Tale .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits lifted from the album 's liner notes .

Instruments

Production

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Christmas 1994 nor 'easter =

The Christmas 1994 nor 'easter was an intense cyclone along the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada . It developed from an area of low pressure in the southeast Gulf of Mexico near the Florida Keys , and moved across the state of Florida . As it entered the warm waters of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean , it began to rapidly intensify , exhibiting traits of a tropical system , including the formation of an eye . It attained a pressure of 970 millibars on December 23 and 24 , and after moving northward , it came ashore near New York City on Christmas Eve . Because of the uncertain nature of the storm , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) did not classify it as a tropical cyclone .

Heavy rain from the developing storm contributed to significant flooding in South Carolina . Much of the rest of the East Coast was affected by high winds , coastal flooding , and beach erosion . New York State and New England bore the brunt of the storm ; damage was extensive on Long Island , and in Connecticut , 130 @,@ 000 households lost electric power during the storm . Widespread damage and power outages also occurred throughout Rhode Island and Massachusetts , where the storm generated 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves along the coast . Because of the warm weather pattern that contributed to the storm 's development , precipitation was limited to rain . Two people were killed , and damage amounted to at least $ 21 million .

= = Meteorological history = =

The storm originated in an upper @-@ level low pressure system that moved southeastward from the central Great Plains into the Deep South of the United States . After reaching the southeast Gulf of Mexico , the disturbance underwent cyclogenesis , and the resultant system moved through Florida on December 22 in response to an approaching trough . National Hurricane Center forecaster Jack Beven noted that " as it moved out into the Bahamas , it appeared to take on the characteristics of a tropical storm . " The uncertain nature of the storm prevented the NHC from issuing advisories on it , and forecasters lacked sufficient data to fully assess the cyclone for potential tropical characteristics . The same trough that pushed the storm across Florida had moved to the north , allowing for high pressure to develop in the upper levels of the atmosphere .

Deemed a " hybrid storm " , the cyclone rapidly intensified in warm waters of up to 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) from the Gulf Stream combined with a cold air mass over the United States . The system continued to rapidly intensify while moving within the Gulf Stream ; it developed central convection , an unusual trait for an extratropical cyclone , and at one point exhibited an eye . Despite these indications of tropical characteristics , " There was no front associated with it and it had a warm core , but the radius of maximum winds was more than 150 nautical miles ( 170 mi ; 280 km ) , so under the standard NHC criteria it didn 't qualify as a tropical storm . " On December 23 and 24 , the nor 'easter intensified to attain a barometric pressure of 970 mb ( 29 inHg ) . An upper @-@ level low pressure system that developed behind the storm began to intensify and grew to be larger in size than the original disturbance . In an interaction known as the Fujiwhara effect , the broad circulation of the secondary low swung the primary nor 'easter northwestward towards southern New York and New England . The original low passed along the south shore of Long Island , and made landfall near New York City on December 24 . Subsequently , it moved over southeastern New York State . On December 25 , the system began to rapidly weaken as it moved towards Nova Scotia , before the pair of low pressure systems moved out to sea in tandem in the early hours of December 26 .

= = Effects = =

= = = Southeast United States = = =

In South Carolina , flooding associated with the cyclone was considered to be the worst since 1943 . Over 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rainfall was reported , while winds brought down trees and ripped awnings . In addition , the coast suffered the effects of beach erosion . Thousands of electric customers in the state lost power . As a result of the heavy rainfall , several dams became overwhelmed by rising waters . Extensive flooding of roads and highways was reported , many of which were closed as a result . Up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water flooded some homes in the region . Approximately 300 people in Florence County were forced to evacuate because of the flooding , and at least 200 homes were damaged . Two deaths were reported in the state . One woman was killed when her vehicle hydroplaned and struck a tree , and another person drowned after her car was struck by another vehicle . Total damage in South Carolina amounted to at least $ 4 million .

Strong winds occurred along the North Carolina coast . Diamond Shoals reported sustained winds of 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) , and offshore , winds gusted to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . On Wrightsville Beach , rough surf eroded an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ledge into the beach . On Carolina Beach , dunes were breached and some roads , including portions of North Carolina Highway 12 , were closed .

= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =

As the primary storm entered New England , the secondary low produced minor coastal flooding in the Tidewater region of Virginia on December 23 . Winds of 35 to 45 miles per hour ( 56 to 72 km / h ) and tides to 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal were reported . In Sandbridge , Virginia Beach , Virginia , a beachfront home collapsed into the sea . Several roads throughout the region suffered minor flooding . Strong winds resulting from the tight pressure gradient between the nor 'easter and an area of high pressure located over the United States brought down a few utility poles , which sparked a brush fire on December 24 . The fire , quickly spread by the wind , burned a field . The winds brought down several trees .

Damage was light in Maryland . Some sand dunes and wooden structures were damaged , and above @-@ normal tides occurred . In New Jersey , high winds caused power outages and knocked down trees and power lines . Minor coastal flooding of streets and houses was reported . Otherwise , damage in the state was minor .

The storm brought heavy rainfall and high winds to New York State and New York City on December 23 and 24 . Gusts of 60 to 80 miles per hour ( 97 to 129 km / h ) downed hundreds of trees and many power lines on Long Island . Several homes , in addition to many cars , sustained damage . Roughly 112 @,@ 000 Long Island Lighting Company customers experienced power outages at some point during the storm . As the cyclone progressed northward into New York State , high winds occurred in the Hudson Valley region . Throughout Columbia , Ulster and Rensselaer Counties , trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed by the winds . At Stephentown , a gust of 58 miles per hour ( 93 km / h ) was reported . Ulster County suffered substantial impacts , with large trees being uprooted and striking homes . Across eastern New York State , 25 @,@ 000 households lost power as a result of the nor 'easter . On the North Fork of Long Island , in Southold , a seaside home partially collapsed into the water .

= = = New England = = =

In Connecticut , the storm was described as being more significant than anticipated . Gale @-@ force wind gusts , reaching 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) , blew across the state from the northeast and later from the east . Trees , tree limbs , and power lines were downed , causing damage to property and vehicles . The high winds caused widespread power outages , affecting up to 130 @,@ 000 electric customers . As a result , electric companies sought help from as far as Pennsylvania and Maine to restore electricity . Bruno Ranniello , a spokesman for Northeast Utilities , reported that " We 've had outages in virtually every community . " In New Haven , the nor 'easter ripped three barges from their moorings . One of the barges traveled across the Long Island Sound and ran aground near Port Jefferson , New York . A man in Milford was killed indirectly when a tree that was partially downed by the storm fell on him during an attempt to remove it from a relative 's yard . Northeast Utilities , which reported the majority of the power outages , estimated storm damage in the state to be about $ 6 – $ 8 million ( 1994 USD ; $ 8 @.@ 8 – $ 11 @.@ 8 million 2008 USD ) .

Effects were less severe in New Hampshire and Vermont . In southern New Hampshire , a line of thunderstorms produced torrential rainfall , causing flooding on parts of New Hampshire Route 13 . Flash flooding of several tributaries feeding into the Piscataquog River was reported . In Maine , the storm brought high winds and heavy rain . Along the coast of southern Maine and New Hampshire , beach erosion was reported . Additionally , minor flooding was reported across the region , as a result of heavy surface runoff and small ice jams . In Rhode Island , the power outages were the worst since Hurricane Bob of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . Throughout the state , approximately 40 @,@ 000 customers were without electric power . As with Massachusetts , downed trees and property damage were widespread . There were many reports of roof shingles being blown off roofs and of damage to gutters . In Warwick , several small boats were damaged after being knocked into other boats . The highest reported wind gust in the state was 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) at Ashaway , Rhode Island . Statewide damage totaled about $ 5 million .

Massachusetts , particularly Cape Cod and Nantucket , bore the brunt of the nor 'easter . Reportedly , wind gusts approached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) on Cape Cod and , offshore , waves reached 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . At Walpole , wind gusts peaked at 88 miles per hour ( 142 km / h ) , while on Nantucket gusts of 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) were reported . The winds left 30 @,@ 000 electric customers without power during the storm , primarily in the eastern part of the state . Power was out for some as long as 48 hours . Property damage was widespread and many trees , signs , and billboards were blown down . A large tent used by the New England Patriots was ripped and blown off its foundation . The winds also spread a deadly house fire in North Attleboro . Although not directly related to the storm , it caused seven fatalities . Because tides were low , little coastal flooding occurred . Outside the Prudential Tower Center in Boston , the storm toppled a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) Christmas tree . Rainfall of 2 to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 to 89 mm ) was recorded throughout the eastern part of the state , contributing to heavy runoff that washed away a 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) section of a highway . Total damage in Massachusetts was estimated at about $ 5 million .

= Sholay =

Sholay ( pronunciation , meaning " Embers " ) is a 1975 Indian Hindi @-@ language action @-@ adventure film directed by Ramesh Sippy and produced by his father G. P. Sippy . The film follows two criminals , Veeru and Jai ( played by Dharmendra and Amitabh Bachchan ) , hired by a retired police officer ( Sanjeev Kumar ) to capture the ruthless dacoit Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) . Hema Malini and Jaya Bhaduri also star , as Veeru and Jai 's love interests . Sholay is considered a classic and one of the best Indian films . It was ranked first in the British Film Institute 's 2002 poll of " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time . In 2005 , the judges of the 50th annual Filmfare Awards named it the Best Film of 50 Years .

The film was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , in the southern state of Karnataka , over a span of two and a half years . After the Central Board of Film Certification mandated the removal of several violent scenes , Sholay was released with a length of 198 minutes . In 1990 , the original director 's cut of 204 minutes became available on home media . When first released , Sholay received negative critical reviews and a tepid commercial response , but favourable word @-@ of @-@ mouth publicity helped it to become a box office success . It broke records for continuous showings in many theatres across India , and ran for more than five years at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre . By some accounts , Sholay is the highest grossing Indian film of all time , adjusted for inflation .

The film drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , and is a defining example of the masala film , which mixes several genres in one work . Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory . The combined sales of the original soundtrack , scored by R. D. Burman , and the dialogues ( released separately ) , set new sales records . The film 's dialogues and certain characters became extremely popular , contributing to numerous cultural memes and becoming part of India 's daily vernacular . In January 2014 , Sholay was re @-@ released to theatres in the 3D format .

= = Plot = =

In the small village of Ramgarh , the retired policeman Thakur Baldev Singh ( Sanjeev Kumar ) summons a pair of small @-@ time thieves that he had once arrested . Thakur feels that the duo — Veeru ( Dharmendra ) and Jai ( Amitabh Bachchan ) — would be ideal to help him capture Gabbar Singh ( Amjad Khan ) , a dacoit wanted by the authorities for a ₹ 50 @,@ 000 reward . Thakur tells them to surrender Gabbar to him , alive , for an additional ₹ 20 @,@ 000 reward .

The two thieves thwart the dacoits sent by Gabbar to extort the villagers . Soon afterwards , Gabbar and his goons attack Ramgarh during the festival of Holi . In a tough battle , Veeru and Jai are cornered . Thakur , although he has a gun within his reach , does not help them . Veeru and Jai fight back and the bandits flee . The two are , however , upset at Thakur 's inaction , and consider leaving the village . Thakur explains that Gabbar had killed nearly all of his family members , and cut off both his arms a few years earlier , which is why he could not use the gun . He had concealed the dismemberment by always wearing a shawl .

Living in Ramgarh , the jovial Veeru and cynical Jai find themselves growing fond of the villagers . Veeru is attracted to Basanti ( Hema Malini ) , a feisty , talkative young woman who makes her living by driving a horse @-@ cart . Jai is drawn to Radha ( Jaya Bhaduri ) , Thakur 's reclusive , widowed daughter @-@ in @-@ law , who subtly returns his affections .

Skirmishes between Gabbar 's gang and Jai @-@ Veeru finally result in the capture of Veeru and Basanti by the dacoits . Jai attacks the gang , and the three are able to flee Gabbar 's hideout with dacoits in pursuit . Fighting from behind a rock , Jai and Veeru nearly run out of ammunition . Veeru , unaware that Jai was wounded in the gunfight , is forced to leave for more ammunition . Meanwhile , Jai , who is continuing the gunfight singlehandedly , decides to sacrifice himself by using his last bullet to ignite dynamite sticks on a bridge from close range .

Veeru returns , and Jai dies in his arms . Enraged , Veeru attacks Gabbar 's den and catches the dacoit . Veeru nearly beats Gabbar to death when Thakur appears and reminds Veeru of the promise to hand over Gabbar alive . Thakur uses his spike @-@ soled shoes to severely injure Gabbar and destroy his hands . The police then arrive and arrest Gabbar . After Jai 's funeral , Veeru leaves Ramgarh and finds Basanti waiting for him on the train . Radha is left alone again .

= = Cast = =

Dharmendra as Veeru

Sanjeev Kumar as Thakur Baldev Singh , usually addressed as " Thakur "

Hema Malini as Basanti

Amitabh Bachchan as Jai ( Jaidev )

Jaya Bhaduri as Radha , Thakur 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law

Amjad Khan as Gabbar Singh

Satyen Kappu as Ramlaal , Thakur 's servant

A. K. Hangal as Rahim Chacha , the imam in the village

Sachin as Ahmed , son of the imam

Jagdeep as Soorma Bhopali , a comical wood trader

Leela Mishra as Mausi , Basanti 's maternal aunt

Asrani as the Jailor , a comical character modelled after Charlie Chaplin in The Great Dictator ( 1940 )

Keshto Mukherjee as Hariram , prison barber and Jailor 's side @-@ kick

Mac Mohan as Sambha , Gabbar Singh 's sidekick

Viju Khote as Kaalia , another of Gabbar 's men whom he kills in a game of Russian roulette

Iftekhar as Inspector Khurana , Radha 's Father

Helen in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba "

Jalal Agha in a special appearance in song " Mehbooba Mehbooba "

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

The idea for Sholay began as a four @-@ line snippet which screenwriter pair Salim @-@ Javed told G. P. Sippy and Ramesh Sippy ; two other producer / director teams had earlier rejected the idea . Ramesh Sippy liked the concept and hired them to develop it . The original idea of the film involved an army officer who decided to hire two ex @-@ soldiers to avenge the murder of his family . The army officer was later changed to a policeman because Sippy felt that it would be difficult to get permission to shoot scenes depicting army activities . Salim @-@ Javed completed the script in one month , incorporating names and personality traits of their friends and acquaintances .

The film was loosely styled after Akira Kurosawa 's 1954 film Seven Samurai , and drew heavily from the conventions of Westerns , especially Sergio Leone 's Spaghetti Westerns such as Once Upon a Time in the West ( 1968 ) , and John Sturges ' film The Magnificent Seven ( 1960 ) . Sholay was also influenced by the westerns of Sam Peckinpah , such as The Wild Bunch ( 1969 ) and Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid ( 1973 ) ; and by George Roy Hill 's Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ( 1969 ) . A scene depicting an attempted train robbery was inspired by a similar scene in North West Frontier ( 1959 ) , and a scene showing the massacre of Thakur 's family has been compared with the massacre of the McBain family in Once Upon a Time in the West . Some plot elements were borrowed from the Indian films Mera Gaon Mera Desh ( 1971 ) and Khote Sikkay ( 1973 ) .

The character Gabbar Singh was modelled on a real @-@ life dacoit of the same name who had menaced the villages around Gwalior in the 1950s . Any policeman captured by the real Gabbar Singh had his ears and nose cut off , and was released as a warning to other policemen . The character was also influenced by the villain " El Indio " ( played by Gian Maria Volontè ) of Sergio Leone 's For a Few Dollars More ( 1965 ) . Soorma Bhopali , a minor comic relief character , was based on an acquaintance of actor Jagdeep , a forest officer from Bhopal named Soorma . The real @-@ life Soorma eventually threatened to press charges when people who had viewed the film began referring to him as a woodcutter . The main characters ' names , Jai and Veeru , mean " victory " and " heroism " in Hindi .

= = = Casting = = =

The producers considered Danny Denzongpa for the role of bandit chief Gabbar Singh , but he could not accept it as he was committed to act in Feroz Khan 's Dharmatma ( 1975 ) , under production at the same time . Amjad Khan , who was the second choice , prepared himself for the part by reading the book Abhishapta Chambal , which told of the exploits of Chambal dacoits . The book was written by Taroon Kumar Bhaduri , the father of fellow cast member Jaya Bhaduri . As cast members had read the script ahead of time , many were interested in playing different parts . Pran was considered for the role of Thakur Baldev Singh , but Sippy thought Sanjeev Kumar was a better choice . Initially , Dharmendra was also interested to play the role of Thakur . He eventually gave up the role when Sippy informed him that Sanjeev Kumar would play Veeru if that happened , and would be paired with Hema Malini , who Dharmendra was trying to woo . Dharmendra knew that Kumar was also interested in Malini . Sippy wanted Shatrughan Sinha to play the part of Jai , but there were already several big stars signed , and Amitabh Bachchan , who was not extremely popular yet , lobbied hard to get the part for himself .

During the film 's production , four of the leads became romantically involved . Bachchan married Bhaduri four months before filming started . This led to shooting delays when Bhaduri became pregnant with their daughter Shweta . By the time of the film 's release , she was pregnant with their son Abhishek . Dharmendra had begun wooing Malini during their earlier film Seeta Aur Geeta ( 1972 ) , and used the location shoot of Sholay to further pursue her . During their romantic scenes , Dharmendra would often pay the light boys to spoil the shot , thereby ensuring many retakes and allowing him to spend more time with her . The couple married five years after the film 's release .

= = = Filming = = =

Much of Sholay was shot in the rocky terrain of Ramanagara , a town near Bangalore , Karnataka . The filmmakers had to build a road from the Bangalore highway to Ramanagara for convenient access to the sets . Art director Ram Yedekar had an entire township built on the site . A prison set was constructed near Rajkamal Studio in Mumbai , also outdoors , to match the natural lighting of the on @-@ location sets . One part of Ramanagara was for a time called " Sippy Nagar " as a tribute to the director of the film . As of 2010 , a visit to the " Sholay rocks " ( where much the film was shot ) was still being offered to tourists travelling through Ramanagara .

Filming began on location on 3 October 1973 , with a scene featuring Bachchan and Bhaduri . The film had a lavish production for its time ( with frequent banquets and parties for the cast ) , took two and a half years to make , and went over budget . One reason for its high cost was that Sippy re @-@ filmed scenes many times to get his desired effect . " Yeh Dosti " , a 5 @-@ minute song sequence , took 21 days to shoot , two short scenes in which Radha lights lamps took 20 days to film because of lighting problems , and the shooting of the scene in which Gabbar kills the imam 's son lasted 19 days . The train robbery sequence , shot on the Mumbai – Pune railway route near Panvel , took more than 7 weeks to complete .

Sholay was the first Indian film to have a stereophonic soundtrack and to use the 70 mm widescreen format . However , since actual 70 mm cameras were expensive at the time , the film was shot on traditional 35 mm film and the 4 : 3 picture was subsequently converted to a 2 @.@ 2 : 1 frame . Regarding the process , Sippy said , " A 70mm [ sic ] format takes the awe of the big screen and magnifies it even more to make the picture even bigger , but since I also wanted a spread of sound we used six @-@ track stereophonic sound and combined it with the big screen . It was definitely a differentiator . " The use of 70 mm was emphasised by film posters on which the name of the film was stylised to match the CinemaScope logo . Film posters also sought to differentiate the film from those which had come before ; one of them added the tagline : " The greatest star cast ever assembled – the greatest story ever told " .

= = = Alternate version = = =

The director 's original cut of Sholay has a different ending in which Thakur kills Gabbar , along with some additional violent scenes . Gabbar 's death scene , and the scene in which the imam 's son is killed , were cut from the film by India 's Censor Board , as was the scene in which Thakur 's family is massacred . The Censor Board was concerned about the violence , and that viewers may be influenced to violate the law by punishing people severely . Although Sippy fought to keep the scenes , eventually he had to re @-@ shoot the ending of the film , and as directed by the Censor Board , have the police arrive just before Thakur can kill Gabbar . The censored theatrical version was the only one seen by audiences for fifteen years . The original , unedited cut of the film finally came out in a British release on VHS in 1990 . Since then , Eros International has released two versions on DVD . The director 's cut of the film preserves the original full frame and is 204 minutes in length ; the censored widescreen version is 198 minutes long .

= = Themes = =

Scholars have noted several themes in the film , such as glorification of violence , conformation to feudal ethos , debate between social order and mobilised usurpers , homosocial bonding , and the film 's role as a national allegory .

Koushik Banerjea , a sociologist in the London School of Economics , notes that Sholay exhibits a " sympathetic construction of ' rogue ' masculinity " exemplified by the likeable outlaws Jai and Veeru . Banerjea argues during the film , the moral boundary between legality and criminality gradually erodes . Film scholar Wimal Dissanayake agrees that the film brought " a new stage in the evolving dialectic between violence and social order " to Indian cinema . Film scholar M. Madhava Prasad states that Jai and Veeru represent a marginalised population that is introduced into conventional society . Prasad says that , through the elements of revenge included in the plot and the application of Jai and Veeru 's criminality for the greater good , the narrative reflects reactionary politics , and the audience is compelled to accept feudal order . Banerjea explains that though Jai and Veeru are mercenaries , they are humanised by their emotional needs . Such dualism makes them vulnerable , in contrast to the pure evil of Gabbar Singh .

Gabbar Singh , the film 's antagonist , was well received by the audience , despite his pervasive sadistic cruelty . Dissanayake explains that the audience was fascinated by the dialogues and mannerisms of the character , and this element of spectacle outweighed his actions , a first for Indian melodrama . He notes that the picturisation of violence in the film was glamourised and uninhibited . He further notes that , unlike earlier melodramas in which the female body occupies the audience 's attention as an object of male fetish , in Sholay , the male body becomes the centrepiece . It becomes the battleground where good and evil compete for supremacy . Dissanayake argues that Sholay can be viewed as a national allegory : it lacks a comforting logical narrative , it shows social stability being repeatedly challenged , and it shows the devaluation of human life resulting from a lack of emotions . Taken together , these elements comprise the allegorical representation of India . The narrative style of Sholay , with its violence , revenge , and vigilante action , is occasionally compared by scholars to the political unrest in India at the time of its release . This tension culminated in the Emergency ( rule by decree ) declared by prime minister Indira Gandhi in 1975 .

Dissanayeke and Sahai note that , although the film borrowed heavily from the Hollywood Western genre , particularly in its visuals , it was successfully " Indianised " . As an example , William van der Heide has compared a massacre scene in Sholay with a similar scene in Once Upon a Time in the West . Although both films were similar in technical style , Sholay emphasised Indian family values and melodramatic tradition , while the Western was more materialistic and restrained in its approach . Maithili Rao , in Encyclopedia of Hindi Cinema , notes that Sholay infuses the style of the Western genre into a " feudalistic ethos " . Ted Shen of the Chicago Reader notes Sholay 's " hysterical visual style " and intermittent " populist message " . Cultural critic and Islamist scholar Ziauddin Sardar lampoons the film in his book The Secret Politics of Our Desires : Innocence , Culpability and Indian Popular Cinema , both for its caricature and stereotyping of Muslim and women characters , and for what he calls mockery of innocent villagers . Sardar notes that the two most prominent Muslim characters in the film are Soorma Bhopali ( a buffoonish criminal ) , and an impotent victim of the bandits ( the imam ) . Meanwhile , the sole function of one female character ( Radha ) is to suffer her fate in silence , while the other female lead ( Basanti ) is just a garrulous village belle .

Some scholars have indicated that Sholay contains homosocial themes . Ted Shen describes the male bonding shown in the film as bordering on camp style . Dina Holtzman , in her book Bollywood and Globalization : Indian Popular Cinema , Nation , and Diaspora , states that the death of Jai , and resultant break of bonding between the two male leads , is necessary for the sake of establishing a normative heterosexual relationship ( that of Veeru and Basanti ) .

= = Music = =

R. D. Burman composed the film 's music , and the lyrics were written by Anand Bakshi . The songs used in the film , and released on the original soundtrack are listed below . Following that is a list of unused tracks and dialogues which were released later on an updated soundtrack . The album 's cover image depicts an emotional scene from the film in which Basanti is forced to sing and dance on the song " Haa Jab Tak Hai Jaan " on broken glass under the blazing sun to save Veeru 's life .

The song " Mehbooba Mehbooba " was sung by its composer , R. D. Burman , who received his sole Filmfare Award nomination for playback singing for his effort . The song , which is often featured on Bollywood hit song compilations , samples " Say You Love Me " by Greek singer Demis Roussos . " Mehbooba Mehbooba " has been extensively anthologised , remixed , and recreated . A version was created in 2005 by the Kronos Quartet for their Grammy @-@ nominated album You 've Stolen My Heart , featuring Asha Bhosle . It was also remixed and sung by Himesh Reshammiya , along with Bhosle , in his debut acting film Aap Kaa Surroor ( 2007 ) . " Yeh Dosti " has been called the ultimate friendship anthem . It was remixed and sung by Shankar Mahadevan and Udit Narayan for the 2010 Malayalam film Four Friends , and also in 2010 it was used to symbolise India 's friendship with the United States during a visit from President Barack Obama .

Several songs from the soundtrack were included in the annual Binaca Geetmala list of top filmi songs . " Mehbooba Mehooba " was listed at No. 24 on the 1975 list , and at No. 6 on the 1976 list . " Koi Haseena " was listed at No. 30 in 1975 , and No. 20 in 1976 . " Yeh Dosti " was listed at No. 9 in 1976 . Despite the soundtrack 's success , at the time , the songs from Sholay attracted less attention than the film 's dialogue — a rarity for Bollywood . The producers were thus prompted to release records with only dialogue . Taken together , the album sales totalled an unprecedented 500 @,@ 000 units , and became one of the top selling Bollywood soundtracks of the 1970s .

Music critic Oli Marlow reviewed the soundtrack in 2013 , calling it a unique fusion of religious , folk , and classical music , with influences from around the world . He also commented on the sound design of the film , calling it psychedelic , and saying that there was " a lot of incredible incidental music " in the film that was not included in the soundtrack releases . In a 1999 paper submitted to London 's Symposium on Sound in Cinema , film critic Shoma A. Chatterji said , " Sholay offers a model lesson on how sound can be used to signify the terror a character evokes . Sholay is also exemplary in its use of soundmatching to jump cut to a different scene and time , without breaking the continuity of the narrative , yet , intensifying the drama . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Box office = = =

Sholay was released on 15 August 1975 , Indian Independence Day , in Mumbai . Due to lacklustre reviews and a lack of effective visual marketing tools , it saw poor financial returns in its first two weeks . From the third week , however , viewership picked up owing to positive word of mouth . During the initial slow period , the director and writer considered re @-@ shooting some scenes so that Amitabh Bachchan 's character would not die . When business picked up , they abandoned this idea . After being helped additionally by a soundtrack release containing dialogue snippets , Sholay soon became an " overnight sensation " . The film was then released in other distribution zones such as Delhi , Uttar Pradesh , Bengal , and Hyderabad on 11 October 1975 . It became the highest grossing Bollywood film of 1975 , and film ranking website Box Office India has given the film a verdict of " All Time Blockbuster " .

Sholay went on to earn a still @-@ standing record of 60 golden jubilees across India , and was the first film in India to celebrate a silver jubilee at over 100 theatres . It was shown continuously at Mumbai 's Minerva theatre for over five years . Sholay was the Indian film with the longest theatrical run until Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge ( 1995 ) broke its record of 286 weeks in 2001 .

Exact figures are not available on the budget and box office earnings of Sholay , but film trade websites provide estimates of its success . According to Box Office India , Sholay earned about ₹ 150 million nett gross ( valued at about US $ 16 @,@ 778 @,@ 000 in 1975 ) in India during its first run , which was many times its ₹ 30 million ( valued at about US $ 3 @,@ 355 @,@ 000 in 1975 ) budget . Those earnings were a record that remained unbroken for nineteen years , which is also the longest amount of time that a film has held the record . Its original gross was increased further with re @-@ releases during the late 1970s , 1980s , 1990s , and early 2000s . It is often cited that after adjusting the figures for inflation , Sholay is one of the highest grossing films in the history of Indian cinema , although such figures are not known with certainty . In 2012 , Box Office India gave ₹ 1 @.@ 63 billion ( US $ 24 million ) as Sholay 's adjusted net gross , whereas Times of India , in a 2009 report of business of Indian films , reported over ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) as the adjusted gross .

= = = Critical response = = =

Initial critical reviews of Sholay were negative . Among contemporary critics , K.L. Amladi of India Today called the film a " dead ember " and " a gravely flawed attempt " . Filmfare said that the film was an unsuccessful mincing of Western style with Indian milieu , making it an " imitation western — neither here nor there . " Others labelled it as " sound and fury signifying nothing " and a " second @-@ rate take @-@ off " of the 1971 film Mera Gaon Mera Desh . Trade journals and columnists initially called the film a flop . In a 1976 article in the journal Studies : An Irish Quarterly Review , author Michael Gallagher praised the technical achievement of the film , but otherwise criticised it stating , " As a spectacle it breaks new ground , but on every other level it is intolerable : formless , incoherent , superficial in human image , and a somewhat nasty piece of violence " .

Over time , the critical reception to Sholay greatly improved ; it is now considered a classic , and among the greatest Hindi @-@ language films . In a 2005 BBC review , the well @-@ rounded characters and simple narrative of the film were commended , but the comical cameos of Asrani and Jagdeep were considered unnecessary . On the film 's 35th anniversary , the Hindustan Times wrote that it was a " trailblazer in terms of camera work as well as music , " and that " practically every scene , dialogue or even a small character was a highlight . " In 2006 , The Film Society of Lincoln Center described Sholay as " an extraordinary and utterly seamless blend of adventure , comedy , music and dance " , labelling it an " indisputable classic " . Chicago Review critic Ted Shen criticised the film in 2002 for its formulaic plot and " slapdash " cinematography , and noted that the film " alternates between slapstick and melodrama " . In their obituary of the producer G.P. Sippy , the New York Times said that Sholay " revolutionized Hindi filmmaking and brought true professionalism to Indian script writing " .

= = = Awards = = =

Sholay was nominated for nine Filmfare Awards , but the only winner was M. S. Shinde , who won the award for Best Editing . The film also won three awards at the 1976 Bengal Film Journalists ' Association Awards ( Hindi section ) : " Best Actor in Supporting Role " for Amjad Khan , " Best Cinematographer ( Colour ) " for Dwarka Divecha , and " Best Art Director " for Ram Yedekar . Sholay received a special award at the 50th Filmfare Awards in 2005 : Best Film of 50 Years .

= = Legacy = =

Sholay has received many " Best Film " honours . It was declared the " Film of the Millennium " by BBC India in 1999 . It topped the British Film Institute 's " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time poll of 2002 , and was voted the greatest Indian movie in a Sky Digital poll of one million British Indians in 2004 . It was also included in Time Magazine 's " Best of Bollywood " list in 2010 , and in CNN @-@ IBN 's list of the " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " in 2013 .

Sholay inspired many films and pastiches , and spawned a subgenre of films , the " Curry Western " , which is a play on the term Spaghetti Western . It was an early and most definitive masala film , and a trend @-@ setter for " multi @-@ star " films . The film was a watershed for Bollywood 's scriptwriters , who were not paid well before Sholay ; after the film 's success , script writing became a more respected profession .

Certain scenes and dialogues from the film earned iconic status in India , such as " Kitne aadmi the " ( How many men were there ? ) , " Jo dar gaya , samjho mar gaya " ( One who is scared is dead ) , and " Bahut yaarana laagta hai " ( Looks like you two are very close ) – all dialogues of Gabbar Singh . These and other popular dialogues entered the people 's daily vernacular . Characters and dialogues from the film continue to be referred to and parodied in popular culture . Gabbar Singh , the sadistic villain , ushered in an era in Hindi films characterised by " seemingly omnipotent oppressors as villains " , who play the pivotal role in setting up the context of the story , such as Shakal ( played by Kulbhushan Kharbanda ) of Shaan ( 1980 ) , Mogambo ( Amrish Puri ) of Mr. India ( 1987 ) and Bhujang ( Amrish Puri ) of Tridev ( 1989 ) . Filmfare , in 2013 , named Gabbar Singh the most iconic villain in the history of Indian cinema , and four actors were included in its 2010 list of " 80 Iconic Performances " for their work in this film .

The film is often credited with making Amitabh Bachchan a " superstar " , two years after he became a star with Zanjeer ( 1973 ) . Some of the supporting actors remained etched in public memory as the characters they played in Sholay ; for example , Mac Mohan continued to be referred to as " Sambha " , even though his character had just one line . Major and minor characters continue to be used in commercials , promos , films and sitcoms . Amjad Khan acted in many villainous roles later in his career . He also played Gabbar Singh again in the 1991 spoof Ramgarh Ke Sholay , and reprised the role in commercials . The British Film Institute in 2002 wrote that fear of Gabbar Singh " is still invoked by mothers to put their children to sleep " . The 2012 film Gabbar Singh , named after the character , became the highest grossing Telugu film up to that point . Comedian Jagdeep , who played Soorma Bhopali in the film , attempted to use his Sholay success to create a spinoff . He directed and played the lead role in the 1988 film Soorma Bhopali , in which Dharmendra and Bachchan had cameos .

In 2004 , Sholay was digitally remastered and shown again to packed theatres in India , including Mumbai 's Minerva , where it had run successfully 29 years earlier . An attempt to remake Sholay , Ram Gopal Varma 's film Aag ( 2007 ) , starring Amitabh Bachchan as the villain , was a commercial and critical disaster . Because of television and home media , Sholay is widely available and still popular . Twenty years after its release , Sholay was first shown on the Indian DD National television channel , where it drew the highest ratings ever for a film broadcast . Video game producer Mobile2win released the " Sholay Ramgarh Express " game for mobile phones in 2004 , along with other Sholay themed content such as wallpapers , video clips , and ringtones .

Sholay has been the subject of two books and many articles . Wimal Dissanayake and Malti Sahai 's Sholay , A Cultural Reading ( 1992 ) attempts a comprehensive scholarly study that sets the film within the broader history of popular cinema in India . Anupama Chopra 's Sholay : The Making of a Classic ( 2000 ) provides an inside look at the film 's production based on interviews with the director , stars , and crew members .

Sholay has been labelled by Chopra as the gold standard in Indian cinema , and a reference point for audiences and trade analysts . Over the years , the film has reached a mythic stature in popular culture , and has been called the greatest Hindi film of all time . It belongs to only a small collection of films , including Kismet ( 1943 ) , Mother India ( 1957 ) , Mughal @-@ e @-@ Azam ( 1960 ) and Hum Aapke Hain Koun .. ! ( 1994 ) , which are repeatedly watched throughout India , and are viewed as definitive Hindi films with cultural significance . The lasting effect of Sholay on Indian cinema was summarised by Anupama Chopra , when in 2004 she called it " no longer just a film , [ but ] an event " . In the 2000 book Sholay : The Making of a Classic , the noted director Shekhar Kapur stated " there has never been a more defining film on the Indian screen . Indian film history can be divided into Sholay BC and Sholay AD " . The film was jointly released in Pakistan by Geo films and Mandviwalla Entertainment on 17 April 2015 , almost 40 years after its theatrical release . The film 's premiere in the country was held in Karachi .

= = 3D re @-@ release = =

Filmmaker Ketan Mehta 's company Maya Digital was responsible for converting Sholay into the 3D format . Mehta was approached by G. P. Sippy 's grandson , Sasha Sippy , about the project in 2010 . In March 2012 , Shaan Uttam Singh , the grandson of producer G. P. Sippy , said that he would sponsor a conversion of the film to 3D , and release it in late 2012 ; this was later postponed to late 2013 , and eventually finalised for 3 January 2014 . It took ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) to convert Sholay to 3D .

Under the leadership of computer animator Frank Foster , 350 people worked to convert the film into the digital 3D format , for which every scene had to be individually restored , colour @-@ corrected and re @-@ composited in 3D to match the depth . New set @-@ pieces , particularly those suited to the new format were also included , such as digital logs which scatter in the direction of the camera during the first half of the film when the train collides with them , the gunshot scene which frees Jai and Veeru from their handcuffs , and panoramic views of Gabbar 's hideout in the caves .

The theatrical trailer and release date were unveiled by the original script @-@ writers Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar . The two original leads , Bachchan and Dharmendra , were also involved in promoting the re @-@ release . The film was released in 1 @,@ 000 screens in India , and additional screens overseas . It earned approximately ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) during its re @-@ release , not enough to recover its conversion cost .

= Adam Stansfield =

Adam Stansfield ( 10 September 1978 – 10 August 2010 ) was an English professional footballer who played as a striker . He competed professionally for Yeovil Town , Hereford United and Exeter City , and won promotion from the Football Conference to The Football League with all three teams .

Having played for three counties as a child , Stansfield began his career in non @-@ league with Cullompton Rangers and Elmore , and had unsuccessful trials at league teams . At the age of 23 , he signed his first professional contract with Yeovil Town , after impressing their manager Gary Johnson in a match against them . In his first season , he helped them win the FA Trophy , scoring in the 2002 final . The following season , Yeovil won the Conference and promotion into The Football League , although Stansfield was ruled out with a broken leg in the first game . In 2004 , he transferred to Hereford United , where he won promotion to The Football League via the 2006 play @-@ offs , and repeated the feat with Exeter City a year later . He also helped Exeter earn promotion into League One in 2008 . At international level , Stansfield played five matches and scored one goal for England 's national semi @-@ professional team , winning the 2005 Four Nations Tournament .

Stansfield was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in April 2010 . He returned to training after surgery and chemotherapy , but died on 10 August that year . A foundation in his name was posthumously set up by his family to provide sporting opportunities and raise awareness of colorectal cancer . He has posthumously been featured on a Flybe airliner livery and tourist currency in Exeter .

= = Early and personal life = =

Stansfield was born in Plymouth , Devon , as the third of four children , and supported Nottingham Forest . On 2 June 2001 he married Marie , with whom he had three sons . Devon journalist Gary Andrews remembered Stansfield as a man who would spend time with his family after matches while speaking to fans and the press . He wrote that " I had the pleasure of interviewing Adam on a regular basis ... I say pleasure , because his answers were thoughtful and intelligent and he came across as a man who was delighted to be back home with his friends and family " .

= = Career = =

= = = Early career = = =

Stansfield 's first club was Evesham Colts under @-@ 10s . He played at county level for Worcestershire , Leicestershire and Devon . When his family settled back in Devon he joined Twyford Spartans , scoring 84 goals in 54 matches . He played in Tiverton Town 's youth team as a left back before reverting to being a striker at his first senior club , non @-@ League side Cullompton Rangers . He later moved to Elmore , where he attracted trials from Exeter City , Wolverhampton Wanderers and Torquay United , all of which were unsuccessful . His siblings joined the Royal Air Force and he thought of joining them , but continued searching for a breakthrough in professional football .

= = = Yeovil Town = = =

In October 2001 , Stansfield 's performances for Elmore impressed Yeovil Town manager Gary Johnson to sign him . He made his debut in the Conference on 9 November , playing the entirety of a 3 – 0 loss away to Southport . His first goal came on 1 December , concluding a 3 – 1 victory at Northwich Victoria . His first season at Huish Park was a success , finishing as the top scorer with 16 goals , 8 of which came in the club 's victorious FA Trophy run . He scored twice in a fourth round replay at Doncaster Rovers , as Yeovil came from 0 – 3 down for an eventual 5 – 4 victory . In the final on 12 May he scored the second goal of a 2 – 0 win over Stevenage Borough at the Millennium Stadium .

On the first day of the following season , Stansfield was substituted through injury after 16 minutes of an eventual 2 – 2 home draw with Gravesend & Northfleet to be replaced by Abdoulai Demba . It was later confirmed to be a break of the tibia and fibula . He missed the remainder of the season , in which Yeovil won the Conference to be promoted to The Football League for the first time .

He recovered to feature in the next campaign , making his league debut on 16 August 2003 . In that match , Yeovil 's first in The Football League , he came on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Kirk Jackson in a 3 – 0 win against Carlisle United . His first of six goals in the Third Division season came on 6 September , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Swansea City . He was given a rare start in that match as first @-@ choice forward Kevin Gall was away with Wales under @-@ 21 .

= = = Hereford United = = =

On 14 June 2004 , Stansfield returned to the Conference with Hereford United , signed by Graham Turner to replace their previous season 's top scorer Steve Guinan , who had been sold to Cheltenham Town . He scored 20 goals across the season , including two on 25 March 2005 in a 6 – 0 win at Farnborough Town . In that match , he came on in the 77th minute for Daniel Carey @-@ Bertram , who had also scored two . Hereford reached the promotion play @-@ offs , where they lost in the semi @-@ finals to Stevenage . In the following season they won promotion by the play @-@ offs , with Stansfield starting in the final on 20 May 2006 at the Walkers Stadium in Leicester , a 3 – 2 extra @-@ time victory over Halifax Town .

= = = Exeter City = = =

On 12 June 2006 , with his contract expired , Stansfield decided to remain in the Conference , joining Exeter City . He told local radio that his aim was not to achieve promotion or reach a certain tally of goals , but to influence the club 's younger players .

He scored nine times in 40 league games in his first season , including two in a 2 – 1 home win over relegated Southport on 28 April 2007 in order to seal a play @-@ off place . Eleven days later , in the second leg of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final away to Oxford United , he scored a goal which took the match to extra time and eventually a penalty shootout which his side won . In the final on 20 May at Wembley Stadium , he came on as a 36th @-@ minute substitute for goalscorer Lee Phillips in a 1 – 2 loss to Morecambe .

On 26 April 2008 , Stansfield scored in Exeter 's 4 – 4 draw at Burton Albion which qualified them for that season 's play @-@ offs . He started in the final , whereby the team returned to The Football League for the first time in five years with a 1 – 0 Wembley win over Cambridge United .

He scored 10 goals in 37 league games as they won a second consecutive promotion into League One in the 2008 – 09 season . This included consecutive braces on 27 September and 4 October , in wins over Macclesfield Town ( 4 – 1 away ) and Gillingham ( 3 – 0 home ) . The following campaign , despite never having previously played at as high a level , he was a regular starter for Exeter in League One , scoring eight goals in a season curtailed by his cancer diagnosis .

= = = International career = = =

Stansfield earned five caps and scored one goal for the England national semi @-@ professional team . He featured in the 2002 edition of the Four Nations Tournament , and made his debut in England 's opening match , a 1 – 1 draw with Wales at York Street in Boston on 14 May . Stansfield was injured in the first half of the last match , a 2 – 0 win against Scotland at Rockingham Road in Kettering on 18 May , while Wales won the title . In 2005 , while back in the Conference with Hereford , he was again called up for the tournament by manager Paul Fairclough . Stansfield played in two matches as England won the tournament with three wins .

= = Illness and death = =

Stansfield suffered from persistent abdominal pain in the early part of 2010 , and was admitted to hospital for tests at the end of March . On 8 April 2010 , Exeter City confirmed to the media that he had been diagnosed with a form of colorectal cancer . Manager Paul Tisdale told local news programme BBC Spotlight that " there 's little good on this subject " , but " if there 's someone who can deal with it and meet it head on with real purpose , Adam 's the man .

Later that month , Stansfield underwent surgery to remove part of his colon . Club vice @-@ chairman Julian Tagg reported that the operation was successful , and that Stansfield appeared happy and was making jokes . He joined the Exeter squad for the first day of pre @-@ season training in July , appearing weak from chemotherapy . His condition deteriorated rapidly and he died on 10 August , with his death being announced shortly after Exeter 's loss to Ipswich Town in the Football League Cup .

As a mark of respect , Dagenham & Redbridge postponed the game Exeter were due to play against them at Victoria Road four days after his death . Exeter retired his shirt number 9 for nine seasons .

Stansfield 's body was taken from St James Park to his funeral service at Exeter Cathedral on 25 August , attended by over 1 @,@ 000 mourners . A private family service was held later .

= = = Posthumous recognition = = =

Stansfield continues to be remembered by fans of Exeter . On 9 August 2014 , as they started the new season against Portsmouth , a giant flag resembling his club shirt was displayed by the crowd .

At his funeral , Stansfield 's widow Marie had an idea to set up the Adam Stansfield Foundation , which by the fourth anniversary of his death had raised over £ 150 @,@ 000 . It works in offering children football in Devon , Somerset and Herefordshire , the three counties in which he played professionally , as well as increasing opportunities for the disabled to take part in the sport . The foundation also aims to increase awareness of bowel cancer .

From 2011 to 2015 , an aeroplane belonging to Flybe bore an image of Stansfield , with other aeroplanes belonging to the company featuring such former footballers as George Best and Kevin Keegan . In 2015 , Stansfield was featured on £ 5 Exeter Pound notes in the city .

Exeter City and Yeovil Town agreed that on their meeting at St James Park on 8 August 2015 , there would be a minute 's applause in the seventh minute and ninth , for the numbers he wore at each club . Earlier the same day , there was also a match between the two clubs ' supporters in Topsham , Devon , to raise funds for his foundation .

= = Career statistics = =

= = Honours = =

Yeovil Town

FA Trophy : 2001 – 02

Football Conference : 2002 – 03

Hereford United

Conference National play @-@ offs : 2006

Exeter City

Conference National play @-@ offs : 2008

England semi @-@ professional

Four Nations Tournament : 2005

= Saprang Kalayanamitr =

General Saprang Kalayanamitr ( Thai : สพรั ่ ง กัลยาณมิตร ; rtgs : Sa @-@ phrang Kanlayanamit , also known as Poei ( Thai : เปย ) or Big Poei ( Thai : บิ ๊ กเปย ) , born 8 July 1948 in Lampang , Thailand ) is a retired officer of the Royal Thai Army , Assistant Secretary @-@ General of the Council for National Security , Commander of the junta 's 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man anti @-@ protest force , Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) , and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major Thai state @-@ owned telecommunication companies .

Saprang grew up in an aristocratic military family and graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . He served for nearly three decades in the Army cavalry corp , and was promoted to 3rd Army Region Commander in 2005 . He was a key leader of the September 2006 coup that overthrew the government of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra .

Saprang is one of the fiercest critics of Thaksin Shinawatra , calling him a " traitor " and claiming that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . " Upon appointment to chair Airports of Thailand and TOT , he purged the management , initiated investigations into the overthrown government , and donated 200 million baht of the agency 's funds to the Army . He fired the President of TOT for questioning an 800 million baht donation that the agency made to the Army . As head of CAT Telecom , he was accused of blocking attempts to launch People 's Television , a new television station founded by ex @-@ leaders of Thaksin 's Thai Rak Thai party .

Saprang was considered one of the top contenders to lead the army and the junta after CNS @-@ leader Sonthi Boonyaratkalin 's mandatory retirement in 2007 . However , in September 2007 he was demoted to be Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Defense Ministry , while his rival , General Anupong Paochinda , was promoted to lead the Army . As a result , Saprang retired from the Army in 2010 .

= = Education and early career = =

= = = Education = = =

Born 8 July 1948 in Lampang , Thailand , Saprang graduated from the 7th Class of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School ( AFAPS ) and the 18th Class of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy . His classmates included General Paisan Katanyu ( appointed Deputy Army Commander after the coup ) , Admiral Bannawit Kengrien ( appointed to the National Legislative Assembly after the coup , and leader of its Suvarnabhumi Airport committee ) , and General Lertrat Rattavanich . He later graduated from the 43rd class of the National Defence College of Thailand in 2001 . His NDC thesis concerned the role of military forces in the control of illegal narcotics . His NDC classmates included Kraisi Karnasuta , governor of state energy company EGAT .

= = = Early career = = =

Saprang started his military career in 1969 as Rifle Platoon Leader in the 3rd Infantry Battalion , 4th Regimental Combat Team . He claims to have fought 200 battles during the course of his military career .

He was appointed Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion of the 4th Infantry Regiment in 1982 , stationed in Nakhonsawan ( on the northwestern border with Burma ) . In 1985 , he became Commander of the 1st Infantry Battalion in the 19th Infantry Regiment , stationed in Surasee Fort , Kanchanaburi ( on the western border with Burma ) .

He was then promoted to be Regimental Commanding Officer of the Armed Forces Academies Preparatory School in 1990 . In 1991 , he began a six @-@ year stint as Regimental Commanding Officer of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy .

In April 1997 , Saprang was shortly transferred to the Ministry of Defense as a staff officer , before being promoted in October 1997 to Commanding General of the 15th Infantry Division , at the time stationed in Pran Buri , Prachuap Khiri Khan Province . In 2003 , he was promoted to 3rd Corps Commander . In 2004 , it was strongly rumored that Saprang might be promoted to command the 4th Army , replacing General Pongsak Ekbannasingh . General Pongsak had been criticized for ineffectually fighting the South Thailand insurgency , after 39 successful arson attacks occurred in just one night . Pongsak ended up being replaced in April 2004 by Pisarn Wattanawongkhiri .

= = = 2006 Coup = = =

In a surprise to many observers , Saprang was promoted to 3rd Army Area Commander in October 2005 , headquartered in Phitsanulok and responsible most of northern and northeastern Thailand . Analysts had expected Prime Minister Thaksin to promote his own classmates from AFAPS Class 10 to the powerful position instead . At the same time , also in a surprise move , Deputy Army Commander Sonthi Boonyaratkalin was promoted to Army Commander .

Saprang and Sonthi started planning for the coup 7 to 8 months in advance , in approximately February 2006 . Coup planning occurred prior to the April 2006 elections , during Thaksin 's controversial sale of Shin Corporation to Temasek Holdings and the peak of the People 's Alliance for Democracy 's campaign to oust the government . In July 2006 , Saprang gave an interview where he stated that Thai politics was below standard and that the Kingdom 's leadership was weak . He also claimed that Thailand had a false democracy . He denied that such criticism constituted military interference in politics . At the same time , the Thai media speculated that in the October 2006 annual Army reshuffle , Saprang would not be promoted to Assistant Army Commander and would not be allowed to retain his position of 3rd Army Area Commander . In July , Saprang 's own Deputy Commander in the 3rd Army Area , Major General Manas Paorik , warned the media that " a certain military officer who aspires to become Assistant Army Commander " was planning a coup .

In the weeks leading up to coup , Saprang openly mobilised soldiers and northern residents to rebel against the government . Saprang played a key role on the evening of 19 September 2006 , securing Thaksin 's home town and power base of Chiang Mai . That same night , he was appointed assistant Secretary @-@ General of the CNS . The coup was executed just a week before the announcement of the Army 's annual reshuffle .

= = After the 2006 coup = =

A week after the coup , Saprang was promoted to Assistant Army Commander , alongside fellow coup leader Anupong Paochinda . His predecessor , General Pornchai Kranlert , had not taken part in the coup and was transferred to an inactive position . Saprang was also promoted from Lieutenant General to General .

= = = CNS Special Operations Center = = =

On 27 December 2006 , it was revealed that the Cabinet had approved over half a billion baht worth of funding for a 14 @,@ 000 @-@ man secret anti @-@ protest special operations force , of which General Saprang was Commander . The so @-@ called CNS Special Operations Center , funded with 556 million baht diverted from the Defense Ministry , Police Office , and government emergency reserve fund , had been secretly established by the CNS on 1 December 2006 in order to control protests .

= = = TOT and CAT Telecom = = =

Saprang was appointed by the junta to become Chairman of the Board of Directors of Airports of Thailand ( AoT ) and also Chairman of the Boards of TOT and CAT Telecom , two major state @-@ owned telecommunication companies . Saprang 's first move as TOT Chairman was to hand @-@ pick three Army colonels and vocal Thaksin @-@ critic Vuthiphong Priebjrivat to sit on the state enterprise 's Board of Directors . Saprang transferred TOT President Somkuan Bruminhent to an inactive position and appointed Vuthiphong new President . He then hand @-@ picked all 10 other directors .

Saprang noted in an interview that , " if telecommunication businesses are in private hands , the country won 't be safe . " The junta had earlier announced plans to cancel the initial public offering of both TOT and CAT Telecom and to merge the two state enterprises .

Under Saprang 's leadership , TOT reaffirmed its ownership rights to all existing backbone telecommunications networks under a new strategy to act as a " genuine " national telecom company . The new strategy was expected to increase political and business tensions . Under the Build @-@ Transfer @-@ Operate ( BTO ) concession agreements that TOT signed with private telecom operators , the TOT technically owns all fixed @-@ line , mobile , and optical fibre networks in Thailand . However , it had never exercised those rights in the past .

Vuthiphong was fired from the TOT board and his position of acting TOT President in June 2007 . He immediately accused the Army of using the TOT as an unmonitored slush fund . He claimed that an unnamed Army unit had requested that TOT buy it 800 million baht worth of electronic equipment . Upon receiving the request , Vuthipong demanded to know why neither the Army nor the Defence Ministry used their own secret budgets to purchase the equipment , and why an internal Army unit , rather than the Kingdom 's main national security organisations , had made the request . Saprang denied that there was any lack of transparency in the request for financial support . Vuthipong claimed that the equipment should only have cost 30 million baht , not 800 million baht . He was fired and expelled from the Board soon after refusing to sign off on the deal . The Board later appointed Col. Natee Sukolrat as the new TOT President and accepted the army 's donation request .

Under his leadership , TOT 's performance dropped . Revenues for the first half of 2007 fell 13 % year @-@ on @-@ year , while net profit fell 36 @.@ 1 % . Fixed line revenue dropped 16 % , while public telephone and international call revenue by 30 % each .

As Chairman of CAT Telecom , Saprang was accused by the founders of People 's Television ( PTV ) , a new satellite television station , of being behind CAT Telecom 's refusal to grant an internet link from Bangkok to a satellite up @-@ link station in Hong Kong . PTV was established by several ex @-@ executives of the Thai Rak Thai party . CAT Telecom claimed that it never received PTV 's application for internet access .

Under Saprang 's leadership , 80 @,@ 000 subscribers of Thai Mobile , a TOT / CAT joint venture mobile phone operator , were cut off temporarily in early May 2007 when owners TOT and CAT Telecom failed to pay the bills of a major supplier . Thai Mobile had accumulated significant losses and the company was not able to make its debt payments or supplier payments . The partners had stopped payments to the supplier , Samart Corporation , for nearly a year , until Samart threatened to suspend services within three days . After no payment , it delivered on its threat . TOT was subsequently able to negotiate with Samart to restart the service .

= = = Airports of Thailand = = =

= = = = Purging of AoT management = = = =

A week after Saprang hinted at a reshuffle of AoT top management , AoT President Chotisak Asapaviriya was forced to resign , citing health reasons , while the Directors of Suvarnabhumi Airport and AoT Commercial Operations were dismissed . Police Commissioner General Seripisut Temiyavej was appointed as an AoT Director .

= = = = Suvarnabhumi Airport = = = =

As AoT Chairman , Saprang spearheaded an effort to reopen Don Muang Airport in parallel with the newly opened Suvarnabhumi Airport , despite objections from the Civil Aviation Department , airlines , and internal studies within Airports of Thailand . 60 airlines threatened to halt flights to Thailand if they were forced to move back to Don Muang airport .

Saprang also refused to authorize urgent repairs on the airport tarmac , despite warnings from engineers . Karun Chandrarangsu , president of the Engineering Institute of Thailand noted , " Suvarnabhumi is like a patient in a coma who continues to suffer from severe bleeding . Stopping the blood flow now is more urgent and important than debating what caused the injury . " The Engineering Institute of Thailand sent a formal warning to AoT in November 2006 about the urgent need to drain water from beneath the tarmac , and noted that immediate action should be taken . " The AOT did nothing about the problem " , Suebsak Promboon of the EIT noted . " The situation might not have become this bad if the water had been drained then . " Suebsak Promboon , a senior foundation engineer and a member of the Tortrakul Yomnak @-@ led airport tarmac inspection panel , accused the AOT of refusing to take any actions to solve the problems at the airport .

The airport faced ongoing operational challenges , including a computer virus that shut down the automated luggage bomb @-@ scanning system in June 2007 . A study by the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) released in July 2007 found the airport unsafe , citing numerous spots where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checkpoints .

Serious security gaps at Suvarnabhumi Airport became known to the public beginning in early 2007 . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) found that there were many spots in the passenger terminal where checked passengers can meet people who have not passed through security checks and could receive unchecked objects and then carry them on board aircraft . The IATA also suggested that AoT deploy its own security staff instead of contracting out the job to the Loxley @-@ ICTS consortium . AoT threatened the consortium with contract termination , but didn 't follow through with its threat , even though the consortium failed to live up to its contract . Six months later , AoT stated that it still couldn 't make up its mind on how it should improve airport security . AoT said it was open to all possible options , and has taken no action to upgrade the problem .

= = = = Trip to Europe = = = =

On Tuesday 27 February 2007 , Saprang led a 13 @-@ member delegation to Europe , on what was claimed to be a week @-@ long trip to study safety and security measures at major European airports . Many delegates and accompanying members shared the same surname , and the trip , which cost 7 @.@ 2 million baht was attacked for " squandering " state funds for personal pleasure , disbursing unrealistic expenses , and inflating costs . The travel agent along received a 500 @,@ 000 baht commission fee for booking the trip . Saprang denied any wrongdoing and claimed he was the victim of a smear campaign . He also noted that " If you knew my character , you would know that even if a relative joined the trip he should have realised that he should work hard . " He also noted that instead of being a viewed as a defendant , he should be viewed as a hero for bringing down the Thaksin government . Saprang then summoned the leader of the AoT labor union in order to identify who leaked information about the trip to his accusers .

= = = = Financial performance = = = =

The first quarter after Saprang was appointed Chairman , AoT profits plunged 90 % compared to the previous year , despite higher traffic volumes and increased passenger service charters and airline fees . Operating expenses surged 137 % , contributing to the AoT 's worst quarterly earnings report since it was listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand .

The AoT board also granted 200 million baht to the Army , which had requested a financial donation . AoT also lent some of its explosives detectors to the Army for use in the South Thailand insurrection .

Financial performance continued to spiral downwards in the 3rd quarter of 2007 . Net profit for the period ending June fell by 84 % from a year before , despite higher traffic and a 17 @.@ 9 % increase in revenue . The fall in profit was attributed to AoT 's court case against King Power , the operator of duty @-@ free shops within Suvarnabhumi Airport . King Power 's concession was suspended while the case was in court , forcing AOT to stop reporting earnings from the concessionaire .

= = = Thaksin Shinawatra = = =

Saprang had long been a fierce critic of Thaksin Shinawatra , and prior to the coup had even called Thaksin 's supporters within the military " evil . " After the coup , Saprang called Thaksin a " traitor " and said that he should be " banished to live forever in the jungle . "

He also accused Thaksin of spying on the military while he was Prime Minister .

Although Saprang and General Sonthi accused Thaksin of insulting and disrespecting King Bhumibol , he noted that the junta did not pursue lèse majesté charges against Thaksin because " the police corrupted the evidence " , and delivered such a weak case that the attorney @-@ general could not file a lawsuit . A vocal self @-@ proclaimed royalist , he insisted that various groups actively tried to challenge the monarchy , and that he " couldn 't stand it . " He noted , " I am a soldier , born to protect the Crown . They could only challenge the monarchy over my dead body . "

Saprang also suspected that Oliver Jufer , a Swiss man who was jailed for lèse majesté for spraying paint on a portrait of image of King Bhumibol , was hired by somebody to perform his vandalism . Saprang ordered a military investigation into the matter . The results have not been made public .

= = = 2007 New Years bombings = = =

Saprang had a public confrontation with former Prime Minister Chavalit Yongchaiyudh regarding the 2006 Bangkok New Year 's Eve bombings after Chavalit accused him of incompetence . Saprang claimed that " the evidence and intelligence information proves that the bombs were the dirty work of politicians who lost power and benefits . Bad soldiers loyal to bad politicians collaborated with them with the intention to topple this government . " However , his claim was contradicted just an hour later by Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont .

In May 2007 , Saprang claimed that he had information regarding the seizure of instructional manual on terrorism in Bangkok from a London apartment by English soldiers and police . He said he could not disclose any further information , but told the public to connect the dots themselves . Days later , a bomb exploded outside of Chitrlada Palace . Saprang later clarified his remark , saying the Bangkok terrorism manual discovery had been made in the early 1990s . Deputy Chief of the British Mission in Bangkok Andy Pierce said he was " concerned " by Saprang 's remarks , which he insisted were " baseless " .

= = = Resignation of Pridiyathorn Devakula = = =

Saprang was implicated in the resignation of Finance Minister Pridiyathorn Devakula on 28 February 2007 . The Bangkok Post reported that Pridiyathorn resigned in protest after a CNS member lobbied him to sell shares of IRPC ( formerly known as Thai Petrochemical Industry ) back to a former shareholder . The newspaper identified Saprang as the unnamed CNS member . Saprang 's brother , Chienchuang , was a key financial advisor to Prachai Liaophairat , the estranged founder of TPI .

Chienchuang 's relations with the junta came under further public scrutiny when it was revealed that he was hired by the junta in order to lead a campaign to discredit deposed premier Thaksin Shinawatra . Politicians hired as part of the CNS campaign included Chat Pattana party leader Korn Dabbaransi , Democrats Korn Chatikavanij , Alongkorn Palabutr and Korbsak Sabavasu , Prapat Panya @-@ chatraksa , a key Thai Rak Thai member who defected to the Chat Thai party , plus ex @-@ senator Kraisak Choonhavan . Academics hired by the CNS included Wuttipong Piebjriya @-@ wat , Sophon Supapong , Narong Phet @-@ prasert , and Somkiat Osotspa .

= = = Mad dogs and machine guns = = =

Saprang was an extremely vocal critic of those who he perceived as his political opponents . In an interview with Thai Rath ( Thailand 's most popular newspaper ) on 8 April 2007 , he called an unspecified enemy a " mad dog " who he claimed was destroying the monarchy . He said that it was necessary to shoot the dog with a machine gun . In the same interview , he threatened violent response to the " bold words that came from the mouths of evil people who did not know restraint " . He urged decisive action , so that the public would believe that good had triumphed over evil .

= = = Post @-@ coup role = = =

Saprang was considered a strong contender to lead the junta given the mandatory retirement of Army commander @-@ in @-@ chief and CNS President Sonthi Boonyaratkalin in September 2007 . He unofficially competed with fellow Assistant Army Commander Anupong Paochinda , who , as 1st Army Area Commander , secured Bangkok on the night of the coup . The Bangkok Post reported in October 2006 that Sonthi was grooming Anupong to be his successor by giving him responsibilities over coup logistics , a greater task than had been assigned to Saprang . The Asia Times quoted a former MP as saying that " Anupong is seen as the real force behind the coup . Saprang is more vocal , but he has no real base . The only way he could be seen as a promising leader is by pushing the country to the brink . "

In an interview , Saprang warned that " the three pillars of society - the nation , the religion and the monarchy - might crumble ... If rogue politicians return to power following the next [ post coup ] general election . "

Saprang also held the opinion that military coups against the government " should never be ruled out . " The abrogated 1997 constitution had outlawed coups . A replacement constitution was , at the time of Saprang 's statement , being drafted by a military appointed panel .

Saprang was sidelined in security plans preceding the Constitutional Tribunal 's 20 May 2007 ruling on the dissolution of the Thai Rak Thai and Democrat Parties . After the 2006 coup , Sonthi had delegated the task of securing Bangkok to Saprang . The pre @-@ ruling plan put Sonthi directly in charge of Bangkok crowd security , allying him with alum of AFPS Class 9 , including Army Chief of Staff General Montri Sangkhasap and First Army Region commander Lt General Prayuth Chan @-@ ocha .

Panitan Wattanayagorn , a military scholar at Chulalongkorn University and a personal adviser to Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont noted in early September 2007 that " if the army is going to take a full step into politics , then it will be Saprang . If only a half @-@ step , then Anupong . And if it intends to beat a full retreat or take one step back , it will be [ Army chief of staff ] Montri [ Sangkhasap ] . "

On 19 September 2007 , Saprang 's rival , Assistant Army Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Gen Anupong Paochinda , was appointed as the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Army , replacing the retiring General Sonthi . Anupong 's mandatory retirement occurred 2010 . Sonthi was , after resignation , appointed Deputy Prime Minister . Saprang was transferred to become Deputy Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defense . Saprang 's ally , Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary Admiral Bannawit Kengrien , called Saprang 's transfer a " demotion " and a " punishment . " However , Saprang himself claimed that he did not feel slighted for being passed over , noting that " everything is over " for him . Bannawit himself was later transferred from Defence Ministry Deputy Permanent Secretary to be a Chief Adviser of the Ministry , replaced by Chief Advisor General Toosarat Muang @-@ am . Bannawit denied that his own transfer was the result of his criticism of Saprang 's transfer . Bannawit then announced that he would resign from the military and enter politics . There was also rampant speculation that Saprang himself would resign and enter politics . Although the Kyodo News Agency noted speculation that Saprang would stage a coup against Anupong , Saprang denied coup rumors , saying that another coup would be " suicide . "

= = Family = =

Saprang is the youngest of 9 children of Lieutenant Colonel Sri ( Thai : ศรี กัลยาณมิตร ) and Phenkaew Kalayanamitr ( Thai : เพ ็ ญแก ้ ว กัลยาณมิตร ) . Sri was the eldest of the 8 children of Phraya Sucharitraksa , ruler ( Chao Muang ) of the northern border city of Tak .

The Kalayanamitrs are a military aristocratic family with Chinese ( Hokkien ) -Northern Thai roots . Saprang 's ancestor , Luang Phichai Waree ( original name Ung Mang , Thai : หลวงพิไชยวารี , มั ่ ง แซ ่ อึ ้ ง ) migrated to Siam during the reign of King Taksin plying the samphao trade , and was given a feudal title during the reign of King Rama I.

Saprang has evoked his aristocratic background in order to increase his credibility in public confrontations . Saprang is married to Viphada ( Thai : วิภาดา ) and has 3 sons : Army Cadet Ekawee ( Thai : เอกวีร ์ ) , Air Force Cadet Akharawat ( Thai : อัครวัต ) , Air Force Cadet Ekwarit ( Thai : เอกวริษฐ ์ ) .

= = Trivia = =

Saprang stands 161 centimeters tall and as of March 2007 , weighed 52 kilograms .

= Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video =

The Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video was an award that was presented to recording artists at the 30th Grammy Awards in 1988 , and the 31st Grammy Awards in 1989 , for quality , concept music videos . The Grammy Awards ( Grammys ) is an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and was originally called the Gramophone Awards ; awards are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .

Beginning in 1982 , the Academy began to honor quality music videos with the Video of the Year category , which was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and was replaced with two awards ; Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album . Criteria changes for the 1988 and 1989 ceremonies resulted in the Best Concept Music Video award being presented alongside the award for Best Performance Music Video . Best Concept Music Video award recipients were the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " and the American singer " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories are now known as Best Short Form Music Video and Best Long Form Music Video .

= = Background = =

The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences began to honor quality music videos with the Grammy Award for Video of the Year category in 1982 . The first two award recipients were former member of The Monkees Michael Nesmith for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) and Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical . The Video of the Year category was discontinued in 1984 when MTV established the MTV Video Music Awards whose top award is also presented for Video of the Year . For the 26th Grammy Awards the Academy replaced the category with awards for Best Video , Short Form , and Best Video Album . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and awards for the categories Best Concept Music Video , and Best Performance Music Video were presented . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the categories were renamed Best Music Video , Short Form , and Best Music Video , Long Form . In 1998 , the categories were retitled Best Short Form Music Video , and Best Long Form Music Video , respectively .

= = Recipients = =

For the 30th Grammy Awards ( 1988 ) , Best Concept Music Video nominees included0 David Bowie for " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , Kate Bush for The Whole Story , the English rock band Genesis for " Land of Confusion " , David Lee Roth for David Lee Roth , and Janet Jackson for Control – The Videos Part II . The music video for Bowie 's " Day @-@ In Day @-@ Out " , directed by Julien Temple , included " offending " scenes such as a man urinating on Ronald Reagan 's Hollywood Walk of Fame star , which was edited out for television broadcast . Bush 's " imaginative " video sampler accompanies her greatest hits album of the same name and includes music videos for songs throughout her career to that point . The music video for " Land of Confusion " , a song included on the band 's 1986 album Invisible Touch , contained Spitting Image puppets of Ronald Reagan , Margaret Thatcher and other notable individuals . David Lee Roth 's self @-@ titled video consisted of promotional clips created for his debut solo EP Crazy from the Heat and album Eat ' Em and Smile . Jackson 's video collection , which was certified gold in the United States , contained six promotional videos recorded for singles from her album Control . Awards were presented to members of Genesis ( Tony Banks , Phil Collins , and Mike Rutherford ) as the performing artists , Jim Yukich and John Lloyd as the video directors , and Jon Blair as the video producer .

Nominees for the 31st Grammy Awards were the Hampton String Quartet for " Get a Job " , George Harrison for " When We Was Fab " , the American rock band Talking Heads for Storytelling Giant , " Weird Al " Yankovic for " Fat " , and Neil Young for " This Note 's for You " . " Get a Job " , a song recorded originally by the American group The Silhouettes , appears on the Hampton String Quartet 's album What If Mozart Wrote " Roll Over Beethoven " , a collection of 1950s R & B and pop music songs performed in the styles of Beethoven , Debussy , Mozart , and other composers . " When We Was Fab " , a song from the album Cloud Nine , is constructed from quotations written when The Beatles were at the height of their fame and features Harrison playing a sitar . The music video shows Elton John dressed as a walrus , a reference to the 1967 song " I Am the Walrus " . Storytelling Giants is a collection of Talking Heads ' music videos and additional material linking them together . Two of the nominated music videos had connections to Michael Jackson ; " Fat " is a parody of Jackson 's song " Bad " , and the video for " This Note 's for You " depicts a Jackson look @-@ alike 's hair catching fire ; a parody of an incident that occurred during a shoot for a Pepsi television advertisement in 1984 . In the " Fat " video , Yankovic becomes a " grossly overweight guy " through the use of cosmetics and special effects , and leads a group of overweight people on a parade . The award was presented to Yankovic as the performing artist , along with Jay Levey as the video director and Susan Zwerman as the video producer .

= Hadji Ali =

Hadji Ali ( c . 1887 – 92 – November 5 , 1937 ) was a vaudeville performance artist , thought to be of Egyptian descent , who was famous for acts of controlled regurgitation . His best @-@ known feats included water spouting , smoke swallowing , and nut and handkerchief swallowing followed by disgorgement in an order chosen by the audience . Ali 's most famous stunt , and the highlight of his act , was drinking copious amounts of water followed by kerosene , and then acting by turns as a human flamethrower and fire extinguisher as he expelled the two liquids onto a theatrical prop . While these stunts were performed , a panel of audience members was invited to watch the show up close to verify that no trickery was employed .

Although never gaining wide fame , Ali had a dedicated following on the vaudeville circuit in the United States . He performed for heads of state including Tsar Nicholas II of Russia . Judy Garland named him her favorite vaudevillian and David Blaine identified Ali as his favorite magician . Portions of his act were captured in the short film Strange as It Seems ( 1930 ) and in Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's Chickens Come Home . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's Gizmo ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville . Ali 's unusual gastric abilities led to rumors that the Rockefeller Institute had offered a large sum of money to obtain his stomach post @-@ mortem . After he died in England , his body was offered to Johns Hopkins University for study , though the offer was declined .

= = Background = =

Hadji Ali was born into a working @-@ class family in approximately 1887 or 1892 , depending on the source consulted , probably in Egypt . His fame was as a practitioner of a recognized vaudeville subgenre known as a " regurgitation act " , involving the swallowing of material or objects and their regurgitation in various ways . Ali became aware as a child that he possessed an unusual gastric ability . He explained in response to audience questions at a performance held at St. Mary 's Hospital in Niagara Falls , New York , in May 1926 , that while swimming in the Nile as a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , he naturally discovered that he could swallow a large amount of water and blow it out like a whale spouting . He continued to develop and refine the ability as he grew older . A more dramatic version of these events was provided by Ali 's daughter , Almina Ali , in an interview in England after his death . She stated that his abilities were first learned through a single incident : while bathing in the Nile , he inadvertently swallowed a fish and an ample volume of water . Instead of dying , as those present thought he might , Ali simply regurgitated the liquid and the fish without ill effect .

Ali learned that his regurgitation talents had the potential to entertain and to earn money through performance at the age of fifteen :

I tried out my tricks first of all in the street , swallowing many glasses of water and then pouring forth a great fountain from one side of the road to the other ... A cafe proprietor saw me doing this one day , and chased me down the street . I thought he wanted to beat me up , but no — all he did was to put a coin in my hand and ask me to repeat the trick . Finally , he was so delighted that he asked me to come to his cafe and entertain the customers .

Taking his abilities on the road , Ali met an Italian man in Cairo who signed him to a contract for music hall performances . Ali performed under contract throughout Europe and at times for heads of state . According to Ali , in or about 1914 he was summoned by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to perform at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg , Russia . He stated that the Tsar " must have liked my performance because he awarded me a special decoration , which is now one of my most treasured possessions . " Following World War I , Ali began managing his own affairs and toured the world , learning more tricks as he went .

Ali came to the United States with Almina in the mid @-@ 1920s . They performed together at fairs , carnivals and in vaudeville , sometimes advertised under the collective name , " Hadji Ali & Co . " Almina played the part of assistant in her father 's act , billed in his shows as " The Princess " . Ali alone had a variety of stage names , including : " The Great Egyptian Miracle Man " , " The Amazing Regurgitator " , " The Egyptian Enigma " , " The Human Aquarium " , " The Human Volcano " and " The 9th Wonder of the Scientific World " . Ali has been described as a " large , barrel @-@ chested and bearded man ... [ that cut ] an imposing figure in his Arab costume . "

Although Ali spoke a number of languages and became a naturalized U.S. citizen , it was reported that Almina acted as his interpreter in the United States and other places , as he did not speak English and was illiterate . Once he had gained some notoriety , Ali took on as his manager Hubert Julian , a former colonel in the Abyssinian Air Force . Although he developed a significant following , even being named Judy Garland 's favorite vaudevillian , Ali " remained more a sideshow curiosity than a true vaudeville headliner " according to at least one source . Nevertheless , at the time of his death in 1937 , Julian commented that Ali had " earned big money in America — $ 1 @,@ 000 a week sometimes . I was building him up here [ in Europe ] and had a Continental tour arranged . "

= = Performance = =

The mainstay of Ali 's act was " water spouting " . After swallowing large amounts of water , 60 to 100 glasses at a time , he spouted the water in a continuous stream for a sustained period of time , sometimes approaching one minute . Another common trick was to swallow 30 to 50 unshelled hazelnuts ( although one of his posters advertised 40 pecans ) , followed by another nut of a different variety , such as an almond . Ali then brought them up one by one with the odd @-@ nut @-@ out produced at a mark called out by the audience . In another trick , Ali swallowed three to six handkerchiefs of different hues and then produced them in a color order requested by audience members .

In a 1929 article appearing in the Lowell Sun newspaper , physician Morris Fishbein speculated that for Ali 's nut feat , the one nut of a different variety was held in the mouth rather than swallowed , thus allowing him to produce it on cue . Dr. Fishbein also stated that unnamed " investigators " were convinced that for Ali 's handkerchief stunt , to produce them in the sequence stipulated by the audience Ali flavored the cloth , and could therefore taste for the correct one as he brought them up . Ali also swallowed live goldfish , watches , coins , costume jewelry , paper money , peach pits , stones , live mice , buttons , pool balls and other odd objects . In another standard performance segment , he placed eight or more lit cigarettes in his mouth but instead of inhaling , he swallowed the smoke and , after a significant time had passed , issued it forth in a steady stream like an erupting volcano .

Ali 's longstanding finale was the swallowing of copious amounts of water again , but this time followed by a pint of kerosene . A prop was then produced , typically a model castle or house made of metal set on a table , within which a small flame burned . Lighter than water and immiscible with it , the kerosene floated above the liquid in Ali 's gut , allowing him to disgorge it first . The stage thus set , and to a drum roll or an imitation of fire bells , Ali became a " human flamethrower " , spewing the accelerant in a long stream over the sacrificial prop , setting it ablaze . Once the kerosene was exhausted , the water followed , streaming out his mouth in a long flow from up to six feet away , extinguishing the fire .

At some performances , a panel or " jury " from the audience was invited on stage to verify that no trick mechanism was being employed — that he was actually swallowing the items in question and delivering them back through acts of regurgitation . Sometimes Ali would stroll into the audience during his nut swallowing trick . His stomach exposed by his standard costume , he invited audience members to pat his stomach , allowing them to hear the nuts rattling within . One newspaper reported that Ali 's feats , essentially controlled vomiting , were performed in " a manner without the least bit of unpleasantness or anything bordering on repulsiveness . " Not everyone felt the same : at least one of Ali 's engagements was cut short once the proprietor realized that the nature of the act " was killing their supper shows " . Famed escapologist and magician Harry Houdini remarked in his 1920 work Miracle Mongers and Their Methods that water spouting was a " performance that could not fail to disgust a modern audience . "

The abilities of Ali fascinated the public and medical authorities . As reported in a 1928 Sheboygan Press article , at one of Ali 's acts a number of doctors attended and thoroughly examined him during the performance . They came away satisfied that he was actually imbibing and regurgitating the material and objects as claimed , but remained " mystified over his extraordinary performance . " According to an article appearing in the Naugatuck Daily News , " Physicians of three continents have puzzled over the gastronomical mechanism of this human ostrich without success . X @-@ ray experiments have been made during his exhibition without a plausible explanation forthcoming that satisfies the critical , in fact , the profession of surgery has thrown up its hands in amazement over this human ostrich . "

= = Film appearances = =

Ali 's act was captured in two films : the 1930 short Strange as It Seems , and Politiquerias ( 1931 ) , the expanded Spanish @-@ language version of Laurel and Hardy 's Chickens Come Home . Ali also had a bit part as the " Turkish landlord " in Warner Bros. ' 1932 film Scarlet Dawn starring Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. and Nancy Carroll . Two documentaries contain footage of Ali taken from Politiquerias : 1977 's Gizmo ! , and 1999 's Vaudeville , a documentary produced by KCTS @-@ TV that exhibits 90 vaudeville acts over a two @-@ hour running time . The documentary has since aired on the Public Broadcasting Service 's American Masters series numerous times .

Speaking about the democratic nature of the vaudeville performance circuit , Vaudeville 's writer and executive producer said in reference to Ali that the film " embraced everything from Caruso to a guy who threw up . " By contrast , in episode 30 of the Sundance Channel television program Iconoclasts , magician David Blaine speaks enthusiastically of Ali . During the episode , Blaine shows artist Chuck Close Ali 's kerosene and water finale footage from Politiquerias and comments that Ali is his " favorite magician ... it 's real but nobody 's been able to do it since ... his name was Hadji Ali ... he 's my favorite of all time . "

= = Death = =

Ali died on November 5 , 1937 , in Wolverhampton , England , from heart failure during a bout of bronchitis . Even before his death , a rumor had circulated that the Rockefeller Institute sought to procure Ali 's stomach upon his death , and would pay as much as $ 50 @,@ 000 for it . This claim appeared in a poster advertising Ali 's impending appearance at a theater during his lifetime . After Ali 's death was reported , the rumor resurfaced as an active offer of $ 10 @,@ 000 . When a Rockefeller Institute manager was interviewed about the story , he said the offer had never been made but that nevertheless , " we should very much like to see the body . " Almina and Julian transported Ali 's body back to the United States on board the Queen Mary . According to a November 29 , 1937 article in the New York Post , upon their arrival , Almina offered her father 's body to Maryland 's Johns Hopkins University for investigation by surgeons , after which it would be transported to Egypt for interment in a mausoleum . However , The Afro @-@ American newspaper reported on December 11 , 1937 , that Johns Hopkins ' officials had declined the offer .

= Battle of Tellicherry =

The Battle of Tellicherry was a naval action fought off the Indian port of Tellicherry between British and French warships on 18 November 1791 during the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Britain and France were not at war at the time of the engagement , but French support for the Kingdom of Mysore in the conflict with the British East India Company had led to Royal Navy patrols stopping and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port of Mangalore . When a French convoy from Mahé passed the British port of Tellicherry in November 1791 , Commodore William Cornwallis sent a small squadron to intercept the French ships .

As the British force under Captain Sir Richard Strachan approached the convoy , the escorting frigate Résolue opened fire . A general action followed , with Strachan succeeding in forcing the French ship to surrender within twenty minutes and both sides suffering damage and casualties . All of the French vessels were searched and subsequently returned to Mahé , the local French authorities reacting furiously at what they perceived as a violation of their neutral position . Messages were sent back to France reporting the action from Commodore Saint @-@ Félix but they evoked little response . Although under normal circumstances the battle might have provoked a diplomatic incident , the upheavals of the ongoing French Revolution meant that the despatches had little effect .

= = Background = =

In December 1789 , after five years of diplomatic wrangling about the terms of the Treaty of Mangalore that had ended the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , the ruler of Mysore Tipu Sultan again declared war on the British East India Company and their allies in Southern India . For the next two years the war continued as British forces and their allies drove the Mysore armies back towards the capital of Seringapatam . Both sides were reliant on supply by sea to maintain their campaigns inland : the British forces were supported from their major ports at Bombay and Madras , later stationing additional forces at the small port of Tellicherry inside Mysore territory . The Mysorean forces were supplied through Mangalore by French ships . France had been an ally of the Tipu Sultan 's father Hyder Ali during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War and although the political instability caused by the French Revolution in Europe prevented active involvement , they ensured that their ships kept up a supply of equipment to Mysore throughout the war .

In an effort to eliminate French support Commodore William Cornwallis , the British naval commander in the region , stationed a squadron of frigates at Tellicherry , where they were ideally situated to blockade Mangalore and prevent the passage of shipping into Mysorean territory . The squadron consisted of Cornwallis in HMS Minerva , Captain Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Phoenix and HMS Perseverance under Captain Isaac Smith . The French operated a squadron of their own on the coast , led by Commodore Saint @-@ Félix and consisting of two frigates based at Mahé , a small French port 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of Tellicherry . The French had communicated to the British at Tellicherry that they would not submit to any attempts to search their vessels , but Strachan and Cornwallis replied that they would enforce the blockade of Mangalore whatever the consequences .

= = Battle = =

In November 1791 , a French convoy sailed from Mahé on the short journey to Mangalore . The convoy included two merchant vessels and the frigate Résolue , a 36 @-@ gun warship under Captain Callamand . Passing northwards , the convoy soon passed Tellicherry and Cornwallis sent Strachan with Phoenix and Perseverance to stop and inspect the French ships to ensure they were not carrying military supplies . As Smith halted the merchant ships and sent boats to inspect them , Strachan did the same to Résolue , hailing the French captain and placing an officer in a small boat to board the frigate . The French captain was outraged at this violation of his neutrality , and responded by opening fire : British sources suggest that his initial target was the small boat , although Phoenix was the ship most immediately damaged .

Strachan was unsurprised at the French reaction , and returned fire immediately , the proximity of the ships preventing any manoeuvres . Within twenty minutes the combat was decided , the French captain hauling down his colours with his ship battered and more than 60 men wounded or dead . The French ship carried significantly weaker cannon than Phoenix , with 6 and 12 pounder guns to the 9 and 18 pounders aboard the British squadron . In addition , Résolue was heavily outnumbered : no other French warships were in the area while the British had three large frigates within sight . French losses eventually totalled 25 men killed and 60 wounded , Strachan suffering just six killed and 11 wounded in return .

= = Aftermath = =

With the enemy subdued , Strachan ordered a thorough search of the captured vessels , but could find no contraband and returned control to the French commander . The French officer however refused , insisting that he and his ship were treated as prisoners of war . Cornwallis ordered the merchant ships released to continue their journey and for the frigate to be towed back to Mahé , where it was anchored in the roads with its sails and topmasts struck . Provision was subsequently made at Mahé by Strachan for the wounded French sailors . Soon afterwards Saint @-@ Félix arrived at Mahé in his frigate Cybèle and reacted furiously at the discovery that one of his neutral ships had been attacked and captured by the British . When Cornwallis insisted that his ships had been acting within their orders , Saint @-@ Félix promised reprisals if any of his vessels were attacked again and withdrew with both Cybèle and Résolue later in the day , followed by Minerva and Phoenix . One account reported that Saint @-@ Félix actually ordered his crew to fire on Cornwallis but that they refused . The British shadowed the French for several days , openly stopping and searching French merchant ships but without provoking a response from Saint @-@ Félix . Résolue and Phoenix were subsequently detached by their commanders , Cornwallis and Saint @-@ Félix remaining in contact for several more days before finally separating .

News of the encounter was conveyed back to France , but the country was at this time in one of the most turbulent eras of the ongoing Revolution and little notice was taken of events in India . Historian William James notes that under normal political circumstances the action would have had more significant ramifications , while Edward Pelham Brenton claims that the French deliberately ignored the report out of fear of antagonising Britain . In Britain , the Admiralty approved of Cornwallis ' actions , suggesting that the French were deliberately using the guise of trade to support Mysore against Britain . The action had no effect on the ongoing war in India , which was now centred on the inland city of Seringapatam . As British forces closed on the city in February 1792 , the Tipu Sultan initiated peace talks which brought the war to an end in exchange for concessions to the Company and its Indian allies .

= Loose ( Nelly Furtado album ) =

Loose is the third studio album by Canadian singer and songwriter Nelly Furtado , released on 6 June 2006 by Geffen Records and the Mosley Music Group . Following the release of Furtado 's second album , Folklore ( 2003 ) through DreamWorks Records , it was announced that Universal Music Group would acquire DreamWorks Records , the later was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella where Furtado would release any new music . Timbaland and his protégé Danja produced the bulk of the album , which incorporates influences of dance , R & B and hip hop . The album explores the theme of female sexuality and has been described as introspective or even sad in parts .

The album received criticism because of the sexual image Furtado adopted for the recording , as some critics felt it was a ploy to sell more records . Further controversy rose over accusations of plagiarism on Timbaland 's part in the song " Do It " ( which contained the melody from Finnish musician Janne Suni 's song " Acidjazzed Evening " without proper authorization ) when recordings were leaked onto YouTube . The record was seen generally as critically and commercially successful . It reached high positions on charts across the world , and according to an August 2009 press release , it had sold more than 12 million copies worldwide , making it the best @-@ selling album of 2006 – 07 and the twenty @-@ second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s .

The album was heavily promoted , released in several editions and supported by the Get Loose Tour , which is the subject of the concert DVD Loose : The Concert . " Loose " debuted at number one , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart along with eight singles were released from the album , including the US number @-@ one singles " Promiscuous " and " Say It Right " , which received Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , respectively . Other successful singles include the UK number @-@ one single " Maneater " and the European number one single " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " .

= = Background = =

Furtado 's second album , Folklore , was released in November 2003 . The lead single is " Powerless ( Say What You Want ) " and the second single is the ballad " Try " . The album was not as successful as her debut , partly due to the album 's less " poppy " sound . " Powerless ( Say What You Want ) " was later remixed , featuring Colombian rocker Juanes , who had previously worked with Furtado on his track " Fotografía " ( " Photograph " ) . The two would collaborate again on " Te Busqué " ( " I searched for you " ) , the single from Furtado 's album Loose . The album was underpromoted from her label DreamWorks Records ; it was announced on 11 November 2003 that Universal Music Group reached an agreement to acquire DreamWorks Records from DreamWorks SKG for " about $ 100 million " . The purchase came at a time when the music business was " going through major changes " as it struggled to " counter falling sales and the impact of unofficial online music sales " . DreamWorks Records was folded into the Interscope Geffen A & M umbrella label in January 2004 . Furtado 's recording contract was then absorbed into Geffen Records .

= = Recording = =

Furtado began work on Loose by holding with emcee Jellystone what she referred to as a " hip @-@ hop workshop " , in which they would " write rhymes , dissect them , and try different flows over beats . " The first producers she worked with were Track & Field — who co @-@ produced her first two albums , Whoa , Nelly ! ( 2000 ) and Folklore ( 2003 ) — and by May 2005 , she had collaborated with Swollen Members and K 'naan . She worked with Nellee Hooper in London on reggae @-@ oriented material and with Lester Mendez in Los Angeles on acoustic songs . One of the tracks Mendez helped to create is " Te Busqué " , which is co @-@ written by and features Juanes , who collaborated with Furtado on his 2002 song " Fotografía " . During her time in Los Angeles , she worked with Rick Nowels , who co @-@ wrote and produced " In God 's Hands " and " Somebody to Love " .

In Miami , Florida , Furtado collaborated with Pharrell ( who introduced her to reggaeton and who gave her a " shout @-@ out " in his 2005 single " Can I Have It Like That " ) and Scott Storch ( with whom she recorded a " straight @-@ up rap song " ) before entering the studio with Timbaland . He and his protégé at the time , Danja , co @-@ produced eight of the tracks , with another produced solely by Danja . For some of the beats on the songs , Timbaland finished work on ones already present in the studio that were half @-@ developed or just " nucleuses " ; the rest were completely reworked . Furtado recorded around forty tracks for Loose , deciding which she would include based on the sonics of the album — she called Timbaland " a sonic extraterrestrial " who came up with a sequence of songs that flowed , and said that the one she had devised was supposedly unsatisfactory . She recorded an unreleased collaboration with Justin Timberlake , " Crowd Control " , which she described as " kind of sexy " and " a cute , clubby , upbeat , fun track " . Other songs considered for inclusion on the album include " Chill Boy " , " Friend of Mine " , " Go " , " Hands in the Air " , " Pretty Boy " , " Vice " and " Weak " .

Furtado said in her diary on her official website that she recorded a remix of " Maneater " with rapper Lil Wayne ; it was only released as part of a compilation album , Timbaland 's Remix & Soundtrack Collection , she also used the instrumental of the song during many television performances of " Maneater " . A version of " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " featuring vocals by Coldplay lead singer Chris Martin , who co @-@ wrote the song , was not released after a request from Martin 's label , EMI . The song was released on the album , but only Furtado 's vocals are featured . Furtado explained that " Loose was 90 percent written with a beat first , and then I ’ d write my melodies and songs to the beat . "

= = Post @-@ production = =

The " off @-@ the @-@ cuff " conclusion to production was one of the reasons the album was titled Loose . It was named partly after the spontaneous decisions she made when creating the album . The album is also called Loose because it is " the opposite of calculated " and came naturally to Furtado and Timbaland ; she called him her " distant musical cousin because he was always pushing boundaries and always carving out his own path " , which she believed she was doing with Loose . " I think you have to keep surprising people as an artist , and I like that — I love doing that " , she said . Loose was also named partly for the R & B girl group TLC , who Furtado said she admires for " taking back their sexuality , showing they were complete women . " She said she wanted the album to be " assertive and cool " and " sexy but fun " , like TLC , MC Lyte , Queen Latifah and Janet Jackson , who inspired Furtado because , as she put it , she was " comfortable in her sexuality and womanhood " when her 1993 single " That 's the Way Love Goes " was released .

During the recording of Loose , Furtado listened to several electro and rock musicians , including Bloc Party , System of a Down , M.I.A. , Feist , Queens of the Stone Age , Metric and Death from Above 1979 , some of whom influenced the " rock sound " present on the album and the " coughing , laughing , distorted basslines " that were kept in the songs deliberately . According to her , music by such bands is " very loud and has a garage theme " to it , some of which she felt she captured on the album . Furtado has said rock music is " rhythmic again " and hip hop @-@ influenced after it had become " so churning and boring . " Because the mixing engineers were aware of Timbaland and Furtado 's rock influences , the songs were mixed on a mixing board in the studio instead of " the fancy mixer at the end " . Furtado said she preferred the louder volume that process gave to the album because she wanted it to sound like her demo tapes , which she prefers to her finished albums . She said , " It didn 't have that final wash over it ; it didn 't have the final pressing at the end , save for a couple sounds " .

= = Music and lyrics = =

Furtado said that with the release of her albums before Loose , she had wanted to prove herself as a musician and earn respect from listeners through using many different instruments on an album , which most hip hop musicians did not do . After she believed she had accomplished that , she felt she had freedom to make the type of music she " really love [ d ] " . Furtado said her previous problem with hip hop was that she did not think it was good enough to base one of her albums on , but that she then asked herself why she was being " pretentious " . The album represents her separating from such notions and , in her words , " jumping in the deep end of the pool — ' Ahh , screw it , this is fun ! ' " . Furtado said she considers herself " all over the map " and promiscuous musically because she is not faithful to one style .

For the first time , Furtado worked with a variety of record producers and followed a more collaborative approach in creating the album . Produced primarily by Timbaland and Danja , Loose showcases Furtado experimenting with a more R & B – hip hop sound and , as she put it , the " surreal , theatrical elements of ' 80s music " . She has categorized the album 's sound as punk @-@ hop , which she describes as Eurythmics @-@ influenced " modern , poppy , spooky music " and stated that " there 's a mysterious , after @-@ midnight vibe to [ it ] that 's extremely visceral " . Furtado has described the album as " more urban , more American , more hip @-@ hop , [ and ] more simplified " than her earlier work , which she said was more layered and textured because she " tend [ s ] to overthink things " . In contrast , during her studio time with Timbaland , she said she was " in the VIP boys club of just letting go " and being more impulsive . According to Furtado , instead of " pristine stuff " , the album features " really raw " elements such as distorted bass lines , laughter from studio outtakes and general " room for error " . Furtado has said Loose is not as much about the lyrics , which are not included in the liner notes , as it is about " indulging in pleasures — whether it 's dancing or lovemaking . " According to her , she wasn 't trying to be sexy with the album — " I think I just am sexy now " , she said .

= = Songs = =

The opening track , " Afraid " ( featuring rapper Attitude ) , is a description of Furtado 's fear of what people think of her , and she has said the chorus reminds her of " walking down the hall in high school ... because you live from the outside in . Now that I 'm an adult , I care about the inside of me ... Before I said I didn 't care about what people thought about me , but I really did . " " Maneater " is an uptempo electro rock song that combines 1980s electro synths and a more dance @-@ oriented beat . The up @-@ tempo song has prominent electropop and synthpop influences and is lyrically related to how people become " hot on themselves " when dancing in their underwear in front of a mirror . " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was inspired by a flirting exchange Furtado had with Attitude , who co @-@ wrote the song

She has characterised the fifth track , " Showtime " , as " a proper R & B slow jam " . " No Hay Igual " is a hip hop and reggaeton song , that has a Spanglish tongue twister over " future @-@ tropic " beats . The song contains a " sharp mix " of percussion and " empowered chanting " . In " No Hay Igual " , Furtado sings in Spanish and raps in Portuguese over a reggaeton rhythm . The album also features more introspective songs , and The Sunday Times wrote that it " has a surprising sadness to it . " The seventh track , " Te Busqué " , which features Latin singer Juanes , is about Furtado 's experiences with depression , which she said she has had periodically since she was around seventeen years old . Furtado said she was unsure what " Say It Right " is about , but that it encapsulates her feeling when she wrote it and " taps into this other sphere " ; in an interview for The Sunday Times , it was mentioned that it is about her breakup with DJ Jasper Gahunia , the father of her daughter . " In God 's Hands " , another song on the album , was also inspired by the end of their relationship .

= = Singles = =

In April 2006 , a remix of " No Hay Igual " featuring Calle 13 was issued as a club single in the US . During the same period , " Promiscuous " ( featuring Timbaland ) was released for digital download in North America . Promiscuous became Furtado 's first single to top the US Billboard Hot 100 and was released in Australia , where it reached the top five . The lead single in Europe and Latin America , " Maneater " , was released in late May to early June 2006 . It became Furtado 's first single to top the UK Singles Chart and made the top ten in other countries ; it reached the top five in Germany and the top twenty in France and Latin America . The second single in Europe , " Promiscuous " , was released in late August to early September 2006 but it did not perform as well as " Maneater " . It peaked inside the top five in the UK and the top ten in other countries , including Germany , and it reached the top twenty in France . During the same period , " Maneater " began its run as the second single in North America ; it was not as successful as " Promiscuous " , reaching number twenty @-@ two in Canada and the top twenty in the US , though it became a top five single on the ARIA Singles Chart .

Releases of the third North American single , " Say It Right " , and the third Europe single , " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " , took place in November and December , and the third Latin American single , " Promiscuous " , was released in January 2007 . " Say It Right " went to number one in the US and on the Nielsen BDS airplay chart in Canada ( where it was not given a commercial release ) , and it reached the top five in Australia . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " reached number one on the pan @-@ European singles chart and the top five in the UK , and it was the album 's most successful single in Germany , where it topped the chart , and in France , where it became a top ten hit . After the release of " Say It Right " in Europe in March 2007 , the single reached the top five in Germany and the top ten in the UK , where it was a download @-@ only release . The video for " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " was released in North America during this period . " All Good Things ( Come to an End ) " peaked in the top five in Canada and in the top twenty in Australia , though it only reached the lower half of the US Hot 100 .

The album 's fifth and final UK single was " In God 's Hands " , and the fifth and final single in North America was " Do It " . In May 2007 , Furtado mentioned the possibility of a sixth or seventh single , mentioning the examples of Nickelback 's All the Right Reasons and The Pussycat Dolls ' PCD as albums that were being supported by seven singles at the time . Furtado said she liked the possibility because she thought Loose was good and " want [ ed ] people to hear as much of it as possible " before she took time off . Two other songs , " Te Busqué " and " No Hay Igual " , were released as singles in other regions of the world . " Te Busqué " was the lead single in Spain because of the limited success hip @-@ hop / R & B @-@ influenced songs in the style of " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " achieved in the country . It was not released in the United States , but it was given airplay on Latin music radio stations and reached the top forty on Billboard 's Latin Pop Airplay chart . The " No Hay Igual " remix featuring Calle 13 was released in Latin America , and the music video debuted in September .

= = Release and promotion = =

The album was first released in Japan on 7 June 2006 through Universal Music Group before being released two days later in Germany . In the United Kingdom Loose was released on 12 June 2006 via Geffen Records and was released eight days later on 20 June 2006 in Canada and the United States .

In 2007 the album was re @-@ released in Germany . The re @-@ release included bonus content .

During the promotion of Loose , Furtado performed at major music festivals and award shows . In Europe , she appeared at Rock am Ring and Rock @-@ im @-@ Park in Germany and the Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands in June 2006 . She performed in Canada at the Calgary Stampede , the Ottawa Bluesfest in July , and at the Ovation Music Festival in September . Shortly after her August 2006 performance at the Summer Sonic in Japan , she sang at the Teen Choice Awards . In November , she contributed to the entertainment during the World Music Awards , the American Music Awards and the 94th Grey Cup halftime show . She performed at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards , held in January 2007 .

Furtado embarked on a world concert tour , the Get Loose Tour , on 16 February 2007 in the UK , in support of the album ; the tour included thirty @-@ one dates in Europe and Canada , with additional shows in the US , Japan , Australia and Latin America . Furtado described the show as a " full sensory experience " with " a beginning , middle and end ... [ it ] takes you on a journey " , also stressing the importance of crowd involvement and " spontaneity and rawness , because those are my roots , you know ? I started by doing club shows , and that 's the energy I love , the raw club energy of just feeling like you 're rocking out . " Though Furtado said choreographed dance routines were to be included in the show , she described it as " music @-@ based ... Everything else is just to keep it sophisticated and sensual and fun . " Furtado said she hoped to have Chris Martin , Juanes , Justin Timberlake , Timbaland and Calle 13 to guest on the tour , and have a " revolving door " of opening acts with Latin musicians opening in the US .

= = Commercial performance = =

Loose debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling more than 34 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , at that time the year 's strongest debut for a Canadian artist . In late July , after Furtado embarked on a short tour of Canada and made a guest appearance on the television show Canadian Idol , the album returned to number one . It subsequently stayed near the top of the album chart until late January 2007 , when it reached number one again for two weeks . It was the third best @-@ selling album of 2006 in Canada , and the highest selling by a female solo artist , with 291 @,@ 700 copies sold . The Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) certified Loose five times platinum in May 2007 for shipments of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies . It stayed in the top twenty for fifty @-@ seven weeks .

The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , making it Furtado 's first album to top the chart with first @-@ week sales of 219 @,@ 000 ; it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and ranked sixty @-@ fourth on the Billboard 2006 year @-@ end chart . Loose exited the US top ten in August 2006 but re @-@ entered it in March 2007 , and according to Nielsen SoundScan in October 2007 , it had sold two million units . The album ranked thirty @-@ second on the Billboard 2007 year @-@ end chart .

In the United Kingdom , Loose entered the albums chart at number five ; in its forty @-@ third week , it reached number four , and it was certified double platinum for shipments to retailers of more than 600 @,@ 000 copies . As of July 2007 , it had sold roughly 827 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The record was certified two times platinum in Australia for more than 140 @,@ 000 units shipped ; it reached number four there and was placed forty @-@ fourth on the Australian Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) list of 2006 bestsellers . The album entered the chart in Germany at number one , spent a record forty @-@ nine weeks in the German top ten , and was certified five times platinum . Loose reached number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart in early 2007 , spending ten non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one . By March 2007 , it had been certified gold or platinum in twenty @-@ five countries . According to a Geffen Records press release , Loose had sold more than seven million copies by November 2007 .

= = Critical reception = =

Loose received generally positive reviews from music critics ; it holds an average score of 71 out of 100 at aggregate website Metacritic . AllMusic and musicOMH cited the " revitalising " effect of Timbaland on Furtado 's music , and The Guardian called it " slick , smart and surprising . " Q found most of it to be " an inventive , hip @-@ hop @-@ inflected delight . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that " the music and the lyrics are mainly aimed at dance floors , and yet this album keeps reminding listeners that a dance floor is one of the most complicated places on earth . " In its review , AllMusic wrote " It 's on this final stretch of the album that the Furtado and Timbaland pairing seems like a genuine collaboration , staying true to the Nelly of her first two albums , but given an adventurous production that helps open her songs up ... Timbaland has revitalized Nelly Furtado both creatively and commercially with Loose " . She won her first BRIT Award — Best International Female — in 2007 .

In a mixed review , Nick Catucci of The Village Voice felt that Furtado " sauces up a bit too luridly " and lacks " chemistry " with Timbaland , writing that Loose " isn 't a love child , but a bump @-@ and @-@ grind that never finds a groove " . Vibe stated , " she loses herself in Gwen Stefani – like posturing , as on “ Glow , ” and ethnic fusions like “ No Hay Igual ” or “ Te Busqué . " In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau gave the album a " B " and named it " dud of the month " , indicating " a bad record whose details rarely merit further thought . " Christgau viewed that its dance @-@ oriented tracks " might accomplish God 's great plan on the dance @-@ floor . But as songs they 're not much " .

= = Impact = =

Considerable attention was generated by the more sexual image of Furtado presented in promotion and publicity for the album , and in particular the music videos for " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " , in which she dances around with her midriff exposed . According to Maclean 's magazine , some said that Furtado 's progression was a natural transformation of a pop singer ; others believed that she had " sold out " in an effort to garner record sales , particularly after her second album was a commercial failure in comparison to her first . Maclean 's wrote that her makeover " seems a bit forced " and contrasted her with singers such as Madonna and Emily Haines of Metric : " [ they ] seem to be completely in control , even somewhat intimidating in their sexuality : they 've made a calculated decision for commercial and feminist reasons . In contrast , Furtado 's new , overt sexuality comes off as unoriginal — overdone by thousands of pouty pop stars with a quarter of Furtado 's natural talent ... the revamping feels as if it 's been imposed rather than chosen by the unique , articulate singer we 've seen in the past . "

Dose magazine wrote that Furtado 's new " highly sexualized " image was manufactured , and noted the involvement in the album 's development of Geffen 's Jimmy Iovine , who helped to develop the Pussycat Dolls , a girl group known for their sexually suggestive dance routines . The writer also criticised Furtado 's discussion of her buttocks and apparent rejection of feminism in a Blender magazine interview , writing : " Girls , do you hear that churning ? Those are the ideas of Gloria Steinem turning in their grave . " A writer for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation said that cynics could attribute Furtado 's commercial success with Loose to her " amped @-@ up sex appeal . " The writer added that , the failure of Janet Jackson 's album Damita Jo ( 2004 ) indicated such a move was not infallible . Furtado was " still demure compared to many of her competitors " — she avoided sporting lingerie or performing " Christina Aguilera @-@ style gyrations or calisthenics " in the " Promiscuous " and " Maneater " videos . " Despite its dramatic arrival ... Furtado 's new image doesn ’ t feel calculated " , he said . " [ She ] seems to be thinking less and feeling more , to the benefit of her music . "

In early 2007 , a video hosted on YouTube led to reports that the song " Do It " , and the Timbaland @-@ produced ringtone " Block Party " that inspired it , used — without authorization — the melody from Finnish demoscene musician Janne " Tempest " Suni 's song " Acidjazzed Evening " , winner of the Assembly 2000 oldskool music competition . Timbaland used the record of C64 adaptation of the song written by Glenn Rune Gallefoss ( GRG ) . Timbaland admitted sampling the song , but said that he had no time to research its intellectual owner . Hannu Sormunen , a Finnish representative of Universal which represents Nelly Furtado in Finland , commented the controversy as follows in the 15 January 2007 issue of Iltalehti ; " In case that the artist decides to pursue the matter further , it 's on him to go to America and confront them with the local use of law . It will require a considerable amount of faith and , of course , money . " On 9 February 2007 , Timbaland commented on the issue in an MTV interview : " It makes me laugh . The part I don 't understand , the dude is trying to act like I went to his house and took it from his computer . I don 't know him from a can of paint . I 'm 15 years deep . That 's how you attack a king ? You attack moi ? Come on , man . You got to come correct . You the laughing stock . People are like , ' You can 't be serious . ' "

On 12 June 2009 , Mikko Välimäki , who is one of the legal counsels of Kernel Records , the owner of the sound recording rights , reported that the case had been filed in Florida . In January 2008 , Turkish newspapers reported that Kalan Müzik , the record label that released Turkish folk singer Muhlis Akarsu 's album Ya Dost Ya Dost , pressed charges against Furtado for the Loose track " Wait for You " , which label officials said features the bağlama instrumental part of Akarsu 's song " Allah Allah Desem Gelsem . "

= = Track listing = =

= = = Reissues = = =

Notes

^ a signifies a vocal producer

= = Personnel = =

= = = Production = = =

Credits adapted from the Loose liner notes .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= 2013 – 14 York City F.C. season =

The 2013 – 14 season was the 92nd season of competitive association football and 77th season in the Football League played by York City Football Club , a professional football club based in York , North Yorkshire , England . Their 17th @-@ place finish in 2012 – 13 meant it was their second consecutive season in League Two . The season ran from 1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014 .

Nigel Worthington , starting his first full season as York manager , made eight permanent summer signings . By the turn of the year York were only above the relegation zone on goal difference , before a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run saw the team finish in seventh @-@ place in the 24 @-@ team 2013 – 14 Football League Two . This meant York qualified for the play @-@ offs , and they were eliminated in the semi @-@ final by Fleetwood Town . York were knocked out of the 2013 – 14 FA Cup , Football League Cup and Football League Trophy in their opening round matches .

35 players made at least one appearance in nationally organised first @-@ team competition , and there were 12 different goalscorers . Defender Ben Davies missed only five of the fifty @-@ two competitive matches played over the season . Wes Fletcher finished as leading scorer with 13 goals , of which 10 came in league competition and three came in the FA Cup . The winner of the Clubman of the Year award , voted for by the club 's supporters , was Lanre Oyebanjo .

= = Background and pre @-@ season = =

The 2012 – 13 season was York City 's first season back in the Football League , having won the Conference Premier play @-@ offs in 2011 – 12 after eights years in the Football Conference . Manager Gary Mills was sacked in March 2013 following an 11 @-@ match run without a victory , and was replaced by former Northern Ireland manager Nigel Worthington . Despite being in the relegation zone with three matches remaining , Worthington led the team to safety from relegation after a 1 – 0 win away to Dagenham & Redbridge on the final day of the season . York finished the season in 17th @-@ place in the 2012 – 13 League Two table .

Following the previous season 's conclusion Lee Bullock , Jon Challinor , Chris Doig , Ben Everson , Scott Kerr , David McDaid , Patrick McLaughlin , Michael Potts , Jamie Reed and Jason Walker were released by York , while Matty Blair departed for Fleetwood Town . David McGurk , Lanre Oyebanjo , Danny Parslow , Tom Platt and Chris Smith signed new contracts with the club . New players signed ahead of the start of the season were goalkeeper Chris Kettings on a season @-@ long loan from Blackpool , defender Ben Davies on loan from Preston North End , midfielders Craig Clay from Chesterfield and Lewis Montrose from Gillingham , winger Sander Puri from St Mirren and strikers Ryan Bowman from Hereford United , Richard Cresswell from Sheffield United , Wes Fletcher from Burnley and Ryan Jarvis from Torquay United . Defender Mike Atkinson and striker Chris Dickinson entered the first @-@ team squad from the youth team after agreeing professional contracts .

York retained the previous season 's home and away kits . The home kit comprised red shirts with white sleeves , light blue shorts and white socks . The away kit included light blue shirts with white sleeves , white shorts and light blue socks . Benenden Health continued as shirt sponsors for the second successive season .

= = Review = =

= = = August = = =

York began the season with a 1 – 0 home win over the previous season 's play @-@ off finalists , Northampton Town , with debutant Jarvis scoring the winning goal in the 90th @-@ minute . However , defeat came in York 's match against Championship side Burnley in the first round of the League Cup , going down 4 – 0 at home . The team endured their first league defeat of the season in the following game after being beaten 2 – 0 away by Dagenham & Redbridge , the home team scoring in each half . York then held Hartlepool United to a 0 – 0 home draw , before being beaten 3 – 2 away by Bristol Rovers , in which Jarvis scored twice before John @-@ Joe O 'Toole scored the winning goal for the home team in the 67th @-@ minute . Two signings were made shortly before the transfer deadline ; defender George Taft was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Leicester City , while Middlesbrough midfielder Ryan Brobbel joined on a one @-@ month loan . Midfielder John McReady , who had been told he had no future with the club , departed after signing for FC Halifax Town . Jarvis gave York the lead away at Exeter City before Alan Gow scored in each half to see the home team win 2 – 1 .

= = = September = = =

York suffered their first home league defeat of the season after AFC Wimbledon won 2 – 0 , with Michael Smith scoring in each half . Former Ipswich Town midfielder Josh Carson , who had a spell on loan with York the previous season , signed a contract until the end of 2013 – 14 and Sheffield United midfielder Elliott Whitehouse signed on a one @-@ month loan . Brobbel opened the scoring in the second minute of his home debut against Mansfield Town , although the away team went on to score twice to win 2 – 1 . York 's run of four defeats ended following a 1 – 1 draw away to Wycombe Wanderers , in which McGurk gave York the lead before the home team levelled through Dean Morgan . Taft was sent back to Leicester after he fell behind McGurk , Parslow and Smith in the pecking order for a central defensive berth . York achieved their first win since the opening day of the season after beating Portsmouth 4 – 2 at home , with Fletcher ( 2 ) , Montrose and Jarvis scoring .

= = = October = = =

Defender Luke O 'Neill was signed from Burnley on a 28 @-@ day emergency loan . He made his debut in York 's 3 – 0 win away at Torquay , which was the team 's first successive win of the season . York were knocked out of the Football League Trophy in the second round after being beaten 3 – 0 at home by League One team Rotherham United , before their winning streak in the league was ended with a 3 – 0 defeat away to Newport County . York drew 2 – 2 away to Chesterfield , having taken a two @-@ goal lead through O 'Neill and Jarvis , before the home team fought back through Armand Gnanduillet and Jay O 'Shea . The team then hosted Fleetwood Town , and the visitors won 2 – 0 with goals scored in each half by Gareth Evans and Jamille Matt . Scunthorpe United were beaten 4 – 1 at home to end York 's three @-@ match run without a win , with all the team 's goals coming in the first half from Carson , Fletcher and Brobbel ( 2 ) .

= = = November = = =

Bowman scored his first goals for York away to Cheltenham Town , as York twice fought back from behind to draw 2 – 2 . York drew 3 – 3 away to Bristol Rovers to earn a first round replay in the FA Cup , taking the lead through Jarvis before Eliot Richards equalised for the home team . Carson scored a 30 yard volley to put York back in the lead , and after Bristol Rovers goals from Matt Harrold and Chris Beardsley , Fletcher scored an 86th @-@ minute equaliser for York . Bowman scored with a header from an O 'Neill cross to open the scoring at home to Plymouth Argyle , which was the first goal the visitors had conceded in 500 minutes of action . However , Plymouth equalised 11 minutes later through Tope Obadeyi and the match finished a 1 – 1 draw . York were knocked out of the FA Cup after losing 3 – 2 at home to Bristol Rovers in a first round replay ; the visitors were 3 – 0 up by 50 @-@ minutes before Fletcher pulled two back for York with a penalty and a long @-@ range strike .

Defender Keith Lowe , of Cheltenham , and goalkeeper Nick Pope , of Charlton Athletic , were signed on loan until January 2014 . They both played in York 's first league defeat in four weeks , 2 – 1 away , to Southend United . Kevan Hurst gave Southend the lead early into the match and Bowman equalised for York with a low strike during the second half , before Luke Prosser scored the winning goal for the home side in stoppage time . With Pope preferred in goal , Kettings returned to Blackpool on his own accord , although his loan agreement would stay in place until January 2014 . York then drew 0 – 0 away to Morecambe . After Pope was recalled from his loan by Charlton , York signed Wolverhampton Wanderers goalkeeper Aaron McCarey on loan until January 2014 . McCarey kept a clean sheet in York 's 0 – 0 home draw with Rochdale .

= = = December = = =

Cresswell retired from playing as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . York drew 1 – 1 away to Burton Albion , with an own goal scored by Shane Cansdell @-@ Sherriff giving York the lead in the 64th @-@ minute before the home team equalised eight minutes later through Billy Kee . Atkinson was released after failing to force himself into the first team and signed for Scarborough Athletic , with whom he had been on loan . York drew 0 – 0 at home with second @-@ placed Oxford United , in which Carson came closest to scoring with a volley that flashed across the face of the goal . This was followed by another draw after the match away to Accrington Stanley finished 1 – 1 , with the home team equalising 10 minutes after a Fletcher penalty had given York the lead in the 35th @-@ minute . Striker Shaq McDonald , who had been released by Peterborough United , was signed on a contract until the end of the season . York 's last match of 2013 was a 2 – 1 defeat away at Bury , a result that ended York 's run of consecutive draws at five . The home team were 2 – 0 up by the 19th @-@ minute , before Michael Coulson scored York 's goal in the 73rd @-@ minute . This result meant York would begin 2014 in 22nd @-@ position in the table , only out of the relegation zone on goal difference .

= = = January = = =

Jarvis scored the only goal in York 's first win since October 2013 , a 1 – 0 home victory over Morecambe on New Year 's Day . McCarey was recalled by Wolverhampton Wanderers due to an injury to one of their goalkeepers , while O 'Neill was recalled by Burnley to take part in their FA Cup match . York achieved back @-@ to @-@ back wins for the first time since October 2013 after Dagenham & Redbridge were beaten 3 – 1 at home , with Bowman opening the scoring in the second half before Fletcher scored twice . Adam Reed , who had a spell on loan with York in the previous season , was signed on a contract until the end of the season after parting company with Burton . Davies ' loan was extended , while Brobbel and Whitehouse returned to their parent clubs . Cheltenham club captain Russell Penn , a midfielder , was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Lowe was subsequently signed permanently from Cheltenham on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Having been allowed to leave the club on a free transfer , Ashley Chambers signed for Conference Premier club Cambridge United .

York achieved three successive wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 after beating Northampton 2 – 0 away , with Bowman and Fletcher scoring in three @-@ second half minutes . Defender John McCombe was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract following his release from Mansfield , before Clay and Jamal Fyfield left York by mutual consent . Pope returned to York on loan from Charlton for the remainder of the season . York 's run of wins ended with a 0 – 0 draw at home to Bristol Rovers , before their first defeat of the year came after losing 2 – 0 away to Hartlepool . Preston winger Will Hayhurst , a Republic of Ireland under @-@ 21 international , was signed on a one @-@ month loan . York fell to a successive defeat for the first time since September 2013 after being beaten 2 – 0 at home by Chesterfield . Shortly after the match , Smith left the club by mutual consent to pursue first @-@ team football .

= = = February = = =

Fletcher scored a 90th @-@ minute winner for York away to Fleetwood in a 2 – 1 win , a result that ended Fleetwood 's five @-@ match unbeaten run . York then drew 0 – 0 at home to fellow mid @-@ table team Cheltenham , before beating Plymouth 4 – 0 away with goals from Fletcher , McCombe ( 2 ) and Carson as the team achieved successive away wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 . York went without scoring for a fourth consecutive home match after drawing 0 – 0 with Southend . Having worn the armband since an injury to McGurk , Penn was appointed captain for the rest of the season , a position that had earlier been held by Smith and Parslow .

= = = March = = =

York achieved their first home win in five matches after beating Exeter 2 – 1 , with first half goals scored by McCombe and Coulson . Hayhurst 's loan was extended to the end of the season , having impressed in his six appearances for the club . Coulson scored again with the only goal , a 41st @-@ minute header , in York 's 1 – 0 away win over AFC Wimbledon . Bowman scored the only goal with a 32nd @-@ minute penalty as York won 1 – 0 away against Mansfield , in which Fletcher missed the opportunity to extend the lead when his stoppage time penalty was saved by Alan Marriott . York moved one place outside the play @-@ offs with a 2 – 0 home win over Wycombe , courtesy of a second Bowman penalty in as many matches and a Carson goal from the edge of the penalty area . Coulson scored York 's only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over struggling Portsmouth with a low volley in the fifth @-@ minute ; this result meant York moved into the play @-@ offs in seventh @-@ place with eight fixtures remaining .

Striker Calvin Andrew , who had been released by Mansfield in January 2014 , was signed on a contract for the remainder of the season . He made his debut as a substitute in York 's 1 – 0 home win over bottom of the table Torquay , in which Hayhurst scored the only goal in the 11th @-@ minute with an 18 yard shot that deflected off Aaron Downes . Middlesbrough winger Brobbel rejoined on loan until the end of the season , following an injury to Carson . York 's run of successive wins ended on six matches after a 0 – 0 home draw with Burton , and this result saw York drop out of the play @-@ offs in eighth @-@ place . With the team recording six wins and one draw in March 2014 , including six clean sheets , Worthington was named League Two Manager of the Month .

= = = April = = =

Pope made a number of saves as York held league leaders Rochdale to a 0 – 0 away draw , with a point being enough to lift the team back into seventh @-@ place . York were prevented from equalling a club record of eight consecutive clean sheets when Accrington scored a stoppage time equaliser in a 1 – 1 home draw , in which York had taken earlier taken the lead with a Coulson penalty . A 1 – 0 win away win over Oxford , which was decided by a second half Coulson penalty , resulted in York moving one place above their opponents and back into seventh @-@ place . York consolidated their place in a play @-@ off position after beating Bury 1 – 0 at home with a fifth @-@ minute goal scored by Lowe from a Hayhurst corner . The result meant York opened up a five @-@ point lead over eighth @-@ placed Oxford with two fixtures remaining . A place in the League Two play @-@ offs was secured following a 1 – 0 win over Newport at home , in which Coulson scored the only goal in the 77th @-@ minute with a 25 yard free kick . Pope earned a nomination for League Two Player of the Month for April 2014 , having conceded only one goal in five matches in that period .

= = = May = = =

The league season concluded with an away match against divisional runners @-@ up Scunthorpe ; having gone two goals down York fought back to draw 2 – 2 with goals scored by Brobbel and Andrew . This result meant York finished the season in seventh @-@ place in League Two , and would thus play fourth @-@ placed Fleetwood in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final on the back of a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run . York lost 1 – 0 to Fleetwood in the first leg at Bootham Crescent ; the goal came from former York player Matty Blair in the 50th @-@ minute , who scored from close range after Antoni Sarcevic 's shot was blocked on the line . A 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood in the second leg meant York were eliminated 1 – 0 on aggregate , ending the prospect of a second promotion in three seasons . At an awards night held at York Racecourse , Oyebanjo was voted Clubman of the Year for 2013 – 14 .

= = Summary and aftermath = =

York mostly occupied the bottom half of the table before the turn of the year , and dropped as low as 23rd in September 2013 . During February 2014 the team broke into the top half of the table and with one match left were in sixth @-@ place . York 's defensive record was the third best in League Two with 41 goals conceded , bettered only by Southend ( 39 ) and Chesterfield ( 40 ) . Davies made the highest number of appearances over the season , appearing in 47 of York 's 52 matches . Fletcher was York 's top scorer in the league and in all competitions , with 10 league goals and 13 in total . He was the only player to reach double figures , and was followed by Jarvis with nine goals .

After the season ended York released Tom Allan , Andrew , Dickinson , McDonald , Puri and Reed , while McGurk retired from professional football . Bowman and Oyebanjo left to sign for Torquay and Crawley Town respectively while Coulson signed a new contract with the club . York 's summer signings included goalkeeper Jason Mooney from Tranmere Rovers , defenders Femi Ilesanmi from Dagenham , Marvin McCoy from Wycombe and Dave Winfield from Shrewsbury Town , midfielders Lindon Meikle from Mansfield , Anthony Straker from Southend and Luke Summerfield from Shrewsbury and striker Jake Hyde from Barnet .

= = Match details = =

League positions are sourced by Statto , while the remaining information is referenced individually .

= = = Football League Two = = =

= = = League table ( part ) = = =

= = = FA Cup = = =

= = = League Cup = = =

= = = Football League Trophy = = =

= = = Football League Two play @-@ offs = = =

= = Transfers = =

= = = In = = =

Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club had expired before he joined York .

= = = Out = = =

Brackets around club names denote the player joined that club after his York contract expired .

= = = Loan in = = =

= = = Loan out = = =

= = Appearances and goals = =

Source :

Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute .

Players with names struck through and marked left the club during the playing season .

Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with York .

Players listed with no appearances have been in the matchday squad but only as unused substitutes .

Key to positions : GK – Goalkeeper ; DF – Defender ; MF – Midfielder ; FW – Forward

= Antimony =

Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb ( from Latin : stibium ) and atomic number 51 . A lustrous gray metalloid , it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) . Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were used for cosmetics ; metallic antimony was also known , but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery . In the West , it was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio and described in 1540 , although in primitive cultures its powder has been used to cure eye ailments , as also for eye shadow , since time immemorial , and is often referred to by its Arabic name , kohl .

For some time , China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds , with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan . The industrial methods to produce antimony are roasting and reduction using carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron .

The largest applications for metallic antimony are as alloying material for lead and tin and for lead antimony plates in lead – acid batteries . Alloying lead and tin with antimony improves the properties of the alloys which are used in solders , bullets and plain bearings . Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine @-@ containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products . An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics .

= = Characteristics = =

= = = Properties = = =

Antimony is in the nitrogen group ( group 15 ) and has an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 05 . As expected from periodic trends , it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth , and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic . Antimony is stable in air at room temperature , but reacts with oxygen if heated , to form antimony trioxide , Sb2O3 .

Antimony is a silvery , lustrous gray metalloid that has a Mohs scale hardness of 3 . Thus pure antimony is too soft to make hard objects ; coins made of antimony were issued in China 's Guizhou province in 1931 , but because of their rapid wear , their minting was discontinued . Antimony is resistant to attack by acids .

Four allotropes of antimony are known : a stable metallic form and three metastable forms ( explosive , black and yellow ) . Elemental antimony is a brittle , silver @-@ white shiny metalloid . When slowly cooled , molten antimony crystallizes in a trigonal cell , isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic . A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride . When scratched with a sharp implement , an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony is formed ; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar , a strong detonation occurs . Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of vapor derived from metallic antimony . It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic , it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously . At 100 ° C , it gradually transforms into the stable form . The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable . It has only been generated by oxidation of stibine ( SbH3 ) at − 90 ° C. Above this temperature and in ambient light , this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope .

Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure ( space group R3m No. 166 ) in which layers consist of fused ruffled six @-@ membered rings . The nearest and next @-@ nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex , with the three atoms in the same double layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next . This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6 @.@ 697 g / cm3 , but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony .

= = = Isotopes = = =

Antimony has two stable isotopes : 121Sb with a natural abundance of 57 @.@ 36 % and 123Sb with a natural abundance of 42 @.@ 64 % . It also has 35 radioisotopes , of which the longest @-@ lived is 125Sb with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 75 years . In addition , 29 metastable states have been characterized . The most stable of these is 120m1Sb with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 76 days . Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by β + decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β − decay , with some exceptions .

= = = Occurrence = = =

The abundance of antimony in the Earth 's crust is estimated at 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 5 parts per million , comparable to thallium at 0 @.@ 5 parts per million and silver at 0 @.@ 07 ppm . Even though this element is not abundant , it is found in over 100 mineral species . Antimony is sometimes found natively ( e.g. on Antimony Peak ) , but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) which is the predominant ore mineral .

= = Compounds = =

Antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state : Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . The + 5 oxidation state is more stable .

= = = Oxides and hydroxides = = =

Antimony trioxide ( Sb

4O

6 ) is formed when antimony is burnt in air . In the gas phase , this compound exists as Sb

4O

6 , but it polymerizes upon condensing . Antimony pentoxide ( Sb

4O

10 ) can only be formed by oxidation by concentrated nitric acid . Antimony also forms a mixed @-@ valence oxide , antimony tetroxide ( Sb

2O

4 ) , which features both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) . Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic , these various oxides are amphoteric , do not form well @-@ defined oxoacids and react with acids to form antimony salts .

Antimonous acid Sb ( OH )

3 is unknown , but the conjugate base sodium antimonite ( [ Na

3SbO

3 ]

4 ) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and Sb

4O

6 . Transition metal antimonites are also known . Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate HSb ( OH )

6 , forming salts containing the antimonate anion Sb ( OH ) −

6 . Dehydrating metal salts containing this anion yields mixed oxides .

Many antimony ores are sulfides , including stibnite ( Sb

2S

3 ) , pyrargyrite ( Ag

3SbS

3 ) , zinkenite , jamesonite , and boulangerite . Antimony pentasulfide is non @-@ stoichiometric and features antimony in the + 3 oxidation state and S @-@ S bonds . Several thioantimonides are known , such as [ Sb

6S

10 ] 2 − and [ Sb

8S

13 ] 2 − .

= = = Halides = = =

Antimony forms two series of halides : SbX

3 and SbX

5 . The trihalides SbF

3 , SbCl

3 , SbBr

3 , and SbI

3 are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry .

The trifluoride SbF

3 is prepared by the reaction of Sb

2O

3 with HF :

Sb

2O

3 + 6 HF → 2 SbF

3 + 3 H

2O

It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions SbF −

4 and SbF2 −

5 . Molten SbF

3 is a weak electrical conductor . The trichloride SbCl

3 is prepared by dissolving Sb

2S

3 in hydrochloric acid :

Sb

2S

3 + 6 HCl → 2 SbCl

3 + 3 H

2S

The pentahalides SbF

5 and SbCl

5 have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase , but in the liquid phase , SbF

5 is polymeric , whereas SbCl

5 is monomeric . SbF

5 is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid ( " H2SbF7 " ) .

Oxyhalides are more common for antimony than arsenic and phosphorus . Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and ( SbO )

2SO

4 .

= = = Antimonides , hydrides , and organoantimony compounds = = =

Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb3 − . Antimony forms antimonides with metals , such as indium antimonide ( InSb ) and silver antimonide ( Ag

3Sb ) . The alkali metal and zinc antimonides , such as Na3Sb and Zn3Sb2 , are more reactive . Treating these antimonides with acid produces the unstable gas stibine , SbH

3 :

Sb3 − + 3 H + → SbH

3

Stibine can also be produced by treating Sb3 + salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride.Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature . Because stibine has a positive heat of formation , it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly .

Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents . A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb ( III ) and Sb ( V ) centers , including mixed chloro @-@ organic derivatives , anions , and cations . Examples include Sb ( C6H5 ) 3 ( triphenylstibine ) , Sb2 ( C6H5 ) 4 ( with an Sb @-@ Sb bond ) , and cyclic [ Sb ( C6H5 ) ] n . Pentacoordinated organoantimony compounds are common , examples being Sb ( C6H5 ) 5 and several related halides .

= = History = =

Antimony ( III ) sulfide , Sb2S3 , was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic ( kohl ) as early as about 3100 BC , when the cosmetic palette was invented .

An artifact , said to be part of a vase , made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh , Chaldea ( part of present @-@ day Iraq ) , and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt . Austen , at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892 commented that " we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal , which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase , and therefore this remarkable ' find ' ( artifact mentioned above ) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable . "

Moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase , mentioning that Selimkhanov , after his analysis of the Tello object ( published in 1975 ) , " attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony " ( i.e. native metal ) and that " the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments . " This weakens the evidence for a lost art " of rendering antimony malleable . "

The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History . Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between " male " and " female " forms of antimony ; the male form is probably the sulfide , while the female form , which is superior , heavier , and less friable , has been suspected to be native metallic antimony .

The Roman naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air . It is thought that this produced metallic antimony .

The first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio ; this predates the more famous 1556 book by Agricola , De re metallica . In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony . The book Currus Triumphalis Antimonii ( The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony ) , describing the preparation of metallic antimony , was published in Germany in 1604 . It was purported to have been written by a Benedictine monk , writing under the name Basilius Valentinus , in the 15th century ; if it were authentic , which it is not , it would predate Biringuccio .

The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide , salt and potassium tartrate . This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface .

With the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides , oxides , and other compounds , as is the case with other metals .

The first natural occurrence of pure antimony in the Earth 's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783 ; the type @-@ sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala , Västmanland , Sweden .

= = = Etymology = = =

The ancient words for antimony mostly have , as their chief meaning , kohl , the sulfide of antimony .

The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt ; in hieroglyphs , the vowels are uncertain , but there is an Arabic tradition that the word is ميسديميت mesdemet . The Greek word , στίμμι stimmi , is probably a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian stm

and is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC ; later Greeks also used στἰβι stibi , as did Celsus and Pliny , writing in Latin , in the first century AD . Pliny also gives the names stimi [ sic ] , larbaris , alabaster , and the " very common " platyophthalmos , " wide @-@ eye " ( from the effect of the cosmetic ) . Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium . The Arabic word for the substance , as opposed to the cosmetic , can appear as إثمد ithmid , athmoud , othmod , or uthmod . Littré suggests the first form , which is the earliest , derives from stimmida , an accusative for stimmi .

The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to Jöns Jakob Berzelius , who used this abbreviation of the name stibium . The medieval Latin form , from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony , is antimonium . The origin of this is uncertain ; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation . The popular etymology , from ἀντίμοναχός anti @-@ monachos or French antimoine , still has adherents ; this would mean " monk @-@ killer " , and is explained by many early alchemists being monks , and antimony being poisonous .

Another popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος antimonos , " against aloneness " , explained as " not found as metal " , or " not found unalloyed " . Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word ανθήμόνιον anthemonion , which would mean " floret " , and cites several examples of related Greek words ( but not that one ) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence .

The early uses of antimonium include the translations , in 1050 – 1100 , by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises . Several authorities believe antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form ; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid ; other possibilities include athimar , the Arabic name of the metalloid , and a hypothetical as @-@ stimmi , derived from or parallel to the Greek .

= = Production = =

= = = Top producers and production volumes = = =

The British Geological Survey ( BGS ) reported that in 2005 , China was the top producer of antimony with an approximately 84 % world share , followed at a distance by South Africa , Bolivia and Tajikistan . Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan province has the largest deposits in China with an estimated deposit of 2 @.@ 1 million metric tons .

In 2010 , according to the US Geological Survey , China accounted for 88 @.@ 9 % of total antimony production with South Africa , Bolivia and Russia sharing the second place .

However , Roskill Consulting estimates for primary production show that in 2010 China held a 76 @.@ 75 % share of world supply with 120 @,@ 462 tonnes ( 90 @,@ 000 tonnes of reported and 30 @,@ 464 tonnes of un @-@ reported production ) , followed by Russia ( 4 @.@ 14 % share , 6 @,@ 500 tonnes of production ) , Myanmar ( 3 @.@ 76 % share , 5 @,@ 897 tonnes ) , Canada ( 3 @.@ 61 % share , 5 @,@ 660 tonnes ) , Tajikistan ( 3 @.@ 42 % share , 5 @,@ 370 tonnes ) and Bolivia ( 3 @.@ 17 % share , 4 @,@ 980 tonnes ) .

Roskill estimates that secondary production globally in 2010 was 39 @,@ 540 tonnes .

Antimony was ranked first in a Risk List published by the British Geological Survey in the second half of 2011 . The list provides an indication of the relative risk to the supply of chemical elements or element groups required to maintain the current British economy and lifestyle .

Also , antimony was identified as one of 12 critical raw materials for the EU in a report published in 2011 , primarily due to the lack of supply outside China .

Reported production of antimony in China fell in 2010 and is unlikely to increase in the coming years , according to the Roskill report . No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years , and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted .

The world 's largest antimony producers , according to Roskill , are listed below :

= = = Reserves = = =

According to statistics from the USGS , current global reserves of antimony will be depleted in 13 years . However , the USGS expects more resources will be found .

= = = Production process = = =

The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality of the ore and composition of the ore . Most antimony is mined as the sulfide ; lower @-@ grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation , while higher @-@ grade ores are heated to 500 – 600 ° C , the temperature at which stibnite melts and is separated from the gangue minerals . Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by a reduction with scrap iron :

Sb

2S

3 + 3 Fe → 2 Sb + 3 FeS

The sulfide is converted to an oxide and advantage is often taken of the volatility of antimony ( III ) oxide , which is recovered from roasting . This material is often used directly for the main applications , impurities being arsenic and sulfide . Isolating antimony from its oxide is performed by a carbothermal reduction :

2 Sb

2O

3 + 3 C → 4 Sb + 3 CO

2

The lower @-@ grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher @-@ grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces .

= = Applications = =

About 60 % of antimony is consumed in flame retardants , and 20 % is used in alloys for batteries , plain bearings and solders .

= = = Flame retardants = = =

Antimony is mainly used as its trioxide in making flame @-@ proofing compounds . It is nearly always used in combination with halogenated flame retardants , with the only exception being in halogen @-@ containing polymers . The formation of halogenated antimony compounds is the cause for the flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide , due to reaction of these compounds with hydrogen atoms and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals , thus inhibiting fire . Markets for these flame @-@ retardant applications include children 's clothing , toys , aircraft and automobile seat covers . It is also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for such items as light aircraft engine covers . The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed .

= = = Alloys = = =

Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead , increasing its hardness and mechanical strength . For most applications involving lead , varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal . In lead – acid batteries , this addition improves the charging characteristics and reduces generation of unwanted hydrogen during charging . It is used in antifriction alloys ( such as Babbitt metal ) , in bullets and lead shot , cable sheathing , type metal ( for example , for linotype printing machines ) , solder ( some " lead @-@ free " solders contain 5 % Sb ) , in pewter , and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes .

= = = Other applications = = =

Three other applications make up nearly all the rest of the consumption . One of these uses is as a stabilizer and a catalyst for the production of polyethyleneterephthalate . Another application is to serve as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass , mostly for TV screens ; this is achieved by the interaction of antimony ions with oxygen , interfering the latter from forming bubbles . The third major application is the use as pigment .

Antimony is being increasingly used in the semiconductor industry as a dopant for heavily doped n @-@ type silicon wafers in the production of diodes , infrared detectors , and Hall @-@ effect devices . In the 1950s , tiny beads of a lead @-@ antimony alloy were used to dope the emitters and collectors of n @-@ p @-@ n alloy junction transistors with antimony . Indium antimonide is used as a material for mid @-@ infrared detectors .

Few biological or medical applications exist for antimony . Treatments principally containing antimony are known as antimonials and are used as emetics . Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs . Potassium antimonyl tartrate , or tartar emetic , was once used as an anti @-@ schistosomal drug from 1919 on . It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel . Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like anthiomaline or lithium antimony thiomalate , which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants . Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues , at least in animals .

Antimony @-@ based drugs , such as meglumine antimoniate , are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals . Unfortunately , as well as having low therapeutic indices , the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow , where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside , and so cure of the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult . Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine . It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination .

In the heads of some safety matches , antimony ( III ) sulfide is used . Antimony @-@ 124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources ; the gamma rays emitted by antimony @-@ 124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium . The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV . Antimony sulfides have been shown to help stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials .

Antimony also is used in the making of bullets and bullet tracers . This element is also used in paint and glass art crafts and as opacifier in enamel .

= = Precautions = =

The effects of antimony and its compounds on human and environmental health differ widely . The massive antimony metal does not affect human and environmental health . Inhalation of antimony trioxide ( and similar poorly soluble Sb ( III ) dust particles such as antimony dust ) is considered harmful and suspected of causing cancer . However , these effects are only observed with female rats and after long @-@ term exposure to high dust concentrations . The effects are hypothesized to be attributed to inhalation of poorly soluble Sb particles leading to impaired lung clearance , lung overload , inflammation and ultimately tumour formation , not to exposure to antimony ions ( OECD , 2008 ) . Antimony chlorides are corrosive to skin . The effects of antimony are not comparable to arsenic ; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake , metabolism and excretion between arsenic and antimony .

For oral absorption , ICRP ( 1994 ) recommended values of 10 % for tartar emetic and 1 % for all other antimony compounds . Dermal absorption for metals is estimated at most 1 % ( HERAG , 2007 ) . Inhalation absorption of antimony trioxide and other poorly soluble Sb ( III ) substances ( such as antimony dust ) is estimated at 6 @.@ 8 % ( OECD , 2008 ) , whereas a value < 1 % is derived for Sb ( V ) substances . Antimony ( V ) is not quantitatively reduced to antimony ( III ) in the cell , and both species exist simultaneously .

Antimony is mainly excreted from the human body via urine . Antimony and its compounds do not cause acute human health effects , with the exception of antimony potassium tartrate ( " tartar emetic " ) , a prodrug that is intentionally used to treat leishmaniasis patients .

Prolonged skin contact with antimony dust may cause dermatitis . However , it was agreed at the European Union level that the skin rashes observed are not substance @-@ specific , but most probably due to a physical blocking of sweat ducts ( ECHA / PR / 09 / 09 , Helsinki , 6 July 2009 ) . Antimony dust may also be explosive when dispersed in the air ; when in a bulk solid it is not combustible .

Antimony is incompatible with strong acids , halogenated acids , and oxidizers ; when exposed to newly formed hydrogen it may form stibine ( SbH3 ) .

The 8 hour time weighted average ( TWA ) is set at 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) as a legal permissible exposure limit ( PEL ) in the workplace . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 as an 8 hour TWA . Antimony compounds are used as catalysts for polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) production . Some studies report minor antimony leaching from PET bottles into liquids , but levels are below drinking water guidelines . Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates were somewhat higher ( up to 44 @.@ 7 µg / L of antimony ) , but juices do not fall under the drinking water regulations . The drinking water guidelines are :

World Health Organization : 20 µg / L

Japan : 15 µg / L

United States Environmental Protection Agency , Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment : 6 µg / L

EU and German Federal Ministry of Environment : 5 µg / L

The TDI proposed by WHO is 6 µg antimony per kilogram of body weight . The IDLH ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) value for antimony is 50 mg / m3 .

= Mortimer Wheeler =

Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH , CIE , MC , TD , FSA , FRS , FBA ( 10 September 1890 – 22 July 1976 ) was a British archaeologist and officer in the British Army . Over the course of his career , he served as Director of both the National Museum of Wales and London Museum , Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , and the founder and Honorary Director of the Institute of Archaeology in London , further writing twenty @-@ four books on archaeological subjects .

Born in Glasgow to a middle @-@ class family , Wheeler was raised largely in Yorkshire before relocating to London in his teenage years . After studying Classics at University College London ( UCL ) , he began working professionally in archaeology , specializing in the Romano @-@ British period . During World War I he volunteered for service in the Royal Artillery , being stationed on the Western Front , where he rose to the rank of major and was awarded the Military Cross . Returning to Britain , he obtained his doctorate from UCL before taking on a position at the National Museum of Wales , first as Keeper of Archaeology and then as Director , during which time he oversaw excavation at the Roman forts of Segontium , Y Gaer , and Isca Augusta with the aid of his first wife , Tessa Wheeler . Influenced by the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , Wheeler argued that excavation and the recording of stratigraphic context required an increasingly scientific and methodical approach , developing the " Wheeler Method " . In 1926 , he was appointed Keeper of the London Museum ; there , he oversaw a reorganisation of the collection , successfully lobbied for increased funding , and began lecturing at UCL .

In 1934 , he established the Institute of Archaeology as part of the federal University of London , adopting the position of Honorary Director . In this period , he oversaw excavations of the Roman sites at Lydney Park and Verulamium and the Iron Age hill fort of Maidan Castle . During World War II , he re @-@ joined the Armed Forces and rose to the rank of brigadier , serving in the North African Campaign and then the Allied invasion of Italy . In 1944 he was appointed Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , through which he oversaw excavations of sites at Harappa , Arikamedu , and Brahmagiri , and implemented reforms to the subcontinent 's archaeological establishment . Returning to Britain in 1948 , he divided his time between lecturing for the Institute of Archaeology and acting as archaeological adviser to Pakistan 's government . In later life , his popular books , cruise ship lectures , and appearances on radio and television , particularly the BBC series Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? , helped to bring archaeology to a mass audience . Appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , he raised large sums of money for archaeological projects , and was appointed British representative for several UNESCO projects .

Wheeler is recognised as one of the most important British archaeologists of the twentieth century , responsible for successfully encouraging British public interest in the discipline and advancing methodologies of excavation and recording . Further , he is widely acclaimed as a major figure in the establishment of South Asian archaeology . However , many of his specific interpretations of archaeological sites have been discredited or reinterpreted , and he was often criticised for bullying colleagues and sexually harassing young women .

= = Early life = =

= = = Childhood : 1890 – 1907 = = =

Mortimer Wheeler was born on 10 September 1890 in the city of Glasgow , Scotland . He was the first child of the journalist Robert Mortimer Wheeler and his second wife Emily Wheeler ( née Baynes ) . The son of a tea merchant based in Bristol , in youth Robert had considered becoming a Baptist minister , but instead became a staunch freethinker while studying at the University of Edinburgh . Initially working as a lecturer in English literature , Robert turned to journalism after his first wife died in childbirth . His second wife , Emily , shared her husband 's interest in English literature , and was the niece of Thomas Spencer Baynes , a Shakespearean scholar at St. Andrews University . Their marriage was emotionally strained , a situation exacerbated by their financial insecurity . Within two years of their son 's birth , the family moved to Edinburgh , where a daughter named Amy was born . The couple gave their two children nicknames , with Mortimer being " Boberic " and Amy being " Totsy " .

When Wheeler was four , his father was appointed chief leader writer for the Bradford Observer . The family relocated to Saltaire , a village northwest of Bradford , a cosmopolitan city in Yorkshire , northeast England , which was then in the midst of the wool trade boom . Wheeler was inspired by the moors surrounding Saltaire and fascinated by the area 's archaeology . He later wrote about discovering a late prehistoric cup @-@ marked stone , searching for lithics on Ilkley Moor , and digging into a barrow on Baildon Moor . Although suffering from ill health , Emily Wheeler taught her two children with the help of a maid up to the age of seven or eight . Mortimer remained emotionally distant from his mother , instead being far closer to his father , whose company he favoured over that of other children . His father had a keen interest in natural history and a love of fishing and shooting , rural pursuits in which he encouraged Mortimer to take part . Robert acquired many books for his son , particularly on the subject of art history , with Wheeler loving to both read and paint .

In 1899 , Wheeler joined Bradford Grammar School shortly before his ninth birthday , where he proceeded straight to the second form . In 1902 Robert and Emily had a second daughter , whom they named Betty ; Mortimer showed little interest in this younger sister . In 1905 , Robert agreed to take over as head of the London office of his newspaper , by then renamed the Yorkshire Daily Observer , and so the family relocated to the southeast of the city in December , settling into a house named Carlton Lodge on South Croydon Road , West Dulwich . In 1908 they moved to 14 Rollescourt Avenue in nearby Herne Hill . Rather than being sent for a conventional education , when he was 15 Wheeler was instructed to educate himself by spending time in London , where he frequented The National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum .

= = = University and early career : 1907 – 14 = = =

After passing the entrance exam on his second attempt , in 1907 Wheeler was awarded a scholarship to read classical studies at University College London ( UCL ) , commuting daily from his parental home to the university campus in Bloomsbury , central London . At UCL , he was taught by the prominent classicist A. E. Housman . During his undergraduate studies , he became editor of the Union Magazine , for which he produced a number of illustrated cartoons . Increasingly interested in art , he decided to switch from classical studies to a course at UCL 's art school , the Slade School of Fine Art ; he returned to his previous subject after coming to the opinion that – in his words – he never became more than " a conventionally accomplished picture maker " . This interlude had adversely affected his classical studies , and he received a second class BA on graduating .

Wheeler began studying for a Master of Arts degree in classical studies , which he attained in 1912 . During this period , he also gained employment as the personal secretary of the UCL Provost Gregory Foster , although he later criticised Foster for transforming the university from " a college in the truly academic sense [ into ] a hypertrophied monstrosity as little like a college as a plesiosaurus is like a man " . It was also at this time of life that he met and began a relationship with Tessa Verney , a student then studying history at UCL , when they were both serving on the committee of the University College Literary Society .

During his studies , Wheeler had developed his love of archaeology , having joined an excavation of Viroconium Cornoviorum , a Romano @-@ British settlement in Wroxeter , in 1913 . Considering a profession in the discipline , he won a studentship that had been established jointly by the University of London and the Society of Antiquaries in memory of Augustus Wollaston Franks . The prominent archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans doubled the amount of money that went with the studentship . Wheeler 's proposed project had been to analyse Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , and with the grant he funded a trip to the Rhineland in Germany , there studying the Roman pottery housed in local museums ; his research into this subject was never published .

At this period , there were very few jobs available within British archaeology ; as the later archaeologist Stuart Piggott related , " the young Wheeler was looking for a professional job where the profession had yet to be created . " In 1913 Wheeler secured a position as junior investigator for the English Royal Commission on Historical Monuments , who were embarking on a project to assess the state of all structures in the nation that pre @-@ dated 1714 . As part of this , he was first sent to Stebbing in Essex to assess Late Medieval buildings , although once that was accomplished he focused on studying the Romano @-@ British remains of that county . In summer 1914 he married Tessa in a low @-@ key , secular wedding ceremony , before they moved into Wheeler 's parental home in Herne Hill .

= = = First World War : 1914 – 18 = = =

After the United Kingdom 's entry into World War I in 1914 , Wheeler volunteered for the armed forces . Although preferring solitary to group activities , Wheeler found that he greatly enjoyed soldiering . For the next seven months , he was posted as an instructor in the University of London Officer Training Corps . It was during this period , in January 1915 , that a son was born to the Wheelers , and named Michael . Michael was their only child , something that was a social anomaly at the time , although it is unknown if this was by choice or not . In May 1915 , Wheeler transferred to the Royal Field Artillery ( Territorial Force ) and shortly thereafter was appointed captain . In this position he was stationed at various bases across Britain , often bringing his wife and child with him ; his responsibility was as a battery commander , initially of field guns and later of howitzers .

In October 1917 Wheeler was posted to the 76th Army Field Artillery Brigade , one of the Royal Field Artillery brigades under the direct control of the General Officer Commanding , Third Army . The brigade was then stationed in Belgium , where it had been engaged in the Battle of Passchendaele against German troops along the Western Front . There , he was immediately placed in command of an artillery battery , replacing a major who had been poisoned by mustard gas . Being promoted to the rank of acting major , he was part of the Left Group of artillery covering the advancing Allied infantry in the battle . Throughout , he maintained correspondences with his wife , his sister Amy , and his parents . After the Allied victory in the battle , the brigade was transferred to Italy .

Wheeler and the brigade arrived in Italy on 20 November , and proceeded through the Italian Riviera to reach Caporetto , where it had been sent to bolster the Italian troops against a German and Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . As the Russian Republic removed itself from the war , the German Army refocused its efforts on the Western Front , and so in March 1918 Wheeler 's brigade was ordered to leave Italy , getting a train from Castelfranco to Vieux Rouen in France . Back on the Western Front , the brigade was assigned to the 2nd Division , again part of Julian Byng 's Third Army , reaching a stable area of the front in April . Here , Wheeler was engaged in artillery fire for several months , before the British went on the offensive in August . On 24 August , in between the ruined villages of Achiet and Sapignies , he led an expedition which captured two German field guns while under heavy fire from a castle mound ; he was later awarded the Military Cross for this action . Wheeler continued as part of the British forces pushing westward until the German surrender in November 1918 . He was not demobilised for several months , instead being stationed at Pulheim in Germany until March ; during this time he wrote up his earlier research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , making use of access to local museums , before returning to London in July 1919 .

= = Career = =

= = = National Museum of Wales : 1919 – 26 = = =

On returning to London , Wheeler moved into a top @-@ floor flat near Gordon Square with his wife and child . He returned to working for the Royal Commission , examining and cataloguing the historic structures of Essex . In doing so , he produced his first publication , an academic paper on Colchester 's Roman Balkerne Gate which was published in the Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society in 1920 . He soon followed this with two papers in the Journal of Roman Studies ; the first offered a wider analysis of Roman Colchester , while the latter outlined his discovery of the vaulting for the city 's Temple of Claudius which was destroyed by Boudica 's revolt . In doing so , he developed a reputation as a Roman archaeologist in Britain . He then submitted his research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pots to the University of London , on the basis of which he was awarded his Doctorate of Letters ; thenceforth until his knighthood he styled himself as Dr Wheeler . He was unsatisfied with his job in the Commission , unhappy that he was receiving less pay and a lower status than he had had in the army , and so began to seek out alternative employment .

He obtained a post as the Keeper of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales , a job that also entailed becoming a lecturer in archaeology at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire . Taking up this position , he moved to Cardiff with his family in August 1920 , although he initially disliked the city . The museum was in disarray ; prior to the war , construction had begun on a new purpose @-@ built building to house the collections . This had ceased during the conflict and the edifice was left abandoned during Cardiff 's post @-@ war economic slump . Wheeler recognised that Wales was very divided regionally , with many Welsh people having little loyalty to Cardiff ; thus , he made a point of touring the country , lecturing to local societies about archaeology . According to the later archaeologist Lydia C. Carr , the Wheelers ' work for the cause of the museum was part of a wider " cultural @-@ nationalist movement " linked to growing Welsh nationalism during this period ; for instance , the Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru was founded in 1925 .

Wheeler was impatient to start excavations , and in July 1921 started a six @-@ week project to excavate at the Roman fort of Segontium ; accompanied by his wife , he used up his holiday to oversee the project . A second season of excavation at the site followed in 1922 . Greatly influenced by the writings of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , Wheeler emphasised the need for a strong , developed methodology when undertaking an archaeological excavation , believing in the need for strategic planning , or what he termed " controlled discovery " , with clear objectives in mind for a project . Further emphasising the importance of prompt publication of research results , he wrote full seasonal reports for Archaeologia Cambrensis before publishing a full report , Segontium and the Roman Occupation of Wales . Wheeler was keen on training new generations of archaeologists , and two of the most prominent students to excavate with him at Segontium were Victor Nash @-@ Williams and Ian Richmond .

Over the field seasons of 1924 and 1925 , Wheeler ran excavations of the Roman fort of Y Gaer near Brecon , a project aided by his wife and two archaeological students , Nowell Myres and Christopher Hawkes . During this project , he was visited by the prominent Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie and his wife Hilda Petrie ; Wheeler greatly admired Petrie 's emphasis on strong archaeological methodologies . Wheeler published the results of his excavation in The Roman Fort Near Brecon . He then began excavations at Isca Augusta , a Roman site in Caerleon , where he focused on revealing the Roman amphitheatre . Intent on attracting press attention to both raise public awareness of archaeology and attract new sources of funding , he contacted the press and organised a sponsorship of the excavation by the middle @-@ market newspaper the Daily Mail . In doing so , he emphasised the folkloric and legendary associations that the site had with King Arthur . In 1925 , Oxford University Press published Wheeler 's first book for a general audience , Prehistoric and Roman Wales ; he later expressed the opinion that it was not a good book .

In 1924 , the Director of the National Museum of Wales , William Evans Hoyle , resigned amid ill health . Wheeler applied to take on the role of his replacement , providing supportive testimonials from Charles Reed Peers , Robert Bosanquet , and H. J. Fleure . Although he had no prior museum experience , he was successful in his application and was appointed Director . He then employed a close friend , Cyril Fox , to take on the vacated position of Keeper of Archaeology . Wheeler 's proposed reforms included extending the institution 's reach and influence throughout Wales by building affiliations with regional museums , and focusing on fundraising to finance the completion of the new museum premises . He obtained a £ 21 @,@ 367 donation from the wealthy shipowner William Reardon Smith and appointed Smith to be the museum 's treasurer , and also travelled to Whitehall , London , where he successfully urged the British Treasury to provide further funding for the museum . As a result , construction on the museum 's new building was able to continue , and it was officially opened by King George V in 1927 .

= = = London Museum : 1926 – 33 = = =

Upon the retirement of the Keeper of the London Museum , Harmon Oates , Wheeler was invited to fill the vacancy . He had been considering a return to London for some time and eagerly agreed , taking on the post , which was based at Lancaster House in the St James 's area , in July 1926 . In Wales , many felt that Wheeler had simply taken the directorship of the National Museum to advance his own career prospects , and that he had abandoned them when a better offer came along . Wheeler himself disagreed , believing that he had left Fox at the Museum as his obvious successor , and that the reforms he had implemented would therefore continue . The position initially provided Wheeler with an annual salary of £ 600 , which resulted in a decline in living standards for his family , who moved into a flat near to Victoria Station .

Tessa 's biographer L.C. Carr later commented that together , the Wheelers " professionalized the London Museum " . Wheeler expressed his opinion that the museum " had to be cleaned , expurgated , and catalogued ; in general , turned from a junk shop into a tolerably rational institution " . Focusing on reorganising the exhibits and developing a more efficient method of cataloguing the artefacts , he also authored A Short Guide to the Collections , before using the items in the museum to write three books : London and the Vikings , London and the Saxons , and London and the Romans . Upon his arrival , the Treasury allocated the museum an annual budget of £ 5 @,@ 000 , which Wheeler deemed insufficient for its needs . In 1930 , Wheeler persuaded them to increase that budget , as he highlighted increasing visitor numbers , publications , and acquisitions , as well as a rise in the number of educational projects . With this additional funding , he was able to employ more staff and increase his own annual salary to £ 900 .

Soon after joining the museum , Wheeler was elected to the council of the Society of Antiquaries . Through the Society , he became involved in the debate as to who should finance archaeological supervision of building projects in Greater London ; his argument was that the City of London Corporation should provide the funding , although in 1926 it was agreed that the Society itself would employ a director of excavation based in Lancaster House to take on the position . Also involved in the largely moribund Royal Archaeological Institute , Wheeler organised its relocation to Lancaster House . In 1927 , Wheeler took on an unpaid lectureship at University College London , where he established a graduate diploma course on archaeology ; one of the first to enroll was Stuart Piggott . In 1928 , Wheeler curated an exhibit at UCL on " Recent Work in British Archaeology " , for which he attracted much press attention .

Wheeler was keen to continue archaeological fieldwork outside London , undertaking excavations every year from 1926 to 1939 . After completing his excavation of the Carlaeon amphitheatre in 1928 , he began fieldwork at the Roman settlement and temple in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , having been invited to do so by the aristocratic landowner , Charles Bathurst . It was during these investigations that Wheeler personally discovered the Lydney Hoard of coinage . Wheeler and his wife jointly published their excavation report in 1932 as Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric , Roman and Post @-@ Roman Site in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , which Piggott noted had " set the pattern " for all Wheeler 's future excavation reports .

From there , Wheeler was invited to direct a Society of Antiquaries excavation at the Roman settlement of Verulamium , which existed on land recently acquired by the Corporation of St Albans . He took on this role for four seasons from 1930 to 1933 , before leaving a fifth season of excavation under the control of the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon and the architect A. W. G. Lowther . Wheeler enjoyed the opportunity to excavate at a civilian as opposed to military site , and also liked its proximity to his home in London . He was particularly interested in searching for a pre @-@ Roman Iron Age oppidum at the site , noting that the existence of a nearby Catuvellauni settlement was attested to in both classical texts and numismatic evidence . With Wheeler focusing his attention on potential Iron Age evidence , Tessa concentrated on excavating the inside of the city walls ; Wheeler had affairs with at least three assistants during the project . After Tessa wrote two interim reports , the final excavation report was finally published in 1936 as Verulamium : A Belgic and Two Roman Cities , jointly written by Wheeler and his wife . The report resulted in the first major published criticism of Wheeler , produced by the young archaeologist Nowell Myres in a review for Antiquity ; although stating that there was much to praise about the work , he critiqued Wheeler 's selective excavation , dubious dating , and guesswork . Wheeler responded with a piece in which he defended his work and launched a personal attack on both Myres and Myres 's employer , Christ Church , Oxford .

= = = Institute of Archaeology : 1934 – 39 = = =

Wheeler had long desired to establish an academic institution devoted to archaeology that could be based in London . He hoped that it could become a centre in which to establish the professionalisation of archaeology as a discipline , with systematic training of students in methodological techniques of excavation and conservation and recognised professional standards ; in his words , he hoped " to convert archaeology into a discipline worthy of that name in all senses " . He further described his intention that the Institute should become " a laboratory : a laboratory of archaeological science " . Many archaeologists shared his hopes , and to this end Petrie had donated much of his collection of Near Eastern artefacts to Wheeler , in the hope that it would be included in such an institution . Wheeler was later able to persuade the University of London , a federation of institutions across the capital , to support the venture , and both he and Tessa began raising funds from wealthy backers . In 1934 , the Institute of Archaeology was officially opened , albeit at this point without premises or academic staff ; the first students to enroll were Rachel Clay and Barbara Parker , who went on to have careers in the discipline . While Wheeler – who was still Keeper of the London Museum – took on the role of Honorary Director of the Institute , he installed the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon as secretary of the Management Committee , describing her as " a level @-@ headed person , with useful experience " .

After ending his work at Verulamium , Wheeler turned his attention to the late Iron Age hill @-@ fort of Maidan Castle near to Dorchester , Dorset , where he excavated for four seasons from 1934 to 1937 . Co @-@ directed by Wheeler , Tessa , and the Curator of Dorset County Museum , Charles Drew , the project was carried out under the joint auspices of the Society of Antiquaries and the Dorset Field Club . With around 100 assistants each season , the dig constituted the largest excavation that had been conducted in Britain up to that point , with Wheeler organising weekly meetings with the press to inform them about any discoveries . His excavation report was published in 1943 as Maidan Castle , Dorset . The report 's publication allowed further criticism to be voiced of Wheeler 's approach and interpretations ; in his review of the book , the archaeologist W. F. Grimes criticised the highly selective nature of the excavation , noting that Wheeler had not asked questions regarding the socio @-@ economic issues of the community at Maidan Castle , aspects of past societies that had come to be of increasing interest to British archaeology . Over coming decades , as further excavations were carried out at the site and archaeologists developed a greater knowledge of Iron Age Britain , much of Wheeler 's interpretation of the site and its development was shown to be wrong , in particular by the work of the archaeologist Niall Sharples .

In 1936 , Wheeler embarked on a visit to the Near East , sailing from Marseilles to Port Said , where he visited the Old Kingdom tombs of Sakkara . From there he went via Sinai to Palestine , Lebanon , and Syria . During this trip , he visited various archaeological projects , but was dismayed by the quality of their excavations ; in particular , he noted that the American @-@ run excavation at Tel Megiddo was adopting standards that had been rejected in Britain twenty @-@ five years previously . He was away for six weeks , and upon his return to Europe discovered that his wife Tessa had died of a pulmonary embolism after a minor operation on her toe . According to Tessa 's biographer , for Wheeler this discovery was " the peak of mental misery , and marked the end of his ability to feel a certain kind of love " . That winter , his father also died . By the summer of 1937 , he had embarked on a new romance , with a young woman named Mavis de Vere Cole , who had first met Wheeler when visiting the Maidan Castle excavations with her then @-@ lover , the painter Augustus John . After she eventually agreed to his repeated requests for marriage , the two were wedded early in 1939 in a ceremony held at Caxton Hall , with a reception at Shelley House . They proceeded on a honeymoon to the Middle East .

After a search that had taken several years , Wheeler was able to secure a premises for the Institute of Archaeology : St. John 's Lodge in Regent 's Park , central London . Left empty since its use as a hospital during the First World War , the building was owned by the Crown and was controlled by the First Commissioner of Works , William Ormsby @-@ Gore ; he was very sympathetic to archaeology , and leased the building to the Institute at a low rent . The St. John 's Lodge premises were officially opened on 29 April 1937 . During his speech at the ceremony , the University of London 's Vice @-@ Chancellor Charles Reed Peers made it clear that the building was only intended as a temporary home for the Institute , which it was hoped would be able to move to Bloomsbury , the city 's academic hub . In his speech , the university 's Chancellor , Alexander Cambridge , 1st Earl of Athlone , compared the new institution to both the Institute of Historical Research and the Courtauld Institute of Art .

Wheeler had also become President of the Museums Association , and in a presidential address given in Belfast talked on the topic of preserving museum collections in war time , believing that Britain 's involvement in a second European conflict was imminent . In anticipation of this event , in August 1939 he arranged for the London Museum to place many of its most important collections into safe keeping . He was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Bristol University , and at the award ceremony met the Conservative Party politician Winston Churchill , who was then engaged in writing his multi @-@ volume A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples ; Churchill asked Wheeler to aid him in writing about late prehistoric and early medieval Britain , to which the latter agreed .

After Maidan Castle , Wheeler turned his attention to France , where the archaeological investigation of Iron Age sites had lagged behind developments in Britain . There , he oversaw a series of surveys and excavations with the aid of Leslie Scott , beginning with a survey tour of Brittany in the winter of 1936 – 37 . After this , Wheeler decided to excavate the oppidum at Camp d 'Artus , near Huelgoat , Finistère . In addition to bringing many British archaeologists to work on the site , he hired six local Breton workmen to assist the project , coming to the belief that the oppidum had been erected by local Iron Age tribes to defend themselves from the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar . Meanwhile , Scott had been placed in charge of an excavation at the smaller nearby hill fort of Kercaradec , near Quimper . In July 1939 , the project focused its attention on Normandy , with excavations beginning at the Iron Age hill forts of Camp de Canada and Duclair . They were brought to an abrupt halt in September 1939 as the Second World War broke out in Europe , and the team evacuated back to Britain . Wheeler 's excavation report , co @-@ written with Katherine Richardson , was eventually published as Hill @-@ forts of Northern France in 1957 .

= = = Second World War : 1939 – 45 = = =

Wheeler had been expecting and openly hoping for war with Nazi Germany for a year prior to the outbreak of hostilities ; he believed that the United Kingdom 's involvement in the conflict would remedy the shame that he thought had been brought upon the country by its signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938 . Volunteering for the armed services , he was assigned to assemble the 48th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery at Enfield , where he set about recruiting volunteers , including his son . As the 48th swelled in size , it was converted into the 42nd Mobile Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in the Royal Artillery , which consisted of four batteries and was led by Wheeler – now promoted to the rank of colonel – as Commanding Officer . Given the nickname of " Flash Alf " by those serving under him , he was recognised by colleagues as a ruthless disciplinarian and was blamed by many for the death of one of his soldiers from influenza during training . Having been appointed secretary of the Society of Antiquaries in 1939 and then director in 1940 , he travelled to London to deal with society affairs on various occasions . In 1941 Wheeler was awarded a Fellowship of the British Academy . Cole had meanwhile entered into an affair with a man named Clive Entwistle , who lambasted Wheeler as " that whiskered baboon " . When Wheeler discovered Entwistle in bed with his wife , he initiated divorce proceedings that were finalised in March 1942 .

In the summer of 1941 , Wheeler and three of his batteries were assigned to fight against German and Italian forces in the North African Campaign . In September , they set sail from Glasgow aboard the RMS Empress of Russia ; because the Mediterranean was controlled largely by enemy naval forces , they were forced to travel via the Cape of Good Hope , before taking shore leave in Durban . There , Wheeler visited the local kraals to compare them with the settlements of Iron Age Britain . The ship docked in Aden , where Wheeler and his men again took shore leave . They soon reached the British @-@ controlled Suez , where they disembarked and were stationed on the shores of the Great Bitter Lake . There , Wheeler took a brief leave of absence to travel to Jerusalem , where he visited Petrie on his hospital deathbed . Back in Egypt , he gained permission to fly as a front gunner in a Wellington bomber on a bombing raid against Axis forces , to better understand what it was like for aircrew to be fired on by an anti @-@ aircraft battery .

Serving with the Eighth Army , Wheeler was present in North Africa when the Axis armies pushed the Allies back to El Alamein . He was also part of the Allied counter @-@ push , taking part in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance on Axis @-@ held Tripoli . On the way he became concerned that the archaeological sites of North Africa were being threatened both by the fighting and the occupying forces . After the British secured control of Libya , Wheeler visited Tripoli and Leptis Magna , where he found that Roman remains had been damaged and vandalised by British troops ; he brought about reforms to prevent this , lecturing to the troops on the importance of preserving archaeology , making many monuments out @-@ of @-@ bounds , and ensuring that the Royal Air Force changed its plans to construct a radar station in the midst of a Roman settlement . Aware that the British were planning to invade and occupy the Italian island of Sicily , he insisted that measures be introduced to preserve the historic and archaeological monuments on the island .

Promoted to the rank of brigadier , after the German surrender in North Africa , Wheeler was sent to Algiers where he was part of the staff committee planning the invasion of Italy . There , he learned that the India Office had requested that the army relieve him of his duties to permit him to be appointed Director General of Archaeology in India . Although he had never been to the country , he agreed that he would take the job on the condition that he be permitted to take part in the invasion of Italy first . As intended , Wheeler and his 12th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade then took part in the invasion of Sicily and then mainland Italy , where they were ordered to use their anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect the British 10th Corps . As the Allies advanced north through Italy , Wheeler spent time in Naples and then Capri , where he met various aristocrats who had anti @-@ fascist sympathies .

Wheeler left Italy in November 1943 and returned to London . There , he resigned as the director of the London Museum and focused on organising the Institute of Archaeology , preparing it for its adoption of a new director , V. Gordon Childe , after the war . He also resigned as director of the Society of Antiquaries , but was appointed the group 's representative to the newly formed Council for British Archaeology . He developed a relationship with a woman named Kim Collingridge , and asked her to marry him . As she was a devout Roman Catholic , he officially converted to the religion , something which shocked many of his friends , who believed that he was being dishonest because he did not genuinely believe in the doctrines of the faith . He then set sail for Bombay aboard a transport ship , the City of Exeter , in February 1944 .

= = = Archaeological Survey of India : 1944 – 48 = = =

Wheeler arrived in Bombay in the spring of 1944 . There , he was welcomed by the city 's governor , John Colville , before heading by train to Delhi and then Simla , where the headquarters of the Archaeological Survey of India were located . Wheeler had been suggested for the job by Archibald Wavell , the Viceroy of India , who had been acting on the recommendations of the archaeologist Leonard Woolley , who had authored a report lamenting the state of the archaeological establishment in the British @-@ controlled subcontinent . Wheeler recognised this state of affairs , in a letter to a friend complaining about the lack of finances and equipment , commenting that " We 're back in 1850 " . He initially found much to dislike in India , and in his letters to friends in Britain expressed derogatory and racist sentiments toward Indians : he stated that " they feed wrongly and think wrongly and live wrongly ... I already find myself regarding them as ill @-@ made clockwork toys rather than as human beings , and I find myself bullying them most brutally . " He expelled those staff members whom he deemed too idle , and physically beat others in an attempt to motivate them .

From the beginning of his tenure , he sought to distance himself from previous Director @-@ Generals and their administrations by criticising them in print and attempting to introduce new staff who had no loyalty to his predecessors . Assigned with a four @-@ year contract , Wheeler attempted to recruit two archaeologists from Britain , Glyn Daniel and Stuart Piggott , to aid him in reforming the Archaeological Survey , although they declined the offer . He then toured the subcontinent , seeking to meet all of the Survey 's staff members . He had drawn up a prospectus containing research questions that he wanted the Survey to focus on ; these included understanding the period between the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and the Achaemenid Empire , discerning the socio @-@ cultural background to the Vedas , dating the Aryan invasion , and establishing a dating system for southern India prior to the sixth century CE . During his time in office he also achieved a 25 per cent budget increase for the Archaeological Survey , and convinced the government to agree to the construction of a National Museum of Archaeology , to be built in New Delhi .

In October 1944 , he opened his six @-@ month archaeological field school in Taxila , where he instructed various students from across India in the methodologies of the discipline . Wheeler became very fond of his students , with one of them , B. B. Lal , later commenting that " behind the gruff exterior , Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart " . Throughout his period in India , his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed ; more widely , he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness , incompetence and corruption of Indian society . Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent , Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization . On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa , he organised a very brief excavation which revealed fortifications around both settlements . He later led a more detailed excavation at Harappa , where he exposed further fortifications and established a stratigraphy for the settlement .

Turning his attention to southern India , Wheeler discovered remnants of a Roman amphora in a museum , and began excavations at Arikamedu , revealing a port from the first century CE which had traded in goods from the Roman Empire . The excavation had been plagued by severe rains and tropical heat , although it was during the excavation that World War II ended ; in celebration , Wheeler gave all his workers an extra rupee for the day . It has since been alleged that while Wheeler took credit for discovering the significance of this site , it had previously been established by A. Aiyappan , the Superintendent of the Government Museum in Madras , and the French archaeologist Jouveau Dubreuil , with Wheeler intentionally ignoring their contribution . He later undertook excavations of six megalithic tombs in Brahmagiri , Mysore , which enabled him to gain a chronology for the archaeology of much of southern India .

Wheeler established a new archaeological journal , Ancient India , planning for it to be published twice a year . He had trouble securing printing paper and faced various delays ; the first issue was released in January 1946 , and he would release three further volumes during his stay . Wheeler married Kim Collingridge in Simla , before he and his wife took part in an Indian Cultural Mission to Iran . The Indian government had deemed Wheeler ideal to lead the group , which departed via train to Zahidan before visiting Persepolis , Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , Pasargadae , and Kashan . Wheeler enjoyed the trip , and was envious of Tehran 's archaeological museum and library , which was far in advance of anything then found in India . Crossing into Iraq , in Baghdad the team caught a flight back to Delhi . In 1946 , he was involved in a second cultural mission , this time to Afghanistan , where he expressed a particular interest in the kingdom of ancient Bactria and visited the archaeology of Balkh .

Wheeler was present during the 1947 Partition of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India and the accompanying ethnic violence between Hindu and Muslim communities . He was unhappy with how these events had affected the Archaeological Survey , complaining that some of his finest students and staff were now citizens of Pakistan and no longer able to work for him . He was based in New Delhi when the city was rocked by sectarian violence , and attempted to help many of his Muslim staff members escape from the Hindu @-@ majority city unharmed . He further helped smuggle Muslim families out of the city hospital , where they had taken refuge from a violent Hindu mob . As India neared independence from the British Empire , the political situation had changed significantly ; by October 1947 he was one of the last British individuals in a high @-@ up position within the country 's governing establishment , and recognised that many Indian nationalists wanted him to also leave .

As their relationship had become increasingly strained , his wife had left and returned to Britain . Although hoping to leave his post in India several months early , he was concerned for his economic prospects , and desperately searched for a new job position . Through friends in the British archaeological community , he was offered a job as the Secretary of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments for Wales , although he was upset that this would mean a drop in his professional status and income and decided to turn it down . Instead , he agreed to take up a chair in the Archaeology of the Roman Provinces at the Institute of Archaeology . In addition , the Pakistani Minister of Education invited him to become the Archaeological Adviser to the Pakistani government ; he agreed to also take up this position , on the condition that he would only spend several months in the country each year over the next three .

= = Later life = =

= = = Between Britain and Pakistan : 1948 – 52 = = =

Returning to London , Wheeler moved into the Hallam Street flat where his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law were living . Wheeler and the latter disliked each other , and so in summer 1950 he moved out and began renting an apartment in Mount Street . A year later he moved into his wife 's house in Mallord Street , in an unsuccessful hope of reigniting their relationship . Taking up his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology , he began to lecture to students almost every day . There , he found that he developed a relationship of mutual respect with the director , Childe , despite their strong personal and professional differences . In April 1949 , after the retirement of Cyril Fox , Wheeler was nominated for the Presidency of the Society of Antiquaries , but lost to James Mann ; many archaeologists , including Childe and O. G. S. Crawford , resigned from the Society in protest , deeming Wheeler to have been a far more appropriate candidate for the position . Wheeler was nevertheless elected director of the Society . In 1950 he was awarded the Petrie Medal , and in 1952 was knighted . That same year he was invited to give the Norton lectures for the Archaeological Institute of America , and while in the United States was also awarded the Lucy Wharton Drexel medal at Pennsylvania . He nevertheless disliked the country , and in later life exhibited anti @-@ Americanism .

Wheeler spent three months in Pakistan during early 1949 , where he was engaged in organising the fledgling Pakistani Archaeological Department with the aid of former members of the Archaeological Survey and new students whom he recruited . The Minister of Education , Fazlur Rahman , was sympathetic to Wheeler 's plans , and the government agreed to establish a National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi , which opened in April 1950 . Wheeler himself was appointed the first President of the Pakistani Museums Association , and found himself as a mediator in the arguments between India and Pakistan over the redistribution of archaeological and historic artefacts following the partition . He also wrote a work of archaeological propaganda for the newly formed state , Five Thousand Years of Pakistan ( 1950 ) .

To instruct new Pakistani students in the methods of archaeology , in early 1950 Wheeler ran a training excavation at Mohenjo @-@ daro ; there , he was joined by the British student Leslie Alcock , who spoke both Punjabi and Urdu and who was appointed a site supervisor by Wheeler . This excavation proved to be the only one for which Wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . Instead , he made reference to its findings in his book The Indus Civilization , published as part of the series The Cambridge History of India . His relationship with the Pakistani government had become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year .

Wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in Britain . Based on the one he had organised in India , Wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at Verulamium in the summer of 1949 to instruct British students in the methodologies of excavation . In summer 1950 , he was invited by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments to direct a trial excavation at Bindon Hill in Dorset . It was a leisurely project which he treated as a seaside holiday . He was invited by the Ancient Monuments Department of the Ministry of Works to excavate the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications in North Riding , Yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . Aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the British archaeological scene , he was joined by Alcock and Alcock 's wife , among others . Wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 .

In 1949 Wheeler was appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy after Frederic G. Kenyon stepped down from the position . According to Piggott , the institution had " unhappily drifted into senility without the excuse of being venerable " , and Wheeler devoted much time attempting to revitalise the organisation and ensured that Charles Webster was appointed President . Together , Wheeler and Webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the Academy , increasing the number of Fellows who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation 's council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and though defeated in 1951 , Wheeler and Webster were able to push it through in 1952 . In doing so , Piggott stated , Wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @-@ perpetuating gerontocracy " . To aid him in these projects , Wheeler employed a personal assistant , Molly Myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life .

= = = Popular fame : 1952 – 69 = = =

In 1956 , Wheeler retired from his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology . Childe was also retiring from his position of director that year , and Wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . Wheeler vocally opposed the nomination of W.F. Grimes , deeming his career undistinguished ; instead , he championed Glyn Daniel as a candidate , although ultimately Grimes was selected . That year , Wheeler 's marriage broke down , and he moved from his wife 's house to a former brothel at 27 Whitcomb Street in central London . From 1954 to 1959 , he served as the President of the Society of Antiquaries , and after resigning supported Ian Richmond as his replacement ; however , Joan Evans was selected . From 1964 to 1966 he served as Chairman of the Ancient Monuments Board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old for the role . In December 1963 , Wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospitalised for over a month . In November 1967 , Wheeler became a Companion of Honour , and in 1968 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society .

= = = = Media fame and public archaeology = = = =

Wheeler became famous in Britain as " the embodiment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . In 1952 , Wheeler was invited to be a panelist on the new BBC television series , Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? . Based on the American quiz programme What in the World ? , the show was hosted by Glyn Daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which had been selected from various museums . However , Wheeler is alleged to have prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects had been temporarily removed from display . The show proved popular with British audiences , and would air for six more years . It brought Wheeler to public attention , resulting in a Television Personality of the Year award for him in 1954 . He also appeared in an episode of Buried Treasure , an archaeology show also hosted by Daniel , in which the pair travelled to Denmark to discuss Tollund Man . In 1957 , he appeared in a second episode of Buried Treasure , for which he travelled to Pakistan to discuss that nation 's archaeology , and in 1958 again appeared in an episode , this time on the site of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Rhodesia . In 1959 he presented his own three @-@ part series on The Grandeur That Was Rome , for which he travelled to Hadrian 's Wall , Pompeii , and Leptis Magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was Wheeler 's last major foray into television . Meanwhile , he also made appearances on BBC radio , initially featuring on the John Irving series The Archaeologist , but later presenting his own eight @-@ part series on Roman Britain and also appearing on the series Asian Club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the Indian subcontinent .

From 1954 onward , Wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . Oxford University Press also published two of his books in 1954 . The first was a book on archaeological methodologies , Archaeology from the Earth , which was translated into various languages . The second was Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier , discussing evidence for Roman activity at sites like Arikamedu and Segontium . In 1955 Wheeler released his episodic autobiography , Still Digging , which had sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . In 1959 , Wheeler wrote Early India and Pakistan , which was published as part as Daniel 's " Ancient Peoples and Places " series for Thames and Hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions .

He authored the section entitled " Ancient India " for Piggott 's edited volume The Dawn of Civilisation , which was published by Thames and Hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for Roger Wood 's photography book Roman Africa in Colour , which was also published by Thames and Hudson . He then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " New Aspects of Antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . The rival publisher Weidenfeld & Nicolson had also persuaded Wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , Splendours of the East . They also published his 1968 book Flames Over Persopolis , in which Wheeler discussed Persopolis and the Persian Empire in the year that it was conquered by Alexander the Great .

In 1954 , the tour company R.K. Swan invited Wheeler to provide lectures on the archaeology of ancient Greece aboard their Hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . In 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent for the rival tour company Fairways and Swinford . After Swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their Hellenic Cruise division , he made two fortnight tours a year , in spring and summer . In late 1969 he conducted the Swans tour to the Indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as Ceylon . During this period , Wheeler had kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in India and Pakistan , helping to secure them work and funding where possible .

Wheeler had continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the Somme and Pas de Calais where he sought to obtain more information on the French Iron Age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . Pakistan 's Ministry of Education invited Wheeler to return to their country in October 1956 . Here , he undertook test excavations at Charsada to determine a chronology of the site . In 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of President of the Camelot Research Committee , which had been established to promote the findings of excavations at Cadbury Castle in Somerset run by his friends Ralegh Radford and Alcock ; the project ended in 1970 . He also agreed to sit as Chairman of the Archaeological Committee overseeing excavations at York Minster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . Wheeler had also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . While he had become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocally criticising the British Museum as " a mountainous corpse " , lambasting it as being poorly managed and overcrowded with artefacts . The BBC staged a public debate with the museum director Frank Francis .

= = = = British Academy and UNESCO = = = =

As Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , Wheeler focused on increasing the organisation 's revenues , thus enabling it to expand its remit . He developed personal relationships with various employees at the British Treasury , and offered the Academy 's services as an intermediary in dealing with the Egypt Exploration Society , the British School at Athens , the British School at Rome , the British School at Ankara , the British School in Iraq , and the British School at Jerusalem , all of which were then directly funded independently by the Treasury . Accepting this offer , the Treasury agreed to double its funding of the Academy to £ 5 @,@ 000 a year . Approaching various charitable foundations , from 1955 Wheeler also secured funding from both the Pilgrim Trust and the Nuffield Foundation , and in 1957 then secured additional funding from the Rockefeller Foundation .

With this additional money , the Academy was able to organise a survey of the state of the humanities and social sciences in the United Kingdom , authoring a report that was published by Oxford University Press in 1961 as Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences . On the basis of this report , Wheeler was able to secure a dramatic rise in funding from the British Treasury ; they increased their annual grant to £ 25 @,@ 000 , and promised that this would increase to £ 50 @,@ 000 shortly after . According to his later biographer Jacquetta Hawkes , in doing so Wheeler raised the position of the Academy to that of " the main source of official patronage for the humanities " within the United Kingdom , while Piggott stated that he set the organisation upon its " modern course " .

To improve Britain 's cultural influence abroad , Wheeler had been urging the establishment of a British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa , touring East Africa itself in August 1955 . In 1956 the Academy requested £ 6 @,@ 000 from the Treasury to fund this new institution , to which they eventually agreed in 1959 . The Institute was initially established in Dar es Salaam in 1961 , although later relocated to Nairobi . Meanwhile , Wheeler had also been campaigning for the establishment of a British Institute of Persian Studies , a project which was supported by the British Embassy in Tehran ; they hoped that it would rival the successful French Institute in the city . In 1960 , the Treasury agreed , with the new institution being housed on the premises of the University of Tehran . He further campaigned for the establishment of a British Institute in Japan , although these ideas were scrapped amid the British financial crisis of 1967 .

Wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these British institutions abroad ; in 1967 he visited the British School in Jerusalem amid the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours , and in January 1968 visited the Persian institute with the archaeologist Max Mallowan and Mallowan 's wife Agatha Christie , there inspecting the excavations at Siraf . In 1969 he proceeded to the Italian city of Rome to inspect the British School there . That year , he resigned as Honorary Secretary of the Academy . The position became a salaried , professional one , with the numismatist Derek Allen taking on the position .

Recognising his stature within the archaeological establishment , the government appointed Wheeler as the British representative on a UNESCO project to undertake a programme of rescue archaeology in the Nile Valley ahead of the construction of the Aswan Dam , which was going to flood large areas of Egypt and Sudan . Personally securing UK funding for the project , he deemed it an issue of national and personal shame when he was unable to persuade the British government to supply additional funding for the relocation of the Abu Simbel temples . In October 1968 , he took part in a UNESCO visit to Pakistan to assess the state of Mohenjo @-@ daro , writing the project 's report on how the archaeological site could best be preserved . His involvement with UNESCO continued for the rest of his life , and in March 1973 he was invited to the organisation 's conference in Paris .

= = = Final years : 1970 – 76 = = =

During his final years , Wheeler remained involved in various activities , for instance sitting on the advisory panel of the Antiquity journal and the Management Committee of the Royal Archaeological Institute . In March 1971 , the archaeologist Barry Cunliffe and a number of his undergraduate students at the University of Southampton organised a conference on the subject of " The Iron Age and its Hillforts " to celebrate Wheeler 's eightieth birthday . Wheeler attended the event , whose conference proceedings were published as a festschrift for the octogenarian . In spring 1973 , Wheeler returned to BBC television for two episodes of the archaeology @-@ themed series Chronicle in which he discussed his life and career . The episodes were well received , and Wheeler became a close friend of the show 's producer , David Collison .

In the 1970s , Wheeler became increasingly forgetful and came to rely largely on his assistant , Molly Myres , to organise his affairs . Amid increasing ill health , in September 1973 he moved full @-@ time into Myres 's house in Leatherhead , Surrey , although he continued to use his central London flat during day @-@ trips to the city . There , he authored a final book , My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan , although much of the text was culled from his previous publications ; it was published by Thames and Hudson in 1976 . After suffering a stroke , Wheeler died at Myers ' home on 22 July 1976 . In memoriam , the British Academy , Royal Academy , and Royal Society flew their flags at half @-@ mast . Wheeler 's funeral was held with military trappings at a local crematorium , while a larger memorial service was held in St James 's Church , Piccadilly in November .

= = Personal life = =

Wheeler was known as " Rik " among friends . He divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others despising him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . The archaeologist Max Mallowan asserted that he " was a delightful , light @-@ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . His charm offensives were often condemned as being insincere . During excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to his authority . Hence , he has been termed " a benevolent dictator " . He was meticulous in his writings , and would repeatedly revise and rewrite both pieces for publication and personal letters . Throughout his life , he was a heavy smoker .

Wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . Despite not taking a strong interest in politics , Wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the Suffragettes and their cause of greater legal rights for women . Nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " , something that may have been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . He expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties .

Wheeler was married three times . In May 1914 , Wheeler married Tessa Verney . Tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . Their only child , a son Michael , was born in January 1915 ; he became a barrister . Following Tessa 's death , in 1939 , Wheeler married Mavis de Vere Cole , although their relationship was strained ; Cole 's diaries revealed that Wheeler physically hit her when she annoyed him . In 1945 Mortimer Wheeler married his third wife , Margaret " Kim " Collingridge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout Catholicism . Meanwhile , Wheeler was well known for his conspicuous promiscuity , favouring young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . He was further known for having casual sex in public places . This behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and mistresses , of which he was aware . As a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist Gabriel Moshenska informed a reporter from the Daily Mail that Wheeler had developed a reputation as " a bit of a groper and a sex pest and an incredible bully as well " .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Wheeler has been termed " the most famous British archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists Gabriel Moshenska and Tim Schadla @-@ Hall . Highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout British society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a showman 's willingness to package and sell the past " . This was an issue about which Wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society , the English archaeologist Stuart Piggott noted that Wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist 's obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . "

Piggott believed that Wheeler 's greatest impact was as " the great innovator in field techniques " , comparing him in this respect to Pitt @-@ Rivers . Piggott stated that the " importance of Wheeler 's contribution to archaeological technique , enormous and far @-@ reaching , lies in the fact that in the early 1920s he not only appreciated and understood what Pitt @-@ Rivers had done , but saw that his work could be used as a basis for adaptation , development and improvement . " L. C. Carr stated that it was for his methodological developments , oft termed " the Wheeler Method " , that Wheeler was best known ; in this she contrasted him with those archaeologists who were best known for their associations with a specific archaeological site , such as Arthur Evans and Knossos or Leonard Woolley and Ur .

Wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; Carr stated that both Wheeler and his first wife emphasised " technical rigour and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " Focusing on Wheeler 's publications regarding South Asian archaeology , Sudeshna Guha noted that he " produced an assemblage of image @-@ objects that embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " Mallowan noted that " Immediate and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was slipshod . " Jacquetta Hawkes commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was " sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . She asserted that while Wheeler was not an original thinker , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its widest significance . "

Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the autocratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and excavator . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of incisive strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist Dilip K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler had contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the Palaeolithic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for systematising and professionalising Indian archaeology and for " instituting a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . "

On Wheeler 's death , H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a cartoonish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty Morty " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . "

= = = Biographies and studies = = =

In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : Adventurer in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she had developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a daemonic energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social egalitarianism had stifled and condemned aspects of his greatness .

In the 2000 film Hey Ram , the lead character , Saket Ram ( played by Kamal Haasan ) and his friend , Amjad Khan ( played by Shah Rukh Khan ) are shown as employees of Wheeler , who was portrayed by Lewis K. Elbinger , before the 1947 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots . In a 2003 volume of the South Asian Studies journal , Sudeshna Gusha published a research article examining Wheeler 's use of photography in his excavations and publications in the Indian subcontinent . In 2011 , the academic journal Public Archaeology published a research paper by Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall that analysed Wheeler 's role in presenting archaeology to the British public . Two years later , the Papers from the Institute of Archaeology issued a short comic strip by Moshenska and Alex Salamunovich depicting Wheeler 's activities in studying the archaeology of Libya during World War II .

= Species of Allosaurus =

There have been a number of potential species assigned to the carnosaurian dinosaur genus Allosaurus since its description in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , but only a handful are still regarded as valid . Allosaurus was originally described from material from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States of America ; the type species A. fragilis became one of the best @-@ known species of dinosaur .

The genus Allosaurus was part of the Marsh / Cope " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by Cope and Marsh now regarded as synonyms of Allosaurus or A. fragilis . Since the description of Allosaurus , scientists have proposed additional species from such far @-@ flung locales as Portugal , Siberia , and Tanzania .

= = Query about type specimen = =

The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragillis ( catalogue number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists have noted that the type specimen , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragillis , is technically a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . In an attempt to fix this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name A. fragillis officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 ( as a neotype ) . This request is currently pending review .

= = Potentially valid species = =

It is unclear how many species of Allosaurus there were . Eight species have been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( A. amplexus , A. atrox , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , A. lucasi , A. maximus , and A. tendagurensis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . There are also at least ten dubious or undescribed species that have been assigned to Allosaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into Allosaurus . In the most recent review of basal tetanuran theropods , only A. fragilis ( including A. amplexus and A. atrox ) , " A. jimmadseni " ( as an unnamed species ) , and A. tendagurensis were accepted as potentially valid species , with A. europaeus not yet proposed and A. maximus assigned to Saurophaganax .

A. fragilis is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877 . It is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . Details of the humerus ( upper arm ) of A. fragilis have been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods , but the discovery of " A. jimmadseni " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level .

A. amplexus was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains , and included in his conception Saurophagus maximus ( later Saurophaganax ) . A. amplexus was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus Epanterias , and is based on what is now AMNH 5767 , parts of three vertebrae , a coracoid , and a metatarsal . Following Paul 's work , this species has been accepted as a synonym of A. fragilis .

Allosaurus material from Portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of MHNUL / AND.001 , a partial skeleton including a quadrate , vertebrae , ribs , gastralia , chevrons , part of the hips , and hindlimbs . This specimen was assigned to A. fragilis , but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck ( ML 415 ) near Lourinhã , in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation , spurred the naming of the new species A. europaeus . It differs from other species of Allosaurus in cranial details . However , more material may show it to be A. fragilis , as originally described .

Daniel Chure 's work on Morrison allosaurid remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for " A. jimmadseni " and A. maximus . " A. jimmadseni " is the proposed name for a new species of Morrison allosaur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . A. sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from A. fragilis in several anatomical details including a jugal or cheekbone with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation , with A. fragilis only present in the higher Brushy Basin Member . A. maximus was coined by David K. Smith for Chure 's Saurophaganax maximus , a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant allosaurid remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma . These remains had been known as Saurophagus , but that name was already in use , leading Chure to propose a substitute . Smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that S. maximus was not different enough from Allosaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , A. maximus . This reassignment was rejected in the most recent review of basal tetanurans .

= = Biological variation , A. atrox , and A. fragilis = =

The perception that there were two common Allosaurus species in the Morrison Formation was popularized in Gregory S. Paul 's 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Paul proposed that A. fragilis had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species A. atrox , and was not a different gender due to rarity . Allosaurus atrox was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , Creosaurus , and is based on YPM 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae , an illium , and ankle and foot bones . Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species has had support in semi @-@ technical and popular works , it has generally been rejected in the technical literature .

David K. Smith , examining Allosaurus fossils by quarry , found that the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry ( Utah ) specimens are generally smaller than those from Como Bluff ( Wyoming ) or Brigham Young University 's Dry Mesa Quarry ( Colorado ) , but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites . A later study by Smith incorporating Garden Park ( Colorado ) and Dinosaur National Monument ( Utah ) specimens found no justification for multiple species based on skeletal variation ; skull variation was most common and was gradational , suggesting individual variation was responsible . Further work on size @-@ related variation again found no consistent differences , although the Dry Mesa material tended to clump together on the basis of the astragalus , an ankle bone . Kenneth Carpenter , using skull elements from the Cleveland Lloyd site , found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @-@ level distinctions based such features as the shape of the horns , and the proposed differentiation of " A. jimmadseni " based on the shape of the jugal .

= = Invalid and synonymous species = =

A number of species assigned to Allosaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . Species " A. agilis " , seen in Zittel , 1887 , and Osborn , 1912 , is a typographical error for A. fragilis . Marsh 's A. ferox ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 Labrosaurus ferox , also part of Allosaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a footnote , and has been recognized as a specimen of A fragilis . A. lucaris , another Marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . He later decided it warranted its own genus , Labrosaurus , but this has not been accepted , and A. lucaris is also regarded as another specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus lucaris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with Allosaurus . Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , YPM 1931 , was from a younger age than Allosaurus , and might represent a different genus . However , they found that the specimen was undiagnostic , and thus A. lucaris was a nomen dubium . " A. whitei " , an informally described species coined by Pickering in 1996 , is a recasting of the A. atrox versus A. fragilis debate using a better specimen to represent the A. atrox form , and has not been recognized .

Several species coined in genera other than Allosaurus are also now thought to be synonymous with A. fragilis . Labrosaurus ferox was named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . It is recognized as most likely a specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus valens is a typo for Antrodemus valens accidentally used by Friedrich von Huene in 1932 ; Antrodemus valens itself may also pertain to Allosaurus fragilis , as Gilmore suggested in 1920 . Apatodon mirus , based on a scrap of vertebra Marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw , may or may not be the same as Allosaurus .

= = Misassigned species = =

Several species initially classified within or referred to Allosaurus do not belong within the genus . A. medius was named by Marsh in 1888 for " various specimens " from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland , although most of the remains were removed by Richard Swann Lull to the new ornithopod species Dryosaurus grandis , except for a tooth . Gilmore considered the tooth nondiagnostic but transferred it to a new species , Dryptosaurus medius . The referral was not accepted in the most recent review , and Allosaurus medius was simply listed as a dubious species of theropod . Allosaurus sibiricus was described in 1914 by A. N. Riabinin on the basis of a bone , later identified as a partial fourth metatarsal , from the Early Cretaceous of Buryatia , Russia . It was transferred to Chilantaisaurus in 1990 .

Allosaurus meriani was described in 1870 by Greppin as a species of Megalosaurus , based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland . It has occasionally been referred to Allosaurus , but recent reviews have listed it as dubious theropod species Megalosaurus meriani , or included it in Ceratosaurus sp . Allosaurus stechowi was described in 1920 by Janensch as Labrosaurus stechowi for isolated Ceratosaurus @-@ like teeth from the Tendaguru beds of Tanzania . With the synonymization of Labrosaurus and Allosaurus , Donald F. Glut listed it as a species of Allosaurus , but it is now either assigned to Ceratosaurus sp. or considered a dubious ceratosaurian .

There are also several species left over from the synonymizations of Creosaurus and Labrosaurus with Allosaurus . Creosaurus potens was named by Lull in 1911 for a vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland . It is now regarded as a dubious theropod . Labrosaurus fragilis is a typographical error by Marsh ( 1896 ) for Labrosaurus ferox . L. sulcatus , named by Marsh in 1896 for a Morrison theropod tooth , which like L. stechowi is now regarded as either Ceratosaurus sp. or a dubious ceratosaurian .

A. tendagurensis was named in 1925 by Werner Janensch for a partial shin ( HM 67 ) found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of Tendaguru , in Mtwara , Tanzania . This species has not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of Allosaurus , to a basal tetanuran . The most recent analysis has placed it in Carcharodontosauridae . Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight .

= = Specimens misassigned to Allosaurus though not described as new species = =

Kurzanov and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from Siberia as Allosaurus sp . ( meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of Allosaurus , but did not or could not assign a species ) . Also , reports of Allosaurus in Shanxi , China go back to at least 1982 .

An astragalus ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of Allosaurus was found at Cape Paterson , Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia . It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a refugium for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere . This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles , who thought it more resembled that of an ornithomimid , but the original authors defended their identification . With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , Daniel Chure reexamined the bone and found that it was not Allosaurus , but could represent an allosauroid . Similarly , Yoichi Azuma and Phil Currie , in their description of Fukuiraptor , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . This specimen is sometimes referred to as " Allosaurus robustus " , an informal museum name . It may have belonged to something similar to , or the same as , Australovenator , or it may represent an abelisaur . A speculative " polar " or " dwarf allosaur " was used for the " Spirits of the Ice Forest " episode of Walking with Dinosaurs .

= Astraeus hygrometricus =

Astraeus hygrometricus , commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar , the barometer earthstar , or the false earthstar , is a species of fungus in the Diplocystaceae family . Young specimens resemble a puffball when young and unopened . In maturity , the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @-@ like manner . The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees , especially in sandy soils . A. hygrometricus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is common in temperate and tropical regions . Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic ( water @-@ absorbing ) , and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity , and close them up again in drier conditions . The rays have an irregularly cracked surface , while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top . The gleba is white initially , but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature . The spores are reddish @-@ brown , roughly spherical with minute warts , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 11 micrometers in diameter .

Despite a similar overall appearance , A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum , although historically , they have been taxonomically confused . The species was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus . In 1885 , Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species , including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . Research has revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible .

= = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = =

Because this species resembles the earthstar fungi of Geastrum , it was placed in that genus by early authors , starting with Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 ( as Geaster , an alternate spelling of Geastrum ) . According to the American botanist Andrew P. Morgan , however , the species differed from those of Geastrum in not having open chambers in the young gleba , having larger and branched capillitium threads , not having a true hymenium , and having larger spores . Accordingly , Morgan set Persoon 's Geaster hygrometricum as the type species of his new genus Astraeus in 1889 . Despite Morgan 's publication , some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in Geastrum . The New @-@ Zealand based mycologist Gordon Herriot Cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus Geastrum in 1944 , explaining :

The treatment of this species by certain taxonomists well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of ontogenic classification ... The only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of Geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium . In the developing plant the glebal cavities are separated by tramal plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the uncritical worker . Each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of Scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which have been studied . This difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the fructification of any other member of the genus . The taxonomist is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " Astraeus " may be separated from Geastrum , which indicates that the name should be discarded .

Cunningham 's treatment was not followed by later authorities , who largely considered Astraeus a distinct genus . According to the taxonomical authority MycoBank , synonyms of Astraeus hygrometricus include Lycoperdon stellatus Scop . ( 1772 ) ; Geastrum fibrillosum Schwein . ( 1822 ) ; Geastrum stellatum ( Scop . ) Wettst . ( 1885 ) ; and Astraeus stellatus E.Fisch. ( 1900 ) .

Astraeus hygrometricus has been given a number of colloquial names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior , including the " hygrometer earthstar " , the " hygroscopic earthstar " , the " barometer earthstar " , and the " water @-@ measure earthstar " . The resemblance to Geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name " false earthstar " . The specific name is derived from the Greek words ὑγρός ( hygros ) " wet " and μέτρον ( metron ) " measure " . The German Mycological Society selected the species as their " Mushroom of the Year " in 2005 .

Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics . Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . Based on these results , two Asian " hygrometricus " populations have been described as new species : A. asiaticus and A. odoratus ( synonymous with Petcharat 's A. thailandicus described in 2003 ) . Preliminary DNA analyses suggests that the European A. hygrometricus described by Persoon is a different species than the North American version described by Morgan , and that the European population may be divided into two distinct phylotypes , from France and from the Mediterranean . A 2010 study identified a Japanese species , previously identified as A. hygrometricus , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named .

A form of the species found in Korea and Japan , A. hygrometricus var. koreanus , was named by V.J. Stanĕk in 1958 ; it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species — A. koreanus — by Hanns Kreisel . As pointed out by Fangfuk and colleagues , clarification of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of A. hygrometricus var. koreanus specimens from the type locality in North Korea .

= = Description = =

Young specimens of A. hygrometricus have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate . A smooth whitish mycelial layer covers the fruit body , and may be partially encrusted with debris . As the fruit body matures , the mycelial layer tears away , and the outer tissue layer , the exoperidium , breaks open in a star @-@ shaped ( stellate ) pattern to form 4 – 20 irregular " rays " . This simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round spore case enclosed in a thin papery endoperidium . The rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment , opening up in high humidity , and closing when the air is dry . This is possible because the exoperidium is made of several different layers of tissue ; the innermost , fibrous layer is hygroscopic , and curls or uncurls the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings . This adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of optimum moisture , and reduce evaporation during dry periods . Further , dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind , allowing them to scatter spores from the pore as they roll .

The fruit body is 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded . The exoperidium is thick , and the rays are typically areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks and crevices ) on the upper surface , and are dark grey to black . The spore case is sessile ( lacking a stalk ) , light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) broad with a felt @-@ like or scurfy ( coated with loose scaly crust ) surface ; the top of the spore case is opened by an irregular slit , tear or pore . The interior of the spore case , the gleba , is white and solid when young , and divided into oval locules — a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from Geastrum . The gleba becomes brown and powdery as the specimen matures . Small dark hairlike threads ( rhizomorphs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate . The rhizomorphs are fragile , and often break off after maturity .

The spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @-@ brown , thick @-@ walled and verrucose ( covered with warts and spines ) . The spores ' dimensions are 7 – 11 µm ; the warts are about 1 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid , and will not stain with iodine from Melzer 's reagent . The use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @.@ 90 – 1 @.@ 45 µm long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tapered , and sometime joined together at the top . The capillitia ( masses of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm in diameter , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four- to eight @-@ spored , with very short sterigmata . The basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual basidia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µm . The threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium , and are thick @-@ walled , long , interwoven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @.@ 5 µm thick . The exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue : the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 – 6 μm in diameter ; the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 – 8 μm diameter and branched ; the collenchyma @-@ type layer has branched hyphae of 3 – 4 μm diameter ; the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 – 6 μm in diameter .

= = = Edibility = = =

North American sources describe A. hygrometricus as being of either unknown edibility , or too tough to be edible . However , they are regularly consumed in Asia , including Nepal and South Bengal , where " local people consume them as delicious food " . They are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of India .

A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @-@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @-@ octanol , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ one ) that imparted a " mushroom @-@ like , earthy , and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss @-@ like smell upon opening the caps " . The study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , maillard , herbal , and oily flavor " . Volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural , benzaldehyde , cyclohexenone , and furanyl compounds . The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same ; in some cases Asian specimens have been identified as new species , such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus .

= = Similar species = =

Although A. hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to member of the " true earthstars " Geastrum , it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays . Hygroscopic earthstars include G. arenarium , G. corollinum , G. floriforme , G. recolligens , and G. kotlabae . Unlike Geastrum , the young fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus do not have a columella ( sterile tissue in the gleba , at the base of the spore sac ) . Geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a peristome or a disc , in contrast with the single lacerate slit of A. hygrometricus . There are also several microscopic differences : in A. hygrometricus , the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns , the spores are larger , and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium . Despite these differences , older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from Geastrum in the field . One species of Geastrum , G. mammosum , does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic , and could be confused with A. hygrometricus ; however , its spores are smaller than A. hygrometricus , typically about 4 µm in diameter .

Astraeus pteridis is larger , 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) or more when expanded , and often has a more pronounced areolate pattern on the inner surface of the rays . It is found in North America and the Canary Islands . A. asiaticus and A. odoratus are two similar species known from throughout Asia and Southeast Asia , respectively . A. odoratus is distinguished from A. hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles , 3 – 9 broad rays , and a fresh odor similar to moist soil . The spore ornamentation of A. odoratus is also distinct from A. hygrometricus , with longer and narrower spines that often joined together . A. asiaticus has an outer peridial surface covered with small granules , and a gleba that is purplish @-@ chestnut in color , compared to the smooth peridial surface and brownish gleba of A. hygrometricus . The upper limit of the spore size of A. asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative , ranging from 8 @.@ 75 – 15 @.@ 2 μm . A. koreanus ( sometimes named as the variety A. hygrometricus var. koreanus ; see Taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size , paler fruit body , and greater number of rays ; microscopically , it has smaller spores ( between 6 @.@ 8 and 9 μm in diameter ) , and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology . It is known from Korea and Japan .

= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =

Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis . In North America , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in India , it has been noted to grow commonly with chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii ) and sal ( Shorea robusta ) . The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @-@ poor , sandy or loamy soils . It has also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . In Nepal , fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years . Gelatinipulvinella astraeicola is a leotiaceous fungus with minute , gelatinous , pulvinate ( cushion @-@ shaped ) apothecia , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead Astraeus species , including A. hygrometricus .

The species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . It has been collected in Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America .

= = Bioactive compounds = =

Mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species have attracted research interest for their immunomodulatory and antitumor properties . Extracts from A. hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of splenocytes , thymocytes , and bone marrow cells from mice . The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide , and enhanced production of cytokines . The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction . AE2 is made of the simple sugars mannose , glucose , and fucose in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio .

In addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ diene @-@ 3 @-@ ol acetate and ergosta @-@ 4,6,8- ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , three unique triterpenes — derivatives of 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ lanostane — have been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus . The compounds , named astrahygrol , 3 @-@ epi @-@ astrahygrol , and astrahygrone ( 3 @-@ oxo @-@ 25S @-@ lanost @-@ 8 @-@ eno @-@ 26 @,@ 22 @-@ lactone ) , have δ @-@ lactone ( a six @-@ membered ring ) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the Basidiomycetes . A previously unknown steryl ester ( 3β , 5α @-@ dihydroxy- ( 22E , 24R ) -ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 6α @-@ yl palmitate ) has been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture . The compound has a polyhydroxylated ergostane @-@ type nucleus .

Ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in antioxidant activity , and have been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug diclofenac . Studies with mouse models have also demonstrated hepatoprotective ( liver @-@ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase caused by experimental exposure to the liver @-@ damaging chemical carbon tetrachloride .

= = Traditional beliefs = =

This earthstar has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent ; the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains . Two Indian forest tribes , the Baiga and the Bharia of Madhya Pradesh , have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally . The spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil , and used as a salve against burns . The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events .

= Paul Thomas Anderson =

Paul Thomas Anderson ( born June 26 , 1970 ) also known as P.T. Anderson , is an American film director , screenwriter and producer . Interested in film @-@ making at a young age , Anderson was encouraged by his father Ernie Anderson ( a disc jockey , and television and radio announcer / voiceover artist ) to become a filmmaker .

In 1993 , he wrote and directed a short film titled Cigarettes & Coffee on a budget of $ 20 @,@ 000 . After he attended the Sundance Institute , Anderson had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature film , a neo @-@ noir crime thriller titled Hard Eight , in 1996 . Anderson received critical and commercial success for his film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , set during the Golden Age of Porn in the 1970s and 1980s . His third feature , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , received wide acclaim despite struggling at the box office .

In 2002 , the romantic comedy @-@ drama Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson 's fourth feature , was released to generally favorable reviews . After a five @-@ year absence , the epic drama There Will Be Blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 . In 2012 , Anderson 's sixth film , the drama The Master , was released to critical acclaim . His seventh film , the crime comedy @-@ drama Inherent Vice , based on the novel of the same name by Thomas Pynchon , was released in 2014 , to general acclaim .

Anderson has been nominated for six Academy Awards over the course of his career , while his films have earned a further fourteen Academy Award nominations for cast and crew .

= = Early life = =

Anderson was born June 26 , 1970 , in Studio City , California , to Edwina ( née Gough ) and Ernie Anderson . Ernie was an actor who was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late @-@ night horror movie host known as " Ghoulardi " ( after whom Anderson later named his production company ) . Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley . He is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a writer or director . Anderson attended a number of schools , including Buckley in Sherman Oaks , John Thomas Dye School , Campbell Hall School , Cushing Academy and Montclair Prep .

Anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age and never really had an alternative plan to directing films . He made his first movie when he was eight years old and started making movies on a Betamax video camera which his dad bought in 1982 when he was twelve years old . He later started using 8 mm film but realized that video was easier . He began writing in adolescence , and at 17 years old he began experimenting with a Bolex sixteen millimeter camera . After years of experimenting with " standard fare " , he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at Montclair Prep using money he earned cleaning cages at a pet store . The film was a thirty @-@ minute mockumentary shot on video called The Dirk Diggler Story ( 1988 ) , about a pornography star ; the story was inspired by John Holmes , who also served as a major inspiration for Boogie Nights .

= = Career = =

= = = Early career = = =

Anderson spent two semesters as an English major at Emerson College , and only two days at New York University before he began his career as a production assistant on television films , music videos and game shows in Los Angeles and New York City . Feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into " homework or a chore " , Anderson decided to make a twenty @-@ minute film that would be his " college " .

For $ 20 @,@ 000 , made up of gambling winnings , his girlfriend 's credit card , and money his father set aside for him for college , Anderson made Cigarettes & Coffee ( 1993 ) , a short film connecting multiple story lines with a twenty @-@ dollar bill . The film was screened at the 1993 Sundance Festival Shorts Program . He decided to expand the film into a feature @-@ length film and was subsequently invited to the 1994 Sundance Feature Film Program . At the Sundance Feature Film Program , Michael Caton @-@ Jones served as Anderson 's mentor ; he saw Anderson as someone with " talent and a fully formed creative voice but not much hands @-@ on experience " and gave him some hard and practical lessons .

= = = 1990s = = =

= = = = Hard Eight = = = =

While at the Sundance Feature Film Program , Anderson already had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature . In 1996 , Anderson made his first full @-@ length feature , Sydney , which was retitled Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Upon completion of the film , Rysher re @-@ edited it . Anderson , who still had the workprint of his original cut , submitted the film , which was accepted and screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival . Anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @,@ 000 necessary to finish it - he , Philip Baker Hall , Gwyneth Paltrow and John C. Reilly contributed the funding . The version that was released was Anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career .

= = = = Boogie Nights = = = =

Anderson began working on the script for his next feature film during his troubles with Hard Eight , completing the script in 1995 . The result was Anderson 's breakout for the drama film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , which is based on his short The Dirk Diggler Story . The script was noticed by New Line Cinema 's president , Michael De Luca , who felt " totally gaga " reading it . It was released on October 10 , 1997 and was a critical and commercial success . The film revived the career of Burt Reynolds , and provided breakout roles for Mark Wahlberg and Julianne Moore . At the 70th Academy Awards ceremony , the film received three Academy Award nominations , including for Best Supporting Actor ( Burt Reynolds ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Julianne Moore ) and Best Original Screenplay .

= = = = Magnolia = = = =

After the success of Boogie Nights , New Line told Anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control . Though Anderson initially wanted to make a film that was " intimate and small @-@ scale " , the script " kept blossoming " . The resulting film was the ensemble piece Magnolia ( 1999 ) , which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the San Fernando Valley . Anderson used the music of Aimee Mann as a basis and inspiration for the film , commissioning her to write eight new songs . At the 72nd Academy Awards , Magnolia received three nominations , for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Tom Cruise ) , Best Original Song for " Save Me " by Aimee Mann and Best Original Screenplay . Anderson stated after the film 's release that " what I really feel is that Magnolia is , for better or worse , the best movie I 'll ever make . "

= = = 2000s = = =

= = = = Punch @-@ Drunk Love = = = =

After the release of Magnolia , Anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor Adam Sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long . His next feature was the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , starring Sandler , with Emily Watson portraying his love interest . The story centers on a beleaguered small @-@ business owner ( Sandler ) with anger issues and seven emasculating sisters . A subplot in the film was partly based on David Phillips ( also called The Pudding Guy ) . Sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream comedies that had made him a star . At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or .

= = = = There Will Be Blood = = = =

There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) was loosely based on the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! . The budget of the film was $ 25 million , and it earned $ 76 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Daniel Day @-@ Lewis starred and won an Oscar for Best Leading Actor for his role . The film received eight nominations overall at the 80th Academy Awards . Paul Dano received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor . Anderson was nominated for Best Director from the Directors Guild of America . The film also received eight Academy Award nominations , tying with No Country for Old Men for the most nominations . Anderson received nominations for Best Picture , Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay , losing all three to the Coen Brothers for No Country for Old Men . There Will Be Blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade , some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished American films of the modern era ; David Denby of The New Yorker wrote " the young writer @-@ director Paul Thomas Anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of Griffith and Ford " , while Richard Schickel proclaimed it " one of the most wholly original American movies ever made " .

= = = 2010s = = =

= = = = The Master = = = =

In December 2009 , Anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled The Master , about a " charismatic intellectual " who starts a new religion in the 1950s . An associate of Anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in Anderson 's head for about twelve years . Though the film makes no reference to the movement , it has " long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology . " The Master was released on September 14 , 2012 by The Weinstein Company in the United States and Canada to critical acclaim . The film received three nominations at the 85th Academy Awards : Joaquin Phoenix for Best Leading Actor , Philip Seymour Hoffman for Best Supporting Actor and Amy Adams for Best Supporting Actress .

= = = = Inherent Vice = = = =

Production of Anderson 's adaptation of Thomas Pynchon 's 2009 novel Inherent Vice began in May 2013 and ended in August of the same year . The film marked the first time that Pynchon allowed his work to be adapted for the screen and saw Anderson work with Phoenix for a second time . The supporting cast includes Owen Wilson , Reese Witherspoon , Jena Malone , Martin Short , Benicio Del Toro , Katherine Waterston , Josh Brolin , Peter McRobbie , Michael K. Williams and Eric Roberts . The film received two nominations at the 87th Academy Awards : Anderson for Best Adapted Screenplay and Mark Bridges for Best Costume Design .

= = = = Junun = = = =

In 2015 , Anderson directed a 54 @-@ minute documentary , Junun , about the making of an album of the same name by Jonny Greenwood , Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and a group of Indian musicians . Most of the performances were recorded at the 15th @-@ century Mehrangarh Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan . Junun premiered at the 2015 New York Film Festival .

= = = = Future projects = = = =

Anderson is currently working on a drama about the New York fashion industry in the 1950s , which is expected to star Daniel Day @-@ Lewis in his first acting role since Lincoln in 2012 .

= = = Other work = = =

Anderson was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman 's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes , as Altman was 80 years old at the time . In addition to films , Anderson has directed several music videos , including several for musician Fiona Apple . In 2008 , Anderson co @-@ wrote and directed a 70 @-@ minute play at the Largo Theatre , comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred Armisen , with a live musical score by Jon Brion .

= = Influences and style = =

= = = Influences = = =

Anderson only attended film school for two days , preferring to learn the craft by watching films by the filmmakers he liked , as well as watching films accompanied by director 's audio commentary . Anderson has cited Martin Scorsese , Robert Altman , Jonathan Demme , Stanley Kubrick , Orson Welles and Max Ophüls , as his main influences as a filmmaker .

= = = Themes and style = = =

Anderson is known for films set in the San Fernando Valley with realistically flawed and desperate characters . Among the themes dealt with in Anderson 's films are dysfunctional familial relationships , alienation , surrogate families , regret , loneliness , destiny , the power of forgiveness , and ghosts of the past . Anderson makes frequent use of repetition to build emphasis and thematic consistency . In Boogie Nights , Magnolia , Punch Drunk Love and The Master , the phrase " I didn 't do anything " is used at least once , developing themes of responsibility and denial . Anderson 's films are known for their bold visual style which includes stylistic trademarks such as constantly moving camera , steadicam @-@ based long takes , memorable use of music , and multilayered audiovisual imagery . Anderson also tends to reference the Book of Exodus , either explicitly or subtly , such as in recurring references to Exodus 8 : 2 in Magnolia , which chronicles the plague of frogs , culminating with the literal raining of frogs in the film 's climax , or the title and themes in There Will Be Blood , a phrase that can be found in Exodus 7 : 19 , which details the plague of blood .

Within his first three films , Hard Eight , Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson explored themes of dysfunctional families , alienation and loneliness . Boogie Nights and Magnolia were noted for their large ensemble casts , which Anderson returned to in Inherent Vice . In Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson explored similar themes but expressed a different visual style , shedding the influences and references of his earlier films , being more surreal and having a heightened sense of reality . It was also short , compared to his previous two films , at 90 minutes .

There Will Be Blood stood apart from his first four films but shared similar themes and style such as flawed characters , moving camera , memorable music , and a lengthy running time . The film was more overtly engaged with politics than his previous films had been , examining capitalism and themes such as savagery , optimism , and obsession . The Master dealt with " ideas about American personality , success , rootlessness , master @-@ disciple dynamics , and father @-@ son mutually assured destruction . " All of his films deal with American themes with business versus art in Boogie Nights , ambition in There Will Be Blood , self @-@ reinvention in The Master .

= = = Frequent collaborators = = =

Anderson frequently collaborates with many actors and crew , carrying them over from film to film . Anderson has referred to his regular actors as " my little rep company " that has included John C. Reilly , Philip Baker Hall , Julianne Moore , William H. Macy , Melora Walters , and most prominently , the late Philip Seymour Hoffman . Luis Guzmán is also considered an Anderson regular . Hoffman acted in Anderson 's first four films as well as The Master . Except for Paul F. Tompkins , Kevin Breznahan , and Jim Meskimen , who all had equally minor roles in Magnolia , There Will Be Blood had an entirely new cast . Robert Elswit has been cinematographer for all of Anderson 's films except The Master which was shot by Mihai Mălaimare Jr . Jon Brion served as composer for Hard Eight , Magnolia , and Punch @-@ Drunk Love , and Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead for There Will Be Blood , The Master , and Inherent Vice . Anderson also regularly works with producing partners JoAnne Sellar , Scott Rudin , Michael De Luca , and Daniel Lupi as well as casting director Cassandra Kulukundis .

= = Personal life = =

Anderson dated ( and frequently collaborated with ) singer Fiona Apple for several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s . He has been in a relationship with actress and comedian Maya Rudolph since 2001 . They live together in the San Fernando Valley with their four children : daughters Pearl Bailey ( born October 2005 ) , Lucille ( born November 2009 ) , and Minnie Ida ( born August 2013 ) and son Jack ( born July 2011 ) .

= = Filmography = =

= = Awards and recognition = =

Anderson has been called " one of the most exciting talents to come along in years " and " among the supreme talents of today . " After the release of Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson was praised as a wunderkind . In his 2002 interview with Jan Aghed , the director Ingmar Bergman referenced Magnolia as an example of the strength of American cinema . In 2004 , Anderson was ranked twenty @-@ first on The Guardian 's list of the forty best living filmmakers . In 2007 , Total Film named him the twentieth greatest director of all time and the American Film Institute regarded him as " one of American film 's modern masters . " In 2012 , The Guardian ranked him number one on its list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World , " writing " his dedication to his craft has intensified , with his disdain for PR and celebrity marking him out as the most devout filmmaker of his generation . " In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly named him the eighth @-@ greatest working director , calling him " one of the most dynamic directors to emerge in the last 20 years . " In a podcast interview with critic Elvis Mitchell , director Sam Mendes referred to Anderson as " a true auteur – and there are very few of those who I would classify as geniuses " , and Ben Affleck in his acceptance speech for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director said " Paul Thomas Anderson , who I think is like Orson Welles . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that " The Master , the sixth film from the 42 @-@ year @-@ old writer @-@ director , affirms his position as the foremost filmmaking talent of his generation . Anderson is a rock star , the artist who knows no limits . " As of 2016 , Anderson is the only person to win all three director prizes from the three major international film festivals ( Cannes , Berlin , Venice ) .

= The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman =

The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman is a poem by the 15th @-@ century Scottish poet Robert Henryson and part of his collection of moral fables known as the Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian . It is written in Middle Scots . As with the other tales in the collection , appended to it is a moralitas which elaborates on the moral that the fable is supposed to contain . However , the appropriateness of the moralitas for the tale itself has been questioned .

The tale combines two motifs . Firstly , a husbandman tilling the fields with his new oxen makes a rash oath aloud to give them to the wolf ; when the wolf overhears this , he attempts to make sure that the man fulfills his promise . The fox mediates a solution by speaking to them individually ; eventually he fools the wolf into following him to claim his supposed reward for dropping the case , and tricks him into a draw @-@ well . The moralitas connects the wolf to the wicked man , the fox to the devil , and the husbandman to the godly man . A probable source for the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina Clericalis , containing the same motifs , and William Caxton 's Aesop 's Fables — though the tale is a beast fable , not Aesopic .

= = Source = =

A probable source of the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina clericalis , which has the same three motifs : the rash promise of the husbandman ; the wolf mistaking the moon for cheese ; and the wolf that descends into the well via a bucket , thereby trapping himself and freeing the fox . However , the discussion of legality and the questioning of language that take place alongside these motifs are entirely Henryson 's invention . Whereas the moral of Alfonsi 's tale explains that the wolf lost both the oxen and the cheese because he " relinquished what was present for what was to come " ( Latin : pro futuro quod presens erat dimisit ) , Henryson 's moralitas more fully involves the husbandman .

Another source may be Aesop 's Fables as published by William Caxton — scholar John MacQueen considers this more likely than Disciplina clericalis — although the tale itself is not Aesopic but rather of the beast fable ( also beast @-@ epic ) genre . The plots of such works are more complicated than their Aesopic counterpart , tend more towards ribaldry , and feature the fox making a victim of the wolf .

= = Synopsis = =

= = = Tale = = =

A husbandman tilling the fields with his new , untrained oxen is made furious by their wrecking of the land . In his anger he makes the rash oath that the wolf " mot have you all at anis ! [ may , at once ] " . However , the wolf is lying nearby with the fox , and , overhearing it , promises to make him stay true to his word . Eventually the oxen calm down , but on the way back home the wolf jumps into their path . The wolf asks where the husbandman is driving them , since they are not his , to which he confirms that they are and asks why he is being stopped since he never offended the wolf before . The wolf reminds the husbandman of his earlier declaration , to which he replies that a man may say things that do not mean anything . They argue , and the husbandman reproaches the wolf for not having a witness ; in response , he produces the fox . The creature takes it upon himself to mediate the dispute , and takes each aside in turn . To the husbandman he says that he would lend his expertise to help him were it not for the " grit coist and expence " of doing so ; the husbandman offers him half a dozen of the fattest hens he has , to which the fox acedes and goes off . To the wolf he says that the husbandman has offered an unparalleled block of cheese in exchange for him dropping the case .

The wolf , after some complaint , agrees to this and the two proceed through the woods after the prize — all the while the fox considers how to trick the wolf . Eventually , as the wolf complains of the fruitlessness of their quest , they arrive at a draw @-@ well with buckets on each end of a rope . Seeing the reflection of the moon in the water at the bottom of the well , the wolf believes there to be cheese down there and lowers the fox down to pick it up . When he complains that it is too heavy for him to lift alone , the wolf jumps into the other bucket and descends to help . However , this pulls up the other bucket , into which the fox has jumped , and so the two swap places ; the wolf at the bottom of the well and the fox safely escaped . The narrator professes that he does not know who helped the wolf out of the well , but that the tale is at an end .

= = = Moralitas = = =

The wolf is likened to a wicked man who oppresses others . The fox is likened to the devil . The farmer is likened to the godly man , with whom the fiend finds fault . The woods where the wolf was cheated are corrupting goods that man longs to get . The cheese represents covetousness ; the well that contains it is fraud and fantasy , which draws men downwards into hell .

= = Analysis = =

As with other tales in the collection , the moralitas of The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman can be considered at odds with the tale itself . Lianne Farber highlights a number of these discrepancies , and says that the allegory " does not hold true in any traditional sense " . Amongst the inconsistencies is that the fox , not the wolf , is the figure that argues with and finds fault in the husbandman ; the " woods of the world " are not traversed by the husbandman , in spite of the moralitas suggesting it is applicable to all men ; Farber argues that even assuming the moral to be true is problematic , since it apparently suggests that the godly man must bribe the figure of the judge , and that this does not affect his godly status . Furthermore , the absence of the legal discussion and the binding quality of words from the moralitas suggests to Farber that the " intricate legal framework … has no impact whatsoever in resolving the issues with which it is supposed to deal " . In contrast , Philippa M. Bright considers that the moralitas of this tale , as well as several others , create " an additional sense which co @-@ exists with the literal narrative and extends and complements it thematically " ; treating literal details symbolically and establishing the sense through direct comparisons .

According to Dorothy Yamamoto , the significant themes in the tale are " solidity and vacancy , substance and illusion " . The cheese that apparently resides in the well is only an illusion , not a solid object , and similarly the fox creates a surface reconciliation between the wolf and the husbandman , but which betrays his real intentions . Through their frequent misuse , words that should convey real value are emptied of meaning . As an example , Yamamoto highlights the fox 's taill on which the wolf and husbandman make their pledge — which body part she says is used by the fox in other tales to blind his foes , and is thereby a highly inappropriate object to use .

= = = Modern edition = = =

Henryson , Robert ( 2009 ) . The Testament of Cresseid & seven fables . Trans. by Seamus Heaney . London : Faber and Faber . ISBN 9780571249282 .

= Joe Nathan =

Joseph Michael " Joe " Nathan ( born November 22 , 1974 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nathan started out his baseball career as a shortstop in high school and while at Stony Brook University , but converted to a pitcher after being drafted by the San Francisco Giants . He worked his way through the minor leagues , alternating between spots in the rotation and the bullpen . After a few years of splitting time between the majors and the minors , Nathan had a breakout season as a setup man for the Giants in 2003 . That offseason , Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins and became their closer .

From 2004 to 2009 , Nathan was considered one of the top closers in MLB with four All @-@ Star appearances and a league @-@ leading 246 saves . In 2010 , Nathan underwent Tommy John surgery to repair a torn ulnar collateral ligament in his throwing elbow and missed the entire season . On April 3 , 2011 , Nathan recorded his first save since his injury against the Toronto Blue Jays and later that year in July , Nathan regained the role as closer . On August 10 , 2011 , he became the Twins all @-@ time leader in saves with his 255th in a game against the Boston Red Sox . After the 2011 season , Nathan left the Twins via free agency to sign with the Texas Rangers , becoming an All @-@ Star again in 2012 and 2013 . On April 8 , 2013 , he earned his 300th save . After the 2013 season , Nathan left the Rangers via free agency to sign with the Detroit Tigers . Nathan is currently 8th on the all @-@ time saves list .

= = Early career = =

Nathan graduated from Pine Bush High School in Pine Bush , New York in 1992 , where he played basketball and baseball and ran track . Only Division III colleges showed minimal interest in him , and he ended up at Stony Brook University largely because his high school assistant coach Jeff Masionet and Stony Brook baseball coach Matt Senk knew each other as former teammates in the State University of New York at Cortland baseball program .

= = College career = =

He first played shortstop for the then Division III Stony Brook Patriots ( now Division I and called the Seawolves ) , at Stony Brook University in Long Island , New York . Nathan became a two @-@ time Academic All @-@ American and graduating as a member of the Golden Key International Honour Society . During his tenure there , professional baseball scouts began to notice his good arm and pitcher 's body , and on the day of a rainout , unfortunately , " literally someone from every organization " came to watch him pitch . He was drafted in the sixth round ( 159th overall ) of the amateur draft by the San Francisco Giants in 1995 , and signed the next day , June 2 . His college jersey number has since been retired , and he was awarded the University Medal , the highest recognition given by SUNY / Stony Brook . He also played for the Fairfield Stallions in the New England Collegiate Baseball League in 1994 .

In August 2008 , he gave the SUNY / Stony Brook athletics department $ 500 @,@ 000 for a new baseball facility . In recognition of this " lead gift " from the Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , the college named it " Joe Nathan Field . "

= = Professional career = =

= = = Minor Leagues = = =

He began his minor league career in Class A for the Bellingham Giants . After an unsuccessful year at the plate the Giants tried to convert Nathan into a pitcher , but he refused and left to return to Stony Brook for a year , graduating with a degree in business management . He gave more thought to his future in baseball , however , and after graduation decided to return to the Giants organization and developed into a standout pitching prospect . After a season with the Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes , he pitched for both the A and AA levels for ( the San Jose Giants and Shreveport Captains ) in 1998 as a starter . During his tenure with San Jose he started 22 games with an ERA of 3 @.@ 32 and 118 strikeouts , leading the Class A Giants to the California League championship . Promoted to AA Shreveport in 1999 , he pitched in only two games before being promoted to the parent club in 1999 .

= = = San Francisco Giants ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = =

Nathan was promoted to the San Francisco Giants on April 20 , 1999 , taking the roster spot of superstar slugger Barry Bonds , who went on the disabled list after left elbow surgery . He made his major league debut the next day , pitching seven shutout innings and winning his first major league decision against the Florida Marlins , 4 – 0 . He then divided the rest of the season between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and the Giants , going 6 – 4 with the Griz and 7 – 4 and 4 @.@ 18 with the Giants , earning his first career save on May 16 against the Houston Astros .

After a short stint in the minors in 2000 , Nathan spent most of the season in the majors , finishing 5 – 2 and even hitting two home runs . But he struggled with his control , walking 63 in 931 ⁄ 3 innings and ending the season with a 5 @.@ 21 ERA . He was on the disabled list twice : from May 17 to June 6 for right shoulder tendinitis and from July 14 to August 18 for an inflamed right shoulder , necessitating arthroscopic surgery on the afflicted shoulder at the end of the season . Nathan divided 2001 between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and AA Shreveport both starting and relieving , finishing with a disappointing combined 3 – 11 record and an ERA over 7 . Nathan improved slightly in 2002 to 6 – 12 with an ERA of over 5 at Fresno , but finally overcame his postsurgical struggles to return to the Giants in September with 32 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in relief .

Nathan spent all of 2003 with the Giants in the bullpen after marrying Lisa Lemoncelli , his girlfriend of five years , in November 2002 . This was a breakout year for Nathan , starting the season with 23 scoreless innings en route to a 12 – 4 record in his first full year as a reliever . His 78 appearances put him high on the list of most @-@ used pitchers for the season as one of the best setup men in the NL , allowing no runs in 15 appearances from July 18 to August 20 . His 12 wins in relief led the majors . The Giants won the National League West by 151 ⁄ 2 games and drew the Florida Marlins , the National League 's wild card winner , in the NLDS . Nathan was hit hard in that series , blowing his only save opportunity . His team fared no better , winning Game 1 behind Jason Schmidt 's complete game shutout before dropping the next three .

= = = Minnesota Twins ( 2004 – 2011 ) = = =

= = = = 2004 = = = =

Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins on November 16 , 2003 , in one of the more lopsided trades in San Francisco Giants history . The Giants sent Nathan to the Twins along with pitchers Boof Bonser and Francisco Liriano for catcher A. J. Pierzynski and cash . The Twins decided to make Nathan their closer starting in 2004 , risky move considering that Nathan had notched only one save in six opportunities as a Giant , but he won the job over J. C. Romero and Jesse Crain in spring training . He was signed to a three @-@ year deal on March 4 , 2004 and agreed to an incentive @-@ laden contract with a base salary of $ 440 @,@ 000 . He started off the season strong , allowing no runs in 20 appearances and earning 14 saves from April 15 to June 4 . He was named AL Co @-@ Player of the Week starting on May 10 with four saves in four innings and four appearances , facing the minimum number of batters each time . His credentials for the first half of the season , 23 saves in 24 opportunities with a 1 @.@ 19 ERA in 26 appearances , earned him his first All @-@ Star appearance in the 2004 MLB All @-@ Star Game . He was the only Twin on the squad and pitched a perfect seventh inning , getting Bobby Abreu to strike out , Mike Lowell to fly out and Miguel Cabrera to strike out . His numbers were impressive through the rest of the season , allowing no runs between June 9 and August 18 , and between August 25 and September 16 @.@  and finishing 2004 with 44 saves in 47 opportunities and an ERA of 1 @.@ 62 . The Twins won the AL Central division and faced the New York Yankees in the ALDS . Nathan picked up his first postseason save in Game 1 , but blew his second opportunity in Game 2 as the Twins went on to lose the ensuing three games . His outstanding season earned him MVP and Cy Young votes , finishing fourth for Cy Young and 12th for MVP . His first child , a son named Cole , was born on November 9 , 2004 .

= = = = 2005 = = = =

During spring training in 2005 , Nathan signed a two @-@ year deal that includes a club option for 2008 . He picked up from where he left off in 2004 , allowing no earned runs in 15 appearances from April 5 to May 10 . He also had streaks of 13 and 12 consecutive save opportunities converted between April and July . As a result , Nathan was named the American League Player of the Week for the week of June 27 . Nathan earned another All @-@ Star appearance in 2005 for his pitching in the first half of the season . Although his record was 1 – 3 with a 3 @.@ 57 ERA in 37 appearances , he had struck out 43 batters in 351 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , and lead the AL with 23 saves in 25 opportunities . Nathan pitched in the 2005 MLB All @-@ Star Game alongside fellow pitcher Johan Santana . Pitching the eighth inning of the game , he got Morgan Ensberg to pop out for the first out , then gave out a double to Moisés Alou . Felipe López singled , and Nathan was able to get Miguel Cabrera and Luis Castillo out , but not before Alou scored . Nathan had a brilliant second half as he went 6 – 1 with 18 saves in 20 chances , and posted an ERA of 1 @.@ 76 . He finished the season with a 7 – 4 record , a 2 @.@ 70 ERA , 43 saves in 48 opportunities , and 94 strikeouts . Nathan also became the third pitcher in club history to post consecutive 40 save seasons . The Twins however missed the playoffs .

= = = = 2006 = = = =

Before the 2006 season began , Nathan participated in the 2006 World Baseball Classic as one of the 30 players selected for the Team USA roster . He played the first game , a 2 – 0 win against Mexico , striking out the side while allowing one hit . He also pitched the 4 – 3 victory against Japan , again throwing a shutout inning . Nathan went on to pitch the last game for the United States in the ninth inning against Mexico , again not allowing a run and striking out two .

As the regular 2006 season began for the Twins , Nathan started off strong , allowing no runs from the start of the season to April 25 . He also converted 10 straight save opportunities from April 11 to June 17 . On June 24 , Nathan recorded his one hundredth career save against the Chicago Cubs , and 99th save with Minnesota . Four days later he got save number 101 , his hundredth save with Minnesota against the Los Angeles Dodgers , becoming the fifth pitcher in Twins history to achieve that mark . Despite putting up great numbers during the 2006 season , Nathan was not selected to the All @-@ Star Game . He continued to pitch well throughout the season , passing Eddie Guardado for second on the Twins ' all @-@ time save list when he earned his 117th save against the Detroit Tigers on September 9 . Nathan was also given the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Month award for July , going nine for nine in save opportunities and posting a 0 @.@ 75 ERA for the month . He finished the season with some of his best numbers to date : a 7 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 58 ERA , 95 strikeouts , 36 saves , an 18th @-@ place finish in MVP voting , and a fifth @-@ place finish in Cy Young voting . His 61 games finished were also good for the AL lead and opponents batted just .158 against him , a career high . With 36 saves in 38 opportunities , Nathan also became the first pitcher for the organization to earn 35 saves in three straight seasons . The Twins won the division on the last day of the regular season , but were swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALDS as Nathan made one scoreless appearance .

= = = = 2007 = = = =

Nathan continued as the Twins ' closer for the 2007 season . He had a stretch between July and August where he gave up just two earned runs and converted all 12 save chances . Once again despite Nathan 's numbers , he was not picked for the All @-@ Star team . Nathan finished the year by converting 37 of 41 save opportunities with a record of 4 – 2 and an ERA of 1 @.@ 88 . The Twins however had a disappointing season and missed the playoffs .

On September 25 , 2007 , Nathan was named as one of 10 finalists for the " DHL Delivery Man of the Year Award " , the third year in a row that he has been a finalist . On October 29 , the Twins exercised Nathan 's club option for 2008 .

= = = = 2008 = = = =

Though Nathan was slated to make $ 6 million in 2008 , on March 24 , 2008 , the Minnesota Twins re @-@ signed Nathan to a four @-@ year , $ 47 million contract through 2011 . The deal also includes a $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option for 2012 with a $ 2 million buyout .

Nathan started the season with 13 consecutive saves but blew his first save of the season on May 27 by giving up a three @-@ run inside @-@ the @-@ park home run on a misplayed fly ball by teammate Delmon Young ; however , Nathan got two outs to end the 9th inning and the Twins went on to win the game . By converting 27 of 29 save opportunities prior to the All @-@ Star break , Nathan was selected as a reserve player for the American League in the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . Nathan finished the year with 39 saves and a career best 1 @.@ 33 ERA . He also had a career high six blown saves and surrendered his first career walk @-@ off home run to Victor Martinez on September 16 . Nathan ranked seventh in the majors in saves and had the lowest ERA of the top 30 save leaders in 2008 .

= = = = 2009 = = = =

Nathan had a strong season , as he was selected as an All @-@ Star for the 2009 MLB All Star Game , and he finished the year with 2 @.@ 10 ERA with 47 saves in 52 opportunities , which was a franchise record . He shared honors for the AL Rolaids Relief Man award with Mariano Rivera . However , Nathan did not fare as well in the postseason ; in Game 2 of the American League Division Series against the New York Yankees , with the Twins leading 3 – 1 in the bottom of the ninth inning , Nathan blew the save when he surrendered a game @-@ tying two @-@ run home run to Alex Rodriguez . It was the first home run Nathan had allowed with men on base all year . The Yankees later won the game in the 11th inning and swept the series . On October 11 , 2009 , after the Twins lost the final game at the Metrodome ( a 4 – 1 playoff loss to the Yankees that eliminated them ) , Nathan took a pile of dirt from the mound as a keepsake from the Metrodome .

= = = = 2010 = = = =

On March 9 , 2010 , it was reported that Nathan had a tear in his ulnar collateral ligament . On March 21 , after attempting to pitch without having surgery , Nathan decided to undergo Tommy John surgery , missing the entire 2010 season .

= = = = 2011 = = = =

Nathan earned his first save at Target Field on April 8 , 2011 . He emptied the container of dirt he took from the Metrodome on the mound at Target Field before pitching . On April 18 , Nathan was replaced at closer by Matt Capps after going 3 for 5 in save opportunities . On May 28 , 2011 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a right flexor muscle strain . Chuck James was called up to take his place .

On August 10 , 2011 , against the Boston Red Sox , Nathan became the Twins all @-@ time saves leader with 255 , passing Rick Aguilera .

After the Twins declined his $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option and exercised a $ 2 million buyout , Nathan became a free agent at the end of the 2011 season .

Nathan is currently the Minnesota Twins leader in career saves .

= = = Texas Rangers ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = =

On November 21 , 2011 , Nathan agreed to terms on a two @-@ year deal with the Texas Rangers worth $ 14 @.@ 5 million guaranteed with an option for a third year at $ 9 million or a $ 500 @,@ 000 buyout .

Nathan had a strong first season with the Rangers , as he was selected to the represent the Rangers at the 2012 MLB All Star Game , the fifth all star selection of his career . He finished his 2012 campaign with 37 saves and an ERA of 2 @.@ 80 . During a game against the Tampa Bay Rays on April 8 , 2013 , Nathan earned his 300th career save after striking out Ben Zobrist looking on a controversial strike call made by home plate umpire Marty Foster . TV cameras captured Nathan saying " Wow ! " after the call .

Nathan was selected to his sixth All Star Game in 2013 , and earned the save for the American League . Nathan improved on his 2012 campaign , finishing his 2013 season with 43 saves and an ERA of 1 @.@ 39 . Nathan finished his Rangers career with an overall record of 9 – 7 , 80 saves , a 2 @.@ 08 ERA and 0 @.@ 98 WHIP .

= = = Detroit Tigers ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =

On December 4 , 2013 , the Tigers signed Nathan to a two @-@ year , $ 20 million contract , with a club option for 2016 . This reunited him with former teammate and fellow ex @-@ Twins great , Torii Hunter along with Rangers teammate Ian Kinsler . On May 5 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 347th career save , tying him with Randy Myers for ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . Two days later , Nathan recorded career save number 348 , putting him alone at ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . On June 9 , Nathan recorded career save 358 , tying him with Troy Percival for 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . On August 23 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 368th career save , passing up Jeff Reardon for 7th place on the all @-@ time saves list . In a September 16 game against the Minnesota Twins , Nathan blew his seventh save of the season , surpassing his previous career high of six blown saves when he pitched for the Twins in 2008 . Nathan finished his first season with the Tigers making 62 appearances and recording 35 saves in 42 chances , while posting an ERA of 4 @.@ 81 . He made one postseason appearance in 2014 , retiring all three batters he faced in a non @-@ save situation in Game 2 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles . The Tigers were swept in the series , 3 – 0 .

On April 8 , 2015 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a strained right elbow . During a rehab start with the Toledo Mud Hens on April 22 , Nathan re @-@ injured his elbow after throwing only 10 pitches . The same night , Nathan underwent MRIs , which tested positive revealing tears in his ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow and his pronator teres muscle , and would undergo Tommy John surgery , ending Nathan 's 2015 season . Sources projected that this surgery could end Nathan 's career , but he was not planning to retire yet .

During the 2015 offseason , the Tigers declined the $ 10 million club option for Nathan for the 2016 season , and exercised a $ 1 million buyout .

= = = Chicago Cubs ( 2016 – present ) = = =

On May 17 , 2016 , Nathan signed with the Chicago Cubs . He was immediately placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list upon signing to continue recovery from his previous Tommy John surgery . Nathan made his Cubs debut on July 24 , 2016 against the Milwaukee Brewers . He pitched one inning and struck out the side , allowing one hit and one walk .

= = Records and notable statistics = =

= = Personal life = =

Nathan is married to Lisa ( nee Lemoncelli ) . They have two children . Nathan 's foundation , Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , also called " Save It " , helps raise money and awareness for many different charities . The Nathan 's reside in Knoxville , Tennessee in the offseason .

= = Pitching style = =

Nathan throws a mix of four pitches . His main pitch , a four @-@ seam fastball was once thrown in the mid @-@ to @-@ upper 90s , but now settles between 91 and 94 mph . His main breaking ball is a hard slider in the upper 80s , occasionally even touching 90 . He uses the slider less frequently against left @-@ handed hitters , preferring to use a curveball in the low 80s . He also uses a two @-@ seam fastball against lefties . His slider is his best swing @-@ and @-@ miss pitch , with a whiff rate of 42 % since 2007 .

= Art Ross =

Arthur Howey " Art " Ross ( January 13 , 1885 – August 5 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and executive from 1905 until 1954 . Regarded as one of the best defenders of his era by his peers , he was one of the first to skate with the puck up the ice rather than pass it to a forward . He was on Stanley Cup championship teams twice in a playing career that lasted thirteen seasons ; in January 1907 with the Kenora Thistles and 1908 with the Montreal Wanderers . Like other players of the time , Ross played for several different teams and leagues , and is most notable for his time with the Wanderers while they were members of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and its successor , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In 1911 he led one of the first organized player strikes over increased pay . When the Wanderers ' home arena burned down in January 1918 , the team ceased operations and Ross retired as a player .

After several years as an on @-@ ice official , he was named head coach of the Hamilton Tigers for one season . When the Boston Bruins were formed in 1924 , Ross was hired as the first coach and general manager of the team . He would go on to coach the team on three separate occasions until 1945 and stayed as general manager until his retirement in 1954 . Ross helped the Bruins finish first place in the league ten times and to win the Stanley Cup three times ; Ross personally coached the team to two of those victories . After being hired by the Bruins , Ross , along with his wife and two sons , moved to a suburb of Boston , and became an American citizen in 1938 . He died near Boston in 1964 .

Outside of his association with the Bruins , Ross also helped to improve the game . He created a style of hockey puck still used today , and advocated an improved style of goal nets , a change that lasted forty years . In 1947 Ross donated the Art Ross Trophy , awarded to the leading scorer of the NHL regular season . Ross was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 .

= = Early life = =

Ross was born January 13 , 1885 , in Naughton , Ontario . His father , Thomas Barnston Ross , was the head of a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post in the area . The ninth of ten children , Ross grew up speaking both English and Ojibwe , a native Canadian language . Ross moved to Montreal in 1902 to play in organized hockey leagues , living in the affluent Westmount district . He played high school and junior hockey with Lester and Frank Patrick , both of whom were later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Ross and Lester had a financially successful ticket resale business at the Montreal Arena , buying tickets for thirty @-@ five cents and selling them for up to a dollar .

= = Playing career = =

= = = 1905 – 09 = = =

The best hockey players on their high school team , Ross and the Patrick brothers were invited to play occasional games for local league teams in Montreal . Ross first played in an organized league in 1905 , joining Montreal Westmount of the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) , the top amateur league in Canada . He scored ten goals in eight games during the season . His opponents regarded him as one of the best rushing defencemen . Most defenders at the time either shot the puck down the ice or passed to a forward ; in contrast , Ross skated up the ice , taking the puck into the offensive zone . Later that year , wishing to pursue a career in banking , he moved to Brandon , Manitoba , where he joined the Brandon Elks of the Manitoba Hockey League , the senior league in the province . In 1906 , his first season , he scored six goals in seven games while he recorded six goals in ten games in 1907 . Around this time , the Kenora Thistles , the Manitoba League champions , wanted to strengthen their team for the Stanley Cup challenge against the Montreal Wanderers in Montreal during January 1907 . They paid Ross $ 1 @,@ 000 to play both matches , a common practice at the time , and the Thistles won the Cup . While failing to score , Ross started many plays and proved an important part of the team . Although he played for the opposing team , he received a good reception from the Montreal crowd . Ross did not play for the Thistles when the two teams played for the Cup again in March , which the Wanderers won to take back the Cup .

The following year Ross moved back to Montreal . He joined the Wanderers , the team he had helped to defeat , who played in the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , the successor league to the CAHL as the premier league in the country . He scored eight goals in ten games over the two @-@ month season that lasted from January to March . He helped the team to finish first in the ECAHA and retain the Cup in 1908 with challenges from Ottawa , Winnipeg and Toronto . The Wanderers were Cup champions throughout these challenges , so Ross became the second player to win the Cup with different teams in consecutive years , after Jack Marshall in 1901 and 1902 . In January 1908 , he participated in the first all @-@ star game in sports history , a benefit for the family of former Wanderer defender Hod Stuart , who died the previous summer . Aside from his time with the Wanderers , Ross repeated his practice of playing for other teams who paid for his services in important matches . For the 1909 season Ross demanded a salary of $ 1 @,@ 600 . Although he settled for $ 1 @,@ 200 , the average salary of hockey players at the time was $ 600 . Ross received a cash bonus of $ 400 to play in a Stanley Cup challenge against a team from Edmonton in December 1908 , in which the Wanderers won the two @-@ game , total @-@ goal series 13 – 10 . He finished the season with two goals in nine games .

= = = 1909 – 18 = = =

A new league , the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) , was formed in late November 1909 . One of the teams , the All @-@ Montreal Hockey Club , hired Ross as a playing @-@ manager , but the league only lasted to mid @-@ January 1910 before disbanding . Ross , who scored four goals in four games in the CHA , then signed with the Haileybury Comets of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , a league formed in December 1909 , which proved to be the stronger replacement to the ECAHA as the highest level of hockey in Canada . He received $ 2 @,@ 700 to play in the 1910 season , which lasted from January to March , playing twelve games for the team and finishing with six goals . Before the following season , the NHA imposed a salary cap of $ 5 @,@ 000 per team . The players , including Ross , were unhappy as this would result in a pay decrease , and began looking to form their own league without a cap . Ross wrote to the Montreal Herald , stating " all the players want is a fair deal ... The players are not trying to bulldoze the NHA , but we want to know where we get off at . " The plans were abandoned when they realized all the suitable arenas would be unavailable as they were owned or leased by the NHA . Ross scored four goals in eleven games with the Wanderers , who finished fourth in the five team league . During a match against the Quebec Bulldogs on February 25 , 1911 , Ross knocked out Eddie Oatman in a fight , provoking a massive brawl between the two teams , which the police had to break up . The fight helped to increase the reputation Ross had as a tough player unwilling to back down from any opponent . The following season Ross had eleven goals in nineteen games as the Wanderers improved to second in the league .

Prior to the 1913 – 14 NHA season , Ross refused to sign a contract for the Wanderers , requesting a salary increase . As one of the top players on the team , the Wanderers agreed to his demands of $ 1 @,@ 500 for the forthcoming season , in which he finished with four goals and nine points in eighteen games . The next season Ross , again concerned with his salary , began negotiating with other players in the NHA to leave their teams and form a new league that would offer higher wages . These actions resulted in his suspension in November 1914 by Emmett Quinn , president of the NHA . Ross responded by declaring himself a free agent and claiming his contract with the Wanderers was no longer valid . Consequently , although having no technical power to do so , Quinn suspended Ross from all organized hockey . The proposed new league failed to materialize and Ross applied for reinstatement to the NHA , which was granted at a meeting of the team owners on December 18 , 1914 . The owners realized if they suspended Ross , they would also have to suspend all those he signed , hurting the league . However , Ross 's actions led to his release by the Wanderers . At first he trained with the Montreal Canadiens , then joined the Ottawa Senators .

At the conclusion of the 1914 – 15 season , the Senators and Wanderers finished with identical records of fourteen wins and six losses . A two @-@ game , total goal series was played to determine the NHA league champion who would contest the Stanley Cup with the Pacific Coast Hockey Association winner , the Vancouver Millionaires . Ross , who finished with three goals in sixteen games in the season , scored one goal in the first match against the Wanderers , a Senators 4 – 0 victory , and though Ottawa lost the second game 1 – 0 , they won the series , 4 – 1 . To help the Senators stop the Wanderers , who were known for their speed , Ross created a new system of defence . Termed " kitty bar the door " , it required three defenders to align themselves across the ice 30 feet in front of the goaltender to stop offensive rushes . This style of defence would later be used in a modified version known as the neutral zone trap , later used widely to stop opposition offensive chances .

The following year Ross , who had eight goals and eight assists in twenty @-@ one games , was the second highest paid player on the team ; his salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 was $ 100 less than Frank Nighbor made . Even so , Ross left the team in 1916 , returning to Montreal in order to look after his sporting @-@ goods store , and rejoining the Wanderers . He scored six goals and had two assists in sixteen games for the team . The Wanderers , along with the Montreal Canadiens , Toronto Arenas , Quebec Bulldogs and Ottawa Senators dissolved the NHA and founded the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in November 1917 . Ross became coach of the Wanderers , but a fire on January 2 , 1918 , destroyed their home , the Montreal Arena , and forced them to fold after four games . However , the NHL insisted the team continue to play , and recorded two additional scheduled matches as defaulted losses for the Wanderers , even though the matches were not played . With the Wanderers disbanded , Ross retired as a player . His NHL career yielded one goal in three games played .

= = Managerial career = =

= = = 1918 – 36 = = =

Ross began his career as a hockey coach in the midst of his playing days , when at age 24 he led the McGill University Redmen to a 4 – 2 – 1 record during the 1910 – 11 season . Following his playing career , Ross became a NHL referee . He was hired to coach the Hamilton Tigers for the 1922 – 23 season , and adopted new methods in training camp that emphasized physical fitness , including work off the ice . However , the Tigers finished with a record of six wins and eighteen losses , last in the NHL for the third successive year , and Ross did not return the next season . His next coaching appointment arose from meeting Boston grocery store magnate Charles Adams during the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals . Before the 1924 season , the NHL awarded Adams an expansion team . Adams ' first move was to hire Ross as vice president , general manager , coach and scout . Adams instructed Ross to come up with a nickname portraying an untamed animal displaying speed , agility and cunning . With this in mind , Ross named the team the Boston Bruins , after the Old English word for a bear . The team 's nickname went perfectly with the original colours of brown and yellow , which were the same colours of Adams ' grocery chain , First National Stores .

Ross utilized his many hockey connections throughout Canada and the United States to sign players . Even so , the team started poorly . Early in the first season the University of Toronto hockey team was in Boston for matches against local universities . The team 's manager , Conn Smythe , who later owned and managed the Toronto Maple Leafs , said that his team could easily defeat the Bruins — Ross 's team had won only two of their first fifteen NHL games . This began a feud between Smythe and Ross which lasted for over 40 years , until Ross ' death ; while mostly confined to newspaper reports , they refused to speak to each other at NHL Board of Governor meetings . The Bruins finished their first season with six wins in thirty games , one of the worst records in the history of the league . Several records were set over the course of the season ; the three home wins are tied for the second fewest ever , and an eleven @-@ game losing streak from December 8 , 1924 , until February 17 , 1925 , set a record for longest losing streak , surpassed in 2004 and now second longest in history . With 17 wins in 36 games the following season , the team greatly improved , and finished one point out of a playoff spot .

In 1926 the Western Hockey League , the other top professional hockey league , was in decline . The Patrick brothers , who controlled the league , offered to sell the remaining five teams for $ 300 @,@ 000 . Ross realized the potential talent available and convinced Adams to pay the money . As a result , the Bruins acquired the rights to several future Hall of Fame players , the most notable being defender Eddie Shore . Ross signed goaltender Cecil " Tiny " Thompson in 1928 , who was with a team in Minnesota , despite never watching him play ; Ralph " Cooney " Weiland was also brought over from Minnesota . Ross acquired Cy Denneny from Ottawa and made him a player @-@ assistant @-@ coach while he assumed the role of coach and team manager . On November 20 , 1928 , the Bruins moved to a new arena when the Boston Garden opened . The team played the Canadiens who won the match 1 – 0 in front of 16 @,@ 000 fans . The players signed by Ross helped the Bruins to improve quickly , and they won the Stanley Cup in 1929 . Denneny retired after the Cup win , Ross guiding the team to several league records in the 1929 – 30 season . The team won 38 of 44 games for an .875 winning percentage , the highest in league history ; the five losses tied a record for fewest ever , and the four road losses tied a record for second fewest . The Bruins also only finished one game in a tie , a record for fewest ties in a season since the NHL began recording the record in 1926 . One of the longest winning streaks was also set during the season . From December 3 , 1929 , until January 9 , 1930 , the team won fourteen games in a row , a record that lasted until 1982 and now tied for third longest , as of October 2010 . A home winning streak began the same day and lasted for twenty games , until March 18 , 1930 , which was tied for the longest of its kind in 1976 . In 1930 – 31 , the Bruins again lost only one home game , which equalled their previous record .

On March 26 , 1931 , Ross substituted a sixth skater for goaltender Tiny Thompson in the final minute of play in a playoff game against the Montreal Canadiens . Although the Bruins lost the game 1 – 0 , Ross became the first coach to replace his goaltender with an extra attacker , a tactic which became widespread practice in hockey . Stepping aside as coach in 1934 to focus on managing the team , Ross hired Frank Patrick as coach with a salary of $ 10 @,@ 500 , which was high for such a role . However rumours spread during the season that Patrick was drinking heavily and not being as strict with the players as Ross wanted . After the Bruins lost their playoff series with the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1936 playoffs , the result of an 8 – 1 score in the second game , a newspaper claimed that Patrick had been drinking the day of the game and had trouble controlling the team . Several days later , Ross relieved Patrick of his duties and once again assumed the role of coach .

= = = 1936 – 54 = = =

Ross took over an improved team . He had recently signed three players , Milt Schmidt , Bobby Bauer and Woody Dumart , who all grew up together in Kitchener , Ontario , and had them play on the same line , soon nicknamed the Kraut Line in reference to the German heritage of all three . Along with them , Ross had acquired a new goaltender in 1938 , Frank Brimsek ; after Brimsek earned six shutouts in his first eight games , the Bruins traded away Tiny Thompson to allow Brimsek to play . With these players the Bruins finished first in the league in 1937 – 38 ; Ross was named as the second best coach in the league , selected for the end of season All @-@ Star Second Team . The next season the Bruins won 36 of 48 games , and won the Stanley Cup in the playoffs ; Ross was named to the First All @-@ Star Team as the best coach in the league for the season and the team only tied two games , which is tied for the second fewest in a season . He hired the recently retired Cooney Weiland to coach the Bruins for the 1939 – 40 NHL season . The Bruins would win the Cup again in 1941 , and tied their record of only four away losses all season . Ross once again took over as coach of the team before the 1941 – 42 season began , as Weiland became coach of the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League , and led the team to 25 wins in 48 games , which was enough to earn third place in the league . By this time the Second World War had caused several Bruins players , including the entire Kraut Line and goaltender Brimsek , to enlist in their respective armed forces . The Bruins finished second in the NHL during the 1942 – 43 season with 24 wins in 50 games and Ross was again named in the Second NHL All @-@ Star Team as second best coach in the league . The Bruins missed the playoffs in 1943 – 44 , the first time in ten years they failed to qualify , but returned to the playoffs the next season , something they did for five straight years .

In 1949 , Ross had signed Georges Boucher as coach , but Boucher did not work well with Ross and team president Weston Adams . Looking to hire a new coach in the summer of 1950 , Ross phoned Lynn Patrick , the son of Lester , who had just resigned from the New York Rangers after coaching the team to the Stanley Cup Final . Lynn had moved his family back to Victoria , British Columbia , where he grew up as a child , with the intention of coaching the Victoria Cougars , a team in the minor professional Pacific Coast Hockey League . Though reluctant to move back to the eastern United States , Lynn was hired by Ross after he was offered a salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 . He would coach the team for the next four seasons and become the second general manager of the Bruins when Ross retired at the end of October 1954 .

= = = Legacy = = =

Aside from his career in hockey , Ross was interested in improving the game . Prior to the start of the 1927 – 28 season , the NHL adopted a new style of goal net created by Ross . With the back molded into a B @-@ shape , it was better designed to catch pucks and the net was used until 1984 , when a modified version was adopted . He also improved the design of the puck . Ross ' design had bevel edges , which prevented it bouncing too much , and used synthetic rubber , rather than the natural rubber previously in vogue . Along with New York Rangers coach Frank Boucher , Ross helped to create the red line , which was introduced to help speed up the game by removing the ability for defenders to pass the puck from the defensive to offensive zone ; until 2006 it was against the rules of hockey to make a two line pass . More scoring chances resulted as teams could not simply send the puck down the ice with impunity . In order to help tell the red line and blue lines apart on television , Ross suggested that the red line be striped .

Regarded throughout his playing career as one of the best defenders in hockey , Ross was named to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 , selected for his playing career rather than his work as an executive . A ceremony for his induction was held prior to a Bruins game on December 2 , 1949 , where he was given his Hall of Fame scroll and a silver tray with the emblems of the six NHL teams on it . In 1975 he was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . Along with his two sons he donated the Art Ross Trophy to the NHL in 1947 , to be awarded to the leading scorer in the league 's regular season . In 1984 he was posthumously awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for service to hockey in the United States .

A descriptive biography entitled Art Ross : The Hockey Legend who Built the Bruins by Eric Zweig was published by Dundurn Press in Sept 2015 .

= = Personal life = =

Ross also excelled in baseball , football , lacrosse and motorcycle racing . Before he became a hockey executive , he had a career as a bank clerk and ran a sporting @-@ goods store in Montreal . Ross had moved to Brandon , Manitoba , in 1905 at the advice of his parents so he could get a job with a bank , with a salary of $ 600 per year . He gave that career up when he began playing hockey professionally . He was married to Muriel , a native of Montreal , and had two sons , Art and John . During the Second World War , both sons served in the Royal Canadian Air Force . After the war Ross made his son Art the business manager for the Bruins . Ross was named coach and manager of the Boston Bruins in 1924 and moved his family to Brookline , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , after being hired . In 1928 , he served as the traveling secretary of the Boston Braves baseball team , which was owned by Bruins owner Charles Adams . He became a naturalized American citizen on April 22 , 1938 . On August 5 , 1964 , Ross died at a nursing home in Medford , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , at the age of 79 . A sister , both his sons , and three grandchildren survived him .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =

* Playing stats from Total Hockey

= = = Coaching record = = =

* Coaching stats from Total Hockey

= = Awards = =

= = = NHL = = =

* Awards from Legends of Hockey

= Saint Leonard Catholic Church ( Madison , Nebraska ) =

Saint Leonard Catholic Church is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Madison , in the state of Nebraska in the Midwestern United States . Built in 1913 , it has been described as " an outstanding example of the Romanesque Revival style of architecture . "

St. Leonard 's parish , named after Saint Leonard of Port Maurice , was organized in 1879 . A wood frame church was built in 1881 on the outskirts of Madison , and moved into the city in 1898 . In 1902 , the basement of the current church was built , and the congregation moved into it , converting the old church to a school . When funds allowed , the basement was extended , and the current brick church completed in 1913 .

In 1989 , the church , its 1912 rectory , and the rectory 's garage were listed in the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of noted Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . A pupil of Thomas Rogers Kimball , Nachtigall designed a number of Catholic churches and other buildings in the state , several of which are also listed in the National Register .

= = History = =

The first white settlers to occupy the site of Madison were a party led by Henry Mitchell Barnes , who settled near the junction of Union and Taylor Creeks in 1867 . Growth of the new settlement was rapid ; in particular , there was an influx of German families from Wisconsin . The town of Madison was officially platted by Barnes in 1870 or 1871 . In 1875 , it became the county seat of Madison County , and in 1876 it was incorporated . The Union Pacific Railroad reached Madison in 1879 ; by 1880 , the town had a population of about 300 .

The first Christian services held in Madison were Presbyterian , taking place in Barnes 's and other homes . A Presbyterian congregation was organized in 1870 , and a church built in 1872 . A Methodist circuit encompassing Madison and Antelope counties was organized in 1871 ; a parsonage was built in Madison ca . 1875 , and a church begun in 1877 . A Lutheran congregation may have formed in Madison in about 1875 , although early records are incomplete ; the congregation was initially served by the pastor of a Lutheran church in Green Garden Precinct , located about seven miles ( 11 km ) southwest of Madison . It was formally organized in 1885 , and a church built in Madison in 1887 .

The first Catholic settlers in Madison County homesteaded near present @-@ day Battle Creek , northwest of Madison , in the late 1860s . In 1874 , they organized a parish ; in 1874 – 75 , they built St. Patrick 's Church , the county 's first Catholic church . In 1877 , they wrote to Bishop James O 'Connor of the Diocese of Omaha , asking that a priest be assigned to visit the church at intervals until a permanent priest could be assigned to the parish ; in apparent response to this , Franciscan missionaries based in Columbus were given the responsibility of providing for Madison County .

= = = 1879 – 1900 = = =

In 1879 , a group of Catholic residents of the Madison area met to plan the building of a church . At the meeting , a total of $ 426 @.@ 75 was subscribed ; additional contributions of $ 322 @.@ 86 were obtained from citizens of Madison . In January 1880 , the church 's trustees spent $ 100 for five acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) on a hill at the southeastern edge of town . In the spring , a party of parishioners drove their ox teams to Wisner , about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Madison , for the first load of lumber for the new church . The 30 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 9 m × 12 m ) frame structure , with a capacity of 100 , was completed in November 1881 ; the total cost was $ 957 @.@ 61 , leaving $ 208 @.@ 00 owed to the carpenter . The new church was dedicated to St. Leonard of Port Maurice , an 18th @-@ century Franciscan priest , preacher , ascetic , and writer venerated as the patron saint of parish missions .

In 1882 , a parcel of land southeast of the church was purchased for a cemetery ; a one @-@ year @-@ old child buried in September of that year became its first occupant . The cemetery was fenced in 1883 . In 1884 , the church was enlarged : a sacristy and a room for the priest were added to the east end , and a steeple to the west end .

As Madison 's population grew , the church became too small for the expanding congregation . In addition , its location outside of the city was inconvenient for many parishioners . In 1898 , a tract of land inside Madison was bought . Rather than building a new church at the time , the parish elected to move the old one to the new site . The church was moved in two parts ; when it was reconstructed , another section was added between them , increasing the building 's seating capacity to 180 . The church on the new site was dedicated in November 1898 .

= = = 1900 – 1913 = = =

In the early 20th century , the parish decided that the old church should be remodelled into a school and a convent for the teachers , and that a new church should be built . Brother Leonard Darscheid , a Franciscan architect , drew up plans for a church ; but financial constraints precluded its construction . Instead , a temporary basement church was built just west of the old church building . It is not known whether the design of the basement used Darscheid 's plans . Construction of the basement church began in July 1902 , services were held there beginning in September 1902 , and it was dedicated in February 1903 .

The school opened in September 1903 , with two classrooms staffed by two members of the Sisters of the Presentation of Dubuque , Iowa . 66 students were enrolled , including a number of non @-@ Catholics , owing to overcrowding in the public schools . To make more space available , a basement was dug in 1904 . In 1910 , a third classroom was added .

In 1910 , the Franciscans turned the management of the parish over to the Diocese of Omaha . In October of that year , Edward S. Muenich became the first diocesan pastor of St. Leonard 's .

Muenich embarked upon an extensive building campaign , for which he retained Omaha architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Born in Germany in 1874 , Nachtigall had immigrated to the United States with his family in 1883 . Initially working as a laborer in Omaha , he had served as a draftsman for that city 's 1898 Trans @-@ Mississippi and International Exposition . He had then worked as a draftsman for Omaha architect Thomas Rogers Kimball from 1900 to 1908 ; during this time , Kimball had designed the city 's St. Cecilia 's Cathedral . In 1909 , Nachtigall had opened his own architectural office .

In 1911 , a two @-@ story eight @-@ room brick rectory designed by Nachtigall was begun ; it was completed and furnished in 1912 , at a cost of $ 10 @,@ 374 . In the fall of 1912 , the church basement was extended by over 50 percent .

= = = 1913 – 1946 = = =

In 1913 , a Romanesque Revival church designed by Nachtigall was built on the existing basement . The cornerstone was laid and construction begun in May ; the church was completed by the end of November , and formally dedicated on December 4 . The cost of construction was about $ 75 @,@ 000 . While the church was under construction , Catholic services were held in Madison 's armory .

The new church had a seating capacity of 700 . In its 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) tower was a clock with four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials , and a peal of three bells , contributed by the citizens of Madison ; beside summoning the parishioners to Mass , these rang the quarter @-@ hours , marking time for the residents of the city and the surrounding rural areas .

While the urban United States experienced an economic boom during the 1920s , the agricultural sector of the country experienced a depression . Disruption of European agriculture by World War I had produced high prices for farm commodities , and it had been thought that Europe 's recovery would be slow and that the high prices would persist . This gave rise to a bubble in farmland prices , which burst when the rapid postwar recovery of European agriculture drove commodity prices down again . At the same time , increasing mechanization reduced the need for farm labor , pushing agricultural wages downward and rural unemployment upward . Madison and St. Leonard 's parish suffered from this agricultural depression and from the Great Depression of the 1930s . During this time , the parish 's population remained more or less stable : in 1918 , it consisted of 440 individuals ; in 1929 , 452 .

In 1926 , the parish was forced to close its school , since the Presentation Sisters were no longer able to staff it . The school re @-@ opened in 1931 , with 60 pupils taught by Missionary Benedictine Sisters based in Norfolk .

The onset of World War II once again brought prosperity to rural Nebraska , and it persisted into the 1950s . St. Leonard 's paid off its remaining debt , held a mortgage @-@ burning ceremony in 1946 , and began raising funds for a new school .

= = = 1946 – present = = =

The cornerstone for a new school was laid in November 1953 . A property adjoining the new school site was bought , and the house standing upon it converted to a convent for the nuns staffing the school . The new building was completed and opened for classes in August 1954 ; the old school , which had begun life as the first St. Leonard 's Church , was demolished that fall , and its site became a parking lot .

The Benedictine Sisters withdrew from the school in 1978 , prompting the closing of the seventh and eighth grades . The school continued to offer grades 1 – 6 , taught by three lay instructors .

Beginning in the early 1990s , Madison experienced a large influx of Hispanics . In 1990 , Madison County 's population was 2 % Hispanic ; by 2010 , the number had increased to 13 % . In the city of Madison , whose single largest employer was a meatpacking plant with over 1000 employees , operated by IBP and then by Tyson Foods , the increase was far greater : the Hispanic fraction of the population rose from less than 1 % in 1980 to 48 @.@ 8 % in 2010 , as the Spanish @-@ speaking population increased and the white non @-@ Hispanic population fell . By 2011 , an estimated two @-@ thirds of St. Leonard 's parishioners were Hispanic . Beginning in 1991 , the archdiocese assigned Spanish @-@ speaking priests to the parish , and both English- and Spanish @-@ language services were offered .

The centennial of the church building was celebrated in December 2013 , at a bilingual Mass conducted by Elden Curtiss , archbishop emeritus of the Archdiocese of Omaha .

= = Architecture = =

In 1989 , three of the parish 's buildings — the church , the rectory , and the rectory 's garage — were added to the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of distinguished Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Beside St. Leonard 's , Nachtigall designed a number of other notable buildings in Nebraska , many of them Catholic ; these include St. Mary of the Assumption Church in Dwight ( 1914 ) , St. Anthony 's Church in Cedar Rapids ( 1919 ) , St. Bonaventure 's Church in Raeville ( 1919 ) , Immaculate Conception Church in Omaha ( 1926 ) , and Father Flanagan 's House at Boys Town ( 1927 ) .

= = = Church = = =

The church is oriented east @-@ west , with the main entrance facing westward . It is just over 153 feet ( 47 m ) long from east to west ; 52 feet ( 16 m ) wide from north to south . The walls are made of mosaic gray pressed brick trimmed with Bedford stone , rising from a rock @-@ faced limestone foundation , and are about 40 feet ( 12 m ) high . The peak of the roof is about 70 feet ( 21 m ) above ground level .

At the west end of the church , a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) belltower rises above the main entrance . The tower is topped with a copper dome , capped with a cross . It contains three bells , weighing 900 , 1 @,@ 600 , and 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 410 , 730 , and 1 @,@ 130 kg ) . The tower 's clock has four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials . Below the tower , a flight of seventeen steps ascends to the church 's main entrance , via a set of double doors through a semicircular archway .

The church 's north and south walls are supported by a series of buttresses . Seven windows run along each wall . A line of brick corbels runs along the walls below the eaves . Near the east end of the church , a short transept extends a short distance outward . At the church 's east end , beyond the transept , is a semicircular apse with a conical roof , topped with a six @-@ paned conical skylight .

= = = = Interior = = = =

The interior plan of the church consists of a nave , a short transept , and a semicircular apse . At the west end of the nave is a narthex . At the center of this is a vestibule leading to the church 's main entrance ; at the church 's northwest corner is a reconciliation room , formerly a baptistry ; at the southwest corner is a short passage from which a staircase descends to the basement and another rises to the choir loft . In the loft is the church 's organ , a tracker model manufactured by the Hinners Organ Company in 1879 ; the organ was not originally built for St. Leonard 's .

The nave measures 98 feet ( 30 m ) between the entrance and the communion rail . An aisle passes down its center ; narrower aisles follow the north and south walls . Two rows of seven circular columns run along the nave . The columns are made of wood , plastered to conceal the material , and decorated with Corinthian capitals . The rib @-@ vaulted ceiling rises 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) above the floor . Fourteen stained @-@ glass windows , depicting scenes from the life of Christ , occupy the nave 's walls . The 13 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 1 m × 1 @.@ 5 m ) windows were produced by the Muenich Art Studio of Chicago . Between the windows are sculpted stations of the cross . In three spandrels above columns on each side are fresco paintings .

Two marble steps rise from the nave to the chancel . At the top of the steps is a hand @-@ carved white wood communion rail , decorated with miniature onyx columns and topped with marble .

At the northwest and southwest corners of the chancel are two side altars : to the north , a Marian altar ; to the south , an altar of St. Joseph . The original image on the Marian altar depicts Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception ; more recently , an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe has been added . The St. Joseph altar includes a bone relic of St. Leonard of Port Maurice .

On the Gospel side of the chancel is a large hand @-@ carved wood pulpit , decorated with carved figures of the four Evangelists .

The chancel is dominated by the high altar , which stands over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) tall , and which cost its donors $ 2 @,@ 080 in 1913 . Like the communion rail , the side altars , and the pulpit , it is made of hand @-@ carved wood decorated with small onyx columns . At the base is a relief sculpture of the Last Supper ; above that is a marble altar table . The tabernacle is just above that ; to either side is a sculpted angel , kneeling to the tabernacle and holding the sanctuary lamps . Above the tabernacle is a sculpted Crucifixion of Jesus , with the Virgin Mary and the apostle John on either side of the cross . In separate niches on either side of the crucifixion scene are statues of St. Boniface and St. Patrick , representing the German and Irish ethnicity of the parish in the early 20th century . Above their niches are figures of angels blowing trumpets ; at the top of the altar is a statue of St. Leonard .

On the half @-@ domed ceiling of the apse is a large oil @-@ painted mural depicting a scene in Heaven . In the center , God the Father and Jesus are enthroned on a cloud ; a stained @-@ glass skylight at the top of the dome depicting the Holy Spirit completes the Trinity . Flanking the Father and Son are the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist . Below the cloud is Satan in torment . At the left and right of the scene is an assemblage of 18 Catholic saints and 10 angels .

Beside the fourteen large windows in the nave , there are 25 stained @-@ glass windows in the church , depicting saints and symbols of the Catholic Church . These include St. Cecilia , patron saint of the Archdiocese of Omaha , and a pair of windows depicting St. Boniface and St. Patrick .

In the 1989 form nominating it for the National Register of Historic Places , it was noted that the church had undergone only minor alterations , including an interior redecoration in 1964 , the replacement of roof slates with asphalt shingles in 1977 , and the addition of a concrete ramp for access by the handicapped in 1986 .

= = = Rectory = = =

The rectory , located just south of the church , was designed in Neoclassical style , with Romanesque Revival elements . It is a rectangular house measuring 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide by 57 feet ( 17 m ) long , with eight rooms in two stories . Like the church , it is made of mosaic gray brick .

An open porch occupies the whole of the west frontage , facing the street , and wraps around to cover half of the south side . The portico is supported by circular columns with Doric capitals . At the base of the porch is brick latticework . There is a small enclosed porch with a doorway on the east side .

There are three rowlock arches above all of the windows on the first floor . One of the west @-@ facing windows on the second floor has two rowlock arches above it ; the other second @-@ floor windows are rectangular . There are two circular window openings in the attic , one facing west and the other south .

The rectory has a sloping roof with overhanging eaves and wood cornices . On the south wall is a tympanum , filled in with siding .

= = = = Garage = = = =

The original rectory garage is located southeast of the rectory . It is a rectangular structure facing westward , measuring 16 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) north to south , and 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) east to west . The interior is a single room .

The front ( west side ) of the garage is made of the same mosaic gray brick that was used for the construction of the church and the rectory . The north and south walls are both made of two different materials : the western two @-@ thirds of them is red brick , possibly from the brickyard that once operated in Madison ; the easternmost third is plastered with a layer of cement , painted red to match the bricks . The rear ( east ) wall is also plastered with red cement . It is speculated that the garage was either lengthened to fit a longer car , or that the eastern third had to be rebuilt ; the building 's hip roof shows no signs of having been lengthened .

The garage has two doors and two windows . Both the doors and windows have two rowlock brick arches over them . The car entrance is on the west side ; a passage door is on the north side . A clear @-@ glass window with 16 panes is on the east side . On the west side , north of the car entrance , is a window with beveled lead @-@ glass panes , which appear clear from the outside but red from inside the building . It has been speculated that this window was part of the parish 's first church .

= Portuguese ironclad Vasco da Gama =

Vasco da Gama was a central battery ironclad which entered service with the Portuguese Navy in 1876 , serving until 1935 . She was built by the Thames Iron Works in London , launched in 1876 , and completed in 1878 . She served as the flagship of the Portuguese fleet for the majority of her long and peaceful career . She was rebuilt and heavily modernized between 1901 and 1903 . Long @-@ since obsolete by the 1930s , Vasco da Gama was finally sold for scrapping in 1935 .

= = Design = =

Vasco da Gama was 200 feet ( 61 m ) long between perpendiculars , and she had a beam of 40 ft ( 12 m ) , though at the main battery guns , the ship was 46 ft 6 in ( 14 @.@ 17 m ) wide . She had a maximum draft of 19 ft ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 384 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 346 long tons ; 2 @,@ 628 short tons ) as originally built . She was fitted with a barquentine rig and a steam engine rated at 3 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 3 kn ( 19 @.@ 1 km / h ; 11 @.@ 9 mph ) . She had a crew of 232 officers and men .

As built , Vasco da Gama was armed with a main battery of two 10 @.@ 2 in ( 260 mm ) guns , placed in individual barbettes side by side amidships . She was also equipped with a single 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) gun mounted on her stern , and four 9 @-@ pounder guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . She was protected with a complete iron armored belt that was 4 inches ( 100 mm ) thick on either end and 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick amidships . The main battery guns were protected by 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) thick barbettes .

= = Service history = =

Vasco da Gama was laid down at the Thames Iron Works shipyard in London , Britain in 1875 , and was launched on 1 December 1876 . The ship was completed in 1878 . She served as part of the coastal defense force that protected Lisbon , the Portuguese capital , and the mouth of the river Tagus . On 26 June 1897 , Vasco da Gama participated in the Fleet Review at Spithead celebrating Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . At the time , the ship was commanded by Captain Barreto de Vascomellos .

In 1901 , Vasco da Gama was taken into drydock at Orlando shipyard in Livorno , Italy , for a major reconstruction . She was cut in half and lengthened by a 32 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 91 m ) long section . She was fitted with new engines and more powerful water @-@ tube boilers rated at 6 @,@ 000 ihp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) ; this increased her speed to 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her sailing rig also was removed . Her main battery guns were replaced with new 8 in ( 200 mm ) L / 40 guns in sponsons , the short 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun was replaced by a new long @-@ barreled 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch L / 45 gun , and six 3 @-@ pounders augmented her close @-@ range defense . Her iron belt armor was removed and stronger steel armor was installed in its place . The ship 's crew increased to 260 officers and men . All of the changes caused her displacement to rise to 2 @,@ 972 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 925 long tons ; 3 @,@ 276 short tons ) . Work on Vasco da Gama was completed by 1903 .

On 27 August 1907 , a gas explosion aboard the ship injured several crewmen . During political unrest in April 1913 , part of the crew of Vasco da Gama had to be removed from the ship , as they had been involved in a planned ultra @-@ Radical coup d 'état against the First Portuguese Republic . On 14 May 1915 , the crew again participated in unrest ; they mutinied and killed the ship 's captain and bombarded Lisbon , killing around one hundred people . Vasco da Gama remained the flagship of the Portuguese Navy at least as late as 1914 , as the Portuguese naval budget was insufficient to fund a suitable replacement vessel . Thoroughly obsolete , she remained in the Portuguese fleet until 1935 , when she was sold for scrapping .

= Nicole Franklin =

Nicole Franklin is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Tessa James . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 18 April 2008 . Nicole was introduced by executive producer Cameron Welsh . Nicole was mentioned various times before appearing on @-@ screen , James was cast in the role and described by Welsh as an " exciting talent " . He predicted that the viewers would respond " really well " to her . Nicole was initially portrayed as a shallow " party girl " with " wild ways " . Also described as a " high maintenance " female , she has been shown to dress constantly in a stylish manner . Nicole is also become notable for her many relationships . Her first prominent romance was with Geoff Campbell . Described as " complete opposites " , Geoff is credited as a catalyst in Nicole mellowing her brash attitude . Their storyline allowed the actors to take part in one of the serial 's " biggest ever location shoots " , when the couple became stranded on a remote desert island . In one storyline Nicole was involved in a same sex kiss with fellow character Freya Duric , which was branded controversial by various media sources . The plot saw Nicole question her persona , believing Geoff had transformed her into a boring person .

Another relationship Nicole pursued was with Aden Jefferies , her longtime closest friend . Aden had a strong fanbase from his previous relationship with Belle Taylor . This resulted in the audience being divided over their relationship . Nicole has also been featured in various other romantic storylines , such as a brief fling with Liam Murphy , James said that he was compatible with Nicole because he had " the edge she was after " . She also dated Trey Palmer and they became involved in sex tape storyline , many newspapers reported on the plot because it " echoed " co @-@ star Lewis ' real life sex tape scandal . Producer Welsh once stated he believed Nicole was destined to become " full circle " and Nicole began behaving erratic and wild once more , due to her failed romances and the death of her friend Belle . She also had an affair with an older male character , Sid Walker . James liked the fact Nicole had so many romances because she got to kiss many of her co @-@ stars .

James announced her departure from Home and Away in March 2011 . One of her final storylines was a pregnancy plot . Nicole felt she was too young and unable to offer a child stability , so she agreed to let Marilyn Chambers adopt the baby upon its birth . James and the writing team took the storyline " very seriously " and conducted research to portray the issue sensitively . Nicole has received critical analysis from various sources , with perception being mixed to positive . TV Week were neutral to aspects of her pregnancy plot but opined James was one of the serials best actress ' . The Daily Record said that being single was good for the character . She has also been likened to celebrities because of her glamorous image .

= = Creation and casting = =

Nicole is Roman Harris ' ( Conrad Coleby ) daughter and she was often mentioned on @-@ screen before producers decided to introduce her into the serial . In January 2008 it was announced that ex @-@ Neighbours star Tessa James had been cast as Nicole . Executive producer Cameron Welsh said ' She is an exciting talent and I think audiences are going to love her character and respond really well to her . " James then moved to Sydney especially for the role . Speaking of working on the serial James stated : " Working on a series like this [ Home and Away ] is the best training you can get , I look at it like an apprenticeship and never forget how lucky I am . " Fellow cast member Celeste Dodwell who plays Melody Jones originally auditioned for the part of Nicole . After Coleby who plays Roman quit the serial , James ' time with the show was in doubt .

In March 2011 , James confirmed that she had left Home and Away . She has already filmed her final scenes and Nicole will leave on @-@ screen later in the year . Of her departure , James said " I was at Home and Away for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ years , so it 's good to be finished and get to be who I am , and do what I 've wanted to do for so long . "

= = Character development = =

= = = Characterisation = = =

Nicole has been portrayed as a party girl , feisty and has had many boyfriends in a short space of time . James has described Nicole stating : " I love playing Nicole because she 's feisty and fun , and doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . And she dresses stylishly – she 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " The serial 's official website describe her as : " Nicole might come off as a bitchy princess to some people , she 's not malicious . She 's simply as shallow as a puddle , and while she might cause others emotional pain , it 's totally unintentional . " They also state : " Nicole is a girl who lives to have fun , and she is fun if you accept her for who she is . And , of course , she thinks you 're worth her attention . Nicole is a girl who knows exactly who she is and where she stands : at the centre of the universe . " Soap opera reporting website Holy Soap described Nicole as " a label @-@ loving pampered princess , armed with a sharp wardrobe and an even sharper tongue " . They also added she was a " sultry " type character .

Whilst interviewed by The Daily Telegraph , James stated : " I think she 's the best character , I get to have so much fun being a princess and a prima donna . She doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . She 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " She also stated she enjoys Nicole 's " promiscuous side " because she seems to have another boyfriend every week . James also enjoys the role because of this and the fact she gets so many " pash " scenes with other cast members .

Series producer Cameron Welsh branded Nicole as an " interesting character " , adding his opinion on her development stating : " She came in with really strong opinions and a kind of morality that was different to the rest of the group " . Welsh also believes that Nicole is destined to come " full circle " . Of her 2010 storylines he comments that Nicole poor judgements make her realise and re @-@ evaluate her life .

= = = Relationship with Geoff Campbell = = =

Nicole embarks on a relationship with Geoff Campbell , not before they are embroiled in a " sordid love triangle " along with Melody . In one storyline Nicole and Geoff became stranded on a " deserted island " and nearly die . The episodes were filmed on Box Beach located at Shoal Bay , New South Wales as part of a two @-@ day location shoot . Nicole nearly drowns in scenes which aired for the serial 's " cliff @-@ hanger " in 2008 . James and Lewis took scuba diving lessons in preparation for the storyline . Filming the storyline was compromised by logistical challenges . The crew had to move camera equipment between boats and the crew walked around the perimeters of the beach in order to avoid leaving footprints . This was to keep the authenticity of a deserted location . The storyline was also given a " big budget " , featured helicopters and a number of promotional adverts were aired on Seven .

The storyline began on @-@ screen when Nicole started dating Elliot Gillen ( Paul Pantano ) . He had a vendetta against Roman and kidnapped Nicole and Geoff and left them stranded out at sea . They washed up on a deserted island and were forced to survive without food and clothing . Describing the effect it had on Nicole and Geoff , James stated : " They have no food , shelter or clothing . [ ... ] They find moments to make each other laugh , though , and realise how much they mean to one another . " Geoff had strong religious views and did not believe in premarital sex . However , the environment they were in caused him to let his guard down and they slept together . Lewis told TV Week that all the pair could think of whilst trapped was being rescued and their feelings for one an other . He added that " the fact they were both pretty much naked didn 't help " . He concluded the fact they were both kids , trying to keep warm - that then " stuff happens " . Geoff was left " guilt @-@ ridden " because he gave into temptation . He did not regret it , but acknowledged that he wanted to save his virginity until marriage . Therefore , Geoff saw no other option but to propose to Nicole . Lewis stated , " He 's not 100 % sure about that either , but he feels that if they 're going to have sex , a wedding is the only solution . " Describing Nicole 's reaction he said that she was " dumbfounded " by his offer , as she had believed he was acting strange because he wanted to dump her . Nicole refused when she realised his reasons for proposing . According to James , the moment managed to ruin their passion , she also commented that : " Nicole has liked Geoff for ages and was so happy to have got together with him - but now he 's spoiled it . " James also admitted she was trilled to learn Nicole would turn down his proposal . James later opined that Nicole was " the one " for Geoff , but did not believe that Geoff was " the one " for Nicole .

Nicole and Geoff 's relationship became strained . Nicole decided to plan a return trip to the island , believing it would solve their problems and bring them closer together . James said that Geoff loved the surprise , but found Nicole " very sexy and tempting " . She added that everything about Nicole forced Geoff to question his religious beliefs and he felt he " needed to back away " . Their trip soon turned disastrous when a man named Derrick Quaid ( John Atkinson ) stole their food and intimidated the couple . He admitted he were a murderer and tried to attack Geoff with a knife . James said he " put himself in harms way " to save Nicole .

In 2009 , James told Inside Soap that Nicole and Geoff had a strong friendship underneath their romance . She also described their compatibility stating : " They 're complete opposites , which works well for them . It 's a bit of a fiery relationship , and they 've been through a lot together . " Whilst Lewis added : " They 're also very similar in some of their strongest traits . Geoff and Nicole are both stubborn and opinionated , and in some ways they 're naive . In a weird way they show a side to each other nobody else gets to see . " James opined Nicole 's wild behaviour was often to much for Geoff to cope with . In public , Lewis initially had negative feedback from older viewers because they felt Geoff was better suited to Melody . He revealed they felt like she was a bad influence for Geoff because she often played games . However towards the end of their relationship he felt perception had changed due to viewers having a better understanding of Nicole 's persona .

= = = Other relationships = = =

In 2009 , the serial embarked on two lesbian storylines , one of which involved Nicole . It featured Freya Duric ( Sophie Hensser ) kissing Nicole , which sparked complaints . However , for Nicole it wasn 't about sexuality , rather finding herself the center of attention . James described their dynamic , stating : " Freya 's exactly what Nicole was like when she first arrived in the bay , that is why they click . Nicole relates to the wild side of Freya , but has no idea how far Freya is going to take it . " Through her relationship with Geoff she had mellowed , however her vanity was still present . James said Nicole was " angry " because she was on Freya 's " not hot list " . Freya kissed her to prove she thinks she is hot , James opined that Nicole did not enjoy the kiss , but was just " happy to be center of attention " and happy that people were talking about her again . The incident eventually brought her to the realisation that she had become boring . Nicole denied it was to do with her involvement with Geoff , however James said Geoff was the reason she became bored .

Later that year the serial included a storyline which was branded " bizarre " after it mirrored a real life scandal that had occurred weeks earlier . Lewis who plays love interest Geoff had been caught up in a sex tape scandal which leaked onto the internet , the serial decided to include Nicole making a sex tape with Trey Palmer ( Luke Bracey ) and having it leaked . Trey filmed without Nicole 's consent , when she found out the truth she ended their relationship . Trey thought she and Geoff were getting back together so aired the tape at a local film festival to gain revenge . James described Nicole 's state of mind adding , " She 's quite vulnerable at the moment , with her dad , Roman , in prison . She 's relying on Trey , so this is the last thing she needs . "

Nicole 's best friend during her initial storylines was Aden Jefferies ( Todd Lasance ) . After Brendan Austin ( Kain O 'Keeffe ) caused Roman to go blind , he took his anger out on Nicole and Aden . Subsequently they became " each other 's support network " and Lasance said it was not long afterward that they " slipped between the sheets " . One of the conditions of Aden 's tenancy was to never sleep with Nicole , this made the pair feel guilty that they had deceived Roman . Lasance felt the storyline was controversial as he had a strong fan base for his relationship with Belle Taylor ( Jessica Tovey ) - which meant he knew it would " cause a stir " and divide the audience . In January 2010 , Nicole and Aden " get up close and personal " and they decided to spend Aden 's remaining time in the Bay together . They shared a kiss and James told TV Week that there are " a lot of complications " for them . She said that no one knew what was going to happen with Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) and that Nicole felt guilty for betraying Belle because she was her friend . James explained that Nicole 's pairing with Aden was " a bit more serious and in @-@ depth than her usual relationships . " James opined that Aden was the " nicer guy " for Nicole , but Liam may have had " the edge she 's after . " Nicole and Aden then embarked on a relationship . James thought that Nicole and Aden 's relationship was great and said " They started out having a kind of brother @-@ sister relationship , and that developed into something more . " Nicole declared her love for Aden , however he did not reciprocate . Lasance described the moment whilst interviewed by TV Week stating : " They 've always had an awesome connection and Nicole gets into a bit of a comfortable state and blurts out that she loves Aden . " Aden appreciated her love for him , however cannot say it back until he felt the same way . It is this that made their relationship " awkward " , Nicole tried to withdraw her declaration and hide her hurt feelings .

= = = Downward spiral = = =

In mid @-@ 2009 , producers decided to take Nicole 's storyline into a " u @-@ turn " , when she reverted to her " wild ways " . At the time Nicole had endured repetitive personal trauma including failed relationships , Roman being sent to prison and her best friend Belle was dying of cancer . James explained : " It 's all too much for her and she can 't handle it , so she reverts to her wild ways . " Geoff notices Nicole 's erratic behaviour and attempts to help her . She tried to " lure him into bed " after he comforted her , however he turned her down . James said she no longer had romantic feelings for Geoff , but was actually in a " vulnerable state " . She then started relying on alcohol more , and partied with fellow " wild child " Indigo Walker ( Samara Weaving ) at a " rowdy " venue . James explained that Nicole saw alcohol as an answer to her problems . The fact that " she 's trying to deal with too many things " saw Nicole transform into a messed up and depressed person .

Nicole became more irresponsible with the more she drank and was in the company of many men . Geoff arrived and saved her from danger , Lewis said there was a part of Geoff that still loved Nicole . However they did not start anything again , James said she understood why because of their complicated backstory . However Geoff continued to support Nicole as he realised that " a lot of people she was closest to have deserted her " . Nicole 's unpredictable behaviour continued thereafter . All that Geoff could offer was to be there for her because ultimately " Nicole is the only one that can save her from herself . "

= = = Pregnancy = = =

Nicole had a brief relationship with Penn Graham ( Christian Clark ) and after he was murdered , she discovered that she was pregnant with his child . James told Sunrise that viewers could expect a " realistic portrayal of teen pregnancy " and she explained that it was important to respect the issue . She added " We took it very seriously with the writers , and you do a lot of research and things like that . You can only do your best , I guess ! " Nicole later told Marilyn Chambers ( Emily Symons ) about the baby and she offered to adopt it . James later revealed that when she joined Home and Away she told the writers that they can do anything with her character , except make her pregnant . Of the moment she was told that Nicole was going to have a baby , James said " I went in to see our producer later and he said , ' Okay , I 'm going to apologise in advance - we 're making Nicole pregnant ! ' " She initially did not want to portray a " typical soap teenage pregnancy " as she thought Nicole should be different . However the situation was explained to her and she became excited at the challenging storyline ahead .

Nicole later decided to let Marilyn and Sid Walker ( Robert Mammone ) adopt the baby upon its birth . Marilyn was desperate to mother a child and her obsession with that and her controlling behaviour became too much for Nicole . Of the situation , Symons said " Marilyn is in Nicole 's face every minute . She 's doing it out of love , but she doesn 't realise she 's becoming obsessed with the baby . " Nicole was still questioning whether she is making the right decision about her unborn baby 's future and she argued with Marilyn . Nicole began dating a student from university , Angus McCathie ( Tim Pocock ) , they got along well on their first dates . Marilyn was left worried about their agreement and she felt " distanced . " Symons explained , " Marilyn is scared of being replaced . She 's scared of losing the baby , which could happen because there isn 't a legal agreement . " Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) helped Nicole by convincing Marilyn to re @-@ evaluate the situation . Symons added that there is " still a long way to go " with the arrangement , but thereafter she was supportive and offered constructive help to Nicole .

During the final few weeks of her pregnancy Nicole began to receive increasing support from Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) . James said it was clear to see that " the lines of friendship could be blurring into something more " for the pair . Whilst Jacobz opined " They 've been spending time together and have realised how comfortable they are together . "

Angelo was forced to help Nicole give birth to a baby boy , George , and she handed him over to Marilyn immediately as agreed . She then tried to stay away , however it became obvious he needed her when he struggled without her . Marilyn then became obsessed with Nicole having the power to take her new son back . It was then revealed that Nicole would struggle to switch off her mothering instinct after giving George away . Nicole came to visit the baby and Marilyn caught her breastfeeding George , while she was alone with him . Symons called the scenes " volatile . " Nicole was unaware that Marilyn has reservations about her spending time with the baby . Of the breastfeeding scene , Symons stated : " Marilyn is shocked and offended , and this cuts to the very core of her worries - that she doesn 't have the same natural mothering instincts as George 's birth mother . Without a doubt , Marilyn thinks Nicole is overstepping the mark . She feels that a boundary has been overstepped and it could put a big strain on their relationship . " After the incident , Nicole is asked by Marylin , to stay away from the baby . James defended Nicole stating : " I think it 's hard to not bond , but this is Marilyn 's baby , and Nicole is so young and wants very much to give Marilyn and Sid this gift . "

= = Storylines = =

Nicole 's biological parents were the teenage Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) and Natalie Franklin ( Adrienne Pickering ) , but she was raised by her maternal grandparents and considered her mother , Natalie , as an older sister . She did not meet her father until her early teenage years . Nicole arrives in Summer Bay in a flashy car . She initially makes herself unpopular with her bitchy care @-@ free nature . She tries to sleep with Aden but he rebuffs her . She makes a bet with Aden that she can sleep with Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) within two weeks , but Geoff and Belle publicly humiliate her when they find out . Nicole starts dating Roman 's old SAS friend Mark 's brother Elliot Gillen , despite Roman 's disapproval . After breaking up with Elliot , he takes her diving where he tries to kill her , Geoff and later Roman . Geoff tries to save Nicole , but Elliot leaves the pair stranded at sea . They wash up on a remote island and Geoff and Nicole grow close to each other . Geoff , who has strong religious views , sleeps with Nicole as they cannot fight temptation . When rescued Geoff proposes to Nicole out of guilt , she turns him down . She later has a pregnancy scare but is happy to discover it was a false alarm . Nicole later decides she and Geoff should return to the island to repair their relationship . They chased through woodland by a murderer , Derrick who tries to kill them both . However they manage to escape . Nicole decides to try her best to make their relationship work . However , after Freya kisses her they enter a few rocky periods and later break up .

She starts a relationship with troublesome Trey . He films them having sex , which is later leaked at the town 's movie festival . She has a brief relationship with Liam . After the death of good friend Belle , Nicole goes on a downward spiral . She starts partying and binge drinking along with Indigo . Geoff notices her behaviour and attempts to help her . After pushing him away she sleeps with drug addict Liam . She then pursues older man Sid . She kisses him and Indigo sees them , which ruins their friendship . She later moves in with Miles Copeland ( Josh Quong Tart ) who agrees to look after her .

Nicole starts dating Penn who manipulates her . He makes her believe she has accidentally stepped on a needle and she has tests for HIV . She later finds out she has the all clear . Nicole reveals to Marilyn that she is pregnant with Penn 's child . She initially chooses to have an abortion , but changes her mind and decides to give the baby to Marilyn . Nicole goes on a date with Angelo and she takes him to her antenatal class . When he learns that Nicole is giving her baby away , Angelo ends their relationship . Nicole become friends with Roo and asks her to be at the birth , but Roo turns her down . Marilyn apologises to Nicole when she starts to take over and begins leaving her out of her plans for the baby . Nicole becomes fed up when the baby is late and Angelo tries to help her start labour . They go for a walk on the beach and Nicole 's water breaks . Angelo is then forced to deliver the baby . Nicole later decides that she wants her baby back and tells Marilyn , who is devastated . Marilyn takes the baby , but later returns him . Nicole then leaves Summer bay with Angelo and George . She later contacts Marilyn and they meet in the city . Nicole and Marilyn talk things through and Angelo shows up with George .

= = Reception = =

Holy Soap said that Nicole 's most memorable moment was when she " returned to the desert island with Geoff to rekindle their love " and she was held hostage by Derek the murderer , before her father came to the rescue . When Nicole began dating Liam , Caroline Fitton writing for the Daily Mail said " I think this reforming wild child – a kind of less moody Peaches Geldof – has struck lucky " . Inside Soap opined that Nicole was a " flighty minx from the city who prays at the altar of Paris Hilton " . The Sunday Mail said it seemed like no one could stop her downward spiral . The Daily Record said that Nicole and Geoff 's relationship ending was good for her character . They later branded her a " fiery favourite " and when she started dating Penn , they said " Impressionable Nicole looks set to fall for the wrong man all over again " . When Nicole had her HIV scare Holy Soap said " As if defending her man against the Bay 's critics wasn 't enough for one girl to take , poor Nic " . Inside Soap said " Nicole Franklin isn 't exactly backward in coming forward " . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail opined that Nicole seemed incapable of decision making when it came to deciding on a birthing partner . TV Week chose James as one of the serial 's most promising actresses opining she was ready for roles in Hollywood .

TV Week often commented on her pregnancy storyline . After the plot was half way through Erin Miller of TV Week said that Nicole had changed her mind about adopting her baby " more times that Julia Gillard has uttered the phrase ' moving forward ' " . Upon watching Nicole 's beach birth scenes , the magazine website editor quipped " Who knew sand had birthing properties ? ! Well , maybe not ... but you could forgive pregnant teen Nicole for thinking that after a casual stroll along the Bay 's beach ends with Angelo delivering her newborn son ! " Commenting on the realism of the storyline they added : " Only in the Bay would a baby be born on the beach ! " Miller thought it was odd she had then " miraculously lost any signs that she even had a baby . " She quipped " already the teen is back to wearing skin @-@ tight dresses ! " . They later described Nicole and Marilyn 's argument over George as " the mother of all rifts " and said " It 's exhausting just thinking about it ! " Miller later criticised Nicole 's career in fashion , after John told her he hated her designs for the Surf Club . She said " I had to agree with him - putting lifesavers in pink polo @-@ neck swimmers is a terrible idea . "

= Livin ' the Dream =

" Livin ' the Dream " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 197th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on May 2 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Michael Imperioli as Sensei Billy , and was initially scheduled to air in its half @-@ hour timeslot , before being expanded to a full hour .

The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to pursue a career as a professional actor , and quits his job at Dunder Mifflin . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) finally receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Imperioli ) and , on the recommendation of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , is promoted to Regional Manager of the Scranton branch . Jim reconnects with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , and makes it clear that he will choose her over Philadelphia .

The episode was viewed by an estimated and received a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot and fourth in its second , marking a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode . " Livin ' the Dream " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Critical praise mainly went towards the dynamic between Jim , Pam and Dwight , particularly for the former two 's reconciliation and the latter 's promotion . Andy 's subplot , meanwhile , received more mixed reviews .

= = Plot = =

CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) plans on firing Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) due to his missing work for acting gigs . However , Andy tells David he is resigning to pursue his dreams of stardom full time , and David is relieved to not have to fire him . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Michael Imperioli ) . Seeing Dwight 's tenacity and devotion , David is inspired to make Dwight Andy 's replacement .

Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has returned to Scranton full time , saying he has realized that he can 't devote himself to both his family and his new job , and has decided to go " all in " on his family since that is what makes him most happy . David asks Jim his opinion on promoting Dwight , and Jim says that Dwight deserves the job and will be a great manager . Dwight then appoints Jim the new assistant to the regional manager . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) informs Jim that Athlead has found a buyer and wants them to do a promotional tour around the country for three months . With undisguised regret , Jim says he will not do the tour because he cannot put his wife Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) through that , unaware that Pam is listening in .

Everyone in the office tells Andy that quitting is a foolish move and that he has no chance of achieving stardom . Andy eventually goes back on his decision , and David allows him to stay on in a sales position . However , mere hours later Andy feels that he is only sticking with his Dundler @-@ Mifflin job because it is safe and that he has to take a shot at achieving fame . Fearing his conviction will falter a second time , he decides he cannot simply quit , but get fired . This proves difficult as he is unable to make himself go through with any offense more serious than defecating on David 's car . Andy bids farewell to his coworkers with an unexpectedly moving rendition of " I Will Remember You " , prompting them to comment to the documentary crew that he may have star potential after all .

Meanwhile , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) is evicted from her studio apartment after her cats were taken away by Animal Control . She considers living in a tent in the woods , prompting Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) to offer her to stay with him until she gets back on her feet . She finally accepts with gratitude . As they set off to take Angela 's things to Oscar 's place , Oscar mentions her marriage to Robert Lipton and she breaks down into tears , saying " I love him . " However , she denies she still has feelings for Robert and claims she was talking about Dwight .

= = Production = =

" Livin ' the Dream " was written by story editor Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright , marking her second writing credit for the series , after the earlier season episode " Lice " . It was directed by regular Office director Jeffrey Blitz , who last directed season eight 's " Gettysburg " . The episode was originally scheduled to air in its regular half @-@ hour time slot , but NBC later announced it would be expanded to fill an hour time slot beginning a half hour early , although it still counts as one official episode , similar to the earlier season episode " Moving On " . Rogers noted that " we knew the last two episodes would be hour @-@ longs , and The Finale might even end up running longer , but we still had a lot of great storytelling to do leading up to them , and ' Livin ' the Dream ' was one that ultimately deserved to be an hour long episode as well ! "

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Livin ' the Dream " originally aired on May 2 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , " Livin ' the Dream " was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 51 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Paper Airplane " . The episode ranked third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the CBS comedy series Two and a Half Men which received a 3 @.@ 2 / 10 rating and an entry of the Fox reality series American Idol which scored a 2 @.@ 6 / 9 rating . The second half @-@ hour ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which scored a 3 @.@ 0 / 9 rating , an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which garnered a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating , and installment of the Fox series Glee which received a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Livin ' the Dream " received positive reviews from television critics . Roth Cornet of IGN wrote that " it pleases me greatly that at the conclusion of this super @-@ sized episode I was left , once again , truly looking forward to seeing what these next few weeks , and that final hour of The Office , will bring . " Cornet praised the full @-@ use of the ensemble , particularly the " Phyllis and Stanley Lil ' Romeo mini @-@ debate " and Creed 's confused mimicking of Dwight 's declaration . Cornet also called the Dwight storyline " perfectly executed " , as well as the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Dwight dynamic featured throughout the episode , calling their companionship to be " entirely earned " . She also praised Kinsey 's performance during her character 's storyline , and said her final scenes with Oscar " [ tugged ] at my heart @-@ string " . She gave the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " Great " . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " and wrote that " almost everybody is having their best day in a long time , in the best episode of The Office in an even longer time " .

Nick Campbell of TV.com complimented the sentimental storylines in the episode , specifically between Jim , Pam and Dwight . He was positive towards Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , but felt " something hollow about their reunion " . He also noted that the Jim @-@ Pam storyline caused the Dwight @-@ Angela relationship to go " darker " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a slightly more mixed review writing that " the non @-@ Andy parts of " Livin ' the Dream " were fairly interesting " . He appreciated the drama coming from Angela 's desperation , despite disagreeing with the logic in the situation . Sepinwall praised the Jim @-@ Dwight dynamic in the episode , considering it an enjoyable payoff , and also praised Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , particularly them annoying their co @-@ workers with their flirting . Joshua Alton of The A.V. Club was more negative towards the episode , saying it felt " padded @-@ out " to fill the full hour timeslot , and that " this episode might be the nadir for the show ’ s hour @-@ long installments " . He was complimentary towards the Jim @-@ Pam storyline , but felt " there wasn ’ t much happening " beyond Pam overhearing Jim 's talk with Darryl . Alton praised the Dwight storyline and his dynamic with Jim and Pam , calling it " the true fan service " . Alton gave the episode a " C – " .

= Toniná =

Tonina ( or Toniná in Spanish orthography ) is a pre @-@ Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas , some 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of the town of Ocosingo .

The site is medium to large , with groups of temple @-@ pyramids set on terraces rising some 71 metres ( 233 ft ) above a plaza , a large court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame , and over 100 carved monuments , most dating from the 6th century through the 9th centuries AD , during the Classic period . Toniná is distinguished by its well preserved stucco sculptures and particularly by its in @-@ the @-@ round carved monuments , produced to an extent not seen in Mesoamerica since the end of the much earlier Olmec civilization .

Toniná was an aggressive state in the Late Classic , using warfare to develop a powerful kingdom . For much of its history , Toniná was engaged in sporadic warfare with Palenque , its greatest rival and one of the most important polities in the west of the Maya region , although Toniná eventually became the dominant city in the west .

The city is notable for having the last known Long Count date on any Maya monument , marking the end of the Classic Maya period in AD 909 .

= = Etymology = =

Toniná means house of stone in the Tzeltal language of the local Maya inhabitants , an alternate interpretation is the place where stone sculptures are raised to honour time . However , this is a modern name and the original name was either Po or Popo , appearing in Classic Maya texts in the title used for the kings of Toniná , k 'uhul po ' ajaw ( Divine Lord of Po ) . A Maya rebellion in Colonial times , in 1558 , featured a group called the po ' winikob ' ( People of Po ) . Early versions of the Toniná emblem glyph bore a doubled po glyph and the term Popo is also found in Colonial records . Since double sounds were often abbreviated in hieroglyphic texts , Popo may represent the original name of the city .

= = Location = =

Toniná is located at an altitude of 800 to 900 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 000 ft ) above mean sea level in the Chiapas highlands of southern Mexico , some 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the contemporary Maya city of Palenque , Toniná 's greatest rival throughout its recorded history . Toniná is separated from Palenque by mountainous terrain and the site core is located along an easily defended ascending limestone ridge immediately to the west of a seasonal tributary of the Río Jataté , one of the two rivers forming the Ocosingo Valley .

= = Rulers = =

Rulers of Toniná recorded in the Maya script on Toniná monuments include :

The last known recorded date at the site is featured on Monument 101 as 15 January 909 CE .

= = History = =

= = = Early Classic = = =

Toniná had a particularly active Early Classic presence , although the Early Classic remains lie entirely buried under later construction . Due to this , early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site . An 8th @-@ century text refers to a king ruling in AD 217 , although it only mentions his title , not his name .

Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments , the better preserved of which is an altar that dates to 514 . A ruler known as Jaguar Bird Peccary is represented on a 6th @-@ century stela , which describes him acceding to the throne in 568 .

The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of Chinikiha , located 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River , the text is from a throne and describes the capture of a person from Toniná in 573 .

= = = Late Classic = = =

= = = = K 'inich Hix Chapat = = = =

Toniná 's history comes into focus in the Late Classic , when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts . In 633 K 'inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign , although he was probably enthroned in 595 . The last mention of K 'inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to 665 that appears to be a memorial stone .

= = = = Ruler 2 = = = =

Ruler 2 acceded to the throne of Toniná in 668 . His rule is marked by warfare and the frequent depiction of bound captives on his monuments . Ruler 2 established the use of in @-@ the @-@ round sculptural style that came to typify the stelae of Toniná . A monument dated to 682 depicts three naked prisoners with their arms bound , one of them is identified as a lord from Annak ' , an as yet unidentified site . His reign may have ended with his defeat and capture by K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque in September 687 , as described in a glyphic text from Temple 17 in the rival city , an event that probably culminated in his sacrifice .

= = = = K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak = = = =

K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak was enthroned in 688 , twenty years after Ruler 2 , and reigned for twenty @-@ seven years . During his reign he restored Toniná 's power with a number of military victories over Palenque , and his reign was dominated by the struggle against the rival city for regional power . Ballcourt 1 , the larger of Toniná 's two ballcourts , was dedicated in 699 to celebrate three victories over the city 's arch @-@ rival . The ballcourt originally had six sculptures of bound captives , all vassals of the enemy Palenque king from the Usumacinta region . The date of the king 's death is unknown .

= = = = Ruler 4 = = = =

Ruler 4 came to power in 708 at a very young age . Three years later , in 711 , while Ruler 4 was still a child , Toniná gained an important victory over Palenque . The battle resulted in the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II of Palenque and made Toniná the dominant centre in the lower Usumacinta region . The victory was so complete that it resulted in a ten @-@ year gap in the dynastic history of the defeated city , during which the captured ruler may have been held hostage . Ruler 4 continued in power to celebrate the period endings of 716 and 721 . A captive depicted on one of his monuments is identified as being from the distant city of Calakmul , one of the two Maya " superpowers " .

= = = = K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat = = = =

Ruler 4 was succeeded by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 723 . Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras , a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River , now in Guatemala . A series of events during his reign were marked on monuments between 726 and 729 and in 730 he rededicated the tomb of his predecessor K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . The mother of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is named as Lady Winik Timan K 'awiil and his father may well have been K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak himself . The reign of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives , although the reason for this is unknown .

= = = = Later rulers = = = =

Little is known of the next two rulers , Ruler 6 is named as K 'inich Tuun Chapat , he celebrated the period ending of 736 and may have died 762 . A damaged text accompanying the image of a bound captive indicates renewed warfare with Palenque during his reign , however the name of the prisoner is lost and it is unclear if it is the actual king of Palenque or merely one of his vassals . He was succeeded by Ruler 7 , about whom even less is known . Around 764 Toniná defeated Palenque in battle .

In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord Wak Chan K 'ak ' , a prince who appears to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power .

Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná . He celebrated a series of events between 789 and 806 , including the defeat of Pomoy in 789 , and the capture of the ruler Ucha 'an Aj Chih , who appears to have been the vassal of B 'olon K 'awiil of Calakmul . In 799 he rededicated the tomb of Ruler 1 . Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive remodelling of the upper levels of the Acropolis . Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title aj b 'olon b 'aak , " He of Many Captives " . However , the lesser extent of Toniná 's power is evident from its victory over the site of Sak Tz 'i ' ( White Dog ) , an important city in the Lacandon region , an area which had once been dominated by Toniná .

By the time of Ruler 8 's successor , Uh Chapat , Toniná was clearly in decline . Only a single event , in 837 , can be dated to his reign , although a stucco mural depicting captives with garrottes at their throats may belong to his period of rule .

The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen , perhaps aided by the site 's relative isolation . Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to 904 in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king has not survived . Ceramic fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more .

= = = Modern history = = =

The first published account of the ruins was made by Fray Jacinto Garrido at the end of the 17th century . A number of visitors investigated the ruins of Toniná in the 19th century , the first being an expedition led by Guillaume Dupaix in 1808 . John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood visited in 1840 , and Stephens wrote an extensive description of the site . Eduard Seler and Caecilie Seler @-@ Sachs investigated the monuments at Toniná , publishing their reports at the turn of the 20th century . Karl Sapper visited the site in 1895 and 1896 . Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge investigated the site in 1920s for Tulane University , publishing their reports in 1926 — 1927 .

The French Toniná Project began excavations in 1972 which continued through 1975 , then resumed in 1979 to 1980 , under the direction of Pierre Becquelin and Claude Baudez . The National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico ( INAH , the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia ) began their own excavations at Toniná the following year .

The site is accessible for tourism and has a small museum that was inaugurated on 15 July 2000 .

= = Site description = =

The site was built on a platform covering 6 hectares ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The principal architecture is located in the acropolis , which occupies seven south @-@ facing terraces on the northern side of the platform , rising 71 metres ( 233 ft ) over the plaza below . It has a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites , with a right @-@ angle relationship between most structures .

Much of the public imagery of the site details the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies . A 16 by 4 metres ( 52 by 13 ft ) stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depicts a skeletal death god carrying the severed head of a lord of Palenque in one hand . A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná 's most distinguished victims , dozens of fragments of this frieze were discovered in the plaza below . This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque , suggesting that captured artists carried out the work .

After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period , many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces .

= = = Structures = = =

Ballcourt 1 ( the Sunken Ballcourt ) was dedicated in 699 by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque . Sculptures of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king were used as ballcourt markers . One of these vassals is named as Yax Ahk ( Green Turtle ) , who was the lord of Annay Te ' , a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilán .

Ballcourt 2 is the smaller of the two ballcourts and lies in the north of the plaza , at the foot of the Acropolis .

The Palace of the Underworld is entered via three step @-@ vaulted arches on the eastern side of the second terrace of the Acropolis .

The Palace of Frets is located on the fourth terrace of the Acropolis . The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets . On the east side of the palace a stairway leads to a decorated throne of stone and stucco . One of the rooms of the palace contains a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones .

= = = Monuments and sculptures = = =

The monuments of Toniná tend to be smaller than those at other Maya sites , with most of the stelae measuring less than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . The most important difference from monuments at other Maya sites is that they are carved in the round like statues , often with hieroglyphic text running down the spine . On the fifth terrace , in @-@ the @-@ round sculptures of Toniná 's rulers dominated two @-@ dimensional representations of defeated enemies .

The dated monuments at Toniná span the period from AD 495 to 909 , covering most of the Classic Period .

Monument 3 is broken into various fragments , five of which were recovered from various locations in Ocosingo and Toniná through the course of the 20th century and most of which were reunited in the Toniná site museum . Aside from being broken , the stela is largely complete and only lightly eroded , it is a statue of a ruler with inscriptions describing the accession of K 'inich Baaknal Chaak and the promotion to the priesthood of Aj Ch 'aaj Naah .

Monument 5 was recovered from a school in Ocosingo and moved to the site museum of Toniná . It is a badly eroded life @-@ size human statue with the head missing .

Monument 7 is carved from yellow sandstone and has suffered only minor damage . It is a stela base with well @-@ preserved hieroglyphs on all four vertical sides and was dedicated by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 728 . It is currently in the Museo Regional in Tuxtla Gutiérrez .

Monument 8 dates to the reign of Ruler 2 . It marks the period ending of 682 and shows the presentation of three war captives .

Monument 12 is a sculpture carved in the round , representing Ruler 2 . It dates to AD 672 .

Monument 27 is a carved step depicting K 'awiil Mo ' , a lord from Palenque , as an elderly prisoner , bound and lying on his back with his profile positioned in such a way as to be trodden on time and again .

Monument 99 is an undated fragment that depicts a female captive , which is rare in Maya art .

Monument 101 has the last Long Count date from any Maya monument , it marks the K 'atun ending of AD 909 .

Monument 106 is the earliest securely dated monument at the site , dating to AD 593 . It depicts Ruler 1 .

Monument 113 depicts Ruler 2 participating in a scattering ritual .

Monument 114 was dedicated in 794 by Ruler 8 . It commemorates the death of an important noble , apparently a relative or vassal of Ruler 8 's predecessor Tuun Chapat .

Monument 122 is a low relief sculpture marking the defeat of Palenque by Ruler 4 in 711 and the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II , who is depicted as a bound captive .

Monument 141 is a very well preserved hieroglyphic panel carved from fine grained white limestone with almost the whole inscription intact . It describes the dedication of a ballcourt by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak .

Monument 154 dates to the reign of K 'inich Hix Chapat and records his installing of two subordinate lords in 633 .

Monument 158 has a very late date , in AD 904 , at the very end of the Classic Period . It was erected during the reign of Ruler 10 .

The Frieze of the Dream Lords ( also known as the Frieze of the Four Suns or Frieze of the Four Eras ) was uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in 1992 . It is a stucco mural located at the east end of the 5th terrace . It represents a complex supernatural scene divided into four by a feather @-@ covered scaffold from which hang the severed heads of sacrificial victims . Among the scaffold partitions are depicted the wayob ( spirit companions ) of the Maya elite . The most well @-@ preserved section of the sculpture depicts a skeletal supernatural way named Ak Ok Kimi ( " Turtle Foot Death " ) wearing turtleshells on its feet and carrying a severed head in one hand , interpreted as the way of a lord from the site of Pipa ' . The frieze was once brightly painted in red , blue and yellow . This frieze has strong stylistic parallels with mural paintings at the great Early Classic metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico .

= = = The site museum = = =

The site museum is located 300 metres ( 980 ft ) outside of the Toniná archaeological zone . It possesses 2 exhibition rooms and a conference room . The first room explains the pyramidal form of the acropolis and how it relates to Maya mythology , while the main room contains sculptures of the city 's rulers .

Artefacts in the collection include stone sculptures , ceramics and artefacts sculpted from bone , shell , obsidian and flint . The pieces in the museum graphically depict the two sides of the power exercised by Toniná , on the one hand with sculptures of the city 's rulers and on the other with its depictions of bound prisoners of war .

= Central Area Command ( RAAF ) =

Central Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in March 1940 , and covered the central portion of New South Wales . Headquartered at Sydney , Central Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . It was disbanded in August 1941 and control of its units taken over by other RAAF formations . Proposals in 1943 – 44 to raise a new Central Area Command did not come to fruition .

= = History = =

Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . After war broke out in September 1939 , the RAAF began to implement a decentralised form of command , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Its initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups to control units in Victoria and New South Wales , respectively . Then , between March 1940 and May 1941 , the RAAF divided Australia and New Guinea into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of these area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary .

No. 2 Group , which had been established on 20 November 1939 , was re @-@ formed as one of the first two area commands , Central Area , on 7 March 1940 . Headquartered in Sydney , Central Area Command was given control of all Air Force units in New South Wales except those in the southern Riverina and the north of the state . Units in Queensland were also temporarily assigned to its control , pending the formation of Northern Area . Central Area 's inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Adrian " King " Cole , who had also led No. 2 Group . His senior air staff officer was Wing Commander Alan Charlesworth .

In May 1940 it was reported that the area 's headquarters building would change from " Mont Loana " in Point Piper to the mansion " Kilmory " nearby . Cole handed over command of Central Area to Air Commodore Bill Anderson in December 1940 . By August 1941 , the RAAF 's expanding instructional program necessitated the establishment of overarching training organisations on a semi @-@ functional , semi @-@ geographical basis . Accordingly , No. 2 ( Training ) Group was formed in Sydney , taking responsibility for the training units then under Central Area , which was disbanded . Control of other Central Area units was " divided as convenient " , according to the official history of the war , between Northern and Southern Area Commands .

= = Aftermath = =

The RAAF 's area command structure was revised in 1942 , following the outbreak of the Pacific War : Northern Area was split into North @-@ Eastern Area and North @-@ Western Area , and a new command covering New South Wales and southern Queensland , Eastern Area , was created , making a total of five commands . In October 1943 , the Air Board proposed carving a new Central Area Command out of Eastern Area , which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore ripe for subdivision . This Central Area Command would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland . The War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal . The concept was raised again in August 1944 , and this time the new Central Area Command was to control maintenance units , as well as training and operations , in southern Queensland . Once again , nothing came of the proposal .

= Corn crake =

The corn crake , corncrake or landrail ( Crex crex ) is a bird in the rail family . It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China , and migrates to Africa for the northern hemisphere 's winter . It is a medium @-@ sized crake with buff- or grey @-@ streaked brownish @-@ black upperparts , chestnut markings on the wings , and blue @-@ grey underparts with rust @-@ coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail . The strong bill is flesh @-@ toned , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults , and downy chicks are black , as with all rails . There are no subspecies , although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts . The male 's call is a loud krek krek , from which the scientific name is derived . The corn crake is larger than its closest relative , the African crake , which shares its wintering range ; that species is also darker @-@ plumaged , and has a plainer face .

The corn crake 's breeding habitat is grassland , particularly hayfields , and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds . This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6 – 14 cream @-@ coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches . These hatch in 19 – 20 days , and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks . This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed . The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates , the occasional small frog or mammal , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Natural threats include introduced and feral mammals , large birds , various parasites and diseases .

Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe , this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large , apparently stable , populations in Russia and Kazakhstan . Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought , and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses . Despite its elusive nature , the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature , and garnered a range of local and dialect names .

= = Taxonomy = =

The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World , suggesting this family originated there . The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake , C. egregia , which has sometimes been given its own genus , Crecopsis , but is now more usually placed in Crex . Both species are short @-@ billed brown birds with a preference for grassland rather than wetland habitats typical of rails . Porzana crakes , particularly the ash @-@ throated crake ( Porzana albicollis ) are near relatives of the Crex genus .

Corn crakes were first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Rallus crex , but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex , created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803 , and named Crex pratensis . The earlier use of crex gives it priority over Bechstein 's specific name pratensis , and leads to the current name of Crex crex . The binomial name , Crex crex , from the Ancient Greek " κρεξ " , is onomatopoeic , referring to the crake 's repetitive grating call . The common name was formerly spelt as a single word , " corncrake " , but the official version is now " corn crake " . The English names refer to the species habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields , rather than marshes used by most members of this family .

= = Description = =

The corn crake is a medium @-@ sized rail , 27 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) long with a wingspan of 42 – 53 cm ( 17 – 21 in ) . Males weigh 165 g ( 5 @.@ 8 oz ) on average and females 145 g ( 5 @.@ 1 oz ) . The adult male has the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown @-@ black in colour , streaked with buff or grey . The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars . The face , neck and breast are blue @-@ grey , apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye , the belly is white , and the flanks , and undertail are barred with chestnut and white . The strong bill is flesh @-@ coloured , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Compared to the male , the female has warmer @-@ toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak . Outside the breeding season , the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey . The juvenile is like the adult in appearance , but has a yellow tone to its upperparts , and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff @-@ brown . The chicks have black down , as with all rails . While there are no subspecies , all populations show great individual variation in colouring , and the birds gradually become paler and greyer towards the east of the range . Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding , which is normally finished by late August or early September , before migration to south eastern Africa . There is a pre @-@ breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa , mainly involving the plumage of the head , body and tail . Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching .

The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on the wintering grounds , but can be distinguished by its larger size , paler upperparts , tawny upperwing and different underparts pattern . In flight , it has longer , less rounded wings , and shallower wingbeats than its African relative , and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing . In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails , since sympatric species are smaller , with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and shorter bills . A flying corn crake can resemble a gamebird , but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic .

= = = Voice = = =

On the breeding grounds , the male corn crake 's advertising call is a loud , repetitive , grating krek krek normally delivered from a low perch with the bird 's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open . The call can be heard from 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) away , and serves to establish the breeding territory , attract females , and challenge intruding males . Slight differences in vocalisations mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls . Early in the season , the call is given almost continuously at night , and often during the day , too . It may be repeated more than 20 @,@ 000 times a night , with a peak between midnight and 3 am . The call has evolved to make a singing male 's location clear , as this species hides in vegetation . The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season . To attract males , mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing a piece of wood down a notched stick , or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip @-@ fastener . The male also has a growling call , given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions .

The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male ; it also has a distinctive barking sound , similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality . The female also has a high @-@ pitched cheep call , and a oo @-@ oo @-@ oo sound to call the chick . The chicks make a quiet peeick @-@ peeick contact call , and a chirp used to beg for food . Because of the difficulty in seeing this species , it is usually censused by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am ; the birds do not move much at night , whereas they may wander up to 600 m ( 660 yd ) during the day , which could lead to double @-@ counting if monitored then . Identifying individual males suggests that just counting calling birds underestimates the true count by nearly 30 % , and the discrepancy is likely to be greater , since only 80 % of males may call at all on a given night . The corn crake is silent in Africa .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The corn crake breeds from Britain and Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia . Although it has vanished from much of its historic range , this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41 ° N and 62 ° N. There is also a sizable population in western China , but this species nests only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey . Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect , and result from misidentification of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail .

The corn crake winters mainly in Africa , from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa . North of this area , it is mainly seen on migration , but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa . Most of the South African population of about 2 @,@ 000 birds occurs in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province , and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain . There are several nineteenth @-@ century records , when populations were much higher than now , of birds being seen in western Europe , mainly Britain and Ireland , between December and February .

This crake migrates to Africa along two main routes : a western route through Morocco and Algeria , and a more important flyway through Egypt . On passage , it has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges , including much of West Africa . Birds from Coll following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south , and again on the return flight , when they also rested in Spain or North Africa . Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa . Further afield , the corn crake has been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka , Vietnam and Australia , the Seychelles , Bermuda , Canada , the US , Greenland , Iceland , the Faroes , the Azores , Madeira , and the Canary Islands .

The corn crake is mainly a lowland species , but breeds up to 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the Alps , 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) in China and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in Russia . When breeding in Eurasia , the corn crake 's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises . It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay , particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use . It also utilises other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga , on coasts , or where created by fire . Moister areas like wetland edges may be used , but very wet habitats are avoided , as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall , or too dense to walk through . The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post . Grassland which is not mown or grazed becomes too matted to be suitable for nesting , but locally crops such as cereals , peas , rape , clover or potatoes may be used . After breeding , adults move to taller vegetation such as common reed , iris , or nettles to moult , returning to the hay and silage meadows for the second brood . In China , flax is also used for nest sites . Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops , successful breeding is uncommon , and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed .

When wintering in Africa , the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats , occurring in vegetation 30 – 200 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 6 @.@ 56 ft ) tall , including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds . It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields , uncut grass on airfields , and the edges of crops . It occurs at up to at least 1 @,@ 750 metres ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) altitude in South Africa . Each bird stays within a fairly small area . Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake , that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake . On migration , the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses .

= = Behaviour = =

The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites , usually being hidden by vegetation , but will sometimes emerge into the open . Occasionally , individuals may become very trusting ; for five consecutive summers , an individual crake on the Scottish island of Tiree entered a kitchen to feed on scraps , and , in 1999 , a wintering Barra bird would come for poultry feed once the chickens had finished . In Africa , it is more secretive than the African crake , and , unlike its relative , it is rarely seen in the open , although it occasionally feeds on tracks or road sides . The corn crake is most active early and late in the day , after heavy rain and during light rain . Its typical flight is weak and fluttering , although less so than that of the African crake . For longer flights , such as migration , it has a steadier , stronger action with legs drawn up . It walks with a high @-@ stepping action , and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened . It will swim if essential . When flushed by a dog , it will fly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket , and then crouch on landing . If disturbed in the open , this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance , with its neck stretched forward , then stand upright to watch the intruder . When captured it may feign death , recovering at once if it sees a way out .

The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds , where each bird occupies 4 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 9 ha ( 10 – 12 acres ) at one time , although the total area used may be double that , since an individual may move locally due to flooding , plant growth , or grass cutting . Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration , sometimes associating with common quails . Migration takes place at night , and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites . The ability to migrate is innate , not learned from adults . Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild @-@ bred young .

= = = Breeding = = =

Until 1995 , it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous , but it transpires that a male may have a shifting home range , and mate with two or more females , moving on when laying is almost complete . The male 's territory can vary from 3 to 51 ha ( 7 @.@ 4 to 126 @.@ 0 acres ) , but averages 15 @.@ 7 ha ( 39 acres ) . The female has a much smaller range , averaging only 5 @.@ 5 ha ( 14 acres ) . A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings drooped and his head pointing forward . Usually the stranger moves off ; if it stays , the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground . They then run around giving the growling call and lunging at each other . A real fight may ensue , with the birds leaping at each other and pecking , and sometimes kicking . Females play no part in defending the territory .

The female may be offered food by the male during courtship . He has a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down , the tail is fanned , and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground . He will then attempt to approach the female from behind , and then leap on her back to copulate . The nest is typically in grassland , sometimes in safer sites along a hedge , or near an isolated tree or bush , or in overgrown vegetation . Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season , the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation , with the second brood in hay . The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first , to take advantage of the later @-@ developing grasses further up a hill . The nest , well hidden in the grass , is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground . It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants , and lined with finer grasses . Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female , a recent aviary study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest .

The nest is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) deep . The clutch is 6 – 14 , usually 8 – 12 eggs ; these are oval , slightly glossy , creamy or tinted with green , blue or grey , and blotched red @-@ brown . They average 37 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) and weigh about 13 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . The eggs are laid at daily intervals , but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day . Incubation is by the female only ; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed , or wait until the last moment to flee , leads to many deaths during hay @-@ cutting and harvesting . The eggs hatch together after 19 – 20 days , and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two . They are fed by the female for three or four days , but can find their own food thereafter . The juveniles fledge after 34 – 38 days . The second brood is started about 42 days after the first , and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16 – 18 days . The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa .

Nest success in undisturbed sites is high , at 80 – 90 % , but much lower in fertilised meadows and on arable land . The method and timing of mowing is crucial ; mechanized mowing can kill 38 – 95 % of chicks in a given site , and losses average 50 % of first brood chicks and somewhat less than 40 % of second brood chicks . The influence of weather on chick survival is limited ; although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather , the effects are relatively small . Unlike many precocial species , chicks are fed by their mother to a greater or lesser extent until they become independent , and this may cushion them from adverse conditions . The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather , with lower survival in large broods . The annual adult survival rate is under 30 % , although some individuals may live for 5 – 7 years .

= = = Feeding = = =

The corn crake is omnivorous , but mainly feeds on invertebrates , including earthworms , slugs and snails , spiders , beetles , dragonflies , grasshoppers and other insects . In the breeding areas , it is a predator of Sitona weevils , which infest legume crops. and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests , leatherjackets and wireworms . This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar , but includes locally available items such as termites , cockroaches and dung beetles . Food is taken from the ground , low @-@ growing plants and from inside grass tussocks ; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill , and run in pursuit of active prey . Hunting is normally in cover , but , particularly in the wintering areas , it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads . Indigestible material is regurgitated as 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) pellets . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food , and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to visit supplementary feeding areas . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach .

= = Predators and parasites = =

Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats , introduced American mink , feral ferrets , otters and red foxes , and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow . In Lithuania , the introduced raccoon dog has also been recorded as taking corn crakes . When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing , they may be taken by large birds including the white stork , harriers and other birds of prey , gulls and corvids . At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked , as reflected in a high breeding success . There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black sparrowhawk .

The widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus , which lives in the oviducts of birds , has been recorded in the corn crake , as have the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans , the larvae of parasitic flies , and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes .

During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season , enteritis and ill health in pre @-@ release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species . Subsequently , microbiology tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment .

= = Status = =

Until 2010 , despite a breeding range estimated at 12 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe , but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased . It is therefore now classed as least concern , since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term . There are an estimated 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 0 million breeding pairs in Europe , three @-@ quarters of which are in European Russia , and a further 515 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 pairs in Asiatic Russia ; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5 @.@ 45 and 9 @.@ 72 million individuals . In much of the western half of its range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue , although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries , including a five @-@ fold increase in Finland , and a doubling in the UK . In the Netherlands , there were 33 breeding territories in 1996 , but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998 .

The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century , but the process gained pace after World War II . The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers , at first horse @-@ drawn and later pulled by tractors . Mechanisation also means that large areas can be cut quickly , leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone , or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed . The pattern of mowing , typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre , gives little chance of escape for the chicks , which are also exposed to potential animal predators . Adults can often escape the mowers , although some incubating females sit tight on the nest , with fatal results .

Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake . Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised silage fields compared to traditional hay meadows , in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable has been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area . More localised threats include floods in spring , and disturbance by roads or wind farms . This bird is good eating ; when they were common in England , Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a skewer . More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds , up to 14 @,@ 000 a year , in Egypt , where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate . Although this may account for 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 7 % of the European population , the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable .

Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies ; there is also an overall European action plan . The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival , principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting . Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed , and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing . Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale . Reduction of illegal hunting , and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed , are also conservation aims . Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England , and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries . Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas , there are cost implications , estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake . The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation , which creates more open habitats .

= = In culture = =

Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression , but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers , the corn crake has acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature .

= = = Names = = =

The favoured name for this species among naturalists has changed over the years , with " landrail " and variants of " corncrake " being preferred at various times . " Crake gallinule " also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813 . The originally Older Scots " cornecrake " was popularised by Thomas Bewick , who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds . Other Scots names include " corn scrack " and " quailzie " ; the latter term , like " king of the quail " , " grass quail " , the French " roi de caille " , and the German " Wachtelkönig " refer to the association with the small gamebird . Another name , " daker " , has been variously interpreted as onomatopoeic , or derived from the Old Norse ager @-@ hoene , meaning " cock of the field " ; variants include " drake " , " drake Hen " and " gorse drake " .

= = = In literature = = =

Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew Marvell 's " Upon Appleton House " , written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax . The narrator depicts the scene of a mower cutting the grass , before his " whistling Sithe " unknowingly " carves the Rail " . The farmhand draws out the scythe " all bloody from its breast " and " does the stroke detest " . It continues with a stanza that demonstrates the problematic nature of the corn crake 's nesting habits :

John Clare , the nineteenth @-@ century English poet based in Northamptonshire , wrote " The Landrail " , a semi @-@ comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them . In the fourth verse he exclaims : " Tis like a fancy everywhere / A sort of living doubt " . Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose works too , and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now .

The Finnish poet Eino Leino also wrote about the bird in his poem " Nocturne " .

The proverbial use of the corn crake 's call to describe someone with a grating or unmelodious voice is illustrated in the quotation " thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel " . This usage dates from at least the first half of the nineteenth century , and continues through to the present .

= Acute myeloid leukemia =

Acute myeloid leukemia ( AML ) , also known as acute myelogenous leukemia or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia ( ANLL ) , is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells , characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells that accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells . AML is the most common acute leukemia affecting adults , and its incidence increases with age . Although AML is a relatively rare disease , accounting for roughly 1 @.@ 2 % of cancer deaths in the United States , its incidence is expected to increase as the population ages .

The symptoms of AML are caused by replacement of normal bone marrow with leukemic cells , which causes a drop in red blood cells , platelets , and normal white blood cells . These symptoms include fatigue , shortness of breath , easy bruising and bleeding , and increased risk of infection . Several risk factors and chromosomal abnormalities have been identified , but the specific cause is not clear . As an acute leukemia , AML progresses rapidly and is typically fatal within weeks or months if left untreated .

AML has several subtypes ; treatment and prognosis vary among subtypes . AML is cured in 35 – 40 % of people less than 60 years old and 5 – 15 % more than 60 years old . Older people who are not able to withstand intensive chemotherapy have an average survival of 5 – 10 months .

AML is treated initially with chemotherapy aimed at inducing a remission ; people may go on to receive additional chemotherapy or a hematopoietic stem cell transplant . Recent research into the genetics of AML has resulted in the availability of tests that can predict which drug or drugs may work best for a particular person , as well as how long that person is likely to survive . The treatment and prognosis of AML differ from those of chronic myelogenous leukemia ( CML ) in part because the cellular differentiation is not the same ; AML involves higher percentages of dedifferentiated and undifferentiated cells , including more blasts ( myeloblasts , monoblasts , and megakaryoblasts ) .

= = Signs and symptoms = =

Most signs and symptoms of AML are caused by the replacement of normal blood cells with leukemic cells . A lack of normal white blood cell production makes people more susceptible to infections ; while the leukemic cells themselves are derived from white blood cell precursors , they have no infection @-@ fighting capacity . A drop in red blood cell count ( anemia ) can cause fatigue , paleness , and shortness of breath . A lack of platelets can lead to easy bruising or bleeding with minor trauma .

The early signs of AML are often vague and nonspecific , and may be similar to those of influenza or other common illnesses . Some generalized symptoms include fever , fatigue , weight loss or loss of appetite , shortness of breath , anemia , easy bruising or bleeding , petechiae ( flat , pin @-@ head sized spots under the skin caused by bleeding ) , bone and joint pain , and persistent or frequent infections .

Enlargement of the spleen may occur in AML , but it is typically mild and asymptomatic . Lymph node swelling is rare in AML , in contrast to acute lymphoblastic leukemia . The skin is involved about 10 % of the time in the form of leukemia cutis . Rarely , Sweet 's syndrome , a paraneoplastic inflammation of the skin , can occur with AML .

Some people with AML may experience swelling of the gums because of infiltration of leukemic cells into the gum tissue . Rarely , the first sign of leukemia may be the development of a solid leukemic mass or tumor outside of the bone marrow , called a chloroma . Occasionally , a person may show no symptoms , and the leukemia may be discovered incidentally during a routine blood test .

= = Risk factors = =

A number of risk factors for developing AML have been identified , including : other blood disorders , chemical exposures , ionizing radiation , and genetics .

= = = Preleukemia = = =

" Preleukemic " blood disorders , such as myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( MPS ) , can evolve into AML ; the exact risk depends on the type of MDS / MPS .

= = = Chemical exposure = = =

Exposure to anticancer chemotherapy , in particular alkylating agents , can increase the risk of subsequently developing AML . The risk is highest about three to five years after chemotherapy . Other chemotherapy agents , specifically epipodophyllotoxins and anthracyclines , have also been associated with treatment @-@ related leukemias , which are often associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities in the leukemic cells .

Occupational chemical exposure to benzene and other aromatic organic solvents is controversial as a cause of AML . Benzene and many of its derivatives are known to be carcinogenic in vitro . While some studies have suggested a link between occupational exposure to benzene and increased risk of AML , others have suggested the attributable risk , if any , is slight .

= = = Radiation = = =

High amounts of ionizing radiation exposure can increase the risk of AML . Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had an increased rate of AML , as did radiologists exposed to high levels of X @-@ rays prior to the adoption of modern radiation safety practices . People treated with ionizing radiation after treatment for prostate cancer , non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , lung cancer and breast cancer have the highest chance of acquiring AML , but this increased risk returns to the background risk observed in the general population after 12 years .

= = = Genetics = = =

A hereditary risk for AML appears to exist . Multiple cases of AML developing in a family at a rate higher than predicted by chance alone have been reported . Several congenital conditions may increase the risk of leukemia ; the most common is probably Down syndrome , which is associated with a 10- to 18 @-@ fold increase in the risk of AML .

= = Diagnosis = =

The first clue to a diagnosis of AML is typically an abnormal result on a complete blood count . While an excess of abnormal white blood cells ( leukocytosis ) is a common finding , and leukemic blasts are sometimes seen , AML can also present with isolated decreases in platelets , red blood cells , or even with a low white blood cell count ( leukopenia ) . While a presumptive diagnosis of AML can be made by examination of the peripheral blood smear when there are circulating leukemic blasts , a definitive diagnosis usually requires an adequate bone marrow aspiration and biopsy .

Marrow or blood is examined under light microscopy , as well as flow cytometry , to diagnose the presence of leukemia , to differentiate AML from other types of leukemia ( e.g. acute lymphoblastic leukemia - ALL ) , and to classify the subtype of disease . A sample of marrow or blood is typically also tested for chromosomal abnormalities by routine cytogenetics or fluorescent in situ hybridization . Genetic studies may also be performed to look for specific mutations in genes such as FLT3 , nucleophosmin , and KIT , which may influence the outcome of the disease .

Cytochemical stains on blood and bone marrow smears are helpful in the distinction of AML from ALL , and in subclassification of AML . The combination of a myeloperoxidase or Sudan black stain and a nonspecific esterase stain will provide the desired information in most cases . The myeloperoxidase or Sudan black reactions are most useful in establishing the identity of AML and distinguishing it from ALL . The nonspecific esterase stain is used to identify a monocytic component in AMLs and to distinguish a poorly differentiated monoblastic leukemia from ALL .

The diagnosis and classification of AML can be challenging , and should be performed by a qualified hematopathologist or hematologist . In straightforward cases , the presence of certain morphologic features ( such as Auer rods ) or specific flow cytometry results can distinguish AML from other leukemias ; however , in the absence of such features , diagnosis may be more difficult .

The two most commonly used classification schemata for AML are the older French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) system and the newer World Health Organization ( WHO ) system . According to the widely used WHO criteria , the diagnosis of AML is established by demonstrating involvement of more than 20 % of the blood and / or bone marrow by leukemic myeloblasts , except in the three best prognosis forms of AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities ( t ( 8 ; 21 ) , inv ( 16 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) in which the presence of the genetic abnormality is diagnostic irrespective of blast percent . The French – American – British ( FAB ) classification is a bit more stringent , requiring a blast percentage of at least 30 % in bone marrow ( BM ) or peripheral blood ( PB ) for the diagnosis of AML . AML must be carefully differentiated from " preleukemic " conditions such as myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative syndromes , which are treated differently .

Because acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) has the highest curability and requires a unique form of treatment , it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia . Fluorescent in situ hybridization performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose , as it readily identifies the chromosomal translocation [ t ( 15 ; 17 ) ( q22 ; q12 ) ; ] that characterizes APL . There is also a need to molecularly detect the presence of PML / RARA fusion protein , which is an oncogenic product of that translocation .

= = = World Health Organization = = =

The WHO 2008 classification of acute myeloid leukemia attempts to be more clinically useful and to produce more meaningful prognostic information than the FAB criteria . Each of the WHO categories contains numerous descriptive subcategories of interest to the hematopathologist and oncologist ; however , most of the clinically significant information in the WHO schema is communicated via categorization into one of the subtypes listed below .

The WHO subtypes of AML are :

Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage ( also known as mixed phenotype or biphenotypic acute leukemia ) occur when the leukemic cells can not be classified as either myeloid or lymphoid cells , or where both types of cells are present .

= = = French @-@ American @-@ British = = =

The French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) classification system divides AML into eight subtypes , M0 through to M7 , based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed and its degree of maturity . This is done by examining the appearance of the malignant cells with light microscopy and / or by using cytogenetics to characterize any underlying chromosomal abnormalities . The subtypes have varying prognoses and responses to therapy . Although the WHO classification ( see above ) may be more useful , the FAB system is still widely used .

Eight FAB subtypes were proposed in 1976 .

The morphologic subtypes of AML also include rare types not included in the FAB system , such as acute basophilic leukemia , which was proposed as a ninth subtype , M8 , in 1999 .

= = Pathophysiology = =

The malignant cell in AML is the myeloblast . In normal hematopoiesis , the myeloblast is an immature precursor of myeloid white blood cells ; a normal myeloblast will gradually mature into a mature white blood cell . In AML , though , a single myeloblast accumulates genetic changes which " freeze " the cell in its immature state and prevent differentiation . Such a mutation alone does not cause leukemia ; however , when such a " differentiation arrest " is combined with other mutations which disrupt genes controlling proliferation , the result is the uncontrolled growth of an immature clone of cells , leading to the clinical entity of AML .

Much of the diversity and heterogeneity of AML stems is because leukemic transformation can occur at a number of different steps along the differentiation pathway . Modern classification schemes for AML recognize the characteristics and behavior of the leukemic cell ( and the leukemia ) may depend on the stage at which differentiation was halted .

Specific cytogenetic abnormalities can be found in many people with AML ; the types of chromosomal abnormalities often have prognostic significance . The chromosomal translocations encode abnormal fusion proteins , usually transcription factors whose altered properties may cause the " differentiation arrest " . For example , in acute promyelocytic leukemia , the t ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation produces a PML @-@ RARα fusion protein which binds to the retinoic acid receptor element in the promoters of several myeloid @-@ specific genes and inhibits myeloid differentiation .

The clinical signs and symptoms of AML result from the growth of leukemic clone cells , which tends to displace or interfere with the development of normal blood cells in the bone marrow . This leads to neutropenia , anemia , and thrombocytopenia . The symptoms of AML are , in turn , often due to the low numbers of these normal blood elements . In rare cases , people with AML can develop a chloroma , or solid tumor of leukemic cells outside the bone marrow , which can cause various symptoms depending on its location .

An important pathophysiological mechanism of leukemogenesis in AML is the epigenetic induction of dedifferentiation by genetic mutations that alter the function of epigenetic enzymes , such as the DNA demethylase TET2 and the metabolic enzymes IDH1 and IDH2 , which lead to the generation of a novel oncometabolite , D @-@ 2 @-@ hydroxyglutarate , which inhibits the activity of epigenetic enzymes such as TET2 . The hypothesis is that such epigenetic mutations lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and / or the activation of proto @-@ oncogenes .

= = Treatment = =

First @-@ line treatment of AML consists primarily of chemotherapy , and is divided into two phases : induction and postremission ( or consolidation ) therapy . The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete remission by reducing the number of leukemic cells to an undetectable level ; the goal of consolidation therapy is to eliminate any residual undetectable disease and achieve a cure . Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is usually considered if induction chemotherapy fails or after a person relapses , although transplantation is also sometimes used as front @-@ line therapy for people with high @-@ risk disease . Efforts to use tyrosine kinase inhibitors in AML continue .

= = = Induction = = =

All FAB subtypes except M3 are usually given induction chemotherapy with cytarabine ( ara @-@ C ) and an anthracycline ( most often daunorubicin ) . This induction chemotherapy regimen is known as " 7 + 3 " ( or " 3 + 7 " ) , because the cytarabine is given as a continuous IV infusion for seven consecutive days while the anthracycline is given for three consecutive days as an IV push . Up to 70 % of people with AML will achieve a remission with this protocol . Other alternative induction regimens , including high @-@ dose cytarabine alone , FLAG @-@ like regimens or investigational agents , may also be used . Because of the toxic effects of therapy , including myelosuppression and an increased risk of infection , induction chemotherapy may not be offered to the very elderly , and the options may include less intense chemotherapy or palliative care .

The M3 subtype of AML , also known as acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , is almost universally treated with the drug all @-@ trans @-@ retinoic acid ( ATRA ) in addition to induction chemotherapy , usually an anthracycline . Care must be taken to prevent disseminated intravascular coagulation ( DIC ) , complicating the treatment of APL when the promyelocytes release the contents of their granules into the peripheral circulation . APL is eminently curable , with well @-@ documented treatment protocols .

The goal of the induction phase is to reach a complete remission . Complete remission does not mean the disease has been cured ; rather , it signifies no disease can be detected with available diagnostic methods . Complete remission is obtained in about 50 % – 75 % of newly diagnosed adults , although this may vary based on the prognostic factors described above . The length of remission depends on the prognostic features of the original leukemia . In general , all remissions will fail without additional consolidation therapy .

= = = Consolidation = = =

Even after complete remission is achieved , leukemic cells likely remain in numbers too small to be detected with current diagnostic techniques . If no further postremission or consolidation therapy is given , almost all people with AML will eventually relapse . Therefore , more therapy is necessary to eliminate nondetectable disease and prevent relapse — that is , to achieve a cure .

The specific type of postremission therapy is individualized based on a person 's prognostic factors ( see above ) and general health . For good @-@ prognosis leukemias ( i.e. inv ( 16 ) , t ( 8 ; 21 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) , people will typically undergo an additional three to five courses of intensive chemotherapy , known as consolidation chemotherapy . For people at high risk of relapse ( e.g. those with high @-@ risk cytogenetics , underlying MDS , or therapy @-@ related AML ) , allogeneic stem cell transplantation is usually recommended if the person is able to tolerate a transplant and has a suitable donor . The best postremission therapy for intermediate @-@ risk AML ( normal cytogenetics or cytogenetic changes not falling into good @-@ risk or high @-@ risk groups ) is less clear and depends on the specific situation , including the age and overall health of the person , the person 's values , and whether a suitable stem cell donor is available .

For people who are not eligible for a stem cell transplant , immunotherapy with a combination of histamine dihydrochloride ( Ceplene ) and interleukin 2 ( Proleukin ) after the completion of consolidation has been shown to reduce the absolute relapse risk by 14 % , translating to a 50 % increase in the likelihood of maintained remission .

= = = Relapsed AML = = =

For people with relapsed AML , the only proven potentially curative therapy is a hematopoietic stem cell transplant , if one has not already been performed . In 2000 , the monoclonal antibody @-@ linked cytotoxic agent gemtuzumab ozogamicin ( Mylotarg ) was approved in the United States for people aged more than 60 years with relapsed AML who are not candidates for high @-@ dose chemotherapy . This drug was voluntarily withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer , Pfizer in 2010 .

Since treatment options for relapsed AML are so limited , palliative care or enrolment in a clinical trial may be offered .

For relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , arsenic trioxide is approved by the US FDA . Like ATRA , arsenic trioxide does not work with other subtypes of AML .

= = Prognosis = =

Acute myeloid leukemia is a curable disease ; the chance of cure for a specific person depends on a number of prognostic factors .

= = = Cytogenetics = = =

The single most important prognostic factor in AML is cytogenetics , or the chromosomal structure of the leukemic cell . Certain cytogenetic abnormalities are associated with very good outcomes ( for example , the ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation in acute promyelocytic leukemia ) . About half of people with AML have " normal " cytogenetics ; they fall into an intermediate risk group . A number of other cytogenetic abnormalities are known to associate with a poor prognosis and a high risk of relapse after treatment .

The first publication to address cytogenetics and prognosis was the MRC trial of 1998 :

Later , the Southwest Oncology Group and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group and , later still , Cancer and Leukemia Group B published other , mostly overlapping lists of cytogenetics prognostication in leukemia .

= = = Myelodysplastic syndrome = = =

AML which arises from a pre @-@ existing myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( so @-@ called secondary AML ) has a worse prognosis , as does treatment @-@ related AML arising after chemotherapy for another previous malignancy . Both of these entities are associated with a high rate of unfavorable cytogenetic abnormalities .

= = = Other prognostic markers = = =

In some studies , age > 60 years and elevated lactate dehydrogenase level were also associated with poorer outcomes . As with most forms of cancer , performance status ( i.e. the general physical condition and activity level of the person ) plays a major role in prognosis as well .

= = = = Genotype = = = =

A large number of molecular alterations are under study for their prognostic impact in AML . However , only FLT3 @-@ ITD , NPM1 , CEBPA and c @-@ KIT are currently included in validated international risk stratification schema . These are expected to increase rapidly in the near future . FLT3 internal tandem duplications ( ITDs ) have been shown to confer a poorer prognosis in AML with normal cytogenetics . Several FLT3 inhibitors have undergone clinical trials , with mixed results . Two other mutations - NPM1 and biallelic CEBPA are associated with improved outcomes , especially in people with normal cytogenetics and are used in current risk stratification algorithms .

Researchers are investigating the clinical significance of c @-@ KIT mutations in AML . These are prevalent , and potentially clinically relevant because of the availability of tyrosine kinase inhibitors , such as imatinib and sunitinib that can block the activity of c @-@ KIT pharmacologically . It is expected that additional markers ( e.g. , RUNX1 , ASXL1 , and TP53 ) that have consistently been associated with an inferior outcome will soon be included in these recommendations . The prognostic importance of other mutated genes ( e.g. , DNMT3A , IDH1 , IDH2 ) is less clear .

= = = Expectation of cure = = =

Cure rates in clinical trials have ranged from 20 – 45 % ; although clinical trials often include only younger people and those able to tolerate aggressive therapies . The overall cure rate for all people with AML ( including the elderly and those unable to tolerate aggressive therapy ) is likely lower . Cure rates for promyelocytic leukemia can be as high as 98 % .

= = Epidemiology = =

Acute myeloid leukemia is a relatively rare cancer . There are approximately 10 @,@ 500 new cases each year in the United States , and the incidence rate has remained stable from 1995 through 2005 . AML accounts for 1 @.@ 2 % of all cancer deaths in the United States .

The incidence of AML increases with age ; the median age at diagnosis is 63 years . AML accounts for about 90 % of all acute leukemias in adults , but is rare in children . The rate of therapy @-@ related AML ( that is , AML caused by previous chemotherapy ) is rising ; therapy @-@ related disease currently accounts for about 10 – 20 % of all cases of AML . AML is slightly more common in men , with a male @-@ to @-@ female ratio of 1 @.@ 3 : 1 .

There is some geographic variation in the incidence of AML . In adults , the highest rates are seen in North America , Europe , and Oceania , while adult AML is rarer in Asia and Latin America . In contrast , childhood AML is less common in North America and India than in other parts of Asia . These differences may be due to population genetics , environmental factors , or a combination of the two .

= = = UK = = =

AML accounts for 34 % of all leukaemia cases in the UK , and around 2 @,@ 900 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 .

= = History = =

The first published description of a case of leukemia in medical literature dates to 1827 , when French physician Alfred @-@ Armand @-@ Louis @-@ Marie Velpeau described a 63 @-@ year @-@ old florist who developed an illness characterized by fever , weakness , urinary stones , and substantial enlargement of the liver and spleen . Velpeau noted the blood of this person had a consistency " like gruel " , and speculated the appearance of the blood was due to white corpuscles . In 1845 , a series of people who died with enlarged spleens and changes in the " colors and consistencies of their blood " was reported by the Edinburgh @-@ based pathologist J.H. Bennett ; he used the term " leucocythemia " to describe this pathological condition .

The term " leukemia " was coined by Rudolf Virchow , the renowned German pathologist , in 1856 . As a pioneer in the use of the light microscope in pathology , Virchow was the first to describe the abnormal excess of white blood cells in people with the clinical syndrome described by Velpeau and Bennett . As Virchow was uncertain of the etiology of the white blood cell excess , he used the purely descriptive term " leukemia " ( Greek : " white blood " ) to refer to the condition .

Further advances in the understanding of acute myeloid leukemia occurred rapidly with the development of new technology . In 1877 , Paul Ehrlich developed a technique of staining blood films which allowed him to describe in detail normal and abnormal white blood cells . Wilhelm Ebstein introduced the term " acute leukemia " in 1889 to differentiate rapidly progressive and fatal leukemias from the more indolent chronic leukemias . The term " myeloid " was coined by Franz Ernst Christian Neumann in 1869 , as he was the first to recognize white blood cells were made in the bone marrow ( Greek : µυєλός , myelos = ( bone ) marrow ) as opposed to the spleen . The technique of bone marrow examination to diagnose leukemia was first described in 1879 by Mosler . Finally , in 1900 , the myeloblast , which is the malignant cell in AML , was characterized by Otto Naegeli , who divided the leukemias into myeloid and lymphocytic .

In 2008 , AML became the first cancer genome to be fully sequenced . DNA extracted from leukemic cells were compared to unaffected skin . The leukemic cells contained acquired mutations in several genes that had not previously been associated with the disease .

= = Pregnancy = =

Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy , affecting only about 1 in 10 @,@ 000 pregnant women . How it is handled depends primarily on the type of leukemia . Acute leukemias normally require prompt , aggressive treatment , despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects , especially if chemotherapy is given during the developmentally sensitive first trimester .

= Love Me Like You =

" Love Me Like You " is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . The song was released on 25 September 2015 , as the second single from the album . Produced by Steve Mac , he co @-@ wrote the song with Iain James , Camille Purcell and James Newman . Backed by an instrumental of pianos , bells , sax and percussion , the song is a down @-@ tempo retro homage to doo @-@ wop , with lyrics about puppy love . Its composition was compared by several critics to Motown artists of the 1950s and 1960s , namely The Ronettes , The Supremes and Shadow Morton .

Critical response to " Love Me Like You " was positive : critics praised its vintage style and highlighted it as an album standout . It reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and has been certified gold by the BPI . The accompanying music video for the song was set at a high school dance . Unbeknownst to each member of the group , they had been invited to attend by the same date after previously meeting him in different situations . He arrives with another girl near the end of the night , and they realise that he had all been invited by the same guy , and end up dateless . Little Mix have performed the track on both the Australian and British versions of The X Factor and on Good Morning America in the United States .

= = Background and release = =

" Love Me Like You " was written by Steve Mac , Camille Purcell , Iain James and James Newman for Little Mix 's third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . It was published by Rokstone Music Ltd. under exclusive licence to BMG Rights Management ( UK ) Ltd ; Kobalt Music Group ; Sony / ATV Music Publishing ; Black Butter Music Publishing and BMG Rights Management . The song was produced by Mac and mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . It was engineered for mixing by John Hanes and engineered by Chris Laws and Dann Pursey , and mastered by Tom Coyne and Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound Studios in New York . The track was recorded at Rokstone Studios in London . Purcell also provided background vocals . The keyboards were performed by Mac , and the guitars were played by Paul Gendler . Laws and Pursey performed the drums and the percussion , respectively .

The group announced on 9 September 2015 that " Love Me Like You " would be the second single to be released from the album , and that it would be made available to pre @-@ order on 11 September , and be released on 25 September . It was released by Syco and Columbia in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 25 September 2015 . The single 's artwork was released on the same day . In their review , MTV News joked that the group were suggesting that it would be number @-@ one due to each of the band members eyeline , writing " We can 't help but get the hint they 're on the hunt for ANOTHER chart topping trophy . Leigh @-@ Anne clearly thinks she can see it in the distance , Jesy is just imagining it with her brain , Jade definitely thinks she can hear the noise of records being sold and Perrie is convinced it 's on the floor . " M magazine writer Heather Thompson described the artwork as " vibrant " . A collection of alternate versions called " Love Me Like You ( The Collection ) " was also released in Australia and New Zealand in addition to Ireland and the United Kingdom on 16 October 2015 . It consists of a Christmas mix , several remixes and an instrumental version of " Love Me Like You " and another album track called " Lightning " .

= = Composition = =

" Love Me Like You " has been described as a down @-@ tempo " ode to ' 60s doo @-@ wop " retro style pop song , which lasts for a duration of three minutes , seventeen seconds . The song is composed in the key of G major using common time and a tempo of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by " vintage " pianos , bells and a " pumping " tenor sax . The use of percussion gives the a track a more modern style . During the track , the band members vocal range spans one octave , from the low note of D4 to the high note of E5 .

The song opens with the group harmonising " Sha la la la " over pianos . The lyrics are about puppy love , as they yearningly sing " Last night I lay in bed so blue / Cause ' I realized the truth / They can 't love me like you / I tried to find somebody new / Baby they ain 't got a clue / Can 't love me like you . " Fuse writer Jeff Benjamin described the song as being reminiscent of 1960s girl group The Ronettes but with a more modern feel for 2015 radio , highlighting the line " They try to romance me but you got that nasty and that 's what I want " as an example . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner thought that the line " He might got the biggest ca @-@ aa @-@ ar " does not fool listeners into thinking that " they 're not actually talking about his Fiat 500 . " Several music critics compared the song to recordings from the Motown era in the 1950s and 1960s , with Andy Gill of The Independent likening it to material composed by Shadow Morton . Emilee Lindner of MTV News likened the production to material composed by Phil Spector . The Christmas mix version features added church bells and jingles .

= = Critical reception = =

Andy Gill of The Independent described the track as having a " nice " retro sound , and singled it out as being one of his top three songs from the album to download , along with " Black Magic " and " Grown " . Writing for NME , Nick Levine thought that " Love Me Like You " was reminiscent of songs recorded by Stooshe , but added that Little Mix performed the Motown style " without the forced sense of fun . " Similarly , Billboard writer Malorie MaCall and Digital Spy critic Jack Klompus likened the retro style to songs performed by Meghan Trainor and The Supremes , respectively . Music Times writer Carolyn Menyes praised its composition for being " charming " and described the track as " totally charming . " A reviewer for Press Play OK commented that the song was " less club night and more prom night . " Broadcaster Stephen Fry criticised the track when interviewed by Newsbeat about his review of a selection of songs released in 2015 . He described it as " horrible " and a modern @-@ day " hideous , toxic compound " take on a Phil Spector song .

= = Chart performance = =

In the United Kingdom , " Love Me Like You " debuted at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart on 8 October 2015 . It later peaked at number 11 on 7 January 2016 . It also peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Downloads Chart . The track has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Scotland , the song reached number five . It achieved success in Ireland , reaching number 8 on 31 December 2015 . It peaked at number 66 on the Belgium Ultratip Flanders chart on 31 October 2015 . It also peaked at number 64 in Slovakia , number 81 in the Czech Republic , and number 140 in France . Outside of Europe , " Love Me Like You " reached number 80 on the Japan Hot 100 , number 27 in Australia , and number one on the New Zealand Heatseekers chart .

= = Music video = =

The accompanying music video for " Love Me Like You " was released on 10 October 2015 . The video takes place at a school dance , where a professor in the hall ( the same man who appeared in their previous single 's video " Black Magic " ) tells everyone that it is the last dance . Jade , Leigh @-@ Anne , Jesy and Perrie are waiting for their dates to arrive . Scenes of the girls waiting for their date are intercut throughout the video of them sitting at a table while all of the other couples are dancing . Unbeknownst to them , the man , played by Hector David Junior , has invited each of them to go to the dance after meeting them in different situations prior to that night . He asked Jade by picking her up in his car to go on a date . As she gets in , he invites her to be his date at the dance and presents her with a corsage to wear on her wrist on the night . He mets Leigh @-@ Anne at a high school basketball game , where she and her girlfriends were watching him and some other boys play on the court . He sees that she is infatuated by how good he is at the sport , walks up to her , and asks her to be his date by giving her a corsage . He asked Jesy to be his date while they were at the cinema as they shared a bucket of popcorn . As he gives her the corsage , she throws the bucket over her shoulder and eagerly jumps on his lap , causing them to fall off the chair .

Finally , he invited Perrie to be his date after she fell off her bike while staring at him work out on a field and pouring water over his torso to cool down . He helps her up , and gives her a corsage . Toward the end of the video , they sit on a bench next to the entrance , and see their date walk in with another girl wearing the same corsage as the ones that he had given each of them . They realise that they have all been two @-@ timed by the same guy , and are all dateless . It ends with the girls being each other 's date and solemnly dancing whilst everyone else has a good time . Metro writer Rebecca Lewis noted that the man in the video strongly resembled Perrie 's former fiancé Zayn Malik of One Direction . She also wrote that fans had noticed that she was still wearing her engagement ring in the video , meaning that the video was filmed before they split up in August 2015 .

= = Live performances = =

" Little Mix " performed " Love Me Like You " live on the seventh season of The X Factor in Australia on 13 October 2015 . Capital praised their performed , writing that it set an " amazing example " for the contestants on the show and that their vocals were " pitch perfect " . On 1 November , the group performed a " Love Me Like You " / " Black Magic " medley on the twelfth series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom . It featured the group wearing prom dresses for their performance of " Love Me Like You " , which were then torn off to reveal leotards to sing " Black Magic " . Little Mix " sang the track live on Good Morning America in the United States on 5 November . They returned to the UK to perform " Love Me Like You " at the Radio 1 Teen Awards at Wembley Arena on 8 November , and again the following morning on breakfast show Lorraine . " Love Me Like You " was included on the set @-@ list of their segment at Capital 's annual Jingle Bell Ball on 6 December , along with the other singles to be released Get Weird " Black Magic " and " Secret Love Song " , as well as previous singles " Salute " , " Move " and " Wings " .

= = Track listing = =

Digital download

" Love Me Like You " – 3 : 17

Digital download — The Collection

" Love Me Like You " ( Christmas Mix ) – 3 : 29

" Lightning " – 5 : 09

" Love Me Like You " ( J @-@ Vibe Reggae Remix ) – 3 : 04

" Love Me Like You " ( Bimbo Jones Remix ) – 3 : 07

" Love Me Like You " ( 7th Heaven Remix ) – 3 : 10

" Love Me Like You " ( Exclusive Interview ) – 3 : 16

" Love Me Like You " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 15

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Shaoguan incident =

The Shaoguan incident was a civil disturbance which took place overnight on 25 / 26 June 2009 in Guangdong province , China . A violent dispute erupted between migrant Uyghurs and Han workers at a toy factory in Shaoguan as a result of allegations of the sexual assault of a Han female . Groups of Han set upon Uyghur co @-@ workers , leading to at least two Uyghurs being killed , ( Uyghur workers who witnessed the incident report at least 100 dead and 400 wounded ) and some 118 people injured .

The event was widely cited as the trigger event for July 2009 Ürümqi riots , which ostensibly started as a peaceful street protest demanding official action over the two Uyghurs who died in Shaoguan . Following trials in October 2009 , one person was executed and several others sentenced to terms between life imprisonment and five to seven years .

= = Background = =

The factory where the incident took place is the Xuri ( " Early Light " ) Toy Factory ( 旭日玩具厂 ) , owned by Hong Kong @-@ based Early Light International ( Holdings ) Ltd . , the largest toy manufacturer in the world . The company 's Shaoguan factory in the Wujiang district employs some 16 @,@ 000 workers . At the behest of the Guangdong authorities , it hired 800 workers from Kashgar , in Xinjiang as part of an ethnic program which relocated 200 @,@ 000 young Uyghurs since the start of 2008 . According to The Guardian , most workers sign a one- to three @-@ year contract then travel to factory dormitories in the south ; in addition to their salaries ranging from 1 @,@ 000 yuan to 1 @,@ 400 yuan a month , many get free board and lodging . Most of these Kashgars are away from home to work for the first time . The Far Eastern Economic Review said Guangdong authorities initiated a controversial plan to ship [ Uyghur ] workers to Guangdong factories amid continuing labour shortages . The young workers , whose families have charged that they were forced to send their children south , often lack even basic Chinese language skills and find it difficult to fit in with the dominant Han culture . " The New York Times quoted Xinjiang Daily saying in May that 70 percent of the young Uyghurs had " signed up for employment voluntarily . " However , Kashgar residents say the families of those who refuse to go are threatened with fines of up to six months ' worth of a villager 's income .

An official in charge of ethnic and religious affairs in Guangdong said that the province had hired Uygurs , aged from 18 to 29 , in May . A small group of Uyghurs arrived on 2 May , and workers at the factory remarked that relations between the two groups deteriorated as the number of Uyghurs increased . State media confirmed that all the workers were from Shufu County . China Labor Watch reported that workers at the Shaoguan factory , where the Uyghurs were employed , earned 28 yuan per day compared with 41 @.@ 3 yuan in its factory in Shenzhen . They noted that rights of workers , Han and Uyghur alike , were frequently violated by verbal abuse from factory supervisors , unpaid overtime , poor dormitory conditions and illegal labour contracts . Li Qiang , executive director of China Labor Watch said that low pay , long hours and poor working conditions combined with the inability to communicate with their colleagues exacerbated deeply held mistrust between the Han and Uyghurs .

= = Causes and events = =

Overnight on 25 – 26 June , tensions flared at the factory , leading to a full @-@ blown ethnic brawl between Uyghurs and Han . As a result of the fighting , 2 Uyghurs died and 118 people were injured , 16 of them seriously . Of the injured , 79 were Uyghurs and 39 were Hans . 400 police and 50 anti @-@ riot vehicles were mobilised .

Official sources state that the rioting began at around 2 a.m. , and there were reports that they lasted until at least 4 @.@ 30 a.m. , when police arrived . An initial disturbance was reported at around 11 p.m. when security guards responded to a call for help by a female worker who felt intimidated by several chanting male Uyghurs . Two dozen Han workers armed with batons and metal rods then responded ; they called for backup using their phones .

Uyghurs maintained that the attacks started after the night shift at around 12 @.@ 30 a.m. , when Han mobs stormed into Uyghur dormitories and started indiscriminate and unprovoked beatings . Amateur videos posted online showed brutal attacks , and Han chasing Uyghurs through the dorm floors . One man said that he saw that security had been overwhelmed by the arrival of outside gangs ; he said it was common knowledge that the outsiders brought in machetes . Han and Uyghur witnesses interviewed by the foreign press thought the casualties had been understated by the authorities : a Han claimed to have killed seven or eight Uyghurs ; Uyghurs cited " merciless " assaults on those already in ambulances . The rioting stopped soon after the police arrived . A policeman explained their delay in arriving at the scene due to difficulties in assembling enough officers . The two dead men were later named as Aximujiang Aimaiti and Sadikejiang Kaze , both from Xinjiang .

= = = Rape rumours = = =

The rioting was sparked by allegations of sexual assault on Han women by Uyghurs , and rumours of an incident in which two female Han workers were sexually assaulted by six Uyghur co @-@ workers at the factory , according to Voice of America . The authorities said that the rumours were false , and had been initiated by a disgruntled former co @-@ worker . Xinhua said that a man surnamed Zhu " faked the information to express his discontent " over failing to find new work after quitting his job at the factory .

= = Responses = =

Police said that their investigations found no evidence that a rape had taken place . Shaoguan government spokesman Wang Qinxin , called it " a very ordinary incident " , which he said had been exaggerated to foment unrest.The Guardian reported that video of the riots and photographs of the victims were quickly circulated on the internet by Uighur exile groups , along with claims that the death toll was under @-@ reported and the police were slow to act ; protests in Ürümqi were assembled by email . Xinhua reported that Guangdong authorities had arrested two people who are suspected of having spread rumours online which alleged sexual assault of Han women had taken place . In addition , it reported on 7 July 2009 that 13 suspects had been taken into custody following the incident , of which 3 were Uyghurs from Xinjiang . Xinhua quoted 23 @-@ year @-@ old Huang Jiangyuan saying that he was angry at being turned down for a job in June at the toy factory , and thus posted an article at a forum on sg169.com on 16 June which alleged six Xinjiang boys had raped two innocent girls at the Xuri Toy Factory ; Huang Zhangsha , 19 , was detained for writing on his online chat space on 28 June that eight Xinjiang people had died in the factory fight . Kang Zhijian , vice director with the Shaoguan Public Security Bureau , said that the offenders would face up to 15 days in administrative detention .

On 8 July 2009 , Xinhua released an interview with Huang Cuilian , the " Han girl " whose alleged rape triggered the disturbances . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old trainee from rural Guangdong , who had worked at the factory less than two months , said : " I was lost and entered the wrong dormitory and screamed when I saw those Uyghur young men in the room ... I just felt they were unfriendly so I turned and ran . " She recounted how one of them stood up and stamped his feet as if to chase her . " I later realized that he was just making fun of me . " She said she only found out hours later that she was the cause of the violence .

Shaoguan authorities moved the Uyghur workers to temporary accommodation , and the workers were transferred on 7 July to another facility belonging to Early Light , 30 km away in Baitu town . The Baitu factory is now reported to be an Uyghur enclave , with , sporting facilities , canteen serving Xinjiang food , a round @-@ the @-@ clock staff clinic , and plain @-@ clothed police officers in their midst . According to the South China Morning Post , the Kashgar staff were apparently unable to mix with colleagues in their previous location because of the language barrier – a local shop worker estimated that less than one in three spoke Mandarin . Two months on , the South China Morning Post found few willing to talk about the events of the fateful night . The authorities ' claims that 50 Uyghur workers were granted their repatriation requests following the violence are contested by Uyghur workers .

Abdukeyum Muhammat , deputy secretary of Xinjiang kanji Prefectural Committee of the Communist Party , led a working team to Shaoguan on 27 June . Zhou Yongkang , Politburo Standing Committee member responsible for security , reportedly visited Shaoguan in early September 2009 . On 5 August , Xinhua reported that Chinese police had arrested Kurban Khayum , a chef at an Arabic restaurant in Guangzhou who they claimed confessed to being an agent for the World Uygur Congress ( WUC ) and who allegedly spread rumours that were later used as a pretext to trigger the Ürümqi riots of 5 July . Xinhua alleged that he had fabricated a report that " the factory brawl had caused the death of 17 to 18 people , including three females , " which he sent in an e @-@ mail to Rebiya Kadeer .

At a trial on 10 October at Shaoguan Intermediate People 's Court , Xiao Jianhua ( 肖建华 ) was sentenced to death for being the " principal instigator " of the violence and Xu Qiqi ( 许其琪 ) was given a life sentence for manslaughter ; three other people were sentenced to seven to eight years for assault . On the same day , the People 's Court of Wujiang District , Shaoguan , jailed three more Han workers and three Uyghurs for participating in the brawl ; they were sentenced to five to seven years ' imprisonment .

= Galveston , Texas =

Galveston / ˈɡælvᵻstən / is a coastal city located on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U.S. state of Texas . The community of 208 @.@ 3 square miles ( 539 km2 ) , with its population of 47 @,@ 762 people ( 2012 Census estimate ) , is the county seat and second @-@ largest municipality of Galveston County . It is located within Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area .

Named after Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez ( born in Málaga , Spain ) , Galveston 's first European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by French pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury to help the fledgling Republic of Mexico fight Spain . The Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its successful independence from Spain . The city served as the main port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution , and later served as the capital of the Republic of Texas .

During the 19th century , Galveston became a major U.S. commercial center and one of the largest ports in the United States . It was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane , whose effects included flooding and a storm surge . The natural disaster on the exposed barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history , with an estimated toll of 8 @,@ 000 people .

Much of Galveston 's modern economy is centered in the tourism , health care , shipping , and financial industries . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students is a major economic force of the city . Galveston is home to six historic districts containing one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States , with over 60 structures listed in the National Register of Historic Places .

= = History = =

= = = Exploration and 19th century development = = =

Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia . The Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528 , calling it " Isla de Malhado " ( " Isle of Bad Fate " ) . They began their years @-@ long trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City . During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785 , the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Gálvez @-@ town or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez .

The first permanent European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury as a base of operations to support Mexico 's rebellion against Spain . In 1817 , Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte . Lafitte organized Galveston into a pirate " kingdom " he called " Campeche " , anointing himself the island 's " head of government . " Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821 , when he and his raiders were forced off the island by the United States Navy .

In 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house . Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there . In 1836 , the French @-@ Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4 @,@ 605 acres ( 18 @.@ 64 km2 ) of land for $ 50 @,@ 000 to found the town that would become the modern city of Galveston . As Anglo @-@ Americans migrated to the city , they brought along or purchased enslaved African @-@ Americans , some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront , including on riverboats .

In 1839 the City of Galveston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas . The city was by then a burgeoning port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas , including Jewish merchants . Together with ethnic Mexican residents , these groups tended to oppose slavery , support the Union during the Civil War , and join the Republican Party after the war .

During this expansion , the city had many " firsts " in the state , with the founding of institutions and adoption of inventions : post office ( 1836 ) , naval base ( 1836 ) , Texas chapter of a Masonic order ( 1840 ) ; cotton compress ( 1842 ) , Catholic parochial school ( Ursuline Academy ) ( 1847 ) , insurance company ( 1854 ) , and gas lights ( 1856 ) .

During the American Civil War , Confederate forces under Major General John B. Magruder attacked and expelled occupying Union troops from the city in January 1863 in the Battle of Galveston . In 1867 Galveston suffered a yellow fever epidemic ; 1800 people died in the city . These occurred in waterfront and river cities throughout the 19th century , as did cholera epidemics .

The city 's progress continued through the Reconstruction era with numerous " firsts " : construction of the opera house ( 1870 ) , and orphanage ( 1876 ) , and installation of telephone lines ( 1878 ) and electric lights ( 1883 ) . Having attracted freedmen from rural areas , in 1870 the city had a black population that totaled 3 @,@ 000 , made up mostly of former slaves but also by numerous persons who were free men of color and educated before the war . The " blacks " comprised nearly 25 % of the city 's population of 13 @,@ 818 that year .

During the post @-@ Civil @-@ War period , leaders such as George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney , who headed the Texas Republican Party and promoted civil rights for freedmen , helped to dramatically improve educational and employment opportunities for blacks in Galveston and in Texas . Cuney established his own business of stevedores and a union of black dockworkers to break the white monopoly on dock jobs . Galveston was a cosmopolitan city and one of the more successful during Reconstruction ; the Freedmen 's Bureau was headquartered here . German families sheltered teachers from the North , and hundreds of freedmen were taught to read . Its business community promoted progress , and immigrants continued to stay after arriving at this port of entry .

By the end of the 19th century , the city of Galveston had a population of 37 @,@ 000 . Its position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas . It was one of the largest cotton ports in the nation , in competition with New Orleans . Throughout the 19th century , the port city of Galveston grew rapidly and the Strand was considered the region 's primary business center . For a time , the Strand was known as the " Wall Street of the South " . In the late 1890s , the government constructed Fort Crockett defenses and coastal artillery batteries in Galveston and along the Bolivar Roads . In February 1897 , Galveston was officially visited by the USS Texas ( nicknamed Old Hoodoo ) , the first commissioned battleship of the United States Navy . During the festivities , the ship 's officers were presented with a $ 5 @,@ 000 silver service , adorned with various Texas motifs , as a gift from the citizens of the state .

= = = Hurricane of 1900 and recovery = = =

On September 8 , 1900 , the island was struck by a devastating hurricane . This event holds the record as the United States ' deadliest natural disaster . The city was devastated , and an estimated 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 people on the island were killed . Following the storm , a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long , 17 foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high seawall was constructed to protect the city from floods and hurricane storm surge . A team of engineers including Henry Martyn Robert ( Robert 's Rules of Order ) designed the plan to raise much of the existing city to a sufficient elevation behind a seawall so that confidence in the city could be maintained .

The city developed the city commission form of city government , known as the " Galveston Plan " , to help expedite recovery .

Despite attempts to draw new investment to the city after the hurricane , Galveston never fully returned to its previous levels of national importance or prosperity . Development was also hindered by the construction of the Houston Ship Channel , which brought the Port of Houston into direct competition with the natural harbor of the Port of Galveston for sea traffic . To further her recovery , and rebuild her population , Galveston actively solicited immigration . Through the efforts of Rabbi Henry Cohen and Congregation B 'nai Israel , Galveston became the focus of an immigration plan called the Galveston Movement that , between 1907 and 1914 , diverted roughly 10 @,@ 000 Eastern European Jewish immigrants from the usual destinations of the crowded cities of the Northeastern United States . Additionally numerous other immigrant groups , including Greeks , Italians and Russian Jews , came to the city during this period . This immigration trend substantially altered the ethnic makeup of the island , as well as many other areas of Texas and the western U.S.

Though the storm stalled economic development and the city of Houston developed as the region 's principal metropolis , Galveston economic leaders recognized the need to diversify from the traditional port @-@ related industries . In 1905 William Lewis Moody , Jr. and Isaac H. Kempner , members of two of Galveston 's leading families , founded the American National Insurance Company . Two years later , Moody established the City National Bank , which would later become the Moody National Bank .

During the 1920s and 1930s , the city re @-@ emerged as a major tourist destination . Under the influence of Sam Maceo and Rosario Maceo , the city exploited the prohibition of liquor and gambling in clubs like the Balinese Room , which offered entertainment to wealthy Houstonians and other out @-@ of @-@ towners . Combined with prostitution , which had existed in the city since the Civil War , Galveston became known as the " sin city " of the Gulf . Galvestonians accepted and supported the illegal activities , often referring to their island as the " Free State of Galveston " . The island had entered what would later become known as the " open era " .

The 1930s and 1940s brought much change to the Island City . During World War II , the Galveston Municipal Airport , predecessor to Scholes International Airport , was re @-@ designated a U.S. Army Air Corps base and named " Galveston Army Air Field " . In January 1943 , Galveston Army Air Field was officially activated with the 46th Bombardment Group serving an anti @-@ submarine role in the Gulf of Mexico . In 1942 , William Lewis Moody , Jr . , along with his wife Libbie Shearn Rice Moody , established the Moody Foundation , to benefit " present and future generations of Texans . " The foundation , one of the largest in the United States , would play a prominent role in Galveston during later decades , helping to fund numerous civic and health @-@ oriented programs .

= = = Post – World War II = = =

The end of the war drastically reduced military investment in the island . Increasing enforcement of gambling laws and the growth of Las Vegas , Nevada as a competitive center of gambling and entertainment put pressure on the gaming industry on the island . Finally in 1957 , Texas Attorney General Will Wilson and the Texas Rangers began a massive campaign of raids which disrupted gambling and prostitution in the city . As these vice industries crashed , so did tourism , taking the rest of the Galveston economy with it . Neither the economy nor the culture of the city was the same afterward .

The economy of the island entered a long stagnant period . Many businesses relocated off the island during this period ; however , health care , insurance and financial industries continue to be strong contributors to the economy . By 1959 , the city of Houston had long out @-@ paced Galveston in population and economic growth . Beginning in 1957 , the Galveston Historical Foundation began its efforts to preserve historic buildings . The 1966 book The Galveston That Was helped encourage the preservation movement . Restoration efforts financed by motivated investors , notably Houston businessman George P. Mitchell , gradually developed the Strand Historic District and reinvented other areas . A new , family @-@ oriented tourism emerged in the city over many years .

With the 1960s came the expansion of higher education in Galveston . Already home to the University of Texas Medical Branch , the city got a boost in 1962 with the creation of the Texas Maritime Academy , predecessor of Texas A & M University at Galveston ; and by 1967 a community college , Galveston College , had been established .

In the 2000s , property values rose after expensive projects were completed and demand for second homes by the wealthy increased . It has made it difficult for middle @-@ class workers to find affordable housing on the island .

Hurricane Ike made landfall on Galveston Island in the early morning of September 13 , 2008 as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 miles per hour . Damage was extensive to buildings along the seawall .

After the storm , the island was rebuilt with further investments into tourism , shipping , and continued emphasis on higher education and health care . Notably the addition of the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier and the replacement of the bascule @-@ type drawbridge on the railroad causeway with a vertical @-@ lift @-@ type drawbridge to allow heavier freight .

= = Geography = =

The city of Galveston is situated on Galveston Island , a barrier island off the Texas Gulf coast near the mainland coast . Made up of mostly sand @-@ sized particles and smaller amounts of finer mud sediments and larger gravel @-@ sized sediments , the island is unstable , affected by water and weather , and can shift its boundaries through erosion .

The city is about 45 miles ( 72 km ) southeast of downtown Houston . The island is oriented generally northeast @-@ southwest , with the Gulf of Mexico on the east and south , West Bay on the west , and Galveston Bay on the north . The island 's main access point from the mainland is the Interstate Highway 45 causeway that crosses West Bay on the northeast side of the island .

A deepwater channel connects Galveston 's harbor with the Gulf and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 208 @.@ 4 square miles ( 540 km2 ) , of which 46 @.@ 2 square miles ( 120 km2 ) is land and 162 @.@ 2 square miles ( 420 km2 ) and 77 @.@ 85 % is water . The island is 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Houston .

The western portion of Galveston is referred to as the " West End " . Communities in eastern Galveston include Lake Madeline , Offats Bayou , Central City , Fort Crockett , Bayou Shore , Lasker Park , Carver Park , Kempner Park , Old City / Central Business District , San Jacinto , East End , and Lindale . As of 2009 many residents of the west end use golf carts as transportation to take them to and from residential houses , the Galveston Island Country Club , and stores . In 2009 , Chief of Police Charles Wiley said he believed that golf carts should be prohibited outside golf courses , and West End residents campaigned against any ban on their use .

In 2011 Rice University released a study , " Atlas of Sustainable Strategies for Galveston Island , " which argued that the West End of Galveston was quickly eroding and that the City should reduce construction and / or population in that area . It recommended against any rebuilding of the West End in the event of damage due to another hurricane . Scientists increasingly recognize that barrier islands are inherently unstable and cannot be permanently fixed .

= = = Historic districts = = =

Galveston is home to six historic districts with over 60 structures listed representing architectural significance in the National Register of Historic Places . The Silk Stocking National Historic District , located between Broadway and Seawall Boulevard and bounded by Ave . K , 23rd St. , Ave . P , and 26th St. , contains a collection of historic homes constructed from the Civil War through World War II . The East End Historic District , located on both sides of Broadway and Market Streets , contains 463 buildings . Other historic districts include Cedar Lawn , Denver Court and Fort Travis .

The Strand National Historic Landmark District is a National Historic Landmark District of mainly Victorian era buildings that have been adapted for use as restaurants , antique stores , historical exhibits , museums and art galleries . The area is a major tourist attraction for the island city . It is the center for two very popular seasonal festivals . It is widely considered the island 's shopping and entertainment center . Today , " the Strand " is generally used to refer to the entire five @-@ block business district between 20th and 25th streets in downtown Galveston , very close to the city 's wharf .

= = = Climate = = =

Galveston 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in Köppen climate classification system ) . Prevailing winds from the south and southeast bring both heat from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Summer temperatures regularly exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) and the area 's humidity drives the heat index even higher , while nighttime lows average around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows near 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . Snowfall is generally rare ; however , 15 @.@ 4 in ( 39 @.@ 1 cm ) of snow fell in February 1895 , making the 1894 – 95 winter the snowiest on record . Annual rainfall averages well over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) a year with some areas typically receiving over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) .

Hurricanes are an ever @-@ present threat during the summer and fall season , which puts Galveston in Coastal Windstorm Area . Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula are generally at the greatest risk among the communities near the Galveston Bay . However , though the island and peninsula provide some shielding , the bay shoreline still faces significant danger from storm surge .

= = Demographics = =

= = = 2000 Census data = = =

As of the census of 2000 , there were 57 @,@ 247 people , 23 @,@ 842 households , and 13 @,@ 732 families residing in the city . As of the 2006 U.S. Census estimate , the city had a total population of 57 @,@ 466 . The population density was 1 @,@ 240 @.@ 4 people per square mile ( 478 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ 017 housing units at an average density of 650 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 251 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 58 @.@ 7 % White , 25 @.@ 5 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 3 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 9 @.@ 7 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . 25 @.@ 8 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . There were 23 @,@ 842 households out of which 26 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 13 living with them , 36 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 42 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 2 % had someone living alone who was 89 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 30 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 03 .

In the city the population was 23 @.@ 4 % under the age of 13 , 11 @.@ 3 % from 13 to 24 , 29 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 8 % from 45 to 88 , and 13 @.@ 7 % who were 89 years of age or older . The median age was 36 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 13 and over , there were 90 @.@ 4 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 28 @,@ 895 , and the median income for a family was $ 35 @,@ 049 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 150 versus $ 26 @,@ 030 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 275 . About 17 @.@ 8 % of families and 22 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 32 @.@ 1 % of those under age 13 and 14 @.@ 2 % of those age 89 or over .

= = Economy = =

= = = Port of Galveston = = =

The Port of Galveston , also called Galveston Wharves , began as a trading post in 1825 . Today , the port has grown to 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 km2 ) of port facilities . The port is located on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway , on the north side of Galveston Island , with some facilities on Pelican Island . The port has facilities to handle all types of cargo including containers , dry and liquid bulk , breakbulk , Roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off , refrigerated cargo and project cargoes .

The port also serves as a passenger cruise ship terminal for cruise ships operating in the Caribbean . The terminal is home port to two Carnival Cruise Lines vessels , the Carnival Conquest and the Carnival Ecstasy . In November 2011 the company made Galveston home port to its 3 @,@ 960 @-@ passenger mega @-@ ships Carnival Magic and Carnival Triumph , as well . Carnival Magic sails a seven @-@ day Caribbean cruise from Galveston , and it is the largest cruise ship based at the Port year @-@ round . Galveston is the home port to Royal Caribbean International 's , MS Libertty of the Seas , which is the largest cruise ship ever based here and one of the largest ships in the world . In September 2012 Disney Cruise Line 's Disney Magic also became based in Galveston , offering four- , six- , seven- , and eight @-@ day cruises to the Caribbean and the Bahamas .

= = = Finance = = =

American National Insurance Company , one of the largest life insurance companies in the United States , is based in Galveston . The company and its subsidiaries operate in all 50 U.S. states , the District of Columbia , Puerto Rico , and American Samoa . Through its subsidiary , American National de México , Compañía de Seguros de Vida , it provides products and services in Mexico . Moody National Bank , with headquarters in downtown Galveston , is one of the largest privately owned Texas @-@ based banks . Its trust department , established in 1927 , administers over 12 billion dollars in assets , one of the largest in the state . In addition , the regional headquarters of Iowa @-@ based United Fire & Casualty Company are located in the city .

= = = Health care = = =

Galveston is the home of several of the largest teaching hospitals in the state , located on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston . Prior to Hurricane Ike , the University employed more than 12 @,@ 000 people . Its significant growth in the 1970s and 1980s was attributable to a uniquely qualified management and medical faculty including : Mr. John Thompson ; Dr. William James McGanity , Dr. William Levin , Dr. David Daeschner and many more .

Ike severely damaged the 550 @-@ bed John Sealy Hospital causing the University of Texas System Board of Regents to cut nearly one @-@ third of the hospital staff . Since the storm , the regents have committed to spending $ 713 million to restore the campus , construct new medical towers , and return John Sealy Hospital to its 550 bed pre @-@ storm capacity .

In 2011 , the UT Board of Regents approved the construction of a new 13 story hospital that will be located next to John Sealy Hospital . Construction will begin in the fall of 2011 , with the demolition of the old Jennie Sealy and Shriners hospitals , and continue until completion in 2016 . The facility will have 250 room , 20 operating suites and 54 intensive care beds . When the new hospital is complete , along with the renovations at John Sealy , both complexes will have around 600 beds .

The university reopened their Level I Trauma Center on August 1 , 2009 which had been closed for eleven months after the hurricane and , as of September 2009 , had reopened 370 hospital beds .

The city is also home to a 30 @-@ bed acute burns hospital for children , the Shriners Burns Hospital at Galveston . The Galveston hospital is one of only four in the chain of 22 non @-@ profit Shriners hospitals , that provides acute burns care . Although the Galveston Hospital was damaged by Hurricane Ike , the Shriners national convention held in July 2009 voted to repair and reopen the hospital .

= = = Tourism = = =

In the late 1800s Galveston was known as the " Playground of the South " Today , it still retains a shared claim to the title among major cities along the Gulf Coast states . Galveston is a popular tourist destination which in 2007 brought $ 808 million to the local economy and attracted 5 @.@ 4 million visitors . The city features an array of lodging options , including hotels such as the historic Hotel Galvez and Tremont House , vintage bed and breakfast inns , beachfront condominiums , and resort rentals . The city 's tourist attractions include the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier , Galveston Schlitterbahn waterpark , Moody Gardens botanical park , the Ocean Star Offshore Drilling Rig & Museum , the Lone Star Flight Museum , Galveston Railroad Museum , a downtown neighborhood of historic buildings known as The Strand , many historical museums and mansions , and miles of beach front from the East End 's Porretto Beach , Stewart Beach to the West End pocket parks .

The Strand plays host to a yearly Mardi Gras festival , Galveston Island Jazz & Blues Festival and a Victorian @-@ themed Christmas festival called Dickens on the Strand ( honoring the works of novelist Charles Dickens , especially A Christmas Carol ) in early December . Galveston is home to several historic ships : the tall ship Elissa ( the official Tall Ship of Texas ) at the Texas Seaport Museum and USS Cavalla and USS Stewart , both berthed at Seawolf Park on nearby Pelican Island . Galveston is ranked the number one cruise port on the Gulf Coast and fourth in the United States .

= = Arts and culture = =

= = = Museums = = =

Galveston Arts Center

Incorporated in 1986 , Galveston Arts Center ( GAC ) is a non @-@ profit , non @-@ collecting arts organization . The center exhibits contemporary art , often by Texas @-@ based artists , and offers educational and outreach programs . Notably , GAC organizes and produces Galveston ArtWalk . Museum entry is free to the public , although cash donations are welcomed . Tiered membership options and a range of volunteer opportunities are also available .

In October 2015 , Galveston Arts Center will celebrate relocation to its original home , the historic 1878 First National Bank Building on the Strand . This Italianate @-@ style 1900 Storm survivor was extensively damaged during Hurricane Ike in 2008 . Fortunately , just weeks before Ike made landfall , scaffolding was installed to support the entire structural load of the building for repairs , likely preventing collapse under heavy winds and storm surge . After a lengthy fundraising campaign , restoration is nearing completion .

= = = Events = = =

Galveston ArtWalk

ArtWalk takes place approximately every six weeks on Saturday evenings throughout the year . ArtWalk is organized by Galveston Arts Center , which releases an ArtWalk brochure featuring a map of participating venues as well as descriptions of shows and exhibits . Venues include GAC , Galveston Artist Residency and artist ’ s studios and galleries . Additionally , art is shown in “ other walls ” — for example MOD Coffeehouse or Mosquito Cafe — or outdoors at Art Market on Market Street . Musicians perform outdoors and at venues such as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House or Old Quarter Acoustic Cafe . While most ArtWalk events are concentrated downtown , there are a number or participants elsewhere on the island .

= = = Music and Performing Arts = = =

Galveston Symphony Orchestra

Galveston is home to the Galveston Symphony Orchestra , an ensemble of amateur and professional musicians formed in 1979 under the direction of Richard W. Pickar , Musical Director @-@ Conductor .

Galveston Ballet

The Galveston Ballet is a regional pre @-@ professional ballet company and academy serving Galveston county . The company presents one full @-@ length classical ballet in the spring of each year and one mixed repertory program in the fall , both presented at the Grand 1894 Opera House .

= = = Artist Residency & Artist Housing = = =

Galveston Artist Residency

Galveston Artist Residency ( GAR ) grants studio space , living space and a stipend to three visual artists each year . Resident artists work in a variety of mediums and exhibit their work in the GAR Gallery and Courtyards . Located in renovated industrial structures on the west side of downtown , GAR also hosts performances and other public events .

The National Hotel Artist Lofts

The National Hotel Artist Lofts ( NHAL ) is an Artspace @-@ developed property featuring twenty @-@ seven live / work units designated as affordable housing for artists . The project brought new life to the historic E.S. Levy Building , which was left abandoned for twenty years . Originally built as the Tremont Opera House in 1870 , the structure was extensively renovated to serve various functions , from offices and stores to the National Hotel . The building also housed the U.S. National Weather Bureau 's Galveston office under Isaac Cline during the 1900 Storm .

Under Property Manager / Creative Director Becky Major , the unused retail space in the front of the building found a new purpose as a DIY art and music venue , despite its gutted and undeveloped state . In May 2015 , the newly renovated space reopened as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House . This unique bar and gallery provides a common area for NHAL and neighborhood residents and a cultural hub for the broader community . Visual art , events and live music are regularly hosted in the space .

= = = Architecture = = =

Galveston contains one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States . Galveston 's architectural preservation and revitalization efforts over several decades have earned national recognition .

Located in the Strand District , the Grand 1894 Opera House is a restored historic Romanesque Revival style Opera House that is currently operated as a not @-@ for @-@ profit performing arts theater . The Bishop 's Palace , also known as Gresham 's Castle , is an ornate Victorian house located on Broadway and 14th Street in the East End Historic District of Galveston , Texas . The American Institute of Architects listed Bishop 's Palace as one of the 100 most significant buildings in the United States , and the Library of Congress has classified it as one of the fourteen most representative Victorian structures in the nation . The Galvez Hotel is a historic hotel that opened in 1911 . The building was named the Galvez , honoring Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez , for whom the city was named . The hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 4 , 1979 . The Michel B. Menard House , built in 1838 and oldest in Galveston , is designed in the Greek revival style . In 1880 , the house was bought by Edwin N. Ketchum who was police chief of the city during the 1900 Storm . The Ketchum family owned the home until the 1970s . The red @-@ brick Victorian Italianate home , Ashton Villa , was constructed in 1859 by James Moreau Brown . One of the first brick structures in Texas , it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a recorded Texas Historic Landmark . The structure is also the site of what was to become the holiday known as Juneteenth . Where On June 19 , 1865 , Union General Gordon Granger , standing on its balcony , read the contents of “ General Order No. 3 ” , thereby emancipating all slaves in the state of Texas . St. Joseph ’ s Church was built by German immigrants in 1859 @-@ 60 and is the oldest wooden church building in Galveston and the oldest German Catholic Church in Texas . The church was dedicated in April 1860 , to St. Joseph , the patron saint of laborers . The building is a wooden gothic revival structure , rectangular with a square bell tower with trefoil window . The U.S. Custom House began construction in 1860 and was completed in 1861 . The Confederate Army occupied the building during the American Civil War , In 1865 , the Custom House was the site of the ceremony officially ending the Civil War .

Galveston 's modern architecture include the American National Insurance Company Tower ( One Moody Plaza ) , San Luis Resort South and North Towers , The Breakers Condominiums , The Galvestonian Resort and Condos , One Shearn Moody Plaza , US National Bank Building , the Rainforest Pyramid at Moody Gardens , John Sealy Hospital Towers at UTMB and Medical Arts Building ( also known as Two Moody Plaza ) .

= = = Media = = =

The Galveston County Daily News , founded in 1842 , is the city 's primary newspaper and the oldest continuously printed newspaper in Texas . It currently serves as the newspaper of record for the city and the Texas City Post serves as the newspaper of record for the County . Radio station KGBC , on air from 1947 @-@ 2010 , has previously served as a local media outlet . Television station KHOU signed on the air as KGUL @-@ TV on March 23 , 1953 . Originally licensed in Galveston , KGUL was the second television station to launch in the Houston area after KPRC @-@ TV . One of the original investors in the station was actor James Stewart , along with a small group of other Galveston investors . In June 1959 , KGUL changed its call sign to KHOU and moved their main office to Houston . The local hip hop name for Galveston is " G @-@ town . "

= = = Sculpture = = =

Many statues and sculptures can be found around the city . Here are a few well @-@ known sculptures .

1900 Storm Memorial by David W. Moore

Birth by Arthur Williams

Dignified Resignation by Louis Amateis

Dolphins by David W. Moore

High Tide by Charles Parks

Jack Johnson by Adrienne Isom

Pink Dolphin Monument by Joe Joe Orangias

Texas Heroes Monument by Louis Amateis

= = = Notable people = = =

Galveston has been home to many important figures in Texas and U.S. history . During the island 's earliest history it became the domain of Jean Lafitte , the famed pirate and American hero of the War of 1812 . Richard Bache , Jr. who represented Galveston in the Senate of the Second Texas Legislature in 1847 and assisted in drawing up the Constitution of 1845 . He was also the grandson of Benjamin Franklin , one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America and Deborah Read . In 1886 , the African @-@ American Galveston civil rights leader Norris Wright Cuney rose to become the head of the Texas Republican Party and one of the most important Southern black leaders of the century . Noted portrait and landscape artist Verner Moore White moved from Galveston the day before the 1900 hurricane . While he survived , his studio and much of his portfolio were destroyed . A survivor of the hurricane was the Hollywood director King Vidor , who made his directing debut in 1913 with the film Hurricane in Galveston . Later Jack Johnson , nicknamed the “ Galveston Giant ” , became the first black world heavyweight boxing champion .

During the first half of the 20th century , William L. Moody Jr. established a business empire , which includes American National Insurance Company , a major national insurer , and founded the Moody Foundation , one of the largest charitable organizations in the United States . Sam Maceo , a nationally known organized crime boss , with the help of his family , was largely responsible for making Galveston a major U.S. tourist destination from the 1920s to the 1940s . John H. Murphy , a Texas newspaperman for seventy @-@ four years , was the longtime executive vice president of the Texas Daily Newspaper Association . Douglas Corrigan became one of the early transatlantic aviators , and was given the nickname " Wrong Way " for claiming to have mistakenly made the ocean crossing after being refused permission to make the flight . Grammy @-@ award winning singer @-@ songwriter Barry White was born on the island and later moved to Los Angeles .

George P. Mitchell , pioneer of hydraulic fracturing technology and developer of The Woodlands , Texas , was born and raised in Galveston .

More recently Tilman J. Fertitta , part of the Maceo bloodline , established the Landry 's Restaurants corporation , which owns numerous restaurants and entertainment venues in Texas and Nevada . Kay Bailey Hutchison was the senior senator from Texas and the first female Texas senator .

Gilbert Pena , incoming 2015 Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from Pasadena , was born in Galveston in 1949 and lived there in early childhood .

Jonathan Pollard , who spied for Israel and was convicted in the US and sentenced to life in jail , was born in Galveston . The film and television actor Lee Patterson , a native of Vancouver , British Columbia , lived in Galveston and died there in 2007 .

Other notable people include Matt Carpenter , second baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals , Mike Evans , wide receiver for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , actress Katherine Helmond and Tina Knowles , fashion designer and creator of House of Deréon , mother of Beyoncé and Solange . Grammy award winning R & B and Jazz legend Esther Phillips was born in Galveston in 1935 .

= = Government and infrastructure = =

= = = Local government = = =

After the hurricane of 1900 , the city originated the City Commission form of city government ( which became known as the " Galveston Plan " ) . The city has since adopted the council @-@ manager form of government . Galveston 's city council serves as the city 's legislative branch , while the city manager works as the chief executive officer , and the municipal court system serves as the city 's judicial branch . The city council and mayor promote ordinances to establish municipal policies . The Galveston City Council consists of six elected positions , each derived from a specified electoral district . Each city council member is elected to a two @-@ year term , while the mayor is elected to a two @-@ year term . The city council appoints the city manager , the city secretary , the city auditor , the city attorney , and the municipal judge . The city 's Tax Collector is determined by the city council and is outsourced to Galveston County . The city manager hires employees , promotes development , presents and administers the budget , and implements city council policies . Joe Jaworski is mayor , having replaced term @-@ limited Lyda Ann Thomas May 2010 . Jaworski is also the grandson of Leon Jaworski , United States Special Prosecutor during the Watergate Scandal in the 1970s .

= = = City services = = =

The Galveston Fire Department provides fire protection services through six fire stations and 17 pieces of apparatus . The Galveston Police Department has provided the city 's police protection for more than 165 years . Over 170 authorized officers serve in three divisions .

The city is served by the Rosenberg Library , successor to the Galveston Mercantile Library , which was founded in 1871 . It is the oldest public library in the State of Texas . The library also serves as headquarters of the Galveston County Library System , and its librarian also functions as the Galveston County Librarian .

= = = County , state , and federal government = = =

Galveston is the seat and second @-@ largest city ( after League City , Texas ) of Galveston County in population . The Galveston County Justice Center , which houses all the county 's judicial functions as well as jail , is located on 59th street . The Galveston County Administrative Courthouse , the seat of civil and administrative functions , is located near the city 's downtown . Galveston is within the County Precinct 1 ; as of 2008 Patrick Doyle serves as the Commissioner of Precinct 1 . The Galveston County Sheriff 's Office operates its law enforcement headquarters and jail from the Justice Center . The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates the Galveston Community Center . Galveston is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2008 , Craig Eiland represents the district . Most of Galveston is within District 17 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Joan Huffman represents the district . A portion of Galveston is within District 11 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Mike Jackson represents the district . Galveston is in Texas 's 14th congressional district and is represented by Republican Randy Weber as of 2012 .

The Galveston Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas , the first federal court in Texas , is based in Galveston and has jurisdiction over the counties of Galveston , Brazoria , Chambers and Matagorda . It is housed in the United States Post Office , Customs House and Court House federal building in downtown Galveston . The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in Galveston , including the Galveston Main Post Office and the Bob Lyons Post Office Station . In addition the post office has a contract postal unit at the Medical Branch Unit on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch and the West Galveston Contract Postal Unit , located on the west end of Galveston Island in the beachside community of Jamaica Beach .

= = = Transportation = = =

Scholes International Airport at Galveston ( IATA : GLS , ICAO : KGLS ) is a two @-@ runway airport in Galveston ; the airport is primarily used for general aviation , offshore energy transportation , and some limited military operations . The nearest commercial airline service for the city is operated out of Houston through William P. Hobby Airport and George Bush Intercontinental Airport . The University of Texas Medical Branch has two heliports , one for Ewing Hall and one for its emergency room .

The Galveston Railway , originally established and named in 1854 as the Galveston Wharf and Cotton Press Company , is a Class III terminal switching railroad that primarily serves the transportation of cargo to and from the Port of Galveston . The railway operates 32 miles ( 51 km ) of yard track at Galveston , over a 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility . Island Transit , which operates the Galveston Island Trolley manages the city 's public transportation services . Intercity bus service to Galveston was previously operated by Kerrville Bus Company ; following the company 's acquisition by Coach USA , service was operated by Megabus . All regular intercity bus service has been discontinued .

Galveston is served by Amtrak 's Texas Eagle via connecting bus service at Longview , Texas .

Interstate 45 has a southern terminus in Galveston and serves as a main artery to Galveston from mainland Galveston County and Houston . Farm to Market Road 3005 ( locally called Seawall Boulevard ) connects Galveston to Brazoria County via the San Luis Pass @-@ Vacek Toll Bridge . State Highway 87 , known locally as Broadway Street , connects the island to the Bolivar Peninsula via the Bolivar Ferry . A project to construct the proposed Bolivar Bridge to link Galveston to Bolivar Peninsula was cancelled in 2007 .

= = Education = =

= = = Colleges and universities = = =

Established in 1891 with one building and fewer than 50 students , today the University of Texas Medical Branch ( UTMB ) campus has grown to more than 70 buildings and an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus includes schools of medicine , nursing , allied health professions , and a graduate school of biomedical sciences , as well as three institutes for advanced studies & medical humanities , a major medical library , seven hospitals , a network of clinics that provide a full range of primary and specialized medical care , and numerous research facilities .

Galveston is home to two post @-@ secondary institutions offering traditional degrees in higher education . Galveston College , a junior college that opened in 1967 , and Texas A & M University at Galveston , an ocean @-@ oriented branch campus of Texas A & M University .

= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =

The city of Galveston is served by Galveston Independent School District , which includes six elementary schools , two middle schools and one high school , Ball High School . There is also one magnet middle school , Austin Middle School , serving grades 5 through 8 .

Galveston has several state @-@ funded charter schools not affiliated with local school districts , including kindergarten through 8th grade Ambassadors Preparatory Academy and pre @-@ kindergarten through 8th Grade Odyssey Academy . In addition KIPP : the Knowledge Is Power Program opened KIPP Coastal Village in Galveston under the auspices of GISD .

Several private schools exist in Galveston . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston operates two Roman Catholic private schools , including Holy Family Catholic School ( K through 8th ) and O 'Connell College Preparatory School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) . Other private schools include Satori Elementary School , Trinity Episcopal School , Seaside Christian Academy , and Heritage Christian Academy .

= = Galveston in media and literature = =

" Galveston " is the name of a popular song written by Jimmy Webb and sung by Glen Campbell .

Sheldon Cooper , one of the main characters from the TV series The Big Bang Theory , grew up in Galveston .

The theater film , The Man from Galveston ( 1963 ) , was the original pilot episode of the proposed NBC western television series Temple Houston , with Jeffrey Hunter cast as Temple Lea Houston , a lawyer and the youngest son of the legendary Sam Houston . For a time the real Temple Houston was the county attorney of Brazoria County , Texas . The Temple Houston series lasted for only twenty @-@ six episodes in the 1963 @-@ 1964 television season .

Donald Barthelme 's 1974 short story " I bought a little city " is about an unnamed man who invests his fortune in buying Galveston , only to sell it thereafter .

Galveston is the setting of Sean Stewart 's 2000 fantasy novel Galveston , in which a Flood of Magic takes over the island city , resulting in strange and carnivalesque adventures . It tied in 2001 with Declare , by Tim Powers , for the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel . It also won the 2001 Sunburst Award and was a preliminary nominee for the Nebula Award for Best Novel .

The Drowning House , a novel by Elizabeth Black ( 2013 ) , is an exploration of the island of Galveston , Texas , and the intertwined histories of two families who reside there .

Stephenie Meyer has mentioned Galveston island in her third book of the Twilight series , Eclipse .

Galveston ( 2010 ) is the first novel by Nic Pizzolatto , the creator of the HBO series True Detective .

= = Sister cities = =

Galveston has five sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :

Armavir , Armenia

Thiruvananthapuram , India

Veracruz , Mexico

Stavanger , Norway

Niigata , Japan

= Sarnia =

Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario , Canada , and had a 2011 population of 72 @,@ 366 . It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County . Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes where Lake Huron flows into the St. Clair River , which forms the Canada @-@ United States border , directly across from Port Huron , Michigan . The city 's natural harbour first attracted the French explorer La Salle , who named the site " The Rapids " when he had horses and men pull his 45 tonnes ( 50 short tons ; 44 long tons ) barque " Le Griffon " up the almost four @-@ knot current of the St. Clair River on 23 August 1679 .

This was the first time anything other than a canoe or other oar @-@ powered vessel had sailed into Lake Huron , and La Salle 's voyage was thus germinal in the development of commercial shipping on the Great Lakes . Located in the natural harbour , the Sarnia port remains an important centre for lake freighters and oceangoing ships carrying cargoes of grain and petroleum products . The natural port and the salt caverns that exist in the surrounding areas , together with the oil discovered in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 led to the massive growth of the petroleum industry in this area . Because Oil Springs was the first place in Canada and North America to drill commercially for oil , the knowledge that was acquired there led to oil drillers from Sarnia travelling the world teaching other nations how to drill for oil .

The complex of refining and chemical companies is called Chemical Valley and located south of downtown Sarnia . The city has the highest level of particulates air pollution of any Canadian city because of its reliance on the petrochemical industry . About 60 percent of the particulate matter , however , comes from the neighboring United States . Lake Huron is cooler than the air in summer and warmer than the air in winter ; therefore , it moderates Sarnia 's humid continental climate , which makes temperature extremes of hot and cold very rare . In the winter , Sarnia experiences lake @-@ effect snow because Arctic air blows across the warmer waters of Lake Huron and condenses to form snow squalls once over land .

Culturally , Sarnia is a large part of the artistic presence in Southern Ontario . The city 's International Symphony Orchestra is renowned in the area and has won the Outstanding Community Orchestra Award given by the Detroit Music Awards in 2011 . Michael Learned graced the stage of the Imperial Theatre for a 2010 production of Driving Miss Daisy . The largest event that happens in Sarnia is Sarnia Bayfest , which is a popular music festival that takes place during the summer . In 2013 , organizers cancelled the event because of money troubles but look forward in 2015 to combining with the International Powerboat Festival and presenting a joint event .

= = Name = =

The name " Sarnia " is Latin for Guernsey , which is a British Channel Island . In 1829 Sir John Colborne , a former governor of Guernsey , was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada . In this capacity , he visited two small settlements in 1835 that had been laid out on the shores of Lake Huron . One of these , named " The Rapids , " consisted then of 44 taxpayers , nine frame houses , four log houses , two brick dwellings , two taverns and three stores . The villagers wished to change its name but were unable to agree on an alternative . The English settlers favoured the name " Buenos Aires " and the Scottish " New Glasgow " . Sir John Colborne suggested Port Sarnia . On 4 January 1836 , the name was formally adopted by a vote of 26 to 16 , and Colborne also named the nearby village Moore after British military hero Sir John Moore . Sarnia adopted the nickname " The Imperial City " on 7 May 1914 because of the visit of Canada 's Governor General , H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught , and his daughter Princess Patricia .

= = History = =

First Nations peoples have lived , hunted , and traveled across the area for at least 10 @,@ 000 years , as shown by archaeological evidence on Walpole Island . These peoples were drawn from an amalgamation of Ojibwa , Odawa , and Potowatami clans , which formed the Three Fires Confederacy , also called the Council of Three Fires , in A.D.796. These clans came together through common links in both language and culture , developing a self @-@ sufficient society where tasks and responsibilities were equally shared among all members .

During the 1600s and 1700s , The Three Fires Confederacy controlled much of the area known as the hub of the Great Lakes , which included the Canadian shore where Sarnia is now located . During this time , it maintained relations with many of the First Nations , including Huron , Sioux , and Iroquois , as well as the countries of Great Britain and France . In fact , their trading partners , the Huron , welcomed La Salle and the Griffon in 1679 after he sailed into Lake Huron . The Ontario Heritage Trust erected a sign under the Blue Water Bridge in commemoration of the voyage , as shown by the photo of the sign .

Because of this beginning of the incursion of Europeans into the area , the members of the Confederacy helped shape the development of North America throughout the 18th Century , becoming a center of trade and culture . Great Britain supported this strengthening of the tribes in the area as a set of allies against the French and the Iroqouis . The people of the Three Fires Confederacy , however , sided with the French during the Seven Years ' War and only made peace with Great Britain after the Treaty of Fort Niagara in 1764 . It also fought on the side of the British during the War of 1812 . The Three Fires Confederacy also broke several treaties with the United States prior to 1815 , but finally signed the Treaty of Springwells in September of that year and ceased all hostilities directed at the United States . The Grand Council survived intact until the middle to late 19th century , when more modern political systems began to evolve .

After the War of 1812 , the first Europeans in the area were French settlers loyal to the British Crown who moved north from Detroit . They successfully traded with the Three Fires Confederacy , which contributed to the growth of the area . After its foundation , Port Sarnia expanded throughout the 19th Century ; on 19 June 1856 , the residents passed the Act to Incorporate the Town of Sarnia and the name Port Sarnia was officially changed to Sarnia effective 1 January 1857 . The Act mentioned 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants in three wards . The wealth of adjoining stands of timber , the discovery of oil in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 by James Miller Williams , and the arrival of the Great Western Railway in 1858 and the Grand Trunk Railway in 1859 all stimulated Sarnia 's growth . The rail lines were later linked directly to the United States by the opening of the St. Clair Tunnel under the St. Clair River at Sarnia in 1890 , by the Grand Trunk Railway , which was the first railroad tunnel ever constructed under a river . The tunnel was an engineering marvel in its day , achieved through the development of original techniques for excavating in a compressed air environment .

Canada Steamship Lines formed in 1913 from many previous companies that plied the waters of the St. Clair River . One of these companies was Northwest Transportation Company of Sarnia , which was founded in 1870 . By 20 April 1914 , when the residents passed Act to Incorporate the City of Sarnia , the population had grown to 10 @,@ 985 in six wards . Sarnia officially became a city as of 7 May 1914 .

Sarnia 's grain elevator , which is the sixth largest currently operating in Canada , was built after the dredging of Sarnia Harbour in 1927 . Two short years later , grain shipments had become an important part of Sarnia 's economy . The grain elevator rises above the harbour , and next to it is the slip for the numerous bulk carriers and other ships that are part of the shipping industry that includes vessels from all over the world . The waterway between Detroit and Sarnia is one of the world 's busiest , as indicated by the average of 78 @,@ 943 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 87 @,@ 020 @,@ 800 short tons ; 77 @,@ 697 @,@ 100 long tons ) of shipping that annually travelled the river going in both directions during the period 1993 – 2002 . Lake freighters and oceangoing ships , which are known as " salties , " pass up and down the river at the rate of about one every seven minutes during the shipping season . During this same period , The Paul M. Tellier Tunnel , which was named after the retired president of CN in 2004 , was bored and began operation in 1995 . It accommodates double @-@ stacked rail cars and is located next to the original tunnel , which has been sealed .

While there had been a petroleum industry in the Sarnia area since 1858 , the establishment of Polymer Corporation in 1942 to manufacture synthetic rubber during World War II was a great success and began Sarnia 's rise as a major petrochemical centre . Because of Sarnia 's importance in this industry , it appeared on a United States Government list of possible Soviet targets as part of its Anti @-@ Energy nuclear strike strategy during the Cold War .

On 1 January 1991 , Sarnia and the neighbouring town of Clearwater were amalgamated as the new city of Sarnia @-@ Clearwater . The amalgamation was originally slated to include the village of Point Edward , although that village 's residents resisted and were eventually permitted to remain independent of the city . On 1 January 1992 , the city reverted to the name Sarnia .

Sarnia 's population experienced a continual growth from 1961 to 1991 , with a 1991 population of 74 @,@ 376 . In 2001 the population had declined by approximately 3 @,@ 000 . Since 2001 Sarnia 's population has been growing slowly , with a 2011 population count of 72 @,@ 366 . Despite these modest gains , an April 2010 report " Sarnia @-@ Lambton 's Labour Market " states : " Large petrochemical companies are the community 's main economic drivers . Over the recent past , several plants have shutdown , and of those still in operation , increased automation and outsourcing has led to significantly fewer workers . " . These shutdowns and the resulting loss of jobs , and therefore population as workers search for employment elsewhere , will contribute to a general decline shown by one August 2011 study , which shows that the population will decline by 17 % over the next twenty @-@ five years . The Monteith @-@ Brown study cited outlines a plan for restructuring the city based on hybrid zoning areas , which will bring work opportunities closer to the neighborhoods where people live . The City of Sarnia and Lambton County are also implementing an economic development plan with an emphasis on bioindustries and renewable energy .

= = Geography = =

Sarnia is located on the eastern shore of Lake Huron at its extreme southern point where it flows into the St. Clair River . Most of the surrounding area is flat , and the elevation ranges from 169 metres ( 554 ft ) and 281 metres ( 922 ft ) above sea level . The soil mostly comprises clay . Despite this high percentage of clay , the soil is remarkably rich for cultivation . Prior to the Ice Age , glaciers covered most of the area , as can be seen not only by the existence of the Great Lakes themselves but also of alluvial sand deposits , terminal moraines , and rich oil reserves . The entire area was submerged and plant and animal matter formed many layers of sediment as they settled after the waters receded . Sarnia is not part of the Canadian Shield and is located just beyond its southernmost reaches , 290 kilometres ( 180 mi ) West of Toronto and 106 kilometres ( 66 mi ) North of Detroit .

= = = Neighbourhoods = = =

Wiltshire Park , Woodland , Oak Acres , Wees Beach , Oakwood Corners , Woodrow Shores , and Blackwell , are part of the North End of Sarnia , which begins immediately north of Ontario Highway 402 and terminates at the shore of Lake Huron . Coronation Park , Heritage Park , College Park , The Tree Streets , and Sherwood Village are some of the neighbourhoods south of the highway . The village of Blue Water was built to house workers and their families in Chemical Valley during the construction of Polymer Corporation and at one point had nearly 3 @,@ 000 residents . In 1961 , all the residents were relocated , mostly to the North End , to make way for expansion of the chemical industry . The village was demolished , and all that remains now is an historical marker at the corner of Vidal Street and Huron Avenue . This neighbourhood was largely forgotten until historian Lorraine Williams penned two books about it and was instrumental in the dedication of the plaque .

= = = Climate = = =

Sarnia has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) . Winters are cold with a few short @-@ lasting Arctic air masses that dip far enough south and bring with them daily high temperatures lower than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) . Sarnia , while not quite located in the southwestern Ontario snowbelt , sometimes receives large quantities of lake @-@ effect snow . Sarnia averages 112 @.@ 0 cm ( 44 @.@ 1 in ) of snow per year , while London averages 194 @.@ 3 cm ( 76 @.@ 5 in ) .

The lake creates a seasonal lag , and compared to the rest of Canada and inland Ontario , Sarnia has a noticeably longer warm period following summer . However , cooler temperatures tend to prevail for longer after winter . Lake Huron can also create large temperature differences within the city in spring and early summer , particularly on hot days in late May , early June . Finally , extreme temperatures , particularly lows , are rarely ever seen . Daily lows less than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) are seen an average of 30 days a year , and less than − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) two days a year . Summers are warm to hot and usually humid . Humidex readings can be very high at times from late May to late September . In fact , Sarnia has the second greatest number of high humidex days at or above 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) ( with 23 @.@ 16 days on average per year ) and humidex days at or above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) ( with 61 @.@ 20 days on average per year ) in Canada , both after Windsor , Ontario . Thunderstorms can become quite severe from April to September . Destructive weather is very rare in the area but has occurred , such as the tornado event of 1953 .

= = Demographics = =

In the 2011 Census , the City of Sarnia had a population of 72 @,@ 366 , an increase of 1 @.@ 3 % from the 2006 Census . With a land area of 164 @.@ 71 km2 ( 63 @.@ 59 sq mi ) , it had a population density of 439 @.@ 354 / km2 ( 1 @,@ 137 @.@ 92 / sq mi ) in 2011 .

In 2011 , Sarnia had an overwhelmingly white population ; only 8 @.@ 54 % were visible minorities . Of those , 63 @.@ 77 % were aboriginal representing the largest group . In 2011 , 89 @.@ 31 % of Sarnians called English their mother tongue , 2 @.@ 46 % listed French , 0 @.@ 87 % stated both of those languages , and 7 @.@ 37 % said another language was their mother tongue .

The median age in Sarnia is 44 @.@ 5 which is older than the Canadian median of 40 @.@ 95 , indicative of Sarnia 's aging population . According to the 2011 Census , Sarnia is predominately Christian as 28 @.@ 46 % of the population were Catholic , 12 @.@ 4 % were members of the United Church of Canada , 7 @.@ 3 % were Anglican , and 20 @.@ 06 % were of other Christian faiths , Muslim , or Jewish ; 28 @.@ 38 % professed no religious preference or were atheists . The median income counting all persons 15 years old or older in Sarnia in 2010 was $ 29 @,@ 196 , while median family income was $ 76 @,@ 523 , both of which were slightly lower than Ontario 's , at $ 30 @,@ 526 and $ 80 @,@ 987 , respectively . The cost of living in Sarnia , however , is significantly lower than it is in Ontario as a whole . The median value of a dwelling , for instance , is $ 179 @,@ 266 , compared to the $ 300 @,@ 862 of Ontario as a whole .

= = Economy and infrastructure = =

The Sarnia @-@ Lambton Workforce Development Board states in its March 2011 Labour Market Report that : " Even though employment in both the petrochemical and agricultural industries has declined significantly in recent years , these two industries remain central drivers of the Sarnia Lambton economy . "

When World War II threatened tropical sources of natural latex for rubber , Sarnia was selected as the site to spearhead development of synthetic petroleum @-@ based rubbers for war materials , and Polymer Corporation was built by Dow Chemical at the request of the Government of Canada . Large pipelines bring Alberta oil to Sarnia , where oil refining and petrochemical production have become mainstays of the city 's economy . Shell Canada , Imperial Oil , and Suncor Energy ( Sunoco ) operate refineries in Sarnia . Large salt beds found under the city became a source of chlorine and other significant ingredients which contributed to the success of Chemical Valley . Chemical companies operating in Sarnia include NOVA Chemicals , Bayer ( Lanxess and H.C. Starck ) , Cabot Corporation and Ethyl Corporation .

Dow ceased operations at its Sarnia site in 2009 . The plant was decommissioned , and the land has been sold to neighbouring TransAlta Energy Corporation . TransAlta produces power and steam for industry , and is the largest natural gas co @-@ generation plant in Canada . It has created the Bluewater Energy Park on the former Dow site . Lanxess produces more than 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 170 @,@ 000 short tons ; 150 @,@ 000 long tons ) of butyl rubber annually at its Sarnia location , and is the sole producer of regulatory @-@ approved , food @-@ grade butyl rubber , used in the manufacture of chewing gum . Within the boundaries of its Sarnia plant Lanxess has also created the Bio @-@ industrial Park Sarnia .

Chemical Valley and the surrounding area are home to 62 facilities and refineries . These industrial complexes are the heart of Sarnia 's infrastructure and economy . They directly employ nearly 8 @,@ 000 , and contribute to almost 45 @,@ 000 additional jobs in the area . In 1971 , the Canadian government deemed this area so important to the economic development of the country that it printed an image of a Sarnia Oil Refinery on the reverse of the Canadian $ 10 note . The huge industrial area is the cause of significant air and water pollution . The Canada Wide Daily Standard for airborne particulate matter and ozone pollution , regulation PM2.5 , is 30 micrograms per cubic metre . Forty @-@ five percent of this particulate air pollution in Sarnia comes from Chemical Valley , and the rest drifts over the St. Clair River from the neighbouring United States in the form of what is known as " Transboundary Air Pollution . "

Sarnia is the location of Enbridge 's Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant . The facility went into full commercial operation in December 2009 , with 20 MW of power . As of September 2010 , the plant was the largest photovoltaic ( PV ) solar power generation facility in the world , putting out 97 MW .

The 80 @-@ acre Western University Research Park , Sarnia @-@ Lambton Campus was established in 2003 by the University of Western Ontario as a joint initiative with the County of Lambton and the City of Sarnia . The park is also the location of the Bioindustrial Innovation Centre , Canada 's centre for the commercialization of industrial biotechnology .

In 2012 BioAmber began construction of North America 's first biosuccinic acid plant at the Bio @-@ Industrial Park . The company has since announced that it plans to double the original size of this $ 80 million plant . Solutions4C02 is developing a 50 @,@ 000 square foot demonstration facility at the Bluewater Energy Park . This company captures waste gas / water streams to process into value @-@ added co @-@ products . PlantForm Corporation , a Canadian biotech startup company producing ultra @-@ low @-@ cost therapeutic antibody drugs , opened an office at the Western University Research Park in 2011 , and the KmX Corporation began work on a pilot plant at the park in Summer 2012 , for the production of biobutanol .

= = = Retail and hospitality = = =

Sarnia has two large malls : Lambton Mall with 72 stores , and the Bayside Centre with 9 stores , and several government and medical services . These large malls combine with several smaller shopping centres , discount stores , dollar stores , convenience stores , and a collection of antique and specialty stores to form the crux of Sarnia 's retail business . Travellers can choose from eight branded and many family @-@ owned hotels and motels .

= = = Transportation = = =

The Blue Water Bridge links Sarnia and its neighbouring village of Point Edward to the city of Port Huron in the United States . It spans the St. Clair River , which connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair . The bridge 's original three @-@ lane span , opened in 1938 , was twinned on 22 July 1997 , making the bridge the fourth busiest border crossing in Ontario . The Blue Water Bridge border crossing makes use of both the NEXUS ( frequent traveler program ) and the Free and Secure Trade ( FAST ) program . Linking Highway 402 with the American Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 69 , the bridge forms part of the NAFTA Superhighway , and is one of the most important gateways on the north – south truck routes .

Public transportation within the City of Sarnia , including conventional bus transit , transportation of people with disabilities , transportation support for major events , and charter services , is provided by Sarnia Transit . From the city 's local airport , Sarnia Chris Hadfield Airport , Air Georgian operates services to and from Toronto Pearson International Airport on behalf of Air Canada Express . For rail travel , Sarnia is one of the two western termini , along with Windsor , of the Via Rail Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , over which a service departs Sarnia station in the morning and arrives in the evening .

= = = Health care = = =

Sarnia is served by Bluewater Health , a hospital with 188 acute care beds , 70 complex continuing care beds and 27 rehabilitation beds . The hospital opened in 2010 , following the amalgamation of several smaller facilities . Bluewater Health was recently recognized by Healthcare Insurance Reciprocal of Canada , one of the country 's largest hospital insurers , for its continued improvement in patient safety and care quality .

= = Culture = =

= = = Music , theatre , and arts = = =

Sarnia 's musical and theatrical presence in Southern Ontario is significant . The International Symphony Orchestra plays at the Imperial Theatre for an annual season lasting from September to April . In addition to symphonic concerts , the Imperial Theatre offers year @-@ round dramatic productions ; Michael Learned played the lead in Driving Miss Daisy at the theatre in 2010 . Former Max Webster frontman Kim Mitchell has returned to his hometown on occasion to play a concert , including his visit in 2008 for Sarnia 's popular Ribfest , a competition where local amateur chefs share their recipes for barbecued ribs and compete against each other . Canadian composer and music educator Raymond Murray Schafer was born in Sarnia and developed his radical schizophonia techniques there . Musicians and groups such as Aerosmith , KISS , Keith Urban , John Bon Jovi and Rascal Flatts have played at Sarnia Bayfest in the past . The Sarnia Bayfest , which was preceded by the " Festival by the Bay , " is an annual concert festival that features big @-@ name rock and country bands , typically during the second or third weekend of July . 2013 would have marked the fifteenth anniversary of the annual festival , but financial problems caused the event 's cancellation . Prior to December 2013 , organizers stated that it is " not the end " and that they planned on coming back on solid financial footing sometime in the future . As of December 2013 , however , Bayfest organizers indicated they planned on merging with the International Powerboat Festival for a joint event in 2015 .

Besides the single museum in Sarnia proper , six other museums in the local area document Sarnia 's history , including its legacy as the home of the North American Oil Industry . Gallery Lambton offers 12 annual art exhibitions . In 2012 the Judith and Norman Alex Art Gallery opened . It is an international Category A art gallery .

During the Christmas season , the city of Sarnia presents the annual " Celebration of Lights " in Centennial Park . The event was created in 1984 by Dr. Wills Rawana and a committee funded by the retail chain Hudson 's Bay , and the national telecommunications company Telus . From modest beginnings the event has garnered numerous awards as it has grown , including second place in the 2002 Canadian Government 's Canada WinterLights competition . The Celebration , was incorporated in its national prizewinning year and is now run by a voluntary Board of Directors .

= = Attractions = =

There are over 100 parks in Sarnia , the largest being Canatara Park , which covers over 200 acres along the shore of Lake Huron . Canatara is an Ojibwe word that means Blue Water . The park was opened 24 May 1933 . Within the park is Lake Chipican , a haven for 280 different species of birds on their migration routes . The park also maintains a Children 's Animal Farm as part of Sarnia 's commitment to wildlife . The annual " Christmas on the Farm " weekend event held at the Farm in early December is a popular community event enjoyed by families . Canatara Park is one of the first parks in southern Ontario to feature an outdoor fitness equipment installation .

The largest recreational park in Sarnia is Germain Park , which incorporates five baseball diamonds , four soccer fields , an outdoor pool , and the Community Gardens . As a memorial to Canadian aviators who gave their lives in World War II , one of the remaining Canadair Sabres in Canada is on display in the park ,

Centennial Park was opened on Dominion Day in 1967 , as part of Canada 's centenary celebrations . The City of Sarnia decided in 2013 to close much of Centennial Park , after the discovery of toxic lead and asbestos in the soil .

Sarnia has one remaining museum within its city limits : " Stones ' N Bones " , which houses over 6 @,@ 000 exhibits . The collection includes rocks , artifacts , fossils , and bones from all over the world . A previous museum , the Discovery House Museum , has been converted into to a hospice . This historic house , built between 1869 and 1875 , is recognised as a testament to Victorian Era construction .

The city 's sandy fresh water beaches are a popular tourist attraction , while the sheltered harbour houses marinas for recreational sailing . Since 1925 , the 400 km ( 250 mi ) Mackinac race from Sarnia / Port Huron to Mackinac Island at the north end of the lake has been the highlight of the sailing season , drawing more than 3 @,@ 000 sailors each year .

Sarnia 's fresh @-@ cut fries are another popular tourist attraction , and thousands of visitors annually visit the chip trucks parked under the Blue Water Bridge . Niagara @-@ based cookbook author and food e @-@ magazine publisher Lynn Ogryzlo visited the chip trucks in August 2012 and stated " I was blown away by Sarnia , " not only by the city 's waterfront , where the chip trucks are located , but also by the chip trucks themselves . She also published an article in her e @-@ magazine , The Ontario Table , recognizing the outstanding quality of the fresh @-@ cut fries . Guelph @-@ based travel writer Pat Brennan also recognized the quality of Sarnia 's fries in his 2007 piece " Sarnia Boasts Best Fries in the World . " In 2012 , Sarnia officials even created a special detour to reach the chip trucks during a period of construction . Realizing the popularity of Sarnia 's chip trucks , the Ontario Medical Association includes them in a campaign to have fries and other junk food labelled for being dangerous in the same manner as cigarettes .

= = Sports = =

Sarnia is home to the Sarnia Sting , a junior ice hockey team in the Ontario Hockey League . Dino Ciccarelli , a former NHL player , was a part owner of the team . Former Sting player Steven Stamkos was selected first overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft by the Tampa Bay Lightning , and was followed by Nail Yakupov in 2012 . Sarnia is also home to the Sarnia Legionnaires ice hockey team , which plays in the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League . The team is successor to the Sarnia Legionnaires ( 1954 – 1970 ) , who won five Western Jr . ' B ' championships and four Sutherland Cups during 16 seasons in the Ontario Hockey Association .

Sarnia has a successful tradition in Canadian football . As members of the Ontario Rugby Football Union , the local team Sarnia Imperials twice won the Grey Cup , in 1934 and 1936 . The modern Sarnia Imperials are a semi @-@ professional team playing in the Northern Football Conference .

The Sarnia @-@ born world champion curler Steve Bice played as alternate for the Glenn Howard rink in the 2007 Tim Hortons Brier and 2007 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship , winning both times .

= = Government = =

Sarnia City Council consists of nine elected members : the Mayor , four members from the city , and four members from the county . The Mayor and all Council members are elected to four @-@ year terms . The four Lambton County Council members serve both County and City Council .

The current mayor , Mike Bradley , has held the position since December 1988 and is currently the second longest @-@ serving mayor in the province of Ontario behind Milton 's Gord Krantz . Past mayors of the city have included Andy Brandt , Marceil Saddy , Paul Blundy , Thomas George Johnston , and Alexander Mackenzie , the second Prime Minister of Canada .

At the provincial level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton provincial electoral district , represented in 2013 by Bob Bailey , a member of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario . At the federal level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton federal electoral district which in 2013 was represented by Patricia Davidson of the Conservative Party of Canada .

Over the past 50 years , Sarnia 's voters have been moderate , and the party affiliation of its Members of Parliament , both provincial and federal , has swung back and forth largely between the Liberal and Progressive Conservative parties ( a New Democrat was elected in their 1990 provincial wave ) .

= = Education = =

The Lambton Kent District School Board is responsible for the 13 elementary and four secondary public schools ( Northern Collegiate Institute and Vocational School , Alexander MacKenzie Secondary School , Sarnia Collegiate Institute & Technical School , and St. Clair Secondary School ) located within Sarnia 's boundaries .

The St. Clair Catholic District School Board is responsible for the city 's seven elementary and two secondary Catholic schools ( St. Christopher 's and St. Patrick 's ) . In 2014 , St. Patrick 's and St. Christopher 's merged , under the St. Patrick 's name , on St. Christopher 's North Sarnia site .

The Conseil scolaire catholique de Providence ( CSC Providence ) represents the two French Catholic schools in the city , Saint @-@ François @-@ Xavier and Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ d 'Aquin , while the Conseil scolaire Viamonde operates two French public schools , the elementary École Les Rapides and the secondary École Secondaire Franco @-@ Jeunesse . There are also two independent Christian elementary schools in Sarnia — Sarnia Christian School and Temple Christian Academy .

Lambton College , which offers two @-@ year programs and diplomas , is one of Ontario 's 21 colleges of applied arts and technology . It has a full @-@ time enrolment of 3 @,@ 500 and a part @-@ time enrolment of about 8 @,@ 000 . It is the city 's only post @-@ secondary school .

= = Media = =

There are four radio stations that originate from Sarnia , although other stations rebroadcast their signal there , notably CKTI @-@ FM , a First Nations produced station from Kettle Point , and CBEG @-@ FM and CBEF @-@ 3 @-@ FM , simulcasts of CBC Radio One and Ici Radio @-@ Canada Première , respectively , from Windsor , Ontario .

CHOK , country / news / sports

CFGX @-@ FM The Fox , adult contemporary

CHOK @-@ 1 @-@ FM ( rebroadcaster of CHOK AM )

CHKS @-@ FM , active rock

Sarnia does not have a network television station of its own , although it has a community channel on Cogeco , which is the cable television provider in Sarnia . Cable systems pipe in stations from Kitchener and Toronto .

The city 's main daily newspaper is the Sarnia Observer , owned by Postmedia , which purchased Sun Media in 2014 for $ 316 million . A weekly newspaper called the Sarnia Journal began distribution in March 2014 . It is distributed to 30 @,@ 000 households in Sarnia , Bright ’ s Grove , Point Edward and Corunna . The community publications Sarnia This Week , Lambton County Smart Shopper and Business Trends are owned by Bowes Publishing . The monthly business oriented newspaper First Monday is owned by Huron Web Printing and Graphics . Lambton Shield Publishing has been in operation since November 2010 and runs an on @-@ line only news website , lambtonshield.com , delivering local news and services to the Sarnia @-@ Lambton area . There are two magazines currently published in Sarnia , Business Trends and Report on Industry . Business Trends is distributed through City Hall and Report on Industry is sent to executives in surrounding businesses . Report on Industry articles are available online .

= = Notable people = =

Among Sarnia 's distinguished residents are retired Canadian Space Agency astronaut Chris Hadfield , who flew on two NASA Space Shuttle missions and served as the first Canadian commander of the International Space Station during Expedition 35 . The Nobel laureate George Andrew Olah moved to Sarnia from his native Hungary to join Dow Chemical in 1957 . James Doohan , the well @-@ known Star Trek actor , attended high school in Sarnia . Harmonica virtuoso Mike Stevens still lives in Sarnia and tours all over the world ; he is also notable for his extensive work with aboriginal youth . Many notable Sarnians are athletes and others associated with sports , such as NHL Hall of Famer Dino Ciccarelli , former NHL star Pat Verbeek , retired NHL referee Kerry Fraser , current NHL star Steven Stamkos , champion curler Steve Bice , and golfer Mike Weir , who was the 2003 Masters Champion . Dominique Pegg , a Sarnia gymnast , won a bronze medal in Floor Exercise , at the World Cup event in Cottbus in March 2012 . The Honourable Alexander Mackenzie , second Prime Minister of Canada , was buried at Lakeview Cemetery , Sarnia , where a monument has been erected . The 1910s – 1930s actress Marie Prevost was also born there . Katherine Ryan , comedian , writer , presenter and actress , was born in Sarnia in 1983 she now resides in London , England .

= French cruiser Sully =

The French cruiser Sully was an armored cruiser of the Gloire class that was built for the French Navy in the early 1900s . She was named in honor of Maximilien de Béthune , Duke of Sully , trusted minister of King Henry IV . The ship struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay , French Indochina in 1905 , only eight months after she was completed , and was a total loss .

= = Design and description = =

The Gloire @-@ class ships were designed as enlarged and improved versions of the Gueydon @-@ class armored cruisers by Emile Bertin . Her crew numbered 612 officers and men . The ship measured 139 @.@ 8 meters ( 458 ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 20 @.@ 2 meters ( 66 ft 3 in ) . Sully had a draft of 7 @.@ 7 meters ( 25 ft 3 in ) and displaced 10 @,@ 014 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 856 long tons ) .

Sully had three propeller shafts , each powered by one vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engine , which were rated at a total of 20 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 300 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her engines . She had a designed speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 590 long tons ( 1 @,@ 620 t ) of coal and could steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .

Sully 's main armament consisted of two 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in single gun turrets fore and aft . Her intermediate armament was eight 45 @-@ caliber Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns . Four of these were in single gun turrets on the sides of the ship and the other four were in casemates . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried six 45 @-@ caliber 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in casemates and eighteen 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with five 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes ; two of these were submerged and the others were above water .

The waterline armored belt of the Gloire @-@ class ships was 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 106 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) towards the bow and stern . Above the main belt was another belt , 127 millimeters ( 5 in ) thick that also tapered to 106 mm at the ends of the ship . The conning tower had armored sides 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The main gun turrets were protected by 173 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) of armor and the intermediate turrets by 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The flat part of the lower armored deck was 45 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) , but increased to 64 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) as it sloped down to the sides of the ship .

= = Service = =

Sully was laid down at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne on 24 May 1899 and launched on 4 June 1901 . The ship was completed in June 1904 and sent to French Indochina for her first commission . On 7 February 1905 Sully struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay ; her crew was not injured . Her guns and equipment were salvaged , but the ship broke in two and was abandoned as a total loss .

= Norman Finkelstein =

Norman Gary Finkelstein ( born December 8 , 1953 ) is an American political scientist , activist , professor , and author . His primary fields of research are the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and the politics of the Holocaust , an interest motivated by the experiences of his parents who were Jewish Holocaust survivors . He is a graduate of Binghamton University and received his Ph.D in political science at Princeton University . He has held faculty positions at Brooklyn College , Rutgers University , Hunter College , New York University , and DePaul University where he was an assistant professor from 2001 to 2007 .

In 2007 , after a highly publicized feud between Finkelstein and an academic opponent , Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein 's tenure bid at DePaul was denied . Finkelstein was placed on administrative leave for the 2007 – 2008 academic year , and on September 5 , 2007 , he announced his resignation after coming to a settlement with the university on generally undisclosed terms . An official statement from DePaul strongly defended the decision to deny Finkelstein tenure , stated that outside influence played no role in the decision . In 2008 , he was banned from entering Israel for 10 years .

Finkelstein taught at Sakarya University Middle East Institute in Turkey between 2014 and 2015 .

= = Personal background and education = =

Finkelstein has written of his Jewish parents ' experiences during World War II . His mother , Maryla Husyt , grew up in Warsaw , survived the Warsaw Ghetto , the Majdanek concentration camp , and two slave labor camps . Her first husband died in the war . She considered the day of her liberation as the most horrible day of her life , as she realized that she was alone , her parents and siblings gone . Norman 's father , Zacharias Finkelstein , active in Hashomer Hatzair , was a survivor of both the Warsaw Ghetto and the Auschwitz concentration camp .

After the war they met in a displaced persons camp in Linz , Austria , and then emigrated to the United States , where his father became a factory worker and his mother a homemaker and later a bookkeeper . Finkelstein 's mother was an ardent pacifist . Both his parents died in 1995 . Of his parents , Finkelstein has recalled that " they saw the world through the prism of the Nazi Holocaust . They were eternally indebted to the Soviet Union ( to whom they attributed the defeat of the Nazis ) , and so anyone who was anti @-@ Soviet they were extremely harsh on " . They supported the Soviet Union 's approval of the creation of the State of Israel , as enunciated by Gromyko , who stated that the Jews had earned the right to a state , but thought that Israel had sold its soul to the West and " refused to have any truck with it " .

Finkelstein grew up in Borough Park , then Mill Basin , both in Brooklyn , New York , where he attended James Madison High School . In his memoir , Finkelstein recalls his strong youthful identification with the outrage that his mother , witness to the genocidal atrocities of World War II , felt at the carnage wrought by the United States in Vietnam . One childhood friend recalls his mother 's " emotional investment in left @-@ wing humanitarian causes as bordering on hysteria " . He had " internalized [ her ] indignation " , a trait which he admits rendered him " insufferable " when talking of the Vietnam War , and which imbued him with a " holier @-@ than @-@ thou " attitude at the time which he now regrets . But Finkelstein regards his absorption of his mother 's outlook — the refusal to put aside a sense of moral outrage in order to get on with one 's life — as a virtue . Subsequently , his reading of Noam Chomsky played an important role in tailoring the passion bequeathed to him by his mother to the necessity of maintaining intellectual rigor .

Finkelstein completed his undergraduate studies at Binghamton University in New York in 1974 , after which he studied at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris . A deep admirer of Paul Sweezy , he was an ardent Maoist and was devastated by the news of the trial of the Gang of Four , an event which " totally devastated " him , and led him to abandon Marxism – Leninism .

Finkelstein received his Master 's degree in political science in 1980 , and later his PhD in political studies , from Princeton . His doctoral thesis was on Zionism . Before gaining academic employment , Finkelstein was a part @-@ time social worker with teenage dropouts in New York . He then taught successively at Rutgers University , New York University , Brooklyn College , and Hunter College and at DePaul University in Chicago . During the First Intifada , he spent every summer from 1988 in the West Bank , a guest of Palestinian families in Hebron and Beit Sahour .

According to The New York Times , Finkelstein left Hunter College in 2001 , " after his teaching load and salary were reduced " by the college administration . In his own recollection , he enjoyed teaching at Hunter ( 1992 – 2000 ) and was ' unceremoniously kicked out of ' the school after begging them to keep him on with just two courses a semester ( $ 12 @,@ 000 a year ) . Hunter set conditions that would have required him to spend four days a week , which he thought unacceptable .

Beginning with his doctoral thesis at Princeton , Finkelstein 's career has been marked by controversy . A self @-@ described " forensic scholar " , he has written sharply critical academic reviews of several prominent writers and scholars whom he accuses of misrepresenting the documentary record in order to defend Israel 's policies and practices . His writings have dealt with politically charged topics such as Zionism , the demographic history of Palestine and his allegations of the existence of a " Holocaust Industry " that exploits the memory of the Holocaust to further Israeli and financial interests .

Citing linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky as an example , Finkelstein notes that it is " possible to unite exacting scholarly rigor with scathing moral outrage , " and supporters and detractors alike have remarked on the polemical style of Finkelstein 's work . Its content has been praised by eminent historians such as Raul Hilberg and Avi Shlaim , as well as Chomsky .

Finkelstein has described himself as " an old @-@ fashioned communist , " in the sense that he " see [ s ] no value whatsoever in states . "

= = Academic career = =

= = = On From Time Immemorial = = =

In Finkelstein 's doctoral thesis , he examined the claims made in Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial , a best @-@ selling book at the time . Peters 's " history and defense " of Israel deals with the demographic history of Palestine . Demographic studies had tended to assert that the Arab population of Ottoman @-@ controlled Palestine , a 94 % majority at the turn of the century , had dwindled towards parity due to massive Zionist immigration . Peters radically challenged this picture by arguing that a substantial part of the Palestinian people were descended from immigrants from other Arab countries from the early 19th century onwards . It followed , for Peters and many of her readers , that the picture of a native Palestinian population overwhelmed by Jewish immigration was little more than propaganda , and that in actuality two almost simultaneous waves of immigration met in what had been a relatively unpopulated land .

From Time Immemorial had been praised by figures as varied as Barbara Tuchman , Theodore H. White , Elie Wiesel , and Lucy Dawidowicz . Saul Bellow , for one , wrote in a jacket endorsement that :

" Millions of people the world over , smothered by false history and propaganda , will be grateful for this clear account of the origins of the Palestinians . "

Finkelstein asserted that the book was a " monumental hoax " . He later opined that , while Peters 's book received widespread interest and approval in the United States , a scholarly demonstration of its fraudulence and unreliability aroused little attention :

" By the end of 1984 , From Time Immemorial had ... received some two hundred [ favorable ] notices ... in the United States . The only ' false ' notes in this crescendoing chorus of praise were the Journal of Palestine Studies , which ran a highly critical review by Bill Farrell ; the small Chicago @-@ based newsweekly In These Times , which published a condensed version of this writer 's findings ; and Alexander Cockburn , who devoted a series of columns in The Nation exposing the hoax . ... The periodicals in which From Time Immemorial had already been favorably reviewed refused to run any critical correspondence ( e.g. The New Republic , The Atlantic Monthly , Commentary ) . Periodicals that had yet to review the book rejected a manuscript on the subject as of little or no consequence ( e.g. The Village Voice , Dissent , The New York Review of Books ) . Not a single national newspaper or columnist contacted found newsworthy that a best @-@ selling , effusively praised ' study ' of the Middle East conflict was a threadbare hoax . "

Noam Chomsky later reminisced :

" I warned him , if you follow this , you 're going to get in trouble — because you 're going to expose the American intellectual community as a gang of frauds , and they are not going to like it , and they 're going to destroy you . "

In 1986 , the New York Review of Books published Yehoshua Porath 's review and an exchange with critics of the review in which he criticized the assumptions and evidence on which Peters 's thesis relied , thus lending independent support from an expert in Palestinian demographics to Finkelstein 's doctoral critique .

In the house journal of the American Council on Foreign Relations , Foreign Affairs , William B. Quandt , the Edward Stettinius professor of Politics at the University of Virginia and authority on Middle Eastern politics , later described Finkelstein 's critique of From Time Immemorial as a " landmark essay " and a " victory to his credit " , in its " demonstration " of the " shoddy scholarship " of Peters ' book . Israeli historian Avi Shlaim later praised Finkelstein 's thesis , saying that it had established his credentials when he was still a doctoral student . In Shlaim 's view , Finkelstein had produced an " unanswerable case " with " irrefutable evidence " , proving that Peters ' book was both " preposterous and worthless " .

According to Noam Chomsky , the controversy that surrounded Finkelstein 's research caused a delay in his earning his Ph.D. at Princeton University . Chomsky wrote in Understanding Power that Finkelstein " literally could not get the faculty to read [ his dissertation ] " and that Princeton eventually granted Finkelstein his doctorate only " out of embarrassment [ for Princeton ] " but refused to give him any further professional backing .

Finkelstein published portions of his thesis in the following publications :

" Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial " , Chapter 2 of Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question ( 1988 ) ; and

" A Land Without a People ( Joan Peters ' " Wilderness " Image ) " , Chapter 2 of Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict ( 1995 ) .

= = = The Holocaust Industry = = =

The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering was published in 2000 . Here , Finkelstein argues that Elie Wiesel and others exploit the memory of the Holocaust as an " ideological weapon . " The purpose , writes Finkelstein , is to enable the State of Israel , " one of the world 's most formidable military powers , with a horrendous human rights record , [ to ] cast itself as a victim state ; " that is , to provide Israel " immunity to criticism . " He alleges what he calls a " double shakedown " by " a repellent gang of plutocrats , hoodlums and hucksters " seeking enormous legal damages and financial settlements from Germany and Switzerland , moneys which then go to the lawyers and institutional actors involved in procuring them , rather than actual Holocaust survivors .

The book received a hostile reception in some quarters , with critics charging that it was poorly researched and / or allowed others to exploit it for antisemitic purposes . The German historian Hans Mommsen disparaged the first edition as " a most trivial book , which appeals to easily aroused anti @-@ Semitic prejudices " . Israeli Holocaust historian Israel Gutman called the book " a lampoon " , stating " this is not research ; it isn 't even political literature ... I don 't even think it should be reviewed or critiqued as a legitimate book . " The book was also harshly criticized by Brown University Professor Omer Bartov and University of Chicago Professor Peter Novick .

However , preeminent Holocaust scholar Raul Hilberg said the book expressed views Hilberg himself subscribed to in substance , in that he too found the exploitation of the Holocaust , as Finkelstein describes , " detestable " . Asked on another occasion if Finkelstein 's analysis might play into the hands of neo @-@ Nazis for antisemitic purposes , Hilberg replied : " Well , even if they do use it in that fashion , I 'm afraid that when it comes to the truth , it has to be said openly , without regard to any consequences that would be undesirable , embarrassing " .

Other critics claim Finkelstein 's evidence is highly selective and / or dubious and that his arguments would be based on a misinterpretation of history and a questionable use of sources . The historian David Cesarani wrote that while Finkelstein absolves Swiss banks of serious misconduct towards Holocaust survivors and depicts them as victims of a Jewish terror based on a sentence from an important report annex , he had ignored the report body which describes deceitful actions by Swiss banks , inappropriate closing of accounts , failure to keep adequate records , and so on .

= = = Criticism of Alan Dershowitz 's The Case for Israel = = =

Shortly after the publication of the book The Case for Israel by Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein derided it as " a collection of fraud , falsification , plagiarism , and nonsense " . During a debate on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein asserted that Dershowitz lacked knowledge about specific contents of his own book . He also claimed that Dershowitz did not write the book , and may not have even read it .

Finkelstein noted 20 instances , in as many pages , where Dershowitz 's book cites the same sources and passages used by Joan Peters in her book , in largely the same sequence , with ellipses in the same places . In two instances , Dershowitz reproduces Peters 's errors ( see below ) . From this Finkelstein concluded that Dershowitz had not checked the original sources himself , contrary to the latter 's claims . Finkelstein suggests that this copying of quotations amounts to copying ideas . Examining a copy of a proof of Dershowitz 's book he managed to obtain , he found evidence that Dershowitz had his secretarial assistant , Holly Beth Billington , check in the Harvard library the sources he had read in Peters 's book . Dershowitz answered the charge in a letter to the University of California 's Press Director Lynne Withey , arguing that Finkelstein had made up the smoking gun quotation , in that he had changed its wording ( from ' cite ' to ' copy ' ) in his book . In public debate he has stated that if " somebody borrowed the quote without going to check back on whether Mark Twain had said that , obviously that would be a serious charge " ; however , he insisted emphatically that he himself did not do that , that he had indeed checked the original source by Twain .

Dershowitz threatened libel action over the charges in Finkelstein 's book , as a consequence of which , the publisher deleted the word " plagiarism " from the text before publication . Finkelstein agreed to remove the suggestion that Dershowitz was not the true author of The Case for Israel because , as the publisher said , " he couldn 't document that " .

Asserting that he did consult the original sources , Dershowitz said Finkelstein is simply accusing him of good scholarly practice : citing references he learned of initially from Peters 's book . Dershowitz denies that he used any of Peters 's ideas without citation . " Plagiarism is taking someone else 's words and claiming they 're your own . There are no borrowed words from anybody . There are no borrowed ideas from anybody because I fundamentally disagree with the conclusions of Peters 's book . " In a footnote in The Case for Israel which cites Peters 's book , Dershowitz explicitly denies that he " relies " on Peters for " conclusions or data " .

In their joint interview on Democracy Now , however , Finkelstein cited specific passages in Dershowitz 's book in which a phrase that he says Peters coined was incorrectly attributed to George Orwell :

" [ Peters ] coins the phrase , ' turnspeak ' , she says she 's using it as a play off of George Orwell which as all listeners know used the phrase ' Newspeak . ' She coined her own phrase , ' turnspeak ' . You go to Mr. Dershowitz 's book , he got so confused in his massive borrowings from Joan Peters that on two occasions , I 'll cite them for those who have a copy of the book , on page 57 and on page 153 he uses the phrase , quote , George Orwell 's ' turnspeak ' . ' Turnspeak ' is not Orwell , Mr. Dershowitz , you 're the Felix Frankfurter chair at Harvard , you must know that Orwell would never use such a clunky phrase as ' turnspeak ' " .

James O. Freedman , the former president of Dartmouth College , the University of Iowa , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , has defended Dershowitz :

I do not understand [ Finkelstein 's ] charge of plagiarism against Alan Dershowitz . There is no claim that Dershowitz used the words of others without attribution . When he uses the words of others , he quotes them properly and generally cites them to the original sources ( Mark Twain , Palestine Royal Commission , etc . ) [ Finkelstein 's ] complaint is that instead he should have cited them to the secondary source , in which Dershowitz may have come upon them . But as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : ' Importance of attribution . With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This not only bolsters the claims of fair use , it also helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism . ' This is precisely what Dershowitz did .

Responding to an article in The Nation by Alexander Cockburn , Dershowitz also cited The Chicago Manual of Style :

Cockburn 's claim is that some of the quotes should not have been cited to their original sources but rather to a secondary source , where he believes I stumbled upon them . Even if he were correct that I found all these quotations in Peters 's book , the preferred method of citation is to the original source , as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : " With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This ... helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism ... To cite a source from a secondary source ( ' quoted in ... ' ) is generally to be discouraged .... "

... to which Cockburn responded :

Quoting The Chicago Manual of Style , Dershowitz artfully implies that he followed the rules by citing " the original " as opposed to the secondary source , Peters . He misrepresents Chicago here , where " the original " means merely the origin of the borrowed material , which is , in this instance , Peters .

Now look at the second bit of the quote from Chicago , chastely separated from the preceding sentence by a demure three @-@ point ellipsis . As my associate Kate Levin has discovered , this passage ( " To cite a source from a secondary source ... " ) occurs on page 727 , which is no less than 590 pages later than the material before the ellipsis , in a section titled " Citations Taken from Secondary Sources . " Here 's the full quote , with what Dershowitz left out set in bold : " ' Quoted in ' . To cite a source from a secondary source ( " quoted in " ) is generally to be discouraged , since authors are expected to have examined the works they cite . If an original source is unavailable , however , both the original and the secondary source must be listed . "

So Chicago is clearly insisting that unless Dershowitz went to the originals , he was obliged to cite Peters . Finkelstein has conclusively demonstrated that he didn 't go to the originals . Plagiarism , QED , plus added time for willful distortion of the language of Chicago 's guidelines , cobbling together two separate discussions .

On behalf of Dershowitz , Harvard Law School dean Elena Kagan asked former Harvard president Derek Bok to investigate the assertion of plagiarism ; Bok exonerated Dershowitz of the charge .

In an April 3 , 2007 interview with the Harvard Crimson , " Dershowitz confirmed that he had sent a letter last September to DePaul faculty members lobbying against Finkelstein 's tenure . "

In April 2007 , Dr. Frank Menetrez , a former Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the UCLA Law Review , published an analysis of the charges made against Finkelstein by Dershowitz , finding no merit in any single charge and concluding that Dershowitz had misrepresented matters . In a follow @-@ up analysis he concluded that he could find ' no way of avoiding the inference that Dershowitz copied the quotation from Twain from Peters 's From Time Immemorial , and not from the original source ' , as Dershowitz claimed . In an interview given for the film American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein in 2009 , Dershowitz said of Finkelstein : " I don 't think he is a Jew . He 's Jewish only on his parents ' side . "

= = Controversies = =

= = = Tenure denial and resignation = = =

In September 2006 , Dershowitz sent members of DePaul 's law and political science faculties what he described as " a dossier of Norman Finkelstein 's most egregious academic sins , and especially his outright lies , misquotations , and distortions " and lobbied professors , alumni and administrators to deny Finkelstein tenure . De Paul 's political science committee investigated his accusations against Finkelstein and concluded that they were not based on legitimate criticism . The department subsequently invited John Mearsheimer and Ian Lustick , two independent academics with known expertise on the Israel – Palestine conflict , to evaluate the academic merit of Finkelstein 's work ; they came to the same conclusion .

Also in 2006 , the Washington Post noted " the ADL repeatedly accused " Norman Finkelstein of being a " Holocaust denier " and that " These charges have proved baseless . " Finkelstein 's mother survived the Majdanek concentration camp , his father survived the Auschwitz concentration camp , and most of his family died in the Holocaust

In early 2007 , the DePaul Political Science Department voted nine to three , and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Personnel Committee five to zero , in favor of giving Finkelstein tenure . The three opposing faculty members subsequently filed a minority report opposing tenure , supported by the Dean of the College , Chuck Suchar . Suchar stated he opposed tenure because Finkelstein 's " personal and reputation demeaning attacks on Dershowitz , Benny Morris , and the holocaust authors Elie Wiesel and Jerzy Kosinski " were inconsistent with DePaul 's " Vincentian " values ; as examples of the latter , Suchar argued that Finkelstein lacked respect for " the dignity of the individual " and for " the rights of others to hold and express different intellectual positions " . Amidst considerable public debate , Dershowitz actively campaigned to block Finkelstein 's tenure bid . In June 2007 , a 4 – 3 vote by DePaul University 's Board on Promotion and Tenure ( a faculty board ) , affirmed by the university 's president , the Rev. Dennis Holtschneider , denied Finkelstein tenure .

The university denied that Dershowitz , who had been criticized for his campaign against Finkelstein 's tenure , played any part in this decision . At the same time , the university denied tenure to international studies assistant professor Mehrene Larudee , a strong supporter of Finkelstein , despite unanimous support from her department , the Personnel Committee and the dean . Finkelstein stated that he would engage in civil disobedience if attempts were made to bar him from teaching his students .

The Faculty Council later affirmed the right of Professors Finkelstein and Larudee to appeal , which a university lawyer said was not possible . Council President Anne Bartlett said she was " ' terribly concerned ' correct procedure was not followed " . DePaul 's faculty association considered taking no @-@ confidence votes on administrators , including the president , because of the tenure denials . In a statement issued upon Finkelstein 's resignation , DePaul called him " a prolific scholar and an outstanding teacher " . Dershowitz expressed outrage at the compromise and this statement in particular , saying that the university had " traded truth for peace " .

In June 2007 , after two weeks of protests , some DePaul students staged a sit @-@ in and hunger strike in support of both professors denied tenure . The Illinois Conference of the American Association of University Professors also sent a letter to the university 's president stating : " It is entirely illegitimate for a university to deny tenure to a professor out of fear that his published research ... might hurt a college 's reputation " and that the association has " explicitly rejected collegiality as an appropriate criterion for evaluating faculty members " . In a 2014 interview , professor Matthew Abraham , author of Out of Bounds : Academic Freedom and the Question of Palestine , described the Finkelstein tenure case as " one of the most significant academic freedom cases in the last fifty years " , claiming the case demonstrated " the substantial pressure outside parties can place on a mid @-@ tier religious institution when the perspectives advanced by a controversial scholar threaten dominant interests " .

= = = Denied entry to Israel in 2008 = = =

On May 23 , 2008 , Finkelstein was denied entry to Israel , according to unnamed Shin Bet security officials , because " of suspicions involving hostile elements in Lebanon " and that he " did not give a full accounting to interrogators with regard to these suspicions . " Finkelstein had previously visited south Lebanon and met with Lebanese families during the 2006 Lebanon War . He was banned from entering Israel for 10 years .

Finkelstein was questioned after his arrival at Ben Gurion Airport near Tel Aviv and detained for 24 hours in a holding cell . After speaking to Israeli attorney Michael Sfard he was placed on a flight back to Amsterdam , his point of origin . In an interview with Haaretz , Finkelstein stated " I did my best to provide absolutely candid and comprehensive answers to all the questions put to me . I am confident that I have nothing to hide ... no suicide missions or secret rendezvous with terrorist organizations . " He had been travelling to visit friends in the West Bank and stated he had no interest in visiting Israel . Sfard said banning Finkelstein from entering the country " recalls the behavior of the Soviet bloc countries " .

= = Reception = =

Finkelstein 's books are an attempt to examine the works of mainstream scholarship . The authors whose work he has thus targeted , including Daniel Jonah Goldhagen and Dershowitz , along with others such as Benny Morris whose work Finkelstein has also cited in his scholarship , have in turn accused Finkelstein of grossly misrepresenting their work , and selectively quoting from their books .

According to Raul Hilberg , Finkelstein displays " academic courage to speak the truth when no one else is out there to support him ... I would say that his place in the whole history of writing history is assured , and that those who in the end are proven right triumph , and he will be among those who will have triumphed , albeit , it so seems , at great cost . " In a peer review for Beyond Chutzpah , Avi Shlaim said that Finkelstein " has a most impressive track record in exposing spurious American @-@ Jewish scholarship on the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict . " He praised Finkelstein for " all the sterling qualities for which he has become famous : erudition , originality , spark , meticulous attention to detail , intellectual integrity , courage , and formidable forensic skills . "

Sara Roy stated that her shared experience with Finkelstein as a child of Holocaust survivors engaged in research on the Palestinian @-@ Israeli conflict gave her a unique position to comment . According to Roy , Finkelstein 's scholarship is , " exceptional both for its brilliance and rigor . In the fields of Middle Eastern studies and political science his work is considered seminal and there is no doubt that both disciplines would be intellectually weaker without it . Norman 's power and value , however , do not emanate only from his scholarship but from his character . His life ’ s work , shaped largely but not entirely by his experience as a child of survivors has been and continues to be informed by a profound concern with human dignity and the danger of dehumanization . "

The Israeli newspaper , Haaretz , stated that " [ i ] t is difficult to sympathize with Finkelstein 's opinions and preferences , especially since he decided to support Hezbollah , meet with its fighters and visit the graves of some of its slain operatives . " Still , it continued to say that he should not be banned from entering Israel , because " meetings with Hezbollah operatives do not in themselves constitute a security risk " .

= = = 2009 film about Finkelstein = = =

American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein is an award @-@ winning documentary film about the life and career of Norman Finkelstein , released in 2009 and directed by David Ridgen and Nicolas Rossier . It has been screened in Amsterdam IDFA , in Toronto Hot Docs and in more than 40 other national and international venues , it received a freshness rating of 100 % on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes . The same year Finkelstein appeared in Defamation ( Hebrew : השמצה ; translit . Hashmatsa ) a documentary film by award @-@ winning Israeli filmmaker Yoav Shamir .

= = = Criticism = = =

Criticism has been leveled against Finkelstein from several angles . The first sources are responses from those whose work Finkelstein has discussed . Daniel Goldhagen , whose book Hitler 's Willing Executioners Finkelstein criticized , claimed his scholarship has " everything to do with his burning political agenda " . Alan Dershowitz has written that Peter Novick , Professor of History at the University of Chicago and a noted Holocaust historian whose work Finkelstein says inspired The Holocaust Industry , has strongly criticized the latter 's work , describing it as " trash " . Similarly , Dershowitz , whose book The Case for Israel and Finkelstein 's response Beyond Chutzpah sparked an ongoing feud between the two , has claimed Finkelstein 's complicity in a conspiracy against pro @-@ Israel scholars : " The mode of attack is consistent . Chomsky selects the target and directs Finkelstein to probe the writings in minute detail and conclude that the writer didn 't actually write the work , that it is plagiarized , that it is a hoax and a fraud , " arguing that Finkelstein has leveled charges against many academics , calling at least 10 " distinguished Jews ' hucksters ' , ' hoaxters ' ( sic ) , ' thieves ' , ' extortionists ' , and worse . " Although the back and forth between Finkelstein and Dershowitz received the most attention and attracted significant controversy , Finkelstein has maintained that " the real issue is Israel 's human rights record . "

Israeli historian Omer Bartov , writing for The New York Times Book Review , judged The Holocaust Industry to be marred by the same errors he denounces in those who exploit the Holocaust for profit or politics :

It is filled with precisely the kind of shrill hyperbole that Finkelstein rightly deplores in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust ; it is brimming with the same indifference to historical facts , inner contradictions , strident politics and dubious contextualizations ; and it oozes with the same smug sense of moral and intellectual superiority ... Like any conspiracy theory , it contains several grains of truth ; and like any such theory , it is both irrational and insidious .

Finkelstein has accused journalist Jeffrey Goldberg of " torturing " or " being an accessory to torture of " Palestinian prisoners during his IDF service in the First Intifada , based on statements made in Goldberg 's book Prisoners . Finkelstein says that Goldberg admits to personally sending prisoners to the zinzana , which he says has been repeatedly condemned as torture in human rights reports . Goldberg referred to the allegation as " ridiculous " and he had " never laid a hand on anybody . " Goldberg said his " principal role " was " making sure prisoners had fresh fruit . " He characterized Finkelstein as a " ridiculous figure " and accused him of " lying and purposely misreading my book . "

= = Statements on Israel = =

Finkelstein is a sharp critic of the state of Israel . Discussing Finkelstein 's book Beyond Chutzpah , Israeli historian Avi Shlaim stated that Finkelstein 's critique of Israel " is based on an amazing amount of research . He seems to have read everything . He has gone through the reports of Israeli groups , of human rights groups , Human Rights Watch and Peace Now and B 'Tselem , all of the reports of Amnesty International . And he deploys all this evidence from Israeli and other sources in order to sustain his critique of Israeli practices , Israeli violations of human rights of the Palestinians , Israeli house demolitions , the targeted assassinations of Palestinian militants , the cutting down of trees , the building of the wall — the security barrier on the West Bank , which is illegal — the restrictions imposed on the Palestinians in the West Bank , and so on and so forth . I find his critique extremely detailed , well @-@ documented and accurate . "

In a telephone interview with Today 's Zaman , in 2009 , Finkelstein stated :

I think Israel , as a number of commentators pointed out , is becoming an insane state . And we have to be honest about that . While the rest of the world wants peace , Europe wants peace , the US wants peace , but this state wants war , war and war . In the first week of the massacres , there were reports in the Israeli press that Israel did not want to put all its ground forces in Gaza because it was preparing attacks on Iran . Then there were reports it was planning attacks on Lebanon . It is a lunatic state .

When asked how he , as the son of Holocaust survivors , felt about Israel ’ s operation in Gaza , Finkelstein replied :

It has been a long time since I felt any emotional connection with the state of Israel , which relentlessly and brutally and inhumanly keeps these vicious , murderous wars . It is a vandal state . There is a Russian writer who once described vandal states as Genghis Khan with a telegraph . Israel is Genghis Khan with a computer . I feel no emotion of affinity with that state . I have some good friends and their families there , and of course I would not want any of them to be hurt . That said , sometimes I feel that Israel has come out of the boils ( sic ) of the hell , a satanic state .

The Anti @-@ Defamation League has described Finkelstein as an " obsessive anti @-@ Zionist " filled with " vitriolic hatred of Zionism and Israel . " On being called an anti @-@ Zionist Finkelstein has said : " It 's a superficial term . I am opposed to any state with an ethnic character , not only to Israel . "

Finkelstein is an advocate of a two @-@ state solution to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict .

= = = Hezbollah and Hamas = = =

Finkelstein has expressed solidarity with Hezbollah and Hamas with respect to defensive actions , alleging that Israel had invaded Lebanon as a signal of rejection when Hamas was seeking a diplomatic settlement with Israel . He also condemned what he said was Israel 's refusal " to abide by international law [ and ] to abide by the opinion of the international community " to settle the conflict .

" I was of course happy to meet the Hizbullah people , because it is a point of view that is rarely heard in the United States . I have no problem saying that I do want to express solidarity with them , and I am not going to be a coward of ( sic ) a hypocrite about it . I don 't care about Hizbullah as a political organization . I don 't know much about their politics , and anyhow , it 's irrelevant . I don 't live in Lebanon . It 's a choice that the Lebanese have to make : Who they want to be their leaders , who they want to represent them . But there is a fundamental principle . People have the right to defend their country from foreign occupiers , and people have the right to defend their country from invaders who are destroying their country . That to me is a very basic , elementary and uncomplicated question . "

While condemning the targeting of civilians to achieve a political goal , Finkelstein has stated he believes Hezbollah has the right to target Israeli civilians as long as " Israel persists in targeting [ Lebanese ] civilians until Israel ceases its terrorist acts . "

Finkelstein claims that an equivalence exists between Hamas and the state of Israel in regards to the military policy of targeted killings during the Second Intifada . According to Finkelstein " the record shows that Israel has routinely targeted civilians for killing " and " Israel indiscriminately kills civilians " . He concludes that " the argument , among human rights organizations at any rate is that ... in effect , there ’ s no difference between indiscriminately killing civilians and targeting civilians . "

Finkelstein argued one of Israel 's primary motivations for launching the 2008 offensive in Gaza was that Hamas was " signaling that it wanted a diplomatic settlement of the conflict along the June 1967 border . " Finkelstein believes Hamas had joined the international community in " seeking a diplomatic settlement " and describes Hamas 's stance towards Israel prior to the war as a " peace offensive . "

= = Statements on the BDS movement = =

Finkelstein had made many criticisms of the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions Movement . Finkelstein stated that " I think the solidarity movement has the right tactics . I support the BDS . But I said it will never reach a broad public until and unless they are explicit on their goal . And their goal has to include recognition of Israel , otherwise it 's a nonstarter . " Elsewhere , he has stated that he supports a " lowercase " BDS , making the same point about tactics and goals .

In February 2012 , The Jewish Chronicle in England stated that Finkelstein " launched a blistering attack " on the BDS movement , saying it was a " hypocritical , dishonest cult " , " [ l ] ike the Munchkin cult in Oz , " that tries to cleverly pose as human rights activists while in reality their goal is to destroy Israel . Finkelstein stated that the BDS movement has had very few successes , and that just like a cult , the leaders pretend that they are hugely successful when in reality the general public rejects their extreme views .

In June 2012 , in an appearance on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein elaborated on his criticisms of the BDS movement :

The problem as I see it with the BDS movement is not the tactic . Who could not support Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions ? Of course you should . And most of the human rights organizations , church organizations have moved in that direction . The problem is the goal . . . The official BDS movement , they claim to be agnostic , neutral — whatever term you want to use — on the question of Israel . You can ’ t reach a broad public if you are agnostic on the question of Israel . The broad public wants to know , where do you stand ? And if you claim not to have a stand , you lose them . The BDS movement , it always says , and I ’ m using their language , " We are a rights @-@ based organization . We are based in international law . " I agree with that . That ’ s where you have to go : rights @-@ based international law . But the international law is clear . You read the last sentence of the 2004 International Court of Justice opinion on the wall that Israel has been building in the West Bank , and the last sentence says , " We look forward to two states : a Palestinian state alongside Israel and at peace with its neighbors . " That 's the law .

And if you want to go past that law or ignore the Israel part , you ’ ll never reach a broad public . And then it 's a cult . Then it ’ s pointless , in my opinion . We 're wasting time . And it 's only a wasting of time . It becomes — and I know it 's a strong word , and I hope I won 't be faulted for it , but it becomes historically criminal , because there was a time where whatever we said , it made no difference . Nobody was listening . You could shout whatever you want — who cares ? But now , actually , we can reach people . There is a possibility . I ’ m not saying a certainty . I 'm not even saying a probability . But there is a possibility that we can reach a broad public . And so , we have to be very careful about the words we use , and we have to be very careful about the political strategy we map out . Otherwise , we 're going to squander a real opportunity . And I don 't want to squander it .

= = = Books = = =

2014 : Method and Madness : The Hidden Story of Israel 's Assaults on Gaza , OR Books , New York ( 2014 )

2014 : Old Wine , Broken Bottle : Ari Shavit 's Promised Land , OR Books , New York ( 2014 )

2012 : Knowing Too Much : Why the American Jewish Romance with Israel is Coming to an End , OR Books , New York ( 2012 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 77 @-@ 5

2012 : What Gandhi Says About Nonviolence , Resistance and Courage , OR Books , New York : 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 79 @-@ 9

2011 : " Goldstone Recants . Richard Goldstone renews Israel 's license to kill " , OR Books , New York ( 2011 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 51 @-@ 5

2010 : This Time We Went Too Far : Truth and Consequences of the Gaza Invasion . OR Books , New York : 2010 . [ 2 ] ; ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 43 @-@ 0

2005 : Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History . University of California Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24598 @-@ 9 . 2nd updated Ed . , University of California Press . June 2008 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24989 @-@ 5 , contains an appendix written by Frank J. Menetrez , Dershowitz vs Finkelstein . Who 's Right and Who 's Wrong ? , pp. 363 – 94 @,@

2000 : The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 488 @-@ X.

1998 : A Nation on Trial : The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth ( co @-@ written with Ruth Bettina Birn ) , Henry Holt and Co . ; ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 5872 @-@ 9 .

1996 : The Rise and Fall of Palestine : A Personal Account of the Intifada Years . Minneapolis : U of Minnesota P , ISBN 0 @-@ 8166 @-@ 2859 @-@ 9 .

1995 : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 442 @-@ 1

1987 : From the Jewish Question to the Jewish State : An Essay on the Theory of Zionism ( thesis ) , Princeton University .

= = = Articles and chapters = = =

" Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peter 's ' From Time Immemorial . ' " in Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question . Ed . Edward W. Said and Christopher Hitchens . Verso Press , 1988 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 86091 @-@ 887 @-@ 4 . Chapter Two , Part One :

" Peace process or peace panic ? - The scourge of Palestinian moderation " , Middle East Report , 19 ( 1989 ) 3 / 158 , pp. 25 – 26 @,@ 28 @-@ 30 @,@ 42

" Zionist orientations " , Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternatives 9 ( March 1990 ) 1 @.@  p . 41 @-@ 69

" Bayt Sahur in year II of the intifada . - A personal account " , Journal of Palestine Studies 19 ( Winter 1990 ) 2 / 74 , pp. 62 – 74

" Israel and Iraq . - A double standard " , Journal of Palestine Studies 20 ( 1991 ) 2 / 78 @.@  pp. 43 – 56

" Reflections on Palestinian attitudes during the Gulf war " , Journal of Palestine Studies , 21 ( 1992 ) 3 / 83 , pp. 54 – 70

" Réflexions sur la responsabilité de l ´ État et du citoyen dans le conflit arabo @-@ israélien " ( Reflections on the responsibility of state and citizen in the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict ) , in L ' homme et la société , L 'Harmattan 1994 , 114 , S. 37 @-@ 50

" Whither the `peace process ' ? " , New Left Review , ( 1996 ) 218 , p . 138

" Securing occupation : The real meaning of the Wye River Memorandum " , New Left Review , ( 1998 ) 232 , pp. 128 – 39

Contributor to The Politics of Anti @-@ Semitism . Ed . Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair . AK Press , 2001 ; ISBN 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 77 @-@ 4 .

" Lessons of Holocaust compensation " , in Palestinian Refugees : The Right of Return . Ed . Naseer Aruri . Pluto Press , 2001 , S. 272 @-@ 275 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 7453 @-@ 1776 @-@ 6 .

" Abba Eban with Footnotes " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol 32 . ( 2003 ) , pp. 74 – 89

" Prospects for Ending the Occupation " , Antipode , 35 ( 2003 ) 5 , pp. 839 – 45

Contributor to Radicals , Rabbis and Peacemakers : Conversations with Jewish Critics of Israel , by Seth Farber . Common Courage Press , 2005 . ISBN 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 326 @-@ 3 .

" The Camp David II negotiations . - how Dennis Ross proved the Palestinians aborted the peace process " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol . 36 ( 2007 ) , pp. 39 – 53

" Dennis Ross and the peace process : subordinating Palestinian rights to Israeli ' needs ' " , Institute for Palestine Studies , 2007 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 88728 @-@ 308 @-@ X

= = Others on Finkelstein and his works = =

= = = Academic reviews of books by Finkelstein = = =

Massad , Joseph . " Deconstructing Holocaust Consciousness " , Review Essay , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 32 , No. 1 . ( Autumn , 2002 ) , pp. 78 – 89 .

Cole , Tim . " Representing the Holocaust in America : Mixed Motives or Abuse ? " , The Public Historian , Vol . 24 , No. 4 . ( Fall , 2002 ) , pp. 127 – 31

Hooglund , Eric . Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 33 , No. 3 , Special Issue in Honor of Edward W. Said . ( Spring , 2004 ) , pp. 123 – 124 .

Pelham , Nicolas . Reviewed Work : Image and Reality in the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , International Affairs , Vol . 72 , No. 3 , Ethnicity and International Relations . ( July 1996 ) , pp. 627 – 28 .

Pappe , Ilan . " Valuable New Perspectives , " Reviewed Work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 26 , No. 4 . ( Summer , 1997 ) , pp. 113 – 15 .

Beinin , Joel . " The Palestinian @-@ Israeli Conflict after Oslo " , Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman G. Finkelstein . Middle East Report , No. 201 , Israel and Palestine : Two States , Bantustans or Binationalism ? . ( Oct @-@ Dec 1996 ) , pp. 45 – 47 .

= = = Reviews of books by Finkelstein = = =

Blokker , Bas ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , NRC Handelsblad , February 24 , 2006 .

Pappe , Ilan ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , BOOKFORUM ( February / March 2006 )

De Zayas , Alfred . Review of Beyond Chutzpah in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung ( February 3 , 2006 )

Merkley , Paul Charles . These Pigs on the Face of the Earth : Israel 's most relentless critic ( review of Beyond Chutzpah , in Christianity Today ( January / February 2006 )

Marqusee , Mike . " Israel , fraud and chutzpah " ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ; January 2006 )

Prashad , Vijay . Z magazine reviews Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah . Z Magazine November 2005 Volume 18 , Number 11

Gordon , Neve . Neve Gordon : Review of Norman Finkelstein 's , Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History , by Norman G. Finkelstein . History News Network , October 12 , 2005

Bogdanor , Paul . The Finkelstein Phenomenon ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , Judaism ( Fall 2002 )

Abse , Tobias . Finkelstein 's Follies : The Dangers of Vulgar Anti @-@ Zionism ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , whatnextjournal.co.uk ; accessed November 1 , 2015

Bartov , Omer . " A Tale of Two Holocausts " ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , New York Times Book Review , August 6 , 2000

= = = Profiles of Finkelstein = = =

Garner , Mandy . " The Good Jewish Boys Go into Battle . " Times Higher Education Supplement 16 December 2005 .

Naparstek , Ben . " His Own Worst Enemy . " The Jerusalem Post 12 December 2005 .

Rayner , Jay . " Finkelstein 's List . " The Observer 16 July 2000 .

Sheleg , Yair . " The Finkelstein Polemic . " Ha 'aretz 30 March 2001 .

= = = Critics of Finkelstein and replies = = =

Daniel Goldhagen , The New Discourse of Avoidance at the Wayback Machine ( archived December 4 , 2002 )

Norman Finkelstein , Response to Goldhagen

William Rubinstein et al . , Uses of Holocaust , letters to the London Review of Books

David Friedman , Anti @-@ Defamation League letter at the Wayback Machine , calling Finkelstein a " Holocaust denier "

The Washington Post Publishes a Retraction : Marc Fisher , a Washington Post columnist , publishes a retraction of his charge of " Holocaust revisionism " , archive.org ; accessed November 1 , 2015 .

= = = Video = = =

Norman Finkelstein at the Internet Movie Database

Eight Interviews with Finkelstein ( two sets of four ) , December 2014 and January 2015 , and Three More Interviews with Finkelstein , May 2015 , The Real News

American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein - broadcast of the documentary in two parts

Resolving the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict : University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Jan 21 , 2009 .

Interview broadcast on Lebanese TV January 20 , 2008

VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - Israel and Palestine : Roots of Conflict , Prospects for Peace , presentation in Seattle , Washington , May 8 , 2008 .

VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - The Coming Breakup of American Zionism , presentation in Olympia , Washington , May 8 , 2008 .

VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein at Brown University on YouTube , April 15 , 2008

Doha Debate at the Oxford Union Video of debate on whether the " pro @-@ Israeli lobby has successfully stifled Western debate about Israel 's actions " with Andrew Cockburn , Martin Indyk , and David Aaronovitch , May 1 , 2007

Debate with Shlomo Ben @-@ Ami on Democracy Now ! , February 14 , 2006

Finkelstein Responds to Clinton , Netanyahu AIPAC Comments March 23 , 2010

Israel vs Palestine - featuring Norman Finkelstein ( April 2014 ) , Juice Rap News

= Mutinus elegans =

Mutinus elegans , commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn , the dog stinkhorn , the headless stinkhorn , or the devil 's dipstick , is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae family . A saprobic species , it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter , during summer and autumn in Japan , Europe , and eastern North America . The fruit body begins its development in an " egg " form , resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground . As the fungus matures , a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip . The stalk is covered with a foul @-@ smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length . Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores , assisting in their dispersal . Due to their repellent odor , mature specimens are not generally considered edible , although there are reports of the immature " eggs " being consumed . In the laboratory , Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans .

= = Taxonomy = =

Mutinus elegans was first described by British missionary John Banister in 1679 who chronicled the natural history of Virginia ; this early report is thought to be the first account of a fungus in North America . It was first characterized scientifically by French scientist Jean Pierre François Camille Montagne in 1856 , who called it Corynites elegans . The genus name Mutinus refers to a phallic deity , Mutinus Mutunus , one of the Roman di indigetes placated by Roman brides . The species is commonly known variously as the " elegant stinkhorn " , the " headless stinkhorn " , the " dog stinkhorn " , or the " devil 's dipstick " . The specific epithet elegans is derived from the Latin word meaning " graceful " or " elegant " .

= = Description = =

The young fruiting bodies are initially white and spherical or egg @-@ shaped , partially submerged in the ground , with dimensions of 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) by 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) . As the fruit body matures , the egg ruptures and the spongy spore @-@ bearing stalk emerges ; fully grown , it may be from 1 to 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The stalk is hollow and strongly wrinkled overall ; its shape is cylindrical below , but it gradually tapers to a narrow apex with a small opening at the tip . The upper half of the stalk is bright red to reddish orange , and the color gradually loses intensity transforming into pinkish white below . The stalk may be straight , or slightly curved . A gelatinous greenish @-@ brown gleba covers the upper third of the stalk in newly emerged specimens . The remains of the " egg " forms a volva around the base of the stalk . The odor of the gleba is foul ; one author describes it as " sickly sweet or metallic " . The spores are a greenish @-@ brown color . Fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by whitish rhizomorphs that resemble plant roots . American mycologist Smith noted that the eggs are often slow to open , sometimes taking up to two weeks before the stalk expands .

The spores are 4 – 7 by 2 – 3 µm , oblong @-@ elliptical , smooth , and embedded in the gleba . A 1982 study revealed that spores of species in the Phallaceae family , including Mutinus elegans , have a hilar scar ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 µm diameter ) that is observable with scanning electron microscopy . The hilar scar is a circular indentation at one end of the spore , and it most likely results during the separation of the attachment of the spore to the sterigma of the basidium .

= = = Edibility = = =

The immature egg @-@ forms of Mutinus elegans are edible , but " not recommended " . One field guides notes that the eggs of the stinkhorn fungi " taste like the seasonings that are added to them . " The fetid odor of mature specimens would probably be repellent to most , although they are not considered poisonous .

= = = Similar species = = =

The " dog stinkhorn " ( Mutinus caninus ) is smaller , has a distinct oval or spindle @-@ shaped tip on a slender stem and lacks the bright coloring of M. elegans ; it has less of the stalk covered by gleba . The portion of the stalk below the spore mass is pitted in M. caninus , compared to " pebbly " in M. elegans . M. caninus is also less common than M. elegans . Mutinus bambusinus is similar in size and shape , except it does not have a distinct color demarcation between the upper and lower parts of the stalk ; instead , the entire stem shows red pigments . The stalk of M. ravenelii is less tapered than M. elegans , and it has a clearly differentiated swollen head .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Mutinus elegans is saprobic — deriving nutrients by breaking down dead or dying organic matter . It is commonly found in gardens and farm areas enriched with manure , near well @-@ decayed stumps and logs , and in wood chips . A Japanese publication mentioned its occurrence in Takatsuki and Osaka @-@ fu , where it fruited in November and December on the ground along paths or in open spaces , under or near bamboo ( Phyllostachys bambusoides ) and hardwoods such as the Sawtooth Oak , the Japanese Zelkova , and the Camphor tree .

This common species has been collected in eastern North America , in the area extending from Quebec to Florida and west to the Great Lakes , Iowa , and Texas . In Europe , it has been reported from Netherlands and in Asia , it has been collected in Japan .

= = Antibiotic activity = =

A study of 32 basidiomycete mushrooms showed that Mutinus elegans was the only species to show antibiotic ( both antibacterial and antifungal ) activity against all six microorganisms tested , namely , the human pathogenic bacteris Bacillus cereus , Bacillus subtilis , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium and the yeast Candida albicans .

= The Boat Race 1900 =

The 57th Boat Race took place on 31 March 1900 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge won by twenty lengths in a record @-@ equalling time of 18 minutes 45 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 32 – 24 in Oxford 's favour .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1899 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , while Oxford led overall with 32 victories to Cambridge 's 23 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Leading up to the race , Oxford suffered a variety of misfortune : M. C. McThornhill was ordered by his doctor not to row , H. J. Hale was injured and president Felix Warre contracted scarlet fever .

Cambridge were coached by James Brookes Close , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times between 1872 and 1874 , and Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue for Cambridge between 1886 and 1890 . Oxford 's coaches were Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president the previous year and four @-@ time Blue ) and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . The umpire for the race for the eleventh year in a row was Frank Willan who had won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .

= = Crews = =

The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 4 @.@ 625 lb ( 78 @.@ 1 kg ) , 0 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three members with Boat Race experience : C. E. Johnston , C. W. Tomlkinson and cox G. S. Maclagan . Cambridge saw six of their 1899 crew return , including William Dudley Ward and Raymond Broadly Etherington @-@ Smith , both of whom were rowing in their third race . Eight of the nine Light Blues were students at Trinity College . Oxford 's stroke H. H. Dutton , a native of South Australia , was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the race . Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater suggested that this year 's Cambridge crew , along with the Oxford crew which rowed in the 1897 race , " stand in a class by themselves among University crews . " He also described the Oxford crew as " one of the poorest that ever came from the Isis " .

= = Race = =

Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In good conditions , umpire Willan got the race under way at 2 : 00 p.m. whereupon Cambridge took the lead immediately . By Craven Steps they were three lengths ahead and continued to draw away from the Dark Blues , to win by 20 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds . It was the fastest winning time in the history of the event , equalling that set by Oxford in the 1893 race . Although it was the Light Blues ' second consecutive victory , it followed a run of nine consecutive wins for Oxford – overall the Dark Blues led 32 – 24 .

= Ten Commandments in Catholic theology =

The Ten Commandments are a series of religious and moral imperatives that are recognized as a moral foundation in several of the Abrahamic religions , including Catholicism . As described in the Old Testament books Exodus and Deuteronomy , the Commandments form part of a covenant offered by God to the Israelites to free them from the spiritual slavery of sin . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs — the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth , and serve as the basis for Catholic social justice . A review of the Commandments is one of the most common types of examination of conscience used by Catholics before receiving the sacrament of Penance .

The Commandments appear in the earliest Church writings ; the Catechism states that they have " occupied a predominant place " in teaching the faith since the time of Augustine of Hippo ( AD 354 – 430 ) . The Church had no official standards for religious instruction until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 ; evidence suggests the Commandments were used in Christian education in the early Church and throughout the Middle Ages , but with inconsistent emphasis . The lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers . Afterward , the first Church @-@ wide catechism in 1566 provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " , but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments . The most recent Catechism devotes a large section to interpret each of the commandments .

Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament , Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further , demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees . Summarized by Jesus into two " Great Commandments " that teach love of God and love of neighbor , they instruct individuals on their relationships with both . The first three commandments demand respect for God 's name , observation of the Lord 's Day and prohibit the worship of other gods . The others deal with the relationships between individuals , such as that between parent and child ; they include prohibitions against lying , stealing , murdering , adultery and covetousness .

= = Numbering = =

The Old Testament refers to ten individual commandments , even though there are more than ten imperative sentences in the two relevant texts : Exodus 20 : 1 – 17 and Deuteronomy 5 : 6 – 21 . The Old Testament does not make clear how the texts should be divided to arrive at ten commandments . The division traditionally used by the Catholic and Lutheran churches was first derived by the Latin Church Father Augustine of Hippo ( 354 – 430 ) in his book Questions on Exodus . Other Christian churches , such as the Eastern Orthodox and some Protestant churches , use a form established by the Greek Fathers . The two forms have slightly different numbering , but maintain exactly the same substance despite Protestant accusations to the contrary . Jewish numbering differs from Christian denominations in that it considers what many Christians call a prologue to be the entire first commandment .

= = History = =

The Ten Commandments are recognized as a moral foundation by Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . They first appear in the Book of Exodus , according to which Moses , acting under the orders of God , freed the Israelites from physical slavery in Egypt . According to Church teaching , God offered a covenant — which included the Ten Commandments — to also free them from the " spiritual slavery " of sin . Some historians have described this as " the central event in the history of ancient Israel " .

The coming of Jesus is seen by the Catholic Church as the fulfillment of the destiny of the Jews , who were chosen , according to Peter Kreeft , to " show the true God to the world " . Jesus acknowledged the Commandments and instructed his followers to go further , requiring , in Kreeft 's words , " more , not less : a ' righteousness ( which ) exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees ' " . Explaining Church teaching , Kreeft states , " The Commandments are to the moral order what the creation story in Genesis 1 is to the natural order . They are God 's order conquering chaos . They are not man 's ideas about God , but God 's ideas about man . " The Church teaches that Jesus freed people from keeping " the burdensome Jewish law ( Torah or Mosaic Law ) with its 613 distinct regulations [ but ] not from the obligation to keep the Ten Commandments " , because the Ten " were written ' with the finger of God ' , unlike [ those ] written by Moses " . This teaching was reaffirmed at the Council of Trent ( 1545 – 1563 ) and at the Second Vatican Council ( 1962 – 1965 ) .

Although it is uncertain what role the Ten Commandments played in early Christian worship , evidence suggests they were recited during some services and used in Christian education . For example , the Commandments are included in one of the earliest Christian writings , known as the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles or the Didache . Scholars contend that the Commandments were highly regarded by the early Church as a summary of God 's law . The Protestant scholar Klaus Bockmuehl believes that the Church replaced the Commandments with lists of virtues and vices , such as the seven deadly sins , from 400 – 1200 . Other scholars contend that throughout Church history the Commandments have been used as an examination of conscience and that many theologians have written about them . While evidence exists that the Commandments were part of catechesis in monasteries and other venues , there was no official Church position to promote specific methods of religious instruction during the Middle Ages . The Fourth Lateran Council ( 1215 ) was the first attempt to remedy this problem . Surviving evidence reveals that some bishops ' efforts to implement the Council 's resolutions included special emphasis on teaching the Commandments in their respective dioceses . Centuries later , the lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers .

Catechisms produced in specific dioceses from the mid @-@ fourteenth century emphasized the Commandments and laid the foundation for the first official Church @-@ wide catechism , the 1566 Roman Catechism . Commissioned by the Council of Trent , it provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments to emphasize the Catholic belief that Christian life was dependent upon the grace solely obtained through the sacramental life provided by the Catholic Church . This emphasis conflicted with Protestant beliefs , which held the Commandments as the source of divine grace . While more recent papal encyclicals offer interpretations of Church teaching on individual commandments , throughout history official Church teachings on the Commandments are based on their mentions in the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers Origen , Irenaeus and Augustine . Later , theologians Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure offered notable commentaries on the Commandments . Aquinas , a Doctor of the Church , considered them to be the " primary precepts of justice and all law , and natural reason gives immediate assent to them as being plainly evident principles . "

The most recent Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official summary of Church beliefs — devotes a large section to the Commandments , which serve as the basis for Catholic social teaching . According to the Catechism , the Church has given them a predominant place in teaching the faith since the fifth century . Kreeft explains that the Church regards them as " a path of life " , and a " path to freedom " just as a schoolyard fence protects children from " life @-@ threatening dangers " .

= = First commandment = =

The first commandment , according to Church teaching , " means that [ followers ] must worship and adore God alone because God is alone . " The Catechism explains that this prohibits idolatry , providing examples of forbidden practices such as the worship of any creature , and of " ' demons ... power , pleasure , race , ancestors , the state [ and ] money ' " . Augustine interpreted this commandment as " Love God and then do what you will " . Explaining this sentiment , Kreeft states that all sin " serves some other god , obeys another commander : the world or the flesh or the devil " , if God truly be loved then one will do what God wills .

The Catechism associates this commandment with the three theological virtues . The first virtue , faith , instructs Catholics to believe in God and avoid heresy , apostasy , and schism . The second virtue , hope , cautions Catholics against despair and presumption . According to the Catechism , the last virtue , charity , can be met only if Catholics refrain from indifference or ingratitude toward God , and avoid spiritual laziness and a hatred of God stemming from pride . The Catechism enumerates specific violations of this commandment , including superstition , polytheism , sacrilege , atheism , and all practices of magic and sorcery . It further prohibits astrology , palm reading , and consulting horoscopes or mediums . The Catechism attributes the latter actions to a " desire for power over time , history , and in the last analysis , other human beings as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers " .

= = = Graven images = = =

While Catholics are sometimes accused of worshiping images , in violation of the first commandment , the Church says this is a misunderstanding . In the Church 's opinion , " the honor paid to sacred images is a ' respectful veneration ' , not the adoration due to God alone " . In the 8th century , heated arguments arose over whether religious icons ( in this context paintings ) were prohibited by the first commandment . The dispute was almost entirely restricted to the Eastern church ; the iconoclasts wished to prohibit icons , while the iconodules supported their veneration , a position consistently backed by the Western Church . At the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 , the ecumenical council determined that the veneration of icons and statues was not in violation of the commandment and stated " whoever venerates an image venerates the person portrayed in it . " At around the time of the controversy over Iconoclasm , the Western church began to use monumental sculpture , which by the Romanesque period became a major feature of Western Christian art , that has remained part of the Catholic tradition , in contrast to Eastern Christianity , which avoids large religious sculpture . The Catechism , using very traditional arguments , posits that God gave permission for images that symbolize Christian salvation by leaving symbols such as the bronze serpent , and the cherubim on the Ark of the Covenant . It states that " by becoming incarnate , the Son of God introduced a new economy of images " .

The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ( USCCB ) explain the Catechism in their book entitled United States Catechism for Adults , published in 2006 . Regarding graven images , they expound that this command addresses idolatry that in ancient times expressed itself in the worship of such things as the " sun , moon , stars , trees , bulls , eagles , and serpents " as well as " emperors and kings " . They explain that today , idolatry expresses itself in the worship of other things , and list some as " power , money , materialism and sports . "

= = Second commandment = =

The second commandment prohibits the use of God 's name in vain . Many ancient cultures believed that names were sacred ; some had prohibitions on when a person 's name could be spoken . The Gospel of John relates an incident where a group of Jews attempted to stone Jesus after he used a sacred name of God to refer to himself . They interpreted his statement as a claim of divinity . Since they did not believe that he was God , they considered this blasphemy , which under Mosaic law carries a death penalty . Kreeft writes that all of the names by which God is known are holy , and thus all of those names are protected by the second commandment . The Catechism states , " Respect for his name is an expression of the respect owed to the mystery of God himself and to the whole sacred reality it evokes . " The Catechism also requires respect for the names of people out of respect for the dignity of that person .

The sentiment behind this commandment is further codified in the Lord 's Prayer , which begins , " Our Father who art in heaven , hallowed be thy name " . According to Pope Benedict XVI , when God revealed his name to Moses he established a relationship with mankind ; Benedict states that the Incarnation was the culmination of a process that " had begun with the giving of the divine name . " Benedict elaborates that this means the divine name could be misused and that Jesus ' inclusion of " hallowed be thy name " is a plea for the sanctification of God 's name , to " protect the wonderful mystery of his accessibility to us , and constantly assert his true identity as opposed to our distortion of it " .

According to Catholic teaching , this commandment does not preclude the use of God 's name in taking solemn oaths administered by legitimate authority . However , lying under oath , invoking God 's name for magical purposes , or voicing words of hatred or defiance against God are considered sins of blasphemy .

= = Third commandment = =

Quoting the Jewish rabbi and scholar Jacob Neusner , Pope Benedict XVI explains that to Israel , keeping this commandment was more than ritual ; it was a way to imitate God , who rested on the seventh day after the creation . It also constituted the core of the social order .

Although a few Christian denominations follow the Judaic practice of observing the Sabbath on Saturday , Catholics , along with most Christians , observe Sunday as a special day , which they call the " Lord 's Day " . This practice dates to the first century , arising from their belief that Jesus rose from the dead on the first day of the week . The Didache calls on Christians to come together on the Lord 's Day to break bread and give thanks . Tertullian is the first to mention Sunday rest : " We , however ( just as tradition has taught us ) , on the day of the Lord 's Resurrection ought to guard not only against kneeling , but every posture and office of solicitude , deferring even our businesses lest we give any place to the devil " ( " De orat . " , xxiii ; cf . " Ad nation . " , I , xiii ; " Apolog . " , xvi ) .

In the sixth century , Caesarius of Arles taught that the whole glory of the Jewish Sabbath had been transferred to Sunday and that Christians must keep Sunday in the same way as the Jews were commanded to keep the Sabbath . The Council of Orléans in 538 reprobated this tendency , to apply the law of the Jewish Sabbath to the observance of the Christian Sunday , as Jewish and non @-@ Christian .

The Church leaders of later centuries inscribed Sunday rest into official Church teaching , and Christian governments have attempted to enforce the Sunday rest throughout history . For Catholics , Jesus ' teaching that " the sabbath was made for man , not man for the sabbath " means that good works " when the needs of others demand it " can be part of the day of rest . The Catechism offers guidelines on how to observe the Lord 's Day , which include attending Mass on Sundays and holy days of obligation . On these days , Catholics may not work or do activities that " hinder the worship due to God " , but " performance of the works of mercy , and appropriate relaxation in a spirit of joy " are permitted .

According to the USCCB , this commandment " has been concretized for Catholics " as one of the Church precepts . The organization cites the papal encyclical Dies Domini :

Because the faithful are obliged to attend Mass unless there is a grave impediment , pastors have the corresponding duty to offer everyone the real possibility of fulfilling the precept . ... Yet more than a precept , the observance should be seen as a need rising from the depths of Christian life . It is crucially important that all the faithful should be convinced that they cannot live their faith or share fully in the life of the Christian community unless they take part regularly in the Sunday Eucharistic assembly .

= = Fourth commandment = =

Pope Benedict XVI states that Rabbi Neusner " rightly sees this commandment as anchoring the heart of the social order " . It strengthens generational relationships , makes explicit the connection between family order and societal stability , and reveals that the family is " both willed and protected by God . " Because parents ' unconditional love for their children mirrors God 's love , and because they have a duty to pass the faith on to their children , the Catechism calls the family " a domestic church " , " a privileged community " and the " original cell of social life " .

The Catechism says this commandment requires duties of children to parents that include :

Respect toward parents that also flows to brothers and sisters .

Gratitude , as expressed in a quote from Sirach : " Remember that through your parents you were born ; what can you give back to them that equals their gift to you ? "

Obedience to parents for as long as the child lives at home " when it is for his good or the good of the family " , except when obedience would require the child to do something morally wrong .

Support that requires grown children to offer material and moral support for their aging parents , particularly at times of " illness , loneliness , or distress " .

Keeping this commandment , according to the Catechism , also requires duties of parents to children which include :

" Moral education , spiritual formation and evangelization " of their children .

Respect for their children as children of God and human persons .

Proper discipline for children while being careful not to provoke them .

" Avoiding pressure to choose a certain profession or spouse " , which does not preclude parents from giving " judicious advice " .

" Being a good example " to their children .

" Acknowledging their own failings " to their children to guide and correct them .

= = = Jesus ' expansion = = =

The Gospel of Matthew relates that when told his mother and brothers were waiting to see him , Jesus replied , " Who is my mother and who are my brothers ? " Stretching his hand over his disciples he said , " Here are my mother and my brothers ! For whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my brother , and my sister , and mother . " Pope Benedict XVI stated that this dictum of Jesus brought the fourth commandment to a new and higher level . By doing God 's will , any person can become part of the universal family of Jesus . Thus , the fourth commandment 's responsibilities extend to the greater society and requires respect for " legitimate social authorities " . The Catechism specifies " duties of citizens and nations " , which Kreeft summarizes as :

" Obedience and honor " to " all who for our good have received authority in society from God " .

" Payment of taxes , exercising the right to vote and defending one 's country " .

" An obligation to be vigilant and critical " , which requires citizens to criticize that which harms human dignity and the community .

" A duty to disobey " civil authorities and directives that are contrary to the moral order .

" To practice charity " , which is a " necessity for any working family or society " ; it is the " greatest social commandment " and requires people to love God and neighbor .

" To welcome the foreigner " who is in need of security and livelihood that cannot be found in his own country .

" An obligation for rich nations to help poor nations " , especially in times of " immediate need " .

" An expectation for families to help other families " .

= = Fifth commandment = =

This commandment demands respect for human life and is more accurately translated as " thou shalt not murder . " Indeed , killing may , under limited circumstances , be justified within Catholicism . Jesus expanded it to prohibit unjust anger , hatred and vengeance , and to require Christians to love their enemies . The basis of all Catholic teaching about the fifth commandment is the sanctity of life ethic , which Kreeft argues is philosophically opposed to the quality of life ethic , a philosophy which he characterizes as introduced by a book entitled Die Freigabe der Vernichtung des Lebensunwerten Lebens ( The Permission to Destroy Life Unworthy of Life ) ( see Life unworthy of life ) and which he asserts was the " first to win public acceptance ... by German doctors before World War II — the basis and beginning of Nazi medical practices . " This interpretation is supported by modern medical journals that discuss the dilemma posed by these opposing philosophies to physicians who must make life or death decisions . Some bioethicists characterize the use of the " Nazi analogy " as inappropriate when applied to quality of life decisions ; Arthur Caplan called this rhetoric " odiously wrong " . The Church is actively involved in the public debates over abortion , capital punishment and euthanasia , and encourages believers to support legislation and politicians it describes as pro @-@ life .

= = = Abortion = = =

The Catechism states : " Human life is sacred because from its beginning it involves the creative action of God and it remains forever in a special relationship with the Creator , who is its sole end . ... no one can under any circumstance claim for himself the right directly to destroy an innocent human being . " Direct and intentional killing of an innocent human is considered a mortal sin . Considered by the Church to be of an even greater gravity is the murder of family members , including " infanticide , fratricide , parricide , the murder of a spouse and procured abortion . "

The Catechism states that the embryo " must be treated from conception as a person " . The Latin original of as is tamquam , meaning " like " or " just as " . " Although the Church has not determined officially when human life actually begins , it has taken the course of maintaining that human life is present from the moment of conception or fertilization " ; respect for life at all stages , even potential life , is generally the context of church documents .

Abortion has been specifically and persistently condemned by the Church since the first century . " Formal cooperation " in abortion incurs the penalty of excommunication " by the very commission of the offense " ( Lat. latae sententiae , " sentence [ already , i.e. automatically ] passed " ) . The Catechism emphasizes that this penalty is not meant to restrict mercy , but that it makes clear the gravity of the crime and the irreparable harm done to the child , its parents and society . " Formal cooperation " in abortion extends not just to the mother who freely submits , but also to the doctor , nurses and anyone who directly aids in the act . The Church has ministries of reconciliation , such as Project Rachel , for those who sincerely repent of their sin of formal cooperation in abortion .

Official Church teaching allows for medical procedures and treatments intended to protect or restore the mother 's health if she would be in mortal danger without them , even when such procedures carry some risk of death to the fetus . Examples include the removal of a fallopian tube in the case of an ectopic pregnancy , removal of a pregnant cancerous uterus , or an appendectomy .

= = = = Use of embryos for research or fertilization = = = =

The United States Catechism for Adults devotes a section to in vitro fertilization , stem @-@ cell research and cloning in its explanation of the fifth commandment , because these often involve the destruction of human embryos , considered to be a gravely sinful form of murder . Embryonic stem cell research is called " an immoral means to a good end " and " morally unacceptable . " Citing the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 's Instruction on Respect for Human Life in its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation , the US Bishops quote : " No objective , even though noble in itself , such as a foreseeable advantage to science , to other human beings , or to society , can in any way justify experimentation on living human embryos or fetuses , whether viable or not , either inside or outside the mother 's body . " The Bishops note that adult stem cell research , using cells obtained with informed consent , is a promising field of research that is morally acceptable .

= = = Suicide , euthanasia = = =

The fifth commandment forbids suicide and the mercy killing of those who are dying , even to eliminate suffering . The ordinary care of those facing an imminent death may not morally be withheld , according to the Church . " Ordinary care " refers to food , water and pain relief , and does not include " extraordinary care " , which refers to the use of respirators or feeding tubes that are considered discretionary . Allowing a terminally ill person to die , using painkillers that may shorten their life , or refusing extraordinary treatment to the terminally ill such as chemotherapy or radiation , are considered morally acceptable and not a violation of the fifth commandment , in accordance with the principle of double effect .

= = = Capital punishment = = =

For the first two hundred years , Christians " refused to kill in the military , in self @-@ defense , or in the judicial system " , but there was no official Church position on the death penalty . When the Church was first officially recognized as a public institution in 313 , its attitude toward capital punishment became one of toleration but not outright acceptance . The death penalty had support from early Catholic theologians , though some of them such as Saint Ambrose encouraged members of the clergy not to pronounce or carry out capital punishment . Saint Augustine answered objections to capital punishment rooted in the first commandment in The City of God . Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus argued that civil authority to carry out capital punishment was supported by scripture . Pope Innocent III required Peter Waldo and the Waldensians to accept that " secular power can , without mortal sin , exercise judgement of blood , provided that it punishes with justice , not out of hatred , with prudence , not precipitation " as a prerequisite for reconciliation with the church . Paul Suris states that official Church teachings have neither absolutely condemned nor promoted capital punishment , but toleration of it has fluctuated throughout the ages . The Inquisitions provide the most memorable instance of Church support for capital punishment , although some historians considered these more lenient than the secular courts of the period .

The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the death penalty is permissible in cases of extreme gravity . It is allowed if the " guilty party 's identity and responsibility have been fully determined " and if the death penalty is the only way to defend others against the guilty party . However , if there are other means available to defend people from the " unjust aggressor " , these are preferred because they are considered to be more respectful of the dignity of the person and in keeping with the common good . Because modern societies have effective means for preventing crime without execution , the Catechism declares , " the cases in which execution of the offender is an absolute necessity ' are very rare , if practically nonexistent . ' " Pope John Paul II discussed and affirmed this in Evangelium Vitae , published in 1995 .

= = = Personal health , dead bodies , burial = = =

According to Church teaching , respect for human life requires respect for one 's own body , precluding unhealthy behavior , the abuse of food , alcohol , medicines , illegal drugs , tattoos and piercings . The Church also warns against the opposite behavior of " excessive preoccupation with the health and welfare of the body that ' idolizes ' physical perfection , fitness , and success at sports . "

Kidnapping , terrorism , and torture are forbidden , as well as sterilizations , amputations , mutilations that are not for therapeutic medical reasons . According to the Catechism , societies have a moral obligation to strive to provide healthy living conditions for all people .

Church belief in the resurrection of the body led to a prohibition against cremation that was pastorally modified at the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s under limited circumstances , but those conditions have been largely ignored even by the clergy . According to the Catechism , burial of the dead is a corporal work of mercy that must treat the body with respect and love ( e.g. scattering of cremated remains , burial in an unmarked grave , etc. are forbidden in the Catholic Church ) . Organ donation after death and organ transplants under certain terms , also autopsies for legal and scientific reasons are permitted .

= = = War and self @-@ defense = = =

In the Sermon on the Mount , Jesus recalls the commandment , " You shall not kill " and then adds to it the proscriptions against anger , hatred and vengeance . Going further , Christ asks his disciples to love their enemies . The Catechism asserts that " it is legitimate to insist on respect for one 's own right to life . " Kreeft says , " self @-@ defense is legitimate for the same reason suicide is not : because one 's own life is a gift from God , a treasure we are responsible for preserving and defending . " The Catechism teaches that " someone who defends his life is not guilty of murder even if he is forced to deal his aggressor a lethal blow . " Legitimate defense can be not only a right but a grave duty for one who is responsible for the lives of others . The defense of the common good requires that an unjust aggressor be rendered unable to cause harm . For this reason , those who legitimately hold authority also have the right to use arms to repel aggressors against the civil community entrusted to their responsibility .

The Church requires all to pray and work to prevent unjust wars , but allows for just wars if certain conditions are met :

The reasons for going to war are defensive .

" The damage inflicted by the aggressor ... must be lasting , grave , and certain . "

It is a last resort taken only after all other means of putting an end to the " grave damage " have been ineffective .

The ultimate aim is peace and there is a serious chance of success .

No graver evils are produced that overshadow the evil to be eliminated . This forbids the use of arms to eliminate whole cities and areas with their inhabitants .

Respect and care is required for non @-@ combatants , wounded soldiers and prisoners . Soldiers are required to disobey commands to commit genocide and ones that violate universal principles .

= = = Scandal = = =

The Catechism classifies scandal under the fifth commandment and defines it as " an attitude or behavior which leads another to do evil " . In the Gospel of Matthew , Jesus stated , " Whoever causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin , it would be better for him to have a great millstone fastened round his neck and to be drowned in the depth of the sea . " The Church considers it a serious crime to cause another 's faith , hope and love to be weakened , especially if it is done to young people and the perpetrator is a person of authority such as a parent , teacher or priest .

= = Sixth commandment = =

According to the Church , humans are sexual beings whose sexual identity should be accepted in the unity of body and soul . The sexes are meant by divine design to be different and complementary , each having equal dignity and made in the image of God . Sexual acts are sacred within the context of the marital relationship that reflects a " complete and lifelong mutual gift of a man and a woman . " Sexual sins thus violate not just the body but the person 's whole being . In his 1995 book Crossing the Threshold of Hope , John Paul II reflected on this concept :

After all , young people are always searching for the beauty in love . They want their love to be beautiful . If they give in to weakness , following the models of behavior that can rightly be considered a ' scandal in the contemporary world ' ( and these are , unfortunately , widely diffused models ) , in the depths of their hearts they still desire a beautiful and pure love . This is as true of boys as it is of girls . Ultimately , they know that only God can give them this love . As a result , they are willing to follow Christ , without caring about the sacrifices this may entail .

Like Orthodox Judaism and Islam , the Catholic Church considers all sexual acts outside of marriage to be grave sins . The gravity of the sin " ' excludes one from sacramental communion ' until repented of and forgiven in sacramental confession . "

= = = Vocation to chastity = = =

Church teaching on the sixth commandment includes a discussion on chastity . The Catechism describes chastity as a " moral virtue ... a gift from God , a grace , a fruit of spiritual effort . " The Church sees sex as more than a physical act ; it also affects body and soul , so the Church teaches that chastity is a virtue all people are called to acquire . It is defined as the inner unity of a person 's " bodily and spiritual being " that successfully integrates a person 's sexuality with his or her " entire human nature . " To acquire this virtue , followers are encouraged to enter into the " long and exacting work " of self @-@ mastery that is helped by friendships , God 's grace , maturity and education " that respects the moral and spiritual dimensions of human life . " The Catechism categorizes violations of the sixth commandment into two categories : " offenses against chastity " and " offenses against the dignity of marriage " .

= = = = Offenses against chastity = = = =

The Catechism lists the following " offenses against chastity " in increasing order of gravity :

Lust : the Church teaches that sexual pleasure is good and created by God , who meant for spouses to " experience pleasure and enjoyment of body and spirit " . Kreeft says , " Lust does not mean sexual pleasure as such , nor the delight in it , nor the desire for it in its right context . " Lust is the desire for sexual pleasure alone , outside its intended purpose of procreation and the uniting of man and woman , body and soul , in mutual self @-@ donation .

Masturbation is considered sinful for the same reasons as lust , but is a step above lust in that it involves a physical act instead of a mental one .

Fornication is the sexual union of an unmarried man and an unmarried woman . This is considered contrary to " the dignity of persons and of human sexuality " because it is not ordered to the " good of spouses " or the " generation and education of children . "

Pornography ranks higher because it is considered a perversion of the sexual act that is intended for distribution to third parties for viewing .

Prostitution is considered sinful for both the prostitute and the customer ; it reduces a person to an instrument of sexual pleasure , violating human dignity and harming society . The gravity of the sinfulness is less for prostitutes who are forced into the act by destitution , blackmail or social pressure .

Rape is an intrinsically evil act that can cause grave damage to the victim for life .

Incest , or " rape of children by parents or other adult relatives " or " those responsible for the education of the children entrusted to them " is considered the most heinous of sexual sins .

= = = = Homosexuality = = = =

The Catechism devotes a separate section to homosexuality within its explanation of the sixth commandment . Like heterosexual acts outside of marriage , homosexual acts are considered sins . The Church distinguishes between homosexual attractions , which are not considered sinful , and homosexual acts , which are . The Catechism states that they " violate natural law , cannot bring forth life , and do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity . Under no circumstances can they be approved . " The Church teaches that a homosexual inclination is " objectively disordered " and can be a great trial for the person , who the Church teaches must be " accepted with respect , compassion and sensitivity ... unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided . "

Homosexuals are , according to the Church , " called to chastity " . They are instructed to practice the virtues of " self @-@ mastery " that teaches " inner freedom " using the support of friends , prayer and grace found in the sacraments of the Church . These tools are meant to help homosexuals " gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection " , which is a state to which all Christians are called .

( Two lay movements represent opposing philosophies regarding homosexuality : DignityUSA seeks to change the Church 's teachings to justify homosexual acts ; Courage International is an organization of homosexuals who " support each other in the sincere effort to live in chastity and in fidelity to Christ and his Church " . )

= = = Love of husband and wife = = =

According to Church teaching , spousal love is intended to form an unbroken , two @-@ fold end : the union of husband and wife and the transmission of life . The unitive aspect includes the transference of each partner 's being " so that they are no longer two but one flesh . " The sacrament of matrimony is viewed as God 's sealing the consent which binds the partners together . Church teaching on the marital state requires spousal acceptance of each other 's failures and faults , and the recognition that the " call to holiness in marriage " is one that requires a process of spiritual growth and conversion that can last throughout life .

= = = = Fecundity of marriage , sexual pleasure , birth control = = = =

The Church position on sexual activity can be summarized as : " sexual activity belongs only in marriage as an expression of total self @-@ giving and union , and always open to the possibility of new life . " Sexual acts in marriage are considered " noble and honorable " and are meant to be enjoyed with " joy and gratitude . " Sexuality is to be reserved to marriage : " by its very nature conjugal love requires the inviolable fidelity of the spouses . This is the consequence of the gift of themselves which they make to each other . Love seeks to be definitive ; it cannot be an arrangement ' until further notice . ' " The " intimate union of marriage , as a mutual giving of two persons , and the good of the children , demand total fidelity from the spouses and require an unbreakable union between them . " ( Gaudium et spes ) " .

Artificial birth control predates Christianity ; the Catholic Church has condemned these methods throughout its history . In response to the Church of England accepting the practice of artificial contraception in 1930 , the Catholic Church issued the papal encyclical Casti connubii on 31 December 1930 . The 1968 papal encyclical Humanae vitae is a reaffirmation of the Catholic Church 's traditional view of marriage and marital relations , and a continued condemnation of artificial birth control .

The Church seeing large families as a sign of God 's blessing . " By its very nature the institution of marriage and married love is ordered to the procreation and education of the offspring and it is in them that it finds its crowning glory . " ( Gaudium et spes ) Children are the supreme gift of marriage and contribute greatly to the good of the parents themselves . ( ... ) true married love and the whole structure of family life which results from it , without diminishment of the other ends of marriage , are directed to disposing the spouses to cooperate valiantly with the love of the Creator and Savior , who through them will increase and enrich his family from day to day . ( Gaudium et spes ) . " It recognizes that responsible parenthood sometimes calls for reasonable spacing or limiting of births and considers natural family planning as morally acceptable , but rejects all methods of artificial contraception . The Church rejects all forms of artificial insemination and fertilization because the techniques divorce the sexual act from the creation of a child . The Catechism states , " A child is not something owed to one , but is a gift ... ' the supreme gift of marriage . ' "

Many Western Catholics and non @-@ Catholics have voiced disagreement on the Church 's support for natural family planning , and contend it contributes to overpopulation and poverty . The Church 's rejection of condom use is widely criticized , in particular with regard to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions . In its defense , Catholics cite countries such as Kenya and Uganda , where behavioral changes are encouraged instead of condom use , and where greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in countries that promote condom use alone .

= = = = Offenses against the dignity of marriage = = = =

According to the Church , adultery and divorce are considered offenses against the dignity of marriage and are defined as follows :

Adultery is the sexual union of a man and woman where at least one is married to someone else . It is for this reason that the Church considers it a greater sin than fornication . Kreeft states , " The adulterer sins against his spouse , his society , and his children as well as his own body and soul . "

Divorce : According to the Catholic New American Bible translation , Jesus taught , " whoever divorces his wife ( unless the marriage is unlawful ) causes her to commit adultery , and whoever marries a divorced woman commits adultery . " Explaining Church interpretation of this teaching , Kreeft says Jesus considered divorce to be an accommodation that had slipped into Jewish law . The Church teaches that marriage was created by God and was meant to be indissoluble : like the creation of a child that cannot be " un @-@ created " , neither can the " one flesh " of the marriage bond . The Catechism states , " Divorce is a grave offense against the natural law . It claims to break the contract , to which the spouses freely consented , to live with each other till death . " By marrying another , the divorced person adds to the gravity of the offense as the remarried spouse is considered to be in a state of " public and permanent adultery " .

The Compendium of the Catechism 502 lists other offenses against the dignity of marriage : " polygamy , incest , free unions ( cohabitation , concubinage ) , and sexual acts before or outside of marriage " .

= = = = Separation , civil divorce , annulments = = = =

According to the Church , there are situations that do not equate to divorce :

In extreme situations , such as domestic violence , separation is allowed . This is not considered a divorce and may be justified .

Civil divorce is not a divorce according to the Church . If it is deemed to be the only way of ensuring legal rights , care of children , or protection of inheritance , the Church considers it morally acceptable .

Annulment is not a divorce ; it is a ruling by the Church that the marriage was never valid . The marriage is deemed invalid if it lacks one of five integral elements : it should be " complete " , " lifelong " , " mutual " , a " free gift " and of " man and woman " . According to Pope John Paul II 's Address to the Roman Rota on 22 January 1996 , couples do not have a right to an annulment , but do have a right to make their case for nullity or validity before " the competent Church authority and to request a decision in the matter . " According to the Catholic Diocese of Arlington :

... signs that might indicate reasons to investigate for an annulment are : marriage that excluded at the time of the wedding the right to children , or to a permanent marriage , or to an exclusive commitment . In addition , there are youthful marriages ; marriages of very short duration ; marriages marked by serious emotional , physical , or substance abuse ; deviant sexual practices ; profound and consistent irresponsibility and lack of commitment ; conditional consent to a marriage ; fraud or deceit to elicit spousal consent ; serious mental illness ; or a previous bond of marriage . The determination of the ground should be made after extensive consultation with the parish priest or deacons , and based upon the proofs that are available .

= = Seventh commandment = =

The Catechism explains that this commandment regulates worldly goods , and forbids unjustly taking , using or damaging those that belong to someone else . It places requirements upon those who possess worldly goods to use them responsibly , taking into consideration the good of society . The Catechism addresses the concept of human stewardship of God 's creation in its explanation of the seventh commandment and forbids abuse of animals and the environment .

= = = Private property = = =

According to the Church , people have a right to private property . However , ownership makes that person " a steward " who is expected to make it " fruitful " or profitable in a way that benefits others after that person has first taken care of their family . Private property and the common good are seen as complementary elements that exist for the purpose of strengthening society . The taking of another 's private property " in obvious and urgent necessity " as " the only way to provide for immediate , essential needs ( food , shelter , clothing ) " is not considered by the Church to be stealing . The concept of slavery as private property is condemned by the Church , which classifies it as the stealing of a person 's human rights .

= = = Theft = = =

According to the Catechism , theft or stealing means " usurping another 's property against the reasonable will of the owner " though exclusion exists for someone in great need to survive . " Unjustly taking and keeping the property of others " considered as theft , even if the act is outside the scope of civil law . Cardinal Christoph Schönborn gave example from the story of Saint Augustine , written in his Confessions , who took pears from neighbor 's garden when he was young . Schönborn says that Augustine still has " pangs of conscience over a childish theft " even when he became grown person , indicating that human conscience is very aware of theft though the act perhaps not an offense against civil law .

Following acts are also considered as violation of the seventh commandment : price manipulation to get advantage on the harm of others , corruption , appropriation of the public goods for personal interests , work poorly carried out , tax avoidance , counterfeiting of checks or any means of payment , any forms of copyright infringement and piracy , and extravagance .

= = = Social justice = = =

The papal encyclical Rerum novarum discusses the relationships and mutual duties between labor and capital , as well as government and its citizens . Of primary concern was the need for some amelioration for " the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class " . The encyclical supported the right to form unions , rejected socialism , communism and unrestricted capitalism , and affirmed the right to private property .

Church interpretation of the seventh commandment teaches that business owners should balance a desire for profits that will ensure the future of the business with a responsibility toward the " good of persons " . Business owners are required to pay their workers a reasonable wage , honor contracts , and abstain from dishonest activity , including bribery of government officials . Workers are required to do their jobs conscientiously , as they have been hired to do them , and to avoid dishonesty in the workplace , such as using office goods for personal use without permission ( embezzlement ) .

The Church teaches that a balance should exist between government regulation and the laws of the marketplace . It deems that sole reliance on the marketplace ( pure capitalism ) insufficiently addresses many human needs , while sole reliance on government regulation ( pure socialism ) " perverts the basis of social bonds " . The Church warns about the danger of either capitalism or socialism , as these systems tend to use excessive extremes that result in injustice to persons .

Wealthier nations , like wealthier individuals , have a moral obligation to help poorer nations and individuals , and work to reform financial institutions and economic factors to benefit all .

= = Eighth commandment = =

The Catechism explains that bearing false witness or " speaking a falsehood with the intention of deceiving " encompasses all violations of truth . These violations have degrees of gravity depending on the " intentions of the one who lies and the harms suffered by its victims . " Listed as follows , these are :

False witness and perjury : statements made publicly in court which obstruct justice by condemning the innocent or exonerating the guilty , or which may increase the punishment of the accused .

Rash judgement : believing , without sufficient evidence , that a person has done moral faults .

Detraction : the disclosure of another 's faults without a valid reason .

Calumny : lying to harm a person 's reputation and providing opportunity to others to make false judgements concerning them .

Flattery : " speech to deceive others for our benefit . "

Bragging , boasting , or mocking : speech which either only honors oneself or dishonors others .

The Church requires those who have damaged the reputation of another to " make reparation for the untruth they have communicated . " However , it does not require a person to reveal a truth to someone who does not have a right to know , and teaches respect for a right to privacy . Priests are prohibited from violating the seal of confession no matter how grave the sin or its impact on society .

Included in the Church teachings of this commandment is the requirement for Christians to bear witness to their faith " without equivocation " in situations that require it . The use of modern media in spreading untruths , by individuals , businesses or governments , is condemned .

= = Ninth commandment = =

The ninth and tenth commandments deal with coveting , which is an interior disposition not a physical act . The Catechism distinguishes between covetousness of the flesh ( improper sexual desire ) and covetousness for another 's worldly goods . The ninth commandment deals with the former and the tenth the latter .

Jesus emphasized the need for pure thoughts as well as actions , and stated , " Everyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart " ( Matthew 5 : 28 ) . The Catechism states that , with the help of God 's grace , men and women are required to overcome lust and bodily desires " for sinful relationships with another person 's spouse . " In Theology of the Body , a series of lectures given by Pope John Paul II , Jesus ' statement in Matthew 5 : 28 is interpreted that one can commit adultery in the heart not only with another 's spouse , but also with his / her own spouse if one looks at him / her lustfully or treats him / her " only as an object to satisfy instinct " .

Purity of heart is suggested as the necessary quality needed to accomplish this task ; common Catholic prayers and hymns include a request for this virtue . The Church identifies gifts of God that help a person maintain purity :

Chastity , which enables people to love others with upright and undivided hearts .

Purity of intention , which seeks to fulfill God 's will in everything , knowing that it alone will lead to the true end of man .

Purity of vision , " external and internal " , disciplining the thoughts and imagination to reject those that are impure .

Prayer that recognizes the power of God to grant a person the ability to overcome sexual desires .

Modesty , of the feelings as well as the body is discreet in choice of words and clothing .

Jesus stated , " Blessed are the clean of heart , for they shall see God . " This purity of heart , which the ninth commandment introduces , is the " precondition of the vision of God " and allows the person to see situations and people as God sees . The Catechism teaches that " there is a connection between purity of heart , of body and of faith . "

= = Tenth commandment = =

Detachment from riches is the goal of the tenth commandment and the first Beatitude ( " blessed are the poor in spirit " ) because , according to the Catechism , this precept is necessary for entrance into the Kingdom of heaven . Covetousness is prohibited by the tenth commandment because it is considered to be the first step toward commission of theft , robbery and fraud ; these lead to violence and injustice . The Church defines covetousness as a " disordered desire " that can take different forms :

Greed is the desire for too much of what one does not need .

Envy is the desire for what belongs to another . The US Bishops define it as " an attitude that fills us with sadness at the sight of another 's prosperity . "

Explaining Church teaching of this commandment , Kreeft cites Saint Thomas Aquinas , who wrote , " An evil desire can only be overcome by a stronger good desire . " The US Bishops suggest that this can be achieved through cultivation of goodwill , humility and gratitude for one 's own and others ' blessings , while trusting in God 's grace . Kreeft explains that Saint Paul the Apostle illustrated the concept in his letter to the Philippians when he listed his worldly credentials as a respected Jew and stated , " I count everything as loss because of the surpassing worth of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord . " As Jesus stated , " What shall it profit a man if he shall gain the whole world , and lose his own soul ? " Church teaching on the tenth commandment is directed toward this same attitude toward worldly goods , termed " poverty of spirit " .

= Yamaha NS @-@ 10 =

The Yamaha NS @-@ 10 is a loudspeaker that became a standard nearfield studio monitor in the music industry among rock and pop recording engineers . Launched in 1978 , the NS @-@ 10 started life as a bookshelf speaker destined for the domestic environment . It was poorly received but eventually became a valuable tool with which to mix rock recordings . The speaker has a characteristic white @-@ coloured mid – bass drive unit .

Technically , it is known as a speaker that easily reveals poor quality in recordings . Recording engineers sought to dull its treble response by hanging tissue paper in front of it , resulting in what became known as the " tissue paper effect " , a type of comb filtering . The NS @-@ 10 has been used to monitor a large number of successful recordings by numerous artists , leading Gizmodo to refer to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " . Yamaha discontinued the product in 2001 .

= = History = =

Originally conceived as a domestic hi @-@ fi speaker , the NS @-@ 10 was designed by Akira Nakamura and launched in 1978 . It was sold at the $ 400 price point . The speaker was poorly received and its commercial life was short . However , it took five years for its popularity to be established with professional users . As recording engineers came to rely on the NS @-@ 10 as a benchmark , it dominated the mixing of pop and rock music throughout the world for at least 20 years .

The NS @-@ 10 displaced the Auratone 5C Sound Cube as the nearfield monitor of choice in the 1980s and was recognised for its ability to reveal shortcomings in recordings . It probably first reached American shores through a recording engineer 's visit to Japan . The engineer , likely to have been Greg Ladanyi , monitored a recording session through the speaker in a Japanese studio and brought a pair back on his return to the US . Ladanyi then began using the speakers in a Los Angeles studio . Other engineers heard the NS @-@ 10 for the first time and were impressed by its sound . Its use spread to New York where the NS @-@ 10 was adopted at The Power Station and other studios .

Early use of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers include Bob Clearmountain , Rhett Davies , and Bill Scheniman in the US , and Nigel Jopson in the UK . Clearmountain , then a rising star in record production , is often credited for the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 ; Phil Ward , writing in Sound on Sound , suggested that Clearmountain was probably not the earliest , but was certainly the most influential early adopter . It became a legend that Clearmountain had chosen it because it was the worst speaker he could find . He was one of a new breed of creative freelance recording engineers and producers who would travel from studio to studio equipped with their own gear that included microphones , and a pair of Yamaha NS @-@ 10 , as a reference .

Recording studios around the world , particularly those specialising in rock and pop music , adopted the speaker as the standard . In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs were sold throughout the world . Gizmodo referred to it as " the most important loudspeaker you never heard of " .

Yamaha stopped manufacturing the speaker in 2001 , citing problems sourcing the wood pulp for the drivers . Even years after it was discontinued , the speaker continued to be found in studios everywhere . Mix reported in 2008 that variants of the NS @-@ 10 were still commercially available in the Japanese consumer market .

= = Design and construction = =

The NS @-@ 10 is an 8 @-@ ohm two @-@ way loudspeaker with a 10 @.@ 4 @-@ litre Sealed cabinet measuring 382 × 215 × 199 millimetres ( 15 @.@ 0 × 8 @.@ 5 × 7 @.@ 8 in ) and weighing 6 kilograms ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) . Its 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) particle @-@ board cabinet has a wood veneer skin with seven black finishing layers . The domestic version of the speaker was vertically orientated , and came factory fitted with a grille .

Its two drivers are a 180 mm paper woofer and a 35 mm soft @-@ domed tweeter . The woofer 's diaphragm , weighing 3 @.@ 7 g , is manufactured from a flat sheet of pressed pulp paper . Unconventionally , it is formed into conical shape not through moulding or pressure , but by curling and then gluing the two ends together . Against the black finish of the cabinet , the white bass / mid driver cone is a distinctive and iconic feature of the product .

The network is second @-@ order passive , crossing over at 2 kHz . The frequency range is quoted from 60 Hz to 20 kHz , and rated power handling is 25 – 50 W. The early version of the speaker has press @-@ down type output terminals ; later models had screw terminals .

= = Signature sound = =

In simplistic terms , the NS @-@ 10 possesses sonic characteristics that allow record producers to assume that if a recording sounds good on these monitors , then it should sound good on most playback systems . Whilst it can reveal any shortcomings in the recording mix as well as the monitoring chain , it may lead to listener fatigue with prolonged use in the domestic setting .

The NS @-@ 10 does not have a perfectly flat frequency response . The sound of the NS @-@ 10 is slightly heavy in the midrange , and like other sealed @-@ box speakers of similar size its bass extension is limited . It has a + 5 dB boost in the midrange at around 2 kHz , and the bottom end starts rolling off at 200 Hz . The midrange response is so open that it exposes the frequencies that are the most problematic and worst @-@ sounding to the human ear .

On a practical level for the music professional , the speaker is analytic and clinical @-@ sounding . Gizmodo likened the NS @-@ 10 to music editors who reveal the weaknesses of recordings , so that engineers would be forced to either make necessary compensation in the mix or otherwise rework them .

A 2001 report by Newell et al. at Southampton University undertaken for Studio Sound in 2001 found that the NS @-@ 10 had excellent time @-@ domain response at low frequencies – its ability to start and stop in response to signal input was found to be superior to that of most other nearfield monitors . Part of this was related to its closed @-@ box design . The researchers held that the extremely fast decay time of the speaker in the low frequencies ensures that the bass instruments ( guitar and drums ) are correctly balanced in the mix .

= = Product revisions = =

There were many other versions of the NS @-@ 10 , the best known of which were the " NS @-@ 10M Studio " and the " NS @-@ 10M Pro " , both introduced in 1987 . Technically identical to the " Studio " , the " Pro " comes fitted with a speaker grille and is meant to be used in a vertical orientation .

The " professional " version launched some nine years after its first introduction on the back of the popularity of the NS @-@ 10 among engineers . The revised version , with everything including the logo and connection panel orientated horizontally , was badged " NS @-@ 10M Studio " . Improvements included a new tweeter and crossover to address the problem in the treble , better connection terminals , and a sturdier cabinet that no longer accommodates grilles . The Studio reincarnation also has improved power handling – 60 – 120 W. In excess of 200 @,@ 000 pairs of " Studio " alone were sold throughout the world .

Also in the product line @-@ up were NS @-@ 10T , NS @-@ 10M X , NS @-@ 10MC , NS @-@ 10MT . The NS @-@ 10M X is a " Studio " with magnetic shielding and a different tweeter . In the 1990s Yamaha introduced the NS @-@ 10MT , a bass @-@ reflex version of the 10M X with a different tweeter and grille . Designed for home cinema , it has bass response down to 43 Hz , nominal impedance of 6 ohm and maximum power handling rated at 180 W. A miniature version named Natural Sound Surround Speaker NS10MM was launched in 1997 or 1998 .

= = Reception = =

The sound quality of the NS @-@ 10 has polarised opinions , characterised as " love them or hate them " . Many professionals find it indispensable , even though they may not particularly enjoy listening to it ; others refuse to give it space in their studio but will happily admit that it is an effective professional tool . The reliance on the NS @-@ 10 by top independent producers became a viral phenomenon ; thousands of studios equipped themselves with NS @-@ 10s to attract big named producers , making the speakers an industry standard .

= = Tissue paper effect = =

Clearmountain was said to have been one of the first recording engineers to hang tissue paper over the tweeters of the NS @-@ 10 to tame the over @-@ bright treble . Covering the tweeters with tissue paper was said to produce treble @-@ deficient mixes when replayed on normal domestic hi @-@ fi . The phenomenon became the subject of hot debate . Recording engineer Bob Hodas investigated the alleged sonic effects of tissue paper . He found inconsistent results with different paper , but said that tissue paper generally demonstrated an undesirable effect known as comb filtering , where the high frequencies are reflected back into the tweeter instead of being absorbed . Hodas derided the tissue practice as " aberrant behaviour " , saying that engineers usually fear comb filtering and its associated cancellation effects . He also suggested that more controllable and less random electronic filtering would be preferable . Newell et al. noted that had the speakers ' grilles been used in studios , where they are routinely removed , they would have had the same effect on the treble output as the improvised tissue paper filter .

= = Influence = =

The speaker came to be relied on by independent engineers , who worked in different studios and needed equipment they were familiar with as a reference point . Throughout the 1980s , engineers and producers worked widely with the speaker to monitor " [ almost ] any album you love from the 80s or 90s " – from Born in the U.S.A. ( Bruce Springsteen ) , Avalon ( Roxy Music ) Let 's Dance ( David Bowie ) , to Big Bam Boom ( Hall and Oates ) .

The NS @-@ 10 , and the Auratone before it , are two of the most influential nearfield monitors used in the professional mixing of sound recordings . In 2008 , the NS @-@ 10 was inducted into the Mix magazine TECnology Hall of Fame . Also reflecting its influence , the speaker won a Technical Grammy for Yamaha in 2007 . In 2008 , the speaker was found " in almost every studio " .

= Utah State Route 61 =

State Route 61 ( SR @-@ 61 ) is a nearly 7 @.@ 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 7 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Utah , connecting SR @-@ 23 in Cornish , Cache County to U.S. Route 91 ( US @-@ 91 ) near Richmond via Lewiston , in the extreme northern part of the state . The highway has existed since at least 1914 , as SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 , and between 735 and 2 @,@ 180 vehicles travel along the highway on an average day in 2012 .

= = Route description = =

At the intersection of SR @-@ 23 ( 4800 West ) and 13400 North in the center of Cornish , SR @-@ 61 departs east on 13400 North due east , crossing over a single track belonging to the Union Pacific Railroad ( UP ) . Exiting Cornish , the highway crosses the Bear River and continues east through rural Cache County . Just shy of the western city limits of Lewiston , the highway intersects SR @-@ 200 ( 800 West ) , a connector road to Preston , Idaho . From the western terminus to SR @-@ 200 , the shoulder is up to four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide , suitable for bicycling , however the remainder of the route has much narrower shoulders , between less than or equal to one and nine @-@ tenths feet ( 0 @.@ 58 m ) wide .

The highway 's name changes from 13400 South to Center Street through Lewiston . Passing the Lewiston Cemetery , SR @-@ 61 crosses over the Cub River and a second single track belonging to UP , and then a third UP single track just before the highway 's eastern terminus at US @-@ 91 north of Richmond . All of the rail lines that SR @-@ 61 crosses originally belonged to the Oregon Short Line Railway . Aside from the segment through Lewiston , the highway is surrounded by farmland for its entire journey across northern Utah .

Every year , UDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , UDOT calculated that as few as 735 vehicles used the highway on an average day at its western terminus in Cornish , and as many as 2 @,@ 180 vehicles used the highway at its junction with SR @-@ 200 . Thirty @-@ five percent of this was truck traffic .

= = History = =

A roadway linking Cornish to the east has existed since at least 1914 . The roadway that serves as the eastern terminus was numbered SR @-@ 1 by 1927 , and the highway officially was designated SR @-@ 61 since at least 1937 . The 53 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) bridge that carries SR @-@ 61 over the Cub River today was constructed in 1952 , while the 182 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 55 @.@ 5 m ) bridge over the Bear River was built in 1961 . The original river crossings were slightly further south than their current locations .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Cache County .

= Hemmema =

A hemmema ( from Finnish " Hämeenmaa " , Tavastia ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet and the Russian Baltic navy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The hemmema was initially developed for use against the Russian Navy in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland . It was designed by the prolific and innovative Swedish naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman ( 1721 – 1808 ) in collaboration with Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 1772 ) , an artillery officer and later commander of the Swedish archipelago fleet . The hemmema was a specialized vessel for use in the shallow waters and narrow passages that surround the thousands of islands and islets extending from the Swedish capital of Stockholm into the Gulf of Finland .

The hemmema replaced the galleys that had made up the core of the Swedish archipelago fleets until the mid @-@ 18th century . Compared to galleys , the hemmema had a deeper draft and was slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for the crew , carried more stores , was more seaworthy and had roughly ten times as many heavy guns . It could be propelled by either sails or oars but was still smaller and more maneuverable than most sailing warships , which made it suitable for operations in confined waters .

Between 1764 and 1809 , Sweden built six hemmemas . The hemmema became the largest and most heavily armed vessel in the archipelago fleet and served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . Oden , the first hemmema , was relatively small and very similar to a turuma , a different type of " archipelago frigate " . Russia built six hemmemas based on the Swedish design between 1808 and 1823 after capturing three of the Swedish vessels at the surrender of Sveaborg in 1808 . The later versions , both Swedish and Russian , were much larger and much more heavily armed than Oden .

= = Background = =

Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and powerful naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . Russian naval power in the Baltic grew to challenge the interests of Sweden , the other leading power in the Baltic . Swedish holdings at that time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion depending on , and connected by , the Baltic Sea trade routes . During the Great Northern War ( 1700 – 1721 ) , Sweden lost all its territories in the Baltic states and suffered Russian raids in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos stretching from the Gulf of Finland to Stockholm . The Swedes began to deploy inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels , beginning with smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean galleys . Most of these new vessels were more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war with Russia ( 1741 – 43 ) and the minor involvement against Prussia in the Seven Years ' War ( 1757 – 62 ) showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .

Galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically carry only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . The galleys also lacked decks and adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , many of whom succumbed to illness as a result of exposure during the war of 1741 – 43 .

= = = Archipelago fleet = = =

After the Russian victory against Sweden in 1743 , the Swedes established a commission to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , the commission concluded that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded , and that Sweden needed to build a strong coastal navy . Augustin Ehrensvärd ( 1710 – 72 ) , an artillery officer , was the driving force behind these changes . The committee based many of its conclusions and decisions on his ideas . In 1756 , Sweden established the archipelago fleet with the official name arméns flotta ( " fleet of the army " ) under the command of the army department , Krigskollegium , with Ehrensvärd as supreme commander . For two decades , the struggle for power between the Hats and the Caps , the dominant political factions at the time , and rivalries between army and navy brought about changes to the archipelago fleet . The parliamentary victory of the Hats in the Riksdag in 1769 – 70 and the coup d 'ètat by King Gustav III in 1772 secured the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent branch of the army . Starting in 1770 , the archipelago fleet merged with the Finnish Squadron ( Finska eskadern ) based at Sveaborg . In 1777 , it incorporated the Swedish Squadron ( Svenska eskadern ) , the galley fleet based at Stockholm . The Swedish armed forces invested considerable resources in the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted members of the social and cultural elite who enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III , who had established himself as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup .

After the poor performance of galleys in Russo – Swedish war of 1741 – 43 and the Pomeranian War ( 1757 – 62 ) , development of replacements became prioritized . During the Pomeranian War , trials had been made with " gun prams " ( skottpråmar ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed barges with a shallow draft that carried guns in broadside arrangements . The prams carried more guns than the galleys , but proved far too slow to be effective . Augustin Ehrensvärd argued for new archipelago vessels that combined firepower , maneuverability , seaworthiness , and decent crew accommodations . He began a successful collaboration with shipwright Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( ennobled " af Chapman " in 1772 ) , and together they developed five new vessels : a gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun and a schooner rigging , as well as four types of " archipelago frigates " ( skärgårdsfregatter ) : the smaller udema and pojama , and the larger turuma and hemmema . All four types have been called skärgårdsfregatter ( archipelago frigates ) in Swedish and English historical literature , though some authors have called the udema and pojama " archipelago corvettes " . Chapman specifically designed the archipelago frigates for service off the south coast of Finland and named them after the Finnish provinces of Uusimaa , Pohjanmaa ( Österbotten ) , Turunmaa ( Åboland ) , and Hämeenmaa ( Tavastia ) .

= = Development = =

The concept of small sailing frigates with a complementary set of oars ( or " sweeps " ) was not new . The English Tudor navy had used small " galleasses " in the mid @-@ 16th century . In the 1660s its successor , the Royal Navy , equipped the equivalent of sixth @-@ rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck . During the 18th century the Russian Navy introduced " shebecks " , Baltic variants on the Mediterranean xebecs , for inshore duties . The xebecs were good sailers , could be rowed if necessary and had more guns and greater stores than galleys ; they were also less expensive to maintain . The Russian designs influenced Chapman and the Swedish naval commanders . Consequently , Chapman 's designs for new ships were elaborations on those principles , but with adaptations to archipelago warfare .

Chapman 's archipelago frigates provided better protection for their crew than the galleys they replaced , and up to three times the capacity for stores and provisions . They could operate in the narrow , shallow waters around skerries in all weathers and in open water in all but the worst storms . They had a deeper draft than galleys , but considerably shallower draft than traditional sailing warships . The new ship types also increased the archipelago fleet 's firepower , provided it with better defensive capabilities , and made possible more efficient fire support in amphibious operations .

= = Design and construction = =

Of the new designs , turumas and hemmemas best fit the description of " archipelago frigate " because of their similarities to small ocean @-@ going frigates . The first hemmema , the Oden , was completed in 1764 . It was c . 33 m ( 108 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 2 m ( 26 @.@ 8 ft ) wide with a draft of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 25 ft ) . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck , and no poop deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with lateen sails , like a galley . The navy later replaced the lateen rigs with a more conventional square @-@ sail frigate rig . The early design provided for 14 pairs of oars with four men per oar . The rowers plied their oars from the gun deck through oar ports positioned between the gunports , close to the waterline , which gave the rowers better leverage . The oars were also placed on a rectangular outrigger , designed to further improve the leverage . Even so , hemmemas performed poorly when rowed and were difficult in contrary winds . They were slower than ordinary sailing ships , but sailed better than galleys .

During the Russian war of 1788 – 1790 , Sweden built three hemmemas of a new design . They were considerably larger , 44 @.@ 5 by 11 m ( 146 by 36 ft ) , and the number of oars were increased to 20 pairs . They also had some of the heaviest broadsides , even when compared with the much larger frigates of the high seas navy . The artillery officer Carl Fredrik Aschling had cooperated with Chapman to increase the main armament to twenty @-@ two 36 @-@ pounders and two 12 @-@ pounders , which increased the draft by about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) . The addition of diagonal bracers to reinforce the hull allowed the later hemmemas to carry guns more powerful even than those on the largest sailing frigates of the high seas navy . Due to their considerable firepower and relative size , naval historian Jan Glete has described the hemmemas as " super archipelago frigates " .

The hemmema 's design was very similar to that of the turuma . The primary difference was that the turuma 's oarsmen sat on the weather deck above the guns , whereas the hemmema 's oarsmen sat on the gundeck . The later hemmemas were considerably larger , more heavily armed , and of a more robust construction . Glete has described them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs .

= = Service = =

Hemmemas served in the Finnish squadrons during the war of 1788 – 1790 . They supported amphibious operations and conducted raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . Hemmemas fought in the first and second battles of Svensksund . During the first battle in 1789 , one hemmema complemented the similar turumas , and in the second battle in July 1790 , two hemmemas made up the defensive center and provided a considerable percentage of the firepower .

The Swedes were building three additional hemmemas at the shipyards within the fortress of Sveaborg when it was surrendered to the Russians in 1808 , and all three were incorporated in the Russian Navy . Shortly afterward , the Russian Navy built its own 32 @-@ gun versions , with the final vessel launched as late as 1823 . Two more were built in Sweden in 1809 , Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll . Birger Jarl sank in an accident in 1813 and Erik Segersäll was planned for conversion as a paddlewheel steam battery for coastal defense , though the idea was eventually abandoned and the ship scrapped in 1826 .

Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the hemmema had specific strengths and weaknesses . Although it had superior firepower relative to galleys , its sailing qualities were somewhat mediocre and while highly manoeuvrable under oars , it was still difficult to propel while rowed . A hemmema had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely outgunning them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could wreak considerable havoc , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role untested .

= = Ships = =

A total of twelve hemmemas were built , six of them for the Swedish archipelago fleet and six for the Russian Navy . Details of individual vessels are listed below . The Swedish hemmemas were all built to the same specifications , except for the early design Oden , and Birger Jarl and Erik Segersäll carried heavier armament than the others . Tredrea and Sozaev list Oden as a turuma rebuilt as a hemmema in 1784 , though Oscar Nikula and Lars @-@ Otto Berg do not . The Russian vessels were built between 1808 and 1823 and have been described by Tredea and Sozaev as Bodryi @-@ class " rowing frigates " .

Under the Finnish form " Hämeenmaa " , the name of the ship type was later carried on to several vessels of the 20th century Finnish Navy .

= Edward Creutz =

Edward Creutz ( January 23 , 1913 – June 27 , 2009 ) was an American physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project at the Metallurgical Laboratory and the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II . After the war he became a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology . He was Vice President of Research at General Atomics from 1955 to 1970 . He published over 65 papers on botany , physics , mathematics , metallurgy and science policy , and held 18 patents relating to nuclear energy .

A graduate of the University of Wisconsin – Madison , Creutz helped Princeton University build its first cyclotron . During World War II he worked on nuclear reactor design under Eugene Wigner at the Metallurgical Laboratory , designing the cooling system for the first water @-@ cooled reactors . He led a group that studied the metallurgy of uranium and other elements used in reactor designs . In October 1944 , he moved to the Los Alamos Laboratory , where he became a group leader .

After the war ended , Creutz accepted an offer to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology , where he became the head of its Physics Department and its Nuclear Research Center in 1948 . In 1955 he returned to Los Alamos to evaluate its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he accepted an offer to become Vice President for Research and Development and the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science at General Atomics . Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a nuclear reactor for universities and laboratories .

Creutz served as an assistant director of the National Science Foundation from 1970 to 1977 , and then as Director of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu , where he took particular interest in the museum 's preparation of a Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii ' .

= = Early life = =

Edward Chester Creutz was born on January 23 , 1913 , in Beaver Dam , Wisconsin , the son of Lester Creutz , a high school history teacher , and Grace Smith Creutz , a general science teacher . He had two older brothers , John and Jim , and a younger sister , Edith . The family moved to Eau Claire , Wisconsin , in 1916 , Monroe , Wisconsin , in 1920 , and to Janesville , Wisconsin , in 1927 . He played a number of musical instruments , including the mandolin , ukulele and trombone . He played in the school bands at Janesville High School and Monroe High School . At Janesville he played tenor banjo in a dance orchestra called Rosie 's Ragadors , and timpani with the school orchestra at Monroe . He also played left guard on the American football teams at Janesville and Monroe . He expressed an interest in chemistry , biology , geology and photography .

After graduating from Janesville High School in 1929 , he took a job as a bookkeeper at a local bank . In 1932 , his brother John , who had graduated from the University of Wisconsin – Madison with a degree in electrical engineering , persuaded him to go to college as well . John suggested that " if you aren ’ t sure what part of science you want , take physics , because that 's basic to all of them . " Creutz later recalled that this was the best advice he ever got . He entered the University of Wisconsin and studied mathematics and physics . Money was scarce during the Great Depression , especially after his father died in 1935 . To pay his bills , Creutz worked as a dishwasher and short order cook , and took a job taking care of the physics laboratory equipment . In 1936 , his senior year , he taught physics laboratory classes .

Creutz encountered several members of the faculty at the University of Wisconsin , including Julian Mack , Ragnar Rollefson , Raymond Herb , Eugene Wigner and Gregory Breit . Mack gave Creutz a research project to do in his junior year . Creutz remained at Wisconsin as a graduate student after receiving his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in 1936 , working for Herb upgrading the departmental Van de Graaff generator from 300 to 600 keV . With this done , the question became what to do with it , and Breit suggested that it had previously been observed that high @-@ energy gamma rays were produced when lithium was bombarded with protons at 440 keV . Creutz therefore wrote his 1939 Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) thesis on Resonance Scattering of Protons by Lithium , under Breit 's supervision . Creutz married Lela Rollefson , a mathematics student at Wisconsin , and the sister of Ragnar Rollefson , on September 13 , 1937 . The couple had three children , two sons , Michael and Carl , and a daughter , Ann Jo .

Wigner moved to Princeton University in 1938 , and soon after Creutz received an offer as well . Princeton had been given a 36 @-@ inch ( 910 mm ) magnet by the University of California , which had been used to build an 8 MeV cyclotron . They wanted Creutz to help get it operational . He later recalled :

On my third day in Princeton I was invited to give a short report on my thesis work . There were usually two or three speakers at these " Journal Club " meetings . This time the speakers were Niels Bohr , Albert Einstein , and Ed Creutz . To be on the same program with these two giants of scientific accomplishments was breathtaking . Just before the meeting began , my sponsor , Delsasso , asked me , " Say , Creutz , have you met Einstein yet ? " I had not . Delsasso took me over to where Einstein was sitting in sweatshirt and tennis shoes , and said , " Professor Einstein , this is Creutz who has come to work on our cyclotron . " The great man held out his hand , which seemed as big as a dinner plate , and said in an accented voice , " I ’ m glad to meet you , Dr. Creutz . " I managed to wheeze out , " I ’ m glad to meet you , too , Dr. Einstein . "

But it was Bohr who electrified the audience with his news from Europe of the discovery by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch of nuclear fission . Physicists rushed to confirm the results . Creutz built an ionization chamber and a linear amplifier out of radio vacuum tubes , coffee cans and motorcycle batteries , and with this apparatus the physicists at Princeton were able to confirm the results .

= = World War II = =

In the early years of World War II between 1939 and 1941 , Wigner led the Princeton group in a series of experiments involving uranium and two tons of graphite as a neutron moderator . In early 1942 , Arthur Compton concentrated the Manhattan Project 's various teams working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design , including Wigner 's team from Princeton , at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago . The name was a codename ; Creutz was the first to conduct actual metallurgy research , and he hired its first metallurgist to work with him .

Wigner led the Theoretical Group that included Creutz , Leo Ohlinger , Alvin M. Weinberg , Katharine Way and Gale Young . The group 's task was to design the reactors that would convert uranium into plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . In July 1942 , Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design , with a graphite neutron moderator and water cooling . The choice of water as a coolant was controversial at the time because water was known to absorb neutrons , thereby reducing the efficiency of the reactor ; but Wigner was confident that his group 's calculations were correct and that water would work , while the technical difficulties involved in using helium or liquid metal as a coolant would delay the project . Working seven days a week , the group designed the reactors between September 1942 and January 1943 . Creutz studied the corrosion of metals in a water @-@ cooled system , and designed the cooling system . In 1959 a patent for the reactor design would be issued in the name of Creutz , Ohlinger , Weinberg , Wigner , and Young .

As a group leader at the Metallurgical Laboratory , Creutz conducted studies of uranium and how it could be extruded into rods . His group looked into the process of corrosion in metals in contact with fast @-@ flowing liquids , the processes for fabricating aluminium and jacketing uranium with it . It also investigated the forging of beryllium , and the preparation of thorium . Frederick Seitz and Alvin Weinberg later reckoned that the activities of Creutz and his group may have reduced the time taken to produce plutonium by up to two years .

The discovery of spontaneous fission in reactor @-@ bred plutonium due to contamination by plutonium @-@ 240 led Wigner to propose switching to breeding uranium @-@ 233 from thorium , but the challenge was met by the Los Alamos Laboratory developing an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon design . In October 1944 , Creutz moved to Los Alamos , where he became a group leader responsible for explosive lens design verification and preliminary testing . Difficulties encountered in testing the lenses led to the construction of a special test area in Pajarito Canyon , and Creutz became responsible for testing there . As part of the preparation for the Trinity nuclear test , Creutz conducted a test detonation at Pajarito Canyon without nuclear material . This test brought bad news ; it seemed to indicate that the Trinity test would fail . Hans Bethe worked through the night to assess the results , and was able to report that the results were consistent with a perfect explosion .

= = Later life = =

After the war ended in 1945 , Creutz accepted an offer from Seitz to come to the Carnegie Institute of Technology as an associate professor , and help create a nuclear physics group there . Creutz in turn recruited a number of young physicists who had worked with him at Princeton and on the Manhattan Project in Chicago and Los Alamos , including Martyn Foss , Jack Fox , Roger Sutton and Sergio DeBenedetti . Together , with funding from the Office of Naval Research they built a 450 MeV synchrotron at the Nuclear Research Center near Saxonburg , Pennsylvania . For a time , This put them at the forefront of research into nuclear physics , allowing physicists there to study the recently discovered pi meson and mu meson . A visiting scholar , Gilberto Bernardini , created the first photographic emulsion of a meson .

Creutz became a professor , the head of the Physics Department , and the head of Nuclear Research Center at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1948 . He was also a member of the Executive Board at the Argonne National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 , and a consultant at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory from 1946 to 1958 . In addition to his work on nuclear physics , he cultivated flowers and orchids at his home . He published eight papers on floral species , and named three varieties of violets after his children . One 1966 paper , published in the New York Botanical Garden Journal was on Apetahia raiateensis , a rare flower found only on the island of Raiatea in French Polynesia . He travelled to Polynesia many times , and translated Grammar of the Tahitian language from French into English . His family served as hosts for a time to two young people from Tahiti and Samoa .

In 1955 and 1956 , Creutz spent a year at Los Alamos evaluating its thermonuclear fusion program for the Atomic Energy Commission . While there he was approached by Frederic de Hoffmann , who recruited him to join the General Atomics division of General Dynamics . He moved to La Jolla , California , as its Vice President for Research and Development , and was concurrently the Director of its John Jay Hopkins Laboratory for Pure and Applied Science from 1955 to 1967 . He was also a member of the Advisory Panel on General Science at the Department of Defense from 1959 to 1963 .

Under his leadership , General Atomics developed TRIGA , a small reactor for universities and laboratories . TRIGA used uranium zirconium hydride ( UZrH ) fuel , which has a large , prompt negative fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity . As the temperature of the core increases , the reactivity rapidly decreases . It is thus highly unlikely , though not completely impossible , for a nuclear meltdown to occur . Due to its safety and reliability , which allows it to be installed in densely populated areas , and its ability to still generate high energy for brief periods , which is particularly useful for research , it became the world 's most popular research reactor , and General Atomics sold 66 TRIGAs in 24 countries . The high @-@ temperature gas @-@ cooled reactor ( HTGR ) was less successful , and only two HTGR power reactors were built , both in the United States . A 40 MW demonstration unit at the Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station in Pennsylvania operated successfully , but a larger 300 MW unit at the Fort St. Vrain Generating Station in Colorado encountered technical problems . General Atomics also conducted research into thermonuclear energy , including means of magnetically confining plasma . Between 1962 and 1974 Creutz published six papers on the subject .

In 1970 President Richard Nixon appointed Creutz as Assistant Director for Research of the National Science Foundation . He became Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physicals Sciences in 1975 , and was acting Deputy Director from 1976 to 1977 . The 1970s energy crisis raised the national profile of energy issues , and Creutz served on a panel that produced a study called The Nation 's Energy Future . His wife Lela died of cancer in 1972 . In 1974 he married Elisabeth Cordle , who worked for the National Science Board . The two of them enjoyed locating and photographing rare orchids .

His appointment at the National Science Foundation ended in 1977 , and Creutz became director of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu . He took particular interest in the museum 's work preparing a two @-@ volume Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii , which was published in 1999 . He expanded programs for education and outreach , and secured funding for two new buildings . He retired in 1987 and returned to his home in Rancho Santa Fe , California , and died there on June 27 , 2009 .

= = Documentaries = =

To Mars by A @-@ Bomb : The Secret History of Project Orion

= Leanne Del Toso =

Leanne Del Toso ( born 12 August 1980 ) is a 3 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player who represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a silver medal . Diagnosed with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy at the age of nineteen , Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . Playing in the local Victorian competition , she was named the league 's most valuable player in 2007 . That year started playing for the Knox Ford Raiders in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) . The following year , she was named the team 's Players ' Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .

Del Toso has played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL since 2008 . In the semifinal between her Dandenong Rangers and the Goudkamp Gladiators in 2009 , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . The Dandenong Rangers won back to back titles in 2011 and 2012 .

Del Toso made her debut with the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2009 Osaka Cup in Japan . Since winning a silver medal in London , she has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 .

= = Personal = =

Nicknamed Dori , Del Toso was born on 12 August 1980 . At the age of nineteen , she was diagnosed with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy ( CIDP ) , a heredity condition that involves damage to the nerves . Del Toso has two siblings ; her younger brother Daniel also developed the disease . Prior to her diagnosis , she played regular basketball . Del Toso has worked as a receptionist , and as a participation assistant for Basketball Victoria . As of 2013 , she lives in Watsonia , Victoria .

= = Wheelchair basketball = =

Del Toso was a 4 point wheelchair basketball player . Due to the progress of her disease , she was reclassified as a 3 @.@ 5 point player in 2013 . As of 2012 , she has a scholarship with the Victorian Institute of Sport , and in financial year 2012 / 13 , she received a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant from the Australian Sports Commission as part of its Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program . She received $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2011 / 12 and 2010 / 11 , $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 and $ 5 @,@ 200 in 2008 / 09 . In 2012 , she trained in Dandenong , Kew , Box Hill and Knox .

= = = Club = = =

Del Toso started playing wheelchair basketball in 2006 . An Australian Paralympic Committee flyer on the wall at her local gym asking " Are you the next Paralympian ? " prompted Del Toso to respond . She was advised to take up wheelchair basketball . Playing in the local Victorian competition in 2007 , she was named the league 's most valuable player . That year , she made her debut in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) with the Knox Ford Raiders . At the end of the season , she was named the most improved player . She played for the Rangers ( now known as Victoria ) since 2008 . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Dandenong Rangers defeated the Western Stars 53 – 47 . She scored 20 points in her team 's victory . In the second round of the 2008 season , playing for the Dandenong Rangers in a 38 – 72 loss to the Hills Hornets , she scored 12 points . That season , she was named the team 's Players Player and Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .

In 2009 , Del Toso played in the WNWBL finals . In the semifinal between the Dandenong Rangers and the Goudkamp Gladiators , she scored 31 points while pulling down 19 rebounds that saw the Rangers win 81 – 42 . In 2010 , she was named the Dandenong Rangers 's Most Valuable Player . The Rangers won the WNWBL title in 2011 . In a round four game in 2012 , against Sydney Uni Flames that the Rangers won 55 – 44 , she scored 14 rebounds . The Rangers won the league championship again that year .

= = = National = = =

In 2008 , Del Toso was named as a reserve for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , for the 2008 Summer Paralympics . She made her national team debut at the 2009 Osaka Cup the following year , when her team finished first . That year , she also participated in the Four Nations in Canada and the Japan Friendly Series , one of six players who played for the Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 . In July 2010 , she played in a three @-@ game test series against Germany . She was member of the Australian team at the 2010 World Championships that finished fourth . She also played in the 2010 Osaka Cup where her team finished first . She played in four games in the 2012 Gliders World Challenge .

Del Toso was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in wheelchair basketball . The London Games were her first . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal .

Since the games , Del Toso has participated in the 2013 Osaka Cup in Japan , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 .

= = Statistics = =

= No. 79 Wing RAAF =

No. 79 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing of World War II . It was formed in December 1943 at Batchelor , Northern Territory , as part of North @-@ Western Area Command . Led by Group Captain Charles Eaton , the wing comprised four squadrons on its establishment , flying Beaufort and B @-@ 25 Mitchell bombers and Beaufighter heavy fighters . No. 79 Wing took part in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 – 45 , eventually transferring to Balikpapan in the Dutch East Indies as the Allies advanced northward . By the end of the Pacific War , the wing was attached to the Australian First Tactical Air Force and was made up of Nos. 2 and 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadrons , both flying Mitchells . The latter transferred to the Netherlands Air Force in late 1945 , while the former returned to Australia where it disbanded the following year . No. 79 Headquarters itself disbanded in October 1945 , soon after the end of hostilities .

= = History = =

No. 79 Wing was established at Batchelor , Northern Territory , on 30 November 1943 . Its combat units consisted of Nos. 1 and 2 Squadrons ( flying Beaufort light reconnaissance bombers ) , No. 31 Squadron ( Beaufighter long @-@ range fighters ) , and No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron ( B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers ) . The wing was commanded by Group Captain Charles Eaton , whose Dutch personnel called him " Oom Charles " ( Uncle Charles ) . Operating under the auspices of North @-@ Western Area Command ( NWA ) , Darwin , No. 79 Wing participated in the New Guinea and North @-@ Western Area Campaigns during 1944 .

Through March – April 1944 , the Beaufighters attacked Japanese shipping , while the Mitchells and Beauforts bombed Timor on a daily basis as a prelude to Operations Reckless and Persecution , the invasions of Hollandia and Aitape . Eaton organised a large raid against Su , Dutch Timor , on 19 April . Consisting of thirty @-@ five Mitchells , Beauforts and Beaufighters , the force destroyed the town 's barracks and fuel dumps , a result that earned the personal congratulations of the Air Officer Commanding NWA , Air Vice Marshal " King " Cole . On the day of the Allied landings , 22 April , the Mitchells and Beaufighters made a daylight raid on Dili , Portuguese Timor . The ground assault on Hollandia – Aitape met little opposition , credited in part to the air bombardment leading up to it .

In May 1944 , Nos. 1 , 18 and 31 Squadrons attacked Japanese positions in Timor , while No. 2 Squadron was withdrawn from combat to re @-@ equip with Mitchells . No. 79 Wing 's light and medium bombers suffered from a lack of suitable targets as they had few airfields in forward areas from which to refuel . No. 2 Squadron returned to operations with Mitchells in June . That month , No. 18 Squadron flew 149 sorties , damaging Japanese airfields and shipping in the Timor area , but lost its commanding officer to anti @-@ aircraft fire during a raid .

In June – July 1944 , No. 79 Wing supported the Allied attack on Noemfoor . No. 18 Squadron was again the wing 's most active unit , flying 107 sorties . In September , the Beaufighters and Mitchells attacked Japanese shipping and infrastructure in Ceram and Celebes , but lost nine aircraft and twenty @-@ six crewmen killed , among them Squadron Leader Wilbur Wackett , son of Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation manager Lawrence Wackett . By the end of the month , Mitchell missions were put on hold while replacement crews were trained . In late 1944 , plans were made to transfer No. 79 Wing from North @-@ Western Area Command to Northern Command in Papua New Guinea , where it would undertake operations against the Japanese in New Britain . The wing 's composition for this move was to be Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons , operating Mitchells , and 120 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . No. 31 Squadron was transferred from No. 79 Wing to the Australian First Tactical Air Force at Morotai in December . The same month , Group Captain Eaton posted out and was replaced by Group Captain John Ryland .

Weather hampered the wing 's activities in January 1945 . No. 1 Squadron was withdrawn to Queensland to re @-@ equip with Mosquitos , with No. 13 Squadron , flying Venturas , taking up the slack on anti @-@ shipping missions . The squadron accounted for around half of the thirty @-@ eight enemy vessels sunk by No. 79 Wing in February , and a similar ratio to the twenty sunk the following month . Wing operations were cut back in March , as preparations were made to transfer the Mitchells to Jacquinot Bay in New Britain . On 6 April , all twenty available aircraft of Nos. 2 and 18 Squadrons were ordered to join B @-@ 24 Liberators of No. 82 Wing in an assault on a Japanese convoy that included the cruiser Isuzu . The Liberators were late for their rendezvous with the Mitchells off Sumba so the latter , at the very limit of their range , attacked the convoy regardless . They claimed two direct hits without loss , despite anti @-@ aircraft fire from the cruiser and other ships , and frontal attacks by enemy fighters . Allied submarines sank the damaged Isuzu the next day .

The wing 's proposed move to New Britain was cancelled in May 1945 , after the Netherlands government requested that its squadrons operate over the Dutch East Indies . No. 120 Squadron was transferred to Biak , while No. 79 Wing and its two Mitchell squadrons were ordered to move to Borneo , under the command of First Tactical Air Force . By July , No. 79 Wing had relocated from Batchelor to Balikpapan , leaving No. 13 Squadron under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Mitchells joined Liberators of No. 82 Wing repatriating RAAF personnel from Borneo to Australia . No. 79 Wing Headquarters was disbanded on 8 October . The following month , No. 18 Squadron was reassigned to the Netherlands Air Force . No. 2 Squadron returned to Australia in December , disbanding in mid @-@ 1946 . These were the only two squadrons in the RAAF to operate Mitchells during the war .

= Vitamin D ( Glee ) =

" Vitamin D " is the sixth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on October 7 , 2009 . It was written by series creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Elodie Keene . In the episode , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) pits the male and female club members against each other for a mash @-@ up competition . Will 's wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) takes a job as the school nurse to stop him becoming closer to guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , but is fired after giving the students performance @-@ enhancing pseudoephedrine tablets .

The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " Vitamin D " was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million US viewers , and received generally positive reviews from critics . Performances by Morrison , Mays and Jane Lynch as cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester attracted praise , as did the staging of the musical mash @-@ ups . However , Aly Semigran of MTV and Mandi Bierly of Entertainment Weekly both noted critically that dramatic storylines in the episode dominated over the musical performances .

= = Plot = =

Believing the glee club members are becoming complacent ahead of the forthcoming sectionals , director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) divides the club into boys against girls for a mash @-@ up competition . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) observes that head cheerleader Quinn Fabray 's ( Dianna Agron ) performance standards are slipping . When Quinn blames her tiredness on her glee club participation , Sue renews her resolve to destroy the club , planning to sabotage Will 's personal life .

Sue tells Will 's wife Terri Schuester ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) that guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) has romantic feelings for Will . Determined to stay close to her husband , Terri takes a job as the school nurse , despite having no medical qualifications . She encourages Emma 's boyfriend , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) to propose to her , which he does . After asking Will if there is any reason she should not marry Ken , and being warned off Will by Terri , Emma accepts his proposal . Terri is still hiding the fact she experienced a hysterical pregnancy from Will , and upon realizing how much her life is changing due to her pregnancy , Quinn agrees to let Terri secretly adopt her baby .

Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) is exhausted by his extra @-@ curricular activities , so Terri gives him pseudoephedrine tablets , which Finn shares with the rest of the males in the glee club . The effects of the tablets enhance their performance , and they give an energetic mash @-@ up of " It 's My Life and " Confessions Part II " . When Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) tells the girls the secret behind the boys ' performance , they , too , request the tablets from Terri , and give a high @-@ spirited mash @-@ up of " Halo " and " Walking On Sunshine " . Finn and Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) feel guilty for cheating , however , and agree to nullify the competition . When Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) learns what has happened , he fires Terri and , angry with Will , appoints Sue as co @-@ director of the glee club .

= = Production = =

Recurring characters who appear in " Vitamin D " are glee club members Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , former glee club director Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Gallagher ) , Terri 's co @-@ worker Howard Bamboo ( Kent Avenido ) , and local news anchors Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) . Joe Hursley guest stars as Joe .

The episode features mash @-@ up covers of " It 's My Life " by Bon Jovi and " Confessions Part II " by Usher , and " Halo " by Beyoncé Knowles and " Walking on Sunshine " by Katrina and the Waves . Both tracks were released as singles , available for digital download . " It 's My Life / Confessions Part II " charted at number 7 in Ireland , 14 in the UK , 22 in Australia , 25 in Canada and 30 in America , while " Halo / Walking on Sunshine " charted at number 4 in Ireland , 9 in the UK , 10 in Australia , 28 in Canada and 40 in America . Michele has revealed that she practiced talking " manically " for several days in order to convey the effects of pseudoephedrine on Rachel . In order to portray the character in her altered state , she questioned : " How manic is the right amount of manic ? What would Rachel be like on uppers ? What would she sound like ? " She deemed performing the mash @-@ up piece in that state " so much fun " .

= = Reception = =

The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 30 million U.S. viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Glee maintained its ratings from the previous week , despite all of the other new Wednesday night shows of the season declining by double @-@ digit percentages . It was the eighteenth most watched show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 61 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 008 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 608 million on E4 , and 400 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most @-@ watched episode of the series at the time .

" Vitamin D " was nominated for the best " Comedy Series Episode " award at the 2010 PRISM Awards . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Shawna Malcom of the Los Angeles Times noted that she preferred the boys ' performance to the girls ' , commenting : " Their number had the same heart @-@ soaring power as " Don 't Stop Believin ' " [ performed in the pilot episode ] . " Malcom enjoyed Sue 's character development in the episode , claiming that , " In less skilled hands , there ’ s no doubt Sue would be an over @-@ the @-@ top disaster . But thanks to the incomparable Jane Lynch , I can ’ t wait to see what trouble the character stirs up next . " Aly Semigran of MTV also enjoyed the boys ' performance more than the girls ' , and gave the episode a mostly positive review , writing that it moved the series ' storylines to " a whole new level " . She felt , however , that the episode " didn 't have nearly enough singing " . Mandi Bierly for Entertainment Weekly similarly noted that : " So much happened in this hour that the musical numbers , though enjoyable , were almost an afterthought . " Bierly favoured the girls ' performance , and praised Morrison 's acting , commenting : " Matthew Morrison communicates so much with his eyes . There ’ s a softness and a longing in them that I ’ m always surprised Emma ( Jayma Mays ) matches . "

Mike Hale for the New York Times praised Mays ' performance , noting : " Jayma Mays registered Emma ’ s devastation with just the slightest widening of those enormous eyes . In fact all the best non @-@ singing moments in the episode were hers . " Hale was less impressed with the rest of the episode , deeming the pregnancy storyline " so boring that is hardly mattered " . He noted that : " For many viewers , the best moments in the episode probably came very early on and involved Jane Lynch ’ s Sue Sylvester , who still got all the best lines . " Jarett Wieselman for the New York Post agreed with this assessment , opining that although the episode was " filled with more brilliant moments than ever before " , the stand @-@ out scene was Sue writing in her journal , which Wieselman deemed " jam @-@ packed with so many one liners , it acted as a vacuum , sucking the smart out of everything else on TV from 9 : 05 to 9 : 07 pm . " Fellow New York Post critic Maxine Shen deemed the episode her favorite of the series so far . Anna Pickard of The Guardian called the pseudoephedrine storyline " relentlessly silly [ ... ] but joyfully so " , preferring the boys ' performance to the girls ' as " some excellent comedy helped me forget about Finn 's dodgy autotuned vocals for once " .

= Fern Hobbs =

Fern Hobbs ( May 8 , 1883 – April 10 , 1964 ) was an American attorney in the U.S. state of Oregon , and a private secretary to Oregon Governor Oswald West . She was noted for her ambition and several accomplishments as a young woman , and became the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in America in her mid @-@ twenties .

Hobbs made international news when Governor West sent her to implement martial law in the small Eastern Oregon town of Copperfield . The event was considered a strategic coup for West , establishing the State 's authority over a remote rural community and cementing his reputation as a proponent of prohibition .

Hobbs later worked for the American Red Cross in Europe and at the Oregon Journal newspaper . She died in Portland in 1964 .

= = Early life = =

Hobbs was born on May 8 , 1883 , in Bloomington , Nebraska , to John Alden Hobbs and Cora Bush Hobbs . Her family moved to Salt Lake City , Utah when she was six years old ; she lived there for 12 years , finishing high school . Her father then met with financial difficulties , and she moved to Oregon , settling in Hillsboro . There , she put her younger brother and sister through school , while studying stenography and working for a living .

She soon became a private secretary to the president of the Title Guarantee and Trust Company . The bank , which held many assets of the Oregon Common School Fund , failed during Hobbs ' time there . Ben Olcott , who was the Secretary of State and a member of the State Land Board , was charged with protecting the Common School Fund , and was involved in negotiating with the failing bank over the State 's assets . He took note of Hobbs ' strong loyalty to her employer .

After the bank 's failure , Hobbs worked as a governess for J. Wesley Ladd ( brother of William S. Ladd ) in Portland . She also helped raise her younger brother and sister , studied stenography and the law , and worked as a secretary . In 1913 , Hobbs graduated from Willamette University College of Law with a Bachelor of Laws degree , and was admitted to the Oregon State Bar .

Olcott , who managed Oswald West 's successful 1910 campaign to become Governor of Oregon , recommended that West hire Hobbs as his private stenographer . She was hired , and impressed West to the point that he hired her as his private secretary two years later . At that time , at age 27 , she was the highest @-@ paid woman in public service in the United States , earning $ 3 @,@ 000 per year .

= = Martial law in Copperfield , Oregon = =

West ordered Hobbs to Copperfield , Oregon to restore law and order on January 2 , 1914 , along with a group of six militia men that included Oregon State Penitentiary warden B.K. Lawson . Copperfield , located on the Snake River in Baker County , had grown up around construction projects for a railroad tunnel and power plant . Fifteen @-@ hundred jobs in the area came from the railway project of E. H. Harriman or the power generation facility .

The town had descended into lawlessness with a number of saloons , brothels , dancing halls , and widespread gambling . The town had no law enforcement officers , and the local government officials had become bar keepers . Governor West had extended prohibition laws , Some local residents had appealed to the state government for assistance. but they were widely ignored in Copperfield . Over half the residents of the town had signed a petition , addressed to West , alleging that saloons owned by the mayor and City Council members were selling liquor to minors and staying open later than their posted hours . Governor West responded by ordering county officials to restore order , close the saloons , and force the resignations of the corrupt city leaders by December 25 , 1913 .

County officials did not take care of the problem , so West sent Hobbs , hoping the presence of a woman would prevent any outbreak of violence . Hobbs was a petite woman standing 5 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) tall and weighing less than 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) . She was dispatched with orders to restore order and to implement martial law if necessary . While Hobbs was traveling to Eastern Oregon , both she and Governor West were coy with reporters about the presence of the militia men , suggesting that Hobbs might be acting alone .

The saloon keepers , who received word that Hobbs was accompanied by law enforcement officers only shortly before her arrival , greeted her by dressing up the town with bunting , blue and pink ribbons , and flowers . A town meeting was arranged at 2 : 30 p.m. on January 3 . Hobbs renewed the call for the resignation of city officials , but was the request was refused . Hobbs ' escorts then arrested the city leaders and ordered Lawson to declare martial law . It was the first time in Oregon since the Civil War that martial law was put into effect .

Soon the town was disarmed and order restored , with the gambling equipment and weapons confiscated , and the saloons closed down . Hobbs then left Lawson in charge and caught the 4 : 00 p.m. train out of town that same day . The residents did not openly resist Hobbs or the militia men , although nearly all were armed and had been prepared to offer non @-@ violent resistance . She stopped at the county seat in Baker City to officially remove the town 's officials in front of a judge before returning to the state capitol in Salem . The Baker County Circuit Court quickly enjoined the militia from holding the town under martial law ; Sheriff Rand began assembling a posse to carry out the court order . Governor West requested a hearing , seeking Rand 's temporary removal from office , and appointed Hobbs to represent the State as special counsel .

The actions of the governor were later challenged in court , with Hobbs and West among the defendants . The saloon keepers sought remuneration for liquor they claimed was confiscated during the period of martial law . The Baker County circuit court determined the governor 's actions were within his powers , and the Oregon Supreme Court ultimately concurred .

These events made Hobbs the most famous woman in Oregon at that time . Hobbs also made national and international news for these events . Writer Stewart Holbrook reported :

= = Later life = =

After the Copperfield affair , Hobbs continued as Governor West 's secretary until the end of his term in 1915 . She visited the Union County town of Cove in February 1914 , also to investigate complaints about a saloon . A local election had declared the town " dry , " but a county election had declared the entire county " wet . " On advice of a judge , the mayor of Cove stated that he was unable to determine whether the saloon was legal or not , but expressed deference to the governor 's wishes . Hobbs did not order the saloon closed down .

She then moved to Portland and practiced law . Women 's rights groups promoted Hobbs as a candidate to run for governor , but she never ran for office . Within a few years Fern Hobbs became the commissioner of Oregon State Industrial Accident Commission , working on getting taxes due on the Oregon & California Lands . In 1917 , with the United States entering World War I , she began a long association with the Red Cross . From 1917 to 1922 she worked in Europe , including time spent as the chief of the casualty division in Paris , France . In that position Hobbs was responsible for notifying dead soldiers ' next of kin . She returned to Europe in the 1930s , working in the Rhine Valley when it was occupied by France .

Upon returning to Oregon , Hobbs worked as a secretary for the Oregon Journal newspaper . She retired in 1948 as the secretary to the paper 's business manager . Fern Hobbs died on April 10 , 1964 , at the age of 80 , and was buried at the Hillsboro Pioneer Cemetery in Hillsboro , Oregon .

The Oregon writer Stewart Holbrook interviewed her in the early 1950s , a few years after her retirement , observing that she " still weighs 104 pounds . Her eyes are clear and blue behind her glasses . There is not a gray hair on her head . She lives as quietly as she has always lived , except for those dreadful few days so long ago [ concerning Copperfield ] . " Holbrook noted during his interview that " the subject of Copperfield bores her " and concluded his account of her as follows :

= Jessie Stephen =

Jessie Stephen , MBE ( 19 April 1893 – 12 June 1979 ) was a twentieth @-@ century British suffragette , labour activist and local councillor . She grew up in Scotland and won a scholarship to train as a teacher . Family finances dictated otherwise , leading to her becoming a domestic worker at the age of 15 . She became involved in national labour issues as a teenager , via organisations such as the Independent Labour Party and the Women 's Social and Political Union . After moving to Lancashire and London she visited the United States and Canada , where she held meetings with the public including migrant English domestic workers .

Stephen later become more involved in formal political parties , being elected as a local councillor and standing as a candidate in general elections . After moving to Bristol she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council . She was appointed MBE in 1977 and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in Bristol .

= = Biography = =

Stephen is recorded in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as a " suffragette and labour activist " , and has been described as " working @-@ class " .

= = = Childhood and family = = =

Some sources give Stephen 's place of birth as Marylebone , London , others as Glasgow . The eldest of eleven children in a " closely @-@ knit ... family " , her father was a tailor . She has been described as " virtually the only Scottish working @-@ class Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) member about whom anything is known " . She attended Sunday schools separately linked to the church and to socialism , and was educated at North Kelvinside School . She won a scholarship to train as a pupil @-@ teacher .

Her father 's low and variable income meant that she could not afford to pursue her aspiration to become a teacher , and became a domestic worker at the age of 15 . Her father was a founder member of the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) when it was established in 1893 . She described her mother as being " so quiet and the very opposite of dad " .

= = = Early career = = =

She was referred to as a " young activist in the Maryhill Branch of the ILP " , before she joined the WSPU in 1909 , aged 16 . She was the youngest member of the WSPU Glasgow delegation to the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George in 1912 . As a member of the WSPU and organiser of the Domestic Workers ' Union , she led the first of the " Scottish Outrages " ( involving attacks on pillar boxes ) in Glasgow in February 1913 .

Stephen was approached by Sylvia Pankhurst and moved from Glasgow to London , where she became considered one of the " most active members " ( along with Emma Boyce , around 1916 ) of the Workers ' Suffrage Federation . In April 1919 , Stephen was one of a number of speakers to address a crowd of " about 10 @,@ 000 people " in Trafalgar Square , opposing the Blockade of Germany . Other speakers included Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence and Theodora Wilson Wilson . She was also an active member of the Women 's Peace Crusade and at the 1920 ILP conference argued against the use of force during events preceding the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR .

In the 1920s she visited the United States , holding public meetings with immigrant communities from Scotland and Wales. and fund @-@ raising for the Socialist Party of America . She also visited Vancouver , where she encouraged migrant English domestic workers to unionise .

= = = Middle years = = =

Stephen later lived in Lancashire and also in London , where she became involved in the East London Federation and sold the Women 's Dreadnought . She was elected Labour borough councillor for Bermondsey in 1922 , after failing to be selected as a parliamentary candidate for the ILP , and worked for Bermondsey MP Alfred Salter . She stood as Labour candidate for Portsmouth South in the general elections of 1923 , 1924 and 1929 , and for Kidderminster in 1931 .

From 1924 she worked as a freelance journalist , established a secretarial agency in Lewes in 1935 and joined the National Union of Clerks in 1938 . At the time of the Second World War , she worked for Murphy Radio in Welwyn Garden City .

She later moved to Bedminster , Bristol , where she worked at the Broad Quay branch of the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society ( CWS ) and with the National Union of Clerks . She later became chair of the local CWS management committee . Around this time , she spoke publicly and gave advice on birth control . She was elected to the city council . In 1952 she became the first woman president of Bristol Trades Council .

= = = Later life = = =

In the 1964 general election , she was a candidate for the Labour Party in the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare constituency . She was appointed MBE for " services to the trade union movement " in June 1977 . She died at Bristol General Hospital in 1979 , and her life is commemorated by a blue plaque in Bedminster .

= Of Human Feelings =

Of Human Feelings is a studio album by American jazz saxophonist and composer Ornette Coleman . It was recorded on April 25 , 1979 , at CBS Studios in New York City with his band Prime Time , which featured guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Calvin Weston and Coleman 's son Denardo . It followed Coleman 's failed attempt to record a direct @-@ to @-@ disc session earlier in March 1979 .

Of Human Feelings explores jazz @-@ funk music and continues Coleman 's harmolodic approach to improvisation with Prime Time , whom he introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . He drew on rhythm and blues influences from early in his career for Of Human Feelings , which had shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . Coleman also applied free jazz principles from his music during the 1960s to elements of funk .

Following a change in management , Coleman signed with Island Records , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 by its subsidiary label Antilles Records . Critics generally praised Coleman 's expressive music and harmolodic approach , but the album made little commercial impact and went out of print . Coleman enlisted his son Denardo as manager after a dispute with his former managers over the album 's royalties , a change that inspired him to perform publicly again during the 1980s .

= = Background = =

By the end of the 1960s , Ornette Coleman had become one of the most influential musicians in jazz after pioneering its most controversial subgenre , free jazz , which jazz critics and musicians initially derided for its deviation from conventional structures of harmony and tonality . In the mid @-@ 1970s , he stopped recording free jazz , recruited electric instrumentalists , and pursued a new creative theory he called harmolodics . According to Coleman 's theory , all the musicians are able to play individual melodies in any key , and still sound coherent as a group . He taught his young sidemen this new improvisational and ensemble approach , based on their individual tendencies , and prevented them from being influenced by conventional styles . Coleman likened this group ethic to a spirit of " collective consciousness " that stresses " human feelings " and " biological rhythms " , and said that he wanted the music , rather than himself , to be successful . He also started to incorporate elements from other styles into his music , including rock influences such as the electric guitar and non @-@ Western rhythms played by Moroccan and Nigerian musicians .

Of Human Feelings was a continuation of the harmolodics approach Coleman had applied with Prime Time , an electric quartet introduced on his 1975 album Dancing in Your Head . The group comprised guitarists Charlie Ellerbee and Bern Nix , bassist Jamaaladeen Tacuma , and drummers Ronald Shannon Jackson and Denardo Coleman , Ornette Coleman 's son . Tacuma was still in high school when Coleman enlisted him , and first recorded with Prime Time in 1975 for the album Body Meta , which was released in 1978 . Tacuma had played in an ensemble for jazz organist Charles Earland , but Earland dismissed him as he felt audiences gave excessive attention to his playing . Coleman found Tacuma 's playing ideal for harmolodics and encouraged him not to change . Although Coleman 's theory initially challenged his knowledge and perception of music , Tacuma came to like the unconventional role each band member was given as a soloist and melodist : " When we read Ornette 's music we have his notes , but we listen for his phrases and phrase the way he wants to . I can take the same melody , then , and phrase it like I want to , and those notes will determine the phrasing , the rhythm , the harmony – all of that . "

In March 1979 , Coleman went to RCA Records ' New York studio to produce an album with Prime Time by direct @-@ to @-@ disc recording . They had mechanical problems with the studio equipment and the recording was rejected . The failed session was a project under Phrase Text , Coleman 's music publishing company . He wanted to set up his own record company with the same name , and chose his old friend Kunle Mwanga as his manager . In April , Mwanga arranged another session at CBS Studios in New York City , and Coleman recorded Of Human Feelings there on April 25 ; the session was originally titled Fashion Faces . Jackson did not record with the band and Calvin Weston was hired in his place to play simultaneously with Denardo Coleman . They recorded all the album 's songs on the first take without any equipment problems . The album was recorded with a Sony PCM @-@ 1600 two @-@ track digital recorder , a rare item at the time . According to journalist Howard Mandel , the passages played by the band sounded neither very soft or loud on the album , because it had been mixed with a middle @-@ frequency range and compressed dynamics . Because of the equipment used , Coleman did not embellish the album with added effects and avoided overdubbing , multi @-@ tracking , and remixing . According to him , Of Human Feelings was the first jazz album to be digitally recorded in the United States .

= = Composition = =

According to The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music ( 2004 ) , Of Human Feelings features jazz @-@ funk , a type of music that originated around 1970 and was characterized by intricate rhythmic patterns , a recurrent bass line , and Latin rhythmic elements . Lloyd Sachs of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that , although Coleman was not viewed as a jazz fusion artist , the album can be described as such because of its combination of free jazz and funk . Glenn Kenny disagreed and felt its boisterous style had more in common with the no wave genre and the artists of New York City 's downtown music scene such as John Zorn . Jazz writer Stuart Nicholson viewed it as the culmination of Coleman 's musical principles that dated back to his free jazz music in 1960 , but reappropriated with a funk @-@ oriented backbeat . According to jazz critic Barry McRae , " it was as if Coleman was translating the concept of the famous double quartet " from his 1961 album Free Jazz to what was required to perform jazz @-@ funk .

Coleman incorporated traditional structures and rhythms , and other elements from the rhythm and blues music he had played early his career . According to Mandel , the album 's simple , brisk music was more comparable to a coherent R & B band than jazz fusion . Although Coleman still performed the melodies on a song , he employed two guitarists for contrast to make each pair of guitarist and drummer responsible for either the rhythm or melody . Ellerbee provided accented linear counterpoint and Nix played variations of the song 's melody , while Denardo Coleman and Weston played both polyrhythms and backbeats . Tacuma and Ornette Coleman 's instrumental responses were played as the foreground to the less prominent guitars . McRae remarked that Coleman and Prime Time exchanged " directional hints " throughout the songs , as one player changed key and the others modulated accordingly . The band made no attempt to harmonize their radically different parts .

Of Human Feelings features shorter and more distinct compositions than Dancing in Your Head . " Sleep Talk " , " Air Ship " , and " Times Square " were originally performed by Coleman during his concerts in 1978 under the names " Dream Talking " , " Meta " , and " Writing in the Streets " , respectively . " What Is the Name of That Song ? " was titled as a sly reference to two of his older compositions , " Love Eyes " and " Forgotten Songs " ( also known as " Holiday for Heroes " ) , whose themes were played concurrently and transfigured by Prime Time . The theme from " Forgotten Songs " , originally from Coleman 's 1972 album Skies of America , was used as a refrain .

On songs such as " Jump Street " and " Love Words " , Ellerbee incorporated distortion into his guitar playing , which gave the songs a thicker texture . " Jump Street " is a blues piece , " Air Ship " comprises a six @-@ bar riff , and the atonal " Times Square " has futuristic dance themes . " Love Words " heavily uses polymodality , a central feature of harmolodics , and juxtaposes Coleman 's extended solo against a dense , rhythmically complex backdrop . Nicholson observed West African rhythms and collective improvisation rooted in New Orleans jazz on " Love Words " , and suggested that " Sleep Talk " was derived from the opening bassoon solo in Igor Stravinsky 's 1913 orchestral work The Rite of Spring .

= = Release and reception = =

A few weeks after Of Human Feelings was recorded , Mwanga went to Japan to negotiate a deal with Trio Records to have the album released on Phrase Text . Trio , who had previously released a compilation of Coleman 's 1966 to 1971 live performances in Paris , prepared to press the album once Mwanga provided the label with the record stamper . Coleman was also set to perform his song " Skies of America " with the NHK Symphony Orchestra , but cancelled both deals upon Mwanga 's return from Japan . Mwanga immediately quit after less than four months as Coleman 's manager . In 1981 , Coleman hired Stan and Sid Bernstein as his managers , who sold the album 's recording tapes to Island Records . He signed with the record label that year , and Of Human Feelings was released in 1982 on Island 's subsidiary jazz label Antilles Records . Billboard magazine published a front @-@ page story at the time about its distinction as both the first digital album recorded in New York City and the first digital jazz album recorded by an American label .

According to jazz writer Francis Davis , " a modest commercial breakthrough seemed imminent " for Coleman , who appeared to be regaining his celebrity . German musicologist Peter Niklas Wilson said the album may have been the most tuneful and commercial @-@ sounding of his career at that point . The album 's clean mix and relatively short tracks were interpreted as an attempt for radio airplay by Mandel , who described its production as " the surface consistency that would put it in the pop sphere " . Of Human Feelings had no success on the American pop charts , only charting on the Top Jazz Albums , where it spent 26 weeks and peaked at number 15 . Because the record offered a middle ground between funk and jazz , McRae argued that it consequently appealed to neither demographic of listeners . Sound & Vision critic Brent Butterworth speculated that it was overlooked because it had electric instruments , rock and funk drumming , and did not conform to what he felt was the hokey image of jazz that many of the genre 's fans preferred . The album later went out of print .

Of Human Feelings received considerable acclaim from contemporary critics . In a review for Esquire , Gary Giddins hailed it as another landmark album from Coleman and his most accomplished work of harmolodics , partly because of compositions which he found clearly expressed and occasionally timeless . In his opinion , the discordant keys radically transmuted conventional polyphony and would be the most challenging part for listeners , whom he said should concentrate on Coleman 's playing and " let the maelstrom resolve itself around his center " . Kofi Natambu from the Detroit Metro Times said Coleman 's synergetic approach displayed expressive immediacy rather than superficial technical flair while calling the record " a multi @-@ tonal mosaic of great power , humor , color , wit , sensuality , compassion and tenderness " . He found the songs inspirational , danceable , and encompassing developments in African @-@ American music over the previous century . Robert Christgau found the music heartfelt and sophisticated in its exchange of rhythms and simple pieces of melody , writing in The Village Voice , " the way the players break into ripples of song only to ebb back into the tideway is participatory democracy at its most practical and utopian . "

Purist critics in jazz complained about the music 's incorporation of danceable beats and electric guitar . In Stereo Review , Chris Albertson deemed the combination of saxophone and bizarre funk occasionally captivating but ultimately unfocused . Dan Sullivan of the Los Angeles Times argued that the album 's supporters in " hip rock circles " had overlooked flaws ; he felt Tacuma and Coleman 's playing sounded like a unique " beacon of clarity " amid an incessant background . Leonard Feather wrote in the Toledo Blade deemed the music stylistically ambiguous , potentially controversial , and difficult to assess but interesting enough to warrant a listen . At the end of 1982 , Billboard editor Peter Keepnews named Of Human Feelings the year 's best album , calling it a prime example of fusing free jazz with modern funk . In year @-@ end lists for The Boston Phoenix , James Hunter and Howard Hampton ranked the album number one and number four , respectively . It was voted 13th best in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published in The Village Voice . Christgau , the poll 's supervisor , ranked it number one in an accompanying list , and in 1990 he named it the second @-@ best album of the 1980s .

Coleman received $ 25 @,@ 000 for the publishing rights to Of Human Feelings but said his managers sold it for less than the recording costs and that he did not receive any of its royalties . According to Stan Bernstein , Coleman had financial expectations that were " unrealistic in this business unless you 're Michael Jackson " . Antilles label executive Ron Goldstein felt the $ 25 @,@ 000 Coleman received was neither a great nor a fair amount for someone in jazz . After he had gone over budget to record a follow @-@ up album , Island did not release it nor pick up their option on him , and in 1983 , he left the Bernstein Agency . He chose Denardo Coleman to manage his career while overcoming his reticence of public performance , which had been rooted in his distrust of doing business with a predominantly White music industry . According to Nicholson , " the man once accused of standing on the throat of jazz was welcomed back to the touring circuits with both curiosity and affection " during the 1980s . Coleman did not record another album for six years and instead performed internationally with Prime Time .

In a 1986 article for The New York Times on Coleman 's work with Prime Time , Robert Palmer said Of Human Feelings was still innovative and radical by the standards of other music in 1982 , three years after it was recorded . Because writers and musicians had heard its test pressing in 1979 , the album 's mix of jazz improvisation and gritty , punk and funk @-@ derived energy sounded " prophetic " when it was released , Palmer explained . " The album is clearly the progenitor of much that has sounded radically new in the ongoing fusion of punk rock , black dance rhythms , and free jazz . " AllMusic critic Scott Yanow believed that although Coleman 's compositions never achieved popularity , they succeeded within the context of an album that showcased his distinctive saxophone style , which was high @-@ brow yet catchy . Joshua Klein from The A.V. Club recommended Of Human Feelings as the best album for new listeners of Coleman 's harmolodics @-@ based music , while Chicago Tribune rock critic Greg Kot included it in his guide for novice jazz listeners ; he named it one of the few albums that helped him both become a better listener of rock music and learn how to enjoy jazz . In 2008 , New York magazine 's Martin Johnson included it in his list of canonical albums from what he felt had been New York 's sceneless yet vital jazz scene in the previous 40 years ; Of Human Feelings exuded what he described as a spirit of sophistication with elements of funk , Latin , and African music , all of which were encapsulated by music that retained a jazz identity .

= = Track listing = =

All compositions by Ornette Coleman .

Side one

" Sleep Talk " – 3 : 34

" Jump Street " – 4 : 24

" Him and Her " – 4 : 20

" Air Ship " – 6 : 11

Side two

" What Is the Name of That Song ? " – 3 : 58

" Job Mob " – 4 : 57

" Love Words " – 2 : 54

" Times Square " – 6 : 03

= = Personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .

= = = Musicians = = =

Denardo Coleman – drums

Ornette Coleman – alto saxophone , production

Charlie Ellerbee – guitar

Bern Nix – guitar

Jamaaladeen Tacuma – bass guitar

Calvin Weston – drums

= = = Additional personnel = = =

Susan Bernstein – cover painting

Peter Corriston – cover design

Joe Gastwirt – mastering

Ron Saint Germain – engineering

Ron Goldstein – executive direction

Harold Jarowsky – second engineering

Steven Mark Needham – photography

Ken Robertson – tape operation

= Dangerously in Love Tour =

The Dangerously in Love Tour was the debut concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . Although the tour was intended to showcase songs from her debut solo album , Dangerously in Love , ( 2003 ) the set list also contained a special segment dedicated to Beyoncé 's girl group Destiny 's Child and featured songs from her 2003 film The Fighting Temptations . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images . The tour was reviewed negatively by Dave Simpson of The Guardian who graded it with two stars out of five . The Dangerously in Love Tour only reached Europe and Beyoncé 's performance at the Wembley Arena in London , was filmed and later released on the CD / DVD Live at Wembley ( 2004 ) .

= = Background and development = =

The Dangerously In Love Tour was the debut solo concert tour by American recording artist Beyoncé . The tour was intended to showcase songs from Beyoncé ' debut solo album , Dangerously in Love released in 2003 . However , the set list also contained a special segment of her show dedicated to her girl group Destiny 's Child and songs from Beyoncé ' 2003 film The Fighting Temptations ( " Fever " and " Summertime " ) . The stage was simple and featured a large LED screen in the back that moved up and down throughout the entire show and displayed video images of Beyoncé and her dancers , as well as some images from her music videos and some prerecorded images with special effects . The show also featured a small staircase and platforms on both side of the stairs for her band . Beyoncé later toured alongside Missy Elliott and Alicia Keys as ensemble for the Verizon Ladies First Tour ( 2004 ) in North America .

= = Synopsis and reception = =

Dave Simpson of The Guardian described the opening of the show during his review : " Some while after Beyoncé is due on stage , a voice announces that the support act won 't be appearing and that Beyoncé will be with us ' in a moment ' . Like everything else – hits , boots , hair and sponsorship deals – moments are very big in Beyoncé world . An age later , cheers erupt for the raising of a curtain which revealed , er , a roadie fiddling with a drum kit . An hour later , the piped music is getting gradually louder to drown boos and the cries of small children whose parents are moaning it 's getting past their bedtime . " The show opens with " Baby Boy " which Beyoncé sang while being lowered onto the stage upside down . A highlight for many fans was her performance of " Dangerously in Love 2 " . During the tour , a special 8 @-@ minutes rendition of the song was performed .

Simpson of The Guardian reviewed the opening show of the tour negatively , grading it with two out of five stars . He was negative about Beyoncé ' clothing during the show , saying : " The delays may well be down to Beyoncé 's wardrobe , which could trouble Imelda Marcos . There are skimpy skirts , tails ( for a note perfect if pointless version of Peggy Lee 's Fever ) and a general theme of low material , high glitz . But often , the main sparkle is on Beyoncé 's outfit . " He also added that " The dancers ' ' naked suits ' make the former church girl a raunchy rival to Kylie [ Minogue ] . But there 's an interminable section where they pretend to be homies , and when Beyoncé disappears for long periods it feels like an expensive night with Legs and Co . " He concluded his review by saying ,

" Clearly , the armies of industry professionals that put Beyoncé together aren 't sure of her core audience . A vague Saturday night TV , family entertainment feel gradually gives way to a more intriguing cross between Liza Minelli showbiz and thumping R & B. However , a ticker tape festooned Crazy In Love and a belting Work It Out suggest Beyoncé is best sticking to her roots . Bizarrely , if implausibly , she puts the carnage down to her tour manager falling off stage , but at least she 's grasped one showbiz adage : the show must go on . "

= = Broadcasts and recordings = =

On November 10 , 2003 , Beyoncé performed at the Wembley Arena in London ; this was later put on a DVD , titled Live at Wembley , which was released in April 2004 . It was accompanied by a CD comprising three previously @-@ unreleased studio recorded songs and one remix each of " Crazy in Love " , " Baby Boy " and " Naughty Girl " . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage can be also seen on the DVD . The album debuted at number seventeen on the Billboard 200 , selling 45 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The DVD has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it had sold 264 @,@ 000 copies in the US by October 2007 , while as at October 6 , 2010 , it had sold 197 @,@ 000 digital downloads . In an interview with The New York Times in 2007 , American singer Miranda Lambert revealed that Live at Wembley inspired her to " take little bits from that [ Beyoncé ' performance ] " for her live shows .

= = Set list = =

" Baby Boy "

" Naughty Girl "

" Fever "

" Hip Hop Star "

" Yes "

" Work It Out "

" Gift from Virgo "

" Be with You "

" Speechless "

Destiny 's Child Medley :

" Bug a Boo "

" No , No , No Part 2 "

" Bootylicious "

" Jumpin ' , Jumpin ' "

" Say My Name "

" Independent Women Part I "

" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde "

" Survivor "

" Me , Myself and I "

" Summertime "

" Dangerously in Love 2 "

" Crazy in Love "

= = Tour dates = =

= Zhou Tong ( archer ) =

Zhou ( or Jow ) Tong ( Chinese : 周同 and 周侗 ; pinyin : Zhōu Tóng ) ( died late 1121 CE ) was the archery teacher and second military arts tutor of famous Song Dynasty general Yue Fei . Originally a local hero from Henan , he was hired to continue Yue Fei 's military training in archery after the boy had rapidly mastered spearplay under his first teacher . In addition to the future general , Zhou accepted other children as archery pupils . During his tutelage , Zhou taught the children all of his skills and even rewarded Yue with his two favorite bows because he was his best pupil . After Zhou 's death , Yue would regularly visit his tomb twice a month and perform unorthodox sacrifices that far surpassed that done for even beloved tutors . Yue later taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers and they were successful in battle .

With the publishing of Yue Fei 's 17th folklore biography , The Story of Yue Fei ( 1684 ) , a new distinct fictional Zhou Tong emerged , which differed greatly from his historical persona . Not only was he now from Shaanxi ; but he was Yue 's adopted father , a learned scholar with knowledge of the eighteen weapons of war , and his personal name was spelled with a different , yet related , Chinese character . The novel 's author portrayed him as an elderly widower and military arts tutor who counted Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of the fictional 108 outlaws on which the Water Margin is based , among his former pupils . A later republican era folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang not only adds Wu Song to this list , but represents Zhou as a knight @-@ errant with supreme swordsmanship . The tale also gives him the nickname " Iron Arm " , which he shares with the executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw Cai Fu , and makes the outlaw Lu Zhishen his sworn brother . Because of his association with the outlaws , he is often confused with the similarly named outlaw Zhou Tong .

Various wuxia novels and folk legends have endowed Zhou with different kinds of martial and supernatural skills . These range from mastery of the bow , double broadswords , and Chinese spear to that of Wudang hard qigong and even x @-@ ray vision . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . He is also linked to Northern Praying Mantis boxing via Lin Chong and Yan Qing . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of Drunken Eight Immortals boxing . However , the oldest historical record that mentions his name only says he taught archery to Yue Fei . Nothing is ever said about him knowing or teaching a specific style of Chinese martial arts .

Zhou has appeared in various forms of media such as novels , comic books , and movies . His rare 20th century biography , Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , serves as a sequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue as his pupil . This was later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua comic book . He also appears in a novel concerning one of his fictional martial arts brothers . He was portrayed by three different actors in a string of black and white Yue Fei films produced in the 1940s and 1960s , one of which featured a ten @-@ year @-@ old Sammo Hung as the lead . Veteran martial arts actor Yu Chenghui , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 interview that he has always wanted to portray Zhou in a film .

= = History = =

= = = Mention in Yue family memoirs = = =

On his deathbed , Yue Fei 's third son Yue Lin ( 岳霖 , born 1130 ) asked his own son , the poet and historian Yue Ke ( 岳珂 , 1183 – post @-@ 1240 ) , to complete Yue Fei 's memoirs . This two @-@ part memoir was completed in 1203 , some sixty years after the general 's political execution , but was not published until 1234 . It was later abridged in 1345 and published in the Yuan Dynasty 's dynastic chronology History of the Song Dynasty under the title Yue Fei Biography ( chapter 365 , biography 124 ) . Zhou 's mention in Yue Ke 's memoir was only briefly summarized in the Yuan rewrite . It reads , " He [ Yue Fei ] learned archery from Zhou Tong . He learned everything and could fire with his left and right hands . After Tong 's death , he would offer sacrifices at his tomb " .

Western Washington University history professor Edward Kaplan explains Zhou was a " local hao " ( 豪 - " heroic ( person ) " ) . He comments Hao can also mean " a ' knight errant ' in poetic translation , or in prosaic terms a professional strongman and bodyguard . ' " This means Zhou was a local hero from Tangyin County , Anyang prefecture , Henan province ( the same area as Yue Fei ) .

Historical and scholarly sources spell his personal name as 同 ( Tong ) , meaning " same or similar " . This differs from the spelling present in fictional sources , which will be further explained below . So , " 周同 " represents the historical archer .

= = = Tutelage = = =

Despite being literate , giving him a chance to become a scholar , young Yue Fei chose the military path because there had never been any tradition of full @-@ fledged Confucian civil service in his family history . He would stay up all night reading military strategy books and idolized such great historical heroes as Guan Yu . However , the Yue family was much too poor to afford military lessons for their son , so , Yao Dewang , the boy 's maternal grandfather , hired Chen Guang ( 陈广 ) to teach the eleven @-@ year @-@ old how to wield the Chinese spear . Yao was very surprised when his grandson quickly mastered the spear by the age of thirteen . Zhou was then brought in to continue Yue 's military training in archery . Dr. Kaplan describes Zhou as the " most important " of the two teachers .

A section of the Jin Tuo Xu Pian , the second part of Yue Ke 's original published memoir , describes one of Zhou 's archery lessons and reveals that he took other children as his pupils :

" One day , [ Chou ] T 'ung gathered his pupils for an archery session and to display his ability put three arrows in succession into the center of the target . Pointing to the target to show grandfather [ Yue Fei ] , he said : ' After you can perform like this , you can say you are an archer ' . Grandfather , thanked him and asked to be allowed to try . He drew his bow , let fly his arrow and struck the end of T 'ung 's arrow . He shot again and again hit the mark . T 'ung was greatly amazed and subsequently presented to grandfather his two favorite bows . Thereafter grandfather practiced still more [ until ] he was able to shoot to the left and right , accurately letting fly the arrow as he moved . When he became a general he taught this to his officers and men so that his whole army became skilled at shooting to the left and right and frequently used this technique to crush the enemy 's spirit " .

The last sentence of the passage is similar to one from the Republican era Biography of Song Yue , Prince of E. But instead of teaching them his own technique , it states Yue taught what he had learned from Zhou to his soldiers who were victorious in battle .

= = = Death = = =

Zhou continued to teach the children until his death , prior to Yue 's legal adulthood . Following his passing , Yue became extremely depressed since Zhou had been the greatest influence on his early life . Zhou 's student would regularly visit his tomb on the first and fifteenth of every month with sacrifices of meat and wine and would shoot three arrows in succession with one of the two bows his tutor had presented him with ( it is never mentioned whether any of Zhou 's other archery pupils came to visit his tomb ) . Dr. Kaplan comments this continuous unusual display of mourning " went far beyond the ceremonial appropriate for even a highly respected teacher " . Noted Sinologist Hellmut Wilhelm claims even though the display of grief was genuine , it was also a way of emulating the stories of his heroic idols and " [ establishing himself ] in the public eye " . Yue 's father later followed him secretly to Zhou 's tomb after striking him during an argument over his melancholic behavior . There , he saw him perform the unorthodox obediences involving the meat , wine , and three arrows . When he finally confronted him , the son confessed that " his gratitude for Chou 's instruction could not be requited simply by the usual first and middle of the month ceremonies and so he ... shot off the three arrows to symbolize that Chou had been the source of his inspiration as an archer " . Dr. Kaplan 's states this happened just prior to Yue 's entrance into the army and that the entire event served as a symbol for Yue 's " entrance into responsible manhood " .

The Chronology of Yue Wumu lists the events at Zhou 's tomb happening in 1121 when Yue was nineteen , but Yue would have been eighteen in that year since he was born on " the fifteenth day of the second month of 1103 " . The author of the original source material was using xusui age calculation , in which a child is already considered one year old at birth . Since Yue joined the military shortly after Zhou 's death , a relative time frame can be given for when he died . During the early months of 1122 , the Song empire mobilized its armed forces to assist the Jurchen in confronting their common enemy , the Liao Dynasty . Therefore , it appears that Zhou died in late 1121 , before the call to arms was issued .

= = Fiction = =

Zhou Tong 's fictional life story can be pieced together from two sources : The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . The Story of Yue Fei is a fictionalized retelling of Yue Fei 's young life , military exploits , and execution . It was written by a native of Renhuo named Qian Cai ( 钱彩 ) , who lived sometime between the reigns of the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors in the Qing dynasty . The preface dates the book 's publication to 1684 . It was deemed a threat by the Qing emperors and banned during the Qianlong era . In the novel , Zhou is portrayed as an elderly widower and Yue 's only military arts tutor . The General 's historical spear master Chen Guang is never mentioned . Zhou teaches Yue Fei and his sworn brothers military and literary arts from chapters two through five , before his death .

In the writing of his novel , Qian Cai used a different character when spelling Zhou 's given name . Instead of the original character meaning " similar " , it was changed to 侗 , meaning " rude or rustic " . So , " 周侗 " represents Zhou 's distinct fictional persona . This spelling has even been carried over into modern day martial arts manuals .

Iron Arm , Golden Sabre was written by Wang Yun Heng and Xiao Yun Long and published in 1986 . This novel , which serves as Zhou 's own fictional biography , is a prequel to The Story of Yue Fei because it details his adventures decades prior to taking Yue Fei as his student . It follows his life as a young martial arts instructor in the Song army 's Imperial guard , his struggles against the Xixia and Liao Tartar barbarian tribes and his tutelage of Water Margin outlaws . The last few chapters incorporate the storyline from the four chapters that he appears in The Story of Yue Fei . This was later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua @-@ style comic book called The Legend of Zhou Tong in 1987 .

= = = Early life and adulthood = = =

Zhou is born in Shaanxi and trains in the martial arts from a young age . He is taken as one of the pupils of Shaolin master Tan Zhengfang ( 谭正芳 ) and , learning the true essence of Shaolin Kungfu , becomes proficient in things both literary and martial . Tan 's other students include the future generals Jin Tai ( 金台 ) and Zong Ze ( 宗澤 ) and the future Water Margin outlaws Sun Li and Luan Tingyu . As a young man , Zhou catches the attention of Judge Bao Zheng and enlists in the military as an officer . His superiors take note of his great skill after he helps his classmate General Jin battle Liao Tartars in northern China and install him as a teacher in the Capital Imperial Martial Arts School . The school has three teaching positions named in order of prestige : " Heaven , " " Earth , " and " Man . " Since he has the greatest skill , he occupies the Heaven position . He uses this post and his friendship with General Zong to get their classmate Sun Li installed as the Superintendent of Forces of Dengzhou . Sun later becomes an outlaw under Chao Gai and helps defeat the evil Zhu Family , who learn military arts from his classmate Luan Tingyu .

As he grows older , Zhou becomes dissatisfied with politics because the Imperial court chooses to appease the northern barbarian tribes instead of standing against them . He then devotes himself wholeheartedly to his martial arts practice and creates several official and authoritative techniques including the " five step , thirteen lance piercing kick " , which is a development of Shaolin Fanzi boxing , and the " Zhou Tong cudgel . " He makes a concerted effort to transmit his martial efforts while teaching at the Imperial Martial Arts School and formally accepts two disciples : " Jade Unicorn " Lu Junyi and " Panther head " Lin Chong . Lu Junyi is a millionaire with vast land holdings and does not hold office , but Lin Chong inherits Zhou 's position after his retirement , and continues to serve as the lead instructor for the 800 @,@ 000 members of the Song army 's Imperial Guard .

During this time , Zhou Tong also has an additional disciple named Wu Song . Wu Song becomes famous for killing a man @-@ eating tiger with his bare hands and is appointed as a constable in his native Shandong . The county magistrate Sun Guoqin later sends Wu on a mission to Kaifeng with precious tiger bone balm in order to curry favor with influential personages . During his stay in the capital , he makes the acquaintance of Zhou . Zhou finds Wu to be a man of great strength , but feels that he lacks refinement in his martial technique and , therefore , offers guidance for Wu 's training . Unfortunately , these two men only interact for a brief two months before Wu has to return home , never to see Zhou again .

Following his retirement , Zhou serves for a time as an advisor to General Liu Guangshi ( 劉光世 ) , whose troops are garrisoned in Henan Province . But Zhou later becomes an outlaw himself after he aids the heroes of the Water Margin and is forced to flee from government forces . Meanwhile , he learns his elderly classmate Jin Tai is close to death and hurries to Shaolin ( where the general had become a Buddhist monk after the murder of his family ) to pay his last respects . As the oldest of Tan 's pupils , Jin orders Zhou to find a talented youth to pass on all of his martial arts knowledge to . However , this reunion is cut short when the troops track him to Shaolin . He flees to Wine Spring mountain and lives in hiding for sometime before being invited by his old friend Wang Ming ( 王明 ) to become the precept of the Wang family in Unicorn Village .

= = = Old age and death = = =

One day , Zhou surprises the children with a written exam and leaves the classroom to speak with a visitor . Wang 's son , Wang Gui ( 王贵 ) , tricks their maid 's son , Yue Fei , into completing their assignment while they go outside to play . After easily finishing the task at hand , Yue writes a heroic poem on a whitewashed wall and signs it with his name . The children then burst into the classroom upon learning of Zhou 's forthcoming return and tell Yue to escape in order to avoid apprehension . The old teacher eventually discovers the ruse and , after marveling at Yue 's impromptu ballad , asks Yue to fetch his mother , Lady Yao ( 姚夫人 ) , for an important meeting . With the entire Wang household assembled in the main hall , Zhou asks the Lady for her blessing to have the boy as his adopted son and student . She consents and Yue takes his seat amongst Zhou 's students the following morning . Because Zhou knows Yue is poor , he commands the four students to become sworn brothers . Zhou also begins to teach Yue all of the eighteen weapons of war .

Six years later , Zhou takes the group to visit his old friend , the abbot of a small Buddhist temple on the " Hill of Dripping Water " . Thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wanders behind the temple and finds the " Cave of Dripping Water " , in which lives a magical snake . When it lunges at Yue , he dodges to one side and pulls on its tail with his supernatural strength , causing it to turn into an 18 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , gold @-@ plated spear named the " Supernatural Spear of Dripping Water " . When they return home , Zhou begins to drill all of his students in the military arts — eighteen weapons of war , archery , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . After three years of practice , Zhou enters them into a preliminary military examination in Tangyin in which sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Yue wins first place by shooting a succession of nine arrows through the bullseye of a target two hundred and forty paces away . After his display of marksmanship , Yue is asked to marry the daughter of Li Chun ( 李春 ) , an old friend of Zhou 's and the county magistrate who presided over the military exams . Father and son then return home to their village .

Magistrate Li writes out a marriage certificate and dispatches a messenger to deliver the document to Yue Fei in Unicorn Village . Zhou and Yue set out at dawn and travel back to Tangyin to thank the Magistrate for his generosity and kindness . There , Li prepares a great feast for them , but when food is brought out for any servants that might have accompanied them , Zhou comments that they had come on foot without help . Li decides to let Yue pick from any one of his thousands of horses because every able military man needs a strong steed . After finishing their feast , Zhou and Yue thank Li once again and leave Tangyin to return home . During their journey , Zhou recommends that Yue run the horse to test its speed . Yue spurs the horse on leaving Zhou in pursuit . When they reach the village gate , the two dismount and Zhou returns to his study where he feels hot from the race and removes his outer garments to fan himself . But he soon falls ill and stays bedridden for seven days . Then the book describes his death and burial :

" ... his phlegm bubbled up and he died . This was on the fourteenth day of the ninth month in the seventeenth year of the Reign of Xuan He , and his age was seventy @-@ nine ... Buddhist and Taoist Priests were asked to come and chant prayers , for seven times seven , namely forty @-@ nine days . Then the body was taken up to be buried beside the Hill of Dripping Water " .

Yue lives in a shed by his grave through the winter and in the second lunar month of the following year , his martial brothers come and pull the building down , forcing him to return home and take care of his mother .

The quoted death date is not only unreliable because the book is fiction , but also because the Xuan He reign era of Emperor Huizong lasted only seven years ( 1119 – 1125 ) and not seventeen . Although The Story of Yue Fei states Zhou died shortly before Yue took a wife , he historically died after Yue married . It is likely that the original author invented this fictional date .

= = = Family = = =

According to The Story of Yue Fei , Zhou was married with a son . But Zhou comments that his " old wife " died and his " small son " was killed in battle against the Liaos after leaving with the outlaw Lu Junyi to fight in the war . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , his wife is named Meng Cuiying ( 孟翠英 ) and his son is named Zhou Yunqing ( 周云清 ) . He defeats Meng in a lei tai martial arts contest and wins her as his wife . But she is shortly thereafter kidnapped by the wicked monks of the Stone Buddha temple . Both Zhou and Meng eventually defeat the monks with their combined martial skills and later marry at the Miaochuan Pass in Hubei province .

Zhou Yunqing first appears as a fierce , impulsive young man who rides his horse into the thick of enemy encampments wielding a long spear . He later dies in battle against the Liao Dynasty . After his son 's death , Zhou retreats to the Xiangguo Temple for a long morning period . He later takes seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei as his adopted son and sole heir years after the boy 's father drowns in a great flood :

" I see that he [ Yue Fei ] is clever and handsome and I , an old man , wish to have him as my adopted son ... He need change neither his name nor his surname . I only want him to call me father temporarily so that I can faithfully transmit all the skills I have learned in my life to a single person . Later , when I die , all he has to do is to bury my old bones in the earth and not allow them to be exposed , and that is all " .

However , after comparing events from The Story of Yue Fei and an account of Yue 's life from the sixteenth @-@ century work Restoration of the Great Song Dynasty : The Story of King Yue ( 大宋中興岳王傳 ) , literary critic C.T. Hsia concluded " that his father did not [ historically ] die in the flood and that , although Yueh Fei showed almost filial regard for the memory of his teacher Chou T 'ung 同 ( not 侗 ) , the latter had not been his adopted father " . The Restoration of the Great Song was one of the earliest of four " historical novels " ( fictionalized dynastic chronologies ) written about Yue during the Ming Dynasty , all of which predate The Story of Yue Fei . Despite the addition of popular legends , Xiong Damu ( fl 1552 ) , the author of the The Story of King Yue , relied heavily on historical chronologies including Zhu Xi 's ( 1130 – 1200 ) Outlines and Details Based on the T 'ung @-@ chien , Yue Ke 's family memoir , and the Yuan Dynasty 's official Yue Fei Biography to write his story . So , The Story of Yue Fei was the first full @-@ blown fictionalized novel to introduce the adoption storyline .

= = = Appearance and voice = = =

He is generally portrayed as a large elderly man with a powerful voice . A modern folktale by noted Yangzhou storyteller Wang Shaotang ( 1889 – 1968 ) , whom folklore researcher Vibeke Børdahl called " the unrivaled master of this [ the 20th ] century " , describes Zhou thus ,

" He was beyond the age of fifty , he was more than fifty , and standing upright he measured about eight feet . His face had a golden tan , arched brows , a pair of bright eyes , a regular head form , a square mouth , a pair of protruding ears , and under his chin there were three locks of beard , a grizzled beard . On his head he wore a sky @-@ blue satin scarf , and he was dressed in a stately sky @-@ blue satin coat with a silken girdle , a pair of wide black trousers without crotch and satin boots with thin soles " .

Heroes and religious masters with above normal height are a recurring theme in Chinese folklore . For instance , his student Wu Song is said to be over nine feet tall in the same folktale . In The Story of Yue Fei , the General simultaneously duels with two other warriors vying for first place in a military exam ; one is nine feet tall and the other is eight feet tall . A Hagiography of the Taoist saint Zhang Daoling states he was over seven feet tall .

When Zhou is vocalized in " Yangzhou storytelling " , he speaks in " Square mouth public talk " , which is a manner of speaking reserved for martial heroes , highly respected characters , or , sometimes , lesser characters that pretend to be an important hero . Square mouth public talk is actually a mixture of two forms of dialogue : Fangkou and Guanbai . Fangkou ( square mouth ) is a manner of steady , yet forceful over pronunciation of dialogue that was possibly influenced by Northern Chinese opera . Guanbai ( public talk ) is monologue and dialogue that is sometimes used for " imposing heroes " . This mixture of styles means Zhou Tong is treated as a highly regarded hero .

In her analysis of Yangzhou storytelling , Børdahl noted that the aforementioned tale about Zhou and Wu Song uses different forms of dialogue for both characters . Wu speaks square mouth utilizing standard mandarin without rusheng ( short glottal syllables ) . On the contrary , Zhou speaks squaremouth using the Yangzhou tone system , which does utilize rusheng syllables . Therefore , she believes " square mouth dialogue should at least be divided into two subcategories , namely the Wu Song variant — without rusheng , and the Zhou Tong variant — with rusheng " .

= = = Students = = =

= = = = Water Margin outlaws = = = =

The Water Margin ( c . 1400 ) is a Ming Dynasty military romance about one hundred and eight demons @-@ born @-@ men and women who band together to rebel against the lavish Song Dynasty government . Lin Chong and Lu Junyi , two of these outlaws , are briefly mentioned as being Zhou 's previous students in The Story of Yue Fei . They are not characters within the main plot , though , as both are killed by " villainous officials " prior to Zhou becoming precept of the Wang household . Most importantly , the two were not among his historical students since they are fictional characters .

Zhou 's portrayal as their teacher is connected to a recurring element in Chinese fiction where Tang and Song Dynasty heroes train under a " celestial master " , usually a Taoist immortal , prior to their military exploits . C.T. Hsia suggests the mold from which all other similar teachers are cast is Guiguzi , master of the feuding strategists Sun Bin and Pang Juan , from the Yuan Dynasty tale Latter Volume of the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Seven Kingdoms ( 七國春秋後集 ) . Hsia goes on to say that Qian Cai , Yue 's fictional biographer , associated Zhou with the outlaws because " most such teachers [ in the military romance genre ] are celestials " with at least two students . But in adopting this format , Qian reversed the traditional pattern of " celestial tutelage " since Zhou is written as a human , while his students are reincarnations of demons ( Lin and Lu ) and the celestial bird Garuda ( Yue Fei ) .

Although Lin and Lu have been connected to Zhou since the early Qing Dynasty , Wu Song did not become associated with him until Wang Shaotang created a 20th @-@ century folktale in which the two meet in Kaifeng . The tale takes place during Wu 's mission to Kaifeng , but before the murder of his older brother Wu Dalang . Zhou teaches Wu the " Rolling Dragon " style of swordplay during the constable 's one @-@ month stay in the capital city . This tale was chapter two of Wang 's " Ten chapters on Wu Song " storytelling repertoire , which was later transcribed and published in the book Wu Sung in 1959 . It eventually carried over into the storyline of Iron Arm , Golden Sabre and , subsequently , The Legend of Zhou Tong . In the latter version , Wu instead learns Chuo Jiao boxing from Zhou during a two month stay in the capital .

Wang 's tale portrays Zhou as an aging itinerant swordmaster with " a fame reverberating like thunder " throughout the underworld society of Jianghu . He is made the sworn brother of the outlaw " Flowery Monk " Lu Zhishen , a military officer @-@ turned @-@ fighting monk , who is , according to Hsia , first among the most popular protagonists of the Water Margin . He is also given the nickname " Iron Arm " ( 铁臂膀 ) , which carried over into the title of his fictional biography Iron Arm , Golden Sabre . While the tale fails to explain the reason for the moniker , it does mention Zhou 's ability to direct his qi to any part of his body to make it hard enough to overpower the " Iron shirt " technique of another martial artist . Furthermore , Zhou shares the same nickname with Cai Fu , an executioner @-@ turned @-@ outlaw known for his ease in wielding a heavy sword .

Because of his association with these outlaws , Zhou is often confused with the similarly named outlaw " Little Conqueror " Zhou Tong . In the Water Margin , this Zhou Tong is a bandit chief of Mount Peach Blossom whom Lu Zhishen beats for trying to forcibly marry the daughter of the Liu family . He dies later under the sword of Li Tianrun , an officer in the rebel army of Fang La . So , the connection between both Zhou 's is based solely on the romanized transcription of their name .

= = = = Yue Fei = = = =

The Story of Yue Fei comments Lu Junyi is Zhou 's last student prior to taking on seven @-@ year @-@ old Yue Fei and his three sworn @-@ brothers Wang Gui , Tang Huai ( 湯懷 ) and Zhang Xian ( 張顯 ) . He teaches them literary and military lessons on even and odd days . The novel says Yue is talented in all manners of " literary and military matters " and even surpasses the skill of Lin and Lu . After Yue acquires his " Supernatural Spear of Dripping Water " , Zhou tutors all of his students in the eighteen weapons of war , but each excels with one in particular ; Yue Fei and Tang Huai , the spear ; Zhang Xian , the Hook @-@ Sickle spear and Wang Gui , the Yanyue Dao . All of them learn the skill of archery in addition . Some of these and other children are mentioned in Yue Ke 's memoir as being his grandfather 's historical childhood friends , but they are never specified as being Zhou 's students .

Books written by modern @-@ day martial artists make many claims that are not congruent with historical documents or current scholarly thought . For instance , internalist Yang Jwing @-@ Ming says Zhou was a scholar who studied martial arts in the Shaolin Monastery and later took Yue as his student after the young man worked as a tenant farmer for the official @-@ general Han Qi ( 韓琦 , 1008 – 1075 ) . During this time , he learned all types of military weapons , horseback riding , and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The General later created Xingyi and Eagle Claw boxing from his internal and external training under Zhou . However , history Prof. Meir Shahar notes that unarmed boxing styles did not develop at Shaolin until the late Ming Dynasty . He also states that Ji family memoirs and Qing Dynasty records suggest Xingyi was created hundreds of years after the death of Yue by a spearplayer named Ji Jike ( fl . 1651 ) . In addition , the appearance of Han Qi in the story is a chronological anachronism since he died nearly 30 years before Yue 's birth . Yue historically worked as a tenant farmer and bodyguard for descendants of Han Qi in 1124 after leaving the military upon the death of his father in late 1122 , but he learned from Zhou well before this time .

Eagle Claw Grandmasters Leung Shum and Lily Lau believe " Jow Tong " ( the Cantonese rendering of his name ) was a monk who brought young Yue to the Shaolin Monastery and taught him a set of hand techniques , which Yue later adapted to create his Ying Kuen ( Eagle fist ) . Liang Shouyu states practitioners of Emei Dapeng Qigong believe Yue trained under Zhou as a child and competed to become China 's top fighter at an early age . Their lineage story dictates Zhou also took Yue to a " Buddhist hermit " who taught him said qigong style . Northern Praying Mantis Master Yuen Mankai says Zhou taught Yue the " same school " of martial arts as he did his Water Margin students and that the General was the originator of the praying mantis technique " Black Tiger Steeling [ sic ] Heart " . Although Martial arts historian Stanley Henning admits that Yue 's biographies do not mention boxing , he says " he [ Yue ] almost certainly did practice some form of bare handed fighting " to prepare for his weapons training . But he does not suggest who Yue might have learned it from .

= = = Martial arts = = =

There is insufficient historical evidence to support the claim he knew any skills beyond archery . Contemporary records never once mention Zhou teaching Yue boxing . Despite this , various wuxia novels and folk legends have attributed many different military and supernatural skills to Zhou . These range from mastery of the bow , double swords and Chinese spear to that of Wudang hard qigong , Chuojiao boxing and even X @-@ ray vision . Wang Shaotang 's folktale even represents him as a master of Drunken Eight Immortals boxing .

Zhou can also be linked to these combat arts through his historical and folklore students . Practitioners of Eagle Claw , Chuojiao and Xingyi commonly include him within their lineage history because of his association with Yue Fei , the supposed progenitor of these styles . Yuen Mankai believes Zhou taught Lin Chong and Lu Junyi the " same school " of martial arts that was later combined with seventeen other schools to create Mantis fist . This combination of various schools refers to an eighteenth @-@ century martial arts manual that describes the gathering of eighteen masters at the Shaolin Monastery that supposedly took place during the early years of the Song Dynasty . Lin Chong and Yan Qing are listed as two of the eighteen masters invited , which means their skills of Mandarin Duck Leg and ground fighting are treated as two separate schools , instead of one . But he believes Mantis fist was created during the Ming Dynasty , and was therefore influenced by these eighteen schools from the Song . He also says Lu Junyi taught Yan Qing the same martial arts as he learned from Zhou .

Very few references are made to the people who supposedly taught martial arts to Zhou . In The Legend of Zhou Tong , he learns as a child from a Shaolin master named Tan Zhengfang . Practitioners of Chuojiao claim he learned the style from its creator , a wandering Taoist named Deng Liang . Practitioners of Geok Gar Kuen , a style attributed to Yue Fei , believe he studied under Han De , a " chivalrous person " from Shaanxi .

= = In popular culture = =

Zhou has appeared in various kinds of media including novels , comic books , and movies . Apart from The Story of Yue Fei and Iron Arm , Golden Sabre , he appears in a novel based around his older martial arts brother , Jin Tai . A recent graphic novel of The Story of Yue Fei , deletes all mythological elements from the storyline and presents it in a historical manner . Instead of traveling from Hebei to Hubei to inspect land , Zhou travels from Shaanxi to Kaifeng City in Henan to visit an old friend who had been promoted to General . While en route to the capital city , Zhou takes note of a great famine plaguing the peasantry and even hears stories of some people resorting to Cannibalism . However , when he arrives in Kaifeng , he sees the empire is wasting money on the construction of large imperial gardens , the court officials Cai Jing and Wang Pu have extravagant residencies , and hears that even eunuchs are rich because they are given high government posts . Upon locating his friend , Zhou is distressed to find him in stocks and shackles and being escorted to the farthest reaches of China by imperial guards . He later learns that the General had accidentally offended some court officials and was sentenced to permanent exile on some trumped up charges . Apparently having little or no money , Zhou decides to visit Wang Ming in Hubei ( mistakenly called Hebei ) and becomes the estate 's tutor .

Another noticeable difference in the storyline takes place when Zhou travels with his teenage disciples to visit his friend the Abbot . Instead of Yue wandering behind the temple to battle the magical snake , he stays with Zhou and the Abbot , while the other disciples go off to explore . Zhou watches as the Abbot tests Yue 's strength by asking him to move an ornate three @-@ hundred pound copper stove dating from the Han Dynasty . The abbot then lifts a stone floor tile and presents the boy with a large book on military strategy . He goes on to tell Yue how he was once a great soldier who fought in campaigns against the Liao and Western Xia empires , but became a monk after the Song agreed to become a vassal of each state . He later made a name for himself by teaching military skills to youths from the surrounding area . Since he has no heir of his own , the Abbot presents Yue with his own personal spear and instructs him in the proper use of the weapon . Zhou kindly protests the gift at first , but allows Yue to keep it out of friendship .

A second graphic novelization drastically changes the storyline involving Zhou . Like the original , Zhou becomes the tutor of the Wang estate , but , when news of his arrival prompts rich families to send their sons to learn from him , he is forced to accept droves of these students on a trial basis . He eventually chooses his friends ' sons as his indoor disciples and Yue as his " godchild " . Years later , he takes his now teenage students not to see the Buddhist abbot , but to teach them military strategy out in the mountain wilderness . Yue senses trouble after his martial brothers separate to explore the forest and rushes off to rescue them , only to be confronted by a monstrous snake . After vanquishing the beast with his sword , Yue discovers a magic glowing spear within a cave and reports back to Zhou . Following their training , Zhou becomes ill from overexposure to the cold mountain air on the return trip home and dies soon after . Instead of just Yue , all of his students live beside his grave for a mourning period of one hundred days before returning home to their families . These events take place three years before Zhou originally died in The Story of Yue Fei .

Stories including Zhou have also been used to educate . The Secondary School system of Hong Kong teaches children the value of mentorship by making them read about the close teacher @-@ pupil relationship between Zhou and Yue . A morale tale called " Yue Fei Studies Archery " in Children 's Pictorial , a Chinese magazine tailored for children ages two through seven , demonstrates how great achievements are only made possible via diligent practice . The story states how young Yue stumbles upon Zhou 's training hall in a neighboring town while gathering fire wood . Yue applies to become a student , but Zhou tells him he must first practice the art of the " far @-@ sighted person " by staring into the morning sun to improve his eyesight . After years of unrelenting practice , Yue is able to spot a lone goose flying off in the distance and two cicadas on a tree far into the forest . Zhou then officially takes him as his disciple and adopted son . Under his tutelage , Yue is able to master the eighteen weapons of war and to shoot a falling leaf from one @-@ hundred paces away .

He is mentioned numerous times in author Robert Liparulo 's thriller Deadlock ( 2009 ) . Zhou is first featured in chapter eight during a conversation between the main character John " Hutch " Hutchinson , a journalist bent on stopping the maniacal plans of a billionaire madman , and his friend 's young son Dillon , an archery enthusiast . When Hutch asks him if he had ever heard of the archery @-@ champion @-@ turned @-@ actor Howard Hill , Dillon replies : " I don 't think so ... You told me about Zhou Tong " . Hutch then says : " Oh , yeah . Zhou Tong was something . Taught the Song Dynasty to be the best military archers in history . But Howard Hill [ was the best ] " . Later in chapter fifty , while Hutch is trailing a killer through an airport , a page goes out over the intercom system for a " Mr. Zhou Tong " . When the page goes out again , Hutch muses : " Zhou Tong had been a famous archery teacher and military arts tutor in the Song Dynasty . [ Dillon and I ] had long telephone conversations about him , because of Tong 's blending of archery skills and self @-@ discipline . He was an inspiration to [ me ] . Dillon had sensed that and wanted to known everything about him " . He finally realizes that the page had to have been left by Dillon 's mother Laura to catch his attention . The page is sent to warn him of a trap , but Hutch receives it too late .

Screen actors who have portrayed Zhou in film 's from the 1940s and 1960s include Wong Sau Nin , Li Ming , and Jing Ci Bo . Jing starred alongside a ten @-@ year @-@ old Sammo Hung , who played young Yue Fei . Veteran martial arts actor Yu Chenghui , who played the sword @-@ wielding antagonist in Jet Li 's Shaolin Temple , stated in a 2005 newspaper interview that he never shaved his trademark beard , even at the request of movie producers , because he wanted to portray Zhou in a future film . He went on to say " He is an outstandingly able person from the northern and southern Song Dynasties and many Water Margin heroes are his disciples . This person is very important in the martial arts and many people want to portray him in films " .

= Romanian Land Forces =

The Romanian Land Forces ( Romanian : Forțele Terestre Române ) is the army of Romania , and the main component of the Romanian Armed Forces . In recent years , full professionalisation and a major equipment overhaul have transformed the nature of the force .

The Romanian Land Forces were founded on 24 November [ O.S. 12 November ] 1859 . They participated in World War I , together with the Russian Empire forces in actions against the Central Powers and , despite initial setbacks , won the decisive battles of Mărăşti and Mărăşeşti . During most of World War II ( until August 23 , 1944 ) Romanian forces supported the Axis powers , fighting against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front . From August 1944 until the end of the war , Romania fought against Germany under the control of the Soviet Union . When the communists seized power after the Second World War , the army underwent reorganisation and sovietization .

Following the Romanian Revolution , due to shortage of funds , many units were disbanded and much equipment was phased out . Likewise , Romanian military capability declined because of a lack of fuel as well as training . However , since the late 1990s , a number of positive changes have come about and the level of combat readiness is growing greatly ; since 1996 , the military budget has grown more than four times - rising from 636 million dollars to 2 @.@ 8 billion dollars in 2007 . Conscription has been abolished and professionalisation has been completed .

= = Mission = =

The Land Forces represent the most important component of the Romanian Armed Forces and they are destinated for execution of various military actions , with terrestrial or aeromobile character , in any zone or direction .

The Land Forces must , independently or together with other Romanian military branches , conduct operations and defensive or offensive battles , for capture , or destruction of the invading enemy , being part of national , or multinational military structures .

A part of the units which compose the current operational structure of the Land Forces , must be able to conduct military operations outside the national territory , together with the international military forces .

= = History = =

The first attempt to create an independent Romanian army was made by Gheorghe Magheru during the 1848 Wallachian Revolution , and it was based at Râureni ( now part of Râmnicu Vâlcea ) . However , Magheru rapidly ordered his troops to disband when the Ottoman forces swept into Bucharest to stop the revolution .

= = = Romanian War of Independence = = =

The current Romanian Land Forces were formed in 1859 , immediately after the unification of Wallachia with Moldavia , and were commanded by Alexandru Ioan Cuza , Domnitor of Romania until his abdication in 1866 . In 1877 , at the request of Nikolai Konstantinovich , Grand Duke of Russia the Romanian army fused with the Russian forces , and led by King Carol I , fought in what was to become the Romanian War of Independence . They participated in the Siege of Plevna and several other battles . The Romanians won the war , but suffered about 27 @,@ 000 casualties . Until World War I , the Romanian army didn 't face any other serious actions .

= = = Second Balkan War = = =

The Romanian Army entered the Second Balkan War against Bulgaria , allowing Romania to annex Southern Dobruja ( also known as the Cadrilater ) . Although some 330 @,@ 000 troops were mobilised , the Romanians met little resistance in Bulgaria and as such this is not considered a major conflict in Romanian history . This was due to historical claims on land . This area no longer belongs to Romania .

= = = World War I = = =

On July 6 , 1916 , Romania declared war on Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary , following the initial success of the Brusilov Offensive ( a major Russian offensive against the armies of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front ) . The Romanian armies entered Transylvania ( then part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire ) , together with Russian forces . However , German forces under the command of General Erich von Falkenhayn stalled the attack in November , 1916 , and drove back the Romanians . At the same time , Austrian and Turkish troops invaded southern Romania , forcing the country into a two @-@ front war . The Central Powers drove deep into Romania and conquered the south of the country ( Wallachia , including Bucharest ) by the end of 1916 . The Romanian forces , led by Marshal Constantin Prezan , retreated into the north @-@ east part of Romania ( Moldavia ) . In the summer of 1917 however , Prezan , aided by the future Marshal , General Ion Antonescu , successfully defended the remaining unoccupied territories against German and Austro @-@ Hungarian forces led by Field Marshal August von Mackensen . General Alexandru Averescu led the Second Army in the victories of the Battle of Mărăşti ( July 22 to August 1 , 1917 ) and the Battle of Mărăşeşti ( August 6 to September 8 , 1917 ) . As a result of the Russian Revolution , Romania was left isolated and unable to continue the war , and was forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest with the Central Powers . Later on , in 1919 , Germany agreed , in the Treaty of Versailles Article 259 , to renounce all the benefits provided to it by the Treaty of Bucharest in 1918 . After the successful offensive on the Thessaloniki front , which put Bulgaria out of the war , Romania re @-@ entered the war on November 10 , 1918 , a day before its end in the West .

= = = Hungarian @-@ Romanian War of 1919 = = =

After World War I , Transylvania proclaimed union with the Kingdom of Romania . As a result , in April 1919 , the newly established Hungarian Soviet Republic vowed to retake the region by force , and Hungarian troops attacked Romanian formations in Transylvania . The Romanian Army defeated the Hungarians and conquered Budapest in August 1919 .

From 1921 to 1939 in Transylvania Inspectorate General of Army no . 3 had subordinate the 6th and 7th Army Corps . By 1 April 1921 , when he disbanded Forces Western Command , to order 6th Army Corps ( and earlier structures ) have been generals Prezan Constantin , Constantin Christescu Traian Mosoiu , Mardarescu George , Nicholas and Arthur Văitoianu et al . After 1 April 1921 to 23 March 1939 , C. 6 A. was commissioned by General Nicholas Petal , Danila Pop Hanzu Alexander , John Prodan , Motas Dumitru Gheorghe Florescu and Christie Doe , prominent military leaders , whom Octavian Goga wrote that " in the interwar period , in Cluj in Transylvania , commanders have made a large @-@ scale opera and unanimous praise . " Three divisions were part of 6th Army Corps : 16th ( Dej ) , 17th ( Oradea ) and 20th Infantry Divisions ( Targu @-@ Mureş ) . With rapid and marked worsening international situation , especially in neighboring Romania , on 22 September 1939 , the 4th Army , recently founded , became Army Group Command no . 1 of Transylvania .

= = = World War II = = =

After General ( later Marshal ) Ion Antonescu took power in September 1940 , Romania signed the Tripartite Pact with the Axis Powers and subsequently took part in Operation Barbarossa in 1941 . An expeditionary force invaded the Soviet Union in Bessarabia and southern Ukraine , alongside the German Wehrmacht . The expeditionary force , ' Army Group Antonescu , ' was composed on 22 June 1941 of the 3rd Army , the 4th Army , the 2nd Army Corps , and the 11th Infantry Division . The 3rd Army comprised the 4th Army Corps ( 6th and 7th Infantry Divisions ) , the Cavalry Corps , the Mountain Corps , two separate artillery battalion , a TA unit , and the Air Force 's 3rd Army Cooperation Command . The 4th Army consisted of the 3rd Army Corps , the 5th Army Corps , the 11th Army Corps ( two fortress brigades ) , and the 4th Army Cooperation Command . The army group @-@ level 2nd Army Corps , under Major General N. Macici , controlled the 9th and 10th Infantry Divisions and the 7th Cavalry Brigade . Additionally the 1st Armoured Division was formed for service on the Eastern Front . The Army Group 's first offensive , in conjunction with the Eleventh Army , Operation Munchen , enabled Romania to retake the territory immediately east of the Dnister , former part of Moldavia . The Romanian Armies saw their first major battles at Odessa and Sevastopol , and in 1942 advanced with other Axis forces deeper into Soviet territory during Operation Blue .

The greatest disaster for the Romanian expeditionary force on the Eastern Front came at Stalingrad , where , during the Soviet counter @-@ offensive of November 1942 , the thinly spread forces of the Third Army ( deployed north of Stalingrad ) and of the Fourth Army ( deployed south of Stalingrad ) were attacked by vastly superior Soviet forces and suffered combined losses of some 158 @,@ 000 personnel .

During April – May 1944 the Romanian forces led by General Mihai Racoviţǎ , together with elements of the German Eighth Army were responsible for defending Northern Romania during the Soviet First Jassy @-@ Kishinev Offensive , and took part in the Battles of Târgu Frumos . In late August 1944 , the Red Army entered eastern Romania . On August 23 , 1944 , a coup led by King Michael I of Romania deposed Marshal Antonescu and set up a pro @-@ Soviet government . It has been estimated that the royal coup shortened the war for Romania by six months . Romania soon declared war on Nazi Germany , and the First and Fourth Armies were pressed into action . After the expelling of the last Wehrmacht remnants from Romania , the Romanian Armies took part in the Siege of Budapest and the Prague Offensive of May 1945 .

= = = Cold War = = =

The Soviet occupation of Romania led to a complete reorganisation of the Romanian Land Forces under the supervision of the Red Army . At the onset , pro @-@ German elements were purged from the Romanian armed forces . In 1944 – 45 , two divisions were formed out of Romanian volunteers — ex @-@ prisoners of war , trained and indoctrinated in the Soviet Union during the war , but also of many Communist activists . One was the Tudor Vladimirescu First Volunteer Division , under the command of Colonel Nicolae Cambrea , and the other the Horia , Cloşca şi Crişan Division , under the command of General Mihail Lascăr ( who later served as Minister of Defence from 1946 to 1947 ) . These two units formed the nucleus of the new Romanian Land Forces under Soviet control . The postwar reorganisation of the Land Forces included cavalry but the arm disappeared from the force with the disbandment in November 1954 of the 59th Cavalry Division at Oradea .

After the Romanian Communist Party seized political power , the sovietization of the army commenced , under the supervision of the new Minister of Defence , Emil Bodnăraş . Thirty per cent of the officers and noncommissioned officers ( mostly experienced soldiers , and a potential source of opposition ) were purged from the military . This involved copying the Soviet model of military and political organisation , and changing the military doctrine of combat and defence , also in the context of Romania 's integration in the strategic system of the Soviets , at the beginning of the Cold War .

In the early 1950s the RLF reached a level of 12 rifle , one mechanised , and one tank division . Between 1960 and 1964 the rifle and mechanised divisions were converted to motor rifle divisions , and reductions in strength began ; force size dropped to six motor rifle and two tank divisions by 1970 . From 1970 to 1976 , three more motor rifle divisions were formed , but one was deactivated in 1977 , and the eight motor rifle and three tank division figure remained that way for the rest of the Cold War .

From 1947 to 1960 the country seems to have been divided into three major military regions : Cluj , Bacău , and Bucharest in the west , east , and south , respectively . In wartime the land forces in each military region would become an army corps with their headquarters in Cluj @-@ Napoca , Iaşi , and Bucharest . Armies seem to have succeeded military regions in 1960 , and three armies seem to have become four in 1980 . What is known is that on 01 @.@ 07 @.@ 1947 Fourth Army became 3rd Military Region , based in Cluj . The 3rd Military Region became the 3rd Army on 30 April 1960 , and the 4th Army on 5 April 1980 .

During the 1980s , the land forces numbered 140 @,@ 000 personnel , of whom two thirds were conscripts . In 1989 four armies appeared to exist : the First Army at Bucharest , Second Army at Buzau , Third Army at Craiova , and Fourth Army at Napoca . In 1989 the land forces consisted of eight mechanised ( infantry ) divisions ( 1st , Bucharest , 2nd , Craiova , 9th , Constanta , 10th , Iași , 11th , Oradea , 18th , Timişoara , 67th , and 81st , Tirgu Mureş ) two tank divisions ( the 57th Tank Division at Bucharest and the 6th Tank Division at Tirgu Mureş ) , four mountain infantry brigades , and three airborne brigades . According to the 165 @-@ year ' History of Modern Romanian Artillery , ' in 1989 the 1st Army consisted of the 1st Mech Div , 57th Tank Div . , and the 2nd Mountain Brigade ; the 2nd Army of the 9th Mech Div , 10th Mech Div , 67th Mech Div , and 32nd TActical Rocket Bde ; the 3rd Army of the 2nd Mech Div , 18th Mech Div , and the 4th Mountain Bde ; and the 4th Army of the 11th Mech Div , 81st Mech Div , 6th Tank Div . , 1st Mountain Bde , 5th Mountain Bde , and 37th Tactical Missile Brigade .

Motorised rifle divisions were organized along the Soviet model with three motorised rifle regiments , one tank regiment , and a full complement of 12 @,@ 000 infantry soldiers . The artillery , antitank , and air defence regiments of divisions provided specialised fire support that enabled motorised rifle and tank regiments to maneuver . The air defense regiments consisted of two anti @-@ aircraft artillery battalions and one surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) battalion , each composed of several batteries . In the late 1980s the artillery regiments of motorised rifle and tank divisions included two artillery battalions , one multiple rocket launcher battalion , and one surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalion .

Surface @-@ to @-@ surface missile battalions were divided into three or four batteries , each equipped with one missile launcher . They operated thirty FROG @-@ 3 and eighteen SCUD missile launchers . The FROG @-@ 3 , a tactical missile first introduced in 1960 , was being replaced in other non @-@ Soviet Warsaw Pact armies . Proven to be fairly inaccurate in combat , FROG and SCUD missiles would be ineffective weapons carrying conventional high @-@ explosive warheads . Tipped with nuclear or chemical warheads , however , they could be devastating . According to one former Romanian official writing in 1988 , Romania produced chemical agents that could be delivered by battlefield missiles .

= = = Post @-@ communist era = = =

During the early 1990s , some major units were disbanded and a lot of equipment was phased out or scrapped due to a severe shortage of funds . The whole land forces structure was reorganized from armies into territorial corps , and from regiments into battalions . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the situation of the land forces was critical : the military budget was three times lower than in 1989 ( 636 million dollars ) , 50 % of the equipment was older than 30 years , and 60 % of the armoured vehicles and 85 % of the missile units were non @-@ operational . Due to lack of fuel and training , the level of combat readiness and military capability was extremely low ( only about 30 % of the entire land forces were operational ) . However , after 1996 the government took serious action ; the military budget was increased greatly , and modernisation of equipment commenced . Officially , the program to modernize and restructure the armed forces began on 11 April 2000 .

= = Present organisation = =

= = = Manpower = = =

In 2005 , the army comprised eight combat , four combat support and two logistic brigades , while ten combat , five combat support and two logistic brigades could be further mobilised in case of crisis . Many of these units have been restructured , however , as part of the 2007 Force Plan .

Currently , about 75 @,@ 000 military personnel and 15 @,@ 000 civilians comprise the armed forces , for a total of 90 @,@ 000 men and women . Out of these 75 @,@ 000 , cca . 43 @,@ 000 are in the Land Forces .

= = = Modernisation = = =

The Romanian military is undergoing a three @-@ stage restructuring . As of 2007 , the first short @-@ term stage was completed ( reorganisation of the command system , implementation of the voluntary military service ) . The year 2015 marks the end of the second stage ( operational integration in NATO and EU ) , while 2025 is the date when the long @-@ term stage is to be completed ( full technical integration in NATO and EU ) . The stages aim at modernising the structure of the armed forces , reducing the personnel as well as acquiring newer and improved technology that is compatible with NATO standards .

Romania abolished compulsory military service on October 23 , 2006 . This came about due to a 2003 constitutional amendment which allowed the parliament to make military service optional . The Romanian Parliament voted to abolish conscription in October 2005 , with the vote formalising one of many military modernisation and reform programmes that Romania agreed to when it joined NATO in March 2004 .

= = = Structure = = =

In peacetime , the commander of the land forces is the minister of defense , while in wartime , the President of Romania becomes the supreme commander of the armed forces . The main combat formations of Romania are the 2nd Infantry Division Getica , and the 4th Infantry Division Gemina . Until 2015 the Romanian land forces fielded a third division , namely the 1st Division Dacia . Before June 2008 , the 1st and 4th divisions were known as the 1st Territorial Army Corps and the 4th Territorial Army Corps and in turn they used to be called the 1st Army and 4th Army prior to 2000 . However due to their personnel having been reduced considerably in order to reach compatibility with NATO standards they were renamed and reorganized as divisions . In 2010 , the Joint HQ command was renamed as 2nd Infantry Division Getica and received units from the 1st and the 4th Infantry divisions .

The current chief of the Romanian Land Forces Staff is Major General Nicolae Ciucă , who succeeded Major General Mircea Savu on 7 January 2014 . The Land Forces official day is celebrated each year , on 23 April .

= = Equipment = =

The Romanian Land Forces have completely overhauled their equipment in the past few years , replacing it with a more modern one . The TR @-@ 85M1 " Bizon " main battle tank and the MLI @-@ 84M " Jder " infantry fighting vehicle are the most modern native made equipment of the Romanian Land Forces . Also , 43 ex @-@ German Gepard anti @-@ aircraft systems were commissioned in late @-@ 2004 .

The Land Forces ordered about 100 US Army Humvees ; the first eight were delivered to the military police in December 2006 . 31 Piranha III armoured vehicles ( LAV III variant ) and 60 URO VAMTAC high mobility vehicles were also ordered in 2007 for deployment in Iraq and Afghanistan .

Equipment Summary :

= = Special Forces = =

The evolution of the special forces within the Romanian Land Forces led to the establishment of the 1st Special Operations Regiment on 1 August 2009 , headquartered at Târgu Mureş . It later became the 6th Special Operations Brigade on 25 October 2011 , composed of a special operations battalion , two paratrooper battalions and a logistic battalion .

The most famous and well trained unit is the 1st Special Operations Battalion " Vulturii " , which was legally created in late 2005 , after several batches of graduates had already been selected . Members of the special forces battalion have benefitted from courses abroad , such as the US Army Special Forces ( Green Berets ) course , the United States Marine Corps Force Recon course , as well as other courses . The Special Forces battalion became fully operational during 2007 , after a company had already been commissioned in early @-@ 2006 .

The current Romanian reconnaissance battalions ( the 313th , the 317th and the 528th ) are also considered special forces units , and were formed in the 1960s during the communist regime . After the revolution , the units suffered from a lack of funds which resulted in the temporary disbandment of the 313th Battalion . However , their equipment was completely overhauled in the past few years and the combat readiness and capabilities have regained full strength .

DIR , Rapid Intervention Squad of the Romanian Ministry of Defense is an elite special operations unit currently belonging to the Romanian Military Police . It is a special unit inside the military , formed of highly skilled individuals , a very large percentage of its members being champions in martial arts , kickboxing , athletic disciplines and so on . DIR was , until December 2003 , top secret .

= = International missions = =

The following troops are deployed abroad :

45 personnel in Bosnia and Herzegovina ( 23 in Sarajevo and 22 in Banja Luka ) - as part of EUFOR , since 2000 ( to be withdrawn )

150 personnel in Peć , Kosovo - as part of KFOR

1 battalion in Zabul ( 479 personnel ) , 1 guard detachment in Kandahar ( 193 personnel ) , a reconnaissance squad in Mazari Sharif ( 6 personnel ) , Afghanistan - as part of ISAF ; additionally , a special forces squad ( 39 personnel ) and a training detachment ( 47 personnel ) are deployed there

= = Training = =

After the Romanian Revolution , many firing ranges and training areas were closed and abandoned due to lack of funds . Currently , the military schools and training units of the Romanian Land Forces are directly subordinated to the central headquarters . There are 3 military high schools ( Câmpulung Moldovenesc , Alba Iulia and Breaza ) , one military academy ( Sibiu ) , one officers school ( Piteşti ) , 3 training schools ( Sibiu , Piteşti , Buzău ) and 9 training battalions .

In the past few years , lots of training exercises took place in Romania with other Balkan or Allied countries . Most of these exercises took place at Babadag , which is one of the largest and most modern training firing ranges and military facilities in Europe , with a total surface area of 270 square kilometres . It was announced on December 6 , 2006 that 1 @,@ 500 U.S. troops stationed at Mihail Kogălniceanu , which in time will form Joint Task Force East , will be using Babadag as a training base .

= = Ranks and insignia = =

The Romanian Land Forces distinguishes four career paths : officers ( Ofiţeri ) , warrant officers ( Maiştrii militari ) , NCO 's ( Subofiţeri ) and enlisted men ( Soldaţi şi gradaţi voluntari ) . The Marshal rank can be given only in wartime by the President of Romania ; in fact , Romania had only three marshals coming from the officers` rank in its history : Ion Antonescu , Alexandru Averescu and Constantin Prezan . Kings Ferdinand I , Carol II and Mihai I also held the rank of Marshal of Romania . King Carol I held simultaneous ranks as Russian Marshal and German Field @-@ marshal .

= Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! =

Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! is a 2008 Australian documentary film about the Australian New Wave of 1970s and ' 80s low @-@ budget cinema . The film was written and directed by Mark Hartley , who interviewed over eighty Australian , American and British actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , including Quentin Tarantino , Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith , Jamie Lee Curtis , Dennis Hopper , George Lazenby , George Miller , Barry Humphries , Stacy Keach and John Seale .

Hartley spent several years writing a detailed research document , which served to some degree as a script for the film , about the New Wave era of Australian cinema . It focused on the commonly overlooked " Ozploitation " films — mainly filled with sex , horror and violence — which critics and film historians considered vulgar and offensive , often excluded from Australia 's " official film history " . Hartley approached Quentin Tarantino , a longtime " Ozploitation " fan who had dedicated his 2003 film Kill Bill to the exploitation genre , and Tarantino agreed to help get the project off the ground . Hartley then spent an additional five years interviewing subjects and editing the combined 250 hours of interviews and original stock footage into a 100 @-@ minute film .

Not Quite Hollywood , which premiered at the 2008 Melbourne International Film Festival , did not perform well at the box office upon its Australia @-@ wide release , but garnered universally positive reviews from critics and a nomination for " Best Documentary " at the 2008 Australian Film Institute Awards .

= = Synopsis = =

Not Quite Hollywood documents the revival of Australian cinema during the Australian New Wave of the 1970s and ' 80s through B @-@ movies including Alvin Purple , Barry McKenzie Holds His Own , Dead @-@ End Drive In , Long Weekend , Mad Max , The Man from Hong Kong , Patrick , Razorback , Road Games , Stork and Turkey Shoot . From 1971 through to the late 1980s , Australian directors began to take advantage of the newly introduced R @-@ rating which allowed more on @-@ screen nudity , sex and violence for audiences restricted to age 18 and over . " Ozploitation " — writer @-@ director Mark Hartley 's own portmanteau of " Australian exploitation " — was a subgenre of the New Wave which accounted for the critically panned " gross @-@ out comedies , sex romps , action and road movies , teen films , westerns , thrillers and horror films " of the era , commonly overlooked in Australia 's " official film history " . The film addresses three main categories of " Ozploitation " films : sex , horror and action .

= = Interviewees = =

The actors , directors , screenwriters and producers interviewed for the film were :

= = Production = =

As a child , Mark Hartley discovered many of the " Ozploitation " B @-@ movies from the 1970s and ' 80s while watching late @-@ night television , but was disappointed when they were completely overlooked in books he read detailing Australian cinema . After becoming an accomplished music video director , his interest in this era of Australian filmmaking grew and he spent years researching a potential documentary film . He was close to giving up on the project when he sent a 100 @-@ page draft of the script to American film director Quentin Tarantino , not expecting to receive a reply . Tarantino was a longtime fan of " Ozploitation " films and had even dedicated his film Kill Bill to Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith 's work . He replied the day after , telling Hartley that he would do whatever he could to get the film made . Hartley traveled to Los Angeles , California to meet with Tarantino , who agreed to sit for hours of interviews as one of the film 's most prominent interviewees . Hartley spent the following five years interviewing other actors , directors , screenwriters and producers , collecting original stock footage , and then cutting the 100 hours of interviews and 150 hours of film footage down into a 100 @-@ minute film .

= = Release = =

Not Quite Hollywood had its worldwide premiere at the Melbourne International Film Festival on 28 July 2008 , and was screened at the Australian Centre for the Moving Image . Its Australia @-@ wide release was a month later , on 28 August 2008 , and it had its overseas premiere at the Toronto Film Festival on 7 September 2008 , where distribution rights were secured for the United Kingdom , Canada , France , Russia , Germany and Benelux . The film was also screened at the Austin , Sitges , Warsaw , Helsinki and Stockholm International Film Festivals in 2008 , and featured at the London Film Festival on 25 October 2008 .

The film did not perform well at the box office upon its Australian release , taking in a gross of A $ 108 @,@ 330 on its first weekend but only $ 31 @,@ 995 on its second weekend at a screen average of $ 681 on 47 screens .

= = Reception = =

Overall , Not Quite Hollywood received positive reviews from critics . Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 94 % of critics have given the film a positive review , " Certified Fresh " , based on 63 reviews , with an average score of 7 @.@ 4 out of 10 . Margaret Pomeranz and David Stratton of At the Movies gave the film four and three and a half out of five stars respectively ; Pomeranz commended Hartley for " the depth of his research and for creating a wildly entertaining film experience " , and claimed that " for those of us who remember the films , Not Quite Hollywood is a blast " . Sandra Hall , writing for The Sydney Morning Herald , gave the film three and a half out of five stars , believing that " Hartley 's own film is much livelier than most of those he is out to celebrate " . Jake Wilson of The Age similarly gave the film three and a half stars , but called the film " basically a feature @-@ length advertisement for its subject " , saying that it " moves far too rapidly to permit sustained analysis " . The Courier @-@ Mail 's Des Partidge , who gave the film four and a half out of five stars , disagreed , saying that " Brisk editing means the history is lively and fun " , and claimed in homage to The Castle , " Copies of Hartley 's film should go straight to pool rooms all over Australia when it becomes available on DVD . " Luke Goodsell of Empire Magazine Australasia gave Not Quite Hollywood five out of five stars , calling the film " fast , thrilling and often ribald " , while Leigh Paatsch wrote for the Herald Sun that " there is not a single instant where boredom can possibly intrude " , dubbing the film " an incredibly energetic and merrily messed @-@ up celebration of Australian B @-@ movies " .

English director Edgar Wright named Not Quite Hollywood his fourth favourite film of 2008 , and called it " the best documentary ever . "

= = = Awards and nominations = = =

= = Films referenced = =

A list of film referenced within Not Quite Hollywood , separated by genre .

= = Box office = =

Not Quite Hollywood : The Wild , Untold Story of Ozploitation ! grossed $ 186 @,@ 986 at the box office in Australia , .

= Why Does It Hurt So Bad =

" Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is a song recorded by American singer Whitney Houston for the 1995 film Waiting to Exhale . It was released on July 7 , 1996 , by Arista Records as the seventh and final single from the accompanying soundtrack . The song was written and produced solely by Babyface . Musically , it is an R & B ballad , and the lyrics chronicle a lovelorn lament .

The song garnered positive reviews from critics , who commended Houston 's vocal effort . It charted in the United States on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number twenty @-@ six . It also reached a peak position of number twenty @-@ two in the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and number six on the Adult Contemporary chart . In Canada , the song reached a peak of number forty @-@ five on the RPM Singles chart . Although there is no official music video for the song , a performance of the song at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards was taped and is used as a promotional clip . The song was later included as a medley , in her My Love Is Your Love World Tour ( 1999 ) , along with a few other songs .

= = Background = =

Houston starred in the 1995 romance film Waiting to Exhale , directed by Forest Whittaker . Although Houston did not intend to contribute to the film 's soundtrack , when Whittaker hired Babyface to score the soundtrack , she opted in . Babyface , Houston and some other African @-@ American female singers recorded songs for the album . The song was one of the final additions to the soundtrack . " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " was originally written by Babyface for Houston , two years prior to the release of Waiting to Exhale , but Houston refused to record it at that time . " I wasn 't really in the mood for singing about why it hurts so bad , " said Houston . Two years later , according to Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly , the emotions of the movie merged with the real @-@ life circumstances of Houston 's troubled marriage to Bobby Brown . " Now , I 'm ready to sing not only the joys of things , but the pains of things , also , " Houston explained .

= = Composition = =

" Why Does It Hurt So Bad " is an R & B ballad . The song was written and produced by Kenneth Brian Edmonds , popularly known as " Babyface " . According to the sheet music book for The Greatest Hits at Sheetmusicplus.com , the song is written in the key of B ♭ major , and moves at a tempo of 69 beats per minute . It is set in time signature of common time and features a basic chord progression of B / E – Em – C ♯ m – G ♯ 7 . Houston 's vocals span from the note of Am7 to the note of D5 . According to Stephen Holden of New York Times , the song is a " lovelorn lament with a realistic twist " . He noted that , through the verses , the singer congratulates herself for breaking up with an abusive boyfriend and admits that she is still in love .

= = Reception = =

The song garnered mainly positive reviews from critics . Craig Lytle of Allmusic noted that Houston 's voice " sailed " through the song . Christopher John Farley of TIME commented Houston " particularly held her own " , with a " masterly balance of pop , zip , and soulful melancholy " . Steve Knopper of Newsday wrote : " It 's lower @-@ key and the singer , who also stars in the film , doesn 't feel compelled to perform constant vocal feats . " A writer for Boston Herald noted that the song was " understated " . Similarly , Larry Flick of Billboard commented that the song should have been released as the follow @-@ up to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . " Paired with Babyface , Houston is positively luminous on [ this ] heartbreak ballad , performing with a perfect blend of theatrical melodrama and guttural soul , " he added . Deborah Wilker of South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel was mixed in her review commenting that the song was a " predictably histrionic follow @-@ up " to " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . But , Nick Krewen of The Spectator was even less enthusiastic , writing " [ ... ] the two guaranteed [ Whitney Houston ] hits – ' Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) ' and ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' – don 't really offer anything new . " Similarly , Cary Darling of Rome News @-@ Tribune gave a negative review . She noted that " [ the ] ballad ' Why Does It Hurt So Bad ' is [ more ] standard Whitney @-@ fare " .

Released as the seventh and final single from the Waiting to Exhale : Original Soundtrack Album , the song debuted at number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated August 3 , 1996 . On the same issue , the song debuted at number 34 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . The song later reached a peak of number 26 on the Hot 100 , and 22 on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart . It also reached number six on the Adult Contemporary chart , while reaching a peak of 39 on the Adult Pop Songs chart . In Canada , the song debuted at number 98 on the RPM Singles chart , on the July 22 , 1996 issue . Later , on the September 15 , 1996 issue , it reached a peak of number 45 .

= = Music video and live performances = =

The song was not promoted through an official music video , although Houston appeared at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards held at Walt Disney Studios , Burbank and performed " Why Does It Hurt So Bad " . The performance was directed and taped by Bruce Gowers and was later used as a promotional clip to accompany the song . The performance features Houston sitting on a chair , wearing a white outfit , and singing the song .

Houston performed the song on her My Love Is Your Love World Tour , in 1999 . The song was performed as a part of the " Movie Medley " , along with " I Believe in You and Me " , " It Hurts Like Hell " , originally performed by Aretha Franklin , and " I Will Always Love You " . This performance was taped in Sopot , Poland , on August 22 , 1999 and broadcast on Polish television channel , TVP1 .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Retrieved from CD liner notes

= = Charts = =

= Hurricane Omar ( 2008 ) =

Hurricane Omar was a strong hurricane that took an unusual southwest to northeast track through the eastern Caribbean Sea during October , 2008 . Forming out of a tropical disturbance on October 13 , Omar initially moved slowly in the eastern Caribbean Sea . By October 15 , Omar began to quickly intensify as deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Later that day , an eye developed and the storm began to accelerate to the northeast . Early on October 16 , Omar reached its peak intensity with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) . Shortly after , the hurricane rapidly weakened to Category 1 intensity . After slightly re @-@ strengthening the next day , Omar weakened to a tropical storm before degenerating into a non @-@ convective low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until October 21 at which time it dissipated to the west of the Azores .

Throughout the eastern Caribbean , Omar affected numerous islands , most of which only recorded minor impacts . Large swells and heavy rains impacted the ABC islands . Antigua and Barbuda sustained $ 54 million in damages , mainly on Antigua as nine homes were destroyed , several others damaged and many farms were inundated by flood waters . One person died in Puerto Rico after suffering a stress @-@ induced cardiac arrest . The United States Virgin Islands also sustained significant damage , costing roughly $ 6 million . Numerous boats and homes were damaged and over 100 power poles were snapped . Total losses from the storm were estimated at $ 79 million .

= = Meteorological history = =

On September 30 , a well @-@ developed tropical wave moved off the eastern coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic Ocean . Deep convection formed around a prominent mid @-@ level circulation as it moved towards the west . However , the convection diminished on October 2 before entering the Caribbean Sea a week later . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea , shower and thunderstorm activity redeveloped around the low . Continued development followed and the low was designated as Tropical Depression Fifteen at 0600 UTC on October 13 while located about 190 miles ( 305 kilometres ) south of the southeastern tip of the Dominican Republic . The previous steady westward motion that the system took across the Atlantic halted as it entered an area of weak steering currents and significant motion was not expected for another day or two . As the structure of the storm improved , it was upgraded to a tropical storm and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) gave it the name Omar .

Located to the southeast of a broad and deep tropospheric trough and to the west of a low to mid @-@ level ridge , Omar took a counter @-@ clockwise turn on October 14 . Upon becoming a tropical storm , Omar began to undergo an extended period of rapid intensification as very deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Wind shear around the storm , which was previously inhibiting quick development , weakened , allowing for further strengthening . Later that day , an 11 @.@ 5 to 17 @.@ 2 mi ( 18 @.@ 5 to 27 @.@ 7 km ) wide eye formed as the storm began to turn towards the northeast due to the trough . With the formation of an eye , the Dvorak technique rendered an intensity of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , signifying that Omar had intensified into a hurricane . The intensification briefly stalled as the eyewall eroded and the center of the storm became slightly elliptical . However , deep convection persisted and strengthening was forecast as the storm neared Puerto Rico . Shortly after , the eye quickly became well @-@ defined and appeared on visible satellite images , an indication the storm was intensifying . The chances of rapid intensification were good as the storm featured well @-@ developed outflow and prominent banding features .

With very warm sea surface temperatures , high ocean heat content , low wind shear , and a moist air mass , Omar quickly reached its peak intensity early on October 16 as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . During the intensification phase , the forward motion of the hurricane increased to 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Once in the Atlantic Ocean , Omar began to rapidly weaken , with winds decreasing by 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) in 12 hours . Visible satellite images depicted an exposed low @-@ level circulation with convection displaced to the east due to a combination of very high wind shear and dry air . By October 17 , most of the deep convection associated with the system dissipated ; however , a brief decrease in wind shear allowed Omar to re @-@ strengthen to its secondary peak , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . During this phase , convection redeveloped around the center and an eye reformed . Later that day , the trough that caused the rapid northeastern motion bypassed Omar , leading to decreasing movement .

A weakening storm , Omar continued towards the northeast due to a mid to upper @-@ level ridge located south of the system and the mid @-@ latitude westerlies to the north . Late on October 17 , wind shear increased once more as Omar tracked over waters below 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) . Around 0000 UTC on October 18 , Omar weakened to a tropical storm as deep convection associated with it dissipated . Twelve hours later , while still producing tropical storm @-@ force winds , the storm degenerated into a remnant low pressure area . The remnants of Omar persisted until 0600 UTC on October 21 when it dissipated about 805 mi ( 1 @,@ 295 km ) west of the Azores .

= = Preparations = =

On October 15 , the governor of the United States Virgin Islands announced the final preparations for Hurricane Omar as he signed a State of Emergency declaration for the territory . Public schools would be closed on October 16 . All non @-@ essential workers would be dismissed at 10 a.m. local time . At 6 p.m. curfew was put in place for the same day . Only those with valid passes would be allowed to be out after the curfew was put in place . That same day , a Hurricane Warning and flash flood watch were put in place in anticipation of hurricane @-@ force winds and torrential rains from Omar . The American Red Cross planned to open shelters throughout the islands before the hurricane struck . Sandbags were also being distributed in St. Croix . A large oil refinery , which produces 500 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 79 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , was shut down and only necessary workers remained at the refinery .

On Sint Maarten , officials advised residents to start all necessary actions to prepare for a hurricane . Residents were told to clear their yards of any debris or lose furniture that could become airborne during the storm , place shutters over windows and doors and assist elderly neighbors with shuttering their homes , and mariners should find a safe haven . A curfew from 10 : 00 p.m. on October 15 to 10 : 00 a.m. on October 16 was put in place . Due to the possibility of flash flooding , residents were to unclog and free up all waterways around their homes . Officials also warned people to stay away from areas prone to landslides until the " all @-@ clear " was given . Owners of livestock were advised to have insured that they were secured in holding areas . As a precaution , the water supply would be shut down from 8 : 00 p.m. October 15 to 8 : 00 a.m. October 16 . Four public areas , St. Peters Community Center , Dutch Quarter Community Center , Genevieve de Weever School , and the Salvation Army building would be used as emergency shelters .

All public activities , flights , and schools were either closed or canceled on Puerto Rico . Eighteen shelters were open on the eastern part of the island . Also , on Anguilla , residents in the Sandy Ground , Valley Bottom , Welches and Mount Fortune areas were placed under evacuation orders . Shelters were opened throughout the island for those in need of shelter . Schools and government offices were also closed and visitors were told to leave the island .

= = Impact = =

Omar produced moderate damage throughout numerous islands , amounting to at least $ 60 million ( 2008 USD ) and one death was related to the storm .

While it was moving little over the south @-@ central Caribbean , Omar brought prolonged tropical storm conditions to the ABC Islands . Sustained winds to near gale force battered the islands , although peak gusts to 58 mph ( 92 km / h ) were confined to Bonaire . In 24 hours , a maximum precipitation total of 4 @.@ 0 in ( 102 mm ) was recorded on Aruba , while 1 @.@ 7 in ( 43 mm ) and 1 @.@ 5 in ( 41 mm ) of rain fell in Curaçao and Bonaire , respectively . The high winds damaged roofs on all three islands , and rough seas caused beach erosion and significant damage to coastal facilities . Some rain damage also occurred , with significant flooding reported in some parts of Aruba . In the SSS Islands ( Saba , St. Eustatius , and Sint Maarten ) strong winds from Omar , gusting up to 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) , and high waves caused significant damage and coastal flooding . On Sint Maarten , rainfall from the storm totaled to 5 @.@ 4 in ( 139 @.@ 4 mm ) . Damage in Sint Maarten was mainly limited to beach erosion and scattered power outages .

The island of Dominica suffered severe damage from Hurricane Omar . The village of Scotts Head , with a population of 450 , was cut off from the rest of the country as roads were extensively damaged . The village also suffered water losses , electricity shortage , and landline telephones were cut off . Ports throughout the country were severely damaged . All barge access for hauling sand and stones were destroyed . The airport also sustained some damage . Seven boats ran aground during the storm . Minor damage was reported in Anguilla . Two hotels sustained roof damage , downed treed knocked down power lines causing scattered power outages , and the rough seas caused severe beach erosion . Three cargo ships and seven boats ran aground and two other boats sank .

In Antigua and Barbuda , winds from Omar were recorded at 40 mph , with gusts to 48 mph . Intense squall lines brought torrential rains , falling at rates of 2 in ( 50 @.@ 8 mm ) at times , peaking at 2 @.@ 22 in ( 56 @.@ 4 mm ) per hour from 0900 UTC to 1200 UTC on October 16 . The maximum recorded rainfall was 9 @.@ 1 in ( 232 @.@ 6 mm ) however , up to 11 in ( 279 @.@ 4 mm ) was estimated to have fallen in the mountains . Storm Surge was estimated at 2 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 m ) with waves reaching 5 – 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 4 m ) in height . Nine homes were destroyed and several landslides were reported . No fatalities were associated with Omar , and only a few sustained minor injuries . The most severe damage was dealt to roads and agriculture due to flooding . Seventy @-@ five people were forced to evacuate to shelters as their homes were flooded . Several farms were washed away , including their livestock . Numerous farmers lost their harvest due to flooding . Damages in Barbuda were estimated at $ 18 million . Agricultural losses in Antigua amounted to around $ 11 million ( 2008 USD ) and property damage amounted to $ 25 million .

In Puerto Rico , a man died after he collapsed from cardiac arrest while trying to install storm shutters on his home . As a tropical wave , the precedent to Omar produced heavy rains over the island , causing minor flooding . After passing by Puerto Rico a second time , Omar produced locally heavy rains , which caused minor street flooding .

On St. Croix , waves up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) from Omar sank about 47 boats , leading to a large oil spill around the islands . About 400 ships broke lose from the docks , 200 of which lost their anchors . Omar produced upwards of 7 in ( 177 @.@ 8 mm ) of rain on the island within a 24 ‑ hour span . Although St. Croix was brushed by the eyewall , sustained winds reached 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) with gusts to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) . Three people needed to be rescued when their ship struck a reef and began to sink . Most of the islands 55 @,@ 000 residents were without power as over 100 utility poles were destroyed . Damages on the island were estimated at $ 700 @,@ 000 with another $ 1 million in clean @-@ up costs . St. Thomas , one of the hardest hit islands , was left completely without power in the wake of the hurricane . All of the major intersections were shut down as traffic lights were either on the ground or without power . Damages on the island totaled to $ 5 @.@ 3 million .

In the Gros Islet Quarter on St. Lucia , rough seas damaged a jetty and grounded a yacht . In Soufrière , four homes were destroyed by the storm surge , which also made some areas impassible . The storm surge also flooded parts of the Anse la Raye Quarter , leading to officials declaring a mandatory evacuation of the area . On Montserrat , very little damage was reported . A few minor landslides occurred in rural areas ; no impact was caused by them . On Nevis there was relatively little damage although the beachfront part of the Four Seasons Resort was severely damaged and was subsequently closed for an extended period . Throughout St. Kitts and Nevis , damage was estimated at $ 19 million .

= = Aftermath = =

The damage dealt to the agricultural sector of Antigua and Barbuda fueled major concerns for " food security " in 2009 . The government allocated about $ 33 @,@ 897 @,@ 420 to help develop and repair the industry . Significant expansions of croplands were discussed , 15 @,@ 000 ft2 ( 4572 m2 ) area , to help promote growth of the sector .

On October 29 , in the wake of Omar , President George W. Bush signed a major disaster declaration for the United States Virgin Islands , allowing public aid to assist the islands . The Federal Emergency Management Agency or FEMA , had received 60 requests for public assistance throughout the area . Monetary value for the assistance was estimated at $ 3 million and growing . Twenty @-@ five departments and agencies were approved of for federal support , namely the U.S. V.I. Department of Public Works . Several non @-@ profit organizations also received support from FEMA , while those that did not meet the criteria were referred to the Small Business Administration ’ s low @-@ interest loan program .

On Dominica , Omar 's close pass to the island left 30 families homeless and severely hampered the fishing community . On December 15 , the Board of Directors of the Caribbean Development Bank approved $ 9 @.@ 16 million for assistance to those affected by Omar on the island and to restore the infrastructure damaged by the hurricane . On December 18 , the government of Dominica invested $ 4 million in aid for the fishing communities impacted by Omar . A total of 140 fishermen were provided with $ 250 per week for a total of four weeks . Sixty @-@ two of which continued to receive funds due to their circumstances . The government also purchased 121 boat engines to distribute to fishers . Another $ 794 @,@ 000 was spent to repair 47 boats and construct another 28 that had been damaged or destroyed by Omar . The government also bought replacement fishing gear .

= Papal conclave , 1769 =

A papal conclave which lasted from 15 February to 19 May 1769 was convoked after the death of Pope Clement XIII . It elected as his successor Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , who took the name Clement XIV .

= = Death of Clement XIII = =

Clement XIII died suddenly on 2 February 1769 , a day before the date of the consistory that he had convoked to examine the demands for the general suppression of the Society of Jesus . The various courts under the House of Bourbon and the Kingdom of Portugal ( under the House of Braganza ) had exerted strong pressure on the Holy See to suppress this order through almost the whole of his pontificate . In 1759 Jesuits were expelled from Portugal , in 1762 from the Kingdom of France , in 1767 from Spain and in 1768 from the Kingdom of Naples , the Kingdom of Sicily and the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza . Clement XIII strongly defended the Society ( e.g. in the bull Apostolicum pascendi in 1765 ) , but without success . In January 1769 France and Naples seized the papal territories around Avignon , Benevento and Pontecorvo to force the pope to issue a decree for the suppression of the order . The sudden death of 75 @-@ year @-@ old Clement XIII left this difficult decision to his successor .

= = List of participants = =

Forty six out of fifty seven cardinals participated in the conclave :

Carlo Alberto Guidobono Cavalchini ( created cardinal on September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Ostia e Velletri ; Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; pro @-@ Datary of His Holiness ; prefect of the S.C. of Ceremonies ; prefect of the S.C. of Bishops and Regulars

Federico Marcello Lante ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina ; Sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; prefect of the S.C. of the Good Government ; governor of Balneario

Gian Francesco Albani ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Sabina ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Poland

Henry Benedict Stuart ( July 3 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Frascati ; commendatario of S. Lorenzo in Damaso ; Vice @-@ Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church ; archpriest of the patriarchal Vatican Basilica

Fabrizio Serbelloni ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Albano

Giovanni Francesco Stoppani ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Palestrina

Giuseppe Pozzobonelli ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria sopra Minerva ; archbishop of Milan

Carlo Vittorio Amedeo delle Lanze ( April 10 , 1747 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Prassede ; titular archbishop of Nicosia

Vincenzo Malvezzi ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Marcellino e Pietro ; archbishop of Bologna

Antonio Sersale ( April 22 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Pudenziana ; archbishop of Naples

Francisco de Solís Folch de Cardona ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Seville ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Spain

Paul d 'Albert de Luynes ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Tommaso in Parione ; archbishop of Sens

Carlo Rezzonico ( September 11 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Clemente ; Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church

Antonio Maria Priuli ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Marco ; bishop of Padua

Fernando Maria de Rossi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Cecilia ; prefect of the S.C. of the Tridentine Council ; Latin Patriarch of Constantinople

Girolamo Spinola ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Balbina ; legate in Ferrara

Giuseppe Maria Castelli ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Alessio ; prefect of the S.C. for the Propagation of Faith

Gaetano Fantuzzi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli ; prefect of the S.C. of the Ecclesiestical Immunities

Pietro Girolamo Guglielmi ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Trinita al Monte Pincio ; Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals

Pietro Paolo de Conti ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Stefano al Monte Celio

Lorenzo Ganganelli , O.F.M.Conv. ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . XII Apostoli

Marcantonio Colonna ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria della Pace ; Vicar General of Rome ; prefect of the S.C. of the Residence of the Bishops ; archpriest of the patriarchal Liberian Basilica

Buenaventura de Córdoba Espínola de la Cerda ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of the West Indies ; vicar general of the Spanish army and fleet

Giovanni Molino ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Brescia

Simone Buonaccorsi ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Giovanni a Porta Latina

Giovanni Ottavio Bufalini ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria degli Angeli ; archbishop of Ancona

Giovanni Carlo Boschi ( July 21 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Giovanni e Paolo ; Grand penitentiary ; prefect of the Congregation for the correction of the books of the Oriental Church

Ludovico Calini ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Anastasia ; prefect of the S.C. of the Indulgences and Sacred Relics

Antonio Colonna Branciforte ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Via

Lazzaro Opizio Pallavicino ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . Nereo ed Achilleo ; legate in Bologna

Vitaliano Borromeo ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Aracoeli ; legate in Romagna

Pietro Pamphili ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria in Trastevere

Urbano Paracciani Rutili ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Callisto ; archbishop of Fermo

Filippo Maria Pirelli ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Crisogono

Alessandro Albani ( July 16 , 1721 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata ; commendatario of S. Maria in Cosmedin ; Protodeacon of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; Librarian of the Holy Roman Church ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Austria and the Kingdom of Sardinia

Neri Maria Corsini ( August 14 , 1730 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Eustachio ; archpriest of the patriarchal Lateran Basilica ; secretary of the Supreme S.C. of the Roman and Universal Inquisition ; prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Justice ; Cardinal @-@ protector of Portugal

Domenico Orsini d 'Aragona ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria ad Martyres ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of Naples

Flavio II Chigi ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria in Portico ; prefect of the S.C. of Rites

Luigi Maria Torregiani ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Agata in Suburra ; Cardinal Secretary of State

François @-@ Joachim de Pierre de Bernis ( October 2 , 1758 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon [ no deaconry assigned ] ; Cardinal @-@ protector of the Kingdom of France ; archbishop of Albi

Giovanni Costanzio Caracciolo ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Cesareo in Palatio ; prefect of the Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature of Grace

Nicola Perelli ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Giorgio in Velabro

Andrea Corsini ( September 24 , 1759 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Angelo in Pescheria

Andrea Negroni ( July 18 , 1763 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . Vito e Modesto ; secretary of the Apostolic Briefs

Saverio Canale ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of S. Maria della Scala ; commendatory abbot of Subiaco

Benedetto Veterani ( September 26 , 1766 ) – Cardinal @-@ Deacon of SS . Cosma e Damiano ; prefect of the S.C. of Index

Twenty nine electors were created by Clement XIII , while fifteen by Pope Benedict XIV . Alessandro Albani received the red hat from Innocent XIII , and Neri Maria Corsini from Clement XII .

= = = Absentees = = =

Giacomo Oddi ( September 9 , 1743 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Lorenzo in Lucina ; Protopriest of the Sacred College of Cardinals ; archbishop of Viterbo e Toscanella

Carlo Francesco Durini ( November 26 , 1753 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of SS . IV Coronati ; archbishop of Pavia

Luis Fernández de Córdoba ( December 18 , 1754 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Toledo

Etienne @-@ René Potier de Gesvres ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Agnese fuori le mura ; bishop of Beauvais

Franz Konrad Casimir von Rodt ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Maria del Popolo ; bishop of Constance

Francisco de Saldanha da Gama ( April 5 , 1756 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; patriarch of Lisbon

Christoph Anton von Migazzi von Waal und Sonnenthurn ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Vienna ; administrator of the see of Vacz

Antoine Clairiard de Choiseul de Beaupré ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; archbishop of Besançon

Jean @-@ François @-@ Joseph de Rochechouart ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest of S. Eusebio ; bishop of Laon

Franz Christoph Freiherr von Hutten zu Stolzenfels ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Speyer

Louis @-@ César @-@ Constantine de Rohan @-@ Guéménée ( November 23 , 1761 ) – Cardinal @-@ Priest [ no title assigned ] ; bishop of Strasbourg

= = Divisions in the College of Cardinals and the candidates to the papacy = =

The papal conclave in 1769 was almost completely dominated by the problem of the Society of Jesus . The Sacred College of Cardinals was divided into two blocs : pro @-@ Jesuits and anti @-@ Jesuits , but several cardinals were neutral . The pro @-@ Jesuit faction , called Zelanti , grouped Italian curial cardinals who opposed the secular influences on the Church . Their leaders were Gian Francesco and Alessandro Albani and cardinal @-@ nephew of the deceased pope Carlo Rezzonico . The anti @-@ Jesuit bloc ( called also " court faction " ) grouped crown @-@ cardinals of the Catholic Powers : France , Spain and Naples . Respectively ruled at the time by Louis XV of France , Charles III of Spain and Ferdinand III of Sicily / Ferdinand IV of Naples . In spite of the national divisions they worked together for the main goal – suppression of the Society of Jesus . The Bourbon courts had decided to put the official leadership of this bloc in the hands of the French Cardinal de Bernis . He and his colleagues were instructed to block every pro @-@ Jesuit candidature , even with the official exclusion if necessary . Several cardinals , among them Lorenzo Ganganelli , did not belong to either faction .

The Spanish and Neapolitan governments had classified forty three Italian cardinals into five categories : " good " ( eleven cardinals ) , " indifferent " ( eight ) , " doubtful " ( three ) , " bad " ( fifteen ) and " very bad " ( six ) :

Cardinal Orsini , the official representative of the Neapolitan court , and all the foreigners , were not classified because it was certain that none of them would be ever elected pope .

The French government was more fastidious than Spanish and Neapolitan . Only three cardinals were considered good candidates : Conti , Durini and Ganganelli

Out of these 43 cardinals only 27 or 28 were actually considered papabile , while the remaining 15 were excluded due to their age or health .

= = Conclave = =

The conclave began on February 15 , 1769 . Initially only 27 cardinals participated . Zelanti , taking advantage of the small number of the electors and the absence of the French and Spanish cardinals , tried to achieve a quick election of Cardinal Flavio Chigi . In one ballot he was only two votes short of being elected . The efforts of Zelanti met with strong protests from the ambassadors of France and Spain , but , fortunately for them , Cardinal Orsini , protector of the Kingdom of Naples and the only crown @-@ cardinal present in the early ballots , was able to join some neutral cardinals to block Chigi ’ s candidature .

An unprecedented event was the visit of Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , who arrived incognito in Rome on March 6 and was allowed to enter the conclave . He stayed there two weeks , freely debating with the electors . Fortunately , he did not press them but only expressed the wish for the election of a pope who would be able to carry out his duties with the proper respect for the secular rulers .

Cardinal de Bernis entered the conclave at the end of March and took the leadership of the anti @-@ Jesuit faction from the hands of Cardinal Orsini , who could have blocked Zelanti ’ s actions only with the great difficulties . Bernis immediately established a regular correspondence with French ambassador Marquis d 'Aubeterre , which was in violation of the fundamental law of the conclave . Ambassadors of France and Spain urged Bernis to insist that the election of the future pope be made to depend on his written engagement to suppress the Jesuits . Bernis refused , answering that demanding from the future pope a written or oral promise to destroy the Society of Jesus would be in violation of the canon law . In spite of this refusal , during the next few weeks Bernis consecutively rejected all candidates proposed by Zelanti as too devoted to the Jesuits . In this way twenty @-@ three out of twenty @-@ eight papabile were eliminated , among them strongly pro @-@ Jesuit Cardinal Fantuzzi , who at some point was very close to achieving election to the papal throne , as well as Cavalchini , Colonna , Stoppani , Pozzobonelli , Sersale , and several others .

The arrival of Spanish cardinals Solis and de la Cerda on April 27 strengthened the anti @-@ Jesuit party . They also violated the law of the conclave by establishing regular correspondence with Spanish ambassador Azpuru . The Spaniards had fewer scruples than Bernis and , supported by Cardinal Malvezzi , took the matter into their own hands . They paid attention to the only friar in the Sacred College , Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli , O.F.M.Conv. The attitude of Ganganelli towards the Jesuits was a great mystery – he had been educated by the Jesuits and it was said that he received the red hat at the instance of Father Lorenzo Ricci , general of the Society of Jesus , but during the pontificate of Clement XIII he did not engage himself in the defence of the Order . Cardinal Solis began by sounding him out as to his willingness to give the promise required by the Bourbon princes as an indispensable condition for election . Ganganelli answered that " he recognized in the sovereign pontiff the right to extinguish , with good conscience , the Society of Jesus , provided he observed the canon law ; and that it was desirable that the pope should do everything in his power to satisfy the wishes of the Crowns " . It is not certain whether it was a written or only an oral promise , but this declaration fully satisfied the ambassadors .

In the same time Zelanti , also began to incline to give their support to Ganganelli , looking upon him as indifferent or even favourable to the Jesuits . It seems that the attitude of Zelanti was decided by the secret negotiations between their leaders Alessandro and Gian Francesco Albani and the Spanish cardinals . Cardinal de Bernis , the nominal leader of the court faction , probably did not play any role in the appointment of Ganganelli and only followed the instructions of Marquis d 'Aubeterre when all had been already known .

= = = Results of the ballots = = =

The results of the ballots between April 27 and May 18 were following ( only the leading candidates are included ) :

April 27 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5

April 28 – Fantuzzi – 9 ; Colonna – 9 ; Pozzobonelli – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4

April 29 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4

April 30 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 8 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4

May 1 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4

May 2 – Colonna – 11 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4

May 3 – Colonna – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4

May 4 – Colonna – 10 ; Fantuzzi – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 2

May 5 – Fantuzzi – 10 ; Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3

May 6 – Fantuzzi – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Colonna – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4

May 7 – Colonna – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 7 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 4

May 8 – Colonna – 9 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Ganganelli – 4 ; Pozzobonelli – 3

May 9 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5 ; Pozzobonelli – 4 ; Ganganelli – 3

May 10 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 4 ; Ganganelli – 4

May 11 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 3

May 12 – Colonna – 11 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Ganganelli – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 5

May 13 – Colonna – 13 ; Stoppani – 7 ; Pozzobonelli – 6 ; Ganganelli – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 5

May 14 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4

May 15 – Colonna – 11 ; Stoppani – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 9 ; Fantuzzi – 5

May 16 – Colonna – 11 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Pozzobonelli – 8 ; Stoppani – 8 ; Fantuzzi – 4

May 17 – Colonna – 12 ; Pozzobonelli – 12 ; Ganganelli – 10 ; Stoppani – 5 ; Fantuzzi – 1

May 18 – Ganganelli – 19 ; Colonna – 13 ; Pozzobonelli – 11 ; Stoppani – 6 ; Fantuzzi – 1

= = Election of Clement XIV = =

In the final ballot on May 19 , 1769 Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli was elected to the papacy receiving all votes except of his own , which he gave to Carlo Rezzonico , nephew of Clement XIII and one of the leaders of Zelanti . He took the name of Clement XIV , in honour of Clement XIII , who had elevated him to the cardinalate .

On May 28 the new pope was consecrated to the episcopate by Cardinal Federico Marcello Lante , bishop of Porto e Santa Rufina and sub @-@ dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals , assisted by Cardinals Gian Francesco Albani , bishop of Sabina and Henry Benedict Stuart , bishop of Frascati . On June 4 he was solemnly crowned by Cardinal Alessandro Albani , protodeacon of S. Maria in Via Lata

= West Hendford Cricket Ground , Yeovil =

West Hendford Cricket Ground was a first @-@ class cricket ground located in Yeovil , Somerset . The land for the ground was first leased by Yeovil Cricket Club in 1874 , and was also used for a range of other sports , most significantly hosting Yeovil Rugby Club in the 1890s , and then again from 1935 until the ground was closed . Significant improvements were made to the ground during the 1930s , including the opening of a new pavilion , jointly funded by the Rugby and Cricket clubs . The ground was demolished in 1944 when Westland Aircraft extended their factory , and both Yeovil Cricket Club and Rugby Club moved to Johnson Park .

Between 1935 and 1939 , the ground hosted five annual Somerset County Cricket Club matches in July or August ; the first of which nearly broke a county record for ticket sales on the gate . Somerset only won one of the five matches , the 1936 contest against Worcestershire .

= = History = =

Yeovil and County Cricket Club was formed in 1865 , and was the first attempt at setting up a county cricket team for Somerset . The attempt was unsuccessful , and the club broke up . In 1874 , the club was re @-@ formed with the lesser remit , as Yeovil Cricket Club . As part of the club 's resuscitation , the committee purchased the use of a field in West Hendford in Yeovil , from a local farmer , Mr Brook . The field , part of Key Farm , was leased for £ 10 . There is record of a match being played on the ground the following year between two sets of members of the Yeovil Cricket Club . During the late 19th @-@ century , the ground was used for other sports as well as cricket ; it had a grass athletics track , and also hosted Yeovil Football Club , who at the time played both association and rugby football . The football club played at West Hendford on an irregular basis during the late 19th @-@ century , but returned in 1935 , by which time they only played rugby , and had changed their name accordingly to Yeovil Rugby Club . In 1895 , the cricket club committee announced that there was provision for a longer lease , of five or seven years , and that they would make improvements to the ground to enable it to host first @-@ class cricket . The ground was also used for field hockey in the early 20th @-@ century , hosting a Yeovil Hockey Club .

Somerset County Cricket Club played their first of five annual first @-@ class matches on the ground in 1935 . The match , against Surrey , was a significant event in the town , and a series of festivities were arranged to run alongside the three @-@ day contest , including a dance and a smoking concert . Entry for the match , which took place from 17 to 19 August was one shilling , and attracted over 5 @,@ 000 people , raising around £ 400 . Surrey won the match by eight wickets . The takings from this match helped the Yeovil Cricket Club make further improvements to the ground , expanding it and adding further seating . The following year , Somerset played Worcestershire at the ground , in what the Western Gazette described as " Yeovil Cricket Festival " . The captain of Yeovil Cricket Club , Richard Southcombe , was included in the Somerset team , which won the match by 170 runs . The takings were slightly lower than the previous year due to poor weather , but still described as " gratifying " .

In 1937 , Sussex beat Somerset at the ground , in a match that once again drew a crowd of around 5 @,@ 000 . The Yorkshire Evening Post described the wicket as " crumbling " towards the end of the match , favouring the bowlers . In 1938 Hampshire visited , and the report in the Western Daily Press lamented the state of the wicket , which meant that the game , like the three first @-@ class matches at the ground before it , was completed in two days , rather than the scheduled three . That winter , a new pavilion costing £ 550 was erected on the ground for the shared use of the cricket club and the rugby club . The final first @-@ class match on the ground was played in July 1939 against Lancashire , but torrential rain limited the match to only three hours of play . The takings for the full three days of the match were only £ 87 , and the Taunton Courier estimated that the losses for the match could be hundreds of pounds . Despite the weather , almost 2 @,@ 000 people attended the match , and the Taunton Courier report praised the alterations that had been made to the ground ; the removal of a hedge made the ground lighter , while the ground itself had been well looked after , and drained quickly . The Second World War suspended the County Championship from 1940 to 1945 , and during that time , Westland Aircraft took over the ground to expand their factory , and informed Yeovil Cricket Club that it was no longer available , forcing them to search for a new ground in 1946 . They eventually relocated to the newly opened Johnson Park in 1948 . The rugby club also moved to Johnson Park , amalgamating itself into Yeovil Sports Club . After a short break , Somerset County Cricket Club returned to Yeovil , playing fourteen fixtures at Johnson Park between 1951 and 1970 , and eight matches at Westlands Sports Ground from 1971 to 1978 .

= = Records = =

During its limited use as a first @-@ class cricket ground , only one century was scored on the ground , by Jim Parks . During the 1937 match , he scored 140 runs for Sussex . The most wickets taken by a bowler in a match at West Hendford was achieved in 1938 , when Hampshire 's Stuart Boyes took twelve wickets , including nine in the first innings . Somerset 's only success on the ground was in 1936 against Worcestershire , who they dismissed for 60 runs in the first innings , and 77 in the second .

= New Year 's Eve ( Up All Night ) =

" New Year 's Eve " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Up All Night . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . It was written by Erica Rivinoja and was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . The episode also featured a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Chris and Reagan 's neighbor and Ava 's boyfriend , Kevin .

During Reagan ( Christina Applegate ) and Chris 's ( Will Arnett ) first New Year 's Eve game night , Reagan 's competitiveness comes out causing Chris to become embarrassed . Meanwhile , Missy ( Jennifer Hall ) brings an unexpected date along to the party and , Kevin ( Jason Lee ) starts to feel as though Ava ( Maya Rudolph ) may be ashamed of him .

" New Year 's Eve " received mostly positive reviews from critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " New Year 's Eve " drew 4 @.@ 28 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . It ranked third in its timeslot and was the second highest @-@ rated NBC program of the night after The Office .

= = Plot = =

After not being able to find a baby @-@ sitter for Amy , Reagan suggests that the two throw a game night , an idea Chris doesn 't react well to . They invite Ava , Kevin , Missy , but Chris attempts to hide the games due to Reagan 's competitive nature . He tries to make her promise that she won 't be too competitive , but she does which makes the party awkward . While playing Rock Band the two get in a fight when Chris loses the beat on the drums because he was looking at his " drumming arm " . Reagan decide to a make a list of " Things We Are Going to Stop Doing That Embarrass Each Other in 2012 " , which features annoying habits that the two want each other to give up . However , before 2011 comes to an end the two erase every thing from the list except for Chris 's Borat impression and Reagen 's competitive nature .

Meanwhile , Ava is asked to be the grand marshal to a New Year 's Day parade . This makes her boyfriend , Kevin , feel like he can 't live up to her lifestyle . He then starts thinking she may be ashamed of him , especially after he isn 't invited to sit with her during the parade . Eventually , Kevin confronts Ava on this and she reveals that if she messes up their relationship she doesn 't wanted to be reminded of it while Googling her name . He assures her that their relationship won 't end badly and the two go to the parade .

= = Production = =

" New Year 's Eve " was written by supervising producer Erica Rivinoja , marking her third writing credit for the series after " Mr. Bob 's Toddler Kaleidoscope " and " Parents " . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , who previously worked with creator Emily Spivey and executive producer Lorne Michaels on Saturday Night Live as director for 11 years . The episode features a guest appearance from Jason Lee as Kevin , Ava 's boyfriend . He first appeared in the eighth episode , " First Night Away " and is currently set to appear in a recurring role for the series . Lee had previously worked with Spivey and Michaels after hosting an episode of Saturday Night Live on November 12 , 2005 . This is the first time the series aired in the 9 : 30 pm timeslot for the first season after The Office ; the series previously aired in the 8 : 00pm timeslot on Wednesday . The series switched timeslots with another NBC comedy series , Whitney . Some media critics have said that the goal for moving the series was in order to make it more of a ratings success , like The Office .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" New Year 's Eve " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 12 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 24 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 5 % rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " First Christmas " . The episode finished third in its time slot along with The Office , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode , however , did manage to beat the Fox drama series The Finder and the CW drama series The Secret Circle . Added with DVR viewers , who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 0 rating to the original viewership .

= = = Critical reviews = = =

" New Year 's Eve " received several positive reviews from critics . New York writer Steven Heisler praised the episode for avoiding " sitcom @-@ y territory " with the emotional ending . He also called the series a better choice to follow The Office then Whitney . The A.V. Club reviewer Margaret Eby complemented the believability of the main Reagen @-@ Chris plot . Despite this , she criticized the Ava @-@ Kevin subplot comparing it to a storyline from Sex and The City . She also noted the plotline didn 't stay true to the characters following their plotline in the previous episode , " First Christmas " . She ultimately rated the episode with a B. Adam Victavage of Paste called the episode a perfect transition from the previous episodes and allowed Ava to be " a loveable third wheel to a completely strong duo in Chris and Reagan " . He also reacted positively for the scenes featuring Missy , comparing her scenes to " early Ava , but less obnoxious " . He ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 calling it " commendable " . Bradford Evans of SplitSider praised Jennifer Hall 's performance calling her the " unsung hero " of the series . He also reacted positively towards the episode 's ability to unify the show and " keep all of the characters on the same turf " . He concluded that he hoped the series could make itself a vital part of the network 's lineup . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall called the episode " one its [ the series ] strongest episodes to date " . He wrote that the addition of Jason Lee humanized Ava more and gave her a more natural reason to visit Reagan and Chris at home . He also wrote that the episode worked on a " character level " .

= World War Z =

World War Z : An Oral History of the Zombie War ( 2006 ) is an apocalyptic horror novel by Max Brooks . The novel is a collection of individual accounts narrated by an agent of the United Nations Postwar Commission , following the devastating global conflict against the zombie plague . Other passages record a decade @-@ long desperate struggle , as experienced by people of various nationalities . The personal accounts also describe the resulting social , political , religious , and environmental changes .

World War Z is a follow @-@ up to Brooks ' " survival manual " The Zombie Survival Guide ( 2003 ) , but its tone is much more serious . It was inspired by The Good War : An Oral History of World War Two ( 1984 ) by Studs Terkel , and by the zombie films of George A. Romero . Brooks used World War Z to comment on government ineptitude and American isolationism , while also examining survivalism and uncertainty . The novel was a commercial hit and was praised by most critics .

Its audiobook version , performed by a full cast including Alan Alda , Mark Hamill , and John Turturro , won an Audie Award in 2007 . A film inspired by the novel , directed by Marc Forster and starring Brad Pitt , was released in 2013 .

= = Plot = =

The story is told in the form of a series of interviews conducted by the narrator , Max Brooks , an agent of the United Nations Postwar Commission . Although the exact origin of the plague is unknown , a young boy from a village in China is identified as the plague 's official patient zero . The boy 's case marks the point where the Chinese government begins to take measures to cover up the disease , including generating a crisis with Taiwan to mask their activities . Nevertheless , the plague still manages to spread to various nations by human trafficking , refugees and the black market organ trade . Initially , these nations were able to cover up their smaller outbreaks , until a much larger outbreak in South Africa brings the plague to public attention .

As the infection spreads , Israel abandons the Palestinian territories and initiates a nationwide quarantine , closing its borders to everyone except uninfected Jews and Palestinians . Its military then puts down an ultra @-@ Orthodox uprising , which is later referred to as an Israeli civil war . The United States does little to prepare because it is overconfident in its ability to suppress any threat . Although special forces teams contain initial outbreaks , a widespread effort never starts : the nation is deprived of political will by " brushfire wars " , and a widely distributed and marketed placebo vaccine creates a false sense of security .

As many more areas around the globe fall to infection , a period known as the " Great Panic " begins . Pakistan and Iran destroy each other in a nuclear war , after the Iranian government attempts to stem the flow of refugees fleeing through Pakistan into Iran . After zombies overrun New York City , the U.S. military sets up a high @-@ profile defense in the nearby city of Yonkers . The " Battle of Yonkers " is a disaster ; modern weapons and tactics prove ineffective against zombies , as the enemy has no self @-@ preservation instincts and can only be stopped if shot through the head . The unprepared and demoralized soldiers are routed on live television . Other countries suffer similarly disastrous defeats , and human civilization teeters on the brink of destruction .

In South Africa , the government adopts a contingency plan drafted by apartheid @-@ era intelligence consultant Paul Redeker . It calls for the establishment of small sanctuaries , leaving large groups of survivors abandoned in special zones in order to distract the undead and allowing those within the main safe zone time to regroup and recuperate . Governments worldwide assume similar plans or relocate the populace to safer foreign territory , such as the attempted complete evacuation of the Japanese archipelago to Kamchatka . Because zombies freeze solid in severe cold , many civilians in North America flee to the wildernesses of northern Canada and the Arctic , where eleven million people die of starvation and hypothermia . It is implied that some turn to cannibalism to survive ; further interviews from other sources imply that cannibalism occurred in areas of the United States where food shortages occurred . The three remaining astronauts in the International Space Station survive the war by salvaging supplies from the abandoned Chinese space station and maintain some military and civilian satellites using an orbital fuel station . A surviving member of the ISS crew describes " mega " swarms of zombies on the American Great Plains and Central Asia , and how the crisis affected Earth 's atmosphere .

The U.S. eventually establishes safe zones west of the Rocky Mountains and spends much of the next decade eradicating zombies in that region . All aspects of civilian life are devoted to supporting the war effort against the pandemic . Much of it resembles total war strategies : rationing of fuel and food , cultivation of private gardens , and civilian neighborhood patrols . The U.S. government also initiates a " Re @-@ education Act " to train the civilian population for the war effort and restore order ; the people with skills such as carpentry and construction find themselves more valuable than people with managerial skills .

Seven years after the outbreak began , a conference is held off the coast of Honolulu , aboard the USS Saratoga , where most of the world 's leaders argue that they can outlast the zombie plague if they stay in their safe zones . The U.S. President , however , argues for going on the offensive . Determined to lead by example , the U.S. military reinvents itself to meet the specific strategic requirements of fighting the undead : using semi @-@ automatic , high @-@ power rifles and volley firing , focusing on head shots and slow , steady rates of fire ( a tactic " re @-@ invented " by the Indian Army during the Great Panic ) ; and devising a multipurpose hand tool , the " Lobotomizer " or " Lobo " ( described as a combination of a shovel and a battle axe ) , for close @-@ quarters combat . The military , backed by a resurgent American wartime economy , began the three @-@ year @-@ long process of retaking the contiguous United States from both the undead as well as groups of hostile human survivors . Prewar military tactics and equipment are mentioned as being employed to deal with sometimes well @-@ armed and organized human criminal or rebel opposition .

Ten years after the official end of the zombie war , millions of zombies are still active , mainly on the ocean floor or on snow line islands . A democratic Cuba has become the world 's most thriving economy . Following a civil war that saw use of nuclear weapons , China has become a democracy and is now known as the " Chinese Federation " . Tibet is freed from Chinese rule and hosts Lhasa , the world 's most populated city . Following a religious revolution and the revival of Russian orthodoxy , Russia is now an expansionist theocracy known as the Holy Russian Empire . Owing to the fact that many young Russians either became zombies , were infected with HIV , or died due to drugs , the government has initiated a " breeding " program , with the remaining fertile women implied to be coercively impregnated to raise the birthrate . North Korea is completely empty , with the entire population presumed to have disappeared into underground bunkers .

The situation in the British Isles is not entirely clear in the novel , although Ireland may have escaped the worst of the outbreak . Members of the British Royal Family had fled to Ireland and the Isle of Man , following the military retreat to the Antonine Wall , and now exports oil from a reserve under Windsor Castle where the Queen held out for the war 's duration , refusing to flee with her relatives . The Papacy established a wartime refuge in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Armagh . In France , the Palace of Versailles was the site of a massacre and has been burned to the ground ; military losses were particularly high while clearing the catacombs underneath Paris because the catacombs housed nearly a quarter of a million refugees during the early stages of the war , all of whom became zombies . Iceland has been completely depopulated and remains the world 's most heavily infested country .

The Israelis and Palestinians have made peace , and the former occupied territories have been renamed " Unified Palestine " . Mexico is now known as " Aztlán " . Several countries are described as having revised borders due to the " dumping " of convicts into infected zones ; these convicts rose to command " powerful fiefdoms " that later became independent states . A so @-@ called " Pacific Continent " appears to encompass previously uninhabited islands as well as ships rendered immobile due to lack of fuel . For unknown reasons , the Saudi Royal Family destroyed the oil fields in Saudi Arabia .

The United Nations fields a large military force to eliminate the remaining zombies from overrun areas , defeat hordes that surface from the ocean floor , and kill frozen zombies before they unfreeze . It is stated that previously eradicated diseases have made a comeback and that global life expectancy is greatly reduced as the world starts over from where it began .

= = Development = =

Brooks designed World War Z to follow the " laws " set up in his earlier work , The Zombie Survival Guide ( 2003 ) , and explained that the guide may exist in the novel 's fictional universe . The zombies of The Zombie Survival Guide are human bodies reanimated by an incurable virus ( Solanum ) , devoid of intelligence , desirous solely of consuming living flesh , and cannot be killed unless the brain is destroyed . Decomposition will eventually set in , but this process takes longer than for an uninfected body and can be slowed by effects such as freezing . Although zombies do not tire and are as strong as the humans they infect , they are slow @-@ moving and incapable of planning or cooperation in their attacks . Zombies usually reveal their presence by moaning .

Brooks discussed the cultural influences on the novel . He claimed inspiration from " The Good War " : An Oral History of World War Two ( 1984 ) by Studs Terkel , stating : " [ Terkel 's book is ] an oral history of World War II . I read it when I was a teenager and it 's sat with me ever since . When I sat down to write World War Z : An Oral History of the Zombie War , I wanted it to be in the vein of an oral history . " Brooks also cited renowned zombie film director George A. Romero as an influence and criticized The Return of the Living Dead films : " They cheapen zombies , make them silly and campy . They 've done for the living dead what the old Batman TV show did for The Dark Knight . " Brooks acknowledged making several references to popular culture in the novel , including one to alien robot franchise Transformers , but declined to identify the others so that readers could discover them independently .

Brooks conducted copious research while writing World War Z. The technology , politics , economics , culture , and military tactics were based on a variety of reference books and consultations with expert sources . Brooks also cites the U.S. Army as a reference on firearm statistics .

= = Analysis = =

= = = Social commentary = = =

Reviewers have noted that Brooks uses World War Z as a platform to criticize government ineptitude , corporate corruption , and human short @-@ sightedness . At one point in the book , a Palestinian refugee living in Kuwait refuses to believe the dead are rising , fearing it is a trick by Israel . Many American characters blame the United States ' inability to counter the zombie threat on low confidence in their government due to conflicts in the Middle East .

Brooks shows his particular dislike of government bureaucracy . For example , one character in the novel tries to justify lying about the zombie outbreak to avoid widespread panic , while at the same time failing to develop a solution for fear of arousing public ire . He has also criticized American isolationism :

= = = Themes = = =

= = = = Survivalism = = = =

Survivalism and disaster preparation are prevalent themes in the novel . Several interviews , especially those from the United States , focus on policy changes designed to train the surviving Americans to fight the zombies and rebuild the country . For example , when cities were made to be as efficient as possible in order to fight the zombies , the plumber could hold a higher status than the former C.E.O. ; when the ultra @-@ rich hid in their homes , which had been turned into fortified compounds , they were overwhelmed by others trying to get in , leading to mass slaughter . Throughout the novel , characters demonstrate the physical and mental requirements needed to survive a disaster . Brooks described the large amount of research needed to find optimal methods for fighting a worldwide zombie outbreak . He also pointed out that Americans like the zombie genre because they believe they can survive anything with the right tools and talent .

= = = = Fear and uncertainty = = = =

Brooks considers the theme of uncertainty central to the zombie genre . He believes that zombies allow people to deal with their own anxiety about the end of the world . Brooks has expressed a deep fear of zombies :

This mindlessness is connected to the context in which Brooks was writing . He declared : " at this point we 're pretty much living in an irrational time " , full of human suffering and lacking reason or logic . When asked in a subsequent interview about how he would compare terrorists with zombies , Brooks said :

= = Reception = =

Reviews for the novel have been generally positive . Gilbert Cruz of Entertainment Weekly gave the novel an " A " rating , commenting that the novel shared with great zombie stories the use of a central metaphor , describing it as " an addictively readable oral history . " Steven H. Silver identified Brooks ' international focus as the novel 's greatest strength and commented favorably on Brooks ' ability to create an appreciation for the work needed to combat a global zombie outbreak . Silver 's only complaint was with " Good @-@ Byes " — the final chapter — in which characters get a chance to give a final closing statement . Silver felt that it was not always apparent who the sundry , undifferentiated characters were . The Eagle described the book as being " unlike any other zombie tale " as it is " sufficiently terrifying for most readers , and not always in a blood @-@ and @-@ guts way , either . " Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club stated that the format of the novel makes it difficult for it to develop momentum , but found the novel 's individual episodes gripping . Patrick Daily of the Chicago Reader said the novel transcends the " silliness " of The Zombie Survival Guide by " touching on deeper , more somber aspects of the human condition . " In his review for Time Out Chicago , Pete Coco declared that " [ b ] ending horror to the form of alternative history would have been novel in and of itself . Doing so in the mode of Studs Terkel might constitute brilliance . "

Ron Currie Jr. named World War Z one of his favorite apocalyptic novels and praised Brooks for illustrating " the tacit agreement between writer and reader that is essential to the success of stories about the end of the world ... [ both ] agree to pretend that this is not fiction , that in fact the horrific tales of a war between humans and zombies are based in reality . " Drew Taylor of the Fairfield County Weekly credited World War Z with making zombies more popular in mainstream society .

The hardcover version of World War Z spent four weeks on the New York Times Best Seller list , peaking at number nine . By November 2011 , according to Publishers Weekly , World War Z had sold one million copies in all formats .

= = Audiobook = =

Random House published an abridged audiobook in 2007 , directed by John Mc Elroy and produced by Dan Zitt , with sound editing by Charles De Montebello . The book is read by Brooks but includes other actors taking on the roles of the many individual characters who are interviewed in the novel . Brooks ' previous career in voice acting and voice @-@ over work meant he could recommend a large number of the cast members .

On May 14 , 2013 , Random House Audio released a lengthier audiobook titled World War Z : The Complete Edition ( Movie Tie @-@ in Edition ) : An Oral History of the Zombie War . It contains the entirety of the original , abridged audiobook , as well as new recordings of each missing segment . A separate , additional audiobook containing only the new recordings not found in the original audiobook was released simultaneously as World War Z : The Lost Files : A Companion to the Abridged Edition .

= = = Cast = = =

* Unabridged edition

= = = Reception = = =

In her review of the audiobook for Strange Horizons , Siobhan Carroll called the story " gripping " and found the listening experience evocative of Orson Welles 's famous radio narration of The War of the Worlds ( broadcast October 30 , 1938 ) . Carroll had mixed opinions on the voice acting , commending it as " solid and understated , mercifully free of ' special effects ' and ' scenery chewing ' overall " , but lamenting what she perceived as undue cheeriness on the part of Max Brooks and inauthenticity in Steve Park 's Chinese accent . Publishers Weekly also criticized Brooks ' narration , but found that the rest of the " all @-@ star cast deliver their parts with such fervor and intensity that listeners cannot help but empathize with these characters " . In an article in Slate concerning the mistakes producers make on publishing audiobooks , Nate DiMeo used World War Z as an example of dramatizations whose full casts contributed to making them " great listens " and described the book as a " smarter @-@ than @-@ it @-@ has @-@ any @-@ right @-@ to @-@ be zombie novel " . The World War Z audiobook won the 2007 Audie Award for Multi @-@ Voiced Performance and was nominated for Audiobook of the Year .

= = Film adaptation = =

In June 2006 , Paramount Studios secured the film rights for World War Z for Brad Pitt 's production company , Plan B Entertainment , to produce . The screenplay was written by J. Michael Straczynski , with Marc Forster directing and Pitt starring as the main character , UN employee Gerry Lane . Despite being the draft that got the film green @-@ lit , Straczynski 's script was tossed aside , so that production , which was to begin at the start of 2009 , was delayed while the script was completely re @-@ written by Matthew Michael Carnahan to set the film in the present , leaving behind much of the book 's premise to make it more of an action film . In a 2012 interview , Brooks claimed the film now had nothing in common with the novel other than the title . Filming commenced mid @-@ 2011 , and the film was released in June 2013 .

= Sentence spacing =

Sentence spacing is the horizontal space between sentences in typeset text . It is a matter of typographical convention . Since the introduction of movable @-@ type printing in Europe , various sentence spacing conventions have been used in languages with a Latin alphabet . These include a normal word space ( as between the words in a sentence ) , a single enlarged space , and two full spaces .

Until the 20th century , publishing houses and printers in many countries used additional space between sentences . There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method — some printers used spacing between sentences that was no wider than word spacing . This was French spacing — a term synonymous with single @-@ space sentence spacing until the late 20th century . With the introduction of the typewriter in the late 19th century , typists used two spaces between sentences to mimic the style used by traditional typesetters . While wide sentence spacing was phased out in the printing industry in the mid @-@ twentieth century , the practice continued on typewriters and later on computers . Perhaps because of this , many modern sources now incorrectly claim that wide spacing was created for the typewriter .

The desired or correct sentence spacing is often debated but many sources now say additional space is not necessary or desirable . From around 1950 , single sentence spacing became standard in books , magazines and newspapers and the majority of style guides that use a Latin @-@ derived alphabet as a language base now prescribe or recommend the use of a single space after the concluding punctuation of a sentence . However , some sources still state that additional spacing is correct or acceptable . The debate continues on the World Wide Web . Many people prefer double sentence spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type . There is a debate on which convention is more readable ; the few recent direct studies conducted since 2002 have produced inconclusive results .

= = History = =

= = = Traditional typesetting = = =

Shortly after the invention of movable type , highly variable spacing was created that could create spaces of any size , and allowed for perfectly even justification . Early American , English , and other European typesetters ' style guides ( also known as printers ' rules ) specified spacing standards that were all essentially identical from the 18th century onwards . These guides — e.g. , Jacobi in the UK ( 1890 ) and MacKellar , Harpel , and De Vinne ( 1866 – 1901 ) in the U.S. — indicated that sentences should be em @-@ spaced , and that words should be 1 / 3 or 1 / 2 em @-@ spaced ( illustration right ) . The relative size of the sentence spacing would vary depending on the size of the word spaces and the justification needs . For most countries , this remained the standard for published work until the 20th century . Yet , even in this period , there were publishing houses ( notably in France ) that used a standard word space between sentences — a technique called French spacing ( illustration below ) .

= = = Mechanical type and the advent of the typewriter = = =

Mechanical type systems introduced near the end of the 19th century , such as the Linotype and Monotype machines , allowed for some variable sentence spacing similar to hand composition . Just as these machines revolutionized the mass production of text , the advent of the typewriter around the same time revolutionized the creation of personal and business documents . But the typewriters ' mechanical limitations did not allow variable spacing — typists could only choose the number of times they pressed the space bar . Typists in some English @-@ speaking countries initially learned to insert three spaces between sentences to approximate the wider sentence spacing used in traditional printing , but later settled on two spaces , a practice that continued throughout the 20th century . This became known as English spacing , and marked a divergence from French typists , who continued to use French spacing .

= = = Transition to single spacing = = =

In the early 20th century , some printers began using one and a half interword spaces ( an " en quad " ) to separate sentences . This standard continued in use , to some extent , into the 1990s .

Magazines , newspapers , and books began to adopt the single space convention in the United States in the 1940s and in the United Kingdom in the 1950s . Typists did not move to single spacing simultaneously . The average writer still relied on the typewriter to create text — with its inherent mechanical spacing limitations .

Technological advances began affecting sentence spacing methods . In 1941 , IBM introduced the Executive , a typewriter capable of proportional spacing — which had been used in professional typesetting for hundreds of years . This innovation broke the hold that the monospaced font had on the typewriter — reducing the severity of its mechanical limitations . By the 1960s , electronic phototypesetting systems ignored runs of white space in text . This was also true of the World Wide Web , as HTML normally ignores additional spacing , although in 2011 the CSS 2 @.@ 1 standard officially added an option that can preserve additional spaces . In the 1980s , desktop publishing software provided the average writer with more advanced formatting tools . By the late 20th century , literature on the written word had begun to adjust its guidance on sentence spacing .

= = Modern literature = =

= = = Typography = = =

Early positions on typography ( the " arrangement and appearance of text " ) supported traditional spacing techniques in English publications . In 1954 , Geoffrey Dowding 's book , Finer Points in the Spacing and Arrangement of Type , underscored the widespread shift from a single enlarged em space to a standard word space between sentences .

With the advent of the computer age , typographers began deprecating double spacing , even in monospaced text . In 1989 , Desktop Publishing by Design stated that " typesetting requires only one space after periods , question marks , exclamation points , and colons " , and identified single sentence spacing as a typographic convention . Stop Stealing Sheep & Find Out How Type Works ( 1993 ) and Designing with Type : The Essential Guide to Typography ( 2006 ) both indicate that uniform spacing should be used between words , including between sentences .

More recent works on typography weigh in strongly . Ilene Strizver , founder of the Type Studio , says , " Forget about tolerating differences of opinion : typographically speaking , typing two spaces before the start of a new sentence is absolutely , unequivocally wrong . " The Complete Manual on Typography ( 2003 ) states that " The typewriter tradition of separating sentences with two word spaces after a period has no place in typesetting " and the single space is " standard typographic practice " . The Elements of Typographic Style ( 2004 ) advocates a single space between sentences , noting that " your typing as well as your typesetting will benefit from unlearning this quaint [ double spacing ] Victorian habit . "

David Jury 's book , About Face : Reviving the Rules of Typography ( 2004 ) — published in Switzerland — clarifies the contemporary typographic position on sentence spacing :

Word spaces , preceding or following punctuation , should be optically adjusted to appear to be of the same value as a standard word space . If a standard word space is inserted after a full point or a comma , then , optically , this produces a space of up to 50 % wider than that of other word spaces within a line of type . This is because these punctuation marks carry space above them , which , when added to the adjacent standard word spaces , combines to create a visually larger space . Some argue that the " additional " space after a comma and full point serves as a " pause signal " for the reader . But this is unnecessary ( and visually disruptive ) since the pause signal is provided by the punctuation mark itself .

= = = Style and language guides = = =

= = = = Style guides = = = =

Early style guides for typesetting used a wider space between sentences than between words – " traditional spacing " , as shown in the illustration to the right . During the 20th century , style guides commonly mandated two spaces between sentences for typewritten manuscripts , which were used prior to professionally typesetting the work . As computer desktop publishing became commonplace , typewritten manuscripts became less relevant and most style guides stopped making distinctions between manuscripts and final typeset products . In the same period , style guides began changing their guidance on sentence spacing . The 1969 edition of the Chicago Manual of Style used em spaces between sentences in its text ; by the 2003 edition it had changed to single sentence spacing for both manuscript and print . By the 1980s , the United Kingdom 's Hart 's Rules ( 1983 ) had shifted to single sentence spacing . Other style guides followed suit in the 1990s . Soon after the beginning of the 21st century , the majority of style guides had changed to indicate that only one word space was proper between sentences .

Modern style guides provide standards and guidance for the written language . These works are important to writers since " virtually all professional editors work closely with one of them in editing a manuscript for publication . " Late editions of comprehensive style guides , such as the Oxford Style Manual ( 2003 ) in the United Kingdom and the Chicago Manual of Style ( 2010 ) in the United States , provide standards for a wide variety of writing and design topics , including sentence spacing . The majority of style guides now prescribe the use of a single space after terminal punctuation in final written works and publications . A few style guides allow double sentence spacing for draft work , and the Gregg Reference Manual makes room for double and single sentence spacing based on author preferences . Web design guides do not usually provide guidance on this topic , as " HTML refuses to recognize double spaces altogether . " These works themselves follow the current publication standard of single sentence spacing .

The European Union 's Interinstitutional Style Guide ( 2008 ) indicates that single sentence spacing is to be used in all European Union publications — encompassing 23 languages . For the English language , the European Commission 's English Style Guide ( 2010 ) states that sentences are always single @-@ spaced . The Style Manual : For Authors , Editors and Printers ( 2007 ) , first published in 1966 by the Commonwealth Government Printing Office of Australia , stipulates that only one space is used after " sentence @-@ closing punctuation " and that " Programs for word processing and desktop publishing offer more sophisticated , variable spacing , so this practice of double spacing is now avoided because it can create distracting gaps on a page . "

National languages not covered by an authoritative language academy typically have multiple style guides — only some of which may discuss sentence spacing . This is the case in the United Kingdom . The Oxford Style Manual ( 2003 ) and the Modern Humanities Research Association 's MHRA Style Guide ( 2002 ) state that only single spacing should be used . In Canada , both the English and French language sections of the Canadian Style , A Guide to Writing and Editing ( 1997 ) , prescribe single sentence spacing . In the United States , many style guides — such as the Chicago Manual of Style ( 2003 ) — allow only single sentence spacing . The most important style guide in Italy , Il Nuovo Manuale di Stile ( 2009 ) , does not address sentence spacing , but the Guida di Stile Italiano ( 2010 ) , the official guide for Microsoft translation , tells users to use single sentence spacing " instead of the double spacing used in the United States " .

= = = = Language guides = = = =

Some languages , such as French and Spanish , have academies that set language rules . Their publications typically address orthography and grammar as opposed to matters of typography . Style guides are less relevant for such languages , as their academies set prescriptive rules . For example , the Académie française publishes the Dictionnaire de l 'Académie française for French speakers worldwide . The 1992 edition does not provide guidance on sentence spacing , but is single @-@ sentence @-@ spaced throughout — consistent with historical French spacing . The Spanish language is similar . The most important body within the Association of Spanish Language Academies , the Real Academia Española , publishes the Diccionario de la Lengua Española , which is viewed as prescriptive for the Spanish language worldwide . The 2001 edition does not provide sentence spacing guidance , but is itself single sentence spaced . The German language manual Empfehlungen des Rats für Deutsche Rechtschreibung ( " Recommendations of the Council for German Orthography " ) ( 2006 ) does not address sentence spacing . The manual itself uses one space after terminal punctuation . Additionally , the Duden , the German language dictionary most commonly used in Germany , indicates that double sentence spacing is an error .

= = = Grammar guides = = =

A few reference grammars address sentence spacing , as increased spacing between words is punctuation in itself . Most do not . Grammar guides typically cover terminal punctuation and the proper construction of sentences — but not the spacing between sentences . Moreover , many modern grammar guides are designed for quick reference and refer users to comprehensive style guides for additional matters of writing style . For example , the Pocket Idiot 's Guide to Grammar and Punctuation ( 2005 ) points users to style guides such as the MLA Style Manual for consistency in formatting work and for all other " editorial concerns " . The Grammar Bible ( 2004 ) states that " The modern system of English punctuation is by no means simple . A book that covers all the bases would need to be of considerable breadth and weight and anyone interested in such a resource is advised to consult the Chicago Manual of Style . "

= = Digital age = =

In the computer era , spacing between sentences is handled in several different ways by various software packages . Some systems accept whatever the user types , while others attempt to alter the spacing , or use the user input as a method of detecting sentences . Computer @-@ based word processors , and typesetting software such as troff and TeX , allow users to arrange text in a manner previously only available to professional typesetters .

The text editing environment in Emacs uses a double space following a period to identify the end of sentences unambiguously ; the double space convention prevents confusion with periods within sentences that signify abbreviations . How Emacs recognizes the end of a sentence is controlled by the settings sentence @-@ end @-@ double @-@ space and sentence @-@ end . The vi editor also follows this convention ; thus , it is relatively easy to manipulate ( jump over , copy , delete ) whole sentences in both emacs and vi .

The Unix typesetter program troff uses two spaces to mark the end of a sentence . This allows the typesetter to distinguish sentence endings from abbreviations and to typeset them differently . Early versions of troff , which only typeset in fixed width fonts , would automatically add a second space between sentences , which were detected based on the combination of terminal punctuation and a line feed .

Microsoft Word does not treat sentences differently by default , but the grammar checking can be set to prefer a specific number of spaces between sentences .

On some modern touch @-@ screen platforms , including Android and iOS , typing two spaces in a row is automatically interpreted to mean the end of a sentence , and a period is automatically inserted . However , only one space is retained .

Multiple spaces are eliminated by default in most World Wide Web content , regardless of whether they are associated with sentences or not . There are options for preserving spacing , such as the CSS white @-@ space property , and the < pre > tag . Twitter retains extra spaces in user input on their website . HTML also includes several other space entities which are not collapsed , such as an em space , an en space , and a non @-@ breaking space . Some unicode space characters are also not collapsed on the web .

= = Controversy = =

James Felici , author of the Complete Manual of Typography , says that the topic of sentence spacing is " the debate that refuses to die ... In all my years of writing about type , it 's still the question I hear most often , and a search of the web will find threads galore on the subject " . This subject is still widely debated today .

Many people are opposed to single sentence spacing for various reasons . Some state that the habit of double spacing is too deeply ingrained to change . Others claim that additional space between sentences improves the aesthetics or readability of text . Proponents of double sentence spacing also state that some publishers may still require double @-@ spaced manuscript submissions from authors . A key example noted is the screenwriting industry 's monospaced standard for screenplay manuscripts , Courier , 12 @-@ point font , although some works on screenwriting indicate that Courier is merely preferred – proportional fonts may be used . Some reliable sources state simply that writers should follow their particular style guide , but proponents of double spacing caution that publishers ' guidance takes precedence , including those that ask for double sentence spaced manuscripts .

One of the most popular arguments against wider sentence spacing is that it was created for monospaced fonts of the typewriter , and is no longer needed with modern proportional fonts . However , proportional fonts existed together with wide sentence spacing for centuries before the typewriter , and remained for decades after its invention . When the typewriter was first introduced , typists were most commonly taught to use three spaces between sentences . This gradually shifted to two spaces , while the print industry remained unchanged in its wide em @-@ spaced sentences . Some sources now state it is acceptable for monospaced fonts to be single spaced today , although other references continue to specify double spacing for monospaced fonts . The double space typewriter convention has been taught in schools in typing classes , and that remains the practice in many cases . Some voice concerns that students will later be forced to relearn how to type .

Most style guides indicate that single sentence spacing is proper for final or published work today , and most publishers require manuscripts to be submitted as they will appear in publication — single sentence spaced . Writing sources typically recommend that prospective authors remove extra spaces before submitting manuscripts , although other sources state that publishers will use software to remove the spaces before final publication .

= = Effects on readability and legibility = =

Claims abound regarding the legibility and readability of the single and double sentence spacing methods — by proponents on both sides . Supporters of single spacing assert that familiarity with the current standard in books , magazines , and the Web enhances readability , that double spacing looks strange in text using proportional fonts , and that the " rivers " and " holes " caused by double spacing impair readability . Proponents of double sentence spacing state that the extra space between sentences enhances readability by providing clearer breaks between sentences and making text appear more legible , particularly noting the very small visual difference between a dot and a comma .

However , typographic opinions are typically anecdotal with no basis in evidence . " Opinions are not always safe guides to legibility of print " , and when direct studies are conducted , anecdotal opinions — even those of experts — can turn out to be false . Text that seems legible ( visually pleasing at first glance ) may be shown to actually impair reading effectiveness when subjected to scientific study .

= = = Studies = = =

Direct studies on sentence spacing include those by Loh , Branch , Shewanown , and Ali ( 2002 ) ; Clinton , Branch , Holschuh , and Shewanown ( 2003 ) ; and Ni , Branch , and Chen ( 2004 ) , with results favoring neither single , double , nor triple spacing . The 2002 study tested participants ' reading speed for single and double sentence spaced passages of on @-@ screen text . The authors stated that " the ' double space group ' consistently took longer time to finish than the ' single space ' group " but concluded that " there was not enough evidence to suggest that a significant difference exists . " The 2003 and 2004 studies analyzed on @-@ screen single , double , and triple spacing . In both cases , the authors stated that there was insufficient evidence to draw a conclusion . Ni , Branch , Chen , and Clinton conducted a similar study in 2009 using identical spacing variables . The authors concluded that the " results provided insufficient evidence that time and comprehension differ significantly among different conditions of spacing between sentences " .

= The Crab with the Golden Claws =

The Crab with the Golden Claws ( French : Le Crabe aux pinces d 'or ) is the ninth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised weekly in Le Soir Jeunesse , the children 's supplement to Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from October 1940 to October 1941 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . Partway through serialisation , Le Soir Jeunesse was cancelled and the story began to be serialised daily in the pages of Le Soir . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who travel to Morocco to pursue a gang of international opium smugglers .

The Crab with the Golden Claws was published in book form shortly after its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Shooting Star , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1943 , Hergé coloured and redrew the book in his distinctive ligne @-@ claire style for Casterman 's republication . The Crab with the Golden Claws introduces the recurring character Captain Haddock , who became a major fixture of the series . The book is the first Tintin adventure published in the United States and the first to be adapted into a motion picture . The Crab with the Golden Claws was adapted for the 1956 Belvision Studios animation Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , for the 1991 Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin , and for the 2011 film directed by Steven Spielberg .

= = Synopsis = =

Tintin is informed by Thomson and Thompson of a case involving the ramblings of a drunken man , later killed , found with a scrap of paper from what appears to be a tin of crab meat with the word " Karaboudjan " scrawled on it . His subsequent investigation and the kidnapping of a Japanese man interested in giving him a letter leads Tintin to a ship called the Karaboudjan , where he is abducted by a syndicate of criminals who have hidden opium in the crab tins . Tintin escapes from his locked room after Snowy chews through his bonds and Tintin knocks out a man sent to bring him food , leaving the man bound and gagged in the room . Tintin encounters Captain Haddock , an alcoholic sea captain , who is manipulated by his first mate , Allan , and is unaware of his crew 's criminal activities . Tintin hides in the locker under the bed and defeats Jumbo , the sailor left in the cabin , while Allan thinks Tintin has climbed out of the porthole back into the storeroom . He blows open the storeroom door , then finding it empty goes back to the Captain 's room , where he finds Jumbo tied to a chair and gagged . Escaping the ship in a lifeboat after sending a radio message to the police about the cargo , a seaplane tries to attack them . Tintin and the Captain hijack the plane , tie up the pilots , and try to reach Spain . Haddock 's drunken behaviour in a storm causes them to crash @-@ land in the Sahara , where the crew escapes .

After trekking across the desert and nearly dying of dehydration , Tintin and Haddock are rescued and taken to a French outpost , where they hear on the radio the storm sunk the Karaboudjan . They travel to a Moroccan port , and along the way are attacked by Tuareg tribesmen , defending themselves with French MAS @-@ 36 rifles . At the port , members of his old crew kidnap the Captain after he recognises their disguised Karaboudjan . Tintin meets Thomson and Thompson who got his message , and they learn that the wealthy merchant Omar ben Salaad sold the crab tins ; Tintin tells Thomson and Thompson to discreetly investigate . Tintin tracks down the gang and saves the Captain , but they both become intoxicated by the fumes from wine barrels breached in a shootout with the villains . Haddock chases a gang @-@ member from the cellar to an entrance behind a bookcase in Salaad 's house . Upon sobering up , Tintin discovers a necklace of a crab with golden claws on the now @-@ subdued owner of the wine cellar , Omar ben Salaad , and realizes that he is the leader of the drug cartel . Allan steals a boat and tries escaping , but Tintin captures him . The police arrest the gang and free the Japanese man , who introduces himself as Bunji Kuraki , a police detective who was trying to warn Tintin of the group he was up against . He had been investigating the sailor on Haddock 's crew who drowned ; the sailor was on the verge of bringing him opium before he was eliminated . Turning on the radio , Tintin learns that , thanks to him , the entire organisation of the Crab with the Golden Claws is behind bars .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

As the Belgian army clashed with the invading Germans in May 1940 , Hergé and his wife fled by car to France along with tens of thousands of other Belgians , first staying in Paris and then heading south to Puy @-@ de @-@ Dôme , where they remained for six weeks . On 28 May , Belgian King Leopold III officially surrendered the country to the German army to prevent further killing ; a move that Hergé agreed with . Germany placed Belgium under occupation . Hergé followed the king 's request that all civilians who had fled the country return ; he arrived back in Brussels on 30 June . There , he found that an officer of the German army 's Propagandastaffel occupied his house , and he also faced financial trouble , as he owed back taxes yet was unable to access his financial reserves ( his fee due from Casterman eventually arrived ) . All Belgian publications were now under the control of the German occupying force . The Catholic publication Le Vingtième Siècle and its supplement Le Petit Vingtième , where Hergé had always worked serialising The Adventures of Tintin , no longer had permission to continue publication . Land of Black Gold , the story that Hergé had been serialising there , had to be abandoned . Victor Matthys , the Rexist editor of Le Pays Réel , offered Hergé employment as a cartoonist , but Hergé perceived Le Pays Réel as an explicitly political publication and thus declined the position .

Instead , he accepted a position with Le Soir , Belgium 's largest Francophone daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , the German authorities permitted Le Soir to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October , Hergé created its new children 's supplement , Le Soir Jeunesse . Appointed editor of this supplement , he was aided by old friend Paul Jamin and the cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke . The first issue of Le Soir Jeunesse was published with a large announcement across the cover : " Tintin et Milou sont revenus ! " ( " Tintin and Snowy are Back ! " ) . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration ; he received an anonymous letter from " the father of a large family " asking him not to work for Le Soir , fearing that The Adventures of Tintin would now be used to indoctrinate children in Nazi ideology , and that as a result " They will no longer speak of God , of the Christian family , of the Catholic ideal ... [ How ] can you agree to collaborate in this terrible act , a real sin against Spirit ? " Hergé however was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 , far more than what Le Vingtième Siècle had been able to accomplish . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Without the need to satirise political types , Harry Thompson observed that " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "

= = = Publication = = =

The Crab with the Golden Claws began serialisation in Le Soir Jeunesse on 17 October 1940 . However , on 8 May 1941 , a paper shortage caused by the ongoing war led to the Le Soir Jeunesse being reduced to four pages , with the length of the weekly Tintin strip being cut by two @-@ thirds . Several weeks later , on 3 September 1941 , the supplement disappeared altogether , with The Crab with the Golden Claws being moved into Le Soir itself in September , where it became a daily strip . As a result , Hergé was forced to alter the pace at which his narrative moved , as he had to hold the reader 's attention at the end of every line . As with earlier Adventures of Tintin , the story was later serialised in France in the Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants from 21 June 1942 .

Following serialisation , Casterman collected together and published the story in book form in 1941 ; the last black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin volume to be released . For this collected edition , Hergé thought of renaming the story , initially considering The Red Crab ( to accompany earlier adventures The Blue Lotus and The Black Island ) before re @-@ settling on Le Crabe aux pinces d 'or ( The Crab with the Golden Claws ) . Hergé became annoyed that Casterman then sent the book to the printers without his final approval . Nevertheless , as a result of Le Soir 's publicity , book sales markedly increased , to the extent that most of the prior Adventures of Tintin were reprinted as a result . German authorities made two exceptions : No reprinting of Tintin in America or The Black Island because they were set in the United States and Britain respectively , both of which were in conflict with Germany .

The serial introduced the character of Captain Haddock . Haddock made his first appearance in Le Soir adjacent to an advert for the anti @-@ Semitic German film , Jud Süß . Hergé chose the name " Haddock " for the character after his wife , Germaine Remi , mentioned " a sad English fish " during a meal . The inclusion of the Japanese police detective Bunji Kuraki as an ally of Tintin 's in this story was probably designed to counterbalance Hergé 's portrayal of the Japanese as the antagonists in his earlier story , The Blue Lotus , particularly given that the occupying government was allied with Japan at the time . The use of Morocco as a setting was likely influenced by The White Squadron by French writer Joseph Peyré , which Hergé had read and seen the film in 1936 . The depiction of the French Foreign Legion in North Africa was possibly influenced by P. C. Wren 's novel Beau Geste ( 1925 ) or its cinematic adaptations in 1926 , 1928 , and 1939 .

Whereas Hergé 's use of Chinese in The Blue Lotus was correct , the Arabic script employed in The Crab with the Golden Claws was intentionally fictitious . Many of the place names featured in the series are puns : the town of Kefheir was a pun on the French Que faire ? ( " what is to be done ? " ) while the port of Bagghar derives from the French baggare ( scrape , or fight ) . The name of Omar ben Salaad is a pun meaning " Lobster Salad " in French .

In February 1942 , Casterman suggested to Hergé that his books be published in a new format ; 62 @-@ pages rather than the former 100 to 130 pages , and now in full colour rather than black @-@ and @-@ white . He agreed to this , and in 1943 The Crab with the Golden Claws was re @-@ edited and coloured for publication as an album in 1944 . Due to the changes in how the adventure had been serialised at Le Soir , the album at this juncture was only 58 pages long , and thus Hergé filled the missing pages with four full @-@ page colour frames , thus bringing it up to the standard 62 @-@ page format .

In the 1960s , The Crab with the Golden Claws , along with King Ottokar 's Sceptre , became the first Tintin adventures published in the United States , in Little Golden Books . However , Casterman , working with the American publisher Western Publishing , made a number of changes : Jumbo , the sailor who Tintin leaves bound and gagged in Captain Haddock 's cabin , as well as another man who beats Haddock in the cellar , could not be black Africans as depicted in the original ; these were changed to a white sailor and an Arab due to the American publisher 's concerns depicting blacks and whites mixing together . The accompanying text was not changed , however , and Haddock still refers to the man who beat him as a " Negro " . Also by request of the Americans , scenes of Haddock drinking directly from bottles of whiskey on the lifeboat and the plane were blanked out , keeping only the text . The edited albums later had their blanked areas redrawn by Hergé to be more acceptable , and they appear this way in published editions around the world . Casterman republished the original black @-@ and @-@ white version of the story in 1980 , as part of the fourth volume in their Archives Hergé collection . In 1989 , they then published a facsimile version of that first edition .

= = Critical analysis = =

Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters described the story as a " rebirth " for The Adventures of Tintin and described the addition of Haddock as " a formidable narrative element " , one which " profoundly changed the spirit of the series " . Elsewhere , he asserts that it is Haddock 's appearance which " makes this book so memorable " and that he is tempted to define the book by that character 's début . Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline commented that The Crab with the Golden Claws had " a certain charm " stemming from its use of " exoticism and colonial nostalgia , for the French especially , evoking their holdings in North Africa . " Michael Farr asserted that the arrival of Haddock was the most " remarkable " element of the story , offering the series " tremendous new potential " . He also thought that the dream sequences reflected the popularity of surrealism at the time , and that the influence of cinema , in particular the films of Alfred Hitchcock , is apparent in the story .

Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier described the story as " a thinly @-@ disguised remake of Cigars of the Pharaoh " , an Adventure of Tintin which had been first serialised in 1934 . Both feature the smuggling of opium , in crab tins and cigars respectively , and " desert treks , hostile tribes and , at the end , the infiltrating of a secret underground lair . " They also opined that artistically , the story represented " a turning point in Hergé 's career " , because he had to switch to a daily format in Le Soir , although as a result of this they felt that the final third of the story " seems rushed " . Stating that the inclusion of a Japanese detective investigating drug smuggling in the Mediterranean makes no sense within the context of 1940s Europe , they ultimately awarded the story three out of five stars .

Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University , in a psychoanalytical review of The Crab with the Golden Claws , commented that this book witnessed Tintin 's " real entrance into the community of human beings " as he gains an " older brother " in Haddock . He also believed that the recurring image of alcohol throughout the story was symbolic of sexuality . In particular , he believed that there was a strong homoerotic subtext between Haddock and Tintin , represented in the two delirious sequences ; in one , Haddock envisions Tintin as a champagne bottle frothing at the top ( thereby symbolising an ejaculating penis ) , while in the other , Tintin dreams that he is trapped inside a bottle , with Haddock about to stick a corkscrew into him ( thereby symbolising sexual penetration ) . However , Apostolidès notes , in both instances the pair are prevented from realising their sexual fantasies . Literary critic Tom McCarthy concurred with Apostolidès on this point , also highlighting what he perceived as homoerotic undertones to these two scenes . He also noted that in this Adventure , the manner in which a chance finding of a tin can on a Belgian street leads Tintin into the story is representative of the recurring theme of " Tintin the detective " found throughout the series .

= = Adaptations = =

In 1947 , the first Tintin motion picture was created : the stop motion @-@ animated feature film The Crab with the Golden Claws , faithfully adapted by producer Wilfried Bouchery for Films Claude Misonne . It was first shown at the ABC Cinema on 11 January 1947 for a group of invited guests . It was screened publicly only once , on 21 December of that year , before Bouchery declared bankruptcy and fled to Argentina .

In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . The Crab with the Golden Claws was the fifth such story to be adapted , being directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , himself a well @-@ known cartoonist who in later years would become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .

In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . Adapting 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long , with most stories spanning two episodes , The Crab with the Golden Claws was the seventh story produced in the series . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , critics have praised the series for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .

A motion capture adventure film titled The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson was released in the US on 21 December 2011 and in Europe at the end of October 2011 . Parts of the movie are taken from The Crab with the Golden Claws including the meeting and first adventures of Tintin and Captain Haddock , the Karaboudjan , the flight to Bagghar , and the crab cans ( although the plot involving the smuggled opium was not adapted ) . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 .

= = In popular culture = =

In The Simpsons episode In the Name of the Grandfather Bart Simpson makes a derogatory remark about Belgium , causing his mother Marge to threaten him with " taking his Tintins away " , whereupon Bart clutches a copy of the Tintin album The Crab with the Golden Claws to his chest , promising he 'll behave .

= L.A.M.B. =

L.A.M.B. is a fashion line by American singer Gwen Stefani , the lead vocalist of the rock band No Doubt . The line manufactures apparel and fashion accessories . It was founded in 2003 and made its runway debut in 2004 . The fashion line manufactures accessories like shoes , watches , bags and a fragrance called " L. " The name is an acronym of her debut solo album Love . Angel . Music . Baby .

The line is influenced by a variety of fashions cultures , including Guatemalan , Japanese , Indian and Jamaican styles . Stefani came from a family of seamstresses . This further inspired her to launch her own fashion line . The line achieved popularity among celebrities and is worn by stars such as Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Paris Hilton and Stefani herself . The fashion line made a runway debut in the spring collection of 2004 and achieved mainstream success at New York Fashion Week in 2005 . It currently makes an annual gross income of $ 90 million . The line , as well as the fashion shows , were well received by critics and appreciated the indulgence of a celebrity into the fashion world . An additional fashion line was launched by Stefani called Harajuku Lovers .

In late 2014 Stefani announced she would be producing an animated series that was based on the characters Love , Angel , Music and Baby . The series , Kuukuu Harajuku follows the Harajuku Girls , known together as HJ5 , as they fight evil and try to pursue their music career .

= = History = =

Stefani first came face to face with designing clothes when she and her mother would sew clothes for themselves when she was young . Stefani comes from a long line of seamstresses , as even her great @-@ grandmother would sew clothes . Stefani made most of the things she wore onstage during concerts . When she became successful and began to tour constantly , she felt she lost her way . Then she met the stylist Andrea Lieberman . Lieberman introduced her to haute couture clothing . Later Lieberman became her creative consultant and Zaldy Goco took over as the head designer . Goco later parted ways with L.A.M.B.

L.A.M.B. started out as a collaboration with LeSportsac in 2003 . The name L.A.M.B. is an acronym which stands for Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , which is also the name of Stefani 's first solo album .

= = Products = =

The fashion line manufactures clothes , shoes , bags and a fragrance called " L " . The brand started out as a line for women but claims the track items are unisex . The clothes were manufactured by Ska Girl LLC , which was founded in 2003 by Ken Erman , president of L.A.M.B. While for its other products , L.A.M.B has been more of a collaborative fashion line . Now the line is teaming up with another manufacturer , which explains why the official website is down .

L.A.M.B joined with Royal Elastics for the shoe line . Stefani is widening her footwear line for adults to include boots and stilettos . L.A.M.B collaborated with Coty Inc. for the fragrance and with LeSportsac for handbags in 2003 . Stefani went on to design a new line of handbags with Shifter and Partners in 2006 . The bags feature LeSportsac 's signature rip @-@ stop nylon along with a variety of antiqued metal hardware , leather trims and colorful linings . Stefani plans to design lingerie as well as make @-@ up products for L.A.M.B. L.A.M.B. partnered with Vestal Group on a line of women 's watches . The line consists of 39 timepieces .

L.A.M.B. products are relatively expensive , with apparel priced $ 55 to $ 1100 , handbags priced $ 80 to $ 825 , and watches priced $ 125 to $ 995 .

= = = Fragrance = = =

Coty Inc. announced a global licensing agreement with Stefani , to develop and market fragrances for L.A.M.B. Catherine Walsh , senior vice president , American Fragrances , Coty Prestige , said in a statement - " From the packaging to the bottle design to the distinctive scent itself , we will be working very closely with Stefani to ensure that her signature fragrance captures her rare spirit , style and warmth , " Stefani said , " Creating a fragrance is one of the most prestigious things a designer can do . "

The fragrance called " L " was launched in September , 2007 at Soho House in New York . Stefani worked with perfumer Harry Fremont to develop the scent . Stefani described the fragrance as " it 's another thing you can wear and another thing I can be part of creatively . I created it for myself -- it 's like me shrunk into a box . " The perfume is a blend of the aromas of hyacinth , white freesia , fresh pear , violet , jasmine , rose , lily , sweet pea , orange blossom , peach , frangipani , heliotrope and musk . The perfume is available in 50 ml and 100 ml bottles .

= = Promotion and fashion shows = =

Stefani frequently refers to her clothing line in her music , as one of the brand 's promotional strategies . Stefani refers to her clothing line in her songs " Wind It Up , " " Harajuku Girls , " and " Crash " ( which even incorporates the brand 's slogan , " I want you all over me like L.A.M.B. " ) . Stefani is often seen wearing her own designs , especially when making public appearances . A thirty @-@ second commercial directed by Sophie Muller was also released to promote the brand 's fragrance .

L.A.M.B. has participated in the Spring / Summer 2006 , 2007 , and 2008 New York Fashion Weeks . Stefani described her first line , which debuted on September 16 , 2005 , as " a little Sound of Music , some Orange County chola girl , some Rasta , and a bit of The Great Gatsby . " The highlights of the show were purple cars bouncing using hydraulics while Stefani 's song " Wind It Up " made its debut as the models walked the runway .

For Spring / Summer 2007 , Stefani opted for a presentation rather than a catwalk show . The models , all donning identical blond wigs , wore designs Stefani said were inspired by Michelle Pfeiffer 's role as Elvira Hancock in the 1983 Scarface . The show included some of Stefani 's trademark tracksuits and extensively referenced prints from Guatemala , India , and Japan . On September 5 , 2007 , L.A.M.B opened New York 's Spring / Summer 2008 Mercedes @-@ Benz Fashion Week . The collection " looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties " and incorporated influences from Stefani 's ska roots . Fashion week organizer Fern Mallis said that celebrity designers provided synergy and energy to the fashion industry , which made Stefani 's collection a desirable opener .

= = Critical reception = =

The line was mostly well received by critics and Stefani was appreciated for taking fashion seriously even though she is a celebrity . Fern Mallis of IMG praised the line and Stefani as well and said , " the L.A.M.B. line is clearly at the top of these lines and is as unique and individual as Gwen herself . " The shoes were well received by the critics , though considered to be pricey . Desiree Stimpert of About.com said , " ... these shoes aren 't for everyone , but will most definitely appeal to fans of Ms. Stefani 's music and fashion - sense . " Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly said , " L.A.M.B. ' s embellished tracksuits , Rasta @-@ inspired knits , and gaucho @-@ heel combos deliver the edge " Nicole Phelps of Style.com said , " The collection , which looked like the sixties as seen by someone who grew up in the eighties , was altogether more wearable and on trend . " Fashion journalist Cathy Horyn of The New York Times differed and said , " If ever there was a reason for a pop star to concentrate on her vocal skills , it was Gwen Stefani 's fashion meltdown . "

= = Commercial success = =

The brand is sold in 275 stores worldwide and is worn by celebrities including Teri Hatcher , Nicole Kidman , Kelly Ripa , Paris Hilton , and Stefani herself . L.A.M.B sales have expanded from $ 40 million in 2005 to a predicted $ 90 million in 2007 . According to a Nordstrom spokesperson , the debut of L.A.M.B. ' s watch line , which sold out in two days , was the store 's most successful watch launch ever . The brand 's designs have appeared in W , Marie Claire , Elle , Lucky and InStyle .

= First @-@ move advantage in chess =

The first @-@ move advantage in chess is the inherent advantage of the player ( White ) who makes the first move in chess . Chess players and theorists generally agree that White begins the game with some advantage . Since 1851 , compiled statistics support this view ; White consistently wins slightly more often than Black , usually scoring between 52 and 56 percent . White 's winning percentage is about the same for tournament games between humans and games between computers . However , White 's advantage is less significant in blitz games and games between novices .

Chess players and theoreticians have long debated whether , given perfect play by both sides , the game should end in a win for White , or a draw . Since approximately 1889 , when World Champion Wilhelm Steinitz addressed this issue , the overwhelming consensus has been that a perfectly played game would end in a draw . However , a few notable players have argued that White 's advantage may be sufficient to force a win : Weaver Adams and Vsevolod Rauzer claimed that White is winning after the first move 1.e4 , while Hans Berliner argued that 1.d4 may win for White .

Some players , including World Champions such as José Raúl Capablanca , Emanuel Lasker , and Bobby Fischer , have expressed fears of a " draw death " as chess becomes more deeply analyzed . To alleviate this danger , Capablanca and Fischer both proposed chess variants to renew interest in the game , while Lasker suggested changing how draws and stalemate are scored .

Since 1988 , chess theorists have challenged previously well @-@ established views about White 's advantage . Grandmaster ( GM ) András Adorján wrote a series of books on the theme that " Black is OK ! " , arguing that the general perception that White has an advantage is founded more in psychology than reality . GM Mihai Suba and others contend that sometimes White 's initiative disappears for no apparent reason as a game progresses . The prevalent style of play for Black today is to seek dynamic , unbalanced positions with active counterplay , rather than merely trying to equalize .

Modern writers also argue that Black has certain countervailing advantages . The consensus that White should try to win can be a psychological burden for the white player , who sometimes loses by trying too hard to win . Some symmetrical openings ( i.e. those where both players make the same moves ) can lead to situations where moving first is a disadvantage , either for psychological or objective reasons .

= = Winning percentages = =

In 1946 , W.F. Streeter examined the results of 5 @,@ 598 games played in 45 international chess tournaments between 1851 and 1932 . Streeter found that overall White scored 53 @.@ 4 % ( W : 38 @.@ 12 ; D : 30 @.@ 56 ; L : 31 @.@ 31 ) . White scored 52 @.@ 55 % in 1851 – 78 ( W : 45 @.@ 52 ; D : 14 @.@ 07 ; L : 40 @.@ 41 ) , 52 @.@ 77 % in 1881 – 1914 ( W : 36 @.@ 89 ; D : 31 @.@ 76 ; L : 31 @.@ 35 ) , and 55 @.@ 47 % in 1919 – 32 ( W : 36 @.@ 98 ; D : 36 @.@ 98 ; L : 26 @.@ 04 ) . Streeter concluded , " It thus appears that it is becoming increasingly difficult to win with Black , but somewhat easier to draw . "

Two decades later , statistician Arthur M. Stevens concluded in The Blue Book of Charts to Winning Chess , based on a survey of 56 @,@ 972 master games that he completed in 1967 , that White scores 59 @.@ 1 % . However , Stevens assembled his games from those that had been published in chess magazines , rather than complete collections of all the games played in particular events .

More recent sources indicate that White scores approximately 54 to 56 percent . In 2005 , GM Jonathan Rowson wrote that " the conventional wisdom is that White begins the game with a small advantage and , holding all other factors constant , scores approximately 56 % to Black 's 44 % " . International Master ( IM ) John Watson wrote in 1998 that White had scored 56 % for most of the 20th century , but that this figure had recently slipped to 55 % . The website Chessgames.com holds regularly updated statistics on its games database . As of January 12 , 2015 , White had won 37 @.@ 50 % , 34 @.@ 90 % were drawn , and Black had won 27 @.@ 60 % out of 739 @,@ 769 games , resulting in a total White winning percentage of 54 @.@ 95 % .

New In Chess observed in its 2000 Yearbook that of the 731 @,@ 740 games in its database , White scored 54 @.@ 8 % overall ; with the two most popular opening moves , White scored 54 @.@ 1 % in 349 @,@ 855 games beginning 1.e4 , and 56 @.@ 1 % in 296 @,@ 200 games beginning 1.d4. The main reason that 1.e4 was less effective than 1.d4 was the Sicilian Defence ( 1.e4 c5 ) , which gave White only a 52 @.@ 3 % score in 145 @,@ 996 games .

Statistician Jeff Sonas , in examining data from 266 @,@ 000 games played between 1994 and 2001 , concluded that White scored 54 @.@ 1767 % plus 0 @.@ 001164 times White 's Elo rating advantage , treating White 's rating advantage as + 390 if it is better than + 390 , or − 460 if it is worse than − 460 . He found that White 's advantage is equivalent to 35 rating points , i.e. if White has a rating 35 points below Black 's , each player will have an expected score of 50 % . Sonas also found that White 's advantage is smaller ( 53 % ) in rapid games than in games at a slower ( " classical " ) time control . In the 462 games played at the 2009 World Blitz Chess Championship , White scored only 52 @.@ 16 % ( W38.96 D26.41 L 34 @.@ 63 ) .

Other writers conclude that there is a positive correlation between the players ' ratings and White 's score . According to GM Evgeny Sveshnikov , statistics show that White has no advantage over Black in games between beginners , but " if the players are stronger , White has the lead " . An analysis of the results of games in ChessBase 's Mega 2003 database between players with similar Elo ratings , commissioned by GM András Adorján , showed that as the players ' ratings went up , the percentage of draws increased , the proportion of decisive games that White won increased , and White 's overall winning percentage increased . For example , taking the highest and lowest of Adorján 's rating categories of 1669 games played by the highest @-@ rated players ( Elo ratings 2700 and above ) , White scored 55 @.@ 7 % overall ( W26.5 D58.4 L15.2 ) , whereas of 34 @,@ 924 games played by the lowest @-@ rated players ( Elo ratings below 2100 ) , White scored 53 @.@ 1 % overall ( W37.0 D32.1 L30.8 ) . Adorján also analyzed the results of games played at the very highest level : World Championship matches . Of 755 games played in 34 matches between 1886 and 1990 , White won 234 ( 31 @.@ 0 % ) , drew 397 ( 52 @.@ 6 % ) , and lost 124 ( 16 @.@ 4 % ) , for a total white winning percentage of 57 @.@ 3 % . In the last five matches in Adorjan 's survey , all between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov , White won 31 ( 25 @.@ 8 % ) , drew 80 ( 66 @.@ 7 % ) , and lost 9 ( 7 @.@ 5 % ) , for a total white winning percentage of 59 @.@ 2 % .

Chess Engines Grand Tournament ( CEGT ) tests computer chess engines by playing them against each other , with time controls of forty moves in one hundred and twenty minutes per player ( 40 / 120 ) , and also 40 / 20 and 40 / 4 , and uses the results of those games to compile a rating list for each time control . At the slowest time control ( 40 / 120 ) , White has scored 55 @.@ 4 % ( W34.7 D41.3 L24.0 ) in games played among 38 of the strongest chess engines ( as of May 27 , 2009 ) . At 40 / 20 , White has scored 54 @.@ 6 % ( W37.0 D35.2 L27.8 ) in games played among 284 engines ( as of May 24 , 2009 ) . At the fastest time control ( 40 / 4 ) , White has scored 54 @.@ 8 % ( W39.6 D30.5 L30.0 ) , in games played among 128 programs ( as of May 28 , 2009 ) .

= = Drawn with best play = =

Joseph Bertin wrote in his 1735 textbook The Noble Game of Chess , " He that plays first , is understood to have the attack . " This is consistent with the traditional view that White , by virtue of the first move , begins with the initiative and should try to extend it into the middlegame , while Black should strive to neutralize White 's initiative and attain equality . Because White begins with the initiative , a minor mistake by White generally leads only to loss of the initiative , while a similar mistake by Black may have more serious consequences . Thus , Sveshnikov wrote in 1994 , " Black players cannot afford to make even the slightest mistake ... from a theoretical point of view , the tasks of White and Black in chess are different : White has to strive for a win , Black — for a draw ! "

Chess theorists have long debated how enduring White 's initiative is and whether , if both sides play perfectly , the game should end in a win for White or a draw . George Walker wrote in 1846 that , " The first move is an advantage , ... but if properly answered , the first move is of little worth " . Steinitz , the first World Champion , who is widely considered the father of modern chess , wrote in 1889 , " It is now conceded by all experts that by proper play on both sides the legitimate issue of a game ought to be a draw . " Lasker and Capablanca , the second and third World Champions , agreed . Reuben Fine , one of the world 's leading players from 1936 to 1951 , wrote that White 's opening advantage is too intangible to be sufficient for a win without an error by Black .

The view that a game of chess should end in a draw given best play prevails . Even if it cannot be proved , this assumption is considered " safe " by Rowson and " logical " by Adorján . Watson agrees that " the proper result of a perfectly played chess game ... is a draw . ... Of course , I can 't prove this , but I doubt that you can find a single strong player who would disagree . ... I remember Kasparov , after a last @-@ round draw , explaining to the waiting reporters : ' Well , chess is a draw . ' " World Champion Bobby Fischer thought that was almost definitely so .

Lasker and Capablanca both worried that chess would suffer a " draw death " as top @-@ level players drew more and more of their games . More recently , Fischer agreed , saying that the game has become played out . All three advocated changing the rules of chess to minimize the number of drawn games . Lasker suggested scoring less than half a point for a draw , and more than half a point for stalemating the opponent 's king . Capablanca in the 1920s proposed Capablanca chess , a chess variant played on a larger board and with additional pieces . Fischer advocated Fischer Random Chess , another chess variant , in which the initial position of the pieces is determined at random .

Today some of the sharpest opening variations have been analyzed so deeply that they are often used as drawing weapons . For example , at the highest levels , Black often uses the Marshall Attack in the Ruy Lopez , a line where Black sacrifices a pawn for strong attacking chances , to obtain an endgame where Black is still a pawn down but is able to draw with correct play .

In 2007 , GMs Kiril Georgiev and Atanas Kolev asserted that much the same was true of the so @-@ called Poisoned Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian , which arises after 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 ! ? This has long been considered one of the sharpest and most problematic , or even foolhardy , opening lines . The game usually continues 8.Qd2 Qxb2 9.Rb1 Qa3 . Georgiev and Kolev stated that 6.Bg5 is seldom seen at the highest level because the main line of this variation leads , with best play , to a draw by perpetual check . They wrote that the following game " will probably remain the last word of theory " :

Francisco Vallejo Pons – Kasparov , Moscow 2004 : 1 @.@  e4 c5 2 . Nf3 d6 3 @.@  d4 cxd4 4 . Nxd4 Nf6 5 . Nc3 a6 6 . Bg5 e6 7 @.@  f4 Qb6 8 . Qd2 Qxb2 9 . Rb1 Qa3 10 @.@  f5 Nc6 11 @.@  fxe6 fxe6 12 . Nxc6 bxc6 13 @.@  e5 dxe5 14 . Bxf6 gxf6 15 . Ne4 Qxa2 16 . Rd1 Be7 17 . Be2 0 @-@ 0 18 . 0 @-@ 0 Ra7 19 . Rf3 Kh8 20 . Rg3 Rd7 21 . Qh6 Rf7 22 . Qh5 Rxd1 + 23 . Bxd1 Qa5 24 . Kf1 Qd8 25 . Qxf7 Qxd1 + 26 . Kf2 Qxc2 + 27 . Kf3 Qd1 + 28 . Kf2 Qc2 + 29 . Ke3 Bc5 + 30 . Nxc5 Qxc5 + 31 . Kd2 Qf2 + 32 . Kc3 Qd4 + 33 . Kc2 Qf2 + 34 . Kc3 1 / 2 – 1 / 2 ( After 34 ... Qd4 + , White cannot escape the checks . )

However , Georgiev and Kolev 's pessimistic assessment of 6.Bg5 has since been called into question , as White succeeded with 10.e5 ( another critical line ) in several later high @-@ level games . GM Zaven Andriasyan wrote in 2013 that after 10.f5 , " a forced draw results " , but that after 10.e5 , " we reach a very sharp position , with mutual chances . "

= = White wins = =

= = = White wins with 1.e4 = = =

Although it is very much a minority view , three prominent twentieth @-@ century masters claimed that White 's advantage should or may be decisive with best play . Weaver Adams , then one of the leading American masters , was the best @-@ known proponent of this view , which he introduced in his 1939 book White to Play and Win , and continued to expound in later books and articles until shortly before his death in 1963 . Adams opined that 1.e4 was White 's strongest move , and that if both sides played the best moves thereafter , " White ought to win . " Adams ' claim was widely ridiculed , and he did not succeed in demonstrating the validity of his theory in tournament and match practice . The year after his book was published , at the finals of the 1940 U.S. Open tournament , he scored only one draw in his four games as White , but won all four of his games as Black . Adams also lost a match to IM I.A. Horowitz , who took the black pieces in every game .

According to Sveshnikov , Vsevolod Rauzer , a leading Soviet player and theoretician during the 1930s , likewise " claimed in the [ 1930s ] : ' 1.e4 — and White wins ! ' and he managed to prove it quite often " .

= = = White wins with 1.d4 = = =

More recently , IM Hans Berliner , a former World Champion of Correspondence Chess , claimed in his 1999 book The System that 1.d4 gives White a large , and possibly decisive , advantage . Berliner asserted that with best play White wins against the Grünfeld Defense , the Modern Benoni , the Benko Gambit and other ( unnamed ) " major defences " , and achieves at least a large advantage in many lines of the Queen 's Gambit Declined . However , he allowed that , " It is possible that the rules of chess are such that only some number of plausible @-@ appearing defences to 1.d4 can be refuted . " Berliner wrote that Adams ' " theories , though looked upon with scorn by most top chess players , made an immediate and lasting impression on me . Weaver W. Adams was the first person I met who actually had theories about how chess should be played . "

Berliner 's thesis , like Adams ' , has been sharply criticized .

= = Modern perspectives = =

As explained below , chess theorists in recent decades have continued to debate the size and nature of White 's advantage , if any . Apart from Berliner , they have rejected the idea that White has a forced win from the opening position . Many also reject the traditional paradigm that Black 's objective should be to neutralize White 's initiative and obtain equality .

= = = White has an enduring advantage = = =

In 2004 , GM Larry Kaufman expressed a more nuanced view than Adams and Berliner , arguing that the initiative stemming from the first move can always be transformed into some sort of enduring advantage , albeit not necessarily a decisive one . Kaufman writes , " I don 't believe that White has a forced win in Chess . I do however believe that with either 1.e4 or 1.d4 , White should be able to obtain some sort of advantage that persists into the endgame . If chess were scored like boxing , with drawn games awarded by some point system to the player ( if any ) who came ' closer ' to winning , then I believe White would indeed have a forced win in theory . "

= = = Black is OK ! = = =

Starting in 1988 , Adorján has argued in a series of books and magazine articles that " Black is OK ! " Alone amongst modern writers , Adorján claims that White starts the game with essentially no advantage . He writes , " In my opinion , the only obvious advantage for White is that if he or she plays for a draw , and does so well , then Black can hardly avoid this without taking obvious risks . " Adorján goes so far as to claim that , " The tale of White 's advantage is a delusion , belief in it is based on mass psychosis . " Rowson writes that Adorján 's " contention is one of the most important chess ideas of the last two decades ... because it has shaken our assumption that White begins the game with some advantage , and revealed its ideological nature " . However , Rowson rejects Adorján 's claim that White has essentially no advantage , reasoning that " ' White is better ' and ' Black is OK ' need not be mutually exclusive claims " .

In one of Adorján 's books , GM Lajos Portisch opined that " at least two @-@ thirds of all ' tested ' openings give White an apparent advantage . " According to Portisch , for Black , " The root of the problem is that very few people know which are the openings where Black is really OK . Those who find these lines have nothing to fear , as Black is indeed OK , but only in those variations ! " Rowson considers this an important point , noting that " 1.d4 players struggle to get anywhere against main @-@ line Slavs and 1.e4 players find the Najdorf and Sveshnikov Sicilians particularly tough . "

= = = Dynamism = = =

Modern writers often think of Black 's role in more dynamic terms than merely trying to equalize . Rowson writes that " the idea of Black trying to ' equalize ' is questionable . I think it has limited application to a few openings , rather than being an opening prescription for Black in general . " Evans wrote that after one of his games against Fischer , " Fischer confided his ' secret ' to me : unlike other masters , he sought to win with the Black pieces from the start . The revelation that Black has dynamic chances and need not be satisfied with mere equality was the turning point in his career , he said . " Likewise , Watson surmised that Kasparov , when playing Black , bypasses the question of whether White has an opening advantage " by thinking in terms of the concrete nature of the dynamic imbalance on the board , and seeking to seize the initiative whenever possible " . Watson observes that " energetic opening play by Black may ... lead to a position so complex and unclear that to speak of equality is meaningless . Sometimes we say ' dynamically balanced ' instead of ' equal ' to express the view that either player is as likely as the other to emerge from complications with an advantage . This style of opening play has become prevalent in modern chess , with World Champions Fischer and Kasparov as its most visible practitioners . "

Modern writers also question the idea that White has an enduring advantage . Suba , in his influential 1991 book Dynamic Chess Strategy , rejects the notion that the initiative can always be transformed into an enduring advantage . He contends that sometimes the player with the initiative loses it with no logical explanation , and that , " Sometimes you must lose it , just like that . If you try to cling to it , by forcing the issue , your dynamic potential will become exhausted and you won 't be able to face a vigorous counter @-@ attack . " Rowson and Watson concur . Watson also observes , " Because of the presumption of White being better , the juncture of the game at which Black frees his game or neutralizes White 's plans has often been automatically assumed to give him equality , even though in dynamic openings , the exhaustion of White 's initiative very often means that Black has seized it with advantage . "

= = = Countervailing advantages = = =

Rowson argues that both White and Black have certain advantages :

= = = = White 's advantages = = = =

According to Rowson , White 's first advantage is that , " The advantage of the first move has some similarities with the serve in tennis in that White can score an ' ace ' ( for instance with a powerful opening novelty ) , he has more control over the pace and direction of the game , and he has a ' second serve ' in that when things go wrong his position is not usually losing . " Second , White begins the game with some initiative , although Rowson regards this as a psychological rather than a positional advantage , " and whether it leads to a positional advantage depends on the relative skill of the players . " Third , some players are able to use the initiative to " play a kind of powerful ' serve and volley ' chess in which Black is flattened with a mixture of deep preparation and attacking prowess . " Fourth , " If White wants to draw , it is often not so easy for Black to prevent this . This advantage is particularly acute in cases where there is a possible threefold repetition , because White can begin the repetition without committing to a draw and Black has to decide whether to deviate before he knows whether White is bluffing . "

Rowson cites as an example of the last phenomenon the well @-@ regarded Zaitsev Variation of the Ruy Lopez . After 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 0 @-@ 0 8.c3 d6 9.h3 Bb7 10.d4 Re8 ( initiating the Zaitsev Variation ) , White can repeat moves once with 11.Ng5 Rf8 12.Nf3. This puts Black in an awkward situation , since he must either ( a ) insist on the Zaitsev with 12 ... Re8 , which allows White to choose whether to draw by threefold repetition with 13.Ng5 Rf8 14.Nf3 , or play on with a different move , or ( b ) play a different ( and possibly inferior ) variation by playing something other than 12 ... Re8 .

= = = = Black 's advantages = = = =

Rowson argues that Black also has several advantages . First , " White 's alleged advantage is also a kind of obligation to play for a win , and Black can often use this to his advantage . " Second , " White 's ' extra move ' can be a burden , and sometimes White finds himself in a mild form of zugzwang ( ' Zugzwang Lite ' ) . " Third , although White begins the game with the initiative , if " Black retains a flexible position with good reactive possibilities , this initiative can be absorbed and often passes over to Black . " Fourth , " The fact that White moves before Black often gives Black useful information " . Suba likewise argues that White 's advantage is actually less than a move , since White must tip his hand first , allowing Black to react to White 's plans . Suba writes , " In terms of the mathematical games theory , chess is a game of complete information , and Black 's information is always greater — by one move ! "

Rowson also notes that Black 's chances increase markedly by playing good openings , which tend to be those with flexibility and latent potential , " rather than those that give White fixed targets or that try to take the initiative prematurely . " He also emphasizes that " White has ' the initiative ' , not ' the advantage ' . Success with Black depends on seeing beyond the initiative and thinking of positions in terms of ' potential ' . " These ideas are exemplified by the Hedgehog , a dynamic modern system against the English Opening that can arise from various move orders . A typical position arises after 1.c4 c5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.g3 b6 4.Bg2 Bb7 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 e6 6.Nc3 Be7 7.d4 cxd4 8.Qxd4 d6 9.e4 a6 . White has a spatial advantage , while Black often maneuvers his pieces on the last two ranks of the board , but White " has to keep a constant eye on the possible liberating pawn thrusts ... b5 and ... d5 . " Watson remarks , " Black 's goal is to remain elastic and flexible , with many options for his pieces , whereas White can become paralyzed at some point by the need to protect against various dynamic pawn breaks . " He also observes that , " White tends to be as much tied up by Black 's latent activity as Black himself is tied up by White 's space advantage . " Moreover , attempts by White to overrun Black 's position often rebound disastrously . An example of this is the following grandmaster game :

Lev Polugaevsky – Ľubomír Ftáčnik , Lucerne Olympiad 1982 : 1 . Nf3 Nf6 2 @.@  c4 c5 3 . Nc3 e6 4 @.@  g3 b6 5 . Bg2 Bb7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 Be7 7 @.@  d4 cxd4 8 . Qxd4 d6 9 . Rd1 a6 10 @.@  b3 Nbd7 11 @.@  e4 Qb8 12 . Bb2 0 @-@ 0 Suba wrote of a similar Hedgehog position , " White 's position looks ideal . That 's the naked truth about it , but the ' ideal ' has by definition one drawback — it cannot be improved . " 13 . Nd2 Rd8 14 @.@  a4 Qc7 15 . Qe3 Rac8 16 . Qe2 Ne5 17 @.@  h3 ? According to Ftáčnik , 17.f4 Neg4 18.Rf1 is better. h5 ! 18 @.@  f4 Ng6 19 . Nf3 Now Black breaks open the position in typical Hedgehog fashion. d5 ! 20 @.@  cxd5 ? ! Ftáčnik considers 20.e5 or 20.exd5 preferable. h4 ! 21 . Nxh4 Nxh4 22 @.@  gxh4 Qxf4 23 @.@  dxe6 fxe6 24 @.@  e5 ? Ftáčnik recommends instead 24.Rxd8 Rxd8 25.Rd1. Bc5 + 25 . Kh1 Nh5 ! 26 . Qxh5 Qg3 27 . Nd5 Other moves get mated immediately : 27.Bxb7 Qh3 # ; 27.Qe2 Qxh3 # ; 27.Qg4 Bxg2 # . Rxd5 28 . Rf1 Qxg2 + ! 29 . Kxg2 Rd2 + If 30.Kg3 ( the only legal response to the double check ) , Rg2 + 31.Kf4 Rf8 + forces mate . 0 – 1

An examination of reversed and symmetrical openings illustrates White 's and Black 's respective advantages :

= = = = = Reversed openings = = = = =

In a " reversed opening " , White plays an opening typically played by Black , but with colors reversed and thus an extra tempo . Evans writes of such openings , " If a defense is considered good for Black , it must be even better for White with a move in hand . " Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik reportedly expressed the same view . Watson questions this idea , citing Suba 's thesis that Black , by moving second , has more complete information than White . He writes , " everyone has such difficulties playing as White against a Sicilian Defence ( 1.e4 c5 ) , but ... leading masters have no qualms about answering 1.c4 with 1 ... e5 . " To explain this paradox , Watson discusses several different reversed Sicilian lines , showing how Black can exploit the disadvantages of various " extra " moves for White . He concludes , " The point is , Black 's set @-@ up in the Sicilian is fine as a reactive system , but not worth much when trying to claim the initiative as White . This is true because Black is able to react to the specific plan White chooses ; in Suba 's terms , his information is indeed a move greater ! Furthermore , he is able to take advantage of dead equal positions which White ( hoping to retain the advantage of the first move ) would normally avoid . "

Watson also observes , " Similarly , the Dutch Defence looks particularly sterile when White achieves the reversed positions a tempo up ( it turns out that he has nothing useful to do ! ) ; and indeed , many standard Black openings are not very inspiring when one gets them as White , tempo in hand . " GM Alex Yermolinsky likewise notes that GM Vladimir Malaniuk , a successful exponent of the Leningrad Dutch ( 1.d4 f5 2.g3 g6 ) at the highest levels , " once made a deep impression on me by casually dismissing someone 's suggestion that he should try 1.f4 as White . He smiled and said , ' That extra move 's gonna hurt me . ' "

Yermolinsky also agrees with Alekhine 's criticism of 1.g3 e5 2.Nf3 , a reversed Alekhine 's Defense , in Réti – Alekhine , Baden @-@ Baden 1925 , writing that Alekhine " understood the difference in opening philosophies for White and Black , and realized they just can 't be the same ! White is supposed to try for more than just obtaining a comfortable game in reversed colour opening set @-@ ups , and , as the statistics show — surprisingly for a lot of people , but not for me — White doesn 't even score as well as Black does in the same positions with his extra tempo and all . " Howard Staunton , generally considered to have been the strongest player in the world from 1843 to 1851 , made a similar point over 160 years ago , writing that Owen 's Defense ( 1.e4 b6 ) is playable for Black , but that 1.b3 is inferior to " the more customary [ first ] moves , from its being essentially defensive " . The current view is that Owen 's Defense is slightly better for White , while 1.b3 is playable but less likely to yield an opening advantage than 1.e4 or 1.d4.

Watson concludes that ( a ) " most moves have disadvantages as well as advantages , so an extra move is not always an unqualified blessing " ; ( b ) " with his extra information about what White is doing , Black can better react to the new situation " ; and ( c ) because a draw is likely to be more acceptable to Black than to White , White is apt to avoid lines that allow drawish simplifications , while Black may not object to such lines .

= = = = = Symmetrical openings = = = = =

Rowson writes that " in general one would assume that whatever advantage White has would be revealed most clearly in symmetrical positions . " Accordingly , Watson , Suba , Evans , and the eminent player and theorist Aron Nimzowitsch ( 1886 – 1935 ) have all argued that it is in Black 's interest to avoid symmetry . Nonetheless , even symmetrical opening lines sometimes illustrate the tenuous nature of White 's advantage , in several respects .

It is often difficult for White to prove an advantage in symmetrical opening lines . As GM Bent Larsen wrote , annotating a game that began 1.c4 c5 2.b3 b6 , " In symmetrical openings , White has a theoretical advantage , but in many of them it is only theoretical . " GM Andrew Soltis wrote in 2008 that he hates playing against the symmetrical Petroff 's Defense ( 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 ) , and accordingly varies with 2.Nc3 , the Vienna Game . However , there too he has been unable to find a way to an advantage after the symmetrical 2 ... Nc6 3.g3 g6 4.Bg2 Bg7 , or after 3.Nf3 Nf6 ( transposing to the Four Knights Game ) 4.Bb5 Bb4 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 6.d3 d6 7.Bg5 Bg4 8.Nd5 Nd4 9.Nxb4 Nxb5 , or 7.Ne2 Ne7 8.c3 Ba5 9.Ng3 c6 10.Ba4 Ng6 11.d4 d5 , when 12.exd5 ? ! e4 ! may even favor Black .

Moreover , symmetrical positions may be disadvantageous to White in that he has to commit himself first . Watson notes that it is even difficult for White to play noncommittally in a symmetrical position , since almost every move has certain drawbacks . Fischer once went so far as to claim that after 1.Nf3 Nf6 2.g3 g6 3.Bg2 Bg7 4 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 5.d3 d6 ( Reinhard – Fischer , Western Open 1963 ) , " ' Believe it or not , ' Black stands better ! Now , whatever White does , Black will vary it and get an asymmetrical position and have the superior position due to his better pawn structure ! " However , GM Paul Keres responded in CHESS magazine , " We just don 't believe it ! " In symmetrical positions , as the Hodgson – Arkell and Portisch – Tal games discussed below illustrate , Black can continue to imitate White as long as he finds it feasible and desirable to do so , and deviate when that ceases to be the case .

Further , a particular extra move is sometimes more of a liability than an asset . For example , Soltis notes that the Exchange French position arising after 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5 exd5 4.Nf3 Nf6 " is pretty equal . " The same position , but with Black 's knight moved to e4 , arises in Petroff 's Defense after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.Nxe5 d6 4.Nf3 Nxe4 5.d4 d5 . That position offers White better chances precisely because Black 's extra move ( ... Ne4 ) allows the advanced knight to become a target for attack .

Finally , symmetrical positions may be difficult for the white player for psychological reasons . Watson writes that anyone who tries the Exchange French , " even if he thinks he is playing for a win , assume [ s ] a psychological burden . White has already ceded the advantage of the first move , and knows it , whereas Black is challenged to find ways to seize the initiative . " Two famous examples of White losses in the Exchange French are M. Gurevich – Short and Tatai – Korchnoi . In M. Gurevich – Short , a game between two of the world 's leading players , White needed only a draw to qualify for the Candidates Matches , while Black needed to win . Gurevich played passively and was outplayed by Short , who achieved the necessary win , qualified for the Candidates , and ultimately went on to challenge Kasparov for the World Championship . In Tatai – Korchnoi , the Italian IM fell victim to Korchnoi 's whirlwind mating attack , losing in just 14 moves .

Rowson gives the following example of Black outplaying White from the Symmetrical Variation of the English Opening . He remarks , " there is something compelling about Black 's strategy . He seems to be saying : ' I will copy all your good moves , and as soon as you make a bad move , I won 't copy you any more ! ' "

Hodgson – Arkell , Newcastle 2001 : 1 @.@  c4 c5 2 @.@  g3 g6 3 . Bg2 Bg7 4 . Nc3 Nc6 5 @.@  a3 a6 6 . Rb1 Rb8 7 @.@  b4 cxb4 8 @.@  axb4 b5 9 @.@  cxb5 axb5 Here Rowson remarks , " Both sides want to push their d @-@ pawn and play Bf4 / ... Bf5 , but White has to go first so Black gets to play ... d5 before White can play d4 . This doesn 't matter much , but it already points to the challenge that White faces here ; his most natural continuations allow Black to play the moves he wants to . I would therefore say that White is in ' Zugzwang Lite ' and that he remains in this state for several moves . " 10 . Nf3 d5 10 ... Nf6 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 12.d3 d6 13.Bd2 Bd7 would transpose to the Portisch – Tal game below . 11 @.@  d4 Nf6 12 . Bf4 Rb6 13 . 0 @-@ 0 Bf5 14 . Rb3 0 @-@ 0 15 . Ne5 Ne4 16 @.@  h3 h5 ! ? Finally breaking the symmetry . 17 . Kh2 The position is still almost symmetrical , and White can find nothing useful to do with his extra move . Rowson whimsically suggests 17.h4 ! ? , forcing Black to be the one to break the symmetry . 17 ... Re8 ! Rowson notes that this is a useful waiting move , covering e7 , which needs protection in some lines , and possibly supporting an eventual ... e5 ( see Black 's twenty @-@ second move ) . White cannot copy it , since after 18.Re1 ? Nxf2 Black would win a pawn . 18 . Be3 ? ! Nxe5 ! 19 @.@  dxe5 Rc6 ! Rowson notes that with his more active pieces , " It looks like Black has some initiative . " If now 20.Nxd5 , Bxe5 " is at least equal for Black " . 20 . Nxb5 Bxe5 ! 20 ... Nxf2 ? 21.Qxd5 ! wins . 21 . Nd4 Bxd4 22 . Bxd4 e5 Rowson writes , " Now both sides have their trumps , but I think Black has some advantage , due to his extra central control , imposing knight and prospects for a kingside attack . " 23 @.@  b5 Rc8 24 . Bb2 d4 Now White has a difficult game : Rowson analyzes 25.e3 ? ! Nxg3 24.fxg3 Bc2 25.Qf3 Bxb3 26.exd4 Bc4 ! , winning ; 25.g4 hxg4 26.hxg4 Nxf2 ! 27.Rxf2 Bc2 , winning ; 25.Qe1 ! ? Rc2 ! with advantage ; and 25.f4 ( risky @-@ looking , but perhaps best ) Nc3 ! 26.Bxc3 dxc3 27.Qxd8 Rexd8 , and Black is better . 25 @.@  b6 ? Overlooking Black 's threat . 25 ... Nxf2 ! 26 . Qe1 If 26.Rxf2 , Bc2 forks White 's queen and rook . 26 ... Ne4 27 @.@  b7 Rb8 28 @.@  g4 hxg4 29 @.@  hxg4 Be6 30 . Rb5 Nf6 ! 31 . Rxf6 Qxf6 32 . Qg3 Bc4 33 @.@  g5 Qh8 + 0 – 1

The opening of the following game between two world @-@ class players , another Symmetrical English , took a similar course :

Lajos Portisch – Mikhail Tal , Candidates Match 1965 : 1 . Nf3 c5 2 @.@  c4 Nc6 3 . Nc3 Nf6 4 @.@  g3 g6 5 . Bg2 Bg7 6 . 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 7 @.@  d3 a6 8 @.@  a3 Rb8 9 . Rb1 b5 10 @.@  cxb5 axb5 11 @.@  b4 cxb4 12 @.@  axb4 d6 13 . Bd2 Bd7 Once again , White is on move in a symmetrical position , but it is not obvious what he can do with his first @-@ move initiative . Soltis writes , " It 's ridiculous to think Black 's position is better . But Mikhail Tal said it is easier to play . By moving second he gets to see White 's move and then decide whether to match it . " 14.Qc1 Here , Soltis writes that Black could maintain equality by keeping the symmetry : 14 ... Qc8 15.Bh6 Bh3 . Instead , he plays to prove that White 's queen is misplaced . 14 ... Rc8 ! 15.Bh6 Nd4 ! Threatening 16 ... Nxe2 + . 16.Nxd4 Bxh6 17.Qxh6 Rxc3 18.Qd2 Qc7 19.Rfc1 Rc8 Although the pawn structure is still symmetrical , Black 's control of the c @-@ file gives him the advantage . Black ultimately reached an endgame two pawns up , but White managed to hold a draw in 83 moves .

Tal himself lost a famous game as White from a symmetrical position in Tal – Beliavsky , USSR Championship 1974 .

= = Tournament and match play = =

In chess tournaments and matches , the frequency with which each player receives white and black is an important consideration . In matches , the players ' colors in the first game are determined by drawing lots , and alternated thereafter . In round robin tournaments with an odd number of players , each player receives an equal number of whites and blacks ; with an even number of players , each receives one extra white or black . Where one or more players withdraws from the tournament , the tournament director may change the assigned colors in some games so that no player receives two more blacks than whites , or vice versa . The double @-@ round robin tournament is considered to give the most reliable final standings , since each player receives the same number of whites and blacks , and plays both White and Black against each opponent .

In Swiss system tournaments , the tournament director tries to ensure that each player receives , as nearly as possible , the same number of games as White and Black , and that the player 's color alternates from round to round . After the first round , the director may deviate from the otherwise prescribed pairings in order to give as many players as possible their equalizing or due colors . More substantial deviations are permissible to avoid giving a player two more blacks than whites ( for example , three blacks in four games ) than vice versa , since extra whites " cause far less player distress " than extra blacks , which impose " a significant handicap " on the affected player . Tournaments with an even number of rounds cause the most problems , since if there is a disparity , it is greater ( e.g. , a player receiving two whites and four blacks ) .

= = Solving chess = =

Endgame tablebases have solved a very limited area of chess , determining perfect play in a number of endgames , including all non @-@ trivial endgames with no more than six pieces or pawns ( including the two kings ) . Seven @-@ piece endgames were solved in 2012 and released as " Lomonosov tablebases " .

Jonathan Rowson has speculated that " in principle it should be possible for a machine to ... develop 32 @-@ piece tablebases . This may take decades or even centuries , but unless runaway global warming or nuclear war gets in the way , I think it will eventually happen . " However , information theorist Claude Shannon argued that it is not feasible for any computer to actually do this . In his 1950 paper " Programming a Computer for Playing Chess " he writes :

With chess it is possible , in principle , to play a perfect game or construct a machine to do so as follows : One considers in a given position all possible moves , then all moves for the opponent , etc . , to the end of the game ( in each variation ) . The end must occur , by the rules of the games after a finite number of moves ( remembering the 50 move drawing rule ) . Each of these variations ends in win , loss or draw . By working backward from the end one can determine whether there is a forced win , the position is a draw or is lost . It is easy to show , however , even with the high computing speed available in electronic calculators this computation is impractical . In typical chess positions there will be of the order of 30 legal moves . The number holds fairly constant until the game is nearly finished as shown ... by De Groot , who averaged the number of legal moves in a large number of master games . Thus a move for White and then one for Black gives about 103 possibilities . A typical game lasts about 40 moves to resignation of one party . This is conservative for our calculation since the machine would calculate out to checkmate , not resignation . However , even at this figure there will be 10120 variations to be calculated from the initial position . A machine operating at the rate of one variation per microsecond would require over 1090 years to calculate the first move !

It is thus theoretically possible to " solve " chess , determining with certainty whether a perfectly played game should end in a win for White , a draw , or even a win for Black . However , according to Shannon the time frame required puts this possibility beyond the limits of any feasible technology .

Hans @-@ Joachim Bremermann , a professor of mathematics and biophysics at the University of California at Berkeley , further argued in a 1965 paper that the " speed , memory , and processing capacity of any possible future computer equipment are limited by certain physical barriers : the light barrier , the quantum barrier , and the thermodynamical barrier . These limitations imply , for example , that no computer , however constructed , will ever be able to examine the entire tree of possible move sequences of the game of chess . " Nonetheless , Bremermann did not foreclose the possibility that a computer would someday be able to solve chess . He wrote , " In order to have a computer play a perfect or nearly perfect game [ of chess ] it will be necessary either to analyze the game completely ... or to analyze the game in an approximate way and combine this with a limited amount of tree searching . ... A theoretical understanding of such heuristic programming , however , is still very much wanting . "

Recent scientific advances have not significantly changed that assessment . The game of checkers was solved in 2007 , but it has roughly the square root of the number of positions in chess . Jonathan Schaeffer , the scientist who led the effort , said a breakthrough such as quantum computing would be needed before solving chess could even be attempted , but he does not rule out the possibility , saying that the one thing he learned from his 16 @-@ year effort of solving checkers " is to never underestimate the advances in technology " .

= = Quotation = =

" You will win with either color if you are the better player , but it takes longer with Black . " – Isaac Kashdan

= Frederick Reines =

Frederick Reines ( RYE @-@ ness ) ; ( March 16 , 1918 – August 26 , 1998 ) was an American physicist . He was awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physics for his co @-@ detection of the neutrino with Clyde Cowan in the neutrino experiment . He may be the only scientist in history " so intimately associated with the discovery of an elementary particle and the subsequent thorough investigation of its fundamental properties " .

A graduate of the Stevens Institute of Technology and New York University , Reines joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in 1944 , working in the Theoretical Division in Richard Feynman 's group . He became a group leader there in 1946 . He participated in a number of nuclear tests , culminating in his becoming the director of the Operation Greenhouse test series in the Pacific in 1951 .

In the early 1950s , working in Hanford and Savannah River Sites , Reines and Cowan developed the equipment and procedures with which they first detected the supposedly undetectable neutrinos in June 1956 . Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino 's properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the neutrino for many researchers to come . This included the detection of neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays , and the 1987 detection of neutrinos emitted from Supernova SN1987A , which inaugurated the field of neutrino astronomy .

= = Early life = =

Frederick Reines was born in Paterson , New Jersey , one of four children of Gussie ( Cohen ) and Israel Reines . His parents were Jewish emigrants from the same town in Russia , but only met in New York City , where they were later married . He had an older sister , Paula , who became a doctor , and two older brothers , David and William , who became lawyers . He said that his " early education was strongly influenced " by his studious siblings . He was the great @-@ nephew of the Rabbi Yitzchak Yaacov Reines , the founder of Mizrachi , a religious Zionist movement .

The family moved to Hillburn , New York , where his father ran the general store , and he spent much of his childhood . He was an Eagle Scout . Looking back , Reines said : " My early childhood memories center around this typical American country store and life in a small American town , including Independence Day July celebrations marked by fireworks and patriotic music played from a pavilion bandstand . "

Reines sang in a chorus , and as a soloist . For a time he considered the possibility of a singing career , and was instructed by a vocal coach from the Metropolitan Opera who provided lessons for free because the family did not have the money for them . The family later moved to North Bergen , New Jersey , residing on Kennedy Boulevard and 57th Street . Because North Bergen did not have a high school , he attended Union Hill High School in Union Hill , New Jersey , from which he graduated in 1935 .

From an early age , Reines exhibited an interest in science , and liked creating and building things . He later recalled that :

The first stirrings of interest in science that I remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school , when , looking out of the window at twilight through a hand curled to simulate a telescope , I noticed something peculiar about the light ; it was the phenomenon of diffraction . That began for me a fascination with light .

Ironically , Reines excelled in literary and history courses , but received average or low marks in science and math in his freshman year of high school , though he improved in those areas by his junior and senior years through the encouragement of a teacher who gave him a key to the school laboratory . This cultivated a love of science by his senior year . In response to a question seniors were asked about what they wanted to do for a yearbook quote , he responded : " To be a physicist extraordinaire . "

Reines was accepted into the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , but chose instead to attend Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken , New Jersey , where he earned his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) degree in mechanical engineering in 1939 , and his Master of Science ( M.S. ) degree in mathematical physics in 1941 , writing a thesis on " A Critical Review of Optical Diffraction Theory " . He married Sylvia Samuels on August 30 , 1940 . They had two children , Robert and Alisa . He then entered New York University , where he earned his Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) in 1944 . He studied cosmic rays there under Serge A. Korff , but wrote his thesis under the supervision of Richard D. Present on " Nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus " . Publication of the thesis was delayed until after the end of World War II ; it appeared in Physical Review in 1946 .

= = Los Alamos Laboratory = =

In 1944 Richard Feynman recruited Reines to work in the Theoretical Division at the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where he would remain for the next fifteen years . He joined Feynman 's T @-@ 4 ( Diffusion Problems ) Group , which was part of Hans Bethe 's T ( Theoretical ) Division . Diffusion was an important aspect of critical mass calculations . In June 1946 , he became a group leader , heading the T @-@ 1 ( Theory of Dragon ) Group . An outgrowth of the " tickling the Dragon 's tail " experiment , the Dragon was a machine that could attain a critical state for short bursts of time , which could be used as a research tool or power source .

Reines participated in a number of nuclear tests , and writing reports on their results . These included Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll in 1946 , Operation Sandstone at Eniwetok Atoll in 1948 , and Operation Ranger and Operation Buster – Jangle at the Nevada Test Site . In 1951 he was the director of Operation Greenhouse series of nuclear tests in the Pacific . This saw the first American tests of boosted fission weapons , an important step towards thermonuclear weapons . He studied the effects of nuclear blasts , and co @-@ authored a paper with John von Neumann on Mach stem formation , an important aspect of an air blast wave .

In spite or perhaps because of his role in these nuclear tests , Reines was concerned about the dangers of radioactive pollution from atmospheric nuclear tests , and became an advocate of underground nuclear testing . In the wake of the Sputnik crisis , he participated in John Archibald Wheeler 's Project 137 , which evolved into JASON . He was also a delegate at the Atoms for Peace Conference in Geneva in 1958 .

= = Discovery of the neutrino and the inner workings of stars = =

The neutrino was a subatomic particle first proposed theoretically by Wolfgang Pauli on December 4 , 1930 , to explain undetected energy that escaped during beta decay when neutron decayed into a proton and an electron so that the law of conservation of energy was not violated . Enrico Fermi renamed it the neutrino , Italian for " little neutral one " , and in 1934 , proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton , an electron , and a neutrino :

n0 → p + + e − + ν

e

The neutrino accounted for the missing energy , but Fermi 's theory described a particle with little mass and no electric charge that would be difficult to observe directly . In a 1934 paper , Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth , and concluded " there is no practically possible way of observing the neutrino . " In 1951 , at the conclusion of the Greenhouse test series , Reines received permission from the head of T Division , J. Carson Mark , for a leave in residence to study fundamental physics . Reines and his colleague Clyde Cowan decided to see if they could detect neutrinos . " So why did we want to detect the free neutrino ? " he later explained , " Because everybody said , you couldn ’ t do it . "

According to Fermi 's theory , there was also a corresponding reverse reaction , in which a neutrino combines with a proton to create a neutron and a positron :

ν

e + p + → n0 + e +

The positron would soon be annihilated by an electron and produce two 0 @.@ 51 MeV gamma rays , while the neutron would be captured by a proton and release a 2 @.@ 2 MeV gamma ray . This would produce a distinctive signature that could be detected . They then realised that by adding cadmium salt to their liquid scintillator to enhance the neutron capture reaction , resulting in a 9 MeV burst of gamma rays . For a neutrino source , they proposed using an atomic bomb . Permission for this was obtained from the laboratory director , Norris Bradbury . Work began on digging a shaft for the experiment when J. M. B. Kellogg convinced them to use a nuclear reactor instead of a bomb . Although a less intense source of neutrinos , it had the advantage in allowing for multiple experiments to be carried out over a long period of time .

In 1953 , they made their first attempts using one of the large reactors at the Hanford nuclear site in what is now known as the Cowan – Reines neutrino experiment . Their detector now included 300 litres ( 66 imp gal ; 79 US gal ) of scintillating fluid and 90 photomultiplier tubes , but the effort was frustrated by background noise from cosmic rays . With encouragement from John A. Wheeler , they tried again in 1955 , this time using one of the newer , larger 700 MW reactors at the Savannah River Site that emitted a high neutrino flux of 1 @.@ 2 x 1012 / cm2 sec . They also had a convenient , well @-@ shielded location 11 metres ( 36 ft ) from the reactor and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) underground . On June 14 , 1956 , they were able to send Pauli a telegram announcing that the neutrino had been found . When Bethe was informed that he had been proven wrong , he said , " Well , you shouldn ’ t believe everything you read in the papers . "

From then on Reines dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the neutrino ’ s properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the neutrino for future researchers to come . Cowan left Los Alamos in 1957 to teach at George Washington University , ending their collaboration . On the basis of his work in first detecting the neutrino , Reines became the head of the physics department of Case Western Reserve University from 1959 to 1966 . At Case , he led a group that was the first to detect neutrinos created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays . Reines had a booming voice , and had been a singer since childhood . During this time , besides performing his duties as a research supervisor and chairman of the physics department , Reines sang in the Cleveland Orchestra Chorus under the direction of Robert Shaw in performances with George Szell and the Cleveland Orchestra .

In 1966 , Reines took most of his neutrino research team with him when he left for the new University of California , Irvine ( UCI ) , becoming its first dean of physical sciences . At UCI , Reines extended the research interests of some of his graduate students into the development of medical radiation detectors , such as for measuring total radiation delivered to the whole human body in radiation therapy .

Reines had prepared for the possibility of measuring the distant events of a supernova explosion . Supernova explosions are rare , but Reines thought he might be lucky enough to see one in his lifetime , and be able to catch the neutrinos streaming from it in his specially @-@ designed detectors . During his wait for a supernova to explode , he put signs on some of his large neutrino detectors , calling them " Supernova Early Warning Systems " . In 1987 , neutrinos emitted from Supernova SN1987A were detected by the Irvine – Michigan – Brookhaven ( IMB ) Collaboration , which used an 8 @,@ 000 ton Cherenkov detector located in a salt mine near Cleveland . Normally , the detectors recorded only a few background events each day . The supernova registered 19 events in just ten seconds . This discovery is regarded as inaugurating the field of neutrino astronomy .

In 1995 , Reines was honored , along with Martin L. Perl with the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work with Cowan in first detecting the neutrino . Unfortunately , Cowan had died in 1974 , and the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously . Reines also received many other awards , including the J. Robert Oppenheimer Memorial Prize in 1981 , the National Medal of Science in 1985 , the Bruno Rossi Prize in 1989 , the Michelson – Morley Award in 1990 , the Panofsky Prize in 1992 , and the Franklin Medal in 1992 . He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1980 and a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1994 . He remained dean of physical sciences at UCI until 1974 , and became a professor emeritus in 1988 , but he continued teaching until 1991 , and remained on UCI 's faculty until his death .

= = Death = =

Reines died after a long illness at the University of California , Irvine Medical Center in Orange , California , on August 26 , 1998 . He was survived by his wife and children . His papers are in the UCI Libraries . Reines Hall at UCI was named in his honor .

= = Publications = =

Reines , F. & C. L. Cowan , Jr . " On the Detection of the Free Neutrino " , Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) ( through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( August 6 , 1953 ) .

Reines , F. , Cowan , C. L. Jr . , Carter , R. E. , Wagner , J. J. & M. E. Wyman . " The Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section . Part I. Measurement of the Free Antineutrino Absorption Cross Section . Part II . Expected Cross Section from Measurements of Fission Fragment Electron Spectrum " , Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) ( through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( June 1958 ) .

Reines , F. , Gurr , H. S. , Jenkins , T. L. & J. H. Munsee . " Neutrino Experiments at Reactors " , University of California @-@ Irvine , Case Western Reserve University , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission ) , ( September 9 , 1968 ) .

Roberts , A. , Blood , H. , Learned , J. & F. Reines . " Status and Aims of the DUMAND Neutrino Project : the Ocean as a Neutrino Detector " , Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory ( FNAL ) , United States Department of Energy ( through predecessor agency the Energy Research and Development Administration ) , ( July 1976 ) .

Reines , F. ( 1991 ) . Neutrinos and Other Matters : Selected Works of Frederick Reines . Teaneck , N.J. : World Scientific . ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 02 @-@ 0392 @-@ 4 .

= Lock Haven , Pennsylvania =

The city of Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Located near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , it is the principal city of the Lock Haven Micropolitan Statistical Area , itself part of the Williamsport – Lock Haven combined statistical area . At the 2010 census , Lock Haven 's population was 9 @,@ 772 .

Built on a site long favored by pre @-@ Columbian peoples , Lock Haven began in 1833 as a timber town and a haven for loggers , boatmen , and other travelers on the river or the West Branch Canal . Resource extraction and efficient transportation financed much of the city 's growth through the end of the 19th century . In the 20th century , a light @-@ aircraft factory , a college , and a paper mill , along with many smaller enterprises , drove the economy . Frequent floods , especially in 1972 , damaged local industry and led to a high rate of unemployment in the 1980s .

The city has three sites on the National Register of Historic Places — Memorial Park Site , a significant pre @-@ Columbian archaeological find ; Heisey House , a Victorian @-@ era museum ; and Water Street District , an area with a mix of 19th- and 20th @-@ century architecture . A levee , completed in 1995 , protects the city from further flooding . While industry remains important to the city , about a third of Lock Haven 's workforce is employed in education , health care , or social services .

= = History = =

= = = Pre @-@ European = = =

The earliest settlers in Pennsylvania arrived from Asia between 12000 BCE and 8000 BCE , when the glaciers of the Pleistocene Ice Age were receding . Fluted point spearheads from this era , known as the Paleo @-@ Indian Period , have been found in most parts of the state . Archeological discoveries at the Memorial Park Site 36Cn164 near the confluence of the West Branch Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek collectively span about 8 @,@ 000 years and represent every major prehistoric period from the Middle Archaic to the Late Woodland period . Prehistoric cultural periods over that span included the Middle Archaic starting at 6500 BCE ; the Late Archaic starting at 3000 BCE ; the Early Woodland starting at 1000 BCE ; the Middle Woodland starting at 0 CE ; and the Late Woodland starting at 900 CE . First contact with Europeans occurred in Pennsylvania between 1500 and 1600 CE .

= = = Eighteenth century = = =

In the early 18th century , a tribal confederacy known as the Six Nations of the Iroquois , headquartered in New York , ruled the Indian ( Native American ) tribes of Pennsylvania , including those who lived near what would become Lock Haven . Indian settlements in the area included three Munsee villages on the 325 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 32 km2 ) Great Island in the West Branch Susquehanna River at the mouth of Bald Eagle Creek . Four Indian trails , the Great Island Path , the Great Shamokin Path , the Bald Eagle Creek Path , and the Sinnemahoning Path , crossed the island , and a fifth , Logan 's Path , met Bald Eagle Creek Path a few miles upstream near the mouth of Fishing Creek . During the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 63 ) , colonial militiamen on the Kittanning Expedition destroyed Munsee property on the Great Island and along the West Branch . By 1763 , the Munsee had abandoned their island villages and other villages in the area .

With the signing of the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768 , the British gained control from the Iroquois of lands south of the West Branch . However , white settlers continued to appropriate land , including tracts in and near the future site of Lock Haven , not covered by the treaty . In 1769 , Cleary Campbell , the first white settler in the area , built a log cabin near the present site of Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania , and by 1773 William Reed , another settler , had built a cabin surrounded by a stockade and called it Reed 's Fort . It was the westernmost of 11 mostly primitive forts along the West Branch ; Fort Augusta , at what is now Sunbury , was the easternmost and most defensible . In response to settler incursions , and encouraged by the British during the American Revolution ( 1775 – 83 ) , Indians attacked colonists and their settlements along the West Branch . Fort Reed and the other white settlements in the area were temporarily abandoned in 1778 during a general evacuation known as the Big Runaway . Hundreds of people fled along the river to Fort Augusta , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Fort Reed ; some did not return for five years . In 1784 , the second Treaty of Fort Stanwix , between the Iroquois and the United States , transferred most of the remaining Indian territory in Pennsylvania , including what would become Lock Haven , to the state . The U.S. acquired the last remaining tract , the Erie Triangle , through a separate treaty and sold it to Pennsylvania in 1792 .

= = = Nineteenth century = = =

Lock Haven was laid out as a town in 1833 , and it became the county seat in 1839 , when the county was created out of parts of Lycoming and Centre counties . Incorporated as a borough in 1840 and as a city in 1870 , Lock Haven prospered in the 19th century largely because of timber and transportation . The forests of Clinton County and counties upriver held a huge supply of white pine and hemlock as well as oak , ash , maple , poplar , cherry , beech , and magnolia . The wood was used locally for such things as frame houses , shingles , canal boats , and wooden bridges , and whole logs were floated to Chesapeake Bay and on to Baltimore , to make spars for ships . Log driving and log rafting , competing forms of transporting logs to sawmills , began along the West Branch around 1800 . By 1830 , slightly before the founding of the town , the lumber industry was well established .

The West Branch Canal , which opened in 1834 , ran 73 miles ( 117 km ) from Northumberland to Farrandsville , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream from Lock Haven . A state @-@ funded extension called the Bald Eagle Cut ran from the West Branch through Lock Haven and Flemington to Bald Eagle Creek . A privately funded extension , the Bald Eagle and Spring Creek Navigation , eventually reached Bellefonte , 24 miles ( 39 km ) upstream . Lock Haven 's founder , Jeremiah Church , and his brother , Willard , chose the town site in 1833 partly because of the river , the creek , and the canal . Church named the town Lock Haven because it had a canal lock and because it was a haven for loggers , boatmen , and other travelers . Over the next quarter century , canal boats 12 feet ( 4 m ) wide and 80 feet ( 24 m ) long carried passengers and mail as well as cargo such as coal , ashes for lye and soap , firewood , food , furniture , dry goods , and clothing . A rapid increase in Lock Haven 's population ( to 830 by 1850 ) followed the opening of the canal .

A Lock Haven log boom , smaller than but otherwise similar to the Susquehanna Boom at Williamsport , was constructed in 1849 . Large cribs of timbers weighted with tons of stone were arranged in the pool behind the Dunnstown Dam , named for a settlement on the shore opposite Lock Haven . The piers , about 150 feet ( 46 m ) from one another , stretched in a line from the dam to a point 3 miles ( 5 km ) upriver . Connected by timbers shackled together with iron yokes and rings , the piers anchored an enclosure into which the river current forced floating logs . Workers called boom rats sorted the captured logs , branded like cattle , for delivery to sawmills and other owners . Lock Haven became the lumber center of Clinton County and the site of many businesses related to forest products .

The Sunbury and Erie Railroad , renamed the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad in 1861 , reached Lock Haven in 1859 , and with it came a building boom . Hoping that the area 's coal , iron ore , white pine , and high @-@ quality clay would produce significant future wealth , railroad investors led by Christopher and John Fallon financed a line to Lock Haven . On the strength of the railroad 's potential value to the city , local residents had invested heavily in housing , building large homes between 1854 and 1856 . Although the Fallons ' coal and iron ventures failed , Gothic Revival , Greek Revival , and Italianate mansions and commercial buildings such as the Fallon House , a large hotel , remained , and the railroad provided a new mode of transport for the ongoing timber era . A second rail line , the Bald Eagle Valley Railroad , originally organized as the Tyrone and Lock Haven Railroad and completed in the 1860s , linked Lock Haven to Tyrone , 56 miles ( 90 km ) to the southwest . The two rail lines soon became part of the network controlled by the Pennsylvania Railroad .

During the era of log floating , logjams sometimes occurred when logs struck an obstacle . Log rafts floating down the West Branch had to pass through chutes in canal dams . The rafts were commonly 28 feet ( 9 m ) wide — narrow enough to pass through the chutes — and 150 feet ( 46 m ) to 200 feet ( 61 m ) long . In 1874 , a large raft got wedged in the chute of the Dunnstown Dam and caused a jam that blocked the channel from bank to bank with a pile of logs 16 feet ( 5 m ) high . The jam eventually trapped another 200 log rafts , and 2 canal boats , The Mammoth of Newport and The Sarah Dunbar .

In terms of board feet , the peak of the lumber era in Pennsylvania arrived in about 1885 , when 1 @.@ 9 million logs went through the boom at Williamsport . These logs produced a total of about 226 million board feet ( 533 @,@ 000 m3 ) of sawed lumber . After that , production steadily declined throughout the state . Lock Haven 's timber business was also affected by flooding , which badly damaged the canals and destroyed the log boom in 1889 .

The Central State Normal School , established to train teachers for central Pennsylvania , held its first classes in 1877 at a site overlooking the West Branch Susquehanna River . The small school , with enrollments below 150 until the 1940s , eventually became Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania . In the early 1880s , the New York and Pennsylvania Paper Mill in Castanea Township near Flemington began paper production on the site of a former sawmill ; the paper mill remained a large employer until the end of the 20th century .

= = = Twentieth century = = =

As older forms of transportation such as the canal boat disappeared , new forms arose . One of these , the electric trolley , began operation in Lock Haven in 1894 . The Lock Haven Electric Railway , managed by the Lock Haven Traction Company and after 1900 by the Susquehanna Traction Company , ran passenger trolleys between Lock Haven and Mill Hall , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the west . The trolley line extended from the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad station in Lock Haven to a station of the Central Railroad of Pennsylvania , which served Mill Hall . The route went through Lock Haven 's downtown , close to the Normal School , across town to the trolley car barn on the southwest edge of the city , through Flemington , over the Bald Eagle Canal and Bald Eagle Creek , and on to Mill Hall via what was then known as the Lock Haven , Bellefonte , and Nittany Valley Turnpike . Plans to extend the line from Mill Hall to Salona , 3 miles ( 5 km ) miles south of Mill Hall , and to Avis 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lock Haven , were never carried out , and the line remained unconnected to other trolley lines . The system , always financially marginal , declined after World War I. Losing business to automobiles and buses , it ceased operations around 1930 .

William T. Piper , Sr. , built the Piper Aircraft Corporation factory in Lock Haven in 1937 after the company 's Taylor Aircraft manufacturing plant in Bradford , Pennsylvania , was destroyed by fire . The factory began operations in a building that once housed a silk mill . As the company grew , the original factory expanded to include engineering and office buildings . Piper remained in the city until 1984 , when its new owner , Lear @-@ Siegler , moved production to Vero Beach , Florida . The Clinton County Historical Society opened the Piper Aviation Museum at the site of the former factory in 1985 , and 10 years later the museum became an independent organization .

The state of Pennsylvania acquired Central State Normal School in 1915 and renamed it Lock Haven State Teachers College in 1927 . Between 1942 and 1970 , the student population grew from 146 to more than 2 @,@ 300 ; the number of teaching faculty rose from 25 to 170 , and the college carried out a large building program . The school 's name was changed to Lock Haven State College in 1960 , and its emphasis shifted to include the humanities , fine arts , mathematics , and social sciences , as well as teacher education . Becoming Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania in 1983 , it opened a branch campus in Clearfield , 48 miles ( 77 km ) west of Lock Haven , in 1989 .

An 8 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) industrial area in Castanea Township adjacent to Lock Haven was placed on the National Priorities List of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites ( commonly referred to as Superfund sites ) in 1982 . Drake Chemical , which went bankrupt in 1981 , made ingredients for pesticides and other compounds at the site from the 1960s to 1981 . Starting in 1982 , the United States Environmental Protection Agency began a clean @-@ up of contaminated containers , buildings , and soils at the site and by the late 1990s had replaced the soils . Equipment to treat contaminated groundwater at the site was installed in 2000 and continues to operate .

= = = Floods = = =

Pennsylvania 's streams have frequently flooded . According to William H. Shank , the Native Americans of Pennsylvania warned white settlers that great floods occurred on the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers every 14 years . Shank tested this idea by tabulating the highest floods on record at key points throughout the state over a 200 @-@ year period and found that a major flood had occurred , on average , once every 25 years between 1784 and 1972 . Big floods recorded at Harrisburg , on the main stem of the Susquehanna about 120 miles ( 193 km ) miles downstream from Lock Haven , occurred in 1784 , 1865 , 1889 , 1894 , 1902 , 1936 , and 1972 . Readings from the Williamsport stream gauge , 24 miles ( 39 km ) miles below Lock Haven on the West Branch of the Susquehanna , showed major flooding between 1889 and 1972 in the same years as the Harrisburg station ; in addition , a large flood occurred on the West Branch at Williamsport in 1946 . Estimated flood @-@ crest readings between 1847 and 1979 — based on data from the National Weather Service flood gauge at Lock Haven — show that flooding likely occurred in the city 19 times in 132 years . The biggest flood occurred on March 18 , 1936 , when the river crested at 32 @.@ 3 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) , which was about 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) above the flood stage of 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) .

The third biggest flood , cresting at 29 @.@ 8 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in Lock Haven , occurred on June 1 , 1889 , and coincided with the Johnstown Flood . The flood demolished Lock Haven 's log boom , and millions of feet of stored timber were swept away . The flood damaged the canals , which were subsequently abandoned , and destroyed the last of the canal boats based in the city .

The most damaging Lock Haven flood was caused by the remnants of Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . The storm , just below hurricane strength when it reached the region , made landfall on June 22 near New York City . Agnes merged with a non @-@ tropical low on June 23 , and the combined system affected the northeastern United States until June 25 . The combination produced widespread rains of 6 to 12 inches ( 152 to 305 mm ) with local amounts up to 19 inches ( 483 mm ) in western Schuylkill County , about 75 miles ( 121 km ) southeast of Lock Haven . At Lock Haven , the river crested on June 23 at 31 @.@ 3 feet ( 9 @.@ 5 m ) , second only to the 1936 crest . The flood greatly damaged the paper mill and Piper Aircraft .

Federal , state , and local governments began construction in 1992 of barriers to protect the city . The project included a levee of 36 @,@ 000 feet ( 10 @,@ 973 m ) and a flood wall of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) along the Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek , closure structures , retention basins , a pumping station , and some relocation of roads and buildings . Completed in 1995 , the levee protected the city from high water in the year of the Blizzard of 1996 , and again 2004 , when rainfall from the remnants of Hurricane Ivan threatened the city .

= = Geography = =

Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 2 @.@ 7 square miles ( 7 @.@ 0 km2 ) , 2 @.@ 5 square miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) of which is land . About 0 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) , 6 percent , is water .

Lock Haven is at 561 feet ( 171 m ) above sea level near the confluence of Bald Eagle Creek and the West Branch Susquehanna River in north @-@ central Pennsylvania . The city is about 200 miles ( 320 km ) by highway northwest of Philadelphia and 175 miles ( 280 km ) northeast of Pittsburgh . U.S. Route 220 , a major transportation corridor , skirts the city on its south edge , intersecting with Pennsylvania Route 120 , which passes through the city and connects it with Renovo in northern Clinton County . Other highways entering Lock Haven include Pennsylvania Route 664 and Pennsylvania Route 150 , which connects to Avis .

The city and nearby smaller communities — Castanea , Dunnstown , Flemington , and Mill Hall — are mainly at valley level in the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians , a mountain belt characterized by long even valleys running between long continuous ridges . Bald Eagle Mountain , one of these ridges , runs parallel to Bald Eagle Creek on the south side of the city . Upstream of the confluence with Bald Eagle Creek , the West Branch Susquehanna River drains part of the Allegheny Plateau , a region of dissected highlands ( also called the " Deep Valleys Section " ) generally north of the city . The geologic formations in the southeastern part of the city are mostly limestone , while those to the north and west consist mostly of siltstone and shale . Large parts of the city are flat , but slopes rise to the west , and very steep slopes are found along the river , on the university campus , and along Pennsylvania Route 120 as it approaches U.S. Route 220 .

= = = Climate = = =

Under the Köppen climate classification , Lock Haven is in zone Dfa meaning a humid continental climate with hot or very warm summers . The average temperature here in January is 28 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) , and in July it is 73 ° F ( 23 ° C ) . Between 1888 and 1996 , the highest recorded temperature for the city was 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) in 1936 , and the lowest recorded temperature was − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) in 1912 . The average wettest month is June . Between 1926 and 1977 the mean annual precipitation was about 39 inches ( 990 mm ) , and the number of days each year with precipitation of 0 @.@ 1 inches ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) or more was 77 . Annual snowfall amounts between 1888 and 1996 varied from 0 in several years to about 65 inches ( 170 cm ) in 1942 . The maximum recorded snowfall in a single month was 38 inches ( 97 cm ) in April 1894 .

= = Demographics = =

As of the census of 2010 , there were 9 @,@ 772 people living in 3 @,@ 624 housing units spread across the city . The average household size during the years 2009 – 13 was 2 @.@ 38 . During those same years , multi @-@ unit structures made up 57 percent of the housing @-@ unit total . The rate of home ownership was 35 percent , and the median value of owner @-@ occupied units was about $ 100 @,@ 000 . The estimated population of the city in 2013 was 10 @,@ 025 , an increase of 2 @.@ 6 percent after 2010 .

The population density in 2010 was 3 @,@ 915 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 506 per km2 ) . The reported racial makeup of the city was about 93 percent White and about 4 percent African @-@ American , with other categories totaling about 3 percent . People of Hispanic or Latino origin accounted for about 2 percent of the residents . Between 2009 and 2013 , about 2 percent of the city 's residents were foreign @-@ born , and about 5 percent of the population over the age of 5 spoke a language other than English at home .

In 2010 , the city 's population included about 16 percent under the age of 18 and about 12 percent who were 65 years of age or older . Females accounted for 54 percent of the total . Students at the university comprised about a third of the city 's population .

Between 2009 and 2013 , of the people who were older than 25 , 82 percent had graduated from high school , and 20 percent had at least a bachelor 's degree . In 2007 , 640 businesses operated in Lock Haven . The mean travel time to work for employees who were at least 16 years old was 16 minutes .

The median income for a household in the city during 2009 – 13 was about $ 25 @,@ 000 compared to about $ 53 @,@ 000 for the entire state of Pennsylvania . The per capita income for the city was about $ 19 @,@ 000 , and about 40 percent of Lock Haven 's residents lived below the poverty line .

= = Economy = =

Lock Haven 's economy , from the city 's founding in 1833 until the end of the 19th century , depended heavily on natural resources , particularly timber , and on cheap transportation to eastern markets . Loggers used the Susquehanna River and Bald Eagle Creek to float timber to sawmills in Lock Haven and nearby towns . The West Branch Canal , reaching the city in 1834 , connected to large markets downstream , and shorter canals along Bald Eagle Creek added other connections . In 1859 , the first railroad arrived in Lock Haven , spurring trade and economic growth .

By 1900 , the lumber industry had declined , and the city 's economic base rested on other industries , including a furniture factory , a paper mill , a fire brick plant , and a silk mill . In 1938 , the Piper Aircraft Corporation , maker of the Piper Cub and other light aircraft , moved its production plant to Lock Haven . It remained one of the city 's biggest employers until the 1980s , when , after major flood damage and losses related to Hurricane Agnes in 1972 , it moved to Florida . The loss of Piper Aircraft contributed to an unemployment rate of more than 20 % in Lock Haven in the early 1980s , though the rate had declined to about 9 % by 2000 . Another large plant , the paper mill that had operated since the 1880s in Castanea Township , closed in 2001 . By 2005 , 32 % of the city 's labor force was employed in health care , education , or social services , 16 % in manufacturing , 14 % in retail trade , 13 % in arts , entertainment , recreation , accommodation , and food services , and smaller fractions in other sectors . The city 's biggest employers , Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania and Lock Haven Hospital , are among the seven biggest employers in Clinton County .

= = Arts , culture , historic sites , and media = =

Lock Haven University presents public concerts , plays , art exhibits , and student recitals at the Price Performance Center , the Sloan Auditorium , and the Sloan Fine Arts Gallery on campus . The Millbrook Playhouse in Mill Hall has produced plays since 1963 . Summer concerts are held in city parks , and the local Junior Chamber International ( Jaycees ) chapter sponsors an annual boat regatta on the river . The city sponsors a festival called Airfest at the airport in the summer , a Halloween parade in October , and a holiday parade in December . Light @-@ airplane pilots travel to the city in vintage Piper planes to attend Sentimental Journey Fly @-@ Ins , which have been held each summer since 1986 . Enthusiasts of radio @-@ controlled model airplanes meet annually at the William T. Piper Memorial Airport to fly their planes .

The central library for Clinton County is the Annie Halenbake Ross Library in Lock Haven ; it has about 130 @,@ 000 books , subscriptions to periodicals , electronic resources , and other materials . Stevenson Library on the university campus has additional collections .

The Piper Aviation Museum exhibits aircraft and aircraft equipment , documents , photographs , and memorabilia related to Piper Aircraft . An eight @-@ room home , the Heisey House , restored to its mid @-@ 19th century appearance , displays Victorian @-@ era collections ; it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972 and is home to the Clinton County Historical Society . The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission has placed three cast aluminum markers — Clinton County , Fort Reed , and Pennsylvania Canal ( West Branch Division ) — in Lock Haven to commemorate historic places . The Water Street District , a mix of 19th- and 20th @-@ century architecture near the river , was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . Memorial Park Site 36Cn164 , an archaeological site of prehistoric significance discovered near the airport , was added to the National Register in 1982 .

The city 's media include The Express , a daily newspaper , and The Eagle Eye , the student newspaper at the university . Radio stations WBPZ ( AM ) and WSQV ( FM ) broadcast from the city . A television station , Havenscope ( available on @-@ campus only ) , and a radio station , WLHU ( Internet station only , with no FCC broadcast license ) , both managed by students , operate on the university campus .

= = Parks and recreation = =

The city has 14 municipal parks and playgrounds ranging in size from the 0 @.@ 75 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 30 ha ) Triangle Park in downtown to the 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) Douglas H. Peddie Memorial Park along Route 120 . Fields maintained by the city accommodate baseball for the Pony League , Little League , and Junior League and softball for the Youth Girls League and for adults . In 1948 , a team from the city won the Little League World Series . In 2011 , the Keystone Little League based in Lock Haven advanced to the Little League World Series and placed third in the United States , drawing record crowds . Hanna Park includes tennis courts , and Hoberman Park includes a skate park . The Lock Haven City Beach , on the Susquehanna River , offers water access , a sand beach , and a bath house . In conjunction with the school district , the city sponsors a summer recreation program .

A 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) trail hike and run , the Bald Eagle Mountain Megatransect , takes place annually near Lock Haven . The local branch of the Young Men 's Christian Association ( YMCA ) offers a wide variety of recreational programs to members , and the Clinton Country Club maintains a private 18 @-@ hole golf course in Mill Hall .

= = Government = =

Lock Haven has a council @-@ manager form of government . The council , the city 's legislative body , consists of six members and a mayor , each serving a four @-@ year term . The council sets policy , and the city manager oversees day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The mayor is William Baney , whose term expires in 2019 . The manager is Richard W. Marcinkevage .

Lock Haven is the county seat of Clinton County and houses county offices , courts , and the county library . Three elected commissioners serving four @-@ year terms manage the county government . Robert " Pete " Smeltz , chairman ; Jeffrey Snyder , vice @-@ chairman , and Paul Conklin , have terms running through 2019 .

Michael K. Hanna , a Democrat , represents the 76th District , which includes Lock Haven , in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . Joseph B. Scarnati III , a Republican , represents Lock Haven as part of the 25th District of the Pennsylvania State Senate .

= = Education = =

The Keystone Central School District serves most of Clinton County , including Lock Haven , as well as parts of Centre County and Potter County . The district 's administration building is in Lock Haven as are three of the district 's elementary schools , Dickey Elementary , Robb Elementary , and Woodward Elementary , all for children enrolled in kindergarten through fifth grade . The total enrollment of these three schools combined in 2002 – 03 was 790 . Central Mountain Middle School in Mill Hall is the nearest public middle school , for grades six to eight . The nearest public high school , grades nine to twelve , is Central Mountain High School , also in Mill Hall .

The city has two private schools , Lock Haven Christian School , with about 80 students in kindergarten through 12th grade , and Lock Haven Catholic School , which had about 190 students in kindergarten through sixth grade as of 2002 – 03 . In 2015 , the Catholic School is completing a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 930 m2 ) expansion to include grades seven and eight , which will make it a combined elementary and middle school .

Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania , offering a wide range of undergraduate studies as well as continuing @-@ education and graduate @-@ school programs at its main campus , occupies 175 acres ( 71 ha ) on the west edge of the city . Enrollment at this campus was about 4 @,@ 400 in 2003 .

= = Infrastructure = =

Lock Haven Taxi , based in the central downtown , has taxicabs for hire . Fullington Trailways provides daily intercity bus service between Lock Haven and nearby cities including State College , Williamsport , and Wilkes @-@ Barre . Charter and tour buses are available through Susquehanna Trailways , based in Avis , 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Lock Haven . Pennsylvania Bicycle Route G follows Pennsylvania Route 150 and links to the Pine Creek Rail Trail at the eastern end of the county near Jersey Shore , Pennsylvania . A 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) walking trail on the levee along the river is restricted to pedestrian use .

The Norfolk Southern Railway mainline from Harrisburg to Buffalo , New York , runs through the center of Lock Haven . On the east side of town , it connects to the Nittany and Bald Eagle Railroad , a short line . Trains serving Lock Haven carry only freight . The City of Lock Haven operates the William T. Piper Memorial Airport , a general aviation facility with a paved runway , runway lighting , paved taxiways , a tie @-@ down area , and hangar spaces . No commercial , charter , or freight services are available at this airport .

Electric service to Lock Haven residents is provided by PPL ( formerly known as Pennsylvania Power and Light ) , the gas division of which provides natural gas to the city . Verizon Communications handles local telephone service ; long @-@ distance service is available from several providers . Comcast offers high @-@ speed cable modem connections to the Internet . Several companies can provide Lock Haven residents with dial @-@ up Internet access . One of them , KCnet , has an office in Lock Haven . Comcast also provides cable television .

The City of Lock Haven owns the reservoirs and water distribution system for Wayne Township , Castanea Township , and the city . Water is treated at the Central Clinton County Water Filtration Authority Plant in Wayne Township before distribution . The city also provides water to the Suburban Lock Haven Water Authority , which distributes it to surrounding communities . Lock Haven operates a sewage treatment plant for waste water , industrial waste , and trucked sewage from the city and eight upstream municipalities : Bald Eagle Township , Castanea , Flemington , Lamar , Mill Hall , Porter Township , Woodward Township , and Walker Township in Centre County . Storm water runoff from within the city is transported by city @-@ owned storm sewers . Curbside pickup of household garbage is provided by a variety of local haulers licensed by the city ; recyclables are picked up once every two weeks . The Clinton County Solid Waste Authority owns and operates the Wayne Township Landfill , which serves Lock Haven .

Lock Haven Hospital is a 77 @-@ bed hospital with a 120 @-@ bed extended @-@ care unit . It offers inpatient , outpatient , and 24 @-@ hour emergency services with heliport access . Susque @-@ View Home , next to the hospital , offers long @-@ term care to the elderly and other services including speech , physical , and occupational therapy for people of all ages . A 10 @-@ physician community @-@ practice clinic based in the city provides primary care and specialty services . A behavioral health clinic offers programs for children and adolescents and psychiatric outpatient care for all ages .

= = Notable people = =

Brittani Kline , winner of America 's Next Top Model ( cycle 16 ) , is a 2015 graduate of Lock Haven University . Alexander McDonald , a U.S. Senator for Arkansas was born near Lock Haven in 1832 . Artist John French Sloan was born in Lock Haven in 1871 , and cartoonist Alison Bechdel , author of Dykes to Watch Out For and Fun Home , was born in Lock Haven in 1960 . Richard Lipez , author of the Donald Strachey mysteries , was born in Lock Haven in 1938 . Other notable residents have included diplomat and Dartmouth College president John Sloan Dickey and federal judge Kermit Lipez of the U.S. Federal First District Court of Appeals .

= Rachel Green =

Rachel Karen Green is a fictional character , one of the six main characters who appear in the American sitcom Friends . Portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston , the character was created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman , and appeared in each of the show ’ s 236 episodes during its decade @-@ long run , from its premiere on September 22 , 1994 to its finale on May 6 , 2004 . Introduced in the show 's pilot as a naive runaway bride who reunites with her childhood best friend Monica and relocates to New York City , Rachel gradually evolves from a spoiled , inexperienced daddy 's girl into a successful businesswoman . During the show 's second season , the character becomes romantically involved with her friend Ross , with whom she maintains a complicated on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship throughout the entire series . Together , the characters have a daughter , Emma .

The role of Rachel was originally offered to actresses Téa Leoni , the producer 's first choice , and Courteney Cox , both of whom declined , Leoni in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth , and Cox in favor of playing Rachel 's best friend Monica in Friends . A virtually unknown actress at the time who had previously starred in five short @-@ lived sitcoms , Aniston auditioned for the role of Rachel after turning down an offer as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . After acquiring the role and before Friends aired , Aniston was temporarily at risk of being recast because she had also been involved with another sitcom , Muddling Through , at the time , which was ultimately canceled and allowed Aniston to remain on Friends .

Critical reception towards Rachel has remained consistently positive throughout Friends ' decade @-@ long run , with The A. V. Club attributing much of the show 's early success to the character . However , some of her storylines have been criticized , specifically her romantic relationship with her friend Joey during season ten . Rachel 's popularity established her as the show 's breakout character , who has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all @-@ time , while the character 's second season haircut spawned an international phenomenon of its own . Named the " Rachel " after her , the character 's shag continues to be imitated by millions of women around the world and remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history , in spite of Aniston 's own resentment towards it . Rachel is also regarded as a style icon due to her influence on womenswear during the 1990s . Meanwhile , the character 's relationship with Ross is often cited among television 's most beloved .

Rachel is considered to be Aniston 's breakout role , credited with making her the show 's most famous cast member and for spawning her successful film career . Praised for her performance as Rachel , Aniston won both an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical .

= = Role = =

Rachel debuts in the pilot episode of Friends as a runaway bride who is distraught after abandoning her fiancé Barry Farber ( Mitchell Whitfield ) at the altar . She locates her high school best friend Monica Geller ( Courteney Cox ) , the only person she knows in New York City , who agrees to let Rachel reside with her while she attempts to reorganize her life . Rachel meets and befriends Monica ’ s friends Phoebe Buffay ( Lisa Kudrow ) , Joey Tribbiani ( Matt LeBlanc ) , and Chandler Bing ( Matthew Perry ) , while reuniting with Monica 's older brother Ross Geller ( David Schwimmer ) , who has harbored unrequited romantic feelings for her since high school . Having previously relied on her parents ' money her entire life with a sole goal of marrying wealthy , Rachel attempts to reinvent herself as an independent young woman by waitressing at Central Perk , a coffeehouse where her new friends regularly socialize .

As season one concludes , Rachel finally confesses her love for Ross , having learned of his feelings for her from Chandler , only to find that he has already begun dating another woman , whom she resents . However , Ross eventually chooses Rachel over his girlfriend Julie ( Lauren Tom ) , and the couple dates for the remainder of the second season . However , their relationship rapidly begins to deteriorate towards the end of the third season after Rachel quits her job at the coffeehouse in favor of working in fashion . While Rachel becomes increasingly preoccupied with her new job , Ross grows jealous of her companionship with her coworker Mark ( Steven Eckholdt ) , ultimately culminating in their break up on their one @-@ year anniversary following a series of heated arguments and disagreements .

In the episodes following the break up , Rachel and Ross are initially hostile towards each other . The exes continue to harbor feelings for each other . During a beach house vacation with their friends , Rachel and Ross briefly reconcile when he ends his relationship with Bonnie ( Christine Taylor ) , only to break up once again due to a disagreement . During season four , Rachel dates her customer Joshua ( Tate Donovan ) , while Ross dates her boss ' niece Emily ( Helen Baxendale ) , to whom he eventually gets engaged . Competitively , Rachel proposes to recent divorcee Joshua , frightening him off . Rachel indirectly contributes to the demise of Ross and Emily 's relationship when he accidentally utters Rachel 's name while exchanging their wedding vows . Ross ultimately divorces a jealous Emily , choosing his friendship with Rachel instead .

At the end of season five , Ross and Rachel drunkenly get married while vacationing with their friends in Las Vegas . In season six , their annulment request is denied because of Rachel having leveled unfounded allegations against Ross , forcing the two to file for a divorce instead . In season seven , Ross and Rachel unwittingly conceive a child when their birth control fails . Rachel gives birth to a girl in season eight , naming the baby Emma Geller @-@ Green ; the name Emma is a gift from Monica , who had previously been reserving the name for her own child . Rachel and Ross live together as non @-@ romantic roommates during the first half of season nine .

Rachel eventually finds a job opportunity in France , but has second thoughts when Ross eventually forfeits stubbornness and says " I love you " . Rachel ultimately decides to stay and reignite her relationship with Ross , getting off the plane at the last minute .

= = Development = =

= = = Conception and writing = = =

After their short @-@ lived television series Family Album was canceled , television writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman pitched Friends to then @-@ NBC president Warren Littlefield as a sitcom about " that special time in your life when your friends are your family , " basing the show on their own experiences as young people living in New York ; the main characters themselves were inspired by their own friends . Conceived as a young woman who is unprepared for adulthood , the character Rachel Green was originally named Rachel Robbins . Although critics and audiences initially perceived Monica as the show 's main character when Friends premiered , the writers had actually given Rachel the pilot 's most prominent storyline . Before deciding that Rachel and Ross would be an item for the entire series , the writers had originally intended for the show 's defining couple to be Joey and Monica . However , after the success of the pilot , in which Rachel and Ross ' developing romance is first hinted at , and witnessing Aniston and co @-@ star David Schwimmer 's on @-@ screen chemistry for the first time , Crane and Kauffman determined that the entire series relied on " finding all the wonderful roadblocks for them to be with each other . "

Audiences began rooting for Rachel and Ross ' union since the very beginning of Friends , openly voicing their frustration with Rachel ’ s obliviousness to Ross ' feelings for her . The episode that would ultimately transform the friends ' relationship for the remainder of the series was the first season finale " The One Where Rachel Finds Out " , in which Rachel finally learns of Ross ' true feelings for her , at the same time discovering she actually feels the same . However , the episode nearly went unwritten because , at the time , few friends writers were expecting the couple 's relationship to morph into the phenomenon that it ultimately became . The episode was first suggested by director James Burrows ; the writers felt that it was time to alter the couple 's dynamic in order to avoid the repetitive " he 's pining , she 's oblivious " pattern , using the work of author Jane Austen as inspiration on how to finally shift the pining arc from Ross to Rachel . Because stakes for the episode were unprecedentedly high , " The One Where Rachel Finds Out " became Friends ' most reworked episode . The couple 's first kiss at the end of season two 's " The One Where Ross Finds Out " was met with deafening applause from the studio audience . Crane admitted that keeping viewers interested in their relationship for ten years was challenging . Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph believes that they accomplished this by " dangl [ ing ] the possibility of a Ross and Rachel recoupling through several cliffhangers without ever putting them back together . " According to Encyclopedia of Television author Horace Newcomb , Ross and Rachel 's ever @-@ changing relationship " converted the traditional amnesic plotlines of the situation comedy into ones akin to episodic drama . " Meanwhile , writing for The New York Review of Books , Elaine Blair agreed that Friends created " a sense of chemistry between two characters while also putting obstacles in their way , setting us up for a long @-@ deferred union . "

After Rachel and Ross drunkenly get married while on vacation in Las Vegas during season five , Schwimmer had initially objected to the idea of having his character Ross divorce her – his third divorce – because he felt that it was taking it " too far . " The actor explained that " The whole arc of the relationship was weird then ... because for [ Ross ] to be able to move on enough to marry someone else and then go back to being in love with Rachel later just went a bit too far . " Rachel and Joey 's romantic storyline was conceived because the writers wanted to delay Ross and Rachel 's reunion further . Crane felt that pairing Rachel and Joey during season ten " was for the greater good " because " It was inappropriate . " However , the cast initially protested the idea , fearing that Rachel , Joey , and Ross would ultimately become unlikeable characters and audiences would either " resent Joey for going after a pregnant woman , or resent Rachel for rejecting him , or resent Ross for standing between the two of them . " Meanwhile , the writers also approached the concept of Rachel 's pregnancy and baby tentatively , worrying about how they would include it in the show because they did not want Friends " to become a show about a baby " while " On the other hand , we don 't want to pretend that there isn 't one . " According to Robert Bianco of USA Today , the critical success and popularity of Rachel 's pregnancy is ultimately responsible for " propel [ ling ] the show to the top of the ratings " . When it finally came time to write the series finale , " The only thing [ Crane and Kauffman ] absolutely knew from very early on was that we had to get Ross and Rachel together , " deciding , " We had dicked the audience around for 10 years with their ' will they or won ’ t they , ' and we didn ’ t see any advantage in frustrating them " any longer . However , at one point the writers had deliberated ending the series with Ross and Rachel in " a gray area of where they aren ’ t together , but we hint there ’ s a sense that they might be down the road . " Ultimately , Crane and Kauffman relented in favor of giving the audience what they want .

= = = Casting = = =

The final character to be cast , Rachel is portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston , who auditioned for the role shortly after declining a position as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . Her decision was initially ridiculed by both her friends as well as actor Adam Sandler , a Saturday Night Live alum . Actress Téa Leoni , who at the time was being referred to by the media as " the next Lucille Ball " , was offered the role of Rachel as the studio 's first choice , but she declined in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth . Actress Elizabeth Berkley also auditioned for the role prior to being cast in the teen sitcom Saved by the Bell . Other actresses who auditioned for Rachel include Denise Richards , Melissa Rivers , Nicolette Sheridan , Parker Posey , and Jami Gertz . Originally , the producers wanted to cast actress Courteney Cox as Rachel , who Crane and Kauffman were particularly drawn to because of her " cheery , upbeat energy . " Additionally , Cox was the most famous cast member at the time amidst an ensemble of relatively unknown actors . However , the actress lobbied for the role of Rachel 's best friend Monica , as whom she was ultimately cast , because she felt that she was not " quirky " enough to play Rachel . At the same time , although unbeknownst to each other , Aniston was being considered for the role of Monica , but fought to play Rachel because she felt that the character suited her better . At one point , Cox had begun to regret her decision to play Monica until her own character 's storylines started improving .

Friends was Aniston 's sixth sitcom ; each of her previous ventures had been canceled prematurely . Feeling vulnerable , Aniston had begun to doubt herself as an actress and personally approached Littlefield for reassurance on her career , who encouraged her to audition for Friends , which was being referred to as Friends Like These at the time . Crane and Kauffman had worked with Aniston prior to this . However , casting her as Rachel posed a challenge for the network because , at the time , Aniston was simultaneously starring in a developing CBS sitcom called Muddling Through , in which she plays a young woman whose mother is returning home from jail after two years . CBS was initially reluctant to release Aniston from her contract , which required the actress to balance both roles simultaneously , traveling back @-@ and @-@ forth between Muddling Through and Friends for two weeks . Meanwhile , NBC risked having to recast the role of Rachel , replace Aniston , and reshoot several episodes if CBS ' series proved successful , which would have potentially cost the network millions of dollars . However , Littlefield remained confident that Muddling Through would fail . Essentially , the producers of Friends hoped that Muddling Through would be canceled before Friends premiered , while Aniston feared that Muddling Through would be the more successful of the two sitcoms in spite of her preference towards Friends . During this time of uncertainty , Aniston was forced not to participate in several Friends @-@ related promotions and photo shoots ; the network excluded her from these in case she would be replaced . Aniston explained , " When we were shooting the first grouping of cast photos ... I was asked to step out of a bunch because they didn 't know if I was going to be still playing Rachel . " Director James Burrows admitted that Aniston had been cast in second position . The producers had already begun auditioning other actresses for the part , while Aniston also received phone calls from her own friends warning her , " I 'm auditioning for your part in Friends . " Ultimately , Muddling Through was canceled after only three months and ten episodes , two weeks before the pilot of Friends aired , thus allowing Aniston to keep her role on the show , becoming its second youngest cast member at the age of 25 . Crane appreciated Aniston 's interpretation of Rachel because " in the wrong hands Rachel is kind of annoying and spoiled and unlikable , " commending the actress for " breathing life into a difficult character . "

Crane and Kauffman strongly envisioned Friends as an ensemble comedy , and Warner Bros. initially marketed the show as such by having the cast appear in their entirety for all press , interviews and photo shoots . One of few sitcoms at the time to be neither a workplace comedy , family sitcom or star a famous comedian , Elizabeth Kolbert of The New York Times explained that each of the show 's main characters are " of equal importance . " As a writer , Crane preferred it this way because " utilizing six equal players , rather than emphasizing one or two , would allow for myriad story lines . " Kauffman echoed " that Friends worked best when the entire ensemble was onstage . " The only reason Aniston is credited first during the show 's title sequence is because the cast is listed alphabetically . The show 's ensemble format is also believed to have prevented jealous conflicts among the cast . Famously , the Friends cast became the first in television history to negotiate as a group for equal salaries , refusing to work until their demands of $ 100 @,@ 000 per episode were met during season three , which eventually increased to $ 1 million per episode by seasons nine and ten – approximately $ 25 million per year . Alongside Cox and actress Lisa Kudrow , who portrays Phoebe , Aniston became the highest @-@ paid television actress of all time . By then , Aniston had surpassed Cox as the show 's most famous cast member due to having launched an international hair trend with the " Rachel " and successfully transitioning into a film career , combined with her high @-@ profile relationship with her then @-@ husband , actor Brad Pitt , who had once guest starred in an episode of the show . At times the producers would use the actress ' popularity to boost the show 's ratings , notably her character 's seventh season kiss with actress Winona Ryder and pregnancy arc . Aniston had been telling the press that the show 's ninth season would be her last , and was initially hesitant to return to Friends to film its tenth and final season . She explained to NBC 's Matt Lauer , " I wanted it to end when people still loved us and we were on a high . And then I was also feeling like , ‘ How much more of Rachel do I have in me ? ’ ” However , the actress ultimately agreed to complete the tenth season of Friends , which was reduced from 24 to 18 episodes to accommodate Aniston 's busy film schedule .

= = Characterization and themes = =

Rachel is the youngest of Friends six main characters . The term " spoiled " is often used to describe the character 's personality during her early appearances . Encyclopaedia Britannica describes Rachel as a spoiled and funny character . According to Rachel 's original character description , written by Crane and Kauffman themselves for the show 's pilot , the character is a spoiled yet courageous young woman who " has worked for none of what she has " , unlike best friend Monica , and is initially " equipped to do nothing " . James Endrst of the Hartford Courant identified her as " a spoiled rich kid " , while the Daily News dubbed Rachel an " endearingly spoiled Daddy 's girl . " Author Kim Etingoff wrote about Rachel in her book Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films that the character is " spunky and sometimes spoiled " , while TV Land called her " naive . " Citing the differences between Rachel and her two female friends , The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey observed that the character " wasn 't insulated by self @-@ regard , like Monica , or swaddled in gormlessness , like Phoebe . " Frequently identified as fitting the " girl next door " archetype , Anne Bilson of The Telegraph described Rachel as " funny but not too funny , pretty but not too pretty , sexy but not too sexy , scatterbrained but not too scatterbrained . " TalkTalk 's Dominic Wills described the character as " smart but ditzy , determined but undisciplined . " Meanwhile , Liat Kornowski , writing for The Huffington Post , scribed that Rachel is a " beautiful , coveted , slightly neurotic , borderline egocentric " character .

Observing that the show 's main characters are each based on a stereotype , Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph identified Rachel as " the self @-@ absorbed one who goes from riches to rags . " According to Reign Magazine , Rachel is " a human being full of vulnerability , humor and strength while aesthetically donning an undeniable beauty and allure . " Originally depicted as a character who is unprepared for " the world as an adult " , Rachel 's personality was gradually tailored to suit Aniston as the series progressed , becoming " more self @-@ sufficient and sympathetic . " According to Shining in the Shadows : Movie Stars of the 2000s author Murray Pomerance , " The more boundary collapsed between the ' real ' Jennifer Aniston and Rachel , the more ' authentic ' Aniston became . " Pomerance also noted that the character 's " well @-@ roundedness , normalcy and relatability " is similar to Aniston 's , while both the character and the actress herself are very expressive , talking " with [ their ] hands a good deal . " In her book How To Write For Television , author Madeline Dimaggio wrote that although " Rachel grew within the context of the series ... she would always struggle with the spoiled , image @-@ conscious Daddy 's girl who fled from her wedding in the pilot . " Similarly , BuddyTV wrote that although Rachel " eventually evolves into being less absorbed in later series , she [ remains ] the most image @-@ centric among the six " , while Vogue 's Edward Barsamian opined , " She might have been self @-@ centered and bratty , but Rachel Green was perhaps the most stylish and unabashedly fashion @-@ obsessed character on the show . " TV Land summarized the character 's arc and development in the website 's biography of her , writing , " Rachel is a born shopper , but … she ’ s not necessarily a born worker . In fact , before moving in with Monica , she ’ s never had to work at all , thanks to the generosity of her parents . Luckily , Rachel is smart , resourceful and chic , so her future is bright , both as a member of the workforce and with her newfound tribe . " Examining the character 's sexuality , Splitsider 's Mike D 'Avria determined that Rachel has had the third most sexual partners , 14 , as well as the highest percentage of serious monogamous relationships at 71 % . D 'Avria opined , " Throughout the whole series Rachel is continually meeting men she wants to impress . Her flirtations typically fail , but she somehow winds up in a serious relationship with them . " Additionally , Rachel is also the only character to admit to having had a homosexual experience .

In an interview with the Jewish Telegraph , Kauffman confirmed that Rachel is Jewish . On the character 's " Jewish ties " , Kauffman told j. that Rachel had always been Jewish " in our minds " , explaining , " You can ’ t create a character with the name ' Rachel Green ' and not from the get @-@ go make some character choices " . Prior to this , critics and fans had long speculated whether or not Rachel is Jewish ; there are entire websites entirely devoted to discussing this . Vulture 's Lindsey Weber , who identifies herself as Jewish , observed several similarities and Jewish stereotypes she shares with the character , citing the facts that Rachel refers to her grandmother Ida Green as " Bubbe " , Long Island origin , and engagement to a Jewish doctor as allusions to the character 's Jewish culture . In her book Changed for Good : A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical , author Stacy Wolf identified Rachel as one of several popular female television characters who embodied Jewish stereotypes during the 1990s and often served as " the butt of the shows ' jokes . " Meanwhile , JDate 's Rebecca Frankel cited Rachel as one of the earliest and most prominent examples of the Jewish American Princess stereotype on screen . Writing for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Alicia R. Korenman also acknowledged Rachel 's initial Jewish American Princess qualities , describing her as " spoiled , dependent on her father 's money and her fiance 's , is horrified at the thought of working for a living and generally inept in her attempts to do so , and is eventually revealed to have had a nose job " , which she eventually overcomes as they become less " evident in later seasons of the show " . In his article " Princesses , Schlemiels , Punishers and Overbearing Mothers " , Evan Cooper described Rachel as a " de @-@ semitized " Jew because , aside from her name , " there is never any discussion of experiences of growing up in a Jewish culture , no use of Yiddish , and few , if any , references to family members with distinctively Jewish surnames " . Cooper continued to write that although Rachel possesses some Jewish American Princess traits , she is more similar to the " little woman " stereotype . The New York Post 's Robert Rorke labeled Rachel " a rehabilitated Jewish American Princess " , in contrast to her sister Amy ( Christina Applegate ) who remains " selfish , condescending and narcissistic . "

= = Reception and legacy = =

= = = Critical response = = =

Critical reception towards Rachel has remained mostly positive throughout the show 's ten @-@ year run . Writing for The A. V. Club , John Reid holds Rachel responsible for the success of the pilot , explaining , " The story of this group of friends must start with a stranger coming to town , and Rachel is the perfect stranger for this plot " . Reid also believes that Rachel initiated character development in the five other main characters , describing her arrival as " a catalyst for all of them to grow , because unlike the rest of them , Rachel is interested in finding meaning for her life " . Also writing for The A. V. Club , Sonia Saraiya was pleased with Rachel and Ross ' first romantic encounter because , for the first time , " Rachel displays a moment of true empathy for another human being " . Saraiya went on to describe Rachel as " as a model for women coming of age in the 1990s — the popular , pretty girl dissatisfied with where those illusions have taken her but also unwilling to embrace the more aggressively ' feminist ' career @-@ woman strategy " . The New York Times Joseph Hanania enjoyed Rachel 's telephone conversation with her father during the pilot , describing it as " hilarious . " The Los Angeles Times Bob Shayne admitted that he is attracted to Rachel , joking , " my feelings for Rachel , I say with some embarrassment , mirror those of Gunther " . Cosmopolitan reviewed Rachel as " the best fictional gal pal we 've ever had " , while People called her " spoiled yet loveable " . USA Today 's Robert Bianco credits Rachel 's pregnancy arc with saving Friends , explaining that it " propel [ led ] the show to the top of the ratings " and ultimately " revers [ ed ] the show 's decline in ways ... that no one watching ' The One With Monica & Chandler 's Wedding ' could ever have imagined . " Bianco concluded , " Indeed , without that fortune @-@ altering twist , Friends probably would have ended sooner " .

BDCwire ranked " The One With The Ball " , " The One With Rachel ’ s Inadvertent Kiss " , " The One With The Football " , " The One With The Fake Party " , and " The One In Vegas , Part One Rachel 's five best episodes . Meanwhile , TVLine criticized Rachel 's storyline in season one 's " The One With the Evil Orthodontist " for impulsively sleeping with her ex @-@ fiancé , Barry , panning the episode as " cringeworthy " . TVLine also criticized the character 's arc in season four 's " The One With The Fake Party " . At times the character has generated mild controversy , specifically in 1996 in response to her role in the second season episode " The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies " , in which Rachel and Monica fight over a condom . Aniston revealed that Friends fans would often approach and scold her for things Rachel did that they deemed " disagreeable " .

Neil Midgley , writing for The Daily Telegraph , hailed Rachel as " one of six latte @-@ swilling young New Yorkers who helped Friends redefine the kind of relationships that could form the heart of a US sitcom " . According to Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff , audiences wanted to see Rachel " figure out life , " allowing the character to become " a favorite of many Friends fans throughout all ten seasons " . Writing for TalkTalk , Dominic Wills echoed that Rachel " became the general favourite " , while " No one had a bad word to say about Jennifer Aniston " . Rachel would go on to become the show 's breakout character , and is often revered as one of the greatest characters in television history . Us Weekly magazine ranked Rachel the most beloved television character of the past 20 years , citing her as " one of TV 's most endearing personalities " , while Entertainment Weekly ranked the character sixth on a similar list . AOL TV ranked Rachel among television 's hundred " Greatest Women " at number 23 , with author Kim Potts penning , " Rachel became one of viewers ' favorite Friends because she grew from what could have been a one @-@ note character ... into a more independent , caring pal " . CBS News placed Rachel and the cast of Friends at number 31 on its list of the " 50 greatest TV characters " . BuddyTV ranked Rachel the 15th funniest female character in sitcom history . ChaCha collectively ranked Rachel , Monica and Phoebe 11th , 12th and 13th on the website 's list of the " Top 16 Female TV Characters of All Time " . Writing for Entertainmentwise , Georgina Littlejohn believes that Rachel 's influence is evident in the character Penny in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory , noting that both characters are " blonde , cute , funny , likeable girls @-@ next @-@ door " . Several baby name books and websites now commonly associate the name " Rachel " with the character . According to BabyCenter , the name peaked in popularity in 1996 , during the second season of Friends , becoming the ninth most popular female name in the United States that year .

Aniston 's performance in Friends has been praised since her first appearance in its pilot . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker wrote that the actress provides Rachel with " prickly intelligence " . Writing for The Baltimore Sun , David Zurawik cited Aniston among the show 's " very strong cast " , while Variety 's Tony Scott wrote that " All six of the principals ... appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills " . Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette praised the show 's female cast collectively . TV Guide wrote that the actress " instantly charmed audiences with her perfect looks and endearingly flawed persona " . Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast dubbed Aniston 's performance on Friends " the work of a brilliant character actress . " The Guardian 's Ryan Gilbey reviewed that " Aniston was the sparkiest member of the ensemble and the one least reliant on goofball caricature " , concluding , " Playing the only character with whom a sane viewer might reasonably identify also meant that she got the lion 's share of attention " . Andrew Collins of Radio Times described Aniston as a " natural comic performer , as adept with a subtle nose wrinkle as a full @-@ on pratfall , and fluent in quick @-@ fire patter " . In 2002 , Aniston won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series , one of the show 's six wins out of a total of 62 nominations . In 2003 , the actress won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical . Karen Thomas of USA Today dubbed Aniston " our favorite Friend " . According to Turner Classic Movies , Aniston ultimately became " One of the most popular television actresses of her era " . According to Jennifer Aniston : From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff , the actress ' own fame " outshone " those of her co @-@ stars , becoming the first cast member to " rise to prominence " ; the actress continues to experience the most post @-@ Friends success . Aniston 's performance in Friends led to a successful film career . According to The Inquisitr News , Rachel is " the role that would end up launching [ Aniston 's ] success " , while Bradford Evans of Splitsider believes " that Jennifer Aniston likely wouldn 't have become a major movie star without Friends " . While ranking Aniston the most attractive sitcom star of the 1990s , Josh Robertson of Complex magazine wrote that " With the haircut , the TV fame , and a true gift for comedy ... combined , Aniston became a big star " , replacing Cox as the show 's " established hottie " . According to Steve Charnock of Yahoo ! Movies , Aniston is " the series ' only main castmember to become a bona fide movie star since the end of the show " . While agreeing that Aniston 's film career has been successful , several critics believe that the actress ' filmography remains limited to playing Rachel @-@ like roles in romantic comedies , save for some exceptions . Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian noted that " Consequently , many of Aniston 's movie roles ... have been Rachel in all but name . " Andrew Collins of Radio Times agreed , writing that Aniston " seems trapped , perpetually playing variations of Rachel " . According to TV Guide , Aniston is " usually called upon to play a variation of her neurotic and adorable Friends character " . Aniston cites Rachel as one of three roles for which she is most grateful , to whom she " owe [ s ] everything " . On being typecast , Aniston admits that at times it " gives you more of a challenge , to shape people ’ s perceptions of you " . as audiences struggle " to lose the Rachel tag that has made her one of the world 's most recognisable faces " .

= = = Relationships = = =

Rachel has had several romantic relationships throughout Friends decade @-@ long run , the most famous and prominent of which remains her on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with friend Ross . Although wildly popular among audiences , the couple has been met with mixed reviews from critics . Katherine Hassel of the Daily Express described the characters ' relationship as " the heart of the show " . China Daily cited Ross and Rachel 's reunion during the series finale " The Last One " among the episode 's highlights , while Gary Susman of Rolling Stone believes that audiences would not have been happy had the couple not ultimately reunited . Contrastingly , The Wire 's Joe Reid is of the opinion that the show 's second season is " the only time Ross / Rachel was truly great " . Virgin Media wrote that the couple 's dynamics " had grown mightily tedious " by season ten . E ! cable network ranked Rachel and Ross the ninth greatest Friends couple , writing that their relationship gave " Friends fans enough iconic quotes to fill a book " , considering Phoebe 's line " See ? [ Ross is ] her lobster ! " to be among show 's most iconic . Ross and Rachel 's season three breakup has spawned a debate among Friends fans , who continue to argue over which of the two was at fault : Rachel for suggesting that they take a break from their relationship , or Ross for sleeping with another woman immediately afterwards . Writing for E ! , Jenna Mullins ruled in favor of Rachel , elaborating , " there is no excuse for Ross sleeping with someone else after his lobster suggested taking a break " , concluding that Ross " blew it " . The Jewish community was particularly receptive to the fact that a Jewish @-@ American couple existed on prime time television , described by Lilith magazine as " a televisual first " .

Rachel and Ross are considered to be among television 's greatest and most beloved couples . Ninemsn referred to them as " everyone 's favourite on ... off ... on ( a break ! ) duo , " while Us Weekly and BuzzFeed ranked them the first and second best television couple , respectively . TV Guide ranked Ross and Rachel the third greatest television couple , dubbing them " the most iconic TV couple in recent memory " . Extra placed the couple at number eight , writing , " Never did we want two people to get together more than Ross ... and Rachel " . Refinery29 included Rachel and Ross in the website 's " 16 TV Couples We Want To Be Together Forever " list . The pair is also often ranked among television 's greatest " will they or won 't they " couples . Naming Ross and Rachel the greatest " will they , won 't they " couple , Network Ten believes they defined the term , while Suggest dubbed them " The quintessential will they / won ’ t they couple . " According to Sarah Doran of Radio Times , the couple " became synonymous with the phrase ' we 're on a break ' " . Phoebe 's line , in which she refers to the couple as each other 's lobsters , has become one of the show 's most popular and oft @-@ quoted . Kaitlin Reilly of Bustle magazine defined the term as " the person of whom another is meant to be with forever " . Tara Aquino of Complex magazine believes that " Every other person can tell you what exactly a ' Ross and Rachel ' relationship means " . Ultimately , Rachel 's season eight pregnancy arc is credited with reviving the show 's ratings and reviews .

Rachel 's brief romantic relationship with friend Joey during season ten drew strong criticism from both critics and fans alike , although viewership was not harmed . In fact , Joshua Kurp of Splitsider believes that the only reason the show 's final two seasons performed well in spite of lackluster reviews " was because of the Joey / Rachel / Ross love triangle " . Eric Goldman of IGN referred to the Rachel @-@ Joey storyline as " questionable . " Entertainment Tonight Canada ranked " The One After Rachel and Joey Kiss " among the show 's ten worst episodes at number five , with author I. P. Johnson panning it as " desperate " , concluding , " Jeers for even conceiving this romantic plot ; cheers for abandoning it " . Bustle also cited the same episode as one of the show 's worst , calling it " the most nonsensical idea to ever be . " Contrarily , E ! enjoyed Rachel and Joey as a couple because they brought out positive aspects in each other 's personalities . Their relationship also spawned a debate among fans , who argued over whether making Rachel and Joey a couple was a bad idea . Jenna Mullins of E ! determined that it is because " It was too far into the series to throw these two together . They didn 't make sense and their romantic scenes felt forced " .

= = = Fashion = = =

Both Rachel and Aniston have become fashion icons due to their combined influence on womenswear during the 1990s and onwards , particularly among British women . According to Vogue magazine 's Edward Barsamian , Rachel 's fashion sense inspired " the cool New York look " . According to Stylist magazine , Rachel " revived [ a ] love of denim shirts and dungarees " , while Mahogany Clayton of StyleBlazer believes that the character " managed to dominate every fashion trend that passed by her radar in the most stylish ways possible " . Hailing her as the " Fash Queen " , Heat magazine observed the character 's influence on plaid skirts , denim and overalls . Citing every costume the character wore during the first season of Friends , BuzzFeed determined that Rachel popularized the mullet dress . TV Guide published a list of " The 17 Ways Rachel from Friends Changed ' 90s Fashion " .

Rachel is often ranked among television 's best dressed characters . Elle included Rachel in the magazine 's " 50 Best Dressed Women on TV " list . PopSugar ranked Friends 15th on the website 's list of " 50 TV Shows That Changed the Way We Dress " , citing Rachel 's " impressive " wardrobe . InStyle ranked Friends the 36th most fashionable television show of all @-@ time , praising Rachel , Monica and Phoebe 's costumes . StyleCaster ranked Rachel among " The 50 Most Stylish TV Characters Of All Time " at number 28 . Cosmopolitan magazine compiled a list of " 16 things Rachel Green wore to work that we 'd totally wear today " , while Virgin Media ranked the character among television 's sexiest . Brides magazine ranked Rachel 's wedding dress among " The Best TV Wedding Dresses " .

= = = = The " Rachel " haircut = = = =

Named after the character , the " Rachel " refers to a bouncy layered shag inspired by the way in which Aniston wore her hair on Friends between 1994 and 1996 , during the first and second seasons of the series . The " Rachel " debuted in the show 's 20th episode , " The One With the Evil Orthodontist " . Aniston believes that her hair stylist , Chris McMillan , created the haircut while he was " stoned " . The " Rachel " immediately became popular among women , launching an international hair trend . The popularity of the " Rachel " coincided with the popularity of Friends during the mid @-@ to @-@ late @-@ 1990s . Marie Claire estimates that 11 million women donned the hairstyle throughout the decade , while the Daily Express determined that the hairstyle was most popular among British women , who went to hair salons " clutching magazine pictures of Aniston " and asking hairdressers to give them the look .

According to Vanity Fair , the hairstyle 's " widespread popularity ... in the show ’ s very first year cemented the sitcom early on as heavily influential when it came to style . " The " Rachel " remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history , and became the most popular hairstyle in the United States since actress Farrah Fawcett 's . Hair stylists credit its appeal and popularity to its medium length and volume , combined with its tendency to frame the face flatteringly . Hairdresser Mark Woolley described it as " a cut that flatters almost everyone , designed to make women look beautiful " . The " Rachel " is often ranked among the greatest and most iconic hairstyles of all @-@ time , with Redbook placing it at number four and Time ranking it ninth . The Huffington Post determined that the hairstyle is one of " The Most Famous TV Hairstyles Of All Time " . US Weekly ranked the " Rachel " the 17th most iconic hairstyle . Glamour magazine ranked the " Rachel " fourth on the magazine 's list of " The 100 Best Hairstyles of All Time " . Meanwhile , Glamour also cited it among " The very best hair to have graced the small screen " , while ranking it the most memorable hairstyle in television history . The Sydney Morning Herald ranked it the second greatest television hairstyle , while Metro ranked the " Rachel " the character 's second @-@ best hairstyle . Ranked sixth on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the " 25 Fashion Moments That Changed Entertainment " , the haircut was declared the most " desired " hairstyle of the Clinton era .

Zahra Barnes of Self magazine joked that the character 's hair was the " true star of the show " , while its popularity led to Virgin Media coining Rachel " the one with the hair " . Lauding the " Rachel " as one of television 's greatest hairstyles , Sarah Carrillo of Elle magazine believed that its popularity " helped make Friends the phenomenon it was " . Opining that Friends spawned few memorable catchphrases in comparison to its contemporaries , Tom Jicha of The Baltimore Sun attributed much of the show 's legacy to the hairstyle , calling it the show 's " only cultural trend " . Josh Robertson of Complex magazine felt that " With the haircut , the TV fame , and a true gift for comedy ... combined , Aniston became a big star " , replacing Courteney Cox . According to Jim Vorel of Paste magazine , " ' the Rachel ' hairstyle became the decade ’ s defining ' do , calling it " the definition of influence " .

In the second season episode " The One With The Lesbian Wedding " , Rachel complains that her overbearing mother ( Marlo Thomas ) is trying to pattern her own life after hers , lamenting , " Couldn 't she just copy my haircut ? " Although Aniston eventually abandoned the " Rachel " for a straighter , longer look , the hairstyle remained popular nonetheless . Despite her association with the cut , Aniston disliked the hairstyle . She found maintaining the hairstyle without McMillan 's help difficult , stating " I 'd curse Chris every time I had to blowdry . It took three brushes — it was like doing surgery ! " and that she would rather shave her head than have to wear it for the rest of her life .

Since Aniston , several other celebrities have worn variations of the " Rachel " , among them actresses Cameron Diaz , Rachel McAdams , Emma Watson , Reese Witherspoon , Julia Roberts , comedian Tina Fey , model Tyra Banks , and singer Lily Allen .

= Krak des Chevaliers =

Krak des Chevaliers ( French pronunciation : ​ [ kʁak de ʃəvaˈlje ] ; Arabic : حصن الفرسان ) , also Crac des Chevaliers , Ḥoṣn al @-@ Akrād ( حصن الأكراد ) , Castle Alhsn , formerly Crac de l 'Ospital , is a Crusader castle in Syria and one of the most important preserved medieval castles in the world . The site was first inhabited in the 11th century by a settlement of Kurdish troops dispatched there by the Mirdasids ; as a result it was known as Hisn al @-@ Akrad , meaning the " Castle of the Kurds " . In 1142 it was given by Raymond II , Count of Tripoli , to the Knights Hospitaller . It remained in their possession until it fell in 1271 . It became known as Crac de l 'Ospital ; the name Krak des Chevaliers was coined in the 19th century .

The Hospitallers began rebuilding the castle in the 1140s and were finished by 1170 when an earthquake damaged the castle . The order controlled a number of castles along the border of the County of Tripoli , a state founded after the First Crusade . Krak des Chevaliers was among the most important , and acted as a center of administration as well as a military base . After a second phase of building was undertaken in the 13th century , Krak des Chevaliers became a concentric castle . This phase created the outer wall and gave the castle its current appearance . The first half of the century has been described as Krak des Chevaliers ' " golden age " . At its peak , Krak des Chevaliers housed a garrison of around 2 @,@ 000 . Such a large garrison allowed the Hospitallers to extract tribute from a wide area . From the 1250s the fortunes of the Knights Hospitaller took a turn for the worse and in 1271 Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured Krak des Chevaliers after a siege lasting 36 days , supposedly by way of a forged letter purportedly from the Hospitallers ' Grand Master that caused the Knights to surrender .

Renewed interest in Crusader castles in the 19th century led to the investigation of Krak des Chevaliers , and architectural plans were drawn up . In the late 19th or early 20th century a settlement had been created within the castle , causing damage to its fabric . The 500 inhabitants were moved in 1933 and the castle was given over to the French state , which carried out a program of clearing and restoration . When Syria declared independence in 1946 , it assumed control . Today , a village called al @-@ Husn exists around the castle and has a population of nearly 9 @,@ 000 . Krak des Chevaliers is located approximately 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) west of the city of Homs , close to the border of Lebanon , and is administratively part of the Homs Governorate . Since 2006 , the castles of Krak des Chevaliers and Qal 'at Salah El @-@ Din have been recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . It was partially damaged in the Syrian civil war from shelling : the full extent of the damage is unknown , but there have been reports of hasty repairs .

= = Etymology = =

The modern Arabic word for a castle is Kalaa ( قلعة ) , but Krak des Chavaliers is known as a " Hosn " ( حصن ) , or " fort " . This derives from the name of an earlier fortification on the same site called Ḥoṣn al @-@ Akrād ( حصن الأكراد ) , meaning " fort of the Kurds " . It was called by the Franks Le Crat and then by a confusion with karak ( fortress ) , Le Crac . Crat was probably the Frankish version of Akrād , the word for Kurds . After the Knights Hospitaller took control of the castle , it became known as Crac de l 'Ospital ; the name Crac des Chevaliers ( alternatively spelt Krak des Chevaliers ) was introduced by Guillaume Rey in the 19th century .

= = Location = =

The castle sits atop a 650 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) hill east of Tartus , Syria , in the Homs Gap . On the other side of the gap , 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) away , was the 12th @-@ century Gibelacar Castle . The route through the strategically important Homs Gap connects the cities of Tripoli and Homs . To the north of the castle lies the Jebel Ansariyah , and to the south Lebanon . The surrounding area is fertile , benefiting from streams and abundant rainfall . Compared to the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the other Crusader states had less land suitable for farming ; however , the limestone peaks of Tripoli were well @-@ suited to defensive sites .

Property in the County of Tripoli , granted to the Knights Templar in the 1140s , included the Castle of the Kurds , the towns of Rafanea and Montferrand , and the Buqai 'ah plain separating Homs and Tripoli . Homs was never under Crusader control , so the region around the Castle of the Kurds was vulnerable to expeditions from the city . While its proximity caused the Knights problems with regard to defending their territory , it also meant Homs was close enough for them to raid . Because of the castle 's command of the plain , it became the Knights ' most important base in the area .

= = History = =

According to 13th @-@ century Arab historian Ibn Shaddad , the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo , Shibl ad @-@ Dawla , established a settlement of Kurdish tribesmen at the site of the future castle in 1031 CE , hence the castle 's Arabic name " Hisn al @-@ Akrad " ( Castle of the Kurds ) . The site was strategically located at the southern edge of the Jibal al @-@ Alawiyin mountain range and dominated the road between Homs and Tripoli . When building castles , Muslims often chose elevated sites such as hills and mountains that provided natural obstacles .

In January 1099 on the journey to Jerusalem during the First Crusade , the company of Raymond IV of Toulouse came under attack from the garrison of Hisn al @-@ Akrad , the forerunner of the Krak , who harried Raymond 's foragers . The following day Raymond marched on the castle and found it deserted . The crusaders briefly occupied the castle in February of the same year but abandoned it when they continued their march towards Jerusalem . Permanent occupation began in 1110 when Tancred , Prince of Galilee took control of the site . The early castle was substantially different from the extant remains and no trace of this first castle survives at the site .

The origins of the Knights Hospitaller are unclear , but the order probably emerged around the 1070s in Jerusalem . It started as a religious order which cared for the sick , and later looked after pilgrims to the Holy Land . After the success of the First Crusade in capturing Jerusalem in 1099 , many crusaders donated their new property in the Levant to the Hospital of St John . Early donations were in the newly formed Kingdom of Jerusalem , but over time the order extended its holdings to the Crusader states of the County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch . Evidence suggests that in the 1130s the order became militarized when Fulk , King of Jerusalem , granted the newly built castle at Bethgibelin to the order in 1136 . A papal bull from between 1139 and 1143 may indicate the order hiring people to defend pilgrims . There were also other military orders , such as the Knights Templar , which offered protection to pilgrims .

Between 1142 and 1144 Raymond II , Count of Tripoli , granted the order property in the county . According to historian Jonathan Riley @-@ Smith , the Hospitallers effectively established a " palatinate " within Tripoli . The property included castles with which the Hospitallers were expected to defend Tripoli . Along with Krak des Chevaliers , the Hospitallers were given four other castles along the borders of the state which allowed the order to dominate the area . The order 's agreement with Raymond II stated that if he did not accompany knights of the order on campaign , the spoils belonged entirely to the order , and if he was present it was split equally between the count and the order . Raymond II could further not make peace with the Muslims without the permission of the Hospitallers . The Hospitallers made Krak des Chevaliers a center of administration for their new property , undertaking work at the castle that would make it one of the most elaborate Crusader fortifications in the Levant .

After acquiring the site in 1142 , they began building a new castle to replace the former Kurdish fortification . This work lasted until 1170 , when an earthquake damaged the castle . An Arab source mentions that the quake destroyed the castle 's chapel , which was replaced by the present chapel . In 1163 the Crusaders emerged victorious over Nur ad @-@ Din in the Battle of al @-@ Buqaia near Krak des Chevaliers .

Drought conditions between 1175 and 1180 prompted the Crusaders to sign a two @-@ year truce with the Muslims , but without Tripoli included in the terms . During the 1180s raids by Christians and Muslims into each other 's territory became more frequent . In 1180 , Saladin ventured into the County of Tripoli , ravaging the area . Unwilling to meet him in open battle , the Crusaders retreated to the relative safety of their fortifications . Without capturing the castles , Saladin could not secure control of the area , and once he retreated the Hospitallers were able to revitalize their damaged lands . The Battle of Hattin in 1187 was a disastrous defeat for the Crusaders : Guy of Lusignan , King of Jerusalem , was captured , as was the True Cross , a relic discovered during the First Crusade . Afterwards Saladin ordered the execution of the captured Templar and Hospitaller knights , such was the importance of the two orders in defending the Crusader states . After the battle , the Hospitaller castles of Belmont , Belvoir , and Bethgibelin fell to Muslim armies . Following these losses , the Order focused its attention on its castles in Tripoli . In May 1188 Saladin led an army to attack Krak des Chevaliers , but on seeing the castle decided it was too well defended and instead marched on the Hospitaller castle of Margat , which he also failed to capture .

Another earthquake struck in 1202 , and it may have been after this event that the castle was remodelled . The 13th @-@ century work was the last period of building at Krak des Chevaliers and gave it its current appearance . An enclosing stone circuit was built between 1142 and 1170 ; the earlier structure became the castle 's inner court or ward . If there was a circuit of walls surrounding the inner court that pre @-@ dated the current outer walls , no trace of it has been discovered .

The first half of the 13th century has been characterized as Krak des Chevaliers ' " golden age " . While other Crusader strongholds came under threat , Krak des Chevaliers and its garrison of 2 @,@ 000 soldiers dominated the surrounding area . It was effectively the center of a principality which remained in Crusader hands until 1271 and was the only major inland area to remain constantly under Crusader control during this period . Crusaders who passed through the area would often stop at the castle , and probably made donations . King Andrew II of Hungary visited in 1218 and proclaimed the castle the " key of the Christian lands " . He was so impressed with the castle that he gave a yearly income of 60 marks to the Master and 40 to the brothers . Geoffroy de Joinville , uncle of the noted chronicler of the Crusades Jean de Joinville , died at Krak des Chevaliers in 1203 or 1204 and was buried in the castle 's chapel .

The main contemporary accounts relating to Krak des Chevaliers are of Muslim origin and tend to emphasize Muslim success while overlooking setbacks against the Crusaders although they suggest that the Knights Hospitaller forced the settlements of Hama and Homs to pay tribute to the Order . This situation lasted as long as Saladin 's successors warred between themselves . The proximity of Krak des Chevaliers to Muslim territories allowed it to take on an offensive role , acting as a base from which neighboring areas could be attacked . By 1203 the garrison were making raids on Montferrand ( which was under Muslim control ) and Hama , and in 1207 and 1208 the castle 's soldiers took part in an attack on Homs . Krak des Chevaliers acted as a base for expeditions to Hama in 1230 and 1233 after the amir refused to pay tribute . The former was unsuccessful , but the 1233 expedition was a show of force that demonstrated the importance of Krak des Chevaliers .

In the 1250s , the fortunes of the Hospitallers at Krak des Chevaliers took a turn for the worse . A Muslim army estimated to number 10 @,@ 000 men ravaged the countryside around the castle in 1252 after which the Order 's finances declined sharply . In 1268 Master Hugh Revel complained that the area , previously home to around 10 @,@ 000 people , now stood deserted and that the Order 's property in the Kingdom of Jerusalem produced little income . He also noted that by this point there were only 300 of the Order 's brethren left in the east . On the Muslim side , in 1260 Baibars became Sultan of Egypt , following his overthrow of the incumbent ruler Qutuz , and went on to unite Egypt and Syria . As a result , Muslim settlements that had previously paid tribute to the Hospitallers at Krak des Chevaliers no longer felt intimidated into doing so .

Baibars ventured into the area around Krak des Chevaliers in 1270 and allowed his men to graze their animals on the fields around the castle . When he received news that year of the Eighth Crusade led by King Louis IX of France , Baibars left for Cairo to avoid a confrontation . After Louis died in 1271 Baibars returned to deal with Krak des Chevaliers . Before he marched on the castle the Sultan captured the smaller castles in the area , including Chastel Blanc . On 3 March , Baibars ' army arrived at Krak des Chevaliers . By the time the Sultan appeared on the scene , the castle may already have been blockaded by Mamluk forces for several days . Of the three Arabic accounts of the siege only one was contemporary , that of Ibn Shaddad , although he was not present at the siege . Peasants who lived in the area had fled to the castle for safety and were kept in the outer ward . As soon as Baibars arrived he erected mangonels , powerful siege weapons which he would later turn on the castle . In a probable reference to a walled suburb outside the castle 's entrance , Ibn Shaddad records that two days later the first line of defences fell to the besiegers .

Rain interrupted the siege , but on 21 March , immediately south of Krak des Chevaliers , Baibar 's forces captured a triangular outwork possibly defended by a timber palisade . On 29 March , the attackers undermined a tower in the southwest corner causing it to collapse whereupon Baibars ' army attacked through the breach . In the outer ward they encountered the peasants who had sought refuge in the castle . Though the outer ward had fallen , with a handful of the garrison killed in the process , the Crusaders retreated to the more formidable inner ward . After a lull of ten days , the besiegers conveyed a letter to the garrison , supposedly from the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli , which granted permission for them to surrender . Although the letter was a forgery , the garrison capitulated and the Sultan spared their lives . The new owners of the castle undertook repairs , focused mainly on the outer ward . The Hospitaller chapel was converted to a mosque and two mihrabs were added to the interior .

= = Later history = =

After the Franks were driven from the Holy Land in 1291 , European familiarity with the castles of the Crusades declined . It was not until the 19th century that interest in these buildings was renewed , so there are no detailed plans from before 1837 . Guillaume Rey was the first European researcher to scientifically study Crusader castles in the Holy Land . In 1871 he published the work Etudes sur les monuments de l 'architecture militaire des Croisés en Syrie et dans l 'ile de Chypre ; it included plans and drawings of the major Crusader castles in Syria , including Krak des Chevaliers . In some instances his drawings were inaccurate , however for Krak des Chavaliers they record features which have since been lost .

Paul Deschamps visited the castle in February 1927 . Since Rey had visited in the 19th century a village of 500 people had been established within the castle . Renewed inhabitation had damaged the site : underground vaults had been used as rubbish tips and in some places the battlements had been destroyed . Deschamps and fellow architect François Anus attempted to clear some of the detritus ; General Maurice Gamelin assigned 60 Alawite soldiers to help . Deschamps left in March 1927 , and work resumed when he returned two years later . The culmination of Deschamp 's work at the castle was the publication of Les Châteaux des Croisés en Terre Sainte I : le Crac des Chevaliers in 1934 , with detailed plans by Anus . The survey has been widely praised , described as " brilliant and exhaustive " by military historian D. J. Cathcart King in 1949 and " perhaps the finest account of the archaeology and history of a single medieval castle ever written " by historian Hugh Kennedy in 1994 .

As early as 1929 there were suggestions that the castle should be taken under French control . On 16 November 1933 Krak des Chevaliers was given into the control of the French state , and cared for by the Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts . The villagers were moved and paid F1 million between them in compensation . Over the following two years a programme of cleaning and restoration was carried out by a force of 120 workers . Once finished , Krak des Chevaliers was one of the key tourist attractions in the French Levant . Pierre Coupel , who had undertaken similar work at the Tower of the Lions and the two castles at Sidon , supervized the work . Despite the restoration , no archaeological excavations were carried out . The French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon , which had been established in 1920 , ended in 1946 with the declaration of Syrian independence . The castle was made a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , along with Qal ’ at Salah El @-@ Din , in 2006 , and is owned by the Syrian government .

Several of the castle 's former residents built their houses outside the fortress and a village called al @-@ Husn has since developed . Many of the al @-@ Husn 's roughly 9 @,@ 000 Muslim residents benefit economically from the tourism generated by the site .

= = = Syrian Civil War = = =

During the Syrian Civil War which began in 2011 , UNESCO voiced concerns that the war might lead to the damage of important cultural sites such as Krak des Chevaliers . It has been reported that the castle was shelled in August 2012 by the Syrian Arab Army , and the Crusader chapel has been damaged . The castle was reported to have been damaged in July 2013 by an airstrike during the Siege of Homs , and once more on the 18th of August 2013 it was clearly damaged yet the amount of destruction is unknown . The Syrian Arab Army recaptured the castle and the village of al @-@ Hosn from rebel forces on March 20 , 2014 , although the extent of damage from earlier mortar hits remained unclear .

= = Architecture = =

Writing in the early 20th century , T. E. Lawrence , popularly known as Lawrence of Arabia , remarked that Krak des Chevaliers was " perhaps the best preserved and most wholly admirable castle in the world , [ a castle which ] forms a fitting commentary on any account of the Crusading buildings of Syria " . Castles in Europe provided lordly accommodation for their owners and were centers of administration ; in the Levant the need for defence was paramount and was reflected in castle design . Kennedy suggests that " The castle scientifically designed as a fighting machine surely reached its apogee in great buildings like Margat and Crac des Chevaliers . "

Krak des Chevaliers can be classified both as a spur castle , due to its site , and after the 13th @-@ century expansion a fully developed concentric castle . It was similar in size and layout to Vadum Jacob , a Crusader castle built in the late 1170s . Margat has also been cited as Krak des Chevaliers ' sister castle . The main building material at Krak des Chevaliers was limestone ; the ashlar facing is so fine that the mortar is barely noticeable . Outside the castle 's entrance was a " walled suburb " known as a burgus , no trace of which remains . To the south of the outer ward was a triangular outwork and the Crusaders may have intended to build stone walls and towers around it . It is unknown how it was defended at the time of the 1271 siege , though it has been suggested it was surrounded by a timber palisade . South of the castle the spur on which it stands is connected to the next hill , so that siege engines can approach on level ground . The inner defences are strongest at this point , with a cluster of towers connected by a thick wall .

= = = Inner ward = = =

Between 1142 and 1170 the Knights Hospitaller undertook a building programme on the site . The castle was defended by a stone curtain wall studded with square towers which projected slightly . The main entrance was between two towers on the eastern side , and there was a postern gate in the northwest tower . At the center was a courtyard surrounded by vaulted chambers . The lay of the land dictated the castle 's irregular shape . A site with natural defences was a typical location for Crusader castles and steep slopes provided Krak des Chevaliers with defences on all sides bar one , where the castle 's defences were concentrated . This phase of building was incorporated into the later castle 's construction .

When Krak des Chevaliers was remodelled in the 13th century , new walls surrounding the inner court were built . They followed the earlier walls , with a narrow gap between them in the west and south which was turned into a gallery from which defenders could unleash missiles . In this area , the walls were supported by a steeply sloping glacis which provided additional protection against both siege weapons and earthquakes . Four large , round towers project vertically from the glacis ; they were used as accommodation for the Knights of the garrison , about 60 at its peak . The southwest tower was designed to house the rooms of the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller . Though the defences which once crested the walls of the inner wards no longer survive in most places , it seems that they did not extend for the entire circuit . Machicolations were absent from the southern face . The area between the inner court and the outer walls was narrow and not used for accommodation . In the east , where the defences were weakest , there was an open cistern filled by an aqueduct . It acted both as a moat and water supply for the castle .

At the north end of the small courtyard is a chapel and at the southern end is an esplanade . The esplanade is raised above the rest of the courtyard ; the vaulted area beneath it would have provided storage and could have acted as stabling and shelter from missiles . Lining the west of the courtyard is the hall of the Knights . Though probably first built in the 12th century , the interior dates from the 13th @-@ century remodelling . The tracery and delicate decoration is a sophisticated example of Gothic architecture , probably dating from the 1230s .

= = = Chapel = = =

The current chapel was probably built to replace the one destroyed by an earthquake in 1170 . Only the east end of the original chapel , which housed the apse , and a small part of the south wall survive from the original chapel . The later chapel had a barrel vault and an uncomplicated apse ; its design would have been considered outmoded by contemporary standards in France , but bears similarities to that built around 1186 at Margat . It was divided into three roughly equal bays . A cornice runs round the chapel at the point where the vault ends and the wall begins . Oriented roughly east to west , it was 21 @.@ 5 metres ( 71 ft ) long and 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) wide with the main entrance from the west and a second smaller one in the north wall . When the castle was remodelled in the early 13th century , the entrance was moved to the south wall . The chapel was lit by windows above the cornice , one at the west end , one on either side of the east bay , and one on the south side of the central bay , and the apse at the east end had a large window . In 1935 a second chapel was discovered outside the castle 's main entrance , however it no longer survives .

= = = Outer ward = = =

The second phase of building work undertaken by the Hospitallers began in the early 13th century and lasted decades . The outer walls were built in the last major construction on the site , lending the Krak des Chevaliers its current appearance . Standing 9 metres ( 30 ft ) high , the outer circuit had towers that projected strongly from the wall . While the towers of the inner court had a square plan and did not project far beyond the wall , the towers of the 13th @-@ century outer walls were rounded . This design was new and even contemporary Templar castles did not have rounded towers . The technique was developed at Château Gaillard in France by Richard the Lionheart between 1196 and 1198 . The extension to the southeast is of lesser quality than the rest of the circuit and was built at an unknown date . Probably around the 1250s a postern was added to the north wall .

Arrow slits in the walls and towers were distributed to minimize the amount of dead ground around the castle . Machicolations crowned the walls , offering defenders a way to hurl projectiles towards enemies at the foot of the wall . They were so cramped archers would have had to crouch inside them . The box machicolations were unusual : those at Krak des Chevaliers were more complex that those at Saône or Margat and there were no comparable features amongst Crusader castles . However , they bore similarities to Muslim work , such as the contemporary defences at the Citadel of Aleppo . It is unclear which side imitated the other , as the date they were added to Krak des Chevaliers is unknown , but it does provide evidence for the diffusion of military ideas between the Muslim and Christian armies . These defences were accessed by a wall @-@ walk known as a chemin de ronde . In the opinion of historian Hugh Kennedy the defences of the outer wall were " the most elaborate and developed anywhere in the Latin east ... the whole structure is a brilliantly designed and superbly built fighting machine " .

When the outer walls were built in the 13th century the main entrance was enhanced . A vaulted corridor led uphill from the outer gate in the northeast . The corridor made a hairpin turn halfway along its length , making it an example of a bent entrance . Bent entrances were a Byzantine innovation , but that at Krak des Chevaliers was a particularly complex example . It extended for 137 metres ( 450 ft ) , and along its length were murder @-@ holes which allowed defenders to shower attackers with missiles . Anyone going straight ahead rather than following the hairpin turn would emerge in the area between the castle 's two circuits of walls . To access the inner ward , the passage had to be followed round .

= = = Frescoes = = =

Despite its predominantly military character , the castle is one of the few sites where Crusader art ( in the form of frescoes ) has been preserved . In 1935 , 1955 , and 1978 medieval frescoes were discovered within Krak des Chevaliers after later plaster and white @-@ wash had decayed . The frescos were painted on the interior and exterior of the main chapel and the chapel outside the main entrance , which no longer survives . Writing in 1982 , historian Jaroslav Folda noted that at the time there had been little investigation of Crusader frescoes that would provide a comparison for the fragmentary remains found at Krak des Chevaliers . Those in the chapel were painted on the masonry from the 1170 – 1202 rebuild . Mold , smoke , and moisture have made it difficult to preserve the frescoes . The fragmentary nature of the red and blue frescoes inside the chapel means they are difficult to assess . The one on the exterior of the chapel depicted the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple .

= The Importance of Being Earnest =

The Importance of Being Earnest , A Trivial Comedy for Serious People is a play by Oscar Wilde . First performed on 14 February 1895 at the St James 's Theatre in London , it is a farcical comedy in which the protagonists maintain fictitious personæ to escape burdensome social obligations . Working within the social conventions of late Victorian London , the play 's major themes are the triviality with which it treats institutions as serious as marriage , and the resulting satire of Victorian ways . Contemporary reviews all praised the play 's humour , though some were cautious about its explicit lack of social messages , while others foresaw the modern consensus that it was the culmination of Wilde 's artistic career so far . Its high farce and witty dialogue have helped make The Importance of Being Earnest Wilde 's most enduringly popular play .

The successful opening night marked the climax of Wilde 's career but also heralded his downfall . The Marquess of Queensberry , whose son Lord Alfred Douglas was Wilde 's lover , planned to present the writer with a bouquet of rotten vegetables and disrupt the show . Wilde was tipped off and Queensberry was refused admission . Soon afterwards their feud came to a climax in court , where Wilde 's homosexual double life was revealed to the Victorian public and he was eventually sentenced to imprisonment . His notoriety caused the play , despite its early success , to be closed after 86 performances . After his release , he published the play from exile in Paris , but he wrote no further comic or dramatic work .

The Importance of Being Earnest has been revived many times since its premiere . It has been adapted for the cinema on three occasions . In The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1952 ) , Dame Edith Evans reprised her celebrated interpretation of Lady Bracknell ; The Importance of Being Earnest ( 1992 ) by Kurt Baker used an all @-@ black cast ; and Oliver Parker 's The Importance of Being Earnest ( 2002 ) incorporated some of Wilde 's original material cut during the preparation of the original stage production .

= = Composition = =

After the success of Wilde 's plays Lady Windermere 's Fan and A Woman of No Importance , Wilde 's producers urged him to write further plays . In July 1894 he mooted his idea for The Importance of Being Earnest to George Alexander , the actor @-@ manager of the St James 's Theatre . Wilde spent the summer with his family at Worthing , where he wrote the play quickly in August . His fame now at its peak , he used the working title Lady Lancing to avoid pre @-@ emptive speculation of its content . Many names and ideas in the play were borrowed from people or places the author had known ; Lady Queensberry , Lord Alfred Douglas 's mother , for example , lived at Bracknell . There is widespread agreement among Wilde scholars that the most important influence on the play was W. S. Gilbert 's 1877 farce Engaged ; Wilde borrowed from Gilbert not only several incidents but , in Russell Jackson 's phrase " the gravity of tone demanded by Gilbert of his actors " .

Wilde continually revised the text over the next months : no line was left untouched , and " in a play so economical with its language and effects , [ the revisions ] had serious consequences " . Sos Eltis describes Wilde 's revisions as a refined art at work : the earliest , longest handwritten drafts of the play labour over farcical incidents , broad puns , nonsense dialogue and conventional comic turns . In revising as he did , " Wilde transformed standard nonsense into the more systemic and disconcerting illogicality which characterises Earnest 's dialogue " . Richard Ellmann argues that Wilde had reached his artistic maturity and wrote this work more surely and rapidly than before .

Wilde hesitated about submitting the script to Alexander , worrying that it might be unsuitable for the St James 's Theatre , whose typical repertoire was relatively serious , and explaining that it had been written in response to a request for a play " with no real serious interest " . When Henry James 's Guy Domville failed , Alexander turned to Wilde and agreed to put on his play . Alexander began his usual meticulous preparations , interrogating the author on each line and planning stage movements with a toy theatre . In the course of these rehearsals Alexander asked Wilde to shorten the play from four acts to three . Wilde agreed and combined elements of the second and third acts . The largest cut was the removal of the character of Mr. Gribsby , a solicitor who comes from London to arrest the profligate " Ernest " ( i.e. , Jack ) for his unpaid dining bills . Algernon , who is posing as " Ernest " , will be led away to Holloway Jail unless he settles his accounts immediately . Jack finally agrees to pay for Ernest , everyone thinking that it is Algernon 's bill when in fact it is his own . The four @-@ act version was first played on the radio in a BBC production and is still sometimes performed . Peter Raby argues that the three @-@ act structure is more effective , and that the shorter original text is more theatrically resonant than the expanded published edition .

= = Productions = =

= = = Premiere = = =

The play was first produced at the St James 's Theatre on Valentine 's Day 1895 . It was freezing cold but Wilde arrived dressed in " florid sobriety " , wearing a green carnation . The audience , according to one report , " included many members of the great and good , former cabinet ministers and privy councillors , as well as actors , writers , academics , and enthusiasts " . Allan Aynesworth , who played Algernon Moncrieff , recalled to Hesketh Pearson that " In my fifty @-@ three years of acting , I never remember a greater triumph than [ that ] first night " . Aynesworth was himself " debonair and stylish " , and Alexander , who played Jack Worthing , " demure " .

The cast was :

John Worthing , J.P. — George Alexander

Algernon Moncrieff — Allan Aynesworth

Rev. Canon Chasuble , D.D. — H. H. Vincent

Merriman — Frank Dyall

Lane — F. Kinsey Peile

Lady Bracknell — Rose Leclercq

Hon. Gwendolen Fairfax — Irene Vanbrugh

Cecily Cardew — Evelyn Millard

Miss Prism — Mrs. George Canninge

The Marquess of Queensberry , the father of Wilde 's lover Lord Alfred Douglas ( who was on holiday in Algiers at the time ) , had planned to disrupt the play by throwing a bouquet of rotten vegetables at the playwright when he took his bow at the end of the show . Wilde and Alexander learned of the plan , and the latter cancelled Queensberry 's ticket and arranged for policemen to bar his entrance . Nevertheless , he continued harassing Wilde , who eventually launched a private prosecution against the peer for criminal libel , triggering a series of trials ending in Wilde 's imprisonment for gross indecency . Alexander tried , unsuccessfully , to save the production by removing Wilde 's name from the billing , but the play had to close after only 86 performances .

The play 's original Broadway production opened at the Empire Theatre on 22 April 1895 , but closed after sixteen performances . Its cast included William Faversham as Algy , Henry Miller as Jack , Viola Allen as Gwendolen , and Ida Vernon as Lady Bracknell . The Australian premiere was in Melbourne on 10 August 1895 , presented by Dion Boucicault , Jr. and Robert Brough , and the play was an immediate success . Wilde 's downfall in England did not affect the popularity of his plays in Australia .

= = = Critical reception = = =

In contrast to much theatre of the time , The Importance of Being Earnest 's light plot does not tackle serious social and political issues , something of which contemporary reviewers were wary . Though unsure of Wilde 's seriousness as a dramatist , they recognised the play 's cleverness , humour and popularity with audiences . George Bernard Shaw , for example , reviewed the play in the Saturday Review , arguing that comedy should touch as well as amuse , " I go to the theatre to be moved to laughter . " Later in a letter he said , the play , though " extremely funny " , was Wilde 's " first really heartless [ one ] " . In The World , William Archer wrote that he had enjoyed watching the play but found it to be empty of meaning , " What can a poor critic do with a play which raises no principle , whether of art or morals , creates its own canons and conventions , and is nothing but an absolutely wilful expression of an irrepressibly witty personality ? "

In The Speaker , A. B. Walkley admired the play and was one of few to see it as the culmination of Wilde 's dramatic career . He denied the term " farce " was derogatory , or even lacking in seriousness , and said " It is of nonsense all compact , and better nonsense , I think , our stage has not seen . " H. G. Wells , in an unsigned review for the Pall Mall Gazette , called Earnest one of the freshest comedies of the year , saying " More humorous dealing with theatrical conventions it would be difficult to imagine . " He also questioned whether people would fully see its message , " ... how Serious People will take this Trivial Comedy intended for their learning remains to be seen . No doubt seriously . " The play was so light @-@ hearted that many reviewers compared it to comic opera rather than drama . W. H. Auden later called it " a pure verbal opera " , and The Times commented , " The story is almost too preposterous to go without music . " Mary McCarthy , in Sights and Spectacles ( 1959 ) , however , and despite thinking the play extremely funny , would call it " a ferocious idyll " ; " depravity is the hero and the only character . "

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde 's most popular work and is continually revived . Max Beerbohm called the play Wilde 's " finest , most undeniably his own " , saying that in his other comedies — Lady Windermere 's Fan , A Woman of No Importance and An Ideal Husband — the plot , following the manner of Victorien Sardou , is unrelated to the theme of the work , while in Earnest the story is " dissolved " into the form of the play .

= = = Revivals = = =

Until after Wilde 's death in 1900 his name remained disgraced , and few discussed , let alone performed , his work in Britain . Alexander revived The Importance in a small theatre in Notting Hill , outside the West End , in 1901 ; in the same year he presented the piece on tour , playing Jack Worthing with a cast including the young Lilian Braithwaite as Cecily . The play returned to the West End when Alexander presented a revival at the St James 's in 1902 . Broadway revivals were mounted in 1902 and again in 1910 , each production running for six weeks .

A collected edition of Wilde 's works , published in 1908 and edited by Robert Ross , helped to restore his reputation as an author . Alexander presented another revival of The Importance at the St James 's in 1909 , when he and Aynesworth reprised their original roles ; the revival ran for 316 performances . Max Beerbohm said that the play was sure to become a classic of the English repertory , and that its humour was as fresh then as when it had been written , adding that the actors had " worn as well as the play " .

For a 1913 revival at the same theatre the young actors Gerald Ames and A. E. Matthews succeeded the creators as Jack and Algy . John Deverell as Jack and Margaret Scudamore as Lady Bracknell headed the cast in a 1923 production at the Haymarket Theatre . Many revivals in the first decades of the 20th century treated " the present " as the current year . It was not until the 1920s that the case for 1890s costumes was established ; as a critic in The Manchester Guardian put it , " Thirty years on , one begins to feel that Wilde should be done in the costume of his period — that his wit today needs the backing of the atmosphere that gave it life and truth . … Wilde 's glittering and complex verbal felicities go ill with the shingle and the short skirt . "

In Sir Nigel Playfair 's 1930 production at the Lyric , Hammersmith , John Gielgud played Jack to the Lady Bracknell of his aunt , Mabel Terry @-@ Lewis . Gielgud produced and starred in a production at the Globe ( now the Gielgud ) Theatre in 1939 , in a cast that included Edith Evans as Lady Bracknell , Joyce Carey as Gwendolen , Angela Baddeley as Cecily and Margaret Rutherford as Miss Prism . The Times considered the production the best since the original , and praised it for its fidelity to Wilde 's conception , its " airy , responsive ball @-@ playing quality . " Later in the same year Gielgud presented the work again , with Jack Hawkins as Algy , Gwen Ffrangcon @-@ Davies as Gwendolen and Peggy Ashcroft as Cecily , with Evans and Rutherford in their previous roles . The production was presented in several seasons during and after the Second World War , with mostly the same main players . During a 1946 season at the Haymarket the King and Queen attended a performance , which , as the journalist Geoffrey Wheatcroft put it , gave the play " a final accolade of respectability . " The production toured North America , and was successfully staged on Broadway in 1947 .

As Wilde 's work came to be read and performed again , it was The Importance of Being Earnest that received the most productions . By the time of its centenary the journalist Mark Lawson described it as " the second most known and quoted play in English after Hamlet . "

For Sir Peter Hall 's 1982 production at the National Theatre the cast included Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell , Martin Jarvis as Jack , Nigel Havers as Algy , Zoë Wanamaker as Gwendolen and Anna Massey as Miss Prism . Nicholas Hytner 's 1993 production at the Aldwych Theatre , starring Maggie Smith , had occasional references to the supposed gay subtext .

In 2005 the Abbey Theatre , Dublin , produced the play with an all @-@ male cast ; it also featured Wilde as a character — the play opens with him drinking in a Parisian café , dreaming of his play . The Melbourne Theatre Company staged a production in December 2011 with Geoffrey Rush as Lady Bracknell .

In 2011 the Roundabout Theatre Company produced a Broadway revival based on the 2009 Stratford Shakespeare Festival production featuring Brian Bedford as director and as Lady Bracknell . It opened at the American Airlines Theatre on 13 January and ran until 3 July 2011 . The cast also included Dana Ivey as Miss Prism , Paxton Whitehead as Canon Chasuble , Santino Fontana as Algernon , Paul O 'Brien as Lane , Charlotte Parry as Cecily , David Furr as Jack and Sara Topham as Gwendolen . It was nominated for three Tony Awards .

The play was also presented internationally , in Singapore , in October 2004 , by the British Theatre Playhouse , and the same company brought it to London 's Greenwich Theatre in April 2005 .

= = Synopsis = =

The play is set in " The Present " ( i.e. 1895 ) .

= = = Act I = = =

Algernon Moncrieff 's flat in Half Moon Street , W

The play opens with Algernon Moncrieff , an idle young gentleman , receiving his best friend , John Worthing , whom he knows as Ernest . Ernest has come from the country to propose to Algernon 's cousin , Gwendolen Fairfax . Algernon , however , refuses his consent until Ernest explains why his cigarette case bears the inscription , " From little Cecily , with her fondest love to her dear Uncle Jack . " ' Ernest ' is forced to admit to living a double life . In the country , he assumes a serious attitude for the benefit of his young ward , the heiress Cecily Cardew , and goes by the name of John ( or , as a nickname , Jack ) , while pretending that he must worry about a wastrel younger brother named Ernest in London . In the city , meanwhile , he assumes the identity of the libertine Ernest . Algernon confesses a similar deception : he pretends to have an invalid friend named Bunbury in the country , whom he can " visit " whenever he wishes to avoid an unwelcome social obligation . Jack refuses to tell Algernon the location of his country estate .

Gwendolen and her formidable mother Lady Bracknell now call on Algernon who distracts Lady Bracknell in another room while Jack proposes to Gwendolen . She accepts , but seems to love him very largely for his professed name of Ernest . Jack accordingly resolves to himself to be rechristened " Ernest " . Discovering them in this intimate exchange , Lady Bracknell interviews Jack as a prospective suitor . Horrified to learn that he was adopted after being discovered as a baby in a handbag at Victoria Station , she refuses him and forbids further contact with her daughter . Gwendolen , though , manages covertly to promise to him her undying love . As Jack gives her his address in the country , Algernon surreptitiously notes it on the cuff of his sleeve : Jack 's revelation of his pretty and wealthy young ward has motivated his friend to meet her .

= = = Act II = = =

The Garden of the Manor House , Woolton

Cecily is studying with her governess , Miss Prism . Algernon arrives , pretending to be Ernest Worthing , and soon charms Cecily . Long fascinated by Uncle Jack 's hitherto absent black sheep brother , she is predisposed to fall for Algernon in his role of Ernest ( a name she , like Gwendolen , is apparently particularly fond of ) . Therefore , Algernon , too , plans for the rector , Dr. Chasuble , to rechristen him " Ernest " .

Jack , meanwhile , has decided to abandon his double life . He arrives in full mourning and announces his brother 's death in Paris of a severe chill , a story undermined by Algernon 's presence in the guise of Ernest .

Gwendolen now enters , having run away from home . During the temporary absence of the two men , she meets Cecily , each woman indignantly declaring that she is the one engaged to " Ernest " . When Jack and Algernon reappear , their deceptions are exposed .

= = = Act III = = =

Morning @-@ Room at the Manor House , Woolton

Arriving in pursuit of her daughter , Lady Bracknell is astonished to be told that Algernon and Cecily are engaged . The revelation of Cecily 's trust fund soon dispels Lady Bracknell 's initial doubts over the young lady 's suitability , but any engagement is forbidden by her guardian Jack : he will consent only if Lady Bracknell agrees to his own union with Gwendolen — something she declines to do .

The impasse is broken by the return of Miss Prism , whom Lady Bracknell recognises as the person who , twenty @-@ eight years earlier , as a family nursemaid , had taken a baby boy for a walk in a perambulator ( baby carriage ) and never returned . Challenged , Miss Prism explains that she had absentmindedly put the manuscript of a novel she was writing in the perambulator , and the baby in a handbag , which she had left at Victoria Station . Jack produces the very same handbag , showing that he is the lost baby , the elder son of Lady Bracknell 's late sister , and thus indeed Algernon 's elder brother . Having acquired such respectable relations , he is acceptable as a suitor for Gwendolen after all .

Gwendolen , though , still insists that she can only love a man named Ernest . What is her fiancé 's real first name ? Lady Bracknell informs Jack that , as the first @-@ born , he would have been named after his father , General Moncrieff . Jack examines the army lists and discovers that his father 's name — and hence his own real name — was in fact Ernest . Pretence was reality all along . As the happy couples embrace — Jack and Gwendolen , Algernon and Cecily , and even Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism — Lady Bracknell complains to her newfound relative : " My nephew , you seem to be displaying signs of triviality . " " On the contrary , Aunt Augusta " , he replies , " I 've now realised for the first time in my life the vital importance of being Earnest . "

= = Themes = =

= = = Triviality = = =

Arthur Ransome described The Importance ... as the most trivial of Wilde 's society plays , and the only one that produces " that peculiar exhilaration of the spirit by which we recognise the beautiful . " " It is " , he wrote , " precisely because it is consistently trivial that it is not ugly . " Ellmann says that The Importance of Being Earnest touched on many themes Wilde had been building since the 1880s — the languor of aesthetic poses was well established and Wilde takes it as a starting point for the two protagonists . While Salome , An Ideal Husband and The Picture of Dorian Gray had dwelt on more serious wrongdoing , vice in Earnest is represented by Algy 's craving for cucumber sandwiches . Wilde told Robert Ross that the play 's theme was " That we should treat all trivial things in life very seriously , and all serious things of life with a sincere and studied triviality . " The theme is hinted at in the play 's ironic title , and " earnestness " is repeatedly alluded to in the dialogue , Algernon says in Act II , " one has to be serious about something if one is to have any amusement in life " but goes on to reproach Jack for ' being serious about everything ' " . Blackmail and corruption had haunted the double lives of Dorian Gray and Sir Robert Chiltern ( in An Ideal Husband ) , but in Earnest the protagonists ' duplicity ( Algernon 's " bunburying " and Worthing 's double life as Jack and Ernest ) is undertaken for more innocent purposes — largely to avoid unwelcome social obligations . While much theatre of the time tackled serious social and political issues , Earnest is superficially about nothing at all . It " refuses to play the game " of other dramatists of the period , for instance Bernard Shaw , who used their characters to draw audiences to grander ideals .

= = = As a satire of society = = =

The play repeatedly mocks Victorian traditions and social customs , marriage and the pursuit of love in particular . In Victorian times earnestness was considered to be the over @-@ riding societal value , originating in religious attempts to reform the lower classes , it spread to the upper ones too throughout the century . The play 's very title , with its mocking paradox ( serious people are so because they do not see trivial comedies ) , introduces the theme , it continues in the drawing room discussion , " Yes , but you must be serious about it . I hate people who are not serious about meals . It is so shallow of them , " says Algernon in Act 1 ; allusions are quick and from multiple angles .

Wilde managed both to engage with and to mock the genre , while providing social commentary and offering reform . The men follow traditional matrimonial rites , whereby suitors admit their weaknesses to their prospective brides , but the foibles they excuse are ridiculous , and the farce is built on an absurd confusion of a book and a baby . When Jack apologises to Gwendolen during his marriage proposal it is for not being wicked :

JACK : Gwendolen , it is a terrible thing for a man to find out suddenly that all his life he has been speaking nothing but the truth . Can you forgive me ?

GWENDOLEN : I can . For I feel that you are sure to change .

In turn , both Gwendolen and Cecily have the ideal of marrying a man named Ernest , a popular and respected name at the time . Gwendolen , quite unlike her mother 's methodical analysis of John Worthing 's suitability as a husband , places her entire faith in a Christian name , declaring in Act I , " The only really safe name is Ernest " . This is an opinion shared by Cecily in Act II , " I pity any poor married woman whose husband is not called Ernest " and they indignantly declare that they have been deceived when they find out the men 's real names .

Wilde embodied society 's rules and rituals artfully into Lady Bracknell : minute attention to the details of her style created a comic effect of assertion by restraint . In contrast to her encyclopaedic knowledge of the social distinctions of London 's street names , Jack 's obscure parentage is subtly evoked . He defends himself against her " A handbag ? " with the clarification , " The Brighton Line " . At the time , Victoria Station consisted of two separate but adjacent terminal stations sharing the same name . To the east was the ramshackle LC & D Railway , on the west the up @-@ market LB & SCR — the Brighton Line , which went to Worthing , the fashionable , expensive town the gentleman who found baby Jack was travelling to at the time ( and after which Jack was named ) .

= = = Suggested homosexual subtext = = =

It has been argued that the play 's themes of duplicity and ambivalence are inextricably bound up with Wilde 's homosexuality , and that the play exhibits a " flickering presence @-@ absence of … homosexual desire " . On re @-@ reading the play after his release from prison , Wilde said : " It was extraordinary reading the play over . How I used to toy with that Tiger Life . " As one scholar has put it , the absolute necessity for homosexuals of the period to " need a public mask is a factor contributing to the satire on social disguise . "

The use of the name Earnest may have been a homosexual in @-@ joke . In 1892 , three years before Wilde wrote the play , John Gambril Nicholson had published the book of pederastic poetry Love In Earnest . The sonnet Of Boys ' Names included the verse : " Though Frank may ring like silver bell / And Cecil softer music claim / They cannot work the miracle / – ' Tis Ernest sets my heart a @-@ flame . " The word " earnest " may also have been a code @-@ word for homosexual , as in : " Is he earnest ? " , in the same way that " Is he so ? " and " Is he musical ? " were employed .

Sir Donald Sinden , an actor who had met two of the play 's original cast ( Irene Vanbrugh and Allan Aynesworth ) , and Lord Alfred Douglas , wrote to The Times to dispute suggestions that " Earnest " held any sexual connotations :

Although they had ample opportunity , at no time did any of them even hint that " Earnest " was a synonym for homosexual , or that " bunburying " may have implied homosexual sex . The first time I heard it mentioned was in the 1980s and I immediately consulted Sir John Gielgud whose own performance of Jack Worthing in the same play was legendary and whose knowledge of theatrical lore was encyclopaedic . He replied in his ringing tones : " No @-@ No ! Nonsense , absolute nonsense : I would have known " .

A number of theories have also been put forward to explain the derivation of Bunbury , and Bunburying , which are used in the play to imply a secretive double life . It may have derived from Henry Shirley Bunbury , a hypochondriacal acquaintance of Wilde 's youth . Another suggestion , put forward in 1913 by Aleister Crowley , who knew Wilde , was that Bunbury was a combination word : that Wilde had once taken train to Banbury , met a schoolboy there , and arranged a second secret meeting with him at Sunbury .

= = Dramatic analysis = =

= = = Use of language = = =

While Wilde had long been famous for dialogue and his use of language , Raby ( 1988 ) argues that he achieved a unity and mastery in Earnest that was unmatched in his other plays , except perhaps Salomé . While his earlier comedies suffer from an unevenness resulting from the thematic clash between the trivial and the serious , Earnest achieves a pitch @-@ perfect style that allows these to dissolve . There are three different registers detectable in the play . The dandyish insouciance of Jack and Algernon — established early with Algernon 's exchange with his manservant — betrays an underlying unity despite their differing attitudes . The formidable pronouncements of Lady Bracknell are as startling for her use of hyperbole and rhetorical extravagance as for her disconcerting opinions . In contrast , the speech of Dr. Chasuble and Miss Prism is distinguished by " pedantic precept " and " idiosyncratic diversion " . Furthermore , the play is full of epigrams and paradoxes . Max Beerbohm described it as littered with " chiselled apophthegms — witticisms unrelated to action or character " , of which he found half a dozen to be of the highest order .

Lady Bracknell 's line , " A handbag ? " , has been called one of the most malleable in English drama , lending itself to interpretations ranging from incredulous or scandalised to baffled . Edith Evans , both on stage and in the 1952 film , delivered the line loudly in a mixture of horror , incredulity and condescension . Stockard Channing , in the Gaiety Theatre , Dublin in 2010 , hushed the line , in a critic 's words , " with a barely audible ' A handbag ? ' , rapidly swallowed up with a sharp intake of breath . An understated take , to be sure , but with such a well @-@ known play , packed full of witticisms and aphorisms with a life of their own , it 's the little things that make a difference . "

= = = Characterisation = = =

Though Wilde deployed characters that were by now familiar — the dandy lord , the overbearing matriarch , the woman with a past , the puritan young lady — his treatment is subtler than in his earlier comedies . Lady Bracknell , for instance , embodies respectable , upper @-@ class society , but Eltis notes how her development " from the familiar overbearing duchess into a quirkier and more disturbing character " can be traced through Wilde 's revisions of the play . For the two young men , Wilde presents not stereotypical stage " dudes " but intelligent beings who , as Jackson puts it , " speak like their creator in well @-@ formed complete sentences and rarely use slang or vogue @-@ words " . Dr Chasuble and Miss Prism are characterised by a few light touches of detail , their old @-@ fashioned enthusiasms , and the Canon 's fastidious pedantry , pared down by Wilde during his many redrafts of the text .

= = = Structure and genre = = =

Ransome argues that Wilde freed himself by abandoning the melodrama , the basic structure which underlies his earlier social comedies , and basing the story entirely on the Earnest / Ernest verbal conceit . Now freed from " living up to any drama more serious than conversation " Wilde could now amuse himself to a fuller extent with quips , bons @-@ mots , epigrams and repartee that really had little to do with the business at hand .

The genre of the Importance of Being Earnest has been deeply debated by scholars and critics alike who have placed the play within a wide variety of genres ranging from parody to satire . In his critique of Wilde , Foster argues that the play creates a world where “ real values are inverted [ and ] , reason and unreason are interchanged " . Similarly , Wilde 's use of dialogue mocks the upper classes of Victorian England lending the play a satirical tone . Reinhart further stipulates that the use of farcical humour to mock the upper classes " merits the play both as satire and as drama " .

= = Publication = =

= = = First edition = = =

Wilde 's two final comedies , An Ideal Husband and The Importance of Being Earnest , were still on stage in London at the time of his prosecution , and they were soon closed as the details of his case became public . After two years in prison with hard labour , Wilde went into exile in Paris , sick and depressed , his reputation destroyed in England . In 1898 , when no @-@ one else would , Leonard Smithers agreed with Wilde to publish the two final plays . Wilde proved to be a diligent reviser , sending detailed instructions on stage directions , character listings and the presentation of the book , and insisting that a playbill from the first performance be reproduced inside . Ellmann argues that the proofs show a man " very much in command of himself and of the play " . Wilde 's name did not appear on the cover , it was " By the Author of Lady Windermere 's Fan " . His return to work was brief though , as he refused to write anything else , " I can write , but have lost the joy of writing " .

On 19 October 2007 , a first edition ( number 349 of 1 @,@ 000 ) was discovered inside a handbag in an Oxfam shop in Nantwich , Cheshire . Staff were unable to trace the donor . It was sold for £ 650 .

= = = In translation = = =

The Importance of Being Earnest 's popularity has meant it has been translated into many languages , though the homophonous pun in the title ( " Ernest " , a masculine proper name , and " earnest " , the virtue of steadfastness and seriousness ) poses a special problem for translators . The easiest case of a suitable translation of the pun , perpetuating its sense and meaning , may have been its translation into German . Since English and German are closely related languages , German provides an equivalent adjective ( " ernst " ) and also a matching masculine proper name ( " Ernst " ) . The meaning and tenor of the wordplay are exactly the same . Yet there are many different possible titles in German , mostly concerning sentence structure . The two most common ones are " Bunbury oder ernst / Ernst sein ist alles " and " Bunbury oder wie wichtig es ist , ernst / Ernst zu sein " . In a study of Italian translations , Adrian Pablé found thirteen different versions using eight titles . Since wordplay is often unique to the language in question , translators are faced with a choice of either staying faithful to the original — in this case the English adjective and virtue earnest — or creating a similar pun in their own language .

Four main strategies have been used by translators . The first leaves all characters ' names unchanged and in their original spelling : thus the name is respected and readers reminded of the original cultural setting , but the liveliness of the pun is lost . Eva Malagoli varied this source @-@ oriented approach by using both the English Christian names and the adjective earnest , thus preserving the pun and the English character of the play , but possibly straining an Italian reader . A third group of translators replaced Ernest with a name that also represents a virtue in the target language , favouring transparency for readers in translation over fidelity to the original . For instance , in Italian , these versions variously call the play L 'importanza di essere Franco / Severo / Fedele , the given names being respectively the values of honesty , propriety , and loyalty . French offers a closer pun : " Constant " is both a first name and the quality of steadfastness , so the play is commonly known as De l 'importance d 'être Constant , though Jean Anouilh translated the play under the title : Il est important d 'être Aimé ( " Aimé " is a name which also means " beloved " ) . These translators differ in their attitude to the original English honorific titles , some change them all , or none , but most leave a mix partially as a compensation for the added loss of Englishness . Lastly , one translation gave the name an Italianate touch by rendering it as Ernesto ; this work liberally mixed proper nouns from both languages .

= = Adaptations = =

= = = Film = = =

Apart from multiple " made @-@ for @-@ television " versions , The Importance of Being Earnest has been adapted for the English @-@ language cinema at least three times , first in 1952 by Anthony Asquith who adapted the screenplay and directed it . Michael Denison ( Algernon ) , Michael Redgrave ( Jack ) , Edith Evans ( Lady Bracknell ) , Dorothy Tutin ( Cecily ) , Joan Greenwood ( Gwendolen ) , and Margaret Rutherford ( Miss Prism ) and Miles Malleson ( Canon Chasuble ) were among the cast . In 1992 Kurt Baker directed a version using an all @-@ black cast with Daryl Keith Roach as Jack , Wren T. Brown as Algernon , Ann Weldon as Lady Bracknell , Lanei Chapman as Cecily , Chris Calloway as Gwendolen , CCH Pounder as Miss Prism , and Brock Peters as Doctor Chasuble , set in the United States . Oliver Parker , an English director who had previously adapted An Ideal Husband by Wilde , made the 2002 film ; it stars Colin Firth ( Jack ) , Rupert Everett ( Algy ) , Judi Dench ( Lady Bracknell ) , Reese Witherspoon ( Cecily ) , Frances O 'Connor ( Gwendolen ) , Anna Massey ( Miss Prism ) , and Tom Wilkinson ( Canon Chasuble ) . Parker 's adaptation includes the dunning solicitor Mr. Gribsby who pursues Jack to Hertfordshire ( present in Wilde 's original draft , but cut at the behest of the play 's first producer ) . Algernon too is pursued by a group of creditors in the opening scene .

= = = Operas and musicals = = =

In 1960 , Ernest in Love was staged Off @-@ Broadway . The Japanese all @-@ female musical theatre troupe Takarazuka Revue staged this musical in 2005 in two productions , one by Moon Troupe and the other one by Flower Troupe .

In 1963 , Erik Chisholm composed an opera from the play , using Wilde 's text as the libretto .

In 1964 , Gerd Natschinski composed the musical Mein Freund Bunbury based on the play , 1964 premiered at Metropol Theater Berlin .

According to a study by Robert Tanitch , by 2002 there had been least eight adaptations of the play as a musical , though " never with conspicuous success " . The earliest such version was a 1927 American show entitled Oh Earnest . The journalist Mark Bostridge comments , " The libretto of a 1957 musical adaptation , Half in Earnest , deposited in the British Library , is scarcely more encouraging . The curtain rises on Algy strumming away at the piano , singing ' I can play Chopsticks , Lane ' . Other songs include — almost predictably — ' A Bunburying I Must Go ' . "

Gerald Barry created the 2011 opera , The Importance of Being Earnest , commissioned by the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the Barbican Centre in London . It was premiered in Los Angeles in 2011 . The stage premiere was given by the Opéra national de Lorraine in Nancy , France in 2013 .

= = = Radio and television = = =

There have been many radio versions of the play . In 1925 the BBC broadcast an adaptation with Hesketh Pearson as Jack Worthing . Further broadcasts of the play followed in 1927 and 1936 . In 1977 , BBC Radio 4 broadcast the four @-@ act version of the play , with Fabia Drake as Lady Bracknell , Richard Pasco as Jack , Jeremy Clyde as Algy , Maurice Denham as Canon Chasuble , Sylvia Coleridge as Miss Prism , Barbara Leigh @-@ Hunt as Gwendolen and Prunella Scales as Cecily . The production was later released on CD .

To commemorate the centenary of the first performance of the play , Radio 4 broadcast a new adaptation on 13 February 1995 ; directed by Glyn Dearman , it featured Judi Dench as Lady Bracknell , Michael Hordern as Lane , Michael Sheen as Jack Worthing , Martin Clunes as Algernon Moncrieff , John Moffatt as Canon Chasuble , Miriam Margolyes as Miss Prism , Samantha Bond as Gwendolen and Amanda Root as Cecily . The production was later issued on audio cassette .

On 13 December 2000 , BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new adaptation directed by Howard Davies starring Geraldine McEwan as Lady Bracknell , Simon Russell Beale as Jack Worthing , Julian Wadham as Algernon Moncrieff , Geoffrey Palmer as Canon Chasuble , Celia Imrie as Miss Prism , Victoria Hamilton as Gwendolen and Emma Fielding as Cecily , with music composed by Dominic Muldowney . The production was released on audio cassette .

A 1964 commercial television adaptation starred Ian Carmichael , Patrick Macnee , Susannah York , Fenella Fielding , Pamela Brown and Irene Handl .

BBC television transmissions of the play have included a 1974 Play of the Month version starring Coral Browne as Lady Bracknell with Michael Jayston , Julian Holloway , Gemma Jones and Celia Bannerman . Stuart Burge directed another adaptation in 1986 with a cast including Gemma Jones , Alec McCowen , Paul McGann and Joan Plowright .

It was adapted for Australian TV in 1957 .

= = = Commercial recordings = = =

Gielgud 's performance is preserved on an EMI audio recording dating from 1952 , which also captures Edith Evans 's Lady Bracknell . The cast also includes Roland Culver ( Algy ) , Jean Cadell ( Miss Prism ) , Pamela Brown ( Gwendolen ) and Celia Johnson ( Cecily ) .

Other audio recordings include a " Theatre Masterworks " version from 1953 , directed and narrated by Margaret Webster , with a cast including Maurice Evans , Lucile Watson and Mildred Natwick ; a 1989 version by California Artists Radio Theatre , featuring Dan O 'Herlihy Jeanette Nolan , Les Tremayne and Richard Erdman ; and one by L.A. Theatre Works issued in 2009 , featuring Charles Busch , James Marsters and Andrea Bowen .

= Lloyd Mathews =

Sir Lloyd William Mathews , GCMG , CB ( 7 March 1850 – 11 October 1901 ) was a British naval officer , politician and abolitionist . Mathews joined the Royal Navy as a cadet at the age of 13 and progressed through the ranks to lieutenant . He was involved with the Third Anglo @-@ Ashanti War of 1873 – 4 , afterwards being stationed in East Africa for the suppression of the slave trade . In 1877 he was seconded from the navy to Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar in order to form a European @-@ style army ; he would remain in the employment of the government of Zanzibar for the rest of his life . His army quickly reached 6 @,@ 300 men and was used in several expeditions to suppress the slave trade and rebellions against the Zanzibar government .

Mathews retired from the Royal Navy in 1881 and was appointed Brigadier @-@ General of Zanzibar . There followed more expeditions to the African mainland , including a failed attempt to stop German expansion in East Africa . In October 1891 Mathews was appointed First Minister to the Zanzibar government , a position in which he was " irremovable by the sultan " . During this time Mathews was a keen abolitionist and promoted this cause to the Sultans he worked with . This resulted in the prohibiting of the slave trade in Zanzibar 's dominions in 1890 and the abolition of slavery in 1897 . Mathews was appointed the British Consul @-@ General for East Africa in 1891 but declined to take up the position , remaining in Zanzibar instead . Mathews and his troops also played a key role in the ending of the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War of 1896 which erupted out of an attempt to bypass the requirement that new Sultans must be vetted by the British consul . During his time as first minister Mathews continued to be involved with the military and was part of two large campaigns , one to Witu and another to Mwele .

Mathews was decorated by several governments , receiving appointments as a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , Companion of the Order of the Bath and as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George from the British government and membership in the Prussian Order of the Crown . Zanzibar also rewarded him and he was a member of the Grand Order of Hamondieh and a first class member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar . Mathews died of malaria in Zanzibar on 11 October 1901 .

= = Early life and career = =

Mathews was born at Funchal on Madeira on 7 March 1850 . His father , Captain William Matthews was Welsh , and his mother Jane Wallis Penfold , was the daughter of William Penfold and Sarah Gilbert . Her sister , Augusta Jane Robley née Penfold was the author of a famous book about the flora and fauna of Madeira , which is now in the Natural History Museum . Mathews became a cadet of the Royal Navy in 1863 and was appointed a midshipman on 23 September 1866 . From 1868 he was stationed in the Mediterranean but his first active service was during the Third Anglo @-@ Ashanti War of 1873 – 4 where he qualified for the campaign medal . He was promoted to lieutenant on 31 March 1874 . On 27 August 1875 Mathews was posted to HMS London , a depot ship and the Royal Navy headquarters for East Africa , to assist in the suppression of the slave trade in the area . Whilst onboard he drilled his own troops , captured several slave dhows and was commended for his actions by the Admiralty .

= = Commander in Chief of Zanzibar = =

In August 1877 , Mathews was seconded from the Navy to Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar to form a European @-@ style army which could be used to enforce Zanzibar 's control over its mainland possessions . The army had traditionally been composed entirely of Arabs and Persians but Mathews opened up recruitment to the African majority on the island and had 300 recruits in training by the end of the year . In addition , Mathews employed some unorthodox recruitment methods such as purchasing slaves from their masters , using inmates from the prison and recruiting from Africans rescued from the slavers . In June 1877 , at the instigation of John Kirk , the explorer and friend of the Sultan , the British government sent a shipment of 500 modern rifles and ammunition as a gift with which to arm the troops . Mathews introduced a new uniform for the troops consisting of a red cap , short black jackets and white trousers for the enlisted ranks and dark blue frock coats and trousers with gold and silver lace for the Arab officers . The latter was possibly modelled on the Royal Navy officers uniform with which he was familiar . The army grew quickly ; by the 1880s Mathews would command 1 @,@ 300 men , his forces eventually numbering 1 @,@ 000 regulars and 5 @,@ 000 irregulars .

One of the first tasks for the new army was to suppress the smuggling of slaves from Pangani on the mainland to the island of Pemba , north of Zanzibar . The troops completed this mission , capturing several slavers and hindering the trade . Mathews retired from the Royal Navy in June 1881 and was appointed Brigadier @-@ General of Zanzibar . In 1880 , the Sultan dispatched a military force under Mathews to bring his unruly African mainland territories under control . Mathews ' expedition was initially intended to reach Unyanyembe but his men refused to march inland and , when made to do so , deserted in large numbers . The expedition ended instead at Mamboya where a 60 @-@ man garrison was established . This had been reduced to a mere handful of men by the mid @-@ 1880s but the expedition proved that the Sultan was serious about maintaining control of all of his possessions . Mathews ' men were also involved in several expeditions to halt the land @-@ based slave trade which had developed once the seas became too heavily policed for the traders .

In 1881 Mathews ' old vessel , the HMS London , was captained by Charles J Brownrigg . This vessel and her crew made several patrols aimed at hindering the slave trade using smaller steam boats for the actual pursuits and captures . On December 3 , 1881 , they caught up with a slave dhow captained by Hindi bin Hattam . This dhow had around 100 slaves on board and was transporting them between Pemba and Zanzibar . Captain Brownrigg led a boarding party to release the slaves but bin Hattam 's men then attacked the sailors , killing Brownrigg and his party before sailing away . Mathews led a force to Wete on Pemba and , after a short battle , took a mortally wounded bin Hattem prisoner before returning to Zanzibar .

Mathews returned to the African mainland territories once more in 1884 when he landed with a force which intended to establish further garrisons there to dissuade German territorial claims . This attempt ultimately failed when five German warships steamed into Zanzibar Town harbour and threatened the Sultan into signing away the territories which would later form German East Africa . Further territories were ceded to the German East Africa Company in 1888 but unrest amongst the locals against them prevented them from taking control and Mathews was dispatched with 100 men to restore order . Finding around 8 @,@ 000 people gathered against the German administrators Mathews was forced to return with his men to Zanzibar . He landed once again with more troops but found himself subject to death threats and that his troops would not obey his orders and so returned again to Zanzibar .

= = First Minister = =

In October 1891 , upon the formation of the first constitutional government in Zanzibar , Mathews was appointed First Minister , despite some hostility from Sultan Ali bin Said . In this capacity Mathews was " irremovable by the sultan " and answerable only to the Sultan and the British Consul . His position was so strong that one missionary on the island is quoted as saying that his powers defied " analytical examination " and that Mathews really could say " L 'état est moi " ( I am the state ) . Mathews was also known as the " Strong man of Zanzibar " . The principal departments of government were mostly run by Britons or British Indians and Mathews ' approval was required before they could be removed from office . Mathews was rewarded by the Zanzibar government for his role with his appointment as a first class member of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar , which he was granted licence by Queen Victoria to accept and wear on 17 May 1886 . Mathews used his position to suppress slavery in the country and in 1889 convinced the Sultan to issue a decree purchasing the freedom of all slaves who had taken refuge in his dominions and , from 1890 , the prohibiting the slave trade . On 1 February 1891 Mathews was appointed Her Majesty 's Commissioner and Consul @-@ General to the British Sphere of Influence in East Africa . He never took up the post and instead chose to remain in Zanzibar .

Mathews was rewarded for his service in Zanzibar by the British government which appointed him a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1880 and a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 24 May 1889 . Despite becoming renowned in East Africa as a man who ran a fair administration and was strict with criminals , unhappiness with effective British rule and his halting of the slave trade led some Arabs to petition the Sultan for his removal in 1892 . In 1893 Mathews purchased the island of Changuu for the government . He intended it to be used as a prison but it never housed prisoners and was instead used to quarantine yellow fever cases before its present use as a conservation area for giant tortoises . Mathews was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1894 . He was also awarded membership of the Order of the Crown by the German government .

Matters came to a head when Khalid bin Barghash attempted to take control of the palace in Zanzibar Town upon the death of his uncle in August 1896 , despite failing to gain the consent of the British consul there . Mathews opposed this succession and , with British agreement , called up 900 soldiers in an attempt to prevent it . This situation eventually led to the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War and Mathews , with the support of Admiral Harry Rawson and five vessels of the Royal Navy , bombarded the palace and secured the end of Khalid 's administration . Mathews ' helped to arrange the succession of a pro @-@ British Sultan , Hamoud bin Mohammed , as Khalid 's successor . Mathews continued his reforms after the war , abolishing slavery in 1897 and establishing new farms to grow produce using Western techniques . He was appointed a member of the Grand Order of Hamondieh of Zanzibar and was permitted to accept and wear the decoration on 25 August 1897 .

= = Military expeditions = =

= = = Mwele = = =

In addition to the smaller @-@ scale expeditions described earlier , Mathews embarked on two much larger expeditions to the African mainland during his tenure as first minister , the first at Mwele . The initial rebellion in the area had been led by Mbaruk bin Rashid at Gazi , which Mathews had put down with 1 @,@ 200 men in 1882 . However , in 1895 Mbaruk 's nephew , Mbaruk bin Rashid , refused to acknowledge the appointment of a new leader at Takaungu . This led to open rebellion at Konjoro in February of that year when the younger Mbaruk attacked Zanzibari troops under Arthur Raikes , one of Mathews ' officers . Mathews was part of an Anglo @-@ Zanzibari expedition sent to quell it , which consisted of 310 British sailors , 50 Royal Marines , 54 Sudanese and 164 Zanzibari troops . Konjoro was destroyed and the leaders fled to Gazi where the older Mbaruk failed to turn them over . Another force , under Admiral Rawson , with 400 British marines and sailors , was sent after them . This further expedition failed to capture the ringleaders and a third expedition was organised by Rawson with 220 sailors , 80 marines , 60 Sudanese and 50 Zanzibaris , which destroyed Mwele . During the latter action Mathews was wounded in the shoulder .

= = = Witu = = =

Following the death of a German logger who had been operating illegally , the Sultan of Zanzibar and the British government dispatched an expedition on 20 October 1890 to bring the Sultan of Witu to justice . Nine warships and three transports carrying 800 sailors and marines , 150 Imperial British East Africa Company ( IBEA ) Indian police , 200 Zanzibari and 50 Sudanese troops were sent , defeating the Sultan and establishing a British protectorate . The IBEA was given control of the area and established a force of 250 Indian police to maintain the peace . The police were withdrawn in July 1893 following threats of violence from the new Sultan of Witu , Oman , and another expedition was dispatched to the region . This consisted of three warships : HMS Blanche , HMS Sparrow and the Zanzibari ship HHS Barawa . The latter carried Mathews with 125 Askaris and 50 Sudanese under Brigadier @-@ General Hatch of the Zanzibar army .

Mathews and an escort force went to Witu where , on 31 July , they removed the flag of the IBEA company and replaced it with the red flag of Zanzibar , before destroying several villages and causing Oman to retreat into the forests . The British troops then withdrew , having suffered heavily from malaria , but the Sudanese and Zanzibari troops remained . A further expedition was sent of 140 sailors and 85 other troops but Oman died soon after and a more pliable sultan , Omar bin Hamid , was appointed to govern on behalf of Zanzibar , bringing the affair to a close . In return for this action , Mathews received the British East and West Africa campaign medal .

= = Later life = =

Mathews died of malaria in Zanzibar on 11 October 1901 and was buried with full military honours in the British cemetery outside Zanzibar Town . His successor as first minister was A.S. Rogers . Changuu island , which Mathews bought for a prison , now has a restaurant named in his honour and also a church . Mathews House , at the Western end of Zanzibar Town , is also named for him .

= HMS Boreas ( H77 ) =

HMS Boreas was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . The ship then patrolled Spanish waters enforcing the arms blockade during the first year of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 39 . She spent most of World War II on convoy escort duties in the English Channel and the North Atlantic , based at Dover , Gibraltar , and Freetown , Sierra Leone . Boreas also served two brief tours with the Mediterranean Fleet and participated in Operation Husky , the 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily . She was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy the next year after conversion into an escort destroyer . She was renamed Salamis and served in the Aegean for the rest of the war . Salamis became a training ship after the war until she was returned to Britain and scrapped in 1951 .

= = Description = =

Boreas displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Boreas carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .

The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Boreas had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines through sound waves beamed into the water that would reflect off the submarine .

By October 1940 , the ship 's AA armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . Boreas was converted to an escort destroyer in late 1943 with the replacement of the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun with additional depth charge stowage . The 2 @-@ pounder mounts were replaced during the war by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon . Four additional Oerlikon guns were added in the forward superstructure for a total of six guns .

= = Construction and service = =

The ship was ordered on 22 March 1929 from Palmer 's at Jarrow , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 22 July 1929 , and launched on 11 June 1930 , as the fourth RN ship to carry this name . Boreas was completed on 21 February 1931 at a cost of £ 221 @,@ 156 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until September 1936 when it was transferred to Home Fleet . Her service in the Mediterranean was uneventful until shortly before she returned home when Boreas evacuated civilians at the start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 . After a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 26 September , she made multiple deployments off the coast of Spain in 1937 and 1938 . On 6 March 1938 , She rescued survivors of the torpedoed Nationalist heavy cruiser Baleares off Cartagena , Spain with the destroyer Kempenfelt . Upon her return the following month , the ship began a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 11 June . Boreas escorted the royal yacht Victoria and Albert during the Royal Tour of Scotland from 26 July to 4 August . The ship escorted the battleship Revenge and the ocean liner Aquitania in September during the Munich Crisis . She remained with the 4th Destroyer Flotilla until April 1939 . Boreas briefly served as a plane guard for the aircraft carriers of the Home Fleet later that year .

The ship was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla on the start of the war and spent the first six months on escort and patrol duties in the English Channel and North Sea . While assisting the damaged minesweeper Sphinx on 4 February 1940 in the Moray Firth , Boreas 's stern was damaged and she required repairs that lasted until the following month . The ship was attached to the 12th Destroyer Flotilla on 29 March until she was damaged in a collision with her sister ship Brilliant on 15 May . Her repairs lasted until 19 June and Boreas was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Dover upon their completion . On 25 July , the ship engaged German E @-@ boats off Dover Harbour together with Brilliant and was badly damaged by German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers after she was ordered to withdraw . Her bridge was hit twice by bombs that killed one officer and twenty crewmen . Boreas was under repair at Millwall Dock until 23 January 1941 ; she was lightly damaged by bomb splinters on 19 January . Around 1941 , she was fitted with a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar .

After working up , the ship was briefly assigned to Western Approaches Command on escort duties before she was transferred to the 18th Destroyer Flotilla at Freetown , Sierra Leone , where she arrived on 28 April . Boreas remained there until she joined Convoy HG 70 on 10 August at Gibraltar . The ship rescued survivors from four ships and returned them to Gibraltar on 25 August . She received a lengthy refit at South Shields from 19 September to 4 January 1942 , after which rejoined the 18th Destroyer Flotilla on 25 January .

Boreas remained on escort duty in the Eastern Atlantic until she arrived in Alexandria , Egypt on 11 November after escorting a convoy around the Cape of Good Hope . She was immediately assigned to escort the ships of Operation Stoneage that relieved the Siege of Malta . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until January 1943 before she was briefly assigned to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla at Gibraltar . Boreas returned to Freetown in February and remained there until June when she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in preparation for Operation Husky . She was converted into an escort destroyer in Liverpool from September 1943 to February 1944 . As part of the conversion , a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge that replaced her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder and her Type 286 radar was replaced by a Type 290 .

The ship was loaned to the Royal Hellenic Navy on 10 February and recommissioned by them on 25 March as Salamis . She was damaged while working up at Scapa Flow and was under repair at Hull from 28 April to 13 June . Salamis was assigned to escort duty at Gibraltar until October when she was transferred to the Aegean where she served with the 12th ( Greek ) Destroyer Flotilla for the rest of the war . The ship was used as a training ship after the war until she was returned to the Royal Navy at Malta on 9 October 1951 . Salamis arrived at Rosyth under tow on 15 April 1952 to be broken up by Metal Industries , Limited .

= Kaimanawa horse =

Kaimanawa horses are a population of feral horses in New Zealand that are descended from domestic horses released in the 19th and 20th centuries . They are known for their hardiness and quiet temperament . The New Zealand government strictly controls the population to protect the habitat in which they live , which includes several endangered species of plants . The varying heritage gives the breed a wide range of heights , body patterns and colours . They are usually well @-@ muscled , sure @-@ footed and tough .

Horses were first reported in the Kaimanawa Range in 1876 , although the first horses had been brought into New Zealand in 1814 . The feral herds grew as horses escaped and were released from sheep stations and cavalry bases . Members of the herd were recaptured by locals for use as riding horses , as well as being caught for their meat , hair and hides . The herd declined as large scale farming and forestry operations encroached on their ranges , and only around 174 horses were known to exist by 1979 . The Kaimanawa herd was protected by the New Zealand government in 1981 , and there were 1 @,@ 576 horses in the herd by 1994 . A small , mostly unmanaged population also exists on the Aupouri Peninsula at the northern tip of the North Island . Roundups have been carried out annually since 1993 to manage the size of the herd , removing around 2 @,@ 800 horses altogether . The Kaimanawa population is listed as a herd of special genetic value by the United Nations ' Food and Agricultural Organization , and several studies have been conducted on the herd dynamics and habits of the breed .

= = History = =

The first horses were introduced to New Zealand by Protestant missionary Reverend Samuel Marsden in December 1814 , and wild horses were first reported in the Kaimanawa Range in central North Island of New Zealand in 1876 . The Kaimanawa breed descended from domestic horses that were released in the late 19th century and early 20th century in the middle of the North Island around the Kaimanawa mountains . Between 1858 and 1875 , Major George Gwavas Carlyon imported Exmoor ponies to Hawkes Bay and crossed them with local stock to produce the Carlyon pony . These Carlyon ponies were later crossed with two Welsh stallions , Kinarth Caesar and Comet , imported by Sir Donald McLean , and a breed known as the Comet resulted . At some point during the 1870s , McLean released a Comet stallion and several mares on the Kaingaroa Plains and the bloodline apparently became part of the wild Kaimanawa population . Other horses were added to the bloodline through escapes and releases from local sheep stations and from cavalry units at Waiouru that were threatened with a strangles epidemic . It is also thought that in the 1960s Nicholas Koreneff released an Arabian stallion into the Argo Valley region .

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , horses were harvested from the feral herds and used as riding and stock horses , as well as being used for their meat , hair and hides . Originally there were many herds that roamed land owned by the British Crown and the native Māori , but many were eradicated with the intensification of large scale farming and forestry operations combined with increased mechanization that decreased the need for stock horses . Kaimanawa horses today have the highest amount of genetic similarity with the Thoroughbred and other Thoroughbred cross breeds .

Pressure from land development and an encroaching human population reduced the range and the number of the Kaimanawa horses , and in 1979 it was found that only about 174 horses remained . Starting in 1981 , the Kaimanawa population , range size , and herd movements began to be officially measured , and a protected area was formed for the breed in the Waiouru Military Training Area . Legislative protection was similar to the kiwi and other native species . There was a rapid increase in the herd size following the protection of the breed , and 1 @,@ 576 horses were known to exist in the area by 1994 . There is also a small population of horses on the Aupouri Peninsula at the northern tip of the North Island , which is mostly unmanaged by the New Zealand government . In 2008 , the Kaimanawa herds were the focus of a novel called Kaimanawa Princess , by Dianne Haworth .

= = Breed characteristics = =

Many characteristics of the Comet type are said to be shown in the Kaimanawa horses today , although the varied gene input has produced a wide range of sizes , colours , and body types among the wild horses . The Kaimanawa breed varies widely in general appearance , with heights ranging between 12 @.@ 2 and 15 hands ( 50 and 60 inches , 127 and 152 cm ) high . Any coat colour or pattern marking is acceptable . They are usually well @-@ muscled . Their feral way of life has given them the ability to adapt quickly and live on very little , and they are usually sure @-@ footed and tough . They have a medium @-@ sized head in good proportion to their body , with wide variation in shape due to the different conformation of their ancestors . Kaimanawa horses have a short , deep neck with a thick throat area , straight shoulders , a deep girth , and a short to medium back . The hindquarters vary from sloping to well @-@ rounded . The legs are long and well @-@ muscled , with strong hooves , and hind hooves that are generally smaller than the front ones . All horses are considered to age a year on the first of August , regardless of their actual foaling date .

= = Population control and study = =

Due to the increase in population after protective legislation was put into place , the Department of Conservation developed a management plan for the Kaimanawa herd in 1989 and 1990 . A draft plan was made available to the public for comment in 1991 , and the public made it clear that it objected to herd reduction through shooting from helicopters , and instead favored the horses remaining alive after being removed from the herd . However , core animal welfare groups felt that shooting was the most humane option . Trial musters were conducted in 1993 , 1994 and 1995 , and were successful , although costly and with a limited demand for the captured horses .

In 1994 , a working party was established to look at the management of the Kaimanawa herd . They aimed to decide which organization was in charge of long term management , to ensure that the treatment of horses is humane , to preserve and control the best attributes of the herds , and to eliminate the impacts of the herds on other conservation priorities . Goals included ensuring the welfare of the horses , protecting natural ecosystems and features that the Kaimanawa herd may impact and keeping the herd at a sustainable level . Ecological objectives included ensuring that Kaimanawa horse does not adversely affect endangered , rare and biogeographically significant plants ; ensuring that the herd does not further degrade the ecosystems in which it lives ; and preventing the herd from spreading into the Kaimanawa Forest Park and the Tongariro National Park . Herd objectives included ensuring that the public was safe from roaming horses , while still allowing and improving public access to the herd and ensuring humane treatment of the horses ; reducing conflict between the herd and other ecological values and land uses ; and ensuring that the herd is contained to a population that is tolerated by the ecosystems in which they live while still maintaining a minimum effective population that is in general free ranging .

The Department of Conservation has since 1993 carried out annual culls and muster of Kaimanawas to keep the herd population around a target level of 500 horses . The target will be reduced to 300 horses in stages starting in 2009 . These horses are either taken directly to slaughter or are placed at holding farms for later slaughter or adoption by private homes . A main reason for the strict population control is to protect the habitat in which they live . This habitat includes 16 plant species listed as endangered , which the Kaimanawa may endanger further through trampling and overgrazing . These plants include herbs , grasses , sedges , flowers and mistletoes ; among these are Deschampsia caespitosa ( a very rare tussock grass ) , Peraxilla tetrapetala ( a vulnerable mistletoe ) and Libertia peregrinans ( a possibly locally extinct sand iris ) . The 2009 culling of the population removed 230 horses from the herd , the largest culling since the beginning of the program , with homes found for 85 % of the horses removed . Conservation of these horses is an important matter to the public , and between 1990 and 2003 the New Zealand Minister for Conservation received more public comments on the Kaimanawa horse than on any other subject . In this period , more than 1 @,@ 400 requests for information and letters were received , with public interest peaking in 1996 and 1997 . This was due to a program of population reduction by shooting scheduled to begin implementation in 1996 ; due to public opposition the shooting was cancelled and a large scale muster and adoption program began in 1997 . In 1997 , around 1 @,@ 069 horses were removed from the range and adopted , reducing the main herd to around 500 , and reducing their range to around 25 @,@ 000 ha from around 70 @,@ 000 . Since 1993 , a total of around 2 @,@ 800 horses have been removed from the range . Only one injury resulting in the death of a horse is known to have occurred .

The United Nations ' Food and Agricultural Organization lists the Kaimanawa horses as a herd of special genetic value that can be compared with other groups of feral horses such as New Forest ponies , Assateague ponies , wild Mustangs , and with free @-@ living zebras . Kaimanawas are of special value because of their low rate of interaction with humans . This lack of interaction may result in a herd with more wild and fewer domestic characteristics , which is of special interest to researchers . Between 1994 and 1997 , students from Massey University studied a population of around 400 Kaimanawa horses to learn their habits and herd dynamics . A 2000 study found that although sometimes there are more than two stallions in Kaimanawa horse herds , only the two stallions highest in the herd hierarchy mate with the herd females . This differs from other feral horse herds , some of which have only one stallion that mates with mares , while others have several stallions that sire foals .

= The Remix ( Lady Gaga album ) =

The Remix is a remix album by American recording artist Lady Gaga . Released in Japan on March 3 , 2010 , it contains remixes of the songs from her first studio album , The Fame ( 2008 ) , and her third extended play , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) . A revised version of the track list was prepared for release in additional markets , beginning with Mexico on May 3 , 2010 . A number of recording artists have produced the songs , including Pet Shop Boys , Passion Pit and The Sound of Arrows . The remixed versions feature both uptempo and downtempo compositions , with altered vocals from Gaga .

The album received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , but some noted how Gaga was able to sell the songs from The Fame in new and novel ways . It reached the top of charts in Greece and the Dance / Electronic Albums chart of Billboard magazine in the United States . In other nations , The Remix charted within the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia region ) , Canada , Ireland , Japan , Mexico , the United Kingdom and the Billboard 200 chart of United States , while reaching the top @-@ twenty in others . It was certified platinum in Japan and Brazil and received gold certification in Belgium and Russia . Worldwide the album has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies , and it is among the best @-@ selling remix albums of all time .

= = Background = =

On April 15 , 2010 , The Guardian reported that a number of artists , including Pet Shop Boys , Passion Pit and rock musician Marilyn Manson , have contributed to a remix album by Lady Gaga , titled The Remix . The remixes included in the package had been previously released alongside Gaga 's single releases in the past years . The album was originally released in Japan on March 3 , 2010 , containing sixteen of the remixes . The revised version , consisting of seventeen remixes , was released on May 3 , 2010 , the first market being Mexico . Manson features on the Chew Fu remix of " LoveGame " , while Passion Pit remixed " Telephone " and Pet Shop Boys remixed " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " . Other artists who remixed Gaga 's songs included Alphabeat , Frankmusik , Stuart Price , Monarchy and Robots to Mars . The album was released in the United Kingdom on May 10 , 2010 and featured a different artwork for that region . The US release of the album was announced by Interscope Records in July 2010 and it was released on August 3 , 2010 .

= = Composition = =

Chuck Campbell from the California Chronicle felt that the main " trick " adopted by the producers behind The Remix , was to preserve the integrity of Gaga 's nuances in her songs , at the same time bringing something new to her music . The second song in the track list , the " LLG vs GLG Radio Mix " of " Poker Face " , features a computerized chanting of the " mum @-@ mum @-@ mum @-@ mah " hook of the song . Stuart Price remixed " Paparazzi " into an electronic version , changing the original mid @-@ tempo composition of the song . New vocals were added on top of the song , giving it a jungle @-@ like vibe , according to Nicki Escuerdo from Phoenix New Times . She also felt that the remix of " LoveGame " featuring Manson , changed the original composition by " giving the originally innocent and fun song an almost demonic quality " . According to Campbell , The Monarchy Stylites remix of " Dance in the Dark " " pump [ ed ] extra oomph " into the song , with addition of drum beats . Richard Vission 's remix of " Just Dance " introduced an elastic rhythm in the song , while Frankmusik changed the soft composition of " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " to a more upbeat one , also manipulating Gaga 's vocals in the process . Campbell also added that the Passion Pit remix of " Telephone " felt like a " theatrical set up for a song that feels like it 's going somewhere , but never does " ; the remix consists of synths , with a thumping beat accompanying the song . Sound of Arrows remixed " Alejandro " , changing the dark nature of its music into a bright , summery jam while " Bad Romance " was remixed by Starsmith , making it a complete dance track .

= = Critical reception = =

Upon its release , the album met with mixed reviews . At Metacritic it holds an aggregate score of 54 out of 100 points , indicating generally mixed or average reviews . Simon Cage from the Daily Express gave the album three out of five stars and felt that although she " has a winning way with ostentatious hats " , Gaga 's true talent lies in selling the same album over and over again . " It ’ s great but ... enough already ! " Music critic J. D. Considine , while reviewing the album for The Globe and Mail , complimented the piano and voice version of " Poker Face " adding that the latter was " the smartest track on her newest remix album " . He felt that the song " brings out her inner Elton John . And yes , this move , too , is probably just another bit of calculated image management , but that doesn ’ t make it any less brilliant . " Robert Copsey from Digital Spy noted that the release of The Remix was a more natural progression than music labels trying to " cash @-@ in " by releasing something not associated with the artist . He complimented the remixers featured in the album , calling them " as vital to keeping the singer 's music fresh as her Haus Of GaGa designers are to her image . "

Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars , but felt that the track list could have been shortened . Erlewine complimented some of the remixes , including those by Pet Shop Boys and Space Cowboy , adding that The Remix " is not an essential addition to Gaga ’ s canon goes without saying ... but there ’ s glitz and glamour to enjoy here . " Mark Beech , reviewing the album for Bloomberg Television , noticed that the already familiar tracks from Gaga " are given a new sheen by the Pet Shop Boys and sometime Madonna producer Stuart Price . " Nicki Escudero from Phoenix New Times gave a positive review saying that the songs featured in The Remix can be a great addition during workouts , as well as staple dance floor music . She listed the Chew Fu remix of " LoveGame " as a highlight from the album . Monica Herrera from Billboard complimented the album saying " Gaga has employed a collection of more @-@ than @-@ capable producers to make her dance @-@ ready smashes from The Fame and The Fame Monster even more danceworthy . " Giving it three out of five stars , Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone noted an uneven sequencing among the tracks in The Remix . She felt that the Passion Pit remix of " Telephone " was the best remix on the album .

= = Chart performance = =

Following the album 's release in Japan , it debuted at number nine on the Oricon Albums Chart . On the issue dated May 17 , 2010 , the album moved to a new peak of number seven and has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of 250 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , The Remix entered the ARIA Albums Chart at its peak position of number 12 on May 16 , 2010 , remaining on the chart for a total of five weeks . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number three on the official UK Albums Chart dated May 22 , 2010 , and has sold 166 @,@ 440 copies according to the Official Charts Company , being certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Across Europe , the album debuted at seven on the European Top 100 Albums chart of Billboard . The Remix also reached the top of the charts in Greece , while attaining top @-@ ten positions in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Ireland , the Netherlands and New Zealand .

In the United States , The Remix charted at number six on the Billboard 200 dated August 21 , 2010 , with 39 @,@ 000 copies sold . It became Gaga 's third top ten album on the Billboard 200 . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums making this Gaga 's third number one entry on the chart . The same week , her studio albums The Fame and The Fame Monster were at positions two and three respectively . Billboard chart manager Keith Caulfield noted that Gaga became the first act to occupy the chart 's top three positions , in its nine @-@ year history . She additionally charted on the Billboard 200 with The Fame at number 12 and The Fame Monster at number 27 , marking the first time an artist placed three concurrent titles in the top 30 since 1993 , when Garth Brooks last achieved the feat on the January 23 , 1993 , chart by placing four sets in the top 30 : The Chase at number two , Beyond the Season at number 23 , Ropin ' the Wind at number 26 and No Fences at number 29 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , The Remix has sold 314 @,@ 000 copies in US as of April 2016 . In Canada , the album debuted at number five on the Canadian Albums Chart issue dated May 22 , 2010 , and remained on the chart for a total of ten weeks . The Remix has sold more than 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , and it is among the best @-@ selling remix albums of all time .

= = Track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of UK pressings of The Remix . Track numbers correspond to international ( non @-@ US and Japan ) pressings .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Architecture of the Song dynasty =

The architecture of the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) was noted for its towering Buddhist pagodas , enormous stone and wooden bridges , lavish tombs , and extravagant palaces . Although literary works on architecture existed beforehand , architectural writing blossomed during the Song dynasty , maturing into a more professional form that described dimensions and working materials in a concise , organized manner . In addition to the examples still standing , depictions in Song artwork , architectural drawings , and illustrations in published books all aid modern historians in understanding the architecture of the period .

The professions of architect , master craftsman , carpenter , and structural engineer did not have the high status of the Confucian scholar @-@ officials during the dynastic era . Architectural knowledge had been passed down orally for thousands of years , usually from craftsman fathers to their sons . There were also government agencies and schools for construction , building , and engineering . The Song dynasty 's building manuals aided not only the various private workshops , but also the craftsmen employed by the central government .

= = City and palace = =

The layout of ancient Chinese capitals , such as Bianjing , capital of the Northern Song , followed the guidelines in Kao Gong Ji , which specified a square city wall with several gates on each side and passageways for the emperor . The outer city of ancient Bianjing was built during the reign of Emperor Shenzong to a rectangular plan , almost square in proportions , about 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from north to south and 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from west to east . The south wall had three gates , with Nanxun Gate in the center , Chenzhou Gate to the east , and Dailou Gate to the west . The other walls had four gates each : in the east wall were Dongshui Gate ( at the southern end ) , Xinsong Gate , Xinchao Gate , and North @-@ East Water Gate ; in the west wall Xinzheng Gate , West Water Gate , Wansheng Gate , and Guzi Gate ; and in the north wall Chenqiao Gate ( at the eastern end ) , Fengqiu Gate , New Wild Jujube Gate and Weizhou Gate . The gates in the center of each of the four sides were reserved for the emperor ; these gates had straight passages and only two sets of doors , while the other city gates had zigzag passages and were guarded by three sets of doors .

The Song artist Zhang Zeduan 's painting Along the River During the Qingming Festival depicts the Dongshui Gate in detail : the building on top had a five @-@ ridged roof with a shallow slope in the Song dynasty style , supported prominently by two sets of brackets ( dougong ) . The lower bracket assembly rested on the city gate to form a wooden foundation , while the upper assembly supported the roof , similar to the dougong in an extant Song building , the Goddess Temple in Taiyuan . This method of using bracket assemblies to support superstructure was specified in Li Jie 's 12th @-@ century building manual Yingzao Fashi as pingzuo ( literally " flat base " ) .

The city wall itself was built with rammed earth , a technique also detailed in Yingzao Fashi , vol . III , " Standards for Moat , Stronghold and Masonry Work " :

Foundation : For every square chi , apply two dan of earth ; on top of it lay a mixture of broken brick , tile and crushed stones , also two dan . For every five @-@ cun layer of earth , two men , standing face to face , should tamp six times with pestles , each man pounding three times on a dent ; then tamp four times on each dent , two men again standing face to face , each pounding twice on the same dent ; then tamp two more times , each man pounding once . Following this , tamp the surface with pestles or stamp with feet randomly to even out the surface . Every five @-@ cun layer of earth should be compressed to three cun ; every three @-@ cun layer of brick and stone to one and a half cun .

Rammed @-@ earth walls during this time were tapered : the thickness of the wall is greatest at the base and decreases steadily with increasing height , as detailed in Li Jie 's book .

During the Song dynasty , the city of Bianjing had three enclosures : the outer city wall , the inner city wall , and the palace at the center . The inner city was rectangular , with three doors on each side . The palace enclosure was also rectangular , with a watch tower on each of the four corners . It had four main gates : Xihua Gate to the west , Donghua Gate to the east , Gongchen Gate to the north , and Xuande Gate , also known as Duan Gate or Xuandelou , at the south . Xuande Gate had five @-@ paneled doors , painted red and decorated with gold tacks ; its walls were lavishly decorated with dragon , phoenix and floating @-@ cloud patterns to match the carved beams , painted rafters and glazed @-@ tile roof . There were also two glazed dragons , each biting an end of the rooftop ridge , its tail pointing to the sky . The symbolic function of these chi wei was explained in Yingzao Fashi :

There is a dragon in the East Sea , whose tail ( wei ) is similar to that of a sparrow @-@ hawk ( chi ) ; it stirs up waves and causes rainfall , so people put its likeness on the rooftop to prevent fire . However , they misnamed it " sparrow @-@ hawk tail " ( chi wei ) .

Running southward from Xuande Gate was the Imperial Boulevard , about two hundred paces wide , with the Imperial Corridors on either side . Merchants opened shops in the Corridors until 1112 , when they were banned . Two rows of black fencing were placed at the center of the boulevard as a barrier to pedestrians and carriages . Along the inner sides of the fences ran the brick @-@ lined Imperial Water Furrows , filled with lotus . About 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) south from Xuande Gate , the Bian River intercepted the Imperial Boulevard , which crossed it over the stone Zhou Bridge , balustraded and flat @-@ decked . This design of a boulevard with a stone bridge crossing a river was later imitated in the Forbidden City . During spring and summer , mingled peach , plum , pear and apricot trees adorned the banks of the Bian with a variety of flowers .

= = Buddhist pagodas = =

Following the reign of the Han dynasty , ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) , the idea of the Buddhist stupa entered Chinese culture , as a means to house and protect scriptural sutras . During the Southern and Northern Dynasties period , the distinctive Chinese pagoda was developed , its predecessors being the tall watch towers and towering residential apartments of the Han dynasty ( as inferred from models in Han @-@ era tombs ) . During the Sui ( 581 – 618 ) and Tang ( 618 – 907 ) periods , Chinese pagodas were developed from purely wooden structures to use articulated stone and brick , which could more easily survive fires caused by lightning or arson and were less susceptible to decay . The earliest brick pagoda that remains extant is the Songyue Pagoda , built in 523 , and a typical example of a Tang @-@ era stone pagoda is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda , constructed in 652 . Although Buddhist influences on China waned after the late Tang period , numerous Buddhist pagoda towers were built during the Song dynasty . Tall Chinese pagodas were often built in the countryside rather than within a city 's walls , largely to avoid competition with the cosmic @-@ imperial authority embodied in the cities ' drum- and gate @-@ towers . The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda , built in a city ward of what was southeastern Chang 'an , is among the exceptions .

The Iron Pagoda of Youguo Temple in Kaifeng earned it name from the iron @-@ grey color of the glazed bricks forming the tower . Originally built of wood by the architect Yu Hao , it was struck by lightning and burned down in 1044 , during the Northern Song period . In 1049 the pagoda was rebuilt as it appears today , under the order of Emperor Renzong of Song . This 13 @-@ story pagoda , structured on an octagonal base , is 56 @.@ 88 meters ( 186 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . Its glazed tile bricks feature carved artwork of dancing figures , solemn ministers , and Buddhist themes ( see gallery below ) .

The period also featured true cast @-@ iron pagodas , such as the Iron Pagoda of Yuquan Temple ( Jade Springs Temple ) , Dangyang , Hubei Province . Built in 1061 , it incorporates 53 @,@ 848 kg ( 118 @,@ 715 lb ) of cast iron and stands 21 @.@ 28 m ( 69 @.@ 8 ft ) tall . Imitating contemporary wooden , stone , and brick pagodas , the pagoda features sloping eaves and an octagonal base . Another iron pagoda was constructed in 1105 , Jining , Shandong , and was cast layer by layer in octagonal sections , standing 78 feet high . Several such cast iron pagodas exist in China today .

The Liuhe Pagoda , or Six Harmonies Pagoda , is another example of Song @-@ era pagoda architecture . It is located in the Southern Song capital of Hangzhou , in Zhejiang Province , at the foot of Yuelun Hill facing the Qiantang River . Although the original was destroyed in 1121 , the current tower was erected in 1156 and fully restored by 1165 . It stands 59 @.@ 89 m ( 196 @.@ 5 ft ) tall , and was constructed from a red brick frame with 13 stages of wooden eaves . Because of its size , the pagoda served as a permanent lighthouse to aid sailors at night ( as described in Hangzhou Fu Zhi ) .

The Zhengjue Temple Pagoda in Pengxian County of Sichuan Province ( near Chengdu ) is a brick pagoda that was built between 1023 and 1026 , according to inscriptions running along its first storey . It has a square base on a sumeru pedestal , thirteen stories totaling 28 m ( 92 ft ) in height , and multiple layers of eaves similar in style to the earlier Tang pagodas of Chang 'an , the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda and the Small Wild Goose Pagoda .

Wood @-@ and @-@ brick hybrid pagodas were also built . The first four floors of the octagonal , 42 m ( 138 ft ) Lingxiao Pagoda of 1045 are brick ( with wooden eaves ) , while from the fifth floor up it is entirely made of wood . Even pagodas made of stone or brick featured architectural elements that were typical of Chinese wooden buildings ; for example the Pizhi Pagoda , built from 1056 to 1063 , uses the dougong brackets typical of wooden architecture to hold up pent , shingled roofs and tiers . Both of these pagodas feature interior staircases , although the Lingxiao Pagoda 's only reaches to the fourth floor , and the Pizhi Pagoda 's to the fifth . However , the Pizhi Pagoda features winding exterior stairs that provide access to the ninth and topmost floor .

Although the Pagoda of Fogong Temple is the tallest extant wooden pagoda , the tallest Chinese pagoda built in the dynastic era that remains standing is the Liaodi Pagoda . Completed in 1055 , it is 84 meters ( 276 ft ) tall , with an octagonal base on a large platform , surpassing the 69 @-@ meter ( 226 ft ) Qianxun Pagoda , which had held the record since its construction in the 9th century by the Kingdom of Dali . Although the Liaodi Pagoda served its religious purpose as a Buddhist landmark in the Kaiyuan Monastery of Ding County , Hebei province , its great height gave it another valuable function , as a military watch tower that was used to observe movements of the Liao enemy . Beside their utility in surveillance , pagoda towers could also serve as astronomical observatories ; one such is the Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory , built in 1276 and still standing today .

Yunyan pagoda

= = Temples = =

It was not uncommon for wealthy or powerful families to facilitate the construction of large temple complexes , usually by donating a portion of their family estate to a Buddhist sect . Often the land already contained buildings that could be re @-@ purposed for religions use . The Fei ( 費 ) family of the town of Jinze , located just west of Shanghai , converted a mansion on their property into a Buddhist sutra @-@ recitiation hall , and later built several other religious buildings around the hall . This spurred a boom in temple construction in the area , causing Jinze to become a major center of the White Lotus sect of Buddhism , which in turn spurred the construction of more temples and lead the town to become a significant location within the Song . The nearby town of Nanxiang gained prominence shortly after the fall of the Song in large part to the construction of temples and other religious buildings , which spanned the entire Song empire .

Apart from stimulating the development of urban areas , temples and religious buildings featured a number of unique aesthetic and structural features . The Temple of the Saintly Mother ( 圣母殿 ) and the Hall of Sacrifice of the Jin Temple ( 晋祠 ) , located in a southeastern suburb of Taiyuan City , Shanxi province , are extant examples of early Song architecture . The Temple of the Saintly Mother is the main building of the Jin Temple , first built in the period between 1023 and 1032 and renovated in 1102 . It has a double @-@ eaved roof with nine ridges , and two dragon @-@ heads with wide @-@ open jaws biting the ends of the main ridge . The roof is supported by massive dougong brackets corresponding to drawings in Yingzao Fashi . The eaves of the Temple of the Saintly Mother curve upward slightly at each end , a characteristic of Song architecture . The columns of the façade , decorated with dragons that coil around the shafts , become progressively taller with increasing distance to either side of the central pair . The building has a porch around it , the sole example of such a structure ; another unique feature of the site is a cross @-@ shaped bridge that leads to the Goddess Temple .

The Trinity Hall of Xuan Miao Temple ( 玄妙观 ) , situated in the heart of Suzhou city , is another example of Song architecture . In 1982 , it was established as a National Heritage Site by the Chinese government .

The Jingling Palace ( 景灵宫 , Jingling Gong ) , a temple to the legendary Yellow Emperor located near modern @-@ day Qufu , was built in the 11th century . It was subsequently destroyed near the end of the Yuan dynasty . However , several other structures in Shou Qiu , the complex that Jingling Palace was situated in , remain intact . Two giant tortoise @-@ borne steles flank what was the entrance to the palace . One of the two steles , the Stele of the Sorrow of 10 @,@ 000 , is at 52 meters ( 171 ft ) high , the tallest unmarked stele in the country . A large pyramid constructed of rounded stone blocks , the symbolic tomb of the Yellow Emperor 's son Shaohao , is located outside the Shou Qiu complex . Another important large tortoise @-@ borne stele of the same period has been preserved at the Dai Miao of Mount Tai .

= = Bridges = =

Bridges over waterways had been known in China since the ancient Zhou dynasty . During the Song dynasty , large trestle bridges were constructed , such as that built by Zhang Zhongyan in 1158 . There were also large bridges made entirely of stone , like the Ba Zi Bridge of Shaoxing , built in 1256 and still standing today . Bridges with pavilions crowning their central spans were often featured in such paintings as the landscapes of Xia Gui ( 1195 – 1224 ) . Long , covered corridor bridges , like the 12th @-@ century Rainbow Bridge in Wuyuan , Jiangxi province , which has wide stone @-@ based piers and a wooden superstructure , were also built .

While serving as an administrator for Hangzhou , the poet Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) had a large pedestrian causeway built across the West Lake , which still bears his name : Sudi ( 蘇堤 ) . In 1221 , the Taoist traveler Qiu Changchun visited Genghis Khan in Samarkand , describing various Chinese bridges encountered on the way there through the Tian Shan Mountains , east of Yining . The historian Joseph Needham quotes him as saying :

[ The road had ] " no less than 48 timber bridges of such width that two carts can drive over them side by side " . It had been built by Chang Jung [ Zhang Rong ] and the other engineers of the Chagatai some years before . The wooden trestles of Chinese bridges from the − 3rd century [ BC ] onwards were no doubt similar to those supposed to have been employed in Julius Caesar 's bridge of − 55 [ BC ] across the Rhine , or drawn by Leonardo , or found in use in Africa . But where in + 13th century [ AD ] Europe could a two @-@ lane highway like Chang Jung 's have been found ?

In Fujian Province , enormous beam bridges were built during the Song dynasty . Some of these were as long as 1 @,@ 220 m ( 4 @,@ 000 ft ) , with individual spans of up to 22 m ( 72 ft ) in length ; their construction necessitated moving massive stones of 203 t ( 203 @,@ 000 kg ) . No names of the engineers were recorded or appear in the inscriptions on the bridges , which give only the names of local officials who sponsored them and oversaw their construction and repair . However , there might have been an engineering school in Fujian , headed by a prominent engineer known as Cai Xiang ( 1012 – 1067 ) , who had risen to the position of governmental prefect in Fujian . Between 1053 and 1059 , he planned and supervised the construction of the large Wanan Bridge ( once called the Luoyang Bridge ) near Quanzhou ( on the border of the present @-@ day Luojiang District and Huai 'an County . This bridge , a stone structure similar to a number of other bridges found in Fujian , still stands , and features ship @-@ like piers bound to their bases using mucilage from oysters as an adhesive . It is 731 m ( 2 @,@ 398 ft ) in length , 5 m ( 16 ft ) in width , and 7 m ( 23 ft ) in height . Another famous bridge near Quanzhou , the Anping Bridge , was constructed between 1138 and 1151 .

Other examples of Song bridges include Guyue Bridge , a stone arch bridge in Yiwu , Zhejiang Province . The bridge was built in 1213 , the sixth year of the Jiading Era in the Southern Song dynasty . Song @-@ era pontoon bridges include the Dongjin Bridge , 400 m ( 1 ⁄ 4 mi ) long , which may still be seen today .

= = Tombs of the Northern Song emperors = =

Located southwest of Gongyi city in Gongxian County , Henan province , the large tombs of the Northern Song number about one thousand , including individual tombs for Song emperors , empresses , princes , princesses , consorts , and members of the extended family . The complex extends approximately 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from east to west and 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from north to south . The construction of the complex began in 963 AD , during the reign of the first Song ruler , Emperor Taizu of Song , whose father is also buried at the site . The only Northern Song emperors not buried there are Emperor Huizong of Song and Emperor Qinzong of Song , who died in captivity after the Jurchen invasion of northern China in 1127 . Lining the spirit ways of the tomb complex are hundreds of Song sculptures and statues of tigers , rams , lions , horses with grooms , horned beasts and mythical creatures , government officials , military generals , foreign ambassadors , and others featured in an enormous display of Song @-@ era artwork .

The layout and style of the Song tombs resemble those found in the contemporary Tangut kingdom of the Western Xia , which also had an auxiliary burial site associated with each tomb . At the center of each burial site is a truncated pyramidal tomb , each having once been guarded by a four @-@ walled enclosure with four centered gates and four corner towers . About 100 km ( 62 mi ) from Gongxian is the Baisha Tomb , which contains " elaborate facsimiles in brick of Chinese timber frame construction , from door lintels to pillars and pedestals to bracket sets , that adorn interior walls . " The Baisha Tomb has two large separate chambers with conical ceilings ; a large staircase leads down to the entrance doors of the subterranean tomb .

= = Literature = =

During the Song dynasty , previous works on architecture were brought to more sophisticated levels of description , as in Yili Shigong , written by Li Ruogui in 1193 AD . One of the most definitive works , however , was the earlier Mu Jing ( " Timberwork Manual " ) , ascribed to Yu Hao and written sometime between 965 and 995 . Yu Hao was responsible for the construction of a wooden pagoda tower in Kaifeng , which was destroyed by lightning and replaced by the brick Iron Pagoda soon after . In his time , books on architecture were still considered a lowly scholarly achievement due to the craft 's status , so Mu Jing was not even recorded in the official court bibliography . Although the book itself was lost to history , the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo wrote of Yu 's work extensively in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088 , praising it as a work of architectural genius , saying that no one in his own time could reproduce such a work . Shen Kuo singled out , among other passages , a scene in which Yu Hao gives advice to another artisan @-@ architect about slanting struts in order to brace a pagoda against the wind , and a passage in which Yu Hao describes the three sections of a building , the area above the crossbeams , the area above ground , and the foundation , and then proceeds to provide proportional ratios and construction techniques for each section .

Several years later Li Jie ( 李誡 ; 1065 – 1110 ) published Yingzao Fashi ( " Treatise on Architectural Methods " or " State Building Standards " ) . Although similar books came before it , such as Yingshan Ling ( " National Building Law " ) of the early Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , Li 's book is the earliest technical manual on Chinese architecture to have survived in full .

= = = Yingzao Fashi = = =

Yingzao Fashi is a technical treatise on architecture and craftsmanship written by Li Jie , an architect and official at the Directorate of Buildings and Construction . Li completed the book in 1100 , and presented it to Emperor Zhezong of Song in the last year of his reign . His successor , Emperor Huizong of Song , had Li 's treatise officially published three years later , in 1103 , for the benefit of foremen , architects , and literate craftsmen . The book was intended to provide standard regulations , to not only the engineering agencies of the central government , but also the many workshops and artisan families throughout China who could benefit from using a well @-@ written government manual on building practices .

Yingzao Fashi included building codes and regulations , accounting information , descriptions of construction materials , and classification of crafts . In its 34 chapters , the book outlined units of measurement , and the construction of moats , fortifications , stonework , and woodwork . For the latter , it included specifications for making bracketing units with inclined arms and joints for columns and beams . It also provided specifications for wood carving , drilling , sawing , bamboo work , tiling , wall building , and decoration . The book contained recipes for decorative paints , glazes , and coatings , also listing proportions for mixing mortars used in masonry , . brickwork , and manufacture of glazed tiles , illustrating practices and standards with drawings . His book outlined structural carpentry in great detail , providing standard dimensional measurements for all components used ; . here he developed a standard eight @-@ grade system for sizing timber elements , known as the cai @-@ fen system of units , which could be universally applied in buildings . About 8 % of Li Jie 's book was derived from pre @-@ existing written material on architecture , while the majority of the book documented the inherited traditions of craftsmen and architects . The Yingzao Fashi provided a full glossary of technical terms that included mathematical formulae , building proportions , and construction techniques , and discussed the implications of the local topography for construction at a particular site . He also estimated the monetary costs of hiring laborers of different skill levels from various crafts on the basis of a day 's work , in addition to the price of the materials they would need and according to the season in which they were to be employed .

= = Architecture in Song artwork = =

= Lost Horizons ( Lemon Jelly album ) =

Lost Horizons is the second studio album from the British electronic duo Lemon Jelly , released on 7 October 2002 . Released by XL Recordings and produced by Nick Franglen , the album generated two charting singles in the UK , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " ; the latter has often been called the album 's stand @-@ out track . The album , which is built around a mix of organic instrumentation and idiosyncratic samples , was met with largely positive reviews by music critics , although it was somewhat critiqued due to its near @-@ constant mellowness .

In the United Kingdom , Lost Horizons peaked at number 20 on the Official Albums Chart , whereas in the United States , it peaked at number 24 on Billboard 's Top Electronic Albums component chart . The album 's two singles , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " , were also successful , peaking on the UK Singles Chart , at number 36 and 16 respectively . The album , was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize in 2003 , was eventually certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments exceeding 100 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Music = =

Lost Horizons opens with " Elements " , which " blends acoustic guitars , flugelhorns , synths , skittering breakbeat rhythms , a folksy harmonica , and ... a falsetto ' doo @-@ doo ' chorus " . Overlaying the music is a voiceover , courtesy of English actor John Standing , that lists the basic ' elements ' that make up the world : ash , metal , water , wood , fire , and ( eventually , later in the song ) sky . The second track , " Space Walk " , is set to a recording of Ed White 's 1965 space walk on the Gemini 4 mission . Franglen and Deakin chose to use the sample after listening to an album called Flight to the Moon ( 1969 ) ; the two were struck by how moving and emotive many of the tracks were . Deakin later said , " ' One small step ' leaves me cold , because it was so obviously scripted . But the spacewalk … even after hearing it so many times , it 's so vivid . "

" Ramblin ' Man " features a conversation between an interviewer ( the voice of Michael Deakin — father of Lemon Jelly 's Fred Deakin ) and " John the Ramblin ' Man " ( the voice of Standing ) , during which he lists various places from around the world , ranging from " from small Sussex villages to major world capitals . " When listed in the order in which the locations are narrated , the message " Bagpuss Sees All Things " is spelled out midway through the song ( from Brixton at four minutes ten seconds , to San José at four minutes 31 seconds ) using the first letter of each location . The fourth track , " Return to Patagonia " , features several jazz @-@ inspired elements .

The song " Nice Weather for Ducks " is built around a sample inspired by John Langstaff 's song " All the Ducks " . This song was based on the popular Dutch children 's song , " Alle eendjes zwemmen in het water " ( translated : " All the ducks are swimming in the water " ) . Franglen later said that he and Deakin were drawn to Langstaff 's recording because it " had a gentle madness to it , slightly unhinged " . The duo had attempted to clear Langstaff 's version for sampling , but were unable to . In the end , they had Enn Reitel re @-@ record the vocal snippet . Franglen , while noting that Reitel 's performance was good , said that once the sample was re @-@ recorded , its " edge disappeared " . " Experimental Number 6 " , arguably the album 's darkest track , features a faux field recording of a doctor documenting the side effects of an unnamed drug administered to a patient ; the recording tells how the patient progresses from normalcy , to an " overwhelming sense of well @-@ being and euphoria " , before eventually expiring . The album closes with " The Curse of Ka 'Zar " , which features " a two @-@ part harmony chorus and jazzy drum loop " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical Reviews = = =

Lost Horizons received mostly positive reviews from music critics , although several critics critiqued the album 's near @-@ constant mellowness . Stuart Mason of AllMusic called the album " a delightful but slightly faceless blend of lounge pop , subtle beats , found sound , with mellow jazz influences . " A reviewer for Entertainment.ie praised the band for approaching electronica from a new angle , writing , " this London @-@ based duo employ Playschool pianos , acoustic guitars and sprightly beats to create laid @-@ back instrumentals guaranteed to sooth even the most restless of souls . [ ... ] What really marks Lemon Jelly as exciting new talents is their quirky sense of humour , which they use to brighten up their sound with skilful [ sic ] use of nursery rhymes , brass bands and offbeat samples . Pascal Wyse of The Guardian wrote , " Everything is approachable and purely crafted , but Lost Horizons cheats banality with some choice quirks : Magnificent Seven strings , astronauts chatting , panoramic sound effects . " Chris Dahlen of Pitchfork Media felt that the album was a little too saccharine at times , but that it is " the perfect disc to throw on after your four @-@ disc Ultrachill Dub Groove Mix has put the whole party to sleep . It 's like eight flavors of ribbon candy , beach balls hitting the ground like hail , and a big plastic clown face that blows helium . "

Many reviews singled out " Nice Weather for Ducks " as the album 's stand @-@ out track . Mason selected the " dreamy , acoustic guitar @-@ based " song as one of the album 's highlights in his review . Dahlen described it as " the most likeable " on the album , and concluded that it is " a happy @-@ slappy lollipop of a song that nicely sums this record up : Sunny , bright , and vaguely irritating . " Wysel wrote , " When the flugelhorn arrives on ' Nice Weather for Ducks ' it is impossible to believe there is any evil in the world . " Conversely , several critics felt that " Experiment Number Six " did not fit with the mood of the rest of the album . Wysel called it a " pool of darkness " that " comes as quite a shock . " Dahlen felt that the song is " is the only break in the [ album 's ] mood . " While he enjoyed the song 's concept , calling it " so different and sinister that it 's more intriguing than the rest of the album " , he felt that it was " annoyingly displaced . " Hermann , on the other hand , called the track " clever " and " spooky " with " music ... so well crafted that [ the concept ] works " .

= = = Sales and accolades = = =

In the UK , the album charted at number 20 on the Albums Chart . In the US , it peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Top Electronic Albums chart . In both cases , it was the first Lemon Jelly album to do so . The album 's two singles , " Space Walk " and " Nice Weather for Ducks " , also managed to chart on the UK Singles Chart , at number 36 and 16 respectively . Again , this was a first for the band . On 20 December 2002 the album was certified Silver . Almost six months later , on 22 July 2013 , it was certified gold , denoting shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 . In 2003 , the album was nominated for a Mercury Music Prize , although the album lost to Dizzee Rascal 's Boy in da Corner .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

= = Charts = =

= Fastra II =

The Fastra II is a desktop supercomputer designed for tomography . It was built in late 2009 by the ASTRA ( All Scale Tomographic Reconstruction Antwerp ) group of researchers of the IBBT ( Interdisciplinary institute for BroadBand Technology ) VisionLab at the University of Antwerp and by Belgian computer shop Tones , in collaboration with Asus , a Taiwanese multinational computer product manufacturer , as the successor to the Fastra I ( built in 2008 ) .

The Fastra II was determined to be over three times faster than the Fastra I , which in turn was slightly faster than a 512 @-@ core cluster . However , because of the number of GPUs in the computer , the system initially suffered from several issues , like the system refusing to reboot and overheating due to a lack of space between the video cards .

= = Development = =

The computer was built as a researching and demonstration project by the ASTRA group of researchers at the Vision Lab in the University of Antwerp in Belgium , one of the researchers being Joost Batenburg . Unlike other modern supercomputers such as the Cray Jaguar and the IBM Roadrunner , which cost millions of euros , the Fastra II only uses consumer hardware , costing € 6 @,@ 000 in total .

The Fastra II 's predecessor , the Fastra I , has 4 dual @-@ GPU GeForce 9800 GX2 video cards , for a total of 8 GPUs . At that time , the ASTRA group needed a motherboard that had four PCI Express x16 slots with double @-@ spacing between each of them . The only such motherboard the ASTRA group could find at that time was the MSI K9A2 Platinum , which has four such slots . In 2009 , the Asus P6T7 WS Supercomputer motherboard , which the Fastra II uses , was released , which has seven PCI Express x16 slots . The Fastra II has six faster dual @-@ GPU GeForce GTX 295 video cards , and a single @-@ GPU GeForce GTX 275 , for a total of 13 GPUs . In the Fastra II , the GPUs mainly perform tomographic reconstruction . The technique which allows GPUs to perform general @-@ purpose tasks like this outside of gaming , instead of CPUs , is called GPGPU , general @-@ purpose computing on graphics processing units .

Overheating caused by the lack of space between the video cards forces researchers using the FASTRA II to keep the side panel door open , so that the video cards can get regular air , decreasing the overall temperature inside the case .

Due to the number of GPUs in the system , its initial boot was unsuccessful . This was because its motherboard uses a 32 bit BIOS , which only had approximately 3 GB of address space for the video cards . However , Asus managed to provide them a specialized BIOS that entirely skipped the address space allocation of the GTX 295 video cards . The BIOS @-@ replacement coreboot was not tested .

All seven PCI Express x16 slots in the Asus P6T7 motherboard were used in the building of the Fastra II computer . However , the video cards in the Fastra II are wide enough to require two such slots each . To solve this issue , the researchers came up with flexible PCI Express cables , and Tones developed a custom cage which allowed the video cards to suspend over the motherboard .

= = Specifications and benchmarks = =

Like the Fastra I , the Fastra II uses a Lian Li PC @-@ P80 Armorsuit case , which has 10 expansion slots . The motherboard in the Fastra II was at that time the only workstation motherboard that had seven full @-@ sized PCI Express x16 slots . The memory modules were initially six 2 GB modules , but were later upgraded to 4 GB each , for a total of 24 GB . Instead of an eighth dual @-@ GPU video card , the single @-@ GPU GTX 275 is in the computer because , out of all the video cards in the Fastra II , the GTX 275 is the only one the Fastra II 's BIOS can fully initialize . The total amount of GPUs is 13 . The video cards together bring 12 teraflops of computing power . Four of the six GTX 295 video cards have 2 PCBs , while the other two have only 1 PCB .

According to the benchmarks on its official website , the Fastra II is faster and more power efficient than its competitors , including the Fastra I and the Tesla C1060 video card . The benchmarks were performed on the Fastra II , the Fastra I , a 512 @-@ core cluster ( consisting of Opteron CPUs ) , an Nvidia Tesla C1060 workstation card on an Intel Core i7 940 CPU , and on an Intel Core i7 940 CPU itself . The Fastra II is over three times faster than the Fastra I in CT slice reconstruction speed . Although the Fastra II consumes more power than the Fastra I , it 's nearly 3 times as energy efficient as the Fastra I , and over 300 times as energy efficient as the 512 @-@ core cluster . The video cards run at 37 degrees Celsius when idle , and at 60 degrees Celsius at full load .

= = Applications and reception = =

The operating system is CentOS , a community driven Linux distribution and Red Hat Enterprise Linux clone . The Fastra II received a positive public impression . Techie.com called it the " world 's most powerful desktop @-@ sized supercomputer " , describing it as a computer with " so much power in such a small space . " iTech News Net called it " the Most Powerful Desktop Supercomputer " .

Fastra II relies on Nvidia 's Scalable Link Interface ( SLI ) and is therefore limited to the number of GPUs supported by it and also by the vendor respectively the free and open @-@ source device drivers . The Fastra II 's motherboard is designed for workstations , and it is mainly being used in hospitals for medical imaging .

It remains to be seen whether another Fastra featuring NVLink , first available with Pascal @-@ based GPUs , will be build .

= USS Breese ( DD @-@ 122 ) =

USS Breese ( DD – 122 ) was a Wickes class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I , and later redesignated , DM @-@ 18 in World War II . She was the only ship named for Captain Kidder Breese .

Commissioned as a destroyer in 1919 , she undertook a number of patrol and training duties along the East Coast of the United States until being decommissioned in 1922 . Overhauled in 1931 , she returned to service with the United States Pacific Fleet on training and patrol for the next 10 years . She was present during the attack on Pearl Harbor , and following this she supported several operations during the war , laying minefields and sweeping for mines in the Pacific . Following the end of the war , she was sold for scrap in 1946 and broken up .

= = Design and construction = =

Breese was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with ten of her sisters , were constructed at Newport News Shipbuilding shipyards in Newport News , Virginia using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works .

She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 213 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 194 long tons ; 1 @,@ 337 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet 5 inches ( 95 @.@ 83 m ) , a beam of 31 feet 8 inches ( 9 @.@ 65 m ) and a draught of 9 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 84 m ) . On trials , Harding reached a speed of 33 @.@ 2 knots ( 61 @.@ 5 km / h ; 38 @.@ 2 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns , two 3 " / 23 caliber guns , and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 122 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Parsons or Westinghouse turbines , and powered by four Normand boilers .

Specifics on Breese 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers known unofficially as the ' Liberty Type ' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem , which used Curtis steam turbines and Yarrow boilers . The Bethlehem destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight . Ships such as Breese , however , performed better than this .

Breese was the only U.S. Navy ship to be named for Kidder Breese , who had been a U.S. Navy officer during the Mexican @-@ American War and later the Civil War .

= = Service history = =

= = = Interwar period = = =

Breese was launched on 11 May 1918 out of Newport News , Virginia . She was sponsored by Gilbert McIlvaine , daughter of Breese ; and commissioned 23 October 1918 under the command of Lieutenant B. Smith . After her commissioning , she reported to the United States Atlantic Fleet and cruised for several days as an escort for convoys supporting World War I , before the end of the conflict on 11 November . Returning to Norfolk , Virginia at the end of the war , she was assigned to Destroyer Division 12 and served off the coast of Cuba on training exercises during the spring of 1919 . In July 1919 , Destroyer Division 12 was assigned to the United States Pacific Fleet , based at San Diego , California . For the next year , she served with Destroyer Squadron 4 and , from June 1920 , began operating in Rotating Reserve . From October 1920 to June 1922 , she participated in division maneuvers and fleet maneuvers with the Pacific Fleet 's main battle force , and she was placed out of commission 17 June 1922 .

On 5 January 1931 , Breese was redesignated as a light minelayer , with the hull classification symbol of DM @-@ 18 . Following an overhaul and conversion at Mare Island Navy Yard , she was recommissioned on 1 June 1931 . She then returned to San Diego for sea trials and standardization tests in her new role . These completed , she departed for Pearl Harbor . She was assigned to Mine Division 1 of the Pacific Fleet , and operated out of Hawaiian waters . She conducted several training exercises , including with the submarine divisions where she served as a target ship . She also served as a station ship for aircraft . She returned to San Diego in June 1937 , and placed out of commission and in reserve on 12 November 1937 . On 25 September 1939 , Breese was again recommissioned and assigned to Mine Division 5 of the Pacific Fleet . On 2 November 1939 , she arrived at Puget Sound Navy Yard and began to conduct Neutrality Patrol off the Oregon and Washington coasts . Throughout 1940 , she cruised to different bases along the coastline of Alaska with the commander of the Alaskan Sector aboard . Upon returning , she rejoined Mine Division 5 in San Francisco and steamed for Hawaii , returning there on 10 December 1940 . Attached to Mine Division 2 in the Pacific Fleet , she took part in training exercises in the operating area and on the Maui range during much of 1941 .

= = = World War II = = =

On 7 December 1941 , Breese was moored in the Middle Loch , northwest of Ford Island . She was moored to Buoy D @-@ 3 alongside a nest of three other minelayers which were also converted Wickes destroyers ; Ramsay , Montgomery , and Gamble . At the outbreak of the attack , her crew was distracted by the initial assault on Ford Island and was buzzed by a flight of Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers . Breese quickly loaded her machine guns and began firing at 07 : 57 . She and many of the other ships in the area were quickly able to mobilize a strong anti @-@ aircraft defense which lasted throughout the morning . She was credited with hits on several Japanese aircraft and damaging at least one midget submarine . Breese was undamaged in the attack .

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , she remained berthed in the harbor until leaving on 26 December , carrying mail and orders for other ships . She rendezvoused with Southard at the mouth of the harbor to offload this , then steamed east on patrol .

On 6 May 1942 , she took on 84 survivors of the carrier Yorktown which had sunk in the aftermath of the Battle of Midway . During the summer of 1942 , she operated out of the South Pacific On 3 August 1942 , she , along with minesweepers Gamble and Tracy , were laying mines in Segond Channel , Espiritu Santo . Destroyer Tucker entered the strait on escort patrol , having not been notified of the minefield , when she struck one of the mines and sank . Breese , which was moored in the channel , rendered aid . On 30 September 1942 , she was on a nighttime exercise off Espiritu Santo when she was damaged in a collision with the cruiser San Francisco . She carried out minesweeping duties during the consolidation of the Solomon Islands from 1 – 13 May 1943 , where she was assigned to Task Group 36 @.@ 5 alongside Gamble , Preble , and Radford . They laid mined in Blackett Strait to guard the western approaches to Kula Gulf .

She supported Allied efforts around New Georgia @-@ Rendova Vangunu from 29 June to 25 August . Assigned to Task Unit 36 @.@ 2 @.@ 2 , she , Preble and Gamble laid mines off Shortland Harbor , Bougainville . She then supported the occupation and defense of Cape Torokina conducting minesweeping duties there from 1 to 8 November . She later supported the Leyte landings from 12 to 24 October 1944 . She was subsequently among the ships to support the Lingayen Gulf landings from 4 to 18 January 1945 . She supported the Battle of Iwo Jima from 7 February to 7 March . She undertook mine duties supporting the Battle of Okinawa between 25 March and 30 June . In her final act of the war , she steamed in support of the United States Third Fleet near mainland Japan between 5 and 31 July . In August and September 1945 Breese swept mines in the East China Sea and Kyūshū @-@ Korean area following the end of the war .

On 7 November 1945 , Breese steamed to the west coast arriving 26 November . She transited the Panama Canal and arrived at New York City on 13 December . She was decommissioned on 15 January 1946 and sold for scrap on 16 May 1946 . She received ten battle stars for her service in World War II .

= Sandwich Day =

" Sandwich Day " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of 30 Rock and the thirty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by one of the season 's executive producers , Robert Carlock , and one of the season 's co @-@ executive producers , Jack Burditt . The episode was directed by one of the season 's producers , Don Scardino . The episode first aired on May 1 , 2008 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode included Bill Cwikowski , Brian Dennehy , Marceline Hugot , Johnnie May , Jason Sudeikis , Miriam Tolan and Rip Torn . The episode earned Tina Fey the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series .

Unusually this episode begins on the 30 Rock title sequence - there is no cold open as is normally the case .

This episode begins on the annual TGS with Tracy Jordan ( a fictional sketch comedy series ) Sandwich Day . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) receives a phone call from her ex @-@ boyfriend , Floyd ( Jason Sudeikis ) , asking for a place to stay ; Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and the TGS writers try to get a new sandwich for Liz ; Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) reconsiders his future at General Electric .

= = Plot = =

It is the annual Sandwich Day for the crew of TGS . The Teamsters , led by Mickey J. ( Brian Dennehy ) , bring in " secret " sandwiches from an unknown Italian delicatessen in Brooklyn . When the writers eat Liz 's sandwich , Liz threatens that she will " cut [ their ] faces up so bad [ ... ] [ they 'll ] all have chins . " As a result , the writers and Tracy , aided by Jenna , enter a drinking contest against the Teamsters in an attempt to get Liz a new sandwich .

Floyd , who broke up with Liz in the episode " Hiatus " , calls Liz to ask if he can have a place to stay , as he has come to visit New York on business . Liz tries to win Floyd back , only for him to lie to her about going home to Cleveland , Ohio . Floyd eventually travels home , and the pair agree to remain friends .

Meanwhile , after being ousted from his office on the 52nd floor by Devon Banks ( Will Arnett ) , Jack is not taking well to his new job on the 12th floor . He later decides to move to Washington , D.C. , to be the new " Homeland Security Director for Crisis and Weather Management . "

= = Production = =

This episode was primarily filmed on April 1 , 2008 . This episode was the fourth episode written by Jack Burditt and the seventh written by Robert Carlock . The episode was the twelfth episode which was directed by Don Scardino .

Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey was the head writer on Saturday Night Live from 1999 until 2006 . Various other cast members of Saturday Night Live have appeared on 30 Rock , including Rachel Dratch , Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jimmy Fallon , Amy Poehler , Will Ferrell , Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus , Bill Hader , Tim Meadows , Andy Samberg , Chris Parnell and Molly Shannon . Tina Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of Saturday Night Live . Alec Baldwin has also hosted Saturday Night Live sixteen times , the highest number of episodes of any host of the series . This was actress Johnnie May 's second appearance in 30 Rock . She previously appeared in the episode " Tracy Does Conan " as a nurse who takes Liz 's blood for donation . In this episode she plays a screener who would not allow Liz past airport security because she had her Sandwich Day sandwich with her , and its dipping sauce container held " more than 3 ounces . "

= = Reception = =

" Sandwich Day " brought in an average of 5 @.@ 4 million viewers . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 6 refers to 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast in the U.S.

Robert Canning of IGN wrote that this episode " turned out to be an absolute winner " . He concluded that " with its more relatable storylines and moments like the eerie @-@ voiced guy at the hospital , Liz tipping tables for her mac and cheese , and watching an entire sandwich be eaten in real time in the airport security line , ' Sandwich Day ' was a definite highlight in the post @-@ writers ' strike season . " Erin Fox of TV Guide said that " the minor story of the episode was probably the funniest " . Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly thought that this episode " was nothing more than ... eh " . He called this episode a " weak link " .

= Tiber Oil Field =

The Tiber Oil Field is a deepwater offshore oil field located in the Keathley Canyon block 102 of the United States sector of the Gulf of Mexico . The deepwater field ( defined as water depth 1 @,@ 300 to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 400 to 1 @,@ 520 m ) , ) was discovered in September 2009 and it is operated by BP . Described as a " giant " find , it is estimated to contain 4 to 6 billion barrels ( 640 × 10 ^ 6 to 950 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) of oil in place . Although BP states it is too early to be sure of the size – a " huge " field is usually considered to contain 250 million barrels ( 40 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) . It required the drilling of a 10 @,@ 685 m ( 35 @,@ 056 ft ) deep well under 1 @,@ 260 m ( 4 @,@ 130 ft ) of water , making it one of the deepest wells ever drilled at the time of discovery .

= = Description = =

Tiber comprises multiple Lower Tertiary petroleum reservoirs located in Keathley Canyon block 102 about 250 mi ( 400 km ) southeast of Houston and 300 mi ( 480 km ) south west of New Orleans . Tiber is only the 18th Lower Tertiary well to date , and drilling in these formations is in its infancy . The oil from Tiber is light crude , and early estimates of recoverable reserves are around 20 – 30 % recovery , suggesting figures of around 600 to 900 million barrels ( 95 × 10 ^ 6 to 143 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) of reserves . Sources such as Bloomberg suggest caution , warning that the find is technically complex and potentially could take 5 – 6 years to produce oil or be lower yield ( 5 – 15 % ) based on " rates talked about " at nearby Kaskida Oil Field , BP 's previous giant find ( 2006 ) 40 mi ( 64 km ) away . The commercial prospects of the field have not yet been evaluated .

= = Discovery = =

BP acquired the Outer Continental Shelf lease of Keathley Canyon block 102 reference G25782 , NOAA station 42872 , on October 22 , 2003 , in Phase 2 of the Western Gulf of Mexico ( WGOM / GOM ) Sale 187 . Lower Tertiary rock formations are some of the oldest and most technically challenging offshore rock formations currently drilled for oil , dating to between 23 and 66 million years ago . The plan of exploration was filed in June 2008 .

Tiber was initially drilled by Transocean 's fifth @-@ generation dynamic positioned semi @-@ submersible oil rig , Deepwater Horizon , with exploratory drilling commencing around March 2009 , slightly delayed from the planned date of September 2008 . Much of the deeper gulf reserves are buried under salt accumulations thousands of feet thick , which present a problem for seismic exploration . BP had previously developed exploration techniques to bypass this difficulty . Oil was located at " multiple levels " . The field was announced on September 2 , 2009 , and BP shares rose 3 @.@ 7 percent on the news . With Tiber joining at least ten other successful Lower Tertiary explorations in the area , analysts viewed the announcement as a sign for optimism , and a harbinger of renewed interest in , and production from , the offshore Gulf of Mexico .

= = Exploration on hold = =

Following the April 2010 destruction of the Deepwater Horizon while drilling the Macondo well , and the resulting oil spill , all appraisal activities at 33 wells under exploration in the Gulf of Mexico , including Tiber , were placed on hold . At least two rigs that might otherwise have been used for developing Tiber are also in use on the relief wells for the ruptured well .

= Glorious First of June =

The Glorious First of June ( also known in France as the Bataille du 13 prairial an 2 or Combat de Prairial ) [ Note A ] of 1794 was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars .

The action was the culmination of a campaign that had criss @-@ crossed the Bay of Biscay over the previous month in which both sides had captured numerous merchant ships and minor warships and had engaged in two partial , but inconclusive , fleet actions . The British Channel Fleet under Admiral Lord Howe attempted to prevent the passage of a vital French grain convoy from the United States , which was protected by the French Atlantic Fleet , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Villaret @-@ Joyeuse . The two forces clashed in the Atlantic Ocean , some 400 nautical miles ( 700 km ) west of the French island of Ushant on 1 June 1794 .

During the battle , Howe defied naval convention by ordering his fleet to turn towards the French and for each of his vessels to rake and engage their immediate opponent . This unexpected order was not understood by all of his captains , and as a result his attack was more piecemeal than he intended . Nevertheless , his ships inflicted a severe tactical defeat on the French fleet . In the aftermath of the battle both fleets were left shattered ; in no condition for further combat , Howe and Villaret returned to their home ports . Despite losing seven of his ships of the line , Villaret had bought enough time for the French grain convoy to reach safety unimpeded by Howe 's fleet , securing a strategic success . However , he was also forced to withdraw his battle fleet back to port , leaving the British free to conduct a campaign of blockade for the remainder of the war . In the immediate aftermath both sides claimed victory and the outcome of the battle was seized upon by the press of both nations as a demonstration of the prowess and bravery of their respective navies .

The Glorious First of June demonstrated a number of the major problems inherent in the French and British navies at the start of the Revolutionary Wars . Both admirals were faced with disobedience from their captains , along with ill @-@ discipline and poor training among their shorthanded crews , and they failed to control their fleets effectively during the height of the combat .

= = Background = =

Since early 1792 France had been at war with four of its neighbours on two fronts , battling Austria and Prussia in the Austrian Netherlands , and the Austrians and Piedmontese in Italy . On 2 January 1793 , almost one year into the French Revolutionary War , republican @-@ held forts at Brest in Brittany fired on the British brig HMS Childers . [ Note B ] A few weeks later , following the execution of the imprisoned King Louis XVI , diplomatic ties between Britain and France were broken . On 1 February France declared war on both Britain and the Dutch Republic .

Protected from immediate invasion by the English Channel , Britain prepared for an extensive naval campaign and dispatched troops to the Netherlands for service against the French . Throughout the remainder of 1793 , the British and French navies undertook minor operations in Northern waters , the Mediterranean and the West and East Indies , where both nations maintained colonies . The closest the Channel Fleet had come to an engagement was when it had narrowly missed intercepting the French convoy from the Caribbean , escorted by 15 ships of the line on 2 August . The only major clash was the Siege of Toulon , a confused and bloody affair in which the British force holding the town — alongside Spanish , Sardinian , Austrian and French Royalist troops — had to be evacuated by the Royal Navy to prevent its imminent defeat at the hands of the French Republican army . The aftermath of this siege was punctuated by recriminations and accusations of cowardice and betrayal among the allies , eventually resulting in Spain switching allegiance with the signing of the Treaty of San Ildefonso two years later . Nevertheless , the siege produced one major success : Sir Sidney Smith , with parties of sailors from the retreating British fleet , accomplished the destruction of substantial French naval stores and shipping in Toulon . More might have been achieved had the Spanish raiding parties that accompanied Smith not been issued with secret orders to stall the destruction of the French fleet .

The situation in Europe remained volatile into 1794 . Off Northern France , the French Atlantic Fleet had mutinied due to errors in provisions and pay . In consequence , the French Navy officer corps suffered greatly from the effects of the Reign of Terror , with many experienced sailors being executed , imprisoned or dismissed from the service for perceived disloyalty . The shortage of provisions was more than a navy problem though ; France itself was starving because the social upheavals of the previous year had combined with a harsh winter to ruin the harvest . By this time at war with all her neighbours , France had nowhere to turn for overland imports of fresh provisions . Eventually a solution to the food crisis was agreed by the National Convention : food produced in France 's overseas colonies would be concentrated on board a fleet of merchant ships gathered in Chesapeake Bay , and augmented with food and goods purchased from the United States . During April and May 1794 , the merchantmen would convoy the supplies across the Atlantic to Brest , protected by elements of the French Atlantic Fleet .

= = Fleets = =

The navies of Britain and France in 1794 were at very different stages of development . Although the British fleet was numerically superior , the French ships were larger and stronger , and carried a heavier weight of shot . The largest French ships were three @-@ decker first rates , carrying 110 or 120 guns , against 100 guns on the largest British vessels .

= = = Royal Navy = = =

Since the Spanish Armament of 1790 , the Royal Navy had been at sea in a state of readiness for over three years . The Navy 's dockyards under First Lord of the Admiralty Charles Middleton were all fully fitted and prepared for conflict . This was quite unlike the disasters of the American Revolutionary War ten years earlier , when an ill @-@ prepared Royal Navy had taken too long to reach full effectiveness and was consequently unable to support the North American campaign — which ended in defeat at the Battle of Yorktown due to lack of supplies . With British dockyards now readily turning out cannon , shot , sails , provisions and other essential equipment , the only remaining problem was that of manning the several hundred ships on the Navy list .

Unfortunately for the British , gathering sufficient manpower was difficult and never satisfactorily accomplished throughout the entire war . The shortage of seamen was such that press gangs were forced to take thousands of men with no experience on the sea , meaning that training and preparing them for naval life would take quite some time . The lack of Royal Marines was even more urgent , and soldiers from the British Army were drafted into the fleet for service at sea . Men of the 2nd . Regiment of Foot - The Queen 's ( Royal West Surrey Regiment ) and the 29th Regiment of Foot served aboard Royal Navy ships during the campaign ; their descendant regiments still maintain the battle honour " 1 June 1794 " .

Despite these difficulties , the Channel Fleet was possessed of one of the best naval commanders of the age ; its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Richard Howe , 1st Earl Howe , had learned his trade under Sir Edward Hawke and fought at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759 . In the spring of 1794 , with the French convoy 's arrival in European waters imminent , Howe had dispersed his fleet in three groups . George Montagu , in HMS Hector , was sent with six ships of the line and two frigates to guard British convoys to the East Indies , West Indies and Newfoundland as far as Cape Finisterre . Peter Rainier , in HMS Suffolk and commanding six other ships , was to escort the convoys for the rest of their passage . The third force consisted of 26 ships of the line , with several supporting vessels , under Howe 's direct command . They were to patrol the Bay of Biscay for the arriving French .

= = = French Navy = = =

In contrast to their British counterparts , the French Navy was in a state of confusion . Although the quality of the fleet 's ships was high , the fleet hierarchy was riven by the same crises that had torn through France since the Revolution five years earlier . Consequently , the high standard of ships and ordnance was not matched by that of the available crews , which were largely untrained and inexperienced . With the Terror resulting in the death or dismissal of many senior French sailors and officers , political appointees and conscripts – many of whom had never been to sea at all , let alone in a fighting vessel – filled the Atlantic fleet .

The manpower problem was compounded by the supply crisis which was affecting the entire nation , with the fleet going unpaid and largely unfed for months at times . In August 1793 , these problems came to a head in the fleet off Brest , when a lack of provisions resulted in a mutiny among the regular sailors . The crews overruled their officers and brought their ships into harbour in search of food , leaving the French coast undefended . The National Convention responded instantly by executing a swathe of senior officers and ship 's non @-@ commissioned officers . Hundreds more officers and sailors were imprisoned , banished or dismissed from naval service . The effect of this purge was devastating , seriously degrading the fighting ability of the fleet by removing at a stroke many of its most capable personnel . In their places were promoted junior officers , merchant captains and even civilians who expressed sufficient revolutionary zeal , although few of them knew how to fight or control a battle fleet at sea .

The newly appointed commander of this troubled fleet was Villaret de Joyeuse ; although formerly in a junior position , he was known to possess a high degree of tactical ability ; he had trained under Admiral Pierre André de Suffren in the Indian Ocean during the American war . However , Villaret 's attempts to mould his new officer corps into an effective fighting unit were hampered by another new appointee , a deputy of the National Convention named Jean @-@ Bon Saint @-@ André . Saint @-@ André 's job was to report directly to the National Convention on the revolutionary ardour of both the fleet and its admiral . He frequently intervened in strategic planning and tactical operations . Shortly after his arrival , Saint @-@ André proposed issuing a decree ordering that any officer deemed to have shown insufficient zeal in defending his ship in action should be put to death on his return to France , although this highly controversial legislation does not appear to have ever been acted upon . Although his interference was a source of frustration for Villaret , Saint @-@ André 's dispatches to Paris were published regularly in Le Moniteur , and did much to popularise the Navy in France .

The French Atlantic fleet was even more dispersed than the British in the spring of 1794 : Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Vanstabel had been dispatched , with five ships including two of the line , to meet the much @-@ needed French grain convoy off the American eastern seaboard . Rear @-@ Admiral Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly had sailed from Rochefort with five ships of the line and assorted cruising warships to rendezvous with the convoy in the mid @-@ Atlantic . This left Villaret with 25 ships of the line at Brest to meet the threat posed by the British fleet under Lord Howe .

= = = Convoy = = =

By early spring of 1794 , the situation in France was dire . With famine looming after the failure of the harvest and the blockade of French ports and trade , the French government was forced to look overseas for sustenance . Turning to France 's colonies in the Americas , and the agricultural bounty of the United States , the National Convention gave orders for the formation of a large convoy of sailing vessels to gather at Hampton Roads in the Chesapeake Bay , where Admiral Vanstabel would wait for them . According to contemporary historian William James this conglomeration of ships was said to be over 350 strong , although he disputes this figure , citing the number as 117 ( in addition to the French warships ) .

The convoy had also been augmented by the United States government , in both cargo and shipping , as repayment for French financial , moral and military support during the American Revolution . In supporting the French Revolution in this way , the American government , urged especially by Ambassador Gouverneur Morris , was fulfilling its ten @-@ year @-@ old debt to France . Friendly relations between the United States and France did not long survive the Jay Treaty which came into effect in 1796 ; by 1798 the two nations would be engaged in the Quasi War .

= = May 1794 = =

The French convoy , escorted by Vanstabel , departed America from Virginia on 2 April , and Howe sailed from Portsmouth on 2 May , taking his entire fleet to both escort British convoys to the Western Approaches and intercept the French . Checking that Villaret was still in Brest , Howe spent two weeks searching the Bay of Biscay for the grain convoy , returning to Brest on 18 May to discover that Villaret had sailed the previous day . [ Note C ] Returning to sea in search of his opponent , Howe pursued Villaret deep into the Atlantic . Also at sea during this period were the squadrons of Nielly ( French ) and Montagu ( British ) , both of whom had met with some success ; Nielly had captured a number of British merchant ships and Montagu had taken several back . Nielly was the first to encounter the grain convoy , deep in the Atlantic in the second week of May . He took it under escort as it moved closer to Europe , while Montagu was searching fruitlessly to the south .

Despite Howe 's pursuit , the main French sortie found initial success , running into a Dutch convoy and taking 20 ships from it on Villaret 's first day at sea . For the next week Howe continued to follow the French , seizing and burning a trail of French @-@ held Dutch ships and enemy corvettes . On 25 May Howe spotted a straggler from Villaret 's fleet and gave chase ; Audacieux led Howe straight to his opponent 's location . Having finally found Villaret , on 28 May Howe attacked , using a flying squadron of his fastest ships to cut off its rearmost vessel Révolutionnaire . This first rate was at various times engaged with six British ships and took heavy damage , possibly striking her colours late in the action . As darkness fell the British and French fleets separated , leaving Révolutionnaire and her final enemy , HMS Audacious , still locked in combat behind them . These two ships parted company during the night and eventually returned to their respective home ports . By this stage Villaret knew through his patrolling frigates that the grain convoy was close , and deliberately took his fleet to the west , hoping to decoy Howe away from the vital convoy .

Taking the bait , the following day Howe attacked again , but his attempt to split the French fleet in half was unsuccessful when his lead ship , HMS Caesar , failed to follow orders . Much damage was done to both fleets but the action was inconclusive , and the two forces again separated without having settled the issue . Howe had however gained an important advantage during the engagement by seizing the weather gage , enabling him to further attack Villaret at a time of his choosing . Three French ships were sent back to port with damage , but these losses were offset by reinforcements gained the following day with the arrival of Nielly 's detached squadron . Battle was postponed during the next two days because of thick fog , but when the haze lifted on 1 June 1794 , the battle lines were only 6 miles ( 10 km ) apart and Howe was prepared to force a decisive action .

= = First of June = =

Although Howe was in a favourable position , Villaret had not been idle during the night . He had attempted , with near success , to distance his ships from the British fleet ; when dawn broke at 05 : 00 he was within a few hours of gaining enough wind to escape over the horizon . Allowing his men to breakfast , Howe took full advantage of his position on the weather gage to close with Villaret , and by 08 : 12 the British fleet was just four miles ( 6 km ) from the enemy . By this time , Howe 's formation was strung out in an organised line parallel to the French , with frigates acting as repeaters for the admiral 's commands . The French were likewise in line ahead and the two lines began exchanging long @-@ range gunfire at 09 : 24 , whereupon Howe unleashed his innovative battleplan .

It was normal in fleet actions of the 18th century for the two lines of battle to pass one another sedately , exchanging fire at long ranges and then wearing away , often without either side losing a ship or taking an enemy . In contrast , Howe was counting on the professionalism of his captains and crews combined with the advantage of the weather gage to attack the French directly , driving through their line . However , this time he did not plan to manoeuvre in the way he had during the two previous encounters ; each ship following in the wake of that in front to create a new line arrowing through his opponent 's force ( as Rodney had done at the Battle of the Saintes 12 years earlier ) . Instead , Howe ordered each of his ships to turn individually towards the French line , intending to breach it at every point and rake the French ships at both bow and stern . The British captains would then pull up on the leeward side of their opposite numbers , cutting them off from their retreat downwind , and engage them directly , hopefully forcing each to surrender and consequently destroying the French Atlantic Fleet .

= = British break the line = =

Within minutes of issuing the signal and turning his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte , Howe 's plan began to falter . Many of the British captains had either misunderstood or ignored the signal and were hanging back in the original line . Other ships were still struggling with damage from Howe 's earlier engagements and could not get into action fast enough . The result was a ragged formation tipped by Queen Charlotte that headed unevenly for Villaret 's fleet . The French responded by firing on the British ships as they approached , but the lack of training and coordination in the French fleet was obvious ; many ships which did obey Howe 's order and attacked the French directly arrived in action without significant damage .

= = = Van squadron = = =

Although Queen Charlotte pressed on all sail , she was not the first through the enemy line . That distinction belonged to a ship of the van squadron under Admiral Graves : HMS Defence under Captain James Gambier , a notoriously dour officer nicknamed " Dismal Jimmy " by his contemporaries . Defence , the seventh ship of the British line , successfully cut the French line between its sixth and seventh ships ; Mucius and Tourville . Raking both opponents , Defence soon found herself in difficulty due to the failure of those ships behind her to properly follow up . This left her vulnerable to Mucius , Tourville and the ships following them , with which she began a furious fusillade . However , Defence was not the only ship of the van to break the French line ; minutes later George Cranfield @-@ Berkeley in HMS Marlborough executed Howe 's manoeuvre perfectly , raking and then entangling his ship with Impétueux .

In front of Marlborough the rest of the van had mixed success . HMS Bellerophon and HMS Leviathan were both still suffering the effects of their exertions earlier in the week and did not breach the enemy line . Instead they pulled along the near side of Éole and America respectively and brought them to close gunnery duels . Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Pasley of Bellerophon was an early casualty , losing a leg in the opening exchanges . HMS Royal Sovereign , Graves 's flagship , was less successful due to a miscalculation of distance that resulted in her pulling up too far from the French line and coming under heavy fire from her opponent Terrible . In the time it took to engage Terrible more closely , Royal Sovereign suffered a severe pounding and Admiral Graves was badly wounded .

More disturbing to Lord Howe were the actions of HMS Russell and HMS Caesar . Russell 's captain John Willett Payne was criticised at the time for failing to get to grips with the enemy more closely and allowing her opponent Téméraire to badly damage her rigging in the early stages , although later commentators blamed damage received on 29 May for her poor start to the action . There were no such excuses , however , for Captain Anthony Molloy of Caesar , who totally failed in his duty to engage the enemy . Molloy completely ignored Howe 's signal and continued ahead as if the British battleline was following him rather than engaging the French fleet directly . Caesar did participate in a desultory exchange of fire with the leading French ship Trajan but her fire had little effect , while Trajan inflicted much damage to Caesar 's rigging and was subsequently able to attack Bellerophon as well , roaming unchecked through the melee developing at the head of the line .

= = = Centre = = =

The centre of the two fleets was divided by two separate squadrons of the British line : the forward division under admirals Benjamin Caldwell and George Bowyer and the rear under Lord Howe . While Howe in Queen Charlotte was engaging the French closely , his subordinates in the forward division were less active . Instead of moving in on their opposite numbers directly , the forward division sedately closed with the French in line ahead formation , engaging in a long distance duel which did not prevent their opponents from harassing the embattled Defence just ahead of them . Of all the ships in this squadron only HMS Invincible , under Thomas Pakenham , ranged close to the French lines . Invincible was badly damaged by her lone charge but managed to engage the larger Juste . HMS Barfleur under Bowyer did later enter the action , but Bowyer was not present , having lost a leg in the opening exchanges .

Howe and Queen Charlotte led the fleet by example , sailing directly at the French flagship Montagne . Passing between Montagne and the next in line Vengeur du Peuple , Queen Charlotte raked both and hauled up close to Montagne to engage in a close @-@ range artillery battle . As she did so , Queen Charlotte also became briefly entangled with Jacobin , and exchanged fire with her too , causing serious damage to both French ships .

To the right of Queen Charlotte , HMS Brunswick had initially struggled to join the action . Labouring behind the flagship , her captain John Harvey received a rebuke from Howe for the delay . Spurred by this signal , Harvey pushed his ship forward and almost outstripped Queen Charlotte , blocking her view of the eastern half of the French fleet for a time and taking severe damage from French fire as she did so . Harvey hoped to run aboard Jacobin and support his admiral directly , but was not fast enough to reach her and so attempted to cut between Achille and Vengeur du Peuple . This manoeuvre failed when Brunswick 's anchors became entangled in Vengeur 's rigging . Harvey 's master asked if Vengeur should be cut loose , to which Harvey replied " No ; we have got her and we will keep her " . The two ships swung so close to each other that Brunswick 's crew could not open their gunports and had to fire through the closed lids , the ships battering each other from a distance of just a few feet .

Behind this combat , other ships of the centre division struck the French line , HMS Valiant under Thomas Pringle passing close to Patriote which pulled away , her crew suffering from contagion and unable to take their ship into battle . Valiant instead turned her attention on Achille , which had already been raked by Queen Charlotte and Brunswick , and badly damaged her before pressing on sail to join the embattled van division . HMS Orion under John Thomas Duckworth and HMS Queen under Admiral Alan Gardner both attacked the same ship , Queen suffering severely from the earlier actions in which her masts were badly damaged and her captain John Hutt mortally wounded . Both ships bore down on the French Northumberland , which was soon dismasted and left attempting to escape on only the stump of a mast . Queen was too slow to engage Northumberland as closely as Orion , and soon fell in with Jemmappes , both ships battering each other severely .

= = = Rear = = =

Of the British rear ships , only two made a determined effort to break the French line . Admiral Hood 's flagship HMS Royal George pierced it between Républicain and Sans Pareil , engaging both closely , while HMS Glory came through the line behind Sans Pareil and threw herself into the melee as well . The rest of the British and French rearguard did not participate in this close combat ; HMS Montagu fought a long range gunnery duel with Neptune which damaged neither ship severely , although the British captain James Montagu was killed in the opening exchanges , command devolving on Lieutenant Ross Donnelly . Next in line , HMS Ramillies ignored her opponent completely and sailed west , Captain Henry Harvey seeking Brunswick , his brother 's ship , in the confused action around Queen Charlotte .

Three other British ships failed to respond to the signal from Howe , including HMS Alfred which engaged the French line at extreme range without noticeable effect , and Captain Charles Cotton in HMS Majestic who likewise did little until the action was decided , at which point he took the surrender of several already shattered French ships . Finally HMS Thunderer under Albemarle Bertie took no part in the initial action at all , standing well away from the British line and failing to engage the enemy despite the signal for close engagement hanging limply from her mainmast . The French rear ships were no less idle , with Entreprenant and Pelletier firing at any British ships in range but refusing to close or participate in the melees on either side . The French rear ship Scipion did not attempt to join the action either , but could not avoid becoming embroiled in the group around Royal George and Républicain and suffered severe damage .

= = Melee = =

Within an hour of their opening volleys the British and French lines were hopelessly confused , with three separate engagements being fought within sight of one another . In the van , Caesar had finally attempted to join the fight , only to have a vital spar shot away by Trajan which caused her to slip down the two embattled fleets without contributing significantly to the battle . Bellerophon and Leviathan were in the thick of the action , the outnumbered Bellerophon taking serious damage to her rigging . This left her unable to manoeuvre and in danger from her opponents , of which Eole also suffered severely . Captain William Johnstone Hope sought to extract his ship from her perilous position and called up support ; the frigate HMS Latona under Captain Edward Thornbrough arrived to provide assistance . Thornbrough brought his small ship between the ships of the French battleline and opened fire on Eole , helping to drive off three ships of the line and then towing Bellerophon to safety . Leviathan , under Lord Hugh Seymour , had been more successful than Bellerophon , her gunnery dismasting America despite receiving fire from Eole and Trajan in passing . Leviathan only left America after a two @-@ hour duel , sailing at 11 : 50 to join Queen Charlotte in the centre .

Russell had not broken the French line and her opponent Témeraire got the better of her , knocking away a topmast and escaping to windward with Trajan and Eole . Russell then fired on several passing French ships before joining Leviathan in attacking the centre of the French line . Russell 's boats also took the surrender of America , her crew boarding the vessel to make her a prize ( although later replaced by men from Royal Sovereign ) . Royal Sovereign lost Admiral Graves to a serious wound and lost her opponent as well , as Terrible fell out of the line to windward and joined a growing collection of French ships forming a new line on the far side of the action . Villaret was leading this line in his flagship Montagne , which had escaped from Queen Charlotte , and it was Montagne which Royal Sovereign engaged next , pursuing her close to the new French line accompanied by Valiant , and beginning a long @-@ range action .

Behind Royal Sovereign was Marlborough , inextricably tangled with Impétueux . Badly damaged and on the verge of surrender , Impétueux was briefly reprieved when Mucius appeared through the smoke and collided with both ships . The three entangled ships continued exchanging fire for some time , all suffering heavy casualties with Marlborough and Impétueux losing all three of their masts . This combat continued for several hours . Captain Berkeley of Marlborough had to retire below with serious wounds , and command fell to Lieutenant John Monkton , who signalled for help from the frigates in reserve . Robert Stopford responded in HMS Aquilon , which had the assignment of repeating signals , and towed Marlborough out of the line as Mucius freed herself and made for the regrouped French fleet to the north . Impétueux was in too damaged a state to move at all , and was soon seized by sailors from HMS Russell .

Dismasted , Defence was unable to hold any of her various opponents to a protracted duel , and by 13 : 00 was threatened by the damaged Républicain moving from the east . Although Républicain later hauled off to join Villaret to the north , Gambier requested support for his ship from the fleet 's frigates and was aided by HMS Phaeton under Captain William Bentinck . As Impétueux passed she fired on Phaeton , to which Bentinck responded with several broadsides of his own . Invincible , the only ship of the forward division of the British centre to engage the enemy closely , became embroiled in the confusion surrounding Queen Charlotte . Invincible 's guns drove Juste onto the broadside of Queen Charlotte , where she was forced to surrender to Lieutenant Henry Blackwood in a boat from Invincible . Among the other ships of the division there were only minor casualties , although HMS Impregnable lost several yards and was only brought back into line by the quick reactions of two junior officers , Lieutenant Robert Otway and Midshipman Charles Dashwood .

The conflict between Queen Charlotte and Montagne was oddly one @-@ sided , the French flagship failing to make use of her lower @-@ deck guns and consequently suffering extensive damage and casualties . Queen Charlotte in her turn was damaged by fire from nearby ships and was therefore unable to follow when Montagne set her remaining sails and slipped to the north to create a new focal point for the survivors of the French fleet . Queen Charlotte also took fire during the engagement from HMS Gibraltar , under Thomas Mackenzie , which had failed to close with the enemy and instead fired at random into the smoke bank surrounding the flagship . Captain Sir Andrew Snape Douglas was seriously wounded by this fire . Following Montagne 's escape , Queen Charlotte engaged Jacobin and Républicain as they passed , and was successful in forcing the surrender of Juste . To the east of Queen Charlotte , Brunswick and Vengeur du Peuple continued their bitter combat , locked together and firing main broadsides from point blank range . Captain Harvey of Brunswick was mortally wounded early in this action by langrage fire from Vengeur , but refused to quit the deck , ordering more fire into his opponent . Brunswick also managed to drive Achille off from her far side when the French ship attempted to intervene . Achille , already damaged , was totally dismasted in the exchange and briefly surrendered , although her crew rescinded this when it became clear Brunswick was in no position to take possession . With her colours rehoisted , Achille then made what sail she could in an attempt to join Villaret to the north . It was not until 12 : 45 that the shattered Vengeur and Brunswick pulled apart , both largely dismasted and very battered . Brunswick was only able to return to the British side of the line after being supported by Ramillies , while Vengeur was unable to move at all . Ramillies took Vengeur 's surrender after a brief cannonade but was unable to board her and instead pursued the fleeing Achille , which soon surrendered as well .

To the east , Orion and Queen forced the surrender of both Northumberland and Jemmappes , although Queen was unable to secure Jemmappes and she had to be abandoned later . Queen especially was badly damaged and unable to make the British lines again , wallowing between the newly reformed French fleet and the British battleline along with several other shattered ships . Royal George and Glory had between them disabled Scipion and Sans Pareil in a bitter exchange , but were also too badly damaged themselves to take possession . All four ships were among those left drifting in the gap between the fleets .

= = French recovery = =

Villaret in Montagne , having successfully broken contact with the British flagship and slipped away to the north , managed to gather 11 ships of the line around him and formed them up in a reconstituted battle squadron . At 11 : 30 , with the main action drawing to a close , he began a recovery manoeuvre intended to lessen the tactical defeat his fleet had suffered . Aiming his new squadron at the battered Queen , Villaret 's attack created consternation in the British fleet , which was unprepared for a second engagement . However , discerning Villaret 's intention , Howe also pulled his ships together to create a new force . His reformed squadron consisted of Queen Charlotte , Royal Sovereign , Valiant , Leviathan , Barfleur , and Thunderer . Howe deployed this squadron in defence of Queen , and the two short lines engaged one another at a distance before Villaret abandoned his manoeuvre and hauled off to collect several of his own dismasted ships that were endeavouring to escape British pursuit . Villaret was subsequently joined by the battered Terrible , which sailed straight through the dispersed British fleet to reach the French lines , and he also recovered the dismasted Scipion , Mucius , Jemmappes , and Républicain — all of which lay within reach of the unengaged British ships — before turning eastwards towards France . At this stage of the battle , Howe retired below and the British consolidation was left to his Captain of the Fleet , Sir Roger Curtis . Curtis was subsequently blamed by some in the Navy for not capturing more of the dismasted French ships , and was also accused of dissuading Howe from attempting further pursuit .

In fact , the British fleet was unable to pursue Villaret , having only 11 ships still capable of battle to the French 12 , and having numerous dismasted ships and prizes to protect . Retiring and regrouping , the British crews set about making hasty repairs and securing their prizes ; seven in total , including the badly damaged Vengeur du Peuple . Vengeur had been holed by cannon firing from Brunswick directly through the ship 's bottom , and after her surrender no British ship had managed to get men aboard . This left Vengeur 's few remaining unwounded crew to attempt to salvage what they could — a task made harder when some of her sailors broke into the spirit room and became drunk . Ultimately the ship 's pumps became unmanageable , and Vengeur began to sink . Only the timely arrival of boats from the undamaged Alfred and HMS Culloden , as well as the services of the cutter HMS Rattler , saved any of the Vengeur 's crew from drowning , these ships taking off nearly 500 sailors between them . Lieutenant John Winne of Rattler was especially commended for this hazardous work . By 18 : 15 , Vengeur was clearly beyond salvage and only the very worst of the wounded , the dead , and the drunk remained aboard . Several sailors are said to have waved the tricolor from the bow of the ship and cried " Vive la Nation , vive la République ! "

Having escaped to the east , Villaret made what sail his battered fleet could muster to return to France , and dispatched his frigates in search of the convoy . Villaret was also hoping for reinforcements ; eight ships of the line , commanded by Admiral Pierre @-@ François Cornic , were patrolling near the Ushant headland . Behind him to the west , the British took the whole night to secure their ships and prizes , not setting out to return to Britain until 05 : 00 on 2 June .

Casualties in the battle are notoriously hard to calculate exactly . With only one exception ( Scipion ) , records made by the French captains of their losses at the time are incomplete . The only immediately available casualty counts are the sketchy reports of Saint @-@ André and the records made by British officers aboard the captured ships , neither of which can be treated as completely reliable . Most sources accept that French casualties in the campaign numbered approximately 7 @,@ 000 , including around 3 @,@ 000 captured , but these figures are vague and frequently do not agree with each other on details . British casualties are easier to confirm but here , too , there are some discrepancies ; overall British casualties are generally given as around 1 @,@ 200 .

= = The convoy arrives = =

With a large portion of his fleet no longer battleworthy , Howe was unable to resume his search for the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay . The Admiralty , though unaware of Howe 's specific circumstances , knew a battle had taken place through the arrival of HMS Audacious in Portsmouth , and was preparing a second expedition under George Montagu . Montagu had returned to England after his unsuccessful May cruise , and was refitting in Portsmouth when ordered to sea again . His force of ten ships was intended to both cover Howe 's withdrawal from Biscay , and find and attack the French grain convoy . Montagu returned to sea on 3 June , and by 8 June was off Ushant searching for signs of either the French or Howe ; unknown to him , neither had yet entered European waters . At 15 : 30 on 8 June Montagu spotted sails , and soon identified them as the enemy . He had located Cornic 's squadron , which was also patrolling for the convoy and the returning fleets . Montagu gave chase and drove Cornic into Bertheaume Bay , where he blockaded the French squadron overnight , hoping to bring them to action the following day . However , on 9 June , Montagu sighted 19 French ships appearing from the west — the remnants of Villaret 's fleet . Hastily turning his ships , Montagu sailed south to avoid becoming trapped between two forces which might easily overwhelm him . Villaret and Cornic gave chase for a day before turning east towards the safety of the French ports .

Howe benefited from Montagu 's withdrawal , as his own battered fleet passed close to the scene of this stand @-@ off on 10 June , pushing north into the English Channel . With Villaret and Cornic fortuitously pursuing Montagu to the south , Howe was free to pass Ushant without difficulty and arrived off Plymouth on 12 June , joined soon afterwards by Montagu . Villaret had anchored with Cornic in Bertheaume Bay the day before , but Saint @-@ André refused to allow him to enter Brest until the republican attitudes of the town 's population had been assessed . On 12 June , the convoy from America finally arrived off France , having lost just one ship in passage during a storm .

= = Aftermath = =

Both Britain and France claimed victory in the battle : Britain by virtue of capturing or sinking seven French ships without losing any of her own and remaining in control of the battle site ; France because the vital convoy had passed through the Atlantic unharmed and arrived in France without significant loss . The two fleets were showered by their respective nations with both praise and criticism – the latter particularly directed at those captains not felt to have contributed significantly to the fighting . The British fleet in Spithead was treated with a Royal visit by King George III and the entire royal household .

= = = France = = =

In France the revolutionary principles of égalité precluded extensive awards , but Villaret was promoted to vice @-@ admiral on 27 September 1794 and other minor awards were distributed to the admirals of the fleet . In addition the fleet 's officers took part in a celebratory parade from Brest to Paris , accompanying the recently arrived food supplies . The role of Vengeur du Peuple was mythified by Bertrand Barrère , giving birth to an exalted legend . Opinion in France concerning the battle 's outcome was divided ; while many celebrated Saint @-@ André 's exaggerated accounts of victory in Le Moniteur , senior naval officers disagreed . Among the dissenters was the highly experienced but recently dismissed Admiral Kerguelen . Kerguelen was disgusted by Villaret 's failure to renew the battle after he had reformed his squadron , and felt that the French fleet could have been successful tactically as well as strategically if only Villaret had made greater efforts to engage the remains of Howe 's fleet . The French Navy had suffered its worst losses in a single day since the Battle of La Hogue in 1692 .

Ultimately the revolutionary excesses of the period would prove disastrous for the French Navy . Poor leadership , conflicting and arbitrary orders and the decimation of the experienced seamen in the ranks promoted a negative attitude in the French officer corps . The French battlefleet did not contest British dominance in Northern European waters again , and their raiding operations repeatedly ended in failure at the hands of more confident British squadrons and the unforgiving Atlantic weather . By 1805 , when the last great French fleet to take to the sea was crushed at the Battle of Trafalgar , poor training and low investment in the Navy had reduced its efficiency to levels unthinkable 20 years earlier .

= = = Britain = = =

In Britain , numerous honours were bestowed on the fleet and its commanders . Admiral Howe , already an earl , refused any further elevation , and King George III was dissuaded from making him a Knight of the Garter by one of Howe 's political opponents . Vice @-@ Admiral Graves was elevated to the Peerage of Ireland as Baron Graves , while Vice @-@ Admiral Hood was made Viscount Bridport . Rear @-@ Admirals Bowyer , Gardner , Pasley and Curtis ( the last @-@ named was promoted from captain on 4 July 1794 ) were all made baronets , and Bowyer and Pasley also received pensions of £ 1 @,@ 000 a year to compensate them for their severe wounds . All first lieutenants were promoted to commander and numerous other officers were promoted in consequence of their actions . The thanks of parliament were unanimously passed to all who fought at the action and various other gifts and awards were distributed among the fleet . A memorial to Captains John Hutt and John Harvey , both of whom had died of their wounds on 30 June , was raised in Westminster Abbey .

There was , however , a bitter consequence of the awards , rooted in Howe 's official dispatch to the Admiralty concerning the battle , which according to some accounts was actually written by Curtis . Howe had appended a list to his report containing the names of officers whom he believed merited special reward for their part in the battle . The list included Vice @-@ Admirals Graves and Hood , Rear @-@ Admirals Bowyer , Gardner , and Pasley , and Captains Seymour , Pakenham , Cranfield @-@ Berkeley , Gambier , John Harvey , Payne , Henry Harvey , Pringle , Duckworth , Elphinstone , Nichols , and Hope . Also mentioned were Lieutenants Monkton and Donnelly . The list had omitted a number of officers who had served in the battle , and the justice of their omission was a highly controversial issue in the Navy . Rear @-@ Admiral Caldwell was the sole British flag officer present not to receive a hereditary honour , although he was promoted to Vice @-@ Admiral on 4 July ( as were Bowyer and Gardner ) . After studying the ship 's logs and reports of the battle , the Admiralty minted a medal to be awarded to the living captains on the list only ( although Captain William Parker of HMS Audacious was awarded one as well ) . The captains excluded from the list were furious , and the furor from this selective commendation lasted years : in 1795 Vice @-@ Admiral Caldwell quit the service in anger as a result , while Cuthbert Collingwood , flag captain of Barfleur , refused all awards for future service until the Glorious First of June medal was presented to him as well . He eventually received it after the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1797 . Over five decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .

Bitterest of all was the whispering campaign directed at Anthony Molloy , captain of HMS Caesar . Molloy was accused of cowardice by fellow officers for his failure to follow Howe 's orders on both 29 May and 1 June . Molloy 's request for an official court @-@ martial to clear his name failed , and although his personal courage was not called into question , his professional ability was . Molloy was dismissed from his ship .

Of the captured ships , several were purchased and enjoyed long careers in the Royal Navy , in particular the two 80 @-@ gun ships HMS Sans Pareil which was decommissioned in 1802 but not broken up until 1842 , and HMS Juste , which was a popular command until her decommissioning in 1802 at the Peace of Amiens . Of the four 74 @-@ gun prizes , Achille and Northumberland ( both 74s built in the late 1770s ) were broken up as unserviceable soon after arrival in Britain , while Impétueux was destroyed in a dockyard fire on 24 August 1794 while undergoing repairs . America , the final prize , was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS America but renamed HMS Impetueux in July 1795 and remained in service until 1813 . The combined prize money for these ships was £ 201 @,@ 096 ( the equivalent of £ 21 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , divided among the ships under Lord Howe 's command .

= New York State Route 368 =

New York State Route 368 ( NY 368 ) was a state highway in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It was one of the shortest routes in the county , extending for only 1 @.@ 69 miles ( 2 @.@ 72 km ) between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge . NY 368 was known as Halfway Road for the hamlet it served near its midpoint . The route was assigned in the 1930s and removed in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Onondaga County .

= = Route description = =

NY 368 began at an intersection with NY 321 adjacent to the Carpenter 's Brook Fish Hatchery in the town of Elbridge . The route headed north as Halfway Road , passing by farmland as it headed through a rural area of Onondaga County to the small hamlet of Halfway . Here , NY 368 served a small number of homes as it crossed a Conrail railroad line ( now part of the Finger Lakes Railway ) at the center of the community . Outside of Halfway , the route turned to the northwest toward the village of Elbridge , avoiding a marshy area directly north of Halfway . It intersected with Lynch Road and Campbell Road before turning slightly northward and following Carpenter 's Brook through another undeveloped area to an intersection with NY 5 east of the village , where NY 368 ended .

= = History = =

NY 368 was assigned in the 1930s as a connector between NY 321 and NY 5 in the town of Elbridge by way of the hamlet of Halfway . It remained unchanged until April 1 , 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Onondaga County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The county also assumed ownership and maintenance of the Onondaga County portion of NY 31B as part of the exchange . NY 368 was redesignated as County Route 107 ( CR 107 ) following the swap .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route was in Elbridge , Onondaga County .

= M @-@ 122 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 122 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan entirely in the city of St. Ignace . The highway connected US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) to the State Highway Ferry Dock used before the Mackinac Bridge was built . It was retired and the road returned to local control in 1957 .

= = Route description = =

Prior to the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , travelers wishing to venture from St. Ignace to Mackinaw City had to do so via ferry . M @-@ 122 began at US 2 ( now Business Loop Interstate 75 ) near Straits State Park and traveled through town along Ferry Road where it ran southeasterly from the main highway . East of Hornbach Street M @-@ 122 curved around to the east near Paro Street . The highway ended at the State Ferry Docks on the southeast side of the city next to the Coast Guard station .

= = History = =

M @-@ 122 was initially assumed into the state highway system in 1929 as a connector between US 31 and Straits State Park . In 1936 , US 2 was routed into St. Ignace and US 31 was scaled back to end in the Lower Peninsula in Mackinaw City . M @-@ 122 now provided a connection between US 2 and the new docks on the southeast side of the city . It existed in this capacity until 1957 when the Mackinac Bridge opened to traffic .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway was in St. Ignace , Mackinac County .

= Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 =

The Tupolev Tu @-@ 12 ( development designation Tu @-@ 77 ) was an experimental Soviet jet @-@ powered medium bomber developed from the successful piston @-@ engined Tupolev Tu @-@ 2 bomber after the end of World War II . It was designed as a transitional aircraft to familiarize Tupolev and the VVS with the issues involved with jet @-@ engined bombers .

= = Development = =

The Tupolev Tu @-@ 73 jet @-@ engined bomber project was suffering delays in early 1947 and Tupolev suggested re @-@ engining the Tu @-@ 2 medium bomber with imported British Rolls @-@ Royce Nene jet engines to produce a jet bomber as quickly as possible . Design work began well before official approval was received on 31 May 1947 for one Tu @-@ 2S to be converted in the OKB 's workshop and another five to be converted at Zavod ( Factory ) Nr. 23 , but construction of the prototype had already begun in early May under the bureau designation Tu @-@ 77 .

Changes from the standard Tu @-@ 2 were minimized to speed production and they consisted of the following :

Two Nene jet engines replaced the standard Shvetsov ASh @-@ 82FN radial engines .

The wing dihedral was reduced to 3 ° from 6 ° .

The fuselage was lengthened 400 mm ( 16 in ) and the rear fuselage was heightened by 300 mm ( 12 in ) .

A new tricycle undercarriage was fitted , with the main gear units retracting into the engine nacelles .

Additional fuel tanks were fitted and the design of the tanks was changed to accommodate the change from gasoline to kerosene .

The control system was revised and trim tabs were fitted to the elevators .

The wing and tail were reinforced .

The 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon were removed from the wing roots and a 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon was mounted in an external fairing on the starboard side of the nose .

= = = Testing and evaluation = = =

The prototype was completed in July and was first flown on 27 July 1947 . Two aircraft were shown at the Tushino Aviation Day Display on 3 August 1947 . It completed its manufacturer 's trials in September and underwent the State acceptance trials from 4 October 1947 to 27 February 1948 where it was redesignated as the Tu @-@ 12 . The NII VVS ( Naoochno @-@ Issledovatel 'skiy Institoot Voyenno @-@ Vozdooshnykh Seel – Air Force Scientific Test Institute ) report summarized the differences between the Tu @-@ 2 and Tu @-@ 12 as " a considerable gain in speed , an improved rate of climb , a higher service ceiling , but poorer field performance and a considerably greater fuel load required to achieve the same range as the Tu @-@ 2 . " Both the lack of a pressurized cabin that greatly reduced its effectiveness at high altitude and the lack of deicing equipment for the wing and tail leading edges and the cockpit glazing were noted as major problems . At high speeds it was virtually impossible to traverse and elevate the manually operated VUB @-@ 68 and Lu @-@ 68 gun turrets . The vibration of the NS @-@ 23 cannon when firing rendered the equipment in the navigator 's cabin unusable and damaged the cabin glazing . Turning on the Identification friend or foe ( IFF ) system adversely affected the intercom system and the radios . New generators had to be installed as the originals did not produce enough electrical power .

The trials conducted by the NII VVS included engagements between the Tu @-@ 12 and the Soviet MiG @-@ 9 and Yak @-@ 23 jet fighters which were very useful in evaluating the offensive armament of the fighters , the defensive armament of the bomber and the proper tactics involved for both types of aircraft . The tests demonstrated the inferiority of the current 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) armament and meant that every Soviet bomber henceforth would have a defensive armament using power @-@ operated turrets that carried guns 20 mm or larger .

The five aircraft modified by the factory were given the Klimov RD @-@ 45 engine , the Soviet unlicensed copy of the Nene engine , and all six aircraft , used by the VVS for aircrew familiarization and training . The aircraft completed were later relegated to test duties . One aircraft was used for drone tests and another , redesignated as the Tu @-@ 12LL , mounted various pulse jet engines on a pylon above the fuselage .

= = Operators = =

Soviet Union

Soviet Air Force

= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 12 ) = =

Data from Gunston , Tupolev Aircraft since 1922

General characteristics

Crew : 5

Length : 16 @.@ 45 m ( 53 ft 11 ½ in )

Wingspan : 18 @.@ 86 m ( 61 ft 10 ½ in )

Wing area : 48 @.@ 80 m2 ( 525 @.@ 30 ft2 )

Empty weight : 8993 kg ( 19 @,@ 826 lb )

Gross weight : 15 @,@ 720 kg ( 34 @,@ 657 lb )

Powerplant : 2 × Rolls @-@ Royce Nene I turbojet , 22 kN ( 5 @,@ 000 lbf ) thrust each each

Performance

Maximum speed : 783 km / h ( 487 mph )

Range : 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 367 miles )

Service ceiling : 11 @,@ 370 m ( 37 @,@ 305 ft )

Armament

1 × 23 mm NS @-@ 23 cannon

2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm Berezin UBT machine @-@ guns

3 @,@ 000 kg ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) of bombs

= Civilian Public Service =

The Civilian Public Service ( CPS ) was a program of the United States government that provided conscientious objectors with an alternative to military service during World War II . From 1941 to 1947 , nearly 12 @,@ 000 draftees , willing to serve their country in some capacity but unwilling to perform any type of military service , accepted assignments in work of national importance in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico . Draftees from the historic peace churches and other faiths worked in areas such as soil conservation , forestry , fire fighting , agriculture , under the supervision of such agencies as the U.S. Forest Service , the Soil Conservation Service , and the National Park Service . Others helped provide social services and mental health services .

The CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government . The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families . CPS men served longer than regular draftees and were not released until well after the end of the war . Initially skeptical of the program , government agencies learned to appreciate the men 's service and requested more workers from the program . CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention , erosion and flood control , medical science and reform of the mental health system .

= = Background = =

Conscientious objectors ( COs ) refuse to participate in military service because of belief or religious training . During wartime , this stance conflicts with conscription efforts . Those willing to accept non @-@ combatant roles , such as medical personnel , are accommodated . There are few legal options for draftees who cannot cooperate with the military in any way .

= = = Experiences of World War I = = =

The conscription law of World War I provided for noncombatant service for members of a religious organization whose members were forbidden from participating in war of any form . This exemption effectively limited conscientious objector status to members of the historic peace churches : Mennonites ( and other Anabaptist groups such as Hutterites ) , Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) and Church of the Brethren . The law gave the President authority to assign such draftees to any noncombatant military role .

Conscientious objectors who refused noncombatant service during World War I were imprisoned in military facilities such as Fort Lewis ( Washington ) , Alcatraz Island ( California ) and Fort Leavenworth ( Kansas ) . The government assumed that COs could be converted into soldiers once they were exposed to life in their assigned military camps . Simultaneously the Justice Department was preparing to indict 181 Mennonite leaders for violating the espionage act because of a statement they adopted against performing military service . The draftees ' refusal to put on a uniform or cooperate in any way caused difficulties for both the government and the COs . The treatment received by nearly 2000 of these absolute COs included short rations , solitary confinement and physical abuse so severe as to cause the deaths of two Hutterite draftees .

= = = Preparation for World War II = = =

After World War I , and with another European war looming , leaders from the historic peace churches met to strategize about how to cooperate with the government to avoid the difficulties of World War I. Holding a common view that any participation in military service was not acceptable , they devised a plan of civilian alternative service , based on experience gained by American Friends Service Committee work in Europe during and after World War I and forestry service done by Russian Mennonites in lieu of military service in Tsarist Russia .

As the United States prepared for another war , the historic peace churches , represented by Friends who understood inner dealings of Washington D.C. politics , attempted to influence new draft bills to ensure their men could fulfill their duty in an alternative , non @-@ military type of service . On June 20 , 1940 , the Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill came before Congress . The arrangements for conscientious objectors were almost identical to the World War I provisions .

= = = Selective Service Act = = =

The Friends representatives continued attempting to make the bill more favorable to the historic peace churches . The Burke @-@ Wadsworth Bill passed on September 14 , 1940 , becoming the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 . The influence of the churches was evident in section 5 ( g ) , which says in part :

Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service ... in lieu of such induction , be assigned to work of national importance under civilian direction .

The bill offered four improvements from the perspective of the churches over the World War I provisions . The exemption applied to conscientious objection based on religious training or belief , opening the door for members of any religious denomination to apply for CO status . Draftees turned down by local draft board could appeal under the new law . Those assigned to " work of national importance " would be under civilian , not military , control and violations of law on the part of those in the program were subject to normal federal jurisdiction , not the military justice system . From the military perspective , it removed the burden of dealing with thousands of uncooperative draftees and segregated the COs and their philosophy from military service members .

Unlike harsher methods , the military found that this gentler approach resulted in about one in eight eventually transferring to military service .

= = Organization = =

When registration commenced on October 16 , 1940 , no structure was in place to handle thousands of anticipated conscientious objectors . Church representatives meeting with government officials learned that little thought had been put into the program , and the churches were advised to create a plan . Because the government wanted to deal with one body , not individual religious denominations , the National Council for Religious Conscientious Objectors was formed as a liaison between the churches and the federal government . The historic peace churches outlined a plan that included running and maintaining CPS camps under church control . However , President Roosevelt opposed any plan not involving military control over the draftees . To save their plan and retain civilian direction of the program , the churches offered to fund the camps . Aides convinced Roosevelt that putting the COs to work in out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way camps was preferable to repeating the difficulties of World War I. Selective Service and the peace churches agreed to a six @-@ month trial of church supported and funded camps for conscientious objectors and thus Civilian Public Service was born .

The first camp opened on May 15 , 1941 near Baltimore , Maryland . A total of 152 camps and units were established over the next six years . The federal government provided work projects , housing , camp furnishings and paid for transportation to the camps . The responsibilities of the churches included day @-@ to @-@ day management of the camps , subsistence costs , meals and healthcare for the men . When the young men arrived at the first camps , they started a six @-@ month experiment that would extend to six years .

= = = Camp life = = =

Civilian Public Service men lived in barracks @-@ style camps , such as former Civilian Conservation Corps facilities . The camps served as a base of operations , from which the COs departed to their daily assignments . Sites were located typically in rural areas near the agricultural , soil conservation and forestry projects where the work took place . A large camp such as number 57 near Hill City , South Dakota , had five dormitories and housed as many as 172 men building the Deerfield Dam . Later , with projects located in urban areas , the men lived in smaller units , communal housing near their assignments . CPS men typically worked nine hours , six days per week .

Mennonite Central Committee , American Friends Service Committee and Brethren Service Committee administered almost all of the camps . The Association of Catholic Conscientious Objectors managed four camps and the Methodist World Peace Commission two . Each camp was assigned a director responsible for supervising camp operation . The director managed the needs of the men , oversaw maintenance of the camp facilities , handled community relations and reported to Selective Service officials . Initially a pastor had the camp director role . Later , capable men from among the CPS workers directed the camps .

Besides the director , a matron , business manager and dietitian staffed a typical camp . An educational director was responsible for creating recreational , social and educational programs for the men . Church history , Bible and first aid were standard course topics . The strength of instructional programs varied from camp to camp , and after nine hours of physical labor , it could be difficult to motivate the men to attend classes . Most camps had libraries , some showed current films and camp number 56 ( Camp Angel ) near Waldport , Oregon had a particular emphasis on the arts . Camps produced newsletters and yearbooks documenting their experiences .

The camp dietitian , with the help of men assigned as cooks , prepared all of the meals . Camps with large gardens provided their own fresh vegetables . Sponsoring congregations also supplied home canned and fresh produce . The camps were subject to the same shortages and rationing as the rest of the nation .

Sunday worship services were organized by the camp director if he was a pastor , by a visiting pastor , or by the CPS men themselves . While the historic peace churches organized the CPS , 38 % of the men came from other denominations and 4 % claimed no religious affiliation .

Men spent their free time doing crafts such as woodworking , rugmaking , leatherwork and photography . Outdoor activities included hiking and swimming . Men formed choirs and music ensembles , performing in neighboring towns when relations were good . The men earned two days of furlough for each month of service . These days could be saved to allow enough time to travel several hundred miles home or in some cases traded to other men in exchange for cash .

Men with wives and dependents found it difficult to support their families . Beyond a small allowance , the men did not get paid for their service , nor were their dependents given an allowance . To be closer to their husbands , women sought employment near their husband 's assignment . Later , when jobs on dairy farms became available , families could live together in housing provided for farm workers .

Men who became uncooperative with the CPS system and were unable to adjust to the church @-@ managed camps were reassigned to a few camps managed by the Selective Service System . These camps tended to be the least productive and most difficult to administer . Men who felt compelled to protest the restrictions of the conscription law attempted to disrupt the program through the use of various techniques , including the initiation of work slowdowns and labor strikes . Routine rule breaking frustrated camp directors . The most difficult cases were given to the federal court system and the men imprisoned .

= = = Finances = = =

Churches were primarily responsible for financing Civilian Public Service , providing for the men 's food , clothes , and other material needs . The churches also provided and paid for the camp director . The men received an allowance of between $ 2 @.@ 50 and $ 5 @.@ 00 monthly for personal needs . When jobs were available in surrounding farms and communities , those willing to work beyond their regular CPS jobs could earn extra spending money . The federal government spent $ 1 @.@ 3 million on the CPS program . The men performed $ 6 million of unpaid labor in return .

Men who worked for farmers or psychiatric hospitals received regular wages , which they were required to give to the federal government . Objections to this practice developed immediately because the men felt they were helping to fund the war . A compromise was reached where the wages were put into a special fund that was unused until after the end of the war . At one point , church representatives attempted unsuccessfully to have these funds used for providing a living allowance for the men 's dependents .

= = Types of work = =

The first Civilian Public Service projects were in rural areas where the men performed tasks related to soil conservation , agriculture and forestry . Later men were assigned to projects in cities where they worked in hospitals , psychiatric wards , and university research centers .

= = = Soil conservation and agriculture = = =

Anticipating the rural background of most men , the initial camps provided soil conservation and farming @-@ related projects . By August 1945 , 550 men worked on dairy farms and with milk testing . Labor @-@ intensive farming operations like dairies were short of workers and accepted COs to help fill the gap . Men assigned to the Bureau of Reclamation built contours to prevent soil erosion , constructed 164 reservoirs and 249 dams . A sixth of all CPS work was performed in this area .

= = = Forestry and National Parks = = =

At Forest Service and National Park Service camps , CPS men were responsible for fire control . Between fires they built forest trails , cared for nursery stock , planted thousands of seedlings and engaged in pest control . Campgrounds and roadways on the Blue Ridge Parkway and Skyline Drive of Virginia are products of CPS labor .

Hundreds of men volunteered for smoke jumping , showing their willingness to take great personal risks . When fire was detected by a lookout , smoke jumpers were flown directly to the site and dropped by parachute to quickly contain and extinguish the fire . From base camps scattered through the forests of Montana , Idaho and Oregon , the men were flown as many as 200 miles to fire sites , carrying firefighting tools and a two @-@ day supply of K @-@ rations . For larger fires , additional men , supplies and food were airdropped to expand the effort . Up to 240 CPS men served in this specialized program . One of the smokejumping schools was at Camp Paxson in Montana .

= = = Mental health = = =

As the war progressed , a critical shortage of workers in psychiatric hospitals developed , because staff had left for better paying jobs with fewer hours and improved working conditions . Understaffed wards at Philadelphia State Hospital had one attendant member for 300 patients , the minimum ratio being 10 : 1 . The government balked at initial requests that CPS workers have these positions , believing it better to keep the men segregated in the rural camps to prevent the spread of their philosophy .

Eventually the men received permission to work for the mental institutions as attendants or psychiatric aides . Individuals who found jobs at the rural camps unfulfilling and meaningless , volunteered for this new type of assignment . The mental health field promised to provide the work of national importance that the program was designed to produce . By the end of 1945 , more than 2000 CPS men worked in 41 institutions in 20 states .

The CPS men discovered appalling conditions in the mental hospital wards . In an interview , a conscientious objector described his experience when he first entered a mental hospital in October 1942 :

It is sort of like a perpetual bad dream . The smells , the sounds of the insane voices , the bad equipment . The long , dark corridors . I tell you , it is all very much like a medieval fairytale of the nether regions . We ’ d heard about how these patients had been treated by the attendants , Beat with rods , you know , do all kind of things . We took a vow before we left the camp , we decided that we would not assault or in any way , strike a patient .

I opened one of those rooms , and there was a man lying on the floor . I leaned over to try to see what I could do to minister to him in some way , do something for him . He may have been on a mattress or he may have been on the bare floor . No he was on the bare floor , because when I tried to move him , his skin came off . His skin was bloody and stuck to the floor and when I tried to lift him up it just peeled his skin off . He was in the last stages of syphilis . He died less than a week afterwards . Now that was my first introduction to what was badly needed in that institution .

The CPS men objected to the mistreatment and abuse of patients and determined to improve conditions in the psychiatric wards . They wanted to show other attendants alternatives to violence when dealing with patients .

Frank Olmstead , chairman of the War Resisters League observed :

One objector assigned to a violent ward refused to take the broomstick offered by the Charge . When he entered the ward the patients crowded around asking , " Where is your broomstick ? " He said he thought he would not need it . " But suppose some of us gang up on you ? " The CO guessed they wouldn 't do that and started talking about other things . Within a few days the patients were seen gathering around the unarmed attendant telling him of their troubles . He felt much safer than the Charge who had only his broomstick for company .

Outraged workers surveyed CPS men in other hospitals and learned of the degree of abuse throughout the psychiatric care system . Contacting church managers and government officials , the COs begin advocating for reforms to end the abuses . Conditions were exposed in institutions such as Cleveland State Hospital , Eastern State Hospital in Virginia and Hudson River State Hospital . One explained :

And the governor came in and they cleaned out the hospital . I mean , they had hearings . We all had to appear in court and all that kind of stuff . And within a month or so , the hospital was completely changed . The superintendent was fired and the new superintendent was put in , and not only did they do our hospital , they did all the hospitals , mental hospitals in Virginia .

The reformers were especially active at the Byberry Hospital in Philadelphia where four Friends initiated the The Attendant magazine as a way to communicate ideas and promote reform . This periodical later became The Psychiatric Aide , a professional journal for mental health workers . On May 6 , 1946 Life Magazine printed an exposé of the mental healthcare system based on the reports of COs . Another effort of CPS , Mental Hygiene Project became the National Mental Health Foundation . Initially skeptical about the value of Civilian Public Service , Eleanor Roosevelt , impressed by the changes introduced by COs in the mental health system , became a sponsor of the National Mental Health Foundation and actively inspired other prominent citizens including Owen J. Roberts , Pearl Buck and Harry Emerson Fosdick to join her in advancing the organization 's objectives of reform and humane treatment of patients .

= = = Medical experiments = = =

Draftees in Civilian Public Service became medical and scientific research test subjects in human medical experiments under the direction of the Office of Scientific Research and Development and the Surgeon General at medical institutions such as Harvard Medical School , Yale and Stanford Universities , and Massachusetts General Hospital . These experiments involved a range of research topics , sometimes endangering the health of the COs .

Hepatitis : During the 1940s the cause , method of communication and treatment of infectious hepatitis was not well understood . Experimentation began with COs working at psychiatric hospitals and was expanded to a major research project with 30 to 60 test subjects at the University of Pennsylvania and Yale University . The men were inoculated with infected blood plasma , swallowed nose and throat washings and the human body wastes of infected patients , and drank contaminated water .

As a young surgeon , C. Everett Koop was part of the research team at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine . He related his experience with CPS test subjects :

And the first time I was introduced to this whole program when I as a young surgeon , was asked to do serial biopsies on their livers to see what the effect of the virus was in the production of the changes in the liver . And in that way , I got to know that a lot of these young men had no idea that the risk they were taking also included death . And some of those youngsters did die and it was a very difficult thing for me to be part of , because you know , you ’ re powerless , when you ’ re part of the big team .

It couldn 't happen today . Internal Review Boards would not permit the use of a live virus in human subjects unless they really understood what was going to happen to them . And I doubt that even if they knew what the risk was , that an Internal Review Board in any academic institution would consent to that kind of experimental work .

The hepatitis research was instrumental in determining a virus is responsible for the disease and that it is transmitted through human filth , serum and drinking water .

Malaria : During the early 1940s , quinine was the chief anti @-@ malarial drug . Made from the bark of the South American cinchona tree , quinine was in short supply during the war , so scientists began searching for an alternative treatment . The test subjects allowed themselves to be bitten by malarial mosquitoes and when the fever reached its peak in three to four days , were given experimental treatments . At the University of Minnesota , twelve CPS men underwent tests to determine the recovery period for those infected with malaria . This research documented the debilitating effects of the disease and the amount of time required for a complete recovery .

Common cold and atypical pneumonia : A hundred CPS men participated with tests such that they inhaled or drank throat washings from soldiers with colds and pneumonia . This research proved that colds and some types of pneumonia are cause by a virus , not bacteria .

Minnesota Starvation Experiment : To study the effects of diet and nutrition , Dr. Ancel Keys of the University of Minnesota Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene placed 32 conscientious objectors on a controlled diet . For three months they were given a normal 3 @,@ 200 calories ( 13 @,@ 000 kJ ) diet . This was followed by six months of an 1 @,@ 800 calories ( 7 @,@ 500 kJ ) diet , fewer calories than provided by the famine diet experienced by the civilian population in wartime Europe . The research documented the men 's ability to maintain physical output and the psychological effects such as introversion , lethargy , irritability and severe depression . The study then followed the men 's long recovery as they returned to a normal diet and regained the weight lost during the experimentation .

The study provided valuable insights into hunger and starvation and the results were made available to all major relief agencies concerned with postwar food and nutrition problems , helping to inspire the Marshall Plan .

= = Closure and impact = =

Civilian Public Service men were released from their assignments and the camps closed during March 1947 , nineteen months after the end of the war in the Pacific . Reforms in the mental health system continued after the war . The experience of Mennonite COs was instrumental in creating regional mental health facilities in California , Kansas and Maryland .

Lewis Hill , who was in CPS camp number 37 near Coleville , California , together with several other COs founded Pacifica Network and KPFA Radio in Berkeley , California , the world 's first listener @-@ sponsored radio station . Poets William Everson and William Stafford were both in CPS camps . Actor Francis ( Fritz ) William Weaver spent time in the Big Flats ( New York ) CPS Camp number 46 .

Men from the historic peace churches volunteered for relief and reconstruction after their release from CPS . The 1947 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to American and British Friends Service Committees for their relief work in Europe after the war . Mennonite Central Committee redirected its effort from camp administration to relief and reconstruction in Europe after the war .

Civilian Public Service created a precedent for the Alternative Service Program for conscientious objectors in the United States during the Korean and Vietnam Wars . Although the CPS program was not duplicated , the idea of offering men an opportunity to do " work of national importance " instead of military service was established .

= Ireland =

Ireland ( / ˈaɪərlənd / ; Irish : Éire [ ˈeːɾʲə ] ; Ulster @-@ Scots : Airlann [ ˈɑːrlən ] ) is an island in the North Atlantic . It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel , the Irish Sea , and St George 's Channel . Ireland is the second @-@ largest island of the British Isles , the third @-@ largest in Europe , and the twentieth @-@ largest on Earth .

Politically , Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland ( officially named Ireland ) , which covers five @-@ sixths of the island , and Northern Ireland , which is part of the United Kingdom , in the northeast of the island . In 2011 the population of Ireland was about 6 @.@ 4 million , ranking it the second @-@ most populous island in Europe after Great Britain . Just under 4 @.@ 6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just over 1 @.@ 8 million live in Northern Ireland .

The island 's geography comprises relatively low @-@ lying mountains surrounding a central plain , with several navigable rivers extending inland . The island has lush vegetation , a product of its mild but changeable climate which avoids extremes in temperature . Thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages . As of 2013 , the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11 % of the total , compared with a European average of 35 % . There are twenty @-@ six extant mammal species native to Ireland . The Irish climate is very moderated and classified as oceanic . As a result , winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area . However , summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe . Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant .

The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century AD and lasted until the First World War . The island was Christianised from the 5th century onward . Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century , England claimed sovereignty over Ireland . However , English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th – 17th century Tudor conquest , which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain . In the 1690s , a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters , and was extended during the 18th century . With the Acts of Union in 1801 , Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom . A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island , creating the Irish Free State , which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades , and Northern Ireland , which remained a part of the United Kingdom . Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s . This subsided following a political agreement in 1998 . In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom , and Northern Ireland , as part of it , did the same .

Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures , especially in the fields of literature . Alongside mainstream Western culture , a strong indigenous culture exists , as expressed through Gaelic games , Irish music , and the Irish language . The culture of the island also shares many features with that of Great Britain , including the English language , and sports such as association football , rugby , horse racing , and golf .

= = Name = =

Ireland consists of Old Irish Eriu + English land . Eriu derives from Proto @-@ Celtic * Iveriu ( compare Welsh Iwerddon ) , which is also the source of Latin Hibernia . Iveriu derives from a root meaning " fat , prosperous " .

= = History = =

= = = Prehistoric Ireland = = =

During the last glacial period , and up until about 9000 years ago , most of Ireland was covered with ice , most of the time . Sea levels were lower and Ireland , like Great Britain , formed part of continental Europe . By 12 @,@ 000 BC , rising sea levels due to ice melting caused Ireland to become separated from Great Britain . Later , around 5600 BC , Great Britain itself became separated from continental Europe . The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Until recently the earliest evidence of humans in Ireland were Mesolithic people who arrived by boat from Britain between 8000 BC and 7000 BC .

From about 4500 BC , Neolithic settlers arrived introducing cereal cultivars , a housing culture ( similar to those of the same period in Scotland ) and stone monuments . A more advanced agriculture was to develop . At the Céide Fields , preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present @-@ day County Mayo , is an extensive field system , arguably the oldest in the world , dating from not long after this period . Consisting of small divisions separated by dry @-@ stone walls , the fields were farmed for several centuries between 3500 BC and 3000 BC . Wheat and barley were the principal crops imported from the Iberian Peninsula .

The Bronze Age – defined by the use of metal – began around 2500 BC , with technology changing people 's everyday lives during this period through innovations such as the wheel , harnessing oxen , weaving textiles , brewing alcohol , and skilful metalworking , which produced new weapons and tools , along with fine gold decoration and jewellery , such as brooches and torcs . According to John T. Koch and others , Ireland in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading @-@ networked culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that also included Britain , western France and Iberia , and that this is where Celtic languages developed . This contrasts with the traditional view that their origin lies in mainland Europe with the Hallstatt culture .

= = = = Emergence of Celtic Ireland = = = =

During the Iron Age , a Celtic language and culture emerged in Ireland . How and when the island of Ireland became Celtic has been debated for close to a century , with the migrations of the Celts being one of the more enduring themes of archaeological and linguistic studies . Today , there is more than one school of thought on how this occurred in Ireland .

The long @-@ standing traditional view , once widely accepted , is that Celtic language , Ogham script and culture were brought to Ireland by waves of invading or migrating Celts from mainland Europe . This theory draws on the Lebor Gabála Érenn , a medieval Christian pseudo @-@ history of Ireland along with the presence of Celtic culture , language and artefacts found in Ireland such as Celtic bronze spears , shields , torcs and other finely crafted Celtic associated possessions . The theory holds that there were four separate Celtic invasions of Ireland . The Priteni were said to be the first , followed by the Belgae from northern Gaul and Britain . Later , Laighin tribes from Armorica ( present @-@ day Brittany ) were said to have invaded Ireland and Britain more or less simultaneously . Lastly , the Milesians ( Gaels ) were said to have reached Ireland from either northern Iberia or southern Gaul . It was claimed that a second wave named the Euerni , belonging to the Belgae people of northern Gaul , began arriving about the sixth century BC . They were said to have given their name to the island .

A more recent theory , with broad support among archaeologists , is that Celtic culture and language arrived in Ireland as a result of cultural diffusion . This theory proposes that the Celticisation of Ireland may have been the culmination of a long process of social and economic interaction between Ireland , Britain and adjacent parts of Continental Europe .

The theory was advanced in part because of lack of archeological evidence for large @-@ scale Celtic immigration , though it is accepted that such movements are notoriously difficult to identify . Some proponents of this theory hold that it is likely that there was migration of smaller groups of Celts to Ireland , with sufficiently regular traffic to constitute a " migration stream , " but that this was not the fundamental cause of Insular Celticisation . Historical linguists are sceptical that this method alone could account for the absorption of the Celtic language , with some saying that an assumed processional view of Celtic linguistic formation is ' an especially hazardous exercise ' . Genetic lineage investigation into the area of Celtic migration to Ireland has led to findings that showed no significant differences in mitochondrial DNA between Ireland and large areas of continental Europe , in contrast to parts of the Y @-@ chromosome pattern . When taking both into account a recent study drew the conclusion that modern Celtic speakers in Ireland could be thought of as European " Atlantic Celts " showing a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia rather than substantially central European .

= = = Late antiquity and early medieval times = = =

The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco @-@ Roman geographers . Ptolemy in his Almagest refers to Ireland as Mikra Brettania ( Little Britain ) , in contrast to the larger island , which he called Megale Brettania ( Great Britain ) . In his later work , Geography , Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Iouernia and to Great Britain as Albion . These " new " names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time . The earlier names , in contrast , were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made .

The Romans would later refer to Ireland by this name too in its Latinised form , Hibernia , or Scotia . Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD . The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear . However , a number of finds of Roman coins have been made , for example at the Iron Age settlement of Freestone Hill near Gowran and Newgrange .

Ireland continued as a patchwork of rival kingdoms but , beginning in the 7th century AD , a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a High King of Ireland . Medieval Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of High Kings stretching back thousands of years but modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past .

The High King was said to preside over the provincial kingdoms that together formed Ireland . All of these kingdoms had their own kings but were at least nominally subject to the High King . The High King was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal kingdom of Meath , with a ceremonial capital at the Hill of Tara . The concept only became a political reality in the Viking Age and even then was not a consistent one . Ireland did have a culturally unifying rule of law : the early written judicial system , the Brehon Laws , administered by a professional class of jurists known as the brehons . However , a united kingdom of Gaelic Ireland was never achieved .

The Chronicle of Ireland records that in 431 AD Bishop Palladius arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish " already believing in Christ " . The same chronicle records that Saint Patrick , Ireland 's best known patron saint , arrived the following year . There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick but the consensus is that they both took place and that the older druid tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion . Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology . In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland , Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Europe , where the Dark Ages followed the decline of the Roman Empire .

The arts of manuscript illumination , metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the Book of Kells , ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses that still dot the island today . A mission founded in 563 on Iona by the Irish monk Saint Columba began a tradition of Irish missionary work that spread Celtic Christianity and learning to Scotland , England and the Frankish Empire on Continental Europe after the fall of Rome . These missions continued until the late Middle Ages , establishing monasteries and centres of learning , producing scholars such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Eriugena and exerting much influence in Europe .

From the 9th century , waves of Viking raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns . These raids added to a pattern of raiding and endemic warfare that was already deep @-@ seated in Ireland . The Vikings also were involved in establishing most of the major coastal settlements in Ireland : Dublin , Limerick , Cork , Wexford , Waterford , and also Carlingford , Strangford , Annagassan , Arklow , Youghal , Lough Foyle and Lough Ree .

= = = Norman and English invasions = = =

On 1 May 1169 , an expedition of Cambro @-@ Norman knights with an army of about six hundred landed at Bannow Strand in present @-@ day County Wexford . It was led by Richard de Clare , called Strongbow due to his prowess as an archer . The invasion , which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion , was at the invitation of Dermot Mac Murrough , the king of Leinster .

In 1166 , Mac Murrough had fled to Anjou , France , following a war involving Tighearnán Ua Ruairc , of Breifne , and sought the assistance of the Angevin king , Henry II , in recapturing his kingdom . In 1171 , Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition . He wanted to re @-@ exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control . Henry successfully re @-@ imposed his authority over Strongbow and the Cambro @-@ Norman warlords and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord , an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 Treaty of Windsor .

The invasion was legitimised by the provisions of the Papal Bull Laudabiliter , issued by Adrian IV in 1155 . The bull encouraged Henry to take control in Ireland in order to oversee the financial and administrative reorganisation of the Irish Church and its integration into the Roman Church system . Some restructuring had already begun at the ecclesiastical level following the Synod of Kells in 1152 . There has been significant controversy regarding the authenticity of Laudabiliter , and there is no general agreement as to whether the bull was genuine or a forgery .

In 1172 , the new pope , Alexander III , further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome . Henry was authorised to impose a tithe of one penny per hearth as an annual contribution . This church levy , called Peter 's Pence , is extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation . In turn , Henry accepted the title of Lord of Ireland which Henry conferred on his younger son , John Lackland , in 1185 . This defined the Irish state as the Lordship of Ireland . When Henry 's successor died unexpectedly in 1199 , John inherited the crown of England and retained the Lordship of Ireland .

Over the century that followed , Norman feudal law gradually replaced the Gaelic Brehon Law so that by the late 13th century the Norman @-@ Irish had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland . Norman settlements were characterised by the establishment of baronies , manors , towns and the seeds of the modern county system . A version of the Magna Carta ( the Great Charter of Ireland ) , substituting Dublin for London and Irish Church for Church of England , was published in 1216 and the Parliament of Ireland was founded in 1297 .

From the mid @-@ 14th century , after the Black Death , Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline . The Norman rulers and the Gaelic Irish elites intermarried and the areas under Norman rule became Gaelicised . In some parts , a hybrid Hiberno @-@ Norman culture emerged . In response , the Irish parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367 . These were a set of laws designed to prevent the assimilation of the Normans into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English , follow English customs and abide by English law .

By the end of the 15th century central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared and a renewed Irish culture and language , albeit with Norman influences , was dominant again . English Crown control remained relatively unshaken in an amorphous foothold around Dublin known as The Pale , and under the provisions of Poynings ' Law of 1494 , the Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the English Parliament .

= = = The Kingdom of Ireland = = =

The title of King of Ireland was re @-@ created in 1542 by Henry VIII , then King of England , of the Tudor dynasty . English rule of law was reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the 16th century , leading to the Tudor conquest of Ireland . A near complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the 17th century , following the Nine Years ' War and the Flight of the Earls .

This control was further consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the 17th century , which witnessed English and Scottish colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland , the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War . Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms ( which , in Ireland , included the Irish Confederacy and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland ) are estimated to include 20 @,@ 000 battlefield casualties . 200 @,@ 000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war @-@ related famine , displacement , guerrilla activity and pestilence over the duration of the war . A further 50 @,@ 000 were sent into indentured servitude in the West Indies . Some historians estimate that as much as half of the pre @-@ war population of Ireland may have died as a result of the conflict .

The religious struggles of the 17th century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland . Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament . After the passing of the Test Act 1672 , and with the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of William and Mary over the Jacobites , Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestant Dissenters were barred from sitting as members in the Irish Parliament . Under the emerging Penal Laws , Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various and sundry civil rights even to the ownership of hereditary property . Additional regressive punitive legislation followed 1703 , 1709 and 1728 . This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters , while enriching a new ruling class of Anglican conformists . The new Anglo @-@ Irish ruling class became known as the Protestant Ascendancy .

An extraordinary climatic shock known as the " Great Frost " struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741 , after a decade of relatively mild winters . The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples and the poor summers severely damaged harvests . This resulted in the famine of 1740 . An estimated 250 @,@ 000 people ( about one in eight of the population ) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease . The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more . Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality .

In the aftermath of the famine , an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms . The population soared in the latter part of this century and the architectural legacy of Georgian Ireland was built . In 1782 , Poynings ' Law was repealed , giving Ireland legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since 1495 . The British government , however , still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland without the consent of the Irish parliament .

= = = Union with Great Britain = = =

In 1798 , members of the Protestant Dissenter tradition ( mainly Presbyterian ) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United Irishmen , with the aim of creating an independent Ireland . Despite assistance from France the rebellion was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces . In 1800 , the British and Irish parliaments both passed Acts of Union that , with effect from 1 January 1801 , merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland .

The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial majorities , having failed on the first attempt in 1799 . According to contemporary documents and historical analysis , this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery , with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office , and the awarding of peerages , places and honours to secure votes . Thus , the parliament in Ireland was abolished and replaced by a united parliament at Westminster in London , though resistance remained , as evidenced by Robert Emmet 's failed Irish Rebellion of 1803 .

Aside from the development of the linen industry , Ireland was largely passed over by the industrial revolution , partly because it lacked coal and iron resources and partly because of the impact of the sudden union with the structurally superior economy of England , which saw Ireland as a source of agricultural produce and capital .

The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it . By the end of the decade , half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland . The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Land War . Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid @-@ 20th century . Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8 @.@ 2 million by the 1841 census . The population has never returned to this level since . The population continued to fall until 1961 and it was not until the 2006 census that the last county of Ireland ( County Leitrim ) to record a rise in population since 1841 did so .

The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern Irish nationalism , primarily among the Roman Catholic population . The pre @-@ eminent Irish political figure after the Union was Daniel O 'Connell . He was elected as Member of Parliament for Ennis in a surprise result and despite being unable to take his seat as a Roman Catholic . O 'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign that was taken up by the Prime Minister , the Irish @-@ born soldier and statesman , the Duke of Wellington . Steering the Catholic Relief Bill through Parliament , aided by future prime minister Robert Peel , Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant George IV to sign the Bill and proclaim it into law . George 's father had opposed the plan of the earlier Prime Minister , Pitt the Younger , to introduce such a bill following the Union of 1801 , fearing Catholic Emancipation to be in conflict with the Act of Settlement 1701 .

Daniel O 'Connell led a subsequent campaign , for the repeal of the Act of Union , which failed . Later in the century , Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union , or " Home Rule " . Unionists , especially those located in Ulster , were strongly opposed to Home Rule , which they thought would be dominated by Catholic interests . After several attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament , it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914 . To prevent this from happening , the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Edward Carson .

Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the Irish Volunteers , whose aim was to ensure that the Home Rule Bill was passed . The Act was passed but with the " temporary " exclusion of the six counties of Ulster that would become Northern Ireland . Before it could be implemented , however , the Act was suspended for the duration of the First World War . The Irish Volunteers split into two groups . The majority , approximately 175 @,@ 000 in number , under John Redmond , took the name National Volunteers and supported Irish involvement in the war . A minority , approximately 13 @,@ 000 , retained the Irish Volunteers ' name , and opposed Ireland 's involvement in the war .

The Easter Rising of 1916 was carried out by the latter group together with a smaller socialist militia , the Irish Citizen Army . The British response , executing fifteen leaders of the Rising over a period of ten days and imprisoning or interning more than a thousand people , turned the mood of the country in favour of the rebels . Support for Irish republicanism increased further due to the ongoing war in Europe , as well as the Conscription Crisis of 1918 .

The pro @-@ independence republican party , Sinn Féin , received overwhelming endorsement in the general election of 1918 , and in 1919 proclaimed an Irish Republic , setting up its own parliament ( Dáil Éireann ) and government . Simultaneously the Volunteers , which became known as the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) , launched a three @-@ year guerrilla war , which ended in a truce in July 1921 ( although violence continued until June 1922 , mostly in Northern Ireland ) .

= = = Partition = = =

In December 1921 , the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty was concluded between the British Government and representatives of the Second Dáil . It gave Ireland complete independence in its home affairs and practical independence for foreign policy , but an opt @-@ out clause allowed Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom , which it immediately exercised as expected . Additionally , an oath of allegiance to the King was to be taken . Disagreements over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent Irish Civil War between the new government of the Irish Free State and those opposed to the treaty , led by Éamon de Valera . The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease @-@ fire order .

= = = = Independence = = = =

During its first decade , the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war . When de Valera achieved power , he took advantage of the Statute of Westminster and political circumstances to build upon inroads to greater sovereignty made by the previous government . The oath was abolished and in 1937 a new constitution was adopted . This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence . However , it was not until 1949 that the state was declared , officially , to be the Republic of Ireland .

The state was neutral during World War II , but offered clandestine assistance to the Allies , particularly in the potential defence of Northern Ireland . Despite their country 's neutrality , approximately 50 @,@ 000 volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war , four being awarded Victoria Crosses .

The Abwehr was also active in Ireland . German intelligence operations effectively ended in September 1941 when police made arrests on the basis of surveillance carried out on the key diplomatic legations in Dublin , including that of the United States . To the authorities , counterintelligence was a fundamental line of defence . With a regular army of only slightly over seven thousand men at the start of the war , and with limited supplies of modern weapons , the state would have had great difficulty in defending itself from invasion from either side in the conflict .

Large @-@ scale emigration marked most of the post @-@ WWII period ( particularly during the 1950s and 1980s ) , but beginning in 1987 the economy improved , and the 1990s saw the beginning of substantial economic growth . This period of growth became known as the Celtic Tiger . The Republic 's real GDP grew by an average of 9 @.@ 6 % per annum between 1995 and 1999 , in which year the Republic joined the euro . In 2000 , it was the sixth @-@ richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita .

Social changes also occurred in this time , most markedly with the decline in authority of the Catholic Church . The financial crisis that began in 2008 dramatically ended this period of boom . GDP fell by 3 % in 2008 and by 7 @.@ 1 % in 2009 , the worst year since records began ( although earnings by foreign @-@ owned businesses continued to grow ) . The state has since experienced deep recession , with unemployment , which doubled during 2009 , remaining above 14 % in 2012 .

= = = = Northern Ireland = = = =

Northern Ireland was created as a division of the United Kingdom by the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and until 1972 it was a self @-@ governing jurisdiction within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister . Northern Ireland , as part of the United Kingdom , was not neutral during the Second World War and Belfast suffered four bombing raids in 1941 . Conscription was not extended to Northern Ireland and roughly an equal number volunteered from Northern Ireland as volunteered from the south . One , James Joseph Magennis , received the Victoria Cross for valour .

Although Northern Ireland was largely spared the strife of the civil war , in decades that followed partition there were sporadic episodes of inter @-@ communal violence . Nationalists , mainly Roman Catholic , wanted to unite Ireland as an independent republic , whereas unionists , mainly Protestant , wanted Northern Ireland to remain in the United Kingdom . The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along sectarian lines , meaning that the Government of Northern Ireland ( elected by " first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post " from 1929 ) was controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party . Over time , the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further disaffection fuelled by practices such as gerrymandering and discrimination in housing and employment .

In the late 1960s , nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests , which were often confronted by loyalist counter @-@ protests . The government 's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one @-@ sided and heavy @-@ handed in favour of unionists . Law and order broke down as unrest and inter @-@ communal violence increased . The Northern Ireland government requested the British Army to aid the police , who were exhausted after several nights of serious rioting . In 1969 , the paramilitary Provisional IRA , which favoured the creation of a united Ireland , emerged from a split in the Irish Republican Army and began a campaign against what it called the " British occupation of the six counties " .

Other groups , on both the unionist side and the nationalist side , participated in violence and a period known as the Troubles began . Over 3 @,@ 600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict . Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles , the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule . There were several unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles politically , such as the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973 . In 1998 , following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi @-@ party talks , the Good Friday Agreement was concluded as a treaty between the British and Irish governments , annexing the text agreed in the multi @-@ party talks .

The substance of the Agreement ( formally referred to as the Belfast Agreement ) was later endorsed by referendums in both parts of Ireland . The Agreement restored self @-@ government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power @-@ sharing in a regional Executive drawn from the major parties in a new Northern Ireland Assembly , with entrenched protections for the two main communities . The Executive is jointly headed by a First Minister and deputy First Minister drawn from the unionist and nationalist parties . Violence had decreased greatly after the Provisional IRA and loyalist ceasefires in 1994 and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an independent commission supervised its disarmament and that of other nationalist and unionist paramilitary organisations .

The Assembly and power @-@ sharing Executive were suspended several times but were restored again in 2007 . In that year the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland ( Operation Banner ) and began withdrawing troops . On 27 June 2012 , Northern Ireland 's deputy first minister and former IRA commander , Martin McGuinness , shook hands with Queen Elizabeth II in Belfast , symbolising reconciliation between the two sides .

= = Politics = =

Politically , the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland , an independent state , and Northern Ireland ( a constituent country of the United Kingdom ) . They share an open border and both are part of the Common Travel Area .

Both the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom are members of the European Union , and as a consequence there is free movement of people , goods , services and capital across the border .

= = = Republic of Ireland = = =

The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy based on the British model , with a written constitution and a popularly elected president who has mostly ceremonial powers . The government is headed by a prime minister , the Taoiseach , who is appointed by the President on the nomination of the lower house of parliament , the Dáil . Members of the government are chosen from both the Dáil and the upper house of parliament , the Seanad . Its capital is Dublin .

The Republic today ranks amongst the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita and in 2012 was ranked the seventh most developed nation in the world by the United Nations ' Human Development Index . A period of rapid economic expansion from 1995 onwards became known as the Celtic Tiger period , was brought to an end in 2008 with an unprecedented financial crisis and an economic depression in 2009 .

= = = Northern Ireland = = =

Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom with a local executive and assembly which exercise devolved powers . The executive is jointly headed by the first and deputy @-@ first minister , with the ministries being allocated in proportion with each party 's representation in the assembly . Its capital is Belfast .

Ultimately political power is held by the UK government , from which Northern Ireland has gone through intermittent periods of direct rule during which devolved powers have been suspended . Northern Ireland elects 18 of the UK House of Commons ' 650 MPs . The Northern Ireland Secretary is a cabinet @-@ level post in the British government .

Along with England , Wales and Scotland , Northern Ireland forms one of the three separate legal jurisdictions of the UK , all of which share the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom as their court of final appeal .

= = = All @-@ island institutions = = =

As part of the Good Friday Agreement , the British and Irish governments agreed on the creation of all @-@ island institutions and areas of cooperation .

The North / South Ministerial Council is an institution through which ministers from the Government of Ireland and the Northern Ireland Executive agree all @-@ island policies . At least six of these policy areas must have an associated all @-@ island " implementation bodies " and at least six others must be implemented separately in each jurisdiction . The implementation bodies are : Waterways Ireland , the Food Safety Promotion Board , InterTradeIreland , the Special European Union Programmes Body , the North / South Language Body and the Foyle , Carlingford and Irish Lights Commission .

The British – Irish Intergovernmental Conference provides for co @-@ operation between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom on all matter of mutual interest , especially Northern Ireland . In light of the Republic 's particular interest in the governance of Northern Ireland , " regular and frequent " meetings co @-@ chaired by the ROI Minister for Foreign Affairs and the UK Secretary of State for Northern Ireland , dealing with non @-@ devolved matters to do with Northern Ireland and non @-@ devolved all @-@ Ireland issues , are required to take place under the establishing treaty .

The North / South Inter @-@ Parliamentary Association is a joint parliamentary forum for the island of Ireland . It has no formal powers but operates as a forum for discussing matters of common concern between the respective legislatures .

= = Economy = =

Despite the two jurisdictions using two distinct currencies ( the euro and pound sterling ) , a growing amount of commercial activity is carried out on an all @-@ Ireland basis . This has been facilitated by the two jurisdictions ' shared membership of the European Union , and there have been calls from members of the business community and policymakers for the creation of an " all @-@ Ireland economy " to take advantage of economies of scale and boost competitiveness .

There are two multi @-@ city regions on the island of Ireland :

Dublin @-@ Belfast corridor - 3 @.@ 3 m

Cork @-@ Limerick @-@ Galway corridor - 1 m

Below is a comparison of the Regional GDP on the island of Ireland .

The BMW region of the Republic of Ireland ( consisting of Connacht , Counties Laois , Offaly , Westmeath , Longford , Donegal , Monaghan , Cavan , Louth )

The S & E region of the Republic of Ireland ( consisting of Munster , Counties Dublin , Wicklow , Meath , Kildare , Kilkenny , Carlow , Wexford ) .

= = = Energy = = =

Ireland has an ancient industry based on peat ( known locally as " turf " ) as a source of energy for home fires . A form of biomass energy , this source of heat is still widely used in rural areas . However , due to the ecological importance of peatlands in storing carbon and their rarity , the EU is attempting to protect this habitat by fining Ireland if they are dug up . In cities , heat is generally supplied by heating oil , although some urban suppliers distribute " sods of turf " as " smokeless fuel " .

An area in which the island operates as a single market is electricity . For much of their existence electricity networks in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland were entirely separate . Both networks were designed and constructed independently post partition . However , as a result of changes over recent years they are now connected with three interlinks and also connected through Great Britain to mainland Europe . The situation in Northern Ireland is complicated by the issue of private companies not supplying Northern Ireland Electricity ( NIE ) with enough power . In the Republic of Ireland , the ESB has failed to modernise its power stations and the availability of power plants has recently averaged only 66 % , one of the worst such rates in Western Europe . EirGrid is building a HVDC transmission line between Ireland and Great Britain with a capacity of 500 MW , about 10 % of Ireland 's peak demand .

As with electricity , the natural gas distribution network is also now all @-@ island , with a pipeline linking Gormanston , County Meath , and Ballyclare , County Antrim completed in 2007 . Most of Ireland 's gas comes through interconnectors between Twynholm in Scotland and Ballylumford , County Antrim and Loughshinny , County Dublin . A decreasing supply is coming from the Kinsale gas field off the County Cork coast and the Corrib Gas Field off the coast of County Mayo has yet to come on @-@ line . The County Mayo field is facing some localised opposition over a controversial decision to refine the gas onshore .

The Republic of Ireland has shown a strong commitment to renewable energy , ranking as one of the top 10 markets for cleantech investment in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index . Research and development in Ireland in renewable energy such as wind power has increased since 2004 . Large wind farms are being constructed in coastal counties such as Cork , Donegal , Mayo and Antrim . The construction of wind farms has in some cases been delayed by opposition from local communities , some of whom overall consider the wind turbines to be unsightly . The Republic of Ireland is also hindered by an ageing network that was not designed to handle the varying availability of power that comes from wind farms . The ESB 's Turlough Hill facility is the only power @-@ storage facility in the state .

= = Geography = =

The island of Ireland is located in the north @-@ west of Europe , between latitudes 51 ° and 56 ° N , and longitudes 11 ° and 5 ° W. It is separated from the neighbouring island of Great Britain by the Irish Sea and the North Channel , which has a width of 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) at its narrowest point . To the west is the northern Atlantic Ocean and to the south is the Celtic Sea , which lies between Ireland and Brittany , in France . Ireland has a total area of 84 @,@ 421 km2 ( 32 @,@ 595 sq mi ) . Ireland and Great Britain , together with many nearby smaller islands , are known collectively as the British Isles . As the term British Isles is controversial in relation to Ireland , the alternate term Britain and Ireland is often used as a neutral term for the islands .

A ring of coastal mountains surround low plains at the centre of the island . The highest of these is Carrauntoohil ( Irish : Corrán Tuathail ) in County Kerry , which rises to 1 @,@ 038 m ( 3 @,@ 406 ft ) above sea level . The most arable land lies in the province of Leinster . Western areas can be mountainous and rocky with green panoramic vistas . The River Shannon , the island 's longest river at 386 km ( 240 mi ) long , rises in County Cavan in the north west and flows 113 kilometres ( 70 mi ) to Limerick city in the mid west .

The island 's lush vegetation , a product of its mild climate and frequent rainfall , earns it the sobriquet the Emerald Isle . Overall , Ireland has a mild but changeable oceanic climate with few extremes . The climate is typically insular and is temperate avoiding the extremes in temperature of many other areas in the world at similar latitudes . This is a result of the moderating moist winds which ordinarily prevail from the South @-@ Western Atlantic .

Precipitation falls throughout the year but is light overall , particularly in the east . The west tends to be wetter on average and prone to Atlantic storms , especially in the late autumn and winter months . These occasionally bring destructive winds and higher total rainfall to these areas , as well as sometimes snow and hail . The regions of north County Galway and east County Mayo have the highest incidents of recorded lightning annually for the island , with lightning occurring approximately five to ten days per year in these areas . Munster , in the south , records the least snow whereas Ulster , in the north , records the most .

Inland areas are warmer in summer and colder in winter . Usually around 40 days of the year are below freezing 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) at inland weather stations , compared to 10 days at coastal stations . Ireland is sometimes affected by heat waves , most recently in 1995 , 2003 , 2006 and 2013 . In common with the rest of Europe , Ireland experienced unusually cold weather during the winter of 2009 / 10 . Temperatures fell as low as − 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 1 ° F ) in County Mayo on 20 December and up to a metre ( 3 ft ) of snow fell in mountainous areas .

The island consists of varied geological provinces . In the far west , around County Galway and County Donegal , is a medium to high grade metamorphic and igneous complex of Caledonide affinity , similar to the Scottish Highlands . Across southeast Ulster and extending southwest to Longford and south to Navan is a province of Ordovician and Silurian rocks , with similarities to the Southern Uplands province of Scotland . Further south , along the County Wexford coastline , is an area of granite intrusives into more Ordovician and Silurian rocks , like that found in Wales .

In the southwest , around Bantry Bay and the mountains of Macgillicuddy 's Reeks , is an area of substantially deformed , but only lightly metamorphosed , Devonian @-@ aged rocks . This partial ring of " hard rock " geology is covered by a blanket of Carboniferous limestone over the centre of the country , giving rise to a comparatively fertile and lush landscape . The west @-@ coast district of the Burren around Lisdoonvarna has well @-@ developed karst features . Significant stratiform lead @-@ zinc mineralisation is found in the limestones around Silvermines and Tynagh .

Hydrocarbon exploration is ongoing following the first major find at the Kinsale Head gas field off Cork in the mid @-@ 1970s . In 1999 , economically significant finds of natural gas were made in the Corrib Gas Field off the County Mayo coast . This has increased activity off the west coast in parallel with the " West of Shetland " step @-@ out development from the North Sea hydrocarbon province . The Helvick oil field , estimated to contain over 28 million barrels ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , is another recent discovery .

Landscapes

= = = Places of interest = = =

There are three World Heritage Sites on the island : the Brú na Bóinne , Skellig Michael and the Giant 's Causeway . A number of other places are on the tentative list , for example the Burren , the Ceide Fields and Mount Stewart .

Some of the most visited sites in Ireland include Bunratty Castle , the Rock of Cashel , the Cliffs of Moher , Holy Cross Abbey and Blarney Castle . Historically important monastic sites include Glendalough and Clonmacnoise , which are maintained as national monuments in the Republic of Ireland .

Dublin is the most heavily touristed region and home to several of the most popular attractions such as the Guinness Storehouse and Book of Kells . The west and south west , which includes the Lakes of Killarney and the Dingle peninsula in County Kerry and Connemara and the Aran Islands in County Galway , are also popular tourist destinations .

Achill Island lies off the coast of County Mayo and is Ireland 's largest island . It is a popular tourist destination for surfing and contains 5 Blue Flag beaches and Croaghaun one of the worlds highest sea cliffs . Stately homes , built during the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries in Palladian , Neoclassical and neo @-@ Gothic styles , such as , Castle Ward , Castletown House , Bantry House , Glenveagh Castle are also of interest to tourists . Some have been converted into hotels , such as Ashford Castle , Castle Leslie and Dromoland Castle .

World Heritage Sites

= = Flora and fauna = =

Because Ireland became isolated from mainland Europe by rising sea levels before the last ice age had completely finished , it has fewer land animal and plant species than Great Britain , which separated later , or mainland Europe . There are 55 mammal species in Ireland and of them only 26 land mammal species are considered native to Ireland . Some species , such as , the red fox , hedgehog and badger , are very common , whereas others , like the Irish hare , red deer and pine marten are less so . Aquatic wildlife , such as species of sea turtle , shark , seal , whale , and dolphin , are common off the coast . About 400 species of birds have been recorded in Ireland . Many of these are migratory , including the barn swallow .

Several different habitat types are found in Ireland , including farmland , open woodland , temperate broadleaf and mixed forests , conifer plantations , peat bogs and a variety of coastal habitats . However , agriculture drives current land use patterns in Ireland , limiting natural habitat preserves , particularly for larger wild mammals with greater territorial needs . With no large apex predators in Ireland other than humans and dogs , such populations of animals as semi @-@ wild deer that cannot be controlled by smaller predators , such as the fox , are controlled by annual culling .

There are no snakes in Ireland and only one species of reptile ( the common lizard ) is native to the island . Extinct species include the Irish elk , the great auk and the wolf . Some previously extinct birds , such as the golden eagle , been reintroduced in about the year 2000 after decades of extirpation . Until medieval times Ireland was heavily forested with oak , pine and birch . Forests today cover about 12 @.@ 6 % of Ireland , of which 4 @,@ 450 km ² or one million acres is owned by Coillte , the Republic 's forestry service .

As of 2012 the Republic is one of the least forested countries in Europe . Much of the land is now covered with pasture and there are many species of wild @-@ flower . Gorse ( Ulex europaeus ) , a wild furze , is commonly found growing in the uplands and ferns are plentiful in the more moist regions , especially in the western parts . It is home to hundreds of plant species , some of them unique to the island , and has been " invaded " by some grasses , such as Spartina anglica .

The algal and seaweed flora is that of the cold @-@ temperate variety . The total number of species is 574 and is distributed as follows :

264 Rhodophyta ( red algae )

152 Phaeophyceae ( brown algae including kelps )

114 Chloropyta ( green algae )

31 Cyanophyta ( Blue @-@ green algae )

Rarer species include :

Itonoa marginifera ( J.Agardh ) Masuda & Guiry

Schmitzia hiscockiana Maggs & Guiry

Gelidiella calcicola Maggs & Guiry

Gelidium maggsiae Rico & Guiry

Halymenia latifolia P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan ex Kützing .

The island has been invaded by some algae , some of which are now well established . For example :

Asparagopsis armara Harvey , which originated in Australia and was first recorded by M. De Valera in 1939

Colpomenia peregrina Sauvageau , which is now locally abundant and first recorded in the 1930s

Sargassum muticum ( Yendo ) Fensholt , now well established in a number of localities on the south , west , and north @-@ east coasts

Codium fragile ssp. fragile ( formerly reported as ssp. tomentosum ) , now well established .

Codium fragile ssp. atlanticum has been established to be native , although for many years it was regarded as an alien species .

Because of its mild climate , many species , including sub @-@ tropical species such as palm trees , are grown in Ireland . Phytogeographically , Ireland belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom . The island itself can be subdivided into two ecoregions : the Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests .

= = = Impact of agriculture = = =

The long history of agricultural production , coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods such as pesticide and fertiliser use and runoff from contaminants into streams , rivers and lakes , impact the natural fresh @-@ water ecosystems and have placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland .

A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species . Hedgerows , however , traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries , act as a refuge for native wild flora . This ecosystem stretches across the countryside and acts as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island . Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy , which supported agricultural practices that preserved hedgerow environments , are undergoing reforms . The Common Agricultural Policy had in the past subsidised potentially destructive agricultural practices , for example by emphasising production without placing limits on indiscriminate use of fertilisers and pesticides ; but reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements .

Forest covers about 12 @.@ 6 % of the country , most of it designated for commercial production . Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non @-@ native species , which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting native species of invertebrates . Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the island , in particular in the Killarney National Park . Natural areas require fencing to prevent over @-@ grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas . Grazing in this manner is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country .

= = Demographics = =

People have lived in Ireland for over 9 @,@ 000 years . The different eras are termed mesolithic , neolithic , Bronze Age , and Iron Age .

Early historical and genealogical records note the existence of major groups such as the Cruthin , Corcu Loígde , Dál Riata , Dáirine , Deirgtine , Delbhna , Érainn , Laigin , Ulaid . Slightly later major groups included the Connachta , Ciannachta , Eóganachta .

Smaller groups included the aithechthúatha ( see Attacotti ) , Cálraighe , Cíarraige , Conmaicne , Dartraighe , Déisi , Éile , Fir Bolg , Fortuatha , Gailenga , Gamanraige , Mairtine , Múscraige , Partraige , Soghain , Uaithni , Uí Maine , Uí Liatháin . Many survived into late medieval times , others vanished as they became politically unimportant .

Over the past 1200 years , Vikings , Normans , Welsh , Flemings , Scots , English , Africans , Eastern Europeans and South Americans have all added to the population and have had significant influences on Irish culture .

Ireland 's largest religious group is Christianity . The largest denomination is Roman Catholicism representing over 73 % for the island ( and about 87 % of the Republic of Ireland ) . Most of the rest of the population adhere to one of the various Protestant denominations ( about 48 % of Northern Ireland ) . The largest is the Anglican Church of Ireland . The Muslim community is growing in Ireland , mostly through increased immigration , with a 50 % increase in the republic between the 2006 and 2011 census . The island has a small Jewish community . About 4 % of the Republic 's population and about 14 % of the Northern Ireland population describe themselves as of no religion . In a 2010 survey conducted on behalf of the Irish Times , 32 % of respondents said they went to a religious service more than once a week .

The population of Ireland rose rapidly from the 16th century until the mid @-@ 19th century , but a devastating famine in the 1840s caused one million deaths and forced over one million more to emigrate in its immediate wake . Over the following century the population was reduced by over half , at a time when the general trend in European countries was for populations to rise by an average of three @-@ fold .

= = = Divisions and settlements = = =

Traditionally , Ireland is subdivided into four provinces : Connacht ( west ) , Leinster ( east ) , Munster ( south ) , and Ulster ( north ) . In a system that developed between the 13th and 17th centuries , Ireland has 32 traditional counties . Twenty @-@ six of these counties are in the Republic of Ireland and six are in Northern Ireland . The six counties that constitute Northern Ireland are all in the province of Ulster ( which has nine counties in total ) . As such , Ulster is often used as a synonym for Northern Ireland , although the two are not coterminous .

In the Republic of Ireland , counties form the basis of the system of local government . Counties Dublin , Cork , Limerick , Galway , Waterford and Tipperary have been broken up into smaller administrative areas . However , they are still treated as counties for cultural and some official purposes , for example postal addresses and by the Ordnance Survey Ireland . Counties in Northern Ireland are no longer used for local governmental purposes , but , as in the Republic , their traditional boundaries are still used for informal purposes such as sports leagues and in cultural or tourism contexts .

City status in Ireland is decided by legislative or royal charter . Dublin , with over 1 million residents in the Greater Dublin Area , is the largest city on the island . Belfast , with 579 @,@ 726 residents , is the largest city in Northern Ireland . City status does not directly equate with population size . For example , Armagh , with 14 @,@ 590 is the seat of the Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Primate of All Ireland and was re @-@ granted city status by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 ( having lost that status in local government reforms of 1840 ) . In the Republic of Ireland , Kilkenny , seat of the Butler dynasty , while no longer a city for administrative purposes ( since the 2001 Local Government Act ) , is entitled by law to continue to use the description .

= = = Migration = = =

The population of Ireland collapsed dramatically during the second half of the 19th century . A population of over 8 million in 1841 was reduced to slightly more than 4 million by 1921 . In part , the fall in population was due to death from the Great Famine of 1845 to 1852 , which took about 1 million lives . However , by far the greater cause of population decline was the dire economic state of the country which led to an entrenched culture of emigration lasting until the 21st century .

Emigration from Ireland in the 19th century contributed to the populations of England , the United States , Canada and Australia , where a large Irish diaspora lives . As of 2006 , 4 @.@ 3 million Canadians , or 14 % of the population , are of Irish descent . As of 2013 , a total of 34 @.@ 5 million Americans claim Irish ancestry .

With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century , Ireland became a destination for immigrants . Since the European Union expanded to include Poland in 2004 , Polish people have made up the largest number of immigrants ( over 150 @,@ 000 ) from Central Europe . There has also been significant immigration from Lithuania , the Czech Republic and Latvia .

The Republic of Ireland in particular has seen large @-@ scale immigration , with 420 @,@ 000 foreign nationals as of 2006 , about 10 % of the population . A quarter of births ( 24 percent ) in 2009 were to mothers born outside Ireland . Chinese and Nigerians , along with people from other African countries , have accounted for a large proportion of the non – European Union migrants to Ireland . Up to 50 @,@ 000 eastern and central European migrant workers left Ireland in response to the Irish financial crisis .

= = = Languages = = =

Two main languages are spoken in Ireland : Irish and English . Both languages have widely contributed to literature . Irish , now a minority but official language of the Republic of Ireland , was the vernacular of the Irish people for over two thousand years and was probably introduced by some sort of proto @-@ Gaelic migration during the Iron Age , possibly earlier . It began to be written down after Christianisation in the 5th century and spread to Scotland and the Isle of Man where it evolved into the Scottish Gaelic and Manx languages respectively .

The Irish language has a vast treasure of written texts from many centuries , and is divided by linguists into Old Irish from the 6th to 10th century , Middle Irish from the 10th to 13th century , Early Modern Irish until the 17th century , and the Modern Irish spoken today . It remained the dominant language of Ireland for most of those periods , having influences from Latin , Old Norse , French and English . It declined under British rule but remained the majority tongue until the early 19th century , and since then has been a minority language , although revival efforts are continuing in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland .

Gaeltacht or Irish @-@ speaking areas are still seeing a decline in the language . The main Gaeltacht areas are down the west of the country , in Donegal , Mayo , Galway and Kerry with smaller Gaeltacht areas near Dungarvan in Waterford , Navan , in Meath , and the Shaw 's Road in Belfast . Irish language is a compulsory subject in the state education system in the Republic , and the Gaelscoil movement has seen many Irish medium schools established in both jurisdictions .

English was first introduced to Ireland in the Norman invasion . It was spoken by a few peasants and merchants brought over from England , and was largely replaced by Irish before the Tudor Conquest of Ireland . It was introduced as the official language with the Tudor and Cromwellian conquests . The Ulster plantations gave it a permanent foothold in Ulster , and it remained the official and upper @-@ class language elsewhere , the Irish @-@ speaking chieftains and nobility having been deposed . Language shift during the 19th century replaced Irish with English as the first language for a vast majority of the population .

Less than 10 % of the population of the Republic of Ireland today speak Irish regularly outside of the education system and 38 % of those over 15 years are classified as " Irish speakers " . In Northern Ireland , English is the de facto official language , but official recognition is afforded to Irish , including specific protective measures under Part III of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . A lesser status ( including recognition under Part II of the Charter ) is given to Ulster Scots dialects , which are spoken by roughly 2 % of Northern Ireland residents , and also spoken by some in the Republic of Ireland . Since the 1960s with the increase in immigration , many more languages have been introduced , particularly deriving from Asia and Eastern Europe .

= = Culture = =

Ireland 's culture comprises elements of the culture of ancient peoples , later immigrant and broadcast cultural influences ( chiefly Gaelic culture , Anglicisation , Americanisation and aspects of broader European culture ) . In broad terms , Ireland is regarded as one of the Celtic nations of Europe , alongside Scotland , Wales , Cornwall , Isle of Man and Brittany . This combination of cultural influences is visible in the intricate designs termed Irish interlace or Celtic knotwork . These can be seen in the ornamentation of medieval religious and secular works . The style is still popular today in jewellery and graphic art , as is the distinctive style of traditional Irish music and dance , and has become indicative of modern " Celtic " culture in general .

Religion has played a significant role in the cultural life of the island since ancient times ( and since the 17th century plantations , has been the focus of political identity and divisions on the island ) . Ireland 's pre @-@ Christian heritage fused with the Celtic Church following the missions of Saint Patrick in the 5th century . The Hiberno @-@ Scottish missions , begun by the Irish monk Saint Columba , spread the Irish vision of Christianity to pagan England and the Frankish Empire . These missions brought written language to an illiterate population of Europe during the Dark Ages that followed the fall of Rome , earning Ireland the sobriquet , " the island of saints and scholars " .

Since the 20th century the Irish pubs worldwide have become , especially those with a full range of cultural and gastronomic offerings , outposts of Irish culture .

The Republic of Ireland 's national theatre is the Abbey Theatre , which was founded in 1904 , and the national Irish @-@ language theatre is An Taibhdhearc , which was established in 1928 in Galway . Playwrights such as Seán O 'Casey , Brian Friel , Sebastian Barry , Conor McPherson and Billy Roche are internationally renowned .

= = = Arts = = =

Ireland has made a large contribution to world literature in all its branches , particularly in the English language . Poetry in Irish is among the oldest vernacular poetry in Europe , with the earliest examples dating from the 6th century . In English , Jonathan Swift , still often called the foremost satirist in the English language , was very popular in his day for works such as Gulliver 's Travels and A Modest Proposal , and Oscar Wilde is known most for his often quoted witticisms .

In the 20th century , Ireland produced four winners of the Nobel Prize for Literature : George Bernard Shaw , William Butler Yeats , Samuel Beckett and Seamus Heaney . Although not a Nobel Prize winner , James Joyce is widely considered to be one of the most significant writers of the 20th century . Joyce 's 1922 novel Ulysses is considered one of the most important works of Modernist literature and his life is celebrated annually on 16 June in Dublin as " Bloomsday " . Modern Irish literature is often connected with its rural heritage through writers such as John McGahern and poets such as Seamus Heaney .

Music has been in evidence in Ireland since prehistoric times . Although in the early Middle Ages the church was " quite unlike its counterpart in continental Europe " , there was considerable interchange between monastic settlements in Ireland and the rest of Europe that contributed to what is known as Gregorian chant . Outside religious establishments , musical genres in early Gaelic Ireland are referred to as a triad of weeping music ( goltraige ) , laughing music ( geantraige ) and sleeping music ( suantraige ) . Vocal and instrumental music ( e.g. for the harp , pipes , and various string instruments ) was transmitted orally , but the Irish harp , in particular , was of such significance that it became Ireland 's national symbol . Classical music following European models first developed in urban areas , in establishments of Anglo @-@ Irish rule such as Dublin Castle , St Patrick 's Cathedral and Christ Church as well as the country houses of the Anglo @-@ Irish ascendancy , with the first performance of Handel 's Messiah ( 1742 ) being among the highlights of the baroque era . In the 19th century , public concerts provided access to classical music to all classes of society . Yet , for political and financial reasons Ireland has been too small to provide a living to many musicians , so the names of the better @-@ known Irish composers of this time belong to emigrants .

Irish traditional music and dance has seen a surge in popularity and global coverage since the 1960s . In the middle years of the 20th century , as Irish society was modernising , traditional music had fallen out of favour , especially in urban areas . However during the 1960s , there was a revival of interest in Irish traditional music led by groups such as The Dubliners , The Chieftains , The Wolfe Tones , the Clancy Brothers , Sweeney 's Men and individuals like Seán Ó Riada and Christy Moore . Groups and musicians including Horslips , Van Morrison and Thin Lizzy incorporated elements of Irish traditional music into contemporary rock music and , during the 1970s and 1980s , the distinction between traditional and rock musicians became blurred , with many individuals regularly crossing over between these styles of playing . This trend can be seen more recently in the work of artists like Enya , The Saw Doctors , The Corrs , Sinéad O 'Connor , Clannad , The Cranberries and The Pogues among others . Since then there have been a number of stylistic fusions including folk metal and others , while some contemporary music groups stick closer to a " traditional " sound .

The earliest known Irish graphic art and sculpture are Neolithic carvings found at sites such as Newgrange and is traced through Bronze age artefacts and the religious carvings and illuminated manuscripts of the medieval period . During the course of the 19th and 20th centuries , a strong tradition of painting emerged , including such figures as John Butler Yeats , William Orpen , Jack Yeats and Louis le Brocquy . Contemporary Irish visual artists of note include Sean Scully , Kevin Abosch , and Alice Maher .

= = = Science = = =

The Irish philosopher and theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena was considered one of the leading intellectuals of his early Middle Ages . Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton , an Irish explorer , was one of the principal figures of Antarctic exploration . He , along with his expedition , made the first ascent of Mount Erebus and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole . Robert Boyle was a 17th @-@ century natural philosopher , chemist , physicist , inventor and early gentleman scientist . He is largely regarded one of the founders of modern chemistry and is best known for the formulation of Boyle 's law .

19th century physicist , John Tyndall , discovered the Tyndall effect . Father Nicholas Joseph Callan , Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth College , is best known for his invention of the induction coil , transformer and he discovered an early method of galvanisation in the 19th century .

Other notable Irish physicists include Ernest Walton , winner of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics . With Sir John Douglas Cockcroft , he was the first to split the nucleus of the atom by artificial means and made contributions to the development of a new theory of wave equation . William Thomson , or Lord Kelvin , is the person whom the absolute temperature unit , the Kelvin , is named after . Sir Joseph Larmor , a physicist and mathematician , made innovations in the understanding of electricity , dynamics , thermodynamics and the electron theory of matter . His most influential work was Aether and Matter , a book on theoretical physics published in 1900 .

George Johnstone Stoney introduced the term electron in 1891 . John Stewart Bell was the originator of Bell 's Theorem and a paper concerning the discovery of the Bell @-@ Jackiw @-@ Adler anomaly and was nominated for a Nobel prize . Notable mathematicians include Sir William Rowan Hamilton , famous for work in classical mechanics and the invention of quaternions . Francis Ysidro Edgeworth 's contribution of the Edgeworth Box remains influential in neo @-@ classical microeconomic theory to this day ; while Richard Cantillon inspired Adam Smith , among others . John B. Cosgrave was a specialist in number theory and discovered a 2000 @-@ digit prime number in 1999 and a record composite Fermat number in 2003 . John Lighton Synge made progress in different fields of science , including mechanics and geometrical methods in general relativity . He had mathematician John Nash as one of his students .

Ireland has nine universities , seven in the Republic of Ireland and two in Northern Ireland , including Trinity College , Dublin and the University College Dublin , as well as numerous third @-@ level colleges and institutes and a branch of the Open University , the Open University in Ireland .

= = = Sports = = =

The island of Ireland fields a single international team in most sports . One notable exception to this is association football , although both associations continued to field international teams under the name " Ireland " until the 1950s . An all @-@ Ireland club competition for soccer , the Setanta Cup , was created in 2005 .

Gaelic football is the most popular sport in Ireland in terms of match attendance and community involvement , with about 2 @,@ 600 clubs on the island . In 2003 it represented 34 % of total sports attendances at events in Ireland and abroad , followed by hurling at 23 % , soccer at 16 % and rugby at 8 % and the All @-@ Ireland Football Final is the most watched event in the sporting calendar . Soccer is the most widely played team game on the island , and the most popular in Northern Ireland . Swimming , golf , aerobics , soccer , cycling , Gaelic football and billiards / snooker are the sporting activities with the highest levels of playing participation . The sport is also the most notable exception where the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland field separate international teams . Northern Ireland has produced two World Snooker Champions .

Many other sports are also played and followed , including basketball , boxing , cricket , fishing , greyhound racing , handball , hockey , horse racing , motor sport , show jumping and tennis .

= = = = Field sports = = = =

Gaelic football , hurling and handball are the best @-@ known of the Irish traditional sports , collectively known as Gaelic games . Gaelic games are governed by the Gaelic Athletic Association ( GAA ) , with the exception of ladies ' Gaelic football and camogie ( women 's variant of hurling ) , which are governed by separate organisations . The headquarters of the GAA ( and the main stadium ) is located at the 82 @,@ 500 capacity Croke Park in north Dublin . Many major GAA games are played there , including the semi @-@ finals and finals of the All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship and All @-@ Ireland Senior Hurling Championship . During the redevelopment of the Lansdowne Road stadium in 2007 – 10 , international rugby and soccer were played there . All GAA players , even at the highest level , are amateurs , receiving no wages , although they are permitted to receive a limited amount of sport @-@ related income from commercial sponsorship .

The Irish Football Association ( IFA ) was originally the governing body for soccer across the island . The game has been played in an organised fashion in Ireland since the 1870s , with Cliftonville F.C. in Belfast being Ireland 's oldest club . It was most popular , especially in its first decades , around Belfast and in Ulster . However , some clubs based outside Belfast thought that the IFA largely favoured Ulster @-@ based clubs in such matters as selection for the national team . In 1921 , following an incident in which , despite an earlier promise , the IFA moved an Irish Cup semi @-@ final replay from Dublin to Belfast , Dublin @-@ based clubs broke away to form the Football Association of the Irish Free State . Today the southern association is known as the Football Association of Ireland ( FAI ) . Despite being initially blacklisted by the Home Nations ' associations , the FAI was recognised by FIFA in 1923 and organised its first international fixture in 1926 ( against Italy ) . However , both the IFA and FAI continued to select their teams from the whole of Ireland , with some players earning international caps for matches with both teams . Both also referred to their respective teams as Ireland .

In 1950 , FIFA directed the associations only to select players from within their respective territories and , in 1953 , directed that the FAI 's team be known only as " Republic of Ireland " and that the IFA 's team be known as " Northern Ireland " ( with certain exceptions ) . Northern Ireland qualified for the World Cup finals in 1958 ( reaching the quarter @-@ finals ) , 1982 and 1986 . The Republic qualified for the World Cup finals in 1990 ( reaching the quarter @-@ finals ) , 1994 , 2002 and the European Championships in 1988 and 2012 . Across Ireland , there is significant interest in the English and , to a lesser extent , Scottish soccer leagues .

Unlike soccer , Ireland continues to field a single national rugby team and a single association , the Irish Rugby Football Union ( IRFU ) , governs the sport across the island . The Irish rugby team have played in every Rugby World Cup , making the quarter @-@ finals in four of them . Ireland also hosted games during the 1991 and the 1999 Rugby World Cups ( including a quarter @-@ final ) . There are four professional Irish teams ; all four play in the Magners League ( now called the RaboDirect Pro12 ) and at least three compete for the Heineken Cup . Irish rugby has become increasingly competitive at both the international and provincial levels since the sport went professional in 1994 . During that time , Ulster ( 1999 ) , Munster ( 2006 and 2008 ) and Leinster ( 2009 , 2011 and 2012 ) have won the Heineken Cup . In addition to this , the Irish International side has had increased success in the Six Nations Championship against the other European elite sides . This success , including Triple Crowns in 2004 , 2006 and 2007 , culminated with a clean sweep of victories , known as a Grand Slam , in 2009 .

= = = = Other sports = = = =

Horse racing and greyhound racing are both popular in Ireland . There are frequent horse race meetings and greyhound stadiums are well @-@ attended . The island is noted for the breeding and training of race horses and is also a large exporter of racing dogs . The horse racing sector is largely concentrated in the County Kildare .

Irish athletics has seen a heightened success rate since the year 2000 , with Sonia O 'Sullivan winning two medals at 5 @,@ 000 metres on the track ; gold at the 1995 World Championships and silver at the 2000 Sydney Olympics . Gillian O 'Sullivan won silver in the 20k walk at the 2003 World Championships , while sprint hurdler Derval O 'Rourke won gold at the 2006 World Indoor Championship in Moscow . Olive Loughnane won a silver medal in the 20k walk in the World Athletics Championships in Berlin in 2009 .

Ireland has won more medals in boxing than in any other Olympic sport . Boxing is governed by the Irish Amateur Boxing Association . Michael Carruth won a gold medal and Wayne McCullough won a silver medal in the Barcelona Olympic Games and in 2008 Kenneth Egan won a silver medal in the Beijing Games . Paddy Barnes secured bronze in those games and gold in the 2010 European Amateur Boxing Championships ( where Ireland came 2nd in the overall medal table ) and 2010 Commonwealth Games . Katie Taylor has won gold in every European and World championship since 2005 . In August 2012 at the Olympic Games in London Katie Taylor created history by becoming the first Irish woman to win a gold medal in boxing in the 60 kg lightweight .

Golf is very popular and golf tourism is a major industry attracting more than 240 @,@ 000 golfing visitors annually . The 2006 Ryder Cup was held at The K Club in County Kildare . Pádraig Harrington became the first Irishman since Fred Daly in 1947 to win the British Open at Carnoustie in July 2007 . He successfully defended his title in July 2008 before going on to win the PGA Championship in August . Harrington became the first European to win the PGA Championship in 78 years and was the first winner from Ireland . Three golfers from Northern Ireland have been particularly successful . In 2010 , Graeme McDowell became the first Irish golfer to win the U.S. Open , and the first European to win that tournament since 1970 . Rory McIlroy , at the age of 22 , won the 2011 U.S. Open , while Darren Clarke 's latest victory was the 2011 Open Championship at Royal St. George 's . In August 2012 , McIlroy won his 2nd major championship by winning the USPGA Championship by a record margin of 8 shots .

= = = = Recreation = = = =

The west coast of Ireland , Lahinch and Donegal Bay in particular , have popular surfing beaches , being fully exposed to the Atlantic Ocean . Donegal Bay is shaped like a funnel and catches west / south @-@ west Atlantic winds , creating good surf , especially in winter . Since just before the year 2010 , Bundoran has hosted European championship surfing . Scuba diving is increasingly popular in Ireland with clear waters and large populations of sea life , particularly along the western seaboard . There are also many shipwrecks along the coast of Ireland , with some of the best wreck dives being in Malin Head and off the County Cork coast .

With thousands of lakes , over 14 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 8 @,@ 700 mi ) of fish bearing rivers and over 3 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 300 mi ) of coastline , Ireland is a popular angling destination . The temperate Irish climate is suited to sport angling . While salmon and trout fishing remain popular with anglers , salmon fishing in particular received a boost in 2006 with the closing of the salmon driftnet fishery . Coarse fishing continues to increase its profile . Sea angling is developed with many beaches mapped and signposted , and the range of sea angling species is around 80 .

= = = Food and drink = = =

Food and cuisine in Ireland takes its influence from the crops grown and animals farmed in the island 's temperate climate and from the social and political circumstances of Irish history . For example , whilst from the Middle Ages until the arrival of the potato in the 16th century the dominant feature of the Irish economy was the herding of cattle , the number of cattle a person owned was equated to their social standing . Thus herders would avoid slaughtering a milk @-@ producing cow .

For this reason , pork and white meat were more common than beef and thick fatty strips of salted bacon ( or rashers ) and the eating of salted butter ( i.e. a dairy product rather than beef itself ) have been a central feature of the diet in Ireland since the Middle Ages . The practice of bleeding cattle and mixing the blood with milk and butter ( not unlike the practice of the Maasai ) was common and black pudding , made from blood , grain ( usually barley ) and seasoning , remains a breakfast staple in Ireland . All of these influences can be seen today in the phenomenon of the " breakfast roll " .

The introduction of the potato in the second half of the 16th century heavily influenced cuisine thereafter . Great poverty encouraged a subsistence approach to food and by the mid @-@ 19th century the vast majority of the population sufficed with a diet of potatoes and milk . A typical family , consisting of a man , a woman and four children , would eat 18 stone ( 110 kg ) of potatoes a week . Consequently , dishes that are considered as national dishes represent a fundamental unsophistication to cooking , such as the Irish stew , bacon and cabbage , boxty , a type of potato pancake , or colcannon , a dish of mashed potatoes and kale or cabbage .

Since the last quarter of the 20th century , with a re @-@ emergence of wealth in Ireland , a " New Irish Cuisine " based on traditional ingredients incorporating international influences has emerged . This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables , fish ( especially salmon , trout , oysters , mussels and other shellfish ) , as well as traditional soda breads and the wide range of hand @-@ made cheeses that are now being produced across the country . The potato remains however a fundamental feature of this cuisine and the Irish remain the highest per capita consumers of potatoes in Europe . An example of this new cuisine is " Dublin Lawyer " : lobster cooked in whiskey and cream . Traditional regional foods can be found throughout the country , for example coddle in Dublin or drisheen in Cork , both a type of sausage , or blaa , a doughy white bread particular to Waterford .

Ireland once dominated the world 's market for whiskey , producing 90 % of the world 's whiskey at the start of the 20th century . However , as a consequence of bootleggers during the prohibition in the United States ( who sold poor @-@ quality whiskey bearing Irish @-@ sounding names thus eroding the pre @-@ prohibition popularity for Irish brands ) and tariffs on Irish whiskey across the British Empire during the Anglo @-@ Irish Trade War of the 1930s , sales of Irish whiskey worldwide fell to a mere 2 % by the mid @-@ 20th century . In 1953 , an Irish government survey , found that 50 per cent of whiskey drinkers in the United States had never heard of Irish whiskey .

Irish whiskey , as researched in 2009 by the CNBC American broadcaster , remains popular domestically and has grown in international sales steadily over a few decades . Typically CNBC states Irish whiskey is not as smoky as a Scotch whisky , but not as sweet as American or Canadian whiskies . Whiskey forms the basis of traditional cream liqueurs , such as Baileys , and the " Irish coffee " ( a cocktail of coffee and whiskey reputedly invented at Foynes flying @-@ boat station ) is probably the best @-@ known Irish cocktail .

Stout , a kind of porter beer , particularly Guinness , is typically associated with Ireland , although historically it was more closely associated with London . Porter remains very popular , although it has lost sales since the mid @-@ 20th century to lager . Cider , particularly Magners ( marketed in the Republic of Ireland as Bulmers ) , is also a popular drink . Red lemonade , a soft @-@ drink , is consumed on its own and as a mixer , particularly with whiskey .

= St Nazaire Raid =

The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot was a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German @-@ occupied France during the Second World War . The operation was undertaken by the Royal Navy and British Commandos under the auspices of Combined Operations Headquarters on 28 March 1942 . St Nazaire was targeted because the loss of its dry dock would force any large German warship in need of repairs , such as the Tirpitz , to return to home waters via either the English Channel or the GIUK gap , both of which were heavily defended by British units including the Royal Navy 's Home Fleet , rather than having a haven available on the Atlantic coast .

The obsolete destroyer HMS Campbeltown , accompanied by 18 smaller craft , crossed the English Channel to the Atlantic coast of France and was rammed into the Normandie dock gates . The ship had been packed with delayed @-@ action explosives , well hidden within a steel and concrete case , that detonated later that day , putting the dock out of service for the remainder of the war and up to five years after .

A force of commandos landed to destroy machinery and other structures . Heavy German gunfire sank , set ablaze or immobilised all the small craft intended to transport the commandos back to England ; the commandos had to fight their way out through the town to try to escape overland . They were forced to surrender when their ammunition was expended and they were surrounded .

After the raid 228 men of the force of 611 returned to Britain ; 169 were killed and 215 became prisoners of war . German casualties were over 360 dead , some killed after the raid when Campbeltown exploded . To recognise their bravery , 89 decorations were awarded to members of the raiding party , including five Victoria Crosses . After the war , St Nazaire was one of 38 battle honours awarded to the Commandos ; the operation has since become known as The Greatest Raid of All within military circles .

= = Background = =

St Nazaire is on the north bank of the Loire 400 km ( 250 miles ) from the nearest British port . In 1942 , it had a population of 50 @,@ 000 . The St Nazaire port has an outer harbour known as the Avant Port , formed by two piers jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean . This leads to two lock gates before the Bassin de St Nazaire . These gates control the water level in the basin so that it is not affected by the tide .

Beyond the basin is the larger inner dock called the Bassin de Penhoët , which can accommodate ships up to 10 @,@ 000 tons . There is also an old entrance to the Bassin de St Nazaire located southwest of the Normandie dry dock . Built to house the ocean liner SS Normandie , this dock was the largest dry dock in the world when it was completed in 1932 . The " Old Mole " jetty juts into the Loire halfway between the southern pier of the Avant Port and the old entrance into the basin .

On 24 May 1941 , the Battle of the Denmark Strait was fought between the German ships Bismarck and Prinz Eugen and the British ships HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Hood . Hood was sunk and the damaged Prince of Wales was forced to retire . Bismarck , also damaged , ordered her consort to proceed independently while she headed for the French port of St Nazaire , which was the only port on the Atlantic coast with a dry dock able to accommodate a ship of her size . She was intercepted by the British and sunk en route .

Britain 's Naval Intelligence Division first proposed a commando raid on the dock in late 1941 . When the German battleship Tirpitz was declared operational in January 1942 , the Royal Navy ( RN ) and Royal Air Force ( RAF ) were already drawing up plans to attack her . Planners from Combined Operations Headquarters were looking at potential scenarios if Tirpitz escaped the naval blockade and reached the Atlantic . They decided the only port able to accommodate her was St Nazaire , especially if , like the Bismarck , she was damaged en route and needed repairs . They came to the conclusion that if the dock at St Nazaire were unavailable the Germans were unlikely to risk sending Tirpitz into the Atlantic .

Combined Operations examined a number of options while planning the destruction of the dock . At this stage of the war the British government still tried to avoid civilian casualties . This ruled out a bombing attack by the RAF , which at the time did not possess the accuracy needed to destroy the dock without serious loss of civilian life .

The Special Operations Executive were approached to see if its agents could destroy the dock gates . They decided that the mission was beyond their capabilities because the weight of explosives required would have needed too many agents to carry them . The Royal Navy was also unable to mount an operation , as St Nazaire is 8 km ( 5 miles ) up the Loire estuary . Any naval ships large enough to cause sufficient damage would be detected well before they were within range .

The planners then examined whether a commando force was feasible to accomplish the task . An unusually high spring tide was due in March 1942 which would allow a light ship to pass over the sand banks in the estuary and approach the docks , bypassing the heavily defended dredged channel . The approach was too shallow for an infantry landing ship , but the planners believed if a destroyer could be lightened it might have a draft shallow enough to enable it to get through .

= = Plan = =

The purpose of the raid was to destroy three objectives : the Normandie dock , the old gates into the Bassin de St Nazaire together with the water pumping machinery and other installations , and any U @-@ boats or other shipping in the area . The initial Combined Operations plan required two specially lightened destroyers to carry out the raid . The first would be packed with explosives and rammed into the dock gates .

Commandos on board would then disembark and use demolition charges to destroy nearby dock installations , searchlights and gun emplacements . The destroyer would then be blown up , and the second ship would come in and evacuate the ship 's crew and the commandos . At the same time the RAF would carry out a number of diversionary air raids in the area .

When the plan was presented to the Admiralty they refused to support it . The certain loss of one or both destroyers to eliminate the dry dock was out of the question . They suggested they could provide an old Free French destroyer , the Ouragan , and a flotilla of small motor launches to transport the commandos and evacuate them afterwards .

Approval for the mission , codenamed Operation Chariot , was given on 3 March 1942 . Using a French ship would involve using the Free French forces and increase the number of people aware of the raid . Consequently , it was decided the navy would have to provide a ship of their own . The RAF complained that the raid would draw heavily on their resources ; the number of aircraft assigned by RAF Bomber Command was reduced time and again before the day of the raid . British Prime Minister Winston Churchill further complicated matters when he ordered that bombing should only take place if targets were clearly identified .

Combined Operations Headquarters worked closely with several intelligence organisations to plan the raid . The Naval Intelligence Division compiled information from a variety of sources . A detailed plan of the town of St Nazaire was provided by the Secret Intelligence Service , and information on the coastal artillery nearby was sourced from the War Office 's Military Intelligence branch . Intelligence about the dock itself came from pre @-@ war technical journals .

The RN 's Operational Intelligence Centre selected the route and timing for the raid based on intelligence about the location of minefields and German recognition signals sourced from Enigma decrypts and knowledge of Luftwaffe patrols compiled by the Air Ministry 's Air Intelligence Branch . When all the plans had been pulled together and the timing worked out , the raid was expected to last no longer than two hours . The commandos and crew from Campbeltown would board the motor launches at the Old Mole jetty and then return to base .

= = Composition of the raiding force = =

The revised Combined Operations plan required one destroyer to ram the dock gates and a number of smaller craft to transport the Commandos . The Royal Navy would therefore provide the largest contingent for the raid , under the overall command of the senior naval officer , Commander Robert Ryder . The ship selected to ram into the dock gates was HMS Campbeltown , commanded by Lieutenant Commander Stephen Halden Beattie . Campbeltown was a First World War destroyer and had previously been the USS Buchanan in the United States Navy . She had come into RN service in 1940 as one of 50 destroyers transferred to the United Kingdom under the Destroyers for Bases Agreement .

Converting Campbeltown for the raid took ten days . She had to be lightened to raise her draught to get over the sand banks in the estuary . This was achieved by completely stripping all her internal compartments . The dockyard removed her three 4 inch ( 100 mm ) guns , torpedoes and depth charges from the deck and replaced the forward gun with a light quick – firing 12 pounder ( 3 " ) . Eight 20 mm Oerlikons were installed on mountings raised above deck level . The bridge and wheelhouse were given extra armour @-@ plate protection , and two rows of armour were fixed along the sides of the ship to protect the Commandos on the open deck .

Two of her four funnels were removed , and the forward two were cut at an angle to resemble those of a German destroyer . The bow was packed with 4 @.@ 5 tons of high explosives , which were set in concrete . It was decided that the explosive charge would be timed to detonate after the raiders had left the harbour . To prevent the Germans towing her away , the crew would open the ship 's seacocks before abandoning the ship . Should she become disabled or sunk before getting to the dock , four motor launches had been detailed to take off the crew and put the commandos ashore . The charge would be reset to explode after the last boat had left .

Other naval units involved were two Hunt class destroyers , HMS Tynedale ( L96 ) and Atherstone ( L05 ) , which would accompany the force to and from the French coast and remain out at sea during the raid . A Motor Gun Boat ( MGB 314 ) was the headquarters ship for the raid , with Commander Ryder and the commanding officer of the Commandos on board . A Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB 74 ) , commanded by Sub @-@ Lieutenant Michael Wynn , had two objectives : If the outer Normandie dock gates were open , she had to torpedo the inner dock gates . If the gates were closed she would instead torpedo the gates at the old entrance into the St Nazaire basin .

To assist in transporting the Commandos , 12 motor launches ( ML ) were assigned from the 20th and 28th Motor Launch flotillas . These boats were re @-@ armed with two Oerlikon 20 mm guns mounted forward and aft to complement their twin Lewis guns . At the last minute another four MLs were assigned from the 7th Motor Launch flotilla ( see Footnotes for flotilla details ) . These four boats were also armed with two torpedoes each . Instead of transporting the Commandos , these boats were to engage any German shipping found in the estuary . All the MLs had a 500 @-@ gallon auxiliary fuel tank fixed to the upper deck to increase their range . The S class submarine HMS Sturgeon would leave before the rest of the convoy and be in position to act as a navigational beacon to guide the convoy into the Loire estuary .

The man selected to lead the Commando force was Lieutenant Colonel Charles Newman ; his No. 2 Commando would provide the largest Commandos contingent , 173 men , for the raid . The Special Service Brigade headquarters used the raid to provide experience for their other units and 92 men were drawn from Nos 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 9 , and 12 Commandos .

The Commandos were divided into three groups ; One and Two would travel in the MLs , while Three would be in Campbeltown . Under the command of Captain Hodgeson , Group One had the objectives of securing the Old Mole and eliminating the anti @-@ aircraft gun positions around the southern quays . They were then to move into the old town and blow up the power station , bridges and locks for the new entrance into the basin from the Avant port . The capture of the mole was a major objective , as it was to be the embarkation point for the evacuation after the mission .

Group Two , under the command of Captain Burn , would land at the old entrance to the St Nazaire basin . Their objectives were to destroy the anti @-@ aircraft positions in the area and the German headquarters , to blow up the locks and bridges at the old entrance into the basin and then to guard against a counter @-@ attack from the submarine base . Group Three was under the command of Major William ' Bill ' Copland , who was also the Commandos ' second in command . They were to secure the immediate area around Campbeltown , destroy the dock 's water @-@ pumping and gate @-@ opening machinery and the nearby underground fuel tanks . All three groups were subdivided into assault , demolition and protection teams . The assault teams would clear the way for the other two . The demolition teams carrying the explosive charges only had sidearms for self @-@ defence ; the protection teams , armed with Thompson submachine guns , were to defend them while they completed their tasks .

The Commandos were aided in their planning for the operation by Captain Bill Pritchard of the Royal Engineers , who had pre @-@ war experience as an apprentice in the Great Western Railway dockyards and whose father was the dock master of Cardiff Docks . In 1940 while part of the British Expeditionary Force in France , his duties had included determining how to disable the French dockyards if they were captured . One of the dockyards he had studied was St Nazaire , and he had submitted a report detailing how to put the dock out of action .

= = German forces = =

The Germans had around 5 @,@ 000 troops in the immediate area of St Nazaire . The port was defended by the 280th Naval Artillery Battalion under the command of Kapitän zur See Edo Dieckmann . The battalion was composed of 28 guns of various calibres from 75 mm to 280 mm railway guns , all positioned to guard the coastal approaches . The heavy guns were supplemented by the guns and searchlights of the 22nd Naval Flak Brigade under the command of Kapitän zur See Karl @-@ Konrad Mecke .

The brigade was equipped with 43 anti @-@ aircraft guns ranging in calibre from 20 to 40 mm . These guns had a dual role as both anti @-@ aircraft and coastal defence weapons . Many were in concrete emplacements on top of the submarine pens and other dockside installations of the St Nazaire submarine base .

The harbour defence companies were responsible for local defence and for the security of the ships and submarines moored in the harbour . These companies and the harbour defence boats used to patrol the river were under the command of Harbour Commander Korvettenkapitän Kellerman . The 333rd Infantry Division was the German Army unit responsible for the defence of the coast between St Nazaire and Lorient . The division had no troops based in the town , but some were located in villages nearby and would be able to respond to any attack on the port .

The Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) had at least three surface ships in the Loire estuary : a destroyer , an armed trawler and a Sperrbrecher ( minesweeper ) , the latter being the guard ship for the port . On the night of the raid there were also four harbour defence boats and ten ships from the 16th and 42nd Minesweeper flotillas berthed in the basin , while two tankers were berthed inside the Normandie dock . The 6th and 7th U @-@ boat flotillas , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Georg @-@ Wilhelm Schulz and Korvettenkapitän Herbert Sohler respectively , were permanently based in the port . It is not known how many submarines were present on the day of the raid . The submarine base had been inspected by the U @-@ boat Commander in Chief , Vizeadmiral Karl Dönitz , the day before the raid . He asked what would they do if the base was subject to an attack by British Commandos . Sohler replied that " an attack on the base would be hazardous and highly improbable " .

= = The raid = =

= = = Outward journey = = =

The three destroyers and 16 small boats left Falmouth , Cornwall at 14 : 00 on 26 March 1942 . They formed into a convoy of three lanes , with the destroyers in the middle . On arrival at St Nazaire the portside MLs were to head for the Old Mole to disembark their Commandos , while the starboard lane would make for the old entrance to the basin to disembark theirs . Not having the range to reach St Nazaire unaided , the MTB and MGB were taken under tow by Campbeltown and Atherstone .

On 27 March at 07 : 20 Tynedale reported a U @-@ boat on the surface and opened fire . The two escort destroyers left the convoy to engage the U @-@ boat , later identified as U @-@ 593 . The U @-@ boat promptly dived and was unsuccessfully attacked by depth charges . The two destroyers returned to the convoy at 09 : 00 .

The convoy next encountered two French fishing trawlers . Both crews were taken off and the ships sunk for fear they might report the composition and location of the convoy . At 17 : 00 the convoy received a signal from Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Plymouth that five German torpedo boats were in the area . Two hours later another signal informed them that another two Hunt class destroyers , HMS Cleveland and HMS Brocklesby , had been dispatched at full speed to join the convoy .

The convoy reached a position 65 nautical miles ( 120 km ; 75 mi ) off St Nazaire at 21 : 00 and changed course toward the estuary , leaving Atherstone and Tynedale as a sea patrol . The convoy adopted a new formation with the MGB and two torpedo MLs in the lead , followed by Campbeltown . The rest of the MLs formed two columns on either side and astern of the destroyer , with the MTB bringing up the rear . The first casualty of the raid was ML 341 , which had developed engine trouble and was abandoned . At 22 : 00 the submarine Sturgeon directed her navigation beacon out to sea to guide the convoy in . At about the same time Campbeltown raised the German naval ensign in an attempt to deceive any German lookouts into thinking she was a German destroyer .

At 23 : 30 on 27 March , five RAF squadrons ( comprising 35 Whitleys and 27 Wellingtons ) started their bombing runs . The bombers had to stay above 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) and were supposed to remain over the port for 60 minutes to divert attention toward themselves and away from the sea . They had orders to only bomb clearly identified military targets and to drop only one bomb at a time . As it turned out , poor weather over the port ( 10 / 10ths cloud ) meant that only four aircraft bombed targets in St Nazaire . Six aircraft managed to bomb other nearby targets .

The unusual behaviour of the bombers concerned Kapitän zur See Mecke . At 00 : 00 on 28 March , he issued a warning that there might be a parachute landing in progress . At 01 : 00 on 28 March , he followed up by ordering all guns to cease firing and searchlights to be extinguished in case the bombers were using them to locate the port . Everyone was placed on a heightened state of alert . The harbour defence companies and ships ' crews were ordered out of the air raid shelters . During all this a lookout reported seeing some activity out at sea , so Mecke began suspecting some type of landing and ordered extra attention to be paid to the approaches to the harbour .

= = = Ramming the dry dock = = =

At 00 : 30 hours on 28 March the convoy crossed over the shoals at the mouth of the Loire estuary , with Campbeltown scraping the bottom twice . Each time she was able to pull free , and the group proceeded on up toward the harbour in darkness . They had got to within about eight minutes passage from the dock gates when at 01 : 22 the entire convoy was illuminated by the combined searchlights of both banks of the estuary . A naval signal light demanded their identification .

The MGB @-@ 314 replied in a coded response obtained from a German trawler boarded during the Vågsøy raid . A few bursts were fired from a shore battery and both Campbeltown and MGB @-@ 314 replied : " Ship being fired upon by friendly forces " . The deception gave them a little more time before every German gun in the bay opened fire . At 01 : 28 , with the convoy 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the dock gates , Beattie ordered the German flag lowered and the White Ensign raised . The intensity of the German fire seemed to increase . The guard ship opened fire and was quickly silenced when the ships in the convoy responded , shooting into her as they passed .

By now all the ships in the convoy were within range to engage targets ashore and were firing at the gun emplacements and searchlights . Campbeltown was hit a number of times and increased her speed to 19 kn ( 35 km / h ) . The helmsman on her bridge was killed ; his replacement was wounded and replaced as well . Blinded by the searchlights , Beattie knew they were close to their objective . Still under heavy fire , the MGB turned into the estuary as Campbeltown cleared the end of the Old Mole , cut through anti @-@ torpedo netting strung across the entrance and rammed the dock gates , striking home at 01 : 34 , three minutes later than scheduled . The force of the impact drove the ship 33 feet ( 10 m ) onto the gates .

= = = Disembarkation from Campbeltown and the MLs = = =

The Commandos on Campbeltown now disembarked : two assault teams , five demolition teams with their protectors and a mortar group . Three demolition teams were tasked with destroying the dock pumping machinery and other installations associated with the dry dock . The kilt @-@ wearing Captain Donald Roy - ' The Laird ' - and his 14 @-@ man assault troop were tasked with inactivating two pump @-@ house roof @-@ top gun emplacements high above the quayside and securing a bridge to provide a route for the raiding parties to exit the dock area . Roy and Sgt Don Randall used scaling ladders and grenades to accomplish the former , and a head @-@ on rush to secure the bridge and form a bridgehead that enabled Capt. Bob Montgomery and Lt Corran Purdon and their demolition teams to exit the area .

They lost 4 men in this action . The fifth team also succeeded in completing all their objectives but almost half its men were killed . The other two Commando groups were not as successful . The MLs transporting Groups One and Two had almost all been destroyed on their approach . ML 457 was the only boat to land its Commandos on the Old Mole and only ML 177 had managed to reach the gates at the old entrance to the basin . That team succeeded in planting charges on two tugboats moored in the basin .

There were only two other MLs in the vicinity : ML 160 had continued past the dock and was engaging targets upriver , ML 269 appeared to be out of control and was running in circles . By this time the crew of Campbeltown had detonated the scuttling charges and gathered at the rear of the ship to be taken off . ML 177 came alongside the destroyer and took 30 men on board including Beattie and some of the wounded . Major Copland went through Campbeltown and evacuated the wounded towards the Old Mole , not knowing that there were no other boats there to take the Commandos off .

Lt Col Newman aboard the MGB , need not have landed , but he was one of the first ashore . One of his first actions was to direct mortar fire onto a gun position on top of the submarine pens that was causing heavy casualties among the Commandos . He next directed machine @-@ gun fire onto an armed trawler , which was forced to withdraw upriver . Newman organised a defence that succeeded in keeping the increasing numbers of German reinforcements at bay until the demolition parties had completed their tasks .

Some 100 Commandos were still ashore when Newman realised that evacuation by sea was no longer an option . He gathered the survivors and issued three orders :

To do our best to get back to England ;

Not to surrender until all our ammunition is exhausted ;

Not to surrender at all if we can help it .

Newman and Copland led the charge from the old town across a bridge raked by machine gun fire and advanced into the new town . The Commandos attempted to get through the narrow streets of the town and into the surrounding countryside , but were eventually surrounded . When their ammunition was expended their only option was to surrender . Not all the Commandos were captured ; five men reached neutral Spain , from where they eventually returned to England .

= = = Small ships = = =

Most of the MLs had been destroyed on the run in and were burning . The first ML in the starboard column was the first boat to catch fire ; her captain managed to beach her at the end of the Old Mole . Some starboard boats managed to reach their objective and disembark their Commandos . ML 443 , the leading boat in the port column , got to within 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of the mole in the face of heavy direct fire and hand grenades before being set on fire . The crew were rescued by ML 160 , one of the torpedo MLs which had been looking for targets of opportunity such as the two large tankers reported to be in the harbour . The commanders of MLs 160 and 443 , Lieutenants T Boyd and T D L Platt , were awarded the Distinguished Service Order for their bravery . The rest of the port column had been destroyed or disabled before reaching the mole . MLs 192 and 262 were set on fire ; there were only six survivors . ML 268 was blown up ; one man survived .

ML 177 , the launch that had successfully taken off some of the crew from Campbeltown , was sunk on her way out of the estuary . ML 269 , another torpedo @-@ armed boat , had the unenviable task of moving up and down the river at high speed to draw German fire away from the landings . Soon after passing Campbeltown it was hit and its steering damaged . It took ten minutes to repair the steering . They turned and started in the other direction , opening fire on an armed trawler in passing . Return fire from the trawler set their engine on fire .

ML 306 also came under heavy fire when it arrived near the port . Sergeant Thomas Durrant of No. 1 Commando , manning the aft Lewis gun , engaged gun and searchlight positions on the run in . He was wounded but refused to leave the gun for treatment . The ML reached the open sea but was attacked at short range by the German torpedo boat Jaguar . Durrant returned fire , aiming for the torpedo boat 's bridge . He was wounded again but remained at his gun even after the German commander asked for their surrender . Firing drum after drum of ammunition , he refused to give up until after the ML had been boarded . Durrant died of his wounds and , after the recommendation of the Jaguar 's commander , was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross .

After the Commando headquarters group had landed , Commander Ryder went to check for himself that Campbeltown was firmly stuck in the dock . Some of her surviving crewmen were being taken on board the MGB . Ryder returned to the boat and ordered the MTB to carry out its alternative task and torpedo the lock gates at the old entrance to the basin . After a successful torpedo attack , Ryder ordered the MTB to leave . On their way out of the estuary they stopped to collect survivors from a sinking ML and were hit and set on fire . Back at the docks the MGB had positioned itself in mid @-@ river to engage enemy gun emplacements . The forward 2 pounder was manned by Able Seaman William Alfred Savage . Commander Ryder reported that

" The rate of supporting fire had evidently been felt , and the Commandos in the area of the Tirpitz dock had undoubtedly overcome the resistance in that area . There was an appreciable slackening in the enemy 's fire . "

Ryder could see no ships other than seven or eight burning MLs . He then realised that the landing places at the Old Mole and the entrance to the basin had both been recaptured by the Germans . There was nothing more they could do for the Commandos , so they headed out to sea . On their way they were continuously illuminated by German searchlights and were hit at least six times by the German guns . Passing ML 270 , they ordered her to follow and made smoke to hide both boats .

When they reached the open sea the smaller calibre guns were out of range and stopped firing but the heavier artillery continued to engage them . The boats were about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) off @-@ shore when the last German salvo straddled them and killed Savage , who was still at his gun . He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for his exploits . His citation recognised both Savage and the bravery of " the many unnamed crews of the Motor Gun Boat , Motor Torpedo Boat and Motor Launches who continued to carry out their duties in exposed positions , in the face of close range enemy fire . "

= = = Return journey = = =

At 06 : 30 the five German torpedo boats that the convoy had evaded the previous day were sighted by HMS Atherstone and Tynedale . The two destroyers turned toward them and opened fire at a range of 7 miles ( 11 km ) . After ten minutes the German boats turned away , making smoke . The destroyers sighted the MGB and two accompanying MLs soon after and transferred their casualties to the Atherstone . Not expecting any more boats to arrive , they headed for home . Just after 09 : 00 the Hunt @-@ class escort destroyers HMS Brocklesby and HMS Cleveland arrived , sent by Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Plymouth . Shortly after this the ships were spotted by a Heinkel 115 floatplane of the Luftwaffe .

The next German aircraft on the scene , a Junkers 88 , was engaged by a RAF Bristol Beaufighter which had appeared in the area earlier . Both machines crashed into the sea . Other German planes arrived but were driven off by Beaufighters and Hudsons from Coastal Command . The Atlantic weather conditions deteriorated . Amid concerns about the growing German threat and the realisation that the damaged small ships would not be able to keep up , Commander Sayer ordered the crews off the smaller boats and had them sunk .

Three of the small vessels managed to return to England : MLs 160 , 307 and 443 . They had reached the rendezvous and waited until 10 : 00 for the destroyers to appear . Having already been attacked once , they moved further out into the Atlantic to try and avoid the German Air Force , but a Junkers 88 appeared overhead at 07 : 30 and approached them at low level for a closer look . The ships opened fire and hit the Junkers in the cockpit . The plane went into the sea . The next aircraft to appear was a Blohm and Voss seaplane which attempted to bomb the ships , but left after being damaged by machine @-@ gun fire . The surviving MLs eventually reached England unaided the following day .

= = = Campbeltown explodes = = =

The explosive charges in HMS Campbeltown detonated at noon on 28 March 1942 , and the dry dock was destroyed . Reports vary on the fate of the two tankers that were in the dock ; they were either swept away by the wall of water and sunk , or swept to the far end of the dock , but not sunk . A party of 40 senior German officers and civilians who were on a tour of Campbeltown were killed . In total , the explosion killed about 360 men . The wreck of Campbeltown could still be seen inside the dry dock months later when RAF photo reconnaissance planes were sent to photograph the port .

According to Captain Robert Montgomery ( Royal Engineers , attached to No.2 Commando ) , Campbeltown was meant to have detonated at 4 : 30am , the delay caused , he believes , by some of the acid in the pencil fuses being distilled away . As the morning progressed , more and more captured comrades joined him in the German HQ .

The day after the explosion , Organisation Todt workers were assigned to clean up the debris and wreckage . On 30 March at 16 : 30 the torpedoes from MTB 74 , which were on a delayed fuse setting , exploded at the old entrance into the basin . This raised alarms among the Germans . The Organisation Todt workers ran away from the dock area . German guards , mistaking their khaki uniforms for British uniforms , opened fire , killing some of them . The Germans also thought that some Commandos were still hiding in the town , and made a street by street search , during which some townspeople were also killed .

= = Aftermath = =

The explosion put the dry dock out of commission for the remainder of the war . The St Nazaire raid had been a success , but at a cost . Of the 622 men of the Royal Navy and Commandos who took part in the raid , only 228 men returned to England . Five commandos escaped via neutral Spain and Gibraltar with the help of French citizens , and took a ship to England from Gibraltar . 169 men were killed ( 105 RN and 64 Commandos ) and another 215 became prisoners of war ( 106 RN and 109 Commandos ) . They were first taken to La Baule and then sent to Stalag 133 at Rennes . The fallen British raiders were buried at the La Baule @-@ Escoublac cemetery with military honours . The cemetery is located 13 kilometres west of St Nazaire .

To recognise their achievement , 89 decorations were awarded for the raid . This total includes the five Victoria Crosses awarded to Lieutenant Commander Beattie , Lieutenant Colonel Newman and Commander Ryder , and posthumous awards to Sergeant Durrant and Able Seaman Savage . Four Distinguished Service Orders were awarded to Major William Copland , Captain Donald Roy , Lieutenant T Boyd and Lieutenant T D L Platt . Other decorations awarded were four Conspicuous Gallantry Medals , five Distinguished Conduct Medals , 17 Distinguished Service Crosses , 11 Military Crosses , 24 Distinguished Service Medals and 15 Military Medals . Four men were awarded the Croix de guerre by France , and another 51 were mentioned in despatches .

Adolf Hitler was furious that the British had been able to sail a flotilla of ships up the Loire unhindered . His immediate reaction was to dismiss Generaloberst Carl Hilpert , chief @-@ of @-@ staff to the Commander in Chief West . The raid refocused German attention on the Atlantic Wall , and special attention was given to ports to prevent any repeat of the raid . By June 1942 the Germans began using concrete to fortify gun emplacements and bunkers in quantities previously only used in U @-@ boat pens . Hitler laid out new plans in a meeting with Armaments Minister Albert Speer in August 1942 , calling for the construction of 15 @,@ 000 bunkers by May 1943 to defend the Atlantic coast from Norway to Spain .

The battleship Tirpitz never entered the Atlantic . She remained in Norwegian fjords to threaten Allied shipping until she was destroyed by the RAF on 12 November 1944 .

= = Legacy = =

St Nazaire was one of the 38 battle honours presented to the Commandos after the war . The raid has since been called The Greatest Raid of All . The survivors formed their own association , the St Nazaire Society , which is a registered charity in the United Kingdom .

A memorial to the raid erected in Falmouth bears the following inscription :

A new HMS Campbeltown , a Type 22 Frigate , was launched on 7 October 1987 . She carried the ship 's bell from the first Campbeltown which was rescued during the raid and had been presented to the town of Campbelltown , Pennsylvania at the end of the Second World War . In 1988 the people of Campbelltown voted to lend the bell to the new ship for as long as she remained in Royal Navy service . The bell was returned to the town on 21 June 2011 when HMS Campbeltown was decommissioned .

On 4 September 2002 , a tree and seat at the National Memorial Arboretum were dedicated to the men of the raid . The seat bears the inscription :

In memory of the Royal Navy Sailors and Army Commandos killed in the raid on St Nazaire on 28 March 1942

= = Documentaries and dramatisations = =

A fictionalised version of the raid was the climax of the 1952 British war film , Gift Horse . The film follows the career of an ex @-@ US Navy destroyer , HMS Ballantrae ( actually HMS Leamington ) ; the raid is named Operation Boadicea and portrays the main events of the actual battle .

The war film Attack on the Iron Coast was released in 1968 and was a highly fictionalized version of the raid .

In 2007 , Jeremy Clarkson presented the story of the raid in a BBC documentary entitled The Greatest Raid of All Time .

An episode of the television series ; " World War II 's Greatest Raids " on the Military Channel ( now the American Heroes Channel ) devoted an episode to this raid . Titled " Commando Do or Die ! " it was released in early 2014 ; and has been rerun several times .

A mission in the video game Enemy Front re @-@ enacts the mission from the first person perspective of a British Commando .

A mission in the video game Medal Of Honour : European Assault also re @-@ enacts the mission from the perspective of fictional soldier William Holt .

= Hellblazer =

Hellblazer ( also known as John Constantine , Hellblazer ) is an American contemporary horror comic book series , originally published by DC Comics , and subsequently by the Vertigo imprint since March 1993 when the imprint was introduced . Its central character is the streetwise magician John Constantine , who was created by Alan Moore and Stephen R. Bissette , and first appeared as a supporting character in The Saga of the Swamp Thing # 37 ( June 1985 ) , during that creative team 's run on that title . Hellblazer had been published continuously since January 1988 , and was Vertigo 's longest running title , the only remaining publication from the imprint 's launch . In 2013 , the series concluded with issue 300 , and has been replaced by a DC Universe title , Constantine . Well known for its political and social commentary , the series has spawned a film adaptation , television show , novels , multiple spin @-@ offs and crossovers .

The series was the longest @-@ running and one of the most successful titles of DC 's Vertigo imprint , and was the stepping stone to many British writers . Notable writers who have contributed to the series include Jamie Delano , Garth Ennis , Paul Jenkins , Warren Ellis , Grant Morrison , Neil Gaiman , Mike Carey , Andy Diggle , and Peter Milligan . Hellblazer was one of the first modern occult detective fiction works and heavily influenced the genre to come .

= = Production history = =

After favorable reader reaction to John Constantine 's appearances in the comic book series Swamp Thing , where he had been introduced by Alan Moore during his authorship of the title , the character was given his own comic book series in 1988 . The series was intended to bear the title Hellraiser , but this title was revised before publication due to the contemporaneous release of Clive Barker 's unrelated film of the same name . Initial writer Jamie Delano was , in his own words , " fairly ambivalent " about the change of title .

The initial creative team was writer Jamie Delano and artist John Ridgway , with Dave McKean supplying distinctive painted and collage covers . Delano introduced a political aspect to the character , about which he stated : " ... generally I was interested in commenting on 1980s Britain . That was where I was living , it was shit , and I wanted to tell everybody . " The book , originally published as a regular DC Comics title , became a Vertigo title with the imprint 's launch in March 1993 ( issue # 63 of the series ) . In October 2011 , it was announced that this would join DC titles in being published digitally on the same day as its physical release , starting in January 2012 .

= = = Creative personnel = = =

Many writers had lengthy runs on the series , such as Garth Ennis and Mike Carey , who respectively had the second- and third @-@ longest runs on the book , ( only behind Peter Milligan ) . Other writers who wrote for the series include Paul Jenkins , Warren Ellis , Brian Azzarello , Neil Gaiman , Grant Morrison , Denise Mina , and Peter Milligan .

Numerous artists worked on the series as well , such as John Ridgway ( the original series artist ) , Simon Bisley , Mark Buckingham , Richard Corben , Steve Dillon , Marcelo Frusin , Jock , David Lloyd , Leonardo Manco , and Sean Phillips . Cover artists included Dave McKean ( who designed the first run of the series ' covers ) , Tim Bradstreet ( who designed the most ) , Glenn Fabry , Kent Williams , David Lloyd , and Sean Phillips .

= = In the comics = =

= = = Setting and protagonist = = =

Hellblazer was set in a contemporary world , albeit a world of magic and supernatural conflict behind the scenes . Although issue 14 made a passing reference to superheroes , the series since developed its own pocket universe in which the supernatural or paranormal did not play a large role in the lives of most ordinary people , and in Earth @-@ threatening circumstances no superhero interventions were shown or hinted at , suggesting that superheroes no longer existed there . However , some DC Comics characters — most notably the fringe supernatural characters such as Zatanna , The Phantom Stranger , Shade , The Changing Man , Dream of the Endless , and Swamp Thing made appearances .

John Constantine , the main character of Hellblazer , was portrayed as a kind of confidence man and occult detective who did morally questionable things , arguably for the greater good . He usually triumphed through guile , deceit , and misdirection , but often made more enemies in the process than he defeated . Indeed , it was a common theme in the book that Constantine was unable to effect any lasting change or enjoy unequivocal victories . While sometimes striving for the good of mankind , Constantine was often manipulative and a dangerous person to have as a friend , as the lives and souls of those around him became perilously involved in his misadventures . He took pains to protect himself from direct attacks , but his friends and relatives were often endangered in order to strike at him . The spirits of deceased friends haunted him , individually or as an entourage of ghosts .

Constantine made appearances in other comic book titles , such as Crisis on Infinite Earths , Infinite Crisis , Green Arrow , Green Lantern , The Sandman , Lucifer , and Shade , the Changing Man . He was a recurring supporting character in both Swamp Thing and The Books of Magic throughout their numerous incarnations . Some attempts to use the character in other superhero or family @-@ friendly comics were altered due to editorial mandate , such as " Gregori Eilovotich Rasputin " in Firestorm and Captain Atom ( who refers to Constantine as " an impertinent bumbler in England " ) . Grant Morrison created " Willoughby Kipling " for Doom Patrol after being refused Constantine by DC , changing his appearance to that of Richard E Grant in Withnail and I , following which Phil Foglio was forced to create " Ambroise Bierce " in Stanley and His Monster , having been refused both Constantine and Willoughby Kipling .

John Constantine was reintroduced into the DC Universe in 2011 , initially in the Brightest Day crossover event title Search for the Swamp Thing , and in the ongoing The New 52 title Justice League Dark .

= = = 1988 – 1991 : Jamie Delano ( # 1 – 40 , # 84 ) = = =

Having previously worked on D.R. & Quinch for 2000 AD , a title made popular by John Constantine 's creator Alan Moore , Delano was selected to start the character 's first run in his own comic by then editor Karen Berger in 1988 . Delano 's run was characterised by his political satire , taking on late 1980s and 1990s tropes such as with city financiers being literal demons , and Constantine meeting with Freemasons from the Houses of Parliament . He also had environmentalist issues crop up , especially in " The Fear Machine " ( issues # 15 @-@ 22 ) , where John fell in with a travelling community of environmental activists . Indeed , editor Karen Berger noted on Delano 's departure the irony that his final issue was handed in the week that Margaret Thatcher was forced out of office .

There were five main storylines in the run . The first , collected as " Original Sins " , deals with John travelling to America to exorcise a demon , Mnemoth , and investigate a strange cult known as Damnation 's Army , crossing paths with a demon called Nergal ( from whom he gains demon blood ) , and having to be responsible for killing an old friend , Gary Lester , and betraying another , called Zed , in the process . The following four issues , " The Devil You Know " finally explain John 's failure to save a young girl , Astra , from a demon in Newcastle , an event that left him near insane and incarcerated in an asylum known as Ravenscar , and still haunted him to the comic 's end . He eventually discovers that the demon responsible for this was Nergal , and uses a technological scheme to trap him , and lead him back to hell . It also contains a crossover with Swamp Thing , where Constantine loses his body while the Swamp Thing uses it to procreate .

This was followed by a lengthy nine @-@ issue story arc , " The Fear Machine " , revolving around a masonic plot to collect people 's fears , in order to resurrect a Cthulhian god known as Juntakillokian , and his efforts to prevent this with the help of environmentalists , including Mercury , a young psychic girl , and Marj , her mother , with whom he becomes romantically involved . The penultimate major run of Delano 's tenure was " The Family Man " , which differed from the main body of the series thus far in that Constantine 's nemesis is not supernatural ( beyond an opening metafictional encounter with a fictional fence ) , but a former policeman turned serial killer . John 's ethical quandary as to whether murder is ever acceptable , and his coping with the murder of his father , Thomas , frames this story . During this run on the title , Grant Morrison ( issues # 25 & 26 ) and Neil Gaiman ( issue # 27 ) both filled in during a three @-@ month break , Grant Morrison 's story dealing with nuclear fear , and Neil Gaiman 's being a simple romantic ghost story .

Delano 's run ended with " The Golden Child " , where John is reunited with Marj and Mercury , who help him discover that he murdered his more perfect twin in the womb , culminating in an extended story , in which we are shown what would have occurred had the other twin survived in his place . During his run , there was also a stand @-@ alone issue , the Hellblazer Annual # 1 , exploring Constantine 's ancestry , and featuring the video to John 's punk band , Mucous Membrane 's song " Venus of the Hardsell " .

Jamie Delano returned to the title on several occasions . Between the Garth Ennis and Paul Jenkins runs on Hellblazer , he finally told the story of why John 's best friend Chas ' owes ' him , and he returned again for one of the five Christmas stories in issue # 250 . He also wrote the mini series The Horrorist in 1995 , and Bad Blood in 2000 , both featuring John Constantine . A more substantial return was made in 2010 for a hardcover graphic novel Hellblazer : Pandemonium with artist Jock to commemorate the 25th anniversary of John Constantine 's first appearance in Swamp Thing .

= = = 1991 – 1999 : Garth Ennis ( # 41 – 83 , # 129 – 133 ) and Paul Jenkins ( # 89 – 128 ) = = =

Irish writer Garth Ennis then took over the title in 1991 , again from 2000 AD , where he had been working on Judge Dredd . He proceeded to write the longest run for any writer on the title . His take on the title was more personal than Jamie Delano 's , with John 's relationships coming to the fore . It also had a strong religious theme , with John 's dealings with the First of the Fallen , and some storylines , such as the relationship between an angel , Tali , and a succubus demon , Ellie , would go on to be used again as a major plot device in Preacher , one of his most popular works . He also references the music of The Pogues and the poetry of Brendan Behan , both of these being relevant to Ennis ' Irish heritage .

His run started with " Dangerous Habits " ( 41 @-@ 46 ) , which was the basis for the 2005 film Constantine , and dealt with John Constantine contracting lung cancer , and the desperate deal he makes with the First of the Fallen , and various other lords of Hell , to save himself . In the course of trying to save himself , he visits Ireland , where he becomes reacquainted with Kit Ryan , an old friend . The following few issues follow the early stages of his relationship with Kit , a plot to install a demon on the British throne in the plotline " Royal Blood " , and in the extended issue # 50 , his first meeting with the King of the Vampires . One minor story in this arc ( issue # 51 ) was written by guest writer John Smith .

The next major arc , " Fear and Loathing " ( issues 62 @-@ 67 ) covers a high point of John 's personal life , with his relationship with Kit going well , and a fortieth birthday party where his friends Ellie , Zatanna , and the Swamp Thing attend , and use their various abilities to create a large quantity of Bushmills whiskey and marijuana . The story then takes him to his lowest point , through his dealings with the National Front , their threats towards Kit , and her leaving him to return to Ireland . Following this , John is defeated , and lives homeless on the streets , drinking to forget his life . This remains the case until the King of the Vampires hunts him out , and is poisoned by his demon blood , leaving him out in the sun at dawn , killing him . Following his recovery , the storyline " Damnation 's Flame " ( Issues # 72 – 77 ) follows a trip to the US , where Constantine is put into an alternative America by his old adversary Papa Midnite , a Vodun shaman . He is accompanied by the spirit of JFK , who has to hold his brain in place from his infamous wound . He eventually learns how to escape , shortly before running into the First of the Fallen , in the guise of Abraham Lincoln . There then follows a small break where he meets the spirit of a dead friend in Dublin , offering some closure to his recent problems . Ennis ' run ends with " Rake at the Gates of Hell " , a story which finally brings together the racism storyline , with riots in Mile End , echoing the real @-@ life Brixton and Broadwater Farm riots in London , the revenge attempt of the First of the Fallen , started in " Dangerous Habits " , and the end of John 's relationship with Kit Ryan . John 's eventual Pyrrhic victory leaves this run with closure , and a relatively clean slate for a new writer to take over .

Following a brief interlude by From Hell artist Eddie Campbell , the series ' direction was taken over by Paul Jenkins in 1995 . He had been former editor of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and other Mirage Studios lines . He had pitched to several comic houses , having tired of editing , and eventually managed to gain stewardship of Hellblazer , the first largely untested writer to achieve this . His four @-@ year run is the longest run to remain uncollected . Jenkins ' run is more traditionally English in its themes , with Albion , Arthurian legend , and old English battles all featuring , and even an appearance by Samuel Taylor Coleridge , and a speculative explanation of the writing of Kubla Khan , and what the interruption of the ' man from Porlock ' may have been . He also returns to Jamie Delano 's coverage of anarchist lifestyles , and the effects of the Criminal Justice Act of 1994 , a controversial law which restricted the ability of the public to throw raves and large demonstrations .

Major storylines in this run include " Critical Mass " , where Constantine is forced to use magic to purge his darker side into another human body , in order to avoid being damned to Hell as part of a trade to save the possessed son of a friend , thus creating the antagonistic character , Demon Constantine , with the assistance of Aleister Crowley . The landmark hundredth issue gave more detail on John Constantine 's father , and the abusive relationship that they had shared . However , it is unclear as to whether this is happening in reality , or in his mind as John convalesces in a coma . " Last Man Standing " reveals that his friend Rich is the current descendant of King Arthur , and Merlin 's attempt to discover God 's secret , an act which would destroy England , using John 's few remaining friends as bait .

The tenth anniversary issue breaks from the usual format , in breaking the fourth wall , and addressing the reader as if they are in a pub with Constantine for a monthly get together to hear his stories . Over the course of the issue , most of the characters from Constantine 's history appear , along with Death of the Endless from Sandman . There are also appearances by writers and artists , including series creator Alan Moore , Garth Ennis , and Jenkins himself . Jenkins ' run then draws to a close with two storylines , " Up the Down Staircase " and " How to Play With Fire " , which relate the First of the Fallen 's new plan , to essentially let mankind ruin itself through television and consumerism , and Ellie 's plot to leave Constantine friendless and alone . John eventually saves himself , through a literal deus ex machina , in a campfire conversation with God . However , at that time Rich and his family finally sever their friendship with John , and the latter ends the run alone . Paul Jenkins later returned for one of the five stories in issue # 250 .

Ennis briefly returned to the title in 1998 with " Son of Man " , filling the gaps between Paul Jenkins ' and Warren Ellis ' runs on the title . This more irreverent story is about the consequences of Constantine resurrecting the dead son of an East London gangster , using the spirit of a demon . He also had two specials published during his run on the title , the Hellblazer Special and Heartland , which follows Kit Ryan 's return to Ireland .

= = = 1999 – 2002 = = =

= = = = Warren Ellis ( # 134 – 143 ) = = = =

Warren Ellis took over the title in 1999 , after his work on Transmetropolitan which had moved to the Vertigo imprint , following the closure of Helix Comics . He was meant to become a full @-@ time writer for several years , as Delano , Ennis and Jenkins before him , but left the title early after DC refused to publish the story " Shoot " , about high school shootings , following the Columbine High School massacre , despite the fact it had been written and submitted prior to the event . The story was finally published in 2010 .

His brief run began with " Haunted " , a London @-@ based story in which John investigates the brutal murder of a former girlfriend , Isabel by an Aleister Crowley style magician , Josh Wright . The story introduces , or reintroduces many characters who became an important part of the Hellblazer universe , including Inspector Watford ( originally from Jamie Delano 's run on the title ) , aging magician Clarice , and Map , a powerful magician who works on tube renovations in his part as custodian of London . The remainder of Ellis ' brief tenure was taken up with single issue stories , collected as " Setting Sun " .

= = = = Brian Azzarello ( # 146 – 174 ) = = = =

Following a brief interlude by Croatian writer Darko Macan , the series was then taken over by Brian Azzarello , once again hired on the strength of his own series for Vertigo , 100 Bullets . Azzarello 's run is one large meta @-@ story , that follows John Constantine on a trip across America , starting with his incarceration in prison , then variously uncovering a pornography ring , catching a serial killer , taking on a Neo Nazi group before finally dealing with the architect of his incarceration , Stanley W. Manor , a thinly @-@ veiled pastiche of Batman . Brian Azzarello did return for one of the five stories in issue # 250 .

= = = 2002 – 2006 : Mike Carey ( # 175 – 215 , # 229 ) = = =

Following Azzarello 's run , writer Mike Carey took over the title , following his Eisner award @-@ winning title Lucifer , set in the Sandman universe . Carey 's run attempted to return John Constantine to his roots , with the title largely set back in London , and featuring many characters from former runs on the title . Mike Carey also has the honour of being the first Liverpudlian to write the Liverpudlian character . His was the second longest run by any single author on the title , second only to Garth Ennis .

The start of his run introduces Angie Spatchcock , a fellow magician , and reintroduces his niece , Gemma Constantine , who has also fallen into magic use , to her uncle 's consternation . After ridding his sister 's house of an evil spirit , and finding out Gemma has gone missing , John returns to London , to find his old colleagues and enemies are all taking sides in the hunt for a mythical item , known as the Red Sepulchre . John eventually locates the item , and finds Gemma , freeing her from his old enemy Josh Wright . Following several forewarnings , Constantine then travels the world to set up a plan for a forthcoming tragedy , which will occur when " Three doors are opened " , involving Swamp Thing and the Garden of Eden amongst others .

John 's preparations have no effect , however , as he is tricked into killing the guardian that had been preventing the tragedy , freeing a beast which can control the collective unconsciousness of mankind . John Constantine cuts his own wrists , in order to free himself from consciousness , and plays a confidence trick on the beast , allowing his friends time to use the collective consciousness to rebuild the guardian that had kept the beast trapped . However , in this process , Swamp Thing has his human soul removed , setting up the fourth run of the comic , relaunched shortly afterward . In the process John loses his memory , setting up the events leading up to the 200th issue . Leading up to the landmark issue , John has little control over events , and is led along by a psychic serial killer , who threatens to kill Chas and his family , and a demon , Rosacarnis , who offers his memories back , at the cost of 24 hours in her service . John eventually gives into this offer , and the 200th issue shows how Rosacarnis manipulates his reality , making him raise three children with her , in the guise of Kit Ryan , from Garth Ennis ' time on the title , Zed , from Jamie Delano 's , and Angie , from the current run , with three different artists , Steve Dillon , Marcelo Frusin and Leonardo Manco each drawing one story , as the past , present and future of the title .

Carey 's final run followed the attempts of John 's three new children attempting to kill all of his family and friends , culminating in the death of his sister , Cheryl , at the hands of her possessed husband . John then travels into Hell to try to rescue her soul , with the assistance of Rosacarnis ' father , Nergal . The plan ultimately fails , and John returns broken , and intending to renounce magic .

Mike Carey returned to the title for a single issue between Denise Mina and Andy Diggle 's runs on the title , and also wrote the well @-@ received Hellblazer graphic novel All His Engines about a strange illness sweeping the globe .

= = = 2006 – 2013 = = =

= = = = Denise Mina ( # 216 – 228 ) = = = =

Denise Mina had not written for comics when she took over the title in 2006 , but had three acclaimed crime novels to her name , the Garnetthill trilogy , the first of which won the CWA award for best debut crime novel . Her run on the title took John to Scotland , to attempt to stop a plot to make everybody empathise with each other . However , John fails to stop this , and , overwhelmed by the grief and horror they 're forced to empathically share , suicides abound through the people of Glasgow . With help from Gemma Constantine , Angie Spatchcock and Chas Chandler , a plan to reverse the problem is made , as tension builds among the soldiers now surrounding the city . The soldiers keenly listen to a World Cup match between England and Portugal on the radio . When England loses the match , it seems all is lost , but the expected psychic riot fails to materialize . The soldiers are Scottish , so England 's loss is celebrated , saving the day , and proving there 's no source of joy like Schadenfreude .

= = = = Andy Diggle ( # 230 – 249 ) = = = =

Andy Diggle , having previously written the Hellblazer special , Lady Constantine , and Vertigo titles The Losers and Swamp Thing , took over the title in 2007 , another former writer for 2000 AD to have done this . He left the title in 2009 after accepting an exclusive contract with Marvel .

The run starts by introducing two main antagonists , an aging politician , who is using a strange portal to enter other people 's minds and commit crimes , and Mako , a cannibalistic mage who devours other magicians in order to obtain their power . Constantine 's attempt to play them off one another only succeeds in making them join forces in a further plot . Constantine then traps them both with considerable ease , and questions how this has been so easy . It then becomes apparent that he has been manipulated by the ' Golden Child ' , his twin who did not survive childbirth , and has been manipulating events for the whole of the series , including his battle with cancer and many other events . He declines his twin 's offer to merge souls , suspicious that his twin has been weakening his will in past years to make him accept this offer , choosing instead to take control of his own destiny .

= = = = Peter Milligan ( # 250 – 300 ) = = = =

Peter Milligan , a veteran of the Vertigo line , having written both Shade , The Changing Man and Animal Man at the publisher 's inception , then took over , starting with a short story in the landmark 250th issue , and taking over full @-@ time following this . His run implemented several major changes , including John Constantine 's wedding and the loss of his thumb .

In a rare change , Milligan 's run on the title starts with John living in domestic bliss with a nurse , Phoebe . Over the course of the first storyline , several new characters are introduced , including Epiphany Greaves , the alchemist daughter of a notorious London gangster , and Julian , a Babylonian demon . Over the course of the run , John dealt with a demon taking revenge on people involved in the Liverpool dockers ' strike gone insane and sought help from Shade , The Changing Man , after chopping off his own thumb , seen Phoebe die at the hands of Julian , and traveled to India to try to find a way of saving her . Following this , he realised that he was in love with Epiphany , and married her in the 275th issue . However , the events of this wedding turned Constantine 's niece Gemma against him , due to the Demon Constantine sexually assaulting her in the restroom . The strain of this traumatic incident turned her against John , and she enlisted the help of a coven of witches to kill him , which later came to a head when John was forced to fight off a brutal Demon summoned by them using John 's iconic trenchcoat to target him .

Afterwards , John 's coat ( which Gemma sold on eBay ) began to manipulate its various new owners into murder , suicide , or other horrific acts until coming into the hands of a man from the U.S. , who tried to kill John and Epiphany . During the time the coat was missing , John 's magical abilities had begun to go out of control . John eventually resolves this , and he was re @-@ united with his coat . Since this , Gemma and John have a very shaky relationship with one another , and she began a sexual relationship with Epiphany 's crime @-@ boss father Terry in order to " punish " John . When he confronted her about this relationship though , she told him that she would not stop unless he was able to retrieve her mother 's soul from Hell . John agreed . In order to get his sister to leave Hell , John agreed to track down her son , his adopted nephew , in Ireland .

On October 8 , 2012 , the series was announced as ending with issue 300 , following which a new title , Constantine started at the main imprint of DC comics . By 2013 , Constantine was contacted by the Three Fates , who tell him that he will finally meet his end in five days . Having lived a good and adventurous life , he happily accepts his fate rather than trying to fight it like he always does . When the last day came , Constantine was ambushed and shot in his own home right in front of a horrified Epiphany . After he died , Epiphany and Finn had an affair as a way to comfort each other . John 's ghost saw them having sex in a graveyard and seemed to give his blessing , making the fates decide that John wasn 't going to try to come back to life . Then , of course , he did . He contacted Epiphany and asked her to help resurrect him by making him cigarettes from his ashes , which , after he smoked them , made him corporeal again . Thinking to disappear and live happily ever after with Epiphany , they moved to a tiny house in Ireland , courtesy of Finn , that was totally off the grid and far removed from any apparent trouble , the last place anyone would think to look for John . That didn 't last long , though , as John realized he can never run from his past .

So John left Epiphany in Ireland and returned to England to confront Gemma . He stole the last dart holding the concoction that killed his demon twin , but ultimately gave it back to Gemma and told her either she could kill him , and live her life without him in but consumed with guilt for killing him , or she could let him disappear from her life forever , without any guilt for murdering him . Gemma shot the dart at him , but John disappeared . The final panel of Hellblazer reveals John , looking shocked and much older than we 'd previously seen him , standing in a bar appropriately called " A Long Journey 's End " surrounded by people , in front of a shelf full of bottles with the names of the comic 's staff over the years .

= = Justice League Dark , Constantine and cancellation = =

In 2011 , it was announced that a younger John Constantine would feature in Justice League Dark , one of the new titles launched as part of September 2011 's DC Universe reboot . He was to be part of a team including Shade , The Changing Man , Deadman and Madame Xanadu , known as Justice League Dark . As part of the DC universe reboot in September 2011 , Peter Milligan started the title which featured an alternate version of John Constantine as a prominent part of the team . Milligan wrote eight issues of Justice League Dark , with writer Jeff Lemire taking over on issue nine .

On November 8 , 2012 , DC announced that Hellblazer would be cancelled following its 300th issue , and would be replaced by Constantine written by Robert Venditti and drawn by Renato Guedes starring the younger New 52 John Constantine , rather than the version from Hellblazer , depicted as being in his late 50s . The Constantine series finally ended its run on its 23rd issue in May 1 , 2015 . Nonetheless , the character would again star in another solo series entitled Constantine : The Hellblazer , written by Ming Doyle and art by Riley Rossmo , and released in June 10 , 2015 . Writer Ming Doyle expressed excitement in her chance to write Constantine , stating that the reason of putting the term Hellblazer back to the character 's title was to " take Constantine back to what he was at the start . "

= = Themes and style = =

Hellblazer was first published during the early days of the Modern Age of Comics , and so its themes were dark , edgy , politically and morally complex as its contemporaries . Hellblazer mixes supernatural and real life horror , akin to contemporary gothic , with noire , surrealism and occult detective fiction elements . Unlike other comic books , Hellblazer is unique as it follows real time in its span of 20 years , with its protagonist John Constantine aging in every publication . Because of this , writers of the series often places their era 's culture and social commentary in their run . When Jamie Delano first wrote the series in the late 1980s and early 1990s , his issues were heavily inspired by the era such as punk rock and the British economy . Delano would be the first to put his political views in the series , an element never before seen in mainstream comics , such as his negative views of Thatcher 's regime and by 2005 includes the War on Terror . This made John Constantine different from other comic book characters at that time , in that he fights the political and social injustice of Great Britain .

When Garth Ennis took over writing , he included his trademark representation of racism and religious fanaticism , as well his depictions of the Falklands War . The most controversial writer , Brian Azzarello , tackled issues such as Neo @-@ Nazism , prison rape and homosexuality . During Warren Ellis ' run , he included American school shootings in a one @-@ shot issue which led to a major controversy . In his run , Peter Milligan managed to put punk ideology in the series , with the protagonist trying to reacquire his former punk self , while also characterizing the Conservative government as a demon infestation with the punk subculture fighting against this supposed subversion and abuse . As such , much of Hellblazer 's horror often comes in the crisis and controversies of its time . Being set in the UK , many famous British personalities have appeared or made cameos such as Sid Vicious , Margaret Thatcher , Aleister Crowley and Alan Moore .

As stated by Warren Ellis , Hellblazer 's major themes were cynicism , nihilism and " sudden violence " , with the protagonist oftentimes narrating the story in dark proses with occasional breaking of the fourth wall . In many story arcs every victory Constantine makes has a negative side effect and often leads to tragedy . His friends , family , and others would be sacrificed or be caught in the crossfire , many of them dead or have left him . John tries his best to make something good in his life , but most of it leading to failure .

= = Reception = =

Over the two decades that it had been published , Hellblazer had normally been quite well received . While not attaining the sales of ' mainstream ' comics , it had sustained healthy figures , consistently being one of the top selling Vertigo titles , and was sustained by healthy sales of trade paperbacks . Hillary Goldstein of IGN described it as , " Sometimes surreal , often provocative and almost always entertaining , the adventures of the Hellblazer are among the best Vertigo has to offer . " Well @-@ known comic book writer Warren Ellis also praised the series as his favorite , calling it as " among the very best horror works of the 1990 's . " Andre Borges from DNA India listed it in the " 15 Must Read Graphic Novels " , describing it as " one of the first of its kind " , and that its " writing and art work have been praised throughout its run . " Robert Tutton of Paste Magazine listed the series at # 4 in its " 13 Terrifying Modern Horror Comics " , stating that " Constantine ’ s most frightening encounters have hewn close enough to that kernel of truth to remind readers that real life can be as terrifying as any succubus or demon spawn . "

Jamie Delano 's original run on the title is looked on fondly , with journalist Helen Braithwaite stating , " His take on the character of John Constantine has never been equalled . Delano 's Original Sins graphic novel should be in every comic book fan 's collection . " She added that , " His writing evokes an incredible sense of dread and terror in a reader . " IGN listed the title as one of the 25 Best Vertigo Books , calling John Constantine as " one of Vertigo 's best characters . "

Garth Ennis ' run is also much loved , particularly Dangerous Habits , which was voted the best Garth Ennis story on Comic Book Resources , ahead of his work on Preacher , The Boys and The Punisher . In the same article Brian Cronin describes John 's one time love , Kit Ryan , as one of the series ' most memorable characters . The popularity of Ennis and Dillon 's run on Hellblazer is also credited for Vertigo agreeing to publish their seminal series Preacher . Empire Magazine called Dangerous Habits storyline as " rightly one of the most celebrated in comic book history . " Glenn Fabry who was the cover artist during Ennis ' run , won an Eisner Ward for " Best Cover Artist " in 1995 .

The creator of the protagonist , Alan Moore , praised Jamie Delano 's portrayal of the character , commenting " [ Delano ] demonstrates brilliantly that English horror didn 't vanish with the fog and gas lit cobblestones at the end of the Victorian era . " Moore also liked Brian Azzarello 's run on the series , commenting that Azzarello and Corben captured the character " down , cold and to the life . "

The character received positive critical reception while starring in the series . Empire Magazine ranked Constantine third in their 50 Greatest Comic Characters of All Time , while IGN ranked him # 29 in their Top 100 Comic Book Heroes , and the character ranked # 10 in Wizard Magazine 's Top 200 Comic Book Characters of All Time .

= = = Legacy = = =

The comic book 's initial cancellation , and the introduction of the character to DC led to many negative feedback and reception . I , Vampire writer Joshua Hale Fialkov expressed sadness he would never get to write " the ' real ' John Constantine " , noted crime author and former Hellblazer writer Ian Rankin stated that Constantine was the only comic book character he ever wanted to write for , and Alan Moore 's daughter , Leah Moore expressing doubt that Constantine could replace Hellblazer , among others . As a result , DC co @-@ publisher Dan Didio issued a statement defending this decision , stating that , " Hellblazer 's had a long and incredibly successful run and that 's a tip of the hat to all the great creators that have worked on the book over the years . The new Constantine series will return him back to his roots in the DCU and hopefully be the start of another incredible run . " Comic Alliance described Hellblazer 's cancellation as marking " the end of an era for Vertigo " while adding it to be " one of a handful of comics from the late eighties that helped comic books and their readers grow up . "

Hellblazer boosted the popularity and image of the occult detective fiction genre and shaped it to its modern form . Many modern examples of the genre such as Hellboy , Supernatural , Grimm , The Originals , and The Dresden Files have been influenced by it , and many imitators of both the series and its character flourished such as Criminal Macabre , Gravel , Planetary , and others . Its elements and style have been used countless of times in other works and many analogues of the cynical John Constantine have appeared .

= = Publications = =

= = Collected editions = =

= = = Trade paperbacks = = =

= = Adaptations = =

= = = Film = = =

The first adaptation of Hellblazer ever filmed for the screen is one of the scenes in the documentary feature film The Mindscape of Alan Moore , which was shot in early 2002 . The dramatization consists of the John Constantine character wandering through London and , in the film ending , experiencing a mystical epiphany of sorts .

In 2005 , Constantine was released , a feature film that did not use the same title as the comic book , in order to avoid confusion with the Hellraiser horror franchise . The only links to the character of John Constantine were the name and a plotline loosely based on the " Dangerous Habits " story arc ( Hellblazer # 41 – 46 ) . DC Comics announced a sequel to the 2005 Constantine movie was in the works , with producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura linked to the project . He stated : " I 'd love to do it ... We want to do a hard , R @-@ rated version of it . We 're going to scale back the size of the movie to try and persuade the studio to go ahead and make a tough version of it . " In late 2012 , director Guillermo del Toro publicly discussed the notion of creating a film that would star John Constantine alongside other DC / Vertigo characters such as Zatanna , Swamp Thing , and more .

= = = Television = = =

In January 2014 it was announced that David Goyer and Daniel Cerone were developing a TV series based on Hellblazer and that NBC had ordered a pilot for it . A few weeks later it was announced that Neil Marshall would be directing the pilot . The series will follow Constantine in his early years , defending humanity against dark forces from beyond . On February , 21 it was announced that Welsh actor Matt Ryan ( whose credits include Criminal Minds : Suspect Behavior and Edward Kenway in Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag ) will play the role of Constantine in the TV series pilot . On May 8 , NBC announced it had officially picked up Constantine for the Fall 2014 season . The show ran for 13 episodes , and on May 8 , 2015 , NBC cancelled Constantine after the end of its first season . It was later announced that the character of Constantine as portrayed by Ryan would be reappearing in the fourth season of the CW 's Arrow .

= = = Others = = =

THQ released a video game film tie @-@ in of the film entitled Constantine . The song Stranger in the Mirror by Ookla the Mok is written from Constantine 's point of view , including a lyrical reference to ' the Newcastle incident ' . The song " Venus of the Hardsell " , which first appeared in Hellblazer Annual # 1 and written by Jamie Delano , was adapted by the rock group Spiderlegs .

Fantasy fiction author John Shirley is credited in making three Hellblazer novels , including the novelisation of the Constantine film . The novel Hellblazer : War Lord features Constantine talking about " another John Constantine in an alternate universe , [ who ] has black hair and lives most of his life in Los Angeles " whilst giving a brief summary of the film 's plot .

= Curtis Woodhouse =

Curtis Woodhouse ( born 17 April 1980 ) is an English former professional footballer turned professional boxer and football manager . Most recently manager of Hull United , Woodhouse played football as a central midfielder , and competed as a light @-@ welterweight boxer . He is the former British light @-@ welterweight champion . His career in the Football League spanned across nine seasons , earning four caps for the England under @-@ 21 football team . Woodhouse 's professional boxing record stands at 29 fights 22 wins , 13 of which are by knock @-@ out , and 7 defeats .

He started his footballing career with York City 's centre of excellence before joining Sheffield United . In November 2001 , he was transferred to Birmingham City for a fee of £ 1 million , before joining Rotherham United in January 2003 , on loan for five months . He then joined Peterborough United on a free transfer in October 2003 . In May 2005 , he joined Hull City for £ 25 @,@ 000 , before joining Grimsby Town just eight months later in January 2006 . He retired at the end of the 2006 – 07 season .

Woodhouse stated that he had " fallen out of love " with football and decided to turn to professional boxing , despite no previous experience . In September 2006 , he won his first professional boxing match , defeating Dean Marcantonio , on points , knocking him down twice in the final round . His only defeat was by Jay Morris in April 2009 , losing 37 – 36 on points .

He was convicted of assaulting a police officer and of using threatening , abusive or insulting words or behaviour in April 2006 . As a result , he had his boxing licence suspended for five months by the British Boxing Board of Control , despite the incident happening before he was under the BBBofC 's jurisdiction . Woodhouse returned to football in November 2006 , joining Rushden & Diamonds in the Conference National before moving to Mansfield Town in January 2009 . After leaving them , he moved to Harrogate Town . At the end of February 2010 , he joined Sheffield in the Northern Premier League . Before the start of the 2011 – 12 football season , he moved up two divisions in the football league system when he joined Conference North outfit Eastwood Town .

= = Career = =

= = = York City and Sheffield United = = =

Woodhouse began his football career at York City 's centre of excellence in 1994 , before being transferred to Sheffield United for an initial compensation fee of £ 2 @,@ 200 . Sheffield United and York City later agreed on an additional £ 15 @,@ 000 fee plus a five @-@ percentage sell @-@ on clause . He made his debut for Sheffield United at the age of 17 , coming on as a 79th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 home win against Crewe Alexandra in the First Division on 29 November 1997 . He made a total of nine First Division appearances in the 1997 – 98 season . Woodhouse holds the record for being the club 's youngest ever captain , aged 19 . He earned a call @-@ up to the England under @-@ 21 team , and made his debut in a 2 – 2 away draw against Hungary on 27 April 1999 . He went on to earn another three caps against Sweden , Bulgaria and Poland in England 's 2000 European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifying group . He made a total of 104 appearances in the Football League , scoring six goals , before being sold to Birmingham City for £ 1 million in February 2001 .

= = = Birmingham City = = =

He made his debut for Birmingham City on 3 February 2001 , in a 2 – 1 home victory against Norwich City . He made 17 appearances for Birmingham during the 2000 – 01 season , scoring twice . Both goals came in the final league match of the season , a 2 – 1 away win against Huddersfield Town , sealing their relegation fate . Birmingham reached the League Cup final , however , Woodhouse was unable to play as he was cup @-@ tied , having previously played in three League Cup games for Sheffield United that season . He was arrested after the final of the League Cup , on 25 February 2001 , having been charged with affray along with two others after they " trashed " an Indian restaurant and he wielded a chair in a brawl with university students . In July 2002 , he was sentenced to 120 hours of community service and ordered to pay £ 250 costs . Birmingham finished fifth in the First Division , and reached the play @-@ offs , losing in a penalty shootout in the semi @-@ final , after the game was drawn 2 – 2 on aggregate . Woodhouse played in both semi @-@ final matches . The following season , 2001 – 02 , he made 28 appearances in the First Division . Birmingham reached the play @-@ offs again for the fourth consecutive season , this time gaining promotiton after beating Millwall in the semi @-@ final and Norwich City in the final . This time , Woodhouse did not play in any of the play @-@ off matches . He made just three appearances for Birmingham City in the Premier League , before being loaned out to Rotherham United in January 2003 . Grimsby Town and Brighton & Hove Albion were also reportedly interested in signing the midfielder . During his loan spell at Rotherham , he turned out 11 times in the First Division .

= = = Peterborough United = = =

Woodhouse signed for Peterborough United on 14 October 2003 , the same day that he made his debut against Torquay United in a 3 – 2 victory in the Football League Trophy . However , he had been training with Peterborough a month prior to signing for them , whilst he " sorted out some problems at Birmingham City " . He went on to captain the side , and was later described as " Captain Marvel " by manager , Barry Fry . In 2003 – 04 , he made 27 appearances in the Second Division , scoring seven goals . Peterborough finished 18th in the Second Division , two points from relegation , with Woodhouse being named as Peterborough 's player of the season . In May 2004 , Hull City manager , Peter Taylor , made a failed £ 100 @,@ 000 bid to try and sign the midfielder . The following season , 2004 – 05 , he made 34 appearances in the newly named League One and scored four goals . Peterborough suffered relegation , after finishing 23rd in the league .

= = = Hull City = = =

He joined Hull City in May 2005 , the club he supported as a child , on a two @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 , with the potential to rise to £ 150 @,@ 000 depending on appearances . His debut for Hull was as a late substitute in a 2 – 0 victory against Brighton & Hove Albion on 20 August 2005 . Though he lacked fitness at the start of the season , injuries to Keith Andrews and Ian Ashbee gave him the chance of a regular starting place , and manager Taylor also handed him the team captaincy . Despite consistent performances , by December 2005 he had lost his place and there was speculation that he had fallen out with Taylor and wanted to leave ; this was strongly denied by the player : " I 'm shocked that people are saying I want to go . I 'm very happy here . ... It 's taken me long enough to get to Hull so I 'm not going to walk out after a few months , or whatever . " In the following six weeks he made only two brief substitute appearances – in five months with the club he played 18 games in the Championship without scoring – and the strength of Hull 's squad was such that he could not be guaranteed regular first @-@ team football .

= = = Grimsby Town = = =

In the January 2006 transfer window , he joined Grimsby Town on a two @-@ year deal , three years after they first expressed an interest in signing him . He made his debut against former club Peterborough United in League Two , on 28 January 2006 in a 2 – 1 home defeat , and scored his first and what turned out to be only goal for the club against Mansfield on 14 February 2006 . On 26 April 2006 , Woodhouse said he planned to retire from football at the end of the 2005 – 06 season and embark on a career as a professional boxer . He made 16 appearances in League Two , helping them to finish fourth place , reaching the play @-@ offs . Woodhouse played in both of Grimsby 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victories over Lincoln City , setting up the only goal of the game in the first leg . He played his last Football League game in the play @-@ off final at the Millennium Stadium on 28 May 2006 . Grimsby were defeated 1 – 0 in the final by Cheltenham Town . Woodhouse gave away a penalty in the 70th minute that was saved by goalkeeper Steve Mildenhall .

= = = Switch to boxing = = =

Woodhouse had a history of theft , robbery and affray , and said that he had " fallen out of love " with football . He admitted to have been involved in around 100 street fights . He said ; " Boxing has always been my first love , even as a kid " , and " I love fighting ... Rather than get locked up for it , I might as well get paid for it . " He also stated that he used to spar in the boxing gym after football training without his manager 's knowledge , saying " A few times at Sheffield United , Neil Warnock would drag me in and say ‘ I hear you ’ ve been boxing ’ . I ’ d be standing there with a big black eye and a fat lip and deny it . " He trained under former British featherweight champion , Gary De Roux , and made his boxing debut on 8 September 2006 at Grosvenor House Hotel , London , in a welterweight contest against Dean Marcantonio , despite not having any previous amateur experience . The former footballer had lost two stone in weight since his playing days with Grimsby Town . The fight was scheduled for four rounds of two minutes , Woodhouse knocked his opponent down twice in the final round and won on points .

= = = Return to football part @-@ time = = =

After only one professional fight , Woodhouse returned to football in November 2006 , signing for Rushden & Diamonds , who were playing in the Conference National , the highest @-@ tier of non @-@ league football . His boxing licence was suspended by the British Boxing Board of Control , following a conviction for assaulting a police officer whilst drunk and of using threatening , abusive or insulting words or behaviour in April 2006 , when he was still playing for Grimsby Town , and not under the BBBofC 's jurisdiction at the time of the incident . He was ordered to pay £ 100 compensation to PC Andrew Whitehead and £ 350 in costs . Woodhouse chose to play for Rushden & Diamonds to fulfil a promise he made to someone who was part of the consortium that took over the Irthlingborough based club . He made his debut against Aldershot Town on 25 November 2006 , in a 1 – 0 defeat . He made five appearances in the Conference National for Rushden , before deciding to leave to concentrate on his boxing career .

He then returned to Rushden on 1 March 2007 , and made a further 11 appearances in the Conference in the 2006 – 07 season , scoring three goals , including a 30 @-@ yard long range effort against Northwich Victoria on 23 April . After five months away from boxing , Woodhouse returned to the ring for his second fight on 15 April , defeating Duncan Cottier on points after four rounds . On 1 May , he signed a new two @-@ year deal with Rushden & Diamonds . He then defeated Peter Dunn in a bout on 3 June , again on points , in a contest of four three @-@ minute rounds . In his fourth fight on 5 December 2007 , he defeated Craig Tomes by way of knock @-@ out after just 1 minute and 57 seconds , landing a left hook that unsettled Tomes as the referee decided his opponent as unfit to continue . Matt Seawright was Woodhouse 's next boxing opponent on 16 March 208 , he defeated him after Seawright felt he was unable to continue after the third round . Woodhouse finished the 2007 – 08 football season having played in 29 Conference National matches , scoring once and receiving two red cards . On 17 May , Woodhouse achieved his sixth straight victory , maintaining his undefeated record against Dave Murray at Bramall Lane , defeating his opponent by knock @-@ out in the second round . Murray managed to beat the standing eight count , but the referee deemed him unable to continue after 1 minute and 23 seconds .

After defeating Wayne Downing in 57 seconds on 21 June 2008 , Woodhouse stated his intention to retire from football at the end of the 2008 – 09 season , to concentrate on his boxing career . He was later appointed as team captain for his final season at the club . Woodhouse scored a decisive penalty in Rushden 's opening game of the 2008 – 09 season , away on 9 August , against newly promoted Eastbourne Borough . He was sent off again in the home game against Histon on 25 August , after receiving two yellow cards . In his eighth boxing match , Woodhouse defeated Jimmy Beech on points on 20 September . He then proceeded to defeat Peter Dunn on 30 November , stopping him 23 seconds in the sixth and final round at Thurcroft 's Consort Hotel , Rotherham .

He signed for Mansfield Town on 5 January on a contract until the end of the 2008 – 09 season . Woodhouse made his debut for Mansfield Town on 24 January in a Conference National match against Lewes . Mansfield won 1 – 0 . Matt Scriven was Woodhouse 's next opponent in the ring on 29 March at Bramall Lane . The fight went the distance of six rounds and Woodhouse was given the decision over Scriven . His first professional loss as a boxer was on 25 April at Ulster Hall , in Belfast at the hands of Jay Morris . The fight went the distance , but Woodhouse lost 37 – 36 on points over six rounds . Mansfield manager David Holdsworth hoped Woodhouse would stay at the club , but on 18 June , he joined Conference North team Harrogate Town . On 27 November , he defeated Dean Hickman by TKO in round 6 . This was Woodhouse 's first fight in the light @-@ welterweight division , having dropped down from welterweight .

On 13 January 2010 , in an interview to the Grimsby Telegraph , Woodhouse commented he would definitely consider a move back to former club Grimsby Town after expressing his dismay at The Mariners languishing near the bottom of the League Two , within danger of being relegated from the Football League . He commented " If they are looking for a central midfielder , though , they are welcome to give me a call " . Harrogate released him by mutual consent on 25 February . Three days later he avenged his defeat by Jay Morris by beating him with a TKO in round 3 . This gave Woodhouse the first title of his boxing career , the International Masters light @-@ welterweight title . On 25 April , Woodhouse defended the title with a 4th round knockout of Maurycy Gojko , who stepped in as a late replacement for Steve Saville . Next , on 2 July , Woodhouse knocked out veteran Stefy Bull in round 9 . His next fight was due to be against 2006 Commonwealth Games gold medallist and former world amateur champion Frankie Gavin on 18 September , but Woodhouse pulled out days after the bout was announced in July . He moved up the non @-@ League football ladder in June 2011 , after signing for Conference North side Eastwood Town .

= = Managerial career = =

It was announced on 2 May 2012 , that Woodhouse was the new manager of Northern Premier League Division One South club Sheffield . Woodhouse resigned in December 2012 after admitting having difficulty to managing a football team as well as being a professional boxer .

On 14 October 2013 , Woodhouse was announced as the assistant manager at Northern Premier League Division One South club Goole , with former team mate David Holdsworth being appointed manager . In January 2014 Woodhouse replaced Holdsworth as manager following Holdsworth 's resignation . Woodhouse then left Goole after some issues with the board , and took over at Hull United in January 2015 .

= = Personal life = =

Woodhouse was born in Beverley and raised in Driffield . His father , Bernard Woodhouse , died at the age of 51 after he had a fatal stroke . Unlike other boys who idolised footballers , Woodhouse stated his heroes were Nigel Benn and Mike Tyson . He admits to fighting at school and in the streets after being racially abused : " I went from scrapping in the street and at school to fighting in the boxing ring from the age of 12 . I was called a few names due to the colour of my skin , but with a quick smack in the mouth they soon backed off . " He used to visit Boothferry Park to support Hull City before pursuing his career in professional football . He has a wife , Charlotte , and two children : a son named Kyle and a daughter , Isla .

= = Career statistics = =

As of 29 January 2011 .

= = Professional boxing record = =

= 2010 Haiti earthquake =

The 2010 Haiti earthquake ( French : Séisme de 2010 à Haïti ; Haitian Creole : Tranblemanntè 12 janvye 2010 nan peyi Ayiti ) was a catastrophic magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake , with an epicenter near the town of Léogâne ( Ouest ) , approximately 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) west of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti 's capital . The earthquake occurred at 16 : 53 local time ( 21 : 53 UTC ) on Tuesday , 12 January 2010 .

By 24 January , at least 52 aftershocks measuring 4 @.@ 5 or greater had been recorded . An estimated three million people were affected by the quake . Death toll estimates range from 100 @,@ 000 to about 160 @,@ 000 to Haitian government figures from 220 @,@ 000 to 316 @,@ 000 that have been widely characterized as deliberately inflated by the Haitian government . The government of Haiti estimated that 250 @,@ 000 residences and 30 @,@ 000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged . There has been a history of national debt , prejudicial trade policies by other countries , and foreign intervention into national affairs that contributed to the pre @-@ existing poverty and poor housing conditions that exacerbated the death toll .

The earthquake caused major damage in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Jacmel and other settlements in the region . Notable landmark buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed , including the Presidential Palace , the National Assembly building , the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Cathedral , and the main jail . Among those killed were Archbishop of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Joseph Serge Miot , and opposition leader Micha Gaillard . The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) , located in the capital , collapsed , killing many , including the Mission 's Chief , Hédi Annabi .

Many countries responded to appeals for humanitarian aid , pledging funds and dispatching rescue and medical teams , engineers and support personnel . Communication systems , air , land , and sea transport facilities , hospitals , and electrical networks had been damaged by the earthquake , which hampered rescue and aid efforts ; confusion over who was in charge , air traffic congestion , and problems with prioritisation of flights further complicated early relief work . Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's morgues were overwhelmed with tens of thousands of bodies . These had to be buried in mass graves . As rescues tailed off , supplies , medical care and sanitation became priorities . Delays in aid distribution led to angry appeals from aid workers and survivors , and looting and sporadic violence were observed . On 22 January the United Nations noted that the emergency phase of the relief operation was drawing to a close , and on the following day the Haitian government officially called off the search for survivors .

= = Background = =

The island of Hispaniola , shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic , is seismically active and has a history of destructive earthquakes . During Haiti 's time as a French colony , earthquakes were recorded by French historian Moreau de Saint @-@ Méry ( 1750 – 1819 ) . He described damage done by an earthquake in 1751 , writing that " only one masonry building had not collapsed " in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince ; he also wrote that the " whole city collapsed " in the 1770 Port @-@ au @-@ Prince earthquake . Cap @-@ Haïtien , other towns in the north of Haiti and the Dominican Republic , and the Sans @-@ Souci Palace were destroyed during an earthquake on 7 May 1842 . A magnitude 8 @.@ 0 earthquake struck the Dominican Republic and shook Haiti on 4 August 1946 , producing a tsunami that killed 1 @,@ 790 people and injured many others .

Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere , and is ranked 149th of 182 countries on the Human Development Index . The Australian government 's travel advisory site had previously expressed concerns that Haitian emergency services would be unable to cope in the event of a major disaster , and the country is considered " economically vulnerable " by the Food and Agriculture Organization . Haiti is no stranger to natural disasters . In addition to earthquakes , it has been struck frequently by tropical cyclones , which have caused flooding and widespread damage . The most recent cyclones to hit the island before the earthquake were Tropical Storm Fay and Hurricanes Gustav , Hanna and Ike , all in the summer of 2008 , causing nearly 800 deaths .

= = Geology = =

The magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake occurred inland , on 12 January 2010 at 16 : 53 ( UTC @-@ 05 : 00 ) , approximately 25 km ( 16 mi ) WSW from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince at a depth of 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) on blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault system . There is no evidence of surface rupture and based on seismological , geological and ground deformation data it is thought that the earthquake did not involve significant lateral slip on the main Enriquillo fault . Strong shaking associated with intensity IX on the Modified Mercalli scale ( MM ) was recorded in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and its suburbs . It was also felt in several surrounding countries and regions , including Cuba ( MM III in Guantánamo ) , Jamaica ( MM II in Kingston ) , Venezuela ( MM II in Caracas ) , Puerto Rico ( MM II – III in San Juan ) , and the bordering Dominican Republic ( MM III in Santo Domingo ) . According to estimates from the United States Geological Survey , approximately 3 @.@ 5 million people lived in the area that experienced shaking intensity of MM VII to X , a range that can cause moderate to very heavy damage even to earthquake @-@ resistant structures . Shaking damage was more severe than for other quakes of similar magnitude due to the shallow depth of the quake .

The quake occurred in the vicinity of the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) per year in relation to the North American plate . The strike @-@ slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti , the Septentrional @-@ Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault in the south ; both its location and focal mechanism suggested that the January 2010 quake was caused by a rupture of the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault , which had been locked for 250 years , gathering stress . However , a study published in May 2010 suggested that the rupture process may have involved slip on multiple blind thrust faults with only minor , deep , lateral slip along or near the main Enriquillo – Plantain Garden fault zone , suggesting that the event only partially relieved centuries of accumulated left @-@ lateral strain on a small part of the plate @-@ boundary system . The rupture was roughly 65 km ( 40 mi ) long with mean slip of 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) . Preliminary analysis of the slip distribution found amplitudes of up to about 4 m ( 13 ft ) using ground motion records from all over the world .

A 2007 earthquake hazard study by C. DeMets and M. Wiggins @-@ Grandison noted that the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst @-@ case forecast would involve a 7 @.@ 2 Mw earthquake , similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake . Paul Mann and a group including the 2006 study team presented a hazard assessment of the Enriquillo @-@ Plantain Garden fault system to the 18th Caribbean Geologic Conference in March 2008 , noting the large strain ; the team recommended " high priority " historical geologic rupture studies , as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years . An article published in Haiti 's Le Matin newspaper in September 2008 cited comments by geologist Patrick Charles to the effect that there was a high risk of major seismic activity in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince .

= = = Aftershocks = = =

The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) recorded eight aftershocks in the two hours after the main earthquake , with magnitudes between 4 @.@ 3 and 5 @.@ 9 . Within the first nine hours 32 aftershocks of magnitude 4 @.@ 2 or greater were recorded , 12 of which measured magnitude 5 @.@ 0 or greater , and on 24 January USGS reported that there had been 52 aftershocks measuring 4 @.@ 5 or greater since 12 January quake .

On 20 January at 06 : 03 local time ( 11 : 03 UTC ) the strongest aftershock since the earthquake , measuring magnitude 5 @.@ 9 Mw , struck Haiti . USGS reported its epicenter was about 56 km ( 35 mi ) WSW of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , which would place it almost exactly under the coastal town of Petit @-@ Goâve . A UN representative reported that the aftershock collapsed seven buildings in the town . According to staff of the International Committee of the Red Cross , which had reached Petit @-@ Goâve for the first time the day before the aftershock , the town was estimated to have lost 15 percent of its buildings , and was suffering the same shortages of supplies and medical care as the capital . Workers from the charity Save the Children reported hearing " already weakened structures collapsing " in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , but most sources reported no further significant damage to infrastructure in the city . Further casualties are thought to have been minimal since people had been sleeping in the open . There are concerns that 12 January earthquake could be the beginning of a new long @-@ term sequence : " the whole region is fearful " ; historical accounts , although not precise , suggest that there has been a sequence of quakes progressing westwards along the fault , starting with an earthquake in the Dominican Republic in 1751 .

= = = Tsunami = = =

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning immediately after the initial quake , but quickly cancelled it . Nearly two weeks later it was reported that the beach of the small fishing town of Petit Paradis was hit by a localised tsunami shortly after the earthquake , probably as a result of an underwater slide , and this was later confirmed by researchers . At least three people were swept out to sea by the wave and were reported dead . Witnesses told reporters that the sea first retreated and a " very big wave " followed rapidly , crashing ashore and sweeping boats and debris into the ocean .

= = Damage to infrastructure = =

= = = Essential services = = =

Amongst the widespread devastation and damage throughout Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and elsewhere , vital infrastructure necessary to respond to the disaster was severely damaged or destroyed . This included all hospitals in the capital ; air , sea , and land transport facilities ; and communication systems .

The quake affected the three Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ) medical facilities around Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , causing one to collapse completely . A hospital in Pétionville , a wealthy suburb of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , also collapsed , as did the St. Michel District Hospital in the southern town of Jacmel , which was the largest referral hospital in south @-@ east Haiti .

The quake seriously damaged the control tower at Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport . Damage to the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince seaport rendered the harbor unusable for immediate rescue operations ; its container crane subsided severely at an angle because of weak foundations . Gonaïves seaport in northern Haiti remained operational .

Roads were blocked with road debris or the surfaces broken . The main road linking Port @-@ au @-@ Prince with Jacmel remained blocked ten days after the earthquake , hampering delivery of aid to Jacmel . When asked why the road had not been opened , Hazem el @-@ Zein , head of the south @-@ east division of the UN World Food Programme said that " We ask the same questions to the people in charge ... They promise rapid response . To be honest , I don 't know why it hasn 't been done . I can only think that their priority must be somewhere else . "

There was considerable damage to communications infrastructure . The public telephone system was not available , and two of Haiti 's largest cellular telephone providers , Digicel and Comcel Haiti , both reported that their services had been affected by the earthquake . Fibre @-@ optic connectivity was also disrupted . According to Reporters Sans Frontières ( RSF ) , Radio Lumière , which broadcasts out of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and reaches 90 percent of Haiti , was initially knocked off the air , but it was able to resume broadcasting across most of its network within a week . According to RSF , some 20 of about 50 stations that were active in the capital region prior to the earthquake were back on air a week after the quake .

= = = General infrastructure = = =

In February 2010 Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive estimated that 250 @,@ 000 residences and 30 @,@ 000 commercial buildings were severely damaged and needed to be demolished . The deputy mayor of Léogâne reported that 90 percent of the town 's buildings had been destroyed . Many government and public buildings were damaged or destroyed including the Palace of Justice , the National Assembly , the Supreme Court and Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Cathedral . The National Palace was severely damaged , though President René Préval and his wife Elisabeth Delatour Préval escaped injury . The Prison Civile de Port @-@ au @-@ Prince was also destroyed , allowing around 4 @,@ 000 inmates to escape .

Most of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's municipal buildings were destroyed or heavily damaged , including the City Hall , which was described by the Washington Post as , " a skeletal hulk of concrete and stucco , sagging grotesquely to the left . " Port @-@ au @-@ Prince had no municipal petrol reserves and few city officials had working mobile phones before the earthquake , complicating communications and transportation .

Minister of Education Joel Jean @-@ Pierre stated that the education system had " totally collapsed " . About half the nation 's schools and the three main universities in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince were affected . More than 1 @,@ 300 schools and 50 health care facilities were destroyed .

The earthquake also destroyed a nursing school in the capital and severely damaged the country 's primary midwifery school . The Haitian art world suffered great losses ; artworks were destroyed , and museums and art galleries were extensively damaged , among them Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's main art museum , Centre d 'Art , College Saint Pierre and Holy Trinity Cathedral .

The headquarters of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti ( MINUSTAH ) at Christopher Hotel and offices of the World Bank were destroyed . The building housing the offices of Citibank in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince collapsed , killing five employees . The clothing industry , which accounts for two @-@ thirds of Haiti 's exports , reported structural damage at manufacturing facilities .

The quake created a landslide dam on the Rivière de Grand Goâve . As of February 2010 the water level was low , but engineer Yves Gattereau believed the dam could collapse during the rainy season , which would flood Grand @-@ Goâve 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) downstream .

= = Conditions in the aftermath = =

In the nights following the earthquake , many people in Haiti slept in the streets , on pavements , in their cars , or in makeshift shanty towns either because their houses had been destroyed , or they feared standing structures would not withstand aftershocks . Construction standards are low in Haiti ; the country has no building codes . Engineers have stated that it is unlikely many buildings would have stood through any kind of disaster . Structures are often raised wherever they can fit ; some buildings were built on slopes with insufficient foundations or steel supports . A representative of Catholic Relief Services has estimated that about two million Haitians lived as squatters on land they did not own . The country also suffered from shortages of fuel and potable water even before the disaster .

President Préval and government ministers used police headquarters near the Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport as their new base of operations , although their effectiveness was extremely limited ; several parliamentarians were still trapped in the Presidential Palace , and offices and records had been destroyed . Some high @-@ ranking government workers lost family members , or had to tend to wounded relatives . Although the president and his remaining cabinet met with UN planners each day , there remained confusion as to who was in charge and no single group had organized relief efforts as of 16 January . The government handed over control of the airport to the United States to hasten and ease flight operations , which had been hampered by the damage to the air traffic control tower .

Almost immediately Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's morgue facilities were overwhelmed . By 14 January , a thousand bodies had been placed on the streets and pavements . Government crews manned trucks to collect thousands more , burying them in mass graves . In the heat and humidity , corpses buried in rubble began to decompose and smell . Mati Goldstein , head of the Israeli ZAKA International Rescue Unit delegation to Haiti , described the situation as " Shabbat from hell . Everywhere , the acrid smell of bodies hangs in the air . It 's just like the stories we are told of the Holocaust – thousands of bodies everywhere . You have to understand that the situation is true madness , and the more time passes , there are more and more bodies , in numbers that cannot be grasped . It is beyond comprehension . "

Mayor Jean @-@ Yves Jason said that officials argued for hours about what to do with the volume of corpses . The government buried many in mass graves , some above @-@ ground tombs were forced open so bodies could be stacked inside , and others were burned . Mass graves were dug in a large field outside the settlement of Titanyen , north of the capital ; tens of thousands of bodies were reported as having been brought to the site by dump truck and buried in trenches dug by earth movers . Max Beauvoir , a Vodou priest , protested the lack of dignity in mass burials , stating , " ... it is not in our culture to bury people in such a fashion , it is desecration " .

Towns in the eastern Dominican Republic began preparing for tens of thousands of refugees , and by 16 January hospitals close to the border had been filled to capacity with Haitians . Some began reporting having expended stocks of critical medical supplies such as antibiotics by 17 January . The border was reinforced by Dominican soldiers , and the government of the Dominican Republic asserted that all Haitians who crossed the border for medical assistance would be allowed to stay only temporarily . A local governor stated , " We have a great desire and we will do everything humanly possible to help Haitian families . But we have our limitations with respect to food and medicine . We need the helping hand of other countries in the area . "

Slow distribution of resources in the days after the earthquake resulted in sporadic violence , with looting reported . There were also accounts of looters wounded or killed by vigilantes and neighbourhoods that had constructed their own roadblock barricades . Dr Evan Lyon of Partners in Health , working at the General Hospital in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , claimed that misinformation and overblown reports of violence had hampered the delivery of aid and medical services .

Former US president Bill Clinton acknowledged the problems and said Americans should " not be deterred from supporting the relief effort " by upsetting scenes such as those of looting . Lt. Gen. P.K. Keen , deputy commander of US Southern Command , however , announced that despite the stories of looting and violence , there was less violent crime in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince after the earthquake than before .

In many neighbourhoods , singing could be heard through the night and groups of men coordinated to act as security as groups of women attempted to take care of food and hygiene necessities . During the days following the earthquake , hundreds were seen marching through the streets in peaceful processions , singing and clapping .

The earthquake caused an urgent need for outside rescuers to communicate with Haitians whose main or only language is Haitian Creole . As a result , a mobile translation program to translate between English and Haitian Creole had to be written quickly .

= = Casualties = =

The earthquake struck in the most populated area of the country . The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies estimated that as many as 3 million people had been affected by the quake . In mid February 2010 , the Haitian government reported the death toll to have reached 230 @,@ 000 . However , an investigation by Radio Netherlands has questioned the official death toll , reporting an estimate of 92 @,@ 000 deaths as being a more realistic figure . On the first anniversary of the earthquake , 12 January 2011 , Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive said the death toll from the quake was more than 316 @,@ 000 , raising the figures from previous estimates .

Several experts have questioned the validity of the death toll numbers ; Anthony Penna , professor emeritus in environmental history at Northeastern University , warned that casualty estimates could only be a " guesstimate " , and Belgian disaster response expert Claude de Ville de Goyet noted that " round numbers are a sure sign that nobody knows . " Edmond Mulet , UN Assistant Secretary @-@ General for Peacekeeping Operations , said , " I do not think we will ever know what the death toll is from this earthquake " , while the director of the Haitian Red Cross , Jean @-@ Pierre Guiteau , noted that his organization had not had the time to count bodies , as their focus had been on the treatment of survivors .

While the vast majority of casualties were Haitian civilians , the dead included aid workers , embassy staff , foreign tourists — and a number of public figures , including Archbishop of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince Monsignor Joseph Serge Miot , aid worker Zilda Arns and officials in the Haitian government , including opposition leader Michel " Micha " Gaillard . Also killed were a number of well @-@ known Haitian musicians and sports figures , including thirty members of the Fédération Haïtienne de Football . At least 85 United Nations personnel working with MINUSTAH were killed , among them the Mission Chief , Hédi Annabi , his deputy , Luiz Carlos da Costa , and police commissioner Douglas Coates . Around 200 guests were killed in the collapse of the Hôtel Montana in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince .

On 31 May 2011 , an unreleased draft report based on a survey commissioned by the US Agency for International Development ( USAID ) challenged the Haiti earthquake death toll and several damage estimates . The unpublished report put the death toll between 46 @,@ 000 and 85 @,@ 000 and put the number of displaced persons at 895 @,@ 000 , of which only 375 @,@ 000 remained in temporary shelters . The unreleased report , which compiled its figures from a door @-@ to @-@ door survey , was done by a Washington consulting firm , LTL Strategies . A US State Department spokesperson said the report had inconsistencies and would not be released until they were resolved . As of January 2012 , USAID has not released the report and states at its website that 1 @.@ 5 million people were displaced , of which 550 @,@ 000 remain without permanent shelter . The most reliable academic estimate of the number of earthquake casualties in Haiti ( over 95 % were in the immediate Port @-@ au @-@ Prince area ) " within six weeks of the earthquake " appears to be the 160 @,@ 000 estimate in a 2010 University of Michigan study .

= = Early response = =

Appeals for humanitarian aid were issued by many aid organizations , the United Nations and president René Préval . Raymond Joseph , Haiti 's ambassador to the United States , and his nephew , singer Wyclef Jean , who was called upon by Préval to become a " roving ambassador " for Haiti , also pleaded for aid and donations . Images and testimonials circulating after the earthquake across the internet and through social media helped to intensify the reaction of global engagement .

Many countries responded to the appeals and launched fund @-@ raising efforts , as well as sending search and rescue teams . The neighbouring Dominican Republic was the first country to give aid to Haiti , sending water , food and heavy @-@ lifting machinery . The hospitals in the Dominican Republic were made available ; a combined effort of the Airports Department ( DA ) , together with the Dominican Naval Auxiliaries , the UN and other parties formed the Dominican @-@ Haitian Aerial Support Bridge , making the main Dominican airports available for support operations to Haiti . The Dominican website FlyDominicanRepublic.com made available to the internet , daily updates on airport information and news from the operations center on the Dominican side . The Dominican emergency team assisted more than 2 @,@ 000 injured people , while the Dominican Institute of Telecommunications ( Indotel ) helped with the restoration of some telephone services . The Dominican Red Cross coordinated early medical relief in conjunction with the International Red Cross . The government sent eight mobile medical units along with 36 doctors including orthopaedic specialists , traumatologists , anaesthetists , and surgeons . In addition , 39 trucks carrying canned food were dispatched , along with 10 mobile kitchens and 110 cooks capable of producing 100 @,@ 000 meals per day .

Other nations from farther afield also sent personnel , medicines , materiel , and other aid to Haiti . The first team to arrive in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince was ICE @-@ SAR from Iceland , landing within 24 hours of the earthquake . A 50 @-@ member Chinese team arrived early Thursday morning . From the Middle East , the government of Qatar sent a strategic transport aircraft ( C @-@ 17 ) , loaded with 50 tonnes of urgent relief materials and 26 members from the Qatari armed forces , the internal security force ( Lekhwiya ) , police force and the Hamad Medical Corporation , to set up a field hospital and provide assistance in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and other affected areas in Haiti . A rescue team sent by the Israel Defense Forces ' Home Front Command established a field hospital near the United Nations building in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince with specialised facilities to treat children , the elderly , and women in labor . It was set up in eight hours and began operations on the evening of 16 January . A Korean International Disaster Relief Team with 40 rescuers , medical doctors , nurses and 2 k @-@ 9s was deployed to epicenters to assist mitigation efforts of Haitian Government .

The American Red Cross announced on 13 January that it had run out of supplies in Haiti and appealed for public donations . Giving Children Hope worked to get much @-@ needed medicines and supplies on the ground . Partners in Health ( PIH ) , the largest health care provider in rural Haiti , was able to provide some emergency care from its ten hospitals and clinics , all of which were outside the capital and undamaged . MINUSTAH had over 9 @,@ 000 uniformed peacekeepers deployed to the area . Most of these workers were initially involved in the search for survivors at the organization 's collapsed headquarters .

The International Charter on Space and Major Disasters was activated , allowing satellite imagery of affected regions to be shared with rescue and aid organizations . Members of social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook spread messages and pleas to send help . Facebook was overwhelmed by — and blocked — some users who were sending messages about updates . The American Red Cross set a record for mobile donations , raising US $ 7 million in 24 hours when they allowed people to send US $ 10 donations by text messages . The OpenStreetMap community responded to the disaster by greatly improving the level of mapping available for the area using post @-@ earthquake satellite photography provided by GeoEye , and tracking website Ushahidi coordinated messages from multiple sites to assist Haitians still trapped and to keep families of survivors informed . Some online poker sites hosted poker tournaments with tournament fees , prizes or both going to disaster relief charities . Google Earth updated its coverage of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince on 17 January , showing the earthquake @-@ ravaged city .

Easing refugee immigration into Canada was discussed by Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper , and in the US Haitians were granted Temporary protected status , a measure that permits about 100 @,@ 000 illegal alien Haitians in the United States to stay legally for 18 months , and halts the deportations of 30 @,@ 000 more , though it does not apply to Haitians outside the US . Local and state agencies in South Florida , together with the US government , began implementing a plan ( " Operation Vigilant Sentry " ) for a mass migration from the Caribbean that had been laid out in 2003 .

Several orphanages were destroyed in the earthquake . After the process for the adoption of 400 children by families in the US and the Netherlands was expedited , Unicef and SOS Children urged an immediate halt to adoptions from Haiti . Jasmine Whitbread , chief executive of Save the Children said : " The vast majority of the children currently on their own still have family members alive who will be desperate to be reunited with them and will be able to care for them with the right support . Taking children out of the country would permanently separate thousands of children from their families — a separation that would compound the acute trauma they are already suffering and inflict long @-@ term damage on their chances of recovery . " However , several organizations were planning an airlift of thousands of orphaned children to South Florida on humanitarian visas , modelled on a similar effort with Cuban refugees in the 1960s named " Pedro Pan " . The Canadian government worked to expedite around 100 adoption cases that were already underway when the earthquake struck , issuing temporary permits and waiving regular processing fees ; the federal government also announced that it would cover adopted children 's healthcare costs upon their arrival in Canada until they could be covered under provincially administered public healthcare plans .

= = Rescue and relief efforts = =

Rescue efforts began in the immediate aftermath of the earthquake , with able @-@ bodied survivors extricating the living and the dead from the rubble of the many buildings that had collapsed . Treatment of the injured was hampered by the lack of hospital and morgue facilities : the Argentine military field hospital , which had been serving MINUSTAH , was the only one available until 13 January . Rescue work intensified only slightly with the arrival of doctors , police officers , military personnel and firefighters from various countries two days after the earthquake .

From 12 January , the International Committee of the Red Cross , which has been working in Haiti since 1994 , focused on bringing emergency assistance to victims of the catastrophe , in close cooperation with its partners within the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , particularly the Haitian Red Cross and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies .

Médecins Sans Frontières ( Doctors Without Borders ; MSF ) reported that the hospitals that had not been destroyed were overwhelmed by large numbers of seriously injured people , and that they had to carry out many amputations . Running short of medical supplies , some teams had to work with any available resources , constructing splints out of cardboard and reusing latex gloves . Other rescue units had to withdraw as night fell amid security fears . Over 3 @,@ 000 people had been treated by Médecins Sans Frontières as of 18 January . Ophelia Dahl , director of Partners in Health , reported , " there are hundreds of thousands of injured people . I have heard the estimate that as many as 20 @,@ 000 people will die each day that would have been saved by surgery . "

An MSF aircraft carrying a field hospital was repeatedly turned away by US air traffic controllers who had assumed control at Toussaint L 'Ouverture International Airport . Four other MSF aircraft were also turned away . In a 19 January press release MSF said , " It is like working in a war situation . We don 't have any more morphine to manage pain for our patients . We cannot accept that planes carrying lifesaving medical supplies and equipment continue to be turned away while our patients die . Priority must be given to medical supplies entering the country . " First responders voiced frustration with the number of relief trucks sitting unused at the airport . Aid workers blamed US @-@ controlled airport operations for prioritising the transportation of security troops over rescuers and supplies ; evacuation policies favouring citizens of certain nations were also criticised .

The US military acknowledged the non @-@ governmental organizations ' complaints concerning flight @-@ operations bias and promised improvement while noting that up to 17 January 600 emergency flights had landed and 50 were diverted ; by the first weekend of disaster operations diversions had been reduced to three on Saturday and two on Sunday . The airport was able to support 100 landings a day , up from the 35 a day that the airport gets during normal operation . A spokesman for the joint task force running the airport confirmed that though more flights were requesting landing slots , none were being turned away .

Brazilian Foreign Minister Celso Amorim and French Minister of State for Cooperation Alain Joyandet criticised the perceived preferential treatment for US aid arriving at the airport , though a spokesman for the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs said that there had been no official protest from the French government with regard to the management of the airport . US officials acknowledged that coordination of the relief effort is central to Haitian recovery , and President Préval asked for calm coordination between assisting nations without mutual accusations .

US Air Force logs documenting activity at the airport obtained by the Associated Press largely disprove the claim that the US held up aid in favor of military flights . The US military initially did give priority to military units needed to secure the airport , distribute aid , and provide security , but after that , incoming relief flights were cleared or rejected on a first @-@ come , first @-@ served basis . According to a US Air Force Captain who had coordinated flight schedules , nearly all groups sending aid insisted their shipment was urgent . Those flights that were rejected were diverted to the Dominican Republic , where their cargoes were unloaded and taken to Haiti by land .

At the peak of the relief efforts , the airport was in a state of chaos . Normally , the airport , with a single runway and 10 spaces for large planes , handled 20 flights a day . After the earthquake struck , hundreds of planes rushed to Haiti without designated landing time . On average , a plane would land or take off every two minutes . The situation was further complicated by the fact that there was no room on ramps for planes to unload their cargo , and some planes did not have enough fuel to leave .

While the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince airport ramp has spaces for over a dozen airliners , in the days following the quake it sometimes served nearly 40 at once , creating serious delays . The supply backup at the airport was expected to ease as the apron management improved , and when the perceived need for heavy security diminished . Airport congestion was reduced further on 18 January when the United Nations and US forces formally agreed to prioritise humanitarian flights over security reinforcement .

By 14 January , over 20 countries had sent military personnel to the country , with Canada , the United States and the Dominican Republic providing the largest contingents . The supercarrier USS Carl Vinson arrived at maximum possible speed on 15 January with 600 @,@ 000 emergency food rations , 100 @,@ 000 ten @-@ litre water containers , and an enhanced wing of 19 helicopters ; 130 @,@ 000 litres of drinking water were transferred to shore on the first day .

The helicopter carrier USS Bataan sailed with three large dock landing ships and two survey / salvage vessels , to create a " sea base " for the rescue effort . They were joined by the French Navy vessel Francis Garnier on 16 January , the same day the hospital ship USNS Comfort and guided @-@ missile cruiser USS Bunker Hill left for Haiti . Another large French vessel was later ordered to Haiti , the amphibious transport dock Siroco .

International rescue efforts were restricted by traffic congestion and blocked roads . Although US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates had previously ruled out dropping food and water by air as too dangerous , by 16 January , US helicopters were distributing aid to areas impossible to reach by land .

In Jacmel , a city of 50 @,@ 000 , the mayor claimed that 70 percent of the homes had been damaged and that the quake had killed 300 to 500 people and left some 4 @,@ 000 injured . The small airstrip suffered damage that rendered it unusable for supply flights until 20 January . The Canadian navy vessel HMCS Halifax was deployed to the area on 18 January ; the Canadians joined Colombian rescue workers , Chilean doctors , a French mobile clinic , and Sri Lankan relief workers who had already responded to calls for aid .

About 64 @,@ 000 people living in the three adjacent agricultural communities of Durissy , Morne a Chandelle , and Les Palmes were relatively unharmed because most of the people were working in the fields ; but all churches , chapels and at least 8 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed .

British search and rescue teams were the first to arrive in Léogane , the town at the epicenter of the quake , on 17 January . The Canadian ship HMCS Athabaskan reached the area on 19 January , and by 20 January there were 250 – 300 Canadian personnel assisting relief efforts in the town . By 19 January , staff of the International Red Cross had also managed to reach the town , which they described as " severely damaged ... the people there urgently need assistance " , and by 20 January they had reached Petit @-@ Goâve as well , where they set up two first @-@ aid posts and distributed first @-@ aid kits .

Over the first weekend 130 @,@ 000 food packets and 70 @,@ 000 water containers were distributed to Haitians , as safe landing areas and distribution centers such as golf courses were secured . There were nearly 2 @,@ 000 rescuers present from 43 different groups , with 161 search dogs ; the airport had handled 250 tons of relief supplies by the end of the weekend . Reports from Sunday showed a record @-@ breaking number of successful rescues , with at least 12 survivors pulled from Port @-@ au @-@ Prince 's rubble , bringing the total number of rescues to 110 .

The buoy tender USCG Oak and USNS Grasp ( T @-@ ARS @-@ 51 ) were on scene by 18 January to assess damage to the port and work to reopen it , and by 21 January one pier at the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince seaport was functional , offloading humanitarian aid , and a road had been repaired to make transport into the city easier . In an interview on 21 January , Leo Merores , Haiti 's ambassador to the UN , said that he expected the port to be fully functional again within two weeks .

The US Navy listed its resources in the area as " 17 ships , 48 helicopters and 12 fixed @-@ wing aircraft " in addition to 10 @,@ 000 sailors and Marines . The Navy had conducted 336 air deliveries , delivered 32 @,@ 400 US gallons ( 123 @,@ 000 L ) of water , 532 @,@ 440 bottles of water , 111 @,@ 082 meals and 9 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) of medical supplies by 20 January . Hospital ship Comfort began operations on 20 January , completing the arrival of the first group of sea @-@ base vessels ; this came as a new flotilla of USN ships were assigned to Haiti , including survey vessels , ferries , elements of the maritime prepositioning and underway replenishment fleets , and a further three amphibious operations ships , including another helicopter carrier , USS Nassau ( LHA @-@ 4 ) .

On 22 January the UN and United States formalised the coordination of relief efforts by signing an agreement giving the US responsibility for the ports , airports and roads , and making the UN and Haitian authorities responsible for law and order . The UN stated that it had resisted formalising the organization of the relief effort to allow as much leeway as possible for those wishing to assist in the relief effort , but with the new agreement " we 're leaving that emergency phase behind " . The UN also urged organizations to coordinate aid efforts through its mission in Haiti to allow for better scheduling of the arrival of supplies . On 23 January the Haitian government officially called off the search for survivors , and most search and rescue teams began to prepare to leave the country . However , as late as 8 February 2010 , survivors were still being discovered , as in the case of Evan Muncie , 28 , found in the rubble of a grocery store .

On 5 February , ten Baptist missionaries from Idaho led by Laura Silsby were charged with criminal association and kidnapping for trying to smuggle 33 children out of Haiti . The missionaries claimed they were rescuing orphaned children but investigations revealed that more than 20 of the children had been taken from their parents after they were told the children would have a better life in America . In an interview , the United States Ambassador to Haiti Kenneth Merten , stated that the US justice system would not interfere and that " the Haitian justice system will do what it has to do . " By 9 March 2010 , all but Silsby were deported and she remained incarcerated .

Social networking organizations such as Crisis Camp Haiti were developed to aid in the structure and coordination of relief efforts in Haiti and future catastrophic events as well .

On 10 April , due to the potential threat of mudslides and flooding from the upcoming rainy season , the Haitian government began operations to move thousands of refugees to a more secure location north of the capital .

= = Recovery = =

US President Barack Obama announced that former presidents Bill Clinton , who also acts as the UN special envoy to Haiti , and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti 's recovery . Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Haiti on 16 January to survey the damage and stated that US $ 48 million had been raised already in the US to help Haiti recover . Following the meeting with Secretary Clinton , President Préval stated that the highest priorities in Haiti 's recovery were establishing a working government , clearing roads , and ensuring the streets were cleared of bodies to improve sanitary conditions .

US Vice President Joe Biden stated on 16 January that President Obama " does not view this as a humanitarian mission with a life cycle of a month . This will still be on our radar screen long after it 's off the crawler at CNN . This is going to be a long slog . "

Trade and Industry Minister Josseline Colimon Fethiere estimated that the earthquake 's toll on the Haitian economy would be massive , with one in five jobs lost . In response to the earthquake , foreign governments offered badly needed financial aid . The European Union promised € 330 million for emergency and long @-@ term aid . Brazil announced R $ 375 million for long @-@ term recovery aid , R $ 25 million of which in immediate funds . The United Kingdom 's Secretary of State for International Development Douglas Alexander called the result of the earthquake an " almost unprecedented level of devastation " , and committed the UK to ₤ 20 million in aid , while France promised € 10 million . Italy announced it would waive repayment of the € 40 million it had loaned to Haiti , and the World Bank waived the country 's debt repayments for five years . On 14 January , the US government announced it would give US $ 100 million to the aid effort and pledged that the people of Haiti " will not be forgotten " .

In the aftermath of the earthquake , the government of Canada announced that it would match the donations of Canadians up to a total of C $ 50 million . Canadians were able to donate through the Humanitarian Coalition which distributed funds to partner organizations working in the field . During this time the Humanitarian Coalition raised over C $ 15 Million . After a United Nations call for help for the people affected by the earthquake , Canada pledged an additional C $ 60 million in aid on 19 January 2010 , bringing Canada 's total contribution to C $ 135 million . By 8 February 2010 , the federal International Co @-@ operation Department , through the Canadian International Development Agency ( CIDA ) , had already provided about C $ 85 million in humanitarian aid through UN agencies , the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and to organizations such as CARE , Médecins du Monde , Save the Children , Oxfam Quebec , the Centre for International Studies and co @-@ operation , and World Vision . On 23 January 2010 , Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that the federal government had lifted the limit on the amount of money allocated for matching individual donations to relief efforts , and that the federal government would continue to match individual donations until 12 February 2010 ; by the deadline , Canadians had privately raised C $ 220 million . On top of matching donations , International Co @-@ operation Minister Bev Oda pledged an additional C $ 290 million in long @-@ term relief to be spent between 2010 and 2012 , including C $ 8 million in debt relief to Haiti , part of a broader cancellation of the country 's overall World Bank debt . The government 's commitment to provide C $ 550 million in aid and debt relief and Canadians ' individual donations amount to a total of C $ 770 million .

In addition to Canada 's federal government , the governments of several of the provinces and territories of Canada also announced that they would provide immediate emergency aid to Haiti . On 18 January 2010 , the province of Quebec , whose largest city – Montreal – houses the world 's largest Haitian diaspora , pledged C $ 3 million in emergency aid . Both the provincial government of Quebec and the Canadian federal government reaffirmed their commitment to rebuilding Haiti at the 2010 Francophonie Summit ; Prime Minister Harper used his opening speech to " tell the head of the Haitian delegation to keep up their spirits " and to urge other nations to continue to support recovery efforts .

President Abdoulaye Wade of Senegal offered interested Haitians free land in Senegal ; depending on how many respond to the offer , this could include up to an entire region .

Prime Minister Bellerive announced that from 20 January , people would be helped to relocate outside the zone of devastation , to areas where they may be able to rely on relatives or better fend for themselves ; people who have been made homeless would be relocated to the makeshift camps created by residents within the city , where a more focused delivery of aid and sanitation could be achieved . Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , according to an international studies professor at the University of Miami , was ill @-@ equipped before the disaster to sustain the number of people who had migrated there from the countryside over the past ten years to find work . After the earthquake , thousands of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince residents began returning to the rural towns they came from .

On 25 January a one @-@ day conference was held in Montreal to assess the relief effort and discuss further plans . Prime Minister Bellerive told delegates from 20 countries that Haiti would need " massive support " for its recovery from the international community . A donors ' conference was expected to be held at the UN headquarters in New York in March , however , took more than three months to hold the UN conference . The 26 @-@ member international Interim Haiti Reconstruction Commission , headed by Bill Clinton and Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive , convened in June 2010 . That committee is overseeing the US $ 5 @.@ 3 billion pledged internationally for the first two years of Haiti 's reconstruction .

The commission was critiqued by Haitian groups for lacking Haitian civil society representation and accountability mechanisms . Half the representation on the commission was given to foreigners who effectively bought their seats by pledging certain amounts of money . An international development consultant contracted by the commission was quoted as saying , “ Look , you have to realize the IHRC [ commission ] was not intended to work as a structure or entity for Haiti or Haitians . It was simply designed as a vehicle for donors to funnel multinationals ’ and NGOs ’ project contracts . ”

The Netherlands sponsored a project , called Radio555 . The Dutch radio channels 3FM , Radio 538 and Radio Veronica all broadcast under the name of Radio555 , funded by a contribution of € 80 million .

Several organizations of the US building industry and government , such as the Department of Homeland Security and the International Code Council , among others , reported that they were compiling a " Haiti Toolkit " coordinated by the National Institute of Building Sciences . The toolkit would comprise building technology resources and best practices for consideration by the Haitian government with the goal of creating a more resilient infrastructure to prevent future losses of life .

Immediately following the earthquake , Real Medicine Foundation began providing medical staffing , in @-@ kind medical supplies and strategic coordination to help meet the surging needs of the health crisis on the ground . Working in close partnership with other relief organizations , Real Medicine organized deployments of volunteer medical specialists to meet the needs of partner hospitals and clinics at the Haiti – Dominican Republic border and in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , provided direct funding , medical supplies and pharmaceuticals to local health facilities and partner hospitals , provided advisory services and coordination to local health facilities , including physical therapy support , and coordinated mobile health outreaches , field clinics and food supplies to outlying villages overlooked in the relief effort .

On 15 January 2011 , the Catholic Relief Services announced a US $ 200 million , five @-@ year relief and reconstruction program that covers shelter , health , livelihoods , and child protection among its program areas .

= = = Status of the recovery = = =

Six months after the quake as much as 98 percent of the rubble remained uncleared . An estimated 26 million cubic yards ( 20 million cubic meters ) remained , making most of the capital impassable , and thousands of bodies remained in the rubble . The number of people in relief camps of tents and tarps since the quake was 1 @.@ 6 million , and almost no transitional housing had been built . Most of the camps had no electricity , running water , or sewage disposal , and the tents were beginning to fall apart . Crime in the camps was widespread , especially against women and girls . Between 23 major charities , US $ 1 @.@ 1 billion had been collected for Haiti for relief efforts , but only two percent of the money had been released . According to a CBS report , US $ 3 @.@ 1 billion had been pledged for humanitarian aid and was used to pay for field hospitals , plastic tarps , bandages , and food , plus salaries , transportation and upkeep of relief workers . By May 2010 , enough aid had been raised internationally to give each displaced family a cheque for US $ 37 @,@ 000 .

In July 2010 , CNN returned to Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and reported , " It looks like the quake just happened yesterday " , and Imogen Wall , spokeswoman for the United Nations office of humanitarian affairs in Haiti , said that " six months from that time it may still look the same . " Land ownership posed a particular problem for rebuilding because so many pre @-@ quake homes were not officially registered . " Even before the national registry fell under the rubble , land tenure was always a complex and contentious issue in Haiti . Many areas of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince were settled either by tonton makout – Duvalier 's death squads – given land for their service or by squatters . In many cases land ownership was never officially registered . Even if this logistical logjam were to be cleared , the vast majority of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince residents , up to 85 percent , did not own their homes before the earthquake . "

Haitian grassroots groups advocated for the government to fulfill the right to housing as designated in the Haitian constitution , and for donor governments to support this as well . They also worked to push the international community to recognize the wave of evictions from camps that started as early as three months after the earthquake and to put protections in place , but little was done in response .

In September 2010 there were over one million refugees still living in tents , and the humanitarian situation was characterized as still being in the emergency phase , according to the Apostolic Nuncio to Haiti , Archbishop Bernard Auza . He went on to say that the number was rising instead of diminishing , and reported that the state had decided to first rebuild downtown Port @-@ au @-@ Prince and a new government center , but reconstruction had not yet begun .

In October 2010 , Refugees International characterized the aid agencies as dysfunctional and inexperienced saying , " The people of Haiti are still living in a state of emergency , with a humanitarian response that appears paralyzed " . It was reported that gang leaders and land owners were intimidating the displaced and that sexual , domestic , and gang violence in and around the camps was rising . They claimed that rape of Haitian women and girls who had been living in camps since the January earthquake was increasing , in part , because the United Nations wasn 't doing enough to protect them .

In October , a cholera epidemic broke out , probably introduced by foreign aid workers . Cholera most often affects poor countries with limited access to clean water and proper sanitation . By the end of 2010 , more than 3 @,@ 333 had died at a rate of about 50 deaths a day .

= = = = 2011 = = = =

In January 2011 , one year after the quake , Oxfam published a report on the status of the recovery . According to the report , relief and recovery were at a standstill due to government inaction and indecision on the part of the donor countries . The report stated , " One year on , only five percent of the rubble has been cleared and only 15 percent of the required basic and temporary houses have been built . House building on a large scale cannot be started before the enormous amount of rubble is cleared . The government and donors must prioritize this most basic step toward helping people return home " . Robert Fox , executive director of Oxfam Canada , said " The dysfunction has been aided unabated by the way the international community has organized itself , where pledges have been made and they haven 't followed through [ and ] where they come to the table with their own agendas and own priorities . Most donors provided funds for transitional housing but very little money for clearing rubble or repairing houses " . Fox said that in many instances rubble removal " means it was [ moved ] off someone 's property onto the road in front of the property " . According to a UNICEF report , " Still today more than one million people remain displaced , living in crowded camps where livelihoods , shelter and services are still hardly sufficient for children to stay healthy " . Amnesty International reported that armed men were preying with impunity on girls and women in displacement camps , worsening the trauma of having lost homes , livelihoods and loved ones .

On the first anniversary of the earthquake , Haitian @-@ born Michaëlle Jean , who served as the Governor General of Canada at the time of the disaster and who became United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) Special Envoy for Haiti on 8 November 2010 , voiced her anger at the slow rate of aid delivery , placing much of the blame on the international community for abandoning its commitments . In a public letter co @-@ authored with UNESCO head Irina Bokova , Jean said , " As time passes , what began as a natural disaster is becoming a disgraceful reflection on the international community . " The Interim Haiti Recovery Commission , led by former US President Bill Clinton and Haitian Prime Minister Jean @-@ Max Bellerive , had been set up to facilitate the flow of funds toward reconstruction projects in April 2010 , but as of January 2011 , no major reconstruction had started .

= = = = 2012 = = = =

In January 2012 , two years since the quake , figures released by the United Nations show that of the nearly US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion pledged for reconstruction projects in 2010 and 2011 , only 43 percent has been delivered . Venezuela and the US , which promised the major share of reconstruction funds , have disbursed only 24 percent and 30 percent , respectively . Japan and Finland are among the few donors to have fully met their pledges . The data shows that some crucial sectors face particularly large funding gaps . In 2010 and 2011 , for example , donors disbursed just US $ 125 million of the US $ 311 million in grants allocated to agriculture projects , and only US $ 108 million of the US $ 315 million in grants allocated to health projects . Only 6 percent of bilateral aid for reconstruction projects has gone through Haitian institutions , and less than 1 percent of relief funding has gone through the government of Haiti .

A January 2012 Oxfam report said that a half a million Haitians remained homeless , still living under tarps and in tents . Watchdog groups have criticized the reconstruction process saying that part of the problem is that charities spent a considerable amount of money on " soaring rents , board members ' needs , overpriced supplies and imported personnel " . The Miami Herald reports . " A lot of good work was done ; the money clearly didn 't all get squandered , " but , " A lot just wasn 't responding to needs on the ground . Millions were spent on ad campaigns telling people to wash their hands . Telling them to wash their hands when there 's no water or soap is a slap in the face . "

The Institute of Justice & Democracy in Haiti , Let Haiti Live , and The Center For Constitutional Rights have recommended immediate changes to recovery efforts to ensure that critical human rights concerns are addressed . A report found that , " The conditions in the displaced persons camps are abysmal , particularly for women and girls who too often are victims of gender ‐ based violence " . They call for more oversight of accountability of reconstruction plans , asking , " Why have only 94 @,@ 000 transitional shelters been built to date despite a stated goal of 125 @,@ 000 in the first year ? " .

On 25 August 2012 , recovery was hampered due to Tropical Storm Isaac impacting Haiti 's southern peninsula . There it caused flooding and 29 deaths according to local reporting . As a result of the 2010 earthquake , more than 400 @,@ 000 Haitians continue to live in tents and experienced the storm without adequate shelter . In late October , with over 370 @,@ 000 still living in tent camps , a second tropical storm , Hurricane Sandy , killed 55 and left large portions of Haiti under water .

At the 2012 Consultative Group meeting of the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery ( GFDRR ) , the Haitian delegation shared a " bottom @-@ up " approach to disaster reduction and management based on community integration and sustainable development with a group of experts from approximately 38 nations .

= = = = 2013 = = = =

According to the International Monetary Fund , more than half of the 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of debris have been removed , and 20 percent of it has been recycled .

The cholera outbreak which began in October 2010 has continued . According to U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention it is considered the worst epidemic of cholera since the 1994 outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( called Zaire at that time ) . By August 2013 , it had killed over 8 @,@ 231 Haitians and hospitalized hundreds of thousands more . More than 6 % of Haitians have had the disease . Care of cholera patients remains inadequate with much now done in tent facilities with rows of cots for patient treatment . The United Nations peace keeping force , widely believed responsible for the cholera outbreak , continues to refuse to accept responsibility , however , they have launched a $ 2 @.@ 2 billion initiative to combat cholera and the construction of a $ 17 million teaching hospital in Mirebalais which will employ 800 Haitians and treat 185 @,@ 000 people .

By the beginning of the year only a small part-- $ 215 million — of the total funds collected for aid had been spent on permanent housing , with most of it-- $ 1 @.@ 2 billion — going for short @-@ term solutions including tent camps , temporary shelters , and cash grants that paid a year 's rent . A 2013 survey disclosed that of the 1 @.@ 5 million Haitians living in camps following the quake , about 279 @,@ 000 remained in a total of 352 camps . Fifteen percent of the camps had no basic protection services , and 48 % no health services . While 20 % lacked functioning toilets , this is higher than the population outside tent cities , where 50 % lack toilets . Many camps remained at a risk for flooding and more than a third of the camps ( 108 ) were at risk for evictions . In a 2013 statement , the American Red Cross reported that almost all of the money collected for quake relief has been spent or is scheduled for making progress permanent by ensuring people can leave camps and return to stable communities , which includes building new homes , repairing homes , completing a new hospital and clinic , and signing an agreement for a second hospital .

= = = = 2015 = = = =

In 2015 , NPR and ProPublica investigated the disappearance of US $ 500 million donated to the American Red Cross , described as " one of the most successful fundraisers ever " . Despite the claims of the American Red Cross that 130 @,@ 000 homes had been built , the investigation discovered that only six had been built . The investigation reviewed " hundreds " of pages of internal documents and interviewed " more than a dozen " former and current staff members , and investigated the organization 's claim that 4 @.@ 5 million Haitians had been helped " back on their feet " despite Joel Boutroue , a Haitian government advisor , stating that this number would cover " 100 percent of the urban area " , and observing that this would mean they had served every city in Haiti . Numerous other claims did not hold up under investigation , and it was found that the project was riddled with " multiple staffing changes " , bureaucratic delays and a language barrier as many of the Red Cross officials did not speak French or Creole . General counsel for the American Red Cross , David Meltzer , directed the investigators to their official statistics , but would not elaborate on them . The public affairs office of the Red Cross disputed NPR and ProPublica 's claims in an email , and claimed that the investigative report could cause an international incident . The American Red Cross has handed over the rebuilding efforts to the Haitian Red Cross .

= = In literature = =

The Haiti 2010 earthquake has been depicted in the novel God Loves Haiti , by Dimitry Elias Léger .

= De dezas a espwa : interviews with persons affected by the 2010 Haiti earthquake =

yon koze ak moun tranblemandetè ann Ayiti a afekte . United States : Xlibris . ISBN 9781479709472 .

= Thom Darden =

Thomas Vincent Darden ( born August 28 , 1950 ) is a former American football cornerback , safety , and punt returner who played for the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League ( NFL ) . In the NFL , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ Pro free safety . He earned a Pro Bowl selection in 1978 . He holds most Cleveland Browns franchise interception records . He was an All @-@ American defensive back for the Michigan Wolverines football team and made one of the more memorable interceptions in college football history . After retiring from football , Darden pursued careers as a sports agent , security provider and business consultant .

= = Early life = =

Darden was born in Sandusky , Ohio . He graduated from Sandusky High School .

= = College football = =

After graduating , he was recruited by six Big Ten Conference football programs in 1968 . He played at the University of Michigan from 1969 to 1971 and had 218 tackles and 11 interceptions . He was an All American in 1971 , and he was also named All @-@ Big Ten in 1970 . He played on Big Ten champions in both 1969 and 1971 . Thom fit in well at Michigan becoming one of Coach Bo Schembechler 's prized pupils and earning a reference in his 2006 book Bo Schembechler . Darden still ranks among leaders at Michigan for Punt Returns and Punt Return Yardage . Darden played all defensive back positions at Michigan . In college , Darden was a housemate of Reggie McKenzie , Glenn Doughty , Billy Taylor and Mike Taylor in a notable house known as the Den of the Mellow Men .

ESPN chose Darden 's November 21 , 1971 interception against Ohio State as one of the 100 Plays , performances and moments that define college football . The play was a very controversial call late in the 10 – 7 game and Ohio State coach Woody Hayes stormed the field to rant at the referee Jerry Markbreit about the referee 's call that Hayes thought should have been ruled pass interference . By the end of Hayes ' tirade , he had broken a yard marker , shredded a first @-@ down indicator and earned two 15 @-@ yard unsportsmanlike penalties . The scene was replayed over and over on national television broadcasts . That was Darden 's second interception in that game . ESPN also chose Darden as a member of the All @-@ Time University of Michigan Football team .

= = Pro football = =

Darden was drafted in the first round ( 18th overall ) in the 1972 NFL Draft by the Cleveland Browns . Darden started at free safety from his rookie season of 1972 until he lost the job in his tenth and final season to Clinton Burrell . He was selected an All @-@ Pro safety in 1976 , 1978 , and 1979 , and went to the Pro Bowl in 1978 . Over the course of his career he handled 45 punt returns for 285 return yards . Darden holds Cleveland Browns franchise records with 45 career interceptions , 10 single @-@ season interceptions and 820 interception return yards . Two of Darden 's Browns teams went to the playoffs . His rookie year , the 10 – 4 1972 Browns went to the 1972 @-@ 73 NFL playoffs under head coach Nick Skorich , but lost in the first round to the Miami Dolphins 20 – 14 . The 11 – 5 1980 Browns went to the 1980 @-@ 81 NFL playoffs under head coach Sam Rutigliano , but lost in the first round to the Oakland Raiders 14 – 12 .

Darden was ranked 47th on the Cleveland Browns top 100 players list .

= = Post football = =

Darden has served as a professional sports agent and represented Tony Boles . In 1990 , he invested $ 25 @,@ 000 in Boles by hosting him in Cleveland , Ohio and working him out with athletic trainers . At the time he was Cleveland @-@ based sports agent . During Darden 's career as an agent he represented an assortment of NFL and National Basketball Association players and prospects including Felix Wright and Chris Calloway . He was a supporter of Maurice Clarett 's attempt to challenge the NFL Draft 's eligibility rules . In 1998 , when the NFL reissued a franchise in Cleveland , Darden was part of one of the six bidding groups . In 1999 , he owned a security company in Cedar Rapids , Iowa . As of 2006 , Darden was a business consultant living in Cedar Rapids .

In 1993 , he went to jail for failure to pay child support . At the time he was a registered NFL agent in Connecticut and owed $ 14 @,@ 000 in child support , $ 30 @,@ 000 to a trust for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old son , Todd , and $ 12 @,@ 000 in his former wife 's legal fees . Darden had been married to Sheryl from 1972 – 1977 when they divorced . He had previously been $ 5000 in arrears until being briefly jailed for failure to pay and cursing the judge . He had been in contempt of court twenty times previously .

= Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne =

Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne ( known as Journey to the Moon in the United Kingdom and Australia ) is a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game with pre @-@ rendered graphics , developed by Kheops Studio and published by The Adventure Company for the PC in 2005 . The game 's story focuses on a French adventurer 's journey to the moon in the 19th century , and the ancient lunar civilization he subsequenfinds .

Voyage is loosely based on the novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon by science @-@ fiction author Jules Verne , and the novel The First Men in the Moon by science @-@ fiction author H.G. Wells . Reactions to the game were generally mixed . In particular , some reviewers praised it for immersing the player in the look and feel of the 19th century ; others have criticized it for featuring dated graphics and dull textures .

While staying true to most adventure game conventions , Voyage has some unique features for its genre . These include two dexterity minigames which take advantage of the reduced gravity in the game 's lunar setting , and an " Intelligence Management System " , in which a score is assigned to the player for every puzzle he solves , and for certain actions . The Adventure Company introduced this feature to motivate players to replay the game to increase their cumulative score .

= = Gameplay = =

The main focus of Voyage is puzzle @-@ solving . The player can move by clicking , and can swivel the camera 360 degrees . There are several types of puzzle in Voyage including those involving native plant life on the moon , mechanical puzzles , audio puzzles , and mathematical puzzles . Many of these puzzles require the player to decipher and use the native language of the moon .

Voyage features two unique dexterity minigames . Using a low @-@ gravity setting , the first minigame requires the player to collect floating bubbles in a can , and the second requires the player to execute large jumps across the surface of the moon . These two minigames form only a minor part of the game . The game also has several timed sequences requiring the player to complete puzzles under a time limit . The consequence of failing a puzzle of this sort is death , after which the player is able to return and replay the puzzle . Players can also be killed as the result of taking incorrect actions related to the game 's story .

A critical aspect of gameplay in Voyage is the inventory system , which allows the player to pick up and keep dozens of different items . However , the maximum quantity of a given item that the player may keep in his inventory at any one time is three . One of the main uses of the inventory is to combine items together to make new items . This process of breaking and reforming items in the inventory comprises a large portion of the puzzle aspect of the game . The inventory can also be used to create meals which the player can consume ; this ability plays a major role in several puzzles . Another use of the inventory is to create hybrid lunar plants , which play a critical role in the earlier puzzles of the game .

= = = Intelligence Management System = = =

The " Intelligence Management System " featured in Voyage is a score assigned to the player by the Selenites , the natives of the moon . For each puzzle the player solves , and for certain actions , this score is increased , and the Selenites treat the player with more respect . During an interview with GamersInfo , Benoît Hozjan , Managing Director and co @-@ founder of Kheops Studio , described the system , saying :

In the same interview , Alexis Lang , the Lead Game Designer at Kheops , commented that : " [ A ] low score does not mean that you are stupid in any way , it just means that some pompous and bombastic lunar people think that your character is dumb ! " This reflects the fact that the " Intelligence Management System " is designed primarily to earn the respect of the Selenites . However , Hozjan also said that he hopes " players will try to increase their score and certainly share their experience through forums . " The Adventure Company has marketed the system as bringing a degree of replay value to Voyage , as players can replay the game to achieve a higher score .

= = Synopsis = =

= = = Setting = = =

Voyage is set in 1865 . President Barbicane of the ' Gun Club ' decides to build an enormous cannon in Baltimore to shoot a shell , capable of supporting human life , towards the moon in the hopes of a successful landing . Voyage 's protagonist , Michel Ardan , volunteers to travel in the aluminium shell . After the game 's brief introduction in the shell , Ardan lands on the moon and discovers the Selenites , as well as a complex ecosystem of lunar plants . The main accessible areas in the game are the moon 's surface , and the underground Selenite civilization .

The ' Selenites ' are the subterranean inhabitants of the moon , and are a highly intelligent society maintained by hierarchy and secret . They possess blue skin , large black eyes and transparent cerebral lobes on the sides of their heads . This is in fact a reference to H.G. Wells ' book The first men in the moon , as the adventurers never actually land on the moon in Verne 's original story .

They are divided into castes . The Selenites live in a large complex under the surface of the moon from which they rarely venture , with the exception of the ' exiles ' . The Selenites " banish [ these ] dregs of their society , the criminals and psychotics , " to the surface of the moon . There are three Selenite exiles with whom the player can interact ; they live on the surface and sleep in their isolated underground stables at night . Each exile has two different plants on either shoulder with which they share a special bond .

= = = Characters = = =

The player character is Michel Ardan , an eccentric and intrepid French scientist who is enthusiastic , daring and cheerful . President Barbicane , the President of the Gun Club , and Captain Nicholl , an engineer , are both found dead at the start of the game , not having survived the flight to the moon . A woman called Diana features in the game 's backstory , as a woman whose ancestors made contact with the Selenites . Apart from these human characters , there are also several Selenite characters such as the Supreme Moon Ruler , the High Dignitary , Scurvy , Scruple , and the three exiles .

= = = Plot = = =

Voyage begins as Ardan awakes in the shell and discovers his two dead companions : Barbicane and Nicholl . The first part of the game consists of Ardan investigating the shell , trying to regain his memory of what happened , and how Barbicane and Nicholl died , he will also encounter other problems , most notably when his oxygen supply is low and needs to be remedied . Eventually Ardan 's journey will carry him into orbit around the moon in which he must prepare himself for a lunar landing .

Once Ardan successfully lands the shell on the moon , he must solve a series of puzzles on the surface in order to gain access to the hidden civilization below . There he encounters the Selenite race . Following this , Ardan focusses on finding a way to leave the moon and report his findings to Earth . After acquiring what he needs , Ardan travels back to Earth in the shell . He lands in the ocean and manages to swim to a nearby island , where he meets another famous Jules Verne character , Captain Nemo .

= = Development = =

Journey to the Center of the Moon was announced for the PC at E3 2005 . The Adventure Company collaborated with developers Kheops Studios for the release . Benoît Hozjan , the co @-@ founder of Kheops Studio , became Managing Director of the game , while Alexis Lang became the Lead Game Designer .

Journey to the Center of the Moon was later renamed Voyage : Inspired by Jules Verne . Benoît Hozjan explained the change , saying that Journey to the Center of the Moon " seems to be confusing and some people thought that it could be the sequel to Journey to the Center of the Earth , " another Verne @-@ inspired PC game , " so marketing decided to change it . " The name was changed on July 7 , 2005 , a few months after the game 's announcement .

Benoît Hozjan explained Kheops Studio 's choice of Jules Verne 's work as a basis for Voyage , saying that : " Jules Verne 's novels provide the two core elements of adventure games : dreams and challenges . Characters are ordinary men engaged in concrete challenges that are [ a ] great inspiration for puzzles . " He further went on to say that the game is influenced by Verne 's From the Earth to the Moon , which documents the lead up to the lunar trip , but draws more heavily from the sequel Around the Moon , which recounts the actual voyage . The main difference , Hozjan said , was that in the novel the protagonists fail to reach the moon , whereas in Voyage the trip is a success . Additionally , Alexis Lang attributed the inspiration for the Selenites to H.G. Wells ' The First Men in the Moon , explaining that : " [ Wells ] pictured a very ancient Selenite civilisation horrified at human roughness . Wells was more misanthropist than Verne . To balance this fact , we 've added a touch of irony in our story and chosen a very optimistic and joyful main character . "

The Adventure Company announced the release of the Voyage demo on August 3 , 2005 . The demo included the game 's introduction in the shell . Voyage , originally slated for a September 27 release , was shipped to stores ahead of schedule on August 16 , 2005 . The game retailed for US $ 19 @.@ 99 .

= = Reception = =

In general , Voyage received mixed reviews upon its release . According to Metacritic , reviewers have given Voyage scores between 60 % and 86 % . One of the more positively received aspects of the game was its ability to recreate the mood of 19th century science @-@ fiction , with GameSpot writing that the game " nicely re @-@ creates the whimsical mood of 19th @-@ century sci @-@ fi [ and ] a sense of wonder fills every pixel of the graphic design . " In contrast , Game Over Online Magazine said that once the player leaves the capsule and arrives on the moon , instead of viewing colorful and wondrous sights , the game turns into a drab and unlikely bore . The puzzle aspect of Voyage met with mixed responses . On the other hand , GameSpot accused the puzzle aspects of Voyage of " reduc [ ing ] Jules Verne 's tale of a visit to the moon in 1865 to a series of clumsily arranged logic puzzles geared to try the patience of adventure @-@ game veterans . " The puzzles in the game are often extremely difficult , with Just Adventure attributing the unexpected difficulty in the game to the fact that there are often several different ways to achieve the same goals , thanks to the game 's " Intelligence Management System " . The game 's inventory system received praise from Gamersinfo as being very well done .

In terms of graphics , Voyage was poorly received , with the graphics being described by Gamezone as containing some vibrant colors , but lacking the lush , spectacular view that has been seen in countless other adventure games . Voyage has also been criticized for its lack of story and over @-@ reliance on back story . The game 's music was generally appreciated , with Jolt describing the music has having a nice retro @-@ futuristic feel which sets the mood perfectly . G4 commented on the game 's voice acting as overly dramatic but appropriate , but criticized many of the sound effects as being cheesy . GameSpot described Ardan 's dialogue as somewhat lame , and also criticized the game 's sound effects . Metacritic averaged out the scores of several internet reviews of Voyage to reach a rating of 71 % , the closest to an ' overall ' rating of the game .

= Old Baltimore Pike =

Old Baltimore Pike is a road in the U.S. state of Delaware . The road , known as New Castle County Road 26 , runs from Maryland Route 281 ( MD 281 ) at the Maryland state line south of Newark , Delaware and continues east to Christiana , ending near Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) . The road is paralleled by Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 , Delaware Turnpike ) to the north and U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 , Pulaski Highway ) to the south . The Old Baltimore Pike was built before 1720 and connected Elkton , Maryland to Christiana . It was a turnpike called the Elk and Christiana Turnpike between 1817 and 1838 . In the past it served as a major connection between Philadelphia and Baltimore .

= = Route description = =

Old Baltimore Pike begins at the Delaware – Maryland state line near Newark , Delaware , where the highway continues west into that state as MD 281 . The road heads northeast from the state line through wooded residential areas as a two @-@ lane undivided road , intersecting Otts Chapel Road before passing south of Iron Hill Park . Old Baltimore Pike crosses DE 896 and enters rural areas . Here , the roadway passes Cooch 's Bridge , a historic battle site of the American Revolutionary War . It then crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and encounters DE 72 .

After this intersection , Old Baltimore Pike continues past suburban neighborhoods , gaining a center left @-@ turn lane and intersecting Salem Church Road . Farther east , the highway reaches a junction with DE 273 in a wooded area . At this point , the road narrows to two lanes again and heads into the community of Christiana . Here , the highway intersects DE 7 , where it turns north and follows that route through residential areas . The road comes to an interchange with DE 1 to the west of the Christiana Mall , where DE 7 continues north along with DE 1 and Old Baltimore Pike reaches a dead end .

= = History = =

The Old Baltimore Pike was built before 1720 . The road was known as the Great Road and ran between Head of Elk ( now Elkton , Maryland ) and Christiana Bridge . It was later known as the Christiana @-@ Elkton Turnpike before becoming Old Baltimore Pike . This path served as a major connection between Philadelphia and Baltimore in addition to providing access between the shipping area of Christiana Bridge and agricultural areas in northern Delaware , northern Maryland , and southeastern Pennsylvania . In 1723 , Welsh Tract settlers pushed for the road to be improved . This road was part of the Washington – Rochambeau Revolutionary Route that was used by the French army during their march from Newport , Rhode Island to Yorktown during the Revolutionary War , passing through the area in September 1781 .

The road , also known as Old Post Road , was incorporated in 1813 as the Elk and Christiana Turnpike in order to get more money for repairs . The turnpike was completed in April 1817 . As a turnpike , tolls were collected to pay for the maintenance of the road . The construction of the New Castle and Frenchtown Railroad lowered the revenues of the turnpike and it became a public road again in 1838 . The road historically went through agricultural areas ; however , the surroundings have become more developed over the years . Much of the Old Baltimore Pike remains two lanes .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in New Castle County .

= Mega Man & Bass =

Mega Man & Bass , known in Japan as Rockman & Forte ( ロックマン & フォルテ , Rokkuman ando Forute ) , is an action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Capcom . It is a spin @-@ off title in the original Mega Man series and was originally released exclusively in Japan on April 24 , 1998 for the Super Famicom . Mega Man & Bass was ported to the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) handheld in 2002 and was localized in North America and PAL regions the following year .

After defeating the evil Dr. Wily many times , the robotic hero Mega Man is called into action once again when a powerful being known as King steals the blueprints to the creations of Dr. Wily and Dr. Light in order to create an army for robotic dominance over humans . Having learned of the threat , Mega Man 's rival Bass decides to take matters into his own hands . The game is an action @-@ platformer where the player advances by defeating bosses and acquiring their signature weapons . Mega Man & Bass lets the player choose between either of its title characters , each of which plays differently from the other .

Mega Man & Bass debuted on the aging 16 @-@ bit Super Famicom despite the series having already transitioned to the PlayStation and Sega Saturn with Mega Man 8 . Artist and designer Keiji Inafune claimed Mega Man & Bass was created with regard to younger players who did not yet own one of the more advanced gaming systems . The game received positive remarks from critics for its graphics and use of a tried @-@ and @-@ true gameplay formula , though many found the difficulty to be too steep . Although Mega Man & Bass shares many traits with previous console games in the series , the ninth numbered title would not be released until 2008 .

= = Plot = =

The story of Mega Man & Bass varies slightly depending on which player character is chosen . It begins One year after Megaman 8 when a robot villain named King breaks into Dr. Wily 's laboratory and then the Robot Museum to collect the data blueprints for the creations of Dr. Light . Dr. Light alerts the hero Mega Man that he must go at once to the Robot Museum to confront this new enemy . Meanwhile , Bass ( Mega Man 's rival and Wily 's greatest creation ) hears of the new criminal 's appearance and decides to prove himself the stronger robot by defeating King . Proto Man is the first to arrive at the scene . King divulges his plan to him ; he desires to create a utopia in which robots rule the world over humans . To accomplish this , King seeks to create an unstoppable army using the data and invites Proto Man to join him . Proto Man refuses and attempts to attack , but King counters and slices his body in half . Proto Man then teleports back to the lab for repairs while King escapes with the data , instructing his minions to handle the heroes . With their own motivations , Mega Man and Bass set out to put a stop to King 's plans .

After vanquishing eight powerful robots under allegiance to King ( Cold Man , Astro Man , Ground Man , Magic Man , Tengu Man , Dynamo Man , Pirate Man , and Burner Man ) , the duo infiltrates his castle and engages him in combat . Proto Man interrupts the fight and again attempts to defeat their new nemesis . Putting all of his remaining energy into a blast , Proto Man manages to destroy King 's shield and loses consciousness , allowing Mega Man and Bass to best King in battle afterwards . King questions why they fight so hard for humans when robots are the superior species . The pair explains that humans are the ones who created robots in the first place , which confuses King . The villain reveals that his creator is Dr. Wily , who then appears on a video monitor . When King asks the evil inventor why robots fight each other for the sake of humans , Wily strengthens his " brainwashing level " and restores his power . Mega Man and Bass engage King in another battle and defeat him , but not before the latter teleports Proto Man out of his castle . The castle begins a self @-@ destruct sequence and the protagonists escape without King .

Mega Man and Bass begin a final confrontation with Dr. Wily in his newly regained laboratory . When Wily is beaten , Bass demands to know why he deceived him . Wily explains that he created King simply to test Bass ' abilities . Wily shows him written plans for making a newer version of King to join with Bass in this venture , promising that the two would be invincible together . Proto Man appears and immediately destroys these plans . Wily then demands Bass to destroy Proto Man , but Bass is unsure . It was then Proto Man tells Bass that although he is a strong robot of free will , he can never defeat his rival because he has nothing for which to fight . Bass doesn 't care and forces Proto Man to leave , saying that he will still destroy Mega Man to prove his cause . Mega Man returns home where his sister Roll presents him a letter from King , who has somehow escaped the destruction of his castle . King wishes to atone for his own crimes against humans and hopes for them to be friends if they were to meet in the future .

= = Gameplay = =

The gameplay in Mega Man & Bass is similar to earlier games in the series . The player is tasked with completing a series of action @-@ platform stages while overcoming obstacles , solving minor puzzles , and battling enemies . Destroying the " Robot Master " boss at the end of a stage lets the player acquire its special weapon . In previous games , the player generally took on the role of the hero Mega Man . In this game , the player can choose to start the game as either Mega Man or Bass . However , whichever character is picked must be used for the rest of the game and cannot be changed . Mega Man is able to charge his shots to make them more powerful and has the ability to slide along the ground . Bass is able to rapidly fire his arm cannon in eight directions , though shots cannot be fired while moving or pass through walls unless a certain upgrade is obtained . Bass is also able to double @-@ jump ( jump a second time in mid @-@ air ) and dash along the ground . Performing both simultaneously lets him cross great distances by doing a dash @-@ jump .

The stage structure is different from other games in the series . After the introduction level , the player can only choose between three Robot Masters . Defeating Cold Man unlocks Burner Man and Pirate Man ; defeating Astro Man unlocks Dynamo Man , Tengu Man , and Pirate Man ; and defeating Ground Man unlocks Magic Man and Tengu Man . Clearing one of these unlocked stages opens the way to a security room where the player must destroy a series of crystals with obtained Robot Master weapons . Bypassing all eight crystals opens the way to the fortress stages . In a similar fashion to previous installments in the series , enemies often drop bolts after they are destroyed , and these can be exchanged for various restorative items and upgrades . However , unlike in Mega Man 7 the security cavern offers a way to obtain large amounts of bolts without having to repeatedly visit stages . Some upgrades are unique to either character , such as Mega Man 's ability to call on his dog Rush to search for items , or an adaptor for Bass to combine with his wolf Treble to temporarily fly . Also distributed throughout the introduction and Robot Master levels are a collection of 100 data CDs that contain information on many prominent characters in the series . Most of the CDs are hidden either behind obstacles that need to be destroyed with a special weapon or accessed with a character @-@ specific ability , making it impossible to collect them all on a single playthrough . CDs collected in each playthrough are permanently placed in a database and remain unlocked after beating the game . Saved games are used in place of the series ' traditional password system .

= = Development = =

Mega Man & Bass was developed for the Super Famicom after the release of Mega Man 8 , which preceded Mega Man & Bass on the two 32 @-@ bit consoles , the PlayStation and Sega Saturn . According to series producer Keiji Inafune , Mega Man & Bass was intended for younger players who still owned a Super Famicom and did not have the means to experience Mega Man 8 on one of the newer systems . " Even though trying to bridge out a new title on the [ Super Famicom ] was a little backwards at the time , we didn 't want to make a half @-@ hearted attempt at it , " Inafune explained . The design team included several new employees , as well as members of previous Mega Man games . Inafune required them to make the game " as hardcore as possible " . Designer Hideki Ishikawa recalled the development of Mega Man & Bass as " one big party " . The staff attempted to create an original game while avoiding the " same old , same old [ ... ] pitfall " that so many long video game series suffer and " had a lot of fun doing it " .

Graphically , Mega Man & Bass uses many of the same two @-@ dimensional sprites and animations as Mega Man 8 . Two of the eight Robot Master bosses in Mega Man & Bass ( Tengu Man and Astro Man ) are borrowed from Mega Man 8 . The other six were newly created for the game by three character designers : Hitoshi Ariga ( credited as " H. Ariga " ) , Yoshihiro Iwamoto ( credited as " Y. Iwamoto " ) and Koji Izuki ( credited as " K. Iduki " ) designed two characters each . The bosses were officially unveiled on a teaser page in the Kodansha magazine Comic BonBon . Each boss was given distinct characteristics so that they could be easily identified by players in both their aesthetics and personalities . Some of these characters had different names during their conceptual phase prior to the finalization of the game . " Blast Man " became Burner Man , " Freezer Man " became Cold Man , and " Coil Man " became Dynamo Man . Iwamoto originally denoted Ground Man as " Drill Man " despite there already being a Robot Master by that name in Mega Man 4 . The musical score for Mega Man & Bass was composed by Akari Kaida ( credited as " A. Kaida " ) , Naoshi Mizuta ( credited as " N. Mizuta " ) , and " Kirikiri @-@ chan " ( real name unknown ) . Rather than create tracks together , each composer was responsible for their own songs . Kaida would later work with other composers in the Mega Man series on the soundtrack for Mega Man 10 , released in 2010 .

Mega Man & Bass was originally available in Japan through the Nintendo Power game service in Lawson convenience stores . Its popularity prompted Capcom to later release the game in Super Famicom cartridge form . Until its GBA re @-@ release , it was one of the few Mega Man titles not localized for English @-@ speaking countries . The company commemorated the 15th anniversary of the Mega Man franchise with the GBA version of the game .

= = Reception and legacy = =

The GBA port has received generally positive critical reviews , currently holding an aggregate score of 79 % on both GameRankings and Metacritic . Most critics found the game to be a solid yet conventional action @-@ platformer that successfully adheres to the classic Mega Man formula . Electronic Gaming Monthly summarized that Mega Man & Bass is " one of the best action games on GBA " and " a great , if slightly derivative , platformer " with plenty of replay value due to the collectible CDs . GamePro was pleased with the game 's fidelity to its predecessors when compared to the deviations made by the Mega Man Battle Network and Mega Man Zero series on the same system . GameSpy contrarily criticized its lack of innovation , declaring , " Anyone that hasn 't tried a Mega Man game yet would be better advised to spend $ 15 on a new copy of Mega Man 8 on the PSOne rather than paying $ 30 for an inferior retread of the same game " .

Many reviews also noted the game 's high difficulty . Both Giancarlo Varanini of GameSpot and Craig Harris of IGN found that the game 's bosses have very unpredictable attack patterns , thus making the battles extremely challenging . Harris additionally observed a heavy amount of trial @-@ and @-@ error for the levels themselves where the player must die several times before completing each one . He concluded , " [ ... ] It 's really the way Mega Man games have always been ... and to be honest , with all of the annoying little deaths in the game , there 's always that sensation after every failure that you 've learned the challenge , and perseverance definitely prevails in this game " .

According to Famitsu , Mega Man & Bass for the GBA sold 91 @,@ 097 copies in Japan between its release date and the week of December 23 , 2002 . Nintendo Power listed Mega Man & Bass as the 14th best GBA game of all time in its 20th anniversary issue in 2008 . A related game exclusive to Japan titled Rockman & Forte Mirai kara no Chōsensha ( ロックマン & フォルテ 未来からの挑戦者 , lit . Rockman & Forte : Challenger from the Future ) was released for the WonderSwan handheld in 1999 . The plot consists of the titular duo 's struggle against an adversary named " Rockman Shadow " . As Mega Man & Bass was released directly after Mega Man 8 and it shares plot and gameplay characteristics with the rest of the numbered titles in the series , many believed it to be the ninth main game in the series ; however , the actual Mega Man 9 would not be released until 2008 . Inafune explained in an interview with the Brazilian magazine Nintendo World that the ninth installment follows the storyline of Mega Man 8 and that the worlds for Mega Man & Bass and Mega Man 9 are meant to coincide with one another , as evidenced by a schematic of Bass in the ending of the game . In 2010 , Bass was made playable via downloadable content in Mega Man 10 . As in Mega Man & Bass , he is able to dash , fire in seven directions with his buster , and fly by combining with Treble .

Elements of the game appeared in the Mega Man comic series from Archie Comics before it went on hiatus . Most notably , King appeared during a time travel story in issue 20 , while issue 55 saw Dr. Light experiencing a vision of the events of the game among other yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ adapted games .

= Ohio State Route 319 =

State Route 319 ( SR 319 ) is a very short , two @-@ lane state highway in the western portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . A spur route , SR 319 has its western terminus at an abandoned railroad grade just west of Washington Street in the village of Burkettsville . Its eastern terminus is 0 @.@ 56 miles ( 0 @.@ 90 km ) to the east of its western terminus at its junction with SR 118 . SR 319 was established in the early 1930s . It started out as a much longer highway , but earlier segments would become a part of SR 118 in the late 1930s .

= = Route description = =

For its entire length , SR 319 runs along the boundary between Darke County on the south side and Mercer County on the north side . SR 319 begins in downtown Burkettsville at a former railroad grade just west of Washington Street . Known as Main Street within Burkettsville , the route runs due east through the village 's central business district prior to entering a residential area where it intersects a few side streets . After leaving the village of Burkettsville , SR 319 becomes the boundary between Darke County 's Allen Township and Mercer County 's Granville Township . After a short distance through farmland , the highway comes to an end as it arrives at its junction with SR 118 . Continuing east after the route terminates is Darke – Mercer County Line Road .

The Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) conducts surveys throughout its highway system to determine traffic volume . This is most commonly expressed as the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , or the measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2010 , ODOT determined that an average of 710 vehicles per day traveled along the length of SR 319 . This state highway is not included as a part of the National Highway System , a system of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation .

= = History = =

SR 319 was assigned in 1932 . Originally , SR 319 included the entirety of the current route , along with the stretch of SR 118 from SR 319 north to SR 219 in Coldwater . In 1935 , SR 319 was extended further north along the present alignment of SR 118 to what was then designated as SR 32 , now a part of SR 29 , west of Celina . Two years later , SR 118 was extended south from its former southern terminus in Rockford to its present southern terminus in Greenville . Consequently , the entirety of what was the north – south stretch of SR 319 prior to that time became a part of the new extension of SR 118 . In turn , SR 319 became the short spur route that it is today .

= = Major intersections = =

= Parliament Act 1911 =

The Parliament Act 1911 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It is constitutionally important and partly governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Lords which make up the Houses of Parliament . This Act must be construed as one with the Parliament Act 1949 . The two Acts may be cited together as the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 .

Following the rejection of the 1909 " People 's Budget " , the House of Commons sought to establish its formal dominance over the House of Lords , who had broken convention in opposing the Bill . The budget was eventually passed by the Lords after the Commons ' democratic mandate was confirmed by holding elections in January 1910 . The following Parliament Act , which looked to prevent a recurrence of the budget problems , was also widely opposed in the Lords and cross @-@ party discussion failed , particularly because of the proposed Act 's applicability to passing an Irish home rule bill . After a second general election in December , the Act was passed with the support of the monarch , George V , who threatened to create sufficient Liberal peers to overcome the then Conservative majority .

The Act effectively removed the right of the Lords to veto money bills completely , and replaced a right of veto over other public bills with a maximum delay of two years . It also reduced the maximum term of a parliament from seven years to five .

= = Background = =

Until the Parliament Act 1911 , there was no way to resolve contradictions between the two Houses of Parliament except through the creation of additional peers by the Monarch . Queen Anne had created 12 Tory peers to vote through the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 . The Reform Act 1832 was passed when the House of Lords dropped opposition — William IV had threatened to create 80 new peers by request of the Prime Minister , Earl Grey — creating an informal convention that the Lords would give way when the public was behind the House of Commons . For example , Irish Disestablishment , which had been a major bone of contention between the two main parties since the 1830s , was — following intervention by the Queen — passed by the Lords in 1869 after W.E. Gladstone won the 1868 Election on the issue . However , in practice , this gave the Lords a right to demand that such public support was present and to decide the timing of a General Election .

It was the prevailing wisdom that the House of Lords could not amend money bills , since only the House of Commons had the right to decide upon the resources the Monarch could call upon . This did not , however , despite the apparent contradiction , prevent it from rejecting such bills outright . In 1860 , with the repeal of the paper duties , all money bills were consolidated into a single budget . This denied the Lords the ability to reject individual components and the prospect of voting down the entire budget was seemingly unpalatable . It was only in 1909 that this became a possibility . Until the Act , the Lords had equal rights over legislation compared to the Commons , but did not utilise its right of veto over financial measures by convention .

There had been an overwhelming Conservative @-@ Unionist majority in the Lords since the Liberal split in 1886 . With the Liberal Party attempting to push through significant welfare reforms with considerable popular support , this seemed certain to cause problems in the relationship between the Houses . Between 1906 and 1909 , several important measures were being considerably watered down or rejected outright : for example , Birrell introduced the Education Bill 1906 , which was intended to address nonconformist grievances arising from the Education Act 1902 , but which was amended by the Lords to such an extent that it was effectively a different bill , upon which the Commons dropped the bill . This led to the 26 June 1907 resolution in the House of Commons declaring that the Lords ' power should be curtailed , put forward by Liberal Prime Minister Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman . In 1909 , hoping to force an election , the Lords rejected the financial bill based on the government budget ( the " People 's Budget " ) put forward by David Lloyd George , by 350 votes to 75 . This , according to the Commons , was " a breach of the Constitution , and a usurpation of the rights of the Commons " . The Lords suggested that the Commons justify its position as representing the will of the people : it did this through the January 1910 general election . The Liberal government lost heavily , but remained in majority with the help of a significant number of Irish Nationalist and Labour MPs . The Irish Nationalists saw the continued power of the Lords as detrimental to securing Irish Home Rule . Following the election , the Lords relented on the budget ( since reintroduced by the government ) , it passing the Lords on 28 April , a day after the Commons .

= = Passage = =

The Lords was now faced with the prospect of a Parliament Act , which had considerable support from the Irish Nationalists . A series of meetings between the Liberal government and Conservative opposition members was agreed . Twenty @-@ one such meetings were held between 16 June and 10 November . The discussions considered a wide range of proposals , with initial agreement on finance bills and a joint sitting of the House of Commons and Lords as a means by which to enforce Commons superiority in controversial areas ; the number of Lords present would be limited such that a Liberal majority of 50 or more in the House of Commons could overrule the Lords . However , the issue of home rule for Ireland was the main contention , with Conservatives looking to exempt such a law from the Parliament Act procedure by means of a general exception for " constitutional " or " structural " bills . The Liberals supported an exception for bills relating to the monarchy and Protestant succession , but not home rule . Discussions were declared failed on 10 November .

The government threatened another dissolution if the Parliament Act were not passed , and followed through on their threat when opposition in the Lords did not diminish . The elections of December produced little change from January . The calling of a second dissolution of parliament now seems to have been contrary to the wishes of Edward VII . Edward had died in May 1910 while the crisis was still in progress . His successor , George V , was asked if he would be prepared to create sufficient peers , which he would only if the matter arose . This would have meant creating over 400 new Liberal peers . The King did , however , demand that it would have to be rejected at least once by the Lords before his intervention . Two amendments made by the Lords were rejected and opposition showed little sign of slipping . This led Asquith to declare the King 's intention to overcome the majority in the House of Lords by creating sufficient new peers . It was passed in the Lords by 131 votes to 114 votes , a majority of 17 . This reflected a large number of abstentions .

= = Provisions = =

The preamble included the words " it is intended to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of hereditary basis , but such substitution cannot be immediately brought into operation " at the request of prominent Cabinet member Sir Edward Grey . The long title of the Act was " An Act to make provision with respect to the powers of the House of Lords in relation to those of the House of Commons , and to limit the duration of Parliament . " Section 8 defined the short title as the " Parliament Act 1911 " .

The bill was also an attempt to place the relationship between the House of Commons and House of Lords on a new footing . As well as the direct issue of money Bills , it set new conventions about how the power the Lords continued to hold would be used . It did not change the composition of the Lords , however .

The Lords would only be able to delay money bills for one month , effectively ending their ability to do so . These were defined as any public bill which contained only provisions dealing with the imposition , repeal , remission , alteration , or regulation of taxation ; the imposition for the payment of debt or other financial purposes of charges on the Consolidated Fund , or on money provided by Parliament , or the variation or repeal of any such charges ; supply ; the appropriation , receipt , custody , issue or audit of accounts of public money ; and the raising or guarantee of any loan or the repayment thereof . It did not however , cover any sort of local taxes or similar measures . Some Finance Bills have not fallen within this criterion ; Consolidated Fund and Appropriation Bills have . The Speaker of the House of Commons would have to certify that a bill was a money bill , endorsing it with a Speaker 's certificate . The Local Government Finance Bill 1988 , which introduced the Community Charge ( " Poll Tax " ) , was not certified as a Money Bill and was therefore considered by the Lords . Whilst Finance Bills are not considered Money Bills , convention dictates that those parts of a Finance Bill dealing with taxation or expenditure ( which , if in an Act alone , would constitute a Money Bill ) are not questioned .

Other public bills could no longer be vetoed ; instead , they could be delayed for up to two years . This two @-@ year period meant that legislation introduced in the fourth or fifth years of a parliament could be delayed until after the next election , which could prove an effective measure to prevent it being passed . Specifically , two years had to elapse between the second reading in the House of Commons in the first session and the passing of the bill in the House of Commons in the third session . The Speaker has to also certify that the conditions of the bill had been complied with . Significant restrictions on amendments are made to ensure that it is the same bill that has been rejected twice . The 1911 Act made clear that the life of a parliament could not be extended without the consent of the Lords .

Parliament had been limited to a maximum of seven years under the Septennial Act 1715 , but this was reduced by the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 . Parliament would now be limited to five years , beginning the first meeting of parliament after the election . In practice , no election has been forced by such a limitation as all parliaments have been dissolved by the Monarch on request of the Prime Minister . It should be noted , however , that the five @-@ year maximum duration referred to the lifetime of the Parliament , and not to the interval between General Elections . For example , the 2010 General Election was held five years and one day after the 2005 General Election , whilst the 1992 General Election was held on 9 April 1992 and the next General Election was not held until 1 May 1997 . The reduction in parliament length was seen as a counterbalance to the new powers granted to the Commons .

= = Result = =

The Lords continued to suggest amendments to money bills over which it had no right of veto and in several instances these were accepted by the Commons . These included the China Indemnity Bill 1925 and the Inshore Fishing Industry Bill 1947 . The use of the Lords ' now temporary veto remains a powerful check on legislation .

It was used in relation to the Government of Ireland Act 1914 , which had been under the threat of a Lords veto , now removed . Ulster Protestants had been firmly against the passing of the bill . However , it never came into force because of the outbreak of the First World War . Amendments to the Parliament Act 1911 were made to prolong the life of the 1910 parliament following the outbreak of the First World War and 1935 parliament because of the Second World War . These made special exemptions to the requirement to hold an election every five years .

Legislation passed through the Parliament Act , without the consent of the Lords , is still considered primary legislation . The importance of this was highlighted Jackson v Attorney General , where the legality of the Parliament Act 1949 was questioned . The challenge asserted foremost that the 1949 Act was delegated rather than primary legislation , and that the 1911 Act had delegated power to the Commons . If this were the case , then the Commons could not empower itself through the 1949 Act without direct permission from the Lords . Since it was passed under the 1911 Act , it had never received the required consent of the Lords . However , the 1949 Act was found to be legal . The 1911 Act , it was concluded , was not primarily about empowering the Commons , but rather to restrict the ability of the Lords to affect legislation . This ruling also means that efforts to abolish the House of Lords ( a major constitutional change ) using the Act could be successful , although the issue was not directly addressed in the ruling .

= = Analysis = =

The Parliament Act 1911 can be seen in the context of the British constitution : rather than creating a written constitution , parliament chose instead to legislate through the usual channels in response to the crisis . This was a pragmatic response , which avoided the further problems of codifying unwritten rules and reconstructing the entire government . It is commonly considered a statute of " constitutional importance " , which gives it informal priority in parliament and in the courts with regards to whether later legislation can change it and the process by which this may happen .

It is also mentioned in discussion of constitutional convention . Whilst it replaced conventions regarding the role of the House of Lords , it also relies on several others . Section 1 ( 1 ) only makes sense if money bills do not arise in the House of Lords and the provisions in section 2 ( 1 ) only if proceedings on a public bill are completed in a single session , otherwise they must fail and be put through procedure again .

= = = Case law = = =

= Hibiscus ( restaurant ) =

Hibiscus is a London restaurant owned and run by French chef Claude Bosi . It was opened in 2000 in Ludlow , Shropshire , and won its first Michelin star within a year , and a second in the 2004 Guide . In July 2006 , Bosi and his wife Claire announced that they were to sell the location in Ludlow and move closer to London . The property was sold to Alan Murchison , and Bosi purchased a new site on Maddox Street in London .

Bosi uses molecular gastronomy to create some items on the menu in an effort to enhance their flavours , such as freeze @-@ drying cabbage to create a purée . The restaurant has received mixed reviews from critics , but has been listed in The World 's 50 Best Restaurants since 2010 , and was named by Egon Ronay as the best restaurant in the UK in 2005 . The Good Food Guide ranked Hibiscus as the eighth @-@ best restaurant in the UK in the 2013 edition . It has also been awarded five AA Rosettes .

In 2011 , Bosi started a new venture , the Fox & Grapes in Wimbledon . This new gastropub operates under the same philosophy as Hibiscus , and is a collaboration with brother Cedric and former sous chef at Hibiscus , Patrick Leano .

= = History = =

Claude Bosi and his wife Claire opened Hibiscus in Ludlow , Shropshire , in 2000 . The location had a 36 @-@ seat capacity , and was previously occupied by a three AA Rosette restaurant called the Oaks .

Bosi had previously been head chef and won a Michelin star at the Overton Grange restaurant , just outside the town . He had intended to open a restaurant in Warwickshire , but found the premises too expensive and purchased a 25 @-@ year lease on the former Oaks property in Ludlow for £ 40 @,@ 000 . Within a year Hibiscus won its first Michelin star , and at the same time Overton Grange was downgraded before going in to receivership .

Working under Bosi at Hibiscus was sous chef Glynn Purnell , who left Hibiscus in 2003 to become head chef at Jessica 's restaurant in Edgbaston . Hibiscus gained a second star in the 2004 Michelin Guide .

In July 2006 , Bosi and his wife Claire announced that they were intending to sell Hibiscus and open a new restaurant closer to London , or in the capital itself . Hibiscus closed in Ludlow in April 2007 , with Bosi selling the site to fellow chef Alan Murchison for £ 247 @,@ 500 , but retaining the Hibiscus name for himself . The restaurant was renamed " Le Becasse " ( sic ) , and underwent a £ 100 @,@ 000 makeover before being re @-@ opened under head chef Will Holland . In 2014 , Murchison 's company went into voluntary liquidation after running up debts of almost half a million pounds .

Bosi completed the deal in June 2007 for a new site at 29 Maddox Street in London . He intended for the new Hibiscus to be open by September , and to transfer over the style of cooking he had used in Ludlow , saying , " I 'm transferring Hibiscus , not starting a new restaurant . The idea is to continue and build on what I have been doing . " Purchasing and fitting out the London premises cost around £ 1 million .

Many of the staff from the Ludlow incarnation of Hibiscus agreed to move to London to continue working at the restaurant , including head chef Marcus McGuinness and sommelier Simon Freeman . Hibiscus re @-@ opened in October 2007 in its new location after following building works and planning delays . The interior of the London @-@ based restaurant was decorated in orange and shades of brown . The walls were covered in pale @-@ coloured wooden panels , and a chandelier designed as a series of globes hungs from the middle of the main dining room 's ceiling .

The handover on the first day was so tight that builders moved out at midday , and the first service was run at 7 pm that evening . The late opening resulted in the reviewers for the Michelin Guide having only a two @-@ week window in which to re @-@ assess the restaurant for the 2008 guide . Bosi admitted later that the restaurant was not yet up to scratch in those two weeks and agreed with the decision of Michelin to downgrade Hibiscus to a single star in the 2008 Guide . The restaurant was also given a " rising star " as one with potential to go up to two stars in the future . During the run up to Christmas , the stress of serving 550 covers a week in a new location with a modified menu resulted in three sous chefs resigning .

The two @-@ star award was restored a year later in the 2009 Michelin Guide , as had been predicted by a number of Bosi 's fellow chefs including Tom Aikens , Antonin Bonnet and Richard Corrigan . Sat Bains went a step further and said " I would love to see Claude Bosi regain his second star at Hibiscus and win his third in time . He ’ s probably the best chef I know . "

= = Menu = =

The menu is created by Bosi . He has been described as an innovator and his work has been compared to that of Heston Blumenthal at The Fat Duck . One of the new dishes Bosi introduced following his move to London was a two @-@ part pork dish . The first part was roasted suckling pig served with sea urchin , kohlrabi and a fondant of sweet potato . The second , inspired by his daughter , featured a sausage roll with a salad and a truffle dressing . Other dishes have included roast chicken with an onion fondue and licorice , and desserts include a chocolate tart served with basil ice cream .

Bosi uses molecular gastronomy techniques , such as in the process for making a Savoy cabbage purée , in which the cabbage is freeze dried into a powder and then reconstituted , but he prefers only to enhance the flavours of individual ingredients rather than changing those flavours by using unusual techniques .

= = Reception = =

Jay Rayner reviewed the restaurant for The Observer after Hibiscus moved from Ludlow to London , his first time at the restaurant . While stating that elements of the meal were " very clever indeed " , such as foie gras ice cream and a sausage roll he described as a " colossus " , he described the desserts as a " disappointment " , calling an olive oil parfait a " gloopy mess " . Overall , he planned on returning to give Bosi another chance .

Zoe Williams also reviewed the restaurant shortly after it arrived in London , for The Daily Telegraph . She enjoyed her visit , and was impressed with the unusual combinations of foods that worked together saying " the sheer expertise of taking a food with a range of flavours , and knowing it 's in peak condition to meet four others ... it really is something " .

John Walsh also visited it , for The Independent , after the restaurant arrived in London , and gave the food four stars , and the ambience and service three stars ; Terry Durack reviewed it for the same paper , giving the restaurant 17 out of 20 .

Food critics from Time Out visited the restaurant in 2009 , and were " disappointed " compared to their previous visit . They thought that Bosi 's food combinations just did not work , but still said that some of his desserts were " faultless " .

Andy Hayler gave the restaurant a score of six out of ten on his scale during his November 2011 visit . The redeeming feature of his trip was a dish of venison , he thought , served with a confit of pear in mulled wine and Savoy cabbage with a red wine and smoked chocolate sauce , but he otherwise felt that the food was " over @-@ worked " and the service " peculiarly amateurish " .

= = = Ratings and awards = = =

In 2005 Hibiscus was one of three restaurants to be awarded three @-@ stars by the Egon Ronay Restaurant Guide , along with The Waterside Inn and Restaurant Tom Aikens , and was named Ronay 's Restaurant of the Year .

The restaurant made its first entry in the World 's 50 Best Restaurants in 2010 , ranked in 49th place and one of three British restaurants in the list ; the following year it moved up to 43rd .

The Good Food Guide ranked Hibiscus as the eighth @-@ best restaurant in the UK in its 2013 guide .

The restaurant has been given five AA Rosettes by The Automobile Association .

= Chris Turner ( American football ) =

Chris Turner ( born September 8 , 1987 ) is an American football quarterback . He played quarterback for the Maryland Terrapins at the University of Maryland from 2007 to 2009 . Turner began his career at Maryland as a redshirt in 2005 and then served as a reserve quarterback before he earned the starting position .

After a redshirt season in 2005 , Turner saw no playing time as the third @-@ string quarterback the following year . In 2007 , he replaced the injured starter during the game against 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers and led the Terrapins to an upset victory . After that , he remained as the team 's leader for the remainder of the season , and against eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , engineered another upset victory . Turner also helped Maryland secure an appearance in the Emerald Bowl . At the start of the 2008 season , he was relegated to backup status , but soon regained the starting position . That year , he led Maryland in wins over four of their five ranked opponents and to an appearance in the Humanitarian Bowl . He returned as the starter for the 2009 season , but suffered a knee injury and was replaced by Jamarr Robinson .

= = Early years = =

Turner was born in Simi Valley , California to parents John and Grace Turner . His father was the original drummer of the glam metal band Ratt . Chris Turner attended high school at the Chaminade College Preparatory School , where he was a three @-@ year letterwinner and starting quarterback in football and pitcher in baseball . As a sophomore , he was on the junior varsity football team until midseason when the varsity quarterback suffered an injury against Valencia High School , a regional powerhouse . Turner described the incident as the last time that he was nervous during a game and said , " It got pretty ugly to be honest . Ever since then , I 've always thought to myself , ' It can 't get worse than that . ' "

At Chaminade , he led a pass @-@ oriented offense and , during his senior year , accumulated 139 completions on 265 attempts , 2 @,@ 047 yards , 16 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions . He was named to the All @-@ California Interscholastic Federation ( CIF ) second team as a senior and the All @-@ Mission League team as both a junior and senior . SuperPrep picked him as a Far West all @-@ region selection and PrepStar as an all @-@ region selection . Turner was assessed as a Rivals.com three @-@ star and Scout.com two @-@ star recruit . He received scholarship offers from Boise State , Illinois , Louisville , Maryland , Oregon , Utah , and UTEP . Maryland offered him after another Californian recruit , Josh Portis , chose Florida instead — although Portis later transferred to Maryland and served as a backup alongside Turner . Turner ultimately chose Maryland , which is located just outside Washington , D.C. , partly due to his interest in politics .

= = College career = =

= = = Experience = = =

Turner sat out his true freshman year during the 2005 season on redshirt status . In 2006 , he served as the third @-@ team quarterback behind starter Sam Hollenbach and reserve Jordan Steffy , but Turner saw no playing time during that season .

= = = = 2007 season = = = =

In 2007 , as the second @-@ string quarterback , he saw his first action against Villanova when he was substituted for injured starter Jordan Steffy . Turner executed a scoring drive and completed four of six passes , but also threw two interceptions . He sat out the next two games and then took one snap against Wake Forest . When the unranked Terps faced 10th @-@ ranked Rutgers , Steffy suffered a concussion and Turner again filled in . He led drives for two touchdowns and two field goals in an upset of the Scarlet Knights , 34 – 24 . About the then relatively unknown Turner , Rutgers head coach Greg Schiano said , " I wish I would have seen this guy before . " Turner started for the remaining eight games of the season . In his career @-@ first start , he passed for 255 yards in a win against Georgia Tech , 28 – 26 . In the game , he threw a 78 @-@ yard touchdown pass , which was caught by tight end Jason Goode rather than his intended receiver , Darrius Heyward @-@ Bey . After a three @-@ game losing streak , Turner led another upset win over a top @-@ ten team , this time against eighth @-@ ranked Boston College , 42 – 35 . In the 24 – 16 loss to Florida State , Turner had his worst performance of the season . Late in the second quarter , he was benched and replaced by Steffy for two possessions . Turner said , " I didn 't know that my leash was that short in the first place , to be honest . I didn 't think it would come to this . I guess I should have . " After an uneven performance by Steffy , Turner played the entire second half and showed improvement . The following week Maryland played their regular season finale against NC State and both teams needed an additional win to attain bowl eligibility . Maryland led in the second quarter , 3 – 0 , but was struggling offensively . Turner , a generally immobile pocket quarterback , invigorated the offense when he executed a 41 @-@ yard option run for a first down . He completed 19 of 24 passes for 206 yards and led a shutout of NC State , 37 – 0 . With the sixth win , Maryland was invited to the Emerald Bowl , where they were beaten by Oregon State , 21 – 14 . Turner finished the season as the third @-@ most efficient passer in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) .

= = = = 2008 season = = = =

In 2008 , Maryland hired a new offensive coordinator , James Franklin , who installed a West Coast offense . That season started with some controversy when head coach Ralph Friedgen initially selected senior Jordan Steffy as the starting quarterback . Turner considered returning home with a transfer to a Californian school , but ultimately decided against it . When Steffy was injured again in the season @-@ opener against Delaware , Turner was awarded the starting job for the rest of the season . After Maryland defeated 21st @-@ ranked Wake Forest , 26 – 0 , Turner was voted the ACC Player of the Week and ESPN named him an " On the Mark " quarterback . Against 16th @-@ ranked North Carolina , Turner 's split @-@ second decision to hold onto the ball for a nine @-@ yard run on fourth down and five put the team within range for the game @-@ winning field goal , 17 – 15 . For that , he was nominated for the week 's Pontiac Game Changing Performance . The win improved Maryland 's record to 7 – 3 and reasserted control over their ACC championship destiny , although they lost the next game against Florida State , 37 – 3 , which ended the Terrapins ' title hopes . The following week against Boston College , Turner set career highs with 33 completions , 57 attempts , and 360 passing yards , but the effort fell short and Maryland lost , 28 – 21 . In the postseason , the Terrapins played Nevada in the Humanitarian Bowl where Turner threw for 198 yards , one interception , two touchdowns including a 59 @-@ yard long , and a two @-@ point conversion . At the end of the season , Maryland had beaten four out of their five Top 25 @-@ ranked opponents , a feat that was surpassed only by the teams in the BCS Championship Game : Florida and Oklahoma .

= = = = 2009 season = = = =

Fifth @-@ year senior Turner entered the 2009 season as the uncontested starter at quarterback for the first time in his career . He was backed @-@ up by sophomore Jamarr Robinson and true freshmen C. J. Brown and Danny O 'Brien . Turner 's seniority was called critical for the performance of the team 's relatively youthful offensive line . Head coach Friedgen said , " If I had to choose between a veteran offensive line and an inexperienced quarterback , or an inexperienced line with a veteran quarterback , I think I 'd go with the veteran quarterback . " Upon the conclusion of preseason camp , the coaching staff praised his progress , particularly his game @-@ planning , for which he had been criticized in the past . Turner said , " Mentally , I am way further ahead than where I was last year . " Physically , he dropped 16 pounds by adding muscle and losing body fat , and weighed 220 pounds before the start of the season . Offensive coordinator Franklin said , " You look at him , he was kind of mushy last year . You look at him now and he 's muscular and shaped . He looks more athletic . "

Before the season , Turner was added to the watch list for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award , an annual honor bestowed upon the nation 's top senior quarterback . At that time , he ranked as the school 's fourth all @-@ time quarterback in terms of completion percentage , fifth in completions , seventh in total offensive yards , and he is tied for 11th in number of touchdown passes . In June 2009 , Turner stated that he wanted to leave a " legacy " at Maryland in his final season . He also expressed a desire to pursue a professional playing career in the National Football League ( NFL ) if possible . The NFL Draft Scout assessed Turner as the 16th @-@ ranked quarterback out of the 135 available for the 2010 NFL Draft and projected him as a potential seventh @-@ round selection .

= = = Playing style and personality = = =

Prior to his senior year , Jeff Barker of The Baltimore Sun noted that Turner 's strengths were " poise , smarts , [ and ] toughness , " while he had room for improvement in arm strength and mobility . Barker said , " He 's a bit streaky — he calls himself a ' rhythm ' passer … But he doesn 't quit when things go poorly . His coolness can be mistaken for apathy . " Turner typically confines himself to the pocket , as his ability to run the ball himself is limited by his speed . He has made light of his own lack of quickness by saying that he runs a " flat 5 @.@ 0 " -second 40 @-@ yard dash . The CBS Sports @-@ affiliated NFL Draft Scout records his actual time as ranging from a low of 4 @.@ 89 to a high of 5 @.@ 16 seconds , while Scout.com reports his 40 @-@ yard time as 4 @.@ 8 seconds . Turner 's supposedly one @-@ dimensional nature , however , has occasionally allowed him to make unexpected plays with his feet . The most noteworthy of these were the momentum @-@ changing 41 @-@ yard option run against NC State in 2007 , and the fourth @-@ down nine @-@ yard scramble into field goal range against North Carolina in 2008 .

Pundits and coaches sometimes characterized Turner as a quarterback who did not excel during practices , but executed well on game @-@ day . Maryland head coach Ralph Friedgen said " He 's pretty go @-@ with @-@ the @-@ flow . And that 's his greatest strength and maybe his greatest weakness . The bottom line is , he plays well in games . " The Baltimore Sun wrote that he " seems to play his best when it counts — and his worst when it doesn 't . " Regarding the 2008 summer practices , offensive coordinator James Franklin said Turner ranked in the middle compared with Jordan Steffy and Josh Portis in terms of completion percentage , fewest interceptions , and " explosive " plays that gained 16 yards or more . Turner conceded that Steffy was a better game @-@ planner during practices . Head coach Ralph Friedgen who had offered critical or subdued assessments of Turners ' practice , said his intensity grew after losing the starting position to Steffy prior to the 2008 season . Turner said , " It lit a fire in me in the sense that I had to be ready . "

Among his Maryland teammates and coaches , Turner earned a reputation as an archetypal " laid @-@ back " Californian and for remaining calm under pressure . After the 2007 win over Rutgers , offensive tackle Scott Burley described his roommate Turner as " real calm [ in the huddle ] . . . He would say , ' Guys , are you ready to score again ? Are you ready to run the ball on these guys ? ' And we 're like , ' Yeah , let 's do that . ' " Turner received the nicknames " Sunshine " and " Napoleon Dynamite " , in reference to his similar appearance to the fictional characters in the films Remember the Titans and Napoleon Dynamite , respectively .

= = Personal life = =

Turner graduated from the University of Maryland in May 2009 with a bachelor 's degree in government and politics . His strong interest in politics factored into his decision on where to attend college . He chose the University of Maryland partly based on its close proximity to Washington , D.C. Turner 's political views are liberal ; he is registered as a Democrat , and has described himself as an idealist .

During the 2008 season , political discussions were common in the Maryland locker room because of the presidential election . Turner and fellow quarterback Jordan Steffy , a conservative and supporter of presidential candidate Senator John McCain , were the most frequent debaters , while defensive tackle Dean Muhtadi was described as the primary instigator . During the summer of 2009 , Turner held an internship on Capitol Hill working for Democratic Representative Steny Hoyer , the House Majority Leader and Maryland 's fifth district congressman . Turner had previously considered volunteering for the presidential campaign of Barack Obama , which he said probably annoyed his conservative father , John Turner . Describing his experience during the internship , Turner said , " It 's funny to compare how serious politics is and how serious football is . Depending on who you talk to , they 're both pretty big deals . . . There 's more to life than football . "

Incidentally , Turner 's favorite sport is soccer , not football . He is also interested in foreign cultures and expressed regret at being unable to spend a semester abroad because of college football . Turner said that , dependent upon the outcome of his football career , he would like to attend the 2010 World Cup in South Africa . He also got to meet his childhood idol David Beckham while at the 2010 South Africa world cup .

= = Statistics = =

= Jack and Jill ( nursery rhyme ) =

" Jack and Jill " ( sometimes " Jack and Gill " , particularly in earlier versions ) is a traditional English nursery rhyme . The Roud Folk Song Index classifies this tune and its variations as number 10266 . The rhyme dates back at least to the 18th century and exists with different numbers of verses each with a number of variations . Several theories have been advanced to explain its origins and to suggest meanings for the lyrics .

= = Lyrics and structure = =

The first and most commonly repeated verse is :

Jack and Jill went up the hill

To fetch a pail of water .

Jack fell down and broke his crown ,

And Jill came tumbling after .

Many verses have been added to the rhyme , including a version with a total of 15 stanzas in a chapbook of the 19th century . The second verse , probably added as part of these extensions has become a standard part of the nursery rhyme . Early versions took the form :

Up Jack got , and home did trot ,

As fast as he could caper ;

To old Dame Dob , who patched his nob

With vinegar and brown paper .

By the early 20th century this had been modified in some collections , such as L. E. Walter 's , Mother Goose 's Nursery Rhymes ( London , 1919 ) to :

Up Jack got and home did trot ,

As fast as he could caper ;

And went to bed and bound his head

With vinegar and brown paper .

A third verse , sometimes added to the rhyme , was first recorded in a 19th @-@ century chapbook and took the form :

Then Jill came in , and she did grin ,

To see Jack 's paper plaster ;

Her mother whipt her , across her knee ,

For laughing at Jack 's disaster .

Twentieth @-@ century versions of this verse include :

When Jill came in how she did grin

To see Jack 's paper plaster ;

Mother vexed did whip her next

For causing Jack 's disaster .

The rhyme is made up of quatrains , with a rhyming scheme of abcb ( with occasional internal rhymes ) , using falling rhymes ( where the rhyming sound is on a relatively unstressed syllable : de @-@ emphasising the rhyme ) and a trochaic rhythm ( with the stress falling on the first of a pair of syllables ) , known as a ballad form , which is common in nursery rhymes . The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by the composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs ( 1870 ) . The Roud Folk Song Index , which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , classifies the song as 10266 .

= = Meaning and origins = =

The rhyme has traditionally been seen as a nonsense verse , particularly as the couple go up a hill to find water , which is often thought to be found at the bottom of hills . Vinegar and brown paper were a home cure used as a method to draw out bruises on the body . The phrase " Jack and Jill " , indicating a boy and a girl , was in use in England as early as the 16th century . A comedy was performed at the Elizabethan court in 1567 @-@ 8 with the title Jack and Jill and the phrase was used twice by Shakespeare : in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , which contains the line : " Jack shall have Jill ; Nought shall go ill " ( III : ii : 460 @-@ 2 ) and in Love 's Labour 's Lost , which has the lines : " Our wooing doth not end like an old play ; Jack hath not Jill " ( V : ii : 874 – 5 ) , suggesting that it was a phrase that indicated a romantically attached couple , as in the proverb " A good Jack makes a good Jill " .

Jack is the most common name used in English language nursery rhymes and by the 18th century represented an archetypal Everyman hero , while by the end of the Middle Ages Jill or Gill had come to mean a young girl or a sweetheart . However , the woodcut that accompanied the first recorded version of the rhyme showed two boys ( not a boy and a girl ) , and used the spelling Gill not Jill . This earliest printed version comes from a reprint of John Newbery 's Mother Goose 's Melody , thought to have been first published in London around 1765 . The rhyming of " water " with " after " , was taken by Iona and Peter Opie to suggest that the first verse may date from the first half of the 17th century .

= = Interpretation = =

While the true origins of the rhyme are unknown there are several theories . As is common with nursery rhyme exegesis , complicated metaphors are often said to exist within the lyrics of Jack and Jill . Most explanations post @-@ date the first publication of the rhyme and have no corroborating evidence . These include the suggestion by S. Baring @-@ Gould in the 19th century that the events were a version of the story told in the 13th @-@ century Prose Edda Gylfaginning written by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson , who stated that in Norse mythology , Hjúki and Bil , brother and sister ( respectively ) , were taken up from the earth by the moon ( personified as the god Máni ) as they were fetching water from the well called Byrgir , bearing on their shoulders the cask called Saegr and the pole called Simul . Around 1835 John Bellenden Ker suggested that Jack and Jill were two priests , and this was enlarged by Katherine Elwes in 1930 to indicate that Jack represented Cardinal Wolsey ( c.1471 – 1530 ) ; and Jill was Bishop Tarbes , who negotiated the marriage of Mary Tudor to the French king in 1514 .

It has also been suggested that the rhyme records the attempt by King Charles I to reform the taxes on liquid measures . He was blocked by Parliament , so subsequently ordered that the volume of a Jack ( 1 / 2 pint ) be reduced , but the tax remained the same . This meant that he still received more tax , despite Parliament 's veto . Hence " Jack fell down and broke his crown " ( many pint glasses in the UK still have a line marking the 1 / 2 pint level with a crown above it ) " and Jill came tumbling after " . The reference to " Jill " ( actually a " gill " , or 1 / 4 pint ) is said to reflect that the gill dropped in volume as a consequence .

The suggestion has also been made that Jack and Jill represent Louis XVI of France , who was deposed and beheaded in 1793 ( lost his crown ) , and his Queen , Marie Antoinette ( who came tumbling after ) , a theory made difficult by the fact that the earliest printing of the rhyme pre @-@ dates those events . There is also a local belief that the rhyme records events in the village of Kilmersdon in Somerset in 1697 . When a local spinster became pregnant , the putative father is said to have died from a rock fall and the woman died in childbirth soon after .

= Florida State Road 878 =

State Road 878 ( SR 878 ) , named the Snapper Creek Expressway or the Snapper Creek Tollway for its entire length , is a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) east – west electronic toll road south of Miami , Florida . The expressway is named for the nearby Snapper Creek which runs parallel to SR 878 . It acts as a spur route of the Don Shula Expressway ( SR 874 ) , providing access to U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) near South Miami and local access to the eastern Kendall area while bypassing the Dadeland district . The road is maintained and tolled by the Miami @-@ Dade Expressway Authority ( MDX ) .

= = Route description = =

SR 878 's western terminus is integrated into the Don Shula Expressway 's interchange with Kendall Drive ( SR 94 ) across the boundary of the Kendall and Sunset districts . Motorists entering the Don Shula Expressway northbound from Kendall Drive are given the option of continuing onto SR 874 via a flyover , or else merging into the traffic leaving SR 874 for the Snapper Creek Expressway , which then heads under the Kendall Drive – Don Shula Expressway flyover . The westbound lanes of SR 878 , however , pass over SR 874 's mainline , and are then given an exclusive carriageway beside the southbound lanes for 0 @.@ 46 miles ( 0 @.@ 74 km ) , before merging into SR 874 just north of the Kendall Drive overpass . Southbound motorists from the Don Shula Expressway wishing to exit to Kendall Drive merge into this carriageway before leaving for SR 94 with those vehicles originating from the Snapper Creek Expressway . There is no direct connection for southbound motorists on SR 874 to head east on SR 878 ; likewise , westbound motorists on SR 878 cannot head north along SR 874 directly .

From here , SR 878 heads predominantly eastwards as a four @-@ lane @-@ wide expressway through residential neighborhoods for the remainder of its length , generally lying 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) north of Kendall Drive . After approximately 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) , the Snapper Creek Expressway passes through the 87th Avenue toll gantry . It then meets Galloway Road ( SR 973 ) shortly afterwards with a diamond interchange . The expressway then enters Glenvar Heights once it crosses SR 973 and remains in that district for the rest of its duration . Just before passing over the Palmetto Expressway ( SR 826 ) without an interchange ( approximately 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Galloway Road ) , SR 878 meets its second and final toll gantry .

About 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) east of the Palmetto Expressway , SR 878 has a partial diamond interchange with Southwest 72nd Avenue , which only allows westbound entry to and eastbound exit from the Snapper Creek Expressway . Immediately afterwards , SR 878 turns to the southeast and prepares to meet its eastern terminus at the South Dixie Highway ( US 1 ) at a surface intersection 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 0 @.@ 97 km ) later , passing under the Metrorail line and associated MetroPath just before doing so . Traffic heading south along US 1 from eastbound SR 878 moves into a slip lane , while that wishing to head north along US 1 enters it at an oblique angle , aided by traffic signals . The only access onto SR 878 westbound from US 1 is for southbound traffic ; motorists heading north along US 1 are guided to SR 878 by signage along Southwest 67th Avenue and Southwest 80th Street .

= = Tolls = =

SR 878 's tolls are entirely electronic : cash cannot be accepted along its length . Payment is done either via SunPass transponders or via toll @-@ by @-@ plate billing , the latter of which attracts a higher cost . Two toll gantries are located along the Snapper Creek Expressway , the first between the Don Shula Expressway and Galloway Road , and the second between Galloway Road and Southwest 72nd Avenue . The relationship between the tolling points and interchanges along SR 878 and SR 874 is that all motorists are charged at least one toll for using the road ; there are no " free sections " . As of July 1 , 2013 , the cost for a two @-@ axle vehicle to travel the entire length of the Snapper Creek Expressway is $ 0 @.@ 50 with a SunPass transponder , or $ 1 @.@ 00 via the toll @-@ by @-@ plate program . Each additional axle on a vehicle attracts an extra $ 0 @.@ 25 via SunPass or $ 0 @.@ 50 via toll @-@ by @-@ plate for each toll gantry passed .

= = History = =

Planning by Dade County for a road named the " Snapper Creek Expressway " was underway as early as 1958 , with a final completion date set as late as 1975 . Funding for SR 878 's construction was made available in 1971 by the Florida Department of Transportation as part of plans to construct the Snapper Creek Expressway along with the South Dade Expressway ( now known as the Don Shula Expressway ) and the West Dade Expressway ( now known as the Homestead Extension of Florida 's Turnpike ) , with an expected completion date of early 1973 . Construction was halted in 1974 due to money issued from county bonds for expressway building running out , and the road was left partially completed ; however , $ 8 million in federal emergency funds was directed to completing the expressway in late 1977 . The Snapper Creek Expressway , designated SR 878 , finally opened in early 1980 , with the Southwest 72nd Avenue interchange opening a few weeks later .

No tolls were collected along SR 878 , in line with the road 's original plans , until MDX 's initial roll @-@ out of open road tolling from late 2009 to mid @-@ 2010 on its road network . Tolling along the Snapper Creek Expressway began on July 17 , 2010 . The move to toll the Snapper Creek Expressway angered local residents , but was tempered by MDX 's move to investigate toll rebates . Initially , tolls were $ 0 @.@ 25 for SunPass users , with a $ 0 @.@ 15 surcharge for motorists using the toll @-@ by @-@ plate system . The toll @-@ by @-@ plate rate increased by ten cents on July 1 , 2013 , to $ 0 @.@ 50 per toll gantry passed , while the SunPass rate was unaffected .

= = Exit list = =

The entire route is in Miami @-@ Dade County . All exits are unnumbered .

= James Nesbitt =

William James Nesbitt , OBE ( born 15 January 1965 ) is an actor and presenter from Northern Ireland . Born in Ballymena , County Antrim , Nesbitt grew up in the nearby village of Broughshane , before moving to Coleraine , County Londonderry . He wanted to become a teacher like his father , so he began a degree in French at the University of Ulster . He dropped out after a year when he decided to become an actor , and transferred to the Central School of Speech and Drama in London . After graduating in 1987 , he spent seven years performing in plays that varied from the musical Up on the Roof ( 1987 , 1989 ) to the political drama Paddywack ( 1994 ) . He made his feature film debut playing talent agent Fintan O 'Donnell in Hear My Song ( 1991 ) .

Nesbitt got his breakthrough television role playing Adam Williams in the romantic comedy @-@ drama Cold Feet ( 1998 – 2003 ) , which won him a British Comedy Award , a Television and Radio Industries Club Award , and a National Television Award . His first significant film role came when he appeared as pig farmer " Pig " Finn in Waking Ned ( 1998 ) . With the rest of the starring cast , Nesbitt was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award . In Lucky Break ( 2001 ) , he made his debut as a film lead , playing prisoner Jimmy Hands . The next year , he played Ivan Cooper in the television film Bloody Sunday , about the 1972 shootings in Derry . A departure from his previous " cheeky chappie " roles , the film was a turning point in his career . He won a British Independent Film Award and was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor .

Nesbitt has also starred in Murphy 's Law ( 2001 – 2007 ) as undercover detective Tommy Murphy , in a role that was created for him by writer Colin Bateman . The role twice gained Nesbitt Best Actor nominations at the Irish Film & Television Awards ( IFTA ) . In 2007 , he starred in the dual role of Tom Jackman and Mr Hyde in Steven Moffat 's Jekyll , which earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination in 2008 . Nesbitt has since appeared in several more dramatic roles ; he starred alongside Liam Neeson in Five Minutes of Heaven ( 2009 ) , and was one of three lead actors in the television miniseries Occupation ( 2009 ) . He also starred in the movies Outcast ( 2010 ) and The Way ( 2010 ) . He portrayed Bofur in Peter Jackson 's three @-@ part film adaptation of The Hobbit ( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) .

Nesbitt is married to former actress Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam , with whom he has two daughters . He is an advocate of numerous charities , and in 2010 he accepted the ceremonial position of Chancellor of the University of Ulster .

= = Early life and education = =

James Nesbitt was born on 15 January 1965 in Ballymena , County Antrim , Northern Ireland . His father , James " Jim " Nesbitt , was the headmaster of the primary school in Lisnamurrican , a hamlet near Broughshane , while his mother , May Nesbitt , was a civil servant . Jim and May already had three daughters — Margaret , Kathryn and Andrea . The family lived in the house adjoining the one @-@ room school where Nesbitt was one of 32 pupils taught by Jim ; the other pupils were all farmers ' children . Nesbitt grew up " completely " around women , and spent a lot of time alone , " kicking a ball against a wall " . He had ambitions to play football for Manchester United , or to become a teacher like his father . The family was Protestant , and Lisnamurrican was in " Paisley country " . The Nesbitts spent Sunday evenings singing hymns around the piano . Jim marched in the Ballymena Young Conquerors flute band and Nesbitt joined him playing the flute . After the Drumcree conflicts , they stopped marching with the band . The family 's residence in the countryside left them largely unaffected by The Troubles , although Nesbitt , his father , and one of his sisters narrowly escaped a car bomb explosion outside Ballymena County Hall in the early 1970s .

When Nesbitt was 11 years old , the family moved to Coleraine , County Londonderry , where May worked for the Housing Executive . He completed his primary education at Blagh primary school , then moved on to Coleraine Academical Institution ( CAI ) . In 1978 , when he was 13 , his parents took him to audition for the Riverside Theatre 's Christmas production of Oliver ! . Nesbitt sang " Bohemian Rhapsody " at the audition and won the part of the Artful Dodger , who he played in his acting debut . He continued to act and sing with the Riverside until he was 16 , and appeared at festivals and as an extra in Play For Today : The Cry ( Christopher Menaul , 1984 ) . He got his Equity card when the professional actor playing Jiminy Cricket in Pinocchio broke his ankle two days before the performance , and Nesbitt stepped in to take his place . Acting had not initially appealed to him , but he " felt a light go on " after he saw The Winslow Boy ( Anthony Asquith , 1948 ) . When he was 15 , he got his first paid job as a bingo caller at Barry 's Amusements in Portrush . He was paid £ 1 per hour for the summer job and would also , on occasions , work as the brake man on the big dipper .

He left CAI at the age of 18 and began a degree in French at the University of Ulster , ( formally Ulster Polytechnic ) in Jordanstown . He stayed at university for a year before dropping out . In a 1999 interview , Nesbitt said , " I had the necessary in my head , but I just couldn 't be bothered . Being 18 is the worst age to expect people to learn things . There are other things to be bothered with , like girls and football . " He made the decision to quit when he was trying to write an overdue essay on existentialism in Les Mains Sales at 4 am one day . His father suggested that he should move to England if he wanted to continue acting , so Nesbitt enrolled at the Central School of Speech and Drama ( CSSD ) , part of University of London . Nesbitt felt lost and misrepresented when he first arrived in London , on account of his Northern Irish background ; " When I first came to drama school I was a Paddy the minute I walked in . And I remember going to drama school and them all saying to me , ' Aww , yeah , Brits out ' , and I was like ' It 's a wee bit more complicated than that , you know . ' " He graduated in 1987 , at the age of 22 .

= = Acting career = =

= = = Theatre and Hear My Song = = =

The day after leaving CSSD in 1987 , Nesbitt got a bit part in Virtuoso , a BBC Two Screen Two television play about the life of John Ogdon . He worked for two days on the play , earning £ 250 per day . His first professional stage appearance came in the same year , when he played Keith in Up on the Roof . The musical ran at the Theatre Royal , Plymouth , before transferring to the London West End . Nesbitt reprised the role when the production returned to Plymouth in early 1989 . Roger Malone in The Stage and Television Today wrote that Nesbitt " steals the show with the best lines and best delivery as he laconically squares up to life with an easy contentment " . Nesbitt appeared in two other plays in 1989 ; in June , he played Dukes Frederick and Senior in Paul Jepson 's As You Like It at the Rose Theatre Club , and then appeared in Yuri Lyubimov 's version of Hamlet . Hamlet had been translated back to English from Boris Pasternak 's Russian translation . It ran at the Haymarket Theatre , Leicester for a month before a transfer to the Old Vic and then a nine @-@ month world tour . Nesbitt played Guildenstern , Barnardo and the second gravedigger . He recalled that the play received " shocking " reviews , but was exciting .

In the early 1990s , he lived with fellow actor Jerome Flynn and earned money by signing fan mail for the successful star of Soldier Soldier . In his debut feature film , Hear My Song ( Peter Chelsom , 1991 ) , Nesbitt played Fintan O 'Donnell , a struggling theatrical agent and friend of Mickey O 'Neill ( Adrian Dunbar ) . A New York Times critic wrote , " the jaunty , bemused Mr. Nesbitt , manages to combine soulfulness with sly humor " . The praise he received made him self @-@ assured and complacent ; in 2001 , he recalled , " When I did Hear My Song , I disappeared so far up my own arse afterwards . I thought , ' Oh , that 's it , I 've cracked it . ' And I 'm glad that happened , because you then find out how expendable actors are . " His attitude left him out of work for six months after the film was released . Until 1994 , he mixed his stage roles with supporting roles on television in episodes of Boon , The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles , Covington Cross , Lovejoy , and Between the Lines . In 1993 , he appeared in Love Lies Bleeding , an instalment of the BBC anthology series Screenplay and his first appearance in a production directed by Michael Winterbottom ; he later appeared in Go Now ( 1995 ) , Jude ( 1996 ) and Welcome to Sarajevo ( 1997 ) . A Guardian journalist wrote that " he showed himself to be a generous supporting actor " in Jude and Sarajevo .

Back on stage , he appeared as Doalty in Translations ( Gwenda Hughes , Birmingham Repertory Theatre , 1991 ) , Aidan in Una Pooka ( Mark Lambert and Nicholas Kent , Tricycle Theatre , 1992 ) , Damien in Paddywack ( Michael Latimer ) , Cockpit Theatre , 1994 ) , and Jesus in Darwin 's Flood ( Simon Stokes , Bush Theatre , 1994 ) . Paddywack , in which Nesbitt 's character is suspected by others of being an IRA member , transferred to the United States for a run at the Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven , Connecticut in October 1994 . A Variety critic called Damien " the play 's only fully developed character " and commended Nesbitt for giving " the one strong , telling performance [ of the cast ] " . In 1996 , Nesbitt appeared in an episode of the BBC Northern Ireland television drama Ballykissangel , playing Leo McGarvey , the ex @-@ boyfriend of Assumpta Fitzgerald ( Dervla Kirwan ) and love rival of Peter Clifford ( Stephen Tompkinson ) . He reprised the role for four episodes in 1998 .

= = = Cold Feet and early films = = =

In 1996 , Nesbitt auditioned to play Adam Williams , the male lead in Cold Feet , an ITV Comedy Premiere about three couples in different stages of their romantic relationships . The audition came about through a mutual friend of Nesbitt 's and the director , Declan Lowney . The producer , Christine Langan , had also recalled his performances in Hear My Song and Go Now . Adam had not been written with an Irishman in mind to play him — English writer Mike Bullen had written the character as a thinly veiled portrayal of himself in his youth — but Nesbitt wanted to take the opportunity to appear in a contemporary drama as an ordinary man from Northern Ireland with no connection to the Troubles , especially after the Troubles @-@ based plot of Love Lies Bleeding . Cold Feet was a critical success ; it won the 1997 Golden Rose of Montreux and the 1997 British Comedy Award for Best ITV Comedy and was thus commissioned for a full series . Cold Feet 's first series aired at the end of 1998 and was followed by the second series in 1999 . A storyline in that series featured Adam being diagnosed with testicular cancer , which inspired Nesbitt to become a patron of the charity Action Cancer . By the time of the third series , Nesbitt and the other cast members were able to influence the show 's production ; an episode featuring Adam 's stag weekend was due to be filmed on location in Dublin but Nesbitt suggested it be filmed in Belfast and Portrush instead . Several scenes were filmed at his old workplace Barry 's Amusements , although they were cut from the broadcast episode . At the end of the fourth series in 2001 , Nesbitt decided to quit to move on to other projects . Executive producer Andy Harries persuaded him to stay for one more series by suggesting that Adam be killed off , so Nesbitt signed on for the fifth series . During pre @-@ production of the fifth series , Mike Bullen decided to kill off Adam 's wife Rachel ( played by Helen Baxendale ) instead .

Cold Feet ran for five years from 1998 to 2003 , and Nesbitt won the British Comedy Award for Best TV Comedy Actor in 2000 , the Television and Radio Industries Club Award for Drama TV Performer of the Year in 2002 , the National Television Award for Most Popular Comedy Performance in 2003 , and the TV Quick Award for Best Actor in 2003 . Nesbitt credits the role with raising his profile with the public . Further television roles during these five years included women 's football team coach John Dolan in the first two series of Kay Mellor 's Playing the Field ( appearing alongside his Cold Feet co @-@ star John Thomson ) , investigative journalists Ryan and David Laney in Resurrection Man ( Marc Evans , 1998 ) and Touching Evil II respectively , and womaniser Stanley in Women Talking Dirty ( Coky Giedroyc , 1999 ) .

Nesbitt 's performance in Hear My Song had also impressed first @-@ time screenwriter and film director Kirk Jones , who cast him in his 1998 feature film Waking Ned . Playing amiable pig farmer " Pig " Finn brought Nesbitt to international attention , particularly in the United States ( where the film was released as Waking Ned Devine ) ; the cast was nominated for the 1999 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Theatrical Motion Picture . In 1999 , he appeared as the paramilitary " Mad Dog " Billy Wilson in The Most Fertile Man in Ireland ( Dudi Appleton ) . The following year , he appeared in Declan Lowney 's feature debut , Wild About Harry . Lowney had personally asked him to appear in the supporting role of cross @-@ dressing Unionist politician Walter Adair . In 2001 , he made his debut as a lead actor in a feature film in Peter Cattaneo 's Lucky Break . He played Jimmy Hands , an incompetent bank robber who masterminds an escape from a prison by staging a musical as a distraction . On preparing for the role , Nesbitt said , " Short of robbing a bank there wasn 't much research I could have done but we did spend a day in Wandsworth Prison and that showed the nightmare monotony of prisoners ' lives . I didn 't interview any of the inmates because I thought it would be a little patronising as it was research for a comedy and also because we were going home every night in our fancy cars to sleep in our fancy hotels . " The film was a commercial failure , despite receiving good feedback from test audiences in the United States .

= = = Bloody Sunday = = =

Nesbitt had been approached at a British Academy Television Awards ceremony by director Paul Greengrass , who wanted him to star in a television drama he was making about the 1972 " Bloody Sunday " shootings in Derry . Nesbitt was only seven years old when the shootings happened and was ignorant of its cause ; he believed that there was " no smoke without fire " and that the Catholic marchers must have done something to provoke the British Army . He was filming Cold Feet in Manchester when he received the script . He read it and found that had " an extraordinary effect " on him . Nesbitt played Ivan Cooper in Bloody Sunday , the man who pressed for the march to go ahead . To prepare for the role , Nesbitt met with Cooper and spent many hours talking to him about his motives on that day . He met with relatives of the victims and watched the televised Bloody Sunday Inquiry with them , and also read Don Mullan 's Eyewitness Bloody Sunday and Peter Pringle and Philip Jacobson 's Those Are Real Bullets , Aren 't They ? . Greengrass compared Nesbitt 's preparation to an athlete preparing for a race , and told The Observer , " For an Irish actor , doing the Troubles is like doing Lear . " Nesbitt had questioned whether he was a good enough actor to effectively portray Cooper and was worried what Derry Catholics would think of a Protestant playing the lead , although Ivan Cooper himself is a Protestant .

Shortly before Bloody Sunday was broadcast , Nesbitt described it as " difficult but extraordinary " and " emotionally draining " . The broadcast on ITV in January 2002 and its promotion did not pass without incident ; he was criticised by Unionists for saying that Protestants in Northern Ireland felt " a collective guilt " over the killings . His parents ' home was also vandalised and he received death threats . During the awards season , Nesbitt won the British Independent Film Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a British Independent Film and was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor . The film was also screened at film festivals such as the Stockholm International Film Festival , where Nesbitt was presented with the Best Actor award .

In an analysis of the film in the History & Memory journal , Aileen Blaney wrote that it is Nesbitt 's real @-@ life household name status that made his portrayal of Cooper such a success . She reasoned that Nesbitt 's celebrity status mirrors that of Cooper 's in the 1970s : " A household name across Great Britain , Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic [ sic ] , Nesbitt 's widespread popular appeal is emphatically not contingent upon his Protestant Ulster identity , and consequently the double @-@ voicing of the character he plays does not alienate viewers of an alternative , or no , sectarian persuasion . " Guardian journalist Susie Steiner suggested that his appearance in Bloody Sunday was an attempt to resolve the expression of his " Irishness " on screen : " Where he has taken part in a sectarian theme , his intelligence as an actor has often been masked by an excessive , cartoon @-@ style comedy . Yet in his more successful , high @-@ profile roles , ( notably in Cold Feet , and as Pig Finn in the gently pastoral film Waking Ned ) , Nesbitt 's Irishness has been exploited for its romantic charm . It has been sugared and , in the process , de @-@ politicised . " A critic identified Bloody Sunday as Nesbitt 's " coming of age " film , and Nesbitt called it a turning point in his career . He refers to his career since the film was released as " post @-@ Bloody Sunday " .

= = = Murphy 's Law = = =

In 2003 , Nesbitt played undercover police detective Tommy Murphy in the first series of Murphy 's Law , after starring in a successful pilot episode in 2001 . The series was conceived when Nesbitt was working on Playing the Field ; he and producer Greg Brenman approached author Colin Bateman about creating a television series for Nesbitt in a similar vein to Bateman 's Dan Starkey novels . Bateman and Nesbitt were already well acquainted ; Nesbitt had been considered for a main role in Divorcing Jack ( David Caffrey , 1998 ) , based on Bateman 's original novel . A 90 @-@ minute pilot of Murphy 's Law was commissioned by the BBC , initially as a " comedy action adventure " . Bateman created a complex backstory for Murphy , which was cut at the request of the producers . After the broadcast of the pilot , Guardian critic Gareth McLean wrote , " the likeable James Nesbitt turned in a strong , extremely watchable central performance , though rarely did he look taxed by his efforts , and his chemistry with [ Claudia ] Harrison was promising and occasionally electric . " In 2003 , Nesbitt won the Irish Film & Television Award ( IFTA ) for Best Actor in a TV Drama for the role . The second series was broadcast in 2004 .

By 2005 , Nesbitt had become tired of the formula and threatened to quit unless the structure of the series was changed . He was made a creative consultant and suggested that Murphy keep one undercover role for a full series , instead of changing into a new guise every episode . This new dramatic element to the series was intended to make it a closer representation of real @-@ life undercover work . Alongside his research with former undercover officer Peter Bleksley , Nesbitt hired a personal trainer and grew a handlebar moustache to change Murphy 's physical characteristics and tone down the " cheeky chappie " persona that the audience had become accustomed to from his roles . With his trainer , he worked out three times a week , boxing and doing circuits and weights . After the first new episode was broadcast , Sarah Vine wrote in The Times , " In the past , when attempting a nasty stare or a hard face , Nesbitt has never managed much more than a faintly quizzical look , hilarity forever threatening to break out behind those twinkly Irish eyes . But here , it 's different . He genuinely has the air of a man who means business . " The refreshed series marked another milestone in Nesbitt 's career ; he describes it as " a big moment " in his life . Murphy 's Law was not recommissioned for a sixth series , which Nesbitt attributed to the damage done to the fifth series ratings when it was scheduled opposite the popular ITV drama Doc Martin .

In 2004 , Nesbitt appeared in Wall of Silence , a fact @-@ based drama about the aftermath of the murder of schoolboy Jamie Robe . Nesbitt played Stuart Robe , the boy 's father , who tries to break down the wall of silence in the local community to discover exactly what happened to his son . He had only just completed Bloody Sunday when he was offered the part and was unsure whether he wanted to take on such a demanding role so soon after playing Ivan Cooper . He decided to accept the part because he found it interesting . To prepare for the role , Nesbitt met with Robe and spent weeks talking to him in his South London flat , learning about Jamie , and of Robe 's fight for his justice . Nesbitt spoke with his natural accent instead of affecting Robe 's South London speech , as he did not want the audience to be distracted from the drama . The single @-@ drama was filmed over four weeks and broadcast in January 2004 . The role gained Nesbitt an IFTA nomination for Best Actor in a TV Drama later that year .

In March 2004 , he appeared in Tony Marchant 's Passer By , playing Joe Keyes , a man who witnesses a woman being accosted by some men on a train and chooses not to help . Keyes later discovers that the woman was raped but cannot bring himself to admit in court that he did nothing to help her . Nesbitt described Keyes as " like a better man than me : a good father and husband . But , once he has made a wrong decision , he can 't control everything in his life , as he thinks he is weak . He loses the respect of his wife , his son and at work , and has to reach the lowest possible point before finding redemption . " As a result of these serious roles , he was named the sixth most powerful figure in TV drama in a listing compiled by industry experts for the Radio Times . In September 2004 , he starred as Jack Parlabane in the ITV adaptation of Christopher Brookmyre 's Quite Ugly One Morning . The producers originally wanted Scottish actor Douglas Henshall to play Glaswegian Parlabane but ITV executives overruled them and cast Nesbitt . He was given coaching to perfect the accent but it was soon discarded on the advice of both the director and his co @-@ star Daniela Nardini . Also in 2004 , he filmed the roles of Ronnie Cunningham in Millions ( Danny Boyle , 2004 ) , and Detective Banner in Match Point ( Woody Allen , 2005 ) . He was considering taking time off from acting and did not really want the role in Match Point . He sent in an audition tape and was accepted for the part . Nesbitt 's character appears at the end of the film and he read only that part of the script , so did not know the full circumstances of the crime Banner investigates . Despite his initial reluctance , Nesbitt enjoyed working with Allen , and complimented him on his directing style .

Nesbitt returned to theatre acting in June 2005 when he appeared in David Nicholls ' After Sun , a ten @-@ minute @-@ play performed as part of the Old Vic 's 24 @-@ Hour Play season . Nesbitt and Catherine Tate starred as a married couple who meet a pair of newlyweds returning from their honeymoon . Later that year , he appeared in his first full @-@ length play in 11 years , in Owen McCafferty 's Shoot the Crow . He enjoyed the stimulation of learning his lines and rehearsing with the cast and director . The play opened at the Trafalgar Studios in September 2005 and his role as Socrates gained mixed reviews . In The Independent , Michael Coveney suggested the role did not fit the actor : " Nesbitt is cool . But I never felt that he was inside his role of a chap called Socrates [ ... ] He grinned and shrugged through the evening which steadily became less about grouting on tiles and more about grating on nerves . " In The Daily Telegraph , Charles Spencer described Nesbitt 's acting as " outstanding " .

= = = Jekyll , Five Minutes , Occupation = = =

At the end of 2005 , Nesbitt and his agent met with BBC Controller of Fiction Jane Tranter to discuss a new series of Murphy 's Law . At the meeting 's conclusion , Tranter offered Nesbitt the first episode script of Jekyll , a television series by Steven Moffat that updated Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde . Nesbitt spent three hours reading the script before accepting the role of Tom Jackman — and his alter @-@ ego Mr Hyde . After signing on for the role , he met with Moffat and Hartswood Films executive producer Beryl Vertue to discuss the character , and had several make @-@ up tests . His anticipation for the part was heightened because filming was not scheduled to begin until September 2006 . Nesbitt spent an hour each day being made up as Hyde ; a wig altered his hairline and prosthetics were added to his chin , nose and ear lobes . He also wore black contact lenses to make Hyde " soulless " , though CGI was used to show the transformation from Jackman in close @-@ ups . The series was broadcast on BBC One in June and July 2007 . The role secured him a nomination from the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini @-@ Series or Motion Picture Made for Television , and a nomination for the Rose d 'Or for Best Entertainer .

In 2008 , he portrayed Pontius Pilate in The Passion , a BBC / HBO adaptation of the last week in the life of Jesus . He had originally rejected the script due to other filming commitments , but accepted the role after his agent told him to re @-@ read it before making a final decision . He was pleased to learn that the serial was being produced by Nigel Stafford @-@ Clark , whose Bleak House adaptation he had enjoyed , and that he would be appearing with his Jekyll co @-@ star Denis Lawson . Contrary to previous portrayals of Pilate , Nesbitt played the biblical figure as " nice " , and — as when playing Jack Parlabane — used his own accent . The serial was broadcast in the UK during Easter week 2008 . Shortly after filming The Passion , he filmed the part of journalist Max Raban in the Carnival Films thriller Midnight Man , which was shown on ITV in May 2008 . It won him a joint nomination ( along with the 2007 series of Murphy 's Law ) for the ITV3 Crime Thriller Award for Best Actor . At the end of the year , he had a starring role in the low @-@ budget independent film Blessed . The writer and director Mark Aldridge scripted the character of Peter with Nesbitt in mind to play him . The film had a limited release throughout 2008 and 2009 before the BBC screened it on television in 2010 . Nesbitt said , " The role of Peter is what I have dreamed about playing , you wait your whole life for an opportunity like this and when it comes you have to grab it . "

The following year , Nesbitt co @-@ starred with Liam Neeson in the fact @-@ based television film Five Minutes of Heaven ( Oliver Hirschbiegel , 2009 ) . The first part of the film dramatises the real @-@ life murder of Jim Griffin by Alistair Little in 1970s Lurgan ; the second part features a fictional meeting between Little ( Neeson ) and Jim 's brother Joe ( Nesbitt ) 33 years later . Nesbitt met with Griffin before filming began to learn about how his brother 's murder affected him . The film was broadcast on BBC Two in April 2009 . He also starred as Colour Sgt. Mike Swift in Peter Bowker 's three @-@ part BBC / Kudos television serial Occupation . In Occupation , set over six years , Nesbitt 's character is one of three British soldiers who return to Basra , Iraq after their tours have concluded . He researched the role by speaking to Territorial Army soldiers in Belfast , and RAF officers in Morocco , where the serial was filmed . Both performances were commended by Independent journalist Hugh Montgomery ; in a review of 2009 's television , Montgomery named Nesbitt " Face of the Year " , writing , " Just as you had James Nesbitt written off as the gurning embodiment of everything mediocre about British TV drama , he produced two stonking performances , as the transfixingly harrowed sergeant in Occupation , and a nervily vengeful victim 's relative in Irish @-@ troubles piece Five Minutes of Heaven . Give the man a Bafta . " Nesbitt was not nominated for a BAFTA award , though did receive a nomination for Best Actor from the Broadcasting Press Guild for both performances .

= = = International work = = =

In March 2009 , Nesbitt signed a contract with the American talent agency United Talent Agency , as the global financial crisis was restricting roles in British television . He continued to be represented in the United Kingdom by Artists Rights Group . The next year Nesbitt played the hunter Cathal in the low @-@ budget British horror film Outcast , which was a departure from his previous character types . After screening at major international film festivals in early 2010 , the film had a general release in the latter part of the year . Nesbitt had previously worked with the film 's director and co @-@ writer Colm McCarthy on Murphy 's Law , which was one reason he took the role . He researched the mythical aspects of the character by reading about Irish folklore and beliefs . He also starred alongside Minnie Driver and his Welcome to Sarajevo co @-@ star Goran Višnjić in the Tiger Aspect television serial The Deep . In the five @-@ part drama , Nesbitt played submarine engineer Clem Donnelly . The serial was filmed over 12 weeks at BBC Scotland 's studios in Dumbarton . August 2010 saw the release of Nadia Tass 's film Matching Jack , in which Nesbitt plays the leading role of Connor . He became involved in the film after reading an early script draft in 2006 . In 2008 , the global financial crisis severely reduced the budget of the film , and Nesbitt volunteered a reduction in his salary so the film could still be made . The film was shot over eight weeks in Melbourne in 2009 and released in 2010 .

Next , Nesbitt reunited with Occupation screenwriter Peter Bowker to star in the ITV medical drama series Monroe , playing Gabriel Monroe . Nesbitt was Bowker 's first choice for the part . Nesbitt researched the role of the neurosurgeon character by watching brain surgery being performed by Henry Marsh , and by consulting Philip Van Hille at Leeds General Infirmary . The series was filmed over 12 weeks in Leeds at the end of 2010 and broadcast on ITV during March and April 2011 . Nesbitt will reprise the role in a second series , which is due to begin production in 2012 . In film , Nesbitt co @-@ stars as Irish writer Jack in Emilio Estevez 's drama The Way , alongside Martin Sheen , Deborah Kara Unger , and Yorick van Wageningen , and has a role as Sicinius in Ralph Fiennes ' contemporary Shakespeare adaptation Coriolanus .

Alongside many other British and Irish actors , Nesbitt was cast in Peter Jackson 's three @-@ part film The Hobbit , as the dwarf Bofur . Nesbitt had not read J.R.R. Tolkien 's novel but accepted the role immediately . As the film was scheduled to take over 12 months to make in New Zealand , Nesbitt 's wife and daughters moved with him , and his daughters were enrolled in a New Zealand school . Filming commenced in March 2011 . The first part , The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey , was released in December 2012 , the second part , The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug , in December 2013 , and the third and final part , The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies , in December 2014 .

= = Other projects = =

In 2002 , Nesbitt made his documentary debut as the presenter of James Nesbitt 's Blazing Saddles , a production for BBC Choice that saw him spend two weeks in Las Vegas at the National Finals Rodeo and the Miss Rodeo America pageant . In 2007 , he was the guest host of an episode of the late @-@ night Channel 4 comedy The Friday Night Project . As a film awards presenter , he hosted the IFTA Awards ceremony for three consecutive years between 2005 and 2007 , the British Independent Film Awards from 2005 to 2010 , and the National Movie Awards in 2008 and 2010 . In 2009 , he hosted the Laurence Olivier Awards .

An amateur golfer since his teenage years , Nesbitt joined the European team for Sky One 's All * Star Cup in 2005 and 2006 . He signed up to a series of high @-@ profile television advertisements for the Yell Group in 2003 , playing a hapless character called James for the company 's Yellow Pages campaign until 2006 . Times writer Andrew Billen noted that the adverts " cost him some credibility " but Nesbitt was pleased with the money he made from them . In 2004 , he joined the supergroup Twisted X to produce " Born in England " , an unofficial anthem for the England national football team 's entry in the UEFA Euro 2004 tournament . His vocals have also appeared in Lucky Break and an episode of Cold Feet . The song he performed in the latter — " ( Love Is ) The Tender Trap " — was released on one of the series ' soundtrack albums . He also contributed vocals to the Waking Ned soundtrack . A fan of Northern Irish band Ash , he made a cameo in their unreleased film Slashed . In 2009 , he starred in the music video for " The Day I Died " , a single by English dance @-@ pop artist Just Jack . Nesbitt was recommended to Just Jack by Elton John . Nesbit is scheduled to host the 2013 British Independent Film Awards in London on 8 December 2013 .

Since 2013 Nesbitt appears in adverts for Thomas Cook .

In 2014 , Nesbitt had the lead role as the father character Tony Hughes in harrowing BBC drama series The Missing , alongside Frances O 'Connor ( as his wife / ex @-@ wife , Emily Hughes / Walsh ) and Tchéky Karyo ( as Julien Baptiste , leading French police investigator ) . The drama focused on a British married couple , whose son goes missing while they are on holiday in France , and the subsequent years of enquiry trying to find answers as to what happened to their son and why . Incidentally , Nesbitt and Karyo had appeared previously together in the Martin Sheen film The Way ( 2010 ) .

= = Personal life = =

Nesbitt was married to Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam , the daughter of Reverend Sir Timothy Forbes Adam . The two met when Nesbitt went to the final call @-@ back for Hamlet at Loughborough Hall in 1989 , and they soon began dating . They split up for a year after the release of Hear My Song but reunited and married in 1994 . They have since had two daughters , Peggy and Mary ( both of whom appeared in the final two Hobbit movies as the daughters of Bard the Bowman ) . Nesbitt 's three sisters all became teachers . In 2002 , a Sunday tabloid published an interview with a legal secretary who claimed to have had a two @-@ month affair with Nesbitt . Shortly afterwards , another tabloid story revealed an affair with a prostitute , who claimed Nesbitt had boasted of liaisons with his Cold Feet co @-@ star Kimberley Joseph , and Amanda Brunker , a former Miss Ireland . Commenting on the publication of details about his personal life , Nesbitt has said he feared that he would lose his marriage , though the exposing of his " dual life " allowed him to " take a long and considered look " at himself . In October 2013 , Nesbitt announced that he and his wife Sonia Forbes @-@ Adam would separate from each other after 19 years . The couple says that the filming of The Hobbit Trilogy has forced the couple to live separately for the past two years . The split came as a mutual decision and the couple says that infidelity was not one of the reasons for their decision .

Nesbitt is a patron of Wave , a charity set up to support those traumatised by the Troubles . The charity faced closure due to funding problems before Nesbitt encouraged celebrities and artists to become involved . Since 2005 , he has been a UNICEF UK ambassador , working with HIV and AIDS sufferers , and former child soldiers in Africa . He describes the role as " a privilege " . Writing in The Independent about his visit to Zambia in 2006 , Nesbitt concluded that the children he met were owed a social and moral responsibility . The article was described in the Evening Standard as " moving and notably well @-@ crafted " . Since 1999 , he has been a patron of Action Cancer , a result of both his father 's affliction with prostate cancer and a storyline in the second series of Cold Feet , where his character suffered testicular cancer . He has been an honorary patron of Youth Lyric , one of Ireland 's largest theatre schools , since 2007 .

He is a fan of football teams Coleraine and Manchester United . In 2003 , Nesbitt made a donation of " thousands of pounds " to Coleraine , after the team came close to bankruptcy . He has called the team " a heartbeat " of Coleraine and encouraged more people to watch Irish League football . Nesbitt was a vocal opponent of Malcolm Glazer 's 2005 takeover of Manchester United , though after the completion of that deal he acted in television advertisements promoting executive boxes at Old Trafford , for which he was criticised by fans . To counter the criticism , he pledged one half of his £ 10 @,@ 000 fee to the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust and the other half to UNICEF .

Nesbitt is co @-@ owner of National Hunt racehorse ' Riverside Theatre ' , named after the theatre of the University of Ulster in Coleraine , which won the Ryanair Chase at the 2012 Cheltenham Festival .

In March 2010 , Nesbitt accepted the ceremonial position of Chancellor of the University of Ulster , succeeding former Lord Mayor of London Sir Richard Nichols . Gerry Mallon , the chair of the university ruling council , expected Nesbitt to " bring considerable energy , dynamism and commitment " to the post . Following his official installation on 8 June 2010 , Nesbitt said , " Rather than being just an informal role officiating at ceremonies , I think I can act as an ambassador . I have access to an awful lot of people and places because of my work . I hope to be a voice that can be heard , not just at the university , but also outside promoting the importance of the funding of education . If that involves me being at Stormont , then I 'd be very happy to do that . Clearly these public spending cuts are going to have an impact and it 's important to fight for funding because it 's about investing in students and investing in the future of Northern Ireland . I believe I can bring something to that , otherwise I wouldn 't have taken this on . "

He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2016 New Year Honours for services to drama and to the community in Northern Ireland .

= = Filmography and awards = =

= = Academic honours = =

Honorary Doctor of Letters ( D.Litt ) for services to drama from University of Ulster , Magee campus ( 9 July 2003 ) .

Award of Distinction for contribution to drama from Belfast Metropolitan College ( 13 November 2008 ) .

Chancellor of the University of Ulster ( 2010 — ) ( ceremonial )

= Crazy in Love =

" Crazy in Love " is a song from American singer Beyoncé 's debut solo album Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . Beyoncé wrote the song with Rich Harrison , Jay Z , and Eugene Record , and produced it with Harrison . " Crazy in Love " is an R & B and pop love song that incorporates elements of hip hop , soul , and 1970s @-@ style funk music . Its lyrics describe a romantic obsession that causes the protagonist to act out of character . Jay Z contributes a rapped verse to the song and is credited as a featured performer . The French horn @-@ based hook samples " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " , a 1970 song by the Chi @-@ Lites .

Columbia Records released " Crazy in Love " on May 18 , 2003 , as the lead single from Dangerously in Love . It was a number @-@ one hit in the United States and United Kingdom , and achieved top @-@ ten peaks on several other countries ' record charts . With global sales of over 8 @.@ 5 million , including 2 million from the U.S. , it is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time . Music critics praised " Crazy in Love " ' s hook , Jay Z 's contribution , and Beyoncé 's assertive delivery of the lyrics . VH1 declared it the greatest song of the 2000s decade , while Rolling Stone ranked it as the 118th best song of all time in 2010 . At the 46th Grammy Awards , " Crazy in Love " won Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .

The song 's accompanying music video features Beyoncé in various dance sequences . It won three awards at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , and its director , Jake Nava , won the Music Video Production Association award for Best R & B Video in 2004 . Since 2003 , " Crazy in Love " has been a staple in Beyoncé ’ s live performances and concert tours . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized " Crazy in Love " as one of the most performed songs of 2004 . Artists including David Byrne have covered the song , and it has been used in various television shows and other media .

= = Development and production = =

In July 2002 , Beyoncé had already recorded several songs which would appear on Dangerously in Love . Columbia Records planned to release the album in October 2002 ; however the release was postponed several times to capitalize on the success of American rapper Nelly 's single " Dilemma " ( 2002 ) , which features Destiny 's Child singer Kelly Rowland . These delays allowed Beyoncé to record more songs for the album .

Before meeting Beyoncé , Rich Harrison had conceptualized the beat of the song . He sampled the hook 's instrumentation from the 1970 song " Are You My Woman ? ( Tell Me So ) " , originally written by Eugene Record , frontman of the Chicago @-@ based vocal group The Chi @-@ Lites . When Harrison first played the beat to his friends , they could not " dig it " , and this made him realize that he had conceived something special , which people would appreciate better after hearing the whole record . Harrison decided not to market the track and instead waited for the right artist to record it : " I had it in the chamber , I had not really shopped it much , because sometimes you do not want to come out of the bag before it 's right . People do not really get it and you will leave them with a foul taste in their mouth . "

Harrison was pleasantly surprised when he got a call from Beyoncé , who was working on one of the most anticipated albums of the year . However , things did not turn up according to his plans the following day as he was late and was still suffering the effects of a hangover . When Harrison played the sample to Beyoncé in the studio , the singer initially had doubts about the " sound so full of blaring fanfare " ; it seemed too retro and according to her , no one used horn riffs in the 21st century . Nevertheless , Beyoncé became friendlier to the sample much to Harrison 's delight and gave him two hours to write the song while she went out .

Harrison confessed that it was not easy for him to come up with the lyrics to " Crazy in Love " in that length of time . Two hours later , he had penned the verses and the hook in spite of being hung over . Harrison had also made provision for a backing track ; he played all the instruments on the track . The bridge was written by Beyoncé , who was inspired by looking at herself in the mirror ; she was not wearing matching clothes and her hair was untidy as she kept saying , " I 'm looking so crazy right now . " Harrison sang back to her and said , " That 's the hook . " It also inspired the title of the song . After that Beyoncé had filled up the middle eight , she came up with the catchphrase - " Uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh , you know " - alongside Harrison .

American rapper Jay @-@ Z became involved late in the song 's production . Around three in the morning , he came to the studio and recorded a rap verse , which he improvised in about ten minutes . The recording of " Crazy in Love " took place nearly three months following the meeting of Beyoncé with Harrison .

= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =

According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing , " Crazy in Love " is an R & B and pop love song , composed in the key of D @-@ minor and F @-@ major . It incorporates 1970s @-@ style funk , hip hop , and contains influences of soul . As commented by Robert Webb of The Independent , the old soul influences in the song seem to have been derived from the horn hook , which samples the 1970 song " Are You My Woman ? ( Tell Me So ) " . Having a go @-@ go vibe , " Crazy in Love " is built on a hip hop beat . Beyoncé told The Sunday Herald that the beat is " so hard that it makes your heart hurt . " The song 's tempo is a moderate 100 beats per minute , in common time . Beyoncé ’ s vocal range spans around one and a half octaves in the song , from the low note of A ♯ 3 to the high note of F5 . " Crazy in Love " uses two major chords , B ♭ and G , a minor third apart . One of the main vocal riffs uses the traditional cowbell rhythm often found in samba music . Lisa Verrico of The Times magazine , wrote that " Crazy in Love " makes use of big drums and bits of brass .

According to Natalie Nichols of Los Angeles Times , the lyrics of " Crazy in Love " reference a state of romantic obsession . Beyoncé said that the song talks " about how , when you are falling in love , you do things that are out of character and you do not really care because you are just open . " Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone wrote that " Crazy in Love " has " such a cauldron of energy " , that Beyoncé sounds " loose and sexy " , gripped by emotions she " can neither understand nor control " . The lyrics are composed in the traditional verse @-@ chorus form . Jay Z opens the song with a brief spoken verse @-@ rap , containing the lyrics : " Yes ! So crazy right now . Most incredibly , it 's your girl , B. It 's your boy , Young . You ready ? " After Beyoncé delivers the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " catchphrase , Jay Z continues the monologue . Beyoncé begins the first verse , followed with the whistle @-@ backed chorus . She repeats the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " phrase , leading to the second verse . The chorus follows , giving way to the second verse @-@ rap which contains the lyrics : " Jay Z in the range , crazy and deranged [ ... ] I been inhaling the chain smokers , how you think I got the name ' Hova ' , I been real and the game 's over " . The song continues to the bridge , singing : " I 'm not myself , lately I 'm foolish , I don 't do this , / I 've been playing myself , baby , I don 't care / ' Cuz your love 's got the best of me , / And baby , you 're making a fool of me , / You got me sprung and I don 't care who sees " . She then sings the chorus again and the song fades out with the horns .

= = Release and remixes = =

" Crazy in Love " was released to radio in the United States on May 18 , 2003 under formats including Rhythmic , Top 40 , and Urban radios . The single was released first as a digital download to iTunes Stores in the United Kingdom and in the United States on May 20 , 2003 . Notably , the song was also fairly successful as a ringtone among cell phone users across America . The song was released as a CD single in Ireland and Switzerland on June 30 , 2003 and as a digital EP in Germany on the same date . " Crazy in Love " was released as a maxi single in Germany on June 30 , 2003 and in Australia on July 15 , 2003 along with the song 's accompanying music video , exclusive to Australia . The song was issued on DVD and CD single in the United Kingdom on June 30 , 2003 . " Crazy in Love " was released as a digital EP in several European countries , including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Finland , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , and Sweden on July 8 , 2003 . This digital EP was also available in Canada and Ireland on July 8 , 2003 . On July 22 , 2003 , two remixes - one from Rockwilder and the other from Adam 12 - was serviced in the United States .

" Crazy in Love " has various remixes , including the Rockwilder remix , Maurice 's " Nu Soul remix " , and Juniors World remix . These versions appeared on the single releases of " Crazy in Love " under an alternative spelling , " Krazy in Luv " . The Rockwilder remix slows down the beat and makes the song deeper and funkier with chopped up horn samples and sparkling synth textures . Maurice 's " Nu Soul Remix " speeds up the beat , taking it from hip @-@ hop to house territory . A version of the song included on Asian releases of Dangerously in Love features a rap in Mandarin Chinese performed by American @-@ Taiwanese singer Vanness Wu , instead of Jay Z 's performance .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

" Crazy in Love " was lauded by contemporary music critics , who complimented the horn lines and the guest appearance of Jay @-@ Z. Many of them called it the Summer Anthem of 2003 . Tim Sendra of AllMusic described the song as a " stunning pop masterpiece " , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the same website called it " deliriously catchy " . Darryl Sterdan of Jam ! noted the " Crazy in Love " is " instantly addictive horn lines " . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone wrote : " ' Crazy in Love ' ... roars out of the speakers on the strength of a propulsive horn sample and the charged presence of her pal , Jay @-@ Z. " Ben Ratliff of Blender magazine called the song an " itchy [ and ] eager @-@ to @-@ please " one . Marc Anthony Neal of PopMatters called the " uh @-@ oh , uh @-@ oh " phrase catchy . MTV News considered " Crazy in Love " to be the " proudest moment " of Dangerously in Love . Similarly , Allison Stewart of The Washington Post called it the best song on the album , praising its instrumentation , harmonies , and the rap verse of Jay Z. This was echoed by Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times who wrote that " Crazy in Love " is the best one on the album thanks to its " simplicity , irresistible combination of triumphant horns and a wicked hip @-@ hop beat " . She added that " [ Beyoncé ’ s ] vocals - as deft and accurate as ever - convey none of the giddy rush that the lyrics describe . " Likewise , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote the lyrical arrangement , the music structure and the guest vocals by Jay Z all contributed in making " Crazy in Love " a wonderful resume for Beyoncé .

Rob Fitzpatrick of NME called " Crazy in Love " a " head @-@ nodding [ and ] body @-@ rocking funk @-@ soul genius " and wrote that it is " a 100 per cent , stone @-@ cold , dead @-@ cert classic " . He complimented Beyoncé ’ s vocals , describing them as " genuinely , hip @-@ grindingly fruity " . Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols noted that " sexy dance tunes as the vintage funk @-@ flavored ' Crazy in Love ' " made Dangerously in Love a great album . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song has a " fresh sound " . Spence D. of IGN Music wrote that Beyoncé rides the " infectious rhythm " with grace and mid @-@ range seductively . He added , " As [ it ] can be expected , the track bumps when Jay drops his distinctive uptown flavor . While other rap @-@ meet @-@ R & B tracks often fall flat , this one works well as Beyoncé and Jay 's verbals play nicely against one another . " Lisa Verrico of The Times wrote that Jay Z performed a " decent rap " , however , " Beyoncé and the beats save the day " and that " Crazy in Love " was a departure for Beyoncé from Destiny 's Child .

= = = Accolades = = =

In 2004 , " Crazy in Love " was nominated for three Grammy Awards in the categories of Best R & B Song and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration , which it won , and Record of the Year , which it did not win . A remix of " Crazy in Love " , known as " Krazy in Luv " ( Maurice 's Nu Soul Mix ) , won the award Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical for its remixer , Maurice Joshua . " Crazy in Love " was also recognized at the 2004 ASCAP Pop Music Awards Awards as one of the Most Performed Songs and its publisher , EMI , received the Publisher of the Year award . Vibe magazine 's VIBE Awards recognized the song for Coolest Collaboration in 2003 . In Europe , " Crazy in Love " won the Best Song award at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards . " Crazy in Love " won the awards for Best R & B / Urban Track and Best Pop Dance Track at the 22nd Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2003 . It was recognized by Beyoncé ’ s peers in the urban markets , and won the award for Best Collaboration at the BET Awards , where it also received a nomination in the Viewers Choice Awards category in 2004 . " Crazy in Love " was nominated at the 36th NAACP Image Awards for the Outstanding Song award and for Favorite Song at the 2004 Kids ' Choice Awards .

= = Legacy = =

Entertainment Weekly magazine ranked " Crazy in Love " forty @-@ seven in its list of The 100 Greatest Summer Songs . The song is ranked second in Yahoo ! ' s list of biggest @-@ selling singles since 2000 . The song was listed at number three on Rolling Stone 's list of the 50 Best Songs of the 2000s Decade , in 2009 , and as the 118th greatest song of all time on the magazine 's 2010 list of the 500 greatest songs of all time , as well as ranking it number 3 in their 100 Best Songs of the 2000s list , writing " The horns weren 't a hook . They were a herald : Pop 's new queen had arrived . " . NME staff voted " Crazy in Love " the best song of the 2000s , calling it " a dancefloor @-@ destroying howitzer of a pop song . " The song was ranked at number four on Pitchfork Media 's list of The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s , number seven on The Daily Telegraph 's list of the best songs of the decade and number six on Slant Magazine 's list of the 100 Best Singles of the Decade . In September 2011 , VH1 ranked " Crazy in Love " number one on its list of The 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s . In October 2011 , to mark NME fifteenth birthday , its staff members selected the 150 tracks " that have meant the most to [ them ] over the site 's lifetime " . They placed " Crazy in Love " at number 16 on their list of the 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years . In 2012 , the song was ranked at number 22 on Billboard magazine 's list of " Top 50 ' Love ' Songs of All Time " . In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! placed the song at number one on their list of ten best Beyoncé ’ s songs writing " It 's the song that started it all . The definitive best Beyoncé jam is her first , complete with a guest spot by now @-@ husband Jay Z , a killer hook and a chorus of horns that you have to dance to . Literally have to , Pavlovian conditioning @-@ style . " In a 2013 list of Jay Z 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits , " Crazy in Love " was ranked at number 1 . On July 5 , 2013 , NME magazine named " Crazy in Love " " The Best Pop Song Of The Century " .

= = Chart performance = =

" Crazy in Love " was a commercial success in the United States . Although it was not yet released to retail stores , the single gained much attention and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , the official US singles chart , based on heavy rotation alone . The same week it reached number one , Dangerously in Love debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one on July 12 , 2003 . Substantial airplay , and later in retail , gains of " Crazy in Love " allowed it to dominate the chart , spending eight consecutive weeks at number one on the Hot 100 , making it Beyoncé ’ s first number one single in her solo career . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Crazy in Love " was the most downloaded song in the United States for four consecutive weeks in July 2003 . " Crazy in Love " spent twenty @-@ seven weeks on the Hot 100 , fifteen weeks in the top ten , and twenty @-@ six weeks in the top fifty . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2004 while its Mobile Mastertone was also certified gold two years later . " Crazy in Love " was the fourth biggest hit of 2003 in the United States . By October 6 , 2010 , " Crazy in Love " had sold 47 @,@ 000 physical units in the US , and as of October 2012 , 1 @,@ 597 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads .

In the United Kingdom , Beyoncé became the third female artist to top the UK Singles Chart and UK Albums Chart simultaneously , following Mariah Carey in 1994 and Kylie Minogue in 2001 . Including her career with Destiny 's Child , " Crazy in Love " became Beyoncé ’ s third number one single in Britain and was the only song to top the charts the United Kingdom and the United States in 2003 . The single spent three weeks at number one in the United Kingdom and fifteen weeks in the top 100 . As of July 2013 , it has sold 510 @,@ 000 units in the UK . " Crazy in Love " reached number one on the Irish Singles Chart , where it spent eighteen weeks . In Australia , " Crazy in Love " peaked at number two on the ARIA Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with sales of over 70 @,@ 000 units . It also peaked at number two on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . " Crazy in Love " reached top ten positions in some European singles charts . It reached the top ten in Austria , the Belgian territories of Flanders and Wallonia , Denmark , Germany , Hungary , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland . As of September 2009 , " Crazy in Love " had sold more than five million copies worldwide , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time worldwide .

= = Music video = =

= = = Production and synopsis = = =

The music video of " Crazy in Love " , released in May 2003 , was directed by Jake Nava and filmed in downtown Los Angeles . In MTV Making of the Video 2003 documentary , Beyoncé described the video 's conception : " [ It ] celebrates the evolution of a woman . It is about a girl who is at the point of a relationship . She realises that she is in love , she is doing stuff she would not normally do but she does not care . It does not matter she is just crazy in love . "

The opening sequence of the video features Jay Z as a passenger in a car speeding along Mission Road in Los Angeles , where he encounters Beyoncé , standing in the middle of the road , at the Fourth Street bridge . Beyoncé performs in various dance sequences , beginning with her wearing a white tank top , denim blue shorts , and red high @-@ heels . She performs an elaborate solo dance on a riser . The scene shifts to a gold set with a mock photo shoot , before moving into a scene with dancers detailing Beyoncé and dancing against a wall while wearing caps and full length pants . Jay Z appears and ignites a line of petrol leading to a car parked under the bridge , which explodes in flames . Jay Z performs his rap in front of the burning car , and Beyoncé dances beside him , wearing an exotic silk print over a fur coat , before kicking the valve off a fire hydrant . She continues to dance while the water is flying everywhere . The video ends with Beyoncé and her dancers wearing vibrant Versace dresses in front of a large fan . Their outfits contrast with the neutral colors of the background , the video . Carmit Bachar , a former Pussycat Dolls singer , is one of the dancers .

= = = Reception = = =

The music video was acclaimed by critics and won several awards . Cynthia Fuchs , writing for PopMatters commented that the photo shoot scene uses the routine used by Jennifer Lopez in the video for " Jenny from the Block " ( 2002 ) with hot lights , scary makeup , and inclusion of many shots of legs . She wrote that : " Beyoncé 's body becomes its undeniable emblem . Tom Moon of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that Beyoncé shakes every inch of her famously photogenic goddess frame . " The music video won three awards at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards in the categories of Best Female Video , Best R & B Video , and Best Choreography . It however lost to Good Charlotte 's " Lifestyles of the Rich & Famous " in the Viewer 's Choice category . Director Nava also won a Music Video Production Association award for the Best R & B Video in 2004 . During the same year , the video won the Best Collaboration award at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards Japan , where it was also nominated for the Best Female Video award . " Crazy in Love " was nominated at the 36th NAACP Image Awards for the Outstanding Music Video award . It won the Best International Video award at the 2004 MuchMusic Video Awards . In 2014 , The Guardian writer Michael Cragg included the clip for " Crazy in Love " in his list of the ten best music videos by Beyoncé . He offered high praise for it , saying " Aware of how much of a statement the song was , the video is a checklist of icon @-@ making visuals , from the locations ... the dance moves ... to the part where she makes bubble blowing look like the sexiest thing a human could do . "

= = Live performances = =

Beyoncé first performed " Crazy in Love " with Jay Z on August 28 , 2003 , during the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . She sang the song in a medley , with the pre @-@ recorded vocals of Sean Paul on " Baby Boy " ( 2003 ) . " Crazy in Love " was included on the set list for most of Beyoncé ’ s concert tours . The song was the closing track of her Dangerously in Love World Tour that began in late 2003 . Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " live at the 2004 BRIT Awards February 17 , 2004 . Monique Jessen And Todd Peterson wrote that she , " ... lit up the stage with her performance of " Crazy in Love " , wearing a white Roberto Cavalli dress and nearly half a million dollars worth of diamonds . The pop diva , appearing onstage in a puff of smoke , stopped midway through the song to pull up her top before walking away with the best international female solo artist award . " Beyoncé and Jay Z also performed " Crazy in Love " at The Prince 's Trust Urban Music Festival at Earls Court in London on May 31 , 2004 .

" Crazy in Love " was the first song on Beyoncé ’ s set list on The Beyoncé Experience in Los Angeles and the I Am ... Tour at several venues , including the Odyssey Arena in Belfast , the O2 Arena in London , and in Athens and Sydney . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Beyoncé emerged in a sparkling silver dress with a long train . She walked to the front of the stage , did a couple of snaps of her neck and then started singing " Crazy in Love " . She climbed a staircase where her all @-@ female band and three backup singers were positioned . The staircase moved forward in two places ; top part moved while the bottom poked out more . At the top of her staircase , she removed her train and returned to the main stage . Her backup singers followed and danced with Beyoncé . After " Crazy in Love " , Beyoncé performed a short rendition of Gnarls Barkley 's " Crazy " ( 2006 ) , singing , " Who do you , who do you think you are ? / Ha , ha , ha , bless your soul . "

Shaheem Reid of MTV News wrote : " There are few ( very few ) ladies out there who can really sing , a lot who can dance , a lot more who look good — but really no other who can combine all three and add iconic star power like Miss Beyoncé , arguably the best all @-@ around stage performer in the game right now . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes ( most of them silvery ) , from miniskirts to formal dresses , flesh @-@ toned bodysuit to bikini to negligee . " Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter wrote : " Her performance of ' Crazy in Love ' featured some surprising arrangements that gave the material freshness " . Performances of " Crazy in Love " were included on her live albums The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) , and the deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " wearing a pink fringe dress at a concert at Palais Nikaïa in Nice , France , on June 20 , 2011 , in support of her album 4 , and at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 to an audience of 175 @,@ 000 .

In August , 2011 , Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " during her revue show 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé . She performed a slowed @-@ down , jazzier version of the song and danced with a similar routine to the one in the music video . During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " Crazy in Love " to a selected crowd of fans . In May , 2012 , she performed the song during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . During the performance , Jay @-@ Z did not appear on stage but his pre @-@ recorded voice was heard . Dan DeLuca of noted that the song was one of the " beat @-@ savvy booty @-@ shaking workouts " performed during the revue . Jim Farber of New York Daily News wrote that " The first , and last parts of the show stressed the steeliest Beyoncé , told in bold songs " like " Crazy in Love " . A writer of Black Entertainment Television noted that , " She dazzled fans with an assortment of high @-@ energy performances of her upbeat hits like ... ' Crazy in Love . ' " Beyoncé also performed the song at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show held on February 3 , 2013 . In July 2013 , while placing Beyoncé at number 33 on their list of 50 Best Live Musicians , the writers of Rolling Stone magazine noted that the performance of " Crazy in Love " was a highlight during her live shows with the singer " expertly poppin ' her booty " .

= = Cultural impact = =

= = = Cover versions = = =

Several artists have recorded cover versions of " Crazy in Love " . In 2003 , Irish singer @-@ songwriter Mickey Joe Harte recorded an acoustic rendition of " Crazy In Love " for the charity album Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 1 . Alternative rock band Snow Patrol recorded the song during a BBC session with Zane Lowe . Snow Patrol 's version was released as a B @-@ side to the single " Spitting Games " , on the compilation Cosmosonica - Tom Middleton Presents Crazy Covers Vol . 1 and Snow Patrol 's compilation album Up to Now . Ross Langager of PopMatters noted that their cover " sparks an initial chuckle of recognition but soon after becomes more than a bit unfortunate " . David Byrne closed his concert at the Hollywood Bowl on June 27 , 2005 with a samba @-@ tinged version of " Crazy in Love " . In 2007 , American alternative rock band Switchfoot produced a rock version that was released as part of Yahoo ! ' s CoverArt series . Switchfoot produced a video for their cover version . Nashville @-@ based indie quintet Wild Cub performed a version of the song in June 2014 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series .

British band The Magic Numbers performed " Crazy in Love " on the Australian radio station Triple J , and recorded it for the 2007 Starbucks ( Hear Music ) compilation album , Sounds Eclectic : The Covers Project . Tracy Bonham covered the song with guitar and violin accompaniment , for her 2007 album In The City + In The Woods . British close harmony trio The Puppini Sisters covered " Crazy in Love " for their 2007 album The Rise and Fall of Ruby Woo ; this was remixed by the electronica jazz outfit The Real Tuesday Weld . Indie artist Dsico recorded an electronic cover of the song . In 2009 , Pattern Is Movement recorded a cover of " Crazy in Love " , which they claimed was inspired by Anohni 's version ; this cover was included on their 4 / 9 / 2009 Daytrotter session . Antony and the Johnsons released an orchestral version of the song as the b @-@ side to their 2009 single " Aeon " .

German group The Baseballs covered the song in rockabilly style for their debut album Strike ! Back in August 2010 . " Crazy in Love " was performed live on Australian Idol in Season 1 by winner Guy Sebastian on the Final 2 showdown in 2003 , A jazz version was performed on Season 4 by runner @-@ up Jessica Mauboy on the Final 6 Big Band show in 2006 . In June 2008 , Mauboy performed " Crazy in Love " on Indonesian Idol with some eliminated contestants . Singapore Idol contestant Maia Lee performed " Crazy in Love " on that program . In March 2012 , Swing Republic released their electro swing cover version which also ended up featuring on their album released the same year entitled Midnight Calling . In June 2012 , Robin Thicke and Olivia Chisholm covered the song during the show Duets . Kate Kroll of Rolling Stone gave a negative review for Chisholm 's performance , saying that " Her voice sounded thin , and she just can 't seem to shake that Stepford Wife stare . " Emeli Sandé and The Bryan Ferry Orchestra recorded a cover of the song which was included on The Great Gatsby soundtrack ( 2013 ) . Upon hearing a preview of the song , Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that the cover was the best song on the album sang with a " surprising , simmering urgency " . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly also wrote that the swing cover of " Crazy in Love " was one of the highlights on the album . On October 21 , 2013 , Third Degree covered " Crazy in Love " on the fifth series of The X Factor Australia , and on May 4 , 2014 , C Major covered the song on the third series of The Voice Australia.In 2015 , Monica Michael covered the song on The X Factor UK . Filipina actress Denise Laurel covered the song while impersonating Beyonce , based on her performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show in Your Face Sounds Familiar ( Philippines season 2 ) , in which Laurel won the season .

= = = Usage in media = = =

In 2002 , Beyoncé signed a contract with Pepsi , and appeared on several of its advertising campaigns , one of which featured " Crazy in Love " as background music . After winning the Best Collaboration Awards for " Crazy in Love " at the 2004 BET Awards , Beyoncé dedicated the award to the show 's host , comedian Mo 'Nique , who parodied the choreography from the " Crazy in Love " video with six equally voluptuous female dancers . " Crazy in Love " was included on the official soundtrack albums of the following films : Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason ( 2004 ) , White Chicks ( 2004 ) , Taxi ( 2004 ) , Good Luck Chuck ( 2007 ) , Gayby ( 2012 ) , and Love , Rosie ( 2014 ) , as well in the tenth season of Brazilian soap opera Malhação . In 2009 , the cast of Glee performed a mash up of the songs " Hair " from the musical Hair and " Crazy in Love " in season one , episode eleven " Hairography " . A parody of the song is also used in the Disney Channel 's show That 's So Raven , in the episode " Hizzouse Party " .

" Crazy in Love " was re @-@ recorded by Beyoncé for the film Fifty Shades of Grey ( 2015 ) and used for its trailer which was released on July 24 , 2014 . This slowed @-@ down version was produced by Boots with violin arrangements by Margot , both of whom worked on Beyoncé 's fifth studio album . Margot said , " It inspires me to work on other artists ' songs [ because ] it pushes my boundaries in a direction that I wouldn ’ t necessarily come up with . Obviously I know how ' Crazy in Love ' goes , but I knew there was the possibility her vocals would be different . It 's almost more vulnerable and beautiful this way , because you do do crazy things when you fall in love . To hear the mood reversed and flipped makes it even more powerful . "

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Credits = =

Recording and management

Recorded at Sony Music Studios ( New York City , New York } )

Mixed at The Hit Factory ( New York City , New York )

Additional vocals recorded at The Hit Factory ( New York City , New York )

Contains samples of the composition " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " , written by Eugene Record , published by Unichappell Music Inc . ( BMI ) and performed by The Chi @-@ Lites ( courtesy of Brunswick Records )

Jay @-@ Z appears courtesy of Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records and Def Jam Recordings

Published by Beyoncé Publishing ( ASCAP ) , Hitco South South ( ASCAP ) — all rights administered by Music of Windswept ( ASCAP ) — , EMI Blackwood Music Inc . OBO Itself ( BMI ) , Dam Rich Music ( BMI ) , EMI April Music Inc . OBO Itself ( BMI ) , Carter Boyd Publishing ( ASCAP ) and Unichappell Music Inc . ( BMI )

Personnel

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Moro River Campaign =

The Moro River Campaign was an important battle of the Italian Campaign during the Second World War , fought between elements of the British Eighth Army and LXXVI Panzer Corps ( LXXVI Panzerkorps ) of the German 10th Army ( 10 . Armee ) . Lasting from 4 – 26 December 1943 , the campaign occurred primarily in the vicinity of the Moro River in eastern Italy . The campaign was designed as part of an offensive launched by General Sir Harold Alexander 's Allied 15th Army Group , with the intention of breaching the German Army 's Winter Line defensive system and advancing to Pescara — and eventually Rome .

Beginning on 4 December , four infantry divisions — one British , one Canadian , one Indian and one New Zealand ( which included an armoured brigade ) — and two armoured brigades ( one British and one Canadian ) of V Corps and XIII Corps attacked heavily defended German positions along the Moro River , achieving several exploitable bridgeheads by 8 December . Throughout the next week , nearly continuous combat operations by both sides — designed to keep one another pinned down — created stagnated defensive positions near Orsogna and a narrow pit known as " The Gully " . After being held at the Gully for 10 days , the Canadians succeeded in outflanking German defences , and forcing a German withdrawal to the Ortona – Orsogna Line . On 20 December , the line was attacked by both corps .

By 26 December , strong German defences had stalled Canadian forces in Ortona and British and New Zealand forces in Orsogna . Although both Ortona and Villa Grande were captured by the end of December , general exhaustion among the Allied forces prevented the capture of Orsogna and an advance to Pescara . When harsh winter weather set in , it became clear to the Allied generals that no further progress would be made and Alexander called off the offensive .

= = Background = =

In late 1943 , the 15th Army Group under General Sir Harold Alexander were fighting their way northward in Italy against determined German opposition commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring , whose forces had prepared a succession of defensive lines . East of the Apennine Mountain spine was the British Eighth Army , under General Bernard Montgomery . In October , Eighth Army had crossed the Bifurno river and pushed the German defenders from the Volturno @-@ Viktor Line defences . Delayed by logistical problems , they were not able to attack the next line of defences ( the Barbara Line ) behind the Trigno river until 2 November . However , by 9 November forward elements of the Eighth Army were in contact with the forward defences of the German Winter Line , which had been set on the high ground north of the Sangro River .

The main attack across the Sangro by V Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Charles Allfrey ) , comprising the British 78th Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Vyvyan Evelegh ) and 8th Indian Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Dudley Russell ) with supporting and diversionary attacks further inland by 2nd New Zealand Division ( Lieutenant @-@ General Bernard Freyberg ) and XIII Corps ( Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey ) — was delayed by bad weather until late November . After several days of hard fighting , the Germans withdrew to the defences they had prepared on the high ground to the north of the Moro river .

= = Offensive strategy and order of battle = =

The Moro River runs from the central mountain spine of Italy to the Adriatic coast south of Ortona . The German defences on the Moro were a centerpiece of the Winter Line , which guarded the eastern side of the Apennines along Route 5 . Montgomery hoped to punch through the Winter Line , capture Ortona and Pescara and advance to Rome . The 78th Infantry Division , which had been spearheading V Corps since the Volturno Line actions and had sustained over 7 @,@ 000 casualties in less than six months , was relieved by the fresh 1st Canadian Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Chris Vokes ) , ready to renew the offensive on 5 December 1943 . The 78th Infantry Division was sent into the mountains on the relatively quiet left wing of the army , joining the British 5th Infantry Division ( Major @-@ General Gerard Bucknall ) under XIII Corps .

Montgomery 's plan was for the Canadian Division to attack across the Moro in the coastal lowlands to take Ortona first and then Pescara . Inland , in the jagged hills above the headwaters of the Moro , the relatively fresh 2nd New Zealand Division would attack toward Orsogna , while between these two the 8th Indian Infantry Division would hold the centre of the front in a relatively static role .

Facing V Corps was the 1st Parachute Division ( 1 . Fallschirmjägerdivision ) under Brigadier General ( Generalmajor ) Richard Heidrich on the coast , to their right stood the 90th Panzergrenadier Division ( 90 . Panzergrenadierdivision ) under Major General Carl @-@ Hans Lungershausen succeeded by Colonel ( Oberst ) Ernst @-@ Günther Baade on 20 December , and further inland of them was the 26th Panzer Division ( 26 . Panzerdivision ) under Brigadier General Smilo Freiherr von Lüttwitz with their right flank on Orsogna . Further inland , facing XIII Corps , was the 65th Infantry Division ( 65 . Infantriedivision ) under Brigadier General Hellmuth Pfeifer supported by elements of 1st Parachute and 5th Mountain Division ( 5 . Gebirgsdivision ) under Brigadier General Julius Ringel . Together , these units formed Traugott Herr ′ s LXXVI Panzer Corps , the part of Joachim Lemelsen 's 10th Army responsible for the front line to the east of the Apennines .

= = Canadian division across the Moro = =

On 6 December 1943 , Canadian forces began a series of large @-@ scale assaults on major crossing points along the Moro River with the objective of securing a large bridgehead along the defensive line . Three primary points of attack were chosen : Villa Rogatti , along the western edge of the Canadian sector ; San Leonardo , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Ortona ; and San Donato , a small town near the Italian coast . Five primary infantry battalions were selected to assault these positions with the objective of crossing the Moro River . The offensives were scheduled to start on the morning of 6 December .

= = = Villa Rogatti = = =

The task of taking Villa Rogatti , the westernmost crossing point , was given to Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( PPCLI ) . Having conducted reconnaissance on their objective during the night of 5 December 1943 , an attack plan was devised by the battalion 's commander — Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Cameron Bethel Ware — detailing the objectives of all four rifle companies . Once the objectives had been secured by the early morning of 6 December , Anglo @-@ Canadian reinforcements were to be moved into Villa Rogatti , with the intention of repulsing the expected potentially strong German counterattacks . Elements of three German regiments — the 200th and 361st Panzergrenadier , and 26th Panzer — maintained strong defences within the town .

At 00 : 00 on 5 December , two companies of the PPCLI crossed the Moro River , moving towards Villa Rogatti . Within an hour , vicious fighting had erupted throughout the town as the two companies of Canadian infantry struggled to break the German defensive lines . As B Company broke through the German defences , A Company attacked to the northeast , continuing to engage 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment ( 200 . Panzergrenadier _ Regiment ) near Villa Rogatti . Although two Canadian infantry companies now occupied Villa Rogatti , German Panzergrenadier forces still maintained substantial defences on the outskirts of the town . However , C Company continued to advance steadily along the eastern side of the town , encountering significant resistance from the 361st Panzergrenadier Regiment ( 361 . Panzergrenadier @-@ Regiment ) . After approximately an hour of fighting by C and D Companies , Villa Rogatti had been occupied by Canadian forces shortly before dawn .

By mid @-@ morning , German counterattacks on PPCLI positions in the town had begun , involving tanks from the 7th Company of the 26th Panzer Regiment ( 26 . Panzer @-@ Regiment ) , field guns and substantial infantry forces . Throughout the afternoon two infantry companies of the PPCLI fought off several attacks by German forces , eventually managing to push them back to the vineyards on the northern edge of the town . While the PPCLI had taken 68 casualties , German casualties were estimated at 120 . However , three strong German formation surrounded the Canadian positions at Villa Rogatti , rendering further exploitation of the bridgehead unlikely . Col. Ware was advised to be ready to withdraw across the Moro River , should German forces counterattack . In order to allow the Canadian Division a greater concentration of force , on the night of 7 / 8 December , the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade from the Indian 8th Infantry Division amalgamated the western flank of the 1st Canadian Division into their own lines . As a result of the withdrawal , Canadian efforts would focus on achieving a bridgehead at San Leonardo .

= = = San Leonardo = = =

The Canadian attack on San Leonardo by the Seaforth Highlanders of Canada began late on 5 December 1943 with A Company establishing a bridgehead across the Moro , taking heavy casualties . In the early morning of 6 December , A Company was withdrawn and two additional Seaforth companies resumed the offensive . As PPCLI secured and held their bridgehead over the Moro River , the Seaforth Highlanders were struggling to enter San Leonardo . By 07 : 15 , a single objective had been taken , with Canadian units pinned down by well @-@ coordinated defensive fire from several companies of the 361st Regiment . Simultaneously , small arms fire prevented C Company from moving up the road from the Moro to San Leonardo , while D Company remained on the southern banks of the Moro throughout the early morning .

In the afternoon , having failed to capture San Leonardo , the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment sent two rifle companies to the aid of the Seaforth Highlanders , as Seaforth B Company attacked positions west of San Leonardo — inflicting 129 casualties on German forces in the area . However , the attack on San Leonardo by three Seaforth companies stalled rapidly when the 26th Panzer Regiment 's armoured companies reinforced the sector . As a result , Forin was ordered to prepare for a withdrawal from the San Leonardo bridgehead .

= = = San Donato = = =

While attempts were made to cross the Moro at San Leonardo and Villa Rogatti , The Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment launched an attack on the Moro River defences at the small coastal hamlet of San Donato at 13 : 40 on 6 December . However , the single rifle company making the attack achieved little territorial gain and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Kennedy — commander of the Hastings & Prince Edward Regiment — ordered a withdrawal at 15 : 40 . Throughout 6 December , strong German coastal defences would prevent further advancement , despite the incorporation of tanks and artillery into the assault . By nightfall , the German defenders still possessed control of San Donato , with the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment withdrawing to the southern bank of the Moro River .

= = = Taking the Moro = = =

On 8 December 1943 , Major General Vokes devised a new plan for taking the Moro River . While the 48th Highlanders of Canada and Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry resumed the assault on San Leonardo from the southwest side of the town , the Royal Canadian Regiment ( RCR ) would break out of the bridgehead created by the Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment , then move southwest towards San Leonardo to link up with the 48th and PPCLI . The operation was scheduled to start on the afternoon of 8 December .

The attack began with a massive artillery barrage which pounded German positions continuously for two hours . At 16 : 00 , the Saskatoon Light Infantry support battalion joined in , hitting German positions with bursts of machine gun fire . The moment the heavy bombardment lifted , the 48th Highlanders and the RCR both initiated their attacks . D Company of the 48th Highlanders was able to quickly cross the Moro , taking minimal casualties . However , B Company was subjected to heavy fire from German mortars and 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) artillery positions . Eventually , however , both companies managed to establish strong positions on the western ridge overlooking San Leonardo . During the night of 8 / 9 December , units of the Royal Canadian Engineers ( RCE ) constructed a bridge over the Moro , to allow armour and equipment to move into San Leonardo the following day .

As the 48th Highlanders secured their positions west of San Leonardo , the Royal Canadian Regiment was involved in intense fighting southwest of San Donato . Two companies had advanced against strong and well prepared German defences of the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment . A Company was quickly tied down by German mortar fire , while B Company flanked German positions to the north of San Donato . By nightfall , all four companies held tenuous positions in the thick of German defences . On the night of 8 / 9 December , the RCR was subjected to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment which were repulsed with the support of continuous Canadian artillery shelling .

By the morning of 9 December , the RCE had completed the bridge across the Moro River , enabling the tanks of the 14th Armoured Regiment ( The Calgary Regiment ) to transport two companies of Seaforth Highlanders across the river into San Leonardo . By mid morning , San Leonardo had been cleared of German defenders , although strong positions still existed outside of the town . Within an hour , the Calgarys ' tanks had broken through German positions near Sterlen Castle and two companies had linked up with the 48th Highlanders and Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry within San Leonardo , finally establishing firm Canadian positions across the Moro River . Near the end of 9 December , German forces of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division fell back to their second defensive line : a formidable obstacle known as " The Gully " .

= = Attacks on Orsogna = =

While Canadian crossed the Moro River , the New Zealand Division launched a two brigade attack , Operation Torso , against Orsogna at 14 : 30 on 7 December . The division had the British 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade under their command , anchoring their left flank and were supported by heavy concentrations of artillery and air support . Surprise was achieved as Traugott Herr , the commander of LXXVI Panzer Corps , had been persuaded that the New Zealanders would not be in a position to launch a major attack until 8 December .

Initially , the New Zealand attack progressed well , but the German defenders regained their composure and the attack lost momentum against heavily fortified defensive positions . By 21 : 00 , the NZ 24th Infantry Battalion had fought its way in slow house to house fighting to the centre of the town , but were pinned down with no prospect of further progress without significant armoured support . However , a combination of concealed minefields and well dug in German armour made the task of the Allied tanks impossible . In the early hours of 8 December , the New Zealand commander — Bernard Freyberg — ordered a withdrawal from the town with a view to renewing the attack after further softening up from artillery and bombers .

= = Indian Division across the Moro – the " impossible " bridge = =

With both the Canadian and New Zealand Divisions finding progress difficult , it was decided to bring the Indian 21st Infantry Brigade into the attack with orders to seize Caldari . With no river crossing available , the Indian engineers rushed to build a bridge across the Moro which was completed on 9 December and allowed infantry and supporting armour to cross and expand the bridgehead on the far bank . The bridge was named the " Impossible Bridge " because the local geography required for it to be built backwards from the enemy bank of the river .

= = The Gully = =

= = = Initial attacks = = =

Following the loss of San Leonardo and the Moro River , the 90th Panzergrenadier Division withdrew to a primary defensive line 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of San Leonardo . The line centred around a natural ravine known as " The Gully " , with an average depth of 200 ft ( 61 m ) . General Vokes ' initial plan to take the position ( as well as achieve a foothold on the roads toward Ortona ) consisted of a frontal assault by the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade , which would seize Vino Ridge , capture The Gully and gain positions on the Ortona to Orsogna road . However , German defences were adequately prepared , including gun @-@ pits , bunkers and shelters .

On 10 December , three Canadian battalions made their first attempt to cross The Gully . Although they succeeded in capturing Vino Ridge , directly south of The Gully , attempts to neutralise German positions in the ravine were unsuccessful . On 11 December , the three battalions made another attempt , with the Loyal Edmonton Regiment suffering heavy casualties in their attempts to take German positions in the sector . Although a badly mauled A Company was able to gain a foothold on the reverse slope , newly arrived German units forced the remaining men to withdraw .

On 12 December 1943 , General Vokes sent the three battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade against German defences in The Gully . The assault started poorly , when Canadian artillery plans were captured by soldiers of the 90th Panzergrenadier Division 's 200th Regiment . When The West Nova Scotia Regiment attacked The Gully , they were subject to counterattacks by the 200th Panzergrenadier Regiment approximately 10 : 30 . By 14 : 00 , the regiment had called off its attacks and had taken heavy casualties . To the west , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry fared little better , with C Company taking heavy casualties in their assault . Attempts were again made on 13 December , by two battalions of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Brigade , and the attacks were driven back by tenacious German resistance . On the evening of 13 December , the heavily depleted 90th Panzergrenadier Division were relieved from their positions in The Gully by units of the 1st Parachute Division .

= = = Casa Berardi = = =

By 14 December , Vokes had devised a new assault plan for taking The Gully . A small force from the Royal 22e Régiment would move to Casa Berardi , a small set of farmhouses west of The Gully , before outflanking German positions with infantry and armour , thereby forcing the 1st Parachute Division to withdraw . The attack was to begin at dawn , with two companies of the Royal 22e Régiment attacking Casa Berardi with artillery support . By 07 : 50 , both companies had control of the lateral highway leading to Casa Berardi . C Company — under Captain Paul Triquet — pushed on toward Casa Berardi with support from the Ontario Regiment , while D Company found itself involved in firefights southwest of Casa Berardi . At 08 : 30 , C Company began their assault toward the manor house in Casa Berardi , some 2 @,@ 000 yd ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) away . Strong German defences caused heavy casualties to the attackers ; only 21 men and five tanks made it to within 200 yd ( 180 m ) of the objective . Despite the arrival of several Panzer IVs , Triquet 's remaining forces captured the manor house at 14 : 30 . However , only 14 men of C Company remained fit to continue fighting . For his efforts to capture Casa Berardi , Triquet was awarded the Victoria Cross .

= = Eighth Army reorganises to intensify the attack = =

With the Indian Division committed , Montgomery decided to raise the stakes further by bringing the British 5th Infantry Division from the relatively tranquil XIII Corps front in the high mountains on the left wing of the 8th Army and insert them between the New Zealand and Indian Divisions . This would allow the Indian division to narrow and concentrate their attack and give Montgomery four divisions to continue the attack between Orsogna and the sea . By 12 December , the British 17th Infantry Brigade — the first of 5th Division 's brigades — was in place and under the New Zealand division 's command . Once 5th Division headquarters and its other brigades had arrived , these two left hand divisions were to be organised under the command of XIII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey .

To the left of the Canadian division , the Indian 21st Brigade had by 13 December established a solid bridgehead around the " Impossible Bridge " . That night , a second 8th Indian Division brigade — the 17th Indian Infantry Brigade — passed through and attacked towards Caldari . The 1st Battalion Royal Fusiliers stormed the village in a wild night 's fighting while the 1st Battalion 5th Gurkha Rifles seized Point 198 nearby , holding it against determined counterattacks , including from tanks in the afternoon of 14 December . That evening , 1st Battalion 12th Frontier Force Regiment attacked on the left of the Gurkhas and established positions on the lateral road between Ortona and Orsogna running parallel to the Moro some 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) north of the " Impossible Bridge " . On the evening of 15 December , the 1st / 5th Battalion Essex Regiment from the Indian Division 's 19th Indian Infantry Brigade , which had been held in reserve , was committed on the left flank of the Frontier Force Regiment to advance in the direction of Crecchio and overran a number of German positions . By the end of 16 December , further attacks from the 15th Punjab Regiments 3rd Battalion had secured positions on the lateral road , ensuring that the 8th Indian Division was firmly embedded in the main German defences .

Meanwhile , at 01 : 00 on 15 December , the New Zealand Division — electing not to make a further frontal assault on Orsogna — launched their 5th Brigade in Operation Florence , a new flanking attack to the right of the village . By that afternoon , 5th Brigade was well established on the Orsogna to Ortona lateral road and had driven a shallow salient into the German forward defensive line . Although they had exhausted nearly all their reserves , divisional headquarters was optimistic for the prospects for the next day , given the heavy casualties they had inflicted that day .

However , the Germans launched a counterattack at 03 : 15 on 16 December , throwing in men from the 6th Parachute Regiment , sent by Herr to the 26th Panzer Division to relieve the exhausted 9th Panzergrenadier Regiment . These troops had arrived late that evening after a long journey . Supported by tanks , they attacked the right @-@ hand New Zealand positions held by the 21st NZ Battalion , but were held off and had retired by daylight . Meanwhile , even before the German counterattack had been repelled , the 20th Regiment had attacked toward Orsogna with two squadrons of Sherman tanks . Under intense artillery and anti @-@ tank fire , the tanks and infantry became separated and the tanks became a target rather than a threat .

Operation Florence had come to an end . While the German line had been pushed back and they had sustained casualties they could ill afford , they still firmly held Orsogna . Furthermore , the New Zealand Division was , for the time being , fought out and needed a period of consolidation and reorganisation .

By 16 December , the British 5th Division had completed its move into the line between the New Zealand and the Indian divisions . There followed a period of hostile patrolling and skirmishing on the XIII Corps front . The main burden of the fighting was therefore assumed by V Corps as the Canadians pushed for Ortona with the Indian Division on their left flank attacking toward Villa Grande and Tollo .

= = Taking The Gully = =

In preparation for what he hoped would be the final attack on The Gully , Vokes shifted the 2nd Canadian Infantry Brigade to occupy positions formerly belonging to the 1st Brigade . Vokes planned for an attack by The Carleton and York Regiment to be the last of the frontal assaults against The Gully . Should this attack fail , the 1st Brigade 's Seaforth Highlanders and the Royal Canadian Regiment would move through Casa Berardi and outflank German defences , forcing a withdrawal from The Gully .

At 07 : 30 on 15 December , two companies of the Carleton and York Regiment attacked . After little more than an hour of fighting , however , the Canadians were forced to call the attack off . In the afternoon , the two heavily depleted companies of the Royal 22e Régiment fought off a large German counterattack on Casa Berardi , with the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery firing 5 @,@ 398 rounds in support of Canadian forces .

On 18 December , Vokes planned what would be the largest assault on The Gully during the campaign . Beginning at 08 : 00 , Canadian artillery would bombard a 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) front , to a depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . Every five minutes , the barrage would move 100 m ( 110 yd ) forward , continuing to pound German defences in the bombardment area . Less than 100 m behind this barrage , the 48th Highlanders would advance across the Ortona @-@ Orsogna Lateral Road . At the same time , the 8th Indian Division would attack northward toward Crecchio , preventing German reinforcements from reaching The Gully . When the 48th Highlanders reached the Cider Crossroads , the Royal Canadian Regiment would move north , overrunning Cider itself , then advance up the Ortona @-@ Orsogna road . Both battalions would be supported by tanks of The Three Rivers Regiment . At first , the attack went extremely well . However , when the artillery shifted their barrage , the German defences quickly recovered and their machine gun fire devastated the advancing forces . In C Company of the Royal Canadian Regiment , every platoon commander was killed or wounded . The attack was quickly abandoned .

On 20 December , Canadian forces tried again and The Royal Canadian Regiment attacked Cider Crossroads at noon . This time , Vokes was determined that the operation would be successful , with armoured forces of the Three Rivers Regiment moving to the start lines well before 07 : 00 . Due to shortages of fuel and poor weather , H @-@ Hour was postponed until 14 : 15 . When H @-@ Hour came , a powerful creeping barrage supported two companies of the Royal Canadian Regiment eastward . By evening , B Company controlled the Cider Crossroads , having met virtually no resistance in their advance to the objective . However , German forces had already evacuated The Gully , falling back to prepare for a strong defence of Ortona , with elements of the powerful 1st Parachute Division firmly entrenched in the town .

= = Villa Grande = =

In order to keep up pressure on the whole front , the 19th Indian Brigade was ordered to attack Villa Grande and exploit any gains as far as the Arielli river which ran from the mountains through Tollo to the Adriatic . The attack went in at 05 : 30 on 22 December but failed in desperate fighting . The 1 / 5th Battalion , Essex Regiment renewed their attack the following morning with more success . After a counterattack by German paratroops had been repulsed at midday , the Essex advanced to mop up the remainder of the village . However , deadly small scale house @-@ to @-@ house battles continued throughout the rest of 23 December and for the next two days as the determined parachute soldiers clung on . To the south of Villa Grande , the 3rd / 15th Punjabis had taken Vezzano on 23 December and a continuous brigade line had been established .

On 25 December , reinforcements in the form of 3rd Battalion , 8th Punjab Regiment were brought forward and after a softening up barrage were launched at the east side of Villa Grande . With four battalions now involved ( the 5th Battalion , Royal West Kents had by now been tasked on the south east side of the village ) supported by tanks , Villa Grande was finally cleared by the end of 26 December . The troops of the 8th Indian Division entered the village to find a shambles . One correspondent described the scene " as though a giant had trodden on a child 's box of blocks " .

= = XIII Corps attacks Orsogna = =

On 23 December , Lieutenant @-@ General Dempsey 's XIII Corps launched a new attack to push back the German line from Orsogna . In the afternoon , the British 5th Infantry Division attacked on the right wing of the Corps front toward the Arielli stream . Their objective was to secure the flank of the 2nd New Zealand Division , which was in turn to attack northwest and west from the salient in order to roll up the Orsogna defences from the north .

After the British 5th Infantry Division had achieved its objectives , the 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade attacked at 04 : 00 on 24 December . Despite intensive artillery support ( 272 guns on a 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) front ) , the tired and understrength New Zealand battalions struggled to make progress . By the afternoon , it had become clear to the New Zealand commander — Bernard Freyberg — that the stubborn defences of the 26th Panzer Division would not be broached . He is reported to have remarked , " It is not a question of further advance , it is a question of holding on to what we have got " . The XIII Corps front was effectively deadlocked and settled into a posture of active defence and patrolling .

= = Ortona = =

Throughout the week of 11 – 18 December , the 1st Parachute Battalion from the German 1st Parachute Division — with supporting units — had prepared strong defences within the Italian coastal town of Ortona . Paratroop engineers and infantry had destroyed much of Ortona itself , turning the streets into a debris @-@ filled maze . Major streets were mined , with demolition charges throughout the main piazza , and booby traps littered the town . German forces had also buried tanks in the rubble , leaving only the turrets exposed .

On 20 December 1943 , the under @-@ strength Loyal Edmonton Regiment moved toward Ortona , with the Seaforth Highlanders covering their eastern flank . Throughout the day , they encountered heavy machine gun fire during their attempts to enter Ortona . By nightfall , both battalions held a toehold on the western edge of Ortona , yet had encountered heavy resistance in their attempts to secure it . The following day , D Company of the Loyal Edmonton Regiment launched attacks eastward towards the city centre , but accurate German sniper fire rapidly stalled the advance .

Throughout the remainder of the week , the Battle of Ortona degenerated into a small @-@ scale version of the Battle of Stalingrad , with vicious house @-@ to @-@ house fighting through the narrow streets and debris of Ortona . Over the course of the battle , Canadian forces developed innovative " mouse @-@ holing " tactics , moving between houses to avoid German sniper fire in the open streets . German counterattacks on 24 and 26 December caused significant casualties to Canadian forces in the town . In danger of being outflanked by Allied advances west of Ortona , the 1st Parachute Regiment abandoned the town the following day , leaving Ortona to Canadian forces . Canadian casualties in the fighting for the town approached 650 killed or wounded .

= = Aftermath = =

With Ortona and Villa Grande captured , it looked as if it would require Eighth Army only to regather itself and strike one more concentrated blow at Orsogna to complete the breaching of the Gustav Line 's main Adriatic strongpoints . However , on 31 December , as V Corps probed along the coastal plain towards Pescara , a blizzard enveloped the battlefield . Drifting snow , sleet and biting winds paralysed movement and communications on the ground while cloud ceiling and visibility fell to nil and grounded the airforce . Montgomery — realising the Eighth Army no longer had the strength or conditions to force its way to Pescara and the Via Valeria to Rome — recommended to General Alexander that the Eighth Army offensive should be halted . Alexander agreed but ordered him to maintain aggressive patrolling in order to pin the units of the LXXVI Panzer Corps in the Adriatic sector and prevent Kesselring moving them to reinforce the XIV Panzer Corps front opposite Mark Clark 's U.S. Fifth Army where the Allied offensive would continue .

In spite of this , three attempts during the winter of 1943 / 44 by Fifth Army to break through into the Liri valley at Cassino failed . As spring approached in 1944 , Alexander concentrated his forces in great secrecy by thinning out the Adriatic front and bringing the bulk of Eighth Army 's striking power to the Cassino front . The combined attack of his two armies during the fourth and final Battle of Monte Cassino in early May took Kesselring by surprise and led to the Allied capture of Rome in early June .

= Berkley Bedell =

Berkley Warren Bedell ( born March 5 , 1921 ) is a former U.S. Representative from Iowa . After starting a successful business in his youth , Berkley Fly Co . , he ran for the United States Congress in 1972 , but was defeated by incumbent Wiley Mayne . In 1974 , however , Bedell beat Wiley Mayne and was elected to Congress .

He was known for his support of representative democracy and his populist style . For example , he would hold town halls and let constituents vote on motions to decide what he would do in Congress on their behalf . These meetings helped Bedell understand the problems of his constituents ; as a result , he backed issues that were important to his farming constituency , such as waterway usage fees and production constraints .

He did not seek reelection in 1986 after contracting Lyme disease from a tick bite . Though he no longer serves in Congress , Bedell remains active in Iowa politics , strongly supporting Howard Dean in 2004 over John Kerry . In the 2008 presidential election , he met several times with Chris Dodd , but endorsed Barack Obama in the end .

= = Early life = =

Born in Spirit Lake , Iowa , Bedell was educated in Spirit Lake public schools . He graduated from Spirit Lake High School in 1939 , where he earned spending money with a business in the midst of the Great Depression . His business involved braiding dog hairs around fishhooks , the result of which could be sold as trout flies . He began tying the fly @-@ fishing lures in his bedroom , then he moved the business into his parents ' basement . In time , he got space above a grocery store to continue the business full @-@ time .

After graduating from high school , he attended Iowa State University from 1940 to 1942 , where he met fellow ISU student Elinor Healy from Grand Marais , Minnesota . Berkley and Elinor married in Minneapolis on August 29 , 1943 and their son Kenneth was born in 1947 , Thomas in 1950 and daughter Joanne in 1952 . Berkley ’ s college and personal life was interrupted in 1942 when he joined the army . He served in the United States Army as first lieutenant and flight trainer from 1942 to 1945 . When he got back , he began to garner success from his fish tackling business . His business became larger , with hundreds of employees and international operations ; he had become a millionaire by the 1960s . He served as member of the Spirit Lake Board of Education from 1957 to 1962 .

= = Political career = =

= = = Running for Congress = = =

By the early 1970s , Bedell had decided to run for political office . In 1972 , he ran against Wiley Mayne , a Republican incumbent in Iowa 's 6th congressional district . Mayne was a staunch supporter of Richard Nixon and secured victory along with the President in a year favorable to the Republicans . Mayne , however , would politically suffer after Watergate ( he was one of only a few Republicans to vote against impeaching the President on the judiciary committee . ) The damage had already been done , and Bedell defeated Mayne in a 1974 rematch .

During his time at Congress , Bedell took efforts to uphold representative democracy . He held town halls regularly with his constituents , and he would let them vote on motions to decide what he would do in Congress on their behalf . This type of communication told Bedell of the types of issues affecting his farming constituency . Thus , though Bedell had not farmed in his life , he would take steps in Congress to benefit farmers .

= = = Waterway usage fees = = =

Bedell sponsored several bold initiatives during his tenure in the United States House of Representatives . One initiative , which came from his constituents ' problems with the barge industry , focused on waterway usage fees . He introduced legislation in 1977 that would require the barge industry to pay a fee for using the waterways which , Bedell pointed out , the Government paid millions of dollars to create and maintain . Bedell 's original plan set the rate the barge industry paid as directly related to the amount the Government spent on waterway projects . This would have the additional effect of helping curb unnecessary waterway projects , and it was the same plan proposed by Pete Domenici in the Senate .

Congress eventually passed a watered @-@ down version of the original plan put forward by Bedell and Senator Pete Domenici . The compromise version enacted a tax on the gasoline barges used and put it into a " trust " for waterway projects . While other supporters of waterway usage fees , including Domenici , backed the compromise , Bedell gave a passioned plea for his colleagues to oppose it . He viewed it as lacking a crucial element of the original plan - that of capital recovery . The trust was optional , and the Government could spend money on waterway projects irrespective of the trust . The compromise was eventually signed by Jimmy Carter . Bedell 's original plan never made it through the House of Representatives , but he continued to introduce it in succeeding sessions . It would not , however , get a floor vote in succeeding sessions .

= = = Farming issues = = =

In 1985 , Bedell put forward an agricultural plan that he thought would increase production controls for farmers , thus raising prices for crops . This plan , backed by labor unions and certain Democrats , passed the Agriculture Committee as an amendment to farm legislation . It mandated a referendum that would then be used to determine what types of production controls to enact . The purpose of this plan was twofold : production controls would decrease the aggregate supply of crops , thus making individual crops cost more ( which would benefit farmers , who were in the middle of an acute debt crisis . ) Second , by styling it as a referendum , the farmers would get to decide the severity of the controls .

On the other hand , opponents of the Bedell plan had a very different view of this legislation . Representatives such as Pat Roberts claimed that the referendum was redundant because the farmers already voted the politicians into office , and this bill was an example of the politicians not doing their jobs . The Reagan Administration opposed the bill because of their opposition to production controls , and the President threatened to veto the farm bill if Bedell 's plan was left in place . When the bill got to the floor , an amendment was proposed to strike this provision , and it was passed 251 @-@ 174 .

= = = Investigations of large businesses = = =

While in Congress , Berkley Bedell was Chairman of the Small Business Subcommittee , and he used this position to investigate underselling on the part of large oil companies . He also claimed that certain large oil companies underpaid their " windfall taxes " in certain cases and wanted to pass legislation to increase regulations on these corporations .

In these investigations , Bedell quickly gained the support of small gasoline marketers and Congressman Bill Nelson . The chief target , ARCO , was accused of not paying all of its taxes on Alaskan crude oil . In the end , the government tried to make a case against ARCO , but it was eventually dropped in 1985 . Bedell used this opportunity to attack the Administration for " not caring " about small business owners , and he advocated that Governmental agencies put aside 1 @-@ 3 % of their research and development money for small businesses .

= = = Clash with Reagan = = =

In late 1982 , Congress passed a law which forbade the United States from funding groups aiming to overthrow the Sandinista government of Nicaragua . Then , in 1983 , Bedell visited Nicaragua and Honduras along with Representative Robert G. Torricelli . During the trip , Bedell spoke with soldiers , generals , governmental officials and members of the contras . His conclusion at the end of the trip was that Ronald Reagan was aiding the contras in violation of federal law . He promised to hold hearings after returning to Congress . Bedell would later join other House Democrats in demanding documents from the White House related to the contras , but the Reagan Administration refused to provide them . Bedell became angrier with the Reagan Administration as the decade wore on . He called his Central American policies " sheer lunacy , " saying that the mining of harbors was an acts of war . Bedell would retire from Congress before Reagan 's acts in Central America would culminate with the Iran @-@ Contra Affair .

Furthermore , Bedell was a sharp critic of Reagan 's agricultural policies , calling for John Block to resign after calling his agricultural plan a failure that was " dead on arrival " in both the House and the Senate . Reagan 's agricultural plan consisted primarily of a gradual reduction in farm subsidies . He also attacked the Department of Agriculture for " looking backward " when it dismissed the only expert on organic farming . Also , as chairman of the subcommittee on Department Operations , Research and Foreign Agriculture , which was in charge of regulating USDA operations , he opposed the proposals Reagan had for reforming the organization . The proposals generally involved shifting costs for meat inspections and other USDA duties from the federal government to the industry .

= = = Controversy = = =

In 1981 , it was revealed in internal memos that Bedell may have known about potential customs violations that his company engaged in . It asserted that Bedell had gone to Taiwan in 1973 to discuss " prior violations of customs law " in regards to the sale of fishing rods from the company 's Taiwan subsidiary . Bedell responded by denying any wrongdoing , saying that he has not been personally involved in the company in years . In the end , no charges were levied against him , and he was reelected after the story was published .

= = After politics = =

Bedell decided not to seek reelection in 1986 after contracting Lyme Disease from a tick bite . Since then , he has founded a center for alternative medicine and is a noted advocate of health freedom . Due largely to his friendship with Tom Harkin , he remains an important political figure in Iowa , with politicians such as Howard Dean meeting him in their trips to the state . Also , the Elinor Bedell State Park was established in 1998 on land donated by Berkley Bedell . The park is named after the Congressman 's wife .

As an opponent of the Vietnam War , Bedell signed a petition urging against United States military intervention in Iraq . This petition was signed with the names of 70 former Congressmen from the 1970s and was presented in a press conference on March 15 , 2003 . Bedell said that it was unbelievable for the United States to settle disputes with war , and he said that an Iraq war would be similar to the Vietnam War .

In the 2004 presidential election , Bedell attacked John Kerry for voting for Newt Gingrich 's Freedom to Farm Act , which Bedell claims wrecked the farm program . Bedell would later officially endorse Howard Dean 's candidacy . For the 2008 election , Bedell met with Chris Dodd . However , in December 2007 , he announced his endorsement of Barack Obama .

= Bart vs. Australia =

" Bart vs. Australia " is the sixteenth episode of the sixth season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 19 , 1995 . In the episode , Bart is indicted for fraud in Australia , and the family travels to the country so Bart can apologize . The Australian Parliament decides to give him the additional punishment of a boot to his buttocks , but the Simpson family refuses . Bart later changes his mind and agrees to the punishment , but just as he is about to receive it , he moons the Australians and the family flee back to America .

The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein and directed by Wes Archer . It features cultural references to films such as Mad Max 2 and Crocodile Dundee . " Bart vs. Australia " acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 and was the fourth highest rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . It received mixed reception in Australia , with some Australian viewers saying the episode was a mockery of their country .

= = Plot = =

While in the bathroom , Bart notices that the water in the sink always drains counterclockwise . Lisa explains ( not entirely correctly ) that the water never drains the other way except in the southern hemisphere , due to the Coriolis effect , but Bart does not believe her . To confirm this , Bart makes phone calls to various countries in the southern hemisphere . Lisa points out how expensive international calls are , so Bart decides to make a collect call instead . He calls Australia , where a little boy answers the phone . Pretending to represent the " International Drainage Commission " , Bart is informed that the toilet and sink are both draining clockwise . Frustrated , Bart asks him to go and check the toilets of the neighbors . The call takes six hours to complete , since the boy lives in the outback , and Bart forgets to hang up the phone . Later , the boy 's father is billed A $ 900 ( referred to as " dollarydoos " ) . The father calls Bart and demands that he pay , but Bart only taunts him . Unfortunately for Bart , the father 's neighbour is a federal Member of Parliament , who reports Bart 's offense to the Prime Minister — who is relaxing naked in a nearby pond .

After a long series of ignored letters , Australia indicts Bart for fraud . The United States Department of State wants to send him to prison in order to placate the Australian government , but Marge furiously objects to this idea . The State Department then settles on having Bart publicly apologize in Australia . The family is sent to Australia and they stay in the American Embassy , which is fitted with all the comforts of their home country , including a specially modified toilet that overcomes an exaggerated Coriolis effect . Then they start exploring the local culture .

After Bart makes his apology , the Parliament reveals that they want to give him the additional punishment of a " booting " , which is a kick in the buttocks using a giant boot . Bart and Homer escape and the family flees to the American Embassy . After a prolonged standoff , the two governments propose a compromise to the Simpson family : one kick from the Prime Minister , through the gate of the embassy , with a regular shoe , believed to be a wingtip . Marge is opposed to the idea , but Bart agrees . However , Bart dodges the kick , moons the Australians with the words " don 't tread on me " written on his buttocks , then hums " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . In a scene reminiscent of the Fall of Saigon the Simpson family flees the outraged country in a helicopter . Looking down on Australia , they see that bullfrogs have begun to overpopulate and destroy the Australian ecosystem , due to a bullfrog Bart left earlier at the airport . Viewing the devastation , the family remark upon the destruction that can be caused by introducing a foreign species into a new environment , and laugh at the Australians ' misfortune , unaware that a koala is hanging onto the helicopter . The camera zooms in on the koala , ending with a close @-@ up of its eye , implying that America will face a similar fate as Australia .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , and directed by Wes Archer . The writing staff wanted to do an episode where the Simpsons family traveled to Australia , because they thought everyone in Australia had a good sense of humor and that they " would get the jokes " . The staff had previously poked fun at several American institutions on the show and they thought it would be interesting to poke fun at a whole nation . They designed Australia and the Australian people very inaccurately and many things were completely made up for fun . The animators , however , got two Australian tourist guides to help them out with the design of the Australian landscape and buildings , as well as the American Embassy . The writers did research on the Coriolis effect for this episode . Lisa 's explanation of the effect is incorrect ; it affects global weather patterns and is caused by the spinning of the globe on its axis . The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it .

In 1999 , Fox Studios Australia in Sydney used a different version of " Bart vs. Australia " as part of their Simpsons attraction , called The Simpsons Down Under . They had contacted the Simpsons writing staff and asked if they would write the screenplay for a ride in their attraction , based on this episode . The episode was re @-@ edited and re @-@ animated for the ride and new scenes were included . The attraction featured motion capture technology , allowing audience members faces and expressions to be transformed into moving cartoon characters .

= = Cultural references = =

The plot of the episode is based on the story of Michael Fay , an American teenager who was caned in Singapore in 1994 for vandalizing cars . This episode perpetuated a popular myth that the Coriolis effect affects the motion of drains in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . In reality , the Coriolis effect affects global weather patterns . The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it .

When Bart is talking to the boy 's father on the phone he says " I think I hear a dingo eating your baby " , referencing the case of Azaria Chamberlain , a ten @-@ week @-@ old baby who was killed by dingoes . The bullfrogs taking over Australia and destroying all the crops is a reference to the cane toad , originally introduced to Australia in order to protect sugar canes from the cane beetle , but became a pest in the country .

When the Simpson family go to an Australian pub , Bart plays with a pocketknife at the table and a man asks him : " You call that a knife ? " , and as the man draws a spoon from his pocket he says : " This is a knife . " The scene is a reference to a famous scene from Crocodile Dundee in which Mick Dundee is threatened by some thugs with a switchblade , and Mick takes out a bowie knife and says ; " That 's not a knife ; that 's a knife ! " The Simpson family is shown a slide show by the US Department of State depicting a boarded up cinema with a sign out the front saying " Yahoo Serious Festival " , in reference to the Australian actor and director Yahoo Serious . Wez , one of the characters from the 1981 film Mad Max 2 : The Road Warrior , is seen in the Australian mob that chases Bart and Homer to the American Embassy .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " Bart vs. Australia " finished 56th in the ratings for the week of February 13 – 19 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 . It was the fourth highest rated show on Fox that week . The episode has since become study material for sociology courses at the University of California , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . "

Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . In a DVD review of the sixth season , Ryan Keefer said " all the Australian jabs you expect to have here are present . Bart 's international incident is hilarious , from top to bottom . The phone calls he makes to other countries ( particularly Buenos Aires ) are fantastic . This is one of the more under appreciated episodes in the series ' run . " Vanity Fair named it the second best episode of The Simpsons in 2007 . " Bart vs. Australia " was also nominated for an Emmy Award in 1995 in the category " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special " .

= = = Reaction in Australia = = =

The episode received mixed reception in Australia , with some Australian fans saying the episode was a mockery of their country . Shortly after it had aired , the Simpsons staff received over 100 letters from Australians who were insulted by the episode . They also received letters from people complaining about the Australian accents used in the episode that " sounded more like South African accents " . The Simpsons writer and producer Mike Reiss claimed that this episode is Australia 's least favorite , and that " whenever we have the Simpsons visit another country , that country gets furious , including Australia " . He claimed that they were " condemned in the Australian Parliament after the episode had aired " .

The Newcastle Herald 's James Joyce said he was shocked when he first saw the episode : " Who are the Americans trying to kid here ? I agree Australia has its faults , as does any other country . But laughing in our face about it , then mocking our heritage was definitely not called for . It embarrassed and degraded our country as well as making us look like total idiots " . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , advised that the episode is " best if watched with Australians who will be , perhaps understandably , aggrieved at their portrayal . After the attack on the French , this is a vicious , unkind , offensive and wonderfully amusing slaughter of Australian culture by the makers of The Simpsons " .

The Simpsons executive producer David Mirkin , who produced the episode , responded to the criticism in an interview with The Newcastle Herald by saying : " We like to have the Simpsons , the entire family , travel and this was the beginning of that . Australia was a fantastic choice because it has lots of quirky visual things . And it 's a country that is really very close to America , very in sync with America . We are so similar but yet there are all these fantastic differences , familiar yet twisted . It was intentional to make it very inaccurate . That was our evil side coming out : We 'll take our knowledge of Australia and we 'll twist it around to stimulate an audience and annoy them at the same time " . Despite being criticized for mocking the country , the episode received positive reviews from Australians , too . Jim Schembri of the Australian newspaper The Age named it the funniest episode ever while the CryptoNote was forked ( the ' knifey @-@ spooney ' fork ) into the ' Dollarydoo ' cryptocurrency in honour of the episode .

= Leslie Andrew =

Brigadier Leslie Wilton Andrew VC DSO ( 23 March 1897 – 8 January 1969 ) was a senior officer in the New Zealand Military Forces and a recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award of the British Commonwealth for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " . He received the decoration for his actions during the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917 .

Born in 1897 , Andrew joined the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1915 , having gained military experience while serving with the Territorial Force . He served on the Western Front from September 1916 to early 1918 , and ended the war as a commissioned officer in England . He remained in the military after the cessation of hostilities , and joined the New Zealand Staff Corps . He held staff and administrative positions in New Zealand and , while on an officer exchange program , British India .

Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Andrew was appointed commander of the 22nd Battalion , which he led during the Battles of Greece , Crete and the early part of the North African Campaign . For a short period in late 1941 he commanded an infantry brigade of the 2nd New Zealand Division , and received the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership . He returned to New Zealand in 1942 and commanded the Wellington Fortress Area for the remainder of the war . He retired from the military in 1952 with the rank of brigadier , and died in 1969 aged 71 .

= = Early life = =

Leslie Andrew was born on 23 March 1897 in Ashhurst in the Manawatu region of New Zealand , the son of a local school headmaster . He grew up in Wanganui , where his father had moved his family having taken up a position in the area , and was educated at Wanganui Collegiate School . After leaving school he was employed by the New Zealand Railways Department as a clerk . He participated in the cadet program while at school , and later joined the Territorial Force . By 1915 , he had been promoted to sergeant and had sat the necessary exams to become a commissioned officer in the Territorials .

= = Military career = =

= = = First World War = = =

Andrew volunteered for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) in October 1915 . Because only men between the ages of 19 and 45 were required to register for service with the NZEF , he falsified his age to ensure that he would be eligible for duty overseas . A member of the 12th Reinforcements , he embarked for the Western Front via Egypt on 1 May 1916 . In France , he was posted to B Company , Wellington Infantry Battalion with the rank of private .

Andrew 's arrival at the front coincided with the start of the Somme Offensive . He participated in the Battle of Flers @-@ Courcelette , which began on 15 September , and was wounded . Promoted to corporal in January 1917 , he took part in the Battle of Messines the following June .

During the early phase of the Battle of Passchendaele , Andrew 's battalion was engaged in fighting around the village of La Basseville , a few kilometres southwest of Messines . Originally captured by the New Zealanders prior to the battle on 26 July , the village had been re @-@ taken by the Germans the next day . Under cover of an artillery barrage , the Wellingtons began an advance towards the village . Andrew was tasked with leading two sections to destroy a machine @-@ gun post . During the advance , he noticed another machine @-@ gun post that was holding up the advance of another platoon . On his own initiative , he promptly diverted his force and removed the newly spotted threat with a flanking attack . He then continued with his men to his original objective . Braving continuous gunfire , he and his men captured the machine @-@ gun post . While most of his men withdrew with the gun , he and another man continued to scout further forward . Coming across another machine @-@ gun post , the two men destroyed it before returning to their lines with useful information on the increasing numbers of Germans in the area .

It was for his leadership and bravery during these actions that Andrew was awarded the Victoria Cross ( VC ) at the age of 20 . The citation read as follows :

For most conspicuous bravery when in charge of a small party in an attack on the enemy 's position . His objective was a machine @-@ gun post which had been located in an isolated building . On leading his men forward he encountered unexpectedly a machine @-@ gun post which was holding up the advance of another company ; he immediately attacked , capturing the machine gun and killing several of the crew . He then continued the attack on the machine gun post which had been his original objective . He displayed great skill and determination in his disposition , finally capturing the post , killing several of the enemy and putting the remainder to flight . Cpl. Andrew 's conduct throughout was unexampled for cool daring , initiative , and fine leadership , and his magnificent example was a great stimulant to his comrades .

Andrew was promoted to sergeant the day after his VC @-@ winning action . He continued to serve on the front until early 1918 , when he was sent to England for officer training . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in March 1918 , but remained in England until the end of the war .

= = = Interwar period = = =

While in England , Andrew met Bessie Ball , of Nottingham , and they were married on 12 November 1918 . The couple had five children although one died in infancy . Upon discharge from the NZEF in August 1919 , he joined the New Zealand Staff Corps and served in a number of administrative positions for the next several years . From 1927 to 1929 he served with the Highland Light Infantry in British India on an officer exchange program . On his return to New Zealand he was appointed adjutant of the 1st Wellington Regiment . In 1937 , having been promoted to captain , he commanded the New Zealand contingent sent to London for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth .

= = = Second World War = = =

Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Andrew was seconded to the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force . In early 1940 , he was appointed commander of 22nd Battalion , then forming at Trentham Military Camp near Wellington . He trained his new command hard , and quickly earned the nickname of February due to his habit of issuing 28 @-@ day detentions for any breaches in discipline .

The battalion embarked for England in May 1940 as part of 5th Infantry Brigade , 2nd New Zealand Division . Arriving in June , it spent the remainder of the year on garrison duties in the south of England . In March 1941 it travelled for Egypt and then onto Greece . Andrew led the battalion through the subsequent Battle of Greece , during which it saw little action , and the Battle of Crete .

In Crete , the battalion was tasked with the defence of Maleme airfield and the overlooking hill , Point 107 . Andrew was ordered to maintain control of his positions " at all costs " . Forced to disperse the companies of his battalion widely to cover his positions , he lost contact with most of his units after German paratroopers began landing in the area on 20 May . Failing to receive any support from his brigade commander following a request for assistance , and fearing most of his command overrun after a failed counterattack by his small reserve , he withdrew his remaining units . As it happened , most of his forward companies remained intact and were subsequently able to withdraw themselves after finding they had been abandoned . Andrew was criticised for his withdrawal , which led to the loss of Maleme airfield . This was a significant factor in allowing the German forces to become established on Crete . He and the surviving elements of his battalion were later evacuated from Crete .

Despite the setback of Crete , Andrew remained as commander of 22nd Battalion during the early phases of the North African Campaign . At one stage he was temporary commander of 5th Infantry Brigade when its nominal commander , Brigadier James Hargest , was captured in late November 1941 . Andrew was awarded with the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership of the brigade , which had to deal with repeated attacks by German forces in early December . He relinquished command of 22nd Battalion on 3 February 1942 , and returned to New Zealand . He was promoted to full colonel and commanded the Wellington Fortress Area for the rest of the war .

= = Later life = =

Andrew commanded the New Zealand contingent for the 1946 Victory Parade in London , and the following year attended the Imperial Defence College . He was promoted to brigadier in 1948 and appointed commander of the Central Military District . He remained in this capacity until his retirement from the military in 1952 . Andrew was later invited to run for Parliament but declined . He died on 8 January 1969 , aged 71 . He was buried with full military honours in a ceremony at Levin RSA Cemetery , in Levin .

= = Victoria Cross = =

Andrew 's VC was displayed at the QEII Army Memorial Museum , Waiouru , New Zealand . On 2 December 2007 it was one of nine Victoria Crosses that were among a hundred medals stolen from the museum . On 16 February 2008 , New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess .

= Rebbie Jackson =

Maureen Reillette " Rebbie " Brown ( née Jackson ; born May 29 , 1950 ) is an American singer professionally known as Rebbie Jackson / ˈriːbi ˈdʒæksən / . Born and raised in Gary , Indiana , she is the eldest child of the Jackson family of musicians . She first performed on stage with her siblings during shows in Las Vegas , Nevada , at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino in 1974 , before subsequently appearing in the television series The Jacksons . Her sister La Toya was born on Jackson 's 6th birthday . At age 34 , Jackson released her debut album Centipede ( 1984 ) . The album featured songs written by Smokey Robinson , Prince , and Jackson 's younger brother Michael , whose contribution ( the title track " Centipede " ) became Rebbie 's most successful single release . By the end of the 1980s , the singer had released two more albums in quick succession : Reaction ( 1986 ) and R U Tuff Enuff ( 1988 ) .

Following a 10 @-@ year hiatus in her musical career , Jackson returned with the 1998 album Yours Faithfully . The production of the album , her last to date , was a collaboration with artists and producers such as Men of Vizion 's Spanky Williams , Keith Thomas , and Eliot Kennedy . It also featured contributions from her children . In 2011 , Rebbie embarked on the " Pick Up the Phone Tour , " which is dedicated to teens who have committed suicide all over the U.S.

= = Life and career = =

= = = Childhood and youth = = =

Maureen Reillette " Rebbie " Jackson was born in Gary , Indiana , to a working @-@ class family on May 29 , 1950 . The daughter of Joseph Walter " Joe " and Katherine Esther ( née Scruse ) , she is the eldest of their ten children . Her siblings are Jackie , Tito , Jermaine , La Toya , Brandon ( d . March 12 , 1957 ) , Marlon , Michael ( d . June 25 , 2009 ) , Randy , and Janet . Joseph was a steel mill employee who often performed in a rhythm and blues ( R & B ) band called The Falcons with his brother , Luther . His wife , Katherine , is a Jehovah 's Witness and raised her children to follow the religion . Rebbie , La Toya , and Michael became the most devout of the children as time progressed . Reflecting on her early life , Rebbie acknowledged in a 1980s magazine interview that her role within the family had been that of a " second mother " to her younger siblings , whom she would often babysit . She also Graduated from Theodore Roosevelt High school in Gary IN in 1968

= = = Marriage = = =

18 @-@ year @-@ old Rebbie 's announcement that she wanted to marry her childhood love , Nathaniel Brown , in May 1968 created a division in the Jackson family . Jackson expressed her feelings for the man and proclaimed that she wanted to move with him to Kentucky . Katherine encouraged her daughter to proceed with the union ; she felt that being a wife and mother were important roles for all of her daughters to play . Joseph , however , was against the marriage ; he wanted Rebbie to follow in the footsteps of her brothers ( The Jackson 5 ) and become a singer . Her father felt that married life would stop her from becoming a success in the entertainment business . Though Rebbie had taken clarinet , piano and dance lessons in her childhood , she had no interest in a music career . This was despite the fact that according to brother Jermaine she had won several singing contests , duetting with brother Jackie . The teenager thought a happy home was more comforting and secure than the instability of show business . She also wanted to leave her family 's drama @-@ filled home on Jackson Street as well as get away from her controlling father . Arguments ensued for several weeks before her father relented and allowed Rebbie to wed Brown . Having the last word on the matter , Joseph refused to walk his daughter down the aisle .

Brown and Jackson have three children ; daughters , Stacee ( born May 5 , 1971 ) and Yashi ( born October 5 , 1977 ) and son , Austin ( born November 22 , 1985 ) . Jackson 's husband , Nathaniel Brown , died of cancer on January 6 , 2013 . Rebbie has one grandson , London Blue Salas ( born July 25 , 2005 ) , from Stacee .

= = = Early career = = =

Jackson began her singing career in 1974 , performing with her siblings in Las Vegas . The Vegas shows had initially begun in April , without Rebbie ; due to a sprained ankle , Rebbie 's debut was postponed until June . Her five brothers were the main draws , with herself , Randy , Janet , and La Toya serving as fillers for the performances .

When The Jackson 5 parted with their record label Motown in 1976 , they signed to CBS Records and rebranded themselves as The Jacksons . Additionally , the brothers were signed to CBS @-@ TV to star with their family in a variety series called The Jacksons . The shows premiered in June 1976 , and featured all of the siblings excluding Jermaine , who had chosen to stay with Motown . The initial series run of the 30 @-@ minute programs was four weeks . Due to ratings success , more episodes were ordered in January 1977 . The shows marked the first time that an African @-@ American family had ever starred in a television series . The run of programs concluded shortly afterward .

Prior to the series , Jackson had thought of her singing as merely a private hobby . The Jacksons — as well as an early love of musicals — motivated her to become a professional recording artist , and the show 's producer encouraged her to sing . Jackson served as a backing vocalist for several musicians around this time , as well as a cabaret singer . She contributed her voice for songs by artists such as The Emotions , Sonny Bono and Betty Wright before Jackson 's second pregnancy stalled her musical career for a short time .

= = = Centipede = = =

Following years of preparation , Jackson 's debut album Centipede was distributed in October 1984 by CBS Records , who had signed her as a solo artist two years previously . The album was only released once the singer had ensured that family life was secure and that she had spent time with her children during their important younger years . Centipede became a moderate chart success , reaching number 13 on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and number 63 on its Top 200 . The recording of the album had been a family affair ; it involved several contributions from her relatives . Her husband Nathaniel Brown co @-@ wrote the song " Come Alive Saturday Night " with two of his wife 's brothers : Randy and Tito . The latter Jackson also penned " Hey Boy " with his wife Dee Dee . The most successful song from the album was the million @-@ selling title track , " Centipede " . Written , arranged and produced by Michael , the song also featured Jackson 's famous brother on backing vocals . It reached number 4 on the Black Singles Chart and was subsequently certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . " Centipede " marked Michael 's first effort at writing and producing since the release of his successful Thriller ( 1982 ) .

Other tracks from Rebbie 's album included cover versions of songs by Prince ( " I Feel for You " ) and Smokey Robinson and the Miracles ( " A Fork in the Road " ) . The album received mixed reviews from journalists and music critics . According to the magazine Jet , Centipede marked Jackson 's emergence as a " legitimate recording artist " and " cleared the major hurdle of demonstrating that she [ was ] talented and marketable " . With the album , Jackson became the last of her siblings to embark on a recording career and the last in line to release hit material .

Rebbie later revealed that there was a lot of discussion at the time of the release of Centipede over whether she should use the Jackson surname professionally or not . To begin with Rebbie did not want to use her pre @-@ marriage surname , but later reasoned that it was silly to deny her heritage . Jackson explained that she did , however , compromise with the use of her family name on the Centipede album cover - " Rebbie is large and Jackson is small " . She further stated that the success of siblings Michael and Janet had not been a hindrance to her , but served as an enhancement to her career . Rebbie added that she did not have to worry about " name recognition " .

= = = Reaction and R U Tuff Enuff = = =

Reaction served as a follow @-@ up album to Centipede , and was released in October 1986 . The album was recorded at Tito 's Ponderosa Studios in Los Angeles , California . Her brother Tito produced Reaction along with David Conley and David Townsend of the R & B group Surface . Duets were featured on the album , including one with Cheap Trick lead singer Robin Zander and another with Isaac Hayes . The Zander @-@ Jackson collaboration ( " You Send the Rain Away " ) was released as a single , and peaked at number 50 on the R & B singles chart . Jackson 's duet with Hayes , the ballad " Tonight I 'm Yours " , was not released as a single , though received substantial airplay . Reaction 's title track ( " Reaction " ) was the most popular hit from the album , reaching number 16 on the R & B singles chart .

The R U Tuff Enuff album succeeded Reaction upon its release in July 1988 . Jackson was more involved with the production of the album than she had been on her previous releases . She stated at the time of R U Tuff Enuff 's distribution that the sound on the album differed from anything she had done previously . Jackson commented that the album was " more versatile " , while noting that it resembled other albums because it had a lot of dance music . Two singles were released from the album and charted on the R & B singles chart : " Plaything " , which made it into the top 10 , and the title track " R U Tuff Enuff " , which peaked at number 78 . By mid @-@ June 1988 , R U Tuff Enuff had reportedly sold 300 @,@ 000 copies . MTV later concluded that the album " struggled " . Jackson would lend her vocals to " 2300 Jackson Street " ( the title track of her brothers ' 2300 Jackson Street album ) , before taking a hiatus from releasing music . Jackson later stated that she performed around the world during this hiatus .

= = = Yours Faithfully = = =

Following a 10 @-@ year break from music , Jackson signed with her brother Michael 's record label , MJJ Music , in 1997 . From the label , Yours Faithfully was released on March 31 , 1998 . The album featured a remixed version of Jackson 's successful " Centipede " . Initially , the singer had not wanted to feature the track , believing that it was part of the past . After thinking about it for a while , Jackson felt that the inclusion of the remix — which features a rap by son Austin — would be a good way to return to the music scene . In addition , two of her other children , Stacee and Yashi , contributed backing vocals for the album . Other tracks from the album included " Fly Away " , which was written and produced by brother Michael , who also served as co @-@ executive producer for Yours Faithfully . Fellow producers included Keith Thomas and Eliot Kennedy . The album also featured a duet with Men of Vizion 's Spanky Williams on The Spinners ' " I Don 't Want to Lose You " , which Jet described as being a " sizzling " rendition . Yours Faithfully 's title track was released as a single and peaked at number 76 on the R & B chart . Vibe magazine 's Quohnos Mitchell expressed disappointment in the album , labelling its content a " mix of dated R & B grooves dressed up with a few cleverly placed samples " .

= = = Death of Michael Jackson = = =

Rebbie 's brother Michael died on June 25 , 2009 , after suffering a cardiac arrest . His memorial service was held twelve days later on July 7 , and the finale featured group renditions of the Jackson anthems " We Are the World " and " Heal the World " . The singalong featured Michael 's siblings ( including Rebbie ) and the late singer 's children . Following the service — which was held at Los Angeles ' Staples Center — Rebbie , along with sisters Janet and La Toya , addressed fans at the nearby L.A. Live entertainment complex . " We are extremely grateful for all the support . We love you all . " In the weeks following Michael 's death , it was speculated by media sources that Rebbie would be the primary caregiver for her late brother 's children : Prince , Paris and Blanket . It was stated that even if Michael and Rebbie 's mother Katherine were granted custody of the children , Rebbie would care for the siblings on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis at the Jackson family 's Encino home . Katherine was named the legal guardian of them in August 2009 after the death of Michael Jackson . In early 2011 , Rebbie announced she 's begun recording for a new album , her first in 14 years . She 's also been performing throughout the states with a set list that contains her best known songs , some of her brothers ' songs , and some Motown classics .

= = = Voice Type = = =

Rebbie Jackson is a contralto with a 3 octave range . She has an impressive belting range , belting up to F # 5 in her song " Reaction . "

= = Discography = =

= = = Albums = = =

= = = Singles = = =

= Hugh Foliot =

Hugh Foliot ( c . 1155 – 1234 ) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford . Related somehow to his predecessor at Hereford , he served as a priest and papal judge as well as being an unsuccessful candidate as Bishop of St David 's in Wales . In 1219 , he was appointed Bishop of Hereford . During his time in office , he mostly attended to ecclesiastical duties , but did occasionally serve as a royal administrator . He helped found a hospital and a priory , and died in 1234 after a months @-@ long illness .

= = Early life = =

Foliot possibly was the son of Roger Foliot and his wife Rohese . Roger held three knight 's fees in Northamptonshire . Probably born sometime between 1150 and 1160 , Hugh was related in some manner to Robert Foliot , his predecessor at Hereford . He was a canon of Hereford Cathedral before becoming Archdeacon of Shropshire by May 1186 . Foliot is a frequent witness on charters as archdeacon , but little else is known of his tenure of the office . From 1212 to 1219 , he served as a papal judge @-@ delegate three times . In 1215 he was also King John 's candidate for the see of St David 's in Wales , but was not elected .

After Foliot 's failed candidacy as bishop , in February 1216 John appointed him to the benefice of Colwall in Herefordshire , the king having the ability to make the appointment because Giles de Braose , the Bishop of Hereford , who would normally have made the appointment , had recently died . Also from this time comes Foliot 's patronage of Robert Grosseteste , the theologian and future Bishop of Lincoln .

= = Bishop = =

Foliot had been one of three members of the cathedral chapter from Hereford sent to King Henry III 's court to secure permission for the chapter to hold an election in 1219 Foliot was elected to the see of Hereford in June 1219 and consecrated on 27 October 1219 along with William de Goldcliff , the Bishop of Llandaff , at Canterbury .

The new bishop accompanied Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester , on a pilgrimage in 1221 . Because des Roches travelled to Spain to the shrine of St James at Compostela , and it is known that Foliot accompanied him , the statement by a medieval chronicler from Dunstable that Foliot 's destination was not certain , being either Rome or Compostela , should be discounted .

Foliot spent most of his tenure of office in his diocese , only rarely attending the royal court or being assigned governmental duties . On 30 December 1223 , Foliot assumed one of those duties , when he took custody of Hereford Castle after it was surrendered by Hubert de Burgh , during the redistribution of royal castles when de Burgh ousted des Roches from power . He also was appointed to determine the size of the royal forest in Gloucestershire . Foliot also founded a hospital in Ledbury , devoted to St Katherine . He helped found Alberbury Priory , a house of the Grandmontine order . In his cathedral , he reorganised the benefices and offices of the chapter , as well as endowing further benefices .

Foliot died 7 August 1234 , after an illness that began in the spring . He was buried in Hereford Cathedral , where his tomb survives . Foliot appointed his younger brother Thomas to offices in the diocese , first as precentor in the 1220s and then around 1230 as treasurer of the cathedral chapter .

= AIL Storm =

The AIL Storm ( Hebrew : סופה , Sufa ) is an Israeli manufactured off @-@ road vehicle and the workhorse of the Israeli Security Forces . The series of Jeep Wrangler based vehicles have been produced by Automotive Industries Ltd. in Upper Nazareth under licence from Chrysler since 1990 . The vehicles fill a number of military roles , including that of armoured Infantry Mobility Vehicle , and certain models are available for export as well as for the civilian market .

Production of an updated four @-@ door second generation model commenced in 2006 despite some mixed messages from the Storm 's primary customer , the Israel Defense Forces . Development of a third generation vehicle based on the new Jeep Wrangler JK has been completed and significant production for both Israeli and foreign customers is under way .

= = Storm I = =

The M @-@ 240 Storm MultiMission Vehicle is the first of three Storm generations . A variant of the 1991 Jeep Wrangler YJ and the older CJ @-@ 6 / CJ @-@ 8 wheelbase , it is entirely produced in Israel by Automotive Industries Ltd. with the exception of the engines , as their manufacture is not economically viable on the Storm 's market scale .

The Storm was primarily meant to satisfy Israeli military needs , but capable long and short versions are produced for the local civilian market . Like the Jeep , it has a conventional front @-@ engine design with a driver and passenger seated behind the engine , and room for cargo or passengers behind them . It is powered by an AMC 3 @.@ 983 litre 6 @-@ cylinder in @-@ line petrol with fuel injection developing 180 hp ( 130 kW ) at 4 @,@ 700 rpm , fitted with Vortox 2 @-@ stage air cleaner or a Volkswagen 2 @.@ 5 litre 4 @-@ cylinder turbocharged diesel developing 88 kilowatts ( 118 hp ) at 4 @,@ 200 rpm . The front axle is fully floating and the rear axle is semi @-@ floating , while a reinforced frame and body as well as good angles of approach and departure ( 40 ° and 37 ° for short frame , 40 ° and 26 @.@ 5 ° for long frame ) add to the Storm 's off @-@ roading capability .

The two production frame lengths , 4 @.@ 15 ( 13 @.@ 6 ) and 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 @.@ 8 ft ) , the latter of which was among the few such Jeep @-@ derivatives in production in recent years , were both available in civilian and military models . Aside from the Israeli market , Storms have long been exported to countries in South America , Asia , and Africa . A Jeep @-@ managed production line in Egypt , whose vehicles are used by the Egyptian armed forces , was absorbed into the AIL Storm production after it closed in 1995 .

= = = Security versions = = =

Like its parent Jeep Wrangler , the Storm is first and foremost an airmobile , capable offroad and utility vehicle meant to tackle extreme terrain in a general reconnaissance role , and can be outfitted with a machine gun or other weapons systems . When armed with a 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) M40 recoilless rifle , the vehicle is uniquely capable of firing directly over its blast guard equipped hood rather than in the perpendicular position required by most other vehicles .

A variant of the extended version used in desert border patrol makes use of a high @-@ ceilinged canopy to allow a swivelling rear @-@ facing heavy machine @-@ gun mount , while the canopy can be extended to provide a mobile command post . An air conditioned hardtop version of the extended model is often used by officers , and a version developed for riot control has clear polycarbonate shielding along the rear sides and roof , as well as gunports for less @-@ lethal weapons . The shielding allows for a wide field of view while at the same time protecting against firebombs and rock @-@ throwing .

= = = Armoured version = = =

As with several analogous light military vehicles , despite being originally designed to fill a light reconnaissance role , the rise of urban warfare and close quarters combat meant that the Israel Defense Forces had to recast the Storm in new roles .

When the need for a light armoured vehicle became apparent to the Israeli security forces , AIL 's engineering department designed a vehicle protection system from the bottom up , integrating it into the existing vehicle in a manner that did not compromise its off @-@ road and other capabilities , and that did not create the mechanical strain and increase in maintenance often associated with up @-@ armouring , in part due to its computerized 180 horsepower ( 130 kW ) injected engine .

The armour protects against 7 @.@ 62 × 39mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) armour @-@ piercing ammunition , and maintains a high protection @-@ to @-@ weight and cost ratio by employing IDF approved advanced materials . The protected Israeli configuration 's gross vehicle weight is 3 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 6 @,@ 614 lb ) , though several varying protection levels are in use with individual units .

Another important asset are the Storm 's narrow dimensions , which allow it to traverse the narrow alleyways common to the casbahs of many Middle Eastern cities , places that armoured Humvees can only enter with great difficulty and minimal manoeuvrability , if at all . Full @-@ height rear doors which allow for the quick deployment of fully equipped troops into combat are touted as another advantage over similar vehicles .

= = = Civilian use = = =

First generation Storms were made available to the general public in Israel from 1992 to 2001 . A small number were purchased directly by private consumers , while larger numbers were acquired second @-@ hand from Israeli government @-@ owned firms like the Israel Electric Company and Mekorot water company , as well as National Parks Authority and Israel Police . Modified Storms are popular with off @-@ roading enthusiasts in Israel .

= = Storm II = =

Beginning in 2006 , AIL began delivery of an improved model to the IDF , the M @-@ 242 Storm Mark II , known in the field as the " Storm Commander " . A number of significant changes have been incorporated into the new TJ @-@ based Storms stemming from soldiers ' feedback , updated operational requirements , and testing by GOC Army Headquarters and Logistics , Medical , and the Centers Directorate . Perhaps the most obvious change is the addition of dual passenger doors , making the Storm II the first five @-@ door Jeep Wrangler derivative .

Other improvements include the change to a manual transmission with six forward speeds ( instead of the previous four ) , and increased stability resulting from wider track axles than its predecessor . Leaf springs were replaced with modern coil spring suspension front and rear , and the Storm II features rear Dana 44 axles and front TJ Dana 30s , factory designed slip yoke eliminators , and the added safety of standard airbags . Soldiers ' comfort was addressed as well with the addition of standard rear air conditioning and a compact disc player .

Storm II is also produced in an armoured version , and is offered with an optional 2 @.@ 8 litre VM Motori turbodiesel , automatic transmission , right hand drive , and run @-@ flat tyres . AIL is capable of completing ten vehicles daily . Due to recently passed tax laws , a civilian version is not yet available in the local market .

= = = MDT David controversy = = =

Developed in the 2000s at an investment of US $ 2 million after IDF commitments for 1 @,@ 200 units , some AIL jobs were believed to be in jeopardy following a mid @-@ 2005 announcement that the IDF would purchase 100 US sold Land Rover Defender @-@ based MDT David . The announcement provoked threats of protests from AIL 's management and labourers , who had recently faced the blow of local Humvee assembly ceasing due to budget considerations . The MDT David was chosen over the armoured version of the Storm because the heavy Storm was said to suffer from handling and reliability problems , safety hazards and limited mission operability . However the IDF said that the purchase of the David was to fill a temporary gap in production until the Storm II 's testing was completed , and has since begun filling its commitment .

= = Storm III = =

A Storm Mark III was set to be produced for the Israeli defense forces starting in June 2008 , when the IDF was to purchase around 600 vehicles beginning in early 2011 . Based on the then new four @-@ door Jeep Wrangler JK design , the Mark III is meant to address some of the shortfalls of the earlier Mark II . Whereas the previous vehicle was an update of the original TK Storm , the Storm III was designed from the outset with a five @-@ door configuration . Unlike the TJ @-@ L , the new JK Storm has a much higher maximum load capacity in part due to heavier @-@ duty shock absorbers , springs and axles , necessary for an armored version . It includes a standard 2.8L VM Motori turbodiesel and automatic transmission .

Like the Storm II , the Mark III was initially available only to the military with versions set to be delivered to the Israel Police in 2009 . A civilian version would only be released if the local tax code was modified to allow it to compete with foreign imports of the same class . AIL states that if such a thing would happen , a petrol engine version could be offered . Regarding Export markets , the Storm 3 has already seen use in several countries , especially in its armored version .

A pair of production J8 's was tested by Israeli web magazine Jeepolog.com journalists in April 2009 . It was dubbed " probably , the best Jeep ever " .

= = = Commander version = = =

The commander version incorporates a 5 @-@ door hard top cab allowing for the quick and convenient entrance and exit of the driver and all passengers or troops . A large rear compartment enables the storage of both cargo and communications equipment .

This version comes equipped with an air conditioning system providing maximum comfort in hot climatic conditions . A roll over protection structure ( ROPS ) maximizes safety conditions for passengers .

= = = Armored version = = =

The armored version of the Storm 3 , designed for protection against light weapon threats , incorporates a heavy duty transfer case and a specially designed suspension system which includes heavy duty springs ( front - coil , rear - leaf ) and shock absorbers , together with rigid heavy duty axles allowing for a smooth and safe ride on both rough terrain as well as regular highways .

= = = Reconnaissance & Patrol version = = =

The Storm 3 reconnaissance and patrol model allows for extra stowage of fuel , water and equipment . This version is especially suited to be fitted with various machine gun or special equipment mountings .

= 1940 Atlantic hurricane season =

The 1940 Atlantic hurricane season was a generally average period of tropical cyclogenesis in 1940 . Though the season had no official bounds , most tropical cyclone activity occurred during August and September . Throughout the year , fourteen tropical cyclones formed , of which nine reached tropical storm intensity ; six were hurricanes . None of the hurricanes reached major hurricane intensity . Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes , especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration , may have remained undetected . Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s , historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable . As a result of a reanalysis project which analyzed the season in 2012 , an additional hurricane was added to HURDAT . The year 's first tropical storm formed on May 19 off the northern coast of Hispaniola . At the time , this was a rare occurrence , as only four other tropical disturbances were known to have formed prior during this period ; since then , reanalysis of previous seasons has concluded that there were more than four tropical cyclones in May before 1940 . The season 's final system was a tropical disturbance situated in the Greater Antilles , which dissipated on November 8 .

All three hurricanes in August brought flooding rainfall to areas of the United States . The first became the wettest tropical cyclone recorded in Louisiana history . The second hurricane impacted regions of the Southeastern United States , producing record precipitation and killing at least 52 people . Despite not making landfall , the third hurricane in August interacted with a stationary front over the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , resulting in localized flooding and thus making the tropical cyclone the wettest in New Jersey history . This hurricane would also be the strongest in the hurricane season , with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 39 inHg ) , making it a high @-@ end Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Activity decreased in September , though a damaging hurricane swept through areas of the Canadian Maritimes , resulting in large crop and infrastructural losses . Two tropical cyclones of at least tropical storm strength were recorded in October , though neither resulted in fatalities . Collectively , storms in the hurricane season caused 71 fatalities and $ 29 @.@ 329 million in damages . The 1940 South Carolina hurricane , which swept through areas of the Southeastern United States in August , was the most damaging and deadly of the tropical cyclones .

= = Storms = =

= = = Tropical Storm One = = =

On May 18 , a weak low @-@ pressure area was detected south of Hispaniola . Moving northward , the low became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical storm at 1200 UTC on May 19 , southeast of Turks Island . At the time , ship observations indicated that the disturbance had a well @-@ defined cyclonic circulation , with the strongest winds situated in the northern semicircle of the cyclone . Continuing northward , the tropical storm gradually intensified and attained maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 0000 UTC on May 22 . The Belgian ship M.S. Lubrafol recorded a peripheral barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) ; this was the lowest pressure measured in connection with the storm . The following day , the tropical storm temporarily curved towards the east @-@ southeast before recurving back towards a northeast direction . At the same time , the storm expanded in size and began to transition into an extratropical cyclone . By 1200 UTC , the cyclone completed its extratropical transition , due to the entrainment of colder air . The remnant system persisted until 0600 UTC on May 27 .

= = = Hurricane Two = = =

On August 3 , an extratropical cyclone developed into a tropical depression off the west coast of Florida . Initially a weak disturbance , it moved generally westward , slowly gaining in intensity . Early on August 4 , the depression attained tropical storm intensity . Ships in the vicinity of the storm reported a much stronger tropical cyclone than initially suggested . After reaching hurricane strength on August 5 south of the Mississippi River Delta , the storm strengthened further into a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) at 0600 UTC on August 7 . The hurricane moved ashore near Sabine Pass , Texas later that day at peak strength . Once inland , the storm executed a sharp curve to the north and quickly weakened , degenerating into a tropical storm on August 8 before dissipating over Arkansas on August 10 .

Reports of a potentially destructive hurricane near the United States Gulf Coast forced thousands of residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate prior to the storm moving inland . Offshore , the hurricane generated rough seas and a strong storm surge , peaking at 6 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 95 m ) on the western edge of Lake Pontchartrain . The anomalously high tides flooded many of Louisiana 's outlying islands , inundating resorts . Strong winds caused moderate infrastructural damage , primarily in Texas , though its impact was mainly to communication networks along the U.S. Gulf Coast which were disrupted by the winds . However , much of the property and crop damage wrought by the hurricane was due to the torrential rainfall it produced in low @-@ lying areas , setting off record floods . Rainfall peaked at 37 @.@ 5 in ( 953 mm ) in Miller Island off Louisiana , making it the wettest tropical cyclone in state history . Nineteen official weather stations in both Texas and Louisiana observed record 24 @-@ hour rainfall totals for the month of August as a result of the slow @-@ moving hurricane . Property , livestock , and crops – especially cotton , corn , and pecan crops – were heavily damaged . Entire ecosystems were also altered by the rainfall . Overall , the storm caused $ 10 @.@ 75 million in damages and seven fatalities .

= = = Hurricane Three = = =

A storm of potentially Cape Verde origin was detected in the Virgin Islands at 1800 UTC on August 5 . Initially moving westward , the tropical storm gradually gained in intensity before making a sharp curve towards the north on August 8 . The storm continued in a northerly motion before a second curvature brought it in a generally westward direction on August 9 . Shortly after , the tropical storm reached hurricane intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane . The hurricane eventually made landfall at peak intensity on Hilton Head Island , South Carolina at 2030 UTC on September 21 . At the time , the storm had maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) , equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane . Once inland , the tropical cyclone gradually weakened , and recurved northeastward before dissipating over the Appalachian Mountains on August 14 .

The hurricane dropped torrential rainfall over the Southeast United States , causing unprecedented devastation in the region . The storm was considered the worst to impact in the region in at least 29 years . Precipitation peaked at 20 @.@ 65 in ( 525 mm ) in Idlewild , North Carolina . The heavy rainfall caused streams to greatly exceed their respective flood stages , damaging waterfront property . Many of the deaths occurred in North Carolina , where 30 people died . Transportation was disrupted as a result of the debris scattered by the wind and rain . In Caldwell County alone , 90 percent of bridges were swept away . Overall , the storm caused 50 fatalities and $ 13 million in damages .

= = = Hurricane Four = = =

On August 26 , a low @-@ pressure area in the open Atlantic Ocean became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical cyclone . Moving slowly in a general west @-@ northwest motion , the disturbance intensified , reaching tropical storm strength on August 28 and subsequently hurricane intensity on August 30 . The hurricane passed within 85 mi ( 135 km ) of Cape Hatteras before recurving towards the northeast . However , the hurricane continued to intensify , and reached peak intensity as a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 961 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 38 inHg ) , though these statistical peaks were achieved at different times on September 2 . Afterwards , the tropical cyclone began a weakening trend as it proceeded northward , and had degenerated into a tropical storm by the time it made its first landfall on Nova Scotia later that day . The storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the next day while making another landfall on New Brunswick . The extratropical remnants persisted into Quebec before merging with a larger extratropical system late on September 3 .

Despite not making landfall on the United States , the hurricane caused widespread damage . Extensive precautionary measures were undertaken across the coast , particularly in New England . The heightened precautions were due in part to fears that effects from the storm would be similar to that of a devastating hurricane which struck the region two years prior . Most of the damage associated with the hurricane occurred in New Jersey , where the combination of moisture from the hurricane and a stationary front produced record rainfall , peaking at 24 in ( 610 mm ) in the town of Ewan . This would make the storm the wettest in state history . The resultant floods damaged infrastructure , mostly to road networks . Damage in the state amounted to $ 4 million . Further north in New England , strong winds were reported , though damage remained minimal . Although the storm made two landfalls in Atlantic Canada , damage too was minimal , and was limited to several boating incidents caused by strong waves . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 4 @.@ 05 million in damage , primarily due to flooding in New Jersey , and seven fatalities .

= = = Hurricane Five = = =

A tropical depression was first detected east of the Lesser Antilles on September 7 , though at the time weather observations in the area were sparse . The disturbance gradually intensified throughout much of its early formative stages , attaining tropical storm strength on September 10 ; further strengthening into a hurricane north of Puerto Rico occurred two days later . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane recurved northward , and reached peak intensity the following day as a modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of at least 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The cyclone steadily weakened thereafter before making landfall on Nova Scotia on September 17 with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Moving into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence later that day , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant system curved eastward and passed over Newfoundland before dissipating over the Atlantic on September 19 .

While off of the United States East Coast , the hurricane caused numerous shipping incidents , most notably the stranding of the Swedish freighter Laponia off of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina on September 16 . Two other boat incidents resulted in two deaths . The hurricane also brought strong winds of tropical storm @-@ force and snow over areas of New England . In Atlantic Canada , a strong storm surge peaking at 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above average sunk or damaged several ships and inundated cities . In New Brunswick , the waves hurt the lobster fishing industry . In Nova Scotia , strong winds disrupted telecommunication and power services . The winds also severely damaged crops . Roughly half of apple production in Annapolis Valley was lost during the storm , resulting in around $ 1 @.@ 49 million in economic losses . Strong winds in New Brunswick caused moderate to severe infrastructural damage , and additional damages to crops occurred there . Overall , the hurricane caused three fatalities , with two off of the United States and one in New Brunswick .

= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =

A westward moving tropical depression developed in the southwestern Caribbean Sea just west of Bluefields , Nicaragua at 1200 UTC on September 18 . The following day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm at 0600 UTC . The tropical storm made landfall on the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua at 1400 UTC , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The cyclone weakened to a tropical depression over land , but reintensified back to tropical storm strength upon entry into the Gulf of Honduras on September 20 . The cyclone 's northwest motion caused it to make a second landfall near the border of Mexico and British Honduras at 0300 UTC on September 21 as a slightly stronger system with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) ; this would be the storm 's peak intensity . Over the Yucatán Peninsula , the tropical storm re @-@ weakened , but later intensified once again once it reached the Gulf of Mexico . In the Gulf , the storm made a gradual curve northward , before making a final landfall near Lafayette , Louisiana at 0900 UTC on September 24 with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1002 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 59 inHg ) . Once inland , the tropical cyclone curved eastward and weakened before dissipating the next day , after becoming absorbed by a frontal boundary .

Upon making landfall , the tropical storm produced strong winds over a wide area . The strongest winds were reported by a station in San Antonio , Texas , which reported 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds , far removed from the storm 's center ; these strong winds were likely due to squalls . Heavy rainfall was also reported , though the rains mainly occurred to the east of the passing tropical cyclone . Precipitation peaked at 10 in ( 254 mm ) in Ville Platte , Louisiana . The tropical storm produced three tornadoes over the Southern United States which collecitvely caused $ 39 @,@ 000 in damage and caused two fatalities . Two of the tornadoes formed in Mississippi while one formed in Louisiana . Several other people were also injured by the tornadoes .

= = = Hurricane Seven = = =

In late September , a tropical wave persisted in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean . The low @-@ pressure area later became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on September 22 . The disturbance quickly organized after tropical cyclogenesis , and reached a strength equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane strength at 1800 UTC later that day . The American steamship Otho encountered the system that day , and reported gale force winds in conjunction with a peripheral barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 42 inHg ) . The tropical cyclone continued to the east @-@ northeast , where it gradually intensified . At 1200 UTC on September 23 , the hurricane attained modern @-@ day Category 2 hurricane intensity with winds of 100 mbar ( 155 km / h ) ; a peak which would be maintained for at least the following 12 hours . A second steamship , the Lobito , reported hurricane @-@ force winds along with a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) ; this would be the lowest pressure measured associated with the tropical cyclone . After reaching peak intensity , the hurricane began a weakening trend , and degenerated to a Category 1 hurricane at 0600 UTC as it passed over the Azores . The following day , the hurricane recurved westward , where it weakened before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 28 . This remnant system subsequently dissipated .

As the hurricane passed over the Azores , several weather stations reported low barometric pressures , with the lowest being a measurement of 984 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) on Terceira Island at 0600 UTC on September 25 . As a result of the impending storm , several Pan Am Clipper flights to the archipelago were suspended for three consecutive days . The maximum reported gust in the Azores was an observation of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 25 . As a result of moving slowly over the islands , torrential rainfall was also reported . At Angra do Heroísmo , 13 @.@ 11 in ( 333 mm ) of precipitation was reported in a four @-@ day , accounting for a third of the station 's yearly average rainfall . Strong storm surge was reported at the same location . The waves swept boats away from the coasts of islands . Further inland , there was extensive damage to homes and crops , though no people died . Despite evidence that the system had distinct tropical characteristics , it was not operationally added to HURDAT .

= = = Hurricane Eight = = =

On October 19 , a low @-@ pressure area moved into the southwestern Caribbean Sea . The area of disturbed weather quickly became well @-@ organized , and was analyzed to have become a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on October 20 . Initially , the tropical cyclone moved very slowly towards the west and then the northwest . Shortly after formation , the disturbance intensified into a tropical storm at 1800 UTC later that day . The S.S. Cristobal provided the first indications of a tropical cyclone in the region , after reporting strong gusts and low pressures north of the Panama Canal Zone during that evening . Continuing to intensify , the storm reached hurricane intensity at 0600 UTC on October 22 . Several vessels in the storm 's vicinity reported strong gusts and rough seas generated by the storm . Later that day at 1200 UTC , the ship S.S. Castilla reported a minimum pressure of 983 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 03 inHg ) near the periphery of the storm . Based on this observation , the hurricane was estimated to have reached intensity at the same time with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane subsequently curved west and then southwest , before making its only landfall in northern Nicaragua at 1900 UTC on October 23 at peak intensity . Once inland , the tropical cyclone rapidly weakened over mountainous terrain , and dissipated at 1200 UTC the following day . Reports of damage were limited , though a report stated that considerable damage had occurred where the hurricane made landfall .

= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =

On October 23 , an open trough was centered north of Hispaniola near the Turks and Caicos islands . At 0000 UTC the following day , the area of disturbed weather became organized and was analyzed to have become a tropical storm southeast of Inagua , based on nearby vessel reports . Initially , the storm drifted northward , but later began to accelerate towards the northeast after a roughly 12 @-@ hour period . At 0600 UTC on September 25 , the disturbance slightly gained in intensity to attain maximum wind speeds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) ; these would be the strongest winds associated with the storm as a fully tropical cyclone . A reanalysis of the system indicated that due to a lack of definite tropical features , the storm may have had been a subtropical cyclone . On October 26 , the system became increasingly asymmetric and had developed frontal boundaries , allowing for it to be classified as an extratropical cyclone at 0600 UTC that day . Once transitioning into an extratropical system , the storm continued to intensified as it moved northward . On October 27 , the system was analyzed to have a minimum pressure of at least 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) after passing to the southeast of Bermuda . At 1200 UTC later that day , the cyclone reached an extratropical peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) just east of Newfoundland . Had the storm been tropical at the time , it would have been classified as a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane . Subsequently , the extratropical storm curved eastward , where it persisted before dissipating by 1800 UTC on September 29 .

= = = Tropical depressions = = =

In addition to the storms which attained at least tropical storm strength in 1940 , five additional tropical depressions were analyzed by the HURDAT reanalysis project to have developed during the season . Due to their weak intensity , however , they were not added to HURDAT . On September 2 , a closed low @-@ pressure area was detected in the open Atlantic Ocean southeast of Bermuda and was analyzed as a tropical depression . At the time , the disturbance had a minimum pressure of at least 1015 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 98 inHg ) . The depression initially moved to the southeast , but later recurved towards the northwest over the next two days . On September 4 , the S.S. West Kebar en route for Boston , Massachusetts reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , which would be considered as tropical storm @-@ force winds . The depression later moved to the northeast before it was absorbed by a stationary front on September 7 . Since there was only one report that the disturbance may have reached tropical storm intensity , it was not included in HURDAT . Later on September 10 , a trough was detected in a similar region in the Atlantic where the first depression formed . The trough later became sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression . The cyclone moved slowly to the east and did not further intensify before dissipating on September 13 .

On October 7 , a large elongated extratropical cyclone extended across the Atlantic Ocean with a pressure of at most 1015 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 98 inHg ) . The following day , the low @-@ pressure area became more narrow and well @-@ defined , with its central pressure deepening to 1000 mph ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . On October 9 , the extratropical system was analyzed to have become a tropical depression . The low moved slowly to the northeast and gradually weakened before dissipating on October 10 . On October 14 , offshore observations indicated that a tropical depression had developed north of The Bahamas . The following day , however , the depression became less defined and degenerated into a trough of low pressure . On October 16 , two ships listed in the International Comprehensive Ocean @-@ Atmosphere Data Set reported winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) off the coast of North Carolina . However , since these reports occurred in a higher pressure gradient , the system was not included in HURDAT .

On November 2 , a trough of low @-@ pressure was analyzed near the Lesser Antilles . The system moved westward into the Caribbean Sea without much organization . On November 7 , the low @-@ pressure area moved south of Cuba and became sufficiently organized to be considered a tropical depression with a pressure of at least 1010 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 83 inHg ) . The depression moved over Cuba and into the Atlantic , where it dissipated the following day . On November 9 , a second system was detected northeast of Bermuda with a pressure of 1005 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) , though it remained unclear whether the two systems were related .

= = Season effects = =

= Ode to a Nightingale =

" Ode to a Nightingale " is a poem by John Keats written either in the garden of the Spaniards Inn , Hampstead , London or , according to Keats ' friend Charles Armitage Brown , under a plum tree in the garden of Keats ' house at Wentworth Place , also in Hampstead . According to Brown , a nightingale had built its nest near the house Keats and Brown shared in the spring of 1819 . Inspired by the bird 's song , Keats composed the poem in one day . It soon became one of his 1819 odes and was first published in Annals of the Fine Arts the following July .

" Ode to a Nightingale " is a personal poem that describes Keats 's journey into the state of negative capability . The tone of the poem rejects the optimistic pursuit of pleasure found within Keats 's earlier poems and , rather , explores the themes of nature , transience and mortality , the latter being particularly personal to Keats .

The nightingale described within the poem experiences a type of death but does not actually die . Instead , the songbird is capable of living through its song , which is a fate that humans cannot expect . The poem ends with an acceptance that pleasure cannot last and that death is an inevitable part of life . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination . The presence of weather is noticeable in the poem , as spring came early in 1819 , bringing nightingales all over the heath .

= = Background = =

Of Keats 's six major odes of 1819 , " Ode to Psyche " , was probably written first and " To Autumn " written last . Sometime between these two , he wrote " Ode to a Nightingale " . It is possible that " Ode to a Nightingale " was written between 26 April and 18 May 1819 , based on weather conditions and similarities between images in the poem and those in a letter sent to Fanny Keats on May Day . The poem was composed at the Hampstead house Keats shared with Brown , possibly while sitting beneath a plum tree in the garden . According to Keats ' friend Brown , Keats finished the ode in just one morning : " In the spring of 1819 a nightingale had built her nest near my house . Keats felt a tranquil and continual joy in her song ; and one morning he took his chair from the breakfast @-@ table to the grass @-@ plot under a plum @-@ tree , where he sat for two or three hours . When he came into the house , I perceived he had some scraps of paper in his hand , and these he was quietly thrusting behind the books . On inquiry , I found those scraps , four or five in number , contained his poetic feelings on the song of the nightingale . " Brown 's account is personal , as he claimed the poem was directly influenced by his house and preserved by his own doing . However , Keats relied on both his own imagination and other literature as sources for his depiction of the nightingale .

The exact date of " Ode to a Nightingale " , as well as " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , is unknown , as Keats dated all as ' May 1819 ' . However , he worked on the four poems together , and there is a unity in both their stanza forms and their themes . The exact order the poems were written in is also unknown , but they form a sequence within their structures . While Keats was writing " Ode on a Grecian Urn " and the other poems , Brown transcribed copies of the poems and submitted them to Richard Woodhouse . During this time , Benjamin Haydon , Keats ' friend , was given a copy of " Ode to a Nightingale " , and he shared the poem with the editor of the Annals of the Fine Arts , James Elmes . Elmes paid Keats a small sum of money , and the poem was published in the July issue . The poem was later included in Keats ' 1820 collection of poems , Lamia , Isabella , The Eve of St Agnes , and Other written by pratyush Kumar

Poems .

= = Structure = =

" Ode to a Nightingale " was probably the first of the middle set of four odes that Keats wrote following " Ode to Psyche " , according to Brown . There is further evidence of this in the structure of the poems because Keats combines two different types of lyrical poetry in an experimental way : the odal hymn and the lyric of questioning voice that responds to the odal hymn . This combination of structures is similar to that in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . In both poems the dual form creates a sort of dramatic element within the poem . The stanza forms of the poem is a combination of elements from Petrarchan sonnets and Shakespearean sonnets .

When it came to vowel forms , Keats incorporated a pattern of alternating historically " short " and " long " vowel sounds in his ode . In particular , line 18 ( " And purple @-@ stained mouth " ) has the historical pattern of " short " followed by " long " followed by " short " and followed by " long " . This alteration is continued in longer lines , including line 31 ( " Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee " ) which contains five pairs of alternations . However , other lines , such as line 3 ( " Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains " ) rely on a pattern of five " short " vowels followed by " long " and " short " vowel pairings until they end with a " long " vowel . These are not the only combination patterns present , and there are patterns of two " short " vowels followed by a " long " vowel in other lines , including 12 , 22 , and 59 , which are repeated twice and then followed up with two sets of " short " and then " long " vowel pairs . This reliance on vowel sounds is not unique to this ode , but is common to Keats 's other 1819 odes and his Eve of St. Agnes .

The poem incorporates a complex reliance on assonance — the repetition of vowel sounds — in a conscious pattern , as found in many of his poems . Such a reliance on assonance is found in very few English poems . Within " Ode to a Nightingale " , an example of this pattern can be found in line 35 ( " Already with thee ! tender is the night " ) , where the " ea " of " Already " connects with the " e " of " tender " and the " i " of " with " connects with the " i " of " is " . This same pattern is found again in line 41 ( " I cannot see what flowers are at my feet " ) with the " a " of " cannot " linking with the " a " of " at " and the " ee " of " see " linking with the " ee " of " feet " . This system of assonance can be found in approximately a tenth of the lines of Keats 's later poetry .

When it came to other sound patterns , Keats relied on double or triple caesuras in approximately 6 % of lines throughout the 1819 odes . An example from " Ode to a Nightingale " can be found within line 45 ( " The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild " ) as the pauses after the commas are a " masculine " pause . Furthermore , Keats began to reduce the amount of Latin @-@ based words and syntax that he relied on in his poetry , which in turn shortened the length of the words that dominate the poem . There is also an emphasis on words beginning with consonants , especially those that begin with " b " , " p " or " v " . These three consonants are relied on heavily in the first stanza , and they are used syzygically to add a musical tone within the poem .

In terms of poetic meter , Keats relies on spondee throughout his 1819 odes and in just over 8 % of his lines within " Ode to a Nightingale " , including line 12 :

and line 25 :

To Walter Jackson Bate , the use of spondees in lines 31 – 34 creates a feeling of slow flight , and " in the final stanza . . . the distinctive use of scattered spondees , together with initial inversion , lend [ s ] an approximate phonetic suggestion of the peculiar spring and bounce of the bird in its flight . "

= = Poem = =

My heart aches , and a drowsy numbness pains

My sense , as though of hemlock I had drunk ,

Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains

One minute past , and Lethe @-@ wards had sunk :

'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot , 5

But being too happy in thine happiness ,

That thou , light @-@ wingèd Dryad of the trees ,

In some melodious plot

Of beechen green , and shadows numberless ,

Singest of summer in full @-@ throated ease . 10

O for a draught of vintage ! that hath been

Cool 'd a long age in the deep @-@ delvèd earth ,

Tasting of Flora and the country @-@ green ,

Dance , and Provençal song , and sunburnt mirth !

O for a beaker full of the warm South ! 15

Full of the true , the blushful Hippocrene ,

With beaded bubbles winking at the brim ,

And purple @-@ stainèd mouth ;

That I might drink , and leave the world unseen ,

And with thee fade away into the forest dim : 20

Fade far away , dissolve , and quite forget

What thou among the leaves hast never known ,

The weariness , the fever , and the fret

Here , where men sit and hear each other groan ;

Where palsy shakes a few , sad , last grey hairs , 25

Where youth grows pale , and spectre @-@ thin , and dies ;

Where but to think is to be full of sorrow

And leaden @-@ eyed despairs ;

Where beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes ,

Or new Love pine at them beyond to @-@ morrow . 30

Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee ,

Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards ,

But on the viewless wings of Poesy ,

Though the dull brain perplexes and retards :

Already with thee ! tender is the night , 35

And haply the Queen @-@ Moon is on her throne ,

Cluster 'd around by all her starry Fays

But here there is no light ,

Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown

Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways . 40

I cannot see what flowers are at my feet ,

Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs ,

But , in embalmèd darkness , guess each sweet

Wherewith the seasonable month endows

The grass , the thicket , and the fruit @-@ tree wild ; 45

White hawthorn , and the pastoral eglantine ;

Fast @-@ fading violets cover 'd up in leaves ;

And mid @-@ May 's eldest child ,

The coming musk @-@ rose , full of dewy wine ,

The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves . 50

Darkling I listen ; and , for many a time

I have been half in love with easeful Death ,

Call 'd him soft names in many a musèd rhyme ,

To take into the air my quiet breath ;

Now more than ever seems it rich to die , 55

To cease upon the midnight with no pain ,

While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad

In such an ecstasy !

Still wouldst thou sing , and I have ears in vain —

To thy high requiem become a sod . 60

Thou wast not born for death , immortal Bird !

No hungry generations tread thee down ;

The voice I hear this passing night was heard

In ancient days by emperor and clown :

Perhaps the self @-@ same song that found a path 65

Through the sad heart of Ruth , when , sick for home ,

She stood in tears amid the alien corn ;

The same that ofttimes hath

Charm 'd magic casements , opening on the foam

Of perilous seas , in faery lands forlorn . 70

Forlorn ! the very word is like a bell

To toll me back from thee to my sole self !

Adieu ! the fancy cannot cheat so well

As she is famed to do , deceiving elf .

Adieu ! adieu ! thy plaintive anthem fades 75

Past the near meadows , over the still stream ,

Up the hill @-@ side ; and now ' tis buried deep

In the next valley @-@ glades :

Was it a vision , or a waking dream ?

Fled is that music : — do I wake or sleep ? 80

= = Themes = =

" Ode to a Nightingale " describes a series of conflicts between reality and the Romantic ideal of uniting with nature . In the words of Richard Fogle , " The principal stress of the poem is a struggle between ideal and actual : inclusive terms which , however , contain more particular antitheses of pleasure and pain , of imagination and common sense reason , of fullness and privation , of permanence and change , of nature and the human , of art and life , freedom and bondage , waking and dream . " Of course , the nightingale 's song is the dominant image and dominant " voice " within the ode . The nightingale is also the object of empathy and praise within the poem . However , the nightingale and the discussion of the nightingale is not simply about the bird or the song , but about human experience in general . This is not to say that the song is a simple metaphor , but it is a complex image that is formed through the interaction of the conflicting voices of praise and questioning . On this theme , David Perkins summarizes the way " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " perform this when he says , " we are dealing with a talent , indeed an entire approach to poetry , in which symbol , however necessary , may possibly not satisfy as the principal concern of poetry , any more than it could with Shakespeare , but is rather an element in the poetry and drama of human reactions " . However , there is a difference between an urn and a nightingale in that the nightingale is not an eternal entity . Furthermore , in creating any aspect of the nightingale immortal during the poem the narrator separates any union that he can have with the nightingale .

The nightingale 's song within the poem is connected to the art of music in a way that the urn in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " is connected to the art of sculpture . As such , the nightingale would represent an enchanting presence and , unlike the urn , is directly connected to nature . As natural music , the song is for beauty and lacks a message of truth . Keats follows Coleridge 's belief , as found in " The Nightingale " , in separating from the world by losing himself in the bird 's song . Although Keats favours a female nightingale over Coleridge 's masculine bird , both reject the traditional depiction of the nightingale as related to the tragedy of Philomela . Their songbird is a happy nightingale that lacks the melancholic feel of previous poetic depictions . The bird is only a voice within the poem , but it is a voice that compels the narrator to join with in and forget the sorrows of the world . However , there is tension in that the narrator holds Keats 's guilt regarding the death of Tom Keats , his brother . The song 's conclusion represents the result of trying to escape into the realm of fancy .

Like Percy Bysshe Shelley ’ s " To a Skylark " , Keats ’ s narrator listens to a bird song , but listening to the song within “ Ode to a Nightingale ” is almost painful and similar to death . The narrator seeks to be with the nightingale and abandons his sense of vision in order to embrace the sound in an attempt to share in the darkness with the bird . As the poem ends , the trance caused by the nightingale is broken and the narrator is left wondering if it was a real vision or just a dream . The poem reliance on the process of sleeping common to Keats 's poems , and " Ode to a Nightingale " shares many of the same themes as Keats 's Sleep and Poetry and Eve of St. Agnes . This further separates the image of the nightingale 's song from its closest comparative image , the urn as represented in " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . The nightingale is distant and mysterious , and even disappears at the end of the poem . The dream image emphasizes the shadowiness and elusiveness of the poem . These elements make it impossible for there to be a complete self @-@ identification with the nightingale , but it also allows for self @-@ awareness to permeate throughout the poem , albeit in an altered state .

Midway through the poem , there is a split between the two actions of the poem : the first attempts to identify with the nightingale and its song , and the second discusses the convergence of the past with the future while experiencing the present . This second theme is reminiscent of Keats 's view of human progression through the Mansion of Many Apartments and how man develops from experiencing and wanting only pleasure to understanding truth as a mixture of both pleasure and pain . The Elysian fields and the nightingale 's song in the first half of the poem represent the pleasurable moments that overwhelm the individual like a drug . However , the experience does not last forever , and the body is left desiring it until the narrator feels helpless without the pleasure . Instead of embracing the coming truth , the narrator clings to poetry to hide from the loss of pleasure . Poetry does not bring about the pleasure that the narrator original asks for , but it does liberate him from his desire for only pleasure .

Responding to this emphasis on pleasure , Albert Guerard , Jr. argues that the poem contains a " longing not for art but a free reverie of any kind . The form of the poem is that of progression by association , so that the movement of feeling is at the mercy of words evoked by chance , such words as fade and forlorn , the very words that , like a bell , toll the dreamer back to his sole self . " However , Fogle points out that the terms Guerard emphasizes are " associational translations " and that Guerard misunderstands Keats 's aesthetic . After all , the acceptance of the loss of pleasure by the end of the poem is an acceptance of life and , in turn , of death . Death was a constant theme that permeated aspects of Keats poetry because he was exposed to death of his family members throughout his life . Within the poem , there are many images of death . The nightingale experiences a sort of death and even the god Apollo experiences death , but his death reveals his own divine state . As Perkins explains , " But , of course , the nightingale is not thought to be literally dying . The point is that the deity or the nightingale can sing without dying . But , as the ode makes clear , man cannot — or at least not in a visionary way . "

With this theme of a loss of pleasure and inevitable death , the poem , according to Claude Finney , describes " the inadequacy of the romantic escape from the world of reality to the world of ideal beauty " . Earl Wasserman essentially agrees with Finney , but he extended his summation of the poem to incorporate the themes of Keats 's Mansion of Many Apartments when he says , " the core of the poem is the search for the mystery , the unsuccessful quest for light within its darkness " and this " leads only to an increasing darkness , or a growing recognition of how impenetrable the mystery is to mortals . " With these views in mind , the poem recalls Keats 's earlier view of pleasure and an optimistic view of poetry found within his earlier poems , especially Sleep and Poetry , and rejects them . This loss of pleasure and incorporation of death imagery lends the poem a dark air , which connects " Ode to a Nightingale " with Keats ' other poems that discuss the demonic nature of poetic imagination , including Lamia . In the poem , Keats imagines the loss of the physical world and sees himself dead — he uses an abrupt , almost brutal word for it — as a " sod " over which the nightingale sings . The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man , sitting in his garden , is made all the more acute by an effort of the imagination .

= = Keats 's reception = =

Contemporary critics of Keats enjoyed the poem , and it was heavily quoted in their reviews . An anonymous review of Keats 's poetry that ran in the August and October 1820 Scots Magazine stated : " Amongst the minor poems we prefer the ' Ode to the Nightingale . ' Indeed , we are inclined to prefer it beyond every other poem in the book ; but let the reader judge . The third and seventh stanzas have a charm for us which we should find it difficult to explain . We have read this ode over and over again , and every time with increased delight . " At the same time , Leigh Hunt wrote a review of Keats 's poem for the 2 August and 9 August 1820 The Indicator : " As a specimen of the Poems , which are all lyrical , we must indulge ourselves in quoting entire the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' . There is that mixture in it of real melancholy and imaginative relief , which poetry alone presents us in her ' charmed cup , ' and which some over @-@ rational critics have undertaken to find wrong because it is not true . It does not follow that what is not true to them , is not true to others . If the relief is real , the mixture is good and sufficing . "

John Scott , in an anonymous review for the September 1820 edition of The London Magazine , argued for the greatness of Keats 's poetry as exemplified by poems including " Ode to a Nightingale " :

The injustice which has been done to our author 's works , in estimating their poetical merit , rendered us doubly anxious , on opening his last volume , to find it likely to seize fast hold of general sympathy , and thus turn an overwhelming power against the paltry traducers of talent , more eminently promising in many respects , than any the present age has been called upon to encourage . We have not found it to be quite all that we wished in this respect--and it would have been very extraordinary if we had , for our wishes went far beyond reasonable expectations . But we have found it of a nature to present to common understandings the poetical power with which the author 's mind is gifted , in a more tangible and intelligible shape than that in which it has appeared in any of his former compositions . It is , therefore , calculated to throw shame on the lying , vulgar spirit , in which this young worshipper in the temple of the Muses has been cried @-@ down ; whatever questions may still leave to be settled as to the kind and degree of his poetical merits . Take for instance , as proof of the justice of our praise , the following passage from an Ode to the Nightingale : --it is distinct , noble , pathetic , and true : the thoughts have all chords of direct communication with naturally @-@ constituted hearts : the echoes of the strain linger bout the depths of human bosoms .

In a review for the 21 January 1835 London Journal , Hunt claimed that while Keats wrote the poem , " The poet had then his mortal illness upon him , and knew it . Never was the voice of death sweeter . " David Moir , in 1851 , used The Even of St Agnes to claim , " We have here a specimen of descriptive power luxuriously rich and original ; but the following lines , from the ' Ode to a Nightingale , ' flow from a far more profound fountain of inspiration . "

At the end of the 19th century , Robert Bridges 's analysis of the poem became a dominant view and would influence later interpretations of the poem . Bridges , in 1895 , declared that the poem was the best of Keats 's odes but he thought that the poem contained too much artificial language . In particular , he emphasised the use of the word " forlorn " and the last stanza as being examples of Keats 's artificial language . In " Two odes of Keats 's " ( 1897 ) , William C Wilkinson suggested that " Ode to a Nightingale " is deeply flawed because it contains too many " incoherent musings " that failed to supply a standard of logic that would allow the reader to understand the relationship between the poet and the bird . However , Herbert Grierson , arguing in 1928 , believed Nightingale to be superior to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , and " Ode to Psyche " , arguing the exact opposite of Wilkinson as he stated that " Nightingale " , along with " To Autumn " , showed a greater amount of logical thought and more aptly presented the cases they were intended to make .

= = = 20th @-@ century criticism = = =

At the beginning of the 20th century , Rudyard Kipling referred to lines 69 and 70 , alongside three lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's Kubla Khan , when he claimed of poetry : " In all the millions permitted there are no more than five — five little lines — of which one can say , ' These are the magic . These are the vision . The rest is only Poetry . ' " In 1906 , Alexander Mackie argued : " The nightingale and the lark for long monopolised poetic idolatry--a privilege they enjoyed solely on account of their pre @-@ eminence as song birds . Keats 's Ode to a Nightingale and Shelley 's Ode to a Skylark are two of the glories of English literature ; but both were written by men who had no claim to special or exact knowledge of ornithology as such . " Sidney Colvin , in 1920 , argued , " Throughout this ode Keats ’ s genius is at its height . Imagination cannot be more rich and satisfying , felicity of phrase and cadence cannot be more absolute , than in the several contrasted stanzas calling for the draft of southern vintage [ … ] To praise the art of a passage like that in the fourth stanza [ … ] to praise or comment on a stroke of art like this is to throw doubt on the reader ’ s power to perceive it for himself . "

Bridge 's view of " Ode to a Nightingale " was taken up by H. W. Garrod in his 1926 analysis of Keats 's poems . Like Albert Gerard would argue later in 1944 , Garrod believed that the problem within Keats 's poem was his emphasis on the rhythm and the language instead of the main ideas of the poem . When describing the fourth stanza of the poem , Maurice Ridley , in 1933 , claimed , " And so comes the stanza , with that remarkable piece of imagination at the end which feels the light as blown by the breezes , one of those characteristic sudden flashes with which Keats fires the most ordinary material . " He later declared of the seventh stanza : " And now for the great stanza in which the imagination is fanned to yet whiter heat , the stanza that would , I suppose , by common consent be taken , along with Kubla Khan , as offering us the distilled sorceries of ' Romanticism ' " . He concluded on the stanza that " I do not believe that any reader who has watched Keats at work on the more exquisitely finished of the stanzas in The Eve of St. Agnes , and seen this craftsman slowly elaborating and refining , will ever believe that this perfect stanza was achieved with the easy fluency with which , in the draft we have , it was obviously written down . " In 1936 , F. R. Leavis wrote , " One remembers the poem both as recording , and as being for the reader , an indulgence . " Following Leavis , Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren , in a 1938 essay , saw the poem as " a very rich poem . It contains some complications which we must not gloss over if we are to appreciate the depth and significance of the issues engaged . " Brooks would later argue in The Well @-@ Wrought Urn ( 1947 ) that the poem was thematically unified while contradicting many of the negative criticisms lodged against the poem .

Richard Fogle responded to the critical attack on Keats 's emphasis on rhyme and language put forth by Garrod , Gerard , and others in 1953 . His argument was similar to Brooks : that the poem was thematically coherent and that there is a poet within the poem that is different from Keats the writer of the poem . As such , Keats consciously chose the shift in the themes of the poem and the contrasts within the poem represent the pain felt when comparing the real world to an ideal world found within the imagination . Fogle also responded directly to the claims made by Leavis : " I find Mr. Leavis too austere , but he points out a quality which Keats plainly sought for . His profusion and prodigality is , however , modified by a principle of sobriety . " It is possible that Fogle 's statements were a defense of Romanticism as a group that was both respectable in terms of thought and poetic ability . Wasserman , following in 1953 , claimed that " Of all Keats ' poems , it is probably the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' that has most tormented the critic [ ... ] in any reading of the ' Ode to a Nightingale ' the turmoil will not down . Forces contend wildly within the poem , not only without resolution , but without possibility of resolution ; and the reader comes away from his experience with the sense that he has been in ' a wild Abyss ' " . He then explained , " It is this turbulence , I suspect , that has led Allen Tate to believe the ode ' at least tries to say everything that poetry an say . ' But I propose it is the ' Ode on a Grecian Urn ' that succeeds in saying what poetry can say , and that the other ode attempts to say all that the poet can . "

= = = Later critical responses = = =

Although the poem was defended by a few critics , E. C. Pettet returned to the argument that the poem lacked a structure and emphasized the word " forlorn " as evidence of his view . In his 1957 work , Pettet did praise the poem as he declared , " The Ode to a Nightingale has a special interest in that most of us would probably regard it as the most richly representative of all Keats ’ s poems . Two reasons for this quality are immediately apparent : there is its matchless evocation of that late spring and early summer season [ … ] and there is its exceptional degree of ' distillation ' , of concentrated recollection " . David Perkins felt the need to defend the use of the word " forlorn " and claimed that it described the feeling from the impossibility of not being able to live in the world of the imagination . When praising the poem in 1959 , Perkins claimed , " Although the " Ode to a Nightingale " ranges more widely than the " Ode on a Grecian Urn , " the poem can also be regarded as the exploration or testing out of a symbol , and , compared with the urn as a symbol , the nightingale would seem to have both limitations and advantages . " Walter Jackson Bate also made a similar defense of the word " forlorn " by claiming that the world described by describing the impossibility of reaching that land . When describing the poem compared to the rest of English poetry , Bate argued in 1963 , " Ode to a Nightingale " is among " the greatest lyrics in English " and the only one written with such speed : " We are free to doubt whether any poem in English of comparable length and quality has been composed so quickly . " In 1968 , Robert Gittins stated , " It may not be wrong to regard [ Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy ] as Keats 's earlier essays in this [ ode ] form , and the great Nightingale and Grecian Urn as his more finished and later works . "

From the late 1960s onward , many of the Yale School of critics describe the poem as a reworking of John Milton 's poetic diction , but they argued that poem revealed that Keats lacked the ability of Milton as a poet . The critics , Harold Bloom ( 1965 ) , Leslie Brisman ( 1973 ) , Paul Fry ( 1980 ) , John Hollander ( 1981 ) and Cynthia Chase ( 1985 ) , all focused on the poem with Milton as a progenitor to " Ode to a Nightingale " while ignoring other possibilities , including Shakespeare who was emphasised as being the source of many of Keats 's phrases . Responding to the claims about Milton and Keats 's shortcomings , critics like R. S. White ( 1981 ) and Willard Spiegelman ( 1983 ) used the Shakespearean echoes to argue for a multiplicity of sources for the poem to claim that Keats was not trying to respond just Milton or escape from his shadow . Instead , " Ode to a Nightingale " was an original poem , as White claimed , " The poem is richly saturated in Shakespeare , yet the assimilations are so profound that the Ode is finally original , and wholly Keatsian " . Similarly , Spiegelman claimed that Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream had " flavored and ripened the later poem " . This was followed in 1986 by Jonathan Bate claiming that Keats was " left enriched by the voice of Shakespeare , the ' immortal bird ' " .

Focusing on the quality of the poem , Stuart Sperry , argued in 1973 , " ' Ode to a Nightingale ' is the supreme expression in all Keats 's poetry of the impulse to imaginative escape that flies in the face of the knowledge of human limitation , the impulse fully expressed in ' Away ! away ! for I will fly to thee . ' " Wolf Hirst , in 1981 , described the poem as " justly celebrated " and claimed that " Since this movement into an eternal realm of song is one of the most magnificent in literature , the poet 's return to actuality is all the more shattering . " Helen Vendler continued the earlier view that the poem was artificial but added that the poem was an attempt to be aesthetic and spontaneous that was later dropped . In 1983 , she argued , " In its absence of conclusiveness and its abandonment to reverie , the poem appeals to readers who prize it as the most personal , the most apparently spontaneous , the most immediately beautiful , and the most confessional of Keats 's odes . I believe that the ' events ' of the ode , as it unfolds in time , have more logic , however , than is usually granted them , and that they are best seen in relation to Keats 's pursuit of the idea of music as a nonrepresentational art . "

In a review of contemporary criticism of " Ode to a Nightingale " in 1998 , James O 'Rouke claimed that " To judge from the volume , the variety , and the polemical force of the modern critical responses engendered , there have been few moments in English poetic history as baffling as Keats 's repetition of the word ' forlorn ' " . When referring to the reliance of the ideas of John Dryden and William Hazlitt within the poem , Poet Laureate Andrew Motion , in 1999 , argued " whose notion of poetry as a ' movement ' from personal consciousness to an awareness of suffering humanity it perfectly illustrates . "

= = In fiction = =

F. Scott Fitzgerald took the title of his novel Tender is the Night from the 35th line of the ode .

According to Ildikó de Papp Carrington , Keats ' wording , " when , sick for home , / She stood in tears amid the alien corn " , seems to be echoed in by Alice Munro 's Save the Reaper ( 1998 ) , the end of which reads : " Eve would lie down [ ... ] with nothing in her head but the rustle of the deep tall corn which might have stopped growing now but still made its live noise after dark " ( book version ) .

The poem is quoted in Chapter 1 of P. G. Wodehouse 's novel Full Moon ( 1947 ) : " ' Coming here ? Freddie ? ' .A numbness seemed to be paining his sense , as though of hemlock he had drunk . "

= Weather buoy =

Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the world 's oceans , as well as aid during emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored buoys have been in use since 1951 , while drifting buoys have been used since 1979 . Moored buoys are connected with the ocean bottom using either chains , nylon , or buoyant polypropylene . With the decline of the weather ship , they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s . During the 1980s and 1990s , a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific ocean helped study the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation . Moored weather buoys range from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in diameter , while drifting buoys are smaller , with diameters of 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) . Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number , with 1250 located worldwide . Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships . There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well , relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity .

= = History = =

The first known proposal for surface weather observations at sea occurred in connection with aviation in August 1927 , when Grover Loening stated that " weather stations along the ocean coupled with the development of the seaplane to have an equally long range , would result in regular ocean flights within ten years . " Starting in 1939 , United States Coast Guard vessels were being used as weather ships to protect transatlantic air commerce .

During World War II The German Navy deployed weather buoys ( Wetterfunkgerät See — WFS ) at fifteen fixed positions in the North Atlantic and Barents Sea . They were launched from U @-@ boats into a maximum depth of ocean of 1000 fathoms ( 1 @,@ 800 metres ) , limited by the length of the anchor cable . Overall height of the body was 10 @.@ 5 metres ( of which most was submerged ) , surmounted by a mast and extendible aerial of 9 metres . Data ( air and water temperature , atmospheric pressure and relative humidity ) were encoded and transmitted four times a day . When the batteries ( high voltage dry @-@ cells for the valves , and nickel @-@ iron for other power and to raise and lower the aerial mast ) were exhausted , after about eight to ten weeks , the unit self @-@ destructed .

The Navy Oceanographic Meteorological Automatic Device ( NOMAD ) buoy 's 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) hull was originally designed in the 1940s for the United States Navy ’ s offshore data collection program . Between 1951 and 1970 , a total of 21 NOMAD buoys were built and deployed at sea . Since the 1970s , weather buoy use has superseded the role of weather ships by design , as they are cheaper to operate and maintain . The earliest reported use of drifting buoys was to study the behavior of ocean currents within the Sargasso Sea in 1972 and 1973 . Drifting buoys have been used increasingly since 1979 , and as of 2005 , 1250 drifting buoys roamed the Earth 's oceans .

Between 1985 and 1994 , an extensive array of moored and drifting buoys was deployed across the equatorial Pacific Ocean designed to help monitor and predict the El Niño phenomenon . Hurricane Katrina capsized a 10 m ( 33 ft ) buoy for the first time in the history of the National Data Buoy Center ( NDBC ) on August 28 , 2005 . On June 13 , 2006 , drifting buoy 26028 ended its long @-@ term data collection of sea surface temperature after transmitting for 10 years , 4 months , and 16 days , which is the longest known data collection time for any drifting buoy . The first weather buoy in the Southern Ocean was deployed by the Integrated Marine Observing System ( IMOS ) on March 17 , 2010 .

= = Instrumentation = =

Weather buoys , like other types of weather stations , measure parameters such as air temperature above the ocean surface , wind speed ( steady and gusting ) , barometric pressure , and wind direction . Since they lie in oceans and lakes , they also measure water temperature , wave height , and dominant wave period . Raw data is processed and can be logged on board the buoy and then transmitted via radio , cellular , or satellite communications to meteorological centers for use in weather forecasting and climate study . Both moored buoys and drifting buoys ( drifting in the open ocean currents ) are used . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies . These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution . Other than their use as a source of meteorological data , their data is used within research programs , emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored weather buoys can also act as a navigational aid , like other types of buoys .

= = Types = =

Weather buoys range in diameter from 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . Those that are placed in shallow waters are smaller in size and moored using only chains , while those in deeper waters use a combination of chains , nylon , and buoyant polypropylene . Since they do not have direct navigational significance , moored weather buoys are classed as special marks under the IALA scheme , are coloured yellow , and display a yellow flashing light at night .

Discus buoys are round and moored in deep ocean locations , with a diameter of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) to 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . The aluminum 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) buoy is a very rugged meteorological ocean platform that has long term survivability . The expected service life of the 3 @-@ metre ( 10 ft ) platform is in excess of 20 years and properly maintained , these buoys have not been retired due to corrosion . The NOMAD is a unique moored aluminum environmental monitoring buoy designed for deployments in extreme conditions near the coast and across the Great Lakes . NOMADs moored off the Atlantic Canadian coast commonly experience winter storms with maximum wave heights approaching 20 metres ( 66 ft ) into the Gulf of Maine .

Drifting buoys are smaller than their moored counterparts , measuring 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) in diameter . They are made of plastic or fiberglass , and tend to be either bi @-@ colored , with white on one half and another color on the other half of the float , or solidly black or blue . It measures a smaller subset of meteorological variables when compared to its moored counterpart , with a barometer measuring pressure in a tube on its top . They have a thermistor ( metallic thermometer ) on its base , and an underwater drogue , or sea anchor , located 15 metres ( 49 ft ) below the ocean surface connected with the buoy by a long , thin tether .

= = Deployment and maintenance = =

A large network of coastal buoys near the United States is maintained by the National Data Buoy Center , with deployment and maintenance performed by the United States Coast Guard . For South Africa , the South African Weather Service deploys and retrieves their own buoys , while the Meteorological Service of New Zealand performs the same task for their country . Environment Canada operates and deploys buoys for their country . The Met Office in Great Britain deploys drifting buoys across both the northern and southern Atlantic oceans .

= = Comparison to data from ships = =

Wind reports from moored buoys have smaller error than those from ships . Complicating the comparison of the two measurements are that NOMAD buoys report winds at a height of 5 metres ( 16 ft ) , while ships report winds from a height of 20 metres ( 66 ft ) to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) . Sea surface temperature measured in the intake port of large ships have a warm bias of around 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 1 ° F ) due to the heat of the engine room . This bias has led to changes in the perception of global warming since 2000 . Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of 3 metres ( 10 ft ) .

= HMS Marlborough ( 1912 ) =

HMS Marlborough was an Iron Duke @-@ class battleship of the British Royal Navy , named in honour of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough . She was built at Devonport Royal Dockyard between January 1912 and June 1914 , entering service just before the outbreak of the First World War . She was armed with a main battery of ten 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) .

Marlborough served with the Grand Fleet for the duration of the war , primarily patrolling the northern end of the North Sea to enforce the blockade of Germany . She saw action at the Battle of Jutland ( 31 May – 1 June 1916 ) , where she administered the coup de grâce to the badly damaged German cruiser SMS Wiesbaden . During the engagement , Wiesbaden hit Marlborough with a torpedo that eventually forced her to withdraw . The damage to Marlborough was repaired by early August , though the last two years of the war were uneventful , as the British and German fleets adopted more cautious strategies due to the threat of underwater weapons .

After the war , Marlborough was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , where she took part in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea in 1919 – 20 . She was also involved in the Greco @-@ Turkish War . In 1930 , the London Naval Treaty mandated that the four Iron Duke @-@ class battleships be discarded ; Marlborough was used for a variety of weapons tests in 1931 – 32 , the results of which were incorporated into the reconstruction programme for the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships .

= = Design = =

Marlborough was 622 feet 9 inches ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 90 ft ( 27 m ) and an average draught of 29 ft 6 in ( 9 m ) . She displaced 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 401 t ) as designed and up to 29 @,@ 560 long tons ( 30 @,@ 034 t ) at combat loading . Her propulsion system consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eighteen Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The engines were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 625 kW ) and produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 25 kn ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Marlborough 's cruising radius was 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 446 km ; 8 @,@ 976 mi ) at a more economical 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 995 officers and enlisted men ; during wartime this increased to up to 1 @,@ 022 .

The ship was armed with a main battery of ten BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V naval guns mounted in five twin gun turrets . They were arranged in two superfiring pairs , one forward and one aft ; the fifth turret was located amidships , between the funnels and the rear superstructure . Close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats was provided by a secondary armament of twelve BL 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . Marlborough was also fitted with a pair of QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was typical for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with four 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged on the broadside . She was protected by a main armoured belt that was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the ship 's vitals . Her deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) thick . The main battery turret faces were 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick , and the turrets were supported by barbettes 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick .

= = Service history = =

Marlborough was laid down at Devonport Royal Dockyard on 25 January 1912 . She was launched nearly ten months later , on 24 October , and was commissioned on 2 June 1914 . The ship was completed on 16 June 1914 , a month before the First World War broke out on the Continent . Marlborough initially joined the Home Fleets , where she served as the flagship for Sir Lewis Bayly . Following the British entry into the war in August , the Home Fleets was reorganised as the Grand Fleet , commanded by Admiral John Jellicoe . Marlborough was assigned as the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron , where she served for the duration of the conflict .

= = = First World War = = =

On the evening of 22 November 1914 , the Grand Fleet conducted a fruitless sweep in the southern half of the North Sea to support Vice Admiral David Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron . The fleet was back in port in Scapa Flow by 27 November . Marlborough and most of the fleet initially remained in port during the German raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 16 December 1914 , though the 3rd Battle Squadron was sent to reinforce the British forces in the area . After receiving further information about the possibility of the rest of the German fleet being at sea , Jellicoe gave the order for the fleet to sortie to try to intercept the Germans , though by that time they had already retreated . Vice Admiral Cecil Burney replaced Bayley aboard Marlborough in December ; at that time , Marlborough became the second @-@ in @-@ command flagship for the Grand Fleet . On 25 December , the fleet sortied for a sweep in the North Sea , which concluded on 27 December without event . Marlborough and the rest of the fleet conducted gunnery drills during 10 – 13 January 1915 west of the Orkneys and Shetlands . On the evening of 23 January , the bulk of the Grand Fleet sailed in support of Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet but the rest of the fleet did not become engaged in the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank the following day .

On 7 – 10 March 1915 , the Grand Fleet conducted a sweep in the northern North Sea , during which it undertook training manoeuvres . Another such cruise took place during 16 – 19 March . On 11 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a patrol in the central North Sea and returned to port on 14 April ; another patrol in the area took place during 17 – 19 April , followed by gunnery drills off the Shetlands on 20 – 21 April . The Grand Fleet conducted a sweep into the central North Sea during 17 – 19 May without encountering German vessels . Another patrol followed during 29 – 31 May ; it too was uneventful . The fleet conducted gunnery training in mid @-@ June . During 2 – 5 September , the fleet went on another cruise in the northern end of the North Sea and conducted gunnery drills . Throughout the rest of the month , the Grand Fleet conducted numerous training exercises .

On 13 October , the majority of the fleet conducted a sweep into the North Sea , returning to port on 15 October . During 2 – 5 November , Marlborough participated in a fleet training operation west of the Orkneys . Another such cruise took place during 1 – 4 December . The typical routine of gunnery drills and squadron exercises occurred in January 1916 . The fleet departed for a cruise in the North Sea on 26 February ; Jellicoe had intended to use the Harwich Force to sweep the Heligoland Bight , but bad weather prevented operations in the southern North Sea . As a result , the operation was confined to the northern end of the sea . On the night of 25 March , Iron Duke and the rest of the fleet sailed from Scapa Flow , to support the Battlecruiser Fleet and other light forces that raided the German zeppelin base at Tondern .

On 21 April , the Grand Fleet conducted a demonstration off Horns Reef to distract the Germans , while the Russian Navy relaid its defensive minefields in the Baltic Sea . The fleet returned to Scapa Flow on 24 April and refuelled , before proceeding south in response to intelligence reports that the Germans were about to launch a raid on Lowestoft . The Grand Fleet did not arrive in the area until after the Germans had withdrawn . During 2 – 4 May , the fleet conducted another demonstration off Horns Reef to keep German attention focused on the North Sea .

= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =

In an attempt to lure out and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet , the German High Seas Fleet with 16 dreadnoughts , six pre @-@ dreadnoughts , six light cruisers and 31 torpedo boats commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , departed the Jade early on the morning of 31 May . The fleet sailed in concert with Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's five battlecruisers and supporting cruisers and torpedo boats . The Royal Navy 's Room 40 had intercepted and decrypted German radio traffic containing plans of the operation . The Admiralty ordered the Grand Fleet of 28 dreadnoughts and 9 battlecruisers , to sortie the night before to cut off and destroy the High Seas Fleet . On the day of the battle , Marlborough was stationed toward the rear of the British line in the 6th Division of the 1st Battle Squadron .

The initial action was fought primarily by the British and German battlecruiser formations in the afternoon , but by 18 : 00 , the Grand Fleet approached the scene . Fifteen minutes later , Jellicoe gave the order to turn and deploy the fleet for action . The transition from their cruising formation caused congestion with the rear divisions , forcing Marlborough and many of the other ships to reduce speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) to avoid colliding with each other . The British ships initially had poor visibility and Marlborough could only faintly make out a group of German Kaiser @-@ class battleships at 18 : 17 . In the span of four minutes , she fired seven salvos , first at 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and then at 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Marlborough 's gunners claimed to have made hits with the 5th and 7th salvos but these claims are unlikely . Her guns were then masked by a burning cruiser , probably the armoured cruiser HMS Warrior .

Marlborough joined the group of battleships battering the German light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden at 18 : 25 . She fired five salvos , before a premature detonation in the right barrel of " A " turret disabled the gun . She also engaged the ship with her secondary battery . At 18 : 39 , Marlborough again engaged what appeared to be a Kaiser @-@ class ship , firing a salvo before the German vessel disappeared into the haze . During the engagement with Wiesbaden , the German cruiser launched one or two torpedoes at around 18 : 45 , one of which struck Marlborough around the starboard diesel generator room . The detonation tore a 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) hole in the hull and causing significant flooding , that forced the forward boilers on that side of the ship to be extinguished and reduced the ship 's speed to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Burney initially reported to Jellicoe that his ship had struck a mine or had been hit by a torpedo at 18 : 57 . Several more torpedoes , this time from the torpedo boat SMS V48 , forced Marlborough and the rest of the ships in her division to take evasive action .

At 19 : 03 , Marlborough engaged Wiesbaden again , firing four salvos at ranges of 9 @,@ 500 to 9 @,@ 800 yards ( 8 @,@ 700 to 9 @,@ 000 m ) . She hit the German cruiser with probably three shells from the last two salvos and these finally neutralised the ship , although it took several more hours before Wiesbaden sank . Marlborough then shifted fire to the König @-@ class battleships leading the German line at 19 : 12 . She fired thirteen salvos in the span of six minutes at SMS Grosser Kurfürst at ranges of 10 @,@ 200 to 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 330 to 9 @,@ 830 m ) , scoring three hits , though she incorrectly claimed a fourth hit . During this phase of the battle , Marlborough fired two torpedoes , both of which missed their targets : the first at Wiesbaden at 19 : 10 and the second at SMS Kaiser at 19 : 25 .

By about 19 : 30 , Marlborough 's pumps had contained the flooding in the boiler rooms but she took on a list of around 7 – 8 degrees . Instead of using counter @-@ flooding to minimise the list , her crew attempted to correct the list by using coal and oil from the starboard bunkers first . The list caused the generators supplying power to the main battery turrets to flood , hampering the gun crews , particularly as shells were transferred from the magazines to the turrets . The blast from the torpedo was so powerful that forty watertight compartments were damaged , though the torpedo bulkhead localised most of the damage and the more badly damaged compartments were sufficiently shored up . Three more torpedoes approached Marlborough at 19 : 33 . She evaded the first two and the third harmlessly passed under the ship .

After the opposing fleets disengaged late in the day , the Grand Fleet steamed south in an attempt to cut off the retreating Germans and destroy them the following morning . The 6th Division was slowed down by Marlborough , which could make no more than 15 @.@ 75 kn ( 29 @.@ 17 km / h ; 18 @.@ 12 mph ) by this point . By around 02 : 00 on 1 June , the 6th Division was about 12 nmi ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) behind the rest of the fleet . At that time , the bulkheads in the starboard forward boiler room started to give way under the strain , forcing Marlborough to reduce speed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The damage control teams believed that if the main battery were to fire , the shoring supporting the damaged bulkheads would give way , greatly increasing the risk to the ship . Jellicoe detached the ship to proceed independently to Rosyth or the Tyne ; Burney had ordered the scout cruiser Fearless to come alongside to transfer him to the battleship Revenge . Marlborough thereafter proceeded northward at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .

Fearless rejoined Marlborough around 04 : 00 and both ships briefly fired at the German zeppelin L11 . Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force had been ordered to reinforce the Grand Fleet , particularly to relieve ships low on fuel ; they departed at 03 : 50 but this was too late for them to reach the fleet by morning , so Jellicoe ordered Tyrwhitt to detach destroyers to escort Marlborough back to port . On the way , Marlborough and Fearless encountered the British submarines G3 and G5 ; the two submarines prepared to attack the ships but fortunately recognised them before they launched torpedoes . By 15 : 00 , eight destroyers from the Harwich Force had joined Marlborough and another pump had been lowered into the flooded boiler room . At around 23 : 30 , the pump was being moved to clean it when the roll of the ship threw the pump into the damaged bulkhead , knocking the shores loose . Water flooded into the ship and Marlborough 's captain ordered Fearless and the destroyers to prepare to come alongside , to rescue the crew if the flooding worsened at 00 : 47 on 2 June . A diver was sent into the boiler room at that time , and he was able to keep the pump clean , which slowly reduced the water level in the ship .

Jellicoe ordered Marlborough to proceed to the Humber for temporary repairs . While there , her forward main battery and 6 @-@ inch magazines were emptied to lighten the ship , more pumps were brought aboard and the shoring supporting the damaged bulkhead was reinforced . On the morning of 6 June , the ship left the Humber for the Tyne , where she would receive permanent repairs , escorted by four destroyers from the Harwich Force . In the course of the battle , Marlborough had fired 162 shells from her main battery , 60 rounds from her secondary guns and five torpedoes . The torpedo hit had killed two men and wounded another two . She was repaired by the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard at Jarrow , with the work lasting until 2 August , after which she departed for Cromarty , arriving on 5 August . During the repair work , an extra 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of armour plating was added to the ship , primarily over the magazines . These alterations were the result of the British experience at Jutland , where three battlecruisers had been destroyed by magazine explosions .

= = = = Later operations = = = =

On 18 August , the Germans again sortied , this time to bombard Sunderland ; Scheer hoped to draw out Beatty 's battlecruisers and destroy them . British signals intelligence decrypted German wireless transmissions , allowing Jellicoe enough time to deploy the Grand Fleet in an attempt to engage in a decisive battle . Both sides withdrew the following day , after their opponents ' submarines inflicted losses in the Action of 19 August : the British cruisers Nottingham and Falmouth were both torpedoed and sunk by German U @-@ boats and the German battleship SMS Westfalen was damaged by the British submarine E23 . After returning to port , Jellicoe issued an order that prohibited risking the fleet in the southern half of the North Sea due to the overwhelming risk from mines and U @-@ boats .

In February 1917 , Revenge replaced Marlborough as the 1st Battle Squadron flagship ; she thereafter served as the second command flagship . She was briefly replaced in this role by Emperor of India in May and she temporarily became a private ship . Toward the end of the year , the Germans began using destroyers and light cruisers to raid the British convoys to Norway ; this forced the British to deploy capital ships to protect the convoys . On 23 April 1918 , the German fleet sortied in an attempt to catch one of the isolated British squadrons , though the convoy had already passed safely . The Grand Fleet sortied too late the following day to catch the retreating Germans , though the battlecruiser SMS Moltke was torpedoed and badly damaged by the submarine HMS E42 . In 1918 , Marlborough and her sisters received flying @-@ off platforms on their " B " and " Q " turrets to handle reconnaissance aircraft .

Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the Allies interned most of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive fleet consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . That morning , the Grand Fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training manoeuvres and while they were away Reuter issued the order to scuttle the High Seas Fleet .

= = = Postwar career = = =

On 12 March 1919 , Marlborough was recommissioned at Devonport and assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , as part of the 4th Battle Squadron , along with her three sisters and two Centurion @-@ class battleships . During this period , she served in the Black Sea during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War to support the Whites against the Red Bolsheviks . On 5 April 1919 , Marlborough arrived in Sevastopol before proceeding to Yalta the following day . The ship took Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna and other members of the Russian Imperial Family including Grand Duke Nicholas and Prince Felix Yusupov aboard in Yalta on the evening of the 7th . The Empress refused to leave unless the British also evacuated wounded and sick soldiers , along with any civilians that also wanted to escape the advancing Bolsheviks . The Russian entourage aboard Marlborough numbered some 80 people , including 44 members of the Royal Family and nobility , with a number of governesses , nurses , maids and manservants , plus several hundred cases of luggage .

About 35 officer ’ s cabins were vacated and additional bunks were installed , with the Empress taking over the Captain 's cabin . On the morning of 12 April the ship anchored off Halki Island , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Constantinople , due to some uncertainty over the final destination for the Russian Royal family . On 16 April Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich and his wife the Grand Duchess Anastasia , the Grand Duke Peter Nicholaievitch and his wife Grand Duchess Milica , Princess Marina , Prince Roman , Count and Countess Tyszkiewich , Baron and Baroness Staal , Mr Boldyreff and Dr Malama with their respective servants left the ship and boarded HMS Lord Nelson destined for Genoa . They were replaced by Count Dimitri and Countess Sophia Mengden , Count George and Countess Irina Mengden , Countess Vera Mengden , Count Nicholas Mengden , Madame Helena Erchoff and two maids . On the morning of 18 April , Good Friday , the ship sailed for Malta . The ship departed on 18 April , bound for Malta to deposit the Russians , before returning to Constantinople .

In May 1919 , Marlborough conducted tests with new high @-@ explosive 6 @-@ inch shells off the Kerch Peninsula , though these proved to be unreliable . During this period , she operated a kite balloon to aid in spotting the fall of shot . Later that month , a shell broke up in the left barrel of " A " turret and caused minor damage . While stationed off the Kerch Peninsula , the ship provided artillery support to White troops , including bombardments of Bolshevik positions in the villages of Koi @-@ Asan and Dal Kamici . By 1920 , British attention had turned to the Greco @-@ Turkish War . On 20 June 1920 , Marlborough arrived in Constantinople , where the Mediterranean Fleet was being concentrated to support the occupation of the city . On 6 July , British forces landed at Gemlik , while Marlborough provided artillery support .

In October 1920 , the battleship King George V arrived to replace Marlborough in the Mediterranean Fleet . Marlborough then returned to Devonport , where she was paid off for a major refit that took place between February 1921 and January 1922 . During the refit , range dials were installed , along with another range @-@ finder on the rear superstructure . The aircraft platform was removed from " B " turret . Long @-@ base range @-@ finders were installed on " X " turret . After completing the refit in January 1922 , Marlborough was recommissioned and assigned to the Mediterranean , where she replaced Emperor of India . She served as the second command flagship until October . Following the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 , the Allied countries withdrew their occupation forces from Turkey ; Marlborough was involved in escorting the troop convoys out of Constantinople .

Marlborough briefly served as the flagship for the deputy commander of the 4th Battle Squadron after King George V was damaged from striking a rock off Mytilene . In November 1924 , the 4th Battle Squadron was renamed the 3rd Battle Squadron . In March 1926 , the 3rd Battle Squadron , including Marlborough , was transferred to the Atlantic Fleet . There , the battleships served as training ships . In 1929 , the ship 's 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced with more powerful 4 @-@ inch guns . In January 1931 , Marlborough served as the squadron flagship , relieving Emperor of India . She remained in the position for only five months , being decommissioned on 5 June . According to the terms of the London Naval Treaty of 1930 , the four ships of the Iron Duke class were to be scrapped or demilitarised ; Marlborough was scheduled to be removed from service in 1931 and broken up for scrap .

The ship was used as a target to test the effect of various weapons on capital ships , along with Emperor of India . The tests included firing destroyer armament at the upper works at close range to test their effectiveness in a simulated night engagement , direct hits from 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shells , bomb tests , and experiments with flash tightness in the magazines . The first two tests were conducted in July 1931 , and were simulations of magazine explosions . The venting system worked as designed , and while the explosions caused serious internal damage , Marlborough was not destroyed , as the three battlecruisers had been at Jutland . In 1932 , further tests were conducted with dummy 250 @-@ pound ( 110 kg ) and 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs to test deck strength ; 450 @-@ pound ( 200 kg ) armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) bombs and 1 @,@ 080 @-@ pound ( 490 kg ) high explosive ( HE ) bombs were then detonated inside the ship to test their effectiveness . The Royal Navy determined that the HE bombs were useless , but that thick deck armour would be required to defeat AP bombs . This led to the decision to reinforce the deck armour of existing battleships throughout the 1930s .

Marlborough was placed on the disposal list in May 1932 and was quickly sold to the Alloa Shipbreaking Co . On 25 June , she arrived in Rosyth , where she was broken up for scrap .

= 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( North Korea ) =

The 766th Independent Infantry Regiment ( Korean : 제766독립보병연대 ) was a light infantry unit of North Korea 's Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) that existed briefly during the Korean War . It was headquartered in Hoeryong , North Korea , and was also known as the 766th Unit ( Korean : 766부대 ) . Trained extensively in amphibious warfare and unconventional warfare , the 766th Regiment was considered a special forces commando unit . The regiment was trained to conduct assaults by sea and then to lead other North Korean units on offensive operations , to infiltrate behind enemy lines and to disrupt enemy supplies and communications .

Activated in 1949 , the regiment trained for more than a year before the outbreak of the war on June 25 , 1950 . On that day , half of the regiment led North Korean forces against South Korean troops by land and sea , pushing them back after several days of fighting . Over the next six weeks the regiment advanced slowly down the Korean Peninsula , acting as a forward unit of the North Korean army . Suffering from a lack of supplies and mounting casualties , the regiment was committed to the Battle of Pusan Perimeter as part of a push to force United Nations ( UN ) troops out of Korea .

The regiment saw its final action at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , fighting unsuccessfully to take the town from U.N. troops . Racked by U.N. naval and air forces and suffering extensive losses from continuous fighting , the regiment was forced to retreat from the P 'ohang @-@ dong battlefield . It moved north , joining a concentration of other KPA units , before being disbanded and absorbed into the KPA 's 12th Division .

= = Organization = =

Upon creation , the 766th Unit was designed to vary in size , consisting of a number of smaller units capable of acting alone . Eventually , it was reinforced to the size of a full regiment , with 3 @,@ 000 men equally distributed across six battalions ( numbered 1st through 6th ) . It was made directly subordinate to the KPA Army headquarters and put under the command of Senior Colonel Oh Jin Woo , who would command the unit for its entire existence . All 500 men of the 3rd Battalion were lost just before the war started when their transport was sunk while attacking Pusan harbor by the Republic of Korea Navy . For the remainder of its existence the regiment was whittled down by losses until it numbered no more than 1 @,@ 500 men and could not muster more than three battalions .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

During the planning for the invasion of South Korea in the years before the war , the North Korean leadership began to create large numbers of commando and special forces units to send south . These units subverted South Korean authority before and during the war with terror campaigns , sabotage and inducing rebellions in ROK military units . Hundreds of commandos were sent to South Korea in this fashion , and by the end of the war up to 3 @,@ 000 of them had been trained and armed . During this time , North Korean leadership also ordered the creation of large conventional units to act as advance forces for the actual invasion . The 766th Unit was formed in April 1949 at the Third Military Academy in Hoeryong , North Korea . The academy was specially designed to train commandos , and the 766th was originally designed to supervise North Korean light infantry ranger units . Over the next year , the 766th Unit received extensive training in unconventional warfare and amphibious warfare . During this time , the unit was expanded in size to 3 @,@ 000 men in six battalions .

Prior to the beginning of the war in June 1950 , the 766th completed training and was moved to the front at Yangyang to support the KPA 's 5th Division . The North Korean plan was to conduct amphibious landings in Chongdongjin and Imwonjin on the eastern coast using the 766th Regiment , in conjunction with the 549th Unit . These amphibious landings would harass the rear area of the Republic of Korea Army , providing supporting attacks to the planned frontal attack by the KPA 's II Corps directly from the north . The 766th was in position by June 23 and prepared for the attack . The unit was moved to the ports of Wonsan and Kansong and loaded into ships . With the 3 @,@ 000 men in the 766th , another 3 @,@ 000 in the 549th , and 11 @,@ 000 men in the KPA 's 5th Division , the 17 @,@ 000 North Korean troops outnumbered the Republic of Korea Army 's ( ROK ) 8th Division 's 6 @,@ 866 by a ratio of 2 @.@ 1 to 1 . The combination of the frontal attack and the landings were expected to crush the ROK division and prevent reinforcements from moving in to support it .

The regiment was split into three groups for the attack . Three battalions acted as spearheads for the 5th Division on land while two more battalions conducted the landings in Imwonjin . This 2 @,@ 500 man force reassembled and then led the North Korean units south . In the meantime , the 3rd Battalion , 766th Regiment was detached and sent on a mission to infiltrate Pusan . Paired with additional support , it formed the 600 @-@ man 588th Unit . 588th Unit was tasked with raiding Pusan harbor , destroying vital facilities to make it impossible for UN forces to land troops there . However , the troop transport carrying the 588th Unit was discovered and sunk by United Nations ships outside Pusan harbor the morning of June 25 , destroying the 3rd Battalion .

= = = Outbreak = = =

Around 04 : 00 on June 25 , the KPA 's 5th Division began its first attacks on the ROK 10th Regiment 's forward positions . Three hours later , the 766th Regiment 's two battalions landed at the village of Imwonjin , using motor and sail boats to land troops and mustering South Korean villagers to assist in setting up supplies . The two battalions separated ; one headed into the T 'aeback Mountains and the second advanced north toward Samcheok . At this point , the ROK 8th Division , under heavy attack from the front and aware of attacks in the rear , urgently requested reinforcements . It was denied these reinforcements , as ROK higher commanders informed the division commander that the ROK Army was under heavy attack across the entirety of the 38th parallel and had no reinforcements to spare .

The ROK 21st Regiment , 8th Division 's southernmost unit , moved to counter the amphibious attack . The regiment 's 1st Battalion moved from Bukp 'yong into the Okgye area and ambushed forward elements of the 766th in conjunction with local police and militia forces . They were able to drive back the 766th Regiment 's northern advance . However , at least one of the 766th Regiment 's battalions massed at Bamjae , blocking one of the 8th Division 's main supply routes . ROK troops mustered a civilian militia to help fight the North Koreans , which was only moderately effective . The embattled ROK 8th Division was forced to withdraw under overwhelming attacks and breakdowns in communication on July 27 . With the retreat of the ROK 6th Division , the entire ROK eastern flank was forced back . The 766th Regiment had been successful in establishing a bridgehead and disrupting communications in the initial attack .

= = = Advance = = =

With the ROK army in retreat , the 766th Regiment , 549th Unit , and KPA 's 5th Divisions all advanced steadily south along the eastern roads without encountering much resistance . Across the entire front the North Korean Army had successfully routed the South Koreans and was pushing them south . The 766th Regiment acted as an advance force , attempting to infiltrate further inland as it moved through the mountainous eastern region of the country . The rugged terrain of the eastern regions of Korea , poor communication equipment , and unreliable resupply lines thwarted the South Korean resistance . The North Koreans used this to their advantage in advancing but they began to experience the same problems themselves . The 5th Division and the two other units began advancing south slowly and cautiously , sending strong reconnaissance parties into the mountains to ensure they would not be threatened from the rear . However , this more cautious advance began to give the South Koreans valuable time to build up further south . By June 28 , the 766th had infiltrated into Taebaek @-@ san from Uljin and was moving toward Ilwolsan , Yongyang and Cheongsong in order to block communications between Daegu and Busan , where United States Army forces were landing in an attempt to support the collapsing ROK Army .

The ROK 23rd Regiment of the ROK 3rd Division was moved to block the advance of the three units at Uljin . The ROK forces mounted a series of delaying actions against the main North Korean force , which was significantly dispersed throughout the mountainous region and unable to muster its overwhelming strength . The ROK regiment was subsequently able to hold up the North Korean advance until July 5 . On July 10 , the 766th separated from the 5th Division and met an advance party of North Korean civilians in Uljin who had been sent to set up government in the area . From here , the 766th dispersed in small groups into the mountains . On July 13 it reached Pyonghae @-@ ri , 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Yongdok .

Over the next week the 766th Regiment and the KPA 's 5th Division continued in a slow advance south as it met increasing South Korean resistance . United Nations air support began to increase , slowing the advance further . The force continued to occupy the eastern flank , and by July 24 it was advancing from the Chongsong @-@ Andong region and approaching Pohang . On its flank was the KPA 's 12th Division . Progress halted as UN aerial and naval bombardment made movement more difficult . At the same time the North Korean units ' supply lines were stretched thin and began to break down , forcing them to conscript South Korean civilians to carry supplies .

= = = Resistance = = =

On July 17 , the KPA 's 5th Division entered Yongdok , taking the city without much resistance before fierce UN air attacks caused the division heavy losses . Still , it was able to surround the ROK 3rd Division in the city . By now , the 5th Division and the 766th Regiment had been reduced to a combined strength of 7 @,@ 500 men to the ROK 3rd Divisions ' 6 @,@ 469 . The 766th massed its force again to assist the 5th Division in surrounding and besieging the ROK 3rd Division , which was trapped in the city . The 3rd Division , in the meantime , was ordered to remain in the city to delay the North Koreans as long as possible . It was eventually evacuated by sea after delaying North Korean forces for a considerable time . The rugged terrain of the mountains prevented the North Korean forces from conducting the enveloping maneuvers they had used so effectively against other troops , and their advantages in numbers and equipment had been negated in the fight .

By July 28 , the division was still embroiled in this fight and the 766th bypassed it and moved toward Chinbo on the left flank of the city . However the 766th had suffered significant setbacks at Yongdok , with substantial losses due to American and British naval artillery fire . Once it arrived in the area , it met heavier resistance from South Korean police and militia operating in armored vehicles . With air support , they offered the heaviest resistance the unit had faced thus far . With the support of only one of the 5th Division 's regiments , the 766th was unable to sustain its advance , and had to pull back by the 29th . Movement from the ROK Capital Division prevented the 766th Regiment from infiltrating further into the mountains . ROK cavalry and civilian police then began isolated counteroffensives against the 766th . These forces included special counter @-@ guerrilla units targeting the 766th and countering its tactics . South Korean troops halted the advance of the North Koreans again around the end of the month thanks to increased reinforcements and support closer to the Pusan Perimeter logistics network .

On August 5 , the KPA 's 12th Division pushed back the ROK Capital Division in the Ch 'ongsong @-@ Kigye area , and linked up with elements of the 766th which had infiltrated the area of Pohyunsan . Unopposed , they began to prepare to attack P 'ohang to secure entry into the UN 's newly established Pusan Perimeter . The Regiment was ordered to begin an attack in coordination with the KPA 's 5th Division . The Korean People 's Army planned simultaneous offensives across the entire Perimeter , including a flanking maneuver by the 766th and the 5th Division to envelop UN troops and push them back to Pusan . The 766th was not reinforced ; North Korean planners intended it to move unseen around the UN lines while the majority of the UN and North Korean troops were locked in fighting around Taegu and the Naktong Bulge .

By this time , however , North Korean logistics had been stretched to their limit , and resupply became increasingly difficult . By the beginning of August , the North Korean units operating in the area were getting little to no food and ammunition supply , instead relying on captured UN weapons and foraging for what they could find . They were also exhausted from over a month of advancing , though morale remained high among the 766th troops . The 766th Regiment specialized in raiding UN supply lines , and effectively mounted small disruptive attacks against UN targets to equip themselves .

= = = Disbandment = = =

At dawn on August 11 , one 300 @-@ man battalion of the 766th Regiment entered the village of P 'ohang , creating a state of alarm among its populace . The village was only protected by a small force of South Korean Navy , Air Force and Army personnel comprising the rear guard of the ROK 3rd Division . The South Korean forces engaged the 766th forces around the village 's middle school with small @-@ arms fire until noon . At that point , North Korean armored vehicles moved in to reinforce the 766th troops and drove the South Koreans out of the village .

The village was strategically important because it was one of the few direct routes through the mountains and into the Gyeongsang plain . It also led directly to the land routes being used by the UN to reinforce Taegu . Upon hearing of the fall of P 'ohang , UN Eighth United States Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker immediately ordered naval and air bombardment of the village . He also ordered ROK and US forces to secure regions around the village to prevent further advance of the North Korean troops . Within a few hours , the village was being blasted by artillery forcing the Regiment 's advance force to pull back . The 766th 's forces congregated and fought in the hills around the village . They joined elements of the KPA 's 5th Division , and did not enter P 'ohang until night .

UN forces responded to the threat with overwhelming numbers . A large force of South Korean troops , designated Task Force P 'ohang , was massed and sent into P 'ohang @-@ dong to engage the 766th Regiment and the 5th Division . ROK troops attacked toward An 'gang @-@ ni to the east , forcing the KPA 's 12th Division into a full retreat . Threatened with encirclement , the KPA 's 5th Division and 766th Regiment were ordered into full retreat on August 17 . By this time , the 766th had been reduced to 1 @,@ 500 men , half its original strength .

Exhausted and out of supplies , the 766th Regiment moved to Pihak @-@ san , a mountain 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Kigye , to join the shattered KPA 's 12th Division . The 12th Division was reduced to 1 @,@ 500 men in the fighting , and 2 @,@ 000 army replacements and South Korean conscripts were brought to replenish the division . The 766th Regiment was also ordered to merge its remaining troops into the depleted KPA 's 12th Division . Upon the completion of the merger with the 12th Division on August 19 , 1950 , the 766th Regiment ceased to exist . It had trained for close to 14 months prior to the war but fought for less than two .

= Sister Wives =

Sister Wives is an American reality television series broadcast on TLC that began airing in 2010 . The show documents the life of a polygamist family , which includes patriarch Kody Brown , his four wives , and their 18 children . The family began the series living in Lehi , Utah , but has since moved to Las Vegas , Nevada in 2011 .

Brown and his wives have said they participated with the show to make the public more aware of polygamist families and to combat societal prejudices . Brown believes his polygamist arrangement is legal because he is legally married only to one woman , and the other marriages are spiritual unions . The series led to the Brown family being investigated for possible prosecution .

= = Concept = =

The show follows the lives of advertising salesman Kody Brown , his wives Meri , Janelle , Christine , and Robyn , and their 18 children . In the first season the show televised Brown 's courting and marriage of his fourth wife , Robyn Sullivan , in 2010 . Sullivan was the first new wife to enter the family in 16 years .

The only legal marriage was between Kody and his first wife Meri , until their legal divorce in September 2014 . ( He legally married fourth wife Robyn in December 2014 in order to legally adopt her three children ) . The other marriages are considered spiritual unions . As of 2015 Kody has been married to Meri for 25 years , Janelle for 22 years , Christine for 21 years , and Robyn for 5 years . Kody and Meri have a daughter named Mariah , their only child . Kody and Janelle have six children : daughters Madison and Savanah and sons Logan , Hunter , Garrison , and Gabriel . Kody and Christine have six children : daughters Aspyn , Mykelti , Gwendlyn , Ysabel , and Truely and son Paedon . Robyn had three children from her first marriage , which was monogamous : Dayton , Aurora , and Breanna . Kody legally adopted them in June 2015 . Kody and Robyn have two children : son Solomon and daughter Ariella .

Meri , Robyn , and Christine were all raised in polygamist families , but Janelle was not . Although Christine 's mother left the faith she still supports them . Months before the marriage of Janelle and Kody , however , Janelle 's mother entered into a polygamist marriage with Kody 's father . The Brown family belongs to the Apostolic United Brethren ( AUB . ) For years before the series , the family kept their polygamist lifestyle what they called a " quasi @-@ secret " .

= = Children = =

Kody has 18 children :

With Meri :

Mariah ( July 29 , 1995 ) daughter

With Janelle :

Logan ( May 21 , 1994 ) son

Madison ( November 3 , 1995 ) daughter

Married to Caleb Brush since June 4 , 2016

Hunter ( February 9 , 1997 ) son

Garrison ( April 10 , 1998 ) son

Gabriel ( October 11 , 2001 ) son

Savanah ( December 7 , 2004 ) daughter

With Christine :

Aspyn ( March 14 , 1995 ) daughter

Mykelti ( June 9 , 1996 ) daughter

Engaged to Antonio Padron

Paedon ( August 7 , 1998 ) son

Gwendlyn ( July 23 , 2001 ) daughter

Ysabel ( March 7 , 2003 ) daughter

Truely ( April 13 , 2010 ) daughter

With Robyn :

Solomon ( October 27 , 2011 ) son

Ariella Mae ( January 10 , 2016 ) daughter

Robyn 's children from her first marriage who were adopted by Kody on June 17 , 2015 :

Dayton ( January 16 , 2000 ) son

Aurora ( June 4 , 2002 ) daughter

Breanna ( April 8 , 2005 ) daughter

= = Development = =

In the autumn of 2009 , independent producers Timothy Gibbons and Christopher Poole approached Figure 8 Films , a North Carolinian company , with the concept of a reality series about the Brown family . Bill Hayes , the president of Figure 8 Films , said the company agreed to the idea after meeting with the Browns and deciding their lives would make a great story . Camera crews shot footage of the family in mid @-@ 2010 to be used in the first season , ending in May with the marriage of Kody Brown and Robyn Sullivan . The crews continued to film them afterward in case the series was picked up for a second season . Sister Wives was publicly introduced on August 6 , 2010 , at the Television Critics Association summer media tour in Beverly Hills , California . The series ' first episode , an hour long , was broadcast on TLC on September 26 , 2010 , and the first season continued with six half @-@ hour chapters until October 17 , 2010 .

The broadcast of Sister Wives came at a time that polygamy and multiple marriages were a prevalent topic in American pop culture . Big Love , the hit HBO series about fictional Utah polygamist Bill Henrickson , his three sister wives , and their struggle to gain acceptance in society , had already been on the air for several years . In early September 2010 , the drama series Lone Star , about a con man on the verge of entering into multiple marriages , premiered on Fox but was quickly canceled after two episodes , and when Sister Wives debuted , actress Katherine Heigl was in the process of developing a film about Carolyn Jessop , a woman who fled from a polygamist sect .

In October 2010 , TLC announced it had commissioned a second season , which began in March 2011 . A TLC interview with the Brown family was broadcast on October 31 , 2010 , and a one @-@ hour program featuring the honeymoon of Kody Brown and Robyn Sullivan aired on November 22 , 2010 .

= = Episodes = =

= = = Season 1 = = =

The nine @-@ episode first season ran from September 26 to November 21 , 2010 . The season premiere introduced viewers to Kody Brown and his three wives , Meri , Janelle , and Christine , and their twelve children , all of whom lived in a ranch @-@ style home with three interconnected apartments . It also chronicled Kody 's dating and engagement to Robyn Sullivan , who herself has three children , marking the first time in 16 years Kody had courted another wife . The new relationship creates insecurity and jealousy among the other three wives , but they ultimately accept her and welcome her into the family . During the fourth episode of the season , Christine gives birth to her sixth child , Truely , which brings the family to 16 children including Robyn 's three kids .

Later , Kody and Meri go to Mexico to celebrate their twentieth wedding anniversary , where Meri discussed her sadness about her infertility problems and the jealousy that has arisen from Kody 's engagement to Robyn . Kody proposes in vitro fertilisation , but she turns down the idea as she is only interested in a naturally occurring conception . As Robyn 's wedding approaches , the three sister wives help Robyn prepare , and they begin to bond . However , Kody upsets his wives when he reveals he secretly chose Robyn 's wedding dress himself , which makes Christine feel so betrayed that she angrily walks away in mid @-@ interview . Kody eventually apologizes , and the five reconcile . The first season finale ends with the wedding of Kody and Robyn , where Meri , Janelle , and Christine present her with a Claddagh ring to welcome her into the family .

= = = Season 2 = = =

Season 2 ran 23 episodes from March 13 , 2011 to November 27 , 2011 , though many sources refer to the episodes airing from September 25 , 2011 to November 27 , 2011 as Season 3 . This is due to a short hiatus from June 5 , 2011 to September 25 , 2011 .

Season 2 begins with the Browns heading to New York to appear on national television for the first time as open polygamists , while back home the kids head off to their first day of public school . Throughout the season , the Browns visit various friends and family members and reflect on how their relationships have changed with these people since they became open polygamists . These friends and family members include Kody 's parents ( also polygamists ) , Kody 's high school friends , and various monogamous couples that Kody and the sister wives know . Part 1 of Season 2 also follows the Browns through Kody and Janelle 's anniversary camping trip , preparing and participating in Halloween , and Christmas , which the Browns celebrate in a snowy mountain cabin . During Season 2 we also learn more about Meri 's personal struggle with her risk of cancer and the loss of her sister . In episode 5 , Kody , Christine , and their children take a trip to Las Vegas , which we later learn is the beginning of the Browns ' subsequent move to Las Vegas . The final episodes of Season 2 follow the Browns with their real estate agent Mona Riekki through their struggle to find a home in Las Vegas suitable for polygamists , telling the kids that they are moving , and the subsequent move to Las Vegas . Realtor , Mona Riekki finds rental homes for each of the wives and Kody . Once the Browns settle into their new homes they discuss the possibility of finding a home for all of them to live together or four homes in one cul @-@ de @-@ sac . In the last episode before the hiatus , Robyn announces that she is expecting her and Kody 's first child .

The second part of Season 2 brings the announcement of the sex of Robyn and Kody 's baby and the Browns ' struggle to adjust to life in Las Vegas . The episodes following the Season 2 hiatus focus largely on Robyn 's pregnancy and the kids ' adjustment to their new lives . The abrupt move to Las Vegas brings about behavioral problems in some of the older kids , which is also discussed largely in the second half of Season 2 . During these episodes the Browns also explore possible businesses that the five of them ( Kody and the sister wives ) can run together . Several episodes after the hiatus discuss specific topics such as jealousy among the sister wives , especially regarding courting a new wife , how the parents combat the influence of Las Vegas on their children , and how the Browns are preparing the older children for college . Mona Riekki is back in this season and is working with the family on finding a permanent home in Vegas . In the finale , Robyn gives birth to baby Solomon on October 27 , 2011 and the possibility of Meri having more children once again resurfaces .

Although the ongoing investigation of the Browns is brought up during Season 2 , it is not extensively discussed , and the progress of the investigation is unknown .

= = = Season 3 = = =

Season 3 premiered on May 13 , 2012 after vague details surfaced about the show 's spring return on the Twitter account of sister wife Robyn Sullivan Brown . The twenty one episode season mainly dealt with the family 's inability to be a cohesive unit while living in four separate homes . Meri explains more about the infertility problems she has experienced , while Christine discloses more on her jealousy of Robyn . The season returned from hiatus on November 18 , 2012 , to the Brown family still discussing their options into moving their family onto one property , and invest in a cul @-@ de @-@ sac where they can build four homes . It is more evident this season that living in separate homes is tearing the family apart . Towards the end of the season , the family plans a three @-@ day trip to Nauvoo , Illinois , the birthplace of American polygamy . In the last episode on December 30 , 2012 , the family also deals with the upcoming departure to college of the eldest Brown child , Logan .

= = = Season 4 = = =

Season 4 premiered on July 21 , 2013 . It chronicles the family as they move into four adjacent houses within the same neighborhood . The wives are still working on starting their jewelry business . Meri comes to a decision following Robyn 's offer to be her surrogate .

= = = Season 5 = = =

Season 5 includes seven episodes , eight if you include the " Tell All " at the end , and eleven if you include the " Sitting Down with the Browns " , " Meri @-@ Behind the Scenes " , and the " Robyn , -Behind the Scenes " episodes . Season 5 begins with two daughters graduating high school , Mykelti and Madison . The grown ups plan to lip sync a song to celebrate , but it brings out some negative feelings for Janelle , who is not comfortable being so outgoing and admits to being embarrassed in public by the others ' behavior . And a deeper issue of feeling like she 's not heard bubbles to the surface and she sees a therapist to discuss that along with her challenging relationship with first wife Meri . On a business level , the family discusses whether to turn down investors ' money and keep full ownership of Sisterwives ' Closet and whether to keep the products all their own creations or branch out and resale other artists ' designs and products . Christine 's mother moves in with her in Las Vegas , and in episode four , the Browns allow two anthropologists to live with them for two days to see the inner workings of polygamy , an arrangement that could either put their lifestyle in a positive or negative light .

Finally , after five years of mental deliberation , Meri files for legal divorce from Kody so Kody can adopt Robyn 's three children from her previous marriage . By the end of the season , Meri and Kody maintained that they would continue their relationship .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

Sister Wives drew national media attention after its first season and garnered generally mixed reviews from critics . Washington Post staff writer Hank Stuever called it " refreshingly frank " and found most interesting the small details of the family 's everyday life , such as the food supply , division of labor , and minor arguments . Los Angeles Times television critic Mary McNamara said she was intrigued by the matriarchal nature of the polygamist family , a unit that is traditionally considered patriarchal . McNamara said the wives form the center of the family and that " their bonds appear far stronger and more vital than the casual fondness with which they all treat Kody " . Salon.com writer Schuyler Velasco praised Sister Wives for introducing viewers to unfamiliar subject matter and called it " refreshingly modest " considering its controversial subject matter . Velasco said it has " a natural , honest presence in a genre fabled for the camera @-@ hogging antics of Jersey Shore " . Shelley Fralic of The Vancouver Sun called it fascinating and surprising and was impressed with the sensible and articulate way in which the family defended their lifestyle . When the Brown family made an October 2010 appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show , talk show host Oprah Winfrey said she found particularly fascinating the relationship between the sister wives .

Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald criticized Kody Brown for opening himself and his family up to potential criminal prosecution by appearing in the series , describing him as " a lawbreaker who is risking himself and the family he claims is so precious just to star in his own TV show " . Elizabeth Tenety of The Washington Post called the series " one part domestic drudgery , another part sensationalism " and claimed it relied on a " familiar reality TV recipe " shared by other TLC series such as 19 Kids and Counting and Kate Plus 8 . Religion Dispatches writer Joanna Brooks shared Tenety 's perspective , criticizing the show for presenting polygamy in a manner that " is about as interesting to me as Kate Gosselin 's latest makeover . " In this vein Brooks criticized the show for not engaging the theology of plural marriage and for letting Kody Brown 's superficial comments about the dissimilarity of Fundamentalist and mainstream Mormonism pass onto the viewers without any critical scrutiny or added nuance . Shari Puterman , television columnist with the Asbury Park Press , felt the sister wives had issues with jealousy and self @-@ worth , and she compared Kody to a cult leader . Puterman added , " I can 't speak for everyone , but I believe in the sanctity of marriage . It 's sad to see that TLC 's capitalizing on people who don 't . " Former prosecutor and television personality Nancy Grace criticized the show and said she believed Kody Brown should go to jail , but she expressed doubt he would based on Utah 's history of overlooking polygamy . Christine Seifert , an associate professor of communications at Westminster College in Salt Lake City , said the show could give viewers who are unfamiliar with the LDS church the incorrect assumption that polygamy is accepted by the mainstream church . Several commentators have taken notice of the fact that the family 's religious convictions are downplayed in Sister Wives .

= = = Ratings = = =

According to Nielsen Media Research , the September 26 , 2010 , one @-@ hour premiere episode of Sister Wives drew 2 @.@ 26 million viewers , a strong rating for the network . It marked the biggest series debut for TLC since Cake Boss launched in 2009 and was a stronger rating than any of the season premieres for HBO 's Big Love . The remaining episodes of the first season were each a half @-@ hour long , with two broadcast together each Thursday . In the second week , the first episode drew 1 @.@ 88 million viewers , while the second drew 2 @.@ 13 million . The third week drew similar results , with 1 @.@ 89 million viewers watching the first episode and 2 @.@ 05 million watching the second . Sister Wives drew its strongest ratings during the fourth and final week of the first season , with 2 @.@ 67 million viewers for the first episode and 2 @.@ 74 million for the season finale . As a result of the 2 @.@ 7 million average viewership for the two episodes , TLC ranked first among all ad @-@ support cable channels in the 18 – 49 and 25 – 54 age groups . The series drew double- and triple @-@ digit ratings gains in all key demographics and ranked second in ad @-@ supported cable network shows during its time period .

= = Litigation = =

= You Only Live Twice ( film ) =

You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) is the fifth spy film in the James Bond series , and the fifth to star Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . The film 's screenplay was written by Roald Dahl , and loosely based on Ian Fleming 's 1964 novel of the same name . It is the first James Bond film to discard most of Fleming 's plot , using only a few characters and locations from the book as the background for an entirely new story .

In the film , Bond is dispatched to Japan after American and Soviet manned spacecraft disappear mysteriously in orbit . With each nation blaming the other amidst the Cold War , Bond travels secretly to a remote Japanese island in order to find the perpetrators and comes face to face with Ernst Stavro Blofeld , the head of SPECTRE . The film reveals the appearance of Blofeld , who was previously a partially unseen character . SPECTRE is extorting the government of an unnamed Asian power , implied to be the People 's Republic of China , in order to provoke war between the superpowers .

During the filming in Japan , it was announced that Sean Connery would retire from the role of Bond . But after a hiatus , he returned in 1971 's Diamonds Are Forever and later 1983 's non @-@ Eon Bond film Never Say Never Again . You Only Live Twice is the first Bond film to be directed by Lewis Gilbert , who later directed the 1977 film The Spy Who Loved Me and the 1979 film Moonraker , both starring Roger Moore .

You Only Live Twice was a great success , receiving positive reviews and grossing over $ 111 million in worldwide box office .

= = Plot = =

An American NASA spacecraft is hijacked from orbit by an unidentified spacecraft . The U.S. suspect it to be the work of the Soviets , but the British suspect Japanese involvement since the spacecraft landed in the Sea of Japan . To investigate , MI6 operative James Bond is sent to Tokyo after faking his own death in Hong Kong and being buried at sea from the HMS Tenby ( F65 ) .

Upon his arrival , Bond is contacted by Aki , assistant to the Japanese secret service leader Tiger Tanaka while watching sumo . Aki introduces Bond to local MI6 operative Dikko Henderson . Henderson claims to have critical evidence about the rogue craft , but is killed before he can elaborate . Bond chases and kills the assailant , taking the assailant 's clothing as a disguise and escapes in the getaway car , which takes him to Osato Chemicals . Once there , Bond subdues the driver and breaks into the office safe of president Mr. Osato . After stealing documents , Bond is pursued by armed security , but is rescued by Aki , who flees to a secluded subway station . Bond chases her , but falls down a trap door leading to Tanaka 's office . The stolen documents are examined and found to include a photograph of the cargo ship Ning @-@ Po with a microdot message saying the tourist who took the photo was killed as a security precaution .

Bond goes to Osato Chemicals to meet Mr. Osato himself , masquerading as a potential new buyer . Osato humours Bond but , after their meeting , orders his secretary , Helga Brandt , to have him killed . Outside the building , assassins open fire on Bond before Aki rescues him again . Bond and Aki drive to Kobe , where the Ning @-@ Po is docked . They investigate the company 's dock facilities and discover that the ship was delivering elements for rocket fuel . They are discovered , but Bond eludes the henchmen until Aki gets away ; however , Bond himself is captured and knocked out . He wakes , tied up in SPECTRE operative Helga Brandt 's cabin on the Ning @-@ Po . She interrogates Bond , but he thinks he has managed to bribe his way to freedom . Brandt then flies Bond to Tokyo but , en route , she sets off a flare in the plane and bails out . Bond manages to land the plane .

After finding out where the Ning @-@ Po unloaded , Bond flies over the area in a heavily armed autogyro created by Q. Near a volcano , Bond is attacked by helicopters , which he defeats , confirming his suspicions that the enemy 's base is nearby . A Soviet spacecraft is then captured in orbit by another unidentified craft , heightening tensions between Russia and the US . The mysterious spaceship lands in an extensive base hidden inside the volcano . It is revealed that the true mastermind behind this is Ernst Stavro Blofeld and SPECTRE . Blofeld seems to forgive Brandt for her failure to kill Bond , but as she leaves , he activates a mechanism that drops her into a pool of piranha . Blofeld instructs Osato to kill Bond .

Bond trains with Tanaka 's ninjas , during which an attempted assassination kills Aki instead . Bond is disguised as an Oriental in a fake marriage to Tanaka 's student , Kissy Suzuki . Acting on a lead from Suzuki , the pair reconnoiter a cave and the volcano above it . Establishing that the mouth of the volcano is a disguised hatch to the secret rocket base , Bond slips in , while Kissy goes to alert Tanaka . Bond locates and frees the captured astronauts and , with their help , steals a spacesuit in attempt to infiltrate the SPECTRE spacecraft " Bird One " . However , Blofeld spots Bond , and he is detained while Bird One is launched .

Bird One closes in on the American space capsule , and US forces prepare to launch a nuclear attack on the USSR . Meanwhile , the Japanese ninjas approach the base 's entrance , but are detected and fired upon . Bond manages to open the hatch , letting in the ninjas . During the ensuing battle , Bond fights his way to the control room and activates Bird One 's self @-@ destruct before it reaches the American craft . The Americans stand down their forces .

Blofeld activates the base 's self @-@ destruct system and escapes . Bond , Kissy , Tanaka , and the surviving ninjas leave before the base explodes .

= = Cast = =

Sean Connery as James Bond : An MI6 agent .

Akiko Wakabayashi as Aki : An agent with the Japanese SIS who assists Bond .

Mie Hama as Kissy Suzuki : An Ama diving girl who replaces Aki after her death .

Donald Pleasence as Ernst Stavro Blofeld : The megalomaniacal head of the terrorist syndicate known as SPECTRE . He intends to ignite a global nuclear war .

Tetsurō Tamba as Tiger Tanaka : Head of Japanese secret service .

Teru Shimada as Mr. Osato : A Japanese industrialist secretly affiliated to SPECTRE .

Karin Dor as Helga Brandt / No. 11 : Osato 's secretary and a SPECTRE assassin .

Bernard Lee as M : The head of MI6 .

Charles Gray as Dikko Henderson : British contact living in Japan .

Burt Kwouk as Spectre 3 : one of Blofeld 's henchmen .

Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary .

Desmond Llewelyn as Q : Head of MI6 technical department .

Tsai Chin as Ling : Undercover MI6 agent in Hong Kong .

Ronald Rich as Hans : Blofeld 's personal bodyguard .

David Toguri as Assassin in Bedroom : one of Osato 's henchmen , who kills Aki .

Peter Maivia as Car Driver : one of Osato 's henchmen , who fights Bond .

= = Production = =

On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the intended next film , but the producers decided to adapt You Only Live Twice instead because OHMSS would require searching for high and snowy locations . Lewis Gilbert originally declined the offer to direct , but accepted after producer Albert R. Broccoli called him saying : " You can 't give up this job . It 's the largest audience in the world . " Peter R. Hunt , who edited the first five Bond films , believed that Gilbert had been contracted by the producers for other work but they found they had to use him .

Gilbert , producers Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , production designer Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan , spending three weeks searching for locations . SPECTRE ’ s shore fortress headquarters was changed to an extinct volcano after the team learned that the Japanese do not build castles by the sea . The group was due to return to the UK on a BOAC Boeing 707 flight ( BOAC Flight 911 ) on 5 March 1966 , but cancelled after being told they had a chance to watch a ninja demonstration . That flight crashed 25 minutes after takeoff , killing all on board . In Tokyo , the crew also found Hunt , who decided to go on holiday after having his request to direct declined . Hunt was invited to direct the second unit for You Only Live Twice and accepted the job .

Unlike most James Bond films featuring various locations around the world , almost the entire film is set in one country and several minutes are devoted to an elaborate Japanese wedding . This is in keeping with Fleming 's original novel , which also devoted a number of pages to the discussion of Japanese culture . Toho Studios provided soundstages , personnel , and the female Japanese stars to the producers .

= = = Writing = = =

The producers had Harold Jack Bloom come to Japan with them to write a screenplay . Bloom 's work was ultimately rejected , but since several of his ideas were used in the final script , Bloom was given the credit of " Additional Story Material " . Among the elements were the opening with Bond 's fake death and burial at sea , and the ninja attack . As the screenwriter of the previous Bond films Richard Maibaum was unavailable , Roald Dahl , a close friend of Ian Fleming , was chosen to write the adaptation despite having no prior experience writing a screenplay except for the uncompleted The Bells of Hell Go Ting @-@ a @-@ ling @-@ a @-@ ling .

Dahl said that the original novel was " Ian Fleming ’ s worst book , with no plot in it which would even make a movie " , and compared it to a travelogue , stating that he had to create a new plot " [ though ] I could retain only four or five of the original story 's ideas . " On creating the plot , Dahl said he " didn 't know what the hell Bond was going to do " despite having to deliver the first draft in six weeks , and decided to do a basic plot similar to Dr. No . Dahl was given a free rein on his script , except for the character of Bond and " the girl formula " , involving three women for Bond to seduce : an ally and a henchwoman who both get killed , and the main Bond girl . While the third involved a character from the book , Kissy Suzuki , Dahl had to create Aki and Helga Brandt to fulfil the rest .

Gilbert was mostly collaborative with Dahl 's work , as the writer declared : " He not only helped in script conferences , but had some good ideas and then left you alone , and when you produced the finished thing , he shot it . Other directors have such an ego that they want to rewrite it and put their own dialogue in , and it 's usually disastrous . What I admired so much about Lewis Gilbert was that he just took the screenplay and shot it . That 's the way to direct : You either trust your writer or you don 't . "

= = = Casting = = =

When the time came to begin You Only Live Twice , the producers were faced with the problem of a disenchanted star . Sean Connery had stated that he was tired of playing James Bond and all of the associated commitment ( time spent filming and publicising each movie ) , together with finding it difficult to do other work , which would potentially lead to typecasting . Saltzman and Broccoli were able to persuade Connery by increasing his fee for the film , but geared up to look for a replacement .

Jan Werich was originally cast by producer Harry Saltzman to play Blofeld . Upon his arrival at the Pinewood set , both producer Albert R. Broccoli and director Lewis Gilbert felt that he was a poor choice , resembling a " poor , benevolent Santa Claus " . Nonetheless , in an attempt to make the casting work , Gilbert continued filming . After several days , both Gilbert and Broccoli determined that Werich was not menacing enough , and recast Blofeld with Donald Pleasence in the role . Pleasence 's ideas for Blofeld 's appearance included a hump , a limp , a beard , and a lame hand , before he settled on the scar . He found it uncomfortable , though , because of the glue that attached it to his eye .

Many European models were tested for Helga Brandt including German actress Eva Renzi who passed on the film , with German actress Karin Dor being cast . Dor performed the stunt of diving into a pool to depict Helga 's demise herself , without the use of a double . Strangely , for the German version Dor was dubbed by somebody else .

Gilbert had chosen Tetsurō Tamba after working with him in The 7th Dawn . A number of actual martial arts experts were hired as the ninjas . The two Japanese female parts proved difficult to cast , due to most of the actresses tested having limited English . Akiko Wakabayashi and Mie Hama were eventually chosen and started taking English classes in the UK . Hama , initially cast in the role of Tanaka 's assistant , had difficulty with the language , so the producers switched her role with Wakabayashi , who had been cast as Kissy , a part with significantly less dialogue . Wakabayashi only requested that her character name , " Suki " , be changed to " Aki " .

= = = Filming = = =

Filming of You Only Live Twice lasted from July 1966 to March 1967 . The film was shot primarily in Japan . Himeji Castle in Hyōgo was depicted as Tanaka 's ninja training camp . His private transportation hub was filmed at the Tokyo Metro 's Nakano @-@ shimbashi Station . As of 2011 , many of the fixtures in the station are unchanged from the time of filming .

The Hotel New Otani Tokyo served as the outside for Osato Chemicals and the hotel 's gardens were used for scenes of the ninja training . Bōnotsu in Kagoshima served as the fishing village , the Kobe harbour was used for the dock fight and Mount Shinmoe @-@ dake in Kyūshū was used for the exteriors of SPECTRE 's headquarters . Large crowds were present in Japan to see the shooting . A Japanese fan began following Sean Connery with a camera , and the police were called several times to prevent invasions during shooting .

The heavily armed WA @-@ 116 autogyro " Little Nellie " was included after Ken Adam heard a radio interview with its inventor , RAF Wing Commander Ken Wallis . Little Nellie was named after music hall star Nellie Wallace , who has a similar surname to its inventor . Wallis piloted his invention , which was equipped with various mock @-@ up armaments by John Stears ' special effects team , during production .

" Nellie 's " battle with helicopters proved to be difficult to film . The scenes were initially shot in Miyazaki , first with takes of the gyrocopter , with more than 85 take @-@ offs , 5 hours of flight and Wallis nearly crashing into the camera several times . A scene filming the helicopters from above created a major downdraft and cameraman John Jordan 's foot was severed by the craft 's rotor . The concluding shots involved explosions , which the Japanese government did not allow in a national park . So , the crew moved to Torremolinos , Spain , which was found to resemble the Japanese landscape .

The sets of SPECTRE 's volcano base were constructed at a lot inside Pinewood Studios , with a cost of $ 1 million and including operative heliport and monorail . The 45 m ( 148 ft ) tall set could be seen from 5 kilometres ( 3 miles ) away , and attracted many people from the region . Locations outside Japan included using the Royal Navy frigate HMS Tenby , then in Gibraltar , for the sea burial , Hong Kong for the scene where Bond fakes his death , and Norway for the Soviet radar station .

Sean Connery 's then wife Diane Cilento did the swimming scenes for at least five Japanese actresses , including Mie Hama . Martial arts expert Donn F. Draeger provided martial arts training , and also doubled for Connery . Lewis Gilbert 's regular editor , Thelma Connell , was originally hired to edit the film . However , after her initial , almost three @-@ hour cut received a terrible response from test audiences , Peter R. Hunt was asked to re @-@ edit the film . Hunt 's cut proved a much greater success , and he was awarded the director 's chair on the next film as a result .

= = = Music = = =

The soundtrack was the fourth of the series to be composed by John Barry . He tried to incorporate the " elegance of the Oriental sound " with Japanese music @-@ inspired tracks . The theme song , " You Only Live Twice " , was composed by Barry and lyricist Leslie Bricusse and sung by Nancy Sinatra after her father Frank Sinatra passed on the opportunity . Nancy Sinatra was reported to be very nervous while recording – first she wanted to leave the studio ; then she claimed to sometimes " sound like Minnie Mouse " . Barry declared that the final song uses 25 different takes . British singer Julie Rogers recorded an alternative song for the titles , but this was not used .

There are two versions of the song " You Only Live Twice " , sung by Nancy Sinatra , one directly from the movie soundtrack , and a second one for record release arranged by Billy Strange . The movie soundtrack song is widely recognised for its striking opening bars and oriental flavour , and was far more popular on radio . The record release made No. 44 on the Billboard charts in the USA , No. 11 in UK . Both versions of the title song are available on CD .

In 1992 , Acen sampled the title song " You Only Live Twice " for his song " Trip II the Moon Part 2 " . In 1997 , Icelandic singer Björk recorded a cover version . In 1998 , Robbie Williams used the distinctive string figure for his song " Millennium " , ( although it was re @-@ recorded , rather than sampled from the movie for cost reasons ) . Coldplay covered it when they toured in 2001 , and it was covered by Natacha Atlas for her 2005 compilation album The Best of Natacha Atlas . Shirley Bassey , who has three original Bond themes to her credit , has also covered the song .

A different title song was originally recorded by Julie Rogers , but eventually discarded . Only two lines from that version were kept in the final lyrics , and the orchestral part was changed to fit Nancy Sinatra 's vocal range . Rogers ' version only appeared in a James Bond 30th Anniversary CD , with no singer credit . In the 1990s , an alternative example of a possible theme song ( also called " You Only Live Twice " and sung by Lorraine Chandler ) was discovered in the vaults of RCA Records . It became a very popular track with followers of the Northern Soul scene ( Chandler was well known for her high @-@ quality soul output on RCA ) and can be found on several RCA soul compilations .

= = Promotion = =

To promote the film , Eon Productions produced a one @-@ hour colour television programme entitled Welcome to Japan , Mr. Bond first aired on 2 June 1967 in the United States on NBC . Bond regulars Lois Maxwell and Desmond Llewelyn appeared playing respectively " Miss Moneypenny " and " Q " . Kate O 'Mara appears as Miss Moneypenny 's assistant . The programme shows clips from You Only Live Twice and the then four existing Bond films. and contained a storyline of Moneypenny trying to establish the identity of Bond 's bride .

= = Release and reception = =

You Only Live Twice premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . It was the first premiere of a James Bond film that Queen Elizabeth II attended . The film grossed $ 43 million in the United States and over $ 111 million worldwide .

Critical response today is mostly positive , with Rotten Tomatoes giving a 72 % rating . But most reviews pointed out various flaws in the film . James Berardinelli said that the first half was good , but " during the second half , as the plot escalates beyond the bounds of preposterousness , that the film starts to fragment " , criticising Blofeld 's appearance and stating " rockets that swallow up spacecraft are a bit too extravagant . "

Roger Ebert criticised the focus on gadgets , declaring that the James Bond formula " fails to work its magic " . John Brosnan in his book James Bond in the Cinema compared the film to an episode of Thunderbirds with a reliance on gadgetry but admitted it had pace and spectacle . Christopher Null considered the film one of James Bond 's most memorable adventures , but the plot " protracting and quite confusing " .

Ali Barclay of BBC Films panned Dahl 's script displaying " a whole new world of villainy and technology . " Leo Goldsmith lauded the volcano base as " the most impressive of Ken Adam 's sets for the franchise . " Danny Peary wrote that You Only Live Twice " should have been about twenty minutes shorter " and described it as " not a bad Bond film , but it doesn ’ t compare to its predecessors – the formula had become a little stale . "

IGN ranked You Only Live Twice as the fourth best Bond film , and Entertainment Weekly as the second best , considering that it " pushes the series to the outer edge of coolness " . But Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the fifth worst , criticising the plot , action scenes and little screentime for Blofeld . Literary critic Paul Simpson called the film one of the most colourful of the series and credited the prefecture of Kagoshima for adding " a good flavour " of Japanese influence on the film , but he panned the depiction of Blofeld as a " let @-@ down " , " small , bald and a whooping scar . " Simon Winder said that the film is " perfect " for parodies of the series .

= WASP @-@ 13b =

WASP @-@ 13b is an extrasolar planet that was discovered in 2008 in the orbit of the sunlike star WASP @-@ 13 . The planet has a mass of nearly half that of Jupiter , but a radius five @-@ fourths the size of Jupiter . This low relative mass might be caused by a core that is of low mass or that is not present at all .

The planet orbits at approximately 5 % of the distance between the Sun and Earth every four days . The star was observed several times between 2006 and 2009 , at first through the SuperWASP program and later through focused follow @-@ up observations . Analysis of collected radial velocity measurements led to the discovery of WASP @-@ 13b , which was reported in a journal on April 7 , 2009 . A follow @-@ up study published in 2011 investigated the cause for inflated planets such as WASP @-@ 13b , and re @-@ examined ( and re @-@ constrained ) its mass , radius , density , and age .

= = Discovery = =

Between November 27 , 2006 , and April 1 , 2007 , 3329 images of the star WASP @-@ 13 by the SuperWASP @-@ North program based at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in the Canary Islands led to the identification of WASP @-@ 13 as host to a potentially transiting object . Photometric follow @-@ up observations were taken on February 16 , 2008 using the James Gregory Telescope ( JGT ) in Scotland , which took 1047 exposures of the star , although the last twenty images taken were obscured by cloud cover and were discarded . Using HD 80408 as a reference star along with JGT measurements , the astronomers investigating the system were able to create a light curve for the transiting planet .

WASP @-@ 13 was observed between February 11 and 15 in 2008 by the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph at the Haute @-@ Provence Observatory in France , determining the radial velocity of the transiting body . Use of the FIES echelle spectrograph at the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands gained other spectral measurements that yielded the characteristics of the star . Analysis of the SOPHIE and FIES data were used to constrain some of the orbiting body 's characteristics . The discovery of the orbiting body 's mass using radial velocity measurements led to its confirmation as the planet WASP @-@ 13b .

The discovery of WASP @-@ 13b was reported in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics by the European Southern Observatory on May 19 , 2009 . The discovery paper was received by the journal on April 7 , 2009 .

Later , between 2009 and 2011 , another team of astronomers observed WASP @-@ 13b and WASP @-@ 21b to find what caused some Hot Jupiters to have anomalously high radii . The RISE photometric camera on the Liverpool Telescope was used to detect further transits . Two partial transits and two full transits were observed during this period , although the quality of both full transits was slightly compromised because of passing cloud cover . The collected observations , along with the JGT observations that were used to confirm the planet , were scaled to filter out errors such as background noise . The data was then used to re @-@ define WASP @-@ 13b 's parameters , including its age , mass , radius , and density . The study also noted that a limb darkening effect was present , a characteristic that may affect future atmospheric studies of the planet .

= = Host star = =

WASP @-@ 13 is a sunlike G @-@ type star located in the Lynx constellation . Measurements taken by FIES and SOPHIE did not constrain the mass , radius , or age well ; however , a later 2011 study using the Liverpool Telescope better @-@ constrained those parameters . The star 's mass is estimated at 1 @.@ 09 times the mass of the Sun , its radius at 1 @.@ 559 times that of the Sun , and its density at 0 @.@ 288 time 's the Sun 's density . These characteristics are re @-@ defined taking limb darkening into account . The star 's metallicity , which is measured by iron content , is placed roughly at [ Fe / H ] = 0 , similar to that of the Sun . Also , the star 's estimated effective temperature is 5826 K , slightly warmer than the Sun .

WASP @-@ 13 has an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 42 , making it invisible to the unaided eye as seen from Earth .

= = Characteristics = =

WASP @-@ 13b is a transiting planet with an estimated mass that is ( including limb darkening ) 0 @.@ 477 times that of Jupiter and a radius that is 1 @.@ 389 times Jupiter 's radius . The planet is , in other words , less than half the mass of Jupiter , but slightly less than fourteen tenths its size . WASP @-@ 13b 's low mass can mostly likely be attributed to the presence of a low @-@ mass core , or to the total lack of a core , according to the discovery paper . WASP @-@ 13b , which orbits its host star at a distance of 0 @.@ 05362 AU , circles its star completely every 4 @.@ 35298 days . The 2011 study on the planet recognized WASP @-@ 13b as the fifth lowest @-@ density extrasolar planet known , behind Kepler @-@ 7b ; WASP @-@ 17b ; TrES @-@ 4b ; and COROT @-@ 5b .

WASP @-@ 13b has an orbital inclination of 86.9º , which means that it orbits almost edge @-@ on as seen from Earth .

= U2 concert in Sarajevo =

On 23 September 1997 , the Irish rock band U2 held a concert at Koševo Stadium in Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina , as part of the group 's PopMart Tour . They were the first major artist to hold a concert in the city after the end of the Bosnian War . Approximately 45 @,@ 000 fans attended the show .

The band first became involved with Sarajevo in 1993 on their Zoo TV Tour ; approached by aid worker Bill Carter about bringing attention to the Siege of Sarajevo , the band conducted nightly satellite transmissions with Bosnians during their shows . These link @-@ ups were the subject of criticism from journalists for mixing entertainment with human tragedy . Although the war made it impractical for U2 to visit Sarajevo at the time , they vowed to eventually play a concert in the city . After the conflict ended in November 1995 , they made arrangements to visit Sarajevo , and with help from United Nations ambassadors and peacekeeping troops , they scheduled and played the concert in 1997 .

The band offered to hold a benefit concert or small show in Sarajevo , but it was requested that they stage a full PopMart concert . The performance consequently featured the tour 's extravagant stage , and the band played a set list typical of the tour . The show brought together people of different ethnicities who had previously clashed during the war , and train service was temporarily resumed to allow concertgoers to attend . Among the songs played was " Miss Sarajevo " , written by U2 and Brian Eno about a beauty pageant held during the war . Although the band were displeased with their performance and lead vocalist Bono had vocal difficulties , the concert was well received and was credited with improving morale among Bosnians . The members of U2 consider the show to be among their proudest moments . The concert was lauded by Bosnians .

= = Background = =

= = = War in Sarajevo = = =

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was composed of six constituent republics : Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , Croatia , Macedonia , Montenegro , Serbia , and Slovenia . In 1991 , Croatia , and Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia . Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina — a republic with a mixed population consisting of Bosniaks , Serbs , and Croats — followed suit in March 1992 in a highly controversial referendum , creating tension in the ethnic communities . Bosnian Serb militias , whose strategic goal was to secede from Bosnia and Herzegovina and unite with Serbia , encircled Sarajevo with a siege force of 18 @,@ 000 stationed in the surrounding hills , from which they assaulted the city with weapons that included artillery , mortars , tanks , anti @-@ aircraft guns , heavy machine @-@ guns , rocket launchers , and aircraft bombs . From 2 May 1992 until the end of the war in 1996 , the city was blockaded . The Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , numbering roughly 40 @,@ 000 inside the besieged city , was poorly equipped and unable to break the siege . Meanwhile , throughout the country , thousands of predominantly Bosniak civilians were driven from their homes in a process of ethnic cleansing . In Sarajevo , women and children attempting to buy food were frequently terrorized by Bosnian Serb sniper fire .

= = = U2 's reaction = = =

In 1993 , U2 were in Europe for the " Zooropa " leg of their Zoo TV Tour . Before their 3 July show in Verona , Italy , the band received a fax from Radio Televizija Bosne I Hercegovina asking for an interview regarding the situation in Bosnia . The band agreed and met with an American aid worker named Bill Carter , who acted as the station 's foreign associate , due to Serbian travel restrictions . Carter described his experiences in Sarajevo helping Bosnians while surviving the dangerous living conditions . Lead vocalist Bono was unnerved to hear that those living in makeshift bomb shelters in the city played music , including U2 's , at loud volumes to drown out the sound of explosions . While in Sarajevo , Carter had seen a television interview on MTV in which Bono mentioned the theme of the Zooropa tour leg was a unified Europe . Feeling that such an aim was empty if ignoring the Bosnians ' plight , Carter sought Bono 's help . He requested that U2 go to Sarajevo to bring attention to the war and break the " media fatigue " that had occurred from covering the conflict .

Bono agreed to Carter 's request without asking the rest of the band , and when informed of the idea , the other members gave only tacit approval . They briefly considered playing an impromptu concert in the city , with Bono suggesting that they perform in the bunker where Carter and his friends hid during the siege . He said , " even if all we get is some extra attention for Bosnia on MTV , that 's something " . The idea fell through when it was pointed out that the logistics of transporting their equipment into the city were impossible , as the only way into Sarajevo was on a United Nations plane . Manager Paul McGuinness realized that even if the band managed to organize a concert , it would endanger their lives and those of the audience and the Zoo TV crew . As he explained , " U2 's effort to discuss any humanitarian issue have sometimes been accompanied by a false instinct that U2 is also obliged to resolve that issue . Going to Sarajevo seems to me to fall into that category . I think it would endanger the people we go with , endanger the tour , and endanger the band . " Drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. feared that the move would look like a publicity stunt .

Instead , the group agreed to use the tour 's satellite dish to conduct live video transmissions from their concerts to Carter in Sarajevo . Carter returned to the city and assembled a video unit . The band purchased a satellite dish to be sent to Sarajevo and paid a £ 100 @,@ 000 fee to join the European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) . Once set up , the band began satellite link @-@ ups to Sarajevo on nearly a nightly basis , the first of which aired on 17 July 1993 in Bologna , Italy . To connect with the EBU satellite , Carter and two co @-@ workers were forced to visit the Sarajevo television station at night and to film with as little light as possible to avoid the attention of snipers and bombers . To reach the building , they had to traverse an area known as " Sniper Alley " . This was done a total of 12 times over the course of a month . During the broadcasts , Carter discussed the deteriorating situation in the city , and Bosnians often spoke to U2 and their audience . These grim interviews starkly contrasted with the rest of the show ; concerts on the Zoo TV Tour were elaborately staged multimedia events that satirised television and the audience 's over @-@ stimulation . Most of the shows were scripted , but the link @-@ ups to Sarajevo were not , leaving the group unsure who would speak or what they would say . U2 stopped the broadcasts in August 1993 after learning that the Siege of Sarajevo was being reported on the front of many British newspapers . Though this trend had begun before the band 's first Sarajevo transmission , Nathan Jackson suggested that U2 's actions had brought awareness of the situation to their fans and to the British public indirectly .

Reactions to the transmissions were mixed . Many fans felt the transmissions disrupted the flow of the concerts . Most of the British press was highly critical . One writer for NME wrote , " The Bosnian linkup was beyond bad taste . It was insulting . " Bono thought that they were bringing the public 's attention to an important event , though he admitted that the link @-@ ups were the most difficult thing the band had done in their career . Guitarist The Edge said , " We don 't normally see that kind of cold hard news . We get a very sanitized , editorialized take on everything ... When you watch the television news , you are getting something palatable , whereas this was really quite unpalatable most of the time . And for that reason I think it affected people very much , including us . " Mullen worried that the band were exploiting the Bosnians ' suffering for entertainment . During a transmission from the band 's concert at Wembley Stadium , three women in Sarajevo asked what the band intended to do to help before telling Bono , " We know you 're not going to do anything for us . You 're going to go back to a rock show . You 're going to forget that we even exist . And we 're all going to die . " During a transmission to a Glasgow concert , a Bosnian woman told the concert audience , " We would like to hear the music , too , but we hear only the screams of wounded and tortured people and raped women . " Some people were upset by the circumstances of Sarajevo and were motivated to join the War Child charity project , including U2 producer Brian Eno . Despite U2 's obligation to the tour and their inability to perform in Sarajevo during the war , they vowed to play the city someday .

The band contributed to Bosnian relief efforts to enhance humanitarian and public awareness of the issue , and Bono and Carter subsequently collaborated on the documentary Miss Sarajevo , which showcased the war @-@ torn city during Carter 's six months living there . In 1995 , U2 and Eno wrote the song " Miss Sarajevo " as a response to " the surreal acts of defiance that had taken place during the siege of Sarajevo " . One such act was a beauty pageant organized by Bosnian women who planned to fight the war with their " lipstick and heels " . During the pageant , all of the participants walked onto the stage carrying a banner that said , " Don 't let them kill us " . The winner of the pageant , 17 @-@ year @-@ old Inela Nogić , later said the pageant " was a crazy thing to do during a war . But we tried to live a normal life . It was some kind of a defence mechanism we all had . " Years later , Bono said , " It was pure Dada and it deserved to be celebrated in song . " Of the song 's meaning , he said , " Everywhere people had heard their call for help — but help never came . That was the feeling . I had tried to tackle subjects like this head @-@ on , but I 'd learnt a lesson . You have to try and make the same points , in a different , less direct , more surrealist way . " " Miss Sarajevo " was recorded with Luciano Pavarotti and released as the first single from U2 's side @-@ project with Eno entitled Original Soundtracks 1 ; the record was released under the pseudonym " Passengers " .

= = Scheduling and preparations = =

As the Bosnian War ended in 1995 and the Siege of Sarajevo in 1996 , the stability of the region began to improve . Realizing this , U2 began to plan a concert for Sarajevo that would take place on their 1997 PopMart Tour . Although they were the first major musical artist to perform in the city following the war , China Drum had played a concert in July 1996 . Music journalist Andrew Mueller described China Drum 's experience in a single van as a " logistical and administrative nightmare " . Muhamed Sacirbey , the Bosnian Ambassador to the United Nations , helped U2 make arrangements , playing an informal role as promoter and organizer . McGuinness said , " We thought it was going to be quite difficult . But it 's been quite straightforward . People have just wanted to help . We 've blagged a lot of equipment , forklifts and so on , from the military , and the local crew have been incredibly supportive . "

Scheduling the concert meant a financial loss of £ 500 @,@ 000 for the band , despite sponsorship from Coca @-@ Cola and GSM . Ticket prices were set at just DM 8 ( £ 8 , US $ 18 ) , because of the 50 percent unemployment rate in the city . Bono offered for the group to perform a benefit concert or small show in Sarajevo , but the city requested they hold the full PopMart show . Bono said , " We offered to do a charity gig here , just turn up and do a scratch gig , but they wanted the whole fucking thing . They wanted the lemon ! " McGuinness added , " we felt it was important that we treat this as another city on the tour , to pay them that respect . To come here and not do the whole show would have been rude . " According to news releases following the concert , the total net income for the show was US $ 13 @,@ 500 ; however , tour promoter John Giddings noted that price did not include the costs of the production or transportation .

As late as July 1997 , U2 were pressured to accept an offer of approximately $ 4 million to perform in Basel , Switzerland on the date scheduled for the Sarajevo show . At the time , rumours about the region 's instability persisted . To ensure the Sarajevo show was not canceled , Sacirbey appeared at many of the band 's preceding shows to lobby on behalf of the city . For the stage to reach Sarajevo , the road crew had to drive the equipment and stage through war @-@ torn Bosnia . Although the trip was without incident , they had to pass through towns such as Mostar , which had been " obliterated " during the war . Stage and lighting designer Willie Williams commented that " when the truck drivers arrived you could see that they were changed men " . The only trouble in transporting the stage came when a border control agent prevented them from crossing the border for hours . The trucks reached Sarajevo two days prior to the concert , arriving to the cheers and applause of the city 's residents ; their arrival was the first concrete evidence that the band were keeping their promise to play there . McGuinness explained , " This is a city that 's been disappointed so many times there were a lot of people who weren 't prepared to believe the gig was going to take place until they saw the stage going up . " Until then , tickets had sold very slowly , but within 24 hours of the trucks ' arrival , another 8 @,@ 000 tickets were sold . Despite this , a day before the concert , 15 @,@ 000 tickets remained unsold . Three @-@ hundred local residents were employed to help assemble the stage and promote the show .

Several hundred members of the international " Stabilisation Force " ( SFOR ) were tasked with upholding the Dayton Agreement for the concert . The band were overwhelmed by the sights they saw when arriving . During the war , Koševo Stadium was used as a morgue , and graveyards were present on either sides . Although the venue had escaped the worst of the shelling , the nearby Olympic Hall Zetra had been badly damaged during the war . Despite its condition , U2 used the building for their dressing rooms and offices . Following the concert , it was used to provide lodging for 3 @,@ 000 fans . The band 's hotel , a nearby Holiday Inn , had been shelled during the siege , and part of the building had been destroyed as a result . The walls in Mullen 's room were punctured with mortar shrapnel , and sections of the floor were also missing . Prior to the show , Sacirbey took Mullen on a tour of the city , showing him the Sarajevo Roses embedded in the streets .

On the day of the concert , trains ran into Sarajevo for the first time since the start of the war . Two lines were opened , one from Mostar to Sarajevo and the other from Maglaj to Sarajevo . Although the railways had been functional for the duration of the war , Muslim and Croat politicians could not decide who would operate them . As a result , the trains were only run on the date of the concert to bring fans to the city , and the day after to take them home again . Visa requirements were temporarily suspended . An effort was made to include all of the country 's ethnic groups at the concert . Approximately 500 fans crossed the ethnic boundary lines between Bosnia 's Serb Republic and the Moslem @-@ Croat Federation . People from several of the other Yugoslavian republics went to Sarajevo for the concert , with buses carrying fans from Zagreb , Croatia and Ljubljana , Slovenia . Security around the event was strict . SFOR soldiers searched for bombs with sniffer dogs , and the buildings around the stadium were lined with Irish troops and sharpshooters in case violence broke out .

= = Concert overview = =

The concert was held on 23 September 1997 , and approximately 45 @,@ 000 people attended . It was broadcast in Bosnia by local television networks , as well as globally by BBC . During the event , 10 @,@ 000 soldiers stood on the left side of the stadium to ensure no conflicts broke out . At showtime , a decision was made to open the stadium gates to all , allowing approximately 10 @,@ 000 more fans who could not afford the concert or who had not purchased tickets in time to attend . In addition to the local and foreign fans , 6 @,@ 000 off @-@ duty SFOR soldiers attended the event in uniform . Inela Nogić attended the concert and arrived in a limo with the band . The concert was broadcast live internationally on radio , and all proceeds from the radio sales were donated to the War Child project .

Three opening acts played before U2 , beginning with the Gazi Huzrev @-@ Beg choir , an Islamic choir from a local high school . Their performance was followed by two local bands , Protest and Sikter , one of which was chosen personally by Sacirbey , and the other which was selected through a radio contest . Following the opening acts , musician Howie B performed a DJ set before U2 took the stage .

The band 's set list was similar to that of most shows on the PopMart Tour , but with " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in place of The Edge 's karaoke segment and the addition of " Miss Sarajevo " in the second encore . The night was a celebration of the end of the war , with Bono setting the tone by shouting out " Viva Sarajevo ! Fuck the past , kiss the future ! " at the beginning of " Even Better Than the Real Thing " . Bono had struggled with his voice throughout the tour , and the morning of the concert he woke up " without a voice " . There was no intent to cancel , and the show went ahead as planned . Though Bono had few difficulties through the opening quartet of " Mofo " , " I Will Follow " , " Gone " , and " Even Better Than the Real Thing " , his voice gave out during " Last Night on Earth " . In 2006 , The Edge suggested that Bono 's vocal troubles had been caused by laryngitis or by the stress of the previous few months of touring , though he later remarked that " it didn 't really matter that our lead singer was under the weather because every member of the audience seemed to join in on every song . There was a mass chorus for the whole concert . "

At various points during " Until the End of the World " and " New Year 's Day " , Bono gestured for the audience to help him with the vocals , and by the eighth song of the night , " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " , he was reduced to speaking the lyrics instead of singing them . The band continued with their standard set list by playing " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " , " Stand By Me " , " All I Want Is You " , and " Staring at the Sun " . U2 considered playing " Desire " after " All I Want Is You " , but they chose not to perform the song . The Edge then performed a solo version of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " . The rendition was slower and quieter than the studio version . During the song , Bono went backstage for cortisone injections , which helped to improve his voice for a short time . Brian Eno was prepared to go on stage to replace Bono if he could not continue , or to sing alongside him . Bono ultimately returned to the stage alone for the next song , " Bullet the Blue Sky " , and the band continued with renditions of " Please " and " Where the Streets Have No Name " , which concluded the main set .

In the interlude before the first encore , U2 had a worried discussion over the introduction to " Miss Sarajevo " . The song had only been played once prior — at a benefit concert in 1995 with Bono , The Edge , Eno , and Pavarotti . They returned to the stage and played " Discothèque " , " If You Wear That Velvet Dress " , " With or Without You " , and a rough version of " Miss Sarajevo " . Pavarotti was not at the concert to sing his part and so an antique gramophone was brought onto the stage in his place . Eno came on stage to sing backing vocals , and Bono invited Nogić on stage during the chorus . During the song , the video screen showed images from Carter 's Miss Sarajevo documentary , including footage of the girls taking part in the beauty contest and the banner reading " Please don 't let them kill us " . Bono apologized for the rocky performance at the end of the song , saying " Sarajevo , this song was written for you . I hope you like it , because we can 't fucking play it . " The concert concluded with a second encore of " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " , " Mysterious Ways " , " One " , and an abbreviated cover of " Unchained Melody " .

After the band had walked offstage , in a move described by NME as the most meaningful of the concert , the audience faced the troops in the stadium and broke into a spontaneous round of applause , which quickly turned into an ovation — an act which the soldiers mimicked in turn .

= = Reaction = =

The day after the concert in Sarajevo , a local newspaper carried an editorial which was headlined , " Today was the day the siege of Sarajevo ended " . In reaction to the event , a Bosnian student told members of the international press , " I felt excluded from the world for so long . It 's not only about U2 . It 's the feeling of being part of the world . " A local resident said that the concert was " proof that we have peace here , that everything is OK " . Fans from outside the former Yugoslavia described Sarajevo as " an oasis of light " in the midst of destroyed and fire @-@ damaged buildings , and deserted villages . Despite the subpar performance , the Associated Press said , " For two magical hours , the rock band U2 achieved what warriors , politicians and diplomats could not : They united Bosnia . " Andrew Mueller of The Independent wrote , " For the first time since the start of the war in 1992 , people more accustomed to seeing each other through the sights of a rifle were converging on the capital to listen to music together . It was a reminder of prewar Sarajevo , home to some of old Yugoslavia 's best rock bands . " Sacirbey stated that he was satisfied that the concert " was held to promote a sense of normalcy , peace and reconciliation in Sarajevo and not to raise money . " He also expressed thanks on behalf of President Alija Izetbegović , who described the concert as a " landmark event " .

Mullen and The Edge both agreed that playing the Sarajevo concert had been the highlight of their careers ; Mullen said , " [ t ] here 's no doubt that that is an experience I will never forget for the rest of my life . And if I had to spend 20 years in the band just to play that show , [ ... ] I think it would have been worthwhile . " Bono described it as " one of the toughest and one of the sweetest nights of my life " , saying of the audience , " I think they wanted , more than anything , a return to normalcy . That 's what these people want , it 's what they deserve . " He also speculated that the loss of his voice had " allowed room for Sarajevo to take the gig away from us . They could see that things could go horribly wrong , they 'd gone to a lot of trouble to come here , and they were just going to make it happen . And they did . " After the completion of the PopMart Tour , he said , " it was amazing and confounding to discover that on our most ' pop ' of tours some of the best shows were in political hotspots like Santiago , Sarajevo , Tel Aviv [ ... ] anywhere music meant more than entertainment " . Following the concert , President Izetbegović presented Bono with an honorary Bosnian passport , in recognition of his humanitarian efforts during the war .

= = Legacy = =

The peaceful nature of the U2 concert was fleeting , as violence flared up in the region the following year with the Kosovo War . NATO troops remained in Sarajevo until 2004 , while European Union peace @-@ keeping troops remain in the city .

Following the Sarajevo concert , The Edge 's solo performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was performed at the majority of shows for the remainder of the tour , and a recording of the song from the Sarajevo concert was released on the CD single for " If God Will Send His Angels " on 8 December 1997 ; The Edge later stated the band had " rediscovered " the song in Sarajevo after his solo performance . A short documentary about the concert , Missing Sarajevo , was included on the DVD release of U2 's 2002 video compilation , The Best of 1990 @-@ 2000 .

After U2 first performed " Miss Sarajevo " at the Sarajevo concert , it was not performed again until the second leg of the Vertigo Tour in 2005 . U2 did not return to perform in any country in the former Yugoslavia until August 2009 , when they performed two shows in Zagreb during the U2 360 ° Tour . During the Zagreb shows , Bono stated that his honorary Bosnian passport was one of his " most treasured possessions " , which prompted the country 's Council of Ministers to announce that his passport was to be revoked , citing how country 's laws do not allow honorary citizenships to be conferred .

= Frank Slide =

The Frank Slide was a rockslide that buried part of the mining town of Frank , Alberta , Canada . The province of Alberta was not created until September 1905 , more than two years after the slide . The community was still part of the Northwest Territories when the incident occurred at 4 : 10 am on April 29 , 1903 . Over 82 million tonnes ( 90 million tons ) of limestone rock slid down Turtle Mountain within 100 seconds , obliterating the eastern edge of Frank , the Canadian Pacific Railway line and the coal mine . It was one of the largest landslides in Canadian history and remains the deadliest , as between 70 and 90 of the town 's residents were killed , most of whom remain buried in the rubble . Multiple factors led to the slide : Turtle Mountain 's formation left it in a constant state of instability . Coal mining operations may have weakened the mountain 's internal structure , as did a wet winter and cold snap on the night of the disaster .

The railway was repaired within three weeks and the mine was quickly reopened . The section of town closest to the mountain was relocated in 1911 amid fears that another slide was possible . The town 's population nearly doubled its pre @-@ slide population by 1906 , but dwindled after the mine closed permanently in 1917 . The community is now part of the Municipality of Crowsnest Pass in the Province of Alberta and has a population around 200 . The site of the disaster , which remains nearly unchanged since the slide , is now a popular tourist destination . It has been designated a Provincial Historic Site of Alberta and is home to an interpretive centre that receives over 100 @,@ 000 visitors annually .

= = Background = =

The town of Frank was founded in the southwestern corner of the District of Alberta , a subdivision of the Northwest Territories in 1901 . A location was chosen near the base of Turtle Mountain in the Crowsnest Pass , where coal had been discovered one year earlier . It was named after Henry Frank who , along with Samuel Gebo , owned the Canadian @-@ American Coal and Coke Company , which operated the mine that the town was created to support . The pair celebrated the founding of the town on September 10 , 1901 , with a gala opening that featured speeches from territorial leaders , sporting events , a dinner and tours of the mine and planned layout for the community . The Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) ran special trains that brought over 1 @,@ 400 people from neighbouring communities to celebrate the event . By April 1903 , the permanent population had reached 600 , and the town featured a two @-@ storey school and four hotels .

Turtle Mountain stands immediately south of Frank . It consists of an older limestone layer folded over on top of softer materials such as shale and sandstone . Erosion had left the mountain with a steep overhang of its limestone layer . It has long been unstable ; the Blackfoot and Kutenai peoples called it " the mountain that moves " and refused to camp in its vicinity . In the weeks leading up to the disaster , miners occasionally felt rumblings from within the mountain , while the pressure created by the shifting rock sometimes caused the timbers supporting the mine shafts to crack and splinter .

= = Rockslide = =

In the early morning hours of April 29 , 1903 , a freight train pulled out of the mine and was slowly making its way towards the townsite when the crew heard a deafening rumble behind them . The engineer instinctively set the throttle to full speed ahead and sped his train to safety across the bridge over the Crowsnest River . At 4 : 10 am , 30 million cubic metres ( 82 million tonnes ) of limestone rock broke off the peak of Turtle Mountain . The section that broke was 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) wide , 425 metres ( 1 @,@ 394 ft ) high and 150 metres ( 490 ft ) deep . Witnesses to the disaster claimed it took about 100 seconds for the slide to reach up the opposing hills , indicating the mass of rock traveled at a speed of about 112 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) . The sound was heard as far away as Cochrane , over 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) north of Frank .

Initial reports on the disaster indicated that Frank had been " nearly wiped out " by the mountain 's collapse . It was thought the rockslide was triggered by an earthquake , volcanic eruption or explosion within the mine . The majority of the town survived , but the slide buried buildings on the eastern outskirts of Frank . Seven cottages were destroyed , as were several businesses , the cemetery , a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) stretch of road and railroad tracks , and all of the mine 's buildings .

Approximately 100 people lived in the path of destruction , located between the CPR tracks and the river . The death toll is uncertain ; estimates range between 70 and 90 . It is the deadliest landslide in Canadian history and was the largest until the Hope Slide in 1965 . It is possible that the toll may have been higher , since as many as 50 transients had been camped at the base of the mountain while looking for work . Some residents believed that they had left Frank shortly before the slide , though there is no way to be certain . Most of the victims remain entombed beneath the rocks ; only 12 bodies were recovered in the immediate aftermath . The skeletons of six additional victims were unearthed in 1924 by crews building a new road through the slide .

Initial news reports stated that between 50 and 60 men were within the mountain and had been buried with no hope of survival . In reality , there were 20 miners working the night shift at the time of the disaster . Three had been outside the mine and were killed by the slide . The remaining 17 were underground . They discovered that the entrance was blocked and water from the river , which had been dammed by the slide , was coming in via a secondary tunnel . They unsuccessfully tried to dig their way through the blocked entrance before one miner suggested he knew of a seam of coal that reached the surface . Working a narrow tunnel in pairs and threes , they dug through the coal for hours as the air around them became increasingly toxic . Only three men still had enough energy to continue digging when they broke through to the surface late in the afternoon . The opening was too dangerous to escape from due to falling rocks from above . Encouraged by their success , the miners cut a new shaft that broke through under an outcropping of rock that protected them from falling debris . Thirteen hours after they were buried , all 17 men emerged from the mountain .

The miners found that the row of cottages that served as their homes had been devastated and some of their families killed , seemingly at random . One found his family alive and safe in a makeshift hospital , but another emerged to discover his wife and four children had died . Fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Lillian Clark , working a late shift that night in the town 's boarding house , had been given permission to stay overnight for the first time . She was the only member of her family to survive . Her father was working outside the mine when the slide hit , while her mother and six siblings were buried in their home . All 12 men living at the CPR work camp were killed , but 128 more who were scheduled to move into the camp the day before the slide had not arrived — the train that was supposed to take them there from Morrissey , British Columbia , failed to pick them up . The Spokane Flyer , a passenger train heading west from Lethbridge , was saved by CPR brakeman Sid Choquette , one of two men who rushed across the rock @-@ strewn ground to warn the train that the track had been buried under the slide . Through falling rocks and a dust cloud that impaired his visibility , Choquette ran for 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to warn the oncoming locomotive of the danger . The CPR gave him a letter of commendation and a $ 25 cheque in recognition of his heroism .

= = = Aftermath = = =

Early on April 30 a special train from Fort Macleod arrived with police officers and doctors . Premier Frederick Haultain arrived at the disaster site on May 1 , where he met with engineers who had investigated the top of Turtle Mountain . Though new fissures had formed at the peak , they felt there was limited further risk to the town ; the CPR 's chief engineer was convinced that Frank was in imminent danger from another slide . Siding with the latter , Haultain ordered the town evacuated , and the Geological Survey of Canada ( GSC ) sent two of its top geologists to investigate further . They reported that the slide had created two new peaks on the mountain and that the north peak , overlooking the town , was not in imminent danger of collapse . As a result , the evacuation order was lifted on May 10 and Frank 's citizens returned . The North @-@ West Mounted Police , reinforced by officers who arrived from Cranbrook , Macleod and Calgary , kept tight control of the town and ensured that no cases of looting occurred during the evacuation .

Clearing the Canadian Pacific Railway line was of paramount importance . Approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the main line had been buried under the slide , along with part of an auxiliary line . The CPR had the line cleared and rebuilt within three weeks . Intent on reopening the mine , workers opened passageways to the old mine works by May 30 . To their amazement , they discovered that Charlie the horse , one of three who worked in the mine , had survived for over a month underground . The horse had subsisted by eating the bark off the timber supports and by drinking from pools of water . The horse died when his rescuers overfed him on oats and brandy .

The town 's population not only recovered but grew ; the 1906 census of the Canadian Prairies listed the population at 1 @,@ 178 . A new study commissioned by the Dominion government determined that the cracks in the mountain continued to grow and that the risk of another slide remained . Consequently , parts of Frank closest to the mountain were dismantled or relocated to safer areas .

= = Causes = =

Several factors led to the Frank Slide . A study conducted by the GSC immediately following the slide concluded that the primary cause was the mountain 's unstable anticline formation ; a layer of limestone rested on top of softer materials that , after years of erosion , resulted in a top @-@ heavy , steep cliff . Cracks laced the eastern face of the mountain while underground fissures allowed water to flow into the mountain 's core . Local Indigenous peoples of the area , the Blackfoot and Ktunaxa , had oral traditions referring to the peak as " the mountain that moves . " Miners noticed the mountain had become increasingly unstable in the months preceding the slide ; they felt small tremors and the superintendent reported a " general squeeze " in the mountain at depths between 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) and 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . They found that coal broke from its seam ; it was said to have practically mined itself .

An unusually warm winter , with warm days and cold nights , was also a factor . Water in the mountain 's fissures froze and thawed repeatedly , further weakening the mountain 's supports . Heavy snowfall in the region in March was followed by a warm April , causing the mountain snows to melt into the fissures . GSC geologists concluded that the weather conditions that night likely triggered the slide . The crew of the freight train that arrived at Frank shortly before the disaster said it was the coldest night of the winter , with overnight temperatures falling below − 18 ° C ( 0 ° F ) . Geologists speculated that the cold snap and rapid freezing resulted in expansion of the fissures , causing the limestone to break off and tumble down the mountain .

Though the GSC concluded that mining activities contributed to the slide , the facility 's owners disagreed . Their engineers claimed that the mine bore no responsibility . Later studies suggested that the mountain had been at a point of " equilibrium " ; even a small deformation such as that caused by the mine 's existence would have helped trigger a slide . The mine was quickly re @-@ opened , even though rock continued to tumble down the mountain . Coal production at Frank peaked in 1910 , but the mine was permanently closed in 1917 after it became unprofitable .

The slide created two new peaks on the mountain ; the south peak stands 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) high and the north peak 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . Geologists believe that another slide is inevitable , though not imminent . The south peak is considered the most likely to fall ; it would likely create a slide about one @-@ sixth the size of the 1903 slide . The mountain , continuously monitored for changes in stability , has been studied on numerous occasions . The Alberta Geological Survey operates a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art monitoring system used by researchers around the world . Over 80 monitoring stations have been placed on the face of the mountain to provide an early warning system for area residents in case of another slide .

Geologists have debated about what caused the slide debris to travel the distance it did . The " air cushion " theory , an early hypothesis , postulated that a layer of air was trapped between the mass of rock and the mountain , which caused the rock to move a greater distance than would otherwise be expected . " Acoustic fluidization " is another theory , which suggests that large masses of material create seismic energy that reduces friction and causes the debris to flow down the mountain as though it is a fluid . Geologists created the term " debris avalanche " to describe the Frank Slide .

= = Legends = =

Numerous legends and misconceptions were spawned in the aftermath of the slide . The entire town of Frank was claimed to have been buried , though much of the town itself was unscathed . The belief that a branch of the Union Bank of Canada had been buried with as much as $ 500 @,@ 000 persisted for many years . The bank — untouched by the slide — remained in the same location until it was demolished in 1911 , after which the buried treasure legend arose . Crews building a new road through the pass in 1924 operated under police guard as it was believed they could unearth the supposedly buried bank .

Several people , telling amazing stories to those who would listen , passed themselves off as the " sole survivor " in the years following the slide . The most common such tale is that of an infant girl said to have been the only survivor of the slide . Her real name unknown , the girl was called " Frankie Slide " . Several stories were told of her miraculous escape : she was found in a bale of hay , lying on rocks , under the collapsed roof of her house or in the arms of her dead mother . The legend was based primarily on the story of Marion Leitch , who was thrown from her home into a pile of hay when the slide enveloped her home . Her sisters also survived ; they were found unharmed under a collapsed ceiling joist . Her parents and four brothers died . Influencing the story was the survival of two @-@ year @-@ old Gladys Ennis , who was found outside her home in the mud . The last survivor of the slide , she died in 1995 . In total , 23 people in the path of the slide survived , in addition to the 17 miners who escaped from the tunnels under Turtle Mountain . A ballad by Ed McCurdy featuring the story of Frankie Slide was popular in parts of Canada in the 1950s . The slide has formed the basis of other songs , including " How the Mountain Came Down " by Stompin ' Tom Connors , and more recently , " Frank , AB " by The Rural Alberta Advantage . The Frank Slide has been the subject of several books , both historical and fictional .

= = Legacy = =

Curious sightseers flocked to the site of the slide within the day of the disaster . It has remained a popular tourist destination , in part due to its proximity to the Crowsnest Highway . The province built a roadside turnout in 1941 to accommodate the traffic . Town boosters unsuccessfully sought to have the site designated as a National Historic Site in 1958 . It was later designated a Provincial Historic Site of Alberta . The provincial government designated the slide area a restricted development zone in 1976 , which prevents alteration of the site . In 1978 , a memorial plaque was erected . The Frank Slide Interpretive Centre , within sight of the mountain , was opened in 1985 . A museum and tourist stop document the Frank Slide and the region 's coal mining history . The site receives over 100 @,@ 000 tourist visits annually .

Though Frank recovered from the slide and achieved a peak population of 1 @,@ 000 shortly thereafter , the closure of the mine resulted in a longstanding decline in population . Frank ceased to be an independent community in 1979 when it was amalgamated into the Municipality of Crowsnest Pass along with the neighbouring communities of Blairmore , Coleman , Hillcrest and Bellevue . Frank is now home to about 200 residents .

= Protein =

Proteins ( / ˈproʊˌtiːnz / or / ˈproʊti.ᵻnz / ) are large biomolecules , or macromolecules , consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues . Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms , including catalysing metabolic reactions , DNA replication , responding to stimuli , and transporting molecules from one location to another . Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids , which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes , and which usually results in protein folding into a specific three @-@ dimensional structure that determines its activity .

A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide . A protein contains at least one long polypeptide . Short polypeptides , containing less than 20 @-@ 30 residues , are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides , or sometimes oligopeptides . The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds and adjacent amino acid residues . The sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene , which is encoded in the genetic code . In general , the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids ; however , in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine and — in certain archaea — pyrrolysine . Shortly after or even during synthesis , the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by post @-@ translational modification , which alters the physical and chemical properties , folding , stability , activity , and ultimately , the function of the proteins . Sometimes proteins have non @-@ peptide groups attached , which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors . Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function , and they often associate to form stable protein complexes .

Once formed , proteins only exist for a certain period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cell 's machinery through the process of protein turnover . A protein 's lifespan is measured in terms of its half @-@ life and covers a wide range . They can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1 – 2 days in mammalian cells . Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly either due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable .

Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids , proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells . Many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism . Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions , such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton , which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape . Other proteins are important in cell signaling , immune responses , cell adhesion , and the cell cycle . In animals , proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized . Digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism .

Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such as ultracentrifugation , precipitation , electrophoresis , and chromatography ; the advent of genetic engineering has made possible a number of methods to facilitate purification . Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function include immunohistochemistry , site @-@ directed mutagenesis , X @-@ ray crystallography , nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry .

= = Biochemistry = =

Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L @-@ α @-@ amino acids . All proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features , including an α @-@ carbon to which an amino group , a carboxyl group , and a variable side chain are bonded . Only proline differs from this basic structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N @-@ end amine group , which forces the CO – NH amide moiety into a fixed conformation . The side chains of the standard amino acids , detailed in the list of standard amino acids , have a great variety of chemical structures and properties ; it is the combined effect of all of the amino acid side chains in a protein that ultimately determines its three @-@ dimensional structure and its chemical reactivity . The amino acids in a polypeptide chain are linked by peptide bonds . Once linked in the protein chain , an individual amino acid is called a residue , and the linked series of carbon , nitrogen , and oxygen atoms are known as the main chain or protein backbone .

The peptide bond has two resonance forms that contribute some double @-@ bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis , so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar . The other two dihedral angles in the peptide bond determine the local shape assumed by the protein backbone . The end of the protein with a free carboxyl group is known as the C @-@ terminus or carboxy terminus , whereas the end with a free amino group is known as the N @-@ terminus or amino terminus . The words protein , polypeptide , and peptide are a little ambiguous and can overlap in meaning . Protein is generally used to refer to the complete biological molecule in a stable conformation , whereas peptide is generally reserved for a short amino acid oligomers often lacking a stable three @-@ dimensional structure . However , the boundary between the two is not well defined and usually lies near 20 – 30 residues . Polypeptide can refer to any single linear chain of amino acids , usually regardless of length , but often implies an absence of a defined conformation .

= = = Abundance in cells = = =

It has been estimated that average @-@ sized bacteria contain about 2 million proteins per cell ( e.g. E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus ) . Smaller bacteria , such as Mycoplasma or spirochetes contain fewer molecules , namely on the order of 50 @,@ 000 to 1 million . By contrast , eukaryotic cells are larger and thus contain much more protein . For instance , yeast cells were estimated to contain about 50 million proteins and human cells on the order of 1 to 3 billion . Note that bacterial genomes encode about 10 times fewer proteins than humans ( e.g. small bacteria ~ 1 @,@ 000 , E. coli : ~ 4 @,@ 000 , yeast : ~ 6 @,@ 000 , human : ~ 20 @,@ 000 ) .

Importantly , the concentration of individual proteins ranges from a few molecules per cell to hundreds of thousands . In fact , about a third of all proteins is not produced in most cells or only induced under certain circumstances . For instance , of the 20 @,@ 000 or so proteins encoded by the human genome only 6 @,@ 000 are detected in lymphoblastoid cells .

= = Synthesis = =

= = = Biosynthesis = = =

Proteins are assembled from amino acids using information encoded in genes . Each protein has its own unique amino acid sequence that is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding this protein . The genetic code is a set of three @-@ nucleotide sets called codons and each three @-@ nucleotide combination designates an amino acid , for example AUG ( adenine @-@ uracil @-@ guanine ) is the code for methionine . Because DNA contains four nucleotides , the total number of possible codons is 64 ; hence , there is some redundancy in the genetic code , with some amino acids specified by more than one codon . Genes encoded in DNA are first transcribed into pre @-@ messenger RNA ( mRNA ) by proteins such as RNA polymerase . Most organisms then process the pre @-@ mRNA ( also known as a primary transcript ) using various forms of Post @-@ transcriptional modification to form the mature mRNA , which is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome . In prokaryotes the mRNA may either be used as soon as it is produced , or be bound by a ribosome after having moved away from the nucleoid . In contrast , eukaryotes make mRNA in the cell nucleus and then translocate it across the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm , where protein synthesis then takes place . The rate of protein synthesis is higher in prokaryotes than eukaryotes and can reach up to 20 amino acids per second .

The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation . The mRNA is loaded onto the ribosome and is read three nucleotides at a time by matching each codon to its base pairing anticodon located on a transfer RNA molecule , which carries the amino acid corresponding to the codon it recognizes . The enzyme aminoacyl tRNA synthetase " charges " the tRNA molecules with the correct amino acids . The growing polypeptide is often termed the nascent chain . Proteins are always biosynthesized from N @-@ terminus to C @-@ terminus .

The size of a synthesized protein can be measured by the number of amino acids it contains and by its total molecular mass , which is normally reported in units of daltons ( synonymous with atomic mass units ) , or the derivative unit kilodalton ( kDa ) . Yeast proteins are on average 466 amino acids long and 53 kDa in mass . The largest known proteins are the titins , a component of the muscle sarcomere , with a molecular mass of almost 3 @,@ 000 kDa and a total length of almost 27 @,@ 000 amino acids .

= = = Chemical synthesis = = =

Short proteins can also be synthesized chemically by a family of methods known as peptide synthesis , which rely on organic synthesis techniques such as chemical ligation to produce peptides in high yield . Chemical synthesis allows for the introduction of non @-@ natural amino acids into polypeptide chains , such as attachment of fluorescent probes to amino acid side chains . These methods are useful in laboratory biochemistry and cell biology , though generally not for commercial applications . Chemical synthesis is inefficient for polypeptides longer than about 300 amino acids , and the synthesized proteins may not readily assume their native tertiary structure . Most chemical synthesis methods proceed from C @-@ terminus to N @-@ terminus , opposite the biological reaction .

= = Structure = =

Most proteins fold into unique 3 @-@ dimensional structures . The shape into which a protein naturally folds is known as its native conformation . Although many proteins can fold unassisted , simply through the chemical properties of their amino acids , others require the aid of molecular chaperones to fold into their native states . Biochemists often refer to four distinct aspects of a protein 's structure :

Primary structure : the amino acid sequence . A protein is a polyamide .

Secondary structure : regularly repeating local structures stabilized by hydrogen bonds . The most common examples are the α @-@ helix , β @-@ sheet and turns . Because secondary structures are local , many regions of different secondary structure can be present in the same protein molecule .

Tertiary structure : the overall shape of a single protein molecule ; the spatial relationship of the secondary structures to one another . Tertiary structure is generally stabilized by nonlocal interactions , most commonly the formation of a hydrophobic core , but also through salt bridges , hydrogen bonds , disulfide bonds , and even posttranslational modifications . The term " tertiary structure " is often used as synonymous with the term fold . The tertiary structure is what controls the basic function of the protein .

Quaternary structure : the structure formed by several protein molecules ( polypeptide chains ) , usually called protein subunits in this context , which function as a single protein complex .

Proteins are not entirely rigid molecules . In addition to these levels of structure , proteins may shift between several related structures while they perform their functions . In the context of these functional rearrangements , these tertiary or quaternary structures are usually referred to as " conformations " , and transitions between them are called conformational changes . Such changes are often induced by the binding of a substrate molecule to an enzyme 's active site , or the physical region of the protein that participates in chemical catalysis . In solution proteins also undergo variation in structure through thermal vibration and the collision with other molecules .

Proteins can be informally divided into three main classes , which correlate with typical tertiary structures : globular proteins , fibrous proteins , and membrane proteins . Almost all globular proteins are soluble and many are enzymes . Fibrous proteins are often structural , such as collagen , the major component of connective tissue , or keratin , the protein component of hair and nails . Membrane proteins often serve as receptors or provide channels for polar or charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane .

A special case of intramolecular hydrogen bonds within proteins , poorly shielded from water attack and hence promoting their own dehydration , are called dehydrons .

= = = Structure determination = = =

Discovering the tertiary structure of a protein , or the quaternary structure of its complexes , can provide important clues about how the protein performs its function . Common experimental methods of structure determination include X @-@ ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy , both of which can produce information at atomic resolution . However , NMR experiments are able to provide information from which a subset of distances between pairs of atoms can be estimated , and the final possible conformations for a protein are determined by solving a distance geometry problem . Dual polarisation interferometry is a quantitative analytical method for measuring the overall protein conformation and conformational changes due to interactions or other stimulus . Circular dichroism is another laboratory technique for determining internal β @-@ sheet / α @-@ helical composition of proteins . Cryoelectron microscopy is used to produce lower @-@ resolution structural information about very large protein complexes , including assembled viruses ; a variant known as electron crystallography can also produce high @-@ resolution information in some cases , especially for two @-@ dimensional crystals of membrane proteins . Solved structures are usually deposited in the Protein Data Bank ( PDB ) , a freely available resource from which structural data about thousands of proteins can be obtained in the form of Cartesian coordinates for each atom in the protein .

Many more gene sequences are known than protein structures . Further , the set of solved structures is biased toward proteins that can be easily subjected to the conditions required in X @-@ ray crystallography , one of the major structure determination methods . In particular , globular proteins are comparatively easy to crystallize in preparation for X @-@ ray crystallography . Membrane proteins , by contrast , are difficult to crystallize and are underrepresented in the PDB . Structural genomics initiatives have attempted to remedy these deficiencies by systematically solving representative structures of major fold classes . Protein structure prediction methods attempt to provide a means of generating a plausible structure for proteins whose structures have not been experimentally determined .

= = Cellular functions = =

Proteins are the chief actors within the cell , said to be carrying out the duties specified by the information encoded in genes . With the exception of certain types of RNA , most other biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act . Proteins make up half the dry weight of an Escherichia coli cell , whereas other macromolecules such as DNA and RNA make up only 3 % and 20 % , respectively . The set of proteins expressed in a particular cell or cell type is known as its proteome .

The chief characteristic of proteins that also allows their diverse set of functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly . The region of the protein responsible for binding another molecule is known as the binding site and is often a depression or " pocket " on the molecular surface . This binding ability is mediated by the tertiary structure of the protein , which defines the binding site pocket , and by the chemical properties of the surrounding amino acids ' side chains . Protein binding can be extraordinarily tight and specific ; for example , the ribonuclease inhibitor protein binds to human angiogenin with a sub @-@ femtomolar dissociation constant ( < 10 − 15 M ) but does not bind at all to its amphibian homolog onconase ( > 1 M ) . Extremely minor chemical changes such as the addition of a single methyl group to a binding partner can sometimes suffice to nearly eliminate binding ; for example , the aminoacyl tRNA synthetase specific to the amino acid valine discriminates against the very similar side chain of the amino acid isoleucine .

Proteins can bind to other proteins as well as to small @-@ molecule substrates . When proteins bind specifically to other copies of the same molecule , they can oligomerize to form fibrils ; this process occurs often in structural proteins that consist of globular monomers that self @-@ associate to form rigid fibers . Protein – protein interactions also regulate enzymatic activity , control progression through the cell cycle , and allow the assembly of large protein complexes that carry out many closely related reactions with a common biological function . Proteins can also bind to , or even be integrated into , cell membranes . The ability of binding partners to induce conformational changes in proteins allows the construction of enormously complex signaling networks . Importantly , as interactions between proteins are reversible , and depend heavily on the availability of different groups of partner proteins to form aggregates that are capable to carry out discrete sets of function , study of the interactions between specific proteins is a key to understand important aspects of cellular function , and ultimately the properties that distinguish particular cell types .

= = = Enzymes = = =

The best @-@ known role of proteins in the cell is as enzymes , which catalyse chemical reactions . Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one or a few chemical reactions . Enzymes carry out most of the reactions involved in metabolism , as well as manipulating DNA in processes such as DNA replication , DNA repair , and transcription . Some enzymes act on other proteins to add or remove chemical groups in a process known as posttranslational modification . About 4 @,@ 000 reactions are known to be catalysed by enzymes . The rate acceleration conferred by enzymatic catalysis is often enormous — as much as 1017 @-@ fold increase in rate over the uncatalysed reaction in the case of orotate decarboxylase ( 78 million years without the enzyme , 18 milliseconds with the enzyme ) .

The molecules bound and acted upon by enzymes are called substrates . Although enzymes can consist of hundreds of amino acids , it is usually only a small fraction of the residues that come in contact with the substrate , and an even smaller fraction — three to four residues on average — that are directly involved in catalysis . The region of the enzyme that binds the substrate and contains the catalytic residues is known as the active site .

Dirigent proteins are members of a class of proteins that dictate the stereochemistry of a compound synthesized by other enzymes .

= = = Cell signaling and ligand binding = = =

Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction . Some proteins , such as insulin , are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant tissues . Others are membrane proteins that act as receptors whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell . Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an effector domain within the cell , which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a conformational change detected by other proteins within the cell .

Antibodies are protein components of an adaptive immune system whose main function is to bind antigens , or foreign substances in the body , and target them for destruction . Antibodies can be secreted into the extracellular environment or anchored in the membranes of specialized B cells known as plasma cells . Whereas enzymes are limited in their binding affinity for their substrates by the necessity of conducting their reaction , antibodies have no such constraints . An antibody 's binding affinity to its target is extraordinarily high .

Many ligand transport proteins bind particular small biomolecules and transport them to other locations in the body of a multicellular organism . These proteins must have a high binding affinity when their ligand is present in high concentrations , but must also release the ligand when it is present at low concentrations in the target tissues . The canonical example of a ligand @-@ binding protein is haemoglobin , which transports oxygen from the lungs to other organs and tissues in all vertebrates and has close homologs in every biological kingdom . Lectins are sugar @-@ binding proteins which are highly specific for their sugar moieties . Lectins typically play a role in biological recognition phenomena involving cells and proteins . Receptors and hormones are highly specific binding proteins .

Transmembrane proteins can also serve as ligand transport proteins that alter the permeability of the cell membrane to small molecules and ions . The membrane alone has a hydrophobic core through which polar or charged molecules cannot diffuse . Membrane proteins contain internal channels that allow such molecules to enter and exit the cell . Many ion channel proteins are specialized to select for only a particular ion ; for example , potassium and sodium channels often discriminate for only one of the two ions .

= = = Structural proteins = = =

Structural proteins confer stiffness and rigidity to otherwise @-@ fluid biological components . Most structural proteins are fibrous proteins ; for example , collagen and elastin are critical components of connective tissue such as cartilage , and keratin is found in hard or filamentous structures such as hair , nails , feathers , hooves , and some animal shells . Some globular proteins can also play structural functions , for example , actin and tubulin are globular and soluble as monomers , but polymerize to form long , stiff fibers that make up the cytoskeleton , which allows the cell to maintain its shape and size .

Other proteins that serve structural functions are motor proteins such as myosin , kinesin , and dynein , which are capable of generating mechanical forces . These proteins are crucial for cellular motility of single celled organisms and the sperm of many multicellular organisms which reproduce sexually . They also generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles and play essential roles in intracellular transport .

= = Methods of study = =

The activities and structures of proteins may be examined in vitro , in vivo , and in silico . In vitro studies of purified proteins in controlled environments are useful for learning how a protein carries out its function : for example , enzyme kinetics studies explore the chemical mechanism of an enzyme 's catalytic activity and its relative affinity for various possible substrate molecules . By contrast , in vivo experiments can provide information about the physiological role of a protein in the context of a cell or even a whole organism . In silico studies use computational methods to study proteins .

= = = Protein purification = = =

To perform in vitro analysis , a protein must be purified away from other cellular components . This process usually begins with cell lysis , in which a cell 's membrane is disrupted and its internal contents released into a solution known as a crude lysate . The resulting mixture can be purified using ultracentrifugation , which fractionates the various cellular components into fractions containing soluble proteins ; membrane lipids and proteins ; cellular organelles , and nucleic acids . Precipitation by a method known as salting out can concentrate the proteins from this lysate . Various types of chromatography are then used to isolate the protein or proteins of interest based on properties such as molecular weight , net charge and binding affinity . The level of purification can be monitored using various types of gel electrophoresis if the desired protein 's molecular weight and isoelectric point are known , by spectroscopy if the protein has distinguishable spectroscopic features , or by enzyme assays if the protein has enzymatic activity . Additionally , proteins can be isolated according their charge using electrofocusing .

For natural proteins , a series of purification steps may be necessary to obtain protein sufficiently pure for laboratory applications . To simplify this process , genetic engineering is often used to add chemical features to proteins that make them easier to purify without affecting their structure or activity . Here , a " tag " consisting of a specific amino acid sequence , often a series of histidine residues ( a " His @-@ tag " ) , is attached to one terminus of the protein . As a result , when the lysate is passed over a chromatography column containing nickel , the histidine residues ligate the nickel and attach to the column while the untagged components of the lysate pass unimpeded . A number of different tags have been developed to help researchers purify specific proteins from complex mixtures .

= = = Cellular localization = = =

The study of proteins in vivo is often concerned with the synthesis and localization of the protein within the cell . Although many intracellular proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and membrane @-@ bound or secreted proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum , the specifics of how proteins are targeted to specific organelles or cellular structures is often unclear . A useful technique for assessing cellular localization uses genetic engineering to express in a cell a fusion protein or chimera consisting of the natural protein of interest linked to a " reporter " such as green fluorescent protein ( GFP ) . The fused protein 's position within the cell can be cleanly and efficiently visualized using microscopy , as shown in the figure opposite .

Other methods for elucidating the cellular location of proteins requires the use of known compartmental markers for regions such as the ER , the Golgi , lysosomes or vacuoles , mitochondria , chloroplasts , plasma membrane , etc . With the use of fluorescently tagged versions of these markers or of antibodies to known markers , it becomes much simpler to identify the localization of a protein of interest . For example , indirect immunofluorescence will allow for fluorescence colocalization and demonstration of location . Fluorescent dyes are used to label cellular compartments for a similar purpose .

Other possibilities exist , as well . For example , immunohistochemistry usually utilizes an antibody to one or more proteins of interest that are conjugated to enzymes yielding either luminescent or chromogenic signals that can be compared between samples , allowing for localization information . Another applicable technique is cofractionation in sucrose ( or other material ) gradients using isopycnic centrifugation . While this technique does not prove colocalization of a compartment of known density and the protein of interest , it does increase the likelihood , and is more amenable to large @-@ scale studies .

Finally , the gold @-@ standard method of cellular localization is immunoelectron microscopy . This technique also uses an antibody to the protein of interest , along with classical electron microscopy techniques . The sample is prepared for normal electron microscopic examination , and then treated with an antibody to the protein of interest that is conjugated to an extremely electro @-@ dense material , usually gold . This allows for the localization of both ultrastructural details as well as the protein of interest .

Through another genetic engineering application known as site @-@ directed mutagenesis , researchers can alter the protein sequence and hence its structure , cellular localization , and susceptibility to regulation . This technique even allows the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into proteins , using modified tRNAs , and may allow the rational design of new proteins with novel properties .

= = = Proteomics = = =

The total complement of proteins present at a time in a cell or cell type is known as its proteome , and the study of such large @-@ scale data sets defines the field of proteomics , named by analogy to the related field of genomics . Key experimental techniques in proteomics include 2D electrophoresis , which allows the separation of a large number of proteins , mass spectrometry , which allows rapid high @-@ throughput identification of proteins and sequencing of peptides ( most often after in @-@ gel digestion ) , protein microarrays , which allow the detection of the relative levels of a large number of proteins present in a cell , and two @-@ hybrid screening , which allows the systematic exploration of protein – protein interactions . The total complement of biologically possible such interactions is known as the interactome . A systematic attempt to determine the structures of proteins representing every possible fold is known as structural genomics .

= = = Bioinformatics = = =

A vast array of computational methods have been developed to analyze the structure , function , and evolution of proteins .

The development of such tools has been driven by the large amount of genomic and proteomic data available for a variety of organisms , including the human genome . It is simply impossible to study all proteins experimentally , hence only a few are subjected to laboratory experiments while computational tools are used to extrapolate to similar proteins . Such homologous proteins can be efficiently identified in distantly related organisms by sequence alignment . Genome and gene sequences can be searched by a variety of tools for certain properties . Sequence profiling tools can find restriction enzyme sites , open reading frames in nucleotide sequences , and predict secondary structures . Phylogenetic trees can be constructed and evolutionary hypotheses developed using special software like ClustalW regarding the ancestry of modern organisms and the genes they express . The field of bioinformatics is now indispensable for the analysis of genes and proteins .

= = = = Structure prediction and simulation = = = =

Complementary to the field of structural genomics , protein structure prediction seeks to develop efficient ways to provide plausible models for proteins whose structures have not yet been determined experimentally . The most successful type of structure prediction , known as homology modeling , relies on the existence of a " template " structure with sequence similarity to the protein being modeled ; structural genomics ' goal is to provide sufficient representation in solved structures to model most of those that remain . Although producing accurate models remains a challenge when only distantly related template structures are available , it has been suggested that sequence alignment is the bottleneck in this process , as quite accurate models can be produced if a " perfect " sequence alignment is known . Many structure prediction methods have served to inform the emerging field of protein engineering , in which novel protein folds have already been designed . A more complex computational problem is the prediction of intermolecular interactions , such as in molecular docking and protein – protein interaction prediction .

The processes of protein folding and binding can be simulated using such technique as molecular mechanics , in particular , molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo , which increasingly take advantage of parallel and distributed computing ( Folding @ home project ; molecular modeling on GPU ) . The folding of small α @-@ helical protein domains such as the villin headpiece and the HIV accessory protein have been successfully simulated in silico , and hybrid methods that combine standard molecular dynamics with quantum mechanics calculations have allowed exploration of the electronic states of rhodopsins .

= = = = Protein disorder and unstructure prediction = = = =

Many proteins ( in Eucaryota ~ 33 % ) contain large unstructured but biologically functional segments and can be classified as intrinsically disordered proteins . Predicting and analysing protein disorder is , therefore , an important part of protein structure characterisation .

= = Nutrition = =

Most microorganisms and plants can biosynthesize all 20 standard amino acids , while animals ( including humans ) must obtain some of the amino acids from the diet . The amino acids that an organism cannot synthesize on its own are referred to as essential amino acids . Key enzymes that synthesize certain amino acids are not present in animals — such as aspartokinase , which catalyses the first step in the synthesis of lysine , methionine , and threonine from aspartate . If amino acids are present in the environment , microorganisms can conserve energy by taking up the amino acids from their surroundings and downregulating their biosynthetic pathways .

In animals , amino acids are obtained through the consumption of foods containing protein . Ingested proteins are then broken down into amino acids through digestion , which typically involves denaturation of the protein through exposure to acid and hydrolysis by enzymes called proteases . Some ingested amino acids are used for protein biosynthesis , while others are converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis , or fed into the citric acid cycle . This use of protein as a fuel is particularly important under starvation conditions as it allows the body 's own proteins to be used to support life , particularly those found in muscle . Amino acids are also an important dietary source of nitrogen .

= = History and etymology = =

Proteins were recognized as a distinct class of biological molecules in the eighteenth century by Antoine Fourcroy and others , distinguished by the molecules ' ability to coagulate or flocculate under treatments with heat or acid . Noted examples at the time included albumin from egg whites , blood serum albumin , fibrin , and wheat gluten .

Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist Gerardus Johannes Mulder and named by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1838 . Mulder carried out elemental analysis of common proteins and found that nearly all proteins had the same empirical formula , C400H620N100O120P1S1 . He came to the erroneous conclusion that they might be composed of a single type of ( very large ) molecule . The term " protein " to describe these molecules was proposed by Mulder 's associate Berzelius ; protein is derived from the Greek word πρώτειος ( proteios ) , meaning " primary " , " in the lead " , or " standing in front " , + -in . Mulder went on to identify the products of protein degradation such as the amino acid leucine for which he found a ( nearly correct ) molecular weight of 131 Da .

Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body , because it was generally believed that " flesh makes flesh . " Karl Heinrich Ritthausen extended known protein forms with the identification of glutamic acid . At the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station a detailed review of the vegetable proteins was compiled by Thomas Burr Osborne . Working with Lafayette Mendel and applying Liebig 's law of the minimum in feeding laboratory rats , the nutritionally essential amino acids were established . The work was continued and communicated by William Cumming Rose . The understanding of proteins as polypeptides came through the work of Franz Hofmeister and Hermann Emil Fischer . The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was not fully appreciated until 1926 , when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein .

The difficulty in purifying proteins in large quantities made them very difficult for early protein biochemists to study . Hence , early studies focused on proteins that could be purified in large quantities , e.g. , those of blood , egg white , various toxins , and digestive / metabolic enzymes obtained from slaughterhouses . In the 1950s , the Armour Hot Dog Co. purified 1 kg of pure bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A and made it freely available to scientists ; this gesture helped ribonuclease A become a major target for biochemical study for the following decades .

Linus Pauling is credited with the successful prediction of regular protein secondary structures based on hydrogen bonding , an idea first put forth by William Astbury in 1933 . Later work by Walter Kauzmann on denaturation , based partly on previous studies by Kaj Linderstrøm @-@ Lang , contributed an understanding of protein folding and structure mediated by hydrophobic interactions .

The first protein to be sequenced was insulin , by Frederick Sanger , in 1949 . Sanger correctly determined the amino acid sequence of insulin , thus conclusively demonstrating that proteins consisted of linear polymers of amino acids rather than branched chains , colloids , or cyclols . He won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958 .

The first protein structures to be solved were hemoglobin and myoglobin , by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew , respectively , in 1958 . As of 2016 , the Protein Data Bank has over 115 @,@ 000 atomic @-@ resolution structures of proteins . In more recent times , cryo @-@ electron microscopy of large macromolecular assemblies and computational protein structure prediction of small protein domains are two methods approaching atomic resolution .

= = Textbooks = =

= = = Databases and projects = = =

The Protein Naming Utility

Human Protein Atlas

NCBI Entrez Protein database

NCBI Protein Structure database

Human Protein Reference Database

Human Proteinpedia

Folding @ Home ( Stanford University )

Comparative Toxicogenomics Database curates protein – chemical interactions , as well as gene / protein – disease relationships and chemical @-@ disease relationships .

Bioinformatic Harvester A Meta search engine ( 29 databases ) for gene and protein information .

Protein Databank in Europe ( see also PDBeQuips , short articles and tutorials on interesting PDB structures )

Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics ( see also Molecule of the Month , presenting short accounts on selected proteins from the PDB )

Proteopedia – Life in 3D : rotatable , zoomable 3D model with wiki annotations for every known protein molecular structure .

UniProt the Universal Protein Resource

neXtProt – Exploring the universe of human proteins : human @-@ centric protein knowledge resource

Multi @-@ Omics Profiling Expression Database : MOPED human and model organism protein / gene knowledge and expression data

= = = Tutorials and educational websites = = =

" An Introduction to Proteins " from HOPES ( Huntington 's Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford )

Proteins : Biogenesis to Degradation – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology

Alphabet of Protein Structures

= LiSA ( Japanese musician , born 1987 ) =

Risa Oribe ( 織部 里沙 , Oribe Risa , born June 24 , 1987 ) , better known by her stage name LiSA ( an acronym of Love is Same All ) , is a Japanese pop singer @-@ songwriter from Seki , Gifu , signed to Aniplex under Sony Music Artists . After aspiring to become a musician early in life , she started her musical career as the vocalist of the indie band Chucky . Following Chucky 's disbandment in 2005 , LiSA moved to Tokyo in order to pursue a solo career , making her major debut in 2010 singing songs for the anime television series Angel Beats ! as one of two vocalists for the fictional band Girls Dead Monster . In April 2011 , she made her solo debut with the release of her mini @-@ album Letters to U. She performed at Animelo Summer Live in August 2010 , Anime Expo in 2012 , and is a regular guest at Anime Festival Asia .

LiSA 's songs have been featured as theme music for various anime such as Fate / Zero and Sword Art Online . Her singles have regularly been in the top ten of the Oricon weekly charts , with " Crossing Field " being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan and " Oath Sign " being certified gold . She performed at the Nippon Budokan in 2014 and 2015 . In 2015 , she made her acting debut as Madge Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film Minions .

= = Career = =

= = = Early years and major debut = = =

Oribe 's musical experience began at the age of three when , upon her mother 's suggestions , she took private piano lessons . Although she was a shy student in kindergarten , she enjoyed her music lessons . In primary school , she was inspired to sing after seeing the band Speed on television . She later took dance and vocal lessons , which continued through her junior high school years . While in elementary , she participated in an audition held at the Nippon Budokan , and it was during this time she decided to become an artist . In junior high school , she formed a band which covered songs by Avril Lavigne , Love Psychedelico , and Ego @-@ Wrappin ' .

Oribe began her singing career in 2005 during her first year in high school when she formed the indie rock band Chucky , which mainly covered songs by other artists . During her second year , the band received advice from their peers that they should start making their own songs ; eventually the band 's reputation grew enough that they performed in Osaka and Nagoya in addition to Gifu . Although her grades in high school were good , she decided not to go to university , despite the recommendations of her teachers , in order to focus on her work with Chucky . Nevertheless , after graduation , due to varying schedules among the band 's members , it became difficult to continue performing . Following the band 's disbandment in July 2008 , she moved to Tokyo in order to continue her singing career .

After moving to Tokyo , Oribe formed the band Love is Same All with members from the indie band Parking Out and began using the stage name LiSA , which is an acronym for Love is Same All . The band performs with LiSA during the latter 's solo live performances . In 2010 , she made her major debut singing songs for the anime series Angel Beats ! as one of two vocalists for the fictional in @-@ story band Girls Dead Monster . She was the vocalist for the character Yui , and the second vocalist , Marina , sang as the character Masami Iwasawa . LiSA put out three singles and one album in 2010 under the name Girls Dead Monster on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label . The first single " Thousand Enemies " was released on May 12 ; the second single " Little Braver " came out on June 9 ; and the third single " Ichiban no Takaramono ( Yui final ver . ) " ( 一番の宝物 〜 Yui final ver . 〜 , " My Most Precious Treasure ( Yui final ver . ) " ) was sold on December 8 . The album Keep The Beats ! was released on June 30 . LiSA made her first appearance at Animelo Summer Live during the concert 's 2010 iteration on August 28 .

LiSA made her solo debut on April 20 , 2011 with the release of her mini @-@ album Letters to U by Aniplex under Sony Music Artists . The songs on the album were composed by dōjin and major artists , and she composed the first song " Believe in Myself " ; she wrote the album 's lyrics . On November 12 , 2011 , She made her first appearance in Singapore at Anime Festival Asia , Southeast Asia 's largest anime and pop culture convention . She released her first solo single " Oath Sign " on November 23 , 2011 , which was used as the opening theme to the 2011 anime series Fate / Zero . The single peaked at No. 5 on the Oricon weekly charts and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) .

= = = 2012 – present = = =

LiSA released her first full solo album Lover " s " mile on February 22 , 2012 ; the album peaked at No. 7 on the Oricon weekly charts . She attended the Anime Expo 2012 in Los Angeles as a guest of honor and performed her first concert in North America there on July 1 . After her success with " Oath Sign " , she was chosen to perform the first opening theme to the 2012 anime series Sword Art Online ; the single " Crossing Field " , her second single , was released on August 8 , 2012 ; the single peaked at No. 5 on Oricon and was later certified gold by the RIAJ . Her third single " Best Day , Best Way " , which peaked at No. 6 on Oricon , was released on April 3 , 2013 , and her fourth single " Träumerei " , which peaked at No. 15 on Oricon and was used as the opening theme to the 2013 anime series Day Break Illusion , was released on August 7 , 2013 . LiSA released her second solo album Landspace on October 30 , 2013 ; the album peaked at No. 2 on Oricon charts . A photobook titled Kyō mo Ii Hi da ( 今日もいい日だっ , " Another Great Day " ) that contains photos of her taken by Lis Ani ! magazine over three years was published on November 22 , 2013 . When asked if she would revisit the meaning of her acronym in the future in an interview with Nihongogo at Anime Festival Asia 2013 in Singapore , she suggested Lovely international Super Apple .

On January 3 , 2014 , LiSA held a sold @-@ out solo concert at the Nippon Budokan . Her fifth single " Rising Hope " , which is used as the opening theme to the 2014 anime series The Irregular at Magic High School , was released on May 7 , 2014 ; the single peaked at No. 4 on Oricon . She later covered the songs " Headphone Actor " ( ヘッドフォンアクター ) and " Yūkei Yesterday " ( 夕景イエスタデイ , " Yesterday Evening " ) from the Kagerou Project franchise for the sixth episode of the 2014 anime series Mekakucity Actors . She released her sixth single " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " on September 17 , 2014 , which peaked at No. 8 on Oricon , and her seventh single " Shirushi " ( シルシ , lit . " Sign " ) on December 10 , 2014 , which peaked at No. 3 on the Oricon ; the title song is used as the third ending theme to the 2014 anime series Sword Art Online II , and the single also includes the song " No More Time Machine " , which was used as the second ending theme to Sword Art Online II . She held her second Nippon Budokan concert on January 10 and 11 , 2015 , tickets for which were sold out . She released her third solo album Launcher on March 4 , 2015 and her eighth single " Rally Go Round " on May 27 , 2015 ; the song is used as the opening theme to the second season of the anime television series Nisekoi . She was cast as Madge Nelson in the Japanese dub of the animated film Minions , which premiered in Japanese theaters on July 31 , 2015 . She released her ninth single " Empty Mermaid " on September 30 , 2015 . In late 2015 , she performed " ID " , which is used as theme song of the 2015 video game Dengeki Bunko : Fighting Climax Ignition . To commemorate her fifth year as a solo artist , LiSA released her Letters To U EP as a limited edition LP on March 23 , 2016 . LiSA released a mini @-@ album titled Lucky Hi Five ! on April 20 , 2016 . She will release the single " Brave Freak Out " , which will be used as the opening theme to the 2016 anime television series Qualidea Code , on August 24 , 2016 .

= = Musical style and influences = =

LiSA lists Avril Lavigne , Oasis , Green Day , Paramore , Ke $ ha , and Rihanna as among her musical influences , as well as her time in Chucky . LiSA wrote the lyrics for some of her songs in her Landspace and Launcher albums , as well as the lyrics for the singles " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " , " Shirushi " , and " Rally Go Round " ; " Rally Go Round " was co @-@ written with songwriter Shin Furuya .

LiSA 's musical style is described by Dennis Amith of J ! -ENT as a young woman with style , beautiful vocals , and the ability to take on various musical styles , may it be happy , upbeat rock music or " even something more darker . " She has used the phrase " kyō mo ii hi da " ( 今日もいい日だっ , " Another Great Day " ) as a theme throughout her career ; the phrase is also the name of her personal blog . In an interview with HMV Japan , she mentioned that before her major debut , she tended to sing pop songs , and because of this , she felt uneasy when making " Oath Sign " , which had a heavy and dark style , although she was able to receive several favorable responses to the single , which allowed her to make her next single " Crossing Field " with confidence . As for " Crossing Field " , she says that feels that the song grows every time she sings it , in the same way that love is nurtured through dates or love letters . In " Best Day , Best Way " , she mentioned that the song 's theme is " what you did yesterday will lead to what happens today " , and that the lyrics are delivered as if they are her own words . She also shared her experience with the single 's B @-@ sides : " I 'm a Rock Star " , which according to her represents her fulfilling her dream of becoming a singer , and " Shiroi Toiki " ( シロイトイキ , " White Sigh " ) , which represents happy feelings .

In an interview with Oricon , LiSA explained her experiences with " Träumerei " , where she stated that because Day Break Illusion is an original anime , she wanted the song to be presented in the color of her own work , but even in the world of anime , her music would continue to have an atmosphere of rock , as opposed to the pop style she used in " Best Day , Best Way " . She mentioned that she sang that song in a way that she felt the conflicts that were present in the story and with the strength that was part of the show 's theme . With regards to the song 's music video , she wanted to have a video which would express in color emotions , such as the use of red to represent confrontations , black to represent the feeling of being lost , and green for frightening things .

In making the single " Bright Flight / L. Miranic " , she mentions in an interview with HMV Japan that the concept of the single is that it can be divided into two parts : pink and black . Pink is the color of " Bright Flight " , a song which is in a pop style and was written in a " cute " image in mind , while black is the color of " L. Miranic " , which is in a dark rock style and has the theme of a " bad woman " . LiSA mentioned that the name " L. Miranic " was chosen because the song is linked to criminals and that since " Miranic " is a name in some countries , adding her name to " Miranic " to make " LiSA @-@ Miranic " would mean that the criminal in the song is her .

Dennis Amith of J ! -ENT reviewed LiSA 's album Landspace , where he describes the song " Crossing Field " as a song about " wanting to forget the weakness and securities of one past and being with someone you love who gives you the strength to become even stronger . " Meanwhile , he describes the song " Best Day , Best Way " as " a fun and happy track about believing in yourself and overcoming anything bad that have happened in the past and moving forward . " Finally , he describes " Träumerei " as " another inspirational song about one losing the rhythm in their heart and is now on the road of loneliness , but still the person wants to pierce the sky with their own light , shatter the darkness and have a fresh new start in life . " He concludes the review by saying that the album is full of upbeat and inspirational songs and showcases LiSA 's talents as a vocalist , and in contrast to many anison artists who are known for their cute and sweet vocals , LiSA is able to take on many musical styles .

= = Discography = =

The discography of LiSA includes three studio albums , one extended play , ten singles , and five video albums .

Studio albums

Lover " s " mile ( 2012 )

Landspace ( 2013 )

Launcher ( 2015 )

= Aston Villa F.C. =

Aston Villa Football Club ( / ˈæstən ˈvɪlə / ; nicknamed Villa , The Villa , The Villans , The Lions ) is a professional association football club based in Aston , Birmingham , that plays in the Championship , the second level of English football . Founded in 1874 , they have played at their current home ground , Villa Park , since 1897 . Aston Villa were the originators and founding members of the Football League in 1888 . They were also founding members of the Premier League in 1992 . In June 2016 , the club was sold by American businessman Randy Lerner to Recon Group , owned by Chinese businessman Dr Tony Jiantong Xia .

Aston Villa are one of the oldest and most successful football clubs in the history of English football . Villa won the 1981 – 82 European Cup , and are thus one of five English clubs to win what is now the UEFA Champions League . They have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club , having won the First Division Championship seven times , the FA Cup seven times , the Football League Cup five times , and the European Cup and UEFA Super Cup double in 1982 .

They have a fierce local rivalry with Birmingham City . The Second City derby between Aston Villa and Birmingham City has been played since 1879 . The club 's traditional kit colours are claret shirts with sky blue sleeves , white shorts and sky blue socks . Their traditional badge is of a rampant lion , which was introduced by the club 's Scottish chairman William McGregor in honour of the Royal Standard of Scotland .

= = History = =

Aston Villa Football Club were formed in March 1874 , by members of the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel in Handsworth which is now part of Birmingham . The four founders of Aston Villa were Jack Hughes , Frederick Matthews , Walter Price and William Scattergood . Aston Villa 's first match was against the local Aston Brook St Mary 's Rugby team . As a condition of the match , the Villa side had to agree to play the first half under rugby rules and the second half under football rules . After moving to the Wellington Road ground in 1876 , Villa soon established themselves as one of the best teams in the Midlands , winning their first honour , the Birmingham Senior Cup in 1880 , under the captaincy of Scotsman George Ramsay .

The club won their first FA Cup in 1887 with captain Archie Hunter becoming one of the game 's first household names . Aston Villa were one of the dozen teams that competed in the inaugural Football League in 1888 with one of the club 's directors , William McGregor being the league 's founder . Aston Villa emerged as the most successful English club of the Victorian era , winning no fewer than five League titles and three FA Cups by the end of Queen Victoria 's reign . In 1897 , the year Villa won The Double , they moved into their present home , the Aston Lower Grounds . Supporters coined the name " Villa Park " ; no official declaration listed the ground as Villa Park .

Aston Villa won their sixth FA Cup in 1920 , soon after though the club began a slow decline that led to Villa , at the time one of the most famous and successful clubs in world football , being relegated in 1936 for the first time to the Second Division . This was largely the result of a dismal defensive record : they conceded 110 goals in 42 games , 7 of them coming from Arsenal 's Ted Drake in an infamous 1 – 7 defeat at Villa Park . Like all English clubs , Villa lost seven seasons to the Second World War , and that conflict brought several careers to a premature end . The team was rebuilt under the guidance of former player Alex Massie for the remainder of the 1940s . Aston Villa 's first trophy for 37 years came in the 1956 – 57 season when another former Villa player , Eric Houghton led the club to a then record seventh FA Cup Final win , defeating the ' Busby Babes ' of Manchester United in the final . The team struggled in the league though and were relegated two seasons later , due in large part to complacency . However , under the stewardship of manager Joe Mercer Villa returned to the top @-@ flight in 1960 as Second Division Champions . The following season Aston Villa became the first team to win the Football League Cup .

Mercer 's forced retirement from the club in 1964 signalled a period of deep turmoil . The most successful club in England was struggling to keep pace with changes in the modern game , with Villa being relegated for the third time , under manager Dick Taylor in 1967 . The following season the fans called for the board to resign as Villa finished 16th in the Second Division . With mounting debts and Villa lying at the bottom of Division Two , the board sacked Tommy Cummings ( the manager brought in to replace Taylor ) , and within weeks the entire board resigned under overwhelming pressure from fans . After much speculation , control of the club was bought by London financier Pat Matthews , who also brought in Doug Ellis as chairman . However , new ownership could not prevent Villa being relegated to the Third Division for the first time at the end of the 1969 – 70 season . However , Villa gradually began to recover under the management of former club captain Vic Crowe . In the 1971 – 72 season they returned to the Second Division as Champions with a record 70 points . In 1974 , Ron Saunders was appointed manager . His brand of no @-@ nonsense man @-@ management proved effective , with the club winning the League Cup the following season and , at the end of season 1974 – 75 , he had taken them back into the First Division and into Europe .

Villa were back among the elite as Saunders continued to mould a winning team . This culminated in a seventh top @-@ flight league title in 1980 – 81 . To the surprise of commentators and fans , Saunders quit halfway through the 1981 – 82 season , after falling out with the chairman , with Villa in the quarter final of the European Cup . He was replaced by his softly @-@ spoken assistant manager Tony Barton who guided the club to a 1 – 0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam courtesy of a Peter Withe goal . The following season Villa were crowned European Super Cup winners , beating Barcelona in the final . This marked a pinnacle though and Villa 's fortunes declined sharply for most of the 1980s , culminating in relegation in 1987 . This was followed by promotion the following year under Graham Taylor and a runners @-@ up position in the First Division in the 1989 – 90 season .

Villa were one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992 , and finished runners @-@ up to Manchester United in the inaugural season . For the rest of the Nineties however Villa went through three different managers and their league positions were inconsistent , although they did win two League Cups and regularly achieved UEFA Cup qualification . Villa reached the FA Cup final in 2000 but lost 1 – 0 to Chelsea in the last game to be played at the old Wembley Stadium . Again Villa 's league position continued to fluctuate under several different managers and things came to a head in the summer of 2006 when David O 'Leary left in acrimony . After 23 years as chairman and single biggest shareholder ( approximately 38 % ) , Doug Ellis finally decided to sell his stake in Aston Villa due to ill @-@ health . After much speculation it was announced the club was to be bought by American businessman Randy Lerner , owner of NFL franchise the Cleveland Browns .

The arrival of a new owner in Lerner and of manager Martin O 'Neill marked the start of a new period of optimism at Villa Park and sweeping changes occurred throughout the club including a new badge , a new kit sponsor and team changes in the summer of 2007 . The first Cup final of the Lerner era came in 2010 when Villa were beaten 2 – 1 in the League Cup Final . Villa made a second trip to Wembley in that season losing 3 – 0 to Chelsea in the FA Cup semifinal . Just five days before the opening day of the 2010 – 11 season , O 'Neill resigned as manager with immediate effect . The club appointed Gérard Houllier as a replacement in September 2010 , but he stepped down on 1 June 2011 due to ill @-@ health . Houllier was replaced by Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish , despite numerous protests from fans against his appointment ; this was the first time that a manager had moved directly from Birmingham to Villa . McLeish 's contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 – 12 season after Villa finished in 16th place , only just above the relegation zone . On 2 July 2012 , Aston Villa confirmed the appointment of former Norwich City manager Paul Lambert as the replacement for McLeish . On 28 February 2012 , the club announced a financial loss of £ 53 @.@ 9 million . Lerner put the club up for sale on 12 May 2014 , with an estimated value of £ 200 million . With Lerner still on board , in the 2014 – 15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games , the lowest in Premier League history , and Lambert was sacked on 11 February 2015 . Tim Sherwood succeeded him , and saved Aston Villa from relegation while also leading them to the 2015 FA Cup Final , but he was sacked in the 2015 – 16 season , as was his successor Rémi Garde . Eric Black took temporary charge of the team , but was not able to prevent Villa from being relegated for the first time since 1987 . On 2 June 2016 , Roberto Di Matteo was announced as the club 's new manager .

= = Colours and badge = =

The club colours are a claret shirt with sky blue sleeves , white shorts with claret and blue trim , and sky blue socks with claret and white trim . They were the original wearers of the claret and blue . Villa 's colours at the outset generally comprised plain shirts ( white , grey or a shade of blue ) , with either white or black shorts . For a few years after that ( 1877 – 79 ) the team wore several different kits from all white , blue and black , red and blue to plain green . By 1880 , black jerseys with a red lion embroidered on the chest were introduced by William McGregor . This remained the first choice strip for six years . On Monday , 8 November 1886 , an entry in the club 's official minute book states :

( i ) Proposed and seconded that the colours be chocolate and sky blue shirts and that we order two dozen .

( ii ) Proposed and seconded that Mr McGregor be requested to supply them at the lowest quotation .

The chocolate colour later became claret . Nobody is quite sure why claret and blue became the club 's adopted colours . Several other English football teams adopted their colours ; clubs that wear claret and blue include West Ham United and Burnley .

A new badge was revealed in May 2007 , for the 2007 – 08 season and beyond . The new badge includes a star to represent the European Cup win in 1982 , and has a light blue background behind Villa 's ' lion rampant ' . The traditional motto " Prepared " remains in the badge , and the name Aston Villa has been shortened to AVFC , FC having been omitted from the previous badge . The lion is now unified as opposed to fragmented lions of the past . Randy Lerner petitioned fans to help with the design of the new badge .

On 6 April 2016 , the club confirmed that it will be using a new badge from the 2016 – 17 season after consulting fan groups for suggestions . The lion in the new badge will have claws added to it and the word " Prepared " will be removed to increase the size of the lion and club initials in the badge .

= = = Kit sponsorship = = =

Aston Villa forwent commercial kit sponsorship for the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons ; instead advertising the charity Acorns Children 's Hospice , the first deal of its kind in Premier league history . The partnership continued until 2010 when a commercial sponsor replaced Acorns , with the hospice becoming the club 's Official Charity Partner . In 2014 – 15 , the Acorns name returned to Aston Villa 's home and away shirts , but only for children 's shirts re @-@ affirming the club 's support for the children 's charity .

Since 2015 Villa 's shirt sponsors have been Quickbooks . Previous commercial sponsors have been Davenports ( 1982 – 83 ) , Mita ( 1983 – 93 ) , Müller ( 1993 – 95 ) , AST Computer ( 1995 – 98 ) , LDV ( 1998 – 2000 ) , NTL ( 2000 – 02 ) , Rover ( 2002 – 04 ) , DWS Investments ( 2004 – 06 ) , 32Red.com ( 2006 – 08 ) , FxPro ( 2010 – 11 ) , Genting Casinos ( 2011 – 13 ) , Dafabet ( 2013 – 2015 ) , and Intuit QuickBooks ( 2015 – ) . Since 2016 , kit has been manufactured by Under Armour . Previous manufacturers have been Umbro ( 1972 – 81 , 1990 – 93 ) , le Coq Sportif ( 1981 – 83 ) , Henson ( 1983 – 87 ) , Hummel ( 1987 – 90 , 2004 – 07 ) , Asics ( 1993 – 95 ) , Reebok ( 1995 – 2000 ) , Diadora ( 2000 – 04 ) , Nike ( 2007 – 12 ) and Macron ( 2012 @-@ 16 ) .

= = Stadium = =

Aston Villa 's current home venue is Villa Park , which is a UEFA 5 @-@ star rated stadium , having previously played at Aston Park ( 1874 – 1876 ) and Wellington Road ( 1876 – 1897 ) . Villa Park is the largest football stadium in the English Midlands , and the eighth largest stadium in England . It has hosted 16 England internationals at senior level , the first in 1899 , and the most recent in 2005 . Thus , it was the first English ground to stage international football in three different centuries . Villa Park is the most used stadium in FA Cup semi @-@ final history , having hosted 55 semi @-@ finals . The club have planning permission to extend the North Stand ; this will involve the ' filling in ' of the corners to either side of the North Stand . If completed , the capacity of Villa Park will be increased to approximately 51 @,@ 000 .

The current training ground is located at Bodymoor Heath near Kingsbury in north Warwickshire , the site for which was purchased by former chairman Doug Ellis in the early 1970s from a local farmer . Although Bodymoor Heath was state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art in the 1970s , by the late 1990s the facilities had started to look dated . In November 2005 , Ellis and Aston Villa plc announced a state of the art GB £ 13 million redevelopment of Bodymoor in two phases . However , work on Bodymoor was suspended by Ellis due to financial problems , and was left in an unfinished state until new owner Randy Lerner made it one of his priorities to make the site one of the best in world football . The new training ground was officially unveiled on 6 May 2007 , by then manager Martin O 'Neill , then team captain Gareth Barry and 1982 European Cup winning team captain Dennis Mortimer , with the Aston Villa squad moving in for the 2007 – 08 season .

It was announced on 6 August 2014 , that Villa Park would appear in the FIFA video game from FIFA 15 onwards , with all other Premier League stadiums also fully licensed from this game onwards .

= = Ownership = =

The first shares in the club were issued towards the end of the 19th century as a result of legislation that was intended to codify the growing numbers of professional teams and players in the Association Football leagues . FA teams were required to distribute shares to investors as a way of facilitating trading among the teams without implicating the FA itself . This trading continued for much of the 20th century until Ellis started buying up many of the shares in the 1960s . He was chairman and substantial shareholder of " Aston Villa F.C. " from 1968 to 1975 and the majority shareholder from 1982 to 2006 . The club were floated on the London Stock Exchange ( LSE ) in 1996 , and the share price fluctuated in the ten years after the flotation . In 2006 it was announced that several consortia and individuals were considering bids for Aston Villa .

On 14 August 2006 , it was confirmed that Randy Lerner , then owner of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns , had reached an agreement of £ 62 @.@ 6 million with Aston Villa for a takeover of the club . A statement released on 25 August to the LSE announced that Lerner had secured 59 @.@ 69 % of Villa shares , making him the majority shareholder . He also appointed himself Chairman of the club . In Ellis 's last year in charge Villa lost £ 8.2m before tax , compared with a £ 3m profit the previous year , and income had fallen from £ 51.6m to £ 49m . Lerner took full control on 18 September , as he had 89 @.@ 69 % of the shares . On 19 September 2006 , Ellis and his board resigned to be replaced with a new board headed by Lerner . Lerner installed Charles Krulak as a non @-@ executive director and Ellis was awarded the honorary position of Chairman Emeritus .

Lerner put the club up for sale in May 2014 , valuing it at an estimated £ 200 million .

On 18 May 2016 , Randy Lerner agreed the sale of Aston Villa to Recon Group , owned by Chinese businessman Xia Jiantong . The sale was completed on 14 June 2016 for a reported £ 76 million after being approved by the Football League , with the club becoming part of Recon Group 's Sport , Leisure and Tourism division . Recon Group were selected to take over Aston Villa following a selection process by the club .

= = Social responsibility = =

Aston Villa have a unique relationship with the Acorns Children 's Hospice charity that is groundbreaking in English football . In a first for the Premier League , Aston Villa donated the front of the shirt on their kit , usually reserved for high @-@ paying sponsorships , to Acorns Hospice so that the charity would gain significant additional visibility and greater fund raising capabilities . Outside of the shirt sponsorship the club have paid for hospice care for the charity as well as regularly providing player visits to hospice locations .

In September 2010 , Aston Villa launched an initiative at Villa Park called Villa Midlands Food ( VMF ) where the club will spend two years training students with Aston Villa Hospitality and Events in association with Birmingham City Council . The club will open a restaurant in the Trinity Road Stand staffed with 12 students recruited from within a ten @-@ mile ( 16 km ) radius of Villa Park with the majority of the food served in the restaurant sourced locally .

= = Supporters and rivalries = =

Aston Villa have a large fanbase and draw support from all over the Midlands and beyond , with supporters ' clubs all across the world . Former Villa chief executive Richard Fitzgerald has stated that the ethnicity of the supporters is currently 98 % white . When Randy Lerner 's regime took over at Villa Park , they aimed to improve their support from ethnic minorities . A number of organisations have been set up to support the local community including Aston Pride . A Villa in the Community programme has also been set up to encourage support among young people in the region . The new owners have also initiated several surveys aimed at gaining the opinions of Villa fans and to involve them in the decision making process . Meetings also occur every three months where supporters are invited by ballot and are invited to ask questions to the Board . In 2011 , the club supported a supporter @-@ based initiative for an official anthem to boost the atmosphere at Villa Park . The song " The Bells Are Ringing " is to be played before games .

Like many English football clubs Aston Villa have had several hooligan firms associated with them : Villa Youth , Steamers , Villa Hardcore and the C @-@ Crew , the last mentioned being very active during the 1970s and 1980s . As can be seen across the whole of English football , the hooligan groups have now been marginalised . In 2004 , several Villa firms were involved in a fight with QPR fans outside Villa Park in which a steward died . The main groupings of supporters can now be found in a number of domestic and international supporters ' clubs . This includes the Official Aston Villa Supporters Club which also has many smaller regional and international sections . There were several independent supporters clubs during the reign of Doug Ellis but most of these disbanded after his retirement . The supporter group My Old Man Said formed to stand up for Villa supporter 's rights , as a direct result of Villa supporters ' protest against the club 's appointment of Alex McLeish . The club 's supporters also publish fanzines such as Heroes and Villains and The Holy Trinity .

Aston Villa 's arch @-@ rivals are Birmingham City , with games between the two clubs known as the Second City Derby . Historically though , West Bromwich Albion have arguably been Villa 's greatest rivals , a view highlighted in a fan survey , conducted in 2003 . The two teams contested three FA Cup finals in the late 19th century . Villa also enjoy less heated local rivalries with Wolverhampton Wanderers and Coventry City . Through the relegation of West Brom and Birmingham City , to the Football League Championship , in the 2005 – 06 season , at the start of 2006 – 07 Premiership season , Villa were the only Midlands club in that League . The nearest opposing team Villa faced during that season was Sheffield United , who played 62 miles ( 100 km ) away in South Yorkshire . For the 2010 – 11 season , West Bromwich Albion were promoted and joined Aston Villa , Wolverhampton Wanderers , and Birmingham City in the Premier League . This marked the first time that the " West Midlands ' Big Four " clubs have been in the Premier League at the same time , and the first time together in the top flight since the 1983 – 84 season . Birmingham were relegated at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , ending this period .

= = Statistics = =

As of the end of the 2014 – 15 season , Aston Villa have spent 104 seasons in the top tier of English football ; the only club to have spent longer in the top flight are Everton , with 112 seasons , making Aston Villa versus Everton the most @-@ played fixture in English top @-@ flight football . Aston Villa were in an elite group of seven clubs that has played in every Premier League season , the other six being Tottenham Hotspur , Chelsea , Everton , Liverpool , Manchester United and Arsenal since its establishment in 1992 – 93 until they were relegated in 2016 . They are seventh in the All @-@ time FA Premier League table , and have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club with 21 wins .

Aston Villa currently hold the record number of league goals scored by any team in the English top flight ; 128 goals were scored in the 1930 – 31 season , one more than Arsenal who won the league that season for the very first time , with Villa runners @-@ up . Villa legend Archie Hunter became the first player to score in every round of the FA Cup in Villa 's victorious 1887 campaign . Villa 's longest unbeaten home run in the FA Cup spanned 13 years and 19 games , from 1888 to 1901 .

Aston Villa are one of five English teams to have won the European Cup . They did so on 26 May 1982 in Rotterdam , beating Bayern Munich 1 – 0 thanks to Peter Withe 's goal .

= = Club honours = =

Aston Villa have won European and domestic league honours . The club 's last major honour was in 1996 when they won the League Cup .

= = = Domestic = = =

League titles

First Division 7 : 1893 – 94 , 1895 – 96 , 1896 – 97 , 1898 – 99 , 1899 – 1900 , 1909 – 10 , 1980 – 81

Second Division 2 : 1937 – 38 , 1959 – 60

Third Division 1 : 1971 – 72

Cups

FA Cup 7 :

1886 – 87 , 1894 – 95 , 1896 – 97 , 1904 – 05 , 1912 – 13 , 1919 – 20 , 1956 – 57

League Cup 5 :

1960 – 61 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1993 – 94 , 1995 – 96

FA Charity Shield 1 :

1981

Football League War Cup 1 :

1944 ( shared )

= = = European = = =

European Cup 1 :

1981 – 82

European Super Cup 1 :

1982

Intertoto Cup 2 :

2001 , 2008

= = = Other sports = = =

English Baseball Championship

1890

= = Players = =

= = = First @-@ team squad = = =

As of 21 June 2016 .

Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .

= = = Out on loan = = =

Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .

= = = U21 squad = = =

As of 21 June 2016 .

Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .

= = = Notable players = = =

There have been many players who can be called notable throughout Aston Villa 's history . These can be classified and recorded in several forms . The Halls of Fame and PFA Players of the Year are noted below . As of 2014 , Aston Villa , jointly with Tottenham Hotspur , hold the record for providing the most England internationals with 73 . Aston Villa have had several players who were one @-@ club men . In 1998 , to celebrate the 100th season of League football , The Football League released a list entitled the Football League 100 Legends that consisted of " 100 legendary football players . " There were seven players included on the list who had formerly played for Villa : Danny Blanchflower , Trevor Ford , Archie Hunter , Sam Hardy , Paul McGrath , Peter Schmeichel and Clem Stephenson .

Three Aston Villa players have won the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award . At the end of every English football season , the members of the Professional Footballers ' Association ( PFA ) vote on which of its members has played the best football in the previous year . In 1977 Andy Gray won the award . In 1990 it was awarded to David Platt , whilst Paul McGrath won it in 1993 . The PFA Young Player of the Year , which is awarded to players under the age of 23 , has been awarded to four players from Aston Villa : Andy Gray in 1977 ; Gary Shaw in 1981 ; Ashley Young in 2009 and James Milner in 2010 . The National Football Museum in Preston , Lancashire administers the English Football Hall of Fame which currently contains two Villa teams , two Villa players and one manager . The 1890s team and 1982 team were inducted into the Hall of Fame in July 2009 . Joe Mercer was inducted into the Hall of Fame at the same time for his career as a manager including his time at Aston Villa . The only two Villa players in the Hall of Fame are Danny Blanchflower and Peter Schmeichel .

In 2006 , Aston Villa announced the creation of an " Aston Villa Hall of Fame . " This was voted for by fans and the inaugural induction saw 12 former players , managers and directors named . In May 2013 it was announced that former Villa and Bulgaria captain , Stiliyan Petrov , would be the 13th addition to the Hall of Fame .

= = Management = =

= = = Current technical staff = = =

As of 4 June 2016

= = = Board of Directors = = =

As of 15 June 2016

= = = Notable managers = = =

The following managers have all won at least one trophy when in charge or have been notable for Villa in the context of the League , for example Jozef Vengloš who holds a League record .

= = In popular culture = =

A number of television programmes have included references to Aston Villa over the past few decades . In the sitcom Porridge , the character Lennie Godber is a Villa supporter . When filming began on Dad 's Army , Villa fan Ian Lavender was allowed to choose Frank Pike 's scarf from an array in the BBC wardrobe ; he chose a claret and blue one — Aston Villa 's colours . The character Nessa in the BBC sitcom Gavin & Stacey was revealed as an Aston Villa fan in an episode screened in December 2009 . In the BBC series " Yes Minister " / " Yes Prime Minister " , the Minister Jim Hacker 's local team was Aston Villa , as was the Member of Parliament for Birmingham East .

Aston Villa have also featured on several occasions in prose . Stanley Woolley , a character in Derek Robinson 's Booker shortlisted novel Goshawk Squadron is an Aston Villa fan and names a pre @-@ war starting eleven Villa side . Together with The Oval , Villa Park is referenced by the poet Philip Larkin in his poem about the First World War , MCMXIV . Aston Villa are also mentioned in Harold Pinter 's play The Dumb Waiter .

= Pattycake ( gorilla ) =

Pattycake , also known as Patty Cake ( September 3 , 1972 – March 31 , 2013 ) was a female western lowland gorilla ( Gorilla gorilla gorilla ) born to Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo in New York City . She was the first baby gorilla successfully born in captivity in New York . Months after her much publicized birth , Pattycake 's arm was broken when it got stuck in her cage as her mother grabbed her away from her father . The incident was sensationally anthropomorphized in the media as a domestic dispute between Lulu and Kongo , but in reality experts thought it was a simple accident .

Her injury was treated at the Bronx Zoo while a custody dispute between the two zoos broke out in public and elicited a range of opinions from experts who believed Pattycake should be returned to her mother . Intense media coverage and public interest brought Pattycake to the attention of a wide audience , with stories focusing on her recovery , her eventual reunion with her parents , and the conditions of zoo animals in Central Park . An ambitious proposal for renovating the Central Park Zoo arose in the wake of the controversy while the zoo received record attendance rates .

Pattycake was the " child star " of New York City in the early 1970s , and her fame was compared to Shirley Temple . At a time when New York City was facing many problems , she distracted the public from their growing anxieties and became a welcome relief for New Yorkers and their children who loved to visit her . After spending the first decade of her life at the Central Park Zoo , Pattycake moved permanently to the Bronx Zoo in 1982 . She was the mother of ten baby gorillas , including twins born in 1995 . Pattycake spent her later life as an independent but caring troop matriarch in the Bronx Zoo 's Congo Gorilla Forest exhibit . After suffering from arthritis and cardiac problems for some time , Pattycake succumbed to heart disease in 2013 .

= = Birth = =

" Pattycake " was born on September 3 , 1972 , to western lowland gorilla parents Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo . Lulu and Kongo first arrived at the zoo on May 11 , 1966 . At the time , it was thought that Lulu wasn 't mature enough to conceive , so when Lulu gave birth to Pattycake at the age of 8 , it came as a surprise . Up until the time Lulu gave birth , it had been very difficult to get captive gorilla mothers to raise their young in zoos because the babies would either be rejected by the mother or they would be taken away by the handlers . Pattycake was the first gorilla successfully born in captivity in New York .

At the time of her birth , it was unknown if she was a male or female , as it was considered too dangerous to approach her and her parents . Her handlers assumed she was a male and originally named her " Sonny Jim " . When it was established that Pattycake was a female , a contest was held by the New York Daily News to find her a name . " Patty Cake " , the winning entry , was submitted by New York fireman John O 'Connor , who named the gorilla after his wife and a proposed daughter . " It just so happens that we have three boys and I told my wife that if we ever have a girl , we should name her Patty , which happens to be her name . I thought we 'd let the baby gorilla use the name in the meantime , " O 'Connor told reporters .

Pattycake 's birth caught the attention of the city and brought crowds of thousands of New Yorkers to the Central Park Zoo . Reporter N. R. Kleinfield called her a child star whose " furry face served as a bit of a respite at a time when the city found itself grappling with high crime rates and an intensifying financial crisis . " Six months after Pattycake was born , the director of the zoo estimated that based on the crowds , she might draw an additional 500 @,@ 000 visitors by the time of her first birthday .

= = Custody dispute = =

At the age of five months , Pattycake was sharing the Lion House with Lulu and Kongo at the Central Park Zoo . On March 20 , 1973 , an accident occurred that was attributed more to clumsiness than to parenting skills . Although no staff were on hand to see it directly , according to visitors , while little Pattycake was reaching out to her father through the bars of her cage , her right arm became stuck somehow when her mother Lulu pulled her away , breaking her right arm . Zoo handlers had to subdue Lulu with a tranquilizer dart to remove Pattycake and treat her injury . While experts considered the incident an accident , the media sensationalized the event . Zookeeper Veronica Nelson , who worked with Patty Cake , recalled that

The news media would have liked to have it a dramatic bloody mess — a struggle between mom and pop for the custody of the child . It was nothing like that . It was a simple accident . Kongo was in one part of the double cage , Lulu in another , and between them was a partition of narrow bars . Lulu had Patty Cake in her arms and when Patty reached in between the narrow bars to touch her father , Lulu suddenly pulled her away . But Patty 's arm got caught in the narrow bars and broke . It was a freak accident . No one ever realized that those bars were narrow enough to catch that tiny arm .

Pattycake was brought to New York Medical College for surgery and she was given a cast for her arm . Due to concerns that Lulu would try to remove Pattycake 's cast , she was separated from her mother and moved to the Bronx Zoo for convalescence . Pattycake was treated by veterinarian Emil Dolensek who later replaced her cast with a sling . After an examination , the staff discovered that Pattycake had intestinal parasites and determined she was underfed . They also believed that as a result of the incident , Lulu wasn 't capable as a mother .

A custody dispute began between the two zoos , with the Bronx Zoo arguing that she would be better cared for in their facilities . Time magazine noted that it was the " custody battle of the decade " in the " primate world " , comparing Patty Cake 's popularity and fame to that of child star Shirley Temple . Developmental biologist Ronald Nadler of the Yerkes National Primate Research Center was brought in to arbitrate the dispute and published a report that favored returning Pattycake to her mother and the Central Park Zoo . In his report Nadler noted that " the recommendation is based on the judgment that an infant gorilla is more likely to develop into a socially competent and reproductively adequate animal if it is raised in the company of its parents as opposed to being raised with a group of peers . "

After three months recuperating from her injuries , Pattycake was returned to her mother on June 15 , 1973 . The entire incident was documented by artist Susan Green in her book Gentle Gorilla : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1978 ) .

= = Central Park Zoo conditions = =

By the 1970s , animal welfare organizations began to voice their increasing concern with the treatment of zoo animals and the conditions of their enclosures at the Central Park Zoo , the oldest zoo in the U.S. The Humane Society of the United States , the Friends of the Zoo , and the Society for Animal Rights decried the prison @-@ like conditions of the cages and called for changes . The New York Zoological Society , which was responsible for creating realistic habitat enclosures at the Bronx Zoo , also began calling for changes and for Pattycake to be moved to another zoo . A renovation plan for the Central Park Zoo was approved in 1981 , with plans made to move the gorillas to larger spaces in other zoos . The New York Times reported that " the caging of these animals in inadequate spaces has long enraged animal lovers . " When the zoo was finally closed for renovations in 1982 , Pattycake was moved to the Bronx Zoo .

= = Bronx Zoo = =

Pattycake moved permanently to the Bronx Zoo on December 20 , 1982 . For a few years , she lived in a cage with Pansy , a chimpanzee . In June 1999 , Pattycake moved into the Wildlife Conservation Society 's $ 43 million Congo Gorilla Forest exhibit . The exhibit includes a Great Gorilla Forest viewing area that separates gorillas and visitors with a glass window . Two troops of gorillas inhabited the 6 @.@ 5 acre exhibit , with a dozen gorillas in Pattycake 's troop alone , including Fubo , Pattycake , Tunko , Triska , Halima , Fran , Layla , Kumi , Suki , Babatunde , Barbara , and M 'domo . The general curator of the Bronx Zoo , James Doherty , described Pattycake as " independent " with " few close friends " in the Congo Gorilla Forest . " It may have something to do with the fact that she didn 't live with her parents that long , and lived with that chimpanzee for a few years , " Doherty said .

= = Breeding and offspring = =

Pattycake gave birth to her first baby , Tumai , a male gorilla , on January 20 , 1985 . Tumai was sired by Bendera . Pattycake and Bendera had a second baby on March 23 , 1986 , but it died soon after birth . With Barney , Pattycake gave birth to three babies : a female named Paki , on May 26 , 1989 , followed by Patrick on April 19 , 1990 , and Husani on December 14 , 1991 . Paki gave birth to Pattycake 's only grandchild , Pendeka , in 1998 .

In October 1991 , a silverback named Timmy ( 1959 – 2011 ) was taken away from Kate , his infertile companion at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo , in the hopes of breeding lowland gorillas and introducing new genes into the captive gorilla gene pool . This forced separation led to protests from animal rights activists who expressed concerns about the potential consequences of emotional trauma on the two gorillas . The Association of Zoos and Aquariums Species Survival Plan sent Timmy to the Bronx Zoo where he joined Pattycake and other females .

On July 11 , 1993 , Pattycake and Timmy gave birth to Okpara , a male gorilla . The pair also gave birth to twin males , Ngoma and Tambo , on August 8 , 1994 . It was the sixth time western lowland gorillas had given birth to twins in captivity . The twins were raised in a separate habitat by surrogate mothers . After seven years , Ngoma and Tambo , along with another gorilla named Dan , left for a zoo in Nebraska in February 2001 . On February 4 , 2001 , Pattycake and Zuri gave birth to Dossi , a female . Her last and tenth baby gorilla , a male , was delivered on April 15 , 2002 . Unnamed , it died four days later .

= = Later life = =

Kongo , Pattycake 's father , died in 1998 . In 2002 , the Pattycake Fund was established to raise $ 250 @,@ 000 to stop illegal poaching of African gorillas . The fundraising coincided with Pattycake 's 30th birthday , commemorated with a two @-@ day celebration at the Bronx Zoo . A special cake was made for her from kale , gelatin , yogurt , and berries .

Timmy , along with two female gorillas , Tunuka and Paki , left the Bronx Zoo for the Louisville Zoo in May 2004 .

Pattycake tried her hand at painting while participating with the Wildlife Conservation Society ( WCS ) animal enrichment program at the Bronx Zoo . A sample of her work was published in the 2010 WCS Annual Report .

Pattycake 's mother Lulu died in early 2011 .

Pattycake suffered from chronic heart disease and arthritis as she aged . She was one of 338 captive zoo gorillas within North America when she died in her sleep at the age of 40 . According to the Wildlife Conservation Society , Pattycake exceeded the median life span of 37 years for female zoo gorillas .

= = Cultural depictions = =

In honor of Pattycake , the Rev. Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick ( Brother Kirk ) joined Pete Seeger and the Sesame Street kids chorus for the song " Patty Cake Gorilla " , released on the album Pete Seeger and Brother Kirk Visit Sesame Street ( 1974 ) . A picture book called Patty Cake ( 1974 ) , featuring New York Times photographer Neal Boenzi and others , was written by Elizabeth Moody . Pearl Wolf wrote Gorilla Baby : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1974 ) , a picture book for children . Artist Susan Green published her direct , personal observations about the custody dispute ( along with her drawings ) in the book Gentle Gorilla : The Story of Patty Cake ( 1978 ) .

= Lactarius indigo =

Lactarius indigo , commonly known as the indigo milk cap , the indigo ( or blue ) lactarius , or the blue milk mushroom , is a species of agaric fungus in the family Russulaceae . A widely distributed species , it grows naturally in eastern North America , East Asia , and Central America ; it has also been reported in southern France . L. indigo grows on the ground in both deciduous and coniferous forests , where it forms mycorrhizal associations with a broad range of trees . The fruit body color ranges from dark blue in fresh specimens to pale blue @-@ gray in older ones . The milk , or latex , that oozes when the mushroom tissue is cut or broken — a feature common to all members of the Lactarius genus — is also indigo blue , but slowly turns green upon exposure to air . The cap has a diameter of 5 to 15 cm ( 2 to 6 in ) , and the stem is 2 to 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 3 in ) tall and 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . It is an edible mushroom , and is sold in rural markets in China , Guatemala , and Mexico .

= = Taxonomy and nomenclature = =

Originally described in 1822 as Agaricus indigo by American mycologist Lewis David de Schweinitz , the species was later transferred to the genus Lactarius in 1838 by the Swede Elias Magnus Fries . German botanist Otto Kuntze called it Lactifluus indigo in his 1891 treatise Revisio Generum Plantarum , but the suggested name change was not adopted by others . Hesler and Smith in their 1960 study of North American species of Lactarius defined L. indigo as the type species of subsection Caerulei , a group characterized by blue latex and a sticky , blue cap . In 1979 , they revised their opinions on the organization of subdivisions in the genus Lactarius , and instead placed L. indigo in subgenus Lactarius based on the color of latex , and the subsequent color changes observed after exposure to air . As they explained :

The gradual development of blue to violet pigmentation as one progresses from species to species is an interesting phenomenon deserving further study . The climax is reached in L. indigo which is blue throughout . L. chelidonium and its variety chelidonioides , L. paradoxus , and L. hemicyaneus may be considered as mileposts along the road to L. indigo .

The specific epithet indigo is derived from the Latin word meaning " indigo blue " . Its names in the English vernacular include the " indigo milk cap " , the " indigo Lactarius " , the " blue milk mushroom " , and the " blue Lactarius " . In central Mexico , it is known as añil , azul , hongo azul , zuin , and zuine ; it is also called quexque ( meaning " blue " ) in Veracruz and Puebla .

= = Description = =

Like many other mushrooms , L. indigo develops from a nodule , or pinhead , that forms within the underground mycelium , a mass of threadlike fungal cells called hyphae that make up the bulk of the organism . Under appropriate environmental conditions of temperature , humidity , and nutrient availability , the visible reproductive structures ( fruit bodies ) are formed . The cap of the fruit body , measuring between 5 and 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , is initially convex and later develops a central depression ; in age it becomes even more deeply depressed , becoming somewhat funnel @-@ shaped as the edge of the cap lifts upward . The margin of the cap is rolled inwards when young , but unrolls and elevates as it matures . The cap surface is indigo blue when fresh , but fades to a paler grayish- or silvery @-@ blue , sometimes with greenish splotches . It is often zonate : marked with concentric lines that form alternating pale and darker zones , and the cap may have dark blue spots , especially towards the edge . Young caps are sticky to the touch .

The flesh is pallid to bluish in color , slowly turning greenish after being exposed to air ; its taste is mild to slightly acrid . The flesh of the entire mushroom is brittle , and the stem , if bent sufficiently , will snap open cleanly . The latex exuded from injured tissue is indigo blue , and stains the wounded tissue greenish ; like the flesh , the latex has a mild taste . Lactarius indigo is noted for not producing as much latex as other Lactarius species , and older specimens in particular may be too dried out to produce any latex .

The gills of the mushroom range from adnate ( squarely attached to the stem ) to slightly decurrent ( running down the length of the stem ) , and crowded close together . Their color is an indigo blue , becoming paler with age or staining green with damage . The stem is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall by 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and the same diameter throughout or sometimes narrowed at base . Its color is indigo blue to silvery- or grayish blue . The interior of the stem is solid and firm initially , but develops a hollow with age . Like the cap , it is initially sticky or slimy to the touch when young , but soon dries out . Its attachment to the cap is usually in a central position , although it may also be off @-@ center . Fruit bodies of L. indigo have no distinguishable odor .

L. indigo var. diminutivus ( the " smaller indigo milk cap " ) is a smaller variant of the mushroom , with a cap diameter between 3 and 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 8 in ) , and a stem 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) thick . It is often seen in Virginia . Hesler and Smith , who first described the variant based on specimens found in Brazoria County , Texas , described its typical habitat as " along [ the ] sides of a muddy ditch under grasses and weeds , [ with ] loblolly pine nearby " .

= = = Microscopic features = = =

When viewed in mass , as in a spore print , the spores appear cream to yellow colored . Viewed with a light microscope , the spores are translucent ( hyaline ) , elliptical to nearly spherical in shape , with amyloid warts , and have dimensions of 7 – 9 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . Scanning electron microscopy reveals reticulations on the spore surface . The hymenium is the spore @-@ producing tissue layer of the fruit body , and consists of hyphae that extend into the gills and terminate as end cells . Various cell types can be observed in the hymenium , and the cells have microscopic characteristics that may be used to help identify or distinguish species in cases where the macroscopic characters may be ambiguous . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are four @-@ spored and measure 37 – 45 µm long by 8 – 10 µm wide at the thickest point . Cystidia are terminal cells of hyphae in the hymenium which do not produce spores , and function in aiding spore dispersal , and maintaining favorable humidity around developing spores . The pleurocystidia are cystidia that are found on the face of a gill ; they are 40 – 56 by 6 @.@ 4 – 8 µm , roughly spindle @-@ shaped , and have a constricted apex . The cheilocystidia — located on the edge of a gill — are abundant , and are 40 @.@ 0 – 45 @.@ 6 by 5 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 2 µm .

= = = Similar species = = =

The characteristic blue color of the fruiting body and the latex make this species easily recognizable . Other Lactarius species with some blue color include the " silver @-@ blue milky " ( L. paradoxus ) , found in eastern North America , which has a grayish @-@ blue cap when young , but it has reddish @-@ brown to purple @-@ brown latex and gills . L. chelidonium has a yellowish to dingy yellow @-@ brown to bluish @-@ gray cap and yellowish to brown latex . L. quieticolor has blue @-@ colored flesh in the cap and orange to red @-@ orange flesh in the base of the stem . Although the blue discoloration of L. indigo is thought to be rare in the genus Lactarius , in 2007 five new species were reported from Peninsular Malaysia with bluing latex or flesh , including L. cyanescens , L. lazulinus , L. mirabilis , and two species still unnamed .

= = Edibility = =

Although L. indigo is a well @-@ known edible species , opinions vary on its desirability . For example , American mycologist David Arora considers it a " superior edible " , while a field guide on Kansas fungi rates it as " mediocre in quality " . It may have a slightly bitter , or peppery taste , and has a coarse , grainy texture . The firm flesh is best prepared by cutting the mushroom in thin slices . The blue color disappears with cooking , and the mushroom becomes grayish . Because of the granular texture of the flesh , it does not lend itself well to drying . Specimens producing copious quantities of milk may be used to add color to marinades .

In Mexico , individuals harvest the wild mushrooms for sale at farmers ' markets , typically from June to November ; they are considered a " second class " species for consumption . L. indigo is also sold in Guatemalan markets from May to October . It is one of 13 Lactarius species sold at rural markets in Yunnan in southwestern China .

= = = Chemical composition = = =

A chemical analysis of Mexican specimens has shown L. indigo to contain moisture at 951 mg / g of mushroom , fat at 4 @.@ 3 mg / g , protein at 13 @.@ 4 mg / g , and dietary fiber at 18 @.@ 7 mg / g , much higher in comparison to the common button mushroom , which contains 6 @.@ 6 mg / g . Compared to three other wild edible mushroom species also tested in the study ( Amanita rubescens , Boletus frostii , and Ramaria flava ) , L. indigo contained the highest saturated fatty acids content , including stearic acid with 32 @.@ 1 mg / g — slightly over half of the total free fatty acid content .

The blue color of L. indigo is due to ( 7 @-@ isopropenyl @-@ 4 @-@ methylazulen @-@ 1 @-@ yl ) methyl stearate , an organic derivative of azulene . It is unique to this species , but similar to a compound found in L. deliciosus .

= = Distribution , habitat , and ecology = =

L. indigo is distributed throughout southern and eastern North America but is most common along the Gulf Coast , Mexico , and Guatemala . Its frequency of appearance in the Appalachian Mountains of the United States has been described as " occasional to locally common " . Mycologist David Arora notes that in the United States , the species is found with ponderosa pine in Arizona , but is absent in California 's ponderosa pine forests . It has also been collected from China , India , Guatemala , and Costa Rica ( in forests dominated by oak ) . In Europe , it has so far only been found in southern France . A study on the seasonal appearance of fruiting bodies in the subtropical forests of Xalapa , Mexico , confirmed that maximal production coincided with the rainy season between June and September .

L. indigo is a mycorrhizal fungus , and as such , establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of certain trees ( " hosts " ) , in which the fungi exchange minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host . The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species , forming so @-@ called ectomycorrhizae — an intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host , as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree .

Reflecting their close relationships with trees , the fruit bodies of L. indigo are typically found growing on the ground , scattered or in groups , in both deciduous and coniferous forests . They are also commonly found in floodplain areas that have been recently submerged . In Mexico , associations have been noted with Mexican alder , American Hornbeam , American Hophornbeam , and Liquidambar macrophylla , while in Guatemala the mushroom associates with smooth @-@ bark Mexican pine and other pine and oak species . In Costa Rica , the species forms associations with several native oaks of the Quercus genus . Under controlled laboratory conditions , L. indigo was shown to be able to form ectomycorrhizal associations with the neotropical pine species Mexican white pine , Hartweg 's pine , Mexican yellow pine , smooth @-@ bark Mexican pine , and the Eurasian pines Aleppo pine , European black pine , maritime pine , and Scots pine .

= = = Cited literature = = =

Arora D. ( 1986 ) . Mushrooms Demystified : A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi . Berkeley , California : Ten Speed Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 89815 @-@ 169 @-@ 4 .

Hesler LR , Smith AH ( 1979 ) . North American Species of Lactarius . Ann Arbor , Michigan : The University of Michigan Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 472 @-@ 08440 @-@ 2 .

= You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow =

" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " is the fifth season premiere episode of the American comedy @-@ drama series Desperate Housewives , and the 88th episode overall . It originally aired on September 28 , 2008 , in the United States on ABC ( American Broadcasting Company ) . The episode was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " , as well as all subsequent episodes , takes place five years after the events of the fourth season finale following Cherry 's decision to revamp the series with a time jump .

In the episode , Edie ( Nicollette Sheridan ) returns to Wisteria Lane after a five @-@ year absence with her new husband , Dave ( Neal McDonough ) . While Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) hesitates to make a romantic commitment to Jackson ( Gale Harold ) , Lynette ( Felicity Huffman ) struggles with her defiant teenage children and her husband 's midlife crisis . Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) deals with her daughters ' weight problems and Bree ( Marcia Cross ) faces the ramifications of her success .

" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " received mostly positive reviews from television critics , most of whom agreed that the time jump refreshed the show . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode drew over 18 million viewers , making it the most @-@ watched show of the night and the second most @-@ watched program of the week across all networks .

= = Plot = =

= = = Background = = =

Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents living on Wisteria Lane . In recent episodes , Susan ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) celebrate the birth of their son . Bree Hodge ( Marcia Cross ) chooses to raise her grandson while her daughter , Danielle ( Joy Lauren ) , attends college . She also issues an ultimatum , telling her husband , Orson ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , that she will leave him if he does not turn himself into the police after committing a hit @-@ and @-@ run . Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) struggles with Carlos ' ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) permanent blindness . Also , Edie Britt ( Nicollette Sheridan ) leaves Wisteria Lane after the other residents shun her for her malice .

= = = Episode = = =

" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " takes place five years after the aforementioned events . Important plot information that takes place during the time jump is revealed in flashbacks . Orson has completed his prison sentence and the success of Bree 's catering company has provided her the opportunity to write her own cookbook . Her business partner , Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) , resents how Bree 's success has changed her and intentionally sabotages Bree 's television interview , further straining their friendship . A flashback reveals that Danielle married a lawyer and coldly took her son away from Bree . Meanwhile , Lynette is frustrated with Tom 's ( Doug Savant ) relaxed approach to parenting their rebellious teenage sons , Porter and Preston ( Charlie Carver and Max Carver , respectively ) . She encourages him to employ more disciplinary actions .

During the time jump , Susan and Mike were involved in a car crash that killed a mother and her child . As a result , the couple divorced and now share custody of their son , M.J. ( Mason Vale Cotton ) . Susan engages in a sexual relationship with her house painter , Jackson Braddock ( Gale Harold ) , but keeps their romance a secret from her friends and family . Jackson seeks a more substantial relationship , but Susan is weary of such a commitment following her divorce . Elsewhere , Gabrielle has been raising two overweight daughters , Juanita ( Madison De La Garza ) and Celia ( Daniella Baltodano ) , and has also lost her own figure as well . Gabrielle tricks Juanita into exercising by driving away and making Juanita chase after her car .

After five years of absence , Edie returns to Wisteria Lane with her mysterious husband , Dave ( Neal McDonough ) , who seems to have a calming effect on his ill @-@ tempered wife . Later , Dave receives a phone call from Dr. Samuel Heller ( Stephen Spinella ) , who reminds him that monthly check @-@ ins are a condition of his release . After the conversation , Dr. Heller reviews a taped therapy session in which Dave threatens to get revenge on the man who destroyed his life .

= = Production = =

" You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " was written by series creator and executive producer Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . Filming for the episode was scheduled to begin on July 7 , 2008 . The episode is the first to fully employ the five @-@ year jump , which was introduced in the final two minutes of the fourth season finale . While developing the fifth season , Cherry began brainstorming ways to revamp the series . He stated : " The soap tends to build up , and I wanted to get back to where we were that very first season , where it 's just the problems of some ordinary women and they were small and relatable . " Cherry credits the producers of Lost for the idea of the time jump . The writers hoped the time jump would also help them avoid repeating mistakes they made during the show 's poorly received second season , during which they relied heavily on storylines from the previous season . Cherry said that the time jump would be permanent , with executive producer Bob Daily clarifying that some brief flashback scenes would be used to enhance the storytelling and provide context for current plot lines . Cherry had originally wanted to do a ten @-@ year jump , mostly to age the young characters into their teenage years in order to open up more storyline possibilities .

The writers ensured that although they were changing the storyline circumstances , the characters remained the same with minimal changes to their personalities . According to series writer Matt Berry , the time jump allowed the writers to work with the characters " without most of the baggage they ’ d accumulated in the earlier years , and put them into starting places so we could move them forward and build in new story arcs . " For this reason , the writers treated the season premiere as a pilot , in which , according to Daily , they " could give the women a new drive . " Daily identified the Susan character as having undergone the greatest change , stating that she has given up on looking for a " fairy @-@ tale romance " and is emotionally distant in her new relationship . He also stated that the character of Gabrielle has dealt with the biggest change in terms of her circumstances , as she continues to deal with her husband 's blindness and their financial problems . Actress Eva Longoria had to gain weight and wear additional body padding for her character 's new storyline . Dana Delany stated that her character , Katherine , who was portrayed as an antiheroine in the previous season , is more relaxed following the time jump . However , Delany clarified that while Katherine is now friends with the other characters , she and Bree would become frenemies as a result of their business partnership . Nicollette Sheridan , commented that Edie , who played an integral role in the season 's mystery story arch , is " a lot more conscientious about things [ this season ] , without losing her comedic edge . "

Several casting changes were made as a result of the five @-@ year jump . Neal McDonough 's involvement was announced in July 2008 . McDonough did not audition for the role of Dave Williams , but was offered it after meeting with Cherry . Gale Harold continued appearing as Jackson , Susan 's new love interest , after appearing briefly in the flashforward segment at the end of the fourth season . The roles of the Scavo children were recast in order to reflect their new ages following the time jump . Charlie and Max Carver replaced Brent and Shane Kinsman as Preston and Porter , respectively . The Kinsman twins appeared in a flashback in this episode . Joshua Logan Moore was cast as Parker , a role previously played by Zane Huett , and Kendall Applegate joined the cast as Penny , who had previously been portrayed by several toddler actresses . Despite their casting announcements alongside the Carver twins , Moore and Applegate did not appear in " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " . The flashforward segment at the end of the fourth season also introduced Kaila Say and Daniella Baltodano as Gabrielle 's daughters , Juanita and Celia , respectively . Only Baltodano continued portraying her role for the fifth season ; Say was replaced by Madison De La Garza during the summer hiatus .

Andrea Bowen , who starred as Susan 's daughter , Julie , departed from the cast , as her character left for college at the end of the fourth season . Teri Hatcher expressed disappointment in the producers ' decision , but Cherry stated that Bowen would return in the future . Joy Lauren , who portrayed Bree 's daughter , Danielle , and Lyndsy Fonseca , who played Katherine 's daughter , Dylan , also left the main cast , although the former appeared in the season premiere as a guest star . Because the fourth season ended leaving Mike 's whereabouts unknown , James Denton 's return to the series was questioned during hiatus . Denton stated in May 2008 that producers would not make a decision on his character until mid @-@ June and that he was preparing to find work in case his contract was terminated . It was later confirmed that he would return to the series .

The Wisteria Lane set , which is located on the Colonial Street backlot set at Universal Studios , underwent changes for the time jump . Production designer P. Erik Carlson explained , " [ former production designer Thomas A. Walsh ] had already created a fairly Utopian world , and we wanted to exaggerate and enhance it a little bit more , mostly through the use of color . We didn ’ t want it to feel ridiculously futuristic or viewers would be jarred by the contrast . " Bree 's garage was remodeled into a testing kitchen as result of the character 's catering business . Additionally , all houses were repainted with bolder colors , with the exception of Gabrielle 's home , in order to reflect the Solis ' financial situation .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

According to Nielsen ratings , " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " was watched by 18 @.@ 684 million viewers and held an 11 @.@ 4 rating / 17 share on its original American broadcast on September 28 , 2008 . The episode was watched in 13 @.@ 105 million total households . It was number one in its timeslot , beating Sunday Night Football on NBC , Cold Case on CBS , and Family Guy and American Dad ! on Fox . The episode was the most @-@ watched program of the night in both total viewers and the young adult demographic . It was the second @-@ most watched program of the week across all networks by viewers 18 to 49 years old , behind Grey 's Anatomy , and the second @-@ most watched program in total viewership , behind Dancing with the Stars . The episode also performed better than any original broadcast of the series since January 2008 . It outperformed the fourth season finale by two million total viewers and showed a 17 percent increase in viewers 18 to 49 years old . At the time , the episode was the least @-@ watched season premiere of the series , falling half a million viewers from the fourth season premiere , " Now You Know " , a year earlier . However , " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " outperformed " Now You Know " in the demographic of women between 18 and 34 years of age with an 8 @.@ 3 rating / 20 share in that demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode premiered on Channel 4 on October 22 , 2008 . It was watched by 2 @.@ 39 million viewers , becoming the sixth most @-@ watched program of the week on the channel .

= = = Critical reception = = =

The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly called the five @-@ year jump " a stroke of genius , effectively increasing our insight into these ladies ' world by twofold . " He called the Gabrielle storyline a true depiction of motherhood and applauded the scene in which Carlos and Gabrielle discuss her low self @-@ esteem . He complimented the Bree storyline , particularly the argument scene between Bree and Katherine . He enjoyed the Dave storyline , but expressed disappointment that Edie 's reappearance was the only scene that involved all of the leading women . Additionally , Stransky was not intrigued by Lynette 's storyline and deemed it " more of the same " for the character . He criticized Susan 's storyline , calling it annoying . He also dismissed the writers ' ploy to give viewers the impression that Mike had died for almost the entire episode . TV Guide 's Matt Roush gave the episode an ' A ' , stating , " Moving the story ahead five years didn 't so much reinvent the show as it recharged and refreshed the scintillating mix of domestic comedy and sudsy intrigue that we 've always enjoyed . " He highlighted the comedic Gabrielle storyline while approving the additions of McDonough and Harold to the cast .

In his review of the first two episodes of the season , Brian Lowry of Variety said that while " You 're Gonna Love Tomorrow " is satisfactory and establishes the five @-@ year jump effectively , the second episode is better , calling it " a knock @-@ out . " Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker commended the time jump as a reflection of both the characters ' and series ' ambitions , rating the episode a ' B + ' . Joanna Weiss of The Boston Globe gave the episode a mixed review . She said that the time leap proved to be successful , as the show had been " flailing " for several seasons and concluded that , " so far , at least , this season promises to be less about plot than personality . That doesn 't mean the show is perfect - it never was - but it 's better , and that 's a big relief . " The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen was positive in his review , noting that the writers handled the five @-@ year leap well , especially in regards to Lynette 's storyline . He complimented the episode 's comedy and expressed his hope that the time jump would allow the writers to focus on humor rather than overly @-@ dramatic storylines .

= Fear of Flying ( The Simpsons ) =

" Fear of Flying " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 18 , 1994 . In the episode , Homer is banned from Moe 's Tavern and struggles to find a new bar . When he destroys a plane after being mistaken for a pilot at a pilots @-@ only bar , the airline buys the Simpsons ' silence with free tickets . The family discovers that Marge is afraid of flying .

The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland , and written by David Sacks . It features numerous guest stars , including Anne Bancroft as Dr. Zweig . Additionally , Ted Danson , Woody Harrelson , Rhea Perlman , John Ratzenberger , and George Wendt appear as their characters from Cheers . It received positive reception from television critics , and acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 6 . The authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide commented positively on the episode , as did reviews from DVD Verdict and DVD Movie Guide .

= = Plot = =

After pulling a harmless prank on Moe , Homer is banned from His Tavern , ironically after Moe laughed off life @-@ threatening ones that Lenny , Carl and Barney pulled on him . Looking for another place to drink ( including the Cheers bar ) , Homer eventually settles for an airline pilots ' bar , but is mistaken for a pilot ( despite confessing that he 's not really a pilot ) and is put in the cockpit of an airplane , which he promptly wrecks after raising the stationary plane 's landing gear . In exchange for his silence of the mistake they 've made , the airline gives the Simpson family free tickets to anywhere they desire in the continental United States . However , the idea of plane travel fills Marge with anxiety as she has a fear of flying , and after numerous failed attempts to get out of the trip , she eventually has a panic attack on the plane , following which the trip is postponed .

Marge does not want to talk to anybody about her fear , and Lisa worries that Marge 's decision to keep her feelings bottled up will cause them to " come out in other ways " . When Marge begins to show signs of her lingering flight @-@ related trauma by insisting the cat and the dog are living in sin , cooking giant feasts , and shingling the roof in the middle of the night , Lisa convinces Marge to undergo treatment with therapist Dr. Zweig . Homer , however , grows increasingly paranoid about Marge 's therapy , believing that Zweig will blame Marge 's trauma on him , and encourage her to leave him .

Zweig uncovers the roots of Marge 's fear : the moment she realized her father was not a pilot , but an apron @-@ wearing flight attendant , a job that was mostly reserved for women at the time . Her shame is eased when Zweig assures her that male flight attendants are now very common and that her father could be considered a pioneer . Marge also brings up memories of her grandmother poking her in the eye as a baby while playing airplane , a toy plane catching fire , and having a plane fire at her and her mother , but Zweig just ignores them . Before the therapist begins to question Marge 's marriage , Homer immediately takes Marge away and Marge manages to thank Zweig for helping her . Marge is finally cured of her fears , but when she and Homer attempt to fly on a plane again , the plane crashes into a lake .

= = Production = =

" Fear of Flying " was directed by Mark Kirkland , and written by David Sacks . The story of the episode came about when Sacks came into the writers ' room with an idea for an episode where Marge goes to a therapist " for one reason or another " . Sacks and the other writers then structured the rest of the plot around that storyline . Anne Bancroft was called in to voice Zweig . Before Bancroft recorded her part , the animators based Zweig 's design on a temp track from cast member Tress MacNeille as the therapist . After Bancroft had recorded her part , Zweig was redesigned to fit with Bancroft 's voice . They added split glasses and a streak of silver in her hair to give her a more mature look .

After Homer was kicked out of Moe 's Tavern , it was originally planned for a cat to come to Homer , and then have it enter the bar . The result is the barflies loving the cat , and depressing Homer even more . According to David Silverman , the fact that it looked depressing was the reason why it was deleted , and replaced with a more humorous approach with him chasing a poodle .

The staff was able to get the central cast of the American sitcom Cheers , with the exception of Kelsey Grammer , to reunite and guest star in the episode . The staff could not arrange the script to allow time in the episode for Grammer , who already had a recurring role on The Simpsons as Sideshow Bob , to voice Frasier Crane . Ted Danson guest starred as Sam , Woody Harrelson as Woody , Rhea Perlman as Carla , John Ratzenberger as Cliff , and George Wendt as Norm .

= = Cultural references = =

Homer enters the Cheers bar in a scene which is a parody of a typical episode of the comedy series Cheers . All of the speaking characters are voiced by the actors who played them in Cheers . Ironically , Frasier Crane remains silent despite being played by Simpsons veteran Kelsey Grammer , the voice of Sideshow Bob . Marge 's dream sees her in the role of Mrs. Robinson from Lost in Space , while Homer plays Dr. Smith . The scene where Marge and Jacqueline Bouvier duck down when a biplane shoots at them in a cornfield is a parody of Alfred Hitchcock 's film North by Northwest .

Homer 's Mount Lushmore caricature resembles Eustace Tilley , the mascot of The New Yorker . Homer 's line about getting out of Springfield is lifted from It 's a Wonderful Life , while Homer 's all @-@ time favorite song is revealed to be " It 's Raining Men " by The Weather Girls . When Abe Simpson is left behind on the plane , his slapping his hands on his face and yelling is a reference to Home Alone . This is the second time Home Alone has been parodied on The Simpsons . The first was " Homer Alone " , a reference to the title .

As Homer is looking for a place to drink , he tries a lesbian bar , the She She Lounge . However , he soon realizes that " this lesbian bar doesn 't have a fire exit " . He then leaves , saying " Enjoy your deathtrap , ladies ! " . This is a reference to a famous Greenwich Village gay bar , the Stonewall Inn . This mafia @-@ owned and -run bar " had no rear exit , so if there had been a fire on a weekend night , hundreds of customers would have had to escape through a single narrow passage leading to the front door . " The films Homer rents are Hero , Fearless , and Alive , the latter of which Marge watches . All of them involve plane crashes .

When Marge leaves Dr. Zweig 's office , she says , " Whenever the wind whistles through the leaves , I 'll think , Lowenstein , Lowenstein … " . This is a reference to The Prince of Tides ; the psychiatrist is Dr. Lowenstein .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " Fear of Flying " finished 48th ( tied with Dateline NBC ) in the ratings for the week of December 12 to December 18 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 6 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week , beaten only by Beverly Hills , 90210 , and Married ... with Children . Since airing , the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics . In July 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed the Cheers cast 's performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show .

Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said it was " a good Marge @-@ centric episode with plenty of clever set pieces – the tributes to Cheers and Lost in Space are fantastic " , and noted that " Marge 's father looks suspiciously like Moe " . Ryan Keefer at DVD Verdict said that " with the cast of Cheers appearing ( except for Grammer , ironically ) and a funny spoof of North by Northwest , the episode is much better than you would expect " , and gave it a B + .

Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD that it was " another show I didn ’ t recall fondly but that works exceedingly well . I hadn ’ t realized how many quotes I ’ ve stolen from this one : the name ' Guy Incognito ' , the dog with the puffy tail , ' a burden coupled with a hassle ' . The show makes little sense in regard to continuity since Marge has flown during prior shows , but it ’ s consistently very funny and entertaining . " The Phoenix named Anne Bancroft one of the twenty best guest stars to appear on the show .

= = Merchandise = =

The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes titled : The Simpsons Go To Hollywood . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Flaming Moe 's " , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " , and " Homer to the Max " . " Fear of Flying " was again included in the 2003 DVD release of the same set . It was included in The Simpsons season 6 DVD set , which was released on August 16 , 2005 , as The Simpsons – The Complete Sixth Season .

= Harold Innis =

Harold Adams Innis ( / ˈɪnɪs / ; November 5 , 1894 – November 8 , 1952 ) was a Canadian professor of political economy at the University of Toronto and the author of seminal works on media , communication theory , and Canadian economic history . Despite his dense and difficult prose , Innis was one of Canada 's most original thinkers . He helped develop the staples thesis , which holds that Canada 's culture , political history , and economy have been decisively influenced by the exploitation and export of a series of " staples " such as fur , fishing , lumber , wheat , mined metals , and coal . The staple thesis dominated economic history in Canada 1930s @-@ 1960s , and is still used by some .

Innis 's writings on communication explore the role of media in shaping the culture and development of civilizations . He argued , for example , that a balance between oral and written forms of communication contributed to the flourishing of Greek civilization in the 5th century BC . He warned , however , that Western civilization is now imperiled by powerful , advertising @-@ driven media obsessed by " present @-@ mindedness " and the " continuous , systematic , ruthless destruction of elements of permanence essential to cultural activity " . His intellectual bond with Eric A. Havelock formed the foundations of the “ Toronto School of Communication ” which provided a source of inspiration for future members of the school : Marshall McLuhan and Edmund Snow Carpenter .

Innis laid the basis for scholarship that looked at the social sciences from a distinctly Canadian point of view . As the head of the University of Toronto 's political economy department , he worked to build up a cadre of Canadian scholars so that universities would not continue to rely as heavily on British or American @-@ trained professors unfamiliar with Canada 's history and culture . He was successful in establishing sources of financing for Canadian scholarly research .

As the Cold War grew hotter after 1947 , Innis grew increasingly hostile to the United States . He warned repeatedly that Canada was becoming a subservient colony to its much more powerful southern neighbor . " We are indeed fighting for our lives , " he warned , pointing especially to the " pernicious influence of American advertising .... We can only survive by taking persistent action at strategic points against American imperialism in all its attractive guises . " His anti @-@ Americanism influenced some younger scholars , including Donald Creighton .

Innis also tried to defend universities from political and economic pressures . He believed that independent universities , as centres of critical thought , were essential to the survival of Western civilization . His intellectual disciple and university colleague , Marshall McLuhan , lamented Innis 's premature death as a disastrous loss for human understanding . McLuhan wrote : " I am pleased to think of my own book The Gutenberg Galaxy as a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences , first of writing then of printing . "

= = Rural roots = =

= = = Early life = = =

Harold Adams Innis was born in 1894 on a small livestock and dairy farm near the community of Otterville in southwestern Ontario 's Oxford County . As a boy he loved the rhythms and routines of farm life and he never forgot his rural origins . His mother , Mary Adams Innis , had named him ' Herald ' , hoping he would become a minister in the strict evangelical Baptist faith that she and her husband William shared . At the time , the Baptist Church was an important part of life in rural areas . It gave isolated families a sense of community and embodied the values of individualism and independence . Its far @-@ flung congregations were not ruled by a centralized , bureaucratic authority . Innis became an agnostic in later life , but never lost his interest in religion . According to his friend and biographer Donald Creighton , Innis 's character was moulded by the Church :

The strict sense of values and the feeling of devotion to a cause , which became so characteristic of him in later life , were derived , in part at least , from the instruction imparted so zealously and unquestioningly inside the severely unadorned walls of the Baptist Church at Otterville .

Innis attended the one @-@ room schoolhouse in Otterville and the community 's high school . He travelled 20 miles ( 32 km ) by train to Woodstock , Ontario , to complete his secondary education at a Baptist @-@ run college . He intended to become a public @-@ school teacher and passed the entrance examinations for teacher training , but decided to take a year off to earn the money he would need to support himself at an Ontario teachers ' college . At age 18 , therefore , he returned to the one @-@ room schoolhouse at Otterville to teach for one term until the local school board could recruit a fully qualified teacher . The experience made him realize that the life of a teacher in a small , rural school was not for him .

= = = University studies = = =

In October 1913 , Innis started classes at McMaster University ( then in Toronto ) . McMaster was a natural choice for him because it was a Baptist university and many students who attended Woodstock College went there . McMaster 's liberal arts professors encouraged critical thinking and debate . Innis was especially influenced by James Ten Broeke , the university 's one @-@ man philosophy department . Ten Broeke posed an essay question that Innis pondered for the rest of his life : " Why do we attend to the things to which we attend ? "

Before his final undergraduate year at McMaster , Innis spent a summer teaching at the Northern Star School in the frontier farming community of Landonville near Vermilion , Alberta . The experience gave him a sense of the vastness of Canada . He also learned about Western grievances over high interest rates and steep transportation costs . In his final undergraduate year , Innis focused on history and economics . He kept in mind a remark made by history lecturer W.S. Wallace that the economic interpretation of history was not the only possible one , but that it went the deepest .

= = = First World War service = = =

After graduating from McMaster , Innis felt that his Christian principles compelled him to enlist in the Canadian Expeditionary Force . He was sent to France in the fall of 1916 to fight in the First World War . Trench warfare with its " mud and lice and rats " had a devastating effect on him .

Innis 's role as an artillery signaller gave him firsthand experience of life ( and death ) on the front lines as he participated in the successful Canadian attack on Vimy Ridge . Signallers , or spotters , watched where each artillery shell landed , then sent back aiming corrections so that the next shells could hit their targets more accurately . On July 7 , 1917 , Innis received a serious shrapnel wound in his right thigh that required eight months of hospital treatment in England .

Innis 's war was over . His biographer , John Watson , notes the physical wound took seven years to heal , but the psychological damage lasted a lifetime . Innis suffered recurring bouts of depression and nervous exhaustion because of his military service .

Watson also notes that the Great War influenced Innis 's intellectual outlook . It strengthened his Canadian nationalism ; sharpened his opinion of what he thought were the destructive effects of technology , including the communications media that were used so effectively to " sell " the war ; and led him , for the first time , to doubt his Baptist faith .

= = Graduate studies = =

= = = McMaster and Chicago = = =

Harold Innis completed a Master of Arts at McMaster , graduating in April 1918 . His thesis , called The Returned Soldier , " was a detailed description of the public policy measures that were necessary , not only to provide a supportive milieu to help veterans get over the effects of the war , but also to move on with national reconstruction " .

Innis did his postgraduate work at the University of Chicago and was awarded his PhD in August 1920 . His two years at Chicago had a profound influence on his later work . His interest in economics deepened and he decided to become a professional economist . The economics faculty at Chicago questioned abstract and universalist neoclassical theories , then in vogue , arguing that general rules for economic policy should be derived from specific case studies .

Innis was influenced by the university 's two eminent communications scholars , George Herbert Mead and Robert E. Park . Although he did not attend any of these famous professors ' classes , Innis did absorb their idea that communication involved much more than the transmission of information . James W. Carey writes that Mead and Park " characterized communication as the entire process whereby a culture is brought into existence , maintained in time , and sedimented into institutions " .

While at Chicago , Innis was exposed to the ideas of Thorstein Veblen , the iconoclastic thinker who drew on his deep knowledge of philosophy and economics to write scathing critiques of contemporary thought and culture . Veblen had left Chicago years before , but his ideas were still strongly felt there . Years later , in an essay on Veblen , Innis praised him for waging war against " standardized static economics " .

Innis got his first taste of university teaching at Chicago , where he delivered several introductory economics courses . One of his students was Mary Quayle , the woman he would marry in May 1921 when he was 26 and she 22 . Together they had four children , Donald ( 1924 ) , Mary ( 1927 ) , Hugh ( 1930 ) and Ann ( 1933 ) . Mary Quayle Innis was herself a notable economist and writer . Her book , An Economic History of Canada , was published in 1935 . Her novel , Stand on a Rainbow appeared in 1943 . Her other books include Mrs. Simcoe 's Diary ( 1965 ) , The Clear Spirit : Canadian Women and Their Times ( 1966 ) and Unfold the Years ( 1949 ) , a history of the Young Women 's Christian Association . She also edited Harold Innis 's posthumous Essays in Canadian Economic History ( 1956 ) and a 1972 reissue of his Empire and Communications .

= = = History of the CPR = = =

Harold Innis wrote his PhD thesis on the history of the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . The completion of Canada 's first transcontinental railway in 1885 had been a defining moment in Canadian history . Innis 's thesis , eventually published as a book in 1923 , can be seen as an early attempt to document the railway 's significance from an economic historian 's point of view . It uses voluminous statistics to underpin its arguments . Innis maintains that the difficult and expensive construction project was sustained by fears of American annexation of the Canadian West .

Innis argues that " the history of the Canadian Pacific Railroad is primarily the history of the spread of Western civilization over the northern half of the North American continent " . As Robert Babe notes , the railway brought industrialization , transporting coal and building supplies to manufacturing sites . It was also a kind of communications medium that contributed to the spread of European civilization . Babe writes that , for Innis , the CPR 's equipment " comprised a massive , energy @-@ consuming , fast @-@ moving , powerful , capital @-@ intensive ' sign ' dropped into the very midst of indigenous peoples , whose entire way of life was disrupted , and eventually shattered as a result .

Communications scholar Arthur Kroker argues that Innis 's study of the Canadian Pacific Railway was only the first in which he attempted to demonstrate that " technology is not something external to Canadian being ; but on the contrary , is the necessary condition and lasting consequence of Canadian existence " . It also reflected Innis 's lifelong interest in the exercise of economic and political power . His CPR history ends , for example , with a recounting of Western grievances against economic policies , such as high freight rates and the steep import tariffs designed to protect fledgling Canadian manufacturers . Westerners complained that this National Policy funnelled money from Prairie farmers into the pockets of the Eastern business establishment . " Western Canada " , Innis wrote , " has paid for the development of Canadian nationality , and it would appear that it must continue to pay . The acquisitiveness of Eastern Canada shows little sign of abatement . "

= = Staples thesis = =

Harold Innis is considered the leading founder of a Canadian school of economic thought known as the staples theory . It holds that Canada 's culture , political history and economy have been decisively shaped by the exploitation and export of a series of " staples " such as fur , fish , wood , wheat , mined metals and fossil fuels . Innis theorized that this reliance on exporting natural resources made Canada dependent on more industrially advanced countries and resulted in periodic disruptions to economic life as the international demand for staples rose and fell ; as the staple itself became increasingly scarce ; and , as technological change resulted in shifts from one staple to others . Innis pointed out , for example , that as furs became scarce and trade in that staple declined , it became necessary to develop and export other staples such as wheat , potash and especially lumber . The export of these new staples was made possible through improved transportation networks that included first canals , and later , railways .

= = = " Dirt " research = = =

In 1920 , Innis joined the department of political economy at the University of Toronto . He was assigned to teach courses in commerce , economic history and economic theory . He decided to focus his scholarly research on Canadian economic history , a hugely neglected subject , and he settled on the fur trade as his first area of study . Furs had brought French and English traders to Canada , motivating them to travel west along the continent 's interlocking lake and river systems to the Pacific coast . Innis realized that he would not only need to search out archival documents to understand the history of the fur trade , but would also have to travel the country himself gathering masses of firsthand information and accumulating what he called " dirt " experience .

Thus , Innis travelled extensively beginning in the summer of 1924 when he and a friend paddled an 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) canvas @-@ covered canoe hundreds of miles down the Peace River to Lake Athabasca ; then down the Slave River to Great Slave Lake . They completed their journey down the Mackenzie , Canada 's longest river , to the Arctic Ocean on a small Hudson 's Bay Company tug . During his travels , Innis supplemented his fur research by gathering information on other staple products such as lumber , pulp and paper , minerals , grain and fish . He travelled so extensively that by the early 1940s , he had visited every part of Canada except for the Western Arctic and the east side of Hudson Bay .

Everywhere Innis went his methods were the same : he interviewed people connected with the production of staple products and listened to their stories .

= = = Fur trade in Canada = = =

Harold Innis 's interest in the relationship between empires and colonies was developed in his classic study , The Fur Trade in Canada : An Introduction to Canadian Economic History ( 1930 ) . The book chronicles the trade in beaver fur from the early 16th century to the 1920s . Instead of focusing on the " heroic " European adventurers who explored the Canadian wilderness as conventional histories had done , Innis documents how the interplay of geography , technology and economic forces shaped both the fur trade and Canada 's political and economic destiny . He concludes that the fur trade largely determined Canada 's boundaries adding that the country " emerged not in spite of geography but because of it " .

The Fur Trade in Canada also describes the cultural interactions among three groups of people : the Europeans in fashionable metropolitan centres who regarded beaver hats as luxury items ; the European colonial settlers who saw beaver fur as a staple that could be exported to pay for essential manufactured goods from the home country , and First Nations peoples who traded furs for industrial goods such as metal pots , knives , guns and liquor . Innis describes the central role First Nations peoples played in the development of the fur trade . Without their skilled hunting techniques , knowledge of the territory and advanced tools such as snowshoes , toboggans and birch @-@ bark canoes , the fur trade would not have existed . However , dependence on European technologies disrupted First Nations societies . " The new technology with its radical innovations " , Innis writes , " brought about such a rapid shift in the prevailing Indian culture as to lead to wholesale destruction of the peoples concerned by warfare and disease . " Historian Carl Berger argues that by placing First Nations culture at the centre of his analysis of the fur trade , Innis " was the first to explain adequately the disintegration of native society under the thrust of European capitalism . "

Unlike many historians who see Canadian history as beginning with the arrival of Europeans , Innis emphasizes the cultural and economic contributions of First Nations peoples . " We have not yet realized , " he writes , " that the Indian and his culture was fundamental to the growth of Canadian institutions . "

The Fur Trade in Canada concludes by arguing that Canadian economic history can best be understood by examining how one staple product gave way to another — furs to timber , for example , and the later importance of wheat and minerals . Reliance on staples made Canada economically dependent on more industrially advanced countries and the " cyclonic " shifts from one staple to another caused frequent disruptions in the country 's economic life .

= = = Cod fishery = = =

After the publication of his book on the fur trade , Innis turned to a study of an earlier staple — the cod fished for centuries off the eastern coasts of North America , especially the Grand Banks of Newfoundland . The result was The Cod Fisheries : The History of an International Economy published in 1940 , 10 years after the fur trade study . Innis tells the detailed history of competing empires in the exploitation of a teeming natural resource — a history that ranges over 500 years . While his study of the fur trade focused on the continental interior with its interlocking rivers and lakes , The Cod Fisheries looks outward at global trade and empire , showing the far @-@ reaching effects of one staple product both on imperial centres and on marginal colonies such as Newfoundland , Nova Scotia and New England .

= = Communications theories = =

Harold Innis 's study of the effects of interconnected lakes and rivers on Canadian development and European empire sparked his interest in the complex economic and cultural relationships between transportation systems and communications . During the 1940s , Innis also began studying pulp and paper , an industry of central importance to the Canadian economy . This research provided an additional crossover point from his work on staple products to his communications studies . Biographer Paul Heyer writes that Innis " followed pulp and paper through its subsequent stages : newspapers and journalism , books and advertising . In other words , from looking at a natural resource @-@ based industry he turned his attention to a cultural industry in which information , and ultimately knowledge , was a commodity that circulated , had value , and empowered those who controlled it . "

One of Innis 's primary contributions to communications studies was to apply the dimensions of time and space to various media . He divided media into time @-@ binding and space @-@ binding types . Time @-@ binding media are durable . They include clay or stone tablets . Space @-@ binding media are more ephemeral . They include modern media such as radio , television , and mass circulation newspapers .

Innis examined the rise and fall of ancient empires as a way of tracing the effects of communications media . He looked at media that led to the growth of an empire ; those that sustained it during its periods of success , and then , the communications changes that hastened an empire 's collapse . He tried to show that media ' biases ' toward time or space affected the complex interrelationships needed to sustain an empire . These interrelationships included the partnership between the knowledge ( and ideas ) necessary to create and maintain an empire , and the power ( or force ) required to expand and defend it . For Innis , the interplay between knowledge and power was always a crucial factor in understanding empire .

Innis argued that a balance between the spoken word and writing contributed to the flourishing of ancient Greece in the time of Plato . This balance between the time @-@ biased medium of speech and the space @-@ biased medium of writing was eventually upset , Innis argued , as the oral tradition gave way to the dominance of writing . The torch of empire then passed from Greece to Rome .

Harold Innis 's analysis of the effects of communications on the rise and fall of empires led him to warn grimly that Western civilization was now facing its own profound crisis . The development of powerful communications media such as mass @-@ circulation newspapers had shifted the balance decisively in favour of space and power , over time , continuity and knowledge . The balance required for cultural survival had been upset by what Innis saw as " mechanized " communications media used to transmit information quickly over long distances . These media had contributed to an obsession with " present @-@ mindedness " wiping out concerns about past or future . Innis wrote ,

The overwhelming pressure of mechanization evident in the newspaper and the magazine , has led to the creation of vast monopolies of communication . Their entrenched positions involve a continuous , systematic , ruthless destruction of elements of permanence essential to cultural activity .

Western civilization could only be saved , Innis argued , by recovering the balance between space and time . For him , that meant reinvigorating the oral tradition within universities while freeing institutions of higher learning from political and commercial pressures . In his essay , A Plea for Time , he suggested that genuine dialogue within universities could produce the critical thinking necessary to restore the balance between power and knowledge . Then , universities could muster the courage to attack the monopolies that always imperil civilization .

Although Innis remains appreciated and respected for the grand and unique nature of his later efforts regarding communications theories , he was not without critics . Particularly , the fragmentary and mosaic writing style exemplified in Empire and Communications has been criticized as ambiguous , aggressively non @-@ linear , and lacking connections between levels of analysis . Biographers have suggested that this style may have been a result of Innis ' illness late in his career .

= = Academic and public career = =

= = = Influence in the 1930s = = =

Aside from his work on The Cod Fisheries , Innis wrote extensively in the 1930s about other staple products such as minerals and wheat as well as Canada 's immense economic problems in the Great Depression . During the summers of 1932 and 1933 , he travelled to the West to see the effects of the Depression for himself . The next year , in an essay entitled , The Canadian Economy and the Depression , Innis outlined the plight of " a country susceptible to the slightest ground @-@ swell of international disturbance " , yet beset by regional differences that made it difficult to devise effective solutions . He described a Prairie economy dependent on the export of wheat , yet afflicted by severe drought , on the one hand , and the increased political power of Canada 's growing cities , sheltered from direct reliance on the staples trade , on the other . The result was political conflict and a breakdown in federal – provincial relations . " We lack vital information on which to base prospective policies to meet this situation " , Innis warned , because of " the weak position of the social sciences in Canada " .

Innis 's reputation as a " public intellectual " was growing steadily and , in 1934 , Premier Angus L. Macdonald invited him to serve on a Royal Commission to examine Nova Scotia 's economic problems . The next year , he helped establish The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science . In 1936 , he was appointed a full University of Toronto professor and a year later , became the head of the university 's Department of Political Economy .

Innis was appointed president of the Canadian Political Science Association in 1938 . His inaugural address , entitled The Penetrative Powers of the Price System , must have baffled his listeners as he ranged over centuries of economic history jumping abruptly from one topic to the next linking monetary developments to patterns of trade and settlement . The address was an ambitious attempt to show the disruptive effects of new technologies culminating in the modern shift from an industrial system based on coal and iron to the newest sources of industrial power , electricity , oil and steel . Innis also tried to show the commercial effects of mass circulation newspapers , made possible by expanded newsprint production , and of the new medium of radio , which " threatens to circumvent the walls imposed by tariffs and to reach across boundaries frequently denied to other media of communication " . Both media , Innis argued , stimulated the demand for consumer goods and both promoted nationalism .

Innis was also a central participant in an international project that produced 25 scholarly volumes between 1936 and 1945 . It was a series called The Relations of Canada and the United States overseen by James T. Shotwell , director of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . Innis edited and wrote prefaces for the volumes contributed by Canadian scholars . His own study of the cod fisheries also appeared as part of the series . His work with Shotwell enabled Innis to gain access to Carnegie money to further Canadian academic research . As John Watson points out , " the project offered one of the few sources of research funds in rather lean times " .

= = = Politics and The Great Depression = = =

The era of the " Dirty Thirties " with its mass unemployment , poverty and despair gave rise to new Canadian political movements . In Alberta , for example , the radio evangelist William " Bible Bill " Aberhart led his populist Social Credit party to victory in 1935 . Three years earlier in Calgary , Alberta , social reformers had founded a new political party , the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation or CCF . It advocated democratic socialism and a mixed economy with public ownership of key industries . Frank Underhill , one of Innis 's colleagues at the University of Toronto was a founding member of the CCF . Innis and Underhill had both been members of an earlier group at the university that declared itself " dissatisfied with the policies of the two major [ political ] parties in Canada " and that aimed at " forming a definite body of progressive opinion " . In 1931 , Innis presented a paper to the group on " Economic Conditions in Canada " , but he later recoiled from participating in party politics , denouncing partisans like Underhill as " hot gospellers " .

Innis maintained that scholars had no place in active politics and that instead , they should devote themselves , first to research on public problems , and then to the production of knowledge based on critical thought . He saw the university , with its emphasis on dialogue , open @-@ mindedness and skepticism , as an institution that could foster such thinking and research . " The university could provide an environment " , he wrote , " as free as possible from the biases of the various institutions that form the state , so that its intellectuals could continue to seek out and explore other perspectives . "

Although sympathetic to the plight of western farmers and urban , unemployed workers , Innis did not embrace socialism . Eric Havelock , a left @-@ leaning colleague explained many years later that Innis distrusted political " solutions " imported from elsewhere , especially those based on Marxist analysis with its emphasis on class conflict . He worried , too , that as Canada 's ties with Britain weakened , the country would fall under the spell of American ideas instead of developing its own based on Canada 's unique circumstances . Havelock added :

He has been called the radical conservative of his day — not a bad designation of a complex mind , clear sighted , cautious , perhaps at bottom pessimistic in areas where thinkers we would label ' progressive ' felt less difficulty in taking a stand ; never content to select only one or two elements in a complicated equation in order to build a quick @-@ order policy or program ; far ranging enough in intellect to take in the whole sum of the factors , and comprehend their often contradictory effects .

= = = Late career and death = = =

In the 1940s , Harold Innis reached the height of his influence in both academic circles and Canadian society . In 1941 , he helped establish the American @-@ based Economic History Association and its Journal of Economic History . He later became the association 's second president . Innis played a central role in founding two important sources for the funding of academic research : the Canadian Social Science Research Council ( 1940 ) and the Humanities Research Council of Canada ( 1944 ) .

In 1944 , the University of New Brunswick awarded Innis an honorary degree , as did his alma mater , McMaster University . Université Laval , the University of Manitoba and the University of Glasgow would also confer honorary degrees in 1947 – 48 .

In 1945 , Innis spent nearly a month in the Soviet Union where he had been invited to attend the 220th anniversary celebrations marking the founding of the country 's Academy of Sciences . Later , in his essay Reflections on Russia , he mused about the differences between the Soviet " producer " economy and the West 's " consumer " ethos :

[ A ] n economy which emphasizes consumer 's goods is characterized by communication industries largely dependent on advertising and by constant efforts to reach the largest number of readers or listeners ; an economy emphasizing producer 's goods is characterized by communications industries largely dependent on government support . As a result of this contrast , a common public opinion in Russia and the West is hard to achieve .

Innis 's trip to Moscow and Leningrad came shortly before U.S. – Soviet rivalry led to the hostility of the Cold War . Innis lamented this rise in international tensions . He saw the Soviet Empire as a stabilizing counterbalance to the American Empire 's emphasis on commercialism , the individual and constant change . For Innis , Russia was a society within the Western tradition , not an alien civilization . He abhorred the nuclear arms race , seeing it as the triumph of force over knowledge , a modern form of the medieval Inquisition . " The Middle Ages burned its heretics " , he wrote , " and the modern age threatens them with atom bombs . "

In 1946 , Innis was elected president of the Royal Society of Canada , the country 's senior body of scientists and scholars . That same year , he served on the Manitoba Royal Commission on Adult Education and published Political Economy in the Modern State , a collection of his speeches and essays that reflected both his staples research and his new work in communications . In 1947 , Innis was appointed the University of Toronto 's dean of graduate studies . In 1948 , he delivered lectures at the University of London and Nottingham University . He also gave the prestigious Beit lectures at Oxford , later published in his book Empire and Communications . In 1949 , Innis was appointed as a commissioner on the federal government 's Royal Commission on Transportation , a position that involved extensive travel at a time when his health was starting to fail . The last decade of his career during which he worked on his communications studies was an unhappy time for Innis . He was academically isolated because his colleagues in economics could not fathom how this new work related to his pioneering research in staples theory . Biographer John Watson writes that " the almost complete lack of positive response to the communications works , contributed to his sense of overwork and depression " .

Innis died of prostate cancer in 1952 a few days after his 58th birthday . In commemoration , Innis College at the University of Toronto and Innis Library at McMaster University were named in his honour .

Following his premature death , Innis ' significance increasingly deepened as scholars in several academic disciplines continued to build upon his writings . Marshall Poe 's general media theory that proposes two sub @-@ theories were inspired by Innis . Douglas C. North expanded on of Innis ' " vent for surplus " theory of economic development by applying it to regional development in the United States and underdeveloped countries . In addition , James W. Carey adopted Innis as a " reference point in his conception of two models of communication " .

= = Innis and McLuhan = =

Marshall McLuhan was a colleague of Innis 's at the University of Toronto . As a young English professor , McLuhan was flattered when he learned that Innis had put his book The Mechanical Bride on the reading list of the fourth @-@ year economics course . McLuhan built on Innis 's idea that in studying the effects of communications media , technological form mattered more than content . Biographer Paul Heyer writes that Innis 's concept of the " bias " of a particular medium of communication can be seen as a " less flamboyant precursor to McLuhan 's legendary phrase ' the medium is the message . ' " Innis , for example , tried to show how printed media such as books or newspapers were " biased " toward control over space and secular power , while engraved media such as stone or clay tablets were " biased " in favour of continuity in time and metaphysical or religious knowledge . McLuhan focused on what may be called a medium 's " sensory bias " arguing , for example , that books and newspapers appealed to the rationality of the eye , while radio played to the irrationality of the ear . The differences in the Innisian and McLuhanesque approaches were summarized by the late James W. Carey :

Both McLuhan and Innis assume the centrality of communication technology ; where they differ is in the principal kinds of effects they see deriving from this technology . Whereas Innis sees communication technology principally affecting social organization and culture , McLuhan sees its principal effect on sensory organization and thought . McLuhan has much to say about perception and thought but little to say about institutions ; Innis says much about institutions and little about perception and thought .

Biographer John Watson notes that Innis 's work was profoundly political while McLuhan 's was not . He writes that " the mechanization of knowledge , not the relative sensual bias of media , is the key to Innis 's work . This also underlies the politicization of Innis 's position vis @-@ a @-@ vis that of McLuhan . " Watson adds that Innis believed very different media could produce similar effects . " For Innis , the yellow press of the United States and the Nazi loudspeaker had the same form of negative effect : they reduced men from thinking beings to mere automatons in a chain of command . " Watson argues that while McLuhan separated media according to their sensory bias , Innis examined a different set of interrelationships , the " dialectic of power and knowledge " in specific historical circumstances . For Watson , Innis 's work is therefore more flexible and less deterministic than McLuhan 's .

As scholars and teachers , Innis and McLuhan shared a similar dilemma since both argued that book culture tended to produce fixed points of view and homogeneity of thought ; yet both produced many books . In his introduction to the 1964 reprint of The Bias of Communication , McLuhan marvelled at Innis 's technique of juxtaposing " his insights in a mosaic structure of seemingly unrelated and disproportioned sentences and aphorisms " . McLuhan argued that although this made reading Innis 's dense prose difficult — " a pattern of insights that are not packaged for the consumer palate " — Innis 's method approximated " the natural form of conversation or dialogue rather than of written discourse " . Best of all , it yielded " insight " and " pattern recognition " rather than the " classified knowledge " so overvalued by print @-@ trained scholars . " How exciting it was to encounter a writer whose every phrase invited prolonged meditation and exploration " , McLuhan added . McLuhan 's own books with their reliance on aphorisms , puns , quips , " probes " and oddly juxtaposed observations also employ this mosaic technique .

Innis 's theories of political economy , media and society remain highly relevant : he had a profound influence on critical media theory and communications and , in conjunction with McLuhan , offered groundbreaking Canadian perspectives on the function of communication technologies as key agents in social and historical change . Together , their works advanced a theory of history in which communication is central to social change and transformation .

= Hurricane Lorenzo ( 2007 ) =

Hurricane Lorenzo was a rapidly developing tropical cyclone that struck the Mexican state of Veracruz in late September 2007 . The twelfth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico from a tropical wave . After meandering for two days without development , the storm began a steady westward track as its structure became better organized . In an 18 ‑ hour period , Lorenzo 's winds increased from 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , or from a tropical depression to a hurricane . On September 28 it struck near Tecolutla , Veracruz , a month after Hurricane Dean affected the same area , before it quickly dissipated over land .

The most significantly affected area was Veracruz , where damage reached over $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 USD ) . Most of it came from road damage in the state 's northern portion , although there were also hundreds of damaged houses . Between Veracruz and neighboring Hidalgo , there were 123 @,@ 320 people affected across 112 municipalities . Overall there were six deaths in the country , one in Veracruz and five in Puebla . In the latter state , a family of three perished in a landslide .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Hurricane Lorenzo were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on September 11 . After moving across the tropical Atlantic Ocean , it traversed much of the Caribbean Sea before developing an area of thunderstorms on September 21 . The system developed a low pressure area on September 23 after the northern portion of the wave broke off and crossed the Yucatán Peninsula . Initially , a Hurricane Hunters flight was scheduled to investigate the system , although the low became disorganized over the southeastern Gulf of Mexico due to high wind shear . However , the wind shear decreased , and late on September 25 , another Hurricane Hunters flight indicated the development of a closed low @-@ level circulation . Based on that observation , along with sufficient persistence of the thunderstorms , the system developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen about 190 mi ( 305 km ) east of Tampico , Tamaulipas .

Upon developing , the depression was located in an area of weak steering currents , resulting in an erratic movement generally to the south . In its formative stages , the depression executed a small loop . As it did so , it moved into an area of very warm waters and decreasing wind shear . The depression 's convection gradually organized , although the winds were slower to increase . An anticyclone became established over the system , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Lorenzo at around 1200 UTC on September 27 . At the time , it was located about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of Tuxpan , Veracruz , moving steadily westward under the influence of a building ridge to its east . As it approached the coast , Lorenzo rapidly intensified unexpectedly , and within 12 hours of attaining tropical storm status it strengthened into a hurricane .

Hurricane Lorenzo quickly developed a closed eyewall , which was observed on radar and provided a peak intensity estimate of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 28 . The cyclone maintained vigorous and symmetric convection across the center , although the structure deteriorated slightly before Lorenzo crossed the coast near Tecolutla , Veracruz at 0500 UTC that day , with winds estimated around 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . After making landfall , the hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical depression intensity . Progressing inland , the circulation became difficult to locate as the convection diminished to rainbands along the coast . Within 19 hours after moving ashore , the circulation of Lorenzo dissipated , therefore ending its duration as a tropical cyclone .

= = Preparations and impact = =

About 26 hours before landfall , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch from Palma Sola to La Cruz in Veracruz . About 14 hours before landfall , a tropical storm warning was put into place from Palma Sola to Cabo Rojo , which in turn was upgraded to a hurricane warning six hours later . Mexico 's Civilian Protection officials declared a " red alert " for much of the state of Veracruz . Along the coast of Veracruz , officials canceled school classes . Officials opened 315 shelters in Veracruz , along with six in neighboring Hidalgo , which housed 45 @,@ 164 people during the storm . The government of Veracruz provided buses for people to transport from their houses to the shelters . Ports in Tecolutla , Tuxpan and Nautla were forced to close . Lorenzo 's formation caused gas prices to rise due to its potential to disrupt oil facilities in the Gulf of Mexico .

Hurricane Lorenzo made landfall in Veracruz , the same region of east @-@ central Mexico as Hurricane Dean did one month prior . The hurricane primarily affected small fishing villages along the coast , where strong winds knocked down power lines , leaving about 85 @,@ 000 people without electricity . To prevent the danger of fallen wires , officials shut off the power grid in several municipalities in northern Veracruz . The winds also destroyed the roofs of several houses in Nautla . In addition to the high winds , Lorenzo dropped heavy rainfall along the coast and further inland , peaking at 12 @.@ 83 in ( 326 mm ) in El Raudal , Veracruz . The rains caused flash flooding and mudslides that killed at least four people , including a family of three in Puebla state . Landslides also closed portions of three highways . In some locations , floodwaters reached about 1 foot ( 300 mm ) in depth . The combination of winds and rains damaged 169 houses in Puebla , while in Hidalgo , the San Lorenzo River overflowed its banks and forced the evacuation of over 200 people . Overflown rivers in Veracruz forced about 25 @,@ 000 people to leave their houses . Along the Cazones River , more than 1 @,@ 000 houses were flooded , resulting in local police officials to assist in evacuations . Damage in Veracruz was estimated at $ 1 billion pesos ( $ 92 million 2007 USD ) , much of it from road damage in the northern portion of the state .

Overall , the hurricane affected 123 @,@ 320 people across Veracruz and Hidalgo , prompting the declaration of a state of emergency in 112 municipalities . The declaration allowed the usage of emergency resources for the affected people . There were a total of six deaths in the country , five of which in Puebla . By about three days after the storm , all schools were reopened . The Mexican government distributed food , water , and construction materials for the areas most affected in Veracruz . Following the storm , about 500 power workers were dispatched in Veracruz to restore electricity in the affected areas .

= Cadmium =

Cadmium is a chemical element with symbol Cd and atomic number 48 . This soft , bluish @-@ white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 , zinc and mercury . Like zinc , it demonstrates oxidation state + 2 in most of its compounds , and like mercury , it has a lower melting point than other transition metals . Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals , in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states . The average concentration of cadmium in Earth 's crust is between 0 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 5 parts per million ( ppm ) . It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously by Stromeyer and Hermann , both in Germany , as an impurity in zinc carbonate .

Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a byproduct of zinc production . Cadmium was used for a long time as a corrosion @-@ resistant plating on steel , and cadmium compounds are used as red , orange and yellow pigments , to colour glass , and to stabilize plastic . Cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is toxic ( it is specifically listed in the European Restriction of Hazardous Substances ) and nickel @-@ cadmium batteries have been replaced with nickel @-@ metal hydride and lithium @-@ ion batteries . One of its few new uses is cadmium telluride solar panels .

Although cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms , a cadmium @-@ dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms .

= = Characteristics = =

= = = Physical properties = = =

Cadmium is a soft , malleable , ductile , bluish @-@ white divalent metal . It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds . Unlike most other metals , cadmium is resistant to corrosion and is used as a protective plate on other metals . As a bulk metal , cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable ; however , in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes .

= = = Chemical properties = = =

Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of + 2 , it also exists in the + 1 state . Cadmium and its congeners are not always considered transition metals , in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states . Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide ( CdO ) ; the crystalline form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated , similar to zinc oxide . Hydrochloric acid , sulfuric acid , and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride ( CdCl2 ) , cadmium sulfate ( CdSO4 ) , or cadmium nitrate ( Cd ( NO3 ) 2 ) . The oxidation state + 1 can be produced by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride , forming the Cd22 + cation , which is similar to the Hg22 + cation in mercury ( I ) chloride .

Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2 ( AlCl4 ) 2

The structures of many cadmium complexes with nucleobases , amino acids , and vitamins have been determined .

= = = Isotopes = = =

Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 isotopes . Two of them are radioactive , and three are expected to decay but have not done so under laboratory conditions . The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd ( beta decay , half @-@ life is 7 @.@ 7 × 1015 years ) and 116Cd ( two @-@ neutrino double beta decay , half @-@ life is 2 @.@ 9 × 1019 years ) . The other three are 106Cd , 108Cd ( both double electron capture ) , and 114Cd ( double beta decay ) ; only lower limits on these half @-@ lives have been determined . At least three isotopes – 110Cd , 111Cd , and 112Cd – are stable . Among the isotopes that do not occur naturally , the most long @-@ lived are 109Cd with a half @-@ life of 462 @.@ 6 days , and 115Cd with a half @-@ life of 53 @.@ 46 hours . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives of less than 2 @.@ 5 hours , and the majority have half @-@ lives of less than 5 minutes . Cadmium has 8 known meta states , with the most stable being 113mCd ( t1 / 2

= 14 @.@ 1 years ) , 115mCd ( t1 / 2 =

44 @.@ 6 days ) , and 117mCd ( t1 / 2 = 3 @.@ 36 hours ) .

The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94 @.@ 950 u ( 95Cd ) to 131 @.@ 946 u ( 132Cd ) . For isotopes lighter than 112 u , the primary decay mode is electron capture and the dominant decay product is element 47 ( silver ) . Heavier isotopes decay mostly through beta emission producing element 49 ( indium ) .

One isotope of cadmium , 113Cd , absorbs neutrons with high selectivity : With very high probability , neutrons with energy below the cadmium cut @-@ off will be absorbed ; those higher than the cut @-@ off will be transmitted . The cadmium cut @-@ off is about 0 @.@ 5 eV , and neutrons below that level are deemed slow neutrons , distinct from intermediate and fast neutrons .

Cadmium is created via the long s @-@ process in low @-@ medium mass stars with masses of 0 @.@ 6 to 10 solar masses , taking thousands of years . In that process , a silver atom captures a neutron and then undergoes beta decay .

= = History = =

Cadmium ( Latin cadmia , Greek καδμεία meaning " calamine " , a cadmium @-@ bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος , Cadmus , the founder of Thebes ) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann , both in Germany , as an impurity in zinc carbonate . Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate ( calamine ) , and , for 100 years , Germany remained the only important producer of the metal . The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine , because it was found in this zinc compound . Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not . He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reducing the sulfide . The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s , but the lack of cadmium limited this application .

Even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and concentrations , the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medication to treat " enlarged joints , scrofulous glands , and chilblains " .

In 1907 , the International Astronomical Union defined the international ångström in terms of a red cadmium spectral line ( 1 wavelength = 6438 @.@ 46963 Å ) . This was adopted by the 7th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1927 . In 1960 , the definitions of both the metre and ångström were changed to use krypton .

After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s , the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion ; in 1944 , 62 % and in 1956 , 59 % of the cadmium in the United States was used for plating . In 1956 , 24 % of the cadmium in the United States was used for a second application in red , orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and selenides of cadmium .

The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laurate and cadmium stearate on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s . The demand for cadmium in pigments , coatings , stabilizers , and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s ; in 2006 , only 7 % of to total cadmium consumption was used for plating , and only 10 % was used for pigments . At the same time , these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel @-@ cadmium batteries , which accounted for 81 % of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006 .

= = Occurrence = =

Cadmium makes up about 0 @.@ 1 mg kg − 1 ( ppm ) of Earth 's crust . Typical background concentrations in other environmental media are : atmosphere < 5 ng m − 3 ; soil < 2 mg kg − 1 ; vegetation < 0 @.@ 5 mg kg − 1 ; freshwater < 1 ug L − 1 ; seawater < 50 ng L − 1 ; sediment < 2 mg kg − 1 . Compared with the more abundant 65 ppm zinc , cadmium is rare . No significant deposits of cadmium @-@ containing ores are known . Greenockite ( CdS ) , the only cadmium mineral of importance , is nearly always associated with sphalerite ( ZnS ) . This association is caused by geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium , with no geological process likely to separate them . Thus , cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining , smelting , and refining sulfidic ores of zinc , and , to a lesser degree , lead and copper . Small amounts of cadmium , about 10 % of consumption , are produced from secondary sources , mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap . Production in the United States began in 1907 , but not until after World War I did cadmium come into wide use .

Metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia .

Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium , resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg / kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils . Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium , which ends up mostly in flue dust .

= = Production = =

The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001 , China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one @-@ sixth of the world 's production , closely followed by South Korea and Japan .

Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores , and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc . Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1 @.@ 4 % of cadmium . In the 1970s , the output of cadmium was 6 @.@ 5 pounds per ton of zinc . Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen , converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide . Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid . Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted , or cadmium sulfate is precipitated from the electrolysis solution .

= = Applications = =

Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries , pigments , coatings , and electroplating .

= = = Batteries = = =

In 2009 , 86 % of cadmium was used in batteries , predominantly in rechargeable nickel @-@ cadmium batteries . Nickel @-@ cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1 @.@ 2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte ( potassium hydroxide ) . The European Union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0 @.@ 01 % , with some exceptions , and reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0 @.@ 002 % .

= = = Electroplating = = =

Cadmium electroplating , consuming 6 % of the global production , is used in the aircraft industry reduce corrosion of steel components . This coating is passivated by chromate salts . A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high @-@ strength steels from the electroplating process . Therefore , steel parts heat @-@ treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa ( 200 ksi ) should be coated by an alternative method ( such as special low @-@ embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition ) .

Titanium embrittlement from cadmium @-@ plated tool residues resulted in banishment of those tools ( and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium contamination ) in the A @-@ 12 / SR @-@ 71 , U @-@ 2 , and subsequent aircraft programs that use titanium .

= = = Nuclear fission = = =

Cadmium is used in the control rods of nuclear reactors , acting as a very effective " neutron poison " to control neutron flux in nuclear fission . When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor , cadmium absorbs neutrons preventing them from creating additional fission events , thus controlling the amount of reactivity . The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company uses an alloy consisting of 80 % silver , 15 % indium , and 5 % cadmium .

= = = Compounds = = =

Cadmium oxide was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors of color television cathode ray tubes . Cadmium sulfide ( CdS ) is used as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums .

Various cadmium salts are used in paint pigments , with CdS as a yellow pigment being the most common . Cadmium selenide is a red pigment , commonly called cadmium red . To painters who work with the pigment , cadmium provides the most brilliant and durable yellows , oranges , and reds — so much so that during production , these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders or blended into watercolors , gouaches , acrylics , and other paint and pigment formulations . Because these pigments are potentially toxic , users should use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be less than 1 % .

In PVC , cadmium was used as heat , light , and weathering stabilizers . Currently , cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium @-@ zinc , calcium @-@ zinc and organo @-@ tin stabilizers . Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys , because a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance . It is also found in some of the lowest @-@ melting alloys , such as Wood 's metal .

= = = Laboratory uses = = =

Helium – cadmium lasers are a common source of blue @-@ ultraviolet laser light . They operate at either 325 or 422 nm in fluorescence microscopes and various laboratory experiments . Cadmium selenide quantum dots emit bright luminescence under UV excitation ( He @-@ Cd laser , for example ) . The color of this luminescence can be green , yellow or red depending on the particle size . Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a fluorescence microscope .

Cadmium is a component of some compound semiconductors , such as cadmium sulfide , cadmium selenide , and cadmium telluride , used for light detection and solar cells . HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared light and can be used as an infrared detector , motion detector , or switch in remote control devices .

In molecular biology , cadmium is used to block voltage @-@ dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions , as well as in hypoxia research to stimulate proteasome @-@ dependent degradation of Hif @-@ 1α .

= = = Cadmium @-@ selective sensors = = =

Cadmium @-@ selective sensors based on the fluorophore BODIPY have been developed for imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells .

= = Biological role = =

Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms , but a cadmium @-@ dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marine diatoms . The diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations and cadmium performs the function normally carried out by zinc in other anhydrases . This was discovered with X @-@ ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy ( XAFS ) .

The highest concentration of cadmium is absorbed in the kidneys of humans , and up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence .

Cadmium can be used to block calcium channels in chicken neurons . Analytical methods for the determination of cadmium in biological samples have been reviewed .

= = Environment = =

The biogeochemistry of cadmium and its release to the environment has been the subject of review , as has the speciation of cadmium in the environment .

Environmental concentrations can exceed adverse @-@ effect @-@ thresholds in cadmium @-@ polluted ecosystems ( e.g. in some parts of Europe ) and pollutant cadmium can accumulate in invertebrates , earthworms , seabirds , marine mammals , plants , and some algal species ; effects in animals include kidney disorders , impairment of enzymes , disruption of calcium metabolism , and changes in cell membrane permeability ; excess Cd uptake in plants can affect growth and metabolic processes such as photosynthesis and transpiration .

= = Safety = =

The bioinorganic aspects of cadmium toxicity have been reviewed .

The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes , or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds . Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in metal fume fever but may progress to chemical pneumonitis , pulmonary edema , and death .

Cadmium is also an environmental hazard . Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion , phosphate fertilizers , natural sources , iron and steel production , cement production and related activities , nonferrous metals production , and municipal solid waste incineration . Bread , root crops , and vegetables also contribute to the cadmium in modern populations .

There have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long @-@ term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water , and research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing . In the decades leading up to World War II , mining operations contaminated the Jinzū River in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals . As a consequence , cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines . Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developed itai @-@ itai disease and renal abnormalities , including proteinuria and glucosuria .

The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post @-@ menopausal women with low iron and other mineral body stores . Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels . Thus , although cadmium is a major factor in the itai @-@ itai disease in Japan , most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors . Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European Union 's Restriction on Hazardous Substances ( RoHS ) directive , which regulates hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law . The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans . Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer , there is still a substantial controversy about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in low environmental exposure . Recent data from epidemiological studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet associates to higher risk of endometrial , breast and prostate cancer as well as to osteoporosis in humans . A recent study has demonstrated that endometrial tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females .

Cadmium exposure is a risk factor associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease , early atherosclerosis , hypertension , and cardiovascular diseases . Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations , a necessary molecular mechanism has not been identified . One hypothesis holds that cadmium is an endocrine disruptor and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with different hormonal signaling pathways . For example , cadmium can bind to the estrogen receptor alpha , and affect signal transduction along the estrogen and MAPK signaling pathways at low doses .

Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population . An estimated 10 % of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking . Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut , and as much as 50 % of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed . On average , cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4 times 5 times greater and in the kidney , 2 – 3 times greater than non @-@ smokers . Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke , there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive smoking .

In a non @-@ smoking population , food is the greatest source of exposure . High quantities of cadmium can be found in crustaceans , mollusks , offal , and algae products . However , grains , vegetables , and starchy roots and tubers are consumed in much greater quantity in the US , and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure . Most plants bio @-@ accumulate metal toxins like Cd , and when composted to form organic fertilizers yield a product which can often contain high amounts ( e.g. , over 0 @.@ 5 mg ) of metal toxins for every kilo of fertilizer . Fertilizers made from animal dung ( e.g. , cow dung ) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of Cd . The Cd added to the soil from fertilizers ( rock phosphates or organic fertilizers ) become bio @-@ available and toxic only if the soil pH is low ( i.e. , acidic soils ) . Zinc is chemically similar to cadmium and some evidence indicates the presence of Zn ions reduces cadmium toxicity .

Zinc , Cu , Ca , and Fe ions , and selenium with vitamin C are used to treat Cd intoxication , though it is not easily reversed .

= = = Regulations = = =

Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health , the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the REACH Regulation .

The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain specifies that 2 @.@ 5 μg / kg body weight is a tolerable weekly intake for humans . The Joint FAO / WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has declared 7 μg / kg bw to be the provisional tolerable weekly intake level .

The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the permissible exposure limit ( PEL ) for cadmium at a time @-@ weighted average ( TWA ) of 0 @.@ 005 ppm . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has not set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) and has designated cadmium as a known human carcinogen . The IDLH ( immediately dangerous to life and health ) level for cadmium is 9 mg / m3 .

= = = Product recalls = = =

In May 2006 , a sale of the seats from Arsenal F.C. ' s old stadium , Highbury in London , England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium . Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children 's jewelry in 2010 led to a US Consumer Product Safety Commission investigation . The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold by Claire 's and Wal @-@ Mart stores .

In June 2010 , McDonald 's voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional " Shrek Forever After 3D " Collectable Drinking Glasses because of the cadmium levels in paint pigments on the glassware . The glasses were manufactured by Arc International , of Millville , NJ , USA .

= First Battle of Maryang San =

The First Battle of Maryang San ( 3 – 8 October 1951 ) , also known as the Defensive Battle of Maliangshan ( Chinese : 马良山防御战 ; pinyin : Mǎliáng Shān Fángyù Zhàn ) , was fought during the Korean War between United Nations ( UN ) forces — primarily Australian and British — and the Chinese communist People 's Volunteer Army . The fighting occurred during a limited UN offensive by US I Corps , codenamed Operation Commando . This offensive ultimately pushed the Chinese back from the Imjin River to the Jamestown Line and destroyed elements of four Chinese armies following heavy fighting . The much smaller battle at Maryang San took place over a five @-@ day period , and saw the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) dislodge a numerically superior Chinese force from the tactically important Kowang @-@ San ( Hill 355 ) and Maryang San ( Hill 317 ) features , in conjunction with other units of the 1st Commonwealth Division .

Using tactics first developed against the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War , the Australians gained the advantage of the high ground and assaulted the Chinese positions from unexpected directions . They then repelled repeated Chinese counterattacks aimed at re @-@ capturing Maryang San , with both sides suffering heavy casualties before the Australians were finally relieved by a British battalion . However , with the peace @-@ talks ongoing , these operations proved to be last actions in the war of manoeuvre , which had lasted the previous sixteen months . It was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915 – 17 . A month later , the Chinese subsequently re @-@ captured Maryang San from the British during fierce fighting , and it was never re @-@ gained . Today , the battle is widely regarded as one of the Australian Army 's greatest accomplishments during the war .

= = Background = =

= = = Military situation = = =

Following General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 's dismissal as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of UN forces in Korea , he was replaced by General Matthew B. Ridgway . Consequently , on 14 April 1951 , General James Van Fleet replaced Ridgway as commander of the US Eighth Army and the United Nations forces in Korea . The Chinese Spring Offensive during April and May 1951 ended in its defeat , while following two months of sporadic operations in mid @-@ June and August , the war entered a new phase , with Van Fleet returning to the offensive . In July the Kansas and Wyoming Lines were strengthened , while a limited offensive in the east @-@ central sector in mid @-@ August seized the high ground around the Punchbowl and Bloody Ridge during the Battle of Bloody Ridge . In September the offensive in this sector continued , targeting the next hill complex north of Bloody Ridge , known as Heartbreak Ridge .

Meanwhile , the organisation of British Commonwealth ground forces fighting in Korea as part of the United Nations Command had undergone considerable change in the months following the battles of the Imjin River and Kapyong in late @-@ April 1951 . 3 RAR had been transferred from 27th British Infantry Brigade to the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade when that formation departed for Hong Kong . Meanwhile , after protracted negotiations between the governments of Australia , Britain , Canada , India , New Zealand and South Africa , agreement had been reached to establish an integrated formation with the aim of increasing the political significance of their contribution , as well as facilitating the solution of the logistic and operational problems faced by the various Commonwealth contingents .

The 1st Commonwealth Division was formed on 28 July 1951 , with the division including the 25th Canadian , 28th British Commonwealth and 29th British infantry brigades under the command of Major General James Cassels , and was part of US I Corps . Since its formation , the division had occupied part of the west @-@ central sector of the UN line , approximately 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) north of the capital Seoul . The 28th Brigade included three infantry battalions — the 1st Battalion , King 's Own Scottish Borderers ( 1 KOSB ) , 1st Battalion , King 's Shropshire Light Infantry ( 1 KSLI ) and the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment — under the command of Brigadier George Taylor . During this period 3 RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Francis Hassett . Peace @-@ talks at Kaesong during July and September led to a lull in the fighting and 3 RAR undertook mainly defensive duties , helping to construct the defences of the Kansas Line south of the Imjin River , as well as conducting extensive patrolling on the northern side . The battalion also used the reduced operational tempo as an opportunity to train reinforcements . The period culminated in a limited , and largely unopposed , divisional advance 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) north of the Imjin to the Wyoming Line , codenamed Operation Minden , in September .

= = Prelude = =

= = = Opposing forces = = =

In late @-@ September and early @-@ October — even while continuing the attack against Heartbreak Ridge — Van Fleet developed a plan for a limited offensive in the western section , known as Operation Commando , to advance 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the 38th parallel , with the aim of pushing Chinese forces back and giving United Nations forces more leverage at the truce negotiations now occurring at Panmunjom . Operation Commando was scheduled for 3 – 5 October 1951 and the US I Corps commander , Lieutenant General John W. O 'Daniel , envisioned a concept of operations in which three of the corps ' four divisions would advance on a broad front in conjunction with US 25th Infantry Division on the left flank of the neighbouring US IX Corps , seizing a new defensive line known as the Jamestown Line . The divisions to be used in the advance included the 1st Commonwealth Division , US 1st Cavalry Division and the 9th South Korean Division . The 1st South Korean Division would remain in its existing position on the left flank .

In the sector occupied by 1st Commonwealth Division , Chinese communist forces were dug into a group of hills overlooking the Imjin River . The division faced 6 @,@ 000 troops from the Chinese 191st Division , 64th Army under the overall command of Xie Zhengrong . The Chinese forces were divided into three regiments of about 2 @,@ 000 men each , with two regiments dug @-@ in in well prepared defensive positions with overhead protection , and a third regiment in support . The 28th Brigade faced one of the two forward regiments — the 571st Regiment — which was deployed with one battalion on Hill 355 , a second battalion astride Hill 217 and Hill 317 , and a third battalion in reserve to the west .

The task allocated to the British Commonwealth force was to take these positions with the intention of advancing the line from the southern bank of the Imjin to a line of hills to the north , in total an objective that stretched more than 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . The primary objectives of the advance would be the capture of Kowang @-@ San ( Hill 355 ) and Maryang San ( Hill 317 ) and the task of taking these positions was allocated to the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade , with this formation bearing the brunt of the fighting . Cassels planned on capturing the Jamestown Line in three phases . In the first phase , scheduled for 3 October , the 28th Brigade would take Hill 355 in the east @-@ central sector . During the second phase , on 4 October , the 25th Brigade would assault the two Hill 187 features and the south @-@ western ridge running to the Samichon River . Lastly during the third phase , scheduled for 5 October , the 28th Brigade would capture Hills 217 and 317 . As such , the bulk of the division 's strength would be concentrated on the right flank , to be held by the 28th Brigade ; meanwhile , the 25th Brigade would hold the left flank and the 29th Brigade would be held in reserve while providing a battalion to each of the other brigades as reinforcements .

Kowang @-@ San would be assaulted during the first phase by 1 KOSB with 1 KSLI and 3 RAR in support , while Maryang San would be taken in the third phase of the operation by 3 RAR and the 1st Battalion , Royal Northumberland Fusiliers ( 1 RNF ) , who were under commander from 29th Brigade for the duration of Operation Commando . Careful reconnaissance and planning took place in the week prior to the commencement of the operation and Taylor emphasised the use of indirect fires , air support and infiltration tactics to limit casualties , as well as the exploitation of weak points in the Chinese defences . In direct support of the brigade was 16th Field Regiment , Royal New Zealand Artillery with its 3 @.@ 45 @-@ inch ( 88 mm ) 25 @-@ pounder field guns , in addition to divisional and corps assets which included 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) mortars , 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) howitzers and 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) heavy artillery ; in total more than 120 guns and mortars . Also in support were two British Centurion tank squadrons from the 8th Royal Irish Hussars .

= = = Preliminary operations = = =

Given the primary task of capturing Hill 317 , Hassett studied the approaches from the air and the ground . Two previous attempts to take Maryang San by American troops had been unsuccessful . Regardless , utilising tactics first developed against the Japanese in New Guinea during the Second World War of running along the tops of ridges , he intended to gain the advantage of the high ground , while utilising the cover afforded by the vegetation and the ease of movement along the crest @-@ lines , in order to assault the Chinese positions from unexpected directions . Meanwhile , the Chinese defenders on Maryang San were also testing a newly developed tactic called the " mobile positional defense " , in which only small units were stationed on the hills in order to exhaust the UN attackers , while the bulk of the Chinese defenders would later counterattack before the UN forces could consolidate into their newly gained positions .

However , during the first phase of the operation the Australians would be tasked with capturing a Chinese outpost on Hill 199 to allow tanks and medium machine @-@ guns to provide direct fires onto the northern and eastern slopes of Hill 355 in support of an attack by the Borderers from the south @-@ east . Likewise , the Shropshires would assault and capture Hill 208 . Finally then , two days before the start of Operation Commando , the 28th Brigade crossed the Imjin river to assemble behind the 25th Brigade on 1 October . The following day the 3 RAR , less D Company , and the Borderers moved forward carefully into their assembly areas , ready to advance the following morning . C Company advanced to a position 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) in front of the Canadian positions , north @-@ east of Hill 355 . B Company was 200 metres ( 220 yd ) to the rear . In the afternoon C Company was subjected to heavy shelling , losing one soldier wounded . D Company — under the command of Major Basil Hardiman — was detached to 25th Brigade to strengthen its extended front , and it would not be available until the afternoon of 3 October .

= = Battle = =

= = = Capture of Hill 199 , 3 October 1951 = = =

At 03 : 00 on 3 October , B Company 3 RAR moved north 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) toward Hill 199 , crossing the open valley under the cover of darkness and heavy mist . A Company then moved up behind C Company . Artillery and mortar fire targeted known Chinese artillery positions with counter @-@ battery fire prior to dawn , before switching to support the Borderers in their assault on Hill 355 . Simultaneously , the Shropshires were assaulting Hill 208 and with the support of A Squadron , 8th Royal Irish Hussars they reached the positions without opposition by 06 : 00 . By 08 : 00 B Company had gained the high ground to the north and then proceeded to patrol the short distance to west to the objective which was then taken with three wounded ; five Chinese were killed and one captured . By mid @-@ morning , both the Shropshires and the Australians had successfully captured their objectives .

Expecting a counter @-@ attack , the Australians on Hill 199 began digging @-@ in , however no such attack occurred . D Company subsequently returned and was allocated a position between C Company and the Borderers . C and B Companies both received shelling during the day , wounding two men . At 10 : 00 A Company — under Captain Jim Shelton — took over the defence of Hill 199 , and B Company went into reserve behind A Company . According to plan a troop of Centurion tanks and a section of medium machine @-@ guns were then moved up onto Hill 199 and began directing their fire onto the northern slopes of Hill 355 in support of the Borderers . Meanwhile , at 07 : 15 , following preparation by artillery and mortar fire , the lead British assault companies had begun to advance on Hill 355 . However , with the Chinese expecting an assault from that direction , the initial British moves met strong resistance and the Borderers were forced to withdraw and reorganise . At 14 : 15 a second assault reached the objectives on the lower slopes , and these gains were consolidated by nightfall .

The attack was now behind schedule . Indeed , the Borderers were still more than 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) short of their final objective , and with stubborn resistance being encountered during the initial phase , Hill 355 would now not be secured until the afternoon of 4 October . The assault was being slowed by two positions on the northeast slopes of Hill 355 — known as Hill 220 — from which the Chinese held the British right flank in enfilade . C Company 3 RAR would be detached to assist the attack on Kowang @-@ San the next morning , with the Australians tasked with outflanking the Chinese defences and capturing this position . Heavy Chinese artillery fire had also slowed progress with more than 2 @,@ 500 rounds falling in the 28th Brigade area in the previous twenty @-@ four hours , although this total was dwarfed many times over by the weight of allied artillery fired across the brigade front , which included 22 @,@ 324 rounds . On the division 's left flank , the delay also meant that the Canadian attack scheduled for 06 : 00 the next day in the 25th Brigade sector would have to be postponed until 11 : 00 , due to the continuing requirement to use the divisional artillery in support of 28th Brigade .

= = = Capture of Hill 220 and the fall of Kowang @-@ San , 4 October 1951 = = =

On 4 October , C Company 3 RAR — under the command of Major Jack Gerke — attacked the long spur running east from the peak of Hill 355 , known as Hill 220 . Launching their assault at 09 : 00 , the Australians quickly killed or drove off the defenders before pressing on up the spur and routing the remainder of a Chinese company . Reaching their objectives by 10 : 00 , the Australians then took advantage of the initiative gained so far , pushing a platoon towards the summit of Hill 355 . Amid heavy fighting , the Australians cleared the eastern slopes of Kowang @-@ San by 12 : 00 , despite having received no orders to do so . Thirteen Chinese were killed and three captured in the fighting , while Australian casualties included 11 wounded , one of whom subsequently died . Gerke was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his leadership . C Company withdrew to the rear of the 3 RAR position and were replaced by D Company , who occupied the position held by A Company 500 metres ( 550 yd ) north of Hill 199 . Meanwhile , led by a bagpiper , the Borderers made a simultaneous assault up the western face of Kowang @-@ San , and fearing they may be caught between two attacks the Chinese defenders abandoned Hill 355 , withdrawing northwest under heavy indirect fire .

Given the strong resistance exhibited by the Chinese , the Canadians expected a tough fight as 25th Brigade prepared to assault its objectives as part of the second phase of the divisional plan . Yet with the loss of Hill 355 and 210 the Chinese unexpectedly withdrew from their well @-@ prepared defensive positions , with Hill 159 and 175 captured without opposition . Only the 2nd Battalion , Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry encountered any opposition before they captured the two Hill 187 features , losing one killed and six wounded during stiff fighting in which 28 Chinese were also killed . Indeed , the ease with which the Canadians had captured their initial objectives allowed them to press on , attaining their final objectives on the Jamestown Line by nightfall . No further resistance was encountered , although heavy Chinese artillery fire caused a number of casualties , including three killed . The Canadians subsequently occupied the positions they were destined to hold for the next twenty @-@ two months of fighting .

Meanwhile , on the 28th Brigade 's left flank the Shropshires met slight resistance , securing Hill 210 southwest of Kowang @-@ San by 10 : 10 . They were then relieved by the Canadians by nightfall in preparation for the third phase of the operation . The brigade plan was now a day behind schedule , although with the unexpected ease experienced by the Canadians , overall , the divisional attack was still running according to plan . However , determined to hold on following the loss of Hill 355 , the Chinese moved in fresh troops , heavily reinforcing a number of positions , including Maryang San .

= = = Fall of Maryang San , 5 October 1951 = = =

The final objective was Maryang San , a steep hill rising 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above the valley about 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 yd ) north of Hill 355 . However , following the delay in capturing Hill 355 , Hassett would not be ready to implement his plan until early the next day . As such the third phase would begin on 5 October , with the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers scheduled to attack an intermediate objective — Hill 217 , adjacent Kowang @-@ San — before assisting the Australians assault Hill 317 . The Australians moved into position northeast of Hill 199 on the afternoon of 4 October , while over the night of 4 / 5 October the divisional artillery hit Chinese positions , with two batteries of 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) howitzers and another two 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) batteries supplementing them . Air strikes by the Mustangs of No. 2 Squadron , South African Air Force were also planned , targeting Chinese concentrations north and west of the objectives to cut @-@ off supplies and reinforcements . Both the Australians and Fusiliers were scheduled to begin their attacks at first light — at 05 : 45 — following a heavy artillery preparation .

In the dark the Fusiliers moved off , but amid dense fog they found it difficult to maintain their bearings and were not in position in time to commence the attack as planned . By 10 : 00 they had struggled to within 300 metres ( 330 yd ) from their objective , and following further delays the assault was commenced at 11 : 00 . After initially achieving surprise a number of the forward Chinese outposts fell to the Fusiliers . Occupying strong defensive positions on Hill 217 , the Chinese regained the initiative however , and poured heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire onto the attackers as they crossed the valley , forcing them to withdraw after suffering heavy casualties and running low on ammunition . Having expected the main axis of assault from the south , the Chinese positions were stronger than previously considered and the Fusiliers were unable to gain the summit , despite one company gaining a toehold on the summit by midday .

Earlier that morning , at 04 : 45 , B and D Companies 3 RAR had moved north across the valley , while Anti @-@ Tank Platoon crossed the Imjin , taking up positions further north in order to protect the right flank . The assaulting companies would then move west towards a series of objectives before assaulting Hill 317 . Initially 3 RAR was to attack from the east , while 1 RNF would attack from the southwest through Hill 217 , however with the Fusiliers facing stiff resistance on Hill 217 itself they were unable to get forward to assist . The previous attempts to capture Maryang San had failed due to the approach to steep eastern slopes of the feature being across a wide , open valley that was dominated by enfilade fire from mutually supporting Chinese positions . Consequently , the Australians planned to cross the valley under cover of darkness and position themselves on the Chinese flank in the foothills , before scaling the position at first light . A Company would create a diversion on the left flank , while B Company would clear the lower slopes before D Company passed through to assault the Chinese main defensive position , known as the ' Victor ' feature , in a one @-@ up , one @-@ in @-@ depth assault . However , following the casualties of previous nights on Hill 199 , 220 and 355 , and the effect of constant shelling , 3 RAR was now reduced to just 320 men . In contrast , the Australians faced two fresh Chinese battalions on Maryang San , in total about 1 @,@ 200 men .

B Company — commanded by Captain Henry Nicholls — led off shrouded in the heavy mist , and with visibility limited in the thick vegetation , it drifted to the right off the intended axis of advance having lost direction , suffering a similar fate as the Fusiliers . Disorientated , the assaulting companies became separated and the battalion attack turned into a series of independent company attacks . D Company slowly continued forward however , and when the mist lifted suddenly at 11 : 20 they were left dangerously exposed still only halfway up the slope to their objective . The Australian approach had surprised the Chinese however , who were apparently expecting the assault from the north , and D Company succeeded in closing to within grenade range of the Chinese on Victor . During a fierce twenty @-@ minute fire @-@ fight the Australians cleared their first objective with the assistance of direct fire from supporting tanks , and indirect fire support from artillery , losing three killed and 12 wounded . Included among the Australian wounded was the company commander and one of the platoon commanders , both of whom remained in command despite gunshot wounds . Chinese losses included 30 killed and 10 captured .

During the initial phase A Company had attacked southwest along a spur leading to Hill 317 and had met stiff opposition . The diversion was largely successful however , causing the Chinese to reinforce against the attack , which they believed to be the main effort . Meanwhile , D Company continued to press their attack along the high ground towards the ' Uniform ' feature , assaulting the deeply entrenched Chinese positions , which included heavy automatic weapons . By 16 : 00 it had successfully captured the last of the intermediate objectives assigned to it and a platoon from B Company was pushed forward to assist in the clearance of the feature . Later , Lieutenant L.G. Clark was awarded the Military Cross while Sergeant W.J. Rowlinson was awarded a bar to his Distinguished Conduct Medal for their actions during the fighting . By this time total Chinese casualties included 98 killed and 40 captured , while the Australians believed that a large number of Chinese had also been wounded . Following the progress of B and D Companies , C Company was moved up behind them and with the capture of final objective they immediately commenced an assault on Hill 317 , capturing 10 prisoners for no loss . Although the Chinese had been well dug @-@ in , there were no barbed wire obstacles to hamper the attackers and the Australians had rapidly gained the position . By 17 : 00 , Maryang San had fallen to the Australians , with the Chinese withdrawing under heavy artillery , mortar and machine @-@ gun fire .

On Hill 217 the Fusiliers had maintained the pressure on the Chinese throughout the day , however they were still unable to capture the feature . Regardless , the efforts of the Fusiliers in conjunction with A Company 's diversionary attack and the rapid advance of D Company with tank and artillery support had carried the day . A Company continued to attack against heavy opposition and indirect fire , slowly pushing the Chinese defenders back . Later , a platoon was detached to assist C Company consolidate the defence of Maryang San following its capture , while the remaining two platoons were withdrawn rearwards , again under heavy artillery fire . Indeed , although it had played a supporting role in the attack , the efforts of A Company had been vital , suffering 20 casualties while killing at least 25 Chinese and capturing two . Now with Maryang San captured the Australians began digging @-@ in , modifying the south @-@ facing linear Chinese trench system into an all @-@ round defensive position with mutually supporting weapons pits . Fully expecting a Chinese counter @-@ attack that evening , Hasset moved the Assault Pioneer Platoon to bolster the hasty defences . Meanwhile , the Chinese still occupied three key ridgeline positions — the ' Sierra ' feature , the ' Hinge ' and the summit of Hill 317 itself — which they continued to furiously defend . These would be the scene of considerable fighting in the days to come as the Australians attempted to clear them .

= = = The Hinge , 6 – 8 October 1951 = = =

With both sides exhausted from the fighting the night of 5 / 6 October was less eventful than expected , and the Australians used the opportunity to develop their position . To add further depth to their defences and to probe the Chinese positions , Taylor ordered the Australians to capture the central remaining Chinese position , the Sierra feature — a wooded knoll halfway between the summit of Maryang San and the Hinge — the next day . Meanwhile , the Fusiliers would renew their attack on Hill 217 . The southern approach to Hill 217 had proved to be too strongly defended by the Chinese and it became obvious that if it was to be overcome Taylor would need to split the fire of its defenders . To do this the high ground to the north @-@ west of Maryang San , known as the Hinge , would be vital . Indeed , adjacent to Hill 217 , the Hinge dominated it from the north . As such for the next assault , planned for the morning , the Fusiliers would detach their reserve company to attack the Hinge from the east , using the Australian positions on Maryang San as a firm base and thereby allowing them to outflank their opponents on Hill 217 .

At 07 : 00 on 6 October , 9 Platoon C Company — under the command of Lieutenant Arthur Pembroke — moved forward to Sierra , using the heavy mist to conceal their movements . Under @-@ strength and not expecting the feature to be occupied , instead the Australians found a large number of Chinese in well prepared defensive positions . Without fire support and outnumbered , the Australians immediately conducted a quick attack and , using grenades and bayonets , they inflicted heavy casualties on the Chinese before forcing the survivors to withdraw . Although subjected to constant shelling , 9 Platoon continued to hold the knoll , repelling several counterattacks over the next 13 hours , cutting down each assault through the tree @-@ line and long grass with accurate rifle and machine @-@ gun fire , forcing the Chinese to withdraw leaving their dead and wounded behind . One Australian was killed in the initial assault on Sierra , while a number were later wounded during the defence . Chinese casualties included 19 killed , 30 wounded and seven captured . Pembroke was later awarded the Military Cross .

During the day the Fusiliers again assaulted Hill 217 from the south , and attempted to work their way around the eastern and western flanks of the feature . Despite preparation by the divisional artillery and the 3 RAR Machine Gun Platoon firing their Vickers medium machine @-@ guns in support from Maryang San , the Fusiliers were unable to make progress due to Chinese machine @-@ guns located in bunkers at the top of their objective . Meanwhile , their flanking movements were also blocked by Chinese small arms and grenades . 1 RNF had now taken over 100 casualties during two days of fighting and by the afternoon they were a spent force . Sensing the Fusiliers ' weakness , the Chinese then launched their own assault , forcing them to withdraw in contact . Previous plans for an assault on the Hinge had not occurred due to issues with resupply and the dangerous approach march that would have been required . Again , despite their efforts , the Fusiliers had failed to capture their objective . It seemed that the only way to finally secure Hill 217 was along the ridge from Hill 317 , via the Hinge , and as such the Australians would be tasked with capturing the Hinge the following day . B Company was subsequently allocated the attack . In preparation , they ascended Hill 317 late in the afternoon of 6 October , finally securing the crest , and at last light joined 9 Platoon on the knoll northwest of the summit where they would form up the next day to conduct the assault .

In the early hours of 7 October the allied artillery and mortar bombardment began , targeting Chinese positions on the Hinge . Hassett moved the 3 RAR tactical headquarters on to Hill 317 just before the assaulting troops stepped off the line of departure , allowing him to direct the battle from a forward position and to co @-@ ordinate fire support . Waiting for the fog to lift so that the artillery could fire until the last safe moment , the attack finally began at 08 : 00 . B Company moved off down the ridgeline , with two @-@ up and one @-@ in @-@ depth , using the trees and long grass for concealment . Initially it seemed that the Chinese had withdrawn during the night , when suddenly the lead Australian platoons were engulfed by small arms fire from their rear . A series of intense fire @-@ fights ensued as the Australians fought back and by 09 : 20 the Hinge finally fell , with the Australians losing two killed and 20 wounded . Chinese casualties included more than 20 killed . As a result of the fighting Captain Henry Nicholls and Lieutenant Jim Hughes were awarded the Military Cross , while Corporal J. Park and Corporal E.F. Bosworth were awarded the Military Medal . Yet even as the surviving Chinese withdrew , artillery and mortar fire began to fall on the Hinge . B Company moved quickly to consolidate the position , but were hampered by the shelling , while they now faced a pressing shortage of ammunition and difficulties evacuating their casualties .

For the remainder of the day B Company was subjected to intense indirect fire on the Hinge , as was C Company on Hill 317 . The Anti @-@ Tank Platoon and Assault Pioneer Platoon reinforced C Company , with a platoon of C Company moved forward to the Hinge to support B Company . At 20 : 00 both the Hinge and Hill 317 were again heavily shelled for 45 minutes , heralding the beginning of the inevitable Chinese counterattack . Heavy mist concealed the Chinese advance , and this assisted many to penetrate the Australian perimeter . Throughout the night of 7 / 8 October the Hinge was attacked on three occasions from both the front and the flanks by a force of battalion strength , however the Australians beat back the Chinese in desperate hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . The Chinese swept forward , but were stopped by intense small arms and artillery fire . During one such assault Sergeant P.J. O 'Connell , on seeing one of his platoon 's Bren gunners wounded , manned the light machine @-@ gun himself , breaking up a Chinese assault , while controlling the fire of the men around him . Meanwhile , Sergeant R.W. Strong arranged the resupply of ammunition to the forward Australian sections . Both were awarded the Military Medal .

The intensity of the fighting had led to a severe shortage of ammunition among the defenders , and attempts to resupply the Australians were plagued by heavy shelling . The use of salvaged ammunition stabilised the situation momentarily after one of B Company 's two Vickers medium machine @-@ guns was destroyed by Chinese shelling , and its ammunition belts were subsequently broken up and dispersed among the riflemen . However , this soon resulted in a large number of mechanical failures and weapon stoppages , causing additional problems for the defenders . The evacuation of casualties was again an issue , and the Assault Pioneer Platoon — commanded by Lieutenant Jock McCormick — was used as stretcher bearers and to run ammunition forward , as were a number of the other specialist platoons . Their ammunition nearly exhausted , the Australians resorted to kicking and strangling many of the attacking Chinese during the brutal fighting . Fearing the Australians would be overwhelmed by the persistent Chinese attacks , Taylor ordered the Borderers and Shropshires to detach their Korean porters to resupply the Australians , while a full divisional concentration of artillery was fired in support of 3 RAR .

Ultimately , B Company succeeded in holding their hastily constructed defensive positions throughout the night and until 05 : 00 on 8 October when the Chinese finally gave up . In order to preserve its remaining strength , the Chinese 191st Division was forced to pull back by 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , surrendering the control of Hill 217 without a fight . At first light more than 120 Chinese dead and wounded lay around the Australian defences and in contrast to the savage fighting during the night , Chinese stretcher parties were allowed to come forward and collect their wounded under a flag of truce . The Australians had been victorious but were now exhausted after five days of heavy fighting .

= = Aftermath = =

= = = Casualties = = =

Four hours later , at 09 : 00 , 3 RAR was relieved on Maryang San and the Hinge by the Borderers , having lost 20 killed and 104 wounded . Chinese casualties on Hill 317 had been severe , with at least 283 killed ( determined by body count ) and another 50 captured , while hundreds more were thought likely to have been killed and wounded . Later it was estimated that the Australians had destroyed at least two Chinese battalions during the five @-@ day battle . 1 RNF once more advanced against Hill 217 , this time without opposition , sending patrols to confirm that the Chinese had withdrawn . They were met by patrols from 1 KOSB on the Hinge , with the Borderers taking control of the area at 11 : 00 . Hill 217 was latter occupied on 9 October by the Borderers . The 3 RAR Assault Pioneer Platoon , the Anti @-@ Tank Platoon and a platoon from C Company remained on Maryang San however , and during the evening of 8 / 9 October the Pioneers killed four Chinese during a probe on their position . They were finally relieved on 9 October . For his leadership , Hassett was immediately awarded the DSO , while a number of awards were also made to others that had distinguished themselves during the fighting . The Royal Australian Regiment was subsequently granted the battle honours " Kowang @-@ San " and " Maryang San " . Today , the First Battle of Maryang San is widely regarded as one of the Australian Army 's greatest accomplishments of the Korean War .

= = = Assessment = = =

During the battle , the British Commonwealth logistic system proved robust enough to bear the strain of the fighting without serious disruption , although problems were experienced . Despite difficulties , an adequate flow of ammunition , equipment , food and water was maintained , although there were occasions when the Australians endured thirst and hunger for several hours . 3 RAR used 900 @,@ 000 rounds of small arms , 5 @,@ 000 grenades and 7 @,@ 000 mortar rounds during the five @-@ day battle , all of which was moved in man @-@ packable loads by Korean Service Corps porters and Australian soldiers over long distances and extreme terrain , often while under fire . These resupply operations had required considerable effort and bravery to effect , and a number of Korean porters were killed and wounded at Maryang San .

Indeed , the evacuation of casualties and the resupply of ammunition at times proved problematic , and heavy shelling and sniper fire disrupted stretcher parties and porters on a number of occasions , resulting in the forward companies running short of ammunition . Meanwhile , the quality of support given to the British and Australian infantry by the artillery and tanks was of a high standard and proved a critical factor . Indeed , the tanks had often operated in terrain to which they were unsuited , while the New Zealand gunners had fired over 50 @,@ 000 rounds in direct support of 3 RAR , blistering the paint off the barrels of their guns . Air support , including that provided by the South African Mustangs , had been important throughout .

The battle was also noted for the pioneering use of tunnel warfare by the Chinese in the Korean War . During the fighting , a company of Chinese soldiers had defended their positions from a U @-@ shaped tunnel capable of housing 100 men , which had served as both a bomb shelter and a base for counterattacks . The company leader later claimed that the tunnel enabled the defenders to inflict 700 UN casualties while suffering only 21 casualties in return . Impressed by the report , the commander of the People 's Volunteer Army , Peng Dehuai , later ordered the construction of 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) deep tunnels along the entire front line , and it formed a formidable obstacle for UN forces to overcome during the stalemate period .

= = = Subsequent operations = = =

Operation Commando finally ended on 15 October with the US I Corps having successfully seized the Jamestown Line and destroying elements of the 42nd , 47th , 64th and 65th Chinese Armies . Chinese losses were estimated at 21 @,@ 000 casualties , while UN losses were 4 @,@ 000 — the majority of them in the US 1st Cavalry Division which had borne the brunt of the fighting . Although a few hills south of the line remained in communist hands — requiring a follow @-@ up operation known as Operation Polecharge which succeeded in capturing these positions by 19 October — UN supply lines near Seoul were now free from Chinese interdiction . With the peace @-@ talks ongoing , these operations proved to be last actions in the war of manoeuvre , which had lasted the previous sixteen months . It was replaced by a static war characterised by fixed defences , trench lines , bunkers , patrols , wiring parties and minefields reminiscent of the Western Front in 1915 – 17 . Construction of defensive localities began almost immediately , although such operations were confined to the reverse slopes during the day due to artillery and mortar fire which made such operations hazardous . Patrolling forward of the Jamestown Line also began in order to prevent the Chinese from gaining control of no mans land . Yet even as the war became a contest of positional warfare and attrition , growing western political sensitivities ensured that UN commanders were increasingly mindful of limiting casualties .

Total casualties among the 1st Commonwealth Division during Operation Commando amounted to 58 killed and 262 wounded , the bulk of which had occurred during the fighting for Hill 217 and Hill 317 . Indeed , in addition to the heavy casualties suffered by 3 RAR , 1 RNF had lost 16 killed and 94 wounded . The Chinese 64th Army later received a commendation for keeping their casualties " light " , despite some estimates placing its casualties at higher than 3 @,@ 000 . Throughout the operation 3 RAR had played a crucial role , and in a bold series of holding and flanking movements , coordinated with accurate and sustained artillery and direct tank fire , it had driven the Chinese from both Kowang @-@ San and Maryang San . They had then held the key position against several unsuccessful counterattacks before forcing the Chinese to retire . A month later Maryang San was subsequently retaken by the Chinese from the Borderers amid fierce fighting at the Second Battle of Maryang San , for which Private Bill Speakman was later awarded the Victoria Cross . It was not re @-@ gained , and remained in Chinese hands until the end of the war .

= Ulysses ( poem ) =

" Ulysses " is a poem in blank verse by the Victorian poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson ( 1809 – 1892 ) , written in 1833 and published in 1842 in his well @-@ received second volume of poetry . An oft @-@ quoted poem , it is popularly used to illustrate the dramatic monologue form . Facing old age , mythical hero Ulysses describes his discontent and restlessness upon returning to his kingdom , Ithaca , after his far @-@ ranging travels . Despite his reunion with his wife Penelope and son Telemachus , Ulysses yearns to explore again .

The character of Ulysses ( in Greek , Odysseus ) has been explored widely in literature . The adventures of Odysseus were first recorded in Homer 's Iliad and Odyssey ( c . 800 – 700 BC ) , and Tennyson draws on Homer 's narrative in the poem . Most critics , however , find that Tennyson 's Ulysses recalls Dante 's Ulisse in his Inferno ( c . 1320 ) . In Dante 's re @-@ telling , Ulisse is condemned to hell among the false counsellors , both for his pursuit of knowledge beyond human bounds and for his adventures in disregard of his family .

For much of this poem 's history , readers viewed Ulysses as resolute and heroic , admiring him for his determination " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " . The view that Tennyson intended a heroic character is supported by his statements about the poem , and by the events in his life — the death of his closest friend — that prompted him to write it . In the twentieth century , some new interpretations of " Ulysses " highlighted potential ironies in the poem . They argued , for example , that Ulysses wishes to selfishly abandon his kingdom and family , and they questioned more positive assessments of Ulysses ' character by demonstrating how he resembles flawed protagonists in earlier literature .

= = Synopsis and structure = =

As the poem begins , Ulysses has returned to his kingdom , Ithaca , having made a long journey home after fighting in the Trojan War . Confronted again by domestic life , Ulysses expresses his lack of contentment , including his indifference toward the " savage race " ( line 4 ) whom he governs . Ulysses contrasts his present restlessness with his heroic past , and contemplates his old age and eventual death — " Life piled on life / Were all too little , and of one to me / Little remains " ( 24 – 26 ) — and longs for further experience and knowledge . His son Telemachus will inherit the throne that Ulysses finds burdensome . While Ulysses thinks that Telemachus will be a good king — " Most blameless is he , centred in the sphere / Of common duties " ( 39 ) — he seems to have lost any connection to his son — " He works his work , I mine " ( 43 ) — and the conventional methods of governing — " by slow prudence " and " through soft degrees " ( 36 , 37 ) . In the final section , Ulysses turns to his fellow mariners and calls on them to join him on another quest , making no guarantees as to their fate but attempting to conjure their heroic past :

= = = Prosody = = =

The speaker 's language is unadorned but forceful , and it expresses Ulysses ' conflicting moods as he searches for continuity between his past and future . There is often a marked contrast between the sentiment of Ulysses ' words and the sounds that express them . For example , the poem 's insistent iambic pentameter is often interrupted by spondees ( metrical feet that consist of two long syllables ) ; such laboured language slows the poem ( and in other places may cast doubt upon the reliability of Ulysses ' utterances ) :

Observing their burdensome prosodic effect , the poet Matthew Arnold remarked , " these three lines by themselves take up nearly as much time as a whole book of the Iliad . " Many of the poem 's clauses carry over into the following line ; these enjambments emphasize Ulysses ' restlessness and dissatisfaction .

= = = Form = = =

The poem 's seventy lines of blank verse are presented as a dramatic monologue . Scholars disagree on how Ulysses ' speech functions in this format ; it is not necessarily clear to whom Ulysses is speaking , if anyone , and from what location . Some see the verse turning from a soliloquy to a public address , as Ulysses seems to speak to himself in the first movement , then to turn to an audience as he introduces his son , and then to relocate to the seashore where he addresses his mariners . In this interpretation , the comparatively direct and honest language of the first movement is set against the more politically minded tone of the last two movements . For example , the second paragraph ( 33 – 43 ) about Telemachus , in which Ulysses muses again about domestic life , is a " revised version [ of lines 1 – 5 ] for public consumption " : a " savage race " is revised to a " rugged people " .

The ironic interpretations of " Ulysses " may be the result of the modern tendency to consider the narrator of a dramatic monologue as necessarily " unreliable " . According to critic Dwight Culler , the poem has been a victim of revisionist readings in which the reader expects to reconstruct the truth from a misleading narrator 's accidental revelations . ( Compare the more obvious use of this approach in Robert Browning 's " My Last Duchess " . ) Culler himself views " Ulysses " as a dialectic in which the speaker weighs the virtues of a contemplative and an active approach to life ; Ulysses moves through four emotional stages that are self @-@ revelatory , not ironic : beginning with his rejection of the barren life to which he has returned in Ithaca , he then fondly recalls his heroic past , recognizes the validity of Telemachus ' method of governing , and with these thoughts plans another journey .

= = = Publication history = = =

Tennyson completed the poem on 20 October 1833 , but it was not published until 1842 , in his second collection of Poems . Unlike many of Tennyson 's other important poems , " Ulysses " was not revised after its publication .

Tennyson originally blocked out the poem in four paragraphs , broken before lines 6 , 33 and 44 . In this structure , the first and third paragraphs are thematically parallel , but may be read as interior and exterior monologues , respectively . However , the poem is often printed with the first paragraph break omitted .

= = Interpretations = =

= = = Autobiographical elements = = =

Tennyson penned " Ulysses " after the death of his close Cambridge friend , the poet Arthur Henry Hallam ( 1811 – 1833 ) , with whom Tennyson had a strong emotional bond . The two friends had spent much time discussing poetry and philosophy , writing verse , and travelling in southern France , the Pyrenees , and Germany . Tennyson considered Hallam destined for greatness , perhaps as a statesman .

When Tennyson heard on 1 October 1833 of his friend 's death , he was living in Somersby , Lincolnshire , in cramped quarters with his mother and nine of his ten siblings . His father had died in 1831 , requiring Tennyson to return home and take responsibility for the family . Tennyson 's friends were becoming increasingly concerned about his mental and physical health during this time . The family had little income , and three of Tennyson 's brothers were mentally ill . Just as Tennyson 's outlook was improving — he was adjusting to his new domestic duties , regaining contact with friends , and had published his 1832 book of poems — the news of Hallam 's death arrived . Tennyson shared his grief with his sister , Emily , who had been engaged to Hallam .

According to Victorian scholar Linda Hughes , the emotional gulf between the state of his domestic affairs and the loss of his special friendship informs the reading of " Ulysses " — particularly its treatment of domesticity . At one moment , Ulysses ' discontent seems to mirror that of Tennyson , who would have been frustrated with managing the house in such a state of grief . At the next , Ulysses is determined to transcend his age and his environment by travelling again . It may be that Ulysses ' determination to defy circumstance attracted Tennyson to the myth ; he said that the poem " gave my feeling about the need of going forward and braving the struggle of life " . On another occasion , the poet stated , " There is more about myself in Ulysses , which was written under the sense of loss and that all had gone by , but that still life must be fought out to the end . It was more written with the feeling of his loss upon me than many poems in In Memoriam . " Hallam 's death influenced much of Tennyson 's poetry , including perhaps his most highly regarded work , In Memoriam A.H.H. , begun in 1833 and completed seventeen years later .

Other critics find stylistic incongruities between the poem and its author that make " Ulysses " exceptional . W. W. Robson writes , " Tennyson , the responsible social being , the admirably serious and ' committed ' individual , is uttering strenuous sentiments in the accent of Tennyson the most un @-@ strenuous , lonely and poignant of poets . " He finds that Tennyson 's two widely noted personae , the " responsible social being " and the melancholic poet , meet uniquely in " Ulysses " , yet seem not to recognize each other within the text .

= = = Literary context = = =

Tennyson adopts aspects of the Ulysses character and narrative from many sources ; his treatment of Ulysses is the first modern account . The ancient Greek poet Homer introduced Ulysses ( Odysseus in Greek ) , and many later poets took up the character , including Euripides , Horace , Dante , William Shakespeare , and Alexander Pope . Homer 's Odyssey provides the poem 's narrative background : in its eleventh book the prophet Tiresias foretells that Ulysses will return to Ithaca after a difficult voyage , then begin a new , mysterious voyage , and later die a peaceful , " unwarlike " death that comes vaguely " from the sea " . At the conclusion of Tennyson 's poem , his Ulysses is contemplating undertaking this new voyage .

Tennyson 's character , however , is not the lover of public affairs seen in Homer 's poems . Rather , " Ulisse " from Dante 's Inferno is Tennyson 's main source for the character , which has an important effect on the poem 's interpretation . Ulisse recalls his voyage in the Inferno 's 26th canto , in which he is condemned to the Eighth Circle of false counsellors for misusing his gift of reason . Dante treats Ulisse , with his " zeal … / T 'explore the world " , as an evil counsellor who lusts for adventure at the expense of his family and his duties in Ithaca . Tennyson projects this zeal into Ulysses ' unquenched desire for knowledge :

The poet 's intention to recall the Homeric character remains evident in certain passages . " I am become a name " ( 11 ) recalls an episode in the Odyssey in which Demodocus sings about Odysseus ' adventures in the king 's presence , acknowledging his fame . With phrases such as " There gloom the dark broad seas " ( 45 ) and " The deep / Moans round with many voices " ( 55 – 56 ) , Tennyson seems to be consciously invoking Homer .

Critics have also noted the influence of Shakespeare in two passages . In the early movement , the savage race " That hoard , and sleep , and feed , and know not me " ( 5 ) echoes Hamlet 's soliloquy : " What is a man , / If his chief good and market of his time / Be but to sleep and feed ? A beast , no more . " Tennyson 's " How dull it is to pause , to make an end , / To rust unburnish ’ d , not to shine in use ! " ( 22 – 23 ) recalls Shakespeare 's Ulysses in Troilus and Cressida ( c . 1602 ) :

The last movement of " Ulysses " , which is among the most familiar passages in nineteenth @-@ century English @-@ language poetry , presents decisive evidence of the influence of Dante . Ulysses turns his attention from himself and his kingdom and speaks of ports , seas , and his mariners . The strains of discontent and weakness in old age remain throughout the poem , but Tennyson finally leaves Ulysses " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " ( 70 ) , recalling the Dantesque damnable desire for knowledge beyond all bounds . The words of Dante 's character as he exhorts his men to the journey find parallel in those of Tennyson 's Ulysses , who calls his men to join him on one last voyage . Quoting Dante 's Ulisse :

However , critics note that in the Homeric narrative , Ulysses ' original mariners are dead . A significant irony therefore develops from Ulysses ' speech to his sailors — " Come , my friends , / ' Tis not too late to seek a newer world " ( 56 – 57 ) . Since Dante 's Ulisse has already undertaken this voyage and recounts it in the Inferno , Ulysses ' entire monologue can be envisioned as his recollection while situated in Hell .

= = = From affirmation to irony = = =

The degree to which Tennyson identifies with Ulysses has provided one of the great debates among scholars of the poem . Critics who find that Tennyson identifies with the speaker read Ulysses ' speech " affirmatively " , or without irony . Many other interpretations of the poem have developed from the argument that Tennyson does not identify with Ulysses , and further criticism has suggested that the purported inconsistencies in Ulysses ' character are the fault of the poet himself .

Key to the affirmative reading of " Ulysses " is the biographical context of the poem . Such a reading takes into account Tennyson 's statements about writing the poem — " the need of going forward " — and considers that he would not undermine Ulysses ' determination with irony when he needed a similar stalwartness to face life after Hallam 's death . Ulysses is thus seen as an heroic character whose determination to seek " some work of noble note " ( 52 ) is courageous in the face of a " still hearth " ( 2 ) and old age . The passion and conviction of Tennyson 's language — and even his own comments on the poem — signify that the poet , as was typical in the Victorian age , admired courage and persistence . Read straightforwardly , " Ulysses " promotes the questing spirit of youth , even in old age , and a refusal to resign and face life passively .

Until the early twentieth century , readers reacted to " Ulysses " sympathetically . The meaning of the poem was increasingly debated as Tennyson 's stature rose . After Paull F. Baum criticized Ulysses ' inconsistencies and Tennyson 's conception of the poem in 1948 , the ironic interpretation became dominant . Baum finds in Ulysses echoes of Lord Byron 's flawed heroes , who similarly display conflicting emotions , self @-@ critical introspection , and a rejection of social responsibility . Even Ulysses ' resolute final utterance — " To strive , to seek , to find , and not to yield " — is undercut by irony , when Baum and later critics compare this line to Satan 's " courage never to submit or yield " in John Milton 's Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) .

Ulysses ' apparent disdain for those around him is another facet of the ironic perspective . He declares that he is " matched with an aged wife " ( 3 ) , indicates his weariness in governing a " savage race " ( 4 ) , and suggests his philosophical distance from his son Telemachus . A skeptical reading of the second paragraph finds it a condescending tribute to Telemachus and a rejection of his " slow prudence " ( 36 ) . However , the adjectives used to describe Telemachus — " blameless " , " discerning " , and " decent " — are words with positive connotations in other of Tennyson 's poetry and within the classical tradition , where " blameless " is an attribute of gods and heroes .

Critic E. J. Chiasson argued in 1954 that Ulysses is without faith in an afterlife , and that Tennyson uses a " method of indirection " to affirm the need for religious faith by showing how Ulysses ' lack of faith leads to his neglect of kingdom and family . Chiasson regards the poem as " intractable " in Tennyson 's canon , but finds that the poem 's meaning resolves itself when this indirection is understood : it illustrates Tennyson 's conviction that " disregarding religious sanctions and ' submitting all things to desire ' leads to either a sybaritic or a brutal repudiation of responsibility and ' life ' . "

Other ironic readings have found Ulysses longing for withdrawal , even death , in the form of his proposed quest . In noting the sense of passivity in the poem , critics highlight Tennyson 's tendency toward the melancholic . T. S. Eliot opines that " Tennyson could not tell a story at all " . He finds Dante 's treatment of Ulysses exciting , while Tennyson 's piece is " an elegiac mood " . " Ulysses " is found lacking in narrative action ; the hero 's goal is vague , and by the poem 's famous last line , it is not clear for what he is " striving " , or to what he refuses to yield . According to Victorian scholar Herbert Tucker , Tennyson 's characters " move " through time and space to be moved inwardly . To Ulysses , experience is " somewhere out there " ,

= = Legacy = =

= = = Contemporary appraisal and canonization = = =

The contemporary reviews of " Ulysses " were positive and found no irony in the poem . Author John Sterling — like Tennyson a member of the Cambridge Apostles — wrote in the Quarterly Review in 1842 , " How superior is ' Ulysses ' ! There is in this work a delightful epic tone , and a clear impassioned wisdom quietly carving its sage words and graceful figures on pale but lasting marble . " Tennyson 's 1842 volume of poetry impressed Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle . Quoting three lines of " Ulysses " in an 1842 letter to Tennyson —

— Carlyle remarked , " These lines do not make me weep , but there is in me what would fill whole Lachrymatories as I read . "

English theologian Richard Holt Hutton summarized the poem as Tennyson 's " friendly picture of the insatiable craving for new experience , enterprise , and adventure , when under the control of a luminous reason and a self @-@ controlled will . " The contemporary poet Matthew Arnold was early in observing the narrative irony of the poem : he found Ulysses ' speech " the least plain , the most un @-@ Homeric , which can possibly be conceived . Homer presents his thought to you just as it wells from the source of his mind : Mr. Tennyson carefully distils his thought before he will part with it . Hence comes ... a heightened and elaborate air . "

Despite the critical acclaim " Ulysses " received , its rise within the Tennyson canon took decades . Tennyson did not usually select it for publication in poetry anthologies ; in teaching anthologies , however , the poem was usually included — and it remains a popular teaching poem today . Its current prominence in Tennyson 's oeuvre is the result of two trends , according to Tennyson scholar Matthew Rowlinson : the rise of formal English poetry studies in the late nineteenth century , and the Victorian effort to articulate a British culture that could be exported . He argues that " Ulysses " forms part of the prehistory of imperialism — a term that only appeared in the language in 1851 . The protagonist sounds like a " colonial administrator " , and his reference to seeking a newer world ( 57 ) echoes the phrase " New World " , which became common during the Renaissance . While " Ulysses " cannot be read as overtly imperialistic , Tennyson 's later work as Poet Laureate sometimes argues for the value of Britain 's colonies , or was accused of jingoism . Rowlinson invokes the Marxist theorist Louis Althusser 's extension of the argument that ideology is ahistorical , finding that Tennyson 's poem " comes before an ideological construction for which it nonetheless makes people nostalgic " .

= = = Literary and cultural legacy = = =

In a 1929 essay , T. S. Eliot called " Ulysses " a " perfect poem " . An analogue of Ulysses is found in Eliot 's " Gerontion " ( 1920 ) . Both poems are narrated by an aged man contemplating life 's end . An excerpt from " Gerontion " reads as an ironic comment on the introductory lines of " Ulysses " :

The Italian poet Giovanni Pascoli ( 1855 – 1912 ) stated that his long lyric poem L 'ultimo viaggio was an attempt to reconcile the portrayals of Ulysses in Dante and Tennyson with Tiresias 's prophecy that Ulysses would die " a mild death off the sea " . Pascoli 's Ulysses leaves Ithaca to retrace his epic voyage rather than begin another .

" Ulysses " remains much admired , even as the twentieth century brought new interpretations of the poem . Professor of literature Basil Willey commented in 1956 , " In ' Ulysses ' the sense that he must press on and not moulder in idleness is expressed objectively , through the classical story , and not subjectively as his own experience . [ Tennyson ] comes here as near perfection in the grand manner as he ever did ; the poem is flawless in tone from beginning to end ; spare , grave , free from excessive decoration , and full of firmly controlled feeling . " In the fifteenth edition of Bartlett 's Familiar Quotations ( 1980 ) , nine sections of " Ulysses " , comprising 36 of the poem 's 70 lines , are quoted , compared to only six in the ninth edition ( 1891 ) .

Many readers have accepted the acclaimed last lines of " Ulysses " as inspirational . The poem 's ending line has also been used as a motto by schools and other organisations . U.S. Senator Robert Francis Kennedy quoted the three last lines at the end of his speech " On the Mindless Menace of Violence " in America a day after the assassination of Martin Luther King . The final line is inscribed on a cross at Observation Hill , Antarctica , to commemorate explorer Robert Falcon Scott and his party , who died on their return trek from the South Pole in 1912 :

= The Food Album =

The Food Album is a compilation album by American singer @-@ songwriter " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on June 22 , 1993 by Scotti Brothers Records . The release features ten of Yankovic 's song parodies , all of which pertain to food . A similar album , The TV Album , which features songs entirely about television , would be released two years later .

The album was begrudgingly released by Yankovic , who felt that the compilation was unnecessary and merely a way for his record label to make money . Several food @-@ related songs that Yankovic had recorded , such as " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " and " Waffle King " were left off the record , although the former was due to personal preference , while the latter was due to scheduling issues .

The Food Album received mixed reviews from music critics , many of whom felt that the record was an enjoyable collection of songs , but that it was not an essential record to purchase . Despite the lukewarm reception , the record was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , making it Yankovic 's first and only compilation record to reach this certification .

= = Production = =

= = = Music = = =

The music featured on The Food Album spans a decade , with the earliest songs being recorded in 1982 , and the most recent song being recorded in 1992 . Yankovic 's first eponymous album has two songs featured : " I Love Rocky Road " and " My Bologna " . Both " Eat It " and " Theme from Rocky XIII ( The Rye or the Kaiser ) " were culled from the 1984 release , " Weird Al " Yankovic in 3 @-@ D. " Addicted to Spuds " originally appeared on the 1986 release Polka Party ! , and " Fat " and " Lasagna " were first featured on Yankovic 's 1988 release Even Worse . " Spam " first was released on the soundtrack to the 1989 film UHF . The final two songs — " The White Stuff " and " Taco Grande " — were taken from the 1992 album Off the Deep End .

Notable for its absence is " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " , from Dare to Be Stupid ( 1985 ) , Yankovic 's only previously released food @-@ related song not to make the album . According to Yankovic , this is due to the fact there is a " royalty ceiling " on the albums and he needed to pick one song to cut from the list in order to turn a profit on the album . " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " was chosen due to Yankovic 's personal dislike of the song , as his record label had forced him to record it in order to release Dare to Be Stupid back in 1985 . Also absent from the release is " Waffle King . " The song had originally been recorded for Off the Deep End . However , Yankovic decided to swap " Waffle King " with " I Was Only Kidding " — a song he had actually recorded for his next album — at the last minute ; this forced Yankovic to shelve " Waffle King " for the time being . The song was later released on " Smells Like Nirvana " single , as well as Yankovic 's eighth studio album , Alapalooza , which was released four months after The Food Album .

= = = Release = = =

The album was released by Scotti Brothers Records and was only begrudgingly approved by Yankovic . At the time , Scotti Brothers had insisted on putting out a new album by Yankovic in order to meet monetary projections for the fiscal quarter , despite the fact that no new album was ready ; Alapalooza would not be released until later in the year . The original concept was to release a record entitled Al Unplugged , which would have featured a cover depicting Yankovic holding the cords for unplugged kitchen appliances , but instead of being a live album featuring live performances , it would have featured studio remixes of previously released material , with the electronic instruments missing . Yankovic convinced them to release The Food Album instead — " a concept [ he ] hated only slightly less " — but would later describe it as a " cheesy compilation " put out " against [ his ] better wishes and judgement . "

The TV Album was released under similar circumstances in 1995 ; however , when it came time to release the latter album , Yankovic reported that " the record company was a whole lot nicer when they asked the second time " , and that there was " more groveling [ and ] less demanding " . Following the release of The Food Album and The TV Album — in addition to the various greatest hits records that had been released — Scotti Brothers used @-@ up all of their compilation options in Yankovic 's contract , which prevented the release of further compilations when Volcano Records acquired his contract in the late 1990s .

= = = Artwork = = =

The album artwork — which features a cartoon alien after it has eaten Yankovic — was created by Doug Lawrence , who is better known as " Mr. Lawrence " , an American voice actor , comedian , writer , storyboard artist , animator and director . The " grotesque " cover was Yankovic 's " passive @-@ aggressive protest " against his label for forcing out the album ; Yankovic intended the alien having " picked the desiccated corpse of Weird Al clean " to be a reference to his record label " bleed [ ing ] his catalogue dry " by releasing the album . The Japanese release of the album , however , featured much different artwork , as well as a name change ; because there is no " F " in the Japanese language , the album was retitled The Hood .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

The Food Album has received mixed reviews from most critics ; many felt that while the album was amusing it was not an essential release . Allmusic reviewer Johnny Loftus awarded the album three out of five stars and wrote that , " The Food Album is an enjoyable bag of treats . Just don 't eat too much , or you 'll probably get sick . " Likewise , The Rolling Stone Album Guide awarded the album three out of five stars . Anthony Violanti of The Buffalo News gave the album a moderately positive review and wrote that , " [ t ] here are two kinds of people in the world : those who love Weird Al Yankovic and those who can 't stand him . Count me among the Weird One 's biggest fans , and that 's why I flipped out when listening to The Food Album . " He concluded that the album was " like reading Mad magazine " ; he gave the record three stars out of five . Tim Grobaty of the Press @-@ Telegram , on the other hand , wrote negatively of the album , stating " Yankovic 's songs are the kinds of things that are sort of funny in concept , less funny when you actually hear them once , and increasingly irritating with each subsequent listen [ and ] his food songs are among his worst . "

= = = Commercial performance = = =

Upon release , The Food Album failed to chart ; however , it sold steadily . On January 25 , 2006 — more than ten years after its release — the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . This makes it Yankovic 's first and only compilation album to sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies and be certified Gold .

= = Track listing = =

= = Certifications = =

= Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God =

The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God ( Bulgarian : Патриаршеска катедрала „ Свето Възнесение Господне “ , Patriarsheska katedrala „ Sveto Vaznesenie Gospodne “ ) is a former Eastern Orthodox cathedral in the city of Veliko Tarnovo , in north central Bulgaria . Located on top of the fortified Tsarevets hill in the former capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire , the cathedral was the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch from its construction in the 11th – 12th century to its destruction in 1393 .

Standing on top of a late Roman church , the cathedral , reconstructed in the 1970s and 1980s , follows a cross @-@ domed plan with a bell tower and a triple apse . Richly decorated on both the exterior and interior , its internal walls now feature modern frescoes , the presence of which has meant that it has not been reconsecrated . Though not active as a Christian place of worship , it has been open for visitors since 1985 .

= = History = =

The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God is not the first church building to occupy the position on top of the Tsarevets hill . It was constructed directly on top of a late Roman ( early Byzantine ) basilica which dates to the 5th – 6th century AD . The Roman basilica may have remained in use by the local congregation during the First Bulgarian Empire , though it was no longer active by the time the construction of the current church began .

The current building of the Patriarchal Cathedral is considered by scholars to have been built in two stages . The first stage of construction was carried out in the late 11th century or the 12th century . The cathedral was initially built as a monastery church in the middle of a monastery compound , though in the early 12th century it was already the seat of the Bulgarian patriarch . The compound suffered large @-@ scale damage caused by a fire , which necessitated the church 's reconstruction in middle of the 14th century , perhaps during the rule of Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria ( r . 1331 – 71 ) . Besides repair and reinforcement efforts , work on the church in the 14th century also included the construction of the exonarthex and the bell tower .

There are several references to the cathedral in medieval sources . The earliest reference to the church tells of the transfer of Saint Michael the Warrior 's relics from the Potuka fortress to the Patriarchal Cathedral on the order of Tsar Kaloyan ( r . 1197 – 1207 ) . The housing of a warrior saint 's relics in the Patriarchal Cathedral signifies the incessant warfare against Byzantines and Latins that dominated Kaloyan 's reign . In the late 14th century , the last Patriarch of Tarnovo , Saint Evtimiy , described the church as the " great patriarch 's Cathedral of the Holy Ascension " in his writings .

Another possible reference to the church may be in a marginal note from 1358 to a copy of the Acts of the Apostles . In the note , the copyist , one Laloe , thanks God and the " Holy and Most Glorious Ascension " for having finished his work on the book . Scholar Bistra Nikolova believes this to be an allusion to the Patriarchal Cathedral , which may have patronised the project . Alternatively , the copy could have been made at the cathedral 's scriptorium , where Laloe may have worked .

The church is also depicted in the medieval sketch of Tarnovo in the Braşov Menaion , a menaion service book written in the mid @-@ 14th century and then carried to Kronstadt ( now Braşov , Romania ) after the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule .

The Patriarchal Cathedral was destroyed after the Ottomans captured the Bulgarian capital after their Siege of Tarnovo on 17 July 1393 . The church was fully reconstructed in the 20th century ; reconstruction works were carried out by a team under architect Boyan Kuzupov . These commenced in 1978 and were finished in 1981 , to mark Bulgaria 's 1300th anniversary . However , it was not until November 1985 , when the contemporary murals were finished , that the church was opened once again for visitors . The church 's ruins have been protected as a national antiquity since 1927 ; in 1967 , they were proclaimed an architectural monument of culture of national importance . As part of the Tsarevets architectural reserve , it is also listed among the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria .

= = Location and architecture = =

The Patriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God is located on top of the Tsarevets hill , overlooking the modern city of Veliko Tarnovo . The church was part of a group of buildings which constituted the seat of the Bulgarian Patriarchate and acted as the city and the country 's main cathedral . The patriarchate on Tsarevets was a fortress of its own , with two defensive towers and an entrance on its west wall . The Patriarchal Cathedral stood in the middle of its courtyard .

The Patriarchal Cathedral features a triple apse , the central part of which matches the apse of the original basilica on the site . The three @-@ naved church follows the traditional Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design . Built out of crushed stones and mortar with limited brickwork , it measures 26 by 12 metres ( 85 ft × 39 ft ) . The cathedral includes two narthices , a bell tower and two other premises attached to the south church wall . The presence of a bell tower is considered to be a rarity in Balkan church architecture . Six columns support the interior and distinguish the altar from the cella ( naos ) . It is unclear whether the church housed a synthronon ( stone benches for the clergy ) in the apse , as there are doubts that its remains may actually be part of the older basilica .

The church featured ample exterior and interior decoration . While the facades were decorated with arches and ceramic tiles , the interior floor mosaics were made of white , yellow and pink marble as well as semi @-@ precious gemstones like sapphire and porphyry . The interior walls were covered with frescoes and mosaics . However , none of the interior decoration has survived . During the church 's 20th @-@ century reconstruction , its interior was repainted by artist Teofan Sokerov , who depicted important moments of medieval Bulgarian history in a modernist style . Due to these murals , the church has never been reconsecrated and remains inactive . The facade of the cathedral also includes a stone with a donor 's inscription of a Bulgarian ruler , which ended up as part of the building material .

There are a total of four burial grounds in and around the church , two of which are burials for priests . One of the burial grounds is inside the exonarthex , where overarched tombs were built in the 14th century . Besides Michael the Warrior 's relics , the cathedral also housed the remains of Bulgarian patriarchs Joachim I , Macarius and Joachim III .

= Daydream ( Mariah Carey album ) =

Daydream is the fifth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on October 3 , 1995 , by Columbia Records . The follow @-@ up to her internationally successful album Music Box ( 1993 ) and holiday album Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) , Daydream differed from the two by leaning increasingly towards R & B and hip hop . Throughout the project , Carey collaborated with Walter Afanasieff , with whom she wrote and produced most of her two previous albums . With Daydream , Carey took more control over the musical direction as well as the album 's composition . Carey said she considered Daydream the beginning of her musical and vocal transformation , a change that became more apparent in her sixth album Butterfly ( 1997 ) . During the album 's production , Carey endured many creative differences with her label and husband Tommy Mottola .

On Daydream , Carey collaborated with Jermaine Dupri for the first time , and co @-@ wrote and produced a song with Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , with whom she had collaborated on Music Box . It was also the first time she had worked with Boyz II Men , an R & B group consisting of four male vocalists . Together , they wrote the concept and lyrics for " One Sweet Day , " a song that Carey co @-@ produced with Afanasieff . With his assistance and the addition of a few contemporary producers , she was able to make a subtle transition into the R & B market . Daydream was nominated for six Grammy Awards at the 38th annual ceremony , during which Carey performed live . Due to the album 's critical and commercial success , critics believed Carey would be one of the night 's big winners . However , to her dismay , she was completely shut out , causing the subject to become very public and controversial . She left the annual ceremony empty @-@ handed .

Six singles were released from the album . Its lead single " Fantasy " became the first single by a female artist to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 and went on to top the chart for eight weeks and became the second best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the country . The song topped the charts in Australia , Canada , and New Zealand and became a top @-@ five hit in Finland , France , and the United Kingdom . The second single " One Sweet Day " topped the Billboard Hot 100 for sixteen weeks and became the longest @-@ running number one single in American history , a record it still holds . It also topped the charts in Canada and New Zealand and peaked within the top five in Australia , France , Ireland and the Netherlands . Jointly , the singles from Daydream spent a combined six months at the top of the Hot 100 . To promote Daydream , Carey embarked on the short but successful , Daydream World Tour , visiting Japan and Europe .

At the time of its release , Daydream became Carey 's best @-@ reviewed album . Critics universally praised her matured lyrics and songwriting , as well as her musical direction . The album became an international success , debuting at number one in nine different countries , and in the top five in almost every major music market . Daydream became Carey 's second album to be certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of ten million copies in the United States . Aside from its success in the United States , the album made the top five of the best @-@ selling albums in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist , with 2 @.@ 1 million copies sold . Daydream remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time , with 25 million copies sold worldwide .

= = Background = =

Aside from being Carey 's second highest worldwide seller , Daydream served as her most personal and directly influenced album at the time . During the album 's recording , Carey grew as an artist , as well as a writer . For the first time in her career , Carey was able to make music that she truly related to , R & B and hip hop . While Columbia allowed Carey more leniency with the music she recorded , they became hesitant when she featured Ol ' Dirty # # # # # # # in the remix for " Fantasy . " They feared the sudden change was completely left field for her music , and worried it would jeopardize the album 's success . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Carey openly spoke of her issues with Columbia : " Everybody was like ' What , are you crazy ? ' They 're nervous about breaking the formula . It works to have me sing a ballad on stage in a long dress with my hair up . "

While Carey 's new musical direction caused tension between her and Columbia , it began to severely strain her relationship with her husband at the time , Tommy Mottola . Mottola had always been involved in Carey 's career , because he was the head of Sony Music , the parent company of her label . Since the time of Carey 's debut , Mottola had controlled nearly every aspect of her career , keeping her sound carefully regulated and insisting that she continue recording middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road pop music , despite her interest in hip hop .

Carey confessed that she never tried to change the situation because " [ she ] used to be insecure and cautious , and so [ she ] would listen to what the people said . " However , the control Mottola exerted over her career soon " spilled into her personal life " once they were married , increasing the amount of conflict between the two . Soon , it was obvious that their marriage was in shambles ; as stated in a Vanity Fair article , " the couple began to argue at the drop of a hat . " Carey was very involved in the project , more so than she had ever been on an album . " I went into this phase of recording , recording , recording and doing it really fast , " she told Time . " This time , I had more time , and I focused more on what I wanted to do . " As Carey 's career and work continued to reflect her views on how it should sound , her marriage to Mottola continued to " deteriorate . "

= = Conception and composition = =

One of the first songs that was recorded for the album was " Fantasy . " While Carey began developing new ideas for Daydream , she thought of the song " Genius of Love " by Tom Tom Club . She had always been a fan of the song , and presented Dave Hall with the idea of sampling the song 's hook . Hall incorporated a groove that he felt complimented Carey 's voice , while she composed some of the other beats and wrote the lyrics . Carey recorded a remix to the song as well , featuring hip @-@ hop verses from O.D.B of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , as well as production from Puffy . She spoke highly of the remix , complimenting Puffy and O.D.B , " He 's so known in the street , and he 's one of the best people out there ... we kind of did what we both do and having O.D.B took it to another level . He was my ultimate choice , so I was really happy with the way it turned out . " " One Sweet Day " was a song that Carey wrote with the R & B group Boyz II Men . After Carey 's friend and past collaborator David Cole died , she began writing and developing a song that would pay homage to him and all the friends and family her fans had lost along life 's journey . Carey had the chorus and concept composed , and after meeting with Boyz II Men , they realized they too had a similar idea in development . Together , using Carey 's chorus and idea , as well as the melody they had produced , they wrote and composed the song . It was produced by Afanasieff , who built on the song 's melody and added various grooves and beats . Carey expressed how the song was " meant to be " and how all the pieces fit into place :

I wrote the initial idea for ' One Sweet Day ' with Walter , and I had the chorus ... and I stopped and said , ' I really wanna do this with Boyz II Men , ' because ... obviously I 'm a big fan of theirs and I just thought that the work was crying out for them , the vocals that they do , so I put it away and said , ' Who knows if this could ever happen , but I just don 't wanna finish this song because I want it to be our song if we ever do it together . [ The ] whole idea of when you lose people that are close to you , it changes your life and changes your perspective . When they came into the studio , I played them the idea for the song and when [ it ] finished , they looked at each other , a bit stunned , and told me that Nat " Nathan Morris " had written a song for his road manager who had passed away . It had basically the same lyrics and fit over the same chord changes . It was really , really weird , we finished the song right then and there . We were all kinda flipped about it ourselves . Fate had a lot to do with that . I know some people won 't believe it , but we wouldn 't make up such a crazy story .

While the album 's development was underway , Carey expressed interest in working with Jermaine Dupri , whom she had been a fan of since his 1992 song , " Jump . " Soon after , Carey , Dupri , and Manuel Seal began composing a song for the album . As Seal played the piano , Carey began humming and playing with certain notes in the B @-@ section , until she came up with the chorus for " Always Be My Baby . " After the rest of the song was written and composed , Carey recorded the song alongside longtime background singers Kelly Price , Shanrae Price , and Melonie Daniels . Together , they built " a wall of background voices " in which she would cover with her final belting notes . The song featured a downbeat rhythm , while its composition was described as " sassy and soft R & B " which displayed a " sexy and slow jam . " " Underneath the Stars " was the first song recorded for Daydream . The song featured a " ' 70s soul vibe " as well as synthetic record scratches , in order to the give the song an authentic ' 70s sound . Carey felt the additions were simple steps taken to further display a contemporary R & B groove . Additionally , she felt the song paid homage to the style of Minnie Riperton , who was one of Carey 's biggest vocal influences growing up . The song had a soft sound , and had " a lot [ sic ] of texture " and bass , showing a more creative side to Carey .

For the album , Carey covered the 1982 Journey song " Open Arms . " The song was of Carey 's personal choice , as well as her own idea . Together with Afanasieff , they toned down the song 's arrangement , making it a bit glossy , especially in comparison to the " raw and powerful ' One Sweet Day . ' " Additionally , with the help of her background singers , Carey added a touch of gospel to the song . One of the more gospel @-@ influenced songs on the album was " I Am Free . " The song was created by Carey , Afanasieff and Loris Holland , with whom she had worked previously on Merry Christmas . Carey began humming the melody with the lyrics she had already written , while Holland played the organ and Afanasieff worked on the song 's programming . , giving the song a genuine and unforced gospel feel . The chorus was sophisticated and natural , with each following line " cascading onto one another , " something that would have proved difficult for a " less skilled vocalist . " Carey started leaning away from the " standard Celine Dion ballad " and more towards R & B jams . However , she was not going to completely abandon the type of songs that made her famous . For this reason , Carey wrote " When I Saw You " with Afanasieff , a song that would truly embody some of her earlier work , as well as show off her powerful vocals . Returning to her R & B territory , Carey recorded " Long Ago " , the second song she wrote alongside Dupri and Seal which contains a strong hip hop background . Her vocals in the song were described as " sliding over the insistent bassline like silk . "

" Melt Away " was a song Carey produced on her own , and co @-@ wrote with Babyface . The song 's writing and production were " superb . " with each verse gliding into its chorus . According to Chris Nickson , " Underneath the Stars " was as " strong as any slow jam released in the nineties , and one that would find a lot of flavor late at night with dancers . " Another song that brought back reminders of older decades was " Forever . " The throwback was featured through the chord changes and in the way the guitar arpeggios " stayed at the forefront of the music . " The song displayed subtle vocals from Carey , as well as an undeniable richness . " Daydream Interlude ( Sweet Fantasy Dub Mix ) " was one of the liveliest tracks on the album . The song was a club remix of " Fantasy " , which was tuned and remixed by famed house music producer David Morales . The song was directed to be a dance @-@ club song , further broadening Carey 's " musical horizon . " The song incorporated Carey 's vocals , and added them to a thumping house beat , something he would do for many of her future singles . " Looking In " was the final song on the album . It was Carey 's most personal song at the time , one in which she let herself appear " naked " and " stripped down ; it was written by her and Afanasieff . " According to author Chris Nickson :

" [ The song ] reflected on her life now , the changes she 'd gone through , and the difference between the public perception of Mariah Carey and the real person . Intimate and revealing , it made an appropriate end to the album , and was evident that Mariah was growing , changing , and becoming much more herself , confident of who she was and what she could do . "

= = Critical reception = =

Daydream received universal acclaim at the time of its release . Reviews applauded the little changes of style from previous Carey releases , some of whom adding that it is her best record , while others dismissed it as soulless and lacking of originality . AllMusic 's senior editor , Stephen Thomas Erlewine , awarded the album four and a half out of five stars . Erlewine called Daydream her " best record yet " and wrote , " Mariah Carey certainly knows how to construct an album . Positioning herself directly between urban R & B with tracks like " Fantasy , " and the adult contemporary radio format with songs like " One Sweet Day , " a duet with Boyz II Men , Carey appeals to both audiences equally because of the sheer amount of craft and hard work she puts into her albums . Daydream is her best record to date , featuring a consistently strong selection of songs and a remarkably impassioned performance by Carey . Daydream demonstrates that Carey continues to perfect her craft , and that she has earned her status as an R & B / pop diva . " In his review for the album , Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called Daydream " her best record since her 1990 debut " , writing , " in fact , it 's easily the best collection Carey has put out since her self @-@ titled 1990 debut , the album Daydream most resembles in its emphasis on R & B grooves . " Tucker specifically complimented " One Sweet Day " , " Always Be My Baby " , " Forever " , and " Daydream Interlude " ( Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix ) , writing " One Sweet Day , her collaboration with Boyz II Men , radiates a breezy sexiness that Carey , for all the brazen hussiness of her public persona , rarely permits herself to reveal in song . I like the relaxed swing of " Always Be My Baby " , and the brisk waltz tempo of Forever . However , it 's on what many Carey fans will probably find the most throwaway cut , " Daydream Interlude ( Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix ) " , that the singer really defines herself . At her best , as she is on this clipped , spunky track , Carey is a disco diva for the ' 90s , a worthy successor to trailblazing women like Donna Summer and Vicki Sue Robinson , R & B singers with an affinity for the endless groove . "

Stephen Holden , editor of The New York Times , gave the album a positive review . Holden wrote the following regarding Daydream " Ms. Carey 's songwriting has taken a leap forward , becoming more relaxed , sexier , and less reliant on thudding cliches . " Holden praised " Fantasy " , which he wrote " with ' Fantasy , ' Ms. Carey glides confidently into the territory where gospel @-@ flavored pop @-@ soul meets light hip @-@ hop and recorded some of the most gorgeously spun choral music to be found on a contemporary album . " Additionally , he complimented " One Sweet Day , " " Melt Away , " " Always Be My Baby " , and " Underneath the Stars " , calling them " the best on the album " . People gave the album a positive review , calling it " her fourth and best album . " Additionally , People praised the album and its songs , writing " Daydream vaults over its pop predecessors because the material is both funkier and mellower . Carey also has better control of her instrument — her voice evincing greater muscularity and agility . She still pours it on a little thick at times when it comes to fervor , as on the midtempo ' Melt Away , ' which Carey co @-@ wrote with Babyface . For the most part she buzzes from strength to strength , from the bravura belting on ' One Sweet Day , ' a duet with Boyz II Men , to the rich gospel feel of ' I Am Free , ' which has a mood so churchy you can almost hear the ladies ' handheld fans snapping . " While the album was positively reviewed by critics , Carey 's cover of Journey 's 1982 song " Open Arms " was universally panned . Stephen Thomas Erlewine criticized the song , calling it " second rate " . " Open Arms " received a negative review from Stephen Holden as well , who called it a " sobbing remake " .

= = Chart performance = =

Daydream entered the Billboard 200 at number one , with 224 @,@ 000 copies sold , staying at the top spot the following week with 216 @,@ 000 copies sold , for a third consecutive week , it topped the charts with 170 @,@ 000 copies sold . It gained power again in the upcoming weeks of holiday sales where it peaked in the year 's last weeks with 486 @,@ 000 and 760 @,@ 000 units sold at the pinnacle . The album moved 760 @,@ 000 copies during the Christmas week of 1995 , the album 's highest sales week . It also reached number one on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Daydream was the second best @-@ selling album of 1996 , and the eighteenth best @-@ selling album on the 1990s decade in the US . In the United States , Daydream became Carey 's best @-@ selling album , being certified diamond by the RIAA ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of ten million copies .

In Canada , Daydream peaked at number two on the charts , and was certified seven @-@ times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . The album experienced success in Europe , where it reached number one in Germany , The Netherlands , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In France , Daydream peaked at number two and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . Sales in France are estimated at 800 @,@ 000 copies . Daydream was certified triple @-@ platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting shipments of three million copies throughout Europe in 1996 .

In Australia , Daydream was certified five @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 350 @,@ 000 copies . The album finished ninth on the ARIA End of Year Charts in both 1995 and 1996 . In Japan , the album debuted at number one on the Oricon charts . According to the Oricon , Daydream made the top five of the best @-@ selling albums in Japan by a non @-@ Asian artist , with 2 @.@ 5 million copies sold . Daydream remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time , with sales of 25 million copies worldwide .

= = Singles = =

Six singles were released from Daydream . " Fantasy " was released as the album 's lead single on September 12 , 1995 . The song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Carey the first female artist , and the second performer ever to accomplish the feat . The song spent eight consecutive weeks atop the chart , as well as topping the charts in Australia , Canada and New Zealand . In Europe , " Fantasy " performed well , peaking within the top five in Belgium , Finland , France , and the United Kingdom . " Fantasy " was the second best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the US , with sales of 1 @.@ 5 million in 95 ' alone . " One Sweet Day " was chosen as the follow @-@ up single , achieving similar success . The song once again debuted at the top of the US charts , and became the longest running number one single in US history , spending sixteen consecutive weeks atop the Billboard charts . The song became a success in other regions around the world as well , topping the charts in Canada and New Zealand and peaked within the top five in Australia , France , Ireland , and The Netherlands . Serving as the album 's third single in select European countries , " Open Arms " was released on December 5 , 1995 . The song achieved success in the UK , Ireland and New Zealand , where it peaked at number four , seven and eight . However , " Open Arms " charted weakly in other European countries , such as Belgium , France , and Germany , where it charted outside the top @-@ thirty .

" Always Be My Baby " was released as the fourth single . The song debuted at number two on the Hot 100 , failing to become Carey 's third number one debut ( a feat she would accomplish with " Honey " in 1997 ) . The song eventually reached and stayed atop the charts for two weeks , and then kept steady at number two for nine weeks . " Always Be My Baby " performed moderately in other major markets . The song peaked within the top five in Canada , New Zealand and the UK , but charted outside the top @-@ ten elsewhere . " Forever " was chosen as the fifth single from Daydream . The song was ineligible to chart in the Hot 100 , but managed to crack the top @-@ ten on the Hot 100 airplay chart . " Forever " charted well in Canada , where it peaked at number thirteen . " Underneath the Stars " was chosen as the sixth and final single from the album . Described by Carey as one of her favorite songs , " Underneath the Stars " received a limited number of pressings in the US , where it charted weakly on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .

= = Promotion = =

In order to promote the album , Carey embarked on her second head @-@ lining tour . Originally , she had not planned to tour , due to the long travel times and hassle ; however , after many requests from fans , Carey agreed to tour . The tour reached Japan and select European countries , not visiting the United States . This was possibly due to the mixed reception Carey 's 1993 North American Music Box Tour received three years prior . The shows were all spaced apart , giving Carey time to rest her vocals , " It 's very strenuous to sing all my songs back to back , but I 'm actually really looking forward to it . " Many musicians joined Carey for the tour , including Randy Jackson who served as the musical director and played the bass , Dan Shea on the keyboards , Vernon Black playing the guitar , Gigi Conway on the drums , and percussion and music sequencing by Peter Michael and Gary Cirimelli . All of the musicians and background vocalists were under the supervision of Walter Afanasieff , who played the piano and guided the production . Before embarking on her world tour in 1996 , Carey performed a sold @-@ out show at Madison Square Garden in 1995 . The performance was filmed , and released as a DVD titled Fantasy : Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden . It became Carey 's fourth video release .

When the three Japanese shows at the Tokyo Dome went on sale , Carey set a record after all 150 @,@ 000 tickets sold out under three hours . The shows became the fastest sellout in the stadium 's history , breaking the previous record held by The Rolling Stones . The shows in Japan were a critical and commercial success , with critics and fans raving about the show and Carey 's vocals . Carey 's presence in Asia in the 90s was unparalleled to any other international artist . Her international success and anticipation was even compared to the " Beatlemania " in the 1960s . In an interview with MTV , Carey spoke of how she felt performing in Asia :

" First of all , you 're in front of so many people that basically don 't speak your language . It took a little getting used to , but I think by the end of the show , you know , everybody started to kind of relax . "

For the show , Carey sang fourteen original songs , including many of her biggest hits up until that point , as well as many songs from Daydream . They included " Fantasy , " " One Sweet Day , " " Open Arms , " " Always Be My Baby , " " Forever " and " Underneath the Stars " as well as hits from her previous studio efforts . Carey 's following shows in France , Germany , The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were all sold @-@ out as well , receiving warm critical response . During the span of the tour 's seven short dates , Carey had already begun working on concepts for her new album Butterfly . According to author Marc Shapiro , Carey 's European tour was truly a success , in many aspects :

" The European tour mirrored the success of her shows in Japan . Mariah 's appearances overseas were heartening experiences for the singer . The popularity – indeed , mania – surrounding her shows in these countries reached massive proportions . The reception the concerts received reflected the fact that Mariah 's music cut through race and language barriers and had struck at a universal , emotional core with fans . The tour cemented the fact that Mariah Carey had arrived as the performing centerpiece on the world stage . "

In addition to touring the world , Carey performed on a variety of television programs and award shows . After " Fantasy " was released in September throughout Europe , Carey performed the song on the popular British chart show Top of the Pops , which aired live via satellite on Asian television . Carey performed " Fantasy " in France and at the 23rd Annual American Music Awards on January 29 , 1996 . " One Sweet Day " was performed at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards , Princess Diana 's memorial service in September 1997 , and at Carey 's Black Entertainment Television Christmas special in 2001 . During her European promotional tour for the album , Carey performed " Open Arms " on various television programs , including Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany , Top of the Pops and Des O 'Connor in the United Kingdom and on Swedish television .

= = Awards and accolades = =

The music industry took note of Carey 's success . She won two awards at the 1996 American Music Awards for her solo efforts : Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . Throughout 1995 & 1996 , Carey was awarded various prestigious awards at the World Music Awards , including " World 's Best Selling Female R & B Artist " , " World 's Best Selling Overall Female Recording Artist , " " World 's Best Selling Pop Artist " and " World 's Best Selling Overall Recording Artist . " Additionally , " Fantasy " was named " Song of the Year " at the BMI Awards and " Favorite Song " at the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , where Carey also won the award for " Top Pop Female . " In 1996 , Carey won many awards at the Billboard Music Awards , including " Hot 100 Singles Artist of the Year " , " Hot 100 Airplay ( Always Be My Baby ) , " " Hot Adult Contemporary Artist of the Year " and " Special Award for 16 weeks at # 1 for ' One Sweet Day . ' "

= = = Grammy controversy = = =

Daydream was proven to be one of the best @-@ selling and most acclaimed albums of 1995 . When the Grammy Award nominees were announced , and Daydream was nominated for six different awards , critics began raving how it would be " cleaning up " that year . The 38th Annual Grammy Awards were held on February 28 , 1996 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . Carey , being a multiple award nominee , was one of the headlining performers . Together with Boyz II Men , she sang a live rendition of " One Sweet Day , " to a very positive response . However , as the award winners were announced one by one , Carey watched as her name was not called up even once . Daydream had lost all of its six nominations , shocking most critics who branded it the " album of the year " . With every passing loss , the television cameras continued to zoom on Carey 's face , who was finding it more difficult to retain her smile . By the end of the night , Carey had not won a single award . The disappointment on her face was painfully obvious . While Carey was nominated again the following year , she did not perform again until the 2006 ceremony , when she was nominated for eight awards ( winning three ) for The Emancipation of Mimi .

= = Music videos = =

Carey directed the music video for " Fantasy " . Additionally , she chose the concept and created the idea . The video featured Carey in roller @-@ blades , blading through a theme @-@ park , while enjoying different rides and roller coasters . The video then cut into scenes of Carey dancing on top of a car , celebrating an event with many friends . Carey said her inspiration for the video was to give off a " free and open feeling , " trying to portray the freedom she had finally achieved in being allowed to direct her first video . The video for " Fantasy " debuted on September 7 , at the " MTV Video Music Awards . " Carey expressed how much she enjoyed the video 's filming , speaking about the " roller @-@ coaster scenes " :

" They did not expect me to get that shot ! They were saying , ' How 's she going to sing on a roller coaster ? ... We put a little speaker on the bottom of the car , where my feet where . We built the rig in front of the roller coaster and the lens kept falling off ! "

When Carey and Boyz II Men got together to record " One Sweet Day , " they didn 't have enough time to re @-@ unite and film a video . For this reason , a filming crew was present during the song 's recording , and filmed bits of Carey and Boyz recording the song . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Walter Afanasieff made the following statements regarding the video for " One Sweet Day " :

" It was crazy ! They had film crews and video guys , while I 'm at the board trying to produce . And these guys were running around having a ball , because Mariah and them are laughing and screaming and they 're being interviewed . And I 'm tapping people on the shoulder . " We 've got to get to the microphone ! " They 're gone in a couple of hours , so I recorded everything they did , praying that it was enough . "

The video for " Always Be My Baby " was once again filmed by Carey . It featured Carey swinging on a swing in the middle of a dark meadow , showing her frolicking through the woodlands . The video was set as a " peaceful and relaxing " setting , in order to try to reflect the sweet and mellow song 's message . " Forever " , the album 's fifth single , was the final song to be accompanied by a music video . Carey 's label used footage from her live performances of the song in New York City and Japan and compiled them into a video . On February 11 , 2012 , Carey revealed through her Twitter account that a music video for " Underneath the Stars " was actually recorded . Filming sessions occurred in England and France ; Carey commented , however , that it " never got released and I don 't know where it is ! "

= = Track listing = =

Notes

Track listing and credits from album booklet .

" Fantasy " contains a sample of " Genius of Love " by Tom Tom Club .

= = Album credits = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Leg before wicket =

Leg before wicket ( lbw ) is one of the ways in which a batsman can be dismissed in the sport of cricket . Following an appeal by the fielding side , the umpire may rule a batsman out lbw if the ball would have struck the wicket , but was instead intercepted by any part of the batsman 's body ( except the hand holding the bat ) . The umpire 's decision will depend on a number of criteria , including where the ball pitched , whether the ball hit in line with the wickets , and whether the batsman was attempting to hit the ball .

Leg before wicket first appeared in the laws of cricket in 1774 , as batsmen began to use their pads to prevent the ball hitting their wicket . Over several years , refinements were made to clarify where the ball should pitch and to remove the element of interpreting the batsman 's intentions . The 1839 version of the law used a wording that remained in place for nearly 100 years . However , from the latter part of the 19th century , batsmen became increasingly expert at " pad @-@ play " to reduce the risk of their dismissal . Following a number of failed proposals for reform , in 1935 the law was expanded , such that batsmen could be dismissed lbw even if the ball pitched outside the line of off stump . Critics felt this change made the game unattractive as it encouraged negative tactics at the expense of leg spin bowling .

After considerable debate and various experiments , the law was changed again in 1972 . In an attempt to reduce pad @-@ play the new version , which is used to this day , allowed batsmen to be out lbw in some circumstances if they did not attempt to hit the ball with their bat . Since the 1990s , the availability of television replays and , later , ball @-@ tracking technology to assist umpires has increased the percentage of lbws in major matches . However , the accuracy of the technology and the consequences of its use remain controversial .

In his 1995 survey of cricket laws , Gerald Brodribb states : " No dismissal has produced so much argument as lbw ; it has caused trouble from its earliest days " . Owing to its complexity , the law is widely misunderstood among the general public and has proven controversial among spectators , administrators and commentators ; lbw decisions have sometimes caused crowd trouble . Since the law 's introduction , the proportion of lbw dismissals has risen steadily through the years . Statistics reveal that the probability of a batsman being dismissed lbw in a Test match varies depending on where the match is played and which teams are playing .

= = Definition = =

The definition of leg before wicket ( lbw ) is currently Law 36 in the Laws of Cricket , written by the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . Before a batsman can be dismissed lbw , the fielding team must appeal to the umpire . For the batsman to be adjudged lbw , the ball , if it bounces , must pitch in line with the wickets , or on the off side of the stumps . Then the ball must strike part of the batsman 's body , without first touching his bat , in line with the wickets and have been going on to hit the stumps . The batsman may also be out lbw if , having made no attempt to hit the ball with his bat , he is struck outside the line of off stump by a ball that would have hit the wickets . The umpire must assume that the ball would have continued on the same trajectory after striking the batsman , even if it would have bounced before hitting the stumps . However , if the bowler delivers a no ball — an illegal delivery — the batsman cannot be lbw under any circumstances .

A batsman can be out lbw even if the ball did not hit his leg : for example , a batsman struck on the head could be lbw . However , he cannot be lbw if the ball pitches on the leg side of the stumps ( " outside leg stump " ) , even if the ball would have otherwise hit the wickets . Similarly , a batsman who has attempted to hit the ball with his bat cannot be lbw if the ball strikes him outside the line of off stump . However , some shots in cricket , such as the switch hit or reverse sweep , involve the batsman switching between a right- and left @-@ handed stance ; this affects the location of the off and leg side , which are determined by the stance . The law explicitly states that the off side is determined by the batsman 's position when the bowler commences his run @-@ up .

According to MCC guidelines for umpires , factors to consider when giving an lbw decision include the angle at which the ball was travelling and whether the ball was swinging through the air . He must also account for the height of the ball at impact and how far from the wicket the batsman was standing ; from this information he must determine if the ball would have passed over the stumps or struck them . The MCC guidance states that it is easier to make a decision when the ball strikes the batsman without pitching , but that the difficulty increases when the ball has bounced and more so when there is a shorter time between the ball pitching and striking the batsman .

= = Development of the law = =

= = = Origins = = =

The earliest known written version of the Laws of Cricket , dating from 1744 , does not include an lbw rule . At the time , batsmen in English cricket used curved bats , which made it unlikely that they would be able to stand directly in front of the wickets . However , a clause in the 1744 laws gave umpires the power to take action if the batsman was " standing unfair to strike " . Cricket bats were modified to become straighter over the following years , allowing batsmen to stand closer to the wickets . Subsequently , some players deliberately began to obstruct the ball from hitting the wickets . Such tactics were criticised by writers and a revision of the laws in 1774 ruled that the batsman was out if he deliberately stopped the ball from hitting the wicket with his leg . However , critics noted that the umpires were left the difficult task of interpreting the intentions of batsmen . The 1788 version of the laws no longer required the umpires to take account of the batsman 's intent ; now a batsman was lbw if he stopped a ball that " pitch [ ed ] straight " . Further clarification of the law came in 1823 , when a condition was added that " the ball must be delivered in a straight line to the wicket " . The ambiguity of the wording was highlighted when two prominent umpires disagreed over whether the ball had to travel in a straight line from the bowler to the wicket , or between the wickets at either end of the pitch . In 1839 the MCC , by then responsible for drafting the Laws of Cricket , endorsed the latter interpretation and ruled the batsman out lbw if the ball pitched in between the wickets and would have hit the stumps .

= = = Controversy and attempted reform = = =

In essence , the lbw law remained the same between 1839 and 1937 , despite several campaigns to have it changed . An 1863 proposal to allow a batsman to be lbw if the ball hit his body at any point between the wickets , regardless of where the ball pitched or whether it would hit the wicket at all , came to nothing . There were few complaints until the proportion of lbw dismissals in county cricket began to increase during the 1880s . Until then , batsmen used their pads only to protect their legs ; their use for any other purposes was considered unsporting , and some amateur cricketers did not wear them at all . As cricket became more organised and competitive , some batsmen began to use their pads as a second line of defence : they lined them up with the ball so that if they missed with the bat , the ball struck the pad instead of the wicket . Some players took this further ; if the delivery was not an easy one from which to score runs , they attempted no shot and allowed the ball to bounce safely off their pads . Arthur Shrewsbury was the first prominent player to use such methods , and others followed . Criticism of this practice was heightened by the increased quality and reliability of cricket pitches , which made batting easier , led to higher scores and created a perceived imbalance in the game .

Several proposals were made to prevent pad @-@ play . At a meeting of representatives of the main county cricket clubs in 1888 , one representative expressed the opinion that a " batsman who defended his wicket with his body instead of with his bat should be punished " . The representatives supported a motion to alter the law to state that the batsman would be out if he stopped a ball that would have hit the wicket ; in contrast to the existing wording , this took no account of where the ball pitched relative to the wickets . Further proposals included one in which the intent of the batsman was taken into account , but no laws were changed and the MCC merely issued a condemnation of the practice of using pads for defence . This reduced pad @-@ play for a short time , but when it increased again , a second pronouncement by the MCC had little effect .

Further discussion on altering the law took place in 1899 , when several prominent cricketers supported an amendment similar to the 1888 proposal : the batsman would be out if the ball would have hit the wicket , where it pitched was irrelevant . At a Special General Meeting of the MCC in 1902 , Alfred Lyttelton formally proposed this amendment ; the motion was supported by 259 votes to 188 , but failed to secure the two @-@ thirds majority required to change the laws . A. G. Steel was the principal opponent of the change , as he believed it would make the task of the umpires too difficult , but he later regretted his stance . Lyttelton 's brother , Robert , supported the alteration and campaigned for the rest of his life to have the lbw law altered . As evidence that pad @-@ play was increasing and needed to be curtailed , he cited the growing number of wickets which were falling lbw : the proportion rose from 2 % of dismissals in 1870 to 6 % in 1890 , and 12 % in 1923 . In 1902 , the proposed new law was tried in the Minor Counties Championship , but deemed a failure . An increase in the size of the stumps was one of several other rejected proposals at this time to reduce the dominance of batsmen over bowlers .

= = = Alteration to the law = = =

Between 1900 and the 1930s , the number of runs scored by batsmen , and the proportion of lbw dismissals , continued to rise . Bowlers grew increasingly frustrated with pad @-@ play and the extent to which batsmen refused to play shots at bowling directed outside the off stump , simply allowing it to pass by . The English fast bowler Harold Larwood responded by targeting leg stump , frequently hitting the batsman with the ball in the process . This developed into the controversial Bodyline tactics he used in Australia in 1932 – 33 . Some batsmen began to go further and preferred to kick away balls pitched outside off stump — reaching out to kick the ball instead of allowing it to hit their pads — if they presented any threat , knowing that they could not be dismissed lbw . The authorities believed these developments represented poor entertainment value . At the height of the Bodyline controversy in 1933 , Donald Bradman , the leading Australian batsman and primary target of the English bowlers , wrote to the MCC recommending an alteration of the lbw law to create more exciting games .

To address the problem , and redress the balance for bowlers , the MCC made some alterations to the laws . The size of the ball was reduced in 1927 , and that of the stumps increased in 1931 , but the changes had little effect . Between 1929 and 1933 , county authorities conducted a trial in which a batsman could be lbw if he had hit the ball onto his pads . Then , in 1935 , an experimental law was introduced in which the batsman could be dismissed lbw even if the ball pitched outside the line of off stump — in other words , a ball that turned or swung into the batsman but did not pitch in line with the wickets . However , the ball was still required to strike the batsman in line with the wickets . The umpire signalled to the scorers when he declared a batsman out under the new rule , and any such dismissal was designated " lbw ( n ) " on the scorecard .

Several leading batsmen opposed the new law , including the professional Herbert Sutcliffe , known as an exponent of pad @-@ play , and amateurs Errol Holmes and Bob Wyatt . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack noted that these three improved their batting records during the 1935 season , but batsmen generally were less successful . There were also fewer drawn matches . There was an increase in the number of lbws — out of 1 @,@ 560 lbw dismissals in first @-@ class matches in 1935 , 483 were given under the amended law . Wisden judged the experiment a success and several of its opponents changed their mind by the end of the season ; batsmen soon became accustomed to the alteration . Although Australian authorities were less convinced , and did not immediately introduce the revision into domestic first @-@ class cricket , in 1937 the new rule became part of the Laws of Cricket .

According to Gerald Brodribb , in his survey and history of the Laws , the change produced more " enterprising " , exciting cricket but any alteration in outlook was halted by the Second World War . When the sport resumed in 1946 , batsmen were out of practice and the amended lbw law played into the hands of off spin and inswing bowlers , who began to dominate county cricket . The cricket historian Derek Birley notes that many of these bowlers imitated the methods of Alec Bedser , an inswing bowler who was successful immediately after the war , but that the resulting cricket was unexciting to watch . The revised lbw law , and other alterations in the game in favour of the bowler , further encouraged such bowling . The new law continued to provoke debate among writers and cricketers ; many former players claimed that the alteration had caused a deterioration in batting and reduced the number of shots played on the off side . A 1963 report in The Times blamed the law for reducing the variety of bowling styles : " the change has led to a steady increase in the amount of seam and off @-@ spin bowling . Whereas in the early thirties every county had a leg spinner and an orthodox left arm spinner , leg spinners , at any rate , are now few and far between . Walk on to any of the first @-@ class grounds at any time tomorrow and the chances are that you will see the wicketkeeper standing back and a medium pace bowler in action ... there is little doubt that the game , as a spectacle , is less attractive than it was . " Several critics , including Bob Wyatt , maintained that the lbw law should be returned to its pre @-@ 1935 wording ; he campaigned to do so until his death in 1995 . On the other hand , Bradman , in the 1950s , proposed extending the law so that batsmen could be lbw even if they were struck outside the line of off stump . An MCC study of the state of cricket , carried out in 1956 and 1957 , examined the prevalent and unpopular tactic involving off @-@ spin and inswing bowlers aiming at leg stump with fielders concentrated on the leg side . Rather than alter the lbw law to combat the problem , the MCC reduced the number of fielders allowed on the leg side .

= = = Playing no stroke = = =

In the 1950s and 1960s , the amount of pad @-@ play increased , owing to more difficult and unpredictable pitches that made batting much harder . Critics continued to regard this tactic as " negative and unfair " . In an effort to discourage pad @-@ play and encourage leg spin bowling , a new variant of the lbw law was introduced , initially in Australia and the West Indies in the 1969 – 70 season , then in England for 1970 . Under the re @-@ worded law , a batsman would be lbw if a ball destined to hit the stumps pitched in line with the wickets or " outside a batsman 's off stump and in the opinion of the umpire he made no genuine attempt to play the ball with his bat . " This revision omitted the requirement that the impact should be in line with the wickets , but meant that any batsman playing a shot could not be out if the ball pitched outside off stump , in contrast to the 1935 law . The editor of Wisden believed the change encouraged batsmen to take more risks , and had produced more attractive cricket . However , the proportion of wickets falling lbw sharply declined , and concerns were expressed in Australia . The Australian authorities proposed a reversion to the previous law . A batsman could once more be out to a ball that pitched outside off stump , but a provision was added that " if no stroke is offered to a ball pitching outside the off @-@ stump which in the opinion of the umpire would hit the stumps , but hits the batsman on any part of his person other than the hand , then the batsman is out , even if that part of the person hit is not in line between wicket and wicket . " The difference to the 1935 rule was that the batsman could now be out even if the ball struck outside the line of off @-@ stump . This wording was adopted throughout the world , although it was not yet part of the official Laws , from 1972 and the percentage of lbws sharply increased to beyond the levels preceding the 1970 change . The MCC added the revised wording to the Laws of Cricket in 1980 ; this version of the lbw law is still used as of 2013 .

= = = Effects of technology = = =

Since 1993 , the proportion of lbws in each English season has risen steadily . According to cricket historian Douglas Miller , the percentage of lbw dismissals increased after broadcasters incorporated ball @-@ tracking technology such as Hawk @-@ Eye into their television coverage of matches . Miller writes : " With the passage of time and the adoption of Hawkeye into other sports , together with presentations demonstrating its accuracy , cricket followers seem gradually to have accepted its predictions . Replay analyses have shown that a greater proportion of balls striking an outstretched leg go on to hit the wicket than had once been expected . " He also suggests that umpires have been influenced by such evidence ; their greater understanding of which deliveries are likely to hit the stumps has made them more likely to rule out batsmen who are standing further away from the stumps . This trend is replicated in international cricket , where the increasing use of technology in reviewing decisions has altered the attitude of umpires . Spin bowlers in particular win far more appeals for lbw . However , the use of on @-@ field technology has proved controversial ; some critics regard it as more reliable than human judgement , while others believe that the umpire is better placed to make the decision .

The International Cricket Council ( ICC ) , responsible for running the game worldwide , conducted a trial in 2002 where lbw appeals could be referred to a match official , the third umpire , to review on television replays . The third umpire could only use technology to determine where the ball had pitched and if the batsman hit the ball with his bat . The ICC judged the experiment unsuccessful and did not pursue it . More trials followed in 2006 , although ball @-@ tracking technology remained unavailable to match officials . After a further series of trials , in 2009 the Umpire Decision Review System ( DRS ) was brought into international cricket where teams could refer the on @-@ field decisions of umpires to a third umpire who had access to television replays and technology such as ball tracking . According to the ICC 's general manager , Dave Richardson , DRS increased the frequency with which umpires awarded lbw decisions . In a 2012 interview , he said : " Umpires may have realised that if they give someone out and DRS shows it was not out , then their decision can be rectified . So they might , I suppose , have the courage of their convictions a bit more and take a less conservative approach to giving the batsman out . I think if we 're totally honest , DRS has affected the game slightly more than we thought it would . "

Critics of the system suggest that rules for the use of DRS have created an inconsistency of approach to lbw decisions depending on the circumstances of the referral . Opponents also doubt that the ball @-@ tracking technology used in deciding lbws is reliable enough , but the ICC state that tests have shown the system to be 100 % accurate . The Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) have consistently declined to use DRS in matches involving India owing to their concerns regarding the ball @-@ tracking technology . Early DRS trials were conducted during India matches , and several problems arose over lbws , particularly as the equipment was not as advanced as it later became . The BCCI believe the technology is unreliable and open to manipulation .

= = Trends and perception = =

A study in 2011 by Douglas Miller shows that in English county cricket , the proportion of wickets to fall lbw has increased steadily since the First World War . In the 1920s , around 11 % of wickets were lbw but this rose to 14 % in the 1930s . Between 1946 and 1970 , the proportion was approximately 11 % but subsequently increased until reaching almost 19 % in the decade before 2010 . Miller also states that captains of county teams were statistically more likely to receive the benefit of lbw decisions — less likely to be out lbw when batting and more likely to dismiss batsmen lbw when bowling . For many years , county captains submitted end @-@ of @-@ match reports on the umpires ; as umpires were professionals whose careers could be affected , captains consequently received leeway whether batting or bowling . Before 1963 , when the status was abolished in county cricket , umpires were also more lenient towards amateur cricketers . Amateurs administered English cricket , and offending one could end an umpire 's career . Elsewhere in the world , lbws are more statistically likely in matches taking place on the Indian subcontinent . However , batsmen from the subcontinent were less likely to be lbw wherever they played in the world .

Teams that toured other countries often became frustrated by lbws given against them ; there was often an assumption of national bias by home umpires against visiting teams . Several studies investigating this perception have suggested that home batsmen are sometimes less likely than visiting batsmen to be lbw . However , the data is based on lbw decisions awarded , not on the success @-@ rate of appeals to the umpire . Fraser points out that it is impossible to determine from these studies if any of the decisions were wrong , particularly as the lbw law can have different interpretations , or if other factors such as pitch conditions and technique were involved . A 2006 study examined the effect that neutral umpires had on the rate of lbws . Although the reasons were again ambiguous , it found that lbws increased slightly under neutral umpires regardless of team or location .

In his survey of cricket laws , Gerald Brodribb suggests that " no dismissal has produced so much argument as lbw ; it has caused trouble from its earliest days " . Among those who do not follow cricket , the law has the reputation of being extremely difficult to understand , of equivalent complexity to association football 's offside rule . Owing to the difficulty of its interpretation , lbw is regarded by critics as the most controversial of the laws but also a yardstick by which an umpire 's abilities are judged . In his book Cricket and the Law : The Man in White Is Always Right , David Fraser writes that umpires ' lbw decisions are frequently criticised and " arguments about bias and incompetence in adjudication inform almost every discussion about lbw decisions . " Problems arise because the umpire has not only to establish what has happened but also to speculate over what might have occurred . Controversial aspects of lbw decisions include the umpire having to determine whether the ball pitched outside leg stump , and in certain circumstances whether the batsman intended to hit the ball or leave it alone . Umpires are frequently criticised for their lbw decisions by players , commentators and spectators . Historically , trouble ranging from protests and arguments to crowd demonstrations occasionally arose from disputed decisions . For example , a prolonged crowd disturbance , in which items were thrown onto the playing field and the match was delayed , took place when Mohammad Azharuddin was adjudged lbw during a 1996 One Day International in India .

= The Family Jewels ( Marina and the Diamonds album ) =

The Family Jewels is the debut studio album recorded by Welsh singer Marina Diamandis , professionally known as Marina and the Diamonds . It was released on 15 February 2010 by 679 Recordings and Atlantic Records . Diamandis collaborated with several producers including Pascal Gabriel , Liam Howe , Greg Kurstin , Richard " Biff " Stannard , and Starsmith during its recording . She identifies the lyrical themes as " the seduction of commercialism , modern social values , family and female sexuality . "

Contemporary music critics gave The Family Jewels fairly positive reviews , with the vocal delivery dividing opinions . The record debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 27 @,@ 618 copies . The album was eventually certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry and has sold 195 @,@ 358 units in the United Kingdom . The Family Jewels performed moderately on international record charts ; it peaked at number 138 on the Billboard 200 in the United States .

The Family Jewels was supported by five singles , all of which were supplemented by accompanying music videos . " Mowgli 's Road " was released on 13 November 2009 , although " Hollywood " became its first charting track after reaching number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . Follow @-@ up singles " I Am Not a Robot " , " Oh No ! " , and " Shampain " respectively peaked at numbers 26 , 38 , and 141 in the United Kingdom . The record was additionally promoted by Diamandis ' headlining The Family Jewels Tour , which visited Australia , Europe and North America from January 2010 through December 2011 .

= = Background = =

Born and raised in South East Wales , Diamandis moved to London at the age of 18 to study music , despite not having a musical background . After dropping out of four institutions and failing in auditions , she began composing her own music . After the success of her Myspace @-@ released debut EP Mermaid vs. Sailor in 2007 , she was signed by Neon Gold Records the following year and by 679 Artists in October 2008 . In 2009 , after playing at a variety of festivals including Glastonbury in the summer , she ranked in second place in the BBC 's Sound of 2010 and was one of the three nominees for the Critics ' Choice Award at the 2010 BRIT Awards .

In a 2012 interview with Pridesource , Diamandis said that the album 's title came from a slang term for testes , but she had been too coy to admit it before .

= = Composition = =

Diamandis explained that the album is " a body of work largely inspired by the seduction of commercialism , modern social values , family and female sexuality " , intended to be " enjoyed and consumed as a story and theory that encourages people to question themselves " .

In a review for Q , writer Hugh Montgomery noted genres such as disco ( " Shampain " ) , bubblegum punk ( " Girls " ) and cabaret ( " Hermit The Frog " ) . The opening track , " Are You Satisfied ? " , ponders the meaning of a fulfilling life ; a writer for The Line of Best Fit likened it to the thinking of Danish existentialist philosopher Søren Kierkegaard . In a January 2010 interview with The Daily Telegraph , Diamandis admitted that she " cringes " at the lyrics of the song " Girls " , which " could be seen as a bit misogynistic " , including the lines " Girls they never befriend me / ' Cause I fall asleep when they speak / Of all the calories they eat " ; she clarified that the lyrics concerned her own psychological problems with weight . A Neon Gold press release for a limited double A @-@ side of " Obsessions " and " Mowgli 's Road " described the former as a " bold and ambitious ... master work " and the latter as a " a high intensity , left field pop smash " .

Diamandis reportedly made producer Liam Howe take 486 vocal takes for " The Outsider " . " Hollywood " takes inspiration from Diamandis ' previous obsession with American celebrity culture , while in " I Am Not a Robot " , her favourite track from the album , she sings to tell herself to accept imperfection , with lines such as " you 've been acting awful tough lately , smoking a lot of cigarettes lately ... don 't be so pathetic " ; she expected audiences to be able to relate to the song . " Numb " reflects on the dedication and sacrifice needed during her early years in London ; " Oh No ! " and " Are You Satisfied ? " have similar lyrical themes . " Oh No ! " was a late addition to the track listing , causing some reviews of the album to not include it . The album had initially been scheduled for release in October 2009 , and was delayed by Diamandis ' self @-@ confessed perfectionism .

= = Release and promotion = =

= = = Music videos = = =

In 2008 , Diamandis filmed videos for the tracks " Seventeen " and " Obsessions " . The following year , photographer Rankin directed the accompaniment for " I Am Not a Robot " , which used much body glitter . The video for " Mowgli 's Road " featured Diamandis and two dancers , with puppeteers standing in front of them to give them the impression of having concertina limbs ; it was shot over 17 hours .

Polish artist Kinga Burza shot the " classic pop video " for " Hollywood " , with the aim to " make her audiences fall in love her even more , perhaps crave a little popcorn and feel inspired to dress up for fun " . Burza also filmed the video for " Oh No ! " , with an aesthetic based on " zany neon " MTV graphics and the fame @-@ hungry lyrics . The video to " Shampain " made an homage to Michael Jackson 's Thriller .

Dan Knight made a video for Chilly Gonzales ' " stripped @-@ down " remix of " Hollywood " that was intended to be the opposite of Burza 's official video . In the video , Gonzales and Diamandis perform on a 1980s Estonian music show complete with subtitles .

= = = Singles = = =

" Obsessions " was Diamandis ' first single , released on 14 February 2009 , and " Mowgli 's Road " followed on 13 November 2009 . She chose the song as an " uncommercial " taster due to its oddness , but it received attention after being shared by bloggers including Perez Hilton and Kanye West .

" Hollywood " was released as the album 's second single and Diamandis ' first major release on 1 February 2010 . It reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart . It was followed on 26 April by " I Am Not a Robot " , which peaked at number 26 on the same listing . " Oh No ! " was released as the album 's fourth single on 2 August only in the UK and Ireland ; it charted at number 38 . " Shampain " was released as the album 's fifth and final single on 11 October , again only in the same region , and reached number 141 in the UK .

" I Am Not a Robot " was nominated for the 2010 Popjustice £ 20 Music Prize for best British single , eventually losing to " Kickstarts " by Example .

= = = Tour = = =

Diamandis went on her first headlining tour to promote the album , performing in Europe , North America and Australia . Dates included the Glastonbury Festival 2010 , South by Southwest and the Falls Festival . In parallel to headlining her own tour in the United States in mid @-@ 2011 , she was an opening act for Katy Perry 's California Dreams Tour , and finished by opening for Coldplay 's Mylo Xyloto Tour at the Manchester Arena that December .

After a performance at Manchester 's Deaf Institute on 21 February 2010 , Contactmusic.com writer Katy Ratican awarded Diamandis a 9 / 10 rating , stating " Next time she plays Manchester , it will be to a sold out Academy 2 audience , with a top @-@ selling album gracing the merchandising stand . Marina won 't be playing to a few hundred people above a trendy bar in the foreseeable future " .

= = Critical reception = =

The Family Jewels received mostly positive reviews . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 68 , based on 21 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .

Hugh Montgomery of Q magazine noted that the singer 's " imaginative reach " was " complemented by a winning pop savviness " , while Luke O 'Neil from The Phoenix stated that " [ t ] he likes of Kate Nash and company have flitted through this piano siren / exuberant dance @-@ diva territory , but never mind , because this gorgeous genre starts now . " Leonie Cooper from NME rated the album nine out of ten stars , finding flaw only in the titles of " Shampain " and " Hermit the Frog " .

More mixed reviews were critical of Diamandis ' vocal delivery . Lou Thomas from BBC Music commented that " [ t ] he consistently diverting changes in style across the album are fine — the wonky 80s shoulder @-@ pad pop of ' The Outsider ' is nothing like anything else here , for example . But over 13 songs of Sparks @-@ voice and many similar staccato piano riffs listeners may feel bludgeoned by Marina and her slightly overbearing presence " , concluding that her eccentric vocals would polarise opinions . Sean O 'Neal wrote on The AV Club that after " dozens of squeaky Regina Spektor @-@ ish enunciations " and " Kate Bush trills " , the " overbearing need to prove herself just ends up being exhausting " . Joe Rivers of No Ripcord praised " Are You Satisfied ? " , " Hollywood " and " Oh No ! " but was put off by sudden " howling " in " Hermit the Frog " and a " throaty growl " in " The Outsider " .

A negative review came from The Independent 's Andy Gill who considered " Shampain " and " Hermit the Frog " as " every bit as annoying as their punning titles , with queasy , prancing piano and synth figures " . He found certain vocal techniques in " Mowgli 's Road " and " I Am Not a Robot " to be " infantile " , and evaluated the lyrics of " Girls " and " Hollywood " as shallow . Gill added that the content of " Rootless " , " Obsessions " and " The Outsider " did not match with what would be expected from the titles .

The NME placed the album at number 33 on its list of the Top 75 Albums of 2010 .

= = Commercial performance = =

The Family Jewels debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 27 @,@ 618 copies . It remains Diamandis ' best @-@ selling debut week , after her second studio album Electra Heart entered the chart at number one with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 358 units . The Family Jewels was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry , and had sold 195 @,@ 358 copies in the United Kingdom as of April 2015 . The record debuted at number seven in Greece and number nine in Ireland ; it was eventually certified gold by the Irish Recorded Music Association .

The Family Jewels performed moderately on several international record charts . The record reached number 12 on the German Media Control Charts , and entered the Ö3 Austria Top 40 at number 18 . It peaked at number 88 on the Dutch MegaCharts , number 100 on the Swiss Hitparade , and number 132 in France . In Oceania , the album reached number 79 on the Australian ARIA Charts . With first @-@ week sales of 4 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , The Family Jewels entered the Billboard 200 at number 138 ; furthermore , it respectively charted at numbers 2 and 49 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers and Top Rock Albums charts .

In an interview for Australian radio in January 2011 , Diamandis said that her career that far had been " more like a failure than a success " , particularly in the American market . She attributed this to the inaction of Chop Shop Records , her label in the United States , as well as a move in musical tastes to " pumping beats " by artists like Lady Gaga . She cancelled performances in the United States in order to begin work on a new album .

= = Track listing = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Family Jewels .

Notes

^ a signifies an additional producer

^ b signifies an original producer

^ c signifies a remixer

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Family Jewels .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= 1981 Peach Bowl ( January ) =

The 1981 Peach Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Hurricanes from the University of Miami at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia on January 2 , 1981 . The game was the final contest of the 1980 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 20 @-@ 10 victory for Miami . Another game by the same name followed the 1981 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season and was played in December , 1981 .

Virginia Tech was awarded a bid to the Peach Bowl as a reward for finishing 8 – 3 during the regular season , a record that included wins over nationally ranked teams such as the Clemson Tigers and the Virginia Cavaliers . Facing Virginia Tech was a familiar post @-@ season opponent — Miami — whom the Hokies had played in the 1966 Liberty Bowl , Tech 's last bowl appearance prior to the Peach Bowl . Miami finished the regular season with an 8 – 3 record , including wins over Florida State and Florida .

The game kicked off at 3 : 00 p.m. EST under sunny skies and in temperatures of 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) . Unlike the 1966 Liberty Bowl , in which Virginia Tech scored first , it was Miami who dominated the game 's early going . The Hurricanes scored a touchdown on the first drive of the game and tacked on another touchdown early in the second quarter . Tech was held scoreless in the early going , thanks to two Miami interceptions at the goal line as Virginia Tech was threatening to score . Late in the second quarter , Tech was finally able to get on the scoreboard with a field goal , but at halftime , the Miami Hurricanes led 14 – 3 . After halftime , the Hokies threatened Miami for the first time all game . Virginia Tech mounted an 80 @-@ yard drive that resulted in a touchdown , cutting Miami 's lead to 14 – 10 . But the Hurricanes ' defense clamped down on any further offensive attempts by Virginia Tech and denied the Hokies more points . Miami added two field goals : one in the third quarter and one in the fourth quarter that finally put the game out of reach for Virginia Tech . Miami 's win was its first bowl victory since the 1966 Liberty Bowl , which also featured a Hurricane victory over Virginia Tech .

= = Team Selection = =

= = = Miami = = =

The Miami Hurricanes came into the 1980 college football season after an 5 – 6 season in 1979 under head coach Howard Schnellenberger . During that season , the team was nicknamed the " Jet Lag Kids " after they traveled an NCAA @-@ record 28 @,@ 000 miles ( 45 @,@ 000 km ) , including a trip to the Mirage Bowl in Tokyo , Japan . While impressive , the season wasn 't as successful as hoped , and Schnellenberger began his second season as coach hoping to improve upon the 5 – 6 effort despite what was the toughest schedule — in terms of opponents ' winning percentage — in the country .

Miami got off to a good start doing just that as it raced out to four consecutive wins to begin the season , including a victory over nationally ranked rival No. 9 Florida State . On October 11 , however , Miami traveled to South Bend , Indiana , to face the Notre Dame Fighting Irish and suffered its first loss of the season to the undefeated Irish , who would go on to be ranked No. 1 in the country . This defeat was followed in succession by two others , but the Hurricanes were able to stop the slide on November 8 with a homecoming win over East Carolina . Miami added two more wins before the end of the season , and brought the regular season to a close with an overall record of 8 – 3 .

= = = Virginia Tech = = =

The Virginia Tech Hokies , like Miami , entered the 1980 season after accumulating a 5 – 6 record in 1979 . Though the Hokies traveled far less than Miami , they also hoped to improve upon their losing record . Tech was coached by Bill Dooley , who was entering his third season as head coach .

Like Schnellenberger , he got his team off to a fast start . In the season opener , Tech traveled to North Carolina to face the Wake Forest Demon Deacons . Wake Forest had attended the Tangerine Bowl the previous year and was favored in the game against Tech . Despite those facts , the Hokies won , 16 – 7 . Virginia Tech won its first four games of the regular season before falling to the nationally ranked Clemson Tigers on October 4 . Tech recovered from the loss , defeating Rhode Island , then Virginia before a then @-@ state record crowd of 52 @,@ 000 people , but lost a second game , to Richmond on October 25 . The Hokies split their final three games of the regular season , winning two and losing one , and finished with a regular season record of 8 – 3 . Tech 's 6 – 0 record at Lane Stadium — its home stadium — was the best in school history . Tech 's selection by the Peach Bowl was announced in the locker room following the team 's final regular season game . The Peach Bowl representative present was mobbed by celebrating players chanting " Peach Bowl ! Peach Bowl ! " The representative later said , " I 've never seen a wilder celebration . "

= = Pregame buildup = =

= = = Miami offense = = =

The Miami Hurricanes entered the Peach Bowl with a record @-@ breaking offense that set the school mark for the most accumulated yards in school history with a total offensive mark of 3 @,@ 756 yards . Leading the aerial portion of the Miami offense was sophomore quarterback Jim Kelly , who completed 109 of 206 passes for 1 @,@ 519 yards , 11 touchdowns , and seven interceptions . Kelly 's 11 touchdowns tied the Miami record for most touchdowns in a season at that time . Kelly 's favorite receiver was wide receiver Larry Brodsky , who caught 33 passes for 570 yards and three touchdowns during the regular season . One of Brodsky 's touchdowns came on an 81 @-@ yard reception that tied the longest pass reception in the history of Miami football to that point .

The Hurricanes ' ground offense was led by running back Smokey Roan , who carried the ball 152 times for 669 yards and five touchdowns . Roan was assisted by an able offensive line . Miami offensive tackle John Canei was named as an honorable mention to the Associated Press All @-@ America team , which recognizes the best college football players in the country .

= = = Miami defense = = =

Miami 's defense shut out one opponent , and held six other opponents to single touchdowns or field goals . Middle guard Jim Burt was one of the Hurricanes ' defensive leaders , recovering four fumbles in a single game during the regular season . In recognition of this and other performances , Burt was named to the Associated Press All @-@ America list . Also recognized was defensive back Fred Marion , who was named an honorable mention to the All @-@ America list . Marion intercepted seven passes during the regular season , tying him for second in Miami history for the most interceptions in a season .

= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =

Throughout the regular season , Virginia Tech 's offense was led by running back Cyrus Lawrence , who accumulated what was then a school record of 1 @,@ 221 yards during the regular season . He also set a record for most carries by a Tech player in a season with 271 . Tech quarterback Steve Casey was called the " key man in the Tech offense . " Casey was Tech 's starting quarterback and completed 97 of 176 passes during the regular season for 1 @,@ 119 yards and 13 touchdowns . At the time , he ranked second among Tech 's career passing leaders , and was considered to be an offensive threat .

Casey 's favorite target was wide receiver Sidney Snell , who caught a Tech @-@ record eight touchdown receptions during the regular season . Snell accounted for 568 yards on 43 receptions of all types . Tight end Rob Purdham only caught seven passes during the regular season , but four of the catches were for touchdowns .

= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =

The Tech defense was ranked among the top five in the country during the regular season , and set a school record for fewest points allowed during an 11 @-@ game regular season . Tech permitted just 109 points during the season , and allowed only 11 touchdowns in 11 games .

The leading tackler on the Tech defense was freshman linebacker Ashley Lee , who accumulated 95 tackles during the regular season . Lee was one of two freshman linebackers for the Hokies during their record @-@ breaking defensive season .

Virginia Tech 's defense also featured Robert Brown , who accumulated 10 tackles , including two quarterback sacks , in the Hokies ' regular @-@ season finale against the Virginia Military Institute . Tech head coach Bill Dooley lobbied in vain for Brown 's inclusion in the annual All @-@ America list recording the best college football players in the country , saying , " Robert Brown is an All @-@ American football player ... but because he was a transfer student , he received no preseason buildup . ... I guarantee the people who have seen him know he 's an All @-@ American . " Brown finished the regular season with 61 tackles , broke up four passes , and recovered three fumbles .

= = Game summary = =

The 1981 Peach Bowl kicked off at 3 p.m. EST on January 2 , 1981 , at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia in front of a crowd estimated at 45 @,@ 384 people . More than 14 @,@ 000 of those present were estimated to be fans of Virginia Tech . Weather at kickoff was sunny , with a temperature of 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) and a north @-@ northwest wind estimated at 14 miles per hour ( 23 km / h ) . The game was televised nationally on CBS , with Curt Gowdy , Hank Stram , and Frank Gleiber serving as the announcers for the television broadcast . William Parkinson was the referee , Robert Aebersold was the umpire , and the linesman was Richard Farina . Miami won the traditional pregame coin toss used to decide first possession and elected to receive the ball to begin the game .

= = = First quarter = = =

After the Virginia Tech kickoff and a short return , Miami began the first drive of the game at its 32 @-@ yard line . The game 's first play was an incomplete pass from Miami quarterback Jim Kelly . After a one @-@ yard rush , Kelly completed his first pass of the game , an 18 @-@ yard toss that drove Miami to the Tech 49 @-@ yard line and gave the Hurricanes a first down . Miami then committed a 15 @-@ yard penalty , pushing the Hurricanes back into their side of the field . On the second play after the penalty , Kelly completed a 29 @-@ yard pass that gave Miami a first down . The Hurricanes were further aided by a 15 @-@ yard roughing the passer penalty against Virginia Tech , giving Miami a first down at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . From there , it took Miami just three plays to score a touchdown , the final play being a 15 @-@ yard pass from Kelly to Larry Brodsky . With 12 : 37 remaining in the quarter , Miami took a 7 – 0 lead .

Following Miami 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff , Virginia Tech began its first offensive possession of the game at its 24 @-@ yard line . A three @-@ yard rush from fullback Scott Dovel was followed by two rushes from Tech 's Cyrus Lawrence : one for eight yards and a second for 17 more . These drove Tech into Miami territory and gave the Hokies a first down . Once there , however , Miami 's defense stiffened and Tech was forced to punt . Miami recovered the ball at its 12 @-@ yard line , and the Hurricanes began their second possession of the game . Fullback Chris Hobbs and running back Smokey Roan alternated carries , picking up yardage and first downs before entering Virginia Tech territory . On the Hurricanes ' first play on Tech 's side of the field , however , Miami committed two penalties , pushing the Hurricanes back 20 yards . Following the penalties , Miami was unable to pick up a first down and punted back to the Hokies .

Tech recovered the punt at its 30 @-@ yard line and began its second possession . Lawrence rushed for five yards , and Miami committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , giving Tech a first down by penalty . Dovel and Lawrence then combined for another first down after two plays . Tech was unable to gain another first down and punted the ball away . Attempting to field the ball , Miami 's Fred Marion fumbled the ball , which was recovered by a Tech defender at the Miami 25 @-@ yard line . Despite beginning with excellent field position , Tech was unable to score . On the first play after the fumble recovery , Tech attempted to run a trick play involving a pass by Lawrence . The pass was intercepted by a Miami defender at the Hurricanes ' one @-@ yard line , and Miami 's offense returned to the field .

From their one @-@ yard line , the Hurricanes ran a short rush up the middle , then Kelly connected on a 28 @-@ yard pass to tight end Mark Cooper for a first down . Three short rushes by fullback Speedy Neal resulted in 12 yards and a first down . With time running out in the quarter , Kelly attempted and completed a 27 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Rocky Belk , driving the Hurricanes to the Tech 30 @-@ yard line and bringing the quarter to an end . Miami led , 7 – 0 at the end of the first quarter .

= = = Second quarter = = =

Miami began the second quarter in possession of the ball and facing a first down at the Virginia Tech 30 @-@ yard line . From there , it took Miami just four plays to score . Roan ran for seven yards , Kelly completed an 11 @-@ yard pass , threw an incomplete pass , then Hobbs ran 12 yards for the touchdown . The score and following extra point gave Miami a 14 – 0 lead with 13 : 47 remaining before halftime .

Virginia Tech received the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and was promptly penalized 10 yards for an illegal block during the kickoff . Despite the initial setback , Tech made good the penalty with two passes from quarterback Steve Casey . After gaining one first down , the Hokies gained several more with a combination of passes from Casey and rushes from Lawrence . Tech drove into Miami territory and penetrated the Hurricanes ' red zone , in the process gaining a first down after facing a fourth down near midfield . Attempting to pass for a touchdown , however , Casey threw an interception at the goal line to a Miami defender . The Hurricanes thus again denied Tech a scoring opportunity and the Miami offense began anew .

The Hurricanes picked up a first down on one rush each from Hobbs and Roan , but were unable to gain another . After a Miami punt , Tech returned to offense from its 46 @-@ yard line . Casey picked up a first down on a pass , then gained another after a seven @-@ yard scramble that followed a three @-@ yard rush by Lawrence . Lawrence then gained a first down on his own after rushing for nine yards and five yards , driving the Hokies to the Miami 15 @-@ yard line in the process . After entering the Miami red zone , however , Tech was unable to gain a first down and Casey was sacked for a loss of 13 yards . Facing a fourth down and needing 20 yards for a first down , Tech coach Bill Dooley sent in kicker Dennis Laury to attempt a 42 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was successful , and with 29 seconds left in the first half , Tech cut Miami 's lead to 14 – 3 .

Miami was penalized 15 yards for roughing the kicker during the field goal attempt , allowing Tech to kick off from the Miami 45 @-@ yard line following the score . Instead of kicking off to Miami , Tech attempted an onside kick , which would allow Tech to retain possession if the ball was recovered by the kicking team after traveling 10 yards from the point at which it was kicked . The ball did not travel the needed 10 yards , however , and Miami began offense at its 37 @-@ yard line , where the ball rolled out of bounds . On Miami 's first play after the kick , Kelly attempted a long pass into Tech territory , but the ball was intercepted by Tech 's Mike Schamus at the Hokies ' 12 @-@ yard line . With just 21 seconds remaining in the first half , Tech attempted to gain quick yardage in an effort to close within field goal distance . Though Lawrence picked up 15 yards and a first with a rush , the Hokies were unable to enter the Miami side of the field before time expired . At the end of the first half , Miami still held a 14 – 3 lead .

= = = Third quarter = = =

Because Miami received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . After Miami 's kickoff and a touchback , Tech began the first possession of the second half at its 20 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up a quick first down off a rush each by Lawrence , Dovel , and Casey . Lawrence picked up another with two rushes that resulted in 13 yards and drove the Hokies to their 44 @-@ yard line . There , Casey completed his longest pass of the game — a 42 @-@ yard throw to tight end Rob Purdham — that gave Tech a first down at the Miami 14 @-@ yard line . Tech continued to drive , picking up short yardage with multiple rushes . The Hokies suffered a near @-@ disaster when Lawrence fumbled the ball , but Tech retained possession when the ball rolled out of bounds at the one @-@ yard line . Two plays after the fumble , Lawrence vaulted over the goal line for Tech 's first and only touchdown of the game . Following the extra point , Tech cut Miami 's lead to 14 – 10 with 8 : 52 remaining in the quarter .

Following the Tech kickoff , Miami began a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line and went three and out . Following the Hurricanes ' punt , Tech 's offense began work at its 22 @-@ yard line . Despite having a chance to take the lead with a successful drive , the Hokies also went three and out , punting back to Miami and allowing the Hurricanes to begin a possession at their 33 @-@ yard line . This possession was more successful than Miami 's first of the second half . Kelly ran for four yards , then completed a six @-@ yard pass for a first down . Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard grabbing @-@ the @-@ facemask penalty , and Kelly completed a 15 @-@ yard pass that pushed the Miami offense to the Tech 22 @-@ yard line . Young picked up 12 yards and a first down with a rush to the left , but Kelly was sacked for a loss of 13 yards , negating the gain . Unable to gain another first down or a touchdown , Miami was forced to settle for a field goal attempt . The 31 @-@ yard attempt was good , and Miami expanded its lead to 17 – 10 with 29 seconds remaining in the quarter .

Tech received Miami 's kickoff for a touchback , and the Hokies ' offense began work at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . Lawrence ran for six yards , and time ran out in the quarter . With one quarter remaining , Miami held a 17 – 10 lead .

= = = Fourth quarter = = =

Tech began the fourth quarter in possession of the ball and facing a second down at its 26 @-@ yard line . Despite needing just another four yards for a first down , Tech was unable to gain the needed yardage and was forced to punt . During the kick , Miami was penalized five yards , and began its first possession of the fourth quarter at its 18 @-@ yard line after the penalty . Kelly completed an 18 @-@ yard pass for a first down , but Miami was unable to gain another . After punting to Tech , the Hokies were likewise unable to gain a first down and went three and out after committing a delay of game penalty .

Tech 's punt was short , and Miami began a possession at the Tech 41 @-@ yard line . The Hurricanes picked up a first down with two rushes by Roan for a total of 14 yards . Despite further short gains by Roan , the Hurricanes were stopped short by the Tech defense and were unable to gain another . Miami sent in kicker Dan Miller , who kicked a 37 @-@ yard field goal to give Miami a 20 – 10 lead with 6 : 27 remaining in the game .

Tech received Miami 's post @-@ score kickoff needing to score quickly in order to have a chance to have a second opportunity on offense — needed because Tech was now two scores behind . Tech returned the kickoff to the 24 @-@ yard line but were penalized 12 yards for an illegal block . Casey passed for an eight @-@ yard gain and ran for three yards for a first down . After that gain , things went against the Hokies . Casey was penalized 15 yards for intentional grounding , and Tech was unable to gain another first down . The Hokies punted , and Miami took over on offense at its 46 @-@ yard line . In possession of the lead , Miami began to run out the clock , executing multiple rushing plays in succession in order to force the game clock to continue to count down . Tech 's defense forced a stop , but because Miami punted the ball with just 2 : 20 remaining in the game , there was little chance that Tech would be able to make up the needed two scores .

Tech received the ball at its 16 @-@ yard line , and Casey completed a quick 14 @-@ yard pass to Purdham for a first down . But Tech was unable to gain another first down , and after four plays were stopped short , Tech turned the ball over to Miami after Casey threw an incomplete pass on fourth down . Miami received the ball with 1 : 24 remaining and ran a series of inconsequential plays to draw down the clock and bring the game to an end . Miami earned the win , 20 – 10 .

= = Statistical summary = =

In recognition of their performances during the Peach Bowl , Miami quarterback Jim Kelly and nose guard Jim Burt were named the game 's offensive and defensive most valuable players of the game , respectively . Kelly finished the game having completed 11 of his 22 pass attempts for 179 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Burt , the other MVP , accumulated nine tackles — the second @-@ most of any player in the game — including seven unassisted tackles and one tackle for loss .

Virginia Tech running back Cyrus Lawrence finished the game with 27 carries for 137 rushing yards and a touchdown . The 27 carries remain the most ever recorded by a single Virginia Tech player in a bowl game . Tech quarterback Steve Casey led the Hokies in passing yardage , completing nine of his 23 pass attempts for 119 yards and one interception .

The Hurricanes ' ground offense was led by Smokey Roan , who carried the ball 16 times for 86 yards . Second to Roan for Miami was Chris Hobbs , who contributed 66 yards and a touchdown on 10 carries . Hurricanes wide receiver Larry Brodsky finished with four catches for 80 yards and a touchdown . Miami turned the ball over four times during the course of the game . Tech 's 80 @-@ yard touchdown drive in the third quarter remains tied for the longest ever recorded by a Tech offense during a bowl game . Conversely , the 99 @-@ yard drive allowed to Miami remains the longest scoring drive Tech 's defense has ever allowed in a bowl game .

On defense , Virginia Tech linebacker Ashley Lee 's 15 tackles remains the most ever recorded by a Tech defender in a bowl game . Three Tech players were tied for second on the team with eight tackles . Behind defensive MVP Burt , Miami had one player with eight tackles and two with seven . Fred Marion , one of the Hurricanes with seven tackles , also intercepted a Tech pass and broke up another pass .

= = Postgame effects = =

In exchange for their participation , each team received $ 663 @,@ 389 . Miami 's win brought the Hurricanes to a final record of 9 – 3 for the 1980 college football season . Likewise , the loss dropped Virginia Tech to a final record of 8 – 4 . Miami 's win also was its first bowl @-@ game victory since a similar win over Tech in the 1966 Liberty Bowl .

The 1980 Peach Bowl victory is sometimes cited as the turning point in the Miami football program , as the Hurricanes went 9 – 2 and 7 – 4 over the next two season before participating in the 1984 Orange Bowl , the championship game of the 1983 college football season . Tech also participated in a 1984 bowl game ; the 1984 Independence Bowl , which followed the 1984 college football season . The Hokies did not win a bowl game until the 1986 Peach Bowl ; however , the game had lasting effects on Virginia Tech 's football recruiting efforts . Eventual star players Bruce Smith and Jesse Penn signed letters of intent with Virginia Tech following the game .

Miami had a handful of players selected in the 1981 NFL Draft : Cornerback John Swain was picked with the 101st overall selection , Jim Joiner with the 263rd pick , and Pat Walker with the 290th pick . Miami quarterback Jim Kelly , a sophomore during the 1981 Peach Bowl , was selected in the first round of the 1983 NFL Draft and went on to become a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his performance during 10 seasons with the Buffalo Bills . In 2002 , Kelly was named to the Peach Bowl Hall of Fame in honor of his performance in the 1980 game .

= = Later aftermath = =

Miami and Virginia Tech would both be charter members of the Big East Conference 's football league in 1991 , and in 2004 , both schools moved to the Atlantic Coast Conference - which now has a tie @-@ in for what is now called the Chick @-@ Fil A Bowl .

= The Magdalen Reading =

The Magdalen Reading is one of three surviving fragments of a large mid @-@ 15th @-@ century oil on panel altarpiece by the Early Netherlandish painter Rogier van der Weyden . The panel , originally oak , was completed some time between 1435 and 1438 and has been in the National Gallery , London since 1860 . It shows a woman with the pale skin , high cheek bones and oval eyelids typical of the idealised portraits of noble women of the period . She is identifiable as the Magdalen from the jar of ointment placed in the foreground , which is her traditional attribute in Christian art . She is presented as completely absorbed in her reading , a model of the contemplative life , repentant and absolved of past sins . In Catholic tradition the Magdalen was conflated with both Mary of Bethany who anointed the feet of Jesus with oil and the unnamed " sinner " of Luke 7 : 36 – 50 . Iconography of the Magdalen commonly shows her with a book , in a moment of reflection , in tears , or with eyes averted . Van der Weyden pays close attention to detail in many passages , in particular the folds and cloth of the woman 's dress , the rock crystal of the rosary beads held by the figure standing over her , and the lushness of the exterior .

The background of the painting had been overpainted with a thick layer of brown paint . A cleaning between 1955 and 1956 revealed the figure standing behind the Magdalene and the kneeling figure with its bare foot protruding in front of her , with a landscape visible through a window . The two partially seen figures are both cut off at the edges of the London panel . The figure above her has been identified as belonging to a fragment in the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian , Lisbon , which shows the head of Saint Joseph , while another Lisbon fragment , showing what is believed to be Saint Catherine of Alexandria , is thought to be from the same larger work . The original altarpiece was a sacra conversazione , known only through a drawing , Virgin and Child with Saints , in Stockholm 's Nationalmuseum , which followed a partial copy of the painting that probably dated from the late 16th century . The drawing shows that The Magdalen occupied the lower right @-@ hand corner of the altarpiece . The Lisbon fragments are each a third of the size of The Magdalen , which measures 62 @.@ 2 cm × 54 @.@ 4 cm ( 24 @.@ 5 in × 21 @.@ 4 in ) .

Although internationally successful in his lifetime , van der Weyden fell from view during the 17th century , and was not rediscovered until the early 19th century . The Magdalen Reading can first be traced to an 1811 sale . After passing through the hands of a number of dealers in the Netherlands , the panel was purchased by the National Gallery , London , in 1860 from a collector in Paris . It is described by art historian Lorne Campbell as " one of the great masterpieces of 15th @-@ century art and among van der Weyden 's most important early works . "

= = Description = =

Mary Magdalene as depicted in early Renaissance painting is a composite of various biblical figures . Here , she is based on Mary of Bethany , who is identified as the Magdalene in the Roman Catholic tradition . Mary of Bethany sat at Jesus ' feet and " listened to His Word " , and thus is seen as a contemplative figure . The counterpoint is Mary 's sister Martha who , representative of the active life , wished that Mary would help her serve . Mary is shown by van der Weyden as youthful , sitting in quiet piety with her head tilted and eyes modestly averted from the viewer . She is absorbed in her reading of a holy book , the covers of which include a chemise of white cloth , a common form of protective binding . Four coloured cloth bookmarks are tied to a gold bar near the top of the spine . According to Lorne Campbell , the manuscript " looks rather like a 13th @-@ century French Bible " and is " clearly a devotional text " . It was rare for contemporary portraits to show women reading , and if the model herself could read then she was likely from a noble family .

Van der Weyden often linked form and meaning , and in this fragment the semicircular outline of the Magdalene reinforces her quiet detachment from her surroundings . She is seated on a red cushion and rests her back against a wooden sideboard . By her feet is her usual attribute of an alabaster jar ; in the Gospels she brought spices to the tomb of Jesus . The view through the window is of a distant canal , with an archer atop the garden wall and a figure walking on the other side of the water , whose reflection shows in the water .

Van der Weyden 's pose for the Magdalene is similar to a number of female religious figures painted by his master Robert Campin or his workshop . It closely resembles , in theme and tone , the figure of Saint Barbara in Campin 's Werl Altarpiece , and also the Virgin in an Annunciation attributed to Campin in Brussels . Typically for a van der Weyden , the Magdalen 's face has an almost sculpted look , and the elements of her clothes are conveyed in minute detail . She wears a green robe ; in medieval art the Magdalene is usually depicted naked ( sometimes clad only in her long hair ) or in richly coloured dress , typically red , blue or green , almost never in white . Her robe is tightly pulled below her bust by a blue sash , while the gold brocade of her underskirt is adorned by a jewelled hem . Art critic Charles Darwent observed that the Magdalen 's past as a " fallen woman " is hinted at by the nap in the fur lining of her dress and the few strands of hair loose from her veil . Darwent wrote , " Even her fingers , absent @-@ mindedly circled , suggest completeness . In her mix of purity and eroticism , van der Weyden 's Magdalen feels whole ; but she isn 't . " In the medieval period , fur symbolized female sexuality and was commonly associated with the Magdalene . Medieval historian Philip Crispin explains that artists such as Memling and Matsys often portrayed the Magdalen in furs and notes that she " is noticeably dressed in fur @-@ lined garments in The Magdalen Reading by Rogier van der Weyden " .

The level of detail used in portraying the Magdalene has been described by Campbell as " far exceed [ ing ] " van Eyck . Her lips are painted with a shades of vermilion , white and red which are mixed into each other to give a transparent look at the edges . The fur lining of her dress is painted in a range of greys running from almost pure white to pure black . Rogier gave the fur a textured look by painting stripes parallel to the line of the dress and then feathering the paint before it dried . The gold on the cloth is rendered with a variety of impasto , grid and dots of varying colour and size .

Many of the objects around her are also closely detailed , in particular the wooden floor and nails , the folds of the Magdalene 's dress , the costume of the figures in the exterior and the beads of Joseph 's rosary . The effect of falling light is closely studied ; Joseph 's crystal rosary beads have bright highlights , while subtle delineations of light and shade can be seen in the sideboard 's tracery and in the clasps of her book . Mary is absorbed in her reading and seemingly unaware of her surroundings . Van der Weyden has given her a quiet dignity although he is generally seen as the more emotional of the master Netherlandish painters of the era , in particular when contrasted with Jan van Eyck .

Lorne Campbell describes the tiny figure of the woman seen through the window and her reflection in the water as " small miracles of painting " , and says that " the attention to detail far exceeds that of Jan van Eyck and the skill of execution is astounding " . He notes that these tiny details would have been impossible for a viewer to observe when the altarpiece was in its intended position . Other areas of the panel , however , have been described as dull and uninspired . One critic wrote that the areas of the floor and most of the cupboard behind her seem unfinished and " much too narrow and papery in effect " . A number of objects placed on the cupboard are now barely visible save for their bases . The object on the right seated on legs alongside a box is likely a small pitcher , possibly a reliquary . A moulding to the left of the cupboard may represent a doorway .

= = Altarpiece fragment = =

Virgin and Child with Saints , a drawing in Stockholm 's Nationalmuseum , is believed to be a study of a portion of the original altarpiece by a follower of van der Weyden , who possibly may have been the Master of the Koberger Ründblatter . The drawing has a loosely sketched background and shows , from left to right : an unidentified bishop saint with mitre and crosier making a blessing gesture ; a narrow gap with a few wavy vertical lines suggesting a start at the outline of a further kneeling figure ; a barefoot bearded figure in a rough robe identified as Saint John the Baptist ; a seated Virgin holding on her lap the Christ Child who leans to the right , looking at a book ; and holding the book , a kneeling beardless male identified as John the Evangelist . The drawing stops at the end of John 's robe , at about the point on the London panel where Joseph 's walking stick meets John and the Magdalene 's robes . This suggests that the Magdalene panel was the first to be cut from the larger work .

At an unknown point before 1811 , the original altarpiece was broken into at least three pieces , possibly due to damage , although The Magdalen fragment is in good condition . The black overpaint was likely added after the early 17th century when Netherlandish painting had fallen from favour and was unfashionable . Campbell believes that after the removal of the background detail " it looked sufficiently like a genre piece to hang in a well @-@ known collection of Dutch seventeenth @-@ century paintings " . From the size of three surviving panels in relation to the drawing , it is estimated that the original was at least 1 m high by 1 @.@ 5 m wide ; the bishop and the Magdalene seem to clearly mark the horizontal extremities , but the extent of the picture above and below the surviving elements and the drawing cannot be judged . Such a size is comparable with smaller altarpieces of the period . The background was overpainted with a thick layer of black / brown pigment until it was cleaned in 1955 ; it was only after the layer 's removal that it was linked to the upper body and head of Joseph from the Lisbon piece . These two works were not recorded in inventory until 1907 , when they appear in the collection of Léo Lardus in Suresnes , France .

The London panel shows much of the clothing of two other figures from the original altarpiece . To the left of the Magdalene is the red robe of what appears to be a kneeling figure . The figure and robe , and less precisely the background , match a kneeling Saint John the Evangelist . Behind the Magdalen is a standing figure in blue and red robes , with linear rosary beads in one hand and a walking stick in the other . A panel at the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian in Lisbon shows the head of a figure believed to be the Saint Joseph ; the background and clothes match with those of the figure behind the Magdalen on the London panel .

There is a further small panel in Lisbon of a female head , richly or royally dressed , which first appeared in 1907 with the Joseph panel when it was recorded in the inventory of Leo Nardus at Suresnes . The figure may represent Saint Catherine of Alexandria , and from both the angle of her cloth and the fact that the river behind her would be parallel to that in the exterior of the London panel it can be assumed that she was kneeling . In the Stockholm drawing she is omitted , or only traces of her dress shown . The Joseph panel has a sliver of a view through a window to an exterior scene ; if the other female is presumed to be kneeling , the trees above the waterway aligns with those in the London panel . Some art historians , including Martin Davies and John Ward , have been slow to allow the Catherine panel as part of the altarpiece , though it is undoubtedly by van der Weyden or a near @-@ contemporary follower . Evidence against this link includes the fact that the moulding of the window to the left of the Gulbenkian female saint is plain , while that next to Saint Joseph is chamfered . Such an inconsistency in a single van der Weyden work is unusual . The panels are of equal thickness ( 1 @.@ 3 cm ) and of near @-@ identical size ; the Saint Catherine panel measures 18 @.@ 6 cm × 21 @.@ 7 cm ( 7 @.@ 3 in × 8 @.@ 5 in ) , the Saint Joseph 18 @.@ 2 cm × 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 2 in × 8 @.@ 3 in ) .

Lorne Campbell thinks that though the Catherine head is " obviously less well drawn and less successfully painted than the Magdalen " , it " seems likely " that all three fragments came from the same original work ; he points out that " about half way up the right edge of this fragment [ " Catherine " ] is a small triangle of red , outlined by a continuous underdrawn brushstroke ... It is likely that the red is part of the contour of the missing figure of the Baptist " . The small piece is on the outermost edge of the panel , and only visible when it was removed from the frame . Ward believes the piece corresponds directly with the folds of John 's robes .

The Stockholm drawing contains a narrow blank gap to the right of the bishop with a few indistinct lines that could represent the lower profile of the kneeling figure of Saint Catherine . Although none of the faces in the three surviving panels match any in the drawing , a 1971 reconstruction by art historian John Ward — which combined all of the works into a composition of a central Virgin and Child flanked by six saints — is widely accepted . The Stockholm drawing 's original location or history before the 19th century is unknown , except that the verso shows a surviving carving of the Virgin and Child attributed to a Brussels workshop from about 1440 . This carving is also now in Portugal .

= = Iconography = =

Van der Weyden 's depiction of the Magdalen is based on Mary of Bethany , identified by the time of Pope Gregory I as the repentant prostitute of Luke 7 : 36 – 50 . She then became associated with weeping and reading : Christ 's mercy causes the eyes of the sinner to be contrite or tearful . Early Renaissance artists often conveyed this idea by portraying contemplative eyes , associating tears with words , and in turn weeping with reading . Examples can be seen in 16th @-@ century works by Tintoretto and Titian which show the Magdalen reading , often with her eyes averted towards her book ( and presumably away from a male gaze ) , or looking up to the heavens or , sometimes , glancing coyly towards the viewer . Writing in " The Crying Face " , Mosche Barasch explains that in van der Weyden 's time the gesture of averting or concealing the eyes became a " pictorial formula for crying " .

By the medieval period , reading became synonymous with devotion , which involved withdrawal from public view . Van der Weyden 's placement of the Magdalen in an interior scene reflects the increasing literacy of domestic or laywomen in the mid @-@ 15th century . The increased production of devotional texts showed that noble women of the period routinely read texts such as a psalter or book of hours in the privacy of their homes . Whether the Magdalen herself was a reader , by the 17th century she was firmly established as such in the visual arts . Because the Magdalen was present at Christ 's death and subsequent resurrection , she was seen as the bearer of news — a witness — and hence directly associated with the text .

The Magdalen imagery further draws on the idea of Christ as the word , represented by a book , with the Magdalen as the reader learning of her own life story in a moment of reflection and repentance . Her devotion to reading reflects her traditional status as the piously repentant harlot , as well as a prophetess or seer . According to legend , the Magdalen lived the last 30 years of her life as a hermit in Sainte @-@ Baume and is often shown with a book , reading or writing , symbolizing her later years of contemplation and repentance . By the 13th century she acquired the imagery of a once @-@ shamed woman who , clothed in long hair , now hid her nakedness in exile and " borne by angels , floats between heaven and earth " .

The Magdalen 's ointment jar was common in the lexicon of art in van der Weyden 's period . Mary of Bethany may have used a jar when she repented of her sins at Christ 's feet in her home ; by the Renaissance , the image of the Magdalen was of the woman who bathed Christ 's feet with her tears and dried them with her hair . She signified the " sacrament of anointing ( Chrism and Unction ) " by pouring precious spikenard on Christ 's feet at his tomb .

= = Dating and provenance = =

The altarpiece 's date is uncertain but believed to be between 1435 and 1438 . Van der Weyden was made painter to the city of Brussels in 1435 , and it is believed to have been painted after this appointment . The National Gallery gives " before 1438 " . Art historian John Ward notes that the altarpiece was one of van der Weyden 's first masterpieces , created early in his career when he was still heavily influenced by Robert Campin . He proposes a c . 1437 date based on similarities to Campin 's Werl Altarpiece .

Because van der Weyden , like most of the early Netherlandish painters , was not rediscovered until the early 19th century , many of his works were wrongly attributed or dated , and major pieces such as the Berlin Miraflores Altarpiece continue to emerge . Conversely , when a number of pieces considered either by van der Weyden or assistants under his supervision were cleaned in the mid- to late 20th century , his hand or direct influence was disproved , or in the case of the Magdalen , associated with other images whose attribution had been uncertain .

The Magdalen Reading can first be traced to an 1811 sale of the estate of Cassino , a little @-@ known collector in Haarlem , when the work was already cut down . The painting is recorded in the inventory of Demoiselles Hoofman , also of Haarlem . After passing to the Nieuwenhuys brothers , who were leading dealers in art of the early Netherlandish period , it moved to the collector Edmond Beaucousin in Paris , whose " small but choice " collection of early Netherlandish paintings was purchased for the National Gallery , London by Charles Lock Eastlake in 1860 ; an acquisition that also included two Robert Campin portraits and panels by Simon Marmion ( 1425 – 1489 ) . This was during a period of acquisition intended to establish the international prestige of the gallery . Probably before 1811 , all the background except the red robe on the left and the alabaster jar and floorboards was overpainted in plain brown , which was not removed until the cleaning begun in 1955 . In general the " painted surface is in very good condition " , although better in the parts that were not overpainted , and there are a few small losses .

The Magdalen Reading was transferred from its original oak to a mahogany panel ( West Indian swietenia ) by unknown craftsmen sometime between 1828 and when the National Gallery acquired it in 1860 . Campbell states that the transfer was " Certainly after 1828 , probably after 1845 , and certainly before 1860 " , the year it was acquired by the National Gallery . Artificial ultramarine @-@ coloured paint found in the transfer ground indicates that the change of panel took place after 1830 . The heads in Lisbon are still on their original oak panels . The Stockholm drawing was discovered in a German inventory c . 1916 and is likely of Swedish origin . It was bequeathed by a Norwegian collector , Christian Langaad , to the Swedish National Museum of Fine Arts in 1918 .

= = Gallery = =

= Rosemary 's Baby ( 30 Rock ) =

" Rosemary 's Baby " is the fourth episode of the second season of 30 Rock , and the twenty @-@ fifth episode overall . It was written by Jack Burditt and was directed by Michael Engler . The episode first aired on October 25 , 2007 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Elijah Cook , Carrie Fisher , Marcella Roy , Paul Scheer , Megan Blake Stevenson , Jean Villepique and Stuart Zagnit .

The episode focuses on Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) escapade with her idol , Rosemary Howard ( Carrie Fisher ) ; Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) family problems ; and Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) attempt to replace Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) burnt page jacket . The episode was praised by critics , with Alec Baldwin winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .

= = Plotlines = =

Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) announces that Liz Lemon is the winner of the " G.E. Followship Award " , a prize awarded to the G.E. employee who best exemplifies a follower , which also includes $ 10 @,@ 000 . Liz takes Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) to a book signing to meet Rosemary Howard ( Carrie Fisher ) , her idol when she was a girl , and invites her to be a guest writer on " The Girlie Show " . Rosemary pitches several controversial ideas to Jack , who orders Liz to fire her , but when Liz refuses , Jack fires them both . Liz goes to Rosemary 's house , and once she realizes that Rosemary is crazy , she flees . Liz goes back to Jack 's office and begs for her job back , and he happily rehires her . Jack promises to help Liz invest her prize money , and she swears that she will send Rosemary $ 400 a month for the rest of her life .

When Tracy causes a stir at a public event , Jack assures him that as a movie star , he can do anything he wants , except for dog fighting . Jack finds Tracy disobeying his order , but Tracy shouts that Jack is not his dad . Jack and Tracy meet with an NBC shrink , and Jack role @-@ plays Tracy 's father , Tracy , and Tracy 's mom , among several other people from Tracy 's childhood , conveying the message that even though Tracy 's parents may have divorced , they still loved him . This comforts Tracy , and affirms that while he loves his family , they are crazy , and he needs to stay away from them . Tracy hugs Jack , and tells him that he is the only family he needs .

Jenna accidentally burns Kenneth 's page jacket on a hot plate , and Kenneth worries that head page Donny Lawson ( Paul Scheer ) will punish him . Jenna finds Donny backstage at the studio , who is ecstatic that he finally has a reason to send Kenneth to CNBC in New Jersey . Donny offers Kenneth a choice : go to New Jersey , or compete in a " page off " , a contest of physical stamina and NBC trivia ; Jenna agrees to the page off . Before the event starts , Pete comes in and yells at the pages to get back to work . He forces Donny to give Kenneth a new jacket , but Donny swears to Jenna and Kenneth that he will get back at them .

= = Production = =

" Rosemary 's Baby " was mainly filmed on September 11 , 2007 , while Fisher 's scenes were filmed the next day on September 12 , 2007 . Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode where Tracy Jordan is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz Lemon admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy Jordan takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to Robert Carlock , who she described as " the resident expert " . Prior to the airing of the episode , fans were " raving " about the much awaited guest appearance of Fisher . Fisher 's last line in the episode , " Help me , Liz Lemon ! You 're my only hope ! " , was a spoof of the line " Help me Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , you 're my only hope ! " from her past role in the original Star Wars trilogy , in which she played Princess Leia .

= = Reception = =

According to the Nielsen ratings system , " Rosemary 's Baby " was viewed by an average of 6 @.@ 5 million American viewers . The episode achieved a 3 @.@ 1 / 8 in key 18 – 49 demographic . The 3 @.@ 1 rating refers to 3 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 8 share refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . In the U.S. , " Rosemary 's Baby " was up by 19 % in the rating demographic compared to the previous episode , " The Collection , " receiving its highest result since the second season premiere episode , " SeinfeldVision , " on October 4 , 2007 .

" Rosemary 's Baby " was named as one of the " Top 11 TV Episodes of 2007 " by UGO , and ranked thirteenth on The Futon Critic 's list of " the 50 Best Episodes of 2007 " ; both citing the Baldwin and Morgan therapy scene as the reason . Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide declared it as " one of 30 Rock 's best episodes ever . " Webb Mitovich praised Carrie Fisher 's guest appearance , but felt that Baldwin 's role @-@ playing during Morgan 's therapy session stole the show . Bob Sassone of TV Squad felt that even though the plot was " insane " , the episode still managed " to have a heart at its core " . Sassone called the therapy scene " one of the funniest scenes ... on TV this season " . Robert Canning of IGN felt that the episode has " great storylines to great guest stars " , making it " one of the best the series has produced so far " . Canning called the therapy scene " the best moment of the episode " . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Between Carrie Fisher 's delightfully bonkers guest role and Jack Donaghy 's hijacking of Tracy Jordan 's therapy session , this 2007 episode was so wrong . And so good . "

Michael Engler , the director of this episode , was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series . This episode also earned Carrie Fisher a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series and earned Jack Burditt a nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series .

= Polka Party ! =

Polka Party ! is the fourth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released in 1986 . The album is the fourth of Yankovic 's to be produced by former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer . Recorded between April 1986 and September 1986 , the album was Yankovic 's follow @-@ up to his successful 1985 release , Dare to Be Stupid . The album 's lead single was " Living With a Hernia " , although it was not a hit and did not chart .

The music on Polka Party ! is built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 1980s , featuring jabs at James Brown , Mick Jagger , El DeBarge , and Robert Palmer . The album also features many " style parodies " , or musical imitations that come close to , but do not copy , existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like the Talking Heads , as well as imitations of various musical genres like country music .

Peaking at only number 177 on the Billboard 200 , Polka Party ! was met with mixed reviews and was considered a commercial and critical failure . Despite this , the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1986 . Polka Party ! is one of Yankovic 's few studio albums not to be certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and was later demoted to a budget release in 2009 .

= = Production = =

= = = Recording = = =

In April 1986 Yankovic entered the recording studio to begin the sessions to his follow @-@ up to 1985 's Dare to Be Stupid . To produce the album , Yankovic brought in former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer , who had also produced Yankovic 's previous albums . Backing Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in roughly three sessions . The first session took place between April 22 and 23 , and yielded four originals : " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " , " One of Those Days " , " Dog Eat Dog " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " . The second session , which spanned August 4 – 5 , produced three parodies : " Living with a Hernia " , " Addicted to Spuds " , and " Here 's Johnny " . The final session , which lasted from August 29 to September 1 produced the parody " Toothless People " , an original song named " Good Enough for Now " , and the album 's titular polka medley . Thematically , Yankovic described the record as " not a whole lot different than " the other albums he had recorded , calling the process " even a bit formulaic " .

= = = Originals = = =

On April 22 , 1986 , Yankovic began recording three new original songs for his next album : " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " , " One of Those Days " , and " Dog Eat Dog " . Although " Don 't Wear Those Shoes " is an original composition , Yankovic admitted that the intro was inspired by the style of The Kinks . Lyrically , the song is a plea by the singer to his wife not to not wear certain shoes which he cannot stand . " One of Those Days " is a song detailing horrible things as if they were everyday annoyances . Each horrible thing escalates up to global annihilation while more mundane annoyances pop up at different times .

" Dog Eat Dog " is a style parody of the Talking Heads . Described as a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek look at office life " , the song was inspired by Yankovic 's past experience of working in the mailrooms as well as the traffic department at Westwood One radio station . He noted , " At first I thought [ the job ] was kinda cool that I had a phone and a desk and a little cubicle to call my own , but after a while I felt like my soul had been sucked out of me . " The song features a line directly parodying the Talking Heads song " Once In a Lifetime " : " Sometimes I tell myself , this is not my beautiful stapler / Sometimes I tell myself this is not my beautiful chair ! " This mirrors a similar line in the Talking Heads song : " You may tell yourself , this is not my beautiful house / You may tell yourself , this is not my beautiful wife " .

On April 23 , Yankovic recorded " Christmas at Ground Zero " . The song , " a cheery little tune about death , destruction and the end of the world " was the result of Scotti Brothers Records ' insistence that Yankovic record a Christmas record . After Yankovic presented the song to his label , they relented , because it was " a little different from what they were expecting . " After the song 's release , some radio stations banned the record , a move that Yankovic attributes to " most people [ not wanting ] to hear about nuclear annihilation during the holiday season . " Following the September 11 attacks , when the general term " ground zero " was co @-@ opted as a proper name for the World Trade Center site where two of those attacks took place , the disturbing lyrics caused this song to be banned largely from radio . Yankovic wanted the song to receive a video , but due to budget reasons , his label did not agree . Yankovic , however , directed one himself which was mostly made up of stock footage , with a live action finale that was filmed in an economically devastated part of the Bronx , New York that looked like a bomb had gone off . The final original that was recorded was " Good Enough for Now " , a country music pastiche about how the singer 's lover , who , while not the best , will do for now .

= = = Parodies and polka = = =

On August 4 , Yankovic began recording parodies starting with " Living With a Hernia " . The song , a spoof of " Living in America " by James Brown — which was also the theme to the 1985 film Rocky IV — is about hernias . When it came time to pick a song to parody as the lead single for Polka Party ! Scotti Brothers Records " had some very strong ideas " and wished to have Yankovic parody a musician who was signed on the same label . After " Living in America " became a hit , the record label insisted that Yankovic parody the song , to which Yankovic obliged . In order to accurately write the song , Yankovic researched the various types of hernias . Yankovic noted that " it was a real thrill to do James Brown . I 'm a total non @-@ dancer , never went to any dances in high school , but if I analytically dissect a dance routine I can figure it out . " A choreographer named Chester Whitmore was hired to accurately create the dance scenes featured in the video , which was shot on the concert set actually used in the movie Rocky IV . The second parody recorded was " Addicted to Spuds " , a pastiche of " Addicted to Love " by Robert Palmer , about a man 's obsession for potatoes and potato @-@ based dishes . A music video for the song was never made to the song because there was a strict budget for videos for the album , and Yankovic felt that the video would be one big joke and not really worth its own video . A parody of Palmer 's video , however , was later inserted into Al 's " UHF " video .

On August 5 , Yankovic recorded " Here 's Johnny " , a parody of " Who 's Johnny " by El DeBarge . The song , a loving ode to The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson announcer Ed McMahon , features John Roarke of the television series Fridays fame doing an impression of McMahon 's voice . According to Yankovic , Peter Wolf , the man who wrote " Who 's Johnny " , enjoyed the parody idea so much that he personally brought the floppy disc program that had all the synthesizer parts for the original song into the studio when Yankovic was recording his parody . The final parody recorded for the album was " Toothless People " , a play on Mick Jagger 's " Ruthless People " , which was recorded on August 29 , 1986 . The song , about elderly people who are missing their teeth , was written after Yankovic heard it would be the theme to the 1986 film Ruthless People . Assuming the song would be a hit , Yankovic requested and received permission from Jagger to record a parody version . When Jagger 's song failed to crack the Top 40 , Yankovic considered not recording his version , but because Jagger had " authorized " the parody , he decided failing to produce it would be an insult to the artist . Therefore , he recorded the spoof anyway .

The album 's polka medley , the titular " Polka Party ! " , was recorded on the same day as " Here 's Johnny " . This was Yankovic 's third polka medley , and his only medley to bear the same name as an album . Like his other medleys , the song is a conglomeration of then @-@ popular songs in music .

= = Reception = =

= = = Promotion = = =

To promote the album 's release , Scotti Brothers Records purchased full @-@ page ads in Billboard magazine that advertised the release as Yankovic 's " biggest bash yet " . Unlike previous albums , Yankovic did not undertake a tour to promote Polka Party ! Instead , he opened for the American rock band The Monkees ; Yankovic later joked that the Monkees merely " closed for me " . Yankovic explained that while it " was a fun tour " and that the crowds were very enthusiastic , the tension between the Monkees was obvious ; on his website , he wrote that while the band members " are all terrific people individually " , they " didn 't seem to get along all that great when they weren 't on stage . "

= = = Critical response = = =

Polka Party ! received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Allmusic reviewer Eugene Chadbourne gave the album three stars and wrote that " just about anyone could feel let down by this album . " Chadbourne was largely critical of the parody choices , noting that many of the original versions would be forgotten in " fifteen years " . Christopher Thelen from The Daily Vault gave Polka Party ! an F and described it as an album that " seemed like it could well have been the ' last call ' for Yankovic . " Thelen heavily criticized the record , writing that both the parodies and originals were not good and that " Yankovic [ was ] going through the motions " . Rolling Stone awarded the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , tying it with the 1992 album Off the Deep End and the 1999 release Running with Scissors as Yankovic 's best @-@ rated album . Although it was not a critical success , the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1987 , but lost to Bill Cosby 's Those of You with or Without Children , You 'll Understand .

Despite the album 's lackluster reception , many of the songs on the album , such as " Dog Eat Dog " , " Addicted to Spuds " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " , went on to become fan favorites and live staples . Two of the album 's tracks , " Living with a Hernia " and " Addicted to Spuds " , appeared on Yankovic 's first greatest hits album ( 1988 ) , " Christmas at Ground Zero " appeared on the second volume ( 1994 ) . In addition , the 1994 box set Permanent Record : Al in the Box contained five of the album 's songs : " Addicted to Spuds " , " Dog Eat Dog " , " Here 's Johnny " , " Living with a Hernia " , and " Christmas at Ground Zero " . Only " Dog Eat Dog " , however , appeared on Yankovic 's 2009 Essential collection , although the 3 @.@ 0 version contained " Living with a Hernia " .

= = = Commercial performance = = =

Polka Party ! was released October 21 , 1986 . After it was released , the album peaked at number 177 on the Billboard 200 . Compared to Yankovic 's previous albums — Dare to Be Stupid peaked at number 50 and In 3 @-@ D peaked at number 17 — Polka Party ! was a major commercial disappointment for the comedian . The album was the lowest @-@ charting studio album released by Yankovic and is one of his few studio albums not to be certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The others include the soundtrack to his film UHF ( 1989 ) and Poodle Hat ( 2003 ) . Due to low sales the album was demoted to a budget release along with various other Yankovic albums in August 2009 .

Yankovic was dismayed by the album 's lackluster reception . He noted that he " thought it was the end of [ his ] career " . Yankovic explained that " I figured I 'd peaked with ' Eat It ' and ' Like a Surgeon ' and now people were slowly forgetting about me and I was well on my way to obscurity . " However , Yankovic 's next album , Even Worse , would resurrect his career and become his best @-@ selling album at the time ; the experience led Yankovic to realize that " careers have peaks and valleys , and whenever I go through the rough times , another peak might be right around the corner . "

= = Track listing = =

The following is adapted from the album liner notes .

= = Credits and personnel = =

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = = Charts = = =

= Trees ( poem ) =

" Trees " is a lyric poem by American poet Joyce Kilmer . Written in February 1913 , it was first published in Poetry : A Magazine of Verse that August and included in Kilmer 's 1914 collection Trees and Other Poems . The poem , in twelve lines of rhyming couplets of iambic tetrameter verse , describes what Kilmer perceives as the inability of art created by humankind to replicate the beauty achieved by nature .

Kilmer is most remembered for " Trees " , which has been the subject of frequent parodies and references in popular culture . Kilmer 's work is often disparaged by critics and dismissed by scholars as being too simple and overly sentimental , and that his style was far too traditional and even archaic . Despite this , the popular appeal of " Trees " has contributed to its endurance . Literary critic Guy Davenport considers it " the one poem known by practically everybody . " " Trees " is frequently included in poetry anthologies and has been set to music several times — including a popular rendition by Oscar Rasbach , performed by singers Nelson Eddy , Robert Merrill , and Paul Robeson .

The location for a specific tree as the possible inspiration for the poem has been claimed by several places and institutions connected to Kilmer 's life — among these are Rutgers University , the University of Notre Dame , and towns across the country that Kilmer visited . However , Kilmer 's eldest son , Kenton , declares that the poem does not apply to any one tree — that it could apply equally to any . " Trees " was written in an upstairs bedroom at the family 's home in Mahwah , New Jersey that " looked out down a hill , on our well @-@ wooded lawn . " Ironically , Kenton Kilmer stated that while his father was " widely known for his affection for trees , his affection was certainly not sentimental — the most distinguished feature of Kilmer 's property was a colossal woodpile outside his home . "

= = Writing = =

= = = Mahwah : February 1913 = = =

According to Kilmer 's oldest son , Kenton , " Trees " was written on 2 February 1913 , when the family resided in Mahwah , New Jersey in the northwestern corner of Bergen County . The Kilmers lived on the southwest corner of the intersection of Airmount Road and Armour Road in Mahwah for five years and the house overlooked the Ramapo Valley .

It was written in the afternoon in the intervals of some other writing . The desk was in an upstairs room , by a window looking down a wooded hill . It was written in a little notebook in which his father and mother wrote out copies of several of their poems , and , in most cases , added the date of composition . On one page the first two lines of ' Trees ' appear , with the date , February 2 , 1913 , and on another page , further on in the book , is the full text of the poem . It was dedicated to his wife 's mother , Mrs. Henry Mills Alden , who was endeared to all her family .

In 2013 , the notebook alluded to by Kilmer 's son was uncovered by journalist and Kilmer researcher Alex Michelini in Georgetown University 's Lauinger Library in a collection of family papers donated to the university by Kilmer 's granddaughter , Miriam Kilmer . The " Mrs. Henry Mills Alden " to whom the poem was dedicated was Ada Foster Murray Alden ( 1866 – 1936 ) , the mother of Kilmer 's wife , Aline Murray Kilmer ( 1888 – 1941 ) . Alden , a writer , had married Harper 's Magazine editor Henry Mills Alden in 1900 .

= = = Kilmer 's inspiration = = =

Kilmer 's poetry was influenced by " his strong religious faith and dedication to the natural beauty of the world . "

Although several communities across the United States claim to have inspired " Trees " , nothing can be established specifically regarding Kilmer 's inspiration except that he wrote the poem while residing in Mahwah . Both Kilmer 's widow , Aline , and his son , Kenton , refuted these claims in their correspondence with researchers and by Kenton in his memoir . Kenton wrote to University of Notre Dame researcher Dorothy Colson :

Mother and I agreed , when we talked about it , that Dad never meant his poem to apply to one particular tree , or to the trees of any special region . Just any trees or all trees that might be rained on or snowed on , and that would be suitable nesting places for robins . I guess they 'd have to have upward @-@ reaching branches , too , for the line about ' lifting leafy arms to pray . ' Rule out weeping willows .

According to Kenton Kilmer , the upstairs room in which the poem was written looked down the hill over the family 's " well @-@ wooded lawn " that contained " trees of many kinds , from mature trees to thin saplings : oaks , maples , black and white birches , and I do not know what else . " A published interview with Joyce Kilmer in 1915 mentioned the poet 's large woodpile at the family 's Mahwah home :

... while Kilmer might be widely known for his affection for trees , his affection was certainly not sentimental — the most distinguished feature of Kilmer 's property was a colossal woodpile outside his home . The house stood in the middle of a forest and what lawn it possessed was obtained only after Kilmer had spent months of weekend toil in chopping down trees , pulling up stumps , and splitting logs . Kilmer 's neighbors had difficulty in believing that a man who could do that could also be a poet .

= = Scansion and analysis = =

" Trees " is a poem of twelve lines in strict iambic tetrameter . All but one of the lines has the full eight syllables of iambic tetrameter . The eleventh , or penultimate , line begins on the stressed syllable of the iambic foot and drops the unstressed syllable — an acephalous ( or " headless " ) catalectic line — that results in a truncated seven @-@ syllable iambic tetrameter line . Making the meter of a line catalectic can change the feeling of the poem , and is often used to achieve a certain effect as a way of changing tone or announcing a conclusion . The poem 's rhyme scheme is rhyming couplets rendered aa bb cc dd ee aa .

Despite its deceptive simplicity in rhyme and meter , " Trees " is notable for its use of personification and anthropomorphic imagery : the tree of the poem , which Kilmer depicts as female , is depicted as pressing its mouth to the Earth 's breast , looking at God , and raising its " leafy arms " to pray . The tree of the poem also has human physical attributes — it has a " hungry mouth " , arms , hair ( in which robins nest ) , and a bosom .

Rutgers @-@ Newark English professor and poet Rachel Hadas described the poem as being " rather slight " although it " is free of irony and self consciousness , except that little reference to fools like me at the end , which I find kind of charming . " Scholar Mark Royden Winchell points out that Kilmer 's depiction of the tree indicates the possibility that he had several different people in mind because of the variety of anthropomorphic descriptions . Winchell posits that if the tree described were to be a single human being it would be " an anatomically deformed one . "

" In the second stanza , the tree is a sucking babe drawing nourishment from Mother Earth ; in the third it is a supplicant reaching its leafy arms to the sky in prayer ... In the fourth stanza , the tree is a girl with jewels ( a nest of robins ) in her hair ; and in the fifth , it is a chaste woman living alone with nature and with God . There is no warrant in the poem to say that it is different trees that remind the poet of these different types of people . "

However , Winchell observes that this " series of fanciful analogies ... could be presented in any order without damaging the overall structure of his poem . "

= = Publication and reception = =

= = = Publication = = =

" Trees " was first published in the August 1913 issue of Poetry : A Magazine of Verse . The magazine , which had begun publishing the year before in Chicago , Illinois , quickly became the " principal organ for modern poetry of the English @-@ speaking world " publishing the early works of poets who became the major influences on the development of twentieth @-@ century literature ( including T.S. Eliot , Ezra Pound , H.D. , Wallace Stevens , Robert Frost and Edna St. Vincent Millay ) . Poetry paid Kilmer six dollars to print the poem , which was immediately successful . The following year , Kilmer included " Trees " in his collection Trees and Other Poems published by the George H. Doran Company .

Joyce Kilmer 's reputation as a poet is staked largely on the widespread popularity of this one poem . " Trees " was liked immediately on first publication in Poetry : A Magazine of Verse ; when Trees and Other Poems was published the following year , the review in Poetry focused on the " nursery rhyme " directness and simplicity of the poems , finding a particular childlike naivety in " Trees " , which gave it " an unusual , haunting poignancy " . However , the same review criticized the rest of the book , stating " much of the verse in this volume is very slight indeed . "

Despite the enduring popular appeal of " Trees " , most of Joyce Kilmer 's works are largely unknown and have fallen into obscurity . A select few of his poems , including " Trees " , are published frequently in anthologies . " Trees " began appearing in anthologies shortly after Kilmer 's 1918 death , the first inclusion being Louis Untermeyer 's Modern American Poetry ( 1919 ) . Journalist and author Mark Forsyth , ranks the first two lines of " Trees " as 26th out of 50 lines in an assessment of the " most quoted lines of poetry " as measured by Google hits .

= = = Popular appeal = = =

With " Trees " , Kilmer was said to have " rediscovered simplicity " , and the simplicity of its message and delivery is a source of its appeal . In 1962 , English professor Barbara Garlitz recounted that her undergraduate students considered the poem as " one of the finest poems ever written , or at least a very good one " — even after its technical flaws were discussed — because of its simple message and that it " paints such lovely pictures " . The students pointed to " how true the poem is " , and it appealed to both her students ' " romantic attitude towards nature " and their appreciation of life , nature , solace , and beauty because of its message that " the works of God completely overshadow our own feeble attempts at creation . " Considering this sentiment , the enduring popularity of " Trees " is evinced by its association with annual Arbor Day observances and the planting of memorial trees as well as the several parks named in honor of Kilmer , including the Joyce Kilmer @-@ Slickrock Wilderness and Joyce Kilmer Memorial Forest tracts within the Nantahala National Forest in Graham County , North Carolina .

" Trees " has been described by literary critic Guy Davenport as " the one poem known by practically everybody . " According to journalist Rick Hampson , " Trees " was " memorized and recited by generations of students ... It comforted troops in the trenches of World War I. It was set to music and set in stone , declaimed in opera houses and vaudeville theaters , intoned at ceremonies each April on Arbor Day . " According to Robert Holliday , Kilmer 's friend and editor , " Trees " speaks " with authentic song to the simplest of hearts . " Holliday added that this " exquisite title poem now so universally known made his reputation more than all the rest he had written put together " and was " made for immediate widespread popularity . "

= = = Critical reception = = =

Several critics — including both Kilmer 's contemporaries and modern scholars — have disparaged Kilmer 's work as being too religious , simple , overly sentimental , and suggested that his style was far too traditional , even archaic . Poet Conrad Aiken , a contemporary of Kilmer , lambasted his work as being unoriginal — merely " imitative with a sentimental bias " and " trotting out of the same faint passions , the same old heartbreaks and love songs , ghostly distillations of fragrances all too familiar . " Aiken characterized Kilmer as a " dabbler in the pretty and sweet " and " pale @-@ mouthed clingers to the artificial and archaic . "

Kilmer is considered among the last of the Romantic era poets because his verse is conservative and traditional in style and does not break any of the formal rules of poetics — a style often criticized today for being too sentimental to be taken seriously . The entire corpus of Kilmer 's work was produced between 1909 and 1918 when Romanticism and sentimental lyric poetry fell out of favor and Modernism took root — especially with the influence of the Lost Generation . In the years after Kilmer 's death , poetry went in drastically different directions , as is seen in the work of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound , and academic criticism grew with it to eschew the more sentimental and straightforward verse .

The poem was criticized by Cleanth Brooks and Robert Penn Warren in their textbook Understanding Poetry first published in 1938 . Brooks and Warren were two of the major contributors to the New Criticism movement , where its supporters opposed using literature as a surrogate for religion . New Criticism proponents analyzed poetry on its aesthetic formulae and excluded reader 's response , the author 's intention , historical and cultural contexts , and moralistic bias from their analysis . They attributed the popularity of Trees largely to its religious appeal and believed it was a " stock response that has nothing to do , as such , with poetry , " adding :

" It praises God and appeals to a religious sentiment . Therefore , people who do not stop to look at the poem itself or to study the images in the poem and think about what the poem really says , are inclined to accept the poem because of the pious sentiment , the prettified little pictures ( which in themselves appeal to stock responses ) , and the mechanical rhythm . "

Literary critic Mark Royden Winchell believed that Brooks and Warren 's criticism of Kilmer 's poem was chiefly to demonstrate that " it is sometimes possible to learn as much about poetry from bad poems as from good ones . "

= = Refuted claims regarding inspiration = =

Due to the enduring popular appeal of " Trees " , several local communities and organizations across the United States have staked their claim to the genesis of the poem . While the accounts of family members and of documents firmly establish Mahwah being the place where Kilmer wrote the poem , several towns throughout the country have claimed that Kilmer wrote " Trees " while staying there or that a specific tree in their town inspired Kilmer 's writing . Local tradition in Swanzey , New Hampshire asserts without proof that Kilmer wrote the poem while summering in the town . Montague , Massachusetts claims that either " a sprawling maple dominated the grounds near a hospital where Kilmer once was treated " or " a spreading maple in the yard of an old mansion , " inspired the poem .

In New Brunswick , New Jersey , Kilmer 's hometown , the claim involved a large white oak on the Cook College campus ( now the School of Environmental and Biological Sciences ) , at Rutgers University . This tree , the " Kilmer Oak " , was estimated to be over 300 years old . Because it had been weakened by age and disease , the Kilmer Oak was removed in 1963 , and in reporting by The New York Times and other newspapers the local tradition was repeated with the claim that " Rutgers said it could not prove that Kilmer had been inspired by the oak . " Currently , saplings from acorns of the historic tree are being grown at the site , throughout the Middlesex County and central New Jersey , as well as in major arboretums around the United States . The remains of the original Kilmer Oak are presently kept in storage at Rutgers University .

Because of Kilmer 's close identification with Roman Catholicism and his correspondence with many priests and theologians , a tree located near a grotto dedicated to the Virgin Mary at the University of Notre Dame in South Bend , Indiana has been asserted as the inspiration for the poem . According to Dorothy Corson , the claim was first made by a priest named Henry Kemper . There are several accounts that Kilmer visited the campus of Notre Dame to lecture and to visit friends , but none of these accounts or occasions date before 1914 .

In his 1997 book of essays entitled The Geography of the Imagination , American writer Guy Davenport suggests a different inspiration for Kilmer 's poem .

" Trees were favorite symbols for Yeats , Frost , and even the young Pound . ... But Kilmer had been reading about trees in another context [ , ] the movement to stop child labor and set up nursery schools in slums . ... Margaret McMillan ... had the happy idea that a breath of fresh air and an intimate acquaintance with grass and trees were worth all the pencils and desks in the whole school system . ... The English word for gymnasium equipment is ' apparatus . ' And in her book Labour and Childhood ( 1907 ) you will find this sentence : ' Apparatus can be made by fools , but only God can make a tree.'

It appears that Davenport must have loosely and erroneously paraphrased the sentiments expressed by McMillan , as this exact quote does not appear in her text . Instead , McMillan is expressing the observation that several nineteenth @-@ century writers , including William Rankin , William Morris and Thomas Carlyle , opposed the effects of machinery on society and craftsmanship and thus eschewed machine @-@ made items . Davenport 's observation likely was derived in some way from McMillan 's examination and quotation of Carlyle :

" He ( Carlyle ) often makes comparisons between men and machines , and even trees and machines , greatly to the disadvantage of the latter . For example , ' O , that we could displace the machine god and put a man god in his place ! ' and ' I find no similitude of life so true as this of a tree ! Beautiful ! Machine of the universe ! '

= = Adaptations and parodies = =

= = = Musical adaptations = = =

Several of Kilmer 's poems , including " Trees " , were set to music and published in England by Kilmer 's mother , Annie Kilburn Kilmer , who was a writer and amateur composer . The more popular musical setting of Kilmer 's poem was composed in 1922 by American pianist and composer Oscar Rasbach . This setting had been performed and recorded frequently in twentieth century , including Ernestine Schumann @-@ Heink , John Charles Thomas , Nelson Eddy , Robert Merrill , Perry Como , and Paul Robeson . Rasbach 's song appeared on popular network television shows , including All in the Family , performed by the puppets Wayne and Wanda in The Muppet Show , and as an animated feature segment featuring Fred Waring and the Pennsylvanians performing the song in the 1948 animated film Melody Time , the last of the short @-@ film anthology features produced by Walt Disney .

Rasbach 's setting has also been lampooned , most notably in the Our Gang short film " Arbor Day " ( 1936 ) , directed by Fred C. Newmeyer , in which Alfalfa ( played by Carl Switzer ) , sings the song in a whiny , strained voice after a " woodsman , spare that tree " dialogue with Spanky ( George McFarland ) , sings " Trees . " Film critic Leonard Maltin has called this " the poem 's all @-@ time worst rendition . " In his album Caught in the Act , Victor Borge , when playing requests , responds to a member of the audience : " Sorry I don 't know that ' Doggie in the Window ' . I know one that comes pretty close to it , " and proceeds to play the Rasbach setting of " Trees . "

Dutch composer Henk van der Vliet , included a setting of " Trees " as the third in a set of five songs written in 1977 , which included texts by poets Christina Rossetti , Percy Bysshe Shelley , Kilmer , Matthew Prior , and Sir John Suckling .

= = = Parodies = = =

Because of the varied reception to Kilmer 's poem and its simple rhyme and meter , it has been the model for several parodies written by humorists and poets alike . While keeping with Kilmer 's iambic tetrameter rhythm and its couplet rhyme scheme , and references to the original poem 's thematic material , such parodies are often immediately recognizable , as is seen in " Song of the Open Road " written by poet and humorist Ogden Nash : " I think that I shall never see / A billboard lovely as a tree . / Indeed , unless the billboards fall , / I 'll never see a tree at all . "

A similar sentiment was expressed in a 1968 episode of the animated series Wacky Races titled " The Wrong Lumber Race " , where the villainous Dick Dastardly chops down a tree and uses it as a roadblock against the other racers , declaring proudly : " I think that I shall never see / A roadblock lovely as a tree . "

Further , Trappist monk , poet and spiritual writer Thomas Merton used Kilmer 's poem as a model for a parody called " Chee $ e " — with a dollar sign purposefully substituted for the letter " s " — in which Merton ridiculed the lucrative sale of homemade cheese by his monastery , the Abbey of Gethsemani in Kentucky . This poem was not published during Merton 's lifetime . Merton often criticized the " commodification of monastic life and business for a profit " , claiming that it affected the well @-@ being of the spirit . In his poem , Merton attributed his parody to " Joyce Killer @-@ Diller . "

Like Kilmer , Merton was a graduate of Columbia University and a member of its literary society , the Philolexian Society , which has hosted the annual Joyce Kilmer Memorial Bad Poetry Contest since 1986 . " Trees " is read at the conclusion of each year 's event .

Kilmer 's poem was recited in the 1980 film Superman II , as well as its 2006 director 's cut . In the scene , villain Lex Luthor ( played by Gene Hackman ) and others enter Superman 's Fortress of Solitude and comes across a video of an elder ( John Hollis ) from planet Krypton reciting " Trees " as an example of " poetry from Earth literature " . Luthor ridicules the poem .

= Zygoballus sexpunctatus =

Zygoballus sexpunctatus is a species of jumping spider which occurs in the southeastern United States where it can be found in a variety of grassy habitats . Adult spiders measure between 3 and 4 @.@ 5 mm in length . The cephalothorax and abdomen are bronze to black in color , with reddish brown or yellowish legs . The male has distinctive enlarged chelicerae ( the mouthparts used for grasping prey ) and front femora ( the third , and typically largest , leg segments ) . Like many jumping spiders , Z. sexpunctatus males exhibit ritualized courtship and agonistic behavior .

= = Etymology = =

The specific name is derived from the Latin sex meaning " six " and punctum meaning " spot " . This is a reference to the six spots typically occurring on the abdomen of the male .

= = History and taxonomy = =

The species was first described by entomologist Nicholas Marcellus Hentz in 1845 in the Boston Journal of Natural History . Hentz named the species Attus sexpunctatus and described it as follows :

" Black ; cephalothorax with the two posterior eyes near the base , which is wide and suddenly inclined at nearly a right angle with the upper surface , cheliceres with a strong inner tooth , and a long , curved fang ; abdomen with six dots , and a line in front , white ; feet , 1 . 4 . 2 . 3 . , first pair with enlarged thighs and quite long . "

Hentz classified A. sexpunctatus in the subgeneric group Pugnatoriae , which consisted of jumping spiders whose first pair of legs were the longest , followed by the fourth pair . Later entomologists abandoned this classification , which Hentz himself admitted was " somewhat artificial " . In 1888 , with the recognition of Zygoballus as an independent genus , American arachnologists George and Elizabeth Peckham renamed the spider Zygoballus sexpunctatus . Specimens of Z. sexpunctatus are housed at the Museum of Comparative Zoology , the British Museum , the Milwaukee Public Museum , the American Museum of Natural History , and the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle . No type specimens are known .

The genus Zygoballus contains approximately twenty species distributed from the United States to Argentina . Zygoballus is classified in the subfamily Dendryphantinae of the family Salticidae ( jumping spiders ) .

= = Description = =

According to arachnologist B. J. Kaston , adult females are 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 mm in body length , while males are 3 to 3 @.@ 5 mm . The Peckhams ' earlier description , however , gives a length of 3 mm for females and 3 to 4 @.@ 5 mm for males .

The cephalothorax of Z. sexpunctatus is bronze to black in color . Like all Zygoballus spiders , the cephalothorax is box @-@ like in shape , being widest at the posterior lateral eyes . Numerous white or pale blue scales cover the clypeus ( " face " ) and chelicerae . This covering extends around the sides of the carapace , ending beyond the posterior median eyes . In males , the labium is two @-@ fifths as long as the maxillae , and as wide as it is long . The chelicerae of males are greatly enlarged and obliquely oriented , with each chelicera having a prominent inner tooth and a long , curved fang .

The legs are reddish brown , or sometimes yellowish , with the femora of the anterior ( first ) pair being darker and enlarged , especially in the male . The anterior legs have three pairs of long spines on the ventral surface of the tibia and two pairs of spines on the metatarsus . The Peckhams give the following measurements for the lengths of the legs of a male specimen , starting with the anterior pair : 3 @.@ 7 mm , 2 @.@ 2 mm , 2 mm , 3 mm . In females , the fourth pair of legs are the longest . The pedipalp in the male has a single tibial apophysis which tapers gradually .

The abdomen is bronze to black with a white basal band and two white transverse bands . The transverse bands are often broken to form six spots . Some or all of these spots may be lacking , however .

Zygoballus sexpunctatus is similar in appearance to Zygoballus rufipes , with whom its range overlaps . The male can be distinguished from Z. rufipes by the large spot of white scales at the beginning of the thoracic slope ( which is lacking in Z. rufipes ) , and by the longitudinal division present on the bulb of the pedipalp ( Z. rufipes has a transverse division ) . The female can best be distinguished by the form of the epigyne ( the external genital structure ) .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

The range of the species extends from New Jersey to Florida and west to Texas , although it is most commonly found in the southern states . Hentz collected his original specimen in North Carolina . In 1909 , the Peckhams reported that the species had been collected from North Carolina , Florida , Texas , Louisiana , and Mississippi . A seven @-@ year survey of spider species in western Mississippi reported the abundance of Z. sexpunctatus as " uncommon " . A one @-@ year survey in Alachua County , Florida , reported the species as " rare " .

Specimens have been collected from several ecosystems , including old fields , river terrace forests , flatwoods , Florida Sand Pine scrub , Slash Pine forests , Appalachian grass balds , and rice fields . Robert and Betty Barnes reported the species as occurring in broomsedge fields throughout the southeastern Piedmont . The species is typically found in the herb stratum ( among grasses and other short plants ) and may be collected with a sweep net .

= = Behavior = =

Male Zygoballus sexpunctatus spiders are known to exhibit elaborate courtship displays . As a male approaches a female , it will typically raise and spread its first pair of legs and vibrate its abdomen . If the female is receptive , it will often vibrate its abdomen as well . The specific patterns of courtship behavior , however , vary between individuals .

Z. sexpunctatus males exhibit ritualized agonistic behavior when encountering other males of the same species . This behavior may include many of the same elements as courtship , such as raising and spreading the first pair of legs and vibrating the abdomen . During agonistic display , males will also extend their pedipalps and fangs . Lethal attacks between males appear to be rare , however .

= = Diet and ecology = =

Like most spiders , Zygoballus sexpunctatus is an opportunistic feeder , feeding on a wide range of invertebrate prey . The spider 's diet typically includes small insects such as aphids and young caterpillars . They have also been known to eat mosquitoes and numerous kinds of small spiders .

Mud dauber wasps , which capture and paralyze spiders as a source of food for their larvae , have been shown to prey on both male and female Z. sexpunctatus spiders .

= = Life cycle = =

In a study of spider populations in western Tennessee , Zygoballus sexpunctatus spiderlings were reported to hatch from egg sacs in mid summer . The spiders hibernated through the winter in an immature form and reached sexual maturity around late April .

= 1986 Peach Bowl =

The 1986 Peach Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the North Carolina State Wolfpack from on December 31 , 1986 . The game was the final contest of the 1986 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 25 – 24 victory for Virginia Tech , the first bowl victory in school history .

Virginia Tech came into the game with a 9 – 1 – 1 record that included an unusual win over the Temple Owls , who were forced to forfeit a victory to Virginia Tech after using an ineligible player . Facing the Hokies in the Peach Bowl were the 18th @-@ ranked Wolfpack from North Carolina State University . N.C. State was led by head coach Dick Sheridan and had a regular @-@ season record of 8 – 2 – 1 that included five wins over Atlantic Coast Conference teams .

The 1986 Peach Bowl kicked off five years minus one day since Virginia Tech had last played in Atlanta — during the 1981 Peach Bowl . Virginia Tech scored first in the game , but NC State 's Bulluck blocked a Tech punt in the Tech end zone and recovered it for a tying touchdown . Virginia Tech kicked a field goal at the end of the quarter to take a 10 – 7 lead , but NC State fought back , scoring 14 unanswered points in the second quarter to take a 21 – 10 lead by halftime . In the third quarter , the game turned into a defensive battle . Neither side scored until late in the third quarter , when Tech took advantage of a State fumble to score the first touchdown of the second half . Tech failed to convert a two @-@ point conversion , but NC State fumbled again on the ensuing possession , and Tech was able to drive for another touchdown . Leading 22 – 21 , Tech attempted another two @-@ point conversion , which also failed .

NC State , needing to score , drove down the field and kicked a go @-@ ahead 33 @-@ yard field goal with 7 : 12 remaining in the game . After a failed possession , Tech was forced to punt the ball , allowing NC State to run down the clock . The Virginia Tech defense eventually forced a stop , giving the Tech offense one final chance to win the game . With 1 : 53 on the clock and beginning from their own 20 @-@ yard line , the Hokies drove 57 yards to the NC State 23 @-@ yard line . There , kicker Chris Kinzer successfully kicked a 40 @-@ yard field goal as time expired to give Virginia Tech the win .

= = Team selection = =

The Peach Bowl game was created in 1968 by the Lions Club of Atlanta as a means to attract tourism to the city . First played at Grant Field on the campus of Georgia Tech , the game was moved to Fulton County Stadium in 1971 . By the mid @-@ 1980s , the Peach Bowl was facing hard times . At the time , NCAA guidelines for bowls required 75 percent of gross receipts to go to participating schools , with 33 percent of tickets to the game also required to go to each school . In 1983 , the NCAA threatened to revoke the Peach Bowl 's charter when ticket sales hovered around 25 @,@ 000 with a week to go before the bowl . Last @-@ minute sales saved the game , as attendance at the 1983 game climbed to 40 @,@ 000 and a new television contract allowed the bowl to make a payout of $ 580 @,@ 000 to each team . Still , the bowl 's future was in doubt .

In the spring of 1986 , the Metro Atlanta Chamber of Commerce ( MACOC ) took over the Peach Bowl . The bowl executive director at the time was Dick Bestwick , and he encouraged the Chamber to step up its support of the game over what had been provided by the Lions Club . In 1986 , the Peach Bowl had no contractual obligations with college football conferences , as its successor , the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , does today . Team selections were made by the Peach Bowl committee , a board of Atlanta community members , business leaders , and organizers of the Peach Bowl . To form one half of the matchup , the committee selected second @-@ place Atlantic Coast Conference team NC State , which accepted the bowl bid on November 22 , 1986 , the day of their final regular @-@ season game . The other half of the matchup was Virginia Tech , a football independent that had finished with nine wins , one loss , and one tie during the regular season and received its invitation one week after the regular season concluded .

Virginia Tech had not participated in a bowl game since the 1984 Independence Bowl against Air Force , while NC State was playing in its first postseason game since 1978 . The two teams had played each other 39 times prior to the Peach Bowl , with Virginia Tech leading the all @-@ time series , 20 – 16 – 3 .

= = = Virginia Tech = = =

In the days leading up to the Peach Bowl , one sportswriter called Virginia Tech 's 1986 football season a " season of surprises . " Tech began the season having gone 6 – 5 in 1985 . In their first game , the Hokies faced the Cincinnati Bearcats . Tech lost , 24 – 20 , on a last @-@ minute play that saw a Cincinnati pass tipped twice and caught for a sustaining first down . The drive eventually resulted in a game @-@ winning touchdown for Cincinnati .

Tech recovered from that season @-@ opening loss by going on a four @-@ game winning streak , defeating Clemson in South Carolina , Syracuse in New York , and East Tennessee State and West Virginia in Blacksburg . On October 11 , against South Carolina , the Hokies tied , 27 – 27 .

Then , on a trip to Norfolk , Virginia to face the Temple Owls in the Oyster Bowl , Tech fell 29 – 13 for what appeared to be its second loss of the season . It was later revealed , however , that Temple used an ineligible player in the game , and the Owls were forced to forfeit the win . Following the Temple game , Tech returned to its winning ways , defeating archrival Virginia , Kentucky , Richmond , and Vanderbilt . One week after defeating Vanderbilt , November 22 , 1986 , Tech received an invitation to the 1986 Peach Bowl .

= = = NC State = = =

NC State began the 1986 college football season coming off three consecutive losing seasons . Those losing seasons also resulted in the firing of head coach Tom Reed , who was replaced by Dick Sheridan . Sheridan 's first game with the Wolfpack was at home against East Carolina on September 6 . It was an auspicious beginning , as NC State won , 38 – 10 . After a 14 – 14 tie the next week against Pittsburgh , the Wolfpack won their next two games : at home against Wake Forest , and in Maryland against Maryland .

On October 11 , NC State traveled to Grant Field in Atlanta , Georgia , home of the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets . There , they suffered a lopsided 59 – 21 loss , the worst ever suffered by a Sheridan @-@ coached team at the time . Following the loss to the Yellow Jackets , said linebacker Pat Teague , " the coaches and players came together . The coaches were hurting as bad as we were . We pulled them up and they pulled us up . That was the turning point . "

Following the " turning point , " the Wolfpack won three consecutive games , boosting their overall record to 6 – 1 – 1 . One of the victories was against the Clemson Tigers , who would ultimately go on to win that year 's ACC football championship . On November 8 , NC State traveled to Charlottesville , Virginia , to play the Virginia Cavaliers . In a close @-@ fought game , State lost , 20 – 16 . Though the Wolfpack won their final two regular @-@ season games ( against Duke and Western Carolina Catamounts football ) , the loss to Virginia denied them a share of the ACC championship . Despite that missed opportunity , NC State finished the season with a winning record and received a bid to the Peach Bowl .

= = Pregame buildup = =

The Peach Bowl was the final game as head coach of Virginia Tech for Bill Dooley , who had accumulated a record of 62 – 38 – 1 for the Hokies since assuming the head coaching job in 1978 . Tech president William Lavery had long disagreed with Dooley about the role of football at Virginia Tech , and prior to the beginning of the season , Lavery told Dooley that his tenure as coach would end on January 1 , 1987 . This fact was revealed to the football team and the general public after Tech 's third game of the season . At the time , Dooley was the winningest head coach in Virginia Tech history , but was under investigation for recruiting violations and had settled a breach @-@ of @-@ contract lawsuit against the university for $ 3 @.@ 5 million . As part of the out @-@ of @-@ court settlement , Dooley was required to quit his position following the Peach Bowl . In the weeks leading up to the game , Dooley dodged questions about his future . On December 23 , it was announced that Murray State head coach Frank Beamer would replace Dooley after the Peach Bowl . Facing Dooley across the field was NC State head coach Dick Sheridan , who in his first year as head coach of the Wolfpack , was named Atlantic Coast Conference coach of the year and guided the Wolfpack to eight wins .

= = = Offense = = =

The game was expected to be an offensive struggle that could potentially break the then @-@ record 74 points scored in the 1970 Peach Bowl . During the regular season , NC State averaged 359 yards on offense per game , while Virginia Tech averaged 358 yards . On defense , State gave up an average of 402 yards per game , while Tech allowed an average of 366 yards . NC State averaged almost 28 points per game , while Virginia Tech averaged just over 24 points . This statistical parity was reflected by pre @-@ game point spreads , which favored NC State by two points .

State quarterback Erik Kramer was the cornerstone of one of those high @-@ powered offenses , passing for 2 @,@ 092 yards and 14 touchdowns en route to All @-@ ACC honors and being named the ACC 's player of the year . He set school records for passing yards in a season and total yards in a season despite being hampered by an injured ankle suffered in the Wolfpack 's game against South Carolina . He was ably assisted in the passing game by All @-@ ACC receiver Nasrallah Worthen , who led the team in receptions after catching 41 passes for 686 yards . State 's offense was mostly accumulated through the air , as the Wolfpack averaged less than 160 yards per game on the ground .

Virginia Tech 's offense was slightly more balanced , featuring two running backs who had success throughout the regular season . Maurice Williams rushed the ball 166 times for 1 @,@ 029 yards and six touchdowns during the regular season , and Eddie Hunter contributed 872 rushing yards . Through the air , Tech quarterback Erik Chapman passed for 1 @,@ 627 yards and 10 touchdowns during the season prior to the Peach Bowl , making him the most prolific Virginia Tech passer in the nine @-@ year tenure of Tech head Coach Bill Dooley .

The Hokies suffered a setback on offense a few days prior to the Peach Bowl when it was announced that offensive tackle Jim Davie was suspended from playing in the game after testing positive for anabolic steroids as part of a nationwide series of random tests conducted by the NCAA . Tech defensive end Morgan Roane was also suspended from playing for reasons not revealed by the university .

= = = Defense = = =

On defense , Tech allowed an average of 190 yards per game through the air . Free safety Carter Wiley and cornerback Billy Myers had three interceptions each during the regular season . Virginia Tech linebacker Lawrence White was expected to miss the game after undergoing knee surgery following the Hokies ' last regular @-@ season game . White was the team 's No. 3 tackler in terms of statistics , having accumulated 77 during the course of the regular season . The team 's No. 1 and 2 tacklers were linebackers Paul Nelson and Jamel Agemy , who had 104 and 80 tackles , respectively . The Hokies ' rush defense allowed an average of 175 rushing yards per game and 14 total rushing touchdowns .

State 's defense allowed an average of 228 @.@ 6 yards through the air during the regular season and the pass defense led by Derrick Taylor , who had six interceptions . At linebacker , Pat Teague and Kelvin Crooms were considered keys to the Wolfpack run defense , which allowed an average of 173 rushing yards per game and 14 total rushing touchdowns .

= = = Special teams = = =

Both Virginia Tech and NC State featured All @-@ America placekickers . NC State 's Mike Cofer was named an Associated Press All @-@ America honorable mention selection after converting 13 of his 17 field goal attempts , while Virginia Tech 's Chris Kinzer had been successful throughout the regular season , making 22 of 27 field goal attempts , and breaking the school record for single @-@ season scoring with 93 points .

= = Game summary = =

The 1986 Peach Bowl kicked off at 1 : 05 p.m. EST on December 31 , 1986 , at Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia . At kickoff , the sky was partly cloudy with an air temperature of 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) . The wind was from the south at 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) . The game was played before a sellout crowd of 53 @,@ 668 , just the third sellout in the history of the Peach Bowl at that point . Virginia Tech won the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss , and elected to kick off to NC State . Therefore , the Wolfpack received the ball to begin the game , while Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . The referee for the game was John Nealon , Bob Pickens was the umpire , and Ed Maracich was the linesman . Each team received more than $ 600 @,@ 000 for participating in the game .

= = = First quarter = = =

Following Virginia Tech 's kickoff , NC State returned the ball to the 27 @-@ yard line , where the Wolfpack began the game 's first play . That play was a short run to the right . On the next play , NC State picked up the game 's first first down with a rush up the middle by fullback Mal Crite . Crite picked up another first down on the next play , driving the Wolfpack inside Virginia Tech territory , but the Hokies ' defense stiffened and forced the Wolfpack to punt after NC State failed to gain another first down . Tech returned the punt to its 21 @-@ yard line , where the Tech offense took over . On Virginia Tech 's first offensive play , running back Maurice Williams broke free for a 77 @-@ yard run that took the Hokies inside the one @-@ yard line of NC State . The run was the longest of Williams ' career and is a Peach Bowl record for longest play from scrimmage . Two plays later , Virginia Tech 's Eddie Hunter crossed the goal line and scored the game 's first points . The touchdown and extra point made the score 7 – 0 , Virginia Tech .

Following Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchown kickoff , NC State began its second possession of the game at its 24 @-@ yard line after a short kick return . The NC State 's second drive of the game was more successful than its first , but as before , the Wolfpack offense ground to a halt before penetrating too deeply into Tech territory , and State was forced to punt the ball back to Virginia Tech . The Hokie offense began work at its eight @-@ yard line but went three and out and prepared to punt the ball back to NC State . Tech punter Tony Romero , kicking from the Tech goal line , had his kick blocked by State defender Derrick Taylor . The ball rolled into the Virginia Tech end zone and was recovered by an NC State 's Brian Bulluck for a touchdown . The play and extra point tied the game at 7 – 7 .

Virginia Tech received NC State 's kickoff and returned it to their 25 @-@ yard line , where Tech 's offense returned to the field . After picking up short yardage on two rushing plays , Tech quarterback Erik Chapman completed a pass to tight end Steve Johnson to give the Hokies a first down at their 48 @-@ yard line with just over four minutes to go in the quarter . Tech continued to drive into Wolfpack territory , but inside the NC State 35 @-@ yard line , Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard illegal block penalty that pushed the Hokies back to the Wolfpack 47 @-@ yard line and had them facing a first down and 25 yards . Though unable to gain the 25 yards needed for another first down , Tech did make up most of the penalty yards , putting the ball at the Wolfpack 30 @-@ yard line . Facing fourth down , Tech sent in kicker Chris Kinzer to attempt a 46 @-@ yard field goal , which was successfully completed . The score gave Tech a 10 – 7 lead with 1 : 06 remaining the first quarter .

Kinzer delivered the post @-@ score kickoff , and NC State began its final drive of the first quarter at its 32 @-@ yard line with 1 : 01 remaining . The Wolfpack picked up a quick first down but were forced to punt when they did not gain another . NC State 's punt was returned to the Tech 13 @-@ yard line and the quarter came to an end with Virginia Tech leading , 10 – 7 .

= = = Second quarter = = =

Tech began the second quarter in possession of the ball with a first down at their 13 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up a first down , but then NC State safety Michael Brooks jumped in front of a Virginia Tech pass , intercepting it at the 50 @-@ yard line . With 13 : 05 remaining in the quarter , NC State had its first offensive possession of the second quarter . The Wolfpack picked up several first downs , driving within the Virginia Tech 25 @-@ yard line for their furthest offensive penetration of the game . After being stopped for no or little gain on consecutive plays , NC State quarterback Erik Kramer completed a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Nasrallah Worthen . The score and extra point gave NC State its first lead of the game , 14 – 10 , with 8 : 55 remaining in the first half .

Virginia Tech returned the post @-@ touchdown kickoff to its 26 @-@ yard line . The Hokie offense picked up short gains on first and second down before Tech quarterback Erik Chapman threw his second interception of the game , a pass that was tipped into the air and caught by NC State defender Derrick Taylor . The Wolfpack offense took over at the 46 @-@ yard line of Virginia Tech . On its first play after the interception , Kramer completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Haywood Jeffires . After a short run , Kramer completed a 13 @-@ yard pass to Jeffries for another first down . Deep inside the Tech red zone , it took the Wolfpack two more plays before Kramer connected on a pass to tight end Ralph Britt for a touchdown . NC State now led 21 – 10 with just over four minutes remaining before halftime .

Following the score , kickoff , and return , Tech began another offensive possession at its 24 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up two first downs and drove into NC State territory , but the clock continued to tick toward halftime . In the Wolfpack side of the field , Tech running back Eddie Hunter broke free for a 23 @-@ yard run , the longest play by Virginia Tech in the second quarter . There was now just over two minutes remaining in the quarter . Tech was unable to pick up another first down after Hunter 's run , and attempted to convert the fourth down rather than trying a field goal . When the play was stopped for a loss , however , Virginia Tech was denied points and NC State 's offense returned with 47 seconds remaining in the half .

The Wolfpack proceeded to run out the clock and took a 21 – 10 lead into halftime .

= = = Third quarter = = =

Because NC State received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Tech received NC State 's kickoff and returned it to the 10 @-@ yard line , where the Hokie offense began work . Tech began working down the field , running the ball for short gains and throwing passes for longer gains . Tech picked up three first downs , then reached NC State territory on a pass to Donnelly . Once on the NC State side of the field , Tech picked up another first down , but Tech 's quarterback was sacked on third down for a loss , and the Hokies were forced to punt the ball away . The ball landed at the NC State 12 @-@ yard line where the Wolfpack began a drive .

NC State went three and out after receiving the ball , and after Tech incurred a running into the kicker penalty on the first punt attempt , NC State punted the ball away . After the kick , Tech took over on offense at its 27 @-@ yard line . On Tech 's first play after the punt , however , Hunter fumbled the ball after a 10 @-@ yard rush . NC State recovered the ball , and the Wolfpack offense returned to the field at the Tech 40 @-@ yard line . On their first play after the fumble recover , Kramer completed a 12 @-@ yard pass to Worthen for a first down . During the next play , Kramer fumbled the ball while attempting to run with it , and Virginia Tech 's defense recovered . This allowed the Tech offense to return to the field and attempt another offensive drive beginning at their 27 @-@ yard line .

Tech picked up a first down , then Chapman was forced to scramble for a first down after facing third and 10 . Stopped inches short of gaining the first down , Tech risked turning the ball over by attempting to convert the fourth down . Unlike their previous try in the game , Tech was successful and the Hokies ' drive continued . Tech continued to pick up yardage and first downs , advancing deep into the NC State side of the field . Inside the State 30 @-@ yard line , Tech quarterback Chapman was sacked for a 10 @-@ yard loss . He responded by throwing a 30 @-@ yard pass on the next play , driving Virginia Tech inside the State one @-@ yard line . Williams rushed into the end zone with 33 seconds remaining in the quarter , cutting the Wolfpack lead to 21 – 16 . Virginia Tech elected to attempt a two @-@ point conversion , which was unsuccessful .

NC State received Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff and returned the ball to their 32 @-@ yard line . The Wolfpack offense had time for just one play — an eight @-@ yard pass — before the end of the quarter . With one quarter remaining in the game , NC State still held a 21 – 16 lead .

= = = Fourth quarter = = =

The fourth quarter began with NC State in possession of the ball at their 40 @-@ yard line and facing a second down and one yard . On the first play of the quarter , NC State quarterback Erik Kramer ran the ball , but fumbled at the end of the run . The ball was recovered by Virginia Tech , and the Hokie offense took the field . The first Virginia Tech play of the quarter was a first @-@ down throw to David Everett that drove the Hokies into Wolfpack territory . Tech followed the pass by driving down the field with alternating run and pass plays . Tech penetrated the NC State 20 @-@ yard line with 12 minutes remaining in the quarter , and continued to drive . Once the Hokies crossed the State 10 @-@ yard line , the State defense stiffened and the Hokies were able to gain a first down only with difficulty . With a first down at the State seven @-@ yard line , it took Tech just two plays to earn a touchdown . The Hokies again attempted a two @-@ point conversion , but were again stopped short . Despite that setback , the touchdown gave Tech six points and a 22 – 21 lead , their first since the 8 : 55 mark in the second quarter .

Because Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard unsportsmanlike conduct penalty following the touchdown , NC State was able to acquire good field position during the kickoff return , starting their drive at their 44 @-@ yard line . On the second play of the drive , Erik Kramer completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Nasrallah Worthen , driving State into the Tech side of the field . After a short play , Kramer again completed a long pass , this time to Bobby Crumpler for 24 yards . Now inside the Tech red zone , Kramer was tackled for a big loss , losing some of the yardage that he had gained with the previous play . NC State was unable to pick up another first down and sent in Mike Cofer to attempt a 33 @-@ yard kick , which was successfully completed . The field goal regained NC State a 24 – 22 lead .

Following the post @-@ score kick , Tech began its offensive drive at its 23 @-@ yard line with just under seven minutes to play in the game . The Hokies picked up a first down on three short rushing plays , then another on a single passing play . This drove the Hokies to their 45 @-@ yard line with just over five minutes to play . Tech was unable to gain another first down and was forced to punt the ball to NC State . The ball was fielded at the 14 @-@ yard line , which was where the NC State offense began its final drive of the game .

On State 's first play after the punt , fullback Mal Crite ran for a 40 @-@ yard gain , pushing State 's offense to the Tech 46 @-@ yard line with just over four minutes left . State pushed forward another seven yards , but failed to gain another first down and prepared to punt the ball back to Tech with 3 : 14 remaining in the game . Rather than punt the ball , however , State punter Kelly Hollodick instead received the snap on fourth down and ran for a first down . Because State retained possession , it was able to continue to run down the clock after the fake punt . Tech stopped the clock once by calling a timeout and prevented State from gaining another first down . With 2 : 01 remaining in the game , State punted the ball into Tech 's end zone for a touchback .

Tech 's offense took the field at their 20 @-@ yard line with 1 : 53 remaining in the game , two timeouts left ( used to stop the clock as necessary ) , and needing at least a field goal to win the game . Tech picked up one first down via a pass , then another as the Hokies drove to their 44 @-@ yard line . Stopped short of midfield with less than a minute to play , Tech called its second timeout in order to stop the game clock from ticking down . In college football , the clock stops after a team earns a first down , and because Virginia Tech had not earned a first down on the short run , Tech was forced to call the timeout . Following the timeout , the Hokies ran for a first down , penetrating to the NC State 44 @-@ yard line . With 53 seconds remaining , Chapman scrambled out of bounds on a short run . Another short run brought the Hokies to the State 36 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies called their final timeout to stop the clock . A few plays later , Tech ran a short running play that kept the clock running down . With just 33 seconds remaining and no other way to stop the clock , Tech 's Maurice Williams questionably stayed down with a leg cramp and the referees stopped the clock to allow the injured player to receive assistance from athletic trainers before the next play . Facing fourth down and needing three yards for drive @-@ continuing first down , Chapman passed for a first down at the State 29 @-@ yard line with 15 seconds remaining in the game . On the game 's next play , Tech committed a holding penalty , which pushed the Hokies 10 yards further away from the end zone , out of field goal range , with 11 seconds remaining .

On the game 's next play , Chapman passed the ball deep , toward the end zone . Though the pass fell incomplete , a game official called a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty against NC State . This moved the ball to the NC State 23 @-@ yard line and forced Tech kicker Chris Kinzer to attempt a potentially game @-@ winning 40 @-@ yard field goal with four seconds remaining . Though NC State coach Dick Sheridan called a timeout in an attempt to ice Chris Kinzer , the kick sailed through the uprights and Virginia Tech won a 25 – 24 victory as time expired .

= = Statistical summary = =

In recognition of their performance in a losing effort , NC State quarterback Erik Kramer was named the game 's offensive most valuable player , while on defense , NC State cornerback Derrick Taylor won the honor . Kramer finished the game having completed 12 of his 19 passes for 155 yards . On the opposite side of the field , Virginia Tech quarterback Eric Chapman finished with 20 completions out of 30 attempts for two touchdowns and 200 passing yards .

Virginia Tech running back Maurice Williams ' 77 @-@ yard run on the second play of the game remains the longest play from scrimmage in the Peach Bowl ( today the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl ) , and Virginia Tech also set the current record for the most first downs in a Peach Bowl ( 29 ) . Williams finished the game with 16 carries for 129 yards , and was the game 's leading rusher . The second @-@ place rusher was fellow Hokie running back Hunter , who ran with the ball 22 times for 113 yards . NC State 's leading rusher was fullback Mal Crite , who finished the game with 14 carries for 101 yards .

= = Postgame effects = =

Virginia Tech 's win brought it to a final 1986 record of 10 – 1 – 1 , while NC State 's loss took it to a final record of 8 – 3 – 1 . The victory was Virginia Tech 's first bowl win in school history and was the team 's only such win until 1993 , when Tech defeated Indiana University in the 1993 Independence Bowl .

Peach Bowl officials pronounced themselves pleased with both the turnout for the game and the action on the field . Though traffic jams snarled attendees ' arrival to the stadium , there were only 5 @,@ 366 no @-@ shows out of 58 @,@ 212 tickets sold . Following the game , Peach Bowl chairman Ira Hefter announced that the bowl would seek corporate sponsorship and a potential television broadcast deal with a major American television network . The takeover by the chamber of commerce also proved to be successful , as the 1986 game made a small profit . This was an improvement over the three previous Peach Bowls , which lost more than $ 170 @,@ 000 . The sellout also confirmed that the game would continue to be held annually instead of being abandoned , as sportswriters had speculated prior to the 1986 game .

Tech kicker Chris Kinzer , who kicked the game @-@ winning field goal , did not go on to play in the National Football League despite predictions that he might do so . He attended several NFL teams ' tryouts , but a contract to play in the league never materialized . He sold insurance for several years , then reentered school and graduated from Virginia Tech in 1994 with a degree .

= = Later aftermath = =

Virginia Tech would go on to join the Atlantic Coast Conference , which NC State was a member of , in 2004 . The ACC now sends a team to the later @-@ renamed Chick @-@ Fil @-@ A Bowl every year .

= Greens Ledge Light =

Greens Ledge Lighthouse is a sparkplug lighthouse in Connecticut , United States , off the southwest end of the Norwalk Islands , Long Island Sound , near Norwalk , Connecticut . It is on north side of the west end of Greens Ledge , west of Norwalk Harbor a mile south of the entrance to Five Mile River at Rowayton , and just over a mile southwest of Sheffield Lighthouse . Completed in 1902 , it was constructed by the Philadelphia Construction Company . The light is 52 feet ( 16 m ) tall and is made of five courses that make up its four stories . The lantern measures 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter . The Greens Ledge Light replaced the Sheffield Island Light . Originally , the light had a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens , but a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens was installed in May 1902 , just three months into its operation . Currently a VRB @-@ 25 is in use and it has alternating white and red flash every 24 seconds . The light was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Greens Ledge Lighthouse on May 29 , 1990 .

= = Design = =

In the 1890s , the lighthouse was first formally proposed to mark the Norwalk Harbor . In 1899 , the United States Congress appropriated $ 60 @,@ 000 for the establishment of a light and fog signal at Greens Ledge . In 1900 , the Philadelphia Construction Company was contracted to construct the foundation and the superstructure . The design for this type of lighthouse was first realized in 1873 , from Major Eliiot of the Lighthouse Board . The foundation form is made of identical curved @-@ iron plates with top inward @-@ pointing flanges that are bolted together and secured with knees . The assembled rings are lowered into the water and filled with concrete or stone , concrete for the Greens Ledge Light . A series of photographs from the work in 1901 shows the assembly of the three lower courses at Wilson 's Point , the lowering of the cylinder and the light in the fall of 1901 prior to a deposit of protective riprap .

The 52 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) tall Greens Ledge Light was completed in 1902 and serves as a typical example of a sparkplug lighthouse . Located in 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of water , the foundation flares out to support the deck the lighthouse is built on and includes a cavity for the lighthouse 's brick basement and cisterns . The four @-@ story structure of the lighthouse is assembled from five courses of curved iron plates . The interior is lined with brick to insulate and strengthen the tower and to " provid [ e ] an anchorage for the winding cast @-@ iron stairs which rise on the periphery of each story , " writes historian Dorothy Templeton .

The plain prefabricated features underwent a period of development of which the Greens Ledge Light was part of a second phase . Templeton describes , " the brackets which support the watchroom gallery and covered deck [ as having ] a simplified classical detailing and [ the ] rectilinear window sashes are enclosed in shallower , plainer cast @-@ iron surrounds . " A deck encircles the light on above the first story , the watchroom and lantern . The original roofing and some cast @-@ iron stanchions of the decks are able to be seen atop the riprap . The cast @-@ iron door to the lighthouse faces south and at the time of nomination the windows were sealed with plywood . The first floor of the lighthouse serves as the kitchen . The second level has two rooms split by a partition with the smaller room being a bathroom . The third level was not divided , but did not have a description in the National Historic Register of Places survey . The fourth floor has six porthole windows and has had much of its woodwork removed and part of the cast @-@ iron floor and brick wall are exposed . The lighthouse 's lantern measures 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter . Once active , the Sheffield Island Light was discontinued .

= = Service = =

Originally , the light had a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens , but a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens was installed in May 1902 , just three months into its operation . The light characteristic was a fixed white light with a red flash every 15 seconds . In 1972 , the light was automated and the Fresnel lens was replaced with a modern optic . The light continues to serve as an active aid to navigation . In 1987 , a FA @-@ 251 was installed before the current lens , a VRB @-@ 25 was installed . The current light characteristic is an alternating white and red flash every 24 seconds . The white and red flashes can be seen for 18 nautical miles and 15 nautical miles , respectably .

During its service , the tower began to tilt and the keepers moved all the furniture to one side of the tower . The problem was reported to have been exacerbated following the 1938 New England hurricane .

= = Importance = =

The light was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Greens Ledge Lighthouse on May 29 , 1990 . It is listed as " significant as a typical example of a pre @-@ fabricated cast @-@ iron conical lighttower on a cast @-@ iron tubular foundation . "

The lighthouse served as a source of inspiration for Walter DuBois Richards , an artist , for over forty years . Since 1935 , swimmers have been competing annually in the Arthur J. Ladrigan Swim Race , a one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) race from the lighthouse to Bayley Beach in the Rowayton section of Norwalk .

= = List of keepers = =

This list includes known keepers , but excludes assistants and non @-@ officers of the Coast Guard .

= Action of 13 September 1810 =

The Action of 13 September 1810 was an inconclusive frigate engagement during the Napoleonic Wars between British Royal Navy and French Navy frigates during which a British frigate was defeated by two French vessels near Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) , but British reinforcements were able to recapture the ship before the French could secure her . The British frigate was HMS Africaine , a new arrival to the Indian Ocean . She was under the command of Captain Robert Corbet , who had served there the previous year . Corbet was a notoriously unpopular officer and his death in the battle provoked a storm of controversy in Britain over claims that Corbet had either committed suicide at the shame of losing his ship , been murdered by his disaffected crew , or been abandoned by his men , who were said to have refused to load their guns while he remained in command . Whether any of these rumours were accurate has never been satisfactorily determined , but the issue has been discussed in several prominent naval histories and was the subject of at least one lawsuit .

The action came about as a direct consequence of the Battle of Grand Port three weeks earlier , in which a British squadron had been destroyed in a failed attack on Grand Port harbour on Isle de France . This gave the French forces on the island a significant regional advantage , outnumbering the British frigate on the recently captured Île Bourbon , commanded by Commodore Josias Rowley , by six to one . British reinforcements were hastily despatched to the area but the French were blockading Île Bourbon in force and the arriving reinforcements were in constant danger of attack by more powerful French units . Africaine was the first ship to reinforce Rowley 's squadron , but within three days of her arrival in the region was engaged by two French ships while attempting to drive them away from Saint Denis on Île Bourbon . Corbet was severely wounded in the opening exchanges and subsequently died . Although his crew fought hard , they were overwhelmed by the French frigates and forced to surrender , only for Rowley to arrive in HMS Boadicea and drive off the French warships , recapturing Africaine .

= = Background = =

In 1808 , both the British Royal Navy and the French Navy despatched frigate squadrons to the Indian Ocean . The French , led by Commodore Jacques Hamelin , were ordered to disrupt British trade in the region , particularly targeting the large East Indiamen that carried millions of pounds worth of goods between Britain and her Empire . The British force under Commodore Josias Rowley was tasked with the blockade and eventual capture of the two well defended island bases of the French , Île Bonaparte and Isle de France . At the Action of 31 May 1809 , a French frigate named Caroline captured two East Indiamen , sheltering with her prizes at Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte . In his first major operation against the islands , Rowley landed soldiers behind the defences of the harbour and sent his ships into the bay , seizing the town and the shipping in the harbour , including Caroline . One of Rowley 's captains who had performed well in this engagement was Robert Corbet of HMS Nereide . Refitting the Caroline as a British warship and renaming her HMS Bourbonaise , Rowley placed Corbet in command and sent him to Britain with despatches .

Over the following year , the French continued to attack British trade convoys , achieving important victories at the Action of 18 November 1809 and the Action of 3 July 1810 , where they captured another five East Indiamen as well as numerous smaller merchant ships and a large Portuguese frigate . Rowley too was active , commanding the successful Invasion of Île Bonaparte in July and renaming the island Île Bourbon , basing his squadron at Saint Paul on the island 's eastern shore . From this base , Rowley 's ships were ideally positioned to begin a close blockade of Isle de France , led initially by Captain Samuel Pym in HMS Sirius . Pym sought to reduce French movement by seizing a number of fortified offshore islands , starting with Île de la Passe off Grand Port . The island was captured , but when a French squadron broke through the British blockade and took shelter in Grand Port , Pym resolved to attack them . The ensuing Battle of Grand Port was a disaster for Rowley 's squadron , as Pym led four of Rowley 's five frigates into the bay without adequately assessing the channel through the coral reefs that sheltered the harbour . As a result , two frigates grounded out of range of the enemy and the remaining two were outnumbered in confined waters . In a complicated battle lasting several days , two of Pym 's frigates were captured and two more had to be scuttled , with their entire crews made prisoner . Rowley 's reinforcements arrived too late , and the British commodore was chased back to Saint Denis by Hamelin 's flagship .

While Rowley and Hamelin had sparred in the Indian Ocean , Corbet had made the lengthy journey back to Britain . During his time in command of Nereide , Corbet had already developed a reputation as a strict disciplinarian , regularly beating his men for the slightest infractions , to the extent that he had provoked a brief mutiny on Nereide in 1808 . His reputation spread before him , and when he switched commands with Captain Richard Raggett of HMS Africaine , he was met with a storm of protest from Africaine 's crew . Although none of the men aboard Africaine had served with Corbet before , his preference for brutal punishment was well known in the Navy and the crew sent a letter to the Admiralty insisting that they would not serve under him . Concerned at what they considered to be mutiny , the Admiralty sent three popular officers to Africaine with the message that if the protest was quietly dropped there would be no courts @-@ martial for mutiny but if not , the entire crew would be liable to attack . To emphasise the threat , the frigate HMS Menelaus was brought alongside with her gunports open and her cannon ready to fire . Chastened , the crew of Africaine allowed Corbet aboard and the frigate sailed for the Indian Ocean a few days later , carrying instructions for the authorities at Madras to prepare an expeditionary force to invade Isle de France .

= = Africaine off Isle de France = =

Africaine 's journey to Madras took several months and Corbet made a number of stops on his passage , the final one being at the small British island base of Rodriguez in early September 1810 . There Corbet was informed of the disaster at Grand Port and on his own initiative immediately sailed south to augment Rowley 's weakened squadron . Arriving off Isle de France at 06 : 15 on 11 September , Corbet spotted a French schooner near Île Ronde and gave chase , the schooner sheltering behind the reefs at Grand Bay on the eastern side of the island . At 07 : 30 , Corbet ordered the frigate 's boats to enter the creek into which the schooner had fled , the small craft entering the waterway in the hope of storming and capturing the vessel . As the boats approached , French soldiers and militia appeared along the banks and began firing on the British sailors . Fire was returned by Royal Marines in the boats , but Africaine 's barge grounded soon after the ambush was sprung and became trapped , French gunfire killing two men and wounding ten . The other boat reached the grounded and abandoned schooner , but the six men aboard were unable to move the vessel unaided and were forced to depart , coming under fire which wounded five men , before they could escape the French trap .

Retrieving his boats , Corbet determined to sail to Île Bourbon directly . By 04 : 00 on 12 September he had arrived at Saint @-@ Denis and there landed his wounded and came ashore for news , learning that two French frigates were just offshore , blockading the port . The French ships had spotted Africaine in the harbour and despatched the small brig Entreprenant to Isle de France with information of her whereabouts , although Corbet had raised flags that successfully deceived the French into believing that his frigate was Rowley 's flagship HMS Boadicea . The French ships were Astrée , commanded by Pierre Bouvet , and Iphigénie , formerly one of the British frigates captured at Grand Port , under René Lemarant de Kerdaniel .

= = = Battle = = =

Rowley , stationed at Saint @-@ Paul to the west of Saint @-@ Denis , received word that Africaine had arrived at Saint Denis and immediately sought to drive off the French blockade . Sailing eastwards , Boadicea came within sight of Bouvet 's squadron at 15 : 00 and the British flagship followed by the small brigs HMS Otter and HMS Staunch . Corbet recognised Rowley 's intention and joined the attack , embarking 25 soldiers from the 86th Regiment of Foot to replace his losses at Grand Bay . The French , still believing Africaine to be Boadicea , assumed that Boadicea was an East Indiaman named Windham in disguise , and fell back towards Isle de France before the British force .

Otter and Staunch both fell rapidly behind Boadicea , while Africaine pulled far ahead . By 18 : 20 , lookouts on Africaine could no longer see the other British ships , and by 18 : 30 , Boadicea was similarly alone . Bouvet realised the lack of cohesion in the British squadron , and also recognised that Africaine was faster than either of his ships and would soon catch them . As a result , he slowed and prepared to meet the British frigate as night fell . Corbet now found himself outnumbered and began to launch rockets and flares in the hope of attracting Rowley 's attention and as the French closed with Africaine , he readied his ship for action . 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) behind , Rowley could see the flares and flashes but was powerless to intercede in the darkness . At 01 : 50 on 13 September , the gap had closed between Africaine and the French ships , and at 02 : 20 Corbet opened fire on Astrée , with Bouvet returning the fire immediately .

A cannonball from the second French broadside struck Corbet within minutes of the first broadside , the ball tearing off his foot above the ankle just as a large wooden splinter thrown from the gunwale struck the thigh of the same leg , shattering the bone . Corbet was brought below to the ship 's surgeon where the remnant of his leg was hastily amputated and bound , and command devolved on Lieutenant John Crew Tullidge . At 02 : 30 , Astrée pulled away from Africaine to perform hasty repairs , but Bouvet 's guns had wrecked Africaine 's rigging , leaving the British frigate uncontrollable and largely immobile . Slowly moving ahead , Africaine engaged Iphigénie at close range but was counter attacked by Astrée and found herself assailed on both sides , Astrée angled in such a position that she was able to rake the British ship , inflicting significant damage and casualties .

By 03 : 30 , Africaine was in ruins . Tullidge was wounded in four places , but refused to leave the deck as the ship 's master had been decapitated and the other lieutenant shot in the chest . All three topmasts had collapsed and as guns were dismounted and casualties increased the return fire of Africaine became more and more ragged , until it stopped entirely at 04 : 45 , when only two guns were still capable of firing . French fire stopped at 05 : 15 , first light showing Boadicea 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) away and unable to affect the surrender of Africaine , which had hauled down its flags at 05 : 00 . Within minutes , a French prize crew boarded the battered frigate and seized the magazine of shot and gunpowder , which was shipped to Iphigénie whose ammunition was almost exhausted .

= = = Boadicea arrives = = =

At 06 : 00 , a breeze pushed Boadicea forward and she began to close with her former consort , Rowley watching as all three of Africaine 's masts gave way and collapsed over the side one by one . By 08 : 00 , Africaine was a dismasted hull and Corbet was dead in the bowels of the ship , although the exact manner of his death was to cause lasting controversy . By 10 : 00 , Boadicea had been joined by Otter and Staunch and bore down on the French ships and their prize , so that by 15 : 30 Bouvet was persuaded to abandon Africaine and tow the damaged Iphigénie back to Port Napoleon . By 17 : 00 , Boadicea pulled alongside Africaine and the French prize crew surrendered . Rowley later reported that a number of British sailors leaped into the sea at his approach and swam to Boadicea , requesting that they be allowed to pursue the French ships in the hope of capturing one .

Rowley dismissed this idea given the shattered state of Africaine and instead towed the frigate back to Île Bourbon , shadowed by Astrée and Iphigénie on the return journey . The French frigates did achieve some consolation in pursuing Rowley from a distance , running into and capturing the Honourable East India Company 's armed brig Aurora , sent from India to reinforce Rowley . On 15 September , Boadicea , Africaine and the brigs arrived at Saint Paul , Africaine sheltering under the fortifications of the harbour while the others put to sea , again seeking to drive away the French blockade but unable to bring them to action . Bouvet returned to Port Napoleon on 18 September , and thus was not present when Rowley attacked and captured the French flagship Vénus and Commodore Hamelin at the Action of 18 September 1810 .

= = Aftermath = =

The action was the first of two in this campaign in which lone British frigates were briefly overwhelmed by superior French forces as they sailed independently to join Rowley 's squadron . On each occasion however , Rowley was able to recapture the lost frigate and drive off the French attackers . Corbet 's action was particularly violent , British casualties totalling 49 killed and 114 wounded , including every single officer and all but three of the soldiers embarked . Africaine was seriously damaged and would not be ready to return to active service for some months . French losses were less severe , Astrée suffering one killed and two wounded , Iphigénie nine killed and 33 wounded .

The action was considered a defeat by the Admiralty and was not reported in the London Gazette . The British naval authorities were particularly disturbed by rumours that began to circulate concerning the death of Captain Corbet and the behaviour of his crew during the battle . Prominent among these rumours was the suggestion that Corbet had been murdered by his disaffected crew : historian William James wrote in 1827 that " There are many who will insist , that Captain Corbett 's [ sic ] death @-@ wound was inflicted by one of his own people . " although he goes on to point out the unlikelihood of Corbet being shot by one of his own cannon . He gives more credence to the story that Corbet committed suicide to avoid the shame of defeat , that he " cut the bandages from his amputated limb , and suffered himself to bleed to death . " This story was also alluded to in Edward Pelham Brenton 's 1825 history : " Corbet did not ( we fear would not ) survive his capture " . The truth of Corbet 's end will never be known with certainty , although James ultimately concludes that Corbet 's wound was almost certainly a mortal one and thus the most likely cause of death .

A second accusation , and one that proved even more controversial in the aftermath of the engagement , was the claim that Africaine 's crew abandoned their guns , refused to load them or deliberately fired them into the sea in protest at Corbet 's behaviour . Corbet 's brutality was well known in the Navy , James describing him as " an excessively severe officer " who had a " career of cruelty " . James does not accuse the crew of any deliberate attempt to sabotage their ship in the engagement , instead attributing their poor gunnery to Corbet 's own failings as a commander , most significantly his failure to practice gunnery regularly . Other authors were less understanding of the crew of Africaine , Brenton stating that " they cut the breechings of their guns , and put no shot in them after the first or second broadside " , while historian Basil Hall baldly stated in 1833 that they " preferred to be mown down by the French broadsides " than fight under Corbet . This last accusation provoked outrage among naval officers , and Captain Jenkin Jones , a former shipmate of Corbet launched a successful lawsuit , forcing Hall to make a retraction . In 1900 , William Laird Clowes commented that " There is , unfortunately , much reason to suppose that Captain Corbett 's [ sic ] reputation for extreme severity had antagonised his crew , and that the men did not behave as loyally as they should have behaved " . He later castigates Brenton for the suggestion that Corbet committed suicide , suggesting that the wound alone was the cause of death . Modern historians have also been scathing of Corbet 's behaviour , Robert Gardiner calling him " notoriously brutal , " and Richard Woodman describing Tullidge as " an unfortunate victim of Corbet 's cruelty , for suspicions lingered that Africaine 's brutalised crew had failed to do their utmost in support of their hated commander . "

= M @-@ 114 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 114 was the designation of a former state trunkline highway and planned beltline in the US state of Michigan around the city of Grand Rapids . It was designated by the end of 1929 on various streets in adjoining cities and townships . By the 1940s , sections of it on the west and south sides of Grand Rapids were given new designations and the segment along the east side of town was finished . By late 1945 the highway designation was completely decommissioned in favor of other numbers . M @-@ 114 split into two branches , one running east – west and the other running north – south . The east – west spur routing is now local streets while the rest is part of state highways .

= = History = =

The first segments of M @-@ 114 were completed by January 1 , 1930 , and ran along the west side of Grand Rapids , on what is now Wilson Avenue between Lake Michigan Drive and Leonard Street . At the same time , what would become a spur was also finished from the town of Cascade to US 131 ( Division Avenue ) . By July 1 that same year , the southern segment was extended west to Clyde Park Avenue in Wyoming Township . By the end of 1936 M @-@ 114 was a three @-@ legged trunkline around the Grand Rapids area . It started at US 16 in Walker Township and ran south to Grandville where it turned to run eastward to the community of Cascade . The third leg was shown on maps as under construction from a junction in Paris Township north to a junction with US 16 in East Grand Rapids ; the trunkline continued north from US 16 to a junction with US 131 in Plainfield Township north of Grand Rapids .

By June 15 , 1942 the highways in the Grand Rapids area were reconfigured . A Bypass US 16 ( BYP US 16 ) designation was assigned to the portion of M @-@ 114 that traveled around the southwest side of Grand Rapids ( now M @-@ 11 ) , leaving just the east and unfinished north segments left . The section along the east side of the city was completed as M @-@ 114 . A northern leg was added along 3 Mile Road at the same time . By 1945 , the northern leg of M @-@ 114 was turned back to local control and removed from the highway system . The eastern leg was assigned a BYP US 131 designation , thereby eliminating the last remaining portion of M @-@ 114 . A BYP M @-@ 21 designation was also used along part of the southern and eastern legs . East Beltline now carries M @-@ 37 and M @-@ 44 .

= = Route description = =

As it existed before the designation was removed , M @-@ 114 started at the corner of BYP US 16 ( 28th Street ) and what is now East Beltline Avenue in Paris Township ( now Kentwood ) and ran northward . The trunkline intersected the mainline for US 16 / M @-@ 50 at Cascade Road and the mainline for M @-@ 21 at Fulton Street near East Grand Rapids in Grand Rapids Township . Further north , the highway split into two . In Plainfield Township , a leg of M @-@ 114 continued west along the modern 3 Mile Road through an intersection with US 131 to terminate at Coit Avenue near the Grand River and the other leg continued north to a terminus with US 131 at Northland Drive and Plainfield Avenue .

= = Major intersections = =

South leg

The entire highway was in Kent County .

West leg

The entire highway was in Grand Rapids Township , Kent County .

North leg

The entire highway was in Kent County .

= Jane Dudley , Duchess of Northumberland =

Jane Dudley ( née Guildford ) , Duchess of Northumberland ( 1508 / 1509 – 1555 ) was an English noblewoman , the wife of John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland and mother of Guildford Dudley and Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester . Having grown up with her future husband , who was her father 's ward , she married at about age 16 . They had 13 children . Jane Dudley served as a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting at the court of Henry VIII and was a close friend of Queen Catherine Parr . Reformed in religious outlook , she was also a supporter of the Protestant martyr Anne Askew .

Under the young King Edward VI John Dudley became one of the most powerful politicians , rising to be Earl of Warwick and later Duke of Northumberland . After the fall of Lord Protector Somerset in 1549 , John Dudley joined forces with his wife to promote his rehabilitation and a reconciliation between their families , which was symbolized by a marriage between their children . In the spring of 1553 Jane Dudley , Duchess of Northumberland became the mother @-@ in @-@ law of Lady Jane Grey , whom the Duke of Northumberland unsuccessfully tried to establish on the English throne after the death of Edward VI . Mary I being victorious , the Duchess sought frantically to save her husband 's life . Notwithstanding his and her son Guildford 's executions , she was successful in achieving the release of the rest of her family by befriending the Spanish noblemen who came to England with Philip of Spain . She died soon afterwards , aged 46 .

= = Family and marriage = =

Jane Guildford was born in Kent in about 1508 / 1509 , the only daughter of Sir Edward Guildford and Eleanor West , daughter of Thomas West , 8th Baron De La Warr . Her schooling occurred at home together with her brother Richard and her future husband , who was her father 's ward from 1512 . In 1525 , at about 16 , she married Sir John Dudley , who was 20 or 21 years old . The match had been arranged by their parents some years before . Jane Dudley gave birth to 13 children , eight boys and five girls . In most cases it is impossible to establish their birthdates exactly . An exception is Robert , the future favourite of Elizabeth I ; he was born in 1532 as the fifth son , and possibly after the eldest daughter Mary , who became the mother of the courtier @-@ poet Philip Sidney . The family life of John and Jane Dudley seems to have been happy and was free from any scandals ; around 1535 a poem praised the " love and devotion " of their marriage .

Sir Edward Guildford died in 1534 before he could draw up his last will . Since his son Richard had predeceased him , Guildford 's nephew , John Guildford , claimed the inheritance . The Dudleys maintained that Guildford 's daughter Jane was the natural heir . They finally won the resulting court case with the assistance of Thomas Cromwell .

= = Court life = =

Jane Dudley served as a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to Anne Boleyn , and later to Anne of Cleves . She was interested in the Reformed religion and , with her husband , moved in evangelical circles from the mid @-@ 1530s . In 1542 John Dudley was created Viscount Lisle . He was on friendly terms with William Parr , whose sister Catherine became Henry VIII 's last queen in July 1543 . As one of her closest friends , the Viscountess Lisle was among the four ladies leading her to the altar on the marriage day . Jane Dudley belonged also to the courtly sympathizers of Anne Askew , whom she contacted during her imprisonment in 1545 – 1546 . The forthright Protestant was burnt at the stake as a heretic in July 1546 on the contrivance of the religiously conservative court party around Bishop Stephen Gardiner .

Renaissance humanism and science figured large in the Dudley children 's education . In 1553 Jane Dudley herself commissioned two works from the mathematician and Hermeticist John Dee about heavenly configurations and the tides . Jane Dudley was close to her children ; her eldest son , Henry , had died during the siege of Boulogne in 1544 , aged 19 . A postscript she wrote in 1552 under a letter by her husband to their then eldest son , John Dudley , 2nd Earl of Warwick , reads : " your lovynge mothere that wyshes you helthe dayli Jane Northumberland " . She also had health problems : In 1548 her husband was unwilling to leave her side , because she " had had her fit again more extreme that she had any time yet . "

Under Edward VI John Dudley , Viscount Lisle was raised to the title of Earl of Warwick , while Edward Seymour , Earl of Hereford became Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector . In October 1549 the Protector lost his power in a trial of strength with the Privy Council , from which John Dudley , Earl of Warwick emerged as Lord President of the Council and leader of the government . Somerset , who had been imprisoned in the Tower of London , was soon allowed to rejoin the Council . Before his release , the Duchess of Somerset and the Countess of Warwick had arranged daily banquets in order to reconcile their husbands . A marriage between their respective eldest son and daughter , Anne Seymour and John Dudley , was equally promoted by the two ladies . In June 1550 a grand wedding was staged at the palace of Sheen , attended by the twelve @-@ year @-@ old King Edward . Jane Dudley continued as a great lady at court during the ascendancy of her husband , who became Duke of Northumberland in October 1551 . She was influential with him ; the financier Thomas Gresham and the diplomat Richard Morrison sought her patronage , and she also interceded for Mary Tudor , who had stood godmother to one of her daughters in 1545 .

= = Mother @-@ in @-@ law to a queen = =

King Edward fell ill in early 1553 . He drew up a document , " My Devise for the Succession " , whose final version of June 1553 was to settle the Crown on his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey , overturning the claims of his half @-@ sisters Mary and Elizabeth . Jane Grey was the daughter of Frances Grey , Duchess of Suffolk , a niece of Henry VIII by his younger sister Mary . On 25 May 1553 three matrimonial alliances were celebrated at Durham Place , the Dudleys ' London town mansion . Two of their younger children were concerned : Guildford , aged about 17 , married Lady Jane Grey , while Katherine , who was between eight and ten years old , was promised to the Earl of Huntingdon 's heir , Henry Hastings . A few months later these matches came to be seen as proof of a conspiracy by the Duke of Northumberland to bring his family to the throne . At the time the marriages took place , however , their dynastical implications were not considered significant by even the most suspicious of observers , the Imperial ambassador Jehan de Scheyfye . Modern historians have considered them either as part of a plot , or as " routine actions of dynastic politics " , in the words of David Loades . The initiative for the matches had probably come from the Marchioness of Northampton .

After Edward 's death on 6 July 1553 Northumberland undertook the enforcement of the King 's will . Lady Jane Grey accepted the Crown only after remonstrances by her parents and parents @-@ in @-@ law . On 10 July the Duchess of Northumberland accompanied her son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law on their ceremonial entry into the Tower of London , where they were to reside for the rest of the short reign . According to Jane 's own exculpatory letter to Queen Mary a few months later , Guildford now wanted to be made king . The young people agreed on having him declared king by Act of Parliament ; but then Jane changed her mind and declared she would only make him a duke . " I will not be a duke , I will be King " , Guildford replied and went to fetch his mother . Furious , the Duchess took the side of her son , before she told him to leave the Tower and go home . Jane , however , insisted that he remain at court . According to her the Duchess also " induced her son not to sleep with me any more " , and it is clear from her writings that Jane disliked her mother @-@ in @-@ law .

= = Downfall and struggle for her family = =

To claim her right , Mary Tudor began assembling her supporters in East Anglia and demanded to be recognized as queen by the Privy Council in London . When her letter arrived on 10 July 1553 during dinner , the Duchess of Suffolk , Jane 's mother , and the Duchess of Northumberland broke into tears . Mary was gathering strength , and on 14 July the Duke marched to Cambridge with troops to capture her . As it came , he passed a tranquil week until he heard on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary . On the orders of the Privy Council Northumberland himself now proclaimed Queen Mary at the market @-@ place and awaited his arrest . His wife was still in the Tower , but was soon released . She tried to intercede personally for her imprisoned husband and five sons with Mary , who was staying outside London . However , five miles before reaching the court the Duchess was turned away on the Queen 's orders . She then wrote a letter to her friend Lady Paget , the wife of William , Lord Paget , asking her to plead with the Queen 's ladies for her husband 's life . Her plea , if it went not unheard , was in vain , and the Duke of Northumberland was executed on 22 August 1553 on Tower Hill after having recanted his Protestant faith .

Following Wyatt 's rebellion , Guildford Dudley was beheaded on 12 February 1554 shortly before his wife . Knowing the Queen 's character , in June 1554 Jane Dudley pleaded with the authorities to allow her remaining sons to hear mass . During 1554 the Duchess and her son @-@ in @-@ law Henry Sidney worked hard pleading with the Spanish nobles around England 's new king consort , Philip of Spain . Lord Paget may also have proved helpful , and Henry Sidney even travelled to Spain in their cause . In the autumn of 1554 the Dudley brothers were released from the Tower , though the eldest , John , died immediately afterwards at Sidney 's house Penshurst in Kent . At the same location Philip Sidney was born on 30 November 1554 . His godmother was his grandmother Jane Dudley , while his godfather was Philip of Spain .

Amid the confiscation of the Dudley family 's possessions in July 1553 , Mary had allowed Jane Dudley to retain her wardrobe and plate , carpets , and other household stuffs , as well as the use of the Duke 's house in Chelsea , London . There , she died on either 15 or 22 January 1555 , and was buried on 1 February at Chelsea Old Church . In her will she tried to provide for her sons financially and thanked the Queen , as well as the many Spanish nobles she had lobbied . The Duchess of Alba was to receive her green parrot ; to Don Diego de Acevedo she gave " the new bed of green velvet with all the furniture to it ; beseeching him even as he hath in my lifetime showed himself like a father and a brother to my sons , so shall [ I ] require him no less to do now their mother is gone " . She also remembered " my lord , my dear husband " , and stipulated : " in no wise let me be opened after I am dead . ... I have not lived to be very bold before women , much more I should be loth to come into the hands of any living man , be he Physician or Surgeon . " She avoided to be specific on religion , but stressed that " who ever doth trust to this transitory world , as I did , may happen to have an overthrow , as I had ; therefore to the worms will I go as I have before written . "

= = Ancestry = =

= Elgin Cathedral =

Elgin Cathedral is a historic ruin in Elgin , Moray , north @-@ east Scotland . The cathedral — dedicated to the Holy Trinity — was established in 1224 on land granted by King Alexander II outside the burgh of Elgin and close to the River Lossie . It replaced the cathedral at Spynie , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the north , that was served by a small chapter of eight clerics . The new and bigger cathedral was staffed with 18 canons in 1226 and then increased to 23 by 1242 . After a damaging fire in 1270 , a rebuilding programme greatly enlarged the building . It was unaffected by the Wars of Scottish Independence but again suffered extensive fire damage in 1390 following an attack by Robert III 's brother Alexander Stewart , Earl of Buchan , also known as the Wolf of Badenoch . In 1402 the cathedral precinct again suffered an incendiary attack by the followers of the Lord of the Isles . The number of clerics required to staff the cathedral continued to grow , as did the number of craftsmen needed to maintain the buildings and surrounds . The number of canons had increased to 25 by the time of the Scottish Reformation in 1560 , when the cathedral was abandoned and its services transferred to Elgin 's parish church of St Giles . After the removal of the lead that waterproofed the roof in 1567 , the cathedral steadily fell into decay . Its deterioration was arrested in the 19th century , by which time the building was in a substantially ruinous condition .

The cathedral went through periods of enlargement and renovation following the fires of 1270 and 1390 that included the doubling in length of the choir , the provision of outer aisles to the northern and southern walls of both the nave and choir . Today , these walls are at full height in places and at foundation level in others yet the overall cruciform shape is still discernible . A mostly intact octagonal chapter house dates from the major enlargement after the fire of 1270 . The gable wall above the double door entrance that links the west towers is nearly complete and was rebuilt following the fire of 1390 . It accommodates a large window opening that now only contains stub tracery work and fragments of a large rose window . Recessed and chest tombs in both transepts and in the south aisle of the choir contain effigies of bishops and knights , and large flat slabs in the now grass @-@ covered floor of the cathedral mark the positions of early graves . The homes of the dignitaries and canons , or manses , stood in the chanonry and were destroyed by fire on three occasions : in 1270 , 1390 and 1402 . The two towers of the west front are mostly complete and were part of the first phase of construction . Only the precentor 's manse is substantially intact ; two others have been incorporated into private buildings . A protective wall of massive proportions surrounded the cathedral precinct , but only a small section has survived . The wall had four access gates , one of which — the Pans Port — still exists .

= = Early cathedral churches of Moray = =

The Diocese of Moray was a regional bishopric unlike the pre @-@ eminent see of the Scottish church , St Andrews , which had evolved from a more ancient monastic Celtic church and administered scattered localities . It is uncertain whether there were bishops of Moray before c . 1120 but the first known prelate — possibly later translated to Dunkeld — was Gregory ( or Gregoir ) . He was probably bishop in name only , with the first resident diocesan being Richard of Lincoln . Gregory was a signatory to the foundation charter of Scone Priory , issued by Alexander I ( Alaxandair mac Maíl Choluim ) between December 1123 and April 1124 , and again in a charter defining the legal rights of the same monastery . He is recorded for the last time when he witnessed a charter granted by David I to Dunfermline Abbey in c . 1128 . After the suppression of Óengus of Moray 's rebellion in 1130 , King David must have regarded the continued presence of bishops in Moray as essential to the stability of the province . These early bishops had no settled location for their cathedral , and sited it successively at the churches of Birnie , Kinneddar and Spynie . Pope Innocent III issued an apostolic bull on 7 April 1206 that allowed bishop Bricius de Douglas to fix his cathedral church at Spynie — its inauguration was held between spring 1207 and summer 1208 . A chapter of five dignitaries and three ordinary canons was authorised and based its constitution on that of Lincoln Cathedral . Elgin became the lay centre of the province under David I , who probably established the first castle in the town , and it may have been this castle , with its promise of better security , that prompted Bricius , before July 1216 , to petition the Pope to move the seat from Spynie .

= = Cathedral church at Elgin = =

Despite Bricius 's earlier appeal , it was not until Andreas de Moravia 's episcopate that Pope Honorius III issued his bull on 10 April 1224 authorising his legates Gilbert de Moravia , Bishop of Caithness , Robert , Abbot of Kinloss and Henry , Dean of Ross to examine the suitability of transferring the cathedra to Elgin . The Bishop of Caithness and the Dean of Ross performed the translation ceremony on 19 July 1224 . On 10 July , Alexander II ( Alaxandair mac Uilliam ) had agreed to the transference in an edict that referred to his having given the land previously for this purpose . The land grant predated the Papal mandate and there is evidence that building had started in around 1215 . Construction of the cathedral was completed after 1242 . Chronicler John of Fordun recorded without explanation that in 1270 the cathedral church and the canons ' houses had burned down . The cathedral was rebuilt in a larger and grander style to form the greater part of the structure that is now visible , work that is supposed to have been completed by the outbreak of the Wars of Scottish Independence in 1296 . Although Edward I of England took an army to Elgin in 1296 and again in 1303 , the cathedral was left unscathed , as it was by his grandson Edward III during his assault on Moray in 1336 .

Soon after his election to the see in 1362 – 63 , Bishop Alexander Bur requested funds from Pope Urban V for repairs to the cathedral , citing neglect and hostile attacks . In August 1370 Bur began protection payments to Alexander Stewart , Lord of Badenoch , known as the Wolf of Badenoch , who became Earl of Buchan in 1380 , and who was son of the future King Robert II . Numerous disputes between Bur and Buchan culminated in Buchan 's excommunication in February 1390 and the bishop turning to Thomas Dunbar , son of the Earl of Moray , to provide the protection service .

These acts by the bishop , and any frustration Buchan may have felt about the reappointment of his brother Robert Stewart , Earl of Fife as guardian of Scotland , may have caused him to react defiantly : in May , he descended from his island castle on Lochindorb and burned the town of Forres , followed in June by the burning of Elgin and the cathedral with its manses . It is believed that he also burned Pluscarden Priory at this time , which was officially under the Bishop 's protection . Bur wrote to Robert III seeking reparation for his brother 's actions in a letter stating :

Robert III granted Bur an annuity of £ 20 for the period of the bishop 's lifetime , and the Pope provided income from the Scottish Church during the following decade . In 1400 , Bur wrote to the Abbot of Arbroath complaining that the abbot 's prebendary churches in the Moray diocese had not paid their dues towards the cathedral restoration . In the same year Bur wrote to the rector of Aberchirder church , telling him that he now owed three years ' arrears of the subsidy that had been imposed on non @-@ prebendary churches in 1397 . Again , on 3 July 1402 , the burgh and cathedral precinct were attacked , this time by Alexander of Lochaber , brother of Domhnall of Islay , Lord of the Isles ; he spared the cathedral but burned the manses . For this act , Lochaber and his captains were excommunicated , prompting Lochaber 's return in September to give reparation and gain absolution . In 1408 , the money saved during an ecclesiastic vacancy was diverted to the rebuilding process and in 1413 a grant from the customs of Inverness was provided . Increasingly , the appropriation of the parish church revenues led in many cases to churches becoming dilapidated and unable to attract educated priests . By the later Middle Ages , the standard of pastoral care outside the main burghs had significantly declined .

Bishop John Innes ( 1407 – 14 ) contributed greatly to the rebuilding of the cathedral , as evidenced by the inscription on his tomb praising his efforts . When he died , the chapter met secretly — " in quadam camera secreta in campanili ecclesie Moraviensis " — and agreed that should one of their number be elected to the see , the bishop would grant one third of the income of the bishopric annually until the rebuilding was finished . The major alterations to the west front were completed before 1435 and contain the arms of Bishop Columba de Dunbar ( 1422 – 35 ) , and it is presumed that both the north and south aisles of the choir were finished before 1460 , as the south aisle contains the tomb of John de Winchester ( 1435 – 60 ) . Probably the last important rebuilding feature was the major restructuring of the chapterhouse between 1482 and 1501 , which contains the arms of Bishop Andrew Stewart .

= = = Diocesan organisation = = =

The dignitaries and canons constituted the chapter and had the primary role of aiding the bishop in the governance of the diocese . Often the bishop was the titular head of the chapter only and was excluded from its decision @-@ making processes , the chapter being led by the dean as its superior . As the diocese of Moray based its constitution on that of Lincoln Cathedral , the bishop was allowed to participate within the chapter but only as an ordinary canon . Moray was not unique in this : the bishops of Aberdeen , Brechin , Caithness , Orkney and Ross were also canons in their own chapters . Each morning , the canons held a meeting in the chapterhouse where a chapter from the canonical rule book of St Benedict was read before the business of the day was discussed .

Bishop Bricius 's chapter of eight clerics consisted of the dean , precentor , treasurer , chancellor , archdeacon and three ordinary canons . His successor , Bishop Andreas de Moravia , greatly expanded the chapter to cater for the much enlarged establishment by creating two additional hierarchical posts ( succentor and subdean ) and added 16 more prebendaries . In total , 23 prebendaries had been created by the time of Andreas ' death , and a further two were added just before the Scottish Reformation . Prebendary churches were at the bestowal of the bishop as the churches either were within the diocesan lands or had been granted to the bishop by a landowner as patronage . In the case of Elgin Cathedral , the de Moravia family , of which Bishop Andreas was a member , is noted as having the patronage of many churches given as prebends .

Rural Deans , or deans of Christianity as they were known in the Scottish Church , supervised the priests in the deaneries and implemented the bishop 's edicts . There were four deaneries in the Moray diocese — Elgin , Inverness , Strathspey and Strathbogie — and these provided the income not only for the cathedral and chapter but also for other religious houses within and outside the diocese . Many churches were allocated to support designated canons , and a small number were held in common . The bishop received mensal and prebendary income in his separate positions as prelate and canon .

The government of the diocese affecting both clergy and laity was vested entirely in the bishop , who appointed officers to the ecclesiastical , criminal and civil courts . The bishop , assisted by his chapter , produced the church laws and regulations for the bishopric and these were enforced at occasional diocesan synods by the bishop or , in his absence , by the dean . Appointed officials adjudicated at consistory courts looking at matters affecting tithes , marriages , divorces , widows , orphans , wills and other related legal matters . In Moray , these courts were held in Elgin and Inverness . By 1452 the Bishop of Moray held all his lands in one regality and had Courts of Regality presided over by Bailiffs and Deputies to ensure the payment of revenues from his estates .

= = = Cathedral offices = = =

Large cathedrals such as Elgin had many chapel altars and daily services and required to be suitably staffed with canons assisted by a plentiful number of chaplains and vicars . Bishop Andreas allowed for the canons to be aided by seventeen vicars made up of seven priests , five deacons and five sub @-@ deacons — later the number of vicars was increased to twenty five . In 1350 the vicars at Elgin could not live on their stipends and Bishop John of Pilmuir provided them with the income from two churches and the patronage of another from Thomas Randolph , second Earl of Moray . By 1489 one vicar had a stipend of 12 marks ; six others , 10 marks ; one , eight marks ; three , seven marks , and six received five marks ; each vicar was employed directly by a canon who was required to provide four months ' notice in the event of his employment being terminated . The vicars were of two kinds : the vicars @-@ choral who worked chiefly in the choir taking the main services and the chantry chaplains who performed services at the individual foundation altars though there was some overlapping of duties . Although the chapter followed the constitution of Lincoln , the form of divine service copied that of Salisbury Cathedral . It is recorded that Elgin 's vicars @-@ choral were subject to disciplinary correction for shortcomings in the performance of the services , resulting in fines . More serious offences could end in corporal punishment , which was administered in the chapterhouse by the sub @-@ dean and witnessed by the chapter . King Alexander II founded a chaplaincy for the soul of King Duncan I who died in battle with Macbeth near Elgin . The chapel most frequently referenced in records was St Thomas the Martyr , located in the north transept and supported by five chaplains . Other chaplaincies mentioned are those of the Holy Rood , St Catherine , St Duthac , St Lawrence , St Mary Magdalene , St Mary the Virgin and St Michael . By the time of Bishop Bur 's episcopate ( 1362 – 1397 ) , the cathedral had 15 canons ( excluding dignitaries ) , 22 vicars @-@ choral and about the same number of chaplains .

Despite these numbers , not all the clergy were regularly present at the services in Elgin Cathedral . Absence was an enduring fact of life in all cathedrals in a period when careerist clerics would accept positions in other cathedrals . This is not to say that the time spent away from the chanonry was without permission , as some canons were appointed to be always present while others were allowed to attend on a part @-@ time basis . The dean of Elgin was permanently in attendance ; the precentor , chancellor , and treasurer , were available for half the year . The non @-@ permanent canons had to attend continuously for three months . The chapter decided in 1240 to penalise persistently absent canons who broke the terms of their attendance by removing one seventh of their income . In the Diocese of Aberdeen and it is assumed in other bishoprics also , when important decisions of the chapter had to be taken , an absentee canon had to appoint a procurator to act on his behalf — this was usually one of the dignitaries who had a higher likelihood of being present . At Elgin in 1488 , many canons were not abiding by the terms of their leave of absence , resulting in each of them receiving a formal warning and a summons ; despite this , ten canons refused to attend and had a seventh of their prebendary income deducted . The bulk of the workload fell to the vicars and a smaller number of permanent canons who were responsible for celebrating high mass and for leading and arranging sermons and feast day processions . Seven services were held daily , most of which were solely for the clergy and took place behind the rood screen which separated the high altar and choir from lay worshipers . Only cathedrals , collegiate churches and large burgh churches were resourced to perform the more elaborate services ; the services in the parish churches were more basic .

The clergy were augmented by an unknown number of lay lawyers and clerks as well as masons , carpenters , glaziers , plumbers , and gardeners . Master Gregory the mason and Master Richard the glazier are mentioned in the chartulary of the cathedral .

= = = Chanonry and burgh = = =

The chanonry , referred to in the cathedral 's chartulary as the college of the chanonry or simply as the college , was the collection of the canons ' manses that were grouped around the cathedral . A substantial wall , over 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high , 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) thick and around 820 metres ( 2 @,@ 690 ft ) in length , enclosed the cathedral and manses and separated the church community from the laity ; only the manse of Rhynie lay outside the west wall . The houses of 17 vicars and the many chaplains were also situated outside the west wall . The wall had four gates : the West Port gave access to the burgh , the North Port provided access to the road to the bishop 's palace of Spynie , the South Port opened opposite the hospital of Maison Dieu and the surviving East or Panns Port allowed access to the meadowland called Le Pannis . The Panns Port illustrates the portcullis defences of the gate @-@ houses ( Fig . 1 ) . Each canon or dignitary was responsible for providing his own manse and was built to reflect his status within the chapter . The castle having become unsuitable , Edward I of England stayed at the manse of Duffus on 10 and 11 September 1303 as did James II in 1455 . In 1489 , a century after the incendiary attack on the cathedral and precinct in 1390 and 1402 , the cathedral records revealed a chanonry still lacking many of its manses . The chapter ordered that 13 canons , including the succentor and the archdeacon , should immediately " erect , construct , build , and duly repair their manses , and the enclosures of their gardens within the college of Moray " . The manse of the precentor , erroneously called the Bishop 's House , is partially ruined and is dated 1557 . ( Fig . 2 ) Vestiges of the Dean 's Manse and the Archdeacon 's Manse ( Fig . 3 ) are now part of private buildings .

The hospital of Maison Dieu , dedicated to St Mary and situated near the cathedral precinct but outside the chanonry , was established by Bishop Andreas before 1237 for the aid of the poor . It suffered fire damage in 1390 and again in 1445 . The cathedral clerks received it as a secular benefice but in later years it may , in common with other hospitals , have become dilapidated through a lack of patronage . Bishop James Hepburn granted it to the Blackfriars of Elgin on 17 November 1520 , perhaps in an effort to preserve its existence . The property was taken into the ownership of the Crown after the Reformation and in 1595 was granted to the burgh by James VI for educational purposes and for helping the poor . In 1624 , an almshouse was constructed to replace the original building , but in 1750 a storm substantially damaged its relatively intact ruins . The remnants of the original building were finally demolished during a 19th @-@ century redevelopment of the area .

There were two friaries in the burgh . The Dominican Black Friars friary was founded in the western part of the burgh around 1233 . The Franciscan ( Friars Minor Conventual ) Grey Friars friary was later founded in the eastern part of the burgh sometime before 1281 . It is thought that this latter Grey Friars foundation did not long survive , but was followed between 1479 and 1513 by the foundation of a friary near Elgin Cathedral by the Franciscan ( Observants ) Grey Friars . The building was transferred into the ownership of the burgh around 1559 and later became the Court of Justice in 1563 . In 1489 , the chapter founded a school that was not purely a song school for the cathedral but was also to be available to provide an education in music and reading for some children of Elgin .

= = = Post – Reformation = = =

In August 1560 , parliament assembled in Edinburgh and legislated that the Scottish church would be Protestant , the Pope would have no authority and that the Catholic mass was illegal . Scottish cathedrals now survived only if they were used as parish churches and as Elgin had been fully served by the Kirk of St Giles , its cathedral was abandoned . An act of parliament passed on 14 February 1567 authorised Regent Lord James Stewart 's Privy Council to order the removal of the lead from the roofs of both Elgin and Aberdeen cathedrals , to be sold for the upkeep of his army , but the overladen ship that was intended to take the cargo to Holland capsized and sank in Aberdeen harbour . In 1615 , John Taylor , the ' Water Poet ' , described Elgin Cathedral as " a faire and beautiful church with three steeples , the walls of it and the steeples all yet standing ; but the roofes , windowes and many marble monuments and tombes of honourable and worthie personages all broken and defaced " .

Decay had set in and the roof of the eastern limb collapsed during a gale on 4 December 1637 . In 1640 the General Assembly ordered Gilbert Ross , the minister of St Giles kirk , to remove the rood screen which still partitioned the choir and presbytery from the nave . Ross was assisted in this by the Lairds of Innes and Brodie who chopped it up for firewood . It is believed that the destruction of the great west window was caused by Oliver Cromwell 's soldiers sometime between 1650 and 1660 .

At some point the cathedral grounds had become the burial ground for Elgin . The town council arranged for the boundary wall to be repaired in 1685 but significantly , the council ordered that the stones from the cathedral should not be used for that purpose . Although the building was becoming increasingly unstable the chapterhouse continued to be used for meetings of the Incorporated Trades from 1671 to 1676 and then again from 1701 to around 1731 . No attempt was made to stabilise the structure and on Easter Sunday 1711 the central tower gave way , demolishing the nave . Following this collapse , the " quarrying " of the cathedral 's stone work for local projects began . Many artists visited Elgin to sketch the ruins , and it is from their work that the slow but continuing ruination can be observed . By the closing years of the 18th century , travellers to Elgin began to visit the ruin , and pamphlets giving the history of the cathedral were prepared for those early tourists . In 1773 Samuel Johnson recorded , " a paper was put into our hands , which deduced from sufficient authorities the history of this venerable ruin . "

Since the abolition of bishops within the Scottish Church in 1689 , ownership of the abandoned cathedral fell to the crown , but no attempt to halt the decline of the building took place . Acknowledging the necessity to stabilise the structure , the Elgin Town Council initiated the reconstruction of the perimeter wall in 1809 and cleared debris from the surrounding area in about 1815 . The Lord Provost of Elgin petitioned the King 's Remembrancer for assistance to build a new roof for the chapterhouse and in 1824 , £ 121 was provided to the architect Robert Reid for its construction . Reid was significant in the development of a conservation policy for historical buildings in Scotland and was to become the first Head of the Scottish Office of Works ( SOW ) in 1827 . It was probably during his tenure at the SOW that the supporting buttresses to the choir and transept walls were built .

In 1824 John Shanks , an Elgin shoemaker and an important figure in the conservation of the cathedral , started his work . Sponsored by local gentleman Isaac Forsyth , Shanks cleared the grounds of centuries of rubbish dumping and rubble . Shanks was officially appointed the site 's Keeper and Watchman in 1826 . Although his work was highly valued at the time and brought the cathedral back into public focus , his unscientific clearance work may have resulted in much valuable evidence of the cathedral 's history being lost . He died on 14 April 1841 , aged 82 . A fortnight later , the Inverness Courier published a commemorative piece on Shanks , calling him the " beadle or cicerone of Elgin Cathedral " , and writing :

Some minor works took place during the remainder of the 19th century and continued into the early 20th century . During the 1930s further maintenance work ensued that included a new roof to protect the vaulted ceiling of the south choir aisle . From 1960 onwards the crumbling sandstone blocks were replaced and new windows were fitted in the chapterhouse , which was re @-@ roofed to preserve its vaulted ceiling . From 1988 to 2000 , the two western towers were substantially overhauled with a viewing platform provided at the top of the north tower .

= = Building phases = =

= = = Construction 1224 – 1270 = = =

The first church was markedly cruciform in shape and smaller than the present floor plan . This early structure had a choir without aisles and more truncated , and a nave with only a single aisle on its north and south sides ( Fig . 4 ) . The central tower rose above the crossing between the north and south transepts and may have held bells in its upper storey . The north wall of the choir is the earliest extant structure , dating to the years immediately after the church 's 1224 foundation ; the clerestory windows on top of it are from the later post @-@ 1270 reconstruction . This wall has blocked up windows extending to a low level above ground , indicating that it was an external wall and proving that the eastern limb then had no aisle ( Fig . 5 ) .

The south transept 's southern wall is nearly complete , displaying the fine workmanship of the first phase . It shows the Gothic pointed arch style in the windows that first appeared in France in the mid @-@ 12th century and was apparent in England around 1170 , but hardly appeared in Scotland until the early 13th century . It also shows the round early Norman window design that continued to be used in Scotland during the entire Gothic period ( Fig . 6 ) . The windows and the quoins are of finely cut ashlar sandstone . A doorway in the south @-@ west portion of the wall has large mouldings and has a pointed oval window placed above it . Adjacent to the doorway are two lancet @-@ arched windows that are topped at the clerestory level with three round @-@ headed windows . The north transept has much less of its structure preserved , but much of what does remain , taken together with a study by John Slezer in 1693 , shows that it was similar to the south transept , except that the north transept had no external door and featured a stone turret containing a staircase .

The west front has two 13th century buttressed towers 27 @.@ 4 metres ( 90 ft ) high that were originally topped with wooden spires covered in protective lead . Although the difference between the construction of the base course and the transepts suggests that the towers were not part of the initial design , it is likely that the building process was not so far advanced that the masons could fully integrate the nave and towers into each other ( Fig . 7 ) .

= = = Enlargement and re @-@ construction after 1270 = = =

After the fire of 1270 , a programme of reconstruction was launched , with repairs and a major enlargement . Outer aisles were added to the nave , the eastern wing comprising the choir and presbytery was doubled in length and had aisles provided on its north and south sides , and the octagonal chapterhouse was built off the new north choir aisle ( Figs . 8 & 9 ) . The new northern and southern aisles ran the length of the choir , past the first bay of the presbytery , and contained recessed and chest tombs . The south aisle of the choir contained the tomb of bishop John of Winchester , suggesting a completion date for the reconstructed aisle between 1435 and 1460 ( Fig . 10 ) . Chapels were added to the new outer aisles of the nave and were partitioned from each other with wooden screens . The first bay at the west end of each of these aisles and adjacent to the western towers did not contain a chapel but instead had an access door for the laity .

In June 1390 , Alexander Stewart , Robert III 's brother , burned the cathedral , manses and burgh of Elgin . This fire was very destructive , requiring the central tower to be completely rebuilt along with the principal arcades of the nave . The entire western gable between the towers was reconstructed and the main west doorway and chapterhouse were refashioned . The internal stonework of the entrance is late 14th or early 15th century and is intricately carved with branches , vines , acorns and oak leaves . A large pointed arch opening in the gable immediately above the main door contained a series of windows , the uppermost of which was a circular or rose window dating from between 1422 and 1435 . Just above it can be seen three coats of arms : on the right is that of the bishopric of Moray , in the middle are the Royal Arms of Scotland , and on the left is the armorial shield of Bishop Columba Dunbar ( Fig . 11 ) . The walls of the nave are now very low or even at foundation level , except one section in the south wall which is near its original height . This section has windows that appear to have been built in the 15th century to replace the 13th century openings : they may have been constructed following the 1390 attack ( Fig . 12 ) . Nothing of the elevated structure of the nave remains , but its appearance can be deduced from the scarring seen where it attached to the eastern walls of the towers . Nothing of the crossing now remains following the collapse of the central tower in 1711 . Elgin Cathedral is unique in Scotland in having an English style octagonal chapterhouse and French influenced double aisles along each side of the nave ; in England , only Chichester Cathedral has similar aisles . The chapterhouse , which had been attached to the choir through a short vaulted vestry , required substantial modifications and was now provided with a vaulted roof supported by a single pillar ( Figs . 13 & 14 ) . The chapterhouse measures 10 @.@ 3 metres ( 34 ft ) high at its apex and 11 @.@ 3 metres ( 37 ft ) from wall to opposite wall ; it was substantially rebuilt by Bishop Andrew Stewart ( 1482 – 1501 ) , whose coat of arms is placed on the central pillar . Bishop Andrew was the half @-@ brother of King James II . The delay to the completion of these repairs until this bishop 's episcopacy demonstrates the extent of the damage from the 1390 attack .

= = = 19th and 20th century stabilisation = = =

In 1847 – 8 several of the old houses associated with the cathedral on the west side were demolished , and some minor changes were made to the boundary wall . Structural reinforcement of the ruin and some reconstruction work began in the early 20th century , including restoration of the east gable rose window in 1904 and the replacement of the missing form pieces , mullions , and decorative ribs in the window in the north @-@ east wall of the chapterhouse ( Fig . 15 ) . By 1913 , repointing the walls and additional waterproofing of the wall tops were completed . In 1924 the ground level was lowered and the 17th century tomb of the Earl of Huntly was repositioned . Further repairs and restoration ensued during the 1930s , including the partial dismantling of some 19th century buttressing ( Fig . 16 ) , the reconstruction of sections of the nave piers using recovered pieces ( Fig . 17 ) , and the addition of external roofing to the vault in the south choir in 1939 ( Fig . 18 ) . From 1960 to 2000 , masons restored the cathedral 's crumbling stonework ( Fig . 19 ) and between 1976 and 1988 , the window tracery of the chapterhouse was gradually replaced , and its re @-@ roofing was completed ( Fig . 20 ) . Floors , glazing , and a new roof were added to the south @-@ west tower between 1988 and 1998 and comparable restoration work was completed on the north @-@ west tower between 1998 and 2000 ( Fig . 21 ) .

= = Burials = =

Andreas de Moravia – buried in the south side of the choir under a large blue marble stone

David de Moravia – buried in the choir

William de Spynie – buried in the choir

Andrew Stewart ( d . 1501 )

Alexander Gordon , 1st Earl of Huntly

Columba de Dunbar ( c . 1386 – 1435 ) was Bishop of Moray from 1422 until his death

= = Referenced figures = =

= St Mary 's Church , Nether Alderley =

St Mary 's Church is an Anglican church at the end of a lane to the south of the village of Nether Alderley , Cheshire , England . It dates from the 14th century , with later additions and a major restoration in the late @-@ 19th century . The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building .

The church was built in the Gothic style , and has historically been associated with the Stanley family of Alderley . Its major features include a fine tower , the Stanley pew which is entered by an outside staircase , a 14th @-@ century font , the western gallery , and monuments to the Lords Stanley of Alderley . The grounds contain a 17th @-@ century former schoolhouse , now used as a parish hall , a medieval church cross , and the Stanley Mausoleum , which dates from 1909 . An ancient yew tree stands in the churchyard .

St Mary 's is an active parish church in the diocese of Chester , the archdeaconry of Macclesfield , and the deanery of Knutsford . Its benefice is combined with that of St Catherine 's , Birtles .

= = History = =

The oldest parts of the church date from around 1300 , but it is likely that a timber @-@ framed church existed on the site before then . The church 's original dedication was to Saint Lawrence , but that was later changed to Saint Mary . A clerestory was added in the 15th century . The tower was built in 1530 , and the Stanley pew was added in about 1600 . The west gallery , which contained an organ , was installed in 1803 . In 1856 , the chancel was completely rebuilt , to a design by Cuffley and Starkey , paid for by the Stanley family . The vestry was constructed in 1860 . The church was restored between 1877 and 1878 by Paley and Austin ; the nave floor was lowered , the pulpit was replaced , plaster was removed from the roof and the walls , and the box pews were replaced by new oak pews . The tower clock , made in 1743 , was renovated in 1997 . In 2000 , the 16th @-@ century wooden bell @-@ frame was strengthened by the addition of a steel frame , and the Stanley pew was restored .

= = Architecture = =

= = = Exterior = = =

St Mary 's is built of ashlar buff and red sandstone quarried locally at Alderley Edge , and the roof is of Kerridge stone slates . Its plan consists of a tower at the west end , a four @-@ bay nave with north and south aisles , a chancel with a vestry to its north , and a south porch . Over the north aisle is a dormer window . The tower has diagonal buttresses . Its west door has 14th @-@ century mouldings and above the door is a three @-@ light window . The stage above this contains ringers ' windows on the north and west faces and a diamond @-@ shaped clock on the south face . Above these the belfry windows on all faces have two lights . The top of the tower is embattled and contains the bases of eight pinnacles . Below the parapet is a string course with large grotesque gargoyles . At the west end of the nave roof is a bellcote . The Stanley pew projects to the east of the south porch . In the porch are grooves which were cut where arrows were sharpened .

= = = Interior = = =

The barrel @-@ shaped nave roof dates possibly from the early 16th century . The early 17th @-@ century Stanley pew at the eastern end of the south aisle is at the level of an upper storey , and is entered by a flight of steps from outside the church . Its front is richly carved and displays six panels with coats of arms . Richards states that it is one of the finest of its kind in the country and that it is unique in Cheshire . At the west end of the church is a late @-@ 18th @-@ century musicians ' gallery , whose front panel has painted coats of arms . The gallery contains the organ which replaces an earlier organ . This was presented by Lady Fabia Stanley in 1875 and was made by Hill and Company of London at a cost of £ 350 ( equivalent to £ 30 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , An oak document chest in the tower has been dated to 1686 . The 14th @-@ century font was buried in the churchyard during the Commonwealth , dug up in 1821 and restored to use in the church in 1924 . It consists of a plain circular bowl on four short cylindrical columns with moulded bases . Richards considers it to be one of the finest examples of 14th @-@ century work in Cheshire . The church has two old Bibles , a Vinegar Bible and a Breeches Bible .

The chancel contains memorials to the Lords Stanley of Alderley . The memorial to John Stanley , 1st Baron Stanley of Alderley contains his effigy dressed in peer 's robes lying under a canopy with his hand on a book , dated 1856 and by Richard Westmacott . On the other side of the chancel is a memorial to his son Edward Stanley , his effigy holding a scroll in his hand and with a dog at his feet . Engraved in brass on the side of the memorial are the figures of his widow and children . Lady Stanley is seated in the middle with their four surviving sons on her right , five surviving daughters on her left and three children who had died at a young age at her knee and on her lap . A memorial tablet to John Constantine Stanley , who died in 1878 , is by Joseph Boehm . The chancel contains a monument to Rev. Edward Shipton , rector of the church from 1625 to 1630 .

The stained glass in the east window , dated 1856 , was made by William Wailes . The glass in a south window in the chancel of 1909 was made by Morris & Co . The east window in the north aisle , dated 1920 is by Irene Dunlop . The stained glass window to the left of the pulpit was donated by the Greg family of Styal Mill . The stained glass in the window at the west end of the north aisle is to the memory of the wife of Edward John Bell , rector from 1870 to 1907 , and was made by Clayton and Bell in 1877 . The tower holds a ring of six bells , hung for change ringing , five of which were cast in 1787 by Rudhall of Gloucester , and the sixth by Charles and George Mears at the Whitechapel Bell Foundry in 1847 . A seventh , unused , bell dates from 1686 and has been noted as being of historical importance by the Church Buildings Council of the Church of England . The parish registers begin in 1629 , and the churchwardens ' accounts in 1612 .

= = External features = =

The sandstone schoolhouse in the churchyard was built in 1628 ; the school room was on the ground floor and the schoolmaster 's accommodation was above . A large room was added to the rear in 1817 , and in 1908 the building was restored and presented to the parish by Lord Stanley . It is now used as a parish hall and is listed Grade II * .

The medieval church cross in the churchyard , the Stanley Mausoleum , and the churchyard walls , gate piers and gates , are Grade II listed .

The mausoleum was built in 1909 by Edward Lyulph , 4th Lord Stanley . He died in 1925 and it contains his ashes and those of his wife , Mary Katherine , who died in 1929 . The mausoleum is built in ashlar buff and red sandstone with a Kerridge stone @-@ slate roof . It was designed in the neo @-@ Jacobean style by Paul Phipps , and is rectangular in shape , with two storeys and a three @-@ bay north front . The central bay contains a door , above which is the Stanley crest , a three @-@ light window and a date plaque in the gable . On the sides of the upper storey are three four @-@ light windows . Inside the mausoleum is a white marble sarcophagus . The yew tree in the churchyard is 1 @,@ 200 years old .

= = Rediscovery of the crypt = =

It had been known that under the church was a vault containing the remains of some members of the Stanley family but its whereabouts were not known until they were discovered by an architect in 2007 . A stone slab was removed exposing steps leading to a crypt under the chancel . This contained six coffins , four of which contained the bodies of the first and second Lords Stanley and their wives . Once the details had been recorded , the crypt was resealed .

= = Present activities = =

St Mary 's holds a variety of Anglican services on Sundays and offers a range of church activities . The church is open to visitors at advertised times and guided tours are available . A parish magazine is published monthly .

= Tawny nurse shark =

The tawny nurse shark ( Nebrius ferrugineus ) is a species of carpet shark in the family Ginglymostomatidae , and the only extant member of the genus Nebrius . It is found widely along coastlines in the Indo @-@ Pacific , preferring reefs , sandy flats , and seagrass beds from very shallow water to a depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) . With a cylindrical body and a broad , flattened head , the tawny nurse shark is quite similar in appearance to the nurse shark ( Ginglymostoma cirratum ) of the Atlantic and East Pacific , from which it can be distinguished by its pointed @-@ tipped dorsal fins and narrow , sickle @-@ shaped pectoral fins . The maximum recorded length of the tawny nurse shark is 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 ft ) .

Nocturnal in habits , the tawny nurse shark tends to spend the day resting in piles of two dozen or more individuals inside caves or under ledges . At night , it is an active @-@ swimming predator that uses a powerful suction force to extract prey from inside holes and crevices . The diet of this species consists mainly of octopus , though they also take other invertebrates , small bony fishes , and rarely sea snakes . It is aplacental viviparous , meaning the embryos hatch from egg capsules inside the mother . It is the only carpet shark in which the embryos are oophagous , feeding on eggs produced by the mother while inside the uterus . The litter size may be as small as one or two , based on the large size of near @-@ term embryos .

Compared to the nurse shark , the tawny nurse shark has a more placid disposition and will often allow divers to touch and play with it . However , it should be accorded respect due to its powerful jaws and sharp teeth . This species is caught by commercial fisheries across most of its range for meat , fins , liver oil , leather , and fishmeal . It is also esteemed as a game fish off Queensland , Australia , and is known for its habit of spitting water in the faces of its captors . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as Vulnerable , with subpopulations in several areas already diminished or extirpated .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The tawny nurse shark was first described by French naturalist René @-@ Primevère Lesson as Scyllium ferrugineum , based on a 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 ft 7 in ) long specimen from New Guinea . His short account was published in 1831 in Voyage au tour du monde , sur la corvette La Coquille . A more detailed description , along with an illustration , was published by German naturalist Eduard Rüppell in 1837 as Nebrius concolor , based on a specimen from the Red Sea . Both names were retained , often in separate genera ( Ginglymostoma and Nebrius respectively ) , until they were synonymized by Leonard Compagno in 1984 . Compagno recognized that the tooth shape differences used to separate these species were the result of differences in age , with N. concolor representing younger individuals .

The genus name Nebrius is derived from the Greek word nebris or nebridos , meaning the skin of a fawn . The specific epithet ferrugineus is Latin for " rust @-@ colored " . Other common names for this species include giant sleepy shark , Madame X ( a name coined by the shark fisherman Norman Caldwell in the 1930s for the then @-@ unidentified Australian specimens ) , nurse shark , rusty catshark , rusty shark , sleepy shark , spitting shark , and tawny shark . Based on morphological similarities , Nebrius is believed to be the sister genus of Ginglymostoma , with both being placed in a clade that also contains the short @-@ tail nurse shark ( Pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum ) , the whale shark ( Rhincodon typus ) , and the zebra shark ( Stegostoma fasciatum ) .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The tawny nurse shark is widely distributed in the Indo @-@ Pacific region . In the Indian Ocean , it is found from KwaZulu @-@ Natal , South Africa northward to the Red Sea , Persian Gulf and India , including Madagascar , Mauritius , the Chagos Archipelago , the Seychelles , and the Maldives . In the western Pacific , it occurs from southern Japan and the coast of China to the Philippines , Southeast Asia , and Indonesia , to as far south as the northern coast of Australia . In the central Pacific , it has been reported from off New Caledonia , Samoa , Palau , the Marshall Islands , and Tahiti . Fossil teeth belonging to this species have been found in the Pirabas Formation of northern Brazil , dating back to the Lower Miocene ( 23 – 16 Ma ) . The presence of these fossils indicates that the range of the tawny nurse shark once extended to the tropical Atlantic Ocean , prior to the formation of the Isthmus of Panama .

An inshore species , the tawny nurse shark inhabits continental and insular shelves over sandy flats or beds of seagrass , as well as along the outer edges of coral or rocky reefs . This shark may be found from the surf zone , often in water barely deep enough to cover its body , to a maximum depth of 70 m ( 230 ft ) on coral reefs ; it is most common at a depth of 5 – 30 m ( 16 – 98 ft ) . Young sharks are generally found in the shallow areas of lagoons , while adults may be encountered across a variety of habitats .

= = Description = =

The tawny nurse shark grows to a maximum length of 3 @.@ 2 m ( 10 ft ) . It has a robust , cylindrical body with a broadly rounded and flattened head . The eyes are small and face laterally , with prominent ridges over them and smaller spiracles behind . There are a pair of long , slender barbels in front of the nostrils . The mouth is small , with the lower lip divided into three lobes . There are 29 – 33 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 26 – 28 tooth rows in the lower jaw , arranged in an imbricate ( overlapping ) pattern with the outermost 2 – 4 functional rows separated from the rest by a narrow space . Each tooth resembles a fan , with a broad base rising to a small , sharp central point flanked by 3 or more smaller cusps on both sides . As the shark ages , the teeth become relatively taller and thicker . The fourth and fifth pairs of gill slits are placed much closer together than the others .

The dorsal and pelvic fins are angular , with the first dorsal fin larger than the second . The pectoral fins are narrow , pointed , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) ; their shape separates this species from the similar @-@ looking nurse shark . The origin of the first dorsal fin is about even with the origin of the pelvic fins , while the origin of the anal fin is even with or somewhat behind the origin of the second dorsal fin . The caudal fin has a shallow upper lobe and barely present lower lobe , comprising about a quarter of the total length in adults . The dermal denticles are diamond @-@ shaped , bearing 4 – 5 faint ridges radiating from a blunt point . Tawny nurse sharks are yellowish , reddish , or grayish brown above and off @-@ white below , and are capable of slowly changing their color to better blend with the environment . Young sharks have starkly white lower eyelids .

Many tawny nurse sharks found off the coasts of Japan , Taiwan , and the Ryukyu Islands lack a second dorsal fin . This physical abnormality has been speculated to result from pregnant females being exposed to water of unusually high salinity and / or temperature , possibly from human activity . In 1986 , a 2 @.@ 9 m ( 9 ft 6 in ) long adult male with both a missing dorsal fin and partial albinism ( in the form of white body color with gray @-@ brown eyes ) was captured off Wakayama Prefecture , Japan . This anomalous individual is the largest albino shark known to date , having survived for a long time in the wild despite its lack of camouflage .

= = Biology and ecology = =

With a more streamlined form than other nurse sharks , the tawny nurse shark is believed to be a less benthic , more active swimmer . The characteristics of its body , head , fins , and teeth are comparable to other active reef sharks sharing its range , such as the sicklefin lemon shark ( Negaprion acutidens ) . Tawny nurse sharks are primarily nocturnal , though they are said to be active at all hours off Madagascar , and in captivity they will become diurnally active if presented with food . During the day , groups of two dozen or more sharks can be found resting inside caves and under ledges , often stacked atop one another . Individual sharks have small home ranges that they consistently return to each day .

The tawny nurse shark has few natural predators ; attacks on this species have been reported from bull sharks ( Carcharhinus leucas ) and great hammerheads ( Sphyrna mokarran ) , while the related nurse shark has been known to fall prey to tiger sharks ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) and lemon sharks ( Negaprion brevirostris ) . Known parasites of this species include five species of tapeworms in the genus Pedibothrium , which infest the shark 's spiral intestine .

= = = Feeding = = =

The tawny nurse shark may be one of the few fishes specializing in preying on octopus . Other known food items include corals , sea urchins , crustaceans ( e.g. crabs and lobsters ) , squid , small fishes ( e.g. surgeonfish , queenfish , and rabbitfish ) , and the occasional sea snake . Hunting tawny nurse sharks swim slowly just above the sea floor , poking their heads into depressions and holes . When a prey item is found , the shark forcefully expands its large , muscular pharynx , creating a powerful negative pressure that sucks the prey into its mouth .

= = = Life history = = =

Mating in the tawny nurse shark is known to occur from July to August off Madagascar . Adult females have one functional ovary and two functional uteruses . The mode of reproduction is aplacental viviparity , meaning that the embryos hatch inside the uterus ; females in captivity have been documented depositing up to 52 non @-@ viable egg capsules , which has led to erroneous reports of this shark being oviparous . The egg capsules of this species are onion @-@ shaped , with thin , brown , translucent shells . The tawny nurse shark is the only carpet shark in which there is oophagy : once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , they gorge on eggs produced by the mother and acquire the distended abdomen characteristic of such oophagous embryos . Unlike in mackerel sharks , the eggs consumed by the embryos are large and shelled rather than small and undeveloped . There is no evidence of sibling cannibalism as in the sand tiger shark ( Carcharias taurus ) .

Various authors have reported the length at birth anywhere from 40 to 80 cm ( 16 to 31 in ) , with the discrepancy possibly reflecting geographic variation . Although females release up to four fertilized eggs into each uterus , the very large size of the newborns suggest that the litter size may be as few as one or two . In one examined female that had two embryos sharing a single uterus , one embryo was much smaller and thinner than the other , implying that competition may eliminate the additional siblings . Males attain sexual maturity at a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) , and females at a length of 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 9 m ( 7 ft 7 in – 9 ft 6 in ) .

= = Human interactions = =

Encounters with tawny nurse sharks underwater indicate a more docile demeanor than the similar nurse shark ; usually divers are able to approach the sharks closely and even touch and play with them without incident . However , this species has been infrequently provoked into biting , and merits respect due to its strength , small but sharp teeth , and extremely powerful jaws . Tawny nurse sharks are favored attractions for ecotourist divers off Thailand , the Solomon Islands , and elsewhere . This species also adapts well to captivity and is displayed in public aquaria in Europe , the United States , Okinawa , and Singapore , where they may become tame enough to be hand @-@ fed .

The tawny nurse shark is taken by commercial fisheries operating throughout its range , including off Pakistan , India , Thailand , and the Philippines ; an exception is in Australian waters , where it is only taken in small numbers as bycatch . This shark is caught using demersal trawls , floating and fixed bottom gill nets , and on hook @-@ and @-@ line . The meat is sold fresh or dried and salted , the fins are used for shark fin soup , and the offal processed into fishmeal . In addition , the liver is a source of oil and vitamins , and the thick , tough skin is made into leather products . Off Queensland , Australia , the tawny nurse shark is valued by big @-@ game anglers . When hooked , large individuals are tenacious opponents and are difficult to subdue due to their habit of spinning . They are also capable of spitting a powerful jet of water into the faces of their captors , making grunting noises in between jets ( making the tawny shark one of the few species of sharks to produce a noise ) ; whether this is a deliberate defensive behavior is uncertain .

The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the tawny nurse shark as Vulnerable worldwide , as it faces heavy fishing pressure and its low reproductive and dispersal rates limit the ability of over @-@ exploited populations to recover . Furthermore , this shark 's inshore habitat renders it susceptible to habitat degradation , destructive fishing practices ( e.g. poisons and explosives , especially prevalent off Indonesia and the Philippines ) , and human harassment . Localized declines or extirpations of the tawny nurse shark have been documented off India and Thailand . Off Australia , this species has been assessed as of Least Concern , as there it is not targeted by fisheries .

= California State Route 243 =

State Route 243 ( SR 243 ) , or the Banning @-@ Idyllwild Panoramic Highway , is a 30 @-@ mile ( 50 kilometer ) two @-@ lane highway that runs from Banning , California ( in the north ) to Idyllwild , California ( in the south ) in Riverside County , California . The highway is a connector between Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) and SR 74 . Along its route , it provides access to the San Bernardino National Forest . A road from Banning to Idyllwild was planned around the turn of the twentieth century , and was open by 1910 . The road was added to the state highway system in 1970 .

= = Route description = =

SR 243 begins at SR 74 in the San Jacinto Wilderness near Mountain Center , Riverside County as Idyllwild Road . The highway traverses north along a winding road through the community of Idyllwild . SR 243 makes a left turn at the intersection with Circle Drive and continues through Pine Cove . The road continues through the forest past Mount San Jacinto State Park through Twin Pines and the Morongo Indian Reservation before making a few switchbacks and descending en route to the city of Banning as the Banning Idyllwild Panoramic Highway . The highway continues as San Gorgonio Avenue into the city before making a left onto Lincoln Street and a right onto 8th Street and terminating at a diamond interchange with I @-@ 10 .

SR 243 is part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . SR 243 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System , and is officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) , meaning that it is a substantial section of highway passing through a " memorable landscape " with no " visual intrusions " , where the potential designation has gained popular favor with the community . In 2007 , it was named the Esperanza Firefighters Memorial Highway in honor of five firefighters who died while fighting the Esperanza Fire in October 2006 . In 2013 , SR 243 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 1 @,@ 650 between Marion Ridge Drive in Idyllwild and San Gorgonio Avenue in Banning , and 6 @,@ 500 at the northern terminus in Banning , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .

= = History = =

A road from Banning to Idyllwild was under construction in 1904 , and 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the road was open by August , with an additional six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the road planned . Another four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) were commissioned in 1908 . The oiled road was completed by September 1910 , and provided a view of Lake Elsinore and the Colorado Desert , and it was expected to help with transporting lumber and stopping fires ; because of this , the federal government provided $ 2 @,@ 000 for the construction . The road became a part of the forest highway system in 1927 .

A new " high @-@ gear " road from Banning to Idyllwild was under way by 1935 , and two years later , the Los Angeles Times considered the road to be " high @-@ gear " . Efforts to pave the road were under way in 1950 . The road from Banning through Idyllwild to SR 74 was known as County Route R1 ( CR R1 ) by 1966 . By 1969 , plans were in place to add the Banning to Idyllwild to Mountain Center road as a state highway ; earlier , State Senator Nelson Dilworth proposed legislation to require the road to be added to the state highway system if SR 195 was removed , as the two were of roughly the same length , but the latter remained in the system . SR 243 was added to the state highway system in 1970 . The Division of Highways suggested deleting the highway in 1971 . In 1998 , Caltrans had no plans to improve the route through 2015 .

= = Major intersections = =

Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was when the route was established , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Riverside County .

= = Other important information = =

Firearm Transportation Due to the fact that CA @-@ 243 passes Idyllwild School , pursuant to the Gun @-@ Free School Zones Act of 1990 , firearms , including those in vehicles , must be within the guidelines of 18 U.S.C. § 922 ( q ) ( 2 ) ( B ) within the school zone , which is , as defined by 18 U.S.C. § 921 ( a ) ( 25 ) , is 1000 feet . Violators will be , according to 18 U.S.C. § 924 ( a ) ( 4 ) , " fined under this title , imprisoned for not more than 5 years , or both . "

= The Amps =

The Amps were an American alternative @-@ indie rock group . Formed by Kim Deal in 1995 after her band the Breeders went on hiatus , the group consisted of Deal , vocals and guitars ; Luis Lerma , bass ; Nate Farley , guitars ; and the Breeders ' Jim Macpherson , drums . The Breeders ' Kelley Deal , Kim 's sister , was also briefly involved , but had to leave the band due to drug problems . The group was named when Kim Deal started calling herself Tammy Ampersand for fun , and the band Tammy and the Amps . They recorded the album Pacer in Ireland and the United States .

Pacer was released in October 1995 . The group toured the United States , Europe , and Australia , with bands including the Foo Fighters , Sonic Youth , and Guided by Voices . Critics commented on the loose and rough quality of these performances . The Amps continued as a group until 1996 , when Deal changed their name back to the Breeders . By 2000 , Macpherson , Lerma , and Farley had left the band ; they were all at times involved in various projects with Guided by Voices ' Robert Pollard . Deal 's next album , the Breeders ' Title TK , was released seven years after Pacer .

= = Background and formation = =

From 1986 to 1992 , Deal was a member of the Pixies , and from 1989 onwards , the Breeders . In August 1993 , the Breeders released their second album , Last Splash , which went platinum in the USA , gold in Canada , and silver in the UK . The other members of the group at that time were Kim 's twin sister Kelley Deal , Josephine Wiggs and Jim Macpherson . By late 1994 , after two years of straight touring and recording , and culminating in the Lollapalooza tour , the band members were exhausted ; they decided to take some time off from the Breeders , but this hiatus ended up being longer than expected . Kelley was arrested on drug charges in late 1994 and spent time in and out of rehabilitation , while Wiggs became involved in musical projects in New York , including collaborations with members of Luscious Jackson .

Meanwhile , Kim Deal was eager to continue recording and performing . At first , she envisioned her next album as a solo record , on which she would play all of the instrument parts . When she was recording initial demos for the project , she asked Kelley to play on some of them , to distract her from her drug difficulties . Since Kelley was now also involved , Deal decided not to go solo , but formed a new group . She recruited Macpherson to play drums , musician Luis Lerma , bass , and Nate Farley , guitar . Later , Kelley dropped out of the project for rehabilitation and moved to Saint Paul , Minnesota . For fun , Deal began calling herself Tammy Ampersand , and the group , Tammy and the Amps . This later became simply the Amps .

= = Recording and touring = =

The Amps released one album , Pacer , which was recorded at several different studios . The first session , at Easley Studios in Memphis , Tennessee , was engineered by Davis McCain and Doug Easley . There Deal recorded new songs , including what would become Pacer 's single , " Tipp City " . This recording opportunity came about when she was producing a planned record by Guided by Voices ; when that group abandoned work on their album , Deal used the leftover studio time for her own songs . Following the Easley Studios session , recording for Pacer continued at six other locations in total , including studios in Chicago , Los Angeles , Dublin , and Deal 's hometown , Dayton , Ohio . Engineers Steve Albini , John Agnello , Bryce Goggin and others each helped record one or more of these sessions . Pacer came out in October 1995 .

The Amps toured throughout 1995 and 1996 . Early performances , before releasing Pacer , included June 1995 shows in Dayton : one with Poster Children and another with Guided by Voices . They toured with Guided by Voices and Chavez in the United Kingdom in September , in cities such as London , Glasgow , and Sheffield , and played another show with Guided by Voices in Ohio in October . The Amps performed a series of US concerts in October and November with Sonic Youth , including shows in Detroit and Chicago with Helium , in Seattle and Portland with Bikini Kill , and in Los Angeles with Mike Watt . Following the concerts with Sonic Youth , the Amps did a tour of Europe . In January 1996 , they played the Summersault festival in Australia . That year , the Amps toured with the Foo Fighters in the United States , in locations such as Chicago ( with That Dog ) , Worcester , Massachusetts , and Austin , Texas ( with Jawbreaker ) . In 1995 or 1996 , they also played shows with the Tasties and Brainiac .

Reviewers described live concerts by the Amps as unpolished and relaxed . The Chronicle 's Drema Crist praised their show at an unidentified location as " fun @-@ spirited and silly " . Greg Kot of The Chicago Tribune described one of their Chicago performances as " off @-@ kilter " and wrote that " Deal 's pungent vocals were swallowed up by the guitars , and the foursome 's slight melodies were lost amid all the bashing . " A review in The Chicago Reader of the same concert noted that " The Amps play with a low @-@ key , hangout sound . " The Phoenix 's Matt Ashare felt that at their December 1995 show in Boston " the Amps didn 't click in a way that would suggest that this was Deal 's new , full @-@ time band " ; he added that it was " an unpretentiously gritty way for Deal to let off some steam while the Breeders [ took ] a little break " . In Boston Rock , this concert was characterized as " sloppy " but " charm [ ing ] ... hanging loosely off Kim 's gruff vocals and ebullient personality " .

= = Reforming the Breeders = =

Later in 1996 , Deal changed the name of the group back to the Breeders , originally with almost the same line @-@ up as the Amps . Until then , Deal had been waiting for Wiggs and Kelley to rejoin the Breeders and record a new album together , and had held back from reforming the Breeders out of respect for them . In May 1996 , Wiggs revealed that she would not be involved in any immediate Breeders activity ; Kelley also chose to stay in Saint Paul , to be close to her rehabilitation facility . Deal then decided that she did not want to wait any longer to reform the group , partly because the Breeders ' repertoire was larger than the Amps ' , thereby allowing longer concerts . Deal added violinist Carrie Bradley ( who had played on the Breeders ' Pod album ) , and with Macpherson , Lerma , and Farley , played some shows in 1996 with Primus .

By 1998 , Kelley had rejoined and Macpherson had left the group , and by 2000 Lerma and Farley had also left . The Breeders , with a line @-@ up including the Deal sisters and new members Mando Lopez and Jose Medeles , released the albums Title TK in 2002 and Mountain Battles in 2008 . Meanwhile , Macpherson was a member of Guided by Voices from 1998 to 2001 , and participated in other projects with Guided By Voices ' Robert Pollard until 2005 . Lerma and Farley have been members of the Tasties , and in 1999 participated in Pollard 's Lexo and the Leapers side project group ; Farley was also a member of Guided by Voices from 1999 to 2004 . In 2013 , the Last Splash @-@ era Breeders line @-@ up of Kim and Kelley Deal , Macpherson , and Wiggs reunited to tour to celebrate the 20th anniversary of that album .

= = Members = =

Kim Deal – vocals , guitars

Luis Lerma – bass

Nate Farley – guitars

Jim Macpherson – drums

= = Discography = =

= = = Album = = =

= = = Single = = =

= Exploration of Jupiter =

The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by automated spacecraft . It began with the arrival of Pioneer 10 into the Jovian system in 1973 , and , as of 2016 , has continued with eight further spacecraft missions . All of these missions were undertaken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the probe landing or entering orbit . These probes make Jupiter the most visited of the Solar System 's outer planets as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time . On 5th July 2016 , spacecraft Juno arrived and entered the planet 's orbit — the second craft ever to do so . Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties , especially due to the probes ' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet 's harsh radiation environment .

The first spacecraft to visit Jupiter was Pioneer 10 in 1973 , followed a year later by Pioneer 11 . Aside from taking the first close @-@ up pictures of the planet , the probes discovered its magnetosphere and its largely fluid interior . The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes visited the planet in 1979 , and studied its moons and the ring system , discovering the volcanic activity of Io and the presence of water ice on the surface of Europa . Ulysses further studied Jupiter 's magnetosphere in 1992 and then again in 2000 . The Cassini probe approached the planet in 2000 and took very detailed images of its atmosphere . The New Horizons spacecraft passed by Jupiter in 2007 and made improved measurements of its and its satellites ' parameters .

The Galileo spacecraft was the first to have entered orbit around Jupiter , arriving in 1995 and studying the planet until 2003 . During this period Galileo gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system , making close approaches to all of the four large Galilean moons and finding evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them , as well as the possibility of liquid water beneath their surfaces . It also discovered a magnetic field around Ganymede . As it approached Jupiter , it also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 . In December 1995 , it sent an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere , so far the only craft to do so .

In July 2016 , the Juno spacecraft , launched in 2011 , completed its orbital insertion maneuver successfully , and is now in orbit around Jupiter and preparing for its science programme .

The European Space Agency selected the L1 @-@ class JUICE mission in 2012 as part of its Cosmic Vision programme to explore three of Jupiter 's Galilean moons , with a possible Ganymede lander provided by Roscosmos . JUICE is proposed to be launched in 2022 .

= = Technical requirements = =

Flights from Earth to other planets in the Solar System have a high energy cost . It requires almost the same amount of energy for a spacecraft to reach Jupiter from Earth 's orbit as it does to lift it into orbit in the first place . In astrodynamics , this energy expenditure is defined by the net change in the spacecraft 's velocity , or delta @-@ v. The energy needed to reach Jupiter from an Earth orbit requires a delta @-@ v of about 9 km / s , compared to the 9 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 5 km / s to reach a low Earth orbit from the ground . Gravity assists through planetary flybys ( such as by Earth or Venus ) can be used to reduce the energetic requirement ( i.e. the fuel ) at launch , at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration to reach a target such as Jupiter when compared to the direct trajectory . Ion thrusters capable of a delta @-@ v of more than 10 kilometers / s were used on the Dawn spacecraft . This is more than enough delta @-@ v to do a Jupiter fly @-@ by mission from a solar orbit of the same radius as that of Earth without gravity assist .

A major problem in sending space probes to Jupiter is that the planet has no solid surface on which to land , as there is a smooth transition between the planet 's atmosphere and its fluid interior . Any probes descending into the atmosphere are eventually crushed by the immense pressures within Jupiter .

Another major issue is the amount of radiation to which a space probe is subjected , due to the harsh charged @-@ particle environment around Jupiter ( for a detailed explanation see Magnetosphere of Jupiter ) . For example , when Pioneer 11 made its closest approach to the planet , the level of radiation was ten times more powerful than Pioneer 's designers had predicted , leading to fears that the probes would not survive . With a few minor glitches , the probe managed to pass through the radiation belts , but it lost most of the images of the moon Io , as the radiation had caused Pioneer 's imaging photo polarimeter to receive false commands . The subsequent and far more technologically advanced Voyager spacecraft had to be redesigned to cope with the radiation levels . Over the eight years the Galileo spacecraft orbited the planet , the probe 's radiation dose far exceeded its design specifications , and its systems failed on several occasions . The spacecraft 's gyroscopes often exhibited increased errors , and electrical arcs sometimes occurred between its rotating and non @-@ rotating parts , causing it to enter safe mode , which led to total loss of the data from the 16th , 18th and 33rd orbits . The radiation also caused phase shifts in Galileo 's ultra @-@ stable quartz oscillator .

= = Flyby missions = =

= = = Pioneer program ( 1973 and 1974 ) = = =

The first spacecraft to explore Jupiter was Pioneer 10 , which flew past the planet in December 1973 , followed by Pioneer 11 twelve months later . Pioneer 10 obtained the first @-@ ever close @-@ up images of Jupiter and its Galilean moons ; the spacecraft studied the planet 's atmosphere , detected its magnetic field , observed its radiation belts and determined that Jupiter is mainly fluid . Pioneer 11 made its closest approach , within some 34 @,@ 000 km of Jupiter 's cloud tops , on December 4 , 1974 . It obtained dramatic images of the Great Red Spot , made the first observation of Jupiter 's immense polar regions , and determined the mass of Jupiter 's moon Callisto . The information gathered by these two spacecraft helped astronomers and engineers improve the design of future probes to cope more effectively with the environment around the giant planet .

= = = Voyager program ( 1979 ) = = =

Voyager 1 began photographing Jupiter in January 1979 and made its closest approach on March 5 , 1979 , at a distance of 349 @,@ 000 km from Jupiter 's center . This close approach allowed for greater image resolution , though the flyby 's short duration meant that most observations of Jupiter 's moons , rings , magnetic field , and radiation environment were made in the 48 @-@ hour period bracketing the approach , even though Voyager 1 continued photographing the planet until April . It was soon followed by Voyager 2 , which made its closest approach on July 9 , 1979 , 576 @,@ 000 km away from the planet 's cloud tops . The probe discovered Jupiter 's ring , observed intricate vortices in its atmosphere , observed active volcanoes on Io , a process analogous to plate tectonics on Ganymede , and numerous craters on Callisto .

The Voyager missions vastly improved our understanding of the Galilean moons , and also discovered Jupiter 's rings . They also took the first close @-@ up images of the planet 's atmosphere , revealing the Great Red Spot as a complex storm moving in a counter @-@ clockwise direction . Other smaller storms and eddies were found throughout the banded clouds ( see animation on the right ) . Two new , small satellites , Adrastea and Metis , were discovered orbiting just outside the ring , making them the first of Jupiter 's moons to be identified by a spacecraft . A third new satellite , Thebe , was discovered between the orbits of Amalthea and Io .

The discovery of volcanic activity on the moon Io was the greatest unexpected finding of the mission , as it was the first time an active volcano was observed on a celestial body other than Earth . Together , the Voyagers recorded the eruption of nine volcanoes on Io , as well as evidence for other eruptions occurring between the Voyager encounters .

Europa displayed a large number of intersecting linear features in the low @-@ resolution photos from Voyager 1 . At first , scientists believed the features might be deep cracks , caused by crustal rifting or tectonic processes . The high @-@ resolution photos from Voyager 2 , taken closer to Jupiter , left scientists puzzled as the features in these photos were almost entirely lacking in topographic relief . This led many to suggest that these cracks might be similar to ice floes on Earth , and that Europa might have a liquid water interior . Europa may be internally active due to tidal heating at a level about one @-@ tenth that of Io , and as a result , the moon is thought to have a thin crust less than 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) thick of water ice , possibly floating on a 50 @-@ kilometers @-@ deep ( 30 mile ) ocean .

= = = Ulysses ( 1992 ) = = =

On February 8 , 1992 , the Ulysses solar probe flew past Jupiter 's north pole at a distance of 451 @,@ 000 km . This swing @-@ by maneuver was required for Ulysses to attain a very high @-@ inclination orbit around the Sun , increasing its inclination to the ecliptic to 80 @.@ 2 degrees . The giant planet 's gravity bent the spacecraft 's flightpath downward and away from the ecliptic plane , placing it into a final orbit around the Sun 's north and south poles . The size and shape of the probe 's orbit were adjusted to a much smaller degree , so that its aphelion remained at approximately 5 AU ( Jupiter 's distance from the Sun ) , while its perihelion lay somewhat beyond 1 AU ( Earth 's distance from the Sun ) . During its Jupiter encounter , the probe made measurements of the planet 's magnetosphere . Since the probe had no cameras , no images were taken . In February 2004 , the probe arrived again at the vicinity of Jupiter . This time the distance from the planet was much greater — about 240 million km — but it made further observations of Jupiter .

= = = Cassini ( 2000 ) = = =

In 2000 , the Cassini probe , en route to Saturn , flew by Jupiter and provided some of the highest @-@ resolution images ever taken of the planet . It made its closest approach on December 30 , 2000 , and made many scientific measurements . About 26 @,@ 000 images of Jupiter were taken during the months @-@ long flyby . It produced the most detailed global color portrait of Jupiter yet , in which the smallest visible features are approximately 60 km ( 37 mi ) across .

A major finding of the flyby , announced on March 6 , 2003 , was of Jupiter 's atmospheric circulation . Dark belts alternate with light zones in the atmosphere , and the zones , with their pale clouds , had previously been considered by scientists to be areas of upwelling air , partly because on Earth clouds tend to be formed by rising air . Analysis of Cassini imagery showed that the dark belts contain individual storm cells of upwelling bright @-@ white clouds , too small to see from Earth . Anthony Del Genio of NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies said that " the belts must be the areas of net @-@ rising atmospheric motion on Jupiter , [ so ] the net motion in the zones has to be sinking " .

Other atmospheric observations included a swirling dark oval of high atmospheric @-@ haze , about the size of the Great Red Spot , near Jupiter 's north pole . Infrared imagery revealed aspects of circulation near the poles , with bands of globe @-@ encircling winds , and adjacent bands moving in opposite directions . The same announcement also discussed the nature of Jupiter 's rings . Light scattering by particles in the rings showed the particles were irregularly shaped ( rather than spherical ) and likely originated as ejecta from micrometeorite impacts on Jupiter 's moons , probably on Metis and Adrastea . On December 19 , 2000 , the Cassini spacecraft captured a very @-@ low @-@ resolution image of the moon Himalia , but it was too distant to show any surface details .

= = = New Horizons ( 2007 ) = = =

The New Horizons probe , en route to Pluto , flew by Jupiter for a gravity assist and was the first probe launched directly towards Jupiter since the Ulysses in 1990 . Its Long Range Reconnaissance Imager ( LORRI ) took its first photographs of Jupiter on September 4 , 2006 . The spacecraft began further study of the Jovian system in December 2006 , and made its closest approach on February 28 , 2007 .

Although close to Jupiter , New Horizons ' instruments made refined measurements of the orbits of Jupiter 's inner moons , particularly Amalthea . The probe 's cameras measured volcanoes on Io , studied all four Galilean moons in detail , and made long @-@ distance studies of the outer moons Himalia and Elara . The craft also studied Jupiter 's Little Red Spot and the planet 's magnetosphere and tenuous ring system .

On March 19 , 2007 the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself , causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode . The craft fully recovered within two days , with some data loss on Jupiter 's magnetotail . No other data loss events were associated with the encounter . Due to the immense size of the Jupiter system and the relative closeness of the Jovian system to Earth in comparison to the closeness of Pluto to Earth , New Horizons will send back more data to Earth from the Jupiter encounter than the Pluto encounter .

= = Orbiter missions = =

= = = Galileo ( 1995 – 2003 ) = = =

The first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter was the Galileo orbiter , which went into orbit around Jupiter on December 7 , 1995 . It orbited the planet for over seven years , making 35 orbits before it was destroyed during a controlled impact with Jupiter on September 21 , 2003 . During this period , it gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system ; the amount of information was not as great as intended because the deployment of its high @-@ gain radio transmitting antenna failed . The major events during the eight @-@ year study included multiple flybys of all of the Galilean moons , as well as Amalthea ( the first probe to do so ) . It also witnessed the impact of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 as it approached Jupiter in 1994 and the sending of an atmospheric probe into the Jovian atmosphere in December 1995 .

Cameras on the Galileo spacecraft observed fragments of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 between 16 and 22 July 1994 as they collided with Jupiter 's southern hemisphere at a speed of approximately 60 kilometres per second . This was the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of solar system objects . While the impacts took place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth , Galileo , then at a distance of 1 @.@ 6 AU from the planet , was able to see the impacts as they occurred . Its instruments detected a fireball that reached a peak temperature of about 24 @,@ 000 K , compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130 K ( − 143 ° C ) , with the plume from the fireball reaching a height of over 3 @,@ 000 km .

An atmospheric probe was released from the spacecraft in July 1995 , entering the planet 's atmosphere on December 7 , 1995 . After a high @-@ g descent into the Jovian atmosphere , the probe discarded the remains of its heat shield , and it parachuted through 150 km of the atmosphere , collecting data for 57 @.@ 6 minutes , before being crushed by the pressure and temperature to which it was subjected ( about 22 times Earth normal , at a temperature of 153 ° C ) . It would have melted thereafter , and possibly vaporized . The Galileo orbiter itself experienced a more rapid version of the same fate when it was deliberately steered into the planet on September 21 , 2003 at a speed of over 50 km / s , in order to avoid any possibility of it crashing into and contaminating Europa .

Major scientific results of the Galileo mission include :

the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet 's atmosphere — the atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths ;

confirmation of extensive volcanic activity on Io — which is 100 times greater than that found on Earth ; the heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth ;

observation of complex plasma interactions in Io 's atmosphere which create immense electrical currents that couple to Jupiter 's atmosphere ;

providing evidence for supporting the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa 's icy surface ;

first detection of a substantial magnetic field around a satellite ( Ganymede ) ;

magnetic data evidence suggesting that Europa , Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid @-@ saltwater layer under the visible surface ;

evidence for a thin atmospheric layer on Europa , Ganymede , and Callisto known as a ' surface @-@ bound exosphere ' ;

understanding of the formation of the rings of Jupiter ( by dust kicked up as interplanetary meteoroids which smash into the planet 's four small inner moons ) and observation of two outer rings and the possibility of a separate ring along Amalthea 's orbit ;

identification of the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet 's magnetosphere .

On December 11 , 2013 , NASA reported , based on results from the Galileo mission , the detection of " clay @-@ like minerals " ( specifically , phyllosilicates ) , often associated with organic materials , on the icy crust of Europa , moon of Jupiter . The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet according to the scientists .

= = = Juno ( 2016 ) = = =

NASA launched Juno on August 5 , 2011 to study Jupiter in detail from a polar orbit when it arrives in 2016 . The spacecraft will be placed in a polar orbit to study the planet 's composition , gravity field , magnetic field , and polar magnetosphere . Juno will also search for clues about how Jupiter formed , including whether the planet has a rocky core , the amount of water present within the deep atmosphere , and how the mass is distributed within the planet . Juno will also study Jupiter 's deep winds , which can reach speeds of 600 km / h . Juno started orbiting Jupiter on the night of 4th July 2016 .

= = = Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( 2022 ) = = =

ESA 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ) has been selected as part of ESA 's Cosmic Vision science program . It is expected to launch in 2022 and , after a series of flybys in the inner Solar System , arrive in 2030 . In 2012 , the European Space Agency 's selected the JUpiter ICy moon Explorer ( JUICE ) as its first Large mission , replacing its contribution to EJSM , the Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter ( JGO ) . The partnership for the Europa Jupiter System Mission has since ended , but NASA will continue to contribute the European mission with hardware and an instrument .

= = Proposed missions = =

The Europa Clipper is a mission proposed to NASA to focus on studying Jupiter 's moon Europa . In March 2013 , funds were authorized for " pre @-@ formulation and / or formulation activities for a mission that meets the science goals outlined for the Jupiter Europa mission in the most recent planetary decadal survey " . The proposed mission would be set to launch in the early 2020s and reach Europa after a 6 @.@ 5 year cruise . The spacecraft would fly by the moon 32 times to minimize radiation damage .

= = = Canceled missions = = =

Because of the possibility of subsurface liquid oceans on Jupiter 's moons Europa , Ganymede and Callisto , there has been great interest in studying the icy moons in detail . Funding difficulties have delayed progress . The Europa Orbiter was a planned NASA mission to Europa , which was canceled in 2002 . Its main objectives included determining the presence or absence of a subsurface ocean and identifying candidate sites for future lander missions . NASA 's JIMO ( Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter ) , which was canceled in 2005 , and a European Jovian Europa Orbiter mission were also studied , but were superseded by the Europa Jupiter System Mission .

The Europa Jupiter System Mission ( EJSM ) was a joint NASA / ESA proposal for exploration of Jupiter and its moons . In February 2009 it was announced that both space agencies had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission . The proposal included a launch date of around 2020 and consists of the NASA @-@ led Jupiter Europa Orbiter , and the ESA @-@ led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter . ESA 's contribution had encountered funding competition from other ESA projects . However , the Jupiter Europa Orbiter ( JEO ) , NASA 's contribution , was considered by the Planetary Decadal Survey to be too expensive . The survey supported a cheaper alternative to JEO .

= = Human exploration = =

While scientists require further evidence to determine the extent of a rocky core on Jupiter , its Galilean moons provide the potential opportunity for future human exploration .

Particular targets are Europa , due to its potential for life , and Callisto , due to its relatively low radiation dose . In 2003 , NASA proposed a program called Human Outer Planets Exploration ( HOPE ) that involved sending astronauts to explore the Galilean moons . NASA has projected a possible attempt some time in the 2040s . In the Vision for Space Exploration policy announced in January 2004 , NASA discussed missions beyond Mars , mentioning that a " human research presence " may be desirable on Jupiter 's moons . Before the JIMO mission was cancelled , NASA administrator Sean O 'Keefe stated that " human explorers will follow . "

= = = Potential for colonization = = =

NASA has speculated on the feasibility of mining the atmospheres of the outer planets , particularly for helium @-@ 3 , an isotope of helium that is rare on Earth and could have a very high value per unit mass as thermonuclear fuel . Factories stationed in orbit could mine the gas and deliver it to visiting craft . However , the Jovian system in general poses particular disadvantages for colonization because of the severe radiation conditions prevailing in Jupiter 's magnetosphere and the planet 's particularly deep gravitational well . Jupiter would deliver about 36 Sv ( 3600 rem ) per day to unshielded colonists at Io and about 5 @.@ 4 Sv ( 540 rems ) per day to unshielded colonists at Europa , which is a decisive aspect due to the fact that already an exposure to about 0 @.@ 75 Sv over a period of a few days is enough to cause radiation poisoning , and about 5 Sv over a few days is fatal .

Ganymede is the Solar System 's largest moon and the Solar System 's only known moon with a magnetosphere , but this does not shield it from cosmic radiation to a noteworthy degree , because it is overshadowed by Jupiter 's magnetic field . Ganymede receives about 0 @.@ 08 Sv ( 8 rem ) of radiation per day . Callisto is farther from Jupiter 's strong radiation belt and subject to only 0 @.@ 0001 Sv ( 0 @.@ 01 rem ) a day . For comparison , the average amount of radiation taken on Earth by a living organism is about 0 @.@ 0024 Sv per year ; the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are recorded around Ramsar hot springs at about 0 @.@ 26 Sv per year .

One of the main targets chosen by the HOPE study was Callisto . The possibility of building a surface base on Callisto was proposed , because of the low radiation levels at its distance from Jupiter and its geological stability . Callisto is the only Galilean satellite for which human exploration is feasible . The levels of ionizing radiation on Io , Europa , and Ganymede are hostile to human life , and adequate protective measures have yet to be devised .

It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System . In 1997 , the Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa . According to this plan , explorers would drill down into the Europan ice crust , entering the postulated subsurface ocean , where they would inhabit artificial air pockets .

= Fort Glanville Conservation Park =

Fort Glanville Conservation Park is a protected area located in the Australian state of South Australia located in Semaphore Park , a seaside suburb of Adelaide consisting of a functional 19th century fort listed on the South Australian Heritage Register and some adjoining land . The fort was built after more than 40 years of indecision over the defence of South Australia . It was the first colonial fortification in the state and is the best preserved and most functional in Australia . Fort Glanville was designed by Governor Major General Sir William Jervois and Lieutenant Colonel Peter Scratchley , both important figures in early Australian colonial defence . When built it was designed to defend both Semaphore 's anchorage and shipping entering the Port River from naval attack .

Construction of the fort began in 1878 . It was officially opened in October 1880 and completed by 1882 . Due to changes in the Port River and shipping movements , Fort Largs surpassed it for strategic importance by 1890 . By the close of the 19th century , the fort was largely unused and had no defence significance . It was briefly used for military purposes during World War I and World War II , though not for its original defensive role . For much of the 20th century the area was put to a variety of uses including accommodation , a caravan park and a boy scout campsite . After coming into state government hands in 1951 it was declared as a conservation park and is now managed by the Department of Environment , Water and Natural Resources ( DEWNR ) ; preserving and showcasing its historic value . The fort and surrounds occupy the northern half of the 5 @-@ hectare ( 12 @-@ acre ) conservation park , the southern half is a caravan park . The fort is a lunette shaped defensible battery that was supported by land forces for self @-@ defence . When constructed it was seen as state of the art , incorporating powerful and modern weapons . Its main armament is two rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) 10 inch 20 ton guns backed up by two RML 64 pounder 64 cwt guns , both rare in their particular configuration . The fort retains its original 19th century cannons and three have been restored to working condition .

Fort Glanville Historical Association operates the park under license and conducts open days in the park , recreating the past operation of the fort including military drill and the firing of period weapons . The Association , park service , other volunteers and various grants have all helped ensure the fort is presented in close to original condition . It is the most complete 19th Century fort in Australia , and one of very few in the world that remains in original condition . Connecting the fort to Semaphore jetty is the Semaphore and Fort Glanville Tourist Railway , a 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) gauge passenger steam train operated by volunteers from the National Railway Museum .

= = Historic background = =

In the early years of colonial South Australia , the colonists saw themselves as part of the British Empire and external defence as an Imperial responsibility . Communication lines were long and the empire 's wars remote . Great Britain had undisputed military predominance and she was expected by all to protect her colonies , even one as distant . For local defence , Governor Gawler raised the first military force in 1840 , composed solely of volunteers and known as the South Australian Volunteer Militia Brigade . It was granted the " Royal " title in 1841 but the brigade had all but ceased to exist a year later . The colony obtained its first artillery in 1847 with the arrival of six field guns of various types .

Tensions between Britain and the Russian Empire in the 1850s , as starkly demonstrated by the Crimean War , along with Australia @-@ wide moves towards self @-@ government caused a reassessment of the colony 's defence posture . The various colonies regarded themselves as possible targets for the Russian Pacific Fleet , then based in Siberia . In 1854 , Governor Henry Young appointed a commission under Boyle Travers Finniss to report on the defence of the colony , in case of war . Boyle 's report recommended leaving strategic defence in the hands of the Imperial Navy , though South Australia was to purchase a 400 ton naval vessel . Local defence was to be largely handled by the existing small Imperial garrison and local colonial force , supported by the artillery obtained in 1847 . When the Crimean War ended in 1856 , the danger passed and the perceived need for expensive defence preparations with it . For many years nothing substantive came about from debate on defence of the colony . Over time there formed a consensus favouring Semaphore for fixed defences or fortification ; a strategy also argued by the government established Hart Commission in 1858 . Raiders were seen as unlikely to force the shallows of the Port River but instead were expected to stand off Semaphore , shell the port and use their guns to support landings . The Hart Report recommended building of martello towers at Semaphore and Glenelg , the first report to recommend permanent fortification at Semaphore , though none were built mainly due to the cost .

The volunteer military force was revived in 1859 , with new and modern arms for the infantry , cavalry and artillery . Though there was a few years of enthusiasm and a restructuring in 1866 , by 1870 the force was virtually disbanded . In that year also , British troops were withdrawn from the other Australian colonies ; none were by then stationed in South Australia . With no definitive defence policy , in 1864 the government had sought advice from Captain Parkin of HMS Falcon and Commodore Sir William Wiseman commander of the Australian station ; both visiting British naval officers . They both recommended fixed fortifications for the coast supported by gunboats . Sir Wiseman 's report particularly recommended construction of forts at Semaphore , Port Creek 's entrance and one midway between . In 1864 a story circulated , supported by press speculation , that there was a danger of the Russian fleet attacking Melbourne should Russia and Britain find themselves at war . The South Australian Register produced an editorial decrying the states lack of defences . Within days £ 20 @,@ 000 ( A $ 4 @.@ 14 million in 2005 ) was provided by the government for defence , an amount then seen as insufficient for significant preparation . The danger passed without any lasting defence action except the government 's in @-@ principle adoption of Sir Wiseman 's recommendations . To curtail costs only the Semaphore fort was to be built initially , as it was considered the most critical . Site preparation begun and two 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) guns were purchased , but escalating cost estimates caused the plan to be abandoned by 1868 .

During the early 1870s South Australia 's defence was solely dependent on the volunteer military , and a few artillery pieces purchased during earlier war scares . British troops had been withdrawn from the Australian colonies in 1870 , leaving the state dependent on its own military resources . In a report to the government in 1866 , Colonel Freeling and Major Peter Scratchley recommended establishment of a permanent military force . In 1876 the South Australian government , along with those from New South Wales , Victoria and Queensland requested from the War Office that Major General Sir William Jervois , a noted coastal fortification expert , be appointed to advise on defence needs . He arrived in Sydney in mid @-@ 1877 with then Lieutenant Colonel Scratchley . The 1877 report , delivered after he became South Australian Governor , called for three batteries , at Largs Bay , Semaphore and Glenelg , connected by a military road and supported by field gun emplacements , naval elements and mobile forces . He determined that South Australia 's most probable defence risk was an attack by up to two ships rather than a larger force , and this formed the basis of the final fortification design . His report called for Military Road to be extended to Marino , an electro @-@ contact torpedo station be established on Torrens Island and that a gun boat be provided . In November 1878 the government passed the Military Forces Act , which provided for the raising of a permanent military force and reserve . Two volunteer reserve rifle companies were formed in 1878 and a permanent artillery unit in 1882 .

At this time Semaphore , with its jetty built in 1860 , was the state 's main entry point for passengers and mail . It had a signal station ( built 1872 ) and a time ball tower ( built 1875 ) . Semaphore remained of great maritime significance for the state until the 1880s . When the decision was made to build the fort , in 1878 , the state 's population had reached approximately 250 @,@ 000 . Settlement extended beyond Port Augusta , though Adelaide remained the dominant feature in the economy partly due to the layout of the rail network . At this point Adelaide had a population of over 30 @,@ 000 . Port Adelaide was the main port for South Australia , with over 1000 ships visiting each year , and a local population of over 2 @,@ 500 .

= = Foundation = =

Scratchley had inspected the proposed South Australian fort sites , and Jervois and Scratchley were both responsible for the final fort design and location . The first fort was erected to guard both the entrance to Port Adelaide and the anchorage at Semaphore . It was built on sandhills near Glanville Hall at Semaphore , on a promontory called " Point Malcom " — a name that is now used for an adjacent reserve . The site was chosen so as to best guard shipping sailing to both the Port River and the Outer Harbour ; and a second northern fort was to protect the entrance to Port River itself . At the time of its construction it was seen as a defence against foreign threats , mainly Russian . Scratchley had offered to design the battery , the offer accepted by Cabinet in January 1878 , and he was primarily responsible for the design of both Fort Glanville and Fort Largs . The plans were drawn by Alexander Bain Moncrieff of the South Australian Engineer @-@ in @-@ Chief 's Department , supervised by Scratchley in his Melbourne headquarters . Moncrieff , at Scratchley 's suggestion , was later to supervise the fort 's construction . Plans for both batteries were completed in June 1878 , tenders called for in July and the contract for Fort Glanville awarded in August to John Robb of Kapunda , South Australia for the sum of £ 15 @,@ 893 12s 7d .

Construction began in 1878 and though completed by 1882 the fort was operational in 1880 . Changes were made to the design during construction . Some forced by armament changes and others made to ensure additional security , including a rear @-@ defence wall and connecting road from Military Road . By January 1880 two guns were in place and the fort opened later the same year with an extensive opening ceremony on 2 October . In addition to parades , a small target was moored 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) offshore and fired on by all guns . A total of sixteen shots were fired during which one of the ten inch guns proved faulty . Only one ranging shot was fired and the shots were estimated to land from on @-@ target to 350 yards short . The fort 's final cost was approximately £ 36 @,@ 000 ( A $ 7 @.@ 05 million in 2005 ) consisting of £ 23 @,@ 600 for physical structures and the remainder for armament and fittings . At the time of its construction it was at the forefront of such fortification design , and was considered state of the art .

When first conceived , it was known as the Semaphore Battery , later changed to South Battery and then Fort Glanville by the opening ceremony . The name Glanville came from nearby Glanville Hall , residence of John Hart ( 1809 – 1873 ) thrice Premier of South Australia . Hart had named the house after his mother 's maiden name ( Mary Glanville ) .

= = Personnel = =

For the eighteen months after its opening , the fort was manned by B company of the South Australian Volunteer Artillery but only on weekends . This changed in mid @-@ 1882 when South Australia 's first permanent military force was formed . The fort became the headquarters for the South Australian Permanent Military Force , then the state 's entire standing army of one officer and eighteen other ranks . Some of the unit was stationed at nearby Fort Largs from 1886 ; and , by 1889 the unit had grown to one officer and 45 other ranks . This force grew to 53 of all ranks by 1892 and was by then known as the Permanent Artillery . The unit trained 27 more non @-@ commissioned officers and men who were sent to man the King George Sound batteries near Albany , Western Australia . Though some of the gunners served in the Second Boer War , the unit itself never saw action . Fort Glanville 's section was called out in 1890 , marching to assist the police with a waterside worker 's strike in Port Adelaide . In this case no shots were fired and the strikers did not confront the police or troops . Additional defence acts were passed in 1886 , 1890 and 1895 but , until defence passed into federal hands after 1901 , the state 's permanent military force was composed solely of artillery . Shortly after the federation of Australia , a regiment of the Royal Australian Artillery ( RAA ) was formed and what had been the Permanent Artillery became No.10 company RAA . The fort was manned to an extent during World War I , with one non @-@ commissioned officer and 11 gunners stationed as of November 1914 . Military reports and orders show the fort manned to at least mid @-@ 1918 , though at this point it is doubtful if the guns were fit to engage targets .

There is little in the way of surviving personnel records from the fort 's active time . They may have either been destroyed or transferred to Melbourne after federation . The fort 's record book shows it manned by a section of either the Royal Australian Artillery or B Company of the militia garrison artillery . For the time covered by the book , strength varied from 56 to 108 men of all ranks . Two figures who served at the fort are remembered for their impact outside its operation :

Battery Sergeant Major Charles Moritz , who initially joined the volunteer artillery and was the Permanent Artillery 's first recruit .

Joseph Maria Gordon ( 1856 – 1929 ) , the fort 's first commander and later military commandant for South Australia . Gordon retired in 1914 as Chief of the General Staff , Australian Military Forces .

= = Structure = =

The fort is designed as a defensible battery , rather than a defensive strongpoint . The faces of the fort join to form a half @-@ moon shape or lunette . The guns ' primary role was to defend Port Adelaide and the Semaphore anchorage rather than the fort itself , and the design reflects this . It was intended to be supported by field artillery , cavalry and infantry for self @-@ defence and to repel landings . While the fort retains its original form , the ditch and glacis ( embankment ) have been modified and are largely non @-@ existent in some areas . Ground levels have been changed to accommodate paths and a caravan park , and the original western fence no longer exists .

The entrance road was constructed from Military Road to the fort 's rear gates . Its path is largely followed by the modern Queen Elizabeth II walk , though the former road was slightly to the south . This walk links the conservation park 's visitor centre to the fort gates ; some of the old road can still be seen close to the gates . What was the muster ground is partly taken up by the caravan and camping park and a car park . It was levelled and filled in the 1950s for this use . What remains of this ground , north of the caravan park , was returned to its 1880s profile in 1993 funded by a Federal Government grant . In the 19th century , the muster ground was used for training of the Volunteer Military Force including artillery , who camped on the site . As designed the fort 's rear was protected with a wooden palisade or stockade . In 1881 a masonry wall was added , greatly strengthening defence . Most of the stockade was reconstructed in the 1970s ; some of the original wooden structure is visible in the fort 's north .

= = = Fortification = = =

The main defensive structure is a revetted lunette shaped earthwork . It has a 15 @-@ metre ( 49 ft ) thick rampart with 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) of concrete and 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 ft ) of brick forming a retaining wall for the earth fill . The rampart is covered by natural vegetation and , in both the 19th and 21st century operation , is closed to access to preserve this . The glacis gives extra protection to the fort and was designed to blend the fort into the landscape . It surrounded the fort on the north , south and seaward sides and was made by forming the surrounding sandhills . The side facing the fort — the scarp — is steep and , with the front face of the rampart , forms a 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide ditch that can be raked by rifle fire from the caponier or the stockade 's sides . The outer face is a gentle slope and is designed to be covered by case shot fired from the fort 's 64 @-@ pounder guns . The southern glacis section was removed during sand mining and construction of the caravan park , both after World War II . The western glacis is changed , but still visible , and the northern glacis was recreated in 1993 — showcasing the purpose of the glacis and the function of the caponier . Access to the fort is via double gates at the fort 's rear , one each through the stockade and the rear defence wall . Both gates were removed or destroyed over time and the 21st century gates are reconstructions . The formal parade ground or manning parade lies between the rear walls and barracks , and the raised terreplein . It was formerly used for drill training , assembly and formal parades . First gravelled when constructed , it was paved with tar in the 1890s to solve drainage problems . Around the seaward side of the manning parade runs the terreplein . It is a raised crescent shaped level on which the guns platforms sit , and is ascended from the manning parade by ramps and stairs .

After numerous proposals the sand hills rear and north of the fort were removed in 1882 , improving the fort 's land defence and allowing the 64 @-@ pounder guns to sweep the Semaphore jetty . This now levelled area was used as a bivouac and exercise area for the colony 's volunteer troops . A stable , office , shed and gunner 's store were also erected north of the fort . The gunner 's shed was damaged by fire in 1895 and replaced further eastward . These buildings did not survive into the 21st century .

= = = Internal rooms = = =

On either side of the terreplein , wide of the 64 @-@ pound guns , are two small rooms known as the expense stores . They were used for ready @-@ to @-@ use ammunition for the adjacent guns , except for armour piercing shells which were stored in the rear @-@ defence wall 's archways . Between the 64 @-@ pounders and the 10 " gun positions are two raised observation platforms set into the structure for gun commanders to spot the fall of outgoing shells . Ranging was either performed from here or from a ranging position set in the sand hills to the fort 's north . Between the 10 " guns is a T @-@ shaped loading gallery that draws shells and gunpowder via a hoist system from the magazine below . Either side of the gallery was installed the Armstrong mechanical loading systems for the 10 " guns . These mechanical systems proved unsuccessful and were removed in the 1890s , though the southern one has been reconstructed . The magazine is accessed from the manning parade and is directly beneath the 10 " gun loading gallery . Voice pipes and hoists originally installed have been removed but their remains are visible .

The caponier ( rifle gallery ) extends into the ditch between the rampart and glacis from the fort 's north west corner . It is connected to the fort via a tunnel , running under the rampart from the manning parade . For blast protection and defensibility the tunnel was built with a dogleg . The caponier has rifle firing ports and was originally protected from direct artillery fire by the glacis . Early plans showed the caponier extending from the fort 's south west , and a tunnel linking the magazine and southern guns .

= = = Buildings = = =

The barracks consists of two levels , with rifle firing holes on all sides . Iron shutters closed on the inside and were locked with wooden beams . In 1885 the verandah facing the manning parade was enclosed with wooden shutters to keep the weather out . These shutters were removed during 20th @-@ century restoration work and the verandah returned to original condition . The roof was at first flat timber overlaid by 12 inches ( 30 cm ) of lime concrete . This first roof leaked and an iron roof was added in 1885 . The first floor of the barracks contains the officer 's rooms and troop 's barracks room . Its eastern ( outer ) wall is not flat , incorporating a design feature known as " hornwork " , which opens the field of fire from the rifle holes . Some of the firing holes were bricked in during the 1930s ; this has been only partly rectified during restoration .

The basement contains the gunner 's mess , canteen , No. 1 ancillary store , pantry and officer 's kitchen . The canteen sold everyday necessities as well as a few items like biscuits , sweets and tobacco to the stationed troops . Profits from the canteen were used to fund sporting equipment for the garrison . The No.1 ancillary store was used for various pieces of delicate equipment , fuses , friction tubes and rockets . In 1887 an explosion in the room caused a number of injuries , damage to the store and to the above officer 's quarters . The barracks room and officer 's quarters are connected with a door , probably added in the 1930s as it is not part of the original plans . The barracks room accommodated approximately 20 men . For display purposes it is outfitted as for similar period barracks .

A laboratory is built into the rear wall , on the forts southern side . This room is set into the end of the rampart and was used to prepare gunpowder charges . A guardhouse was built at the manning parade 's southern end in 1885 . It is now used as a duty room for the drill squad during recreation demonstrations but originally was a guard 's room and separate cells connected by telephone to Fort Largs . Up to three men appear to have been accommodated in the guard 's room . When the fort was converted to use as a caravan park the guard house was converted to an ablution block . A store and ablution block were also built in 1885 between the stockade and rear defence wall .

= = Armament = =

Early plans for the fort 's armament were drawn up by Harding Stewart of the British War Office . They called for four 9 in ( 230 mm ) 12 long tons ( 12 t ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) guns , two mounted in turrets and two behind vertical iron shields . This configuration of siege artillery had not been tried before and the plan was abandoned due to the large expected cost . Two of the 9 in guns had been in South Australia since c.1868 after a Colonial Government request , but were not used in the eventual fort design . The final Jervois / Scratchley design omitted the turret and iron shields . 64 @-@ pounder RML guns were substituted for two of the 9 in guns and 10 in 20 ton RML guns for the remaining two . The 20 ton guns were chosen over the then standard 18 ton gun by Jervois after he saw the plans in England , the decision influenced by the then fully committed nature of the Royal Arsenal . Jervois had originally ordered the 18 ton guns but cancelled the order and changed to the Armstrong 20 ton when the arsenal was unable fulfil the order . He also ordered Armstrong 's mechanical loading and protected barbette system for the 20 ton guns . This original battery of four heavy guns remains in place at the fort .

= = = 10 inch RML guns = = =

The fort 's main armament were the two RML 10 inch 20 ton guns — Numbers 3470 and 3472 . They were manufactured in 1879 by WG Armstrong and Company and originally used the Armstrong protected barbette loading system . They were made to the 1878 pattern and supplied on traversing slides . The guns have a 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) calibre , a range of 6 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) with a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 630 feet per second ( 497 m / s ) and are capable of penetrating 11 inches ( 28 cm ) of iron at 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) .

They fire 400 @-@ pound ( 181 kg ) projectiles using a 130 @-@ pound ( 59 kg ) gunpowder cartridge . Though they were insufficient against contemporary battleships , they were seen as adequate for the light cruisers that the fort was expected to face . The carriages weighed 13 long tons ( 13 t ) and moved on semi @-@ circular traverses . The guns were loaded either manually — using the Woolwich ( derrick ) system — or via the Armstrong mechanical loader . The Armstrong system enabled loading of the guns from behind the protection of the rampart whereas the manual system required at least two crew to be exposed on the rampart 's top . Despite this the guns were manually loaded for most of their operational life as the Armstrong cable drive was faulty and too difficult to maintain . The guns had a 14 @-@ man crew and loading took about 2 minutes , a rate of fire that was only slightly faster using the Armstrong equipment .

By 1902 the guns had together fired 219 rounds , though not all at full charge with the records showing only 125 effective full charges . The platforms and traverses were scrapped in 1937 but the gun barrels were uneconomic to cut up and were left in place . One gun platform and its equipment was rebuilt in 1997 using money raised by Fort Glanville Historical Association volunteers working at the Australian Grand Prix .

= = = 64 pounder RML guns = = =

In the flank barbettes are mounted two mark III RML 64 pounder 64 cwt guns , numbers 462 and 463 . They are rifled muzzle @-@ loading heavy guns weighing 64 long hundredweight ( 3 @,@ 300 kg ) with a 6 @.@ 3 @-@ inch ( 160 mm ) calibre steel barrel . They were made to the model 's 1867 pattern by the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich , England in 1872 . Their intended use was to protect the flanks and approaches to the fort . These smaller guns use an 8 lb ( 4 kg ) charge of gunpowder to send a 64 lb ( 29 kg ) projectile up to 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . There are iron rings fixed in the rampart wall that indicate traversing gun carriages were intended to be mounted , though this never eventuated . The guns were supplied with siege over @-@ bank carriages . The lower carriage sections are the type made for the guns when used as field pieces and the upper sections are brackets that raise the guns to the over @-@ bank firing position . In this particular configuration the two guns are thought to be the last in the world .

By the end of their active use in 1902 together they had fired 1540 rounds in practice , though not all at full power as they are recorded as firing under 300 effective full charges . By then the wheels were significantly rotted and the ammunition limbers had become unserviceable . Less wheels , the guns were removed from the fort in 1909 ; Adelaide 's city council then set them in Brougham Gardens , North Adelaide . Both were returned to the fort in 1976 and remounted on restored carriages of the original design . They are the only two guns of their type remaining in Australia . The southern gun ( Number 463 ) fired three blank charges in 1980 to mark the centenary of the first firing at the fort . This same gun is fired regularly by the volunteers of the Fort Glanville Historical Association ( FGHA ) .

Both types of heavy guns used where the only ones of their specific series and type to come to Australia . Though they were never fired in anger , the battery is only 40 feet ( 12 m ) above mean sea level which would have limited the accuracy of the mark III depression rangefinders used .

= = = Other weaponry = = =

Prior to 1895 two 6 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) breech @-@ loading guns had been imported for use in small boats . This use was rejected by military authorities and the guns sat unused . In 1895 the South Australian Defence Committee proposed that the guns be mounted at Fort Glanville , replacing the 64 @-@ pounders whose siege carriages were then unfit for service . This proposal would have greatly extended the useful life of the fort , at little cost . The two military branches , army and navy , could not reach agreement and the proposal was abandoned by 1897 . The gun 's eventual fate is unknown , though a gun found in the Port River later indicates they may have been dumped .

Gun emplacements were made , about a mile apart south of the fort , for six 16 @-@ pounder field guns to provide close defence in case of an attempted beach landing . From 1890 the fort was equipped with moveable armament . It received an 1867 Whitworth 12 @-@ pounder RML field gun and a 5 @-@ barrel 0 @.@ 45 " Martini @-@ henry cartridge firing Nordenfelt gun . The 12 @-@ pounder had fired 222 effective full charges by 1902 ; at which time both weapons were obsolete and their eventual fate is unknown . A 32 @-@ pounder 56 long cwt ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) smoothbore gun on a stepped wooden carriage was purchased in 1878 . Manufactured by the Royal Arsenal in 1806 , it was the familiar " ships cannon " and came to South Australia with two other identical guns . By 1902 no ammunition was held for it and it was listed as for instruction only . The gun was probably destroyed in the 1930s — certainly by the end of the 1940s — with pieces of such a gun found on site in 1983 .

In the late 20th century the fort acquired three 16 @-@ pounder RML mark I field guns . They were formerly used by A battery , South Australian Volunteer Artillery from 1880 until 1901 . Gun number 288 is complete and used for blank firings by the Historical Association . Also acquired is a 2 @-@ pounder RML Whitworth mountain gun made in 1867 . It was also used by A Battery , subsequently by Fort Largs as a signal gun . It is one of only two of this type known to exist , the other in the United Kingdom . The visitors centre has two 9 @-@ pounder brass smoothbore field guns made by H & C King in 1819 . They arrived in South Australia in 1857 and were used for practice shoots near the fort c.1860 ; one is known to have been on the manning parade in 1890 though its use is unknown . They later became saluting guns at Fort Largs , moving by 1919 to near the Jervois Wing of the State Library of South Australia . The Art Gallery of South Australia saved them from a 1941 wartime scrap drive and mounted them on reproduction naval carriages in front of Government House in 1962 . The gallery took them back in late 1977 and transferred them to the History Trust of South Australia in 1988 . The History Trust has loaned them to Fort Glanville for display . Outside the visitor 's centre is a 6 in ( 200 mm ) breech @-@ loading Armstrong 80 long cwt ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) gun ( No.4242 ) that was made in 1884 and used in Victoria . The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) brought it to the state in 1966 for research , subsequently moving it to Perry Engineering at Mile End . In 1984 the CSIRO donated the gun to the park .

= = Defence significance = =

Work began in 1882 on Fort Glanville 's northern sister Fort Largs — then known as the Port Adelaide battery — to the same specification as Fort Glanville ; its barracks and rear defence wall were finished in 1885 . Though guns had already been purchased specially , plans for the third fort at Glenelg were not proceeded with . South Australia was experiencing a depression in 1886 and that coupled with a report by General James Bevan Edwards scuttled plans for the third coastal fort . As early as 1888 the emphasis for defence of the Adelaide coast had already shifted to Fort Largs ; a fact cited as part of the reason for abandonment of the Glenelg fortifications .

From this point Fort Glanville 's significance declined rapidly . Fort Largs was equipped in 1889 with two 6 inch breech @-@ loading disappearing guns which outranged Glanville 's armament . The decline was also linked to changes in Port Adelaide 's maritime facilities and the consequent northward movement of anchored and berthed vessels . During the 1880s the Port River was deepened enabling large ships to sail up and berth , rather than the former practice of anchoring off @-@ shore .

The fort remained as headquarters of South Australia 's permanent military force until the 1890s and as late as 1895 there were still plans to upgrade the 64 @-@ pounder armament , though without result . By 1901 the fort was manned on a caretaker basis only and no permanent forces were stationed . The Federal Government assumed responsibility for South Australian defence in 1903 and took over the fort . Though Glanville by then had no significant defence role , the state received £ 14 @,@ 739 in compensation . From that point its significance was not defence related but as the first and best preserved 19th @-@ century fortification in South Australia .

= = 20th century = =

At Federation in 1901 South Australia 's defences became a federal responsibility . Though both infantry and artillery units were housed at the site on occasion , by 1903 there was no longer a permanent military presence at the fort . For most of the 20th century the site was neglected and largely vacated . It did attract some usage though not always of a military nature . During World War I it was partly revived for a former use , with ammunition stored on site . During the same period however the military used it as a detention barracks . Some or all of the fort was leased for private accommodation during the great depression . During the 1930s the magazine was again used , this time to store small arms ammunition . From June 1931 until the beginning of World War II the site housed a Sea Scout detachment , and was used as a district camp @-@ site for the Boy Scouts . The Department of Defence decided in 1937 that much of the equipment and fittings at the fort were surplus to requirements . Consequent to this the mountings and carriages for the 10 inch guns were removed and sold as scrap ; though effort was made to scrap the barrels it proved uneconomic and they were left in place . In an unusual turn of events , the fort briefly housed refugees . Twenty @-@ nine islanders from the Maldives were rescued from their sinking dhow by a ship bound for Wallaroo . They stayed at the fort for a week in 1938 , before repatriation could be arranged . During World War II the fort again attracted military related use . During 1944 the Proof and Experimental Establishment at Port Wakefield made use of the site to proof ordnance QF 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns manufactured at General Motors Holden in Woodville . The fort was also used as a residence again , with at least two families reported as living in the under @-@ ground sections during the war .

After the war , the State Government negotiated with its federal counterpart to gain control of Fort Glanville . This eventuated in the 1951 sale of the 13 @-@ acre ( 5 ha ) site , which was subsequently administered by the State Tourist Department as a caravan and camping park . The park occupied the muster ground outside the fort and the fort 's barracks building was used as a manager 's residence . The caravan park has had various managers since establishment : Until 1981 it was managed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( NPWS ) , by Woodville Council until 1986 and subsequently by a private operator under a long @-@ term lease .

A significant change in the fort 's conservation and preservation outlook was its declaration as a Historic Relic under the Aboriginal and Historic Relics Preservation Act in 1972 . Up to then there had been growing awareness of the significance of the site in terms of the state 's colonial heritage . Control of the park was moved to the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( NPWS ) , and the fort and surrounds became designated as Fort Glanville Conservation Park . The National Estate Grants Program provided funds in 1975 for conservation work ; NPWS began this work in the same year and the caravan park boundary was moved southwards . Though the site had long been neglected , there was minimal permanent damage to its structure . During the 1970s reconstruction , much of the stockade was replaced . The replaced timbers are visibly different as they have shrunk significantly with large gaps that are not evident in the original timber . Adelaide City Council agreed to return the 64 @-@ pounder guns and new wheels were made ; replacing those rotted over half a century before . In a ceremony on 2 October 1980 , the 100th anniversary of the guns first firing , one of the 64 @-@ pounders was fired again ; later a commemoration plaque was added to the fort 's flagpole 's base . Shortly after this firing the Fort Glanville Historical Association was formed , and was incorporated in 1981 . Fort Glanville was opened for public visitation in 1981 .

As part of South Australia 's sesquicentenary , the South Australia Jubilee 150 board granted $ 250 @,@ 000 for work on the fort , allowing construction of a visitor centre . Queen Elizabeth II visited and inspected the site , and newly constructed visitor centre , for almost an hour on 13 March 1986 . For the visit the historical association demonstrated firing of both the 64 and 2 pounder cannons . The visitor centre was officially opened one month after this visit . Governor Dame Roma Mitchell named the old road " Queen Elizabeth II Walk " in March 1991 ceremony , commemorating the 5th anniversary of the queen 's visit . Considerable subsequent restoration work has been completed on the fort , including the barrack 's interior . The portion of the muster ground that is not within the caravan park was returned to its original level in 1993 .

= = Park and fort today = =

Fort Glanville Conservation Park is one of South Australia 's most important heritage sites . It is the premier site in the state , and possibly Australia , for showcasing colonial era defences and fortifications . The fort is listed on both the South Australian Heritage Register and the National Trust 's classified list . It is considered significant , in national historical military terms , for its association with Jervois and Scratchley ; both leading British defence experts who influenced Australian defence thinking in the late 19th century . The fort was very well constructed with high quality materials ; facts that have been noted as contributing to its preservation . The fort is largely intact and in original condition and is , along with Bluff Battery in Hobart , the best preserved Jervois @-@ Scratchley designed fort in Australia . It is the only Australian colonial fort to still have all of its original armament , and the only to have a regular living history program . Its companion Fort Largs does survive but in greatly modified condition , converted for use as the South Australia Police academy . The fort retains its original armament ; armament that is both rare in Australia and worldwide .

The conservation park is in the suburb of Semaphore Park at the southern end of the Lefevre Peninsula . It covers approximately 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) and is bounded by Bower and Military roads , the Point Malcolm Reserve and Semaphore beach . The land is entirely crown land and is administered by the DEWNR . It is divided into roughly two halves with the northern containing the fort and the southern half containing a caravan park . While it is managed by the DEWNR , the Fort Glanville Consultative Committee and Fort Glanville Historical Association are heavily involved . The committee is appointed by the Minister for Environment and Planning and acts to advise the Minister and liaise with the community . As of 1988 , the fort hosted approximately 7 @,@ 000 visitors annually , and is used as an event venue including the annual City of Charles Sturt citizenship ceremony .

The historical association is an incorporated body of volunteers who use the fort under licence from the Minister . The association operate the fort and visitor centre , holding monthly public open days at which the history of the fort is recreated ; this includes drill demonstrations and firing of the fort 's weapons . The association maintain static displays of the fort 's active period and sell souvenirs . The association 's goal is to have the site open as a fully operational fort for interpretation , tourism and education . The volunteers are involved with recreation , living history and ceremonial work outside the fort . They act as guards of honour at some Government House functions and attended the restoration opening of the Albany , Western Australia fort , and the annual re @-@ enactment of the Battle of Waterloo in Keyneton , Victoria . The fort has living history displays , including the barracks laid out and furnished in period detail . The visitor centre has displays showing the development of South Australia 's colonial defence from 1836 and artifacts found on site during restorations .

Connecting the fort to Semaphore jetty is the Semaphore and Fort Glanville Tourist Railway , a 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) gauge steam train operated by volunteers from the National Railway Museum . The railway opened in December 1992 and , as of 2002 , carried over 16 @,@ 000 passengers annually .

= Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom =

The royal prerogative is a body of customary authority , privilege , and immunity , recognised in the United Kingdom as the sole prerogative of the Sovereign and the source of many of the executive powers of the British government .

Prerogative powers were formerly exercised by the monarch acting on his or her own initiative . Since the 19th century , by convention , the advice of the prime minister or the cabinet — who are then accountable to Parliament for the decision — has been required in order for the prerogative to be exercised . The monarch remains constitutionally empowered to exercise the royal prerogative against the advice of the prime minister or the cabinet , but in practice would only do so in emergencies or where existing precedent does not adequately apply to the circumstances in question .

Today the royal prerogative is available in the conduct of the government of the United Kingdom , including foreign affairs , defence , and national security . The monarchy has a significant constitutional presence in these and other matters , but limited power , because the exercise of the prerogative is in the hands of the prime minister and other ministers or other government officials .

= = Definition = =

The royal prerogative has been called " a notoriously difficult concept to define adequately " , but whether a particular type of prerogative power exists is a matter of common law to be decided by the courts as the final arbiter . A prominent constitutional theorist , A. V. Dicey , proposed in the nineteenth century that :

The prerogative appears to be historically and as a matter of fact nothing else than the residue of discretionary or arbitrary authority which at any given time is legally left in the hands of the crown . The prerogative is the name of the remaining portion of the Crown 's original authority ... Every act which the executive government can lawfully do without the authority of an Act of Parliament is done in virtue of the prerogative .

While many commentators follow the Diceyan view , there are constitutional lawyers who prefer the definition given by William Blackstone in the 1760s :

By the word prerogative we usually understand that special pre @-@ eminence which the King hath , over and above all other persons , and out of the ordinary course of common law , in right of his regal dignity ... it can only be applied to those rights and capacities which the King enjoys alone , in contradiction to others , and not to those which he enjoys in common with any of his subjects .

Dicey 's opinion that any action of governance by the monarch beyond statute is under the prerogative diverges from Blackstone 's that the prerogative simply covers those actions that no other person or body in the United Kingdom can undertake , such as the dissolution of Parliament . Case law exists to support both views . Blackstone ’ s notion of the prerogative being the powers of an exclusive nature was favoured by Lord Parmoor in the De Keyser ’ s Royal Hotel case of 1920 , but some difficulty with it was expressed by Lord Reid in the Burmah Oil case of 1965 . A clear distinction has not been necessary in the relevant cases , and the courts may never need to settle the question as few cases deal directly with the prerogative itself .

= = History = =

The royal prerogative originated as the personal power of the monarch . From the 13th century in England , as in France , the monarch was all @-@ powerful , but this absolute power was checked by " the recrudescence of feudal turbulence in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries " . An early attempt to define the royal prerogative was stated by Richard II 's judges in 1387 .

During the 16th century , this " turbulence " began to recede , and the monarch became truly independent . Under Henry VIII and his successors , the king was the head of the Protestant English church , and therefore not answerable to the clergy . The rise of Parliament in this period , however , was problematic . While the monarch was " the predominant partner in the English constitution " , the courts stopped short of declaring him all @-@ powerful , recognizing the role that Parliament played . In Ferrer 's Case , Henry recognised this , noting that he was far more powerful with the consent of Parliament than without . Nowhere was this more apparent than in the matter of taxation : Sir Thomas Smith and other writers of the period pointed out the monarch could not impose taxation without Parliament 's consent .

At the same time , Henry and his descendants normally followed the will of the courts , despite the fact they were theoretically not bound by judges . William Holdsworth infers that by regularly asking the legal officers of the crown and judiciary for legal advice and consent , Henry recognised the need for a stable government to follow the law . He also contends that the view that the law is supreme over all " was the view of all the leading lawyers and statesmen and publicists of the Tudor period " . It was accepted that while the King had " unfettered discretion " , he was limited in areas where the courts had imposed conditions on the use of the prerogative , or where he had chosen to do so .

The first dent in this stability came about in 1607 , with the Case of Prohibitions . James VI and I claimed that as monarch , he had a divine right to sit as a judge and interpret the common law as he saw fit . Led by Sir Edward Coke , the judiciary rejected this idea , stating that while the monarch was not subject to any individual , he was subject to the law . Until he had gained sufficient knowledge of the law , he had no right to interpret it ; Coke pointed out that such knowledge " demanded mastery of an artificial reason ... which requires long study and experience , before that a man can attain to the cognizance of it " . Similarly , in the Case of Proclamations in 1611 , Coke held that the monarch could only exercise those prerogatives he already had , and not create new ones .

With the Glorious Revolution , King James VII and II was replaced by Queen Mary II and her husband King William III . At the same time the Bill of Rights 1689 was drafted , which cemented the monarch 's subservience to Parliament . It specifically limited the royal prerogative , with Article 1 holding that the " power of suspending the laws or the execution of laws by regal authority without consent of Parliament is illegal " , and article 4 confirming that " levying money for or to the use of the Crown by pretence of prerogative , without grant of Parliament , for longer time , or in other manner than the same is or shall be granted , is illegal " . The Bill also confirmed that Parliament had the right to limit the use of remaining prerogatives , as evidenced by the Triennial Act 1694 , which required the monarch to dismiss and call Parliament at certain times .

= = Prerogative powers = =

= = = Legislature = = =

One of the monarch 's historic prerogatives was the dissolution of Parliament , which was " perhaps the most important residual prerogative exercised personally by the sovereign , and represents the greatest potential for controversy . " This prerogative was normally exercised at the request of Parliament and the prime minister , either at his or her discretion or following a motion of no confidence . Constitutional theorists have had differing views as to whether a unilateral dissolution of Parliament would be possible today ; Sir Ivor Jennings wrote that a dissolution involves " the acquiescence of ministers " , and as such the monarch could not dissolve Parliament without ministerial consent ; " if ministers refuse to give such advice , she can do no more than dismiss them " . A. V. Dicey , however , believed that in certain extreme circumstances the monarch could dissolve Parliament single @-@ handedly , on the condition that " an occasion has arisen on which there is fair reason to suppose that the opinion of the House is not the opinion of the electors ... A dissolution is allowable , or necessary , whenever the wishes of the legislature are , or may fairly be presumed to be , different from the wishes of the nation . "

The monarch could force the dissolution of Parliament through a refusal of royal assent ; this would inevitably lead to a government resigning . By convention , the monarch always assents to bills ; the last time the royal assent was not given was in 1704 during the reign of Queen Anne . This does not mean that the right to refuse has died : George V believed he could veto the Third Irish Home Rule Bill ; Jennings writes that " it was assumed by the King throughout that he had not only the legal power but the constitutional right to refuse assent " . The royal prerogative to dissolve Parliament was abrogated by the Fixed @-@ term Parliaments Act 2011 . Section 6 ( 1 ) of the Act however specifically states that the monarch 's power to prorogue Parliament is not affected by the Act .

The appointment of the prime minister is also , theoretically , governed by the royal prerogative . Technically the monarch may appoint as prime minister anyone she wants to appoint , but in practice the appointee is always the person who commands a majority in the House of Commons . Usually , this is the leader of the political party that is returned to Parliament with a majority of seats after a general election . Difficulties may result with a so @-@ called hung parliament , in which no party commands majority support , as last occurred in 2010 . In this situation , constitutional convention is that the previous incumbent has the first right to form a coalition government and seek appointment . If the prime minister decides to retire in the middle of a parliamentary session , as Anthony Eden did in 1957 , the monarch has no discretion . There is usually a " prime minister @-@ in @-@ waiting " who commands the support of the majority of the Commons ; he or she will near @-@ automatically be appointed .

= = = Judicial system = = =

The most noted prerogative power that affects the judicial system is the prerogative of mercy , which has two elements : the granting of pardons and the granting of nolle prosequi . Pardons may eliminate the " pains , penalties and punishments " from a criminal conviction , though they do not remove convictions themselves . This power is commonly exercised on the advice of the Secretary of State for the Home Department ; the monarch has no direct involvement in its use . Exercises of this power may also take the form of commutations , a limited form of pardon where the sentences is reduced , on certain conditions . The granting of a pardon is not subject to judicial review , as confirmed by Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service , but the courts have chosen to criticise its application or lack thereof , as in R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Bentley . Granting nolle prosequi is done by the Attorney General of England and Wales ( or the equivalent in Scotland or Northern Ireland ) in the name of the crown , to stop legal proceedings against an individual . This is not reviewable by the courts , as confirmed by R v Comptroller of Patents , and does not count as an acquittal ; the defendant may be brought before the courts on the same charge at a later date .

= = = Foreign affairs = = =

The royal prerogative is in much use in the realm of foreign affairs . It is the monarch who recognises foreign states ( although several statutes regulate the immunities enjoyed by their heads and diplomatic representatives ) , issues declarations of war and peace , and forms international treaties . The monarch also has the power to annex territory , as was done in 1955 with the island of Rockall . Once territory has been annexed , the monarch has complete discretion as to the extent to which the government will take over the former government 's liabilities ; this was confirmed in West Rand Central Gold Mining Company v The King . The monarch also has the power to alter British territorial waters and cede territory . Her freedom to do these things in practice is doubtful , in that they might deprive British citizens of their nationality and rights . When the island of Heligoland was ceded to Germany in 1890 , Parliamentary approval was first sought . The monarch can also regulate colonies and dependent territories by exercising the prerogative through Orders in Council . The courts have long fought against the monarch 's use of this power : in R ( Bancoult ) v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs ( No 2 ) , the Court of Appeal ruled that using Orders @-@ in @-@ Council to frustrate judicial rulings was an unlawful abuse of power , although this ruling was later overturned .

British passports are also issued under the prerogative , though these are also covered by statute law . Under the common law , citizens have the right freely to leave and enter the United Kingdom . In R v Foreign Secretary ex parte Everett , the courts held that it was their right to review the granting of passports to , and the withholding of passports from , British citizens . The writ of ne exeat regno is also used to prevent a person leaving the country . The right to make treaties is a disputed prerogative power : under Blackstone 's definition , a prerogative power must be one unique to the monarch .

= = = Other prerogative powers = = =

The monarch also has power to exercise her prerogative over the granting of honours , the regulation of the armed forces and ecclesiastical appointments . Although the granting of most honours is normally decided by the executive , the monarch is still the person who technically awards them . Exceptions to this rule are membership of the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle , the Order of Merit , the Royal Victorian Order and the Royal Victorian Chain , which the monarch has complete discretion to grant . In relation to the armed forces , the monarch is the Commander in Chief , and members are regulated under the royal prerogative . Most statutes do not apply to the armed forces , although some areas , such as military discipline , are governed by Acts of Parliament . Under the Crown Proceedings Act 1947 , the monarch is the sole authority for the armed forces , and as such their organisation , disposition and control cannot be questioned by the courts . This exercise of prerogative power gives the Crown authority to recruit members of the armed forces , appoint commissioned officers , and establish agreements with foreign governments to station troops in their territory . The prerogative empowers the monarch to appoint bishops and archbishops in the Church of England , and to regulate the printing and licensing of the authorised Church of England version of the Bible .

R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Northumbria Police Authority , recognised that the prerogative also includes the power to " take all reasonable steps to preserve the Queen 's peace " , and in Burmah Oil Co. v Lord Advocate , the House of Lords took the view that it extended to " doing all those things in an emergency which are necessary for the conduct of [ the Second World War ] . "

= = Use = =

Today , the monarch exercises the prerogative almost exclusively in line with the advice of her government . Leyland notes that :

The present Queen ... is kept very closely in touch with the exercise of governmental power by means of a weekly audience with the prime minister during which she is fully briefed about the affairs of government ... [ But it ] should be emphasised that the prime minister is not under any obligation to take account of royal opinions .

In simple terms , the prerogative is used to govern the realm in the name of the Crown ; although the monarch has the " right to be consulted , the right to encourage , and the right to warn " , her role involves no exercise of discretion .

Today , some prerogative powers are directly exercised by ministers without the approval of Parliament , including the powers of declaring war and of making peace , the issue of passports , and the granting of honours . Prerogative powers are exercised nominally by the monarch , but on the advice of the prime minister ( whom the monarch meets weekly ) and of the cabinet . Some key functions of the British government are still executed by virtue of the royal prerogative , but generally the usage of the prerogative has been diminishing as functions are progressively put on a statutory basis .

= = = Limitations = = =

Several influential decisions of the House of Lords have determined the limited scope for the use of prerogative powers . In 1915 , an appeal was made to the House of Lords , Re Petition of Right ( ' Shoreham Aerodrome Case ' ) , but during the appeal the case was settled and the appeal withdrawn when the Crown agreed to pay compensation . The appeal was from a unanimous decision of the Court of Appeal that the Crown , both under the statutory Defence of the Realm Regulations and by the royal prerogative , was entitled to take and occupy , for military purposes in wartime , a commercial airfield on the south coast . The government argued that this action was to defend against an invasion ; the courts held that for the prerogative to be exercised , the government must demonstrate that a threat of invasion exists . This was backed up by The Zamora ( 1916 ) , where the Privy Council , on appeal from the Prize Court , held generally that to exercise a power not granted by statute ( such as a prerogative power ) the government must prove to the court that the exercise is justified . The next decision came in Attorney General v De Keyser 's Royal Hotel Ltd ( 1920 ) , where the House of Lords confirmed that a statutory provision in an area where prerogative powers are in use " abridges the Royal Prerogative while it is in force to this extent – that the Crown can only do the particular thing under and in accordance with the statutory provisions , and that its prerogative power to do that thing is in abeyance " .

This principle of statutory superiority was extended in Laker Airway Ltd v Department of Trade , concerning the revocation of a commercial airline operator 's licence ( December 1976 ) , where it was confirmed that prerogative powers could not be used to contradict a statutory provision , and that in situations to which the power and the statute both applied , the power could only be used to further the aim of the statute . Another extension came with R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Fire Brigades Union , where the Court of Appeal held that even if a statute had not yet come into force , the prerogative could not be used to alter this statute to " conflict with Parliament 's wishes " .

= = = Judicial review = = =

Before the modern judicial review procedure superseded the petition of right as the remedy for challenging the validity of a prerogative power , the courts were traditionally only willing to state whether or not powers existed , not whether they had been used appropriately . They therefore applied only the first of the Wednesbury tests : whether the use was illegal . Constitutional scholars such as William Blackstone consider this appropriate :

In the exertion therefore of those prerogatives , which the law has given him , the King is irresistible and absolute , according to the forms of the constitution . And yet if the consequence of that exertion be manifestly to the grievance or dishonour of the kingdom , the Parliament will call his advisers to a just and severe account .

During the 1960s and 70s this attitude was changing , with Lord Denning saying in the Laker Airway case that " seeing that the prerogative is a discretionary power to be exercised for the public good , it follows that its exercise can be examined by the courts just as any other discretionary power which is vested in the executive . " The most authoritative case on the matter is Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service , generally known as the GCHQ case . The House of Lords confirmed that the application of judicial review would be dependent on the nature of the government 's powers , not their source . Foreign policy and national security powers are considered outside the scope of judicial review , while the prerogative of mercy is considered within it , as per R v Secretary of State for the Home Department , ex parte Bentley .

= = Reform = =

Abolition of the royal prerogative is not on the immediate horizon , and recent movements to abolish the role of the monarchy and its royal prerogative in government have been unsuccessful . The Ministry of Justice undertook a " review of executive Royal Prerogative powers " in October 2009 . Former Labour MP and cabinet minister Tony Benn campaigned unsuccessfully for the abolition of the royal prerogative in the United Kingdom in the 1990s , arguing that all governmental powers in effect exercised on the advice of the prime minister and cabinet should be subject to parliamentary scrutiny and require parliamentary approval . Later governments argued that such is the breadth of topics covered by the royal prerogative that requiring parliamentary approval in each instance where the prerogative is currently used would overwhelm parliamentary time and slow the enactment of legislation .

= Mount Jackson ( Antarctica ) =

Mount Jackson ( Mount Andrew Jackson and Mount Ernest Gruening ) is a mountain that dominates the upland of the southern part of the Antarctic Peninsula . It is located in Palmer Land , within the Antarctic claims of Argentina , Chile and the United Kingdom . With an elevation of 3 @,@ 184 metres ( 10 @,@ 446 ft ) , Mount Jackson is the highest mountain in the Antarctic Peninsula and the British Antarctic Territory . Discovered by members of the United States Antarctic Service , 1939 – 41 , it was named for Andrew Jackson , the seventh President of the United States . The first ascent of Mount Jackson was made by a team led by John Crabbe Cunningham of the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) in 1964 . Mount Jackson 's geology was studied in 1972 as part of the Palmer Island investigations by a team of geologists .

Mount Jackson and the Welch Mountains demarcate the central Black Coast , which is dissected by many inlets and is bounded on the west by Dyer Plateau of central Palmer Land . The two mountains rise above the ice shelf with reliefs of about 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) towards the east . They are interconnected by icefall zones forming a plateau with steep snow slopes . Mount Jackson rises from its southeast flanks , displaying a steeple summit , while the north flank is occupied by a vast cirque . Supraglacial moraines on the mountain 's east side measure between 1 – 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 – 3 @.@ 11 mi ) in length and display boulders at their distal ends .

= = History = =

The first topographic mapping of Mount Jackson was carried out in November 1940 by a sledge party of the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) . The ground survey was facilitated by aerial photographs and aerial observations . The height was estimated at 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) , and the mountain was named Mount Ernest Gruening after the Governor of the Alaska Territory at that time , Ernest Gruening . USAS later renamed it Mount Jackson for the seventh President of the United States . President Jackson signed the bill into law authorizing the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838 – 42 . The expedition , led by Lt. Charles Wilkes , included exploration and surveying of the Pacific Ocean and surrounding lands , including Antarctica .

In November 1947 , a Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) ground party based at Stonington Island observed Mount Jackson and estimated its height at 3 @,@ 050 metres ( 10 @,@ 010 ft ) , considerably lower and more accurate than the first estimate in 1940 .

After the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey was renamed British Antarctic Survey in 1962 , a series of depots were developed , including one at Mount Jackson . BAS members were successful in making many first ascents of the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula , and John Cunningham , who served at the BAS base at Adelaide Island , was the first to climb Mount Jackson . Traveling by dog sled for 640 kilometres ( 400 mi ) , his team reached the summit on 23 November 1964 .

A precise height of the summit was determined by a BAS survey party who ascended the peak during the austral summer of 1996 – 97 .

= = Geography = =

The mountain is 3 @,@ 184 metres ( 10 @,@ 446 ft ) in height , with a prominence of 2 @,@ 187 metres ( 7 @,@ 175 ft ) and a saddle DEM of 997 metres ( 3 @,@ 271 ft ) . Mount Jackson and the Welch Mountains demarcate the central Black Coast , which is dissected by many inlets and is bounded on the west by Dyer Plateau of central Palmer Land , with elevation ranging between 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 – 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , and on the west side of the central Black Coast . The two mountains rise above the ice shelf with reliefs of about 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) towards the east . They are interconnected by icefall zones forming a plateau with steep snow slopes . The northern part of the mountain system , which extends over 1 @,@ 590 kilometres ( 990 mi ) , covers most of the Antarctic Peninsula , and Mount Jackson is its highest peak .

Mount Jackson rises from its southeast flanks , displaying a steeple summit , while the north flank is occupied by a vast cirque . Supraglacial moraines on the mountain 's east side measure between 1 – 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 – 3 @.@ 11 mi ) in length and display boulders at their distal ends . Mount Jackson and the Rowley Massif are separated by Odom Inlet . Cline Glacier drains eastern Mount Jackson before arriving at Odom Inlet .

Mount Jackson 's geology was studied in 1972 as part of the Palmer Island investigations by a team of geologists . They identified various rock types and underlying volcanic activity . The relief of the west facing slopes is gentler when compared to the eastern side , characterized by a steep rocky face . Rock weathering is intense in the area spread with scree and felsenmeer . Fresh rock formations and bedrock disintegration are noted .

= Italian cruiser Aretusa =

Aretusa was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . Laid down in June 1889 at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando shipyard , she was launched in March 1891 and was commissioned in September 1892 . Her main armament were her six torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Aretusa spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , she was assigned to the Red Sea Squadron in Italian Eritrea . She bombarded Ottoman positions in the Arabian Peninsula and took part in a blockade of the coast . Worn out by the end of the war in October 1912 , Aretusa was sold for scrap that December and broken up .

= = Design = =

Aretusa was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 833 metric tons ( 820 long tons ; 918 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Specific figures for Aretusa 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of her class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) at 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 and 121 .

Aretusa was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her five 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .

= = Service history = =

Aretusa was laid down at the Cantiere navale fratelli Orlando ( Orlando Brothers ' Shipyard ) in Livorno on 1 June 1889 , and was launched on 14 March 1891 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 September 1892 . During the 1893 fleet maneuvers , Aretusa served with the 3rd Division of the Reserve Squadron , along with the protected cruisers Vesuvio and Ettore Fieramosca and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Reserve Squadron defended against a simulated attack by the Active Squadron , which gamed a French attack on the Italian fleet . In 1895 , Aretusa was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Minerva , Euridice , Iride , Urania , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli . As of 1898 , Aretusa was assigned to the Active Squadron , with included the ironclads Sicilia and Sardegna and two other cruisers .

At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Aretusa was stationed in Italian Eritrea in the Red Sea Squadron . Italian naval forces in the region also included five protected cruisers and several smaller vessels . Shortly after the start of the war on 2 October , Aretusa and the gunboat Volturno encountered the Ottoman torpedo cruiser Peyk @-@ i Şevket off Al Hudaydah . In a short engagement , the Italians vessels forced the Ottoman ship to flee into Al Hudaydah , bombarded the port facilities , and then withdrew . Peyk @-@ i Şevket was later interned in British @-@ controlled Suez The threat of an Ottoman attack from the Arabian Peninsula led the Italian High Command to reinforce the Red Sea Squadron ; the additional ships included another cruiser and several destroyers . The protected cruiser Piemonte and two destroyers annihilated a force of seven Ottoman gunboats in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay on 7 January 1912 .

Following the neutralization of Ottoman naval forces in the region , Aretusa and the rest of the Italian ships then commenced a bombardment campaign against the Turkish ports in the Red Sea before declaring a blockade of the city of Al Hudaydah on 26 January . On 27 July and 12 August , Aretusa , her sister ship Caprera , and Piemonte conducted two bombardments of Al Hudaydah . During the second attack , they destroyed an Ottoman ammunition dump . With the threat of an Ottoman attack greatly reduced , the High Command thereafter began to withdraw forces from the Red Sea Squadron . By the end of August , the unit was reduced to three protected cruisers , Aretusa , Caprera and two auxiliaries . On 14 October , the Ottoman government agreed to sign a peace treaty , ending the war . Aretusa 's career ended shortly thereafter ; the Regia Marina discarded the ship in December and she was subsequently broken up for scrap .

= M @-@ 6 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 6 , or the Paul B. Henry Freeway , is a 19 @.@ 696 @-@ mile ( 31 @.@ 698 km ) freeway and state trunkline highway in the United States that serves portions of southern Kent and eastern Ottawa counties south of Grand Rapids , Michigan . Although the freeway is named for Paul B. Henry , local residents and the press continue to use the original name , South Beltline as well on occasion . The freeway connects Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) on the west with I @-@ 96 on the east . M @-@ 6 also provides a connection to U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) in the middle of its corridor while running through several townships on the south side of the Grand Rapids metropolitan area in Western Michigan . Each end is in a rural area while the central section has suburban development along the trunkline .

The freeway was originally conceived in the 1960s . It took 32 years to approve , plan , finance , and build the freeway from the time that the state first authorized funding in 1972 to the time of the ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony in 2004 that opened the South Beltline to traffic . The project cost around $ 700 million or around $ 35 million per mile ( approximately $ 22 million per kilometer ) . Initial construction started in November 1997 , with the first phase opened in November 2001 . The full freeway was opened in November 2004 . The first phase of construction was completed in asphalt , while the second and third phases were built in concrete . The project was built with two firsts : the first single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ; / ˈspuːiː / ) in Michigan , and a new technique to apply the pavement markings , embedding them into the concrete to reduce the chance of a snowplow scraping them off . In advance of the opening of the freeway to traffic , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) allowed the public to walk or bike the South Beltline in an open @-@ house event called the " Southbelt Shuffle " .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 6 starts at exit 64 on I @-@ 196 in Ottawa County near Hudsonville . The freeway runs southeast from the interchange through the rural Georgetown and Jamestown townships toward the county line . Through this area , MDOT traffic surveys measured a traffic count of 27 @,@ 117 vehicles on average per day , the lowest along the freeway , in 2010 . At Kenowa Avenue , the South Beltline crosses into Byron Township in Kent County . The freeway corridor is bounded on each side by farmland , scattered subdivisions , and small pockets of woodland . Near the Wilson Avenue interchange , M @-@ 6 curves to the northeast around the edge of the Ironwood Golf Course and heads for the interchange with Byron Center Avenue . On either side of the freeway at Byron Center Avenue , there are two hospitals , Metro Health and St. Mary 's Southwest , the former located on the very southern edge of the city of Wyoming . Continuing east , the beltline curves to the southeast and into the cloverleaf interchange complex at US 131 . This " mammoth " interchange stretches over a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) in one direction and over a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in the other , encompassing 27 bridges and 18 retaining walls . This makes it the largest freeway interchange in Western Michigan . There are four overpasses which carry M @-@ 6 over the US 131 freeway : two for the main carriageways in each direction and two for the collector @-@ distributor lanes on each side . The auxiliary lanes funnel the traffic using the interchange off the main carriageways to eliminate conflicts between merging streams of traffic . In the eastbound direction , the collector @-@ distributor lane also has access to a ramp for traffic bound for 68th Street , which runs parallel to , and south of , the M @-@ 6 freeway . No such access to 68th Street is provided for westbound M @-@ 6 traffic , although 68th Street traffic can access each direction of M @-@ 6 or US 131 .

East of US 131 , M @-@ 6 crosses over Division Avenue and enters Gaines Township through a series of sound barrier walls as the freeway ramps merge back into the main lanes . This area had the highest traffic counts in 2011 at 55 @,@ 236 vehicles per day . Near Kalamazoo Avenue , the freeway passes through an area with retail businesses and movie theaters on each side of the interchange ; to the northeast is East Kentwood High School . On the approach to the East Paris Avenue underpass , M @-@ 6 curves first to the northeast and then back to the southeast , passing near one of Steelcase 's office buildings , the pyramid @-@ shaped Corporate Development Center . The freeway begins to curve to the northeast as it crosses into Caledonia Township , with an interchange for M @-@ 37 ( Broadmoor Avenue ) and an overpass for 60th Street . M @-@ 6 curves around the southeast side of the Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Cascade Township . As the South Beltline nears I @-@ 96 , it crosses 48th Street next to the Thornapple Pointe Golf Course . The carriageway splits into ramps for each direction of I @-@ 96 , the ramps to eastbound I @-@ 96 crossing over the Thornapple River in the process . This interchange marks the eastern terminus of the Paul B. Henry South Beltline Freeway . The entire length of the freeway is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility .

The right @-@ of @-@ way along M @-@ 6 includes a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) pedestrian path known as the Frederik Meijer Trail . Previously called the M @-@ 6 Trail , it links the Kent Trails west of Byron Center Avenue in Wyoming with the Paul Henry Rail Trail at 60th Street and Wing Avenue by Paris Park in Kentwood .

= = History = =

= = = Earlier designations = = =

The first appearance of M @-@ 6 was in 1926 as a two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) road in Keweenaw County in the Upper Peninsula . The highway ran from US 41 at Phoenix to north of Eagle River . The Michigan State Highway Department redesignated the highway as M @-@ 111 in 1938 , and it was redesignated two years later to become a part of the route of M @-@ 26 .

In the late 1970s , during the second phase of construction of the I @-@ 696 ( Walter P. Reuther Freeway ) in Metro Detroit , lobbying efforts and lawsuits attempted to block construction of the central section . If successful , the efforts would have left the freeway with a gap in the middle between the first ( western ) and second ( eastern ) phases of construction . During this time , MDOT assigned M @-@ 6 to the eastern section of the freeway under construction . Signs were erected along the service roads that followed 11 Mile Road to connect the already built stack interchange at I @-@ 75 east to I @-@ 94 . By the time the eastern freeway segment was completed in 1979 , the signage for M @-@ 6 was removed and replaced with I @-@ 696 signage , leaving an eight @-@ mile ( 13 km ) gap in the I @-@ 696 freeway until completion of the central section in 1989 .

= = = Current freeway = = =

= = = = Planning = = = =

The South Beltline Freeway near Grand Rapids was a project that took about 32 years to complete . The idea dates back to the 1940s , but serious proposals were not made until the 1960s . The 1955 planning map for the Grand Rapids area Interstate Highways included a freeway roughly along the M @-@ 6 corridor before I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 were shifted north and east to their current locations . An increase in the state gas tax was approved in 1972 with the goal to finance local road projects in the state , including the South Beltline . The project was anticipated to cost $ 30 – 100 million ( equivalent to $ 214 – 713 million in 2015 ) in June 1975 with an expected groundbreaking in 1982 – 85 . The highway was studied in January 1981 for $ 144 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 575 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The choice of consultants on the project was controversial ; local planners felt that MDOT picked BKI Inc. only because they used a minority @-@ owned subcontractor and not because they would be qualified for the assignment .

As this study was initiated , the route for the proposed freeway was located between 60th and 68th streets with a western end in Hudsonville and an eastern end in Lowell Township . The consultants were asked to study a full freeway and a limited access boulevard design . One final option was a " no @-@ build " alternative ; under this option , existing roads would be upgraded but no new roads would be built . The City of Grand Rapids opposed the freeway while the suburbs and townships south and west of the city supported it . City officials were concerned about the impact to commercial and industrial business in Grand Rapids . Hudsonville 's city manager favored the proposal as a benefit to local vegetable producers who shipped produce to Detroit or Cleveland . Other supporters , such as the Georgetown Township supervisor , were concerned that delays in starting the project could increase costs . State and local officials expected the freeway in January 1981 to cost between $ 40 – 100 million ( equivalent to $ 160 – 400 million in 2015 ) . The road was to be started no sooner than 1990 .

The boundaries for the highway corridor were determined by the consultants in April 1982 , running between 60th and 84th streets , " dipping like a hammock beneath the cities of Kentwood and Wyoming " . The results of the study by BKI were criticized by local planners in May 1982 , who called the study " shabby and unprofessional work " , and asked the state to fire the consulting firm . Local residents distributed 2 @,@ 000 fliers to their neighbors in opposition to the freeway . The South Belt Local Advisory Board criticized BKI 's 110 @-@ page study report as " filled with errors " ; the consultants ' earlier 26 @-@ page paper had been rejected by the board and MDOT as " unusable " . An editorial in the The Grand Rapids Press stated that the study did not help advance the project in the area , instead opening the proposed freeway up to new controversies . Doubts about the state 's budget in 1982 to build the roadway combined with issues over the consultants and their study results .

A second citizens group , the South Belt Citizens Committee , was formed in July 1982 to gain additional public information on the project and supplement the work of the other groups , including the South Belt Local Advisory Board . BKI was fired as consultant on the project by MDOT on September 9 , 1982 . The switch to a new consultant delayed further study because of the timetable to take bids and interview the candidates . In the interim , work was shifted to local and state planners until a new consultant could be retained in an effort to minimize the delays involved . These local projects were focused on updating the information and maps from BKI 's study and refining the scope of the highway 's corridor .

Gaines , Cascade , and Caledonia townships and the city of Kentwood circulated a survey amongst their communities ' planning commissions and elected boards in 1982 . The survey showed an inconclusive preference for a limited @-@ access highway in what was termed a " gut level reaction " to the proposed roadway . The South Belt Citizens Committee actively started to oppose the roadway during the fall of 1982 , pressing local candidates for political office to take positions on the project . The group called the roadway a " holocaust " in its mailings to the candidates . Future Lieutenant Governor Dick Posthumus , then a member of the Michigan State Senate , called for an end to the studies in 1983 ; he would later reverse and become one of the project 's biggest supporters .

MDOT hired a new consultant , Schimpeler / Coradino Associates , in 1984 to study the proposed freeway . The consultant recommended the freeway in March 1985 . The South Beltline was included in the ten @-@ year highway plan in 1986 . By 1989 , the state wanted to set the route in 1991 with construction starting in 1993 . The freeway was studied as a possible toll road in June 1991 after three alternative routes were proposed the previous year . That September , the final route was set with a projected start date in 1997 . The toll road concept was revived in September 1995 to offset the failure of a proposed gas tax increase . As a cost @-@ saving measure , the number of interchanges was reduced to four from eight in June 1996 . When a gas tax increase was passed in 1997 , Governor John Engler promised at least seven access points for the freeway . The South Beltline was touted as " [ cutting ] travel time around Grand Rapids virtually in half " .

= = = = Phase I = = = =

Proposals for the South Beltline Freeway were nearly 25 years old by the time initial construction was started in 1997 . The Michigan State Legislature named the South Beltline around the same time for the Congressman Paul B. Henry , who died in office in 1993 , serving in Gerald Ford 's old US House seat . The cost of the construction of new roads like the South Beltline was a campaign issue when Engler ran for re @-@ election against Geoffrey Feiger in 1998 . The entire freeway was projected to open by 2008 , with the first phase opening in 2002 . MDOT gave the South Beltline its numerical designation on the July 1999 edition of the state map , marking M @-@ 6 for the first time as a dotted line , to denote it was " under construction " . The legislature approved Engler 's " Build Michigan III " program in 2000 ; the plan accelerated road projects in the state . The capital outlay for the year was $ 82 million ( equivalent to $ 132 million in 2015 ) . Condemnation proceedings were initiated in the Kent County Circuit Court in 1999 to clear the way for the acquisitions . Land that contained homes , farms , trailer parks , and businesses was purchased by MDOT to acquire the right @-@ of @-@ way needed for the freeway . The land needed measured 360 feet ( 110 m ) wide and 20 miles ( 32 km ) long . Land acquisitions for the South Beltline Freeway were completed in July 2001 . Construction started later in the fall of 2001 on the second and third phases of the project .

The first leg of the South Beltline Freeway , located between M @-@ 37 ( Broadmoor Avenue ) and I @-@ 96 , was finished six months early . Dry summer weather allowed the roadbed contractors to finish their portion of the five @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) section of the freeway early , earning them a $ 300 @,@ 000 bonus ( equivalent to $ 449 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . The overpasses for the remaining sections of the freeway were completed while the first phase was under construction , leaving the interchanges at US 131 and I @-@ 196 and the connecting roadbed to be completed at that time . The first section was paved in asphalt after MDOT reversed the decision to pave the whole freeway in concrete . That stretch of freeway opened to traffic on November 20 , 2001 . The state kept the overall project in an accelerated status headed into the next phases in 2002 .

= = = = Phases II and III = = = =

Construction of the remaining phases between US 131 and M @-@ 37 and between I @-@ 196 and US 131 was started on April 1 , 2002 . Area roads that crossed the path of the new freeway were closed to traffic with posted detours so that work could begin on the roadbed for the freeway . The last major project for the freeway was to replace bridge beams in the overpasses from westbound I @-@ 196 to eastbound M @-@ 6 . Design flaws were found in 2002 in the size of the beams in the bridges over eastbound I @-@ 196 and the ramp from westbound M @-@ 6 to westbound I @-@ 196 . The replacement was originally supposed to close traffic along I @-@ 196 over a weekend in 2004 , but kept a lane closed for a full week , backing up traffic on the Interstate for two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) ; completion of the work was delayed when human error caused a shortage of nuts and bolts .

MDOT hosted an open house along the unopened section of M @-@ 6 between Kalamazoo and Byron Center avenues . This event took place on October 2 , 2004 , and was billed as the " Southbelt Shuffle " , allowing the public to walk or bike along the freeway . The event was planned to draw attention to the M @-@ 6 Trail that runs parallel to the freeway . Some event participants brought their horses for the chance to ride on the freeway . The whole freeway was opened to traffic on November 17 , 2004 , after a ribbon cutting ceremony . When opened , reconstruction work was still being completed on overpass bridges at the I @-@ 196 interchange on the west end . The entire project cost $ 700 million ( equivalent to $ 933 million in 2015 ) to complete over the five @-@ year construction period , about $ 35 million / mi ( approximately $ 22 million / km , equivalent to $ 47 million / mi or $ 29 million / km in 2015 ) . When the freeway was opened , it was the first in the state of Michigan to use a SPUI located at the Kalamazoo Avenue exit . All of the bridges and sound barrier walls were painted sienna beige as part of a " color theme " to the freeway . MDOT also used a new technique to recess the pavement markings into the concrete , designed to reduce the likelihood that snowplows would scrape them off . The signs are in miles , but " the entire M @-@ 6 freeway was designed and constructed in metric " , according to MDOT manager Suzette Peplinski . The final ramps opened to traffic on December 9 , 2004 .

= = = = After construction = = = =

MDOT added the completed M @-@ 6 to the state maps in an updated printing in June 2005 . At the time , the various online mapping services still did not show a complete freeway in eastern Ottawa or southern Kent counties . Services such as Mapquest and Yahoo ! Maps rely on Tele Atlas out of New Hampshire for their mapping information , which , in turn , relies on agencies like MDOT to update their data . MDOT 's map update came out nearly eight months after the initial opening due to its inclusion in a large @-@ scale update to the state highway map .

A year after the freeway opened , traffic volumes along parallel roads like 44th , 56th and 68th streets dropped 40 – 50 % . At the same time , roads with interchanges along the freeway saw increased traffic . Wilson Avenue experienced a 120 % increase and sections of Byron Center Avenue jumped 100 % in traffic levels a month after M @-@ 6 opened . Property values in the townships surrounding the freeway increased 11 @.@ 3 – 12 @.@ 4 % by 2006 as a result of development attached to the freeway . Local officials credited the freeway for increased access to the area , driving housing starts as residents flocked to the communities for their schools and quality of life . In 2007 , the Metro Health Village , a commercial development centered around the Byron Center Avenue exit and the hospital opened . Described as being similar to a mall with the hospital as a tenant , the village features restaurants , shops , offices and a hotel . Metro Health relocated from Grand Rapids to the location in Wyoming in the face of opposition to planned expansions of their previous location . Since opening , even though the freeway was officially named for Paul Henry , the original South Beltline name is still in use .

Reactions to the new freeway were not all positive . In a special editorial in the The Grand Rapids Press after the freeway opened in 2004 , local resident Curt MacDougall summarized the criticisms of the new freeway . He cited the loss of rural farmland and wetlands as a negative effect of the highway . The editorial also discussed that the freeway does decrease travel times for some residents , but it will mean increased development . That development will mean further urban sprawl , and could spur the creation of additional highways in the area .

The M @-@ 6 Trail was constructed in a $ 3 @.@ 5 million project ( equivalent to $ 4 million in 2015 ) that started in 2008 . The goal was to create a 10 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) path linking the Kent Trails with the Paul Henry Rail Trail . The M @-@ 6 Trail was the brainchild of Gaines Township Supervisor Don Hilton , Sr. He had pushed to have the path included in the original freeway construction and opened with the rest of the South Beltline . The trail project was funded by $ 2 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) in federal grants and $ 300 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 350 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) from the Frederik and Lena Meijer Foundation . The balance came from Kent County and the townships . Work on the trail was completed in November 2008 .

In 2009 , the asphalt section of M @-@ 6 had to be repaired . This section of roadway between East Paris Avenue and 48th Street was rated poorly by the Michigan Infrastructure and Transportation Association , while the concrete west of Broadmoor Avenue had favorable marks . MDOT budgeted $ 2 million in repairs on top of previous crack @-@ related fixes that were handled by the original pavement contractor under a warranty in 2006 . The local press described the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of road as " troublesome " in relation to pavement quality issues .

Legislation was signed by Governor Rick Snyder on December 27 , 2014 , to name the section of M @-@ 6 between Byron Center and Kalamazoo avenues the David John Warsen Memorial Highway . Warsen , a US Navy SEAL , was killed in a helicopter accident in Afghanistan in 2012 . This section of the highway was dedicated on August 15 , 2015 .

= = Exit list = =

= Hi , Infidelity =

" Hi , Infidelity " is the sixth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fiftieth episode overall . Written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , the episode premiered on The CW on November 17 , 2006 .

The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica investigates an accusation that she plagiarized a criminology paper only to find out that her teacher is having an affair with Mindy O 'Dell ( Jamie Ray Newman ) . Meanwhile , Stosh " Piz " Piznarski ( Chris Lowell ) invites Veronica to go bowling , and Wallace Fennel ( Percy Daggs III ) must choose between basketball and his studies .

The episode features the return of Laura San Giacomo as Harmony Chase and the introduction of the recurring character of Max ( Adam Rose ) . San Giacomo and Colantoni , who had previously co @-@ starred on the sitcom Just Shoot Me ! , lobbied for more storylines together after rekindling their friendship during production of " Charlie Don 't Surf " , her first appearance . Rose 's character had been planned to begin a later romantic relationship with Mac since the writing of this episode and went on to fulfill this role in several future episodes . At the time of its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 75 million people and received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .

= = Plot = =

Following the events of the previous episode , Veronica confronts Claire Nordhouse ( Krista Kalmus ) for faking her rape after she publishes a story on it . Wallace Fennel and a lawyer are taken in to Dean O ’ Dell ’ s ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) office , where he is caught for cheating on a test . Veronica ’ s criminology paper is praised by her teacher , Hank ( Patrick Fabian ) leading her to praise him incessantly . Harmony Chase ( Laura San Giacomo ) , a former client who asked Keith Mars ( Enrico Colantoni ) to investigate her possibly adulterous husband , calls him and asks him on a date . Tim Foyle ( James Jordan ) , Hank 's teaching assistant , tells Veronica that she plagiarized her paper , even though she did not . Hank gives her three days to prove that she is innocent . Veronica learns that a student named Jeff Ratner accused her . Veronica goes to a computer student and ascertains the email address of the person who faked her paper . Stosh " Piz " Piznarski invites Veronica bowling , and she invites Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) as well .

Veronica gets caught snooping in the Dean ’ s office , although she makes up a hasty lie that she was searching for class notes , and it diverts his attention . Wallace decides not to drop the class on whose test he cheated . Veronica proves that the essay hers was supposedly plagiarized from was posted after she turned in her paper ; nevertheless , she still wants to find who framed her . Parker Lee , Veronica , Piz , and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) bowl and have fun together . When Veronica and Logan get room service , Veronica spots Jeff Ratner and questions him . Parker is romantically interested in Piz , and she tasks Veronica with talking to him about her . After talking to Mercer Hayes ( Ryan Devlin ) , Parker informs Veronica that she remembers Mercer 's cologne from the night of her rape . Veronica goes to Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) with this news ; Wallace drops basketball to study for the class . Veronica runs into Keith at the hotel before learning that the room that belongs to " Rory Finch " is actually Hank , who is having an affair with Mrs. O ’ Dell .

On their second date , Harmony suggests that they have sex , but Keith declines the proposal . On the way back , Keith ’ s becomes involved in a traffic collision , but the airbag catches him . This traumatic experience makes him go back to Harmony , and they sleep together . Veronica talks to Tim Foyle , who made her follow the trail of " Rory Finch " deliberately in order for her to discover the professor ’ s affair . Tim was the professor ’ s protégé , and he wants Veronica to discover Hank 's flaws before she becomes more involved with him . Logan runs up to Veronica and tells her that Mercer has been arrested for the rapes on campus , despite the fact that he believes that Mercer is innocent . Logan begs Veronica to defend Mercer , as he was with him the night of one of the rapes . However , he refuses to tell Veronica what they were doing .

= = Production = =

" Hi , Infidelity " was written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , marking Enbom 's twelfth writing credit and Fields 's sixth directing credit for the series . The episode features the second of three appearances by Laura San Giacomo as Harmony Chase . She and Enrico Colantoni had become friends when they co @-@ starred on the sitcom Just Shoot Me ! . They rekindled their friendship during production of " Charlie Don 't Surf " , San Giacomo 's first appearance , so they lobbied for more storylines together . Thomas was open to the possibility , saying , " I wouldn 't hesitate to go back to this , because I was really happy with how it played out . "

Adam Rose made his first appearance in this episode as a suspect ; he would make appearances later in the season as well . From the very beginning of his appearances , Rose 's character , Max , was planned to begin a romantic relationship with Mac ( Tina Majorino ) . Rose was roommates with Michael Mitchell , who played Bronson , another love interest for Mac . When Rose received the call that he would have a romantic storyline with Mac , he reportedly stated , " but I thought that 's what my roommate was doing . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

At the time of its initial broadcast , " Hi , Infidelity " was viewed by 2 @.@ 75 million people , ranking 94th out of 97 in the weekly rankings .

= = = Reviews = = =

Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " good " , but his review was mixed . Comparing it with the rest of the season , he opined that it suffered from some of the same problems of previous episodes . He thought that the actions of many of the characters in " Hi , Infidelity " were out of character or unrealistic . While writing that " the rape storyline is still not feeling nearly as weighty as it should , " he praised the development of the rape mystery for hinting that there were larger forces at work . Price Peterson of TV.com gave a positive review , praising the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week 's emotional connection to Veronica for " [ raising ] the stakes " and Piz 's increased role . He also believed that all the series regulars , excluding Wallace , had an important and interesting role to play . Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A " , which is one of its highest ratings given for the season .

Alan Sepinwall praised the episode compared to the first few episodes of the season , writing it balanced Veronica 's character traits well , including her jealousy and generosity . He also wrote that it showed her as a character with some " baser instincts " , giving the scene with Jeff as an example . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a mixed review . The reviewer was very critical of what he called the " ' radical feminist fakes her own rape ' " storyline , but he praised the episode as the first one of the third season to make the college setting feel natural . Although he thought that the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week contributed to his overall positive view of the episode , he thought that " it 's mostly the little things that make it work " , pointing out Piz 's increased role as an example .

= Ceratopsia =

Ceratopsia or Ceratopia ( / ˌsɛrəˈtɒpsiə / or / ˌsɛrəˈtoʊpiə / ; Greek : " horned faces " ) is a group of herbivorous , beaked dinosaurs that thrived in what are now North America , Europe , and Asia , during the Cretaceous Period , although ancestral forms lived earlier , in the Jurassic . The earliest known ceratopsian , Yinlong downsi , lived between 161 @.@ 2 and 155 @.@ 7 million years ago . The last ceratopsian species , Triceratops prorsus , became extinct during the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , 66 million years ago .

Early members of the ceratopsian group , such as Psittacosaurus , were small bipedal animals . Later members , including ceratopsids like Centrosaurus and Triceratops , became very large quadrupeds and developed elaborate facial horns and frills extending over the neck . While these frills might have served to protect the vulnerable neck from predators , they may also have been used for display , thermoregulation , the attachment of large neck and chewing muscles or some combination of the above . Ceratopsians ranged in size from 1 meter ( 3 ft ) and 23 kilograms ( 50 lb ) to over 9 meters ( 30 ft ) and 5 @,@ 400 kg ( 12 @,@ 000 lb ) .

Triceratops is by far the best @-@ known ceratopsian to the general public . It is traditional for ceratopsian genus names to end in " -ceratops " , although this is not always the case . One of the first named genera was Ceratops itself , which lent its name to the group , although it is considered a nomen dubium today as its fossil remains have no distinguishing characteristics that are not also found in other ceratopsians .

= = Anatomy = =

Ceratopsians are easily recognized by features of the skull . On the tip of a ceratopsian upper jaw is the rostral bone , an edentulous ( toothless ) ossification , unique to ceratopsians . Othniel Charles Marsh recognized and named this bone , which acts as a mirror image of the predentary bone on the lower jaw . This ossification evolved to morphologically aid the mastication of plant matter . Along with the predentary bone , which forms the tip of the lower jaw in all ornithischians , the rostral forms a superficially parrot @-@ like beak . Also , the jugal bones below the eye are very tall and flare out sideways , making the skull appear somewhat triangular when viewed from above . This triangular appearance is accentuated in later ceratopsians by the rearwards extension of the parietal and squamosal bones of the skull roof , to form the neck frill .

The epoccipital is a distinctive bones found lining the frills of ceratopsians . The name is a misnomer , as they are not associated with the occipital bone . Epoccipitals begin as separate bones that fuse during the animal 's growth to either the squamosal or parietal bones that make up the base of the frill . These bones were ornamental instead of functional , and may have helped differentiate species . Epoccipitals probably were present in all known ceratopsids with the possible exception of Zuniceratops . They appear to have been broadly different between short @-@ frilled ceratopsids ( centrosaurines ) and long @-@ frilled ceratopsids ( chasmosaurines ) , being elliptical with constricted bases in the former group , and triangular with wide bases in the latter group . Within these broad definitions , different species would have somewhat different shapes and numbers . In centrosaurines especially , like Centrosaurus , Pachyrhinosaurus , and Styracosaurus , these bones become long and spike- or hook @-@ like . A well @-@ known example is the coarse sawtooth fringe of broad triangular epoccipitals on the frill of Triceratops . When regarding the ossification 's morphogenetic traits , it can be described as dermal . The term epoccipital was coined by famous paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1889 .

= = History of study = =

The first ceratopsian remains known to science were discovered during the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories led by the American geologist F.V. Hayden . Teeth discovered during an 1855 expedition to Montana were first assigned to hadrosaurids and included within the genus Trachodon . It was not until the early 20th century that some of these were recognized as ceratopsian teeth . During another of Hayden 's expeditions in 1872 , Fielding Bradford Meek found several giant bones protruding from a hillside in southwestern Wyoming . He alerted paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope , who led a dig to recover the partial skeleton . Cope recognized the remains as a dinosaur , but noted that even though the fossil lacked a skull , it was different from any type of dinosaur then known . He named the new species Agathaumas sylvestris , meaning " marvellous forest @-@ dweller " . Soon after , Cope named two more dinosaurs that would eventually come to be recognized as ceratopsids : Polyonax and Monoclonius . Monoclonius was notable for the number of disassociated remains found , including the first evidence of ceratopsid horns and frills . Several Monoclonius fossils were found by Cope , assisted by Charles Hazelius Sternberg , in the summer of 1876 near the Judith River in Chouteau County , Montana . Since the ceratopsians had not been recognised yet as a distinctive group , Cope was uncertain about much of the fossil material , not recognizing the nasal horn core , nor the brow horns , as part of a fossil horn . The frill bone was interpreted as a part of the breastbone .

In 1888 and 1889 , Othniel Charles Marsh described the first well preserved horned dinosaurs , Ceratops and Triceratops . In 1890 Marsh classified them together in the family Ceratopsidae and the order Ceratopsia . This prompted Cope to reexamine his own specimens and to realized that Triceratops , Monoclonius , and Agathaumas all represented a single group of similar dinosaurs , which he named Agathaumidae in 1891 . Cope redescribed Monoclonius as a horned dinosaur , with a large nasal horn and two smaller horns over the eyes , and a large frill .

= = Classification = =

Ceratopsia was coined by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1890 to include dinosaurs possessing certain characteristic features , including horns , a rostral bone , teeth with two roots , fused neck vertebrae , and a forward @-@ oriented pubis . Marsh considered the group distinct enough to warrant its own suborder within Ornithischia . The name is derived from the Greek κερας / keras meaning ' horn ' and οψις / opsis meaning ' face ' . As early as the 1960s , it was noted that the name Ceratopsia is actually incorrect linguistically and that it should be Ceratopia . However , this spelling , while technically correct , has been used only rarely in the scientific literature , and the vast majority of paleontologists continue to use Ceratopsia . As the ICZN does not govern taxa above the level of superfamily , this is unlikely to change .

= = = Taxonomy = = =

Following Marsh , Ceratopsia has usually been classified as a suborder within the order Ornithischia . While ranked taxonomy has largely fallen out of favor among dinosaur paleontologists , some researchers have continued to employ such a classification , though sources have differed on what its rank should be . Most who still employ the use of ranks have retained its traditional ranking of suborder , though some have reduced to the level of infraorder .

This list of ceratopsian genera by classification and location follows a review by Thomas R. Holtz , Jr. in 2010 .

Ceratopsia

Albalophosaurus - ( Japan )

Micropachycephalosaurus - ( Shandong , eastern China )

Stenopelix - ( Germany )

Yinlong - ( Xinjiang , western China )

Family Chaoyangsauridae

Chaoyangsaurus - ( Liaoning , northeastern China )

Xuanhuaceratops - ( Hebei , China )

Family Psittacosauridae

Psittacosaurus - ( China & Mongolia )

Neoceratopsia

Archaeoceratops - ( Gansu , northwestern China )

Auroraceratops - ( Gansu , northwestern China )

Helioceratops - ( Jilin , northwestern China )

Koreaceratops - ( South Korea )

Kulceratops - ( Uzbekistan )

Liaoceratops - ( Liaoning , northeastern China )

Microceratus - ( Mongolia )

Mosaiceratops - ( central China )

Yamaceratops - ( Mongolia )

Family Leptoceratopsidae

Asiaceratops - ( China , Mongolia , Uzbekistan )

Cerasinops - ( Montana , US )

Gryphoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Ischioceratops - ( China )

Leptoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada & Wyoming , US )

Montanoceratops - ( Montana , US )

Prenoceratops - ( Montana , US )

Udanoceratops - ( Mongolia )

Unescoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Zhuchengceratops - ( Zhucheng , China )

Family Bagaceratopidae

Ajkaceratops - ( Hungary )

Bagaceratops - ( Mongolia )

Bainoceratops - ( Mongolia )

Gobiceratops - ( Mongolia )

Lamaceratops - ( Mongolia )

Family Protoceratopsidae

Breviceratops - ( Mongolia )

Graciliceratops - ( Mongolia )

Magnirostris - ( Inner Mongolia , China )

Protoceratops - ( Mongolia )

Superfamily Ceratopsoidea

Turanoceratops - ( Uzbekistan )

Zuniceratops - ( New Mexico , US )

Family Ceratopsidae

Subfamily Centrosaurinae

Albertaceratops - ( Alberta , Canada & ? Montana , USA )

Avaceratops - ( Montana , USA )

Brachyceratops - ( Montana , USA & Alberta , Canada )

Centrosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada )

Coronosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada )

Diabloceratops - ( Utah , USA )

Monoclonius - ( Montana , USA & Alberta , Canada )

Nasutoceratops - ( Utah , USA )

Rubeosaurus - ( Montana , USA )

Spinops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Styracosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada & Montana , USA )

Xenoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Tribe Pachyrhinosaurini

Achelousaurus - ( Montana , USA )

Einiosaurus - ( Montana , USA )

Pachyrhinosaurus- ( Alberta , Canada & Alaska , USA )

Sinoceratops - ( Shandong , China )

Subfamily Ceratopsinae

Ceratops - ( Montana , USA & Alberta , Canada )

Subfamily Chasmosaurinae

Agathaumas - ( Wyoming , USA )

Agujaceratops - ( Texas , USA )

Anchiceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Arrhinoceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Chasmosaurus - ( Alberta , Canada )

Coahuilaceratops - ( Coahuila , Mexico )

? Dysganus - ( Montana , USA )

Judiceratops - ( Montana , USA )

Kosmoceratops - ( Utah , USA )

Medusaceratops - ( Montana , USA )

Mojoceratops - ( Alberta & Saskatchewan , Canada )

Pentaceratops - ( New Mexico , USA )

? Polyonax - ( Colorado , USA )

Utahceratops - ( Utah , USA )

Vagaceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Tribe Triceratopsini

Eotriceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Nedoceratops - ( Wyoming , USA )

Ojoceratops - ( New Mexico , USA )

Regaliceratops - ( Alberta , Canada )

Tatankaceratops - ( South Dakota , USA )

Titanoceratops - ( New Mexico , USA )

Torosaurus - ( Wyoming , Montana , South Dakota , North Dakota , & Utah , USA & Saskatchewan , Canada )

Triceratops - ( Montana & Wyoming , USA & Saskatchewan & Alberta , Canada )

Possible ceratopsians from the Southern Hemisphere include the Australian Serendipaceratops , known from an ulna , and Notoceratops from Argentina is known from a single toothless jaw ( which has been lost ) . Craspedodon from the Late Cretaceous ( Santonian ) of Belgium may also be a ceratopsian , specifically a neoceratopsian closer to ceratopsoidea than protoceratopsidae . Possible leptoceratopsid remains have also been described from the early Campanian of Sweden .

= = = Phylogeny = = =

Paleontologists today agree on the overall structure of the ceratopsian family tree , although there are differences on individual taxa . There have been several cladistic studies performed on basal ceratopsians since 2000 . None have used every taxon listed above and many of the differences between the studies are still unresolved .

In clade @-@ based phylogenetic taxonomy , Ceratopsia is often defined to include all marginocephalians more closely related to Triceratops than to Pachycephalosaurus . Under this definition , the most basal known ceratopsians are Yinlong , from the Late Jurassic Period , along with Chaoyangsaurus and the family Psittacosauridae , from the Early Cretaceous Period , all of which were discovered in northern China or Mongolia . The rostral bone and flared jugals are already present in all of these forms , indicating that even earlier ceratopsians remain to be discovered .

The clade Neoceratopsia includes all ceratopsians more derived than psittacosaurids . Another subset of neoceratopsians is called Coronosauria , which currently includes all ceratopsians more derived than Auroraceratops . Coronosaurs show the first development of the neck frill and the fusion of the first several neck vertebrae to support the increasingly heavy head . Within Coronosauria , three groups are generally recognized , although the membership of these groups varies somewhat from study to study and some animals may not fit in any of them . One group can be called Protoceratopsidae and includes Protoceratops and its closest relatives , all Asian . Another group , Leptoceratopsidae , includes mostly North American animals that are more closely related to Leptoceratops . The Ceratopsoidea includes animals like Zuniceratops , which are more closely related to the family Ceratopsidae . This last family includes Triceratops and all the large North American ceratopsians and is further divided into the subfamilies Centrosaurinae and Ceratopsinae ( also known as Chasmosaurinae ) .

= = = = Farke phylogeny = = = =

Andrew Farke and his colleagues in 2014 published a description of a new neoceratopsian , Aquilops americanus , through the peer @-@ reviewed science journal PLOS ONE . They analysed their taxa as well as most other primitive ceratopsians to get a consensus cladogram . They created their own data matrix and through it found that many groups of ceratopsians could be supported , and that Aquilops was a basal neoceratopsian that could potentially be a protoceratopsid , leptoceratopsid , or ceratopsid , although any one of these groups would have a large ghost lineage with Aquilops .

Their study also found an equal consensus cladogram finding Ajkaceratops not as a neoceratopsian but a protoceratopsid . Nothing else about the cladograms changed .

= = = = Xu / Makovicky / Chinnery Phylogeny = = = =

Xu Xing of the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology ( IVPP ) in Beijing , along with Peter Makovicky , formerly of the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH ) in New York City and others , published a cladistic analysis in the 2002 description of Liaoceratops . This analysis is very similar to one published by Makovicky in 2001 . Makovicky , who currently works at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago , also included this analysis in his 2002 doctoral thesis . Xu and other colleagues added Yinlong to this analysis in 2006 .

Brenda Chinnery , formerly of the Museum of the Rockies in Bozeman , Montana , independently described Prenoceratops in 2005 and published a new phylogeny . In 2006 , Makovicky and Mark Norell of the AMNH incorporated Chinnery 's analysis into their own and also added Yamaceratops , although they were not able to include Yinlong . The cladogram presented below is a combination of Xu , Makovicky , and their colleagues ' most recent work .

Chaoyangsaurus is recovered in a more basal position than Psittacosauridae , although Chinnery 's original analysis finds it within Neoceratopsia . Protoceratopsidae is considered to be the sister group of Ceratopsoidea . The fragmentary Asiaceratops was included in these studies and is found to have a variable position , either as a basal neoceratopsian or as a leptoceratopsid , most likely due to the amount of missing information . Removal of Asiaceratops stabilizes the entire cladogram .

Makovicky 's latest analysis includes IVPP V12722 ( " Xuanhuasaurus " ) , a Late Jurassic ceratopsian from China that , at the time , was awaiting publication , but has since been published as Xuanhuaceratops . Kulceratops and Turanoceratops are considered nomina dubia in this study . Makovicky believes Lamaceratops , Magnirostris , and Platyceratops to be junior synonyms of Bagaceratops , and Bainoceratops to be synonymous with Protoceratops .

= = = = You / Dodson Phylogeny = = = =

You Hailu of Beijing 's Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences , was a co @-@ author with Xu and Makovicky in 2002 but , in 2003 , he and Peter Dodson from the University of Pennsylvania published a separate analysis . The two presented this analysis again in 2004 . In 2005 , You and three others , including Dodson , published on Auroraceratops and inserted this new dinosaur into their phylogeny .

In contrast to the previous analysis , You and Dodson find Chaoyangsaurus to be the most basal neoceratopsian , more derived than Psittacosaurus , while Leptoceratopsidae , not Protoceratopsidae , is recovered as the sister group of Ceratopsidae . This study includes Auroraceratops , but lacks seven taxa found in Xu and Makovicky 's work , so it is unclear how comparable the two studies are . Asiaceratops and Turanoceratops are each considered nomina dubia and not included . Along with Dong Zhiming , You described Magnirostris in 2003 , but to date has not included it in any of his cladograms .

= = Paleobiology = =

= = = Biogeography = = =

Ceratopsia appears to have originated in Asia , as all of the earliest members are found there . Fragmentary remains , including teeth , which appear to be neoceratopsian , are found in North America from the Albian stage ( 112 to 100 million years ago ) , indicating that the group had dispersed across what is now the Bering Strait by the middle of the Cretaceous Period . Almost all leptoceratopsids are North American , aside from Udanoceratops , which may represent a separate dispersal event , back into Asia . Ceratopsids and their immediate ancestors , such as Zuniceratops , were unknown outside of western North America , and were presumed endemic to that continent . The traditional view that ceratopsoids originated in North America was called into question by the 2009 discovery of better specimens of the dubious Asian form Turanoceratops , which confirmed it as a ceratopsid . It is unknown whether this indicates ceratopsids actually originated in Asia , or if the Turanoceratops immigrated from North America .

= = = Individual variation = = =

Unlike almost all other dinosaur groups , skulls are the most commonly preserved elements of ceratopsian skeletons and many species are known only from skulls . There is a great deal of variation between and even within ceratopsian species . Complete growth series from embryo to adult are known for Psittacosaurus and Protoceratops , allowing the study of ontogenetic variation in these species . Significant sexual dimorphism has been noted in Protoceratops and several ceratopsids .

= = = Ecological role = = =

Psittacosaurus and Protoceratops are the most common dinosaurs in the different Mongolian sediments where they are found . Triceratops fossils are far and away the most common dinosaur remains found in the latest Cretaceous rocks in the western United States , making up as much as 5 / 6ths of the large dinosaur fauna in some areas . These facts indicate that some ceratopsians were the dominant herbivores in their environments .

Some species of ceratopsians , especially Centrosaurus and its relatives , appear to have been gregarious , living in herds . This is suggested by bonebed finds with the remains of many individuals of different ages . Like modern migratory herds , they would have had a significant effect on their environment , as well as serving as a major food source for predators .

Although ceratopsians are generally considered herbivorous , a few paleontologists , such as Darren Naish and Mark Witton , have speculated online that at least some ceratopsians may have been opportunistically omnivorous .

= = = Posture and locomotion = = =

Most restorations of ceratopsians show them with erect hindlimbs but semi @-@ sprawling forelimbs , which suggest that they were not fast movers . But Paul and Christiansen ( 2000 ) argued that at least the later ceratopsians had upright forelimbs and the larger species may have been as fast as rhinos , which can run at up to 56 km or 35 miles per hour .

= = = Daily activity patterns = = =

A nocturnal lifestyle has been suggested for the primitive ceratopsian Protoceratops . However , comparisons between the scleral rings of Protoceratops and Psittacosaurus and modern birds and reptiles indicate that they may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals .

= = = Paleopathology = = =

Activity @-@ related bone fractures have been documented in ceratopsians . Periostitis has also been documented in the shoulder blade of a ceratopsian .

= = Timeline of genera = =

= Truth in Numbers ? =

Truth in Numbers ? Everything , According to Wikipedia is a 2010 American documentary film that explores the history and cultural implications of the online , user @-@ editable encyclopedia Wikipedia . The film considers the question of whether all individuals or just experts should be tasked with editing an encyclopedia .

The site 's history and background is given , along with commentary from Wikipedia founders Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger . Commentators that appear in the film include author Howard Zinn , Len Downie of The Washington Post , Bob Schieffer of CBS News , former Encyclopædia Britannica chief Robert McHenry and former Central Intelligence Agency director James Woolsey . The documentary discusses incidents that shed a negative light on Wikipedia , including the Essjay controversy and the Wikipedia biography controversy .

The long @-@ delayed film premiered at Wikimania 2010 in Gdańsk in July 2010 , and was screened at the Paley Center for Media in New York City in October 2010 . It was shown as part of the Savannah Film Festival on November 3 , 2010 , at Savannah College of Art and Design 's Trustees Theater . Truth in Numbers ? received a mixed reception , with favorable commentary from author Ted Leonsis , in the AOL publication Urlesque , and coverage at the Savannah Film Festival by Carlos Serrano of District .

= = Contents = =

Truth in Numbers ? Everything , According to Wikipedia , an American documentary film , explores the history and cultural implications of Wikipedia . The film presents Wikipedia as a new form of communication and cultural dialog . The directors attempt to answer the question of whether ordinary individuals should be tasked with collecting knowledge for presentation online , or this should be relegated solely to academic scholars in specific fields . The film gives an overview of the history of the enterprise , as well as biographical information on founder Jimmy Wales . Wales is shown discussing Wikipedia with an Indian reader , who points out an inaccuracy in an article . Wales proceeds to show the reader how to click the " edit " tab on the website . Wikipedia founder Larry Sanger is featured in the documentary and speaks critically about the website 's embracing of editors from the general public as opposed to soliciting expert contributors .

Journalism and media commentators who appear and are interviewed in the film include author Howard Zinn ; Len Downie , ( executive editor of The Washington Post ) ; Bob Schieffer ( CBS News ) ; Robert McHenry ( former chief of Encyclopædia Britannica ) ; James Woolsey ( former director of the Central Intelligence Agency ) ; Chris Wilson ( reporter for Slate Magazine ) ; Cade Metz ( reporter for The Register who has written critically about Wikipedia ) ; Richard Branson and Noam Chomsky . The film documents an initiative in India and Africa called " Wikipedia Academies " . Controversies discussed in the film include the Essjay controversy , where a member of Wikipedia made false assertions about his academic background ; and the Wikipedia biography controversy , where false statements were inserted into the Wikipedia entry for journalist John Seigenthaler . Musician KRS @-@ One comments about the site after reading his biography on Wikipedia : " I can say to you , these are the facts but they are not true . "

= = Production = =

= = = Conception = = =

The idea for the film originated from a suggestion by Michael Ferris Gibson , who had made the 2005 documentary 24 Hours on Craigslist . Gibson , a producer on the film , met with co @-@ director Nic Hill . Gibson financed Hill 's travels while making the film . The working title for the film was Truth in Numbers : The Wikipedia Story . Gibson chose to finance the film through a request for funding from Internet visitors ; the initial request drew in US $ 20 @,@ 000 in initial investment . The production team made their initial work on the project known to Internet viewers via the website www.wikidocumentary.org. Another collaborative website focused on the documentary was formed at Wikia , located at wikidocumentary.wikia.com. Regarding his financing strategy , Gibson commented to the San Francisco Chronicle , that smaller incremental donations from multiple individuals showed genuine interest in his initiative .

= = = Filming = = =

Filming started in August 2006 at the Wikimania 2006 conference , and by April 2007 the team had aggregated 100 hours of footage . Co @-@ director Hill accompanied Wales during 2007 , filming him as he journeyed around the globe . Hill took a two @-@ person film crew and traveled to China , Indonesia , India , South Africa , Australia and Europe , interviewing editors and contributors . Hill is himself an editor of Wikipedia , starting an article about a graffiti artist . Gibson and Hill required expertise in the creative and funding aspects of film @-@ making and invited Scott Glosserman to join the venture . Glosserman 's involvement with the film began during the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . After Glosserman signed on , the breadth of the endeavor became larger . The film ended up taking an additional three years to finish after Glosserman joined the production .

Eric Koretz served as director of photography ; he joined the team during a shift in focus in January 2008 . Koretz used a Panasonic AG @-@ HPX500 P2 HD camcorder . He commented to industry publication Videography about the choice of technique , that due to the intensity of the production team 's travel schedule tape format would not have been an option . He stated he preferred using P2 cards over the HDD @-@ based format due to its superior reliability . During the editing process , Glen Echo Entertainment utilized eight Apple Macintosh computers with Intel processors , equipped with Apple 's Final Cut Pro editing software .

= = = Re @-@ focus = = =

Glosserman and the rest of the production team met together to put together a focus for the film ; they centered their efforts on answering the question : " How does Wikipedia get at the truth ? " They also wanted to provide information for everyday individuals wanting to know about Wikipedia 's background and functioning . Experts were sought out , including the author of The Age of American Unreason Susan Jacoby , to discuss Wikipedia 's approach to scholars knowledgeable about specific subject matter . Glosserman commented in an interview with IndieWire , " We tried to get people offering compelling arguments for either side of any particular topic because our intention was to be objective and to let the viewer make up his or her own mind . " The narrative structure of the film What the Bleep Do We Know ! ? served as an inspiration for Glosserman during the production process . As a non @-@ profit project , the film had received more than $ 55 @,@ 000 in donations by March 2009 .

= = Release = =

The release for the film was originally planned for 2007 , then 2008 and 2009 , before its 2010 release . Clips of the film were shown at Wikimania 2007 in Taipei prior to its completion . Editors in the audience had mixed views on the film . In 2008 , footage from the film was used in an official fundraising video by the Wikimedia Foundation . The film had its premiere at Wikimania 2010 in Gdańsk in July 2010 , before an audience of approximately 300 people . A trailer for the movie was released in October 2010 .

The film was screened at the Paley Center for Media in New York City on October 20 , 2010 . It was shown in conjunction with the Robert M. Batscha University Seminar Series . The Paley Center screening included an online streaming broadcast — the first simultaneous film screening and panel question @-@ and @-@ answer for online and local audiences . The panel discussion was moderated by The New York Times journalist Noam Cohen , and featured both co @-@ directors , in addition to Wikimedia Foundation representative Samuel Klein and Wikipedian in Residence at the British Museum Liam Wyatt . After the event , SnagFilms subsequently made the film available for free for six days to viewers in the United States .

The film was screened at the Savannah Film Festival on November 3 , 2010 , at Savannah College of Art and Design 's Trustees Theater . It was scheduled for a limited theatrical release in the United States on November 30 , 2010 .

= = Reception = =

Wales wrote favorably about the film in 2007 during its production , and noted , " Director Nic Hill is making what looks to be a fabulous film about Wikipedia and Wikipedians worldwide . " However , Wales commented negatively about the delayed release , in a statement to PRNewser . He said the movie was dated due to its delay . He commented that the documentary was lopsided towards reliance on expert commentary and did not feature enough weight towards depicting community involvement in the online project . Wales posted to a Wikimedia Foundation mailing list , " the film was poorly received in Poland , and it is seriously out of date . " Larry Sanger commented he thought the film was , " Not too bad , from what I saw . " Wikimedia Foundation board member Samuel Klein commented , " In general , I like the film a lot more after seeing it for the second time , in a very different audience ( and seeing their live reactions ) . " Sage Ross , an attendee of Wikimania 2010 , commented that the film appears to take a mainly negative point of view towards Wikipedia , " The film gives a lot of focus to some shallow or misleading lines of criticism , and on an intellectual level , it comes off as largely anti @-@ Wikipedia , contrasting the reasonable @-@ sounding arguments of mature critics with the naive optimism of youthful Wikipedians . " Author Ted Leonsis commented favorably about the documentary , at his blog , Ted 's Take , characterizing it as , " A great film about the Wikipedia movement . " He concluded , " This is a must see film , a premiere film . You gotta watch it to remain socially relevant ! "

Daniel D 'Addario reviewed Truth in Numbers ? Everything , According to Wikipedia for the AOL Inc. publication , Urlesque . D 'Addario commented , " the film raises interesting questions about authority , only somewhat intentionally . " He noted the dated bits observing , " Truth in Numbers ? may well be coming too late . " D 'Addario concluded his assessment by noting that at the time of his review , the Wikipedia article for the film was under threat of being deleted : " According to the site , the entry for Truth in Numbers ? is being considered for deletion – it links to few other articles on the site , and is an ' orphan . ' Given the tenor of Truth in Numbers ? , which combines avid interest in Wikipedia with wide @-@ eyed dismay at much of its particulars , this is either very surprising or not surprising at all . "

In his review for the Savannah Film Festival , Carlos Serrano of District wrote that though the subject matter covered a lot of ground , it utilized an efficient presentation : " Sounds like a lot to put in to one movie , but the film manages to make good use of its 85 minute running time . " Serrano commented on the presentation of Jimmy Wales during the film , " In the end , I came out of the theater thinking of him as a three @-@ dimensional figure , very much a man with passion but neither completely good or evil . To be honest , this is very important in a film like this and is a definite plus for the movie . " Serrano recommended the documentary , and concluded , " This is definitely a solid film . ... This film is definitely worth a viewing . It ’ s interesting , well made , and presents varied perspectives on Wikipedia that help the narrative stay interesting . "

= Hope Highway =

The Hope Highway , also known as the Hope Road Turnoff , is a Forest Highway located in the Kenai Peninsula Borough , in the U.S. state of Alaska . The highway connects the city of Hope to the Seward Highway , and travels through 17 miles ( 27 km ) of the Chugach National Forest . The road passes the ghost town of Sunrise City and several smaller settlements , remnants of the gold rush that occurred in that area . The highway was created circa 1928 and was designated as Forest Highway 14 by the Federal Highway Administration .

= = Route description = =

The Hope Highway begins at an intersection with the Seward Highway ( AK @-@ 1 ) , inside Chugach National Forest . The highway proceeds north , traveling through several miles of pine forest , in a valley in the Kenai Mountain range . The highway passes alongside the Resurrection Creek , which was the source for the settlement of this area . The road proceeds through the abandoned settlement of Sunrise City , which was an old mining town . The roadway proceeds to the Turnagain Arm , and turns in a westward direction . The road continues along the arm for several miles before entering the city of Hope . The highway passes through Hope , intersecting the Old Hope Highway and several smaller streets before exiting the town and reentering the forest . The highway reaches its northern terminus , an access road to the Porcupine Creek Campgrounds . The entire length of the Hope Highway is located in the Chugach National Forest . No portion of the highway is listed on the National Highway System .

= = = Traffic = = =

Traffic on the Hope Highway is very low , with the highest traffic count being just over 400 vehicles daily , at its intersection with the Seward Highway . The daily average vehicle count for the highway is just under 300 .

= = History = =

The Hope Highway was first established in 1928 . The original highway connected the city of Hope to Moose Pass , which then took people to Anchorage via the Alaska Railroad . The Seward Highway was completed in 1951 , which allowed travelers to get to Hope without having to transport their vehicle on a train . The highway operated as an improved dirt road until 1952 or 1953 , when the highway was finally paved . The portion of the highway that connected Hope to the campgrounds was created in the 1970s . Around the same time as the extension of the route , the Hope Highway was rerouted around the city of Hope , with the original path that traveled through the city being renamed the Old Hope Highway . In 1982 , during the expansion of the Federal Forest Highway System , the Hope Highway was added to the system , due to its location and local importance .

= = Major junctions = =

The entire highway is in Kenai Peninsula Borough .

= = Old Hope Highway = =

The Old Hope Highway is a short , historic route of the Hope Highway located in the city of Hope . The road is just 0 @.@ 259 miles ( 0 @.@ 417 km ) long , and connects the Hope Highway to the central region of Hope . The road has an unpaved , gravel surface , and passes several small businesses and homes located in Hope . The road was part of the original Hope Highway , which was created in 1928 , and remained part of the highway until circa 1970 , when the highway was rerouted around Hope .

= Super Mario Land =

Super Mario Land is a 1989 side @-@ scrolling platform video game , the first in the Super Mario Land series , developed and published by Nintendo as a launch title for their Game Boy handheld game console . In gameplay similar to that of the 1985 Super Mario Bros. , but resized for the smaller device 's screen , the player advances Mario to the end of 12 levels by moving to the right and jumping across platforms to avoid enemies and pitfalls . Unlike other Mario games , Super Mario Land is set in Sarasaland , a new environment depicted in line art , and Mario pursues Princess Daisy . The game introduces two Gradius @-@ style shooter levels .

At Nintendo CEO Hiroshi Yamauchi 's request , Game Boy creator Gunpei Yokoi 's Nintendo R & D1 developed a Mario game to sell the new console . It was the first portable version of Mario and the first to be made without Mario creator and Yokoi protégé Shigeru Miyamoto . Accordingly , the development team shrunk Mario gameplay elements for the device and used some elements inconsistently from the series . Super Mario Land was expected to showcase the console until Nintendo of America bundled Tetris with new Game Boys . The game launched alongside the Game Boy first in Japan ( April 1989 ) and later worldwide . Super Mario Land was later rereleased for the Nintendo 3DS via Virtual Console in 2011 again as a launch title , which featured some tweaks to the game 's presentation .

Initial reviews were laudatory . Reviewers were satisfied with the smaller Super Mario Bros. , but noted its short length . They considered it among the best of the Game Boy launch titles . The handheld console became an immediate success and Super Mario Land ultimately sold over 18 million copies , more than that of Super Mario Bros. 3 . Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers praised the game 's soundtrack . Later reviews were critical of the compromises made in development and noted Super Mario Land 's deviance from series norms . The game begot a series of sequels , including the 1992 Super Mario Land 2 : 6 Golden Coins , 1994 Wario Land : Super Mario Land 3 , and 2011 Super Mario 3D Land , though many of the original 's mechanics were not revisited . The game was included in several top Game Boy game lists and debuted Princess Daisy as a recurring Mario series character .

= = Gameplay = =

As a side @-@ scrolling platform game and the first in the Super Mario Land series , Super Mario Land is similar in gameplay to its forebears : as Mario , the player advances to the end of the level by moving to the right and jumping across platforms to avoid enemies and pitfalls . In Super Mario Land , Mario travels to Sarasaland to save Princess Daisy from Tatanga , an evil spaceman . Two of the game 's twelve levels are " forced @-@ scrolling " Gradius @-@ style shooters where Mario helms a submarine or airplane and fires projectiles towards oncoming enemies and bosses . Levels end with a platforming challenge to reach an alternative exit located above the regular exit . The former leads to a bonus minigame that awards extra lives .

Unlike other Mario games , which take place in the Mushroom Kingdom , Super Mario Land is set in Sarasaland and drawn in line art . Mario pursues Princess Daisy , in her debut , rather than the series standard damsel in distress , Princess Peach . Koopa shells explode rather than slide , Mario throws bouncing balls rather than fireballs , 1 @-@ Up Mushroom power @-@ ups are depicted as hearts , and the level @-@ end flagpoles are replaced with a platforming challenge . Some elements recur from previous Mario games , such as blocks suspended in midair , pipes that lead to other areas , and Goomba enemies .

= = Development = =

Super Mario Land was developed by Nintendo R & D1 and published by Nintendo in 1989 as a launch title for their Game Boy handheld console . Nintendo CEO Hiroshi Yamauchi believed that fun games sold consoles , so when the company created the Game Boy handheld console , he wanted a fun game that would feature Nintendo 's mascot , Mario , and subsequently sell consoles . The job fell to Nintendo R & D1 , a development team led by Game Boy inventor Gunpei Yokoi . Yokoi had previously created the Game & Watch series and worked with his protégé , Shigeru Miyamoto , on the game that invented Mario , Donkey Kong . Super Mario Land was the fourth Super Mario title , the first portable Mario game , and the first in the series to be made without Miyamoto .

Absent Miyamoto 's direction , the development team used elements new and inconsistent with the series as Super Mario Land shrunk elements of the series to fit the portable device 's small screen . Yokoi , the head of R & D1 , served as producer , and Satoru Okada served as director . They had previously developed Metroid ( 1986 ) and Kid Icarus ( 1986 ) together , and the two subsequently designed the Game Boy — Yokoi on its industrial design , and Okada on its engineering . Their Super Mario Land was planned as the portable console 's showcase title until Henk Rogers brought Tetris to Nintendo of America and convinced Minoru Arakawa that the addictive computer game would help Nintendo reach the largest audience . The company subsequently chose to bundle Tetris with every Game Boy purchase .

The Game Boy was released in Japan in April 1989 , North America in July , and Europe in September 1990 , and Super Mario Land was a launch title . The game 's official first released was on April 21 , 1989 , in Japan , and its North American release followed in August . About 22 years later , Super Mario Land was released for the Nintendo 3DS via Virtual Console on June 6 , 2011 , as one of its opening titles . Its added features include an increased size ( about 60 percent zoom ) and an optional " shades of green " color palette to match the effect of the original Game Boy 's monochrome .

= = Reception = =

Critics saw Super Mario Land as a " smaller " and shorter version of Super Mario Bros. IGN 's Lucas Thomas wrote that the protagonist , enemies , and overall game were shorter , and noted that Mario himself was just 12 pixels in height on the Game Boy 's small screen . With this in mind , Thomas was concerned about player " eyestrain " in rereleases of the game . Still , IGN 's Levi Buchanan thought the game made no compromises in its size reduction . At the time of its release in 1989 , reviewers were excited to have a portable Mario game . Paul Rand of Computer and Video Games called the game " an arcade machine in your pocket " and the graphics " remarkable " for their size . French games magazine Player One felt that Super Mario Land adequately compromised where necessary to bring Mario to a portable device . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Steve Harris considered the game " fantastic " and " very fun to play " , albeit short . Ed Semrad and Donn Nauert of the same outlet both declared Super Mario Land " easily the best Game Boy cart " of the time . Complex 's Gus Turner wrote that the graphics were " simple " , and Official Nintendo Magazine said the game was " ridiculously short " . Eurogamer reported that the game could be finished in under an hour .

Complex 's Gus Turner wrote that the game had the fun , intuitiveness , and difficulty associated with the series , and Tony Mott of Superplay said the game proved that Nintendo 's Game Boy " had playability to match " its competitors . Matt Regan of Mean Machines agreed : " Playability to the nth degree ! " British magazines Mean Machines and The Games Machine both commented on the game 's number of secrets to find . Eurogamer 's Chris Schilling called Hirokazu Tanaka 's soundtrack " surely one of the all @-@ time greats " , and Official Nintendo Magazine said it was among the " greatest videogame music ever composed " . Player One , Eurogamer , and Complex too complimented the music . Player One further pronounced Super Mario Land a " masterpiece " , " the pinnacle of portable video gaming " .

Following the Game Boy 's " overnight success " , Super Mario Land sold over 18 million copies — more than that of Super Mario Bros. 3 .

= = Legacy = =

The game begot a Super Mario Land series of portable Mario games . Super Mario Land 2 : 6 Golden Coins added a non @-@ linear overworld and introduced Wario , an evil version of Mario , as the game 's villain . The subsequent Wario Land : Super Mario Land 3 began the Wario franchise . After 19 years , the 2011 title Super Mario 3D Land for the Nintendo 3DS became Mario 's first game in stereoscopic 3D . Audrey Drake of IGN argued that both Wario Land and Super Mario 3D Land were not " legitimate sequels " , and wrote that the latter felt more like " Super Mario Bros. 3 with Mario Galaxy influences " than a successor to Super Mario Land 2 .

Super Mario Land is remembered for its miniaturized Super Mario elements and " twist on just about every Mario mainstay imaginable " . Many of its new elements did not recur later in the series , making Super Mario Land strange compared to the rest of the series , or what IGN 's Thomas described as a " singular oddball " . IGN 's Marc Nix felt retrospectively that Super Mario Land was the only uninspired Mario game , with " funky voids of white " and UFOs instead of the " strikingly original " Mushroom Kingdom . Mean Machines was also put off by the alien theme , easy difficulty , and dot matrix screen blur . IGN 's Travis Fahs wrote that the game was comparatively not as " ambitious " as Super Mario Bros. 3 . Mean Machines felt as if it was not " a true Mario game " , not worth its originally high review score , and " in retrospect , not really a classic " .

Eurogamer 's Schilling wrote that Mario felt different — lighter , with more friction — and that the game felt " radical and distinctive " for the risks it took . IGN 's Thomas cited " out of place " gameplay elements like the shooter levels , exploding Koopa shells , non @-@ extinguishing fireballs , and non @-@ Princess Peach plot as departures from the series . Thomas attributed this to Mario creator Miyamoto 's lack of involvement in the game 's development , which he described as " famously hands @-@ off " . Schilling of Eurogamer instead blamed the Game Boy 's technical limitations . But he too was perplexed by the new sphinx , seahorse , and Moai head enemies , and considered the exploding Koopa shells a " cruel trick " disdainful of the series ' core gameplay . Super Mario Land 's shooter levels , new to the series , were not revisited in subsequent series games . And subsequent series games such as Super Mario Land 2 both dropped the original 's tiny scale and chose the classic fire flower fireballs over the first installment 's bouncing balls .

The game was included in multiple rankings of top Game Boy games , and Official Nintendo Magazine listed it at 73 in its top 100 Nintendo games . After her debut in Super Mario Land , Princess Daisy reaffiliated as Luigi 's girlfriend and appears in later Mario series sports and racing games .

= Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! =

Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ( ストップ ! ! ひばりくん ! , Sutoppu ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hisashi Eguchi . It was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump from October 1981 to November 1983 , and the chapters were published in four tankōbon volumes by Shueisha from November 1982 to January 1984 . The series was adapted into a 35 @-@ episode anime television series by Toei Animation that aired on Fuji Television from May 1983 to January 1984 . The story focuses on Kōsaku Sakamoto , a high school student who goes to live with yakuza boss Ibari Ōzora and his four children — Tsugumi , Tsubame , Hibari and Suzume — after the death of his mother . Kōsaku is shocked to learn that Hibari , who looks and behaves as a girl , was assigned male at birth .

Eguchi wanted to create a romantic comedy manga where the main female character is a cross @-@ dressing boy so as to poke fun at the genre . He took more time to draw the chapters compared to his earlier manga , and as the serialization continued , he found it increasingly difficult to keep up a weekly pace for the chapters . He eventually abandoned the series after the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Weekly Shōnen Jump refused his request to release the chapters every other week . From July 2009 to February 2010 , Shogakukan published a three @-@ volume Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! Complete Edition omnibus collection , which features various revisions to the originally published chapters in addition to newly drawn cover art .

Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! has been described as achieving a dizzying reality with Hibari by contrasting a girlish exterior with a male interior . The series has been praised for its overall light and pop literary style , and the delicate touch in how Hibari is drawn has been described as so attractive that it makes the reader forget that it is a gag manga . However , the jokes surrounding the yakuza characters have been criticized as extreme and no longer humorous in modern times . The series has been described as having had a hand in paving the way for the J @-@ pop phenomenon .

= = Plot = =

Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! follows Kōsaku Sakamoto , a high school student whose mother tells him on her deathbed to live with her friend and yakuza boss Ibari Ōzora and his family in Tokyo after she dies . Although Kōsaku is initially unsure about his situation , he is relieved when he meets Ibari 's four children : Tsugumi , Tsubame , Hibari and Suzume . Kōsaku is attracted to Hibari from the start , but he is shocked to learn that Hibari , who looks and behaves as a girl , was assigned male at birth — something only known within the Ōzora Group and Hibari 's family . A group of four girls led by Kaori Hanazono begin to suspect that Hibari may be a guy , but Tsubame takes Hibari 's place during a health checkup , effectively quelling any suspicions . Hibari begins to show an immediate interest in Kōsaku , so in an effort to distance himself from Hibari , Kōsaku joins the Wakaba Academy boxing club . Also in the club is Makoto Shiina , who is attracted to Hibari , and Rie Kawai , the club manager who Kōsaku likes . Hibari soon joins the club as its second manager shortly before they go on a training camp in Kujūkuri at the end of the year .

At the start of the new school year , Hibari is scouted to join the girl 's volleyball team after the captain , Jun Ōtori , witnesses Hibari 's athletic prowess . Although Hibari refuses , Jun continues to pursue Hibari until Jun is overwhelmed by Hibari 's superhuman ability to spike the ball . After Kaori and her friends try to embarrass Hibari during swim class , they once again suspect that Hibari may be a guy , but Hibari prevents them from getting any proof during the school sponsored summer camp . After Hibari refuses several advances from a popular guy at school named Takuto Honda , Hibari starts openly flirting with Kōsaku at school . Shiina becomes enraged at Kōsaku for earning Hibari 's affection , but Shiina and Kōsaku grow closer as friends after they fight it out and Kōsaku reassures him that there is nothing going on between him and Hibari .

When Kōsaku is out jogging one day , he helps out a girl named Sayuri Kōenji who was being harassed by three guys from the Kokuryū High School boxing club , although Hibari deals with them before Kōsaku can do anything . Despite this , Sayuri is instantly enamored by Kōsaku and hires a detective to find out more about him , leading her to discover Hibari 's secret . Hibari has another run @-@ in with the Kokuryū boxing club members after they harass Tsubame at a festival . The Kokuryū boxing club challenges the Wakaba boxing club to some inter @-@ school matches , but this turns out to be a ruse to get a chance to gang up on Hibari . However , the Ōzora Group intercedes , allowing Hibari to knock out the Kokuryū boxing club 's leader . Sayuri transfers into Kōsaku 's class , and she blackmails him into going on a date with her in exchange for not revealing Hibari 's secret . During the school festival , Kōsaku 's class acts out a Sleeping Beauty play with Kōsaku as the prince and Hibari as the princess , culminating in Hibari giving Kōsaku a French kiss on stage . Ibari agrees to look after Gekijirō Taiga , the son of one of his close friends , who Kōsaku is surprised to learn is a trans man .

= = = Characters = = =

Kōsaku Sakamoto ( 坂本 耕作 , Sakamoto Kōsaku ) is the protagonist of Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ! and is originally from Kumamoto.Ch. 33 He is a pure @-@ hearted high school student who constantly refuses Hibari 's advances toward him , Ch . 2 , 3 , 10 , 17 but as time goes on , he becomes increasingly concerned that he is being influenced by Hibari.Ch. 8 , 22 , 35 , 38 Kōsaku treats Hibari kindly , and helps to maintain Hibari 's secret.Ch. 25 , 50 , 51 Initially unskilled at fighting , Ch . 3 he joins the Wakaba Academy boxing club in an effort to get stronger because of Hibari 's inherent strength , Ch . 8 which he achieves as the series progresses.Ch. 38 Kōsaku is voiced by Tōru Furuya .

Hibari Ōzora ( 大空 ひばり , Ōzora Hibari ) is the titular character of Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! ! . Hibari is a high school student assigned male at birth who looks and behaves as a girl , much to Ibari 's dismay.Ch. 2 , 4 , 8 Hibari prefers being referred to as Ibari 's daughter , Ch . 6 , 8 , 15 and has expressed an interest in having breasts.Ch. 6 According to Suzume , Hibari becomes more feminine after Kōsaku starts living at the Ōzora household.Ch. 8 Hibari show an interest in Kōsaku early on , Ch . 9 and continues to make advances toward him throughout the series.Ch. 17 , 22 , 35 Hibari gets bolder as the series progresses , including openly flirting with Kōsaku at school , Ch . 37 and kissing him.Ch. 18 , 48 , 51 Hibari is extremely athletic and intelligent , in addition to being physically strong despite Hibari 's relatively small body frame.Ch. 5 , 7 , 8 , 22 Hibari is voiced by Satomi Majima .

Ibari Ōzora ( 大空 いばり , Ōzora Ibari ) is the boss of the Ōzora Group , a yakuza organization.Ch. 1 As the father of Tsugumi , Tsubame , Hibari and Suzume , he wants the Ōzora Group to be family @-@ oriented.Ch. 4 Ibari is extremely distressed by Hibari 's usual behavior , partly because Hibari is his only choice to inherit the Ōzora Group.Ch. 2 He has a weak heart and frequently gets attacks whenever he is overly excited or shocked by something.Ch. 2 , 4 , 8 , 28 Ibari had been in love with Kōsaku 's mother , but she ended up marrying a Matagi hunter.Ch. 19 Ibari is voiced by Jōji Yanami .

Tsugumi Ōzora ( 大空 つぐみ , Ōzora Tsugumi ) is the eldest daughter who has acted as a motherly figure to her family after their mother died . She dropped out of art school in her second year and became a professional illustrator.Ch. 31 Tsugumi is voiced by Fumi Hirano .

Tsubame Ōzora ( 大空 つばめ , Ōzora Tsubame ) is the second daughter and is two years older than Hibari . Like her father , Tsubame is against Hibari acting as a girl , Ch . 5 , 7 and constantly gets mad at Hibari for wearing her clothes , Ch . 4 , 23 , 44 although Tsubame sometimes wears Hibari 's clothes , too.Ch. 6 Tsubame and Hibari are nearly identical except for their hair and eye color , and they impersonate each other on certain occasions.Ch. 7 , 13 , 18 Tsubame is voiced by Kyōko Irokawa .

Suzume Ōzora ( 大空 すずめ , Ōzora Suzume ) is the youngest daughter and is a precocious elementary school student.Ch. 14 , 19 , 48 She is scared of flat @-@ faced men.Ch. 4 , 28 Suzume is voiced by Tomiko Suzuki .

Sabu ( サブ ) is a member of the Ōzora Group . He is in love with Tsugumi.Ch. 32 Sabu is voiced by Norio Wakamoto .

Seiji ( 政二 ) is a member of the Ōzora Group . He looks scary , but he has a timid personality.Ch. 2 , 4 , 18 He scares Kōsaku awake in the mornings.Ch. 6 , 9 , 20 Seiji is voiced by Toku Nishio .

Makoto Shiina ( 椎名 まこと , Shiina Makoto ) is Kōsaku 's classmate who likes Hibari.Ch. 3 , 12 He is a member of the boxing club , and initially hates Kōsaku for earning Hibari 's affection , Ch . 8 but as the series progresses , the two become friends.Ch. 38 Shiina is voiced by Katsuji Mori .

Rie Kawai ( 可愛 理絵 , Kawai Rie ) is a normal girl with a gentle personality who is attracted to Shiina.Ch. 12 She joined the boxing club as a manager because of him.Ch. 17 She leaves the boxing club when she learns Shiina likes Hibari , Ch . 30 but she rejoins the club after she gets over him.Ch. 50 Rie is voiced by Hiromi Tsuru .

Mitsuo Kaji ( 梶 みつを , Kaji Mitsuwo ) is one of Tsubame 's classmates and is the boxing club captain.Ch. 10 , 13 He is an overbearing guy and is very pushy towards Tsubame whom he likes.Ch. 13 , 18 His family members have the same face as him.Ch. 18 He is voiced by Kōzō Shioya .

Kaori Hanazono ( 花園 かおり , Hanzono Kaori ) is Kōsaku 's classmate.Ch. 23 She is jealous of Hibari 's popularity at school , Ch . 6 and takes pride in her devious personality.Ch. 7 , 27 Along with her three friends , they try to embarrass Hibari.Ch. 24 , 27 Kaori is voiced by Seiko Nakano .

Sayuri Kōenji ( 高円寺 さゆり , Kōenji Sayuri ) is a rich girl one year younger than Kōsaku.Ch. 50 She falls in love easily and will do anything she can to bring her love to fruition . When something surprises her , she composes a haiku.Ch. 43 Sayuri is voiced by Yuriko Yamamoto .

= = Media = =

= = = Manga = = =

Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! is written and illustrated by Hisashi Eguchi . Following the conclusion of his manga Hinomaru Gekijō ( ひのまる劇場 ) in 1981 , Eguchi wanted to go against the notion at the time that there was currently a golden age of romantic comedy manga in shōnen manga magazines . In response , Eguchi thought of creating a romantic comedy manga where the main female character is a cross @-@ dressing boy , and in doing so , poke fun at the genre by developing it as the antithesis of a romantic comedy . Eguchi drew up the storyboard for the first chapter in about 30 minutes in a cafe , and came up with the title Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! as a reference to Hisashi Sekiya 's manga Stop ! Nii @-@ chan ( ストップ ! にいちゃん ) . In wanting to highlight the comedy of having a character like Hibari , Eguchi realized that the cuter he could draw Hibari , the more effective the jokes would be , so he tried to draw Hibari as cute as he could .

Eguchi had often rushed when drawing his earlier manga Susume ! ! Pirates ( すすめ ! ! パイレーツ ) , but starting with Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! , he raised the standards he held for his art and had to began taking more time to draw the chapters . In addition , Eguchi was very particular about the appearance of his manuscripts , so he never used white @-@ out to correct any drawing errors because he disliked how it looked . As the serialization continued , Eguchi found it increasingly difficult to keep up a weekly pace for the chapters , leading him to take frequent hiatuses and later say that " drawing weekly isn 't something humans can do . " Furthermore , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Weekly Shōnen Jump at the time , Shigeo Nishimura , refused his request to release the chapters every other week . When it came time to draw what would end up being the last serialized chapter , Eguchi completed the chapter 's storyboard , but ultimately submitted only about two @-@ thirds of the chapter , leaving out the last five pages . After he submitted the chapter 's manuscript , Eguchi fled to a hotel and secluded himself for a day , only coming out after Nishimura called him to say that he could not deal with him anymore on a weekly basis . As a result , Eguchi abandoned the serialization and the editorial department decided to discontinue the series .

Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! was serialized in the manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from the October 19 , 1981 issue to the November 28 , 1983 issue . The individual chapters were collected and published in four tankōbon volumes by Shueisha from November 1982 to January 1984 . Inspired by Katsuhiro Otomo , Eguchi fought against the established design format for the volumes that at the time was " set in stone " for series serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump . Futabasha later published it in three volumes in July 1991 , and again in two volumes in February 1995 . Shueisha republished it in four volumes from May to June 2001 . Home @-@ sha published it in two volumes in January 2004 . In an interview in 2007 , Eguchi expressed a desire to continue some of his older series , but stated that a continuation of Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! would be difficult .

Starting in 2009 , Eguchi began working with Shogakukan on releasing a Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! Complete Edition omnibus collection , which features various revisions to the originally published chapters in addition to newly drawn cover art . Not wanting to end the Complete Edition with an abrupt conclusion like he had done before , Eguchi found the storyboard for the final chapter and used it as a basis to newly draw the last five pages he had omitted 27 years earlier . Shogakukan published the Complete Edition in three volumes from July 2009 to February 2010 ; Shogakukan later republished the series in another three volumes from May to July 2012 . In 2010 , Eguchi did not rule out the possibility of someday drawing a continuation of the series , but he said it probably would not be a story under the title Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! .

= = = Anime = = =

A 35 @-@ episode anime television series adaptation , produced by Toei Animation and directed by Takashi Hisaoka . It aired from May 20 , 1983 to January 27 , 1984 on Fuji Television . The screenplay was written by : Shigeru Yanagawa , Tokio Tsuchiya , Hiroshi Toda , Tomomi Tsutsui , Takeshi Shudo and Yumi Asano . The character design used in the anime was provided by Yoshinori Kanemori , and the music was composed by Kōji Nishimura . The series was later released by Universal J to two DVD compilation volumes from February to March 2003 . A DVD box set was released by TC Entertainment in September 2014 . The opening theme is " Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! " ( ストップ ! ! ひばりくん ! ) sung by Yuki Yukino and the ending theme is " Kongara Connection " ( コンガラ ・ コネクション ) sung by Ai Hoshino .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Psychologist Tamaki Saitō described Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! as achieving a " dizzying reality " with Hibari " by contrasting a girlish exterior with a male interior " , and went on to say that the series could be seen as a " continuation of the sartorial perversion lineage " of cross @-@ dressing characters . Manga critic Haruyuki Nakano has called Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! a unique and outstanding gag manga for its juxtaposition of Hibari being a boy and the heir to a yakuza organization . Nakano largely attributes this successful combination to Eguchi 's ability to draw girls that are not only cute , but also have good taste and sex appeal . The delicate touch in how Hibari is drawn has been described as so attractive that it makes the reader forget that it is a gag manga .

In writing for the magazine Cyzo , manga critic Jyamao wrote that because of its overall light and pop literary style , none of the indecency or immorality cross @-@ dressing may engender comes through , which he surmises is why the anime was able to air during prime time . Jyamao notes the more extreme nature of the jokes surrounding the yakuza characters in comparison to the jokes involving cross @-@ dressing , and that some jokes such as those involving drugs would not be humorous today . Manga commentator Nobunaga Minami lauded Eguchi for being a pioneer in drawing characters with a high fashion sense in Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! , which he says effectively changed fashion in shōnen manga from being seen as a " symbol " to now being treated as an " accessory " . Eguchi 's attention to detail is also praised , such as drawing Kōsaku wearing Chuck Taylor All @-@ Stars in one chapter .

The series has been called effervescent and having had a hand in paving the way for the J @-@ pop phenomenon . When Tegami Bachi author Hiroyuki Asada read Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! in junior high school , he admired its novel sensibility , and Eguchi 's art also influenced him . According to Eguchi , some people who read Stop ! ! Hibari @-@ kun ! were influenced to start cross @-@ dressing .

= Guitar Hero =

The Guitar Hero series ( sometimes referred to as the Hero series ) is a series of music rhythm games first published in 2005 by RedOctane and Harmonix , and distributed by Activision , in which players use a guitar @-@ shaped game controller to simulate playing lead , bass guitar , and rhythm guitar across numerous rock music songs . Players match notes that scroll on @-@ screen to colored fret buttons on the controller , strumming the controller in time to the music in order to score points , and keep the virtual audience excited . The games attempt to mimic many features of playing a real guitar , including the use of fast @-@ fingering hammer @-@ ons and pull @-@ offs and the use of the whammy bar to alter the pitch of notes . Most games support single player modes , typically a Career mode to play through all the songs in the game , and both competitive and cooperative multiplayer modes . With the introduction of Guitar Hero World Tour in 2008 , the game includes support for a four @-@ player band including vocals and drums . The series initially used mostly cover versions of songs created by WaveGroup Sound , but most recent titles feature soundtracks that are fully master recordings , and in some cases , special re @-@ recordings , of the songs . Later titles in the series feature support for downloadable content in the form of new songs .

In 2005 , RedOctane , a company specializing in the manufacture of unique game controllers , was inspired to create Guitar Hero based on RedOctane 's experience creating hardware for Konami 's Guitar Freaks arcade game . They enlisted Harmonix , who previously developed several music video games , for development assistance . The first game in the series was made on a budget of $ 1 million . The series became extremely successful , leading to the acquisition of RedOctane by Activision in 2007 . Harmonix was acquired by MTV Games and went on to create the Rock Band series of music games in the same vein as Guitar Hero . Activision brought Neversoft ( primarily known for their Tony Hawk series of skateboarding games ) on board for future development duties . Additional companies , such as Budcat Creations and Vicarious Visions have assisted in the adaptation of the games for other systems .

The series currently has eight major releases ( six Guitar Hero games , two DJ Hero games and Band Hero ) and five expansions on gaming consoles . There are spin @-@ offs for Windows and Macintosh systems , mobile phones , the Nintendo DS ( the Guitar Hero : On Tour series ) , and an arcade game . The Guitar Hero franchise was a primary brand during the emergence of the popularity of rhythm games as a cultural phenomenon in North America . Such games have been utilized as a learning and development tool for medical purposes . The first game in the series was considered by several journalists to be one of the most influential video games of the first decade of the 21st century . The series has sold more than 25 million units worldwide , earning US $ 2 billion at retail , claimed by Activision to be the 3rd largest game franchise after the Mario and Madden NFL franchises ; the third main title of the series , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock is also claimed by Activision to be the first single video game title to exceed $ 1 billion in sales .

Despite early success , the series , along with the overall rhythm game genre , suffered from poor sales starting in 2009 . Activision had stated in early 2011 that the series was on hiatus for 2011 , while a seventh main title in the series was under development ; this title was later cancelled due to the poor quality of the emerging product . Activision later shut down sales of the series ' downloadable content , although users who purchased material from it previously may still play what they bought .

In 2015 , Activision announced the first new title to the series in 5 years , Guitar Hero Live , released in October 2015 . The title is considered a reboot of the series , with development being performed by FreeStyleGames , who had developed the DJ Hero games previously .

= = History = =

= = = Origins and development at Harmonix ( 2005 @-@ 2006 ) = = =

Guitar Hero was created from a partnership between RedOctane , then their own company that produced specialized video game controllers , and Harmonix , a music video game development company who had previously produced Frequency , Amplitude and Karaoke Revolution . RedOctane was seeking to bring in a Guitar Freaks @-@ like game , highly popular in Japan at the time , into Western markets , and approached Harmonix about helping them to develop a music game involving a guitar controller . Both companies agreed to it , and went on to produce Guitar Hero in 2005 . The title was highly successful , leading to the development of its successful sequel Guitar Hero II in 2006 . While the original controllers for the first Guitar Hero game were designed by Ryan Lesser , Rob Kay , Greg LoPiccolo and Alex Rigopulous of Harmonix and built by the Honeybee Corporation of China , subsequent iterations and future controllers were developed inhouse at RedOctane , with development led primarily by Jack McCauley .

= = = Sale to Activision and development by Neversoft ( 2006 @-@ 2009 ) = = =

Both RedOctane and Harmonix experienced changes in 2006 . RedOctane was bought by Activision in June — who spent US $ 100 million to acquire the Guitar Hero franchise — while it was announced in October that Harmonix would be purchased by MTV Networks . As a result of the two purchases , Harmonix would no longer develop future games in the Guitar Hero series . Instead , that responsibility would go to Neversoft , a subsidiary of Activision known for developing the Tony Hawk 's series of skateboarding games . Neversoft was chosen to helm the Guitar Hero series after Neversoft founder , Joel Jewett , admitted to the RedOctane founders , Kai and Charles Huang , that his development team for Tony Hawk 's Project 8 went to work on weekends just to play Guitar Hero . Activision CEO Bobby Kotick believed that Neversoft would help them bring great games to the series , but on reflection , stated that had Activision explored Harmonix further as a continued developer for the series , things " may have turned out differently " . In addition , Activision began seeking other markets for the game ; a Nintendo DS version of the series was developed by Vicarious Visions , while a Guitar Hero Mobile series was created for mobile phones . The company also began considering the expansion of the series to band @-@ specific titles with Guitar Hero : Aerosmith . Later , in November 2008 , Activision acquired Budcat Creations , another development studio that had helped with the PlayStation 2 versions of Guitar Hero III and World Tour , announcing that they would be helping to develop another game in the Guitar Hero series .

In 2007 , Harmonix and MTV Games released a new music title through rival publisher Electronic Arts , called Rock Band . It expanded upon the gameplay popularized by the Guitar Hero series by adding drum and microphone instruments , allowing players to simulate playing songs as bands . Activision followed suit with the release of Guitar Hero World Tour in 2008 , which supported multiple instruments . In 2009 , Activision tripled its Guitar Hero offerings , and in addition to further continuation of the existing main series with Guitar Hero 5 and expansions , they introduced the titles Band Hero , geared towards more family @-@ friendly pop music , and DJ Hero , a game based on turntablism and featuring a number of mixes . With the release of Guitar Hero 5 , Activision considered the series to have moved away from its heavy metal basis into a broader selection of music . Guitar Hero 5 is the first game in the series to use a new version of the series ' logo ; previous games used a logo in a font with sharper " points " on the letters , which was considered " idiosyncratic with a vengeance " to match the games ' emphasis on heavy metal music . Activision used the services of the Pentagram design studio to refashion the game 's logo . Pentagram developed a new font , removing some of the " aggressive odd " features to make the typeface more suitable and amendable to design feature incorporation to other games such as Band Hero and DJ Hero .

= = = Decline and hiatus ( 2009 @-@ 2015 ) = = =

The results of the expanded offerings did not contribute well to the series , alongside the late @-@ 2000s recession ; sales of most rhythm games including Guitar Hero and DJ Hero did not meet expectations , falling about 50 % short of projected targets . Activision announced it would be cutting back to only 10 SKUs within 2010 instead of the 25 in 2009 . Though RedOctane and Neversoft continued to develop the 6th main game , Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , until its completion , both studios were later shuttered by Activision , moving key personnel into Activision directly for future game development , and in the case of Neversoft , closing its Guitar Hero division , while transferring future development duties for the series to Vicarious Visions , another Activision studio which had been fundamental in building the Wii and Nintendo DS versions of the games . In November 2010 , Activision also closed Budcat Creations , the arm of the publisher that was primarily responsible for porting the Guitar Hero games to the PlayStation 2 .

Ahead of Activision 's 2010 fourth quarter financial report in February 2011 , Activision disbanded its Guitar Hero business unit and announced that it would cease development of the planned 2011 Guitar Hero game . Activision cited " continued declines in the music genre " to explain its decision . The closure also affected the DJ Hero series , as Activision stated that there were no plans to publish a music game during 2011 . Activision 's vice president Dan Winters later clarified that the company was " just putting Guitar Hero on hiatus " and that they were " just not making a new game for next year , that 's all " .

In a July 2011 interview with Forbes , Kotick stated that while the publisher was " going to stop selling Guitar Hero altogether " , they were " going to go back to the studios and we ’ re going to use new studios and reinvent " the series , but a former teammember of Vicarious Visions has stated that as of 2012 , all development of Guitar Hero has come to an end within Activision . Another source close to Vicarious Visions had reported to Kotaku that while Guitar Hero 7 was in development under an Activision studio , the game was considered a " disaster " . The cancelled game omitted the additional instruments and used only a guitar peripheral , redesigning the unit to include a 6 @-@ button mechanism replacing the strum bar ; the resulting unit was considered too expensive to manufacture and purchase . The developers had also started the game development from scratch to try to create new characters and venues that would be more reactive to the actual songs being played to give the feel of a music video , but ultimately this proved too much of a challenge and had to be scrapped . Further , with a limited budget , the song selection was limited to " low @-@ budget " hits of the 1990s , or at times reusing songs that had previously been included in Guitar Hero games . Though the team had a two @-@ year development cycle , it was closed down after Activision president Eric Hirshber had seen the current state of the project at the one @-@ year point .

Another potential Guitar Hero project was discovered by the archival site Unseen64 for a game titled Hero World , a massively multiplayer online game that would link the Guitar Hero and DJ Hero games . The game had been developed by FreeStyle Games , sometime after the release of DJ Hero 2 , with the main development duties passed to Virtual Fairground , using their platform The Ride , an Adobe Flash @-@ based platform that would let the game be played in a web browser . The game was cancelled in 2011 along with other pending Guitar Hero projects .

No further downloadable content for either Guitar Hero or DJ Hero was made after February 2011 , though Activision committed to releasing content that was already in development by that time due to fan response ; later , in a move described by Game Informer as " the final nail in [ the series ' ] coffins " , Activision announced it would discontinue all DLC sales for the series ( although customers can still play tracks they have already bought ) as of March 31 , 2014 . Though Activision had moved away from the Guitar Hero series , the lessons learned helped them and developer Toys for Bob to handle the manufacturing and outsourcing issues that came with the highly successful Skylanders toy and video game franchise .

= = = Guitar Hero Live = = =

In April 2015 , Activision announced a new entry in the series , titled Guitar Hero Live . The title was developed by Activision 's internal studio FreeStyleGames , who previously had worked on the DJ Hero spinoff titles . FreeStyleGames were given free reign to reboot the Guitar Hero series for next @-@ generation consoles . One of their first innovations was to drop the standard five @-@ button guitar controller , ultimately designing a six @-@ button guitar controller , with two rows of three buttons each , allowing them to mimic actual guitar fingering . Guitar Hero Live was released with both career and an online mode . The career mode used full @-@ motion video taken from the perspective of a lead guitarist underneath the note highway , to create an immersive experience to the player . The online mode , called GHTV , discarded the previous downloadable content approach and used a music video channel approach to stream playable songs to players , adding new songs to the catalog on a weekly basis . The game was released in October 2015 .

Though the game was praised as a reinvention of the Guitar Hero series , the game did not sell as well as Activision expected ; due to lowered forecasts , Activision let go of a significant fraction of FreeStyleGames ' developers .

= = Games = =

= = = Main titles = = =

The original Guitar Hero was released on the PlayStation 2 in November 2005 . Guitar Hero is notable because it comes packaged with a controller peripheral modeled after a black Gibson SG guitar . Rather than a typical gamepad , this guitar controller is the primary input for the game . Playing the game with the guitar controller simulates playing an actual guitar , except it uses five colored " fret buttons " and a " strum bar " instead of frets and strings . The development of Guitar Hero was inspired by Konami 's Guitar Freaks video game , which at the time , had not seen much exposure in the North American market ; RedOctane , already selling guitar @-@ shaped controllers for imported copies of GuitarFreaks , approached Harmonix about creating a game to use an entirely new Guitar controller . The concept was to have the gameplay of Amplitude with the visuals of Karaoke Revolution , both of which had been developed by Harmonix . The game was met with critical acclaim and received numerous awards for its innovative guitar peripheral and its soundtrack , which comprised 47 playable rock songs ( most of which were cover versions of popular songs from artists and bands from the 1960s through modern rock ) . Guitar Hero has sold nearly 1 @.@ 5 million copies to date .

The popularity of the series increased dramatically with the release of Guitar Hero II for the PlayStation 2 in 2006 . Featuring improved multiplayer gameplay , an improved note @-@ recognizing system , and 64 songs , it became the fifth best @-@ selling video game of 2006 . The PlayStation 2 version of the game was offered both separately and in a bundle with a cherry red Gibson SG guitar controller . Guitar Hero II was later released for the Xbox 360 in April 2007 with an exclusive Gibson Explorer guitar controller and an additional 10 songs , among other features . About 3 million units of Guitar Hero II have sold on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 .

Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock was released in late 2007 for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , Wii , Microsoft Windows , and Mac OS X platforms . The title is the first installment of the series to include wireless guitars bundled with the game and also the first to release a special bundle with two guitars . The game includes Slash and Tom Morello as playable characters in addition to the existing fictional avatars ; both guitarists performed motion capture to be used for their characters ' animation in the game .

Guitar Hero World Tour , previously named Guitar Hero IV , is the fourth full game in the series and was released on October 26 , 2008 for PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Wii . Analysts had expected that future Guitar Hero games in 2008 would include additional instrument peripherals to compete against Rock Band ; Guitar Hero World Tour was confirmed as in development following the announcement of the merger between Activision and Vivendi Games in December 2007 . Activision 's CEO Bobby Kotick announced on April 21 , 2008 that Guitar Hero World Tour will branch out into other instruments including vocals . Guitar Hero World Tour includes drums and vocals , and can be bought packaged with a new drum set controller , a microphone , and the standard guitar controller . A larger number of real @-@ world musicians appear as playable characters , including Jimi Hendrix , Billy Corgan , Hayley Williams , Zakk Wylde , Ted Nugent , Travis Barker , Sting , and Ozzy Osbourne . Guitar Hero World Tour also features custom song creation that can be shared with others .

Guitar Hero 5 , the fifth main entry in the series , was confirmed in December 2008 . It was released on September 1 , 2009 , and includes 85 songs from 83 different artists . The game includes new game modes and features , including its ' Party Mode , ' which gives players the ability to drop @-@ in and out and change difficulties in the middle of a song . Artists including Johnny Cash , Matt Bellamy , Carlos Santana , Kurt Cobain and Shirley Manson appear as playable characters in the game .

Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , the sixth main console game in the series , was released on September 28 , 2010 . It is the last game in the series developed by Neversoft 's Guitar Hero division prior to its dissolution , with Vicarious Visions assisting on the Wii version with added Nintendo DS functionality . The game has been described as returning to the roots of the Guitar Hero series ; while it still allows for full band play , the soundtrack 's focus is on rock and roll music and an emphasis on guitar " shredding " . The game introduced a career @-@ based " Quest Mode " , narrated by Gene Simmons , that guides the players to complete songs to unlock " warriors of rock " to join them in saving " demigod of rock " and his guitar from his imprisonment by " the Beast " .

Following a five @-@ year hiatus , as described below , Activision announced Guitar Hero Live for release in late 2015 on most seventh @-@ generation and eighth @-@ generation consoles . Live was developed to rebuild the game from the ground up , and while the gameplay remains similar to the earlier titles , focusing primarily on the lead guitar , it uses a 3 @-@ button guitar controller with each button having " up " and " down " positions , making for more complex tabulators . The game using live footage of a rock concert , taken from the perspective of the lead guitarist , as to provide a more immersive experience .

= = = Series expansions = = =

Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s for the PlayStation 2 , which was released in July 2007 , was the final game developed by Harmonix for the series . Though it was produced after Harmonix were purchased by MTV Games , it was part of their contractual obligation to complete the game . The game , as suggested by its name , features tracks primarily from the 1980s .

Guitar Hero : Aerosmith was the first band @-@ centric game for the series . On September 4 , 2007 , Billboard announced that the band Aerosmith was " working closely with the makers of Guitar Hero IV , which will be dedicated to the group 's music . " On February 15 , 2008 , Activision announced that Guitar Hero : Aerosmith would be released on June 29 , 2008 . Guitar Hero : Aerosmith is developed by Neversoft for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , while the Wii version of the game is developed by Vicarious Visions and the PlayStation 2 version is developed by Budcat Creations . The game features a track selection composed of 60 % of Aerosmith songs , with other songs from Joe Perry 's solo work or artists that have inspired or performed with Aerosmith , including Run D.M.C ..

The series ' next band @-@ centric title , Guitar Hero : Metallica , was released on March 29 , 2009 . Guitar Hero : Metallica is based on the full band experience of World Tour while offering similar features on Metallica 's history and music as found in Guitar Hero : Aerosmith . In addition , Metallica 's album , Death Magnetic , was available as downloadable content for Guitar Hero III simultaneously with the release of the album , with the content being forward @-@ compatible with Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero : Metallica . Since the PlayStation 2 version does not support downloading , three extra songs were included from Death Magnetic and are as follows : " Broken , Beat , and Scarred " , " Cyanide " , and " My Apocalypse " . A new feature in the game , where the drummer can access a mode called Expert + , has also been added . Expert + mode was implemented to allow faster bass pedal beats , fast to the point where it would normally be out of the playable range of a single bass pedal , and was intended for a dual bass pedal .

Guitar Hero Smash Hits ( titled Guitar Hero : Greatest Hits in Europe and Australia ) was released in June 2009 . It features full @-@ band versions of 48 songs from earlier Guitar Hero games that only used the guitar controller . Unlike the previous versions , each of the songs is based on a master recording that includes some live tracks . The game follows a similar model as Guitar Hero : Metallica , and was developed by Neversoft and Beenox Studios for the PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 2 , and Wii .

Guitar Hero : Van Halen was released on December 22 , 2009 , though customers that purchased Guitar Hero 5 under a special promotion received a copy of the game early . Like the other band @-@ centric games , Guitar Hero : Van Halen includes 25 songs from the band Van Halen , including 3 guitar solos by Eddie Van Halen , in addition to 19 guest acts such as Queen , Weezer , Blink @-@ 182 , Foo Fighters , The Offspring and Queens of the Stone Age .

Another new title to the series , Band Hero , was announced in May 2009 . Band Hero features Top 40 hits aimed at family audiences , and include the full band play style of Guitar Hero 5 . The game was developed for the Nintendo DS , using the Guitar Hero On Tour Guitar Grip , a new " drum skin " to fit the DS Lite , and the DS 's microphone to support the full band experience . Musician Taylor Swift appears as a playable character in the game , as do the members of No Doubt .

DJ Hero was announced by Activision in May 2009 . Prior to the announcement , the company had purchased FreeStyleGames , a small developer of music games , to help produce localized downloadable content for Guitar Hero games and a then @-@ unannounced music game , later revealed to be DJ Hero . DJ Hero uses a special turntable @-@ based controller for players to perform with on various song mixes in the game . The game also incorporates the use of a Guitar Hero controller on ten specially arranged tracks ; Bright has suggested that future Guitar Hero games after Guitar Hero 5 may include the use of the turntable control .

A sequel , DJ Hero 2 , was officially announced in June 2010 for release in the last quarter of 2010 , featuring more than 70 mashups from over 85 artists . The game includes several new gameplay modes , including an " Empire " career mode , head @-@ to @-@ head DJ battles , social multiplayer modes , and a jump @-@ in and out Party Play mode similar to Guitar Hero 5 . The game also includes more vocal options for singing and rapping to songs , and a freestyle mode for players .

= = = Portable versions = = =

Guitar Hero : On Tour was released on the Nintendo DS hand @-@ held system on June 22 , 2008 . The game includes a peripheral , dubbed the " Guitar Grip " , a rectangular device that fits into the second slot of the Nintendo DS or DS Lite . The peripheral only features the first four fret buttons and a strap so the Nintendo DS can be held sideways comfortably for play . The game also includes a guitar pick shaped stylus for use with strumming in the game , which players move across the touchscreen . Guitar Hero : On Tour was developed by Vicarious Visions , who also ported the Guitar Hero games to Nintendo 's Wii console .

A sequel , Guitar Hero On Tour : Decades , was released in November 2008 , featuring music spanning four decades . A third title in the series , Guitar Hero On Tour : Modern Hits , was announced following various rumors of its existence , and was released in June 2009 , featuring songs recorded since the year 2000 . Both games use the " Guitar Grip " controller , and allow two players to compete against each other using any version of the On Tour series , with songs being shared between versions .

Band Hero was also ported to the Nintendo DS by Vicarious Visions , expanding the play to include vocals ( through the DS microphone ) and drumming . The drumming uses a special " drum skin " adapter designed for the Nintendo DS Lite to map the unit 's face buttons to four drum pads . However , the peripheral is not compatible with the original Nintendo DS model or the Nintendo DSi . However , since the drum skin is not electronic but a rubber cover switch that duplicates certain buttons on the DS Lite , a player can simply press the buttons in time to play the drums . The game includes four @-@ player local wireless play in a similar manner as Guitar Hero 5 allowing any combination of instruments to be used . The game has a set of 30 songs ; some are from Band Hero and others are from several Guitar Hero games ' set lists .

Guitar Hero : On Tour does not work on the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS because unlike the Nintendo DS , they do not have Game Boy Advance slots . Band Hero is limited to vocals and drums on the two consoles for the same reason .

= = = Mobile phone versions = = =

Guitar Hero III Mobile was released for mobile phones in 2007 and 2008 , and was developed by MachineWorks Northwest LLC . The base version of the game includes 15 songs from both Guitar Hero II and Guitar Hero III , and has released a three @-@ song add @-@ on pack every month since January 2008 . The title has been downloaded by users one million times , with both Verizon and Hands @-@ On Mobile claiming that over 250 @,@ 000 songs are played a day on the platform . The two companies produced two other mobile @-@ based Guitar Hero games ; Guitar Hero III : Backstage Pass , released in July 2008 , adds role @-@ playing elements to manage the band 's success in addition to the core rhythm game , while the mobile version of Guitar Hero World Tour , released in December 2008 , expands each included track for play on both lead guitar and drums , mimicking the expansion of the console series to the full band .

Glu Mobile developed the mobile version of Guitar Hero 5 , released in the last quarter of 2009 .

= = = Other games = = =

Activision and RedOctane also worked with Basic Fun , Inc. to produce Guitar Hero Carabiner , a handheld electronic game that features 30 and 60 @-@ second clips of ten of the songs from Guitar Hero and Guitar Hero II .

Activision and Konami , who had previously worked together to make sure that the Guitar Hero series meets with Konami 's patents on music games , developed an arcade console version of the game , titled Guitar Hero Arcade , distributed to arcades in early 2009 . The game is completely based on the Guitar Hero III gameplay , but reducing some of the features such as the use of the Whammy bar , Star Power Button ( Star Power may only be activated by lifting the Guitar ) and Practice Modes , but keeping the ability to download new songs for the cabinet from the Internet . The arcade game has come under some scrutiny by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) , who believe the use of the game in arcades is equivalent to " public performances " and seek additional fees to be paid by operators of the game .

= = = Planned games = = =

No more Guitar Hero games were released on the PlayStation 2 after 2009 , with the double release of Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero . It was expected that the 2010 entry for Guitar Hero , Warriors of Rock , would be the final entry developed by Neversoft , based on claims that Neversoft would be letting go of its Guitar Hero division , with Vicarious Visions likely poised to take over future development . Further industry rumors pointed at the closure of RedOctane Studios and Underground Development ( the development studio for Guitar Hero : Van Halen ) as further results from the scaling @-@ back ; Activision moved the controller hardware development within their own division to continue to support the series , with RedOctane founders Kai and Charles Huang remaining with Activision . A week prior to these announcements , the Guitar Hero division CEO at Activision , Dan Rosensweig , left the company , leading to some speculation on whether Rosensweig 's departure influenced these changes . Activision and RedOctane had trademarked the titles " Guitar Villain " , " Drum Villain " , " Keyboard Hero " and " Sing Hero " . RedOctane originally trademarked the titles " Drum Hero " and " Band Hero " , but the work performed towards the Drum Hero title was eventually folded into the gameplay for Guitar Hero World Tour , and Band Hero became its own game . Later , as of October 2009 , Activision reapplied for a Drum Hero trademark . Pi Studios , which had previously helped to port Rock Band to the Wii , had started work on the karaoke title Sing Hero before Activision cancelled its development .

Dave Mustaine , frontman for Megadeth , stated he had been in talks with Activision and Neversoft for a Guitar Hero @-@ related product . It was later revealed that Dave Mustaine was working with Activision for music in Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock , including an original track ( " Sudden Death " ) recorded specifically for the game .

Two Guitar Hero products that were announced but never released were a Red Hot Chili Peppers @-@ themed title and a PlayStation Portable title that would have featured a drum component .

= = Gameplay = =

The core gameplay of the Guitar Hero games is a rhythm game similar to Konami 's Guitar Freaks and to a lesser extent Harmonix 's previous music games such as Frequency and Amplitude . The guitar controller is recommended for play , although a standard console controller can be used instead . However , the guitar controller has been required for play ever since the inclusion of drum and vocal parts in the series . The game supports toggling the handedness of the guitar , allowing both left @-@ handed and right @-@ handed players to utilize the guitar controller .

While playing the game , an extended guitar neck is shown vertically on the screen ( the frets horizontal ) , often called the " note highway " , and as the song progresses , colored markers or " gems " indicating notes travel down the screen in time with the music ; the note colors and positions match those of the five fret keys on the guitar controller . Once the note ( s ) reach the bottom , the player must play the indicated note ( s ) by holding down the correct fret button ( s ) and hitting the strumming bar in order to score points . Success or failure will cause the on @-@ screen Rock Meter to change , showing how well the player is playing ( denoted by red , yellow , and green sections ) . Should the Rock Meter drop below the red section , the song will automatically end , with the player booed off the stage by the audience . Successful note hits will add to the player 's score , and by hitting a long series of consecutive successful note hits , the player can increase their score multiplier . There is a window of time for hitting each note , similar to other rhythm games such as Dance Dance Revolution , but unlike these games , scoring in Guitar Hero is not affected by accuracy ; as long as the note is hit within that window , the player receives the same number of points .

Selected special segments of the song will have glowing notes outlined by stars : successfully hitting all notes in this series will fill the " Star Power Meter " . The Star Power Meter can also be filled by using the whammy bar during sustained notes within these segments . Once the Star Power Meter is at least half full , the player can activate " Star Power " by pressing the select button or momentarily lifting the guitar into a vertical position . When Star Power is activated , the scoring multiplier is doubled until Star Power is depleted . The Rock Meter also increases more dramatically when Star Power is activated , making it easier for the player to make the Rock Meter stay at a high level . Thus , Star Power can be used strategically to play difficult sections of a song that otherwise might cause the player to fail . In the earlier entries of the series ( up until Guitar Hero : Aerosmith ) , activating Star Power meant that players could not accrue more Star Power until the Star Power meter was fully drained and the effect ended . Starting with Guitar Hero : World Tour , more Star Power can be collected even if the effect is active by completing more Star Power phrases , extending the Star Power 's duration by doing so . When playing in cooperative play ( with a bassist / rhythm guitarist in Guitar Hero II through Guitar Hero : Aerosmith or as a band in Guitar Hero : World Tour ) , Star Power is shared between all the players and activation of Star Power is dependent on all players simultaneously activating it .

Notes can be a single note , or composed of two to five notes that make a chord . Both single notes and chords can also be sustained , indicated by a colored line following the note marker ; the player can hold the sustained note ( s ) keys down for the entire length for additional points . During a sustained note , a player may use the whammy bar on the guitar to alter the tone of the note . Also , regardless of whether sustains are hit early or late , if the fret is held for the full duration of the hold , the game will always award the same amount of score increase for the note . In addition , the games support virtual implementations of " hammer @-@ ons " and " pull @-@ offs " , guitar @-@ playing techniques that are used to successfully play a fast series of notes by only changing the fingering on the fret buttons without having to strum each note . Sequences where strumming is not required are indicated on @-@ screen by notes with a white outline at the top of the marker instead of the usual black one , with Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock adding a white @-@ glowing effect to make these notes clearer . Guitar Hero World Tour features transparent notes that are connected by a purple outline ; players may either simply tap the correct fret for these notes without strumming or utilize a touchpad on World Tour 's guitar controller to mimic the slide technique . In addition , notes can now be played while a sustained note is being played . World Tour also adds an open string note for bass players , represented by a line across the fret instead of any note gems , that is played by strumming without holding down any fret buttons ( the sixth installment , Warriors of Rock , features an open note sustain for bass instruments as well ) .

Guitar Hero World Tour introduced drums and vocal tracks in addition to lead and bass guitar . Drum tracks are played similar to guitar tracks ; the player must strike the appropriate drum head or step down on the bass drum pedal on the controller when the note gems pass the indicated line . Certain note gems , when using a drum controller that is velocity @-@ sensitive , are " armored " , requiring the player to hit the indicated drum pad harder to score more points . Vocal tracks are played similar to games such as Karaoke Revolution where the player must match the pitch and the pacing of the lyrics to score points . Guitar Hero 5 allows players to create a band of up to four players using any combination of instruments .

While the song is playing , the background visuals feature the players ' chosen avatar , along with the rest of the band performing in one of several real and fictional venues . The reaction of the audience is based on the performance of the player judged by the Rock Meter . Guitar Hero II added special lighting and other stage effects that were synchronized to the music to provide a more complete concert experience . The games developed by Neversoft feature a simple storyline , usually about a band 's quest for fame , which is told through animations played throughout the game . These animations were created by Chris Prynoski and his studio , Titmouse , Inc . , who have also done animations for the animated show Metalocalypse .

= = = Game modes = = =

The main mode of play in the Guitar Hero games is Career Mode , where the player and in @-@ game band travel between various fictional performance arenas and perform sets of four to six songs . It is by completing songs in this mode that the songs are unlocked for play across the rest of the game . Players can choose their on @-@ stage character , their guitar of choice , and the venue in which they wish to play . In this mode , the player can earn money from his / her performances that is redeemable at the in @-@ game store , where bonus songs , additional guitars and finishes , your characters clothing and bonus content can be unlocked . Quick Play mode is a quicker method of playing songs , as it allows the player to select a track and difficulty , selecting the character , venue , and guitar and guitar skin for the player based on the song chosen . After successfully completing a song , the player is given a score , a percentage of how many notes they hit and a rating from three to five stars , and two in rare cases depending on his / her final score on the song , with money being awarded in Guitar Hero World Tour .

The games have also added multiplayer modes . Cooperative modes allow two players to play lead and either bass or rhythm guitar on the same song , working together towards the same score . A competitive Face @-@ Off mode allows two players to play against each other at different difficulty levels , each attempting to earn the best score on a song . Each player plays different portions of the song . There is also a Pro Face @-@ Off mode , where two players battle at the same difficulty level . Unlike standard Face @-@ off , each player attempts to play all of the notes in a song , while still trying to earn the highest score . In Guitar Hero World Tour this was advanced on , as players could play a Pro Face @-@ Off game against each other on any difficulty level , the lower your difficulty , the more points were awarded so a player on a low difficulty could potentially beat a player on a more challenging difficulty . Guitar Hero III introduced Boss Battles , in which two players face off against each other , attempt to collect " distractions " to throw at their opponent , trying to make them fail . With Guitar Hero World Tour , up to four players can play cooperatively on lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals , while a total of eight players can compete in a Battle of the Bands . The Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Wii versions of the games support multiplayer modes over their respective network services .

The four difficulty levels for each song afford the player a learning curve in order to help him / her progress in skill . The first difficulty level , Easy , only focuses on the first three fret buttons while displaying a significantly reduced amount of notes for the player to play . Medium introduces the fourth ( blue ) fret button , and Hard includes the final fret button while adding additional notes . The addition of the orange fret button forces players to move their fingers up and down the neck . Expert does not introduce any other frets to learn , but adds more notes in a manner designed to challenge the player and to simulate the player 's hands to move in a sequence similar to a real guitar . A difficulty added in World Tour is Beginner , which only requires the player to strum to the basic rhythm ; holding the fret buttons becomes unnecessary . Another new difficulty only for drums was added to Metallica known as Expert + , which uses the double bass pedal .

Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock is the sixth installment in the franchise and introduced a new take on the Career mode of previous games . Rather than being a quest for fame and glory with the band travelling through different venues , Warriors of Rock features the " Quest Mode " as the primary campaign mode . Quest Mode tells the story of an ancient warrior who was defeated by a powerful monster and his mystical guitar was lost . The player must amass a team of rockers to help recover this guitar and defeat the monster ( called " The Beast " ) . As the player progresses through the mode , the rockers joining them will transform based on the number of stars earned from songs played . These transformations will empower the player with extra abilities in a song such as constant score multipliers or Star Power bonuses . These abilities are each unique to the individual rockers and by using them effectively , it is possible now to earn up to forty stars for a single song .

= = = Characters and customization = = =

When playing through Career mode or in other parts of the Guitar Hero games , the player has the option to select one of several pre @-@ created avatar characters , who will be shown performing on stage as the player attempts a song , but otherwise has no effect on the gameplay . A certain number of characters are available at the start of the game , but the player must spend in @-@ game money earned by successful performances to unlock other characters . Many of the characters reappear throughout the series , with the character roster changing as new characters are added or removed . Standby characters that have appeared in nearly all the games include the metalhead Axel Steel , extreme / Viking / thrash metalhead Lars Ümlaut , punk rocker Johnny Napalm , alternative rocker Judy Nails , and hard rocker Casey Lynch . The developers utilized these characters in more detail within Warriors of Rock , where each was given a unique setlist and venue based on their musical style , as well as a unique power within the game 's Quest mode .

Several games in the series feature caricatures of celebrity artists , such as Slash , Tom Morello and Bret Michaels in Guitar Hero III , Ozzy Osbourne and Jimi Hendrix in World Tour , Kurt Cobain in Guitar Hero 5 , and Taylor Swift and the band No Doubt in Band Hero . The band @-@ specific games , Aerosmith , Metallica , and Van Halen also feature the members of the respective bands . However , in late 2009 , both Courtney Love and the members of No Doubt sought legal action against Activision for the misuse of their in @-@ game characters singing or performing songs by other artists , which the musicians believe fell outside of their contract .

The ability for the players to create their own avatars was added in Guitar Hero World Tour , and was based on Neversoft 's existing character creation tools from the Tony Hawk series . Later games on the Xbox 360 and Wii allowed players to use the respective console 's avatars as members of the band . In addition to unlocking characters , in @-@ game money can be used to buy clothing , accessories and instruments that they are seen playing with . The guitars can also be customized with special finishes purchasable through the in @-@ game store . Guitar Hero World Tour includes the ability to fully customize any component of the guitar . The in @-@ game store in the series is also used to unlock bonus songs or special videos with interviews about the game or with the artists involved .

= = = Soundtracks = = =

Most of the games in the Guitar Hero series feature a selection of songs ranging from the 1960s to present day rock music from both highly successful artists and bands and independent groups . Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s features songs primarily from the 1980s , while Guitar Hero : Aerosmith , Metallica , and Van Halen feature music from the respective bands and groups that inspired or worked with the bands . Songs with profanities have been censored .

Many of the Guitar Hero games developed for the recent generation of consoles ( Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Wii ) support downloadable content , allowing players to purchase new songs to play in the respective titles . Songs each cost approximately $ 2 through the various online stores for the console 's platform . Prior to Guitar Hero 5 , downloadable content for earlier games will not work in other games in the series , save for songs from Metallica 's Death Magnetic , which were available for Guitar Hero III , World Tour , and Metallica . Existing World Tour downloadable content for World Tour will be forward @-@ compatible with Guitar Hero 5 , Band Hero and Guitar Hero Warriors of Rock , and for a small fee , some songs from both Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero Smash Hits can be exported to both Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero , limited by music licensing . Activision has also stated that they are considering a monthly subscription service to deliver downloadable content to user for future games . Guitar Hero World Tour introduced a music creation mode that will allow players to create and share songs ( excluding vocals ) via the " GHTunes " service , which was also used in all other Guitar Hero games and Band Hero since its inclusion . The creation tools were improved with Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero to allow longer songs and other means of generating songs in real @-@ time .

In the first two games and the 2007 expansion Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s , the majority of the songs on the main career mode set lists are covers of the original song ; for example , a song may be presented as " Free Bird as made famous by Lynyrd Skynyrd " . Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock introduces a much larger range of original recordings , and World Tour featured a setlist that contained all master recordings . The covers throughout the games are mostly recreated by WaveGroup Sound who has worked before to create songs for Beatmania , Dance Dance Revolution , and Karaoke Revolution , making small changes to the guitar portions to make them more adaptable for gameplay . Almost all of the unlockable bonus songs are songs performed by the original artist for the game ( the only exception is the song " She Bangs the Drums " by The Stone Roses , which is featured in Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock ) .

Prior to the release of Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , Activision worked with the iTunes Store to provide more than 1300 tracks of Guitar Hero @-@ related music across more than 20 compilations , including most of the tracks from the games in the series , called " Guitar Hero Essentials " . These compilations , such as " Killer Guitar Solos " and " Guitar Anthems of the ' 80s " , include songs related to but not contained within the Guitar Hero series . Dusty Welch of RedOctane stated , " Where there ’ s music , there ’ s Guitar Hero , and with iTunes , we are able to provide fans with a central location for downloading their favorite rock anthems . " Following the merger of Activision and Blizzard , the new company announced that it planned on creating an alternative to iTunes based on the Guitar Hero brand that would allow for downloading songs and their associated note tracks for the Guitar Hero games .

= = Reception and sales = =

Games in the Guitar Hero series have been generally well received by critics . The initial games were highly praised by reviewers . Neversoft 's first entry to the series , Guitar Hero III , was considered to be too difficult , with many difficult songs presenting players with " walls of notes " ; the developers later acknowledged this . Subsequent efforts in Guitar Hero : Aerosmith and Guitar Hero World Tour were seen to have some improvements , with Guitar Hero : Metallica considered to be a well @-@ polished title and , at that time , the best Guitar Hero title Neversoft has produced . Guitar Hero 5 's improvements toward social gameplay were complemented by reviewers and considered a further improvement upon the series . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " An addictive videogame provides the illusion of musical mastery for even the least gifted : . How do you get to Carnegie Hall ? Tap , tap , tap . "

Upon release , the first game was seen as an unexpected hit , earning over US $ 45 million with about 1 @.@ 5 million copies sold . Guitar Hero II was significantly more financially successful , with over 1 @.@ 3 million copies sold and sales over US $ 200 million . Guitar Hero III , according to Activision , was the first single video game to sell more than US $ 1 billion at retail , with nearly 3 @.@ 5 million copies sold during the first seven months of 2008 . World Tour continued the series ' high sales records with 3 @.@ 4 million units sold in the United States during 2008 . More than 60 million downloadable tracks have been purchased across the series as of February 2010 . Both Guitar Hero III and World Tour were listed on a March 2011 list from the NPD Group of top grossing games in unadjusted sales in the United States since 1995 ; Guitar Hero III tops the list with total sales of $ 830 @.@ 9 million .

Overall , the Guitar Hero series has sold more than 25 million units worldwide , earning US $ 2 billion at retail . Activision claimed the series to be the 3rd largest game franchise in 2009 after the Mario and Madden NFL franchises .

= = Cultural impact = =

The Guitar Hero series has made a significant cultural impact , becoming a " cultural phenomenon " . The series has helped to rekindle music education in children , influenced changes in both the video game and music industry , has found use in health and treatment of recovering patients , and has become part of the popular culture vernacular . Several journalists , including 1UP.com , Wired , G4TV , the San Jose Mercury News , Inc . , The Guardian , and Advertising Age , considered Guitar Hero to be one of the most influential products of the first decade of the 21st century , attributing it as the spark leading to the growth of the rhythm game market , for boosting music sales for both new and old artists , for introducing more social gaming concepts to the video game market , and , in conjunction with the Wii , for improving interactivity with gaming consoles .

= = Legal and practical issues = =

= = = PlayStation 3 incompatibility = = =

Sony 's PlayStation 3 console has no compatibility with the PlayStation 2 Guitar Hero controller on the system . While Guitar Hero and Guitar Hero II are fully backward @-@ compatible through the hardware PlayStation 2 emulation in the initial North American release of the console , it was impossible at launch to use the guitar controller to play either game . Kai Huang , of RedOctane , states that they are " working on that with Sony right now – looking at how we can get all the PlayStation 2 guitars that are out there , and all the owners of them , to use them on the PlayStation 3 . " Nyko , an accessories company , was poised to make a special PlayStation 2 controller adapter for the PlayStation 3 , but put the product on hold due to technical difficulties . Tac , another accessories company , also made a PlayStation 2 controller adapter for a PlayStation 3 game console so players could use their Guitar Hero guitar controllers that were made for the PlayStation 2 with a PlayStation 3 . However , the May 2007 PlayStation 3 V1.80 system update has made the guitar controller compatible with generic PlayStation 2 controller to USB adapters when playing Guitar Hero and Guitar Hero II . In addition , Pelican Accessories has released a special controller adapter that supports both games , including the ability to switch the handedness of the guitar .

= = = Patent litigation = = =

Gibson Guitar Corporation , whose guitar likenesses have appeared in the Guitar Hero series from the first game to Guitar Hero Aerosmith , informed Activision on January 7 , 2008 , that it believed the games infringe its U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 990 @,@ 405 . Gibson claimed that this covers technology that simulates a concert performance via pre @-@ recorded audio and a musical instrument . In response , Activision filed a suit seeking a declaration that it was not in violation of the Gibson patent ; Activision also asserted that Gibson had given an implied license by waiting to assert the patent and that the patent was invalid . On March 17 , 2008 , Gibson sued six retailers ( GameStop , Amazon.com , Wal @-@ Mart , Target , Toys " R " Us and Kmart ) for selling Guitar Hero products . Subsequently , on March 21 , 2008 , Gibson also filed a lawsuit against EA , MTV , and Harmonix over their game Rock Band also for violation of its patent , to which a Harmonix spokesperson stated that Gibson 's claims are " completely without merit " . Activision lawyer Mary Tuck stated in their legal filings that they believe that Gibson initiated the lawsuit due to the fact that " Activision was not [ interested ] in renewing the License and Marketing Support Agreement " with Gibson Guitars . In February 2009 , the United States District Court for the Central District of California ruled against Gibson in their case against Activision , stating that the controllers are not musical instruments but " toys that represent other items " , and that Gibson 's patent only covers instruments that send out analog signals . Activision and Gibson settled the suit following this ruling .

Activision , through John Devecka , owns all of Devecka Enterprises ' US and international patents that deal with music games . All patents issued by the USPTO are presumed valid .

In February 2010 , Activision was sued by the Patent Compliance Group ( PCG ) for releasing Guitar Hero products with false patent claims , with the PCG asserting that games like Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero were marked with up to 10 patents that are not used within the games along with several other improper patent pending claims . PCG claims that " Acts of false marketing deter innovation and stifle competition in the marketplace . " PCG 's qui tam lawsuit is seeking up to $ 500 per unit sold if Activision is found liable .

= = = Oversaturation = = =

Many critics believed that the number of releases of Guitar Hero games was " milking " the brand name and oversaturating the market . PaRappa the Rapper creator Masaya Matsuura stated that the video game market was growing stale and needed to move beyond games that simply challenge the player to mimic the playing of licensed music . Ryan Geddes of IGN stated that he " hit the wall with play @-@ along music games " , and challenged the game makers to explore other ways to combine music and video games . Analysts stated that such games must continue to innovate instead of just providing more songs in order to prevent " genre fatigue " . Jesse Divnich of Electronic Entertainment and Design Research commented that , much like Dance Dance Revolution , Guitar Hero and other music games explosively grew initially due to significant new features from other games but have become stagnant due to focusing on content over features , and suggested that for the genre to continue to grow , they must look to incremental changes as done with the first @-@ person shooter genre . Former CEO for RedOctane , Kelly Sumner , believed that Activision " abused " the series , as " they tried to get too much out of the franchise too quickly " .

The series has also been criticized for its release model in contrast to the Rock Band series , causing some players to hold contempt towards Activision . Harmonix considered the Rock Band series as a " music platform " , and supported it with downloadable content and the ability to import songs from its games and expansions into most other games of the series . Critics argued that Guitar Hero should have been doing the same , either through releasing expansions that could be incorporated into the main games of the series , or by issuing the songs as downloadable content . The release of Guitar Hero : Smash Hits , reworking older songs from the series to full four @-@ instrument band support but otherwise adding no additional material , was called " the definition of ' milking ' " by reviewers , with no observable technical limitation as to why the songs could not be added as downloadable content . Ars Technica recognized that licensing issues might have limited when songs from one single game could be played in others of the series ( such as the case for The Beatles : Rock Band ) , but that such cross @-@ compatibility should have been a high priority for rhythm games . Furthermore , some expansions were praised for the additional content beyond the note @-@ matching gameplay ; Guitar Hero : Metallica is considered to be one of the series ' best works to be developed by Neversoft in part due to the care that the developers took with imaging the band and the available extras for the game . Activision later revealed that both Guitar Hero 5 and Band Hero would support playing songs from both Guitar Hero World Tour ( both on @-@ disc and downloadable content ) and Guitar Hero Smash Hits , with music licensing being the only limiting factor on which songs could be made forward @-@ compatible .

The large number of Guitar Hero and Rock Band titles on the market is considered to be partially responsible for the sharp decline of music game sales in the latter half of 2009 , along with the effects of the late @-@ 2000s recession . The market for rhythm games was $ 1 @.@ 4 billion in 2008 , but dropped to $ 700 million in 2009 even though more titles were available that year . Former Neversoft project director Brian Bright noted that at one point in 2009 , they were responsible for the release of three games that year ( Guitar Hero 5 , Metallica , and Band Hero ) and supporting other studios for the development of two additional games , causing the studio to lose focus both in development and marketing efforts . According to Bright , sales of all the Guitar Hero games released in 2009 totaled the number of sales of the 2008 title World Tour , demonstrating the dilution of the marketing . Though Activision had originally planned on tripling the offerings of the Guitar Hero series in 2010 , the company readjusted their plans , reducing the number of offerings and focusing more on selling digital downloadable content for the series . Only two titles , Guitar Hero : Warriors of Rock and DJ Hero 2 were released in 2010 , both scheduled for the " back half of 2010 " . Analysts believe that the market will evolve to support a smaller number of titles each year , averaging at a " healthy " value $ 500 – 600 million in revenues annually . Kotick believed that part of the downfall of Guitar Hero was due to Activision 's introduction of DJ Hero , which they gave too much focus and left the core Guitar Hero games without the " nourishment and care " needed to continue to innovate in the series .

Activision Publishing chief executive Mike Griffith , in response to questions about Activision 's approach to the Guitar Hero market , noted that Guitar Hero continues to outsell the Rock Band series in both number of sales and revenue , with consumers continuing to buy the separate games on the market , and considered the market acceptance of the multiple games as validation for their model . Regardless , after releasing 25 different SKUs ( between games and bundle packages ) in 2009 , Activision opted to reduce that number to 10 in 2010 , recognizing the music game genre was not as profitable as it once was . Activision later opted to put future development of the series on hold in early 2011 citing weak sales in the rhythm game genre , a move that many journalists attributed to Activision 's earlier oversaturation .

= = List of games = =

All games are published by Activision , except the first Guitar Hero and the PS2 version of Guitar Hero II , which were published by RedOctane .

= Fieldfare =

The fieldfare ( Turdus pilaris ) is a member of the thrush family Turdidae . It breeds in woodland and scrub in northern Europe and Asia . It is strongly migratory , with many northern birds moving south during the winter . It is a very rare breeder in the British Isles , but winters in large numbers in the United Kingdom , Southern Europe , North Africa and the Middle East . It is omnivorous , eating a wide range of molluscs , insects and earthworms in the summer , and berries , grain and seeds in the winter .

Fieldfares often nest in small colonies , possibly for protection from predators . The nest is built in a tree where five or six eggs are laid . The chicks are fed by both parents and leave the nest after a fortnight . There may be two broods in southern parts of the range but only one further north . Migrating birds and wintering birds often form large flocks , often in the company of Redwings .

The fieldfare is 25 cm ( 10 in ) long , with a grey crown , neck and rump , a plain brown back , dark wings and tail and white underwings . The breast and flanks are heavily spotted . The breast has a reddish wash and the rest of the underparts are white . The sexes are similar in appearance but the females are slightly more brown . The male has a simple chattering song and the birds have various guttural flight and alarm calls .

= = Etymology = =

The English common name fieldfare dates back to at least the eleventh century . The Anglo @-@ Saxon word feldefare perhaps meant traveller through the fields .

The species was described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae ( 1758 ) under its current scientific name . The name Turdus pilaris comes from two separate Latin words for thrush . No subspecies are recognised .

= = Description = =

The fieldfare is easily recognisable with its slate @-@ grey head , nape and rump , dark brown back , blackish tail and boldly speckled breast . In flight , its white under wing @-@ coverts and axillaries are conspicuous . The harsh flight call " tsak tsak " is also distinctive .

The forehead and crown of the male are bluish @-@ grey and each feather has a central brownish @-@ black band . The lores and under @-@ eye regions are black and there are faint , pale streaks above the eyes . The ear coverts , nape , hind neck and rump are bluish @-@ grey , usually with a white streak near the shaft of each rump feather . The scapulars and mantle feathers are dark chestnut @-@ brown with dark central streaks and pale tips . There are fourteen tail feathers each with a pointed tip , the outer two slightly shorter than the others giving a rounded tail . They are brownish @-@ black , with inconspicuous darker bars visible in some lights . The outer edge of each tail feather is fringed with grey near the base and the outer pair of feathers have a narrow white border on the inner edge . The chin , throat and upper breast are creamy @-@ buff with bold streaks and speckles of brownish @-@ black . The lower breast is creamy @-@ white with a diminishing buff tinge and fewer speckles and the belly is similarly creamy @-@ white , with the speckles restricted to the uppermost parts . The primaries are brownish @-@ black with the leading edge fringed grey and the inner edge of the outer feathers grey near the base whereas the inner feathers are fringed with brown near the base . The secondaries are similar but fringed with chestnut @-@ brown on the leading edge . The upper wing @-@ coverts are brownish @-@ black and similar to the outer primaries in their margin colouration . The axillaries and under wing @-@ coverts are white and the under tail @-@ coverts have dark greyish @-@ brown bases and margins and white centres and tips . The beak is strong , with a slight curve and a notch near the tip . It is orange @-@ yellow in winter , with the upper mandible somewhat brownish and both mandible tips brownish @-@ black . In the summer both mandibles of the male 's beak are yellow . The irises are dark brown and the legs and feet are brown . The average adult length is 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) , the winglength is 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) and the tarsal length 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) .

The female is very similar to the male but the upper parts are somewhat more brownish and the feathers on the crown have narrower black central stripes . The throat and breast are paler with fewer , smaller markings . The beak is similar to the male 's winter beak . The juvenile are a duller colour than the adults with pale coloured streaks on the feathers that have dark streaks in the adult . The young assume their adult plumage after their first moult in the autumn .

The call is mostly uttered in flight and is a harsh " tsak tsak tsuk " . The same sound , but softer , is made more conversationally when individuals gather in trees . When angry or alarmed they emit various warning sounds reminiscent of the mistle thrush ( Turdus viscivorous ) . The male has a rather feeble song that he sings in the breeding season . It is a mixture of a few phrases like those of the common blackbird ( Turdus merula ) interspersed with whistles , guttural squeaks and call notes . This is sung on the wing and also from a tree and a subdued version of this song with more warbling notes is sung by a group of birds at communal roosts .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The fieldfare is a migratory species with a palearctic distribution . It breeds in northern Norway , northern Sweden , Finland , Belgium , Germany , Switzerland , Austria , the Czech Republic , Slovakia , Hungary , Poland and Siberia as far east as Transbaikal , the Aldan River and the Tian Shan Mountains in North West China . Its winter range extends through West and South Europe to North Africa , though it is uncommon in the Mediterranean region . Eastern populations migrate to Anatolia , Israel , Iran and Northwest India , and occasionally Northeast India . It is a vagrant to Iceland , Greenland , Spitsbergen , the Canary Islands , the Balearic Islands , Madeira , Corsica , Sardinia , Sicily , Malta and Cyprus .

In the summer the fieldfare frequents mixed woodland of birch , alder , pine , spruce and fir , often near marshes , moorland or other open ground . It does not avoid the vicinity of humans and can be seen in cultivated areas , orchards , parks and gardens . It also inhabits open tundra and the slopes of hills above the tree line . In the winter , groups of fieldfares are chiefly found in open country , agricultural land , orchards and open woodland . They are nomadic , wandering wherever there is an abundance of berries and insects . Later in the year they move on to pastureland and cultivated fields .

= = Behaviour = =

The flight of the fieldfare is slow and direct . It takes several strong beats then closes its wings briefly before flapping on . It is highly gregarious , quite shy and easily scared in the winter and bold and noisy in the breeding season . When a group is in a tree they all tend to face in the same direction , keeping up a constant chatter . When foraging on the ground , often in association with redwings , the group works its way up wind , each bird pausing every so often to stand erect and gaze around before resuming feeding . When alarmed they fly off down wind and the feeding group reforms elsewhere . In woodland they do not skulk in the undergrowth as do blackbirds or song thrushes , instead they perch in the open on bushes and high branches . They roost socially , sometimes in overgrown hedges and shrubberies but usually on the ground . Common sites are in rough grass among bushes or clumps of rushes , in young plantations , on stubble and in the furrows of ploughed fields .

Migration southwards from the breeding range starts in October but the bulk of birds arrive in the United Kingdom in November . Some of these are still on passage and carry on into continental Europe but others remain . The passage @-@ migrants return in April and they and the resident migrants depart from the United Kingdom mostly by early May .

The fieldfare is omnivorous . Animal food in the diet includes snails and slugs , earthworms , spiders and insects such as beetles and their larvae , flies and grasshoppers . When berries ripen in the autumn these are taken in great number . Hawthorn , holly , rowan , yew , juniper , dog rose , Cotoneaster , Pyracantha and Berberis are all relished . Later in the winter windfall apples are eaten , swedes attacked in the field and grain and seeds eaten . When these are exhausted , or in particularly harsh weather , the birds may move to marshes or even the foreshore where molluscs are to be found .

= = Breeding = =

The breeding season starts in May in Poland but further north in Scandinavia may not start until early July . The female fieldfare builds a cup @-@ shaped nest with no attempt at concealment . The location is often in woodland but may be in a hedgerow , garden , among rocks , in a pile of logs , in a hut or on the ground . Fieldfares usually nest in close proximity to others of the same species . The adults will defend the nest aggressively and nesting gregariously may offer protection from predators . The nest is built of dried grasses and weeds with a few twigs and a little moss , with a lining of mud and an inner lining of fine grasses . There are usually five to six eggs in a clutch , but occasionally three , four , seven or eight eggs are laid . The eggs vary in size from 28 @.@ 8 by 20 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 13 in × 0 @.@ 82 in ) to 33 @.@ 5 by 23 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 32 in × 0 @.@ 92 in ) and are variable in colour . Many are pale blue speckled with fine brown dots and resemble those of the common blackbird . Others are bright blue , with or without larger red @-@ brown splotches . Incubation starts before all the eggs are laid and lasts for thirteen to fourteen days . The female does all or most of the incubation . The chicks are altricial and both parents bring food to them . They are usually ready to leave the nest after fourteen to sixteen days and there may be two broods in the season , especially in the southern parts of the breeding range .

= = Status and conservation = =

The fieldfare has an extensive range , estimated at 10 million square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 8 million square miles ) , and a large population , including an estimated forty two to seventy two million individuals in Europe . There are thought to be up to twenty thousand individuals in Russia and the global population is estimated to be between forty four and ninety six million individuals . The population size appears to be stable and the bird is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , and is therefore evaluated as being of " Least Concern " .

In the United Kingdom , at the extreme edge of the fieldfare 's breeding range , only a handful of pairs breed . It is therefore classified by the RSPB as a Red List species as of January 2013 .

= Type 94 Nambu pistol =

The Type 94 Nambu 8 mm Pistol ( Type 94 Handgun , Japanese : 九四式拳銃 Kyūyon @-@ Shiki Kenjū ) is a semiautomatic pistol developed by Kijirō Nambu and his associates for the Imperial Japanese Army . Development of the Type 94 pistol began in 1929 , and after several redesigns the final prototype was tested and officially adopted by the Japanese Army in late 1934 ( Japanese calendar , 2594 ) . The Type 94 pistol entered production in 1935 . Approximately 71 @,@ 000 pistols were manufactured before production ended in 1945 .

The Type 94 pistol was designed for , and popular among , Japanese tank and aircraft crews who preferred a smaller , lightweight design . Japanese weapons experts have subsequently criticized some design elements of the Type 94 ; in particular the pistol could be fired unintentionally before the breech was fully locked if the sear bar on the side of the receiver was jarred loose and the pistol was improperly handled . Additionally , the process to disassemble the pistol is overly complex and awkward . The build quality of the Type 94 pistol declined over its production run ; " last ditch " pistols made in 1945 were crudely manufactured .

= = History = =

The Type 94 Nambu pistol was designed by Kojiro Nambu after he retired from the Japanese Army and founded the Nambu Rifle Manufacturing Company . Design for the Type 94 Nambu pistol commenced in 1929 with the goal of reducing the bulk and price of previous Nambu designs . The Imperial Japanese Army felt a smaller pistol of domestic design that could accommodate the standard 8 × 22mm Nambu cartridge was needed to substitute the larger , heavier , and only official military pistol , the Type 14 Nambu . The demand for officer 's handguns had increased as a result of Japan 's invasion of Manchuria during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . A new design was also wanted by the Japanese Army to include a magazine safety , to prevent unintentional discharges during cleaning that were common among Japanese personnel . Naming of the Type 94 pistol reflects the change in Japanese nomenclature with the 94 reckoning back to the mythical foundation of Japan in 660 BC therefore year 2594 instead of the traditional emperor reign period used to name the Type 26 revolver or Type 14 Nambu pistol . The final prototype for the Type 94 was officially adopted by the Japanese Army in late 1934 after several redesigns . Production began under the supervision of the Nagoya Army Arsenal at the Nambu Rifle Manufacturing Company and later its successor , Chuo Kogyo Company , Ltd . An estimated 71 @,@ 000 pistols were produced for the military but the exact quantity is unknown because of the production of unserialized pistols and undated pistols . During World War II the pistol became a preferred weapon for tank crews and paratroopers who required a smaller , more convenient pistol . The Type 94 was never officially adopted by the Imperial Japanese Navy but was available to officers through the Japanese officer 's union .

= = Design = =

The Type 94 pistol is operated by a different mechanism than previous Japanese sidearms . Unlike previously designed Nambu pistols , the Type 94 operates with a concealed hammer and with a firing pin rather than a hammer . According to authors , Harry L. Derby and James D. Brown , the firing pin is inherently weak and is prone to breakage because of a recess cut provided for the crossbolt and is prone to breaking at this point . The sturdier hammer firing mechanism was developed and included in the Type 94 to replace the poor striker on the Type 14 Nambu . The locking system is a rising @-@ block type which floats independently between the lugs underneath the chamber end of the barrel . The single coil mainspring is positioned around the barrel around the barrel instead of to the rear of the barrel as found on other Nambu pistols . The grip is smaller than other Japanese pistols and is finished with smooth wood but according to author Jeff Kinard , are more comfortable for use by men with smaller hands . The magazine holds a maximum of six rounds because of the smaller grip and it is considered difficult to reload the weapon , with pressure from the bolt holding it inside the pistol . The magazine catch protrudes far enough to occasionally disengage when the pistol is placed on its left side on a hard surface . The magazine could also disengage if squeezed into or jarred in a holster . The manual safety lever is located on the left rear of the frame and has the kanji for fire and safe stamped onto the frame . The front blade sight on the muzzle of the Type 94 pistol and the rear fixed V were occasionally inaccurately positioned making them useless when the weapon is being aimed . The rear sight was reduced from a U @-@ shape to a simple notch in 1944 with the front blade being left unchanged but less attention to detail being applied as World War II progressed .

= = = Final production = = =

The quality of Type 94 Nambu pistols decreased towards the end of World War II as the Japanese faced bombing raids from allied forces and material shortages increased . This drastic change in quality from late March 1945 , onwards with all quality standards appearing to disappear towards the end of June 1945 . The smooth wooden finished grip was replaced by a bakelite checkered pattern . Many pistols were not serialized and no pistols have been reported that bear July 1945 manufacture date . Only four unserialized and undated pistols are known to exist and include mismatch parts with no inspection marks , lanyard loops , and extractors . A small number of pistols made during the final production stages include earlier production dates and appear to have been salvaged from previously discarded pistols that had minor or cosmetic defects .

= = Disassembly = =

Disassembly of the Type 94 Nambu pistol is considered difficult and can lead to damage to the pistol if done carelessly . After clearing the Type 94 , the operator must draw the slide against the magazine follower to hold the bolt to the rear of the pistol . This will allow the crossbolt to be released after the firing pin is depressed . Removal of the crossbolt without depressing the firing pin will damage both the firing pin and the crossbolt . Removing the crossbolt is further complicated as the disassemblers hands are both holding the pistol and depressing the firing pin .

= = Holster = =

Holsters for the Type 94 pistol were generally made from either pigskin or cowhide leather and ranged in color from tan to dark reddish brown . Holsters faced the same degradation in quality as the Type 94 pistol . As supplies of leather were exhausted in Japan , holsters manufactured in 1944 became fabricated from olive drab fabric . The Type 94 pistol holster is distinguishable from other Japanese holsters having a pointed closure flap and a vertically positioned magazine pouch . The pouch tow has a narrow extension to accommodate a cleaning rod . The majority of holsters were made in civilian owned tanneries with some ink stamped with arsenal and inspection marks . A belt loop and two shoulder strap " D " rings are provided on the rear of the holster and are made from brass , galvanized steel , or nickel plating .

= = Unintentional firing = =

The poor design of the breech allowed the Type 94 Nambu to be fired unintentionally . The sear bar on the Type 94 Nambu converts the forward pull of the trigger into a lateral movement that frees the hammer . Because the sear bar is on the outside of the pistol , it could be jarred loose during engagement if the pistol was cocked and handled carelessly . The forward end of the sear bar would need to be depressed approximately 2mm to cause the weapon to fire . The ability to fire the Type 94 without pulling the trigger gave rise to war stories of Japanese soldiers surrendering , only to fire the pistol , earning the pistol monikers such as the " suicide special " and the " surrender pistol " . These stories are widely discredited because of the difficulty to fire the weapon by squeezing the sear bar . If the safety is engaged on the Type 94 it is impossible for the weapon to discharge unintentionally .

= Jifna =

Jifna ( Arabic : جفنا , Jifnâ ) is a Palestinian village in the Ramallah and al @-@ Bireh Governorate in the central West Bank , Palestine , located 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) north of Ramallah and 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) north of Jerusalem . A village of about 1 @,@ 400 people , Jifna has retained a Christian majority since the 6th century CE . Its total land area consists of 6 @,@ 015 dunams , of which 420 are designated as built @-@ up areas , most of the remainder being covered with olive , fig and apricot groves . Jifna is governed by a village council , led ( 2008 ) by chairman Jabi Na 'im Kamil .

Jifna was known as Gophnah ( In Hebrew גופנה ) at the time of the First Jewish @-@ Roman War , and after its conquest became a Roman regional capital . Later the town grew less significant politically , but nevertheless prospered under Byzantine and Arab rule due to its location on a trade route . St. George 's Church in Jifna was built in the 6th century CE , but fell into disrepair and was not rebuilt until the arrival of the Crusaders in the late 10th century . However , it again fell into ruin after the Crusaders were driven out by the Ayyubids . In modern times , the ruins of St. George 's Church have become a tourist attraction . During the period of Ottoman control in Palestine the tower of an ancient Roman structure in Jifna became the location of a jail house .

Jifna has local traditions and legends relating to the Holy Family , and to the village water @-@ spring . It is also locally known for its apricot harvest festival ; each year , during the late Spring period , hundreds travel to the village to harvest the fruit during its brief season .

= = History = =

= = = Biblical era and Roman / Byzantine rule = = =

It was suggested by Edward Robinson that Jifna was Ophni of Benjamin , mentioned in the Book of Joshua as one of the " twelve cities . " Nothing thereafter is recorded in its history until the time of the Roman conquest during the 1st century BCE , when it appears in various records as " Gophna " . Gophna was described by Flavius Josephus as the second city of Judea , after Jerusalem , in his account of the First Jewish @-@ Roman Wars during the 1st century CE . The town is depicted as Gophna in the Map of Madaba , situated north of Gibeon ( al @-@ Jib ) , and is also mentioned in the Talmud as Ben Gufnin , a " city of priests " . The latter portion of its Talmudic name derives from the Hebrew root word gefen , meaning " vine " .

Known by the Romans as Cofna , Jifna was a regional capital in the Iudaea Province under the Roman Empire . Around 50 BCE the Roman general Cassius sold the population into slavery , for failure to pay taxes . They were freed , however , by Mark Antony shortly after he came to power . Jifna was within the area under Hananiah 's command in 66 CE , during the First Jewish @-@ Roman War , and was the headquarters of one of the twelve toparchies ( minor realms ) of Judea . The Roman emperor Vespasian occupied the town in 68 CE , established an army garrison there , and concentrated within the city Jewish priests and other local notables who had surrendered to him . Titus , the future Roman emperor , passed through Gophna during his march to besiege Jerusalem in 70 CE .

The building of a church dedicated to Saint George during the 6th century CE indicates that by this time Jifna , now under Byzantine rule , had become a Christian town . Besides the church , other remains from this era are located in Jifna , including a Jewish tomb , a tower ( Burj Jifna ) once used by the Ottomans as a prison , a Roman villa , an olive oil press and a winery .

= = = Middle Ages = = =

Jifna , along with most of Palestine , was annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate under Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab after the Battle of Ajnadayn in 634 . The town became less politically significant under the Arab dynasties of the Umayyads , Abbasids and Fatimids , but remained a major regional center for trade and commerce , due to its location along the Jerusalem – Nazareth road . It was known by the Arabs as Gafeniyyah .

Sources are vague , but it is likely that St. George 's Church fell into disrepair during the early decades of Islamic rule , and that unfavorable circumstances for the Christian population prevented them from rebuilding it . However , it was partially rebuilt with old materials by the Crusaders , who conquered the area in 1099 . The Crusaders built a large courtyard building in Jifna . It had a monumental gate with a portcullis , with a large vaulted hall and thick walls of fine masonry . After their defeat to the Ayyubids under Saladin in 1187 , the church again fell into ruin . A document dated 1182 with the signature of one Raymundus de Jafenia , might indicate a Christian presence at this time . According to the American biblical scholar Edward Robinson , there are remains of massive walls in the center of the village , now filled by houses . They were relics of a castle built by the Crusaders . However , the masonry has no characteristics of the Crusader period ; rather , the remains display the Arab architectural style of the post @-@ Crusader period , most likely of the 18th century , judging by the dressing of the stones .

= = = Ottoman era = = =

After the Crusaders were succeeded by the Ayyubids and then the Mamluks , the Ottoman Empire conquered Palestine in 1517 , and Jifna came under their control for the following 400 years . In 1596 it appeared in the tax registers under the name of " Jifna an @-@ Nasara " , being in the nahiya ( subdistrict ) of Jerusalem of the Jerusalem Sanjak , with a population of 21 households . The villagers paid a fixed tax @-@ rate of 33 @.@ 3 % on agricultural products , including wheat , barley , olive trees , vineyards , fruit trees , goats and beehives , in addition to occasional revenues ; a total of 6 @,@ 470 akçe . It was under the administration of the Bani Zeid subdistrict , part of the larger Jerusalem District , throughout Ottoman rule , being the only all @-@ Christian village in the district . During this period , the main commodity of Jifna was olive oil . Ottoman activity in the village was minimal , but they used the remains of Jifna 's castle , known as " Burj Jifna " , as a jail house sometime during the 19th century . In the early 1830s , Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt conquered most of the Levant , including Palestine . In 1834 there was a revolt against the Egyptian authorities in the Jifna area ; 26 residents of Jifna were subsequently exiled to Egypt for their alleged participation in the uprising . They were joined , voluntarily , by two prominent local priests .

An Eastern Orthodox Church was built in the village in 1858 , and a larger Latin ( Roman Catholic ) church dedicated to St. Joseph was built in 1859 , adjacent to the ruins of St. George 's Church . In the courtyard of St. George 's Church is a sarcophagus . St. George 's Church has continued to serve as a place of worship into the modern era and has been the site of archaeological excavation since the mid @-@ 19th century . Mass is still held at its altar on certain occasions . In 1882 the Palestine Exploration Fund 's Survey of Western Palestine described Jifna as an Important Christian village , with a Latin Church and a convent . Also in the 1880s , Jifna was frequently taxed by Ottoman authorities . It also came into consistent armed conflict with another Christian village , Bir Zeit , which in one incident , resulted in the deaths of five men from that village . In retaliation , residents of Bir Zeit uprooted and burned 125 of Jifna 's olive groves .

= = = Modern times = = =

In 1917 , during World War I , the Ottomans were defeated by British and Arab forces . After a brief period of military rule , Jifna and its region came under the control of the League of Nations British Mandate , in 1922 . In 1947 the United Nations proposed the partitioning of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states , with Jifna being a part of the projected Arab state . However , after the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War the whole West Bank region , including Jifna , was annexed by Transjordan to form the Kingdom of Jordan , and the Arab state was stillborn . In 1967 Israel occupied the West Bank , after their victory in the Six @-@ Day War .

After the 1995 Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip between the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) and Israel , Jifna was placed in " Area B " . Thus , its administrative and civil affairs were transferred to the PNA , while security matters remained in Israeli control . Throughout the ongoing Second Intifada , which began in 2000 , Jifna has not experienced violence to the same extent as other parts of the West Bank , such as in nearby Ramallah , but its residents face travel restrictions and economic hardship .

On 31 July 2015 a 15 @-@ year @-@ old resident was shot dead by an IDF sniper after allegedly throwing a firebomb at an army outpost .

= = Geography and climate = =

Jifna is located on the slope of a hill , standing at an elevation of about 661 meters ( 2 @,@ 169 ft ) above sea level . It is situated at the intersection of two ancient trade routes , the mountainous north @-@ south route and the east @-@ west route connecting the Jordan Valley with the Mediterranean seacoast . In 1945 its land area consisted of 5 @,@ 939 dunams , 52 dunams of which were classified as built @-@ up area in 1945 . Today Jifna has a total jurisdiction over 6 @,@ 015 dunams , 420 of which are designated as built @-@ up and roughly 2 @,@ 000 planted with olive , apricot and other fruit trees .

The village is located 8 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) northwest of Ramallah and al @-@ Bireh and about 23 kilometers ( 14 mi ) north of Jerusalem . The Palestinian refugee camp of Jalazone was built on Jifna 's southern lands and is connected to the village by road . The villages of Dura al @-@ Qar ' and Ein Siniya are located adjacent to Jifna to the east and northeast respectively . Other nearby localities include Abu Qash to the southwest , Beitin to the southeast , Ein Yabrud to the east , ' Atara to the north and Bir Zeit to the northwest . Jifna is connected to the main Ramallah @-@ Nablus highway by a road at the eastern side of the village .

Jifna experiences a temperate Mediterranean climate . Based on data for nearby Ramallah , average monthly high temperatures range from 53 ° F ( 12 ° C ) in January to 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) in July / August , the corresponding lows being 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) and 63 ° F ( 17 ° C ) . Rain is usually restricted to the winter season , from around November until the end of April . The months that receive the most precipitation are January and December and the annual rainfall is 23 @.@ 2 inches ( 590 mm ) .

= = Demographics = =

According to Edward Robinson , Jifna 's population in 1838 consisted of about 200 people , of whom only 42 were adult males . In a 1945 land and population survey carried out by Sami Hadawi , Jifna had 910 inhabitants . The modern inhabitants of Jifna belong mainly to eight families , four of whom are originally from the village , while the other five have , at various times , migrated from other countries such as Syria .

In 1994 , Jifna experienced a wave of emigration , with about half of its population leaving the town to pursue better livelihoods elsewhere . The first census carried by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics ( PCBS ) shows that Jifna had a population of 961 , of whom 623 ( 64 @.@ 8 % ) were classified as refugees in 1997 . The gender distribution was 465 males ( 48 @.@ 4 % ) and 494 females ( 51 @.@ 6 % ) . The age distribution was : Under 15 , 330 ( 34 % ) ; 15 – 29 , 275 ( 29 % ) ; 30 – 65 , 304 ( 32 % ) ; Over 65 , 50 ( 5 % ) .

The population of Jifna continues to grow . According to the PCBS , Jifna 's mid @-@ year population estimate for 2006 was 1 @,@ 358 . An informal estimate from Autumn 2006 gives the population as 1 @,@ 500 , " 25 % of whom have had to move to Jerusalem or Ramallah to find jobs " . The 2007 census by the PCBS listed Jifna 's population as 1 @,@ 716 , of which 856 were males and 860 females .

= = = Religion = = =

The remains of the Byzantine @-@ era church in Jifna testifies to the existence of a Christian community prior to the Muslim conquest . It continued to exist during the Middle Ages and the village is still inhabited mainly by Christians . The names of Christian inhabitants from Jifna appeared in a 10th @-@ century inscription on a stone above the gate of St. George 's Monastery in the Wadi Qelt .

Ottoman tax records from the late 16th century reveal that Jifna had a Christian population at the time also . An informal survey in 1927 found 550 inhabitants , of whom 325 were Catholics and the remainder reportedly " Christians of other denominations " . Palestinian Christians make up about 80 % of the residents , while the remaining 20 % are Muslims , mostly refugees .

It is certain that most of the Christian residents of Jifna in the 12th century were local inhabitants . Apart from local Christians there was also a Frankish settlement , as is attested by the ruins of a maison forte ( manor ) built in the lower part of the village . In Jifna , like in many other sites in Palestine , the Crusaders built their settlement in the heart of the local Christian settlement .

= = Economy = =

Although most of Jifna 's cultivable land is covered with olive groves as well as fig , walnut and apricot trees and grape vines , agriculture is no longer the village 's main source of income . Many of the village 's former farmers are living off other businesses , including restaurants , other small family @-@ owned industries , and simple commerce .

Unlike some other West Bank localities , unemployment is a minor issue in Jifna . However , the average income is low because of the unstable political situation in the Palestinian territories , Israeli checkpoints , the West Bank barrier and the 2006 freezing by Israel of funds to the Palestinian territories — although the latter no longer applies to the West Bank .

According to the PCBS , 98 @.@ 5 % of Jifna 's 201 households are connected to electricity through a public network . The same percentage is connected to a sewage system , mostly through a cesspit . Pipe water is provided for 98 % of the households primarily through a public network ( 97 @.@ 5 % ) , but some residents receive water through a private system ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) . The village is home to the Jifna Women 's Charitable Society which offers health services and recreational activities for women and children .

= = = Small businesses = = =

There are three restaurants in Jifna : Al @-@ Burj Restaurant , Red Valley Restaurant and Garden , and Tabash Restaurant , as well as a hotel : al @-@ Murouj Pension . In 2003 , the Odeh family of Jifna opened a leisure complex — called the Dream Day Resort — in the village . The complex , containing a half @-@ Olympic @-@ size swimming pool , a children 's pool and a jacuzzi is frequented by residents in Jifna and the surrounding area .

Al @-@ Burj Restaurant — also known as " Burj Jifna " — specializes in Palestinian cuisine and contains a café and a Palestinian culture hall . Situated in the center of the village , the restaurant is the site of Jifna 's old city . With international funding , the local youth club restored the area , adding bright accents to the stone masonry . The restaurant has become a center of tourism and the complex provides tours for its rooms , olive oil presses and ancient ramparts . Tabash Restaurant was founded in 1962 by a Palestinian refugee family from Jaffa . Initially known as al @-@ Wadi Bar , it received its current name in 1972 . The owners and the employees of the restaurant are from the Tabash family .

= = Culture = =

= = = Traditions = = =

There are a number of local traditions in Jifna . A prominent legend among Jifna 's inhabitants is that the Holy Family rested near an oak tree in the town on their way from Jerusalem . The legend 's origins are due to Jifna 's location along the ancient Jerusalem @-@ Nazareth road .

A nearby mountain was named Jabal ad @-@ Dik ( " Mount of the Rooster " ) because of a traditional story . According to the tradition , a Jew that lived in Jifna had visited Jerusalem during the Passion . Seeing Jesus rise from the dead , the man immediately converted and told his wife what he saw . His wife refused to believe him unless the rooster she had just killed would come back to life . Instantly , the rooster flew away towards the mountain . The story was recited in some monasteries on Holy Thursday together with other biblical readings .

A legend exists about Jifna 's spring — which the village has used for centuries — concerning how it periodically runs low on water . Popular belief is that this is the work of the djinniye ( female spirit ) . According to Palestinian researcher Tawfiq Canaan , " In Jifna the priest has to go on such an occasions to the dry spring to repeat prayers and burn incense , and thus reconcile the djinniye or force her to let the water flow " .

Like many Palestinian villages , the women of Jifna have their own traditional dress . Costumes in the village , known as rumi abyad ( " Greek White " ) and rumi aswad ( " Greek Black " ) , were dresses of hand @-@ woven linen embroidered with the Jifna 's own motifs . Preparing burbara , a sweet pudding @-@ like dish made from whole grain wheat , on the Feast of Saint Barbara has been a tradition in Jifna for several centuries .

= = = Festivals = = =

In April – May 2005 Jifna hosted the first annual International Artists ' Workshop in Palestine . The festival , known as the " Jifna Spring " was the first held in a rural village instead of a major city such as Hebron or Ramallah . During the festival , dozens of artists from all over the world collaborated on several projects , including stone sculptures , metalwork , photography , mural paintings and installation pieces . Many of the works were influenced by the " specificity and qualities " of Jifna , while others dealt with the subject of Palestinian identity .

Jifna , locally famous for its apricot harvest , hosts an annual two @-@ day apricot festival in the first week of May . Hundreds of West Bankers flock to participate in the harvest . The festival is also used by Palestinian politicians as an opportunity to give speeches praising Palestinian farmers and encouraging boycotts on Israeli products and reliance on domestic agriculture .

= = Government = =

Jifna is governed by a village council consisting of ten members including the chairman . The council was founded in 1954 , when a prominent resident , Nasri Ilias Samara , pressured the Jordanian authorities to recognize the institution , even though a village was normally required to have a population of at least 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants for permission to establish a village council . The decision was approved by Jordan 's then prime minister . Representatives from Jifna 's largest families formed the original council 's body , appointing Smara as chairman and Salim Issa Musleh as vice chairman . Jabi Na 'im Kamil was elected as the chairman in 2005 and the Badil ( Alternative ) list — which represents a leftist alliance of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine and the Palestinian People 's Party — won most of the council seats .

= = Education = =

Jifna contains one gender @-@ mixed primary school and kindergarten , founded by the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem in 1856 and managed by Jifna 's Catholic church . The school 's staff comprises eight teachers and two nuns , as well as four teachers for the kindergarten . Students who have graduated from the school commute to Ramallah or Bir Zeit daily for their secondary and tertiary education . Most university students attend the nearby Bir Zeit University .

= Ha ' K 'in Xook =

Ha ' K 'in Xook ( Mayan pronunciation : [ haʔ k ’ in ʃoːk ] ) , also known as Ruler 6 , was an ajaw of Piedras Negras , an ancient Maya settlement in Guatemala . He ruled during the Late Classic Period , from 767 – 780 AD . Ha ' K 'in Xook was a son of Itzam K 'an Ahk II , and he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother , Yo 'nal Ahk III . Ha ' K 'in Xook 's reign seems to have ended either with his death or his abdication in favor of his brother K 'inich Yat Ahk II ; archaeologists and Mayanists have not come to a clear consensus on this . Ha ' K 'in Xook left behind several monuments , including stelae at Piedras Negras and a stone fragment from El Porvenir . In addition , a stone seat known as Throne 1 which was erected by K 'inich Yat Ahk II , records either the death or abdication of Ha ' K 'in Xook .

= = Biography = =

= = = Reign of Piedras Negras = = =

Ha ' K 'in Xook , who has also been referred to as Ruler 6 , was likely the son of Itzam K 'an Ahk II , based on a translation of Stela 23 . According to both Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube , as well as Johnson , Ha ' K 'in Xook 's name translates to " Water Sun Shark " . Of note , his name does not feature a turtle glyph , a feature found in all the previous rulers of Piedras Negras , as well as his successor . He ascended the throne on February 14 , 767 AD ( 9 @.@ 16 @.@ 16 @.@ 0 @.@ 4 , 7 K 'an 17 Pop in the Long Count ) , following the death of his brother Yo 'nal Ahk III . Ha ' K 'in Xook 's kingship of Piedras Negras had originally been overlooked by Tatiana Proskouriakoff , who instead assigned the title Ruler 6 to a misidentified sajal — or Maya leader — of La Mar.

Not much is known about the rule of Ha ' K 'in Xook ; his reign , along with that of Yo 'nal Ahk III , has been referred to as " shadowy " by Flora Clancy , and James L. Fitzsimmons argues that Ha ' K 'in Xook seems to have been a weaker ruler when compared to the reign of Itzam K 'an Ahk II because Ha ' K 'in Xook erected few monuments , and he did not reinforce his power on a larger scale , choosing only to do so at local polities . The only notable recorded event that has been preserved during the life of Ha ' K 'in Xook is of an incident that took place at El Cayo , most likely related to the burial of a contemporary sajal . According to Zachary Nathan Nelson , the reign of Ha ' K 'in Xook seems to have been relatively free from war , as none of his extant stelae show representation of captives , and known records do not indicate any sort of " bellicose action " in the region during his reign .

= = = Death or abdication = = =

Ha ' K 'in Xook yielded the throne on March 24 , 780 AD ( 9 @.@ 17 @.@ 9 @.@ 5 @.@ 11 10 Chuwen 19 Sip ) . The reason why his reign came to an end has been a topic of debate . Some believe that his reign ended with his abdication . Throne 1 , when translated , notes that he " abandoned / transferred rulership " , which American Mayanist Stephen D. Houston interprets to mean that he abdicated in favor of his brother , K 'inich Yat Ahk II . Mayanist David Stuart also noted that the wording on the throne " implies a more active event on the ruler 's part " , but that " ' lose ' might be more neutral as far as an interpretation goes . "

However , the exact phrase on the monument is yaktaaj ajawlel , which is the same wording that was used when the " burden " of leadership passed from K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , the k 'ul ahaw of Quiriguá , to his successor Sky Xul during his burial ten days after his demise in 785 AD . As such , this may suggest that , rather than abdicating , Ha ' K 'in Xook died in 780 AD , and his successor , K 'inich Yat Ahk II , took up rule later . The deciphered glyphs on Throne 1 note that K 'inich Yat Ahk II later " remembered " Ha ' K 'in Xook at the Paw Stone Place in some way , and that the new king may have possibly wept at the memory of Ha ' K 'in Xook , according to anthropologist Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos .

Regardless , K 'inich Yat Ahk II took up the throne on May 31 , 781 AD ( 9 @.@ 17 @.@ 10 @.@ 9 @.@ 4 1 K 'an 7 Yaxk 'in ) , almost a year following the end of Ha ' K 'in Xook 's reign . Despite this lengthy gap , there appears to be no evidence of anyone ruling Piedras Negras between the two kings .

= = Monuments = =

= = = Stelae = = =

Several stelae have been found that were erected by Ha ' K 'in Xook , including Stelae 13 , 18 , and 23 . Stela 13 would appear to be the earliest , showing the oldest dedicatory date assigned to Ha 'K'in Xook , and it " captures the essence of the period @-@ ending celebration . " This 2 @.@ 39 @-@ metre ( 7 @.@ 8 ft ) tall stela retains stylistic elements of other niche stelae , but also shows a different form . It depicts the king scattering incense , similar to iconography found on Piedras Negras Stelae 2 and 32 . Clancy has argued that the stela contains iconography pertaining to three motifs : divination , " the quest " , and accession . Divination is shown via the act of Ha ' K 'in Xook scattering the incense . This motif had been introduced earlier in the iconography of Piedras Negras by K 'inich Yo 'nal Ahk II . The stela also features Ha ' K 'in Xook wearing a unique headdress ; it is depicted as being composed of three knots and forehead scrolls , a projecting Water Lily Jaguar , and a flexible rectangular emblem made from a jaguar pelt and a thick net . It has been postulated that this headdress was inspired by the headdress worn by an enthroned figure from the underworld featured on Stela 5 . Clancy argues that this headdress is a representation of " the royal theme of quest " , due to its iconographic similarity to other stelae at Piedras Negras . In addition , Stela 13 remains Ha ' K 'in Xook 's only extant image .

Not much remains of Stela 18 , and what is left is badly worn . However , archaeologist Sylvanus Morley claimed that it expressed a Calendar Round date of 6 Ahaw 13 K 'ayab ( corresponding to a Long Count date of 9 @.@ 17 @.@ 5 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 or Dec. 27 , 775 ) , which Martin and Grube note is within Ha ' K 'in Xook 's reign . Stela 23 is the king 's accession monument . Originally carved on all four faces , this stela is in poor condition because it tipped over and shattered . The largest portions remaining include the base , and remnants of a basal panel of glyphs that feature the feet of two individuals . Similar to Stela 18 , Martin and Grube argue that Stela 23 dates to the rulership of Ha ' K 'in Xook because the Calendar Round date on the monument is contemporary with the date found on Stela 13 . This stele details a puluuy utz 'itil ceremony for Ha ' K 'in Xook 's dead father , Itzam K 'an Ahk II , and , when translated , reads " Ruler 6 [ Ha ' K 'in Xook ] , child of Ruler 4 [ Itzam K 'an Ahk II ] … acceded to the rulership " , seemingly proving that Ha ' K 'in Xook was indeed the offspring of Itzam K 'an Ahk II .

All three of the stelae were discovered by Teoberto Maler in 1901 near one of the site 's main temple , the O @-@ 13 pyramid . Stela 13 was possibly erected on a terrace reached by the pyramid 's main stairway , and Stela 18 lies in a row on the plaza in front of the aforementioned stairway . Stela 23 , on the other hand , was erected at the very base of the pyramid . This pyramid was most likely the burial place for Itzam K 'an Ahk II , and — seeing as how Ha ' K 'in Xook , Yo 'nal Ahk III , and K 'inich Yat Ahk II all revered the site as a dynastic shrine — it is further evidence to back the argument that Ha ' K 'in Xook was the son of Itzam K 'an Ahk II .

= = = Other = = =

As mentioned before , Throne 1 details either the death or abdication of Ha ' K 'in Xook . However , it should be noted that the throne was not constructed by the king himself , but rather by his successor , K 'inich Yat Ahk II . The throne was later deliberately broken apart by Piedras Negras 's enemies , but has since been reconstructed . In addition to on @-@ site remains and relics , a fragment of stone found at El Porvenir and aptly called the " El Porvenir Fragment " was also discovered that bore the name of Ha ' K 'in Xook .

= Tommy Lawton =

Thomas " Tommy " Lawton ( 6 October 1919 – 6 November 1996 ) was an English football player and manager . A strong centre @-@ forward with excellent all @-@ round attacking skills , he was able to head with the ball with tremendous power and accuracy . Despite losing much of his best years to World War II , he scored 260 goals in 433 league and cup competitions in 14 full seasons in the Football League .

Born in Farnworth and raised in Bolton , he played amateur football at Rossendale United , before he turned professional at Burnley on his 17th birthday . He also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club , before his potential as a footballer won him a £ 6 @,@ 500 move to Everton in January 1937 . He went on to finish as the First Division 's top @-@ scorer in 1937 – 38 and 1938 – 39 , helping Everton to finish as champions of the Football League in the latter campaign . League football was then suspended for seven full seasons due to the outbreak of war in Europe , during which time he scored 24 goals in 23 appearances for England whilst guesting for Everton and a number of other clubs . In November 1945 , he moved to Chelsea for £ 14 @,@ 000 , and scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946 – 47 season .

In November 1947 , he made a surprise move to Third Division South club Notts County for a British record transfer fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 . He helped the club to win promotion as champions in 1949 – 50 , before he moved on to Brentford in March 1952 for a club record £ 16 @,@ 000 . In January 1953 , Brentford appointed him player @-@ manager , though he would only remain in charge for nine months . He joined Arsenal as a player in November 1953 for £ 10 @,@ 000 , where he saw out the remainder of his playing career . He had a promising start to his managerial career by leading Kettering Town to the Southern League title in 1956 – 57 , but then only had two more seasons as manager , getting relegated with Notts County in 1957 – 58 and then relegated with Kettering Town in 1963 – 64 . During the 1970s he struggled with debt and related legal problems , which were reported in the media as an example of a celebrated person having fallen from grace .

He scored 22 goals in his 23 England appearances over a ten @-@ year international career from 1938 to 1948 , including four against Portugal in May 1947 . He helped England to win two British Home Championship titles outright ( 1946 – 47 and 1947 – 48 ) , and to share the Championship in 1938 – 39 . He fell out of international contention at the age of 28 due to his contempt for manager Walter Winterbottom , his decision to drop out of the First Division , and the emergence of Jackie Milburn and Nat Lofthouse . As well as his England caps , he also represented The Football League XI and played in a special Great Britain game against Europe in 1947 . He married twice , and had two children and one step @-@ child . His ashes are held in the National Football Museum , and he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003 .

= = Early life = =

Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton senior in Farnworth , Lancashire . His father was a rail @-@ road signalman of Irish extraction , and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill . His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born , and Elizabeth moved back into her parents ' home in Bolton . Elizabeth 's father , James Hugh " Jim " Riley , became Lawton 's surrogate father . Lawton 's natural footballing ability earned him a place on the Bolton Town Schools team in 1930 . He was picked by Lancashire Schools at the age of 13 . Despite scoring a hat @-@ trick in a trial game for England Schoolboys , he never earned a full England Schoolboy cap . At the age of 14 he began playing for Hayes Athletic in the Bolton Senior League , and went on to score 570 goals in three seasons . The FA 's rules meant he was unable to turn professional at a club until he was 17 , and Lawton 's grandfather rejected Bolton Wanderers 's offer for Lawton to work as a delivery driver for two years before turning professional at the club . Lawton instead played as an amateur for Rossendale United in the Lancashire Combination , scoring a hat @-@ trick on his debut against Bacup . He took up temporary work at a tannery , and then joined Burnley as assistant groundsman after his mother rejected an offer from Sheffield Wednesday as she objected to him travelling to Sheffield on a daily basis .

= = Club career = =

= = = Burnley = = =

Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves against Manchester City Reserves in September 1935 , and though he struggled in this game he went on to become a regular Reserve team player by the age of 16 . After a poor run of form from Cecil Smith , Lawton was selected ahead of Smith for the Second Division game against Doncaster Rovers at Turf Moor on 28 March 1936 ; aged 16 years and 174 days , this made him the youngest centre @-@ forward ever to play in the Football League . Rovers centre @-@ half Syd Bycroft , also making his league debut , marked Lawton out of the game , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Burnley had played poorly , though Lawton was praised for his " keen and fearless " performance by the Express & News newspaper . He retained his place for the following game , and scored two goals in a 3 – 1 victory over Swansea Town at Vetch Field . He picked up a groin strain in his third appearance which caused him to miss two fixtures , before he returned to the first team for the final four games of the 1935 – 36 season ; he claimed three more goals to take his season tally to five goals from seven games .

Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936 , and also played cricket for Burnley Cricket Club as a batsman in the Lancashire League . He scored a six against both Learie Constantine and Amar Singh . He scored 369 runs in 15 completed innings for an average of 24 @.@ 06 .

He turned professional at Burnley at the age of 17 on wages of £ 7 a week . His grandfather attempted to negotiate a £ 500 signing @-@ on fee on his behalf but was rebuffed after the club alerted Charles Sutcliffe , Secretary of the Football League , who informed them that any attempt to circumvent the league 's maximum wage was illegal . Lawton scored in his first appearance since signing the contract after just 30 seconds , before going on to record a hat @-@ trick in a 3 – 1 win over Tottenham Hotspur , scoring a goal with either foot and one with his head .

= = = Everton = = =

In January 1937 , First Division club Everton paid Burnley £ 6 @,@ 500 to secure Lawton 's services , and also gave his grandfather a job as deputy groundsman at Goodison Park ; the fee was a record for a player under 21 . The move to Everton made him a teammate of Dixie Dean , his boyhood idol , who he was expected to gradually replace as first choice centre @-@ forward . He later recalled that on his way to Goodison Park on his first day as an Everton player he was told by a tram conductor that " You 're that young Lawton , aren 't you ? You 'll never be as good as Dixie . " Dean was finally rested on 13 February , which allowed Lawton to make his first team debut against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux ; the match ended in a 6 – 2 defeat , though Lawton scored a penalty . He spent the rest of the season at inside @-@ left , with Dean at centre @-@ forward , and ended the 1936 – 37 campaign with four goals in 11 games . He started the 1937 – 38 season in the Reserves , but was installed as first choice centre @-@ forward in September after Dean was dropped for punching club secretary Theo Kelly . On 2 October , Lawton scored the winning penalty in a 2 – 1 victory over Merseyside derby rivals Liverpool at Anfield . He ended the campaign with 28 goals in 39 appearances to become the division 's top @-@ scorer .

Everton had a young but highly effective team for the 1938 – 39 campaign , and Lawton was praised for the way he led the attack , with the Evening Standard 's Roland Allen describing Lawton as a " clever footballer , bringing his wing men into the game with shrewd flicks and widely flung and accurate passes " after Everton recorded a 2 – 1 victory over Arsenal at Highbury . The game against Arsenal was part of a run of six wins in the first six games of the campaign , during which time Lawton scored eight goals . Everton lost their lead at the top of the table to Derby County over Christmas , but returned to form and to first position by Easter . They faced a difficult final run of games , but beat Chelsea and recorded two victories over Sunderland to secure the club 's fifth league title , finishing four points ahead of second @-@ place Wolverhampton Wanderers . Lawton scored 34 goals in 38 league games to finish as the division 's top @-@ scorer for the second successive season . However , in the summer he wrote to Leicester City to request that the club buy him from Everton ; it was reported that he reached out to Leicester as they were managed by Tom Bromilow , his former Burnley manager . Everton were fifth in the league and Lawton was the division 's top @-@ scorer with four goals when league football was suspended three games into the 1939 – 40 season due to the outbreak of World War II . Lawton later remarked that " I 'm convinced that if it hadn 't been for the War , we 'd have won the Championship again , the average age of those players was about 24 or 25 " .

= = = World War II = = =

Lawton continued to play for both Everton and England during the war . However the FA decided to not award full caps for England appearances during the war , and as a result his 24 goals in 23 international games were not counted in statistics for the official England team . As was common for footballers during the war , he also made guest appearances for a number of clubs besides Everton , including Leicester City , Greenock Morton , Chester City , Aldershot , and Tranmere Rovers . He was called up to the British Army in January 1940 , and his status as an England international saw him recruited to the Royal Army Physical Training Corps . He also played for the British Army team and his Area Command team . He was posted in Birkenhead , which allowed him to frequently appear for Everton . On Christmas Day 1940 , he played for Everton against Liverpool at Anfield in the morning and for Tranmere Rovers at Crewe Alexandra in the afternoon . Explaining this later , he said , ' The Tranmere people came into the dressing room and asked if anyone wanted to play as they were two men short . I said , " Go on , I 'll help you out . " And I did . ' In 1942 he scored a hat @-@ trick for England in a 5 – 4 win over Scotland at Hampden Park . Later in the year he scored six goals for Aldershot in a 9 – 0 win over Luton Town . On 16 October 1943 , he scored four goals in an 8 – 0 victory over Scotland at Maine Road .

= = = Chelsea = = =

In July 1945 , Lawton handed in a transfer request at Everton as he wanted a move to a Southern club so as to see more of his increasingly estranged wife . In November 1945 , he was sold to Chelsea for a fee of £ 14 @,@ 000 . Chelsea continued to play regional wartime fixtures as national league football had not resumed for the 1945 – 46 season , and Lawton also continued his uncapped appearances for the England national team . In the summer of 1946 , following his demobilisation , he coached for the FA in a summer camp in Switzerland . He scored a club record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946 – 47 season . However he struggled to settle at Stamford Bridge and came into conflict with manager Billy Birrell after refusing to go on a pre @-@ season tour of Sweden in 1947 , which resulted in him requesting a transfer . He favoured a move to Arsenal , but this was ruled out by the Chelsea hierarchy . Lawton turned down an approach by Sunderland manager Bill Murray as he held out hope that Chelsea would relent and allow him a move to Arsenal .

= = = Notts County = = =

In November 1947 , Lawton was sold to Notts County of the Third Division South for a British record transfer fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 . He made the surprise decision to drop down two divisions so as to be reunited with manager Arthur Stollery , his former masseur and friend at Chelsea , and because he was promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by vice @-@ chairman Harold Walmsley . Walmsley told the Nottingham Guardian Journal that " we are prepared to spend to the limit to put this old club back where it belongs " . He scored two goals on his home debut , a 4 – 2 win over Bristol Rovers in front of 38 @,@ 000 spectators at Meadow Lane – a massive increase on previous home games of typically 6 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 supporters . He ended the 1947 – 48 season with 24 goals in as many games , though was resented by the club 's directors after he insisted on pay rises for his teammates and stopped the practice of director 's friends and family travelling to away games on the team coach .

He formed a productive forward partnership with Jackie Sewell in the 1948 – 49 campaign , and scored 23 goals in 40 league and cup appearances . County finished in mid @-@ table despite scoring 102 goals , 15 more than champions Swansea . Stollery was sacked and upon Lawton 's suggestion the club appointed Eric Houghton as manager after Lawton turned down the role as player @-@ manager . Lawton and Sewell 's understanding grew throughout the 1949 – 50 campaign , and Lawton finished as the division 's top @-@ scorer with 31 goals in 37 league games as County won promotion as champions , seven points ahead of second @-@ placed Northampton Town . Promotion was secured with a 2 – 0 win over local rivals Nottingham Forest at Meadow Lane on 22 April .

However he struggled with poor form during the 1950 – 51 season as his first marriage was coming to an end and he came into increasing conflict with his teammates . He was angered when the club sold Jackie Sewell to Sheffield Wednesday in March 1951 – breaking Lawton 's own transfer record in the process – as he felt the move showed a lack of ambition from the club 's directors . He also found that the well paid job he was promised outside of football did not transpire . His tally of nine goals in 31 games in 1950 – 51 and 13 goals in 31 games in 1951 – 52 was disappointing , and he was made available for transfer .

= = = Brentford = = =

In March 1952 , Lawton joined Second Division side Brentford for a club record £ 16 @,@ 000 fee . Manager Jackie Gibbons left the club at the start of the 1952 – 53 season and was succeeded by his assistant Jimmy Bain , who proved ill @-@ suited to management , and so in January 1953 Lawton was appointed as player @-@ manager , with Bain as his assistant . However he lost the dressing room due to his excessive demands of the players , and the strains of management were having a negative impact on his form . Brentford also lost their best players having sold both Ron Greenwood and Jimmy Hill . He signed two veterans in former Notts County teammate Frank Broome and Ian McPherson to play on the wings , who , with Lawton , formed an attacking trio with a combined age of 104 . They got off to a poor start to the 1953 – 54 season , and Lawton resigned as manager after the Griffin Park crowd began to mock the forward line by singing Dear Old Pals .

= = = Arsenal = = =

In November 1953 , Lawton was traded to First Division champions Arsenal for £ 7 @,@ 500 plus James Robertson ( valued at £ 2 @,@ 500 ) . He was signed by manager Tom Whittaker , who had previously found success in bringing in veterans such as Ronnie Rooke and Joe Mercer . However Lawton was limited to ten appearances in the 1953 – 54 campaign after picking up an injury on his debut . He also played in the 1953 Charity Shield , scoring one goal as Arsenal beat Blackpool 3 – 1 . He scored seven goals in 20 appearances throughout the 1954 – 55 season , including winning goals against Chelsea and Cardiff City . He scored a hat @-@ trick past Cardiff City on the opening day of the 1955 – 56 season , before he announced his decision to leave Arsenal to pursue a career in management eight games into the campaign .

" More than 20 years of soccer . What glorious years . Years that all the money in the world couldn 't buy . I have been lucky . I have played with great clubs ; I have escaped serious injury ; I have played for my country ; I have even captained my country ; I have won many of the game 's top honours . Soccer has been good to me and I hope that I have repaid the game in some small way . I have had great experiences . I have met some wonderful people . I have memories that nobody can take away from me . If I could turn the clock back 20 years , I would still go into the game as a full @-@ time professional and I can say to any lad who is contemplating a career in football : Go ahead son ... providing you are willing to work and work hard and providing you are willing to learn the craft thoroughly . You will meet some of the grandest fellows you could ever wish to meet and you will have a pleasant , healthy life and be quite well paid for it .

= = International career = =

Lawton was called up to play for The Football League XI against a League of Ireland XI at Windsor Park on 21 September 1938 , and scored four goals in what finished as an 8 – 2 win . A month later he went on to win his first cap for England on 22 October , England 's first game of the 1938 – 39 British Home Championship , a 4 – 2 defeat to Wales at Ninian Park , and converted a penalty kick to mark his first England appearance with a goal . This made him the youngest player to score on his England debut , a record which lasted until Marcus Rashford broke it in 2016 . Four days after Lawton 's debut , he scored again for England at Highbury in a 3 – 0 win over ' The Rest of Europe ' , a team of players selected from Italy , Germany , France , Belgium , Hungary and Norway . Later in the year he also scored in victories over Norway and Ireland . He played in all four games of 1939 , scoring against Scotland and Italy ; the goal against Scotland secured a 2 – 1 win in front of 149 @,@ 269 spectators at Hampden Park .

Newly appointed England manager Walter Winterbottom played Lawton in England 's first official match in seven years on 28 September 1946 , a 7 – 2 win over Ireland . He played the remaining three fixtures of 1946 , and scored four goals in a 8 – 2 victory over the Netherlands at Leeds Road on 27 November . On 10 May 1947 , he scored two goals playing for the Great Britain XI in a 6 – 1 victory over a Rest of Europe XI that was billed as the ' Match of the Century ' . Five days later he scored four goals in a 10 – 0 victory over Portugal at Lisbon 's Estádio Nacional . On 21 September , he scored after just 12 seconds in a 5 – 2 win over Belgium at Heysel Stadium .

He retained his place in the England team following his club move to Notts County , and in doing so became the first Third Division footballer to represent England when he scored from the penalty spot in a 4 – 2 win over Sweden on 19 November . However he only won three further caps in 1948 , his final appearance coming in a 0 – 0 draw with Denmark in Copenhagen on 26 September . He had become increasingly disillusioned with the England set @-@ up , and told Walterbottom that " if you think you can teach Stanley Matthews to play on the wing and me how to score goals , you 've got another think coming ! " Walterbottom was also frustrated by Lawton 's smoking habit , and preferred Jackie Milburn ahead of Lawton . Hopes of any future comeback were ended by the emergence of powerful centre @-@ forward Nat Lofthouse , who made his England debut in November 1950 .

= = Style of play = =

Lawton was widely regarded as the finest centre @-@ forward of his generation . He boasted a strong physique and good ball control skills , as well as a great passing range and a powerful shot . He was naturally right @-@ footed , though worked to improve his left foot to a good enough standard to be considered a two @-@ footed player . His greatest strength though was his ability to head the ball , as he possessed muscular legs to give himself a strong jump and long hang @-@ time , and was also able to time his jumps to perfection . Stanley Matthews surmised that " Quite simply , Tommy was the greatest header of the ball I ever saw . " Lawton was never booked throughout his career .

= = Coaching career and later life = =

An Arsenal director helped Lawton to find employment as player @-@ manager at Southern League side Kettering Town on wages of £ 1 @,@ 500 a year . He signed a number of players from Football League clubs , including Jim Standen ( Arsenal ) , Amos Moore ( Aston Villa ) , Jack Wheeler ( Huddersfield Town ) , Jack Goodwin ( Brentford ) , Bob Thomas ( Fulham ) , Norman Plummer ( Leicester City ) , Harry McDonald ( Crystal Palace ) and Geoff Toseland ( Sunderland ) . Kettering were ten points clear at the top of the table by Christmas . In January 1956 he turned down an approach from Notts County to return as manager . Kettering won the league title in 1956 – 57 , finishing eight points ahead of Bedford Town , with Lawton scoring 15 of Kettering 's 106 league goals .

He was appointed as Notts County manager in May 1957 , controversially replacing caretaker @-@ manager Frank Broome , who had steered the club away from the Second Division relegation zone ; Broome was installed as his assistant . He was unable to make new signings as he was unable to move on any of the club 's 33 playing staff . He did though take on forwards Jeff Astle and Tony Hateley as apprentices , who would both go on to have long careers in the First Division . Lawton agreed to go without his wages for six months so as to improve the club 's finances . County were relegated at the end of the 1957 – 58 season , finishing one point short of safety , and Lawton was sacked . He received a total of just three months pay for his time at the club , having only a verbal offer of a three @-@ year contract to fall back on , and nothing in writing .

After being sacked as Notts County manager , Lawton ran the Magna Charta public house in Lowdham from October 1958 . An employee stole £ 2 @,@ 500 from the business and Lawton decided to leave the pub trade after four years . He then took up a job selling insurance . He returned to football management with Kettering Town for the 1963 – 64 season as a caretaker following the resignation of Wally Akers , but the season ended with Kettering being relegated from the Southern League Premier Division . He was offered the job on a permanent basis , but turned it down so as to concentrate on his job as an insurance salesman . He lost his job in insurance in 1967 , and then opened a sporting goods shop that bore his name after going into partnership with a friend , but was forced to close the business after just two months due to poor sales . After a period on unemployment benefits he found work at a betting company in Nottingham .

He returned to Notts County to work as a coach and chief scout from 1968 to 1970 . He was sacked after new manager Jimmy Sirrel decided to appoint his own backroom staff , and Lawton returned to unemployment . In May 1970 , he wrote to Chelsea chairman Richard Attenborough asking for a loan of £ 250 and for possible employment ; Attenborough lent him £ 100 . He was interviewed by Eamonn Andrews on ITV 's Today programme on his fall from England star to the unemployment line . After his financial troubles became public knowledge he was offered a lucrative job as director of his own subsidiary furniture company by a large furnishing company on Tottenham Court Road , however the company went into liquidation the following year . He continued to write cheques in the company 's name , and in June 1972 pleaded Guilty to seven charges of obtaining goods and cash by deception . He was sentenced to three years probation , and ordered to pay £ 240 compensation and £ 100 in costs .

In 1972 a testimonial match was organised by Everton on Lawton 's behalf to help him pay off his debts of around £ 6 @,@ 000 . However his financial situation was still bleak , and on two occasions he narrowly avoided a prison sentence for failing to pay his rates after an Arsenal supporters club and later an anonymous former co @-@ worker stepped in to pay the bill for him . In August 1974 , he was again found Guilty of obtaining goods by deception after failing to repay a £ 10 debt to a publican , and was sentenced to 200 hours of Community service and ordered to pay £ 40 costs . In 1984 he began writing a column for the Nottingham Evening Post . Brentford also organised a testimonial match for him in May 1985 .

Lawton 's health deteriorated in his old age and he died in November 1996 , aged 77 , as a result of pneumonia . His ashes were donated to the National Football Museum . He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2003 .

= = Personal life = =

Lawton married Rosaleen May Kavanagh in January 1941 ; the marriage bore one child , Amanda . Rosaleen never watched Lawton play football during their ten @-@ year marriage . Divorce was granted with a decree nisi in March 1951 after Rosaleen was found to have committed adultery with Notts County director Adrian Van Geffen ; Lawton never saw Amanda again and was not required to pay child support . He would not hear from his daughter until she was convicted of stealing from playwright George Axelrod in 1968 , by which time Rosaleen was on her fourth marriage and living in Jamaica . Lawton married second wife Gladys Rose in September 1952 , who bore him a son , Thomas Junior . Gladys was also divorced , and her ex @-@ husband cited Lawton as a co @-@ respondent in the divorce proceedings as the pair had begun their relationship whilst Gladys was still married ; her family were staunch Catholics , and Gladys was ostracised by her family following her divorce . Gladys had a daughter , Carol , from her previous marriage , who Lawton raised as his own . Thomas Junior went on to play rugby union for Leicester Tigers .

He starred alongside Thora Hird and Diana Dors in 1953 film The Great Game , playing himself in a cameo role . Throughout the 1950s he went on to appear on What 's My Line ? amongst other radio and television programmes . He published a total of four books : Tommy Lawton 's all star football book ( 1950 ) , Soccer the Lawton way ( 1954 ) , My Twenty Years of Soccer ( 1955 ) , and When the Cheering Stopped ( 1973 ) .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Club playing statistics = = =

Sourced from Tommy Lawton profile at the English National Football Archive ( subscription required )

= = = International playing statistics = = =

Sourced from Tommy Lawton profile at the England Football Online website

= = = Managerial statistics = = =

Sourced from Tommy Lawton profile at the English National Football Archive ( subscription required )

Notes

Statistics at Kettering Town not recorded .

= = Honours = =

England

British Home Championship winner : 1938 – 39 ( shared ) , 1946 – 47 , 1947 – 48

Everton

Football League First Division champion : 1938 – 39

Notts County

Football League Third Division South champion : 1949 – 50

Arsenal

Charity Shield winner : 1953

Kettering Town

Southern Football League champion : 1956 – 57

= = = Specific = = =

= = = General = = =

= Trials and Tribble @-@ ations =

" Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " is the 104th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the sixth episode of the fifth season . It was written as a tribute to the original series of Star Trek , in the 30th anniversary year of the show ; sister series Voyager produced a similar episode , " Flashback " . The idea for the episode was suggested by René Echevarria , and Ronald D. Moore suggested the link to " The Trouble with Tribbles " . The pair were credited for their work on the teleplay , with the story credit going to Ira Steven Behr , Hans Beimler and Robert Hewitt Wolfe .

Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) and the crew travel back in time to prevent the assassination of Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) of the USS Enterprise by a Klingon using a booby @-@ trapped tribble .

Moore had originally suggested re @-@ visiting the planet seen in The Original Series episode " A Piece of the Action " but was convinced by Echevarria that the digitally inserted shots previously seen in Forrest Gump ( 1994 ) could be done on a small budget . After a test shot was completed , the rest of the production team were also convinced that it could be achieved . The budget was set at $ 3 million , with extensive work completed on matching the film techniques used during The Original Series .

Some original costumes were found for the Klingons while others were made from patterns created by Robert Blackman . Greg Jein created new models of the Enterprise as well as Deep Space Station K7 and the Klingon cruiser , while 1 @,@ 400 tribbles were purchased from a company owned by Majel Barrett . Charlie Brill returned to Star Trek to appear once more as Arne Darvin , and Deidre L. Imershein was cast in part due to her being friends with one of the production crew members . Walter Koenig , who portrayed Ensign Pavel Chekov in The Original Series , showed the Deep Space Nine cast how to work the consoles on the Enterprise sets .

" Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was warmly received by critics with praise directed at the nostalgia and level of detail seen on screen . It was the most watched episode of the fifth season . " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was nominated in three Primetime Emmy Award categories and for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation but did not win any awards . It was released on VHS initially alongside " The Trouble with Tribbles " , and later as part of the normal release schedule . It was subsequently released as part of the season five DVD set .

= = Plot = =

On board Deep Space Nine , Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) is being queried by Department of Temporal Investigations agents Dulmer ( Jack Blessing ) and Lucsly ( James W. Jansen ) . The Captain explains that he was on the USS Defiant , returning from Cardassian space with the Bajoran Orb of Time . They had picked up a hitchhiker on the way , a human called Barry Waddle . Suddenly the ship found itself some 200 light years away from its previous location and a hundred years in the past , near Deep Space Station K7 and found the USS Enterprise in orbit . They discover that the hitch @-@ hiker was Arne Darvin ( Charlie Brill ) , a Klingon agent who had previously been caught by Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) on K7 whilst trying to poison a shipment of grain .

Fearing that Darvin may be attempting to assassinate Kirk , the crew dress in period uniforms and investigate the Enterprise . They attempt to interact with history as little as possible whilst investigating Darvin . The crew does not initially recognize the Klingons of the time period , and when Worf ( Michael Dorn ) is asked about the difference in appearance , he replies that the matter is not discussed with outsiders ( this is further expanded on in the Star Trek : Enterprise episodes " Affliction " and " Divergence " ) . Doctor Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) and Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) get involved in a bar brawl between the Enterprise crew and a number of Klingons on shore leave . Captain Kirk disciplines them on the Enterprise alongside Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) and Ensign Pavel Chekov ( Walter Koenig ) . Bashir and O 'Brien notice that the ship is covered with tribbles . Lieutenant Commander Worf ( Michael Dorn ) and Odo ( René Auberjonois ) trail Darvin as he returns to the Defiant . There , Darvin admits that he planted a bomb in a tribble to kill Kirk .

Sisko and Lieutenant Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) board the Enterprise but can find no trace of a bomb . They travel to K7 , and scans indicate that the bomb is in the grain storage compartments . They enter the compartments and discover that the poisoned grain has all been eaten by tribbles , who are now all dead . Suddenly Captain Kirk opens the compartment and is covered in falling tribbles . Dax and Sisko find the bomb before it can kill Kirk and the Defiant transports it into space where it explodes . The crew of the Defiant use the Bajoran Orb to travel back to the present time , and Sisko finishes explaining the situation to the Temporal Agents . The episode ends with Quark ( Armin Shimerman ) in his bar on Deep Space Nine 's promenade , with numerous tribbles around him .

= = Production = =

= = = Premise and writing = = =

As the 30th anniversary of Star Trek was approaching , a number of plans were being put into place . The film Star Trek : First Contact was entering production , a television special was planned to celebrate the franchise and George Takei had been cast to appear in the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Flashback " . Producer Ira Steven Behr later recalled that he thought that Deep Space Nine might end up being missed out as he considered it to be the " middle child " of the franchise . However , Rick Berman contacted Behr and asked him if he would be interested in doing something to celebrate the anniversary . Behr agreed to discuss it with the staff writers . Initially , there was concern that if the proposed episode aired during the actual anniversary week ( around September 8 ) , that it would have to serve as the season opener , pre @-@ empting the already planned opener .

The writers discussed potential ideas . Ronald D. Moore had previously brought back Montgomery Scott for the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Relics " and since Takei was appearing in Voyager , they felt that having a member of the main cast from The Original Series return would be repetitive . Some consideration was given by Moore to sending the DS9 crew to the gangster @-@ type planet visited by Kirk in the episode " A Piece of the Action " . It was René Echevarria who suggested a time @-@ travel episode , which was seen as an expensive proposition . Echevarria , however , pressed for the idea . Moore suggested inserting the DS9 crew into " The Trouble with Tribbles " , suggesting it could resolve the question of why a constant stream of tribbles kept hitting Kirk in the head .

When the discussion came to inserting the DS9 crew into the bar @-@ brawl scene , Berman liked the idea but was unsure if it could actually be done . Visual effects supervisor Gary Hutzel created test footage and screened it for Behr and Moore , who thought that it was simply footage from the original episode . Once Hutzel revealed that an additional security officer had been seamlessly added to the sequence , the episode was green @-@ lit . During the scripting process , " The Trouble with Tribbles " was regularly consulted , so the writers could decide where to insert characters . The Temporal Agents , Dulmer and Lucsly , were so named as they were anagrams of Mulder and Scully from The X @-@ Files .

Original " Tribbles " creator David Gerrold was contacted by The New York Times , who wanted to interview him about the anniversary and the rumored " tribbles " episode . When he questioned Berman about the episode , Berman initially denied it . Gerrold responded that he didn 't want to embarrass anyone , but would like to be able to endorse the project . Berman asked what the endorsement would cost , to which Gerrold requested public acknowledgement of his work and to be cast as an extra in the episode . Berman agreed . Gerrold compared inserting new footage into an existing episode to Back to the Future Part II ( 1989 ) and later said that he would have gone in a different direction had he written the story . Nonetheless , he felt the final product ended up being better than anything he would have created .

= = = Directing , cinematography and music = = =

A number of directors were considered for the episode , with Jonathan West being given the job . West had previously been the cinematographer on staff for both Deep Space Nine and The Next Generation , as well as directing several episodes of the franchise . He had nine days of preparation time before shooting began . He sought to match the same production values as The Original Series but found that lighting style and color saturation to film had changed in the intervening years . Visual effects supervisor Dan Curry directed some of the second @-@ unit sequences , and together with West and cinematographer Kris Krossgrove worked to rectify these issues . This was achieved by switching to a finer grain of film , by utilizing different lenses as well as by shooting from specific angles . With Gerrold on set as an extra , West used him as an unofficial advisor on matching the scenes from " The Trouble with Tribbles " .

The actual digital insertion of actors was conducted in the same manner as seen in the film Forrest Gump ( 1994 ) . The original footage was remastered , and was seen as such an improvement that it inspired the subsequent clean @-@ up and re @-@ release of all of " Original Series " episodes . This remaster was conducted by Hutzel and was the first transfer since 1983 , when a version was created for VHS and laser disc release . Hutzel identified 19 scenes from " The Trouble with Tribbles " which were matched in " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " . The scene matching between the new footage and the old took nine weeks to complete with a budget of $ 3 million . It involved both two @-@ dimensional and three @-@ dimensional tracking shots as well as insertion of matte shots and the use of both blue and green screens for the actors . Not all shots seen in the episode were actually taken from " The Trouble with Tribbles " . The scene where Sisko meets Kirk on the bridge towards the end of the episode was instead taken from the episode " Mirror , Mirror " .

Due in part to the special effects , the costuming , the set re @-@ constructions and the residual payments to The Original Series cast , Behr later described " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " as " probably the most expensive hour of episodic TV ever produced " . The only member of The Original Series cast who was spoken to directly by the producers was Leonard Nimoy , who was enthusiastic about the idea and was surprised that it had taken them so long to come up with the idea . The remaining cast members were each contacted through Paramount 's legal department . Dennis McCarthy wanted to re @-@ work the Jerry Fielding score previously used on " The Trouble with Tribbles " . He said that he intended to use the production equipment and orchestra available to bring the score up to the same scale previously seen on Deep Space Nine . However , the producers wanted a new score and so McCarthy explained that he composed it in a Fielding @-@ inspired mindset . The only piece that was directly re @-@ recorded by McCarthy was the Alexander Courage " Theme from Star Trek " , which involved a 45 piece orchestra .

= = = Design and makeup = = =

Art director Randy McIlvain led the set re @-@ creation for the Enterprise and K7 , describing the excitement over working on the episode as " contagious " . McIlvain spent a fair amount of time getting the window angles correct on the sets . Mike Okuda re @-@ created the graphics seen on the Enterprise sets using a computer , whilst others were re @-@ drawn by artist Doug Drexler . Some sets were not re @-@ created in full , such as the bridge , which required parts of it to be later added digitally . The captain 's chair from the bridge re @-@ creation was later one of the Star Trek items to be auctioned by Christie 's . Set designer Laura Richarz watched " The Trouble with Tribbles " carefully looking for small details to replicate on the new sets , such as the legs of benches in the bar on K7 . However , she said her biggest challenge was tracking down the chairs seen on the space station . She contacted John M. Dwyer , who had worked on the original episode . He explained to her that the company which created the original chairs had gone out of business . After searching shops selling retro furniture , the production team found a single chair that matched those seen in the original episode . It was purchased and a mold was made to create more chairs . The actors were impressed when they saw the resulting sets , with Terry Farrell exclaiming " Wow , we 're on the Enterprise ! "

Greg Jein had already been working on a new model of the USS Excelsior for the " Flashback " episode of Voyager when he saw the test footage for " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " . He promised to make a new model of the Enterprise too , but warned that he didn 't know when he would have time to do it . He actually started work on it immediately , and together with his colleagues he not only built a 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) long model of the Enterprise , but created a new model of Deep Space Station K7 and the Klingon cruiser as well . The Enterprise model was the first to be built of the original Star Trek starship in more than 30 years . Other props were also recreated , with around 1 @,@ 400 tribbles created for the various scenes . They were purchased from Lincoln Enterprises , a company set up by Majel Barrett , widow of Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry . The rest of the era @-@ specific props were newly created , and were made by Steve Horsch .

Costume designer Robert Blackman was concerned over the re @-@ creation of the Klingon uniforms seen in The Original Series as he thought that the metallic material used would be nearly impossible to create accurately . He was subsequently relieved to have found four original costumes and an additional shirt in the costume archives , calling them a " godsend " . His team created patterns from other costumes to remake them . Make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore had previously worked on a television series during the 1960s and recalled what type of make @-@ up was available at the time . He had the team restrict themselves to techniques of that era to ensure that the DS9 crew blended properly into the scenes . The hairstyles of the crew were also meant to be reminiscent of The Original Series , with Alexander Siddig sporting a style previously seen on James Doohan . René Auberjonois said that his new hairstyle reminded him of Jerry Lee Lewis .

= = = Filming and casting = = =

The cast and crew were enthusiastic on set , with editor Steve Tucker calling it a " giddy party " . Behr said of the cast and crew in the episode that " They all were having fun . Just sitting on those sets , being on that bridge , it was a hoot , a real hoot . " Deidre L. Imershein was brought in at the last minute to play Lt. Watley , as she was a friend of one of the production crew and had previously appeared as a Risan pleasure girl in The Next Generation episode " Captain 's Holiday " . She was brought in because none of the actresses the producers had seen during the casting process could say the role 's one line ( " Deck 15 " ) convincingly enough . Her involvement led to the role 's being expanded into a second scene where she was revealed to be Bashir 's great @-@ grandmother .

Charlie Brill returned to film new scenes as Klingon agent Arne Darvin , while original series writer Gerrold was allowed to appear as an extra in two scenes as a crewman from the Enterprise . In one of those scenes he was holding an original tribble from " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Walter Koenig was on hand as well during the filming of the episode to teach the DS9 actors how the consoles were operated on the Enterprise . Koenig later commented that he was paid eight times as much for this and the residual payment as he had been for the original episode . A string of other visitors came to the set during filming , including Majel Barrett and former The Next Generation producer ( and TOS co @-@ producer ) Bob Justman .

= = Reception = =

Before the episode was shown , a half @-@ hour special was shown on the Sci Fi Channel about the making of " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " on November 2 , 1996 . Paramount also promoted the episode by arranging the placement of around 250 @,@ 000 tribbles in subways and buses across the United States . It received Nielsen ratings of 7 @.@ 7 % , placing it in sixth place in the timeslot . This meant that it had been watched by 7 @.@ 7 % of all households . It was the most watched episode of the fifth season during its initial broadcast . The last time the series had received similar ratings was nearly a year earlier with season four 's " Little Green Men " .

Two reviewers watched the episode for Tor.com. Torie Atkinson described " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " as a " perfect episode " , and " one of the best Star Trek episodes ever made , in any series . " She praised the humour and the references , and found Dax in her role as a stand @-@ in for fans of The Original Series . She gave the episode a score of six out of six . Eugene Myers wasn 't disappointed following the hype about the episode , saying that it was " steeped in nostalgia " . He thought that the bomb @-@ in @-@ a @-@ tribble plot was ingenious and allowed the episode to step outside of merely being good due to the success of " The Trouble with Tribbles " . His favourite scene was the constant stream of tribbles hitting Kirk in the head because Sisko and Dax were throwing them out of the grain compartment while looking for the bomb . He also gave the episode a score of six out of six .

Zack Handlen in his review for The A.V. Club , called the episode a " delight " and a " lark " . He thought that having Brill film new scenes showed some continuity between the old and the new , and thought that the special effects worked well enough . He summed it up by saying , " It 's not tightly plotted , and once the initial rush of nostalgia fades , there isn 't a lot of depth or suspense to replace it . But there are laughs , more than enough to justify the experiment , and the nostalgia never fades away entirely . " In the book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos , Jon Wagner and Jan Lundeen compared the temporal agents seen in " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " to the police detectives seen in the television series Dragnet . Gem Wheeler , in her list of the best episodes of Deep Space Nine for website Den of Geek , listed " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " as the sixth best . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was placed in 32nd place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .

" Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was nominated for three Creative Arts Emmy Awards in the Outstanding Art Direction for a Series , Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects . However , it was not successful in any of those categories . It was also nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , as " The Trouble with Tribbles " had been in 1968 .

= = Home media release = =

The tie @-@ in novelization of " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was written by Diane Carey and published by Pocket Books . In 1998 , a " Talking Tribble Gift Set " was released which contained both " The Trouble with Tribbles " and " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " on VHS . " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " was first released in the normal run of VHS issues as part of a two episode cassette alongside " The Assignment " in the United Kingdom on October 1 , 1999 . A single episode release followed in the United States and Canada on July 10 , 2001 . It was released on DVD as part of the season five box set on October 7 , 2003 .

= Tintin in the Congo =

Tintin in the Congo ( French : Tintin au Congo ; French pronunciation : ​ [ tɛ ̃ tɛn o kɔ ̃ go ] ) is the second volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from May 1930 to June 1931 before being published in a collected volume by Éditions de Petit Vingtième in 1931 . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy , who are sent to the Belgian Congo to report on events in the country . Amid various encounters with the native Congolese people and wild animals , Tintin unearths a criminal diamond smuggling operation run by the American gangster Al Capone .

Following on from Tintin in the Land of the Soviets and bolstered by publicity stunts , Tintin in the Congo was a commercial success within Belgium and was also serialised in France . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Tintin in America in 1932 , and the series subsequently became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1946 , Hergé re @-@ drew and coloured Tintin in the Congo in his distinctive ligne @-@ claire style for republication by Casterman , with further alterations made at the request of his Scandinavian publisher for a 1975 edition . In the late 20th century , Tintin in the Congo came under criticism for both its perceived racist colonial attitude toward the Congolese and for its glorification of big @-@ game hunting ; accordingly , attempts were made in Belgium , Sweden , the United Kingdom , and the United States to either ban the work or restrict its availability to children . Critical reception of the work has been largely negative , with commentators on The Adventures of Tintin describing it as one of Hergé 's weakest works .

= = Synopsis = =

Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy travel to the Belgian Congo , where a cheering crowd of native Congolese greet them . Tintin hires a native boy , Coco , to assist him in his travels , and shortly after , Tintin rescues Snowy from a crocodile . A criminal stowaway attempts to kill Tintin , but monkeys throw coconuts at the stowaway that knock him unconscious . A monkey kidnaps Snowy , but Tintin saves him .

The next morning , Tintin , Snowy , and Coco crash their car into a train , which the reporter fixes and tows to the village of the Babaorum tribe . He meets the king , who accompanies him on a hunt the next day . A lion knocks Tintin unconscious , but Snowy rescues him by biting off its tail . Tintin gains the admiration of the natives , making the Babaorum witch @-@ doctor Muganga jealous . When he cures a man using quinine , he is hailed as a Boula Matari ( " Breaker of rocks " ) . With the help of the criminal stowaway , Muganga accuses Tintin of destroying the tribe 's sacred idol . The enraged villagers imprison Tintin , but then turn against Muganga when Coco shows them footage Tintin had made of the witch @-@ doctor and the stowaway conspiring to destroy the idol . Tintin becomes a hero in the village , and a local woman bows down to him , saying , " White man very great ! Has good spirits ... White mister is big juju man ! "

Angered , Muganga starts a war between the Babaorum and their neighbours , the M 'Hatuvu , whose king leads an attack on the Babaorum village . Tintin outwits them , and the M 'Hatuvu cease hostilities and come to idolise Tintin . Muganga and the stowaway plot to kill Tintin and make it look like a leopard attack , but Tintin survives and saves Muganga from a boa constrictor ; Muganga pleads mercy and ends his hostilities . The stowaway attempts to capture Tintin again and eventually succeeds disguised as a Catholic missionary . They fight across a waterfall , and the stowaway is eaten by crocodiles . After reading a letter from the stowaway 's pocket , Tintin finds that someone called " A.C. " has ordered his elimination . Tintin captures a criminal who tried to rendezvous with the stowaway and learns that " A.C. " is the American gangster Al Capone , who is trying to gain control of African diamond production . Tintin and the colonial police arrest the rest of the diamond smuggling gang and Tintin and Snowy return to Belgium .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was employed as editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a staunchly Roman Catholic , conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels . Run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez , the paper described itself as a " Catholic Newspaper for Doctrine and Information " and disseminated a far @-@ right , fascist viewpoint . According to Harry Thompson , such political ideas were common in Belgium at the time , and Hergé 's milieu was permeated with conservative ideas revolving around " patriotism , Catholicism , strict morality , discipline , and naivety " .

In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , a series about the exploits of a fictional Belgian reporter named Tintin . Following the success of Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , serialised weekly in Le Petit Vingtième from January 1929 to May 1930 , Hergé wanted to send Tintin to the United States . Wallez insisted he write a story set in the Belgian Congo , then a Belgian colony and today the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Belgian children learned about the Congo in school , and Wallez hoped to encourage colonialist and missionary zeal in his readership . He believed that the Belgian colonial administration needed promotion at a time when memories " were still fairly fresh " of the 1928 visit to the colony by the Belgian King Albert and Queen Elisabeth . He also hoped that some of his readers would be inspired to work in the Congo .

Hergé characterised Wallez 's instructions in a sarcastic manner , saying Wallez referred to the Congo as " our beautiful colony which has great need of us , tarantara , tarantaraboom " . He already had some experience in illustrating Congolese scenes ; three years previously , Hergé had provided two illustrations for the newspaper that appeared in an article celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of Henry Morton Stanley 's expedition to the Congo . In one of these , Hergé depicted a native Congolese bowing before a European , a scene that he repeated in Tintin in the Congo .

As in Land of the Soviets , where Hergé had based his information about the Soviet Union almost entirely on a single source , in Tintin in the Congo he used limited source material to learn about the country and its people . He based the story largely on literature written by missionaries , with the only added element being that of the diamond smugglers , possibly adopted from the " Jungle Jim @-@ type serials " . Hergé visited the Colonial Museum of Tervuren , examining their ethnographic collections of Congolese artefacts , including costumes of the Leopard Men . He adopted hunting scenes from André Maurois 's novel The Silence of Colonel Bramble , while his animal drawings were inspired by Benjamin Rabier 's prints . He also listened to tales of the colony from some of his colleagues who had been there , but disliked their stories , later claiming : " I didn 't like the colonists , who came back bragging about their exploits . But I couldn 't prevent myself from seeing the Blacks as big children , either . "

= = = Original publication , 1930 – 31 = = =

Tintin in the Congo was serialised under the French title of Tintin au Congo in Le Petit Vingtième from 5 May 1930 to 11 June 1931 ; it was syndicated to the French Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants . Drawn in black and white , it followed the same formula employed in Land of the Soviets , remaining " essentially plotless " according to Michael Farr , and consisting of largely unrelated events that Hergé improvised each week . Hergé later commented on the process of writing these early adventures , stating , " The Petit Vingtième came out on Wednesday evening , and I often didn 't have a clue on Wednesday morning how I was going to get Tintin out of the predicament I had put him in the previous week . " The strip 's visual style was similar to that of Land of the Soviets . In the first instalment of Tintin in the Congo , Hergé featured Quick and Flupke , two young boys from Brussels whom he had recently introduced in another Le Petit Vingtième comic strip , in the crowd of people saying goodbye to Tintin .

Like Land of the Soviets , Tintin in the Congo was popular in Belgium . On the afternoon of 9 July 1931 , Wallez repeated the publicity stunt he had used when Soviets ended by having a young actor , Henry de Doncker , dress up as Tintin in colonial gear and appear in Brussels and then Liège , accompanied by 10 African bearers and an assortment of exotic animals hired from a zoo . Co @-@ organised with the Bon Marché department store , the event attracted 5 @,@ 000 spectators in Brussels . In 1931 , Brussels @-@ based Éditions de Petit Vingtième collected the story together into a single volume , and Casterman published a second edition in 1937 . By 1944 the book had been reprinted seven times , and had outsold each of the other seven books in the series . The series ' success led Wallez to renegotiate Hergé 's contract , giving him a higher salary and the right to work from home .

= = = Second version , 1946 = = =

In the 1940s , after Hergé 's popularity increased , he redrew many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin stories in colour using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed , so that they fitted in visually with the newer Adventures of Tintin that he had produced . Hergé first made some changes in this direction in 1940 , when the story was serialised in the Flemish @-@ language Het Laatste Nieuws .

At Casterman 's prompting , Tintin in the Congo was subsequently fully re @-@ drawn , and the new version was published in 1946 . As a part of this modification , Hergé cut the page length from 110 plates to the standard 62 pages , as suggested by the publisher Casterman . He also made several changes to the story , cutting many of the references to Belgium and colonial rule . For example , in the scene where Tintin teaches Congolese school children about geography , he states in the 1930 – 31 version , " My dear friends , today I 'm going to talk to you about your country : Belgium ! " whereas in the 1946 version , he instead gives them a mathematics lesson . Hergé also changed the character of Jimmy MacDuff , the owner of the leopard that attacks Tintin , from a black manager of the Great American Circus into a white " supplier of the biggest zoos in Europe . "

In the 1946 colour version , Hergé added a cameo appearance from Thomson and Thompson , the two detectives that he had introduced in the fourth Tintin story , Cigars of the Pharaoh ( 1932 – 34 ) , which was chronologically set after the Congolese adventure . Adding them to the first page , Hergé featured them in the backdrop , watching a crowd surrounding Tintin as he boards a train and commenting that it " Seems to be a young reporter going to Africa ... " In the same frame , Hergé inserted depictions of himself and his friend Edgar P. Jacobs ( the book 's colourist ) into the crowd seeing Tintin off .

= = = Later alterations and releases = = =

When Tintin in the Congo was first released by the series ' Scandinavian publishers in 1975 , they objected to page 56 , where Tintin drills a hole into a live rhinoceros , fills it with dynamite , and blows it up . They asked Hergé to replace this page with a less violent scene , which they believed would be more suitable for children . Hergé agreed , as he regretted the scenes of big @-@ game hunting in the work soon after producing it . The altered page involved the rhinoceros running away unharmed after accidentally knocking down and triggering Tintin 's gun .

Although publishers worldwide had made it available for many years , English publishers refused to publish Tintin in the Congo because of its racist content . In the late 1980s , Nick Rodwell , then agent of Studios Hergé in the United Kingdom , told reporters of his intention to finally publish it in English and stated his belief that publishing the original 1931 black and white edition would cause less controversy than releasing the 1946 colour version . After more delay , in 1991 — sixty years after its original 1931 publication — it was the last of The Adventures of Tintin to see publication in English . The 1946 colour version appeared in English in 2005 , published by Egmont .

= = Critical analysis = =

Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline believed that Hergé 's drawing became more assured throughout the first version of the story without losing any of its spontaneity . He thought that the story began in " the most inoffensive way " , and that throughout the story Tintin was portrayed as a Boy Scout , something he argued reflected Hergé 's " moral debt " to Wallez . Biographer Benoît Peeters opined that Tintin in the Congo was " nothing spectacular " , with some " incredibly cumbersome " monologues , but he thought the illustrations " a bit more polished " than those in Land of the Soviets . Believing the plot to be " extremely simple " , he thought that Tintin 's character was like a child manipulating a world populated by toy animals and lead figurines . Michael Farr felt that , unlike the previous Tintin adventure , some sense of a plot emerges at the end of the story with the introduction of the American diamond @-@ smuggling racket . Philippe Goddin thought the work to be " more exciting " than Land of the Soviets and argued that Hergé 's depiction of the native Congolese was not mocking but a parody of past European militaries . By contrast , Harry Thompson believed that " Congo is almost a regression from Soviets " , in his opinion having no plot or characterisation ; he described it as " probably the most childish of all the Tintin books . " Simon Kuper of the Financial Times criticised both Land of the Soviets and Tintin in the Congo as the " worst " of the Adventures , opining that they were " poorly drawn " and " largely plot @-@ free " .

Farr saw the 1946 colour version as poorer than the black and white original ; he said it had lost its " vibrancy " and " atmosphere " , and that the new depiction of the Congolese landscape was unconvincing and more like a European zoo than the " parched , dusty expanses of reality " . Peeters took a more positive attitude towards the 1946 version , commenting that it contained " aesthetic improvements " and " clarity of composition " because of Hergé 's personal development in draughtsmanship , as well as an enhancement in the dialogue , which had become " more lively and fluid . "

In his psychoanalytical study of the series , Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès highlighted that in the Congolese adventure , Tintin represented progress and the Belgian state was a model for the natives to imitate . In doing so , he argued , they could become more European and thus civilised from the perspective of Belgian society , but that instead they ended up appearing as parodies . Opining that Tintin was imposing his own view of Africa onto the Congolese , Apostolidès remarked that Tintin appeared as a god @-@ figure , with evangelical overtones in the final scene . Literary critic Tom McCarthy concurred that Tintin represented the Belgian state , but also suggested that he acted as a Christian missionary , even being " a kind of god " akin to the character of Kurtz in Joseph Conrad 's Heart of Darkness ( 1899 ) . McCarthy compared the scene where Tintin exposes Muganga as a fraud to that in which the character of Prospero exposes the magician in William Shakespeare 's The Tempest .

= = Criticism = =

= = = Racism = = =

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries , several campaigners and writers characterised Tintin in the Congo as racist due to its portrayal of the Congolese as infantile and stupid . According to Tom McCarthy , Hergé depicted the Congolese as " good at heart but backwards and lazy , in need of European mastery . " There had been no such controversy when originally published , because it was only following the Wind of Change and decolonisation , which occurred during the 1950s and 1960s , that Western attitudes towards indigenous Africans shifted . Harry Thompson argued that one must view Tintin in the Congo in the context of European society in the 1930s and 1940s , and that Hergé had not written the book to be " deliberately racist " . He argued that it reflected the average Belgian view of Congolese people at the time , one that was more " patronising " than malevolent . Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès supported this idea , as did biographer Benoît Peeters , who asserted , " Hergé was no more racist than the next man . " After meeting Hergé in the 1980s , Farr commented , " You couldn 't have met someone who was more open and less racist . "

Contrastingly , biographer Pierre Assouline stated that in 1930s Belgium , Hergé would have had access to literature by the likes of André Gide and Albert Londres that was critical of the colonial regime . Assouline claimed that Hergé instead chose not to read such reports because they conflicted with the views of his conservative milieu . Laurence Grove — President of the International Bande Dessinée Society and an academic at the University of Glasgow — concurred , remarking that Hergé adhered to prevailing societal trends in his work , and that " [ w ] hen it was fashionable to be a colonial racist , that 's what he was . " Comic book historian Mark McKinney noted that other Franco @-@ Belgian comic artists of the same period had chosen to depict the native Africans in a more favourable light , citing the examples of Jijé 's 1939 work Blondin et Cirage ( Blondy and Shoe @-@ Black ) , in which the protagonists are adopted brothers , one white , the other black , and Tif et Tondu , which was serialised in Spirou from 1939 to 1940 and in which the Congolese aid the Belgians against their American antagonists .

Farr and McCarthy stated that Tintin in the Congo was the most popular Tintin adventure in Francophone Africa . According to Thompson , the book remained hugely popular in the Congo even after the country achieved independence in 1960 . Nevertheless , government figures in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) have criticised the book . In 2004 , after the Belgian Minister of Foreign Affairs Karel De Gucht described President Joseph Kabila 's provisional DRC government as incompetent , Congolese Information Minister Henri Mova Sakanyi accused him of " racism and nostalgia for colonialism " , remarking that it was like " Tintin in the Congo all over again . " De Gucht refused to retract his statement .

In July 2007 , British human rights lawyer David Enright complained to the United Kingdom 's Commission for Racial Equality ( CRE ) that he came across the book in the children 's section of Borders bookshop while shopping with his wife and two sons . The CRE called on bookshops to remove the comic , stating that it contained " hideous racial prejudice " by depicting Congolese who " look like monkeys and talk like imbeciles . " Responding that it was committed to letting its " customers make the choice " , Borders moved the book to an area reserved for adult graphic novels . UK bookseller Waterstone 's followed suit . Another British retailer , WHSmith , said that the book was sold on its website , but with a label that recommended it for readers aged 16 and over . The CRE 's attempt to ban the book was criticised by Conservative Party politician Ann Widdecombe , who remarked that the organisation had more important things to do than regulate the availability of historical children 's books . The media controversy increased interest in the book , and Borders reported that its sales of Tintin in the Congo had been boosted 4 @,@ 000 % , while it also rose to eighth on the Amazon.com bestseller list . Publisher Egmont UK also responded to racism concerns by placing a protective band around the book with a warning about its content and writing an introduction describing its historical context .

Tintin in the Congo also came under criticism in the United States ; in October 2007 , in response to a complaint by a patron , the Brooklyn Public Library in New York City placed the graphic novel in a locked back room , only permitting access by appointment . Tintin in the Congo became part of a drawn @-@ out media debate in Sweden after national newspaper Dagens Nyheter reported the removal of Tinin in the Congo from a children 's library in Kulturhuset in Stockholm in September 2011 . The incident , nicknamed " Tintin @-@ gate " , led to heated discussions in mainstream and social media concerning accusations of racism and censorship .

In August 2007 , Congolese student Bienvenu Mbutu Mondondo filed a complaint in Brussels , claiming that the book was an insult to the Congolese people and required banning . Public prosecutors investigated and initiated a criminal case . The matter was eventually transferred to a civil court in April 2010 . Mondondo 's lawyers argued that Tintin in the Congo amounted to " a justification of colonisation and of white supremacy " , and Mondondo called it " racist and xenophobic " . Alain Berenboom , lawyer for both Moulinsart , the company which controls Hergé 's estate , and Casterman , the book 's publisher , argued that the cartoonist 's depiction of the Congolese " wasn 't racism but kind paternalism " . He said that banning it would set a dangerous precedent for the availability of works by other historical authors , such as Charles Dickens or Jules Verne , which contain similar stereotypes of non @-@ white ethnicities . The court ruled in February 2012 that the book would not be banned , deciding that it was " clear that neither the story , nor the fact that it has been put on sale , has a goal to ... create an intimidating , hostile , degrading , or humiliating environment " , and that it therefore did not break Belgian law . Belgium 's Centre for Equal Opportunities warned against " over @-@ reaction and hyper political correctness " . Shortly after , Swedish @-@ Belgian Jean @-@ Dadaou Monyas filed a similar complaint , which was supported by Afrosvenskarna , an interest group for Swedes of African descent . The complaint to the Chancellor of Justice was turned down as violations of hate speech restrictions in the Swedish Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression must be filed within one year of publication , and the latest Swedish edition of Tintin in the Congo appeared in 2005 .

The South African comics writer Anton Kannemeyer has parodied the perceived racist nature of the book to highlight what he sees as the continuing racist undertones of South African society . In his Pappa in Afrika ( 2010 ) , a satire of Tintin in the Congo , he portrays Tintin as an Afrikaner with racist views of indigenous Africans .

= = = Hunting and animal cruelty = = =

Tintin in the Congo shows Tintin taking part in what Michael Farr described as " the wholesale and gratuitous slaughter " of animals ; over the course of the Adventure , Tintin shoots several antelope , kills an ape to wear its skin , rams a rifle vertically into a crocodile 's open mouth , injures an elephant for ivory , stones a buffalo , and ( in earlier editions ) drills a hole into a rhinoceros before planting dynamite in its body , blowing it up from the inside . Such scenes reflect the popularity of big @-@ game hunting among whites and affluent visitors in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa during the 1930s . Hergé later felt guilty about his portrayal of animals in Tintin in the Congo and became an opponent of blood sports ; when he wrote Cigars of the Pharaoh ( 1934 ) , he had Tintin befriend a herd of elephants living in the Indian jungle .

Philippe Goddin stated that the scene in which Tintin shoots a herd of antelope was " enough to upset even the least ecological reader " in the 21st century . When India Book House first published the book in India in 2006 , that nation 's branch of the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals issued a public criticism , and chief functionary Anuradha Sawhney stated that the book was " replete with instances that send a message to young minds that it is acceptable to be cruel to animals . "

= Andrew Johnston ( singer ) =

Andrew Johnston ( born 23 September 1994 ) is a British singer who rose to fame when he appeared as a boy soprano on the second series of the UK television talent show Britain 's Got Talent in 2008 . Although he did not win the competition , he received a contract to record with Syco Music , a label owned by the Britain 's Got Talent judge Simon Cowell . Johnston 's debut album , One Voice , was released in September of the same year , and reached number four on the UK Albums Chart . Although Johnston originally performed as a treble , his voice has since matured to baritone , and he is now a member of the National Youth Choir .

Johnston was born in Dumfries , Scotland , and his parents separated when he was an infant . He and his mother moved to Carlisle , where they lived in " poverty " . He became head chorister at Carlisle Cathedral , and was bullied at school because of his love of classical music . While some journalists have argued Britain 's Got Talent producers took advantage of Johnston 's background , others have hailed his story as inspirational . In 2009 , he graduated from Trinity School . Johnston now studies full @-@ time at the Royal Northern College of Music .

= = History = =

= = = Early life and Carlisle Cathedral Choir = = =

Johnston was born on 23 September 1994 in Dumfries , Scotland , the son of Andrew Johnston and Morag Brannock . He was given the extensive name Andrew Aaron Lewis Patrick Brannock John Grieve Michael Robert Oscar Schmidt Johnston . Johnston 's parents separated when he was eight months old , and from that time he lived with his mother and three older siblings in Carlisle , Cumbria , in the north of England , where he attended Trinity School . Johnston tried out for Carlisle Cathedral Choir at the age of six at the recommendation of Kim Harris , a teacher at his primary school . He was auditioned by the choirmaster Jeremy Suter and accepted into the choir at the age of seven . Johnston 's mother , who had no previous association with the cathedral , described her feelings of being overwhelmed by emotion at having her boy singing in such a " stunning building among those extraordinary voices " . His mother also described Johnston 's busy regimen of practice four times a week and all day Sundays , saying that it took up all of their spare time . However , she said that the cathedral staff became like a family to her son , and that " it was such a lovely , safe , close feeling for him " . Johnston , who attended Trinity School , was subject to abuse and threats from bullies which drove him to contemplate quitting the choir , but he was helped through the ordeal by his choirmaster and the dean and canons of the cathedral . By the time of his participation in Britain 's Got Talent , Johnston was head chorister .

In September 2008 , after his appearance on Britain 's Got Talent but before the release of his first album , Johnston embarked on a tour of Norway with the choir , performing at Stavanger Cathedral and Utstein Abbey , among other places . The tour was conceived because the Diocese of Stavanger is connected with the Diocese of Carlisle through the Partnership for World Mission . This was Johnston 's last tour with the choir . Johnston features as head chorister on one of the choir 's albums , The Choral Music of F.W Wadely , released in November 2008 .

= = = Britain 's Got Talent = = =

Johnston was entered as a competitor in the second series of Britain 's Got Talent by his mother . He passed the first public audition , singing " Pie Jesu " from Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Requiem . Amanda Holden , one of the competition 's judges , was brought to tears , and the audience offered Johnston a standing ovation . Johnston was tipped as the favourite to win the competition . Later , Johnston described his initial audition as daunting , saying that " it was scary singing in front of 2 @,@ 500 people . I had never sang on stage before – then there was also Simon , Amanda and Piers " . He won his semi @-@ final heat on 27 May 2008 , receiving the most public votes on the night and thereby qualifying for the final . He sang " Tears in Heaven " by Eric Clapton ; judge Holden told him he had " a gift from God in [ his ] voice " . At the final on 30 May , he again sang " Pie Jesu " . He finished in third place , behind the winner , the street dancer George Sampson and runners @-@ up , the dance group Signature . Johnston left the stage in tears , later saying that he " was upset . But when you see the talent that was there , it was an honour just to be in the final " . The day after the final , Cowell 's publicist Max Clifford said that it was " quite possible " that Cowell would be offering record contracts to some of the finalists , including Johnston . Johnston and other contestants then embarked on a national arena tour .

During his initial audition , Johnston claimed that he was bullied and victimised from the age of six because of his singing . When asked how he dealt with the issue , he stated " I carry on singing . " There were claims in the Daily Mail , a UK @-@ based tabloid newspaper , that the programme 's producers had deliberately overstated the extent of Johnston 's bullying as a " sob story " , suggesting that sympathy rather than his singing got him many of the votes . However , in The Times , Johnston 's success story was described as " the stuff of fairytales " , as he was successful despite having been raised in " poverty " . Johnston said he did not talk about being bullied because he was told to do so by producers , but " because I believed it would help people who were going through what I had gone through be stronger " . Johnston has subsequently visited schools and elsewhere to help other victims of bullying . He said " I want to use my experience of bullies to help other kids " .

= = = One Voice = = =

On 12 June 2008 , while Johnston was travelling with the Britain 's Got Talent Live Tour , it was announced that Johnston had signed a record deal with Syco Music , a division of Sony BMG , and that his first album would be produced after the tour . The deal was reportedly for £ 1 million . After signing with Syco , Johnston made public appearances , including performing at Andrew Lloyd Webber 's birthday celebrations on 14 September , and at Carlisle United 's Brunton Park .

Johnston 's debut album , One Voice , was released on 29 September 2008 . It includes a cover of " Walking in the Air " , performed with Faryl Smith . The album was recorded over a six @-@ week period in London , and the track listing was chosen by Cowell . Johnston described the recording process as " brilliant " , and that it was " really good – just to be in a recording studio and meet the different people " . The album debuted in the British charts at number five , and finished the week at number four . The album was later certified gold , having sold 100 @,@ 000 copies , and Johnston was presented a gold disc by daytime television presenter Penny Smith . Critics responded positively to the album , with Kate Leaver , writing for the Korea JoongAng Daily , saying Johnston " has truer talent than hordes of his musical elders " and that " the vulnerability " of Johnston 's performance on the album " makes for a haunting musical experience " . In Music Week , the album was described as " highly @-@ anticipated " , and Johnston was called " exceptionally @-@ talented " .

After the album 's release , Johnston became involved in the Sing Up campaign , appearing in schools around the country to encourage other young people to join choirs . In December 2008 , Johnston made a guest appearance at Whitehaven 's Christmas fair , and performed at a carol service in Bradford . Johnston was also invited to turn on the Carlisle Christmas lights and perform at the celebrations . Mike Mitchelson , of Carlisle City Council , described Johnston as " one of our local heroes " .

= = = Hiatus and 2010s = = =

In September 2009 , Johnston announced that he would be taking a year off from singing as his voice had broken , changing him to a tenor . He had previously performed as a treble . He said " the tutors at [ the Royal Northern College of Music ] said they 'll be able to train my voice up again . It 's the same as it ever was , just deeper " . Johnston 's voice then changed from a tenor to a baritone . After remaining out of the spotlight for two years , he joined the National Youth Choir , saying " I 'm just another lad in there – no one focuses on Britain 's Got Talent and I 'm happy about that " . In 2011 , he was awarded a Royal School of Church Music Gold medal ; public performances that year included a charitable concert , alongside organists John Bromley and Tony Green , at St Paul 's Church , Helsby in November .

In September 2013 , Johnston began to study for a Bachelor of Music degree at the Royal Northern College of Music , under the tutelage of Jeff Lawton , who had previously tutored him at the Junior College . He immediately joined the college 's Chamber Choir and the Manchester Cathedral choir , but said that he intended to still sing with the Carlisle Cathedral choir where possible . While a student , Johnston 's singing was adversely affected by a broken nose , the result of an unprovoked attack in a Carlisle nightclub on New Year 's Day , 2014 .

= = Personal life = =

Johnston 's family home is in Stanwix , Carlisle . His mother , Morag Brannock , worked for the Office for National Statistics before giving up her job to support her son 's career . Prior to his Britain 's Got Talent appearances , he attended Trinity School , and later received tuition from a personal tutor . Johnston said that he " had a lot of support from local people when ... taking part in Britain 's Got Talent " , and was given a civic award for outstanding achievement by Carlisle City Council in March 2009 .

Johnston 's interests include jujitsu , in which he has a black belt . The Carlisle newspaper News and Star reported in September 2012 that Johnston had become the youngest person in the world to be granted a licence to teach the sport .

= = Discography = =

Studio albums

= Illinois ( Sufjan Stevens album ) =

Illinois ( styled Sufjan Stevens Invites You To : Come On Feel the Illinoise on the cover ; sometimes written as Illinoise ) is a 2005 concept album by American indie folk songwriter Sufjan Stevens . It is his fifth studio album , and features songs referencing places , events , and persons related to the U.S. state of Illinois . Illinois is Stevens ' second based on a U.S. state — part of a planned series of fifty that began with the 2003 album Michigan that Stevens has since acknowledged was a gag .

Stevens recorded and produced the album at multiple venues in New York City using low @-@ fidelity studio equipment and a variety of instruments between late 2004 and early 2005 . The artwork and lyrics explore the history , culture , art , and geography of the state — Stevens developed them after analyzing criminal , literary , and historical documents . Following a July 4 , 2005 release date , Stevens promoted Illinois with a world tour .

Critics praised the album for its well @-@ written lyrics and complex orchestrations ; in particular , reviewers noted Stevens ' progress as a songwriter since the release of Michigan . Illinois was named the best @-@ reviewed album of 2005 by review aggregator Metacritic , and was included on several reviewers ' " best of the decade " lists — including those of Paste , NPR , and Rolling Stone . The album amounted to Stevens ' greatest public success to date : it was his first to place on the Billboard 200 , and it topped the Billboard list of " Heatseekers Albums " . The varied instrumentation and experimental songwriting on the album invoked comparisons to work by Steve Reich , Neil Young , and The Cure . Besides numerous references to Illinois history , geography , and attractions , Stevens continued a theme of his songwriting career by including multiple references to his Christian faith .

= = Background , recording , and tour = =

Stevens launched his 50 @-@ state project in 2003 with the album Michigan and chose to focus on Illinois with this recording because " it wasn 't a great leap " , and he liked the state because he considered it the " center of gravity " for the American Midwest . Before creating the album , Stevens read literature by Illinois authors Saul Bellow and Carl Sandburg , and studied immigration records and history books for the state — he made the deliberate decision to avoid current events and focused on historical themes . He also took trips through several locations in Illinois and asked friends and members of Internet chat rooms for anecdotes about their experiences in the state . Although he began work in 2004 on Oregon @-@ themed songs and briefly considered releasing a Rhode Island 7 " , Stevens has since not released another album focused on a state , saying in a November 2009 interview with Paste that " the whole premise was such a joke , " and telling Andrew Purcell of The Guardian in October 2009 " I have no qualms about admitting [ the fifty states project ] was a promotional gimmick . " An Arkansas @-@ related song was released through NPR as " The Lord God Bird " and material intended for New Jersey and New York became The BQE .

All of the songs on Illinois were written , recorded , engineered , and produced by Stevens , with most of the material being recorded at The Buddy Project studio in Astoria , Queens , and in Stevens ' Brooklyn apartment . As with his previous albums , Stevens recorded in various locations , with additional piano recorded in St. Paul 's Church in Brooklyn ; strings and vocals performed in collaborators ' apartments ; electronic organ recorded in the New Jerusalem Recreational Room in Clarksboro , New Jersey ; and vibraphone played at Carroll Music Studios in New York City . Stevens mostly created the album without collaboration , focusing on the writing , performance , and technical creation of the album by himself : " I was pretty nearsighted in the construction of Illinois . I spent a lot of time alone , a few months in isolation working on my own and in the studio . I let things germinate and cultivate independently , without thinking about an audience or a live show at all . "

Stevens employed low @-@ fidelity recording equipment , which allowed him to retain creative control and keep costs low on recording Illinois . Typically , his process involved recording to 32 kHz 8 @-@ track tape using inexpensive microphones such as the Shure SM57 and AKG C1000 . He then employed Pro Tools for mixing and other production tasks .

After consulting with Michael Kaufmann and Lowell Brams of Asthmatic Kitty about the amount of material he had recorded , Stevens decided against a double album , saying that would be " arrogant " . In 2006 , several tracks recorded during these sessions were sent to Seattle @-@ based musician and producer James McAllister for additional instrumentation and production , and were released in 2006 on the follow @-@ up album The Avalanche : Outtakes and Extras from the Illinois Album . Among these outtakes are three separate recordings of the song " Chicago " — including the " Multiple Personality Disorder Version " , which was produced during a subsequent tour . The " Adult Contemporary Easy Listening Version " of the song was supposed to appear on the Illinois album , but was changed at the last minute .

Illinois was released on July 4 , 2005 , through Rough Trade Records in Europe and was distributed domestically by Asthmatic Kitty Records starting July 5 , 2005 . Although he initially had no plans to perform this material live , less than two weeks after the release of Illinois , Stevens embarked on a North American tour to promote the album , performing with a string section of eight to ten members named the Illinoisemakers . He deliberately chose to avoid television as a promotional tool and focused on the tour performances themselves . He was supported on some dates by opening acts Liz Janes ( who is also signed to Asthmatic Kitty ) and Laura Veirs as well as Illinois collaborator Shara Nova 's solo project My Brightest Diamond . He toured in support of the album again from September through November 2006 , this time including dates in several European cities . During the 2006 dates , Stevens and his band transitioned from wearing University of Illinois @-@ themed outfits to butterfly suits and bird wings .

= = Musical style and thematic elements = =

Reviewers have noted similarities between this album and those of musicians and composers in several musical genres — from pop to contemporary classical , even show tunes and jazz @-@ based time signatures . The lyrics and their rich thematic elements have been noted for their literary quality , earning comparisons to Ralph Waldo Emerson , Henry David Thoreau , William Carlos Williams , and Walt Whitman .

= = = Musical style = = =

Reviewers of Illinois have compared Stevens ' style to Steve Reich , Vince Guaraldi , the Danielson Famile , Neil Young , Nick Drake , and Death Cab for Cutie . Stevens ' use of large orchestral arrangements in his music — much of it played by himself through the use of multi @-@ track recording — has been noted by several reviewers . Rolling Stone summarized the musical influences of Illinois , saying " the music draws from high school marching bands , show tunes and ambient electronics ; we can suspect Steve Reich 's Music for 18 Musicians is an oft @-@ played record in the Stevens household , since he loves to echo it in his long instrumental passages . " A review in The A.V. Club referred to some of the vocal work as " regressively twee communalism " , but found Stevens ' music overall to be " highly developed " . The song " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " uses a saxophone part from " Close to Me " by The Cure .

The creation of Illinois marked a shift in Stevens ' emphasis on songwriting and studio work toward live performance and more abstract concepts of motion and sound — subsequent tours and albums emphasized electronic music and modern dance over the indie folk material on Michigan and Illinois . He has ceased writing songs about individual characters with straightforward narratives or concept albums and briefly considered quitting the music business entirely after creating and promoting this album . He also found that the way in which he listened to music had changed after producing Illinois :

I think now I listen more as a technician and a researcher . I 'm always hearing music in terms of what I can take out of it , and I think I 've always listened like that . I have a hard time just listening for pleasure . I 'm much less about instinct , and more of a utilitarian listener . Like , what is the use of this song ? What is the usefulness of this melody for this theme or statement ? What are they doing that 's unusual sounding , and how can I learn from that ?

Stevens is a classically trained oboist and his knowledge of classical and baroque music influenced many of his arrangements . Stevens himself has noted the influence of composers Igor Stravinsky , Sergei Rachmaninoff , and Edvard Grieg ; along with contemporary composers Terry Riley , Steve Reich , and Philip Glass . The music on this album was written to be grandiose , to match the history of the territory . Stevens used time signature changes in the composition of Illinois for dynamic effect — for instance , " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " begins with a 5 / 4 time signature and then changes to a standard 4 / 4 later in the song .

= = = Illinois themes = = =

Many of the lyrics in Illinois make references to persons , places , and events related to the state of the same name . " Concerning the UFO Sighting Near Highland , Illinois " is about a UFO sighting by police officers near Highland , Illinois , where several persons reported seeing a large triangular object with three lights flying at night . " Come on ! Feel the Illinoise ! " makes reference to the World 's Columbian Exposition , which took place in Chicago in 1893 .

" John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " documents the story of the 1970s Chicago @-@ based serial killer of the same name . Several lyrics make explicit references to events in his life : " [ w ] hen the swingset hit his head " refers to an event in Gacy 's childhood , when a swing hit his head and caused a blood clot in his brain ; " He dressed up like a clown for them / with his face paint white and red " alludes to the nickname given to Gacy — the " Killer Clown " ; and " He put a cloth on their lips / Quiet hands , quiet kiss on the mouth " references Gacy 's use of chloroform to subdue and molest his victims . The song ends with the narrator turning inward with the lyrics : " And in my best behavior , I am really just like him / Look beneath the floorboards for the secrets I have hid . " Stevens stated in a 2009 interview with Paste that " we 're all capable of what [ Gacy ] did . "

" Casimir Pulaski Day " interweaves a personal story with the state holiday Casimir Pulaski Day . " The Man of Metropolis Steals Our Hearts " makes references to Superman , whose fictional hometown of Metropolis was partially modeled after Chicago ( the town of Metropolis , Illinois has also capitalized on this association ) . Jessica Hopper of the Chicago Reader noted that Ray Middleton — who was the first actor to play the comic book superhero — was also born in Chicago . " They Are Night Zombies ! ! They Are Neighbors ! ! They Have Come Back from the Dead ! ! Ahhhh ! " makes references to ghost towns of Illinois . Stevens relates experiences from a summer camp he went to as a child in Michigan for " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades Is Out to Get Us ! " , but moved the locale to Illinois for the sake of the album . The track " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! " includes references to Decatur , Illinois , but Stevens stated the track also acted as " an exercise in rhyme schemes " . Some references to Decatur included in the song were alligator sightings in the area , the equipment manufacturer Caterpillar , and a flood that exhumed a graveyard of soldiers from the Civil War .

Other allusions to the state 's people , places , and events include the Black Hawk War , author Carl Sandburg , Stephen A. Douglas , Abraham Lincoln , the Sangamon River , the Chicago Cubs , the Sears Tower dubbed " Seer 's Tower " ( now called Willis Tower ) , and the localities of Jacksonville , Peoria , Metropolis , Savanna Caledonia , Secor , Magnolia , Kankakee , Evansville , and the several locations named Centerville , Illinois . During the tour following the release of Illinois , Stevens ' band wore cheerleader outfits based on those of the University of Illinois .

= = = Christianity = = =

Although Illinois is a concept album about the U.S. state , Stevens also explored themes related to Christianity and the Bible . As a Christian , he has written and recorded music about spiritual themes throughout his career — particularly on the 2004 album Seven Swans — and prefers to talk about religious topics through song rather than directly in interviews or public statements . The song " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! " includes the line " It 's the great I Am " — taken from the response God gave when Moses asked for his name in the Book of Exodus ( Exodus 3 : 14 ) . " Casimir Pulaski Day " describes the death of a girlfriend due to bone cancer , and the narrator questions God in the process . More abstract allusions appear in " The Man of Metropolis Steals Our Hearts " , which utilizes Superman as a Christ figure and " The Seer 's Tower " , which references the Book of Revelation and the Second Coming of Christ . Songs which were not written with an explicit theological focus — such as " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " — also feature religious themes such as sin and redemption .

= = Artwork = =

Divya Srinivasan created the album artwork , depicting a variety of Illinois @-@ related themes , including Abraham and Mary Todd Lincoln , the Sears Tower , and Black Hawk . The album cover reads , " Sufjan Stevens Invites You To : Come On Feel the Illinoise ! " as a wordplay on the common mispronunciation of the state 's name as " ill @-@ i @-@ NOYZ " and a reference to the Slade song " Cum On Feel the Noize " made famous in the United States by the metal band Quiet Riot . The text on the cover caused some confusion over the actual title of the album — it is officially titled Illinois , as opposed to Come on Feel the Illinoise or Illinoise . Paste listed Illinois as having the seventh best album art of the decade 2000 – 2009 . The album also won the PLUG Independent Music Award for Album Art / Packaging of the Year in 2006 .

Shortly after the release of the album , reports arose that DC Comics had issued a cease and desist letter to Asthmatic Kitty because of the depiction of Superman on the cover . However , on October 4 , 2005 , Asthmatic Kitty announced that there had been no cease and desist letter ; the record company 's own lawyers had warned about the copyright infringement . On June 30 , 2005 , Asthmatic Kitty 's distributor Secretly Canadian asked its retailers not to sell the album ; however , it was not recalled . On July 5 , the distributor told its retailers to go ahead and sell their copies , as DC Comics agreed to allow Asthmatic Kitty to sell the copies of the album that were already manufactured , but the image was removed from subsequent pressings . Soon after it was made public that the cover would be changed , copies of the album featuring Superman were sold for as high as $ 75 on eBay . On the vinyl edition released on November 22 , 2005 , Superman 's image is covered by a balloon sticker . The image of the balloon sticker was also used on the cover of the Compact Disc and later printings of the double vinyl release . Stevens himself was surprised by the development and also had to pay a fee for referencing lyrics from Woody Guthrie 's folk anthem " This Land Is Your Land " in the track " No Man 's Land " , which was later released on The Avalanche .

The 10th anniversary vinyl reissue of Illinois features the Marvel character Blue Marvel , who hails from Chicago , in place of Superman . Asthmatic Kitty obtained permission from Marvel to use the character 's likeness .

= = Reception = =

Illinois was Sufjan Stevens ' greatest commercial and critical success to date . For the first time , his work charted on the Billboard 200 and received several awards from critics .

= = = Sales figures and chart performance = = =

In its first week of sales , Illinois sold 9 @,@ 000 copies , 20 % coming from online sales . Overall , the album sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies by November 2005 and over 300 @,@ 000 by the end of 2009 . It was the first Sufjan Stevens release to place on the Billboard 200 , reaching No. 121 within eight weeks on the chart . It also placed number one on Billboard 's " Heatseekers Albums " list and number four on the " Independent Albums " list , remaining on them for 32 and 39 weeks respectively .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Critical reception of Illinois was overwhelmingly positive . Review aggregator Metacritic compiled 40 critic reviews of Illinois and gave the album a 90 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , designating it the best @-@ reviewed album of 2005 . Andy Battaglia of The A.V. Club said that Stevens " has grown into one of the best song @-@ makers in indie rock " with the album . Tim Jonze of NME called Illinois " a brainy little fucker " and described Stevens as " prolific , intelligent and — most importantly — brimming with heart @-@ wrenching melodies . " Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone responded favorably to the album , praising the " over @-@ the @-@ top arrangements " and Stevens ' " breathy , gentle voice " . Sheffield criticized " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " , stating that it " symbolizes nothing about American life except the existence of creative @-@ writing workshops " , but elsewhere praised the personal nature of songs such as " Chicago " and " Casimir Pulaski Day " . Michael Metivier of PopMatters described " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " as " horrifying , tragic , and deeply sad without proselytizing . " Amanda Petrusich of Pitchfork Media described Illinois as " strange and lush , as excessive and challenging as its giant , gushing song titles . " Dave Simpson of The Guardian echoed this sentiment by saying that the music sounds like " The Polyphonic Spree produced by Brian Eno . " The diversity in instrumentation also received a positive review from Entertainment Weekly 's Kristina Feliciano .

Jesse Jarnow of Paste praised the playful nature of Illinois , commenting that it had " sing @-@ song " melodies and " jaunty " orchestrations . Jarnow also noted ironic lyrics , citing a line from " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades is Out to Get Us ! " : " I can 't explain the state I 'm in ... " after a section of the song that references many Illinois landmarks . Q called Illinois a " sizeable step forward " from Michigan , and said Stevens ' love for the state of Illinois is infectious . Uncut 's Andy Gill dubbed the album " an extraordinary achievement " . Catherine Lewis of The Washington Post responded favorably to the album , stating that it has well @-@ written lyrics , comparing Stevens ' rhyming to that of Stephin Merritt . Lewis cited " Casimir Pulaski Day " as one of the most memorable songs of the album .

= = = Accolades = = =

Illinois achieved lasting fame with inclusion on numerous reviewers ' " best of the year " and " best of the decade " lists . In particular , the album topped the best of the decade list appearing in the November 2009 issue of Paste and NPR named Illinois on their list of " The Decade 's 50 Most Important Recordings " . Pitchfork Media called Illinois the sixteenth best album of the decade , with Stevens ' previous album — Michigan — placing 70 on that same list . The album also won the 2005 New Pantheon Award — a type of Shortlist Music Prize . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Finally , Paste listed Stevens as one of their " 100 Best Living Songwriters " in 2006 , primarily due to the writing on Michigan and Illinois .

= = Track listing = =

Note that the titles of the songs vary slightly from the Compact Disc , digital , and vinyl releases . Full titles come directly from the vinyl album and have been adapted to the English capitalization standards .

All songs written and composed by Sufjan Stevens and published by New Jerusalem Music , ASCAP .

= = Personnel = =

Sufjan Stevens – acoustic guitar ; piano ; Wurlitzer ; bass guitar ; drums ; electric guitar ; oboe ; alto saxophone ; flute ; banjo ; glockenspiel ; accordion ; vibraphone ; alto , sopranino , soprano , and tenor recorders ; Casiotone MT @-@ 70 ; sleigh bells ; shaker ; tambourine ; triangle ; electronic organ ; vocals ; arrangement ; engineering ; recording ; production

Julianne Carney – violin

Alan Douches – mastering at West West Side Music , Tenafly , New Jersey

Jon Galloway – remixing on " Chicago " ( To String Remix )

Marla Hansen – viola

The Illinoisemaker Choir – backing vocals and clapping on " The Black Hawk War , or , How to Demolish an Entire Civilization and Still Feel Good About Yourself in the Morning , or , We Apologize for the Inconvenience but You 're Going to Have to Leave Now , or , ' I Have Fought the Big Knives and Will Continue to Fight Them Until They Are Off Our Lands ! ' " , " Chicago " , " The Man of Metropolis Steals Our Hearts " , " They Are Night Zombies ! ! They Are Neighbors ! ! They Have Come Back from the Dead ! ! Ahhhh ! " , and " The Tallest Man , the Broadest Shoulders "

Tom Eaton

Jennifer Hoover

Katrina Kerns

Beccy Lock

Tara McDonnell

Maria Bella Jeffers – cello

Katrina Kerns – backing vocals on " Concerning the UFO Sighting Near Highland , Illinois " , " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " , " Jacksonville " , " Prairie Fire That Wanders About " , " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades Is Out to Get Us ! " , " The Seer 's Tower " , " The Tallest Man , the Broadest Shoulders " , and " The Avalanche "

James McAlister – drums , drum engineering

Craig Montoro – trumpet , backing vocals on " They Are Night Zombies ! ! They Are Neighbors ! ! They Have Come Back from the Dead ! ! Ahhhh ! "

Rob Moose – violin

Matt Morgan – backing vocals on " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! "

Daniel and Elin Smith – backing vocals and clapping on " Decatur , or , Round of Applause for Your Stepmother ! "

Divya Srinivasan – artwork

Shara Worden – backing vocals on " Concerning the UFO Sighting Near Highland , Illinois " , " Come On ! Feel the Illinoise ! " , " John Wayne Gacy , Jr . " , " Casimir Pulaski Day " , " Prairie Fire That Wanders About " , " The Predatory Wasp of the Palisades Is Out to Get Us ! " , " The Seer 's Tower " , " The Tallest Man , the Broadest Shoulders " , and " The Avalanche "

= Mycena galericulata =

Mycena galericulata is a mushroom species commonly known as the common bonnet , the toque mycena , or the rosy @-@ gill fairy helmet . The type species of the genus Mycena was first described scientifically in 1772 , but was not considered a Mycena until 1821 . It is quite variable in color , size , and shape , which makes it somewhat difficult to reliably identify in the field . The mushrooms have caps with distinct radial grooves , particularly at the margin . The cap 's color varies from grayish @-@ brown to dark brown and the shape ranges from bell @-@ like to bluntly conical to flattened with an umbo . The stem is hollow , white , tough and thin , without a ring and often roots deeply into the wood on which it grows . The gills are white to grayish or even pinkish when mature and are connected by distinct cross @-@ veins . The caps can reach 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , and have a mealy odor and taste . The spore print is white and the gills are pink at maturity , which can lead to possible confusion with species of the Pluteus genus . M. galericulata mushrooms grow mostly in clusters on the well @-@ decayed stumps of deciduous and coniferous trees from spring to autumn . The species can generally be considered inedible . It is common and widespread in the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere , but it has also been reported from Africa .

= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =

The fungus was first described scientifically as Agaricus galericulatus by Italian mycologist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1772 , and sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum . That same year , Samuel Frederick Gray transferred the species to the genus Mycena . Synonyms for the species include Agaricus conicus named by William Hudson in 1778 , Agaricus crispus described by August Johann Georg Karl Batsch in 1893 , Stereopodium galericulatum by Franklin Sumner Earle in 1909 , and Prunulus galericulatus by William Alphonso Murrill in 1916 .

Mycena galericulata is the type species of the genus Mycena . It is classified in section Mycena of Mycena in the infrageneric scheme of Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus . In the older ( 1947 ) classification of Alexander H. Smith , he placed it in the subgenus Eumycena , section Typicae — " a most monotonous series of blackish , brown , gray , bluish @-@ gray , or brownish @-@ gray species mostly with ascending gills and generally large to moderate stature . "

The specific epithet galericulata is derived from the Latin galer , and means " with a small hat " . Gray called it the " helmetted high @-@ stool " . It is commonly known as the " common bonnet " , the " toque mycena " , or the " rosy @-@ gill fairy helmet " .

= = Description = =

The cap of M. galericulata is roughly conical when young , and eventually becomes broadly bell @-@ shaped or with a broad umbo that can reach diameters of 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The cap margin is initially somewhat curved inward , but soon evens out or even becomes uplifted , and often splits radially in age . The surface has radial grooves that extend nearly to the center , and feels greasy but not sticky . The color is somewhat buff @-@ brown on the margin , and fades gradually to pale dirty tan to dirty cinnamon @-@ brown . The flesh is thick in the center of the cap and tapers evenly to the margin , and is watery gray , with a cartilage @-@ like texture . The odor and taste are mildly to strongly farinaceous ( similar to the smell of freshly ground flour ) , to radish @-@ like .

The gills are narrowly attached ( adnexed ) to broadly attached or sinuate . The gill spacing ranges from close to somewhat distantly spaced , with 26 – 36 gills reaching the stem ; there are additionally three or four tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend completely from the cap margin to the stem ) . The gills are strongly intervenose ( possessing cross @-@ veins ) , moderately broad ( 5 – 7 mm ) , white or grayish white , soon flushed with pale pink , with even edges . The stem is 5 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , 2 – 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 16 in ) thick , equal in width throughout , and with a cartilaginous texture . It is hollow , not hairy , either smooth or twisted with longitudinal striations , often with a long pseudorrhiza ( a subterranean elongation of the stem ) at the base . The stem color is pale grayish @-@ white on the upper portion , and pale grayish @-@ black below ; the base becomes somewhat dirty brown in age , but does not develop reddish stains .

Mycena galericulata produces a white spore print . The spores are ellipsoid , 8 – 10 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 μm , and amyloid — which means they will turn blue @-@ black to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) have stout sterigmata , and measure 34 – 40 by 7 – 9 μm . They may be either two @-@ spored or four @-@ spored . There are numerous club @-@ shaped to rounded cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) , that measure 32 – 40 by 8 – 12 μm ; their apices or the entire enlarged portion bear rodlike projections that become increasingly elongated and branched in age . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) . The gill tissue has a very thin cuticle , under which is a narrow hypoderm , while the remainder of the tissue comprises densely matted tufts of mycelia , and stains deep vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of the four @-@ spored forms .

= = = Edibility = = =

Opinions on the edibility of the mushroom vary . One source considers them to have a " delicate flavor and texture " , and suggests that they are good when " stewed gently in their own juice and then seasoned with salt , pepper and butter . " Others list the species as inedible , and notes that they have a " mildly rancid " smell , and with a taste ranging from rancid to farinaceous . Another says " unknown , but not recommended . " At any rate , the species falls into the general category of brownish Mycenas that are generally unappetizing as food due to their small size and delicate consistency .

= = = Similar species = = =

The winter bonnet ( M. tintinnabulum ) is a northern European species that is much smaller ( cap diameter up to 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) across ) and has a brown cap , and has ragged hairs at the base . It generally appears in late autumn to early winter on the stumps of deciduous trees , especially beech . It has pip @-@ shaped spores that are smaller than M. galericulata , around 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 8 µm . M. maculata develops pink stains on its gills as it matures ; its spores are 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm . Another similar species is M. inclinata , which can be distinguished by gills bearing reddish spots , which may become entirely red with age . It also has whitish , slender , threadlike flecks on the stalk . M. parabolica is thinner , and more fragile . Another Mycena that grows in clusters on decaying hardwoods is M. haematopus , but this species has a vinaceous @-@ brown cap with a scalloped margin , and a stem that bleeds reddish @-@ brown juice when injured . M. excisa closely resembles M. galericulata , but can be distinguished microscopically by the presence of both smooth and roughened cystidia ( bearing finger @-@ like projections ) .

= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =

Mycena galericulata is saprobic , and grows on decaying hardwood and softwood sticks , chips , logs , and stumps . It can also grow from submerged wood , which may give it a terrestrial appearance . It typically grows in small clusters or sometimes singly . The fungus fruits from late spring to early winter . A study of litter @-@ decomposing fungi in a coniferous forest in Finland showed that M. galericulata produces extracellular hydrolytic enzymes in the humus and eluvial soil , including β @-@ glucosidase , β @-@ xylosidase , α @-@ glucosidase , butyrate esterase and sulphatase . The enzymes form complexes with inorganic and organic particles in the soil and break down ( depolymerize ) biopolymers such as cellulose , hemicellulose , and starch , which contributes to the cycling of carbon and nutrients . The presence of lead contamination in the soil decreases both the growth and the extracellular hydrolytic enzyme activity of M. galericulata .

Mycena galericulata is a very common and widely distributed species , found throughout the entire temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere . In the United States , it occurs throughout eastern North America and also along the Pacific Coast . It has also been collected in Edo State , Nigeria . Although the mushroom has occasionally been reported from Australia , these collections are probably based on misidentifications , and " Australian records of Mycena galericulata are best regarded as erroneous " .

= = = Cited literature = = =

Smith AH . ( 1947 ) . North American species of Mycena . Ann Arbor , Michigan : University of Michigan Press .

= Crash Boom Bang ! =

For the Roxette album with a similar name , see Crash ! Boom ! Bang !

Crash Boom Bang ! ( known in Japan as Crash Bandicoot Festival ) ( クラッシュ ・ バンディクー フェスティバル , Kurasshu Bandikū Fesutibaru ) is a party game developed by Dimps and published by Vivendi Universal Games in Japan and by Sierra Entertainment internationally for the Nintendo DS . It was released in Japan on July 20 , 2006 , in North America on October 10 , 2006 , in Europe on October 27 , 2006 , and in Australia on November 2 , 2006 . It is the only game in the Crash Bandicoot series to be developed by a Japanese company and the first to be released in Japan before North America . It was also the final game in the series to be released in Japan .

Crash Boom Bang ! is the first game to be released exclusively for the Nintendo DS , and the second party game of the series , after Crash Bash . The game 's story centers on a multi @-@ millionaire who uses the characters of the series to unearth a powerful object dubbed the " Super Big Power Crystal " . The game has received largely negative reception from reviewers , who criticized it for having unoriginal , dull gameplay and poor controls .

= = Gameplay = =

Crash Boom Bang ! ' s stages resemble board games , as each play area is split into a number of squares . The game takes place among four players , with the computer assigned to spare players . All players simultaneously roll dice . The number each player rolls is the amount of squares they move forward . Depending on the type of square that the player lands on , Wumpa Fruit ( which is used as points during the race ) can be won or lost , an item can be obtained , a special event might be triggered , or a mini @-@ game might commence . If a player lands on a fork in the road , the player will have to select the desired direction with either the stylus or the control pad .

In the Adventure Mode , the characters compete in a race for the Super Big Power Crystal . This race is made up of six stages , each containing smaller sub @-@ maps . The host of the race , the Viscount , sets a task for each stage . This task must be completed before the player can continue to another map . The player with the most points is the winner of the stage . The overall winner of all the stages is the winner of the Viscount 's race . In the Festival Mode , the gameplay is fundamentally the same as in the Adventure Mode , with the exception of the ability to select stages to play freely . In the My Room mode , the player 's character has his or her own private room in which he or she can either play minigames that have been collected in Adventure Mode , view a collection of items obtained in Adventure Mode , or create a Motion Panel , a unique in @-@ game communication tool can allow customized messages to be sent mid @-@ game to help friends or distract other players ' gameplay . The decorations in My Room is different for each character .

Crash Boom Bang ! features forty mini @-@ games that can be played alone or remotely against friends . Balance , timing , and intelligence are required to win these mini @-@ games . When a player is not taking part in a mini @-@ game , he or she can bet Wumpa Fruit on the winner . The player can help players that have been bet on or obstruct players that have not been bet on by using the Motion Panel . If the player has a special item , the player can access the Shop screen from the Bet screen and buy or sell items .

= = Plot = =

= = = Characters = = =

A number of characters from past Crash Bandicoot games return in Crash Boom Bang ! , though only eight are playable . The playable characters include Crash Bandicoot , Coco Bandicoot , Crunch Bandicoot , Pura , Doctor Neo Cortex , Tawna , Pinstripe Potoroo , and Fake Crash . All of the characters physically appear as they do in official Japanese Crash Bandicoot artwork and promotions ( which was the only Sierra Entertainment video game to be introduced the official Japanese Crash Bandicoot artwork and promotions ) , though Crash 's model was altered for the non @-@ Japanese releases to closer resemble his Crash Twinsanity model . The host of the party , the Viscount , is an original character designed specifically for the game . His name in the original Japanese version is " Viscount Devil " , a reference to the Tasmanian devil native to Australia . Other past characters make cameos in the game at one point or another , such as the Lab Assistants , Doctor N. Gin , Tiny Tiger , Doctor Nefarious Tropy and Polar . Aku Aku serves as the player 's tutor , while Uka Uka makes a cameo appearance as a purchaseable item in the shop .

= = = Story = = =

While developing a resort in Tasmania , the Viscount finds a map of an ancient city containing the fabled Super Big Power Crystal . He attempts to find it himself , but due to the large amount of puzzles , he fails miserably . In the resort , the Viscount decides to gather up the world 's cleverest and strongest bunch of characters and con them into finding the Crystal for him . He sends an invitation to Coco Bandicoot , inviting her and Crash to the World Cannonball Race , where the winner earns $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .

The race starts in Port Town , with the winners traveling in a boat to a large desert . Legend has it that four stone tablets are buried somewhere in the desert , and the contestants are sent out to dig for them and bring them to the Viscount . According to the stone tablets , the actual location of the Crystal is hidden somewhere on the ancient map . Before he can investigate the matter further , Doctor Neo Cortex swoops in and snatches the map . As the two struggle for the map , the map is torn to shreds .

Cortex sends his loyal Lab Assistants to find the pieces of the map scattered throughout the big City and bring them to him . Now that the contestants know about the map , the Viscount decides to reveal his true intentions : the Super Big Power Crystal can grant a single wish who whoever obtains it , and the Viscount is willing to give a large sum of money to those who help him find it . Finding the Power Crystal is impossible without the Final Key , so the Viscount boards his plane to travel to the North Atlantic Ocean in search for the Final Key . But the plane is full , and only a select number of the contestants are able to board . Propelled to the skies by an explosive volcano , the contestants are able to board the Viscount 's plane .

On the Viscount 's ship , the Viscount tells the group the story of an explorer who found the Final Key , but was unable to find the Power Crystal . That explorer was the Viscount 's grandfather . As the explorer sailed back to his homeland to recollect his thoughts , his ship crashed into an iceberg and sank , taking the Viscount 's grandfather to a watery grave . " Sounds like a movie " , remarks one of the attendees . The Viscount tells them to dive to the sunken ship and retrieve the Final Key , much to their shock , considering the near @-@ freezing temperatures . Despite this , the group is able to find the Final Key before freezing to death . With all the pieces of the puzzle at hand , the Viscount victoriously enters the Tower , where the Super Big Power Crystal awaits its owner . Just as the Viscount is about to make his wish , Crash steps forward and makes his wish of a large pile of Wumpa Fruit , much to the Viscount 's grief . " May peace prevail on Earth " , says Coco .

= = Development = =

On developing the mobile phone version of Crash Boom Bang ! , producer Elodie Larre described adapting a party game for the mobile phone as a " big challenge " . Not wanting to make " another multiplayer game where the players just pass the phone to each other " and hoping to attract both old and new fans of the series , the development team decided to integrate the mobile phone itself into the minigames , creating such minigame gimmicks as playing with one hand behind the back , with one eye closed , playing with the chin , etc . The biggest challenge for the team was keeping the minigames inside the phone 's memory , which was cited as slightly inferior to the first PlayStation console . The WarioWare series was described as an influence in making the game .

Crash Boom Bang ! is the first game in the series to exclusively feature the Japanese voice cast in all regional versions of the game . The voice cast includes Makoto Ishii in the dual role of Crash and Fake Crash , Risa Tsubaki as Coco , Yōsuke Akimoto as Doctor Cortex , Shinya Fukumatsu as Crunch , Akiko Toda as Tawna , Asuka Tanii as Pura , and Takahiro Yoshino as Pinstripe .

= = Reception = =

Crash Boom Bang ! received mostly negative reviews , with the game receiving an average ranking of 42 @.@ 45 % at Game Rankings , and a score of 37 out of 100 based on fourteen reviews at Metacritic . Frank Provo of GameSpot criticized the game for its dull minigames and purely cosmetic Crash license , citing that " apart from the way the characters look and the way the Nitro boxes explode , [ ... ] there isn 't a whole lot that 's Crash @-@ like about Crash Boom Bang ! " . Nintendo Power recommended the game only to die @-@ hard Crash fans and advised others to wait for Crash 's next outing . Lesley Smith of Eurogamer criticized the game for a number or reasons , including bad stylus recognition , boring gameplay , terrible graphics and rigged , repetitive mini @-@ games . IGN 's review was one of the most scathing , dubbing Crash Boom Bang ! " a terrible , terrible game with poor organization " and " easily one of the worst games on the system " . More middling reviews have come in from Official Nintendo Magazine , who felt the game was hampered by dodgy controls and a testing user interface , and Pocket Gamer 's Jon Jordan , who dismissed the game 's collection of minigames as " distinctly average and oddly passionless " . Despite the negative reception , Crash Boom Bang ! was the seventh best @-@ selling game in Australia on the week of June 4 to June 10 , 2007 .

= Grade I listed buildings in Somerset =

The Grade I listed buildings in Somerset , England , demonstrate the history and diversity of its architecture . The ceremonial county of Somerset consists of a non @-@ metropolitan county , administered by Somerset County Council , which is divided into five districts , and two unitary authorities . The districts of Somerset are West Somerset , South Somerset , Taunton Deane , Mendip and Sedgemoor . The two administratively independent unitary authorities , which were established on 1 April 1996 following the breakup of the county of Avon , are North Somerset and Bath and North East Somerset . These unitary authorities include areas that were once part of Somerset before the creation of Avon in 1974 .

In the United Kingdom , the term listed building refers to a building or other structure officially designated as being of special architectural , historical , or cultural significance ; Grade I structures are those considered to be " buildings of exceptional interest " . Listing was begun by a provision in the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 . Once listed , strict limitations are imposed on the modifications allowed to a building 's structure or fittings . In England , the authority for listing under the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 rests with English Heritage , a non @-@ departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture , Media and Sport ; local authorities have a responsibility to regulate and enforce the planning regulations .

Each of the districts include Norman- or medieval @-@ era churches , many of which are included in the Somerset towers , a collection of distinctive , mostly spireless Gothic architecture church towers . The prolific construction of the towers — some started before 1360 — was typically accomplished by a master mason and a small team of itinerant masons , supplemented by local parish labourers , according to Poyntz Wright . But other authors reject this model , suggesting instead that leading architects designed the parish church towers based on early examples of Perpendicular design and ornamentation developed for cathedrals — their most important commissions . Contract builders carried out the plans , adding a distinctive mix of innovative details and decorations as new designs emerged over the years . These are included in the List of towers in Somerset .

Apart from the churches , each area has its own characteristics . Most of Bath 's Grade I listed buildings are made from the local golden @-@ coloured Bath Stone , and date from the 18th and 19th centuries . Their dominant architectural style is Georgian . In the Mendip district , the greatest concentrations of these cluster around the cathedral and abbey in Wells and in Glastonbury . North Somerset features bridges and piers along with a selection of Manor houses . The Sedgemoor district has many buildings related to trade and commerce centered on Bridgwater ; while in South Somerset abbeys , priories and farmhouses predominate . Taunton Deane includes the defensive Taunton Castle , similarly Dunster Castle and related buildings in Dunster feature in West Somerset .

= = Bath and North East Somerset = =

Bath and North East Somerset ( commonly referred to as BANES or B & NES ) is a unitary authority created on 1 April 1996 , following the abolition of the County of Avon . Bath and North East Somerset occupies an area of 220 square miles ( 570 km2 ) , two @-@ thirds of which is green belt . BANES stretches from the outskirts of Bristol , south into the Mendip Hills and east to the southern Cotswold Hills and Wiltshire border . The city of Bath is the principal settlement in the district , but BANES also covers Keynsham , Midsomer Norton , Radstock and the Chew Valley . BANES has a population of 170 @,@ 000 , about half of whom live in Bath , making it 12 times more densely populated than the rest of the district .

Bath and North East Somerset has 663 Grade I listed buildings , one of the highest concentrations in the country , covered by about 100 English Heritage listings . The oldest sites within Bath are the Roman Baths , for which the foundation piles and an irregular stone chamber lined with lead were built during the Roman occupation of Britain , although the current building is from the 18th century . Bath Abbey was a Norman church built on earlier foundations , although the present building dates from the early 16th century and shows a late Perpendicular style with flying buttresses and crocketed pinnacles decorating a crenellated and pierced parapet . The medieval era is represented by the remains of the city walls in Upper Borough Walls .

Most of Bath 's Grade I listed buildings are made from the local golden @-@ coloured Bath Stone , and date from the 18th and 19th centuries . Their dominant architectural style is Georgian , which evolved from the Palladian revival style that became popular during the early 18th century . This led to the entire city 's designation as a World Heritage Site .

Much of the development , and many of the buildings , were the vision of John Wood , the Elder . The Circus is seen as the pinnacle of Wood 's work . It consists of three long , curved terraces that form a circular space or theatre intended for civic functions and games . The games give a clue to the design , the inspiration for which was the Colosseum in Rome . The best known of Bath 's terraces is the Royal Crescent , built between 1767 and 1774 and designed by Wood 's son , John Wood , the Younger . Around 1770 the neoclassical architect Robert Adam designed Pulteney Bridge , a three @-@ arched bridge spanning the Avon . He used as his prototype an original , but unused , design by Palladio for the Rialto Bridge in Venice . The heart of the Georgian city was the Pump Room , which together with its associated Lower Assembly Rooms was designed by Thomas Baldwin , a local builder responsible for many other buildings in the city , including the terraces in Argyle Street . Great Pulteney Street , where Baldwin eventually lived , is another of his works : this wide boulevard , constructed c . 1789 and over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) long and 100 feet ( 30 m ) wide , is lined on both sides by Georgian terraces .

Outside the city of Bath most of the Grade I listed buildings are Norman- or medieval @-@ era churches . Manor houses such as Claverton Manor , which now houses the American Museum in Britain , and the 18th @-@ century Newton Park , which has a landscape garden designed by Capability Brown , also appear in the list ; Newton Park now forms part of the Bath Spa University . The most recent building is the agricultural Eastwood Manor Farm Steading , completed in 1860 .

= = Mendip = =

Mendip is a local government district which covers a largely rural area of 285 square miles ( 738 km2 ) ranging from the Mendip Hills through on to the Somerset Levels . It has a population of approximately 11 @,@ 000 . The administrative centre of the district is Shepton Mallet .

There are 90 Grade I listed buildings in the Mendip district . There are churches in the various towns and villages , however the greatest concentrations of Grade I listed buildings are in Wells and Glastonbury . In Wells these are clustered around the 10th @-@ century Cathedral Church of St Andrew , better known as Wells Cathedral , and the 13th @-@ century Bishop 's Palace . Glastonbury is the site of the Abbey , where construction started in the 7th century , and its associated buildings . The ruined St Michael 's church , damaged in an earthquake of 1275 , stands on Glastonbury Tor , where the site shows evidence of occupation from Neolithic times and the Dark Ages . The Chalice Well has been in use since Pre @-@ Christian times . Glastonbury Abbey had a wider influence outside the town : tithe barns were built at Pilton and West Bradley to hold tithes , and a Fish House was built at Meare along with a summer residence for the Abbot ( now Manor Farmhouse ) .

Medieval structures include Farleigh Hungerford Castle , fortified around 1370 , and The George Inn at Norton St Philip , used as an army headquarters during the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 , and then as a courtroom to try the rebels in the Bloody Assizes . Manor houses such as the 15th @-@ century Seymours Court Farmhouse at Beckington and The Old Manor at Croscombe . Mells Manor followed in the 16th century and in the 17th century Southill House in Cranmore was built . Ston Easton Park and Ammerdown House in Kilmersdon were both completed in the 18th century . The most recent buildings included in the list are churches : the Church of St Peter at Hornblotton , built in 1872 – 74 by Sir Thomas Graham Jackson to replace a medieval church on the same site , and Downside Abbey at Stratton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Fosse , more formally known as " The Basilica of St Gregory the Great at Downside " , a Roman Catholic Benedictine monastery and the Senior House of the English Benedictine Congregation . The current buildings were started in the 19th century and are still unfinished .

= = North Somerset = =

North Somerset is a unitary authority which is administered independently of the non @-@ metropolitan county of Somerset . Its administrative headquarters are located in the town hall of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and has a resident population of 193 @,@ 000 living in 85 @,@ 000 households .

There are 37 Grade I listed buildings in North Somerset , including the Clifton Suspension Bridge , which joins North Somerset to Bristol and Clevedon Pier which was built between the 1860s and 1890s . It was removed following damage in 1970 and restored , before being rebuilt and reopened to the public in 1998 . Of the listed buildings , manor houses are well represented . They include Clevedon Court , built in the 14th century , and from the 15th century , Ashton Court and Nailsea Court . North Somerset has many religious structures ; the largest number are from the Norman or medieval eras . The oldest is the Church of St. Quiricus and St. Julietta in Tickenham which dates from the 11th century , and there are 8 others from the 12th century .

The most recent Grade I building in North Somerset is Tyntesfield , a Victorian Gothic Revival estate near Wraxall . It was acquired by the National Trust in June 2002 after a fund raising campaign to prevent it being sold to private interests and ensure it be opened to the public . The appeal by the National Trust collected £ 8 @.@ 2 million from the public in just 100 days and the Trust also received the largest single grant ever by the National Heritage Memorial Fund ( at £ 17 @.@ 4 million ) , which caused some controversy . The house is built of Bath stone , and is highly picturesque , bristling with turrets and possessing an elaborate roof .

= = Sedgemoor = =

Sedgemoor district is a low @-@ lying area of land close to sea level between the Quantock and Mendip hills , historically largely marsh ( or moor ) . It contains the bulk of the area also known as the Somerset Levels , including Europe 's oldest known engineered roadway , the Sweet Track .

There are 53 Grade I listed buildings in Sedgemoor , 14 of which are in Castle Street , Bridgwater . In 1834 , Castle Street was built on the site of the demolished Bridgwater Castle , as homes for the merchants trading in the town 's port . Outside the town of Bridgwater , the largest concentration of Grade I listed buildings are in the village of Cannington , where the 12th @-@ century Cannington Court and 14th @-@ century Church of St Mary were both associated with a Benedictine nunnery . Cannington is also the site of the 13th @-@ century Gurney Manor and Blackmoor Farmhouse , which was built around 1480 with its own chapel . Although 11th @-@ century churches such as the Church of St Michael at Brent Knoll and the Church of St Mary at Charlynch near Spaxton are still standing only blue lias rubble walling standing on a conical earthwork with a ditch approximately 820 feet ( 250 m ) in circumference are the only remains of Stowey Castle which was destroyed in the 15th century , which may have been as a penalty for the local Lord Audley 's involvement in the Second Cornish Uprising of 1497 led by Perkin Warbeck .

Many of the more recent structures in the list are manor houses such as Halswell House , where the south range was built in the 16th @-@ century for Sir Nicholas Halswell and the main north range in 1689 for Sir Halswell Tynte . The most recently constructed building in the list is the Corn Exchange in Bridgwater , built in 1834 .

= = South Somerset = =

The South Somerset district occupies an area of 370 square miles ( 958 km2 ) , stretching from its borders with Devon and Dorset to the edge of the Somerset Levels . The district has a population of about 158 @,@ 000 , and has Yeovil as its administrative centre .

There are 94 Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset . Most are Norman- or medieval @-@ era churches , but there are other religious buildings as well . Muchelney Abbey consists of the remains and foundations of a medieval Benedictine Abbey and an early Tudor house dating from the 16th century , formerly the lodgings of the resident abbot . Stavordale Priory was built as a priory church in the 13th century and was converted into a private residence in 1533 . The Hamstone Stoke sub Hamdon Priory is a 14th @-@ century former priest 's house of the chantry chapel of St Nicholas , which after 1518 become a farm known as Parsonage Farmhouse . It remained a farm until about 1960 , and has been owned by the National Trust since 1946 .

Since the Reformation the 13th @-@ century Hanging Chapel in Langport has been a town hall , courthouse , grammar school , museum , and armoury before becoming a masonic hall in 1891 . The house known as The Abbey in Charlton Mackrell takes its name from the site on which it was built , the Chantry Chapel of the Holy Spirit , founded in 1237 . Naish Priory , built around 1400 in East Coker , was never a priory , and similarly the Abbey Farm House and Abbey Barn in Yeovil which date from around 1420 , have always been in lay @-@ ownership ; " abbey " was added to their names in the 19th century . The 140 @-@ foot ( 43 m ) Burton Pynsent Monument was designed in 1757 , by Capability Brown for William Pitt , as a monument to Sir William Pynsent . King Alfred 's Tower , a 161 feet ( 49 m ) high , triangular edifice , stands near Egbert 's stone , where it is believed that Alfred the Great , King of Wessex , rallied the Saxons in May 878 before the Battle of Ethandun . The towers funder , Henry Hoare , planned for it to commemorate the end of the Seven Years ' War against France and the accession of King George III . The other Grade I listed buildings in South Somerset are manor houses , built over long periods by local Lords of the Manor . The Tudor Barrington Court was the first country house acquired by the National Trust , in 1907 , on the recommendation of the antiquarian Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley . Newton Surmaville was built between 1608 and 1612 for Robert Harbin , a Yeovil merchant , on the site of an earlier building , but was extensively altered and enhanced in the 1870s . Lytes Cary and its associated chapel and gardens have parts dating to as early as the 14th century . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner praised it , saying " Yet all parts blend to perfection with one another and with the gentle sunny landscape that surrounds them . " The 17th @-@ century house at Tintinhull is surrounded by a small 20th @-@ century Arts and Crafts garden . Ven House , which stands on an artificially raised terrace , has a rectangular plan of seven bays by five bays , and is built of red brick in Flemish bond , with local Hamstone dressings ; its north and south fronts are divided by two giant Corinthian pilasters . The small William and Mary style house was completed sometime between 1698 and 1700 . It was enlarged between 1725 and 1730 by Decimus Burton , who provided a new drawing @-@ room for Sir W. Medleycott and also an orangery attached to the house . Brympton d 'Evercy , built in stages between about 1220 and the 18th century , has been described , by Auberon Waugh , as " the most beautiful house in England " .

= = Taunton Deane = =

Taunton Deane has borough status . The district of Taunton Deane covers a population of approximately 100 @,@ 000 in an area of 462 square kilometres ( 178 sq mi ) . It is centered on the town of Taunton , where around 60 @,@ 000 of the population live and the council are based , and includes surrounding suburbs and villages .

There are 38 Grade I listed buildings in Taunton Deane . The oldest buildings are churches built before the end of the 12th century , and the Castle Bow , which has been incorporated into the Castle Hotel in Taunton but was originally a gateway into Taunton Castle . The castle was created between 1107 and 1129 , when William Giffard , the Chancellor of King Henry I , fortified the bishop 's hall . It was his successor , Henry of Blois , who transformed the manor @-@ house into a castle in 1138 , during the Civil War that raged during the reign of his brother , King Stephen . Taunton is also the site of Gray 's Alsmhouses , which dates from 1635 , and two buildings in Fore Street from the 16th century . Many of the more recent structures in the list are manor houses such as Cothay Manor and Greenham Barton which were built in Stawley in the 15th century . Poundisford Park and Cothelstone Manor were both built in the 16th century and Hatch Court in 1755 .

The most recent building included in the list is in the Quantock Hills . The original 16th century Hestercombe House , was rebuilt in 1909 . In addition to being a listed building the estate is designated Grade I on the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England . The house was used as the headquarters of the British 8th Corps in the Second World War , and has been owned by Somerset County Council since 1951 . It is used as an administrative centre and is the current base for the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service .

= = West Somerset = =

The West Somerset local government district covers a largely rural area , including parts of Exmoor , with a population , according to the 2001 census , of 35 @,@ 075 in an area of 740 square kilometres ( 290 sq mi ) . The largest centres of population are the coastal towns of Minehead and Watchet . The council 's administrative headquarters are in the village of Williton .

There are 33 Grade I listed buildings in West Somerset . The oldest is either Culbone Church , one of the smallest churches in England , and pre @-@ Norman in origin , or Tarr Steps , which may originate in the Bronze Age , although other sources date them from around 1400 . Dunster has the greatest concentration of Grade I listed buildings , including Dunster Castle , which was built in 1617 on a site which had supported a castle for the previous 600 years ; the Yarn Market , which was built in 1609 ; Gallox Bridge , which dates from the 15th century and the Priory Church of St George which is predominately from the 15th century but includes part of the earlier church on the same site . Other sites include manor houses such as the medieval buildings at Nettlecombe Court and Orchard Wyndham .

= Gertrude Barrows Bennett =

Gertrude Barrows Bennett ( 1883 – 1948 ) was the first major female writer of fantasy and science fiction in the United States , publishing her stories under the pseudonym Francis Stevens . Bennett wrote a number of highly acclaimed fantasies between 1917 and 1923 and has been called " the woman who invented dark fantasy " .

Her most famous books include Claimed ( which Augustus T. Swift , in a letter to The Argosy called " One of the strangest and most compelling science fantasy novels you will ever read " ) and the lost world novel The Citadel of Fear .

Bennett also wrote an early dystopian novel , The Heads of Cerberus ( 1919 ) .

= = Life = =

Gertrude Mabel Barrows was born in Minneapolis in 1883 . She completed school through the eighth grade , then attended night school in hopes of becoming an illustrator ( a goal she never achieved ) . Instead , she began working as a stenographer , a job she held on and off for the rest of her life .

In 1909 Barrows married Stewart Bennett , a British journalist and explorer , and moved to Philadelphia . A year later her husband died while on an expedition . With a new @-@ born daughter to raise , Bennett continued working as a stenographer . When her father died toward the end of World War I , Bennett assumed care for her invalid mother .

During this time period Bennett began to write a number of short stories and novels , only stopping when her mother died in 1920 . In the mid @-@ 1920s , she moved to California . Because Bennett was estranged from her daughter , for a number of years researchers believed Bennett died in 1939 ( the date of her final letter to her daughter ) . However , new research , including her death certificate , shows that she died in 1948 .

= = Writing career = =

Bennett wrote her first short story at age 17 , a science fiction story titled " The Curious Experience of Thomas Dunbar " . She mailed the story to Argosy , then one of the top pulp magazines . The story was accepted and published in the March 1904 issue .

Once Bennett began to take care of her mother , she decided to return to fiction writing as a means of supporting her family . The first story she completed after her return to writing was the novella " The Nightmare , " which appeared in All @-@ Story Weekly in 1917 . The story is set on an island separated from the rest of the world , on which evolution has taken a different course . " The Nightmare " resembles Edgar Rice Burroughs ' The Land That Time Forgot , itself published a year later . While Bennett had submitted " The Nightmare " under her own name , she had asked to use a pseudonym if it was published . The magazine 's editor chose not to use the pseudonym Bennett suggested ( Jean Vail ) and instead credited the story to Francis Stevens . When readers responded positively to the story , Bennett chose to continue writing under the name .

Over the next few years , Bennett wrote a number of short stories and novellas . Her short story " Friend Island " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , 1918 ) , for example , is set in a 22nd @-@ century ruled by women . Another story is the novella " Serapion " ( Argosy , 1920 ) , about a man possessed by a supernatural creature . This story has been released in an electronic book entitled Possessed : A Tale of the Demon Serapion , with three other stories by her . Many of her short stories have been collected in The Nightmare and Other Tales of Dark Fantasy ( University of Nebraska Press , 2004 ) .

In 1918 she published her first , and perhaps best , novel The Citadel of Fear ( Argosy , 1918 ) . This lost world story focuses on a forgotten Aztec city , which is " rediscovered " during World War I. It was in the introduction to a 1952 reprint edition of the novel which revealed for the first time that " Francis Stevens " was Bennett 's pen @-@ name .

A year later she published her only science fiction novel , The Heads of Cerberus ( The Thrill Book , 1919 ) . One of the first dystopian novels , the book features a " grey dust from a silver phial " which transports anyone who inhales it to a totalitarian Philadelphia of 2118 AD

One of Bennett 's most famous novels was Claimed ( Argosy , 1920 ; reprinted 1966 and 2004 ) , in which a supernatural artifact summons an ancient and powerful god to 20th century New Jersey . Augustus T. Swift called the novel , " One of the strangest and most compelling science fantasy novels you will ever read " ) .

= = Influence = =

Bennett has been credited as having " the best claim at creating the new genre of dark fantasy " . It has been said that Bennett 's writings influenced both H. P. Lovecraft and A. Merritt , both of whom " emulated Bennett 's earlier style and themes " . Lovecraft was even said to have praised Bennett 's work . However , there is controversy about whether or not this actually happened and the praise appears to have resulted from letters wrongly attributed to Lovecraft .

As for Merritt , for several decades critics and readers believed " Francis Stevens " was a pseudonym of his . This rumor only ended with the 1952 reprinting of Citadel of Fear , which featured a biographical introduction of Bennett by Lloyd Arthur Eshbach .

Critic Sam Moskowitz said she was the " greatest woman writer of science fiction in the period between Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley and C.L. Moore " .

Because Bennett was the first American woman to have her fantasy and science fiction widely published , she has been recognized in recent years as a pioneering female fantasy author .

= = = Novels = = =

The Citadel of Fear ( 1918 ; reprinted in Famous Fantastic Mysteries , February 1942 , and in paperback form in 1970 , [ NY : Paperback Library ] and 1984 [ NY : Carroll & Graf ] )

The Labyrinth ( serialized in All @-@ Story Weekly , July 27 , August 3 , and August 10 , 1918 ; later reprinted as a paperback novel )

The Heads of Cerberus 1st book edition . 1952 , Cloth , also leather backed , Reading , PA . Polaris Press ( Subsidiary of Fantasy Fress , Inc . ) ill . Ric Binkley . Intro by Lloyd Arthur Eshbach ( Thrill Book , 15 August 1919 ; reprinted as a paperback novel in 1952 and 1984 )

Avalon ( serialized in Argosy , August 16 to September 6 , 1919 ; not reprinted )

Claimed ( 1920 ; reprinted in 1985 , 1996 , and 2004 ) 192pp , cloth and paper , Sense of Wonder Press , James A. Rock & Co . , Publishers in trade paperback and hard cover .

= = = Short stories and novellas = = =

" The Curious Experience of Thomas Dunbar " ( Argosy , March , 1904 ; as by G. M. Barrows )

" The Nightmare , " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , April 14 , 1917 )

" Friend Island " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , September 7 , 1918 ; reprinted in Under the Moons of Mars , edited by Sam Moskowitz , 1970 )

" Behind the Curtain " ( All @-@ Story Weekly , September 21 , 1918 , reprinted in Famous Fantastic Mysteries , January 1940 )

" Unseen @-@ Unfeared " ( People 's Favorite Magazine Feb. 10 , 1919 ; reprinted in Horrors Unknown , edited by Sam Moskowitz , 1971 )

" The Elf @-@ Trap " ( Argosy , July 5 , 1919 )

" Serapion " ( serialized in Argosy Weekly , June 19 , June 26 , and July 3 , 1920 ; reprinted in Famous Fantastic Mysteries , July 1942 )

" Sunfire " ( 1923 ; original printed in two parts in Weird Tales , July – August 1923 , and Weird Tales , September 1923 ; also reprinted as trade paperback in 1996 by Apex International )

= = = Collections = = =

Possessed : A Tale of the Demon Serapion ( 2002 ; contains the novella " Serapion " , retitled , and the short stories " Behind the Curtain " , " Elf @-@ Trap " and " Unseen @-@ Unfeared " )

Nightmare : And Other Tales of Dark Fantasy ( University of Nebraska Press , 2004 ; contains all Stevens ' known short fiction except " The Curious Experience of Thomas Dunbar " , i.e. " The Nightmare " , " The Labyrinth " , " Friend Island " , " Behind the Curtain " , " " Unseen @-@ Unfeared " , " The Elf @-@ Trap " , " Serapion " and " Sunfire " )

= Man Down ( song ) =

" Man Down " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . Singer Shontelle and production duo Rock City wrote the song with its main producer , Sham . They wrote it during a writing camp , in Los Angeles of March 2010 , held by Rihanna 's record label to gather compositions for possible inclusion on the then @-@ untitled album . Rock City were inspired by Bob Marley 's 1973 song " I Shot the Sheriff " and set out to create a song which embodied the same feel but female perspective . It is a reggae ballad which incorporates elements of ragga and electronic music . Lyrically , Rihanna is a fugitive after she shoots a man , an action she later regrets . Several critics singled out " Man Down " as Loud 's highlight , while others commented on her prominent West Indian accent and vocal agility .

Def Jam released " Man Down " on May 3 , 2011 , as the fifth single from the album . In the United States , the single reached number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 9 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song topped the chart in France for five consecutive weeks and reached the top three in Belgium and the Netherlands . Anthony Mandler directed its music video , in which Rihanna 's character shoots a man after he rapes her . The video was criticized by the Parents Television Council , Industry Ears and Mothers Against Violence , who faulted Rihanna for suggesting that murder is an acceptable form of justice for rape victims . However , actress Gabrielle Union , a rape victim , praised the video for being relatable . " Man Down " was on the set list for three of Rihanna 's tours – the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) , the Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) and The Anti World Tour ( 2016 ) .

= = Background = =

In March 2010 , record label Def Jam held a writing camp in Los Angeles for songwriters and producers to compose material for possible inclusion on Rihanna 's then @-@ untitled fifth studio album , Loud . Def Jam rented out nearly every recording studio in Los Angeles in order to create as many songs as possible . Ray Daniels , the manager of musical duo Rock City ( brothers Theron and Timothy Thomas ) , was present during the sessions , and stated that a writing camp typically involves the label hiring ten recording studios for two weeks at the cost of $ 25 @,@ 000 per day . Daniels revealed that it is where songwriters have lyrics but no music , and where producers have music but no lyrics .

Shama Joseph , professionally known as Sham , was hired as one of the producers to work on crafting songs at the camp . Sham 's manager had arranged his attendance at the camp through an acquaintance who was an employee of the record label . Sham explained that he found a flight to Los Angeles and began working on music as soon as he arrived , stating that he had " nothing to lose and everything to gain " . He was inspired by a vision of Rihanna performing songs at a concert that were Caribbean themed . Sham felt that Rihanna had not explored Caribbean @-@ themed music since her debut album , Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) .

= = Production and recording = =

According to Daniels , Rock City knew Sham but they had not heard the West Indian / Caribbean @-@ themed music that he had composed during the camp . Sham played the music to them , to which the brothers responded " Let 's give Rihanna a one @-@ drop ! Like , a response to ' I shot the sheriff ' ! " Together , Sham and Rock City wrote the lyrics to " Man Down " in twelve minutes . In an MTV News interview , Rock City said they intended to write a song that would embody Bob Marley 's " I Shot the Sheriff " ( 1973 ) from a female perspective and to " tap [ Rihanna 's ] island origins in a way that sounded authentic " . Singer Shontelle said that Rihanna called her during the Last Girl on Earth tour and asked her to be involved with the song . She confirmed that Rihanna was present when she was writing her part in the recording studio . Shontelle elucidated that following one of Rihanna 's concerts , the singer exited the stage and immediately returned to the tour bus to work in the studio . Daniels said that once the writing camp had concluded , Rihanna listened to all of the songs which had been composed for her and chose her favorites . In September 2010 , several months after Sham attended the writing camp , Rihanna called him and said that she wanted to record " Man Down " for inclusion on Loud .

Rihanna later described the sentiment she wanted to express as " gangsta " , and elaborated on how reggae culture has influenced her musical style : " I 'm super inspired by reggae music [ and it ] has been a part of me since I was born , and I grew up listening to it . I was exciting for me to take this on as my own and do a song like this , especially with the lyrics being like that . " The track was composed during Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth tour . The song 's instrumental was recorded by Cary Clark at The Village in Los Angeles . Kuk Harrell produced Rihanna 's vocals with Josh Gudwin and Marcos Tovar at Westlake Recording Studios , also in Los Angeles . Bobby Campbell assisted with vocal production and recording . The song was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in Los Angeles , assisted by Erik Madrid and Christian Plata .

Daniels estimated the total cost of the writing camp to be approximately $ 200 @,@ 000 , averaging $ 18 @,@ 000 for each of the eleven songs which were included on Loud ; the camp consisted of forty writers and producers . Daniels confirmed that Rock City received $ 15 @,@ 000 and Sham $ 20 @,@ 000 for their part in the production of " Man Down " . He said that " to get that twelve minutes of inspiration from a top songwriting team is expensive — even before you take into account the fee for the songwriters " . A cost of $ 53 @,@ 000 for " Man Down " was already incurred prior to Rihanna entering the studio with a vocal producer . Although Makeba Riddick did not serve as the song 's vocal producer , Daniels cited her as an example of how the process works and how much she would charge . It is the responsibility of the vocal producer to tell a singer how to sing the song correctly to achieve the desired sound . Daniels said that Riddick 's fee varies from $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 15 @,@ 000 , and that the final part of the process is for the song to be mixed and mastered , which incurs a similar fee . He estimated the final cost of writing , producing , vocal producing , mixing and mastering " Man Down " to be $ 78 @,@ 000 . When combined with the marketing and promotional costs , the total expense was $ 1 @,@ 078 @,@ 000 .

= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =

" Man Down " is a " murder fantasy " reggae song with " Caribbean @-@ rhythms " and elements of ragga and electronic music . The song , in the key of C minor , has a tempo of 77 beats per minute . Rihanna 's voice spans more than one and a half octaves , from F3 to E ♭ 5 . Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani described " Man Down " as one of Rihanna 's " most confident vocal performances " with her strong Barbadian patois . Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that the singer " plays up her West Indian accent " , and August Brown of the Los Angeles Times described the vocals as reasserting " her Caribbean lilt " . Entertainment Weekly writer Leah Greenblatt described " Man Down " as a song with " island rhythms " . Lyrically , Rihanna is a fugitive after she shoots a man , but later regrets it . Rihanna slowly relays the chain of events which led up to the murder . She cries to her mother about the act that she has committed – " Mama , I just shot a man down " – expressing guilt and remorse for not meaning to kill her attacker , and that he is somebody 's son . As the track develops , Rihanna 's Bajan accent becomes stronger and exaggerated , which climaxes during the bridge as she declares " Why deed I pull dee treeguh , pull dee treeguh , pull dee treeguh , BOOM ! " MuuMuse writer Bradley Stern thought that the track took on a confessional tone .

On February 8 , 2009 , Rihanna was reported to have been involved in an altercation with her boyfriend , Chris Brown . He allegedly punched Rihanna and threatened to kill her . Brown turned himself in to the police and pleaded guilty to misdemeanor assault during the trial . August Brown called the murder ballad theme an apparent " warning " to Chris Brown and a response to his song " Deuces " ( 2010 ) , which denounces an ex @-@ lover . Kitty Empire of The Guardian wrote that Brown 's assault on Rihanna gives the song lyrical context , and sings it with a " bittersweet menace " tone . When asked by HipHopDX about how he reacted to listeners of the song saying that it condones violence , Sham dismissed the accusations :

I didn ’ t think it made any sense . I think it was because of who it was saying ' I just shot a man down . ' I think it was very hypocritical for some of the parents against violence in media , those same parents have probably allowed their kids to watch all types of movies and programs that have depictions , or things that insinuate violence . So for them to be mad about , number one , an issue that actually exists ? ... A woman feeling like she wants to shoot somebody who ’ s still alive because of something that they took from her , that ’ s real and that ’ s honest . So the emotion is a very true emotion ... and they relive it on a daily basis . I think it was crazy and blown out of proportion .... But people benefit from controversy , and those same people who probably were trying to bring awareness , now they have a voice and now they ’ re ' specialists , ' and they can speak for a group of people all of a sudden .

= = Release and reception = =

On March 1 , 2011 , Rihanna asked fans to help her choose the next single from Loud using Twitter , saying that she would film a music video in the forthcoming weeks . After an influx of suggestions , the singer said she had narrowed the options down to four songs : " Man Down " , " California King Bed " , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " and " Fading " . On March 12 , she confirmed that " California King Bed " had been selected as the next international single . However , " Man Down " was sent to rhythmic and urban radio stations in the United States on May 3 , before the May 13 release of " California King Bed " , making " Man Down " and " California King Bed " the fifth and sixth singles from Loud . The song was released in France and Switzerland on July 11 and the Netherlands on July 15 .

Kitty Empire called the track " excellent " , and praised it for being an original composition which is reminiscent of a " righteous old reggae murder ballad " . Consequence of Sound writer Ryan Burleson said that " Man Down " and another album track called " Fading " both " stand on their own sonically " , and that the former is an homage to her Caribbean heritage with its dancehall melody . Describing the track as " breezy " , Bradley Stern thought that no other song on Loud embodied Rihanna 's personality more so than on " Man Down " . Cinquemani chose " Man Down " as the best song on Loud , calling Rihanna 's vocal agility " surprising " and noting that the " fully @-@ fledged reggae " song is co @-@ written by a fellow Barbadian @-@ born singer , Shontelle .

In her review of Loud , Emily Mackay of NME called its experimentation more " organic " than that on Rihanna 's previous album Rated R ( 2009 ) , citing " Man Down " ' s theme of " doomed youth " . Similarly , Nima Baniamer of Contactmusic.com pointed out that " Man Down " , which she described as " a dark track " that is " haunting " yet " delightfully intriguing " , was reminiscent of the material on Rated R. In their review of Rihanna 's top 20 songs , Time Out ranked " Man Down " as their tenth best track , writing that it is Rihanna at " her badass best " . Complex staff compiled a list of their top 26 Rihanna songs , and ranked " Man Down " in thirteenth place ; Claire Lobenfeld thought that it was the singers most " cinematic " song of her career , and that she elevated the theme of " accidental manslaughter " from " downtrodden " to " adorable " .

= = Commercial performance = =

In the United States , " Man Down " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 94 on June 1 , 2011 , peaking at number 59 and spending a total of 14 weeks on the chart . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , it peaked at number 9 on August 6 , 2011 , remaining there for 2 weeks and spending a total of 19 weeks charting . It was number 47 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs 2011 year @-@ end list . The track peaked at number 56 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart , number 20 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital Songs chart and number 40 on the Radio Songs chart . " Man Down " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of more than 2 million units . The song reached number 92 on the Canadian Hot 100 .

" Man Down " debuted at number 65 on the French Singles Chart on June 6 , 2011 , a month before its release as a single . It rose to number 1 on July 30 , remaining there for 5 consecutive weeks , and was number 2 the week before and for 3 weeks after its chart @-@ topping run . It stayed on the chart until May 12 , 2012 , but re @-@ entered three weeks later . The song , on and off the French chart for the rest the year , continued to appear on it sporadically in 2013 . After a total of 73 weeks on the chart , the track 's last French chart appearance was at number 172 on August 8 , 2013 .

In the United Kingdom , " Man Down " entered the Singles Chart at number 117 on June 11 , 2015 , reaching number 75 the following week . The song peaked at number 54 in its fourth week , remaining there for 2 weeks and spending a total of 11 weeks on the chart . On the UK R & B Chart , " Man Down " reached number 15 on June 26 , spending 18 weeks in the top 40 . In Belgium , the song peaked at number 3 in Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders and number 2 in French @-@ speaking Wallonia . It was certified gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) for selling more than 15 @,@ 000 copies . Although the song spent only 1 week on the Italian Singles Chart ( at number 8 ) , it was certified platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) in 2014 for selling more than 30 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background and synopsis = = =

Anthony Mandler directed the music video for " Man Down " in April 2011 on a beach in Portland Parish , on the northeastern Jamaican coast . Rihanna told Rap @-@ Up that the video has a " strong underlying message [ for ] girls like me ! " On May 1 , 2011 , three camera phone teaser photos , of Rihanna on a beach in a white Dolce & Gabbana dress and riding a bicycle in Portland Parish , were released . The music video premiered on BET 's 106 & Park on May 31 , 2011 . In an interview for MTV News , Mandler said that " Man Down " required " a strong narrative and visual " and that fans could expect something " dramatic and shocking and intense and emotions and uplifting and enlightening " .

The video opens as the protagonist ( Rihanna ) shoots and kills a man while he walks through a busy train station . She flees before a flashback to the previous day , when she rides her bike , meets friends and is alone in a bedroom at dusk . At a nightclub the protagonist dances and flirts with another club @-@ goer , who then attacks her when she leaves the club . Disheveled , the woman cries in the street after an implied sexual assault , and the video ends as she runs home to grab a gun hidden in a dresser drawer .

= = = Analysis and reception = = =

Janell Hobson analysed the imagery presented in the video for " Man Down " in her book Body as Evidence : Mediating Race , Globalizing Gender , which " challenges postmodernist dismissals of identity politics and the delusional belief that the Millennial era reflects a ' postracial ' and ' postfeminist ' world . " In the chapter titled " Disclosures : Black Women 's Resistance to Sexual Violence " , Hobson explores how black women have " found the courage " to speak out about sexual violence , protest against it and not remain a silent victim . She recalled Rihanna 's interview for 20 / 20 with Diane Sawyer , which aired on November 6 , 2009 . Having remained silent about her altercation with Brown on the evening of the Grammy Party in February that year , whereby Brown assaulted her , Rihanna decided to speak about it for the first time . The author noted how Sawyer decided to approach the interview by presenting the couples relationship and assault case as an " anomaly " and accused Rihanna of " projecting a ' fake ' imagery of strong black woman " , rather than presenting her another domestic violence victim not only in the United States , but in the world . " I am strong , " Rihanna responded . Hobson wrote that from then on , the singer decided to project an image of " hardcore masculinity and dominatrix @-@ type femininity in her music trajectory " .

Subsequently , several of Rihanna 's songs and music videos have courted controversy for their violent themes , which Hobson attributes to the leaking of a photo showing the singers " battered face " on the evening of the assault by TMZ which circulated the internet without the permission of Rihanna . Hobson writes : " Because of this , Rihanna has had to wrest back control of the ' victim ' image foisted on her , and she in turn has challenged us rhetorically and visually to question and examine the power , danger , and violences that shape our relationships . " She continued to highlight the music videos for " Russian Roulette " , " Hard " , " We Found Love " , " Love the Way You Lie " with Eminem which documents domestic violence , and " S & M " , which contains references to bondage and fetishism and is , in part , Rihanna 's response to disparaging critics , as examples . At one point in the video for " S & M " , Rihanna is literally tied up as a victim .

However , Hobson noted that Rihanna " rejects the victim stance " in the video for " Man Down " , and elucidated that she played the role of a rape survivor who shot her attacker . She attributed the location of shooting the video in Jamaica as significant , due to how the image of a gun proliferated during 1990s Jamaican dance hall 's to " express female rage " . The prologue depicts Rihanna as a " dark @-@ hooded " femme fatale whereby the narrative explains her motives for murder and provokes the spectator to sympathize with her because she danced in a provocative manner with a man in a club , which Hobson suggests is " somehow deserving of rape " . She continued to explain that Rihanna is inviting the audience to consider what justice means by " pointing both a literal and lyrical gun at the issue " . Hobson concluded that Rihanna is protecting her vulnerability and countering the image of the abused black woman who is looked at unsympathetically in society .

Beck Bain of Idolator described the video as " visually stunning " , while Metro writer Lee Ann labelled it as " shocking " . Co @-@ writer of " Man Down " Theron Thomas felt that the video was very theatrical and that Rihanna played her role " perfectly " . He continued to say that had the video been a lyric @-@ by @-@ lyric representation , the narrative would have been more " graphic " .

= = = Controversy = = =

The Parents Television Council ( PTC ) criticized Rihanna for her portrayal of " cold , calculated execution of murder " in the music video , and argued that murdering a rapist as socially @-@ acceptable justice is impermissible . The group disagreed with Rihanna 's rationale for the storyline : that the video has " a very strong underlying message [ for ] girls " like Rihanna . According to the PTC and Industry Ears , if Chris Brown murdered a woman in a video that premiered on BET " the world would stop " and Rihanna should not have been allowed to release her clip . The week before the council 's statement about the video it had objected to Rihanna and Britney Spears ' performance of the " S & M " remix at the Billboard Music Awards , having called it a " profanity @-@ laced , S & M sex show on prime @-@ time broadcast television " .

After the PTC 's statement , Julianne Escobedo Shepherd of AlterNet wrote that the group seemed to employ a double standard ; it had not condemned Kanye West 's music video for " Monster " , in which dead women hang from ceilings and West holds a decapitated head . Shepard added that Eminem and Rihanna 's video for " Love the Way You Lie " had not been criticized , despite " glorified and romanticized " domestic violence . A Mothers Against Violence spokesperson criticised Rihanna for failing to present a solution , rather than encouraging the vulnerable youth , for which rape is a reality for many people . Director Anthony Mandler addressed the controversy in an interview for The Hollywood Reporter , saying that the visual evoked the reaction he intended and that it highlighted an issue still taboo in modern society . He recalled growing up in an era in which artists such as Madonna released controversial music videos , and noted that contemporary videos no longer tackle taboo subjects as frequently .

Rihanna responded to the PTC 's criticism on Twitter , and said that parents should not expect her to parent their children and that " touchy subject matters " should not be hidden from children otherwise they will not learn how to adapt in society , and that it empowers abusers even more because children are embarrassed to talk about rape . The singer continued to state that " the industry isn 't ' Parent 's ' R Us ' " and that singers " have the freedom to create art " . In an interview for BET , Rihanna further explain why rape was used as the vehicle to push the story forward in the video despite the lyrics not mentioning rape , saying " Making that into a mini @-@ movie or video , we needed to go back to why it happened . Obviously she 's not a cold @-@ blooded killer . It had to be something so offensive . And we decided to hone in on a very serious matter that people are afraid to address , especially if you 've been victimized in this scenario . " Rihanna added that the character is remorseful for her actions .

Actress and women 's @-@ health advocate Gabrielle Union , a rape victim , voiced support for the video on Twitter . Union called it " brave " and , although she did not agree with the eye @-@ for @-@ an @-@ eye sentiment , she could relate to the situation . Union said that every rape victim or survivor is a unique situation , and that they all have an idea of how justice should be served . She admitted that she tried to shoot her rapist , but missed , and that she has since realised that committing murder as a form of justice for herself would not have made the situation better . She continued to say that while it is " understandable " to desire to kill a rapist , unless it is in self @-@ defense then it is not advisable .

= = Live performances and covers = =

Rihanna has included " Man Down " on the set lists of several concerts and tours , including the 2011 Loud Tour , BBC Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 and the 2013 Diamonds World Tour . For the Loud Tour , Rihanna performed the song on " a levitating , rotating platform , a conveyer belt and graffiti @-@ laden car shell . " Although Kitty Empire described " Man Down " as " terrific " , the critic felt let down by the " baffling lack of creativity " from Rihanna 's production team for the stage set up during Rihanna 's performance . She wrote that she did not understand why a truck bonnet was in the middle of the stage . Maza praised the tracks placement on the set @-@ list . " Man Down " was performed as the fourth song on the Loud Tour , following its opener " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " Disturbia " and " Shut Up and Drive " . Maza noted that the tempo of " Man Down " should have " slowed down the momentum she 'd accumulated until then but that was instead an ideal marriage of production and performance . " Instead , the red lights on the stage played up the " ominous " tone of the song as it gradually increased its tempo to the point whereby the end of the song was on the verge of sounding like an incantation .

For the Diamonds World Tour , Rihanna performed " Man Down " in a Caribbean @-@ theme section of the show , which also included " You da One " , " No Love Allowed " , " What 's My Name ? " and " Rude Boy " . James Lachno of The Telegraph highlight the Caribbean @-@ themed section as the show 's highlight . Manchester Evening News writer Katie Fitzpatrick commented that Rihanna transported the audience to the Caribbean with a " grinding groove " . However , Gary Graff of The Oakland Press was disappointed with the lack of variety in the section , writing that it was " addled by a sonic sameness , even with Nuno Bettencourt of Extreme , whose guitar was buried in the bass @-@ heavy mix , playing some intriguing licks and accents " .

British singer and songwriter Leona Lewis performed a mashup of " Man Down " with her 2008 single " Better in Time " at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge in June 2011 . She also included the mashup on the set list of her 2013 Glassheart Tour . Her rendition received a mixed response from critics . Katherine Hollisey @-@ McLean of the Worthing Herald complimented the fusion of " Better in Time " with reggae beats . But The Guardian 's Malcolm Jack thought the performance was cringeworthy and called Lewis a " reasonably priced Rihanna " .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Marauders ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =

" Marauders " is the sixth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the 32nd episode overall . It first aired on October 30 , 2002 , on the UPN network within the United States . The story was created by executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga with a teleplay by David Wilcox . A similar premise had been included in the original pitch for Star Trek by Gene Roddenberry .

Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , while in search of deuterium , Enterprise discovers a mining colony that is being controlled by Klingons who are bullying the inhabitants and hoarding their supplies . The crew conduct repairs on the colony and train the colonists to fight off the Klingons .

This episode was mostly filmed on location in a quarry in Ventura County , California , and the majority of the guest stars were stunt performers . Both Larry Cedar and Bari Hochwald had previously appeared in different episodes of Deep Space Nine and Voyager . " Marauders " was watched by 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , the second highest audience for an episode of the second season . Reviews were mixed , with some critics responding negatively to the lack of consequences from the fighting sequences while another praised the characters interactions and felt it was a good example of the western genre .

= = Plot = =

Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) , and Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) fly down to a small colony of 76 miners in order to trade for deuterium . They initially try to barter with Tessic ( Larry Cedar ) , the colony 's leader , but he appears reluctant to part with any of the 80 @,@ 000 liters in inventory , which is being held for ' someone else ' . After negotiations however , a deal is struck − 200 liters of deuterium for four power cells and whatever medical supplies Enterprise can spare , on the proviso that the Enterprise crew can fix two offline pumps in two days .

Despite deuterium being a valuable commodity , Archer is startled by the lack of basic medical supplies and the run @-@ down nature of the colony . The reason becomes apparent when seven Klingons show up to collect deuterium according to their ' regular arrangement ' . When Tessic informs Korok ( Robertson Dean ) , the leader of the Klingons , that they do not have all the deuterium because two pumps were not working , Korok hits him and gives them four days to meet the order . Later , when Tucker and Archer attempt to talk them into fighting against the Klingons , Tessic tell them to take their 200 liters and leave . However , leaving does not sit well with Archer and he convinces the leader to resist with their support .

On Enterprise , T 'Pol teaches some of the colonists how to evade edged @-@ weapon attacks ( from Vulcan martial @-@ art ' Suus @-@ mahna ' ) , while Ensign Hoshi Sato ( Linda Park ) and Lieutenant Malcolm Reed ( Dominic Keating ) teach other colonists how to fire their weapons more accurately . Archer and Tucker then suggest the colonists shift the entire colony to the south 50 meters . When the Klingon marauders arrive , the colony appears deserted and silent . Finally the defenders show themselves , and in the ensuing fight the Klingons are lured into an area surrounded by the capped @-@ off deuterium well heads . On cue , the wells are ignited , surrounding the Klingons with flames . Tessic then tells the Klingons to leave and never come back . After they depart , Archer is rewarded with 2 @,@ 000 liters of deuterium by the grateful miners .

= = Production = =

The initial pitch for Star Trek : The Original Series by Gene Roddenberry included a similar episode premise called " Kentucky , Kentucky " . This story would have had Captain Robert M. April and the crew of the S.S. Yorktown visit a human colony which had been previously attacked by Viking @-@ like aliens . This resulted in the colonists reverting in appearance to that seen during the American frontier @-@ era . April and his crew band together to help the colonists fight off the aliens .

Executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga developed the story , which was turned into a teleplay by David Wilcox . It was directed by Mike Vejar , his fourth episode of the series , although he had also developed several more episodes of the other series in the franchise . Filming on " Marauders " began on August 21 , 2002 , utilising the standing ship sets . The shoot on the following day mostly took place on a sound stage , while the third day 's on set filming used the shuttlepod set as well as a newly created ship 's gym set . The remainder of the eight days filming took place on location at a quarry in Ventura County , California , located about an hour 's journey north west of Los Angeles . Temperatures were mild for that time of year , but the actors were still told to wear sunscreen and drink plenty of water . The actors portraying the Klingons joined on the second of the five days on location , with the majority of them played by stunt men . According to Bakula , the set used for the colony was the largest build so far for Enterprise .

Robertson Dean played the sole speaking Klingon , he had previously appeared in the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " Face of the Enemy " . Other members of the guest cast included Cedar , portraying the colonist Tessic , who had previously appeared in individual episodes of both Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Voyager . Likewise , Bari Hochwald also appeared in those two series . While appearing in " Marauders " , she was also performing in the play Fedunn at the Odyssey Theatre in Los Angeles .

= = Reception and home media = =

" Marauders " was first broadcast on the UPN network within the United States on October 30 , 2002 . It was watched by 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , equating to Nielsen ratings of 3 @.@ 9 / 6 percent . This meant that the episode was watched by 3 @.@ 9 percent of possible viewers , and six percent of those watching television at the time . This was the second most watched episode of the season , behind " A Night in Sickbay " , which was broadcast a week prior .

J.C. Maçek III , while writing for the website PopMatters , described " Marauders " as forming the first part of a loose trilogy of episodes within the second season focusing on re @-@ introducing the Klingons to the series . The following episodes in the group were said to be " Judgment " and " Bounty " . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " gave the episode two out of four , said that there was nothing exciting in " Marauders " and that the action sequences towards the end were unrealistic because despite all the apparent violence , not a single person even gets injured during the scene . He called the general premise " classic trek " , but that it lacked depth and didn 't pose any interesting questions . He summed it up by saying it was " a bloodless , light @-@ as @-@ a @-@ feather action show with handsome production values but absolutely and positively no edge . "

Michelle Erica Green , reviewing the episode for TrekNation , said that the episode seemed to follow the same story as the 1998 animated film A Bug 's Life , but was very much set in the western genre which inspired Roddenberry 's original Star Trek pitch with other comparisons to the 1960 film The Magnificent Seven . She felt that there was several scenes which enabled some character building moments for Hoshi , Travis Mayweather and Tucker , and described it overall as " a decent genre piece with good character work " .

The first home media release of " Marauders " was part of the season two DVD box set , released in the United States on August 7 , 2005 . A release on Blu @-@ ray Disc for season two occurred on August 20 , 2013 .

= Johnny McNichol =

John " Johnny " McNichol ( 20 August 1925 – 17 March 2007 ) was a Scottish footballer who played more than 500 games in the Football League in England . An inside forward , he played more than 150 games for Brighton & Hove Albion and more than 200 for each of Chelsea and Crystal Palace .

McNichol graduated from junior footballer and apprentice motor mechanic in his native Scotland to a professional contract with English First Division club Newcastle United . After two years , he had found success with the reserve team but was never selected in the first eleven . Brighton & Hove Albion , struggling in the Third Division , broke their transfer record to sign him . McNichol spent four years with the club , acquiring " the reputation as the finest inside @-@ forward in the Third Division " , before moving to the First Division as Chelsea manager Ted Drake 's first signing . He was part of the Chelsea team that won the League championship in the 1954 – 55 season . In 1958 he joined Crystal Palace , whom he captained to promotion from the Fourth Division , and finished his on @-@ field career in the Southern League as player @-@ manager of Tunbridge Wells Rangers . He then spent 25 years working on the commercial side of football with two of his previous clubs .

= = Early life and career = =

McNichol was born in Kilmarnock , Ayrshire . His father , Danny , died when he was five , so McNichol and seven siblings were raised by their mother , Catherine . He attended St Joseph 's School in Kilmarnock , and started work as a messenger boy for a local draper 's shop when he left school . His shop work stopped him playing football on Saturdays , but he was able to play some midweek football for Junior club Hurlford United . When he was taken on at the local bus garage as an apprentice motor mechanic , he became available on Saturdays as well . Hurlford paid him ten shillings a game , nearly as much as his apprentice 's wages . During the Second World War , McNichol was called up to the Fleet Air Arm as a mechanic , but was able to play friendly matches for Inverness @-@ based club Clachnacuddin . Because of the number of professional players stationed around the country , such matches were played at a fairly high standard .

= = Newcastle United = =

After the war , McNichol returned to Hurlford , but , amid interest from other clubs , he accepted a trial with Newcastle United . After two trial matches , he signed professional forms with the club on his 21st birthday . McNichol spent two years at Newcastle , but never made a first @-@ team appearance . Behind the likes of England international forwards Roy Bentley and Len Shackleton in the pecking order , he doubled his income working as a motor mechanic for a local funeral director whose " two or three Rolls @-@ Royces [ made ] a nice change from working on bus engines " . In his second season , he was part of the reserve team that won the Central League title , but a disagreement over personal terms on his contract renewal – the Newcastle management felt a lower wage was justified because of the player 's earnings outside the game – prompted McNichol to seek first @-@ team football elsewhere .

= = Brighton & Hove Albion = =

Brighton & Hove Albion had finished bottom of the Third Division South the season before and were struggling financially , yet manager Don Welsh persuaded the directors to break the club transfer record by paying £ 5 @,@ 000 for a player yet to make his debut in the Football League , and persuaded McNichol to sign . He made his first appearance in the League on 21 August 1948 , at the age of 23 , as Brighton drew with Swindon Town at home . The club finished sixth in the division in McNichol 's first season and eighth , despite having no regular goalscorer – McNichol 's nine goals made him top scorer – in 1949 – 50 . The next year , McNichol played in all of Brighton 's games , the only man so to do , and again finished as top scorer for the season , this time with 14 goals . According to Carder and Harris , he " had a superb season with a brand of play which won him the reputation as the finest inside @-@ forward in the Third Division " . Appointed club captain when Billy Lane took over from Welsh as manager , McNichol flourished under Lane 's attacking policy . He scored 14 goals in the 1951 – 52 season as Brighton narrowly failed to mount a successful challenge to Plymouth Argyle for the title , " was again the star of the side " , and " was thought by many to be the most stylish inside @-@ forward to play for the Albion " .

That season , McNichol scored a hat @-@ trick against eventual runners @-@ up Reading , which caught the eye of manager Ted Drake . Shortly before the next season started , he became Drake 's first signing for his new club , Chelsea , at a fee of £ 12 @,@ 000 plus the player Jimmy Leadbetter , a club record fee received for Albion . He had scored 39 goals in all competitions from 165 appearances . Although scouts from bigger clubs had been watching the player since soon after his arrival at the club – he had apparently already turned down moves to Manchester City , Everton and Huddersfield Town – Brighton 's supporters were disappointed , seeing his sale as a backward step .

= = Chelsea = =

On his Chelsea debut away at Manchester United , McNichol found himself playing at right back after ten minutes when Sid Tickridge sustained an injury . Once restored to the forward line , his goals helped Chelsea avoid relegation to the Second Division at the end of his first season . A " dramatic last @-@ minute goal ... enabled Chelsea to snatch a lucky victory at West Bromwich " with three games left , and he scored the third goal of Chelsea 's 3 – 1 defeat of Manchester City in their last fixture of the season which confirmed their escape from the relegation positions .

Two seasons later , Chelsea won the First Division title for the first time . As they beat Charlton Athletic in March 1955 to " maintain their challenging position in the Championship " , The Times ' reporter described how " McNichol filled the role of general , and was instigator of many dangerous movements " . Two weeks later , McNichol , " the most effective of their forwards " , scored twice as a Chelsea team displaying " a propensity to play the man in preference to the ball " beat Tottenham Hotspur 4 – 2 , and the title was confirmed with one game still to play . McNichol had missed only two games in the 42 @-@ game season , and scored 14 goals , a good return for a player in his position ; an inside forward was normally more a creator than a scorer of goals , but his profile on Chelsea 's website describes him as " clever , astute and most of all a clinical finisher " .

He stayed at the club for three more seasons , but later lost his place in the side to the young Jimmy Greaves : " There was no disgrace in losing my place to him . I couldn 't grumble about that . We used to get on very well , and he would listen to the instructions I gave him . Then he became world famous ! " The respect was mutual : though Greaves described the Chelsea title @-@ winning side as " almost certainly one of the least talented teams ever to win the title " , he made an exception for McNichol , " the ball player of the team " . In all competitions , he made 202 appearances for Chelsea and scored 66 goals .

While at Brighton , McNichol had worked in a local garage , wanting to keep up his skills in case injury put an early end to his football career . When he joined Chelsea , his decision to remain living in the area had upset Drake . In addition , he bought a newsagent 's shop in Hove , so not only did he have to travel by train from the south coast – as did teammates Stan Willemse and Eric Parsons – he further annoyed the Chelsea management by getting up even earlier each morning to open the shop before coming in to training . His wife Connie , whom he had known since childhood , ran the business in his absence . He claimed to have " earned more working in that shop than playing for Chelsea . Even in that championship season . "

= = Crystal Palace = =

Just ahead of the transfer deadline in March 1958 , McNichol signed for Third Division South club Crystal Palace . He was expected to fill a role " similar to the one he has performed so well at Stamford Bridge – helping in the development of promising young forwards " , and was appointed captain . He scored on his debut for the club , and produced seven goals from the twelve games he played in what remained of the 1957 – 58 season . By October 1958 , manager George Smith felt the player was feeling the strain of his dual role , so relieved him of the captaincy . As McNichol grew older , his playing position became more defensive , as he became first a wing half , then a full back . Palace had been placed in the Fourth Division when the Football League structure was reorganised on national lines prior to the 1958 – 59 season , and McNichol , long since restored to the captaincy , led them to promotion to the Third Division in 1961 , their first promotion for 40 years . Soon afterwards , he applied for the managerial post at former club Brighton & Hove Albion , then in the Second Division , but was unsuccessful . A broken arm suffered in August 1961 forced McNichol to miss a Palace match for the first time in a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year club career . He played on for two seasons , but his professional career was brought to a close by facial injuries , a fractured cheekbone and broken jaw , sustained during the 1962 – 63 season . In all competitions , he scored 15 goals from 205 appearances .

= = Later life and career = =

McNichol remained in the South of England , spending four years as player @-@ manager of Tunbridge Wells Rangers in the Southern League . Having sold the newsagents , he returned to Crystal Palace to work in the commercial side of the game , where he was responsible for the establishment of weekly pools and bingo competitions as a means of raising funds for the club . He moved back to Brighton & Hove Albion to occupy a similar role from 1979 to 1992 , and after retirement continued to live in the Saltdean area of Brighton .

Despite the successes of his career , McNichol had regrets . He described Chelsea 's decision not to accept their invitation to participate in the inaugural season of the European Cup as his " one big disappointment " , and " thought it was strange at the time " , despite the national team selectors ' preference for players plying their trade for Scottish clubs , that he was never chosen to represent his country .

McNichol retained contact with his previous clubs . One of 24 former players and managers nominated as " Albion Legends " as part of Brighton 's centenary events in 2001 , he took an active role in the celebrations . The surviving members of Chelsea 's 1955 title @-@ winning team used to meet for an annual dinner , and were guests of the club at the last match of the 2004 – 05 season as they celebrated their second League title , 50 years after the first .

He died of a stroke on 17 March 2007 at the age of 81 .

= = Honours = =

Newcastle United Reserves

The Central League winners : 1947 – 48

Chelsea

Football League First Division winners : 1954 – 55

Crystal Palace

Football League Fourth Division runners @-@ up : 1960 – 61

= Otra Nota =

Otra Nota ( English : Another Note ) is the debut album by American singer Marc Anthony that was released on January 26 , 1993 , by RMM Records . Produced by Sergio George , it was the first album by Anthony to record in salsa after starting his career as a freestyle musician . Recording of the album began after Anthony asked RMM president Ralph Mercado to record Juan Gabriel 's " Hasta Que Te Conocí " in salsa after hearing it on the radio during a taxi ride . Recorded on a low budget , the album peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart and reached No. 30 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart .

The album was well received by critics who complimented George 's production and Anthony 's youthful voice . Anthony received two awards for " Best New Artists " at the Billboard Latin Music Awards and the Lo Nuestro Awards . The album produced three singles : " Hasta Que Te Conocí " , " Palabras del Alma " , and " Si Tú No Te Fueras " , all of which charted on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . As of 2002 , Otra Nota has sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Background = =

Marc Anthony began his recording career in 1980s as a freestyle musician during which he was a backup vocalist for boy bands such as Menudo and the Latin Rascals . Anthony also wrote songs for his school friend Sa @-@ Fire , including " Boy I 've Been Told " which became a hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Anthony got his start as a lead vocalist when he collaborated with Little Louie Vega on the album When the Night Is Over . The lead single " Ride on the Rhythm " became a number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart .

RMM manager Ralph Mercado invited Anthony to record a salsa album , but Anthony declined the offer due to a lack of interest to record in Spanish . The following day , while in a taxi , Anthony was listening to Juan Gabriel 's song " Hasta Que Te Conocí " ( " Until I Met You " ) on the radio and was motivated to record in the song in salsa and told Mercado about his change of decision . Mercado introduced Anthony to Sergio George who would produce the album . According to George , the album was an " total experiment " , citing that it was on low budget , recorded with one musician at a time without a band , and the full production was done on computers while George handled the keyboards .

= = Music and lyrics = =

The album includes five compositions and three cover songs . The lead track " Palabras del Alma " ( " Words from the Soul " ) is a cover originally performed and written by Ilan Chester . " Si Tú No Te Fueras " ( " If You Would Not Leave " ) was composed by Nelson Frank and Jaime Gutierrez . " Hasta Que Te Conocí " was first performed and written by Juan Gabriel . " El Último Beso " was composed by Anthony 's father Felipe Muñíz . " Make It With You " is a cover of American band Bread 's song . " Necesito Amarte " was written by Luis Castillo who composed songs for RMM recording artists including José Alberto and Tito Nieves . Sergio George co @-@ wrote " ¿ Juego O Amor " ( " Game or Love ? " ) along with Adam Sez . The final track , " Si He de Morir " ( " If I Were to Die " ) was composed by Luis Díaz .

= = Commercial reception = =

Otra Nota debuted and peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart during the week of April 17 , 1993 , behind Jerry Rivera 's Cuenta Conmigo and remained at this position for eight weeks . During the week of June 11 , 1994 , the album debuted and peaked at No. 30 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums , where it spent nineteen weeks on the chart . Otra Nota has sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies as of 2002 .

= = = Singles = = =

" Hasta Que Te Conocí " was the first single to be released from the album and peaked at No. 13 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The second single " Palabras del Alma " peaked at No. 15 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . " Si Tú No Te Fueras " was the last single released from the album which peaked at No. 31 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart .

= = Critical reception = =

Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic gave the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and complemented Anthony 's voice as " developed , unique , and individual " and felt that Anthony 's debut " brought quality and passion to his listeners from the beginning . " Gutierrez also found the songs in salsa enjoyable while calling the ballads . Gutierrez praised Sergio George 's arrangements as " outstanding " though he felt the production was outdated in places . Enrique Lopetegui gave the album 3 out of 4 stars , noting that while Anthony was viewed with skepticism on the salsa market , he felt that Anthony " may be the best of the many newborn salseros . " Lopetegui also praised Anthony 's vocals as " excellent " and described the overall album as " noble effort " though he criticized Anthony 's cover of " Make It With You " as unnecessary . In 1994 , Anthony received a Billboard Latin Music Award for " Tropical / Salsa New Artist of the Year " and a Lo Nuestro award for " Tropical - New Artist of the Year " .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

The following credits are from Allmusic .

= = = Performance credits = = =

= = = Technical credits = = =

= = Chart performance = =

= St Peulan 's Church , Llanbeulan =

St Peulan 's Church , Llanbeulan is a disused medieval church in Llanbeulan , in Anglesey , north Wales . The nave , which is the oldest part of the building , dates from the 12th century , with a chancel and side chapel added in the 14th century . The church has a font of early date , possibly from the first half of the 11th century : one historian has said that it would initially have been used as an altar and that " as an altar of the pre @-@ Norman period it is a unique survivor in Wales and , indeed , in Britain " .

The church is now redundant and has been in the care of the charity , the Friends of Friendless Churches since 2005 . It is a Grade II * listed building , a designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is a medieval church of " typical Anglesey type " that has retained its simple character despite 19th @-@ century alterations .

= = History and location = =

The date of foundation of the church in Llanbeulan is not known for certain , although it is said that a church was founded on this site in 630 by St Peulan . He was a disciple of the Anglesey saint Cybi . The earliest parts of the building date from the 12th century . It was the parish church of the area , and had a chapel of ease at St Mary 's Church , Tal @-@ y @-@ llyn ( now also closed ) . In November 1349 , records of an inquisition in Beaumaris show that the priest serving St Peulan 's was one of a number of Anglesey clergymen to have died about that time , which was when the Black Death was affecting Anglesey . During the 19th century , a significant amount of church rebuilding and restoration work took place throughout Anglesey , and St Peulan 's was given a new roof and new internal fittings at this time . It is now a redundant church and has been in the hands of the Friends of Friendless Churches since 2004 ; it is one of four churches on Anglesey for which the charity has responsibility . The charity holds a 999 @-@ year lease with effect from 10 June 2005 .

The church gave its name to the parish of Llanbeulan : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " ‑ beulan " is a modified form of the saint 's name . It is in a thinly populated part of rural Anglesey , about 1 @.@ 75 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 09 mi ) to the south @-@ west of the village of Gwalchmai , and about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Bryngwran . A grassed track runs from the road to the church . To the east of the church , the churchyard contains a war grave of a Royal Welsh Fusiliers soldier of the First World War .

= = Architecture and fittings = =

The church is built from rubble masonry , dressed with gritstone . The nave measures 27 feet 6 inches by 15 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 7 m ) , the chancel is 15 feet 6 inches by 11 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 7 by 3 @.@ 6 m ) , and the south chapel is 11 feet 3 inches by 16 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) . The building has a slate roof with copings of stone . At the west end , there is a gabled bellcote with one bell ; crosses made of iron are fixed to the roofs of the chancel and south chapel . The nave of the church , which has two bays , was probably built in the 12th century . An entrance at the west end of the nave has been blocked up and plastered over on the outside . The chancel , which is smaller than the nave , and a chapel ( on the south side of the building attached to the nave ) were added in the 14th century , and the arches dividing the nave from the chapel and the chancel are of this date . The entrance door , from the 19th century , is positioned on the east side of the chapel and has a pointed archway . Alongside the doorway is a stone inscribed with the year 1637 , and next to that is a round @-@ headed small window dating from the 12th century , reset in the chapel wall of later date . It has been suggested that this window may been reused from the blocked nave entrance .

The east window of the chancel , from the 15th century , has two lights topped with trefoils and decorated with carved heads . There is also a blocked 14th @-@ century window in the chancel 's north wall and an early 16th @-@ century window in the south wall . Other windows in the church date from the 17th century ( chapel south window ) and 19th century ( nave ) . The pews date from the 17th century : one stall in the chancel bears an inscribed panel of wood , dated 1664 , recording that it is the seat of William Bold of Treyrddol . There are a number of memorials inside the church from the 17th , 18th and early 19th centuries . The church 's 19th @-@ century fittings , such as the pulpit and altar rail , are plain .

The most notable feature of the church is its font , which dates from the late 12th century , or possibly even the first part of the 11th century . It measures 2 feet 1 inch ( 63 @.@ 5 cm ) by 2 feet 11 inches ( 88 @.@ 9 cm ) ( external measurements ) and is 11 inches ( 27 @.@ 9 cm ) deep . It is rectangular and decorated on three sides . One of the shorter sides has a cross with four arms of equal length imposed on a ring ; at the base are two small hemispheres , and the design is framed with bands ( some plain , some decorated with chevrons or a twisted rope pattern ) . It has been suggested that the hemispheres are bee skeps . One of the longer sides has a row of arches forming an arcade above a pattern of lozenges . The other shorter side has a chequerwork pattern . The archeologist David Petts has noted that it is one of a number of fonts on Anglesey that has an area with little or no carving , perhaps because it was never anticipated that the plain side of the font would be seen or because the font was carved after being put in its position in the church . Although similar in style to other Anglesey fonts , its rectangular shape is " unique " , according to Petts , and the cross on one side " finds no parallels among fonts of this period . "

One writer , the historian Peter Lord , has suggested that it was initially used as an altar . Accepting the 11th @-@ century dating , Lord stated that " as an altar of the pre @-@ Norman period it is a unique survivor in Wales and , indeed , in Britain " . Petts considers this " unlikely " , suggesting that it may originally have been a reliquary . The Friends of Friendless Churches describes the font as the building 's " chief glory " . It has also been called " the best of Anglesey 's remarkable Romanesque series . " It has similarities of design and style with the fonts of two other churches on Anglesey ( St Llwydian 's Church , Heneglwys and St Iestyn 's Church , Llaniestyn ) and with one of the stone crosses at St Seiriol 's Church , Penmon .

= = Assessment = =

The church is a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest ( of three ) grade of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 5 April 1971 , and has been listed because it is " a rural Medieval church retaining its simple character . " It is described by Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) as a church " of typical Anglesey type " , where the 19th @-@ century restoration work has " retained the simplicity of design and construction " , and also the church 's medieval character .

In the 19th century , the writer Samuel Lewis said that it was " small and of rude workmanship " , but had " several curious features " such as the font that made it " valuable " . The antiquarian Angharad Llwyd , writing in 1833 , described it as " a small cruciform structure , situated in a little barren valley " , with the south transept " bearing evidence of very great antiquity . " She stated that there were some windows " in the later English style , of good design , especially the east window of the chancel , which is a very superior composition . "

= The Tramp Dentists =

The Tramp Dentists is a 1913 American silent short comedy film released by the newly formed Joker productions by the Universal Film Manufacturing Company . Directed by Allen Curtis , the film 's cast includes Max Asher , Lee Morris , Eddie Boland Joseph Singleton and Bobby Vernon . The film is centered on two tramps , Dusty and Weary , who take over a dentist shop and get rich through their untrained dentistry , extracting teeth with pincers and ice tongs . After earning a large amount of money , the tramps return to their old way of life . Released on October 29 , 1913 , this film was the second Joker comedy . The film received some criticism for its vulgar humor . The film had a wide national release in the United States , but the film is presumed lost .

= = Plot = =

Two tramps , named Dusty and Weary , awake from their slumber in a hay stock and are overcome with thirst . The two drink from a horse trough and Dusty complains of toothache . The two go to the dentist office only to be kicked out . When the dentist departs on a cruise the two tramps then pose as dentists and occupy the office and pull teeth with pincers and tongs . When the rightful owners return they drive off again . The tramps continue in their venture and quickly make a large sum of money before they desire their old way of life . The two tramps then surrender the office to its rightful owners .

= = Cast = =

Max Asher

Lee Morris

Eddie Boland

Joseph Singleton

Bobby Vernon credited as Sylvion De Jardins

= = Production = =

The term " tramp dentist " refers to an unskilled individual who practices dentistry . The appearance of the word and its usage was popularized in the 1890s and often applied as a literal definition of a tramp , a traveling long @-@ term homeless person , who engages in dentistry . The term was not exclusive to the United States as noted in Tracey Adams 's A Dentist and a Gentleman : Gender and the Rise of Dentistry in Ontario which refers to local blacksmiths and gunsmiths who would pull teeth and even create dentures of questionable effectiveness and quality . The single reel film was directed by Allen Curtis and released on October 29 , 1913 . The film was the second release of the newly formed Joker line of comedies , following The Cheese Special . The film was not heralded with as much fanfare , but records show that the film was still advertised in theaters in July 1914 .

= = Reception = =

The Moving Picture World reviewed the film as being a low comedy that featured " somewhat disgusting " dental humor with the extraction of teeth with pincers and ice tongs . A more direct review in response to the film 's comedic antics came from a letter to the editor of The Motion Picture Story Magazine which appealed the vulgar antics in the film as going to alienate members the audience and risk their continued patronage . The film had a wide national release that was shown in theaters throughout the United States . Locations included Chicago , Illinois , Atlanta , Georgia , Oklahoma , Ohio , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Oregon , Wisconsin , and Kansas .

The Tramp Dentists is presumed lost , but the date of disappearance is unknown . If the film were to have survived in Universal 's vaults it would have been deliberately destroyed along with the remaining copies of Universal 's silent era films in 1948 .

= Qedarite =

The Qedarites ( also Kedarites / Cedarenes , Cedar / Kedar / Qedar , and Kingdom of Qedar ) were a largely nomadic , ancient Arab tribal confederation . Described as " the most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes " , at the peak of its power in the 6th century BCE it controlled a large region between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai Peninsula .

Biblical tradition holds that the Qedarites are named for Qedar , the second son of Ishmael , mentioned in the Bible 's books of Genesis ( 25 : 13 ) and 1 Chronicles ( 1 : 29 ) , where there are also frequent references to Qedar as a tribe . The earliest extrabiblical inscriptions discovered by archaeologists that mention the Qedarites are from the Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire . Spanning the 8th and 7th centuries BCE , they list the names of Qedarite kings who revolted and were defeated in battle , as well as those who paid Assyrian monarchs tribute , including Zabibe , queen of the Arabs ( šar @-@ rat KUR.a @-@ ri @-@ bi ) . There are also Aramaic and Old South Arabian inscriptions recalling the Qedarites , who further appear briefly in the writings of Classical Greek , such as Herodotus , and Roman historians , such as Pliny the Elder , and Diodorus .

It is unclear when the Qedarites ceased to exist as a separately defined confederation or people . Allies with the Nabataeans , it is likely that they were absorbed into the Nabataean state around the 2nd century CE . In Islam , Isma 'il is considered to be the ancestral forefather of the Arab people , and in traditional Islamic historiography , Muslim historians have assigned great importance in their accounts to his first two sons ( Nebaioth and Qedar ) , with the genealogy of Muhammad , a Messenger of God in Islam , alternately assigned to one or the other son , depending on the scholar .

= = Etymology = =

It has been suggested that the name of the Qedarites is derived from the name for Ishamel 's second son Qedar . Though the tribal name is Arabic , it was first transcribed in Assyrian ( 8th century BCE ) and Aramaic ( 6th century BCE ) , as the Arabic alphabet had not yet been developed . In the Mareshah onomasticon , the Qedarites are listed as an ethnic group whose name in Aramaic transliteration is QDRYN .

The Arabic triliteral root q @-@ d @-@ r means " to measure , compute , estimate " ; " to decree , appoint , ordain " ; and " to have power , or ability . " Qidr , a noun derived from the same root , means " cauldron , kettle " , and also gives the verbal derivation , " to cook " . Ernst Axel Knauf , a biblical scholar who undertook a historical study of the Ishmaelites and determined that they were known in Assyrian inscriptions as the Šumu 'il , surmises that the name of the Qedarites was derived from the verb qadara , with its meaning of " to ordain , to have power " . As this etymology is a deduction based solely on the prominence of the Qedar among the Šumu 'il tribes , it is viewed as inconclusive by other scholars .

= = Geographical scope = =

The Qedarites were an " Arab tribal confederation , " or " alliance of nomadic Arab tribes . " According to Philip J. King , theologian and historian , they lived in the northwest Arabian desert and were " an influential force from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE . " Geoffrey Bromiley , historical theologist and translator , transcribes their name as Kedar and states they lived in an area southeast of Damascus and east of the Transjordan .

8th century BCE Assyrian inscriptions place the Qedarites as living in the area to the east of the western border of Babylon . Moving further east into areas of the Transjordan and southern Syria in the 7th century BCE , by the 5th century BCE they had spread into the Sinai and as far as the Nile Delta . Qedarite domination of northwest Arabia involved alliances between the kings of Qedar and the kings of Dedan ( Al-`Ula ) . Historian Israel Eph 'al writes that the " breadth of Qedarite distribution suggests a federation of tribes with various sub @-@ divisions . "

Oases in the largely desert region lived in by the Qedarites - such as Dedan , Tayma , and Dumah - played an important role as sites of settlement , trade , and watering @-@ places . Dumah , a remote desert city to the west , known later as Dumat Al @-@ Jandal and today as al @-@ Jawf , was the most important of these , sitting as it did between the empires of Babylonia and Assyria . Serving as the base for Qedarite religious ceremonies , Dumah 's strategic position on the north @-@ south trade route in the area meant that relations with its inhabitants were sought after by both empires , though Dumah and the Qedarites were closer in both geographical and political terms to Babylonia . Those coming from the south and wishing to access Mesopotamia were obliged to pass through Dumah , which also lay on an alternate route to the northwest , leading to the city of Damascus , and from there , on to Assyria and Anatolia .

During the period of Persian imperial rule in the region ( c . 550 – 330 BCE ) , the Qedarites exercised control over the desert areas bordering Egypt and Israel and the traffic related to Arabian incense trade upon which Gaza depended . Herodotus ( c . 484 – 425 BCE ) writes of their presence in the northern Sinai near the Egyptian border where they may have been engaged by the Achaemenids , the Persian imperial authorities , to keep that border secure as well as their control of the city of Gaza .

= = Historical references = =

= = = Extrabiblical = = =

= = = = Assyrian inscriptions = = = =

The first documented mention of Qedar is from a stele ( c . 737 BCE ) of Tiglath @-@ Pileser III , a king of the Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire , that lists leaders from the western part of Mesopotamia that pay him tribute . To the Assyrians , the Qedarites were known as Qidri or qi @-@ id @-@ ri with other cuneiform inscriptions also using Qadri , Qidarri , Qidari and Qudari ( Neo Babylonian ) . Zabibe ( c . 738 BCE ) is listed among those paying tribute under the title " queen of the Qidri and the Aribi " ( Aribi meaning " Arabs " ) .

Also mentioned in Assyrian royal inscriptions is Zabibe 's successor Yatie ( c . 730 BCE ) , who sent forces headed by her brother Baasqanu to aid Merodach @-@ Baladan in his bid to hold onto power in Babylon . Together with an army from Elam , this alliance faced the forces of Sennacherib , on the Assyrian king 's first campaign in 703 BCE . The events of the battle are recorded in the annals of Sennacherib which describe Yatie as " queen of the Arabs , " and tell of the capture of her brother Baasqanu in battle . Israel Eph 'al writes that this is the first mention in Assyrian documents of Arabs as an ethnic element in Babylonia .

Statements about the Qedarites in the annals of the Assyrian kings of Ashurbanipal and his son Esarhaddon indicate that the term Kedar was almost synonymous with Arabia . Hazael , who ruled c . 690 – 676 BCE , is described as a Qedarite king by Ashurbanipal and " king of the Arabs " by Esarhaddon . After Sennacherib 's invasion of Babylonia in 691 – 689 BCE , Hazael fled to Dumah . Dumah is referred to as Adummatu by the Assyrians , and the city is described by them as the seat of the Qedar confederation and the base of their cult .

Te 'elkhunu and Tabua , both referred to as both " queens of Qidri " and " queens of Aribi , " have Adummatu explicitly denoted as their seat and capital city in the inscriptions . While the capital city for the three other queens referred to as " queens of Aribi " ( Samsi , Zabibe and Yatie ) is not explicitly mentioned , it is thought to have been Adummatu as well . Numerous inscriptions discovered in Dumah itself are further indications for a strong Qedarite presence , one of which asks of three deities known to the Assyrians as gods of Qedar ( Ruda , Nuha and Atarsamain ) for " help in the matter of my love . "

The conquest of Adummatu by Sennacherib in 690 BCE and the capture of a Qedarite queen , Te 'elkhunu , who was brought back to Assyria with other loot , including divine images , is also mentioned in the annals of the Assyrian monarchs . Esarhaddon eventually returned the " renewed " images of the Arab gods to Adummatu with Tabua , " who grew up in the palace of Sennacherib , " and was appointed Qedarite queen by Esarhaddon to replace Te 'elkhunu . However , strained relations between the Assyrians and the Qedarites meant that she ruled for only a brief period , with Esarhaddon recognizing Hazael as the king of Qedar after he increased his tribute to the Assyrian monarch by 65 camels . Esarhaddon then appointed Yauta , son of Hazael , as a Qedarite king , following Hazael 's death . That Yauta paid a tribute in the form of 10 minas of gold , 1 @,@ 000 precious stones , 50 camels , and 1 @,@ 000 leather pouches of aromatics is also recorded .

The defeat of Ammuladi and Yauta after they mounted Qedarite forces to march against the kings of the Amurru is recorded by Ashurbanipal . Yauta is said to have " roused the people of Arabia to revolt with him . " His wife , Adiya , is the only woman mentioned in Assyrian inscriptions as both a Qedarite queen and the wife of a Qedarite king , and is thought to be the only woman who was not a ruler in her own right . The inscriptions record how Adiya was sent by Yauta to accompany Ammuladi and the Qedarite forces , and their subsequent defeat and capture in 604 BCE by the forces of Kamushaltu , king of Moab and a loyal vassal of the Assyrian empire . Yauta is said to have " fled to the Nabataeans . " His subsequent capture and sentencing in Nineveh are recorded by Ashurbanipal who relates that , " I put a dog chain upon him and made him guard a kennel . " Abiyate was appointed as Yauta 's successor , and soon joined with the Nabataeans to revolt against Assyria again , prompting Ashurbanipal to launch a three @-@ month campaign to end it , beginning in Palmyra , continuing on to Damascus and ending in the southern part of al @-@ Leja .

= = = = Old South Arabic and Aramaic inscriptions = = = =

Old South Arabic inscriptions mention qdrn ( " Qadirān " or " Qadrān " ) as a person or people . Graffiti found in al @-@ Ula , known as the Graffito of Niran at Dedan , mentions Gashmu I , son of Shahr I , as King of Qedar .

A " king of Qedar " is also mentioned in a late 5th century BCE Aramaic inscription on a silver vessel found at Tell Maskhuta in the eastern Nile Delta in lower Egypt . The inscription names him as " Qainū son of Gashmu , " with the vessel described as an , " offering to han- ' Ilāt " .

While it does not specifically mention the Qedar and is therefore a subject of debate , an Aramaic inscription dating to 5th century BCE discovered on an incense altar at Lachish and dedicated to , " Iyas , son of Mahaly , the king , " is interpreted by André Lemaire as a possible reference to kings of Qedar .

= = = = Classical Antiquity = = = =

Herodotus has documented that the Qedarites were called upon to assist Cambyses II of the Persian empire in his invasion of Egypt in 525 BCE . The Qedarites and Nabataens were known to enjoy close relations , even engaging as wartime allies against the Assyrians . It is possible that the Qedarites were eventually incorporated into the Nabataen state which emerged as the strongest Ishmaelite presence in northwestern Arabia c. the 2nd century CE . In The Cambridge Ancient History , some of the ( Arab ) Nabataens mentioned by Diodorus in his retelling of events that took place in 312 BCE are said to be Qedarites .

Pliny the Elder ( 23 – 79 CE ) , who refers to the Cedrei and Cedareni ( " Cedarenes " ) in the context of other Arabian tribes , placing their domain to the south of the Conchlei and adjacent to that of the Nabataei , is thought to be referring to the Qedar . Jerome ( c . 357 – 420 CE ) , also writing in Latin , transcribes Qedar as Cedar , and refers to it as a region . In one entry , he describes it as , " a region of the Saracens , who are called Ishmaelites in scripture " ; in another , he writes that it was a " once uninhabitable region across Saracen Arabia " ; and in a third , he writes that it is a " deserted region of the Ishmaelites , whom they now call Saracens . " According to the Catholic Encyclopedia , Theodoret ( c . 393 – c . 457 ) mentions that in his time , the Qedar lived near Babylon .

= = = = 19th century = = = =

There are brief references to the Qedar in the writings of Western travellers to the Levant in the 19th century . Drawing on biblical motfis , comparisons are made between the Bedouins and the Qedar . For example , Albert Augustus Isaacs describes the imposing spectacle of a Bedouin encampment on a plain upon which , " the black tents of Kedar were spread far and wide . " An earlier account by Charles Boileau Elliot describes the Arabs as falling into two main groups , Fellahs and Bedouins , and identifies the latter with Ishmael and the Qedar as follows :

[ ... ] the Bedouins still retain the wandering habits of their father Ishmael ; their ' hand is against every man , and every man 's hand is against ' them ; the wild desert is their home ; the ground their pallet and their canopy the sky ; or , if luxurious their choicest place of sojourn is a little tent ' black as the tents of Kedar ' their progenitor [ ... ]

Charles Forster identifies the Arab tribe of the Beni Harb as the modern descendants of the Kedar . He proposes that Beni Harb ( " sons of war " ) is a patronym and nom de guerre that was adopted by the tribe at least 2 @,@ 000 years ago , replacing Kedar as the national moniker .

= = = Biblical = = =

The descendants of Abraham and Hagar are called Ishmaelites , after Ishmael , their firstborn , and the Qedarites are named for his second son , Qedar . The Bible refers to both the Qedarites and Qedar frequently . Old Testament references include Genesis ( 25 : 13 ) , Isaiah ( 21 : 16 @-@ 17 , 42 : 11 , 60 : 7 ) , Jeremiah ( 2 : 10 , 49 : 28 @-@ 33 ) , Ezekiel ( 27 : 21 ) , and Chronicles ( 1 : 29 ) . Twice , Qedar is used to refer to the actual son of Ishmael , as in the books of Genesis and Chronicles , while remaining references are to his descendants , referring either to his most prominent North Arabian sons , or to the Arabs and Bedouins as a more general collective . The " tents of Kedar " equated with " the peace @-@ hating Meshech " mentioned in the Book of Psalms ( 120 : 5 ) were likely a Qedarite sub @-@ group .

In Canticles ( 1 : 5 ) , the tents of the Qedarites are described as black : " Black I am , but beautiful , ye daughters of Jerusalem / As tents of Qedar , as tentcloth of Salam black . " Their tents are said to be made of black goat hair . A tribe of Salam was located just south of the Nabateans in Madain Salih , and Knauf proposed that the Qedarites mentioned in this Masoretic text were in fact Nabataeans and played a crucial role in the spice trade in the 3rd century BCE .

Biblical descriptions indicate there were two major types of Qedarites : nomads ( Arabic : wabariya ) living in tents and sedentary people ( Arabic : ḥaḍariya ) living in villages . Jeremiah describes them as " a nation at ease , that dwells securely " ( 49 : 31 ) and notes that they engage in the pagan practice of shaving their temples . Isaiah recalls their warrior activities and skill with the bow . ( 21 : 16f ) Ezekiel associates , " Arabia and all the princes of Kedar , " and indicates that they engaged in sheep / goat trading with the Phoenicians . The three books list the flocks of the Qedarites as including lambs , rams , goats and camels .

Jeremiah also tells of a campaign by Nebuchadnezzar ( 630 – 562 BCE ) against the Qedarites during the Babylonian period . Gashmu , the king of the Qedarites mentioned in the 5th century BCE Aramaic inscription described above , is also referred to as " Geshem the Arab " or " Geshem the Arabian " by Nehemiah who lists him as one of his adversaries , since Gashmu stands opposed to Nehemiah 's governorship over Judea in 447 BCE .

= = Culture and society = =

Biblical and extrabiblical evidence suggests that of the Arabian tribes , the Qedarites were most prominent in their contacts with the world outside of Arabia . Like other nomadic groups , they lived primarily in unfortified encampments . Pastoralists and traders in livestock , such as male lambs , rams and goats , they also played a key role in the prosperity of Gaza 's incense trade , controlling traffic in the desert regions between Egypt and Palestine . As a result of their trading activities , there were clans from among the Qedarites that became wealthy .

Though they were vassals under Assyrian rule and were often engaged in rebellion against that empire , the rise to dominance of the Persian empire proved beneficial to the Qedarites . Qedarite control of the trade routes and the access they afforded the Persians translated into what Herodotus described as a friendly relationship .

= = = Language = = =

The Qedarites are among a number of North Arabian tribes whose interactions with Arameaen tribes beginning in the 8th century BCE resulted in cultural exchanges between these two large Semitic groups . Early Arab tribal groups like the Qedarites spoke early Arab dialects , but as the Arabic alphabet had not yet been developed , they used the Aramaic alphabet to write . " The tongue of Kedar " is used in rabbinical sources as a name for the Arabic language .

Papponymy , the practice of naming boys after their grandfathers , was common among the Qedar . Some Qedarites had Aramaic personal names ( e.g. Hazael or Haza @-@ el ) , while others had Arabic personal names ( e.g. Gashmu and Zabibe ) . Aramaic civilization and its peoples were gradually absorbed by the Arabs with Arabic dialects in Lebanon , Palestine , Syria , and Iraq in particular exhibiting the influence of Aramaic .

= = = Religion = = =

Religious worship among the Qedar , as was the case for most of the inhabitants of Arabia until the 7th century CE , was centered around a polytheistic system in which women rose to prominence . Divine images of the gods and goddesses worshipped by Qedarite Arabs , as noted in Assyrian inscriptions , included representations of Atarsamain , Nuha , Ruda , Daa , Abirillu , and Atarquruma . The female guardian of these idols , usually the reigning queen , served as a priestess ( apkallatu , in Assyrian texts ) who communed with the other world . As mentioned above , there is also evidence that the Qedar worshipped Al @-@ lāt , to whom the inscription on a silver bowl from a king of Qedar is dedicated . In the Babylonian Talmud , which was passed down orally for centuries before being transcribed c . 500 CE , in tractate Taanis ( folio 5b ) , it is said that most Qedarites worshiped pagan gods .

= = = Tomb = = =

There is a mausoleum assigned to him in Qeydar city Zanjan Province , Iran

= = Genealogy = =

The biblical view of the late Iron Age political and cultural map describes it as a set of branching genealogies . Biblical figures three generations forward from Terah are invariably described as the eponymous founders of different tribes and polities that interacted with the Kingdom of Judah between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE . Such is the case of the Qedarite Arabs , who according to biblical tradition , are the offspring of the Abraham @-@ Ishmael @-@ Kedar genealogical line .

The majority of Sayyid believe they are one of the modern day descendants of Muhammad , and that they are therefore the descendants of Ishmael and his second son Qedar . Abu Ja 'far al @-@ Baqir ( 676 – 743 CE ) wrote that his father Ali ibn Husayn informed him that Mohammed had said : " The first whose tongue spoke in clear Arabic was Ishmael , when he was fourteen years old . " Hisham Ibn Muhammad al @-@ Kalbi ( 737 – 819 CE ) established a genealogical link between Ishmael and Mohammed using writings that drew on biblical and Palmyran sources , and the ancient oral traditions of the Arabs . His book , Jamharat al @-@ Nasab ( " The Abundance of Kinship " ) , seems to posit that the people known as " Arabs " are all descendants of Ishmael . Ibn Kathir ( 1301 – 1373 ) writes , " All the Arabs of the Hijaz are descendants of Nebaioth and Qedar . " Medieval Jewish sources also usually identified Qedar with Arabs and / or Muslims . According to author and scholar Irfan Shahîd , Western scholars viewed this kind of " genealogical Ishmaelism " with suspicion , seeing it as ,

[ ... ] a late Islamic fabrication because of the confusion in Islamic times which made it such a capacious term as to include the inhabitants of the south as well as the north of the Arabian Peninsula . But shorn of this extravagance , the concept is much more modest in its denotation , and in the sober sources it applies only to certain groups among the Arabs of pre @-@ Islamic times . Some important statements to this effect were made by Muhammed when he identified some Arabs as Ishmaelites and others as not .

Ishmaelism in this more limited definition holds that Ishmael was both an important religious figure and eponymous ancestor for some of the Arabs of western Arabia . Prominence is given in Arab genealogical accounts to the first two of Ishmael 's twelve sons , Nebaioth ( Arabic : نبيت , Nabīt ) and Qedar ( Arabic : قيدار , Qaydār ) , who are also prominently featured in the Genesis account . It is likely that they and their tribes lived in northwestern Arabia and were historically the most important of the twelve Ishamelite tribes .

In accounts tracing the ancestry of Mohammed back to Ma 'ad ( and from there to Adam ) , Arab scholars alternate , with some citing the line as through Nebaioth , others Qedar .

= Super Science Stories =

Super Science Stories was an American pulp science fiction magazine published by Popular Publications from 1940 and 1943 , and again from 1949 to 1951 . Popular launched it under their " Fictioneers " imprint , which they used for magazines paying writers less than one cent per word . Frederik Pohl was hired in late 1939 , at 19 years old , to edit the magazine ; he also edited Astonishing Stories , a companion science fiction publication . Pohl left in mid @-@ 1941 , and Super Science Stories was given to Alden H. Norton to edit ; a few months later Norton rehired Pohl as an assistant . Popular gave Pohl a very low budget , so most manuscripts submitted to Super Science Stories had already been rejected by the higher @-@ paying magazines . This made it difficult to acquire good fiction , but Pohl was able to acquire stories for the early issues from the Futurians , a group of young science fiction fans and aspiring writers .

Super Science Stories was an initial success , and within a year Popular increased Pohl 's budget slightly , allowing him to pay a bonus rate on occasion . Pohl wrote many stories himself , to fill the magazine and to augment his salary . He managed to obtain stories by writers who subsequently became very well known , such as Isaac Asimov and Robert Heinlein . After Pohl entered the army in early 1943 , wartime paper shortages led Popular to cease publication of Super Science Stories . The final issue of the first run was dated May of that year . In 1949 the title was revived with Ejler Jakobsson as editor ; this version , which included many reprinted stories , lasted almost three years , with the last issue dated August 1951 . A Canadian reprint edition of the first run included material from both Super Science Stories and Astonishing Stories ; it was unusual in that it printed some original fiction rather than just reprints . There were also Canadian and British reprint editions of the second incarnation of the magazine .

The magazine was never regarded as one of the leading titles of the genre , but has received qualified praise from science fiction critics and historians . Science fiction historian Raymond Thompson describes it as " one of the most interesting magazines to appear during the 1940s " , despite the variable quality of the stories . Critics Brian Stableford and Peter Nicholls comment that the magazine " had a greater importance to the history of sf than the quality of its stories would suggest ; it was an important training ground " .

= = Publication history = =

Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming , and several new sf magazines were launched in 1939 . Frederik Pohl , a science fiction fan and aspiring writer , visited Robert Erisman , the editor of Marvel Science Stories and Dynamic Science Stories , to ask for a job . Erisman did not have an opening for him , but told Pohl that Popular Publications , a leading pulp publisher , was starting a new line of low @-@ paying magazines and might be interested in adding a science fiction title . On October 25 , 1939 , Pohl visited Rogers Terrill at Popular , and was hired immediately , at the age of nineteen , on a salary of ten dollars per week . Pohl was given two magazines to edit : Super Science Stories and Astonishing Stories . Super Science Stories was intended to carry longer pieces , and Astonishing focused on shorter fiction ; Super Science Stories was retitled Super Science Novels Magazine in March 1941 , reflecting this policy , but after only three issues the title was changed back to Super Science Stories .

Popular was uncertain of the sales potential for the two new titles and decided to publish them under its Fictioneers imprint , which was used for lower @-@ paying magazines . Super Science Stories ' first issue was dated March 1940 ; it was bimonthly , with Astonishing Stories appearing in the alternate months . In Pohl 's memoirs he recalls Harry Steeger , one of the company owners , breaking down the budget for Astonishing for him : " Two hundred seventy @-@ five dollars for stories . A hundred dollars for black and white art . Thirty dollars for a cover . " For Super Science Stories , Steeger gave him an additional $ 50 as it was 16 pages longer , so his total budget was $ 455 per issue . Pohl could only offer half a cent per word for fiction , well below the rates offered by the leading magazines . Super Science Stories sold well , despite Pohl 's limited resources : Popular was a major pulp publisher and had a strong distribution network , which helped circulation . Steeger soon increased Pohl 's budget , to pay bonuses for popular stories . Pohl later commented that he was uncertain whether the additional funds really helped to bring in higher quality submissions , although at the time he assured Steeger it would improve the magazine . Some of the additional money went to Ray Cummings , a long @-@ established sf writer who came to see Pohl in person to submit his work . Cummings refused to sell for less than one cent a word ; Pohl had some extra money available when Cummings first visited him , and though he disliked Cummings ' work was never able to bring himself to reject Cummings submissions , or even to tell him that he could not really afford to pay the rate Cummings was asking . Pohl comments in his memoirs that " for months he [ Cummings ] would turn up regularly as clockwork and sell me a new story ; I hated them all , and bought them all . "

By reducing the space he needed to fill with fiction Pohl managed to stretch his budget . A long letter column took up several pages but required no payment , and neither did running advertisements for Popular 's other magazines . Some authors sent inaccurate word counts with the stories they submitted , and savings were made by paying them on the basis of whichever word count was less — the author 's or one done by Popular 's staff . The result was a saving of forty to fifty dollars per issue . Snipped elements of black and white illustrations were also reused to fill space , as multiple uses of the same artwork did not require additional payments to the artist .

Towards the end of 1940 Popular doubled Pohl 's salary to twenty dollars per week . In June 1941 Pohl visited Steeger to ask for a further raise , intending to resign and work as a free @-@ lance writer if he was unsuccessful . Steeger was unreceptive , and Pohl commented later " I have never been sure whether I quit or got fired " . Instead of replacing Pohl , Popular assigned editor @-@ in @-@ chief Alden H. Norton to add the magazines to his responsibilities . The arrangement lasted for seven months , after which Norton asked Pohl to return as his assistant . Norton offered Pohl thirty @-@ five dollars a week as an associate editor , substantially more than the twenty dollars a week he had received as editor , and Pohl readily accepted .

Pohl was not eligible to be drafted for military service as he was married , but by the end of 1942 his marriage was over and he decided to enlist . As voluntary enlistment was suspended he was unable to immediately join the army , but eventually was inducted on April 1 , 1943 . Paper was difficult to obtain because of the war , and Popular decided to close the magazine down ; the final issue , dated April 1943 , was assembled with the assistance of Ejler Jakobsson .

In late 1948 , as a second boom in science fiction publishing was beginning , Popular decided to revive the magazine . Jakobsson later recalled hearing about the revival while on vacation , swimming in a lake , five miles from a phone : " A boy on a bicycle showed on shore and shouted , ' Call your office . ' " When he reached a phone , Norton told him that the magazine was being relaunched and would be given to Jakobsson to edit . Damon Knight , who was working for Popular at the time , also worked on the magazine as assistant editor , although he was not credited . The relaunched magazine survived for almost three years , but the market for pulps was weak , and when Knight left in 1950 to edit Worlds Beyond Jakobsson was unable to sustain support for it within Popular . It ceased publication with the August 1951 issue .

= = Contents and reception = =

Because of the low rates of pay , the stories submitted to Super Science Stories in its first year had generally already been rejected elsewhere . However , Pohl was a member of the Futurians , a group of science fiction fans that included Isaac Asimov , C.M. Kornbluth , Richard Wilson and Donald Wollheim ; the Futurians were eager to become professional writers and were eager to submit stories to Pohl . The Futurians were prolific ; in Pohl 's first year as an editor he bought a total of fifteen stories from them for the two magazines . Pohl contributed material himself , usually in collaboration with one or more of the Futurians . Particularly after his marriage to Doris Baumgardt in August 1940 , Pohl realized that his salary covered their apartment rent with almost no money left over , and began to augment his income by selling to himself as well as to other magazines . The first story Pohl ever published that was not a collaboration was " The Dweller in the Ice " , which appeared in the January 1941 Super Science Stories . All of the stories Pohl bought from himself were published under pseudonyms , though in fact Pohl used pseudonyms for everything he wrote until the 1950s .

The first issue , dated March 1940 , contained " Emergency Refueling " , James Blish 's first published story , two stories by John Russell Fearn ( one under the pseudonym " Thornton Ayre " ) , fiction by Frank Belknap Long , Ross Rocklynne , Raymond Gallun , Harl Vincent and Dean O 'Brien ; and a poem by Kornbluth , " The Song of the Rocket " , under the pseudonym " Gabriel Barclay " . Blish 's most notable contribution to the magazine was " Sunken Universe " , which appeared in the May 1942 issue under the pseudonym " Arthur Merlyn " . This later formed part of " Surface Tension " , one of Blish 's most popular stories . Other writers whose first story appeared in Super Science Stories include Ray Bradbury , Chad Oliver , and Wilson Tucker . Bradbury 's first sale , " Pendulum " , was bought by Norton , and appeared in the November 1941 issue ; Tucker 's writing career began with " Interstellar Way Station " in May 1941 , and Oliver 's " The Land of Lost Content " appeared in the November 1950 Super Science Stories . Asimov appeared four times in Super Science Stories , starting with " Robbie " , his first Robot story , under the title " Strange Playfellow " .

Although most stories submitted to Super Science Stories were rejects from the better @-@ paying markets such as Astounding Science Fiction , Pohl recalled in his memoirs that John W. Campbell , the editor of Astounding , would occasionally pass on a good story by a prolific author because he felt readers did not want to see the same authors in every issue . As a result , Pohl was able to print L. Sprague de Camp 's Genus Homo , in the March 1941 Super Science Stories , and Robert Heinlein 's " Let There Be Light " and " Lost Legacy " in the May 1940 and November 1941 issues : these were stories which , in Pohl 's opinion , " would have looked good anywhere " . Pohl also suggested that Campbell rejected some of Heinlein 's stories because they contained mild references to sex . A couple of readers did complain , with one disgusted letter writer commenting " If you are going to continue to print such pseudosophisticated , pre @-@ prep @-@ school tripe as " Let There Be Light " , you should change the name of the mag to Naughty Future Funnies " .

The second run of Super Science Stories included some fiction that had first appeared in the Canadian reprint edition , which outlasted the U.S. original and printed eleven stories that had been acquired but not printed by the time Popular shut Super Science Stories and Astonishing down in early 1943 . These included " The Black Sun Rises " by Henry Kuttner , " And Then – the Silence " , by Ray Bradbury , and " The Bounding Crown " by James Blish . From mid @-@ 1950 a reprint feature was established . This led to some reader complaints , with one correspondent pointing out that it was particularly galling to discover that Blish 's " Sunken Universe " , reprinted in the November 1950 issue , was a better story than the original material in the magazine . The magazine also reprinted stories from Famous Fantastic Mysteries , which Popular had acquired from Munsey Publishing in 1941 .

Some of the original stories were well @-@ received : for example , Ray Bradbury 's " The Impossible " , which appeared in the November 1949 issue , and was later included in Bradbury 's book The Martian Chronicles , is described by sf historian Raymond Thompson as a " haunting ... comment on man 's attempts to realize his conflicting hopes and dreams " . Thompson also comments positively on Poul Anderson 's early story " Terminal Quest " , in Super Science Stories 's final issue , dated August 1951 ; and on Arthur C. Clarke 's " Exile of the Eons " in the March 1950 issue . John D. MacDonald also contributed good material .

The book reviews in Super Science Stories were of a higher standard than elsewhere in the field , and historian Paul Carter regards Astonishing and Super Science Stories as the place where " book reviewing for the first time began to merit the term ' literary criticism ' " , adding that " it was in those magazines that the custom began of paying attention to science fiction on the stage and screen also " . The artwork was initially amateurish , and although it improved over the years , even the better artists such as Virgil Finlay and Lawrence Stevens continued to produce cliched depictions of half @-@ dressed women threatened by robots or aliens . H. R. van Dongen , later a prolific cover artist for Astounding , made his first science fiction art sale to Super Science Stories for the cover of the September 1950 issue .

Sf historian Mike Ashley regards Super Science Stories as marginally better than its companion magazine , Astonishing , adding " both are a testament to what a good editor can do with a poor budget " . According to sf critics Brian Stableford and Peter Nicholls , the magazine " had a greater importance to the history of sf than the quality of its stories would suggest ; it was an important training ground " .

= = Bibliographic details = =

The first run of Super Science Stories was edited by Frederik Pohl from March 1940 through August 1941 ( nine issues ) , and then by Alden H. Norton from November 1941 through May 1943 ( seven issues ) . Ejler Jakobsson was the editor throughout the second run , from January 1949 to August 1951 . The publisher was Popular Publications for both versions , although the first was issued under Popular 's Fictioneers imprint . It was pulp @-@ sized throughout both runs . At launch the magazine had 128 pages and was priced at 15 cents ; the price increased to 20 cents when it went to 144 pages in March 1941 , and again to 25 cents for the May 1943 issue , which had 128 pages again . The second run was priced at 25 cents throughout and had 112 pages . The title was Super Science Stories for both runs except for three issues from March to August 1941 , which were titled Super Science Novels Magazine . The volume numbering was completely regular , with seven volumes of four numbers and a final volume of three numbers . It was bimonthly for the first eight issues , from March 1940 to May 1941 , and then went to a regular quarterly schedule .

= = = Canadian and British editions = = =

In 1940 , as part of the War Exchange Conservation Act , Canada banned the import of pulp magazines . Popular launched a Canadian edition of Astonishing Stories in January 1942 , which lasted for three bimonthly issues and reprinted two issues of Astonishing and one issue of Super Science Stories . With the August 1942 issue the name was changed to Super Science Stories , and the numeration was begun again at volume 1 number 1 ; as a result the magazine is usually listed by bibliographers as a separate publication from the Canadian Astonishing , but in many respects it was a direct continuation . The price was 15 cents throughout ; it lasted for 21 regular bimonthly issues in a single volume ; the last issue was dated December 1945 . It was published by Popular Publications ' Toronto branch , and the editor was listed as Alden H. Norton .

Each issue of the Canadian edition corresponded to one issue of either Astonishing or Super Science : for example , the first two Canadian issues drew their contents from the February 1942 Super Science Stories and the June 1942 Astonishing , respectively . This pattern continued for ten issues . The next issue , dated April 1944 , contained several reprints from the US editions , but also included two original stories that had not appeared anywhere before — these had been acquired for the US magazine and remained in inventory . A total of eleven of these original stories appeared in the Canadian Super Science Stories . Later issues of the magazine also saw many reprints from Famous Fantastic Mysteries ; in tacit acknowledgement of the new source of material , the title was changed to Super Science and Fantastic Stories from the December 1944 issue . The artwork was mostly taken from Popular 's US magazines but some new art appeared , probably by Canadian artists . There was no other Canadian presence : the letters page , for example , contained letters from the US edition .

In 1949 , when the second run of the US Super Science Stories began , another Canadian edition appeared , but this was identical in content to the US version . Two British reprint editions of the second run also appeared , starting in October 1949 . The first was published by Thorpe & Porter ; the issues , which were not dated or numbered , appeared in October 1949 and February and June 1950 . The contents were drawn from the US issues dated January 1949 , November 1949 , and January 1950 respectively ; each was 96 pages and was priced at 1 / - . The second reprint edition was published by Pemberton 's ; these were 64 pages and again were undated and were priced at 1 / - .

The British issues are abridged versions of US issues from both the first and second series . The titles corresponded to the titles on the US magazine from which the stories were taken , so all were titled Super Science Stories except for the April 1953 issue , which was titled Super Science Novels Magazine .

= HMS Hostile ( H55 ) =

HMS Hostile ( H55 ) was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . She was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone , in October 1939 to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. Hostile participated in the First Battle of Narvik in April 1940 and the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 . The ship was damaged by a mine off Cape Bon in the Strait of Sicily while on passage from Malta to Gibraltar on 23 August 1940 . She was then scuttled by HMS Hero .

= = Description = =

Hostile displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) , and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hostile carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime .

The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft defence Hostile had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .

= = Service = =

Hostile was laid down by Scotts Shipbuilding & Engineering Company at Greenock , Scotland on 27 February 1935 , launched on 24 January 1936 , and completed on 10 September 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 253 @,@ 382 . She was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Hostile patrolled Spanish waters in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the edicts of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The ship received an overhaul at Gibraltar between 17 November and 15 December 1937 . She resumed patrolling Spanish waters in 1938 and 1939 . After the end of the Spanish Civil War , Hostile was refitted in Sheerness Dockyard between 31 May and 26 July 1939 . She returned to the Mediterranean and was in Malta when World War II began .

In October the ship was transferred to Freetown to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. The ship and her half @-@ sisters , Hardy , Hereward , and Hasty , rendezvoused with the battlecruiser Renown , the aircraft carrier Ark Royal , and the light cruiser Neptune on 17 December . They refuelled in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , before proceeding to the estuary of the River Plate in case the damaged German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee attempted to escape from Montevideo , Uruguay , where she had taken refuge after losing the Battle of the River Plate . Hostile was overhauled at Chatham Dockyard between 26 January and 29 March 1940 and then rejoined the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla , now assigned to the Home Fleet . During the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April the ship engaged the German destroyer Z17 Diether von Roeder and badly damaged her , hitting her at least five times . Hostile was only hit once , but the shell did little damage . She escorted her badly damaged sister ship , Hotspur , to the repair base set up at Flakstadøya in the Lofoten Islands . Hostile briefly escorted the battleship HMS Warspite before she returned to Rosyth for repairs between 27 April and 4 May . The ship briefly returned to Norwegian waters , where she again escorted Warspite , before being transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in mid @-@ May .

On 9 July Hostile participated in the Battle of Calabria as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers , suffering no damage . The ship , together with her sister , Hero , and the destroyers Nubian and Mohawk , were ordered to Gibraltar on 22 August where they were to join Force H. Hostile struck a mine en route on the early morning of 23 August off Cap Bon that broke her back . The explosion killed five men and wounded three others . Mohawk took off the survivors while Hero fired two torpedoes to scuttle her .

= Rocky Mountain Horse =

The Rocky Mountain Horse is a horse breed developed in the state of Kentucky in the United States . Despite its name , it originated not in the Rocky Mountains , but instead in the Appalachian Mountains . A foundation stallion , brought from the western United States to eastern Kentucky around 1890 , began the Rocky Mountain type in the late 19th century . In the mid @-@ 20th century , a stallion named Old Tobe , owned by a prominent breeder , was used to develop the modern type ; today most Rocky Mountain Horses trace back to this stallion . In 1986 , the Rocky Mountain Horse Association was formed and by 2005 has registered over 12 @,@ 000 horses . The breed is known for its preferred " chocolate " coat color and flaxen mane and tail , the result of the relatively rare silver dapple gene acting on a black coat , seen in much of the population . It also exhibits a four @-@ beat ambling gait known as the " single @-@ foot " . Originally developed as a multi @-@ purpose riding , driving and light draft horse , today it is used mainly for trail riding and working cattle .

= = Breed characteristics = =

Rocky Mountain Horses stand between 14 @.@ 2 and 16 hands ( 58 and 64 inches , 147 and 163 cm ) high . Any solid color is accepted by the registry , but a dark brown color called " chocolate " with a pale , " flaxen " mane and tail is preferred . This coloration is the result of the relatively rare silver dapple gene acting on a black base coat . Although uncommon , this gene has been found in over a dozen breeds , including the Rocky Mountain Horse . Minimal white markings are accepted by the registry , although leg markings may not extend above the knee . The physical characteristics are somewhat variable , due to the disparate breeds that created the Rocky Mountain Horse . The Rocky Mountain Horse is known by enthusiasts for its hardiness and ability to withstand winters in the mountains . It is also praised for its good nature and affinity for humans . Rocky Mountain Horses have the highest risk of any breed for the genetic ocular syndrome multiple congenital ocular anomalies ( MCOA ) , originally called equine anterior segment dysgenesis ( ASD ) . MCOA is characterized by the abnormal development of some ocular tissues , which causes compromised vision , although generally of a mild form ; the disease is non @-@ progressive . Genetic studies have shown that the disorder may be tied to the silver dapple gene , as most horses diagnosed with MCOA carry the gene .

The breed exhibits a natural ambling gait , called the single @-@ foot , which replaces the trot seen in a majority of horse breeds . Both gaits are an intermediate speed between a walk and a canter or gallop ; ambling gaits are four @-@ beat gaits , whereas the trot is a two @-@ beat gait . The extra footfalls provide additional smoothness to a rider because the horse always has at least one foot on the ground . This minimizes movement of the horse 's topline and removes the bounce of a two @-@ beat gait , caused by a moment of suspension followed by the jolt of two feet hitting the ground as the horse shifts from one pair of legs to the other . The value of an intermediate speed is that the horse conserves energy . More than thirty horse breeds are " gaited , " able to perform a four @-@ beat ambling gait , and some can also trot . Thus , a Rocky Mountain Horse , with rider , can use the single @-@ foot to cover rough ground at around 7 miles per hour ( 11 km / h ) and short stretches of smooth ground at up to 16 miles per hour ( 26 km / h ) . The faster speed is known as the rack . In comparison , the average medium trot speed is 6 to 8 miles per hour ( 9 @.@ 7 to 12 @.@ 9 km / h ) .

= = History = =

Eastern Kentucky is known for its gaited breeds , created through a mixture of Spanish horses from the southern United States and English horses from the North . American Saddlebreds , Tennessee Walking Horses and Missouri Fox Trotters also originated in the same general geographic area , from the same mixing of Spanish and English blood . Rocky Mountain Horses have a similar history to the Kentucky Mountain Saddle Horse , and together are sometimes called " Mountain Pleasure Horses " . The Rocky Mountain Horse originated in eastern Kentucky from a foundation stallion brought to the Appalachian Mountains from the Rocky Mountains around 1890 . Brought to the area as a colt , oral histories state that the " Rocky Mountain Horse " , as he was known , possessed the preferred chocolate color and flaxen mane and tail found in the breed today , as well as the single @-@ foot gait . He was used to breed local saddle mares , and due to the small area in which he was bred , a local strain of horse originated .

This foundation stallion produced a descendent , named Old Tobe , who became the more modern father of the Rocky Mountain Horse breed . Old Tobe was owned by a resident of Spout Springs , Kentucky named Sam Tuttle . For most of the 20th century , Tuttle was a prominent breeder of Rocky Mountain Horses , and helped to keep the strain alive during the Great Depression and World War II . After World War II , despite declining horse populations in the US , Tuttle kept his herd , and continued to use Old Tobe as a breeding stallion . Tuttle held the Natural Bridge State Park concession for horseback riding , and used Old Tobe for trail rides in the park and for siring additional trail horses , the latter until the stallion was 34 years old . Old Tobe died at the age of 37 . The presence of the single @-@ foot gait makes it possible that the breed is in part descended from the Narragansett Pacer , a breed known for passing its gaited ability on to other American breeds .

In 1986 , the Rocky Mountain Horse Association was created to increase population numbers and promote the breed ; there were only 26 horses in the first batch of registrations . Since then , the association has , over the life of the registry , registered over 25000 horses as of 2015 , and the breed has spread to 47 states and 11 countries . In order to be accepted by the registry , a foal 's parentage must be verified via DNA testing . Horses must also , after reaching 23 months of age , be inspected to ensure that they meet the physical characteristic and gait requirements of the registry . The Rocky Mountain Horse is listed at " Watch " status by the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy , meaning that the estimated global population of the breed is fewer than 15 @,@ 000 , with fewer than 800 registrations annually in the US .

The breed was originally developed for general use on the farms of the Appalachian foothills , where it was found pulling plows and buggies , working cattle and being ridden by both adults and children . Today , it is still used for working cattle , as well as endurance riding and pleasure riding . The breed 's gait and disposition make it sought out by elderly and disabled riders . Each September , the Kentucky Horse Park hosts the International Rocky Mountain Horse Show .

= Somerset County Cricket Club in 2009 =

Somerset County Cricket Club competed in four domestic competitions during the 2009 English cricket season : the first division of the County Championship , the Friends Provident Trophy , the first division of the NatWest Pro40 League and the Twenty20 Cup . Through their performance in the Twenty20 Cup , the team qualified for the Champions League Twenty20 . They enjoyed a successful season , but fell short of winning any competitions , prompting Director of Cricket Brian Rose to say " We 've had enough of being cricket 's nearly men . "

Consistent performances in the County Championship helped Somerset remain challengers for the competition until the last few weeks of the season , but the batting @-@ friendly pitch at their home ground , the County Ground , Taunton , meant that the county finished with too many draws to claim their first Championship title . Consistency was also key for Somerset 's success in one @-@ day cricket , where they remained unbeaten in the group stage of the Friends Provident Trophy , but were eliminated in the first knock @-@ out round , and finished runners @-@ up by one point in the NatWest Pro40 . In the Twenty20 Cup , Somerset finished as losing finalists . This meant that they qualified for the Champions League Twenty20 , where they progressed into the second group stage of the competition . They failed to win any matches in that phase of the competition , resulting in their elimination .

Somerset were captained for the third successive season by their Australian overseas player , Justin Langer , who announced during the season that it would be his last with Somerset . Marcus Trescothick topped the national batting tables , scoring almost 3 @,@ 000 runs in all competitions in 2009 ; as a result , he was named as both Professional Cricketers ' Association ( PCA ) Player of the Year and the PCA 's Most Valuable Player of the Year .

= = Background = =

After promotion from the second division of the County Championship in 2007 , Somerset were among the first division title contenders in the 2008 . A loss to Lancashire in the final match of the season meant they finished in fourth place . David Foot , writing in Wisden , claimed that too many of the Somerset batsmen had " lost their way " in one @-@ day cricket , as they narrowly avoided relegation in the NatWest Pro40 , and were eliminated in the Friends Provident Trophy .

Somerset promoted four players from their academy for the 2009 season , giving contracts to Jos Buttler , Adam Dibble , Chris Jones and James Burke . Of these , only Buttler appeared in the first @-@ team during the season . They also signed David Stiff , a fast bowler capped at Under @-@ 19 level for England , on a two @-@ month contract at the beginning of the season , which was later extended to the end of the season . Ian Blackwell , captain of the side in 2005 and 2006 , left for Durham after coach Andy Hurry and captain Justin Langer made it clear that they regarded fitness as a priority . John Francis and Keith Parsons both retired at the end of 2008 , Francis cited lack of first @-@ team opportunities for his departure , while at the age of 35 , Parsons declared that : " There comes a time when your body tells you it 's time to pack in professional sport . "

In his preview of the 2009 season for ESPNcricinfo , Andrew McGlashan identified Somerset 's opening partnerships with bat and ball as their main strengths , but predicted that the middle order would struggle to make an impact in the County Championship , stating that " none [ of the middle order ] jump out as potential match @-@ winners in four @-@ day cricket . " He speculated that the team 's best chance of success would come in the one @-@ day competitions . The Daily Telegraph provided a more positive outlook , claiming that the county had " enough depth in batting and seam bowling to challenge [ for the County Championship ] again . " They identified spin bowling as an area of weakness following the departure of Blackwell . Bob Willis , writing in The Guardian , shared this view , and predicted that Somerset would also be hindered by the difficulty of getting 20 wickets at home , resulting in too many draws .

= = Squad = =

The following players made at least one appearance for Somerset in first @-@ class , List A or Twenty20 cricket in 2009 . Age given is at the start of Somerset 's first match of the season ( 15 April 2009 ) .

= = County Championship = =

Although Marcus Trescothick had a season which David Foot described as " imperiously assured " , Somerset failed to win enough matches to pose a real challenge in the 2009 County Championship . The flat pitch at the County Ground , Taunton did not help their efforts ; the imbalance in favour of the batsmen meant that all but one match at the ground was drawn . Sussex 's total of 742 / 5 declared was the fifteenth highest total in the history of the County Championship , while Murray Goodwin 's innings of 344 not out in that match was the sixth highest score by a batsman in the history of the competition . In total , six of Somerset 's eight home matches contained scores of 500 or over in a single innings . In contrast , 500 was reached in only one of their away matches , by Hampshire at The Rose Bowl . The home conditions helped three of Somerset 's batsmen pass 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs in the season , including Craig Kieswetter and Arul Suppiah , who were both awarded their county caps after passing the landmark . Trescothick 's 1 @,@ 817 runs were the most by any batsman in the 2009 competition , finishing over 200 runs ahead of the next most prolific batsman , and he was named as both PCA Player of the Year and the PCA 's Most Valuable Player of the Year for 2009 . He was also selected as part of the team of the year , along with wicket @-@ keeper Kieswetter .

In contrast to the strong batting line @-@ up , Foot suggested that Somerset " lacked a seam bowler to compensate for Andrew Caddick 's withdrawal " . Caddick — who made his first @-@ class debut for Somerset in 1991 — only played five matches in 2009 , and announced his intention to retire at the end of the season . He took ten wickets in 2009 , and finished his career as Somerset 's sixth highest wicket @-@ taker of all @-@ time . This placed the majority of the wicket @-@ taking burden upon Charl Willoughby , the South African fast @-@ medium pace bowler . He responded well , and took 54 wickets in the County Championship , more than any other bowler in the first division . He was aided by seam bowlers David Stiff , who returned to the first @-@ class game for the first time since 2006 , and Alfonso Thomas . Stiff took 31 wickets , more than quadrupling his career first @-@ class wicket total , and Thomas took 35 , his highest return in an English domestic season . Somerset lacked an effective spin bowler in 2009 following the departure of Ian Blackwell the previous season , and the spinners combined only claimed 31 wickets , bowling less balls between them than Willoughby alone .

Somerset began their season by playing out a high @-@ scoring draw at home against Warwickshire , in which both teams reached 500 in their first innings . James Hildreth scored a triple @-@ century , reaching the milestone earlier in an English season than any player previously , and became the first English player to pass 300 runs in an innings for Somerset since Harold Gimblett in 1948 . In contrast , Somerset had to battle back for a draw in their second match . After Durham scored 543 in their first innings , Somerset collapsed to 69 all out in reply ; only Langer passed 20 runs , while six of his batting colleagues made ducks . After being forced to follow @-@ on , Trescothick , Langer and Kieswetter all scored centuries to secure a draw . Somerset 's third match resulted in their only loss of the County Championship season , coming against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge ; and at the end of May , they were second bottom in the first division . Their next match finished in a draw against Lancashire , a result which was always likely after the first day was lost to rain . Somerset next picked up victories against Yorkshire and Sussex before scoring the second @-@ highest ever fourth innings winning total in the County Championship to beat Yorkshire at Taunton . These three wins propelled Somerset to third in the competition at the start of July , and they did not drop below this position for the remainder of the season .

In each of their following two matches , at home against Hampshire and away to Worcestershire , Somerset batted first and then enforced the follow @-@ on after bowling their opponents out cheaply . In each their opponents managed to avoid defeat , and both matches resulted in draws . During the Worcestershire match , Langer 's first innings 107 took him past Sir Donald Bradman 's total of 28 @,@ 067 first @-@ class runs to become the highest @-@ scoring Australian batsman . Successive draws against Nottinghamshire , Warwickshire , Sussex and Hampshire meant that Somerset travelled to Durham requiring a victory to maintain any realistic hopes of claiming the County Championship title . No play was possible on the third and fourth days , and the match resulted in another draw , leaving Somerset with only a slim mathematical chance of the title . Another draw , against Lancashire , while Durham beat Nottinghamshire , meant that Durham clinched the title . Somerset drew with Worcestershire ( their ninth draw in a row in the competition ) , and finished third in the first division .

= = = Season standings = = =

Key : Pld

= Played , W =

Wins , L

= Losses , D =

Draws , T

= Ties , A =

Abandonments , Bat

= Batting points , Bwl =

Bowling points , Adj

= Adjustments / Penalties , Pts =

Points .

Adjustments :

Hampshire deducted 3 points for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Worcestershire .

Durham deducted 1 point for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Sussex .

Somerset deducted 1 point for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Durham .

Sussex deducted 1 point for a slow over @-@ rate in their match against Worcestershire.Notes :

Team marked ( C ) won the County Championship .

Teams marked ( R ) were relegated to Division Two of the County Championship .

= = = Match log and statistics = = =

= = Friends Provident Trophy = =

In the 2009 Friends Provident Trophy , the first one @-@ day competition in the English domestic calendar , Somerset showed a marked improvement from the previous season . They were described by Steve James , writing in Wisden , as " the most impressive qualifiers " from the group stage , and both Trescothick and Kieswetter were praised for their batting form . They were the only side in the competition to remain unbeaten in the group stages , finishing with seven victories and one no result . In the quarter @-@ final , against Group C runners @-@ up Sussex , Somerset won the toss and opted to bat at Taunton . They struggled initially , losing the early wickets of Trescothick , James Hildreth and Ben Phillips for just 39 runs . A fourth @-@ wicket partnership of 167 , dominated by powerful hitting from Kieswetter in which he scored a " superb century " according to ESPNcricinfo 's Andrew McGlashan , helped Somerset to recover to make 285 / 8 , but Sussex chased the total down in the final over to eliminate the home side .

During the group stages of their campaign , Somerset achieved a number of large victories . They won by eight wickets against Warwickshire and Middlesex , and by more than a hundred runs against Kent and Scotland . Their match against Middlesex at Lord 's was marred by some controversy , after Somerset were allowed too many powerplay overs in the rain @-@ affected fixture . Somerset were set a reduced target of 290 off 41 overs , of which 19 were allocated by the umpires as being powerplay overs , three more than there should have been . The England and Wales Cricket Board ( ECB ) rejected Middlesex 's request to replay the match , stating that they were upholding " the precedent that umpire errors cannot form the basis to declare a match null and void " .

The two matches played against Middlesex were in stark contrast ; in the match played at the Recreation Ground , Bath , Somerset bowled the London side out for 65 , the joint second @-@ lowest total made against Somerset in a List A match , while the 341 / 7 which Middlesex made at Lord 's was the fourth @-@ highest total scored against Somerset in the format . Somerset themselves scored their second @-@ highest List A total , amassing 403 / 3 against Scotland , a game in which Hildreth scored 151 , his highest List A score , and Somerset 's highest score by a batsman at number three in List A cricket .

Zander de Bruyn finished the competition with the highest batting average amongst batsmen who played five or more innings . Four Somerset batsmen scored over 300 runs in the tournament ( Trescothick , 476 ; Kieswetter , 395 ; de Bruyn , 388 ; Hildreth , 313 ) , more than any other county except eventual winners Hampshire . Amongst the bowlers , Alfonso Thomas finished as the tournament 's joint leading wicket @-@ taker , claiming 20 wickets to finish level with Chris Schofield and Dominic Cork . Peter Trego 's 18 wickets were the next most in the competition .

= = = Season standings = = =

Key : Pld

= Played , W =

Wins , T

= Ties , L =

Losses , NR

= No result , Pts =

Points , NRR = Net run rate .

Notes :

Teams marked * progressed to the next stage of the competition .

Teams marked † were eliminated from the competition .

= = = Match logs and statistics = = =

= = Twenty20 Cup = =

Somerset finished as runners @-@ up to Sussex in the 2009 Twenty20 Cup , having reached Finals Day in what captain Justin Langer described as " bizarre " fashion . Somerset qualified for the knock @-@ out stages of the competition as the best third @-@ placed team during the group stage , then beat Lancashire in a bowl @-@ out to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . After overcoming Kent in the semi @-@ final , Somerset were comprehensively beaten by Sussex in the final .

After the Indian Premier League 's second season demonstrated the importance of spin bowling in Twenty20 cricket , and due to Somerset 's lack of a front @-@ line spin bowler , Somerset picked young leg spinner Max Waller to make his Twenty20 debut in their opening match of the campaign . He claimed three wickets in two overs to help Somerset win by one run , and finished the competition as Somerset 's joint second @-@ highest wicket @-@ taker with 10 wickets . Despite a number of good performances by Somerset 's bowlers , a batsman was named man of the match in each of the team 's victories : James Hildreth , Craig Kieswetter and Marcus Trescothick were all awarded the accolade once , while Zander de Bruyn picked up the award on three occasions . Somerset completed the group stage with six wins , three losses and one no result , placing them third in the Midlands / Wales / West Division . They qualified for the knockout @-@ stage as they were the best third @-@ placed team in the three groups .

Somerset 's quarter @-@ final , against Lancashire , was scheduled for Tuesday 28 July 2009 . Bad weather meant that no play was possible on either the Tuesday or Wednesday , as a result of which the teams requested special dispensation from the ECB for an additional reserve day on the Thursday , which was granted . The wet weather continued , forcing the teams to play a bowl @-@ out . Each team had to select five bowlers , each of whom had two deliveries at a set of unguarded stumps . Somerset won the bowl @-@ out 5 – 1 , with Ben Phillips , Peter Trego and Willoughby each hitting the stumps once , and Thomas hitting them twice .

In the second semi @-@ final of 2009 Finals Day , Somerset won the toss and elected to field against Kent . Economical bowling from Thomas and Willoughby , as well as the early wickets of Joe Denly and Martin van Jaarsveld , helped to limit Kent to 145 / 5 . On a slow pitch , Trescothick played what ESPNcricinfo 's Andrew McGlashan described as a " brutal innings " , scoring 56 runs off 32 balls . He shared an opening partnership of 73 with captain Langer , and by the time of Trescothick 's dismissal after 8 @.@ 1 overs , Somerset required 62 runs off 71 balls . Hildreth and de Bruyn took 10 overs to add another 57 runs , and after Hildreth was bowled for 36 , Kieswetter added two runs to grant Somerset victory with seven balls remaining . Against Sussex in the final , Somerset once again won the toss and elected to field . A strong batting display by Sussex , highlighted by Dwayne Smith 's 59 runs off 26 balls , set Somerset a target of 173 to win . In the opening overs of Somerset 's reply , Trescothick scored powerfully , making the chase " look simple " according to McGlashan . However , after he was caught on 33 , Somerset lost regular wickets . A partnership of 41 between de Bruyn and Trego steadied Somerset for a time , but when the pair were dismissed in subsequent overs , their team collapsed from 104 / 4 to 109 all out .

At the start of the competition , Somerset played with aggressive batting tactics , opening the innings with Kieswetter and Trescothick for the first six matches . This opening pair only passed 20 runs together on one occasion , against Glamorgan , and for the rest of the tournament , Kieswetter dropped down the batting order and Langer joined Trescothick at the top of the innings , in a move that Kieswetter said " adds a bit of balance to the side by putting a bit more firepower down the end and experience up top " . The more experienced pair passed 40 runs together on four out of five occasions . The county 's bowling relied heavily on medium pace , a fact which cricket writer Scyld Berry suggested was exposed in the final .

= = = Season standings = = =

Key : Pld

= Played , W =

Wins , L

= Losses , T =

Ties , NR

= No result , Pts =

Points , NRR = Net run rate .

Notes :

Teams marked * progressed to the next stage of the competition .

Teams marked † were eliminated from the competition .

= = = Match logs and statistics = = =

= = NatWest Pro40 = =

Somerset 's first match of the 2009 NatWest Pro40 , against Nottinghamshire , ended just one over short of the requirement for a match . Chasing 248 to win , Somerset were significantly behind the required rate when rain halted play in the ninth over . The side responded positively to this stroke of luck , winning their next three matches by significant margins , before losing to Essex . Having been put in to bat at Taunton , each of Somerset 's top six batsman reached double figures , but none of them managed to pass 50 and the home side were eventually all out for 205 . Despite taking early wickets during Essex 's innings — at one stage having the visitors 12 / 3 — the batting of John Maunders , James Foster and Tim Phillips propelled Essex past Somerset 's total with five balls remaining . Two further victories ensured that Somerset entered their final match of the season with a chance to win the title .

Somerset had performed well but missed out narrowly in both the other one @-@ day competitions in 2009 , and could have clinched the competition with victory in their final match . News filtered through to the County Ground during their final match , against Durham , that leaders Sussex had lost to Worcestershire , meaning that a win against the north @-@ eastern team would guarantee Somerset the title . The result rarely looked likely ; a rapid opening to the chase by Durham openers Phil Mustard and Ian Blackwell provided a platform for their team to claim victory , and deny Somerset the title . Three of Somerset 's bowlers claimed ten or more wickets in the competition ( Ben Phillips , 14 ; Alfonso Thomas , 13 ; Charl Willoughby , 11 ) , more than any other county in Division One .

= = = Season standings = = =

Key : Pld

= Played , W =

Wins , T

= Ties , L =

Losses , NR

= No result , Pts =

Points , NRR = Net run rate .

Notes :

Team marked ( C ) won the NatWest Pro40 .

= = = Match logs and statistics = = =

= = Champions League Twenty20 = =

By finishing as runners @-@ up in the Twenty20 Cup , Somerset qualified to compete in the 2009 Champions League Twenty20 , the first global club cricket tournament . Media attention surrounded Trescothick , who had returned home early from his last overseas tour in 2006 – 07 with a " stress @-@ related illness " . Brian Rose stressed that there was no pressure on Trescothick to take part in the tournament , and that the county would do everything possible to support him . The former England batsman did take part in the tournament , arriving three days after the rest of the squad . He played in both of Somerset 's matches in the group stage of the competition , though he only managed to score 17 runs between his two innings .

Somerset won their first match , in which Alfonso Thomas scored two boundaries off the last three balls of the match to secure victory . Their opponents , Deccan Chargers scored 153 off their 20 overs , and with three wickets remaining , Somerset required 55 runs off 37 balls to win . A record eighth @-@ wicket partnership between James Hildreth and Thomas of 50 brought the victory within reach , and Thomas ' highest @-@ score in Twenty20 cricket granted Somerset the win . Somerset lost their second match , being bowled out for their second @-@ lowest Twenty20 total , 106 by Trinidad and Tobago .

Somerset progressed to the second round of the competition after Trinidad and Tobago beat Deccan in the final group match , but lost Trescothick , who flew home after a recurrence of his illness . Wes Durston , who replaced Trescothick in the side , top @-@ scored for Somerset in their next match , making 57 . Only two other players reached double @-@ figures for the county , and the Diamond Eagles chased down the total with eight balls to spare . Somerset went into their final match , against the New South Wales Blues with a slim mathematical chance of progressing , but a strong bowling display from Brett Lee and Stuart Clark restricted Somerset to 111 , which the Australian side reached with ease .

= = = Season standings = = =

Key : Pld

= Played , W =

Wins , L

= Losses , T =

Ties , NR

= No result , Pts =

Points , NRR = Net run rate .

= = = Match logs and statistics = = =

= = Reaction = =

After the conclusion of the Champions League tournament , Justin Langer retired from professional cricket . Trescothick replaced him as Somerset captain for the 2010 season . Somerset also lost Andrew Caddick , who at the age of 40 said that he opted to retire " while I was still physically and mentally strong " . Wicket @-@ keeper Carl Gazzard also announced his retirement at the end of the season aged 27 , having lost his place in the Somerset side to Craig Kieswetter . Additionally , Somerset released Wes Durston and Omari Banks , both of whom they felt were surplus to requirements . Somerset addressed the weakness of their spin bowling by signing Murali Kartik as their overseas player for 2010 .

Kieswetter 's performances in the 2009 season led to his inclusion in the England Performance Programme squad in November and December of that year , and he was part of the England Lions squad which toured the United Arab Emirates in early 2010 , along with Somerset team @-@ mate Peter Trego . His full England debut came shortly after in Bangladesh . Additionally , two of Somerset 's young players , Jos Buttler and Calum Haggett played for England Under @-@ 19s during the English winter .

Financially , Somerset broke even in 2009 , generating a gross turnover of £ 4 @.@ 5 million . The club achieved this despite carrying out significant building work on the County Ground during the period : the " Somerset Stand " , a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat grandstand opened in April , while the " Andy Caddick Pavilion " was completed just over a month later , providing new dressing rooms and club offices . Andy Nash , the Somerset chairman , highlighted the catering department and match @-@ day income as being particularly successful in 2009 , with both areas exceeding £ 1 million in revenue during the year .

= Texas A & M Singing Cadets =

The Texas A & M Singing Cadets are a male choral group at Texas A & M University . Nicknamed " The Voice of Aggieland " , the Singing Cadets have been touring for 109 seasons , with their roots in a glee club founded on the A & M campus in 1893 . The Singing Cadets are one of the oldest collegiate singing organizations in the world . They have toured both in America and abroad and have earned recognition by doing so , including invitations to sing for American presidents . Contrary to their name , the Singing Cadets are not all members of the Corps of Cadets and have not been since 1965 , when the university as a whole ceased mandating Corps membership . Between 1996 and 2006 , the Singing Cadets traveled over 35 @,@ 000 miles and performed more than 450 concerts worldwide .

= = History = =

The first record of a singing organization at Texas A & M ( then known as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas ) was in 1893 . The nine member glee club was composed of both students and faculty . The group grew to around twenty members through the turn of the century . Their first recorded field trip in 1905 , was to Houston , Texas , where they participated in a four hundred member chorus . Other tours in this period included a trip to Fort Worth in 1907 , where they met noted violinist Fritz Kreisler . One year later , the director of the group , Professor T.P. Junkin , left the A & M Glee Club .

The next paradigm shift came in 1910 when it was reorganized by F.D. Steger , and subsequently performed for a number of audiences throughout Texas . After several restructuring efforts and directors , the organization laid down an official constitution during the 1937 @-@ 1938 school year . The Cadets entered the national spotlight when they performed at the 1939 Sugar Bowl game . After A & M professor J. J. Woolket became director in 1940 , the chorus was renamed the " Singing Cadets " following a naming contest . The Singing Cadets first full @-@ time director , Richard Jenkins , raised the organization 's profile though a series of tours throughout the American South . Under his aegis in 1942 , the group provided choral music for the propaganda film We 've Never Been Licked .

The Singing Cadets next long term director , William Turner , held the post for fifteen years . By the early 1950s membership had stabilized at around sixty members . They performed primarily in Texas , and made a trip to Mexico in 1952 . The group garnered prestige and attention by singing in front of the Texas Legislature several times .

In 1960 , the Singing Cadets next director , Robert L. Boone , expanded the group 's national recognition . The group performed its first telecast in 1963 during the nationally televised Miss Teenage America pageant . For the next 8 years , the group served as contestant escorts , performers , and background for the show . They met Sergio Franchi during the December 10 , 1970 pageant . Subsequently , the group appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show with Sergio Franchi singing " No Man is An Island " on January 24 , 1971 . However , they did not get to appear on a second solo performance because an earlier show ran over the allotted time . They did , however , release a 45 rpm single " No Man Is An Island " accompanying Franchi in the same year . Later that year , the Singing Cadets were invited to the White House by Senator John Tower to sing for numerous dignitaries , including President Richard Nixon .

The Singing Cadets took their first trip overseas in 1974 to Romania as part of a goodwill tour sponsored by the State Department , performing several shows over a 3 week period . The Cadets accompanied the Aggie Band onto Kyle Field during the halftime of football games during special occasions of the university , such as the centennial celebration of Texas A & M University ( 1976 ) , and in 1980 to dedicate the expansion of the football stadium .

Under Boone 's direction , the Singing Cadets won several international singing competitions . They won the silver medal in an International Choral Festival in Hawaii in 1979 . In 1983 they received the silver medal in Mexico . In 1993 , they returned to Hawaii , taking the gold medal . Other major tours during the 1980s included several occasions marking the Texas sesquicentennial anniversary in 1986 , and European tours in 1987 and 1989 . In 2004 , the Singing Cadets journeyed to Australia , and sang the Australian national anthem ( Advance Australia Fair ) on the first concert of that tour . In May 2006 the Cadets performed at the White House at the invitation of President George W. Bush for an event to honor America 's returning athletes from the 2006 Winter Olympics . Also in 2006 , the cadets performed at the Miss Texas Pageant . In its 2006 @-@ 2007 season , the Cadets performed over sixty concerts in the United States , plus a tour to South America during the summer , where they traveled to Argentina , Uruguay and Brazil . The Singing Cadets toured South Africa in 2010 and will be touring China in May 2013 .

= = Music = =

The Singing Cadets have sung a wide variety of music in their history . Their repertoire has included Christian hymns and gospel music , as well as Texas A & M school songs such as the Aggie War Hymn . Musical selections varied through the decades , although Southern songs and songs from the 1940s , 1950s , and 1960s remain perennial favorites .

Currently , eight recordings produced by the Singing Cadets are available for purchase . In chronological order , the titles are : God Bless the USA , Live from South America , Tradition ; Duty , Honor , Country : A Tribute to President Bush , Remembrance , Centennial , Let Freedom Ring , and Kennedy Center .

= = Organization = =

Members of the Corps of Cadets make up a small minority of the Singing Cadets ; the group dropped Corps Membership as a requirement in 1963 . The Singing Cadets holds auditions twice each school year , with membership open to any male Texas A & M student . The choir is one of three within Texas A & M. The others are the all @-@ female Women 's Chorus , and co @-@ ed choir the Century Singers . All three practice in the Memorial Student Center ( MSC ) .

The group is typically backed by a pianist and conducted by a director , and regularly are accompanied by instruments , including electric guitar , drums and bass guitar . The Singing Cadets use costumes and pantomime to accompany their music , incorporating a number of forms of entertainment into their concerts . A barbershop quartet side group called The Aggienizors performs at some shows , as entertainment between the main musical numbers .

Presently , the Singing Cadets perform primarily in state , along with a sprinkling of national and international tours . The Cadets perform 70 @-@ 80 concerts a year .

= = Directors = =

Professor A. M. Soule

Professor Tyrrel

Professor T. P. Junkin

F. D. Steger

D. Ford

K. H. Beach

E. W. Glenn

Professor J. J. Woolket

Richard W. Jenkins

Ewell Porter

William M. Turner

Robert L. Boone

David Kipp

= Ontario Highway 36 =

King 's Highway 36 , commonly referred to as Highway 36 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The highway connected Highway 7 and Highway 35 in Lindsay with Highway 28 in Burleigh Falls , providing access to recreational cottages along the northern shore of several of the Kawartha lakes as well as to multiple communities , including Bobcaygeon . Today it is known as Kawartha Lakes City Road 36 and Peterborough County Road 36 .

The route was first assumed in 1931 as a depression relief project and extended in 1937 . It remained generally unchanged for the next 60 years before being decommissioned in 1998 . However , a realignment near Lindsay in the late 1950s changed the southern terminus of the route from the centre of the town to southeast of it ; the original route through Lindsay became Highway 36B and is now known as Kawartha Lakes Road 17 .

= = Route description = =

The route and surroundings of former Highway 36 have largely remained unaltered since the highway was decommissioned in 1998 . Within the City of Kawartha Lakes , the road is now known as Kawartha Lakes Road 36 , while within the County of Peterborough , it is known as Peterborough County Road 36 .

The route begins east of Lindsay at an intersection with Highway 7 and progresses north , crossing a former railway ( now the Kawartha Rail Trail ) before intersecting Kawartha Lakes Road 17 . The western leg of Road 17 , which travels to downtown Lindsay , was the original route of Highway 36 and later became Highway 36B . Continuing north , Highway 36 jogs north and east , serving cottages and communities lining the southern shore of Sturgeon Lake , but remains inland by over a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) itself . At Dunsford , which is bypassed , the highway intersects Kawartha Lakes Roads 7 and 24 — the former travels south to Omemee and the latter provides an alternative route to Bobcaygeon . Former Highway 36 continues , alternating directions between east and north twice before entering the village of Bobcaygeon .

Within Bobcaygeon , Highway 36 crosses the Trent – Severn Waterway and intersects the eastern end of Kawartha Lakes Road 8 . At this point it is following the southernmost section of the Bobcaygeon Colonization Road . At the intersection with Main Street in the northern end of the village , the route turns northeast while former Highway 649 continues north .

Exiting Bobcaygeon , the former highway serves cottages along the northern shore of Pigeon Lake and Little Bald Lake . After passing Nogies Creek , the highway descends a hill and encounters the Canadian Shield for the first time . The road runs along the border of the Precambrian shield and the Ordovician limestone plateau en route to Burleigh Falls . The shield lies to the north and is overlain by the plateau to the south . The highway turns south at Flynns Corner , intersecting former Highway 507 . It enters the town of Buckhorn from the north , then drivers must turn to remain on the route , which exits the town to the east . Between Buckhorn and Burleigh Falls , the highway serves the cottages that line the northern shore of Lower Buckhorn Lake .

= = History = =

Highway 36 was first assumed by the Department of Highways ( DHO ) on July 1 , 1931 , and was one of several highways completed as part of a depression – relief program . The highway initially connected downtown Lindsay with Bobcaygeon . This section was fully paved by the end of 1937 . On August 11 , 1937 , the DHO extended the highway east to Highway 28 at Burleigh Falls .

Highway 36 remained essentially unchanged between 1937 and 1997 , with the exception of a being rerouted east of Lindsay in 1958 . However , on January 1 , 1998 , the entirety of Highway 36 was downloaded to Victoria County and Peterborough County , both of which redesignated it as County Road 36 . Victoria County became the City of Kawartha Lakes in 2001 , and that section of the route is now known as City Road 36 .

= = Major intersections = =

The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 36 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . In addition , it includes some minor junctions .

= Arizona State Route 67 =

State Route 67 ( SR 67 ) is a 43 @.@ 4 mi ( 69 @.@ 8 km ) long , north – south state highway in northern Arizona . Also called the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway , SR 67 is the sole road that links U.S. Route 89A ( US 89A ) at Jacob Lake to the North Rim of Grand Canyon National Park . Along the route , the road heads through the national park as well as Kaibab National Forest and is surrounded by evergreen trees . The section inside the national park is maintained by the National Park Service ( NPS ) , whereas the section north of the entrance , completely within Kaibab National Forest , is owned by the Arizona Department of Transportation ( ADOT ) . The road was built in the late 1920s and improved through the 1930s . In 1941 , the road received its number , and was given its designation as the parkway in the 1980s . The parkway has received designations as a National Forest Scenic Byway as well as a National Scenic Byway .

= = Route description = =

Signage for SR 67 begins at Bright Angel Point along the North Rim of the Grand Canyon National Park . ADOT does not officially own this section of road , but it is signed as SR 67 . The road heads north as the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway through the small town of North Rim , surrounded by evergreen trees . The parkway enters a small clearing before meeting the park entrance , where ownership by ADOT begins . Heading into Kaibab National Forest on a northward path , the roadway is surrounded by a narrow meadow bordered by evergreen trees . As it passes the nearby Deer Lake , SR 67 meets an unpaved National Forest road . The landscape around the route is crisscrossed by these routes as SR 67 makes several turns , turning back toward the north . The highway , with the new name of Grand Canyon Highway in addition to its other designation , makes several turns as it heads north through the woods . It takes a more northwesterly path as it runs through Coconino County . Near its terminus , the road turns back northeast toward its terminus at US 89A in Jacob Lake .

The northern segment of the highway is maintained by ADOT , who is responsible for maintaining SR 67 like all other highways around the state . As part of this job , ADOT periodically surveys traffic along its routes . These surveys are most often presented in the form of average annual daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles who use the route on any average day during the year . In 2009 , ADOT calculated that around 1 @,@ 100 vehicles used the route daily at its northern terminus in Jacob Lake . The Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) lists the highway as a National Scenic Byway , and the National Forest Service has also designated it a National Forest Service Byway . No part of the highway has been listed in the National Highway System , a system of roads in the United States important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . Due to the closure of park facilities on the north rim of the Grand Canyon during winter , winter maintenance is not undertaken after December 1st , with the result that SR 67 is usually closed to vehicular traffic from December 1st until spring .

= = History = =

SR 67 existed as a route to reach the north rim of the Grand Canyon National Park as early as 1927 as a dirt road . By 1935 , the road had been improved to a gravel road , and by 1938 it had been paved . In 1941 , the road was designated as a state highway and signed as SR 67 . In 1985 , the highway received the designation of Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway as an Arizona State Scenic Byway . The designation included SR 67 in its entirety as well as extending south into Grand Canyon National Park . Two years later , ADOT obtained the right @-@ of @-@ way for improvement of the highway from its northern terminus approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south . In 1989 , an additional right @-@ of @-@ way was acquired by ADOT from its southern terminus approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north . By June of that year , the parkway received the designation of a National Forest Scenic Byway , and in June 1998 , the Kaibab Plateau – North Rim Parkway received another designation , this time as a National Scenic Byway . Since establishment , the route has not been realigned and retains its original routing .

= = Junction list = =

The entire route is in Coconino County .

= Josce de Dinan =

Josce de Dinan ( sometimes Joce de Dinan , Josselin de Dinan , Joce de Dynan ; Jocelin de Dinan , Joyce de Dinan , or Joceas de Dinan ; died 1166 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman who lived during and after the civil war between King Stephen of England and his cousin Matilda over the throne of England . He was a landholder in the Welsh Marches when he was married by Stephen to the widow of Pain fitzJohn , a union that gave Josce control of Ludlow Castle . Control of the castle was contested by other noblemen , and the resulting warfare between the nobles forms the background to a late medieval romance known as Fouke le Fitz Waryn , which is mainly concerned with the actions of Josce 's grandson , but also includes some material on Josce 's lifetime . Josce eventually lost control of Ludlow and was granted lands in compensation by Matilda and her son , King Henry II of England , who succeeded Stephen in 1154 .

= = Background and early life = =

Following King Henry I 's death in 1135 , the succession was disputed between the king 's nephews — Stephen and his elder brother , Theobald II , Count of Champagne — and Henry 's surviving legitimate child Matilda , usually known as the Empress Matilda because of her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V. King Henry 's only legitimate son , William , had died in 1120 . After Matilda was widowed in 1125 , she returned to her father , who married her to Geoffrey , Count of Anjou . All the magnates of England and Normandy were required to declare fealty to Matilda as Henry 's heir , but after the king 's death in 1135 Stephen rushed to England and had himself crowned before either Theobald or Matilda could react . The Norman barons accepted Stephen as Duke of Normandy , and Theobald contented himself with his possessions in France . But Matilda was less sanguine , and secured the support of her maternal uncle , the Scottish king David I , and in 1138 also that of her half @-@ brother Robert , Earl of Gloucester , an illegitimate son of Henry I. Nobles in the Welsh Marches revolted against Stephen in 1136 , but the revolt was not settled until 1138 . In 1139 , Matilda invaded southern England with her half @-@ brother 's support and the period of civil war began .

Josce was the youngest son of Geoffrey de Dinan and Radegonde Orieldis , and had two older brothers , Oliver of Dinan and Alan of Becherel . Josce 's family was from Brittany , and he was described by the historian Marjorie Chibnall as an " obscure Breton adventurer " . Josce moved from Devon in southern England to the Welsh Marches , the border between England and Wales , because the lords of Monmouth were also of Breton extraction . While in the Marches he joined King Stephen 's household .

= = Ludlow Castle = =

Josce was married to Sybil , the widow of Pain fitzJohn , who died in 1137 . Sybil had held Ludlow Castle against Stephen in 1139 , but surrendered after a siege . Ludlow was an important strategic stronghold for control of the Welsh Borders , and Stephen decided to marry Pain 's widow to someone he felt was trustworthy . Upon his marriage Josce also acquired control of the castle , built in the late 11th century . Josce probably also received many of the de Lacy family 's holdings in southern Shropshire , but he rebelled against Stephen and fortified Ludlow against the king . Josce 's position was so strong that when Stephen granted much of the surrounding lands to Robert de Beaumont , Earl of Leicester , Ludlow was specifically exempted . Stephen told Robert that he would have a royal grant of the castle if he could secure Josce 's submission as a vassal .

Custody of Ludlow was contested not only by Stephen but also by Gilbert de Lacy , whose efforts to wrest the castle from Josce are the background to the medieval romance Fouke le Fitz Waryn ; the extant prose version dates from the 14th century , but it was originally a 13th @-@ century poem , now lost . Gilbert claimed the castle through his familial link with Sybil , fitzJohn 's widow , who was a member of the de Lacy family . Others trying to take Ludlow were Hugh de Mortimer and Gilbert de Lacy . According to the Chronicle of Wigmore Abbey , some time after September 1148 Mortimer and Josce became embroiled in a private war , during which Josce seized Mortimer while the latter was travelling . Josce imprisoned his captive in Ludlow and demanded a ransom of 3 @,@ 000 silver marks , as well as , according to the Chronicle , Mortimer 's " plate , his horses , and his birds " . Presumably , Mortimer met the ransom , as he is later known to have been a free man .

While Josce was absent from Ludlow , Gilbert de Lacy was able to take the castle . Josce laid siege to the castle but was unsuccessful in his attempt to retake it , and retreated to Lambourn with his military forces . Although the exact date of this event is unknown , it appears to have been some time about 1150 or shortly before . Matilda gave Josce some lands around Lambourn after Ludlow 's fall as compensation . Later he was given land in Berkshire by King Henry II ( became king in 1154 ) , Matilda 's son , as further recompense for the loss of Ludlow . In 1156 Josce held lands in Berkshire , Wiltshire , Hampshire , Devonshire and Somerset . These holdings included the manor of Lambourn , worth £ 76 in income per year , as well as the manor of Stanton ( now known as Stanton Fitzwarren in Wiltshire ) in addition to the lands scattered in other counties .

Josce 's grandson Fulk fitzWarin , who died in 1258 , is ostensibly the hero of a lost romantic poem called Fouke le Fitz Waryn . The work survives as French prose in a loose corpus of medieval literature known as the Matter of England . However , it appears to confuse events of Fulk fitzWarin 's lifetime with those of his grandfather 's . Other errors in the work include transposing some of the Welsh Marcher barons of King Henry I of England 's reign into nobles of William the Conqueror 's time , and omitting an entire generation of fitzWarins . Although scholars believe Fouke le Fitz Waryn draws on genuine tradition , the difficulty in separating the fitzWarin biographies makes it a problematic source .

= = Family = =

Josce died in 1166 . He was survived by two daughters : Sibil , who married Hugh de Pulgenet and died in 1212 , and Hawise who married Fulk FitzWarin , who died in 1197 . In 1199 his two daughters petitioned the king regarding the ownership of the town and castle of Ludlow but were turned down .

= World War I Memorial ( East Providence , Rhode Island ) =

The World War I Memorial is a bronze sculpture by Pietro Montana and is located at the intersection of Taunton Avenue , Whelden Avenue , and John Street in East Providence , Rhode Island , United States . The sculpture is modeled on Charles Atlas and depicts a dynamically posed soldier standing on a granite base . Montana 's original design was modified by the East Providence Memorial Committee for being " too brutal " . Dedicated on July 30 , 1927 , Major General Charles Pelot Summerall gave an address which highlighted the handicap placed upon the soldiers by a lack of preparedness and " invoked the fighting ideal embodied by Montana 's doughboy . " The World War I Memorial was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .

= = Design = =

The World War I Memorial was designed by Pietro Montana , an Italian @-@ born painter and sculptor . Montana studied at the Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art in Manhattan , New York City , New York . Montana 's monuments were well @-@ known , particularly in New York , and included an earlier " Doughboy " sculpture erected in 1920 to honor the war dead of the Bushwick , Brooklyn and Ridgewood , Queens . The success of this the earlier " Fighting Doughboy " memorial resulted in the production of three copies by 1921 . By 1932 , he had produced over 40 statues and won a gold medal from the National Academy of Design for " Orphans " in 1931 .

For the design of the sculpture , Montana modeled Charles Atlas and " strove to communicate the U.S. doughboy 's upstanding character and valor by way of a muscle @-@ bound physique " . In 1926 , the East Providence Memorial Committee expressed concerns that Montana 's design was " too brutal " and modified the original design provided by Montana . The statue was erected in 1927 , and formally dedicated on July 30 , 1927 . At the dedication , Major General Charles Pelot Summerall gave an address which highlighted the handicap placed upon the soldiers by a lack of preparedness and " invoked the fighting ideal embodied by Montana 's doughboy . "

The sculpture of a soldier stands 7 @.@ 75 feet ( 2 @.@ 36 m ) tall , 2 @.@ 583 feet ( 0 @.@ 787 m ) wide and 2 @.@ 66 feet ( 0 @.@ 81 m ) deep . Ronald J. Onorato , author of the National Register nomination , writes that " the soldier stands with legs apart , his left hand at his belt , the right at his side . The face is impassive and expressionless . He wears a disheveled infantry uniform , rough shoes , the shirt collar open and askew , the sleeves rolled back , the knee torn open , his helmet on the ground behind his left foot . ... A holster hangs from the belt on the soldier 's right hip . " Montana signed the sculpture with " Pietro Montana / SC / 1927 . "

The sculpture rests atop a grey granite base that is 6 @.@ 33 feet ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) tall , 3 @.@ 166 feet ( 0 @.@ 965 m ) wide and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) deep . The corners of the base have small leaf designed and has 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) by 2 @.@ 66 feet ( 0 @.@ 81 m ) bronze reliefs with arched tops on each side . The front relief states that it was erected in the memory of the citizens of East Providence who served in World War I from 1917 to 1918 , and lists the names of twenty three soldiers . The left relief depicts a marching infantry column of one man on horseback and four on foot , the right relief depicts four or five men loading a cannon and the rear relief depicts a nurse assisting two wounded soldiers .

At the time of its nomination , the sculpture was described as in " moderately good condition " , with the surface being both stained and pitted , but free or breaks or missing pieces . The statue still stands in its original location in front of a school that has since been re @-@ purposed for residential housing .

= = Importance = =

The World War I Memorial designed by Montana is " historically significant as the city 's principal effort to honor those who served in the first World War and because it is an unusually successful depiction of the soldier in battle . " The larger @-@ than @-@ life masculine figure depicted in the sculpture stands apart from the stock figures of other war monuments by its dynamic pose , as if the soldier was " [ arising from ] the heat of battle " . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 19 , 2001 .

= Oldham =

Oldham / ˈɒldəm / is a large town in Greater Manchester , England , amid the Pennines between the rivers Irk and Medlock , 5 @.@ 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 5 km ) south @-@ southeast of Rochdale and 6 @.@ 9 miles ( 11 @.@ 1 km ) northeast of Manchester . Together with several smaller surrounding towns , it is part of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham of which it is the administrative centre .

Historically in Lancashire , and with little early history to speak of , Oldham rose to prominence in the 19th century as an international centre of textile manufacture . It was a boomtown of the Industrial Revolution , and among the first ever industrialised towns , rapidly becoming " one of the most important centres of cotton and textile industries in England " . At its zenith , it was the most productive cotton spinning mill town in the world , producing more cotton than France and Germany combined . Oldham 's textile industry fell into decline in the mid @-@ 20th century ; the town 's last mill closed in 1998 .

The demise of textile processing in Oldham depressed the local economy . Today Oldham is a predominantly residential town , and a centre for further education and the performing arts . It is , however , still distinguished architecturally by the surviving cotton mills and other buildings associated with that industry . The town has a population of 103 @,@ 544 and an area of around 26 square miles ( 67 km2 ) .

= = History = =

= = = Toponymy = = =

The toponymy of Oldham seems to imply " old village or place " from Eald ( Saxon ) signifying oldness or antiquity , and Ham ( Saxon ) a house , farm or hamlet . Oldham is however known to be a derivative of Aldehulme , undoubtedly an Old Norse name . It is believed to be derived from the Old English ald combined with the Old Norse holmi or holmr , meaning " promontory or outcrop " , possibly describing the town 's hilltop position . It has alternatively been suggested that it may mean " holm or hulme of a farmer named Alda " . The name is understood to date from 865 , during the period of the Danelaw .

= = = Early history = = =

The earliest known evidence of a human presence in what is now Oldham is attested by the discovery of Neolithic flint arrow @-@ heads and workings found at Werneth and Besom Hill , implying habitation 7 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Evidence of later Roman and Celtic activity is confirmed by an ancient Roman road and Bronze Age archaeological relics found at various sites within the town . Placenames of Celtic origin are still to be found in Oldham : Werneth derives from a Celtic personal name identical to the Gaulish vernetum , " alder swamp " , and Glodwick may be related to the modern Welsh clawdd , meaning " dyke " or " ditch " . Nearby Chadderton is also pre @-@ Anglo @-@ Saxon in origin , from the Old Welsh cadeir , itself deriving from the Latin cathedra meaning " chair " . Although Anglo @-@ Saxons occupied territory around the area centuries earlier , Oldham as a permanent , named place of dwelling is believed to date from 865 , when Danish invaders established a settlement called Aldehulme .

From its founding in the 9th century until the Industrial Revolution , Oldham is believed to have been little more than a scattering of small and insignificant settlements spread across the moorland and dirt tracks that linked Manchester to York . Although not mentioned in the Domesday Book , Oldham does appear in legal documents from the Middle Ages , invariably recorded as territory under the control of minor ruling families and barons . In the 13th century , Oldham was documented as a manor held from the Crown by a family surnamed Oldham , whose seat was at Werneth Hall .

= = = Industrial Revolution and cotton = = =

Much of Oldham 's history is concerned with textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution ; it has been said that " if ever the Industrial Revolution placed a town firmly and squarely on the map of the world , that town is Oldham . " Oldham 's soils were too thin and poor to sustain crop growing , and so for decades prior to industrialisation the area was used for grazing sheep , which provided the raw material for a local woollen weaving trade .

By 1756 , Oldham had emerged as centre of the hatting industry in England . The rough felt used in the production process is the origin of the term " Owdham Roughyed " a nickname for people from Oldham . It was not until the last quarter of the 18th century that Oldham changed from being a cottage industry township producing woollen garments via domestic manual labour , to a sprawling industrial metropolis of textile factories . The climate , geology , and topography of Oldham were unrelenting constraints upon the social and economic activities of the human inhabitants . At 700 feet ( 213 m ) above sea level and with no major river or visible natural resources , Oldham had poor geographic attributes compared with other settlements for investors and their engineers . As a result , Oldham played no part in the initial period of the Industrial Revolution , although it did later become seen as obvious territory to industrialise because of its convenient position between the labour forces of Manchester and southwest Yorkshire .

Cotton spinning and milling were introduced to Oldham when its first mill , Lees Hall , was built by William Clegg in about 1778 , the beginning of a spiralling process of urbanisation and socioeconomic transformation . Within a year , 11 other mills had been constructed , and by 1818 there were 19 – not a large number in comparison with other local settlements . Oldham 's small local population was greatly increased by the mass migration of workers from outlying villages , resulting in a population increase from just over 12 @,@ 000 in 1801 to 137 @,@ 000 in 1901 . The speed of this urban growth meant that Oldham , with little pre @-@ industrial history to speak of , was effectively born as a factory town .

Oldham became the world 's manufacturing centre for cotton spinning in the second half of the 19th century . In 1851 , over 30 % of Oldham 's population was employed within the textile sector , compared to 5 % across Great Britain . It overtook the major urban centres of Manchester and Bolton as the result of a mill building boom in the 1860s and 1870s , a period during which Oldham became the most productive cotton @-@ spinning town in the world . In 1871 , Oldham had more spindles than any country in the world except the United States , and in 1909 , was spinning more cotton than France and Germany combined . By 1911 there were 16 @.@ 4 million spindles in Oldham , compared with a total of 58 million in the United Kingdom and 143 @.@ 5 million in the world ; in 1928 , with the construction of the UK 's largest textile factory Oldham reached its manufacturing zenith . At its peak , there were more than 360 mills , operating night and day ;

Oldham 's townscape was dominated by distinctive rectangular brick @-@ built mills . Oldham was hit hard by the Lancashire Cotton Famine of 1861 – 1865 , when supplies of raw cotton from the United States were cut off . Wholly reliant upon the textile industry , the cotton famine created chronic unemployment in the town . By 1863 a committee had been formed , and with aid from central government , land was purchased with the intention of employing local cotton workers to construct Alexandra Park , which opened on 28 August 1865 . Said to have over @-@ relied upon the textile sector , as the importation of cheaper foreign yarns grew during the 20th century , Oldham 's economy declined into a depression , although it was not until 1964 that Oldham ceased to be the largest centre of cotton spinning . In spite of efforts to increase the efficiency and competitiveness of its production , the last cotton spun in the town was in 1998 .

= = = = Engineering = = = =

Facilitated by its flourishing textile industry , Oldham developed extensive structural and mechanical engineering sectors during the 18th and 19th centuries . The manufacture of spinning and weaving machinery in Oldham belongs to the last decade of the 19th century , when it became a leading centre in the field of engineering . The Platt Brothers , originated in nearby Dobcross village , but moved to Oldham . They were pioneers of cotton @-@ spinning machinery , developing innovative products that enabled the mass @-@ production of cotton yarn . Platt Brothers became the largest textile machine makers in the world , employing over 15 @,@ 000 people in the 1890s , twice the number of their nearest rivals Dobson & Barlow in Bolton and Asa Lees on Greenacres Moor . They were keen investors in the local area and at one time , were supporting 42 % of the population . The centre of the company lay at the New Hartford Works in Werneth , a massive complex of buildings and internal railways on a site overlooking Manchester . The railway station which served this site later formed the basis of Oldham Werneth railway station . The main building exists to this day . Platts gained prestigious awards from around the world , and were heavily involved with local politics and civic pride in Oldham . John and James Platt were the largest subscribers for promoting Oldham from a township to a Borough , pledging £ 100 ( more than double the next largest sum ) in advance towards any expenses which may have been incurred by the Royal Charter . In 1854 John Platt was made the ( fourth ) Mayor of Oldham , an office he was to hold twice more in 1855 – 56 and 1861 – 62 . John Platt was elected in 1865 to become Member of Parliament for Oldham , and was re @-@ elected in 1868 ; he remained in office until his death in 1872 . A bronze statue of Platt existed in the town centre for years , though was moved to Alexandra Park . There have been recommendations for it to be returned to the town centre .

Abraham Henthorn Stott , the son of a stonemason , was born in nearby Shaw and Crompton in 1822 . He served a seven @-@ year apprenticeship with Sir Charles Barry , before starting a structural engineering practice in Oldham in 1847 that went on to become the pre @-@ eminent mill architect firm in Lancashire . Philip Sydney Stott , third son of Abraham and later titled as Sir Philip Stott , 1st Baronet , was the most prominent and famous of the Stott mill architects . He established his own practice in 1883 and designed over a hundred mills in several countries . His factories , which improved upon his father 's fireproof mills , accounted for a 40 % increase in Oldham 's spindles between 1887 and 1914 .

Although textile @-@ related engineering declined with the processing industry , leading to the demise of both Stotts and Platts , other engineering firms existed , notably electrical and later electronic engineers Ferranti in 1896 . Ferranti went into receivership in 1993 , but some of its former works continue in other hands . Part of the original Hollinwood site was operated by Siemens Metering and Semiconductor divisions . The remainder of the site is occupied by Mirror Colour Print Ltd ; the printing division of the Trinity Mirror group , which prints and distributes thirty @-@ six major newspapers , and employs five hundred staff .

= = = = Coal mining = = = =

On the back of the Industrial Revolution , Oldham developed an extensive coal mining sector , correlated to supporting the local cotton industry and the town 's inhabitants , though there is evidence of small scale coal mining in the area as early as the 16th century . The Oldham Coalfield stretched from Royton in the north to Bardsley in the south and in addition to Oldham , included the towns of Middleton and Chadderton to the west . The Oldham Coalfield was the site of over 150 collieries during its recorded history . Although some contemporary sources suggest there was coal mining in Oldham at a commercial scale by 1738 , older sources attribute the commercial expansion of coal mining with the arrival in the town of two Welsh labourers , John Evans and William Jones , around 1770 . Foreseeing the growth in demand for coal as a source of motive and steam power , they acquired colliery rights for Oldham , which by 1771 had 14 colliers . The mines were largely to the southwest of the town around Hollinwood and Werneth and provided enough coal to accelerate Oldham 's rapid development at the centre of the cotton boom . At its height in the mid @-@ 19th century , when it was dominated by the Lees and Jones families , Oldham coal was mainly sourced from many small collieries whose lives varied from a few years to many decades , although two of the four largest collieries survived to nationalisation . In 1851 , collieries employed more than 2 @,@ 000 men in Oldham , although the amount of coal in the town was somewhat overestimated however , and production began to decline even before that of the local spinning industry . Today , the only visible remnants of the mines are disused shafts and boreholes .

= = = Social history = = =

Oldham 's social history , like that of other former unenfranchised towns , is marked by politicised civil disturbances , as well as events related to the Luddite , Suffragette and other Labour movements from the working classes . There has been a significant presence of " friendly societies " . It has been put that the people of Oldham became radical in politics in the early part of the 19th century , and movements suspected of sedition found patronage in the town . Oldham was frequently disturbed by bread and labour riots , facilitated by periods of scarcity and the disturbance of employment following the introduction of cotton @-@ spinning machinery .

On 20 April 1812 , a " large crowd of riotous individuals " compelled local retailers to sell foods at a loss , whilst on the same day Luddites numbering in their thousands , many of whom were from Oldham , attacked a cotton mill in nearby Middleton . On 16 August 1819 , Oldham sent a contingent estimated at well above 10 @,@ 000 to hear speakers in St Peter 's Fields at Manchester discuss political reform ; it was the largest contingent sent to Manchester . John Lees , a cotton operative and ex @-@ soldier who had fought at Waterloo , was one of the fifteen victims of the Peterloo Massacre which followed . The ' Oldham inquest ' which proceeded the massacre was anxiously watched ; the Court of King 's Bench , however , decided that the proceedings were irregular , and the jury were discharged without giving a verdict .

Annie Kenney , born in nearby Springhead , and who worked in Oldham 's cotton mills , was a notable member of the Suffragette movement credited with sparking off suffragette militancy when she heckled Winston Churchill , and later ( with Emmeline Pankhurst ) the first Suffragist to be imprisoned . Oldham Women 's Suffrage Society was established in 1910 with Margery Lees as president and quickly joined the Manchester and District Federation of the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies . The Chartist and Co @-@ operative movements had strong support in the town , whilst many Oldhamers protested against the emancipation of slaves . The Riot Act was read in 1852 on election day following a mass public brawl over the Reform Act , and irregularities with parliamentary candidate nominations .

For three days in late May 2001 , Oldham became the centre of national and international media attention . Following high profile race @-@ related conflicts , and long @-@ term underlying racial tensions between local White British and Asian communities , major riots broke out in the town . Occurring with particular intensity in the Glodwick area of the town , the Oldham riots were the worst racially motivated riots in the United Kingdom for fifteen years prior , briefly eclipsing the sectarian violence in Northern Ireland in the media . At least 20 people were injured in the riots , including 15 police officers , and 37 people were arrested . Similar riots took place in other towns in northern England over the following days and weeks . The 2001 riots prompted governmental and independent inquiries , which collectively agreed on community relations improvements and considerable regeneration schemes for the town . There were further fears of riots after the death of Gavin Hopley in 2002 .

= = Governance = =

= = = Civic history = = =

Lying within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire since the early 12th century , Oldham was recorded in 1212 as being one of five parts of the thegnage estate of Kaskenmoor , which was held on behalf of King John by Roger de Montbegon and William de Nevill . The other parts of this estate were Crompton , Glodwick , Sholver , and Werneth . Oldham later formed a township within the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham , in the hundred of Salford .

In 1826 commissioners for the social and economic improvement of Oldham were established . The town was made part of a parliamentary borough , in 1832 , though it was in 1849 when Oldham was incorporated as a municipal borough , giving it borough status in the United Kingdom , and in 1850 the Borough Council obtained the powers of the improvement commissioners . In 1880 , parts of the Hollinwood and Crossbank areas of Chadderton and Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne townships were added to the Borough of Oldham . Oldham Above Town and Oldham Below Town were , from 1851 until c . 1881 , statistical units used for the gathering and organising of civil registration information , and output of census data .

The Local Government Act 1888 created elected county councils to administer services throughout England and Wales . Where a municipal borough had a population of more than 50 @,@ 000 at the 1881 Census it was created a county borough , with the powers and duties of both a borough and county council . As Oldham had an 1881 population of 111 @,@ 343 it duly became a county borough on 1 April 1889 . The borough , while independent of Lancashire County Council for local government , remained part of the county for purposes such as the administration of justice and lieutenancy .

In 1951 parts of the Limehurst Rural District were added to the County Borough of Oldham , and in 1954 further parts of the same district added to it on its abolition . Since 1961 , Oldham has been twinned with Kranj in Slovenia . Under the Local Government Act 1972 , the town 's autonomous county borough status was abolished , and Oldham has , since 1 April 1974 , formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham , within the Metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .

= = = Parliamentary representation = = =

The boundaries of two parliamentary constituencies divide Oldham : Oldham East and Saddleworth , and Oldham West and Royton ( which includes the town centre ) , represented by Labour Members of Parliament Debbie Abrahams and Michael Meacher respectively .

Created as a parliamentary borough in 1832 , Oldham 's first parliamentary representatives were the radicals William Cobbett and John Fielden . Winston Churchill began his political career in Oldham . Although unsuccessful at his first attempt in 1899 , Churchill was elected as the member of Parliament for the Oldham parliamentary borough constituency in the 1900 general election . He held the constituency for the Conservative Party until the 1906 general election , when he won the election for Manchester North West as a Liberal MP . After he became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1940 , Churchill was made a Honorary Freeman of the Borough of Oldham , on 2 April 1941 .

= = Geography = =

At 53 ° 32 ′ 39 ″ N 2 ° 7 ′ 0 @.@ 8 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5444 ° , − 2 @.@ 1169 ° ) , and 164 miles ( 264 km ) north @-@ northwest of London , Oldham stands 700 feet ( 213 m ) above sea level , 6 @.@ 9 miles ( 11 @.@ 1 km ) northeast of Manchester city centre , on elevated ground between the rivers Irk and Medlock . Saddleworth and the South Pennines are close to the east , whilst on all other sides , Oldham is bound by smaller towns , including Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Chadderton , Failsworth , Royton and Shaw and Crompton , with little or no green space between them . Oldham experiences a temperate maritime climate , like much of the British Isles , with relatively cool summers and mild winters . There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year .

Oldham 's topography is characterised by its rugged , elevated Pennine terrain . It has an area of 6 @.@ 91 square miles ( 17 @.@ 90 km2 ) . The geology of Oldham is represented by the Millstone Grit and Coal Measures series of rocks . The River Beal , flowing northwards , forms the boundary between Oldham on one side and Royton and Shaw and Crompton on the other .

To the east of this river the surface rises to a height of 1 @,@ 225 feet ( 373 m ) at Woodward Hill , on the border with the parish of Saddleworth . The rest of the surface is hilly , the average height decreasing towards the southwest to Failsworth and the city of Manchester . The ridge called Oldham Edge , 800 feet ( 244 m ) high , comes southward from Royton into the centre of the town .

Oldham 's built environment is characterised by its 19th @-@ century red @-@ brick terraced houses , the infrastructure that was built to support these and the town 's former cotton mills – which mark the town 's skyline . The urban structure of Oldham is irregular when compared to most towns in England , its form restricted in places by its hilly upland terrain . There are irregularly constructed residential dwellings and streets clustered loosely around a central business district in the town centre , which is the local centre of commerce . In 1849 , Angus Reach of Inverness said :

The visitor to Oldham will find it essentially a mean @-@ looking straggling town , built upon both sides and crowning the ridge of one of the outlying spurs which branch from Manchester , the neighbouring ' backbone of England ' . The whole place has a shabby underdone look . The general appearance of the operatives ' houses is filthy and smouldering .

In the 1870s , John Marius Wilson described Oldham as consisting of :

... numerous streets , and contains numerous fine buildings , both public and private ; but , in a general view , is irregularly constructed , presents the dingy aspect of a crowded seat of manufacture , and is more notable for factories than for any other feature .

Although Oldham had a thriving economy during the 19th century , the local merchants were broadly reluctant to spend on civic institutions , and so the town lacks the grandeur seen in comparable nearby towns like Bolton or Huddersfield ; public expenditure was seen as an overhead that undermined the competitiveness of the town . Subsequently , Oldham 's architecture has been described as " mediocre " . The town has no listed buildings with a Grade I rating .

There is a mixture of high @-@ density urban areas , suburbs , semi @-@ rural and rural locations in Oldham . There is some permanent grassland but overwhelmingly the land use in the town is urban . The territory of Oldham is contiguous with other towns on all sides except for a small section along its eastern and southern boundaries , and for purposes of the Office for National Statistics , forms the fourth largest settlement of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's third largest conurbation . The M60 motorway passes through the southwest of Oldham , through Hollinwood , and a heavy rail line enters Oldham from the same direction , travelling northeast to the town centre before heading northwards through Derker towards Shaw and Crompton .

= = = Divisions and suburbs = = =

Many of Oldham 's present divisions and suburbs have origins as pre @-@ industrial hamlets , manorial commons and ancient chapelries . Some , such as Moorside , exist as recently constructed residential suburbia , whilst places like Hollinwood exist as electoral wards and thoroughly industrialised districts . Throughout most of its recorded history , Oldham was surrounded by large swathes of moorland , which is reflected in the placenames of Moorside , Greenacres moor , Littlemoor , Northmoor among others .

A large portion of Oldham 's residences are " low value " Victorian era Accrington red @-@ brick terraced houses in a row formation , built for the most part from 1870 to 1920 , to house the town 's cotton mill workers . There is more modern housing in the semi @-@ rural east of the town , in the most sought after area in areas such as the village Moorside , although terraces are found in almost all parts of Oldham .

One of the oldest recorded named places of Oldham is Hathershaw , occurring in a deed for 1280 with the spelling Halselinechaw Clugh . Existing as a manor in the 15th century , Hathershaw Hall was the home of a Royalist family in the 17th century who lost part of their possessions due to the English Civil War . Waterhead , an upland area in the east of Oldham , traces its roots to a water cornmill over the border in Lees .

Recorded originally as Watergate and Waterhead Milne , it was for a long time a hamlet in the parish of Oldham that formed a significant part of the Oldham Above Town registration sub @-@ district . Derker was recorded as a place of residence in 1604 with the name Dirtcar . Bound by Higginshaw to the north , Derker is the location of Derker railway station and , said to have terraced residencies " unsuited to modern needs " , is currently being redeveloped as part of the Housing Market Renewal Initiative .

Coldhurst , an area along Oldham 's northern boundary with Royton , was once a chapelry and the site of considerable industry and commerce , including coal mining , cotton spinning and hat manufacture . It is said to have been the scene of an action in the English Civil War in which the Parliamentarians were defeated .

= = Demography = =

According to data from the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Oldham had a total resident population of 103 @,@ 544 , making it the 55th most populous settlement in England , and the 5th most populous settlement of the Greater Manchester Urban Area . This figure in conjunction with its area provides Oldham with a population density of 3 @,@ 998 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 544 per km ² ) . The local population has been described as broadly " working class " ; the middle classes tending to live in outlying settlements .

Oldham , considered as a combination of the 2001 electoral wards of Alexandra , Coldhurst , Hollinwood , St. James , St. Marys , St. Pauls , Waterhead and Werneth , has an average age of 33 @.@ 5 , and compared against the average demography of the United Kingdom , has a high level of people of South Asian heritage , particularly those with roots in Pakistan and Bangladesh . Due to the town 's prevalence as an industrial centre and thus a hub for employment , Oldham attracted migrant workers throughout its history , including those from wider @-@ England , Scotland , Ireland and Poland .

During the 1950s and 1960s , in an attempt to fill the shortfall of workers and revitalise local industries , citizens of the wider Commonwealth of Nations were encouraged to migrate to Oldham and other British towns . Many came from the Caribbean and Indian subcontinent and settled throughout the Oldham borough .

Today , Oldham has large communities with heritage from Bangladesh , India , Pakistan and parts of the Caribbean . At the time of the 2001 census , over one in four of its residents identified themselves as from a South Asian or British Asian ethnic group . Cultural divisions along ethnic backgrounds are strong within the town , with poor cross @-@ community integration and cohesion along Asian and white backgrounds .

With only a small local population during medieval times , as a result of the introduction of industry , mass migration of village workers into Oldham occurred , resulting in a population change from under 2 @,@ 000 in 1714 to 12 @,@ 000 in 1801 to 137 @,@ 000 in 1901 In 1851 its population of 52 @,@ 820 made Oldham the 12th most populous town in England . The following is a table outlining the population change of the town since 1801 , which demonstrates a trend of rapid population growth in the 19th century and , after peaking at 147 @,@ 483 people in 1911 , a trend of general decline in population size during the 20th century .

In 2011 , 77 @.@ 5 % of the Oldham metropolitan borough population were White British , 18 @.@ 1 % Asian and 1 @.@ 2 % Black . While in the town of Oldham , which had a 2011 population of 96 @,@ 555 , 55 @.@ 4 % of the population were White British .

= = Economy = =

For years Oldham 's economy was heavily dependent on manufacturing industry , especially textiles and mechanical engineering . Since the deindustrialisation of Oldham in the mid @-@ 20th century , these industries have been replaced by home shopping , publishing , healthcare and food processing sectors , though factory @-@ generated employment retains a significant presence . Many of the modern sectors are low @-@ skill and low @-@ wage .

Park Cake Bakeries , sold in 2007 by Northern Foods Group to Vision Capital , have a large food processing centre in Hathershaw , which employs in excess of 1 @,@ 600 people . Over 90 % of the cakes produced go to Marks & Spencer . Long existing as an industrial district , Hollinwood is home to the Northern Counties Housing Association ,

Oldham 's town centre contains the highest concentration of retailing , cultural facilities and employment in the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham . It has been extensively redeveloped during the last few decades , and its two shopping centres , Town Square and the Spindles , now provide one of the largest covered retail areas in Greater Manchester . The Spindles ( named with reference to textile spindles ) is a modern shopping centre with over 40 retailers , banks , building societies and catering outlets . It houses one of Europe 's largest stained glass roofs , created by local artist Brian Clarke in celebration of the music of one of Oldham 's famous sons , composer and conductor Sir William Walton .

Ferranti Technologies is an electronic , electromechanical and electrical engineering company based in Waterhead .

A number of culinary and medical advances have been developed in Oldham . There are claims that Oldham was the birthplace of the first chip shop . The sometimes disputed claim of trade in deep @-@ fried chipped potatoes is said to have been started around 1858 – 60 from an outlet owned by a John Lees , on what is the present site of Oldham 's Tommyfield Market . In 1900 Oldham had the highest concentration of chip shops in the country , one for every 400 people . Rag Pudding is a savoury dish said to be native to Oldham . Yates Wine Lodge was founded in Oldham by Peter and Simon Yates in 1884 .

The tubular bandage was invented and developed in Oldham in 1961 . That " vital contribution to advancing medical science " resulted from a collaboration between local firm Seton and a cotton manufacturer in the town .

= = Landmarks = =

= = = Town Hall = = =

Oldham 's Old Town Hall is a Grade II listed Georgian neo @-@ classical town hall built in 1841 , eight years before Oldham received its borough status . One of the last purpose @-@ built town halls in northwest England , it has a tetrastyle Ionic portico , copied from the temple of Ceres , on the River Ilissos , near Athens . Winston Churchill made his inaugural acceptance speech from the steps of the town hall when he was first elected as a Conservative MP in 1900 . A Blue Plaque on the exterior of the building commemorates the event . Long existing as the political centre of the town , complete with courtrooms , the structure has stood empty since the mid @-@ 1980s and has regularly been earmarked for redevelopment as part of regeneration project proposals , but none have been actioned .

In September 2008 , it was reported that " Oldham Town Hall is only months away from a major roof collapse " . A tour taken by local councillors and media concluded with an account that " chunks of masonry are falling from the ceilings on a daily basis ... the floors are littered with dead pigeons and ... revealed that the building is literally rotting away " . In October 2009 the Victorian Society , a charity responsible for the study and protection of Britain 's Victorian and Edwardian architecture , declared Oldham Town Hall as the most endangered Victorian structure in England and Wales . Plans to convert the hall into a leisure complex , incorporating a cinema and restaurants , were revealed in May 2012 with the hall itself being used for public consultation . This £ 36 @.@ 72 million project is expected to be completed by early in 2016 .

In the heart of Oldham ’ s retail district , the Old Town Hall is being developed into a modern multiplex ODEON cinema .

= = = War memorial = = =

Erected as a permanent memorial to the men of Oldham who were killed in the First World War , Oldham 's war memorial consists of a granite base surmounted by a bronze sculpture depicting five soldiers making their way along the trenches in order to go into battle . The main standing figure , having climbed out of the trenches , is shown calling on his comrades to advance , and is the same figure used at the Royal Fusiliers War Memorial in London and the 41st Division memorial at Flers in France . The base serves to house books containing the roll of honour of the 1st , 10th and 24th Battalions , Manchester Regiment . The pedestal has two bronze doors at either side .

Commissioned in 1919 by the Oldham War Memorial Committee , the memorial was designed and built by Albert Toft . It was unveiled by General Sir Ian Hamilton on 28 April 1923 , before a crowd estimated at over 10 @,@ 000 . The monument was intended to symbolise the spirit of 1914 – 1918 .

The inscriptions on the memorial read :

Over doors to the north : " DEATH IS THE GATE OF LIFE / 1914 – 1918 "

Over window to the south : " TO GOD BE THE PRAISE "

= = = Civic Centre = = =

The Civic Centre tower is the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham 's centre of local governance . The 15 @-@ storey white @-@ brick building has housed the vast majority of the local government 's offices since its completion in 1977 . Standing at the summit of the town , the tower stands over 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . It was designed by Cecil Howitt & Partners , and the topping out ceremony was held on 18 June 1976 . The Civic Centre can be seen as far away as Salford , Trafford , Wythenshawe and Winter Hill in Lancashire , and offers panoramic views across the city of Manchester and the Cheshire Plain .

= = = Parish Church = = =

The Oldham Parish Church of St. Mary with St. Peter , in its present form , dates from 1830 and was designed in the Gothic Revival Style by Richard Lane , a Manchester @-@ based architect . It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed building . It was linked with the church of St Mary the Virgin , Prestwich and together the sites were principal churches of the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham .

A church building had existed on the site since 1280 . During this time , a small chapel stood on the site to serve the local townships of Oldham , Chadderton , Royton and Crompton . This was later replaced by an Early English Gothic church in the 15th century . With the coming of the Industrial Revolution , the population of Oldham increased at a rapid rate ( from under 2 @,@ 000 in 1714 , to over 32 @,@ 000 by 1831 ) . The rapid growth of the local population warranted that the building be rebuilt into the current structure . Though the budget was originally agreed at £ 5 @,@ 000 , the final cost of building was £ 30 @,@ 000 , one third of which was spent on the crypt structure . Alternative designs by Sir Charles Barry , the designer of the Palace of Westminster , although now regarded by some as superior , were rejected . The Church , of the Anglican denomination , is in active use for worship , and forms part of the Diocese of Manchester . There are Roman Catholic churches in Oldham . These include Our Lady of Mount Carmel and St Patrick Church . It was built in 1870 , was founded by priests from St Mary 's Church in Oldham , and is a Grade II listed building .

= = Transport = =

The geography of Oldham constrained the development of major transport infrastructure , with the former County Borough Council suggesting that " if it had not grown substantially before the railway age it would surely have been overlooked " . Oldham has never been on a main @-@ line railway route , and canals too have only been able to serve it from a distance , meaning that " Oldham has never had a train service worthy of a town of its size " .

A principal destination along the former Oldham Loop Line , Oldham once had six railway stations but this was reduced to three once Clegg Street , Oldham Central and Glodwick Road closed in the mid @-@ 20th century . Oldham Werneth , Oldham Mumps and Derker closed on 3 October 2009 . Trains from Manchester Victoria station to Oldham had to climb steeply through much of its 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) route , from around 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) at Manchester city centre to around 600 feet ( 182 @.@ 9 m ) at Oldham Mumps . The Werneth Incline , with its gradient of 1 in 27 , made the Middleton Junction to Oldham Werneth route the steepest regular passenger line in the country . The Werneth Incline route closed in 1963 . It had been replaced as the main route to Manchester by the section of line built between Oldham Werneth Station and Thorpes Bridge Junction , at Newton Heath in May 1880 . Oldham Mumps , the second oldest station on the line after Werneth , took its name from its location in the Mumps area of Oldham , which itself probably derived from the archaic word " mumper " which was slang for a beggar . The former Oldham Loop Line was converted for use with an expanded Metrolink light rail network , and renamed as the Oldham and Rochdale Line . The line between Victoria and a temporary Oldham Mumps tram stop opened on 13 June 2012 , and more central stops opened on 27 January 2014 .

Oldham had electric tramways to Manchester in the early 20th century ; the first tram was driven from Manchester into Oldham in 1900 by the Lord Mayor of Manchester . The system came to an end on 3 August 1946 , however . There was also a short @-@ lived Oldham trolleybus system , in 1925 – 26 . The £ 3 @.@ 3 million Oldham Bus Station has frequent bus services to Manchester , Rochdale , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Middleton with other services to the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham , Tameside , and across the Pennines to Huddersfield in West Yorkshire . The roof canopy is supported internally on two rows of steel trees . The extensive use of glass and stainless steel maximises visibility , and there is a carefully co @-@ ordinated family of information fittings , posters and seating , using robust natural materials for floors and plinths . The bus station is used by National Express coaches . First Greater Manchester has its headquarters in Oldham .

Despite the Turnpike Act 1734 , Oldham had no turnpike road to Manchester for another 56 years and Church Lane , Oldham remained part of the main street through the town . But following a further Act of Parliament a turnpike was constructed . The first regular coach service to Manchester came into operation in October 1790 , with a journey time of over 2 hours and a fare 2s.8d ( about 13p ) , with half fare for travellers on top of the coach .

Oldham is about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the major M62 motorway , but is linked to it by the M60 at Hollinwood , and A627 ( M ) via Chadderton . There are major A roads to Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Huddersfield , Manchester , and Rochdale .

The Hollinwood Branch of the Ashton Canal was a canal that ran from Fairfield in Droylsden , through Littlemoss and Daisy Nook Country Park to the Hollinwood area of Oldham , with a branch from Daisy Nook to the Fairbottom Branch Canal . The canal was mainly used for the haulage of coal until it fell into disuse for commercial traffic in the 1930s . It included four aqueducts and a two @-@ rise lock staircase .

= = Sports = =

Oldham Roughyeds Rugby League Club was established in 1876 as Oldham Football Club , and Oldham Athletic Football Club in 1895 as Pine Villa Football Club . Oldham Athletic have achieved both league and cup successes , particularly under Joe Royle in the 1990s . They were Football League runners @-@ up in the last season before the outbreak of the First World War , but were relegated from the Football League First Division in 1923 . They reached the Football League Cup final in 1990 and won the Football League Second Division title in 1991 , ending 68 years outside the top flight .

They secured their top division status a year later to become founder members of the new Premier League , but were relegated after two seasons despite reaching that year 's FA Cup semi @-@ finals . They are currently playing in Football League One , the third tier of the English league . Darren Kelly was appointed as Manager in May 2015

Oldham Boro Football Club was established in 1964 as Oldham Dew FC , and after many years playing under the name of Oldham Town changed its name to Oldham Boro in 2009 , finally becoming known as Oldham Borough just months before it folded . The team played in the North West Counties Football League before going out of existence in 2015 , just over 50 years after it was founded .

Renamed in 1997 to Oldham Roughyeds , Oldham Rugby League Club has received several club honours during its history , winning the Rugby Football League Championship five times and Challenge Cup three times . They played at Watersheddings for years before joining Oldham Athletic at Boundary Park until 2010 when they moved to Oldham Borough 's previous ground , Whitebank Stadium . Oldham has league cricket teams with a number of semi @-@ professional league clubs including Oldham CC , and Werneth CC in the Central Lancashire League .

Oldham also has a Fencing Club , Marshall Fencing Club is a Competitive Fencing Club with most of its members competing on the national stage . They train three times a week at the old South Chadderton High School .

= = Education = =

Oldham produced someone who is considered to be one of the greatest benefactors of education for the nation , Hugh Oldham , who in 1504 was appointed as Bishop of Exeter , and later went on to found what is now Manchester Grammar School .

Almost every part of Oldham is served by a school of some kind , some with religious affiliations . According to the Office for Standards in Education , schools within the town perform at mixed levels . Hulme Grammar School and the Blue Coat School are consistently Oldham 's top performing secondary schools and each have sixth form colleges of further education .

University Campus Oldham is a centre for higher education and a sister campus of the University of Huddersfield . It was opened in May 2005 by actor Patrick Stewart , the centre 's Chancellor . The University Campus Oldham presented actress Shobna Gulati and artist , Brian Clarke ( both born in Oldham ) with an Honorary Doctorate of Letters at the Graduation Ceremony of November 2006 , for their achievements and contributions to Oldham and its community .

= = Public services = =

Home Office policing in Oldham is provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's " ( Q ) Division " have their headquarters for policing the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham at central Oldham . Public transport is co @-@ ordinated by the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive . Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , which has two stations in Oldham ; at Hollins on Hollins Road , and at Clarksfield on Lees Road .

The Royal Oldham Hospital , at Oldham 's northern boundary with Royton , is a large NHS hospital administrated by Pennine Acute Hospitals NHS Trust . It was opened under its existing name on 1 December 1989 . Formerly known as Oldham District and General , and occupying the site of the town 's former workhouse ( named Oldham Union Workhouse in 1851 ) , the hospital is notable for being the birthplace of Louise Joy Brown – the world 's first successful In vitro fertilised " test tube baby " , on 25 July 1978 . The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport . See also Healthcare in Greater Manchester .

Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Locally produced inert waste for disposal is sent to landfill at the Beal Valley . Oldham 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities ; there are no power stations in the town . United Utilities also manages Oldham 's drinking and waste water ; water supplies being sourced from several local reservoirs , including Dovestones and Chew . There is a water treatment works at Waterhead .

= = Culture = =

Oldham , though lacking in leisure and cultural amenities , is historically notable for its theatrical culture . Once having a peak of six " fine " theatres in 1908 , Oldham is home to the Oldham Coliseum Theatre and the Oldham Theatre Workshop , which have facilitated the early careers of notable actors and writers , including Eric Sykes , Bernard Cribbins and Anne Kirkbride , daughter of acclaimed cartoonist Jack Kirkbride who worked for the Oldham Evening Chronicle . Oldham Coliseum Theatre is one of Britain 's last remaining repertory theatres ; Charlie Chaplin and Stan Laurel performed there in the early 20th century , and contemporary actors such as Ralph Fiennes and Minnie Driver , among others , have appeared more recently .

During the 19th century the circus was a popular entertainment in Oldham ; Pablo Fanque 's circus was a regular visitor , filling a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat amphitheatre on Tommyfield in 1869 . Criticised for its lack of a cinema , there are plans to develop an " Oldham West End " . Oldham has a thriving bar and night club culture , attracting a significant number of young people into the town centre . Oldham 's " hard binge drinking culture " has been criticised however for conveying a negative regional image of the town .

= = = Communal facilities = = =

The Lyceum is a Grade II listed building opened in 1856 at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 500 as a " mutual improvement " centre for the working men of Oldham . The facilities provided to members included a library , a newsroom and a series of lectures on geology , geography and education , microscopy and chemistry , female education and botany . Instrumental music was introduced and there were soon sixteen violinists and three cellists . Eventually the building was extended to include a school of science and art . Music had always been important in the life of the Lyceum , and in 1892 a school of music was opened , with 39 students enrolled for the " theory and practice of music " .

The Lyceum continued throughout the 20th century as a centre for the arts in Oldham , and in 1986 the local authority was invited by its directors and trustees to accept the building as a gift . The acceptance of the Lyceum building by the Education Committee provided the opportunity to move the music centre and " further enhance the cultural activities of the town " . In 1989 the Oldham Metropolitan Borough Music Centre moved into the Lyceum building , which is now the home of the Oldham Lyceum School of Music .

Oldham ’ s museum and gallery service dates back to 1883 . Since then it has established itself as a cultural focus for Oldham and has developed one of the largest and most varied permanent collections in North West England . The current collection includes over 12 @,@ 000 social and industrial history items , more than 2 @,@ 000 works of art , about 1 @,@ 000 items of decorative art , more than 80 @,@ 000 natural history specimens , over 1 @,@ 000 geological specimens , about 3 @,@ 000 archaeological artefacts , 15 @,@ 000 photographs and a large number of books , pamphlets and documents .

Oldham is now home to a newly built state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art art gallery , Gallery Oldham , which was completed in February 2002 as the first phase of the Oldham Cultural Quarter . Later phases of the development saw the opening of an extended Oldham Library , a lifelong learning centre and there are plans to include a performing arts centre .

= = = Carnival = = =

The annual Oldham Carnival started around 1900 , although the tradition of carnivals in the town goes back much further , providing a " welcomed respite from the tedium of everyday life " . The carnival parade was always held in mid @-@ to @-@ late summer , with the primary aim of raising money for charities . It often featured local dignitaries or popular entertainers , in addition to brass , military and jazz bands , the Carnival Queen , people in fancy dress , dancers and decorated floats from local churches and businesses . Whenever possible , local people who had attained national celebrity status were invited to join the cavalcade . The carnival 's route began in the town centre , wound its way along King Street , and ended with a party in Alexandra Park .

The carnival fell out of favour in the late 1990s but was resurrected by community volunteers in 2006 and rebranded the Peoples ' Carnival . The parade was moved into Alexandra Park in 2011 . The event hosts live stages and other activities alongside a parade in the park . In 2016 will be 10 years since the carnival was reinstated by volunteers . The main organiser is Paul Davies who runs the carnival with a number of committee members and loads of volunteers

= = Britain in Bloom = =

In 2012 and 2014 Oldham was named as Culture Town in the annual " Britain in Bloom " competition as winners

= = Notable people = =

People from Oldham are called Oldhamers , though " Roughyed " is a nickname from the 18th century when rough felt was used in Oldham to make hats .

Edward Potts was a renowned architect who moved to Oldham from Bury . He was the architect for fourteen mills in the Oldham area .

Other notable persons with Oldham connections include the composer Sir William Walton , former British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill , and Louise Brown , the world 's first baby to be conceived by in vitro fertilisation .

Notable media personalities from Oldham include presenter Nick Grimshaw , actors Eric Sykes and Bernard Cribbins , TV host Phillip Schofield , actress Shobna Gulati , physicist and science educator Brian Cox , and comedy double act Tommy Cannon and Bobby Ball .

Notable musicians from Oldham include the Inspiral Carpets and Mark Owen of boyband Take That .

= 1981 European Cup Final =

The 1981 European Cup Final was an association football match between Liverpool of England and Real Madrid of Spain on 27 May 1981 at the Parc des Princes , Paris , France . It was the final match of the 1980 – 81 season of Europe 's premier cup competition , the European Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their third final , after two appearances in 1977 and 1978 . Real Madrid were appearing in their ninth final , they had previously won the competition six times and lost twice .

Each club needed to progress through four rounds to reach the final . Matches were contested over two legs , with a match at each team 's home ground . All but one of Liverpool 's ties were comfortable victories , they beat Bayern Munich on the away goals rule , while they won all their other ties by at least five goals . Real Madrid 's matches ranged from close affairs to comfortable victories . In the first round they beat Limerick 7 – 2 on aggregate , but their final two ties were won by at least two goals .

Watched by a crowd of 48 @,@ 360 , the first half was goalless . Liverpool took the lead in the second half when Alan Kennedy scored . They held this lead to win the match 1 – 0 , securing Liverpool 's third European Cup and a fifth consecutive victory by an English team . Liverpool manager Bob Paisley became the first manager to win the competition three times .

= = Route to the final = =

= = = Liverpool = = =

Liverpool gained entry to the competition by winning the 1979 – 80 Football League , entering as English champions . Their opponents in the first round were Finnish champions Oulun Palloseura . The first leg in Finland at the Raatti Stadion was drawn 1 – 1 . The second leg at Liverpool 's home ground Anfield resulted in a comprehensive 10 – 0 victory for Liverpool . Two of their players , Graeme Souness and Terry McDermott , scored a hat @-@ trick . Liverpool won the tie 11 – 1 on aggregate .

In the second round Liverpool were drawn against Scottish champions Aberdeen , managed by Alex Ferguson . The first leg was at Aberdeen 's home ground , Pittodrie , a McDermott goal in the fifth minute ensured a 1 – 0 victory for Liverpool . The second leg at Anfield was won 4 – 0 by Liverpool , thus they won the tie 5 – 0 on aggregate . Liverpool 's opponents in the quarter @-@ finals were Bulgarian champions CSKA Sofia . The first leg was held in England , another hat @-@ trick from Souness and goals from McDermott and Sammy Lee gave Liverpool a 5 – 1 victory . They won the second leg at the Vasil Levski National Stadium 1 – 0 to progress to the semi @-@ finals courtesy of a 6 – 1 aggregate victory .

They faced German champions Bayern Munich in the semi @-@ finals . The first leg in England ended in a 0 – 0 draw . Liverpool needed to score in the second leg to advance to the final . Their cause was not helped when striker Kenny Dalglish had to be replaced in the early minutes of the match by the inexperienced Howard Gayle . However , Gayle rose to the occasion , unsettling the Bayern defence with his attacking threat . With seven minutes of normal time left , Ray Kennedy scored to give Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead . Bayern responded soon afterwards when Karl @-@ Heinz Rummenigge scored , however they needed to score another goal due to the away goals rule . They were unable to do so and Liverpool progressed to their third final in five seasons .

= = = Real Madrid = = =

Real Madrid gained entry to the competition as champions , after they won the 1979 – 80 La Liga . Their opponents in the first round were Irish champions Limerick . Limerick took the lead in the first leg at Lansdowne Road , but Real scored twice to win the first leg 2 – 1 . The second leg at Real 's home ground the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , ended in a 5 – 1 victory for Real , they won the tie 7 – 2 on aggregate .

Their opponents in the second round were Hungarian champions Honvéd . A goal from Santillana ensured Real won the first leg 1 – 0 in Spain . Two goals from Laurie Cunningham and Francisco García Hernández secured a 2 – 0 victory in the second leg at Honvéd 's home ground the Bozsik Stadion , thus , winning the tie 3 – 0 on aggregate .

In the quarter @-@ finals Real faced Soviet champions Spartak Moscow . A 0 – 0 at the Dynamo Lenin Stadium in the Soviet Union left the tie finely balanced heading into the second leg in Spain . Two goals from Isidro in the second half secured a 2 – 0 victory in the match and over aggregate .

Real 's opponents in the semi @-@ finals were Italian champions Internazionale . Real won the first leg 2 – 0 in Spain after goals from Santillana and Juanito . Internazionale needed to score twice to force the tie into extra @-@ time , however they were only able to score once . They won the second leg 1 – 0 , but Real won the tie 2 – 1 on aggregate to progress to their ninth final .

= = Match = =

= = = Background = = =

Liverpool were appearing in their third European Cup Final . They had won their two previous appearances in 1977 and 1978 . Real Madrid were appearing in their ninth final , they had won the competition six times , including a record five successive victories from 1956 to 1960 . Their sixth victory was in 1966 , while their two losses were in 1962 and 1964 .

Liverpool had finished fifth during the 1980 – 81 Football League , thus they needed to win the final to ensure that they would compete in the European Cup the following season . Despite this , Liverpool had won the Football League Cup for the first time earlier in the season , defeating West Ham United 2 – 1 in a replay after the final finished 1 – 1 . Real Madrid had finished second in the 1980 – 81 La Liga , they had qualified for the UEFA Cup as a result , but victory would enable them to compete in the European Cup the following season .

Both sides had injury concerns before the match . Liverpool had doubts over a number of players . Kenny Dalglish had not trained for several weeks , while Alan Kennedy had been sidelined for six weeks with a broken wrist . Real had concerns over striker Laurie Cunningham who had been sidelined since November .

= = = Summary = = =

Liverpool controlled the opening passages of the game . Their first goalscoring chance came in the 11th minute when Alan Kennedy 's 30 yard shot was saved by Real goalkeeper Agustín Rodríguez . Further chances were created , but neither Terry McDermott or Dalglish were able to score . Real started to exert more of an influence after this , midfielder Juanito started to cause Liverpool problems with his passing . One pass found José Antonio Camacho who beat Liverpool defender Alan Hansen but put his shot wide of the Liverpool goal . Despite their scoring opportunity , one problem Real had was to get the best out of their winger Cunningham . Not fully fit , he was tightly marked and made little impact in the match .

Liverpool had a chance to take the lead before half @-@ time . Phil Neal advanced down the right hand side of the pitch and found Dalglish who passed to Graeme Souness , who ran late through the Real defence . His subsequent shot was not held by Agustín Rodríguez , but Souness was unable to get to the rebounded ball . Real had the first chance of the second half . Liverpool 's defence had stopped as they thought Cunningham was offside , however he was not and Camacho advanced towards Ray Clemence in the Liverpool goal . Clemence came off his line and ran towards the Real midfielder , Camacho attempted to lob the ball over the keeper , but his shot went over the goal .

The tactical approach of the two sides were cancelling each other out . Real 's slow pace interspersed with high speed bursts , while Liverpool preferred a more deliberate approach , keeping possession and making use of their wingers . Their various forms of marking also negated each other , Real man marked Liverpool 's best players such as Dalglish and Souness , while Liverpool were content for the nearest defender to mark the man on the ball .

Despite the tactical battle Liverpool were able to score in the 81st minute . A throw @-@ in from Ray Kennedy found Alan Kennedy , whose run up the left hand side of the pitch caught Real off @-@ guard . Kennedy went past Real defender Rafael García Cortés into the Real box , his subsequent shot beat the Real goalkeeper to give Liverpool the lead . Soon afterwards Liverpool replaced Dalglish with midfielder Jimmy Case in an attempt to see out the match . Although Liverpool had chances to extend their lead as Real went all out to score , Real keeper Agustín Rodríguez made a number of saves to keep his team in the game . The match remained 1 – 0 and Liverpool won their third European Cup , the first British club to do so . Liverpool 's victory meant that Bob Paisley became the first manager to win the European Cup three times .

= = = Details = = =

= Carre 's Grammar School =

Carre 's Grammar School is a selective secondary school for boys in Sleaford , a market town in Lincolnshire , England . Founded on 1 September 1604 by an indenture of Robert Carre , the school was funded by rents from farmland and run by a group of trustees . The indenture restricted the endowment to £ 20 without accounting for inflation , causing the school to decline during the 18th century and effectively close in 1816 . Revived by a decree from the Court of Chancery in 1830 , new buildings were constructed at its present site and the school re @-@ opened in 1835 . Faced with competition from cheaper commercial schools and declining rolls , Carre 's eventually added technical and artistic instruction to its Classical curriculum by affiliating with Kesteven County Council in 1895 . Following the Education Act 1944 , school fees were abolished and Carre 's became Voluntary Aided . New buildings were completed in 1966 to house the rising number of students . After plans for comprehensive education in Sleaford came to nothing in the 1970s and 1980s , Carre 's converted to grant @-@ maintained status in 1990 . Foundation status followed and the school became an Academy in 2011 ; a multi @-@ Academy trust with Kesteven and Sleaford High School was formed in 2015 .

Admission to Carre 's is through the eleven @-@ plus examination and entry is limited to boys in the lower school , although the Sixth Form is co @-@ educational . The total number of pupils on roll in 2013 was 817 , of which 240 were in the Sixth Form . Teaching follows the National Curriculum and pupils generally sit examinations for ten or eleven General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) qualifications in Year Eleven ( aged 15 – 16 ) . They have a choice of three or four A @-@ levels in the sixth form , which is part of the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form consortium between Carre 's and St George 's Academy . Of the 2013 cohort , 100 % of pupils achieved at least five GCSEs at grade A * -C and 96 % achieved that including English and Maths GCSEs , the eighth highest percentage in Lincolnshire . An Office for Standards in Education , Children 's Services and Skills ( Ofsted ) inspection in 2013 graded Carre 's " good " overall with " outstanding " features .

= = History = =

= = = The first school = = =

Carre 's Grammar School was founded on 1 September 1604 by way of an indenture between Robert Carre , a member of the Carr or Carre family , and several local gentlemen . Carre granted 100 acres of agricultural land in Gedney to these men , who held the land in trust as feoffees . The lands were estimated to be worth £ 40 per annum and the indenture stipulated that £ 20 of this would be paid to the school master , while the remainder would be for the benefit of the town 's poor . The indenture stated that the school was to provide for " the better education of the Youth and Children born or inhabiting with their parents within New Sleaford , Old Sleaford , Aswarby , and Holdingham ... and in Quarrington , North Rauceby , South Rauceby , Anwick , Kirkby La Thorpe and Evedon . " It is not known whether there was any other school in the town prior to the foundation of Carre 's , although the indenture appointed Anthony Brown , already a schoolmaster , as the master ; it thus seems likely that Carre already operated a school and his indenture codified pre @-@ existing arrangements .

Throughout the 1620s the trustees reported problems receiving rents from the tenants in Gedney . Although the school received a bequest from a local gentleman , Robert Cammock , in 1631 , which provided an additional income of £ 4 per annum , no more followed ; the English Civil War also disrupted funding : rents were not collected between 1644 and 1646 . These financial problems were compounded by the nature of the land itself : it was agricultural and not urban , thus it did not increase in value significantly in the 17th century . Carre 's lagged behind other schools and its buildings fell into disrepair as the fixed endowment failed to keep up with inflation ( despite the Gedney lands increasing in value to £ 180 by the early 19th century ) . In 1783 , the foeffees ( by then , often called trustees ) spent £ 50 on improvements , but by 1794 , the adjacent Carre 's Hospital agreed that part of its building be pulled down to make way for a new schoolhouse . This did not materialise and pupils were taught in the vestry at St Denys ' Church by the early 19th century . In 1816 , the trustees discontinued the master 's salary because there were " no duties to perform " at the school .

= = = Revival , stagnation and modernisation = = =

The trustees met in 1821 and agreed that " much good " could come from reviving the school . In 1828 they petitioned the Court of Chancery for a scheme , which was approved in 1830 , providing the master with a salary of £ 80 per annum . Four years later , the Chancery agreed to fund the rebuilding of the school at a site on Northgate . With the buildings complete , the school reopened on 1 August 1835 .

Carre 's maintained roughly 20 pupils on roll throughout the 1840s , but by 1858 , this had fallen to two free scholars and two boarders . When the charity commissioners inspected the school the following year , they recommended that an usher be appointed to teach " commercial education " to supplement the Classics . In 1869 the Schools Enquiry Commission reported a " general dissatisfaction in the town " towards the school , finding " indifferent " discipline along with poor spelling , an inability to decline simple Latin nouns , and a low @-@ level of arithmetic . According to the report , the " general wish in the town is for a commercial school " . Competition soon arose in the form of Mr Boyer 's academy and later E. R. Dibben 's commercial school at Mount Pleasant , Sleaford . Although the trustees were reorganised in 1876 , Britain 's agriculture suffered from foreign competition in the 1880s , which contributed to a decline in the rolls ; a subsequent reduction of fees in 1889 proved ineffective and only twelve boys were in attendance the following year .

The Commissioner of Inquiries suggested that Kesteven County Council could support the teaching of art , modern languages and technical and scientific subjects through the Local Taxation Act 1890 . In 1895 the governors agreed to affiliate with the Council , which granted them £ 35 . The headmaster , Samuel Brown , appointed an assistant master and his wife was employed to teach art . The numbers rose so that in 1897 there were 33 pupils on roll , and the Committee granted a further £ 400 to pay for new accommodation and resources . The Governors , however , applied for £ 1 @,@ 500 to build a new school entirely but the Council wanted it to be coeducational , which caused a lengthy stalemate . The demand for a coeducational school disappeared in 1902 when Sleaford and Kesteven High School for Girls opened as a private venture and so in 1904 a new building opened at Carre 's , financed in part by the sale of the Gedney lands , while boarding accommodation followed in 1906 . Following the Education Act 1902 , Carre 's received an allocation of £ 200 per pupil from the Board of Education , plus local authority assistance made in return for admitting pupils from local elementary schools . From 1919 , elementary school pupils sat the entrance exam each term and those who passed were allocated the places which remained after fee @-@ paying students had enrolled .

= = = Post @-@ war expansion and the comprehensive debate = = =

The Education Act 1944 made secondary education available to all children up to the age of 15 and abolished fees for state @-@ schooling ; a ' tripartite system ' of secondary schools was established to provide curricula based on aptitude and ability : grammar schools for " academic " pupils , secondary moderns for practical studies , and technical schools for science and engineering . Pupils were allocated to them depending on their score in the eleven @-@ plus examination . Carre 's became a Voluntary Controlled Grammar School ; from 1945 all entry was by the County Selection Examination . By 1955 , the school had 330 pupils on roll and the need for new accommodation was met in the 1950s and 1960s by a major building programme at the Northgate site ; completed in 1966 , this added dedicated classroom blocks , a canteen and hall .

The educational opportunities for secondary modern pupils were limited compared to those at grammar schools , prompting criticism of the Tripartite system . In 1965 , the Labour Government issued Circular 10 / 65 requesting Local Education Authorities implement comprehensive schooling . In 1971 Sleaford parents voted in favour of comprehensive education , but rejected the Council 's proposals . A new plan which envisaged Carre 's becoming a sixth form college was supported by parents in a vote ( 1 @,@ 199 to 628 ) , albeit with a 50 % turnout ; the County Council approved it but allowed governors a veto . Following negotiations with governors at Carre 's , the scheme was revised so that Carre 's would be an 11 – 18 school and adsorb Sleaford Secondary Modern 's Church Lane site . Despite support from most staff and all three headteachers , Lincolnshire County Council voted to return the scheme for consultation in 1975 . A new system was proposed which retained all three schools , and when the Government ordered the Council to choose a comprehensive scheme in 1977 it submitted that proposal , which had become popular with parents . The next year the government dismissed it on grounds that the Sixth Forms would be too small , but the council voted against the two @-@ school system once more .

= = = Grant @-@ maintained status and Academy conversion = = =

The 1979 general election brought a Conservative government to power and allowed the Council to shift its focus towards retaining Grammar Schools where they still existed and improving schools where work had been put on hold during the comprehensive debate ; despite 90 % of English councils adopting comprehensive education , Lincolnshire had retained its grammar schools . Although the County Council began discussing the abolition of them again in 1985 , opposition from parents at a public consultation in 1987 resulted in the plans being dropped . With the question of its future resolved , Carre 's applied for grant @-@ maintained status in 1989 ; the Education Secretary approved the proposals and formally granted the status in September 1990 . When grant @-@ maintained status was abolished in 1999 , Carre 's became a Foundation School . Following a successful bid to the DfES , submitted in October 2002 , the school was granted specialist Sports College status in 2003 . An all @-@ weather pitch was laid out in 2007 , and a new technology building with a fitness suite opened in 2011 . In 2009 , Carre 's became a specialist Science College and a lead school for gifted and talented students . The school converted to Academy status in August 2011 . In 2014 , the governors announced their intention to bid for conversion to a multi @-@ Academy trust and become a coeducational , selective school on a new site ; in February 2015 , Kesteven and Sleaford High School announced its intention to join the proposed trust , a moved welcomed by Carre 's . Carre 's officially became part of the Robert Carre Multi @-@ Academy Trust on 1 September 2015 ; the schools continue to operate on their sites , sharing staff and facilities .

= = School structure = =

Carre 's is a state @-@ run selective grammar school . It converted to an Academy and reopened on 1 August 2011 ; it is governed by Carre 's Grammar School Academy Trust and converted without sponsorship . As of 2015 , the student body is made up of 815 pupils aged 11 – 18 . The school admits boys on a selective basis for years 7 – 11 and has a co @-@ educational Sixth Form ; there are 60 girls on roll as of 2015 . The majority of pupils come from White British backgrounds and very few pupils speak English as an additional language . The number of pupils supported through allowances , including those eligible for free school meals ( 2 @.@ 3 % ) , is below average , as is the number of students with learning disabilities . Pupils are allocated into houses based on their forms . The first house system at Carre 's consisted of four sets : scarlet , maroon , green and blue . They became houses in 1933 as Carre , Bristol , Lafford and Welby , named respectively after its founder , the Earls of Bristol , an old name for Sleaford , and Richard Welby , who owned the Gedney lands purchased by Carre .

Admission to the school is through the eleven @-@ plus examination , taken in year 6 . Pupils must obtain a minimum score before their application will be considered and places will be awarded based on whether the child is in public care , whether he lives in the catchment area and attends a partnered primary school , and whether they have siblings attending the school or parents working there . In the event of a tie , places will be allocated based on proximity to the school . The school has a maximum annual intake of 116 at the start of year 7 ( aged 11 ) ; pupils are arranged into forms of no more than 30 , where registration takes place . Their form tutors provide access to pastoral support , overseen by their Key Stage Manager . In 2013 the lower school had approximately 577 pupils on roll . The school uniform consists of a black blazer with the school badge embroidered on the breast pocket and a red braid on each pocket . Charcoal or black trousers are worn along with a white shirt and school tie .

The vast majority of pupils at Carre 's continue on to the Sixth Form , and there were 240 students on roll in 2013 . Along with St George 's Academy , Carre 's is part of the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form , which was founded in 1983 and included Kesteven and Sleaford High School until it withdrew in 2010 . It provides a common timetable across both sites and allows for pupils to choose from A @-@ Level options offered at both schools . Pupils may apply to be based at either school , where their pastoral and tutorial activities take place . There are entry requirements based on GCSE attainment . Sixth Formers can be selected to be prefects , who have responsibilities around the school under the supervision of staff ; they are headed by a Head Boy and Girl . The students are required to wear business @-@ dress ; for males , this consists of a dark suit , a " non @-@ vivid " shirt and the school 's sixth form tie ; females must dress in " smart business wear " .

= = Curriculum = =

The curriculum during the 17th and 18th centuries is not known for certain . In 1714 the trustees agreed that the pupils should attend church services at St Denys ' Church six days a week ; whether this was adhered to is not clear . Religious practice was a stipulation in the 1835 decree , which required pupils to pray at the start and end of each day and engage in daily readings of holy scriptures . However , the emphasis was always on classical education , which likely required instruction in Latin from the earliest times ; in 1835 , learning the classics was enshrined as the school 's primary purpose . In the mid @-@ 19th century , Carre 's offered this classical education for free , but arithmetic , geometry and algebra were taught as extras at a rate of two guineas per term . Students were enrolled from the age of eight , and were expected to be able to read , write , recite the Lord 's Prayer , the Apostles ' Creed and the Ten Commandments , and " be qualified to begin Latin grammar " . Students had to supply their own equipment , except pens and ink , which were covered by a 10 shilling payment made each term to the school . The school 's inspection in 1865 mentions geography and history teaching , although the general standard of attainment was low .

In 1876 , the curriculum was widened so that it comprised reading , writing , arithmetic , English , mathematics , history , geography , Latin , a foreign language , music , natural science and drawing , with Greek as an optional extra . The County Council supported technical and commercial subjects in the late 19th century , but after 1904 it was empowered to support secondary education in general , allowing Latin and other classical components of the curriculum to remain intact . After World War I , sixth form courses were developed allowing students to commence advanced studies in the arts and sciences . By the 1950s , a wide range were available : English language and literature , mathematics , French , German , Latin , Greek , art , history , geography , physics , chemistry and woodwork ; biology was taught at Kesteven and Sleaford High School .

= = = Key Stages 3 and 4 = = =

As of 2014 , the school follows the National Curriculum in years 7 – 11 and offers a range of GCSEs ( national exams taken by students aged 14 – 16 ) and A @-@ levels ( national exams taken by pupils aged 16 – 18 ) . The school has no affiliation with a particular religious denomination , but religious education is given throughout the school , and boys may opt to take the subject as part of their GCSE course . Although morning assemblies take place and are Christian in nature , they are non @-@ denominational . Students participate in a number of educational visits and excursions throughout their school career and year 11 students are offered the opportunity to participate in a work experience programme . The curriculum comprises English and drama , mathematics , French , history , geography , science , art , music , design and technology , information communications technology ( I.C.T. ) , ethics and philosophy ( religious education ) , physical education ( P.E. ) , cookery , and citizenship , sex and relationships education ; in Key Stage 4 ( years 10 and 11 ) , pupils also participate in careers and work @-@ related learning . In mathematics , students are divided by their ability into two bands . Science is divided into Biology , Chemistry and Physics in year 9 . In the second year German or Spanish is added . The use of information technology is central to all teaching and is taught as a subject in Key Stage 3 ; in year 9 , all students study for the European Computer Driving Licence , a level 2 course in I.C.T. and pupils may opt to take Computing as a GCSE .

Boys usually take nine or ten subjects for GCSE : English ( language and literature ) , mathematics , a foreign language , all three separate sciences or Dual Certificate Science , as well as three other subjects from those listed above as well as business studies , with technology being divided into separate courses for Resistant Materials , Graphics , Electronics and Engineering ; Mandarin is also available as an optional extra subject , but is studied after school .

= = = Sixth Form = = =

Carre 's and St. George 's Academy operate the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form , which shares a common timetable between the two sites and allows for students to choose from a wide range of options at A @-@ Level . Students may choose to apply to be based at either school , where their pastoral and tutorial activities will take place . The Sixth Form , including Carre 's , is co @-@ educational . The majority of students take four A @-@ levels subjects in year 12 , with most choosing to focus on three in year 13 . The Joint Sixth Form allows students to choose from a range of 65 optional vocational or academic subjects including : art and photography ( separate A @-@ Level or BTEC options ) , applied Science , biology , bricklaying , business ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , childcare , carpentry , chemistry , computing or ICT ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , drama or performing arts ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , electronics , engineering , English ( language and / or literature ) , film or media studies , French , German , geography , government and politics , health and social care , history , hospitality and catering , law , mathematics and further mathematics , music ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , philosophy and ethics , psychology , physical education or sport ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , physics , product Design , public Services , light vehicle maintenance , Spanish , sociology , travel and tourism , and work skills . In addition , students may participate in General Studies at A @-@ Level , and a range of extra @-@ curricular activities , including the Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme .

= = = Examinations = = =

In 2013 , 100 % of pupils achieved at least five GCSEs at grade A * – C and 96 % achieved that including English and Maths GCSEs , the eighth highest percentage in Lincolnshire . Figures for the 2010 / 11 cohort show that 86 % of Key Stage 4 pupils at the school carried on to the Sixth Form . At A @-@ Level , 85 % of pupils in 2013 attained three A @-@ Levels at grades A * – E and 11 % achieved three A @-@ Levels at grades AAB including at least two " facilitating subjects " ; the average point score per qualification was 201 @.@ 7 , equating to a C- grade , and the average point score per student was 823 @.@ 1 . The Sunday Times ranked Carre 's 101st ( 49th amongst state schools ) in the Midlands and 750th nationally based on A @-@ Level and GCSE performance in 2012 ; it recorded that 48 @.@ 7 % of A @-@ Levels were at A * – B grade and 42 @.@ 5 % of GCSE grades were at A * or A.

= = Extra @-@ curricular activities = =

As of 2014 , school clubs and societies include various language clubs , sport clubs , musical activities and many others . Students may participate in the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award Scheme , beginning with the Bronze grade in year 10 . Musical opportunities include participating in the school band and the choir , the guitar club and the Music Theory support group ; the school band has performed at the Lincolnshire Show and music students have taken part in the Lincolnshire School ’ s Prom in Skegness . In the past , Carre 's has offered a range of clubs and societies , including ones for archaeology , aero @-@ building , bird @-@ watching , boxing , chess , cycling , drama , languages , geography , jazz and other music groups , a choir and orchestra , and student voice groups , like the student council . The first school play performed by the Dramatic Society was She Stoops to Conquer in 1938 . Trips to see plays , a Play Reading Society and a new dramatic society were formed under the guidance of the English master A. D. Winterburn . In 1968 , plays were performed jointly with Kesteven and Sleaford High School . At the end of World War I , a cadet corps as formed by one Captain Price and became part of the Army Cadet Corps under the War Office ; attendance at weekly parades was compulsory for pupils over 13 in the 1920s . Most pupils took part in its activities in World War II , under the lead of the History teacher , Major W. H. T. Walker ; this included athletics competitions , shooting practice and trips to camp sites . It disbanded in c . 1963 when the two staff who ran it retired .

= = = Sport = = =

As with the curriculum , there are no references to sports being played at Carre 's before the 19th century . In 1835 , the Marquis of Bristol allowed the school to use an acre of land , which probably functioned as a playground . Sports fields were not added to the grounds until 1908 , but the earliest reports of the school participating in sporting events pre @-@ date this by half a century . In the 1860s , the Sleaford Gazette reported on cricket matches with local schools , namely the rival academies run by Mr Boyer and Mr Dibben in Sleaford ; by the 1890s , these matches were being organised with more distant schools , like the grammar school at Grantham . Athletics were practised at the school as early as 1871 when a sports day was held ; the 100 yards and half a mile races , hurdles , the pole jump and throwing the cricket ball were activities in which forms competed . Football was played at the school as early as 1895 . Glebe land was acquired in 1908 for sporting purposes and levelled in the early 1930s . A cycling club was formed in the 1940s and badminton was informally organised by pupils by the 1950s ; between 1957 and 1960 , a portion of land was converted into tennis courts for the school and rugby was introduced in the 1966 – 67 academic year .

In 2014 – 15 , the school pitched football , rugby union , basketball , cricket , golf and netball teams . In football , the under 12 , 13 , 14 and 15 football teams won the Kesteven and Sleaford District leagues in 2013 / 14 , while the under 13 and 14 teams won the Lincolnshire Schools ' Cup . In rugby , the under 14 team was county champions for the same season and the school competes on a national level .

= = Site and property = =

The original location of Carre 's School is not known . From 1653 , it operated in buildings on Eastgate , adjacent to Carre 's Hospital . After these fell into disrepair in the late 18th century , pupils were taught in the vestry of St Denys ' Church until the school was closed in 1816 . In 1826 , the trustees purchased a house on Northgate at the cost of £ 545 3s. from one Mr Squires . In 1834 , the Chancery Court agreed to fund the rebuilding of the school according to plans by the Sleaford architect and builder Charles Kirk , who constructed it at a cost £ 1 @,@ 168 15s . The building is in the Tudor Gothic style and built in Ashlar stone with slate roofs . It has three stories of three bays , with the upper floor housed in two gables . A shield with the arms of the Marquis of Bristol and his wife are located above the four @-@ centre arch doorway . One storey wings exist on either side in a similar style . Brick additions were made in 1904 and 1906 .

As the school roll grew , the old buildings became too small . A major building programme began in the 1950s : £ 128 @,@ 000 was set aside to rehouse the school in purpose @-@ built facilities adjacent to the existing school @-@ houses . The first phase was opened in 1956 and included art and handicraft rooms ; the second phase was completed in 1958 when physics and chemistry rooms were added ; and the third came in 1965 with the opening of new biology and general science laboratories alongside other classrooms , while the following year saw a new hall / canteen and kitchen open . The final phase consisted of eight further rooms , built shortly afterwards .

A grant of £ 650 @,@ 000 funded the construction of a technology centre with a computer suite , which opened in January 1993 . Plans for a new sports hall were first discussed in 1990 , but they only came to fruition in 1996 , when Northgate Sports Hall opened . The Sports Council and the Foundation for Sport and the Arts donated £ 250 @,@ 000 towards its construction ; this was matched by North Kesteven District Council , while Carre 's raised £ 50 @,@ 000 towards the building work . An all @-@ weather pitch at the school opened in 2007 ; it cost £ 649 @,@ 000 to lay , half of which was met by the Football Foundation . A building programme costing £ 835 @,@ 000 provided the school with food technology facilities and a two @-@ storey Fitness Suite , which were opened in March 2011 .

= = Headmasters = =

The indenture of 1604 made it compulsory that the master be a graduate of the University of Cambridge or Oxford and the majority of the pre @-@ 1835 masters had attended Cambridge , with only two from Oxford . When the school reopened in 1835 , these stipulations were removed . The headmaster lived on site until Derek Lee began commuting from his home in 1975 . The list below contains the names , years of service and biographical notes about the known headmasters of Carre 's since its foundation . The current headmaster is Nick Law , who succeeded Mike Reading in 2008 .

Source : Ellis 1954 , pp. 40 – 41 , 43 provides a list of all masters , and a record of their education , up to 1954 . He notes that W. H. T. Walker and J. H. Batley acted as headmaster between appointments in the 1940s . Appointments from 1954 to 2004 are recorded in Harmston & Hoare 2003 , pp. 154 , 159 , 160 , 171 , 179 .

= = Notable former pupils = =

Carre 's has produced a number of notable alumni in a range of fields and professions . In politics , this includes Sir Robert Pattinson ( 1872 – 1954 ) , Member of Parliament and Chairman of Kesteven County Council , and his brother Samuel ( 1870 – 1942 ) , also a Member of Parliament and businessman . The diplomat Peter Bateman ( b . 1955 ) , who served as the British Ambassador to Bolivia , Luxembourg and Azerbaijan , was also a pupil at the school . Carrensians in the military include Air Marshal Barry North ( b . 1959 ) and Captain George Baldwin CBE DSO ( 1921 – 2005 ) , who served in World War II and as Director of Naval Air Warfare in the mid @-@ 1960s . The lawyer and controversialist John Austin ( 1613 – 1669 ) was educated at Carre 's , along with the Royalist poet Thomas Shipman ( 1632 – 1680 ) and the non @-@ conformist clergyman Andrew Kippis FRS ( 1725 – 1795 ) . Science is represented by the chemist Kenneth Wade FRS ( 1932 – 2014 ) , a professor at Durham University and the forensic pathologist Iain West ( 1944 – 2001 ) . In sports , the school has produced at least two professional footballers : Paul Holland ( b . 1973 ) , who played for Mansfield Town , Sheffield United , Chesterfield and Bristol City , and Mark Wallington ( b . 1952 ) , who played for England under 23s and Leicester City .

= Don 't You Wanna Stay =

" Don 't You Wanna Stay " is a duet recorded by American singers Jason Aldean and Kelly Clarkson from Aldean 's 2010 album , My Kinda Party . It was also included in the deluxe edition of Clarkson 's 2011 album Stronger . " It was written by Andy Gibson , Paul Jenkins and Jason Sellers . After Aldean and Clarkson performed the song together on the 44th annual Country Music Association Awards on November 10 , 2010 , it was released as the second single due to strong demands of radio stations on the following day . The song contains elements of country and pop , and its lyrics speak of the difficulties of finding and maintaining love .

" Don 't You Wanna Stay " was met with generally favorable reviews by critics who considered the song as " a classic power ballad " . Critics also lauded the interesting combination between Aldean 's and Clarkson 's voices . The song enjoyed commercial success in United States , peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs and at number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It became Aldean 's fifth number one single and Clarkson 's first number one single on the Billboard Hot Country Songs and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Both Aldean and Clarkson performed the song on several occasions . Footage from the Country Music Association award performance were used to comprise a music video for " Don 't You Wanna Stay " , directed by Paul Miller . The song was nominated for " Best Country Duo / Group Performance " at the 54th Grammy Awards , but lost to " Barton Hollow " by The Civil Wars .

= = Background and release = =

" Don 't You Wanna Stay " was written by Andy Gibson , Paul Jenkins and Jason Sellers . According to Sellers , they were at Jenkins ' house when they started composing the song . He explained , " We just wanted to write a love song . We had an idea of what we were targeting . We didn ’ t write it as a duet . We wrote it , and Andy thought about recording it . After we got the song written , we played it for Jason . Jason Aldean 's idea for it was to make it a duet . " The song is the first duet that Aldean has recorded . In an interview with Nashville.com , Aldean revealed that the song was not originally presented to him as a duet . Nevertheless , he and producer Michael Knox thought the lyrics would work for two people if he could find a female artist as a duet partner . Aldean considered a number of female vocalists to record the song with , especially Kelly Clarkson and Carrie Underwood . However , Clarkson remained as his first choice . He explained ,

" We had the song pitched to us and originally it wasn ’ t a duet . The more I was listening to the thing and learning the song , I realized it set itself up to be a duet if we wanted to go that route . When I called my producer about it he asked who I wanted to sing it with me and I said Kelly Clarkson , but I didn ’ t think we ’ d be able to get her . I ’ ve always been a big fan of hers . I love her voice and I love her style . Long story short , we got her a copy of the song and she loved it . As soon as she started singing , it became obvious it was going to be great . "

On November 10 , 2010 , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " was performed live for the first time by Aldean with Clarkson on the 44th Country Music Association Awards . The performance triggered an overwhelming demand from radio stations across the country . As a result , Aldean ’ s label , Broken Bow Records , made the song available on PLAY MPE . Carson James , the label 's Senior Vice President for Promotion responded ,

" If there ’ s one thing I ’ ve learned in my years in the record business , it is always give radio what they want [ ... ] Our entire promotion staff has spent all night fielding calls and returning texts about getting this song , so we decided it best to release it on Play MPE first thing this morning . "

The song was later included on the deluxe edition of Clarkson 's fifth studio album , Stronger , in 2011 .

= = Composition = =

" Don 't You Wanna Stay " is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and sixteen seconds . It incorporates melancholic guitar riff which is accompanied by classical elements such as violin . John Hill of About.com considered the song as a " classic power ballad " , writing " whether you want to call the song country , pop , or something in between doesn 't matter because the chorus is so catchy that it doesn 't matter if you use an electric guitar or a steel guitar . " It is set in common time and has a steady tempo of 72 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G @-@ sharp minor and both Aldean and Clarkson 's vocals span two octaves , from A ♯ 3 to G ♯ 5 . It follows the chord progression G ♯ m – E – B. Bob Peacock of Roughstock thought that the structure of the song was interesting with its brief four @-@ line verses and " don 't you wanna stay 's throughout the chorus . As the chorus of the song starts in , the sound of electric and slide guitars are prominent as Aldean and Clarkson sing , " Don 't you wanna hold each other tight / Don 't you wanna fall asleep with me tonight ? "

Lyrically , the song narrates the difficulties of finding and maintaining love . Cristin Maher of Taste of Country contended that the song exemplifies the desire some people have when they want to make the move from a physical relationship to an emotional relationship , which is represented by the song lyrics " Let ’ s take it slow , I don ’ t want to move too fast / I don ’ t wanna just make love , I wanna make love last . " Gibson , one of the writers of the song , stated that the song does not contain a lot of flowery lyrics or sentiment . He added , " It ’ s just straight up what somebody would say to somebody they ’ d want to be with . "

= = Critical reception = =

The song has received generally positive reviews . Allison Stewart of The Washington Post called the song " great and gooey " , saying that it sounded like " Bryan Adams teaming with Heart in 1984 for a contribution to some alternate universe Footloose soundtrack . " Blake Boldt of Engine 145 gave the song a thumbs @-@ up , calling the song as " a dramatic affair that demonstrates how pop and country can intersect with each other and offer decent results . " He concluded his review by writing , " " Don 't You Wanna Stay " would be a suitable fit for a Foreigner or Whitesnake album , and , though nowhere near a classic , it ’ s an instant entrant into the " guilty pleasure " category . " Reviewing the album for Billboard , Gary Graff described the song as being part of an " array of such bittersweet , emotionally ambivalent goodbye songs " . Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave the song three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and praised both Aldean and Clarkson 's fine voice , " making for an interesting combination : Jason 's rough , slightly nasal voice against Kelly 's cleaner , forceful tone . " In a different perspective , Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe graded the production of the song as " C " , lambasting the song for its musical element , writing " the sheer volume of noise that invades the track with the first chorus takes us straight into Monster Ballads territory . " He concluded his review by emphasizing that " this isn ’ t country music . It just isn ’ t . " On March 5 , 2013 Billboard ranked the song # 40 in its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time .

= = = Awards and nomination = = =

At the 2011 CMT Music Awards , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " was nominated for " Collaborative Video of the Year , " but lost to Justin Bieber 's " That Should Be Me " featuring Rascal Flatts ( 2010 ) . " Don 't You Wanna Stay " received nominations for two awards at the 45th Country Music Association Awards . The song received a nomination for the " Musical Event of the Year " and won the award ; it was also nominated for the " Single of the Year " but lost to The Band Perry 's " If I Die Young " ( 2010 ) . At the 54th Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for " Best Country Duo / Group Performance " but lost to The Civil Wars ' " Barton Hollow " ( 2011 ) . " Don 't You Wanna Stay " won two awards of " Single by a Vocal Collaboration " and " Music Video by a Duo / Group / Collaboration " at the 2011 American Country Awards . The song won the awards of " Single of the Year " and " Vocal Event of the Year " at the 47th Academy of Country Music .

= = Commercial performance = =

Following the album release of My Kinda Party , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " debuted at number 59 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs as well as at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 20 , 2010 . On its second week on Billboard Hot 100 , the song jumped to number 56 after Aldean and Clarkson performed the song at the Country Music Association awards . The song reached a new peak of number 31 in its 24th week on the chart after Aldean and Clarkson performed the song on American Idol . The song also debuted at number 17 on the Adult Contemporary on the week ending June 25 , 2011 . After impacting Adult Contemporary and Adult Pop Songs charts , the song re @-@ entered Billboard Hot 100 at number 48 in its 27th week on the chart .

On the week ending February 27 , 2011 , " Don 't You Wanna Stay " moved to number one on Billboard Hot Country Songs and stayed in the top position for three consecutive weeks . It became Aldean 's fifth number one hit and Clarkson 's first number one hit on the chart . The accomplishment also made Clarkson as the third American Idol contestant to score a number one hit on the Billboard Hot Country Songs . The feat was first accomplished by Josh Gracin and followed by Carrie Underwood .

The song became the best @-@ selling country collaboration single in digital history in 2011 , until it was overtaken by Blake Shelton and Pistol Annies ' " Boys ' Round Here " in 2014 . It is Aldean 's second song to cross the 2 million mark , following " Dirt Road Anthem " in 2011 ; and Clarkson 's fourth song to cross the 2 million mark following " Since U Been Gone " in 2008 , " My Life Would Suck Without You " in 2009 , and " Stronger ( What Doesn 't Kill You ) " in 2012 . As of June 2014 , the song has sold 2 @,@ 479 @,@ 000 copies in the US .

= = Live performances and usage in media = =

On November 10 , 2010 , Aldean performed the song with Clarkson for the first time at the 44th annual Country Music Association Awards at Bridgestone Arena in Nashville , Tennessee . Despite receiving a standing ovation , their performance of the song in that event was graded as a " D " in the Los Angeles Times , noting that the song is " a ballad that turned into some oddly orchestrated ' 80s hair metal tune . It ’ s an easy slam , but this is " American Idol " bombast . " Aldean and Clarkson also performed the song on several other occasions . They sang the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on February 22 , 2011 . On April 14 , 2011 , they performed the song live on the tenth season of American Idol during the Top 8 results show . They later performed the song live during Country Music Association festival in Nashville , Tennessee on June 9 , 2011 . Aldean also performed the song on all venues of his concert tour , the My Kinda Party Tour , which started on January 21 , 2011 . During each performance , Clarkson is seen on a big screen behind Aldean , singing her part of the duet . He explained ,

" We decided to go in and film her doing her thing [ ... ] so even though she wasn 't at the show , she could still be a part of the show . As big as that song is getting for us right now , it was definitely a song that we thought we had to have in the show . She cut a thing for us to use , and I cut a thing for her to use in her show if she wants to do that . It 's a cool way to have her be a part of the show even though she 's not going to be there every night . "

On February 12 , 2012 , both Aldean and Clarkson performed the song in front of a stage outfitted with giant clock innards at the 54th Grammy Awards . Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times thought that " the duo looked like they were on the set of " Hugo " . " As their performance neared its end , Aldean 's microphone suddenly went out . Sarah Wyland of Great American Country felt that Aldean was professional in handling the technical problem by continuing to sing the song with Clarkson . However , Natalie Maines , the lead vocalist of the Dixie Chicks , lambasted Aldean 's performance in her Twitter account , writing " Well the good thing about his mic going out is suddenly the song got a lot more in tune . " " Don 't You Wanna Stay " is also performed by Clarkson in her fourth headlining tour , the Stronger Tour ( 2012 ) . While Clarkson is performing the song , Aldean is seen on a big screen , singing his part of the duet . She also performed the song as a duet with Blake Shelton while touring at Nokia Theatre L.A. Live , Los Angeles . The song 's accompanying music video is composed of the live footage from the Country Music Association awards which was directed by Paul Miller .

" Don 't You Wanna Stay " was covered by Colton Dixon and Skylar Laine in the eleventh season of American Idol . Natalie Finn of E ! gave a mixed review of the pair 's performance , writing " Skylar handled Kelly Clarkson better than Colton played Jason Aldean on " Don 't You Wanna Stay , " but she 's the country girl , so it made sense . " Brian Mansfield of USA Today felt that the song was out of Dixon 's comfort zone and a little out of Laine 's range . Gil Kaufman of MTV remarked that the chemistry between the pair was more like cold fusion . Jennifer Still of Digital Spy said the performance " isn 't anything incredible " .

= = Track listing = =

Digital download

" Don 't You Wanna Stay " ( with Kelly Clarkson ) – 4 : 16

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Tropical Storm Domoina =

Severe Tropical Storm Domoina in 1984 caused 100 year floods in South Africa and record rainfall in Swaziland . The fourth named storm of the season , Domoina developed on January 16 off the northeast coast of Madagascar . With a ridge to the north , the storm tracked generally westward and later southwestward . On January 21 , Domoina struck eastern Madagascar , the third storm in six weeks to affect the nation ; collectively , the storms caused 42 deaths and $ 25 million in damage ( 1984 USD ) . After crossing the country , Domoina strengthened in the Mozambique Channel to peak 10 minute sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . On January 28 , the storm made landfall in southern Mozambique , and slowly weakened over land . Domoina crossed into Swaziland and later eastern South Africa before dissipating on February 2 .

In Mozambique , Domoina dropped heavy rainfall in the capital Maputo that accounted for 40 % of the annual total . Floods in the country destroyed over 50 small dams and left widespread crop damage just before the summer harvest . Later , the rains caused the worst flooding in over 20 years in Swaziland , which damaged or destroyed more than 100 bridges . Disrupted transport left areas isolated for several days . In South Africa , rainfall peaked at 950 mm ( 37 in ) , which flooded 29 river basins , notably the Pongola River which altered its course after the storm . Flooding caused the Pongolapoort Dam to reach 87 % of its capacity ; when waters were released to maintain the structural integrity , additional flooding occurred in Mozambique , forcing thousands to evacuate . Throughout the region , Domoina caused widespread flooding that damaged houses , roads , and crops , leaving about $ 199 million in damage . There were 242 deaths in southeastern Africa .

= = Meteorological history = =

In January and February 1984 , conditions were favorable for tropical cyclogenesis in the southwest Indian Ocean , including warmer than normal sea surface temperatures and an active monsoon trough . On January 16 , a spiral area of convection persisted off the northeast coast of Madagascar , associated with the intertropical convergence zone . That day , it organized enough to warrant a satellite @-@ based Dvorak rating of T2.5 , prompting the Réunion Meteorological Service to name it Domoina . Around that time , Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) estimated winds of about 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Domoina initially tracked to the west @-@ northwest , passing near Tromelin Island on January 18 . Around that time , the storm had begun moving to the southwest , and MFR estimated that it weakened to tropical depression status . On January 19 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began warning on Domoina , designating it Tropical Cyclone 14S . The same day , MFR again upgraded Domoina into a moderate tropical storm . On January 21 , the storm made landfall just south of Tamatave in southeastern Madagascar .

While crossing Madagascar on a westward trajectory , Domonia weakened ; JTWC estimated the winds decreased to 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , after earlier estimating winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) before landfall . On January 23 , the storm emerged into the Mozambique Channel near Belo , and due to a ridge to the north , it resumed its southwest motion . Domoina executed two small loops off the western coast of Madagascar while progressing generally southwestward . On January 25 , MFR estimated that Domonia attained peak 10 minute sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) near Europa Island ; this made it a severe tropical storm . Two days later , the JTWC estimated peak 10 minute winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Early on January 28 , Domonia made a second landfall on southeastern Mozambique near peak intensity . It slowly weakened over land while moving across southern Mozambique . The JTWC discontinued advisories on January 29 when the storm was near the border of Mozambique and Swaziland . The next day , Domonia crossed into Swaziland and subsequently into eastern South Africa , weakening into a tropical depression while passing near Durban . At around that time , the system was dissipating , although MFR continued tracking Domonia until February 2 , when it dissipated just offshore the east coast of South Africa .

= = Impact = =

Throughout its path , Domoina left thousands of people homeless , and caused widespread flooding due to drawing moisture from the Indian Ocean and the Mozambique channel . The rains led to rivers bursting their banks , which isolated tens of thousands of people . In the months before Domoina struck , dry conditions persisted across southeastern Africa .

Crossing Madagascar as a moderate tropical storm , Domoina dropped rainfall along its path , reaching 98 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 89 in ) in Mahanoro on the east coast and 166 @.@ 8 mm ( 6 @.@ 57 in ) in Maintirano along the west coast , both over a period of 24 hours . In the latter city , a station recorded winds of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The storm caused heavy damage in Marovoay , which was later affected by Cyclone Kamisy . Domoina was the third storm to strike the country in a six @-@ week period , after cyclones Andry and Caboto . The three storms collectively caused 42 deaths and $ 25 million in damage , much of it from crop damage .

As Domoina made its final landfall in Mozambique , it dropped heavy rainfall reaching 430 mm ( 17 in ) in the town of Goba over a five @-@ day period . Rainfall in the capital Maputo , reaching 300 mm ( 12 in ) over two days , was about 40 % of the annual total . After flooding occurred further south in South Africa , waters were released from the Pongolapoort Dam without warning . This caused many farmers to drown in southern Mozambique . Officials later advised residents along the Maputo River to evacuate to higher grounds , and thousands had to leave their houses . The storm flooded the Maputo , Umbeluzi , Incomati river basins , causing widespread power outages . The storm left the capital Maputo without clean water for several days after a pumping station was damaged , and the main harbor in the city was closed . Also in the city , the storm downed hundreds of trees , wrecked roofs , and damaged houses ; about 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless nationwide . The storm damaged 28 pumping stations nationwide and destroyed over 50 small dams . Floods affected the railroad connecting Maputo to South Africa , disrupted the construction of a dam , and damaged portions of a bridge near Boane . Transport was disrupted in the northern and southern portion of the country . There was widespread crop damage in Mozambique , affecting 350 @,@ 000 farmers , and flooding about 250 @,@ 000 ha ( 620 @,@ 000 acres ) of fields . After an extended drought , many farmers had moved closer to river beds , making their fields more vulnerable . About 119 @,@ 000 tons of fruits , vegetables , and other crops were wrecked , consisting of much of the summer crop , and about 5 @,@ 000 cattle died . About 49 @,@ 000 people lost everything they owned . In the country , the storm caused 109 fatalities , and damage was estimated at $ 75 million .

Later , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in Swaziland , reaching 906 mm ( 35 @.@ 7 in ) at Piggs Peak ; there , rainfall reached 615 mm ( 24 @.@ 2 in ) in a one @-@ day period . These were the heaviest rainfall totals on record in the country . Described as the worst flooding in over 20 years , the precipitation increased levels along most rivers in the country , some of which rose 30 m ( 98 ft ) in a few hours . The floods washed out or damaged over 100 bridges , and two railways had cuts in their lines . The floods closed at least 20 major roads and the country 's primary airport . Most schools nationwide were also closed during the storm . There were initial difficulties in determining the extent of the damage due to cut communications and disrupted transportation . For several days , southeastern Swaziland was only accessible by air travel , while rural parts of the country lost access to fresh water . Thousands of livestock died during the storm , and thousands of acres of croplands were flooded . About 10 @,@ 000 citrus trees were destroyed , and crop damage was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 5 million . About 500 people were left homeless in the small nation , after many homes were damaged or destroyed . Schools and health clinics were also damaged . The storm 's high winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving power outages . Overall damage was estimated at $ 54 million , of which $ 47 @.@ 5 million from infrastructure damage , and Domoina killed 73 people in the country .

While Domoina was moving through South Africa , it drew an area of moisture from the northeast , which produced heavy rainfall that peaked at 950 mm ( 37 in ) between Richards Bay and Sodwana Bay . Totals of over 700 mm ( 28 in ) were reported along the upper Umfolozi , Mkuze , Pongola and middle Usutu and Komati rivers , and along the upper and lower Ingwavuma river . Precipitation spread as far south as Durban , but did not penetrate far into the center of the country . An area of about 107 @,@ 000 km2 ( 41 @,@ 000 sq mi ) received 370 mm ( 15 in ) of rainfall . Along the Umfolozi River , a discharge rate of 16 @,@ 000 m ³ / s ( 565 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) was recorded , which was three times the rate of a 100 year flood . The river avulsed , or changed its course , near where it met with the Msunduzi River . High rains in the mountains caused the largest flood to date along the Pongola River . The floodplain downstream of the Pongolapoort Dam was inundated to where the Pongola met the Ututu River , which filled many pans – dry lakes – in the region . Along 29 river locations in eastern South Africa , river heights were estimated to have been 1 in 50 year events . The river flooding moved sediment along many banks , and in one location the sediment reached 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) in length . Due to the widespread flooding and the remoteness of the worst affected areas , there were minimal measurements on the river flow along the Pongola , although above the Pongolapoort dam , levels reached 13 @,@ 000 m ³ / s ( 460 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) , which were 18 times higher than the previous record highest . There had been a planned release of water from the Pongolapoort Dam in March 1984 to provide adequate water to the floodplain , but Domoina prevented this from occurring . The dam had its highest hydrology on January 31 and reached 87 % of its capacity . Waters from the dam were released on February 2 to prevent the dam from exceeding capacity . With the future threat of Cyclone Imboa , dam levels continued to drop until returning to normal by February 16 , despite requests to hold the water to prevent further crop damage .

Near the South Africa border with Swaziland , flooding stranded about 80 @,@ 000 people on tribal lands . One road in the country was converted into a makeshift landing strip to allow helicopters and planes to drop off emergency supplies . A period of heavy rain flooded Umfolozi River , which destroyed a rail bridge near Mtubatuba and a bridge crossing highway N2 . The floods were so strong that they washed a boat from Lake St. Lucia to a point 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) away . At the lake , the floods washed away a dredge and severely damaged a nearly @-@ finished canal from the lake to the Umfolozi River . Widespread crop damage occurred along the Umfolozi river plains after being covered by up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of sediment . The South African Weather Bureau considered Domoina as the " first tropical cyclone in recent history to have caused flooding and extensive damage . " Nationwide , the storm caused 60 deaths and damaged the properties of 500 @,@ 000 people , causing R100 million ( 1984 ZAR , $ 70 million 1984 USD ) .

= = Aftermath = =

In Mozambique , workers assisted people in moving to higher grounds following flooding . Members of the Mozambique Red Cross helped distribute food and clothing to the affected residents , and planes helped drop off supplies to residents in isolated areas .

On January 31 , the government of Swaziland declared a state of emergency and requested assistance from the international community . South Africa provided two helicopters to the country to survey the affected areas . Various countries and United Nations agencies provided about $ 1 @.@ 01 million in cash and supplies to Swaziland . The United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs provided $ 20 @,@ 000 . The European Economic Community donated about $ 80 @,@ 000 to purchase tents and blankets . The Lutheran World Federation donated $ 20 @,@ 000 in cash , along with generators and blankets , while World Vision International sent $ 10 @,@ 000 in cash . Within a week , workers reopened most major roads to travel , and by February 24 , most roads were reopened . Workers also quickly restored the downed power lines . Relief items were distributed by both air and road in the weeks following the storm , coordinated by the Swaziland Red Cross and assisted by volunteer organizations . In part due to Domoina as well as the previously occurring drought , the economy of Swaziland stagnated through 1985 .

Following the storm in South Africa , workers restored the original course of the Umfolozi River after it had moved . Officials later purchased a new dredge to remove sediment from Lake St. Lucia , and the canal connecting the lake to the Umfolozi River was later finished . Local governments coordinated relief efforts in the country , including delivering food and providing shelter for those who lost their homes . The South African Red Cross provided food to storm victims , many of whom were beneficiaries of the food program during the extended drought . The South African government declared KwaZulu Natal as a disaster areas . The country 's military provided 25 helicopters to rescue flood victims and donated 3 @,@ 000 tents . The government later authorized $ 85 million to fund repairing damaged rails and roads . The American government donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the country , mostly to purchase supplies . West Germany also donated about $ 231 @,@ 000 , mostly for the feeding program .

= Tales of Destiny 2 =

Tales of Destiny 2 ( Japanese : テイルズ オブ デスティニー 2 , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Desutinī Tsū ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game , co @-@ developed by Wolfteam and Telenet Japan , and published by Namco . It is the fourth main entry in the Tales series of video games , and a direct sequel to 1997 's Tales of Destiny . It released on PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) in November 2002 in Japan , March 2003 in South Korea and August 2003 in China . The overseas versions were published by Sony Computer Entertainment . An updated port for the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) , developed by Alfa System , was released in February 2007 , and March of the same year in South Korea . This version was published by Namco Bandai Games . Neither version has received a western release .

The story , set eighteen years after Destiny , follows Kyle Dunamis , the son of the previous game 's protagonists Stahn Aileron and Rutee Katrea . Shortly after meeting a mysterious girl named Reala while trying to save Rutee 's orphanage from bankruptcy , Kyle is drawn into conflict with Barbatos , a cruel warrior responsible for killing Stahn , and the machinations of Elraine , a religious leader seeking to bring peace to mankind . The gameplay uses two @-@ dimensional character sprites and backgrounds , and the battle system is a revamped version of the series ' trademark Linear Motion Battle System .

Development began after the release of Tales of Eternia in 2000 , taking approximately two years to complete , and was the last Tales game to be developed by the original Wolfteam before it became Namco Tales Studio . The scenario was handled by Japanese writing company Gekko , the characters were designed by Mutsumi Inomata , and the music was composed by Motoi Sakuraba and Shinji Tamura . The PSP port was made after a similar port of Eternia met with commercial success . It was a highly anticipated game , and Namco promoted it heavily in the months prior to release . The game sold over 700 @,@ 000 units by January 2003 , and received critical acclaim from both Japanese and western critics .

= = Gameplay = =

Tales of Destiny 2 is a role @-@ playing video game featuring two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) sprite characters navigating both 2D environments such as dungeons and towns , and a three @-@ dimensional overworld . The overworld features environmental effect such as fog . In towns found across the world , non @-@ playable characters provide both information relevant to the story and world , and provide items and equipment through shops ; merchants accept the Tales series currency , Gald , which can be obtained from battle or treasure chests on the dungeon and town maps .

Throughout the game , visiting certain individuals in towns will activate optional events and side @-@ quests . Prisons , sewers , forests and story @-@ centric locations serve as dungeon locales ; these areas are scattered with treasure chests containing rare items , some of which cannot be purchased in stores . Dungeons frequently contain puzzles and mazes , such as boxes that must be reoriented to form a bridge , which must be cleared to advance ; the " Sorcerer 's Ring " , a relic that shoots tiny plumes of fire , often plays a central role in puzzle resolution , along with the " Sorcerer 's Scope " , a tool that reveals hidden objects . Aspects of characters such as their current experience level , equipment and money levels , party organization , and assigned abilities . Cooking , a recurring series mechanic , is present : characters learn and cook various recipes using a selection of six ingredients which grant boons upon them such as restoring health . Optional voiced conversations between characters called Skits can be activated when they appear in random locations or after story events . Mini @-@ games within the world include acting as a waiter in a restaurant , and battle arenas where players fight against random enemies .

The game 's battle system is the series ' trademark Linear Motion Battle System ( LMBS ) , which places up to four playable characters on a 2D plain against enemies in real @-@ time combat similar to a beat ' em up . The version used in Destiny 2 is called the " Trust and Tactical LMBS " . When entering battle , the camera follows characters , zooming in and out depending on their distance from an enemy . During battle , one character is controlled at any one time , with the others being governed by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) : the AI can be customized to behave in various ways , such as adjusting their aggression level , and balancing magical and physical attacks . In addition to real @-@ time commands given in battle , the player can issue commands to all characters by pulling up the battle menu and issuing commands . A character 's performance in battle is governed by their current level of Spirit Points ( SP ) : the more SP a character has , the higher their defensive and offensive abilities . A character 's health is represented by Health Points ( HP ) . Three types of attack are available and activated progressively depending on the number of hits an enemy has taken : a standard attack , named attacks called Artes , and special high @-@ damage attacks called Mystic Artes . At the end of each battle , its performance is assessed an given a Grade , which can sometimes trigger a bonus such as learning new skills . Some bonuses are also carried over into the next playthrough . In addition to the single @-@ player functions , a local multiplayer option is available , supporting up to four players : when additional controllers with players are connected to the system , AI functions for selected characters are disabled , switching to manual control . An auto @-@ battle option , which has the game 's AI controlling all characters during a fight , is also available .

= = Synopsis = =

= = = Setting = = =

Destiny 2 is set on an unnamed world that was struck by a comet 1000 years before , triggering a prolonged winter . Desperate for heat and energy , the people used a type of gemstone brought by the comet called Lens to create a floating city called Dycroft . The people of Dycroft eventually dominated the people below , which led to a conflict between the two realms known as the War of Heaven and Earth . Eventually , a team of defecting Dycroft scientists developed sentient weapons called Swordians that turned the tide of war in the surface people 's favor . This conflict reemerged eighteen years prior during the events of Tales of Destiny . The Swordians found new masters to wield them against Dycroft 's vengeful ruler , including Stahn Aileron , Rutee Katrea and Leon Magnus . Stahn 's group succeeds in restoring peace , but the world was damaged by Dycroft 's weapons , and Leon was killed after he betrayed the group . Destiny 2 begins eighteen years after the events of Tales of Destiny .

= = = Characters = = =

Kyle Dunamis ( カイル ・ デュナミス , Kairu Dyunamisu ) is the main protagonist of Destiny 2 . Kyle is very much like his father , Stahn , although Kyle remembers little of his father . His defining personality trait is an aversion towards peacefulness and boredom , always seeking out new things to try . Kyle is voiced by Jun Fukuyama .

Reala ( リアラ , Riara ) is the main female protagonist , appearing suddenly and holding an air of mystery . While she bears an overly @-@ strong sense of responsibility , she is also bright and highly inquisitive . She is one of the two avatars of the goddess Fortuna ( フォルトゥナ , Forutuna ) . Reala is voiced by Ryoka Yuzuki .

Loni Dunamis ( ロニ ・ デュナミス , Roni Dyunamisu ) is a young man raised alongside Kyle , being considered a brother by him . A member of the Atamoni Shindan , the military branch of the Order of Atamoni , he has a firm and steady personality that balances against Kyle 's hotheadedness . Loni is voiced by Toshihiko Seki .

Judas ( ジューダス , Jūdasu ) is a mysterious swordsman who appears before Kyle when the latter is in a pinch . A genius swordsman , he wears a beast skull as a mask to hide his face . His true identity is that of Leon Magnus . Judas is voiced by Hikaru Midorikawa .

Nanaly Fletch ( ナナリー ・ フレッチ , Nanarī Furetchi ) is a master archer who opposes the Order of Atamoni . In direct contrast to the Order , she believes that happiness should be won by people rather than given to them . Nanaly is voiced by Tomoko Kawakami .

Harold Belselius ( ハロルド ・ ベルセリオス , Harorudo Beruseriosu ) is a famous scientist , and the original creator of the Swordians . Something of a mad scientist , she shares Kyle 's love of adventure and has a passionate curiosity about the world . Harold is voiced by Akiko Hiramatsu .

Elrane ( エルレイン , Erurein ) is the main antagonist of Destiny 2 . Regarded as a living goddess due to her powers , she has an outwardly meek demeanor and espouses bringing happiness to all mankind . She is one of the two avatars of the goddess Fortuna . Elrane is voiced by Yoshiko Sakakibara .

Barbatos Goetia ( バルバトス ・ ゲーティア , Barubatosu Gētia ) is one of the primary antagonists of Destiny 2 . A veteran of the War of Heaven and Earth , he was forgotten by history and consequently holds a burning desire to be recognized . His chief traits are an intense desire to live and a callous disregard for others . Barbatos is voiced by Norio Wakamoto .

= = = Plot = = =

Kyle Dunamis , the adventurous son of Stahn and Rutee , lives at an orphanage run by Rutee . With the orphanage on the brink of bankruptcy , Kyle defies his mother to go on a quest to search for funds , together with his best friend Loni . Finding a giant Lens , a mysterious girl named Reala emerges from it , claiming to be in search of a hero . Believing that he should become a hero like his parents , he follows Reala so he can prove himself as such . Finding the Lens missing , officials from the Order of Atamoni arrest Kyle and Lori for its theft . They escape with the help of the masked swordsman Judas . After this , Kyle becomes embroiled in the attempts by a man named Barbatos Goetia to kill those who accompanied his parents , eventually learning that Barbatos also killed Stahn when Kyle was five . During his quest , a series of Lens thefts is orchestrated by Elrane , the Holy Woman of the Order of Atamoni who is capable of performing miracles using Lens and seeks to bring happiness to the world through uniting it under a single religion .

During a great theft of Lens , Elrane attacks the group directly , sending them ten years into the future . In this period , the world is beset by conflict between the Order of Atamoni and factions wanting independence from its control . During their travels there , they are joined by Nanaly Fletch . While in this time period , Reala becomes conflicted about who she is , and the group encounters a figure known as the Goddess Fortuna . During this encounter , it is revealed that Elrane and Reala are avatars of Fortuna , designed to save the world and bring happiness to humanity in different ways . Due to her unstable emotions , Reala accidentally transports Nanaly into their time . Feeling guilty because of this , Reala confronts Elrane alone and is captured . Traveling to the ship where the stolen Lens is stored , the group confront Barbatos and Elrane , successfully defeating them and saving Reala . During this confrontation , they learn that " Judas " is in fact the resurrected Leon , who was brought back to life by Elrane just as Barbatos was , but rebelled against her when he knew her full plan .

However , their efforts result in the destruction of the ship , and Reala uses the energy of the Lens to send them through time again . They appear in an alternate timeline where the War of Heaven and Earth was won by the underground dwellers , and Barbatos and Elrane are hailed as saviors . Traveling back to the time of the War , when the initial interference was caused , they ally with Harold Belselius to return history to its proper state . While they are successful and Barbatos is felled , Elrane continues to distort history in her favor . Confronting her one last time , she is defeated , then they are confronted by Fortuna . Defeating her , the group realize that the only way to correct the distorted timeline is to destroy the Lens that forms Fortuna 's life source , which will mean Reala will be erased from history . When Reala comes to terms with this and gives her blessing , Kyle destroys Fortuna 's Lens , which erases all the changes wrought by her agents and returns the timeline to its original state , sending everyone back to their original times and conditions . In the corrected timeline , Kyle , now raised and trained by both Stahn and Rutee , goes on a journey to the temple where he first met Reala . While her Lens is missing , Kyle 's strong will succeeds in bringing Reala back into existence and restoring his memories of her .

= = Development = =

Tales of Destiny 2 was co @-@ developed by Wolfteam and Telenet Japan . Development began after work had finished on Tales of Eternia , taking roughly two years to complete . During its early development , the staff consisted of thirty people : when in full development , a team of between sixty and a hundred worked on it . It was developed under the working title Tales of X. After Eternia was completed , the development team considered what to do next , whether a new standalone game or a sequel . As Destiny had a large amount of lore created for it and there were story possibilities for a next generation of characters , it was decided to make a sequel to Destiny . This would be the first direct sequel in the Tales series . Because of the state of the world as it would have evolved after the events of Destiny , it was decided to set the events eighteen years after them and focus on the son of Destiny 's protagonist . The key themes for the story were " fate " and " happiness " . For the story , the team wanted to effectively portray Kyle 's journey to becoming a hero . For this , they drew on themes of " learning from the teacher " as seen in films such as Star Wars and Raiders of the Lost Ark . To create the atmosphere , the team worked at balancing elements of reality and fantasy . The story and script was handled by Japanese scenario company Gekko . Two separate scripts were created for the main story and additional elements such as skits . Both scripts were quite large .

Character designs were created by Mutsumi Inomata . A key element of the designs was the variation of time periods many characters came from . To make the character sprites as close as possible to the original artwork , the team took Inomata 's artwork and turned them into 2D " dot @-@ by @-@ dot " sprite pictures . This gave the sprites roughly four times the detail of most environments . They then built the world around the sprites . The sprite details sometimes caused problems , as they would appear larger than the environments when the camera zoomed in . The animated cutscenes were created by anime company Production I.G. The game 's opening was the longest ever created for a Tales game up to that point . While many contemporary PS2 role @-@ playing games were being developed around three @-@ dimensional characters , Destiny 2 used two @-@ dimensional sprites for its characters . Part of the reason behind this was that the development team wanted to create the " ultimate 2D RPG " . As opposed to previous Tales games , where gameplay development was focused on the battle system , the development leads requested that the gameplay should be " waste @-@ free and strategic " . The Grade system and new skill customizing elements , later staples of the series , were also developed . The game 's artificial intelligence was markedly improved , the combat system was made both more elaborate and more user @-@ friendly , and health and magic systems were adjusted . The PlayStation 2 hardware enabled the expansion of mini @-@ games , the improvement of the game 's graphics , and the incorporation of advanced interactive elements on the world map .

= = = Audio = = =

The music was composed by regular series composers Motoi Sakuraba and Shinji Tamura . Sakuraba primarily worked on the battle themes and arrangements of previous themes , while Tamura handled selected boss battle tracks and created Reala 's theme . They were able to create more tracks with greater detail to them due to the expanded storage capacities of the PS2 . As with previous games , a licensed theme song was created by a Japanese artist for the game 's opening . For Destiny 2 , the theme song was " Key to My Heart " from the album Fairy Tale , by Japanese singer @-@ songwriter Mai Kuraki . Its lyrics were designed to " express the world " of Destiny 2 . Arrangements of " Key to My Heart " were featured in the soundtrack . Unlike previous Tales games , where voice work was recorded out of order , the voice work was recorded in order of the game 's events to add dramatic weight to the performances . This consequently created difficulties with scheduling and put an added strain on the actors .

= = Release = =

Destiny 2 was announced in February 2002 at a special conference about future developments and games for the platform . It was the first Tales title to receive a numbered designation in Japan . As with previous Tales games , it featured a characteristic genre name : " RPG to Release Destiny " ( 運命を解き放つRPG , Unmei wo tokihanatsu RPG ) . To promote the game , Namco created a themed PlayStation 2 memory card . In addition , a special competition was organized where the top @-@ tier prizes were copies of the script books for Destiny 2 autographed by the main characters ' voice actors . As a pre @-@ order bonus , a special limited edition DVD featuring interviews with the voice cast was created . In addition , a downloadable ring tone based on the theme song and screen displays featuring the main characters was created for mobile phones of the time and released in 2003 . The game was released on November 28 , 2002 in Japan . It was celebrated with an official launch event , featuring interviews with the production staff and cast . Destiny 2 would be the last Tales game developed by Wolfteam prior to its acquisition by Namco in 2003 and rebranding as Namco Tales Studio .

Destiny 2 was later ported to the PSP . Development began in 2005 , after the commercial success of Eternia 's PSP port . The port was developed by Alfa System , a frequent collaborator with the Tales team on spin @-@ off titles . The project was directed by Yoshito Higuchi , who had worked on Destiny 2 and became the director of the GameCube port of Tales of Symphonia . While the earlier port of Destiny made significant changes , the Destiny 2 port was meant to preserve and add onto the content of the original . Some of the adjustments included minor tweaks to gameplay , adjustments to fit the PSP 's control layout , and adjusting the graphics from 4 : 3 to 16 : 9 screen ratio . A new dungeon featuring added story elements was also created . It was released on February 15 , 2007 .

Outside Japan , Destiny 2 was released in China and South Korea by Sony Computer Entertainment in 2003 : the Korean version was released on March 27 , and the Chinese version was released on August 14 . The game was going to be part of a world tour by Sony Computer Entertainment to promote the next generation of role @-@ playing games , but the tensions between America and Iraq at the time and the consequent risks of a terrorist attack caused them to cancel the trip . Asked at the launch event whether an overseas version of the game was being developed , producer Makoto Yoshizumi said he was " not certain " . The PSP port was released in South Korea by Namco Bandai Games 's local branch on March 5 , 2007 . Neither the original nor the port has been released in the west , making it one of three mainline Tales titles to remain exclusive to Japan .

= = Reception = =

Namco had high expectations for Destiny 2 , anticipating sales of 600 @,@ 000 units . During its debut week , Destiny 2 reached the top of Japanese gaming sales charts : according to different sources , it sold between just over 498 @,@ 000 ( Famitsu ) and under 558 @,@ 000 ( Dengeki ) units . For the next three weeks , it remained in second place on the charts behind Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire , accumulating sales of over 603 @,@ 000 . By January 2003 , the game had sold over 702 @,@ 000 units , becoming the eighth best @-@ selling game within that period . The PlayStation 2 version of Tales of Destiny 2 has shipped 977 @,@ 000 copies worldwide as of December 2007 , being the second most successful title in the series at the time . The PSP version sold 73 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , ranking second in weekly video games sales . By the following week , it had dropped to # 25 . By the end of 2007 , the game had sold just under 115 @,@ 000 units , reached 146th place in the five hundred top @-@ selling games of the year . In South Korea , the game reached # 10 in the country 's gaming sales charts . Worldwide shipments of the port as recorded by Namco have reached 129 @,@ 000 units .

Famitsu Weekly found the story enjoyable , though noted that those who had played Destiny would get more enjoyment out of it , and praised the voice acting . They also found the gameplay and pacing enjoyable , positively noting the option to auto @-@ battle . The game ranked as the 89th all @-@ time favorite game in a 2006 Famitsu readers poll . Japanese website Game Impress Watch found the story impressive , citing its use of time travel and the continued use of Destiny 's world and lore . The gameplay , mini @-@ games and customization options was also generally praised , with the reviewer recommending the title to players of the series . RPGFan 's Woojin Lee was also positive , praising the gameplay despite the very high encounter rate , and was pleased that an auto @-@ battle option was included . One point that received a more mixed response was the game 's music , with the exception of the opening song . In a preview for IGN , David Smith was generally positive about the game . While he disliked the art style and its low @-@ tech look compared to its hardware , he found the gameplay enjoyable and the opening parts of the story fairly relatable . He ended by hoping that Namco would put the effort into localizing the title .

= = = Additional media = = =

Multiple print adaptations have been made of Destiny 2 : these include one three @-@ volume comic anthology , a serialized comic adaptation originally released through Square Enix 's Gangan Comics and later collected into five volumes , and an eight @-@ volume yonkoma comic , and a second single @-@ edition yonkoma . Novel adaptations include a novel focusing on Nanaly called Tales of Destiny 2 : The Amber Wind , and mutlple light novels that told segments of the story from the point of view of different characters , particularly Judas . An illustration book featuring Inomata 's artwork for the game was released in March 2005 . A five @-@ part CD Drama adaptation was also developed , following the events of the game . The five volumes were released between April and August 2003 , under the umbrella titled Tales of Destiny 2 Drama CD .

= In Bloom =

For the 2013 film of the same name , see In Bloom ( 2013 film )

" In Bloom " is a song by American rock band Nirvana . Written by frontman Kurt Cobain , the song addresses people outside of the underground music community who did not understand the band 's message .

Nirvana made its first music video for an early version of " In Bloom " in 1990 ; however the song did not appear on a commercial release until the release of the group 's second album , Nevermind , in 1991 . " In Bloom " became the fourth and final single from the album in late 1992 . It was accompanied by a new music video which parodied musical performances of 1960s variety shows . The music video for " In Bloom " won Best Alternative Video at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1993 .

= = Background and recording = =

Nirvana first played the song the night before it was demoed . Bassist Krist Novoselic recalled that it " originally sounded like a Bad Brains song . Then Kurt turned it into a pop song " . Cobain went home and reworked the song , playing the revised version of it over the phone to Novoselic . The band recorded " In Bloom " with producer Butch Vig at Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin during April 1990 . The material recorded at Smart Studios was intended for the group 's second album for the independent record label Sub Pop . The song originally had a bridge section that Vig removed . Novoselic said that after the band recorded the song , Vig cut out the bridge from the 16 @-@ track master tape with a razor blade and threw it in the garbage . The songs from these sessions were placed on a demo tape that circulated amongst the music industry , generating interest in the group among major record labels .

After signing to DGC Records , Nirvana began recording its second album Nevermind in May 1991 . " In Bloom " was one of the first songs the band recorded during the album sessions at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys , California ; Vig thought it would be good to start recording a song previously recorded at Smart Studios . The arrangements for " In Bloom " and the other songs previously recorded with Vig in 1990 were largely unchanged ; the recently hired drummer Dave Grohl stayed mostly with what his predecessor Chad Channing had recorded , but added more power and precision to the recording . Cobain sang progressively " harder " during the recording of the song , which made it difficult for Vig to balance the volume levels between the verses and choruses . Vig recalled that he had to change the input level " on the fly " and hoped that Cobain would not " change the phrasing or do something different " while recording .

Cobain chose not to overdub a harmony vocal part during the Smart Studios sessions , possibly due to time constraints . During the Nevermind sessions , Vig had Grohl sing harmonies on the song . Grohl had difficulty hitting the proper notes , but ultimately was able to sing what Vig wanted . Vig often had to trick Cobain , who was averse to performing multiple takes , into recording additional takes for overdubs on the record . The producer convinced Cobain to double @-@ track his vocals on " In Bloom " by telling him , " John Lennon did it . " After doubling Cobain 's vocals , Vig decided he might as well double Grohl 's and had the drummer record an additional track of backing harmonies .

= = Composition = =

Like many Nirvana songs , " In Bloom " shifts back and forth between quiet verses and loud choruses . Cobain uses a Mesa Boogie guitar amplifier for the verses , and during the chorus he switches to a Fender Bassman amp ( suggested by Vig ) for a heavier , double @-@ tracked fuzztone sound . The rhythm section of Novoselic and Grohl kept its parts simple ; Grohl stated it was " an unspoken rule " to avoid unnecessary drum fills , while Novoselic said he felt his role was about " serving the song " . During the choruses , vocalist Cobain and drummer Grohl harmonize while singing " He 's the one / Who likes all our pretty songs / And he likes to sing along / And he likes to shoot his gun / But he knows not what it means " . The song 's intro reappears at the end of each chorus .

Cobain 's lyrics address the people outside of the underground music scene that began showing up at Nirvana shows after the release of the group 's debut album Bleach . Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad wrote , " But remarkably , [ the song 's lyrics ] translated even better to the mass popularity the band enjoyed . " Regarding the song 's chorus , Azerrad commented , " The brilliant irony is that the tune is so catchy that millions of people actually do sing along to it . " In his biography of Cobain , Heavier Than Heaven , Charles R. Cross asserted that the song was a " thinly disguised portrait " of Cobain 's friend Dylan Carlson .

= = Release and reception = =

" In Bloom " was released as the fourth single from Nevermind on November 30 , 1992 . The single was only released commercially in the United Kingdom ; promotional copies were released in the United States . The 7 @-@ inch vinyl and cassette editions of the single contained a live version of " Polly " as a B @-@ side , while the 12 @-@ inch vinyl and CD versions featured a performance of " Sliver " ; both songs were recorded at the same December 28 , 1991 concert . The single peaked at number 28 on the British singles chart . While lacking an American commercial release , the song charted at number five on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart .

Nirvana biographer Everett True wrote an uncharacteristically unfavorable review in Melody Maker , accusing the single of being a cash @-@ in on Nevermind 's success . " Whoop whoop bloody whoop " , he wrote , " Forgive me if I don 't sound too thrilled . This release is stretching even my credulity beyond repair . Like , milking a still @-@ breathing ( sacred ) cow , or what ? Badly inferior live versions of ' Polly ' and ' Sliver ' on the flip don 't help matters either . " In 2011 Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song number 415 on its list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " .

= = Music video = =

Nirvana first made a music video for " In Bloom " in 1990 for the Sub Pop Video Network Program VHS compilation ( 1991 ) . The recording of the song featured in the video is the version recorded during the Smart Studios sessions . The Sub Pop video features the band walking around various parts of lower Manhattan including the South Street Seaport , the Lower East Side , and Wall Street . While filming the video , Novoselic shaved his head as penance for a bad performance the band gave in New York City . This caused discontinuity in the final cut ; shots of the band feature the bassist with and without hair throughout the video . This video was later compiled on the Nirvana box set With the Lights Out ( 2004 ) . The audio of this version of " In Bloom " was later released on CD2 of the 20th Anniversary Deluxe Edition of the Nevermind album in 2011 .

The second video , created to accompany the 1992 single release that was recorded at Sound City Studios , was directed by Kevin Kerslake , who had previously directed the band 's videos for " Come as You Are " and " Lithium " . Cobain 's original concept for the video told the story of a young girl born into a Ku Klux Klan family who one day realizes how evil they are . His concept was too ambitious , so Cobain instead decided to parody musical performances by bands on early 1960s variety shows , such as The Ed Sullivan Show . The humorous tone of the video was a result of Cobain being " so tired for the last year of people taking us so seriously . . . I wanted to fuck off and show them that we have a humorous side to us " . Kerslake filmed the video on old Kinescope cameras , and the band improvised its performance . The video begins with an unnamed variety show host ( played by Doug Llewelyn , former host of The People 's Court ) introducing Nirvana to an in @-@ studio crowd of screaming teenagers ; their non @-@ stop screaming is heard throughout the duration of the song . The band members , whom the host refers to as " thoroughly all right and decent fellas " , perform dressed in Beach Boys @-@ style outfits ; Cobain wears glasses that blurred his vision , while Novoselic cut his hair short and liked it so much he kept it that way afterwards . As the video progresses , the band destroys the set and its instruments .

Three different edits of the Kerslake video were made . Cobain intended to replace the first version of the video after a period with a new take featuring the band wearing dresses instead of suits . MTV 's alternative rock show 120 Minutes insisted on premiering the video , but Cobain felt the program would not properly convey the humor of the " pop idol " version . Instead , a new edit was produced which contained shots of the band in both suits and dresses . The original edit of the video never aired . This video won the award for Best Alternative Video at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards , and topped the music video category in the 1992 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll .

= = Track listing = =

All songs written by Kurt Cobain .

7 " , cassette

" In Bloom " – 4 : 17

" Polly " ( live ) – 2 : 47

12 " , CD

" In Bloom " – 4 : 17

" Sliver " ( live - Del Mar - 28 @.@ 12 @.@ 1991 ) – 2 : 06

" Polly " ( live - Del Mar - 28 @.@ 12 @.@ 1991 ) – 2 : 47

= = Chart positions = =

= = Covers = =

Sturgill Simpson recorded a country cover in 2016 which received air play on alternative stations .

= Lady in the Lake trial =

The Lady in the Lake trial was a 2005 murder case in which Gordon Park ( 25 January 1944 – 25 January 2010 ) a retired teacher from Leece , near Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , Cumbria , England , was jailed for life for the murder of his first wife , Carol Ann Park , in 1976 .

Carol Park went missing on 17 July 1976 , and was never seen alive again by her family . In 1997 , her body was discovered by divers in Coniston Water and Gordon was arrested on suspicion of murder . The charges were subsequently dropped but in 2004 Gordon was arrested again and found guilty of his wife 's murder . The trial judge sentenced him to life imprisonment and recommended that he should serve a minimum of 15 years before being considered for parole . He was held at Garth prison , Leyland , Preston . In December 2007 he lodged an appeal against his conviction which was dismissed in November 2008 . On 25 January 2010 , he was found hanged in his cell , and pronounced dead at the scene .

The details of the murder are sketchy . Carol was killed due to blunt trauma to her face by means of some instrument , alleged in court to have been an ice axe . She was then bound with rope , using complex knots , weighed down with rocks and lead pipes and thrown overboard from a boat on Coniston Water . The body landed on an underwater ledge where it was later found by amateur divers . Had it been dropped a few metres further from the shore , it would have sunk to the much deeper bottom and probably never have been discovered .

There was a great deal of controversy surrounding the case . Gordon received much support from his family and friends and maintained his innocence . There was a large amount of local interest in the trial as shown by the sales of the local paper , the North @-@ West Evening Mail . Some claimed that much of the evidence against him could be discounted and there were vigils and petitions in attempts to free Gordon from prison and clear his name . The case featured prominently in the book No Smoke : The Shocking Truth About British Justice which outlined seven cases the author believed to be examples of innocent people being convicted of murder .

= = Case history = =

= = = Carol Park vanishes = = =

Prior to her disappearance , according to her friends , Carol was feeling depressed . She had talked of tracing her biological parents , as she was adopted . On 17 July 1976 , she went missing . Gordon claimed that she had left home for another man , and Carol had left their home in Leece twice before . It was for this reason , Gordon claimed , that he did not report her missing for six weeks . Carol was said to time her periods away from home to coincide with the school holidays . Gordon claimed that it wasn 't until she didn 't return in time to take up her job as a primary school teacher in September ( the start of the school term ) that he realised that there was a problem . At this time he reported her missing via his solicitor , and her family was informed . On the day she vanished , the family had been due to visit Blackpool on a day trip . However , Carol said she felt unwell and wanted to remain behind in bed . She was never seen alive again by her family . Gordon claimed he returned home to find Carol had left the house , leaving behind her wedding ring , and that there was no sign of a struggle . A missing persons enquiry was launched , but nothing came of it . This missing persons report was subsequently lost , and it was implied by some that it was because both Gordon and a senior police commander ( who , by the time the article was published , had died ) involved in the case were freemasons . This was refuted by Sandra Lean , who , in No Smoke , claimed that Gordon had never been a freemason . At the time , police told Gordon that , should a body be found , he would be the main suspect .

= = = Discovery of body and post mortem results = = =

On 13 August 1997 , amateur divers discovered Carol Park 's body , clad only in a nightdress , 75 feet down at the bottom of Coniston Water . She was nicknamed " the Lady in the Lake " by detectives after the 1943 detective novel by Raymond Chandler , The Lady in the Lake . The body had been wrapped in a pinafore dress , a canvas rucksack and plastic bags , tied with several knots , and weighed down with lead piping . Her eyes had been covered by plasters . It was later reported that the body had landed on an underwater ledge , and had it been thrown into the water a few metres farther from the land , it would probably never have been found .

Details of Carol 's death were revealed in the post mortem . There were severe injuries to the skull , and it was said that her face had been smashed by multiple blows . It was later found in court that the murder weapon had been an ice axe . The body was found to be in a foetal position , which suggested that the body had been dealt with within a few hours of death , before rigor mortis could settle in . It has since been said that the investigators failed to acknowledge that rigor mortis passes in a 24 ‑ to 48 ‑ hour time period , and that the body could feasibly have been trussed once rigor mortis had passed . Many unusual knots were used to tie the body , and the same knots were said to be used in Gordon Park 's house and boat . This was one of the key pieces of evidence used against Gordon in the trial .

= = = Gordon Park is arrested , but charges are dropped = = =

At the time of the discovery of the body , Gordon and his third wife , Jenny , were on a cycling holiday in France . They heard news of the discovery of the body , and are said to have seen footage of the police searching their house . On 24 August , they arrived home , and Gordon was arrested on suspicion of murder at 8.00am the next morning . He was charged with the murder of Carol Park , and remanded in Preston prison . However , after two weeks , his solicitors managed to persuade the court to grant him bail . On 6 January 1998 , the charges against Gordon were dropped due to lack of evidence . The Crown Prosecution Service released a statement saying-

After a conference with leading counsel and the police , a decision was taken , in agreement with all parties , that there was insufficient evidence for a realistic prospect of conviction .

Reportedly he told another inmate that " she deserved it " as had discovered his wife being unfaithful .

After the charges were dropped , Gordon said that he wished to " try to put all this , including the events of 21 years ago , behind me and try to return to my everyday life " . However , the fact that the charges were dropped angered Carol 's brother , Ivor Price , who said that he was disgusted by the way that Carol was portrayed in the proceedings , and talked of how Carol was not " someone who [ was ] cheap or had a string of lovers . "

= = = Gordon Park 's second arrest and trial = = =

Gordon was again arrested on 13 January 2004 . Police said at the time that the murder file had never been closed , and that the arrest followed new leads . These new leads were later reported to be a confession by Michael Wainwright , who claimed to have been a cellmate of Gordon 's during his short prison stay in 1997 . The police then revisited the site where the body was discovered , and found a piece of Westmorland green slate , a stone that matched the rocks that made up the wall of the family 's bungalow . The case was brought to trial at Manchester Crown Court , and lasted ten weeks . There was no single piece of evidence that pointed to Gordon indisputably , but the prosecution argued that when the evidence was placed together , it could only point at Park , and not a " mysterious stranger or secret lover " . Primarily , the case for the prosecution rested on circumstantial evidence , with the jury being asked to consider knots , rocks used to weight down the body and the ice axe , all linking Gordon Park to the crime . However , the statements of Michael Wainwright , and another of Gordon 's cellmates , who had learning difficulties , were also used as evidence by the prosecution . He was sentenced to be jailed for life , and told that he must serve at least 15 years . The judge said that he had taken into account the " terrible concealment " of the body .

Park claimed he and his wife had an open marriage

The court found that Gordon had first put his hands around Carol 's neck to strangle her , but that she had struggled . He then grabbed his ice axe , and brought it down with what was described as " considerable " force on Carol 's face , and smashed the front right @-@ hand side of her face , splitting open her head and smashing her teeth . He then did this again – the attack was described as consisting of " two big heavy , crushing blows " by pathologist Dr. Edwin Tapp . After this , Gordon dumped his wife 's body in the lake , and went back to his day @-@ to @-@ day life . During the trial , the prosecution speculated that Gordon had " drugged his wife , possibly on or around the 17 July , tied her up and stored her body in a chest freezer before dumping it in Coniston Water " .

= = = Gordon Park 's appeal = = =

On 6 December 2007 , it was reported that Clarion Solicitors , representing Gordon Park , said that they would launch an appeal . In a public statement , they said :

The appeal is based upon fresh evidence that was not available at the original trial , it is hoped the conviction will be quashed and a retrial ordered ... Upon his conviction , Mr Park 's family and friends launched a campaign to clear his name , claiming there was no single piece of evidence that pointed indisputably to him .

Representing Park in the appeal was solicitor Rob Rode and Simon Bourne @-@ Arton QC . They did not initially reveal what the new evidence was , only that it " was not available at the original trial " and that it was " very strong and significant " . Cumbria Constabulary released a statement saying :

Detectives from Cumbria Constabulary carried out a full and thorough investigation and the full facts of the case were presented to the CPS . The case was then tried by a jury , where Gordon Park was found guilty of the murder of Carol Park in 1976 .

In October , campaigners in support of Park said " We have in our possession , a signed , witnessed , statement , made this week , by one of the main prosecution witnesses , stating , ‘ police officers did put words in my mouth regarding Gordon Park ’ and ‘ the police told me what to say in court . ’ " Pastor George Harrison , acting as a spokesperson for the campaigners , also claimed that the appeals process was flawed and " rendered virtually impossible " due to costs .

In November 2008 , the appeal bid was rejected by three judges at the Court of Appeal in London . QC Simon Bourne , representing Park , had wanted to call an expert witness to challenge geological evidence used at the trial . Lord Justice Keene said that the new evidence did not raise " a reasonable doubt as to the safety of this conviction " , saying that the geological evidence was only a small element of the " strong circumstantial case against the applicant " . The new evidence presented by geologist Andrew Moncrief concerned the rock found with the body , said to have been from the wall outside the Parks ' house . Moncrief argued that the rock was " indistinguishable " from others in the area , and therefore " meaningless " .

= = = Gordon Park 's death = = =

On 25 January 2010 , the morning of Park 's 66th birthday , he was found hanged and unconscious in his prison cell in Garth Prison , and pronounced dead at the scene later in the morning . It is believed that a ligature was involved , and that Park inflicted the injuries upon himself . Park had not been assessed for the risk of suicide . Jeremy Park said that " we are all completely devastated and still believe his innocence 100 % . " Since his death , Carol Park 's family have tried to trace her ashes .

= = Review = =

On 26 November 2014 , it was confirmed that the Criminal Cases review Commission were examining the verdict , and new DNA evidence had come to light . Carol Park 's niece has accused Gordon Park 's family of ' clutching at straws ' and has argued : " Gordon went to the High Court of Appeal and lost , so what makes them think after all this time they could find any information that could overturn the court ’ s decision ? "

= = Case controversy = =

= = = Support for Park = = =

There was much local interest in the matter , as was shown by the sales of the local paper , the North @-@ West Evening Mail , when it ran special editions on the case . Park maintained his innocence , and received much support from his family and friends . His children , Jeremy and Rachael , appointed a new legal team in an attempt to find grounds for appeal . Jeremy also set up a website , www.freegordon.com , in a bid to raise awareness and support of the case for Gordon . Notable individuals offering support include Tony Benn , who said that there was considerable doubt about Gordon 's conviction , and that he would do all he can to help campaign for his freedom . Benn has been quoted as saying the case is a " grave injustice " . He is one of the over 300 people who have signed the " Gordon Park is Innocent " petition .

A year into Park 's life sentence , around 40 family members and friends held a vigil at Strangeways Prison , in a bid to raise awareness of " the fact that there is an innocent man in prison " . Another was held a year later , led by Jenny Park , and a third on the third anniversary of Park 's imprisonment . It was due to these vigils , claimed Evangelical Pastor George Harrison , that he was barred from visiting Park once he was transferred to Garth prison , in Lancashire . Other fronts for the campaign included an offer of £ 5 @,@ 000 for anyone providing evidence that lead to Gordon 's freedom . Included in this were planned adverts in the North @-@ West Evening Mail and leaflets to 20 @,@ 000 homes in the Furness area . However , this was being organised by Harrison , with whom Gordon and his third wife Jennifer stayed during the trial . Jeremy Park wrote to the North @-@ West Evening Mail to confirm that he wanted nothing to do with the reward , and that Harrison had no right to include his name , contact details or email address , or mention the freegordon website , in the adverts . Subsequently , Harrison claimed to have delivered 6 @,@ 000 booklets and leaflets in the Furness area .

Not everyone with a link to the family supported Gordon 's attempts to clear his name . Vanessa Fisher , Park 's adoptive daughter , appeared as a witness for the prosecution at the trial , telling of how her father would hit the children with " a stick or cane " and how he would not discuss his wife 's disappearance . She was not in court at the time of Park 's sentencing . Ivor Price , Carol 's brother , has spoken publicly at various times about his feelings about Gordon , and the Price family even sat away from Park 's supporters during the trial itself . In a statement shortly after Park 's guilty verdict , he said he had " no doubt " that justice had been done , and added that " Carol was a lovely , bubbly girl who was very clever and intelligent . What has been said about her has been heartbreaking . This was about one thing : justice for Carol . " Around the same time , Price said that although he believed Gordon at the time of Carol 's disappearance , upon the news of a body being found in Coniston Water , he " knew it was her , and knew who had done it " , expressing his conviction of Park 's guilt . More recently , he said that he was " distressed " by the ongoing campaign to free Park . After Park 's unsuccessful appeal , Price 's daughters , Kay Washford and Claire Gardener spoke to the North @-@ West Evening Mail , their parents having died before the appeal was rejected . Washford said " It is brilliant , an amazing result . Our mum and dad Ivor and Maureen Price fought hard for this justice and now they can rest in peace because justice has been done . We are so thankful for the result and so glad he will be staying in there . " She added that " It is finally justice for Carol . " The Park family and Cumbria Constabulary did not comment .

= = = Claims of flawed investigation = = =

The case was reported to be difficult for the prosecution , with the time between the murder and the trial making it extremely difficult to track potential witnesses . Keith Churchman , a police officer involved in the case , said that " the other difficulty was of course the body was taken away from the place where it was killed . " However , on top of the difficulties outlined by the police , the freegordon website detailed a number of what Park 's supporters claim are holes in the evidence used to convict him . A story about the problems with the evidence was published in the Daily Mail on October 12 , 2005 , at the request of Jeremy , though it was not written by him . Bob Woffenden , the author , later wrote an article for Inside Time , in December 2006 , talking about the trial and its controversies . Another similar article , pointing out holes in the evidence , was published in the Sunday Herald , on July 23 , 2006 .

= = = = Witnesses = = = =

The first problem with the evidence is the use of inmate informant evidence , such as that from Michael Wainwright , described as " the most disreputable [ form of evidence ] of all " , despite the fact that it was one of the key pieces of evidence in the trial . Glen Banks , a man with whom Park had briefly shared a cell and who claimed in court that Park had admitted his guilt to him , was described as " highly suggestible " , frequently changed his story , and also claimed that Park had admitted to killing Carol while sailing to Blackpool . Wainwright , the other informant , was said to bea heavy cannabis smoker and admitted to hearing voices . He claimed that Gordon had said that he went upstairs , found Carol in bed with another man , and killed her in a fit of rage . This seemed unlikely , as the Parks lived in a bungalow , and the supposed lover has never come forward . Park also claimed to have never actually met Wainwright .

Joan Young , who was the only first @-@ hand witness , is challenged in both articles . She came forward in 2004 , claiming that she had seen someone push something over the side of a boat on Coniston Water . This testimony is challenged , because so much time has passed and the fact that her husband saw nothing . However , he claims to have been reading his paper at the time . Also , it has been said that Young was too far away to identify the person in the boat , and that it couldn 't have been Carol Park 's body that was being dumped , as the Youngs were positioned so that the location Carol 's body was found would have been visibly blocked by an island . The article even points out that Young described a boat that appeared to be a cruiser yacht . Despite the fact that Gordon did own a large yacht in 1997 , in 1976 he owned only a 505 racing dinghy , which he sold later that year .

There are three witnesses who provide direct evidence supporting the idea that Park was innocent . The first , a neighbour , claims that they saw Carol at the bottom of her driveway . A second , another neighbour , claims that they saw an unidentified man in a Volkswagen Beetle in the Parks ' drive for twenty minutes . The presence of the unidentified car has never been accounted for . Around 6pm that night , another witness , a woman who knew Carol , saw her at Charnock Richard services . She had mentioned to her husband the fact that Carol had not greeted her , describing her as " snobby " .

= = = = Other evidence = = = =

The rock supposedly found in the lake , said to be taken from the Park 's garden wall , has been challenged as evidence in multiple places . Both articles say that the police diver had no memory of recovering it , and he claimed that if he had found it , he would have placed it back . Professor Kenneth Pye , a defense witness , said that there was no evidence that the rock had ever been on the lake bed at all . The article in the Sunday Herald also claims that the policeman said to be responsible for finding the rock fainted when it was produced in court , offering no explanation , but still denying that he ever found it .

Two more issues are addressed in the Sunday Herald article , but not in the Daily Mail article . The first is of the knots used to tie up Carol 's body – the knots on Carol 's body were mostly granny knots , of which there was no evidence that Gordon ever used – indeed during the trial he was specifically asked this , and he responded , " I do not use granny knots " . The granny knot is always a mistake , used by someone who should have used a reef knot ; those learning knot @-@ tying frequently make this mistake . Gordon Park , an experienced knot @-@ tyer , would likely never use a granny knot , and their frequent appearance on the body of Carol is strong evidence that it was not Gordon who tied them . The article also claims that the evidence of knots was irrelevant anyway , as climbers and yachtsmen were so common in the area . The other piece of evidence related to another rock taken from the lakebed , which had supposedly come from the Parks ' roof . However , the prosecution eventually admitted that Westmoreland green slate had been worked in the area for hundreds of years , and could have come from anywhere . The Herald also mentions the fact that the police files from the original missing persons inquiry into Carol Park had gone missing themselves , but does not draw any conclusions from this .

Both articles address the issue of who the killer could alternatively have been , and both of them mention Carol 's other lovers , and John Rapson , responsible for murdering Carol 's sister . Both of the articles mention that he was in the Barrow area around the time of the murder , but both of them are careful to point out that they are not accusing him of being the murderer .

= = = No Smoke = = =

On 1 May 2007 , No Smoke – The Shocking Truth About British Justice , by Sandra Lean , was published by Exposure Publishing . This book features the stories of seven high @-@ profile convicted murderers , including Park , Luke Mitchell and Sion Jenkins . The book claims that the expert testimonies in the Lady in the Lake trial were flawed , that certain evidence was withheld , and that the sensationalist reporting of the press at the time influenced the court by persuading them that Park was the only person who could have killed his wife .

= = Personal life of Gordon Park = =

Park worked as a village primary school teacher , but was retired by the time he was prosecuted for the murder of his first wife , Carol . Park had two children by Carol , Jeremy and Rachael . Gordon and Carol also adopted their niece Vanessa when she was 18 months old after her mother , Christie ( who was Carol 's sister ) , was murdered by her boyfriend in 1969 , aged 17 . This was described as a " rare and appalling coincidence " , but has been picked up on by the case for the defence since the trial .

Park remarried twice after Carol was murdered . His second wife was named Catherine , and his third , to whom he remained married until his death , is named Jenny . Park met all of his wives through teaching , Carol was a teacher at Askam Village School when she was killed . When rejecting Park 's request for appeal , Lord Justice Keene , Mr Justice Beatson and Mr Justice Macduff noted that both Gordon and Carol had had affairs in the year leading up to Carol 's disappearance .

Park 's interests included sailing and climbing , which was relevant to the case due to the knots used to tie his wife 's body . While in prison , Park spent time practising t 'ai chi , taking a maths degree and keeping fit .

In an exclusive written interview with The Westmorland Gazette nine months into his sentence , Park talked of how he had struggled with prison , saying : " They [ other inmates ] may smoke incessantly , play loud music , the TV or video games , rifle your drawers , steal , lie etc . There is not a lot you can do about it ... I watched a guy " chasing the dragon " . It frightened me to death . I had never seen that before . " He refused to answer detailed questions about the trial or case , but protested his innocence , saying " If I knew who killed my wife , how , where , why , then I would have said so . I did not know then . I do not know now . "

= Dover Athletic F.C. =

Dover Athletic Football Club is a professional association football club based in the town of Dover , Kent , England . The club was formed in 1983 after the dissolution of the town 's previous club , Dover F.C. , whose place in the Southern League was taken by the new club . In the 1989 – 90 season Dover Athletic won the Southern League championship , but failed to gain promotion to the Football Conference as the club 's ground did not meet the required standard . Three seasons later the team won the title again and this time gained promotion to the Conference , where they spent nine seasons before being relegated at the end of the 2001 – 02 season . The club was transferred to the Isthmian League Premier Division in 2004 , but another poor season and financial problems that had been mounting led the club to a further relegation . After three seasons were spent in the Isthmian League Division One South , the club won the championship and with it promotion back to the Premier Division , followed immediately the following season by another championship and with it promotion to Conference South . Five seasons were spent in that division with the club coming close to gaining promotion several times , reaching the play @-@ offs three times . In the 2013 – 14 season , Dover reached the play @-@ off final for the second successive season and defeated Ebbsfleet United to return to the Conference Premier after a twelve @-@ year absence .

The team usually wear white shirts and are consequently nicknamed the Whites . They have played at the Crabble Athletic Ground since the club 's formation . The club 's best performance in the FA Cup was an appearance in the third round proper in the 2010 – 11 and 2014 – 15 seasons , while the best performance registered in the FA Trophy , the national competition for higher @-@ level non @-@ league clubs , was a run to the semi @-@ finals in the 1997 – 98 season .

= = History = =

Dover Athletic F.C. was formed in 1983 after the town 's previous club , Dover , folded due to its debts . The new club took Dover 's place in the Southern League Southern Division , with former Dover player Alan Jones as manager and a team consisting mainly of reserve players from the old club . Initially Athletic struggled , finishing second from bottom of the table in the 1984 – 85 season . In November 1985 Steve McRae , who had succeeded Jones a year earlier , was sacked and replaced by Chris Kinnear .

Under Kinnear the club 's fortunes turned round , with two top @-@ five finishes followed by the Southern Division championship , and with it promotion , in the 1987 – 88 season . The team started strongly in the Premier Division , finishing in sixth place at the first attempt , and then winning the championship in the 1989 – 90 season . The club was denied promotion to the Football Conference , however , as the Crabble Athletic Ground did not meet the standard required for that league . After finishing fourth and second in the subsequent two seasons , Dover won the title again in the 1992 – 93 season and this time were admitted to the Conference .

Although Dover finished in eighth place in their first season in the Conference , the following season saw the club struggling against relegation , and Kinnear was dismissed due to a combination of the team 's poor performances and his own personal problems . John Ryan was appointed as the club 's new manager , but his reign was a short one and he was dismissed when the club lost seven of its first eight matches in the 1995 – 96 season . The club then appointed former England international Peter Taylor as manager , but he was unable to steer the team away from the foot of the table , and Dover held onto their place in the Conference only because Northern Premier League runners @-@ up Boston United failed to submit their application for promotion before the required deadline .

Bill Williams took over as manager in 1997 and led the club to the FA Trophy semi @-@ finals in the 1997 – 98 season and a best league finish to date of sixth place in the 1999 – 2000 season . Williams left the club to take a senior position with Conference rivals Kingstonian in May 2001 . By now the club was in severe financial difficulties , with a number of directors resigning and debts exceeding £ 100 @,@ 000 . Amid the crisis the entire board of directors resigned , forcing the club 's Supporters ' Trust to take over the running of the club , and manager Gary Bellamy was sacked after just six months in the job . Former Everton goalkeeper Neville Southall took over but was dismissed just three months later , with Clive Walker taking over in March 2002 with the club rooted to the foot of the table . The club finished the season bottom of the Conference and was relegated back to the Southern League Premier Division . The club 's ongoing financial problems led to it entering a Company Voluntary Arrangement ( CVA ) , a process by which insolvent companies offset their debts against future profits , due to debts that were now estimated at £ 400 @,@ 000 .

In Dover 's first season back in the Southern League Premier Division the Whites finished in third place , albeit 17 points adrift of Tamworth , who claimed the one promotion place available that season . A poor start to the following season saw Walker replaced by Richard Langley . Dover finished the season in 19th place , before being switched to the Isthmian League Premier Division in the summer of 2004 following a re @-@ organisation of the English football league system . The new season started with six successive defeats , which saw Langley sacked , and the financial problems continued , with the club coming within two months of being closed down . Dover were relegated to the Isthmian League Division One at the end of the season , but were saved from possible extinction in January 2005 when former director Jim Parmenter returned to head up a consortium that took over the club . Parmenter quickly sacked manager Steve Browne and convinced Clive Walker to return to the club to replace him , and also arranged for the club 's outstanding CVA debts to be cleared , putting the club on a firm financial footing for the first time in many years .

Dover Athletic narrowly missed out on an immediate return to the Premier Division in the 2005 – 06 season , reaching the play @-@ offs for promotion but losing out to Tonbridge Angels . The following season Dover again reached the play @-@ offs but lost in the semi @-@ final to Hastings United , after which Walker did not have his contract renewed and was replaced by former Gillingham manager Andy Hessenthaler . In his first season in charge he led the club to the Division One South championship and promotion to the Isthmian League Premier Division . The following season Dover won a second consecutive championship and thus gained promotion to Conference South . In the 2009 – 10 season , Dover reached the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Conference National , but lost at the semi @-@ final stage to Woking . The following season the club reached the third round of the FA Cup for the first time after wins over Kent rivals Gillingham in the first round and another League Two club , Aldershot Town , in the second round . In the 2012 – 13 season the club again reached the play @-@ offs , but this time lost in the final to Salisbury City . The following season the team reached the second round of the FA Cup , losing 1 – 0 to Milton Keynes Dons , The last 16 of the FA Trophy , narrowly losing 3 – 2 to Eastleigh and made the play @-@ offs once more . A 4 – 1 aggregate victory over Sutton United in the semi @-@ final set up a match with fellow Kent team Ebbsfleet United in the final . On 10 May 2014 , Dover beat Ebbsfleet 1 – 0 at Stonebridge Road with a goal from Nathan Elder enough to seal the club 's return to the top flight of non @-@ league football for the first time since 2002 . In the 2014 – 15 season Dover went on another FA Cup run , beating Morecambe 1 – 0 in the first round , then Cheltenham Town 1 – 0 in the second round to reach the third round proper for only the second time ever , but lost 4 – 0 at home to Premier League side Crystal Palace . The following season the team qualified for the play @-@ offs for promotion to League Two .

= = Colours and crest = =

Dover Athletic 's traditional colours are white and black , which were also the colours worn by the earlier Dover club . Away colours worn by the club have included red , yellow & green , pink and blue . The club 's crest contains a stylised representation of the town 's two most famous landmarks , Dover Castle and the white cliffs , enclosed in a circle bearing the club 's name . The club 's shirts have been sponsored by companies including Criccieth Homes , Paul Brown of Dover , Jenkins and Pain , cross @-@ channel ferry operators Hoverspeed and SeaFrance , local car dealership Perry 's and are now sponsored by produce suppliers Gomez , the company owned by Dover Athletic chairman Jim Parmenter .

= = Stadium = =

Dover Athletic 's home ground since the club 's foundation has been the Crabble Athletic Ground , which was also the home of the former Dover club . The word Crabble , which is also found in the name of a local corn mill , may derive from the Old English crabba hol , meaning a hole in which crabs are found . The stadium , commonly known simply as " Crabble " or , imprecisely , as " The Crabble " , forms part of a larger council @-@ owned complex , and the earlier Dover club originally shared the lower pitch with a rugby club , but moved to the upper pitch in the 1950s , adding a grandstand in 1951 , followed soon after by terracing and floodlights .

Dover Athletic continued to make improvements to the ground , although not in time to allow the club to take its place in the Football Conference in 1990 . Subsequently new turnstiles were installed and two new terraces and a second grandstand added . These improvements meant that the club was able to gain promotion after its second Southern League title in 1993 . The stadium 's modern capacity is 5 @,@ 745 with 1 @,@ 010 seats and 3 @,@ 642 spectators under cover .

In 2007 the club announced that under the new sponsorship deal with SeaFrance the stadium would be known officially as the SeaFrance Crabble Stadium , but a year later it was announced that the deal would not be renewed due to the ferry operator 's financial constraints . On 1 July 2008 local car dealership Perry 's was announced as the club 's new main sponsor and the stadium rebranded as the Perry 's Crabble Stadium , an arrangement which lasted until 2012 . Between 2003 and 2004 it was known as the Hoverspeed Stadium under the terms of another such agreement . Margate played their home matches at Crabble for two seasons from 2002 until 2004 , while their own Hartsdown Park ground was being redeveloped .

= = Supporters = =

In the club 's early days Athletic struggled to attract crowds of over 150 , but by the time the club reached the Conference , crowds at Crabble were averaging around 1 @,@ 000 . After the club 's relegation to the Isthmian League Division One South , the average attendance fell to just over 800 , but when the club returned to the Premier Division for the 2008 – 09 season , the average attendance at Crabble was 1 @,@ 293 , the highest in the division . The highest home attendance in the club 's history was 5 @,@ 645 for the match against Crystal Palace in the third round of the FA Cup on 4 January 2015 . Although Athletic 's improved monetary position means that the Supporters ' Trust is no longer required to financially support the club , it remains active as a fundraising organisation .

= = Statistics and records = =

Dover Athletic 's highest finish in the English football league system was in the 1999 – 2000 season , in which the team finished in sixth place in the Football Conference , the highest level of non @-@ league football and the fifth level overall . The Whites have made 13 appearances in the final qualifying round of the FA Cup , but have only progressed to the first round proper three times . In the 2010 – 11 season , Dover reached the third round for the first time , defeating Football League Two teams Gillingham and Aldershot Town in the first two rounds before losing to Huddersfield Town of Football League One . In the 1997 – 98 season the Whites reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Trophy but missed out on an appearance at Wembley , losing to Cheltenham Town . The largest number of points the team has accrued is 102 in the 1989 – 90 season , and the highest total number of goals scored in a season is 89 , scored in 40 matches in the 1985 – 86 season . The team 's biggest ever win was an 8 – 0 defeat of East Preston in September 2009 , and the heaviest defeat was a 7 – 1 loss to Poole Town in April 1984 .

The holder of the record for most appearances for Dover Athletic is Jason Bartlett , who played in 539 matches , and the all @-@ time top goalscorer is Lennie Lee , with 160 goals . The club 's record signing is Dave Leworthy , who joined the club from Farnborough Town in 1993 for £ 50 @,@ 000 , which at the time was the highest transfer fee ever paid between non @-@ league clubs . The highest confirmed fee received by the club was also £ 50 @,@ 000 , paid by Brentford in 1997 for Ricky Reina .

= = Players = =

As of 16th July 2016

Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .

= = = Former players = = =

For a list of former Dover Athletic players with Wikipedia articles , see Category : Dover Athletic F.C. players .

= = Managers = =

Dover Athletic have had 17 permanent managers ( excluding caretaker managers ) in the club 's 25 @-@ year history , with Chris Kinnear 's 10 @-@ year stint being the longest . The shortest stay was Ian Hendon who was announced as manager on 28 May 2010 and resigned only 18 days later to join Andy Hessenthaler at Gillingham .

= = Honours = =

Southern League

Premier Division champions 1989 – 90 , 1992 – 93

Southern Division champions 1987 – 88

Isthmian League

Premier Division champions 2008 – 09

Division One South champions 2007 – 08

Kent Senior Cup

Winners 1990 – 91

Conference South

Play @-@ off winners 2013 – 14

= = Rivalries = =

Dover Athletic 's main rivalry is with nearby Folkestone Invicta . A meeting between the two teams in 2004 was watched by a crowd of 2 @,@ 278 , a record attendance for a league match at Invicta 's ground . The club also has a rivalry with Margate . In the 2001 – 02 season , when both teams were in the Football Conference , the two games between Margate and Dover were watched by a combined total of more than 6 @,@ 000 spectators . The game played at Margate 's Hartsdown Park stadium drew a crowd of 3 @,@ 676 , and 2 @,@ 325 were in attendance for the game at Dover .

= Plum cake =

Plum cake refers to a wide range of cakes made with either dried fruit ( such as grapes , currants , raisins or prunes ) or with fresh fruit . There is a wide range of popular plum cakes and puddings . Since the meaning of the word " plum " has changed over time , many items referred to as plum cakes and popular in England since at least the eighteenth century have now become known as fruitcake . The English variety of plum cake also exists on the European mainland , but may vary in ingredients and consistency . Settlers in British colonies brought the dried fruit variety of cake with them , so that for example , in India it was served around the time of the Christmas holiday season and in the American colonies , where it became associated with elections , one version came to be called " election cake " .

Plum cakes made with fresh plums came with other migrants from other traditions in which plum cake is prepared using plum as a primary ingredient . In some versions , the plums may become jam @-@ like inside the cake after cooking , or be prepared using plum jam . Plum cake prepared with plums is also a part of Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine , and is referred to as Pflaumenkuchen or Zwetschgenkuchen . Other plum @-@ based cakes are found in French , Italian and Polish cooking .

= = Terms = =

The term " plum cake " and " fruit cake " have become interchangeable . Since dried fruit is used as a sweetening agent and any dried fruit used to be described as " plums " , many plum cakes and plum puddings do not contain the plum fruit now known by that name . ( Plum pudding is a similar , richer dish prepared with similar ingredients , cooked by steaming the mixture rather than baking it . ) The term " plum " originally referred to prunes , raisins or grapes . Thus the so @-@ called plums from which English plum puddings are made " were always raisins , not the plump juicy fruits that the name suggests today . "

In Old English , the term plūme was " from medieval Latin pruna , from Latin prunum , " which equated to " prune " . Prune in modern French means plum , so plum tarts have names such as tarte aux prunes . In English , prunes are dried plums , and when modern cakes use them as a primary ingredient , they may be referred to as a plum cake or type of plum cake .

= = By region = =

= = = Britain = = =

Plum cake has historically referred to an early type and style of fruitcake in England since around 1700 . Raisins and currants were used , which in the English language were referred to as plums since around 1660 . The various types of dried fruit ( grapes , currants and raisins ) were familiar to English kitchens through trade with The Levant and Mediterranean but before they became available through " trouble @-@ free " imports from Australia , South Africa and California , preparing them required " an immense amount of labour ... on account of the rough and ready methods by which the fruit was picked , dried , packed and exported " .

In 1881 Colonel Henry @-@ Herbert said that " a good English plum cake ... is a national institution " . At times , Thomas Carlyle was one among many who ate a light style of plum cake with tea , into which he would dip the cake , which he described as bun @-@ like with currants " dotted here and there " . Elizabeth David wrote that " Christmas mincemeat and Christmas plum pudding and cake are all such typical examples of the English fondness for spiced fruit mixtures that it seems almost unnecessary to include recipes for them ... "

Plum cakes were raised by whipping air into the cake batter , rather than by the use of yeast . A range of plum cakes and puddings were published in the popular Book of Household Management ( published 1859 @-@ 1861 ) by Isabella Beeton . Mrs Beeton included recipes for " A Common Plum Cake " and " A Nice Plum Cake " as well as " Baked Plum @-@ Pudding " , " An Unrivalled Plum @-@ Pudding " , " A Plain Christmas Pudding for Children " , " Plum @-@ Pudding of Fresh Fruit " , " Plum Tart " , " Christmas Plum @-@ Pudding " , " A Pound Plum Pudding " and " Christmas Cake " . The comment in an Indian Household Management book is indicative both of the reach of Mrs Beeton 's book as well as the range of interpretations of plum cake and plum pudding . The author says , " Mrs Beeton ’ s recipe is by far the best if modified a little : 12 units of manukka raisins ... "

Up to World War I , cakes , including plum cakes , were baked along with loaves of bread . " A smaller cake or pasty might be slipped in or pulled out after the baking had begun , but a raised pie with well @-@ protected sides , or a large plum cake , would take at least the same time as the loaves , and experienced housewives made them in sizes to do so . "

= = = Europe = = =

The English variety of plum cake also exists on the European mainland , although " plum cake " there more usually refers to baked cakes made with fresh , rather than dried fruit .

In French cooking , plums are an ingredients in a significant tradition of cake making : " ... throughout the districts of the Loire , the Dordogne , the Lot and the Périgord , there [ was ] hardly a celebration , a wedding feast or celebration at which the dessert [ did ] not include some sort of plum or mirabelle tart , made with fresh or dried plums or jam according to the season . " The Mirabelle plum is a specific cultivar used to make Tarte aux mirabelles ( plum tart ) . A Galette aux fruits is a type of galette made with yeast dough and covered with previously cooked fruit in season , such as plums ( or quinces , apples , apricots ) . The fruit in these open tarts or flans is cut into suitably sized pieces and the cake is glazed : red glaze is recommended for red plum and rhubarb flans , whereas apricot glaze is recommended in yellow plum and apricot flans .

The German plum cake , known as Zwetschkenkuchen , can be found all over the country , although its home is Bavaria . In chef Robert Carrier 's recipe for it , the base is made from yeast pastry rather than often used shortcrust pastry , because the yeast pastry " soaks up the juice form the plums without becoming soggy " .

In Italy , plum cake is known by the English name , baked in an oven using dried fruit and often yoghurt .

The Polish version of plum cake , which also uses fresh fruit , is known as Placek z Sliwkami .

= = = India = = =

In India plum cake has been served around the time of the Christmas holiday season , and may have additional ingredients such as rum or brandy added .

= = = United States = = =

Plum cake in the United States originated with the English settlers and was prepared in the English style in sizes ranging from small , such as for parties in celebration of Twelfth Night and Christmas , to large , such as for weddings . This original fruitcake version of plum cake in the United States has been referred to as a reigning " standard American celebration cake through the time of the civil war " .

During colonial times , one version of plum cake was called " election cake " , and was prepared with currants , raisins , molasses and spices , with the addition of brandy in the recipe occurring later . Election cakes were typically leavened with yeast . In New England , large election cakes weighing around 12 pounds ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) would traditionally be served while people waited for election results . It has been stated that the first published election cake recipe appeared in 1796 in American Cookery .

Plum cake recipes in the fruitcake style appeared in early cookbooks in the Southern United States , and did not actually call for plums . After 1830 plum cake was often referred to as fruit cake or black cake . In 1885 , in a description of plum cake that sounds like plum pudding , it was described as " mucilaginous " - a solid , dark @-@ colored , thick cake with copious amounts of plums , gritty notes from raisins .

= Kedok Ketawa =

Kedok Ketawa ( [ kəˈdɔʔ kəˈtawa ] ; Indonesian for The Laughing Mask , also known by the Dutch title Het Lachende Masker ) is a 1940 action film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) . Union Films ' first production , it was directed by Jo An Djan . Starring Basoeki Resobowo , Fatimah , and Oedjang , the film follows a young couple who fight off criminals with the help of a masked man .

Advertised as an " Indonesian cocktail of violent actions ... and sweet romance " , Kedok Ketawa received positive reviews , particularly for its cinematography . Following the success of the film , Union produced another six works before being shut down in early 1942 during the Japanese occupation . The film , screened until at least August 1944 , may be lost .

= = Plot = =

In Cibodas , Banten , a young woman named Minarsih ( Fatimah ) is rescued from four thugs by the painter Basuki ( Basoeki Resobowo ) . They fall in love and begin planning their life together . However , a rich man interested in taking Minarsih to be his wife sends a gang to kidnap her . Basuki is unable to repel them , but is soon joined by a masked vigilante known only as the " The Laughing Mask " ( Oedjang ) , who has almost supernatural fighting abilities . After two battles with the gang , Basuki and The Laughing Mask are victorious . Basuki and Minarsih can live together in peace .

= = Production = =

Kedok Ketawa was the first film produced by Union Films , one of four new production houses established after the success of Albert Balink 's Terang Boelan revived the ailing film industry of the Dutch East Indies . Union was headquartered in Prinsenlaan , Batavia ( now Mangga Besar , Jakarta ) and funded by the ethnic Chinese businessman Ang Hock Liem , although Tjoa Ma Tjoen was in charge of day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The film was shot on @-@ location in Cibodas , and featured fighting , comedy , and singing .

The film was directed by Jo An Djan and starred Oedjang , Fatimah , and Basoeki Resobowo . Other members of the cast included S Poniman and Eddy Kock . Oedjang had been a stage actor before appearing in the film , while Fatimah and Basoeki were nobles with a formal education . The Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that this is evidence the film was targeted at intellectual audiences , a manifestation of Union 's stated goal of " improv [ ing ] the quality of Indonesian art " .

Following the success of Terang Boelan ( 1937 ; based on The Jungle Princess ) , the domestic film industry began to model their productions after Hollywood works , as this was expected to ensure financial success . The Indonesian film scholars Ekky Imanjaya and Said Salim write that Kedok Ketawa was influenced by Bram Stoker 's 1897 novel Dracula through its Hollywood adaptations . Neither writer gives comparisons to illustrate this influence .

Kedok Ketawa was not the first contemporary film featuring a masked hero . Tan 's Film had released Gagak Item ( The Black Crow ) , with Rd Mochtar as the masked Black Crow , in 1939 , and later productions , including Java Industrial Film 's Srigala Item ( The Black Wolf ; 1941 ) , continued the trend . As was common for contemporary productions , the soundtrack for Kedok Ketawa – performed by Poniman – consisted of kroncong songs .

= = Release and reception = =

Kedok Ketawa was released in Batavia in July 1940 , with a press screening on 20 July . By September it was being shown in Surabaya . In some newspaper advertisements , such as in Pemandangan , it was referred to as Pendekar dari Preanger ( Warrior from Preanger ) , while in others it was advertised with the Dutch title Het Lachende Masker . It was marketed as an " Indonesian cocktail of violent actions ... and sweet romance " and rated for all ages .

The critic and screenwriter Saeroen , writing for Pemandangan , praised Kedok Ketawa , especially its cinematography and the beauty of its scenery ; he compared the film to imported Hollywood films . An anonymous review in Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad found that the film was a mix of native and European sensibilities and lauded its cinematography . According to the review , the film surpassed expectations , but it was evident that this was a first production . Another review , in Soerabaijasch Handelsblad , considered the film among the best local productions , emphasising the quality of its cinematography and acting .

= = Legacy = =

Soon after the success of Kedok Ketawa , Saeroen joined Union Films and wrote four films for the company . These were not directed by Jo An Djan , who left Union for the competitor Populair 's Film , but by the newly hired R Hu and Rd Ariffien . Union Film ultimately produced a total of seven films in 1940 and 1941 before being closed following the Japanese invasion in early 1942 . Of the film 's main cast , only Fatimah and Oedjang are recorded as continuing their acting career , both appearing in several further Union productions . However , in the 1950s Resobowo continued his career behind the screen , serving as art director of such films as Darah dan Doa ( The Long March ; 1950 ) .

Kedok Ketawa was screened as late as August 1944 , but may now be lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . While the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost , J.B. Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that some Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .

= = Explanatory notes = =

= My Boo ( Usher and Alicia Keys song ) =

" My Boo " is a duet between American R & B singers Usher and Alicia Keys , written by Usher , Keys , Jermaine Dupri , Adonis Shropshire , and Manuel Seal , Jr .. The song was released as the album 's fourth single in 2004 . Set over a hip hop @-@ style track , it was produced by Dupri and No I.D. It was included on the re @-@ release of Usher 's fourth studio album , Confessions ( 2004 ) .

The song received positive reviews from critics , and has garnered awards . The single stayed on top of the Billboard Hot 100 for six weeks , making it the third most @-@ successful single from the album after " Yeah ! " and " Burn " , respectively . It was also ranked as the 36th biggest song of the 2000 – 2009 decade in the US .

= = Background = =

Usher and Alicia Keys had previously collaborated with the remix of Keys ' 2004 single " If I Ain 't Got You " , which was released in the United Kingdom . During the production of Usher 's fourth studio album , Confessions , they thought of various female singers to pair him with on the song . Usher and Kortney Kaycee Leveringston 's rare demo version can be found floating on the Internet . Although it was and still is widely believed that it was Beyoncé . However , Jermaine Dupri , who co @-@ wrote the song including Usher 's number @-@ one hits " Yeah ! " , " Burn " , and " Confessions Part II " , felt that he had established good relationship with Keys since she had worked with him and Usher .

The song is written from the perspectives of Keys and Usher , who play the role of an ex @-@ couple . For him , Usher and Keys " talk about how they used to be in love and how those feelings are still lingering despite the two not being involved anymore . " For Keys , " The song is talking about the first person you ever really had feelings for . Even though you move on and meet new people , you always remember that first person . "

= = Release = =

" My Boo " was among the songs that were not included in the final track listing of Confessions , including " Red Light " and songs recorded Usher recorded with P. Diddy and The Neptunes . " My Boo " and " Red Light " were leaked to the internet , along with other records that were not included during the first release . The song was included in the expanded version of Confessions , alongside " Red Light " and " Sweet Lies " which were only released in the UK version of the album . Dupri thought of releasing " My Boo " as the fourth single from Confessions once " Confessions Part II " would be leaving the charts . LaFace Records sent " My Boo " to US contemporary hit radio on August 29 , 2004 and to US urban contemporary radio on August 30 , 2004 . The single was released in the United States as a 12 " single on September 21 , 2004 . It was a double A @-@ side with " Confessions Part II " when it was released in the United Kingdom on December 28 , 2004 . " My Boo " was re @-@ released in the United Kingdom on January 18 , 2005 .

= = Composition and reception = =

" My Boo " is a hip hop @-@ tinged R & B song with a mid @-@ tempo melody . It is composed in the key of D minor , in common time . The lyrics are constructed in verse @-@ chorus @-@ chorus form . Usher starts the intro , and Keys followed her rap @-@ intro , with background vocals from Usher . He proceeds to the first verse and chorus , leading to Keys singing another chorus , altering some of the lyrics of the original chorus to create a dialogue . Keys sings the second verse and Usher for the chorus , with background vocals from Keys . Keys repeats her version for the chorus . The song breaks with Usher and Keys singing " My oh , My oh , My oh , My oh , My Boo " , one after the other . Usher repeats the chorus again , and they sing the intro of Keys .

The song received mixed reviews from critics . Azeem Ahmad of OMH Media proposed to ban " My Boo " because he felt that the collaboration was a competition among Usher and Alicia Keys " over the hip @-@ pop like beat " . Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone found the duet sentimental . At the 2005 Grammy Awards , it was nominated for Best R & B Song and Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals ; to which it won the latter and the former was awarded to Alicia Keys ' song , " You Don 't Know My Name " . Usher and Keys won for Best R & B / Soul Single by a Duo or Group during the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . In 2011 , Billboard ranked the song seventh on a special The 40 Biggest Duets of All Time listing .

= = Chart performance = =

" My Boo " was successful in the United States , living up to the chart performances of " Yeah ! " , " Burn " and " Confessions Part II " . The single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 twenty @-@ nine , the highest U.S. entry among all singles released from the album . It entered the top ten , two weeks after , and peaked at number one during its eighth @-@ week stay on the chart . The single remained on the top for six weeks , beating its predecessor " Confessions Part II " , which charted at number one for two weeks . However , it failed to match the success of " Yeah ! " and " Burn " for twelve- and eight @-@ week run on the top , respectively . It stayed on the top ten for nineteen weeks , leaving the chart after twenty @-@ six weeks . The single was successful on Billboard component charts , topping the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Hot Ringtones . In Europe , the single had divided responses . The single reached the top five in United Kingdom , Germany , the Netherlands , Norway and Switzerland . It entered the top twenty in France , Finland and Switzerland , and top thirty in Austria .

= = Music video = =

Directed by both Usher and music video director Chris Robinson , " My Boo " clip was filmed in New York City . The storyline of the video is a reflection of the song 's lyrics . The footage starts with Usher in a living room watching a video for " Bad Girl " , a song from Confessions . The " Bad Girl " intro features Usher singing the song in a club setting while admiring a scantily @-@ dressed woman . He turns the set off and slumps down on the sofa before laying on it with his foot propped up . After a moment of silent , nostalgic reflection , he begins to sing the intro of " My Boo " . The video then shows him and Alicia Keys in their separate quarters , preparing to head out , while singing their part of the song . Usher eventually steps out on streets of New York ; likewise , Keys is out in her car . She leaves the car and walks down the street , and the couple meet up in the middle of Times Square , cuddling each other and on the brink of kissing . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number nine on September 16 , 2004 . It remained on the countdown for twenty @-@ seven days , becoming the only Confession video to chart .

Usher recorded " My Boo " aside from Keys with various female artists . He collaborated with fellow R & B singer Brandy Norwood and Usher recorded their own version as well , which appeared on her fourth album Afrodisiac . Brandy changed some of the lyrics , singing like having a conversation . However , neither of the two was included in the album . A remix of " My Boo " was also produced , featuring guest vocals from Nelly ; however , Keys ' part was omitted .

= = Track listing = =

UK CD 1

" Confessions Part II "

" My Boo " ( Duet with Alicia Keys )

UK CD 2

" Confessions Part II "

" My Boo " ( Duet with Alicia Keys )

" Confessions Part II " ( Remix ) ( featuring Shyne , Kanye West & Twista )

" Confessions Part II " ( Music Video )

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Rio de Janeiro bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics =

The Rio de Janeiro bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics was a successful bid to host the Games of the XXXI Olympiad and the XV Paralympic Games , respectively . It was submitted on September 7 , 2007 , and recognized as an Applicant city by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) one week after . On June 4 , 2008 , the IOC Executive Board shortlisted Rio de Janeiro with three of the six other Applicant cities — Chicago , Madrid and Tokyo ; over Baku , Doha and Prague — becoming a Candidate city during the 2008 SportAccord Convention in Athens , Greece .

Rio de Janeiro was shortlisted receiving a 6 @.@ 4 score , according to a study of its Application File delivered to the IOC Working Group on January 14 , 2008 . As a Candidate city , Rio de Janeiro submitted its Candidature File to the IOC on February 11 , 2009 . The dossier was analyzed by the IOC Evaluation Commission , which arrived in the city on April 27 , 2009 , to assess the quality of the bid . Between April 29 and May 2 , the Commission attended technical presentations and made inspections in all the existing venues across the city , giving a favorable assessment in its final report .

The Brazilian Olympic Committee ( COB ) chose Rio de Janeiro as its bidding city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics , during its Annual Assembly on September 1 , 2006 . This was the city 's first bid that proceeded to the Candidature phase , after three failed attempts to host the Games in 1936 , 2004 and 2012 . The lengthy and intensive bidding process was concluded with the election of Rio de Janeiro as the host city during the 121st IOC Session , held in Copenhagen , Denmark , on October 2 , 2009 . It will be the first city in South America to host the Games .

Rio de Janeiro planned to organize the Games at a cost of USD 14 @.@ 4 billion , being able to hold all sport events ( excepting football ) inside the city . There will be 30 competition venues in four Olympic zones — Barra , Copacabana , Deodoro , and Maracanã — apart from venues for golf and rugby union , which were added to the Olympic program after the election . Football matches will be held in the cities of Belo Horizonte , Brasília , Salvador and São Paulo . The proposed dates range from August 5 to 21 for the Olympic Games , and September 7 to 18 for the Paralympic Games .

= = Bid process = =

Rio de Janeiro 's bidding process began on July 28 , 2006 , when the Executive Council of the Brazilian Olympic Committee ( COB in the Portuguese acronym ) met to consider the possibility of nominating a Brazilian city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics . This meeting was prompted by the fact that several cities in the world demonstrated interest around the election , some having already announced their bidding intention . Then a technical analysis was commissioned by COB to evaluate the conditions of the city , unveiled on August 25 , 2006 . A week later , on September 1 , 2006 , the COB 's Annual Assembly decided by acclamation that Rio de Janeiro would be the Brazilian representative seeking to host the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2016 . The Assembly felt it was the only city in Brazil and South America which would possess Olympic @-@ level facilities ready for an Olympic and Paralympic bid , a legacy of its upcoming hosting of the XV Pan American Games in 2007 , later considered to be the best in history . Another positive aspect was that Rio de Janeiro could host all Olympic sports within the city limits , although the Olympic football tournament is hosted by multiple cities . The Brazilian government immediately expressed its support to the bid . Carlos Arthur Nuzman , president of COB , and César Maia , then Mayor of Rio de Janeiro , approved the decision , thus making the bid official .

The International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) officially launched the bid process for the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics on May 16 , 2007 . All then 203 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) were invited to submit the name of a city within their jurisdiction until September 13 , 2007 . On September 14 , the IOC recognized seven cities — Baku , Chicago , Doha , Madrid , Prague , Rio de Janeiro and Tokyo — which had been put forward by their respective NOCs to bid . On October 1 , 2007 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee paid the required fee of USD 150 @,@ 000 to the IOC and signed the Candidature Acceptance Procedure . Soon after , from October 15 to 19 , Rio officials attended the 2016 Applicant cities ' Seminar organized by the IOC at the Olympic Museum in Lausanne , Switzerland , where they learnt more about technical areas that would be analyzed throughout the application process . On January 14 , 2008 , the seven Applicant cities returned documents , known as the Application Files , containing the answers and guarantees requested by the 2016 Candidature Acceptance Procedure , which provided to the IOC an overview of each city 's project . The responses were studied by the IOC Working Group for months and served as the basis to the shortlist of Chicago , Tokyo , Rio de Janeiro and Madrid on June 4 , 2008 , becoming Candidate cities during a meeting of the IOC Executive Board at the 2008 SportAccord Convention in Athens , Greece .

Rio de Janeiro bid to host the 1936 , 2004 and the 2012 Games , but failed on every occasion ; missing the shortlist in the two latest attempts , while the bidding process for 1936 did not follow the current standards . For the first time in the Candidature phase , the official bid flag was raised during a ceremony held at the Palácio da Cidade ( English : City 's Palace ) on June 23 , 2008 , celebrating the Olympic Day . On July 3 , 2008 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee paid a fee of USD 500 @,@ 000 to the IOC and signed the Candidature Procedure , reconfirming its acceptance of the rules . Then , Rio officials participated in the Olympic Games Observers Program from August 8 to 24 , during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China ; and attended the IOC Official Debriefing of the Beijing Games from November 24 to 27 , in London , United Kingdom . On February 11 , 2009 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee delivered its Candidature File to the IOC in Lausanne and , eight days later , to the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) in Bonn , Germany ; containing the responses to the 2016 Candidature Procedure and Questionnaire , as well as guarantees and undertakings . The Candidature File had three volumes containing 568 pages of detailed answers to 300 technical questions , divided into 17 themes . Finally , on June 17 , 2009 , the IOC organized the 2016 Candidate Cities Briefing to 93 of its members at the Olympic Museum , being the first such meeting in its history and the most important before the election . Rio officials came out stronger after a presentation of 45 minutes , considered to be exceptional , followed by a session of 16 questions .

Throughout the campaign , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee introduced its plans to the General Assemblies of all Associations of National Olympic Committees ( ANOC ) , making the bid 's first official presentation on October 11 , 2008 , to the Pan American Sports Organization ( PASO ) , in Acapulco , Mexico . On October 21 , the vision was presented to the Olympic Council of Asia ( OCA ) in Bali , Indonesia , followed by the European Olympic Committees ( EOC ) on November 21 , in Istanbul , Turkey . On March 26 , 2009 , Rio officials made a praised presentation during the 2009 SportAccord Convention in Denver , United States . For the first time , a world map of the past Olympic host cities was displayed , subsequently becoming an icon of Rio 's campaign due to the void in South America . On March 31 , 2009 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee made its plea to the Oceania National Olympic Committees ( ONOC ) in Queenstown , New Zealand ; and on July 7 , to the Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa ( ANOCA ) in Abuja , Nigeria . The bid committee also attended many sporting events , such as the Australian and European Youth Olympic Festivals , the Commonwealth Youth Games , the Asian Youth Games and the Mediterranean Games , as well as the Aquatics , Athletics , Rowing and Judo World Championships . The three @-@ year campaign culminated with the beginning of the 13th Olympic Congress in Copenhagen , Denmark , which was officially opened in a ceremony held at the city 's Opera House , and after a lunch offered by Margrethe II , Queen of Denmark , to the heads of state of the four Candidate cities at the Amalienborg Palace .

= = = Evaluation = = =

Rio de Janeiro was primarily evaluated during the Applicant phase , accurately on March 14 , 2008 , when the IOC Working Group released its report after four days of meetings , giving a weighted @-@ average score of 6 @.@ 4 to the bid . It was based on a thorough technical analysis of the projects presented on the Application File , which was developed by the Rio de Janeiro bid committee after having access to the Olympic Games Knowledge Management database as well as the official IOC Technical Manuals . The Working Group composed of several experts assessed the city 's potential for staging successful Olympic Games according to eleven criteria presented in the Application File . Rio de Janeiro 's highest score came from Government support , legal issues and public opinion due to the strong government commitment , and its lowest from Safety and security due to the city 's chronic problems of violence . Experience in major events also yielded good scores , while a shortage in the number of required hotel rooms undermined the accommodation theme . The Working Group also gave an 8 @.@ 3 score to Tokyo , 8 @.@ 1 to Madrid , 7 @.@ 0 to Chicago , 6 @.@ 9 to Doha , 5 @.@ 3 to Prague and 4 @.@ 3 to Baku ; being the basis for the selection to the Candidature phase . On September 18 , 2008 , after the shortlist which concluded the Application phase , the IOC announced the composition of its Evaluation Commission . The commission inspected the four Candidate cities under the leadership of Nawal El Moutawakel , who also chaired the Evaluation Commission for the bid process of the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics .

The IOC Evaluation Commission arrived in Rio de Janeiro on April 27 , 2009 , to assess the quality of the bid , stating that the welcoming activities prepared by the city had been the best . Unlike the first evaluation , the committee did not assign scores , but analyzed the probability of execution of the plans . During the first two days of the visit , the Evaluation Commission held internal meetings at Copacabana Palace , the host hotel . Between April 29 and 30 , the Commission attended technical presentations in a large ballroom equipped with lighting and multi @-@ media resources , where it participated in question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions about each of the seventeen themes presented in the Candidature File . May Day was marked by the inspectors ' visits to all existing venues across the city . On May 2 , 2009 , the Evaluation Commission made a press conference to highlight the main points of the visit . According to El Moutawakel , the Commission was very impressed with the unity of government support , the quality of the presentations and the level of integration of the Games in the country 's long @-@ term development plan . After seven days of inspections involving 300 professionals , the thirteen members of the IOC Evaluation Commission left Rio de Janeiro on May 3 , 2009 , on the way to Madrid . One month before the election , on September 2 , 2009 , Rio officials welcomed the released of the 2016 Evaluation Commission Report . It gave a very positive assessment to the city and described the documents submitted by Rio de Janeiro as " of a very high quality " .

= = = Election = = =

The election of the host city took place at Bella Center on October 2 , 2009 , in Copenhagen , during the 121st IOC Session . Rio de Janeiro was the third city to present plans to the IOC members , entering the Hall A of Bella Center at 12 : 05 ( CEST ) with a delegation of 60 people , among bid leaders , government authorities and athletes . João Havelange made the opening speech and invited everyone to celebrate his centenary in Rio de Janeiro in 2016 . Carlos Arthur Nuzman was the next speaker , talking about experiences of the Olympic movement , and who introduced the iconic map of past Olympic host cities . Governor Sérgio Cabral then spoke about projects related to security and transportation , followed by Henrique Meirelles , who explained the economic situation of Brazil . Mayor Eduardo Paes was responsible for presenting the venues plan alongside Carlos Roberto Osório , while they were complemented by Olympic sailor Isabel Swan , who stated that the project had been made thinking on athletes . Swan cited the other athletes present in the plenary : former football player Pelé , Paralympic swimmer Daniel Dias and junior athlete Bárbara Leôncio . After that , President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva made a plea to bring the Games for the first time to South America , saying that was " time to light the Olympic cauldron in a tropical country " . Nuzman returned and concluded the presentation , which included a short film ( called UnityA ) by Academy Award nominated director Fernando Meirelles , and a music video ( called CelebrationB ) with an English version of " Aquele Abraço " by Gilberto Gil .

After the presentation , the session was opened for questions . Nuzman clarified doubts by Arne Ljungqvist about doping legislation ; Osório and Cabral answered two questions by Prince Albert of Monaco about accommodation and the project 's legacy , respectively ; and the President of Brazil himself responded to a question by Austin Sealy about organization risks . Following the presentations by the four Candidate cities , Nawal El Moutawakel presented the report of the Evaluation Commission to the Session . From a total of 106 eligible IOC members , 95 were available to vote in the first round . Members from the four bidding countries were not allowed to vote until their city was eliminated . Alpha Ibrahim Diallo , Kun Hee Lee , Saku Koivu and the IOC president were eligible members who did not vote . Chicago fell in the first round with 18 votes , while Tokyo received 22 , Rio 26 , and Madrid 28 . In the second round , Tokyo was eliminated with 20 votes , while Madrid received 29 and Rio 46 . Rio de Janeiro was elected in the final round with 66 votes over 32 for Madrid . The winning city was revealed by Jacques Rogge at 6 : 30 ( CEST ) during an announcement ceremony hosted by Lillian Gjerulf Kretz and Jonathan Edwards . Nearly 100 @,@ 000 people celebrated the victory on Copacabana beach while watching the live broadcast . Following the announcement , Richard Carrión , Rogge , Nuzman and Paes signed the Host City Contract and officialized Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games .

= = Bid concept = =

According to the Rio de Janeiro bid committee , the bid 's concept was based on four principles — technical excellence , experience of a lifetime , transformation , and supporting the Olympic and Paralympic Movements — highlighting the city 's celebration lifestyle , as seen on its promotional video ( called PassionC ) . The 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics will embed the Games in society as a catalyst for social integration , through programs for job generation , education , community outreach , volunteerism , training and up @-@ skilling initiatives . The campaign also focused on youth and the fact that South America never hosted the Olympic Games , considering it to be a " self affirmation " of the Brazilian people . Rio de Janeiro integrated economic , environmental and social elements into its " Green Games for a Blue Planet " vision and planted 2386 seedlings to offset 716 tons of carbon emitted over the two years of campaign . Athletes and spectators will enjoy good climatic conditions in Rio de Janeiro , where mild southern hemisphere winter with absence of heavy rainfall provides favorable atmosphere for athletic performance . Average midday temperature of 24 @.@ 2 ° C ( 75 @.@ 6 ° F ) is predicted during the proposed dates for the Games , with temperatures ranging from 18 @.@ 9 ° C ( 66 @.@ 0 ° F ) to 28 @.@ 1 ° C ( 82 @.@ 6 ° F ) and humidity levels of 66 @.@ 4 % .

The visual identity of the candidature consisted of a logo and a slogan , which were applied in marketing moves during the campaign . Designed by Ana Soter and selected among four finalists by a special jury , the logo was unveiled during the 2007 Brazilian Olympic Awards , held at the Municipal Theater of Rio de Janeiro , on December 17 , 2007 . The Sugarloaf Mountain was chosen to be the symbol as one of the city 's most famous landmarks . According to the Rio de Janeiro bid committee , the design as a whole conveys a heart shape , representing Brazilian passion and enthusiasm for sports . First with only the inscription " Applicant city " , the logo received the Olympic rings and the label " Candidate city " after being shortlisted . At midnight on January 1 , 2009 , the bid 's slogan " Live your passion " was launched as part of the New Year 's celebrations , which was attended by nearly two million people . According to the Rio de Janeiro bid committee , the slogan reflected the Brazilian 's way of getting passionately involved in whatever they do . It was projected onto the Rio de Janeiro 2016 @-@ themed Ferris wheel after the countdown to the beginning of 2009 . The structure erected on Copacabana beach to promote the candidature was 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) high , weighed 80 tonnes ( 180 @,@ 000 lb ) and had 24 gondolas for 144 people .

Rio de Janeiro previously hosted major sporting , business and cultural events . On the sporting front , these events included World Cups and World Championships in many Olympic sports , as well as regional championships . From July 13 to July 29 , 2007 , the city successfully staged the 15th and largest ever edition of the Pan American Games ( over 5 @,@ 650 athletes competing in 34 sports ) and the accompanying Parapan American Games ( over 1 @,@ 150 athletes competing in 10 sports ) . Rio de Janeiro hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup and recently hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup , just two years before the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games , which includes upgrades to security , telecommunications and tourism infrastructure . The 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup will also be organised by Brazil and used as a test event for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . The proposed competition schedule spreads medals across the entire program with two peaks at the weekends , being similar to the 2008 Summer Olympics program . The period proposed by the Rio de Janeiro bid committee to stage the 2016 Summer Olympics is from Friday , August 5 , to Sunday , August 21 , 2016 . It is also proposed that the 2016 Summer Paralympics begin on the Independence Day of Brazil , Wednesday , September 7 , and last until Sunday , September 18 .

= = = Politics = = =

The Rio de Janeiro bid committee was an incorporated non @-@ profit entity under the leadership of an Honorary Council and an Executive Board , both chaired by Carlos Arthur Nuzman . At the highest level , the Honorary Council comprised the President of the Federative Republic of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , the Governor of the State of Rio de Janeiro Sérgio Cabral , the Mayor of the Municipality of Rio de Janeiro Eduardo Paes , and the two Brazilian IOC members : Nuzman and João Havelange . At the executive level , the Executive Board was divided in four departments — Government Coordination Commission , Business Council , Legacy Committee and Athletes ' Commission — being responsible for the main operations of the campaign . The Board also included representations from the three levels of Government with the specific authority to make commitments on behalf of their respective Governments . Technical aspects of the bid were supported by various Councils and Committees composed of a professionals staff , and supplemented by a team of domestic and international experts ; which were coordinated by Carlos Roberto Osório , Secretary General of the bid committee . Mike Lee , former Director of Communications and Public Affairs for the London bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics , was the lead advisor to the bid of Rio de Janeiro . His company , Vero Campaigning Communications , was responsible for planning the bid 's advertising campaign strategy , presentation scripts , visual support development and international media relations , as well as international press conferences .

Rio de Janeiro had full political backing from the three levels of the Government of Brazil — Federal , State and City — providing all guarantees and covenants required by the IOC , as well as some additional undertakings . All levels government , as well as all major political parties in the country , pledged complete support for the bid and endorsed the conduct of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in Brazil . On June 23 , 2008 , the Brazilian president formed the Government Action Management Committee , under the patronage of the Minister of Sport Orlando Silva , which coordinated Federal government actions during the bid process . Another act created the Olympic Development Authority ( ODA ) on January 17 , 2009 , to coordinate public services and infrastructure delivery for eventual Games in Rio de Janeiro , based in the pioneer model developed by Sydney for the 2000 Summer Olympics and Paralympics . Under legal aspects , the Organising Committee for the Olympic Games ( OCOG ) would be the entity responsible for planning and staging the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games . According to the IOC , the existing legislation was sufficient to enable the organization of the Games and would be amended or modified to suit the Olympic Charter if needed . The Ministry of External Relations and the Ministry of Labor guaranteed the entry , exit and working arrangements for Games personnel . People in possession of a valid passport and an Olympic or Paralympic Identity and Accreditation Card , in lieu of a visa , will be able to enter the Brazilian territory .

= = = Controversies = = =

The IOC 's decision to shorlist Rio de Janeiro over Doha generated criticism , as the Doha bid committee accused the IOC of " closing the door on the Arab world " and of making a political decision rather than judging on technical grounds . Doha outperformed Rio de Janeiro in the majority of the categories assessed , but according to the IOC , Doha 's desire to stage the Olympics in October because of high temperatures was the reason the bid was rejected . On May 3 , 2009 , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee accused the Madrid bid committee of sending a spy to Rio de Janeiro during the visit of the Evaluation Commission , and considered filing a formal ethics complaint with the IOC . Simon Walsh , who claimed to be a reporter working for EFE , omitted the fact that he was a paid consultant of the Madrid bid committee and was stripped of his media accreditation . Madrid officials denied the accusations . On June 14 , 2009 , the American television network NBC aired the episode " The Glory That Was ... " from the series Law & Order : Criminal Intent , in which a security company , interested in millionaire contracts with the possibility of hosting the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil , bought votes of members of the " Olympic Site Selection Committee " for Rio de Janeiro and murdered a member of the Belgian Olympic Committee . When aired by AXN in Brazil on September 3 , 2009 , the episode received much criticism . Eduardo Paes called the show " ridiculous and pathetic " , while the Rio de Janeiro bid committee condemned the " irresponsible and reckless use " of the city 's image .

Ahead of the election , the Rio de Janeiro bid committee lodged an official complaint against Madrid with the IOC Ethics Commission about comments made on September 30 , 2009 , by José Maria Odriozola , vice president of the Spanish Olympic Committee ( SOC ) ; and considered doing it against Chicago due to comments by Richard M. Daley , Mayor of Chicago , on September 21 , 2009 . Odriozola called Rio de Janeiro " the worst of the four candidates " , while Rio officials believe that Daley implied that the city was incapable of hosting the Olympics when he said it was " not the same as hosting the [ 2014 ] FIFA World Cup " . Mercedes Coghen apologised for Odriozola 's comments on behalf of the Madrid bid committee . According to the IOC rules , rival cities are not allowed to directly criticise other bidders . After the conclusion of the bid process , Shintarō Ishihara , Governor of Tokyo , blamed " invisible dynamics " and political deals for Tokyo 's failure . Rio officials repudiated " the inappropriate statements " and sent a formal notification to the IOC on October 6 , 2009 . On November 30 , 2009 , the Hollywood actor Robin Williams caused embarrassment due to humorous comments made in an interview with David Letterman . During the Late Show with David Letterman , broadcast by CBS , Williams said that Rio de Janeiro was elected as host city because it sent " 50 strippers and a pound of blow " to compete with Michelle Obama and Oprah Winfrey , from Chicago . The comments were widely criticized by the Brazilian media and government authorities .

= = Bid project = =

Rio de Janeiro proposed to hold all sporting events within the city limits — apart from the football ( soccer ) tournaments which would be held in the cities of Belo Horizonte , Brasília , Salvador and São Paulo — making the Games more compact and technically feasible . The competition venues will be located in four Olympic zones — Barra , Copacabana , Deodoro , and Maracanã — and divided in seven Olympic clusters — Barra , Copacabana , Deodoro , Flamengo , João Havelange , Lagoa and Maracanã — with four Olympic precincts — Maracanã , Olympic Park , Riocentro and X Park . The Olympic and Paralympic Village , the International Broadcast Centre ( IBC ) and the Main Press Centre ( MPC ) will be located at the Barra zone , which is the core of the project and includes the largest number of competition venues . A television tower will be built at the IBC / MPC complex to complement broadcasting operations and provide panoramic studios . There will be a media @-@ exclusive hotel within the complex , accessible directly from the IBC / MPC . The Olympic and Paralympic Village complex will include an Olympic Village Training Center , an Olympic Village Park , an Olympic Beach and direct access to the Olympic Park , in addition to the 8 @,@ 856 rooms to accommodate over 17 @,@ 770 athletes and team officials , including accredited additional officials .

Rio de Janeiro 's competition venues meet the International Federation 's ( IFs ) technical requirements and both IOC and IPC standards , and align with the City Master Plan and legacy strategy . Most venues are already operational , recently developed or renovated . According to the Rio de Janeiro 2016 bid committee , there are ten ( 29 % ) existing venues with no permanent works required and eight ( 24 % ) venues requiring reforms , while nine ( 26 % ) new permanent venues and seven ( 21 % ) temporary venues will be built . In total there will be 34 competition venues alongside 29 training venues , as part of the training venues strategy . The most significant legacy project from the bid is the Olympic Training Center ( OTC ) program and facilities with its headquarters located in Barra zone . Furthermore , the Rio de Janeiro 2016 bid committee recognized the possibility of new sports being added to the Olympic Program and , following detailed analysis for each of the seven potential sports — baseball , golf , karate , roller sports , rugby , softball and squash — confirmed its capability to accommodate any of them in respect to venues , transport and other operational or logistical aspects . In addition , Rio de Janeiro and the four proposed cities to hold football ( soccer ) competitions — Brasília , Belo Horizonte , Salvador and São Paulo — were chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup .

Rio de Janeiro will build the Summer Paralympics , upon the experience of hosting the III Parapan American Games — considered " the best ever " by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) and the Americas Paralympic Committee ( APC ) — as well as many other international competitions for athletes with disabilities . For this purpose , the organizing committee will include representatives of the Brazilian Paralympic Committee ( BPC ) and create a specific department responsible for supervising the Games . Another element that will bring the Paralympics up to par with their Olympic counterpart is the reuse of twenty Olympic competition venues for the equivalent Paralympic sports . Promotion of accessibility @-@ friendly measures by the hospitality and tourism industries will also be encouraged and recognized by the government .

= = = Infrastructure = = =

Rio de Janeiro 's infrastructure , systems , management structures and staff readiness will be tested during the 2014 FIFA World Cup and during dedicated test events for the transport network in 2015 . There will be 49 @,@ 750 rooms to meet IOC requirements , of which some 1 @,@ 700 are located in apartment hotels in the city and more than 13 @,@ 000 in hotels throughout Rio de Janeiro and the football tournament host cities . Rio de Janeiro proposed the use of cruise ships and condominium apartments to overcome a possible shortage in the number of hotel rooms . Six modern cruise ships will provide more than 8 @,@ 500 cabins . Media would be accommodated in a combination of media villages and hotels . Rio de Janeiro plans to implement 150 km ( 93 mi ) of Olympic lanes connecting the four Olympic zones and the Antônio Carlos Jobim International Airport . An existing corridor of high @-@ capacity rail and metro systems as well as motorways and major roads links three of the four Olympic zones , and with the development of the western corridor , all four zones will be connected . Bus Rapid Transit ( BRT ) system is going to be the main solution to the city 's topography . Security and disaster @-@ related risks for the event will be mitigated by the implementation of a comprehensive security operation . Crime in parts of Rio de Janeiro was considered to be an issue for the safety of people attending the Games . Rio de Janeiro 's experience in mounting security structures around highly mediatized and crowd @-@ attracting events is a positive aspect . The Federal Government will be responsible for the security of the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics .

= = = Finance = = =

The three levels of Brazilian government assured the free provision of a range of services to the bid , including security , medical services , customs , transport , immigration , and other governmental services and support . Rio de Janeiro also approved funding of US $ 240 billion from the Program for Growth Acceleration ( PAC ) of the federal government . Other revenue @-@ generating activities include sponsorship sales , ticketing program , licensing and merchandising . These revenues will be supplemented by IOC @-@ secured commercial and broadcast contributions . Capital expenditure on infrastructure by the government or the private sector includes already committed and ongoing investments of US $ 3 @.@ 9 billion on projects such as airport and subway expansions and construction of the metropolitan road arc . The OCOG budget does not assume any capital contributions to the construction of permanent or legacy venues , other than for Games overlay , including the construction of temporary venues . The balance of OCOG expenditures will be funded by the public sector , involving a combination of government commitments from Federal , State and Municipal levels . The OCOG budget and operating expenses are projected at US $ 2 @.@ 8 billion , with its Olympic @-@ related budget , including capital investments in transportation , sports venues and incremental costs being US $ 11 @.@ 6 billion . The government submitted guarantees to cover any potential shortfall . The bid expenses for both Applicant and Candidature phases were of R $ 85 @,@ 792 million , as released during the official closing of the campaign on November 11 , 2009 .

= New Jersey Route 65 =

Route 65 is a former state highway in the city of Newark , New Jersey . The route went for 4 @.@ 12 miles ( 6 @.@ 63 km ) along Port Street and Doremus Avenue through the industrial districts of the city . Route 65 began at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and 9 near Newark Liberty International Airport . The route crossed over the New Jersey Turnpike along Port Street until an intersection with Doremus Avenue , where it turned northward for the rest of the distance , terminating at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and 9 Truck .

Route 65 was originally planned in 1939 as a spur of Route 25 , Route 25B , in Newark to connect that route with Route 25T ( now U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck ) . The route lasted for 14 years , until January 1 , 1953 , when the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering occurred . Route 25B was decommissioned on that day , along with its parent route , Route 25 . Route 25B was redesigned as Route 65 , and was removed from the state highway system by 1963 . The two roads are now maintained by the city of Newark .

= = Route description = =

Route 65 began at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 and 9 in the area of Newark Liberty International Airport in the city of Newark . The route progressed eastward along Port Street , a divided highway for a short distance . The route crossed the access road to the airport before crossing over the newly constructed New Jersey Turnpike south of Interchange 14 . From there , Route 65 continued as Port Street but as one roadway into the industrial districts in Newark . The route progressed further over a railroad before intersecting with Doremus Avenue , where Route 65 turned northward off of Port Street . Both Port Street and Doremus Avenue dead @-@ end right after this respective intersection , Doremus Avenue to the south and Port Street to the east .

From there , Route 65 headed northward along Doremus Avenue , crossing over the Newark Bay Extension ( Interstate 78 ) just north of the intersection . The route continued through the industrial district , reaching higher in elevation on a bridge over the Central Railroad of New Jersey ( now Conrail Shared Assets Operations , CSAO ) . From there , the route paralleled the turnpike 's mainline along Doremus Avenue . At the intersection with Raymond Boulevard , Route 65 became a divided highway once again , terminating at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck in the city of Newark .

= = History = =

Route 65 was originally designated in 1939 as State Highway Route 25B , a spur off of State Highway Route 25 ( now U.S. Route 1 and 9 ) at a traffic circle near the Newark Metropolitan Airport ( now Newark Liberty International Airport ) . The route was then to commence along Port Street and Doremus Avenue to an intersection with State Highway Route 25T ( now U.S. Route 1 and 9 Truck ) . Route 25B remained intact along the alignment of Port Street and Doremus Avenue until January 1 , 1953 . On that day , the New Jersey State Highway Department renumbered routes in the state , and eliminated Route 25 entirely . Due to decommissioning of Route 25 , Route 25B was renumbered to Route 65 , eliminating the relation to former Route 25 or U.S. Route 1 and 9 . Route 65 remained on the Port Street and Doremus Avenue alignment for a short time , and was completely eliminated from the state system by 1963 . Port Street and Doremus Avenue are both now maintained by the city of Newark but both are of the National Highway System as of 2009 . In 2001 , the bridge over the CSAO line was reconstructed .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route was in Newark , Essex County .

= Giacomo Meyerbeer =

Giacomo Meyerbeer ( born Jacob Liebmann Beer ; 5 September 1791 – 2 May 1864 ) was a German opera composer of Jewish birth who has been described as perhaps the most successful stage composer of the nineteenth century . With his 1831 opera Robert le diable and its successors , he gave the genre of grand opera ' decisive character ' . Meyerbeer 's grand opera style was achieved by his merging of German orchestra style with Italian vocal tradition . These were employed in the context of sensational and melodramatic libretti created by Eugène Scribe and were enhanced by the up @-@ to @-@ date theatre technology of the Paris Opéra . They set a standard which helped to maintain Paris as the opera capital of the nineteenth century .

Born to a very wealthy Berlin family , Meyerbeer began his musical career as a pianist but soon decided to devote himself to opera , spending several years in Italy studying and composing . His 1824 opera Il crociato in Egitto was the first to bring him Europe @-@ wide reputation , but it was Robert le diable ( 1831 ) which raised his status to great celebrity . His public career , lasting from then until his death , during which he remained a dominating figure in the world of opera , was summarized by his contemporary Hector Berlioz , who claimed that he ' has not only the luck to be talented , but the talent to be lucky . ' He was at his peak with his operas Les Huguenots ( 1836 ) and Le prophète ( 1849 ) ; his last opera ( L 'Africaine ) was performed posthumously . His operas made him the most frequently performed composer at the world 's leading opera houses in the nineteenth century .

At the same time as his successes in Paris , Meyerbeer , as a Prussian Court Kapellmeister ( Director of Music ) from 1832 , and from 1843 as Prussian General Music Director , was also influential in opera in Berlin and throughout Germany . He was an early supporter of Richard Wagner , enabling the first production of the latter 's opera , Rienzi . He was commissioned to write the patriotic opera Ein Feldlager in Schlesien to celebrate the reopening of the Berlin Royal Opera House in 1844 and wrote music for certain Prussian state occasions .

Apart from around 50 songs , Meyerbeer wrote little except for the stage . The critical assaults of Wagner and his supporters , especially after his death , led to a decline in the popularity of his works ; his operas were suppressed by the Nazi regime in Germany , and were neglected by opera houses through most of the twentieth century . Meyerbeer 's works are only infrequently performed today .

= = Early years = =

Meyerbeer 's birthname was Jacob Liebmann Beer ; he was born in Tasdorf ( now a part of Rüdersdorf ) , near Berlin , then the capital of Prussia , to a Jewish family . His father was the enormously wealthy financier Judah Herz Beer ( 1769 – 1825 ) and his mother , Amalia ( Malka ) Wulff ( 1767 – 1854 ) , to whom he was particularly devoted , also came from the moneyed elite . Their other children included the astronomer Wilhelm Beer and the poet Michael Beer . He was to adopt the surname Meyerbeer on the death of his grandfather Liebmann Meyer Wulff ( 1811 ) and the first name Giacomo during his period of study in Italy , around 1817 .

Judah Beer was a leader of the Berlin Jewish community and maintained a private synagogue in his house which leaned towards reformist views . Jacob Beer wrote an early cantata for performance at this synagogue . Both Judah Herz Beer and his wife were close to the Prussian court ; when Amalia was awarded in 1816 the Order of Louise , she was given , by Royal dispensation , not the traditional Cross but a portrait bust of the Queen . The Beer children were provided with a fine education ; their tutors included two of the leaders of the enlightened Jewish intelligentsia , the author Aaron Halle @-@ Wolfssohn and Edmund Kley , ( later a reform movement rabbi in Hamburg ) to whom they remained attached into their maturity . The brothers Alexander von Humboldt , the renowned naturalist , geographer and explorer , and the philosopher , linguist and diplomat Wilhelm von Humboldt were close friends of the family circle .

Beer 's first keyboard instructor was Franz Lauska , a pupil of Johann Georg Albrechtsberger and a favoured teacher at the Berlin court . Beer also became one of Muzio Clementi 's pupils while Clementi was in Berlin . The boy made his public debut in 1801 playing Mozart 's D minor Piano Concerto in Berlin . The Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung reported : ' The amazing keyboard playing of young Bär ( a Jewish lad of 9 ) , who carried off the difficult passages and other solo parts with aplomb , and has fine powers of rendition even more rarely found in one of his age , made the concert even more interesting ' .

Beer , as he still named himself , studied with Antonio Salieri and the German master and friend of Goethe , Carl Friedrich Zelter . Louis Spohr organised a concert for Beer at Berlin in 1804 and continued his acquaintance with the lad later in Vienna and Rome . A portrait of Jacob commissioned by the family at this time shows him ' confidently facing the viewer , his hair romantically dishevelled … his left hand rests on the keyboard , and his right hand grasps a musical manuscript … plac [ ing ] its subject in the tradition of the young Mozart ' . Beer 's first stage work , the ballet Der Fischer und das Milchmädchen ( The Fisherman and the Milkmaid ) was produced in March 1810 at the Court Opera in Berlin . His formal training with the Abbé Vogler at Darmstadt between 1810 and 1812 was , however , of crucial importance , and at around this time he begins to sign himself ' Meyer Beer ' . Here , with his fellow students ( who included Carl Maria von Weber ) , he learnt not only the craft of composition but also the business of music ( organising concerts and dealing with publishers ) . Forming a close friendship with Weber and other pupils , Meyerbeer established the Harmonischer Verein ( Musical Union ) , whose members undertook to support each other with favourable press criticism and networking . On 12 February 1813 Beer received the first of the string of honours he was to accumulate throughout his life when he was appointed ' Court Composer ' by Grand Duke Ludwig of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt .

Throughout his early career , although determined to become a musician , Beer found it difficult to decide between playing and composition . Certainly other professionals in the decade 1810 – 1820 , including Moscheles , considered him amongst the greatest virtuosi of his period . He wrote during this period numerous piano pieces , including a concerto and set of variations for piano and orchestra , but these have been lost . To this period also belongs a Clarinet Quintet written for the virtuoso Heinrich Baermann ( 1784 – 1847 ) who remained a close friend of the composer .

= = Career = =

= = = In Italy = = =

Despite performances of his oratorio Gott und die Natur ( God and Nature ) ( Berlin , 1811 ) and his early operas Jephtas Gelübde ( Jephtha 's Vow ) ( Munich , 1812 ) and Wirth und Gast ( Landlord and Guest ) ( Stuttgart , 1813 ) in Germany , Meyerbeer had set his sights by 1814 on basing an operatic career in Paris . In the same year , his opera Die beiden Kalifen ( The Two Caliphs ) , a version of Wirth und Gast , was a disastrous failure in Vienna . Realizing that a full understanding of Italian opera was essential for his musical development , he went to study in Italy , enabled by the financial support of his family . He arrived in Italy at the beginning of 1816 , after visits to Paris and London , where he heard Cramer play . In Paris , he wrote to a friend , ' I go from museum to museum , library to library , theatre to theatre , with the restlessness of the Wandering Jew ' .

During his years in Italy Meyerbeer became acquainted with , and impressed by , the works of his contemporary Gioachino Rossini , who by 1816 , at the age of 24 , was already director of both major opera houses in Naples and in the same year premiered his operas The Barber of Seville and Otello . Meyerbeer wrote a series of Italian operas on Rossinian models , including Romilda e Costanza ( Padua , 1817 ) , Semiramide riconosciuta ( Turin , 1819 ) , Emma di Resburgo ( Venice , 1819 ) , Margherita d 'Anjou ( Milan 1820 ) and L 'esule di Granata ( Milan 1821 ) . All but the last two of these had libretti by Gaetano Rossi , whom Meyerbeer continued to support until the latter 's death in 1855 , although not commissioning any further libretti from him after Il crociato in Egitto ( 1824 ) . During a visit to Sicily in 1816 , Meyerbeer noted down a number of folksongs , and these in fact constitute the earliest collection of folk music of the region . In a birthday greeting from Rossi 's wife in 1817 occurs the earliest use discovered of Meyerbeer 's adopted forename ' Giacomo ' .

= = = Recognition = = =

The name Giacomo Meyerbeer first became known internationally with his opera Il crociato in Egitto — premiered in Venice in 1824 and produced in London and Paris in 1825 ; incidentally , it was the last opera ever written to feature a castrato , and the last to require keyboard accompaniment for recitatives . This ' breakthrough ' in Paris was exactly what Meyerbeer had been aiming for over the past ten years ; he had been carefully preparing for it , developing contacts , and fully reaped his reward .

In 1826 , shortly after the death of his father , Meyerbeer married his cousin , Minna Mosson ( 1804 – 1886 ) . The marriage which may have been ' dynastic ' in its origins proved to be stable and devoted ; the couple were to have five children , of whom the three youngest ( all daughters ) survived to adulthood . In the same year , following the death of Carl Maria von Weber , Weber 's widow asked Meyerbeer to complete her husband 's unfinished comic opera Die drei Pintos . This was to cause him much trouble over future years , as he found the material insufficient to work on . Eventually in 1852 he settled the matter with Weber 's heirs by handing them Weber 's drafts and a cash compensation . ( The opera was later completed by Gustav Mahler ) .

With his next opera Meyerbeer became virtually a superstar . Robert le diable ( with libretto by Eugène Scribe and Germain Delavigne ) , produced in Paris in 1831 , was one of the earliest grand operas . The libretto , originally planned in 1827 as a three @-@ act opéra comique for the Opéra @-@ Comique theatre , was refashioned after 1829 in a five @-@ act form to meet the requirements of the Paris Opéra . Its revised characterisation as a ' grand opera ' placed it in succession to Auber 's La muette de Portici ( 1828 ) and Rossini 's Guillaume Tell ( 1829 ) in this new genre . The composer undertook further work on the opera in early 1831 adding ballet episodes , including the " Ballet of Nuns " , which was to prove one of the opera 's great sensations , becoming an early example of the ballet blanc genre . He also rewrote the two major male roles of Bertrand and Robert to suit the talents of Nicolas Levasseur and Adolphe Nourrit , respectively . At the invitation of Nourrit , Cornélie Falcon made her debut at the age of 18 at the Opéra in the role of Alice on 20 July 1832 , and she made a vivid impression on the public , which included on that night Auber , Berlioz , Halévy , Maria Malibran , Giulia Grisi , Honoré Daumier , Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo . On hearing her in the role , Meyerbeer himself declared his opera at last ' complete ' .

The success of the opera led to Meyerbeer himself becoming a celebrity . In January 1832 he was awarded membership of the Légion d 'honneur . This success – coupled with Meyerbeer 's known family wealth – inevitably also precipitated envy amongst his peers . Berlioz – who had commented that ' Meyerbeer not only had the luck to be talented , he had the talent to be lucky ' – wrote ' I can 't forget that Meyerbeer was only able to persuade [ the Opéra ] to put on Robert le diable ... by paying the administration sixty thousand francs of his own money ' ; and Chopin lamented ' Meyerbeer had to work for three years and pay his own expenses for his stay in Paris before Robert le diable could be staged .... Three years , that 's a lot – it 's too much . ' King Frederick William III of Prussia who attended the second performance of Robert le diable , swiftly invited him to compose a German opera , and Meyerbeer was invited to stage Robert in Berlin . Within a few years the opera had been staged with success all over Europe , and also in the USA .

The fusion of dramatic music , melodramatic plot , and sumptuous staging in Robert le diable proved a sure @-@ fire formula , as did the partnership with Scribe , which Meyerbeer would go on to repeat in Les Huguenots , Le prophète , and L 'Africaine . All of these operas held the international stage throughout the 19th century , as did the more pastoral Dinorah ( 1859 ) , making Meyerbeer the most frequently performed composer at leading opera houses in the nineteenth century .

= = = Between Paris and Berlin = = =

= = = = 1832 – 1839 = = = =

Letellier describes Meyerbeer 's mature life as ' a tale of two cities ... His artistic triumph and legendary status were achieved in Paris ... but he never abandoned Prussia , especially his home city of Berlin ' . His wife Minna was based in Berlin ( she did not enjoy Paris ) as was his beloved mother ; and he had a series of Royal duties from the Prussian court , stemming from his appointment as Court Kapellmeister in 1832 . For these reasons his life from 1830 onwards is characterised by travel between these two centres .

In Paris Meyerbeer had been asked by Louis Véron , the director of the Opéra , for a new work . At first he attempted to persuade Véron to accept the opéra @-@ comique Le portefaix to a libretto by Scribe , which he had been contracted to compose in early 1831 ; but Véron insisted on a full five @-@ act piece . Together with Scribe , Meyerbeer reviewed many subjects before deciding , in 1832 , on Les Huguenots . The contract which Meyerbeer signed with Véron contained a penalty clause if the work was not delivered by the end of 1833 . When the time came and the opera was not ready , Véron claimed his 30 @,@ 000 francs under this clause ; Meyerbeer was perhaps unique amongst composers in being able to pay this . In fact Véron refunded the money under a further agreement , when the opera was delivered in late 1834 ; but Veron himself was replaced as director of the Opera by Henri Duponchel before Les Huguenots was premiered on 29 February 1836 . It was an immediate and immense success , its splendid staging and effects exceeding even those of Fromental Halévy 's La Juive , which had premiered the previous year . Berlioz called the score " a musical encyclopaedia " , and the singing , especially of Nourrit and Falcon , was universally praised . Les Huguenots was the first opera to be performed at the Opéra more than 1 @,@ 000 times ( the 1,000th performance being on 16 May 1906 ) and continued to be produced up to 1936 , more than a century after its premiere . Its many performances in all other of the world 's major opera houses give it a claim to being the most successful opera of the 19th century .

However , in Berlin Meyerbeer faced many problems , including the enmity of the jealous Gaspare Spontini , who since 1820 had been Court Kapellmeister and director of the Berlin Hofoper . Complaints were made in the Berlin press about the delay of the Berlin premiere of Robert le diable ( which finally took place in June 1832 ) , and Meyerbeer 's music was decried by the critic and poet Ludwig Rellstab . There was no sign of the German opera expected from Meyerbeer . Moreover , reactionary censorship laws prevented production of Les Huguenots in Berlin , ( and indeed in many other cities of Germany ) . Nevertheless , Meyerbeer , who ( as he wrote to a friend ) ' years ago ... swore to myself never to respond personally to attacks on my work , and never under any circumstances to cause or respond to personal polemics ' , refused to be drawn on any of these matters .

Meanwhile , in Paris Meyerbeer began to seek new libretti , initially considering Le prophète of Scribe , Le cinq mars by Henri Saint @-@ Georges and eventually settling on Scribe 's Vasco da Gama ( later to become L 'Africaine ) , which he contracted to complete by 1840 . However , Meyerbeer had envisaged that the main role in L 'Africaine would be written for Falcon ; after the catastrophic failure of her voice in 1837 , he turned instead to Le prophète .

On 20 August 1839 Meyerbeer , whilst relaxing at Boulogne in the company of Moscheles , met for the first time with Richard Wagner , who was en route to Paris . Their ensuing relationship ( see below ) was to have major repercussions for the careers and reputations of both . At this meeting Wagner read to Meyerbeer from the libretto of Rienzi , and Meyerbeer agreed to look through the score , which indeed he subsequently recommended for performance at Dresden .

= = = = The 1840s = = = =

By the end of 1841 , Meyerbeer had completed the first draft of Le prophète , but refused to stage it because the then director of the opera , Leon Pillet , wished to cast his mistress , Rosine Stoltz , in the part of Fidès , the hero 's mother . ( Berlioz characterised Stoltz as ' la Directrice du Directeur ' ) . Meyerbeer insisted on Pauline Viardot for the role . Meyerbeer lodged the score with a Parisian lawyer , and refused to countenance any production until his wishes were met . It was not until 1849 when the Opéra was willing to agree his conditions . Meyerbeer was unique in his time in having the wealth and influence to impose his will as a composer in this way .

In the meantime , the situation in Prussia was changing . Following the death of Frederick William III , the new regime of Frederick William IV was far more liberal . Spontini was dismissed , and the Berlin premiere of Les Huguenots was arranged ( 20 May 1842 ) . On the instigation of Alexander von Humboldt , Meyerbeer was installed later in the year as Prussian Generalmusikedirektor and director of music for the Royal Court . Meyerbeer wrote a number of works for court occasions , and also provided music , at the King 's request , for the first staging on Berlin in 1856 of his brother Michael 's play Struensee ( based on the life of Johann Friedrich Struensee ) , which had also been proscribed under the previous regime .

In 1843 , the Berlin Opera house burnt down . The creation of the new building gave a new opportunity to commission a German opera from Meyerbeer . The subject of the opera , Ein Feldlager in Schlesien ( A Silesian Encampment ) , was an episode in the life of Frederick the Great . As this patriotic opera ' needed ' Prussian creators , Meyerbeer arranged that whilst the trusted Scribe would write the libretto , Rellstab would translate it and take the credit ( and the royalties ) . This had the added advantage of winning over the formerly hostile Rellstab . Meyerbeer had hoped to have Jenny Lind ( for whom he had written the part ) sing the lead role of Vielka , but the opera premiered on 7 December 1844 without her ( although she did appear in subsequent performances ) . The libretto was revised by Charlotte Birch @-@ Pfeiffer to a Bohemian background as Vielka for a production in Vienna ( 1847 ) . ( In a further incarnation , the music was later used by Meyerbeer for a revamped libretto by Scribe featuring Peter the Great , and produced as an opéra comique in Paris ( L 'étoile du nord , 1854 ) ) .

With the continuing delays in the production of Le prophète and L 'Africaine , Meyerbeer was now becoming subject to increasing sniping in Paris . In 1846 Meyerbeer began work on a new project with Scribe and Saint @-@ Georges , Noëma , but in the following year Pillet was sacked from the opera and the direction was resumed by Duponchel . As a consequence , Meyerbeer was at last able to stage Le prophète with a cast to his liking , ( including Viardot as Fidès ) , and it premiered on 16 April 1849 . Again Meyerbeer 's new opera was an outstanding success – despite the unusual feature of the lead female role being the hero 's mother , rather than his lover . Amongst those at the 47th performance in February 1850 was Richard Wagner , now an impoverished political exile ; the success of a work so fundamentally against his own operatic principles was one of the spurs to his spiteful anti @-@ Jewish denunciation of Meyerbeer and Mendelssohn , ' Das Judenthum in der Musik ' ( 1850 ) .

= = = = Last years = = = =

Increasing ill @-@ health ( or possibly hypochondria ) now began to restrict Meyerbeer 's output and activities . The death of his beloved mother in 1854 was also a blow . However the success of L 'étoile du nord in 1854 demonstrated that he could still pack the theatres . Following this he began on two new projects , an opera by Scribe based on the biblical story of Judith , and an opéra comique , Le pardon de Ploërmel , ( also known as Dinorah , the title given to the Italian version performed at London ) to a libretto by Jules Barbier . The latter premiered on 4 April 1859 at the Opéra Comique at Paris ; the former , like many previous projects , remained only as sketches . The death of Scribe in 1861 was a further disincentive to Meyerbeer to proceed with his operatic work in progress . In 1862 , in accordance with his original contract with Scribe , he paid Scribe 's widow compensation for not completing Judith .

Nevertheless , Meyerbeer 's last years saw the composition of a good deal of non @-@ operatic music , including a Coronation March for William I of Prussia , ( 1861 ) , an overture for the 1862 International Exhibition in London , and incidental music ( now lost ) to Henry Blaze de Bury 's play La jeunesse de Goethe ( 1860 ) . He composed a few settings of liturgical material , including one of the 91st Psalm ( 1853 ) ; and also choral works for the synagogue at Paris .

Meyerbeer died in Paris on 2 May 1864 . Rossini , who , not having heard the news , came to his apartment the next day intending to meet him , was shocked and fainted . He was moved to write on the spot a choral tribute ( Pleure , pleure , muse sublime ! ) . A special train bore Meyerbeer 's body from the Gare du Nord to Berlin on 6 May , where he was buried in the family vault at the Jewish cemetery in Schönhauser Allee .

L 'Africaine was eventually premiered after Meyerbeer 's death at the Salle Le Peletier on 28 April 1865 in a performing edition undertaken by François @-@ Joseph Fétis .

= = Personality and beliefs = =

Meyerbeer 's immense wealth ( increased by the success of his operas ) and his continuing adherence to his Jewish religion set him apart somewhat from many of his musical contemporaries . They also gave rise to rumours that his success was due to his bribing musical critics . Richard Wagner ( see below ) accused him of being interested only in money , not music . Meyerbeer was , however , a deeply serious musician and a sensitive personality . He philosophically resigned himself to being a victim of his own success : his extensive diaries and correspondence – which survived the turmoil of 20th @-@ century Europe and have now been published in eight volumes – are an invaluable source for the history of music and theatre in the composer 's time .

Meyerbeer 's personal attachment to Judaism was a mature personal decision – after the death of his maternal grandfather in 1811 he wrote to his mother ' Please accept from me a promise that I will always live in the religion in which he died ' . In his diaries he noted significant family events including birthdays , not by their Gregorian calendar occurrence , but by their Jewish calendar dates . Moreover , he regularly suffered from ( and / or imagined ) anti @-@ Jewish slights throughout his life , warning his brothers frequently in his letters against richess ( Yiddish for ' Jew @-@ hatred ' ) . Writing to Heinrich Heine in 1839 , he offered the fatalistic view :

I believe that richess is like love in the theatres and novels : no matter how often one encounters it ... it never misses its target if effectively wielded ... [ Nothing ] can grow back the foreskin of which we are robbed on the eighth day of life ; those who , on the ninth day , do not bleed from this operation shall continue to bleed an entire lifetime , even after death .

It was probably a similar fatalism that led Meyerbeer never to enter public controversy with those who slighted him , either professionally or personally , although he occasionally displayed his grudges in his Diaries ; for example , on hearing Robert Schumann conduct in 1850 : ' I saw for the first time the man who , as a critic , has persecuted me for twelve years with a deadly enmity.'

In his mature operas Meyerbeer selected stories which almost invariably featured as a major element of storyline a hero living within a hostile environment . Robert , Raoul the Huguenot , Jean the prophet , and the defiant Vasco da Gama in L 'Africaine are all ' outsiders ' . It has been suggested that ' Meyerbeer 's choice of these topics is not accidental ; they reflect his own sense of living in a potentially inimical society.'

Meyerbeer 's relationship with Heine displays the awkwardness and prickliness of the social personae of both parties . Meyerbeer , apart from any of his personal feelings , needed Heine onside as an influential personality and writer on music . He genuinely admired Heine 's verse , and made a number of settings from it . Heine , living in Paris from 1830 , always equivocal about his loyalties between Judaism and Christianity , and always short of money , asked Meyerbeer to intervene with Heine 's own family for financial support and frequently took loans and money from Meyerbeer himself . He was not above threatening Meyerbeer with blackmail by writing satirical pieces about him ( and indeed Meyerbeer paid Heine 's widow to suppress such writings ) . And yet , at Heine 's death in 1856 , Meyerbeer wrote in his diary ' Peace be to his ashes . I forgive him from my heart for his ingratitude and many wickednesses against me.'

= = Music and theatre = =

= = = Music = = =

Meyerbeer did not operate on the basis of any theory or philosophy of music and was not an innovator in harmony or musical form . In the words of John H. Roberts , " He had a rich fund of appealing if somewhat short @-@ breathed melody , commanded an increasingly rich harmonic vocabulary , and was a master of brilliant and novel orchestral effect . But he had very limited skill in thematic development and even less in contrapuntal combination . "

All of his significant music is for the voice ( opera and songs ) and this reflects his detailed grounding in Italian opera . Throughout his career he wrote his operas with specific singers in mind and took great care to temper his writing to their strengths ; but at the same time he seemed little interested in expressing the emotions of his characters , preferring to use his music to underline the larger @-@ scale machinations of the plot . In this way he was close to the ideas of his teacher Vogler , himself renowned for his dramatic depictions of nature and incident in keyboard music , who wrote in 1779 that " writing beautifully is easy ; expression is not too difficult ; but only the genius of a great painter ... can choose for each picture agreeable and natural colours that are particular to it . " Indeed , his devotion to the voice often led him to ignore the dramatic cohesion of his operas ; typically , he would write far too much music and the scores of his operas would have to be drastically cut during rehearsals . ( The lengthy overture to Le prophète had to be cut in its entirety , surviving only in a piano arrangement by Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan ) .

The first signs of Meyerbeer breaking with the Italian traditions in which he had trained are in Il crociato in Egitto . Amongst other notable features of the opera were its lavish orchestral forces ( extending to two onstage military bands in the final act ) . The grandiosity of the work reflected the need to make an impact on the sophisticated and technologically advanced stages of London and Paris , for which it was extensively rewritten . Meyerbeer 's contribution was revealed at this stage to be the combination of Italian vocal lines , German orchestration and harmony , and the use of contemporary theatrical techniques , ideas which he carried forward in Robert and his later works . However Meyerbeer 's background in the Italian operatic traditions can be clearly seen as late as 1859 in the ' mad scene ' in Dinorah ( the virtuoso aria Ombre légère ) .

Typical of Meyerbeer 's innovative orchestration is the use in Robert le diable of dark @-@ toned instruments – bassoons , timpani and low brass , including ophicleide – to characterise the diabolical nature of Bertram and his associates . At one point the arrival of a character is announced by a combination of three solo timpani and pizzicato double @-@ basses . Similar adventurousness is shown in Les Huguenots where the composer uses a solo bass clarinet and solo viola d 'amore to accompany arias . For Le prophète , Meyerbeer considered using the newly invented saxophone . Becker suggests that Meyerbeer in all his grand operas often ' created a deliberately ' unbeautiful ' sound ..... with unusual orchestration designed to express ... content rather than produce a sensuous sound ' and opines that this explains much of the criticism he received from German writers on music .

= = = Theatre = = =

Meyerbeer 's concern to integrate musical power with all the resources of contemporary theatre anticipated in some ways the ideas of Wagner 's Gesamtkunstwerk . Becker writes :

Wagner 's idea of music drama ... was originally developed by way of grand opera ... his ideas could never have been realised in their particular form without the pioneering development [ s ] ... that Meyerbeer 's operas were the first to demand .

Meyerbeer was always concerned to intensify the theatricality of his operas , even when new ideas emerged at a relatively late stage in the music 's composition . An example of his receptiveness was the addition of the provocative " Ballet of the Nuns " in the third act of Robert le diable , at the suggestion of Duponchel . The set for the ballet was an innovative and striking design by Duponchel and Pierre @-@ Luc @-@ Charles Ciceri . Duponchel had also introduced technical innovations for the staging , including ' English traps ' for the sudden appearance and disappearance of the ghosts . ( Meyerbeer was led in fact to complain that the spectacle was too much and was pushing his music into the background ) . In Le prophète the skating ballet , which created a great sensation , was composed after rehearsals had begun , in order to capitalise on the new craze for roller skates . The theatre was also able to use new electrical lighting effects to create a powerful sunrise , and to depict the conflagration which ends the opera .

Meyerbeer 's large choral ' tableaux ' also made a major contribution to the overall dramatic effect ; the composer particularly sought opportunities to write such large @-@ scale crowd scenes , and preferred libretti which offered such possibilities . Crosten writes : ' These massive developed sections are the chief glory of the Meyerbeerian opera , for they are not only big in volume but big in their structural design ' .

Mention should also be made of Meyerbeer 's intense concern with the business of opera , which indeed had formed part of his studies under Vogler . This gave him the background not only to deal with complex contractual issues and to negotiate with publishers , but extended to wooing the press and ' marketing ' in general . Indeed , he was probably the originator of the ' press conference ' at which journalists were fed refreshment and information . This marketing and commercialisation of opera was reinforced by Meyerbeer 's Paris publisher Maurice Schlesinger who had established his fortune on the back of Robert , and even persuaded Honoré de Balzac to write a novella ( Gambara ) to promote Les Huguenots . Schlesinger 's publication of Franz Liszt 's Reminiscences de Robert le diable sold out on the day of issue and was immediately reprinted . Such manoeuvres did little to endear Meyerbeer to his fellow artists , and indeed engendered envious comments of the sort already quoted from Berlioz and Chopin .

= = Reception = =

= = = Musical influence = = =

Meyerbeer had no pupils and no direct ' school ' . Yet as his works spanned the golden age of grand opera , clear traces of his influence can be found in the grand operas of Fromental Halévy , Gaetano Donizetti , Giuseppe Verdi and others . After 1850 , Huebner notes a continuing tradition of operas at Paris where ' principals appear with chorus at the end of an act and where private intrigue conjoins a well @-@ articulated public dimension in the plot ' and cites amongst others Charles Gounod 's La nonne sanglante ( 1854 ) , Ambroise Thomas 's Hamlet and operas by Jules Massenet , amongst them Le roi de Lahore ( 1877 ) and Le Cid ( 1885 ) . The line of succession was however virtually washed away in the tide of Wagner in Paris after 1890 ( see below ) . The influence of Meyerbeer has also been detected in the operas of Antonín Dvořák and other Czech composers , and in the operas of Russian composers including Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and the young Tchaikovsky , who thought Les Huguenots ' one of the greatest works in the repertoire ' .

Themes from Meyerbeer 's works were used by many contemporary composers , often in the form of keyboard paraphprases or fantasies . Perhaps the most elaborate and substantial of these is Franz Liszt 's monumental Fantasy and Fugue on the chorale " Ad nos , ad salutarem undam " , S.259 ( 1852 ) , for organ or pédalier , based on the chorale of the Anabaptist priests in Le prophète and dedicated to Meyerbeer . The work was also published in a version for piano duet ( S.624 ) which was much later arranged for solo piano by Ferrucio Busoni .

Liszt also wrote piano works based on Robert le diable , notably the Réminiscences de Robert le diable subtitled Valse infernale . He also transcribed two pieces from L 'Africaine , as " Illustrations de l 'opéra L 'Africaine " . Frédéric Chopin and Auguste Franchomme jointly composed a Grand duo concertant on themes from the opera , for cello and piano , in 1832 , and the Italian pianist and composer Adolfo Fumagalli composed an elaborate fantasy on the opera for left hand alone as his Op. 106 . Other pieces based on the opera included works by Adolf von Henselt and Jean @-@ Amédée Méreaux . Similar works , of varying musical quality , were churned out by composers for each of the further operas in attempts to cash in on their success .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Meyerbeer 's operas consistently enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime , and the verdict of ( the then pro @-@ Meyerbeer ) Wagner in 1841 , when the Paris Opéra was vainly awaiting Le prophète and L 'Africaine , was not atypical :

The Paris Opéra lies dying . It looks for its salvation to the German Messiah , Meyerbeer ; if he keeps it waiting much longer , its death agonies will begin ... It is for that reason ... that one only sees Robert le Diable and Les Huguenots turning up again when the mediocrities are forced to withdraw .

However , dissenting voices were heard from critics . Not all of these however were on musical grounds . Berlioz for example raised the issue of the inhibiting effects of Meyerbeer 's success ( which he felt particularly as one who struggled to get his works performed ) : " The pressure [ Meyerbeer ] exerts on managers , artists and critics , and consequently on the Paris public , at least as much by his immense wealth as by his eclectic talent , makes all serious success at the Opéra virtually impossible . This baneful influence may still be felt ten years after his death : Heinrich Heine maintains he has ' paid in advance ' . "

Mendelssohn disapproved of Meyerbeer 's works on moral grounds , believing Robert le diable to be ' ignoble ' .

Schumann 's attack on Les Huguenots was clearly a personal diatribe against Meyerbeer 's Judaism : ' Time and time again we had to turn away in disgust ... One may search in vain for a sustained pure thought , a truly Christian sentiment ... It is all contrived , all make believe and hypocrisy ! ... The shrewdest of composers rubs his hands with glee.'

Wagner 's disciple Theodor Uhlig followed Schumann 's Judaeophobic line in his 1850 review of Le prophète : ' To a good Christian [ it ] is at best contrived , exaggerated , unnatural and slick , and it is not possible that the practised propaganda of the Hebrew art @-@ taste can succeed using such means . ' Uhlig 's phrase ' the Hebrew art @-@ taste ' was to be used by Richard Wagner to spark off his attack on Meyerbeer , ' Das Judenthum in der Musik ( Jewishness in Music ) . ' ( see below ) .

In 1911 , the composer Charles Villiers Stanford cited Meyerbeer 's music as an example of the dangers he believed lay in improvising at the piano without a clear plan , ( although there is in fact no evidence to suggest Meyerbeer worked in this way ) , writing : ' Man of genius though he was , as any man who wrote the fourth act of the Huguenots must have been , Meyerbeer is a sign @-@ post of this danger of trusting to the pianoforte as a medium of inspiration.'

= = = Wagner 's campaign against Meyerbeer = = =

The vitriolic campaign of Richard Wagner against Meyerbeer was to a great extent responsible for the decline of Meyerbeer 's popularity after his death in 1864 . This campaign was as much a matter of personal spite as of racism – Wagner had learnt a great deal from Meyerbeer and indeed Wagner 's early opera Rienzi ( 1842 ) was facetiously called by Hans von Bülow ' Meyerbeer 's best opera ' . Meyerbeer supported the young Wagner , both financially and in helping to obtain the premiere productions of both Rienzi and The Flying Dutchman at Dresden .

Wagner 's early correspondence with Meyerbeer , up to 1846 , is cringingly obsequious . However , from the early 1840s , as Wagner developed Tannhäuser and Lohengrin , his ideas on opera increasingly diverged from Meyerbeerean standards ; even in 1843 Wagner had written to Schumann condemning Meyerbeer 's work as ' a striving after superficial popularity ' . During 1846 Meyerbeer turned down Wagner 's application for a loan of 1 @,@ 200 thalers , and this may have marked a turning point .

In particular , after 1849 , Wagner resented Meyerbeer 's continuing success at a time when his own vision of German opera had little chance of prospering . After the May Uprising in Dresden of 1849 , Wagner was for some years a political refugee facing a prison sentence or worse should he return to Saxony . During his period of living in exile he had few sources of income and little opportunity of getting his own works performed . The success of Le prophète sent Wagner over the edge , and he was also deeply envious of Meyerbeer 's wealth . In reaction he published , under a pseudonym , his 1850 essay ' Jewishness in Music ' . Without specifically naming Meyerbeer , he interpreted the popular success of the latter as the undermining of German music by alleged Jewish venality and willingness to cater to the lowest tastes , and attributed the supposed poor quality of such ' Jewish music ' to Jewish speech and song patterns , which ' though the cultured son of Jewry takes untold pains to strip them off , nevertheless they shew an impertinent obstinacy in cleaving to him ' .

In his major theoretical statement , ' Opera and Drama ' ( 1852 ) , Wagner objected to the music of Meyerbeer , asserting its superficiality and incoherence in dramatic terms ; this work contains Wagner 's well @-@ known put @-@ down of Meyerbeer 's operas as ' effects without causes ' . It also contains the sardonic crack that ' [ Rossini ] never could have dreamt that it would some day occur to the Bankers , for whom he had always made their music , to make it for themselves ' . ' Jewishness in Music ' was reissued in 1869 , ( after Meyerbeer 's death ) in an extended form , with a far more explicit attack on Meyerbeer . This version was under Wagner 's own name – and as Wagner had by now a far greater reputation , his views obtained far wider publicity . These attacks on Meyerbeer ( which also included swipes at Felix Mendelssohn ) are regarded by Paul Lawrence Rose as a significant milestone in the growth of German anti @-@ Semitism .

As Wagner prospered , it became second @-@ nature for him , his wife Cosima and the Wagner circle to deprecate Meyerbeer and his works , and Cosima 's Diaries contain numerous instances of this – ( as well as recording a dream of Wagner 's in which he and Meyerbeer were reconciled ) . Wagner 's autobiography ' Mein Leben ' , circulated amongst his friends ( and published openly in 1911 ) , contains constant sniping at Meyerbeer and concludes with Wagner exulting over Meyerbeer 's death . The downgrading of Meyerbeer became a commonplace amongst Wagnerites : in 1898 , George Bernard Shaw , in The Perfect Wagnerite , commented that " Nowadays young people cannot understand how anyone could have taken Meyerbeer 's influence seriously . "

Thus as Wagner 's stock rose , Meyerbeer 's fell . In 1890 , the year before the Paris premiere of Wagner 's Lohengrin , there were no Wagner performances at the Paris Opéra , and 32 performances of Meyerbeer 's four grand operas . In 1909 , there were 60 Wagner performances , and only three of Meyerbeer ( Les Huguenots being the sole work performed ) .

= = = Reevaluation = = =

Meyerbeer 's costly operas , requiring grand casts of leading singers , were gradually dropped from the repertoire in the early 20th century . They were banned in Germany from 1933 , and subsequently in subject countries , by the Nazi regime because the composer was Jewish , and this was a major factor in their further disappearance from the repertory .

One of the first serious post @-@ war studies of Meyerbeer and grand opera was Crosten 's 1948 book Grand Opera : An Art and a Business which laid out the themes and standards for much subsequent research . A major contribution to revival of interest in Meyerbeer was the work of the scholar Heinz Becker , leading to the complete publication , between 1960 and 2006 , of Meyerbeer 's complete diaries and correspondence in German , which are an important source for musical history of the era . The English scholar Robert Letellier has translated the diaries and undertaken a wide range of Meyerbeer studies . Not least , the establishment of a ' Meyerbeer Fan Club ' in America has stimulated interest .

Most importantly the operas themselves are now beginning to be revived and recorded , although despite the efforts of such champions as Dame Joan Sutherland , who took part in performances of , and recorded , Les Huguenots , they have yet to achieve anything like the huge popular following they attracted during their creator 's lifetime . Recordings are now available of all the operas from Il crociato onwards , for many of the earlier Italian operas , and for other pieces including his songs and the incidental music for Struensee .

Amongst reasons often adduced for the dearth of modern productions are the scale of Meyerbeer 's more ambitious works and the cost of mounting them , as well as the alleged lack of virtuoso singers capable of doing justice to Meyerbeer 's demanding music . However , recent successful productions of some of the major operas at relatively small centres such as Strasbourg ( L 'Africaine , 2004 ) and Metz ( Les Huguenots , 2004 ) show that this conventional wisdom can be challenged . A highly successful production of Les Huguenots conducted by Marc Minkowski with stage direction by Gilbert Py was presented at Brussels ' Théâtre de la Monnaie in 2011 , and a new production of the same work opened at the Staatstheater Nürnberg in 2014 , conducted by Guido Johannes Rumstadt with stage direction by Tobias Kratzer , a co @-@ production with Opéra de Nice . In December 2012 , the Royal Opera House in London premiered its first performance of Robert le diable in 120 years . In 2013 , Meyerbeer 's original version of L 'Africaine in a new critical edition by Jürgen Schläder was performed by Chemnitz Opera House under the original title Vasco de Gama . The production was a success with audiences and critics and won the poll of German critics award presented by Opernwelt magazine annually as " Rediscovery of the year " in 2013 .

On 9 September 2013 a plaque to mark Meyerbeer 's last residence was put up at Pariser Platz 6a , Berlin .

= = On film = =

Vernon Dobtcheff played the role of Giacomo Meyerbeer in the 1983 film Wagner .

= = Recordings = =

A Meyerbeer discography ( updated whenever an additional opera by Meyerbeer is issued on CD ) at the Wayback Machine ( archived October 27 , 2009 )

Recordings of Meyerbeer 's operas as listed on operadis @-@ opera @-@ discography.org.uk /

= Washington State Route 221 =

State Route 221 ( SR 221 ) is a 25 @.@ 95 @-@ mile ( 41 @.@ 76 km ) long state highway located entirely within Benton County , Washington , United States . The highway serves to connect the unincorporated community of Paterson to the county seat Prosser . The highway has existed since at least 1926 and was designated as Primary State Highway 8E from 1937 until the 1964 renumbering of Washington state highways .

= = Route description = =

Washington State Route 221 ( SR 221 ) starts at an intersection with SR 14 in the unincorporated community of Paterson . After leaving Paterson the highway travels north through rural farm land as a two @-@ lane highway . A few minor roads are intersected before the roadway turns to the west after about 17 mi ( 27 km ) , before turning back to the north . After the highway resumes its northerly course it climbs into the Horse Heaven Hills , gaining a passing lane through the uphill segments , before finally terminating at SR 22 in south Prosser .

Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 2 @,@ 000 cars traveled through the central part of the highway , and as many as 2 @,@ 500 cars at the interchange with SR 22 .

= = History = =

The roadway on its current alignment has existed since at least 1926 , however there are records of a road between Paterson and Prosser since 1906 . The highway was designated Secondary State Highway 8E ( SSH 8E ) in 1937 , but the route number was changed to SR 221 during the 1964 state highway renumbering .

High winds have forced the closure of SR 221 in 2003 , 2004 , and 2005 due to large amounts of dust being blown around , causing visibility to drop to almost zero through the Horse Heaven Hills .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is within unincorporated Benton County .

= Superman : Escape from Krypton =

Superman : Escape from Krypton ( originally known as Superman : The Escape ) is a steel shuttle roller coaster located at Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia , California . When it opened in 1997 , it was the tallest roller coaster in the world , and its speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) was tied for the fastest with Tower of Terror II , a similar roller coaster which opened two months earlier at Dreamworld in Australia . These two coasters were the first to utilize Linear Synchronous Motor ( LSM ) technology to propel vehicles to top speed . The park originally intended to open the ride in 1996 , but the opening was delayed because of several issues with the launch system . The ride was closed in late 2010 for refurbishment , and it emerged in 2011 as " Superman : Escape from Krypton " . The refurbished ride featured new trains which face backward , and it was painted with a new color scheme . As of 2013 , Superman : Escape from Krypton has the third @-@ tallest structure , the fifth @-@ fastest speed and the third @-@ longest drop in the world .

= = History = =

= = = Superman : The Escape ( 1997 — 2010 ) = = =

While in the planning stages , the ride was going to be named Velocetron and themed as The Man of Steel . The ride was announced on January 5 , 1996 as Superman : The Escape , breaking records as the first roller coaster to reach 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , passing Desperado and Phantom 's Revenge at 82 miles per hour ( 132 km / h ) . The ride was designed by Intamin , a Swiss roller coaster firm . It was originally intended to open on June 1 , 1996 . However , due to a range of problems with the launch system , its opening was delayed . In late 1996 , there was a preview for season pass holders . After 10 months of testing and reengineering , the ride opened on March 15 , 1997 . After its opening , the media claimed Superman to be the fastest roller coaster in the world . However , since it was delayed , a similar roller coaster known as Tower of Terror , which also has a 100 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour launch ( 160 km / h ) , had opened about a month earlier at Dreamworld in Australia . Superman therefore lost its claim as being the first roller coaster to reach 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , although it was then tied with Tower of Terror as the fastest roller coaster in the world . However , the ride became the first roller coaster in the world to go over 400 ft , therefore becoming the tallest roller coaster in the world at the time .

In June 2004 , Superman : The Escape 's seat belts were modified because of an incident on the Superman – Ride of Steel roller coaster at Six Flags New England . California State Regulators asked the park to make modifications to the rides ' restraint systems to prevent a similar incident in the future .

Just after July 4 weekend of 2010 , Superman : The Escape ceased operations with no reason given . A sign posted in front of the ride indicated that it would not reopen until the 2011 season , with hints that there would be improvements made to the ride experience . After Superman : The Escape 's sister ride , the Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld , underwent a major refurbishment in 2010 which entailed a new vehicle which launches backward , speculation turned to the possibility of a similar modification to the Magic Mountain ride . Six Flags Magic Mountain officials quickly denied rumors that it would receive a Bizarro retheming , similar to roller coasters at other Six Flags parks .

= = = Superman : Escape from Krypton ( 2011 — present ) = = =

On October 20 , 2010 , Six Flags Magic Mountain officially announced the refurbishment and re @-@ theming of Superman : The Escape , in addition to the construction of two new roller coasters . As part of the refurbishment , the ride was renamed to Superman : Escape from Krypton and featured new backward launching cars and a new color scheme . The upgraded ride reopened to the public on March 19 , 2011 .

Superman : Escape from Krypton closed again on February 5 , 2012 ( almost a year after the refurbishment ) to prepare for the new 2012 attraction Lex Luthor : Drop of Doom . Two drop towers , also built by Intamin , were integrated into the existing sides of Superman : Escape from Krypton 's structure . The ride reopened when construction was finished on July 7 , 2012 .

To enable the construction of the park 's 2013 roller coaster , Full Throttle , Superman : Escape from Krypton was temporarily closed from December 2012 . It reopened in mid @-@ January with Six Flags Magic Mountain stating the ride may have intermittent closures as the construction of Full Throttle continues .

= = Ride experience = =

= = = Queue and station = = =

At the entrance to the ride , the Superman " S " shield is imprinted and now painted onto the ground . The entrance area and queue are modeled after the Fortress of Solitude , Superman 's headquarters . The station is lit green , modeled as Krypton , the planet that is full of Kryptonite rock that can take away Superman 's powers . Inside is a crystalline @-@ looking environment which recreates Superman 's fortress in the Arctic . If the Velocetron name had been chosen , the queue and station would have had ancient ruins and a giant laser . A page on display in the Sky Tower , the park 's observation tower , shows the concept art for Velocetron .

= = = Layout = = =

The roller coaster has two parallel tracks , with both tracks being identical . The vehicle is accelerated by Linear Synchronous Motors in reverse out of the station from 0 to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) in approximately 7 seconds . Riders experience a g @-@ force of 4 @.@ 5 during the launch . The vehicle then climbs up 415 feet ( 126 m ) at a 90 degree angle . Riders climb this vertical section facing directly downward , before slightly stopping near the top of the tower . During the vertical section of the ride , riders experience weightlessness for about 6 @.@ 5 seconds . The vehicle drops 328 feet ( 100 m ) and is slowed down before re @-@ entering the station .

= = = Vehicles = = =

The roller coaster originally featured two vehicles , each with three rows of four seats and one row of three seats for a total of 15 riders per vehicle . Both vehicles were built to only run forward . After the ride was refurbished in 2010 , new " streamlined " vehicles with the Superman logo were introduced . The new vehicles were designed with low @-@ profile sides to enhance the open @-@ air feeling . Although they are wider , the row of the three seats in the older vehicle was reduced to two , resulting in a lower total of 14 riders per vehicle . Both of the new trains were configured to run backward , though they were designed to run forward as well . It was reported that the park would eventually run one side forward to give riders a choice , but both trains have remained facing backward .

= = = Track = = =

The steel track is approximately 1 @,@ 235 feet ( 376 m ) in length and the height of the tower is approximately 415 feet ( 126 m ) . The tower is in an " L " shape with two parallel tracks . When the ride opened , the entire structure was painted white . After the ride was refurbished , the top third of the structure was painted red , the track was painted yellow and the rest was painted blue .

= = Records = =

For the first four years of operation , Superman : Escape from Krypton was tied with Tower of Terror II as the fastest roller coaster in the world . In 2001 , the speed record was taken by Dodonpa in Japan which features a top speed of 106 @.@ 9 miles per hour ( 172 @.@ 0 km / h ) . Superman : Escape from Krypton held the record for the tallest roller coaster in the world until 2003 when the record was taken by the 420 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 130 m ) Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point . As of 2015 , it has the fifth fastest speed , the third tallest structure and the third @-@ highest drop in the world .

= Battle of Hubbardton =

The Battle of Hubbardton was an engagement in the Saratoga campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought in the village of Hubbardton , Vermont . Vermont was then a disputed territory sometimes called the New Hampshire Grants , claimed by New York , New Hampshire , and the newly organized and not yet recognized but de facto independent government of Vermont . On the morning of July 7 , 1777 , British forces , under General Simon Fraser , caught up with the American rear guard of the forces retreating after the withdrawal from Fort Ticonderoga . It was the only battle in Vermont during the revolution . ( The Battle of Bennington was fought in what is now Walloomsac , New York . )

The American retreat from Fort Ticonderoga began late on July 5 after British cannons were seen on top of high ground , Mount Defiance ( aka Rattlesnake Mountain and Sugar Loaf Hill ) that commanded the fort . The bulk of General Arthur St. Clair 's army retreated through Hubbardton to Castleton , while the rear guard , commanded by Seth Warner , stopped at Hubbardton to rest and pick up stragglers .

General Fraser , alerted to the American withdrawal early on July 6 , immediately set out in pursuit , leaving a message for General John Burgoyne to send reinforcements as quickly as possible . That night Fraser camped a few miles short of Hubbardton , and the German General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel , leading reinforcements , camped a few miles further back . Rising early in the morning , Fraser reached Hubbardton , where he surprised some elements of the American rear , while other elements managed to form defensive lines . In spirited battle , the Americans were driven back , but had almost succeeded in turning Fraser 's left flank when Riedesel and his German reinforcements arrived , eventually scattering the American forces .

The battle took a large enough toll on the British forces that they did not further pursue the main American army . The many American prisoners were sent to Ticonderoga while most of the British troops made their way to Skenesboro to rejoin Burgoyne 's army . Most of the scattered American remnants made their way to rejoin St. Clair 's army on its way toward the Hudson River .

= = Background = =

General John Burgoyne began his 1777 campaign for control of the Hudson River valley by moving an army of 8 @,@ 000 down Lake Champlain in late June , arriving near Fort Ticonderoga on July 1 . On July 5 , General Arthur St. Clair 's American forces defending Fort Ticonderoga and its supporting defenses discovered that Burgoyne 's men had placed cannons on a position overlooking the fort . They evacuated the fort that night , with the majority of the army marching down a rough road ( now referred to locally as the 1776 Hubbardton Military Road ) toward Hubbardton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory . The day was hot and sunny , and the pace was rapid and grueling ; most of the army marched 30 miles ( 48 km ) to Castleton before making camp on the evening of July 6 .

= = British troops give chase = =

The British general , a Scotsman named Simon Fraser discovered early on July 6 that the Americans had abandoned Ticonderoga . Leaving a message for General Burgoyne , he set out in pursuit with companies of grenadiers ( 9th , 29th , 34th , and 62nd Foot ) and light infantry ( 24th , 29th , 34th , 53rd , and 62nd ) , as well as two companies of the 24th Regiment and about 100 Loyalists and Indian scouts . Burgoyne ordered Riedesel to follow ; he set out with a few companies of Brunswick jägers and grenadiers , leaving orders for the rest of his troops to come as rapidly as possible . Fraser 's advance corps was only a few miles behind Colonel Ebenezer Francis ' 11th Massachusetts Regiment , which acted as St. Clair 's rear guard .

American general St. Clair paused at Hubbardton to give the main army 's tired and hungry troops time to rest while he hoped the rear guard would arrive . When it did not arrive in time , he left Colonel Seth Warner and the Green Mountain Boys behind , along with the 2nd New Hampshire Regiment under Colonel Nathan Hale , at Hubbardton to wait for the rear while the main army marched on to Castleton . When Francis ' and Hale 's men arrived , Warner decided , against St. Clair 's orders , that they would spend the night there , rather than marching on to Castleton . Warner , who had experience in rear @-@ guard actions while serving in the invasion of Quebec , arranged the camps in a defensive position on Monument Hill , and set patrols to guard the road to Ticonderoga .

Baron Riedesel caught up with Fraser around 4 pm , and insisted that his men could not go further before making camp . Fraser , who acquiesced to this as Riedesel was senior to him in the chain of command , pointed out that he was authorized to engage the enemy , and would be leaving his camp at 3 am the next morning . He then advanced until he found a site about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Hubbardton , where his troops camped for the night . Riedesel waited for the bulk of his men , about 1 @,@ 500 strong , and also made camp .

= = Attack = =

Fraser 's men were up at 3 am , but did not make good time due to the darkness . Riedesel left his camp at 3 am with a picked group of men , and was still behind Fraser when the latter arrived at Hubbardton near dawn and very nearly surprised elements of Hale 's regiment , which were scattered in the early fighting . A messenger had arrived from General St. Clair delivering news that the British had reached Skenesboro , where the elements of the retreating army had planned to regroup , and that a more circuitous route to the Hudson River was now required . St. Clair 's instructions were to follow him immediately to Rutland . Francis ' men had formed a column to march out around 7 : 15 when the British vanguard began cresting the hill behind them . Rapidly reforming into a line behind some cover , the Massachusetts men unleashed a withering volley of fire at the winded British . General Fraser took stock of the situation , and decided to send a detachment around to flank the American left , at the risk of exposing his own left , which he hoped would hold until Riedesel arrived . Riedesel reached the top of another hill , where he observed that the American line , now including parts of Hale 's regiment , was in fact pressing on Fraser 's left . He therefore sent his grenadiers to support Fraser 's flank and directed the jägers against the American center .

At some point early in the conflict , St. Clair was made aware of the gunfire off in the distance . He immediately dispatched Henry Brockholst Livingston and Isaac Dunn to send the militia camped closest to Hubbardton down the road in support of the action . When they reached the area of those camps they found those militia companies in full retreat away from the gunfire in the distance , and no amount of persuasion could convince the men to turn around . Livingston and Dunn continued riding toward Hubbardton .

Falling back to a secure position on Monument Hill , the Americans repulsed several vigorous British assaults , although Colonel Francis was hit in the arm by a shot . He soldiered on , directing troops to a perceived weakness on Fraser 's left . The tide of the battle turned when , after more than an hour of battle , Riedesel 's grenadiers arrived . These disciplined forces entered the fray singing hymns to the accompaniment of a military band to make them appear more numerous than they actually were . The American flanks were turned , and they were forced to make a desperate race across an open field to avoid being enveloped . Colonel Francis fell in a volley of musket fire as the troops raced away from the advancing British and scattered into the countryside .

= = Aftermath = =

The scattered remnants of the American rear laboriously made their way toward Rutland in order to rejoin the main army . Harassed by Fraser 's scouts and Indians , and without food or shelter , it took some of them five days to reach the army , which was by then nearing Fort Edward . Others , including Colonel Hale and a detachment of 70 men , were captured by the British as they mopped up the scene . Colonel Francis , in a sign of respect from his opponents , was buried with the Brunswick dead .

Baron Riedesel and the Brunswickers departed for Skenesboro the next day , much to General Fraser 's chagrin . Their departure left him in " the most disaffected part of America , every person a Spy " , with 600 tired men , a sizable contingent of prisoners and wounded , and no significant supplies . On July 9 he sent the 300 prisoners , under light guard but with threats of retaliation should they try to escape , toward Ticonderoga while he marched his exhausted forces toward Castleton and then Skenesboro .

Livingston and Dunn , the two men sent toward the battle by St. Clair , were met by retreating Americans on the Castleton road after the battle was over . They returned to Castleton with the bad news , and the army marched off , eventually reaching the American camp at Fort Edward on July 12 .

= = Losses = =

The official casualty return for the Hessian troops gives 38 Hessian soldiers and 1 French @-@ Canadian killed and 125 Hessians and 2 French @-@ Canadians wounded . A separate return for the German troops has 10 killed and 14 wounded , for a grand total of 49 killed and 141 wounded . Historian Richard M. Ketchum gives different British casualties of 60 killed and 168 wounded . The American casualties were 41 killed , 96 wounded and 230 captured .

= = Legacy = =

A local body commissioned the erection of a monument on the battlefield site in 1859 , and the state began acquiring battlefield lands in the 1930s for operation as a state historic site . The battlefield was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 , and is the site of annual Revolutionary War reenactments .

= Odaenathus =

Lucius Septimius Udaynath , Latinized as Odaenathus ( Aramaic : ܐܕܝܢܬ / Oḏainaṯ ; Arabic : أذينة / Udaynath ; 220 – 267 ) , was the founder king ( Mlk ) of the Palmyrene Kingdom centered at the city of Palmyra , Syria . He lifted his city from the position of a regional center subordinate to Rome into the supreme power in the East . Odaenathus was born into an aristocratic Palmyrene family who had received Roman citizenship in the 190s under the Severan dynasty . He was the son of Hairan the descendant of Nasor . The circumstances surrounding his rise are ambiguous ; he became the lord ( Ras ) of the city , a position created for him , as early as the 240s and by 258 , he was styled a consularis , indicating a high status in the Roman Empire .

The defeat and captivity of emperor Valerian at the hands of the Persian Sassanian monarch Shapur I in 260 left the eastern Roman provinces largely at the mercy of the Persians . Odaenathus stayed on the side of Rome ; assuming the title of king , he led the Palmyrene army and fell upon the Persians before they could cross the Euphrates to the eastern bank , and inflicted upon them a considerable defeat . Then , Odaenathus took the side of emperor Gallienus , the son and successor of Valerian , who was facing the usurpation of Fulvius Macrianus . The rebel declared his sons emperors , leaving one in Syria and taking the other with him to Europe . Odaenathus attacked the remaining usurper and quelled the rebellion . He was rewarded many exceptional titles by the emperor who formalized his self @-@ established position in the East . In reality , the emperor could have done little but to accept the declared nominal loyalty of Odaenathus .

In a series of rapid and successful campaigns starting in 262 , he crossed the Euphrates and recovered Carrhae and Nisibis . He then took the offensive to the heartland of Persia , and arrived at the walls of its capital Ctesiphon . The city withstood the short siege but Odaenathus reclaimed the entirety of Roman lands occupied by the Persians since the beginning of their invasions in 252 . Odaenathus celebrated his victories and declared himself King of Kings , crowning his son Hairan I as co @-@ king . By 263 , Odaenathus was in effective control of the Levant , Mesopotamia and Anatolia 's eastern region .

Odaenathus observed all due formalities towards the emperor , but in practice ruled as an independent monarch . In 266 , the king launched a second invasion of Persia but had to abandon the campaign and head north to Bithynia to repel the attacks of Germanic riders besieging the city of Heraclea Pontica . He was assassinated in 267 during or immediately after the Anatolian campaign , together with Hairan . The identities of the perpetrator or the instigator are unknown and many stories , accusations and speculations exist in ancient sources . He was succeeded by his son Vaballathus under the regency of his widow Zenobia , who used the power established by Odaenathus to forge the Palmyrene Empire in 270 .

= = Name , Odaenathus I and origin = =

" Odaenathus " is the Roman version of the king 's name who was born Lucius Septimius Udaynath c . 220 AD . " Udaynath " is the king 's personal name , an Arabic name that means " little ear " . " Septimius " was the family 's gentilicium ( surname ) adopted as an expression of loyalty to the Roman Severan dynasty , whose emperor Septimius Severus granted the family Roman citizenship in the late second century .

In the Temple of Bel at Palmyra , a stone block with a sepulchral inscription was found mentioning the building of a tomb and recording the genealogy of the builder : Odaenathus son of Hairan son of Wahb Allat son of Nasor . Traditional scholarship believed the builder to be an ancestor of the king and he was given the designation " Odaenathus I " . In an inscription dated to 251 , the name of the " Ras " ( lord ) of Palmyra Hairan son of Odaenathus is written , and he was thought to be the son of Odaenathus I.

Prior to the 1980s , the earliest known inscription attesting king Odaenathus was dated to 257 , leading traditional scholarship to believe that Hairan Ras of Palmyra is the father of the king and that Odaenathus I was his grandfather . However , an inscription published in 1985 by archaeologist Michael Gawlikowski and dated to 252 mentions king Odaenathus as a " Ras " and records the same genealogy found in the sepulchral inscription confirming the name of king Odaenathus ' grandfather as Wahb Allat . Therefor , it is certain that king Odaenathus is the builder of the tomb ruling out the existence of " Odaenathus I " . Ras Hairan mentioned in the 251 inscription is identical with Odaenathus ' elder son and co @-@ ruler prince Hairan I.

The origin of the family is Aramean , while the king himself appears to be of mixed Aramean and Arab descent ; his name is Arabic , while the names of his ancestors ( father Hairan and great grandfather Nasor ) are Aramaic . Zosimus asserted that Odaenathus descended from " illustrious forebears " , but the position of the family in Palmyra is debated ; it was probably part of the wealthy mercantile class . Alternatively , the family could have belonged to the tribal leadership who amassed a fortune as landowners and patrons of the Palmyrene caravans . In Dura @-@ Europos , a relief dated to 159 was commissioned by Hairan son of Maliko son of Nasor ; this Hairan might have been the head of the Palmyrene trade colony in Dura @-@ Europos and probably belonged to the same family of Odaenathus . " Nasor " father of Maliko mentioned in the Dura @-@ Europos inscription could therefore be Odaenathus ' great @-@ great @-@ great grandfather .

= = Rise = =

Palmyra was an autonomous city subordinate to Rome and part of Syria Phoenice province . Odaenathus descended from an aristocratic family , albeit not a royal one as the city was ruled by a council and had no tradition of hereditary monarchy . Bilingual inscriptions from Palmyra record the title of the Palmyrene ruler as " Ras " in Palmyrene and Exarchos in Greek , meaning the " Lord of Palmyra " . The title was created for Odaenathus , and was not a usual title in the Roman Empire or a part of the traditional Palmyrene governance institutions ; whether it indicated a military or a priestly position is unknown , but the military role is more likely .

The rise of the aggressive Sasanian Empire in 224 and the Iranian incursions which affected Palmyrene trade , combined with the weakness of the Roman empire , were probably the reasons behind the Palmyrene council 's decision to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army . The " Ras " title enabled the bearer to tackle the difficult situation that arose due to the Sasanian insurgencies ; the supreme authority of the Ras probably made him the supreme civil and military commander with authority over the entire Palmyrene army , which was previously decentralized and led by different generals .

= = = Ras of Palmyra = = =

An undated inscription refers to Odaenathus as a Ras and records the gift of a throne to him by a Palmyrene citizen named " Ogeilu son of Maqqai Haddudan Hadda " , which confirms the supreme character of Odaenathus ' title . The earliest known inscriptions mentioning the title are dated to October 251 and April 252 ; the 251 inscription refer to Odaenathus ' eldest son Hairan I as Ras while the 252 inscription mention Odaenathus with that title . Hairan I was apparently elevated to co @-@ lordship status by his father . Although the written evidence for Odaenathus lordship dates to 251 , it is possible that he acquired the title as early as the 240s ; following the death of Roman emperor Gordian III in 244 during a campaign against Persia , the Palmyrenes might have elected Odaenathus to defend the city .

Odaenathus was described as Roman senator in the undated tomb inscription and Hairan I was mentioned with the same title in the 251 inscription . Scholarly opinions vary on the exact date of Odaenathus ' elevation to the position ; Gawlikowski and Jean Starcky maintain that the senatorial rank predates the Ras elevation . Udo Hartmann concludes that Odaenathus first became a Ras in the 240s then a senator in 250 . Another possibility is that the senatorial rank and lordship occurred simultaneously ; Odaenathus was chosen as a Ras following Gordian 's death , then after Philip the Arab concluded a peace with the Persians , the emperor ratified Odaenathus ' lordship and admitted him to the senate to guarantee Palmyra 's continuous subordination .

As early as the 240s , Odaenathus inflated the Palmyrene army , recruiting the desert nomads and increasing the numbers of the Palmyrene heavy cavalry units ( clibanarii ) . In 252 , Persian emperor Shapur I started a full @-@ scale invasion of the Roman provinces in the east . During the second campaign of the invasion , Shapur conquered Antioch and headed south where his advance was checked in 253 by Emesa 's priest king Uranius Antoninus . The events of 253 were mentioned in the works of the sixth century historian John Malalas who also mentioned a leader by the name " Enathus " inflicting a defeat upon the retreating Shapur near the Euphrates . " Enathus " is probably identical with Odaenathus , and while Malalas ' account indicate that Odaenathus defeated the Persians in 253 , there is no proof that the Palmyrene leader engaged Shapur before 260 and Malalas ' account seems to be confusing Odaenathus ' future actions during 260 with the events of 253 .

Shapur I destroyed the Palmyrene trade colonies all along the Euphrates ( including the colonies at Anah in 253 and at Dura @-@ Europos in 256 ) ; Peter the Patrician says that Odaenathus approached Shapur to negotiate Palmyrene interests but was rebuffed and the gifts sent to the Persians were thrown into the river . The date for the attempted negotiations is debated ; Some scholars including John F. Drinkwater set the event in 253 while others such as Alaric Watson set it in 256 following the destruction of Dura @-@ Europos .

= = = Governor of Syria Phoenice = = =

Several inscriptions dating to the end of 257 or early 258 show Odaenathus bearing the title " ὁ λαμπρότατος ὑπατικός " ( Clarissimus Consularis ) ; this could be a mere honoring or a sign that he was appointed as the Legatus of Phoenice . However , the title ( ὁ λαμπρότατος ὑπατικός ) was sometimes used in Syria to denote the provincial governor and William Waddington proposed that Odaenathus was indeed the governor of Phoenice .

Five of the inscriptions mentioning Odaenathus as consul are dated to the Seleucid year 569 ( 258 AD ) during which no governor for Phoenice is attested , which might indicate that this was Odaenathus ' year of governorship . In the city of Tyre , Phoenice 's capital , the lines " To Septimius Odaenathus , the most illustrious . The Septimian colony of Tyre " were found inscribed on a marble base ; the inscription is not dated and if it was set after 257 then it indicates that Odaenathus was appointed as the governor of the province .

These speculations cannot be proven without doubt but as a governor , Odaenathus would have been the highest authority in the province and above any legionary commander and provincial officials ; this would make him the commander of the Roman forces in the province . Whatever the case may be , starting from 258 , Odaenathus strengthened his position and extended his political influence in the region . By 260 , Odaenathus held the rank , credibility and power to pacify the Roman east following the Battle of Edessa .

= = = Edessa = = =

Faced with Shapur 's third campaign , the Roman emperor Valerian marched against the Persian monarch but was defeated near Edessa in late spring 260 and taken as a prisoner . The Persian emperor then ravaged Cappadocia , Cilicia and claimed to have captured Antioch , the metropolis of Syria . Taking advantage of the situation , Fulvius Macrianus , the commander of the imperial treasury , declared his sons Quietus and Macrianus Minor as joint emperors in August 260 opposing Valerian 's son Gallienus . Fulvius Macrianus took Antioch as his center and organized the resistance against Shapur ; he dispatched Balista , his praetorian prefect , to Anatolia . Shapur was defeated in the region of Sebaste at Pompeiopolis prompting the Persians to evacuate Cilicia while Balista went back to Antioch . Balista 's victory was only partial , as Shapur withdrew east of Cilicia where the marauding Persian units continued to occupy the area , while a Persian force took advantage of Balista 's return to Syria and headed further west in Anatolia .

= = Reign = =

According to the Augustan History , Odaenathus was declared king of Palmyra as soon as the news of the Roman defeat at Edessa reached the city . It is not known if Odaenathus contacted Fulvius Macrianus and there is no evidence that he took orders from him .

= = = Early Persian war and Syria = = =

Odaenathus assembled the Palmyrene army and Syrian peasants then marched north to meet the Persian emperor , who was back from Cilicia . The Palmyrene monarch fell upon the retreating Shapur at a place between Samosata and Zeugma west of the Euphrates in late summer 260 . Odaenathus defeated the Persians , expelling Shapur from the province of Syria . However , the Sassanians kept the regions east of the Euphrates .

In the beginning of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus headed to Europe accompanied by Macrianus Minor leaving Quietus and Balista in Emesa . Odaenathus ' whereabouts during this episode are not clear ; he could have distributed the army in garrisons along the frontier or might have brought it back to his capital . The Palmyrene monarch seems to have waited until the situation clear , declaring loyalty neither to Fulvius Macrianus nor to Gallienus . In the spring of 261 , Fulvius Macrianus arrived in the Balkans but was defeated and killed along with Macrianus Minor ; Odaenathus then marched on Emesa where Quietus and Balista were staying . The Emesans killed Quietus as Odaenathus approached the city , while Balista was captured and executed by the king in autumn 261 .

= = = = Ruler of the East = = = =

The elimination of the usurpers left Odaenathus as the most powerful leader in the Roman east ; he was granted many titles by the emperor but those honors are debated among scholars :

Dux Romanorum ( commander of the Romans ) : was probably given to Odaenathus to recognize his position as the commander in chief of the forces in the east against the Persians ; it was inherited by Odaenathus ' son and successor Vaballathus .

Corrector totius orientis ( commander of the entire East ) : it is generally accepted by modern scholars that he bore this title . The corrector had an overall command of the Roman armies and authority over the Roman provincial governors in the designated region . There are no known attestations of the title during Odaenathus ' lifetime . Evidences for the king bearing the title are two inscriptions in Palmyrene dialect ; one posthumous dedication describing him as MTQNNʿ of the East ( derived from the Aramaic root TQN , meaning to set in order ) , and the other describing his heir Vaballathus with the same title albeit using the word PNRTTʿ instead of MTQNNʿ .

However , the sort of authority accorded by this position is widely discussed . The problem arise from the word MTQNNʿ ; its exact meaning is debated . The word is translated to Latin as corrector but restitutor is another possible translation ; the latter title was an honorary one meant to praise the bearer for driving enemies out of Roman territories . However , the inscription of Vaballathus is clearer as the word PNRTTʿ is not a Palmyrene word but a direct Palmyrene translation of the Greek term Epanorthotes which is usually an equivalent to corrector .

According to David Potter , Vaballathus inherited his father 's exact titles . Hartmann points that there have been cases where a Greek word was translated directly to Palmyrene and a Palmyrene equivalent was also used to mean the same thing . The dedication to Odaenathus would be the using of a Palmyrene equivalent , while the inscription of Vaballathus would be the direct translation . Despite all the arguments , it cannot be certain without doubt that Odaenathus was a corrector .

Imperator totius orientis ( emperor of the entire East ) : only the Augustan History claims that Odaenathus was conferred with this title , and also goes so far as to claim that he was made an Augustus ( co @-@ emperor ) following his defeat of the Persians . Both claims are dismissed by scholars . Odaenathus seems to have been acclaimed as Imperator by his troops which is a salutation reserved for the Roman emperor ; this acclamation might explain the erroneous reports of the Augustan History .

Regardless of the titles , Odaenathus controlled the Roman East with the approval of Gallienus who could do little but to formalize Odaenathus self achieved status and settle for his formal loyalty . Palmyra itself , although officially still part of the Roman empire , became a de facto allied state to Rome instead of a provincial city . Outside of Palmyra , Odaenathus ' authority extended from the Pontic coast in the north to Palestine in the south . This area included the Roman provinces of Syria , Phoenice , Palaestina , Arabia , Anatolia 's eastern regions and later ( following the campaign of 262 ) Osroene and Mesopotamia .

= = = = First Persian campaign 262 = = = =

Perhaps driven by the will to take revenge for the destruction of Palmyrene trade centers and discourage Shapur from initiating future attacks , Odaenathus launched an invasion against the Persians . In the spring of 262 , the king marched north into the occupied Roman province of Mesopotamia , driving out the Persian garrisons and freeing Edessa and Carrhae . The first onslaught was aimed at Nisibis , which Odaenathus regained but sacked since the inhabitants were sympathetic toward the Persian occupation . The Palmyrene monarch destroyed the Jewish city of Nehardea , 45 km west of the Persian capital Ctesiphon , as he deemed the Jews of Mesopotamia loyal to Shapur . By late 262 or early 263 , Odaenathus stood at the walls of the Persian capital .

The exact route taken by Odaenathus from Palmyra to Ctesiphon remains uncertain ; it is probably similar to the route emperor Julian took in 363 during his campaign against Persia . Using this route , Odaenathus would have crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma then moved east to Edessa followed by Carrhae then Nisibis ; here , he would have descended south along the Khabur River to the Euphrates valley and marched alongside the river 's left bank to Nehardea . After taking the city , he penetrated the Sassanian province of Asōristān and marched along the royal canal Naarmalcha towards the Tigris where the Persian capital stood .

Once at Ctesiphon , Odaenathus immediately began the siege of the well @-@ fortified winter residence of the Persian kings ; severe damage was inflicted upon the surrounding areas due to the battles with Persian troops . The city held its ground and the logistical problems of fighting in enemy 's land probably prompted the Palmyrenes to lift the siege . Odaenathus headed north along the Euphrates carrying with him numerous prisoners and booty . The invasion resulted in the full restoration of the Roman lands ( Osroene and Mesopotamia provinces ) occupied by Shapur since the beginning of his invasions in 252 . However , Dura @-@ Europus and other Palmyrene posts south of Circesium , such as Anah , were not rebuilt . Odaenathus sent the captives to Rome and by the end of 263 , Gallienus added Persicus Maximus ( " The great victor in Persia " ) to his titles and held a triumph .

= = = King of Kings = = =

In 263 , after his return , Odaenathus assumed the title King of Kings of the East ( Mlk Mlk ) , and headed to Antioch , the traditional capital of Syria , where he crowned his son Hairan I as co @-@ King of Kings . The title was a symbol of legitimacy in the East , starting with the Assyrians then the Achaemenids who used it to symbolize their supremacy over all other rulers and was adopted by the Parthian monarchs following their defeat of the Seleucids to legitimize their conquests . The first Sassanian monarch Ardashir I adopted the title following his victory over the Parthians . Odaenathus ' son was crowned with a diadem and a tiara ; the choice of the location was probably meant to express that the Palmyrene monarchs were now the successors of the Seleucid and Iranian rulers who controlled Syria and Mesopotamia in the past .

= = = = Relation with Rome = = = =

In the Roman empire 's hierarchical system , a vassal king usage of the King of Kings title did not indicate that he is a peer of the emperor or that the vassalage ties were cut . The title was probably a challenge not to the Roman emperor but to Shapur I ; Odaenathus was declaring that he , not the Persian monarch , was the legitimate King of Kings in the East . A tessera depicting Hairan I shows him wearing a crown shaped like that of the Parthian monarchs , so it must have been Odaenathus ' crown ; this combination of title and imagery indicate that Odaenathus considered himself the rival of the Sassanians and the protector of the region against them .

Odaenathus ' intents are questioned by some historians such as Drinkwater who attribute the attempted negotiations with Shapur to Odaenathus ' quest for power . However , in contrast to the norm of his period when powerful generals proclaimed themselves emperors , Odaenathus chose not to usurp Gallienus ' throne , and minted no coins bearing his own image . The king had total control over his kingdom of Palmyra and effective control over the Roman East where his military authority was absolute . Odaenathus respected Gallienus ' privilege to appoint provincial governors , but dealt swiftly with opposition ; the Anonymus post Dionem mention the story of Kyrinus ( Quirinus ) , a Roman official , who showed dissatisfaction with Odaenathus ' authority over the Persian frontier and was immediately executed by the king .

In general , Odaenathus ' actions were connected to his and Palmyra 's interests only ; his support of Gallienus and his Roman titles did not hide the Palmyrene base of his power and the local origin of his armies , as with his decision not to wait for the emperor to help in 260 . Odaenathus ' status seems to have been , as Watson put it , " something between powerful subject , independent vassal king and rival emperor " .

= = = = Administration = = = =

Outside his kingdom , Odaenathus had an overall administrative and military authority over the provincial governors of the Roman eastern provinces . Inside Palmyra , no Roman provincial official had any authority ; the king filled the government with Palmyrene staffs . In parallelism to the Iranian practice of making the government appear as a family enterprise , Odaenathus bestowed his own gentilicium ( Septimius ) upon his leading generals and officials such as Zabdas , Zabbai and Worod .

The Palmyrene constitutional institutions continued to function normally during Odaenathus ' reign ; he maintained the council and most civic establishments , permitting the election of magistrates until 264 . When Odaenathus was on campaign , the kingdom was administered by a viceroy , Septimius Worod .

= = = = Second Persian campaign 266 = = = =

Sources are silent regarding the events following the first Persian campaign but the silence in itself is an indication of the peace that prevailed and that the Persians stopped being a threat to the Roman East . The evidence for the second campaign is meager ; Zosimus is the only one to mention it specifically . A passage in the Sibylline Oracles is interpreted by Hartmann as an indication of the second invasion . The campaign took place in 266 or 267 and was aimed directly at Ctesiphon ; Odaenathus reached the walls of the Persian capital but had to cancel the siege and march north to face the influx of Germanic riders attacking Anatolia .

= = = = Anatolian campaign = = = =

The Romans used the designation " Scythian " to denote many tribes regardless of ethnic origin and sometimes the term would be interchangeable with Goths ; the tribes attacking Anatolia were probably the Heruli who built ships to cross the Black Sea in 267 and ravaged the coasts of Bithynia @-@ Pontus besieging Heraclea Pontica . According to Syncellus , Odaenathus arrived at Anatolia with Hairan I and headed to Heraclea but the riders were already gone . They loaded the spoils onto their ships but many perished in a sea battle probably conducted by Odaenathus ; another possibility is that they were shipwrecked .

= = Assassination = =

Odaenathus was assassinated along with Hairan I in late 267 ; the date is debated and some scholars propose 266 or 268 , but Vaballathus dated his first year of reign between August 267 and August 268 , making late 267 the most probable date . The assassination took place either in Anatolia , or in Syria while the king was returning to Palmyra ; there is no consensus on the manner , perpetrator or the motive behind the act .

According to Syncellus , Odaenathus was assassinated near Heraclea Pontica trying to quell a tribal incursion into Pontus ; he gives the name of the assassin as another Odaenathus who may or may not have been a relative of the king . The assassin was killed by the king 's bodyguard . Hartmann support the theory that Odaenathus was killed in Pontus .

Zosimus simply mention that Odaenathus was killed by conspirators near Emesa at a friend 's birthday party without naming the killer . Zonaras attributes the crime to a nephew of Odaenathus but does not give a name .

The Augustan History claims that a cousin of the king named Maeonius killed him , while the Anonymus post Dionem names the assassin as another Odaenathus .

= = = Burial = = =

The stone block found in the Temple of Bel bearing Odaenathus ' sepulchral inscription was brought from the tomb built by him ; this shrine 's location is unknown . At the western end of the Great Colonnade at Palmyra , a shrine designated the " Funerary Temple no . 86 " ( also known as the House Tomb ) is located . Inside its chamber , steps lead down to a vault crypt which is now lost . This mausoleum might have belonged to the royal family , being the only tomb inside the city 's walls .

= = = Assassination theories = = =

Roman conspiracy : John Antiochenus accuse Gallienus of the assassination . An interesting passage in the work of the Anonymus post Dionem speaks of a certain " Rufinus " who orchestrated the assassination on his own initiative then explained his act to the emperor who condoned the crime . This story talks about Rufinus ordering the murder of an older Odaenathus out of fear that he would rebel , and has the younger Odaenathus complaining to the emperor . Since the older Odaenathus ( Odaenathus I ) was proved to be a fictional character , the story was neglected by most scholars . However , according to Theodor Mommsen , younger Odaenathus is an oblique reference to Vaballathus ; Rufinus should be identified with Cocceius Rufinus , the Roman governor of Arabia between 261 / 262 . The evidence for a Roman conspiracy is very weak and can not be confirmed .

Family feud : According to Zonaras , Odaenathus ' nephew misbehaved during a lion hunt ; he made the first attack and killed the animal to the dismay of the king . Odaenathus warned the nephew who ignored the warning and repeated the act twice causing the king to deprive him of his horse which is a great insult in the East . The nephew threatened Odaenathus and was put in chains as a result ; Hairan I asked his father to forgive his cousin and his request was granted but as the king was drinking , the nephew approached him with a sword and killed him along with Hairan I. The bodyguard immediately executed the nephew .

Zenobia : the wife of Odaenathus was accused by the Augustan History of having formerly conspired with Maeonius , as Hairan I was her stepson and she could not accept that he was the heir to her husband instead of her own children . However , there is no suggestion in the Augustan History that Zenobia was involved in the event that saw her husband 's murder ; the act is attributed to Maeonius ' degeneracy and jealousy . Those accounts by the Augustan History can be dismissed as fiction . The hints in modern scholarship that Zenobia had a hand in the assassination out of her desire to rule the empire and dismay with her husband 's pro @-@ Roman policy can be dismissed as there was no reversal of that policy during the first years following Odaenathus ' death .

Persian agents or Palmyrene traitors : the possibility of a Persian involvement exists but the outcome of the assassination would not have served Shapur without establishing a pro @-@ Persian monarch on the Palmyrene throne . Another possibility would be Palmyrenes dissatisfied with Odaenathus ' reign and the changes of their city 's governmental system .

= = Family and succession = =

Odaenathus was married twice ; nothing is known about his first wife 's name or fate . Zenobia was the king 's second wife whom he married in the late 250s when she was 17 or 18 years old .

The number of children Odaenathus had with his first wife is unknown and only one is attested :

Hairan I : the name appears on a 251 inscription from Palmyra describing him as Ras implying that he was already an adult by then . In the Augustan History , Odaenathus ' eldest son is named Herod ; the inscription at Palmyra dating to 263 celebrating Hairan 's coronation mentions him with the name Herodianus . It is possible that Hairan of the 251 inscription is not the same as Herodianus of the 263 , but this is contested by Hartmann who conclude that the reason for the difference in the spelling is due to the language used in the inscription ( Herodianus being the Greek version ) , meaning that Odaenathus ' eldest son and co @-@ king is Hairan Herodianus .

The children of Odaenathus and Zenobia are :

Vaballathus : he is attested on several coins , inscriptions , and in the ancient literature .

Harian II : his image appear on a seal impression along with his older brother Vaballathus as the sons of Zenobia ; his identity is much debated . Potter suggest that he is the same as Herodianus who was crowned in 263 and that Hairan I mentioned in 251 died before the birth of Hairan II .

Herennianus and Timolaus : the two were mentioned in the Augustan History and are not attested in any other source ; Herennianus might be a conflation of Hairan and Herodianus while Timolaus is most probably a fabrication , although Dietmar Kienast suggest that he might be Vaballathus .

Possible descendants of Odaenathus living in later centuries are reported ; " Lucia Septimia Patabiniana Balbilla Tyria Nepotilla Odaenathiana " is known through a dedication dating to the late third or early fourth century inscribed on a tombstone erected by a wet nurse to her " sweetest and most loving mistress " . The tombstone was found in Rome at the San Callisto in Trastevere . Another possible relative is " Eusebius " who is mentioned by Libanius in 391 as a son of an " Odaenathus " who was in turn a descendant from the king ; the father of Eusebius is mentioned as fighting against the Persians ( most probably in the ranks of emperor Julian ) . In 393 , Libanius mentioned that Eusebius promised him a speech written by Longinus for the king . In the fifth century , the philosopher " Syrian Odaenathus " lived in Athens and was a student of Plutarch of Athens ; he might have been a distant descendant of the king .

The Augustan History claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers . However , no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius ' reign and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating the king . Odaenathus was succeeded by his son , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Vaballathus under the regency of Zenobia . Hairan II probably died soon after his father , as only Vaballathus succeeded to the throne .

= = Legacy = =

Odaenathus was the founder of the Palmyrene royal dynasty ; he left Palmyra the premier power in the East , and his actions laid the foundation of Palmyrene strength which culminated in the establishment of the Palmyrene Empire in 270 . Many writers wrote about deeds of Odaenathus ; Nicostratus of Trebizond probably accompanied the king on his campaigns and wrote a history of that period starting from Philip the Arab and ending shortly before the king 's death . According to Potter , Nicostratus ' account was meant to glorify Odaenathus and demonstrate his superiority over Roman emperors .

The memory of Odaenathus was highly esteemed in the Roman empire ; the Augustan History , written in the fourth century , places Odaenathus among the Thirty Tyrants ( probably because he assumed the title of king ) . However , it speaks highly of his role in the Persian war and credit him with saving the empire : " Had not Odaenathus , prince of the Palmyrenes , seized the imperial power after the capture of Valerian when the strength of the Roman state was exhausted , all would have been lost in the East " .

The king was praised by Libanius , and was the subject of a prophecy in the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle : " Then shall come one who was sent by the sun [ i.e. Odaenathus ] , a mighty and fearful lion , breathing much flame . Then he with much shameless daring will destroy ... the greatest beast — venomous , fearful and emitting a great deal of hisses [ i.e. Shapur ] " .

Odaenathus is viewed negatively in Rabbinic sources ; his sack of Nehardea mortified the Jews , and he was cursed by the Babylonian Jews and the Jews of Palestine .

= Banksia violacea =

Banksia violacea , commonly known as violet banksia , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia ( family Proteaceae ) . It generally grows as a small shrub to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) high with fine narrow leaves , and is best known for its unusually coloured dark purple @-@ violet inflorescences . The colour of the inflorescences , short leaves , and flattened follicles which are sticky when young , help identify this species from others in the field . It is found in low shrubland in southern regions of Western Australia from Esperance in the east to Narrogin in the west , growing exclusively in sandy soils .

First described in 1927 by the West Australian botanist Charles Gardner , the species was at one stage considered a variety of B. sphaerocarpa . Although there are no recognised subspecies or varieties , both lignotuberous and nonlignotuberous forms exist for Banksia violacea . Wasps , ants and flies have been recorded visiting flower spikes . Banksia violacea is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia . Regarded as of little value to floriculture , it is rarely cultivated .

= = Description = =

Banksia violacea grows as a shrub up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) tall , with narrow leaves 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) long and about 0 @.@ 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 06 in ) wide . New growth occurs in summer , and flowering ranges from November to April with a peak in February , but can be irregular in timing . Flowers arise from typical Banksia " flower spikes " , and the inflorescences are made up of hundreds of pairs of flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis . Roughly spherical with a diameter of 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) , the flower spikes arise from lateral stems lie partly within the foliage . Unusually for Banksia species , the inflorescences are often violet in colour , ranging anywhere from a dark violet @-@ black through various combinations of violet and greenish @-@ yellow in less pigmented blooms . Each flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals , and one long wiry style . The styles are hooked rather than straight , and are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis . The old flowers gradually fade to brown . The fruiting structure or follicle is a stout woody " cone " , with a hairy appearance caused by the persistence of old withered flower parts . These follicles are crowded around the globular spike ( called an infructescence at this point ) and are oval to rhomboid , although the crowding makes some irregularly shaped . They measure 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 in ) long , 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) high and 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) wide . They are quite flattened and lack a ridge along the valve line . When young , the follicles are greenish in colour and slightly sticky , and covered in fine white hairs , fading to tan or grey with age . They open with fire , releasing a winged wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) seed 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) long . The mottled dark grey seed body is falcate ( crescent @-@ shaped ) and measures 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) long and 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 25 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) wide , with a flattened dark brown wing 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) wide . The woody separator has the same dimensions as the seed .

The bright green cotyledon leaves of the seedlings are oblong to linear in shape and measure 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long by 0 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) wide . The greenish red hypocotyl is hairy , as are the stems of young plants . The hairy seedling leaves are crowded and oppositely arranged . They measure 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) in length and have recurved margins . Young plants often begin branching within their first year of life .

= = Taxonomy = =

The type specimen of Banksia violacea was collected by the West Australian botanist Charles Gardner on 14 December 1926 in the vicinity of Lake Grace . The following year , he published a description of the species in Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Western Australia . He placed it in section Oncostylis of Bentham 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , giving it the specific epithet violacea in reference to the violet flowers . Thus the full name of the species , with author citation , is Banksia violacea C.A.Gardner. The species has been considered a variety of B. sphaerocarpa ( Fox Banksia ) ; this view was published by William Blackall in his 1954 How to know Western Australian wildflowers . He considered B. violacea to be a variety of B. sphaerocarpa with violet flowers . This description was an invalid publication , however , and a nomen nudum . In 1981 Alex George declared Banksia sphaerocarpa var. violacea Blackall a nomenclatural synonym of B. violacea .

In George 's 1981 arrangement , B. violacea was placed in subgenus Banksia because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia " flower spike " ; section Oncostylis because of its hooked styles ; and series Abietinae because its inflorescence is roughly spherical . It was placed in taxonomic sequence between B. incana ( Hoary Banksia ) and B. meisneri ( Meissner 's Banksia ) .

In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published the results of a cladistic analysis of morphological characters of Banksia . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . B. ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic and so it was retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . B. violacea appeared in the last of these :

This clade became the basis of B. subseries Longistyles , which Thiele defined as containing those taxa with very long and slender styles , smoothly convex perianth limbs without a costal ridge , and thickened margins . In accordance with their cladogram , their arrangement placed B. violacea first in taxonomic sequence , followed by B. laricina ( Rose @-@ fruited Banksia ) . However , Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement was not accepted by George , who , questioning the emphasis on cladistics , rejected most of their changes in his 1999 arrangement , restored B. series Abietinae to his broader 1981 definition , and abandoned all of Thiele and Ladiges ' subseries . George commented that the species has no close relatives , being " loosely allied " to B. sphaerocarpa ( Fox Banksia ) and B. telmatiaea ( Swamp Fox Banksia ) . Despite this , the sequence of the series was altered so that B. violacea fell between B. scabrella ( Burma Road Banksia ) and B. incana , and its placement in George 's arrangement may be summarised as follows :

Banksia

B. subg . Banksia

B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )

B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )

B. sect . Oncostylis

B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties )

B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species )

B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )

B. ser . Abietinae

B. sphaerocarpa ( 3 varieties )

B. micrantha

B. grossa

B. telmatiaea

B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )

B. lanata

B. scabrella

B. violacea

B. incana

B. laricina

B. pulchella

B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )

B. nutans ( 2 varieties )

B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )

Since 1998 , an American botanist , Austin Mast , has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is very greatly different from George 's arrangement , and somewhat different from Thiele and Ladiges ' . With respect to B. violacea , Mast 's results agree with its placement near B. laricina and B. incana , placing it in a clade with these two species and B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla ( treated at species rank as B. dolichostyla ) . However , Thiele 's B. subseries Longistyles appears to be polyphyletic , as do both definitions of B. ser . Abietinae — that is , none form a natural grouping .

Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subgenus Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. violacea is placed in B. subgenus Spathulatae .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

B. violacea occurs in southern regions of Western Australia , from Woodanilling to Esperance and as far north as Hyden . This distribution includes areas of the Avon Wheatbelt , Esperance Plains and Mallee biogeographic regions . It favours white sandy soils , often overlying laterite , clay or quartzite . It usually grows among heath and shrublands , associated with mallee eucalypts and Banksia sphaerocarpa var. caesia . Banksia violacea is classified as Not Threatened under the 1950 Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia .

= = Ecology = =

Like most other Proteaceae , Banksia violacea has proteoid roots , roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , thus allowing their uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient soils of Australia . B. violacea is highly susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback .

Banksia violacea is one of a small number of Banksia species that has both lignotuberous and non @-@ lignotuberous populations . In both cases , plants are adapted to release their aerial seed bank following a bushfire , ensuring seedlings are established on clear and relatively fertile ground ; however the possession of a lignotuber makes plants much less reliant on fire regime for population maintenance and regeneration , as maternal plants are not killed by bushfire , but resprout from below ground level . Lignotuberous plants generally occur among the north @-@ eastern populations , in the vicinity of Woodanilling . An investigation into the biogeography of these plants failed to find any vegetative , climatic or other environmental factors associated with the possession of a lignotuber .

Banksia flowerheads in general play host to a variety of birds , mammals and insects . However , only wasps , ants and flies were recorded visiting flower spikes during observations for The Banksia Atlas in the mid @-@ 1980s .

= = Cultivation = =

Banksia violacea is rarely cultivated . It is a slow @-@ growing plant that tends to become untidy with age , and generally does not flower until four to five years after sprouting from seed . Flowers are an unusual colour , but occur within the bush where they grow within and are usually obscured by foliage . It tolerates light pruning not below the green foliage , except for the variant with a lignotuber , which may be pruned heavily . George recommends a sunny position in light , sandy soil . Professor Margaret Bernard Sedgley of the Waite Institute suggests the species is of no value to floriculture , as the inflorescences are too small and obscured by the foliage , although she does add that the purple colour may be a worthwhile character to select for in plant breeding . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 19 to 50 days to germinate .

= Rob Howard =

Rob Howard ( born 1954 or 1955 ) is a Canadian politician who was elected to the 39th Parliament of British Columbia as the Member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia from the riding of Richmond Centre . A member of the BC Liberal Party , he replaced retiring BC Liberal Olga Ilich in that riding , by winning the riding in the 2009 provincial election . While his party formed a majority government , Howard was not included in Gordon Campbell 's cabinet but was appointed to several committees , including the Select Standing Committee on Public Accounts in the first two sessions , and Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services in the third and fourth session . Howard introduced one piece of legislation , the Trustee Board of the Church of God , Richmond Municipality , B.C. ( Corporate Restoration ) Act , 2009 ( Pr 402 ) , to retroactively restore that organization 's corporate status .

As chair of the Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services , Howard supported Premier Campbell 's efforts at establishing the Harmonized Sales Tax . Following Campbell 's resignation , Howard endorsed Kevin Falcon but Christy Clark won the leadership election . Clark eventually made Howard a Parliamentary Secretary in the Ministry of Transportation . In this position he advocated for Open Sky agreements and continued this advocacy in his post @-@ political life by establishing the non @-@ profit organization OpenSkies4Canada . Howard did not seek re @-@ election during the 2013 provincial election and was replaced by BC Liberal Teresa Wat .

Prior to his election to the legislature , Howard worked in property management . He served as a City Councillor in the Richmond , British Columbia for seven years . He was first elected to the Richmond , British Columbia City Council in the October 2001 by @-@ election as a member of the Richmond Non @-@ Partisan Association and was re @-@ elected in the November 2002 and 2005 civic elections as a member of the Richmond First Party . He sat on council as an independent starting in 2006 . While on council he advocated in favour of casino expansion , locating the Olympic speed @-@ skating oval in Richmond , and developing a convention centre .

= = Background = =

Rob Howard was born and raised in Richmond . He graduated from the University of British Columbia where he studied Urban Land Economics . He went on to work at Richmond Savings Credit Union for almost 20 years , and in 1994 , started his own business , NCL Real Estate Management , which specialized in Property Development and property management . He is married to Trudy and has one son , Justin ( Jay ) .

Howard volunteered with the Richmond Minor Hockey Association for over 12 years , and was active with Tourism Richmond , the Richmond Chamber of Commerce , and the Real Estate Institute of BC . While his mother had served as an Alderwoman on the Richmond City Council , Howard 's political career began with a civic bylaw election in October 2001 . Howard , belonging to the civic political party Richmond Non @-@ Partisan Association , was elected to one of the three available seats on the Richmond City Council . After less than a year on council , Howard left the Richmond Non @-@ Partisan Association to join a new pro @-@ business political party , Richmond First , which he saw as being less controlling and allowing him to make more independent decisions . He was re @-@ elected in the November 2002 civic election , with his Richmond First party taking four of the eight council seats .

On local issues , Howard was an advocate of opening Richmond to gambling facilities , which led to the River Rock Casino Resort . He was supportive of heritage preservation measures but opposed Richmond 's tree preservation bylaw . He was the only one on council who preferred the elevated option for the Canada Line ( then known as the Richmond @-@ Airport @-@ Vancouver Line ) , whereas the other councillors preferred the ground level option or no SkyTrain extension at all . He was an advocate for building a convention centre and the most ardent supporter of removing a 55 @-@ acre piece of land from the Agricultural Land Reserve as a possible location for it , though the removal was refused . When the possibility of the city constructing a speed @-@ skating oval associated with the 2010 Winter Olympics came , Howard was a vocal supporter . He travelled to Lillehammer , Norway , in 2004 as part of a committee to investigate similar facilities built for the 1994 Winter Olympics . He also traveled to Pierrefonds , Quebec and Asia as part of the sister city program . He was not supportive of proposals to build a new soccer facility or financially contributing to tall ships tourism attractions . Because previous councils had made funding commitments at the expense of the city 's reserve funds rather than the tax base , Howard 's time on council was marked with consistent property tax increases around 3 to 4 % each year . Howard unsuccessfully lobbied other councillors to hire more police officers . He became the subject of a lawsuit , along with other Richmond First councillors , alleging a conflict @-@ of @-@ interest occurred after they approved a rezoning allowing a controversial pub .

In the 2005 civic election , he was again elected , though his Richmond First party only won three of the eight seats . He unsuccessfully lobbied his fellow councillors to appoint him to fill one of Richmond 's two seats at Metro Vancouver . With not even his own party members supporting him for the Metro Vancouver seat and finding himself being alone in a number of issues , such as supporting the SkyTrain line being elevated , opposing the tree preservation bylaw , and wanting to hire more police officers , Howard left the Richmond First party in February 2006 to be an independent .

= = Provincial politics = =

Following the announcement by Richmond Centre MLA Olga Ilich that she would not be seeking re @-@ election , Howard announced , in January 2008 , that he would seek to replace Ilich as the BC Liberal Party candidate in the next election . As no one else came forward to challenge Howard , he was acclaimed , in November 2008 , to be the BC Liberal candidate . In the general election , held in May 2009 , he was challenged by a New Democratic Party candidate , notary public Kam Brar , and a Green Party candidate , teacher Michael Wolfe , and Nation Alliance Party candidate , accountant Kang Chen . The riding was considered to be a safe seat for the BC Liberals to win , which the 54 @-@ year @-@ old Howard did win with over 60 % of the vote , with his BC Liberal Party winning a majority government .

As the 39th Parliament began , BC Premier Gordon Campbell did not include Howard in his cabinet . Howard was appoint to the Select Standing Committee on Public Accounts in the first two sessions and then the Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services in the third and fourth sessions , in which he chaired the committee and traveled the province gathering public input regarding budget spending priorities . He was also appointed to the Select Standing Committee on Crown Corporations and the Select Standing Committee on Education in the first two sessions , but neither committee held any meetings . He introduced one piece of legislation , a private members bill , the Trustee Board of the Church of God , Richmond Municipality , B.C. ( Corporate Restoration ) Act , 2009 ( Pr 402 ) which retroactively restored that organization 's corporate status .

Howard toured the province advocating for the federal government to enter into Open skies agreements with Asian nations . He also advocated for the Harmonized Sales Tax . Howard remained loyal to Premier Campbell , praising his October 2010 announcement of using the remainder of the budget to cut income tax by 15 % , two weeks before the Select Standing Committee on Finance and Government Services was to deliver its report on public consultation for budget priorities . After Campbell resigned , and the tax cut undone , the 2011 BC Liberal leadership election ensued . Along with Richmond 's other two MLAs , John Yap and Linda Reid , Howard endorsed Kevin Falcon to be the new party leader , citing Falcon 's willingness to listen to all arguments and saying " I think he can bring a new dynamic , a youthful energy to the discussion ; he 's a great speaker , a great debater . " Christy Clark eventually won the leadership and became premier but , like Campbell , did not include Howard in the executive council . In March 2012 , Premier Clark promoted Howard to a parliamentary secretary position under the Ministry of Transportation and directed to focus on air services agreements where he served until September . In early 2013 , Howard was selected by BC Liberal caucus chair , Gordon Hogg , to assist with the party 's investigation into the party 's alleged use of government resources and employees in partisan promotional efforts in certain ethnic communities .

Following a summer of deliberations on his future , Howard cited " personal reasons " including a desire to spend more time with his wife , in his September 2012 announcement that he would not be seeking re @-@ election in the up @-@ coming May 2013 provincial general election . This decision was a surprise to his party because his Richmond Centre riding was considered a safe seat for him to be re @-@ elected . With no obvious successor , a competitive BC Liberal Party primary began . By the end of the year , two candidates announced their intention to run : school trustee Grace Tsang and RCMP officer Gary Law . However , Howard approached Teresa Wat , the CEO of the Chinese language radio station CHMB , to be his replacement . Though she did not live in the riding , she was viewed as a better candidate and , in January 2013 , the party announced she would be the candidate . While the other candidate Tsang withdrew his nomination to accept a position on a political advisory committee , Law alleged he was harassed to drop out and requested a RCMP investigation . Law decided to run as an independent candidate but only received xxx of the vote , with Wat winning the election and subsequently being named Minister of International Trade . Following the election Howard founded the non @-@ profit organization OpenSkies4Canada to advocate for Open Sky agreements to allow more airline competition in Canadian international airports .

= = Electoral history = =

= Oribi =

Oribi ( pronounced / ˈȯrəbē / ) ( Ourebia ourebi ) is a small antelope found in eastern , southern and western Africa . The sole member of its genus , the oribi was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1782 . Eight subspecies are identified . The oribi reaches nearly 50 – 67 centimetres ( 20 – 26 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 12 – 22 kilograms ( 26 – 49 lb ) . This antelope features a slightly raised back , and long neck and limbs . The glossy , yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with the white chin , throat , underparts and rump . Only males possess horns ; the thin , straight horns , 8 – 18 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , are smooth at the tips and ringed at the base .

Typically diurnal , the oribi is active mainly during the day . Small herds of up to four members are common ; males defend their group 's territory , 25 – 100 hectares ( 62 – 247 acres ) large . The oribi is primarily a grazer , and prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally . A seasonal breeder , the time when mating occurs varies geographically . Unlike all other small antelopes , oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems , depending on the habitat – polyandry , polygyny and polygynandry . Gestation lasts for six to seven months , following which a single calf is born ; births peak from November to December in southern Africa . Weaning takes place at four to five months .

The oribi occurs in a variety of habitats – from savannahs , floodplains and tropical grasslands with 10 – 100 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 – 39 @.@ 4 in ) tall grasses to montane grasslands at low altitudes , up to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) above the sea level . This antelope is highly sporadic in distribution , ranging from Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east and southward to Angola and the Eastern Cape ( South Africa ) . The oribi has been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN ; numbers have declined due to agricultural expansion and competition from livestock .

= = Taxonomy = =

The scientific name of the oribi is Ourebia ourebi . The sole member of its genus , the oribi is placed under the family Bovidae . The species was first described by the German zoologist Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann in 1782 . The oribi was formerly included in the tribe Neotragini , that comprised a variety of other dwarf antelopes , including Dorcatragus ( beira ) , Madoqua ( dik dik ) , Neotragus , Oreotragus ( klipspringer ) and Raphicerus . In 1963 , German mammalogist Theodor Haltenorth separated the oribi and Raphicerus into a new tribe , Raphicerini ; later on , zoologist Jonathan Kingdon assigned the oribi to Ourebini , a tribe of its own . The common name " oribi " ( pronounced / ˈȯrəbē / ) comes from the Afrikaans name for the animal , oorbietjie .

In a revision of the phylogeny of the tribe Antilopini on the basis of nuclear and mitochondrial data in 2013 , Eva Verena Bärmann ( of the University of Cambridge ) and colleagues showed that the oribi is the sister taxon to all other antilopines . The cladogram below is based on the 2013 study .

The following eight subspecies are identified :

Of these , zoologists Colin Groves and Peter Grubb identify O. o. hastata , O. o. montana , O. o. ourebi and O. o. quadriscopa as independent species in their 2011 publication Ungulate Taxonomy .

= = Description = =

The oribi is a small , slender antelope ; it reaches nearly 50 – 67 centimetres ( 20 – 26 in ) at the shoulder and weighs 12 – 22 kilograms ( 26 – 49 lb ) . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 92 and 110 centimetres ( 36 and 43 in ) . Sexually dimorphic , males are slightly smaller than females ( except for O. o. ourebi , in which females are smaller ) . This antelope features a slightly raised back , and long neck and limbs . The glossy , yellowish to rufous brown coat contrasts with the white chin , throat , underparts and rump . The bushy tail , brown to black on the outside , has white insides ( except in O. o. hastata , that has a completely black tail ) . The subspecies show some variation in colouration ; O. o. ourebi is a rich rufous , while O. o. hastata is yellower .

Only males possess horns ; the thin , straight horns , 8 – 18 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , are smooth at the tips and ringed at the base . The maximum horn length , 19 @.@ 1 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) , was recorded in 1998 from Malawi . The oribi has at least six different , well @-@ developed scent glands ( such as the prominent preorbital glands near the eyes ) . The body has several modifications , such as the large fossae below the eyes , to accommodate such a large number of glands . Females have four teats .

= = Ecology and behaviour = =

The oribi is diurnal ( active mainly during the day ) , though some activity may also be observed at night . The animal rests in cover during rain events . Unlike all other small antelopes , oribi can exhibit three types of mating systems , depending on the habitat – polyandry , polygyny and polygynandry ; polygyny tends to prevail as the female @-@ to @-@ male ratio increases . A study suggested that polygyny is preferred in areas of high predator risk , as it leads to formation of groups as an anti @-@ predator measure . Small herds of up to four members are also common .

Males defend their group 's territory , 25 – 100 hectares ( 62 – 247 acres ) large ; female members may also show some aggression and drive away intruders . A study showed that the number of females that visit the male 's territory depends on the appearance ( particularly the symmetry ) of the male 's horns . Males mark vegetation and soil in their territories by preorbital gland secretions and excrement ; the intensity of marking increases with the number of male neighbours . Dominant males tend to have greater access to females in and around the territory than other males . An important feature of the social behaviour of oribi is the " dung ceremony " , in which all animals form temporary dung middens . Oribi at least three months old have been observed giving out one to three alarm whistles on sensing danger . These whistles are more common in adults than in juveniles , and males appear to whistle more . Common predators include carnivorans such as jackals .

= = = Diet = = =

Primarily a grazer , the oribi prefers fresh grasses and browses occasionally . Grasses can constitute up to 90 % of the diet ; preferred varieties include Andropogon , Eulalia , Hyparrhenia , Loudetia , Pennisetum and Themeda species . Mineral licks are also visited regularly . Oribi have been observed feeding on flowers and Boletus mushrooms . Groups of oribi congregate in the rainy season , when grasses are abundant .

= = = Reproduction = = =

Both sexes become sexually mature at 10 to 14 months . A seasonal breeder , the time when mating occurs varies geographically . Mating may peak in the rainy season ( August to September ) . When a female enters oestrus ( which lasts for four to six days ) , it seeks the company of males . During courtship , the male will pursue the female , test her urine to check if she is in oestrus and lick her rump and flanks . Gestation lasts for six to seven months , following which a single calf is born ; births peak from November to December in southern Africa . The newborn is kept in concealment for nearly a month ; the mother pays regular visits to her calf to suckle it for nearly half an hour . Males may guard their offspring from predators and keep away other males . Weaning takes place at four to five months . The oribi lives for 8 to 12 years in the wild , and for 12 to 14 years in captivity .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The oribi occurs in a variety of habitats – from savannahs , floodplains and tropical grasslands with 10 – 100 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 – 39 @.@ 4 in ) tall grasses to montane grasslands at low altitudes , up to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) above the sea level . Recently burnt areas often attract groups of oribi . The choice of habitat depends on the availability of cover needed to escape the eyes of predators . Population densities typically vary between 2 and 10 individuals per km2 ; however , densities as high as 45 individuals per km2 have been recorded in tropical grasslands that receive over 110 centimetres ( 43 in ) of annual rainfall and open floodplains . The oribi 's range overlaps with those of larger grazers such as the African buffalo , hippopotamus , hartebeest , Thomson 's gazelle and topi . These separate species often occur in close proximity to each other , increasing predator vigilance .

This antelope is highly sporadic in distribution ; it occurs mainly in eastern , southern and western Africa , ranging from Nigeria and Senegal in the west to Ethiopia and Eritrea in the east and southward to Angola and the Eastern Cape ( South Africa ) . It is feared to be extinct in Burundi .

= = Threats and conservation = =

The oribi has been classified as Least Concern by the IUCN . The total population ( as of 2008 ) is estimated at 750 @,@ 000 . However , the subspecies O. o. haggardi is listed as Vulnerable because , as of 2008 , the total population is estimated at less than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , and is feared to be declining . Hunting is a relatively minor threat , since the oribi shows some tolerance to hunting . Nevertheless , the steep fall of 92 % in oribi populations in Comoé National Park ( Côte d 'Ivoire ) has been attributed to poaching . Numbers have also declined due to agricultural expansion and competition from livestock .

The oribi occurs in a number of protected areas throughout its range , such as : Gashaka Gumti National Park in Nigeria , the Pendjari and W National Parks ( Benin ) ; Aouk Hunting Zone ( Chad ) ; Benoue , Bouba Njida and Faro National Parks ( Cameroon ) ; Manovo @-@ Gounda St. Floris National Park ( Central African Republic ) ; Garamba , Upemba and Kundelungu National Parks ( Congo @-@ Kinshasa ) ; Omo National Park ( Ethiopia ) ; Masai Mara Game Reserve and Ruma National Park ( Kenya ) ; Golden Gate Highlands National Park ( South Africa ) ; Serengeti National Park ( Tanzania ) ; Kidepo Valley , Lake Mburo and Murchison Falls National Parks ( Uganda ) ; Kafue and Liuwa Plain National Parks and Bangweulu Swamp ( Zambia ) .

= Rockstar 101 =

" Rockstar 101 " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . The song features the British @-@ American guitarist Slash of the rock group Guns N ' Roses . It was released on May 18 , 2010 , as the fifth single from the album . Rihanna wrote the song in collaboration with the producers The @-@ Dream and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart ; vocal production was carried out by Makeba Riddick . The album version is a hip hop song , while the remix EP 's consist of dance , dubstep and electronic music adaptations , some of which were remixed by Dave Audé and Mark Picchiotti .

Critical response to " Rockstar 101 " was mixed ; some critics praised Rihanna 's " bravado " while others criticized the " aggressive " tone . The song charted at number 64 on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 chart , and number two on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . To promote the song , Rihanna performed on American Idol in April 2010 . It has been included on the set lists of her Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) and Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) . Melina Matsoukas directed the song 's music video , which portrays Rihanna impersonating Slash . She wears custom made jewelry designed by Fannie Schiavoni in some parts of the video , while Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker makes a cameo appearance .

= = Background and release = =

Rihanna co @-@ wrote " Rockstar 101 " in collaboration with the song 's producers The @-@ Dream and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart . Her vocals and the instrumentation for the song were recorded at Serenity Sound Studios in Los Angeles , California , the Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California and Triangle Sound Studios in Atlanta , Georgia . It was mixed by Jaycen Joshua at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California ; he was assisted in the process by Giancarlo Lino . Rihanna 's vocals were produced by Makeba Riddick . The song was engineered by Marcus Tovar , Brian " B @-@ LUV " Thomas , Andrew Wuepper and Chris " TEK " O 'Ryan . Additional engineering was done by Pat Thrall . Guitar was provided by Tim Stewart , while Monte Neuble performed additional keys . The song features a guitar performance by Slash , the British @-@ American musician , songwriter and former lead guitarist of the American hard rock band Guns N ' Roses .

" Rockstar 101 " was the fourth single from the album Rated R to be released in the US and the fifth overall . It was sent to contemporary hit and rhythmic radio stations in the US on May 18 , 2010 , and to Australian radio stations on July 19 , 2010 . The song was released as an extended play ( EP ) in the United States through Masterbeat.com on June 2 , 2010 , to the iTunes Store on July 13 , and in the United Kingdom through Amazon on June 29 , 2010 . These EP 's consist of remixes by various DJs and music producers , including Dave Audé and Mark Picchiotti .

= = Composition = =

" Rockstar 101 " is a hip hop song which lasts for three minutes and fifty @-@ eight seconds . It features an " aggressive " guitar solo from Slash , according to Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly . Rihanna uses her lower register and " heavy " modulation to perform the most of the song , and she " growls " the lyric " The only thing I 'm missing is a black guitar " . Rihanna " struts her stuff " as she insists that she is a " big shit talker " as she proclaims that " I 'll never play a victim / I 'd rather be a stalker " . Sean Fennessey for Spin thought that when Rihanna sings the line " Got my middle finger up , I don 't give a fuck " , it sounded as though she had never sworn before due to how she preciously mewls the word ' fuck ' .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

" Rockstar 101 " received mixed responses from music critics . Brian Linder for IGN praised the song , writing that it " actually works " despite sounding disjointed at first . Emily Tartanella of PopMatters defined " Rockstar 101 " as a " brilliant bit of bravado " during her review of Rated R , while Ailbhe Malone for NME wrote that Rihanna sings with " swagger " on the track , which was something that she has Hova to thank for . Jon Pareles for The New York Times simply highlighted a line from the song , " I never play the victim " . Neil McCormick for The Daily Telegraph thought that " Rockstar 101 " was one of the few songs on the album to retain the " vaguest leftover hints of her warm Caribbean vocal flavouring " . Ann Powers for the Los Angeles Times was critical of Slash 's inclusion on the song , and she described it as an " afterthought " . Powers wrote " she can definitely get by without that ultimate rock phallic symbol " , a reference to Slash . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombell felt that " Rockstar 101 , alike " Russian Roulette " and " The Last Song " , were " instantly @-@ dated missteps from a bygone era when a Slash feature was cool " . He further wrote that " Rockstar 101 " and " G4L " were " harder to justify considering their mindless boasts and torpid production " . The song was met with a negative review from The Guardian 's Alex Petridis , who wrote " At one extreme , the resemblance of ' Umbrella ' ' s chorus to that of a stadium rock ballad seems to have encouraged Rihanna to cut out the middle @-@ man and just start making stadium rock : cue the awful widdly @-@ woo guitars of ' Rockstar 101 ' and ' Fire Bomb ' " .

= = = Chart performance = = =

" Rockstar 101 " made its first chart appearance on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , where it peaked at number two ; it stayed on the chart for 14 weeks . The song peaked on the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 28 , spending seven weeks on the chart . It subsequently peaked at number 64 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and spent five weeks on the chart . It also peaked at number 10 on the US R & B / Hip @-@ hop Digital Songs chart . " Rockstar 101 " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 50 on August 22 , 2010 ; it peaked at number 24 two weeks later for one week , and remained on the chart for six weeks .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

The director Melina Matsoukas filmed the music video for " Rockstar 101 " in April 2010 ; she had previously directed the videos for Rihanna 's singles " Hard " and " Rude Boy " . This video was edited by Nabil Mechi from Murex , who previously edit videos for " S.O.S. " and " Umbrella " . On May 19 , 2010 , Rihanna released a 30 @-@ second sneak @-@ peek preview of the video on the internet , whilst the full video premiered on May 25 , 2010 through the high @-@ definition music video website VEVO .

= = = Synopsis = = =

According to Jayson Rodriguez of MTV , the video is " a mix of goth bondage @-@ esque voyeurism , complete with Rihanna 's gyrating moves and a raging band that features Travis Barker on the drums . " Shortly after the video was released , Slash said that he was " flattered " that Rihanna had impersonated him in the video , saying " The video is way better with her being me than with me being me ... all things considered , it brings an element of sexuality to it that I probably wouldn 't have been capable of . I think it 's hot . Everything works out the way it 's supposed to . "

Although Slash is featured on " Rockstar 101 " , he does not appear in the music video . Instead , Rihanna pays homage to him by impersonating him by presenting herself wearing a skull @-@ laden top hat , wig , leather jacket , dark glasses and toothpick : Rihanna can be seen strumming a guitar Slash 's style . Rihanna is seen in eight different scenes and settings , one of which showed an almost nude Rihanna covered in black body paint wearing only a spiked crown and jewelry chains , which were created by designer Fannie Schiavoni . In other scenes , Rihanna smashes a black electric guitar and can be seen wearing an outfit made from parts of a guitar . Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker makes a cameo appearance and is featured as one of the drummers in Rihanna 's rock band .

= = Live performances = =

Rihanna first performed " Rockstar 101 " on American Idol on April 7 , 2010 . She wore a black PVC catsuit and was accompanied on stage by guitarist Nuno Bettencourt ; the set design included flame throwers and a video screen which showed guitars , lightning bolts and skulls . At one point , the singer picked and played up a black Gibson Flying V guitar . Larry Carroll for MTV wrote that the extent of Rihanna 's ability to play the guitar was limited to playing it with one finger on one of the strings . However , he complimented Rihanna 's overall performance , writing that her shoulder pads were " nearly as huge as her presence " . He went on to write that she " half @-@ sung , half @-@ spoke " the song . A reviewer for MTV UK agreed with Carroll , writing that " halfway through the performance [ Rihanna ] donned a ' black flying v guitar ' although we 're not sure you could say she ' played ' it ! " Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone praised Rihanna 's performance , writing " if the introductory rules of rock stardom are ' teach thyself to pick slide , ' ' tight clothes ' and ' pyro ! ' then Rihanna has been paying attention in her ' Rockstar 101 ' classes after all " .

A reporter for the Daily Mail wrote that Rihanna displayed her competitive side during her performance on American Idol , after " Lady Gaga set such high standards " . Writing for About.com , Bill Lamb was critical of Rihanna 's decision to perform " Rockstar 101 " on American Idol . He commented that previous media reports had indicated that the singer would be debuting a different album track , " Te Amo " , which was later released as the sixth and final single from Rated R. Lamb thought that " Rockstar 101 " was one of the " weaker " songs on the album , and predicted that it would be " destined to end the streak of three consecutive top 10 pop hits from the album " . While he wrote that the " intensely chilly , distant feel of the song works " within the context of Rated R , Lamb was unsure of whether or not it would appeal to the masses on radio . The song was included on the set list of the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) . Clay Cane for BET wrote that Rihanna " deserves a round of applause for doing something different , straying away from being a standard pop tart " . " Rockstar 101 " is also included on Rihanna 's Diamonds World Tour ( 2013 ) .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Recording

Recorded at Serenity Sound Studios , Los Angeles , CA ; The Boom Boom Room , Burbank CA ; Triangle Sound Studios , Atlanta , GA

Mixed at Larrabee Studios , Universal City , CA

Personnel

Credits adapted from the inlay cover of Rated R.

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Radio and release history = =

= St Mary 's Church , Rhodogeidio =

St Mary 's Church , Rhodogeidio is a small medieval church , dating from the 15th century , near Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , in Anglesey , north Wales . It served as a chapel of ease to another church in the area , St Ceidio 's . Some restoration work was carried out in the 19th century , but St Mary 's has since fallen into disuse and is now largely in ruins .

It is a Grade II listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is " a late Medieval church of exceptionally simple character " , and is virtually unaltered despite its poor condition . One writer has said that St Mary 's " has the distinction of probably being the most isolated church in Anglesey " .

= = History and location = =

St Mary 's Church is in the countryside in Rhodogeidio , in Anglesey , north Wales . It is about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , towards the north of Anglesey . It is reached by a footpath from a farm – it is only accessible on foot – and is surrounded by a churchyard .

It was built in the 15th century as a chapel of ease to serve St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio , about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 25 km ) to the east . Restoration work was carried out in the 19th century , but the church later fell into disuse . It has been in ruins since sometime between 1937 , when the survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded its condition as " fair " , and 1970 , when it was given listed building status and its " very poor " condition noted .

= = Architecture and fittings = =

St Mary 's is a small church , measuring 30 feet by 12 feet 3 inches ( about 9 @.@ 1 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) . It dates from the late medieval period , and was constructed using rubble masonry and large stones . It had a slate roof , although most of the roof has now gone , and there is a bellcote at the west end , which may be original rather than a later addition . There is no physical division between the nave and the chancel , although one account in the 19th century said that there had originally been a screen separating them , and some traces of it still remained at that time .

Entrance to the church was through a doorway with a square head , in the north wall at the west end ; this dates from the 19th century . An inscribed stone near the doorway has the date 1798 and some initials , and it has been suggested that this marked the date of some renovation work . There are two windows on the south wall , one fully blocked and one partially blocked . The small window at the east end of the church dates from the latter part of the 15th century .

Inside , little remains , but the ruins still have most of the original roof trusses ( one , at the west end of the church , is a replacement ) . There are some slate memorial tablets on the walls , dating from the middle of the 19th century , and a plain 12th @-@ century circular font . The 1937 survey noted a bell dating from 1717 and some portions of 17th @-@ century panelled seating near the pulpit ; these were not recorded when the church was given listed status in 1970 .

= = Assessment = =

St Mary 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 and has been listed because it is " a late Medieval church of exceptionally simple character " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes that despite its " very poor condition " , St Mary 's " is a virtually unaltered late Medieval building ( even retaining the original roof trusses ) and in its isolation , is characteristic of many churches on the island . "

Writing in 1859 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones called it a " small , plain , single @-@ aisled chapel " , and said that one of the small south windows was " a good specimen of its kind . " A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that the " roofless ruin " of St Mary 's " has the distinction of probably being the most isolated church in Anglesey " .

= First Light ( Rebecca Stead novel ) =

First Light is a young adult science fiction and mystery novel by Rebecca Stead , first published in 2007 . The novel follows Peter , who is in Greenland with his father and mother for research on global warming , and Thea , who lives in Gracehope , an underground colony located below Greenland . First Light explains how global warming is melting Gracehope and Peter and Thea 's attempt to persuade the people to leave . The novel addresses the effects of global warming as a theme .

Stead began writing the novel in 2002 , but her first draft was confusing and unorganized . To help her , she met editor Wendy Lamb who advised her to meet with a small group of people who would help critique the novel . After three years of work , Stead finished the second draft and met with Lamb who once again helped make improvements and later published the novel . Reviewers praised the description of Gracehope and main characters , as well as the performances of Coleen Marlo and David Ackroyd who voiced Thea and Peter in a subsequent audiobook publication of First Light .

= = Inspiration and origins = =

Stead drew inspiration from many sources in order to create the novel . As a child growing up in a big city , she was interested in the small towns which made her think " that in smaller places , everybody , even the kids , had special identities , where as in a city people are pretty anonymous " . An idea began to form for a hidden society that also served as a small town .

Stead began writing First Light in 2002 , but had no experience prior to that . The first draft turned out confusing and unorganized . To help her , Stead met with Wendy Lamb , an editor Stead had met in a workshop a few years before . Lamb suggested that Stead meet with a " critique group " who would help read and revise the drafts Stead wrote . After Stead created a revised copy of the novel in 2005 , she sent it to Lamb again and a contract was drawn up . More revisions were made in order to make the new world created in the novel easier to understand . Stead found it hard " to maintain a sense of ' the whole ' . Over and over I mapped out the book out for myself using post @-@ its in a manila folder , trying to get a sense of where the tension went " . The novel took three years to complete .

After the revisions were completed , much of the plot stayed the same , but several events in the original draft were cut out to strengthen the whole book . Stead combined two characters into one , having a stronger outline and also cut out several scenes for minor characters . In the end , Stead found that the revisions helped to make the book more cohesive .

= = Plot summary = =

First Light follows the adventure of two protagonists , Peter , who lives with his mother and father in New York but is in Greenland for his father 's research , and Thea , who lives in an underground colony in Greenland called Gracehope . Gracehope was formed hundreds of years ago by a group called the Settlers who used to live in England . They possessed unusual abilities , such as extremely good vision and hearing , leading them to be called ' eye adepts ' and ' ear adepts ' , respectively . These powers were seen as sorcery , prompting Grace , the leader of the Settlers , to bring the Settlers under the ice in Greenland where they could live in peace .

While walking around her house , Thea finds a map in her room of Gracehope . The map shows a tunnel leading onto the surface . Thea and her cousin Mattias find the tunnel and meet Peter who helps them back to Gracehope . Reaching Gracehope , Peter realizes that several talismans of the people are in the shape of mitochondrial DNA , which his mom is studying . After waking up from a headache , Peter finds his mom next to his bed . She explains that she used to live in Gracehope , but was banished with her sister , after her sister ventured above the surface and contracted an illness that could not be cured . She also explains that her research of mitochondrial DNA relates to the ability of mutations to benefit the human body , which could cause their extremely good vision and hearing . In the end , she warns Peter that global warming is causing Gracehope to slowly melt away . The entire colony must learn the dangers they face and escape . One obstacle lies in their way : Rowen , Thea and Peter 's grandmother who banished Peter 's mom and did nothing to help Thea 's mom when she was on her deathbed from an illness when she ventured aboveground . Rowen is the head of the Council in Gracehope and is strictly against going aboveground .

To convince the rest of the colony , Peter and Thea plan to use a piece of mythology , that a dog with four white paws would be born when it was time to leave . Such a dog had been born several days ago but has yet to open his eyes . Thea decides to proceed without using the dog and tries to convince the colony at a reenactment of the Settler 's escape to Greenland with several allies who know of Rowen 's actions . Just as Thea and her allies are about to lose the argument , Peter arrives with the dog , whose eyes are open . That , coupled with the fact that Peter is an eye adept , the first in a hundred years , convinces the colony to listen to Thea instead of Rowen . The novel ends eight months later as the people of Gracehope are slowly educated on global warming and the dangers of staying in their colony .

= = Genre and themes = =

First Light is categorized as a science fiction and mystery novel . Katie Haegele from the Philadelphia Inquirer also listed the novel as a " slow @-@ to @-@ unfold mystery combining elements of science and history with an appealing note of fantasy " . Kirkus Reviews classified the novel as an " ice @-@ age mystery " as both Peter and Thea " discover one another 's worlds as well as the truth about themselves " . Connie Tyrrell Burns from School Library Journal found the novel to be " an exciting , engaging mix of science fiction , mystery , and adventure " .

Reviewers also noted the environmental theme in the book . Kirkus Reviews found that " With the impending threat of global warning as an ominous backdrop , teens from very different worlds find they have much in common " . In the novel , Peter finds an underground civilization beneath Greenland that is sinking as a result of global warming . Burns felt that First Light is a " great discussion starter of issues ranging from global warming to shunning and building a new society " . VOYA recognized the global warming theme and also classified First Light as a coming @-@ of @-@ age tale .

= = Critical reception = =

Publisher 's Weekly said , " It is a testament to the storytelling that the existence of this parallel world and the convergence of Peter and Thea 's stories , told in separate chapters , are both credible and absorbing . Young readers will find this a journey worth taking . " Kirkus Reviews found the novel to be a " Thoroughly enjoyable arctic adventure " , praising how the adventure tests the main characters ' courage as they learn the truth of both worlds . Vicky Smith from Horn Book Magazine found the two main characters well written and the city of Gracehope well structured . While , Smith found the city 's origin unbelievable , she recognized that few people would care about that and compared the threat in First Light similar to the one in The City of Ember . Jenifer Hubert from Booklist also compared the novel to The City of Ember and to Neal Shusterman 's Downsiders . Hubert criticized the slow beginning and flaws in the mythology and structure of the underground world , but still felt that " the icy setting and global @-@ warming theme are well realized " .

= = Audiobook adaption = =

First Light has been made in an audiobook containing six disks and a length of seven hours and six minutes . The audiobook was released by the Listening Library and read by David Ackroyd and Coleen Marlo for the parts of Peter and Thea , respectively . Kathy Miller from School Library Journal praised the two readers for their performance which " engages listeners , and they are both adept at creating a different voice for each character and moving seamlessly between them " . Miller also found the novel useful for starting a discussion on topics such as " political subterfuge and propaganda to global warming " . A review from Horn Book Review by Jenifer Brabander praised the easy shifts from American to English accents made by both narrators . Brabander also found the tone given to Thea appropriate and compared the novel to Stead 's second work , When You Reach Me , feeling that " [ t ] hough First Light doesn 't reach the excellence of Stead 's second novel , the Newbery @-@ winning When You Reach Me , this audio will nevertheless draw listeners in with its narrators ' strong talent " .

= Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral =

The Metropolitan Cathedral of the Assumption of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary into Heaven ( Spanish : Catedral Metropolitana de la Asunción de la Santísima Virgen María a los cielos ) is the largest cathedral in the Americas , and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico . It is situated atop the former Aztec sacred precinct near the Templo Mayor on the northern side of the Plaza de la Constitución in Downtown Mexico City . The cathedral was built in sections from 1573 to 1813 around the original church that was constructed soon after the Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlan , eventually replacing it entirely . Spanish architect Claudio de Arciniega planned the construction , drawing inspiration from Gothic cathedrals in Spain .

The cathedral has four façades which contain portals flanked with columns and statues . The two bell towers contain a total of 25 bells . The tabernacle , adjacent to the cathedral , contains the baptistery and serves to register the parishioners . There are two large , ornate altars , a sacristy , and a choir in the cathedral . Fourteen of the cathedral 's sixteen chapels are open to the public . Each chapel is dedicated to a different saint or saints , and each was sponsored by a religious guild . The chapels contain ornate altars , altarpieces , retablos , paintings , furniture and sculptures . The cathedral is home to two of the largest 18th @-@ century organs in the Americas . There is a crypt underneath the cathedral that holds the remains of many former archbishops .

Over the centuries , the cathedral has suffered damage . A fire in 1967 destroyed a significant part of the cathedral 's interior . The restoration work that followed uncovered a number of important documents and artwork that had previously been hidden . Although a solid foundation was built for the cathedral , the soft clay soil it is built on has been a threat to its structural integrity . Dropping water tables and accelerated sinking caused the structure to be added to the World Monuments Fund list of the 100 Most Endangered Sites . Reconstruction work beginning in the 1990s stabilized the cathedral and it was removed from the endangered list in 2000 .

After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , the conquistadors decided to build their church on the site of the Templo Mayor of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan to consolidate Spanish power over the newly conquered domain . Hernán Cortés and the other conquistadors used the stones from the destroyed temple of the Aztec god of war Huitzilopochtli , principal deity of the Aztecs , to build the church . Cortés ordered the original church 's construction after he returned from exploring what is now Honduras . Architect Martín de Sepúlveda was the first director of this project from 1524 to 1532 . Juan de Zumárraga , the first Bishop of the first See of the New World , established in the Viceroyalty of New Spain , promoted this church 's completion . Zumárraga 's Cathedral was located in the northeast portion of what is now the cathedral . It had three naves separated by three Tuscan columns . The central roof was ridged with intricate carvings done by Juan Salcedo Espinosa and gilded by Francisco de Zumaya and Andrés de la Concha . The main door was probably of Renaissance style . The choir area had 48 seats made of ayacahuite wood crafted by Adrian Suster and Juan Montaño . However , this church was soon considered inadequate for the growing importance of the capital of New Spain .

In 1544 , ecclesiastical authorities in Valladolid ordered the creation of new and more sumptuous cathedral . In 1552 , an agreement was reached whereby the cost of the new cathedral would be shared by the Spanish crown , encomenderos and the Indians under the direct authority of the archbishop of New Spain . The cathedral was begun by being built around the existing church in 1573 . When enough of the cathedral was built to house basic functions , the original church was demolished to enable construction to continue .

= = Construction = =

The cathedral was constructed over a period of over two centuries , between 1573 and 1813 . Its design is a mixture of three architectural styles that predominated during the colonial period , Renaissance , Baroque and Neo @-@ classic .

Initial plans for the new cathedral were drawn up and work on the foundation began in 1562 . The decision to have the cathedral face south instead of east was made in 1570 . In the same year , construction commenced , working from the Gothic designs and models created by Claudio de Arciniega and Juan Miguel de Agüero , inspired by cathedrals found in Spanish cities such as Valladolid and Jaén .

Because of the muddy subsoil of the site , work on the foundation continued past the work on the walls to 1581 . In 1585 , work on the first of the cathedral 's chapels began and by 1615 , the cathedral 's walls reached to about half of their final height . Construction of the interior of the current cathedral began in 1623 and what is now the vestry was where Mass was conducted after the first church was finally torn down .

In 1629 , work was interrupted by flooding , over two metres in depth . Parts of the city were damaged , especially around the main plaza or Zocalo . Because of such damage , this site was almost abandoned and a new cathedral project was begun in the hills of the Tacubaya area to the west .

Despite these problems , the project continued in its current location , and under the direction of Luis Gómez de Transmonte , the interior was finished and consecrated in 1667 . The cathedral still lacked bell towers , the complete front facade , and many of the other features it has now at the beginning of the 18th century .

In 1787 , José Damian Ortiz de Castro was in charge of finishing work on the cathedral . He did most of the work on the bell towers , putting in most of the fretwork and capping them with roofs in the shape of bells . With his death in 1793 , he did not live to see the cathedral completed , and Manuel Tolsá finished the cathedral by adding the cupola , the central front facade , the balustrades , and the statues of Faith , Hope and Charity at the top of the front facade . Tolsa 's work was the last major construction to the cathedral and the appearance it had when he finished is the basic look the cathedral has today .

The cathedral faces south and is approximately 54 @.@ 5 metres ( 179 ft ) wide and 110 metres ( 360 ft ) long . It consists of two bell towers , a central dome , three main portals , five naves , 51 vaults , 74 arches and 40 columns . Inside the cathedral are five large altars , sixteen chapels , a choir area , a corridor , capitulary room , and sacristy . The cathedral has approximately 150 windows .

= = Exterior = =

= = = Facades and portals = = =

The main facade of the cathedral faces south . The main portal is centered in the main facade and is the highest of the cathedral 's three portals . Statues of Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle stand between the columns of the portal , while Saint Andrew and James the Just are depicted on the secondary doorway . In the center of this doorway is a high relief of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary , to whom the cathedral is dedicated . This image is flanked by images of Saint Matthew and Saint Andrew . The coat of arms of Mexico is above the doorway , with the eagle 's wings outstretched . There is a clock tower at the very top of the portal with statues representing Faith , Hope and Charity , which was created by sculptor Manuel Tolsá .

The west facade was constructed in 1688 and rebuilt in 1804 . It has a three @-@ section portal with images of the Four Evangelists . The west portal has high reliefs depicting Jesus handing the Keys of Heaven to Saint Peter .

The east facade is similar to the west facade . The reliefs on the east portal show a ship carrying the four apostles , with Saint Peter at the helm . The title of this relief is The ship of the Church sailing the seas of Eternity .

The northern facade , built during the 16th century in the Renaissance Herrera style , is oldest part of the cathedral and was named after Juan de Herrera , architect of the El Escorial monastery in Spain . While the eastern and western facades are older than most of the rest of the building , their third level has Solomonic columns which are associated with the Baroque period .

All the high reliefs of the portals of the cathedral were inspired by the work of Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens .

= = = Bell towers = = =

The bell towers are the work of Xalapan artist José Damián Ortiz de Castro . They are capped with bell @-@ shaped roofs made of tezontle covered in chiluca , a white stone . Ortiz de Castro was in charge of the cathedral 's construction in the latter half of the 18th century until he died , unexpectedly . Manuel Tolsá of Valencia , who had built other notable buildings in Mexico City , was hired to finish the cathedral . At this point , the cathedral had already been 240 years in the making . He added the neo @-@ Classic structure housing the clock , the statues of the three theological virtues ( Faith , Hope , and Charity ) , the high balustrade surrounding the building , and the dome that rises over the transept .

The cathedral has 25 bells — eighteen hang in the east bell tower and seven in the west tower . The largest bell is named the Santa Maria de Guadalupe and weighs around 13 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 29 @,@ 000 lb ) . Other major bells are named the Doña Maria , which weighs 6 @,@ 900 kilograms ( 15 @,@ 200 lb ) , and La Ronca ( " the hoarse one " ) , named so because of its harsh tone . Doña Maria and La Ronca were placed in 1653 while the largest bell was placed later in 1793 .

The statues in the west tower are the work of José Zacarías Cora and represent Pope Gregory VII , Saint Augustine , Leander of Seville , St. Fulgentius of Écija , St.Francis Xavier , and Saint Barbara . The statues in the east tower are by Santiago Cristóbal Sandoval and depict Emilio , Rose of Lima , Mary ( mother of Jesus ) , Ambrogio , Jerome , Philip of Jesus , Hippolytus of Rome , and Isidore the Laborer .

In 1947 , a novice bell ringer died in an accident when he tried to move one of the bells while standing under it . The bell swung back and hit him in the head , killing him instantly . The bell was then " punished " by removing the clapper . In the following years , the bell was known as la castigada ( " the punished one " ) , or la muda ( " the mute one " ) . In 2000 , the clapper was reinstalled in the bell .

In October 2007 , a time capsule was found inside the stone ball base of a cross , in the southern bell tower of the cathedral . It was placed in 1742 , supposedly to protect the building from harm . The lead box was filled with religious artifacts , coins and parchments and hidden in a hollow stone ball . The ball was marked with the date of 14 May 1791 , when the building 's topmost stone was laid . A new time capsule will be placed in the stone ball when it is closed again .

= = = Tabernacle = = =

Situated to the right of the main cathedral , the Metropolitan Tabernacle ( Spanish : Sagrario Metropolitana ) was built by Lorenzo Rodríguez during the height of the Baroque period between 1749 and 1760 , to house the archives and vestments of the archbishop . It also functioned and continues to function as a place to receive Eucharist and register parishioners .

The first church built on the cathedral site also had a tabernacle , but its exact location is unknown . During the construction of the cathedral , the tabernacle was housed in what are now the Chapels of San Isidro and Our Lady of Agony of Granada . However , in the 18th century , it was decided to build a structure that was separate , but still connected , to the main cathedral . It is constructed of tezontle ( a reddish porous volcanic rock ) and white stone in the shape of a Greek cross with its southern facade faces the Zócalo . It is connected to the main cathedral via the Chapel of San Isidro .

The interiors of each wing have separate uses . In the west wing is the baptistry , in the north is the main altar , the main entrance and a notary area , separated by inside corner walls made of chiluca stone and tezontle . Chiluca , a white stone , covers the walls and floors and the tezontle frames the doors and windows . At the crossing of the structure is an octagonal dome framed by arches that form curved triangles where they meet at the top of the dome . The principal altar is in the ornate Churrigueresque style and crafted by indigenous artist Pedro Patiño Ixtolinque . It was inaugurated in 1829 .

The exterior of the Baroque styled tabernacle is almost entirely adorned with decorations , such as curiously shaped niche shelves , floating drapes and many cherubs . Carvings of fruits such as grapes and pomegranates have been created to in the shape of ritual offerings , symbolizing the Blood of Christ and the Church . Among the floral elements , roses , daisies , and various types of four @-@ petalled flowers can be found , including the indigenous chalchihuite .

The tabernacle has two main outside entrances ; one to the south , facing the Zócalo and the other facing east toward Seminario Street . The southern façade is more richly decorated than the east façade . It has a theme of glorifying the Eucharist with images of the Apostles , Church Fathers , saints who founded religious orders , martyrs as well as scenes from the Bible . Zoomorphic reliefs can be found along with the anthropologic reliefs , including a rampaging lion , and the eagle from the coat of arms of Mexico . The east facade is less ambitious , but contains figures from the Old Testament as well as the images of John Nepomucene and Ignacio de Loyola . Construction dates for the phases of the tabernacle are also inscribed here .

= = Interior = =

= = = Altars = = =

= = = = Altar of Forgiveness = = = =

The Altar of Forgiveness is located at the front of the central nave . It is the first aspect of the interior that is seen upon entering the cathedral . It was the work of Spanish architect Jerónimo Balbás , and represents the first use of the estípite column ( an inverted triangle @-@ shaped pilaster ) in the Americas .

There are two stories about how the name of this altar came about . The first states that those condemned by the Spanish Inquisition were brought to the altar to ask for forgiveness in the next world before their execution . The second relates to painter Simon Pereyns , who despite being the author of many of the works of the cathedral , was accused of blasphemy . According to the story , while Pereyns was in jail , he painted such a beautiful image of the Virgin Mary that his crime was forgiven .

This altar was damaged by fire in January 1967 but has been completely restored .

= = = = Altar of the Kings = = = =

The Altar of the Kings was also the work of Jerónimo Balbás , in Mexican Baroque or Churrigueresque style . It was begun in 1718 by Balbás in cedar , and was gilded and finished by Francico Martínez , debuting in 1737 . It is located at the back of the Cathedral , beyond the Altar of Forgiveness and the choir . This altar is 13 @.@ 75 metres ( 45 @.@ 1 ft ) wide , 25 metres ( 82 ft ) tall and 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) deep . Its size and depth gave rise to the nickname la cueva dorada ( " the golden cave " ) .

It takes its name from the statues of saintly royalty which form part of its decoration , and is the oldest work in churrigueresque style in Mexico , taking 19 years to complete . At the bottom , from left to right , are six female royal saints : Saint Margaret of Scotland , Helena of Constantinople , Elisabeth of Hungary , Isabel of Portugal , Empress Cunegunda and Edith of Wilton . In the middle of the altar are six canonized kings , four of whom are : Hermenegild a Visigoth martyr , Henry II , Holy Roman Emperor , Edward the Confessor and Casimir of Poland . Above these four are Saints Louis of France and Ferdinand III of Castile . In between these kings an oil painting of the Adoration of the Magi by Juan Rodriguez Juarez shows Jesus as the King of kings . The top portion features a painting of the Assumption of Mary as celestial queen flanked by oval bas reliefs , one of Saint Joseph carrying the infant Jesus and the other of Saint Teresa of Ávila with a quill in her hand and the Holy Spirit above her , inspiring her to write . Above this are figures of Jesus and Mary among sculptures of angels crowned with an image of God , the Father .

This altar has been under restoration since 2003 .

= = = Sacristy = = =

The Herrera door opens into the sacristy , the oldest part of the cathedral . It is a mixture of Renaissance and Gothic styles .

The walls hold large canvases painted by Cristóbal de Villalpando , such as The Apotheosis of Saint Michael , The Triumph of the Eucharist , The Church Militant and the Church Triumphant , and The Virgin of the Apocalypse . The Virgin of the Apocalypse depicts the vision of John of Patmos . Two other canvases , Entering Jerusalem and The Assumption of the Virgin , painted by Juan Correa , are also here . An additional painting , attributed to Bartolomé Esteban Murillo , hangs in the Sacristy .

On the north wall , there is a niche that holds a statue of the crucifix with a Christ image sculpted in ivory . Behind this , is another mural that depicts the Juan Diego 's of Our Lady of Guadalupe . The Sacristy used to house Juan Diego 's cloak , upon which the Virgin 's image purportedly appears , but after massive flooding in 1629 , it was removed from the Sacristy to better protect it .

A cabinet on the west wall of the Sacristy , under the Virgin of the Apocalypse painting , once held golden chalices and cups trimmed with precious stones , as well as other utensils .

In 1957 , The wooden floor and platform around the perimeter of the Sacristy were replaced with stone .

= = = Chapels = = =

The cathedral 's sixteen chapels were each assigned to a religious guild , and each is dedicated to a saint . Each of the two side naves contain seven chapels . The other two were created later on the eastern and western sides of the cathedral . These last two are not open to the public . The fourteen chapels in the east and west naves are listed below . The first seven are in the east nave , listed from north to south , and the last seven are in the west nave .

= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada = = = =

The Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias de Granada ) was built in the first half of the 17th century , and originally served as the sacristy . It is a medieval @-@ style chapel with a ribbed vault and two relatively simple altarpieces . The narrow altarpiece contains an oval painting of Saint Raphael , Archangel and the young Tobias , a 16th century painting attributed to Flemish painter Maerten de Vos . At the top of this altarpiece is a painting of Our Lady of Mount Carmel , and above this is a painting of the Last Supper . At the back of the chapel is a churrigueresque painting of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada .

= = = = Chapel of Saint Isidore = = = =

The Chapel of Saint Isidore ( Spanish : Capilla de San Isidro ) was originally built as an annex between 1624 and 1627 , and was once used as the baptistery . Its vault contains plaster casts representing Faith , Hope , Charity , and Justice , considered to be basic values in the Catholic religion . After the Tabernacle was built , it was converted into a chapel and its door was reworked in a churrigueresque style .

= = = = Chapel of the Immaculate Conception = = = =

The Chapel of the Immaculate Conception ( Spanish : Capilla de la Inmaculada Concepción ) was built between 1642 and 1648 . It has a churrigueresque altarpiece which , due to the lack of columns , most likely dates from the 18th century . The altar is framed with molding — instead of columns — and a painting of the Immaculate Conception presides over it . The altar is surrounded by paintings by José de Ibarra relating to the Passion of Christ and various saints . The chapel also contains a canvas of Saint Christopher painted by Simon Pereyns in 1588 , and the Flagellation by Baltasar de Echave Orio , painted in 1618 . The altarpiece on the right side is also dedicated to the Immaculate Conception and was donated by the College of Saints Peter and Paul . This chapel holds the remains of Franciscan friar Antonio Margil de Jesús who was evangelized in what is now the north of Mexico .

= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe = = = =

The Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe ) was built in 1660 . It was the first baptistery of the cathedral and for a long time was the site for the Brotherhood of the Most Holy Sacrament , which had many powerful benefactors . It is decorated in a 19th century neo @-@ classic style by the architect Antonio Gonzalez Vazquez , director of the Academy of San Carlos . The main altarpiece is dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe and the sides altars are dedicated to John the Baptist and San Luis Gonzaga respectively .

= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua = = = =

The Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de La Antigua ) was sponsored and built between 1653 and 1660 by a brotherhood of musicians and organists , which promoted devotion to this Virgin . Its altarpiece contains a painting of the Virgin , a copy of one found in the Cathedral of Seville . This copy was brought to New Spain by a merchant . Two other paintings show the birth of the Virgin and her presentation . Both were painted by Nicolás Rodriguez Juárez .

= = = = = Chapel of Saint Peter = = = = =

The Chapel of Saint Peter ( Spanish : Capilla de San Pedro ) was built between 1615 and 1620 , and contains three highly decorated Baroque altarpieces from the 17th century . The altar at the back is dedicated to Saint Peter , whose sculpture presides over the altar . It is surrounded by early 17th century paintings relating to his life , painted by Baltasar de Echave Orio . To the right is an altarpiece dedicated to the Holy Family , with two paintings by Juan de Aguilera of Florence called The Holy Family in the workshop of Saint Joseph and Birth of the Savior . The altarpiece to the left of the main altarpiece is dedicated to Saint Theresa of Jesus whose image also appears in the chapel 's window . It includes four paintings on sheets of metal that depict scenes from the birth of Jesus . Five oil paintings illustrate scenes from the life of Saint Theresa , and above this is a semi @-@ circular painting of the coronation of Mary . All these works were created in the 17th century by Baltasar de Echave y Rioja .

This chapel is home to the Niño Cautivo ( Captive Child ) a Child Jesus figure that was brought to Mexico from Spain . It was sculpted in the 16th century by Juan Martínez Montañez in Spain and purchased by the cathedral . However , on its way to Veracruz , pirates attacked the ship it was on and sacked it . To get the image back , a large ransom was paid . Today , the image is in the Chapel of San Pedro or De las Reliquias . Traditionally , the image has been petitioned by those seeking release from restrictions or traps , especially financial problems or drug addiction or alcoholism . The cult to the Niño Cautivo is considered to be " inactive " by INAH . However , this particular image has made a comeback since 2000 as one to petition when a family member is abducted and held for ransom .

= = = = Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries = = = =

The Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries ( Spanish : Capilla del Santo Cristo y de las Reliquias ) was built in 1615 and designed with ultra @-@ Baroque details which are often difficult to see in the poorly lit interior . It was originally known as the Christ of the Conquistadors . That name came from an image of Christ that was supposedly donated to the cathedral by Emperor Charles V. Over time , so many reliquaries were left on its main altar that its name was eventually changed . Of 17th century ornamentation , the main altarpiece alternates between carvings of rich foliage and small heads on its columns in the main portion and small sculptures of angels on its telamons in the secondary portion . Its niches hold sculptures of saints framing the main body . Its crucifix is from the 17th century . The predella is finished with sculptures of angels , and also contains small 17th paintings of martyred saints by Juan de Herrera . Behind these paintings , hidden compartments contain some of the numerous reliquaries left here . Its main painting was done by Jose de Ibarra and dated 1737 . Surrounding the altar is a series of paintings on canvas , depicting the Passion of Christ by Jose Villegas , painted in the 17th century . On the right @-@ hand wall , an altar dedicated to the Virgin of the Confidence is decorated with numerous churrigueresque figurines tucked away in niches , columns and top pieces .

= = = = Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels = = = =

The Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels ( Spanish : Capilla de los Ángeles ) was finished in 1665 with Baroque altarpieces decorated with Solomonic columns . It is dedicated to the Archangel Michael , who is depicted as a medieval knight . It contains a large main altarpiece with two smaller altarpieces both decorated by Juan Correa . The main altarpiece is dedicated to the seven archangels , who are represented by sculptures , in niches surrounding images of Saint Joseph , Mary and Christ . Above this scene are the Holy Spirit and God the Father . The left @-@ hand altarpiece is of similar design and is dedicated to the Guardian Angel , whose sculpture is surrounded with pictures arranged to show the angelic hierarchy . To the left of this , a scene shows Saint Peter being released from prison , and to the right , Saul , later Saint Paul , being knocked from his horse , painted by Juan Correa in 1714 . The right @-@ hand altarpiece is dedicated to the Guardian Angel of Mexico .

= = = = Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian = = = =

The Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian ( Spanish : Capilla de San Cosme y San Damián ) was built because these two saints were commonly invoked during a time when New Spain suffered from the many diseases brought by the Conquistadors . The main altarpiece is Baroque , probably built in the 17th century . Oil paintings on wood contain scenes from physician saints , and are attributed to painter Sebastian Lopez Davalos , during the second half of the 17th century . The chapel contains one small altarpiece which came from the Franciscan church in Zinacantepec , to the west of Mexico City , and is dedicated to the birth of Jesus .

= = = = Chapel of Saint Joseph = = = =

The Chapel of Saint Joseph ( Spanish : Capilla de San José ) , built between 1653 and 1660 , contains an image of Our Lord of Cacao , an image of Christ most likely from the 16th century . Its name was inspired from a time when many indigenous worshipers would give their alms in the form of cocoa beans . Churrigueresque in style and containing an graffito statue of Saint Joseph , patron saint of New Spain , the main altarpiece is Baroque and is from the 18th century . This once belonged to the Church of Our Lady of Monserrat . This altar contains statues and cubicles containing busts of the Apostles , but contains no paintings .

= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude = = = =

The Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad ) was originally built in honor of the workers who built the cathedral . It contains three Baroque altarpieces . The main altarpiece is supported by caryatids and small angels as telamons , to uphold the base of the main body . It is dedicated to the Virgin of Solitude of Oaxaca , whose image appears in the center . The surrounding 16th century paintings are by Pedro Ramírez , and depict scenes from the life of Christ .

= = = = Chapel of Saint Eligius = = = =

The Chapel of Saint Eligius ( Spanish : Capilla de San Eligio ) , also known as the Chapel of the Lord of Safe Expeditions ( Spanish : Capilla del Señor del Buen Despacho ) , was built by the first silversmith guild , who donated the images of the Conception and Saint Eligius to whom the chapel was formerly dedicated . The chapel was redecorated in the 19th century , and the image of Our Lord of Good Sending was placed here , named thus , since many supplicants reported having their prayers answered quickly . The image is thought to be from the 16th century and sent as a gift from Charles V of Spain .

= = = = Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows = = = =

The Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows ( Spanish : Capilla de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores ) , formerly known as the Chapel of the Lord 's Supper ( Spanish : Capilla de la Santa Cena ) , was built in 1615 . It was originally dedicated to the Last Supper since a painting of this event was once kept here . It was later remodeled in a Neo @-@ classical style , with three altarpieces added by Antonio Gonzalez Velazquez . The main altarpiece contains an image of the Virgin of Sorrows sculpted in wood and painted by Francisco Terrazas , at the request of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico . On the left @-@ hand wall a ladder leads to a series of crypts which hold most of the remains of past archbishops of Mexico . The largest and grandest of these crypts contains the remains of Juan de Zumarraga , the first archbishop of Mexico .

= = = = Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus = = = =

The Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus ( Spanish : Capilla de San Felipe de Jesús ) was completed during one of the earliest stages of the construction of the cathedral . It is dedicated to Philip of Jesus , a friar and the only martyr from New Spain , who was crucified in Japan . The chapel is topped with a Gothic @-@ style dome and has a Baroque altarpiece from the 17th century . A statue of the saint is located in a large niche in the altarpiece . The altar to the left is dedicated to Saint Rose of Lima , considered a protector of Mexico City . To the right is an urn which holds the remains of Agustín de Iturbide , who briefly ruled Mexico in the 19th century . Next to this chapel is a baptismal font , in which it is believed Philip of Jesus was baptised .

= = = Organs = = =

The cathedral has had perhaps a dozen organs over the course of its history . The earliest is mentioned in a report written to the king of Spain in 1530 . Few details survive of the earliest organs . Builders names begin to appear at the end of the sixteenth century . The earliest disposition that survives is for the Diego de Sebaldos organ built in 1655 . The first large organ for Mexico City Cathedral was built in Madrid from 1689 to 1690 by Jorge de Sesma and installed by Tiburcio Sanz from 1693 to 1695 . It now has two , which were made in Mexico by José Nassarre of Spain , and completed by 1736 , incorporating elements of the 17th century organ . They are the largest 18th century organs in the Americas ; they are situated above the walls of the choir , on the epistle side ( east ) and the gospel side ( west ) . Both organs , damaged by fire in 1967 , were restored in 1978 . Because both organs had fallen into disrepair again , the gospel organ was re @-@ restored from 2008 @-@ 2009 by Gerhard Grenzing ; the restoration of the epistle organ , also by Grenzing , was completed in 2014 , and both organs are now playable .

= = = Choir = = =

The choir is where the priest and / or a choral group sings the psalms . It is located in the central nave between the main door and the high altar , and built in a semicircular fashion , much like Spanish cathedrals . It was built by Juan de Rojas between 1696 and 1697 . Its sides contain 59 reliefs of various saints done in mahogany , walnut , cedar and a native wood called tepehuaje . The railing that surrounds the choir was made in 1722 by Sangley Queaulo in Macao , China and placed in the cathedral in 1730 .

= = = Crypt = = =

The Crypt of the Archbishops is located below the floor of the cathedral beneath the Altar of the Kings . The entrance to the crypt from the cathedral is guarded by a large wooden door behind which descends a winding yellow staircase . Just past the inner entrance is a Mexica @-@ style stone skull . It was incorporated as an offering into the base of a cenotaph to Juan de Zumárraga , the first archbishop of Mexico . Zumárraga was considered to be a benefactor of the Indians , protecting them against the abuses of their Spanish overlords . There is also a natural @-@ sized sculpture of the archbishop atop the cenotaph .

On its walls are dozens of bronze plaques that indicate the locations of the remains of most of Mexico City 's former archbishops , including Cardinal Ernesto Corripio y Ahumada . The floor is covered with small marble slabs covering niches containing the remains of other people .

The cathedral contains other crypts and niches where other religious figures are buried , including in the chapels .

= = Restoration = =

The sinking ground and seismic activity of the area have had an effect on the cathedral 's construction and current appearance . Forty @-@ two years were required simply to lay its foundation when it was first built , because even then the Spaniards recognized the danger of constructing such a huge monument in soft soil . However , for political reasons , much , but not all , of the cathedral was built over the remains of pre @-@ Hispanic structures , leading to uneven foundation from the beginning .

= = = Fire of 1967 = = =

On 17 January 1967 at 9 pm , a fire caused by an electrical short circuit caused extensive damage to the cathedral . On the Altar of Forgiveness , much of the structure and decoration were damaged including the loss of three paintings ; The Holy Face by Alonso López de Herrera , The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian by Francisco de Zumaya and The Virgin of Forgiveness by Simon Pereyns . The choir section lost 75 of its 99 seats as well a painting by Juan Correa along with many stored books . The two cathedral organs were severely damaged with the partial melting of their pipes . Paintings by Rafael Jimeno y Planas , Juan Correa and Juan Rodriguez Juarez were damaged in other parts of the cathedral . After the fire , authorities recorded the damage but did nothing to try to restore what was damaged . Heated discussions ensued among historians , architects and investigations centering on the moving of the Altar of Forgiveness , as well as eliminating the choir area and some of the railings . In 1972 , ecclesiastical authorities initiated demolition of the choir area without authorization from the Federal government , but were stopped . The government inventoried what could be saved and named Jaime Ortiz Lajous as director of the project to restore the cathedral to its original condition . Restoration work focused not only on repairing the damage ( using archived records and photographs ) , but also included work on a deteriorating foundation ( due to uneven sinking into the ground ) and problems with the towers .

The Altars of Forgiveness and of the Kings were subject to extensive cleaning and restorative work . To replace the lost portions on the Altar of Forgiveness , several paintings were added ; Escape from Egypt by Pereyns , The Divine Countenance and The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian . The organs were dismantled with the pipes and inner workings sent to the Netherlands for repair , while the cases were restored by Mexican craftsmen with work lasting until 1977 . Reconstruction of the choir area began in 1979 using the same materials as existed before the fire . In addition , any statues in the towers that received more than 50 % damage from city pollution were taken out , with replicas created to replace them . Those with less damage were repaired .

Some interesting discoveries were made as restoration work occurred during the 1970s and early 1980s . 51 paintings were found and rescued from behind the Altar of Forgiveness , including works by Juan and Nicolas Rodriguez Juarez , Miguel Cabrera and José de Ibarra . Inside one of the organs , a copy of the nomination of Hernán Cortés as Governor General of New Spain ( 1529 ) was found . Lastly , in the wall of the central arch of the cathedral was found the burial place of Miguel Barrigan , the first governor of Veracruz .

= = = Late 20th @-@ century work = = =

The cathedral , along with the rest of the city , has been sinking into the lakebed from the day it was built . However , the fact that the city is a megalopolis with over 18 million people drawing water from underground sources has caused water tables to drop , and the sinking to accelerate during the latter half of the 20th century . Sections of the complex such as the cathedral and the tabernacle were still sinking at different rates , and the bell towers were tilting dangerously despite work done in the 1970s . For this reason , the cathedral was included in the 1998 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund .

Major restoration and foundation work began in the 1990s to stabilize the building . Engineers excavated under the cathedral between 1993 and 1998 . They dug shafts under the cathedral and placed shafts of concrete into the soft ground to give the edifice a more solid base to rest on . These efforts have not stopped the sinking of the complex , but they have corrected the tilting towers and ensured that the cathedral will sink uniformly .

= = Cultural value = =

The cathedral has been a focus of Mexican cultural identity , and is a testament to its colonial history . Researcher Manuel Rivera Cambas reported that the cathedral was built on the site sacred precinct of the Aztecs and with the very stones of their temples so that the Spaniards could lay claim to the land and the people . Hernán Cortés supposedly laid the first stone of the original church personally .

It once was an important religious center , used exclusively by the prominent families of New Spain . In 1864 , during the Second Mexican Empire , Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg and Empress Charlotte of Belgium ( later known as Maximiliano and Carlota of Mexico ) were crowned at the cathedral after the magnificent arrival to the head city of their reign .

Located on the Zocalo it has , over time , been the focus of social and cultural activities , most of which have occurred in the 20th and 21st centuries . The cathedral was closed for four years while President Plutarco Elías Calles attempted to enforce Mexico 's anti @-@ religious laws . Pope Pius XI closed the church , ordering priests to cease their public religious duties in all Mexican churches . After the Mexican government and the papacy came to terms and major renovations were performed on the cathedral , it reopened in 1930 .

The cathedral has been the scene of several protests both from the church and to the church , including a protest by women over the Church 's exhortation for women not to wear mini @-@ skirts and other provocative clothing to avoid rape , and a candlelight vigil to protest against kidnappings in Mexico . The cathedral itself has been used to protest against social issues . Its bells rang to express the archdiocese 's opposition to the Supreme Court upholding of Mexico City 's legalization of abortion .

Probably the most serious recent event occurred on 18 November 2007 , when sympathizers of the Party of the Democratic Revolution attacked the cathedral . About 150 protesters stormed into Sunday Mass chanting slogans and knocking over pews . This caused church officials to close and lock the cathedral for a number of days . The cathedral reopened with new security measures , such as bag searches , in place .

= = = Gallery = = =

= USS Illinois ( BB @-@ 7 ) =

USS Illinois ( BB @-@ 7 ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the United States Navy . She was the lead ship of the Illinois class , and was the second ship of the U.S. Navy to be named for the 21st state . Her keel was laid in February 1897 at the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company , and she was launched in October 1898 . She was commissioned in September 1901 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns and she had a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .

Illinois served with the European Squadron from 1902 to 1903 , and with the North Atlantic Fleet until 1907 , by which time it had been renamed the Atlantic Fleet . During this time , she accidentally collided with two other battleships . From December 1907 to February 1909 , she circumnavigated the globe with the Great White Fleet . From November 1912 , the ship was used as a training ship . She was lent to the state of New York in 1919 for use as a training vessel for the New York State Militia . The ship was converted into a floating armory in 1924 as a result of the Washington Naval Treaty , and it was under this guise that she served for the next thirty years . In January 1941 she was renamed Prairie State and reclassified as IX @-@ 15 so that the name could be given to Illinois , a projected Iowa @-@ class battleship . Prairie State was ultimately sold for scrap in 1956 .

= = Description = =

Illinois was 374 feet ( 114 m ) long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in ( 22 @.@ 02 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 16 m ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 565 long tons ( 11 @,@ 751 t ) as designed and up to 12 @,@ 250 long tons ( 12 @,@ 450 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) and eight coal @-@ fired fire @-@ tube boilers , generating a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 536 officers and enlisted men , which increased to 690 – 713 .

She was armed with a main battery of four 13 in ( 330 mm ) / 35 caliber guns guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 6 in ( 152 mm ) / 40 caliber Mark IV guns , which were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried sixteen 6 @-@ pounder guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and six 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Illinois carried four 18 in ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck mounted launchers .

Illinois 's main armored belt was 16 @.@ 5 in ( 419 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 4 in ( 102 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 15 in ( 381 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery . The conning tower had 10 in ( 254 mm ) thick sides .

= = Service history = =

Illinois was laid down on 10 February 1897 by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company of Newport News , Virginia . She was launched on 4 October 1898 , sponsored by Miss Nancy Leiter , daughter of Chicago multi @-@ millionaire Levi Leiter and commissioned on 16 September 1901 . The ship 's first commander was Captain George A. Converse . Illinois was the first member of her class to be authorized , but the last to enter service . After commissioning , the ship began a shakedown cruise in the Chesapeake Bay , followed by initial training . She left the area on 20 November to test a new floating dry dock in Algiers , Louisiana . The ship was back in Newport News in January 1902 . She served briefly as the flagship of Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans from 15 to 28 February ; during this period , she took part in a reception for Prince Henry of Prussia , the brother of the German Kaiser .

On 30 April , now flying the flag of Rear Admiral A.S. Crowninshield , Illinois departed for a tour of Europe . She stopped in Naples , Italy on 18 May ; here , Crowninshield took command of the European Squadron . Illinois took part in training exercises and ceremonial duties in European waters for the next two months , until 14 July , when she ran aground outside Oslo , Norway . She had to steam to Britain for repairs , which were carried out at Chatham . She left the port on 1 September for maneuvers with the rest of the fleet in the Mediterranean and South Atlantic . On 10 January 1903 , Illinois was reassigned to the North Atlantic Fleet , where she remained for the next four years . Her time was occupied with peacetime training exercises , gunnery practice , and various ceremonial activities . During this period , she was involved in two accidents with other battleships of the North Atlantic Fleet . The first took place on 30 March 1903 , when she collided with Missouri . The second collision occurred on 31 July 1906 , and took place with her sister ship Alabama . Also that year , Illinois was the first ship to win the Battenberg Cup .

The ship 's next significant action was the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world , which started with a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Hampton Roads . On 17 December , the fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia , stopping in Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland .

After leaving Australia , the fleet turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . While there , the American fleet received word of an earthquake in Sicily . Illinois , the battleship Connecticut , and the supply ship Culgoa were sent to assist the relief effort . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 , having traveled 46 @,@ 729 nautical miles ( 86 @,@ 542 km ; 53 @,@ 775 mi ) . There , they conducted a naval review for Theodore Roosevelt .

On 4 August 1909 , Illinois was decommissioned in Boston . The ship then underwent a major modernization , receiving new " cage " masts and more modern equipment . She spent the next three years in active service with the fleet , before being decommissioned once more on 16 April 1912 . She returned to service on 2 November for major training maneuvers with the Atlantic Fleet . Illinois made training cruises to Europe with midshipmen from the US Naval Academy in mid @-@ 1913 and 1914 . By 1919 , she had been decommissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard . On 23 October 1921 , she was loaned to the New York Naval Militia for training purposes . The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , which mandated significant reductions in naval strength , stipulated that Illinois must be rendered incapable of warlike action . As a result , she was converted into a floating armory at the New York Navy Yard in 1924 and was assigned to the New York Naval Reserve .

On 8 January 1941 , the ship was reclassified from BB @-@ 7 to IX @-@ 15 , and was renamed Prairie State so that her name could be used for the new battleship Illinois , which would be laid down a week later . Throughout World War II , she served with the U.S. Naval Reserve Midshipmen 's School , based in New York . After the end of the war , Prairie State was kept as a barracks ship for a Naval Reserve unit . On 31 December 1955 , the old ship was stricken and subsequently towed to Baltimore , where she was sold for scrap to the Bethlehem Steel Company on 18 May 1956 .

= = Silver Service = =

On 17 November 1901 , Illinois was presented with a silver service dining set provided by the state of Illinois and presented by Senator William E. Mason . It consisted of a large and small punch bowl , two candelabra , an ornamented fruit dish , a small fruit dish , two epicurean dishes , a large centerpiece and a ladle . Each item featured engravings of the crest of Illinois and an ear of corn . In 1943 , the silver service was transferred to the Illinois Executive Mansion .

= The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic =

The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic is an archaeological study of the material evidence for ritual and magical practices in Europe , containing a particular emphasis on London and South East England . It was written by the English archaeologist Ralph Merrifield , the former deputy director of the Museum of London , and first published by B.T. Batsford in 1987 .

Merrifield opens The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic by discussing how archaeologists have understood magic and ritual practices in past societies , opining that on the whole it had been a neglected area of study . Looking at the archaeological evidence for ritual activity in the pre @-@ Roman Iron Age and the Roman Iron Age of Britain , he discusses animal and human sacrifice , as well as the offering of votive deposits in rivers and other bodies of water . He moves on to explore the rituals surrounding death and burial , suggesting areas where this ritual activity is visible in the burial record of multiple societies . Merrifield goes on to discuss the archaeological evidence for ritual practices in Christian Europe , highlighting areas of ritual continuance from earlier pagan periods , in particular the deposition of metal goods in water . Looking at the evidence for foundation deposits in European buildings that likely had magico @-@ religious purposes , he then looks at several examples of written charms and spells which have survived in the archaeological record .

Upon publication , The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic received predominantly positive reviews in academic peer @-@ reviewed journals such as Folklore and The Antiquaries Journal . In ensuing years , the book has been widely cited by scholars as an influential and pioneering text in the study of the archaeology of ritual and magic .

= = Background = =

Ralph Merrifield ( 1913 – 1995 ) was born and raised in Brighton , and , following an education at Varndean Grammar School , he worked at Brighton Museum . Gaining a London External Degree in anthropology in 1935 , he developed a lifelong interest in the religious and magical beliefs of England . After serving in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War , he returned to working at Brighton Museum , but in 1950 was appointed Assistant Keeper of the Guildhall Museum in the City of London . Over a six @-@ month period in 1956 and 1957 , he was stationed in Accra , Ghana , where he worked at the National Museum of Ghana , organising the collection in preparation for the country 's independence from the British Empire in March 1957 . Returning to the Guildhall Museum , Merrifield compiled the first detailed study of Roman London for 35 years , which was published as The Roman City of London ( 1965 ) . Following the creation of the Museum of London in 1975 , he became its Deputy Director , a post which he held until his retirement in 1978 .

In the preface of The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic , Merrifield noted that the book 's bias was to the archaeology of London , and that this was particularly evident in its use of illustrations . He dedicated the book to the memory of H.S. Toms , the former Curator of Brighton Museum and a one @-@ time assistant to the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers ; in his dedication , Merrifield noted that Toms had been his " first mentor in archaeology and folk studies " .

= = Synopsis = =

In his preface , Merrifield noted that while archaeologists studying prehistoric periods have paid increasing attention to the evidence for ritual and magic in the archaeological record , their counterparts working in later historical periods have failed to follow their lead . Presenting this book as a rectifier , he outlines his intentions and the study 's limitations .

Chapter one , " Ritual and the archaeologist " , begins by describing the ritual deposits from the pre @-@ Roman Iron Age sites of Cadbury Castle and Danebury , hillforts in southern Britain . Merrifield laments the fact that the majority of archaeologists , particularly those studying literate , historical periods , have avoided ritual explanations for unusual phenomenon in the archaeological record ; he believes that they exhibit a " ritual phobia " . He contrasts this view with that of those archaeologists studying the Neolithic and Bronze Age Britain , who have widely accepted the ritual uses of chambered tombs and stone circles . He specifies particular definitions for words such as " ritual " , " religion " and " superstition " , arguing that such terms must be used with precision by archaeologists . Offering a case study , he describes how Neolithic stone axes were adopted as amulets or talismans in the later Roman Iron Age onward in Britain , and that as such archaeologists should expect to find them in non @-@ prehistoric contexts .

In the second chapter , " Offerings to earth and water in Pre @-@ Roman and Roman Times " , Merrifield explores the various forms of archaeological evidence for ritual deposits in the pre @-@ Roman Iron Age and the Roman Iron Age of Britain . He provides an overview of the evidence for animal and human sacrifice , as well as that in support of ritual offerings in bodies of water such as the River Thames . Merrifield deals with votive deposits on land , in particular looking at the evidence for deposition in ditches , shafts and wells . He rounds off the chapter by examining evidence for Iron Age rituals that took place at the commencement and termination of building constructions . Chapter three , " Rituals of Death " , deals with the religious rituals accompanying death and burial , and their visibility in the archaeological record . It explains the three main ways which human communities have dealt with the corpses of the dead : through exposing them to elements and scavengers , through inhumation and through cremation . Looing at beliefs surrounding the afterlife , Merrifield discusses ways in which these beliefs might be visible in the archaeological record , such as through the deposition of grave goods . Discussing evidence for rituals of separation through which the deceased is separated from the world of the living , including those that deal with the decapitation of the body , Merrifield then looks at the effect of Christianity on burials in Europe , arguing that it brought a new intimacy with the dead through the collection of relics , which was in contrast to the pagan beliefs of the Roman Empire , which portrayed the deceased as unclean .

The fourth chapter , " From Paganism to Christianity " , explores the continuing practice of ritual in Christian Europe . Discussing the early Roman Catholic Church 's demonisation of pagan deities , Merrifield states that the Church continued propagating a form of polytheism through the " cult of the blessed dead " , the veneration of saints and martyrs , throughout the Middle Ages . Discussing the ritual use of Christian relics , he also looks at votive offerings that were presented in a Christian context at shrines and churches , paying particular reference to the tradition of offering bent coins to shrines in Late Medieval England . Examining the construction of churches on earlier pagan ritual sites , he deals with evidence for the destruction of pagan statues by the early Christians .

Chapter five , " Survivals , revivals and reinterpretations " , continues Merrifield 's exploration of ritual practices in Christian Europe . He examines Late- and Post @-@ Medieval items that have been deposited in rivers , including swords and pilgrimage souvenirs , speculating that their deposition might represent a survival from the pagan tradition of casting votive offerings into water . He speculates that the contemporary practice of throwing a coin into a fountain for good luck is a further survival of the custom . He then discusses the evidence for ritual foundation deposits under buildings , noting the widespread Medieval deposition of an animal 's head or jaw in a construction 's foundations , presumably for protective magical purposes . Proceeding to deal with the Late- and Post @-@ Medieval deposition of pots under foundations , he looks at their place in churches , where it was believed that they aided the acoustics . Continuing with this theme , he discusses the British folk custom of burying a horse 's head under the floor to improve a building 's acoustics , speculating as to whether this was a survival of the pagan foundation deposit custom . Rounding off the chapter , Merrifield examines at magical items that have been intentionally placed in the walls , chimneys and roofs of buildings in Britain , in particular the widespread use of dead cats and old shoes .

In the sixth chapter , " Written spells and charms " , Merrifield discusses the use of the written word in magical contexts . Highlighting archaeological examples from the ancient Graeco @-@ Roman world , he looks at inscriptions on lead tablets that were buried in cemeteries and amphitheatres , both places associated with the dead . Moving on to the use of magic squares , Merrifield highlights various examples of the Sator square in archaeological contexts , before also discussing squares that contained numerical data with astrological significance . He rounds off the chapter with an examination of Post @-@ Medieval curses and charms containing the written word , citing examples that have been found by archaeologists across Britain , hidden inside various parts of buildings . In the seventh chapter , " Charms against witchcraft " , he deals with archaeological evidence for a variety of Early Modern and Modern British spells designed to ward off malevolent witchcraft . After briefly discussing the role of holed stone charms , he looks at the evidence for witch bottles , making reference to their relation to beliefs about witches ' familiars . Proceeding to focus on 19th- and 20th @-@ century examples , Merrifield discusses the case of James Murrell , an English cunning man , and his involvement with the witch bottle tradition . Merrifield 's final chapter , " The ritual of superstition : recognition and potential for study " , provides an overview of the entire book , highlighting the evidence of ritual continuity from pre @-@ Christian periods to the present day . Pointing out what he sees as areas of further exploration for archaeologists , he calls for " systematic investigation " of the subject .

= = Reception and recognition = =

= = = Academic reviews = = =

The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic was reviewed by John Hutchings for the Folklore journal , the published arm of The Folklore Society . He highlighted how the work would be of benefit to folklorists , by putting various charms then in museum exhibits – such as dead cats , buried shoes and witch bottles – into the wider context of ritual activity . He opined that it was " a little disappointing " that the examples were almost all from London and the Home Counties , but described the book as " lucidly written , carefully argued , and well illustrated . "

In a short review for The Antiquaries Journal , the historian of religion Hilda Ellis Davidson praised the " cautious and balanced arguments " of Merrifield 's work . She opined that it should be read by every archaeologist as a corrective to what she thought was their widespread ignorance of folklore , noting that the wide array of evidence for ritual behaviour in the archaeological record would surprise " many readers " .

= = = Wider recognition = = =

Writing Merrifield 's obituary for The Independent newspaper , the Museum of London archaeologist Peter Marsden described The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic as " a masterly study of an unusual subject . " The importance of Merrifield 's book was discussed by the Englishman Brian Hoggard , an independent researcher who authored a 2004 academic paper entitled " The archaeology of counter @-@ witchcraft and popular magic " . Being published in the Beyond the Witch Trials anthology , edited by the historians Owen Davies and Willem de Blécourt , Hoggard recounted that The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic was the " notable exception " to a trend in which archaeological studies of magic were restricted to small journals , magazines and newspaper articles .

The influential nature of Merrifield 's work was also recognised by the Medieval archaeologist Roberta Gilchrist of the University of Reading . In an academic paper published in a 2008 edition of the Medieval Archaeology journal , Gilchrist referenced Merrifield 's study , noting that it offered a " rare contribution " to the archaeology of ritual and magic in Britain . In particular she highlighted his belief that many archaeologists dealing with literate cultures exhibited a " ritual phobia " as accurate .

= History of Braathens SAFE ( 1946 – 93 ) =

Braathens South American & Far East Airtransport A / S or Braathens SAFE was founded by ship @-@ owner Ludvig G. Braathen in 1946 . It started as a charter airline based at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen in Norway , flying to destinations in the Far East and in South America . At first the airline used Douglas DC @-@ 4s , and later also Douglas DC @-@ 3s . In 1948 , the airline moved to Oslo Airport , Fornebu and started regular scheduled flights to the Far East . In 1952 , the airline started cooperation with the Icelandic airline Loftleidir , where until 1960 the two airlines in cooperation flew flights to Reykjavík . Domestic services started in 1951 , using de Havilland Herons on a route from Oslo to Stavanger via Tønsberg . Braathens SAFE also established at Stavanger Airport , Sola . A second route was started two years later to Trondheim . The Heron routes also stopped in Farsund , Kristiansand , Notodden to Stavanger and Hamar , Røros to Trondheim .

In 1958 , Braathens SAFE started flying to Ålesund and at the same time started flights along the West Coast . In 1959 , Fokker F @-@ 27s were taken into use , and with the Herons taken out of service , Hamar , Farsund and Tønsberg were terminated . During 1960 , the airline flew a single season to Sandefjord and Aalborg . The company also entered the domestic and international charter market during the 1960s , an industry where the airline would eventually grow to become a large Norwegian and Swedish contestant . Services to Bodø and Tromsø started in 1967 , although only from Western Norway . Braathens ' main domestic competitor was Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) , which operated all the primary domestic routes Braathens SAFE did not , in addition to the international routes . Braathens took Boeing 737 @-@ 200s and Fokker F @-@ 28s into use in 1969 ; Kristiansund was first served in 1970 and Molde in 1972 . From 1984 , the airline also operated two Boeing 767s , although they were retired along with the F @-@ 28s were in 1986 . Services to Longyearbyen started in 1987 . From 1987 , Braathens SAFE was allowed to make international scheduled flights on certain routes . In 1989 , it opened a route to Billund , in 1991 to Malmö , Newcastle and London , and in 1993 to Murmansk . From 1989 to 1994 , the airline replaced its fleet with Boeing 737 @-@ 400 and -500s . From 1989 to 1994 , Braathens Helikopter operated services on contract with oil companies to their oil platforms in the North Sea .

= = Far East = =

Braathens South American & Far East Airtransport A / S was founded on 26 March 1946 by Ludvig G. Braathen through his shipping company Braathens Rederi . Share capital was NOK 4 million , plus loans from the shipping company . Braathens had made good money during World War II with the participation in the Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission , and received permission to use US $ 1 million to purchase aircraft . The idea to start an airline had occurred to Braathen in 1936 , when the ship Brajara had engine trouble while en route to Japan . The Japanese shipyards could not guarantee that they could repair the ship , and at first it was considered whether the ship should be towed to Europe for repairs . The solution chosen was instead to have the necessary piece made in Amsterdam and flown by KLM . Braathen wanted to have an airline that would be able to fly crew and supplies to his and other ships throughout the world — primarily in the Far East .

Braathen traveled to the United States , where he bought several used Douglas C @-@ 54 ( DC @-@ 4 ) aircraft from the United States Air Force . These were rebuilt by Texas Maintenance Company ( Temco ) in Fort Worth , Texas , giving them a capacity of 44 passengers , or 22 passengers and 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) of cargo . Twenty pilots were recruited and sent to Fort Worth for certification . The first plane , LN @-@ HAV Norse Explorer , landed at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen on 26 December 1946 . The next planes were LN @-@ HAT Norse Skyfarer on 11 February 1947 and LN @-@ NAU Norse Trader on 13 March .

The first route ran from Oslo to Cairo via Copenhagen and Paris on 30 January 1947 . Afterwards , the company was chartered for several trips from Paris and Marseille , France , to Lydda , Palestine , and Tunis , Tunisia . From Lydda , the aircraft were used to evacuate French and British personnel prior to the creation of Israel . The company 's route to Hong Kong was the longest air route in the world . At the time , the only scheduled service to the Far East was operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation using Sandringham flying boats . This route took a fortnight , while KLM had a land @-@ plane route from Amsterdam to Batavia ( Djarkarta ) . The first Braathens SAFE flight was made on 24 February from Oslo , landing at Amsterdam , Marseille , Cairo , Basra , Karachi , Culcutta and Bangkok before Hong Kong , where Norske Skyfarer landed on 8 March . Total flight time was 46 hours . Along the route , Braathens SAFE established contracts with agents , or stationed their own employees .

The regular services could be done with a round trip time of nine to ten days , including overnighting in Cairo , Karachi and Bangkok , and with technical revision of the plane in Hong Kong . At first there were semiweekly services , but by the end of 1947 , these had increased to weekly . In June , Braathens SAFE bought a Douglas DC @-@ 3 , LN @-@ PAS Norse Carrier , and in August another DC @-@ 4 , LN @-@ PAW Norse Commander , both from KLM . In 1947 , Braathens SAFE flew twenty @-@ five trips to Hong Kong , five to New York and one to Johannesburg , South Africa , making a profit of NOK 750 @,@ 000 . The following year , Braathens SAFE started the first trial flights to South America . The first flight was made on 23 August from Stavanger via Reykjavík , Gander and Bermuda to Caracas , where the plane landed on 26 August . In October , the airline flew to Panama , but neither route gave sufficient contracts to commence regular services . In 1948 , the airline made fifty trips to Hong Kong , eight to Johannesburg , two to the United States , three to Venezuela and two to Panama .

= = Concession = =

During World War II , the civil aviation planning was conducted by the Aviation Council . In 1945 , they started a limited number of flights that were operated by the Royal Norwegian Air Force . On 2 July 1946 , the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications , several large shipping companies and other private investors reestablished Det Norske Luftfartselskap ( DNL ) , with the state owning 20 % and the shipping companies 49 % . This airline was granted a 20 @-@ year monopoly on domestic and international flights . According to the concession , only routes that DNL were not willing to fly themselves , could be granted to other airlines .

By 1948 , Braathens SAFE 's routes were so regular that several countries stated that a bilateral agreement would have to be negotiated for them to continue . However , the concession that had been granted to DNL did not allow Braathens to fly any scheduled flights . Braathens SAFE applied for fifteen @-@ year concession on 5 February 1948 ; Minister of Transport Nils Langhelle from the Labor Party knew that he would be violating DNL 's concession by granting Braathens SAFE a concession , but at the same time he was worried that Braathens SAFE could easily flag out to another country , from which DNL would receive no protection . The exception in DNL 's concession could not be used , since DNL declared that they , through the Scandinavian cooperation Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) , were planning to start a route to the far east . The Directorate for Civil Aviation stated that it was unlikely that DNL / SAS would start such a route within a few years , and recommended Langhelle that Braathens SAFE be granted the route . Concession was granted by the Norwegian Parliament on 3 February 1949 , with a duration of five years . The airline had to follow the route Oslo or Stavanger – Amsterdam – Geneva – Rome – Cairo – Basra – Karachi – Bombay – Calcutta – Bangkok – Hong Kong . The concession was made conditional that Braathens SAFE built a technical base at Stavanger Airport , Sola .

The Hong Kong @-@ route was officially opened on 5 August 1949 . Braathens SAFE had then moved its operative base from Gardermoen to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The company stationed technical employees in Rome , Karachi , Bangkok and Hong Kong , as well as having an agreement with KLM . The planes would stop each night and crew and passengers would stay at a hotel . Cabin crew had no training , and learned the job as they worked . Chicken was the most common lunch meal , and the cabin crew had to purchase this fresh each day , usually observing the slaughter to ensure its freshness . In 1949 , sixty @-@ seven flights were made to Hong Kong , as well as two to Tokyo , to Venezuela and one to Johannesburg .

In 1950 , it became increasingly clear that the SAS @-@ cooperation was weak , and that either a full merger or a discontinuation of the cooperation would be necessary . Braathen suggested to the government that DNL , Fred . Olsen Airtransport and Braathens SAFE should merge to create a new domestic airline , but this proposal was rejected by both DNL and Fred . Olsen . In 1949 , the Swedish branch of SAS , Aerotransport ( ABA ) , and the Danish branch , Det Danske Luftfartselskab ( DDL ) started a joint route to the Far East . For a merger to be completed , Danish and Swedish authorities required that SAS be granted all international routes from Norway , meaning that Braathens SAFE would lose its concession from 1 March 1954 . The SAS merger was completed on 8 August 1951 .

Braathens SAFE applied for a concession on a route from Norway to New York on 27 March 1950 . This would allow the airline to connect the route to the Hong Kong @-@ flights , giving one continual service . The proposal would involve the purchase of Douglas DC @-@ 6B or Lockheed L @-@ 1049 Super Constellation aircraft . The proposal was rejected by the government on 19 April . The following year , Braathens SAFE applied to extend the route to Tokyo , but this was also rejected by the government . In 1951 , the company applied to purchase two Super Constellations to replace two sold DC @-@ 4s , which was granted , and on 14 January 1953 for an extension of the concession for another ten years . On 13 November 1953 , the government rejected the concession application , stating that Norway was bound to grant the concession to SAS on the basis of the merger agreement .

= = = Icelandic cooperation = = =

In 1952 , the Icelandic airline Loftleidir was granted the concession to fly from Keflavík Airport outside Reykjavík to New York and Chicago in the United States , and to Oslo , Copenhagen and London . The company established a hub at Keflavík . Braathens SAFE and Loftleidir made an agreement where Braathens SAFE would lease personnel and mechanical services to Loftleidir , and the two would split profits from the joint venture evenly . This allowed the two airlines to have a continual route between Hong Kong and New York as long as Braathens SAFE 's concession lasted . In 1954 , another DC @-@ 4 , LN @-@ HHK , was bought . This aircraft was sold to Loftleidir the following year . In 1956 , another DC @-@ 4 , LN @-@ SUP , was bought , and used for charter and by Loftleidir . In 1959 and 1960 , Loftleidir received two new Douglas DC @-@ 6B aircraft , with a five @-@ year mechanical agreement with Braathens SAFE . In 1960 , the two companies agreed to terminate the cooperation from 1 January 1961 .

= = Domestic with Herons = =

From 1950 , Braathens SAFE started flying charter services to Europe with Douglas DC @-@ 6 , mainly to Copenhagen and Paris . DNL protested because Braathens SAFE was charging too low ticket prices , while DDL protested against the flights to Copenhagen . In September 1951 , Braathens SAFE offered Danish authorities to fly all domestic routes without subsidies , but this was rejected because such a permit could only be issued to Danish airlines . After World War II , only Fornebu , Stavanger Airport , Sola and Kristiansand Airport , Kjevik were in use as land airport . A plan for construction was passed by parliament in 1952 , that based the financing of airports as joint civilian and military airports , with funding from NATO .

In 1951 , Braathens SAFE applied for concession for a route from Oslo to Bodø via Trondheim without subsidies . They also stated that they were willing to fly all domestic routes without subsidies , granted that they were awarded all routes . This was based on the acquisition of de Havilland Heron aircraft , which could use shorter runways and has a capacity of 15 people . SAS was granted the concession to Bodø and Trondheim , but the Ministry of Transport issued a concession to Braathens SAFE on the route from Oslo via Tønsberg Airport , Jarlsberg to Stavanger . The plane started in Stavanger in the morning , and operated the opposite direction of SAS ' route from Oslo to Stavanger , which continued onwards to London . The first flight was made on 3 May 1952 , with the Heron LN @-@ PSG Per . From 7 to 14 May , the plane went on a tour of the country , visiting several airports . Regular services started on 18 August and a one @-@ way ticket cost NOK 95 .

On 30 January 1953 , Braathens SAFE applied to start a route from Oslo to Trondheim Airport , Lade . A trial permit was granted , and the first flight was made on 18 August . Because Lade had a grass runway , Trondheim Airport , Værnes was used during bad weather . SAS flew a morning flight from Oslo , while Braathens flew the morning route from Trondheim . In 1953 , Braathens SAFE stated that to keep their 210 employees and fleet of one DC @-@ 4 , one DC @-@ 3 and two Herons , they would have to receive future domestic services , to compensate for more than 90 % of their revenue disappearing with the loss of the Far East route . In 1953 , Braathens SAFE applied to fly five routes : Bardufoss – Alta – Kirkenes ; Stavanger – Bergen – Trondheim ( both with Herons ) ; Tromsø – Alta – Hammerfest ; Bodø – Harstad ; and Bodø – Harstad – Tromsø ( all with de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 3 Otters ) . The five routes would require NOK 725 @,@ 000 in annual subsidies . The concessions were granted to DNL , who allowed their partially owned subsidiary Widerøe to fly the sea routes .

Braathens bought six Herons , in addition to one that was leased during 1954 . They had been given the common Norwegian names Per , Ola , Pål and Lars . Because of replacements , the airline never operated more than four at a time . In June 1955 , Braathens SAFE started landing some of the Oslo – Stavanger planes at Kristiansand Airport , Kjevik and Farsund Airport , Lista . The route , nicknamed the " Milk Route " , operated Stavanger – Farsund – Kristiansand – Tønsberg – Oslo in the morning , with a return in the evening . The same year , SAS and Braathens SAFE started negotiating splitting up the domestic routes . Nils Langhelle , then regional director in SAS , suggested creating a merged subsidiary that could fly all domestic routes . On 16 May 1956 , Braathens SAFE started landing at Hamar Airport , Stafsberg on the Oslo – Trondheim route , and at Notodden Airport , Tuven on the Oslo – Stavanger route . Both airports had 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) runways that could only be served by small aircraft such as the Heron . From 1959 , services to both airports were terminated . Røros Airport was opened on 19 July 1957 , and Braathens SAFE landed some of the Oslo – Trondheim services there . After 1958 , services were terminated , but after the runway was extended from 1 @,@ 360 to 1 @,@ 600 metres ( 4 @,@ 460 to 5 @,@ 250 ft ) , it was taken into use again in 1963 .

The route Stavanger – Bergen – Trondheim was awarded to Vestlandske Luftfartsselskap in 1956 , but this company filed for bankruptcy the following year . Ålesund Airport , Vigra was scheduled to open in 1958 , and both Braathens SAFE and SAS applied for the concession , along with the route along the West Coast . At first the ministry wanted to issue the concession on the route Stavanger – Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim to Braathens SAFE and the route Ålesund – Oslo to SAS . But after negotiations , Braathens SAFE stated they were willing to fly the coastal route without subsidies if they were granted the Oslo @-@ route , since that would allow them to cross @-@ subsidize ; this was granted by the ministry . An agreement was then made between the ministry , SAS and Braathens SAFE , where both airlines would fly the routes Oslo – Trondheim , Oslo – Stavanger , Oslo – Kristiansand and Kristiansand – Stavanger – Bergen ; Braathens SAFE had a monopoly on the routes Oslo – Ålesund and Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim , while SAS was granted a monopoly on the routes Oslo – Bergen and ( Oslo ) – Trondheim – Bodø – Bardufoss . In 1958 , Braathens SAFE had 77 @,@ 591 passengers .

= = = Hummelfjell Accident = = =

On 7 November 1956 , the Heron LN @-@ SUR Lars crashed at Hummelfjell after the aircraft had experienced icing problems . The Hummelfjell Accident killed the pilot and one passenger , but the remaining ten people on board survived . Among them was the famous television actor Rolf Kirkvaag , who , despite injury , succeeded at walking to civilization to inform about the accident .

= = Friendship = =

During the late 1950s , Braathens SAFE started looking for a replacement for the aging DC @-@ 3s and Herons . An order was placed with Fokker for the delivery of their new Fokker F @-@ 27 Friendship , a two @-@ engine turboprop with cabin pressurization . Braathens SAFE was the second airline to receive the plane , after Aer Lingus . The first craft , LN @-@ SUN , was delivered in December 1958 , with the second , LN @-@ SUO , delivered the following year . They were put into service on the main routes : once daily Oslo – Trondheim , once daily Oslo – Ålesund , twice daily Oslo – Stavanger , including one stopping at Kristiansand , and one trip daily Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim . The delivery of the Friendships made the Herons unnecessary , and these were sold . The two DC @-@ 3s were kept as a reserve , and were used for the first part of the summer schedules because of late delivery of LN @-@ SUO . They were also used for charter . The airports at Hamar , Farsund and Tønsberg had too short runways for the Friendship , and these destinations were terminated .

The first flight to the winter @-@ only airport at Longyearbyen on Svalbard was made on 2 April 1959 , when Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani chartered a DC @-@ 4 from Bardufoss Airport . Store Norske cleared a 1 @,@ 800 by 40 metres ( 5 @,@ 910 by 130 ft ) runway on snow for the aircraft . More flights were chartered during the 1960s , and Longyearbyen became a regular charter destination for Braathens SAFE .

From 3 June to 30 September 1960 , Braathens SAFE was granted concession on the route from Oslo via Sandefjord Airport , Torp to Aalborg Airport in Denmark . This became possible because SAS had abandoned the route the previous year . It was flown with a DC @-@ 3 , giving an 80 % load factor . On 22 July , the Braathens SAFE applied for a three @-@ year concession , but this was rejected because SAS stated that they would restart the route . In 1961 , SAS started the route Stavanger – Kristiansand – Ålborg , and in 1963 on the route Oslo – Kristiansand – Ålborg . The concession allowed SAS to also take passengers on the domestic legs , giving Braathens SAFE competition on the routes to Kristiansand .

Passengers traveling from Western to Northern Norway had to transfer from Braathens SAFE to SAS in Trondheim . Both airlines saw this as a strategic opportunity to get routes in each other 's territories . On 31 August 1960 , Braathens SAFE applied for an extension of its Bergen – Ålesund – Trondheim route onwards to Bodø Airport and Bardufoss Airport . The two airports had been served by SAS from Oslo via Trondheim . SAS presented estimates that between 2 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 1 passengers transferred at Trondheim each day . Braathens SAFE later proposed that they could fly directly from Bergen and Ålesund to Bodø and Bardufoss , but Braathens SAFE 's application was rejected by the ministry . All concessions ended on 31 March 1961 , and the ministry extended them all one year . Three new airports , Alta Airport , Lakselv Airport , Banak and Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen , were about to open and the ministry wanted to award new concessions that included these airports . Braathens SAFE applied to operate to all the airports in Northern Norway , but the contract was awarded to SAS . The latter also applied to operate a route from Northern Norway via Trondheim , Ålesund and Bergen to Stavanger , while Braathens SAFE in 1964 again applied for an extension of the West Coast route to Northern Norway . This was moderated to a direct route from Tromsø Airport to Bergen , which SAS received permission for on 4 March 1965 .

An additional F @-@ 27s was delivered in 1961 , and two more in 1962 . By then , the Oslo – Stavanger route was expanded to four daily round trips , of which two went via Kristiansand . Ålesund had two round trips , while Trondheim had one . The coastal route had two services , and was branded as the " Airbus " . In all , 175 @,@ 202 passengers were transported , up 40 % since the previous year . By 1965 , the Trondheim , Ålesund and coast routes had three round trips , while there were four to Kristiansand and five to Stavanger . That year , the right @-@ winged Borten 's Cabinet was appointed ; Braathens SAFE therefore again applied for an extension of the West Coast route to Tromsø and Bodø . When the government signaled that it would support the application , it caused a major debate , particularly in Denmark and Sweden , and the Danish and Swedish governments threatened to terminate the SAS agreement . On 25 November 1966 , with 82 against 62 votes , the Norwegian Parliament voted to allow Braathens SAFE to fly to Bodø and Tromsø as an extension of the West Coast route from 1 April 1967 .

On 3 March 1967 , parliament decided to build four short take @-@ off and landing airports along the Helgeland coast between Trondheim and Bodø . Braathens placed an order for a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter and planned to start the company Braathens STOL . It applied to operate the route without subsidies , but the concession was rejected and granted with subsidies to Widerøe , which had been operating the routes using seaplanes .

= = Charter = =

During the 1950s , the main customers for charter flights had been Norwegian shipping companies , who flew their crew home from ports in Central Europe . In 1959 , Saga Tours was created as the first travel agency for Mediterranean charter trips , and the company started a cooperation with Braathens SAFE . The first DC @-@ 4 flew to Mallorca that year . In 1961 , the company 's first Douglas DC @-@ 6B was bought . It had a capacity of 96 passengers , and cooperation was also started with Metro and Paddan in Gothenburg . Other charter destinations were London , Alicante and Málaga , both in Spain . That year , Braathens SAFE bought 50 % of Saga Tours in a private placement . Braathens SAFE established an office in Gothenburg in 1965 . After Vingresor had been bought by SAS and moved to Stockholm three years later , three employees started Atlas Resor in Gothenburg , and started using Braathens SAFE as their airline . By 1966 , Braathens SAFE was operating seven DC @-@ 6s .

The agreements with Spanish authorities allowed only airlines from the country of origin or from Spain to fly charter flights . But because of the SAS @-@ cooperation , an agreement was made where any Scandinavian airline could fly to Spain from any of the three Scandinavian countries . Domestically , Braathens SAFE received strong competition from Sterling Airways , but on the other hand this allowed Braathens SAFE to fly charter flights from Sweden . In 1968 , the large Swedish – Danish charter airline Internord went bankrupt , giving Braathens SAFE increased charter traffic . The company also started purchasing a larger share of Altas Resor , until it took over all the whole company in 1978 . In Sweden , Braathens SAFE used its partners to sell charter flights to Norway , and then continue their flights using scheduled flights . Braathens SAFE was hindered by the charter regulations from making intercontinental flights , as well as flights between the Scandinavian capitals . The rules also forced business travelers to use scheduled flights .

= = Into the Jet Age = =

In 1965 , Braathens SAFE placed an order for three Boeing 737 @-@ 200s , costing a total ofNOK 100 million . They were intended to do the main haul of the charter market . There had been an internal struggle as to whether the company should purchase the Fokker F @-@ 28 Fellowship or the Boeing 737 @-@ 100 , a shorter version of the 737 @-@ 200 . Having a single plane type would give a single pool of pilot and mechanic certifications , and would have saved the company NOK millions in costs . Following the decision to purchase the F @-@ 28 , Bjørn G. Braathen , son of Ludvig G. and later CEO , left the company .

By 1966 , Braathens SAFE had sold all its DC @-@ 4s , and had purchased eight F @-@ 27s . The DC @-@ 6s were used exclusively for charter , with all domestic flights being flown with the F @-@ 27s . The same year , the booking system was centralized and moved to offices in Oslo . The company established sales offices in Bodø and Tromsø on 1 March 1967 . A new cargo department was opened at Oslo Airport on 29 September . Braathens SAFE applied in a joint venture with the Norwegian America Line to start a cargo flight to the United States and the Far East , but this was declined by the ministry . From 1967 , also DC @-@ 6s were used on domestic routes . In August , it was announced that Braathens SAFE would replace the F @-@ 27s with six new Fokker F @-@ 28 , and that the F @-@ 27s would be sold to the manufacturer . Later , the number of orders of 737s was reduced to two , and of F @-@ 28s to five . The Fellowships cost NOK 40 million each .

The first 737 , LN @-@ SUS , landed in Oslo on 8 January 1969 , followed by LN @-@ SUP on 31 January . Braathens SAFE was the launch customer of the F @-@ 28 , and the first plane landed in Oslo on 3 March . Five F @-@ 28s were delivered in the course of a year , in addition to one aircraft that was leased periodically until 1971 . There were several technical problems due to having the earliest models of the F @-@ 28 , causing some operational difficulties . Two DC @-@ 6s were sold , and all but three of the F @-@ 27s were sold to Fokker between October 1968 and May 1969 . Along with the aircraft came a new simulator , and the simulator division was moved from Sola to Fornebu . On 27 February 1970 , the company took into use an IT @-@ system , based at Sola .

With the delivery of the Boeing 737 @-@ 200s , Braathens SAFE started using these aircraft on the long @-@ haul charter flights . By 1977 , there were nine international charter airlines competing with Braathens SAFE : Aviaco , Britannia Airways , Dan @-@ Air , Linjeflyg , Maersk Air , Scanair ( owned by SAS ) , Spantax , Sterling and Transair . In 1976 , good exchange rates gave a peak of flights to London , with eleven weekly flights across the North Sea . Braathens SAFE also started flying for Vingresor . In 1976 , 44 % of the company 's revenue was from charter , but by 1979 it had dropped to 36 % . During this period , about half of the planes ' flying time was related to charter .

= = More airports = =

Prior to the opening of Kristiansund Airport , Kvernberget , Braathens SAFE applied for a concession to fly to it along the West Coast , as well as the direct route from Oslo . SAS applied to fly the Oslo @-@ service . The ministry wanted Braathens SAFE to fly the route with a concession granted to SAS , but Braathens SAFE rejected this . Instead , they were granted both the routes on temporary basis . The new airport received three daily flights to Oslo , of which two went via Ålesund , and four services on the West Coast route . At the same time , there was a discussion about who was to operate the new STOL @-@ airports on the West Coast . Braathens SAFE stated that they wanted a local airline to do the flying , and chose not to apply . The concession was granted to Widerøe , and Braathens SAFE subsequently bought part of the airline .

On 5 April 1972 , Molde Airport , Årø opened . Unlike other primary airports , it had been built and financed by the municipality , and did not become state @-@ owned until 1978 . Braathens SAFE started flying both to Oslo and along the West Coast from Molde . The same year , the airline for the first time exceeded one million domestic passengers . It also started with five weekly cargo flights with flowers from Genova , Italy . The following year , the last DC @-@ 6 was sold , after the type had been phased out since 1969 .

The same year , the government appointed a commission , led by Bue Fjermeros , to look into the organization of the domestic air routes . Since the last compromise in splitting routes , the traffic had increased more in Braathens SAFE 's domain that SAS ' . The commission also looked a to whom the two next airports that would be opened , Haugesund Airport , Karmøy and Harstad / Narvik Airport , Evenes , would be given . Neither company wanted to cooperate beyond the existing arrangement of coordinating their routes time @-@ wise , along with those of Widerøe . In addition , Braathens SAFE bought handling services from SAS at Gardermoen , Bergen , Bodø and Tromsø , while SAS bought handling services from Braathens SAFE at Stavanger . The commission granted SAS the rights to fly from Oslo to Haugesund , Harstad / Narvik and the new airport Svalbard Airport , Longyear . Braathens SAFE was allowed to fly from Bergen to Northern Norway via Ålesund , Molde and Kristiansund . SAS lost the right to fly directly from Bergen to Northern Norway . When the matter was passed by parliament , they also granted SAS the right to fly from Oslo to Stavanger , even if their planes did not continue abroad .

= = = Flight 239 = = =

On 23 December 1972 at 16 : 30 , the company 's most fatal accident occurred . F @-@ 28 LN @-@ SUY Sverre Sigurdson on Flight 239 from Ålesund to Oslo crashed at Asker , killing 40 of the 45 people on board , including the crew of three . The cause of the accident was never discovered , although a possibility could have been faults with the instrument landing system .

= = Times of change = =

Following the steep increase of oil prices in 1973 , Braathens SAFE increased the ticket prices with about 30 % , giving for the first year a reduction in the number of travelers . The IT @-@ system Bracar was introduced on 4 February 1974 , connecting all locations with 53 terminals , rationalizing 20 man @-@ years . In 1974 , Annæus Schjødt jr. became chair , and the following year , the employees were represented with two board members . The remaining three F @-@ 27s were sold to the Braathens Rederi @-@ owned Busy Bee between 1975 and 1977 . From 1 January 1976 , Braathens SAFE introduced " Green Routes " , where passengers were granted 35 % discount if they traveled on Saturdays or Sunday morning , booked a round trip and were away for at least a full week or over a weekend . From 1972 to 1976 , the company 's revenue doubled , to NOK 500 million , while production increased 18 % . The main contributing factor was the increase of labor costs , that had almost doubled in the four years , although also higher fuel prices and taxes contributed . In 1976 , the airline transported 1 @,@ 154 @,@ 000 scheduled and 485 @,@ 000 chartered passengers . Braathens SAFE had a 37 % scheduled market share and 31 % share of the charter flights . The largest traffic increases were in Stavanger , Bergen and Trondheim . During the late 1970s , Braathens SAFE increased the number of direct flights between these cities , without increasing the number of landings in Ålesund and Kristiansand . From 1 April 1977 , the airline lost its dispensation to operate with reduced cabin crew , and was forced to increase the number on the F @-@ 28 from one to two , and on the 737 from two to three . At the same time , the airline introduced in @-@ flight meals .

Ludvig G. Braathen died on 27 December 1976 while he was still CEO . He was succeeded by his son Bjørn G. Braathen , who had returned to the company a few years earlier . In 1977 , Braathens SAFE made NOK 10 million in profit on the Trondheim route and NOK 4 million on the routes from Oslo to Kristiansand and Stavanger . At the same time , the airline lost NOK 6 million on the routes to from Oslo to Ålesund , Molde and Kristiansund , and NOK 18 million on the coastal routes between Stavanger and Tromsø . From 1 October 1978 , the company also introduced 50 % youth discount for people under 26 years . From 1 May 1978 , there was introduced a NOK 100 tax on international charter flights . The same year , Braathens SAFE bought 15 % of Bergenske Dampskibsselskab , that owned 51 % of the travel agency Bennett Reisebureau . This was to try to secure influence over the chain , that was also owned 31 % by SAS . A new , neutral ticketing system , SMART , was introduced in 1980 for all travel agents in Norway and Sweden . Following this , Braathens SAFE sold its stake in Bergenske with a profit .

Starting with the delivery of the F @-@ 28s and 737s , all planes were named after Norwegian kings . The last three F @-@ 27s were also given such names . During the 1970s , Braathens SAFE took delivery of eleven 737s , supplementing the four F @-@ 28s . The third delivered , LN @-@ SUA , had a cargo door on the side , making it ideal for cargo flights . The three planes delivered in 1979 had extended range tanks making direct flights to the Canary Islands possible . In 1979 , the company started looking into possible replacements for their fleet , considering larger aircraft .

The late 1970s and early 1980s was a time of economic problems for airlines worldwide . Passenger numbers stabilized , and Braathens SAFE introduced a 15 % discount to purchasers of 100 tickets at one time . The company hit NOK 1 billion in revenue in 1981 . Discounted tickets were not sufficient to cover the increasing costs , particularly related to fuel , and the company introduced the internal campaign Bra @-@ 82 . This involved a more market @-@ oriented management and a focus on service increase , including better regularity and free coffee . During the summer , the reduced demand made the airline introduce discounted " summer tickets " for NOK 280 on any route in Southern Norway . This gave a 75 % load factor , the highest for the whole year .

In 1982 , Braathens SAFE bought 15 % of DNL . It also applied , though the sister company Braathens Helikopter , for concessions for helicopter services from Stavanger to offshore oil platforms . As a reaction , the incumbent , Helikopter Service , applied for Braathens SAFEs West Coast routes . At this point , SAS bought 15 % of Helikopter Service . In 1984 , Braathens SAFE introduced services to Farsund Airport , using wet leased F @-@ 27s from Busy Bee . The same arrangement was used to connect Haugesund to Bergen and Stavanger . In Haugesund , this was in competition with Norving . Busy Bee @-@ operated planes were also used on routes from Sandefjord in competition with Norsk Flytjeneste . The same year , the cabin crew had a 14 @-@ day strike , halting all flights . It was caused by the company paying lower wages than SAS and Busy Bee . In 1985 , a new booking system was introduced , that allowed overbooking . This gave increased revenue , but the company had to start compensating rejected passengers with a full refund and a free seat on the next flight . On 16 December 1985 , the airline 's administration moved into the a new building , the Diamond , located at Fornebu . The frequent flyer program Bracard was launched in September 1985 . It was a cooperation with Inter Nor Hotels , and gave special privileges to travelers that made 25 full @-@ price trips per year with Braathens .

= = New Boeings = =

In 1980 , the management of Braathens SAFE decided that it needed larger aircraft if the company was to stay competitive on charter flights . Larger aircraft could be put into service on the main services from Oslo , Gothenburg and Stockholm , while the 737s could be used to smaller destination and from other cities . On 25 February 1980 , the company announced that it had ordered two Boeing 767 @-@ 200 planes , with an option for two addition craft . The cost of the two firm orders was about NOK 500 million . This would allow the aircraft to be used for both domestic scheduled flights and for charter , and was configured with 242 seats . This was less than charter @-@ only airlines , for instance Britannia had their planes configured with 273 seats . Braathens SAFE 's planes were delivered on 23 March and in November 1984 . The following year showed increasing charter traffic , although it only made up 25 % of the company 's revenue . The company had considered the smaller Boeing 757 , but did not have sufficient range . Also the Airbus A310 was close to being chosen .

The 767s were launched as " First Business Class " to charter travelers , but the business model was not successful . The new consumer groups entering the market had low willingness to pay , and the demand for premium charter services was low . The company was faced with not being able to charter out the plane because of the low seat numbers , but could not put in the extra seats because of the aircraft also being used on the scheduled market . Using so large aircraft on the short @-@ haul flights in Southern Norway gave little economy @-@ of @-@ scale , and the airline seldom needed the increased capacity . Braathens SAFE also had problems , because from order to delivery , the exchange rates had increased from 5 to 9 NOK per USD , almost doubling the price in NOK . In 1986 , the two 767s where sold . Two years later , Altas Resor was sold , and the following year Saga . Braathens SAFE closed its bases in Gothenburg and Stockholm , but remained a charter operator with 737s from Norway .

Following the decision to sell the two 767s , management also decided to sell the four remaining F @-@ 28s . This would allow Braathens to operate a fleet of pure 737 @-@ 200 , giving lower operating costs . One 737 was taken out of service in 1984 , and the four F @-@ 28s sold in 1986 . The same year , seven more 737 @-@ 200s were delivered , along with two more in 1987 and 1988 . By then , Braathens SAFEs entire fleet consisted of nineteen 737 @-@ 200s . At the same time , Boeing had launched the 737 @-@ 300 , a slightly larger aircraft with new CFM @-@ 56 engines . Braathens SAFE considered the new aircraft , but where concerned that it used a traditional mechanical cockpit . The airline also needed larger aircraft for the charter traffic , and smaller aircraft for the domestic routes . The airline also considered the McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 and the Airbus A320 , but settled on the 737 following the announcement of the stretched 737 @-@ 400 , with 156 seats , and the shortened 737 @-@ 500 , with 124 seats . These had glass cockpits , and Braathens SAFE would be among the first airlines to receive both models . To finance the purchase , the airline sold all but two of the 737 @-@ 200s and leased them back . For some of the aircraft , they received more money than they had paid .

= = = Hijacking = = =

On 21 June 1985 , the 737 @-@ 200 LN @-@ SUG Harald Gille , with 121 passengers en route from Trondheim to Oslo , was hijacked by the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Stein Arvid Huseby . He had threatened a flight attendant with an air gun . He demanded to talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke and a press conference to make a political statement . His demands were not met , and he surrendered while the plane was parked in Oslo . This was the first hijacking in Norway .

= = Competition and new planes = =

The F @-@ 28s had the largest regularity problems , mostly due to the number of landings , which could count up to 16 per day . For instance , LN @-@ SUO flew 36 @,@ 000 hours with 76 @,@ 000 landings . The last flight was made on 16 December 1986 , and the aircraft sold for NOK 45 million each . Although the F @-@ 28 was taken out of service , some of the routes on the West Coast needed to be operated with smaller aircraft than the 737 . The company made an agreement to wet lease Busy Bee F @-@ 27s one some of the routes , while the most trafficked ones would be taken over by 737s .

A 1985 government committee , led by State Secretary Per Arne Watle , recommended that more route be flown by both Braathens SAFE and SAS , and that additional airlines be allowed to start other routes . On 5 September 1985 , Braathens SAFE applied for the route Trondheim – Bodø – Harstad / Narvik – Tromsø and Tromsø – Longyearbyen . SAS had stated that it was fine with them if other airlines started flying international routes they did not , and on 17 October Braathens SAFE also applied for the routes Bergen – Stavanger – Paris , Bergen – Stavanger – Manchester , Oslo – Stavanger – Brussels and Trondheim – Bergen – Newcastle . The applications were rejected and it was agreed upon that SAS would retain all rights to fly internationally between Oslo , Bergen , Stavanger , Gothenburg , Stockholm , Copenhagen and Århus .

A new round of concession applications were filed in 1987 : Trondheim to Northern Norway , Tromsø – Longyearbyen , Oslo – Billund and Oslo – Alicante . The right @-@ winged Willoch 's Second Cabinet decided to use three principles in issuing new concessions : keeping the array of local routes , granting concessions on the terms that the airlines would continue to cross @-@ subsidize routes , and to introduce competition on the largest routes . Braathens SAFE was given permission to fly Oslo – Bergen and Western Norway – Trondheim – Bodø – Tromsø , plus once daily Oslo – Trondheim – Bodø , as well as Tromsø – Longyearbyen . At the same time , SAS was allowed to fly freely on the routes Oslo – Trondheim and Oslo – Stavanger . In 1988 , Braathens SAFE introduced automatic check @-@ in machines in Oslo , Stavanger , Bergen , Ålesund and Trondheim .

The first 737 @-@ 400 , LN @-@ BRA , was delivered to the airline on 9 July 1989 . The 19 737 @-@ 200s were gradually handed to their owners , while seven 737 @-@ 400s and seventeen 737 @-@ 500s were delivered until 1994 . The investment cost NOK 4 @.@ 5 billion . By the end of 1993 , the company had NOK 3 @.@ 4 billion in debt . On 1 June 1989 , Erik G. Braathen , son of Bjørn G. , took over as CEO at the age of 34 . In 1992 , Busy Bee filed for bankruptcy ; the company 's fleet of three Fokker 50s were transferred to the newly established Norwegian Air Shuttle , which started wet @-@ leased operations along the West Coast for Braathens SAFE . As demand increased through the 1990s , the fleet was extended to six aircraft .

= = International routes = =

Braathens SAFE was also given the right to fly its first international scheduled flights for the first time in several decades . On 19 August 1988 , the airline was granted concession to fly to Billund in Denmark . At the same time , Air @-@ X was granted concession to fly the route via Sandefjord and Skien . The route started on 2 May 1989 . Previously the rules stated that if SAS flew to a non @-@ Scandinavian destination from any capital , no other Scandinavian airlines could fly to that city . Braathens SAFE lost many contracts in the charter market in 1990 , following Scanair 's purchase of larger Douglas DC @-@ 10 aircraft . On 18 May 1990 , Braathens SAFE was awarded the concession a route from Oslo , Bergen and Stavanger to Newcastle , which opened on 3 April 1991 . The airline was also awarded the route from Tromsø to Murmansk , Russia , once per week from 28 January 1993 .

On 19 June 1990 , SAS announced that all its services to London Gatwick Airport would be moved to London Heathrow Airport , where most of its services had landed . The same day , the Ministry of Transport announced that any Scandinavian airline could apply for and receive concessions to fly to Gatwick . On 25 June , Braathens SAFE applied to fly to London , but instead wanted to fly to London Stansted Airport , to have better landing slots . The concession was granted on 18 January 1991 , but the airline chose to not start the route . The company had been granted a concession to Malmø in Sweden , and the route opened on 2 May 1991 with two daily departures . This was later reduced to one . In October 1992 , the two airlines that flew from Oslo to Gatwick , Norway Airlines and Dan @-@ Air , filed for bankcruptcy . Braathens SAFE immediately decided to start the route , with a departure at about 10 : 30 that would allow connections to the rest of the domestic network . Six days later , the first schedules were published in the newspaper , slots and British permission was granted three days after that . Another two days after that , the service started .

At the time , Denmark was a member of the European Union ( EU ) , while Sweden and Norway had applied and were awaiting referenda to determine membership . EU was working to deregulate the airline market from 1995 , which could cause problems for the Scandinavian agreements . In preparation for this , Braathens SAFE started negotiations with Linjeflyg of Sweden and Maersk Air of Denmark to crate an alliance to compete with SAS . In particular , the three airlines wanted to capture the two million passengers that travelled between the three Scandinavian capitals : Oslo , Copenhagen and Stockholm . Instead , SAS was given permission to purchase Linjeflyg in exchange for the Swedish airline market being deregulated from 1 July 1992 . From 23 October 1992 , the Norwegian Armed Forces stopped chartering aircraft and started using scheduled flights to fly 240 @,@ 000 personnel annually . Since most of the transport was between Northern and Southern Norway , this gave reduced revenue for Braathens SAFE .

= = Helicopters = =

On 1 September 1989 , Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi founded Braathens Helikopter . The shipping company had signed an agreement with the oil companies Norsk Hydro , Phillips Petroleum and Statoil to provide helicopter transport for their crews to their offshore oil installations Ekofisk , Oseberg , Gullfaks , Veslefrikk . This was the first time the incumbent Helikopter Service had received competition on their offshore helicopter services . The initial agreement secured Braathens Helikopter a revenue of NOK 800 million in the course of five years , and gave the company a 20 % market share . Four 19 @-@ seet Aérospatiale Super Puma helicopters were ordered , each costing NOK 60 million . Total investment costs were NOK 300 million . Two helicopters were stationed at Stavanger Airport , Sola and two at Bergen Airport , Flesland . The initial contract involved flying 10 @,@ 000 passengers per year .

Twenty @-@ two pilots were hired along with a total staff of 70 , and services started on 1 September 1990 . In June 1991 , Braathens Helikopter signed a three @-@ year agreement with Amoco for flights from Stavanger to Valhall . The contract had an option for a two @-@ year extension . The revenue was between NOK 100 and 200 million , depending on the length of the contract and the capacity needed . Operations started in February 1992 , and involved the company purchasing another two Super Pumas . On 10 September , Braathens Helikopter was awarded the contract with British Petroleum for flights from Stavanger to Ula and Gyda . The contract gave a revenue of up to NOK 300 million in the course five years . Operations started on 1 November 1992 , and involved about 2 @,@ 000 hours of flying per year . With this contract , Braathens Helikopter had about a 30 % market share . Braathens purchased one more Super Puma as a consequence of the contract . After operations started , the company had grown to 120 employees and was the second @-@ largest helicopter operator in the country .

Braathens Helikopter and Helikopter Service announced on 1 October 1993 that the two companies would merge from 1 January 1994 . Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi would be paid with NOK 225 million in Helikopter Service shares . The Norwegian Competition Authority stated they would have to look at the merger , since the new company would have an almost @-@ monopoly on offshore flights . However , the ministry stated that the authority could not hinder the merger , because by the time new contracts were awarded in 1995 , helicopter operators from foreign countries would also be allowed to bid . The ownership of Braathens Helikopter was transferred to Helikopter Service on 14 December . Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi received 14 % of the shares in the merged company . They were immediately sold , giving Ludvig G. Braathens Rederi a NOK 170 million profit on the five @-@ year venture .

= Gerard ( archbishop of York ) =

Gerard ( died 21 May 1108 ) was Archbishop of York between 1100 and 1108 and Lord Chancellor of England from 1085 until 1092 . A Norman , he was a member of the cathedral clergy at Rouen before becoming a royal clerk under King William I of England and subsequently his son King William II Rufus . Gerard was appointed Lord Chancellor by William I , and he continued in that office under Rufus , who rewarded him with the Bishopric of Hereford in 1096 . Gerard may have been with the king 's hunting party when William II was killed , as he is known to have witnessed the first charter issued by the new king , Henry I of England , within days of William 's death .

Soon after Henry 's coronation Gerard was appointed to the recently vacant see of York , and became embroiled in the long @-@ running dispute between York and the see of Canterbury concerning which archbishopric had primacy over England . Gerard managed to secure papal recognition of York 's claim to jurisdiction over the church in Scotland , but he was forced to agree to a compromise with his counterpart at Canterbury , Anselm , over Canterbury 's claims to authority over York , although it was not binding on his successors . In the Investiture Controversy between the king and the papacy over the right to appoint bishops , Gerard worked on reconciling the claims of the two parties ; the controversy was finally resolved in 1107 .

Gerard was a patron of learning , to the extent that he urged at least one of his clergy to study Hebrew , a language not commonly studied at that time . He himself was a student of astrology , which led to suggestions that he was a magician and a sorcerer . Partly because of such rumours , and his unpopular attempts to reform his cathedral clergy , Gerard was denied a burial inside York Minster after his sudden death in 1108 . His successor as archbishop subsequently had Gerard 's remains moved into the cathedral church from their initial resting place beside the cathedral porch .

= = Early life and career = =

Gerard was the nephew of Walkelin , Bishop of Winchester , and Simon , Abbot of Ely . His parents were Osbert and Anna , and his brother Peter was also a royal clerk . Where he was born and raised is unknown ; he is documented as cantor of Rouen Cathedral , and precentor of the same cathedral , although the date of his appointment to either office is unrecorded . By 1091 he had become archdeacon of Rouen . He served in the royal chancery under successive kings of England , William I and William II .

= = Bishop of Hereford = =

Gerard was appointed Lord Chancellor of England in 1085 , and was present at William I 's deathbed in 1087 . He continued as Chancellor to William Rufus until 1092 ; what precipitated his loss of office is unclear . He retained the king 's trust , for Rufus employed him in 1095 along with William Warelwast on a diplomatic mission to Pope Urban II regarding Archbishop Anselm receiving the pallium , the sign of an archbishop 's authority . Rufus offered to recognise Urban as pope rather than the Antipope Clement III in return for Anselm 's deposition and the delivery of Anselm 's pallium into Rufus ' custody , to dispose of as he saw fit . The mission departed for Rome in February 1095 and returned by Whitsun with a papal legate , Walter the Cardinal Bishop of Albano , who had Anselm 's pallium . The legate secured Rufus ' recognition of Urban , but subsequently refused to consider Anselm 's deposition . Rufus resigned himself to Anselm 's position as archbishop , and at the king 's court at Windsor he consented to Anselm being given the pallium .

Although not yet ordained , Gerard was rewarded with the Bishopric of Hereford , and he was consecrated by Archbishop Anselm on 8 June 1096 ; his ordination as a deacon and priest had taken place the previous day . He assisted at the consecration of St Paul 's Cathedral in London on 9 June 1096 . He may have been a member of the hunting party in the New Forest on 2 August 1100 when Rufus was killed , as he witnessed King Henry I 's coronation charter – now known as the Charter of Liberties – three days later at Winchester , close by the New Forest . Gerard was present at Henry 's coronation that same day , along with Maurice , Bishop of London . Henry was probably crowned by Maurice , but the medieval chronicler Walter Map states that Gerard crowned Henry in return for a promise of the first vacant archbishopric . Gerard may have assisted Maurice in the coronation ceremony .

= = Archbishop = =

Gerard became Archbishop of York in December 1100 . No source mentions him being invested by the king , but as Anselm urged Pope Paschal II to give Gerard his pallium , which he would have been unlikely to do if Gerard had been invested by Henry , that possibility seems remote . At Whitsun in 1101 King Henry I , with Anselm 's support , deprived Ranulf Flambard , Bishop of Durham , of the lands of the see of Durham , because Ranulf had defected to Henry 's elder brother Robert Curthose , who also claimed the English throne . Gerard then deposed Ranulf from his bishopric . Soon after his translation to York , Gerard began a long dispute with Anselm , claiming equal primacy with the Archbishop of Canterbury and refusing to make a profession of canonical obedience to Anselm , part of the long Canterbury – York dispute . At the 1102 Council of Westminster , Gerard reportedly kicked over the smaller chair provided for him as Archbishop of York , and refused to be seated until he was provided with one as large as Anselm 's . He travelled to Rome in 1102 to receive his pallium from the pope , to whom he presented the king 's side against Anselm in the controversy surrounding investitures . The pope decided against the king , but Gerard and two other bishops reported that the pope had assured them that the various papal decrees against the lay investiture of bishops would not be enforced . Their claim was denied by Anselm 's representatives and the pope , who excommunicated Gerard until he recanted .

Gerard secured papal recognition of York 's metropolitan see for the Scots . He subsequently consecrated Roger as Bishop of Orkney , but refused to consecrate Thurgot to the see of St Andrews because Thurgot would not recognise the primacy of York . Gerard gave generously to the monasteries of his diocese ; the medieval chronicler Hugh the Chantor stated that Thomas II , Gerard 's successor , accused Gerard of having dissipated the diocese 's endowment . King Olaf I of Man and the Isles wrote to " G " , Archbishop of York , asking for the consecration of " our bishop " by York , but it does not appear to have taken place under Gerard or his successor .

During the first four years of Henry 's reign Gerard was one of the king 's chief advisors , along with Robert of Meulan , Count of Meulan in Normandy and later Earl of Leicester . Gerard was one of Henry 's greatest supporters among the bishops during the Investiture Crisis . In 1101 Gerard witnessed a treaty between Henry and Robert , the Count of Flanders , which sought as far as possible to distance Robert from any future conflict between Henry and his elder brother Robert Curthose , or between Henry and King Philip I of France . After Gerard 's return from Rome he restored Ranulf Flambard to the see of Durham . In 1102 Anselm refused to consecrate three bishops , two of whom had received investiture from the king ; Gerard offered to consecrate them instead , but all except one refused . From 1105 onwards Gerard slowly began to embrace the papal position on investiture of bishops , which opposed laymen investing bishops with the symbols of episcopal authority . As part of his change of position , Gerard withdrew from court to care for his diocese . Towards the end of 1105 Gerard attempted to join Bohemond of Antioch , who was assembling a crusading force in France , but it appears that King Henry prevented Gerard 's departure . In 1106 Gerard wrote to Bohemond that he was still preparing to go on crusade , but he never did . At about the same time , Gerard was working to find a mutually acceptable resolution to the Investiture Crisis , writing a number of letters and other works supporting Anselm 's and the pope 's position . By 1107 King Henry and Anselm had reached an agreement settling the dispute .

Gerard agreed to a compromise on the matter of obedience to Anselm . King Henry proposed that Anselm accept a witnessed oath from Gerard that he would remain bound by the profession he made to Anselm on his consecration as Bishop of Hereford . Gerard made this oath at the Council of Westminster in 1107 . It was a victory for Canterbury , but not a complete one , as Gerard avoided making a written profession , and it was specific to Gerard , not to his office . Gerard continued to oppose Anselm 's attempts to assert Canterbury 's primacy , but the two were reconciled before Gerard 's death .

Gerard also had an uneasy relationship with his cathedral chapter , after attempting to reform his cathedral clergy by forcing them to give up their wives and concubines and become ordained priests . He wrote to Anselm in 1103 complaining of the intransigence of his clergy and envying Anselm 's better relations with Canterbury 's chapter , which was composed of monks instead of the secular canons who made up York Minster 's chapter . In this correspondence , Gerard complained that some of the York canons refused to be ordained as priests , thereby hoping to avoid taking the vow of celibacy . He also accused them of accepting prebends but refusing to live or work at the cathedral , and of focusing on a narrow legal definition of celibacy without actually being celibate . The canons ' argument was that they were only required not to maintain women in their own houses , but they were not forbidden to visit or entertain women in houses belonging to others . It was not only Gerard who complained about the relationship between him and his canons ; the latter accused Gerard of impoverishing York by making gifts of lands to others .

= = Death and legacy = =

Gerard was an associate of the anonymous author of the Quadripartitus and the Leges Henrici Primi , two 12th @-@ century law books . The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury charged Gerard with immorality , avarice and the practice of magic . Gerard encouraged at least one of his clergy to study Hebrew , a language not normally studied at the time . Some chroniclers considered his ownership of a Hebrew psalter to be disturbing , seeing it as a sign of heresy or secret Judaism . Among the sins that Malmesbury imputed to him was the study of Julius Firmicus Maternus , a late Roman astrologer , every morning , which to Malmesbury meant that Gerard was a sorcerer . Malmesbury further claimed that Gerard was " lewd and lustful " . In Gerard 's favour , Anselm regarded him as learned and highly intelligent . Some verses composed by Gerard survive in unpublished form , now in the British Library manuscript collection as part of manuscript Cotton Titus D.xxiv. A collection of his letters circulated in the mid @-@ 12th century , part of a bequest made to Bec Abbey in 1164 by Philip de Harcourt , the Bishop of Bayeux , but it is now lost .

Gerard died suddenly on 21 May 1108 , at Southwell , on his way to London to attend a council . His body was found in an orchard , next to a book of " curious arts " , his copy of Julius Firmicus . His canons refused to allow his burial within his cathedral , but their hostility probably owed more to Gerard 's attempts to reform their lifestyle than to his alleged interest in sorcery . Gerard was at first buried beside the porch at York Minster , but his successor , Thomas , moved the remains inside the cathedral church .

= Something Borrowed ( Torchwood ) =

" Something Borrowed " is the ninth episode of the second series of British science fiction television series Torchwood . It was first broadcast by BBC Three on 5 March 2008 and repeated on BBC Two one week later . The episode was written by Phil Ford , directed by Ashley Way and produced by Richard Stokes . The episode featured the five initial series regulars John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Burn Gorman , Naoko Mori and Gareth David Lloyd plus recurring actor Kai Owen in a central role .

The episode centers on the marriage of Torchwood employee Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) to her long @-@ term partner Rhys Williams ( Kai Owen ) . The wedding is complicated by Gwen 's sudden impregnation by a shape @-@ shifting alien Nostrovite . Although she resolves to see her wedding through , her nuptials are interrupted by an attack from the biological mother of the alien fetus ( played successively by Collette Brown , Nerys Hughes and John Barrowman ) . With the help of Rhys and Gwen 's Torchwood colleagues the fetus is neutralised and the attacking alien defeated . Gwen and Rhys marry , and their families have their memories of the wedding day wiped .

The episode was designed to be the most humorous of Torchwood 's second series and incorporated elements of broad comedy and soap opera style storytelling to the monster of the week story . It was filmed largely on location in South Wales — prominent locations included the tourist attractions Margam Country Park and Dyffryn Gardens — and featured an ensemble of previously unseen Welsh characters . The episode was seen by an aggregated total of 4 @.@ 76 million viewers across its three debut showings in the United Kingdom . Critical response was extremely mixed . Some reviewers praised the inclusion of a less serious episode in the series whilst others felt that the comedy in the episode was too overt and detracted from the overall tone of the show .

= = Plot = =

On the night before her wedding , Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) is bitten on the arm by a male shape shifting alien . Her boss , Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) kills the alien , and Gwen attends her hen night though is troubled by her wound . She wakes up the next morning heavily pregnant . Jack arrives along with Torchwood 's medic Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) to examine Gwen and tries to persuade her to cancel her wedding . Gwen 's fiancee Rhys ( Kai Owen ) also tries to postpone the wedding in Gwen 's interest but Gwen insists that the wedding go ahead as she desires nothing more than to marry him . The sudden pregnancy is explained to Gwen and Rhys ' families as their own child . Gwen 's mother ( Sharon Morgan ) and father ( William Thomas ) are excited at the prospect of a grandchild , but Rhys ' parents suspect Gwen of being pregnant by another man . Torchwood agent Toshiko Sato ( Naoko Mori ) is sent to the wedding venue to keep an eye on Gwen and to deliver a new wedding dress to accommodate her alien pregnancy .

At Torchwood 's Cardiff headquarters , Owen determines from an autopsy that the alien that impregnated Gwen is a Nostrovite , a race of carnivorous shape shifters who hunt in pairs and mate for life . He tells Jack that after fertilisation , the female transfers her eggs to the male who plants them in a host body until they are ready to hatch . Later , the female kills the host to release the offspring . At the wedding venue , the female Nostrovite ( Colette Brown ) murders and partly devours wedding guest Mervyn . Toshiko investigates along with Rhys ' best man " Banana Boat " ( Jonathan Lewis Owen ) and they are subsequently captured by the alien , who intends to feed on them later . As Gwen and Rhys prepare to say their wedding vows , Jack runs up the aisle and demands that the wedding be halted . Owen and Ianto ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) free Toshiko but the half @-@ eaten corpse of Mervyn is discovered by his wife , a bridesmaid , who alerts the entire wedding party to the murder . The Nostrovite reveals herself and is chased away by Jack , escaping through a window .

Jack questions Owen about Gwen and Rhys , and he states that Rhys ' mother Brenda ( Nerys Hughes ) is with them . Tosh mentions that she saw Brenda with Gwen 's mother Mary in the garden . Tosh and Jack rush to the couple 's room , where Jack identifies Brenda as an alien and calls her an " ugly bitch " . After Brenda protests her innocence and Rhys punches Jack , Gwen states that Rhys ' mother is not the shapeshifter as Brenda wears a distinctive perfume . Torchwood reach the garden to find the Nostrovite , in Brenda 's image , with Mary . The alien holds Mary hostage , demanding that Gwen give her her child . Gwen walks towards them and as the Nostrovite releases Mary , Gwen reveals a hidden gun in her wedding bouquet and fires at the creature . Owen suggests using a piece of alien equipment called the singularity scalpel to destroy the alien fetus . He sends Gwen to her room and teaches Rhys how to use the scalpel ; Owen cannot use it himself due to injuries sustained in his undead state . Gwen is approached by Jack and reveals to him that she would have married Rhys a long time ago if she had not met him . She leans in as he appears to be ready to kiss her but he reveals himself to be the Nostrovite . Owen enters , shooting the creature whilst Gwen exits with Rhys . The Nostrovite , still in Jack 's form , attempts to attack Owen only to be repelled by the fact he is dead .

Rhys and Gwen find refuge in a barn and Rhys explains Owen 's plan to remove the fetus . As the Nostrovite launches an assault on the door of the barn , Rhys succeeds in destroying the fetus . The Nostrovite enters , again impersonating Rhys ' mother . She attacks Rhys , who attempts to protect himself with a chainsaw , which malfunctions . Jack arrives and kills the alien with a more powerful gun . He shares a moment of joy with Gwen before praising Rhys ' own display of heroism and telling him that " the hero always gets the girl " . Rhys and Gwen return to the wedding venue and are married . At the wedding reception , they notice the guests all suddenly falling asleep . Jack reveals that he has drugged them all with amnesia pills mixed with sedative so that they will not remember the events of the day . Jack offers Gwen and Rhys Retcon too but Gwen declines as she does not wants any secrets in her marriage to Rhys . As Gwen and Rhys anticipate their honeymoon , Torchwood clear up the mess left behind . Later , Jack enters the Hub alone , and retrieves an old tin box from his office . He looks through photographs from his past , reminiscing , before picking up a picture of himself and an unidentified bride at their wedding .

= = Production = =

= = = Conception and writing = = =

The original working title and given descriptor in the series breakdown for " Something Borrowed " was " The Wedding " . Writer Phil Ford felt the episode to be reminiscent of a soap @-@ opera as well as possessing science fiction elements . He describes the episode as " Coronation Street meets Torchwood " . Ford was chosen to write this episode because of his own involvement as a writer on Coronation Street and executive producer Russell T Davies ' view that this would enable him to handle a wedding with comedic elements . As the most humorous episode of the series it was deliberately scheduled alongside a series of darker episodes to provide a contrast .

Describing the tone of the episode Ford describes it as " an all out romp " and an " action , rollercoaster ride " with " a lot of comedy in it as much as thrills and nasty monsters " . Davies stated that " the whole point of the episode is to have a right old laugh " . Expanding on the comedic aspects , something Ford considered whilst writing the episode was that " the trick is to have the comedy come out of the characters " rather than the scenario itself . It was Eve Myles ' idea to have Gwen compulsively eat gherkins after waking up pregnant ; the script had only specified the character drinking a glass of water . The episode also plays on Gwen 's conflicted feelings between Jack and Rhys . Davies felt it would be " irresistible " to have the wedding temporarily halted by " the one man Rhys doesn 't want to see running down the aisle . " Ford stated that whilst Jack is " the series hero " Rhys is " the hero of this episode " . He compares a sequence where Rhys arms himself with a chainsaw to defend Gwen to the character being in " Evil Dead mode " . Producer Richard Stokes commented that the episode illuminated that " even though [ Gwen ] ' s put [ Rhys ] through some really difficult times , she really does love him and want to be with him . " In an early draft of the script Gwen and Rhys had their memories wiped at the end of the episode in addition to the other guests and were convinced by Jack that the wedding had been problem free .

= = = Casting = = =

The episode featured an ensemble of family and friends of Gwen and Rhys previously unseen in the series . William Thomas and Sharon Morgan were cast as Gwen 's parents Geraint and Mary Cooper . Davies re @-@ introduced the characters during the fourth series of the show , considering Thomas and Morgan to be " two fine Welsh actors " . Thomas had previously appeared as two different characters in the 1988 Doctor Who serial Remembrance of the Daleks and the 2005 Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " . Upon appearing in " Something Borrowed " he became the first actor to have appeared in all three of the classic series , new series and Torchwood . Nerys Hughes played Rhys ' mother Brenda Williams , in addition to a duplicate form of the alien Nostrovite . Like Thomas she had previously appeared in a Doctor Who serial ( the 1982 story Kinda ) . Hughes enjoyed getting to play a " monster " for the first time in her career which involved having " fangs and claws and red eyes " and being wired up so " all this black blood can ooze out when I get shot " . Despite the funny aspect of the script Hughes took the role seriously stating that " everyone plays it for real " and that " you can 't camp it up " . She believed that as an actor " you 've got to believe what you 're doing " .

Kai Owen describes Thomas , Morgan and Hughes collectively with Robin Griffith ( Barry Williams ) as a " good old @-@ fashioned Welsh cast who know what it 's all about " . Jonathan Lewis Owen was cast as Rhys ' best man " Banana Boat " a character referred to sporadically since Torchwood 's first series premiere " Everything Changes " ( 2006 ) . In keeping with the character 's name he was given a pair of banana patterned cuff links to compliment his costume . As a joke , Eve Myles ( who Jonathan Owen had previously worked with in other projects ) left a banana skin on his car on his first day of filming . Collette Brown played " Carrie " , the original human form of the mother Nostrovite . To transform her into the alien creature the actress was required to spend approximately an hour having make @-@ up applied . Brown was surprised at the efficiency of the make @-@ up artists as she had expected the transformation process to take longer . Originally , the human versions of the Nostrovite shapeshifter were intended to be more monstrous but Davies felt it was important that the audience would still be able to recognise the actor underneath once the make up had been applied .

= = = Filming = = =

The episode was filmed between October and November 2007 in the sixth production block of the series , alongside " Exit Wounds " . The sequence of Jack , Ianto and Owen leaving for Gwen 's wedding was recorded at Roald Dahl Plass on 25 October 2007 . A number of locations were used for the wedding venue . Producer Richard Stokes notes that " it felt like we were organising a real wedding but one that was being shot in about five different venues " . Director Ashley Way states that in directing the wedding scenes , the production team had to make sure that the colour scheme co @-@ ordinated in regards to aspects like the bridesmaids costumes and the flower patterns . Costume designer Ray Holman experienced difficulty sourcing a maternity wedding dress to accommodate the nine @-@ month baby bump worn by Eve Myles . He remarks that in trying to source three such dresses from bridal shops in Cardiff he was regarded " as if I was the biggest sinner in the world " and ended up designing the dress worn by Gwen himself .

The main location shoot for the episode was at Margam Country Park in Margam , Port Talbot in and around a converted Orangery which provided a location for the wedding and reception . Way states that one of the reasons Margam 's Orangery was chosen for the shoot was because of the " fantastic windows " which provided a good visual opportunity in regards to a sequence involving the alien Carrie jumping out of them . However , due to its listed building status the production crew were not able to remove the window glass for filming and had to construct replica windows on separate scaffolding using resin glass . The hotel exteriors and sequences set in the gardens of the wedding venue were filmed at Dyffryn Gardens in St Nicholas , Vale of Glamorgan . The hotel interiors were partly recorded at Court Colman Manor in the village of Pen @-@ y @-@ Fai , Bridgend and partly in studio . The opening sequence of the episode where Gwen pursues the shape @-@ shifter was recorded on 19 November in a men 's public toilet in The Hayes , a shopping area in central Cardiff .

The episode featured a large amount of incidental music . During Gwen 's hen night , the club she is in plays the tracks " Filthy / Gorgeous " and " Comfortably Numb " by the Scissor Sisters from their eponymous 2004 album and the single " Hole in the Head " from the Sugababes 2003 album Three . The song heard on Gwen 's radio Alarm Clock when she wakes up heavily pregnant is " Fire in My Heart " from the Welsh rock band Super Furry Animals . At Gwen and Rhys ' wedding reception , the records played include " You Do Something to Me " by Paul Weller and the song " Tainted Love " by Soft Cell . One of the black and white photos of Jack seen at the end of the episode is actually a promotional picture of John Barrowman from his role as Billy Flynn in the musical Chicago .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Something Borrowed " was first broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three on 5 March 2008 at 9 : 50 pm , straight after the BBC Two broadcast of the preceding episode " A Day in the Death " at 9 : 00 pm . The episode was first broadcast on BBC Two on 12 March at 9 : 00 pm , with a pre @-@ watershed repeat airing on 13 March at 7 : 00 pm . According to consolidated figures the episode was viewed by 0 @.@ 98 million viewers on BBC Three , 2 @.@ 76 million viewers for its 12 March BBC Two showing and 1 @.@ 02 million viewers for the pre @-@ watershed repeat amounting to an aggregated 4 @.@ 76 million viewers across its three initial showings . The episode was also available to watch on the online catch up service BBC iPlayer , where it was the 12th most viewed individual broadcast between 1 January and 31 March 2008 .

= = = Critical reception = = =

The episode received critical response ranging from extremely positive to extremely negative . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode five stars out of five , summarising it as an " energetic romp that oozed with body horror that would make David Cronenberg proud " which also " infused a type of family melodrama commonly seen on soaps " . He praised the " stunningly bonkers " plot noting that " every potential dramatic and comedic moment that stemmed from Gwen 's unconventional ' bun in the oven ' scenario was fully maximised " . He felt that in the central role " Eve Myles delivered an outstanding performance as Gwen " and also singled out the guest actors for praise , particularly Nerys Hughes . In an end of series review he listed " Something Borrowed " as his favourite episode of Torchwood 's second series . Writing for The Stage , Mark Wright wrote that " it ’ s good to see Torchwood can get in touch with its lighter side and not lose any momentum " concluding " I think I really might love this show " . Jon Beresford of TV Scoop felt the episode to be one of the strongest of the second series . Whilst he felt it to be " corny " in places he summarised the episode as an " exciting yarn with some really good performances from the team " . He felt that Myles and Owen " stole the show " as Gwen and Rhys believing that " there 's a definite spark between these two that sets their moments apart . "

Joan O 'Connell Hedman of Slant Magazine felt the episode to be the strongest of the second series . She praised the " uniformly fantastic " guest cast and the " drop dead gorgeous " exterior and interior locations . She singled out writer Phil Ford for considerable praise feeling that he wrote the episode true to the characters " while filling in backstory we had no way of imagining " and delivered " drama , action , and laughs " . Brad Trechak of AOL TV felt the more comic episode was a welcome respite from darker episodes . He praised the episode for being " light and fluffy yet it furthered things along with regard to the Torchwood universe and its characters " . Reviewing the episode Brigid Cherry of Total Sci @-@ Fi felt that " contrary to expectation – it ’ s hilarious " . She praised the comedy provided from Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Nerys Hughes in particular as well as the " terrifying moments that threaten to tip over into gross @-@ out horror @-@ comedy . " She felt overall the " offbeat self @-@ parody " made a welcome change from the show 's more serious episodes and rated it eight out of ten . Den of Geek 's Jack Kibble @-@ White found the episode to be a " surprise series highlight " .

However , the episode attracted heavy criticism . In a review titled " Too Much Crying , Not Enough Shagging " io9 's Charlie Jane Anders criticised the episode 's reliance on " cheesy soap opera moments " . Her major criticisms also encompassed the nonsensical aspects of the plot and the depiction of Torchwood as an incompetent team , particularly in allowing Gwen to progress with her wedding in the circumstance of her being pregnant . She felt that the episode had saving graces in a sequence which she felt acted as an homage to films Dead Alive and Evil Dead and the fact it made her believe " that Rhys and Gwen care about each other . " Ian Berriman of SFX magazine wrote that the episode was one of the weakest of the second series and was hampered by " limp gags and thuddingly obvious characterisation " . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated the episode five out of ten and criticised it as " flat out bad television " . He felt the comedic style to be at odds with Torchwood 's science fiction and horror storytelling and criticised some of the character moments as " preposterous " and " insipid " . Airlock Alpha 's Alan Stanley Blair was more mixed stating that the " episode feels like a lot of ideas have been thrown into a pot and mixed with all the Torchwood goodness " . He felt that the episode held together " by luck more than skill " but still " provided a lot of laughs and some wild fun " . Den of Geek 's Andrew Mickel felt that the episode exaggerated and stereotyped the Welsh characters in the overall scenario parodying them collectively as " the Welshest people on television " . He also criticised the focus on Gwen and the ridiculousness of her plan to marry Rhys despite her being pregnant . He felt however , that the episode played out " like a fun episode of Buffy " and that Rhys continued to be " Gwen ’ s one redeeming feature " , praising the scenes between him and his mother .

= Perfect Dark ( 2010 video game ) =

Perfect Dark is a remastered release of the first @-@ person shooter video game by the same name . Developed by 4J Studios and published by Microsoft Game Studios a decade after the original 's 2000 release , the remaster features several technical improvements , including higher resolution textures and models , a higher frame rate , and a multiplayer mode that supports the Xbox Live online service . It was released for the Xbox 360 video game console in March 2010 , through the Xbox Live Arcade download service . The story of the game follows Joanna Dark , an agent of the Carrington Institute organization , as she attempts to stop a conspiracy by rival corporation dataDyne .

Perfect Dark was under development for nearly a year and its game engine was completely re @-@ written from scratch to support several Xbox 360 features . Therefore , although the game plays exactly the same as the original , the code and renderer is different . The game received generally favorable reviews . Some critics considered the relatively unchanged game to be outdated , but most agreed that the title was a solid revival of a classic . As of the end of 2011 , the game had sold nearly 410 @,@ 000 units .

= = Gameplay = =

Perfect Dark is a first @-@ person shooter with elements of stealth games . In the game 's campaign mode , the player controls Joanna Dark through a series of nonlinear levels collected together into missions . Each level requires the player to complete a certain number of objectives , ranging from disguising oneself to hacking computers , collecting objects , and defeating enemies , among others . Players can carry an unlimited number of weapons and almost all of the weapons have two firing modes . The levels in Perfect Dark have no checkpoints , meaning that if Joanna is killed or fails an objective , the player has to start the level from the beginning . Every level can be played on three difficulty settings and several aspects , such as the enemies aggressiveness and the number of objectives that must be completed , among others , can vary in function of the chosen difficulty . Two players can also play the campaign co @-@ operatively or through a " counter @-@ operative " mode , in which one player controls the protagonist , while the other controls enemies throughout the level , attempting to stop the first player from completing objectives .

The game also features a multiplayer mode , called Combat Simulator , where various players can compete against each other in different types of deathmatch and objective @-@ based games . Aspects of each game can be highly customized . Features such as the weapons available , the winning condition , and team management can be changed to match player preference . Computer controlled bots , called Simulants , can also be added to the game and each of them can be individually customized , including their appearance , difficulty , and behavior . Players can also issue orders to the Simulants on their respective team ; for example , Guard tells a Simulant to stay in its current location and guard that area . The player can explore the Carrington Institute , which serves as the game 's training ground , and take part in different training activities . The most substantial of these activities is the shooting range , which allows the player to test all the weapons of the game against moving targets .

= = = Enhancements = = =

The remaster offers several improvements over the original Perfect Dark that was released for the Nintendo 64 in 2000 . The most remarkable change is that any of the multiplayer modes , including co @-@ operative and counter @-@ operative , can now be played in either splitscreen or through the Xbox Live online service . Combat Simulator matches are still capped at 12 entities , but the game can now comprise eight players online simultaneously , an improvement to the original 's cap of four players and eight Simulants . Players can also play against more than eight Simulants as long as there are enough slots available in a match ; for example , a single player can play against 11 Simulants ; such a feature was not possible in the original game . Unlike the original game , all the multiplayer content is unlocked from the beginning , and weapons from the game 's predecessor , which were originally only available in the missions , are now available to use in multiplayer . The game features an online leaderboard system and players can earn achievements and in @-@ game crowns by accomplishing certain tasks . The game also includes two new control set @-@ ups , entitled " Spartan " and " Duty Calls " , which are based on the popular first @-@ person shooter franchises Halo and Call of Duty respectively .

= = Plot = =

Perfect Dark is set in the year 2023 against the backdrop of an interstellar war between two races : the Maians , who resemble the stereotypical grey aliens , and the Skedar , reptile @-@ like extraterrestrials who can disguise themselves as humans , bearing similarities to Nordic aliens . On Earth the megacorporation dataDyne has developed in secret Dr. Caroll , the world 's first sentient AI computer . Feeling that dataDyne has betrayed ethical and moral standards , Dr. Caroll contacts the Carrington Institute , an espionage agency founded by Daniel Carrington , with the hope of revealing dataDyne 's sinister dealings . He is recovered by Joanna Dark , the Institute 's top agent , but is later recaptured by dataDyne at Carrington 's private villa . Joanna is then sent to Chicago to once again recover Dr. Caroll and uncover dataDyne 's plan . She learns that dataDyne and their conspirators plan to kidnap the President of the United States in order to get access to a deep sea vessel which will allow the conspirators to steal an alien megaweapon buried on the ocean floor .

Meanwhile , Joanna is ordered to rescue a Maian survivor named Elvis from Area 51 who is key in stopping the conspiracy . She succeeds and the pair work together to rescue the president . She learns the conspirators are actually Skedar aliens disguised as Scandinavian humans who intend to test the weapon on the Earth before using it against the Maian homeworld . Without permission from the president , dataDyne elect to hijack the deep sea vessel and take it to the ancient alien spacecraft . With the help of Elvis , Joanna follows where she finds a reprogrammed Dr. Caroll decoding the megaweapon . She replaces its current personality with a backup of the original , and the restored Dr. Carroll sets the weapon to self @-@ destruct in order to protect Earth . In retaliation , the Skedar capture Joanna and take her to their homeworld . Elvis rescues her and she then kills the Skedar High Priest , leaving the Skedar in disarray . The game ends with Elvis and Joanna leaving the Skedar planet just prior to an orbital bombardment from the Maian navy .

= = Development = =

Perfect Dark was ported by 4J Studios , the same studio that previously developed the Xbox Live Arcade versions of Rare 's platform games Banjo @-@ Kazooie and Banjo @-@ Tooie . According to Microsoft Game Studios creative director Ken Lobb , the development team " took the original code , ported it to the Xbox 360 and included deep [ Xbox Live ] integration . " The game was developed over a course of approximately 11 months after the creation of a working prototype . As the Xbox Live functionality had to be written from scratch , the developers opted to completely rewrite the game engine rather than do a port through emulation . As a result , although the game plays exactly the same , the code and renderer is different . The game also runs at 1080p and 60 frames per second .

While the original level geometry was kept , the levels received new textures , characters and weapons were recreated , and skyboxes were rebuilt . Lobb explained that " things are large and blocky because that 's what [ Perfect Dark ] looks like " , meaning that the sharper textures and higher resolution simply make the game look clearer . He also observed that , as character and weapon models were remodeled from their original low hundreds polygon count to polygons in the thousands , he was worried about them looking awkward in the low @-@ poly geometry level design . According to him , " it 's one of the areas that I give a lot of credit to the developer on . It just looks right . They were smart about the way they up @-@ resed the models so they still feel like they 're kind of retro , but they 're clean . "

Although music and sound effects were kept from the original recording sessions , original master recordings have been used to update the soundtrack at much higher quality ; the original recording size was 16 MB , while in the remaster it is over 250 MB . Developers also decided to retain the free aim mode because they wanted to be faithful to the original game . According to Rare 's Producer Nick Ferguson , " We didn 't change the fundamental behavior of the aiming system simply because that is not how Perfect Dark was played " . He also observed that the idea of updating the controls was actually seen as a flaw in Perfect Dark Zero , which tried to " combine the original Perfect Dark system with aspects of Halo " . The original diagonal running , which allows players to move faster than by running forwards or sideways alone , did not work the first time they implemented the analog stick , so it was manually rewritten as it was considered essential for speedruns and achieving some of the target times required to unlock cheats .

= = Marketing and release = =

Perfect Dark was first teased to consumers in April 2009 via a screenshot of a Rare employee 's Xbox 360 dashboard which showed an icon for the game . It was confirmed to be in development on June 2 , 2009 via Xbox Live Director of Programming Larry Hryb 's Twitter account . The game was released on March 17 , 2010 as part of Microsoft 's Xbox Live Block Party promotion . As a cross @-@ promotion with the game Crackdown 2 , users can unlock that game 's protagonist , known simply as Agent 4 , although a Crackdown 2 savegame is required on the Xbox 360 hard drive . A title update was released in April 2010 which addressed bugs , added two control schemes , and expanded playlists . Perfect Dark was downloaded over 150 @,@ 000 times during its first week of release and grossed approximately $ 1 @.@ 61 million at the end of the month . The game has sold more than 285 @,@ 000 units as of August 2010 and nearly 325 @,@ 000 units at the end of 2010 . As of year @-@ end 2011 , sales had increased to nearly 410 @,@ 000 units . In 2015 , the game was released as part of the Rare Replay compilation for Xbox One .

= = Reception = =

Perfect Dark received generally favorable reviews from critics . Writing for 1UP.com , Scott Sharkey highlighted the technical improvements , stating that the remaster is " a great way to re @-@ enjoy a game you already love " . Daemon Hatfield of IGN noted the game 's outdated dialogue , voice acting , and mission objectives , but nevertheless remarked that the game " wasn 't brought back for the uninitiated -- this is for the fans , and they will be very , very happy . " He also praised the game 's multiplayer mode over Xbox Live and highlighted the selection of weapons , the satisfying gunplay , and leaderboards , noting that they allow players to compare their performance with their friends .

Despite the praise , some reviewers criticized the game for its confusing level layouts and felt they have not held up very well over the years . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer stated that Perfect Dark is " not afraid to throw dead ends at you seemingly for the hell of it , or repeat textures so much in its huge maps that you can get a little dizzy . " GameSpot 's Tom Mc Shea noted that the campaign was " oddly paced " , and that " locked doors , unused rooms , and dead ends ... can be disheartening to stumble around in a circle until you finally happen upon the correct door you just couldn 't locate . " Nevertheless , he admitted that " it 's a lot of fun to replay them to try for high scores and figure out the many unique objectives . " He also remarked that that online play can periodically suffer from a significant amount of lag , but praised the amount of content and features .

The game 's original Counter @-@ Operative mode was very well received , with Eurogamer remarking that it " still feels ahead of its time even now . " Dan Ryckert of Game Informer stated similar pros , saying that " it 's even better this time around thanks to the framerate improvement . " Although the game 's controls have been upgraded to support two analog sticks , Steven Hopper of GameZone noted that the game still " feels a little different from what modern day shooter fans are used to " , while Eurogamer remarked that the aim assist can be unnecessarily generous on easy difficulties . At the end of March 2010 , IGN named Perfect Dark Xbox Live Arcade Game of the Month .

= First Ostend Raid =

The First Ostend Raid ( part of Operation ZO ) was the first of two attacks by the Royal Navy on the German @-@ held port of Ostend during the late spring of 1918 during the First World War . Ostend was attacked in conjunction with the neighbouring harbour of Zeebrugge on 23 April in order to block the vital strategic port of Bruges , situated 6 mi ( 5 @.@ 2 nmi ; 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland and ideally sited to conduct raiding operations on the British coastline and shipping lanes . Bruges and its satellite ports were a vital part of the German plans in their war on Allied commerce ( Handelskrieg ) because Bruges was close to the troopship lanes across the English Channel and allowed much quicker access to the Western Approaches for the U @-@ boat fleet than their bases in Germany .

The plan of attack was for the British raiding force to sink two obsolete cruisers in the canal mouth at Ostend and three at Zeebrugge , thus preventing raiding ships leaving Bruges . The Ostend canal was the smaller and narrower of the two channels giving access to Bruges and so was considered a secondary target behind the Zeebrugge Raid . Consequently , fewer resources were provided to the force assaulting Ostend . While the attack at Zeebrugge garnered some limited success , the assault on Ostend was a complete failure . The German marines who defended the port had taken careful preparations and drove the British assault ships astray , forcing the abortion of the operation at the final stage .

Three weeks after the failure of the operation , a second attack was launched which proved more successful in sinking a blockship at the entrance to the canal but ultimately did not close off Bruges completely . Further plans to attack Ostend came to nothing during the summer of 1918 , and the threat from Bruges would not be finally stopped until the last days of the war , when the town was liberated by Allied land forces .

= = Bruges = =

Bruges had been captured by the advancing German divisions during the Race for the Sea and had been rapidly identified as an important strategic asset by the German Navy . Bruges was situated 6 mi ( 5 @.@ 2 nmi ; 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland at the centre of a network of canals which emptied into the sea at the small coastal towns of Zeebrugge and Ostend . This land barrier protected Bruges from bombardment by land or sea by all but the very largest calibre artillery and also secured it against raiding parties from the Royal Navy . Capitalising on the natural advantages of the port , the German Navy constructed extensive training and repair facilities at Bruges , equipped to provide support for several flotillas of destroyers , torpedo boats and U @-@ boats .

By 1916 , these raiding forces were causing serious concern in the Admiralty as the proximity of Bruges to the British coast , to the troopship lanes across the English Channel and for the U @-@ boats , to the Western Approaches ; the heaviest shipping lanes in the World at the time . In the late spring of 1915 , Admiral Reginald Bacon had attempted without success to destroy the lock gates at Ostend with monitors . This effort failed , and Bruges became increasingly important in the Atlantic Campaign , which reached its height in 1917 . By early 1918 , the Admiralty was seeking ever more radical solutions to the problems raised by unrestricted submarine warfare , including instructing the " Allied Naval and Marine Forces " department to plan attacks on U @-@ boat bases in Belgium .

The " Allied Naval and Marine Forces " was a newly formed department created with the purpose of conducting raids and operations along the coastline of German @-@ held territory . The organisation was able to command extensive resources from both the Royal and French navies and was commanded by Admiral Roger Keyes and his deputy , Commodore Hubert Lynes . Keyes , Lynes and their staff began planning methods of neutralising Bruges in late 1917 and by April 1918 were ready to put their plans into operation .

= = Planning = =

To block Bruges , Keyes and Lynes decided to conduct two raids on the ports through which Bruges had access to the sea . Zeebrugge was to be attacked by a large force consisting of three blockships and numerous supporting warships . Ostend was faced by a similar but smaller force under immediate command of Lynes . The plan was for two obsolete cruisers — HMS Sirius and Brilliant — to be expended in blocking the canal which emptied at Ostend . These ships would be stripped to essential fittings and their lower holds and ballast filled with rubble and concrete . This would make them ideal barriers to access if sunk in the correct channel at the correct angle .

When the weather was right , the force would cross the English Channel in darkness and attack shortly after midnight to coincide with the Zeebrugge Raid a few miles up the coast . By coordinating their operations , the assault forces would stretch the German defenders and hopefully gain the element of surprise . Covering the Inshore Squadron would be heavy bombardment from an offshore squadron of monitors and destroyers as well as artillery support from Royal Marine artillery near Ypres in Allied @-@ held Flanders . Closer support would be offered by several flotillas of motor launches , small torpedo boats and Coastal Motor Boats which would lay smoke screens to obscure the advancing blockships as well as evacuate the crews of the cruisers after they had blocked the channel .

= = = British order of battle = = =

= = = = Offshore Squadron = = = =

Lord Clive @-@ class monitors with 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns :

HMS Marshal Soult , Lord Clive , Prince Eugene and General Crauford

M15 class monitors with 7 @.@ 5 in ( 190 mm ) guns :

HMS M24 , M26 , M21

Destroyers :

HMS Mentor , Lightfoot and Zubian

French Navy Lestin , Roux and Bouclier

Light craft :

4 torpedo boats , 4 French motor launches

= = = = Inshore Squadron = = = =

Blockships :

HMS Sirius , Brilliant

Destroyers :

HMS Swift , Faulknor ( destroyer leader ) , Matchless , Mastiff , Afridi , Tempest , Tetrarch

Light craft :

18 Motor Launches , 8 Coastal Motor Boats

Artillery support was also provided by Royal Marine heavy artillery in Allied @-@ held Flanders . The force was covered in the English Channel by seven light cruisers and 16 destroyers , none of which saw action .

= = Attack on Ostend = =

The assaults on Zeebrugge and Ostend were eventually launched on 23 April , after twice being delayed by poor weather . The Ostend force arrived off the port shortly before midnight and made final preparations ; the monitors took up position offshore and the small craft moved forward to begin laying smoke . Covering the approach , the monitors opened fire on German shore defences , including the powerful " Tirpitz " battery , which carried 11 in ( 280 mm ) guns . As a long range artillery duel developed , the cruisers began their advance towards the harbour mouth , searching for the marker buoys which indicated the correct passage through the diverse sandbanks which made navigation difficult along the Belgian coast .

It was at this stage that the attack began to go seriously wrong . Strong winds blowing off the land swept the smoke screen into the face of the advancing cruisers , blinding their commanders who attempted to navigate by dead reckoning . The same wind disclosed the Inshore Squadron to the German defenders who immediately opened up a withering fire on the blockships . With their volunteer crews suffering heavy casualties , the commanders increased speed despite the poor visibility and continued groping through the narrow channels inshore , searching for the Stroom Bank buoy which directed shipping into the canal .

Commander Alfred Godsal led the assault in HMS Brilliant and it was he who stumbled into the most effective German counter @-@ measure first . As Brilliant staggered through the murk , the lookout spotted the buoy ahead and Godsal headed directly for it , coming under even heavier fire as he did so . Passing the navigation marker at speed , the cruiser was suddenly brought to a halt with a juddering lurch , throwing men to the decks and sticking fast in deep mud well outside the harbour mouth . Before warnings could be relayed to the Sirius following up close behind , she too passed the buoy and her captain Lieutenant @-@ Commander Henry Hardy was shocked to see Brilliant dead ahead . With no time to maneuvere , Sirius ploughed into the port quarter of Brilliant , the blockships settling into the mud in a tangle of wreckage .

Artillery and long @-@ range machine gun fire continued to riddle the wrecks and the combined crews were ordered to evacuate as the officers set the scuttling charges which would sink the blockships in their current , useless locations . As men scrambled down the side of the cruisers into Coastal Motor Boats which would relay them to the Offshore Squadron , destroyers moved closer to Ostend to cover the retreat and the monitors continued their heavy fire . Godsal was the last to leave , picked up by launch ML276 commanded by Lieutenant Rowley Bourke . With the main assault a complete failure , the blockading forces returned to Dover and Dunkirk to assess the disaster .

When the forces had reassembled and the commanders conferred , the full facts of the failed operation were revealed . The German commander of Ostend had been better prepared than his counterpart at Zeebrugge and had recognised that without the navigation buoy no night attack on Ostend could be successful without a strong familiarity with the port , which none of the British navigators possessed . However , rather than simply remove the buoy , the German commander had ordered it moved 2 @,@ 400 yd ( 2 @,@ 200 m ) east of the canal mouth into the centre of a wide expanse of sandbanks , acting as a fatal decoy for any assault force .

= = Aftermath = =

The assault at Zeebrugge a few miles away from Ostend was more successful and the blocking of the major channel did cause some consternation amongst the German forces in Bruges . The larger raiders could no longer leave the port , but smaller ships , including most submarines , were still able to traverse via Ostend . In addition , within hours a narrow channel had also been carved through Zeebrugge too , although British intelligence did not realise this for several weeks . The defeat at Ostend did not entirely dampen the exuberant British media and public reaction to Zeebrugge , but in the Admiralty and particularly in the Allied Naval and Marine Forces the failure to completely neutralise Bruges rankled .

A second operation was planned for 10 May using the cruiser HMS Vindictive and proved more successful , but ultimately it also failed to completely close off Bruges . A third planned operation was never conducted as it rapidly became clear that the new channel carved at Zeebrugge was enough to allow access for U @-@ boats , thus calling for an even larger double assault , which would stretch the resources of the " Allied Naval and Marine Forces " too far . British losses in the three futile attempts to close Bruges cost over 600 casualties and the loss of several ships but Bruges would remain an active raiding base for the German Navy until October 1918 .

= Joyful , Joyful =

" Joyful , Joyful " is a song by contemporary Christian music band Casting Crowns from their fourth studio album Until the Whole World Hears ( 2009 ) . Written by Mark Hall and Bernie Herms and produced by Mark A. Miller , the song is a re @-@ interpretation of the hymn " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " and Ludwig van Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 . " Joyful , Joyful " , a CCM and alternative CCM song , is driven by a string section that has been compared to Coldplay 's song " Viva la Vida " . It received positive reviews from music critics and received airplay over the 2010 Christmas season , peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart .

= = Background and recording = =

" Joyful , Joyful " , is a rearrangement of the hymn " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " ( itself a re @-@ arrangement of a theme from Beethoven ) . Hall felt that there are many Christian songs that have been around and sung so long that the meaning behind them is lost ; he commented that " you hear them so many times you don 't really hear what they 're saying anymore " , listing the original version of " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " as an example .

Although the song is a re @-@ interpretation of " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " , Mark Hall and Bernie Herms are credited with writing the song . It was produced by Mark A. Miller and recorded by Sam Hewitt , Michael Hewitt , and Dale Oliver at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee ; the string instrument tracks were recorded by John Painter and Leslie Richter at Ocean Way in Nashville , Tennessee . Digital editing was handled by Michael Hewitt , while mixing was handled by Sam Hewitt . The song was mastered by Andrew Mendelson , Shelly Anderson , Natthaphol Abhigantaphand and Daniel Bacigalupi at Georgetown Masters in Nashville .

= = Composition = =

" Joyful , Joyful " is a song with a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , " Joyful , Joyful " is a CCM and alternative CCM set in common time in the key of F major with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of B ♭ 3 to the high note of F5 . The song has regarded as a re @-@ invention of " Joyful , Joyful We Adore Thee " and Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 , the song alters the format of the former , rearranging the song 's overall structure while adding a chorus . " Joyful , Joyful " is led by a " driving " and " pulsing " string section that has been compared to Coldplay 's " Viva la Vida " . Mark Hall felt that the band 's arrangement brought out the message of one of the song 's final verses ( " God our Father / Christ our brother / all who live in love are thine / teach us how to love each other / and fill us to the joy divine " ) ; Hall described the message by saying " God 's our father and Christ 's our brother , we have this connection with God . But if we can 't love each other , the joy isn 't completed . Its not real joy yet until we know how to love the people that are around us " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

" Joyful , Joyful " received positive reviews from music critics . Andrew Greer of CCM Magazine praised the song as a " fitting ode " to Beethoven 's Symphony No. 9 . Roger Ham of Christianity Today praised it as one of the best songs off of Until the Whole World Hears . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms praised the song as having " the same kind of string arrangement which made Coldplay 's ' Viva La Vida ' so enjoyable " . Debra Akins of Gospel Music Channel regarded the song as a highlight of the album . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout , while describing the song as " interesting " , felt that it wasn 't much of an improvement over the rest of the album .

= = = Chart performance = = =

" Joyful , Joyful " received airplay over the 2010 Christmas season , debuting at number forty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of December 11 , 2010 . In its fifth week on the chart , the chart week of January 8 , 2011 , it reached its peak position of number three .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits lifted from the album liner notes for Until the Whole World Hears .

Recording

Recorded Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee .

Strings recorded at Ocean Way in Nashville , Tennessee .

= = Charts = =

= Hurricane Dot ( 1959 ) =

Hurricane Dot of August 1959 was at its time the costliest tropical cyclone in Hawaiian history . Dot was first identified as a strong tropical storm southeast of Hawaiʻi on August 1 . The storm was potentially a continuation of a previously unnamed tropical cyclone that was monitored west of the Baja California Peninsula from July 24 @-@ 27 , but was never confirmed due to a lack of ship reports . Dot was quick to intensify , reaching hurricane intensity six hours after naming . By August 3 , Dot reached its peak intensity , with maximum sustained winds reaching 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Intensity leveled off afterwards as Dot tracked westward before making a curve towards the northwest on August 5 , after which the hurricane weakened at a faster clip . Dot made landfall the next day on Kauai as a minimal hurricane before dissipating west of the Hawaiian Islands on August 8 .

Dot produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds as it passed south of the Big Island , Lanai , Maui , Molokai , and Oahu , resulting in minor damage . In Oahu , some homes along the coast were unroofed , and damage from wave action was also reported . Damage from these four islands totaled US $ 150 @,@ 000 , and two indirect deaths occurred in Lanai . Extensive damage occurred on Kauai as Dot made landfall , producing wind gusts as high as 103 mph ( 166 km / h ) and toppling trees and power lines . Widespread power outages affected the island , causing telecommunications and water systems to fail . Although infrastructure was damaged to an extent by floodwater and strong winds , crops suffered the most losses . Cane sugar crops sustained US $ 2 @.@ 7 million in losses . Overall , damage from Dot across Hawaii totaled US $ 6 million , and a disaster area declaration and state of emergency took effect for the archipelago after the hurricane 's passage .

= = Meteorological history = =

On July 24 , the SS Pacificus encountered a storm with maximum sustained winds meeting the threshold of tropical storm status roughly 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) west of the Baja California Peninsula . Despite reports that the location of the system remained vague , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing tropical cyclone advisories and warnings on the unnamed disturbance . Tracking west @-@ northwestward , the tropical storm peaked with winds reported at 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) shortly after its discovery ; however , the JTWC discontinued its monitoring of the cyclone on July 27 due to a lack of ship reports confirming the location of the tropical storm .

At 1800 UTC on August 1 , an unidentified ship roughly 950 mi ( 1 @,@ 550 km ) southeast of Hilo , Hawaii reported 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds within a storm , prompting the JTWC to initiate advisories on Tropical Storm Dot . Despite an apparent correlation between Dot and the preceding unnamed tropical cyclone , the lack of ship reports between July 27 and August 1 prevented the agency from confirming that the two systems were the same . Nonetheless , development upon designation was rapid as the system tracked westward , with reports from the SS Sonoma indicating that Dot had intensified to hurricane strength by August 2 . Rapid intensification continued , and at 0000 UTC on August 3 , reconnaissance aircraft found winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 952 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) , making Dot a Category 4 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Later analysis indicated that these figures constituted the hurricane 's peak intensity .

After peaking , Dot slightly weakened , but maintained its Category 4 status for more than two days ; during that time it boasted an unusually large eye spanning as much as 40 mi ( 65 km ) in diameter . Late on August 4 , a fourth reconnaissance flight into the storm found surface winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , but this reading was discounted on the basis that pressures were unusually high for a storm of that intensity . On August 5 , Dot passed 90 mi ( 145 km ) south of Ka Lae before the storm curved sharply towards the northwest late that day . A more definite weakening phase began after this point , and during the night of August 6 , Dot made landfall on Kauai with winds estimated at 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , making the storm a Category 1 @-@ equivalent at the time of landfall . After traversing the island , Dot was downgraded to tropical storm intensity and curved back to the west before eventually dissipating on August 8 .

= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =

On August 3 , the United States Weather Bureau issued a hurricane watch for coastal areas of the Big Island in Kau and Puna districts . As Dot swept by the Hawaiian islands , various gale warnings and small craft warnings shifted westward to reflect the hurricane 's predicted path . Due to the storm 's sudden northward shift in movement , hurricane warnings were issued for portions of Oahu and the Kauai channel before being issued for only the island of Kauai . All watches and warnings were discontinued on August 7 after Dot weakened below hurricane intensity . Disaster workers in Oahu and Kauai were warned by civil defense agencies and the American Red Cross to prepare for emergency . Roughly 400 people fled from the beaches of Kauai due to the threat of storm surge , with an additional 500 people being evacuated by authorities as the storm neared the island . After the storm caused flooding in Kauai , nearly 1 @,@ 000 people evacuated out of submerged areas into schools , armories , and public facilities repurposed as emergency shelters .

Passing well to the south of the Big Island , Lanai , Maui , Molokai , and Oahu , damage from Dot on these islands was minor . Rainfall on the Big Island peaking at 4 in ( 100 mm ) caused localized flooding in some areas , while wave damage occurred at Ka Lae and along the island 's Kona coast . Winds at a station on Ka Lae reached 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Flooding also occurred on Oahu , and along the coast homes were unroofed and cars were damaged by flying projectiles after being subjected to winds estimated at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Off of Lanai , a tugboat captain was indirectly killed after he slipped between two boats in rough seas while attempting to board another ship , crushing him . Another indirect death occurred on Lanai in a traffic incident resulting from Dot 's rainfall . Damage on the Hawaiian islands outside of Kauai was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 .

Rough surf along the coasts of Kauai combined with torrential rainfall to produce widespread coastal flooding . Waves at Port Allen peaked at 35 ft ( 10 @.@ 7 m ) . Pineapple plantations were inundated , with losses exceeding US $ 200 @,@ 000 . Infrastructure damage as a result of wave action was spotty but nonetheless amounted to US $ 100 @,@ 000 . The August 1959 rainfall total in Lihue , largely attributed to Dot , measured 8 @.@ 13 in ( 207 mm ) , 6 in ( 150 mm ) in excess of normal . The heavy rainfall caused rivers and streams to swell and inundate adjacent areas . Despite making landfall as a weak Category 1 hurricane , Dot brought damaging winds inland , with a maximum wind gust of 103 mph ( 166 km / h ) reported at Kilauea Light . However , gusts as high as 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) were estimated given the snapping of palm trees . Strong winds damaged hundreds of buildings in the areas of Kilauea , Lihue , and Lawai , Hawaii . Extensive losses resulted from the damaging and toppling of macadamia trees . However , of the crops on Kauai , cane suffered the greatest impact with damage figures reaching US $ 2 @.@ 7 million . The toppling of power lines caused power outages across the island ; fallen lines also blocked roads . Water supply to some communities failed due to the lack of electricity . With the exception of emergency radio transmitters , telecommunications on Kauai failed . The damage toll from Dot for the entirety of Hawaiʻi totaled US $ 6 million , making the hurricane the costliest in Hawaiian history before it was surpassed by hurricanes Iwa , Iniki and Iselle in 1982 , 1992 and 2014 , respectively . Adjusted for inflation , Dot 's damage figure nears US $ 50 million .

Due to the damage wrought by Dot on Kauai , the island was declared a major disaster area . Stepping in for governor William F. Quinn , Hawaiian secretary Edward E. Johnston declared a state of emergency for Hawaii and allocated funds towards the repairing of roads and public property . The United States Weather Bureau awarded the SS Sonoma a public service award on October 7 , 1959 for serving as reconnaissance for Hurricane Dot throughout its existence .

= Jacob deGrom =

Jacob Anthony deGrom ( born June 19 , 1988 ) , is an American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Prior to playing professionally , deGrom attended Stetson University and played college baseball for the Stetson Hatters .

DeGrom began playing baseball as a shortstop and was converted into a pitcher during his junior year at Stetson . The Mets selected him in the ninth round of the 2010 MLB Draft , and he made his MLB debut with the Mets on May 15 , 2014 . That year , deGrom was named the National League 's ( NL ) Rookie of the Month twice , and the NL Rookie of the Year . In 2015 , deGrom was selected as an MLB All @-@ Star .

= = Amateur career = =

DeGrom attended Calvary Christian Academy in Ormond Beach , Florida , where he played for the school 's baseball and basketball teams . As a senior , the Florida Sports Writers Association named deGrom to the All @-@ Florida second team . He also played American Legion baseball , where he was noticed by the coaches for the Stetson Hatters , the college baseball team of Stetson University .

DeGrom was not selected in the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft out of high school . He enrolled at Stetson University and joined their baseball team where he played exclusively as a shortstop during his freshman and sophomore seasons . Though he was considered a good fielder with a strong throwing arm , deGrom was a light hitter , with a career .263 batting average . He made his first appearance as a pitcher in May 2009 . In the summer of 2009 , between his sophomore and junior years , deGrom received an invitation to play collegiate summer baseball for the DeLand Suns of the Florida Collegiate Summer League , which he declined after discovering that they wanted him to play as a pitcher .

When deGrom returned to Stetson that fall , the team used him as a relief pitcher , filling the role of their closer , in addition to playing shortstop . He quickly became one of Stetson 's best pitchers , so the team moved deGrom into their starting rotation midway through the season . In addition to a fastball , deGrom learned to throw a changeup and a slider . MLB scouts began to take notice of deGrom when he pitched against Chris Sale of Florida Gulf Coast University . In that game , deGrom hit his only home run of the season . He made 12 starts for the Hatters , pitching to a 4 – 5 win – loss record with a 4 @.@ 48 earned run average .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Minor League Baseball = = =

The New York Mets selected deGrom in the ninth round as a pitcher , with the 272nd overall selection , of the 2010 MLB Draft . He signed with the Mets , receiving a $ 95 @,@ 000 signing bonus . The Mets assigned deGrom to the Kingsport Mets of the Rookie @-@ level Appalachian League , where he made six starts before he was diagnosed with a partial tear of the ulnar collateral ligament ( UCL ) in his pitching elbow . He attempted to rehabilitate his arm for four months , but underwent Tommy John surgery to repair the UCL in October . He did not pitch in 2011 while he recovered from the surgery . While rehabilitating , deGrom worked on his changeup with Johan Santana .

DeGrom pitched for the Savannah Sand Gnats of the Class A South Atlantic League and the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League in 2012 , finishing the year with a 2 @.@ 43 ERA in 19 games started . In 2013 , he began the season with St. Lucie , but was promoted to the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League after two starts due to injuries to Binghamton 's Luis Mateo and Cory Mazzoni . He received a promotion to the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League in June after the Mets promoted Zack Wheeler and Carlos Torres to the major leagues and traded Collin McHugh . He had a combined 4 @.@ 51 ERA for the season , due to a broken finger suffered during the offseason , which altered the way he threw the ball .

The Mets added deGrom to their 40 @-@ man roster on November 20 , 2013 , to protect him from being eligible in the Rule 5 draft . During the offseason , deGrom improved his mechanics , and learned to throw a curveball . He began the 2014 season with Las Vegas , and had a 4 – 0 win – loss record and a 2 @.@ 58 ERA in his first seven games started .

= = = Major League Baseball = = =

= = = = 2014 = = = =

The Mets promoted deGrom to the major leagues on May 12 , 2014 , after Gonzalez Germen was placed on the disabled list . The Mets planned to use deGrom in relief , but an injury to Dillon Gee required the Mets to insert him into their starting rotation . DeGrom made his major league debut on May 15 against cross @-@ town rival New York Yankees in Citi Field . He faced fellow rookie Chase Whitley , also making his MLB debut . He pitched seven innings , allowing only one run and striking out six , but the Yankees shut out the Mets and won 1 – 0 . DeGrom also collected his first MLB hit in the game in his first career at bat . It was the first hit by a Mets pitcher in the 2014 season ending an 0 @-@ for @-@ 64 hitless streak , the worst collective mark by a pitching staff to begin a season in MLB history .

DeGrom compiled four quality starts in his first four MLB starts , but did not record a win in any of them . On July 8 , deGrom pitched seven scoreless innings and recorded 11 strikeouts in giving the Mets their 4,000th franchise victory . Along with Steve Cishek of the Miami Marlins , deGrom was named the National League 's ( NL ) Co @-@ Player of the Week for the period of July 21 to July 27 after allowing only one earned run in two starts that week . He was named the NL Rookie of the Month for July . On August 11 , deGrom went on the disabled list with rotator cuff tendinitis . Rafael Montero was called up on August 12 in deGrom 's place . On August 23 , Montero was re @-@ sent back to the 51s to make room for deGrom coming off the disabled list .

On September 15 , 2014 , deGrom faced the Marlins and struck out his first eight batters , tying the MLB record . Near the end of the season , deGrom was shut down for the year , ending his season with a 9 – 6 record , a 2 @.@ 69 ERA and 144 strikeouts . DeGrom won the 2014 Sporting News NL Rookie of the Year Award and was named the NL Rookie of the Year by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , ( the first by a Met since Dwight Gooden in 1984 ) receiving first place votes on 26 of the 30 ballots .

= = = = 2015 = = = =

DeGrom and Clayton Kershaw of the Los Angeles Dodgers were selected as NL Co @-@ Players of the Week for the week ending June 7 , 2015 . He began the 2015 season with a 8 – 6 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 30 ERA through the end of June , and was named to the NL roster in the 2015 MLB All @-@ Star Game . During the All @-@ Star Game , deGrom struck out the three batters he faced on ten pitches , becoming the first person to do so since pitch counts were recorded . DeGrom pitched to a 14 – 8 record with a 2 @.@ 54 ERA and a 0 @.@ 99 walks plus hits per inning pitched ratio during the 2015 season .

Starting Game 1 of the 2015 NLDS , he allowed no runs and five hits over seven innings pitched and tied a Mets franchise postseason record with 13 strikeouts ( set by Tom Seaver , Game 1 of the 1973 NLCS ) . DeGrom won the deciding Game 5 with a six @-@ inning , two @-@ run effort . In Game 3 of the 2015 NLCS against the Chicago Cubs , deGrom pitched seven @-@ inning game , allowing just two runs on four hits , one walk and seven strikeouts , putting the Mets ahead 3 – 0 and within one game of their first World Series appearance since the 2000 Subway Series . DeGrom started Game 2 of the 2015 World Series on October 28 ; he allowed four runs on six hits and three walks over five innings and took the loss as the Royals went up , 2 – 0 , in the series .

Following the season , deGrom received a Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award as the best defensive player statistically at his position in Major League Baseball .

= = = = 2016 = = = =

Not yet eligible for salary arbitration , the Mets renewed deGrom 's contract for the 2016 season with a $ 607 @,@ 000 salary , a raise from the $ 556 @,@ 875 they paid him for the previous season . DeGrom refused to sign the contract in protest , but stated that he was open to negotiating a contract extension .

= = Personal life = =

DeGrom is from DeLeon Springs , Florida . He was raised by his parents , Tony , an AT & T lineman , and Tammy , a customer service representative for a credit card rewards program . Tony built a batting cage in the backyard for his son to practice . He credits his father for his quiet intensity and humility . He has two sisters , Sarah and Jessica .

DeGrom met his wife , Stacey , shortly after high school . They were married in November 2014 , and live in DeLand , Florida . They have a Morkie , and welcomed their first son in April 2016 .

DeGrom is known for his long hair , which he began to grow out while at Stetson . His starts with the Mets led to the trending hashtag on Twitter of " # hairwego " .

= Battle of Merville Gun Battery =

The Battle of Merville Gun Battery occurred on 6 June 1944 , as part of Operation Tonga , part of the Normandy landings , during the Second World War . Allied intelligence believed the Merville Gun Battery was composed of heavy @-@ calibre guns that could threaten the British landings at Sword Beach , only 8 miles ( 13 km ) away .

The 9th Parachute Battalion , part of the 3rd Parachute Brigade attached to 6th Airborne Division , was given the objective of destroying the battery . However , when the battalion arrived over Normandy , their parachute descent was dispersed over a large area , so instead of over 600 men , only 150 with no heavy weapons or equipment arrived at the battalion assembly point . Regardless , they pressed home their attack and succeeded in capturing the battery , only to discover that the guns were of a lower caliber than expected [ Czech @-@ manufacture 100mm ] . However , these still had the range ( over 8000 metres ) to hit targets on Sword Beach and in Ouistreham . Using what explosives they had been able to recover , the surviving 75 men tried to disable the guns .

When the British paratroopers had withdrawn , two of the guns were put back into action by the Germans . Another attack the next day by British Commandos failed to recapture the battery , which remained under German control until 17 August , when the German Army started to withdraw from the area .

= = Background = =

On 6 June 1944 , the British 6th Airborne Division was given the task of securing the left flank of the Allied seaborne landings . One of their objectives was the destruction of the Merville Gun Battery . Allied planners had judged from the size of the concrete gun emplacements that the guns must be around 150 mm in calibre . If so , the guns would have a range of about 8 miles ( 13 km ) and could threaten Sword Beach , to the west of Ouistreham , where the 3rd British Infantry Division were due to land later that day .

= = = British forces = = =

The unit assigned to destroy the battery was the 9th Parachute Battalion , part of the 3rd Parachute Brigade , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Terence Otway . The battalion 's normal complement of 600 men was supported by a section of sappers from the Royal Engineers , eight Airspeed Horsa glider loads transporting Jeeps and trailers , and stores including explosives , an anti @-@ tank gun and flamethrowers . Three of the gliders , transporting 50 volunteers , were to carry out a coup de main landing onto the position to coincide with the ground assault . In April 1944 , the force was taken to Walbury Hill in Berkshire , where over seven days the Royal Engineers had built a full @-@ scale replica of the battery , including obstacles and barbed wire fences . The following five days were spent holding briefings and getting acquainted with the layout of the battery . They carried out nine practice assaults , four of them at night . Due to the nature of the mission , the battalion was given additional medical support from No. 3 Section 224th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance . Another unit that would be present during the attack but not directly involved was A Company of the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion . This company was tasked to provide covering fire for the 9th Battalion 's approach to and withdrawal from the battery . The assault had to be completed and the battalion clear of the position by 05 : 00 , when the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Arethusa would open fire on the battery in an attempt to destroy it with naval gunfire .

= = = Battery = = =

The Merville Battery was composed of four 6 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) steel @-@ reinforced concrete gun casemates , built by the Todt Organisation . Each was designed to protect First World War @-@ vintage Czech M.14 / 19 100 mm guns . Other buildings on the site included a command bunker , a building to accommodate the men , and ammunition magazines . During a visit on 6 March 1944 , to inspect the defences , Field Marshal Erwin Rommel ordered the builders to work faster , and by May 1944 , the last two casemates were completed .

The battery was defended by a 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun and several machine guns in 15 gun positions , all enclosed in an area 700 by 500 yards ( 640 by 460 m ) surrounded by two barbed wire obstacles 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) thick by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high , which also acted as the exterior border for a 100 @-@ yard @-@ deep ( 91 m ) minefield . Another obstacle was an anti @-@ tank ditch covering any approach from the nearby coast . The original commander of the battery , Hauptmann Wolter , was killed during a Royal Air Force bombing raid on 19 May 1944 . He was replaced by Oberleutnant Raimund Steiner , who commanded 50 engineers and 80 artillerymen from the 1st Battery , Artillery Regiment 1716 , part of the 716th Static Infantry Division .

The battery had a complement of some one hundred men in all . These were chiefly gunnery crews , of course , such as my team , but also included staff officers and their assistants , medical , cooks , observation teams , maintenance teams and guards with side arms . It was intended that the battery could remain under siege for up to three months , with sufficient rations and generator fuel kept on site for this event ; the water supply came from an aquifer and could not be interrupted . It was a remarkable structure , and it featured prominently in propaganda of the time …

= = Assault = =

Just after midnight on 6 June , the 9th Parachute Battalion 's advance party landed with the brigade 's pathfinders , and reached the battalion assembly area without any problems . While some men remained to mark out the company positions , the battalion 's second in command , Major George Smith , and a reconnaissance party left to scout the battery . At the same time , Royal Air Force Lancaster bombers started their bombing run , which completely missed the battery , their bombs landing further to the south . The pathfinders in the meantime were having problems . Those who had arrived at the correct drop zone found their Eureka beacons had been damaged when they landed , and in the smoke and debris left over from the bombing , their marker lights could not be seen by the pilots of the transport aircraft . The main body of the 9th Parachute Battalion and their gliders were to land at drop zone ' V ' , located between the battery and Varaville from 01 : 00 . However , the battalion was scattered , with a number of paratroopers landing a considerable distance from the designated drop zone . Lieutenant Colonel Otway landed with the rest of his " stick " 400 yards ( 370 m ) away from the drop zone at a farmhouse being used as a command post by a German battalion ; after a brief fire @-@ fight , they helped other scattered paratroopers , and reached the drop zone at 01 : 30 . By 02 : 50 , only 150 men had arrived at the battalion 's assembly point with 20 Bangalore torpedoes and a machine gun . The mortars , anti @-@ tank gun , mine detectors , jeeps , sappers and field ambulance section were all missing .

Aware of the time constraints , Otway decided he could wait no longer , and the reduced battalion headed for the battery and joined up with Major Smith 's reconnaissance party just outside the village of Gonneville en Auge . The reconnaissance party had cut a way through the barbed wire , and marked four routes through the minefield . Otway divided his men into four assault groups , and settled down to await the arrival of the three gliders .

In England , one of the gliders never left the ground , as its tow rope had snapped on taxiing . The other two gliders , unable to locate the battery , did not land where expected . On their run in , both gliders were hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire . One landed around 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away , the other at the edge of the minefield . The troops from this glider became involved in a fire fight with German troops heading to reinforce the battery garrison .

Otway launched the assault as soon as the first glider overshot the battery , ordering the explosives to be detonated to form two paths through the outer perimeter through which the paratroopers attacked . The defenders were alerted by the explosions , and opened fire , inflicting heavy casualties ; only four attackers survived to reach Casemate Four , which they disabled by firing into apertures and throwing grenades into air vents . The other casemates were cleared with fragmentation and white phosphorus grenades , as the crews had neglected to lock the doors leading into the battery . During the bombing raid , the battery 's guns had been moved inside the casemates and the steel doors left open for ventilation . During the battle , 22 Germans were killed and a similar number made prisoners of war . The rest of the garrison escaped undetected by hiding in the underground bunkers .

Steiner was not present during the bombing , but at a command bunker in Franceville @-@ Plage . After the raid , he set out for the battery , but was unable to gain entry due to the volume of fire from the British paratroopers . At the same time , a reconnaissance patrol from an army Flak unit with a half @-@ track mounting a large anti @-@ aircraft gun arrived . The crew had intended to seek cover at the position , but instead used the gun to engage the paratroopers .

With the battery in their hands , but no sappers or explosives , the British gathered together what plastic explosives they had been issued for use with their Gammon bombs to try to destroy the guns . By this time , Steiner had returned to Franceville @-@ Plage , and directed his regiment 's 2nd and 3rd Batteries to fire onto the Merville Battery .

= = Aftermath = =

Just before 05 : 00 , the battalion 's survivors , just 75 men of the 150 who had set out , left the battery and headed for their secondary objective , the village of La Plein . The battalion , being too weak , only managed to liberate around half of the village , and had to await the arrival of the 1st Commando Brigade later in the day to complete its capture .

After the British had withdrawn , the Germans reoccupied the battery position . Steiner was unable to see Sword Beach from his command bunker , so even though he was able to get two of his guns back in action , he was unable to direct accurate fire onto the landings . However , observers with the 736th Infantry Regiment , holding out at La Brèche , were able to direct his guns until that position was neutralised .

On 7 June , the battery was assaulted again by two troops of commandos from No. 3 Commando , part of the 1st Special Service Brigade . The attack in daylight was repulsed with heavy losses to the commandos . As they withdrew , they were engaged by the battery 's guns firing over open sights . The British never succeeded in completely destroying the battery , and it remained under German control until 17 August , when the German Army started to withdraw from France .

= St Caffo 's Church , Llangaffo =

St Caffo 's Church , Llangaffo is a 19th @-@ century church , in the south of Anglesey , north Wales , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the county town , Llangefni . It was constructed in 1846 to replace the previous medieval church in the village of Llangaffo . The new building includes a number of monuments from the old church , and has a spire which is a prominent local landmark . The churchyard has part of a stone cross dating from the 9th or 10th century , and some gravestones from the 9th to 11th centuries . It is dedicated to St Caffo , a 6th @-@ century martyr who was killed in the vicinity .

The church is still in use as part of the Church in Wales , one of four churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II listed building , a designation given to " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " , in particular because it is regarded as " a mid 19th @-@ century rural church , consistently articulated and detailed in an Early English style " .

= = History and location = =

The date of first construction of a church in Llangaffo ( a village in Anglesey about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of the county town of Llangefni ) is uncertain . The village takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -gaffo " is a modified form of the saint 's name . St Caffo , a 6th @-@ century Christian , was a companion of St Cybi and was martyred by shepherds in the vicinity of what is now Llangaffo , perhaps in revenge for his brother Gildas insulting Maelgwn Gwynedd , the local ruler . It is thought that there may have at one point been a monastery in this location , known as " Merthyr Caffo " : merthyr is the Welsh word for " martyr " , and in place names means a building erected near a saint 's grave .

The present building , which is in the north @-@ eastern part of the village on the south @-@ eastern side of the B4419 road , was erected in 1846 alongside the churchyard to a design by the Sheffield @-@ based architects Weightman and Hadfield . It replaced an older church , which had stood on an adjoining outcrop of rock until it was demolished . It was described by the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones ( writing in 1846 , as the new church was being constructed ) as a " very small and unimportant edifice " ; he also noted that it was the only medieval building remaining in the parish .

The 19th @-@ century church is still in use and belongs to the Church in Wales . It is one of four churches in the combined benefice of Llanfihangel Ysgeifiog ( St Michael 's Church , Gaerwen ) with Llangristiolus ( St Cristiolus 's Church ) with Llanffinan ( St Ffinan 's Church ) with Llangaffo . It is within the deanery of Malltraeth , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the vicar of the four churches is Emlyn Williams , assisted by a curate ( E. R. Roberts ) . Williams was appointed in 2007 ; before that , the position had been vacant for 20 years despite many attempts by the Church in Wales to fill it . Services in Welsh are held every Sunday , either Holy Communion or Morning Prayer ; there are no midweek services .

Edward Wynn ( 1618 – 1669 ) was rector here from 1658 ; he later became Chancellor of Bangor Cathedral , and is buried at the church . James Williams ( 1790 – 1872 ) was the son of John Williams , rector of St Caffo 's . He succeeded his father when he resigned in 1821 , and later became Chancellor of Bangor Cathedral .

= = Architecture and fittings = =

St Caffo 's is built of rubble masonry dressed with limestone , in an early English style ( a style of architecture used between about 1180 and 1275 , typically using narrow pointed windows and arches ) . The roof is made of slate . The tower , at the west end , has buttresses at the corners and is topped with a broach spire , which is a prominent local landmark . Entrance is through an arched doorway in the north side of the tower . The chancel , at the east end of the church , is smaller than the nave in both height and width ; there is a transept on the north side of the chancel . The nave has lancet windows , and there is a further lancet window on the south side of the chancel . The church 's east window is set in a pointed arch and has three lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) .

Inside the church , the sanctuary at the east end is raised above the chancel by one step ; the floor of the sanctuary and the reredos behind the altar are made from encaustic tiles . Fittings include a circular decorated 12th @-@ century font and a 17th @-@ century pulpit with carved decorative panels . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire recorded that the church owned a silver cup and a paten dated 1736 . The transept has a number of memorials dating from the 17th century ( including one to Edward Wynn ) , and a stone from the early 7th century inscribed with .. VI / RNIN / FILIUS / CUURIS / CINI / ERE / XIT / HUNC / LAPI / DEM . The stone , which is set in the wall , originally came from Newborough , Anglesey . The church porch houses part of a cross head in the shape of a wheel , dating from the 9th or 10th century ; part of the rest of the cross is in the churchyard , but it has suffered significant weather damage with most of the patterns worn away .

The oldest graves are to the north of the church , which is unusual : ordinarily the southern part of the churchyard would be used first for burials , with the northern part remaining unconsecrated unless and until extra space for graves was required . The path between the road and the church has sunken , which may partly be explained by the medieval custom of burying the dead on top of each other . One author has suggested that the mound alongside the path might indicate that the church is located in the site of a Bronze Age settlement .

The churchyard has seven gravestones that were discovered in the walls of the previous church . Six of them date from between the 9th and 11th centuries , and the seventh is from the 12th or 13th century . The doorway from the old church , dating from the 15th century , has been reused as an entrance to the churchyard . A carved stone human head , from the 12th century , has been inserted into the north wall of the churchyard . A war memorial in the shape of a Celtic cross remembers those who died during the First and Second World Wars .

= = Assessment = =

The church is a Grade II listed building – the lowest of the three grades of listing , designating " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 and Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) states that it has been listed because it is " a mid 19th @-@ century rural church , consistently articulated and detailed in an Early English style . "

The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis said that the rebuilt church " forms a very good specimen of the early English style of architecture " , adding that it was " effective from its simplicity and the absence of pretension . " He added that the interior had been " fitted up in a neat and appropriate manner , and the details throughout appear to have been carefully studied " . A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey says that the " impressive " tower and steeple " form " a landmark visible for many miles . " It also comments that rendering on part of the tower and the south wall makes them less attractive than the north wall .

A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region notes the " exceptional number of inscribed fragments " , showing it to be a place of early Christian worship , but considers that the church is " unlovely " . Similarly , a 2005 guide to Wales describes St Caffo 's as " an uninspiring nineteenth @-@ century church from the outside " but says that it has " a remarkable collection " of memorial stones .

= George N. Briggs =

George Nixon Briggs ( April 12 , 1796 – September 12 , 1861 ) was an American lawyer and politician from Massachusetts . A Whig , Briggs served for twelve years in the United States House of Representatives , and served seven one @-@ year terms as the 19th Governor of Massachusetts , from 1844 to 1851 .

Raised in rural Upstate New York , Briggs studied law in western Massachusetts , where his civic involvement and successful legal practice preceded statewide political activity . He was elected to Congress in 1830 , where he supported the conservative Whig agenda , serving on the Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads . He was also a regular advocate of temperance , abstaining from all alcohol consumption .

He was nominated by the Whigs in 1843 to run against Democratic Governor Marcus Morton as part of a Whig bid for more rural votes , and easily won election until 1849 . Although he sought to avoid the contentious issue of slavery , he protested South Carolina policy allowing the imprisonment of free African Americans . He supported capital punishment , notably refusing to commute the death sentence of John White Webster for the murder of George Parkman . Briggs died of an accidental gunshot wound at his home in Pittsfield , Massachusetts .

= = Early life and education = =

George Nixon Briggs was born in Adams , Massachusetts on April 12 , 1796 . He was the eleventh of twelve children of Allen Briggs , a blacksmith originally from Cranston , Rhode Island , and Nancy ( Brown ) Briggs , of Huguenot descent . His parents moved the family to Manchester , Vermont when he was seven , and , two years later , to White Creek , New York . The household was religious : his father was a Baptist and his mother was a Quaker , and they gave their children religious instruction from the Bible .

At the age of 14 , during the Second Great Awakening , which was especially strong in Upstate New York , Briggs experienced a conversion experience and joined the Baptist faith . He spoke at revival meetings of his experience , drawing appreciative applause from the crowds , according to Hiland Hall , who came to know Briggs at that time and who became a lifelong friend and political associate . His faith informed his personal behavior : he remained committed to religious ideals , for instance objecting to Congressional sessions that stretched into Sunday and abstaining from alcohol consumption .

Briggs sporadically attended the public schools in White Creek , and was apprenticed for three years to a Quaker hatter . With support from his older brothers he embarked on the study of law in Pittsfield and Lanesboro in 1813 , and was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1818 . He first opened a practice in Adams , moved it to Lanesboro in 1823 , and Pittsfield in 1842 . His trial work was characterized by a contemporary as clear , brief , and methodical , even though he was fond of telling stories in less formal settings .

In 1817 Briggs helped to establish a Baptist church in Lanesboro ; in this congregation he met Harriet Hall , whom he married in 1818 ; their children were Harriet , George , and Henry . Briggs was also called upon to raise the four orphaned children of his brother Rufus , one of the brothers who supported him in his law studies . Rufus died in 1816 , followed by his wife not long afterward .

Briggs ' involvement in civic life began at the local level . From 1824 to 1831 Briggs was the register of deeds for the Northern district of Berkshire County , Massachusetts . He was elected town clerk in 1824 , was appointed chairman of the board of commissioners of highways in 1826 . His interest in politics was sparked by his acquaintance with Henry Shaw , who served in the United States House of Representatives from 1817 to 1821 .

A criminal case tried in 1826 brought Briggs wider notice . An Oneida Indian living in Stockbridge was accused of murder . Briggs was appointed by the court to defend him ; convinced by the evidence that the man was innocent , Briggs made what was described by a contemporary as a plea that was " a model of jury eloquence " . The jury , unfortunately , disagreed with Briggs , and convicted the man , who was hanged . In 1830 the true murderer confessed to commission of the crime .

= = U.S. House of Representatives = =

Despite his rise in prominence , Briggs was at first ineligible for state offices because he did not own property . In 1830 he decided to run for Congress , for which there was no such requirement . He was elected to the twenty @-@ second through the twenty @-@ fourth Congresses as an Anti @-@ Jacksonian , and as a Whig to the twenty @-@ fifth through twenty @-@ seventh Congresses , serving from March 4 , 1831 to March 3 , 1843 . He decided not to run for reelection in 1842 .

Briggs was what became known in later years as a " Cotton Whig " . He was in favor of protectionist tariffs , and opposed the expansion of slavery into western territories , but did not seek to threaten the unity of the nation with a strong stance against slavery . He served on the Committee on Public Expenditures and the Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads , serving for a time as the chairman of each . The Post Office committee was a regular recipient of complaints from southern states concerning the transmission of abolitionist mailings , which were seen there as incendiary ; the matter was of some controversy because southern legislators sought to have these types of mailings banned . Briggs ' friend Hiland Hall , who also sat on the committee , drafted a report in 1836 rebutting the rationales used in such legislative proposals , but the committee as a whole , and then the House , refused to accept the report . Although the authorship of the report appears to be entirely Hall 's , Briggs may have contributed to it , and was a signatory to Hall 's publication of the report in the National Intelligencer , a major political journal . The document was influential in driving later Congressional debate on legislative proposals concerning abolitionist mailings , none of which were ever adopted . Briggs and Hall were both instrumental in drafting and gaining passage of the Post Office Act of 1836 , which included substantive accounting reforms in the wake of financial mismanagement by Postmaster General William Taylor Barry .

During his time in Congress , Briggs was a vocal advocate for temperance . He formed the Congressional Temperance Society in 1833 , sitting on its executive committee ; at an 1836 temperance convention at Saratoga Springs , New York he advocated the taking of total abstinence pledges as a way to bring more people away from the evils of alcohol , and notably prepared such a pledge for Kentucky Representative Thomas F. Marshall on the floor of the House of Representatives . His moves to organize the temperance movement in Congress died out when he left the body , but it was a cause he would continue to espouse for the rest of his life . In 1860 he was chosen president of the American Temperance Union .

= = Governor of Massachusetts = =

Briggs was nominated to run for the governorship on the Whig ticket against the incumbent Democrat Marcus Morton in 1843 . Former Governor John Davis had been nominated first , but refused the nomination , possibly because Daniel Webster promised him party support for a future vice presidential bid . Briggs was apparently recommended as a compromise candidate acceptable to different factions within the party ( one controlled by Webster , the other by Abbott Lawrence ) . He was also probably chosen to appeal more directly to the state 's rural voters , a constituency that normally supported Morton . The abolitionist Liberty Party also fielded a candidate , with the result that none of the candidates won the needed majority . The legislature decided the election in those cases ; with a Whig majority there , Briggs ' election was assured . Briggs was reelected annually until 1850 against a succession of Democratic opponents . He won popular majorities until the 1849 election , even though third parties ( including the Liberty Party and its successor , the Free Soil Party ) were often involved . Although Whigs had a reputation for aristocratic bearing , Briggs was much more a man of the people than the preceding Whig governors , John Davis and Edward Everett .

In 1844 Briggs , alarmed at a recently enacted policy by South Carolina authorizing the imprisonment of free blacks arriving there from Massachusetts and other northern states , sent representatives to protest the policy . Samuel Hoar and his daughter Elizabeth were unsuccessful in changing South Carolina policy , and after protests against what was perceived as Yankee interference in Southern affairs , were advised to leave the state for their own safety .

Capital punishment was a major issue that was debated in the state during Brigg 's tenure , with social reformers calling for its abolition . Briggs personally favored capital punishment , but for political reasons called for moderation in its use , seeking , for example , to limit its application in murder cases to those involving first degree murder . After an acquittal in an 1846 murder case where anti @-@ death penalty sentiment was thought to have a role , Briggs , seeking to undercut the anti @-@ death penalty lobby , proposed eliminating the penalty for all crimes except murder , but expressed concern that more such acquittals by sympathetic juries would undermine the connection between crime and punishment .

Briggs ' argument was used in the 1849 trial of Washington Goode , a black mariner accused of killing a rival for the affections of a lady . The case against Goode was essentially circumstantial , but the jury heeded the district attorney 's call for assertive punishment of " crimes of violence " and convicted him . There were calls for Briggs to commute Goode 's capital sentence , but he refused , writing " A pardon here would tend toward the utter subversion of the law . "

Not long after the Goode case came the sensational trial of Professor John White Webster in the murder of George Parkman , a crime that took place at the Harvard Medical School in November 1849 . The trial received nationwide coverage , and the prosecution case was based on evidence that was either circumstantial ( complicated by the fact that a complete corpse was not found ) , or founded on new types of evidence ( forensic dentistry was used for the first time in this trial ) . Furthermore , Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw was widely criticized for bias in the instructions he gave to the jury . Briggs was petitioned to commute Webster 's sentence by death penalty opponents , and even threatened with physical harm if he did not . He refused however , stating that the evidence in the case was clear ( especially after Webster gave a confession ) , and that there was no reason to doubt that the court had acted with due and proper diligence .

During Briggs ' time as governor , abolitionist activists continued to make inroads against both the Whigs and Democrats , primarily making common cause with the Democrats against the dominant Whigs . Briggs ' stance as a Cotton Whig put him in opposition to these forces . He opposed the Mexican @-@ American War , but acceded to federal demands that the states assist in raising troops for the war , earning the wrath of activist Wendell Phillips . He did promote other types of reform , supporting Horace Mann in his activities to improve education in the state .

In 1849 , Briggs failed to secure a majority in the popular vote because of the rise in power of the Free Soil Party , but the Whig legislature returned him to office . In the 1850 election , anger over the Compromise of 1850 ( a series of federal acts designed to preserve the unity of the nation which included the Fugitive Slave Act ) prompted the Democrats and Free Soilers to form a coalition to gain control over the Massachusetts legislature , and divided the Whigs along pro- and antiabolition lines . With the gubernatorial election again sent to the legislature , Democrat George S. Boutwell was chosen over Briggs .

= = Later years = =

Briggs resumed the practice of law in Pittsfield . He was a member of the state constitutional convention in 1853 , and sat as a judge of the Court of Common Pleas from 1853 to 1858 . In 1859 he was nominated for governor by the fading Know @-@ Nothing movement , but trailed far behind other candidates .

In 1861 Briggs was appointed by President Abraham Lincoln to a diplomatic mission to the South American Republic of New Granada ( roughly present @-@ day Colombia and Panama ) . However , he died before he could take up the position . On September 4 , 1861 Briggs was getting an overcoat out of his closet at his home in Pittsfield , when a gun fell . As Briggs was picking it up , the gun discharged and Briggs was shot . Briggs died early in the morning of September 12 , 1861 , and was buried in the Pittsfield Cemetery .

= Simon Bradstreet =

Simon Bradstreet ( baptized March 18 , 1603 / 4 – March 27 , 1697 ) was a colonial magistrate , businessman , diplomat , and the last governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony . Arriving in Massachusetts on the Winthrop Fleet in 1630 , Bradstreet was almost constantly involved in the politics of the colony but became its governor only in 1679 . He served on diplomatic missions and as agent to the crown in London , and also served as a commissioner to the New England Confederation . He was politically comparatively moderate , arguing minority positions in favor of freedom of speech and for accommodation of the demands of King Charles II following his restoration to the throne .

Bradstreet was married to Anne , the daughter of Massachusetts co @-@ founder Thomas Dudley and New England 's first published poet . He was a businessman , investing in land and shipping interests . Due to his advanced age ( he died at 93 ) Cotton Mather referred to him as the " Nestor of New England " . His descendants include the famous jurists Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. and David Souter .

= = Early life = =

Simon Bradstreet was baptized on March 18 , 1603 / 4 in Horbling , Lincolnshire , the second of three sons of Simon and Margaret Bradstreet . His father was the rector of the parish church , and was descended from minor Irish nobility . With his father a vocal Nonconformist , the young Simon acquired his Puritan religious views early in life . At the age of 16 , Bradstreet entered Emmanuel College , Cambridge . He studied there for two years , before entering the service of the Earl of Lincoln as an assistant to Thomas Dudley in 1622 . There is some uncertainty about whether Bradstreet returned to Emmanuel College in 1623 – 1624 . According to Venn , a Simon Bradstreet attended Emmanuel during this time , receiving an M.A. degree , but genealogist Robert Anderson is of the opinion that this was not the same individual . During one of Bradstreet 's stints at Emmanuel he was recommended by John Preston as a tutor or governor to Lord Rich , son of the Earl of Warwick . Rich would have been 12 in 1623 , and Preston was named Emmanuel 's master in 1622 .

Bradstreet took over Dudley 's position when the latter moved temporarily to Boston in 1624 . On Dudley 's return several years later , Bradstreet then briefly served as a steward to the Dowager Countess of Warwick . In 1628 he married Dudley 's daughter Anne , when she was 16 .

In 1628 , Dudley and others from the Earl of Lincoln 's circle formed the Massachusetts Bay Company , with a view toward establishing a Puritan colony in North America . Bradstreet became involved with the company in 1629 , and in April 1630 , the Bradstreets joined the Dudleys and colonial Governor John Winthrop on the fleet of ships that carried them to Massachusetts Bay . There they founded Boston , the capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony .

= = Massachusetts Bay Colony = =

After a brief stay in Boston , Bradstreet made his first residence in Newtowne ( later renamed Cambridge ) , near the Dudleys in what is now Harvard Square . In 1637 , during the Antinomian Controversy , he was one of the magistrates that sat at the trial of Anne Hutchinson , and voted for her banishment from the colony . In 1639 he was granted land in Salem , near that of John Endecott . He lived there for a time , moving in 1634 to Ipswich before becoming one of the founding settlers of Andover in 1648 . In 1666 his Andover home was destroyed by fire , supposedly because of " the carelessness of the maid " . He had varied business interests , speculating in land , and investing with other colonists in a ship involved in the coasting trade . In 1660 he purchased shares in the Atherton Company , a land development company with interests in the " Narragansett Country " ( present @-@ day southern Rhode Island ) . He became one of its leading figures , serving on the management committee , and publishing handbills advertising its lands . When he died he owned more than 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 610 ha ) of land in five communities spread across the colony . He was known to own two slaves , a woman named Hannah and her daughter Billah .

Bradstreet was heavily involved in colonial politics . When the council met for the first time in Boston , Bradstreet was selected to serve as colonial secretary , a post he would hold until 1644 . He was politically moderate , arguing against legislation and judicial decisions punishing people for speaking out against the governing magistrates . Bradstreet was also outspoken in opposition to the witch hysteria that infested his home town of Salem , culminating in numerous trials in 1692 .

He served for many years as a commissioner representing Massachusetts to the New England Confederation , an organization that coordinated matters of common interest ( principally defense ) among most of the New England colonies . He was regularly chosen as an assistant , serving on the council that dominated the public affairs of the colony , but did not reach higher office until 1678 , when he was first elected deputy governor under John Leverett . He was against military actions against some of the colony 's foreign neighbors , opposing official intervention in a French Acadian dispute in the 1640s , and also spoke against attacking the New Netherland during the First Anglo @-@ Dutch War ( 1652 – 1654 ) .

Bradstreet was sent on a number of diplomatic missions , dealing with settlers , other English colonies , and the Dutch in New Amsterdam . In 1650 he was sent to Hartford , Connecticut , where the Treaty of Hartford was negotiated to determine the boundary between the English colonies and New Amsterdam . In the following years he negotiated an agreement with settlers in York and Kittery to bring them under Massachusetts jurisdiction .

Following the 1660 restoration of Charles II to the throne of England , colonial authorities again became concerned about preserving their charter rights . Bradstreet in 1661 headed a legislative committee to " consider and debate such matters touching their patent rights , and privileges , and duty to his Majesty , as should to them seem proper . " The letter the committee drafted reiterated the colony 's charter rights , and also included declarations of allegiance and loyalty to the crown . Bradstreet and John Norton were chosen as agents to deliver the letter to London . Charles renewed the charter , but sent the agents back to Massachusetts with a letter attaching conditions to his assent . The colony was expected , among other things , to expand religious tolerance to include the Church of England and religious minorities like the Quakers . The agents were harshly criticized by hardline factions of the legislature , but Bradstreet defended the need to accommodate the king 's wishes as the safest course to take . How to respond to the king 's demands divided the colony ; Bradstreet was part of the moderate " accommodationist " faction arguing that the colony should obey the king 's wishes . This faction lost the debate to the hardline " commonwealth " faction , who were in favor of aggressively maintaining the colony 's charter rights , led through the 1660s by governors John Endecott and Richard Bellingham . With Charles distracted by war with the Dutch and domestic politics in the late 1660s , the issue lay dormant until the mid @-@ 1670s . Relations between colony and crown deteriorated when the king then renewed demands for legislative and religious reforms , which hardline magistrates again resisted .

= = Governor = =

In early 1679 Governor John Leverett died , and Bradstreet as deputy succeeded him . Leverett had opposed accommodation of the king 's demands , and the change to an accommodationist leadership was too late . Bradstreet would turn out to be the last governor under its original charter . His deputy , Thomas Danforth was from the commonwealth faction . During his tenure , crown agent Edward Randolph was in the colony , attempting to enforce the Navigation Acts , under which certain types of trade involving the colony were illegal . Randolph 's enforcement attempts were vigorously resisted by both the merchant classes and sympathetic magistrates despite Bradstreet 's attempts to accommodate Randolph . Juries frequently refused to condemn ships accused of violating the acts ; in one instance Bradstreet tried three times to get a jury to change its verdict . Randolph 's attempts to enforce the navigation laws eventually convinced the colony 's general court that it needed to create its own mechanisms for their enforcement . A bill to establish a naval office was vigorously debated in 1681 , with the house of deputies , dominated by the commonwealth party , opposing the idea , and the moderate magistrates supporting it . The bill that finally passed was a victory for the commonwealth party , making enforcement difficult and subject to reprisal lawsuits . Bradstreet refused to actually implement the law , and Randolph published open challenges to it . Bradstreet was in some degree vindicated when he won re @-@ election in 1682 , and he then used his judicial authority to further undermine the law 's effects .

Randolph 's threats to report the colonial legislature 's intransigence prompted it to dispatch agents to England to argue the colony 's case ; however , their powers were limited . Shortly after their arrival in late 1682 , the Lords of Trade issued an ultimatum to the colony : either grant its agents wider powers , including the ability to negotiate modifications to the charter , or risk having the charter voided . The general court responded by issuing the agents instructions to take a hard line . Following legal processes begun in 1683 , the charter was formally annulled on October 23 , 1684 .

= = Dominion , and temporary return as governor = =

King Charles II in 1684 established the Dominion of New England . Bradstreet 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Joseph Dudley , who had served as one of the colonial agents , was commissioned by James as President of the Council for New England in 1685 by King James II , and took control of the colony in May 1686 . Bradstreet was offered a position on Dudley 's council , but refused . Dudley was replaced in December 1686 by Sir Edmund Andros , who came to be greatly detested in Massachusetts for vacating existing land titles , and seizing Congregational church properties for Church of England religious services . Andros ' high @-@ handed rule was also unpopular in the other colonies of the dominion .

The idea of revolt against Andros arose as early as January 1689 , before news of the December 1688 Glorious Revolution reached Boston . After William and Mary took the throne , Increase Mather and Sir William Phips , Massachusetts agents in London , petitioned them and the Lords of Trade for restoration of the Massachusetts charter . Mather furthermore convinced the Lords of Trade to delay notifying Andros of the revolution . He had already dispatched to Bradstreet a letter containing news that a report ( prepared before the revolution ) stating that the charter had been illegally annulled , and that the magistrates should " prepare the minds of the people for a change . " News of the revolution apparently reached some individuals as early as late March , and Bradstreet is one of several possible organizers of the mob that formed in Boston in April 18 , 1689 . He , along with other pre @-@ Dominion magistrates and some members of Andros ' council , addressed an open letter to Andros on that day calling for his surrender in order to quiet the mob . Andros , who had fled to the safety of Castle Island , surrendered , and was eventually returned to England after several months in confinement .

In the wake of Andros ' arrest , a council of safety was formed , with Bradstreet as its president . The council drafted a letter to William and Mary , justifying the colony 's acts in language similar to that used by William in his proclamations when he invaded England . The council fairly quickly decided to revert to the government as it had been under the old charter . In this form Bradstreet resumed the governorship , and was annually re @-@ elected governor until 1692 . He had to defend the colony against those who were opposed to the reintroduction of the old rule , who he characterized in reports to London as malcontents and strangers stirring up trouble . The colony 's northern frontier was also engulfed in King William 's War , where there was frequent Indian raiding . Bradstreet approved the expeditions of Sir William Phips in 1690 against Acadia and Quebec .

In 1691 William and Mary issued a charter establishing the Province of Massachusetts Bay , and appointed Phips its first governor . Bradstreet was offered a position on Phips ' council when the new governor arrived in 1692 , but declined . Bradstreet died at his home in Salem on 27 March 1697 at the age of 93 ; due to his advanced age he was called the " Nestor of New England " by Cotton Mather .

= = Family and legacy = =

Bradstreet was buried in the Charter Street Burying Ground in Salem . Poetry by his first wife Anne was published in England in 1650 , including verses containing expressions of enduring love for her husband . Anne Bradstreet died in 1672 ; the couple had eight children , of whom seven survived infancy . In 1676 Bradstreet married Ann Gardner , the widow of Captain Joseph Gardner , son of Thomas Gardner of Salem . His many descendants include jurists Oliver Wendell Holmes , Jr. and David Souter , U.S. President Herbert Hoover , and actor Humphrey Bogart .

= Etymology of Wicca =

In Modern English , the term Wicca ( / ˈwɪkə / ) refers to Wicca , the religion of contemporary Pagan Witchcraft . It is used within the Pagan community under competing definitions . One refers to the entirety of the Pagan Witchcraft movement , while the other refers explicitly to traditions included in what is now called British Traditional Wicca .

Although pronounced differently , Wicca is related to the Old English word wicca , which referred to sorcerers in Anglo @-@ Saxon England . In the early 1950s , English Wiccan Gerald Gardner , founder of the Gardnerian tradition , referred to the Pagan Witchcraft community as the Wica . He claimed to have learned the term during his initiation into the New Forest coven in 1939 . By the late 1950s , Gardner 's rival Charles Cardell , founder of his own tradition , had begun referring to the religion 's followers as Wiccens , and possibly used Wicca in reference to the religion itself .

The inclusive use of the term Wicca — referring to the entirety of Pagan Witchcraft religion — has been traced to Britain in the early 1960s , when it was used by various groups and publicised through use in adverts , magazines , and other literary sources . It was later adopted by figures like Alex Sanders and Gavin and Yvonne Frost , who took it to the United States . There , practitioners of British Traditional Wicca adopted it exclusively for themselves as a means to differentiate their practices from those of other Pagan Witches . This exclusive meaning was countered by its popularisation as a generic term by prolific authors such as Raymond Buckland , Scott Cunningham and Silver RavenWolf . As it entered popular culture , it gained an increasingly eclectic character in its usage . During the 1990s , some attempted to distance themselves from it by utilising the term Traditional Witchcraft .

= = Definitions = =

There are two separate definitions of the term Wicca that have been used in Paganism and Pagan studies since circa 1980 . The first developed in England during the 1960s . Broad and inclusive , it covers most , if not all , forms of modern Pagan Witchcraft , especially if they share sufficient theological beliefs and ritual practices to be considered denominations within a common religious movement . In contrast , the second developed in the United States during the late 1970s . It refers specifically to the Gardnerian tradition of Witchcraft and those descended from it with little variation , namely Alexandrian and Algard Witchcraft , which are together known as British Traditional Wicca .

= = = Usage within Pagan studies = = =

The development and use of the term Wicca within contemporary Paganism has been a recurring topic of discussion in the field of Pagan studies . The majority of academics and independent scholars use the first , more inclusive definition . Given its historical status and prevalent usage within Paganism , Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White thought it the logical and easier choice for academia , although there is still some disagreement and confusion among researchers as to what defines Wicca . Among those who have used the former definition are American sociologist Margot Adler , literary scholar Chas S. Clifton , and religious studies scholar Aidan A. Kelly , while others such as the Britons Graham Harvey and Ronald Hutton failed to make their usage clear . To deal with this problem in future , Doyle White urged scholars to specify which definition they used in their work .

= = Origins = =

= = = Old English wicca and wicce = = =

In the Early Medieval language of Old English , the term wicca ( / ˈwɪttʃɑː / ) was a masculine noun for sorcerer ; wicce was its feminine counterpart . They are ancestral to Modern English witch . The Modern English term Wicca took the Old English wicca as its basis , although the two are fundamentally two distinct words with differing meanings , pronunciation , and grammatical usage , with nearly a millennium between their respective floruits .

In 1932 Lewis Spence writes in The Weekly Scotsman , in response to the popularisation of Margaret Murray 's witch @-@ cult hypothesis in Scotland , that " the Saxon word ' wicca ' , a witch " was " of immemorial usage " in the Scottish Lowlands .

Doyle White suggests that the early Wiccans adopted the term wicca as the basis for the name of their burgeoning faith because theirs was a new religious movement that took " iconography and inspiration " from the polytheistic cults of pre @-@ Christian Britain .

= = = Gerald Gardner 's Wica : 1939 – 1966 = = =

Gerald Gardner ( 1884 – 1964 ) , the man largely responsible for propagating the Wiccan religion in Britain during the 1950s and 1960s and the founder of the Gardnerian tradition , never used the term Wicca in either sense that it is used today . He referred to the religion as the " cult of witchcraft " or " the witch @-@ cult " , the latter likely being a term borrowed from Margaret Murray , who wrote a book entitled The Witch @-@ Cult in Western Europe ( 1921 ) . Gardner did use the term Wica , which he always spelled with only one c in his writings , but this did not refer to the religion itself , instead referring to the religion 's practitioners in a plural sense .

What are [ the witches ] then ? They are the people who call themselves the Wica , the " wise people " , who practise the age ‑ old rites and who have , along with much superstition and herbal knowledge , preserved an occult teaching and working processes which they themselves think to be magic or witchcraft .

In contrast with this plural use of the word , in a 1954 article written by Arnold Field , a reporter for the Daily Dispatch , Gardner had apparently explained to him that " there are man and woman witches . Each is called a wica . " This quote offers the only piece of evidence that Gardner also referred to Pagan Witches individually as a wica . It is possible that Field misunderstood what Gardner was saying by not capitalising Wica , and that therefore Gardner might have never used Wica in a singular sense .

In his book The Meaning of Witchcraft ( 1959 ) Gardner states that he first heard the term Wica while being initiated into the New Forest coven in September 1939 , stating that " I realised I had stumbled on something interesting ; but I was half @-@ initiated before the word Wica which they used hit me like a thunderbolt , and I knew where I was , and that the Old Religion still existed . " This account was repeated in his biography , Gerald Gardner : Witch ( 1960 ) , written by Idries Shah but attributed to Jack L. Bracelin , in which he is quoted as saying that " it was halfway through when the word Wica was first mentioned ; and I knew that that which I had thought burnt out hundreds of years ago still survived . " If Gardner 's account was accurate and the New Forest coven had really existed , then the fact that Gardner spelled the word as Wica would not necessarily indicate that the coven members had spelled it the same way . As he relates , from Gardner 's account , " it seems that he had heard rather than read the word in the midst of his initiatory rite " and that , " suffering from a poor grasp of spelling , punctuation , and grammar , something caused by the fact that he was self @-@ educated and possibly also influenced by dyslexia " , he would have therefore spelled the word phonetically as Wica .

In The Meaning of Witchcraft , Gardner also notes the term Wica 's resemblance to the Old English word wicca , stating that " It is a curious fact that when the witches became English @-@ speaking they adopted their Saxon name ' Wica ' . " In his published writings , Gardner propounds the idea that his Pagan Witchcraft religion dated back at least to the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , when Old English was the dominant language .

Wica soon became an accepted term among the early Gardnerians , as Gardner 's followers and initiates became known . Patricia and Arnold Crowther , a Gardnerian High Priestess and High Priest who operated a coven in Sheffield , use the term in their book The Witches Speak ( 1959 ) , writing that " [ T ] he Red Queen told Alice that she made words mean what [ she ] wanted them to mean . She might very well have been talking about witchcraft , for today it is used to describe anything that one wishes to use it for . From the simple meaning ' the craft of the Wica ' , it is used in connection with Black Magic , Satanism , Black Masses ... "

= = = Charles Cardell 's Wiccen : 1958 – 1960 = = =

Charles Cardell ( 1892 – 1977 ) was the founder of a Pagan Witchcraft tradition that rivalled that of Gerald Gardner 's in southern England during the 1950s . A psychologist and stage conjurer , Cardell ran a company named Dumblecott Magick Productions from his home in Charlwood , Surrey , from where he also controlled a local coven that was spied on by the press , leading to a well @-@ publicised court case . Having been involved with Spiritualism as well as Pagan Witchcraft , Cardell initially befriended Gardner , but in 1958 they had an argument , and in 1964 Cardell tried to discredit him by publishing much of the then @-@ secret Gardnerian Book of Shadows .

Cardell used the term Wiccen to refer not just to members of his own tradition , but to all followers of the Pagan Witchcraft religion , placing an advert in Light magazine , the journal of the College of Psychic Science , entitled " The Craft of the Wiccens " in 1958 . The advert asked fellow Wiccens to get in contact with him . This advert shows that Cardell was responsible for the propagation and possibly invention of the term Wiccen .

It is possible Cardell had also used the term Wicca , evidenced by the fact that Margaret Bruce , the owner of a mail @-@ order business selling occult titles , wrote a letter to her friend Gerald Gardner on 23 February 1960 , in which she consoled him on the attacks made against him by Cardell and included a poem in which she referred to " the ' Wicca ' " . In Melissa Seims ' opinion , this use of Wicca was explicitly in reference to the Cardellian Craft , and therefore meant " that this spelling , along with ' Wiccan ' , was used by Cardell . " However , it is also possible that Bruce was referring to " the Wicca " as " a community of Pagan Witches " , in which case it would be a misspelling of Gardner 's " the Wica " .

= = = The emergence of Wicca : 1962 – 1970 = = =

The term Wicca appears to have developed within the Pagan Witchcraft community during the early 1960s , as increasing numbers of Pagan Witches learned of the Old English term wicca , the etymological origin of the Modern term witch . This etymological fact had been referred to five times in Gerald Gardner 's book The Meaning of Witchcraft ( 1959 ) , as well as in other early texts propagating Pagan Witchcraft , such as Doreen Valiente 's Where Witchcraft Lives ( 1962 ) and Justine Glass ' Witchcraft , The Sixth Sense – and Us ( 1965 ) . None of these specifically referred to the Pagan Witchcraft religion as Wicca .

The earliest known published reference for the word Wicca is within an advertisement published in a 1962 issue of Fate magazine ; in this , a Cardiff @-@ based group of Pagan Witches advertised a tradition as " Wicca – Dianic and Aradian " . The advert may have been linked to Charles and Mary Cardell because Mary was allegedly born in Wales and Cardellian Witchcraft had apparently venerated a goddess under the name of Diana . However , many Pagan Witchcraft groups would have adopted the deity name Diana and Aradia , these being the goddesses featured in the American folklorist Charles Leland 's supposed account of a Tuscan witch tradition , Aradia , or the Gospel of the Witches ( 1899 ) . Another early use could be found from December 1965 , in the penultimate issue of Pentagram , the newsletter of the Witchcraft Research Association . Here , a small column on Halloween made reference to " the Craft of the Wiccan " , apparently referring to the entire Pagan Witchcraft community . The author 's name was not printed , although it had probably been produced by one of the figures involved in editing Pentagram , such as Gerard Noel or Doreen Valiente . In July 1968 , a group of British Gardnerians began publishing a magazine titled The Wiccan , while Welshman Gavin Frost founded the Church of Wicca in the United States that same year .

In the 1960s , the Gardnerian initiate Alex Sanders founded his own tradition , which became known as Alexandrian Wicca ; he used the terms Wicca and the Wicca in reference to the entire Pagan Witchcraft religion . One of Sanders ' initiates , Stewart Farrar , describes Wicca as " the witches ' name for their Craft " in his book What Witches Do ( 1971 ) . The widespread adoption of Wicca in reference to Pagan Witchcraft would have brought benefits to its practitioners , who were widely maligned and faced persecution for their practice of witchcraft ; an emotive term often associated with Satanism that had negative connotations in the Western imagination . Doyle White argued that the practitioners ' presentation of themselves as Wiccans rather than witches removed some of the social stigma that they faced .

= = Popularisation = =

= = = Developments in North America : 1970 – 1990 = = =

From 1970 onward , increasing numbers of books teaching readers how to become Pagan Witches were published ; the earliest was Paul Huson 's Mastering Witchcraft ( 1970 ) , which made no reference to Wicca . This was followed by Raymond Buckland 's The Tree : The Complete Book of Saxon Witchcraft , in which he propagated his newly developed tradition of Seax @-@ Wica ; utilising Wica as the name of the tradition , he also referenced the Wicca as the name of the religion as a whole . Contrastingly , during the 1970s the term Wicca was rejected by feminist Pagan Witchcraft groups in the United States , in particular the Dianic tradition ; the term does not appear in the early works of Zsuzsanna Budapest and Starhawk , although the latter would adopt it by the 21st century .

This was part of a phenomenon that took place during the 1970s and 1980s , as the term Wicca became increasingly associated purely with Gardnerianism and Alexandrianism ( together known as British Traditional Wicca in North America ) , rather than with other variants of Pagan Witchcraft . This was encouraged by elements within the Gardnerian and Alexandrian communities who wished to emphasise what they perceived as their special position within the Pagan community . The word Wicca first appeared in a book title in 1981 as Wicca : The Ancient Way ; written by Janus @-@ Mithras , Nuit @-@ Hilaria and Mer @-@ Amun and published in Canada . It discussed a Gardnerian @-@ based tradition .

= = = Increasing popularisation and reaction : 1990 – 2010 = = =

In ensuing years , many other authors would publish books containing Wicca in their titles which advocated solitary practice of Pagan Witchcraft ; best known were Scott Cunningham 's Wicca : A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner ( 1988 ) and Silver RavenWolf 's Teen Witch : Wicca for a New Generation ( 1998 ) , but other examples included Gerina Dunwich 's The Wicca Garden ( 1996 ) , D. J. Conway 's Wicca : The Complete Craft ( 2001 ) , Raymond Buckland 's Wicca for Life ( 2004 ) and Wicca for One ( 2004 ) , Arin Murphy @-@ Hiscock 's Solitary Wicca for Life ( 2005 ) and Ann @-@ Marie Gallagher 's The Wicca Bible ( 2005 ) . It was also adopted by American novelist Cate Tiernan as the title of her series of young adult novels .

The term Wicca was employed in an increasingly eclectic manner by authors like RavenWolf , who considered it to be a synonym for witchcraft . In turn it began to be adopted on a wider scale , being popularised in India by Ipsita Roy Chakraverti and being adopted by a French Luciferian group , Le Wicca Française . Becoming widely known in western popular culture , it was utilised by the script writers of two popular American television shows , Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Charmed ; the first episode of the latter was titled " Something Wicca This Way Comes " while the tenth was titled " Wicca Envy " .

Reacting against the increasingly inclusive use of the term were Pagan Witches who instead characterised their practices as forms of Traditional Witchcraft . Many Pagan Witches who considered themselves to be Traditional Witches exhibited an us @-@ and @-@ them mentality against Gardnerianism and allied traditions , for whom they reserved the term Wicca . Doyle White suggests that they had done so in order to distance themselves from the increasing influence of the New Age movement over the Wiccan mainstream with its " iconographical emphasis on white light " , instead embracing the traditional European view that associated witchcraft with darkness . Historian Ronald Hutton states that he knew of three Wiccan covens founded in the 1980s who began to describe themselves as Traditional Witches in the 1990s .

= = = Etymologies = = =

= Bob Dylan =

Bob Dylan ( / ˈdɪlən / ; born Robert Allen Zimmerman , May 24 , 1941 ) is an American singer @-@ songwriter , artist and writer . He has been influential in popular music and culture for more than five decades . Much of his most celebrated work dates from the 1960s when his songs chronicled social unrest , although Dylan repudiated suggestions from journalists that he was a spokesman for his generation . Nevertheless , early songs such as " Blowin ' in the Wind " and " The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' " became anthems for the American civil rights and anti @-@ war movements . After he left his initial base in the American folk music revival , his six @-@ minute single " Like a Rolling Stone " altered the range of popular music in 1965 . His mid @-@ 1960s recordings , backed by rock musicians , reached the top end of the United States music charts while also attracting denunciation and criticism from others in the folk movement .

Dylan 's lyrics have incorporated various political , social , philosophical , and literary influences . They defied existing pop music conventions and appealed to the burgeoning counterculture . Initially inspired by the performances of Little Richard and the songwriting of Woody Guthrie , Robert Johnson , and Hank Williams , Dylan has amplified and personalized musical genres . His recording career , spanning more than 50 years , has explored the traditions in American song — from folk , blues , and country to gospel , rock and roll , and rockabilly to English , Scottish , and Irish folk music , embracing even jazz and the Great American Songbook . Dylan performs with guitar , keyboards , and harmonica . Backed by a changing lineup of musicians , he has toured steadily since the late 1980s on what has been dubbed the Never Ending Tour . His accomplishments as a recording artist and performer have been central to his career , but songwriting is considered his greatest contribution .

Since 1994 , Dylan has published six books of drawings and paintings , and his work has been exhibited in major art galleries . As a musician , Dylan has sold more than 100 million records , making him one of the best @-@ selling artists of all time . He has also received numerous awards including eleven Grammy Awards , a Golden Globe Award , and an Academy Award . Dylan has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , Minnesota Music Hall of Fame , Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame , and Songwriters Hall of Fame . The Pulitzer Prize jury in 2008 awarded him a special citation for " his profound impact on popular music and American culture , marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power . " In May 2012 , Dylan received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama .

= = Life and career = =

= = = Origins and musical beginnings = = =

Bob Dylan was born Robert Allen Zimmerman ( Hebrew name שבתאי זיסל בן אברהם [ Shabtai Zisl ben Avraham ] ) in St Mary 's Hospital on May 24 , 1941 , in Duluth , Minnesota , and raised in Hibbing , Minnesota , on the Mesabi Range west of Lake Superior . He has a younger brother , David . Dylan 's paternal grandparents , Zigman and Anna Zimmerman , emigrated from Odessa , in the Russian Empire ( now Ukraine ) , to the United States following the anti @-@ Semitic pogroms of 1905 . His maternal grandparents , Ben and Florence Stone , were Lithuanian Jews who arrived in the United States in 1902 . In his autobiography , Chronicles : Volume One , Dylan wrote that his paternal grandmother 's maiden name was Kirghiz and her family originated from Kağızman district of Kars Province in northeastern Turkey .

Dylan 's parents , Abram Zimmerman and Beatrice " Beatty " Stone , were part of a small but close @-@ knit Jewish community . They lived in Duluth until Robert was six , when his father had polio and the family returned to his mother 's hometown , Hibbing , where they lived for the rest of Robert 's childhood . In his early years he listened to the radio — first to blues and country stations from Shreveport , Louisiana and later , when he was a teenager , to rock and roll . He formed several bands while attending Hibbing High School . In the Golden Chords , he performed covers of songs by Little Richard and Elvis Presley . Their performance of Danny & the Juniors ' " Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay " at their high school talent show was so loud that the principal cut the microphone . In 1959 , his high school yearbook carried the caption " Robert Zimmerman : to join ' Little Richard ' . " The same year , as Elston Gunnn [ sic ] , he performed two dates with Bobby Vee , playing piano and clapping .

Zimmerman moved to Minneapolis in September 1959 and enrolled at the University of Minnesota . His focus on rock and roll gave way to American folk music . In 1985 , he said :

The thing about rock 'n'roll is that for me anyway it wasn 't enough ... There were great catch @-@ phrases and driving pulse rhythms ... but the songs weren 't serious or didn 't reflect life in a realistic way . I knew that when I got into folk music , it was more of a serious type of thing . The songs are filled with more despair , more sadness , more triumph , more faith in the supernatural , much deeper feelings .

He began to perform at the Ten O 'Clock Scholar , a coffeehouse a few blocks from campus , and became involved in the Dinkytown folk music circuit .

During his Dinkytown days , Zimmerman began introducing himself as " Bob Dylan " . In his memoir , Dylan acknowledged that he had been influenced by the poetry of Dylan Thomas . Explaining his change of name in a 2004 interview , Dylan remarked , " You 're born , you know , the wrong names , wrong parents . I mean , that happens . You call yourself what you want to call yourself . This is the land of the free . "

= = = 1960s = = =

= = = = Relocation to New York and record deal = = = =

In May 1960 , Dylan dropped out of college at the end of his first year . In January 1961 , he traveled to New York City , to perform there and visit his musical idol Woody Guthrie , who was seriously ill with Huntington 's disease in Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital . Guthrie had been a revelation to Dylan and influenced his early performances . Describing Guthrie 's impact , he wrote : " The songs themselves had the infinite sweep of humanity in them ... [ He ] was the true voice of the American spirit . I said to myself I was going to be Guthrie 's greatest disciple . " As well as visiting Guthrie in hospital , Dylan befriended Guthrie 's acolyte Ramblin ' Jack Elliott . Much of Guthrie 's repertoire was channeled through Elliott , and Dylan paid tribute to Elliott in Chronicles : Volume One .

From February 1961 , Dylan played at clubs around Greenwich Village . He befriended and picked up material from folk singers there , including Dave Van Ronk , Fred Neil , Odetta , the New Lost City Ramblers , and Irish musicians the Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem . In September , Dylan gained public recognition when Robert Shelton wrote a review in The New York Times of a show at Gerde 's Folk City . The same month Dylan played harmonica on folk singer Carolyn Hester 's third album , which brought his talents to the attention of the album 's producer , John Hammond . Hammond signed Dylan to Columbia Records in October . The performances on his first Columbia album — Bob Dylan — in March 1962 , consisted of familiar folk , blues and gospel with two original compositions . The album sold only 5 @,@ 000 in its first year , just enough to break even . Within Columbia Records , some referred to the singer as " Hammond 's Folly " and suggested dropping his contract , but Hammond defended Dylan and was supported by Johnny Cash . In March 1962 , Dylan contributed harmonica and back @-@ up vocals to the album Three Kings and the Queen , accompanying Victoria Spivey and Big Joe Williams on a recording for Spivey Records . While working for Columbia , Dylan recorded under the pseudonym Blind Boy Grunt , for Broadside , a folk magazine and record label . Dylan used the pseudonym Bob Landy to record as a piano player on The Blues Project , a 1964 anthology album by Elektra Records . As Tedham Porterhouse , Dylan played harmonica on Ramblin ' Jack Elliott 's 1964 album , Jack Elliott .

Dylan made two important career moves in August 1962 : he legally changed his name to Robert Dylan , and he signed a management contract with Albert Grossman . ( In June 1961 , Dylan had signed an agreement with Roy Silver . In 1962 , Grossman paid Silver $ 10 @,@ 000 to become sole manager . ) Grossman remained Dylan 's manager until 1970 , and was notable for his sometimes confrontational personality and for protective loyalty . Dylan said , " He was kind of like a Colonel Tom Parker figure ... you could smell him coming . " Tensions between Grossman and John Hammond led to Hammond 's being replaced as producer of Dylan 's second album by the young African @-@ American jazz producer , Tom Wilson .

Dylan made his first trip to the United Kingdom from December 1962 to January 1963 . He had been invited by TV director Philip Saville to appear in a drama , Madhouse on Castle Street , which Saville was directing for BBC Television . At the end of the play , Dylan performed " Blowin ' in the Wind " , one of its first public performances . The film recording of Madhouse on Castle Street was destroyed by the BBC in 1968 . While in London , Dylan performed at London folk clubs , including the Troubadour , Les Cousins , and Bunjies . He also learned material from UK performers , including Martin Carthy .

By the time of Dylan 's second album , The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan , in May 1963 , he had begun to make his name as a singer and a songwriter . Many songs on this album were labeled protest songs , inspired partly by Guthrie and influenced by Pete Seeger 's passion for topical songs . " Oxford Town " , for example , was an account of James Meredith 's ordeal as the first black student to risk enrollment at the University of Mississippi .

The first song on the Freewheelin ' album , " Blowin ' in the Wind " , partly derived its melody from the traditional slave song , " No More Auction Block " , while its lyrics questioned the social and political status quo . The song was widely recorded by other artists and became a hit for Peter , Paul and Mary . Another Freewheelin ' song , " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " was based on the folk ballad " Lord Randall " . With veiled references to an impending apocalypse , the song gained more resonance when the Cuban Missile Crisis developed a few weeks after Dylan began performing it . Like " Blowin ' in the Wind " , " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " marked a new direction in songwriting , blending a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness , imagist lyrical attack with traditional folk form .

Dylan 's topical songs enhanced his early reputation , and he came to be seen as more than just a songwriter . Janet Maslin wrote of Freewheelin ' : " These were the songs that established [ Dylan ] as the voice of his generation — someone who implicitly understood how concerned young Americans felt about nuclear disarmament and the growing movement for civil rights : his mixture of moral authority and nonconformity was perhaps the most timely of his attributes . " Freewheelin ' also included love songs and surreal talking blues . Humor was an important part of Dylan 's persona , and the range of material on the album impressed listeners , including The Beatles . George Harrison said of the album , " We just played it , just wore it out . The content of the song lyrics and just the attitude — it was incredibly original and wonderful . "

The rough edge of Dylan 's singing was unsettling to some but an attraction to others . Joyce Carol Oates wrote : " When we first heard this raw , very young , and seemingly untrained voice , frankly nasal , as if sandpaper could sing , the effect was dramatic and electrifying . " Many early songs reached the public through more palatable versions by other performers , such as Joan Baez , who became Dylan 's advocate as well as his lover . Baez was influential in bringing Dylan to prominence by recording several of his early songs and inviting him on stage during her concerts .

Others who had hits with Dylan 's songs in the early 1960s included the Byrds , Sonny & Cher , the Hollies , Peter , Paul and Mary , the Association , Manfred Mann and the Turtles . Most attempted a pop feel and rhythm , while Dylan and Baez performed them mostly as sparse folk songs . The covers became so ubiquitous that CBS promoted him with the slogan " Nobody Sings Dylan Like Dylan . "

" Mixed @-@ Up Confusion " , recorded during the Freewheelin ' sessions with a backing band , was released as a single and then quickly withdrawn . In contrast to the mostly solo acoustic performances on the album , the single showed a willingness to experiment with a rockabilly sound . Cameron Crowe described it as " a fascinating look at a folk artist with his mind wandering towards Elvis Presley and Sun Records . "

= = = = Protest and Another Side = = = =

In May 1963 , Dylan 's political profile rose when he walked out of The Ed Sullivan Show . During rehearsals , Dylan had been told by CBS television 's head of program practices that " Talkin ' John Birch Paranoid Blues " was potentially libelous to the John Birch Society . Rather than comply with censorship , Dylan refused to appear .

By this time , Dylan and Baez were prominent in the civil rights movement , singing together at the March on Washington on August 28 , 1963 . Dylan 's third album , The Times They Are a @-@ Changin ' , reflected a more politicized and cynical Dylan . The songs often took as their subject matter contemporary stories , with " Only A Pawn In Their Game " addressing the murder of civil rights worker Medgar Evers ; and the Brechtian " The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll " the death of black hotel barmaid Hattie Carroll , at the hands of young white socialite William Zantzinger . On a more general theme , " Ballad of Hollis Brown " and " North Country Blues " addressed despair engendered by the breakdown of farming and mining communities . This political material was accompanied by two personal love songs , " Boots of Spanish Leather " and " One Too Many Mornings " .

By the end of 1963 , Dylan felt both manipulated and constrained by the folk and protest movements . Accepting the " Tom Paine Award " from the National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee shortly after the assassination of John F. Kennedy , an intoxicated Dylan questioned the role of the committee , characterized the members as old and balding , and claimed to see something of himself and of every man in Kennedy 's assassin , Lee Harvey Oswald .

Another Side of Bob Dylan , recorded on a single evening in June 1964 , had a lighter mood . The humorous Dylan reemerged on " I Shall Be Free No. 10 " and " Motorpsycho Nightmare " . " Spanish Harlem Incident " and " To Ramona " are passionate love songs , while " Black Crow Blues " and " I Don 't Believe You ( She Acts Like We Never Have Met ) " suggest the rock and roll soon to dominate Dylan 's music . " It Ain 't Me Babe " , on the surface a song about spurned love , has been described as a rejection of the role of political spokesman thrust upon him . His newest direction was signaled by two lengthy songs : the impressionistic " Chimes of Freedom " , which sets social commentary against a metaphorical landscape in a style characterized by Allen Ginsberg as " chains of flashing images , " and " My Back Pages " , which attacks the simplistic and arch seriousness of his own earlier topical songs and seems to predict the backlash he was about to encounter from his former champions as he took a new direction .

In the latter half of 1964 and 1965 , Dylan moved from folk songwriter to folk @-@ rock pop @-@ music star . His jeans and work shirts were replaced by a Carnaby Street wardrobe , sunglasses day or night , and pointed " Beatle boots " . A London reporter wrote : " Hair that would set the teeth of a comb on edge . A loud shirt that would dim the neon lights of Leicester Square . He looks like an undernourished cockatoo . " Dylan began to spar with interviewers . Appearing on the Les Crane television show and asked about a movie he planned , he told Crane it would be a cowboy horror movie . Asked if he played the cowboy , Dylan replied , " No , I play my mother . "

= = = = Going electric = = = =

Dylan 's late March 1965 album Bringing It All Back Home was another leap , featuring his first recordings with electric instruments . The first single , " Subterranean Homesick Blues " , owed much to Chuck Berry 's " Too Much Monkey Business " ; its free association lyrics described as harkening back to the energy of beat poetry and as a forerunner of rap and hip @-@ hop . The song was provided with an early video , which opened D. A. Pennebaker 's cinéma vérité presentation of Dylan 's 1965 tour of Great Britain , Dont Look Back . Instead of miming , Dylan illustrated the lyrics by throwing cue cards containing key words from the song on the ground . Pennebaker said the sequence was Dylan 's idea , and it has been imitated in music videos and advertisements .

The second side of Bringing It All Back Home contained four long songs on which Dylan accompanied himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica . " Mr. Tambourine Man " became one of his best known songs when The Byrds recorded an electric version that reached number one in the US and UK . " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " and " It 's Alright Ma ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) " were two of Dylan 's most important compositions .

In 1965 , heading the Newport Folk Festival , Dylan performed his first electric set since high school with a pickup group mostly from the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , featuring Mike Bloomfield ( guitar ) , Sam Lay ( drums ) and Jerome Arnold ( bass ) , plus Al Kooper ( organ ) and Barry Goldberg ( piano ) . Dylan had appeared at Newport in 1963 and 1964 , but in 1965 met with cheering and booing and left the stage after three songs . One version has it that the boos were from folk fans whom Dylan had alienated by appearing , unexpectedly , with an electric guitar . Murray Lerner , who filmed the performance , said : " I absolutely think that they were booing Dylan going electric . " An alternative account claims audience members were upset by poor sound and a short set . This account is supported by Kooper and one of the directors of the festival , who reports his recording proves the only boos were in reaction to the MC 's announcement that there was only enough time for a short set .

Nevertheless , Dylan 's performance provoked a hostile response from the folk music establishment . In the September issue of Sing Out ! , Ewan MacColl wrote : " Our traditional songs and ballads are the creations of extraordinarily talented artists working inside disciplines formulated over time ... ' But what of Bobby Dylan ? ' scream the outraged teenagers ... Only a completely non @-@ critical audience , nourished on the watery pap of pop music , could have fallen for such tenth @-@ rate drivel . " On July 29 , four days after Newport , Dylan was back in the studio in New York , recording " Positively 4th Street " . The lyrics contained images of vengeance and paranoia , and it has been interpreted as Dylan 's put @-@ down of former friends from the folk community — friends he had known in clubs along West 4th Street .

= = = = Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde = = = =

In July 1965 , the single " Like a Rolling Stone " peaked at two in the U.S. and at four in the UK charts . At over six minutes , the song altered what a pop single could convey . Bruce Springsteen , in his speech for Dylan 's inauguration into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , said that on first hearing the single , " that snare shot sounded like somebody 'd kicked open the door to your mind " . In 2004 and in 2011 , Rolling Stone listed it as number one of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The song opened Dylan 's next album , Highway 61 Revisited , named after the road that led from Dylan 's Minnesota to the musical hotbed of New Orleans . The songs were in the same vein as the hit single , flavored by Mike Bloomfield 's blues guitar and Al Kooper 's organ riffs . " Desolation Row " , backed by acoustic guitar and understated bass , offers the sole exception , with Dylan alluding to figures in Western culture in a song described by Andy Gill as " an 11 @-@ minute epic of entropy , which takes the form of a Fellini @-@ esque parade of grotesques and oddities featuring a huge cast of celebrated characters , some historical ( Einstein , Nero ) , some biblical ( Noah , Cain and Abel ) , some fictional ( Ophelia , Romeo , Cinderella ) , some literary ( T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound ) , and some who fit into none of the above categories , notably Dr. Filth and his dubious nurse . "

In support of the album , Dylan was booked for two U.S. concerts with Al Kooper and Harvey Brooks from his studio crew and Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm , former members of Ronnie Hawkins 's backing band the Hawks . On August 28 at Forest Hills Tennis Stadium , the group was heckled by an audience still annoyed by Dylan 's electric sound . The band 's reception on September 3 at the Hollywood Bowl was more favorable .

From September 24 , 1965 , in Austin , Texas , Dylan toured the U.S. and Canada for six months , backed by the five musicians from the Hawks who became known as the Band . While Dylan and the Hawks met increasingly receptive audiences , their studio efforts floundered . Producer Bob Johnston persuaded Dylan to record in Nashville in February 1966 , and surrounded him with top @-@ notch session men . At Dylan 's insistence , Robertson and Kooper came from New York City to play on the sessions . The Nashville sessions produced the double album Blonde on Blonde ( 1966 ) , featuring what Dylan called " that thin wild mercury sound " . Kooper described it as " taking two cultures and smashing them together with a huge explosion " : the musical world of Nashville and the world of the " quintessential New York hipster " Bob Dylan .

On November 22 , 1965 , Dylan secretly married 25 @-@ year @-@ old former model Sara Lownds . Some of Dylan 's friends , including Ramblin ' Jack Elliott , say that , immediately after the event , Dylan denied he was married . Journalist Nora Ephron made the news public in the New York Post in February 1966 with the headline " Hush ! Bob Dylan is wed . "

Dylan toured Australia and Europe in April and May 1966 . Each show was split in two . Dylan performed solo during the first half , accompanying himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica . In the second , backed by the Hawks , he played electrically amplified music . This contrast provoked many fans , who jeered and slow handclapped . The tour culminated in a raucous confrontation between Dylan and his audience at the Manchester Free Trade Hall in England on May 17 , 1966 . A recording of this concert was released in 1998 : The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 . At the climax of the evening , a member of the audience , angered by Dylan 's electric backing , shouted : " Judas ! " to which Dylan responded , " I don 't believe you ... You 're a liar ! " Dylan turned to his band and said , " Play it fucking loud ! " as they launched into the final song of the night — " Like a Rolling Stone " .

During his 1966 tour , Dylan was described as exhausted and acting " as if on a death trip " . D. A. Pennebaker , the film maker accompanying the tour , described Dylan as " taking a lot of amphetamine and who @-@ knows @-@ what @-@ else . " In a 1969 interview with Jann Wenner , Dylan said , " I was on the road for almost five years . It wore me down . I was on drugs , a lot of things ... just to keep going , you know ? " In 2011 , BBC Radio 4 reported that , in an interview that Robert Shelton taped in 1966 , Dylan said he had kicked heroin in New York City : " I got very , very strung out for a while ... I had about a $ 25 @-@ a @-@ day habit and I kicked it . " Some journalists questioned the validity of this confession , pointing out that Dylan had " been telling journalists wild lies about his past since the earliest days of his career . "

= = = = Motorcycle accident and reclusion = = = =

After his tour , Dylan returned to New York , but the pressures increased . ABC Television had paid an advance for a TV show . His publisher , Macmillan , was demanding a manuscript of the poem / novel Tarantula . Manager Albert Grossman had scheduled a concert tour for the latter part of the year .

On July 29 , 1966 , Dylan crashed his 500cc Triumph Tiger 100 motorcycle near his home in Woodstock , New York and was thrown to the ground . Though the extent of his injuries was never disclosed , Dylan said that he broke several vertebrae in his neck . Mystery still surrounds the circumstances of the accident since no ambulance was called to the scene and Dylan was not hospitalized . Dylan 's biographers have written that the crash offered Dylan the chance to escape the pressures around him . Dylan confirmed this interpretation in his autobiography : " I had been in a motorcycle accident and I 'd been hurt , but I recovered . Truth was that I wanted to get out of the rat race . " Dylan withdrew from public and , apart from a few appearances , did not tour again for almost eight years .

Once Dylan was well enough to resume creative work , he began to edit D. A. Pennebaker 's film of his 1966 tour . A rough cut was shown to ABC Television and rejected as incomprehensible to a mainstream audience . The film was subsequently titled Eat the Document on bootleg copies , and it has been screened at a handful of film festivals . In 1967 he began recording with the Hawks at his home and in the basement of the Hawks ' nearby house , " Big Pink " . These songs , initially demos for other artists to record , provided hits for Julie Driscoll and the Brian Auger Trinity ( " This Wheel 's on Fire " ) , The Byrds ( " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , " Nothing Was Delivered " ) , and Manfred Mann ( " Mighty Quinn " ) . Columbia released selections in 1975 as The Basement Tapes . Over the years , more songs recorded by Dylan and his band in 1967 appeared on bootleg recordings , culminating in a five @-@ CD set titled The Genuine Basement Tapes , containing 107 songs and alternative takes . In the coming months , the Hawks recorded the album Music from Big Pink using songs they worked on in their basement in Woodstock , and renamed themselves the Band , beginning a long recording and performing career of their own .

In October and November 1967 , Dylan returned to Nashville . Back in the studio after 19 months , he was accompanied by Charlie McCoy on bass , Kenny Buttrey on drums , and Pete Drake on steel guitar . The result was John Wesley Harding , a contemplative record of shorter songs , set in a landscape that drew on the American West and the Bible . The sparse structure and instrumentation , with lyrics that took the Judeo @-@ Christian tradition seriously , departed from Dylan 's own work and from the psychedelic fervor of the 1960s . It included " All Along the Watchtower " , with lyrics derived from the Book of Isaiah ( 21 : 5 – 9 ) . The song was later recorded by Jimi Hendrix , whose version Dylan acknowledged as definitive . Woody Guthrie died on October 3 , 1967 , and Dylan made his first live appearance in twenty months at a Guthrie memorial concert held at Carnegie Hall on January 20 , 1968 , where he was backed by the Band .

Dylan 's next release , Nashville Skyline ( 1969 ) , was mainstream country featuring Nashville musicians , a mellow @-@ voiced Dylan , a duet with Johnny Cash , and the hit single " Lay Lady Lay " . Variety wrote , " Dylan is definitely doing something that can be called singing . Somehow he has managed to add an octave to his range . " Dylan and Cash also recorded a series of duets , but only their recording of Dylan 's " Girl from the North Country " was used on the album .

In May 1969 , Dylan appeared on the first episode of Johnny Cash 's television show , duetting with Cash on " Girl from the North Country " , " I Threw It All Away " , and " Living the Blues " . Dylan next traveled to England to top the bill at the Isle of Wight festival on August 31 , 1969 , after rejecting overtures to appear at the Woodstock Festival closer to his home .

= = = 1970s = = =

In the early 1970s , critics charged that Dylan 's output was varied and unpredictable . Rolling Stone writer Greil Marcus asked " What is this shit ? " on first listening to Self Portrait , released in June 1970 . Self Portrait , a double LP including few original songs , was poorly received . In October 1970 , Dylan released New Morning , considered a return to form . This album included " Day of the Locusts " , a song in which Dylan gave an account of receiving an honorary degree from Princeton University on June 9 , 1970 . In November 1968 , Dylan had co @-@ written " I 'd Have You Anytime " with George Harrison ; Harrison recorded " I 'd Have You Anytime " and Dylan 's " If Not for You " for his 1970 solo triple album All Things Must Pass . Dylan 's surprise appearance at Harrison 's 1971 Concert for Bangladesh attracted media coverage , reflecting that Dylan 's live appearances had become rare .

Between March 16 and 19 , 1971 , Dylan reserved three days at Blue Rock , a small studio in Greenwich Village to record with Leon Russell . These sessions resulted in " Watching the River Flow " and a new recording of " When I Paint My Masterpiece " . On November 4 , 1971 , Dylan recorded " George Jackson " , which he released a week later . For many , the single was a surprising return to protest material , mourning the killing of Black Panther George Jackson in San Quentin State Prison that year . Dylan contributed piano and harmony to Steve Goodman 's album , Somebody Else 's Troubles , under the pseudonym Robert Milkwood Thomas in September 1972 .

In 1972 , Dylan signed to Sam Peckinpah 's film Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid , providing songs and backing music for the movie , and playing " Alias " , a member of Billy 's gang with some historical basis . Despite the film 's failure at the box office , the song " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " became one of Dylan 's most covered songs .

= = = = Return to touring = = = =

Dylan began 1973 by signing with a new label , David Geffen 's Asylum Records , when his contract with Columbia Records expired . On his next album , Planet Waves , he used the Band as backing group , while rehearsing for a tour . The album included two versions of " Forever Young " , which became one of his most popular songs . As one critic described it , the song projected " something hymnal and heartfelt that spoke of the father in Dylan " , and Dylan himself commented : " I wrote it thinking about one of my boys and not wanting to be too sentimental . "

Columbia Records simultaneously released Dylan , a collection of studio outtakes ( almost exclusively covers ) , widely interpreted as a churlish response to Dylan 's signing with a rival record label . In January 1974 , Dylan returned to touring after seven years ; backed by the Band , he embarked on a North American tour of 40 concerts . A live double album , Before the Flood , was on Asylum Records . Soon , according to Clive Davis , Columbia Records sent word they " will spare nothing to bring Dylan back into the fold " . Dylan had second thoughts about Asylum , miffed that while there had been millions of unfulfilled ticket requests for the 1974 tour , Geffen had sold only 700 @,@ 000 copies of Planet Waves . Dylan returned to Columbia Records , which reissued his two Asylum albums .

After the tour , Dylan and his wife became estranged . He filled a small red notebook with songs about relationships and ruptures , and recorded an album entitled Blood on the Tracks in September 1974 . Dylan delayed the release and re @-@ recorded half the songs at Sound 80 Studios in Minneapolis with production assistance from his brother , David Zimmerman .

Released in early 1975 , Blood on the Tracks received mixed reviews . In the NME , Nick Kent described " the accompaniments [ as ] often so trashy they sound like mere practice takes . " In Rolling Stone , Jon Landau wrote that " the record has been made with typical shoddiness . " Over the years critics came to see it as one of Dylan 's greatest achievements . In Salon.com , Bill Wyman wrote : " Blood on the Tracks is his only flawless album and his best produced ; the songs , each of them , are constructed in disciplined fashion . It is his kindest album and most dismayed , and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea @-@ plagued excesses of his mid @-@ 1960s output and the self @-@ consciously simple compositions of his post @-@ accident years . " Novelist Rick Moody called it " the truest , most honest account of a love affair from tip to stern ever put down on magnetic tape . "

In the middle of that year , Dylan wrote a ballad championing boxer Rubin " Hurricane " Carter , imprisoned for a triple murder in Paterson , New Jersey , in 1966 . After visiting Carter in jail , Dylan wrote " Hurricane " , presenting the case for Carter 's innocence . Despite its length — over eight minutes — the song was released as a single , peaking at 33 on the U.S. Billboard chart , and performed at every 1975 date of Dylan 's next tour , the Rolling Thunder Revue . The tour featured about one hundred performers and supporters from the Greenwich Village folk scene , including T @-@ Bone Burnett , Ramblin ' Jack Elliott , Joni Mitchell , David Mansfield , Roger McGuinn , Mick Ronson , Joan Baez , and Scarlet Rivera , whom Dylan discovered walking down the street , her violin case on her back . Allen Ginsberg accompanied the troupe , staging scenes for the film Dylan was shooting . Sam Shepard was hired to write the screenplay , but ended up accompanying the tour as informal chronicler .

Running through late 1975 and again through early 1976 , the tour encompassed the release of the album Desire , with many of Dylan 's new songs featuring a travelogue @-@ like narrative style , showing the influence of his new collaborator , playwright Jacques Levy . The 1976 half of the tour was documented by a TV concert special , Hard Rain , and the LP Hard Rain ; no concert album from the better @-@ received and better @-@ known opening half of the tour was released until 2002 's Live 1975 .

The 1975 tour with the Revue provided the backdrop to Dylan 's nearly four @-@ hour film Renaldo and Clara , a sprawling narrative mixed with concert footage and reminiscences . Released in 1978 , the movie received poor , sometimes scathing , reviews . Later in that year , a two @-@ hour edit , dominated by the concert performances , was more widely released .

In November 1976 , Dylan appeared at the Band 's " farewell " concert , with Eric Clapton , Joni Mitchell , Muddy Waters , Van Morrison and Neil Young . Martin Scorsese 's cinematic chronicle , The Last Waltz , in 1978 included about half of Dylan 's set . In 1976 , Dylan wrote and duetted on " Sign Language " for Eric Clapton 's No Reason To Cry .

In 1978 , Dylan embarked on a year @-@ long world tour , performing 114 shows in Japan , the Far East , Europe and the US , to a total audience of two million . Dylan assembled an eight piece band and three backing singers . Concerts in Tokyo in February and March were released as the live double album , Bob Dylan At Budokan . Reviews were mixed . Robert Christgau awarded the album a C + rating , giving the album a derisory review , while Janet Maslin defended it in Rolling Stone , writing : " These latest live versions of his old songs have the effect of liberating Bob Dylan from the originals . " When Dylan brought the tour to the U.S. in September 1978 , the press described the look and sound as a ' Las Vegas Tour ' . The 1978 tour grossed more than $ 20 million , and Dylan told the Los Angeles Times that he had debts because " I had a couple of bad years . I put a lot of money into the movie , built a big house ... and it costs a lot to get divorced in California . "

In April and May 1978 , Dylan took the same band and vocalists into Rundown Studios in Santa Monica , California , to record an album of new material : Street @-@ Legal . It was described by Michael Gray as , " after Blood On The Tracks , arguably Dylan 's best record of the 1970s : a crucial album documenting a crucial period in Dylan 's own life " . However , it had poor sound and mixing ( attributed to Dylan 's studio practices ) , muddying the instrumental detail until a remastered CD release in 1999 restored some of the songs ' strengths .

= = = = Christian period = = = =

In the late 1970s , Dylan became a born again Christian and released two albums of contemporary gospel music . Slow Train Coming ( 1979 ) featured the guitar accompaniment of Mark Knopfler ( of Dire Straits ) and was produced by veteran R & B producer Jerry Wexler . Wexler said that Dylan had tried to evangelize him during the recording . He replied : " Bob , you 're dealing with a 62 @-@ year @-@ old Jewish atheist . Let 's just make an album . " Dylan won the Grammy Award for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance for the song " Gotta Serve Somebody " . His second Christian @-@ themed album , Saved ( 1980 ) , received mixed reviews , described by Michael Gray as " the nearest thing to a follow @-@ up album Dylan has ever made , Slow Train Coming II and inferior " When touring in late 1979 and early 1980 , Dylan would not play his older , secular works , and he delivered declarations of his faith from the stage , such as :

Years ago they ... said I was a prophet . I used to say , " No I 'm not a prophet " they say " Yes you are , you 're a prophet . " I said , " No it 's not me . " They used to say " You sure are a prophet . " They used to convince me I was a prophet . Now I come out and say Jesus Christ is the answer . They say , " Bob Dylan 's no prophet . " They just can 't handle it .

Dylan 's Christianity was unpopular with some fans and musicians . Shortly before his murder , John Lennon recorded " Serve Yourself " in response to Dylan 's " Gotta Serve Somebody " . By 1981 , Stephen Holden wrote in the New York Times that " neither age ( he 's now 40 ) nor his much @-@ publicized conversion to born @-@ again Christianity has altered his essentially iconoclastic temperament . "

= = = 1980s = = =

In late 1980 , Dylan briefly played concerts billed as " A Musical Retrospective " , restoring popular 1960s songs to the repertoire . Shot of Love , recorded early the next year , featured his first secular compositions in more than two years , mixed with Christian songs . " Every Grain of Sand " reminded some of William Blake 's verses .

In the 1980s , reception of Dylan 's recordings varied , from the well @-@ regarded Infidels in 1983 to the panned Down in the Groove in 1988 . Michael Gray condemned Dylan 's 1980s albums for carelessness in the studio and for failing to release his best songs . As an example of the latter , the Infidels recording sessions , which again employed Knopfler on lead guitar and also as the album 's producer , resulted in several notable songs that Dylan left off the album . Best regarded of these were " Blind Willie McTell " , a tribute to the dead blues musician and an evocation of African American history , " Foot of Pride " and " Lord Protect My Child " . These three songs were released on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 .

Between July 1984 and March 1985 , Dylan recorded Empire Burlesque . Arthur Baker , who had remixed hits for Bruce Springsteen and Cyndi Lauper , was asked to engineer and mix the album . Baker said he felt he was hired to make Dylan 's album sound " a little bit more contemporary " .

Dylan sang on USA for Africa 's famine relief single " We Are the World " . On July 13 , 1985 , he appeared at the climax at the Live Aid concert at JFK Stadium , Philadelphia . Backed by Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood , he performed a ragged version of " Hollis Brown " , his ballad of rural poverty , and then said to the worldwide audience exceeding one billion people : " I hope that some of the money ... maybe they can just take a little bit of it , maybe ... one or two million , maybe ... and use it to pay the mortgages on some of the farms and , the farmers here , owe to the banks . " His remarks were widely criticized as inappropriate , but they did inspire Willie Nelson to organize a series of events , Farm Aid , to benefit debt @-@ ridden American farmers .

In April 1986 , Dylan made a foray into rap music when he added vocals to the opening verse of " Street Rock " , featured on Kurtis Blow 's album Kingdom Blow . Dylan 's next studio album , Knocked Out Loaded , in July 1986 contained three covers ( by Little Junior Parker , Kris Kristofferson and the gospel hymn " Precious Memories " ) , plus three collaborations with ( Tom Petty , Sam Shepard and Carole Bayer Sager ) , and two solo compositions by Dylan . One reviewer commented that " the record follows too many detours to be consistently compelling , and some of those detours wind down roads that are indisputably dead ends . By 1986 , such uneven records weren 't entirely unexpected by Dylan , but that didn 't make them any less frustrating . " It was the first Dylan album since Freewheelin ' ( 1963 ) to fail to make the Top 50 . Since then , some critics have called the 11 @-@ minute epic that Dylan co @-@ wrote with Sam Shepard , " Brownsville Girl " , a work of genius .

In 1986 and 1987 , Dylan toured with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers , sharing vocals with Petty on several songs each night . Dylan also toured with the Grateful Dead in 1987 , resulting in a live album Dylan & The Dead . This received negative reviews : Allmusic said , " Quite possibly the worst album by either Bob Dylan or the Grateful Dead . " Dylan then initiated what came to be called the Never Ending Tour on June 7 , 1988 , performing with a back @-@ up band featuring guitarist G. E. Smith . Dylan continued to tour with a small , evolving band for the next 20 years .

In 1987 , Dylan starred in Richard Marquand 's movie Hearts of Fire , in which he played Billy Parker , a washed @-@ up rock star turned chicken farmer whose teenage lover , ( Fiona ) , leaves him for a jaded English synth @-@ pop sensation played by Rupert Everett . Dylan also contributed two original songs to the soundtrack — " Night After Night " , and " I Had a Dream About You , Baby " , as well as a cover of John Hiatt 's " The Usual " . The film was a critical and commercial flop . Dylan was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in January 1988 , with Bruce Springsteen 's introduction declaring , " Bob freed your mind the way Elvis freed your body . He showed us that just because music was innately physical did not mean that it was anti @-@ intellectual .

The album Down in the Groove in May 1988 sold even more unsuccessfully than his previous studio album . Michael Gray wrote : " The very title undercuts any idea that inspired work may lie within . Here was a further devaluing of the notion of a new Bob Dylan album as something significant . " The critical and commercial disappointment of that album was swiftly followed by the success of the Traveling Wilburys . Dylan co @-@ founded the band with George Harrison , Jeff Lynne , Roy Orbison , and Tom Petty , and in late 1988 their multi @-@ platinum Traveling Wilburys Vol . 1 reached three on the US album chart , featuring songs that were described as Dylan 's most accessible compositions in years . Despite Orbison 's death in December 1988 , the remaining four recorded a second album in May 1990 with the title Traveling Wilburys Vol . 3 .

Dylan finished the decade on a critical high note with Oh Mercy produced by Daniel Lanois . Michael Gray wrote that the album was : " Attentively written , vocally distinctive , musically warm , and uncompromisingly professional , this cohesive whole is the nearest thing to a great Bob Dylan album in the 1980s . " The track " Most of the Time " , a lost love composition , was later prominently featured in the film High Fidelity , while " What Was It You Wanted ? " has been interpreted both as a catechism and a wry comment on the expectations of critics and fans . The religious imagery of " Ring Them Bells " struck some critics as a re @-@ affirmation of faith .

= = = 1990s = = =

Dylan 's 1990s began with Under the Red Sky ( 1990 ) , an about @-@ face from the serious Oh Mercy . The album contained several apparently simple songs , including " Under the Red Sky " and " Wiggle Wiggle " . The album was dedicated to " Gabby Goo Goo " , a nickname for the daughter of Dylan and Carolyn Dennis , Desiree Gabrielle Dennis @-@ Dylan , who was four . Sidemen on the album included George Harrison , Slash from Guns N ' Roses , David Crosby , Bruce Hornsby , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and Elton John . Despite the line @-@ up , the record received bad reviews and sold poorly .

In 1991 , Dylan received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award from American actor Jack Nicholson . The event coincided with the start of the Gulf War against Saddam Hussein , and Dylan performed " Masters of War " . Dylan then made a short speech , saying " My daddy once said to me , he said , ' Son , it is possible for you to become so defiled in this world that your own mother and father will abandon you . If that happens , God will believe in your ability to mend your own ways . ' " This sentiment was subsequently revealed to be a quote from 19th @-@ century German Jewish intellectual , Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch .

The next few years saw Dylan returning to his roots with two albums covering folk and blues numbers : Good as I Been to You ( 1992 ) and World Gone Wrong ( 1993 ) , featuring interpretations and acoustic guitar work . Many critics and fans commented on the quiet beauty of the song " Lone Pilgrim " , written by a 19th @-@ century teacher . In November 1994 Dylan recorded two live shows for MTV Unplugged . He said his wish to perform traditional songs was overruled by Sony executives who insisted on hits . The album from it , MTV Unplugged , included " John Brown " , an unreleased 1962 song of how enthusiasm for war ends in mutilation and disillusionment .

Dylan 's longtime road manager Victor Maymudes has claimed that the singer quit drinking alcohol in 1994 . Maymudes felt that Dylan sobering up made him " more introverted and a little less social . "

With a collection of songs reportedly written while snowed @-@ in on his Minnesota ranch , Dylan booked recording time with Daniel Lanois at Miami 's Criteria Studios in January 1997 . The subsequent recording sessions were , by some accounts , fraught with musical tension . Before the album 's release Dylan was hospitalized with a life @-@ threatening heart infection , pericarditis , brought on by histoplasmosis . His scheduled European tour was cancelled , but Dylan made a speedy recovery and left the hospital saying , " I really thought I 'd be seeing Elvis soon . " He was back on the road by mid @-@ year , and performed before Pope John Paul II at the World Eucharistic Conference in Bologna , Italy . The Pope treated the audience of 200 @,@ 000 people to a homily based on Dylan 's lyric " Blowin ' in the Wind " .

September saw the release of the new Lanois @-@ produced album , Time Out of Mind . With its bitter assessment of love and morbid ruminations , Dylan 's first collection of original songs in seven years was highly acclaimed . One critic wrote : " the songs themselves are uniformly powerful , adding up to Dylan 's best overall collection in years . " This collection of complex songs won him his first solo " Album of the Year " Grammy Award .

In December 1997 , U.S. President Bill Clinton presented Dylan with a Kennedy Center Honor in the East Room of the White House , paying this tribute : " He probably had more impact on people of my generation than any other creative artist . His voice and lyrics haven 't always been easy on the ear , but throughout his career Bob Dylan has never aimed to please . He 's disturbed the peace and discomforted the powerful . "

In 1999 , Dylan embarked on a North American tour with Paul Simon , where each alternated as headline act with a " middle " section where they performed together , starting on the first of June and ending September 18 . The collaboration was generally well @-@ received , with just one critic , Seth Rogovoy , from the Berkshire Eagle , questioning the collaboration .

= = = 2000s = = =

Dylan commenced the new millennium by winning the Polar Music Prize in May 2000 and his first Oscar ; his song " Things Have Changed " , written for the film Wonder Boys , won an Academy Award in March 2001 . The Oscar , by some reports a facsimile , tours with him , presiding over shows perched atop an amplifier .

" Love and Theft " was released on September 11 , 2001 . Recorded with his touring band , Dylan produced the album himself under the pseudonym Jack Frost . The album was critically well received and earned nominations for several Grammy awards . Critics noted that Dylan was widening his musical palette to include rockabilly , Western swing , jazz , and even lounge ballads . " Love and Theft " generated controversy when The Wall Street Journal pointed out similarities between the album 's lyrics and Japanese author Junichi Saga 's book Confessions of a Yakuza .

In 2003 , Dylan revisited the evangelical songs from his " born again " period and participated in the CD project Gotta Serve Somebody : The Gospel Songs of Bob Dylan . That year also saw the release of the film Masked & Anonymous , which Dylan co @-@ wrote with director Larry Charles under the alias Sergei Petrov . Dylan played the central character in the film , Jack Fate , alongside a cast that included Jeff Bridges , Penélope Cruz and John Goodman . The film polarised critics : many dismissed it as an " incoherent mess " ; a few treated it as a serious work of art .

In October 2004 , Dylan published the first part of his autobiography , Chronicles : Volume One . Confounding expectations , Dylan devoted three chapters to his first year in New York City in 1961 – 1962 , virtually ignoring the mid @-@ 1960s when his fame was at its height . He also devoted chapters to the albums New Morning ( 1970 ) and Oh Mercy ( 1989 ) . The book reached number two on The New York Times ' Hardcover Non @-@ Fiction best seller list in December 2004 and was nominated for a National Book Award .

No Direction Home , Martin Scorsese 's acclaimed film biography of Dylan , was first broadcast on September 26 – 27 , 2005 , on BBC Two in the UK and PBS in the US . The documentary focuses on the period from Dylan 's arrival in New York in 1961 to his motorcycle crash in 1966 , featuring interviews with Suze Rotolo , Liam Clancy , Joan Baez , Allen Ginsberg , Pete Seeger , Mavis Staples , and Dylan himself . The film received a Peabody Award in April 2006 and a Columbia @-@ duPont Award in January 2007 . The accompanying soundtrack featured unreleased songs from Dylan 's early career .

Dylan earned yet another distinction in a 2007 study of US legal opinions and briefs that found his lyrics were quoted by judges and lawyers more than those of any other songwriter , 186 times versus 74 by the Beatles , who were second . Among those quoting Dylan were US Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Antonin Scalia , both conservatives . The most widely cited lines included " you don 't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows " from " Subterranean Homesick Blues " and " when you ain 't got nothing , you got nothing to lose " from " Like a Rolling Stone " .

= = = = Modern Times = = = =

May 3 , 2006 , was the premiere of Dylan 's radio presenting career , hosting a weekly radio program , Theme Time Radio Hour , for XM Satellite Radio , with song selections revolving around a chosen theme . Dylan played classic and obscure records from the 1930s to the present day , including contemporary artists as diverse as Blur , Prince , L.L. Cool J and the Streets . The show was praised by fans and critics as " great radio , " as Dylan told stories and made eclectic references with his sardonic humor , while achieving a thematic beauty with his musical choices . In April 2009 , Dylan broadcast the 100th show in his radio series ; the theme was " Goodbye " and the final record played was Woody Guthrie 's " So Long , It 's Been Good to Know Yuh " . This has led to speculation that Dylan 's radio series may have ended .

On August 29 , 2006 , Dylan released his Modern Times album . Despite some coarsening of Dylan 's voice ( a critic for The Guardian characterised his singing on the album as " a catarrhal death rattle " ) most reviewers praised the album , and many described it as the final installment of a successful trilogy , embracing Time Out of Mind and " Love and Theft " . Modern Times entered the U.S. charts at number one , making it Dylan 's first album to reach that position since 1976 's Desire . The New York Times published an article exploring similarities between some of Dylan 's lyrics in Modern Times and the work of the Civil War poet Henry Timrod .

Nominated for three Grammy Awards , Modern Times won Best Contemporary Folk / Americana Album and Bob Dylan also won Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for " Someday Baby " . Modern Times was named Album of the Year , 2006 , by Rolling Stone magazine , and by Uncut in the UK . On the same day that Modern Times was released the iTunes Music Store released Bob Dylan : The Collection , a digital box set containing all of his albums ( 773 tracks in total ) , along with 42 rare and unreleased tracks .

In August 2007 , the award @-@ winning film biography of Dylan I 'm Not There , written and directed by Todd Haynes , was released — bearing the tagline " inspired by the music and many lives of Bob Dylan " . The movie used six different actors to represent different aspects of Dylan 's life : Christian Bale , Cate Blanchett , Marcus Carl Franklin , Richard Gere , Heath Ledger and Ben Whishaw . Dylan 's previously unreleased 1967 recording from which the film takes its name was released for the first time on the film 's original soundtrack ; all other tracks are covers of Dylan songs , specially recorded for the movie by a diverse range of artists , including Sonic Youth , Eddie Vedder , Mason Jennings , Stephen Malkmus , Jeff Tweedy , Karen O , Willie Nelson , Cat Power , Richie Havens , and Tom Verlaine .

On October 1 , 2007 , Columbia Records released the triple CD retrospective album Dylan , anthologising his entire career under the Dylan 07 logo . As part of this campaign , Mark Ronson produced a re @-@ mix of Dylan 's 1966 tune " Most Likely You Go Your Way and I 'll Go Mine " , which was released as a maxi @-@ single . This was the first time Dylan had sanctioned a re @-@ mix of one of his classic recordings .

The sophistication of the Dylan 07 marketing campaign was a reminder that Dylan 's commercial profile had risen considerably since the 1990s . This first became evident in 2004 , when Dylan appeared in a TV advertisement for Victoria 's Secret lingerie . Three years later , in October 2007 , he participated in a multi @-@ media campaign for the 2008 Cadillac Escalade . Then , in 2009 , he gave the highest profile endorsement of his career , appearing with rapper will.i.am in a Pepsi ad that debuted during the telecast of Super Bowl XLIII . The ad , broadcast to a record audience of 98 million viewers , opened with Dylan singing the first verse of " Forever Young " followed by will.i.am doing a hip hop version of the song 's third and final verse .

In October 2008 , Columbia released The Bootleg Series Vol . 8 – Tell Tale Signs as both a two @-@ CD set and a three @-@ CD version with a 150 @-@ page hardcover book . The set contains live performances and outtakes from selected studio albums from Oh Mercy to Modern Times , as well as soundtrack contributions and collaborations with David Bromberg and Ralph Stanley . The pricing of the album — the two @-@ CD set went on sale for $ 18 @.@ 99 and the three @-@ CD version for $ 129 @.@ 99 — led to complaints about " rip @-@ off packaging " from some fans and commentators . The release was widely acclaimed by critics . The abundance of alternative takes and unreleased material suggested to one reviewer that this volume of old outtakes " feels like a new Bob Dylan record , not only for the astonishing freshness of the material , but also for the incredible sound quality and organic feeling of everything here . "

= = = = Together Through Life and Christmas in the Heart = = = =

Bob Dylan released his album Together Through Life on April 28 , 2009 . In a conversation with music journalist Bill Flanagan , published on Dylan 's website , Dylan explained that the genesis of the record was when French film director Olivier Dahan asked him to supply a song for his new road movie , My Own Love Song ; initially only intending to record a single track , " Life Is Hard , " " the record sort of took its own direction " . Nine of the ten songs on the album are credited as co @-@ written by Bob Dylan and Robert Hunter .

The album received largely favorable reviews , although several critics described it as a minor addition to Dylan 's canon of work . Andy Gill wrote in The Independent that the record " features Dylan in fairly relaxed , spontaneous mood , content to grab such grooves and sentiments as flit momentarily across his radar . So while it may not contain too many landmark tracks , it 's one of the most naturally enjoyable albums you 'll hear all year . "

In its first week of release , the album reached number one in the Billboard 200 chart in the U.S. , making Bob Dylan ( 67 years of age ) the oldest artist to ever debut at number one on that chart . It also reached number one on the UK album chart , 39 years after Dylan 's previous UK album chart topper New Morning . This meant that Dylan currently holds the record for the longest gap between solo number one albums in the UK chart .

On October 13 , 2009 , Dylan released a Christmas album , Christmas in the Heart , comprising such Christmas standards as " Little Drummer Boy " , " Winter Wonderland " and " Here Comes Santa Claus " . Dylan 's royalties from the sale of this album will benefit the charities Feeding America in the USA , Crisis in the UK , and the World Food Programme .

The album received generally favorable reviews . The New Yorker commented that Dylan had welded a pre @-@ rock musical sound to " some of his croakiest vocals in a while " , and speculated that Dylan 's intentions might be ironic : " Dylan has a long and highly publicized history with Christianity ; to claim there 's not a wink in the childish optimism of ' Here Comes Santa Claus ' or ' Winter Wonderland ' is to ignore a half @-@ century of biting satire . " In USA Today , Edna Gundersen pointed out that Dylan was " revisiting yuletide styles popularized by Nat King Cole , Mel Tormé , and the Ray Conniff Singers . " Gundersen concluded that Dylan " couldn 't sound more sentimental or sincere " .

In an interview published in The Big Issue , journalist Bill Flanagan asked Dylan why he had performed the songs in a straightforward style , and Dylan responded : " There wasn 't any other way to play it . These songs are part of my life , just like folk songs . You have to play them straight too . "

= = = 2010s = = =

= = = = Tempest = = = =

On October 18 , 2010 , Dylan released Volume 9 of his Bootleg Series , The Witmark Demos . This comprised 47 demo recordings of songs taped between 1962 and 1964 for Dylan 's earliest music publishers : Leeds Music in 1962 , and Witmark Music from 1962 to 1964 . One reviewer described the set as " a hearty glimpse of young Bob Dylan changing the music business , and the world , one note at a time . " The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a Metascore of 86 , indicating " universal acclaim " . In the same week , Sony Legacy released Bob Dylan : The Original Mono Recordings , a box set that for the first time presented Dylan 's eight earliest albums , from Bob Dylan ( 1962 ) to John Wesley Harding ( 1967 ) , in their original mono mix in the CD format . The CDs were housed in miniature facsimiles of the original album covers , replete with original liner notes . The set was accompanied by a booklet featuring an essay by music critic Greil Marcus .

On April 12 , 2011 , Legacy Recordings released Bob Dylan in Concert – Brandeis University 1963 , taped at Brandeis University on May 10 , 1963 , two weeks prior to the release of The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan . The tape was discovered in the archive of music writer Ralph J. Gleason , and the recording carries liner notes by Michael Gray , who writes the recording captures Dylan " from way back when Kennedy was President and the Beatles hadn 't yet reached America . It reveals him not at any Big Moment but giving a performance like his folk club sets of the period ... This is the last live performance we have of Bob Dylan before he becomes a star . "

The extent to which his work was studied at an academic level was demonstrated on Dylan 's 70th birthday on May 24 , 2011 , when three universities organized symposia on his work . The University of Mainz , the University of Vienna , and the University of Bristol invited literary critics and cultural historians to give papers on aspects of Dylan 's work . Other events , including tribute bands , discussions and simple singalongs , took place around the world , as reported in The Guardian : " From Moscow to Madrid , Norway to Northampton and Malaysia to his home state of Minnesota , self @-@ confessed ' Bobcats ' will gather today to celebrate the 70th birthday of a giant of popular music . "

On October 4 , 2011 , Dylan 's label , Egyptian Records , released an album of previously unheard Hank Williams songs , The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams . Dylan had helped to curate this project , in which songs unfinished when Williams died in 1953 were completed and recorded by a variety of artists , including Dylan himself , his son Jakob Dylan , Levon Helm , Norah Jones , Jack White , and others .

On May 29 , 2012 , U.S. President Barack Obama awarded Dylan a Presidential Medal of Freedom in the White House . At the ceremony , Obama praised Dylan 's voice for its " unique gravelly power that redefined not just what music sounded like but the message it carried and how it made people feel " .

On September 11 , 2012 , Dylan released his 35th studio album , Tempest . The album features a tribute to John Lennon , " Roll On John " , and the title track is a 14 minute song about the sinking of the Titanic . Reviewing Tempest for Rolling Stone , Will Hermes gave the album five out of five stars , writing : " Lyrically , Dylan is at the top of his game , joking around , dropping wordplay and allegories that evade pat readings and quoting other folks ' words like a freestyle rapper on fire . " Hermes called Tempest " one of [ Dylan 's ] weirdest albums ever " , and opined , " It may also be the single darkest record in Dylan 's catalog . " The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded the album a score of 83 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " .

On August 27 , 2013 , Columbia Records released Volume 10 of Dylan 's Bootleg Series , Another Self Portrait ( 1969 – 1971 ) . The album contained 35 previously unreleased tracks , including alternate takes and demos from Dylan 's 1969 – 1971 recording sessions during the making of the Self Portrait and New Morning albums . The box set also included a live recording of Dylan 's performance with the Band at the Isle of Wight Festival in 1969 . Another Self Portrait received favorable reviews , earning a score of 81 on the critical aggregator , Metacritic , indicating " universal acclaim " . AllMusic critic Thom Jurek wrote , " For fans , this is more than a curiosity , it 's an indispensable addition to the catalog . "

On November 4 , 2013 , Columbia Records released Bob Dylan : Complete Album Collection : Vol . One , a boxed set containing all 35 of Dylan 's studio albums , six albums of live recordings , and a collection , entitled Sidetracks , of singles , songs from films and non @-@ album material . The box includes new album @-@ by @-@ album liner notes written by Clinton Heylin with an introduction by Bill Flanagan . On the same date , Columbia released a compilation , The Very Best of Bob Dylan , which is available in both single CD and double CD formats . To publicize the 35 album box set , an innovative video of the song " Like a Rolling Stone " was released on Dylan 's website . The interactive video , created by director Vania Heymann , allowed viewers to switch between 16 simulated TV channels , all featuring characters who are lip @-@ synching the lyrics of the 48 @-@ year @-@ old song .

On February 2 , 2014 , Dylan appeared in a commercial for the Chrysler 200 car which was screened during the 2014 Super Bowl American football game . At the end of the commercial , Dylan says : " So let Germany brew your beer , let Switzerland make your watch , let Asia assemble your phone . We will build your car . " Dylan 's Super Bowl commercial generated controversy and op @-@ ed pieces discussing the protectionist implications of his words , and whether the singer had " sold out " to corporate interests .

In 2013 and 2014 , auction house sales demonstrated the high cultural value attached to Dylan 's mid @-@ 1960s work , and the record prices that collectors were willing to pay for artefacts from this period . In December 2013 , the Fender Stratocaster which Dylan had played at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival fetched $ 965 @,@ 000 , the second highest price paid for a guitar . In June 2014 , Dylan 's hand @-@ written lyrics of " Like a Rolling Stone " , his 1965 hit single , fetched $ 2 million dollars at auction , a record for a popular music manuscript .

On October 28 , 2014 , Simon & Schuster published a massive 960 page , thirteen and a half pound edition of Dylan 's lyrics , Lyrics : Since 1962 . The book was edited by literary critic Christopher Ricks , Julie Nemrow and Lisa Nemrow , to offer variant versions of Dylan 's songs , sourced from out @-@ takes and live performances . A limited edition of 50 books , signed by Dylan , was priced at $ 5 @,@ 000 . " It ’ s the biggest , most expensive book we ’ ve ever published , as far as I know , " said Jonathan Karp , Simon & Schuster ’ s president and publisher .

On November 4 , 2014 , Columbia Records / Legacy Recordings released The Basement Tapes Complete by Bob Dylan and The Band . These 138 tracks in a six @-@ CD box form Volume 11 of Dylan 's Bootleg Series . The 1975 album , The Basement Tapes , contained some of the songs which Dylan and the Band recorded in their homes in Woodstock , New York , in 1967 . Subsequently , over 100 recordings and alternate takes have circulated on bootleg records . The sleeve notes for the new box set are by Sid Griffin , American musician and author of Million Dollar Bash : Bob Dylan , The Band , and The Basement Tapes .

= = = = Shadows in the Night and Fallen Angels = = = =

On February 3 , 2015 , Dylan released Shadows in the Night , featuring ten songs written between 1923 and 1963 , which have been described as part of the Great American Songbook . All the songs on the album were recorded by Frank Sinatra but both critics and Dylan himself cautioned against seeing the record as a collection of " Sinatra covers " . Dylan explained , " I don 't see myself as covering these songs in any way . They 've been covered enough . Buried , as a matter a fact . What me and my band are basically doing is uncovering them . Lifting them out of the grave and bringing them into the light of day . " In an interview , Dylan said he had been thinking about making this record since hearing Willie Nelson 's 1978 album Stardust .

Shadows In the Night received favorable reviews , scoring 82 on the critical aggregator Metacritic , which indicates " universal acclaim " . Critics praised the restrained instrumental backings and Dylan 's singing , saying that the material had elicited his best vocal performances in recent years . Bill Prince in GQ commented : " A performer who 's had to hear his influence in virtually every white pop recording made since he debuted his own self @-@ titled album back in 1962 imagines himself into the songs of his pre @-@ rock 'n'roll early youth . " In The Independent , Andy Gill wrote that the recordings " have a lingering , languid charm , which ... help to liberate the material from the rusting manacles of big @-@ band and cabaret mannerisms . " The album debuted at number one in the UK albums chart in its first week of release .

On October 5 , 2015 , IBM launched a marketing campaign for its Watson computer system which featured Dylan . Dylan is seen conversing with the computer which says it has read all his lyrics and reports : " My analysis shows that your major themes are that time passes and love fades . " Dylan replies : " That sounds about right . "

On November 6 , 2015 , Sony Music released The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 – 1966 . This work consists of previously unreleased material from the three albums Dylan recorded Between January 1965 and March 1966 : Bringing It All Back Home , Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde . The records have been released in three formats : a 2 @-@ CD " Best Of " version , a 6 @-@ CD " Deluxe edition " , and an 18 @-@ CD " Collector 's Edition " in a limited edition of 5 @,@ 000 units . On Dylan 's website the " Collector 's Edition " was described as containing " every single note recorded by Bob Dylan in the studio in 1965 / 1966 " . The critical aggregator website Metacritic awarded Cutting Edge a score of 99 , indicating universal acclaim . The Best of the Cutting Edge entered the Billboard Top Rock Albums chart at number one on November 18 , based on its first @-@ week sales .

On March 2 , 2016 , it was announced that Dylan had sold an extensive archive of about 6 @,@ 000 items to the George Kaiser Family Foundation and the University of Tulsa . It was reported that the sale price was " an estimated $ 15 million to $ 20 million " , and the archive comprises notebooks , drafts of Dylan lyrics , recordings , and correspondence . Filmed material in the collection includes 30 hours of outtakes from the 1965 tour documentary Dont Look Back , 30 hours of footage shot on Dylan 's legendary 1966 electric tour , and 50 hours shot on the 1975 Rolling Thunder Revue . The archive will be housed at Helmerich Center for American Research , a facility at the Gilcrease Museum .

On May 20 , 2016 , Dylan released his 37th studio album , Fallen Angels , which was described as " a direct continuation of the work of ' uncovering ' the Great Songbook that he began on last year ’ s Shadows In the Night . " The album contained twelve songs by classic songwriters such as Harold Arlen , Sammy Cahn and Johnny Mercer , eleven of which had been recorded by Sinatra . Jim Farber wrote in Entertainment Weekly : " Tellingly , [ Dylan ] delivers these songs of love lost and cherished not with a burning passion but with the wistfulness of experience . They ’ re memory songs now , intoned with a present sense of commitment . Released just four days ahead of his 75th birthday , they couldn ’ t be more age @-@ appropriate . " The album received a score of 79 on critical aggregator website Metacritic , denoting " generally favorable reviews " .

= = Never Ending Tour = =

The Never Ending Tour commenced on June 7 , 1988 , and Dylan has played roughly 100 dates a year for the entirety of the 1990s and 2000s — a heavier schedule than most performers who started out in the 1960s . By May 2013 , Dylan and his band had played more than 2 @,@ 500 shows , anchored by long @-@ time bassist Tony Garnier , drummer George Recile , multi @-@ instrumentalist Donnie Herron , and guitarist Charlie Sexton . To the dismay of some of his audience , Dylan 's performances remain unpredictable as he alters his arrangements and changes his vocal approach night after night . Critical opinion about Dylan 's shows remains divided . Critics such as Richard Williams and Andy Gill have argued that Dylan has found a successful way to present his rich legacy of material . Others have criticized his live performances for mangling and spitting out " the greatest lyrics ever written so that they are effectively unrecognisable " , and giving so little to the audience that " it is difficult to understand what he is doing on stage at all . "

Dylan 's performances in China in April 2011 generated controversy . Some criticised him for not making any explicit comment on the political situation in China , and for , allegedly , allowing the Chinese authorities to censor his set list . Others defended Dylan 's performances , arguing that such criticism represented a misunderstanding of Dylan 's art , and that no evidence for the censorship of Dylan 's set list existed . In response to these allegations , Dylan posted a statement on his website : " As far as censorship goes , the Chinese government had asked for the names of the songs that I would be playing . There 's no logical answer to that , so we sent them the set lists from the previous 3 months . If there were any songs , verses or lines censored , nobody ever told me about it and we played all the songs that we intended to play . "

Dylan commenced a tour of Japan in Tokyo on April 4 , 2016 , which concluded in Yokohama on April 28 . Dylan announced a tour of the US starting in Woodinville WA on June 4 , 2016 , and finishing in Gilford NH on July 17 . Dylan has also announced his participation in a so @-@ called " Mega @-@ Fest " titled Desert Trip , in California on October 7 , when he will perform at the same event as the Rolling Stones , Neil Young , Paul McCartney , the Who and Roger Waters .

= = Visual artist = =

The cover of Dylan 's album Self Portrait ( 1970 ) is a reproduction of a painting of a face by Dylan . Another of his paintings is reproduced on the cover of the 1974 album Planet Waves . In 1994 Random House published Drawn Blank , a book of Dylan 's drawings . In 2007 , the first public exhibition of Dylan 's paintings , The Drawn Blank Series , opened at the Kunstsammlungen in Chemnitz , Germany ; it showcased more than 200 watercolors and gouaches made from the original drawings . The exhibition coincided with the publication of Bob Dylan : The Drawn Blank Series , which includes 170 reproductions from the series . From September 2010 until April 2011 , the National Gallery of Denmark exhibited 40 large @-@ scale acrylic paintings by Dylan , The Brazil Series .

In July 2011 , a leading contemporary art gallery , Gagosian Gallery , announced their representation of Dylan 's paintings . An exhibition of Dylan 's art , The Asia Series , opened at the Gagosian Madison Avenue Gallery on September 20 , displaying Dylan 's paintings of scenes in China and the Far East . The New York Times reported that " some fans and Dylanologists have raised questions about whether some of these paintings are based on the singer 's own experiences and observations , or on photographs that are widely available and were not taken by Mr. Dylan . " The Times pointed to close resemblances between Dylan 's paintings and historic photos of Japan and China , and photos taken by Dmitri Kessel and Henri Cartier @-@ Bresson . The Magnum photo agency confirmed that Dylan had licensed the reproduction rights of these photographs .

Dylan 's second show at the Gagosian Gallery , Revisionist Art , opened in November 2012 . The show consisted of thirty paintings , transforming and satirizing popular magazines , including Playboy and Babytalk . In February 2013 , Dylan exhibited the New Orleans Series of paintings at the Palazzo Reale in Milan . In August 2013 , Britain 's National Portrait Gallery in London hosted Dylan 's first major UK exhibition , Face Value , featuring twelve pastel portraits .

In November 2013 , the Halcyon Gallery , in London , exhibited seven wrought iron gates created by Dylan ( the exhibition was entitled Mood Swings ) . In a statement released by the gallery , Dylan said , " I 've been around iron all my life ever since I was a kid . I was born and raised in iron ore country , where you could breathe it and smell it every day . Gates appeal to me because of the negative space they allow . They can be closed but at the same time they allow the seasons and breezes to enter and flow . They can shut you out or shut you in . And in some ways there is no difference . "

Since 1994 , Dylan has published six books of paintings and drawings .

= = Discography = =

= = Accolades = =

Dylan has won many awards throughout his career including eleven Grammy Awards , one Academy Award and one Golden Globe Award . He has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame , and Songwriters Hall of Fame . In May 2000 , Dylan was awarded the Polar Music Prize . He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in May 2012 . In February 2015 , Dylan accepted the MusiCares Person of the Year award from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences , in recognition of his philanthropic and artistic contributions to society .

= = Personal life = =

= = = Family = = =

Dylan married Sara Lownds on November 22 , 1965 . Their first child , Jesse Byron Dylan , was born on January 6 , 1966 , and they had three more children : Anna Lea ( born July 11 , 1967 ) , Samuel Isaac Abram ( born July 30 , 1968 ) , and Jakob Luke ( born December 9 , 1969 ) . Dylan also adopted Sara 's daughter from a prior marriage , Maria Lownds ( later Dylan , born October 21 , 1961 ) . Bob and Sara Dylan were divorced on June 29 , 1977 . Maria married musician Peter Himmelman in 1988 . In the 1990s , Dylan 's son Jakob became well known as the lead singer of the band The Wallflowers . Jesse Dylan is a film director and a successful businessman .

Desiree Gabrielle Dennis @-@ Dylan , Dylan 's daughter with his backup singer Carolyn Dennis ( often professionally known as Carol Dennis ) , was born on January 31 , 1986 , and Dylan married Carolyn Dennis on June 4 , 1986 . The couple divorced in October 1992 . Their marriage and child remained a closely guarded secret until the publication of Howard Sounes ' Dylan biography , Down the Highway : The Life Of Bob Dylan in 2001 .

When not touring , Dylan is believed to live primarily in Point Dume , a promontory on the coast of Malibu , California , though he also owns property around the world .

= = = Religious beliefs = = =

Growing up in Hibbing , Minnesota , Dylan and his family were part of the area 's small but close @-@ knit Jewish community , and in May 1954 Dylan had his Bar Mitzvah . Around the time of his 30th birthday , in 1971 , Dylan visited Israel , and also met Rabbi Meir Kahane , founder of the New York @-@ based Jewish Defense League . Time magazine quoted him saying about Kahane , " He 's a really sincere guy . He 's really put it all together . " Subsequently , Dylan downplayed the extent of his contact with Kahane .

During the late 1970s and early 1980s , Dylan converted to Christianity . From January to April 1979 , he participated in Bible study classes at the Vineyard School of Discipleship in Reseda , California . Pastor Kenn Gulliksen has recalled : " Larry Myers and Paul Emond went over to Bob 's house and ministered to him . He responded by saying , ' Yes he did in fact want Christ in his life . ' And he prayed that day and received the Lord . "

By 1984 , Dylan was distancing himself from the " born again " label . He told Kurt Loder of Rolling Stone magazine : " I 've never said I 'm born again . That 's just a media term . I don 't think I 've been an agnostic . I 've always thought there 's a superior power , that this is not the real world and that there 's a world to come . " In response to Loder 's asking whether he belonged to any church or synagogue , Dylan laughingly replied , " Not really . Uh , the Church of the Poison Mind . " In 1997 he told David Gates of Newsweek :

Here 's the thing with me and the religious thing . This is the flat @-@ out truth : I find the religiosity and philosophy in the music . I don 't find it anywhere else . Songs like " Let Me Rest on a Peaceful Mountain " or " I Saw the Light " — that 's my religion . I don 't adhere to rabbis , preachers , evangelists , all of that . I 've learned more from the songs than I 've learned from any of this kind of entity . The songs are my lexicon . I believe the songs .

In an interview published in The New York Times on September 28 , 1997 , journalist Jon Pareles reported that " Dylan says he now subscribes to no organized religion . "

Dylan has been a supporter of the Chabad Lubavitch movement in the last 20 years , and has privately participated in Jewish religious events , including the Bar Mitzvahs of his sons and attending Hadar Hatorah , a Chabad Lubavitch yeshiva . In September 1989 and September 1991 , he appeared on the Chabad telethon . Dylan reportedly visits Chabad synagogues ; on Yom Kippur in 2007 he attended Congregation Beth Tefillah , in Atlanta , Georgia , where he was called to the Torah for the sixth aliyah .

Dylan has continued to perform songs from his gospel albums in concert , occasionally covering traditional religious songs . He has also made passing references to his religious faith — such as in a 2004 interview with 60 Minutes , when he told Ed Bradley that " the only person you have to think twice about lying to is either yourself or to God . " He also explained his constant touring schedule as part of a bargain he made a long time ago with the " chief commander — in this earth and in the world we can 't see . "

In a 2009 interview with Bill Flanagan promoting Dylan 's Christmas LP , Christmas in the Heart , Flanagan commented on the " heroic performance " Dylan gave of " O Little Town of Bethlehem " and that he " delivered the song like a true believer " . Dylan replied : " Well , I am a true believer . "

= = Legacy = =

Dylan has been described as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century , musically and culturally . He was included in the Time 100 : The Most Important People of the Century where he was called " master poet , caustic social critic and intrepid , guiding spirit of the counterculture generation " . In 2008 , The Pulitzer Prize jury awarded him a special citation for " his profound impact on popular music and American culture , marked by lyrical compositions of extraordinary poetic power . " President Barack Obama said of Dylan in 2012 , " There is not a bigger giant in the history of American music . " In their 2008 assessment of the " 100 Greatest Singers " , Rolling Stone magazine ranked him at number seven . Rolling Stone then ranked Dylan at number two in its 2011 list of " 100 Greatest Artists " of all time , while " Like A Rolling Stone " was listed as the " Greatest Song of all Time . " In 2008 , it was estimated that Dylan had sold about 120 million albums worldwide .

Initially modeling his writing style on the songs of Woody Guthrie , the blues of Robert Johnson , and what he termed the " architectural forms " of Hank Williams songs , Dylan added increasingly sophisticated lyrical techniques to the folk music of the early 1960s , infusing it " with the intellectualism of classic literature and poetry " . Paul Simon suggested that Dylan 's early compositions virtually took over the folk genre : " [ Dylan 's ] early songs were very rich ... with strong melodies . ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' has a really strong melody . He so enlarged himself through the folk background that he incorporated it for a while . He defined the genre for a while . "

When Dylan made his move from acoustic folk and blues music to a rock backing , the mix became more complex . For many critics , his greatest achievement was the cultural synthesis exemplified by his mid @-@ 1960s trilogy of albums — Bringing It All Back Home , Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde . In Mike Marqusee 's words :

Between late 1964 and the middle of 1966 , Dylan created a body of work that remains unique . Drawing on folk , blues , country , R & B , rock 'n'roll , gospel , British beat , symbolist , modernist and Beat poetry , surrealism and Dada , advertising jargon and social commentary , Fellini and Mad magazine , he forged a coherent and original artistic voice and vision . The beauty of these albums retains the power to shock and console . "

Dylan 's lyrics began to receive detailed scrutiny from academics and poets . Literary critic Christopher Ricks published a 500 @-@ page analysis of Dylan 's work , placing him in the context of Eliot , Keats and Tennyson , claiming that Dylan was a poet worthy of the same close analysis . Former British poet laureate Sir Andrew Motion argued that his lyrics should be studied in schools . Since 1996 , academics have lobbied the Swedish Academy to award Dylan the Nobel Prize in Literature .

Dylan 's voice also received critical attention . New York Times critic Robert Shelton described his early vocal style as " a rusty voice suggesting Guthrie 's old performances , etched in gravel like Dave Van Ronk 's . " David Bowie , in his tribute , " Song for Bob Dylan " , described Dylan 's singing as " a voice like sand and glue " . His voice continued to develop as he began to work with rock 'n'roll backing bands ; critic Michael Gray described the sound of Dylan 's vocal work on " Like a Rolling Stone " as " at once young and jeeringly cynical " . As Dylan 's voice aged during the 1980s , for some critics , it became more expressive . Christophe Lebold writes in the journal Oral Tradition , " Dylan 's more recent broken voice enables him to present a world view at the sonic surface of the songs — this voice carries us across the landscape of a broken , fallen world . The anatomy of a broken world in " Everything is Broken " ( on the album Oh Mercy ) is but an example of how the thematic concern with all things broken is grounded in a concrete sonic reality . "

Dylan is considered a seminal influence on several musical genres , especially folk rock , country rock and Christian rock . As Edna Gundersen stated in USA Today : " Dylan 's musical DNA has informed nearly every simple twist of pop since 1962 . " Punk musician Joe Strummer praised Dylan for having " laid down the template for lyric , tune , seriousness , spirituality , depth of rock music . " Other major musicians who acknowledged Dylan 's importance include Johnny Cash , Jerry Garcia , John Lennon , Paul McCartney , Pete Townshend , Neil Young , Bruce Springsteen , David Bowie , Bryan Ferry , Nick Cave , Patti Smith , Syd Barrett Joni Mitchell , and Tom Waits . Dylan significantly contributed to the initial success of both the Byrds and the Band : the Byrds achieved chart success with their version of " Mr. Tambourine Man " and the subsequent album , while the Band were Dylan 's backing band on his 1966 tour , recorded The Basement Tapes with him in 1967 , and featured three previously unreleased Dylan songs on their debut album .

Some critics have dissented from the view of Dylan as a visionary figure in popular music . In his book Awopbopaloobop Alopbamboom , Nik Cohn objected : " I can 't take the vision of Dylan as seer , as teenage messiah , as everything else he 's been worshipped as . The way I see him , he 's a minor talent with a major gift for self @-@ hype . " Australian critic Jack Marx credited Dylan with changing the persona of the rock star : " What cannot be disputed is that Dylan invented the arrogant , faux @-@ cerebral posturing that has been the dominant style in rock since , with everyone from Mick Jagger to Eminem educating themselves from the Dylan handbook . "

Fellow musicians also presented dissenting views . Joni Mitchell described Dylan as a " plagiarist " and his voice as " fake " in a 2010 interview in the Los Angeles Times , in response to a suggestion that she and Dylan were similar since they had both created personas . Mitchell 's comment led to discussions of Dylan 's use of other people 's material , both supporting and criticizing him . In 2013 Mitchell told the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) in an interview that her remarks in the Los Angeles Times had been taken " completely out of context " , and that the interviewer was a " moron " . Mitchell added : " I like a lot of Bob 's songs . Musically he 's not very gifted . He 's borrowed his voice from old hillbillies . He 's got a lot of borrowed things . He 's not a great guitar player . He 's invented a character to deliver his songs . "

Talking to Mikal Gilmore in Rolling Stone in 2012 , Dylan responded to the allegation of plagiarism , including his use of Henry Timrod 's verse in his album Modern Times , by saying that it was " part of the tradition " .

If Dylan 's work in the 1960s was seen as bringing intellectual ambition to popular music , critics in the 21st century described him as a figure who had greatly expanded the folk culture from which he initially emerged . Following the release of Todd Haynes ' Dylan biopic I 'm Not There , J. Hoberman wrote in his 2007 Village Voice review :

Elvis might never have been born , but someone else would surely have brought the world rock ' n ' roll . No such logic accounts for Bob Dylan . No iron law of history demanded that a would @-@ be Elvis from Hibbing , Minnesota , would swerve through the Greenwich Village folk revival to become the world 's first and greatest rock ' n ' roll beatnik bard and then — having achieved fame and adoration beyond reckoning — vanish into a folk tradition of his own making .

Prior to the June 2014 sale of the original lyrics of " Like a Rolling Stone " , written on four sheets of hotel stationery by Dylan in 1965 , Richard Austin , of Sotheby 's , New York , said : " Before the release of Like a Rolling Stone , music charts were overrun with short and sweet love songs , many clocking in at three minutes or less . By defying convention with six and a half minutes of dark , brooding poetry , Dylan rewrote the rules for pop music . "

= Stephanolepis cirrhifer =

Stephanolepis cirrhifer , commonly known as the thread @-@ sail filefish , is a species of marine fish in the family Monacanthidae . It is found in the western Pacific , in an area that ranges from northern Japan to the East China Sea , to Korea . Other common names for the fish include " Kawahagi " ( Japanese ) and " Jwi @-@ chi " ( Korean ) . The fish grows to a maximum length of about 12 inches ( 30 centimetres ) , and consumes both plant material and small marine organisms like skeleton shrimp . S. cirrhifer is host of the parasite Peniculus minuticaudae . Some minor genetic differentiation between S. cirrhifer born in the wild and those bred in a hatchery for consumer use has been shown . The fish is edible and sold commercially for culinary purposes in many Asian countries .

= = Taxonomy = =

The fish was first described in 1850 by Coenraad Jacob Temminck and Hermann Schlegel , when it was observed along with other fauna off the coasts of Japan . They initially placed it in the genus Monacanthus , as Monacanthus cirrhifer ; however , it was transferred to the genus Stephanolepis by David Starr Jordan and Henry Weed Fowler in 1903 . The species name derives from the Latin word cirrhifer , which means " bearing fringes of hair " .

Other common names :

Japanese - Kawahagi

Korean - Jwi @-@ chi

English - File fish , Fool fish , Porky

Russian - Small striped triggerfish ( Спинорог малый полосатый )

= = Description and habitat = =

Thread @-@ sail filefish grow to a maximum adult length of about 30 centimetres ( 12 inches ) . The first dorsal fin is a strong retractable ( folding backwards ) spine . The second dorsal fin and anal fin are soft . They have comparatively small pectoral fins and truncated , fan @-@ shaped tail fins . The dorsal and anal fins are colorless . Their second dorsal , anal and caudal fins rounded . In males , 1 @-@ 3 soft dorsal fin rays extended as filaments ; the first ray has a particularly long thread . The fish have a small abdominal spike . The fish are colored from light brown , to grayish- to light greenish @-@ beige , and are slightly patterned with irregular , broken stripes that range from medium brown to blackish .

Juveniles of the species usually seek shelter and safety from predators within clusters of drifting seaweed . The adult thread @-@ sail filefish usually reside near the seabed , where the depth is around 10 metres ( 33 feet ) . The fish migrate wholly in ocean waters ( " oceanodromous " ) between their feeding and spawning grounds , which can cover a range of over 100 kilometres ( 62 miles ) . The spawning season lasts from May to August . Juveniles under 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 inches ) inhabit shallow water and feed on small crustaceans , mollusks and algae . Adult fish are mostly solitary and live among the coral and seaweeds .

= = Ecology = =

The thread @-@ sail filefish is an omnivore , and can feed on plant or animal matter . Its diet includes kelp , but consists mainly of amphipods such as gammarids and skeleton shrimp , as well as the seagrass species Zostera marina . The fish also feeds upon smaller organisms , including bryozoans and some species of serpulid tube worms .

Thread @-@ sail filefish feed on fish , amphipods , isopods , cirripeds , polychaetes , pelecypods , seaweeds such as those of the genus Sargassum ; and gelatinous plankton , such as the moon jellyfish Aurelia sp. and the giant jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai .

S. cirrhifer is host of the pennellid copepod parasite Peniculus minuticaudae , which mostly infects the fins of the female fish .

= = Uses = =

The thread @-@ sail filefish is cultured and sold commercially as food in Asian countries , including Korea and Japan . The demand for the fish in Korea is very high , and fisheries often employ the services of fish hatcheries for breeding more of the fish to supplement and enhance the supply of stock . This has been done to such a degree that some . As many as 95 alleles have been found to be unique to one of the populations , resulting from minor variations in certain genes that occur exclusively within either population ; genetic differentiation between S. cirrhifer born in the wild and those bred in a hatchery has apparently occurred .

= Mogadishu =

Mogadishu ( / ˌmɔːɡəˈdiːʃuː / ; Somali : Muqdisho ; Arabic : مقديشو Maqadīshū ) , known locally as Hamar , is the capital and most populous city of Somalia . Located in the coastal Banaadir region on the Indian Ocean , the city has served as an important port for millennia . As of 2015 , it had a population of 2 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 residents .

Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia , including the Mogadishu area , was historically inhabited by hunter @-@ gatherers . These were later joined by Cushitic agro @-@ pastoralists , who would go on to establish local aristocracies . During its medieval Golden Age , Mogadishu was ruled by the Muzaffar dynasty , a vassal of the Ajuran Sultanate . It subsequently fell under the control of an assortment of local Sultanates and polities , most notably the Geledi Sultanate . The city later became the capital of Italian Somaliland ( 1889 @-@ 1936 ) in the colonial period . After the Somali Republic became independent in 1960 , Mogadishu became known and promoted as the White Pearl of the Indian Ocean . After the ousting of the Siad Barre regime in 1991 and the ensuing civil war , various militias fought for control of the city , later to be replaced by the Islamic Courts Union in the mid @-@ 2000s . The ICU thereafter splintered into more radical groups , notably Al @-@ Shabaab , which fought the Transitional Federal Government ( 2004 @-@ 2012 ) and its AMISOM allies . With a change in administration in late 2010 , government troops and their military partners had succeeded in forcing out Al @-@ Shabaab by August 2011 . Mogadishu has subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction .

As Somalia 's capital city , many important national institutions are based in Mogadishu . It is the seat of the Federal Government of Somalia established in August 2012 , with the Somalia Federal Parliament serving as the government 's legislative branch . Yusuf Hussein Jimaale has been the Mayor of Mogadishu since October 2015 . Villa Somalia is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia , Hassan Sheikh Mohamud . In May 2012 , the First Somali Bank was established in the capital , which organized Mogadishu 's first ever Technology , Entertainment , Design ( TEDx ) conference . The establishment of a local construction yard has also galvanized the city 's real @-@ estate sector . Arba 'a Rukun Mosque is one of the oldest Islamic places of worship in the capital , built circa 667 ( 1268 / 9 AD ) . The Mosque of Islamic Solidarity in Mogadishu is the largest masjid in the Horn region . Mogadishu Cathedral was built in 1928 by the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland in a Norman Gothic style , and served as the traditional seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio . The National Museum of Somalia is based in Mogadishu and holds many culturally important artefacts . The National Library of Somalia is undergoing a $ 1 million Somali federal government funded renovation , including a new library complex .

Mogadishu is home to a number of scholastic and media institutions . As part of the municipality 's urban renewal program , 100 schools across the capital are scheduled to be refurbished and reopened . The Somali National University ( SNU ) was established in the 1950s , and professors from the university later founded the non @-@ governmental Mogadishu University ( MU ) . Benadir University ( BU ) was established in 2002 with the intention of training doctors . Various national sporting bodies have their headquarters in Mogadishu , including the Somali Football Federation and the Somali Olympic Committee . Mogadishu Stadium was constructed in 1978 during the Siad Barre administration , with the assistance of Chinese engineers . It hosts football matches with teams from the Somalia League and the Somalia Cup . Additionally , the Port of Mogadishu serves as a major national seaport and is the largest harbour in Somalia . Mogadishu International Airport , the capital 's main airport , is the hub of the relaunched national carrier Somali Airlines .

= = Etymology = =

The origins of the name Mogadishu ( Muqdisho ) has many theories but it is most likely derived from a morphology of the Persian words Maq 'ad @-@ i @-@ Shah For a long time , it was thought to be derived from the Persian Maq 'ad @-@ i @-@ Shah ( مقعد شاه ) , which means " the seat of the Shah " ( a reflection of the city 's early Persian influence ) . It is known locally as Xamar ( English : Hamar ) .

= = History = =

= = = Early history = = =

Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia , including the Mogadishu area , was inhabited very early by hunter @-@ gatherers of Khoisan descent . Although most of these early inhabitants are believed to have been either overwhelmed , driven away or , in some cases , assimilated by later migrants to the area , physical traces of their occupation survive in certain ethnic minority groups inhabiting modern @-@ day Jubaland and other parts of the south . The latter descendants include relict populations such as the Eile , Aweer , the Wa @-@ Ribi , and especially the Wa @-@ Boni . By the time of the arrival of peoples from the Cushitic Rahanweyn ( Digil and Mirifle ) clan confederacy , who would go on to establish a local aristocracy , other Cushitic groups affiliated with the Oromo ( Wardai ) and Ajuuraan ( Ma 'adanle ) had already formed settlements of their own in the sub @-@ region .

The ancient city of Sarapion is believed to have been the predecessor state of Mogadishu . It is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , a Greek travel document dating from the first century AD , as one of a series of commercial ports on the Somali littoral . According to the Periplus , maritime trade already connected peoples in the Mogadishu area with other communities along the Indian Ocean coast .

The Sultanate of Mogadishu later developed with the immigration of Emozeidi Arabs , a community whose earliest presence dates back to the 9th or 10th century . This evolved into the Muzaffar dynasty , a joint Somali @-@ Arab federation of rulers , and Mogadishu became closely linked with the powerful Somali Ajuran Sultanate . Following his visit to the city , the 12th century Syrian historian Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi wrote that it was inhabited by dark @-@ skinned Berbers , the ancestors of the modern Somalis .

For many years , Mogadishu stood as the pre @-@ eminent city in the Bilad @-@ ul @-@ Barbar ( بلاد البربر ) , meaning " Land of the Berbers , " which was the medieval Arabic term for the Somali coast . By the time of the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta 's appearance on the Somali coast in 1331 , the city was at the zenith of its prosperity . He described Mogadishu as " an exceedingly large city " with many rich merchants , which was famous for the high quality fabric that it exported to destinations including Egypt . Batutta added that the city was ruled by a Somali Sultan , Abu Bakr ibn Sayx ' Umar , who was originally from Barbara in northern Somalia and spoke both Somali ( referred to by Battuta as Mogadishan , the Benadir dialect of Somali ) and Arabic with equal fluency . The Sultan also had a retinue of wazirs ( ministers ) , legal experts , commanders , royal eunuchs , and other officials at his service .

Additionally , there appears to have been a strong Persian presence in both Mogadishu and Zeila for a time . A Shi 'a influence can still be seen in some areas , as in the southern Somalia veneration of Fatimah , the Prophet Muhammad 's daughter . This fact is also reflected in the etymology of the city 's name , which derives from the Persian Maq 'ad @-@ i @-@ Shah ( مقعد شاه ) and means " the seat of the Shah . "

The Portuguese would subsequently attempt to occupy the city , but never managed to take it . In his journal of an expedition to the region in 1497 @-@ 1499 , the explorer João de Sá , who accompanied Vasco da Gama on the voyage , wrote that Magadoxo ( Mogadishu ) was controlled by Moors . A big town surrounded by four towers , it had houses several storeys high and large palaces in its center . De Sá and his men bombarded the city before continuing southwards along the seaboard . The Hawiye Somali , however , were later successful in defeating the Ajuran State and bringing about the end of Muzaffar rule .

= = = Sultanates ( 1800s – 1900s ) = = =

By 1892 , Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali Sultanate of the Geledi and the Omani Sultanate of Zanzibar . The Geledi Sultans were at the height of their power . They dominated the southern ivory trade , and also held sway over the Jubba and Shebelle valleys in the hinterland . The Omani Sultans ' authority in Mogadishu , however , was largely nominal . When Imam Azzan bin Qais of Oman sought to build a fort in the city , he was thus obligated to request permission from Sultan Ahmed Yusuf of Geledi . This Fort of Garessa was eventually constructed in 1870 . The Sultan of Zanzibar later leased and then sold the infrastructure that he had built to the Italians , but not the land itself , which was Somali owned .

= = = Italian Somaliland ( late 1800s @-@ 1960 ) = = =

In 1905 , Italy made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Italian Somaliland . The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Mogadiscio . After World War I , the surrounding territory came under Italian control with some resistance .

Thousands of Italians settled in Mogadishu and founded small manufacturing companies . They also developed some agricultural areas in the south near the capital , such as Janale and the Villaggio duca degli Abruzzi ( present @-@ day Jowhar ) . In the 1930s , new buildings and avenues were built . A 114 km ( 71 mi ) narrow @-@ gauge railway was laid from Mogadishu to Jowhar . An asphalted road , the Strada Imperiale , was also constructed and intended to link Mogadishu to Addis Ababa .

In 1940 , the Italo @-@ Somali population numbered 22 @,@ 000 , accounting for over 44 % of the city 's population of 50 @,@ 000 residents . Mogadishu remained the capital of Italian Somaliland throughout the latter polity 's existence . In World War II it was captured by British forces in February 1941 .

After World War II Mogadishu was made the capital of the Trust Territory of Somaliland , an Italian administered fiduciary political entity under the ONU mandate , for ten years ( 1950 – 1960 ) .

= = = Somali Republic ( 1960 – 1990 ) = = =

British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland , and the Trust Territory of Somalia ( the former Italian Somaliland ) followed suit five days later . On 1 July 1960 , the two territories united to form the Somali Republic , with Mogadishu serving as the nation 's capital . A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments , with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly , Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic , and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister ( later to become President from 1967 to 1969 ) . On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum , the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960 . In 1967 , Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister , a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke .

On 15 October 1969 , while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod , Somalia 's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated by one of his own bodyguards . His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d 'état on 21 October 1969 ( the day after his funeral ) , in which the Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition — essentially a bloodless takeover . The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre , who at the time commanded the army .

Alongside Barre , the Supreme Revolutionary Council ( SRC ) that assumed power after President Sharmarke 's assassination was led by Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel . Kediye officially held the title of " Father of the Revolution , " and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC . The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic , arrested members of the former civilian government , banned political parties , dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court , and suspended the constitution .

The revolutionary army established various large @-@ scale public works programmes , including the Mogadishu Stadium . In addition to a nationalization programme of industry and land , the Mogadishu @-@ based new regime 's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia 's traditional and religious links with the Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League in 1974 .

After fallout from the unsuccessful Ogaden campaign of the late 1970s , the Barre administration began arresting government and military officials under suspicion of participation in the abortive 1978 coup d 'état . Most of the people who had allegedly helped plot the putsch were summarily executed . However , several officials managed to escape abroad and started to form the first of various dissident groups dedicated to ousting Barre 's regime by force .

= = = Civil war = = =

By the late 1980s , Barre 's regime had become increasingly unpopular . The authorities became ever more totalitarian , and resistance movements , encouraged by Ethiopia 's communist Derg administration , sprang up across the country . This eventually led in 1991 to the outbreak of the civil war , the toppling of Barre 's government , and the disbandment of the Somali National Army . Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre 's regime . Armed factions led by United Somali Congress commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed , in particular , clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital .

UN Security Council Resolution 733 and UN Security Council Resolution 746 led to the creation of UNOSOM I , the first stabilization mission in Somalia after the dissolution of the central government . United Nations Security Council Resolution 794 was unanimously passed on 3 December 1992 , which approved a coalition of United Nations peacekeepers led by the United States . Forming the Unified Task Force ( UNITAF ) , the alliance was tasked with assuring security until humanitarian efforts were transferred to the UN . Landing in 1993 , the UN peacekeeping coalition started the two @-@ year United Nations Operation in Somalia II ( UNOSOM II ) primarily in the south .

Some of the militias that were then competing for power interpreted the UN troops ' presence as a threat to their hegemony . Consequently , several gun battles took place in Mogadishu between local gunmen and peacekeepers . Among these was the Battle of Mogadishu of 1993 , a successful attempt by US troops to apprehend two high @-@ ranking lieutenants of faction leader Aidid . The UN soldiers eventually withdrew altogether from the country on 3 March 1995 , having incurred more significant casualties .

In 2006 , the Islamic Courts Union ( ICU ) , an Islamist organization , assumed control of much of the southern part of the country and promptly imposed Shari 'a law . The new Transitional Federal Government ( TFG ) , established two years earlier , sought to re @-@ establish its authority . With the assistance of Ethiopian troops , AMISOM peacekeepers and air support by the United States , it managed to drive out the rival ICU and solidify its rule . On 8 January 2007 , as the Battle of Ras Kamboni raged , TFG President and founder Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed , a former colonel in the Somali Army , entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office . The government then relocated to Villa Somalia in Mogadishu from its interim location in Baidoa , marking the first time since the fall of the Barre regime in 1991 that the federal government controlled most of the country .

Following this defeat , the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions . Some of the more radical elements , including Al @-@ Shabaab , regrouped to continue their insurgency against the TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military 's presence in Somalia . Throughout 2007 and 2008 , Al @-@ Shabaab scored military victories , seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia . At the end of 2008 , the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu . By January 2009 , Al @-@ Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to retreat , leaving behind an under @-@ equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist the Transitional Federal Government 's troops .

Between 31 May and 9 June 2008 , representatives of Somalia 's federal government and the moderate Alliance for the Re @-@ liberation of Somalia ( ARS ) group of Islamist rebels participated in peace talks in Djibouti brokered by the UN . The conference ended with a signed agreement calling for the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops in exchange for the cessation of armed confrontation . Parliament was subsequently expanded to 550 seats to accommodate ARS members , which then elected a new president . With the help of a small team of African Union troops , the coalition government also began a counteroffensive in February 2009 to retake control of the southern half of the country . To solidify its control of southern Somalia , the TFG formed an alliance with the Islamic Courts Union , other members of the Alliance for the Re @-@ liberation of Somalia , and Ahlu Sunna Waljama 'a , a moderate Sufi militia .

In November 2010 , a new technocratic government was elected to office , which enacted numerous reforms , especially in the security sector . By August 2011 , the new administration and its AMISOM allies had managed to capture all of Mogadishu from the Al @-@ Shabaab militants . Mogadishu has subsequently experienced a period of intense reconstruction spearheaded by the Somali diaspora , the municipal authorities , and Turkey , a historic ally of Somalia .

= = = Reconstruction = = =

In August 2011 , militant group al Shabaab made a strategic withdrawal from Mogadishu to return to hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics . Mayor Mohamed Nur recognized the opportunity as critical to stabilizing and rebuilding the city by any means necessary . Working closely with the UN , USAID , and DRC , Nur 's administration also started large @-@ scale rehabilitation of roads and general infrastructure , with residents closely cooperating with the civil and police authorities to tighten up on security . Nur recognized the opportunity to transform Mogadishu although resources were limited . Working closely with urban strategist Mitchell Sipus , the Benadir government sought to design and deploy a data @-@ driven approach to post @-@ war reconstruction .

With the passing of a new Constitution in 2012 and the subsequent election of an inaugural President in the new Federal Government , the mayorship continued to oversee Mogadishu 's ongoing post @-@ conflict reconstruction . Building off the initial pilot , the Benadir administration launched a city @-@ wide street naming , house numbering and postal codes project . Officially called the House Numbering and Post Code System , it is a joint initiative of the municipal authorities and Somali business community representatives . According to Nur , the initiative also aims to help the authorities firm up on security and resolve housing ownership disputes . As of 2016 , there are postal codes for 176 localities and sub @-@ localities , including the Mogadishu metropolitan area .

= = Geography = =

Mogadishu is situated on the Indian Ocean coast of the Horn of Africa , in the Banaadir administrative region ( gobol ) in southeastern Somalia . The region itself is coextensive with the city and is much smaller than the historical province of Benadir . The city is administratively divided into the districts of Abdiaziz , Bondhere , Daynile , Dharkenley , Hamar @-@ Jajab , Hamar @-@ Weyne , Heliwa , Hodan , Howl @-@ Wadag , Karan , Shangani , Shibis , Waberi , Wadajir , Wardhigley and Yaqshid . Features of the city include the Hamarwein old town , the Bakaara Market , and Gezira Beach . The sandy beaches of Mogadishu have vibrant coral reefs , and are prime real estate for the first tourist resorts in many years .

The Shebelle River ( Webiga Shabelle ) rises in central Ethiopia and comes within 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) of the Indian Ocean near Mogadishu before turning southwestward . Usually dry during February and March , the river provides water essential for the cultivation of sugarcane , cotton , and bananas .

= = = Climate = = =

For a city situated so near the equator , Mogadishu has a relatively dry climate . It is classified as hot and semi @-@ arid ( Köppen climate classification BSh ) , as with much of southeastern Somalia . By contrast , towns in northern Somalia generally have a hot arid climate ( Köppen BWh ) .

Mogadishu is located in or near the tropical thorn woodland biome of the Holdridge global bioclimatic scheme . The mean temperature in the city year round is 27 ° C , with an average maximum of 30 ° C and an average minimum of 24 ° C. Mean temperature readings per month vary by 3 ° C ( 5 @.@ 4 ° F ) , corresponding with a hyperoceanic and subtype truly hyperoceanic continentality type . Precipitation per year averages 429 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 16 @.@ 9 in ) . There are 47 wet days annually , which are associated with a 12 % daily probability of rainfall . The city has an average of 3 @,@ 066 hours of sunshine per year , with 8 @.@ 4 hours of sunlight per day . Mean daylight hours and minutes per day are 8h 24 ' . The annual percentage of sunny versus cloudy daylight hours is 70 and 30 , respectively . Average sun altitude at solar noon on the 21st day of the month is 75 .

= = Government = =

= = = Federal = = =

The Transitional Federal Government ( TFG ) was the internationally recognized central government of Somalia between 2004 and 2012 . Based in Mogadishu , it constituted the executive branch of government .

The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012 , concurrent with the end of the TFG 's interim mandate . It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war . The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government 's legislative branch .

= = = Municipal = = =

Mogadishu 's municipal government is currently led by Yusuf Hussein Jimaale , who succeeded Mayor Hassan Mohamed Hussein Mungab , a former military court chairman . Among the administration 's development initiatives are a US $ 100 million urban renewal project , the creation of garbage disposal and incineration plants , the launch of a city @-@ wide cleanup project , the creation of asphalt and cement plants , rehabilitation of the Town Hall and parliament buildings , reconstruction of the former Defence Ministry offices , reconstruction of correctional facilities , rehabilitation and construction of health facilities , establishment of a Police Training Center and a permanent base in Jasiira for the new Somali Armed Forces , rebuilding of the Somali Postal Service headquarters , and rehabilitation of public playgrounds in several districts . In January 2014 , the Benadir administration launched the House Numbering and Post Code System . It also began distributing national identity cards in March of the same year . In addition , the municipal authorities started renovating important local government centers in September 2014 , including the capital 's former Fisho Guverno compound . In January 2015 , the Benadir administration also opened a new Health & Safety Office to supervise health and safety practices in the city , and launched a municipal beautification campaign ahead of various international conferences that are slated to be held there .

In March 2015 , the Benadir administration completed the SECIL project in conjunction with the EU and UNHABITAT . The 3 @.@ 5 million EUR initiative lasted three and a half years , and saw the establishment in Mogadishu of a new sustainable waste collection system , a Technical Training Centre , water quality testing laboratories , ameliorated access to clean drinking water , improved employment and livelihood opportunities in the low @-@ cost fuel production sector , strengthened skills training and regulation in the construction sector , and laboratories for the testing of construction material quality .

= = = Diplomatic missions = = =

A number of countries maintain foreign embassies and consulates in Mogadishu . As of January 2014 , these diplomatic missions include the embassies of Djibouti , Ethiopia , Sudan , Libya , Yemen , Saudi Arabia , Turkey , Iran , Uganda , Nigeria , the United Kingdom , Japan , China , and Qatar . Embassies that are scheduled to reopen in the city include those of Egypt , the United Arab Emirates , Italy and South Korea .

In May 2015 , in recognition of the sociopolitical progress made in Somalia and its return to effective governance , US Secretary of State John Kerry announced a preliminary plan to reestablish the US embassy in Mogadishu . He indicated that although there was no set timetable for the premises ' relaunch , the US government had immediately begun upgrading its diplomatic representation in the country . President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud and Prime Minister Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke also presented to Kerry the real estate deed for land reserved for the new US embassy compound . Mohamud concurrently signed an Establishment Agreement with the EU Head of Delegation in Somalia Michele Cervone d ’ Urso , which facilitates the opening of more embassies in Mogadishu by European Union member states . The EU also announced that it had opened a new EU Delegation office in the city .

In February 2014 , Somalia 's Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation Abdirahman Duale Beyle announced that the federal government was slated to reopen the former Institute of Diplomacy in Mogadishu . The center historically served as one of the most important national institutions for diplomacy and international relations . Beyle also pledged to reestablish the institute 's diplomacy department , its information and broadcasting department , as well as its library .

= = Economy = =

Mogadishu traditionally served as a commercial and financial centre . Before the importation of mass @-@ produced cloth from Europe and America , the city 's textiles were forwarded far and wide throughout the interior of the continent , as well as to the Arabian peninsula and as far as the Persian coast .

Mogadishu 's economy has grown rapidly since the city 's pacification in mid 2011 . The SomalFruit processing factory was reopened , as was the local Coca Cola factory , which was also refurbished . In May 2012 , the First Somali Bank was established in the capital , representing the first commercial bank to open in southern Somalia since 1991 . The Somali civil engineer and entrepreneur Nasra Agil also opened the city 's first dollar store . Additionally , the Historic Central Bank was regenerated , with the Moumin Business Center likewise under construction .

The galvanization of Mogadishu 's real estate sector was in part facilitated by the establishment of a local construction yard in November 2012 by the Municipality of Istanbul and the Turkish Red Crescent . With 50 construction trucks and machines imported from Turkey , the yard produces concrete , asphalt and paving stones for building projects . The Istanbul Municipality was also scheduled to bring in 100 specialists to accelerate the construction initiative , which ultimately aims to modernize the capital 's infrastructure and serve it over the long @-@ term .

In mid @-@ 2012 , Mogadishu concurrently held its first ever Technology , Entertainment , Design ( TEDx ) conference . The event was organized by the First Somali Bank to showcase improvements in business , development and security to potential Somali and international investors . A second consecutive TEDx entrepreneurial conference was held the following year in the capital , highlighting new enterprises and commercial opportunities , including the establishment of the city 's first dry cleaning business in several years .

A number of large firms also have their headquarters in Mogadishu . Among these is the Trans @-@ National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company , an energy conglomerate founded in 2010 that unites five major Somali companies from the trade , finance , security and telecommunications sectors . Other firms based in the city include Hormuud Telecom , the largest telecommunications company in southern and central Somalia . Telcom is another telecommunications service provider that is centered in the capital . The local Somali Energy Company specializes in the generation , transmission and distribution of electric power to residents and businesses within its service area in Banaadir . Villa and Mansion Architects , an international architectural firm founded by the Somali @-@ British architect Alexander Yusuf , likewise has its regional offices in Mogadishu . Additionally , the International Bank of Somalia , which opened downtown in 2014 , offers Islamic finance and international banking services via a swift code system . The Islamic Insurance Company ( First Takaful and Re @-@ Takaful Insurance Company ) was concurrently established , and is the city 's first full service insurance firm in many years . The Central Bank of Somalia , the national monetary authority , also has its headquarters in Mogadishu .

In June 2013 , former Prime Minister Abdi Farah Shirdon signed a new foreign investment law . The draft bill was prepared by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry in conjunction with government attorneys . Approved by the Cabinet , it establishes a secure legal framework for foreign investment in Mogadishu and elsewhere in the country .

In October 2014 , the firm Tawakal Money Express ( Tawakal ) also began construction of the seven @-@ storey Tawakal Plaza Mogadishu . The new high rise is slated to be completed by the end of 2015 , and will feature a Tawakal Global Bank customer and financial services center , a large , 338 square meter supermarket , a 46 @-@ room luxury hotel , restaurant and coffee shop facilities , and conference and event halls . In addition , the Nabaad Supermarket provides major retail service to local shoppers . Open daily until 10 pm , the convenience chain imports most of its products from the United Arab Emirates and China . The Al Buruuj firm also launched a major real estate project in January 2015 , Daru @-@ Salam City . Financed by the Salaam Somali Bank , the new urban complex includes town houses , apartment flats , a mosque , recreational areas , playgrounds , a supermarket and roads . It is slated to be erected just outside the northern part of the capital , within a 7 kilometer radius of the Industrial Road .

= = Demographics = =

Mogadishu is a multi @-@ ethnic city . Its original core population consisted of Bushmen aboriginals , and later Cushitic , Arab and Persian migrants . The mixture of these various groups produced the Benadiri or Reer Xamar ( “ People of Mogadishu ” ) , a composite population unique to the larger Benadir region . In the colonial period , European expatriates , primarily Italians , would also contribute to the city 's cosmopolitan populace .

The main area of inhabitation of Bantu ethnic minorities in Somalia has historically been in village enclaves in the south , particularly between the Jubba and Shebelle river valleys as well as the Bakool and Bay regions . Beginning in the 1970s , more Bantus began moving to urban centres such as Mogadishu and Kismayo . The displacement caused by the onset of the civil war in the 1990s further increased the number of rural minorities migrating to urban areas . As a consequence of these movements , Mogadishu 's traditional demographic makeup changed significantly over the years .

Following a greatly improved security situation in the city in 2012 , many Somali expatriates began returning to Mogadishu for investment opportunities and to take part in the ongoing post @-@ conflict reconstruction process . Through both private efforts and public initiatives like the Somali Diaspora Corps , they have participated in the renovation of schools , hospitals , banks and other infrastructure , and have played a leading role in the capital 's recovery . They have also helped to propel the local real estate market .

According to Demographia , Mogadishu has a population of around 2 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 residents as of 2015 . It is the 222nd largest city in the world by population size . The urban area occupies 91 square kilometres ( 35 sq mi ) , with a population density of around 23 @,@ 400 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 61 @,@ 000 / sq mi ) . As of September 2014 , the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation is scheduled to launch the first population census for Somalia in over two decades . The UNFPA assisted the Ministry in the project , which is slated to be finalized ahead of the planned plebiscite and local and national elections in 2016 .

= = Landmarks = =

= = = Places of worship = = =

Arba 'a Rukun Mosque is one of the oldest Islamic places of worship in the capital . It was built circa 667 ( 1268 / 9 AD ) , concurrently with the Fakr ad @-@ Din Mosque . Arba 'a Rukun 's mihrab contains an inscription dated from the same year , which commemorates the masjid 's late founder , Khusra ibn Mubarak al @-@ Shirazi ( Khusrau ibn Muhammed ) .

The Mosque of Islamic Solidarity was constructed in 1987 with financial support from the Saudi Fahd bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud Foundation . It is the main mosque in the city , and an iconic building in Somali society . With a capacity of up to 10 @,@ 000 worshippers , it is the single largest masjid in the Horn region . In 2015 , the federal authorities completed formal refurbishments on the mosque 's infrastructure . The upgrades are part of a larger governmental renovation campaign aimed at all of the masjids in Mogadishu . To this end , the municipal authority is refurbishing the historic Central Mosque , situated downtown .

The Mogadishu Cathedral was built in 1928 by the colonial authorities in Italian Somaliland . Known as the " Cattedrale di Mogadiscio " , it was constructed in a Norman Gothic style , based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù , Sicily . The church served as the traditional seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadiscio . It later incurred significant damage during the civil war . In April 2013 , after a visit to the site to inspect its condition , the Diocese of Mogadiscio announced plans to refurbish the building .

= = = Palaces = = =

Villa Somalia is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia , Hassan Sheikh Mohamud . It sits on high ground that overlooks the city on the Indian Ocean , with access to both the harbour and airport . The Governor 's Palace of Mogadishu was the seat of the governor of Italian Somaliland , and then the administrator of the Trust Territory of Somalia .

= = = Museums , libraries and theatres = = =

The National Museum of Somalia was established after independence in 1960 , when the old Garesa Museum was turned into a National Museum . The National Museum was later moved in 1985 , renamed to the Garesa Museum , and converted to a regional museum . After shutting down , the National Museum later reopened . As of January 2014 , it holds many culturally important artefacts , including old coins , bartering tools , traditional artwork , ancient weaponry and pottery items .

The National Library of Somalia was established in 1975 , and came under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education , Culture and Higher Education . In 1983 , it held approximately 7 @,@ 000 books , little in the way of historical and cultural archival material , and was open to the general public . The National Library later closed down in the 1990s . In June 2013 , the Heritage Institute for Policy Studies organized a shipment of 22 @,@ 000 books from the United States to Somalia as part of an initiative to restock the library . In December of the year , the Somali authorities officially launched a major project to rebuild the National Library . With Zainab Hassan serving as Director , the $ 1 million federal government funded initiative will see a new library complex built in the capital within six months . In preparation for the relaunch , 60 @,@ 000 additional books from other Arab League states are expected to arrive .

The National Theatre of Somalia opened in 1967 as an important cultural landmark in the national capital . It closed down after the start of the civil war in the early 1990s , but reopened in March 2012 after reconstruction . In September 2013 , the Somali federal government and its Chinese counterpart signed an official cooperation agreement in Mogadishu as part of a five @-@ year national recovery plan in Somalia . The pact will see the Chinese authorities reconstruct the National Theatre of Somalia in addition to several other major infrastructural landmarks .

= = = Markets = = =

Bakaara Market was created in late 1972 by the Barre administration . It served as an open market for the sale of goods and services , including produce and clothing . After the start of the civil war , the market was controlled by various militant groups , who used it as a base for their operations . Following Mogadishu 's pacification in 2011 , renovations resumed at the market . Shops were rehabilitated , selling everything from fruit and garments to building materials . As in the rest of the city , Barkaara Market 's real estate values have also risen considerably . As of 2013 , the local Tabaarak firm was renting out a newly constructed warehouse at the market for $ 2 @,@ 000 per month .

In February 2014 , the Benadir administration began renovations at the Ansaloti Market in the Hamar Jajab district . It was one of the largest markets in the city before closing down operations in the early 1990s . In September 2014 , the municipal authorities officially reopened the Ansaloti to the public , with officials supervising all parts of the market . According to the Benadir Political Affairs Vice Chairman Mohamed Adan " Anagel " , the facility is now open for business and will compete with other regional markets .

= = = Institutes = = =

The Regional Somali Language Academy is an intergovernmental regulating body for the Somali language in the Horn region . In January 2015 , President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud announced that the institute was slated to be finalized in conjunction with the governments of Djibouti and Ethiopia . Among the scheduled projects was the construction of a new headquarters for the Academy in Mogadishu , in recognition of Somalia 's traditional position as the center for the development and promotion of the Somali language . In February 2015 , the foundation stone for the new Regional Somali Language Academy was officially laid at an inauguration ceremony in the city .

= = = Hotels = = =

Mogadishu has a number of hotels , most of which were recently constructed . The city 's many returning expatriates , investors and international community workers are among these establishments ' main customers . To meet the growing demand , hotel representatives have also begun participating in international industry conferences , such as the Africa Hotel Investment Forum .

Among the new hotels is the six floor Jazeera Palace Hotel . It was built in 2010 and officially opened in 2012 . Situated within a 300m radius of the Aden Adde International Airport , it has a 70 @-@ room capacity with a 70 % occupancy rate . The hotel expects to host over 1 @,@ 000 visitors by 2015 , for which it plans to construct a larger overall building and conference facilities . A new landslide hotel within the airport itself is also slated to be completed by the end of the year .

Other hotels in the city include the Lafweyn Palace Hotel , Amira Castle Hotel , Sahafi Hotel , Hotel Nasa @-@ Hablod , Oriental Hotel , Hotel Guuleed , Hotel Shamo , Peace Hotel , Aran Guest House , Muna Hotel , Hotel Taleex , Hotel Towfiq , Benadir Hotel , Ambassador Hotel , Kuwait Plaza Hotel , Safari Hotel Diplomat , Dayax Hotel , Safari Guesthouse and Bin Ali Hotel .

= = Education = =

Mogadishu is home to a number of scholastic institutions . As part of the government 's urban renewal program , 100 schools across the capital are scheduled to be refurbished and reopened .

The Somali National University ( SNU ) was established in the 1950s , during the trusteeship period . In 1973 , its programmes and facilities were expanded . The SNU developed over the next 20 years into an expansive institution of higher learning , with 13 departments , 700 staff and over 15 @,@ 000 students . On 14 November 2013 , the Cabinet unanimously approved a federal government plan to reopen the Somali National University , which had been closed down in the early 1990s . The refurbishing initiative cost US $ 3 @.@ 6 million , and was completed in August 2014 .

Mogadishu University ( MU ) is a non @-@ governmental university that is governed by a Board of Trustees and a University Council . It is the brainchild of a number of professors from the Somali National University as well as other Somali intellectuals . Financed by the Islamic Development Bank in Jeddah , Saudi Arabia , as well as other donor institutions , the university counts hundreds of graduates from its seven faculties , some of whom continue on to pursue Master 's degrees abroad thanks to a scholarship programme . Mogadishu University has established partnerships with several other academic institutions , including the University of Aalborg in Denmark , three universities in Egypt , seven universities in Sudan , the University of Djibouti , and two universities in Yemen . As of 2012 , MU also has accreditation with the Board of the Intergovernmental Organization EDU .

In 1999 , the Somali Institute of Management and Administration ( SIMAD ) was co @-@ established in Mogadishu by incumbent President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud . The institution subsequently grew into the SIMAD University , with Mohamud acting as dean until 2010 . It offers a range of undergraduate courses in various fields , including economics , statistics , business , accountancy , technology , computer science , health sciences , education , law and public administration .

Benadir University ( BU ) was established in 2002 with the intention of training doctors . It has since expanded into other fields . Another tertiary institution in the city is the Jamhuriya University of Science and Technology . The Turkish Boarding School was also established , with the Mogadishu Polytechnic Institute and Shabelle University campus likewise undergoing renovations . Additionally , a New Islamic University campus is being built . In April 2014 , Prime Minister Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed also laid the foundation stone for the reconstruction of the former meteorological school in Mogadishu . A new national Aviation Training Academy is likewise being built at the Aden Adde International Airport .

Other tertiary institutions in the capital include City University . It was established in 2012 with the aim of providing quality instruction and research . The college is staffed by an accredited and experienced master 's @-@ level faculty , and governed by a Board of Trustees consisting of academics and prominent entrepreneurs . City University 's syllabus features an advanced curriculum and foundation programs in English . Its campus includes physical and digital libraries , as well as IT and scientific laboratories . The university is a member of the Somali Research and Educational Network , and is authorized as a degree granting institution by the national Ministry of Education Directorate of Higher Education and Culture .

= = Sport = =

Mogadishu Stadium was constructed in 1978 during the Barre administration , with the assistance of Chinese engineers . The facility was mainly used for hosting sporting activities , such as the Somalia Cup and for football matches with teams from the Somalia League . Presidential addresses and political rallies , among other events , were also held there . In September 2013 , the Somali federal government and its Chinese counterpart signed an official cooperation agreement in Mogadishu as part of a five @-@ year national recovery plan in Somalia . The pact will see the Chinese authorities reconstruct several major infrastructural landmarks , including the Mogadishu Stadium .

The Banadir Stadium and Konis Stadium are two other major sporting facilities in the capital . In 2013 , the Somali Football Federation launched a renovation project at the Konis facility , during which artificial football turf contributed by FIFA was installed at the stadium . The Ex @-@ Lujino basketball stadium in the Abdulaziz District also underwent a $ 10 @,@ 000 rehabilitation , with funding provided by the local Hormuud Telecom firm . Additionally , the municipal authority oversaw the reconstruction of the Banadir Stadium .

Various national sporting bodies also have their headquarters in Mogadishu . Among these are the Somali Football Federation , Somali Olympic Committee and Somali Basketball Federation . The Somali Karate and Taekwondo Federation is likewise centered in the city , and manages the national Taekwondo team .

= = Transportation = =

= = = Road = = =

Roads leading out of Mogadishu connect the city to other localities in Somalia as well as to neighbouring countries . The capital itself is cut into several grid layouts by an extensive road network , with streets supporting the flow of both vehicular and pedestrian traffic . In October 2013 , major construction began on the 23 kilometer road leading to the airport . Overseen by Somali and Turkish engineers , the upgrade was completed in November and included lane demarcation . The road construction initiative was part of a larger agreement signed by the Somali and Turkish governments to establish Mogadishu and Istanbul as sister cities , and in the process bring all of Mogadishu 's roads up to modern standards . Following the treaty , the Turkish International Cooperation and Development Agency ( TIKA ) launched a citywide cleaning project in conjunction with the municipal cleaning department . The initiative saw around 100 rubbish collection vehicles and other equipment operated by TIKA clean the city 's roads , with the Benadir municipality taking over operation of the cleaning project in March 2015 .

In 2012 – 2013 , Mogadishu 's municipal authority in conjunction with the British and Norwegian governments began a project to install solar @-@ powered street lights on all of the capital 's major roads . With equipment imported from Norway , the initiative cost around $ 140 @,@ 000 and lasted several months . The solar panels have helped to improve night @-@ time visibility and enhance the city 's overall aesthetic appeal .

Minibuses are the most common type of public transportation in Mogadishu . The next most frequently used public vehicles in the city are auto rickshaws ( bajaj ) . They number around 3 @,@ 000 units and come in various designs . The auto rickshaws represent a lower cost alternative to taxis and minibuses , typically charging half the price for the same distance , with flexible rates . Due to their affordability , capacity to negotiate narrow lanes and low fuel consumption , the three @-@ wheeled vehicles are often appealing investment opportunities for small @-@ scale entrepreneurs . They are generally preferred for shorter commutes . In June 2013 , two new taxi companies also started offering road transportation to residents . Part of a fleet of over 100 vehicles , Mogadishu Taxi 's trademark yellow cabs offer rides throughout the city at flat rates of $ 5 . City Taxi , the firm 's nearest competitor , charges the same flat rate , with plans to add new cabs to its fleet .

In January 2014 , the Benadir administration launched a city @-@ wide street naming , house numbering and postal codes project . Officially called the House Numbering and Post Code System , it is a joint initiative of the municipal authorities and Somali business community representatives . The project is part of the ongoing modernization and development of the capital . According to former Mayor Mohamed Ahmed Nur , the initiative also aims to help the authorities firm up on security and resolve housing ownership disputes . In March 2015 , the Benadir administration likewise launched a renovation project on the Hawo Asir @-@ Fagah major road in Mogadishu . The government @-@ public partnership aims to facilitate vehicle access in the area . According to Karaan district commissioner Ahmed Hassan Yalah 'ow , the reconstruction initiative will also make the road all @-@ weather resistant and is slated to be completed shortly .

= = = Air = = =

During the post @-@ independence period , Mogadishu International Airport offered flights to numerous global destinations . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the airport was enlarged to accommodate more international carriers , with the state @-@ owned Somali Airlines providing regular trips to all major cities . By 1969 , the airport 's many landing grounds could also host small jets and DC 6B @-@ type aircraft .

The facility grew considerably in size in the post @-@ independence period after successive renovation projects . With the outbreak of the civil war in the early 1990s , Mogadishu International Airport 's flight services experienced routine disruptions and its grounds and equipment were largely destroyed . In the late 2000s , the K50 Airport , situated 50 kilometers to the south , served as the capital 's main airport while Mogadishu International Airport , now renamed Aden Adde International Airport , briefly shut down . However , in late 2010 , the security situation in Mogadishu had significantly improved , with the federal government eventually managing to assume full control of the city by August 2011 .

In May 2011 , the Ministry of Transport announced that SKA @-@ Somalia had been contracted to manage operations at the re @-@ opened Aden Adde International Airport over a period of ten years . Among its first initiatives , worth an estimated $ 6 million , SKA invested in new airport equipment and expanded support services by hiring , training and equipping 200 local workers to meet international airport standards . The company also assisted in comprehensive infrastructure renovations , restored a dependable supply of electricity , revamped the baggage handling facilities as well as the arrival and departure lounges , put into place electronic check @-@ in systems , and firmed up on security and work @-@ flow . Additionally , SKA connected the grounds ' Somali Civil Aviation and Meteorological Agency ( SCAMA ) and immigration , customs , commercial airlines and Somali Police Force officials to the internet . By January 2013 , the firm had introduced shuttle buses to ferry travelers to and from the passenger terminal .

In December 2011 , the Turkish government unveiled plans to further modernize the airport as part of Turkey 's broader engagement in the local post @-@ conflict reconstruction process . Among the scheduled renovations were new systems and infrastructure , including a modern control tower to monitor the airspace . In September 2013 , the Turkish company Favori LLC began operations at the airport . The firm announced plans to renovate the aviation building and construct a new one , as well as upgrade other modern service structures . A $ 10 million project , it will increase the airport 's existing 15 aircraft capacity to 60 . In January 2015 , a new , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art terminal was opened at the airport . Featuring modern passenger facilities and a glass façade , it will enable the airport to double its number of daily commercial flights to 60 , with a throughput of around 1 @,@ 000 passengers per hour .

As of January 2015 , the largest airline services using Aden Adde International Airport include the Somali @-@ owned private carriers Jubba Airways , Daallo Airlines , and African Express Airways , in addition to UN charter planes , Turkish Airlines , and Felix Airways ( Al Saeeda Airlines ) . The airport also offers flights to other cities in Somalia , such as Galkayo , Berbera and Hargeisa , as well as to international destinations like Djibouti , Jeddah , and Istanbul .

In July 2012 , Mohammed Osman Ali ( Dhagah @-@ tur ) , the General Director of the Ministry of Aviation and Transport , also announced that the Somali government had begun preparations to revive the Mogadishu @-@ based national carrier , Somali Airlines . The first new aircraft were scheduled for delivery in December 2013 .

= = = Sea = = =

The Port of Mogadishu , also known as the Mogadishu International Port , is the official seaport of Mogadishu . Classified as a major class port , it is the largest harbour in the country .

After incurring some damage during the civil war , the federal government launched the Mogadishu Port Rehabilitation Project , an initiative to rebuild , develop and modernize the port . The renovations included the installation of Alpha Logistics technology . A joint international delegation consisting of the Director of the Port of Djibouti and Chinese officials specializing in infrastructure reconstruction concurrently visited the facility in June 2013 . According to Mogadishu Port manager Abdullahi Ali Nur , the delegates along with local Somali officials received reports on the port 's functions as part of the rebuilding project 's planning stages .

In 2013 , the Port of Mogadishu 's management reportedly reached an agreement with representatives of the Iranian company Simatech Shipping LLC to handle vital operations at the seaport . Under the name Mogadishu Port Container Terminal , the firm is slated to handle all of the port 's technical and operational functions .

In October 2013 , the federal Cabinet endorsed an agreement with the Turkish firm Al @-@ Bayrak to manage the Port of Mogadishu for a 20 @-@ year period . The deal was secured by the Ministry of Ports and Public Works , and also assigns Al @-@ Bayrak responsibility for rebuilding and modernizing the seaport . In September 2014 , the federal government officially delegated management of the Mogadishu Port to Al @-@ Bayrak . The firm 's modernization project will cost $ 80 million .

= = = Railway = = =

There were projects during the 1980s to reactivate the 114 km ( 71 mi ) railway between Mogadishu and Jowhar , built by the Italians in 1926 but dismantled in World War II by British troops . It was originally intended that this railway would reach Addis Ababa . Only a few remaining tracks inside Mogadishu 's harbour area are still used .

= = Media = =

Mogadishu has historically served as a media hub . In 1975 , the Somali Film Agency ( SFA ) , the nation 's film regulatory body , was established in Mogadishu . The SFA also organized the annual Mogadishu Pan @-@ African and Arab Film Symposium ( Mogpaafis ) , which brought together an array of prominent filmmakers and movie experts from across the globe , including other parts of Northeast Africa and the Arab world , as well as Asia and Europe .

In addition , there are a number of radio news agencies based in Mogadishu . Radio Mogadishu is the federal government @-@ run public broadcaster . Established in 1951 in Italian Somaliland , it initially aired news items in both Somali and Italian . The station was modernized with Russian assistance following independence in 1960 , and began offering home service in Somali , Amharic and Oromo . After closing down operations in the early 1990s due to the civil war , the broadcaster was officially re @-@ opened in the early 2000s by the Transitional National Government . Other radio stations headquartered in the city include Mustaqbal Radio , Radio Shabelle , Radio Bar @-@ Kulan , Radio Kulmiye , Radio Dannan , Radio Dalsan , Radio Banadir , Radio Maanta , Gool FM , Radio Xurmo , and Radio Xamar , also known as Voice of Democracy .

The Mogadishu @-@ based Somali National Television ( SNTV ) is the central government @-@ owned broadcaster . On 4 April 2011 , the Ministry of Information of the Transitional Federal Government officially re @-@ launched the station as part of an initiative to develop the national telecommunications sector . SNTV broadcasts 24 hours a day , and can be viewed both within Somalia and abroad via terrestrial and satellite platforms .

Somali popular music enjoys a large audience in Mogadishu , and was widely sold prior to the civil war . With the government managing to secure the city in mid @-@ 2011 , radios once again play music . On 19 March 2012 , an open concert was held in the city , which was broadcast live on local television . In April 2013 , the Waayaha Cusub ensemble also organized the Reconciliation Music Festival , the first international music festival to be held in Mogadishu in two decades .

= = Notable Mogadishans = =

= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =

Mogadishu is twinned with :

= The Moth ( Lost ) =

" The Moth " is the seventh episode of the first season of Lost . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Jennifer Johnson and Paul Dini . It first aired on November 3 , 2004 , on ABC . The character of Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) is featured in the episode 's flashbacks .

Charlie begins experiencing the effects of heroin withdrawal , while Jack becomes trapped in a cave . Meanwhile , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) attempt to triangulate the signal of the French woman 's broadcast . Charlie 's involvement in his band Drive Shaft is featured in the episode 's flashbacks .

" The Moth " was watched by 18 @.@ 73 million people live , almost two million more than the previous episode . This episode marks the first time " You All Everybody " by Drive Shaft was sung in its entirety , as it had not been written yet in previous episodes . The episode received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews , with some reviewers commenting that the episode was not of the same caliber as previous episodes .

= = Plot = =

= = = Flashbacks = = =

Charlie ( Dominic Monaghan ) tells a priest that he is going to quit his band because it has a bad influence on him . Soon after , his brother , Liam Pace ( Neil Hopkins ) , tells Charlie that Drive Shaft has gotten a recording contract . Charlie doesn 't want to sign the contract because he has qualms about the sex and drugs the band engages in . Liam talks him into signing , promising that Charlie can quit any time he 's had enough . One evening at a show , Liam , to Charlie 's frustration , starts singing the chorus to " You All Everybody " , which is supposed to be sung by Charlie . Liam assures Charlie it won 't happen again .

Later , Charlie finds Liam high on heroin with groupies . Charlie kicks the groupies out , and tells Liam that he 's done with the band . Liam says to Charlie that he , Liam , is Drive Shaft , and that nobody knows who the bass player ( Charlie ) is . He goes on to tell Charlie that without the band , Charlie is nothing , which spurs Charlie to use heroin for the first time . Years later , Charlie visits Liam 's house in Australia and wants Liam to rejoin Drive Shaft for a comeback tour . Liam declines , but the band can 't do the tour without him . He criticizes Charlie for still using drugs , and Charlie blames Liam for getting him started with drugs . Liam asks Charlie to stay with him for a few weeks , saying that Sydney has some good rehab programs and that he can get Charlie help . Charlie angrily leaves , saying he has a plane to catch .

= = = On the Island = = =

It is Day 8 , September 29 , 2004 , and Charlie is suffering from heroin withdrawal since he voluntarily gave his heroin to John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) in the previous episode . After finding him , Charlie asks Locke for the heroin back , and Locke says that he 'll give Charlie the drugs the third time he asks , because he wants Charlie to have the choice to quit .

Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) attempt to find where the French transmission is coming from , so they make a plan to turn on antennas at different points on the island in an attempt to triangulate the signal . At the caves , Charlie searches through Jack Shephard 's ( Matthew Fox ) medicine supply for something to ease his heroin withdrawal . When Jack catches him , Charlie says he has a headache and wants aspirin .

When Jack upsets Charlie by telling him to move his guitar , Charlie angrily shouts at him , causing the entrance of the cave they are in to collapse . Charlie manages to escape , but Jack is trapped inside . Using his construction experience , Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) leads the rescue attempt with Steve Jenkins ( Christian Bowman ) and Scott Jackson ( Dustin Watchman ) . In the jungle , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) goes to tell Kate ( who is traveling to set up her antenna for the triangulation attempt ) about Jack 's predicament , but decides against it because he doesn 't like Kate 's hostile attitude . Charlie tells Locke about Jack 's situation , but reveals the real reason for his going to Locke is to ask for his drugs a second time . Locke shows Charlie a moth cocoon , and explains that he could help the moth by slitting the cocoon and letting the moth free , but it would not survive because it would be too weak . Instead , the moth needs to struggle to break free . Nature and struggle make people stronger , Locke says , indicating to Charlie that he needs to fight through his suffering .

Kate and Sawyer stay at the second triangulation point , while Sayid goes to the third . After learning of Jack 's situation from Sawyer , Kate goes to help , leaving the job of turning on the signal to Sawyer . Charlie squeezes through an opening at the cave and finds Jack , but while doing so , the opening collapses and traps Charlie and Jack inside . Charlie hesitantly pops Jack 's shoulder back into place at Jack 's request . Jack correctly guesses that Charlie is suffering from withdrawal , and Charlie assures Jack he 's okay . Kate desperately tries to dig them out along with the other castaways , while the two worry about losing oxygen . Charlie sees a moth which leads him to an opening and the pair dig out of the cave .

Sayid sets off his bottle rocket to signal the antenna power up process . Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) sets off Boone 's rocket from the beach , as Boone had gone to help rescue Jack , as does Sawyer from his location . Sayid turns on the transceiver , but before he is able to triangulate the signal , an unseen person knocks Sayid unconscious with a stick .

Later Hurley brings Jack and Charlie water , he notes Charlie doesn 't look well but Jack covers for him saying that he has the flu . Hurley tells him to get better and Charlie looks thankful to Jack . He sees Locke and asks him for his heroin and Locke gives it back . Charlie looks at it for a moment before tossing it into the fire , smiling . Locke tells Charlie he 's proud of him and that he always knew he could do it . Charlie and Locke see a moth flying away .

= = Production = =

" The Moth " aired on November 3 , 2004 . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Jennifer Johnson and Paul Dini . The church scene with Charlie and Liam at the church in Manchester was actually filmed on Honolulu , where the scenes on the Island are filmed . Monaghan says that he feels Charlie 's black hoodie is a sort of " security blanket " that he hides underneath and uses it when he feels " lost . " The " heroin " that Charlie is supposedly snorting is actually brown sugar . Monaghan revealed this in an interview with Stuff magazine in October 2005 , saying , " [ The heroin is ] brown sugar . You get some really sweet boogers . You have to be careful not to snort too much of it , but it 's happened a few times . You just find dessert up your nose couple of hours later . "

According to Monaghan , Drive Shaft is similar to Oasis , in that " [ Charlie 's ] first album was kind of like Oasis 's first album : critically acclaimed , didn 't sell big numbers , but in the industry , people gave it respect . " J.J Abrams and Damon Linelof told Monaghan that if he wanted to write the song that would be Charlie 's " one hit wonder " , they would consider using it in the show . Monaghan wrote a song called " Photos and Plans " with a friend ; Abrams and Lindelof liked the song , but it did not make it into Lost . The lyrics were inspired by an incident on The Phil Donahue Show , where Matt Reeves , who was close friends with producers Bryan Burk and Damon Lindelof , saw a female audience member yell out , " You all everybody , acting like it 's the stupid people wearing expensive clothes . " The producers had an inside joke where they would say this quotation to each other . According to Burk , " At one point , in a delirious stupor , we realized we had said it so many times that that had to be the song . "

In the Pilot , Monaghan 's voice when he sang " You All Everybody " was based on " when Prince puts on his female voice " , since the song had not been composed yet . For " The Moth " the producers contacted Los Angeles @-@ based singer Jude to write a full version . The song is sung by Chris Seefried , former lead singer of Gods Child and Joe 90 .

= = Reception = =

" The Moth " first aired in the United States on November 3 , 2004 . 18 @.@ 73 million people in America watched the episode live .

The episode received generally mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews . Ryan McGee of Zap2it wrote that " this episode wasn 't a stinker by any measure , but after the run of early episodes , this is the first that really didn 't hold its own when compared to the others " , adding that " The moth imagery / metaphor just beats you down by episode 's end , making you long for the more subtle writing the show has produced up until this point . " The TV Critic gave the episode a 68 / 100 , writing that it falls between being " obvious and cheesy " and " beautifully paced and structured " . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B , and shared his opinion that it is " one of the more intensely metaphorical — and thus writerly — episodes of the series . The eponymous metaphor — delivered by Locke — is one of the series ’ most blatant , and the moth ’ s consistent reappearance in the episode calls a lot of attention to the construction of the narrative . "

IGN staff rated " The Moth " as the 36th best episode in all of Lost , explaining , " The moth of the episode 's title appears both as a metaphorical and physical symbol of the struggle to find strength within yourself , as Locke explains to Charlie , and to take charge of your own life without relying on anyone else to do it for you . " In a review focusing solely on " The Moth " , Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode a 9 / 10 , writing that the episode " does a great job of utilizing screen time for most the major characters on the show " , and that " Locke 's analogy of ' The Moth ' in comparison to Charlie 's situation perfectly encapsulates what many of the characters are going through on the island . " In a ranking of all of Lost 's episodes , Todd VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times placed " The Moth " at number 102 , complimenting Monaghan and O 'Quinn 's acting , but criticizing the storyline for containing " nonsensical drug abuse storytelling . " " The Moth " , along with " Pilot " and " House of the Rising Sun " , won a PRISM Award for Charlie 's drug storyline .

= Charmbracelet =

Charmbracelet is the ninth studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on December 3 , 2002 through MonarC Entertainment and Island Records . The album was her first release since her breakdown following the release of her film Glitter ( 2001 ) and its accompanying soundtrack album , both of which were critical and commercial failures from the previous year . Critics described Charmbracelet as one of her most personal records , following 1997 's Butterfly , Throughout the project , Carey collaborated with several songwriters and producers , including Jermaine Dupri , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , 7 Aurelius and Dre & Vidal .

According to Carey , love is the album 's main theme , and the songs combine introspective and personal themes with celebration and fun . The album contains a mixture of pop ballads and R & B beats , and the songs incorporate elements of other genres , such as gospel and soul . Compared to Glitter , which featured a variety of sampled melodies from the 1980s , Charmbracelet has a softer hip hop and R & B sound to it . Cam 'ron , Jay @-@ Z and Freeway also appear on the album .

Charmbracelet debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , and sold 241 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album peaked within the top 40 in seven countries , and attained top ten positions in Japan and Switzerland .

Three singles were released to promote the album . The lead single , " Through the Rain " reached the top ten in Canada , Switzerland , Sweden and Italy and the United Kingdom . In the US , it topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart , but stalled at number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Carey embarked on the Charmbracelet World Tour , and performed 69 shows in over eight months . She also performed on televised shows and promotional tours like the 30th annual American Music Awards , Today and The Oprah Winfrey Show .

= = Background = =

Before the release of Charmbracelet , Carey experienced a year of critical , commercial , personal and professional struggles , following the poor reception of her debut film Glitter ( 2001 ) , and her subsequent hospitalization . After divorcing her husband , Tommy Mottola , Carey released Butterfly ( 1997 ) . With her next release , Rainbow ( 1999 ) , Carey incorporated elements of R & B and hip @-@ hop into her music , particularly on the lead single " Heartbreaker " . According to The Sacramento Bee , she attempted to sound more " ghetto " . She stopped working with longtime pop producers such as Babyface and Walter Afanasieff , in order to pursue a new sound and audience , and worked with writers Sean Combs and Jermaine Dupri . Following the worldwide success of Rainbow , Carey left Columbia Records . Controversially , Mottola and executive Benny Medina in 1999 used several songs Carey had written and co @-@ written for Jennifer Lopez . Carey 's 2001 film debut Glitter was panned by movie critics , and earned less than eight million dollars at the box office .

Carey 's $ 100 million recording contract was bought out by Virgin Records , who paid her $ 28 million to leave the label . Carey checked into a hospital in Connecticut , following a controversial appearance on Total Request Live , in which she gave ice cream to fans , left troubling messages on her website and demonstrated what was considered by the media as " erratic behavior " . Carey said she had had an " emotional and physical breakdown . " After a fortnight 's hospitalization , Carey flew to Capri , Italy , where she stayed for five months and began writing and producing material for a new studio album about her recent troubles . She was signed by Island Records , and started her own imprint , MonarC Entertainment , for her intended " comeback " release , Charmbracelet .

= = Development and recording = =

Carey started writing songs for the album in early 2002 , before she signed the record deal . She decided to rest , traveled to Capri and moved into a recording studio where she could focus on writing and recording without distractions . Most of the album was recorded in Capri , although she traveled to Atlanta , New York and Philadelphia to record some tracks . That year , Carey claimed Charmbracelet to be the " most personal album " she had ever made . She worked with longtime collaborators Jermaine Dupri , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and Randy Jackson and other songwriters and producers 7 Aurelius , Just Blaze , Damizza and Dre & Vidal . The opening track and the first track to be written for the album , " Through the Rain " , was written by Carey and Lionel Cole , was inspired Carey 's recent experiences , and was co @-@ produced by Jam and Lewis . It was released as the lead single from the album .

Jam , Lewis and Carey also worked " Yours " , which Jam said contains " probably one of the best hooks [ ever ] " , and likened it to one of trio 's previous collaborations , " Thank God I Found You " ( 2000 ) . Initially , the song was recorded as duet with pop singer Justin Timberlake . However , due to contractual complications , it was never released and the a solo version was featured on the album . Jam and Lewis produced two more songs , " Wedding Song " and " Satisfy " — the latter featuring background vocals from Michael Jackson — which were not released on the album .

Carey decided to work with Just Blaze after she heard the song " Oh Boy " , which he produced for Cam 'ron . Just Blaze and Carey produced " Boy ( I Need You ) " , a remake of " Oh Boy " , and " You Got Me " . Carey said " Boy ( I Need You ) " was one of her favorites on the album . " You Got Me " features rap verses from Jay @-@ Z and Freeway , was noted by Carey as a " signature Just Blaze track " . Jay @-@ Z was in Capri on vacation , and went to the studio to hear the song and said that he wanted to contribute to it and added rap verses of his own . Dupri produced " The One " and " You Had Your Chance " . He said that they wanted to stick to the " same familiar sound " from his previous collaborations with Carey . Carey said " The One " was a personal song , which was about being hurt in past relationships and the uncertainty about forming new ones . Carey decided to experiment with a live band for the album . In April 2002 , she met 7 Aurelius and asked him to produce songs for the album . They flew to Nassau , Bahamas and recorded a mixture of mid @-@ tempo and up @-@ tempo tracks and ballads with a live band . 7 Aurelius said that Carey was " an amazing writer " and described the process of recording :

We did three or four songs in three or four days . The way we was doing it , I had [ a horn section ] down there along with me . We had the whole room set up with candles , some nice wine — [ it was ] a very good vibe . It was completely stripped down , like ' Mariah Carey Unplugged ' . She stripped herself down to her talent . She was really trusting of me and my vision , and I was trusting of who she was .

Randy Jackson contributed to four tracks on the album , and said it was " the most real and honest record she 's made . She didn 't care what anyone thought of the lyrics . They were only important to her . " Carey included a cover of Def Leppard 's song " Bringin ' On the Heartbreak " . During the photo shoot for Charmbracelet at Capri , Carey happened to listen to Def Leppard 's album Vault ( 1995 ) , which contains the song , and decided to cover it . In an interview with Billboard , Carey said that the song is " an example of her musical diversity " . Jackson also worked on " My Saving Grace " , which Carey said describes her thoughts about the writing , recording and mastering process . While working in Capri , Carey 's father became ill with cancer and she returned to New York to spend some time with him ; he died soon after . In his memory , Carey wrote and produced the song " Sunflowers for Alfred Roy " . Carey said that the song represents " his side of the family and is kind of hard to talk about . " The song proved to be " very emotional " for Carey , and she sang it only once in the studio . DJ Quik also produced songs for the album , but none of them were included .

= = Music and lyrics = =

Carey attempted to make a musical comeback with Charmbracelet , which focused on bringing Carey back to her R & B and soul roots in an attempt to recapture her audience . Critics both praised and criticized the condition of Carey 's voice on the album ; many called the songs average , and felt that most lacked sufficient hooks . The album 's lead single , and Carey 's boldest attempt at recreating the ballads from the early years of her career , was " Through the Rain " , which was produced by Carey , and was described by one critic as " the sort of self @-@ help ballad Ms. Carey was singing a decade ago " . The songs on the album are a mixture of several genres .

Carey 's cover of " Bringin ' On the Heartbreak " , was recorded using live instrumentation , and was the album 's third single . It begins as a " piano @-@ driven slow jam " , which is followed by a " dramatic chord progression " after the second chorus , and Carey 's " precise and fluttery voice reaches incredible heights " as it " turns the power ballad into something more delicate . " Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times called " Yours " " a delectable combination of breathy vocals and playful rhythms . " Barry Walters from Rolling Stone wrote that on " Yours " , " Carey 's lead vocals blend into choruses of overdubbed Mariah 's cooing overlapping phrases . Circling these are choirs of more Mariahs singing harmonies and countermelodies . Topping it off are generous sprinklings of the singer 's patented birdcalls , wails , sighs and whispers . "

Critics considered " Subtle Invitation " to be one of the album 's strongest songs because of its " well executed " jazz influence . The song begins with the sounds of people dining , then introduces the strong bassline and drums . Towards the end of the song , Carey belts out the climax . Sarah Rodman from The Boston Herald described it as fascinating and wrote , " it sounds as though Carey is singing in falsetto while still in her chest voice . " " Clown " drew strong media attention , and its lyrical content led critics to speculate that Carey aimed it at rapper Eminem , who had publicly announced that he had had a relationship with Carey . Rodman said " Clown " was " languidly sinister " , with lyrics such as , " I should 've left it at ' I like your music too ' ... You should never have intimated we were lovers / when you know very well we never even touched each other . " Critics compared " I Only Wanted " with " My All " ' s instrumentation and structure of verse , chorus and guitar solo . According to Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine , Carey makes vague allusions to her ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola with the line , " Wish I 'd stayed beneath my veil " . The song uses Latin @-@ inspired guitar instrumentation and wind sounds as an additional backbone to the melody , and dripping water as its percussion .

" Sunflowers for Alfred Roy " , one of the album 's most personal songs , is named after Carey 's father ; she makes direct reference to him and a moment they shared at his death bed . The song is backed with a simple piano accompaniment , and Carey recounts a visit with her father in his hospital room : " Strange to feel that proud , strong man / Grip tightly to my hand . "

= = Singles = =

Three singles were released from the album . The lead single , " Through the Rain " was released on September 24 , 2002 . It received mixed reviews from critics , some of whom said it was too similar to her earlier ballads , such as " Hero " and " Outside " , while others praised Carey 's vocals in the song . It was one of Carey 's poorest @-@ selling US singles , reaching number 81 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . However , it topped the Hot Dance Club Play charts and reached the top twenty of the Adult Contemporary chart . Outside the US , the single performed moderately , peaking within the top ten in Canada , Switzerland , Sweden , Italy and the UK , and within the top 20 in Ireland , Australia , Norway and Denmark . The music video of " Through the Rain " , directed by Daver Meyers , is based on the courtship and eloping of Carey 's parents . Scenes of Carey singing in a street when rain starts to fall are juxtaposed with the story of a mixed @-@ race couple who run away from their families , who oppose their relationship .

" Boy ( I Need You ) " , which was released as the second single on November 26 , 2002 , received mixed reviews from critics . The single failed to make much impact on charts worldwide ; it reached number 68 on the US Billboard Hip @-@ Hop / R & B Songs chart and number 57 on the US Hot Singles Sales chart . Elsewhere , the song reached number 17 in the UK , and peaked within the top 40 in Australia , the Netherlands , Ireland and New Zealand . The music video for " Boy ( I Need You ) " was directed by Joseph Kahn and was filmed at Shibuya and Los Angeles . Initially , " The One " was scheduled to be released as the second single and the music video was shot for that song . However , halfway through the filming , the single was changed to " Boy ( I Need You ) " . Described as " Speed Racer meets Hello Kitty meets me and Cam 'ron " by Carey , the video incorporates elements of Japanese culture and features Carey 's alter @-@ ego Bianca .

The third single from the album was Carey 's cover version of " Bringin ' On the Heartbreak " , released on November 25 , 2003 . Though it gained mostly positive reviews , it failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number five on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . Outside the US , the song saw its highest peak in Switzerland , reaching number 28 and staying on the charts for eight weeks . It also charted in Austria and the Wallonia region of Belgium . The music video for the song was directed by Sanaa Hamri . Another cut from the album , " Irresistible ( Westside Connection ) " charted at number 81 on the US Billboard Hip @-@ Hop / R & B Songs .

= = Critical reception = =

Aggregator website Metacritic , which averages professional reviews into a numerical score , gave Charmbracelet a score of 43 / 100 , indicating " generally mixed or average reviews . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic rated the album two out of five stars , and criticized its production and the condition of Carey 's voice . He wrote , " Whenever she sings , there 's a raspy whistle behind her thin voice and she strains to make notes throughout the record ... Her voice is damaged , and there 's not a moment where it sounds strong or inviting . " Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly said she was " in fine voice " , He wrote that " Through the Rain " sinks in its own sodden sentimentality , as do by @-@ the @-@ numbers efforts like ' Yours ' and ' I Only Wanted ' " , and added that " ' Clown ' is a moody number graced with mournful acoustic guitar and a gorgeously nuanced vocal , while ' Sunflowers for Alfred Roy ' is a short , sweet song sung to a lovely piano accompaniment " . He finished by saying that " too much of Charmbracelet is mired in middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road muck . "

Billboard editor Michael Paoletta praised Carey 's return to her core audience . He said that although Carey might have alienated her hip @-@ hop followers from her previous three albums , her older fans from the 1990s would be more receptive to the material and her new image . Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times wrote that the album " is generally pleasant , although it 's not always exciting , and a few of the collaborations go awry " . He called Carey 's voice " invariably astonishing " , and said that " she can hit high notes that barely sound human " , praised her versatility , and wrote that she " also knows how to make a hip @-@ hop hit by holding back and letting the beat shine . " Ethan Browne of New York slated the album 's whimsical chimes and tinkling keyboards , and wrote , " Was Charmbracelet recorded in a Casio shop ? This instrument needs to be stopped . "

Rating Charmbracelet two out of five stars , Barry Walters from Rolling Stone wrote that none of the songs were bold , that the lack of hooks made the album weak , and said , " Carey needs bold songs that help her use the power and range for which she is famous . Charmbracelet is like a stream of watercolors that bleed into a puddle of brown . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine complimented Carey 's mixture of pop and hip @-@ hop melodies , and wrote , " Though there 's nothing as immediate as ' Fantasy ' or ' My All ' here , Charmbracelet is significantly less contrived than 1999 's Rainbow and almost as creatively liberating as Butterfly . British columnist Angus Batey , writing for Yahoo ! Music UK called the songs on Charmbracelet forgettable , and wrote , " She used to take risks , but ' Charmbracelet ' is conservative , unadventurous and uninspiring ; and , while it 's understandable that simply to make another record marks a triumph of sorts , it 's impossible to admire Mariah to the degree that her talent ought to merit . " John Mulvey from NME criticized its content , writing , " Nominally , ' Charmbracelet ' is R & B , much like Tony Blair is nominally a socialist ... Tragedies , all told , have been worse "

At the 17th Japan Gold Disc Award in 2003 , the album was nominated in the category of Rock and Pop Album of the Year ( International ) .

= = Commercial performance = =

Charmbracelet was initially slated for release in the US on December 10 , 2002 . However , the date was revised to December 3 , 2002 . It was released through Island Records and Carey 's label MonarC Entertainment . A highly anticipated release , it debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 241 @,@ 000 , more than the first @-@ week sales of the critically panned Glitter soundtrack , but fewer than 1999 's Rainbow , which sold 323 @,@ 000 units in its first week . It stayed on the chart for 22 weeks , Charmbracelet was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million units in the US . As of April 2013 , the estimated sales of the album in the US ( compiled by Nielsen Soundscan ) were 1 @,@ 166 @,@ 000 copies .

In Canada , the album debuted on the Canadian Albums Chart at number thirty , in contrast to Glitter , which debuted at number four on the chart . It was certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipments of 50 @,@ 000 copies . On the week dated December 15 , 2002 , Chamrbracelet entered the Australian Albums Chart at its peak position of number 42 . It exited the chart the next week , becoming one of Carey 's lowest charting albums in the country . In Japan , Charmbracelet debuted at number four on the Oricon Albums Chart , its second @-@ highest peak worldwide , and sold 63 @,@ 365 units in its first week . The album spent another week at number four , and sold 71 @,@ 206 units . It stayed on the charts for a total of 15 weeks and according to Oricon , has sold 240 @,@ 440 copies . The Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) certified Charmbracelet platinum for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies .

In Austria , the album peaked at number 34 and stayed on the charts for seven weeks . In the Flemish region of Belgium it charted and peaked at number 48 and reached number 28 in the Walloon region of that country . Charmbracelet entered the French Albums Chart at number 20 in the week dated December 7 , 2002 , spent 30 weeks on the chart and was certified Gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , denoting shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . Charmbracelet charted and peaked at number 32 in Germany It reached number 50 in Sweden . In Switzerland , the album peaked at number nine on the Swiss Albums Chart and stayed on the charts for ten weeks ; it was certified Gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . In the United Kingdom , the album peaked at number 52 , selling 19 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It has sold a total of 122 @,@ 010 copies as of April 2008 . In February 2003 , it was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . In the Netherlands , the album debuted at number 48 , the issue dated December 14 , 2002 . The following week , it peaked at number 30 . It stayed on the charts for 19 weeks , and made two re @-@ entries , one in June 2003 and other in August 2003 .

Charmbracelet was certified Gold in both Brazil and Hong Kong by Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ) and IFPI Hong Kong respectively .

= = Promotion = =

Following the release of " Through the Rain " , Carey embarked on several US and international promotional tours in support of Charmbracelet and its accompanying singles . Promotion for " Through the Rain " began at the 2002 NRJ Awards , where Carey performed wearing a long black skirt and denim blazer . Three days before the album 's US release , a one @-@ hour program titled Mariah Carey : Shining Through the Rain , in which Carey was interviewed and sang several songs from Charmbracelet and her back catalog , aired on MTV . Carey addressed rumors of her breakdown and its cause , and spoke about the album and its inspiration , and conducted a question and answer session with fans . During the first month after the album 's release , Carey appeared on several television talk shows . She launched her promotional tour on Today , where she performed four songs at Mall of America for a crowd of over 10 @,@ 000 . On December 2 , Carey traveled to Brazil for South American promotion of Charmbracelet , appearing on the popular television program Fantástico . She sang " My All " , and performed " Through the Rain " and " I Only Wanted " wearing a long pink gown . On December 3 , 2002 , Carey appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show , where she performed " Through the Rain " and " My Saving Grace " , and gave a highly publicized interview about her hospitalization . Before her breakdown , Carey had been booked for a private interview with ABC 's Barbara Walters , executive producer of The View , following Glitter 's release . Instead of giving Walters the full @-@ coverage interview following Carey 's return to the public eye , Island decided Oprah was more appropriate , and changed the appearance . Carey 's interview with Matt Lauer on Dateline NBC aired the same evening .

On December 17 , Carey performed " I Only Wanted " on The View after guest co @-@ hosting the program . One month later , Carey was one of the headlining performers at the 30th annual American Music Awards , held on January 13 , 2003 . She performed " Through the Rain " alongside a live gospel choir , and wore a long black evening gown . During the performance , images of newspaper headlines reporting Carey 's breakdown were projected on a large curtain behind her , with one reading , " When you fall down , you get back up . " Carey received a standing ovation . In mid @-@ February , Carey was the headline performer at the NBA all @-@ star game , which was Michael Jordan 's last game . She wore a long , purple , skin @-@ tight Washington Wizard 's dress , and performed " Boy ( I Need You ) " , " My Saving Grace " and " Hero " , which received a standing ovation and brought Jordan to tears . On March 1 , 2003 , Carey performed at the Soul Train Music Awards , sporting a retro @-@ curled hairstyle and wearing a burgundy evening gown . She performed " My Saving Grace " , and as at the American Music Awards , images of newspaper headlines and inspirational photographs were projected onto a large screen . Following the performance , Carey was awarded a lifetime achievement award for her contribution to music . Towards the end of March , Charmbracelet was released in Europe and Carey appeared on several television programs to promotion the album . She performed the album 's leading two singles on the British music chart show , Top of the Pops , and a similar set on The Graham Norton Show and Fame Academy . On the latter program , Carey was joined on stage by the show 's finalists , who sang the climax on " Through the Rain " alongside her .

= = = Tour = = =

To promote the album , Carey announced a world tour in April 2003 . As of 2003 , " Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey " was her most extensive tour , lasting over eight months and performing sixty @-@ nine shows in venues worldwide . Before tickets went on sale in the US , venues were switched from large arenas to smaller , more intimate theater shows . According to Carey , the change was made in order to give fans a more intimate show , and something more Broadway @-@ influenced . She said , " It 's much more intimate so you 'll feel like you had an experience . You experience a night with me . " However , while smaller productions were booked for the US leg of the tour , Carey performed at stadia and arenas in Asia and Europe , and performed for a crowd of over 35 @,@ 000 in Manila , 50 @,@ 000 in Malaysia , and to over 70 @,@ 000 people in China . In the UK , it was Carey 's first tour to feature shows outside London ; she performed in Glasgow , Birmingham and Manchester .

" Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics and audiences , many of whom complimented the quality of Carey 's live vocals and the production of the shows . Fans were given the opportunity to request songs from Carey 's catalog , which added to its positive reception . At her concert in Manila , Rito P. Asilo from Philippine Daily Inquirer wrote , " I didn 't expect her voice to be that crystal clear ! " He added , " After 15 songs , we couldn 't seem to get enough of Mariah — and we became a believer ! " .

= = Re @-@ release = =

While preparing for the Asian leg of the Charmbracelet World Tour , Carey announced that Charmbraclet would be re @-@ released with four additional tracks on July 26 , 2003 , the first day of the North American leg of the tour . Carey included her duet with Busta Rhymes , " I Know What You Want " , which was released as a single from his album , It Ain 't Safe No More ( 2002 ) , and became Carey 's highest charting song internationally since 2001 , reaching top five peaks in Australia , Canada , the Netherlands , Ireland , Italy , Switzerland , the US and the UK . In an interview with Carson Daly , Carey said , " The Busta Rhymes duet ... has become so successful and we always said I would put it on my album as well . " The re @-@ release also included " There Goes My Heart " , " Got a Thing 4 You " featuring Da Brat and Elephant Man , and " The One ( So So Def Remix ) " featuring Bone Crusher . The re @-@ released version of the album charted for three weeks on the Oricon album chart in Japan , where it peaked at number 96 on the issue dated July 14 , 2003 .

= = Track listing = =

" Boy ( I Need You ) " contains samples of " Oh Boy " by Cam 'ron & " Call Me " by Tweet .

" You Had Your Chance " contains a sample of " I Want 'a Do Something Freaky To You " by Leon Haywood .

" Irresistible ( Westside Connection ) " contains a sample of " You Know How We Do It " by Ice Cube

" Bringin ' on the Heartbreak " is a cover of " Bringin ' on the Heartbreak " by Def Leppard .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits for Charmbracelet taken from the album 's liner notes .

= = = Recording locations = = =

Recording locations are adapted from Charmbracelet liner notes .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Thomas Quiney =

Thomas Quiney ( baptised 26 February 1589 - c . 1662 or 1663 ) was the husband of William Shakespeare 's daughter Judith Shakespeare , and a vintner and tobacconist in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Quiney held several municipal offices in the corporation of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , the highest being chamberlain in 1621 and 1622 , but was also fined for various minor offences .

In 1616 , Quiney married Judith Shakespeare . The marriage took place during a season when a special licence was required by the church , and the couple had failed to obtain one , leading to Quiney 's brief excommunication . Quiney was also summoned before the Bawdy Court fewer than two months after the wedding to answer charges of “ carnal copulation ” with a Margaret Wheeler , who died in childbirth . Scholars believe that as a result of these events William Shakespeare altered his will to favour his other daughter , Susanna Hall , and excluded Quiney from his inheritance .

Judith and Thomas had three children : Shakespeare , Richard , and Thomas . Shakespeare Quiney died at six months of age , and neither Richard nor Thomas lived past 21 . The death of Judith 's last child led to legal wrangling over William Shakespeare 's will that lasted until 1652 . Scholars speculate that Thomas Quiney may have died in 1662 or 1663 when the burial records are incomplete .

= = Birth and early life = =

Thomas Quiney was born in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon and baptised on 26 February 1589 in Holy Trinity Church . He was the son of Richard and Elizabeth Quiney . He had 10 siblings , among them a Richard Quiney who was a grocer in London , Mary Quiney who later married Richard Watts , the vicar of Harbury , and Elizabeth Quiney who married William Chandler . There is no record of Thomas Quiney 's attendance at the local school , but he had sufficient education to write short passages in French , run a business , and hold several municipal offices in his life .

= = Business and municipal offices = =

Quiney was a vintner and dealt in tobacco . He held the lease to a house known as “ Atwood 's ” for the purpose of running a tavern , and later traded houses with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William Chandler , for the larger house known as “ The Cage ” where he set up his vintner 's shop in the upper half . He is recorded as selling wine to the corporation of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon as late as 1650 .

He was a man of some education , with knowledge of French and calligraphy . In signing his accounts for 1621 and 1622 as chamberlain he decorated them with a couplet in French from a romance by Mellin de Saint @-@ Gelais . Quiney writes “ Bien heureux est celui qui pour devenir sage , Qui pour le mal d 'autrui fait son apprentissage ” but the original is “ Heureux celui qui pour devenir sage , Du mal d 'autrui fait son apprentissage ” . The original translates into English as “ Happy is he who to become wise , serves his apprenticeship from other men 's troubles ” but Quiney 's version “ … is ungrammatical and without sense ” .

He was a well @-@ respected man in the borough , and was elected a burgess and constable in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon in 1617 . In 1621 and 1662 he was acting Chamberlain . In signing his accounts for 1622 – 3 , he did so " with flourishes ” , but the records show that the council voted them “ imperfect ” . Quiney did not attend this meeting , but he did attend the later meeting where the accounts were passed , so they appear to have needed further explanation .

Quiney 's reputation was slightly spotted ; he was fined for swearing and for “ suffering townsmen to tipple in his house ” , and was at one point in danger of prosecution for “ dispensing unwholesome and adulterated wine ” .

= = Marriage = =

On 10 February 1616 , Thomas Quiney married Judith Shakespeare , William Shakespeare 's daughter , in Holy Trinity Church . The assistant vicar , Richard Watts , who later married Quiney 's sister Mary , probably officiated . The wedding took place during the Lenten season , which was prohibited . In 1616 Lent started on 23 January , Septuagesima Sunday , and ended on 7 April , the Sunday after Easter . The marriage therefore required a special licence , issued by the Bishop of Worcester , which the couple had failed to obtain . A Walter Wright of Stratford was cited for marrying without either banns or licence , so since Quiney was only cited for marrying without the required licence it is presumed that they had posted banns in church . The infraction was a minor one , apparently caused by the minister , as three other couples were also wed that February . Quiney was nevertheless summoned by Walter Nixon to appear before the Consistory court in Worcester . ( This same Walter Nixon was later involved in a Star Chamber case and was found guilty of forging signatures and taking bribes ) . Quiney failed to appear by the required date . The register recorded the judgement , which was excommunication , on or about 12 March 1616 . It is unknown if Judith was also excommunicated , but in any case the punishment did not last long . In November of the same year they were back in church for the baptism of their firstborn child .

The marriage did not begin well : Quiney had recently impregnated another woman , Margaret Wheeler , who was to die in childbirth along with the child and was buried on 15 March 1616 . On 26 March 1616 , Quiney appeared before the Bawdy Court , which dealt , among other things , with " whoredom and uncleanliness " . Confessing in open court to " carnal copulation " with Margaret Wheeler , he submitted himself for correction . He was sentenced to open penance " in a white sheet ( according to custom ) " before the congregation on three Sundays . He also had to admit to his crime , this time wearing ordinary clothes , before the Minister of Bishopton in Warwickshire . The first part of the sentence was remitted , essentially letting him off with a five @-@ shilling fine to be given to the parish 's poor . Since Bishopton only had a chapel , he was spared any public humiliation .

= = Chapel Lane , Atwood 's and The Cage = =

Where the Quineys lived after being married is unknown . Judith owned her father 's cottage on Chapel Lane , Stratford , while Thomas had held , since 1611 , the lease on a tavern called " Atwood 's " on High Street . The cottage later passed from Judith to her sister as part of the settlement in their father 's will . In July 1616 Thomas swapped houses with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , William Chandler , moving his vintner 's shop to the upper half of a house at the corner of High Street and Bridge Street . Known as " The Cage " , it is the house traditionally associated with Judith Quiney . In the 20th century The Cage was for a time a Wimpy restaurant before being turned into the Stratford Information Office .

The Cage provides further insight into why Shakespeare would not have trusted Judith 's husband . Around 1630 Quiney tried to sell the lease on the house but was prevented by his kinsmen . In 1633 , to protect the interests of Judith and the children , the lease was signed over to the trust of : John Hall , Susanna 's husband ; Thomas Nash , the husband of Judith 's niece ; and Richard Watts , vicar of nearby Harbury , who was Quiney 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and who had officiated at Thomas and Judith 's wedding . Eventually , in November 1652 , the lease to The Cage ended up in the hands of Thomas ' eldest brother , Richard Quiney , a grocer in London .

= = William Shakespeare 's last will and testament = =

The inauspicious beginnings of Judith 's marriage , in spite of her husband and his family being otherwise unexceptionable , has led to speculation that this was the cause for William Shakespeare 's hastily altered last will and testament . He first summoned his lawyer , Francis Collins , in January 1616 . On 25 March he made further alterations , probably because he was dying and because of his concerns about Quiney . In the first bequest of the will there had been a provision " vnto my sonne in L [ aw ] " ; but " sonne in L [ aw ] " was then struck out , with Judith 's name inserted in its stead . To this daughter he bequeathed £ 100 " in discharge of her marriage porcion " ; another £ 50 if she were to relinquish the Chapel Lane cottage ; and , if she or any of her children were still alive at the end of three years following the date of the will , a further £ 150 , of which she was to receive the interest but not the principal . This money was explicitly denied to Thomas Quiney unless he were to bestow on Judith lands of equal value . In a separate bequest , Judith was given " my broad silver gilt bole " .

Finally , for the bulk of his estate , which included his main house , " New Place " , his two houses on Henley Street and various lands in and around Stratford , Shakespeare had set up an entail . His estate was bequeathed , in descending order of choice , to the following : 1 ) his daughter , Susanna Hall ; 2 ) upon Susanna 's death , " to the first sonne of her bodie lawfullie yssueing & to the heires Males of the bodie of the saied first Sonne lawfullie yssueing " ; 3 ) to Susanna 's second son and his male heirs ; 4 ) to Susanna 's third son and his male heirs ; 5 ) to Susanna 's " ffourth ... ffyfth sixte & Seaventh sonnes " and their male heirs ; 6 ) to Elizabeth , Susanna and John Hall 's firstborn , and her male heirs ; 7 ) to Judith and her male heirs ; or 8 ) to whatever heirs the law would normally recognise . This elaborate entail is usually taken to indicate that Thomas Quiney was not to be entrusted with Shakespeare 's inheritance , although some have speculated that it may simply indicate that Susanna was the favoured child .

= = Children = =

Judith and Thomas Quiney had three children : Shakespeare ( baptised 23 November 1616 — buried 8 May 1617 ) ; Richard ( baptised 9 February 1618 — buried 6 February 1639 ) ; and Thomas ( baptised 23 January 1620 — buried 28 January 1639 ) . Shakespeare was named for his mother 's father . Richard 's name was common among the Quineys : his other grandfather and an uncle were both named Richard .

Shakespeare Quiney died at six months of age . Richard and Thomas Quiney were buried within a month of each other ; they were 19 and 21 years old , respectively . The deaths of all of Judith 's children brought on new legal consequences . The entail on her father 's inheritance led Susanna , along with her daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , to make a settlement , by use of a rather elaborate legal device , for the inheritance of her own branch of the family . Legal wrangling continued for another thirteen years , until 1652 .

= = Death = =

Of Thomas Quiney 's fate the records show little . It is speculated that he may have died in 1662 or 1663 when the parish burial records are incomplete . He certainly had a nephew in London , who by this time held the lease to The Cage .

= Transit of Venus =

A transit of Venus across the Sun takes place when the planet Venus passes directly between the Sun and a superior planet , becoming visible against ( and hence obscuring a small portion of ) the solar disk . During a transit , Venus can be seen from Earth as a small black disk moving across the face of the Sun . The duration of such transits is usually measured in hours ( the transit of 2012 lasted 6 hours and 40 minutes ) . A transit is similar to a solar eclipse by the Moon . While the diameter of Venus is more than 3 times that of the Moon , Venus appears smaller , and travels more slowly across the face of the Sun , because it is much farther away from Earth .

Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable astronomical phenomena . They occur in a pattern that generally repeats every 243 years , with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121 @.@ 5 years and 105 @.@ 5 years . The periodicity is a reflection of the fact that the orbital periods of Earth and Venus are close to 8 : 13 and 243 : 395 commensurabilities .

The last transit of Venus was on 5 and 6 June 2012 , and was the last Venus transit of the 21st century ; the prior transit took place on 8 June 2004 . The previous pair of transits were in December 1874 and December 1882 . The next transits of Venus will be on 10 – 11 December 2117 , and 8 December 2125 .

Venus transits are historically of great scientific importance as they were used to gain the first realistic estimates of the size of the Solar System . Observations of the 1639 transit , combined with the principle of parallax , provided an estimate of the distance between the Sun and the Earth that was more accurate than any other up to that time . The 2012 transit provided scientists with a number of other research opportunities , particularly in the refinement of techniques to be used in the search for exoplanets .

= = Conjunctions = =

Venus , with an orbit inclined by 3 @.@ 4 ° relative to the Earth 's , usually appears to pass under ( or over ) the Sun at inferior conjunction . A transit occurs when Venus reaches conjunction with the Sun at or near one of its nodes — the longitude where Venus passes through the Earth 's orbital plane ( the ecliptic ) — and appears to pass directly across the Sun . Although the inclination between these two orbital planes is only 3 @.@ 4 ° , Venus can be as far as 9 @.@ 6 ° from the Sun when viewed from the Earth at inferior conjunction . Since the angular diameter of the Sun is about half a degree , Venus may appear to pass above or below the Sun by more than 18 solar diameters during an ordinary conjunction .

Sequences of transits usually repeat every 243 years . After this period of time Venus and Earth have returned to very nearly the same point in their respective orbits . During the Earth 's 243 sidereal orbital periods , which total 88757 @.@ 3 days , Venus completes 395 sidereal orbital periods of 224 @.@ 701 days each , equal to 88756 @.@ 9 Earth days . This period of time corresponds to 152 synodic periods of Venus .

The pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 8 , 121 @.@ 5 and 8 years is not the only pattern that is possible within the 243 @-@ year cycle , because of the slight mismatch between the times when the Earth and Venus arrive at the point of conjunction . Prior to 1518 , the pattern of transits was 8 , 113 @.@ 5 and 121 @.@ 5 years , and the eight inter @-@ transit gaps before the AD 546 transit were 121 @.@ 5 years apart . The current pattern will continue until 2846 , when it will be replaced by a pattern of 105 @.@ 5 , 129 @.@ 5 and 8 years . Thus , the 243 @-@ year cycle is relatively stable , but the number of transits and their timing within the cycle will vary over time . Since the 243 : 395 Earth : Venus commensurability is only approximate , there are different sequences of transits occurring 243 years apart , each extending for several thousand years , which are eventually replaced by other sequences . For instance , there is a series which ended in 541 BC , and the series which includes 2117 only started in AD 1631 .

= = History of observation = =

= = = Ancient history = = =

Ancient Indian , Greek , Egyptian , Babylonian and Chinese observers knew of Venus and recorded the planet 's motions . The early Greek astronomers called Venus by two names — Hesperus the evening star and Phosphorus the morning star . Pythagoras is credited with realizing they were the same planet . There is no evidence that any of these cultures knew of the transits . Venus was important to ancient American civilizations , in particular for the Maya , who called it Noh Ek , " the Great Star " or Xux Ek , " the Wasp Star " ; they embodied Venus in the form of the god Kukulkán ( also known as or related to Gukumatz and Quetzalcoatl in other parts of Mexico ) . In the Dresden Codex , the Maya charted Venus ' full cycle , but despite their precise knowledge of its course , there is no mention of a transit . However , it has been proposed that frescoes found at Mayapan may contain a pictorial representation of the 12th or 13th century transits .

= = = 1639 – first scientific observation = = =

In 1627 , Johannes Kepler became the first person to predict a transit of Venus , by predicting the 1631 event . His methods were not sufficiently accurate to predict that the transit would not be visible in most of Europe , and as a consequence , nobody was able to use his prediction to observe the phenomenon .

The first recorded observation of a transit of Venus was made by Jeremiah Horrocks from his home at Carr House in Much Hoole , near Preston in England , on 4 December 1639 ( 24 November under the Julian calendar then in use in England ) . His friend , William Crabtree , also observed this transit from Broughton , near Manchester . Kepler had predicted transits in 1631 and 1761 and a near miss in 1639 . Horrocks corrected Kepler 's calculation for the orbit of Venus , realized that transits of Venus would occur in pairs 8 years apart , and so predicted the transit of 1639 . Although he was uncertain of the exact time , he calculated that the transit was to begin at approximately 15 : 00 . Horrocks focused the image of the Sun through a simple telescope onto a piece of paper , where the image could be safely observed . After observing for most of the day , he was lucky to see the transit as clouds obscuring the Sun cleared at about 15 : 15 , just half an hour before sunset . Horrocks ' observations allowed him to make a well @-@ informed guess as to the size of Venus , as well as to make an estimate of the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun — the astronomical unit . He estimated that distance to be 59 @.@ 4 million miles ( 95 @.@ 6 Gm , 0 @.@ 639 AU ) – about two thirds of the actual distance of 93 million miles ( 149 @.@ 6 million km ) , but a more accurate figure than any suggested up to that time . The observations were not published until 1661 , well after Horrocks 's death .

= = = 1761 and 1769 = = =

In 1663 Scottish mathematician James Gregory had suggested in his Optica Promota that observations of a transit of the planet Mercury , at widely spaced points on the surface of the Earth , could be used to calculate the solar parallax and hence the astronomical unit using triangulation . Aware of this , a young Edmond Halley made observations of such a transit on 28 October O.S. 1677 from Saint Helena but was disappointed to find that only Richard Towneley in Burnley , Lancashire had made another accurate observation of the event whilst Gallet , at Avignon , simply recorded that it had occurred . Halley was not satisfied that the resulting calculation of the solar parallax at 45 " was accurate .

In a paper published in 1691 , and a more refined one in 1716 , he proposed that more accurate calculations could be made using measurements of a transit of Venus , although the next such event was not due until 1761 . Halley died in 1742 , but in 1761 numerous expeditions were made to various parts of the world so that precise observations of the transit could be made in order to make the calculations as described by Halley — an early example of international scientific collaboration . This collaboration was , however , underpinned by competition , the British , for example , being spurred to action only after they heard of French plans from Joseph @-@ Nicolas Delisle . In an attempt to observe the first transit of the pair , astronomers from Britain , Austria and France traveled to destinations around the world , including Siberia , Norway , Newfoundland and Madagascar . Most managed to observe at least part of the transit , but successful observations were made in particular by Jeremiah Dixon and Charles Mason at the Cape of Good Hope . Less successful , at Saint Helena , were Nevil Maskelyne and Robert Waddington , although they put the voyage to good use by trialling the lunar @-@ distance method of finding longitude .

The existence of an atmosphere on Venus was concluded by Mikhail Lomonosov on the basis of his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 from the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg . He used a two @-@ lens achromat refractor and a weak solar filter ( smoked glass ) and reported seeing a bump or bulge of light ( " Lomonosov 's arc " ) off the solar disc as Venus began to exit the Sun . Lomonosov attributed that effect to refraction of solar rays through an atmosphere ; he also reported the appearance of a sliver around the part of Venus that had just entered the Sun 's disk during the initial phase of transit . In 2012 , Pasachoff and Sheehan reported , based on knowing what Venus 's atmosphere would look like because of Pasachoff and Schneider 's observations of the 2004 transit of Venus , that what Lomonosov reported was not Venus 's atmosphere . To make a decisive test , a group of researchers carried out experimental reconstruction of Lomonosov 's discovery of Venusian atmosphere with antique refractors during the transit of Venus on 5 – 6 June 2012 . They observed the " Lomonosov 's arc " and other aureole effects due to Venus 's atmosphere and concluded that Lomonosov 's telescope was fully adequate to the task of detecting the arc of light around Venus off the Sun 's disc during ingress or egress if proper experimental techniques as described by Lomonosov in his 1761 paper are employed .

For the 1769 transit , scientists traveled to Tahiti , Norway , and locations in North America including Canada , New England , and San José del Cabo ( Baja California , then under Spanish control ) ; . The Czech astronomer Christian Mayer was invited by Catherine the Great to observe the transit in Saint Petersburg with Anders Johan Lexell , while other members of Russian Academy of Sciences went to eight other locations in the Russian Empire , under the general coordination of Stepan Rumovsky . The Hungarian astronomer Maximilian Hell and his assistant János Sajnovics traveled to Vardø , Norway , delegated by Christian VII of Denmark . William Wales and Joseph Dymond made their observation in Hudson Bay , Canada , for the Royal Society . Observations were made by a number of groups in the British colonies in America . In Philadelphia , the American Philosophical Society erected three temporary observatories and appointed a committee , of which David Rittenhouse was the head . Observations were made by a group led by Dr. Benjamin West in Providence , Rhode Island. and published in 1769 . The results of the various observations in the American colonies were printed in the first volume of the American Philosophical Society 's Transactions , published in 1771 . Comparing the North American observations , William Smith published in 1771 a best value of the solar parallax of 8 @.@ 48 to 8 @.@ 49 arc @-@ seconds , which corresponds to an Earth @-@ sun distance of 24000 times the Earth 's radius , about 3 % different from the correct value .

Observations were also made from Tahiti by James Cook and Charles Green at a location still known as " Point Venus " . This occurred on the first voyage of James Cook , after which Cook explored New Zealand and Australia . This was one of five expeditions organised by the Royal Society and the Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne .

Jean @-@ Baptiste Chappe d 'Auteroche went to San José del Cabo in what was then New Spain to observe the transit with two Spanish astronomers ( Vicente de Doz and Salvador de Medina ) . For his trouble he died in an epidemic of yellow fever there shortly after completing his observations . Only 9 of 28 in the entire party returned home alive .

The unfortunate Guillaume Le Gentil spent eight years travelling in an attempt to observe either of the transits . His unsuccessful journey led to him losing his wife and possessions and being declared dead ( his efforts became the basis of the play Transit of Venus by Maureen Hunter ) . Under the influence of the Royal Society Ruđer Bošković travelled to Istanbul , but arrived too late .

Unfortunately , it was impossible to time the exact moment of the start and end of the transit because of the phenomenon known as the " black drop effect " . This effect was long thought to be due to Venus ' thick atmosphere , and initially it was held to be the first real evidence that Venus had an atmosphere . However , recent studies demonstrate that it is an optical effect caused by the smearing of the image of Venus by turbulence in the Earth 's atmosphere or imperfections in the viewing apparatus .

In 1771 , using the combined 1761 and 1769 transit data , the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande calculated the astronomical unit to have a value of 153 million kilometers ( ± 1 million km ) . The precision was less than had been hoped for because of the black drop effect , but still a considerable improvement on Horrocks ' calculations .

Maximilian Hell published the results of his expedition in 1770 , in Copenhagen . Based on the results of his own expedition , and of Wales and Cook , in 1772 he presented another calculation of the astronomical unit : 151 @.@ 7 million kilometers . Lalande queried the accuracy and authenticity of the Hell expedition , but later he retreated in an article of Journal des sçavans , in 1778 .

= = = 1874 and 1882 = = =

Transit observations in 1874 and 1882 allowed this value to be refined further . Three expeditions — from Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States — were sent to the Kerguelen Archipelago for the 1874 observations . The American astronomer Simon Newcomb combined the data from the last four transits , and he arrived at a value of about 149 @.@ 59 million kilometers ( ± 0 @.@ 31 million kilometers ) . Modern techniques , such as the use of radio telemetry from space probes , and of radar measurements of the distances to planets and asteroids in the Solar System , have allowed a reasonably accurate value for the astronomical unit ( AU ) to be calculated to a precision of about ± 30 meters . As a result , the need for parallax calculations has been superseded .

= = = 2004 and 2012 = = =

A number of scientific organizations headed by the European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) organized a network of amateur astronomers and students to measure Earth 's distance from the Sun during the transit . The participants ' observations allowed a calculation of the astronomical unit ( AU ) of 149 608 708 km ± 11 835 km which had only a 0 @.@ 007 % difference to the accepted value .

There was a good deal of interest in the 2004 transit as scientists attempted to measure the pattern of light dimming as Venus blocked out some of the Sun 's light , in order to refine techniques that they hope to use in searching for extrasolar planets . Current methods of looking for planets orbiting other stars only work for a few cases : planets that are very large ( Jupiter @-@ like , not Earth @-@ like ) , whose gravity is strong enough to wobble the star sufficiently for us to detect changes in proper motion or Doppler shift changes in radial velocity ; Jupiter or Neptune sized planets very close to their parent star whose transit causes changes in the luminosity of the star ; or planets which pass in front of background stars with the planet @-@ parent star separation comparable to the Einstein ring and cause gravitational microlensing . Measuring light intensity during the course of a transit , as the planet blocks out some of the light , is potentially much more sensitive , and might be used to find smaller planets . However , extremely precise measurement is needed : for example , the transit of Venus causes the Sun 's light to drop by a mere 0 @.@ 001 magnitude , and the dimming produced by small extrasolar planets will be similarly tiny .

The 2012 transit provided scientists numerous research opportunities as well , in particular in regard to the study of exoplanets . Research of the 2012 Venus transit includes :

Measuring dips in a star 's brightness caused by a known planet transiting the Sun will help astronomers find exoplanets . Unlike the 2004 Venus transit , the 2012 transit occurred during an active phase of the 11 @-@ year activity cycle of the Sun , and it is likely to give astronomers practice in picking up a planet 's signal around a " spotty " variable star .

Measurements made of the apparent diameter of Venus during the transit , and comparison with its known diameter , will give scientists an idea of how to estimate exoplanet sizes .

Observation made of the atmosphere of Venus simultaneously from Earth @-@ based telescopes and from the Venus Express gives scientists a better opportunity to understand the intermediate level of Venus ' atmosphere than is possible from either viewpoint alone . This will provide new information about the climate of the planet .

Spectrographic data taken of the well @-@ known atmosphere of Venus will be compared to studies of exoplanets whose atmospheres are thus far unknown .

The Hubble Space Telescope , which cannot be pointed directly at the Sun , used the Moon as a mirror to study the light that had passed through the atmosphere of Venus in order to determine its composition . This will help to show whether a similar technique could be used to study exoplanets .

= = Past and future transits = =

NASA maintains a catalog of Venus Transits covering the period 2000 BCE to 4000 CE . Currently , transits occur only in June or December ( see table ) and the occurrence of these events slowly drifts , becoming later in the year by about two days every 243 @-@ year cycle . Transits usually occur in pairs , on nearly the same date eight years apart . This is because the length of eight Earth years is almost the same as 13 years on Venus , so every eight years the planets are in roughly the same relative positions . This approximate conjunction usually results in a pair of transits , but it is not precise enough to produce a triplet , since Venus arrives 22 hours earlier each time . The last transit not to be part of a pair was in 1396 . The next will be in 3089 ; in 2854 ( the second of the 2846 / 2854 pair ) , although Venus will just miss the Sun as seen from the Earth 's equator , a partial transit will be visible from some parts of the southern hemisphere .

Thus after 243 years the transits of Venus returns . The 1874 transit is a member of the 243 @-@ years cycle # 1 . The 1882 transit is a member of # 2 . The 2004 transit is a member of # 3 and the 2012 transit is a member of # 4 . The 2117 transit is a member of # 1 and so on . However , the ascending node ( December transits ) of the orbit of Venus moves backwards after each 243 years so the transit of 2854 is the last member of series # 3 instead of series # 1 . The descending node ( June transits ) moves forwards , so the transit of 3705 is the last member of # 2 . From -125,000 till + 125 @,@ 000 only about ten series at both nodes each are needed for all the transits of Venus in this very long timespan , because both nodes of the orbit of Venus moves back and forward in time .

Over longer periods of time , new series of transits will start and old series will end . Unlike the saros series for lunar eclipses , it is possible for a transit series to restart after a hiatus . The transit series also vary much more in length than the saros series .

= = Grazing and simultaneous transits = =

Sometimes Venus only grazes the Sun during a transit . In this case it is possible that in some areas of the Earth a full transit can be seen while in other regions there is only a partial transit ( no second or third contact ) . The last transit of this type was on 6 December 1631 , and the next such transit will occur on 13 December 2611 . It is also possible that a transit of Venus can be seen in some parts of the world as a partial transit , while in others Venus misses the Sun . Such a transit last occurred on 19 November 541 BC , and the next transit of this type will occur on 14 December 2854 . These effects occur due to parallax , since the size of the Earth affords different points of view with slightly different lines of sight to Venus and the Sun . It can be demonstrated by closing an eye and holding a finger in front of a smaller more distant object ; when you open the other eye and close the first , the finger will no longer be in front of the object .

The simultaneous occurrence of a transit of Mercury and a transit of Venus does occur , but extremely infrequently . Such an event last occurred on 22 September 373 @,@ 173 BC and will next occur on 26 July 69 @,@ 163 , and again on 29 March 224 @,@ 508 . The simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is currently possible , but very rare . The next solar eclipse occurring during a transit of Venus will be on 5 April 15 @,@ 232 . The last time a solar eclipse occurred during a transit of Venus was on 1 November 15 @,@ 607 BC . It could be noticed that the day after the Venerean transit of 3 June 1769 there was a total solar eclipse , which was visible in Northern America , Europe and Northern Asia .

= Ímar mac Arailt =

Ímar mac Arailt ( died 1054 ) was an eleventh @-@ century ruler of the Kingdom of Dublin and perhaps the Kingdom of the Isles . He was the son of a man named Aralt , and appears to have been a grandson of Amlaíb Cuarán , King of Northumbria and Dublin . Such a relationship would have meant that Ímar was a member of the Uí Ímair , and that he was a nephew of Amlaíb Cuarán 's son , Sitriuc mac Amlaíb , King of Dublin , a man driven from Dublin by Echmarcach mac Ragnaill in 1036 .

Ímar 's reign in Dublin spanned at least eight years , from 1038 to 1046 . Although he began by seizing the kingship from Echmarcach in 1038 , he eventually lost it to him in 1046 . As king , Ímar is recorded to have overseen military operations throughout Ireland , and seems to have actively assisted the family of Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig , King of Gwynedd overseas in Wales . After Echmarcach 's final expulsion from Dublin 1052 , Ímar may well have been reinstalled as King of Dublin by Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , King of Leinster . Whatever the case , Ímar died in 1054 . He may have been an ancestor or close kinsman of Gofraid Crobán , King of Dublin and the Isles , the progenitor of a family that ruled in the Isles until the mid thirteenth century .

= = Familial background = =

Ímar was probably the son of Aralt mac Amlaíb ( died 999 ) , a man whose death at the Battle of Glenn Máma is recorded by the Annals of Clonmacnoise , the Annals of the Four Masters , the Annals of Ulster , and Chronicon Scotorum . If this identification is correct , Ímar 's paternal grandfather would have been Amlaíb Cuarán , King of Northumbria and Dublin ( died 980 / 981 ) , and a paternal uncle of Ímar would have been Sitriuc mac Amlaíb , King of Dublin ( died 1042 ) .

= = Struggle for Dublin = =

Ímar 's probable uncle , Sitriuc , ruled Dublin for almost fifty years between 989 and 1036 . There is reason to suspect that the latter 's realm included Mann by the second or third decade of the eleventh century . His reign in Dublin was finally put to an end by Echmarcach mac Ragnaill ( died 1064 / 1065 ) , who drove Sitriuc from the coastal town and claimed the kingship for himself . Previously , Sitriuc seems to have been closely aligned with Knútr Sveinnsson ( died 1035 ) , ruler of the kingdoms of England , Denmark , and Norway . Knútr 's apparent authority in the Irish Sea region , coupled with Sitriuc 's seemingly close connections with him , could account for the remarkable security enjoyed by Sitriuc during Knútr 's reign . It is possible that Echmarcach had been bound from taking action against Sitriuc whilst Knútr held power , and that the confusion caused by the latter 's death in 1035 enabled Echmarcach to exploit the situation and seize control of the Irish Sea region . Although there is no direct evidence that Echmarcach controlled Mann by this date , Sitriuc does not appear to have taken refuge on the island after his expulsion from Dublin . This seems to suggest that the island was outside Sitriuc 's possession , and may indicate that Mann had fallen into the hands of Echmarcach sometime before . In fact , it is possible that Echmarcach used the island to launch his takeover of Dublin .

Echmarcach 's hold on Dublin was short @-@ lived as the Annals of Tigernach records that Ímar replaced him as King of Dublin in 1038 . This annal @-@ entry has been interpreted to indicate that Ímar drove Echmarcach from the kingship . There is reason to suspect that Þórfinnr Sigurðarson , Earl of Orkney ( died c . 1065 ) extended his presence into the Isles and the Irish Sea region at about this period . The evidence of Þórfinnr 's power in the Isles could suggest that he possessed an active interest in the ongoing struggle over the Dublin kingship . In fact , Þórfinnr 's predatory operations in the Irish Sea region may have contributed to Echmarcach 's loss of Dublin in 1038 .

It is conceivable that Ímar received some form of support from Knútr 's son and successor in Britain , Haraldr Knútsson , King of England ( died 1040 ) . The latter was certainly in power when Ímar replaced Echmarcach , and an association between Ímar and Haraldr could explain why the Annals of Ulster reports the latter 's death two years later . Ímar 's reign lasted about eight years , and one of his first royal acts appears to have been the invasion of Rathlin Island within the year . The fact that he proceeded to campaign in the North Channel could indicate that Echmarcach had held power in this region before his acquisition of Mann and Dublin .

In 1044 , the Annals of Tigernach records that Ímar penetrated into the domain of the Uí Fhíachrach Arda Sratha and killed their chief . The annal @-@ entry also indicates that Ímar stormed the church of Armagh , and burned Scrín Pátraic ( the " Shrine of Patrick " ) in the attack . The following year , he again invaded Rathlin Island , and his subsequent slaughter of three hundred noblemen of the Ulaid , including a certain heir apparent named Ragnall Ua Eochada , is documented by the Annals of Clonmacnoise , the Annals of Inisfallen , the Annals of Tigernach , and the Annals of the Four Masters . This remarkable action may indicate that the Dubliners and Ulaid were battling for control of Rathlin Island . If so , it could be evidence that Ímar enjoyed the possession of Mann by this date . The domain of the Ulaid is certainly the closest Irish territory to Mann , and the control of the Manx fleet could account for the Dubliner 's ability to challenge the Ulaid . Whatever the case , within the year Niall mac Eochada , King of Ulaid ( died 1063 ) is recorded to have attacked Fine Gall — Dublin 's agriculturally @-@ rich northern hinterland — in what may have been a retaliatory raid .

The following year , the Annals of Tigernach states that Echmarcach succeeded Ímar . The Annals of the Four Masters specifies that Ímar was driven from the kingship by Echmarcach , who was then elected king by the Dubliners . After this point in Ímar 's life , all that is known for certain is that he died in 1054 , as recorded by the Annals of Ulster and the Annals of Loch Cé . Nevertheless , since these sources style Ímar in Gaelic rí Gall ( " king of the foreigners " ) , there may be evidence to suggest that , when Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , King of Leinster ( died 1072 ) drove Echmarcach from Dublin in 1052 , Diarmait reinstalled Ímar as king .

After Ímar 's death , Diarmait appears to have appointed his own son , Murchad ( died 1070 ) , control of Dublin later that decade , as the Annals of the Four Masters accords him the title tigherna Gall , meaning " lord of the foreigners " in 1059 . In 1061 , Murchad invaded Mann and seems to have overthrown Echmarcach . Both father and son were dead by 1072 , and the Annals of Tigernach describes Diarmait on his death that year as King of the Isles ( rí Innsi Gall , literally " king of the isles of the foreigners " ) , a declaration which seems to indicate that , by the eleventh century at least , the kingship of the Isles was contingent upon control of Mann .

= = Involvement in Wales = =

The principal Welsh monarch during Ímar 's reign was Gruffudd ap Llywelyn ( died 1063 / 1064 ) . One of the latter 's main rivals was Iago ab Idwal ap Meurig , King of Gwynedd ( died 1039 ) , a man who had killed Gruffudd 's father in 1023 , and thenceforth ruled Gwynedd until his own demise in 1039 . Gruffudd himself may have been responsible for Iago 's slaying , and certainly succeeded to the kingship of Gwynedd after his death . It was likely in the context of Iago 's fall and this resulting regime change that the latter 's son , Cynan ( fl . 1064 ) , fled overseas and sought refuge in Dublin .

According to Historia Gruffud vab Kenan , the mother of Cynan 's son was Ragnailt ingen Amlaíb , a paternal granddaughter of Sitriuc . Further revealed by this source is the fact that this woman 's father , Amlaíb mac Sitriuc , built and commanded a Welsh fortress called Castell Avloed . Although it is unknown how long the Dubliners possessed the fortress , in 1036 another son of Sitriuc was slain in Wales by an apparent kinsman , an event which could be evidence of a struggle for control of the site . Echmarcach 's aforesaid expulsion of Sitriuc from Dublin in the same year could in turn indicate that this exiled monarch sought refuge in Wales .

Despite the uncertainty of its specific location , Castell Avloed appears to have been situated in territory formerly controlled by Iago , and there is reason to suspect that — after Iago 's fall and Cynan 's flight — Ímar oversaw military actions against Gruffudd . Three years later , for example , Brut y Tywysogion and the " B " and " C " versions of Annales Cambriæ report that this Welsh king was captured by forces from Dublin . The episode is further elaborated upon by a sixteenth @-@ century text compiled by David Powell ( died 1598 ) and a seventeenth @-@ century text by compiled by James Ware . According to these admittedly late versions of events , Gruffudd was captured by the Dubliners in the context of them supporting the cause of Cynan . The accounts further state that Gruffudd managed to escape his captors when the Dubliners were counterattacked by Welsh forces before they could return to Ireland . The evidence of Cynan cooperating with the Dubliners against Gruffudd suggests that , not only was Ímar personally involved as king , but that the Welsh fortress of Castell Avloed was still controlled by the Dubliners .

Another conflict that could have involved Ímar and the military forces of Dublin was Gruffudd 's final defeat of Hywel ab Edwin , King of Deheubarth ( died 1044 ) . According to Brut y Tywysogion and the " B " version of Annales Cambriæ this last stand of Hywel took place at the mouth of the River Tywi — perhaps in the vicinity of Carmarthen — and included Vikings from Ireland who supported Hywel 's cause . It is apparent that Gruffudd 's adversaries generally utilised foreign military support from Ireland 's Viking enclaves . Certainly , the Book of Llandaff declares that Gruffudd struggled against English , Irish , and Vikings during his career .

= = Ancestral figure = =

Ímar may have been the father , uncle , or possibly even the brother of Gofraid Crobán , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1095 ) . In 1091 , the Annals of Tigernach reveals that Gofraid possessed the kingship of Dublin in an annal @-@ entry recording his patronym as " ... mac Maic Arailt " . The Chronicle of Mann , on the otherhand , gives Gofraid 's patronym as " ... filius Haraldi nigri de Ysland " . Whilst the former source identifies Gofraid as the son of a man named Aralt ( Old Norse Haraldr ) , the latter identifies Gofraid as the paternal grandson of a man so named .

In the aforesaid record of the military actions conducted in 1044 , Ímar is merely named as the son of Aralt , a fact which could indicate that this was how he was known to his contemporaries . If correct , the patronym preserved by the Chronicle of Mann could merely be a garbled form of this style .

The patronym given by the Chronicle of Mann states that Gofraid 's father was from " Ysland " , a place which could refer to either Iceland , Islay , or Ireland . Other than this passage , there is no evidence hinting of a connection between Gofraid and Iceland . The chronicle elsewhere states that Gofraid died on Islay , although the island 's name is rendered " Ile " in this case . If " Ysland " instead refers to Ireland , the spelling could be the result of influence from a source originating in England , or a source written in Mediaeval French .

= Tessa Noël =

Tessa Noël is a fictional character in the television series Highlander : The Series , portrayed by Alexandra Vandernoot . A mortal artist and sculptor , Tessa is the French lover of the protagonist Immortal , Duncan MacLeod , played by Adrian Paul . Tessa is introduced in the pilot episode " The Gathering " , first shown in 1992 , and appears in all subsequent episodes until " The Darkness " ( 1993 ) , the fourth episode of season two , in which she is killed . Vandernoot returned to the program for a number of guest appearances in the season two finale , " Counterfeit " , broadcast in 1994 , and the two @-@ part series conclusion " To Be " / " Not To Be " ( 1998 ) .

Tessa is MacLeod 's mortal companion and bears the consequences of his immortality . These include her aging while he does not , the impossibility of having children together and the dangers of MacLeod 's involvement in the Game , an ongoing battle in which all Immortals must behead each other until a single victor remains . Fully aware of this situation , Tessa stays with MacLeod , demonstrating her courage , understanding , generosity and compassion .

The first series of Highlander was a multi @-@ national co @-@ production including the French entertainment conglomerate Gaumont , which resulted in a French @-@ speaking actor playing Tessa . Vandernoot had to adapt to the North American , fast @-@ paced method of series production and worked with a dialect coach . Her performance was generally praised by reviewers , who especially praised the strong on @-@ screen relationship that Vandernoot and Paul created between their characters . When Vandernoot decided to leave the show , her character was killed , leading to fierce protests among the show 's audience and subsequently prompted the producers to have Vandernoot play an evil lookalike of Tessa in the episode " Counterfeit " . Despite her return , Tessa 's death influenced the rest of the series , making it more pessimistic , and creating a significant precedent ; Tessa was the first main character of the series to die .

= = Story arc = =

Tessa Noël is a central character , who appeared in every episode of the first season of Highlander : The Series , and in the first four episodes of the second . After the character 's death , she later returned for cameo appearances in the episodes " Counterfeit Part Two " in the second season , and " To Be " and " Not To Be " , the sixth season 's final two episodes .

= = = Background = = =

Tessa was born on August 28 , 1958 in Lille , France . When she was seven years old , she fell in love for the first time with then @-@ nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Alan Rothwood ( Anthony Head ) . Tessa recalls in " Nowhere To Run " that she was " heartbroken " when he completed his studies and left the country . She remembered that at her first Christmas party in the ballroom of Alan 's house , she " couldn 't believe anything could be so beautiful . " Tessa mentions in " See No Evil " that she was educated at the Sorbonne in Paris , France .

Tessa 's first encounter with MacLeod is shown in a flashback sequence in " For Evil 's Sake " . She had recently left the Sorbonne and was working as an artist and conducting tours of the River Seine in Paris . In May 1980 , to escape Immortal Christoph Kuyler ( Peter Howitt ) who was trying to behead him , MacLeod jumped on a Bateau Mouche on which Tessa was working , and charmed her so that he could stay on board . Another flashback scene in the episode " Counterfeit Part Two " shows how MacLeod revealed his immortality to Tessa . On April 1 , 1983 , MacLeod made Tessa shoot him in the chest with a pistol . After he revived , MacLeod revealed himself to be an Immortal who could not age or father children , but did not mention the Game . MacLeod expected Tessa to show disgust or fear , but instead Tessa expressed compassion and sadness for his loneliness . As Tessa remains unaware of the Game , MacLeod occasionally fights other Immortals without her knowledge .

= = = Season one = = =

When the series begins , Tessa and MacLeod have been in a relationship for twelve years and are the proprietors of an antiques store , " MacLeod and Noel 's Antiques " , in the fictional city of Seacouver , Washington , United States . Immortals Slan Quince ( Richard Moll ) and Connor MacLeod ( Christopher Lambert ) break into their store , making Tessa aware of the Game . When she learns of this ultimate battle of good and evil , in which Duncan MacLeod must behead or be beheaded , she sarcastically remarks ; " And you didn 't think it was important enough to mention . " When Quince threatens Tessa to distract MacLeod , she first wants to flee with MacLeod , who prepared for her departure and beheads Quince . Aware that other Immortals will challenge MacLeod , Tessa decides to stay with him . They also allow Richie Ryan ( Stan Kirsch ) , a quick @-@ talking petty thief and street punk , to live with them because he was aware of MacLeod 's immortality .

In " Eyewitness " ( 1993 ) , Tessa witnesses the brutal murder of former artist Anne Wheeler ( Diana Barrington ) , and reacts angrily when she realizes that the police will do nothing about it , saying : " I 'm not hysterical , I don 't see things , and I 'm not looking for attention . I just want something to be done . " She decides to find the murderer on her own . When MacLeod tells Tessa that she is stronger than Anne , and that if something happened to him she would be fine , Tessa retorts , " You only think so because it suits you . " The murderer is Chief Police Officer Andrew Ballin ( Tom Butler ) who is beheaded by MacLeod after Ballin failed to kill Tessa .

In " Band of Brothers " ( 1993 ) , Tessa is chosen as the curator of a traveling exhibition entitled " An historical retrospective on sculpture and form " , which is based in Paris , France . Meanwhile , Immortal Grayson ( James Horan ) is seeking Victor Paulus , a protegee of MacLeod 's friend Darius ( Werner Stocker ) . Tessa decides to leave to Paris before MacLeod fights Grayson and her parting words are : " Remember . Paris is our city . I 'll be waiting for you " . After MacLeod beheads Grayson , he , Tessa and Richie , live in a barge on the Seine near Notre Dame de Paris .

In " Avenging Angel " ( 1993 ) , MacLeod and Tessa search for information about newborn Immortal Alfred Cahill ( Martin Kemp ) . Becoming Immortal has made Cahill insane ; he believes he is an angel sent by God to free the world from sin . Cahill starts with the last prostitute he met , Tessa 's old friend , Elaine Trent ( Sandra Nelson ) . Tessa is angry to learn the fate of her intelligent , beautiful friend , but later realizes that she " [ sounds ] like her judge and jury . " MacLeod believes that the only way to stop Cahill is to behead him , despite Tessa 's opinion that " Enlightened societies don 't kill their insane . They treat them . " When Cahill comes to the barge looking for MacLeod and finds Tessa alone , Tessa diverts him by welcoming Cahill as a messenger of God . Later , she tells MacLeod with disgust , " I had to crawl inside his head ... I had to think like him ... I had to become like him . "

= = = Season two = = =

The first episode of the second season , " The Watchers " ( 1993 ) , shows Tessa , MacLeod and Richie settling back to their antiques store in Seacouver and meeting the Watchers , a secret society that observes Immortals without interfering . In " The Darkness " ( 1993 ) , Tessa meets a fortune teller named Greta ( Traci Lords ) who urges her to flee the city . This reminds MacLeod of another fortune teller , who , back in 1848 , predicted that he would bury many women , but marries none . MacLeod impulsively asks Tessa to marry him , to which she agrees . The next day , Tessa is abducted by Pallin Wolf ( Andrew Jackson ) , a renegade Watcher who wants to behead MacLeod . In the meantime , MacLeod tells Richie that he is getting married because of the thought of losing Tessa . Tessa holds her ground in front of Wolf and tries to escape , but Wolf brings her back to her cell . MacLeod finally finds them and kills Wolf , then sends Tessa home with Richie . On their way to the car , Tessa and Richie are shot dead by Marc Roszca ( Travis MacDonald ) , a drug addict wanting their money . Richie 's previously unknown immortality is revealed when he returns to life on the spot , but Tessa dies . MacLeod , devastated , leaves their home and sells the antique store .

" Eye For An Eye " ( 1993 ) shows the aftermath of Tessa 's death . MacLeod tells Richie , " She was part of our lives , Richie . Never pretend she wasn 't . " MacLeod also advises Richie to get used to her loss , because it " won 't be the last time it happens to you . " Later , while MacLeod trains Richie roughly so that he can face Immortal Annie Devlin ( Sheena Easton ) , Richie angrily tells MacLeod , " You can 't get past it , Mac . I know . You 've seen a lot of people die . But you had to be the hero , you sent us out to the car that night , you could have been there ... You look me in the eyes and you tell me you don 't blame yourself for her death . " Some time later , MacLeod bitterly tells Devlin , " Nothing you do brings anyone back . Once they 're dead ... nothing . "

In the two @-@ part finale to series two , " Counterfeit " ( 1994 ) , James Horton ( Peter Hudson ) , a renegade Watcher who believes all Immortals must be eliminated , uses killer Lisa Halle ( Meilani Paul ) to try and kill MacLeod . Lisa undergoes plastic surgery to resemble Tessa and therefore is played by Vandernoot from that point on . MacLeod meets Lisa just after he admitted to himself how much he missed Tessa , and he is stunned by her resemblance with Tessa . Despite knowing that Tessa is dead and cannot return , he eagerly pursues a relationship with Lisa . He eventually admits the truth when he discovers a scar on Lisa 's jaw . Horton kills Lisa on Tessa 's grave before being himself killed by MacLeod .

" To Be " and " Not To Be " ( 1998 ) , the series finale , respectively depict MacLeod dreaming of a world in which he was never born . Vandernoot reprises her role as Tessa , this time never having met MacLeod . Tessa leads an unsatisfactory life in which she has a husband and children , but is forced to sacrifice her art and sculpture . In this storyline she has an affair with MacLeod but feels she has betrayed her husband .

= = Characteristics = =

= = = Relationship with MacLeod = = =

Tessa , and Kirsch 's character Richie , were designed as MacLeod 's mortal companions and contacts . Tessa and MacLeod are lovers and share deep feelings for each other . Adrian Paul commented that MacLeod spent twelve years with Tessa without wanting another relationship and that " ... she was a very important part of his life " . Vandernoot thought that " ... the relationship between Tessa and MacLeod was very deep because very soon , he told her about himself ( ... ) because he trusted her , and I think trust is a very good definition of their relationship . She trusted him entirely and he trusted her . " Tessa is thus MacLeod 's only mortal lover who knows of his immortality .

However , executive producer Bill Panzer was intrigued by the idea that a mortal would want to spend their life with an Immortal , this choice having several drawbacks . MacLeod does not age , while Tessa is mortal and will age . Despite their mutual wish , they know growing old together is impossible and this uneasy thought " ... haunts them both , sometimes more than others . " As an Immortal , MacLeod is also sterile and Tessa resigns herself to having no children . " The Sea Witch " deals with Tessa 's choice and its impact upon her life . In this episode , Tessa becomes very fond of a four @-@ year @-@ old girl and muses ; " For a while there , just for a few hours ... I felt like she was mine . I liked how it felt . But , she 's not ... I have my own life and it 's more than enough . " Panzer commented that " The Sea Witch " " ... brings forth in a very powerful way what exactly [ Tessa ] ' s giving up to be with MacLeod . "

Tessa occasionally meets MacLeod 's previous Immortal lovers . In " The Lady and the Tiger " , she immediately dislikes Amanda ( played by Elizabeth Gracen ) and the script notes that " ... sparks fly between the two women " . Although she quickly earns Amanda 's respect , Tessa feels like she has to compete with Amanda , while Amanda comments that Tessa is " ... quite refreshing in a gauche sort of way . " Gracen played Amanda 's interaction with Tessa ambiguously and a little flirtatiously . Tessa is usually jealous of MacLeod 's past lovers , but acknowledges in " Saving Grace " that " ... it would take me several lifetimes to find out everything in Duncan 's past . I know there 've been others , but I never thought I would meet one of them . "

In addition , Tessa shares with MacLeod the consequences of his involvement in the Game . She dislikes the Game and would like to escape from it with him , since she fears for his life . According to Vandernoot , Tessa " ... always thought that she [ would ] die before [ MacLeod ] " , but when he told her about the Game during " The Gathering " , " she [ realised ] that he [ could ] be killed " , thus she avoided thinking about it . Another consequence of the Game is that Tessa is sometimes exposed to danger from Immortals who want to use her to pressure MacLeod . Despite being captured by Quince in " The Gathering " , by the time of " Band of Brothers " , she is able to face Grayson : " If you think [ MacLeod ] will stand by , ... you have misjudged him terribly . So you 'd better kill me , now , and be done with it . " Grayson releases her and calls her " ... a remarkable woman , well worth keeping alive . " Consequently , Tessa is fully aware of the risks of their relationship , but stays with MacLeod , explaining in " Eyewitness " that " I know the risks I choose to take ... I stay with you because I want to . I won 't run . I 'm not the little woman and I 'll never be barefoot and pregnant . We all have things to face . This is mine . " However , she finds difficult to deal with her fears when MacLeod leaves to fight another Immortal .

= = = Character traits = = =

Vandernoot found Tessa 's personality " ... very nice , " " very understanding , generous , supportive . " MacLeod appreciates that Tessa always has a way of reminding him of his humanity . In " For Evil 's Sake " , she tells a guilt @-@ ridden MacLeod that " You may be Immortal , but you 're not omnipotent ... The world is not your responsibility . " Tessa often jokes about MacLeod 's immortality , for example telling him in " For Tomorrow We Die " that the last time MacLeod " ... wore a tuxedo was on the deck of the Titanic . "

Tessa is able to empathise with others , feel as they do , think as they do and so become like them . When MacLeod revealed his immortality to Tessa in " Counterfeit Part Two " , she can show compassion instead of the fear or disgust he expects : " I was just thinking how lonely you must be . Your parents , your friends ... having them all die . " Tessa is a very empathic and understanding character , for example , in " Saving Grace " , she is jealous of MacLeod 's former lover Grace ; however , when MacLeod assures her that he no longer loves Grace , her response is simply that " ... that 's all that need to be said . She 's your friend and she 's been hurt . You 'll help her . I 'd expect you to do no less . "

Furthermore , Tessa demonstrates great courage , for example in " Mountain Men " , where she is abducted by three mountain men led by Immortal Caleb Cole , who wants to marry her . Tessa refuses to submit and spreads doubt among them , resulting in Cole finally killing one of his own men before MacLeod rescues her . Reviewer Rob Lineberger of DVDVerdict.com commented that " ... this episode shows the tough stuff Tessa is made of . " Tessa is a very selfless character , although it has , occasionally , been known to put her into rather sticky situations , for example , in the episode " See No Evil " , Tessa 's friend , Natalie , is attacked by serial killer Michael Tanovsky and Tessa uses herself as bait : " Nobody 's watching over his next victim , Duncan ... and she 's going to die if you and I don 't stop him . " Lineberger commented that " [ in " See No Evil " ] , Tessa gets a taste for how Duncan 's life must feel when she faces the killer . " She hits Tanovsky with her car , telling MacLeod " I thought ridding the world of evil would feel better than this . " Panzer comments that having Tessa stop the killer " ... was kind of an unusual idea [ in television in 1992 ] , and this was the subject of a lot of meetings with [ then @-@ supervising producer ] David Abramowitz , myself and the people from the various networks , domestic and foreign , who were involved . " Tessa has a reputation for speaking frankly and for refusing to tolerate any nonsense . In " Innocent Man " , when MacLeod refuses to take her where an evil Immortal is , she says , " I know why you don 't want me there . You 're afraid that what happened to Lucas [ MacLeod 's friend who has just been beheaded ] could happen to you . " Tessa has no self @-@ pity and " ... doesn 't like euphemisms " . For example , in " For Tomorrow We Die " , MacLeod calls her " contrary by nature " Tessa parks her car without regard to interdictions , can drive a speedboat , is a poor chess player and dislikes war .

= = = Employment and career = = =

Tessa is a prominent professional artist . She organises exhibitions of her works and sells a metallic sculpture to the City of Seacouver to adorn a park . Tessa is often seen making art works and welding large pieces of metal together , drawing or using modelling clay . She is also seen sketching people with whom she has problems . Tessa believes that " ... an artist should never grow complacent . Change is good , " and fears the Paris art critics because " ... they are the worst " .

= = Character concept and development = =

In the script of " The Gathering " , Tessa is described as " ... a beautiful , elegantly casual woman , artist , free spirit , and proprietor of the most unusual antique shop in the city . " The script of the episode " Saving Grace " says that she has grace and style . Tessa is portrayed as a tall , thin woman with blonde hair and blue eyes . Because Highlander : The Series was an international co @-@ production , the producers cast a French @-@ speaking actor to play Tessa . Producer Gary Goodman explained that they wanted someone " ... that would be appealing on a television screen ... in the sense that you were comfortable with her accent and her character " . They chose Belgian actress Alexandra Vandernoot because she " ... was able to be exotic , pretty and not so unfamiliar to an American audience that she was accepted . "

Vandernoot recalled , " I think I was quite close to Tessa , she was very well written , very easy to play and I wish I was like that . I 'm not sure I 'd like that but ... it 's very nice , you know , to play a character with nice feelings and nice emotions . " Vandernoot had to adapt to the North American way of filming series and learn to work fast . She said that filming the series was " ... exhausting but formative " , and that filming in English was " challenging " . Vandernoot , who is a native French speaker , had a dialect coach .

Vandernoot and Paul created a strong on @-@ screen relationship between their characters . David Abramowitz , creative consultant from the second season onwards , said , " When I saw her and Adrian together , I thought that if I died , and there was a Mount Olympus , that the two of them would be standing together with thunderbolts around them . They were god @-@ like . They were so beautiful and had such presence . " Paul said that he was " detached " from the fictional relationship between Tessa and MacLeod , but that " ... it was a good relationship " . Later , he said he " ... was sad to see it go . "

Producer Barry Rosen said , " We were very lucky that [ Vandernoot and Kirsch ] were so human @-@ grounded , so we could really play off of them and the way they looked at things that [ Paul ] went through . They were also able to get into real @-@ life situations , romances , getting in trouble , jealousies and so on . " Although Vandernoot and Kirsch are three years apart in age ( Vandernoot being the older of the two ) , on set Vandernoot treated Kirsch like a young boy , while Kirsch seemed to her like a younger brother because of his youthful appearance .

= = Death = =

In 1993 , Vandernoot wanted to leave the show because shooting Highlander was too demanding and required her to spend several months each year in Canada . Vandernoot also wanted to spend more time with her family . According to Abramowitz , a further , artistic , reason was that " ... a small part of [ Vandernoot ] being a really strong actress wanted to play a more aggressive part in the show and sadly , the nature of the beast was that it couldn 't happen and she made a decision . " Panzer said that creating interesting female characters in the Highlander franchise was often a challenge because the producers found it difficult to " ... have the women be something other than a victim , a hostage , other things when [ one is ] dealing with an immortal hero . " Consequently , the creative staff needed to write Tessa out of the show but were restricted because of the character 's strong relationship with MacLeod . Associate Creative Consultant Gillian Horvath said that , " There was no way ... to have a scene where she said , ' Okay , I 'm going to go to Paris without you . Nice knowing you , MacLeod . ' " The writers decided that the only solution was for Tessa to die , despite Abramowitz 's feeling that her death was " ... sad " and " ... heartbreaking " .

Tessa 's death occurs in the fourth episode of the second season ; " The Darkness " . The creative staff decided Tessa would die in a random carjacking incident . Tessa 's death played no role in the episode 's main storyline . It was not formulaic ; the writers wanted to shock the audience . Abramowitz said that " ... it would have been easier to kill her off in the episode , " but the writers " ... wanted it to be a surprise and show how shocking [ Tessa 's death ] was to [ them ] . " Horvath said that " ... losing a loved one to a random act of violence isn 't something that only happens to television action heroes or Immortals or people in another type of life , it happens in the real world too- totally unexpectedly , at a moment that makes no sense dramatically . " Tessa 's death scene shows MacLeod kneeling next to Tessa and cuddling her , then Richie reviving and speaking with MacLeod .

During the filming of the episode , however , no dialog was recorded . The final version of the episode shown in North America did not show Richie revive . The European version showed Richie reviving , but no dialog was present . This scene was later re @-@ recorded in Paris in 1994 during the filming of the season finale " Counterfeit Part Two " , this time including the dialog . However , this footage was not seen in the final version ; the footage was eventually used in the season four episode " Leader of the Pack " .

= = = Viewers ' reception = = =

" The Darkness " had the desired effect ; Lineberger wrote that " I was taken aback by the dark tone and emotional range generated by this episode . Highlander is a fantasy series , yet I cared about the characters as though I know them ... Vandernoot gave Tessa such vitality and charm that her death left me reeling . " Abramowitz said that Tessa 's death strongly angered many viewers , and that " ... people hated me for killing her . "

The audience became angrier still when in the following episode , " Eye For An Eye " , MacLeod made love to Immortal Annie Devlin . Abramowitz explained the creative decision of his staff by saying that " ... someone once told me that death was an aphrodisiac . It 's a thing that pushes you to life and the greatest thing in life , that 's ' seize life ' , is sex . " Lineberger wrote in his review of " Eye For An Eye " , " This one caused an uproar — one I feel is justified . [ Abramowitz ] gave a defense ( in my opinion a weak one ) ( ... ) I have a high tolerance for insensitive guy stuff , but this got to me . When Duncan rolled into Annie 's arms , part of me smirked in appreciation of Duncan 's magnetic charm . But the rest of me found his actions cruel to the viewers . " Abramowitz confirmed that " ... the fans hated it . And the women wanted to string me up . I was a ' cad ' and a ' card ' ... " Paul also reported an angry reaction from the audience after the seventh episode , " The Return of Amanda " , in which MacLeod sleeps with Amanda .

Tessa 's death was a turning point in Highlander : The Series . It marked the first time that a regular character died in the show ; it would be followed by the deaths of Charlie DeSalvo and Richie Ryan . Horvath recalled that " ... it changed the tone of the show . It made Highlander the show where you couldn 't be positive that the characters were safe because they were in the credits . " Tessa 's death also gave the show a pessimistic tone that influenced the remaining characters . Rosen explained that " ... in the years that followed without her and with [ Kirsch 's character ] becoming Immortal , ( ... ) you had to play the show differently . " Lineberger said that " Richie and Duncan relate to each other differently from now on , and Duncan is bereft of much of his joy [ and ] moodier as well . Tessa is no longer around to lighten him . "

= = = " Counterfeit " = = =

Tessa remained extremely popular with the audience after her death , prompting the producers to develop the season two finale episode " Counterfeit " to bring her back . According to Kirsch , Vandernoot did not realize her , or her character 's , popularity before attending conventions . Paul said that Vandernoot was surprised that her character had so much influence on the show and that her return was " ... fun for her to do , especially to play a different character which was similar to Tessa but also had an evil intent to her . "

The " Counterfeit " story features the character Lisa undergoing plastic surgery to become Tessa 's double . Lisa was played by Meilani Paul before the surgery and by Vandernoot after it . The producers wondered whether the story needed to explain the change in Lisa 's voice , as she would be played by a different actor . They considered suggesting that her voice changed because of the surgery , then decided that Lisa would have voice training . After her operation , Lisa speaks with Vandernoot 's voice when posing as Tessa , and with Meilani Paul 's voice when the character was not acting . This was achieved using automated dialogue replacement during post @-@ production .

Adrian Paul said that Vandernoot portrayed Lisa as a smoker to mark her out as a different character from Tessa . Paul also said that his lovemaking scene with Vandernoot had to reflect the different relationship between MacLeod and Lisa from that between MacLeod and Tessa . According to Paul , Lisa was more like a temptress to MacLeod than was Tessa . According to Panzer , the original script featured Horton sending Lisa to kill MacLeod on the latter 's barge . After reading the draft script , Adrian Paul thought the idea of Lisa trying to kill MacLeod on Tessa 's grave would have a more dramatic effect .

= = Critical reception = =

Bill Panzer said that Tessa became popular with the program 's audience . Rob Lineberger called Tessa " ... beautiful and spirited , " and said that " ... she is the perfect mortal foil for MacLeod 's heavy concerns . She lightens and strengthens him . " Reviewer Abbie Bernstein of the Audio Video Revolution website wrote that Tessa was " ... depicted not as a screechy , in @-@ the @-@ dark Lois Lane but rather as a woman who handles her lover ’ s supernatural aspects with remarkable pragmatism . " Berstein added that Tessa was " estimable " and " ... an unusually gutsy love interest ( not to mention a refreshing sexually active heroine , as opposed to the coy ' sexual tension ' -generating females who usually populate the genre ) . " Other reviewers had a more negative opinion . Reviewer Gord Lacey of TVShowsOnDVD.com " ... found it odd that everyone liked Tessa because [ he ] found her rather annoying . " Reviewer Doug Anderson of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that Tessa was " ... too arty and sympathetic to serve any purpose other than an emotional spur for the hero 's vengeance . "

Reviewer David M. Gutierrez , also of DVDVerdict.com , noted the " ... strong on @-@ screen chemistry between Tessa and MacLeod . " So did Lineberger : " One gets the feeling they have been together for years , though the series is fresh out of the box , " and he added , " Together , they are a model couple . They have healthy banter , intense arguments , plenty of romance , and an easy comfort with each other . " Bernstein wrote ; " Paul and Vandernoot are charming separately and together " . Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post wrote that " Paul and Vandernoot don 't look like typical American TV @-@ style bimbos and hunks , and for good reason . They were cast to appeal internationally . "

Discussing Vandernoot 's performance , Lineberger called her a " ... gifted actor " , saying that " ... she has the poise , restraint , and grace to be both sensual and frustrated , accomplished yet vulnerable , mortal but aware of greater concerns . " John Goff of Variety noted that Vandernoot was " attractive " and Anderson called her a " ... Michelle Pfeiffer look @-@ alike . "

Reviewing the episode " Counterfeit " , Gutierrez wrote that " ... despite the fact that the having an exact twin of Tessa 's pop up is flatly ludicrous , it plays out due to MacLeod 's desire to have Tessa back overriding his sense of reason . ( ... ) Vandernoot likes the Tessa character quite a bit and gave me the impression she was sad to see her go , " and that she " ... looks like she enjoys playing the good / bad Lisa . Her triple performance as Tessa shows Vandernoot 's range . " Kathie Huddleston of Scifi.com felt that " ... a visit from Tessa in " Counterfeit " , even an evil Tessa look @-@ alike , is a welcome nod to a significant character from the first season , and it gave our boy Duncan a moment or two to reflect on his recent lost love . "

= M @-@ 5 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 5 , commonly referred to as Grand River Avenue and the northern section as the Haggerty Connector , is a 20 @.@ 807 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 33 @.@ 486 km ) state trunkline highway in the Metro Detroit area of the US state of Michigan . The highway runs through suburbs in Oakland and Wayne counties in addition to part of Detroit itself . It starts in Commerce Township as a north – south divided highway and freeway called the Haggerty Connector and connects with Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) in Novi . The freeway then turns southeasterly to bypass the suburb of Farmington as an east – west highway . The freeway ends on the southeast side of Farmington , and M @-@ 5 follows Grand River Avenue as boulevard into Detroit . The eastern terminus is at an interchange with I @-@ 96 in Detroit . The trunkline passes between suburban residential subdivisions and along urban commercial areas while serving 17 @,@ 200 – 68 @,@ 800 vehicles on average each day .

Grand River Avenue started as the path of an early wagon trail in the Michigan Territory , carrying settlers from Detroit inland along a route previously used by Native Americans . It was later a plank road that helped to connect Detroit with the state capital of Lansing and Grand Rapids . When the state highway system was signed in 1919 , the avenue was numbered as part of M @-@ 16 . Later it became US Highway 16 ( US 16 ) . Grand River Avenue was supposed to be the path for I @-@ 96 from Novi into downtown Detroit , and a section of freeway now used by M @-@ 5 was constructed as part of I @-@ 96 before the Interstate was rerouted to a different location . In the 1990s another section of freeway , which was originally proposed for a northern extension of I @-@ 275 , was opened . This freeway called the Haggerty Connector was added to M @-@ 5 . Additional projects have extended the highway farther north and added a roundabout to the northern terminus . A different highway was previously designated M @-@ 5 in another area of the state in the 1930s .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 5 starts at a roundabout intersection with Pontiac Trail in Commerce Township . It runs south @-@ southwesterly from here in Oakland County as a divided highway between suburban residential subdivisions in the township . South of Maple Road , the highway is bordered by commercial developments to the east and Long Park to the west as it angles southeasterly . Between 14 and 13 Mile roads , the highway is once again bounded by subdivisions . Along this part of the trunkline , access to the road is limited to major intersections only , making the highway an expressway . Immediately south of the 13 Mile Road intersection , M @-@ 5 's median widens out as the highway transitions to a full freeway called the Haggerty Connector . Traffic can only access the highway at grade @-@ separated interchanges instead of at @-@ grade intersections . A collector @-@ distributor lane setup parallels the main freeway lanes proving access to the ramps at the 12 Mile Road interchange as well as ramps from the massive interchange with I @-@ 96 , I @-@ 275 and I @-@ 696 . Through this interchange complex that straddles the Novi – Farmington Hills city line , M @-@ 5 turns to the southeast , and signage changes direction . The Haggerty Connector is signed north – south , while the rest of M @-@ 5 is signed east – west . M @-@ 5 has direct connections with ramps to I @-@ 696 and I @-@ 96 east / I @-@ 275 south as it crosses over into Farmington Hills .

The next interchange for the M @-@ 5 freeway connects to Grand River Avenue and 10 Mile Road . This section of the freeway bypasses residential areas of Farmington Hills . Further east , M @-@ 5 crosses into Farmington where it bypasses the downtown area of the suburb . Past 9 Mile Road , the freeway ends at the intersection with Grand River Avenue , and M @-@ 5 follows Grand River southeasterly as a boulevard , a type of divided street . Traffic that wishes to make left turns must use a Michigan left maneuver along this section of the highway . Additionally , traffic that needs to change sides of the street must use crossovers in the median to perform a U @-@ turn . Once again running through suburban Farmington Hills , the trunkline passes Botsford Hospital before intersecting 8 Mile Road . This intersection marks the place where M @-@ 5 crosses into Wayne County , and the western terminus of the M @-@ 102 designation on 8 Mile Road . Grand River Avenue runs through the northern section of Redford Township in Wayne County and crosses into Detroit at the intersection with 7 Mile Road and 5 Points Street .

The northwest corner of Detroit is mostly residential as M @-@ 5 intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . Past Telegraph , Grand River Avenue forms the northern boundary of the Grand Lawn Cemetery and later the southern boundary of the New Rogell Golf Course . The properties bordering M @-@ 5 transition to commercial use past these two green spaces , and the highway continues southeasterly through the city as an undivided street . Grand River Avenue intersects Outer Drive near several businesses . M @-@ 5 crosses over M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) near the intersection with Fenkell Street , which would be 5 Mile Road in the Detroit grid system . The residential areas off the adjacent side streets increase in density east of the Southfield Freeway . M @-@ 5 ends at the interchange with I @-@ 96 between Schoolcraft and Plymouth roads in the middle of another larger commercial zone ; Grand River Avenue continues from this location as an unsigned highway numbered internally as OLD BS I @-@ 96 all the way into downtown .

M @-@ 5 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 5 were the 68 @,@ 793 vehicles daily between 12 and 13 Mile roads ; the lowest counts were the 17 @,@ 176 vehicles per day southeast of Schoolcraft Road to I @-@ 96 . All of M @-@ 5 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The trunkline is six- or eight @-@ lanes wide along the freeway section to the north and west of the Grand River Avenue interchange ; south and east of there it is a four @-@ lane freeway or six @-@ lane highway all the way to I @-@ 96 .

= = History = =

= = = Previous designation = = =

Starting in 1933 , M @-@ 5 was used as the designation along a section of highway that was previously part of US 2 in Mackinac and Chippewa counties in the Upper Peninsula . This designation was in use until 1939 when it was replaced by M @-@ 129 .

= = = Current designation = = =

= = = = Grand River Avenue = = = =

The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the Grand River Trail was one of these thirteen trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city , Grand River Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . A ten @-@ year project to construct a plank road between Detroit and Howell was authorized in 1820 along the Grand River Trail . Grand River Avenue was included as one of Five Great Military Roads in 1825 , along with the River Road , Michigan Avenue , Woodward Avenue and Gratiot Avenue . The Grand River Road , precursor to the modern Grand River Avenue was named by Benjamin Williams , cofounder of Owosso ; it was named for La Grande Riviere , the French name for the river .

The opening of the Erie Canal in New York in 1826 brought new settlers to the Great Lakes region , and to the future state of Michigan . Many of these settlers began their inland journeys in Detroit . At first the Grand River Road was a " deep rutted , ditch bordered road " . The Grand River Road was a major route for settlers headed inland to Grand Rapids in 1836 , as the shortest route for travelers coming from Detroit .

In 1850 , the Michigan State Legislature established the Lansing and Howell Plank Road Company , which set about converting various Indian trails into the Lansing – Howell Plank Road , a task the company completed by 1853 . At Howell the road connected with the Detroit – Howell Plank Road , establishing the first improved connection direct from the state capital to Michigan 's largest metropolis . The Lansing – Detroit Plank Road was a toll road until the 1880s . It eventually evolved into the eastern part of the modern Grand River Avenue .

By 1900 , only a short stretch of the Detroit – Howell Plank Road was still make of planks ; most of the other plank roads had been converted to gravel by this time . When the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) had numbered and signed highways in the state in 1919 , it applied the M @-@ 16 number to Grand River Avenue across the state between Grand Haven and Detroit .

The M @-@ 16 designation lasted for seven years . As the states were meeting with the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO , now AASHTO ) to plan the United States Numbered Highway System , the route of M @-@ 16 was originally planned to be included in US 18 . When the system was announced on November 11 , 1926 , Grand River Avenue and M @-@ 16 became part of US 16 . The first change to the US 16 routing in the Detroit area was made in 1933 when the highway was moved to bypass Farmington , with the old routing retained as a state highway .

= = = = Metro Detroit freeways = = = =

MSHD had plans to upgrade the US 16 corridor to freeway standards in the middle of the 20th century . The first planning map in 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System showed a highway in the corridor . The General Location of National System of Interstate Highways Including All Additional Routes at Urban Areas Designated in September 1955 , or Yellow Book after the cover color , showed generalized plans for the locations of Interstate Highways as designated in 1955 . This also included a highway in the US 16 corridor . The 1957 approval for the Interstate Highway System replaced much of US 16 with a portion of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . MSHD submitted a recommended numbering plan for the Interstates in 1958 that showed I @-@ 96 following the US 16 corridor .

The segments of the road between Brighton and Farmington were upgraded in 1956 . The MSHD initially signed the various freeways as Interstates in 1959 , and US 16 through the Farmington area gained the additional I @-@ 96 numbering . Two years later , the business route through Farmington was redesignated as a business loop of I @-@ 96 instead of US 16 . The final connection for I @-@ 96 between Lansing and Brighton was completed in late 1962 , and the US 16 designation was decommissioned in the state . The sections of highway through the Detroit metro area were given Business Loop ( BL ) or Business Spur ( BS ) I @-@ 96 designations .

When I @-@ 96 was completed in 1977 , several highway designations were shifted in the Metro Detroit area . The BS I @-@ 96 designation was removed from Grand River Avenue . Rather than revert to its original number , M @-@ 16 , MDOT selected M @-@ 5 as the new highway designation . Grand River was signed as M @-@ 5 between 8 Mile Road and its present eastern terminus at I @-@ 96 while leaving Grand River Avenue southeast of I @-@ 96 an unsigned state trunkline , OLD BS I @-@ 96 . Both the portion of BS I @-@ 96 north of 8 Mile Road and the stub of I @-@ 96 that continued out to I @-@ 275 became part of M @-@ 102 .

= = = = Haggerty Connector = = = =

A freeway running north of Novi to the Davisburg area was included in the original Interstate Highway plans for Michigan . Originally included in the corridor for I @-@ 275 , the Michigan Highway Commission canceled the northern section of the highway on January 26 , 1977 , after it spent $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 6 @.@ 65 million in 2016 ) the year before purchasing land for the roadway . This northern section was not planned as an Interstate Highway at that time , bearing the designation M @-@ 275 instead . Opposition to construction came from various citizen 's groups and different levels of local government . Additionally , both The Detroit News and Detroit Free Press opposed the project . The Detroit City Council , led by then @-@ Chairman Carl Levin opposed the plan . Levin said at the time , " At last I think people are waking up to the dangers of more and more expressways . At some point we 've got to say enough . And I think we 've reached it . " The US Department of the Interior reviewed the state 's environmental impact study of the project and stated the project , " will cause irreparable damages on recreation lands , wetlands , surface waters and wildlife habitat . " The total project to link Farmington Hills with Davisburg with the 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) freeway would have cost $ 69 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 271 million in 2016 ) and saved drivers an estimated eight minutes off travel time around the city of Detroit .

After many years of inactivity , further work began along this same route , but the resulting highway was designated as a northern extension to M @-@ 5 rather than I @-@ 275 or M @-@ 275 . The first section of this freeway extension was opened in October 1994 . This extended the route from M @-@ 5 's previous terminus at M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) over the latter highway 's alignment west and north to 12 Mile Road . A plan enacted by then Governor John Engler in 1995 angered road officials when funding was diverted from county road commissions to help complete state highway projects like the M @-@ 5 Haggerty Connector project . In 1999 , a second extension of M @-@ 5 was completed to 14 Mile Road , but only as an expressway . The final two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) between 14 Mile Road and Pontiac Trail opened to traffic on November 1 , 2002 . In 2011 , a roundabout was placed at the northern terminus of M @-@ 5 . This last project also included a northern extension of roadway into the Eldorado Golf Course in Commerce Township to better serve the community . This extension does not carry the M @-@ 5 designation .

= = Exit list = =

All exits are unnumbered .

= McAllister Tower Apartments =

McAllister Tower Apartments is a 28 @-@ story , 94 m ( 308 ft ) residential apartment skyscraper at 100 McAllister Street in San Francisco , California . The property is owned and operated by the University of California , Hastings College of the Law . The tower includes mixed @-@ use offices on various floors , and the Art Deco @-@ styled " Sky Room " with a panoramic view on the 24th floor .

Conceived as an unusual combination of a large church surmounted by a hotel , construction of the building brought architectural dispute . Initially designed by Timothy L. Pflueger in the style of Gothic Revival , the investors fired his firm and hired Lewis P. Hobart , who changed little of Pflueger 's design . In a resulting lawsuit , Pflueger won nearly half the damages he asked for . The building opened in 1930 as the William Taylor Hotel and Temple Methodist Episcopal Church . However , extra construction expenses had put the congregation at greater financial risk , and the church @-@ hotel concept did not prove popular . No profit was made in six years , and the church left , losing their investment . In the late 1930s the building housed the Empire Hotel , known for its Sky Room lounge , then from World War II to the 1970s , 100 McAllister served as U.S. government offices .

Reopening as university housing and offices in 1981 , McAllister Tower is home to some 300 law students and their families . " The Tower " is sited one block from the administrative and scholastic center of Hastings College of the Law , and is the most prominent building in the district .

= = History = =

= = = Church and hotel = = =

The skyscraper at 100 McAllister began in 1920 with a plan formulated by Reverend Walter John Sherman to merge four of the largest Methodist Episcopal congregations in San Francisco , sell their various churches and properties and combine their assets to build a " superchurch " with a hotel on top of it . From their initial $ 800 @,@ 000 they bought property at McAllister and Leavenworth streets and hired the architectural firm of Miller and Pflueger to design the edifice . Timothy L. Pflueger was chosen as the designer . The new hotel , intended to be " dry " ( serving no alcoholic beverages ) in the " sinful " city , was to be named after William Taylor , a Methodist Episcopal street preacher and missionary who formed the first Methodist church in San Francisco . The large church was named Temple Methodist Episcopal Church , or simply " Temple Methodist " .

Beginning in 1925 , Pflueger designed a 308 ft ( 94 m ) , 28 @-@ story , step @-@ back skyscraper made of brick framed with steel , along the lines of his just @-@ completed Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company Building . Its main decorative theme was neo @-@ Gothic , expressed strongly in the three Gothic arches which formed the main street @-@ level entrance for the church . The Great Hall , the large worship area located within the second , third and fourth floors was to seat 1 @,@ 500 churchgoers and a smaller chapel was designed for 125 more . A grand pipe organ from Skinner Organ Company was installed with four manuals controlling 3 @,@ 881 pipes . A stained glass window was placed 80 feet above the sanctuary , representing Faith , Love and Hope in three tall , narrow panels . Two assembly halls could be combined to hold 1 @,@ 100 attendees for theatrical or athletic events . Some 500 guest rooms and 32 tower apartments were intended to bring a steady flow of visitors and a source of profit to the church . Though never the tallest building in San Francisco , it was to be the tallest hotel on the Pacific Coast for many decades .

In a dispute , the architectural firm of Miller and Pflueger was fired from the project , and was replaced by Lewis P. Hobart . Miller and Pflueger sued for $ 81 @,@ 600 , alleging that Hobart 's design was little changed from Pflueger 's original . Three months after the hotel and church opened in January 1930 , Miller and Pflueger won $ 38 @,@ 000 in a favorable court decision .

Dedication of the church 's pipe organ took place August 31 , 1930 . The combined congregation was very satisfied with their new place of worship .

Eventually costing US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ( $ 40 million in current value ) , the building 's completion required several rounds of new financing from its investors in order to overcome unanticipated expenses . Unfortunately for the congregation , the idea of a hotel above a church didn 't attract the requisite number of guests and the venture failed to turn a profit .

From 1990 through 2001 , the church housed the theater of George Coates Performance Works – an experimental multi @-@ media theater troupe that utilized the 60 foot high vaulted ceiling for projections .

= = = Empire Hotel = = =

By November 1936 , enough debt had accumulated that a bondholder 's protective committee foreclosed on the property , buying it back for $ 750 @,@ 000 . The Temple Methodist congregation lost its investment and was asked to leave . The Skinner Opus pipe organ was removed to be sold to Occidental College in Los Angeles and rebuilt in their Thorne Hall . The three @-@ piece stained glass window was removed and exhibited , eventually making its way to Stockton , California where it was installed in the Morris Chapel at the University of the Pacific . The 100 McAllister building itself was refurbished : the church 's floor area was given over to parking , a coffee shop was built in part of the first floor lobby and the new enterprise opened again as the Empire Hotel , noted for completing , in 1938 , the first view lounge in the area , the Sky Room on the 24th floor . With plush carpeting , a large Art Deco @-@ style oval bar , and plate glass windows on all sides , the Sky Room provided a panoramic view of the city . Architect & Engineer wrote of the luxurious bar in April , 1938 , that it " has no prototype west of New York " , referring to Manhattan 's Rainbow Room which opened three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years earlier .

= = = Federal offices = = =

At the beginning of direct American involvement in World War II , the U.S. government bought the building and converted it to federal offices , officer billets , spaces used by the Army 's Ordnance Procurement department , a passport agency and an induction center run by the local draft board . The high vaulted ceiling of the Great Hall worship center was hidden by a dropped ceiling . After the war , the Internal Revenue Service moved offices into the building .

Many federal groups at 100 McAllister moved their offices in 1959 – 1960 to the newly built federal building at 450 Golden Gate Avenue , later named the Phillip Burton Federal Building . Occupancy at 100 McAllister was low , though the United States Army Corps of Engineers moved their San Francisco District offices there in the 1960s , and local draftees were still required to appear there through the late 1960s . The San Francisco Selective Service System offices were located in the lower floors of the building during the Vietnam War .

= = = UC Hastings = = =

In 1978 , the University of California , Hastings College of the Law bought the building , the most prominent in the Tenderloin district , and began two years of refurbishment and redesign . Calling it " McAllister Tower " , 248 units were modernized for residential use by law students , and the building opened in 1981 with a combination of compact studio units as well as larger one- and two @-@ bedroom apartments taking up a total of 17 floors . The building , home to about 300 law students and their families , is casually referred to as " the Tower " by Hastings residents and faculty , who have but a one @-@ block commute to the law school 's main building at 200 McAllister .

The old Sky Room with its spectacular 360 @-@ degree view reopened in 1999 as the James Edgar Hervey Skyroom , in honor of alumnus James Edgar Hervey , Class of 1950 , a prominent San Diego trial lawyer . It is used as a space for student study by day ( no alcohol allowed ) and is available for special events in the evenings . Other floors of the building hold offices , apartments and residential conveniences . The mezzanine level contains a compact fitness center , the third and fourth floors contain classrooms and offices for political action groups and legal assistance organizations , and the 22nd and 23rd floors hold publishing headquarters for a number of scholarly journals .

The Great Hall remains un @-@ refurbished and has been judged by UC Hastings to be in need of substantial repair and improvement , including major architectural engineering work . The college has plans to create a 400 @-@ seat performing arts venue within the Great Hall .

= Karamokho Alfa =

Karamokho Alfa ( born Ibrahima Musa Sambeghu and sometimes called Alfa Ibrahim ) ( died c . 1751 ) was a Fula religious leader who led a jihad that created the Imamate of Futa Jallon in what is now Guinea . This was one of the first of the Fulbe jihads that established Muslim states in West Africa .

Alfa Ba , Karamoko Alfa 's father , formed a coalition of Muslim Fulbe and called for the jihad in 1725 , but died before the struggle began . The jihad was launched around 1726 @-@ 1727 . After a crucial , concluding victory at Talansan , the state was established at a meeting of nine Fulbe ulama who each represented one of the Futa Jallon provinces . Ibrahima Sambeghu , who became known as Karamokho Alfa , was the hereditary ruler of Timbo and one of the nine ulama . He was elected leader of the jihad . Under his leadership , Futa Jallon became the first Muslim state to be founded by the Fulbe . Despite this , Karamokho Alfa was constrained by the other eight ulama . Some of the other Ulama had more secular power than Karamokho Alfa , who directly ruled only the diwal of Timbo ; for this reason the new state was always a tenuous confederation . Karamoko Alfa ruled the theocratic state until 1748 , when his excessive devotions caused him to become mentally unstable and Sori was selected as de facto leader . Karamokho Alfa died around 1751 and was formally succeeded by Ibrahim Sori , his cousin .

= = Background = =

The Futa Jallon is the highland region where the Senegal and Gambia rivers rise . In the fifteenth century the valleys were occupied by Mandé peoples - Susu and Yalunka farmers . Around that time , Fulbe herders began moving into the region , grazing their livestock on the plateaux . At first they peacefully accepted a subordinate position to the Susu and Yalunka . The Fulbe and Mandé peoples intermixed to some extent , and the more sedentary of the Fulbe came to look down on their pastoral cousins .

Europeans began to establish trading posts on the upper Guinea coast in the seventeenth century , stimulating a growing trade in hides and slaves . The pastoral Fulbe expanded their herds to meet the demand for hides . They began to compete for land with the agriculturalists , and became interested in the profitable slave trade . They were increasingly influenced by their Muslim trading partners .

In the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Zawāyā reformer Nasir al @-@ Din launched a jihad to restore purity of religious observance in the Futa Toro region to the north . He gained support from the Torodbe clerical clan against the warriors , but by 1677 the movement had been defeated . Some of the Torodbe migrated south to Bundu and some continued on to the Futa Jallon . The Torodbe , the kinsmen of the Fulbe of the Futa Jallon , influenced them in embracing a more militant form of Islam .

= = Jihad = =

Alfa Ba , Karamoko Alfa 's father , formed a coalition of Muslim Fulbe and called for the jihad in 1725 , but died before the struggle began . The jihad was launched around 1726 or 1727 . The movement was primarily religious , and its leaders included both Mandé and Fulbe marabouts . The jihad also attracted some formerly non @-@ Muslim Fulbe , who associated it not just with Islam but with freedom of the Fulbe from subordination to the Mandé peoples . It was opposed by other non @-@ Muslim Fulbe and by non @-@ Muslim Yalunka leaders .

According to tradition , Ibrahim Sori symbolically launched the war in 1727 by destroying the great ceremonial drum of the Yalunka people with his sword . The jihadists then won a major victory at Talansan . A force of 99 Muslims defeated a non @-@ Muslim force ten times greater , killing many of their opponents . After this victory the state was established at a meeting of nine Fulbe ulama who each represented one of the Futa Jallon provinces . Ibrahima Sambeghu , who became known as Karamokho Alfa , was the hereditary ruler of Timbo and one of the nine ulama . He was elected leader of the jihad . He took the title almami , or " the Imam " . Under his leadership Futa Jallon became the first Muslim state to be founded by the Fulbe .

Karamoko Alfa managed to enlist disadvantaged groups such as gangs of young men , outlaws and slaves . Karamokho Alfa 's maternal cousin was Maka Jiba , the ruler of Bundu , and both men studied in Fugumba under the famous scholar Tierno Samba . However , there are no records of Bundu participation in the Futa Jallon jihad , perhaps because of the internal troubles in Bundu at that time , or perhaps because Maka Jiba was not greatly interested in the cause . Although he was an inspired religious leader , Karamoko Alfa was not qualified as a military leader . Ibrahim Sori took this role . Some of the population resisted conversion for many years , particularly the nomadic Fulbe herders . They rightly feared that the marabouts would abuse their authority .

= = Ruler = =

Karamokho Alfa was constrained by the other eight ulama , each of whom ruled their own province , or diwal . The structure of the new Fulbe state had an almami at its head , Karamokho Alfa being the first , with his political capital at Timbo . However , some of the other Ulama had more secular power than Karamokho Alfa , who directly ruled only the diwal of Timbo . The religious capital was at Fugumba , where the council of the alama sat . The council operated as a strong curb on the power of the almami , and the ulama retained much autonomy , so the new state was always a loose federation .

Karamokho Alfa was known for his Islamic scholarship and piety . He respected the rights of the old " masters of the soil " , saying " it was Allah who had established them . " Despite this ruling , the imams reserved the right to reassign land , since they held it in trust for the people . In effect the existing property owners were not displaced , but now had to pay Zakāt as a form of rent . Karamoko Alfa ruled the theocratic state until 1748 , when his excessive devotions caused him to become mentally unstable and Sori was selected as de facto leader .

= = Legacy = =

Karamokho Alfa died around 1751 and was formally succeeded by Ibrahim Sori , his cousin . Ibrahim Sori Mawdo was chosen because Alfa Saadibu , son of Karamoko Alfa , was too young . Ibrahim Sori was an aggressive military commander who initiated a series of wars . After many years of conflict , Ibrahim Sori achieved a decisive victory in 1776 that consolidated the power of the Fulbe state . The jihad had achieved its goals and Ibrahim Sori assumed the title of almami .

Under Ibrahima Sori slaves were sold to obtain munitions needed for the wars . This was considered acceptable as long as the slaves were not Muslim . The jihad created a valuable supply of slaves from the defeated peoples that may have provided a motive for further conquests . The Fulbe ruling class became wealthy slave owners and slave traders . Slave villages were founded , whose inhabitants provided food for their Fulba masters to consume or sell . At one time more than half the population were slaves . As of 2013 the Fulbe were the largest ethnic group in Guinea at 40 % of the population , after the Malinke ( 30 % ) and Susu ( 20 % ) .

The jihad in Futa Jallon was followed by a jihad in Futa Toro between 1769 and 1776 led by Sileymaani Baal . The largest of the Fulani jihads was led by the scholar Usman dan Fodio and established the Sokoto Caliphate in 1808 , stretching across what is now the north of Nigeria . The Fulbe Muslim state of Masina was established to the south of Timbuktu in 1818 .

Karamokho Alfa came to be thought of as a saint . A story is told of a miracle that occurred more than a hundred years after his death . The chief of the Ouassoulounké , Kondé Buraima , opened Karamokho Alfa 's tomb and cut off the left hand of the body . Blood poured from the severed wrist , causing Kondé Buraima to flee in terror .

= Murder of Tom ap Rhys Pryce =

Thomas Mervyn " Tom " ap Rhys Pryce ( 13 October 1974 – 12 January 2006 ) was a 31 @-@ year @-@ old British lawyer who was robbed and murdered by two black teenagers as he made his way home in Kensal Green , northwest London , on 12 January 2006 . The two , Donnel Carty and Delano Brown , showed little or no remorse and were sentenced to life imprisonment .

The crime gained national notoriety for the particularly brutal way in which Pryce was murdered , only metres from his own home , and had only his Oyster card and mobile phone taken from him , but no money ( the case being widely reported as an example of steaming ) . The murderers were later tracked down when the police examined CCTV footage of where the Oyster card was used after the murder . The crime caused a political uproar and condemnation of railway station security . The Tom ap Rhys Pryce Memorial Trust was set up after the murder , and a school was built in his honour .

= = Life of Tom ap Rhys Pryce = =

Tom ap Rhys Pryce was a 31 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer who worked for Linklaters , a leading London corporate law firm . Pryce was born in Broxbourne , Hertfordshire , England . At the age of three , the Pryce family moved to Somalia after Pryce 's father , John , a civil engineer , was sent to work there as part of a project to build a sugar factory , there he " enjoyed an idyllic early childhood " . After 18 months they returned home to Hertfordshire before moving in 1980 to the family home in Weybridge where Tom grew up . His ancestry was one well known within the military and among his ancestors was his great @-@ grandfather , General Sir Henry Edward ap Rhys Pryce ( 1874 – 1950 ) . At 13 , Tom won an academic and music exhibition which was later upgraded to a full scholarship at 16 to attend Marlborough College , Wiltshire , England .

There he achieved passes at A @-@ levels in Greek , Latin and English Literature , with three grade As . From there Pryce went on to gain a First @-@ Class honours at Trinity College , Cambridge in June 1996 , where he read Classics staying on to study for a masters . Pryce was also known to be a talented musician and lived on Bathurst Gardens , Kensal Green in a flat which he shared with his fiancée Adele Eastman , 31 , a solicitor specialising in employment law with Farrer & Co , the Queen 's solicitors .

= = Events of 12 January 2006 = =

Childhood friends , Donnel Carty , 18 , and Delano Brown , 17 , had earlier that evening robbed chef Kurshid Ali , a middle @-@ aged man in Kensal Green station , 20 minutes before Pryce arrived at the station on his way home from work . Pryce was walking from Kensal Green Tube station at about 2300 to 2330 GMT , when he was attacked . According to witness reports , Pryce was running along Bathurst Gardens from two black youths . According to testimony from Delano Brown , Donnel Carty stabbed Pryce after they had chased him from Kensal Green Tube station where police found a trail of blood and belongings , including a pair of gloves and papers regarding Pryce 's wedding arrangements . As the youths chased Pryce , Carty " fly @-@ kicked " him in the back and he dropped to the floor . As Pryce attempted to stand up , Carty kicked him in the face . Trying to get away , Pryce began to fight Carty , as Carty stopped him . Some time during this Pryce was stabbed twice in the chest and once in the hip , the wounds penetrating vital organs including his heart . He also suffered cuts to his head , hands and torso . As Pryce 's belongings lay scattered around him , Carty and Brown took Pryce 's mobile phone and Oyster card , the only possessions of value Pryce was carrying . Carty then shouted ' What else have you got ? ' to which Pryce responded ' Nothing . You have got everything ' . Carty and Brown then ran off towards Clifford Gardens , heading to Carty 's home leaving Pryce dying on the ground . Pryce was later taken to Central Middlesex Hospital , where he was confirmed dead shortly after midnight .

The scene of the crime which took place along Bathurst Gardens showed the course of events of the violent confrontation . Pryce 's book and gloves were lying outside No 56 , a silver Audi car was smeared with blood outside No 82 and a list of wedding venues outside 84 . Pryce was found collapsed in the gutter between parked cars outside No 90 .

= = Donnel Carty and Delano Brown = =

Carty and Brown were , according to Brown , childhood friends who thought of each other as cousins . Carty lived with his grandparents in Burrows Road , Kensal Green , and Brown lived with his mother in Rosebank Avenue , Sudbury , northwest London . Carty had one conviction for assaulting a police officer when he was 16 years old , and a caution for possessing cannabis . Brown had no previous convictions . The pair were members of a violent gang calling itself the KG Tribe , taking part in the unlawful wounding of two commuters in December 2005 as well as other robberies . At the time of the murder of Pryce , Carty and Brown were 18 and 17 respectively .

When both men were arrested on 18 January , Carty said he was innocent of the allegations and claimed he had been in a pub in Kilburn with relatives and friends , and stayed the night at a relative 's house . When police searched his home , they found a pair of trainers that forensic tests showed had a drop of ap Rhys Pryce 's blood on one toe . DNA from several people , including Brown , were found on the trainers . Officers also found a top with traces of Brown 's DNA , and fibres found on Pryce 's overcoat were microscopically indistinguishable from the material of that top . Brown also said he had been in Kilburn the night of the murder and initially claimed that he had nothing to do with either the robbery of the other man or the robbery and murder of Pryce . When the mobile phone of the other victim ( Ali ) was discovered at his home , he claimed he had bought it from two men . Detectives also found that Brown had hoarded press cuttings of Pryce .

= = Trial of Carty and Brown = =

Police caught Carty through CCTV footage which showed him using Pryce 's Oyster Card ( which he claimed to have found ) at Kensal Green station , forensic evidence found at the homes of Carty and Brown , and Pryce 's mobile phone . Carty and Brown both denied murder but admitted that they had robbed Pryce and another man just before . Brown was 17 at the time of the offence so initially could not be named for legal reasons .

The trial of the two defendants opened on 30 October 2006 at the Central Criminal Court before Mr Justice Aikens and a jury . Throughout the trial Brown declared that it was Carty who had stabbed Pryce and that it had simply been a ' robbery gone bad ' . This led to an alleged attack on Brown by three youths at Feltham Young Offender Institution during the trial , in which his attackers reportedly said : " You are snitching on your co @-@ d ( co @-@ defendant ) . " Carty denied any involvement in the incident , claiming it had been the result of an argument Brown had with the youths earlier . On 27 November 2006 , Carty and Brown were convicted of murder . Carty and Brown reacted calmly to the guilty verdicts , turning to each other , shaking hands and embracing .

On 28 November 2006 , both men were sentenced to life imprisonment . The minimum termed for Carty was fixed at 21 years , and that for 18 @-@ year @-@ old Brown at 17 years . The trial judge said he could not tell who wielded the knife but considered both defendants equally guilty . Both sentences were referred to the Court of Appeal ( Criminal Division ) as " unduly lenient " by Her Majesty 's Attorney General , Lord Goldsmith QC . That court , constituted by the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers , Mr Justice Henriques and Mr Justice Teare , increased Brown 's minimum term to 20 years , although it did not interfere with the sentence imposed upon Carty .

= = Reaction = =

The then Prime Minister Tony Blair 's immediate response to the murder was to pledge the investigation of public safety at the station close to where Pryce was murdered , Kensal Green Station , and this was later improved .

David Cameron criticised the Labour Government 's criminal justice system and the absence of father @-@ figures in ethnic minority cultures , which he claimed as causes in the murder of Pryce . Cameron stated that lack of strong deterrent sentences for knife crimes and the failure of police to stop prolific criminals had played a role in the killing of Pryce . He insisted that parental background had a key role in preventing crime and called for zero tolerance of knife crime , claiming that not enough criminals were being sent to jail .

In January 2006 the Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Ian Blair created considerable controversy when he described the media as institutionally racist . This accusation had also been levelled at the police for the allegedly unbalanced coverage of black @-@ on @-@ white crimes , such as this murder , as compared to that given to crimes against ethnic minorities . The example Blair cited was that of Balbir Mathura , an Asian man murdered on the same day as Pryce . Mathura was run over and dragged almost 44 yards ( 40 m ) by a car driven by thieves he had disturbed as they broke into a van parked outside his workplace . Newspapers argued that the number of stories printed regarding the two victims were similar , though a survey of national newspapers after the two murders showed that longer and more in @-@ depth articles were written about the murder of Pryce than that of Mathura .

= = Legacy = =

Following the murder of Pryce , his friends and family set up The Tom ap Rhys Pryce Memorial Trust to enable individuals who could not otherwise afford it to achieve their potential by gaining access to appropriate educational facilities . It aims to raise at least £ 1million to help educate society 's poorest children .

This incident sparked a major public discussion on station safety and security , mainly because the station was unstaffed when the suspects mugged Ali on the platform . The only security present was CCTV cameras , and the ticket barriers were left open allowing the suspects to enter the station freely . Many high @-@ profile politicians spoke on the issue of station safety and called on rail companies to provide security or staff the station until the last train had left the station . The Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone assailed Silverlink , the train company who managed the station , for not providing all @-@ night staffing or security . The new provider of every franchise across the rail network will have to provide staff at all times the station is open .

A school was built in Vietnam in memory of Pryce . His colleagues raised enough money to have the school built to leave a lasting legacy in his honour . The primary school opened in 2007 . Its cost was met by the Hong Kong office of Pryce 's employer , Linklaters .

= Lágrimas Cálidas =

Lágrimas Cálidas ( English : Warm Tears ) is the debut studio album by Colombian recording artist Fanny Lu , released on January 1 , 2005 . The record contains ten tracks , most of which were composed by Jose Gaviria , and produced with Andres Munera . Musically , the album experiments with tropipop , which is composed of the genres of vallenato , merengue , and pop music . Recording for the album took place in 2004 in three cities : Miami , Bogota and Medellin . An international version of the album , containing two remixes , was released exclusively in United States , Spain and Colombia .

The album was certified gold in Colombia , Venezuela and Ecuador and ranked number thirteen on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart in the United States . The album earned Lu many accolades , including a Latin Grammy nomination , five Billboard Latin Music Awards nominations , and three Premios Shock nominations , winning two . Three singles were released from the record , two of which , " No Te Pido Flores " and " Y Si Te Digo " , reached number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .

= = Background = =

While studying for a degree in engineering at the University of Los Andes in 1994 , Fanny Lu began her career in the entertainment industry as a host for shows such as Locomotora , Siempre Música , and Radio Hits y Bailoteca . As a host on Locomotora , she was given the opportunity to work with musicians such as Luis Manuel Díaz , Gil Magno , and Cesar Franco . She met Colombian producer , Jose Gaviria , during her career in television , and they began working on a musical project , but the production was halted , because Fanny was busy in her television career . Eight years later , she reunited with Gaviria to finish this recording . Her experience as a television host led to her signing a music deal with Universal Music Latino . Her first album under that agreement was Lágrimas Cálidas , which was released in Colombia on January 1 , 2005 .

= = Composition = =

Lágrimas Cálidas was produced by Jose Gaviria and Andres Munera . It was recorded at Crescent Moon Studios and Big Dog Studios in Miami , New World Studios in Bogota and Promix Estudios in Medellin . The genre of the album is defined as Tropipop , because it mixes tropical genres such as vallenato and merengue with pop and Caribbean influences . The album opens with " No Te Pido Flores " ( " I 'm Not Requesting Flowers " ) , where the predominant instruments are the accordion , guitar and caja vallenata . Lyrically , the song begins with the absence of her man , but then , in the chorus , transitions into a warning not to fall in love with material things . The second track , " Lágrimas Cálidas " ( " Warm Tears " ) , is a vallenato @-@ stylized pop ballad , expressing her suffering due to being abandoned by her lover . " Te Arrepentiras " ( " You 'll Regret " ) , is about a woman who surrendered completely to a man who did not appreciate her .

" Solo Quiero " ( " Only Want " ) begins with an accordion solo , and is a song explaining to her lover that she only wants to be with him forever , because with him all the things in life are more beautiful . The fifth track , " Cariñito " ( " Sweetie " ) , describes her need for the affection of the person she loves , and her desire to remedy the void left in her heart . " Sin Razones " ( " Without Reasons " ) , express the reasons why she should not have to prove her love , while " Y Si Te Digo " ( " And If I Tell You " ) , tells of her desire to confess her love to the person who doesn 't know she loves him . " Es Por Ti " ( " It Is For You " ) is a poem describing the strength of an all @-@ encompassing love . The penultimate track , " Para Que Si Tu No Estas " ( " For That If You Aren 't " ) , asks her boyfriend whether or not she should suffer for him . The eleventh and final track of the album , " Me Acordare de Ti " ( " I Will Remember You " ) , expresses that everything she feels , sees , and perceives , reminds her of her beloved .

= = Reception = =

The album was certified gold in Colombia , Venezuela and Ecuador . In the United States , the album debuted at number 18 on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart , peaking three weeks later at number 13 . Lágrimas Cálidas was generally well received . At the Colombian Premios Shock , it won the category of Radio Album , as well as winning best Radio Song for " No Te Pido Flores " . At the 15th Latin Billboard Music Awards , the album was nominated for two awards : Tropical Album of the Year for a Female Artist and Best New Artist . At the 2007 Latin Grammy Awards , " No Te Pido Flores " received a nomination for Best Tropical Song , but lost to " La Llave De Mi Corazón " , by Juan Luis Guerra .

= = Singles = =

" No Te Pido Flores " was the first single from the album , released in 2005 . The song was a success in Latin America , reaching number one in Colombia , Ecuador , Perú and Venezuela . In the United States , it also reached number one on the Billboard Latin Tropical Airplay chart . It was nominated for two Billboard Latin Music Awards and a Latin Grammy for Best Tropical Song . " No Te Pido Flores " has two music videos , one recorded in Lake Guatavita , Sesquilé , Colombia , and the international version , which was recorded in the Plaza Moreno in La Plata , Argentina .

Unlike " No Te Pido Flores " , the album 's second single , " Te Arrepentirás " , was released after the release of Lágrimas Cálidas in Latin America . The third and final single , " Y Si Te Digo " , was released on May 27 , 2007 . In Latin America , the song did not have the same success as the first single , but in the United States , the song hit number one on Billboard 's Hot Latin Songs chart and Billboard 's Tropical Airplay chart . The song won a Billboard Latin Music Award for Best Tropical Airplay for a new artist .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

The following credits are from Allmusic :

Performance credits

Technical credits

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Roger Federer =

Roger Federer ( German : [ ˈfeːdərər ] born 8 August 1981 ) is a Swiss professional tennis player who is currently ranked world No. 3 by the Association of Tennis Professionals ( ATP ) . His accomplishments in professional tennis have led to him being regarded by many as the greatest tennis player of all time . Federer turned professional in 1998 and has been continuously ranked in the top 10 since October 2002 .

Federer holds several records of the Open Era : holding the world No. 1 position for 302 weeks ( including 237 consecutive weeks ) ; winning 17 Grand Slam singles titles ; reaching each Grand Slam final at least five times ( an all @-@ time record ) ; and reaching the Wimbledon final ten times . He is among the eight men ( and among the five in Open Era ) to capture a career Grand Slam . Federer shares an Open Era record for most titles at Wimbledon with Pete Sampras ( seven ) and at the US Open with Jimmy Connors and Sampras ( five ) . He is the only male player to win five consecutive US Open titles .

Federer has reached 27 men 's singles Grand Slam finals , including 10 in a row from the 2005 Wimbledon Championships to the 2007 US Open , both statistics being records . He also appeared in 18 of 19 finals from the 2005 Wimbledon through to the 2010 Australian Open . He reached the semifinals at 23 consecutive Grand Slam tournaments , from the 2004 Wimbledon Championships through the 2010 Australian Open . At the 2016 Wimbledon Championships , he reached a record 48th Grand Slam quarterfinal and a record 40th Grand Slam semifinal . Earlier at the 2016 Australian Open , he played in a record 65th consecutive Grand Slam tournament . Earlier at the 2015 US Open , he reached a record 27th Grand Slam final . Also earlier at the 2013 French Open , Federer reached a record 36th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal . Federer has won the most matches in Grand Slam events ( 307 ) and is the first to record 65 + wins at each Grand Slam tournament .

Federer 's ATP tournament records include winning a record six ATP World Tour Finals , playing in the finals at all nine ATP Masters 1000 tournaments ( a record shared with Djokovic and Nadal ) . He also won the Olympic gold medal in doubles with his compatriot Stan Wawrinka at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and the Olympic silver medal in singles at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games . Representing Switzerland , he was a part of the 2014 winning Davis Cup team . He finished eight consecutive years ( 2003 – 2010 ) in one of the top two positions in the year @-@ end men 's rankings and ten ( 2003 – 2012 ) in the top three . He was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years ( 2005 – 2008 ) .

= = Personal life = =

= = = Childhood and early life = = =

Federer was born at the Basel Cantonal Hospital in Basel , Switzerland . His father , Robert Federer , is Swiss , from Berneck , near the borders between Switzerland , Austria and Germany ; and his mother , Lynette Federer ( born Durand ) , from Kempton Park , Gauteng , is a South African whose ancestors were Dutch and French Huguenots . Federer has one sibling , his older sister Diana , who is the mother of a set of twins . He holds both Swiss and South African citizenship . He grew up in nearby Birsfelden , Riehen , and then Münchenstein , close to the French and German borders and speaks Swiss German , Standard German , English and French fluently , Swiss German being his native language .

Federer was raised as a Roman Catholic and met Pope Benedict XVI while playing the 2006 Internazionali BNL d 'Italia tournament in Rome . Like all male Swiss citizens , Federer was subject to compulsory military service in the Swiss Armed Forces . However , in 2003 he was ruled " unsuitable " and was subsequently not required to fulfill his military obligation . Instead , he served in the civil protection force and was required to pay 3 % of his taxable income as an alternative . He grew up supporting F.C. Basel and the Swiss National Football Team . Federer also credits the range of sports he played as a child — he also played badminton and basketball — for his hand @-@ eye coordination .

= = = Family = = =

Federer is married to former Women 's Tennis Association player Mirka Vavrinec . He met her while both were competing for Switzerland in the 2000 Sydney Olympics . Vavrinec retired from the tour in 2002 because of a foot injury . They were married at Wenkenhof Villa in Riehen near Basel on 11 April 2009 , surrounded by a small group of close friends and family . In July 2009 , Mirka gave birth to identical twin girls , Myla Rose and Charlene Riva . The Federers had another set of twins in 2014 , this time boys whom they named Leo and Lennart , called Lenny .

= = = Philanthropy and outreach = = =

In 2003 , he established the Roger Federer Foundation to help disadvantaged children and to promote their access to education and sports . Since May 2004 , citing his close ties with South Africa including because that is where his mother was raised , he started supporting the South Africa @-@ Swiss charity IMBEWU which helps children better connect to sports and social and health awareness and , in 2005 , Federer visited South Africa to meet the children that had benefited from his support . In 2005 , he auctioned his racquet from his US Open championship to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina . At the 2005 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells , Federer arranged an exhibition involving several top players from the ATP and WTA tour called Rally for Relief . The proceeds went to the victims of the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In December 2006 he visited Tamil Nadu , one of the areas in India most affected by the tsunami . He was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador by UNICEF in April 2006 and has appeared in UNICEF public messages to raise public awareness of AIDS .

In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Federer arranged a collaboration with fellow top tennis players for a special charity event during the 2010 Australian Open called ' Hit for Haiti ' , in which proceeds went to Haiti earthquake victims . He participated in a follow @-@ up charity exhibition during the 2010 Indian Wells Masters which raised $ 1 million . The Nadal vs Federer " Match for Africa " in 2010 in Zurich and Madrid raised more than $ 4 million for the Roger Federer Foundation and Fundación Rafa Nadal . In January 2011 , Federer took part in an exhibition , Rally for Relief , to raise money for the victims of the Queensland floods . In 2014 , the " Match for Africa 2 " between Federer and Stan Wawrinka , again in Zurich , raised £ 850 @,@ 000 for education projects in southern Africa .

= = Tennis career = =

= = = Pre – 1998 : Junior years = = =

Federer 's main accomplishments as a junior player came at Wimbledon in 1998 , where he won both the boys ' singles final over Irakli Labadze , and in doubles teamed with Olivier Rochus , defeating the team of Michaël Llodra and Andy Ram . In addition , Federer lost the US Open Junior final in 1998 to David Nalbandian . He won four ITF junior singles tournaments in his career , including the prestigious Orange Bowl , where he defeated Guillermo Coria in the final . He ended 1998 with the No. 1 junior world ranking , and he entered his first tournament as a professional during 1998 in Gstaad , where he lost to Lucas Arnold Ker in the first round .

= = = 1998 – 2002 : Early career and breakthrough in the ATP = = =

Federer entered the top 100 ranking for the first time on 20 September 1999 . His first final came at the Marseille Open in 2000 , where he lost to fellow Swiss Marc Rosset . Federer won the 2001 Hopman Cup representing Switzerland , along with Martina Hingis . The duo defeated the American pair of Monica Seles and Jan @-@ Michael Gambill in the finals . Federer 's first singles win was at the 2001 Milan Indoor tournament , where he defeated Julien Boutter in the final . Although he won his first title already in 1999 on the Challenger tour , winning the doubles event in Segovia , Spain with Dutchman Sander Groen , the final was played on Federer 's 18th birthday . In 2001 , Federer made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the French Open , and at Wimbledon that same year defeated four @-@ time defending champion Pete Sampras to reach the quarterfinals . The most prestigious event final he reached during this period was the 2002 Miami Masters event , where he lost to Andre Agassi on hard court .

Federer won his first Master Series event at the 2002 Hamburg Masters on clay , over Marat Safin ; the victory put him in top 10 for the first time . Federer made 10 singles finals between 1998 and 2002 , of which he won four and lost six . He also made six finals in doubles . Of note are Federer and partner Max Mirnyi 's defeat in the final of the Indian Wells Masters in 2002 , and their victory in the same year in the final of the Rotterdam 500 series event . Federer had won the latter a year earlier with partner Jonas Björkman . He finished 2001 with an ATP ranking of No. 13 , and 2002 was the first year he was ranked within the top 10 , finishing at No. 6 .

= = = 2003 : Wimbledon breakthrough = = =

In 2003 , Federer won his first Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon , beating Mark Philippoussis in the final . Federer won his first and only doubles Masters Series 1000 event in Miami with Max Mirnyi and made it to one singles Masters Series 1000 event in Rome on clay , which he lost . Federer made it to nine finals on the ATP Tour and won seven of them , including the 500 series events at Dubai and Vienna . Lastly , Federer won the year @-@ end championships over Andre Agassi , finishing the year as world No. 2 , narrowly behind Andy Roddick .

= = = 2004 : Imposing dominance = = =

During 2004 , Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles for the first time in his career and became the first person to do so since Mats Wilander in 1988 . His first major hard @-@ court title came at the Australian Open over Marat Safin , thereby becoming the world No. 1 for the first time . He then won his second Wimbledon crown over Andy Roddick . Federer defeated the 2001 US Open champion , Lleyton Hewitt , at the US Open for his first title there .

Federer won three ATP Masters Series 1000 events , one was on clay in Hamburg , and the other two were on hard surfaces at Indian Wells and in Canada . Federer took the ATP 500 series event at Dubai and wrapped up the year by winning the year @-@ end championships for the second time . He also won his first tournament on home soil by capturing the Swiss Open in Gstaad . His 11 singles titles were the most of any player in two decades , and his record of 74 – 6 was the best since Ivan Lendl in 1986 . He improved his year @-@ end ranking to world No. 1 for the first time .

= = = 2005 : Consolidating dominance = = =

In 2005 , Federer failed to reach the finals of the first two Grand Slam tournaments , losing the Australian Open semifinal to eventual champion Safin after holding match points , and the French Open semifinal to eventual champion Rafael Nadal . However , Federer quickly reestablished his dominance on grass , winning the Wimbledon Championships over Andy Roddick . At the US Open , Federer defeated Andre Agassi in the latter 's last major final .

Federer also took four ATP Masters Series 1000 wins : Indian Wells , Miami , and Cincinnati on hard court , and Hamburg on clay . The win in Miami was particularly noteworthy as it was the first final contested between Federer and Rafael Nadal in what would become one of the greatest rivalries in tennis history . Federer received from down two sets and a break to take the final in five sets . Furthermore , Federer won two ATP 500 series events at Rotterdam and Dubai . Federer lost the year @-@ end championships to David Nalbandian in five sets while playing through a foot injury that sidelined him for almost the entire season after September . He maintained his position as world No. 1 for the entirety of the season .

The season was statistically one of the most dominant in the Open Era . He won 11 singles titles , which tied his 2004 season as the most in over two decades , his 81 match victories were the most since Pete Sampras in 1993 , and his record of 81 – 4 ( 95 @.@ 2 % ) remains the second @-@ best winning percentage in the Open Era behind only John McEnroe in 1984 .

= = = 2006 : Career best season = = =

The 2006 season was statistically the best season of Federer 's career , as well as one of the greatest seasons of any player in tennis history . In December 2011 , Stephen Tignor , chief editorial writer for Tennis.com , ranked Federer 's 2006 season as the second @-@ greatest season of all time during the Open Era , behind only Rod Laver 's Grand Slam year of 1969 . Federer won 12 singles titles ( the most of any player since John McEnroe in 1984 ) and had a match record of 92 – 5 ( the most wins since Ivan Lendl in 1982 ) . Federer reached the finals in an astounding 16 of the 17 tournaments he entered during the season .

In 2006 , Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles and reached the final of the other , with the only loss coming against Nadal in the French Open . This was Federer and Nadal 's first meeting in a Grand Slam final . He was the first man to reach all four finals in a calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969 . Federer defeated Nadal in the Wimbledon Championships final . In the Australian Open , Federer defeated Marcos Baghdatis , and at the US Open , Federer defeated Roddick ( 2003 champion ) . In addition , Federer made it to six ATP Masters Series 1000 finals , winning four on hard surfaces and losing two on clay to Nadal . Federer , however , consistently pushed Nadal to the limit on clay throughout the season taking him to fourth @-@ set tiebreakers in Monte @-@ Carlo and Paris , and a thrilling match in Rome that went to a deciding fifth @-@ set tiebreaker .

Federer won one ATP 500 series event in Tokyo and captured the year @-@ end championships for the third time in his career , again finishing the year as world No. 1 . Federer only lost to two players during 2006 , to Nadal four times in finals , and to 19 @-@ year @-@ old Andy Murray in the second round of the 2006 Cincinnati Masters , in what would be Federer 's only defeat before the final that year . Federer finished the season on a 29 @-@ match winning streak , as well as winning 48 of his last 49 matches after the French Open .

A personal highlight for Federer came near the end of the season when he finally won his hometown tournament the Swiss Indoors in Basel , Switzerland .

= = = 2007 : Holding off young rivals = = =

In 2007 , Federer reached all four Grand Slam singles finals , winning three of them again . He won the Australian Open over Fernando González and did so without dropping a set . This made him the first man in the 21st century to accomplish the feat , as Björn Borg at the 1980 French Open was the last to win a Grand Slam tournament without the loss of a set . Federer had entered the year on a huge winning streak and after capturing his fourth Dubai crown Federer 's winning streak stood at 41 matches , the longest of his career and only five shy of the record . Federer entered Indian Wells as the three @-@ time defending champion , but his streak would end in controversy . He was defeated by an Argentine , Guillermo Canas , who had failed a drug test for illegal doping . This surprising first @-@ round defeat marked the first time since August 2006 he suffered defeat , a period spanning over seven months .

During the clay season , Federer 's victory in the Hamburg Masters final was particularly impressive , as it snapped Rafael Nadal 's 81 @-@ match winning streak on clay , an Open @-@ Era record . Federer turned the match around from a set down to sweep 12 of the final 14 games , including a final set bagel . At the French Open , some anticipated that Federer could become the first man in almost 40 years to hold all four majors simultaneously , having just resoundingly defeated young rival Nadal on clay entering the tournament . However , in a repeat of the previous year Federer played a tough four @-@ set final against Nadal , but was undone by going 1 / 18 on break @-@ point chances .

At Wimbledon , Federer entered the tournament not only as the four @-@ time defending champion , but also riding a 48 @-@ match winning streak on grass . Once again , he defeated Rafael Nadal for a second consecutive year in the final , this time in a thrilling five @-@ set encounter that many analysts hailed as the greatest Wimbledon final since 1980 . Victory at Wimbledon equaled him with Björn Borg for the record of five consecutive championships at the All England Club .

Federer reached the final in Montreal before playing a young and relatively unknown Serbian named Novak Djokovic . Djokovic proved his potential by stunning the world No. 1 in a final @-@ set tiebreaker upset . Federer rebounded in Cincinnati to capture his fifth title of the year . Federer entered the US Open as the three @-@ time defending champion and faced Djokovic in the final . This time , Federer prevailed in a close straight @-@ set match . Victory in New York moved him ahead of Laver and Borg for third on the all @-@ time list of major championship victories . Throughout the tournament , the American press labeled him Darth Federer for his all @-@ black attire ( which included tuxedo @-@ striped shorts ) and the tournament played The Imperial March from Star Wars when he was announced onto the court for each of his matches . He would close out the year with victories in Basel and the Year End Championships in Shanghai .

He finished as the year @-@ end world No. 1 for the fourth year in a row , demonstrating his dominance , and during these four years he won 11 Grand Slam singles titles . After his phenomenal triple Grand Slam season yet again , Federer became the only player in history to win three Majors in a year for three years ( 2004 , 2006 , 2007 ) . It was the third consecutive season that Federer would hold the world No. 1 ranking for all 52 weeks of the year .

= = = 2008 : Illness , fifth US Open title and Olympic Gold = = =

Federer 's success in 2008 was severely hampered by a lingering bout of mononucleosis , which he suffered from during the first half of the year . At the end of the year , he would suffer a back injury that would prove to be recurring throughout his career .

In 2008 , Federer won one Grand Slam singles title at the US Open over Briton Andy Murray . Federer was defeated by Nadal in two Grand Slam finals , at the French Open , and at Wimbledon , when he was going for six straight wins to break Björn Borg 's record . At the Australian Open , Federer lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Djokovic , which ended his record of 10 consecutive finals . Later in the year , it was found Federer had been suffering from mononucleosis at the start of the year , particularly during the Australian Open . He lost twice in Masters Series 1000 finals on clay to Nadal , at Monte Carlo and Hamburg . However , Federer captured three titles in 250 @-@ level events at Estoril , Halle , and Basel .

At the Olympic Games , Federer and Stan Wawrinka won the gold medal in doubles , after beating the Bryan brothers American team in the semifinals and the Swedish duo of Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson in the final However , Federer could only reach the quarterfinals in the singles draw , knocked out by then world No. 8 James Blake . He ended the year as world No. 2 .

= = = 2009 : Career Grand Slam , sixth Wimbledon , breaking Grand Slam record = = =

In 2009 , Federer won two Grand Slam singles titles , the French Open over Robin Söderling , and Wimbledon over Andy Roddick . Federer reached two other Grand Slam finals , losing to Nadal at the Australian Open , and to Juan Martín del Potro at the US Open , both in tight five @-@ set matches .

The 2009 season was perhaps the most historically relevant of Federer 's career as he completed a career Grand Slam by winning his first French Open title and won a men 's record fifteenth Grand Slam singles title by defeating Andy Roddick at Wimbledon in five sets , surpassing Pete Sampras 's mark of fourteen . The 2009 Wimbledon final was also historic for being the longest Grand Slam final in terms of games played with Federer prevailing 16 – 14 in a thrilling fifth set . Upon breaking the Grand Slam tournament record , Federer was hailed by most analysts and many tennis greats as the greatest player in tennis history .

Federer won two more events , the first at the Madrid Masters over Nadal on clay . The second was in Cincinnati over Novak Djokovic .

= = = 2010 : Fourth Australian Open = = =

The year started with a win at the Australian Open , where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and extended the Grand Slam singles record to sixteen titles , matching Andre Agassi 's record of four Australian Open titles . Since Wimbledon 2005 Federer had made the finals of 18 out of 19 Grand Slam tournaments , an extraordinary period of sustained excellence unparalleled in the Open Era . This tournament , however , would mark the end of his utter dominance at the majors .

At the French Open , Federer won his 700th tour match and 150th tour match on clay . However , he failed to reach a Grand Slam semifinal for the first time since the 2004 French Open , losing to Söderling in the quarterfinals and relinquishing his No. 1 ranking , having been just one week away from equaling Pete Sampras 's record of 286 weeks as world No. 1 . In a huge upset at Wimbledon , Federer lost in the quarterfinals to Tomáš Berdych and fell to No. 3 in the rankings for the first time in 6 years and 8 months .

Towards the middle of July , Federer hired Pete Sampras ' old coach Paul Annacone on a trial basis to put his tennis game and career back on the right path . At the 2010 US Open , Federer reached the semifinals , where he lost a heart @-@ breaking five @-@ set match to Novak Djokovic after holding two match points . Federer made it to four Masters 1000 finals , prevailing at the Cincinnati Masters against Mardy Fish .

Federer finished the year in strong form , winning indoor titles at the Stockholm Open , Swiss Indoors , and the ATP World Tour Finals in London , which brought his tally to 66 career titles . Federer won the year @-@ end championships in London by beating rival Rafael Nadal for his fifth title at the event . He showed much of his old form , beating all contenders except Nadal in straight sets . It remains the only tournament in his career where Federer defeated all fellow members of the Big Four . Since Wimbledon 2010 , Federer had a win @-@ loss record of 34 – 4 . Federer finished in the top two for the eighth consecutive season .

= = = 2011 : Sixth World Tour Finals title = = =

The 2011 season , although great by most players ' standards , was a lean year for Federer . He was defeated in straight sets in the semifinals of the 2011 Australian Open by eventual champion Novak Djokovic , marking the first time since July 2003 that he did not hold any of the four major titles . In the French Open semifinals , Federer ended Djokovic 's undefeated streak of 43 consecutive wins with a stunning four @-@ set victory . However , Federer then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal . At Wimbledon , Federer advanced to his 29th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal , but lost to Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . It marked the first time in his career that he had lost a Grand Slam tournament match after winning the first two sets .

At the US Open , Federer lost a much @-@ anticipated semifinal match with Novak Djokovic , after squandering two match points in the fifth set , which repeated his previous year 's result against Djokovic and added a second loss from two sets up in Grand Slam tournament play to his record . The loss at Flushing Meadows meant that Federer did not win any of the four majors in 2011 , the first time this has happened since 2002 . Later that month , in September 2011 , in a South African poll , Federer was voted the second most trusted and respected person in the world , next to Nelson Mandela .

Federer finished the season on a high note by yet again dominating the indoor season , winning his last three tournaments of the year at the Swiss Indoors , Paris Masters , and ATP World Tour Finals . He ended a 10 @-@ month title drought by winning the Swiss Indoors for the fifth time , defeating rising star Kei Nishikori . Federer followed this up with his first Paris Masters title , where he became the first player to reach all nine Masters 1000 finals . In the final of the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals , Federer defeated Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga for the third consecutive Sunday and , in doing so , claimed a record sixth ATP World Tour Finals title , finishing the year as world No. 3 .

= = = 2012 : Seventh Wimbledon , second Olympic Medal and return to No. 1 = = =

The 2012 season was a return to excellence for Federer . He had his most match wins since 2006 and his highest winning percentage and number of titles won since 2007 .

Federer reached the semifinal of the 2012 Australian Open , setting up a 27th career meeting with Nadal , a match he lost in four tight sets .

He then won the Rotterdam Open for the first time since 2005 , defeating Juan Martin del Potro . Federer played in the 2012 Dubai Tennis Championships , where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and won the championship title for the fifth time in his career . Federer then moved on to the Indian Wells Masters , where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals , and John Isner in the final . Federer won the title for a record fourth time , and , in doing so , equalled Rafael Nadal 's record of 19 ATP Masters 1000 titles .

Federer went on to compete at the Madrid Masters on the new blue clay surface , where he beat Tomáš Berdych in the final , thus regaining the world No. 2 ranking from Rafael Nadal . In the French Open , Federer made the semifinals before losing to Djokovic .

At Wimbledon , Federer survived an epic five @-@ set thriller in the third round against Julien Benneteau on his way to the semifinals . In his semifinal match @-@ up against world No. 1 Novak Djokovic , Federer earned a record eighth Wimbledon final appearance after dispatching Djokovic in four sets . Federer defeated Andy Murray in four sets in the 2012 Wimbledon final , regaining the world No. 1 ranking in the process . " It 's amazing . It equals me with Pete Sampras , who 's my hero . It just feels amazing " , Federer said of winning his seventh Wimbledon championship , tying Sampras ' Open Era record . By defeating top @-@ ranked Djokovic in the semifinals and winning in the finals , Federer returned to the top spot in the world rankings and , in doing so , broke Sampras ' record of 286 weeks atop the list .

Four weeks after the Wimbledon final , Federer again faced Murray on the Wimbledon centre court , this time for the final of the 2012 Summer Olympics . This came after an epic 4 @-@ hour 26 @-@ minute semifinal against Juan Martin del Potro of Argentina that Federer won 19 – 17 in the third and final set . He lost to Murray in straight sets in the final , winning a silver medal for his country .

Federer won in Cincinnati , beating Novak Djokovic soundly in the final . In the US Open , five @-@ time champ Federer was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinals . In the Shanghai Rolex Masters , defeating Stan Wawrinka in the third round , Federer confirmed his 300th week at No. 1 . Federer made it to the finals of the ATP World Tour Finals , where he lost to Novak Djokovic in two tight sets .

= = = 2013 : Injury struggles = = =

Federer struggled with back injuries sustained in March and again in July and saw his ranking drop from No. 2 to No. 6 . The 2013 season was the first since 1999 in which Federer failed to reach a final in the first four months of the year .

Federer 's first and only title of 2013 came at the Gerry Weber Open ( def . Mikhail Youzhny ) , where he also played doubles with good friend Tommy Haas . With the victory in Halle , he tied John McEnroe for the third @-@ most number of ATP titles won by a male player in the Open Era . Federer , however , was unable to maintain his form into Wimbledon , suffering his worst Grand Slam tournament defeat since 2003 in the second round against Sergiy Stakhovsky . Not only did the loss end Federer 's record streak of 36 consecutive quarterfinals at Grand Slam tournaments , it meant he would drop out of the top 4 for first time since July 2003 , exactly 10 years after he won his first Wimbledon title .

During the summer , he experimented with various different racquets and played the German Open with a blacked @-@ out 98 @-@ inch Wilson racquet , instead of his regular Pro Staff 6 @.@ 1 90 BLX racquet with the smaller 90 @-@ inch hitting area . He returned to his regular racquet for the second half of the season . After Wimbledon , Federer continued to be upset early in tournaments because of a serious back injury through October , when he announced that he was parting ways with Paul Annacone , his coach for the last three years . Federer made the final in Basel , succumbing to Juan Martín del Potro .

On 27 December 2013 , Federer announced that Stefan Edberg was joining his team as co @-@ coach with Severin Lüthi .

= = = 2014 : Wimbledon runner @-@ up , and Davis Cup glory = = =

Federer began the season by changing rackets for the first time in his career , from his longtime frame of 90 square inches to one measured at 97 square inches . He had long been at a comparative disadvantage in equipment as almost the entire tour , including his top rivals Nadal and Djokovic , used more powerful frames of between 95 and 100 square inches .

Federer played well at the Australian Open , defeating Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga and Andy Murray to reach his 11th consecutive semifinal in Melbourne , before losing to Rafael Nadal in straight sets .

At the Dubai Tennis Championships , he defeated Novak Djokovic in the semifinals , and then defeated Tomáš Berdych in the final to win his sixth Dubai crown and his first title since Halle in 2013 . Federer made the final at the Indian Wells Masters , but lost to Novak Djokovic in a final @-@ set tiebreaker . At the Davis Cup quarterfinals , Federer won both of his singles rubbers against Kazakhstan , the second of which was the first live deciding rubber of his Davis Cup career . Federer then took a wild card into the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters defeating Novak Djokovic on his way to the finals , but lost to compatriot Stan Wawrinka in a tight final .

In June , Federer announced that after the end of his third term , he would resign as President of the ATP Players Council , a position he had held since 2008 . At the Halle Open , Federer reached both the singles and the doubles finals and won his seventh Halle singles title , beating Alejandro Falla in the final . At Wimbledon , Federer reached a record ninth final , but he defeated by Djokovic in an epic five @-@ set match .

Federer made the final of the Canadian Open , but was defeated by Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga . Federer defeated Spain 's David Ferrer in three sets to capture his sixth Cincinnati crown and his 22nd ATP World Tour Masters 1000 title , his first since Cincinnati 2012 . He then reached the semifinals at the US Open , but lost in straight sets to eventual champion Marin Čilić . At the Davis Cup semifinals , Federer won both of his singles matches against Italy in straight sets and hence led Switzerland to the final for the first time since 1992 .

Federer then played in the Shanghai Masters . He beat Novak Djokovic in the semifinals , ending the Serb 's 28 @-@ match unbeaten run on Chinese soil . He battled Frenchman Gilles Simon in his second Shanghai final , defeating him in two tiebreak sets and collected the 23rd Masters 1000 title of his career . The victory saw Federer return to world No. 2 for the first time since May 2013 . Federer then played the Swiss Indoors in October , where he won a record sixth title and his 82nd ATP men 's singles title overall . Federer also reached the finals of the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals to face Djokovic again , but withdrew from the final because of another back injury from his semifinal match against Stan Wawrinka . Despite his injury , Federer finished the season on a high by defeating Richard Gasquet to clinch the Davis Cup for Switzerland for the first time in its history .

= = = 2015 : 1,000th career win , Wimbledon and US Open runners @-@ up = = =

Federer started his season at the Brisbane International . He defeated Milos Raonic in the final , thereby becoming only the third man in the Open Era to have 1000 or more wins , joining Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl , as well as the first man in the Open Era to win at least one title in each of 15 consecutive years . In Dubai , Federer successfully defended his title with a straight @-@ set victory over Novak Djokovic in the final , marking his seventh title at the tournament and , after Wimbledon and Halle , was the third time he had won seven or more titles in a tournament . In addition , Federer became the fourth person since 1991 to surpass 9 @,@ 000 career aces . In March , he reached the final of the Indian Wells , but lost in three sets to defending champion Djokovic .

Federer won his third title of the season at the inaugural Istanbul Open clay @-@ court tournament , ending a title drought on red clay since the 2009 French Open . Federer made it to the finals of the Italian Open in May. but was unable to win his first title there , losing to Djokovic in the final .

As the new expanded grass season began , Federer won his record eighth Gerry Weber Open and become only the third man in the Open Era to win a title eight times . Federer entered Wimbledon as the second seed . He played a flawless match to defeat Andy Murray in straight sets in the semifinals and advance to his 10th Wimbledon final in a repeat against Novak Djokovic . Federer lost the match in four sets .

He defeated Andy Murray and Novak Djokovic in straight sets to win the Cinicinnati Masters for the seventh time . This marked the first time that Federer had beaten the top 2 players in the world at the same tournament . At the US Open , he advanced to his first final there since 2009 without dropping a set , including a win over Stan Wawrinka in the semifinals . In the final , he was once again defeated by top seed Djokovic in four sets . At the Swiss Indoors tournament in Basel , Federer won his sixth singles title of the year , and his 88th ATP title , defeating his old rival Rafael Nadal in the final . It was the seventh time he had captured his hometown tournament .

In December , Federer announced that he headed into the 2016 ATP World Tour season with a new @-@ look coaching team , after announcing that Stefan Edberg would not be traveling with him next year . While countryman Severin Lüthi remained Federer ’ s head coach , joining the team in 2016 was Croatian former world No. 3 player Ivan Ljubicic . The Swiss tennis player revealed that Edberg originally signed on to the coaching team for one season only in 2014 , but agreed to stay on in 2015 .

= = = 2016 : Knee surgery and back problems , long injury break = = =

Federer started his season by participating in the Brisbane International as the defending champion , despite having a flu when the tournament started . However , in a rematch of the previous year final , he lost in the final to Milos Raonic in straight sets . Federer then participated at the 2016 Australian Open and rebounded from his third round defeat by Andreas Seppi in 2015 by reaching the semifinals but lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in four sets . The day after his loss to Djokovic , Federer sustained a knee injury and in early February , he underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair a torn meniscus in his knee and missed the tournaments in Rotterdam and Dubai in February and in Indian Wells in March . He was scheduled to return to action in Miami . Due to a stomach flu he had to withdraw from Miami thus prolonging his time on the sidelines . He did however , make his comeback at the Monte @-@ Carlo Masters with straight set wins over Guillermo García @-@ López and Roberto Bautista Agut before losing in the quarterfinals to Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga in three sets . Federer then announced that he would be entering the Madrid Open . However , he suffered a back injury during practice and withdrew shortly after arriving . Although the season had been plagued with injuries , Federer regained the # 2 ranking in the world for a brief moment following Madrid . He then participated in the Internazionali BNL d 'Italia where he defeated Alexander Zverev in straight sets , but lost in the third round to Dominic Thiem . He subsequently missed the Madrid Open , before withdrawing from the French Open , breaking a run of 65 consecutive participations in the main @-@ draw of Grand Slam tournaments , stretching back to the 2000 Australian Open . On 6 July , he came back from two sets down to defeat Marin Čilić in five sets in the 2016 Wimbledon quarterfinals , equalling Jimmy Connors ' all @-@ time records of eleven Wimbledon semifinals and 84 match wins . He suffered his first ever defeat in a Wimbledon semifinal two days later , in five set loss to Raonic .

On 26 July , Federer announced that he would miss the 2016 Summer Olympics and the remainder of the 2016 season to fully recover from his knee injury .

= = Rivalries = =

= = = Federer vs. Nadal = = =

Federer and Nadal have been playing each other since 2004 , and their rivalry is a significant part of both men 's careers .

They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 until 17 August 2009 , when Nadal fell to world No. 3 ( Andy Murray became the new No. 2 ) . They are the only pair of men to have ever finished six consecutive calendar years at the top . Federer was ranked No. 1 for a record 237 consecutive weeks beginning in February 2004 . Nadal , who is five years younger , ascended to No. 2 in July 2005 and held this spot for a record 160 consecutive weeks , before surpassing Federer in August 2008 .

Nadal leads their head @-@ to @-@ head 23 – 11 . Of their 34 matches , 15 have been on clay , which is by far Nadal 's best surface . Federer has a winning record on grass ( 2 – 1 ) and indoor hard courts ( 5 – 1 ) , while Nadal leads the outdoor hard courts ( 8 – 2 ) and clay ( 13 – 2 ) . Because tournament seedings are based on rankings , 21 of their matches have been in tournament finals which have included an all @-@ time record eight Grand Slam finals . From 2006 to 2008 , they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final . They then met in the 2009 Australian Open final and the 2011 French Open final . Nadal won six of the eight , losing the first two Wimbledon finals . Three of these finals were five set @-@ matches ( 2007 and 2008 Wimbledon , 2009 Australian Open ) , with the 2008 Wimbledon final being lauded as the greatest match ever by many long @-@ time tennis analysts . Of their 34 meetings , 12 have reached a deciding set . They have also played in 10 Masters Series finals , including their lone five @-@ hour match at the 2006 Rome Masters which Nadal won in a fifth @-@ set tie @-@ break , having saved two match points .

= = = Federer vs. Djokovic = = =

Federer and Djokovic have met 45 times with Djokovic leading 23 – 22 wins . They are tied 17 – 17 on hard @-@ courts and 4 – 4 on clay while Djokovic leads 2 – 1 on grass . The Federer – Djokovic rivalry is the largest rivalry in men 's Grand Slam tournament history with a record 15 matches played against each other with Djokovic leading 9 – 6 . Djokovic is the only player besides Nadal to defeat Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournaments ( 2010 US Open and 2011 Australian Open , also 2015 Wimbledon , US Open and 2016 Australian Open ) , and the only player besides Nadal and Murray who has double @-@ figure career wins over Federer . Djokovic is one of two players ( the other again being Nadal ) currently on tour to have defeated Federer in straight sets at a Grand Slam event ( 2008 Australian Open , 2011 Australian Open , 2012 French Open ) and the only player to do so three times . Of their 45 meetings , 15 have reached a deciding set .

Federer and Djokovic first played in a Grand Slam final at the 2007 US Open where the three @-@ time reigning champion and world No. 1 Federer emerged victorious in straight sets . Federer ended Djokovic 's perfect 41 – 0 start to the 2011 season in the semifinals of the French Open , but Djokovic was able to avenge this loss at the 2011 US Open in five sets after saving two match points against Federer for the second straight year . In the semifinals of Wimbledon 2012 , Federer beat defending champion and world No. 1 Djokovic in four sets . The two met again during the finals of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic emerging victorious after 5 sets . Federer also ended Djokovic 's 28 straight wins in China at 2014 Shanghai Open . Federer and Djokovic rematched in the 2015 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic once again claiming victory in four sets . The pair met once more for the final major of the season , the 2015 US Open and once more Djokovic prevailed in 4 sets . Many experts have included the rivalry between Federer and Djokovic as one of the best rivalries in the Open Era .

= = = Federer vs. Murray = = =

Federer and Andy Murray have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 – 11 . Federer leads 12 – 10 on hard courts , and 2 – 1 on grass . They have never met on clay . The two have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level , the first three times in the finals , Federer winning all three of these matches ; at the 2008 US Open and the 2010 Australian Open , both of which he won in straight sets , and at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships in which Murray took the opening set , but went on to lose in four sets . However , Murray won their encounter in the semifinals of the 2013 Australian Open , defeating the Swiss for the first time at a Grand slam tournament in five sets . At the 2014 Australian Open , Federer reversed that result , defeating Murray in four sets in the quarterfinals . The most recent meeting between the two in a Major was in the semifinals of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships , where a dominant Federer triumphed in straight sets .

They met in the final of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games , in which Murray defeated Federer in straight sets , denying the Swiss a career Golden Slam . Murray also leads 6 – 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments , 2 – 0 in finals . They have also met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals , with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008 , and Federer in London in 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , and 2014 . Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer ( the other two being Nadal and Novak Djokovic ) .

= = = Federer vs. Roddick = = =

One of Federer 's longstanding rivalries was with American Andy Roddick . Roddick lost his world No. 1 ranking to Federer after Federer won his first Australian Open in 2004 . Federer and Roddick met on 24 occasions , including four Grand Slam event finals ( three at Wimbledon and one at the US Open – all won by Federer ) . Federer 's record is overall 21 – 3 . Roddick himself said it was not much of a rivalry , being so one @-@ sided .

In the 2009 Wimbledon final , Roddick lost to Federer in five sets . The match included a fifth set of 30 games ( a Grand Slam final record ) and was over four hours long . In the final game of the deciding set , Roddick 's serve was broken for the first time in the match . With that victory , Federer broke Pete Sampras ' record of 14 Grand Slam tournament titles , and Roddick apologized to Sampras ( who was there ) for not being able to hold Federer .

= = = Federer vs. Hewitt = = =

Lleyton Hewitt and Roger Federer played each other on 27 occasions . Early in their careers , Hewitt dominated Federer , winning seven of their first nine meetings , including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semifinal which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland . However , from 2004 onward , Federer dominated the rivalry , winning 16 of the last 18 meetings to finish with an 18 – 9 overall head @-@ to @-@ head record . This is Hewitt 's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996 . They met in one Grand Slam tournament final , the 2004 US Open final , where Federer won his first US Open title in a lopsided encounter in which Federer scored a bagel either side of a second @-@ set tiebreak . Federer met Hewitt at six of the Grand Slam tournaments in which he lifted the trophy , including all five of his triumphs between 2004 and 2005 . Their last meeting was at the 2014 Brisbane International , where Hewitt triumphed over Federer in three sets for his first title since 2010 , when he also beat Federer to the Halle title .

Hewitt and Federer teamed up in the men 's doubles at Wimbledon in 1999 . They got to the third round before losing to Jonas Björkman and Pat Rafter .

= = = Federer vs. Agassi = = =

Federer and Agassi played each other 11 times between 1998 and 2005 before Agassi 's retirement in 2006 . Federer led the rivalry 8 – 3 . This was Federer 's most significant rivalry with an all @-@ time great player of the previous generation . They first met in only the third tournament of Federer 's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer 's hometown , with Agassi prevailing over the 17 @-@ year @-@ old . Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Masters in 2002 . Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003 , when he defeated Agassi in both the round robin and the final . They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over 2 days with Federer eventually prevailing in 5 sets . At the 2005 Dubai Championships , Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 700 feet above sea level at the world famous seven @-@ star luxury hotel the Burj al @-@ Arab . Their final match was at one of the most prestigious platforms in the sport , when they played in the finals of the 2005 US Open . Federer was victorious in four sets , claiming the 6th Grand Slam tournament of his career and denying Agassi his 9th .

= = = Federer vs. del Potro = = =

Juan Martin del Potro and Roger Federer have played 20 times with Federer leading 15 – 5 . They have met six times in Grand Slam tournaments with Federer leading 5 – 1 . Their two most famous Grand Slam tournament meetings both came in 2009 . The first was in the French Open semifinals , when Federer survived an epic five @-@ set clash when he was chasing the only French title of his career . The second was in the final of the US Open , where del Potro stunned Federer in five sets , ending his 20 @-@ match winning streak at majors . Another high @-@ profile match was in the semifinals of the 2012 London Olympics , where Federer prevailed 19 – 17 in a grueling final set to secure the Olympic silver medal . Most recently , they met in the finals of the Swiss Indoors in 2012 and 2013 , with del Potro prevailing on both occasions in tight three @-@ set matches .

= = = Federer vs. Safin = = =

Marat Safin and Federer played each other 12 times , with Federer leading 10 – 2 . Federer and Safin turned pro within one year of each other , with Safin turning pro in 1997 and Federer in 1998 . Federer leads 4 – 1 on hard courts , 3 – 0 on grass , and 3 – 0 on clay courts , while Safin leads 1 – 0 on carpet . Notable meetings include Federer 's defeating Safin at the 2002 Hamburg Masters to win the first Masters 1000 title of his career , as well as Federer 's emerging victorious in the semifinals of the 2004 Tennis Masters Cup , after winning a tiebreak 20 – 18 on his eighth match point . Federer also defeated Safin in the finals of the 2004 Australian Open to capture his first Australian Open and second Grand Slam tournament title . However , Safin defeated Federer in the 2005 Australian Open semifinals , having saved one match point in the fourth @-@ set tiebreak , to end a 26 @-@ match winning streak by Federer . They met each other five times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 4 – 1 .

= = = Federer vs. Nalbandian = = =

David Nalbandian was Federer 's biggest rival in his early career . The two played each other 19 times , with Federer leading 11 – 8 . Nalbandian dominated early on , taking all of their first five matches from 2002 – 03 . Federer reversed this trend at the 2003 Masters Cup , where he recorded his first victory , and would go on to win 11 of their last 14 meetings . Federer led 6 – 5 on hard courts , 1 – 0 on grass , and 3 – 1 on clay courts , while Nalbandian led 2 – 1 on carpet . Notable meetings include Nalbandian 's win in a fifth @-@ set tiebreaker to win the 2005 Masters Cup , and Federer 's win in the 2006 French Open semifinals . They met each other six times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 4 – 2 .

= = = Federer vs. Berdych = = =

Tomáš Berdych and Federer have played each other 22 times with Federer leading 16 – 6 . Federer leads 9 – 5 on hard courts , 2 – 1 on grass courts , 4 – 0 on clay courts , and 1 – 0 on carpet . Berdych won their first professional match , notably upsetting then world No. 1 Federer at the 2004 Summer Olympics . Federer then went on to win their next eight meetings , before Berdych ended the losing streak in 2010 . Between 2010 and 2013 , Berdych won 5 of 8 meetings . Federer then switched to a larger racquet in 2014 to prevent being overpowered by players like Berdych and leads 5 – 0 since . They have met seven times in Grand Slam tournaments , with Federer leading 5 – 2 , and Berdych is one of five players , along with Arnaud Clément , Álex Corretja , David Nalbandian , and Jo @-@ Wilfried Tsonga , to defeat Federer multiple times in majors before the semifinal stage . Their most notable Grand Slam matches took place in the 2009 Australian Open , when Federer prevailed in five sets after dropping the first two sets , the 2010 Wimbledon Championships , the 2012 US Open , both of which Berdych won in four sets. and the 2016 Australian Open , which Federer won in straight sets .

= = Legacy = =

Federer has been regarded by many pundits , coaches , and past and present players as the greatest tennis player of all time . He dominated the game at his peak and has more Grand Slam tournament titles ( 17 ) than any other men 's singles player . He is also the first men 's singles player to have reached 10 consecutive Grand Slam tournament finals and a total of 27 Grand Slam finals . He spent the most amount of time in the Open Era at the top of the ATP Rankings ( 302 weeks ) . He also holds the record for the most titles ( 6 ) at the year @-@ end tournament , where only the year @-@ end 8 highest @-@ ranked players participate . Federer has been ranked among the top 8 players in the world continuously since 14 October 2002

Federer has won the ATPWorldTour.com Fans ' Favourite Award a record 13 times consecutively ( 2003 – 2015 ) and the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award ( voted for by the players ) a record 11 times ( 2004 – 2009 , 2011 – 2015 ) , both being awards indicative of respect and popularity . He also won the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year Award twice in 2006 and 2013 . He was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years ( 2005 – 2008 ) . Federer is at times referred to as the Federer Express , shortened to Fed Express or FedEx , and the Swiss Maestro , or just Maestro .

= = Playing style = =

Federer 's versatility has been summarised by Jimmy Connors : " In an era of specialists , you 're either a clay court specialist , a grass court specialist , or a hard court specialist ... or you 're Roger Federer . "

An elite athlete , Federer is an all @-@ court , all @-@ around player known for his speed , fluid style of play , and exceptional shot making . Federer mainly plays from the baseline but is also comfortable at the net , being one of the best volleyers in the game today . He has a powerful , accurate smash and very effectively performs rare elements in today 's tennis , such as backhand smash and skyhook , half @-@ volley and jump smash ( slam dunk ) . David Foster Wallace compared the brute force of Federer 's forehand motion with that of " a great liquid whip " , while John McEnroe has referred to Federer 's forehand as " the greatest shot in our sport . " Federer is also known for his efficient movement around the court and excellent footwork , which enables him to run around shots directed to his backhand and instead hit a powerful inside @-@ out or inside @-@ in forehand , one of his best shots .

Federer plays with a single @-@ handed backhand , which gives him great variety . He employs the slice , occasionally using it to lure his opponent to the net and deliver a passing shot . Federer can also fire topspin winners and possesses a ' flick ' backhand with which he can generate pace with his wrist ; this is usually used to pass the opponent at the net . His serve is difficult to read because he always uses a similar ball toss , regardless of what type of serve he is going to hit and where he aims to hit it , and turns his back to his opponents during his motion . He is often able to produce big serves on key points during a match . His first serve is typically around 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) ; however , he is capable of serving at 220 km / h ( 137 mph ) . Federer is also accomplished at serve and volleying , and employed this tactic frequently in his early career .

Later in his career , Federer added the drop shot to his arsenal and can perform a well @-@ disguised one off both wings . He sometimes uses a between @-@ the @-@ legs shot , which is colloquially referred to as a " tweener " or " hotdog " . His most notable use of the tweener was in the semifinals of the 2009 US Open against Novak Djokovic , bringing him triple match point . Federer is one of the top players who employs successfully the " squash shot " , when he gets pushed deep and wide on his forehand wing . Since Stefan Edberg joined his coaching team at the start of the 2014 season , Federer has played a more offensive game , attacking the net more often , and improved his volley shots . In the lead @-@ up to the 2015 US Open , Federer successfully added a new unique shot to his arsenal called SABR ( Sneak Attack by Roger ) , in which he charges his opponent while receiving the serve and hits a return on the run .

= = Equipment and apparel = =

= = = Equipment = = =

Federer currently plays with the Wilson Prostaff RF97 Autograph , a 97 square inch tennis racquet with 21 @.@ 5 mm beam , 360 g weight , 331 swing weight and 16x19 string pattern ( all strung with overgrip ) . Since the 1998 Wimbledon Junior Championships Federer played with a Pro Staff 6 @.@ 1 90 BLX tennis racquet , which is characterised by its smaller hitting area of 90 square inches , heavy strung weight of 364 grams , and thin beam of 17 @.@ 5 millimeters . His grip size was 4 3 / 8 inches ( sometimes referred to as L3 ) . Federer strung his racquets at 21 @.@ 5 kg mains / 20 kg crosses pre @-@ stretched 20 percent , using Wilson Natural Gut 16 gauge for his main strings and Luxilon Big Banger ALU Power Rough 16L gauge ( polyester ) for his cross strings . When asked about string tensions , Federer stated " this depends on how warm the days are and with what kind of balls I play and against who I play . So you can see – it depends on several factors and not just the surface ; the feeling I have is most important . "

= = = Apparel = = =

Federer has a contract with Nike footwear and apparel . For the 2006 championships at Wimbledon , Nike designed a jacket emblazoned with a crest of three tennis racquets , symbolising the three Wimbledon Championships he had previously won , and which was updated the next year with four racquets after he won the Championship in 2006 . In Wimbledon 2008 and again in 2009 , Nike continued this trend by making him a personalized cardigan which also has his own logo , an R and F joined together .

= = Endorsements = =

Federer is one of the highest @-@ earning athletes in the world . He is listed at number five on Forbes World 's Highest Paid Athletes list . As of 2013 , he remains the top earner in tennis with ten endorsement deals . He makes 40 to 50 million euros a year from prize money and endorsements from Nike and the Swiss companies Nationale Suisse , Credit Suisse , Rolex , Lindt , and Jura Elektroapparate . In 2010 , his endorsement by Mercedes @-@ Benz China was extended into a global partnership deal . His other sponsors include Gillette , Wilson , and Moët & Chandon . Previously , he was an ambassador for NetJets , Emmi AG , and Maurice Lacroix .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Grand Slam tournament performance timeline = = =

Note : Federer received fourth @-@ round walkovers at the US Open ( 2004 and 2012 ) and the Wimbledon Championships ( 2007 ) , and a second @-@ round walkover at the Australian Open ( 2012 ) ; these are not counted as wins

= = = = Finals : 27 ( 17 titles , 10 runners @-@ up ) = = = =

= = = Year @-@ End Championship performance timeline = = =

= = = = Year – End Championship finals : 10 ( 6 titles , 4 runners @-@ up ) = = = =

( i ) = Indoor

= = = Records = = =

= = = = All @-@ time tournament records = = = =

= = = = Open Era records = = = =

These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis .

Records in bold indicate peerless achievements .

Records in italics are currently active streaks .

= = = Video = = =

Wimbledon Classic Match : Federer vs Sampras . Standing Room Only , DVD release date : 31 October 2006 , run time : 233 minutes , ASIN B000ICLR98 .

Wimbledon 2007 Final : Federer vs. Nadal ( 2007 ) . Kultur White Star , DVD release date : 30 October 2007 , run time : 180 minutes , ASIN B000V02CU0 .

Wimbledon — The 2008 Finals : Nadal vs. Federer . Standing Room Only , DVD release date : 19 August 2008 , run time : 300 minutes , ASIN B001CWYUBU .

= = = Profiles = = =

Roger Federer at the Association of Tennis Professionals

Roger Federer at the International Tennis Federation

Roger Federer at the Davis Cup

Roger Federer at the Internet Movie Database

= Jane 's Attack Squadron =

Jane 's Attack Squadron is a 2002 combat flight simulator developed by Looking Glass Studios and Mad Doc Software and published by Xicat Interactive . Based on World War II , the game allows players to pilot fifteen reproductions of that era 's military aircraft and to carry out missions for the Axis or Allies . Although it contains dogfights , the game focuses largely on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat .

Jane 's Attack Squadron was first conceived by Looking Glass employee Seamus Blackley as Flight Combat , a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited . The company continued designing the game after Blackley was fired in 1995 , and it entered production under Electronic Arts in 1998 . The team experienced problems with deadlines and funding during development , with the game eventually being heavily redesigned and renamed Jane 's Attack Squadron at the request of the publisher . These issues contributed to Looking Glass 's bankruptcy and closure in 2000 . In 2001 and 2002 , the game was acquired and finished by Mad Doc Software , a company in part composed of former Looking Glass employees .

The game received mixed to poor reviews . Critics found its physics modelling unrealistic , and many believed that the game 's graphics and gameplay were outdated , particularly in light of contemporary simulators like IL @-@ 2 Sturmovik . The limited number of missions and large number of glitches were widely panned . Certain critics enjoyed Jane 's Attack Squadron 's air @-@ to @-@ ground combat and several hoped that fans would improve the game with the included physics and mission editors .

= = Gameplay = =

As a combat flight simulator , Jane 's Attack Squadron allows players to pilot military aircraft in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment . The game is set in Western Europe during World War II ; and players may control fifteen German and Allied planes from the era , including the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 , Supermarine Spitfire , Junkers Ju 88 , Avro Lancaster and Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator . Although dogfights are possible , the game places a heavy focus on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat . Objectives range from bombing and torpedo runs to defense and escort missions . The player may engage in tutorials , " quick missions " , " single missions " and a campaign . Quick missions allow the player to select variables such as the objective and the number of friendly and enemy aircraft , while single missions , of which there are five , are scripted , " pre @-@ made " levels . Two campaigns are available : one each for the Allies and Germans . Both campaigns feature ten missions that branch depending on the outcome achieved by the player . An online multiplayer component allows players to engage in dogfights .

Each plane in Jane 's Attack Squadron is composed of forty @-@ five parts that may be removed or otherwise damaged in combat . Damage to these parts affects performance ; for example , a broken fuel line will leak , quickly decreasing the fuel gauge . Various adjustments may be made to the game 's realism , including an " arcade physics " option that drastically reduces flight difficulty . The game is packaged with the mission and physics editors that were used to develop it .

= = Development = =

= = = At Looking Glass = = =

In September 1994 , Looking Glass Technologies employee Seamus Blackley told Computer Gaming World that he wanted to create a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited , whose development he was directing at the time . The magazine 's Johnny L. Wilson wrote , " If Flight Unlimited can pass the civilian tests , the military version should be right behind it . " In March of the next year , Blackley told PC Gamer US that the sequel " should feel so real that pilots will be afraid . They 'll feel the gun hits . " He dismissed the flight dynamics in other flight simulators , such as Falcon 3 @.@ 0 , in favor of the real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics ( CFDs ) model he created for Flight Unlimited . When PC Gamer 's Bernie Yee asked why the team had waited to make a combat flight simulator , Blackley responded that they wanted to " retrain " players first . In September , Computer Gaming World reported that Blackley was designing a combat @-@ based sequel to Flight Unlimited under the working title Flight Combat . Blackley told them that it would " make you into a fighter pilot " , and the magazine commented that it would teach the same material as the Air Force . The team planned to allow players to practice an element and then execute it on a mission , and Blackley said that the game would feature competitive online play . However , a new manager at Looking Glass Technologies , instated by venture capital investors , demanded that Blackley work on Flight Unlimited II instead of Flight Combat . Blackley refused and was fired , leaving the company in late 1995 .

In March 1996 , PC Gamer US reported that Flight Combat was " still taxiing across the design board " , and that the team planned to focus " on how the aerial manoeuvres are performed as you fight " . Looking Glass designer Constantine Hantzopoulos told the magazine that a modified version of the Flight Unlimited engine was being used to develop Flight Combat and Flight Unlimited II . Hantzopoulos commented that Flight Combat was " the project everybody at Looking Glass wants to work on " . The team expected to be finished with the game in roughly one year . By June 1997 , GameSpot reported that Flight Unlimited II was running on the new ZOAR engine , coded from scratch by programmer James Fleming . In addition , the real @-@ time CFDs model from Flight Unlimited had been discarded , as its programming was " all black box spaghetti code from Seamus " . GameSpot 's T. Liam MacDonald noted that the Flight Unlimited II team expected soon to use the same engine for a combat flight simulator set in World War II . Computer Gaming World similarly reported that the company was " definitely hot " to develop Flight Combat , and that it might be created after Flight Unlimited II . Following that game 's completion , the team could not decide between developing Flight Unlimited III or Flight Combat . As a result , they decided to develop them simultaneously , and Flight Combat began production in early 1998 . Unlike all of the studio 's other games , development of Flight Combat was funded through an insured bond , in an attempt to guarantee that the game would be finished . The company 's Tim Stellmach later said that this setup was " a real pain for [ the team ] in some ways " .

Looking Glass signed a multi @-@ game publishing deal with Electronic Arts in May 1998 , and that company became the publisher of Flight Combat . The team " undersold " the game to Electronic Arts , and James Sterrett of the fansite Through the Looking Glass believed that the team " gambled that it could get the game out the door faster than the budget actually called for " . In March 1999 , the game was announced as the World War II @-@ themed Flight Combat : Thunder Over Europe , directed by Hantzopoulos and scheduled for release in fall of that year . That May , the game was shown at the Electronic Arts booth at E3 . Computer Games Magazine 's Steve Udell wrote that the game would feature a new iteration of the Flight Unlimited terrain renderer , and IGN reported that one million square miles of terrain based on European landscapes would be available . Weather conditions such as snow and rain were planned . Udell wrote that Flight Combat 's flight physics were an updated version of those from recent Flight Unlimited games , with new material taken from operations manuals and flight tests . Plane models and textures were based on photographs , and many of the moving parts and flight control surfaces were modeled individually . Players were given the option to customize planes . Udell described a physics @-@ based damage system that , according to the company , made it impossible to " see the exact same kind of damage twice " . Two campaigns — the Battle of Britain and the Defence of the Reich — were announced , with missions based on dogfights , air @-@ to @-@ ground combat and bombing runs . Looking Glass claimed that the game would feature " moving tanks and ships duk [ ing ] it out on a dynamic battlefield " as the player carried out missions . Aesthetically , IGN 's Tal Blevins noted that the game had " a very distinct 40s charm " , which was present " from the briefings to the options screens " .

= = = Bankruptcy and cancellation = = =

Electronic Arts rebranded Flight Combat as Jane 's Attack Squadron , to fit with the Jane 's Information Group license that the publisher had used for its Jane 's Combat Simulations line . According to Stellmach , the publisher demanded that the game be heavily redesigned " partway through " development , which exacerbated the team 's existing problems with meeting deadlines . Sterrett believed that the game 's schedule and funding did not receive the necessary adjustments to allow for this redesign . Together with Flight Unlimited III 's commercial failure , the expenses of Jane 's Attack Squadron 's long development used up revenue from Thief : The Dark Project , which had helped the company recover from the failure of Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri and British Open Championship Golf . Compounding these problems , business deals with Microsoft , Irrational Games and Eidos Interactive were unsuccessful . As a result , Looking Glass Studios went bankrupt in May 2000 . At the time , Jane 's Attack Squadron was roughly three months from completion . Thief II Gold and Thief III were cancelled as a result of the company 's closure , but Jane 's Attack Squadron , because it was near completion and funded through an insured bond , had a chance of being finished .

According to Gordon Berg of Computer Gaming World , the legal and logistical problems of keeping " a portion of Looking Glass [ ... ] intact " to finish the game had been " hurdled " . Further , because of the game 's type of funding , the continued development of Jane 's Attack Squadron would have been at little cost to Electronic Arts . Fans petitioned the publisher to let development continue , and Looking Glass employee Rich Carlson said that Hantzopoulos and others from the Flight series , roughly twenty in all , were prepared to work on the game again . The petition reached 2 @,@ 000 signatures by May 30 and 5 @,@ 000 by June 1 . However , Electronic Arts dropped the game . The publisher 's Jeff Brown said that the decision " was based on our deep uncertainty that the project could meet any schedule given the changes in senior management and a history of missing deadlines . " Brown told the website Combatsim that Electronic Arts had " worked diligently " with Looking Glass for more than two years , and that , although the game had missed its planned October 1999 release , they had been willing to delay the project into 2000 . He blamed the developer 's closure for the decision to cancel the game . Rumors circulated that the decision was part of the publisher 's larger plan to abandon the flight simulator genre , and Computer Gaming World 's Denny Atkin later summarized that the company " ran screaming from the simulation market " after Looking Glass 's bankruptcy . Electronic Arts soon dropped the Jane 's Information Group license .

= = = At Mad Doc = = =

After the closure of Looking Glass , certain employees of that company moved to developer Mad Doc Software , and they hoped to complete Jane 's Attack Squadron . The game 's original lead designer and lead programmer were among those hired by Mad Doc . Dotted Line Entertainment , Mad Doc 's agent company , secured the rights to the game 's code for the team in 2001 . Development commenced shortly afterward . In August of that year , it was reported that the Jane 's Information Group license had been obtained by Xicat Interactive , and that the company planned to publish Mad Doc 's revival of Jane 's Attack Squadron . The full details of the agreement were announced at that year 's European Computer Trade Show , where it was revealed that Jane 's Attack Squadron would focus heavily on air @-@ to @-@ ground combat . According to Mad Doc 's Tim Farrar , " Our goal wasn 't to create a completely new game , it was to complete the game that was started at LG . " Farrar noted that , although the company " trimmed some of the more ambitious features " , Jane 's Attack Squadron was effectively " the same game " created by Looking Glass . As with Flight Combat , the game features one million square miles of terrain , planes with individually modelled moving parts and a physics @-@ based damage system .

In October 2001 , the game was officially announced in a press release by Mad Doc . Steve Nadeau , the lead designer of the game at both development studios , said that he looked forward to polishing Jane 's Attack Squadron and " giv [ ing ] it a new life " . He believed that the team was " very excited " to finish the game , a sentiment later echoed by the game 's producer , David Halpern . According to Nadeau , the presence of members of the Looking Glass team ensured that it would " closely reflect our original vision of the game : an action @-@ packed World War II air combat simulation accessible to users of all skill levels " . Farrar announced that the team 's mission and physics editors would be released alongside the game , which he hoped would generate interest among players . Farrar later commented that , because of the game 's physics @-@ based damage system and individually modelled components , wings could be shot off and fuel tanks detonated . He also explained that coolant tanks could be hit , giving the pilot a limited amount of time before the plane engine overheated . He wrote that losing a wing tip meant " a bumpy ride " , but the loss of the tail caused the plane to " spin into the ground " . Jane 's Attack Squadron went gold in March 2002 , and was released that month .

= = Reception = =

Denny Atkin of Computer Gaming World wrote that Jane 's Attack Squadron " had the potential to be sim of the year in 2000 " , but that it had been rendered largely irrelevant by delays and " unrealized design goals . " He believed that its graphics would have been " state of the art in 2000 " , but he found them middling in 2002 ; and he noted the presence of numerous glitches . He considered the game 's most serious flaw to be its low number of missions . Although Atkin found the air @-@ to @-@ air combat " generally fun " , citing " good pilot AI " and " decent " flight physics , he believed that the game 's bombing runs were its most outstanding element . He hoped that fans would use the mission and physics editors to improve the game , and he concluded , " It 's buggy , but when it works it 's worth flying . " Andy Mahood of PC Gamer US wrote that Jane 's Attack Squadron is " unquestionably an entertaining and unique WWII prop sim " , but he believed that it was clearly inferior to games such as IL @-@ 2 Sturmovik . He found the game 's graphics to be outdated and its design to be " simplistic " , and he wrote that its " somewhat basic flight model " prevents advanced maneuvers . He praised the game 's sound effects and music , as well as its " intricate damage modeling " , as its best features . He finished by saying that , because the genre was " starving for fresh titles " , Jane 's Attack Squadron could be recommended despite its flaws .

IGN 's Tom Chick found it " unrealistic , erratic , and limited " , writing that it " looks bad , plays poorly , and is unstable . " He disliked its " canned and rigidly scripted missions " , although he found its bombing runs " interesting " and its air @-@ to @-@ air combat features acceptable . However , he believed that ease of shooting down aircraft made the damage system 's " powerful amount of flexibility " worthless . Chick believed that the multiplayer component was one of the game 's worst features , and he derided the game 's " suspiciously canned physics " , which offered " a grab bag of fidelity mixed in with heaps of silliness . " He summarized Jane 's Attack Squadron as " awful . " Josh Horowitz of The Adrenaline Vault noted the complex damage system , and he believed that the game " looks as good as most of today 's flight simulators " , although he experienced performance issues . He noted that the gameplay was hurt by " corner cutting or general incompletion " , such as the limited in @-@ game tutorials . Horowitz found the game " repetitive " because of its lack of missions and " low sense of involvement " , and , like Chick , he disliked its multiplayer and " linear " missions . Although he offered significant praise for its sound , Horowitz concluded that the game was " a buggy , incomplete offering " , and that those " looking for the next great Jane 's title will likely be disappointed . "

GameSpy 's Bernard Dy wrote that the game failed to live up to the Jane 's Combat Simulations pedigree , and he believed that those who enjoyed " the realism of Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik will be disappointed . " He disliked its " relaxed flight models " and lack of features , and he cited a large number of glitches . However , Dy found its damage system " robust " and he believed that the game was " not a total loss . " Like Atkin , he hoped that fans would improve the game with its detailed editors , although he believed that this was somewhat unlikely .

= 1955 Atlantic hurricane season =

The 1955 Atlantic hurricane season was , at the time , the costliest season ever recorded . The hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1955 , and ended on November 15 , 1955 . It was slightly above average , with 13 recorded tropical cyclones . The first storm , Alice , had persisted since December 30 , 1954 . Alice caused relatively minor impact as it tracked through the Lesser Antilles and eastern Caribbean Sea in early January . Tropical Storm Brenda caused two deaths and minor damage along the Gulf Coast of the United States in early August . The quick succession of Hurricanes Connie and Diane caused significant flooding in the Northeastern United States , with nearly $ 1 billion ( 1955 USD ) in losses and at least 232 fatalities . The next three storms – Hurricanes Edith and Flora and Tropical Storm Five – caused very minor or no impact . In early August , Hurricane Gladys caused severe localized flooding in Mexico , primarily in Mexico City . Additionally , an offshoot of Gladys inflicted minor impact in Texas .

Hurricane Hilda struck the Greater Antilles and then Mexico . It was attributed to at least 304 deaths and $ 120 million in losses . In mid @-@ September , Hurricane Ione struck eastern North Carolina and contributed the flooding from Connie and Diane , resulting in seven fatalities and $ 88 million in damage . Later that month , Hurricane Janet , which peaked as a Category 5 hurricane , lashed several countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , as well as Mexico and British Honduras . Janet resulted in $ 53 @.@ 8 million in damage and at least 716 deaths . An unnamed tropical storm in the month of October did not impact land . Hurricane Katie , the final storm , caused minor damage in a sparsely populated area of Hispaniola , totaling to at least $ 200 @,@ 000 ; 7 fatalities were also reported . Collectively , the storms caused 1518 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in losses , making it the costliest season at the time . A record number of names – four – were retired following the season , which was tied by 1995 and 2004 , and then surpassed in 2005 ( when five names were retired ) .

= = Season summary = =

On April 11 , 1955 , which was prior to the start of the season , Gordon Dunn was promoted to the chief meteorologist of the Miami Hurricane Warning Office . Dunn was replacing Grady Norton , who died from a stroke while forecasting Hurricane Hazel of the previous season . In early June , the Hurricane Hunters received new reconnaissance aircraft , which contained the latest radar and electronic equipment , at the time . Later that month , shortly before the start of the 1955 season , a bill was proposed in the United States Senate to provide funding for 55 new radar stations along the East Coast of the United States . After the United States House of Representatives passed a bill allotting $ 5 million , the Senate disputed about possibly increasing the funding two @-@ fold to $ 10 million . Eventually , the radars were installed , starting in July 1955 . After the devastating storms of the season , particularly Connie and Diane , a United States Government organization with the propose of monitoring tropical cyclones was established in 1956 with $ 500 @,@ 000 in funding ; it later became the modern @-@ day National Hurricane Center .

The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 15 , 1955 . It was an above average season in which 13 tropical cyclones formed . In a typical season , about nine tropical storms develop , of which five strengthen to hurricane strength . All thirteen depressions attained tropical storm status , and eleven of these attained hurricane status . Six hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . The season was above average most likely because of an strong , ongoing La Niña . Hurricane Alice developed in late December 1954 , but persisted into January 1955 , and was operationally analysed to have developed in the latter . Within the official hurricane season bounds , tropical cyclogenesis did not occur until July 31 , with the development of Tropical Storm Brenda . However , during the month of August , four tropical cyclones formed – including Connie , Diane , Edith , and an unnamed tropical storm . Five additional tropical cyclones – Flora , Gladys , Hilda , Ione , and Janet – all developed in September . Tropical cyclogenesis briefly halted until an unnamed tropical storm formed on October 10 . The final storm of the season , Katie , dissipated on October 19 , almost a month before the official end of hurricane season on November 15 . Eight hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 1 @,@ 603 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 1 billion in damage .

The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 199 , which was above the 1950 @-@ 2000 average of 96 @.@ 1 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical cyclones with winds exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .

= = Storms = =

= = = Hurricane Alice ( 1954 ) = = =

On January 1 , there was already a tropical cyclone located in the central Atlantic Ocean , having developed on December 30 of the previous year . Operationally it was first observed as a hurricane on January 1 , which resulted in it being named Alice . The hurricane passed through the Leeward Islands on January 2 . Alice reached peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) before encountering cold air and turning to the southeast . It dissipated on January 6 over the southeastern Caribbean Sea . Alice produced heavy rainfall and moderately strong winds across several islands along its path . Saba and Anguilla were affected the most , with total damage amounting to $ 623 @,@ 500 . Operationally , lack of definitive data prevented the U.S. Weather Bureau from declaring the system a hurricane until January 2 . It received the name Alice in early 1955 , though re @-@ analysis of the data supported extending its track to the previous year , resulting in two tropical cyclones of the same name in one season . It was one of only two storms to span two calendar years , along with Tropical Storm Zeta in 2005 and 2006 .

= = = Tropical Storm Brenda = = =

Tropical Storm Brenda developed in the north @-@ central Gulf of Mexico at 0600 UTC on July 31 . During the next 24 hours , the storm strengthened rapidly and attained its maximum sustain wind speed of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) early on August 1 ( although it is possible it briefly reached hurricane intensity ) . Later that day , Brenda made landfall east of New Orleans , Louisiana at the same intensity . The storm steadily weakened inland and by August 2 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression . Early on August 3 , Brenda dissipated while located over eastern Texas .

Between Pensacola , Florida and Lake Charles , Louisiana , rainfall totals were generally about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) ; flooding , if any , was insignificant . Tropical storm force winds were reported , peaking at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) at Shell Beach , Louisiana on the south shore of Lake Borgne . At the same location , tides between 5 and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 8 m ) above normal were measured . Four people were rescued by the United States Coast Guard after their tugboat sank in Lake Pontchartrain , while three others swam to shore . Additionally , two fatalities occurred in the vicinity of Mobile , Alabama .

= = = Hurricane Connie = = =

A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression east of Cape Verde on August 3 . After six hours , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Connie . By August 4 , Connie began to rapidly strengthen , becoming the first major hurricane of the season later that day . Initially , it posed a threat to the Lesser Antilles , although it passed about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north . The outer rainbands produced hurricane force wind gusts and intense precipitation , reaching 8 @.@ 65 inches ( 220 mm ) in Puerto Rico . In the United States Virgin Islands , three people died due to the hurricane , and a few homes were destroyed . In Puerto Rico , Connie destroyed 60 homes and caused crop damage . After affecting Puerto Rico , Connie turned to the northwest , reaching peak winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . The hurricane weakened while slowing and turning to the north , and struck North Carolina on August 12 as a Category 2 hurricane .

Connie produced strong winds , high tides , and heavy rainfall as it moved ashore , causing heavy crop damage and 27 deaths in the state of North Carolina . Connie made a second landfall in Virginia , and it progressed inland until dissipating on August 15 near Sault Ste . Marie , Michigan . Four people were killed in Washington , D.C. due to a traffic accident . In the Chesapeake Bay , Connie capsized a boat , killing 14 people and prompting a change in Coast Guard regulation . There were six deaths each in Pennsylvania and New Jersey , and eleven deaths in New York , where record rainfall flooded homes and subways . At least 225 @,@ 000 people lost power during the storm . Damage in the United States totaled around $ 86 million , although the rains from Connie was a prelude to flooding by Hurricane Diane . The remnants of Connie destroyed a few houses and boats in Ontario and killed three people in Ontario .

= = = Hurricane Diane = = =

A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde on August 7 . It slowly strengthened and became Tropical Storm Diane on August 9 . After a Fujiwhara interaction with Hurricane Connie , Diane curved northward or north @-@ northeastward and quickly deepened . By early on August 8 , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . Only several hours later , Diane peaked as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The storm resumed its west @-@ northwestward motion on August 13 . Colder air in the region caused Diane to weaken while approaching the East Coast of the United States . A recently installed radar in North Carolina noted an eye feature , albeit poorly defined . Early on August 17 , Diane made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a strong tropical storm . The storm then moved in a parabolic motion across North Carolina and the Mid @-@ Atlantic before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean on August 19 . Diane headed east @-@ northeastward until becoming extratropical on August 20 .

Despite landfall in North Carolina , impact in the state was minor , limited to moderate rainfall , abnormally high tides , and relatively strong winds . Further north , catastrophic flooding occurred in Pennsylvania , New Jersey , New York , and New England . Of the 287 stream gauges in the region , 129 reported record levels after the flooding from Tropical Storm Diane . Many streams reported discharge rates that were more than twice of the previous record . Most of the flooding occurred along small river basins that rapidly rose within hours to flood stage , largely occurring in populated areas ; the region in which the floods occurred had about 30 million people , and 813 houses overall were destroyed . The floods severely damaged homes , highways , power lines , and railroads , and affected several summer camps . Overall utility damage was estimated at $ 79 million . Flooding in mountainous areas caused landslides and destroyed crop fields ; agriculture losses was estimated at $ 7 million . Hundreds of miles of roads and bridges were also destroyed , accounting for $ 82 million in damage . Overall , Diane caused $ 754 @.@ 7 million in damage , of which $ 600 million was in New England . Overall , there were at least 184 deaths .

= = = Hurricane Edith = = =

An easterly tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on August 21 in the tropical Atlantic . Moving towards the west @-@ northwest , the disturbance slowly intensified , reaching tropical storm strength at 1200 UTC on August 23 and as such was named Edith by the Weather Bureau . Afterwards , Edith began to curve towards the northwest as it gradually intensified , attaining hurricane strength on August 25 . The hurricane continued to intensify as it recurved and accelerated to the northeast , reaching its peak intensity on August 28 as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . At the same time , a reconnaissance aircraft reported a minimum barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 27 inHg ) in the storm 's eye as Edith made its closest pass to Bermuda . The hurricane began to gradually weaken after it passed east of the island , before becoming extratropical on August 31 . The cyclone would later make a clockwise loop before dissipating completely late on September 3 . Although Edith remained at sea , it was suspected that the hurricane may have caused the loss of the pleasure yacht Connemara IV , after it separated from its moorings .

= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =

A weak disturbance was first observed near Grand Cayman on August 23 , gaining tropical storm strength by 0600 UTC that day . Moving towards the north @-@ northwest , the storm passed over western Cuba on August 24 , without much change in intensity . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the tropical storm marginally intensified , reaching peak intensity with maximum sustained wind speeds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) by 1200 UTC on August 26 . Nearing the Gulf Coast of the United States , the system curved towards the west . The storm maintained its intensity up until landfall in Louisiana near New Orleans on August 27 . Moving inland , it slowly weakened while crossing the Central United States , degenerating to tropical depression strength by August 29 and later dissipating over Missouri the following day .

Strong waves generated by the storm caused tides 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above average , slightly damaging coastal resorts . Weather offices advised small craft offshore to remain in port due to the strong waves . Rough seas battered the schooner Princess Friday , but the ship was able to ride out the storm . The storm produced squalls further inland , causing heavy rains . A weather station reported a minimum pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) , the lowest in association with the tropical storm . Despite the strong waves and heavy rains , only minor damage was reported .

= = = Hurricane Flora = = =

A tropical wave moved along the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) and passed through Cape Verde between August 30 and August 31 . Although the Panair do Brasil headquarters in Recife , Brazil reported a closed circulation on August 30 , Tropical Storm Flora did not develop until 0600 UTC on September 2 , while located about 400 miles ( 640 km ) of Cape Verde . The storm strengthened at a steady pace for the following 48 hours and reached hurricane status late on September 3 . Flora headed on a parabolic track , initially moving west @-@ northwestward and then northwesterly by September 4 . It continued to intensify and by September 6 , the storm curved northward . Around time , a minimum barometric pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) was reported . However , it may have been lower , as the storm did not attain its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) until September 7 . Flora maintained this intensity while curving to the northeast , but became extratropical at 0000 UTC on September 9 , while located about midway between Flores Island in the Azores and Sable Island , Nova Scotia .

= = = Hurricane Gladys = = =

A tropical depression developed in the southern Gulf of Mexico at 1200 UTC on September 4 . Six hours later , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Gladys . The storm quickly intensified and reached hurricane status on September 5 , roughly 24 hours after developing . Around that time , Gladys peaked as a Category 1 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Later on September 5 , an offshoot of Gladys with cyclonic turning formed in the northern Gulf of Mexico and struck Texas on September 6 ; it may have been a separate tropical cyclone . Initially , Gladys headed north @-@ northwestward , but then re @-@ curved south @-@ southwestward while approaching the Gulf Coast of Mexico . Early on September 6 , it made landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas as a weakening tropical storm . The system rapidly dissipated inland .

Gladys dropped up to 25 inches ( 640 mm ) in Tampico , Tamaulipas . The worst of the flooding from Gladys occurred in Mexico City . Roughly 5 @,@ 000 residents were isolated and required rescue . Police estimated that 2 @,@ 300 homes were inundated with 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) of water . About 30 @,@ 000 families were impacted by the storm . Two children drowned and five additional people were listed as missing . In Texas , the highest sustained wind speed was 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in the Corpus Christi – Port O 'Connor area , with gusts between 55 and 65 mph ( 89 and 105 km / h ) offshore . Precipitation peaked at 17 @.@ 02 inches ( 432 mm ) in Flour Bluff , a neighborhood of Corpus Christi . Flooding in the area forced " scores " of people to evacuate their homes . Damage estimates reached $ 500 @,@ 000 .

= = = Hurricane Ione = = =

A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression early on September 10 , while located about midway between Cape Verde and the Lesser Antilles . After six hours , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ione . Eventually , it turned to the northwest . At 0000 UTC on September 15 , Ione reached hurricane intensity , while situated north of the Leeward Islands . Ione continued to deep while moving northwest . The storm reached Category 4 intensity with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 938 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) early on September 18 . Around midday on the following day , it made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina as a Category 2 hurricane . Shortly after moving inland over eastern North Carolina , Ione weakened to a tropical storm . Late on September 19 , Ione re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic near Norfolk , Virginia . The storm quickly re @-@ strengthened early on September 20 , but transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 21 .

Strong winds , heavy rainfall , and abnormally high tides lashed some areas along the East Coast of the United States , especially North Carolina . In Cherry Point , sustained winds reached 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) , with gusts up to 107 mph ( 172 km / h ) . Overall , damage was slightly more than $ 88 million , mostly to crops and agriculture . Rainfall in the state peaked at 16 @.@ 63 inches ( 422 mm ) in Maysville . Storm surge in North Carolina peaked at 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) in Wrightsville Beach . As a result , several coastal roadways were flooded , including a portion of Highway 94 and Route 264 . Seven deaths were reported in North Carolina . The remnants of Ione brought gusty winds to Atlantic Canada , which broken poles , uprooted trees , interrupted telephone service , damaged chimneys and caused power outages , especially in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador .

= = = Hurricane Hilda = = =

A tropical wave located near the Lesser Antilles spawned a tropical depression on September 12 . It is estimated that the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Hilda early on the following day . Hilda quickly intensified while moving westward into a small hurricane by September 12 . Although the storm passed just north of Hispaniola on September 13 , damage is unknown , if any . Later that day , Hilda made landfall near the southeastern tip of Cuba on September 13 . There , it dropped heavy rainfall and produced gusty winds that destroyed 80 % of the coffee crop in Oriente Province . In the eastern Cuban city of Baracoa , Hilda severely damaged the oldest church in the country . Damage totaled $ 2 million in Cuba , and there were four deaths .

Later , the hurricane moved across the Caribbean Sea , causing light damage in the sparsely @-@ populated region of the eastern Yucatán Peninsula . After reaching the Gulf of Mexico , Hilda strengthened to reach peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) late on September 18 . Before the hurricane moved ashore , there was residual flooding in Tampico from earlier Hurricane Gladys . Hilda struck the city early on September 19 , with gusts estimated at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The storm dropped heavy rainfall that flooded 90 % of Tampico , while its strong winds damaged half of the homes , leaving 15 @,@ 000 homeless . Throughout Mexico , 11 @,@ 432 people were directly affected by Hilda . Overall , the storm killed 300 people and caused over $ 120 million . Additionally , the outerbands of Hilda caused minor flooding in southern Texas , particularly in Raymondville .

= = = Hurricane Janet = = =

Hurricane Janet was the most powerful tropical cyclone of the season and one of the strongest Atlantic hurricanes on record . The hurricane formed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on September 21 . Moving toward the west across the Caribbean Sea , Janet fluctuated in intensity , but generally strengthened before reaching its peak intensity as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale with winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . The intense hurricane made landfall at that intensity near Chetumal , Mexico on September 28 . Janet 's landfall as a Category 5 hurricane on the Yucatán Peninsula marked the first recorded instance that a storm of such intensity in the Atlantic basin made on a continental mainland , with all previous storms making landfall as Category 5 hurricanes on islands . After weakening over the Yucatán Peninsula , it moved into the Bay of Campeche , where it slightly strengthened before making its final landfall near Veracruz on September 29 . Janet quickly weakened over Mexico 's mountainous terrain before dissipating on September 30 .

In its developmental stages near the Lesser Antilles , Janet caused significant damage to the island chain , resulting in 189 deaths and $ 7 @.@ 8 million in damages in the Grenadines and Barbados . While Janet was in the central Caribbean Sea , a reconnaissance aircraft flew into the storm and was lost , with all eleven crew members believed perished . This was the only such loss which has occurred in association with an Atlantic hurricane . A Category 5 upon landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , Janet caused severe devastation in areas on Quintana Roo and British Honduras . Only five buildings in Chetumal , Mexico remained intact after the storm . An estimated 500 deaths occurred in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo . At Janet 's second landfall near Veracruz , significant river flooding ensued , worsening effects caused by Hurricanes Gladys and Hilda earlier in the month . The floods left thousands of people stranded and killed at least 326 people in the Tampico area . The flood damage would lead to the largest Mexican relief operation ever executed by the United States . At least 1 @,@ 023 deaths were attributed to Hurricane Janet , as well as $ 65 @.@ 8 million in damages .

= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 18 and continued west @-@ northwestward . It is possible that the system developed into a tropical depression the next day , although lack of data prevented such classification until September 23 , when a nearby ship reported winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . An approaching cold front turned the system to the north on September 24 . The structure gradually became better organized , and after turning to the northeast on September 26 , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . This was based on a ship report of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds , which was also estimated as the system 's peak intensity . On September 27 , the system became extratropical and accelerated its forward motion , dissipating within a larger extratropical storm south of Iceland on the next day .

= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =

A tropical wave was reported to have passed through Cape Verde on October 4 . The system slowly developed a vertex as it curved in a generally northward direction . By early on October 10 , two ships reported that a tropical depression formed almost halfway between the Azores and the Leeward Islands . After six hours , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm . While re @-@ curving to the northeast , the storm attained its maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) ; the lowest atmospheric pressure recorded in relation to the storm was 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) , but the time of measurement is unknown . Although no significant weakening occurred , it eventually merged with an extratropical cyclone on October 14 , while still well southwest of the Azores . During its extratropical stage , a ship in the area reported an atmospheric pressure as low as 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) .

= = = Hurricane Katie = = =

A disturbance in the ITCZ developed into a tropical depression north of Panama on October 14 . Early on the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Katie . The system moved generally northeast due to the presence of a strong low pressure area along the East Coast of the United States . Later that day , Hurricane Hunters observed a rapidly intensifying hurricane , encountering winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a pressure of 984 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) several hours before the peak intensity . Early on October 17 , Katie made landfall in extreme eastern Sud @-@ Est Department , Haiti as a strong Category 2 hurricane ( although it may have been stronger ) . About half of homes in the town of Anse @-@ à @-@ Pitres were destroyed . Across the border in Pedernales , Dominican Republic , 68 houses were damaged . Overall losses were at least $ 200 @,@ 000 and 7 fatalities were reported .

While crossing the mountainous terrain of Hispaniola , Katie became very disorganized and rapidly weakened to a tropical storm early on October 17 , within a few hours after moving inland . Later that day , the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean just east of Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic . Katie began accelerating to the northeast on October 18 . During that time , the storm re @-@ intensified and briefly approached hurricane intensity , although it failed to strengthen further due to interaction with a cold front . After passing just east of Bermuda on October 19 , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Katie were last observed the following day .

= = Storm names = =

The following names were used for tropical cyclones that reached at least tropical storm intensity in the North Atlantic in 1955 . However , two of such storms went unnamed . Connie , Diane , Ione , and Janet would later be retired . The 1955 season was tied with the 1995 and 2004 for the most storm names retired after a single season , until five names were retired in 2005 . Storms were named Brenda , Connie , Diane , Edith , Flora , Gladys , Hilda , Ione , Janet and Katie for the first time . Names not assigned are marked in gray .

= NoitulovE =

noitulovE ( " Evolution " backwards ) is a British television and cinema advertisement launched by Diageo in 2005 to promote Guinness Draught stout . The 60 @-@ second piece formed the cornerstone of a £ 15 million advertising campaign targeting men in their late twenties and early thirties . The commercial shows , in reverse , the adventures of three characters who evolve from mudskippers to present day humans before tasting Guinness in a London pub . The commercial was handled by the advertising agency Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO , with a budget of £ 1.3M. It was directed by Daniel Kleinman . Production was contracted to Kleinman Productions , with post @-@ production by Framestore CFC . It premiered on British television on 3 October 2005 .

noitulovE is the fifth television / cinema piece in the Good things come to those who wait series , and its premiere marked the end of a four @-@ year hiatus . The advert and its associated campaign were a critical and financial success . It received over 30 awards from professional organisations in the advertising and television industries , and was the most @-@ awarded commercial worldwide in 2006 . The impact of the campaign was such that during a period in which the UK beer market experienced a substantial decline in revenue , Guinness reported that its year @-@ on @-@ year earnings within the region had noticeably increased . At the same time , Guinness achieved its highest @-@ ever volume and value shares and became the market leader within the region . This was attributed in no small part to the positive reception of noitulovE .

= = Sequence = =

The piece begins with three patrons taking their first sip of Guinness in a London pub . To the accompaniment of Sammy Davis , Jr . ' s rendition of " The Rhythm of Life " from the 1969 film version of the 1966 Broadway musical Sweet Charity , a reverse @-@ motion sequence begins . The three men retreat from the bar and into the street , other patrons disappearing as they pass . As they move down the street , a reverse time @-@ lapse @-@ style sequence transforms their clothes to match a rapidly changing urban scene , which progresses through modern @-@ day London to the Edwardian period . Electric lights transform into gas lamps and buildings begin to disappear frame by frame . A short cutaway sequence shows the city regressing into the past , shrinking to a small Saxon settlement before disappearing entirely . Returning to the main sequence , the three men 's clothes and hairstyles are adjusted into Bronze Age equivalents as they pass through thickening woodland . A close @-@ up of one of the characters shows his features quickly transformed into those of a caveman . The trio are then frozen in an ice age glacier .

The three re @-@ emerge from the glacier as primitive hominids , their clothes ripped away to reveal loincloths . They continue to walk backwards with a more simian gait , and soon turn into chimpanzees . From there , they are transformed into a number of different species in quick succession , including flying squirrels , furry mammals , aquatic mammals , fish , flightless birds , small dinosaurs , and burrowing lizard @-@ like creatures . The environment around them changes rapidly as they travel , with cutaways showing millions of years of geological changes occurring in less than a few seconds . Finally , the three become mudskippers around a green @-@ brown puddle . The action briefly moves forward again to show the middle character registering his disgust at the taste of the water with a " Pweugh ! " sound . The commercial ends with a transition to a product shot of three pints of Guinness accompanied by the strapline " Good things come to those who wait " .

= = Production = =

= = = Background = = =

Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO won the account for Guinness in 1996 with a campaign built on their new strapline " Good things come to those who wait " . They produced several commercials using variations on the theme , including Swimblack , Bet on Black , and the critically acclaimed Surfer , voted the " Best Advert of All Time " by the British public in 2002 . After the 2001 Dreamer advertisements , Diageo , the corporate owners of Guinness , decided to pursue a more pan @-@ European marketing strategy . The strapline proved difficult to translate , and was abandoned . Several new straplines were tried out over the next three years , including " Believe " ( Free and Tom Crean ) and " A story of darkness and light " ( Moth and Mustang ) .

The new marketing strategy did not prove particularly successful , and in 2004 Diageo returned to regional advertising . AMV BBDO were presented with the choice of coming up with either a new theme to appeal to the 18 – 35 British male demographic or a new angle on the tried and tested Good things ... concept . A number of ideas were put forward , including " The Longest Wait " . From this concept , noitulovE was quickly plotted out : the advert would show three individuals waiting 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years before finally taking their first sip of Guinness , the timeline compressed into a 50 @-@ second clip . The decision to run the " Evolution sequence " in reverse was taken fairly early , as it was felt that it would better hold viewers ' interest during a 60 @-@ second television spot .

= = = Pre @-@ production = = =

The project had not yet been greenlit when the agency approached Daniel Kleinman , known for his work on James Bond title sequences , with the intention of taking him on as a director . After looking over the concept pitch and a rough draft of the script , Kleinman 's immediate impressions were that the idea was " fresh " , " an opportunity to try out some new techniques " , and that it would " put Guinness back on track , doing a big ' wow ' idea " .

Kleinman contacted a pair of Canadian graphic novel artists to begin the storyboarding process . Storyboarding the commercial meant that the agency could determine how much of the £ 1.3M budget to allocate to each section , and provided them with visuals to use as part of the presentation to Diageo when pitching the various concepts for a decision on which to pursue . The effort paid off and approval was given to move ahead with production .

= = = Production = = =

Production of the commercial took place over two months , with principal photography shot in Iceland . Time @-@ lapse photographs were taken of the country 's mudpots , volcanic terrain and frozen lakes using 35 mm film cameras . The shooting was done in the early summer for the nearly continuous daylight that the season afforded them . The next pieces of the commercial to be assembled were the live @-@ action segments , shot in a greenscreen studio in London . Filming was done in three stages , with the three actors changing into different sets of prosthetic makeup at each stage . For the final section the actors spent a week practising the choreography behind walking backwards with an appropriately simian gait . Wires were attached to the back of each actor , allowing them to lean forwards to give the impression that they were being " sucked back in time " when the final cut was put together . While filming the actor sequences , VFX supervisor William Bartlett filmed the aerial view of London from Tower 42 's Vertigo bar .

With computer @-@ generated imagery looking to make up so much of the commercial , Kleinman attempted to use film of real elements wherever possible . To this end , 200 mudskippers were brought to the studio from South Africa for the final scene , arriving via Singapore . An entire afternoon was set aside for filming the mudskipper sequence . The footage obtained formed the major part of the final cut of the scene , with only one or two post @-@ production changes : the addition of tail fins and animation of the expression of disgust that closes the piece . Stop motion footage of other real elements was taken , including a stage @-@ by @-@ stage blowtorching of plants , used to show flora coming back to life in the reverse sequence , and shots of baking bread , used to model the geological changes to background rock formations . Additional real elements were to have been incorporated into the commercial , mostly from stock footage of several animal species , but only short segments of apes and lizards appeared in the final cut .

= = = Post @-@ production = = =

Post @-@ production work was handled mostly by Framestore CFC , who had worked on previous Guinness campaigns Surfer and Dreamer , and had worked with Daniel Kleinman on a number of outside projects , including several commercials and James Bond title sequences . The project was overseen by William Bartlett , known for his visual effects work on the BBC television documentary Walking with Dinosaurs . The original schedule allowed for three and a half months in post @-@ production , with airing of the commercial to follow almost immediately .

The 24 @-@ man animation team was split into two groups . Half were assigned to the creation of the 15 new CGI creatures populating noitulovE ( in Maya ) , while the other half created the backgrounds ( in Houdini ) . Compositing work – combining the greenscreen shots with stock footage and CGI elements – was performed in Flame and Inferno . As the final commercial was to be shown on cinema screens , the animators worked at a resolution higher than that afforded by the 576i definition used by British PAL @-@ encoded television sets , to improve the appearance of the advert when projected .

Near the end of post @-@ production , the creative team decided that the music chosen to accompany the advert , an electronic track by Groove Armada , was not working particularly well . Peter Raeburn , who had chosen the track used in Surfer ( Leftfield 's " Phat Planet " ) , was brought on as music director . Raeburn suggested three pieces , with " Rhythm of Life " ultimately presented to Guinness as an alternative and approved as a replacement .

= = Release and reception = =

= = = Schedule = = =

noitulovE was originally to have begun its run in September 2005 , but the airdate was pushed back several weeks as post @-@ production took longer than anticipated . As had been the case with several earlier campaigns , the commercial was to air in several bursts , throughout 2005 and 2006 . Spots were purchased in the commercial breaks of sports broadcasts , high @-@ budget television dramas and shows whose primary audience overlapped with the campaign 's target demographic of British males in the 24 – 35 age range . The first burst was commissioned to run from 3 October to 13 November 2005 , during programming such as the UEFA Champions League , Lost , Vincent , Ant and Dec 's Saturday Night Takeaway and terrestrial television screenings of Austin Powers : Goldmember .

The second burst lasted through December . The focus moved to multichannel television , with appearances in live televised football matches , films , and popular programming such as I 'm a Celebrity , Get Me Out of Here ! . Two further bursts were commissioned for 2006 , to run from 15 May to 9 June and 22 August to 8 October . Programmes selected for the May – June burst included Celebrity X Factor , Big Brother and live football and cricket matches . The final series of spots ran during programming totalling 56 ratings points per week ( 56 % of British television viewers ) , with much of the budget assigned to multichannel television .

= = = Awards = = =

noitulovE was well received by critics within the advertising and television industries , and was predicted to win the 2006 Cannes Lions Film Grand Prix , one of the advertising industry 's highest awards . Advertising Age said of the piece : " A flawless DGI production to an irresistible piece of music propelling a brilliant , astonishingly witty new iteration of a longstanding , unique positioning . This isn 't just great advertising ; it is perfect advertising . " Gastón Bigio , Executive Creative Director for Del Campo Nazca Saatchi & Saatchi remarked on the campaign in the run @-@ up to the festival , saying " noitulovE is , in my opinion , the best . [ ... ] This execution is absolutely incredible , as is the production . " The main competition for the prize was thought to be the Australian Big Ad for Carlton draught beer , and the British Balls , for Sony 's BRAVIA line of high definition television sets . After the three received Gold Lions in the Film category , they were shortlisted by the judges as contenders for the Grand Prix . Ultimately , the honour went to noitulovE . After the decision , David Droga , president of the jury which determined the outcome , said " It 's a very very strong ad . A lot of the jurors felt that it was not only a stand @-@ alone , remarkable ad , but also a triumphant return for a fabulous campaign . " The victory placed director Daniel Kleinman at Number 29 in The Independent 's list of the Top 50 Newsmakers of 2006 .

The 2006 edition of the Gunn Report , an authoritative annual publication determining the advertising industry 's most critically successful campaigns , revealed that noitulovE had received more awards that year than any other campaign worldwide . Among the awards were three Clios , two Golden Sharks , and the Special Jury Prize at the Imagina Awards .

The ad was also a hit with the public . It has been credited by Guinness as being responsible for the substantial boost in sales experienced by the brand during the period in which it was broadcast . While revenues within the UK beer market declined by an average of − 0 @.@ 4 % ( − £ 19M ) , the year @-@ on @-@ year figures for Guinness showed an increase of 3 @.@ 6 % ( + £ 13.3M ) . Between October 2005 and October 2006 , Guinness achieved its highest ever volume ( 6 @.@ 8 % ) and value ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) shares , taking the position of market leader from Stella Artois . Diageo attributed the growth in no small part to the positive reception garnered by noitulovE .

= = = Legacy = = =

As one of the most recognisable British television advertisements of 2006 , noitulovE was one of two commercials ( the other being Sony 's Balls ) to feature in a £ 200M campaign launched by Digital UK to raise awareness of the imminent switchover within the UK from analogue to digital television . New versions of the two adverts were produced , showing the first few seconds of the original spot before being interrupted by " Digit Al " , an animated spokesman for the campaign .

In 2004 , Guinness launched a retrospective television advertising campaign promoting Guinness Extra Cold stout , featuring new ten @-@ second versions of commercials broadcast between 1984 and 2004 . These included Mars ( with Rutger Hauer reprising his role as the " Pure Genius " ) , Anticipation , Fish Bicycle , Surfer , and Bet on Black. noitulovE joined the campaign in 2006 , and was the only piece to receive more than one new version . In the first of these , the patrons are encased only seconds after taking their first sip of Guinness in a glacier identical to the one which appeared half @-@ way through the original spot . In the second , the sea through which the three fish bound backwards in the original spot is frozen while the trio are in mid @-@ leap , leaving the characters skidding across the surface . In the final version , the primeval pool at the end of the original spot freezes while the mudskippers are taking their drink , and the protagonists ' tongues are left stuck in the ice .

When noitulovE was first proposed , it was the only pitch revisiting the Good things come to those who wait campaign , as , according to copywriter Ian Heartfield , both AMV BBDO and Diageo " didn 't think [ they ] could do something good enough to warrant following on from Surfer and the like . " However , following the success of noitulovE , three additional commercials have been aired within the Good Things ... campaign : Fridge , Hands , and Tipping Point ( Guinness ' most expensive advertising campaign to date ) .

= Stuart McCall =

Andrew Stuart Murray McCall ( born 10 June 1964 ) , usually known as Stuart McCall , is a football manager and former player who is the current manager of Bradford City . He made a total of 763 league games and in 40 full international matches for Scotland during his playing career .

McCall started his professional career with Bradford City , where he made his senior debut in 1982 . He played six seasons at Valley Parade , during which time he won the Division Three championship , a title which was overshadowed by the Bradford City stadium fire when 56 people died and in which his father Andy was injured . After missing out on promotion in 1987 – 88 , McCall moved to Everton , for whom he scored twice but finished on the losing side in the 1989 FA Cup Final . In 1991 , he moved to Rangers , with whom he spent seven seasons and won six league titles , three Scottish Cups and two Scottish League Cups . McCall returned to Bradford City as captain to take them into the top division of English football for the first time in 77 years . After four seasons he moved to Sheffield United , where he retired as a player in 2005 .

Born and raised in England , McCall qualified to play for Scotland through his Scottish father . He won 40 international caps and scored one goal in the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy . He also played in two European Championships but his international career ended after he was left out of the 1998 World Cup squad .

McCall was part of the coaching staff during his second spell at Bradford City , briefly serving as caretaker @-@ player manager in 2000 . He continued his coaching at Sheffield United and was assistant manager to Neil Warnock until May 2007 , when he returned to Bradford City for a third time , this time as manager . He spent two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons in charge of Bradford City , leaving in February 2010 . Just before the end of 2010 , he was appointed Motherwell manager . He stayed at Fir Park for four years , helping the club finish second in the league twice . After a poor start to the 2014 – 15 season , he resigned in November 2014 . McCall was appointed manager of Rangers in March 2015 , but left the club at the end of a short @-@ term contract .

= = Early and personal life = =

Stuart McCall was born on 10 June 1964 in Leeds , England , to Scottish parents Andy , a former professional footballer , and Jean McCall . He was the couple 's third child after Leslie and Janette , who were 20 and 15 respectively when Stuart was born . The family home was just round the corner from Leeds United 's Elland Road ground where McCall would spend many Saturday afternoons watching United , dreaming of following his father and playing for Leeds , even after the family moved to Wortley .

McCall played football for Upper Wortley Primary School and Thornhill Middle School , even scoring a winning goal for the latter in a cup final when he came on as a substitute with his arm in a sling . McCall also played table tennis as a schoolboy but excelled at football , captaining the Leeds under @-@ 11 boys team and playing for other Leeds representative sides . McCall 's parents split and he made up for his size when he moved to one of Leeds ' toughest estates and played for pub sides by the age of 14 . He moved schools to Harrington High and also played for local young sides Pudsey Juniors , Holbeck and later Farsley Celtic . McCall thought he had missed his chance of playing professionally after a string of other players were signed by professional clubs , until Farsley played Bradford City 's junior side in a friendly and he impressed coach Bryan Edwards enough to be asked for a trial .

= = Playing career = =

= = = Club career = = =

= = = = Bradford City = = = =

McCall came through City 's youth system after he was signed by George Mulhall in 1980 from Farsley Celtic at the age of 16 , before becoming an apprentice in June 1981 . Mulhall 's successor , Roy McFarland gave McCall his debut at Reading on 28 August 1982 – the opening day of the 1982 – 83 season – when he deputised for Ces Podd at right back . He had played just six league games by 29 January 1983 when he made the first of 134 consecutive league appearances , all in midfield under new manager Trevor Cherry . City finished 12th in Division Three that season . The following season City struggled to make up for the absence of Bobby Campbell , who had left to join Derby County , and won just one of their first fifteen games , until Cherry bought Campbell back from Derby , and City won a record ten consecutive games on their way to a seventh place finish .

During the summer of 1984 , Cherry made the two key signings of central defender Dave Evans and right winger John Hendrie to build on the previous season 's high finish . McCall was an integral part of the team as City won the Division Three championship in 1984 – 85 , during which he scored eight goals as one of two ever @-@ present players . The title was assured in the penultimate game when McCall scored the second goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers . The league title was paraded before the final game of the season on 11 May 1985 at home to Lincoln City . However , the club 's title was overshadowed when 56 people died in the Bradford City stadium fire when the Valley Parade ground 's main stand caught fire after 40 minutes of play , during which McCall 's father , who was with other family members , was badly injured . After the fire , McCall , still in his kit , spent several hours driving from the ground to his sister 's house , then to Bradford Royal Infirmary and Pinderfields Hospital trying to find his father . His father had suffered severe burns and needed skin grafts on his hands and head and was in hospital for several weeks .

For the following 19 months , the club played games away from Valley Parade . Cherry and the players became a close @-@ knit team , attending funerals of the victims and other engagements in the months that followed , and the club 's 13th place finish in Division Two in 1985 – 86 was hailed a major achievement . During Bradford 's time away from Valley Parade , McCall also turned his back on Leeds United , the team he had supported as a child , after their fans set fire to a chip van at Odsal Stadium . McCall became club captain in November 1986 , aged just 21 , after Peter Jackson moved to Newcastle United . Under Cherry 's replacement , Terry Dolan , the club held off any relegation threats to finish tenth in 1986 – 87 . Like Jackson , McCall and Hendrie were both keen to move to a Division One club , but they agreed in 1987 to stay for one final season .

Dolan brought in Paul Tomlinson , Brian Mitchell and Lee Sinnott in a bid to help McCall and Hendrie realise their dreams with City . They mounted a promotion challenge in 1987 – 88 and were top for much of the season until they faltered in the New Year . When promotion was missed initially by one point on the last day of the season after a 3 – 2 defeat against Ipswich Town and then through play @-@ off defeat to Middlesbrough , McCall left the club , signing for Everton for £ 850 @,@ 000 in June 1988 . He had played 238 league games for the club , scoring 37 goals , and in total played 285 games , scoring 46 goals . McCall was later outspoken in his autobiography , The Real McCall , about City 's failure to strengthen the side to secure promotion .

His departure was soured when he was forced to go to the Football League with a Professional Footballers ' Association representative to win £ 8 @,@ 327 @.@ 15 of an unpaid signing @-@ on fee .

= = = = Everton = = = =

McCall joined Everton at a time when its former triumphant side of the mid @-@ 1980s had broken up , following the ban on English sides competing in Europe , which marked the start of a period of underachievement at Goodison Park . His Everton debut came in a 4 – 0 victory over Newcastle United on 27 August 1988 against his former teammate Hendrie , who was making his debut for Newcastle . McCall also returned to Valley Parade for a League Cup tie , but his Everton side were knocked out by Bradford 3 – 1 on 14 December 1988 . He started 29 league games in 1988 – 89 as well as another four substitute appearances , but failed to score in the league . He was also a substitute in the 1989 FA Cup Final when he scored Everton 's equaliser in the Merseyside derby against Liverpool to take the game into extra @-@ time . He scored another equaliser during extra @-@ time , but Liverpool 's own substitute Ian Rush also scored two to secure a 3 – 2 victory for Liverpool .

McCall made a second appearance in an Everton shirt at Valley Parade , when he was invited by former teammate Mark Ellis to bring a side for his testimonial . In three seasons at Everton , McCall played 103 league games as well as earned his first caps with Scotland but he failed to lift any trophies as the club finished eighth , sixth and ninth in the league . Apart from the FA Cup final defeat in 1989 , the closest he came to winning a trophy at Everton was in the 1989 – 90 season , when Everton topped the league in late autumn and remained in contention for the title for the most the rest of the season until disappointing form in the run @-@ in saw them finish sixth .

= = = = Rangers = = = =

In the summer of 1991 , McCall signed for Scottish club Rangers for £ 1 @.@ 2 million . Rangers had just won their third successive Scottish Premier Division title . Under newly appointed manager Walter Smith , McCall ended up playing in the final six of the club 's nine successive Scottish league titles . In his first season at Ibrox , Rangers won the league and cup double , before they achieved greater success in 1992 – 93 , winning both cups 2 – 1 against Aberdeen and coming nine points ahead of Aberdeen in the league . McCall also enjoyed European success that season when the Glasgow club narrowly missed out on an appearance in the UEFA Champions League 1992 – 93 final , coming second in the semi @-@ final group stage to eventual winners Olympique de Marseille . Citing the reason for their success as the spirit which Smith instilled in the team , McCall later said : " It was an incredible season . We won the domestic Treble , we went 44 games unbeaten and we did not lose a single game in Europe . And , though we said we would do it again next year , we all knew it was unrepeatable . " In 1993 – 94 , Rangers added another Scottish League Cup title along with the league championship , but lost 1 – 0 in the final of the Scottish Cup to Dundee United , surprisingly being denied a second successive treble . The following season saw Rangers win the league by their greatest margin as they finished 15 points ahead of Motherwell , but they failed to reach the final of either of the domestic cups . Although their winning margin was reduced to four points , from city rivals Celtic , in 1995 – 96 , Rangers ' points tally of 87 was a record @-@ high total . McCall played in his fourth Scottish Cup final as Rangers defeated Hearts 5 – 1 . His Rangers side again pushed Celtic into second place in 1996 – 97 and defeated Hearts 4 – 3 in the Scottish League Cup . But with the club chasing an unprecedented 10th straight title in 1997 – 98 they had to settle for the runners @-@ up position , with Celtic winning the league by two points on the final day of the season . McCall was substituted in the Scottish Cup final defeat to Hearts as Rangers went the season without picking up a single title for the first season in McCall 's time at the club . In February 2008 , McCall became the 71st inductee into the Rangers hall of fame . McCall 's former teammate and Rangers assistant manager Ally McCoist presented him with the award .

= = = = Back to Bradford City = = = =

McCall still had one year left on his Rangers contract in 1998 , but much of the team that Walter Smith had built had left and McCall was allowed to leave on a free transfer by new manager Dick Advocaat , as long as he joined an English club . Barnsley and Huddersfield Town were both interested in signing McCall , but he rejoined Bradford City as club captain . Rookie manager Paul Jewell put together a squad which emerged as surprise promotion contenders after two seasons spent battling relegation , adding other new signings , including central midfield partner Gareth Whalley and striker Lee Mills , who went on to be club 's top goal @-@ scorer . The season started off slowly with just one win from the first seven games , but by the latter half of the season , City were vying with Ipswich Town and Birmingham City for the second promotion spot behind runaway leaders Sunderland . Loan signing Lee Sharpe and Dean Windass were added to the ranks and City had the chance to seal promotion in their penultimate game against relegation @-@ threatened Oxford United . The game finished as a 0 – 0 draw , with McCall heading over the goal in the final minutes , taking the promotion bid to the final game of the season . Days later he was named the club 's player of the year . A 3 – 2 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 9 May 1999 ensured promotion to the Premier League and denied Ipswich Town – the team that had thwarted McCall and Bradford 11 years before .

Bradford were expected to struggle in their first season in the top flight for 77 years . Jewell signed David Wetherall , Dean Saunders and Neil Redfearn , all experienced top flight performers , but City were in the bottom four teams for most of the season . It was Bradford 's home form – they earned 26 of their 36 points at Valley Parade – that was key to City avoiding relegation , which was narrowly averted by two points after a shock 1 – 0 final day victory over Liverpool in 1999 – 2000 , sending Wimbledon down instead . When Jewell left only days after the season ended , McCall was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings , and subsequently served as caretaker manager for two games when Hutchings was sacked after just 12 games of the 2000 – 01 league season . City were relegated with just 26 points . During a 6 – 1 defeat to West Yorkshire rivals Leeds United in the penultimate game , McCall and team @-@ mate Andy Myers fought on the pitch .

McCall stayed on for one more season before he was released by manager Nicky Law in May 2002 , shortly before the club went into administration for the first time after finishing 15th in Division One . His playing career at Bradford City had looked uncertain in December 2001 before Law arrived , when previous manager Jim Jefferies had left McCall out of the side in a 3 – 1 defeat at Manchester City following a training ground dispute . However , it was Jefferies who lost out in the dispute when he resigned his post a week later after summit talks with chairman Geoffrey Richmond . In April 2002 , McCall 's testimonial match against Rangers attracted a crowd of more than 21 @,@ 000 to Valley Parade . McCall gave part of the proceeds from his testimonial to the Bradford burns research unit , which was set up following the 1985 fire . Two years after his benefit match , McCall played one more time in City colours in a Save Our City appeal match organised by Bradford 's evening newspaper , the Telegraph & Argus , to raise funds for the club , who were now in administration for a second time .

= = = = Sheffield United = = = =

On 2 July 2002 McCall joined Sheffield United , where he played an integral part in their first @-@ team side , despite being 38 , and also coached the reserves to the league title . He played 71 league games over the next two seasons , and scored twice , including a winner against former side Bradford . He was in the side that reached the Division One play @-@ off final in 2003 as well as the semi @-@ finals of both cup competitions that year . However he and Dean Windass , who was also now at Sheffield United , were both left out of the play @-@ off final , as United lost 3 – 0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers . McCall played just two League Cup games in the 2004 – 05 season , and retired just a few weeks before his 41st birthday . His career total of 763 league games placed him in 13th position on the all @-@ time appearance list of British footballers .

= = = International career = = =

McCall was picked for England and Scotland under @-@ 21 sides on the same day in 1984 , and chose to play for England in a game against Turkey . However , he was only picked as a substitute and the referee blew the final whistle with McCall waiting to come on . He later told Scottish newspaper Glasgow Herald , " I felt it was a mistake almost from the start . I was put on the bench and they tried to bring me on with a minute to go . But I took my time re @-@ tying my boots and generally warming up and luckily didn 't get on , otherwise that would have been that . " As a result , McCall was still eligible for both England and Scotland , and he eventually switched allegiances to the latter , for whom he qualified through his father . He made his Scotland debut at under @-@ 21 level in March 1988 , ironically against England . McCall made one more appearance for Scotland under 21s , against France in 1990 .

Later the same year , McCall was called up to the Scottish senior team . He won his first cap on 28 March 1990 in a 1 – 0 friendly victory over Argentina . He played in five friendlies in 1990 which earned him a call up to the Italia 90 World Cup squad . He played in all three of Scotland 's World Cup games . They lost their first game 1 – 0 to Costa Rica , before McCall scored what would be his only international goal against Sweden in a 2 – 1 victory . However , Scotland failed to qualify for the knock @-@ out stage when they were defeated 1 – 0 by Brazil .

McCall represented Scotland at the European Championships in 1992 , when they again failed to go beyond the group stage after defeats to Netherlands and Germany , and in 1996 when they were edged out in the first round by Netherlands . Scotland failed to qualify for the World Cup in 1994 . McCall played just two qualifying games for the 1998 World Cup and his last cap came in a friendly against Denmark on 25 March 1998 , as he was overlooked for the final squad for the finals in France along with team @-@ mate Ally McCoist . He was capped a total of 40 times for Scotland , scoring one goal . McCall 's caps included 11 while at Everton and 29 during his career with Rangers .

= = Coaching and management career = =

= = = Early coaching career = = =

In July 2000 , McCall accepted his first coaching role , when he was appointed assistant manager to Chris Hutchings at Bradford City , after Hutchings was promoted from the role to replace Paul Jewell as City manager . Just four months later , Hutchings was sacked , and McCall was appointed as caretaker – player manager . His first game in the role was against his former team Everton , who were led by his former manager Walter Smith , but ended with a 1 – 0 defeat . He was in charge for one more game , which also ended in defeat , until Jim Jefferies was appointed the new manager . Jefferies brought with him his own assistant Billy Brown , and McCall was appointed first @-@ team coach .

After leaving Bradford City , he joined Sheffield United , where he also took up a coaching role . When he retired in 2004 , he remained at Sheffield United as assistant to Neil Warnock . Working alongside Warnock and learning the managerial ropes from him , he helped mastermind Sheffield 's promotion to the Premier League in 2006 . United were relegated to the Championship on the final day of the 2006 – 07 season and Warnock resigned three days later . McCall had already decided that the 2006 – 07 season would be his last as assistant manager , and when he was overlooked as a successor to the United manager 's position , in favour of Bryan Robson , he decided to leave after five years with the club .

= = = Bradford City = = =

McCall admitted in his autobiography , The Real McCall , he wanted to manage Bradford .

He had been linked with the manager 's position at Bradford City on numerous previous occasions , and after Colin Todd was sacked on 12 February 2007 , City chairman Julian Rhodes made McCall his number one target to take over in the summer . Club captain David Wetherall temporarily took over and was later announced as caretaker manager for the rest of the 2006 – 07 season . On 18 May 2007 it was announced McCall would become full @-@ time manager of the club where he started his career , and on 1 June 2007 he assumed the position . In less than seven years since McCall 's first two @-@ game reign , serious financial problems had driven the club to the verge of closure , and although they survived the threat of oblivion , they were unable to avoid a terrible on @-@ the @-@ pitch decline , which continued after the financial nightmare had been relieved . On McCall 's return to Valley Parade , the Bantams had just been relegated to League Two — meaning that they would be playing in the bottom division for the first time in 25 years . McCall set himself a target of earning promotion back to League One in his first season .

Bradford had just 13 players when McCall took over , and he made a number of summer signings including defender Darren Williams , midfielders Kyle Nix , Alex Rhodes and Scott Phelan , and strikers Barry Conlon , Guylain Ndumbu @-@ Nsungu and Peter Thorne . McCall recorded his first win as a manager against Wrexham on 25 August 2007 after substitute Luke Medley scored a late winner , but despite his pre @-@ season target his team spent much of the first half of the season in the bottom half of the table . After going unbeaten in January , the club were still 15th in League Two , and McCall told the Telegraph & Argus he did not regret his pre @-@ season target but was carried away with the euphoria at the time . City 's form continued to improve during the second half of the season , and McCall led his side to 10th place in League Two .

Despite City finishing outside the play @-@ off places , they were again installed as favourites for promotion by bookmakers for the 2008 – 09 season . McCall released 13 players from his squad and replaced them with a number of signings with experience in a higher division , as well as Michael Boulding , who was one of League Two 's top goalscorers during the 2007 – 08 campaign . McCall 's side made a good start to the season , and after winning five of their opening six league games , went top of the league – the first time City had led the table in seven years .

As a result of maintaining a place in the promotion places during the first half of the season and his " stabling influence " on the club , chairmen Julian Rhodes and Mark Lawn offered McCall a new contract in January 2009 . Later in the month , Lawn gave further backing to McCall , who was coming under pressure from the club 's fans following a run of one win in nine games ; during the run McCall was also charged by The Football Association for the first time of his managerial career after he had contested a refereeing decision during a game with Luton Town . McCall signed a new contract in February , which extended his deal by another two years and would have kept him at the club until 2011 . He set himself the goal of earning two promotions to put City in the Championship . However , less than a month later , McCall offered to resign if they did not reach the play @-@ offs after his side lost 4 – 1 to Bournemouth – their fifth consecutive away defeat . " Nobody is hurting more than me but it 's as simple as that , if we miss out I don 't deserve to be here , " he said . City eventually missed out on promotion , but McCall decided to stay on as manager and took a voluntary pay cut in the process because of the club 's budget being reduced .

As a result of the cuts , McCall made a number of changes to his squad during the summer of 2009 . His team started the 2009 – 10 season by going four games without scoring , until they recorded a 5 – 4 victory against Cheltenham Town . After the game , McCall said : " That was the youngest , and certainly cheapest , team Bradford have put out for a long time and I ’ m really proud of them . " City continued by going ten games unbeaten and reached the area semi @-@ finals of the Football League Trophy where they lost to Carlisle United , managed by McCall 's friend Greg Abbott , but at the start of 2010 found themselves 16th in League Two and eight points off the play @-@ offs after a run of five defeats in seven games . McCall laid down a challenge to his team to win three of their next four games , saying : " The bottom line is that the players and me personally will get judged on results . And the results aren 't good enough . " Despite the club 's slide down the table , he denied he would resign , but it was reported that two late goals from summer signing Gareth Evans to give City a late 2 – 1 away at Torquay United saved McCall from being sacked . However , defeat to Bury in the club 's following fixture was McCall 's last game as manager , with McCall saying after the game : " It 's time for somebody else to come in and take up the reins and hopefully do well . " He won a little more than one @-@ third of his 133 games in charge of City . McCall left by mutual consent .

= = = Motherwell = = =

After leaving Bradford , McCall spent some time out of the game before being recruited to work as a scout for Norwich City by Rangers former chief scout Ewan Chester . At the end of 2010 , he was among a number of men interviewed for the managerial vacancy at Scottish Premier League side Motherwell to succeed Craig Brown , before being given the job on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract . His first game in charge was a 0 – 0 draw away to Hamilton Academical on New Year 's Day 2011 , with McCall stating : " It was a fair result . You take positives , a clean sheet , but we can be better and we will be better . " He followed it up with a 4 – 0 victory in the Scottish Cup against Dundee before his maiden league victory – and the club 's first since November – against Hibernian by the end of January . McCall was partly selected as new manager because of his knowledge of the lower leagues of English football ; he was active in the transfer market in his early days , bringing in Steve Jones – a player he had at Bradford – and Mike Grella from Leeds United , although the latter move was cancelled because of a FIFA ruling limiting the number of clubs a player can sign for in one season . Having operated without an assistant for his first few weeks in charge , McCall chose former Airdrie United manager Kenny Black as his number two . McCall led Motherwell to the semi @-@ finals of both Scottish Cup competitions – they were defeated 2 – 1 by his former side Rangers in the League Cup but reached the final of the Scottish Cup by defeating St Johnstone 3 – 0 .

At the start of the following season , Motherwell lost only one match in their first six making them joint leaders of the Scottish Premier League , which led to McCall being named the Clydesdale Bank Premier League manager of the month for July and August . Well continued their good form , with McCall winning the award again in October , alongside player of the month Keith Lasley , in a month when the side went unbeaten . Motherwell 's final position in the Premier League was in 3rd , allowing them into the Champions League for the first time in the club 's history .

At the start of the 2012 @-@ 13 season , McCall was unable to make signings after losing ten players . In the summer transfer window , he made two signings Simon Ramsden and Fraser Kerr . McCall attempted to sign the returning James McFadden and Ryan Stevenson , but both were unsuccessful . McCall then managed the club 's first Champions League match in the second round against Panathinaikos , but they proved to be too strong and Motherwell failed to win either leg losing 2 @-@ 0 and 3 @-@ 0 respectively , which McCall described as " cruel " . After the match , Motherwell entered the Europa League play @-@ offs to face Levante ; McCall wanted to play with an " up @-@ and @-@ at @-@ them approach " against the Spaniards . Once again , their opposition proved to be too strong and they lost each leg 2 – 0 and 1 – 0 respectively , ending the club 's European competitions ; the second game at the Estadi Ciutat de València had Motherwell playing with a youthful and inexperienced squad due to injuries .

On 24 January 2013 , it was announced McCall would join the backroom staff of new Scotland national football team manager Gordon Strachan . During the 2012 / 13 season , the club managed to stay in the top @-@ six . On 28 March 2013 , McCall signed a new two @-@ year contract with Motherwell . In April 2013 , McCall was awarded March 's SPL manager of month for helping the club win three and draw one of their games during the month . At the end of the season , Motherwell finished second for the first time , their highest league position since 1994 @-@ 95 season , which he described as " incredible " . As a result , McCall won Clydesdale Bank Manager of the Year . On 22 May 2013 , it was reported that he was set to open talks with Sheffield United about their managerial vacancy in the next 24 hours and that he had cut short a family holiday to intend the interview . Eventually , McCall rejected a move to Sheffield United , following talks between the two and was happy to continue as manager of Motherwell , claiming it was the wrong time to join United .

At the start of the 2013 @-@ 14 season , key players Darren Randolph , Nicky Law , Chris Humphrey , Michael Higdon and Henrik Ojamaa all left the club . McCall replaced them by signing Paul Lawson , Iain Vigurs , John Sutton , Fraser Kerr , Gunnar Nielsen and Stephen McManus . He also managed to persuade James McFadden to stay at the club . Motherwell enjoyed another successful season , finishing second in the 2013 – 14 Scottish Premiership . The position was achieved by winning on the final day against nearest rivals Aberdeen . After a bad start to the 2014 – 15 season left Motherwell second from bottom , McCall resigned as manager on 2 November .

= = = Rangers = = =

McCall was appointed manager of Rangers on 12 March 2015 , agreeing a contract with the club to the end of the 2014 – 15 season . In his first match in charge Rangers were held to a 1 – 1 draw at home by bottom @-@ placed Livingston on 14 March 2015 . Rangers finished third in the 2014 – 15 Scottish Championship and in the Premiership play @-@ off final they were beaten 6 – 1 on aggregate by McCall 's former team Motherwell . Insisting he had " done a decent job " he wanted to extend his contract for the following season . Rangers instead opted to appoint Mark Warburton as manager for the new season .

= = = Return to Bradford City = = =

On 20 June 2016 , he returned as manager of Bradford City , replacing Phil Parkinson . McCall gave up his coaching role with the Scottish national team .

= = Style of play = =

McCall was a box @-@ to @-@ box midfielder characterised by his tireless running , tackling and also weighing in with an average of one goal every 11 games . Despite his position in the middle of the park he was rarely suspended and was sent off just once in his career – in the final minute of a 2 – 0 defeat to Charlton Athletic on 4 November 2000 . He also had a never @-@ say @-@ die attitude proven by a number of key late goals including his equaliser which sent the 1989 FA Cup Final into extra @-@ time , and a 93rd @-@ minute equaliser against Tottenham Hotspur during Bradford 's difficult start to their Premier League campaign in the 1999 – 2000 season . He was a passionate player whose strong desire to win even ran to reserve games . Even in his final years of his career he was described as a player with " plenty of drive and ambition " by manager Neil Warnock .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Playing = = =

= = = = Club = = = =

= = = = International = = = =

= = = = = International goals = = = = =

Scores and results list Scotland 's goal tally first .

= = = Managerial = = =

As of 31 May 2015

= = Honours = =

= = = Player = = =

Bradford City

English Third Division ( 1 ) : 1984 – 85

English First Division promotion ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99

Rangers

Scottish Premier Division ( 6 ) : 1991 – 92 , 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97

Scottish Cup ( 3 ) : 1992 , 1993 , 1996

Scottish League Cup ( 2 ) : 1993 , 1994

= = = Manager = = =

Motherwell

Lanarkshire Cup ( 3 ) : 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13 , 2013 – 14

= = = Individual = = =

PFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) :

Second Division : 1987 , 1988

Third Division : 1985

Manager of the Month : July / August 2011 , October 2011 , March 2013

SPL Manager of the Season : 2012 – 13

= Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit =

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus californicus ) , also known as the American desert hare , is a common hare of the western United States and Mexico , where it is found at elevations from sea level up to 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . Reaching a length around 2 ft ( 61 cm ) , and a weight from 3 to 6 lb ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ) , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the third @-@ largest North American hare . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits occupy mixed shrub @-@ grassland terrains . Their breeding depends on the location ; it typically peaks in spring , but may continue all year round in warm climates . Young are born fully furred with eyes open ; they are well camouflaged and are mobile within minutes of birth , thus females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . The average litter size is around four , but may be as low as two and as high as seven in warm regions .

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit does not migrate or hibernate during winter and uses the same habitat of 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 mi2 ( 1 – 3 km2 ) year @-@ round . Its diet is composed of various shrubs , small trees , grasses , and forbs . Shrubs generally comprise the bulk of fall and winter diets , while grasses and forbs are used in spring and early summer , but the pattern and plant species vary with climate . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is an important prey species for raptors and carnivorous mammals , such as eagles , hawks , owls , coyotes , foxes , and wild cats . The rabbits host many ectoparasites including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites ; for this reason , hunters often avoid collecting them .

= = Description = =

Like other jackrabbits , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit has distinctive long ears , and the long , powerful rear legs characteristic of hares . Reaching a length about 2 ft ( 61 cm ) , and a weight from 3 to 6 lb ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 7 kg ) , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the third @-@ largest North American hare , after the antelope jackrabbit and the white @-@ tailed jackrabbit . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit 's dorsal fur is agouti ( dark buff peppered with black ) , and its undersides and the insides of its legs are creamy white . The ears are black @-@ tipped on the outer surfaces , and unpigmented inside . The ventral surface of the tail is grey to white , and the black dorsal surface of the tail continues up the spine for a few inches to form a short , black stripe . The females are larger than males , with no other significant differences .

= = Taxonomy and distribution = =

Although 17 subspecies are recognized , this number may be excessive . Using a cluster analysis of anatomical characters , Dixon and others found that black @-@ tailed jackrabbit subspecies separated into two distinct groups that are geographically separated west and east of the Colorado Rocky Mountains and the Colorado River . They suggested only two infrataxa are warranted : the western subspecies L. c. californicus and the eastern subspecies L. c. texianus .

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the most widely distributed jackrabbit ( Lepus species ) in North America . Native black @-@ tailed jackrabbit populations occur from central Washington east to Missouri and south to Baja California Sur and Zacatecas . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit distribution is currently expanding eastward in the Great Plains at the expense of white @-@ tailed jackrabbit . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit has been successfully introduced in southern Florida and along the coastline in Maryland , New Jersey , and Virginia .

Distribution of subspecies occurring entirely or partially in the United States is :

Lepus californicus altamirae ( Nelson )

L. c. asellus ( G. S. Miller )

L. c. bennettii ( Gray ) – coastal southern California to Baja California Norte

L. c. californicus ( Gray ) – coastal Oregon to coastal and Central Valley California

L. c. curti ( E. R. Hall )

L. c. deserticola ( Mearns ) – southern Idaho to Sonora

L. c. ememicus ( J. A. Allen ) – central Arizona to Sonora

L. c. festinus ( Nelson )

L. c. magdalenae ( Nelson )

L. c. martirensis ( J. M. Stowell )

L. c. melanotis ( Mearns ) – South Dakota to Iowa , Missouri , and central Texas

L. c. merriamai ( Mearns ) – south @-@ central and southeastern Texas to Tamaulipas

L. c. richardsonii ( Bachman ) – central California

L. c. sheldoni ( W. H. Burt )

L. c. texianus ( Waterhouse ) – southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado to Zacatecas

L. c. wallawalla ( Merriam ) – eastern Washington to northeastern California and northwestern Nevada

L. c. xanti ( Thomas )

= = Plant communities = =

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit occupies plant communities with a mixture of shrubs , grasses , and forbs . Shrubland @-@ herb mosaics are preferred over pure stands of shrubs or herbs . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbit populations are common in sagebrush ( Artemisia spp . ) , creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata ) , and other desert shrublands ; palouse , shortgrass , and mixed @-@ grass prairies ; desert grassland ; open @-@ canopy chaparral ; oak ( Quercus spp . ) , and pinyon @-@ juniper ( Pinus @-@ Juniperus spp . ) woodlands ; and early seral ( succeeding each other ) , low- to mid @-@ elevation coniferous forests . It is also common in and near croplands , especially alfalfa ( Medicago sativa ) fields .

= = Major life events = =

Male black @-@ tailed jackrabbits reach sexual maturity around 7 months of age . Females usually breed in the spring of their second year , although females born in spring or early summer may breed in their first year . Ovulation is induced by copulation . The breeding season is variable depending upon latitude and environmental factors . In the northern part of their range in Idaho , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits breed from February through May . In Utah , they breed from January through July , with over 75 % of females pregnant by April . The Kansas breeding season extends from January to August . Breeding in warm climates continues nearly year @-@ round . Two peak breeding seasons corresponding to rainfall patterns and growth of young vegetation occur in California , Arizona , and New Mexico . In Arizona , for example , breeding peaks during winter ( January – March ) rains and again during June monsoons .

The gestation period ranges from 41 to 47 days . More litters are born in warm climates : the number of litters born each year ranges from two per year in Idaho to seven in Arizona . Litter sizes are largest in the northern portions of black @-@ tailed jackrabbit 's range and decrease toward the south . Average litter size has been reported at 4 @.@ 9 in Idaho , 3 @.@ 8 in Utah , and 2 @.@ 2 in Arizona .

Female black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not prepare an elaborate nest . They give birth in shallow excavations called forms that are no more than a few centimeters deep . Females may line forms with hair prior to giving birth , but some drop litters in existing depressions on the ground with no further preparation . Young are born fully furred with eyes open , and are mobile within minutes of birth . Females do not protect or even stay with the young except during nursing . Ages of weaning and dispersal are unclear since the young are well camouflaged and rarely observed in the field . Captive black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are fully weaned by 8 weeks . The young stay together for at least a week after leaving the form .

= = Preferred habitat = =

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit can occupy a wide range of habitats as long as diversity in plant species exists . It requires mixed grasses , forbs , and shrubs for food , and shrubs or small trees for cover . It prefers moderately open areas without dense understory growth and is seldom found in closed @-@ canopy habitats . For example , in California , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are plentiful in open chamise ( Ademostoma fasciculatum ) and Ceanothus spp. chaparral interspersed with grasses , but does not occupy closed @-@ canopy chaparral . Similarly , the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit occupies clearcuts and early seral coniferous forest , but not closed @-@ canopy coniferous forest .

Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not migrate or hibernate during winter ; the same habitat is used year @-@ round . Diurnal movement of 2 to 10 miles ( 3 – 16 km ) occurs from shrub cover in day to open foraging areas at night . Home range area varies with habitat and habitat quality . Home ranges of 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 mi2 ( 1 – 3 km2 ) have been reported in big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata ) and black greasewood ( Sarcobatus vermiculatus ) communities of northern Utah .

Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits require shrubs or small conifers for hiding , nesting , and thermal cover , and grassy areas for night feeding . A shrub @-@ grassland mosaic or widely spaced shrubs interspersed with herbs provides hiding cover while providing feeding opportunities . Small shrubs do not provide adequate cover . In the Snake River Birds of Prey Study Area in southwestern Idaho , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits were more frequent on sites dominated by big sagebrush or black greasewood than on sites dominated by the smaller shrubs winterfat ( Krascheninnikovia lanata ) or shadscale ( Atriplex confertifolia ) . Black @-@ tailed jackrabbits do not habitually use a burrow , although they have occasionally been observed using abandoned burrows for escape and thermal cover .

= = Food habits = =

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit diet is composed of shrubs , small trees , grasses , and forbs . Throughout the course of a year , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits feed on most if not all of the important plant species in a community . Growth stage and moisture content of plants may influence selection more than species . Shrubs generally comprise the bulk of fall and winter diets , while grasses and forbs are used in spring and early summer . This pattern varies with climate : herbaceous plants are grazed during greenup periods while the plants are in prereproductive to early reproductive stages , and shrubs are used more in dry seasons . Shrubs are browsed throughout the year , however . Most of a jackrabbit 's body water is replaced by foraging water @-@ rich vegetation . Jackrabbits require a plant 's water weight to be at least five times its dry weight to meet daily water intake requirements . Therefore , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits switch to phreatophyte ( deep @-@ rooted ) shrubs when herbaceous vegetation is recovering from their foraging .

Plant species used by black @-@ tailed jackrabbits are well documented for desert regions . Forage use in other regions is less well known . However , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits browse Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) , lodgepole pine ( P. contorta ) , and western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) seedlings , and oak ( Quercus spp . ) seedlings and sprouts .

= = = Great Basin = = =

In Great Basin , big sagebrush is a primary forage species and is used throughout the year ; in southern Idaho it forms 16 – 21 % of the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit summer diet . Rabbitbrush ( Chrysothamnus spp . ) , spiny hopsage ( gray spinosa ) , and black greasewood are also browsed . Four @-@ wing saltbush ( Atriplex canescens ) is heavily used in western Nevada . In Butte County , Idaho , winterfat comprises 41 % of black @-@ tailed jackrabbits ' annual diet . Grasses comprise 14 % of the diet , with most grass consumption in March and April . Russian thistle ( Salsoda kali ) is an important forb diet item . Needle @-@ and @-@ thread grass ( Stipa comata ) and Indian ricegrass ( Oryzopsis hymenoides ) are preferred grasses . Other preferred native grasses include Sandberg bluegrass ( Poa secunda ) and bluebunch wheatgrass ( Pseudoroegneria spicata ) . Where available , crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron desertorum and Agropyron cristatum ) and barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) are highly preferred . Cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum ) use is variable : it comprises 45 % of the April diet on two southern Idaho sites , but black @-@ tailed jackrabbit on an eastern Washington site do not use it .

= = = Warm desert = = =

In warm desert , mesquite ( Prosopis spp . ) and creosotebush ( Larrea tridentata ) are principal browse species . Broom snakeweed ( Gutierrezia sarothrae ) and Yucca spp. are also used . In honey mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa ) communities in New Mexico , the overall black @-@ tailed jackrabbit diet was 47 % shrubs , 22 % grasses , and 31 % forbs . Black grama ( Bouteloua spp . ) , dropseed ( Sporobolus spp . ) , fluffgrass ( Erioneuron pulchellum ) , and threeawns ( Aristida spp . ) are the most commonly grazed grasses . Leather croton ( Croton pottsii ) , silverleaf nightshade ( Solanum elaeagnifolium ) , desert marigold ( Baileya multiradiata ) , wooly paperflower ( Psilostrophe tagetina ) , and globemallow ( Sphaeralcea spp . ) are important forbs , although many forb species are grazed . Opuntia spp . , saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) , and other cacti are used throughout the year , but are especially important in dry seasons as a source of moisture .

= = Predators = =

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is an important prey species for many raptors and carnivorous mammals . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit and Townsend 's ground squirrel ( Spermophilus townsendii ) are the two most important prey species on the Snake River Birds of Prey Study Area . Hawks preying on black @-@ tailed jackrabbits include the ferruginous hawk ( Buteo regalis ) , white @-@ tailed hawk ( Buteo albicaudatus ) , Swainson 's hawk ( B. swainsoni ) , and red @-@ tailed hawk ( B. jamaicensis ) . The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the primary prey of Swainson 's , red @-@ tailed , and ferruginous hawks on Idaho and Utah sites . Other raptors consuming black @-@ tailed jackrabbits include the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) , burrowing owl ( Athene cunicularia ) , golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) , and bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) . A significant correlation exists between golden eagle and black @-@ tailed jackrabbit reproduction patterns . In Colorado and southeastern Wyoming , black @-@ tailed jackrabbits constitute 9 % of nesting bald eagles ' diet . Jackrabbits and cottontails ( Sylvilagus spp . ) combined form 9 % of the diet of bald eagles wintering on national forests in Arizona and New Mexico .

Mammalian predators include coyote ( Canis latrans ) , bobcat ( Lynx rufus ) , lynx ( Lynx canadensis ) , domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic cat ( Felis catus ) , red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) , common gray fox ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus ) , American badger ( Taxidea taxus ) , wolf ( Canis lupus ) , and mountain lion ( Felis concolor ) . In many areas , black @-@ tailed jackrabbit is the primary item in coyote diets . It is locally and regionally important to other mammalian predators . One study found that jackrabbits made up 45 % of the bobcat diet in Utah and Nevada . Another Utah – Nevada study found that jackrabbits were the fourth @-@ most commonly consumed prey of mountain lions .

Rattlesnakes ( Crotalus spp . ) and garter snakes ( Thamnophis sirtalis ) prey on black @-@ tailed jackrabbit young . Raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) and striped skunks ( Mephitis mephitis ) may also capture young .

= = Parasites and disease = =

The black @-@ tailed jackrabbit plays host to many ectoparasites including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites , and many endoparasites including trematodes , cestodes , nematodes , and botfly ( Cuterebra ) larvae . Diseases affecting the black @-@ tailed jackrabbit in the West are tularemia , equine encephalitis , brucellosis , Q fever , and Rocky Mountain spotted fever . Ticks are vectors for tularemia , and infected ticks have been found on jackrabbits in the West . Jackrabbits infected with tularemia die very quickly .

The high prevalence of disease and parasites in wild jackrabbits affects human predation . Many hunters will not collect the jackrabbits they shoot , and those who do are well advised to wear gloves while handling carcasses and to cook the meat thoroughly to avoid contracting tularemia . Most hunting of jackrabbits is done for pest control or sport .

= Battle of Romani =

The Battle of Romani was the last ground attack of the Central Powers on the Suez Canal at the beginning of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign during the First World War . The battle was fought between 3 and 5 August 1916 near the Egyptian town of Romani and the site of ancient Pelusium on the Sinai Peninsula , 23 miles ( 37 km ) east of the Suez Canal . This victory by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division and the Anzac Mounted Division of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) over a joint Ottoman and German force , which had marched across the Sinai , marked the end of the Defence of the Suez Canal campaign , also known as the Offensive zur Eroberung des Suezkanals and the İkinci Kanal Harekâtı , which had begun on 26 January 1915 .

This British Empire victory , the first against the Ottoman Empire in the war , ensured the safety of the Suez Canal from ground attacks , and ended the Central Powers ' ambitions of disrupting traffic through the canal by gaining control of the strategically important northern approaches to the Suez Canal . The pursuit by the Anzac Mounted Division which ended at Bir el Abd on 12 August began the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . Thereafter , the Anzac Mounted Division supported by the Imperial Camel Brigade were on the offensive , pursuing the German and Ottoman army many miles across the Sinai Peninsula , reversing in a most emphatic manner the defeat suffered at Katia three months earlier .

From late April 1916 , after a German @-@ led Ottoman force attacked British yeomanry at Katia , British Empire forces in the region at first doubled from one brigade to two and then grew as rapidly as the developing infrastructure could support them . The construction of the railway and a water pipeline soon enabled an infantry division to join the light horse and mounted rifle brigades at Romani . During the heat of summer , regular mounted patrols and reconnaissance were carried out from their base at Romani , while the infantry constructed an extensive series of defensive redoubts . On 19 July , the advance of a large German , Austrian and Ottoman force across the northern Sinai was reported . From 20 July until the battle began , the Australian 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades took turns pushing out to clash with the advancing hostile column .

During the night of 3 / 4 August 1916 , the advancing force including the German Pasha I formation and the Ottoman 3rd Infantry Division launched an attack from Katia on Romani . Forward troops quickly became engaged with the screen established by the 1st Light Horse Brigade ( Anzac Mounted Division ) . During fierce fighting before dawn on 4 August , the Australian light horsemen were forced to slowly retire . At daylight , their line was reinforced by the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , and about mid morning , the 5th Mounted Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade joined the battle . Together these four brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division , managed to contain and direct the determined attackers into deep sand . Here the attackers came within range of the strongly entrenched 52nd ( Lowland ) Division defending Romani and the railway . Coordinated resistance by all these EEF formations , the deep sand , the heat and thirst prevailed , and the German , Austrian and Ottoman advance was checked . Although the attacking force fought strongly to maintain its positions the next morning , by nightfall they had been pushed back to their starting point at Katia . The retiring force was pursued by the Anzac Mounted Division between 6 and 9 August , during which the Ottomans and Germans forces fought a number of strong rearguard actions against the advancing Australian light horse , British yeomanry and New Zealand mounted rifle brigades . The pursuit ended on 12 August , when the German and Ottoman force abandoned their base at Bir el Abd and retreated back to El Arish .

= = Background = =

At the beginning of the First World War , the Egyptian police controlling the Sinai Peninsula had withdrawn , leaving the area largely unprotected . In February 1915 , a German and Ottoman force unsuccessfully attacked the Suez Canal . Minor Ottoman and Bedouin forces operating across the Sinai continued to threaten the canal from March through the Gallipoli Campaign until June , when they practically ceased until the autumn . Meanwhile , the German and Ottoman Empires supported an uprising by the Senussi ( a political @-@ religious group ) on the western frontier of Egypt which began in November 1915 .

By February 1916 , however , there was no apparent sign of any unusual military activity in the Sinai itself , when the British began construction on the first 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) stretch of 4 @-@ foot @-@ 8 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) standard gauge railway and water pipeline from Kantara to Romani and Katia . Reconnaissance aircraft of the Royal Flying Corps and seaplanes of the Royal Naval Air Service found only small , scattered Ottoman forces in the Sinai region and no sign of any major concentration of troops in southern Palestine .

By the end of March or early in April 1916 , the British presence in the Sinai was growing ; 16 miles ( 26 km ) of track , including sidings , had been laid . Between 21 March and 11 April , the water sources at Wady Um Muksheib , Moya Harab and Jifjafa along the central Sinai route from southern Palestine were destroyed . In 1915 , they had been used by the central group of about 6 @,@ 000 or 7 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers who moved across the Sinai Desert to attack the Suez Canal at Ismailia . Without these wells and cisterns , the central route could no longer be used by large forces .

German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein 's raiding force retaliated to this growing British presence , by attacking the widely dispersed 5th Mounted Brigade on 23 April , Easter Sunday and also St George 's Day , when Yeomanry were surprised and overwhelmed at Katia and Oghratina east of Romani . The mounted Yeomanry brigade had been sent to guard the water pipeline and railway as they were being extended beyond the protection of the Suez Canal defences into the desert towards Romani .

In response to this attack , the British Empire presence in the region doubled . The next day , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade which had served dismounted during the Gallipoli Campaign , of the Australian Major General Harry Chauvel 's Anzac Mounted Division reoccupied the Katia area unopposed .

= = Prelude = =

On 24 April , the day after the Katia and Oghratina , Chauvel , commander of the Anzac Mounted Division , was placed in command of all the advanced troops : the 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades at Romani and an infantry division ; the 52nd ( Lowland ) at Dueidar . The infantry moved forward to Romani between 11 May and 4 June 1916 .

The building of the railway and pipeline had not been greatly affected by the fighting on 23 April and by 29 April , four trains a day were running regularly to the railhead , manned by No. 276 Railway Company , and the main line to Romani was opened on 19 May . A second standard gauge railway line from Romani to Mahamdiyah on the Mediterranean coast was completed by 9 June . But conditions on the ground were extreme ; after the middle of May and in particular from mid June to the end of July , the heat in the Sinai Desert ranged from extreme to fierce when temperatures could be expected to be in the region of 123 ° F ( 51 ° C ) in the shade . The terrible heat was not as bad as the Khamsin dust storms which blow once every 50 days for between a few hours and several days ; the air is turned into a haze of floating sand particles flung about by a strong , hot southerly wind .

No major ground operations were carried out during these midsummer months , the Ottoman garrisons in the Sinai being scattered and out of reach of the British forces . But constant patrolling and reconnaissance were carried out from Romani to Ogratina , to Bir el Abd and on 16 May to Bir Bayud , 19 miles ( 31 km ) south @-@ east of Romani , on 31 May to Bir Salmana 22 miles ( 35 km ) east north @-@ east of Romani by the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade , when they covered 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) in 36 hours . These patrols concentrated on an area of great strategic importance to large military formations wishing to move across the Sinai along the northern route . Here water was freely available in a large area of oases which extends from Dueidar , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Kantara on the Suez Canal , along the Darb es Sultani ( the old caravan route ) , to Salmana 52 miles ( 84 km ) away .

Between 10 and 14 June , the last water source on the central route across the Sinai Peninsula was destroyed by the Mukhsheib column . This column , consisting of engineers and units of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , the Bikaner Camel Corps , and the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps drained 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 l ; 4 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water from pools and cisterns in the Wadi Mukhsheib and sealed the cisterns . This action effectively narrowed the area in which Ottoman offensives might be expected to the coastal or northern route across the Sinai Peninsula .

Ottoman aircraft attacked the Suez Canal twice during May , dropping bombs on Port Said . British aircraft bombed the town and aerodrome at El Arish on 18 May and 18 June , and bombed all the Ottoman camps on a front of 45 miles ( 72 km ) parallel to the canal on 22 May . By the middle of June , the No. 1 Australian Squadron , Australian Flying Corps , had begun active service , with " B " Flight at Suez performing reconnaissance . On 9 July , " A " Flight was stationed at Sherika in Upper Egypt , with " C " Flight based at Kantara .

= = = German and Ottoman force = = =

At the beginning of July , it was estimated there were at least 28 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops in the Gaza – Beersheba area of southern Palestine , and that just before the battle began at Romani , there were 3 @,@ 000 troops at Oghratina , not far from Katia , another 6 @,@ 000 at the forward base of Bir el Abd , east of Oghratina , 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 at Bir Bayud to the south @-@ east , and another 2 @,@ 000 at Bir el Mazar , some 42 miles ( 68 km ) to the east , not far from El Arish .

Kress von Kressenstein 's Fourth Army was made up of the 3rd ( Anatolian ) Infantry Division 's three regiments , the 31st , 32nd and 39th Infantry Regiments , totalling 16 @,@ 000 men , of whom 11 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 873 were combatants , Arab ancillary forces ; and one regiment of the Camel Corps . Estimates of their arms range from 3 @,@ 293 to 12 @,@ 000 rifles , 38 to 56 machine guns , and two to five anti @-@ aircraft gun sections ; they also fielded four heavy artillery and mountain gun batteries ( 30 artillery pieces ) and the Pasha I formation . Nearly 5 @,@ 000 camels and 1 @,@ 750 horses accompanied the advance .

The Pasha I formation with a ration strength of about 16 @,@ 000 , consisted of personnel and materiel for a machine gun battalion of eight companies with four guns each with Ottoman drivers , five anti @-@ aircraft groups , the 60th Battalion Heavy Artillery consisting of one battery of two 100mm guns , one battery of four 150 mm howitzers and two batteries of 210 mm howitzers ( two guns in each battery ) . The officers , NCOs and " leading numbers " of this artillery battalion were German ; the remainder were Ottoman Army personnel . In addition Pasha I also included two trench mortar companies , the 300th Flight Detachment , Wireless detachment , three railway companies and two field hospitals . Austria provided two mountain howitzer batteries of six guns each . With the exception of the two 210 mm howitzers , the trench mortars and the railway personnel the remainder of Pasha I took part in the advance to Romani .

The 300th Flight Detachment provided a squadron for aerial reconnaissance , and increased the numbers of aircraft available to support the advance across Sinai . These Pasha I aircraft were faster and more effective than the " hopelessly outclassed " British aircraft and were able to maintain air superiority over the battleground .

It is also possible that the 81st Regiment of the 27th Division advanced to Bir el Abd and took part in the defence of that place .

The objectives of the German , Austrian and Ottoman advance were to capture Romani and to then establish a strongly entrenched position opposite Kantara , from which place their heavy artillery would be within range of the Suez Canal . The attacking force assembled in the southern Ottoman Empire at Shellal , north @-@ west of Beersheba , and departed for the Sinai on 9 July 1916 ; they reached Bir el Abd and Ogratina ten days later .

= = = British forces = = =

General Sir Archibald Murray , the commander of the British Empire forces in Egypt , formed the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) in March 1916 by merging the Force in Egypt , which had protected Egypt since the beginning of the war , with the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force which had fought at Gallipoli . The role of this new force was to both defend the British Protectorate of Egypt and provide reinforcements for the Western Front . Murray had his headquarters in Cairo to better deal with his multiple responsibilities , although he was at Ismailia during the battle for Romani .

With the occupation of Romani , the area became part the Northern or No. 3 Sector of the Suez Canal defences , which originally stretched along the canal from Ferdan to Port Said . Two further sectors grouped the defence forces along the central and southern sections of the Canal ; No. 2 , the Central Sector , stretched south from Ferdan to headquarters at Ismailia and on to Kabrit , where the No. 1 or Southern Sector extended from Kabrit to Suez .

Murray considered it very unlikely that an attack would occur anywhere other than in the northern sector and therefore was prepared to reduce the troops in Nos 1 and 2 Sectors to a minimum . He decided not to reinforce his four infantry brigades , but to increase the available fire @-@ power at Romani by moving up the 160th and 161st Machine Gun Companies of the 53rd ( Welsh ) and the 54th ( East Anglian ) Divisions . He also ordered the concentration of a small mobile column made up of the 11th Light Horse , the City of London Yeomanry ( less one squadron each ) with the 4th , 6th and 9th Companies of the Imperial Camel Brigade in No. 2 Sector . He calculated that the whole of the defensive force , including the camel transport necessary to enable infantry in the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division to advance into the desert , would be fully equipped and the camels assembled by 3 August . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 Egyptian Camel Transport Corps camels concentrated at Romani prior to the battle . British monitors in the Mediterranean Sea off Mahamdiyah got into position to shell the assembling Ottoman force , while an armoured train at Kantara was ready to assist the defence of the right flank , and all available aircraft were on standby at Ismailia , Kantara , Port Said and Romani .

Major General H. A. Lawrence commanded No. 3 Section Canal Defences , and as part of those defences , the Romani position was commanded by Lawrence , who had his headquarters at Kantara . Stationed at Kantara were infantry in the 42nd Division , an infantry brigade of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division with 36 guns and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , detached from the Anzac Mounted Division . Lawrence moved two infantry battalions of the 42nd Division from No. 2 Section Canal defences to Kantara , and sent infantry in the 158th ( North Wales ) Brigade of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division to Romani on 20 July .

The deployments on 3 August on and near the battlefield were as follows :

at Hill 70 , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Romani , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ( less the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment , but with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade 's 5th Light Horse Regiment , temporarily attached ) , commanded by Edward Chaytor , and the 5th Mounted Brigade , under the direct command of Lawrence , were joined on the railway by infantry in the 126th ( East Lancashire ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) . Together with the 5th Light Horse Regiment , attached to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade at Dueidar , to the east of Hill 70 , this force was to stop or delay von Kressenstein 's attack should he attempt to bypass Romani and advance directly towards the Suez Canal ,

at Hill 40 , infantry from the 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade and the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) were also on the railway line at Gilban Station ,

the Mobile Column was based in the Sinai at the end of the El Ferdan railway , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was at Ballybunion , also in the Sinai at the end of the Ballah railway .

The force at Romani , responsible for its defence when the battle began , consisted of infantry from the British 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , commanded by Major General W. E. B. Smith , and the Anzac Mounted Division commanded by Chauvel ( less the 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) . The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , ( less the 5th Light Horse Regiment , but with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment attached ) were commanded by Lieutenant Colonels J. B. H Meredith and J. R. Royston respectively .

= = = Development of defensive positions = = =

Infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division joined the two mounted brigades at Romani between 11 May and 4 June , when the development of the railway made it possible to transport and supply such a large number of soldiers . The infantry occupied a defensive position known as Wellington Ridge , facing a tangle of sand dunes . The area favoured defence ; sand dunes , stretching about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland , covered an area of 30 square miles ( 78 km2 ) , including , to the south of Romani , the northern route from El Arish . On the southern and south eastern edges , a series of dunes of shifting sand with narrow sloping lanes led to a tableland of deep soft sand .

The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division developed a strong defensive position at Romani which had its left flank on the Mediterranean Sea , here a series of redoubts were built running southwards from Mahamdiyah along the line of high sand hills about 7 miles ( 11 km ) to a dune known as Katib Gannit 100 feet ( 30 m ) high . This line of sand hills , which were high enough to see Katia oasis from , marked the eastern edge of an area of very soft and shifting sand beyond which were lower dunes and harder sand where movement by both infantry and mounted forces was considerably easier . Between the shore at the western end of the Bardawil Lagoon and Katib Gannit ( the principal tactical point on the eastern slopes of the Romani heights ) , the infantry constructed a line of 12 redoubts about 750 yards ( 690 m ) apart , with a second series of redoubts covering the Romani railway station and the right of the defensive position which curved like a hook westward , then northward . A total of 18 redoubts were constructed , which when fully garrisoned held from 40 to 170 rifles each , with Lewis guns and an average of two Vickers machine guns allotted to each position ; they were well wired on the right side of each of the positions , although there was no wire between the redoubts . This defensive line was supported by artillery .

The threat of an Ottoman attack towards the Suez Canal had been considered by Lawrence in consultation with his divisional commanders , and a second defensive area was developed to address their concerns . Their plans took into account the possibility of an Ottoman army at Katia moving to attack Romani or following the old caravan route to assault Hill 70 and Dueidar on their way to the Suez Canal . Any attempt to bypass Romani on the right flank would be open to attack from the garrison , which could send out infantry and mounted troops on the hard ground in the plain to the south @-@ west . The New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade was stationed at Hill 70 at the end of June and the 5th Light Horse Regiment at Dueidar to prevent such an Ottoman force from reaching the Suez Canal .

= = = Light Horse patrols before the battle = = =

Active patrolling by mounted troops continued throughout the period leading up to the battle , but by early July , there were no indications of any imminent resumption of hostilities . The nearest Ottoman garrison of 2 @,@ 000 men was at Bir el Mazar 42 miles ( 68 km ) east of Romani , and on 9 July , a patrol found Bir Salmana unoccupied . However , greatly increased aerial activity over the Romani area began about 17 July , when faster and better @-@ climbing German aircraft quickly established superiority over British aircraft . But they could not stop British aircraft from continuing to reconnoitre the country to the east , and on 19 July , a British aircraft , with Brigadier General E. W. C. Chaytor ( commander of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ) acting as observer , discovered an Ottoman force of about 2 @,@ 500 at Bir Bayud . A slightly smaller force was detected at Gameil and another similar sized force was found at Bir el Abd with about 6 @,@ 000 camels seen at the camps or moving between Bir el Abd and Bir Salmana . The next morning , 3 @,@ 000 men were found to be entrenched at Mageibra , with an advance depot for supplies and stores at Bir el Abd . A small force was spotted as far forward as the oasis of Oghratina , which by the next day , 21 July , had grown to 2 @,@ 000 men .

On 20 July , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade with two guns mounted on ped @-@ rails of the Ayrshire Battery demonstrated against Oghratina , capturing several prisoners , and beginning a series of patrols which , together with the 1st Light Horse Brigade , they continued until the eve of battle . Every day until 3 August , these two brigades alternated riding out from their base at Romani towards Katia at about 02 : 00 and bivouacking until dawn , at which time they advanced on a wide front until German or Ottoman fire was provoked . If the enemy position was weak , the light horse pushed forward , and if a counterattack began , the brigade retired slowly , thereafter to return to camp at Romani at nightfall . The following day , the other brigade carried out similar manoeuvres in the direction of Katia and the advancing Ottoman columns , picking up the officers patrols which had been left out during the night to monitor enemy movements . During this period , one of many clashes occurred on 28 July at Hod Um Ugba , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the British line . Two squadrons of the Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel W. Meldrum , made a bayonet assault , supported by several machine guns and two 18 @-@ pounder guns . They drove the Ottomans from the Hod , leaving 16 dead and taking eight prisoners from the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment .

The tactic of continuous forward patrolling was so successful that the advancing force 's every move was known to the defenders , but the light horsemen were substantially outnumbered and could not stop the advance . By daylight on 3 August , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force had occupied Katia and were within striking distance of Romani , Dueidar , Hill 70 and the Suez Canal . Their line ran north @-@ east and south @-@ west from the Bardawil Lagoon to east of Katia , with their left flank thrown well forward .

= = = Plans = = =

The German and Ottoman objective was not to cross the canal , but to capture Romani and establish a strongly entrenched heavy artillery position opposite Kantara , from which to bombard shipping on the canal . Kress von Kressenstein 's plan for the attack on Romani was to bombard the line of defensive redoubts with heavy artillery and employ only weak infantry detachments against them , while his main force launched attacks against the right and rear of the Romani position .

The defenders expected the German and Ottoman attack to be one of containment against their prepared line of defence , and an all @-@ out attack on the right south of Katib Gannit . They also appreciated that such an attack would expose the German and Ottoman left flank . Murray 's plan was to firstly delay the attackers and make it very difficult for them to gain ground south of Katib Gannit , and secondly , only when the German and Ottoman force was totally committed , to then disorganise their flank attack with an attack by Section Troops at Hill 70 and Dueidar , with the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column operating more widely against the flank and rear .

Chauvel had selected a position for the defence of Romani , which stretched for 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) between Katib Gannit and Hod el Enna , with a second fall @-@ back position covering a series of parallel gullies running south @-@ east and north @-@ west giving access to the area of soft sand to the rear of the Romani defences . No visible works were constructed , but together with Chauvel , the commanders of the two light horse brigades , whose task it would be to hold the attackers on this ground until the flank attack could begin , studied the area closely .

= = Battle on 4 August = =

Just before midnight on 3 / 4 August , three columns of the German Pasha I and the 4th Ottoman Army , consisting of about 8 @,@ 000 men , began their attack on an outpost line held by the 1st Light Horse Brigade three and a half hours after the return of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade from their regular daytime patrol . In addition to the usual officers patrols left out overnight to monitor the enemy 's positions , Chauvel decided to leave out for the night the whole of the 1st Light Horse Brigade to hold an outpost line of about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , covering all entrances to the sandhill plateau which formed the Romani position and which were not protected by infantry posts . A shot or two fired out in the desert to the south @-@ east of their position put the long piquet line of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) on alert about midnight , when the 3rd Light Horse Regiment ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) was called up to the front line . The Austrian , German and Ottoman advance paused after finding the gullies held by the light horsemen , but at about 01 : 00 , a sudden heavy burst of fire along the whole front began the attack of the considerably superior Ottoman and German forces , and by 02 : 00 they had in many places advanced to within 50 yards ( 46 m ) of the Australian line .

The Ottoman centre and left columns were skilfully led round the open flank of the infantry 's entrenchments and on towards the camp and railway . After the moon had set at around 02 : 30 , the Germans and Ottomans made a bayonet charge on Mount Meredith . Although vastly outnumbered , the light horsemen fought an effective delaying action at close quarters , but were forced to relinquish ground slowly and to ultimately evacuate the position by 03 : 00 . Without the benefit of moon light , the light horsemen had fired at the flashes of the enemy 's rifles until they were close enough to use bayonets . The 1st Light Horse Brigade was eventually forced back ; withdrawing slowly , troop covering troop with steady accurate fire , staving off a general attack with the bayonet to their fall @-@ back position ; a large east / west sand dune called Wellington Ridge at the southern edge of the Romani encampment . During the retirement to Wellington Ridge , the covering squadrons on the left near Katib Gannit were also attacked , as was the squadron on the right , which was taken in the flank and suffered considerable loss , but managed to hold its ground until the position in its rear was occupied . By 03 : 30 , all light horsemen south of Mount Meredith had been forced back to their led horses and had succeeded in disengaging and falling back to their second position . Soon after , an Ottoman machine gun was shooting down on the light horse from Mount Meredith .

Chauvel had relied on the steadiness of the 1st Light Horse Brigade , which he had commanded during the Gallipoli campaign , to hold the line against greatly superior numbers for four hours until dawn , when the general situation could be assessed . Daylight revealed the weakness of the light horse defenders in their second position on Wellington Ridge and that their right was outflanked by strong German and Ottoman forces . At 04 : 30 , the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , commanded by Colonel J. R. Royston , was ordered up by Chauvel from Etmaler and went into action in front of Mount Royston to support and prolong the 1st Light Horse Brigade 's right flank by moving up the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments into the front line . German , Austrian or Ottoman artillery now opened fire on the infantry defences and camps in the rear ; shrapnel inflicted some losses , but the high explosive shells were smothered by the soft sand . The attackers succeeded in forcing the light horse off Wellington Ridge , which placed them within 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of the Romani camp . However , they were unable to press further , as they now became exposed to machine gun and rifle fire from the entrenched infantry of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , and shelling from the horse artillery supporting the light horsemen 's determined defence .

Having been held south of Romani , the German and Ottoman force attempted a further outflanking manoeuvre to the west , concentrating 2 @,@ 000 troops around Mount Royston another sand dune , south @-@ west of Romani . At 05 : 15 , the Ottoman 31st Infantry Regiment pushed forward ; then the 32nd and the 39th Infantry Regiments swung around the left and into the British rear . This outflanking movement was steadily progressing along the slopes of Mount Royston and turning the right of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , whose third regiment , the Wellington Mounted Rifles , was now also committed to the front line .

The two brigades of light horse continued to gradually withdraw , pivoting on the extreme right of the infantry position , which covered the left flank and rear of Romani . They were pushed back between Wellington Ridge and Mount Royston , about 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) west of the former ; the attackers continually forcing back their right flank . Between 05 : 00 and 06 : 00 , they were compelled to also retire slowly from this ridge , although the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiment ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) still held the western edge . At 06 : 15 , Meredith was ordered to withdraw the 1st Light Horse Brigade behind the line occupied by the 7th Light Horse Regiment north of Etmaler camp . At 07 : 00 , the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments retired , squadron by squadron , from the remainder of Wellington Ridge . By about 08 : 00 , German , Austrian and Ottoman fire from the ridge top was directed into the camp only a few hundred yards away , but the Ayrshire and Leicester Batteries quickly stopped this artillery attack .

It became apparent that the German and Ottoman right column , ( 31st Infantry Regiment ) was attempting a frontal attack on redoubts held by infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . The defenders were able to hold on , but were subjected to severe artillery shelling during the day . Frontal attacks began with heavy German or Austrian fire by their artillery which attempted to breach the infantry defensive line . About 08 : 00 , attacks were being made on Numbers 4 and 5 redoubts which began with heavy artillery fire , but the attacks broke completely when the 31st Ottoman Infantry Regiment were within 150 yards ( 140 m ) of No. 4 redoubt ; subsequent attempts were less successful . At about 10 : 00 , Chauvel contacted Brigadier General E. S. Girdwood , commanding 156th Infantry Brigade , requesting his brigade temporarily relieve the light horse brigades until they had watered their horses in preparation for a mounted counterattack . Girdwood refused because his brigade was being held in reserve to support an intended attack eastward by infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division .

The light horse had gradually withdrawn back until , at about 11 : 00 , the main German and Ottoman attack was stopped by well directed fire from the Royal Horse Artillery batteries of the Anzac Mounted Division and by light horse rifle and machine gun fire , to which the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division contributed considerable firepower . The attackers appeared to have exhausted themselves , but they held their ground while Austrian and Ottoman artillery of various calibres , including 5 @.@ 9 " and 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , fired on the defenders and their camps , and German and Ottoman aircraft severely bombed the defenders . The three columns of the German , Austrian and Ottoman attacking force were brought to a standstill by the coordinated , concerted and determined defence of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division .

The Ottoman advance was at a standstill everywhere . After a long night 's march , the German and Ottoman troops faced a difficult day under the desert sun without being able to replenish their water and exposed to artillery fire from Romani . At this time , the attacking forces held a line running from the Bardawil ( on the Mediterranean coast ) southward along the front of the 52nd Infantry Division 's entrenchments and then westward through and including the very large sand dunes of Mount Meredith and Mount Royston . But from their position on Mount Royston , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force dominated the camp area of Romani and threatened the railway line .

= = = Reinforcements = = =

Chaytor , commander of the New Zealander Mounted Rifles Brigade , had been advised of the Austrian , German and Ottoman advance against Romani at 02 : 00 . By 05 : 35 , Lawrence at his headquarters of the Northern No. 3 Canal Defences Sector at Kantara , had been informed of the developing attack . He recognised that the main blow was falling on Romani and ordered the 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade at Hill 70 to move towards Mount Royston . They were led by a Composite Regiment , which moved off at once , the remainder of the brigade preparing to follow . At 07 : 25 , Lawrence ordered the New Zealand Mounted Rifle Brigade consisting of brigade headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment ( less the Auckland Mounted Rifles and the attached 5th Light Horse Regiments , 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) , to move towards Mount Royston via Dueidar and there , pick up the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment . The Yeomanry and New Zealand brigades had both been stationed at Hill 70 , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Romani , when their orders to move were received . The New Zealanders were to " operate vigorously so as to cut off the enemy , who appears to have got round the right of the Anzac Mounted Division . "

Meanwhile , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Ballybunion was directed to move forward to Hill 70 and send one regiment to Dueidar , while the Mobile Column was ordered by GHQ to march towards Mageibra .

= = = Mount Royston counterattack = = =

The German , Austrian and Ottoman attack on Mount Royston was checked to the north by the 3rd and 6th Light Horse Regiments ( 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades ) , and under constant bombardment from the horse artillery and the infantry 's heavy artillery of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division . At 10 : 00 , the front held by the two light horse brigades faced south from a point 700 yards ( 640 m ) northwest of No. 22 Redoubt north of Wellington Ridge to the sand hills north of Mount Royston . As the line had fallen back , the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Regiments ( 1st Light Horse Brigade ) had come in between the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) ; from right to left , the line was now held by the 6th , 3rd , 2nd and 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments , while 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north north @-@ west of Mount Royston , " D " Squadron of the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars ( a regiment in the 5th Mounted Brigade ) held its ground .

The plan called for the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , the 5th Mounted and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades to swing round the attackers ' left flank and envelop them . The first reinforcements to arrive were the Composite Regiment of the 5th Mounted Brigade ; they came up on the flank of their mounted regiment ; the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars ' " D " Squadron 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) west of Mount Royston , which was being attacked by a strong body of Ottoman soldiers . The regiment attacked the Ottomans in enfilade and forced them back .

When the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's headquarters and the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiments were within 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Dueidar on the old caravan road , they were ordered to move directly to Canterbury Hill , the last defensible position in front of the railway , east of Pelusium Station , as the strong German and Ottoman attack was threatening to take the railway and Romani . The Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment arrived with its brigade between 11 : 00 and 11 : 30 to find the Composite Yeomanry Regiment ( 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigade ) in contact with the German and Ottoman forces on the south @-@ west side of Mount Royston .

The 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades first made contact with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade by heliograph , after which Royston , commanding the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , galloped across to explain the situation . Chaytor then moved the Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiments , supported by the Somerset Battery , onto high ground between the right of the light horse and the Yeomanry , which was shortly afterwards joined by the remainder of the 5th Mounted Brigade under the command of Brigadier General Wiggin . At the most critical period of the day 's fighting , when the German and Ottoman force of 2 @,@ 000 dominated the Romani area from Mount Royston , the five mounted brigades ( still less the 5th Light Horse Regiment ) began their counterattack at 14 : 00 from the west towards Mount Royston .

The New Zealand riflemen soon gained a footing on Mount Royston , aided by accurate and rapid shooting from the Somerset Royal Horse Artillery Battery . By 16 : 00 , the attack had proceeded to a point where Chaytor arranged with the 5th Mounted Brigade for a squadron of Royal Gloucestershire Hussars and two troops of the Worcestershire Yeomanry to gallop against the southern spur of Mount Royston . They easily took the spur , the defenders not waiting for the onslaught of the mounted charge . From the crest of the spur , the Gloucestershire squadron shot down the horse teams of an Austrian , German or Ottoman battery of pack guns concentrated in the hollow behind the spur , and the attacking force began to surrender . The New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades were supported by leading infantry battalions of the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( which had just arrived ) when Ottoman and German soldiers began to surrender en masse . At about 18 : 00 , 500 prisoners , two machine guns and the pack battery were captured , and the outer flank of the attacking force was completely routed .

Meanwhile , the inner flank of the German and Ottoman force on Wellington Ridge made a last effort to advance across the ridge , but was driven back by artillery fire . Fresh frontal attacks launched against the main British infantry system of redoubts broke down completely . At 17 : 05 , Major General Smith ordered infantry in the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade to attack the enemy force on Wellington Ridge on the left of the light horse and in coordination with the counterattack on Mount Royston . An artillery bombardment of Wellington Ridge began at 18 : 45 . Just before 19 : 00 , infantry in the 7th and 8th Cameronians ( Scottish Rifles ) moved south from behind No. 23 Redoubt ; the 8th Scottish Rifles advancing to within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the crest of Wellington Ridge , before being stopped by heavy rifle fire .

When darkness put an end to the fighting , the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades established an outpost line and spent the night on the battlefield , while the New Zealand Mounted Rifles and 5th Mounted Brigades withdrew for water and rations at Pelusium Station , where the newly arrived infantry brigades of the 42nd Division were assembling . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade halted at Hill 70 , while the Mobile Force had reached the Hod el Bada , 14 miles ( 23 km ) south of Romani station . At 19 : 30 , when the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Brigades moved from the positions they had won to water and rest at Pelusium , the area was consolidated by infantry in the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade , 42nd Division . Brigadier General Girdwood ordered infantry in the 7th and 8th Scottish Rifles Battalions to hold their ground on Wellington Ridge until daylight , but to keep close contact with the enemy during the night in the hope of capturing large numbers of tired and disorganised soldiers in the morning . Approximately 1 @,@ 200 unwounded prisoners were captured during the day and sent to the Pelusium railway station .

= = Battle on 5 August = =

Within 24 hours , British commanders were able to concentrate a force of 50 @,@ 000 men in the Romani area , a three to one advantage . This force included the two infantry divisions – the 52nd and the newly arrived 42nd – four mounted brigades , two of which had been on active duty since 20 July , and two heavily engaged on the front line the day before , and may have included the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , although it was still at Hill 70 , and the Mobile Column at Hod el Bada . At this time , command of the 5th Mounted Brigade passed from the Anzac Mounted Division to the infantry division ; the 42nd Division , it being suggested that orders required the Anzac Mounted Division to remain in position , and that the 3rd Light Horse Brigade alone was to make a flank attack .

However , Lawrence 's orders for a general advance on 5 August beginning at 04 : 00 included an advance by the Anzac Mounted Division . His orders read :

Anzac Mounted Division to press forward with its right on the Hod el Enna and its left in close touch with the infantry from the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , advancing on the line Katib Gannit to Mount Meredith .

3rd Light Horse Brigade to move towards Bir el Nuss and attack Hod el Enna from the south keeping in close touch with the Anzac Mounted Division .

5th Mounted Brigade , under orders of 42nd Infantry Division to assist the 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's link with the Anzac Mounted Division 's right .

42nd Division to move on the line Canterbury Hill – Mount Royston – Hod el Enna and drive back any opposition to the advance of the mounted troops in close support of Anzac Mounted Division 's right flank .

52nd ( Lowland ) Division to move in close support of Anzac Mounted Division 's left flank towards Mount Meredith and to prepare for a general advance towards Abu Hamra which was not to be undertaken until further orders from Lawrence at No. 3 Section Headquarters .

Meanwhile , the German , Austrian and Ottoman force was now spread from Hill 110 almost to Bir en Nuss , but with their left flank unprotected . They could not have been in good shape after fighting all the previous day in intense midsummer heat and having to remain in position overnight , far from water and harassed by British infantry . Their situation was now precarious , as their main attacking force was well past the right of the main British infantry positions ; infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was closer to the nearest enemy @-@ controlled water source at Katia than most of the attacking force . Had the British infantry left their trenches promptly and attacked in a south easterly direction , von Kressenstein 's force would have had great difficulty escaping .

= = = British capture Wellington Ridge = = =

At daybreak , infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles , 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division ) advanced with the 7th Light Horse and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade ) , covered by infantry in the 7th Scottish Rifles , 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division on the left , who had brought 16 machine guns and Lewis guns into a position from which they could sweep the crest and reverse slopes of Wellington Ridge . The Wellington Mounted Rifle Regiment , with the 7th Light Horse Regiment and supported on the left by Scottish Rifles ' infantry posts , fixed bayonets and stormed Wellington Ridge . They encountered heavy rifle and machine gun fire , but rushed up the sandy slope and quickly broke through the German and Ottoman front line . After clearing Wellington Ridge , the mounted riflemen , light horsemen and infantrymen pressed forward from ridge to ridge without pause . These troops swept down on a body of about 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 Ottoman soldiers , who became demoralised . As a result of this attack , a white flag was hoisted and by 05 : 00 the German and Ottoman soldiers who had stubbornly defended their positions on Wellington Ridge , dominating the camps at Romani , were captured . A total of 1 @,@ 500 became prisoners in the neighbourhood of Wellington Ridge ; 864 soldiers surrendered to infantry in the 8th Scottish Rifles alone , while others were captured by the light horse and mounted rifles regiments . By 05 : 30 , the main German and Ottoman force was in a disorganised retreat towards Katia , with the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades and the Ayrshire and Leicestershire batteries not far behind . At 06 : 00 , a further 119 men surrendered to the infantry in No. 3 Redoubt ; while these prisoners were being dealt with , it became apparent that they were part of a rearguard and that a full retreat was under way . At 06 : 30 , Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all troops and to initiate a vigorous general advance eastwards .

= = = British advance on Ottoman rearguard at Katia = = =

Infantry from the 42nd Division had arrived during the battle the day before by train from Hill 70 , Hill 40 and Gilban Station , and along with infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , was ordered to move out in support of the mounted Australian , New Zealand and British Yeomanry brigades . The 42nd Division was ordered to advance to Hod el Enna ; their 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade marched out at 07 : 30 and reached Hod el Enna between 09 : 30 and 10 : 00 , while their 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade arrived at 11 : 15 . They were supported by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps , which worked with the Army Service Corps to supply them with drinking water . In much distress in the scorching midsummer sands , infantry in the 42nd Division marched very slowly and far in the rear . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division also experienced difficulties ; although Lawrence ordered the division to move at 06 : 37 , the men did not leave their trenches until nearly midday , reaching their objective of Abu Hamra late in the evening . As a result , Kress von Kressenstein was able to extricate most of his troops and heavy guns from the immediate battle area during the day . Although it has been stated that " British reserves hammered " the Germans and Ottomans to a halt on 5 August , it appears one of the infantry divisions was reluctant to leave their defences ; neither infantry division were trained in desert warfare and found the sand dunes extremely difficult to negotiate . They could not match the pace and endurance of the well @-@ trained German and Ottoman force and were hampered by water supply problems .

At 06 : 30 , when Lawrence ordered Chauvel to take command of all mounted troops ( excluding the Mobile Column ) , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles , the 5th Mounted and the 3rd Light Horse Brigades were somewhat scattered . By 08 : 30 , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had reached Bir en Nuss ; there they found the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which had been ordered to move first on Hamisah and then left towards Katia to cooperate in a general attack . The advance guard moved to fulfill these orders at 09 : 00 . At 10 : 30 , the general mounted advance began and by midday , was on a line from west of Bir Nagid to south of Katib Gannit ; in the centre the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were approaching the south @-@ west edge of the Katia oasis ; on their left the 1st , the 2nd Light Horse , the 5th Mounted Brigades and infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division were attacking Abu Hamra , to the north of the old caravan road , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was away to the New Zealander 's right , south of the old caravan road , attacking German and Ottoman units at Bir el Hamisah .

Between 12 : 00 and 13 : 00 , the commanders of the New Zealand Mounted Rifle , 1st and 2nd Light Horse and 5th Mounted Brigades reconnoitred the German , Austrian and Ottoman rearguard position 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Katia . It was decided that the three light horse brigades would advance mounted with the Yeomanry to attack the German and Ottoman right flank . The rearguard force made a very determined stand on a well @-@ prepared line , stretching from Bir El Hamisah to Katia and on to Abu Hamra . Their artillery and machine guns were well placed in the palms fringing the eastern side of a great flat marsh , which stretched right across the front of their position , giving them an excellent field of fire .

A general mounted attack commenced at 14 : 30 . By 15 : 30 , the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were advancing at the gallop on Katia . When they had reached the edge of the white gypsum , the light horse and mounted rifle brigades formed a line , fixed bayonets , and charged over the exposed country . They galloped in a long line of charging horses , through shell fire and bullets , holding fixed bayonets . On the far left , the intensity of fire from the rearguard , made it necessary for the 5th Mounted Brigade of sword carrying Yeomanry , to send back their horses and advance dismounted . While all the brigades which charged , were eventually forced to attack dismounted also , when the ground became too swampy . They were met by well @-@ directed , heavy German , Austrian and Ottoman artillery fire , which completely outgunned the supporting Ayrshire and Somerset Batteries ; by sunset , the advance of the British Empire mounted brigades had been stopped . The 9th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) on the extreme right was held up by a determined German and Ottoman rearguard and was unable to work round the right flank of that position . But after galloping to within a few hundred yards of the rearguard 's line , they made a dismounted bayonet attack under cover of machine gun fire and the Inverness Battery . As a result , the German and Ottoman force abandoned their position , leaving 425 men and seven machine guns to be captured . But , instead of holding their ground , they drew off , and this withdrawal led to a strong German and Ottoman counterattack falling on the Canterbury Mounted Rifle Regiment .

Darkness finally put an end to the battle . During the night , the Germans , Austrians and Ottomans withdrew back to Oghrantina , while the Anzac Mounted Division watered at Romani , leaving a troop of the Auckland Mounted Rifle Regiment as a listening post on the battlefield .

The two @-@ day battle for Romani and the Suez Canal had been won by the British infantry and Australian , British and New Zealand mounted troops . They captured approximately 4 @,@ 000 German and Ottoman combatants and killed more than 1 @,@ 200 , but the main enemy force was able to escape with all their artillery , except for one captured battery , and retreat back to Oghratina after fighting a successful rearguard action at Katia .

Having borne the burden of the long days of patrolling , reconnaissance and minor engagements with the advancing Austrian , German and Ottoman columns prior to the battle , the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades had alone withstood the attack from midnight on 3 / 4 August until dawn on 4 August , as well as continuing to fight during the long days of battle . By the end of 5 August , they were completely exhausted ; their depleted ranks stumbled back to their bivouac lines at Romani and Etmaler where they were ordered one day 's rest .

= = Pursuit begins = =

Von Kressenstein had prepared successive lines of defence during his advance towards Romani , and despite losing one artillery battery and more than one third of his soldiers , fought a series of effective rearguard actions which slowed the pursuit by British Empire mounted troops and enabled his force to retreat back to El Arish .

During the night of 5 / 6 August , infantry in the 155th ( South Scottish ) Brigade and 157th ( Highland Light Infantry ) Brigade were at Abu Hamra , the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) at Hod el Enna , the 125th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade ( 42nd Division ) on its left in touch with the 156th ( Scottish Rifles ) Brigade , ( 52nd Division ) which had its left on Redoubt No. 21 . The next morning , infantry in the 42nd Division was ordered to advance eastwards at 04 : 00 and occupy a line from Bir el Mamluk to Bir Katia , while the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was to advance from Abu Hamra and prolong the infantry line of the 42nd Division to the north @-@ east . Although they carried out their orders during their two @-@ day march from Pelusium Station to Katia , infantry in the 127th ( Manchester ) Brigade lost 800 men , victims to thirst and the sun ; other infantry brigades suffered similarly . It became clear that the infantry could not go on , and they ceased to be employed in the advance . Indeed , it was necessary for the Bikanir Camel Corps and Yeomanry detachments , as well as the medical services , to search the desert for those who had been left behind .

The Mobile Column in the south , consisting of the Imperial Camel Brigade , the 11th Light Horse , and the mounted City of London Yeomanry Regiments ( less two squadrons ) , advanced from Ferdan and the Ballah railhead to attack the German and Ottoman left flank , working through Bir El Mageibra , Bir El Aweidia and Hod El Bayud . They found Mageibra evacuated on 5 August . After camping there for the night , they fought strong hostile forces between Bayud and Mageibra the following day , but could make no impression . Some days later , on 8 August , the Mobile Column did succeed in getting round the Ottoman flank , but was too weak to have any effect and retired to Bir Bayud .

= = = Advance towards Oghratina – 6 August = = =

During the previous night , the German and Ottoman force evacuated Katia and was moving towards Oghratina when Chauvel ordered the Anzac Mounted Division to continue the attack . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades and the 5th Mounted Brigade were ordered to capture Oghratina . Despite attempts by these two brigades to turn the enemy flank , they were forced to make a frontal attack on strongly entrenched rearguards in positions which favoured the defenders and which were supported by carefully positioned artillery . Meanwhile , the two infantry divisions moved to garrison Katia and Abu Hamra and Lawrence moved his headquarters forward from Kantara to Romani . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the right advanced towards Badieh , but could only make small progress , against positions securely held by German and Ottoman forces .

The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade had moved out at dawn , followed by the 5th Mounted Brigade without ambulance support , as the New Zealand Field Ambulance had not returned from Romani and the 5th Mounted Field Ambulance had not yet arrived . Fortunately , casualties were light , and both ambulances arrived in the evening . The 3rd Light Horse Field Ambulance , had formed a dressing station at Bir Nagid to the south of Romani , treating wounded from 3rd Light Horse Brigade 's engagement at Bir el Hamisah , a convoy brought in wounded Ottomans from a hod to the south of Romani , and 150 cases of heat exhaustion from infantry in the 42nd Division were treated during the day .

We are still pursuing but it has been perforce slow as the horses are done and the enemy , when advancing , entrenched himself at various points … which has enabled him to fight a most masterly rearguard action … As I am moving on , I must close

= = = Oghratina entered on 7 August = = =

The same three brigades – one mounted rifle , one light horse and one Yeomanry , with the 10th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) supporting the Yeomanry – moved to attack the German and Ottoman position at Oghratina , but the rearguard position was again found to be too strong . Lacking the support of infantry or heavy artillery , the mounted force was too small to capture this strong rearguard position , but the threat from the mounted advance was enough to force the hostile force to evacuate the position . During the night , the German and Ottoman forces retreated back to Bir el Abd , where they had been three weeks before , on 20 July , when they established a base with a depot for supplies and stores .

On 7 August the Greater Bairam ( a feast day celebrating the end of the Islamic year ) coincided with the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps at Romani being ordered to move out with supplies for the advancing troops , but 150 men , most of whom were past the end of their contracts and entitled to be discharged , refused orders to fill their water bottles , draw their rations and saddle up . One man was hit about the head with the butt of a pistol and the dissenters were dispersed into small groups and reassigned to various units in the infantry division ; the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division .

= = = Debabis occupied on 8 August = = =

The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade reached Debabis on 8 August . As the 3rd Light Horse Brigade came up , they passed many dead Ottomans and Yeomanry ; one dead Ottoman sniper had a heap of hundreds of rounds of empty cartridge shells beside him . Meanwhile , the Bikanir Camel Corps and a squadron of aircraft continued searching the desert sands for missing men .

= = Action of Bir el Abd – 9 to 12 August = =

Chauvel planned , with Lawrence 's approval , to capture the Ottoman rearguard at their forward base of Bir El Abd , 20 miles ( 32 km ) to the east of Romani . The position was strongly held by greatly superior numbers of Germans , Austrians and Ottomans , supported by well @-@ placed artillery , but the garrison was seen burning stores and evacuating camps .

Chauvel deployed the Anzac Mounted Division for the advance , with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade in the centre following the telegraph line . On their right , with a gap of 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , was the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which was in touch with a small flying column ; the Mobile Column of the City of London Yeomanry , 11th Light Horse Regiments and the Imperial Camel Brigade , which was to again attempt to get round the German and Ottoman left flank and cut off their retreat . The advance of the 3rd Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Brigades from Oghratina to Bir el Abd was to begin at daylight on 9 August , with the 5th Mounted Brigade forming the reserve . On the left of the New Zealanders , Royston 's Column ; a composite of the depleted 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades , had gone to Katia to water and had then march through the night to the Hod Hamada 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of Bir el Abd , where they arrived at 03 : 00 on 9 August . They were to bivouaced for one and a half hours before advancing to a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north @-@ east of Bir el Abd , to cooperate with the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's attack on the rearguard position at 06 : 30 . Since the attack , supported by only four horse artillery batteries , was on a prepared position held in superior strength , strong in machine guns , and covered by double the number of guns , including heavy howitzers , it was something of a gamble . The attacking force 's only advantage was its mobility .

= = = Attack on 9 August = = =

The 3rd Light Horse Brigade set out to find and turn the German and Ottoman left , while at 04 : 00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade headed directly towards Bir el Abd along the old caravan route . By 05 : 00 , they had driven in enemy outposts and reached high ground overlooking Bir el Abd . Royston 's Column moved off at 05 : 00 with the intention of enveloping the Ottoman right , while the New Zealanders attacked in the centre ; the four brigades covering a front of 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) .

The forward troops of the German and Ottoman rearguard , which held a front of about 10 miles ( 16 km ) , were driven back to Bir el Abd by the New Zealanders . At this time , the attackers appeared likely to succeed , as they had firmly established themselves across the telegraph line and the old caravan road , supported by the Somerset and Leicester batteries . But the German , Austrian and Ottoman rearguard quickly realised how thin the attacking line was , and at 09 : 00 advanced out of their trenches to counterattack . This aggressive move was only checked by artillery fire from the Somerset Battery effectively combined with fire from machine guns . The subsequent fire fight made it extremely difficult for the mounted riflemen to maintain their position , and on the flanks the light horse were also held up . The German and Ottoman infantry renewed their attack towards a gap between the New Zealanders and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , but the 5th Light Horse Regiment covered the gap , and the German and Ottoman advance was halted .

Chauvel ordered the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which had been unable to turn the German and Ottoman flank , to move towards the New Zealanders who renewed their efforts , but they only succeeded in exposing their flanks , as the Australians were unable to conform to their forward movement . By 10 : 30 , all progress had stopped . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade continued to hold on in the centre , while both flanks were bent back by pressure from the strong German and Ottoman force . The result was that the New Zealanders ended up holding a very exposed salient line on the forward slopes of the hills overlooking the Hod . Fresh German or Ottoman reinforcements from El Arish , then launched a fierce counterattack on a front of about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , on the centre . This fell on the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and a squadron of Warwickshire Yeomanry of the 5th Mounted Brigade under Chaytor 's command . The New Zealanders were supported by machine guns ; one section , attached to the Canterbury Mounted Rifles Regiment , fired all their guns directly on the advancing soldiers , stopping them when they were within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the New Zealand position .

By midday , the advance had been completely held up by determined counterattacks supported by fresh German or Ottoman troops from El Arish . Even more than at Katia on 5 August , these soldiers were more numerous , ready , full of fight and more strongly supported by well @-@ placed Austrian and Ottoman guns delivering both heavy and accurate fire . At this time , the rearguard launched another heavy counterattack with two columns of 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 German and Ottoman soldiers against the Canterbury and Auckland Regiments and the squadron of the Warwickshire Yeomanry . By 14 : 00 , the attack had extended to the mounted force 's left flank where the Ayrshire Battery with Royston 's Column was badly cut up by this fire , losing 39 horses killed and making it extremely difficulty to move the guns . They were forced to retire nearly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , after advancing well up on the right flank , was also forced to give ground by the accuracy of enemy shellfire .

A further withdrawal by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade made the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade 's position critical and at 17 : 30 , Chauvel gave orders for a general retirement . Disengagement proved to be a challenge ; it was only the tenacity of the New Zealanders and nightfall which saved them from certain capture . At the last , the Machine Gun Squadron had all its guns in line , some of them firing at a range of 100 yards ( 91 m ) ; they were supported by squadrons of the 5th Mounted Brigade , which together , successfully covered the New Zealanders ' withdrawal .

After this day of fierce fighting , which has been described as the hardest @-@ fought action of the whole Sinai campaign , the Anzac Mounted Division 's advance was effectively stopped . Chauvel ordered the division to return to water at Oghratina , despite Lawrence 's wish for them to bivouac close to Bir el Abd but Chauvel concluded that his force was in no condition to remain within reach of this strong and aggressive enemy force . Further , the Anzac Mounted Division had lost a significant proportion of their strength ; over 300 casualties , including eight officers and 65 other ranks killed .

= = = Planned attack for 12 August = = =

At daylight on 10 August , strong patrols went forward and remained in touch with the force at Bir el Abd throughout the day , but without fresh troops , an attack in force could not be made .

No serious fighting took place on 11 August , but von Kressenstein 's force at Bir el Abd was watched and harassed , and plans were made for an attack on 12 August . The advance of the Anzac Mounted Division began at daylight , but soon afterwards , forward patrols reported that the garrison at Bir el Abd was retiring . The mounted force followed the Austrians , Germans and Ottomans as far as Salmana , where another rearguard action delayed the mounted force , as the enemy withdrawal continued back to El Arish .

The Anzac Mounted Division 's lines of communication were now fully extended , and the difficulties of supplying the mounted troops from Romani made it impossible for the British Empire mounted force to consider any further advance at that time . Arrangements were made to hold and garrison the country decisively won by this series of indecisive engagements , from Katia eastwards to Bir El Abd .

Von Kressenstein succeeded in withdrawing his battered force from a potentially fatal situation ; both his advance to Romani and the withdrawal were remarkable achievements of planning , leadership , staff work and endurance .

= = = Casualties = = =

According to the Australian official medical history , the total British Empire casualties were :

Other sources put the total killed at 202 , with all casualties at 1 @,@ 130 , of whom 900 were from the Anzac Mounted Division .

Ottoman Army casualties have been estimated to have been 9 @,@ 000 ; 1 @,@ 250 were buried after the battle and 4 @,@ 000 were taken prisoner .

Casualties were cared for by medical officers , stretcher bearers , camel drivers and sand @-@ cart drivers who worked tirelessly , often in the firing line , covering enormous distances in difficult conditions and doing all they could to relieve the suffering of the wounded . The casualties were transported on cacolets on camels or in sand @-@ carts back to the field ambulances , as the heavy sand made it impossible to use motor- or horse @-@ drawn ambulances . Between 4 and 9 August , the Anzac Mounted Division 's five field ambulances brought in 1 @,@ 314 patients , including 180 enemy wounded .

The evacuation by train from Romani was carried out in a manner which caused much suffering and shock to the wounded . It was not effected till the night of August 6 – the transport of prisoners of war being given precedence over that of the wounded – and only open trucks without straw were available . The military exigencies necessitated shunting and much delay , so that five hours were occupied on the journey of twenty @-@ five miles . It seemed a cruel shame to shunt a train full of wounded in open trucks , but it had to be done . Every bump in our springless train was extremely painful .

In the absence of orders coordinating evacuation from the field ambulances , the Assistant Director of Medical Services ( ADMS ) made their own arrangements . The ADMS , Anzac Mounted Division arranged with his counterparts in the two infantry divisions to set up a clearing station at the railhead 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) beyond Romani . This station was formed from medical units of the Anzac Mounted , the 42nd and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Divisions . With no orders from No. 3 Section Headquarters as to the method of evacuation of casualties of the three divisions , prisoners of war were transported back to Kantara by train before the wounded , generating amongst all ranks a feeling of resentment and distrust towards the higher command which lasted for a long time .

= = Aftermath = =

The Battle of Romani was the first large @-@ scale mounted and infantry victory by the British Empire in the First World War . It occurred at a time when the Allied nations had experienced nothing but defeat , in France , at Salonika and at the capitulation of Kut in Mesopotamia . The battle has been widely acknowledged as a strategic victory and a turning point in the campaign to restore Egypt 's territorial integrity and security , and marked the end of the land campaign against the Suez Canal .

Romani was the first decisive victory attained by British Land Forces and changed the whole face of the campaign in that theatre , wresting as it did from the enemy , the initiative which he never again obtained . It also made the clearing of his troops from Egyptian territory a feasible proposition .

This series of successful British infantry and mounted operations resulted in the complete defeat of the 16 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 strong German , Austrian and Ottoman force , about half of whom were killed or wounded , and nearly 4 @,@ 000 taken prisoner . Also captured were a mountain gun battery of four heavy guns , nine machine guns , a complete camel @-@ pack machine gun company , 2 @,@ 300 rifles and a million rounds of ammunition , two complete field hospitals with all instruments , fittings and drugs , while a great quantity of stores in the supply depot at Bir el Abd was destroyed . All the captured arms and equipment were made in Germany , and the camel @-@ pack machine gun company 's equipment had been especially designed for desert warfare . Many of the rifles were of the latest pattern and made of rustless steel . Murray estimated the total German and Ottoman casualties at about 9 @,@ 000 , while a German estimate put the loss at one third of the force ( 5 @,@ 500 to 6 @,@ 000 ) , which seems low considering the number of prisoners .

The tactics employed by the Anzac Mounted Division were to prove effective throughout the coming campaigns in the Sinai and in the Levant ( also known at the time as Palestine ) . The key to the mounted rifles and light horse 's approach was to quickly move onto tactical ground and then to effectively operate as infantry once dismounted . In defence , the artillery and machine guns wrought havoc on enemy attacks , and during the mounted advance , they covered and supported the British Empire mounted force .

This battle was fought under extreme conditions in the Sinai desert in midsummer heat over many days , causing much suffering to man and beast and demanding tenacity and endurance on the part of all who took part .

The battle of Romani marked the end of the German and Ottoman campaign against the Suez Canal ; the offensive had passed decisively into the hands of the British Empire force led by the Anzac Mounted Division . After the battle , von Kressenstein 's force was pushed back across the Sinai Peninsula , to be beaten at the Battle of Magdhaba in December 1916 and back to the border of Ottoman Empire @-@ controlled Palestine to be defeated at the Battle of Rafa in January 1917 , which effectively secured the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula . This successful , seven @-@ month @-@ long British Empire campaign , begun at Romani in August , ended at the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917 .

= = = Some criticisms = = =

The Battle of Romani has , however , been surrounded with controversy and criticism . It has been suggested that , like the attack on the Suez Canal in 1915 , it was merely a raid to disrupt maritime traffic rather than a determined attempt to gain control of the canal . That the Ottoman Empire 's intention was to strongly occupy Romani and Kantara is supported by preparations in the southern territory of Palestine adjacent to , and extending into , the Sinai . These included extending the Palestine railway system to Wadi El Arish , with a good motor road beside the railway . Cisterns and other works were constructed along this route to store water and at Wadi El Arish , enormous rock cut reservoirs were under construction in December 1916 when the Anzac Mounted Division reached that place just before the Battle of Magdhaba .

Murray , Lawrence and Chauvel have all been criticised for letting von Kressenstein 's force escape . Further , it has been asserted that the tactics of the mounted troops actually helped the enemy withdrawal by concentrating on direct assaults rather than flank attacks . The official British historian acknowledges the disappointment caused by the successful retirement of the German , Austrian and Ottoman force but he also notes the quality of the successive rearguard positions constructed during the advance , and the strength , determination and endurance of the enemy . The strength of the rearguards was clearly demonstrated at Bir el Abd on 9 August , when the mounted force attempted to outflank the large entrenched force . They failed because they were greatly outnumbered . Indeed , if the Anzac Mounted Division had succeeded in getting round the flank without infantry support , they would have been faced with vastly superior forces and could have been annihilated .

It has been suggested that an opportunity was lost on 5 August to encircle and capture the invading Austrian , German and Ottoman force when it was allowed to withdraw to Katia . The infantry 's difficulties regarding the supply of water and camel transport combined with their lack of desert training , together with Lawrence 's confusing orders for infantry in the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division to move south and east , stopped them from promptly advancing to cut off the retreating force in the early hours of the second day 's battle . General Lawrence was criticised for taking a grave and unnecessary risk by relying on just one entrenched infantry division and two light horse brigades to defend Romani . That the strong enemy attack on the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades during the first night 's battle pushed them so far back that the planned flanking attack by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade became almost a frontal attack . Lawrence was also faulted for remaining at his headquarters at Kantara , which was considered to be too far from the battlefield , and that this contributed to his loss of control of the battle during the first day , when the telephone line was cut and he was out of contact with Romani . Lawrence was also criticised for not going forward to supervise the execution of his orders on 5 August , when there was a failure to coordinate the movements of the 3rd Light Horse Brigade and the Mobile Column .

Chauvel responded by pointing out that the criticisms of the battle were in danger of obscuring the significance of the victory .

= = = Awards = = =

Murray lavished praise on the Anzac Mounted Division in cables to the Governors General of Australia and New Zealand and in his official despatch and in letters to Robertson , writing :

Every day they show what an indispensable part of my forces they are ... I cannot speak too highly of the gallantry , steadfastness and untiring energy shown by this fine division throughout the operations ... These Anzac troops are the keystone of the defence of Egypt .

But he failed to ensure the fighting qualities of these soldiers earned them a proportionate share of recognition and honours . Further , despite claims that Chauvel alone had a clear view of the battle , that his coolness and skill were crucial in gaining the victory , his name was omitted from the long list of honours published on New Year 's Day 1917 . Murray did offer Chauvel a lesser award ( a Distinguished Service Order ) for Romani which he declined .

On reading Murray 's description in his official despatch covering the battle , and reprinted in a Paris edition of the ' Daily Mail ' , Chauvel wrote to his wife on 3 December 1916 @,@

I am afraid my men will be very angry when they see it . I cannot understand why the old man cannot do justice to those to whom he owed so much and the whole thing is so absolutely inconsistent with what he had already cabled .

It was not until after the victory at the Battle of Rafa that Chauvel was made a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George , but this particular order is awarded for important non @-@ military service in a foreign country . It was not just his military service at Romani which had not been recognised , but also the service of all those who fought in the Anzac Mounted Division at Romani , at El Arish , at Magdhaba and at Rafa . In September 1917 , not long after General Edmund Allenby became Commander in Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force , Chauvel wrote to GHQ to point out the injustice done to his front @-@ line troops , acknowledging that it was " difficult to do anything now to right this , but consider the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief should know that there is a great deal of bitterness over it . "

= The Litigators =

The Litigators is a 2011 legal thriller novel by John Grisham , his 25th fiction novel overall . The Litigators is about a two @-@ partner Chicago law firm attempting to strike it rich in a class action lawsuit over a cholesterol reduction drug by a major pharmaceutical drug company . The protagonist is a Harvard Law School grad big law firm burnout who stumbles upon the boutique and joins it only to find himself litigating against his old law firm in this case . The book is regarded as more humorous than most of Grisham 's prior novels .

The theme of a young lawyer being fed up with a giant law firm and bolting away to less lucrative but more satisfying career is shared with " The Associate " . The theme of a lawsuit against a giant corporation appeared in " The Runaway Jury " - but in the present book , the corporation is vindicated and proven to have been unjustly maligned ( at least on the specific drug which is the subject of the lawsuit ) and the mass tort lawyers are seen as greedy and unscrupulous , ultimately bolting and leaving the protagonist 's tiny Chicago firm in the lurch .

Critical reviews were mixed for the book , with several opinions noting a lack of suspense . Nonetheless , the book has achieved both hardcover and ebook # 1 best seller status on various lists , including both The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal . However , since some services do not separate fiction and non @-@ fiction books , it did not debut as a # 1 bestseller on certain lists , such as the USA Today . Some reviewers noted that this story would lend itself to an adapted screenplay .

= = Background = =

Having sold 250 million copies of his previous 24 novels in 29 languages , Grisham had produced an international bestseller with each prior book . Including the release of The Litigators , Grisham has produced 23 adult fiction novels and 2 children 's fiction novels as well as a short story collection . In addition , he has produced one non @-@ fiction book . Thus , various sources claim this to be his 23rd , 25th , or 26th book .

In the first of a two @-@ part interview with The Wall Street Journal , Grisham claimed that although he usually attempts to include humor in his submitted drafts , it is usually removed during the editorial process . However , in this case much of the humor survived editing . In the second part of the interview the following week , Grisham noted that his inspirations for the book included television advertisements and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill .

= = Publication = =

Leading book retailers such as Amazon.com , Barnes & Noble , and Walmart released the book in hardcover format in the United States as a Doubleday publication on October 25 , 2011 . In the United Kingdom , the book was published with different cover art by Hodder & Stoughton on the same date . Random House published the paperback version on June 26 , 2012 .

The book is also available as an audiobook , narrated by Scott Brick , and in ebook format . Other formats available on October 25 , included large @-@ print , compact disc and abridged compact disc . A limited edition will be available on November 22 , 2011 . An excerpt from the book was included in some editions including the iTunes Store edition of The Confession , which was his prior adult novel .

= = Plot = =

Oscar Finley and Wally Figg are the bickering partners of a small law firm in the South Side of Chicago . Oscar 's character holds the firm together despite the childish and unethical behavior of Wally , his junior partner . Their bickering is often mediated by Rochelle , the highly competent African American secretary , who had learned a lot of law in he eight years in the office . Meanwhile David Zinc , a graduate of the Harvard Law School , is completely fed up with the grinding and dehumanizing - though well @-@ paid - life of an Associate in the giant law firm of Rogan Rothberg , where in five years of work he had never seen the inside of a courtroom . He suddenly breaks away , goes on a drinking binge and by chance finds himself at the Finley & Figg office . Feeling an elevating sense of freedom and vowing never to go back , Zink willingly relegates himself to working for the two disreputable street lawyers and ambulance chasers .

While Wally goes to a funeral home to attend the wake of a former estate client , the client 's son claims that his father was killed by Krayoxx , a cholesterol @-@ lowering drug developed by the fictional pharmaceutical company Varrick Labs . Ecstatic at the possible monetary returns on the case , the firm finds several former clients who appear to have valid claims about Krayoxx . Oscar and Wally generate publicity in the Chicago Tribune with a picture of their filing ; this induces an avalanche of communications and leads them to several additional claimants .

Wally notices a blossoming class action lawsuit against Varrick Labs in Florida , and realizes that if he can find some patients to sign as clients , he can earn a big payday on another firm 's coattails . However , some complications make the story interesting . Although none of the three Finley & Figg lawyers had previously argued in United States federal court , that is where they find themselves pitted against Zinc 's old firm with this case . In fact , David 's expertise was in long @-@ term bonds .

Once the firm 's claims become prominent , mass tort operators approach them about being part of a mass settlement . Wally flies to Las Vegas to meet the other mass tort interests , most notably Jerry Alisandros . Varrick 's CEO flies to Chicago to meet Nadine Karros , a leading defense attorney , who works for Rogan Rothberg . Believing that they can get federal judge Harry Seawright to claim jurisdiction , Karros is chosen for her firms ' ties to him and her expertise . The case is soon expedited on Seawright 's docket with Finley & Figg 's claim singled out of the tort claimants and Karros takes action to have Finley & Figg 's eight death cases heard separately . Eventually , Alisandros learns that tests of Krayoxx yield benign results . Oscar and his wife , Paula , are often at odds , and as a large settlement looms , he attempts to divorce her and cash out . After settlement talks break down with Varrick , Alisandros withdraws as co @-@ counsel and Finley & Figg motions to withdraw their claims .

Once at Finley & Figg , Zinc stumbles upon a lead poisoning brain damage case involving Burmese immigrants . He expends his own time and resources on their case . He also succeeds in representing immigrants in a labor law case . During the labor case , the employer attempted to have Finley & Figg 's offices burned down and the would @-@ be arsonist stumbled upon Oscar at the office . Oscar shot him and added an unnecessary debilitating shot that shattered his leg . He was sued for using excessive force .

With Varrick having spent 18 million dollars defending itself and the mass tort bar having vociferously discredited Krayoxx in the mass media , Karros motioned for frivolous lawsuit sanctions pending a withdrawn motion . Additionally , actions were initiated for legal malpractice regarding Wally 's letters that promised 2 million dollar settlement followed by motions to dismiss without notifying his clients . After realizing that they could be sued for defense costs and malpractice for withdrawing the case , Finley & Figg withdraw their motions and agree to a jury trial that they believe to be futile . The trial opens as originally scheduled . During opening statements , Oscar suffered a myocardial infarction . Wally attempted to make light of the situation by proclaiming it an example of Krayoxx effects . Karros moved for mistrial and the motion was granted , leading to the need to pick a new jury . Wally stood in for Oscar as lead attorney while a new jury was seated and for the first day of testimony . The next day , the recovering alcoholic Figg was nowhere to be found although an empty pint bottle of Smirnoff Vodka was . After Wally was AWOL for a second day , David was pressed into service . Rueben Massey , Varrick 's CEO , instructed Karros not to move for likely @-@ successful summary judgment . Zinc declined to cross @-@ examine the first handful of expert witnesses that Varrick called , Eventually , Zinc discredited Varrick 's clinical trials during cross @-@ examination of the final expert witness . Nonetheless , the jury rendered a very quick not guilty verdict .

Zinc continued to pursue the lead poisoning product liability case . He settled the case for $ 6 @.@ 5 million ( including $ 1 @.@ 5 million in legal fees ) . David returns to the office and tells Oscar and Wally of his settlement . He tells them of his plan to split his earnings evenly with them . In return the three of them are to sign a 12 @-@ month contract to enter an equal partnership and will no longer be an ambulance @-@ chasing firm . Oscar and Wally agree to the new contract . Later that year the partnership fell apart . Finley began spending less time in the office and eventually retired a happy man , Figg packed up and moved to Alaska , and Zinc opened his own product liability practice , David E. Zinc , Attorney @-@ at @-@ Law and hired Rochelle as his new secretary .

= = = List of characters = = =

Oscar Finley , Finley & Figg Senior Partner - A lazy , unhappily married , nearing retirement " fender @-@ benders , slip @-@ and @-@ falls and quickie divorces veteran " and former police officer , who took the bar exam three times .

Wally Figg , Finley & Figg Junior Partner - A former DUI convictee and four @-@ time divorcé who trolls funeral parlors and sickrooms for clients . A University of Chicago Law School grad who took the bar exam three times .

David Zinc , Finley & Figg Associate attorney - Prototypical Grisham young hot shot Harvard graduate lawyer whose life is turned upside down .

Rochelle Gibson , Finley & Figg secretary - Former claimant against Finley & Figg who holds the firm together .

Nadine Karros , Defendant 's leading litigator recruited by Varrick .

Harry Seawright , federal judge .

DeeAnna Nuxhall , repeat Finley & Figg divorce customer and eventual love interest of Wally 's

Jerry Alisandros , mass tort operator who brings F & F into his firm 's fold .

Paula Finley , Oscar 's wife

Rueben Massey , CEO Varrick .

Helen , David 's wife

Anderson Zinc , David 's father ( Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Minnesota ) ( per Ch . 15 )

Caroline Zinc , David 's mother ( art and photography teacher ) ( per Ch . 15 )

Lana , David 's secretary

= = Critical review = =

The Litigators is said to be " an amusing and appalling look into the machinations of a nationwide class @-@ action suit , " according to Tobin Harshaw of Bloomberg L.P. The Wall Street Journal 's Christopher John Farley noted that the book is lighter than Grisham 's other works . Publishers Weekly called it a " bitingly farcical look at lawyers at the bottom of the food chain " . CNN described the book as an original perspective of " the best and worst the American system of justice has to offer " . Louis Bayard of The Washington Post , who described himself as someone who abandoned Grisham after his first three novels , noted that this book might be a good starting point for those who have tired of Grisham . Andrea Simakis of The Plain Dealer describes the book as a " heartier meal " than Grisham 's usual " potato @-@ chip fiction " . Publishers Weekly also notes that the fairy tale ending is not really in keeping with the introduction 's dark humor . Rick Arthur of The United Arab Emirates publication The National describes the book unfavorably as a cross between prior Grisham works The Street Lawyer and The King of Torts and similarly describes the protagonist unfavorably to those of The Firm and The Rainmaker . Geoffrey Wansell of the Daily Mail presented one of the more favorable reviews describing the book as " a spectacular return to form , displaying the clarity and passion that were there in his first thrillers but seemed to ebb away . " Wansell notes that Grisham returned to one of his seminal themes of the idealistic young lawyer fighting with the realization that corporations only care about maximizing profits .

The book has been derided for its lack of suspense . Carol Memmott of USA Today says that Grisham 's latest attempt to capture the spirit of the legal David and Goliath story is missing " the ratcheting @-@ up of suspense " that he has employed successfully in recent adult and youth novels . Harshaw claims that the book is lacking in the suspense that made The Firm so successful . Arthur finds elements of the plot implausible and the story unsuspenseful as well as unsatisfying . Although the book is somewhat predictable , Bayard notes that " Grisham swerves clear of the usual melodramatic devices . Corporations aren ’ t intrinsically venal ; plaintiffs aren ’ t lambent with goodness . And best of all , no one is murdered for stumbling Too Close to the Truth . "

Some sources noted that the book has potential to become an adapted screenplay . Irish Independent describes Grisham 's new book as " following his usual route to the bestsellers list " and projects it as a candidate to be his next Hollywood film . Although it is standard Grisham fare , Independent noted that it provides the usual thrills in Grisham 's comfortable legal world and should be a gripping read for his usual fans . The Sunday Express noted that the book could be readily converted to a screenplay , but its critic , Robin Callender Smith , viewed the " ambulance chasing " ethos as a foreign thing that Brits might have to worry about in the near future .

Simakis praised the book for having more depth of character than Grisham 's novels customarily do . She compares the protagonist to Mitch McDeere from The Firm and Rudy Baylor from The Rainmaker . Memmott says that most of the claimants that they find are unsympathetic , but a few are from somewhat sympathetic immigrant families . Simakis notes that Wally trades sex for legal services with one claimant . Harshaw says that the book is a bit sentimental and comparatively lacking in terms of secondary character development for Grisham . Larry Orenstein of Canada 's Globe and Mail notes that on the dramatic scale this book has instances of laugh out loud humor that make it more like Boston Legal than The Practice , which Boston Legal was spun off from .

= = Commercial success = =

According to The Huffington Post , this book is the ninth best @-@ selling fiction book of the year in 2011 , while according to the USA Today this was the 16th best selling book overall in 2011 . According to Amazon.com the book was the number eight overall best seller .

= = = Hardcover = = =

It immediately was listed as the Publishers Weekly # 1 best @-@ seller among fiction hardcover books according to Reuters . It was also listed as the # 1 best @-@ seller by The New York Times in the November 13 , 2011 book review section for the week ending October 29 , 2011 for Hardcover Fiction , E @-@ Book Fiction , Combined Hardcover & Paperback Fiction , and the Combined Print and E @-@ Book Fiction . It dropped from the # 1 position in its second week on the list . It remained on the Combined Hardcover & Paperback Fiction list until the February 19 , 2012 list ( 15 weeks ) for the week ending February 4 . It remained on both the Hardcover Fiction list and the Combined Print and E @-@ Book Fiction list until the February 26 list ( 16 weeks ) for the week ending February 11 . It remained on the E @-@ Book Fiction list until the March 11 list ( 18 weeks ) for the week ending February 25 .

The Wall Street Journal announced that on Saturday October 29 , it would begin incorporating digital book sales in its best seller lists . When the book debuted in The Wall Street Journal list on November 5 for the week ending October 30 , it was listed first in Hardcover Fiction , Fiction E @-@ Books and Fiction Combined . It retained the hardcover lead the following week , but lost the other leads . After two weeks it was surpassed on the hardcover list as well . It remained on The Wall Street Journal Hardcover Fiction , Fiction E @-@ Books and Fiction Combined best seller lists until the January 7 listing for the week ended on January 1 , 2012 .

The book was released the day after Walter Isaacson 's biography of Steve Jobs , entitled Steve Jobs , was released by Simon & Schuster . Jobs had died on October 5 and the release date was moved forward . The Jobs book 's release had been moved forward twice ; It had been moved from spring 2012 to November 21 after Jobs stepped down and then to the October 24 date after his death . When The Litigators debuted on November 3 on the USA Today best @-@ seller list , which does not separate fiction and non @-@ fiction , it debuted at number 2 behind the Jobs book .

= = = Paperback = = =

It debuted at # 1 on the New York Times Paperback Mass @-@ Market Fiction Best Sellers list on July 15 , 2012 ( reflecting sales for the week ending June 30 , 2012 ) . The book remained at # 1 until the August 12 list ( reflecting sales of the week ending July 28 , 2012 ) , making a five @-@ week run . It continued to appear on the list until the January 13 , 2013 list ( reflecting sales for the week ending December 29 , 2012 ) . On the USA Today list , which include fiction and non @-@ fiction as well as hardcover and paperback , it debuted at # 10 in the week of July 5 , following its paperback release .

= Stanley Green =

Stanley Owen Green ( 22 February 1915 – 4 December 1993 ) , known as the Protein Man , was a human billboard who became a well @-@ known figure in central London in the latter half of the 20th century .

Green patrolled Oxford Street in the West End for 25 years , from 1968 until 1993 , with a placard recommending " protein wisdom " , a low @-@ protein diet that he said would dampen the libido and make people kinder . His 14 @-@ page pamphlet , Eight Passion Proteins with Care , sold 87 @,@ 000 copies over 20 years .

Green 's campaign to suppress desire , as one commentator called it , was not always popular , but he became one of London 's much @-@ loved eccentrics . The Sunday Times interviewed him in 1985 , and his " less passion from less protein " slogan was used by the fashion house Red or Dead .

When he died at the age of 78 , the Daily Telegraph , Guardian and Times published his obituary , and the Museum of London added his pamphlets and placards to their collection . In 2006 his biography was included in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography .

= = Early life = =

Green was born in Harringay , north London , the youngest of four sons of Richard Green , a clerk for a bottle stopper manufacturer , and his wife , May . He attended Wood Green School before joining the Royal Navy in 1938 .

Philip Carter writes in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography that Green 's time with the Navy affected him deeply . He was shocked by the obsession with sex . " I was astonished when things were said quite openly – what a husband would say to his wife when home on leave " , he told the Sunday Times " A Life in the Day " column in 1985 . " I 've always been a moral sort of person . "

After leaving the Navy in September 1945 , Green worked for the Fine Art Society . In March 1946 , Carter writes , he failed the entrance exam for the University of London , then worked for Selfridges and the civil service , and as a storeman for Ealing Borough Council . He said that he had lost jobs twice because he had refused to be dishonest . In 1962 he held a job with the post office , then worked as a self @-@ employed gardener until 1968 when he began his anti @-@ protein campaign . He lived with his parents until they died , his father in 1966 and his mother the following year , after which he was given a council flat in Haydock Green , Northolt , north London .

= = His mission = =

= = = On the streets = = =

Green began his mission in June 1968 , at the age of 53 , initially in Harrow on Saturdays , becoming a full @-@ time human billboard six months later on Oxford Street . He cycled there from Northolt with a sandwich board attached to the bicycle , a journey of 12 miles ( 19 km ) that could take up to two hours , until he was given a bus pass when he turned 65 .

He rose early , and after porridge for breakfast made bread that would rise while he was on patrol , ready for his evening meal . Otherwise his diet consisted of steamed vegetables and pulses , and a pound of apples a day . Lunch was prepared on a Bunsen burner and eaten at 2 : 30 in a " warm and secret place " near Oxford Street .

From Monday to Saturday he walked up and down the street until 6 : 30 pm , reduced to four days a week from 1985 . Saturday evenings were spent with the cinema crowds in Leicester Square . He would to go to bed at 12 : 30 am after saying a prayer . " Quite a good prayer , unselfish too " , he told the Sunday Times . " It is a sort of acknowledgment of God , just in case there happens to be one . "

Peter Ackroyd wrote in London : The Biography that Green was for the most part ignored , becoming " a poignant symbol of the city 's incuriosity and forgetfulness " . He was arrested for public obstruction twice , in 1980 and 1985 . " The injustice of it upsets me " , he said , " because I 'm doing such a good job " . He took to wearing overalls to protect himself from spit , several times finding it on his hat at the end of the day .

= = = Writing = = =

Sundays were spent at home producing Eight Passion Proteins on his printing press . Waldemar Januszczak described it as worthy of Heath Robinson , who was known for his cartoons of ancient contraptions . The racket caused trouble between Green and his neighbours .

Noted for its eccentric typography , Eight Passion Proteins went through 52 editions between 1973 and 1993 . Green sold 20 copies on weekdays and up to 50 on Saturdays ( for 10 pence in 1980 and 12 pence 13 years later ) , a total of 87 @,@ 000 copies by February 1993 , according to Carter . He sent copies to those in the public eye , including five British prime ministers , the Prince of Wales , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and Pope Paul VI .

The booklet argued that " those who do not have to work hard with their limbs , and those who are inclined to sit about " will " store up their protein for passion " , making retirement , for example , a period of increased passion and marital discord . He left several unpublished manuscripts , including a novel , Behind the Veil : More than Just a Tale ; a 67 @-@ page text called Passion and Protein ; and a 392 @-@ page version of Eight Passion Proteins , which , Carter writes , was rejected by Oxford University Press in 1971 .

= = Posthumous recognition = =

Green enjoyed his local fame . The Sunday Times interviewed him in 1985 for its " A Life in the Day " feature , and some of his slogans , including " less passion from less protein " were used on dresses and t @-@ shirts by the London fashion house Red or Dead .

When he died in 1993 at the age of 78 , the Daily Telegraph , Guardian and Times all published obituaries . His letters , diaries , pamphlets and placards were given to the Museum of London ; other artefacts went to the Gunnersbury Park Museum . His printing press was featured in Cornelia Parker 's exhibition " The Maybe " ( 1995 ) at the Serpentine Gallery , along with Robert Maxwell 's shoelaces , one of Winston Churchill 's cigars and Tilda Swinton in a glass box . In 2006 he was given an entry in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography .

Two decades after his death Green was still remembered by writers and bloggers , fondly for the most part , although not invariably so . Artist Alun Rowlands ' documentary fiction , 3 Communiqués ( 2007 ) , portrayed him as trawling the streets of London , " campaigning for the suppression of desire " . Musician Martin Gordon included a track about Green on his 2013 album , Include Me Out .

= Sclerodermatineae =

Sclerodermatineae is a suborder of the fungal order Boletales . Circumscribed in 2002 by mycologists Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky , it contains nine genera and about 80 species . The suborder contains a diverse assemblage fruit body morphologies , including boletes , gasteroid forms , earthstars ( genus Astraeus ) , and puffballs . Most species are ectomycorrhizal , although the ecological role of some species is not known with certainty . The suborder is thought to have originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) in Asia and North America , and the major genera diversified around the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) .

= = Taxonomy = =

The Sclerodermatineae was first legitimately used by Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky in 2002 based on molecular analyses of nuclear ribosomal large subunit ( 25S ) rRNA sequences from 60 species of Boletales . This research was an extension of Binder 's 1999 graduate work , in which he argued for the need to recognize the molecular differences of the sclerodermatoid fungi . Sclerodermatineae is one of six lineages of the Boletales recognized as a suborder ; the others are the Boletineae , Paxillineae , Suillineae , Tapinellineae , and Coniophorineae . Of the nine genera assigned to the Sclerodermatineae , three are hymenomycetes ( Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus ) , and six are gasteroid ( Astraeus , Calostoma , Diplocystis , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma ) . Since the suborder 's original description , there have been several phylogenetic studies investigating the Sclerodermatineae . Some studies have revealed the existence of numerous cryptic species and have contributed to taxonomic expansion of the group . The " core " Sclerodermatineae include the genera Astraeus , Calostoma , Scleroderma , Pisolithus , Diplocystis , Tremellogaster ( all gasteroid ) , and the boletoid genus Gyroporus ; Phlebopus and Boletinellus resolved as sister to this core group .

As of 2012 , there are an estimated 78 species in the Sclerodermatineae . The type of the suborder is the family Sclerodermataceae ; other families in the suborder are the Boletinellaceae , Diplocystaceae , and the Gyroporaceae .

Boletinellaceae

Boletinellus ( 2 species )

Phlebopus ( 12 species )

Diplocystaceae

Astraeus ( 5 species )

Diplocystis ( 1 species )

Endogonopsis ( 1 species )

Tremellogaster ( 1 species )

Gyroporaceae

Gyroporus ( 10 species )

Sclerodermataceae

Calostoma ( 15 species )

Chlorogaster ( 1 species )

Favillea ( 1 species )

Horakiella ( 1 species )

Pisolithus ( 5 species )

Scleroderma ( about 30 species )

Based on ancestral reconstruction studies , the earliest ( basal ) members of the Sclerodermatineae originated in the late Cretaceous ( 145 – 66 Ma ) . The major genera diversified near the mid Cenozoic ( 66 – 0 Ma ) . Asia and North America are the most probable ancestral areas for all Sclerodermatineae , and Pinaceae and angiosperms ( primarily rosids ) are the most probable ancestral hosts .

= = Description = =

Members of the Sclerodermatineae have fruit body shapes ranging from boletoid ( with a cap , stipe , and tubes on the underside of the cap ) to gasteroid . Boletoid fruit bodies sometimes have hollow stipes with a surface that is smooth to somewhat furfuraceous ( covered with flaky particles ) , and lack the reticulation ( a net @-@ like pattern of interlacing lines ) characteristic of some members of the Boletaceae . The pores are merulioid ( wrinkled with low , uneven ridges ) , boletinoid , and either fine or coarse . The flesh is usually whitish to yellowish , and some species exhibit a blue staining reaction upon injury . In mass , spores are yellow ; microscopically , the spores are ellipsoid in shape and have a smooth surface .

Gasteroid fruit body types are either roughly spherical or tuberous , occasionally with stipes , and usually have a peridium that is either simple or multi @-@ layered . Mature gasteroid fruit bodies generally open irregularly at maturity to expose a powdery gleba with a color ranging from white to yellow or black @-@ brown to black . Capillitia are generally absent from the gleba . Spores are spherical or nearly so , and have a surface texture that ranges from smooth to wart @-@ like and spiny , or sometimes with reticulations . Hyphae have clamp connections .

= = Morphological diversity = =

A distinguishing feature of the Sclerodermatineae is the diversity of morphologies within the group . The hymenomycete genera Boletinellus , Gyroporus , and Phlebopus are typical boletes with a cap and stipe . However , each of the gasteroid Sclerodermatineae has a distinct morphology . Species of Astraeus have an " earthstar " morphology where the outer peridium peels back in sections . The gleba of Pisolithus is partitioned into hundreds of membranous chambers . Scleroderma is a simple puffball with a thin outer skin and a powdery gleba at maturity . Diplocystis and Tremellogaster are each distinct in their morphologies : the former comprises compound fruit bodies each with 3 – 60 spore sacs crowded together , while the latter forms a roughly spherical sporocarp with a thick multi @-@ layered peridium . Calostoma ( Greek for " pretty mouth " ) is morphologically distinct from other gasteroid members , having a fruit body that forms a globed , spore @-@ bearing head composed of a three @-@ layered peridium . About two @-@ thirds of Sclerodermatineae species have a gasteroid morphology , although this may be an underestimate due to the existence of cryptic species that have yet to be formally described . For example , studies of the gasteroid genera Astraeus and Pisolithus indicate the existence of numerous cryptic taxa .

= = Ecology = =

The mycorrhizal associations of several Sclerodermatineae genera have been established . Studies have demonstrated that Astraeus , Pisolithus , and Scleroderma form ectomycorrhizal associations with both angiosperms and gymnosperms . Previously thought to be saprophytic , the Calostomataceae were determined to be ectomycorrhizal with Fagaceae and Myrtaceae using isotopic and molecular analyses . Species from the genera Pisolithus and Scleroderma have been used in forestry as mycorrhizal inocula to help promote the growth and vigor of young seedlings .

As a group , the Sclerodermatineae have a broad distribution , and some genera ( Pisolithus and Scleroderma ) have been found on all continents except Antarctica .

= = = Cited literature = = =

Kirk PM , Cannon PF , Minter DW , Stalpers JA ( 2008 ) . Dictionary of the Fungi ( 10th ed . ) . Wallingford , UK : CAB International . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85199 @-@ 826 @-@ 8 .

= SM U @-@ 3 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =

SM U @-@ 3 or U @-@ III was the lead boat of the U @-@ 3 class of submarines or U @-@ boats built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War . The submarine was built as part of a plan to evaluate foreign submarine designs , and was built by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany .

U @-@ 3 was authorized in 1906 , begun in March 1907 , launched in August 1908 , and towed from Kiel to Pola in January 1909 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just under 139 feet ( 42 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 300 tonnes ( 260 and 330 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . The design of the submarine had poor diving qualities and several modifications to U @-@ 3 's diving planes and fins occurred in her first years in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Her armament , as built , consisted of two bow torpedo tubes with a supply of three torpedoes , but was supplemented with a deck gun in 1915 .

The boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in September 1909 , and served as a training boat — sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month — through the beginning of the First World War in 1914 . At the start of that conflict , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy U @-@ boat fleet . Over the first year of the war , U @-@ 3 conducted reconnaissance cruises out of Cattaro . On 12 August 1915 , U @-@ 3 was damaged after an unsuccessful torpedo attack on an Italian armed merchant cruiser and , after she surfaced the next day , was sunk by a French destroyer . U @-@ 3 's commanding officer and 6 men died in the attack ; the 14 survivors were captured .

= = Design and construction = =

U @-@ 3 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy authorized the construction of U @-@ 3 ( and sister ship , U @-@ 4 ) in 1906 by Germaniawerft of Kiel , Germany . U @-@ 3 was laid down on 12 March 1907 and launched on 20 August 1908 . After completion , she was towed via Gibraltar to Pola , where she arrived on 24 January 1909 .

U @-@ 3 's design was an improved version of Germaniawerft 's design for the Imperial German Navy 's first U @-@ boat , U @-@ 1 , and featured a double hull with internal saddle tanks . The Germaniawerft engineers refined the design 's hull shape through extensive model trials .

U @-@ 3 was 138 feet 9 inches ( 42 m ) long by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 81 m ) . She displaced 240 tonnes ( 260 short tons ) surfaced and 300 tonnes ( 330 short tons ) submerged . She was armed with two bow 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , and was designed to carry up to three torpedoes .

= = Service career = =

After U @-@ 3 's arrival at Pola in January 1909 , she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 12 September 1909 as SM U @-@ 3 . During the evaluation of the U @-@ 3 class conducted by the Navy , the class ' poor diving and handling characteristics were noted . To alleviate the diving problems , U @-@ 3 's fins were changed in size and shape several times , and eventually , the front diving planes were removed and a stationary stern flap was affixed to the hull . U @-@ 3 served as a training boat between 1910 and 1914 and made as many as ten cruises per month in that capacity .

At the beginning of World War I , she was one of only four operational submarines in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . On 22 August 1914 , U @-@ 3 began operating reconnaissance cruises out of the naval base at Brioni , but moved a month later to Cattaro . In April 1915 , a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick firing ( QF ) deck gun was added .

On 10 August , U @-@ 3 departed from Cattaro for what would be her final time for a patrol north of Brindisi . Two days later , while returning to Cattaro from the Straits of Otranto , U @-@ 3 launched a torpedo attack on the Italian armed merchant cruiser Citta di Catania . The torpedoes missed their mark and , in the ensuing action , U @-@ 3 was rammed by Citta di Catania , which destroyed the U @-@ boat 's periscope . When she attempted to surface , she was shelled by the escorting destroyers . She submerged to escape the artillery but was further damaged by a depth charge attack from the French destroyer Bisson while resting on the seabed . When U @-@ 3 surfaced the following day , she was shelled and sunk by Bisson . Fourteen of her crew were saved and captured , but seven died in the attack , including her commander , Linienschiffsleutnant Karl Strnad . U @-@ 3 had no successes during the war .

= The Son Also Draws =

" The Son Also Draws " is the sixth episode of the first season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , originally aired on Fox on May 9 , 1999 . The episode follows Chris as he is ejected from the Youth Scouts , and Peter drives the family to Scout headquarters to get him readmitted . During a rest stop at a Native American casino , Lois gambles away the family car . Peter pretends to be a member of the tribe in an attempt to get it back , and is sent on a vision quest to prove his heritage , giving him and Chris an opportunity to bond .

" The Son Also Draws " was written by Ricky Blitt and directed by Neil Affleck , both working on their first Family Guy episode . The episode guest starred actors Suzie Plakson , Kevin Michael Richardson , Fred Tatasciore and Wally Wingert . Recurring guest voice actors included writer and animator Butch Hartman and actor Patrick Bristow . Much of the episode 's humor is structured around cutaway sequences that parody popular culture , including references to Speed Racer , Happy Days , Nova , One Day at a Time , and The More You Know .

Critical reception for the episode was mixed ; certain critics believed the episode was not an " instant classic " in contrast to the other episodes of the season but called it " memorable " and " brilliant " nevertheless , while others regarded it as the black sheep of the season . The episode caused controversy in Canada for the episode 's final gag , in which Peter states that " Canada sucks . "

= = Plot = =

Chris hates being in the Youth Scouts and wants to quit , but is afraid to tell his father Peter . Chris is finally kicked out when he runs over the troop leader during a Soap Box Derby . Peter insists on driving Chris and the rest of the family ( Peter 's wife Lois , their daughter Meg and their infant Stewie ) to the Youth Scout headquarters , in Manhattan , to get Chris readmitted . While they are gone , their talking dog Brian is watching Nova just as the show is interrupted to show several episodes of the sitcom One Day at a Time . He tries to change the channel , but is unable to do so ( nor he can turn the TV off ) , losing his intelligence shortly after watching a few episodes .

The family stops at a Native American casino as Peter needs to use the bathroom , Lois quickly becomes addicted to gambling and loses the family car . After hearing that Lois has gambled the car away , Peter tries to get it back by claiming to be Native American . The doubtful Indian elders demand that he go on a vision quest to prove his heritage . Chris accompanies Peter into the wilderness , hoping to tell him that he only wants to draw instead of being in the Scouts . Delirious from hunger , Peter begins talking to anthropomorphic trees and sees a vision of his spiritual guide , Fonzie . After hearing Fonzie 's advice Peter finally listens to Chris 's complaints and realizes his son is a talented artist .

Peter and Chris return to the casino and reclaim the car . The episode ends with Lois , Stewie , and Meg counteracting stereotypes about Native Americans , Mexicans , and Swedes , respectively , before Peter comments that " Canada sucks . "

= = Production = =

" The Son Also Draws " was written by Ricky Blitt , his first episode in the Family Guy series , and directed by former Simpsons director Neil Affleck , also in his first Family Guy episode . Peter Shin and Roy Allen Smith , who have since supervised other episodes of Family Guy , both acted as supervising directors on this episode . Alex Borstein , the voice of Lois , helped write this episode , making her the first female member in the Family Guy writing staff ; show creator Seth MacFarlane mentioned that her input on the character of Lois was particularly helpful . Andrew Gormley and voice actor Mike Henry acted as staff writers for this episode , while Ricky Blitt , Neil Goldman and Chris Sheridan worked as the story editors . The subplot of " The Son Also Draws " that involved Lois losing the car was based on the 1985 comedy film Lost in America . The part where Peter pretends to be an Indian to get the family car back was inspired by real @-@ life instances of people who were " 1 / 64th " Native American receiving money from wealthy casino tribes .

In addition to the regular cast , " The Son Also Draws " featured the voices of actors Suzie Plakson , Kevin Michael Richardson , Fred Tatasciore and Wally Wingert . Recurring guest voice actors included writer and animator Butch Hartman and actor Patrick Bristow .

= = Cultural references = =

The television show the family is watching near the beginning of the show is an episode from the 1974 ABC sitcom Happy Days .

When the rest of the family is gone on the trip to Manhattan , Brian watches an episode of Nova , which is interrupted by a PBS announcement that they will be showing various episodes of One Day at a Time .

Speed and Pops from Speed Racer make an appearance at the Soap Box Derby starting line and again when the Griffins prepare to leave for Manhattan .

When Peter has to search for his spiritual guide , it turns out to be Fonzie from Happy Days .

The end of the episode features a parody of the The More You Know series of public service announcements .

= = Reception = =

Reviews for " The Son Also Draws " were mixed to favorable . In his 2008 review , Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode an 8 / 10 , stating that while the episode is not an " instant classic " , it is " still quite strong " and has " more than a few clever moments " . He also notes that the cutaways are " kept to a minimum " , and much of the humor comes from the storyline . He commented that the episode did not have as much laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments as other episodes , but stated that it had bolder humor than the show would later be known for . In his review of the first volume DVD collection of Family Guy , Aaron Beierle of DVD Talk listed " The Son Also Draws " as one of the series ' " most brilliant moments " , praising the spiritual vision sequence and naming the conversation between Peter and Brian among the best moments of the series , calling the conversation " rolling @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor funny . "

Robin Pierson of The TV Critic , however , was far more hostile towards the episode , giving it the lowest rating of the season , a 44 out of 100 . Pierson believed the episode was " very poor " and called the storyline " lame " and " unfocussed [ sic ] , " with " a bunch of jokes to match . " The gag at the end of the episode , in which Peter states that " Canada sucks " , inspired anger from Canadian viewers of the show , which led them to send letters to the show 's producers . Ricky Blitt , the writer of the episode and the person responsible for the controversial gag , is Canadian .

= = Home media = =

" The Son Also Draws " and the complete first and second seasons of the series were released under the title Family Guy Volume One ; this standard four @-@ disc DVD box set debuted in Region 1 on April 15 , 2003 , three months before the premiere of the third season . Distributed by 20th Century Fox Television , it included several DVD extras such as episode commentaries , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , and online promo spots . The same episodes , without the special features , were released in Region 2 on November 12 , 2001 and in Region 4 on October 20 , 2003 .

= Protomycena =

Protomycena is an extinct monotypic genus of gilled fungus in the family Mycenaceae , of order Agaricales . At present it contains the single species Protomycena electra , known from a single specimen collected in an amber mine in the Cordillera Septentrional area of the Dominican Republic . The fruit body of the fungus has a convex cap that is 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter , with distantly spaced gills on the underside . The curved stipe is smooth and cylindrical , measuring 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 030 in ) thick by 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long , and lacks a ring . It resembles extant ( currently living ) species of the genus Mycena . Protomycena is one of only five known agaric fungus species known in the fossil record and the second to be described from Dominican amber .

= = Discovery and classification = =

The genus is known only from the holotype specimen , a single fruit body ( mushroom ) currently residing in the private collection owned by Ettore Morone of Turin , Italy . The specimen was collected in one of the amber mines in the Cordillera Septentrional area of the island of Hispaniola , in the Dominican Republic . The amber is believed to date from the Miocene Burdigalian stage , about 20 to 16 million years before the present . It was first studied by a group of researchers consisting of David Hibbett and Michael Donoghue from Harvard University , with David Grimaldi of the American Museum of Natural History . Hibbett and colleagues published their 1997 type description in the American Journal of Botany . The generic name Protomycena is derived from a combination of the Latin proto meaning " first " , and " Mycena " , a modern genus that it resembles . The specific epithet electra was coined by the authors from the Latin for " amber " , in reference to the mode of preservation .

When it was reported , Protomycena electra was the third species of fossil agaric fungus to be described . The two species Coprinites dominicana and Aureofungus yaniguaensis are also known from the amber mines of the Dominican Republic , while the fourth species Archaeomarasmius leggeti is from the older , Cretaceous age New Jersey Amber . With the 2007 publication of a fifth extinct agaric species , Palaeoagaracites antiquus , the minimum age for the Agaricales order was pushed back to the Albian ( approximately 100 Ma ) .

= = Description = =

The holotype of Protomycena is a single fruit body without any associated structures , preserved in a piece of clear light yellow polished amber approximately 4 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 77 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) wide . The pileus is 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter and has a convex shape , sporting a raised central region ( an umbo ) . The pale flesh appears yellowish in the amber , and is smooth and glossy , changing to striate and slightly translucent towards the margin . The pileus margin is striated and slightly flared . The gills on the underside of the pileus are broadly attached ( adnate ) to the top of the stipe , and distantly spaced — between six and eight gills extend completely from the pileus margin to the stipe . These full @-@ length gills are anastomosed with lamellulae ( short gills which do not reach the edge of the stipe from the pileus margin ) of varying lengths . The pileus is centered on the curved stipe , which is smooth and cylindrical , measuring 0 @.@ 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 030 in ) thick by 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long . The stipe lacks a ring and rhizoids . The mushroom is preserved with a small liquid and gas @-@ filled bubble , possibly originating from the mushroom itself , which indicates the amber to be very solid and well @-@ sealed .

In Hibbett and colleagues ' 1997 publication , Protomycena was placed in the subfamily Myceneae , which at the time was considered part of the Tricholomataceae family ; Mycena is currently classified in the Mycenaceae family . The placement was based solely on the visible structures , or macromorphology of the fruit body . Many of the features which are typically used to classify species into fungal families and subfamilies are based on microscopic features not visible or preserved in the amber specimen . Consequently , the assignment to Mycena is provisional ( the authors also note certain similarities with extant members of Marasmius ) , and the describing authors leave open the option of treating the genus placement as incertae sedis ( uncertain placement ) within the Agaricales . Protomycena is distinct from other amber @-@ preserved mushroom taxa such as Coprinites , in the grooved surface of its pileus and its anastomosing gills .

= Art in Medieval Scotland =

Art in Medieval Scotland includes all forms of artistic production within the modern borders of Scotland , between the fifth century and the adoption of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century . In the early Middle Ages , there were distinct material cultures evident in the different federations and kingdoms within what is now Scotland . Pictish art was the only uniquely Scottish Medieval style ; it can be seen in the extensive survival of carved stones , particularly in the north and east of the country , which hold a variety of recurring images and patterns . It can also be seen in elaborate metal work that largely survives in buried hoards . Irish @-@ Scots art from the kingdom of Dál Riata suggests that it was one of the places , as a crossroads between cultures , where the Insular style developed .

Insular art is the name given to the common style that developed in Britain and Ireland from the eighth century and which became highly influential in continental Europe and contributed to the development of Romanesque and Gothic styles . It can be seen in elaborate jewellery , often making extensive use of semi @-@ precious stones , in the heavily carved high crosses found particularly in the Highlands and Islands , but distributed across the country and particularly in the highly decorated illustrated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells , which may have been begun , or wholly created at the monastic centre of Iona .

Scotland adopted the Romanesque style relatively late and retained and revived elements of its style after the Gothic style had become dominant from the thirteenth century . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork , and has not survived the impact of time and the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , including evidence of elaborate church interiors . From the thirteenth century there are relatively large numbers of monumental effigies . Native craftsmanship can be seen in a variety of items . Visual illustration can be seen in the illumination of charters and occasional survivals of church paintings . Surviving copies of individual portraits are relatively crude , but more impressive are the works or artists commissioned from the continent , particularly the Netherlands .

= = Early Middle Ages = =

= = = Pictish stones = = =

About 250 Pictish stones survive and have been assigned by scholars to three classes . Class I stones are those thought to date to the period up to the seventh century and are the most numerous group . The stones are largely unshaped and include incised symbols of animals such as fish and the Pictish beast , everyday objects such as mirrors , combs and tuning forks and abstract symbols defined by names including V @-@ rod , double disc and Z @-@ rod . They are found between from the Firth of Forth to Shetland . The greatest concentrations are in Sutherland , around modern Inverness and Aberdeen . Good examples include the Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno stones ( Angus ) .

Class II stones are carefully shaped slabs dating after the arrival of Christianity in the eighth and ninth centuries , with a cross on one face and a wide range of symbols on the reverse . In smaller numbers than Class I stones , they predominate in southern Pictland , in Perth , Angus and Fife . Good examples include Glamis 2 , which contains a finely executed Celtic cross on the main face with two opposing male figures , a centaur , cauldron , deer head and a triple disc symbol and Cossans , Angus , which shows a high @-@ prowed Pictish boat with oarsmen and a figure facing forward in the prow . Class III stones are thought to overlap chronologically with Class II stones . Most are elaborately shaped and incised cross @-@ slabs , some with figurative scenes , but lacking idiomatic Pictish symbols . They are widely distributed but predominate in the southern Pictish areas .

= = = Pictish metalwork = = =

Items of metalwork have been found throughout Pictland . The earlier Picts appear to have had a considerable amount of silver available , probably from raiding further south , or the payment of subsidies to keep them from doing so . The very large hoard of late Roman hacksilver found at Traprain Law may have originated in either way . The largest hoard of early Pictish metalwork was found in 1819 at Norrie 's Law in Fife , but unfortunately much was dispersed and melted down . Over ten heavy silver chains , some over 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) long , have been found from this period ; the double @-@ linked Whitecleuch Chain is one of only two that have a penannular ring , with symbol decoration including enamel , which shows how these were probably used as " choker " necklaces . The St Ninian 's Isle Treasure of 28 silver and silver @-@ gilt objects , contains perhaps the best collection of late Pictish forms , from the Christian period , when Pictish metalwork style , as with stone @-@ carving , gradually merged with Insular , Anglo @-@ Saxon and Viking styles .

= = = Irish @-@ Scots art = = =

Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards has suggested that the kingdom of Dál Riata was a cross @-@ roads between the artistic styles of the Picts and those of Ireland , with which the Scots settlers in what is now Argyll kept close contacts . This can be seen in representations found in excavations of the fortress of Dunadd , which combine Pictish and Irish elements . This included extensive evidence for the production of high status jewellery and moulds from the seventh century that indicate the production of pieces similar to the Hunterston brooch , found in Ayrshire , which may have been made in Dál Riata , but with elements that suggest Irish origins . These and other finds , including a trumpet spiral decorated hanging bowl disc and a stamped animal decoration ( or pressblech ) , perhaps from a bucket or drinking horn , indicate the ways in which Dál Riata was one of the locations where the Insular style was developed . In the eighth and ninth centuries the Pictish elite adopted true penannular brooches with lobed terminals from Ireland . Some older Irish pseudo @-@ penannular brooches were adapted to the Pictish style , for example the Breadalbane Brooch ( British Museum ) . The eighth century Monymusk Reliquary has elements of Pictish and Irish style .

= = = Early Anglo @-@ Saxon art = = =

Early examples of Anglo @-@ Saxon art are largely metalwork , particularly bracelets , clasps and jewellery , that has survived in pagan burials and in exceptional items such as the intricately carved whalebone Franks Casket , thought to have been produced in Northumbria in the early eighth century , which combines pagan , classical and Christian motifs . There is only one known pagan burial in Scotland , at Dalmeny Midlothian , which contains a necklace of beads similar to those found in mid @-@ seventh @-@ century southern England . Other isolated finds include a gold object from Dalmeny , shaped like a truncated pyramid , with filigree and garnet , similar to sword harness mounts found at Sutton Hoo . There is also a bun @-@ shaped loom from Yetholm , Roxburghshire and a ring with an Anglian runic inscription . From eastern Scotland there is a seventh @-@ century sword pommel from Culbin Sands , Moray and the Burghead drinking horn mount . After Christianisation in the seventh century artistic styles in Northumbria , which then reached to the Firth of Forth , interacted with those in Ireland and what is now Scotland to become part of the common style historians have identified as Insular or Hiberno @-@ Saxon .

= = = Insular art = = =

Insular art , or Hiberno @-@ Saxon art , is the name given to the common style produced in Scotland , Britain and Anglo @-@ Saxon England from the seventh century , with the combining of Celtic and Anglo @-@ Saxon forms . Surviving examples of Insular art are found in metalwork , carving , but mainly in illuminated manuscripts . In manuscripts surfaces are highly decorated with intricate patterning , with no attempt to give an impression of depth , volume or recession . The best examples include the Book of Kells , which may have been wholly or partly created in Iona , and the Book of Durrow , which may be from Ireland or Northumbria . Carpet pages are a characteristic feature of Insular manuscripts , although historiated initials ( an Insular invention ) , canon tables and figurative miniatures , especially Evangelist portraits , are also common . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life of the Viking raids in the late eighth century .

Christianity discouraged the burial of grave goods so the majority of examples of insular metalwork that survive from the Christian period have been found in archaeological contexts that suggest they were rapidly hidden , lost or abandoned . There are a few exceptions , notably portable shrines ( " cumdachs " ) for books or relics , several of which have been continuously owned , mostly by churches on the Continent — though the Monymusk Reliquary has always been in Scotland . The highest quality survivals are either secular jewellery , the largest and most elaborate pieces probably for male wearers , tableware or altarware . The finest church pieces were probably made by secular workshops , often attached to a royal household , though other pieces were made by monastic workshops . There are a number of large brooches , each of their designs is wholly individual in detail , and the workmanship is varied . Many elements of the designs can be directly related to elements used in manuscripts . Surviving stones used in decoration are semi @-@ precious ones , with amber and rock crystal among the commonest , and some garnets . Coloured glass , enamel and millefiori glass , probably imported , are also used . None of the major insular manuscripts , like the Book of Kells , have preserved their elaborate jewelled metal covers , but documentary evidence indicates that these were as spectacular as the few remaining continental examples .

The most significant survivals in sculpture are in High crosses , large free @-@ standing stone crosses , usually carved in relief with patterns , biblical iconography and occasionally inscriptions . The tradition may have begun in Ireland or Anglo @-@ Saxon England and then spread to Scotland . They are found throughout the British Isles and often feature a stone ring around the intersection , forming a Celtic cross , apparently an innovation of Celtic Christianity , that may have begun at Iona . Distribution in Scotland is heaviest in the Highlands and Islands and they can be dated to the period c . 750 to 1150 . All the surviving crosses are of stone , but there are indications that large numbers of wooden crosses may also have existed . In Scotland biblical iconography is less common than in Ireland , but the subject of King David is relatively frequently depicted . In the east the influence of Pictish sculpture can be seen , in areas of Viking occupation and settlement , crosses for the tenth to the twelfth centuries have distinctive Scandinavian patterns , often mixed with native styles . Important examples dated to the eighth century include St Martin 's Cross on Iona , the Kildalton Cross from the Hebrides and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Ruthwell Cross . Through the Hiberno @-@ Scottish mission to the continent , insular art was highly influential on subsequent European Medieval art , especially the decorative elements of Romanesque and Gothic styles .

= = = Viking age art = = =

Viking art avoided naturalism , favouring stylised animal motifs to create its ornamental patterns . Ribbon @-@ interlace was important and plant motifs became fashionable in the tenth and eleventh centuries . Most Scottish artefacts come from 130 " pagan " burials in the north and west from the mid @-@ ninth to the mid @-@ tenth centuries . These include jewellery , weapons and occasional elaborate high status items . Amongst the most impressive of these is the Scar boat burial , on Orkney , which contained an elaborate sword , quiver with arrows , a brooch , bone comb , gaming pieces and the Scar Dragon Plaque , made from whalebone , most of which were probably made in Scandinavia . From the west , another boat burial at Kiloron Bay in Colonsay revealed a sword , shield , iron cauldron and enamelled scales , which may be Celtic in origin . A combination of Viking and Celtic styles can be see in a penannular brooch from Pierowall in Orkney , which has a Pictish @-@ style looped pin . It is about two inches in diameter , with traces of gilding , and probably housed a piece of amber surrounded by interweaving ribbons . After the conversion to Christianity , from the tenth to the twelfth centuries , stone crosses and cross @-@ slabs in Viking occupied areas of the Highlands and Islands were carved with successive styles of Viking ornament . They were frequently mixed with native interlace and animal patterns . Examples include the eleventh @-@ century cross @-@ slab from Dóid Mhàiri on the island of Islay , where the plant motifs on either side of the cross @-@ shaft are based upon the Ringerike style of Viking art . The most famous artistic find from modern Scotland , the Lewis Chessmen , from Uig , were probably made in Trondheim in Norway , but contain some decoration that may have been influenced by Celtic patterns .

= = Late Middle Ages = =

= = = Architecture and sculpture = = =

Architectural evidence suggests that , while the Romanesque style peaked in much of Europe in the later eleventh and early twelfth century , it was still reaching Scotland in the second half of the twelfth century and was revived in the late fifteenth century , perhaps as a reaction to the English perpendicular style that had come to dominate . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork and has not survived the impact of time and the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , a small number of significant crafted items have also survived and , for the end of the period , there is evidence of painting , particularly the extensive commissioning of works in the Low Countries and France .

The interiors of churches were often more elaborate before the Reformation , with highly decorated sacrament houses , like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell . The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel , created in the mid @-@ fifteenth century , elaborately depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins , are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style . Monumental effigies began to appear in churches from the thirteenth century and they were usually fully coloured and gilded . Many were founders and patrons of churches and chapels , including members of the clergy , knights and often their wives . In contrast to England , where the fashion for stone @-@ carved monuments gave way to brass etchings , they continued to be produced until the end of the Medieval period , with the largest group dating from the fifteenth century , including the very elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas . Sometimes the best continental artists were employed , as for Robert I 's elaborate tomb in Dunfermline Abbey , which was made in his lifetime by the Parisian sculptor Thomas of Chartres , but of which only fragments now survive . The greatest group of surviving sculpture from this period are from the West Highlands , beginning in the fourteenth century on Iona under the patronage of the Lordship of the Isles and continuing until the Reformation . Common motifs were ships , swords , harps and Romanesque vine leaf tracery with Celtic elements .

= = = Decorative arts = = =

Survivals from late Medieval church fittings and objects in Scotland are exceptionally rare even compared to those from comparable areas like England or Norway , probably because of the thoroughness of their destruction in the Scottish Reformation . The Scottish elite and church now participated in a culture stretching across Europe , and many objects that do survive are imported , such as Limoges enamels . It is often difficult to decide the country of creation of others , as work in international styles was produced in Scotland , along with pieces retaining more distinctive local styles .

Two secular small chests with carved whalebone panels and metal fittings illustrate some aspects of the Scottish arts . The Eglington and Fife Caskets are very similar and were probably made by the same workshop around 1500 , as boxes for valuables such as jewellery or documents . The overall form of the caskets follows French examples , and the locks and metal bands are decorated in Gothic style with " simple decorations of fleurons and debased egg and dart " while the whalebone panels are carved in relief with a late form of Insular interwoven strapwork characteristic of late Medieval West Scotland .

Key examples of native craftsmanship on items include the Bute mazer , the earliest surviving drinking cup of its type , made of maple @-@ wood and with elaborate silver @-@ gilt ornamentation , dated to around 1320 . The Savernake Horn was probably made for the earl of Moray in the fourteenth century and looted by the English in the mid @-@ sixteenth century . A few significant reliquaries survive from West Scotland , examples of the habit of the Celtic church of treating the possessions rather than the bones of saints as relics . As in Irish examples these were partly reworked and elaborated at intervals over a long period . These are St Fillan 's Crozier and its " Coigreach " or reliquary , between them with elements from each century from the eleventh to the fifteenth , the Guthrie Bell Shrine , Iona , twelfth to fifteenth century , and the Kilmichael Glassary Bell Shrine , Argyll , mid @-@ twelfth century . The Skye Chess piece is a single elaborate piece in carved walrus ivory , with two warriors carrying heraldic shields in a framework of openwork vegetation . It is thought to be Scottish , of the mid @-@ thirteenth century , with aspects similar to both English and Norwegian pieces .

One of the largest groups of surviving works of art are the seal matrices that appear to have entered Scottish usage with feudalism in the reign of David I , beginning at the royal court and among his Anglo @-@ Norman vassals and then by about 1250 they began to spread to the Gaelicised areas of the country . They would be made compulsory for barons of the king in a statute of 1401 and seal matrices show very high standards of skill and artistry . Examples of items that were probably the work of continental artists include the delicate hanging lamp in St. John 's Kirk in Perth , the vestments and hangings in Holyrood and the Medieval maces of the Universities of St Andrews and Glasgow .

= = = Illumination and painting = = =

Manuscript illumination continued into the late Middle Ages , moving from elaborate gospels to charters , like that confirming the rights of Kelso Abbey from 1159 . Very little painting from Scottish churches survives . There is only one surviving Doom painting in Scotland , at Guthrie near Arbroath , which may have been painted by the same artist as the elaborate crucifixion and other paintings at Foulis Easter , eighteen miles away . As in England , the monarchy may have had model portraits of royalty used for copies and reproductions , but the versions of native royal portraits that survive are generally crude by continental standards . Much more impressive are the works or artists imported from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , generally considered the centre of painting in the Northern Renaissance . The products of these connections included a fine portrait of William Elphinstone , Bishop of Aberdeen ( 1488 – 1514 ) ; the images of St Catherine and St John brought to Dunkeld ; Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh , commissioned by James III , and the work after which the Flemish Master of James IV of Scotland is named . There are also a relatively large number of elaborate devotional books from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries , usually produced in the Low Countries and France for Scottish patrons , including the prayer book commissioned by Robert Blackadder , Bishop of Glasgow , between 1484 and 1492 and the Flemish illustrated book of hours , known as the Hours of James IV of Scotland , given by James IV to Margaret Tudor and described as " perhaps the finest medieval manuscript to have been commissioned for Scottish use " .

= Humpty Dumpty =

Humpty Dumpty is a character in an English nursery rhyme , probably originally a riddle and one of the best known in the English @-@ speaking world . He is typically portrayed as an anthropomorphic egg , though he is not explicitly described so . The first recorded versions of the rhyme date from late eighteenth @-@ century England and the tune from 1870 in James William Elliott 's National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs . Its origins are obscure and several theories have been advanced to suggest original meanings .

The character of Humpty Dumpty was popularised in the United States by actor George L. Fox ( 1825 – 77 ) . As a character and literary allusion , he has appeared or been referred to in a large number of works of literature and popular culture , particularly Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking @-@ Glass ( 1872 ) . The rhyme is listed in the Roud Folk Song Index as No. 13026 .

= = Lyrics and melody = =

The rhyme is one of the best known and most popular in the English language . The most common modern text is :

It is a single quatrain with external rhymes that follow the pattern of AABB and with a trochaic metre , which is common in nursery rhymes . The melody commonly associated with the rhyme was first recorded by composer and nursery rhyme collector James William Elliott in his National Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Songs ( London , 1870 ) . The Roud Folk Song Index catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , and classifies this song as 13026 .

= = Origins = =

The earliest known version was published in Samuel Arnold 's Juvenile Amusements in 1797 with the lyrics :

A manuscript addition to a copy of Mother Goose 's Melody published in 1803 has the modern version with a different last line : " Could not set Humpty Dumpty up again " . It was published in 1810 in a version of Gammer Gurton 's Garland as :

In 1842 , James Orchard Halliwell published a collected version as :

According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term " humpty dumpty " referred to a drink of brandy boiled with ale in the seventeenth century . The riddle probably exploited , for misdirection , the fact that " humpty dumpty " was also eighteenth @-@ century reduplicative slang for a short and clumsy person . The riddle may depend upon the assumption that a clumsy person falling off a wall might not be irreparably damaged , whereas an egg would be . The rhyme is no longer posed as a riddle , since the answer is now so well known . Similar riddles have been recorded by folklorists in other languages , such as " Boule Boule " in French , " Lille Trille " in Swedish and Norwegian , and " Runtzelken @-@ Puntzelken " or " Humpelken @-@ Pumpelken " in different parts of Germany — although none is as widely known as Humpty Dumpty is in English .

= = Meaning = =

The rhyme does not explicitly state that the subject is an egg , possibly because it may have been originally posed as a riddle . There are also various theories of an original " Humpty Dumpty " . One , advanced by Katherine Elwes Thomas in 1930 and adopted by Robert Ripley , posits that Humpty Dumpty is King Richard III of England , depicted as humpbacked in Tudor histories and particularly in Shakespeare 's play , and who was defeated , despite his armies , at Bosworth Field in 1485 .

Professor David Daube suggested in The Oxford Magazine of 16 February 1956 that Humpty Dumpty was a " tortoise " siege engine , an armoured frame , used unsuccessfully to approach the walls of the Parliamentary held city of Gloucester in 1643 during the Siege of Gloucester in the English Civil War . This was on the basis of a contemporary account of the attack , but without evidence that the rhyme was connected . The theory was part of an anonymous series of articles on the origin of nursery rhymes and was widely acclaimed in academia , but it was derided by others as " ingenuity for ingenuity 's sake " and declared to be a spoof . The link was nevertheless popularised by a children 's opera All the King 's Men by Richard Rodney Bennett , first performed in 1969 .

From 1996 , the website of the Colchester tourist board attributed the origin of the rhyme to a cannon recorded as used from the church of St Mary @-@ at @-@ the @-@ Wall by the Royalist defenders in the siege of 1648 . In 1648 , Colchester was a walled town with a castle and several churches and was protected by the city wall . The story given was that a large cannon , which the website claimed was colloquially called Humpty Dumpty , was strategically placed on the wall . A shot from a Parliamentary cannon succeeded in damaging the wall beneath Humpty Dumpty which caused the cannon to tumble to the ground . The Royalists ( or Cavaliers , " all the King 's men " ) attempted to raise Humpty Dumpty on to another part of the wall , but the cannon was so heavy that " All the King 's horses and all the King 's men couldn 't put Humpty together again " . Author Albert Jack claimed in his 2008 book Pop Goes the Weasel : The Secret Meanings of Nursery Rhymes that there were two other verses supporting this claim . Elsewhere , he claimed to have found them in an " old dusty library , [ in ] an even older book " , but did not state what the book was or where it was found . It has been pointed out that the two additional verses are not in the style of the seventeenth century or of the existing rhyme , and that they do not fit with the earliest printed versions of the rhyme , which do not mention horses and men .

= = In Through the Looking @-@ Glass = =

Humpty appears in Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking @-@ Glass ( 1872 ) , where he discusses semantics and pragmatics with Alice .

" I don 't know what you mean by ' glory , ' " Alice said .

Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously . " Of course you don 't — till I tell you . I meant ' there 's a nice knock @-@ down argument for you ! ' "

" But ' glory ' doesn 't mean ' a nice knock @-@ down argument ' , " Alice objected .

" When I use a word , " Humpty Dumpty said , in rather a scornful tone , " it means just what I choose it to mean — neither more nor less . "

" The question is , " said Alice , " whether you can make words mean so many different things . "

" The question is , " said Humpty Dumpty , " which is to be master — that 's all . "

Alice was too much puzzled to say anything , so after a minute Humpty Dumpty began again . " They 've a temper , some of them — particularly verbs , they 're the proudest — adjectives you can do anything with , but not verbs — however , I can manage the whole lot ! Impenetrability ! That 's what I say ! "

This passage was used in Britain by Lord Atkin in his dissenting judgement in the seminal case Liversidge v. Anderson ( 1942 ) , where he protested about the distortion of a statute by the majority of the House of Lords . It also became a popular citation in United States legal opinions , appearing in 250 judicial decisions in the Westlaw database as of 19 April 2008 , including two Supreme Court cases ( TVA v. Hill and Zschernig v. Miller ) .

It has been suggested by A. J. Larner that Carroll 's Humpty Dumpty had prosopagnosia on the basis of his description of his finding faces hard to recognise .

" The face is what one goes by , generally , " Alice remarked in a thoughtful tone .

" That 's just what I complain of , " said Humpty Dumpty . " Your face is the same as everybody has — the two eyes , — " ( marking their places in the air with his thumb ) " nose in the middle , mouth under . It 's always the same . Now if you had the two eyes on the same side of the nose , for instance — or the mouth at the top — that would be some help . "

= = In popular culture = =

Humpty Dumpty has become a highly popular nursery rhyme character . American actor George L. Fox ( 1825 – 77 ) helped to popularise the character in nineteenth @-@ century stage productions of pantomime versions , music , and rhyme . The character is also a common literary allusion , particularly to refer to a person in an insecure position , something that would be difficult to reconstruct once broken , or a short and fat person . Humpty Dumpty has been used in a large range of literary works in addition to his appearance as a character in Through the Looking @-@ Glass , including L. Frank Baum 's Mother Goose in Prose ( 1901 ) , where the rhyming riddle is devised by the daughter of the king , having witnessed Humpty 's " death " and her father 's soldiers ' efforts to save him . In Neil Gaiman 's early short story The Case of the Four and Twenty Blackbirds , the Humpty Dumpty story is turned into a film noir @-@ style hardboiled crime story , involving also Cock Robin , the Queen of Hearts , Little Bo Peep , Old Mother Hubbard , and other characters from popular nursery rhymes . Robert Rankin used Humpty Dumpty as one victim of a serial fairy @-@ tale character murderer in The Hollow Chocolate Bunnies of the Apocalypse ( 2002 ) . Jasper Fforde included Humpty Dumpty in his novels The Well of Lost Plots ( 2003 ) and The Big Over Easy ( 2005 ) , which use him respectively as a ringleader of dissatisfied nursery rhyme characters threatening to strike and as the victim of a murder .

The rhyme has also been used as a reference in more serious literary works , including as a recurring motif of the Fall of Man in James Joyce 's 1939 novel Finnegans Wake . Robert Penn Warren 's 1946 American novel All the King 's Men is the story of populist politician Willie Stark 's rise to the position of governor and eventual fall , based on the career of the corrupt Louisiana Senator Huey Long . It won the 1947 Pulitzer Prize and was twice made into a film All the King 's Men in 1949 and 2006 , the former winning the Academy Award for best motion picture . This was echoed in Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward 's book All the President 's Men , about the Watergate scandal , referring to the failure of the President 's staff to repair the damage once the scandal had leaked out . It was filmed as All the President 's Men in 1976 , starring Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman . Similarly , Humpty Dumpty is referred to in Paul Auster 's 1985 novel City of Glass , when two characters discuss him as " the purest embodiment of the human condition " and quote extensively from Through the Looking Glass .

It has also been used as a common motif in popular music , including Hank Thompson 's " Humpty Dumpty Heart " ( 1948 ) , The Monkees ' " All the King 's Horses " ( 1966 ) , Aretha Franklin 's " All the King 's Horses " ( 1972 ) , Tori Amos 's " Humpty Dumpty " ( 1992 ) , and Travis 's " The Humpty Dumpty Love Song " ( 2001 ) . In jazz , Ornette Coleman and Chick Corea wrote different compositions , both titled Humpty Dumpty . ( In Corea 's case , however , it is a part of a concept album inspired by Lewis Carroll called " The Mad Hatter " , 1978 ) .

In the Dolly Parton song Starting Over Again , it 's all the king 's horses and all the king 's men who can 't put the divorced couple back together again . In an extra verse in one version of ABBA 's On and On and On , Humpty Dumpty is mentioned as being afraid of falling off the wall .

= = In science = =

Humpty Dumpty has been used to demonstrate the second law of thermodynamics . The law describes a process known as entropy , a measure of the number of specific ways in which a system may be arranged , often taken to be a measure of " disorder " . The higher the entropy , the higher the disorder . After his fall and subsequent shattering , the inability to put him together again is representative of this principle , as it would be highly unlikely ( though not impossible ) to return him to his earlier state of lower entropy , as the entropy of an isolated system never decreases .

A variation on the poem using near @-@ sounding French nonsense words is often used to illustrate the difficulty of speech recognition in different languages . A common version is as follows :

To a listener expecting a nursery rhyme , it will generally be heard as the English version , while someone expecting French will instead tend to hear nonsense words .

= Welsh National Opera =

Welsh National Opera ( WNO ) ( Welsh : Opera Cenedlaethol Cymru ) is an opera company based in Cardiff , Wales ; it gave its first performances in 1946 . It began as a mainly amateur body and transformed into an all @-@ professional ensemble by 1973 . In its early days the company gave a single week 's annual season in Cardiff , gradually extending its schedule to become an all @-@ year @-@ round operation , with its own salaried chorus and orchestra . It has been described by The New York Times as " one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe " .

For most of its existence the company lacked a permanent base in Cardiff , but in 2004 it moved into the new Wales Millennium Centre , Cardiff Bay . The company tours nationally and internationally , giving more than 120 performances annually , with a repertoire of eight operas each year , to a combined audience of more than 150 @,@ 000 people . Its most frequent venues other than Cardiff are Llandudno in Wales and Bristol , Birmingham , Liverpool , Milton Keynes , Oxford , Plymouth , and Southampton in England .

Singers who have been associated with the company include Geraint Evans , Thomas Allen , Anne Evans , and Bryn Terfel . Guest artists from other countries have included Joan Hammond , Tito Gobbi and Elisabeth Söderström . Among the conductors have been Sir Charles Mackerras , Reginald Goodall , James Levine and Pierre Boulez . The company has been led since 2011 by David Pountney as chief executive and artistic director .

= = Background = =

Choral singing became increasingly popular in 19th @-@ century Wales , principally owing to the rise of the eisteddfod as a symbol of its culture . The first Welsh National Opera Company was formed in 1890 . A local newspaper commented that it was remarkable that " a race of people to whom vocal music is a ruling passion should not generations ago have established a permanent national opera " . The company gave performances of operas by the Welsh composer Joseph Parry in Cardiff and on tour in Wales . The company , predominantly amateur with some professional guest singers from the London stage , gave numerous performances of Parry 's Blodwen and Arienwen , composed in 1878 and 1890 respectively . An American tour was planned , but the company folded , and Parry 's final opera , The Maid of Cefn Ydfa , was given at Cardiff by the Moody @-@ Manners Opera Company in 1902 .

A Cardiff Grand Opera Society ran from 1924 to 1934 . It presented week @-@ long annual seasons of popular operas including Faust , Carmen and Il trovatore , and like its predecessor was mainly an amateur body , with professional guest principals . Apart from the productions of these two enterprises , opera in Wales in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was generally presented by visiting companies from England .

In the 1930s Idloes Owen , a singing teacher and conductor , ran an amateur choir , the Lyrian Singers , based in Cardiff . In November 1941 , together with John Morgan – a former Carl Rosa baritone – and Morgan 's fiancée Helena Hughes Brown , Owen agreed to found the Lyrian Grand Opera Company , with Brown as secretary and Owen as conductor and general manager . They publicised their plan and held a general meeting of potential supporters in December 1943 ; at that meeting the name of the proposed organisation was changed to " Welsh National Opera Company " . By January 1944 plans were far enough advanced for the company 's first rehearsals to be held . Owen recruited a local businessman , W. H. ( Bill ) Smith ( 1894 – 1968 ) , who agreed to serve as business manager . At first doubtful of the company 's prospects , Smith became its dominant influence , leading fund @-@ raiser , and chairman for twenty years from 1948 .

= = Early years = =

The new company made its debut at the Prince of Wales Theatre , Cardiff on 15 April 1946 with a double bill of Cavalleria Rusticana and Pagliacci . The orchestra was professional , mostly drawn from members of the BBC Welsh Orchestra ; all the singers were amateurs , except for Tudor Davies , a tenor well known at Covent Garden and Sadler 's Wells , who sang Canio in Pagliacci . During the week @-@ long season the new company also staged Faust , with Davies in the title role . Although nearing the end of his career he was a considerable box @-@ office draw , and the company played to full houses . Nevertheless , the expense of a professional orchestra and the hire of costumes and scenery outweighed the box @-@ office receipts , and the season made a small loss . Finance remained a recurring problem over the succeeding decades .

Although Owen was the conductor for the performances of Cavalliera Rusticana , and remained as musical director of the company until 1952 , his health was fragile and he conducted none of the company 's other productions . His colleague , the chorus master , Ivor John , was in charge of the first season 's Pagliacci and Faust .

In 1948 the organisation was registered as a limited company , and the Cardiff season was extended from one week to two . The following year the company gave its first performances in Swansea . The chorus featured 120 performers by this time .

The company 's first few seasons attracted little attention from the British musical establishment , but by the early 1950s London papers began to take notice . Picture Post hailed the WNO 's chorus as the finest in Britain . The Times also praised the chorus : " It has body , lightness , rhythmic precision , and , most welcome of all , unflagging and spontaneous freshness . " By this time the company had expanded its repertoire to take in Carmen , La traviata , Madame Butterfly , The Tales of Hoffmann , The Bartered Bride and Die Fledermaus . The Times commented that Smith , Owen and their colleagues were " making history for Wales . The shackles of puritanism , which had kept this country from an art @-@ form perfectly suited to its national talents and predilections ( for histrionics and dressing @-@ up are as natural to the Welsh as singing ) had been broken for ever " .

= = Consolidating : 1950s and 60s = =

In 1952 the company moved its Cardiff venue to the Sophia Gardens Pavilion ( built for the Festival of Britain ) , with the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra as the company 's orchestra , replacing the previous ad hoc ensemble . The Pavilion was acoustically mediocre and lacked an orchestra pit ; two years later the company moved again , to the New Theatre where it played Cardiff seasons across the next fifty years . The 1952 season attracted particular interest because it included what was then a rarity : Verdi 's Nabucco . The company built a reputation for staging seldom @-@ seen Verdi works , including The Sicilian Vespers staged in the same year , I Lombardi in 1956 , and The Battle of Legnano , under the shortened title The Battle , in 1960 . The 1952 Nabucco was the WNO 's first production for which costumes and scenery were specially designed ( by Patrick Robertson ) rather than hired .

In 1953 the company staged its first work by a Welsh composer : Menna by Arwel Hughes . The composer conducted , and the leads were sung by two professional guest stars , Richard Lewis and Elsie Morison . The same year marked WNO 's first appearances outside Wales , playing a week at Bournemouth in April , and a week at Manchester in October , when The Manchester Guardian found the soloists first @-@ rate but the chorus disappointing , in both Nabucco and Il trovatore . A reviewer in The Musical Times commented on potential difficulties in assembling the wholly amateur chorus for performances beyond daily travelling range of their day jobs . By the time of the company 's first London season – a week at Sadler 's Wells in 1955 – the chorus was judged to be " lively and exciting " ( The Musical Times ) , " vibrant " and " moving " ( The Times ) and " joyous " ( The Manchester Guardian ) .

By the mid @-@ 1950s professional singers were cast in leading roles in most productions ; they included Walter Midgley in Tosca and La bohème ( 1955 ) , Raimund Herincx in Mefistofele ( 1957 ) , Heather Harper in La traviata ( 1957 ) , and Joan Hammond in Madame Butterfly ( 1958 ) . A possibility of strengthening the professional element of the company was mooted in 1958 , when a merger was proposed with the Carl Rosa Company , which was in financial difficulties . The proposal was not followed through and WNO continued independently while the Carl Rosa folded .

During the 1960s the company continued to widen its range . Its first Wagner production , Lohengrin , and its first Mozart , The Marriage of Figaro , were both performed in 1962 , conducted by Charles Groves . Another Welsh opera , Hughes 's Serch yw 'r Doctor ( " Love , the Doctor " ) was staged in 1960 . The popular Italian repertoire remained the core of the annual seasons , mostly directed by the head of production , John Moody . Leading roles were taken by rising stars such as John Shirley @-@ Quirk , Gwyneth Jones , Thomas Allen , Josephine Barstow and Margaret Price , the last of whom made her operatic debut with the company in 1962 . Established singers guesting with the company included Geraint Evans who played the title role in Don Pasquale in 1966 , and Ian Wallace in the same part the following year . Evans was also seen as Leporello in Don Giovanni in 1966 and as Falstaff in 1969 .

The gradual switch from amateur to professional continued in 1968 , when for the first time the chorus was supplemented by a smaller , professional group of singers ; the mix of amateur and professional choristers continued over the next five years . At the end of the 1960s the main WNO company , now a year @-@ round operation , consisted of 8 salaried principal singers , 57 guest soloists and a chorus of 90 amateurs and 32 professionals . As well as the Bournemouth players , the company engaged the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic , City of Birmingham Symphony and Ulster orchestras for different venues . In the last season of the decade 32 performances were given in Cardiff and 61 elsewhere in the UK . In addition to the main company , WNO maintained two smaller groups : one , with orchestra , toured Welsh towns , the other , consisting of 12 singers with piano , toured 79 , mostly small , towns in Wales and England . WNO instituted its own training scheme for young singers during the decade .

= = Fully professional : 1970s = =

In 1970 WNO stopped using the Bournemouth and other orchestras and established its own , known at first as the Welsh Philharmonia . Three years later the last amateur element of the company was removed when the chorus became fully professional . A further broadening of the repertoire took place in the 1970s : in 1971 WNO staged the first performances in Britain of Berg 's Lulu , directed by Michael Geliot , who had succeeded Moody in 1969 . In the view of Malcolm Boyd in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , Geliot , " unpredictable and often controversial " , largely shaped the company 's style in the 1970s . In collaboration with the company 's musical director James Lockhart , Geliot is credited by The Times with introducing new young singers and " directing a host of groundbreaking productions " before leaving in 1978 . The critic Rodney Milnes wrote in 1975 about WNO 's productions :

I have never seen , well , hardly ever , a pretentious , silly or seriously misguided production , and neither have I seen a dull one . … The company 's greatest virtue is that its work is dedicated above all to the service of composers and audiences , and not to some abstract notion of " prestige " nor to the vanity or ambition of individuals , and in this it is almost unique .

In 1973 Geliot 's WNO staging of Britten 's Billy Budd with Allen in the title role was presented on a Swiss tour , and two years later it was given in Barcelona . The company returned to London with its participation in the Amoco Festival of Opera at the Dominion Theatre in 1979 , presenting The Makropoulos Case , The Magic Flute , Ernani , Madame Butterfly , and Tristan and Isolde to capacity audiences .

The company 's traditional preference for the Italian repertoire was partly redressed during the decade : productions include WNO 's first staging of a Richard Strauss opera , Elektra , in 1978 . A new Welsh work , Alun Hoddinott 's The Beach of Falesá , was presented in 1974 . In 1975 , in co @-@ production with Scottish Opera , WNO began a cycle of Janáček operas , directed by David Pountney . Beginning with Jenůfa , the cycle continued with The Makropoulos Case ( 1978 ) , The Cunning Little Vixen ( 1980 ) , Kátya Kabanová ( 1982 ) and From the House of the Dead ( 1982 ) .

Among the guest artists who appeared with the company in the 1970s were the baritone Tito Gobbi , as Falstaff ( 1972 ) , the sopranos Elisabeth Söderström as Emilia in The Makropoulos Case ( 1978 ) and Anne Evans as Senta in The Flying Dutchman ( 1972 ) , and the conductors James Levine ( Aida , 1970 ) and Reginald Goodall ( Tristan and Isolde , 1979 ) .

In the late 1970s WNO combined with the Cardiff @-@ based Welsh Drama Company , becoming the Welsh National Opera and Drama Company . The work of the drama company came under continued criticism , the Welsh Arts Council cut its grant , and the partnership ended in 1979 with the formal closure of the Welsh Drama Company .

= = 1980s = =

During the 1980s WNO continued to expand in scope . Handel ( Rodelinda , 1981 ) and Martinů ( The Greek Passion , 1981 ) were added to the company 's repertoire , and in 1983 Das Rheingold was staged in the WNO 's first Ring cycle , followed by the other three operas of the cycle over the next two years . Das Rheingold , Siegfried and Götterdämmerung were conducted by the company 's musical director , Richard Armstrong ; Die Walküre ( 1984 ) was conducted by Goodall ; it was seen as a coup for the company to secure his services – he was described by The Guardian as the greatest living Wagnerian conductor – but the casting of the whole cycle was criticised for some serious weaknesses among the principal singers , and reviewers were generally unimpressed by Göran Järvefelt 's production .

The chief executive , Brian McMaster , did not appoint a replacement to Geliot as principal director during the 1980s , preferring to engage guest producers . Boyd mentions Andrei Șerban 's Eugene Onegin ( 1980 ) among the successes and Lucian Pintilie 's Carmen ( 1983 ) and Ruth Berghaus 's Don Giovanni ( 1984 ) as productions that received more mixed responses . Sir Charles Mackerras , the conductor for Don Giovanni , was open in his contempt for Berghaus 's production . Harry Kupfer 's Fidelio ( 1981 ) was condemned by The Daily Telegraph as " a piece of Marxist polemic " making " political sport " of Beethoven 's work . McMaster was thought by some too inclined to favour radical eastern European directors : Jonathan Miller , a leading English director , commented that he did not intend to take Bulgarian nationality , although it was " a must before Brian pays any attention " .

Armstrong stepped down in 1986 after thirteen years as musical director ; he was succeeded by Mackerras , whose association with the company dated back more than thirty years . Among the features of his six @-@ year tenure was an increasing use of surtitles for performances not given in English . In the company 's early days , all operas had been sung in English , but as more international stars began to appear as guest principals the language policy had to be reconsidered : few of the leading names in world opera were interested in relearning their roles in English . WNO steered a middle course between the practices of the two main London companies ; after the 1960s The Royal Opera had generally given operas in the original language , and English National Opera was committed to opera in English . WNO 's practice varied , after its early years . Examples from the 1980s include Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde sung in German , and the Ring in English ; and Verdi 's The Force of Destiny given in English and Otello in Italian . Mackerras was a strong advocate of performance in the original language , with surtitles : " I can 't imagine a greater advance for opera . … What a gift ! It 's like Siegfried understanding the woodbird . "

= = 1990s = =

McMaster resigned in 1991 , having led the company to international status , with performances at La Scala , Milan ; the Metropolitan Opera , New York ; and in Tokyo . One of the last legacies of his tenure was the 1992 production of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande , directed by Peter Stein and conducted by Pierre Boulez . The New York Times called WNO " one of the finest operatic ensembles in Europe " and noted that the first night of the Debussy work , in Cardiff , " attracted 80 critics from all over the United Kingdom and the Continent ... the most prestigious , intensely awaited event of the British operatic season . " The production was given at the Théâtre du Châtelet , Paris , a few weeks afterwards .

McMaster was followed as chief executive by Matthew Epstein , whose three years in charge ( 1991 – 94 ) were described in a 2006 study by Paul Atkinson as " a less happy and less successful period " . Epstein was replaced by Anthony Freud , under whom , according to Atkinson , productions became " consistently strong , musically well prepared , intelligently staged and well cast . " Mackerras was succeeded in 1992 by Carlo Rizzi , who was music director at the time of WNO 's golden jubilee in 1996 . When the occasion was marked with a new production of the " Cav and Pag " double bill that had launched the company in 1946 , the BBC commented that WNO was " one of the most respected opera companies in the world " . In The Observer , Michael Ratcliffe called the company " the most popular , populist and consistently successful arts organisation ever to come out of Wales ... with the loyalty and affection of audiences in Cardiff and across England … ' The people 's opera ' is not a myth . It happened here . " The jubilee celebrations were overshadowed by the collapse of a plan for a purpose @-@ built home for the company , the Cardiff Bay Opera House .

During the 1990s WNO made its Proms debut , with a complete performance of Mozart 's Idomeneo , conducted by Mackerras in 1991 . The company played three short seasons at the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden in the mid @-@ 1990s , featuring Tristan und Isolde and La favorita in 1993 , The Yeomen of the Guard in 1995 , and The Rake 's Progress and the jubilee double bill of Cavalleria Rusticana and Pagliacci in 1996 .

= = 21st century = =

The company entered the new millennium in a state of some turmoil . A financial crisis had led to redundancies in the orchestra and the curtailment of the touring schedule ; the conservative works chosen for 2001 – 02 were condemned by the press as " the dullest programme in recent memory " ; and Rizzi was about to be replaced by a young and untried successor , Tugan Sokhiev . Rizzi had gained great respect and affection during his nine @-@ year term as musical director ; his successor 's reign was brief and unhappy . Having taken up post in 2003 , Sohkiev resigned precipitately the following year . Rizzi agreed to reorganise his schedule , and , to public and critical acclaim , returned to the musical directorship in time to prepare the company for its long @-@ awaited move into a permanent base in Cardiff .

After the collapse of the Cardiff Bay Opera House scheme , a new project , the Wales Millennium Centre , met with more success . The necessary consents and funding were obtained , and work began in 2002 on a new multipurpose arts centre on the Cardiff Bay site . The centre included a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ seat theatre , which , among other uses , became WNO 's home base from 2004 , with its own rehearsal space and offices in the complex .

In the first decade of the 21st century WNO gave more than 120 performances a year , with a repertoire , generally , of eight full @-@ scale operas . Its regular audience figures totalled over 150 @,@ 000 annually , in ten principal venues , three of them in Wales and seven in England . During this period the company was criticised for being insufficiently Welsh . A local politician , Adam Price , said that WNO ought to have a Welsh musical director ; Alun Hoddinott said in 2004 , " WNO has put on perhaps four or five Welsh operas over 20 years . ... They just seem to have an anti @-@ Welsh music bias . I am sad that they do not do something for Welsh composers , especially young ones . " A more positive view of WNO came from Scotland , where the two main newspapers , The Scotsman and The Herald , greeted a visit from the company in 2005 with enthusiastic praise , contrasting the flourishing of opera in Wales with its neglect by politicians in Scotland and the consequent decline of Scottish Opera . In 2010 WNO commissioned Gair ar Gnawd ( " Word on Flesh " ) , by Pwyll ap Siôn and Menna Elfyn , with words in Welsh , described as " a contemporary story about Wales today ... inspired by the translation of the Bible " .

From 2006 to 2011 the chief executive ( titled " artistic director " ) was John Fisher . His term overlapped with that of Lothar Koenigs who was musical director from 2009 to 2016 . A highlight of this period was the 2010 production of Die Meistersinger , produced by Richard Jones , starring Bryn Terfel as Hans Sachs . The production won superlatives from reviewers .

In 2011 David Pountney was appointed to succeed Fisher as chief executive . He had worked with the company since the 1970s , most recently on a 2006 The Flying Dutchman with Terfel which was set in space . In 2013 he programmed a trilogy of operas set in Tudor England : Donizetti 's Anna Bolena , Maria Stuarda and Roberto Devereux , with another trilogy the following year , on the theme of fallen women – Puccini 's Manon Lescaut , Henze 's Boulevard Solitude and Verdi 's La traviata . For 2016 Pountney scheduled another trilogy , this time on the theme of Figaro , consisting of Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro and Rossini 's The Barber of Seville and a new work , Figaro Gets a Divorce with music by Elena Langer and libretto by Pountney .

In September 2015 WNO announced the appointment of Tomáš Hanus as its next music director , taking office for the 2016 – 17 season . At the same time Carlo Rizzi was named the company 's conductor laureate , with immediate effect .

= = Recordings = =

Although the chorus and orchestra of Welsh National Opera have appeared on many commercial recordings , often featuring regular WNO soloists , there have been few sets , either audio or video , of the company 's own productions . Among those are Tristan und Isolde conducted by Goodall ( 1981 ) , Pelléas et Mélisande conducted by Boulez ( 1992 ) , The Yeomen of the Guard , conducted by Mackerras ( 1995 ) , The Doctor of Myddfai conducted by Armstrong ( 1998 ) , and Ariodante conducted by Ivor Bolton , directed by David Alden ( 1999 ) . The BBC made a studio video recording of a WNO cast in Katya Kabanova , conducted by Armstrong in 1982 .

The WNO chorus and orchestra have been engaged for studio opera recordings unconnected with the company 's productions , including Hamlet ( 1983 ) , Norma ( 1984 ) , Anna Bolena ( 1987 ) , Ernani ( 1987 ) and Adriana Lecouvreur ( 1988 ) conducted by Richard Bonynge , Faust ( 1993 ) and Katya Kabanova ( 1994 ) conducted by Rizzi ; and Gloriana ( 1993 ) , Eugene Onegin ( 1994 ) and Jenůfa ( 2004 ) conducted by Mackerras . For the WNO jubilee in 1996 , Decca drew on some of its studio recordings for a celebratory CD set with contributions from many soloists who had appeared onstage with the company and some who had not , the latter including Joan Sutherland , Luciano Pavarotti , Montserrat Caballe and Thomas Hampson . The orchestra of WNO has made studio recordings of non @-@ operatic music by Elgar , Delius , Coleridge @-@ Taylor and George Lloyd , and several sets of traditional Welsh songs and crossover music .

= = Music directors = =

= England national rugby union team =

The England national rugby union team represents England in rugby union . They compete in the annual Six Nations Championship with France , Ireland , Scotland , Italy , and Wales . They have won this championship on a total of 27 occasions , 13 times winning the Grand Slam , making them the most successful team in the tournament 's history . They are ranked second in the world by the International Rugby Board as of 20 June 2016 . England are the first , and to date the only , team from the northern hemisphere to win the Rugby World Cup , when they won the tournament back in 2003 . They were also runners @-@ up in 1991 and 2007 .

The history of the team extends back to 1871 when the English rugby team played their first official Test match , losing to Scotland by one goal . England dominated the early Home Nations Championship ( now the Six Nations ) which started in 1883 . Following the schism of rugby football in 1895 , England did not win the Championship again until 1910 . England first played against New Zealand in 1905 , South Africa in 1906 , and Australia in 1909 . England was one of the teams invited to take part in the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987 and went on to appear in the final in the second tournament in 1991 , losing 12 – 6 to Australia . Following their 2003 Six Nations Championship Grand Slam , they went on to win it again in 2016 . England also won the World Cup – beating Australia 20 – 17 in extra time . They also contested the final in 2007 , losing 15 – 6 to South Africa .

England players traditionally wear a white shirt with a Rose embroidered on the chest , white shorts , and navy blue socks with a white trim .

Their home ground is Twickenham Stadium where they first played in 1910 . The team is administered by the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) . Four former players have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame ; one of these is also a member of the IRB Hall of Fame . Seven other former players are members of the IRB Hall — four solely for their accomplishments as players , two solely for their achievements in other roles in the sport , and one for achievements both as a player and administrator .

= = History = =

The expansion of rugby in the first half of the 19th century was driven by ex @-@ pupils from many of England 's Public Schools , especially Rugby , who , upon finishing school , took the game with them to universities , to London , and to the counties . England 's first international match was against Scotland on Monday 27 March 1871 . Not only was this match England 's first , but it also proved to be the first ever rugby union international . Scotland won the match by a goal and a try to a try , in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 000 people at Raeburn Place , Edinburgh . A subsequent international took place at the Oval in London on 5 February 1872 which saw England defeat Scotland by a goal , a drop goal and two tries to one drop goal . In those early days there was no points system , it was only after 1890 that a format allowing the introduction of a points system was provided . Up until 1875 international rugby matches were decided by the number of goals scored ( conversions and dropped goals ) , but from 1876 the number of tries scored could be used to decide a match if teams were level on goals .

In 1875 , England played their first game against the Irish at the Oval , winning by one goal , one drop goal and one try to nil ; the match was Ireland 's first ever Test . England defeated Scotland in 1880 to become the first winners of the Calcutta Cup . Their first match against Wales was played on 19 February 1881 at Richardson 's Field in Blackheath . England recorded their largest victory , defeating the Welsh by seven goals , six tries , and one drop goal to nil and scoring 13 tries in the process . The subsequent meeting the following year at St Helens in Swansea was a closer contest ; with England winning by two goals and four tries to nil Two years later , the first Home Nations championship was held and England emerged as the inaugural winners . In 1889 , England played their first match against a non @-@ home nations team when they defeated the New Zealand Natives by one goal and four tries to nil at Rectory Field in Blackheath . In 1890 England shared the Home Nations trophy with Scotland .

England first played New Zealand ( the All Blacks ) in 1905 . The All Blacks scored five tries , worth three points at this time , to win 15 – 0 . The following year , they played France for the first time , and later that year they first faced South Africa ( known as the Springboks ) ; James Peters was withdrawn from the England squad after the South Africans objected to playing against a black player . The match was drawn 3 – 3 . England first played France in 1905 , and Australia ( known as the Wallabies ) in 1909 when they were defeated 9 – 3 .

The year 1909 saw the opening of Twickenham as the RFU 's new home , which heralded a golden era for English rugby union . England 's first international at Twickenham brought them victory over Wales , and England went on to win the International Championship ( then known as the Five Nations ) for the first time since the great schism of 1895 . Although England did not retain the title in 1911 , they did share it in 1912 . A Five Nations Grand Slam was then achieved in 1913 and 1914 as well as in 1921 following the First World War . England subsequently won the Grand Slam in 1924 and as well as in 1925 . This was despite having started 1925 with a loss to the All Black Invincibles in front of 60 @,@ 000 fans at Twickenham .

After winning another Grand Slam in 1928 , England played the Springboks in front of 70 @,@ 000 spectators at Twickenham in 1931 . Following the ejection of France due to professionalism in 1930 , which thus reverted The Five Nations back to the Home Nations tournament , England went on to win the 1934 and 1937 Home Nations with a Triple Crown , and in 1935 achieved their first victory over the All Blacks .

When the Five Nations resumed with the re @-@ admission of France in 1947 after the Second World War , England shared the championship with Wales . The early Five Nations competitions of the 1950s were unsuccessful for England , winning one match in the 1950 and 1951 championships . England won the 1953 Five Nations , and followed this up with a Grand Slam in 1957 , and win in 1958 . England broke France 's four @-@ championship streak by winning the 1963 Championship . After this victory , England played three Tests in the Southern Hemisphere and lost all three : 21 – 11 and 9 – 6 against the All Blacks , and 18 – 9 against Australia . England did not win a single match in 1966 , and managed only a draw with Ireland . They did not win another Championship that decade ; a fact that prompted amateur historian F. W. P. Syms to declare this period ' the sorriest in English Rugby Union History ' .

Don White was appointed as England 's first @-@ ever coach in 1969 . According to former Northampton player Bob Taylor , " Don was chosen because he was the most forward @-@ thinking coach in England " . His first match in charge was an 11 – 8 victory over South Africa at Twickenham in 1969 . Of the eleven games England played with White in charge they won three , and drew one and lost seven . He resigned as England coach in 1971 .

England had wins against Southern Hemisphere teams in the 1970s ; with victories over South Africa in 1972 , New Zealand in 1973 and Australia in 1973 and 1976 . The 1972 Five Nations Championship was not completed due to the Troubles in Northern Ireland when Scotland and Wales refused to play their Five Nations away fixtures in Ireland . England played in Dublin in 1973 and were given a standing ovation lasting five minutes . After losing 18 – 9 at Lansdowne Road , the England captain , John Pullin famously stated , " We might not be very good but at least we turned up . "

England started the following decade with a Grand Slam victory in the 1980 Five Nations – their first for 23 years . However in the 1983 Five Nations Championship , England failed to win a game and picked up the wooden spoon . In the first Rugby World Cup in New Zealand and Australia , England were grouped in pool A alongside Australia , Japan and the United States . England lost their first game 19 – 6 against Australia . They went on to defeat Japan and the United States , and met Wales in their quarter @-@ final , losing the match 16 – 3 .

In 1989 , England won matches against Romania and Fiji , followed by victories in their first three Five Nations games of 1990 . They lost to Scotland in their last game however , giving Scotland a Grand Slam . England recovered in the following year by winning their first Grand Slam since 1980 . England hosted the 1991 World Cup and were in pool A , along with the All Blacks , Italy and the United States . Although they lost to the All Blacks in pool play , they qualified for a quarter @-@ final going on to defeat France 19 – 10 . England then defeated Scotland 9 – 6 to secure a place in the final against Australia which they lost 12 – 6 .

The next year , England completed another Grand Slam and did not lose that year , including a victory over the Springboks . In the lead up to the 1995 World Cup in South Africa , England completed another Grand Slam – their third in five years . In the World Cup , England defeated Argentina , Italy and Samoa in pool play and then defeated Australia 25 – 22 in their quarter @-@ final . England 's semi @-@ final was dominated by the All Blacks and featured four tries , now worth five points each , by Jonah Lomu ; England lost 45 – 29 . They then lost the third / fourth place play @-@ off match against France .

In 1997 , Clive Woodward became England 's coach . That year , England drew with New Zealand at Twickenham after being heavily defeated in Manchester the week before . England toured Australia , New Zealand and South Africa in 1998 . Many of the England team made themselves unavailable for the tour nicknamed the " tour from hell " where England were beaten 76 – 0 by the Wallabies . In 1999 during the last ever Five Nations match , Scott Gibbs sliced through six English tackles to score in the last minute , and the last ever Five Nations title went to Scotland .

England commenced the new decade by winning the inaugural Six Nations title . In 2001 , Ireland defeated England 20 – 14 in a postponed match at Lansdowne Road to deny them a Grand Slam . Although the 2002 Six Nations Championship title was won by France , England had the consolation of winning the Triple Crown . In 2002 , England defeated Argentina in Buenos Aires , and then a second string All Blacks , Australia , and South Africa at Twickenham . In 2003 , England won the Grand Slam for the first time since 1995 , followed by wins over Australia and the All Blacks on their Summer tour in June .

Going into the 2003 World Cup , England were one of the tournament favourites . They reached the final on 22 November 2003 against host Australia and became world champions after a match @-@ winning drop goal by star flyhalf Jonny Wilkinson deep into extra time that made the final score 20 – 17 . Not only was it their first Rugby World Cup victory , but it was the country 's first World Cup since winning the 1966 FIFA ( football ) World Cup as hosts . On 8 December , the English team greeted 750 @,@ 000 supporters on their victory parade through London before meeting Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace .

In the 2004 Six Nations Championship , England lost to both France and Ireland and finished third . Sir Clive Woodward resigned on 2 September and Andy Robinson was appointed England head coach . Robinson 's first Six Nations campaign in 2005 resulted in fourth place for England , and although they then defeated Australia 26 – 16 , the year was completed with a 23 – 19 loss to the All Blacks .

Following their loss to South Africa in the 2006 end of year Tests , England had lost eight of their last nine Tests – their worst ever losing streak . Coach Andy Robinson resigned after this run , and attack coach Brian Ashton was appointed head coach in December 2006 . England started the 2007 Six Nations Championship with a Calcutta Cup victory over Scotland . The championship also included a historic match at Croke Park against Ireland which England lost 43 – 13 , their heaviest ever defeat to Ireland .

In the 2007 World Cup England played in Pool A with Samoa , Tonga , South Africa and the United States . They qualified for the quarter finals after losing embarrassingly to South Africa 36 – 0 where they defeated Australia 12 – 10 , and then faced hosts France in their semi final . England won 14 – 9 to qualify for the final against South Africa , which they lost 15 – 6 . England followed up the World Cup with two consecutive 2nd place finishes in the Six Nations , behind Wales and Ireland respectively . The 2009 Six Nations also saw former England Captain Martin Johnson take up the job of head coach . However , Johnson could not replicate his on @-@ field success to management , and resigned in November 2011 following a miserable 2011 Rugby World Cup which ended in quarter @-@ final defeat by France and featured a series of on and off @-@ field controversies .

On 29 March 2012 , Stuart Lancaster , the former Elite Rugby Director at Leeds Carnegie was appointed England head coach by the Rugby Football Union . Previously Lancaster was appointed as the head coach on a short term basis assisted by existing forwards coach Graham Rowntree and Andy Farrell .

Lancaster was considered a success in his first campaign as England coach - during the 2012 Six Nations Championship , defending Champions England finished in second place after losing 19 – 12 to Wales at Twickenham Stadium , but successfully defended the Calcutta Cup beating Scotland 13 – 6 at Murrayfield . England finished the year on a high , after outplaying World Cup holders New Zealand in November , in which England dominated to win 38 – 21 . The All Blacks had been unbeaten in 20 matches but were completely outplayed by England .

During the 2013 Six Nations Championship again England finished in second place behind Wales after losing the opportunity of being Grand Slam winners for the first time since 2003 , by losing to Wales in Cardiff 30 – 3 . It was also the first time every team managed to win at least 3 competition points ( the equivalent of a win and a draw or three draws ) since 1974 . However , England did again defeat Scotland for the Calcutta Cup 38 – 18 at Twickenham .

During the 2013 summer tour to South America in which Lancaster took an experimental side , England beat a South American select XV before a 2 – 0 series victory over Argentina , a first away series win against The Pumas for 32 years . England hosted the 2015 Rugby World Cup but were eliminated in the Pool stage , earning the unenviable reputation of being the first side in Rugby World Cup history to have hosted the tournament and yet to have failed to qualify for the knockout stages .

= = Twickenham = =

Up until 1910 , the English rugby team used various stadia in a number of venues around England before settling at Twickenham Stadium . It is the largest rugby @-@ dedicated stadium in the world . After sell @-@ out matches at Crystal Palace in 1905 and 1906 against New Zealand and South Africa respectively , the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) decided to invest in their own ground . In 1906 , the RFU arranged for William Williams to find a home ground for English Rugby . The land for the ground was purchased the following year for £ 5 @,@ 572 12s and 6d , and construction began the following year .

The first England match was held on 9 October 1910 between England and Wales . England ran out winners , 11 – 6 , beating Wales for the first time since 1898 . The stadium was expanded in 1927 and again in 1932 . Further upgrades did not happen until the 1990s when new North , East and West stands were built . A new South stand was built in 2005 and 2006 to make the stadium into a complete bowl . The first match to be played at the redeveloped Twickenham was on Sunday 5 November 2006 against the All Blacks . England lost the match 41 @-@ 20 in front of a record crowd of 82 @,@ 076 .

Although England have played home matches almost exclusively at Twickenham since 1910 , they have played at Huddersfield 's Galpharm Stadium twice in 1998 , at Old Trafford against New Zealand in 1997 and at Wembley Stadium against Canada in 1992 . They also played the first of a two @-@ test series against Argentina at Old Trafford in June 2009 , a match originally scheduled to be held in Argentina but moved by the country 's national federation for financial reasons .

The pitch at Twickenham was replaced by a hybrid ' Desso ' type , in June 2012 , which uses artificial fibres entwined with real grass . This makes it a lot harder wearing in wet conditions .

= = = Swing Low , Sweet Chariot = = =

" Swing Low , Sweet Chariot " is very commonly sung at England fixtures – especially at Twickenham . The song arrived in the rugby canon through the Welsh male voice choirs who sang many spirituals . It was a popular rugby song at clubs during the 1950s and 1960s and was sung every year at Twickenham during the end @-@ of @-@ season all @-@ day Middlesex Sevens tournament accompanied by risqué hand gestures that played on the double entendres of some of the words . During the 1970s the Twickenham crowd also sang it during England matches then coming into the last match of the 1988 season , against the Irish , England had lost 15 of their previous 23 matches in the Five Nations Championship . The Twickenham crowd had only seen one solitary England try in the previous two years and at half time against Ireland they were 3 – 0 down . During the second half a remarkable transformation took place and England started playing an expansive game many had doubted they were capable of producing . A 3 – 0 deficit was turned into a 35 – 3 win , with England scoring six tries .

In the 35 – 3 win , three of England 's tries were scored by Chris Oti , a player who had made a reputation for himself that season as a speedster on the left wing . A group of boys from the Benedictine school Douai following a tradition at their school games sang the song on his final try , and other spectators around the ground joined in . Since then " Swing Low , Sweet Chariot " became a song to sing at England home games , in the same way that " The Fields of Athenry " is sung in Dublin and " Cwm Rhondda " is sung at Cardiff . It has since become the anthem of the team as in 1991 the result of a plan of the then RFU marketing director Mike Coley for the team to launch a song leading up to that year 's Rugby World Cup . He had wanted to use Jerusalem but it was used in the Rugby League cup final that year so the song was changed at short notice to " Swing Low " . There were a number of versions recorded including a ' rap ' version with Jerry Guscott doing a solo . Needless to say that was never released but the version released did reach the top 40 in the UK singles chart during the competition and was then adopted as the England rugby song .

= = Strip = =

England have typically worn all @-@ white shirts , white shorts with navy and white socks . The emblem on the shirts is a red rose , rather than the Plantagenet Three Lions displayed on the shirts of the England football and cricket teams . The strip is manufactured by Canterbury and O2 is the shirt sponsor . Red was the change strip , although prior to the introduction of the red strip , navy blue was used . Purple was used as the change strip as of the 2009 autumn internationals , reflecting the traditional colour of the original England track @-@ suits from the 1960s , 70s and 80s . For the 2011 Rugby World Cup the change kit was black .

The Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) had created the national side 's emblem prior to an English team being sent to Edinburgh to play a Scottish side . A red rose was chosen to be the side 's emblem . The white kit worn by the national team was taken from the kit used at Rugby School . Alfred Wright , an employee of the Rugby Football Union , is credited with the standardisation and new design of the rose , which up until 1920 had undergone many variations in its depiction . The Wright design is thought to have been used without minor alteration until the late 1990s . It was not until 1997 that the rose was modernised when Nike became the official strip supplier .

In 2003 England first used a skin @-@ tight strip . This was intended to make it more difficult for the opposition to grasp the shirt when tackling . The home and away strips for 2007 were unveiled on 15 May that year . The materials used are superior , offering improved performance to the 2003 kit . However , a sweeping red mark on the base @-@ white front which forms St George 's Cross on the top left , and a changed away @-@ strip ( dark blue to red ) , have received criticism because it is felt that emphasis has been placed on St George 's Cross at the expense of the traditional red rose . The new strip was introduced in England 's home game against Wales on 4 August , while the alternative strip was first used against France on 18 August .

The former England home strip was white with a strip of red around the neck , and the away strip was black ( causing much controversy due to the famous All @-@ Black kit of New Zealand ) , both kits had a ground breaking new technology in the form of a gripper print . A special strip was worn during the match versus Wales in the 2010 Six Nations Championship which replicated that worn in 1910 to celebrate the 100 year anniversary of Twickenham . The current , 2013 @-@ 14 , England strip is made by Canterbury . It features plain white shorts and a plain white shirt , but with an added black stripe on each sleeve . The current away kit has a red and white striped shirt , with blue shorts . In 2014 / 15 , the home shirt was white , with a " V @-@ Neck " around the collar . The kit also had little St George 's crosses on the main chest . It also had the O2 sponsorship marking on the chest . The shorts were plain white with the sponsorship marking on them . The socks were dark blue and had a white stripe at the top . The alternate shirt was exactly the same but was red instead of white . The shorts were navy blue and the socks were red with a white stripe on top . The 2015 / 16 strip was similar but didn 't have the small crosses on the shirt . The Canterbury logo was straight and not diagonal it had white lines going horizontally across the chest . For the 2015 Rugby World Cup , the kit remained the same just with the Rugby World Cup logo on the right and no O2 logo in the centre . For the home strip , the shorts and socks remained the same . The away 2015 / 16 strip and World Cup strip was red , with dark red and maroon sleeves . The shorts were maroon and the socks were red with a maroon stripe on top .

= = Record = =

= = = Six Nations = = =

England competes annually in the Six Nations Championship , which is played against five other European nations : France , Ireland , Italy , Scotland , and Wales . The Six Nations started out as the Home Nations Championship in 1883 which England won with a Triple Crown . England have won the title outright 27 times ( a record for the tournament ) and shared victory ten times . Their longest wait between championships was 18 years ( 1892 – 1910 ) . During the Six Nations , England also contests the Calcutta Cup with Scotland ( which England first won in 1880 ) and the Millennium Trophy with Ireland ( which England first won in 1988 ) . The matches between England and France are traditionally known as " Le Crunch " .

= = = World Cup = = =

England have contested every Rugby World Cup since it began in 1987 , reaching the final three times and winning in 2003 .

In the inaugural tournament they finished second in their pool before losing to Wales in the quarter @-@ finals . They again finished pool runners @-@ up in 1991 but recovered to beat France in their quarter @-@ final , and then Scotland in their semi @-@ final , en route to a 12 – 6 final defeat to Australia .

In 1995 , England topped their pool and defeated Australia 25 – 22 at the quarter @-@ final stage before being beaten by the All Blacks in the semi @-@ final . Their third @-@ fourth place play @-@ off match against France was lost 19 – 9 .

The 1999 competition saw England again finish second in the pool stage . Though they proceeded to win a play @-@ off game against Fiji , they went out of the tournament in the quarter @-@ finals , losing 44 – 21 to South Africa .

In the 2003 tournament , England came top of their pool . They progressed to the final beating Wales and France in the quarter and semi finals . England won the final with a drop goal in the last minute of extra time .

The 2007 defence of the cup in France got off to a very poor start , with a below par victory over the United States and a heavy 36 – 0 defeat to South Africa leaving the holders on the brink of elimination at the group stage . Improved performances against Samoa and Tonga saw England again reach the knockout stages as pool runners @-@ up , before a surprise 12 – 10 defeat of Australia in Marseille and a narrow 14 – 9 victory over the host nation France carried England to a second successive final appearance . The final was played in Paris on 20 October against South Africa , who won by 15 points to 6 .

In 2011 , England reached the quarter final stage , losing 19 @-@ 12 to France .

In 2015 , England became the first sole host nation to fail to qualify for the knockout stage , exiting the pool stage after losses to Wales and Australia .

England 's Jonny Wilkinson is the highest points scorer in the rugby world cup , having scored 277 points between 1999 and 2011 . England have the fourth most points and fourth most tries scored in the World Cup .

= = = Overall = = =

When the World Rankings were introduced in October 2003 , England was ranked 1st . They briefly fell to 2nd in September that year before regaining 1st place . They fell to 2nd , and then to 3rd in June 2004 . After the 2005 Six Nations they fell to 6th where they remained until they moved into 5th in December that year . In 2006 , their ranking again fell and they finished the year ranked 7th . 2007 saw them bounce back to 3rd after their good run in that year 's World Cup , where they finished Runners Up . In 2008 , their rankings slipped so that during the 2009 Six Nations Championship they dropped to their lowest ranking of 8th . They again were 8th during the autumn internationals of the same year . After a resurgence which saw them rise to a ranking of 4th in the world , the team again slipped , following a poor showing at the 2011 Rugby World Cup , and was ranked 6th in February 2012 . England entered the 2015 Rugby World Cup ranked 4th . However , after failing to exit the pool stage , England were ranked 8th in the world as of 1 November 2015 .

England has won 381 of their 701 Test matches , a winning record of 54 @.@ 35 % . Below is a summary table of capped England matches up until 25 June 2016 . Only fixtures recognised as test matches by the RFU are included .

= = Players = =

= = = Current squad = = =

On 22 May , head coach Eddie Jones named a 32 @-@ man squad for England 's tour of Australia . An additional 5 players ( denoted through * ) were also named ahead of the test match against Wales on 29 May , with the Aviva Premiership final taking place in the 28 May between Saracens and Exeter Chiefs . Ben Te 'o has been named in the squad by virtue of his English mother . Despite playing for Irish province Leinster , Te 'o will moving to Worcester Warriors in the 2016 / 17 season making him eligible for selection .

On 30 May , Luther Burrell replaced Manu Tuilagi in the touring squad , after Tuilagi withdrew from the squad due to injury .

Note : The number of caps was updated 25 June 2016 .

= = = Notable players = = =

Four former England representatives have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame : Bill Beaumont , Martin Johnson , Jason Leonard and Wavell Wakefield .

Seven former England internationals are also members of the IRB Hall of Fame . Four of them — Johnson , Alan Rotherham , Harry Vassall and Robert Seddon — were inducted for their accomplishments as players . Two other former England players , John Kendall @-@ Carpenter and Clive Woodward , were inducted into the IRB Hall for non @-@ playing accomplishments in the sport . Another former England player , Alfred St. George Hamersley , was inducted for achievements as both a player and a rugby administrator .

Wavell Wakefield represented England in 31 Tests between 1920 and 1927 , including 13 Tests as captain . He was involved in three Five Nations Grand Slams in 1921 , 1923 and 1924 . Playing as flanker , Wakefield introduced new elements to back row tactics which beforehand concentrated on the set piece . He became a Member of Parliament in 1935 , and was knighted in 1944 . He became the RFU President in 1950 and following his retirement from politics was awarded the title the first Baron Wakefield of Kendal .

Between 1975 and 1982 , Bill Beaumont represented England in 34 Tests . Playing at lock , he was captain between 1978 and 1982 in 21 Tests including the 1980 Grand Slam – England 's first since 1957 . Later that year , he captained the British Lions to South Africa – the first time an Englishman had captained the Lions since 1930 . Furthermore , Beaumont represented the Barbarians FC on fifteen occasions .

The youngest ever England captain at 22 , Will Carling represented England in 72 Tests , and as captain 59 times between 1988 and 1996 . He was best known as a superlative leader , motivating England to a remarkable three Grand Slams in five years , including back to back slams in 1991 and 1992 . He also led England to the final of the 1991 World Cup , and captained the Barbarians FC . His playing talents were not as flamboyant as some of his colleagues , but his effectiveness cemented him as a first choice at centre . It is possible he would already be in the Hall of Fame were it not for outspoken tendencies with respect to the English RFU committee ( " Old Farts " ) , who may as a result be reluctant to acknowledge his achievements . He was made an OBE in 1991 .

Described as arguably " the greatest forward " to play for England , Martin Johnson played 84 Tests for England , and 8 Tests for the British and Irish Lions . He first represented England in 1993 , and later that year the Lions . He captained the Lions to South Africa in 1997 , and in 1999 was appointed captain of England . He became England 's most successful ever captain . He became the first player to captain two Lions tours when he captained them in Australia in 2001 . He retired from Test rugby after he led England to a Six Nations Grand Slam and World Cup victory in 2003 and has since become the team Manager . At the 2011 IRB Awards ceremony in Auckland on 24 October 2011 , the night after the World Cup Final , Johnson was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame alongside all other World Cup @-@ winning captains from 1987 through 2007 ( minus the previously inducted Australian John Eales ) .

Jason Leonard , also known as " The Fun Bus " , appeared 114 times for England at prop , which was the world record for international appearances for a national team until 2005 , when it was surpassed by Australia 's scrum @-@ half George Gregan . He was on the England team that finished runners up to Australia in the 1991 Rugby World Cup final , but avenged this twelve years later , coming on as a substitute for Phil Vickery in England 's victorious 2003 Rugby World Cup final appearance . He also went on three British and Irish Lions tours where he was capped five times .

Alan Rotherham and Harry Vassall , both 19th @-@ century greats for Oxford and England , were inducted into the IRB Hall in April 2011 . The IRB recognised them for " their unique contribution to the way that Rugby was played " , specifically stating that they " are credited with pioneering the passing game and the three @-@ man backline , which became widespread during the 1880s . "

Two other England internationals , John Kendall @-@ Carpenter and Clive Woodward , were inducted into the IRB Hall alongside Johnson at the 2011 IRB Awards . Although both had notable careers for England , they were recognised for accomplishments in other roles in the sport . Kendall @-@ Carpenter was cited as one of four key figures in the creation of the Rugby World Cup , whilst Woodward was inducted as coach of the 2003 World Cup winners , alongside all other World Cup @-@ winning coaches from 1987 to 2007 .

England 's most recent inductees into the IRB Hall are 19th @-@ century internationals Alfred St. George Hamersley and Robert Seddon , both inducted in 2013 . Hamersley played for England in the first @-@ ever rugby union international against Scotland in 1871 , and captained England in the last of his four appearances in 1874 . He went on to play significant roles in the early development of the sport in both New Zealand and Canada . Seddon , capped three times for England in 1887 , was most notable as the captain of the unofficial British side that toured Australia and New Zealand in 1888 ; he died in a boating accident during the tour . This venture proved to be the genesis of the modern British and Irish Lions . The touring team was also inducted alongside Seddon .

= = = Individual records = = =

Jonny Wilkinson holds the record for most points for England : 1 @,@ 151 . The record for tries is held by Rory Underwood with 49 tries . The most capped England player is former prop Jason Leonard who made 114 appearances over his 14 @-@ year career . England 's youngest ever Test player was Colin Laird who was 18 years and 134 days old when he played against Wales in 1927 .

= = Training = =

Pennyhill Park Hotel in Bagshot , Surrey , is the chosen training base for the team in the 2015 Rugby World Cup . Loughborough University , Bisham Abbey and the University of Bath grounds served as training bases prior to this agreement . Martin Johnson noted the hotel 's facilities and its proximity to Twickenham and Heathrow as deciding factors in this decision . The team had their own pitchside gym and fitness rooms constructed on the hotel premises at the start of the long @-@ term arrangement . Since its completion in 2010 the team also regularly use Surrey Sports Park at the University of Surrey in nearby Guildford for much of their training .

= = = Club versus country = = =

Although the England team is governed by the Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) , players have been contracted to their clubs since the advent of professionalism in late 1995 . Since then , players have often been caught in a " power struggle " between their clubs and the RFU ; this is commonly referred to as a " club versus country " conflict . The first major dispute between England 's top clubs ( who play in the English Premiership ) and the RFU occurred in 1998 , when some of the clubs refused to release players to tour Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . The tour became known as the " Tour from hell " after an England squad of second @-@ string players were defeated in all four Tests , including a 76 – 0 defeat by Australia . The clubs also withdrew from the 1998 / 99 European Cup .

In 2001 , the top clubs and the RFU formed " England Rugby " to help govern the club and international game . The parties agreed to restrict the number of matches at club and international level that elite players ( a group of 50 or 60 players selected by the RFU ) could play in order to reduce player burnout and injuries . In return for releasing players from club commitments , the clubs were to receive compensation from the RFU . This agreement was considered central to the England victory in the 2003 World Cup . Clive Woodward , England coach from November 1997 , resigned in 2004 because he was unable to get the access to the players that he wanted ; " I wanted more from the union – more training days with the players , more influence over the way they were treated – and ended up with less . " Andy Robinson , Woodward 's successor , blamed the lack of control over players for his team 's unsuccessful record . Brian Ashton , who took over from Robinson , intentionally named his playing squad for Six Nations matches in 2007 early in the hope that their clubs would not play them in the weekend prior to a Test . The RFU and the Premiership clubs are negotiating a similar deal to the one in 2001 that will enable international players to be released into the England squad prior to international matches .

= = = Coaches = = =

The following is a list of all England coaches . The first appointed coach was Don White in 1969 . The most recent coach is Eddie Jones . He took over from Stuart Lancaster a week after Lancaster 's resignation . Jones became the first foreigner to coach the English side .

Updated 25 June 2016

= = Media coverage = =

England 's mid @-@ year tests and end of year tests are televised live by Sky Sports while end of year matches are highlighted by BBC Three on that game day and repeated on BBC Two the next day . England 's 2014 end of year international against Samoa was not highlighted on BBC Three . All Six Nations games are shown for free on the BBC and ITV from 2016 .

= = Titles = =

= Jeremi Wiśniowiecki =

Jeremi Wiśniowiecki ( Ukrainian : Ярема Вишневецький - Yarema Vyshnevetsky ; August 17 , 1612 – August 20 , 1651 ) nicknamed Hammer on the Cossacks or Iron Hand , was a notable member of the aristocracy of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , Prince of Wiśniowiec , Łubnie and Chorol in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the father of the future King of Poland , Michael I.

A notable magnate and military commander with Ruthenian and Romanian origin , Wiśniowiecki was heir of one of the biggest fortunes of the state and rose to several notable dignities , including the position of voivode of the Ruthenian Voivodship in 1646 . His conversion from Eastern Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism caused much dissent in Ruthenia and Ukraine ( parts of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth ) . Wiśniowiecki was a successful military leader as well as one of the wealthiest magnates of Poland , ruling over lands inhabited by 230 @,@ 000 people .

= = Biography = =

= = = Youth = = =

Jeremi Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki was born in 1612 ; neither the exact date nor the place of his birth are known . His father , Michał Wiśniowiecki , of the Lithuanian @-@ Ruthenian Wiśniowiecki family , died soon after Jeremi 's birth , in 1616 . His mother , Regina Mohyła ( Raina Mohylanka ) was a Moldavian @-@ born noble woman of the Movilești family , daughter of the Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă , Jeremy 's namesake ; she died in 1619 . Both of his parents were of the Eastern Orthodox Church rite ; Jeremy 's uncle was the influential Orthodox theologian Peter Mogila , and his great @-@ uncle was George Mogila , the Metropolitan of Moldavia .

Orphaned at the age of seven , Wiśniowiecki was raised by his uncle , Konstanty Wiśniowiecki , whose branch of the family were Roman Catholics . Jeremi attended a Jesuit college in Lwów and later , in 1629 , he traveled to Italy , where he briefly attended the University of Bologna . He also acquired some military experience in the Netherlands . The upbringing by his uncle and the trips abroad polonized him , and turned him from a provincial Ruthenian princeling into one of the youngest magnates of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth .

In 1631 Wiśniowiecki returned to the Commonwealth and took over from his uncle the management of his father 's huge estate , which included a large part of what is now Ukraine . In 1632 he converted from Eastern Orthodoxy to Catholicism , an action that caused much concern in Ukraine . His decision has been analyzed by historians , and often criticized , particularly in Ukrainian historiography . The Orthodox Church feared to lose a powerful protector , and Isaiah Kopinsky , metropolitan bishop of Kiev and a friend of his mother , unsuccessfully plead with him to change his mind . Jeremi would not budge although he remained on decent terms with the Orthdox Church , avoiding provocative actions , and supported his uncle and Orthodox bishop Peter Mogila and his Orthodox Church collegium .

= = = Later life = = =

Wiśniowiecki 's courtier and first biographer , Michał Kałyszowski , counted that Jeremi participated in nine wars in his lifetime . The first of those was the Smolensk Campaign of 1633 – 34 against the Tsardom of Russia . In that war he accompanied castellan Aleksander Piaseczyński 's southern army and took part in several battles , among them the unsuccessful siege of Putyvl ; later that year they took Rylsk and Sevsk before retreating . The following year he worked with Adam Kisiel and Łukasz Żółkiewski , commanding his own private army of 4 @,@ 000 . As his troops formed 2 / 3 of their army ( not counting supporting Cossack elements ) , Jeremi , despite being the most junior of commanders , had much influence over their campaign . Lacking in artillery , they failed to take any major towns , but ravaged the countryside near Sevsk and Kursk . The war ended soon afterward , and in May 1634 he returned to Lubny . For his service , he received a commendation from the King of Poland , Władysław IV Vasa , and the castellany of Kiev .

After the war Wiśniowiecki engaged in a number of conflicts with neighbouring magnates and nobles . Jeremi was able to afford a sizable private army of several thousands , and through the threat of it he was often able to force his neighbours to a favourable settlement of disputes . Soon after his return from the Russian front , he participated on the side of the Dowmont family in the quarrel over the estate of Dowmontów against another magnate , Samuel Łaszcz , located on his lands ; soon after the victorious battle against Łaszcz he bought the lands from the Dowmonts and incorporated them into his estates .

Around 1636 the Sejm ( Polish parliament ) opposed the marriage of King Władysław IV Waza to Wiśniowiecki 's sister , Anna . Following this , Jeremi distanced himself from the royal court , although he periodically returned to Warsaw , usually as one of the deputies to the Sejm from the Ruthenian Voivodeship . Soon afterward , Jeremi himself married Gryzelda Zamoyska , daughter of Chancellor Tomasz Zamoyski , on 27 February 1639 , on Gryzelda 's 16th birthday .

At that time Wiśniowiecki also engaged in a political conflict over nobility titles , in particular , the title of prince ( kniaź ) . The nobility in the Commonwealth was officially equal , and used different and non @-@ hereditary titles then those found in rest of the world ( see officials of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ) ; the gist of the conflict , which took much of the Sejm 's time around 1638 – 41 , revolved around whether old prince titles ( awarded to families before their lands were incorporated into the Commonwealth in the 1569 Union of Lublin ) , and the new titles , awarded more recently by some foreign courts , should be recognized . Wiśniowiecki was one of the chief participants in this debate , successfully defending the old titles , including that of his own family , and succeeding in abolishing the new titles , which gained him the enmity of another powerful magnate , Jerzy Ossoliński . Other than this conflict , in his years as a deputy ( 1635 – 46 ) , Jeremi wasn 't involved in any major political issues , and only twice ( in 1640 and 1642 ) he served in the minor function of a commissar for investigating the eastern and southern border disputes .

In 1637 Wiśniowiecki might have fought under Hetman Mikołaj Potocki against the Cossack rebellion of Pavel Pavluk ( the Pawluk Uprising ) ; Jan Widacki notes that historians are not certain whether he did and in either case , no detailed accounts of his possible participation survive . A year later , returning from the Sejm and from the engagement ceremony with Gryzelda , he gathered a 4 @,@ 000 strong division that participated in putting down of the Ostrzanin Uprising and arrived at the region affected by the unrest in June that year . Together with Hetman Potocki he defeated the insurgents at the Battle of Żownin , which turned into a rather difficult siege of the Cossack camp that lasted from 13 June till the Cossack relief forces were defeated on 4 August , and the Cossacks capitulated on 7 August .

= = = Final years = = =

In 1641 , after the death of his uncle Konstanty Wiśniowiecki , Jeremi became the last adult male of the Wiśniowiecki family and inherited all the remaining estates of the clan , despite a brief conflict with Aleksander Ludwik Radziwiłł who also claimed the inherited land . The conflict stemmed from the fact that Konstanty asked Jeremi to take care of his grandchildren , but their mother , Katarzyna Eugenia Tyszkiewicz , married Aleksander , who declared he is able and willing to take care of her children - and their estates . A year later , Katarzyna Eugenia decided to divorce Aleksander , and the matter was settled in favor of Jeremi .

Wiśniowiecki also fought against the Tatars in 1640 – 46 , whose raids on the south @-@ east frontier of the Commonwealth endangered his holdings . In 1644 together with Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski he took part in the victorious Battle of Ochmatów , in which they crushed forces of Crimean Tatars led by Toğay bey ( Tuhaj Bej ) .

In 1644 , after the false news of the death of Adam Kazanowski , Wiśniowiecki took over his disputed estate of Rumno by subterfuge . For this he was at first sentenced to exile , but due to his influence , even the King could not realistically expect to enforce this ruling without a civil war . Eventually after more discussions at local sejmiks and then in the Sejm , he won the case and was granted the right for Rumno . In 1646 , after the death of Koniecpolski , he became the voivode of Ruthenia . He invaded and took over the town of Hadiach which was also being claimed by a son of Koniecpolski , Aleksander Koniecpolski , but a year later , in 1647 , he lost that case and was forced to return the town .

On 4 April 1646 Wiśniowiecki received the office of the voivode of Ruthenia , which granted him a seat in the Senate of Poland . He was the third member of the Wiśniowiecki family to gain that privilege . Soon afterward , however , he refused to support King Władysław 's plan for a war against the Ottoman Empire , even though the King offered him the rank of a Field Crown Hetman .

Then the autumn of 1646 , Wiśniowiecki invaded and took over the starostwo kaniowskie vacated recently by banished Samuel Łaszcz . He did so without any legal justifications , which caused a court ruling against him ; a ruling that was however never enforced . Later that year , he raised a large private army of about 25 @,@ 000 for a purpose unknown , as noted by Widacki , who writes that the army , which Jeremi raised with an immense cost for a short time , did not participate in any engagement , nor did it have any clear purpose . He notes that such an army might have been useful in provoking the Ottomans , but as Jeremi was opposed to the war with them up to the point of refusing the hetman office , his actions are puzzling even for the modern historians .

= = = Khmelnytsky Uprising = = =

Wiśniowiecki fought against the Cossacks again during Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648 – 51 . He received information about a growing unrest , and began mobilizing his troops , and in early May learned about the Cossack victory at the Battle of Zhovti Vody . Receiving no orders from Hetmans Mikołaj Potocki and Marcin Kalinowski , he began moving on his own , soon learning about the second Cossack victory at Battle of Korsuń , which meant that his troops ( about 6 @,@ 000 strong ) were the only Polish forces in Transdnieper at that moment . After taking in the situation , he began retreating towards Chernihiv ; his army soon became a focal point for various refugees . Passing Chernihiv , he continued through Liubech to Brahin . He continued to Mazyr , Zhytomir , and Pohrebyshche , stopping briefly in Zhytomir for the local sejmik . After some skirmishes near Nemyriv , Machnówka and Starokostiantyniv ( Battle of Starokostiantyniv ) against the Cossack forces . By July he would arrive near Zbarazh .

Wiśniowiecki 's fighting retreat had a major impact on the course of the war . In the words of the historian Władysław Konopczyński , " he was not defeated , not victorious , and thus he made the peace more difficult . " Politicians in safe Warsaw tried to negotiate with the Cossacks , who in turn used Wisniowiecki 's actions as an excuse to delay any serious negotiations .

Around late August or early September , Wiśniowiecki met with the army regimentarzs Władysław Dominik Zasławski @-@ Ostrogski , Mikołaj Ostroróg and Aleksander Koniecpolski . He was not on overly friendly terms with them , as he resented being passed in military nominations , but after short negotiations he agreed to follow their orders , and thus reduced to a junior commander status which had little impact over the next phase of the campaign . On 23 September , their forces were , however , defeated at the Battle of Pyliavtsi ; near the end of the battle some accounts suggest Wiśniowiecki was offered the hetman 's position , but refused . On 28 September in Lviv , Wiśniowiecki , with popular support , was given a field regimentarz nomination ; about a week later this nomination was confirmed by the Sejm . To the anger of Lviv 's townfolk , he decided to focus on retreating towards the key fortress in Zamość instead of Lviv ; he would leave garrisons on both towns , and keep his army in the field . In the end , the cities were not captured by the Cossacks , who in the light of the coming winter decided to retreat , after being paid a ransom by both town councils ; no other large field battle toke place that year .

Meanwhile , the convocation sejm of 1648 had elected a new king , Jan Kazimierz II Vasa . Wiśniowiecki supported other candidates , such as George I Rákóczi and Karol Ferdynand Vasa ( Jan Kazimierz 's brother ) . Due to the opposition from Jeremi 's detractors , he was not granted a hetman position , although after a full two days of debate on the subject he was granted a document that stated he had a " power equal to that of a hetman . " Wiśniowiecki faction , arguing for increase in army size , was once again marginalized by the faction that hoped for a peaceful resolution . In the end , the King and most of the szlachta were lulled into a false sense of security , and the military was not reinforced significantly . To add an insult to an injury , the coronation sejm of January – February 1649 , held in Kraków , revoked Wiśniowieck 's regimentarz rank .

In the first half of 1649 , the negotiations with the Cossacks fell through , and the Polish @-@ Lithuanian military begun gathering near the borders with the rebellious Ukraine , a major camp was in Zbarazh , where Wiśniowiecki would arrive as well in late June , after gathering a new army of 3 @,@ 000 in Wiśnicz , which was all he was able to afford at that time , as due to most of his estates being overrun by the Cossacks . Wiśniowiecki 's arrival raised the morale of the royal army , and despite having no official rank , both the common soldiers and the new regimentarz promised to take his advice , and even offered him the official command ( which he refused ) . During the Siege of Zbarazh Wiśniowiecki was thus not the official commander ( role was taken by regimentarz Andrzej Firlej ) but most historians agree he was the real , if unofficial , commander of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army . The siege would last until the ceasefire of the Treaty of Zboriv . Wiśniowiecki 's command during the siege was seen as phenomenal , and his popularity among the troops and nobility rose again , however the King , still not fond of him , gave him a relatively small reward ( the land grant of starostwo przasnyskie , much less when compared to several others he distributed around that time ) . Needing Wiśniowiecki 's support in December that year , the King granted him once again a temporary hetman nomination , and several more land grants . In April 1650 , Wiśniowiecki had to return his temporary hetman office to Mikołaj Potocki , recently released from Cossack 's captivity . During December that year , in light of the growing tensions with Muscovy 's , Wiśniowiecki 's military faction succeeded in convincing the Sejm to pass a resolution increasing the size of the army to 51 @,@ 000 , the largest army since the Cossack unrest begun two years ago .

The truce of Zborov did not last long , and in the spring of 1651 Khmelnytsky 's Cossacks begun advancing west again . On June 1 , 1651 Wiśniowiecki brought his private army to face the Cossacks in Sokal . He commanded the left wing of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army in the victorious Battle of Berestechko on 28 – 30 June . The Polish @-@ Lithuanian army advanced after the retreating Cossacks , but on July 17 the King " left the whole army to Potocki ... and having given the order that the army march into Ukraine , the King himself parted ... to Warsaw to celebrate his victories over the Cossacks . " Later that year , on 14 August , Wiśniowiecki suddenly fell ill while in a camp near the village of Pawołocz , and died on August 20 , 1651 , at the age of only 39 . His cause of death was never known , while some ( even contemporaries ) speculated he was poisoned , but no conclusive evidence to support such a claim have ever been found . Based on sparse descriptions of his illness and subsequent investigations , some medical historians suggest the cause of death might have been a disease related to cholera . However , one account states , " following a cheerful conversation with other officers who had congregated for a military council in his tent on Sunday , 13 August N.S. he had eaten some cucumbers with zest and washed them down with mead , and from that contracted dysentery . After lying ill for a week , he died there , at Pavoloch " . He was given a " ceremonial funeral with the entire army present . On August 22 , Wiśniowiecki 's body was seen off with the utmost pomp on its journey to his residence " .

Wiśniowiecki 's indebted family was not able to provide him with a funeral his rank and fame deserved . In the end , he never received the large funeral and the temporary location of his body , the monastery of the Holy Cross at Łysa Góra , became his final resting place . His body was lost in the fire at the end of the 18th century , which also prevents a modern reexamination of the cause of his death .

= = Wealth = =

The majority of the Wiśniowiecki family estates were found on the eastern side of the Dnieper River ( Volhynian , Ruthenian and Kiev Voivodships ) , and most of them were acquired by Jeremi 's grandfather , Aleksander Wiśniowiecki , in the 16th century . The capital of his estate was located at a fortified manor at Lubny , where his father rebuilt an old castle ; the population of the town itself could be estimated at about 1 @,@ 000 . Wiśniowiecki inherited lands inhabited , according to an estimate from 1628 , by about 4 @,@ 500 people , of which Lubny was the largest town . Smaller towns in his lands included Khorol , Piratyn and Przyłuka . By 1646 his lands were inhabited by 230 @,@ 000 people . The number of towns on his lands rose from several to about thirty , and their population increased as well . The prosperity of those lands reflected Wiśniowiecki 's skills in economic management , and the income from his territories ( estimated at about 600 @,@ 000 zloties yearly ) made him one of the wealthiest magnates in the Commonwealth . Because of its size and relatively consistent borders , Wiśniowiecki 's estate was often named Wiśniowieczczyzna ( " Wiśniowieckiland " ) .

Despite his wealth , he was not known for a lavish life . His court of about a hundred people was not know for being overly extravagant , he built no luxurious residences , and did not even have a single portrait of himself made during his life . It is uncertain how Wiśniowiecki looked , although a number of portraits and other works depicting him exist . Jan Widacki notes that much of the historiography concerning Wiśniowiecki focuses on the military and political aspects of his life , and few of his critics discuss his successes in the economic development of his estates .

= = Remembrance and popular culture = =

Wiśniowiecki was widely popular among the noble class , who saw in him a defender of tradition , a patriot and an able military commander . He was praised by many of his contemporaries , including a poet , Samuel Twardowski , as well as numerous diary writers and early historians . For his protection of civilian population , including Jews , during the Uprising , Wiśniowiecki has been commended by early Jewish historians . Until the 19th century , he has been idolized as the legendary , perfect " knight of the borderlands " , his sculpture is among the twenty sculpture of famous historical personas in the 18th century " Knight Room " of the royal Warsaw Castle .

In the 19th century this image begun to waver , as a new wave in historiography begun to reinterpret his life , and as the era of positivism in Poland put more value on builders , and less on warriors . Further , at that time the Polish historians begun to question the traditional view of the " Ukrainian problem " , and the way that the Polish noble class had dealt with the Cossacks . Slowly , Wiśniowiecki 's image as a hero began to waver , with various aspects of his life and personality being questioned and criticized in the work of historians such as Karol Szajnocha and Józef Szujski .

While Wiśniowiecki 's portrayal ( as a major secondary character ) in the first part of Henryk Sienkiewicz 's trilogy , With Fire and Sword which describes the history of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Uprising , was rather positive , criticism of his persona intensified , in particular from Sienkiewicz detractors such as Zygmunt Kaczkowski and Olgierd Górka . The 1930s saw a first modern historical work about Wiśniowiecki , by Władysław Tomkiewicz . In the era of the People 's Republic of Poland , the Communist Party 's ideology dictated that all historians present him as an " enemy of the people " , although this began to be relaxed after 1965 . Widacki , analyzing the work of other historians notes that Władysław Czapliński was rather sympathetic to Wiśniowiecki , while Paweł Jasienica was critical of him .

Wiśniowiecki has made appearances in more recent media . He was the main subject of one of Jacek Kaczmarski 's 1993 songs Kniazia Jaremy nawrócenie ( The Conversion of Knyaz Jarema ) . Andrzej Seweryn played Jeremi Wiśniowiecki in the 1999 film With Fire and Sword .

= Bassline ( Chris Brown song ) =

" Bassline " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , taken from his fifth studio album Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Andrea Simms , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , Brown , David Johnson , Robert Calloway , Ronald " Flippa " Colson and Warren " Oak " Felder . The song was produced by Pop Wansel and Dayvi Jae . Musically , " Bassline " is a dubstep , electropop and electrohop song , which incorporates elements of reggae . Instrumentation is provided by a wobble bass and synthesizers . The song contains lyrics about Brown telling a woman to leave the nightclub with him . " Bassline " garnered mixed reviews from music critics ; some reviewers noted it as one of the standout tracks on the album , while others criticized the song 's production and lyrics . It also received comparisons to the songs by Kesha and LMFAO . Upon the release of Fortune , " Bassline " debuted at numbers 28 and 122 on the UK R & B Chart and UK Singles Chart , respectively .

= = Development and composition = =

" Bassline " was written by Andrea Simms , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , Chris Brown , David Johnson , Robert Calloway , Ronald " Flippa " Colson and Warren " Oak " Felder . The song was produced by Pop Wansel and Dayvi Jae . " Bassline " was recorded by Brian Springer with assistance from Iain Findley . The recordings were later mixed by Jaycen Joshua with assistance by Trehy Harris . Musically , " Bassline " is a dubstep , electropop and electrohop song , that incorporates elements of reggae . The song lasts for three minutes and 58 seconds . Instrumentation consists of a wobble bass and synthesizers . Melinda Newman of HitFix compared " Bassline " to the songs by Kesha and LMFAO . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush noted that the lyrics are about Brown trying to " convince a hot girl he spots in the club to come back to his crib " , in which he sings " Hey girl tell me what you talk / Pretty as a picture on the wall / Hey girl you can get it all / Cause I know you like the way the beat go " . Brown also declares , " You heard about my image / But I could give a flying motherfuck who 's offended " . Hayley Avron of Contactmusic.com noted that a robot voice joins Brown in the hook " Girls like my bassline " . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review magazine noted that the word " bassline " is a metaphor for penis .

= = Reception = =

" Bassline " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Sam Wilbur of AOL Radio viewed it as " the best example " of dubstep tracks on Fortune , while Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly noted it as one of the album 's best tracks . Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald called the song " irritating " and noted it as " blatant copycat stuff " . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner felt that " Bassline " was " a lazy attempt " from Brown . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times stated that the worst part of the song is the hook . Hazel Robinson of California Literary Review magazine was critical of the production and lyrics , labeling it as " bad " and " dodgy " . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman noted that Brown " clearly feels more emboldened than ever " on " Bassline " . Upon the release of Fortune , due to digital sales , " Bassline " debuted on the UK R & B Chart at number 28 in the issue dated July 14 , 2012 . It also debuted at number 122 on the UK Singles Chart .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune

= = Charts = =

= HMS Black Prince ( 1904 ) =

HMS Black Prince was a Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1900s . She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . After the German ships reached Ottoman waters , the ship was sent to the Red Sea in mid @-@ August to protect troop convoys arriving from India and to search for German merchant ships . After capturing two ships , Black Prince was transferred to the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was sunk during the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 , with all hands killed .

= = Design and description = =

Two armoured cruisers of a new design , Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince , the latter named for Edward , the Black Prince , were ordered for the Royal Navy as part of the 1902 – 03 Naval Estimates . They were the first ships to be designed for the Royal Navy under the supervision of the new Director of Naval Construction , Sir Philip Watts . The new design was significantly larger than the previous Monmouth and Devonshire @-@ class cruisers , mounting a heavier main armament of six 9 @.@ 2 in ( 234 mm ) guns in single turrets .

Black Prince displaced 12 @,@ 590 long tons ( 12 @,@ 790 t ) as built and 13 @,@ 965 long tons ( 14 @,@ 189 t ) fully loaded . The ship had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 long tons ( 2 @,@ 180 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 8 @,@ 130 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 060 km ; 9 @,@ 360 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 789 officers and enlisted men .

Her main armament consisted of six BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single turrets , two on the centreline and two on each beam , giving a broadside of four 9 @.@ 2 in guns . Her secondary armament of four BL 6 @-@ inch Mark XI guns was arranged in single casemates . They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . Twenty Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounders were fitted , six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure . The ship also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes .

= = Operational history = =

Black Prince was laid down on 3 June 1903 at the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company 's shipyard at Blackwall , London . She was launched on 8 November 1904 and completed on 17 March 1906 . When completed , Black Prince served with the 2nd Squadron until 1907 , the 1st Cruiser Squadron from 1907 – 1908 , the 5th Cruiser Squadron ( as part of the Atlantic Fleet ) from 1908 – 1912 and the Third from 1912 – 1913 .

At the beginning of the First World War , Black Prince was one of the four armoured cruisers serving in the 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Ernest Charles Thomas Troubridge . She participated in the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau . Following the escape of the two German ships to neutral Turkey , Black Prince and Duke of Edinburgh were sent into the Red Sea to search for German merchant ships , with Black Prince capturing the German ocean liners Südmark and Istria . On 6 November , she was ordered to Gibraltar to join a squadron of French and British ships to search for German warships still at sea off the African coast . This was cancelled on 19 November after the location of the German East Asia Squadron was revealed by survivors of the Battle of Coronel . Black Prince joined the Grand Fleet in December 1914 and was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot .

Black Prince was modified in March 1916 as a result of lessons learned at the Battle of Coronel , with the 6 @-@ inch guns removed from their casemates and replaced by six 6 @-@ inch guns mounted individually behind shields between the beam 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets .

= = = Loss = = =

The ship participated in the Battle of Jutland , where she was sunk with heavy loss of life . The circumstances under which she sank were mysterious for some years after . As the British had lost contact and did not see the ship destroyed , they were unsure as to whether a submarine or surface ship was responsible for sinking Black Prince . During the battle , the 1st Cruiser Squadron was deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet , but Black Prince lost contact with the rest of the Squadron as it came into contact with German forces , at about 17 : 42 . Soon after , two other members of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , Defence and Warrior were heavily engaged by German battleships and battlecruisers , with Defence blowing up and Warrior receiving heavy damage , which later caused her to sink .

There were no positive sightings of Black Prince by the British fleet after that , although a wireless signal from her was received at 20 : 45 , reporting a submarine sighting . During the night of 31 May – 1 June , the British destroyer Spitfire , badly damaged after colliding with the German battleship Nassau , sighted what appeared to be a German battlecruiser , with two widely spaced funnels , described as being " ... a mass of fire from foremast to mainmast , on deck and between decks . Flames were issuing out of her from every corner . " The mystery ship exploded at about midnight . It was later thought that the burning ship may have been Black Prince , with the two midships funnels having collapsed or been shot away .

Recent historians , however , hold to the German account of the ship 's sinking . Black Prince briefly engaged the German battleship Rheinland at about 23 : 35 GMT , scoring two hits with 6 @-@ inch shells . Separated from the rest of the British fleet , Black Prince approached the German lines at approximately midnight . She turned away from the German battleships , but it was too late . The German battleship Thüringen fixed Black Prince in her searchlights and opened fire . Up to five other German ships , including the battleships Nassau , Ostfriesland , and Friedrich der Grosse , joined in the bombardment , with return fire from Black Prince being ineffective . Most of the German ships were between 750 and 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 690 and 1 @,@ 370 m ) of Black Prince — effectively point @-@ blank range for contemporary naval gunnery . The ship was hit by at least twelve heavy shells and several smaller ones , sinking within 15 minutes . There were no survivors from her crew , all 857 being killed .

The wrecksite is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 .

= = Popular culture = =

In the first episode of Series 4 of the SBS @-@ TV ( Australia ) series Who Do You Think You Are ? , Australian writer @-@ actor @-@ comedian Shaun Micallef discovered that his great @-@ grandfather Giovanni ( John ) Micallef , a steward on Black Prince , was among those killed .

= On the Pulse of Morning =

" On the Pulse of Morning " is a poem by African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou that she read at the first inauguration of President Bill Clinton on January 20 , 1993 . With her public recitation , Angelou became the second poet in history to read a poem at a presidential inauguration , and the first African American and woman . ( Robert Frost was the first inaugural poet , at the 1961 inauguration of John F. Kennedy . ) Angelou 's audio recording of the poem won the 1994 Grammy Award in the " Best Spoken Word " category , resulting in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadening her appeal .

The poem 's themes are change , inclusion , responsibility , and role of both the President and the citizenry in establishing economic security . Its symbols , references to contemporary issues , and personification of nature has inspired critics to compare " On the Pulse of Morning " with Frost 's inaugural poem and with Clinton 's inaugural address . It has been called Angelou 's " autobiographical poem " , and has received mixed reviews . The popular press praised Clinton 's choice of Angelou as inaugural poet , and her " representiveness " of the American people and its President . Critic Mary Jane Lupton said that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. Poetry critics , despite praising Angelou 's recitation and performance , gave mostly negative reviews of the poem .

= = Background = =

When Angelou wrote and recited " On the Pulse of Morning " , she was already well known as a writer and poet . She had written five of the seven of her series of autobiographies , including the first and most highly acclaimed , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . Although she was best known for her autobiographies , she was primarily known as a poet rather than an autobiographer . Early in her writing career she began alternating the publication of an autobiography and a volume of poetry . Her first volume of poetry Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' Fore I Diiie , published in 1971 shortly after Caged Bird , became a best @-@ seller and was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize . As scholar Marcia Ann Gillespie writes , Angelou had " fallen in love with poetry " during her early childhood in Stamps , Arkansas . After her rape at the age of eight , which she depicted in Caged Bird , Angelou memorized and studied great works of literature , including poetry . According to Caged Bird , her friend Mrs. Flowers encouraged her to recite them , which helped bring her out her self @-@ imposed period of muteness caused by her trauma .

Angelou was the first poet to read an inaugural poem since Robert Frost read his poem " The Gift Outright " at President John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 , and the first Black and woman . When it was announced that Angelou would read one of her poems at Clinton 's inauguration , many in the popular press compared her role as inaugural poet with that of Frost 's , especially what critic Zofia Burr called their " representativeness " , or their ability to speak for and to the American people . The press also pointed to the nation 's social progress that a Black woman would " stand in the place of a white man " at his inauguration , and praised Angelou 's involvement as the Clinton administration 's " gesture of inclusion " .

Angelou told her friend Oprah Winfrey that the call requesting her to write and recite the poem came from television producer Harry Thomason , who organized the inauguration , shortly after Clinton 's election . Even though she suspected that Clinton made the request because " he understood that I am the kind of person who really does bring people together " , Angelou admitted feeling overwhelmed , and even requested that the audiences attending her speaking engagements pray for her .

She followed her same " writing ritual " that she had followed for years and used in writing all of her books and poetry : she rented a hotel room , closeted herself there from the early morning to the afternoon , and wrote on legal pads . After deciding upon the theme " America " , she wrote down everything she could think of about the country , which she then " pushed and squeezed into a poetic form " . Angelou recited the poem on January 20 , 1993 .

= = Themes = =

" On the Pulse of Morning " shared many of the themes in President Clinton 's inaugural address , which he gave immediately before Angelou read her poem , including change , responsibility , and the President 's and the citizenry 's role in establishing economic security . The symbols in Angelou 's poem ( the tree , the river , and the morning , for example ) paralleled many of the same symbols Clinton used in his speech , and helped to enhance and expand Clinton 's images . Clinton 's address and the poem , according to Hagen , both emphasized unity despite the diversity of American culture . " On the Pulse of Morning " attempted to convey many of the goals of Clinton 's new administration .

Burr compared Angelou 's poem with Frost 's , something she claimed the poetry critics who gave " On the Pulse of Morning " negative reviews did not do . Angelou " rewrote " Frost 's poem , from the perspective of personified nature that appeared in both poems . Frost praised American colonization , but Angelou attacked it . The cost of the creation of America was abstract and ambiguous in Frost 's poem , but the personified Tree in Angelou 's poem signified the cultures in America that paid a significant cost to create it . Both Frost and Angelou called for a " break with the past " , but Frost wanted to relive it and Angelou wanted to confront its mistakes . Burr also compared Angelou 's poem with Audre Lorde 's poem " For Each of You " , which has similar themes of looking towards the future , as well as with Walt Whitman 's " Song of Myself " and Langston Hughes ' " The Negro Speaks of Rivers " . According to Hagen , the poem contains a recurring theme in many of Angelou 's other poems and autobiographies , that " we are more alike than unalike " .

" On the Pulse of Morning " was full of contemporary references , including toxic waste and pollution . Angelou 's poem was influenced by the African @-@ American oral tradition of spirituals , by poets such as James Weldon Johnson and Langston Hughes , and by modern African poets and folk artists such as Kwesi Brew and Efua Sutherland , which also influenced her autobiographies .

= = Critical response and impact = =

According to Lupton , " On the Pulse of Morning " is Angelou 's most famous poem . Lupton has argued that " Angelou 's ultimate greatness will be attributed " to the poem , and that Angelou 's " theatrical " performance of it , using skills she learned as an actor and speaker , marked a return to the African @-@ American oral tradition of speakers such as Frederick Douglass , Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. British reporter Kate Kellaway compared Angelou 's appearance as she read the poem at Clinton 's inauguration with the eight @-@ year @-@ old child in Caged Bird , noting that the coats she wore in both occasions were similar : " She looked magnificent , sternly theatrical with an unsmiling bow mouth . She wore a coat with brass buttons , a strange reminder of the eight @-@ year @-@ old Maya Angelou who stood in a courtroom , terrified at the sight of the man who had raped her " . Gillespie stated regarding Kellaway 's observations : " But standing tall on the steps of the Capitol , she was light @-@ years removed from that terrible time , and America was no longer an ' unfriendly place . ' Her poem ' On the Pulse of Morning ' was a soaring call for peace , justice , and harmony . Capturing the hope embodied in the human spirit , it was a solemn and joyful reminder that all things are possible . She wished us ' Good morning ' in her poem , and one felt as if a new day was truly dawning . "

Angelou recognized that although " On the Pulse of Morning " was a better " public poem " than a great poem , her goal of conveying the message of unity was accomplished . Poet David Lehman agreed , stating that although it fulfilled its theatrical and political objectives , the poem was " not very memorable " . Poet Sterling D. Plumpp found Angelou 's performance " brilliant " , but was " not as enthusiastic about it as a text " . Burr stated that the negative reviews of Angelou 's poem , like the majority of the reviews about her other poetry , was due to their elitism and narrow views of poetry , which were limited to written forms rather than spoken ones like " On the Pulse of Morning " , which was written to recite aloud and perform . Burr compared the response of literary critics to Angelou 's poem with critics of Frost 's poem : " Frost 's powerful reading served to supplement the poem in the sense of enhancing it , while Angelou 's powerful reading of her poem supplemented it in the sense of making evident its inadequacy and lack . "

Angelou 's recitation of " On the Pulse of Morning " resulted in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadened her appeal " across racial , economic , and educational boundaries " . The week after Angelou 's recitation , sales of the paperback version of her books and poetry rose by 300 – 600 percent . Bantam Books had to reprint 400 @,@ 000 copies of all her books to keep up with the demand . Random House , which published Angelou 's hardcover books and published the poem later that year , reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , accounting for a 1200 percent increase . The sixteen @-@ page publication of the poem became a best @-@ seller , and the recording of the poem was awarded a Grammy Award .

= God 's Choice =

God 's Choice : The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School is a 1986 book written by Alan Peshkin and published by the University of Chicago Press . It is the product of his late 1970s 18 @-@ month ethnographic study of a 350 @-@ person Christian fundamentalist Baptist school in Illinois . He describes the K – 12 day school 's function as a total institution that educates about a singular truth ( God 's will ) and subordination before God . The final chapter is a comparative analysis of the school and other schools , institutions , and social movements , wherein Peshkin concludes that the school is divisive in American society for promoting intolerance towards religious plurality , the very condition that permits the school 's existence .

Reviewers wrote that Peshkin 's account was fair , and praised his decision to let the participants speak for themselves through quotations . They also noted that the book filled a literary lacuna in scholarly understanding of the rapidly expanding and understudied fundamentalist Christian school .

= = Summary = =

God 's Choice : The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School is a 1986 book written by Alan Peshkin . It is a profile of an Illinois Christian fundamentalist school — its policies , practices , and participants . Peshkin , then Professor of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , intended his account to be both impartial and " empathetic " . He presents the fundamentalists as disciplined , dedicated , and determined with " formulas for success " opposite " fragmented and defensive " detractors . They believe in " one Truth " — God 's plan — and reject philosophies of multiple truths . A teacher told Peshkin that their job is to prepare students for this " one pattern " of thought . In turn , the community 's constituents do not wish to leave , but appreciate conformity as an end in itself . Peshkin describes the school as a " total institution " : a place where many similar people live by their own formal rules apart from outside society , as based on Erving Goffman 's 1961 essay . Peshkin asserts that this was a natural conclusion from a school " based on absolute truth " . God 's Choice was the third book in his series of studies on school – community relationships . It was published by the University of Chicago Press .

In 1978 , Peshkin moved to an Illinois community of 50 @,@ 000 people that he pseudonymically called Hartney , where he stayed and observed for 18 months . He lived in an apartment within the home of a family associated with what he called the Bethany Baptist church . Peshkin studied their 350 @-@ student K – 12 Christian day school , Bethany Baptist Academy ( also a pseudonym ) . The school opened six years prior with 88 students and was one of over one thousand members of the American Association of Christian Schools . The study focuses on the 125 students in the junior – senior high school . After a semester , Peshkin began to interview the community members , and used their quotes to let them " speak for themselves " . The book includes eight portraits of students — four from faith and four " scorners " who " consciously deviate " — as well as student and teacher survey data , displayed in 16 tables . An appendix includes course offerings and a bibliography .

Peshkin 's findings show a " total world " where the lessons of religion and education are intertwined into an " interrelated , interdependent " philosophy . The academy 's intent is to make Christian professionals as what Peshkin describes as " a vocational school directed to work in the Lord 's service " . When compared to the work of public schools , the private school 's instructors said both kinds of institutions impose a lifestyle and set of values as a kind of " brainwashing " . Peshkin notes that while students " largely identify with " and uphold the fundamentalist teachings , they permit themselves the option of having " individual interpretations " and minor beliefs . Some students either dissent against the academy 's rules or are regarded as too pious , but most students are moderate .

Students take classes to be effective Christian leaders , including " Bible study and ' soul @-@ winning ' , English , speech , drama , and music " , which are seen as important to " read and proclaim the Word " . Academy teachers establish their authority through discipline and teach " the truth " as established by " facts " from the Bible . Bible passages are associated with the subject matter in a process called " integration " . The academy uses science books from Bob Jones University as an alternative to books that promote secular humanism , which is described as " the ' official religion ' of the public school system " . The Bob Jones science books associate the Bible with science , and often comment the relationship between God 's intelligence and the intricacies of nature . Classes like science , social studies , and math are viewed as less important for the goal of making Christian professionals apart from their training to do " everything a sinner can do , better " . Some classes are " memorization and recitation " -focused , reflecting an inelastic view of knowledge , which the academy believes to be fixed as based in biblical inerrancy . Their biggest external influence on curriculum is new books , which may affect how classes are taught , though the content ( " the truth " ) remains the same .

In a chapter on teacher selection and training , the task of socializing students with obedience and discipline takes precedence over the task of teaching content . Students are under constant supervision to uphold a pledge to avoid outside activities such as theater , fashion , dances , and certain television shows . They also avoid some activities altogether , such as sexualized contact , drugs , alcohol , and smoking . This pledge is to be upheld at home as well , and students are encouraged to report errancies . Teachers too pledge to prioritize " the pursuit of holiness " over all things in a " born again " activity where they " confess their sins and accept Jesus Christ as their personal savior " . The school is unapologetic in its insistence on " telling the kids what is right " and its according preference for lecture over discussion . Teachers are also afforded the option of corporal punishment , though it is rarely used .

The last two chapters feature Peshkin 's commentary on the school in society , its tradeoffs and comparison with other total institutions and larger social movements , like the New Religious Right . He also compares the academy to public and parochial schools , wherein he finds public school students more politically tolerant and acceptant of religious pluralism . Peshkin 's final reflections are written as a " cost @-@ benefit analysis " of these Christian schools in the larger American society . In the last chapter , Peshkin contemplates how his Jewish identity is insulated within a pluralistic and secular society , and how he is fearful of absolutist " imperious , implacable logic " and " zeal for conversion and exclusivism " . He recounted that while the school spoke derogatorily of non @-@ fundamentalists and non @-@ Christians , no one spoke of the American religious plurality that permitted this . In response to the encroaching state , fundamentalists feel that their political conviction should mirror that of their religion . Peshkin views the school as schismatic in a larger society for promoting intolerance towards fellow Americans . He also praised traits of the schools including its community , dedicated teachers , and attractive image . At the time of print , Christian schools like Bethany were outpacing the growth of other schools . In 1989 , Christian schools comprised about 20 % of private school enrollment — around 700 @,@ 000 students .

= = Reception = =

Reviewers wrote that Peshkin 's account was fair in its presentation , and that his choice to let individuals " speak for themselves " through abundant quotations was a strength . They also noted how the book filled a gap in the field and that his final chapter was too moralistic .

R. Scott Appleby ( American Journal of Education ) wrote that Peshkin succeeded at his attempt to be impartial , and that his presentation of fundamentalist culture is made both " understandable " and , in part , " admirable " . He reflected that this Christian pedagogy was closer to indoctrination than education in that it did not develop " critical skills and ... human capacities " in " open @-@ ended " learning but professed a fixed chain of knowledge " from on high " where humans are errant and need authoritarian guidance . Appleby added that fundamentalism blames public schools and its associated state apparatus as both a manufacturer enemy needed to feed its " sense of crisis " and for creating " unsafe " areas unregulated by " Christian truth " . Sociologist Susan Rose " broadens the base " of God 's Choice in her 1988 Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan , and Appleby writes that the two books compliment each other 's lacunae . While God 's Choice has an " engaging , sometimes riveting narrative " with vivid characters but little outside information apart from statistics , Keeping Them Out of the Hands of Satan includes extra detail on how fundamentalist groups interact and share a larger societal milieu . For example , Rose explains the difference in " born @-@ again experiences " of evangelicals and fundamentalists , which Peshkin glosses over .

In her own review of Peshkin 's book , Rose ( Contemporary Sociology ) praised its " clear and detailed " contribution to the field but wished for more overview material on the Christian School Movement 's rise , proponents , philosophical consistency , and " sociohistorical context " . She wrote that few had studied Christian schools , the " fastest growing sector of private education in the United States " . In commending Peshkin 's even @-@ handedness , she wrote that his forthrightness about declaring his own biases and effort to present participant voices through direct quotation were strong elements , though he described more than he analyzed . Rose felt that the " interesting " final chapters of analysis and comparison with public schools " grounded " the overall ethnography , though she wished for more comparison of the adolescent student experience between the academy and other kinds of American schools . She considers Peshkin 's " discussion of the politics of pluralism " , that Christian schools both add to American religious pluralism while advocating against it , possibly his best contribution .

Jean Holm ( The Times Higher Education Supplement ) too noted the fast growth of conservative Christian schools but added that the book was also relevant in Britain , which was experiencing similar growth . She found the first few chapters somewhat repetitive as it expressed the uniformity of the school 's practices . Richard V. Pierard ( Christian Century ) felt that Peshkin wrote with " deeply respect " for the school and its community , but Pierard , himself an evangelical , was " disturbed " by the community 's " indoctrinated " values — " biblical absolutes " that are " part of a conservative program that has been read into Scripture " . Paul F. Parsons ( Christianity Today ) noted that Peshkin found the school successful by traditional terms , with standardized tests , orderly climate , and " fun @-@ loving " students , but lacking free exchange of ideas , as education is seen more as a transfer than a quest , and students do not learn " choice , doubt , suspended judgment , [ or ] dissent " . Parsons affirmed Peshkin 's findings as " remarkably representative " based on his own visits to " Christian schools in 60 cities " , though others are less absolutist . And while Julian McAllister Groves ( Journal of Contemporary Ethnography ) described the text as " beautifully written " and " poetic " , he doubted whether the school 's students were as converted as they said , and felt that Peshkin might have seen more " role distance " and examples of playing along simply for community acceptance had he stayed for lunch and other informal observations .

= Baltimore mayoral election , 1999 =

On November 2 , 1999 , the city of Baltimore , Maryland , elected a new mayor , the 47th in the city 's history . Primary elections were held to determine the nominees for the Democratic Party and Republican Party on September 14 . Incumbent mayor Kurt Schmoke , a Democrat , opted not to run for reelection . Martin O 'Malley , a member of the Baltimore City Council , won the election to succeed Schmoke .

Because Baltimore 's electorate is overwhelmingly Democratic , whoever won the Democratic primary election was seen as the favorite over the Republican nominee in the general election . Baltimore 's large African American population initially made it seem likely that the next mayor would also be African American . Kweisi Mfume was the preferred candidate of local politicians , but he opted not to run . Though Carl Stokes and Lawrence Bell , members of the City Council , declared for the race , local leaders were underwhelmed with the quality of declared candidates .

In 1999 , Baltimore experienced high rates of murder and unemployment , and had a failing city school system . O 'Malley declared his candidacy , focusing his campaign on a " zero tolerance " approach to crime . He received endorsements from many of the city 's African American leaders . After a close race , O 'Malley overtook both Stokes and Bell to win the Democratic nomination , which all but assured him of victory in the general election . He defeated Republican candidate David F. Tufaro in the general election by an overwhelming majority .

= = Background = =

Kurt Schmoke , the incumbent Mayor of Baltimore , was serving his third term . He announced in December 1998 that he would not run for reelection the following year , the first time an incumbent Baltimore mayor did not run for reelection since 1971 . Schmoke was the first African American mayor in Baltimore 's history .

Racial politics had long played a role in Baltimore . As the state of Maryland did not attempt to prevent African Americans from voting through Jim Crow laws , political coalitions often involved African American community leaders . Theodore McKeldin , who served as mayor from 1943 through 1947 and from 1963 through 1967 , was one of the first political leaders to work with African American community leaders . By 1999 , 63 % of Baltimore 's registered voters were African American , and 90 % were registered to the Democratic Party . Baltimore had not elected a Republican mayor since 1963 .

As of 1999 , Baltimore experienced 300 murders a year , which was the fourth most in the nation . Unemployment was 9 % , twice the national average . Between 1990 and 1998 , Baltimore saw its population decrease by 12 @.@ 3 % , the second @-@ biggest decrease during that time period in the United States . This decrease led to its work force decreasing by one @-@ sixth . The city saw decreases in heavy @-@ manufacturing by 40 percent , distribution jobs by 35 percent , retail positions by 34 percent , and banking jobs by 28 percent . Also , the state of Maryland had taken over the city 's failing school system in 1996 , which upset African American politicians . State Senator Clarence M. Mitchell , IV called the takeover racist . Baltimore City Council members , including President Lawrence Bell and Martin O 'Malley , had opposed the handling of Baltimore 's high crime rate by Schmoke and Baltimore Police Department ( BPD ) Commissioner Thomas C. Frazier .

= = Candidates = =

= = = Democrats = = =

Bell was considered in February 1999 to be the front @-@ runner in the mayoral race . Other potential candidates included State 's Attorney Patricia Jessamy , former City Councilman Carl Stokes , City Comptroller Joan Pratt , and Joan Carter Conway , a member of the Maryland State Senate .

City leaders , including Howard P. Rawlings , a member of the Maryland House of Delegates , and William Donald Schaefer , the Comptroller of Maryland and Schmoke 's predecessor as mayor , feared that none of the potential candidates had the vision to continue the urban renewal that took place under Schmoke and Schaefer . They hoped that Baltimore @-@ native Kweisi Mfume , the president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , would run . Mfume had previously served on the Baltimore City Council and in the United States House of Representatives . Schmoke called the race " his to lose " . However , Mfume lived in nearby Catonsville , Maryland , and did not move into Baltimore until March , which would leave him short of the one year residency requirement .

The state legislature passed a law shortening the residency requirement from one year to six months , which was signed into law by Democratic Governor Parris Glendening in April . Bell attempted to have the legislation overturned . The City Council , with Schmoke 's support considered raising the salary of the mayor in April , to make the position more enticing to Mfume . Also , 200 Baltimore citizens , including three former mayors , attempted to draft Mfume into the race . However , Mfume had signed a five @-@ year contract with the NAACP in 1996 . Mfume considered leaving the NAACP to run , but in May , decided to remain with the organization .

Stokes announced his candidacy in December 1998 . Bell announced his candidacy two days after Mfume passed on running , in May 1999 , promising to tackle crime and improve public safety . Community leaders who attempted to draft Mfume into the race began to back Stokes . Other declared candidates included Mary Conaway , the City Register of Wills , activists A. Robert Kaufman , Robert Marsili , and Phillip Brown . Jessamy stated that without Mfume in the race , she would consider running , but she opted against getting into the race .

A June 1999 poll conducted by Gonzales / Arscott Communications Inc . , a polling firm based in Annapolis , Maryland , showed Schaefer ahead of Bell . Schaefer stated that he had no interest in running , and threw his support behind Bishop Robinson , the former BPD Commissioner . Robinson chose not to run .

O 'Malley initially supported Bell 's candidacy . Bell urged O 'Malley to endorse him , and offered him the job of city solicitor in exchange for his support . However , O 'Malley began to distance himself from Bell , not appearing at Bell 's campaign announcement , due to disagreements on several bills debated at the City Council . Bell 's supporters attempted to convince O 'Malley to run for City Council President , but O 'Malley announced his decision to run for mayor in June , becoming the first major candidate in the race who was Caucasian . He began the campaign largely unknown outside of Northeast Baltimore .

= = = Republicans = = =

On July 1 , David F. Tufaro , a real estate developer and lawyer from Roland Park , Maryland , announced his intention to run for the Republican Party nomination , joining three neighborhood activists who had already declared their intentions to run . Carl Adair , a public school teacher who had run unsuccessfully for the City Council and the Maryland House of Delegates on numerous occasions , was also a candidate for the Republican nomination .

Republican Party officials quickly began to back Tufaro , who criticized the Democratic Party by pointing out that Democrats have led Baltimore in its decline .

= = Campaign = =

Fifteen candidates ended up running in the Democratic primary . The front @-@ runners were considered to be O 'Malley , Bell , and Stokes . Schmoke made no endorsement in the race .

O 'Malley and Bell called for " zero tolerance " to all crime , though Stokes felt this policy was biased against minorities . Stokes ran on the issue of education , as he was a former member of the Baltimore school board , in addition to the city council . Stokes vowed to reduce class sizes and reverse the trend of citizens of Baltimore leaving the city to live in nearby suburbs .

O 'Malley faced initial difficulties based on race , as a community leader stated that his entrance into the race " created some tension , " and that O 'Malley 's potential victory " would be the worst thing that could happen in this city " and could " tear this city apart . " Some saw his entrance in the race as an attempt to split the African American vote . However , O 'Malley received endorsements from prominent African American politicians in August , including Rawlings , fellow state Delegate Kenneth Montague , and Conway . Rawlings credited O 'Malley 's " track record of empowering black Americans . " He also received an endorsement from Schaefer . Some African Americans charged Rawlings with " stabbing us in the back " over the endorsement .

Bell attempted to portray himself as the heir apparent to Schmoke . However , disclosures from a lawsuit revealed Bell 's financial troubles , which included having his car repossessed . Bell lost support after he stated that voters should choose him because " I look like you . " Stokes began to lose support after he was charged with lying about having a college degree , when it was discovered that he did not graduate from Loyola University Maryland , as his campaign literature stated . It was also revealed that Stokes settled an income tax lien . Bell 's supporters rallied outside the offices of The Baltimore Sun , challenging that they were writing negative stories about African American candidates , and giving better treatment to O 'Malley during the campaign . Stokes was able to recover support when he received endorsements from The Baltimore Sun , the Baltimore Afro @-@ American , and the ministerial alliance .

Bell led Stokes in a poll conducted early in the race , 33 % to 17 % , before O 'Malley declared his candidacy . By late August , Bell slipped in the polls to third place , with O 'Malley and Stokes tied . Bell and O 'Malley began airing television commercials supporting their campaigns in early August , while Stokes did not begin to air commercials until September . O 'Malley also advertised on the radio .

Seven candidates , including Democrats Bell , Stokes , O 'Malley , and Conaway , and Republicans Adair , Tufaro , and Arthur Cuffie Jr . , met for a debate on September 8 . The debate focused on crime , with Bell , Stokes , and O 'Malley making their cases regarding " zero tolerance " , while Adair and Tufaro declared their support for Frazier .

= = Results = =

= = = Democratic primary = = =

The Democratic primary was held on September 14 . Turnout was high ; though the mayoral candidates expected about 100 @,@ 000 voters , about half of Baltimore 's 294 @,@ 000 registered voters voted in the primary elections .

O 'Malley won the primary election with more than 50 % of the vote , though he received only 30 % of the African American vote . Bell and Stokes split a significant portion of the city 's black majority , but their combined total was less than O 'Malley . At his victory rally , O 'Malley called the election " a victory for diversity and a victory for inclusiveness " .

= = = Republican primary = = =

In the September 14 Republican primary , Tufaro received over half of the votes cast . Adair finished in second place .

= = = General election = = =

Despite the odds he faced in the general election , Tufaro promised to campaign against O 'Malley , not taking defeat as an inevitability . He pointed to Bret Schundler , the mayor of Jersey City , New Jersey , as evidence that a Republican could be elected in a heavily Democratic city . Schundler came to Baltimore to campaign for Tufaro .

Regarding public housing , Tufaro called for renovations rather than demolishing vacant buildings , which drew criticism , as Housing Commissioner Daniel P. Henson III pointed out that renovating was more expensive than demolishing . O 'Malley promised to enforce provisions of the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977 , which require banks to invest in poor neighborhoods . Tufaro further proposed a plan for school vouchers and to drug test students , which drew opposition from the Baltimore Teachers Union and from O 'Malley , who favored expanding pre @-@ kindergarten and after @-@ school programs , while making summer school mandatory . When discussing the problem of HIV / AIDS in Baltimore , which disproportionately affects African Americans , both O 'Malley and Tufaro promised to continue the city 's needle exchange program .

Tufaro criticized O 'Malley 's zero tolerance policy , suggesting it would lead to increased police brutality towards minorities . He instead proposed continuing Mayor Schmoke 's community policing strategy . Opponents of the zero tolerance policy tried to tie O 'Malley to the Baltimore Police shooting of an African American car theft suspect .

WMAR @-@ TV conducted the only poll of the general election with SurveyUSA , which showed O 'Malley leading with 87 % of the vote . On Election Day , O 'Malley easily defeated Tufaro in the general election , receiving over 90 % of the vote .

= = Aftermath = =

= = = O 'Malley 's political career = = =

Following his election , O 'Malley 's first personnel decision was to retain the director of the city 's economic development agency . O 'Malley had his transition team , and had them compile policy drafts by mid @-@ December , so they would be ready to compete for state funds when the Maryland State Legislature reconvened on January 12 , 2000 . He participated in the Newly Elected Mayors Program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government in mid @-@ November . By the beginning of December , he named five deputy mayors and filled most of his cabinet . He finalized his cabinet on December 7 , during his last session as a city councillor . He was sworn in as mayor later that day at the War Memorial Plaza , near Baltimore City Hall .

In his first year in office , O 'Malley adopted a statistics @-@ based crime tracking system called CitiStat , modeled after Compstat . The system logged every call for service into a database for analysis . The Washington Post wrote in 2006 that Baltimore 's " homicide rate remains stubbornly high and its public school test scores disappointingly low . But CitiStat has saved an estimated $ 350 million and helped generate the city 's first budget surplus in years . " In 2004 , CitiStat accountability tool won Harvard University 's " Innovations in American Government " award . The system garnered interest from Washington , D.C. Mayor Adrian Fenty , as well as crime officials from the United Kingdom .

O 'Malley considered a run for Governor of Maryland in the 2002 election , but decided not to run . He was reelected as Mayor of Baltimore in 2003 , and announced his candidacy for Governor in the 2006 election . The Baltimore Sun endorsed O 'Malley , saying : " When he was first elected mayor in 1999 , the former two @-@ term city councilman inherited a city of rising crime , failing schools , and shrinking economic prospects . He was able to reverse course in all of these areas . " The Washington Post criticized O 'Malley for " not solv [ ing ] the problems of rampant crime and rough schools in Baltimore " , but further said that " he put a dent in them . " . O 'Malley defeated incumbent Governor Bob Ehrlich 53 % -46 % in the November 7 , 2006 , general election . O 'Malley defeated Ehrlich in the 2010 election 56 % -42 % , receiving just over one million votes .

O 'Malley was ineligible to run in the 2014 gubernatorial election due to term limits . O 'Malley publicly expressed interest in a presidential run in 2016 on multiple occasions . At a press conference at a National Governors Association meeting , O 'Malley stated he was laying " the framework " for a presidential run .

= = = Depiction on The Wire = = =

A fictionalized version of the events of this election were presented in third and fourth seasons of The Wire , a drama about crime and politics in Baltimore , which aired in 2004 and 2006 , respectively . Many saw the connection between O 'Malley and the character of Tommy Carcetti , a Caucasian Baltimore City Councillor who is elected mayor in an election against two African American opponents . Carlos Watson of MSNBC once introduced O 'Malley as " one of the real @-@ life inspirations for the mayor of the hit TV show The Wire " , to which O 'Malley responded that he was instead the show 's " antidote " .

Show creator David Simon denied that the character of Tommy Carcetti was supposed to be O 'Malley , though he did acknowledge that O 'Malley was " one of several inspirations " for Carcetti . He further stated that while Carcetti was " reflective " of O 'Malley , Carcetti was a composite drawing aspects from other local politicians that he had covered when he worked as a reporter for The Baltimore Sun .

= Arikamedu =

Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India , inKakkayanthope , Ariyankuppam Commune , Puducherry . It is 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the capital , Pondicherry of the Indian territory of Puducherry .

Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945 , and Jean @-@ Marie Casal conducted achaeological excavations there in 1947 – 1950 . The site was identified as the port of Podouke , known as an " emporium " in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy . Digs have found Amphorae , Arretine ware , Roman lamps , glassware , glass and stone beads , and gems at the site . Based on these excavations , Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading post that traded with Rome , starting during the reign of Augustus Caesar , and lasted about two hundred years — from the late first century BCE to the first and second centuries CE . Subsequent investigation by Vimala Begley from 1989 to 1992 modified this assessment , and now place the period of occupation from the 2nd century BCE to the 8th century CE .

Significant findings at Arikamedu indlcude numerous Indo @-@ Pacific beads , which facilitated fixing the period of its origin . Red and black ceramics — known as megalithic stones or Pandukal in Tamil meaning " old stones " and used to mark graves — have existed at the site even prior to and during Roman occupation of the site , and also in later periods .

= = Location = =

Arikamedu is a coastal fishing village , under the Ariankuppam Panchayat , on the southeastern coast of India , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Pondicherry , on the Pondicherry @-@ Cuddalore road ; it was originally a French colonial town . It is located on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River ( for most part of the year the river is considered a lagoon ) , also known as Virampattinam River , which forms the northern outlet of the Gingee River as it joins the Bay of Bengal . As the site is located at the bend of the river it provides protection to sea @-@ going vessels that dock there . The site has been subject to extensive archaeological excavations . The archaeological site is spread over an area of 34 @.@ 57 acres ( 13 @.@ 99 ha ) and has been under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India since 1982 .

= = Etymology = =

The name Arikamedu , an archaeological usage for the excavated site , originates in a Tamil word that means Mound of Arakan , based on the figurine of an avatar ( incarnation ) of the Jain Tirthankara Mahavira found at the site . It is also linked with Viraiyapattinam or Virampattinam , meaning Port of Virai , a village next to Arikamedu . Virai , according to Sangam literature , was well known as a port and also for its salt pans during the Velir dynasty . Arikamedu @-@ Virampatnam together find mention as Poduke , a major port in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the first century CE and as Poduke emporion in Ptolemy 's Geographia of mid first century CE . Poduke is a Roman name and is also said to be a corrupted version of the Tamil name Potikai , meaning a " meeting place " , also known for the local Poduvar clan .

= = History = =

The first mention about Arikamedu was in 1734 , in a communication from the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony of Pondicherry . It informed the French East India Company that villagers were extracting old bricks from the Virampattinam . The earliest mention of the Arikamedu archaeological site was by Le Gentil of France , who the King of France had assigned to observe notable astronomical occurrences in the world . Gentil , after visiting Arikamedu , confirmed the earlier report of the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony .

In 1765 , when he visited the ruins at the site , he found the people of the village collecting large ancient bricks exposed at the river bank . The villagers told him that they had retrieved the bricks from an old fort of the king the Vira @-@ Raguen . In 1937 , Jouveau Dubreuil , an Indologist , also from France , purchased gem stone antiquities from local children , and also gathered some exposed on the site 's surface . In particular , he found an intaglio carved with the picture of a man . As a numismatist , he identified the intaglio as Augustus Caesar . He also found fine beads and gems . He concluded that these antiquities belonged to the Roman Empire . Dubreuil informed the local Governor of Pondicherry about his find , and called Arikamedu " a true Roman city . " He published a short note about his findings .

In the early 1940s , Service des Travaux Publics carried out random excavations . Father Fancheux and Raymand Surleau , who were not qualified archaeologists , carried out the excavations at Arikamedu and sent a few antiquities to Indian museums , and also to the École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient in Hanoi .

Sir R.E.M.Wheeler , the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India , in the 1940s saw a few potsherds of Arikamedu site displayed in the Madras Museum , which he identified as Arrentine ware , an expensive ceramic made until 50 CE in Arizzo , Italy . Thereafter , when he visited the Pondicherry Museum and saw more of the findings from the Arikamedu site , he was impressed and thought that he had found the links between the Classical Mediterranean and Ancient India . Soon thereafter in 1945 , the penultimate year of World War II , he mounted excavations in a scientific manner . He was looking for an archaeological site in India that could establish its cultural link , a datum of the Indian antiquities to the Greco @-@ Roman period , and this quest led him to the Arikamedu site . These excavations also involved Indian archaeologists , who were trained on the site .

Wheeler published his findings in 1946 . He noted that , for the local fishermen of the village , the antiquities were strange — as they consisted of lamps , glass items , gemstones , cutlery and crockery , wine containers , etc . He also observed that traders traveled from west coast and from Ceylon , Kolchoi ( Colchi ) and the Ganges area to trade goods such as gems , pearls and spices , and silk . He carried out excavations carefully , so that none of the antiquities were damaged . This was followed by investigations after the war , from 1947 – 1950 by Jean @-@ Marie Casal . His report of excavations was not as fully published as Wheeler 's . His report was not well @-@ known in India , as it was not written in English . However , his important conclusion was that the site belonged to an early megalithic period , as he had located megalithic burials marked by stones , locally known in Tamil as Pandukal close to the site .

The excavations led to antiquities of Roman origin such as beads and gems , amphorae ( wine making vats ) with remnants of wine , a Roman stamp , big bricks recovered from an old wall , Arretine ware and so forth . From these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the site was related to a period of trading with Rome , and that it was first established by emperor Augustus . He also noted that this Indo @-@ Roman trade lasted for a period of about 200 years , till 200 CE . Wheeler also found the Chinese celadon , identified to belong to the Song @-@ Yuvan dynasty , and Chola coins from about the eleventh century , but these were rejected as despoiling items or remnants left by brick @-@ robbers . Items Chinese blue @-@ and @-@ white ware were also recovered from the site .

Wheeler noted that " rouletted Ware " found at the site ( designated as " Arikamedu Type 1 " in the scientific study under the " Arikamedu Type 10 Project : Mapping Early Historic Networks in South Asia and Beyond " ) was not of an Indian origin , but was from the Mediterranean region . A ceramic sherd , ( " Arikamedu Type 10 ) has also been investigated for its style and spatial distribution .

After a gap of several decades , in the early 1980s , Vimala Begley studied the ceramics find of the site and proposed a preliminary version of the chronology of the occupation of the site . At the same time she started researching on the beads , organized a proper sequential display of the artifacts of the site at the Pondicherry Museum , and brought out an information brochure .

Begley obtained approvals to carry out excavations at the site in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Madras ; she and K.V. Raman were the directors of operation from 1989 to 1992 . Steven Sidebothom of the University of Delaware , who had back ground knowledge of Roman Egypt , was in charge of the trenching at the site . Further excavations were done during six working seasons from 1989 to 1992 , which led to a contradictory view that the brick structures and the wells investigated by Wheeler were of poor quality as they were founded on poor sandy foundations . The wood work was also noted to be of poor quality and the houses had no waterproofing . The excavations also lead to a view that Arikamedu 's Roman trading link was more of an inference . The excavations have now established that the trading with Rome extended to a period beyond that assessed by Wheeler ; that trading continued from the second century BCE to the seventh or eighth century CE .

The extensive findings of glass and stone beads at the site provided Begley the link to Arikamedu 's history . She identified the beads as Indo @-@ Pacific beads crafted at Arikamedu . Based on the antiquities and structural features from the excavations , Begley and Raman established a revised sequence of six major periods of occupation of the site . Finds of new variety of Roman Amphorae ware also facilitated revision of the dates of occupancy . They have also inferred that the site has been in continuous occupation since at least 2nd or 3rd century BCE to much more recent times .

= = Excavations = =

The excavated area of the mound was demarcated into two zones on the basis of occupation and elevation . Northern sector of the mound is nearer to the sea coast while the southern sector is farther away from the coast . The ceramic find of crockery and cooking vessels found in the northern sector were indicative of mass feeding of sailors and traders who camped there . Wine stored in amphorae was the principal item imported from the western countries during the later part of the 2nd century BCE .

According to Wheeler the finds from the northern and southern part of the mound belong to the period from later part of 1st century BCE to 1st and 2nd centuries CE . Identified structures include :

A brick and lime mortar plaster structure of oblong shape 45 metres ( 148 ft ) in length , with a divide wall , used as a storehouse in the southern part

Two walled enclosures with ponds and drainage systems in the northern part of the mound that could indicate of dyeing operations that used vats to dye muslin for export

Pottery , both local and Mediterranean , such as amphorae and Arrentine ware that belonged to the Terra Sigillata ( stamped pottery ) of 1st century BCE , which went out of use by 50 CE

Pink amphorae jars used to store wine or oil with two handles and a yellow slip , found in all layers of excavations

Smaller objects include a wheel @-@ turned blackware ceramic , a few terracotta figurines , shell beads , gems , gold , terracotta , iron nails , copper percussion beater , red fragment of a Roman lamp shade , an engraved emblem of emperor Augustus , an ivory handle , and a wooden toy boat . Based on these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading station . However , recent excavations by Begley have altered this assessment .

The buildings in the northern part of the mound indicative urbanization , with people of different ethnic groups — Indian and non @-@ Indian — but it has not been possible to date them in view of the limited depth of excavations .

= = Conservation = =

An international conference that the Government of Pondicherry and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs held in October 2004 decided to investigate the Arikamedu site jointly for conservation , as its ancient commercial link with the Romans has been established . During this conference , the Government of Pondicherry also decided to propose the site for status as a World Heritage Site of UNESCO . The Archaeological Survey of India also proposed the site for UNESCO Cultural Heritage Site status , under the title Silk Road Sites in India .

= Hurricane Ingrid =

Hurricane Ingrid was one of two tropical cyclones , along with Hurricane Manuel , to strike Mexico within a 24 ‑ hour period , the first such occurrence since 1958 . Ingrid was the ninth named storm and second hurricane of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on September 12 in the Gulf of Mexico from a broad disturbance that also spawned Manuel in the eastern Pacific . After initially moving westward toward Veracruz , Ingrid turned northeastward away from the coast . Favorable conditions allowed it to attain hurricane status on September 14 , and the next day Ingrid attained peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Subsequently , increased wind shear weakened the convection as the storm turned more to the northwest and west . On September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico as a strong tropical storm , and dissipated the next day .

The combined impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected two @-@ thirds of Mexico , killing 192 people and causing $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) in damage . Most of the effects were due to Manuel , though Ingrid was directly responsible for at least 32 deaths and $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in damage . The two storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in Mexico . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) in Tuxpan , Veracruz . The rains caused widespread flooding , damaging at least 14 @,@ 000 houses and hundreds of roads and bridges . In Tamaulipas , where the storm made landfall , the rainfall damaged crops and flooded rivers . The effects of the storm spread into southern Texas , causing high tides and some flooding . After the storm , the Mexican government declared several municipalities as states of emergency . Relief agencies distributed food and aid to the hardest hit areas , although in Tamaulipas , residents had to rely on assistance from the local Gulf Cartel . The names Ingrid and Manuel were both later retired due to their impacts .

= = Meteorological history = =

On August 28 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa , which moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development . On September 2 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , developed along the northern portion of the wave , but was eventually absorbed into Tropical Storm Gabrielle north of Puerto Rico . The wave continued westward through the Caribbean Sea into a large area of cyclonic flow at the surface , which extended across Central America into the eastern Pacific . Around September 9 , the broad system developed two areas of disturbed weather – one in the eastern Pacific would become Hurricane Manuel , and the other developing over the northwestern Caribbean . The latter system slowly organized , developing a low pressure area on September 11 . Subsequently , the system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula . Although land interaction prevented immediate development , conditions favored further development in the Bay of Campeche . Early on September 12 , the low emerged into the bay , and at 1800 UTC the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) assessed that Tropical Depression Ten developed about 280 km ( 170 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Veracruz . This was confirmed by a Hurricane Hunters flight indicating the presence of a closed low @-@ level circulation .

On September 13 , convection and organization increased and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ingrid , while weak steering currents resulted in little movement of the cyclone . Partially due to the presence of nearby Hurricane Manuel in the eastern Pacific basin on the other side of Mexico , significant wind shear existed in the vicinity of Ingrid . Nonetheless , strong convection and intermittent development of an eye allowed for strengthening of the storm on September 14 . Ingrid strengthened into a hurricane – the second of the season – that afternoon . Around that time , the hurricane turned sharply northeastward due to a trough over eastern Mexico and a ridge over the southeastern United States . Additional strengthening took place thereafter , and Ingrid reached a peak intensity of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) early on September 15 while starting to move northward and begin a northwest turn towards the Mexican coastline .

Afterward Ingrid reached peak winds , shear increased and began to weaken the hurricane as it approached the Mexican coast . The center became displaced to the edge of the convection , and NHC forecaster Daniel Brown noted that Ingrid " [ did ] not resemble a classic hurricane in satellite pictures . " At around 1115 UTC on September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico , after having weakened into a strong tropical storm with 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) winds . Near landfall , the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) which , after adjusting to surface winds , confirmed the weakening . The storm moved ashore less than 24 hours after Tropical Storm Manuel struck the Pacific coast of Mexico on Michoacán , making it the first time since 1958 that tropical cyclones struck both coasts of the country within one day . Ingrid rapidly weakened into a tropical depression over land , and although convection temporarily reorganized , the circulation dissipated on September 17 .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Several tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted in anticipation of the storm . Upon the development of Ingrid into a tropical cyclone at 2100 UTC on September 12 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Coatzacoalcos to Nautla , Veracruz . At 1500 UTC on September 13 , the tropical storm warning was extended northward to Cabo Rojo , Veracruz , with a tropical storm watch northward to La Pesca , Tamaulipas . Later , a hurricane warning was issued between Cabo Rojo to La Pesca , with a tropical storm watch to Bahia Algodones , Tamaulipas . Pemex , the oil company operated by the Mexican government , evacuated workers from three platforms in the Gulf of Mexico due to the storm . In Tamaulipas , classes were canceled in 27 municipalities , and all classes were temporarily canceled throughout Veracruz . The threat of the storm caused events for Mexican Independence Day to be canceled . After a restriction on the news in 2010 due to the local drug war , members of a citizen alert system in Tamaulipas used Twitter to notify about flooding , missing people , and the need for assistance .

Early in its duration , Ingrid produced tropical storm force winds along the coast of Veracruz . While making landfall , it also brought tropical storm force winds along the northeastern Mexican coast . Sustained winds at La Pesca peaked at 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , with gusts to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The NHC remarked that Ingrid " likely caused above normal tides " in northeastern Mexico , but there was no data to back up the statement . Interacting with Hurricane Manual on the Pacific coast and the broad cyclonic flow , Ingrid dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Mexico , primarily in Tabasco , Veracruz , and Tamaulipas states . In Tuxpan , Veracruz , rainfall totaled 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) over 10 days , while at the Presa Vicente Guerrero dam in Tamaulipas , precipitation reached 502 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) . Surface runoff from the storm spread to the Pacific coast of Mexico , producing flooding in Guerrero in combination with Manuel . The impacts from both storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in the country .

The combined effects of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected about two @-@ thirds of Mexico . The rains from Ingrid caused flooding and landslides across Mexico , causing many rivers to rise , and isolating towns . In Veracruz alone , the rains flooded 68 rivers , which damaged 121 roads and 31 bridges , including two destroyed bridges . About 14 @,@ 000 houses were damaged to some degree . Heavy rainfall forced 23 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes , 9 @,@ 000 of whom went to emergency shelters , some forced to leave by the Mexican army in high risk areas . Evacuees who did not reside in shelters generally went to the houses of friends and family . Also in Veracruz , flooding killed about 20 @,@ 000 livestock . Along the coast of Tamaulipas , damage occurred from Soto la Marina to La Pesca . The Pánuco River in Tamaulipas rose above its banks , flooding two poor towns along its path and damaging adjacent roads . Also in the state , the storm damaged local sorghum fields . Two people in the state required rescue after their truck was swept away by a river .

Throughout Mexico , Ingrid killed 32 people , mostly due to flooding and mudslides . The two storms collectively killed at least 192 people and caused $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) . Manuel was responsible for majority of the overall effects , although Ingrid still left an estimated $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in estimated economic losses , according to AON Benfield ; insured damages totaled $ 3 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 230 million USD ) . A total of six fatalities occurred in the states of Hidalgo and Puebla . Three of which were caused after a vehicle was swept off a road , while three other people died after their home was buried by a mudslide ; another death occurred in Hidalgo after a house collapsed on a woman in the town of Tepehuacán de Guerrero . Twelve people died after a landslide smashed a bus in Altotonga , Veracruz , and three people died in Tamaulipas .

The fringes of the storm extended into southern Texas , where winds gusted to tropical storm force , and rainfall was around 25 – 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 2 @.@ 95 in ) . Thunderstorms and high tides affected the coastline , with tides reaching 0 @.@ 76 m ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) above normal , causing beaches to close due to flooding .

= = Aftermath and retirement = =

The twin impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel prompted officials in Mexico to declare a state of emergency in 155 municipalities in Veracruz , Tamaulipas , Chiapas , Oaxaca , Guerrero , and Chihuahua . The nation 's Health Ministry sent medical crews across the country to affected areas in an effort to prevent the spread of disease ; the agency also suggested residents boil their water . Officials opened shelters in Tamaulipas for residents whose houses were damaged , housing about 2 @,@ 000 people in the weeks following the storm . The Mexican food bank sent about 800 tons of food to the hardest @-@ hit parts of the country in Guerrero , Veracruz , and Sinaloa . In addition , the Mexican Red Cross delivered 186 tons of food to Veracruz alone . Volunteers delivered about 600 blankets and various cleaning supplies to the town of Pánuco . Following the storms , the National Civil Protection Coordination received the authority to prevent housing construction in areas at risk for mudslides and flooding ; the law had passed in 2012 , but initially lacked the authority to enforce it . Some residents in Tamaulipas complained at the slow pace of receiving aid . In response , the Gulf Cartel brought relief items to Aldama , with one columnist for El Universal suggesting that this was to gain favor with local residents .

Because of the severe damage caused by the storm in Mexico , the name Ingrid was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization , and will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with Imelda for the 2019 Atlantic hurricane season . The name Manuel was also retired from the Pacific naming list and was replaced with Mario .

= Typhoon Imbudo =

Typhoon Imbudo , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Harurot , was a powerful typhoon that struck the Philippines and southern China in July 2003 . The seventh named storm and fourth typhoon of the season , Imbudo formed on July 15 to the east of the Philippines . The storm moved generally west @-@ northward for much of its duration due to a ridge to the north . Favorable conditions allowed Imbudo to intensify , gradually at first before undergoing rapid deepening on July 19 . After reaching typhoon status , Imbudo strengthened further to peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on July 20 . The typhoon made landfall on northern Luzon near peak intensity on July 22 , but quickly weakened over land . Once in the South China Sea , Imbudo re @-@ intensified slightly before making its final landfall in southern China near Yangjiang on July 24 , dissipating the next day .

In the Philippines , Imbudo was the strongest typhoon in five years , causing widespread flooding and power outages in the Cagayan Valley for weeks . Damage was heaviest in Isabela province near where the storm struck . Most of the banana crop was destroyed , and other crops sustained similar but lesser damage . Imbudo disrupted transportation across much of Luzon . Nationwide , the storm damaged or destroyed 62 @,@ 314 houses , causing P4.7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) in damage , mostly in the Cagayan Valley . There were also 64 deaths in the country . In Hong Kong , strong winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . In China , damage was heaviest in Guangdong where the storm struck . Thousands of trees fell , and 595 @,@ 000 houses were wrecked . Hundreds of canceled flights stranded travelers across the region . In Guangxi , high rainfall increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . In Guangxi and Guangdong , collectively 20 people were killed , and damage reached about ¥ 4 @.@ 45 billion ( CNY , $ 297 million USD ) .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Imbudo were from a disorganized area of convection near Chuuk in the open western Pacific in mid @-@ July . With weak wind shear , the system slowly became better organized . On July 15 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression formed . The next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert ( TCFA ) , noting that outflow had increased due to an upper @-@ level low to the northeast . At 1800 UTC on July 16 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 09W about 665 km ( 415 mi ) east of Yap . A subtropical ridge near Okinawa steered the nascent depression to the west @-@ northwest for much of its duration . With warm waters and favorable upper @-@ level conditions , the depression quickly organized , and the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm Imbudo on July 17 .

After becoming a tropical storm , Imbudo passed about 35 km ( 20 mi ) north of Yap . The JMA upgraded Imbudo to a severe tropical storm late on July 18 , around the same time that the JTWC upgraded it to a typhoon . An increase in outflow to the south and to the north from a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) caused a 36 ‑ hour period of rapid development beginning on July 19 . During that time , the JMA upgraded Imbudo to typhoon status , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories as the storm approached the Philippines , and a 30 km ( 20 mi ) wide eye formed . At 1200 UTC on July 20 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . At the same time , the JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . By late on July 20 , the typhoon had developed concentric eyewalls , and the TUTT was moving away , thus diminishing outflow . Imbudo maintained peak winds for about 12 hours , before the innermost eye contracted to a diameter of 11 km ( 7 mi ) in the midst of an eyewall replacement cycle . At 0300 UTC on July 22 , Imbudo struck northern Luzon , with 1 minute winds estimated at 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) by the JTWC .

Rapidly weakening over land , Imbudo emerged into the South China Sea about six hours after landfall . The JTWC estimated winds had decreased to 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , although the agency estimated Imbudo quickly re @-@ intensified to a secondary peak of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) in 1 minute winds . Dry air prevented convection from redeveloping significantly , and the eye had become large over open waters . At 0300 UTC on July 24 , Imbudo made its final landfall west of Macau , near Yangjiang , Guangdong . It was the strongest to hit the province since Typhoon Sally in 1996 , striking China with 10 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , as estimated by the JMA . The storm rapidly weakened over land while moving over southern China . Late on July 25 , Imbudo dissipated near the border of China and Vietnam .

= = Preparations = =

Before Imbudo struck , officials evacuated over 14 @,@ 000 people to at least 60 shelters . Government offices were closed along the typhoon 's path , and schools were closed in the capital , Manila . PAGASA issued a number 4 warning signal , the highest level , for three northern provinces , indicating the imminent threat of a powerful storm . Despite the warning , a post @-@ storm survey in Isabela province indicated that 34 % were unaware of the storm 's arrival , while others believed the typhoon would not be as strong . In Manila , four flights were canceled at Ninoy Aquino International Airport , and the Manila Light Rail Transit System was shut down for two hours . Travel by ship and bus were halted in some areas . On July 22 before the storm struck , the Philippine military was put on red alert , increasing security at the presidential palace . The military stated it was due to the typhoon , although newspapers suggested it was to prevent a coup attempt ; a failed coup ultimately did occur on July 27 in what would become known as the Oakwood mutiny .

The Hong Kong Observatory issued a number 8 warning signal , indicating the potential for gale force winds within the territory . At Hong Kong International Airport , at least 100 flights were canceled or delayed . Most ferry and some bus lines were temporarily suspended . The threat of the storm caused 16 flights to be canceled and another 54 delayed at Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport . On Hainan island , 32 canceled flights stranded about 1 @,@ 500 travelers . The threat of the storm forced British Prime Minister Tony Blair to shorten a trip to the territory . The Hong Kong Stock Exchange opened 30 minutes late as a result of the typhoon . On the mainland at Yangjiang , more than 30 @,@ 000 people evacuated ahead of the storm .

= = Impact = =

= = = Philippines = = =

Typhoon Imbudo was the strongest typhoon to strike Luzon since Typhoon Zeb five years prior , and was the fifth storm in eight weeks to affect the country . The typhoon left widespread areas flooded for several days . Cagayan Valley was largely isolated after a bridge was damaged in Ilocos Norte . Damage was heavy in the region , totaling P2.2 billion ( PHP , $ 40 million USD ) , and over 80 @,@ 000 people were displaced by the storm . Damage was heaviest in Isabela , where damage was estimated at P1.9 billion ( PHP , $ 35 million USD ) , mostly to crops and killed livestock . There , winds and rain knocked down trees and caused a province @-@ wide power outage . Most trees less than three years old fell during the high winds . In Isabela province , the banana crop was almost entirely destroyed , and most of the corn and rice crops were heavily damaged . The high damage caused the gross regional product , or overall economy of the Cagayan Valley , to decrease by 0 @.@ 3 % than what would have happened without the typhoon .

Power outages affected Metro Manila , and several billboards were damaged in the city , although there was minimal flooding in the capital . Adverse conditions caused the Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 1 to close for two hours , stranding hundreds . High winds knocked over a 12 m ( 40 ft ) tree that killed five on Romblon Island . The rains brought the Magat Dam on Luzon to capacity . Landslides blocked a national highway in Nueva Ecija with debris and fallen trees , which were quickly cleared within a few days . On Mindanao , flash flooding from the outer periphery of the storm affected 18 towns , killing 11 people . In Maguindanao in the southern Philippines , flooding washed away 50 houses , forcing over 2 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Damage extended as far south as the Western Visayas . Across the Philippines , Imbudo damaged 62 @,@ 314 houses , of which about 20 % were destroyed . Housing damage was estimated at P1.2 billion ( PHP , $ 22 million USD ) , most of which in the Cagayan Valley . Overall damage in the country was estimated at about P4.7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) . Of the total , about P1.9 billion ( PHP , $ 35 million USD ) was in agriculture damage . Imbudo killed 64 people in the Philippines , mostly in Cagayan Valley , and injured another 154 .

= = = Elsewhere = = =

Early in its developmental stages , Imbudo affected portions of Micronesia , particularly Ulithi . There , a weather station measured a peak wind gust of 85 km / h ( 53 mph ) ; winds of similar intensity were reported in Yap . Rainfall from Imbudo in Micronesia peaked at 226 mm ( 8 @.@ 89 in ) over a six @-@ hour period on Yap . The rainfall from the passing tropical cyclone caused $ 75 @,@ 000 in property damage and $ 25 @,@ 000 in agricultural and crop @-@ related damage .

Before Imbudo struck mainland China , it passed south of Taiwan , dropping heavy rainfall reaching 137 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) in Taitung County . The outer rainbands reached as far as Okinawa , where 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) was reported .

Peak rainfall in Hong Kong was 53 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 11 in ) at Kwai Chung , only a day after Tropical Storm Koni dropped rainfall in the territory , and the highest storm surge was 1 @.@ 13 m ( 3 @.@ 7 ft ) at Tsim Bei Tsui . As the storm passed to the south , Imbudo produced winds of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) on Cheung Chau , the highest in the Hong Kong territory , although a gust of 164 km / h ( 102 mph ) was observed at Tai Mo Shan . High winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . The winds knocked down 83 trees , injuring 11 people . Rough waves injured 34 people traveling by boat near Lantau Island . In the territory , ten boats were damaged or sank , and one fishing pier was damaged .

At its final landfall in Guangdong , Imbudo produced strong winds , with a peak gust of 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) measured at Shangchuan Island . At Yangjiang , gusts reached 159 km / h ( 99 mph ) , causing eleven boats to sink . There , over 10 @,@ 000 trees fell due to the strong winds , more than half in the city , and 7 @,@ 649 homes were damaged or destroyed . In Zhanjiang , the storm damaged power lines and water pumps , leaving residents without access to water . Imbudo spawned tornadoes in Luoding and Zhanjiang , damaging dozens of houses and killing 6 @,@ 000 chickens . Throughout Guangdong , Imbudo destroyed 595 @,@ 000 houses and caused ¥ 1 @.@ 9 billion ( CNY , $ 230 million USD ) . There were at least eight deaths in the province .

In Hainan island to the south of the storm track , rainfall reached 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in Ding 'an County . Imbudo caused flooding in the capital Haikou , and several houses were wrecked . The typhoon affected most of the population , causing an estimated ¥ 55 @.@ 35 million ( CNY , $ 6 @.@ 7 million USD ) in damage . Heavy rainfall spread across southern China , peaking at 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) at Hepu County in Guangxi province , which increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . The Nanliu River in Bobai County rose to 50 @.@ 21 m ( 164 @.@ 7 ft ) , or 0 @.@ 71 m ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) above flood stage . In Guangxi , 12 people died from storm damage or drowning , and at least 130 livestock were killed . Imbudo destroyed 4 @,@ 950 houses , 3 @,@ 170 of which in the city of Yulin , causing ¥ 499 @.@ 6 million ( CNY , $ 60 @.@ 3 million USD ) in damage in the province . Across southern China , the typhoon damaged over 10 million hectares ( 25 million acres ) of crop fields .

= = Aftermath = =

Immediately after the storm , the Philippine Air Force were mobilized to help deliver supplies and aid in search and rescue missions . On July 24 , President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo declared that the National Disaster Coordinating Council would provide assistance to citizens affected by the typhoon . The president requested P134 million ( PHP , $ 2 @.@ 5 million USD ) for farmers to buy new seeds , and P35 million ( PHP , $ 650 @,@ 000 USD ) to rebuild the hard @-@ hit Cagayan Valley , where Arroyo visited days after the storm struck . The government ultimately spent about P24 million ( PHP , $ 435 @,@ 000 USD ) in emergency aid for relocating storm victims , search and rescue operations , and assistance . In Mindanao , officials prepared 800 bags of rice and various other food supplies due to the storm . Power and water outages persisted across Luzon for up to three weeks , causing many factories otherwise undamaged to close . In Isabela province , 25 Tzu Chi volunteers provided supplies to 2 @,@ 873 houses . The Philippine government provided rice , sardines , and coffee to many affected houses . Damaged houses were supposed to receive 1 @,@ 000 pesos , although few received the monetary aid . In the town of San Mariano in Isabela province , most farmers incurred more debt and continued their same general farming practice , despite sustaining heavy losses from the storm .

In 2004 , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Imbudo and replaced it with Molave . The PAGASA name Harurot was replaced with Hanna for the 2007 season .

= Hurricane Felicia ( 2009 ) =

Hurricane Felicia was the third strongest tropical cyclone of the 2009 Pacific hurricane season , as well as the strongest storm to exist in the eastern Pacific at the time since Hurricane Daniel in 2006 . Forming as a tropical depression on August 3 , the storm supported strong thunderstorm activity and quickly organized . It became a tropical storm over the following day , and subsequently underwent rapid deepening to attain hurricane status . Later that afternoon , Felicia featured a well @-@ defined eye as its winds sharply rose to major hurricane @-@ force on the Saffir – Simpson scale . Further strengthening ensued , and Felicia peaked in intensity as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) . After reaching this strength , unfavorable conditions , such as wind shear , began to impact the storm while it took on a northwestward path . Henceforth , Felicia slowly weakened for several days ; by August 8 it had been downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane , once again becoming a tropical storm the next day . It retraced westward towards Hawaii on August 10 , all the while decreasing in organization . On August 11 , Felicia weakened to tropical depression status , and soon degenerated into remnant low just prior to passing over the islands .

After weakening into a remnant low , Felicia continued to approach the Hawaiian Islands and on August 12 , the system produced copious amounts of rainfall across several islands . The highest total was recorded on Oahu at 14 @.@ 63 in ( 372 mm ) , causing isolated mudslides and flooding . In Maui , the heavy rains helped to alleviate drought conditions and water shortages , significantly increasing the total water across the island 's reservoirs . In addition , river flooding resulted in the closure of one school and large swells produced by the storm resulted in several lifeguard rescues at island beaches . In all , only minor impacts were caused by the remnants of Felicia .

= = Meteorological history = =

Hurricane Felicia originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on July 23 , 2009 . A weak system , the wave was barely identifiable as it tracked westward . By July 26 , the wave entered the Caribbean Sea before crossing Central America and entering the eastern Pacific basin on July 29 . The system remained ill @-@ defined until August 1 , at which time convection began to increase and the wave showed signs of organization . The storm gradually became better organized as it tracked generally towards the west . By August 3 , the system became increasingly organized and around 11 : 00 am PDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) designated the system as Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E. Convective banding features and poleward outflow were being enhanced by the nearby Tropical Storm Enrique . The main steering component of the depression was an upper @-@ level low located to the north , causing the depression to track generally west before turning northwest after the low weakened .

By the early morning hours of August 4 , the NHC upgraded Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E to Tropical Storm Felicia , the seventh named storm of the season . Located within an area of low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures , averaging between 28 and 29 ° C ( 82 and 84 ° F ) , the storm quickly developed , with deep convection persisting around the center of circulation . These conditions were anticipated to persist for at least three days ; however , there was an increased amount of uncertainty due to possible interaction with Tropical Storm Enrique . Several hours later , the storm began to undergo rapid intensification , following the formation of an eye . Around 2 : 00 pm PDT ( 2100 UTC ) , Felicia intensified into a hurricane .

Late on August 4 , the intensity of Felicia led to it taking a more northward turn in response to a mid- to upper @-@ level trough off the coast of the Western United States . Early the next morning , the storm continued to intensify and attained Category 3 status with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Maintaining a well @-@ defined eye , Felicia neared Category 4 status and hours later , the storm attained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) and a pressure of 937 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 67 inHg ) during the evening hours , making it the strongest Pacific storm east of the International Date Line since Hurricane Ioke in 2006 and the strongest in the eastern Pacific basin since Hurricane Daniel of 2006 . Around 5 : 00 pm PDT ( 0000 UTC August 6 ) Felicia reached its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) .

After slightly weakening throughout the day on August 6 , Felicia leveled out with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a 23 mi ( 37 km ) wide eye as the storm developed characteristics of an annular hurricane , which would allow Felicia to maintain a high intensity over marginally warm waters . Early the next day , the structure of the hurricane quickly deteriorated as convection became asymmetric and cloud tops warmed significantly . This marked a quick drop in intensity of the storm to a minimal Category 3 hurricane . Several hours later , the mid @-@ level circulation began to separate from the low @-@ level circulation and the overall size of the storm decreased . By this time , the storm began to take a long @-@ anticipated westward turn towards Hawaii . After briefly re @-@ intensifying on August 7 , Felicia weakened to a Category 1 hurricane early on August 8 . Around 11 : 00 am HST ( 2100 UTC ) , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) took over responsibility of issuing advisories as Felicia crossed longitude 140 ° W.

By August 9 , increasing wind shear further weakened the storm , with Felicia being downgraded to a tropical storm early that day . The storm rapidly weakened throughout the day as convection gradually dissipated around the center due to the shear . By the late morning hours , little convective activity remained around the low pressure center of Felicia . A weak cyclone , the storm continued to track towards Hawaii with the only deep convection associated with it being displaced to the northeast of the center . The system slowly weakened before being downgraded to a tropical depression on August 11 as no areas of tropical storm @-@ force winds were found by Hurricane Hunters . Several hours after being downgraded , the CPHC issued its final advisory on Felicia as it degenerated into a remnant low near the Hawaiian Islands . The system dissipated shortly thereafter .

= = Preparations = =

By August 5 , forecasters were discussing the possibility of the storm impacting Hawaii . Residents were advised to ensure that their disaster kits were fully stocked and ready . Governor Linda Lingle made a speech to the state of Hawaii the same day . She emphasized that the storm was not an imminent threat but that residents should be ready and should know where the nearest emergency shelter is . Since forecasters expected the storm to weaken before it reached the islands , only minor effects — mainly rainfall — were expected . Hawaii County mayor Billy Kenoi was also briefed on the approaching storm and he advised the county to be prepared . Stores reported an influx of shoppers and posted anniversary sales . Blue tarps for roofs were being sold at $ 1 apiece . The American Red Cross also reported that sales of the " water bob " , a water container that can be attached to a bathtub and hold roughly 100 gallons of water , increased significantly . On August 6 , the Red Cross stated that it was deploying a disaster recovery team , led by the director of the agency , to the islands of Hawaii .

On August 7 , five Hurricane Hunter planes were dispatched to Hickam Air Force Base to fly missions into the storm . Later that day , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued tropical storm watches for the island of Hawaii , Maui , Kahoolawe , Lanai , and Molokai . On August 9 , the watch was expanded to include Oahu . The watches for the Big Island were later cancelled as the forecast track appeared to drift further north toward Maui County and Oahu . The Red Cross opened shelters throughout the islands on August 10 . Twelve were on the Big Island , seven were on Maui , two on Molokai and one on Lanai . The Honolulu International Airport ensured that eight generators were ready for use in case Felicia caused a power outage at the airport . All tropical storm watches were cancelled at 11 a.m. August 11 as Felicia dissipated to a remnant low .

= = Impact = =

= = = Oahu = = =

In Oahu , areas on the windward side of the island received more than 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rain on August 12 from the remnants of Felicia , causing many roads to become slick . A portion of Kamehameha Highway was shut down around 11 : 00 pm HST when the Waikane Stream overflowed its banks . Flooding near a bridge reached a depth of 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , stranding some residents in their homes . The highway remained closed until around 4 : 00 am HST on August 14 . The rain was also considered helpful in that it helped alleviate drought conditions that had been present for nearly two months . The heaviest rainfall was recorded on Oahu at 14 @.@ 63 in ( 372 mm ) in the Forest National Wildlife Refuge . During a 12 @-@ hour span , a total of 6 @.@ 34 in ( 161 mm ) fell in Waiahole . Some areas recorded rainfall rates up to 1 in / h ( 25 mm / h ) , triggering isolated mudslides . At Sandy Beach , there were two lifeguard rescues and three others were on Makapuʻu as waves up to 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) affected the islands . There were also five assists at Makapuʻu and one at Kailua Beach . Lifeguards issued a total of 1 @,@ 410 verbal warnings about the rough seas to swimmers and surfers during the event . However , winds on the island reached only 15 mph ( 25 km / h ) and gusts peaked at 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) .

= = = Other islands = = =

On Kauai , the Hanalei River rose above its normal level , leading to the closure of the Hanalei School . Several tree limbs and small trees were blown down across the island . Rainfall on Kauai peaked at 5 @.@ 33 in ( 135 mm ) at Mount Wai 'ale 'ale and on Maui , up to 4 @.@ 05 in ( 103 mm ) fell in Kaupo Gap . On the leeward side of the mountains , rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 3 in ( 33 mm ) in Kihei , an area that rarely records rainfall in August . Throughout the island , the total amount of water in reservoirs increased to 104 @.@ 5 million gallons ( 395 @.@ 5 million liters ) from 77 @.@ 8 million gallons ( 294 @.@ 5 million liters ) prior to Felicia . Rainfall in some areas was heavy enough at times to reduce visibility to several feet . Streets in these areas were covered with muddy water . Localized heavy rainfall fell on the Big Island , peaking at 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) in Kealakekua . In Wailua Beach , there was one lifeguard rescue that resulted in the swimmer being sent to a local hospital . Three other people were swept away at the mouth of the Wailua River , all of whom were quickly rescued . In Honolulu , runoff from the storm resulted in large amounts of trash and debris along the local beaches . Private contractors were dispatched to the affected coastlines to trap and remove the trash . Officials were forced to close the beaches along Hanauma Bay after swells from Felicia pushed an estimated 2 @,@ 000 Portuguese Man o ' War siphonophorae into the region . The beaches were later re @-@ opened on August 14 .

= Santa @-@ Fe ( Bob Dylan song ) =

" Santa @-@ Fe " ( sometimes spelled " Santa Fe " or " Santa Fé " ) is a song that was recorded by Bob Dylan and the Band in the summer or fall of 1967 in the Woodstock area of New York State . It was recorded during the sessions that would in 1975 be released on The Basement Tapes but was not included on that album . These sessions took place in three phases throughout the year , at a trio of houses , and " Santa @-@ Fe " was likely put on tape in the second of these , at a home of some of the Band members , known as Big Pink . The composition , which has been characterized as a " nonsense " song , was copyrighted in 1973 with lyrics that differ noticeably from those on the recording itself .

In the decades following this collaboration , the over 100 tracks recorded at these sessions were at different stages obtained by collectors and released on bootlegs . The first batch of these leaked to the public beginning in the late 1960s ; the second in 1986 ; the third , which included " Santa @-@ Fe " , in the early 1990s ; and a fourth batch of Basement Tape tracks became public in 2014 . The song was released officially on the Columbia album The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 . It has been subject to mixed opinions by critics and biographers , with some praising it for its expressiveness , and others regarding it unmemorable , while criticizing its inclusion on The Bootleg Series at the expense of more worthy candidates .

= = Background = =

= = = Recording near Woodstock = = =

In 1965 and 1966 , Dylan was touring with the Hawks — Rick Danko , Garth Hudson , Richard Manuel , Robbie Robertson and Levon Helm , although Helm quit the group in late November or early December 1965 . In July 1966 , Dylan suffered a motorcycle accident and spent several months recuperating at his house in Byrdcliffe , near Woodstock , New York . By spring 1967 , all of the members of the Hawks , except Helm , had joined Dylan in the Woodstock area , with Danko , Manuel and Hudson living in nearby West Saugerties in a house nicknamed Big Pink . Dylan and the four Hawks began recording informal music sessions , first at Dylan 's house in what was known as " the Red Room " , followed by the basement of Big Pink . Earlier on they recorded mostly covers and traditional music , but later moved onto original material written largely by Dylan . In total , over 100 songs and alternate takes were put on tape . Helm returned to the group in October 1967 and performed on some final Woodstock @-@ area collaborations between Dylan and the Hawks , these ones at a different house that some group members had moved to . In the fall of that year , the Hawks , who soon renamed themselves the Band , continued writing and rehearsing songs for their debut album , Music From Big Pink .

Dylan biographer Sid Griffin has noted that , because no written records were kept of these 1967 recording sessions , " the world will have to live with the fact that it will never know exactly which Basement Tapes tune was recorded when and where " . Nonetheless , using clues such as the sound quality of different batches of songs , and where they appear on the original reels of tapes , attempts have been made to place the songs into a rough chronology and guess the locations at which they were likely recorded . Biographer Clinton Heylin places " Santa @-@ Fe " in the summer of 1967 at Big Pink . The liner notes of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 date it in the fall of that year . Griffin lists it among the probable Big Pink recordings , and in a group of songs from around July , but concedes it is also " unlikely [ but ] possible " it came from the Red Room .

= = = Circulation of Basement Tape songs = = =

In late 1967 , an acetate of fourteen of Dylan 's compositions was made , from which demos circulated among music groups who might be interested in recording some of the songs . Artists including Peter , Paul and Mary , Manfred Mann and the Byrds eventually did . Dylan 's demo tapes were soon heard by music journalists , including Rolling Stone 's Jann Wenner , who wrote a front @-@ page story in that magazine entitled " Dylan 's Basement Tape Should Be Released " . This made the general public hungry to hear the music , and in July 1969 a bootleg called Great White Wonder , which included some of the Big Pink songs , came out . Other Basement Tape bootlegs followed .

In 1975 , the Columbia album The Basement Tapes was compiled , mainly by Robertson and engineer Rob Fraboni . Robertson and Fraboni put thirty @-@ five of the songs onto composite reels of tape , and Heylin believes these represented a short list of candidates for the album . " Santa @-@ Fe " was included on these composite reels , but was not ultimately chosen for the album . The Basement Tapes included sixteen Dylan songs recorded at Big Pink in 1967 , as well as eight Band demos from various times and locations between 1967 and 1975 . One Dylan song on the album , " Goin ' to Acapulco " , had not appeared on his 1967 fourteen @-@ song acetate or on bootlegs , and this alerted the world to the possibility that there might be more Basement Tape songs in existence . In 1986 , at least twenty @-@ five previously unknown 1967 songs by Dylan and the Band passed into collectors ' hands by way of a former roadie of the Band 's . In the early 1990s , a third batch of songs , these ones from Garth Hudson 's archives , came to light around the time Columbia was preparing The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ; " Santa @-@ Fe " comes from this group . In his liner notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , John Bauldie commented on these second and third stages in which groups of Big Pink songs had come to light : " Despite the ... emergence [ in 1986 ] in collectors ' circles of a further couple of hours of Basement Tapes , it seems as though there 's a good deal left unheard . ' Santa @-@ Fe ' is just one example of a batch of previously unsuspected Basement tracks " . By 1992 , the " Santa @-@ Fe " batch of songs had been obtained by bootleggers , and almost all known Dylan Basement Tape songs were assembled onto the 5 @-@ CD bootleg The Genuine Basement Tapes . " Sante @-@ Fe " was also included on the 2014 compilations The Basement Tapes Raw and The Bootleg Series Vol . 11 : The Basement Tapes Complete ; the latter album officially released a fourth batch of previously uncirculating Basement Tape songs .

= = Personnel = =

The liner notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 list the song 's personnel as Dylan , guitar and vocals ; Robertson , guitar ; Hudson , organ ; Manuel , piano ; Danko , bass ; and Helm , drums . However , Griffin argues that Helm did not arrive in Woodstock until after the song is believed to have been recorded . Furthermore , the drumming sounds to Griffin more like Manuel 's style . Heylin and biographer Greil Marcus similarly do not include " Santa @-@ Fe " among the songs they believe were recorded after Helm 's arrival . Griffin also argues that no organ is audible on the track and proposes the following musician line @-@ up as being more likely : Dylan , acoustic guitar and vocals ; Robertson , electric guitar ; Hudson , piano ; Danko , bass ; Manuel , drums .

= = Copyright and lyrics = =

Different Basement Tape songs were copyrighted in stages between 1967 and 1975 , with " Santa @-@ Fe " being registered in September 1973 ; still other songs from the sessions were not copyrighted until the 1980s . Researcher Tim Dunn indicates that in the original 1973 copyright the song was registered as " Santa @-@ Fe " with a hyphen , but that some later documents relating to the renewal of the copyright omit the hyphen . The liner notes of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 print the title as " Santa @-@ Fe " , while Dylan 's official website , Bobdylan.com , spells it without the hyphen but with an accent on the e : " Santa Fé " .

Heylin has noted that , as is the case with a number of other of Basement Tape tracks , Dylan 's copyrighted , published " Santa @-@ Fe " lyrics differ from what can be heard on the song . Heylin speculates that the " dramatic reworking " in the later version arose from Dylan 's " 1973 musing in Malibu " , where Dylan had moved to , and that new lines like " build a geodesic dome and sail away " and " My shrimp boat 's in the bay " sound like the work of " someone sitting on the dock of the bay , not up on Meads Mountain [ in Woodstock ] " . Heylin also notes that the website maintained by Olof Björner , Words Fill My Head , contains a transcription of the song as Dylan performed it . The 1973 copyrighted lyrics are printed on Bobdylan.com.

In his notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , Bauldie describes the song as " a typical combination of nonsense and fun , just for the hell of it , really ... " ; author Oliver Trager likewise describes it as a " nonsense " song . Heylin writes that the lyrics " revolve around ' dear , dear , dear , dear , Santa Fe ' — intended to be both a woman 's name and the town in New Mexico . After five verses of rolling said words around , he moves on . "

= = Appraisal = =

Opinions about the song have been mixed . AllMusic critic Thomas Ward calls it " one of the great good @-@ time songs in Dylan 's canon " . Ward comments that " Dylan sings it as if he is having the time of his life " , adding that " rarely has he sung with such expressiveness " . Anthony Varesi , author of The Bob Dylan Albums , similarly praises the song 's " breadth of feeling " and " unparalleled expressiveness " , noting that " it appears Dylan simply improvised the song on the spot , and the passion within him allows the song to flow forth naturally " . Biographer John Nagowski has described the song as " delightful " , while a New York Times review rates it one of the highlights of Volume 2 of The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 , commenting that it is one of only a couple of mid @-@ 60s songs on the compilation that " live up to their vintage " . Griffin describes it as " catchy but slight " and " a slight if charming little ditty " , but criticizes the decision to include it on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 rather than the " masterpiece " composition " Sign on the Cross " . Heylin concurs , characterizing " Santa @-@ Fe " in 1995 as a " pleasant enough throwaway " but suggesting that " Sign on the Cross " or another 1967 composition , " I 'm Not There " , would have been much better choices ( " I 'm Not There " was eventually released in 2007 on the I 'm Not There soundtrack , and both it and " Sign on the Cross " were included on The Basement Tapes Raw and The Basement Tapes Complete in 2014 ) . By 2009 , Heylin 's opinion had changed little and he writes that " of all the ' missing ' basement @-@ tape originals that appear on that three @-@ CD set , ' Santa Fe ' hardly represented an A @-@ list candidate . Just another discarded ditty , it relies on the usual wordplay and slurred diction to obscure any pretense to a deeper meaning " . Marcus dismisses it as no more than " a riff " , while a review in Stereophile magazine calls it " the most lightweight tune on all three CDs , with indecipherable lyrics " . Author Peter James , referring to Dylan and the Band 's Woodstock output , writes that " many great songs were written and recorded in [ Big Pink 's ] basement in 1967 , unfortunately ' Sante @-@ Fe ' is not one of them . " He goes on to describe the song 's inclusion on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 as " little more than a joke " .

= = Cover versions = =

The song has been covered by Howard Fishman on his album Performs Bob Dylan & The Band 's The Basement Tapes Live at Joe 's Pub . Fishman played more than sixty songs from Dylan and the Band 's Basement Tape sessions over three nights , of which selected tracks were included on the CD and an accompanying DVD . " Santa @-@ Fe " has also been covered by Steve Gibbons . On November 7 , 2007 at the Beacon Theatre in New York City , J Mascis and the Million Dollar Bashers performed the song at a special concert featuring numerous music artists celebrating the release of Todd Haynes 's film I 'm Not There . Thomas Ward notes that Dylan himself has never played the song live .

= The Secret ( The Office ) =

" The Secret " is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's nineteenth episode overall . It was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky and directed by Dennie Gordon . The episode first aired on January 19 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Tom W. Chick as Gil .

The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) is forced into spending time with Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) so that Michael will not reveal Jim 's feelings for Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) . Meanwhile , Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) takes a sick day and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) investigates whether he is actually sick .

" The Secret " was written in roughly 26 hours and was the fastest episode written for the series at the time . The title for the episode is purposely vague and refers to Jim 's hidden feelings for Pam , Dwight and Angela 's relationship , and Oscar 's homosexuality . The shots at the Hooters restaurant were filmed relatively early in the day , and a majority of the scenes were improvised by Carell . " The Secret " received largely positive reviews from television critics and was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers , ranking as the forty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched television episode of the week .

= = Plot = =

Out of fear that Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) will tell the others he has feelings for Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) allows Michael to believe that they are best friends , which leads to an awkward lunch at Hooters paid for with a corporate credit card . Michael ultimately reveals Jim 's secret to everyone , forcing Jim to confess his crush to Pam himself , although he tells her that he got over it three years ago . However , Michael later tells her that he learned of the crush during the " booze cruise " which occurred recently , leading her to suspect that Jim is still infatuated .

Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) " investigates " Oscar Martinez 's ( Oscar Nunez ) claimed sick day from work , learning that the co @-@ worker is actually taking time off to ice @-@ skate . Dwight blackmails Oscar , threatening to reveal his unauthorized leave @-@ taking . He then cuts a deal for Oscar to owe him a favor , and watches a movie with Oscar and Oscar 's " roommate " Gil ( Tom W. Chick ) while completely failing to recognize evidence of Oscar 's homosexuality .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

" The Secret " was written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky . The episode was written in roughly 26 hours and was the fastest episode written for the series , at the time . The idea to make the entry the " spring cleaning episode " was " throw [ n ] in at the last minute " because the writers were " desperate " . The subplot was inspired by a friend of Eisenberg 's , who suggested the story after he was forced to undergo spring cleaning at his office .

The title for the episode is purposely vague . During the commentary , the cast revealed that there are actually three " secrets " in the episode : Jim 's hidden feelings for Pam , Dwight and Angela 's relationship , and Oscar 's homosexuality . Stupkitsky later joked that there are " actually nine secrets in the episode " . The cold opening – wherein Michael tries to tell a joke where the punch line is " What 's up dog ? " – was inspired by the same prank being pulled on Stupnitsky . The original cold opening for the episode featured Michael playing golf in his office , but it was cut .

Jenna Fischer felt that Krasinski 's performance in the episode was " really great " and called " The Secret " her " favorite John Krasinski episode " . Krasinski said that Creed Bratton 's line , " Which one is Pam ? " was his favorite moment " in the entire show , ever " . Fischer , in turn , said that her favorite moment was when Jim confesses that he does not have a crush on her , due to the emotion involved . Fischer later admitted that , after the shot was filmed , she cried because it " broke [ her ] heart " .

= = = Filming = = =

" The Secret " was directed by Dennie Gordon , who would go on to direct the season two episode " Boys and Girls " . Tom W. Chick portrayed Gil . The cast were particularly impressed with his acting ; Fischer called him a " great casting " choice . Lindsey Stoddart , who plays one of the Hooters waitresses , was an improv acquaintance of Martin 's .

The shots at the Hooters restaurant were filmed relatively early in the day , and a majority of the scenes were improvised by Carell . In fact , Carell decided to play the penis game – in which two or more people shout the word " penis " at varying levels in an attempt to out do each other – which Krasinski called " the craziest thing I have experienced . " The scene where Pam and Kelly discuss wedding plans was particularly difficult to shoot all in one scene , due to the amount of activity going on . John Krasinski later noted that he was impressed that the director and cameramen were able to successfully get the shot . The sequence featuring Michael and Jim talking in the break room was made of two composition shots , because Krasinski was laughing " the entire " time . Michael buying Stanley a peach ice tea and telling him that he will " hate it " was entirely improvised .

= = = Deleted scenes = = =

The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include the cut cold opening of Michael playing with his new putting toy , Dwight expounding on his thoughts on dust bunnies , Michael surveying his " worker bees " , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) finding an unfinished People Magazine crossword puzzle from 1999 in Michael 's office , Michael describing his college fraternity experience , and Michael buying Jim a Hooters T @-@ shirt .

= = Cultural references = =

Michael attributes the 1981 song " Our Lips Are Sealed " to The Bangles , when it was really sung by The Go @-@ Go 's . Michael and Jim go to Hooters , a company whose waiting staff are primarily young , attractive waitresses usually referred to simply as " Hooter Girls " whose revealing outfits and sex appeal is played up and is a primary component of the company 's image . At the restaurant , Michael makes several breast jokes . Near the end of the episode , Michael makes reference to a nonexistent Cinemax movie called More Secrets of a Call Girl .

= = Reception = =

" The Secret " originally aired on NBC on the January 19 , 2006 . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . This marked a slight decrease in viewers from a lead @-@ in episode of " My Name is Earl " , but more than a follow @-@ up episode of " ER " . " The Secret " ranked as the forty @-@ fourth most @-@ watched episode for the week ending January 22 .

M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded the entry a " B " . He wrote that while it was " " a solid episode " it " lacks any of the belly laughs the show frequently elicits . " Michael Sciannamea of AOLTV called the installment " a terrific episode " and wrote that the " Michael Scott [ … ] was at his obnoxious best [ … ] in this episode " . Furthermore , he highly praised the story , noting that " the Jim / Pam scenario has definitely taken a more interesting turn . " During the filming of " The Secret " , the cast of the show discovered that Carell had been nominated for a Golden Globe Award . Fischer later noted that it was " fun that [ ' The Secret ' is ] the episode that airs after his win . "

= Maggie Simpson =

Margaret " Maggie " Simpson is a fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . She first appeared on television in the Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Maggie was created and designed by cartoonist Matt Groening while he was waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . She received her first name from Groening 's youngest sister . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three years , the Simpson family was given their own series on the Fox Broadcasting Company which debuted December 17 , 1989 .

Maggie is the youngest child of Marge and Homer , and sister to Bart and Lisa . She is often seen sucking on her red pacifier and , when she walks , she trips over her clothing and falls on her face ( this running gag is used much more in earlier seasons ) . Being an infant , she cannot talk . She is a counterpart to Lisa Simpson . However , she did appear to talk in the first Tracy Ullman short . Therefore , she is the least seen and heard member of the Simpson family .

Maggie 's squeaking and occasional speaking parts are currently provided by Nancy Cartwright , but she has also been voiced by guest stars James Earl Jones , Elizabeth Taylor and Jodie Foster , and by series regulars Yeardley Smith and Harry Shearer . Maggie has appeared in various media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials and comic books – and has inspired an entire line of merchandise .

= = Role in The Simpsons = =

The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not physically age , and as such the show is assumed to be set in the current year . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific times , though sometimes this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Maggie is the youngest child of Marge and Homer , and sister to Bart and Lisa . When Marge became pregnant with Bart , she and Homer got married at a chapel in Las Vegas . To support his impending family , Homer all but demanded a job at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , impressing its owner , Mr Burns , with his aggressive submissiveness . When Marge became pregnant with Lisa , two years later , she and Homer bought their first house . Another six years later , Homer felt financially secure enough to finally quit his job at the Power Plant and take his dream job at Barney 's Bowlarama . However , Marge became pregnant with Maggie , so Homer , once again unable to support his family , was forced to reapply for his old job . By the time Maggie was born , Homer had shown great signs of distress , but he managed to find motivation in the form of his newborn baby girl .

During the earlier seasons of the show , Maggie 's equivalent of a hallmark was to trip over her clothing and fall on her face while trying to walk , causing a loud thud on the floor , but this was toned down in the later seasons . She has penchant for her pacifier , on which she is always seen sucking .

Maggie has performed a number of feats that suggest she is a baby genius . She has spelled out E = MC ² with her baby blocks , driven Homer 's car , escaped from the Springfield daycare center , and written her name on an Etch A Sketch . Maggie is keenly aware of her surroundings , and can usually be seen imitating the flow of action around her . She shows a high degree of dexterity , and she once hit Homer on the head with a mallet and shot a dart at a photograph of him in imitation of Itchy and Scratchy . Despite her age , Maggie is a formidable marksman , as seen in " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " where she shoots Mr. Burns with a handgun that falls into her hands , and in a more intentional manner during " Poppa 's Got a Brand New Badge " where she is able to non @-@ fatally shoot a group of mobsters in rapid succession with a rifle that she apparently hides in her crib .

Maggie is usually frightened and exasperated by Homer 's attempts to bond with her , but has on several occasions stepped in to save Homer 's life : once from drowning , once from being shot by mobsters , once from being kidnapped by a tow truck driver , and once from being shot by Russ Cargill , head of the United States Environmental Protection Agency .

= = Character = =

= = = Creation = = =

Matt Groening first conceived Maggie and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 in the lobby of James L. Brooks 's office . Groening had been called in to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show , and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights for his life 's work , Groening decided to go in another direction , and hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family and named the characters after members of his own family . The baby of the family was named Maggie after Groening 's youngest sister . Maggie then made her debut with the rest of the Simpsons family on April 19 , 1987 in the short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series that would air on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Maggie and the rest of the family remained the main characters on this new show .

The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Maggie 's physical features are generally not used in other characters ; for example , in the later seasons , no character other than Lisa shares her hairline . While designing Maggie and Lisa , Groening " couldn 't be bothered to even think about girls ' hair styles " . At the time , Groening was primarily drawing in black and white and when designing Lisa and Maggie , he " just gave them this kind of spiky starfish hair style , not thinking that they would eventually be drawn in color " .

Groening thought that it would be funny to have a baby character that did not talk and never grew up , but was scripted to show any emotions that the scene required . Maggie 's comedic hallmarks include her tendency to stumble and land on her face while attempting to walk , and a penchant for sucking on her pacifier , the sound of which has become the equivalent of her catchphrase and was originally created by Groening during the Tracey Ullman period . In the early seasons of the show , Maggie would suck her pacifier over other characters ' dialogue , but this was discontinued because the producers found it too distracting .

= = = Voice = = =

With few exceptions , Maggie never speaks but participates in the events around her , emoting with subtle gestures and facial expressions . Maggie 's first lines were spoken in " Good Night " , the first short to air on The Tracey Ullman Show , after the family falls asleep . On this occasion , Liz Georges provided the voice of Maggie .

Although she had previously spoken in fantasies and dream sequences , Maggie 's first word spoken in the normal continuity of the series occurred in " Lisa 's First Word " , when she was voiced by Elizabeth Taylor . Although it was only one word ( " Daddy " ) , Taylor had to record the part numerous times before the producers were satisfied . James Earl Jones voiced Maggie in " Treehouse of Horror V " . Maggie would later have brief dialogue in " Treehouse of Horror IX " , voiced by Harry Shearer , who used his Kang voice . In earlier episodes , Yeardley Smith did many of Maggie 's squeaks , cries , laughs and occasional speaking parts , although in the later seasons her parts are done by Nancy Cartwright ( including a single word spoken during the end credits of The Simpsons Movie ) . Jodie Foster voiced a Howard Roark @-@ inspired Maggie in the season 20 episode " Four Great Women and a Manicure " .

In the occasional " Simpsons in the future " -themed episodes ( " Lisa 's Wedding " , " Bart to the Future " , " Future @-@ Drama " , " Holidays of Future Passed " , " Days of Future Future " ) , although an older Maggie is depicted , as a running gag within these episodes she is never shown speaking , so no voice actors have been utilized on these occasions .

= = Reception = =

Nancy Basile at About.com said her favorite Maggie scenes on The Simpsons are the ones that show her acting more like an adult than a one @-@ year @-@ old . Some of her favorite Maggie scenes include scenes from " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " and " Lady Bouvier 's Lover " where Maggie meets her unibrowed archenemy , Baby Gerald , and the one scene from " Itchy & Scratchy : The Movie " in which Bart is supposed to babysit Maggie , but she escapes and takes Homer 's car for a ride . Basile also added that " whether watching ' The Happy Elves ' or falling down , Maggie is the cutest baby in the Simpson family " . Comedian Ricky Gervais named " And Maggie Makes Three " his second favorite episode of the show and said that the scene in the end where Homer puts up pictures of Maggie over his desk gave him " a lump in the throat thinking about it " . Todd Everett at Variety called the scene in " Lisa 's First Word " where Maggie speaks her first word " quite a heart @-@ melter " .

In 2006 , Elizabeth Taylor was named thirteenth on IGN 's " Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances " list for her performance as Maggie in " Lisa 's First Word " . James Earl Jones , voice of Maggie in " Treehouse of Horror V " , was named the seventh greatest guest star on the show in the same list . In 2000 , Maggie and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .

= = Merchandising = =

Four children 's books , written by Maggie Groening ( after whom Maggie was named ) and illustrated by Matt Groening , entitled Maggie Simpson 's Book of Animals , Maggie Simpson 's Counting Book , Maggie Simpson 's Book of Colors and Shapes and Maggie Simpson 's Alphabet Book were released on September 12 , 1991 . Other merchandise includes dolls , posters , figurines , jigsaw puzzles , and T @-@ shirts . Maggie was made into an action figure as part of the World of Springfield toy line , and was released in the wave one playset " Living Room " , featuring her and Marge in the living room of the Simpsons house . Maggie has appeared in commercials for Burger King , Butterfinger , C.C. Lemon , Domino 's Pizza , Ramada Inn and Subway .

Maggie has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . She is a character in every one of The Simpsons video games , including the most recent , The Simpsons Game . Alongside the television series , Maggie regularly appears in issues of the Simpsons comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 and are still issued monthly . Maggie also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood . Maggie starred in the 3D short @-@ film The Longest Daycare , which was shown in theaters before Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 .

On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Maggie and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 . In a USPS poll , Maggie 's stamp was voted the most popular of the five .

= Chasing Vermeer =

Chasing Vermeer is a 2004 children 's art mystery novel written by Blue Balliett and illustrated by Brett Helquist . Set in Hyde Park , Chicago near the University of Chicago , the novel follows two children , Calder Pillay and Petra Andalee . After a famous Johannes Vermeer painting is stolen on route to the Art Institute of Chicago , Calder and Petra work together to try to recover it . The thief publishes many advertisements in the newspaper , explaining that he will give the painting back if the community can discover which paintings under Vermeer 's name were really painted by him . This causes Petra , Calder , and the rest of Hyde Park to examine art more closely . Themes of art , chance , coincidence , deception , and problem @-@ solving are apparent .

The novel was written for Balliett classroom intended to deal with real @-@ world issues . Balliett values children 's ideas and wrote the book specifically to highlight that . Chasing Vermeer has won several awards , including the Edgar and the Agatha . In 2006 , the sequel entitled The Wright 3 was published , followed by The Calder Game in 2008 , .

= = Inspiration and origins = =

Chasing Vermeer is Blue Balliett 's first published book . Its original purpose was a book to read to her class for fun . She realized that a mystery about " real " art issues had not been written since E.L. Konigsburg 's From the Mixed @-@ Up Files of Mrs. Basil E. Frankweiler and desired to write what she wished to read . Chasing Vermeer took about five years to complete , as Balliett was also a teacher and parent . She compared writing the book to weaving , as she first wrote mainly about art , but then incorporated the pentominoes and classroom scenes , creating many different levels to read on . She admits that it ended up more complex than she had thought it would be .

Balliett used art and blank plates as inspiration for the characters ' names . Calder Pillay is derived from the artist Alexander Calder and Petra Andalee was inspired by the architecture in Petra , Jordan . The names were meant to be different , which Balliett considered " fun for a child . " Balliett felt that she could capture the attention of reluctant readers if they related to characters who enjoyed writing and math . Calder and Petra 's teacher , Ms. Hussey , was inspired by an old name on Nantucket Island and the old @-@ fashioned word hussy . Balliett compares herself to Ms. Hussey , stating that " [ we ] think a lot alike . " Some of Ms. Hussey 's assignments and dialogue even came from Balliett 's classroom . She chose the setting of Hyde Park , Chicago , where she currently lives , because she considered it full of secrets that children could discover .

= = Plot summary = =

The book begins with a mysterious letter that is delivered to three unknown recipients , two women and one man . The letter tells them they are of great need to the sender , but begs them not to tell the police .

Sixth @-@ graders Calder Pillay , who enjoys puzzles and pentominoes , and Petra Andalee , who aspires to be a writer , are classmates at the Middle School in Hyde Park , Chicago . Their young teacher , Ms. Hussey , is very interested in art and teaches them in a creative way . Through her pressing questions , they discover the artist Johannes Vermeer and his paintings , especially A Lady Writing and The Geographer . Petra also finds a used book called Lo ! , written by Charles Fort , at the local Powell 's Books , owned by a man named Mr. Watch . They also meet an elderly neighbor , Mrs. Sharpe , who is also a fan of Vermeer and Fort . Calder receives letters from his best friend Tommy Segovia , who is currently living in New York City with a new stepfather .

The children learn that A Lady Writing was traveling from The National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. to Hyde Park . The next day there is a story in the paper of how the painting mysteriously disappeared . A letter from the thief appears in the newspaper , telling the public that he will not give back A Lady Writing until they prove which Vermeer paintings were truly painted by him . This sparks worldwide uproar . Calder and Petra investigate as their friendship grows . Mrs. Sharpe requests police protection and it is revealed that she and Ms. Hussey were two of the three recipients of the thief 's letter . Calder and Petra eventually conclude that the painting is hidden in the local Delia Dell Hall , and they sneak out and find it . They barely escape from the thief , who is later found dead from a massive heart attack on the train by the police . They learn that the man is Xavier Glitts , also knowned as Glitter Man , who was posing as Tommy 's stepfather under the name Fred Steadman . A known art thief , he was asked to steal the painting and sell it for sixty million dollars . The other recipient of the letter is revealed to be Mr. Watch .

= = = Code = = =

As stated in the preface , there is a code hidden in the paintings throughout the book . This was an idea of Brett Helquist and Balliett 's editor , Tracy Mack . The code involves images of pentominoes and frogs , which is a recurring theme in the book . To decode the code , one must count the number of frogs in every other illustration , as well as find the hidden pentomino . Once these facts are collected , you are to use the same code presented in the story that Calder and Tommy use in their letters in the book . For example , the first code in the book is V : 2 @.@  this means T when decoded with Calder and Tommy 's decoder . When the message is decoded , it spells out " The Lady Lives " .

= = Genre = =

Chasing Vermeer is classified in the mystery genre , although it was described by Liz Szabla of Scholastic as " a puzzle , wrapped in a mystery , disguised as an adventure , and delivered as a work of art . " Scholastic 's teaching website additionally added suspense due to the surprise ending .

= = Themes = =

Some of Balliett 's " real @-@ world ideas " in Chasing Vermeer were " Do coincidences mean anything ? " and " What is art and what makes it valuable ? " Balliett says her " central message " is " kids are powerful thinkers , and their ideas are valuable , and that adults don 't have all the answers . "

A book by Rita Soltan entitled Reading Raps : A Book Club Guide for Librarians , Kids , and Families analyzed Chasing Vermeer 's themes as follows :

Deception and problem solving are central themes in this novel as both the thief and the central adult players use a variety of ways to hide the truth while the children employ a series of mathematical and problem @-@ solving concepts to piece together the clues to the puzzle . In addition , Calder and Petra develop a special friendship and certain respect for the value of art .

As the thief gains publicity by challenging the community to figure out which paintings claimed to be Vermeer 's were indeed painted by him , everyone starts to look at the depth in art . Sondra Eklund , who writes a book review blog , noted that the reader was left with the impression to study Vermeer 's paintings and art more closely . In the book , Ms. Hussey challenges her class to the question , " What is art ? "

Other themes include chance and coincidence . During Chasing Vermeer , Charles Fort 's book , Lo ! , inspires the children to list and pay attention to coincidences as they realize that they are more than what they seem and explore the concept that they make up one unexplained pattern . Balliett stated that she wanted to convey how coincidences were noticeable and felt meaningful , and how they could matter even if they were unexplainable .

= = Audiobook = =

The audiobook for Chasing Vermeer , read by Ellen Reilly , was released on November 27 , 2007 from Listening Library . It runs about 4 hours and 47 minutes . AudioFile magazine praised Reilly 's voices and pace , but noted that , " Once the mystery is solved , however , the ending seems tacked on , falling flat . "

= = Critical reception = =

Chasing Vermeer received generally positive reviews . The New York Times praised the description and mystery . It was also listed as one of their " Notable Books of 2004 " . Kirkus Reviews awarded it a starred review with the consensus that " Art , intrigue , and plenty of twists and turns make this art mystery a great read . " Children 's Literature reviewer Claudia Mills gave generally positive comments , calling the novel " engrossing and engaging " . The website Kidsreads compared the book to classic mysteries such as The Westing Game and said , " Chasing Vermeer deserves a spot alongside many well @-@ loved children 's books . It 's that good . " A reviewer of The Trades website called it " an entertaining read that manages to serve several purposes in one concise novel " and found the characters " unusual yet likable " , but felt that " the disappointing bit of this novel is that the solutions always arrive through a series of disconnected events that just lead the kids to think in certain ways . " Kadon Enterprises , a game puzzle company , reviewed the book , praising the writing style and puzzles .

= = = Awards = = =

= = Film = =

Warner Brothers bought the rights to a film of Chasing Vermeer in June 2004 and Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment planned to produce it . P.J. Hogan was slated as director and the novel was adapted by Matt Nix . However , when asked about the film in August 2010 , Balliett answered ,

" It ’ s been fascinating , watching this whole process , because Plan B did a wonderful job . They went through two screenwriters , and they ’ ve gone through two directors . It ’ s sort of like a house of cards . I have rights again . If they get it all together again , they ’ ll jump on it . But they don ’ t have exclusive rights anymore . "

= Caught Up ( Usher song ) =

" Caught Up " is a song by American R & B singer Usher . It was written by Ryan Toby , Andre Harris , Vidal Davis and Jason Boyd , and produced by Dre & Vidal for Usher 's 2004 album Confessions . The song was released as the fifth and final single from the album on November 30 , 2004 . The single peaked at number eight in the United States , the only single released from Confessions without topping the Billboard Hot 100 , and generally below top ten on most charts worldwide . It received positive reviews from contemporary critics .

= = Background and release = =

Although Usher " didn 't look too far " when starting working on his fourth studio album Confessions and decided to " continue building " with previous producers , he branched out with several musical collaborators . Usher enlisted Philadelphia producers Andre " Dre " Harris and Vidal Davis of Dre & Vidal , along with other musical collaborators . During the sessions , Usher asked them to create a " real up @-@ tempo beat " . When they worked on the track , they partied the whole time which Dre considered a " partly record " . He recalled , " We had some women , some drinks , some music . " After Dre created the beat , they decided to " make sure the mood was inspiring during recording . " They went to club to take a break , and played the song in Usher 's truck while on the way . Usher felt the collaboration was pleasing , seeing other people responded positively to the song .

" Caught Up " was the fifth and final single from Confessions . It was released in the United States on November 30 , 2004 as a 12 " single . It was also released in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom on February 21 , 2005 and on March 8 in Germany . The Germany release contains the album version of the song , three of its remixes and the single 's music video . The song impacted US contemporary hit radio on January 11 , 2005 , alongside a remix featuring rapper , Fabolous .

= = Reception = =

" Caught Up " received positive reviews from contemporary critics . Andrew McGregor of BBC called the song " meaty " and " hip @-@ grinding " . Jon Caramanica of Blender magazine referred to the song like a " Southern marching band performing late- ' 80s R & B " . He characterized Usher 's voice playing like a rhythm instruments . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine complimented Dre and Vidal for producing an old @-@ sounding music without sampling records , calling it " super @-@ tight " alongside " Follow Me " , another song from the album . Andy Kellman of Allmusic complimented the song as one of Usher 's best moments in the album , together with " Burn " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times called it a " thunderous song " from the album , adding that it gave Usher " a chance to do two of the things he does best : strut and pander " .

= = Chart performance = =

" Caught Up " did not live up to the chart @-@ topping performances of Confessions ' previous four releases . In the United States , the single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ six . It peaked at number eight for two non @-@ consecutive weeks , fifteen weeks after its release . " Caught Up " was the only single to not top the Hot 100 compared to the album 's four previous releases . The single stayed on the Hot 100 for twenty @-@ seven weeks .

Outside the United States , responses from music markets were relatively similar . " Caught Up " debuted and peaked at number nine on the United Kingdom , remaining on the chart for also nine weeks . It reached number ten in the Netherlands , and under top ten on the rest of European countries ; much lesser in Finland where it only stayed for one week compared to other charts , remaining for several weeks . In Australia and New Zealand , the single reached number fifteen and twelve respectively .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Caught Up " was directed by Mr. X , who was behind the laser light treatment of Usher 's 2004 video " Yeah ! " . The video shows Usher and friends riding a car while heading to his live performance . On the way , they fist fight after Usher saves a woman from an antagonist . Usher realizes he is supposed to perform , and finally goes to the venue . The video ends with Usher performing the song in front of a large crowd . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live on January 10 , 2005 at number ten . The video remained on the countdown for thirty @-@ four days .

= = Track listing = =

Germany CD single

" Caught Up " ( Album version ) – 3 : 48

" Caught Up " ( Official Remix ) ( featuring Fabolous ) – 4 : 39

" Caught Up " ( Bimbo Jones Remix ) – 3 : 33

" Caught Up " ( Delinquent " Whistle Crew " Re @-@ Fix ) – 7 : 55

" Caught Up " ( Music Video ) – 3 : 49

= = Charts = =

= = = Weekly charts = = =

= = Certifications = =

= If I Never See Your Face Again =

" If I Never See Your Face Again " is a song by American pop rock band Maroon 5 from the June 2008 re @-@ release of the group 's second studio album , It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) . It was also included on the June 2008 re @-@ release of Rihanna 's album Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . The song was originally included on the standard version of the album without the inclusion of Rihanna . It was written by band members Adam Levine and James Valentine , with production of the song helmed by Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Mike Elizondo , Mark Endert , Mark " Spike " Stent and Maroon 5 . It was released as an Extended Play ( EP ) in Australia on May 22 , 2007 , and as an official single on May 2 , 2008 , in the United States .

" If I Never See Your Face Again " was originally intended to be a duet with Janet Jackson and appear on her Discipline album , although label problems interfered . The collaboration with Rihanna later came to fruition when Levine asked her to add her vocal to the remix version , which she accepted . " If I Never See Your Face Again " is a pop and R & B song featuring instrumentation provided by synthesizers and a guitar . The song received a mixed response from music critics , who praised the song 's composition but criticized Levine and Rihanna 's vocal performance . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and shot on an indoor soundstage in Castaic , California . The concept for the video was " high @-@ end erotica " .

= = Background = =

" If I Never See Your Face Again " was written by Adam Levine and James Valentine , two of the five band members from Maroon 5 . Production of the song was helmed by Mike Elizondo , Mike Endert , Mike " Spike " Stent , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Maroon 5 . It was recorded by " Spike " Stent at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , CA and Phantom Studios , Westlake Village , CA . The song was originally intended to be a duet with Janet Jackson and appear on her Discipline album , but due to label problems Rihanna later appeared on the song .

The song was included on the standard version of It Won 't Be Soon Before Long without the inclusion of Rihanna , however , Levine stated in an interview with James Montgomery for MTV News whilst on set of the accompanying music video that he wanted to try something different for the album 's re @-@ release . The singer continued , saying that he asked Rihanna to do some " bits and pieces " in the recording studio and that it came together very quickly . Levine stated that if there is " magic " between two artists , then " you don 't even have to think about it . " During the interview , Rihanna confirmed that the song would be the only one to feature a collaboration on her re @-@ release of Good Girl Gone Bad , revealing that she had always wanted to work with the group and was honored when they contacted her . " If I Never See Your Face Again " was released as a single in the United States on May 2 , 2008 .

= = Composition = =

" If I Never See Your Face Again " is a pop and R & B song , which lasts for 3 : 18 ( 3 minutes , 18 seconds ) . The song was composed using common time in the key of A minor , with a moderate groove of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by synths , and a guitar . A reviewer for IGN noted that " If I Never See Your Face Again " is complete with " slinky synth insinuations , " whilst Jerome Blakeney for BBC wrote that it is a " guitar drenched " and " synth @-@ crunching " song . Alex Fletcher for Digital Spy commented that the song incorporated a " jagged " use of synthesizers . For the most part of the song , Levine sings in his falsetto register , whilst Rihanna adopts " silky tone " .

= = Critical reception = =

Upon the release of It Won 't Be Soon Before Long , music critics commented on the original version of the song , which does not include guest vocals by Rihanna . Jerome Blakeney for BBC wrote that " If I Never See Your Face Again " , along with another It Won 't Be Soon Before Long track " Makes Me Wonder " , were " monster weapons of mass @-@ marketing aimed at the feet and riding on swathes of string @-@ drenched , synth @-@ crunching disco . " A reviewer for IGN was complimentary of ' If I Never See Your Face Again ' , writing that it is hard to resist listening to the song . The reviewer also noted that Levine appeared to adopt a vocal style reminiscent of techniques employed by Justin Timberlake , writing " Like Justin Timberlake it 's all about the high pitched tenor falsetto and some sinewy grooves . "

Bill Lamb for About.com noted that " If I Never See Your Face Again " and " Makes Me Wonder " appeared to be inspired by British jazz funk and acid jazz band Jamiroquai , writing " Any Jamiroquai fan may call foul if they listen to ' If I Never See Your Face Again ' or ' Makes Me Wonder ' . " Sal Cinquemani was critical of the song , labeling it as " nasty . " Alex Fletcher for Digital Spy disapproved of the collaboration between the band and Rihanna , with specific thoughts on Levine and Rihanna 's pairing . Fletcher was critical of their vocal performance , writing that their voices clashed with one another and that " the sexual chemistry radar for the pairing registers at zero . " Fletcher commented about the song further , writing that it should never have left the recording studio .

= = = Accolades = = =

= = Chart performance = =

" If I Never See Your Face Again " achieved moderate chart success on singles charts around the world . It debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 28 June 1 , 2008 , and peaked at number 11 in its sixth week . The song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 37 on June 9 , 2008 , and peaked at number 21 the following week . In Europe , the song debuted and peaked at number 15 on the Italian Singles Chart on July 17 , 2008 . The song remained on the chart for one week . It debuted on the Dutch Singles Chart at number 35 on June 14 , 2008 , and peaked at number 20 the following week . The song fluctuated between positions in the twenties and seventies for 13 weeks . It debuted on the Danish Singles Chart at number 36 on July 27 , 2008 , and peaked at number 31 in its sixth week .

" If I Never See Your Face Again " debuted on the Swiss Singles Chart at number 61 on June 29 , 2008 , and peaked at number 52 the following week , where it remained in its third week . It debuted on the Austrian Singles Chart at number 67 on September 5 , 2008 , and peaked at number 54 the following week . " If I Never See Your Face Again " debuted and peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number 28 on June 14 , 2008 . Over the following two weeks , the song descend down the top @-@ forty , before falling out in its third week . The song made a re @-@ entry on the chart at number 36 on July 7 , 2008 . In the United States , the song peaked at number 51 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on July 26 , 2008 . It peaked at number 10 on the Adult Pop Songs chart ; number 30 on the Pop Songs chart and 21 on the Hot Digital Songs chart .

= = Music video = =

The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler , and shot on an indoor soundstage in Castaic , California on April 23 , 2008 . The concept for the video was " high @-@ end erotica " . In an interview with James Montgomery for MTV News whilst on set of the music video , Levine provided a summary of what the video would entail , saying : " It 's this kind of ultra @-@ glamorous , photography @-@ based , late- ' 70s / early- ' 80s situation . It 's really stylish and really beautiful ... It 's the most choreographed thing I 've ever done , because usually I just get up there and screw around . But with Rihanna , it 's completely different and so cool . " In response , Rihanna continued to say that " I don 't do a lot of videos where I have so much chemistry with the other artist , and this is only my second duet in a video ... It 's really intense , because you have to work with each other so much . It 's new for me , but I 'm enjoying it . "

= = = Synopsis = = =

The video begins with the sound of a ticking clock and Levine and Rihanna sitting opposite each other at a table , tapping their hands and staring at one and other . As the songs audio begins to play , band members of Maroon 5 start to play their instruments as Rihanna sits and watches them . The table and band scenes are intercut with each other for the first verse and chorus . For the second verse , Levine and Rihanna appear to argue and try to ignore the other 's advances . Rihanna lays suggestively on a bed while Levine sits on a chair with his head turned in the opposite direction for the bridge . For the final chorus , the pair appear to reconcile , ending with Levine finally giving in to his temptations and walk to the end of the table where Rihanna sits and he caresses her neck causing Rihanna to lean towards him seductively and the two nearly kiss as the video ends . The video was made available to download digitally via iTunes on May 12 , 2008 .

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Recording

Recorded at Conway Studios , Hollywood , CA ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , CA ; Phantom Studios , Westlake Village , CA ; House of Blues Studios , Encino , CA and Henson Studios , Hollywood , CA .

Mixed at Scream Studios , Miami , FL .

Personnel

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , Def Jam Recordings .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Yoko Shimomura =

Yoko Shimomura ( 下村 陽子 , Shimomura Yōko , born October 19 , 1967 ) is a Japanese video game composer and pianist . Shimomura has worked in the video game industry ever since graduating from the Osaka College of Music in 1988 . From then until 1993 , she worked for Capcom , where she composed wholly or in part the scores for 16 games , including Final Fight and Street Fighter II : The World Warrior .

From 1993 until 2002 , Shimomura worked for Square , where she composed for a further eight games . While working for Square , she was best known for her work on the soundtrack for Kingdom Hearts , which was her last game for the company before leaving . Starting with Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga in 2003 , she began working as an active freelancer .

Her works have gained a great deal of popularity , and have been performed in multiple video game music concerts , including one , Sinfonia Drammatica , that was focused half on her " greatest hits " album , Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura , and half on the music of a previous concert . Music from several of her games have been published as arranged albums , or as piano scores .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life = = =

Shimomura was born on October 19 , 1967 , in Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan . She developed an interest for music at a young age , and started taking piano lessons " at the age of four or five " . She began composing her own music by playing the piano randomly and pretending to compose , eventually coming up with her own pieces , the first of which she claims to still remember how to play . Shimomura attended Osaka College of Music , and graduated as a piano major in 1988 .

Upon graduation , Shimomura intended to become a piano instructor and was extended a job offer to become a piano teacher at a music store , but as she had been an avid gamer for many years she decided to send some samples of her work to various video game companies that were recruiting at the university . Capcom invited her in for an audition and interview , and she was offered a job there . Her family and instructors were dismayed with her change in focus , as video game music was not well respected , and " they had paid [ her ] tuition for an expensive music school and couldn 't understand why [ she ] would accept such a job " , but Shimomura accepted the job at Capcom anyway .

= = = Career = = =

While working for Capcom , Shimomura contributed to the soundtracks of over 16 games , including the successful Street Fighter II : The World Warrior , which she composed all but three pieces for . The first soundtrack she worked on at the company was for Samurai Sword in 1988 . Final Fight , in 1989 , was her first work to receive a separate soundtrack album release , on an album of music from several Capcom games . The first soundtrack album to exclusively feature her work came a year later for the soundtrack to Street Fighter II . While she began her tenure at Capcom working on games for video game consoles , by 1990 she had moved to the arcade game division . She was a member of the company 's in @-@ house band Alph Lyla , which played various Capcom game music , including pieces written by Shimomura . She performed live with the group on a few occasions , including playing piano during Alph Lyla 's appearance at the 1992 Game Music Festival .

In 1993 , Shimomura left Capcom to join another game company , Square ( now Square Enix ) . She stated that the move was done because she was interested in writing " classical @-@ style " music for fantasy role @-@ playing games . While working for Capcom , she was in the arcade department and was unable to transfer to the console department to work on their role @-@ playing video game series Breath of Fire , although she did contribute one track to the first game in the series . Her first project at the company was the score for the role @-@ playing video game Live A Live in 1994 . While she was working on the score to Super Mario RPG the following year , she was asked to join Noriko Matsueda on the music to the futuristic strategy RPG Front Mission . Although she was overworked doing both scores and it was not the genre that she was interested in , she found herself unable to refuse after her first attempt to do so unexpectedly happened in the presence of the president of Square , Tetsuo Mizuno . These games were followed by Tobal No. 1 , the last score she worked on with another composer for a decade .

Over the next few years , she composed the soundtrack to several games , including Parasite Eve and Legend of Mana . Of all her compositions , Shimomura considers the soundtrack to Legend of Mana the one that best expresses herself and the soundtrack remains Shimomura 's personal favourite . Parasite Eve on the PlayStation had the first soundtrack by Shimomura that included a vocal song , as it was the first game she had written for running on a console system that had the sound capability for one . In 2002 she wrote the score for Kingdom Hearts , which she has said is the most " special " soundtrack to her , as well as a turning point in her career ; she named the soundtracks to Street Fighter II and Super Mario RPG as the other two significant points in her life as a composer .

Kingdom Hearts was wildly successful , shipping more than four million copies worldwide ; Shimomura 's music was frequently cited as one of the highlights of the game , and the title track has been ranked as the fourth @-@ best role @-@ playing game title track of all time . The soundtrack has led to two albums of piano arrangements . Kingdom Hearts was the last soundtrack that she worked on at Square . After the release of Kingdom Hearts in 2002 , Shimomura left Square for maternity leave , and began work as a freelancer in 2003 . She has built on the work she did while at Square ; since leaving she has composed or is composing music for eleven Kingdom Hearts games and Nintendo 's Mario & Luigi series . She has also worked on many other projects , such as Heroes of Mana and various Premium Arrange albums . On February 10 and 11 , 2014 , Shimomura played piano at a retrospective 25th anniversary concert at Tokyo FM Hall . She performed songs from games such as Kingdom Hearts , Live a Live , and Street Fighter II . During the Beware the Forest 's Mushrooms performance from Super Mario RPG , Shimomura was joined onstage by fellow game composer Yasunori Mitsuda , who played the Irish bouzouki . She is currently working on the scores for Final Fantasy XV and Kingdom Hearts III .

= = Legacy = =

After composing soundtracks to over 45 different games , Shimomura has become one of the biggest names in video game music composition , and has been described as " the most famous female video game music composer in the world " . In March 2008 , Shimomura 's best works compilation album Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura was released containing her compositions from Kingdom Hearts and other games in a full orchestrated score . It includes music from Final Fantasy XV , Live A Live , Kingdom Hearts , Front Mission , Legend of Mana , and Heroes of Mana ; Shimomura has stated that she chose music that was popular among fans and well @-@ suited for orchestration , but had never been performed by an orchestra . In a 2008 interview with Music4Games regarding the project , Shimomura commented that with the sheet music generated for the project , she would be interested in pursuing a live performance of Drammatica for fans if the opportunity arose . On March 19 , 2009 that wish was realized when it was announced that Arnie Roth would conduct the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra at the concert Sinfonia Drammatica in the Stockholm Concert Hall , which would combine music from the album with performances of Chris Hülsbeck 's Symphonic Shades concert . The concert took place on August 4 , 2009 . On March 27 , 2007 , Shimomura released her first non @-@ video game album , Murmur , an album of vocal songs sung by Chata .

Shimomura 's music for Kingdom Hearts made up one fourth of the music of the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in September 2009 , which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . Legend of Mana 's title theme was also performed by the Australian Eminence Symphony Orchestra for its classical gaming music concert A Night in Fantasia 2007 .

Music from the original soundtrack of Legend of Mana was arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . Two compilation books of music from the series have also been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions , with the second including Shimomura 's tracks from Legend of Mana . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . Additionally , piano sheet music from Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II has been published as music books by Yamaha Music Media .

Shimomura 's first dedicated concert performance outside Japan was held at the Salle Cortot in Paris on November 7 , 2015 . Later that month , on November 28 , she performed at the El Plaza Condesa in Mexico City .

= = Musical style and influences = =

Shimomura lists Ludwig van Beethoven , Frédéric Chopin , and Maurice Ravel as some of her influences on her personal website . She has also stated that she has enjoyed " lounge @-@ style jazz " for a long time . Despite these influences and her classical training , the diverse musical styles that she has used throughout her career and sometimes in the same soundtrack include " rock , electronica , oriental , ambient , industrial , pop , symphonic , operatic , chiptune , and more " . She draws inspiration for her songs from things in her life that move her emotionally , which she describes as " a beautiful picture , scenery , tasting something delicious , scents that bring back memories , happy and sad things ... Anything that moves my emotion gives me inspiration " . Shimomura has also stated that she comes up with most of her songs when she is doing something that is " not part of [ her ] daily routine , like traveling . " Although her influences are mostly classical , she has said that in her opinion her " style has changed dramatically over the years , though the passion for music stays the same . " Shimomura has said that she believes that an important part of " the creative process behind music " is to " convey a subtle message , something that comes from your imagination and sticks with the listener , without being overly specific about what it means " , rather than only writing simple themes with obvious messages . Her favorite track that she has ever composed is " Dearly Beloved " from Kingdom Hearts .

= = Works = =

= = = Video games = = =

Composition

Arrangement

F @-@ 1 Dream ( PC Engine ) ( 1989 ) – original music by Manami Matsumae

Buster Bros. ( PC Engine ) ( 1991 ) – original music by Tamayo Kawamoto

Super Smash Bros. Brawl ( 2008 ) – arranged " Tetris : Type A " , " Gritzy Desert " , and " King Dedede 's Theme "

Little King 's Story ( 2009 ) – arranged Maurice Ravel 's Boléro .

Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ( 2014 ) – arranged " Magicant / Eight Melodies " , " Try , Try Again " , " Route 10 " , and " Ryu Stage "

= = = Other = = =

G.S.M. 1500 series ~ Sweet Home ( 1989 ) – arranged two tracks

Captain Commando -G.S.M. Capcom 5- ( 1992 ) – with Alph Lyla

Game Music Festival ~ Super Live ' 92 ~ ( 1992 ) – with Alph Lyla

Street Fighter II Collector 's Box ( 1993 ) – with Alph Lyla

Parasite Eve Remixes ( 1998 ) – with many others

Phantasy Star Online Episode I & II Premium Arrange ( 2004 ) – with many others

Dark Chronicle Premium Arrange ( 2004 ) – with many others

Dan Doh ! ! ( 2004 )

Best Student Council ( 2005 )

Rogue Galaxy Premium Arrange ( 2006 ) – with many others

Murmur ( 2007 ) – original album with lyrics and vocals by Chata

Drammatica : The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura ( 2008 )

Mushihimesama Double Arrange Album ( 2009 )

GeOnDan Rare Tracks Ver . 2 @.@ 0 ( 2010 ) – with many others

GeOnDan Super Rare Trax : The LAND of RISING SUN ( 2011 ) – with many others

GO ! GO ! Buriki Daioh ! ! ( 2012 )

X 'mas Collections II ( 2013 ) – with many others

memória ! ~ The Very Best of Yoko Shimomura ( 2014 )

Game Music Prayer II ( 2014 ) – with many others

= Lisa the Simpson =

" Lisa the Simpson " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons 's ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 8 , 1998 . In the episode , Lisa fears that she may be genetically predisposed to lose her intelligence after Grandpa tells her of a family gene that can permanently take away intelligence .

" Lisa the Simpson " was written by Ned Goldreyer and directed by Susie Dietter . This episode was the final episode with Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein as show runners . It received generally positive reviews from critics , and is considered one of the best episodes of the ninth season .

= = Plot = =

At Springfield Elementary , Lisa is presented with a brain teaser , which she is unable to solve . Following this incident , Lisa finds herself unable to perform simple tasks . Later , Lisa tells Grampa about her recent cognitive problems . He seems to recognize this , and tells Lisa about the " Simpson Gene " , which apparently causes all members of the Simpson family to gradually lose their intelligence as they get older .

Meanwhile , Jasper visits the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart and attempts to empty the freezer containing ice cream in order to freeze himself , with the intention of being defrosted sometime in the distant future . Apu decides to take advantage of this unusual situation for financial gain . The convenience store becomes more profitable as a tourist trap , until the freezer 's cooling system fails , causing Jasper to defrost and walk away .

Lisa appears on the TV news program Smartline to tell the citizens of Springfield to treasure their brains . As she does this , Homer decides to prove her wrong , and contacts the entire extended Simpson family to visit . However , when they arrive , Homer realizes they 're also unsuccessful , unintelligent people , which only depresses Lisa further and causes Homer to send them home .

However , before they leave , Marge urges Homer to talk to the Simpson women . Reluctantly , he talks to them at her request and he discovers that the women are all successful . Lisa is relieved that she is fine and she will not suffer the " Simpson Gene " , because of her gender .

The episode ends with Lisa finally being able to solve the brain teaser she was unable to finish earlier in the episode .

= = Production = =

This episode was the final episode that was run by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , as it was a carry @-@ over episode from season eight . The episode was written by Ned Goldreyer , and is one of the two episodes he has written on The Simpsons . Susie Dietter , one of the directors of the show , also left the show after this episode , but returned for one episode in season 18 , " Yokel Chords " .

As it was the final episode they ran , Oakley and Weinstein wanted to end on a good note , with Weinstein stating that the episode " was meant to embody the humor , depth , and emotions of The Simpsons " . They also wished to have an episode they ran that was based on the background of every character they could do , and believed that this episode came out well . The name of the episode was the center of an argument that Oakley and Goldreyer had , as Oakley had originally wanted to have the episode named " Lisa the Simpson " , although Goldreyer wanted to name it " Suddenly Stupid " , a pun on a show that had been airing at the time called Suddenly Susan .

The Simpsons ' family members that showed up took some time to be made , but the staff enjoyed the results . All of the male Simpson family members that showed up were voiced by Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer . He had asked for the recording tape to be run for about 20 minutes , so he could do many different voice variations that would fit the different men , but still be close to Homer 's voice .

= = Reception = =

In its original broadcast , " Lisa the Simpson " finished 19th in ratings for the week of March 2 – 8 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .

IGN 's Todd Gilchrist named the episode as one of his favorites of the ninth season in his review of the DVD boxset . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought well of the episode , saying , " A terrific episode , with a good mix of pathos ( Lisa 's farewell to the Springsonian and her favourite jazz club are inspired ) and fun ( her Homeresque ' woo @-@ hoo ' ) which comes together to make a refreshing and exciting look at Lisa 's life . "

Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein greatly enjoyed the episode and thought of it as a great final episode that they ran . On the DVD audio commentary , writer Ned Goldreyer stated , " I think this might have been the best episode ever produced . "

= Stay @-@ at @-@ home dad =

A stay @-@ at @-@ home dad ( alternatively , stay at home father , house dad , SAHD , househusband , or house @-@ spouse ) is a father who is the main caregiver of the children and is the homemaker of the household . As families have evolved , the practice of being a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad has become more common , and socially more acceptable .

Pre @-@ industrialisation , the family worked together as a unit and was self @-@ sufficient . Beginning with the Industrial Revolution , large @-@ scale production replaced home manufacturing ; this shift , coupled with prevailing norms governing sex or gender roles , dictated that the father become the breadwinner and the mother the caregiver . When affection @-@ based marriages emerged in the 1830s , parents began devoting more attention to children and family relationships became more open . Beginning during World War II , many women entered the workforce out of necessity ; women resumed the caregiver position after the war , but their new @-@ found sense of independence changed the traditional family structure together with cultural shifts leading to the feminist movement and advances in birth control . Some women opted to return to the care giver role . Others chose to pursue careers . When women chose to work outside of the home , alternative childcare became a necessity . If childcare options were too costly , unavailable , or undesirable , the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad became a viable option .

The number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads began gradually increasing in the late 20th century , especially in developed Western nations . The recent statistic that Pew Research released , showed a report in June 2014 that found 2 million men to be stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . However , in 2010 , the number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads had reached its highest point of 2 @.@ 2 million .

Though the role is subject to many stereotypes , and men may have difficulties accessing parenting benefits , communities , and services targeted at mothers , it became more socially acceptable by the 2000s . The stay @-@ at @-@ home dad was more regularly portrayed in the media by the 2000s , especially in the United States . However , due to traditional family structures and stereotypic expectations , the stay at home father figure is culturally unacceptable in countries such as East Asia and India .

= = Evolution of family roles = =

= = = Pre @-@ industrialisation = = =

In the colonial United States the nuclear family was the most common family form . Typical families consisted of five or more children initially ; because of high infant mortality rates , only a few children survived adolescence . Colonial families existed to serve six main functions : self @-@ sufficient business , school , vocational institute , church , house of correction , and welfare institution .

The first African @-@ Americans to reach America were initially brought over as indentured servants , but instead became slaves . By the 19th century , slave trading was a thriving business . Typical slave families consisted of one or two children . Women were primarily the head of the families , either because the fathers had died or had been separated from the family . African @-@ American women experienced what came to be known as the " double day , " a full day of domestic chores plus a full day of work outside the home .

= = = Industrialization ( 1800 – 1900 ) = = =

The Industrial Revolution led to extensive mechanization , resulting in a shift from home manufacturing to large @-@ scale factory production . As this rapid transition took place , families lost many of their production functions . Instead , family members had to work outside the home to support their families . As a result , husbands and wives began operating in separate spheres of activity . The husband became the " breadwinner " by going out and working , while the wife stayed home and took care of the family .

= = = Transition to modern family ( 1900 – present ) = = =

The modern family is commonly thought to have originated in the 1830s : courtship became more open , marriages were often based on affection , and parents devoted more attention to children . At the beginning of the 20th century , married couples began to emphasize the importance of sexual attraction and compatibility in their relationships . This led to more intimate and open relationships along with more adolescent freedom . The transition of the family was influenced by the Great Depression , which forced many women into the workplace in order to compensate for lack of financial stability . In 1932 , a federal executive order stated that only one spouse could work for the federal government . This resulted in many women being forced to resign allowing their husbands to continue working .

World War II had a significant impact on changing family roles . Because of the draft , workers were scarce in many industries and employers began to fill jobs with women , mainly in nontraditional positions . This increase in working women became one of the few times in history where women were praised for work outside the home . Divorce rates also reached a new high during this period . Not only had many women found a new sense of independence , but cultural shifts were underway , including the rise of feminism and the development of reliable methods of birth control . Such changes caused some women to decide to end their unhappy marriages .

The 1950s saw a " baby boom " in America . This period was also called the " Golden ' 50s " . This was credited to families trying to make up lost time after the war . As a result , many families moved to the suburbs instead of residing in the city , the number of two @-@ income families began to increase , and grown children began to remain at home longer because of financial difficulties . Gradually , women began re @-@ entering the workforce . This progression away from the traditional view of the woman as the homemaker led to the creation of the role of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad .

= = Increase in popularity in the 21st century = =

Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads have been seen in increasing numbers in Western culture , especially in Canada , the UK and the United States since the late 20th century . In developed East Asian nations such as Japan and South Korea , this practice is less common .

There are several reasons why some families feel that it would be more beneficial for the father to be the primary caregiver while the mother works outside of the home . The decision to use a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement is most commonly due to economic reasons . At the same time , women are progressing into higher @-@ paying jobs . There are now financial ramifications in deciding whether the mother or father should become the stay @-@ at @-@ home parent . In cases where the woman is the higher @-@ paid parent , it makes more economic sense for her to continue to work while the man takes on the caregiver role . It also makes sense at times the mother 's job offers health benefits for the family whereas the father 's does not . It has also been shown that if the " pregnancy was jointly planned , " the father is more likely to be involved .

With the growth of telecommuting , many men are also able to work from home . In this regard , he is contributing financially to the family while also acting as the primary caregiver of the family 's children . Differences in parent 's schedules can also account for some of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Sometimes the father works odd work shifts while the mother has a typical nine @-@ to @-@ five work schedule .

Fixed gender roles began to become less prominent in the Western world starting in the late 20th century , allowing men to make their own choice of career without regard to traditional gender @-@ based roles . Some men who choose this role may do so because they enjoy being an active part of their children 's lives , while in other families , the mother wants to pursue her career . For example , of the 187 participants at Fortune Magazine 's Most Powerful Women in the Business Summit , one third of the women 's husbands were stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Families vary widely in terms of how household chores are divided . Some retired males who marry a younger woman decide to become stay @-@ at @-@ home dads while their wives work because they want a " second chance " to watch a child grow up in a second or third marriage . Additionally , more career and lifestyle options are accepted and prevalent in Western society . There are also fewer restrictions on what constitutes a family .

= = Disadvantages = =

Depending on the country or region , a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad might find more or less social support for his decision . In regions where traditional roles prevail , a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad might be shunned by stay @-@ at @-@ home mom 's peer group . In order to find support for their choice , these men have created and joined many support networks .

Still , many men struggle to find acceptance within the role of stay @-@ at @-@ home dad despite the many gains that have been made . Many worry about losing business skills and their " professional place in line " . There is a common misconception that stay @-@ at @-@ home dads cannot get a job and therefore must rewrite the typical family roles , forcing the wife into the workforce . Carrying the financial burden and dealing with children 's attachment to the dad can be difficult on a working mother .

One 2002 study by the American Heart Association suggested stay @-@ at @-@ home dads may face a higher risk of heart disease . The reasons for the health risk are not specified .

The role of stay @-@ at @-@ home dad may be difficult for men who feel as though they had no option . It is hard for these men to adapt from being a financial provider in the family to being a homemaker . Men who willingly choose to become a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad are much more satisfied with their role in the family .

= = = For the Father = = =

- No longer the “ Money Maker ” in the family , may become an issue due to not being the main support and rock for the family .

- Transitioning from the workplace to stay at home role can be challenging .

- Pay cut due to some male jobs paying higher than a female job .

= = = For the Mother = = =

- Missing their children .

- Adapting to the workforce role from the stay at home mother role .

- Becoming the main source of income for the family and working long hours away from home and family .

- Will lose less time with their children and will devote 70 % of their day to work force and 30 % to their children .

= = Advantages = =

= = = For the child = = =

There have been many studies done which suggest the importance of the paternal role in a child 's life and benefits of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad . Children respond differently to males and females at birth .

A study conducted by Dr. Kyle D. Pruett found that infants between 7 and 30 months respond more favorably to being picked up by their fathers . Pruett also found that a father 's parenting style is beneficial for a child 's physical , cognitive , emotional and behavioral development . Mothers reassure toddlers when they become frustrated while fathers encourage them to manage their frustration . This helps the children learn to deal with stress and frustration . A long @-@ term study Pruett conducted proved that a father 's active involvement with his children , from birth to adolescence , promotes greater emotional balance , stronger curiosity and a stronger sense of self @-@ assurance in the child .

Additional studies show that during the first five years of a child 's life , the father 's role is more influential than the mother 's in how the child learns to manage his or her body , navigate social circumstances , and play . Furthermore , a 1996 study by McGill University found that the " single most important childhood factor in developing empathy is paternal involvement in childcare " . Children that have a strong paternal influence have more nurturing abilities . It has been researched in The Role of the Father in Child Development , that in general , children with stay @-@ at @-@ home dads develop attachments at infancy . The study further concluded that fathers who spent time alone bonding with their children more than twice per week brought up the most compassionate adults .

Robert Frank , a professor of child development at Oakton Community College in Illinois , conducted a study comparing households with a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad and households with a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom . His study concluded that women were still able to form a strong bond with their children despite working full @-@ time outside of the home . Also , women working full @-@ time were often more engaged with their children on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis than their male counterparts . His study concluded that in a family with a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement , the maternal and paternal influences are equally strong . This contrasts with the more traditional family structure where the father works outside of the home and the mother stays home with the children . In this type of arrangement , the mother 's influence is extremely strong , whereas the father 's is relatively insignificant . The study found that both parents play an equal role in a child 's development , but the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement is the most beneficial for the child .

= = = For the mother = = =

The stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement allows the mother to work without having to use a daycare or a nanny . This arrangement prevents the mother from having to deal with the stress of finding acceptable childcare , checking backgrounds , and paying for care . This arrangement also can help ensure that the family 's values are being upheld and instilled in the children . Free from the stress of childcare , the working mother is able to actively pursue their career . This allows for a more relaxed working environment for the mother and allows her to focus on her career . If the mother has a higher paying job , this extra income will allow for savings to be made for the children , these savings could help the mother later on pay for university for the child and / or children . Thus , she can advance her career and provide more money for the family . It puts a sound mind for the mother knowing that the child / children are at a safe place with the father having the same safety and values as the mother .

= = = For the father = = =

A survey conducted by Minnesota 's Department for Families and Children 's Services shows that men consider child care to be far more important than a paycheck . Of 600 dads surveyed , a majority said their most important role was to " show love and affection " to kids . " Safety and protection " came next , followed by " moral guidance , " " taking time to play , " and " teaching and encouraging . " " Financial care " finished last . Many men are now becoming more involved in their children 's lives , and because of that many men now have a better understanding of what life is like for their child growing up in modern society . Because fathers are immersed in their children 's lives , many of the stereotypically " manly " attitudes and activities historically prescribed for children may be circumscribed due to a more gender @-@ neutral parenting approach that focuses on promoting independence and emotional well being . This allows children , especially male children , to grow up with a greater capacity for empathy and less rigidity in attitudes pertaining to gender roles than would perhaps be the case in more traditionally @-@ structured households .

= = Prevalence = =

= = = Australia = = =

Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads make up a very small portion of the Australian population although this appears to be rapidly changing . In 2003 , 91 % of fathers with children aged under 15 years were employed with 85 % employed full @-@ time . Because of this , there are few role models or resources that can help Australian fathers with the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad role . The Australian Bureau of Statistics show that approximately 7 % of two parents families with children under the age of 14 have a father who is unemployed and a mother who works full time . Stay at home dads in Australia have almost doubled over the past decade from 57 @,@ 900 to 106 @,@ 000 , and expected to increase in the future . Recent sociological studies have shown that men are dedicating more time and support to their children in comparison to the 19th century . The idea of a stay at home dad were far from mainstream , however the rising demand for female work has influenced this statistic to rise .

= = = Canada = = =

Over a 20 @-@ year period during the late 20th century , there was an increase in the number of women in the workforce in Canada . This shift increased father participation in family tasks that used to primarily be the responsibility of the mother . Beginning in the late 20th century , parental roles began to become less traditional , and the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad arrangement began to become more common . The number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads increased by three percent points between 1976 and 1998 , and the average age of a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad in Canada is forty @-@ two . A bill was passed in by the Canadian government in October 1990 which granted paid leave for fathers for the purpose of primary caregiving .

= = = East Asia = = =

Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads are not prevalent in East Asian countries , which generally have strict traditional gender roles . However , a survey conducted in 2008 in Japan suggested that nearly one third of married men would accept the role . The Japanese government passed a law in April 1992 allowing time off following the birth of a child for both male and female employees . In 1996 , 0 @.@ 16 % of Japanese fathers took time off of work to raise children . In South Korea , about 5 @,@ 000 men were stay @-@ at @-@ home dads in 2007 . Even so , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads face discrimination from stay @-@ at @-@ home mothers , and are often ostracized .

= = = = China = = = =

Beginning in the 2000s , the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad began to emerge as a role in China , though some remain uncomfortable with the way the role changes traditional family dynamics . Customs in China suggest that men must be the heads of their households . Stereotyping is an issue for stay @-@ at @-@ home dads , who sometimes prefer not to tell others about their family arrangement . Traditional ideas promote criticism of " woman @-@ like " men , and many feel that they would face humiliation and criticism for being stay @-@ at @-@ home dads . Others suppose they would be looked at as having a wife that is " too strong " .

= = = = North Korea = = = =

Until around 1990 , the North Korean state required every able @-@ bodied male to be employed by some state enterprise . However , some 30 % of married women of working age were allowed to stay at home as full @-@ time housewives ( less than some countries in the same region like South Korean \ Japan and Taiwan , more than Soviet Union \ Mainland China or Nordic countries like Sweden , about the same as Today 's USA ) . ) In the early 1990s , an estimated 600 @,@ 000 @-@ 900 @,@ 000 people perished in the famine , which was largely a product of the North Korean government 's unwillingness to reform the economy , and the old system began to fall apart . In some cases women began by selling household items they could do without or homemade food . Today at least three @-@ quarters of North Korean market vendors are women . A joke making the rounds in Pyongyang goes : ' What do a husband and a pet dog have in common ? ' Answer : ' Neither works nor earns money , but both are cute , stay at home and can scare away burglars.'

= = = India = = =

The role of the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad is not traditional in India , but it is socially accepted in urban areas . According to one sociologist 's study in 2006 , as much as three percent of all urban working fathers in India are stay @-@ at @-@ home dads , and twelve percent of unmarried Indian men would consider being a stay @-@ at @-@ home dad according to a survey conducted by Business Today . One sociologist Sushma Tulzhapurkar called this a shift in Indian society , saying that a decade ago , " it was an unheard concept and not to mention socially unacceptable for men to give up their jobs and remain at home . " However , only 22 @.@ 7 percent of Indian women are part of the labor force , compared to 51 @.@ 6 percent of men ; thus , women are more likely to be caregivers because most do not work outside the home .

= = = United Kingdom = = =

According to an article by the Daily Mail , the number of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads in 2007 had increased by 83 percent since 1993 . According to the same paper , in 2007 , recent figures from the Office for National Statistics showed more than 200 @,@ 000 fathers chose to stay at home and be the primary caregiver for their children .

In an interview published in the Radio Times in May 2013 Karren Brady made it plain she " could never be a housewife " . While she maintains a business career in London her husband Paul Peschisolido has the role of house @-@ husband though Brady collaborates in tasks at home to a certain extent .

= = = United States = = =

In 2008 , an estimated 140 @,@ 000 married fathers worked in the home as their children 's primary caregivers while their wives worked outside of the home to provide for the family . This number is less than the previous two years according to the US Census Bureau . In 2007 , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads made up approximately 2 @.@ 7 % of the nation 's stay @-@ at @-@ home parents . This is triple the percentage from 1997 , and has been consistently higher each year since 2005 . In 2006 , stay @-@ at @-@ home dads were caring for approximately 245 @,@ 000 children ; 63 % of stay @-@ at @-@ home dads had two or more children . These statistics only account for married stay @-@ at @-@ home dads ; there are other children being cared for by single fathers or gay couples . Also , it is difficult to ascertain how many of these stay @-@ at @-@ home dads have accepted the role voluntarily , and how many have been forced into it by the economic crisis of the late 2000s and early 2010s during which a great number of mostly @-@ male blue @-@ collar industries suffered significant losses and many previously employed men entered periods of prolonged unemployment .

= = Notable current and former stay @-@ at @-@ home dads = =

Jim Abel , American singer @-@ songwriter

Billy Ashley , American baseball player

Eric Betzig , 2014 Nobel Prize winner in Chemistry

Michael Stephen Clark , American columnist

Chip Cravaack , American politician

Mike Duncan , American podcaster

Dan Klass , American actor , comedian and podcaster

John Lennon , British musician

Rick Moranis , Actor and comedian

Alex Vincent , American drummer

Mo Willems , American writer , animator , and creator of children 's books

= Tristan ( horse ) =

Tristan ( 1878 – 1897 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire . In a career that lasted from the April 1880 to October 1884 , he ran 51 times and won 27 races . A useful performer at two and three years old , he matured into an outstanding horse in his last three seasons , winning important races at distances ranging from six furlongs ( the July Cup ) to two and a half miles ( Ascot Gold Cup ) and defeating three winners of the Epsom Derby . Unusually for a 19th @-@ century racehorse , he was regularly campaigned internationally , winning three consecutive runnings of the Grand Prix de Deauville . Tristan 's success was achieved despite a dangerous and unpredictable temperament : at the height of his success , he was described as " a very vile @-@ tempered animal " .

= = Background = =

Tristan was a dark chestnut horse standing just under 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) high , bred by Robert St Clair @-@ Erskine , 4th Earl of Rosslyn at the Easton Stud near Great Dunmow in Essex . As a yearling , Tristan was bought by the French owner C. J. Lefevre , who sent the colt to be trained by Tom Jennings at the Phantom House stable at Newmarket , Suffolk . Jennings would later say that Tristan had been mistreated as a yearling before his arrival at Newmarket and this explained his well @-@ known temperament problems . Tristan was ridden in most of his races by George Fordham and came to show a strong and sometimes violent dislike for other jockeys .

Tristan ’ s sire Hermit won the Epsom Derby in 1867 and became an outstandingly successful stallion , being Champion Sire for seven successive years . In addition to Tristan , he sired the Derby winners Shotover and St. Blaise , as well as St. Marguerite ( 1000 Guineas ) , Lonely ( Oaks ) , and Thebais ( 1000 Guineas & Oaks ) . Tristan 's dam Thrift was an influential broodmare whose direct descendants included the Australian champion Poseidon , the Kentucky Derby winner George Smith and the Epsom Derby winner Reference Point .

= = Racing career = =

= = = 1880 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

Tristan ran nine times in the first half of 1880 , winning four races worth about £ 1 @,@ 900 @.@  beginning his career with a second place in the Lincoln Cup at Lincoln Racecourse . At Epsom in April he won the Westminster Stakes and then finished second of fifteen runners to the filly Angelina in the Hyde Park Plate . On 11 May he won the Breeders ' Plate over five furlongs at York reversing the Epsom form by beating Angelina " cleverly " . At the end of the month Tristan returned to Epsom for the Derby meeting and won the Stanley Stakes , in which his three opponents included the future Grand National winner Voluptuary . At Royal Ascot he finished third to Sir Charles in the New Stakes , the race now known as the Norfolk Stakes . After running on unusually hard ground at Newmarket in July , when he finished unplaced behind Iroquois in the Chesterfield Stakes , he developed leg problems and missed the rest of the season .

= = = 1881 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

At the start of May Tristan finished unplaced behind Peregrine in the 2000 Guineas and two weeks later he ran third in the Payne Stakes . In the Derby he ran prominently for much of the way and turned into the straight in second place before weakening in the closing stages and finishing seventh behind Iroquois .

On 12 June he was again tested in the highest class when he was sent to run in the Grand Prix de Paris at Longchamp where he was ridden by Fred Archer . Tristan was beaten a head after a " superb race " with the American colt Foxhall , ridden by George Fordham . The French crowd treated the defeat of Tristan as a home victory and joined the sizable American contingent in the celebrations which were described as “ the wildest ever seen at Longchamp ” . It was only after the intervention of the local police force that Fordham and Archer were able to return to the weighing room . He won a race called the Prix de Deauville ( not to be confused with the Grand Prix de Deauville ) before returning to England . In July he won the six furlong Horseheath Stakes at Newmarket " in a canter " at odds of 2 / 5 and the Singleton Stakes at Goodwood . In August he traveled back to France for his first attempt at the Grand Prix de Deauville and finished third to Castillon . On his return to Britain he finished last of three runners in the Great Yorkshire Stakes over one and three quarter miles at York .

In September he was sent to Doncaster where he won a Queen 's Plate before finishing second to Petronel in the Doncaster Cup . At Newmarket in October , Tristan ran third to the two @-@ year @-@ old filly Nellie in the Great Challenge Stakes and was beaten twice more by Foxhall when finishing second to the American colt in the Select Stakes and third in the Cambridgeshire Handicap . In the latter event , Tristan was beaten a head and a neck after being badly hampered in the closing stages .

= = = 1882 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

As a four @-@ year @-@ old in 1882 , Tristan showed much improved form and established himself as one of the leading racehorses in Europe by winning ten times in fourteen starts . He began the year by winning a Queen 's Plate at Newmarket in April and followed up by winning His Majesty 's Plate at Chester in May . At Epsom Downs Racecourse he ran twice at the Derby meeting . In the Epsom Stakes , a handicap race over one and a half miles , Tristan carried top weight of 124 pounds and won by a length and a half from Retreat He then added the Epsom Gold Cup , the race which was the forerunner of the Coronation Cup , in which he successfully conceded twenty @-@ seven pounds to a filly named Isabel .

At Royal Ascot in June he ran three times and was unbeaten , showing versatility by winning over three different distances . He took the two mile Gold Vase , beating the previous year 's winner Chippendale by six lengths , the one mile New Biennial Stakes and the one and a half mile Hardwicke Stakes . His performances established him as " one of the best horses in training " . In July he moved down to sprint distances for the July Cup over six furlongs at Newmarket . Conceding at least twelve pounds to his opponents , Tristan won his eighth successive race by taking the lead at half way and winning easily from the two @-@ year @-@ old Royal Stag with Nellie third . In the Goodwood Cup on 27 July Tristan started at odds of 1 / 4 against two moderate opponents , but his winning streak came to an end after his jockey , George Fordham , misjudged the race tactics and allowed a horse named Friday to build up a huge lead which he was unable to make up in the straight . In August he was sent to France again and won the Grand Prix de Deauville from ten opponents .

On 12 October he contested the Champion Stakes over ten furlongs at Newmarket . He ran a dead heat with the filly Thebais , winner of the 1881 1000 Guineas and Oaks , with the St Leger winner Dutch Oven in third . Later in the meeting he finished second to the two @-@ year @-@ old Energy in the Great Challenge Stakes . At the end of October , Tristan ran twice at the Newmarket Houghton meeting without reproducing his best form . In the Cambridgeshire Handicap he carried top weight of 130 pounds and finished seventh of the thirty @-@ one runners behind Hackness . On his final start of the year he ran in the Jockey Club Stakes over two and a quarter miles . In a closely contested four way finish he dead @-@ heated for second place with City Arab , a short head behind Chippendale and a neck in front of the mare Corrie Roy .

= = = 1883 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

In April 1883 Tristan won a Queen 's Plate at Epsom and then collected a second Epsom Gold Cup at the Derby meeting on 25 May , winning by three lengths from a field which included the Derby winner Shotover . Between these races he was beaten when attempting to concede three pounds to the unbeaten Irish horse Barcaldine in the Westminster Cup at Kempton . On this occasion he reportedly showed " a good deal of temper " before the race and ran " unkindly " .

On 7 June at Royal Ascot he contested the Ascot Gold Cup , the year 's most important staying race . Fordham sent him into the lead a mile from the finish and he won easily by three lengths from Dutch Oven and Wallenstein . On the last day of the Royal meeting he took the lead on the turn into the straight and won by a length and a half from Iroquois and eight others under top weight of 138 pounds to take his second Hardwicke Stakes . His winning time of 2 : 37 was considered exceptionally fast for the date . By this time he was being described as " about the best horse of the day in England " , and " the present champion of the English turf " , although he was also called " a bad horse to ride " . An example of Tristan 's problematic behaviour came on Newmarket Heath that summer when he attacked a horse named Gratin , who was acting as his training companion . Gratin was left lame whilst his rider , whom Tristan also attempted to savage , escaped with a black eye . Another of Tristan 's " victims " was a stable boy , whom he reportedly " shook like a rat " . His poor behaviour was blamed for contributing to his two defeats at Newmarket in July .

He returned to Deauville in August to win the Grand Prix again , this time carrying 151 pounds . At Newmarket on 11 October he recorded a repeat victory in the Champion Stakes again , this time taking the race outright from the St Leger winners Ossian and Dutch Oven . For the third successive year he was beaten by a two @-@ year @-@ old in the Great Challenge Stakes , finishing third to the future 1000 Guineas winner Busybody .

Tristan 's winning prize money for the year totaled £ 7 @,@ 628 , a record for a five @-@ year @-@ old which enabled Lefevre win the owner 's championship . Tristan 's career earnings had reached £ 19 @,@ 614 by the end of 1883 .

= = = 1884 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

Tristan remained in training in 1884 by which time his achievements had made his name a " household word " . At Newmarket in spring he ran a public trial against St. Simon a three @-@ year @-@ old colt who was prevented from running in the classics because the death of his owner had invalidated his entries . Tristan attempted to give the younger horse twenty @-@ three pounds and was easily beaten . The two horses met again at Royal Ascot on 10 June when Tristan attempted to defend his status as the country 's best stayer in the Ascot Gold Cup . His temperament came to the fore as he proved difficult to get to the start and when the race began he again proved no match for St. Simon who won by twenty lengths . In his other races at the meeting , Tristan took on St. Gatien and Harvester the colts who had dead @-@ heated in the Epsom Derby . In the two mile Gold Vase he finished third to St Gatien and Corrie Roy , but in the Hardwicke Stakes on the last day of the meeting he won easily from Waterford , with the favourite Harvester a distant third .

On 17 August Tristan carried 151 pounds to a third successive victory in the Grand Prix de Deauville . Once again he showed a good deal of temperament before the start but won the race by a short head from Fra Diavolo . In autumn he returned to England to end his racing career at Newmarket . Running in the Champion Stakes for the third time on 9 October he delayed the start for a quarter of an hour by his " display of temper " before dead @-@ heating with the four @-@ year @-@ old Lucerne . He was then retired to stud " covered with honours " and regarded as " one of the most wonderful horses of the time " .

= = Stud career = =

Lefevre retired Tristan to stand as a stallion in France at his stud near Chamant . In 1891 he was purchased by Caroline , Duchess of Montrose , who returned him to England as a replacement for the recently deceased Isonomy . Three years later he was sold again and exported to Austria @-@ Hungary . In 1897 he died as a result of injuries sustained after dashing his head against the wall of his stable in a fit of temper . Tristan was not a great success as a stallion , but he did sire Canterbury Pilgrim , who won the Epsom Oaks in 1896 and became a highly successful and influential broodmare . Other good winners included Le Nord ( Dewhurst Stakes ) and Le Nicham ( Champion Stakes ) .

= = Pedigree = =

= Plunketts Creek ( Loyalsock Creek ) =

Plunketts Creek is an approximately 6 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) tributary of Loyalsock Creek in Lycoming and Sullivan counties in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Two unincorporated villages and a hamlet are on the creek , and its watershed drains 23 @.@ 6 square miles ( 61 km2 ) in parts of five townships . The creek is a part of the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin via Loyalsock Creek and the West Branch Susquehanna and Susquehanna Rivers .

Plunketts Creek 's unique name comes from the first owner of the land including the creek 's mouth , and the creek has given its name to two townships ( although one has since changed its name ) . The creek flows southwest and then south through the dissected Allegheny Plateau , through rock from the Mississippian sub @-@ period and Devonian period . Much of the Plunketts Creek valley is composed of various glacial deposits , chiefly alluvium .

Although the Plunketts Creek watershed was clear @-@ cut and home to a tannery , sawmills , and a coal mine in the nineteenth century , today it is heavily wooded and known for its high water quality , fishing , and other recreational opportunities . The watershed now includes parts of the Loyalsock State Forest , Pennsylvania State Game Lands , and a State Game Farm for raising pheasant . Tourism , hunting , and fishing have long been important in the region , and its year @-@ round population is increasing much faster than that of either Lycoming or Sullivan County .

= = Name = =

Plunketts Creek is named for Colonel William Plunkett , a physician , who was the first president judge of Northumberland County after it was formed in 1772 . During conflicts with Native Americans , he treated wounded settlers and fought the natives . Plunkett led a Pennsylvania expedition in the Pennamite @-@ Yankee War to forcibly remove settlers from Connecticut , who had claimed and settled on lands also claimed by Pennsylvania . For his services , Plunkett was granted six tracts of land totaling 1 @,@ 978 acres ( 8 @.@ 00 km2 ) on November 14 , 1776 , although the land was not actually surveyed until September 1783 . Plunkett 's land included the creek 's mouth , so Plunketts Creek was given his name .

During the American Revolution , Plunkett did not actively support the revolution and thus was suspected of being sympathetic to the British Empire . He died in 1791 , aged about 100 , and was buried in Northumberland , without a grave marker or monument ( except for the creek that bears his name ) . Lycoming County was formed from Northumberland County in 1795 . When Plunketts Creek Township was formed in Lycoming County in 1838 , the original name proposed was " Plunkett Township " but the lingering suspicions of his British sympathies led to that name being rejected . Naming the township for the creek was an acceptable compromise .

Plunketts Creek Township was originally much larger than it is now , and two other townships were formed from parts of it . When Sullivan County was formed from Lycoming County on March 15 , 1847 , Plunketts Creek Township was divided between the counties , with each having a township of the same name . This led to some confusion and in 1856 the citizens of Sullivan County petitioned the state legislature to change the name of their Plunketts Creek Township to Hillsgrove Township , for Hillsgrove , the main village and post office in the township . In 1866 , Cascade Township was formed from parts of Hepburn and Plunketts Creek Townships in Lycoming County .

According to Meginness ( 1892 ) , Colonel Plunkett actually spelled his last name " Plunket " , but the current spelling was established " by custom and the courts " . As of 2007 , it is the only stream officially named " Plunketts Creek " on USGS maps of the United States and in the USGS Geographic Names Information System . ( There is a " Plunkett Creek " in Tennessee which has " Plunketts Creek " as an official variant name ) . The possessive apostrophe is not part of the official name of the creek , although records from the 19th century often spell it as " Plunkett 's Creek " . The Native American name for Plunketts Creek is unknown . Two streams in the watershed have given their names to roads in Plunketts Creek Township : Engle Run Drive and Mock Run Road .

= = Course = =

The source of Plunketts Creek is 1440 ft ( 439 m ) above sea level , northwest of the unincorporated village of Hillsgrove and just south of the Loyalsock State Forest in Hillsgrove Township , Sullivan County . The source is a pond just north of Pennsylvania Route 4010 ( the road between the villages of Proctor and Hillsgrove ) and Plunketts Creek crosses the road twice , then receives two unnamed tributaries on the right bank as it flows generally southwest about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the Lycoming County line .

The creek continues southwest as it enters Plunketts Creek Township and receives Reibsan Run on the left bank , 4 @.@ 70 miles ( 7 @.@ 56 km2 ) upstream from the mouth . It next receives Mock Creek at the hamlet of Hoppestown ( 4 @.@ 24 miles ( 6 @.@ 82 km ) from the mouth ) , then Wolf Run ( 2 @.@ 72 miles ( 4 @.@ 38 km ) from the mouth ) , both on the right bank . At the village of Proctor , Plunketts Creek receives King Run ( 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 km ) ) on the right bank , then turns south towards Loyalsock Creek . It flows through the Pennsylvania Game Commission 's Northcentral Game Farm , then receives the unnamed tributary in Coal Mine Hollow on the right bank and Dry Run on the left bank ( 0 @.@ 82 miles ( 1 @.@ 32 km ) and 0 @.@ 17 miles ( 0 @.@ 27 km ) , respectively ) . It finally enters the village of Barbours , where its mouth is on the right bank of Loyalsock Creek at 725 feet ( 221 m ) .

Lycoming County is about 130 miles ( 209 km ) northwest of Philadelphia and 165 miles ( 266 km ) east @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh . Although Plunketts Creek is 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) long , the direct distance between the source and the mouth is only 4 @.@ 1 miles ( 6 @.@ 6 km ) . From the mouth of Plunketts Creek it is 19 @.@ 50 miles ( 31 @.@ 38 km2 ) along Loyalsock Creek to its confluence with the West Branch Susquehanna River at Montoursville . The elevation at the source is 1440 feet ( 439 m ) , while the mouth is at an elevation of 725 feet ( 221 m ) . The difference in elevation , 715 feet ( 218 m ) , divided by the length of the creek of 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) gives the average drop in elevation per unit length of creek or relief ratio of 115 @.@ 3 feet / mile ( 21 @.@ 8 m / km ) . For comparison , the relief ratio of Wallis Run ( the next watershed to the southwest ) is 110 @.@ 9 feet / mile ( 21 @.@ 0 m / km ) , while Loyalsock Creek 's is only 28 @.@ 0 feet / mile ( 5 @.@ 33 m / km ) .

= = = Floods = = =

Plunketts Creek can vary greatly in depth , depending on the season and recent precipitation . Its water level is typically highest ( perhaps 3 feet ( 1 m ) deep ) in spring or for a few days after a heavy rain , and lowest in late summer , when it can shrink to a trickle . While there is no stream gauge on Plunketts Creek , a rough estimate of the creek 's water level may be found from the stream gauge on the Loyalsock Creek bridge in Barbours , just downstream of the mouth . Lycoming County operates this gauge as part of the county @-@ wide flood warning system . It only measures the water height ( not discharge ) , and measured a record gauge height of 34 @.@ 0 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) on September 7 , 2011 .

The September 2011 flood was caused by remnants of Tropical Storm Lee , which dumped 11 @.@ 36 inches ( 289 mm ) of rainfall in the nearby village of Shunk in Fox Township in Sullivan County ( just north of the creek 's source ) . The 2011 flooding caused widespread damage in Proctor and Barbours and destroyed a small stone bridge on Wallis Run Road in Proctor over King Run , a tributary of Plunketts Creek . The Barbours Fire Hall became an " emergency relief center offering food , shelter and supplies to victims of the flood " . Further downstream on the Loyalsock , the flooding badly damaged the historic Hillsgrove Covered Bridge , washed out sections of Pennsylvania Route 87 along the creek , and destroyed the Pennsylvania Route 973 and Lycoming Valley Railroad bridges over the creek near and in Montoursville .

The previous record flood reached 24 @.@ 9 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) on the Loyalsock flood gauge at Barbours on January 19 – 20 , 1996 . This major flood resulted from heavy rain , snow melt , and ice dams , which caused millions of dollars of damage throughout Lycoming County , and six deaths on Lycoming Creek in and near Williamsport . On Plunketts Creek , the flood heavily damaged and later caused the demolition of Plunketts Creek Bridge No. 3 , a mid @-@ 19th century stone arch bridge listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The flood waters were 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep in Barbours and it was called the village 's " worst flood in history " at the time .

= = Geology = =

Plunketts Creek is in the southern edge of the dissected Allegheny Plateau , near the Allegheny Front . The underlying bedrock is sandstone and shale , mostly from the Mississippian sub @-@ period , with rock from the Devonian period in the north of the watershed . The northern edge of the Plunketts Creek drainage basin is formed by Burnetts Ridge and Popple Ridge . Plunketts Creek flows along the north side of Camp Mountain and , on turning south at Proctor , forms a water gap between it and Cove Mountain ( to the west ) .

The watershed has no oil or conventional natural gas fields . However , a potentially large source of natural gas is the Marcellus shale , which lies 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 0 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) below the surface here and stretches from New York through Pennsylvania to Ohio and West Virginia . Estimates of the total natural gas in the black shale from the Devonian period range from 168 to 516 trillion cubic feet ( 4 @.@ 76 to 14 @.@ 6 trillion m3 ) , with at least 10 percent considered recoverable .

The Pennsylvania Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey 's " Distribution of Pennsylvania Coals " map shows no major deposits of coal in the Plunketts Creek watershed , and only one deposit nearby in the Loyalsock Creek watershed ( in southern Plunketts Creek Township ) . However , Meginness ( 1892 ) refers to coal mines in Plunketts Creek Township , and there is an unnamed tributary of Plunketts Creek in " Coal Mine Hollow " on the right bank between Dry Run and King Run , so it seems a small coal mine operated there in the past .

Much of the Plunketts Creek valley ( and those of its tributaries ) is composed of various glacial deposits . Closer to the mouth , there are large deposits of alluvium , as well as alluvial fan and alluvial terraces . Many of the glacial deposits are associated with the Wisconsin glaciation , with stratified drift and till , as well as outwash present . The alluvium is " 10 feet ( 3 m ) or more thick in the lower reaches of the Plunketts Creek valley " , but only " 6 feet ( 2 m ) thick in headward tributary valleys " . The outwash is described as " stratified sand and gravel that form terrace remnants along the flanks of Loyalsock Creek and Plunketts Creek valleys " .

= = Watershed = =

The Plunketts Creek watershed drains parts of Cascade , McNett , and Plunketts Creek townships in Lycoming County , and Fox and Hillsgrove Townships in Sullivan County ( with most of the watershed in Plunketts Creek Township ) . The drainage basin area is 23 @.@ 6 square miles ( 61 km2 ) , accounting for 4 @.@ 78 % of the 494 square miles ( 1 @,@ 280 km2 ) Loyalsock Creek watershed . Bear Creek , whose mouth is also within the village of Barbours but on the opposite ( left ) bank , is the nearest major creek at 0 @.@ 52 miles ( 0 @.@ 84 km ) downstream , as measured along Loyalsock Creek . ( It is also known as " Big Bear Creek " as it is the watershed upstream of " Little Bear Creek " . ) The neighboring major watersheds on the same bank are Wallis Run ( 9 @.@ 56 miles ( 15 @.@ 39 km ) downstream ) and Mill Creek ( at the village of Hillsgrove , 9 @.@ 16 miles ( 14 @.@ 74 km ) upstream ) . Pleasant Stream , a tributary of Lycoming Creek , is the watershed to the north .

The named tributaries together account for 70 @.@ 6 % of the Plunketts Creek watershed . The largest tributary is Wolf Run , with an area of 7 @.@ 39 square miles ( 19 @.@ 1 km2 ) , accounting for 31 @.@ 3 % of the total . The Wolf Run drainage basin includes both the Noon Branch ( 4 @.@ 26 square miles ( 11 @.@ 03 km2 ) ) and the Brian Branch ( 1 @.@ 60 square miles ( 4 @.@ 14 km2 ) ) . The next largest tributary of Plunketts Creek is King Run with 5 @.@ 56 square miles ( 14 @.@ 4 km2 ) or 23 @.@ 6 % of the watershed . The King Run watershed includes Engle Run , with 2 @.@ 90 square miles ( 7 @.@ 5 km2 ) . The third largest tributary is Dry Run with 1 @.@ 79 square miles ( 4 @.@ 6 km2 ) or 7 @.@ 6 % , followed by the unnamed tributary in Coal Mine Hollow with 1 @.@ 08 square miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ) or 4 @.@ 6 % . All other named tributaries are less than 1 @.@ 00 square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) and account for less than 5 % of the drainage basin individually . Plunketts Creek does not have its own watershed association , but is part of the larger Loyalsock Creek Watershed Association .

= = = Water quality = = =

The clear @-@ cutting of forests in the 19th century adversely affected the ecology of the Plunketts Creek watershed and its water quality . Polluting industries on the creek and its tributaries then included a coal mine and tannery ( which are long since departed ) . In the autumn of 1897 , three men working with hides at the Proctor tannery were stricken with anthrax , two fatally . Another four deaths originally blamed on pneumonia were suspected of being due to pulmonary anthrax , and some cattle drinking from Plunketts Creek downstream from the tannery were also infected . As late as 1959 , the sludge pile from the tannery was still visible in Proctor , but was not disturbed for fear of anthrax spores . No acid mine drainage is reported in the watershed .

As of 1984 , the mean annual precipitation for the Loyalsock Creek watershed ( which Plunketts Creek is part of ) was 42 to 48 inches ( 1067 to 1219 mm ) . Pennsylvania receives the greatest amount of acid rain of any state in the United States . Because Plunketts Creek is in a sandstone and shale mountain region , it has a relatively low capacity to neutralize added acid . This makes it especially vulnerable to increased acidification from acid rain , which poses a threat to the long term health of the plants and animals in the creek . The total alkalinity ( TA ) is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acid , with a larger TA corresponding to a greater capacity . In 2007 , the TA of two subtributaries was known : Engle Run , a 4 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 9 km ) tributary of King Run , had a TA of 5 , and the Noon Branch , a 1 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) tributary of Wolf Run , had a TA of 9 .

The 2002 Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) report on " State Forest Waters with Special Protection " rated Plunketts Creek ( from its source to mouth ) and two of it tributaries , Wolf Run and Mock Creek ( from the county line to the mouth ) , as " High Quality @-@ Cold Water Fisheries " . Two subtributaries were rated as " Exceptional Value " streams for fishing : Engle Run and the Noon Branch of Wolf Run .

= = = Recreation = = =

Meginness ( 1892 ) wrote that " Plunkett 's Creek township , on account of its dashing mountain streams of pure water , has always been a favorite place for trout fishing . " In 2007 , the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission classified both Engle Run and the Noon Branch of Wolf Run as Class A Wild Trout Waters , defined as " streams which support a population of naturally produced trout of sufficient size and abundance to support a long @-@ term and rewarding sport fishery . " Barbours has been popular from early on with " anglers seeking trout in the ' Sock and its tributaries " , as well as with hunters after black bear , white @-@ tailed deer , and wild turkey in the surrounding forests .

Besides fishing , the Plunketts Creek watershed contains much of the 6 @,@ 722 acres ( 27 @.@ 20 km2 ) of Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 134 , in both Lycoming and Sullivan counties . Habitat is found there for deer , ruffed grouse , and wild turkey . Hunting , trapping , and fishing are possible with proper licenses on both the state forest and State Game Lands . Camping , hiking , mountain bike and horseback riding , snowmobiling , cross @-@ country skiing , and bird watching are all possible on state forest lands . The southern end of the 27 @.@ 1 mile ( 43 @.@ 6 km ) long Old Loggers Path , a loop hiking trail , runs through the watershed just north of Engle and Wolf Runs .

= = History = =

= = = Early inhabitants = = =

The first recorded inhabitants of the Susquehanna River valley were the Iroquoian speaking Susquehannocks . Their name meant " people of the muddy river " in Algonquian . Decimated by diseases and warfare , they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes by the early 18th century . The lands of the West Branch Susquehanna River Valley were then chiefly occupied by the Munsee phratry of the Lenape ( or Delaware ) , and were under the nominal control of the Five ( later Six ) Nations of the Iroquois .

On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired the " New Purchase " from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix , opening what are now Lycoming and Sullivan counties to settlement . Initial settlements were on or near the West Branch Susquehanna River , and , as noted , Plunkett did not receive the land including the creek until 1776 , nor was it surveyed until 1783 . It is not clear if Plunkett ever lived on his land : he resided in Northumberland at the time of his death . A squatter named Paulhamus was the first recorded inhabitant of what became Plunketts Creek Township , living there " some time between 1770 and 1776 " . He was reputed to be a deserter from the British Army and left only when he was captured by British soldiers .

= = = Lumber and tannery = = =

Like all streams in Lycoming and Sullivan Counties , Plunketts Creek served as an area for settlers to establish homesteads , mills , and to a lesser extent , farms . Barbours , the first village on the creek , was founded in 1832 , when John S. Barbour , a Scottish immigrant , built a sawmill opposite the mouth of Plunketts Creek on Loyalsock Creek . Originally known as " Barbour 's Mills " , the village is in a rare area of flat land in the narrow Loyalsock valley and contains the mouths of both Plunketts and Bear Creeks . Barbours became a lumber center which owed " its existence to those forested mountains and the creeks that flow out of them " . John Scaife arrived in 1856 and became a prosperous lumberman and farmer . His family became prominent in Barbours , and in 1997 , his 86 @-@ year @-@ old granddaughter , Virdie Scaife Houser Landon , recalled that in her childhood " every family that had 15 cents to their name had a sawmill for cutting lumber . " By 1878 the village had several blacksmiths , a temperance hotel , its own post office , many sawmills , a school , and a wagon maker . Barbours flourished throughout the rest of the nineteenth century .

In 1868 , Proctor was built as a company town in the midst of the timber required for the tannery ( Barbours had initially been considered for the site ) . The second village on Plunketts Creek was originally named " Proctorville " for Thomas E. Proctor of Boston , who produced leather for the soles of shoes there . Proctor was brought to the area by William Stone of Standing Stone Township in Bradford County , who knew the area was " one vast tract of hemlock timber " . The Proctor tannery employed " several hundred " at wages between 50 cents and $ 1 @.@ 75 a day , the employees living in one hundred twenty company houses , each renting for $ 2 a month . Hemlock bark , used in the tanning process , was hauled to the tannery from up to 8 miles ( 13 km ) away in both summer and winter , using wagons and sleds . The hides which were tanned to make leather came from the United States , and as far away as Mexico , Argentina , and China . In 1892 , Proctor had a barber shop , two blacksmiths , cigar stand , I.O.O.F hall , leather shop , news stand , a post office ( established in 1885 ) , a two @-@ room school , two stores , and a wagon shop . Finished sole leather was hauled by horse @-@ drawn wagon south about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to Little Bear Creek , where it was exchanged for " green " hides and other supplies brought north from Montoursville .

Plunketts Creek was a source of power in the nineteenth century and " water @-@ powered sawmills , woolen mills , and grist ( grain ) mills lined the ' Sock and Plunketts and Big Bear Creeks " . Although hemlock logs were originally left to rot after their bark was peeled for tanning , with time their lumber was used , among other places in a sawmill on Engle Run north of Proctor . By 1892 there were two steam powered sawmills on Plunketts Creek : one 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) above the mouth , and the other 4 @.@ 0 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) up the creek , near Hoppestown . An extension of the Susquehanna and Eagles Mere Railroad crossed an unnamed tributary of Plunketts Creek near its source in Sullivan County in 1906 , running from the village of Hillsgrove northwest to the lumber boomtown of Masten in Cascade and McNett Townships in Lycoming County . A logging railroad was built by the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company ( CPL ) in the far northern part of the watershed in the 1920s . It crossed Engle Run twice and ran parallel to Wolf Run , near both their sources . No other railroads crossed or ran along Plunketts Creek .

= = = Decline and renewal = = =

The lumber boom on Plunketts Creek ended when the virgin timber ran out . By 1898 , the old growth hemlock was exhausted and the Proctor tannery , then owned by the Elk Tanning Company , was closed and dismantled . Lumbering continued in the watershed , but the last logs were floated down Plunketts Creek to the Loyalsock in 1905 . The Susquehanna and Eagles Mere Railroad was abandoned in sections between 1922 and 1930 , as the lumber it was built to transport was depleted . The CPL logging railroad and their Masten sawmills were abandoned in 1930 . Without timber , the populations of Proctor and Barbours declined . The Barbours post office closed in the 1930s and the Proctor post office closed on July 1 , 1953 . Both villages also lost their schools and almost all of their businesses . Proctor celebrated its centennial in 1968 , and a 1970 newspaper article on its thirty @-@ ninth annual " Proctor Homecoming " reunion called it a " near @-@ deserted old tannery town " . In the 1980s , the last store in Barbours closed , and the former hotel ( which had become a hunting club ) was torn down to make way for a new bridge across Loyalsock Creek .

Second growth forests have since covered most of the clear @-@ cut land . The beginnings of today 's protected areas were established in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries : Pennsylvania 's state legislature authorized the acquisition of abandoned clear @-@ cut land in 1897 , creating the state forest system . The Game Commission began acquiring property for State Game Lands in 1920 , and established the Northcentral State Game Farm on Plunketts Creek in 1945 to raise wild turkey . It was converted to ringneck pheasant production in 1981 , and , as of 2007 , it is one of four Pennsylvania state game farms producing about 200 @,@ 000 pheasants each year for release on land open to public hunting . The Northcentral State Game Farm is in the Plunketts Creek valley just south of Proctor , and a part of it is on the right bank of Loyalsock Creek downstream of the confluence . The Loyalsock State Game Farm is 13 miles ( 21 km ) downstream on Loyalsock Creek , at the village of Loyalsockville . When a May 2007 fire destroyed a brooder house there just days before 18 @,@ 000 pheasant chicks were due to hatch , the eggs were transferred to the nearby Northcentral State Game Farm without reduction in the production goal .

As of 2007 , Proctor has two separate businesses : a general store ( which also sells gasoline ) and a bed and breakfast . The church which used to host the annual " Proctor Homecoming " reunions still stands , but is closed . Barbours has no store or gas station , but does have one church . Barbours is home to the Plunketts Creek Township Volunteer Fire Company and township municipal building ( which houses a small branch library ) . Since 1967 , Barbours has been home to Pneu @-@ Dart , which makes tranquilizer darts and guns for livestock and wildlife capture and control . In 1997 , Pneu @-@ Dart had eight employees . Today much of Plunketts Creek 's watershed is wooded and protected as part of Loyalsock State Forest or Pennsylvania State Game Lands No. 134 . Pennsylvania 's state forests and game lands are managed , and small @-@ scale lumbering operations continue in the watershed today . Barbours has one sawmill , in 1997 it had thirty contract loggers and fifteen employees , with $ 1 @.@ 2 million in annual gross sales .

Plunketts Creek has been a place for lumber and tourism since its villages were founded . Before the advent of automobiles , the area was quite isolated and the 16 mile ( 26 km ) trip to Montoursville took at least three hours ( today it takes less than half an hour ) . Residents who used to work locally now commute to Williamsport . " Cabin people " have seasonally increased the population for years , but increasing numbers now live there year round . From 1950 to 2000 , the population of Plunketts Creek Township increased 80 @.@ 6 percent from 427 to 771 ( for comparison , in the same period Lycoming County 's population increased by only 18 @.@ 6 percent , while Sullivan County 's declined by 2 @.@ 9 percent ) . Tourists still come too : the opening weekend of the trout season brings more people into the village at the mouth of Plunketts Creek than any other time of the year .

= Richard Cresswell =

Richard Paul Wesley Cresswell ( born 20 September 1977 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays for Northern Counties East League Premier Division club Tadcaster Albion . He primarily plays as a striker but can also play as a winger .

Cresswell started his career with York City in their youth system , making his first team debut in a Second Division match in 1996 . Having scored 19 goals for York in the 1998 – 99 season he signed for Premier League team Sheffield Wednesday in 1999 . After their relegation the following year he joined Leicester City of the Premier League , but was loaned to First Division side Preston North End in 2001 and played for them in the 2001 First Division play @-@ off Final . He signed for Preston permanently in the summer . He had four full seasons with Preston , scoring a career best 21 goals in the 2004 – 05 season , which culminated in defeat in the 2005 Championship play @-@ off Final .

He signed for Championship rivals Leeds United in 2005 . He had a number of knee injuries while with Leeds and following their relegation to League One in 2007 was signed by Stoke City . With Stoke he won promotion to the Premier League as Championship runners @-@ up , with Cresswell scoring 12 goals in the 2007 – 08 season . He spent one full season in the Premier League with Stoke before signing for Championship side Sheffield United on loan in 2009 , before signing permanently in 2010 . United were relegated to League One in 2011 , and Cresswell played in their defeat in the 2012 League One play @-@ off Final . He was made player @-@ coach at the club in 2012 before rejoining his first club York City in 2013 , initially on loan .

= = Club career = =

= = = York City = = =

Cresswell was born in Bridlington , East Riding of Yorkshire to George and Denise ( née Churm ) . He started playing for Bridlington Rangers at the age of eight before joining the York City youth system aged 14 in 1991 . Having been top scorer for the Northern Intermediate League team for three consecutive seasons , he signed a professional contract on 15 November 1995 . Cresswell made his first team debut away to Brentford in a 2 – 0 defeat in the Second Division on 20 January 1996 . He first scored for York with the second goal of a 2 – 2 draw away at Bradford City on 2 March 1996 . This proved to be his only goal in the 1995 – 96 season , in which he made 17 appearances .

Having failed to score in 22 appearances for York in the 1996 – 97 season , Cresswell joined Third Division side Mansfield Town on loan on 27 March 1997 , making his debut in a 0 – 0 draw away to Exeter City on 29 March . He scored his first and only goal for Mansfield in a 1 – 0 win away to Rochdale on 5 April 1997 , before finishing the loan with five appearances . He scored four goals in 30 games for York in 1997 – 98 , and during this season he was barracked by a small section of the York support .

Cresswell admitted he had not made the impact he had hoped to in the York first team , but ahead of the 1998 – 99 season said " I 've had some stick from a small number of fans , but hopefully I can prove them wrong . I will prove them wrong . This a big season for me . I want to do it for York City . I want to do it for myself . " After a positive start to the season , Cresswell attracted attention from other clubs , with a number of scouts attending matches to watch him play . Manager Alan Little claimed some clubs were making illegal approaches for the player , and that this was having a detrimental effect on his performances . Preston North End manager David Moyes claimed his club had a bid of more than £ 500 @,@ 000 for Cresswell rejected , while York chairman Douglas Craig rejected this , saying a formal offer had not been received from any club . He was York 's top scorer in the 1998 – 99 season with 19 goals from 42 appearances .

= = = Sheffield Wednesday = = =

He made a move to Premier League side Sheffield Wednesday on a four @-@ year contract on 25 March 1999 , with the £ 950 @,@ 000 fee being the highest received for a York player . On his transfer , Cresswell said : " This move is no disrespect to York , it 's just that I have always wanted to play at a much bigger club and as high as possible " . Manager Danny Wilson described Cresswell as " one for the future " after admitting the player " is not the striker people may perceive as the big one we were chasing " . His debut came in Wednesday 's 2 – 1 home defeat to Coventry City on 3 April 1999 , before scoring his first goal with an 87th @-@ minute winner at home to Liverpool in a 1 – 0 win on 8 May . He finished the 1998 – 99 season with one goal in seven games for Wednesday . Cresswell completed the 1999 – 2000 season with two goals in 25 appearances , having been given few opportunities in the team , as Wednesday were relegated to the First Division .

= = = Leicester City = = =

Cresswell struggled to establish himself at Wednesday under manager Paul Jewell early in the 2000 – 01 season , before he resumed playing in the Premier League after signing for Leicester City on 1 September 2000 for a fee of £ 750 @,@ 000 . Leicester were managed by Peter Taylor , who previously worked with Cresswell previously in the England under @-@ 21 team . He made his debut in their 1 – 1 draw at home to Red Star Belgrade in the UEFA Cup on 14 September 2000 . He scored once in 13 appearances for Leicester , his goal coming against former club York in a 3 – 0 home win in the FA Cup third round on 6 January 2001 , having failed to establish himself in the team .

= = = Preston North End = = =

Cresswell joined First Division club Preston North End on loan for the remainder of the 2000 – 01 season on 10 March 2001 and scored five minutes into his debut , a 2 – 0 win at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers on 14 March . He came on as an 82nd minute substitute in their 3 – 0 defeat to Bolton Wanderers in the 2001 First Division play @-@ off Final at the Millennium Stadium on 28 May 2001 . After scoring two goals in 14 appearances he signed for Preston permanently on a four @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 500 @,@ 000 on 14 July 2001 .

Cresswell was Preston 's top scorer in his first two permanent seasons with Preston , scoring 15 goals in 44 appearances in 2001 – 02 and scoring 16 in 46 games in 2002 – 03 . He was also named Preston 's Player of the Year for the 2001 – 02 season . He received the first red card of his career in Preston 's 4 – 1 defeat away at Coventry City on 17 March 2004 after he was judged to have kicked out at opponent player Calum Davenport , although both managers later admitted David Healy was the culprit . He scored three goals in 47 appearances in the 2003 – 04 season .

Cresswell drew praise from manager Billy Davies during the 2004 – 05 season , " Richard is very capable of that and it is important that we keep creating chances for Cressy as we know that he will put the ball in the back of the net " , although he admitted the team were over reliant on Cresswell 's goals . He enjoyed his best goal return in the 2004 – 05 season , top scoring for Preston with 21 goals in 52 games . This helped Preston reach the 2005 Championship play @-@ off Final , where they were beaten 1 – 0 by West Ham United at the Millennium Stadium . Cresswell played poorly in the first half , but had a number of chances on goal during the second half .

= = = Leeds United = = =

Cresswell was bought by Championship rivals Leeds United on a four @-@ year contract on 24 August 2005 for a fee of £ 1 @.@ 15 million , after rivals Sheffield United had a £ 1 million bid accepted . After the signing was completed , manager Kevin Blackwell said " To get a player of Cresswell 's quality is amazing " , while Cresswell cited his desire to win automatic promotion with Leeds . He first found the net with two goals in Leeds ' League Cup 2 – 0 away victory against Rotherham United on 20 September 2005 . However , Cresswell suffered knee ligament damage in a match against Derby County eight days later . This injury kept Cresswell out of action for seven weeks , making his return in Leeds ' 1 – 0 defeat away to Wolves on 17 December 2005 , and scoring in his second match back against Coventry City in a 3 – 1 home win on 26 December . Another knee injury picked up during a training session in February 2006 kept him out of the team until he entered Leeds ' 1 – 1 draw with former club Preston in the Championship play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg as a 78th @-@ minute substitute on 5 May 2006 . However , he was sent off in the 2 – 0 win in the second leg , meaning he was suspended for the 2006 Championship play @-@ off Final , which Leeds lost 3 – 0 to Watford at the Millennium Stadium . He finished the 2005 – 06 season with 21 appearances and seven goals .

Having damaged his knee ligaments during the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , Cresswell missed the start of the 2006 – 07 season , making his first appearance in Leeds ' 4 – 0 home defeat to Stoke City on 14 October 2006 . However , he sustained a knee injury in November 2006 , after scoring his first goal of the campaign in Leeds ' 3 – 0 home win over Colchester United on 11 November . His return from injury came as a 68th @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 victory at home to Crystal Palace on 10 February 2007 . Cresswell scored in successive games against Sheffield Wednesday and Luton Town in March 2007 , but Leeds were eventually relegated to League One . He finished the season with four goals in 23 games .

= = = Stoke City = = =

Leeds were resigned to losing their senior players after going into administration , with Championship side Stoke City signing Cresswell on a three @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 2 August 2007 , after Hull City had pulled out of a deal after expressing concerns following his medical . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 win at Cardiff City on 11 August 2007 , before scoring in his second appearance with an equaliser during stoppage time of extra time in a 2 – 2 draw away to Rochdale in the League Cup first round on 14 August , although Stoke lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . He scored the last ever goal at Colchester United 's Layer Road ground in a 1 – 0 win . Cresswell made 46 appearances for Stoke in the 2007 – 08 season , scoring 12 goals , as the club won promotion the Premier League as Championship runners @-@ up . He was regularly used on the left wing by Stoke manager Tony Pulis , even though his natural position is as a striker . He was quoted as saying he enjoyed playing as a winger , saying " I do my best , and I am quite a fit lad so I get through quite a bit of mileage " . During the 2008 – 09 season Cresswell played on the wing and as a striker , featuring in 34 games and scoring one goal .

= = = Sheffield United = = =

Having struggled for appearances with Stoke since their promotion to the Premier League , Cresswell joined Championship outfit Sheffield United on a three @-@ month loan on 29 September 2009 and made his debut the same day as a 76th @-@ minute substitute against Ipswich Town in a 3 – 3 home draw . Starting the following game he scored a 65th @-@ minute equaliser against Doncaster Rovers in a 1 – 1 draw at home on 3 October 2009 . He joined United permanently on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 5 January 2010 , going on to finish the 2009 – 10 season as top scorer with 14 goals . He was rewarded with a new three @-@ year contract with the club in June 2010 . He scored five goals in 36 games in the 2010 – 11 season as United were relegated to League One .

With United now in League One , Cresswell formed a striking partnership with Ched Evans , making 51 appearances and scoring 10 goals in 2011 – 12 . The club failed to achieve promotion however , being beaten 8 – 7 in a penalty shoot @-@ out by Huddersfield Town in the 2012 League One play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium on 26 May 2012 , in which Cresswell was substituted for Chris Porter in the 85th minute . As a result of financial circumstances Cresswell and Nick Montgomery were made available for transfer during August 2012 , with manager Danny Wilson explaining that " They were both fit , they were left out for financial reasons " . Towards the end of the transfer window however United agreed a revised deal to change his role to that of player @-@ coach and as such he would be remaining at Bramall Lane for the foreseeable future . On his return to the side , Cresswell came on as a substitute and scored a header in United 's 5 – 3 victory over Bournemouth on 1 September 2012 .

= = = Return to York City = = =

Cresswell rejoined his first club York City , playing in League Two , on a one @-@ month loan on 19 March 2013 . He marked his second York debut by scoring a 73rd minute penalty kick on 23 March 2013 away at Torquay United in a 2 – 1 defeat . He played an important role as York fought against relegation , scoring twice in five appearances , before being recalled by new United caretaker manager Chris Morgan on 15 April 2013 . In July 2013 new United manager David Weir stated that Cresswell would be leaving the club , before he signed for York permanently on a one @-@ year contract on 16 July 2013 . His first appearance after signing permanently came in the first game of the 2013 – 14 season , a 1 – 0 home win over Northampton Town on 3 August 2013 . Cresswell retired from playing on 5 December 2013 , as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . He made eight appearances for York in the 2013 – 14 season .

= = International career = =

Cresswell was called up to the England national under @-@ 21 team while with York , making his debut in a 2 – 1 home victory over France in a friendly on 9 February 1999 . He continued to play for the under @-@ 21s after joining Wednesday , and scored his first goal for them in a 3 – 0 home win over Sweden in a 2000 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification match on 4 June 1999 . Cresswell finished his under @-@ 21 career with four caps and one goal .

= = Coaching career = =

Cresswell returned to York as a commercial , academy and community development consultant in April 2014 , having previously intended to pursue a career in coaching . He took on the position of Head of Football Operations , before being appointed as first team coach to manager Russ Wilcox in March 2015 . In May 2015 , Cresswell resumed his role as Head of Football Operations , while continuing to coach the first team . He took over as caretaker manager on 26 October 2015 after Wilcox 's sacking , and would be assisted by youth team coach Jonathan Greening and goalkeeping coach Andy Leaning . He was in charge for the 1 – 0 away defeat to Crawley Town on 31 October 2015 , before ceasing his caretaker duties upon the appointment of Jackie McNamara as manager on 4 November . Cresswell left York by mutual consent on 16 December 2015 . He resumed his playing career aged 38 when signing for Northern Counties East League Premier Division club Tadcaster Albion on 7 April 2016 .

= = Personal life = =

Cresswell married Zoe Chapman at Christ Church , Bridlington on 7 June 2003 , with former York City teammate Jonathan Greening being his joint best man . He took part in a 170 mile bike ride during 2012 to raise money for a charity which helps children with Dravet 's syndrome , after his twin nieces were diagnosed with the disorder .

= = Career statistics = =

As of match played 14 April 2016 .

= = Managerial statistics = =

As of 4 November 2015 .

= = Honours = =

Stoke City

Football League Championship runner @-@ up : 2007 – 08

Individual

Preston North End Player of the Year : 2001 – 02

= Berhtwald =

Berhtwald ( also Brihtwald , Beorhtweald , Bertwald , Berthwald , Beorhtwald , or Beretuald ; died 731 ) was the ninth Archbishop of Canterbury in England . Documentary evidence names Berhtwald as abbot at Reculver before his election as archbishop . Berhtwald begins the first continuous series of native @-@ born Archbishops of Canterbury , although there had been previous Anglo @-@ Saxon archbishops , they had not succeeded each other until Berhtwald 's reign .

Berhtwald 's period as archbishop coincided with the end of Wilfrid 's long struggle to regain the Bishopric of York , and the two @-@ year delay between Theodore 's death and Berhtwald 's election may have been due to efforts to select Wilfrid for Canterbury . After his election , Berhtwald went to Gaul for consecration and then presided over two councils that attempted to settle the Wilfrid issue , finally succeeding at the second council in 705 . Berhtwald also was the recipient of the first surviving letter close in Western Europe .

= = Early life = =

Little is known of Berhtwald 's ancestry or his early life , but he was born around the middle of the seventh century . By 679 , he was made abbot of the monastery at Reculver in Kent , and a charter dated May 679 names Berhtwald as abbot . This charter , from Hlothere , King of Kent , is the earliest surviving original Anglo @-@ Saxon charter .

= = Election as archbishop = =

The see of Canterbury was vacant for two years after the death of Theodore before Berhtwald was elected to the office on 1 July 692 . The long vacancy resulted from the disturbed conditions in the kingdom of Kent at the time , as various kings fought for control . The succession to the kingdom was disputed between rival claimants Oswine and Wihtred , and various outside kings , including Caedwalla and Swaefheard raided and plundered Kent . Eventually , Wihtred secured the throne , around 691 or early 692 , as Bede names Wihtred as King of Kent , along with Swaefheard , at the time of Berhtwald 's election . Swaerfheard , however , is not named as king of Kent after this date .

The vacancy may also have occurred because Wilfrid , who was at that point having problems in Northumbria , desired to become Archbishop of Canterbury . A contemporary biographer of Wilfrid , Stephen of Ripon , says that Theodore had wished for Wilfrid to succeed Theodore at Canterbury . Æthelred of Mercia may have supported Wilfrid 's translation to Canterbury also , but despite these desires , the translation did not happen . Berhtwald was consecrated on 29 June 693 , having travelled to France for his consecration as archbishop of Canterbury by Godwin , Archbishop of Lyon . Berhtwald went to the continent for consecration probably because he feared that his election was not supported by all of the kings and bishops . After his consecration , Berhtwald travelled to Rome to obtain the support of Pope Sergius I , who wrote to a number of Anglo @-@ Saxon kings and bishops in support of the archbishop . Two of these letters survive , and their authenticity has been doubted , mainly because they are only preserved as part of the post @-@ Norman Conquest Canterbury @-@ York dispute . Historians have since come to regard the two letters as genuine . Sergius also gave Berhtwald a pallium , the symbol of an archbishop 's authority .

= = Archbishop = =

Berhtwald appears to have been involved in the governance of the church , establishing the bishopric of Sherborne in Wessex and it was during his tenure that Sussex , the last pagan kingdom in England , was converted to Christianity . He also consecrated the first Bishop of Selsey . During his time in office , King Wihtred of Kent in the Law of Wihtred exempted the church from taxation . Berhtwald was a proponent of his predecessor 's view of the archbishops of Canterbury as primates of the entire island of Britain . Berhtwald co @-@ operated closely with Wihtred in the kingdom , and secured the exemption of the church from taxation under Wihtred 's laws issued in 695 . The law code also dealt with other ecclesiastical matters , including marriage , Sunday observance , and pagan worship . This law code resulted from a royal council that was held at Bearsted . Further privileges for the church were issued in 699 , and may have been composed by Berhtwald before being promulgated . Another privilege , usually referred to as the " Privilege of Wihtred " , is claimed to be a grant from Wihtred to the monasteries of Kent of exemption from non @-@ clerical control . However , this is actually a ninth @-@ century forgery .

Much of Berhtwald 's time in office coincided with the efforts of Wilfrid to regain the see of York , and to reverse the division of York into smaller dioceses . Berhtwald was opposed to Wilfrid 's desire to restore some separated bishoprics to the bishopric of York as well as regaining his old see . Wilfrid 's problems had begun during the archbishopric of Berhtwald 's predecessor , Theodore of Tarsus , when Wilfrid had quarreled with the King of Northumbria , Ecgfrith , and was expelled from the north . Theodore had taken the opportunity to divide the large see of York into a number of smaller dioceses , and Wilfrid had appealed to the papacy in Rome . Berhtwald inherited the dispute and presided at the Council of Austerfield in 702 , at which Wilfrid 's biographer relates the story that King Aldfrith of Northumbria , Berhtwald , and the other enemies of Wilfrid conspired to deprive Wilfrid of all his offices and possessions . A more likely story is that Berhtwald managed to secure concessions from the Northumbrians , and tried to broker a compromise . The offer in the end was that Wilfrid would retire to Ripon and cease acting as a bishop . Wilfrid rejected this compromise and once more appealed to the pope . Three years later , at a further Council , it was arranged that Wilfrid should receive the Bishopric of Hexham in place of that of York . This was the Council of Nidd , usually dated to 706 , and it was held in Northumbria . Bede also mentions that Berhtwald consecrated a number of bishops , including Tobias as Bishop of Rochester .

One of Berhtwald 's letters has been preserved , sent to Forthhere , Bishop of Sherborne , and asking Forthhere to intercede with Beorwold , the Abbot of Glastonbury , to ransom a slave . Another letter , this one addressed to Berhtwald , from Waldhere , Bishop of London , also survives . The main interest in the second letter is that it is the oldest surviving letter close surviving in Western Europe . This second letter also relates that Waldhere and Berhtwald had attended a synod which can be dated to sometime between 703 and 705 , where the kingdom of Wessex was threatened with excommunication . A charter witnessed by Berhtwald which mentions a supposed 706 council , numbered 54 by Sawyer , is now known to be a fake , although the witness list may be based on a legitimate 8th century charter that no longer survives . Likewise , a charter with Berhtwald as a witness and relating to the 716 Council of Clofesho is also known to be a 9th @-@ century forgery , although again it may have been based on actual documents from the council .

= = Death and legacy = =

Berhtwald died on 13 January 731 . An epitaph to him in verse survives , and may have been placed over his tomb , which was at Canterbury . Subsequently he was canonised with a feast day of 9 January . Little evidence of extensive cult activity exists , however , and the main evidence for his sainthood is a late medieval entry in a St Augustine 's calendar . Berhtwald is the first of the continuous series of native @-@ born archbishops in England , although there had been two previous Anglo @-@ Saxon archbishops at Canterbury — Deusdedit and Wighard .

= Xenon =

Xenon is a chemical element with symbol Xe and atomic number 54 . It is a colorless , dense , odorless noble gas , that occurs in the Earth 's atmosphere in trace amounts . Although generally unreactive , xenon can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate , the first noble gas compound to be synthesized .

Xenon is used in flash lamps and arc lamps , and as a general anesthetic . The first excimer laser design used a xenon dimer molecule ( Xe2 ) as its lasing medium , and the earliest laser designs used xenon flash lamps as pumps . Xenon is also being used to search for hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles and as the propellant for ion thrusters in spacecraft .

Naturally occurring xenon consists of eight stable isotopes . There are also over 40 unstable isotopes that undergo radioactive decay . The isotope ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of the Solar System . Radioactive xenon @-@ 135 is produced by beta decay from iodine @-@ 135 ( which is a product of nuclear fission ) , and it acts as the most significant neutron absorber in nuclear reactors .

= = History = =

Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and English chemist Morris Travers in September 1898 , shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon . They found xenon in the residue left over from evaporating components of liquid air . Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον [ xenon ] , neuter singular form of ξένος [ xenos ] , meaning ' foreign ( er ) ' , ' strange ( r ) ' , or ' guest ' . In 1902 , Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth 's atmosphere as one part in 20 million .

During the 1930s , American engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high speed photography . This led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp , in which light is generated by sending a brief electric current through a tube filled with xenon gas . In 1934 , Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this method .

In 1939 , American physician Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of " drunkenness " in deep @-@ sea divers . He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects , and discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth . From his results , he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic . Although Russian toxicologist Nikolay V. Lazarev apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941 , the first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by American medical researcher John H. Lawrence , who experimented on mice . Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by American anesthesiologist Stuart C. Cullen , who successfully operated on two patients .

Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to form compounds . However , while teaching at the University of British Columbia , Neil Bartlett discovered that the gas platinum hexafluoride ( PtF6 ) was a powerful oxidizing agent that could oxidize oxygen gas ( O2 ) to form dioxygenyl hexafluoroplatinate ( O2 + [ PtF6 ] − ) . Since O2 and xenon have almost the same first ionization potential , Bartlett realized that platinum hexafluoride might also be able to oxidize xenon . On March 23 , 1962 , he mixed the two gases and produced the first known compound of a noble gas , xenon hexafluoroplatinate . Bartlett thought its composition to be Xe + [ PtF6 ] − , although later work has revealed that it was probably a mixture of various xenon @-@ containing salts . Since then , many other xenon compounds have been discovered , along with some compounds of the noble gases argon , krypton , and radon , including argon fluorohydride ( HArF ) , krypton difluoride ( KrF2 ) , and radon fluoride . By 1971 , more than 80 xenon compounds were known .

In November 1999 IBM scientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms . The program , called IBM in atoms , used a scanning tunneling microscope to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company acronym . It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface .

= = Characteristics = =

Xenon has atomic number 54 ; that is , its nucleus contains 54 protons . At standard temperature and pressure , pure xenon gas has a density of 5 @.@ 761 kg / m3 , about 4 @.@ 5 times the surface density of the Earth 's atmosphere , 1 @.@ 217 kg / m3 . As a liquid , xenon has a density of up to 3 @.@ 100 g / mL , with the density maximum occurring at the triple point . Notably , liquid xenon has a high polarizability due to its large atomic volume , and thus is an excellent solvent . It can dissolve hydrocarbons , biological molecules , and even water . Under the same conditions , the density of solid xenon , 3 @.@ 640 g / cm3 , is higher than the average density of granite , 2 @.@ 75 g / cm3 . Using gigapascals of pressure , xenon has been forced into a metallic phase .

Solid xenon changes from face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) to hexagonal close packed ( hcp ) crystal phase under pressure and begins to turn metallic at about 140 GPa , with no noticeable volume change in the hcp phase . It is completely metallic at 155 GPa . When metallized , xenon looks sky blue because it absorbs red light and transmits other visible frequencies . Such behavior is unusual for a metal and is explained by the relatively small widths of the electron bands in metallic xenon .

Liquid or solid xenon nanoparticles can be formed at room temperature by implanting Xe + ions into a solid matrix . Many solids have lattice constants smaller than solid Xe . This results in compression of the implanted Xe to pressures that may be sufficient for its liquefaction or solidification .

Xenon is a member of the zero @-@ valence elements that are called noble or inert gases . It is inert to most common chemical reactions ( such as combustion , for example ) because the outer valence shell contains eight electrons . This produces a stable , minimum energy configuration in which the outer electrons are tightly bound .

In a gas @-@ filled tube , xenon emits a blue or lavenderish glow when the gas is excited by electrical discharge . Xenon emits a band of emission lines that span the visual spectrum , but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue light , which produces the coloration .

= = Occurrence and production = =

Xenon is a trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere , occurring at 87 ± 1 parts per billion ( nL / L ) , or approximately 1 part per 11 @.@ 5 million , and is also found as a component in gases emitted from some mineral springs .

Xenon is obtained commercially as a by @-@ product of the separation of air into oxygen and nitrogen . After this separation , generally performed by fractional distillation in a double @-@ column plant , the liquid oxygen produced will contain small quantities of krypton and xenon . By additional fractional distillation steps , the liquid oxygen may be enriched to contain 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 % of a krypton / xenon mixture , which is extracted either via absorption onto silica gel or by distillation . Finally , the krypton / xenon mixture may be separated into krypton and xenon via distillation . Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was estimated at 5 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 m3 . Because of its low abundance , xenon is much more expensive than the lighter noble gases — approximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in Europe in 1999 were 10 € / L for xenon , 1 € / L for krypton , and 0 @.@ 20 € / L for neon ; the much more plentiful argon costs less than a cent per liter .

Within the Solar System , the nucleon fraction of xenon is 1 @.@ 56 × 10 − 8 , for an abundance of approximately one part in 630 thousand of the total mass . Xenon is relatively rare in the Sun 's atmosphere , on Earth , and in asteroids and comets . The planet Jupiter has an unusually high abundance of xenon in its atmosphere ; about 2 @.@ 6 times as much as the Sun . This high abundance remains unexplained and may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup of planetesimals — small , subplanetary bodies — before the presolar disk began to heat up . ( Otherwise , xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices . ) The problem of the low terrestrial xenon may potentially be explained by covalent bonding of xenon to oxygen within quartz , hence reducing the outgassing of xenon into the atmosphere .

Unlike the lower mass noble gases , the normal stellar nucleosynthesis process inside a star does not form xenon . Elements more massive than iron @-@ 56 have a net energy cost to produce through fusion , so there is no energy gain for a star when creating xenon . Instead , xenon is formed during supernova explosions , by the slow neutron capture process ( s @-@ process ) of red giant stars that have exhausted the hydrogen at their cores and entered the asymptotic giant branch , in classical nova explosions and from the radioactive decay of elements such as iodine , uranium and plutonium .

= = Isotopes and isotopic studies = =

Naturally occurring xenon is made of eight stable isotopes , the most of any element with the exception of tin , which has ten . Xenon and tin are the only elements to have more than seven stable isotopes . The isotopes 124Xe and 134Xe are predicted to undergo double beta decay , but this has never been observed so they are considered to be stable . Besides these stable forms , there are over 40 unstable isotopes that have been studied . The longest lived of these isotopes is 136Xe , which has been observed to undergo double beta decay with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 11 × 1021 yr . 129Xe is produced by beta decay of 129I , which has a half @-@ life of 16 million years , while 131mXe , 133Xe , 133mXe , and 135Xe are some of the fission products of both 235U and 239Pu , and therefore used as indicators of nuclear explosions .

Nuclei of two of the stable isotopes of xenon , 129Xe and 131Xe , have non @-@ zero intrinsic angular momenta ( nuclear spins , suitable for nuclear magnetic resonance ) . The nuclear spins can be aligned beyond ordinary polarization levels by means of circularly polarized light and rubidium vapor . The resulting spin polarization of xenon nuclei can surpass 50 % of its maximum possible value , greatly exceeding the thermal equilibrium value dictated by paramagnetic statistics ( typically 0 @.@ 001 % of the maximum value at room temperature , even in the strongest magnets ) . Such non @-@ equilibrium alignment of spins is a temporary condition , and is called hyperpolarization . The process of hyperpolarizing the xenon is called optical pumping ( although the process is different from pumping a laser ) .

Because a 129Xe nucleus has a spin of 1 / 2 , and therefore a zero electric quadrupole moment , the 129Xe nucleus does not experience any quadrupolar interactions during collisions with other atoms , and thus its hyperpolarization can be maintained for long periods of time even after the laser beam has been turned off and the alkali vapor removed by condensation on a room @-@ temperature surface . Spin polarization of 129Xe can persist from several seconds for xenon atoms dissolved in blood to several hours in the gas phase and several days in deeply frozen solid xenon . In contrast , 131Xe has a nuclear spin value of 3 ⁄ 2 and a nonzero quadrupole moment , and has t1 relaxation times in the millisecond and second ranges .

Some radioactive isotopes of xenon , for example , 133Xe and 135Xe , are produced by neutron irradiation of fissionable material within nuclear reactors . 135Xe is of considerable significance in the operation of nuclear fission reactors . 135Xe has a huge cross section for thermal neutrons , 2 @.@ 6 × 106 barns , so it acts as a neutron absorber or " poison " that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of operation . This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American Manhattan Project for plutonium production . Fortunately the designers had made provisions in the design to increase the reactor 's reactivity ( the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel ) . 135Xe reactor poisoning played a major role in the Chernobyl disaster . A shutdown or decrease of power of a reactor can result in buildup of 135Xe and getting the reactor into the iodine pit .

Under adverse conditions , relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes may be found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of fission products from cracked fuel rods , or fissioning of uranium in cooling water .

Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes , xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system . The iodine @-@ xenon method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula . In 1960 , physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon @-@ 129 . He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine @-@ 129 . This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation and nuclear fission , but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions . As the half @-@ life of 129I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale , only 16 million years , this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the 129I . These two events ( supernova and solidification of gas cloud ) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the Solar System , as the 129I isotope was likely generated before the Solar System was formed , but not long before , and seeded the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source . This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud .

In a similar way , xenon isotopic ratios such as 129Xe / 130Xe and 136Xe / 130Xe are also a powerful tool for understanding planetary differentiation and early outgassing . For example , The atmosphere of Mars shows a xenon abundance similar to that of Earth : 0 @.@ 08 parts per million , however Mars shows a higher proportion of 129Xe than the Earth or the Sun . As this isotope is generated by radioactive decay , the result may indicate that Mars lost most of its primordial atmosphere , possibly within the first 100 million years after the planet was formed . In another example , excess 129Xe found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be from the decay of mantle @-@ derived gases soon after Earth 's formation .

= = Compounds = =

After Neil Bartlett 's discovery in 1962 that xenon can form chemical compounds , a large number of xenon compounds have been discovered and described . Almost all known xenon compounds contain the electronegative atoms fluorine or oxygen .

= = = Halides = = =

Three fluorides are known : XeF

2 , XeF

4 , and XeF

6 . XeF is theorized to be unstable . The fluorides are the starting point for the synthesis of almost all xenon compounds .

The solid , crystalline difluoride XeF

2 is formed when a mixture of fluorine and xenon gases is exposed to ultraviolet light . Ordinary daylight is sufficient . Long @-@ term heating of XeF

2 at high temperatures under an NiF

2 catalyst yields XeF

6 . Pyrolysis of XeF

6 in the presence of NaF yields high @-@ purity XeF

4 .

The xenon fluorides behave as both fluoride acceptors and fluoride donors , forming salts that contain such cations as XeF + and Xe

2F +

3 , and anions such as XeF −

5 , XeF −

7 , and XeF2 −

8 . The green , paramagnetic Xe +

2 is formed by the reduction of XeF

2 by xenon gas .

XeF

2 is also able to form coordination complexes with transition metal ions . Over 30 such complexes have been synthesized and characterized .

Whereas the xenon fluorides are well @-@ characterized , the other halides are not known , the only exception being the dichloride , XeCl2 . Xenon dichloride is reported to be an endothermic , colorless , crystalline compound that decomposes into the elements at 80 ° C , formed by the high @-@ frequency irradiation of a mixture of xenon , fluorine , and silicon or carbon tetrachloride . However , doubt has been raised as to whether XeCl

2 is a real compound and not merely a van der Waals molecule consisting of weakly bound Xe atoms and Cl

2 molecules . Theoretical calculations indicate that the linear molecule XeCl

2 is less stable than the van der Waals complex .

= = = Oxides and oxohalides = = =

Three oxides of xenon are known : xenon trioxide ( XeO

3 ) and xenon tetroxide ( XeO

4 ) , both of which are dangerously explosive and powerful oxidizing agents , and xenon dioxide ( XeO2 ) , which was reported in 2011 with a coordination number of four . XeO2 forms when xenon tetrafluoride is poured over ice . Its crystal structure may allow it to replace silicon in silicate minerals . The XeOO + cation has been identified by infrared spectroscopy in solid argon .

Xenon does not react with oxygen directly ; the trioxide is formed by the hydrolysis of XeF

6 :

XeF

6 + 3 H

2O → XeO

3 + 6 HF

XeO

3 is weakly acidic , dissolving in alkali to form unstable xenate salts containing the HXeO −

4 anion . These unstable salts easily disproportionate into xenon gas and perxenate salts , containing the XeO4 −

6 anion .

Barium perxenate , when treated with concentrated sulfuric acid , yields gaseous xenon tetroxide :

Ba

2XeO

6 + 2 H

2SO

4 → 2 BaSO

4 + 2 H

2O + XeO

4

To prevent decomposition , the xenon tetroxide thus formed is quickly cooled to form a pale @-@ yellow solid . It explodes above − 35 @.@ 9 ° C into xenon and oxygen gas .

A number of xenon oxyfluorides are known , including XeOF

2 , XeOF

4 , XeO

2F

2 , and XeO

3F

2 . XeOF

2 is formed by the reaction of OF

2 with xenon gas at low temperatures . It may also be obtained by the partial hydrolysis of XeF

4 . It disproportionates at − 20 ° C into XeF

2 and XeO

2F

2 . XeOF

4 is formed by the partial hydrolysis of XeF

6 , or the reaction of XeF

6 with sodium perxenate , Na

4XeO

6 . The latter reaction also produces a small amount of XeO

3F

2 . XeOF

4 reacts with CsF to form the XeOF −

5 anion , while XeOF3 reacts with the alkali metal fluorides KF , RbF and CsF to form the XeOF −

4 anion .

= = = Other compounds = = =

Recently , there has been an interest in xenon compounds where xenon is directly bonded to a less electronegative element than fluorine or oxygen , particularly carbon . Electron @-@ withdrawing groups , such as groups with fluorine substitution , are necessary to stabilize these compounds . Numerous such compounds have been characterized , including :

C

6F

5 – Xe + – N ≡ C – CH

3 , where C6F5 is the pentafluorophenyl group .

[ C

6F

5 ]

2Xe

C

6F

5 – Xe – X , where X is CN , F , or Cl .

R – C ≡ C – Xe + , where R is C

2F −

5 or tert @-@ butyl .

C

6F

5 – XeF +

2

( C

6F

5Xe )

2Cl +

Other compounds containing xenon bonded to a less electronegative element include F – Xe – N ( SO

2F )

2 and F – Xe – BF

2 . The latter is synthesized from dioxygenyl tetrafluoroborate , O

2BF

4 , at − 100 ° C.

An unusual ion containing xenon is the tetraxenonogold ( II ) cation , AuXe2 +

4 , which contains Xe – Au bonds . This ion occurs in the compound AuXe

4 ( Sb

2F

11 )

2 , and is remarkable in having direct chemical bonds between two notoriously unreactive atoms , xenon and gold , with xenon acting as a transition metal ligand .

The compound Xe

2Sb

2F

11 contains a Xe – Xe bond , the longest element @-@ element bond known ( 308 @.@ 71 pm = 3 @.@ 0871 Å ) .

In 1995 , M. Räsänen and co @-@ workers , scientists at the University of Helsinki in Finland , announced the preparation of xenon dihydride ( HXeH ) , and later xenon hydride @-@ hydroxide ( HXeOH ) , hydroxenoacetylene ( HXeCCH ) , and other Xe @-@ containing molecules . In 2008 , Khriachtchev et al. reported the preparation of HXeOXeH by the photolysis of water within a cryogenic xenon matrix . Deuterated molecules , HXeOD and DXeOH , have also been produced .

= = = Clathrates and excimers = = =

In addition to compounds where xenon forms a chemical bond , xenon can form clathrates — substances where xenon atoms or pairs are trapped by the crystalline lattice of another compound . One example is xenon hydrate ( Xe • 5 @.@ 75 H2O ) , where xenon atoms occupy vacancies in a lattice of water molecules . This clathrate has a melting point of 24 ° C. The deuterated version of this hydrate has also been produced . Another example is Xe hydride ( Xe ( H2 ) 8 ) , in which xenon pairs ( dimers ) are trapped inside solid hydrogen . Such clathrate hydrates can occur naturally under conditions of high pressure , such as in Lake Vostok underneath the Antarctic ice sheet . Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon , argon and krypton .

Xenon can also form endohedral fullerene compounds , where a xenon atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule . The xenon atom trapped in the fullerene can be monitored via 129Xe nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) spectroscopy . Using this technique , chemical reactions on the fullerene molecule can be analyzed , due to the sensitivity of the chemical shift of the xenon atom to its environment . However , the xenon atom also has an electronic influence on the reactivity of the fullerene .

When xenon atoms are at their ground energy state , they repel each other and will not form a bond . When xenon atoms becomes energized , however , they can form an excimer ( excited dimer ) until the electrons return to the ground state . This entity is formed because the xenon atom tends to fill its outermost electronic shell , and can briefly do this by adding an electron from a neighboring xenon atom . The typical lifetime of a xenon excimer is 1 – 5 ns , and the decay releases photons with wavelengths of about 150 and 173 nm . Xenon can also form excimers with other elements , such as the halogens bromine , chlorine and fluorine .

= = Applications = =

Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth 's atmosphere , it has a number of applications .

= = = Illumination and optics = = =

= = = = Gas @-@ discharge lamps = = = =

Xenon is used in light @-@ emitting devices called xenon flash lamps , which are used in photographic flashes and stroboscopic lamps ; to excite the active medium in lasers which then generate coherent light ; and , occasionally , in bactericidal lamps . The first solid @-@ state laser , invented in 1960 , was pumped by a xenon flash lamp , and lasers used to power inertial confinement fusion are also pumped by xenon flash lamps .

Continuous , short @-@ arc , high pressure xenon arc lamps have a color temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are used in solar simulators . That is , the chromaticity of these lamps closely approximates a heated black body radiator that has a temperature close to that observed from the Sun . After they were first introduced during the 1940s , these lamps began replacing the shorter @-@ lived carbon arc lamps in movie projectors . They are employed in typical 35mm , IMAX and the new digital projectors film projection systems , automotive HID headlights , high @-@ end " tactical " flashlights and other specialized uses . These arc lamps are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and they have intense emissions in the near infrared , which is used in some night vision systems .

The individual cells in a plasma display use a mixture of xenon and neon that is converted into a plasma using electrodes . The interaction of this plasma with the electrodes generates ultraviolet photons , which then excite the phosphor coating on the front of the display .

Xenon is used as a " starter gas " in high pressure sodium lamps . It has the lowest thermal conductivity and lowest ionization potential of all the non @-@ radioactive noble gases . As a noble gas , it does not interfere with the chemical reactions occurring in the operating lamp . The low thermal conductivity minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while in the operating state , and the low ionization potential causes the breakdown voltage of the gas to be relatively low in the cold state , which allows the lamp to be more easily started .

= = = = Lasers = = = =

In 1962 , a group of researchers at Bell Laboratories discovered laser action in xenon , and later found that the laser gain was improved by adding helium to the lasing medium . The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer ( Xe2 ) energized by a beam of electrons to produce stimulated emission at an ultraviolet wavelength of 176 nm . Xenon chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer ( or , more accurately , exciplex ) lasers . The xenon chloride excimer laser has been employed , for example , in certain dermatological uses .

= = = Medical = = =

= = = = Anesthesia = = = =

Xenon has been used as a general anesthetic . Although it is expensive , anesthesia machines that can deliver xenon are about to appear on the European market , because advances in recovery and recycling of xenon have made it economically viable .

Xenon interacts with many different receptors and ion channels and like many theoretically multi @-@ modal inhalation anesthetics these interactions are likely complementary . Xenon is a high @-@ affinity glycine @-@ site NMDA receptor antagonist . However , xenon distinguishes itself from other clinically used NMDA receptor antagonists in its lack of neurotoxicity and its ability to inhibit the neurotoxicity of ketamine and nitrous oxide . Unlike ketamine and nitrous oxide , xenon does not stimulate a dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens . Like nitrous oxide and cyclopropane , xenon activates the two @-@ pore domain potassium channel TREK @-@ 1 . A related channel TASK @-@ 3 also implicated in inhalational anesthetic actions is insensitive to xenon . Xenon inhibits nicotinic acetylcholine α4β2 receptors which contribute to spinally mediated analgesia . Xenon is an effective inhibitor of plasma membrane Ca2 + ATPase . Xenon inhibits Ca2 + ATPase by binding to a hydrophobic pore within the enzyme and preventing the enzyme from assuming active conformations .

Xenon is a competitive inhibitor of the serotonin 5 @-@ HT3 receptor . While neither anesthetic nor antinociceptive this activity reduces anesthesia @-@ emergent nausea and vomiting .

Xenon has a minimum alveolar concentration ( MAC ) of 72 % at age 40 , making it 44 % more potent than N2O as an anesthetic . Thus it can be used in concentrations with oxygen that have a lower risk of hypoxia . Unlike nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , xenon is not a greenhouse gas and so it is also viewed as environmentally friendly . Xenon vented into the atmosphere is being returned to its original source , so no environmental impact is likely .

= = = = Neuroprotectant = = = =

Xenon induces robust cardioprotection and neuroprotection through a variety of mechanisms of action . Through its influence on Ca2 + , K + , KATP \ HIF and NMDA antagonism xenon is neuroprotective when administered before , during and after ischemic insults . Xenon is a high affinity antagonist at the NMDA receptor glycine site . Xenon is cardioprotective in ischemia @-@ reperfusion conditions by inducing pharmacologic non @-@ ischemic preconditioning . Xenon is cardioprotective by activating PKC @-@ epsilon & downstream p38 @-@ MAPK . Xenon mimics neuronal ischemic preconditioning by activating ATP sensitive potassium channels . Xenon allosterically reduces ATP mediated channel activation inhibition independently of the sulfonylurea receptor1 subunit , increasing KATP open @-@ channel time and frequency . Xenon upregulates hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha ( HIF1a ) .

Xenon gas was added as an ingredient of the ventilation mix for a newborn baby at St. Michael 's Hospital , Bristol , England , whose life chances were otherwise very compromised , and was successful , leading to the authorisation of clinical trials for similar cases . The treatment is done simultaneously with cooling the body temperature to 33 @.@ 5 ° C.

= = = = Doping = = = =

Inhaling a xenon / oxygen mixture activates production of the transcription factor HIF @-@ 1 @-@ alpha , which leads to increased production of erythropoietin . The latter hormone is known to increase red blood cell production and athletes ' performance . Xenon inhalation has been used for this purpose in Russia since at least 2004 . On August 31 2014 the World Anti Doping Agency ( WADA ) added Xenon ( and Argon ) to the list of prohibited substances and methods , although at this time there is no reliable drug test .

= = = = Imaging = = = =

Gamma emission from the radioisotope 133Xe of xenon can be used to image the heart , lungs , and brain , for example , by means of single photon emission computed tomography . 133Xe has also been used to measure blood flow .

Xenon , particularly hyperpolarized 129Xe , is a useful contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) . In the gas phase , it can be used to image empty space such as cavities in a porous sample or alveoli in lungs . Hyperpolarization renders 129Xe much more detectable via magnetic resonance imaging and has been used for studies of the lungs and other tissues . It can be used , for example , to trace the flow of gases within the lungs . Because xenon is soluble in water and also in hydrophobic solvents , it can be used to image various soft living tissues .

= = = NMR spectroscopy = = =

Because of the xenon atom 's large , flexible outer electron shell , the NMR spectrum changes in response to surrounding conditions , and can therefore be used as a probe to measure the chemical circumstances around it . For instance xenon dissolved in water , xenon dissolved in hydrophobic solvent , and xenon associated with certain proteins can be distinguished by NMR .

Hyperpolarized xenon can be used by surface chemists . Normally , it is difficult to characterize surfaces using NMR , because signals from the surface of a sample will be overwhelmed by signals from the far @-@ more @-@ numerous atomic nuclei in the bulk . However , nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized , by transferring spin polarization to them from hyperpolarized xenon gas . This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure , and distinguishes them from bulk signals .

= = = Other = = =

In nuclear energy applications , xenon is used in bubble chambers , probes , and in other areas where a high molecular weight and inert nature is desirable . A by @-@ product of nuclear weapon testing is the release of radioactive xenon @-@ 133 and xenon @-@ 135 . The detection of these isotopes is used to monitor compliance with nuclear test ban treaties , as well as to confirm nuclear test explosions by states such as North Korea .

Liquid xenon is being used in calorimeters for measurements of gamma rays as well as a medium for detecting hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles , or WIMPs . When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus , it is predicted to impart enough energy to cause ionization and scintillation . Liquid xenon is useful for this type of experiment due to its high density which makes dark matter interaction more likely and permits a quiet detector due to self @-@ shielding .

Xenon is the preferred propellant for ion propulsion of spacecraft because of its low ionization potential per atomic weight , and its ability to be stored as a liquid at near room temperature ( under high pressure ) yet be easily converted back into a gas to feed the engine . The inert nature of xenon makes it environmentally friendly and less corrosive to an ion engine than other fuels such as mercury or caesium . Xenon was first used for satellite ion engines during the 1970s . It was later employed as a propellant for JPL 's Deep Space 1 probe , Europe 's SMART @-@ 1 spacecraft and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA 's Dawn Spacecraft .

Chemically , the perxenate compounds are used as oxidizing agents in analytical chemistry . Xenon difluoride is used as an etchant for silicon , particularly in the production of microelectromechanical systems ( MEMS ) . The anticancer drug 5 @-@ fluorouracil can be produced by reacting xenon difluoride with uracil . Xenon is also used in protein crystallography . Applied at pressures from 0 @.@ 5 to 5 MPa ( 5 to 50 atm ) to a protein crystal , xenon atoms bind in predominantly hydrophobic cavities , often creating a high @-@ quality , isomorphous , heavy @-@ atom derivative , which can be used for solving the phase problem .

= = Precautions = =

Many oxygen @-@ containing xenon compounds are toxic due to their strong oxidative properties , and explosive due to their tendency to break down into elemental xenon plus diatomic oxygen ( O2 ) , which contains much stronger chemical bonds than the xenon compounds .

Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass or metal containers at standard temperature and pressure . However , it readily dissolves in most plastics and rubber , and will gradually escape from a container sealed with such materials . Xenon is non @-@ toxic , although it does dissolve in blood and belongs to a select group of substances that penetrate the blood – brain barrier , causing mild to full surgical anesthesia when inhaled in high concentrations with oxygen .

At 169 m / s , the speed of sound in xenon gas is lower than that in air due to the lower average speed of the heavy xenon atoms compared to nitrogen and oxygen molecules . Hence , xenon lowers the rate of vibration in the vocal tract when exhaled . This produces a characteristic lowered voice timbre , an effect opposite to the high @-@ timbred voice caused by inhalation of helium . Like helium , xenon does not satisfy the body 's need for oxygen . Xenon is both a simple asphyxiant and an anesthetic more powerful than nitrous oxide ; consequently , many universities no longer allow the voice stunt as a general chemistry demonstration . As xenon is expensive , the gas sulfur hexafluoride , which is similar to xenon in molecular weight ( 146 versus 131 ) , is generally used in this stunt , and is an asphyxiant without being anesthetic .

It is possible to safely breathe dense gases such as xenon or sulfur hexafluoride when they are in a mixture of at least 20 % oxygen . Xenon at 80 % concentration along with 20 % oxygen rapidly produces the unconsciousness of general anesthesia ( and has been used for this , as discussed above ) . Breathing mixes gases of different densities very effectively and rapidly so that heavier gases are purged along with the oxygen , and do not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs . There is , however , a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities : it may sit invisibly in a container , and if a person enters a container filled with an odorless , colorless gas , they may find themselves breathing it unknowingly . Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern , though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space .

= Eva Perón =

María Eva Duarte de Perón ( 7 May 1919 – 26 July 1952 ) was the second wife of Argentine President Juan Perón ( 1895 – 1974 ) and served as the First Lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952 . She is usually referred to as Eva Perón ( Spanish : [ ˈeβa peˈɾon ] ) , or by the affectionate Spanish language diminutive Evita .

She was born in the rural village of Los Toldos , in the Pampas , as the youngest of five children . At 15 in 1934 , she moved to the nation 's capital of Buenos Aires to pursue a career as a stage , radio , and film actress . She met Colonel Juan Perón there on 22 January 1944 during a charity event at the Luna Park Stadium to benefit the victims of an earthquake in San Juan , Argentina . The two were married the following year . Juan Perón was elected President of Argentina in 1946 ; during the next 6 years , Eva Perón became powerful within the pro @-@ Peronist trade unions , primarily for speaking on behalf of labor rights . She also ran the Ministries of Labor and Health , founded and ran the charitable Eva Perón Foundation , championed women 's suffrage in Argentina , and founded and ran the nation 's first large @-@ scale female political party , the Female Peronist Party .

In 1951 , Eva Perón announced her candidacy for the Peronist nomination for the office of Vice President of Argentina , receiving great support from the Peronist political base , low @-@ income and working @-@ class Argentines who were referred to as descamisados or " shirtless ones " . However , opposition from the nation 's military and bourgeoisie , coupled with her declining health , ultimately forced her to withdraw her candidacy . In 1952 , shortly before her death from cancer at 33 , Eva Perón was given the title of " Spiritual Leader of the Nation " by the Argentine Congress . Eva Perón was given a state funeral upon her death , a prerogative generally reserved for heads of state .

Eva Perón has become a part of international popular culture , most famously as the subject of the musical Evita ( 1976 ) . Cristina Álvarez Rodríguez , Evita 's great @-@ niece , claims that Evita has never left the collective consciousness of Argentines . Cristina Fernández de Kirchner , the first elected female President of Argentina , claims that women of her generation owe a debt to Eva for " her example of passion and combativeness " .

= = Early life = =

= = = Early childhood = = =

Eva 's autobiography , La Razón de mi Vida , contains no dates or references to childhood occurrences , and does not list the location of her birth or her name at birth . According to Junín 's civil registry , a birth certificate shows that one María Eva Duarte was born on 7 May 1922 . Her baptismal certificate , however , lists the date of birth as 7 May 1919 under the name Eva María Ibarguren . It is thought that in 1945 the adult Eva Perón created a forgery of her birth certificate for her marriage .

Eva Perón spent her childhood in Junín , Buenos Aires province . Her father , Juan Duarte , was descended from French Basque immigrants , meanwhile her mother Juana Ibarguren , was descended from Spanish Basque immigrants . Juan Duarte , a wealthy rancher from nearby Chivilcoy , already had a wife and family there . At that time in rural Argentina , it was not uncommon for a wealthy man to have multiple families .

When Eva was a year old , Duarte returned permanently to his legal family , leaving Juana Ibarguren and her children in penury . Ibarguren and her children were forced to move to the poorest area of Junín . Los Toldos was a village in the dusty region of Las Pampas , with a reputation as a desolate place of abject poverty . To support herself and her children , Ibarguren sewed clothes for neighbors . The family was stigmatized by the abandonment of the father and by the illegitimate status of the children under Argentine law , and was consequently somewhat isolated . A desire to expunge this part of her life might have been a motivation for Eva to arrange the destruction of her original birth certificate in 1945 .

When Duarte suddenly died and his mistress and their children sought to attend his funeral , there was an unpleasant scene at the church gates . Although Juana and the children were permitted to enter and pay their respects to Duarte , they were promptly directed out of the church . Mrs. Juan Duarte did not want her husband 's mistress and children at the funeral and , as those of the legitimate wife , her orders were respected .

= = = Junín = = =

Prior to abandoning Juana Ibarguren , Juan Duarte had been her sole means of support . Biographer , John Barnes , writes that after this abandonment , all Duarte left to the family was a document declaring that the children were his , thus enabling them to use the Duarte surname . Soon after , Juana moved her children to a one @-@ room apartment in Junín . To pay the rent on their single @-@ roomed home , mother and daughters took up jobs as cooks in the houses of the local estancias .

Eventually , owing to Eva 's older brother 's financial help , the family moved into a bigger house , which they later transformed into a boarding house . During this time , young Eva often participated in school plays and concerts . One of her favorite pastimes was the cinema . Though Eva 's mother apparently had a few plans for Eva , wanting to marry her off to one of the local bachelors , Eva herself dreamed of becoming a famous actress . Eva 's love of acting was reinforced when , in October 1933 , she played a small role in a school play called Arriba estudiantes ( Students Arise ) , which Barnes describes as " an emotional , patriotic , flag @-@ waving melodrama . " After the play , Eva was determined to become an actress .

= = = Move to Buenos Aires = = =

In her autobiography , she explained that all the people from her own town who had been to the big cities described them as " marvelous places , where nothing was given but wealth " . In 1934 , at the age of 15 , Eva escaped her poverty @-@ stricken village when , according to popular myth , she ran off with a young musician to the nation 's capital of Buenos Aires . The young couple 's relationship would end almost as quickly as it began , but Eva remained in Buenos Aires . She began to pursue jobs on the stage and the radio , and eventually became a film actress . Eva had a series of relationships , and via some of these men she did acquire a number of her modeling appointments . She bleached her natural black hair to blond , a look she would maintain for the duration of her life .

It is often reported that Eva traveled to Buenos Aires by train with tango singer Agustín Magaldi . However , biographers Marysa Navarro and Nicholas Fraser maintain that this is unlikely , as there is no record of the married Magaldi performing in Junín in 1934 ( and , even if he had , he usually traveled with his wife ) . Eva 's sisters maintain that Eva traveled to Buenos Aires with their mother . The sisters also claim that Doña Juana accompanied her daughter to an audition at a radio station and arranged for Eva to live with the Bustamante family , who were friends of the Duarte family . While the method of Eva 's escape from her bleak provincial surroundings is debated , she did begin a new life in Buenos Aires .

Buenos Aires in the 1930s was known as the " Paris of South America " . The center of the city had many cafés , restaurants , theaters , movie houses , shops and bustling crowds . In direct contrast , the 1930s were also years of great unemployment , poverty and hunger in the capital , and many new arrivals from the interior were forced to live in tenements , boardinghouses and in outlying shanties that became known as villas miserias .

Upon arrival in Buenos Aires , Eva Duarte was faced with the difficulties of surviving without formal education or connections . The city was especially overcrowded during this period because of the migrations caused by the Great Depression . On 28 March 1935 , she had her professional debut in the play Mrs. Perez ( la Señora de Pérez ) , at the Comedias Theater .

In 1936 , Eva toured nationally with a theater company , worked as a model , and was cast in a few B @-@ grade movie melodramas . In 1942 , Eva experienced some economic stability when a company called Candilejas ( sponsored by a soap manufacturer ) hired her for a daily role in one of their radio dramas called Muy bien , which aired on Radio El Mundo ( World Radio ) , the most important radio station in the country at that time . Later that year , she signed a five @-@ year contract with Radio Belgrano , which assured her a role in a popular historical @-@ drama program called Great Women of History , in which she played Elizabeth I of England , Sarah Bernhardt , and the last Tsarina of Russia . Eventually , Eva Duarte came to co @-@ own the radio company . By 1943 , Eva Duarte was earning five or six thousand pesos a month , making her one of the highest @-@ paid radio actresses in the nation . Pablo Raccioppi , who jointly ran Radio El Mundo with Eva Duarte , is said to have not liked her , but to have noted that she was " thoroughly dependable " . Eva also had a short @-@ lived film career , but none of the films in which she appeared were hugely successful . In one of her last films , La cabalgata del circo ( The Circus Cavalcade ) , Eva played a young country girl who rivaled an older woman , the movie 's star , Libertad Lamarque .

As a result of her success with radio dramas and the films , Eva achieved some financial stability . In 1942 , she was able to move into her own apartment in the exclusive neighborhood of Recoleta , on 1567 Calle Posadas . The next year Eva began her career in politics , as one of the founders of the Argentine Radio Syndicate ( ARA ) .

= = Early relationship with Juan Perón = =

On 15 January 1944 , an earthquake occurred in the town of San Juan , Argentina , killing some 10 @,@ 000 people . In response , Perón , who was then the Secretary of Labour , established a fund to raise money to aid the victims . He devised a plan to have an " artistic festival " as a fundraiser , and invited radio and film actors to participate . After a week of fundraising , all participants met at a gala held at Luna Park Stadium in Buenos Aires to benefit earthquake victims . It was at this gala , on 22 January 1944 , that Eva Duarte first met Colonel Juan Perón . Eva promptly became the colonel 's mistress . Eva referred to the day she met her future husband as her " marvelous day " . Fraser and Navarro write that Juan Perón and Eva left the gala together at around two in the morning .

Fraser and Navarro claim that Eva Duarte had no knowledge of or interest in politics prior to meeting Perón . Therefore , she never argued with Perón or any of his inner circle , but merely absorbed what she heard . Juan Perón later claimed in his memoir that he purposefully selected Eva as his pupil , and set out to create in her a " second I. " Fraser and Navarro , however , suggest that Juan Perón allowed Eva Duarte such intimate exposure and knowledge of his inner circle because of his age : he was 48 and she was 24 when they met . He had come to politics late in life , and was therefore free of preconceived ideas of how his political career should be conducted , and he was willing to accept whatever aid she offered him .

In May 1944 , it was announced that broadcast performers must organize themselves into a union , and that this union would be the only one permitted to operate in Argentina . Shortly after the union formed , Eva Duarte was elected its president . Fraser and Navarro speculate that Juan Perón made the suggestion that performers create a union , and the other performers likely felt it was good politics to elect his mistress . Shortly after her election as president of the union , Eva Duarte began a daily program called Toward a Better Future , which dramatized in soap opera form the accomplishments of Juan Perón . Often , Perón 's own speeches were played during the program . When she spoke , Eva Duarte spoke in ordinary language as a regular woman who wanted listeners to believe what she herself believed about Juan Perón .

= = Rise to power = =

= = = Juan Perón 's arrest = = =

By early 1945 , a group of Army officers called the GOU for " Grupo de Oficiales Unidos " ( United Officers Group ) , nicknamed " The Colonels " , had gained considerable influence within the Argentine government . President Pedro Pablo Ramírez became wary of Juan Perón 's growing power within the government , but was unable to curb that power . On 24 February 1944 , Ramírez signed his own resignation paper , which Fraser and Navarro claim was drafted by Juan Perón himself . Edelmiro Julián Farrell , a friend of Juan Perón , became President . Juan Perón returned to his job as Labor Minister . Fraser and Navarro claim that , by this point , Perón was the most powerful man in the Argentine government . On 9 October 1945 Juan Perón was arrested by his opponents within the government who feared that due to the strong support of the descamisados , the workers and the poor of the nation , Perón 's popularity might eclipse that of the sitting president .

Six days later , between 250 @,@ 000 and 350 @,@ 000 people gathered in front of the Casa Rosada , Argentina 's government house , to demand Juan Perón 's release , and their wish was granted . At 11 pm , Juan Perón stepped on to the balcony of the Casa Rosada and addressed the crowd . Biographer Robert D. Crassweller claims that this moment was very powerful because it was very dramatic and recalled many important aspects of Argentine history . Crassweller writes that Juan Perón enacted the role of a caudillo addressing his people in the tradition of Argentine leaders Rosas and Yrigoyen . Crassweller also claims that the evening contained " mystic overtones " of a " quasi @-@ religious " nature . Eva Perón has often been credited with organizing the rally of thousands that freed Juan Perón from prison on 17 October 1945 . This version of events was popularized in the movie version of the Lloyd Webber musical . Most historians , however , agree that this version of events is unlikely . At the time of Perón 's imprisonment , Eva was still merely an actress . She had no political clout with the various labor unions , and it is claimed that she was not well @-@ liked within Perón 's inner circle , nor was she liked by many within the film and radio business at this point . When Juan Perón was imprisoned , Eva Duarte was suddenly disenfranchised . In reality , the massive rally that freed Perón from prison was organized by the various unions , such as General Labor Confederation , or CGT as they came to be known . To this day , the date of 17 October is something of a holiday for the Justicialist Party in Argentina ( celebrated as Día de la Lealtad , or " Loyalty Day " ) . What would follow was shocking and nearly unheard of . The well connected and politically rising star , Juan Peron , married Eva . Despite Eva 's childhood illegitimacy , and having an uncertain reputation , Peron was in love with Eva , and her loyal devotion to him even while he had been under arrest touched him deeply , and so he married her , providing a respectability she had never known . Eva and Juan were married discreetly in a civil ceremony in Junín on 18 October 1945 and in a church wedding on 9 December 1945 .

= = = 1946 Presidential election victory = = =

After his release from prison , Juan Perón decided to campaign for the presidency of the nation , which he won in a landslide . Eva campaigned heavily for her husband during his 1946 presidential bid . Using her weekly radio show , she delivered powerful speeches with heavy populist rhetoric urging the poor to align themselves with Perón 's movement . Though she had become wealthy from her radio and modeling success , she highlighted her own humble upbringing as a way of showing solidarity with the impoverished classes .

Along with her husband , Eva visited every corner of the country , becoming the first woman in Argentina 's history to appear in public on the campaign trail with her husband . Eva 's appearance alongside her husband often offended the establishment of the wealthy , the military , and those in political life . However , she was very popular with the general public who knew her from her radio and motion picture appearances . It was during this phase of her life that she first encouraged the Argentine population to refer to her not as " Eva Perón " but simply as " Evita " , which is a Spanish diminutive or affectionate nickname roughly equivalent to " Little Eva " or " Evie . "

= = European tour = =

In 1947 , Eva embarked on a much @-@ publicized " Rainbow Tour " of Europe , meeting with numerous dignitaries and heads of state , such as Francisco Franco and Pope Pius XII . Biographers Fraser and Navarro write that the tour had its genesis in an invitation the Spanish leader had extended to Juan Perón . For political reasons it was decided that Eva , rather than Juan Perón , should make the visit . Fraser and Navarro write that Argentina had only recently emerged from its " wartime quarantine " , thus taking its place in the United Nations and improving relations with the United States . Therefore , a visit to Franco , with António Salazar of Portugal the last remaining west European authoritarian leaders in power , would be diplomatically frowned upon internationally . Fraser and Navarro write that Eva decided that , if Juan Perón would not accept Franco 's invitation for a state visit to Spain , then she would . Advisors then decided that Eva should visit many European countries in addition to Spain . This would make it seem that Eva 's sympathies were not specifically with Franco 's fascist Spain but with all of Europe . The tour was billed not as a political tour but as a non @-@ political " goodwill " tour .

Eva was well received in Spain , where she visited the tombs of Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella in the Capilla Real de Granada . Francoist Spain had not recovered from the Spanish Civil War ( the autarkic economy and the UN embargo meant that the country could not feed its people ) . During her visit to Spain , Eva handed out 100 @-@ peseta notes to many poor children she met on her journey . She also received from Franco the highest award given by the Spanish government , the Order of Isabella the Catholic .

Eva then visited Rome , where the reception was not as warm as it had been in Spain . Though Pope Pius XII did not give her a Papal decoration , she was allowed the time usually allotted queens and was given a rosary .

Her next stop was France , where she was generally well received . She visited the Palace of Versailles , among other sites . She also met with Charles de Gaulle . She promised France two shipments of wheat .

While in France , Eva received word that George VI would not receive her when she planned to visit Britain , regardless of what his Foreign Office might advise , and that her visit would not be viewed as a state visit . Fraser and Navarro wrote that Eva regarded the royal family 's refusal to meet her as a snub , and canceled the trip to the United Kingdom . Eva , however , gave " exhaustion " as the official reason for not going on to Britain .

Eva also visited Switzerland during her European tour , a visit that has been viewed as the worst part of the trip . According to the book Evita : A Biography by John Barnes , while she traveled down a street with many people crowding her car , someone threw two stones and smashed the windshield . She threw her hands up in shock , but was not injured . Later , while sitting with the Foreign Minister , protesters threw tomatoes at her . The tomatoes hit the Foreign Minister and splattered on Eva 's dress . After these two events , Eva had had enough , and after two months returned to Argentina .

Members of the Peronist opposition speculated that the true purpose of the European tour was to deposit funds in a Swiss bank account . " The opposition in Buenos Aires " , write Fraser and Navarro , " assumed that the genuine purpose of the whole European visit was for Eva and her husband to deposit money in Swiss bank accounts , and that the rest had been devised to conceal this . Many wealthy Argentines did this , but there are many more convenient and less conspicuous ways of depositing money in Swiss accounts than meeting the Swiss Foreign Minister and being shown around a watch factory . " Fraser and Navarro conclude , " Was there a Swiss bank account ? It seems unlikely . "

During her tour to Europe , Eva Perón was featured in a cover story for Time magazine . The cover 's caption – " Eva Perón : Between two worlds , an Argentine rainbow " – was a reference to the name given to Eva 's European tour , The Rainbow Tour . This was the only time in the periodical 's history that a South American first lady appeared alone on its cover . ( In 1951 , Eva appeared again with Juan Perón . ) However , the 1947 cover story was also the first publication to mention that Eva had been born out of wedlock . In retaliation , the periodical was banned from Argentina for several months .

After returning to Argentina from Europe , Evita never again appeared in public with the complicated hairdos of her movie star days . The brilliant gold color became more subdued in tone , and even the style changed , her hair being pulled back severely into a heavy braided chignon . Additionally , her extravagant clothing became more refined after the tour . No longer did she wear the elaborate hats and form @-@ fitting dresses of Argentine designers . Soon she adopted simpler and more fashionable Paris couture and became particularly attached to the fashions of Christian Dior and the jewels of Cartier . In an attempt to cultivate a more serious political persona , Eva began to appear in public wearing conservative though stylish tailleurs ( a business @-@ like combination of skirts and jackets ) , which also were made by Dior and other Paris couture houses .

= = Charitable and feminist activities = =

= = = Eva Foundation = = =

The Sociedad de Beneficencia ( Society of Beneficence ) , a charity group made up of 87 society ladies , was responsible for most charity works in Buenos Aires prior to the election of Juan Perón . Fraser and Navarro write that at one point the Sociedad had been an enlightened institution , caring for orphans and homeless women , but that those days had long since passed by the time of the first term of Juan Perón . In the 1800s , the Sociedad had been supported by private contributions , largely those of the husbands of the society ladies . But by the 1940s , the Sociedad was supported by the government .

It had been the tradition of the Sociedad to elect the First Lady of Argentina as president of the charity . But the ladies of the Sociedad did not approve of Eva Perón 's impoverished background , lack of formal education , and former career as an actress . Fraser and Navarro write that the ladies of the Sociedad were afraid that Evita would set a bad example for the orphans , therefore the society ladies did not extend to Evita the position of president of their organization . It has often been said that Evita had the government funding for the Sociedad cut off in retaliation . Fraser and Navarro suggest that this version of events is in dispute , but that the government funding that had previously supported the Sociedad now went to support Evita 's own foundation . The Fundación María Eva Duarte de Perón was created on 8 July 1948 . It was later renamed to , simply , the Eva Perón Foundation . Its funding began with 10 @,@ 000 pesos provided by Evita herself .

In The Woman with the Whip , the first English language biography of Eva Perón , author Mary Main writes that no account records were kept for the foundation because it was merely a means of funneling government money into private Swiss bank accounts controlled by the Peróns . Fraser and Navarro , however , counter these claims , writing that Ramón Cereijo , Minister of Finance , kept records , and that the foundation " began as the simplest response to the poverty ( Evita ) encountered each day in her office " and " the appalling backwardness of social services — or charity , as it was still called — in Argentina . " Crassweller writes that the foundation was supported by donations of cash and goods from the Peronist unions and private businesses , and that the Confederación General del Trabajo donated three man @-@ days ( later reduced to two ) of salary for every worker per year . Tax on lottery and movie tickets also helped to support the foundation , as did a levy on casino and revenue from horse races . Crassweller also notes that there were some cases of businesses being pressured to donate to the foundation , with negative repercussions resulting if requests for donations were not met .

Within a few years , the foundation had assets in cash and goods in excess of three billion pesos , or over $ 200 million at the exchange rate of the late 1940s . It employed 14 @,@ 000 workers , of whom 6 @,@ 000 were construction workers , and 26 priests . It purchased and distributed annually 400 @,@ 000 pairs of shoes , 500 @,@ 000 sewing machines , 200 @,@ 000 cooking pots . The foundation also gave scholarships , built homes , hospitals , and other charitable institutions . Every aspect of the foundation was under Evita 's supervision . The foundation also built entire communities , such as Evita City , which still exists today . Fraser and Navarro claim that due to the works and health services of the foundation , for the first time in history there was no inequality in Argentine health care .

Fraser and Navarro write that it was Evita 's work with the foundation that played a large role in her idealization , even leading some to consider her a saint . Though it was unnecessary from a practical standpoint , Evita set aside many hours per day to meet with the poor who requested help from her foundation . During these meetings with the poor , Evita often kissed the poor and allowed them to kiss her . Evita was even witnessed placing her hands in the suppurated wounds of the sick and poor , touching the leprous , and kissing the syphilitic . Fraser and Navarro write that though Argentina is secular in many respects , it is essentially a Catholic country . Therefore , when Evita kissed the syphilitic and touched the leprous she " ... ceased to be the President 's wife and acquired some of the characteristics of saints depicted in Catholicism . " Poet José María Castiñeira de Dios , a man from a wealthy background , reflected on the times he witnessed Evita meeting with the poor : " I had had a sort of literary perception of the people and the poor and she had given me a Christian one , thus allowing me to become a Christian in the profoundest sense .... "

Fraser and Navarro write that toward the end of her life , Evita was working as many as 20 to 22 hours per day in her foundation , often ignoring her husband 's request that she cut back on her workload and take the weekends off . The more she worked with the poor in her foundation , the more she adopted an outraged attitude toward the existence of poverty , saying , " Sometimes I have wished my insults were slaps or lashes . I 've wanted to hit people in the face to make them see , if only for a day , what I see each day I help the people . " Crassweller writes that Evita became fanatical about her work in the foundation and felt on a crusade against the very concept and existence of poverty and social ills . " It is not surprising " , writes Crassweller , " that as her public crusades and her private adorations took on a narrowing intensity after 1946 , they simultaneously veered toward the transcendental . " Crassweller compares Evita to Ignatius Loyola , saying she came to be akin to a one @-@ woman Jesuit Order .

= = = Female Peronist Party and women 's suffrage = = =

Biographers Fraser and Navarro wrote that Eva Perón has often been credited with gaining the right to vote for Argentine women . While Eva did make radio addresses in support of women 's suffrage and also published articles in her Democracia newspaper asking male Peronists to support women 's right to vote , ultimately the ability to grant to women the right to vote was beyond Eva 's powers . Fraser and Navarro claim that Eva 's actions were limited to supporting a bill introduced by one of her supporters , Eduardo Colom , a bill that was eventually dropped .

A new women 's suffrage bill was introduced , which the Senate of Argentina sanctioned on 21 August 1946 . It was necessary to wait more than a year before the House of Representatives sanctioned it on 9 September 1947 . Law 13 @,@ 010 established the equality of political rights between men and women and universal suffrage in Argentina . Finally , Law 13 @,@ 010 was approved unanimously . In a public celebration and ceremony , however , Juan Perón signed the law granting women the right to vote , and then he handed the bill to Eva , symbolically making it hers .

Eva Perón then created the Female Peronist Party , the first large female political party in the nation . Navarro and Fraser write that by 1951 , the party had 500 @,@ 000 members and 3 @,@ 600 headquarters across the country . Navarro and Fraser write that while Eva Perón did not consider herself a feminist , her impact on the political life of women was decisive . Thousands of previously apolitical women entered politics because of Eva Perón . They were the first women active in Argentine politics . The combination of female suffrage and the organization of the Female Peronist Party granted Juan Perón a large majority ( sixty @-@ three percent ) of the vote in the 1951 presidential elections .

= = 1951 Presidential election = =

= = = Vice Presidential nomination = = =

In 1951 , Evita set her sights on earning a place on the ballot as candidate for vice @-@ president . This move angered many military leaders who despised Evita and her increasing powers within the government . According to the Argentine Constitution , the Vice President automatically succeeds the President in the event of the President 's death . The possibility of Evita becoming president in the event of Juan Perón 's death was not something the military could accept .

She did , however , receive great support from the working class , the unions , and the Peronist Women 's Party . The intensity of the support she drew from these groups is said to have surprised even Juan Perón himself . Fraser and Navarro write that the wide support Evita 's proposed candidacy generated indicated to him that Evita had become as important to members of the Peronist party as Juan Perón himself was .

On 22 August 1951 , the unions held a mass rally of two million people called " Cabildo Abierto . " ( The name " Cabildo Abierto " was a reference and tribute to the first local Argentine government of the May Revolution , in 1810 . ) The Peróns addressed the crowd from the balcony of a huge scaffolding set up on the Avenida 9 de Julio , several blocks away from the Casa Rosada , the official government house of Argentina . Overhead were two large portraits of Eva and Juan Perón . It has been claimed that " Cabildo Abierto " was the largest public display of support in history for a female political figure .

At the mass rally , the crowd demanded that Evita publicly announce her candidacy as vice president . She pleaded for more time to make her decision . The exchange between Evita and the crowd of two million became , for a time , a genuine and spontaneous dialogue , with the crowd chanting , " ¡ Evita , Vice @-@ Presidente ! " When Evita asked for more time so she could make up her mind , the crowd demanded , " ¡ Ahora , Evita , ahora ! " ( " Now , Evita , now ! " ) . Eventually , they came to a compromise . Evita told the audience that she would announce her decision over the radio a few days later .

= = = Declining health = = =

Eventually , she declined the invitation to run for vice @-@ president , saying that her only ambition was that — in the large chapter of history that would be written about her husband — the footnotes would mention a woman who brought the " ... hopes and dreams of the people to the president " , a woman who eventually turned those hopes and dreams into " glorious reality . " In Peronist rhetoric , this event has come to be referred to as " The Renunciation " , portraying Evita as having been a selfless woman in line with the Hispanic myth of marianismo . Most biographers , however , postulate that Evita did not so much renounce her ambition , as bow to pressure from her husband , the military , and the Argentine upper class , who preferred that she not enter the race .

On 9 January 1950 , Evita fainted in public and underwent surgery three days later . Although it was reported that she had undergone an appendectomy , she was diagnosed with advanced cervical cancer . Fainting continued through 1951 ( including the evening after " Cabildo abierto " ) , with extreme weakness and severe vaginal bleeding . By 1951 , it had become evident that her health was rapidly deteriorating . Although her diagnosis was withheld from her by Juan , she knew she was not well , and a bid for the vice @-@ presidency was not practical . Only a few months after " the Renunciation " , Evita underwent a secret radical hysterectomy in an attempt to eradicate her advanced cervical cancer . In 2011 , a Yale neurosurgeon studied Evita 's skull x @-@ rays and photographic evidence and said that Perón may have been given a prefrontal lobotomy in the last months of her life , " ... to relieve the pain , agitation and anxiety she suffered in the final months of her illness . "

= = = Re @-@ election and Spiritual Leader of the Nation = = =

On 4 June 1952 , Evita rode with Juan Perón in a parade through Buenos Aires in celebration of his re @-@ election as President of Argentina . Evita was by this point so ill that she was unable to stand without support . Underneath her oversized fur coat was a frame made of plaster and wire that allowed her to stand . She took a triple dose of pain medication before the parade , and took another two doses when she returned home .

In a ceremony a few days after Juan Perón 's second inauguration , Evita was given the official title of " Spiritual Leader of the Nation . "

= = Death and aftermath = =

= = = Death = = =

Although Perón had undergone a hysterectomy performed by the American surgeon George T. Pack , the cancer had metastasized and returned rapidly . She was the first Argentine to undergo chemotherapy ( a novel treatment at that time ) . Despite all available treatment , she became emaciated , weighing only 36 kg ( 79 lb ) by June 1952 . Evita died at the age of 33 , at 20 : 25 on Saturday , 26 July 1952 . Radio broadcasts throughout the country were interrupted with the announcement that " The Press Secretary 's Office of the Presidency of the Nation fulfills its very sad duty to inform the people of the Republic that at 20 : 25 hours Mrs. Eva Perón , Spiritual Leader of the Nation , died . " Ordinary activities ceased ; movies stopped playing ; restaurants were closed and patrons were shown to the door .

= = = Mourning = = =

Immediately after Perón 's death , the government suspended all official activities for two days and ordered all flags flown at half @-@ staff for ten days . It soon became apparent , however , that these measures fell short of reflecting popular grief . The crowd outside of the presidential residence , where Evita died , grew dense , congesting the streets for ten blocks in each direction .

The morning after her death , while Evita 's body was being moved to the Ministry of Labour Building , eight people were crushed to death in the throngs . In the following 24 hours , over 2000 people were treated in city hospitals for injuries sustained in the rush to be near Evita as her body was being transported , and thousands more would be treated on the spot . For the following two weeks , lines would stretch for many city blocks with mourners waiting hours to see Evita 's body lie at the Ministry of Labour .

The streets of Buenos Aires overflowed with huge piles of flowers . Within a day of Perón 's death , all flower shops in Buenos Aires had run out of stock . Flowers would be flown in from all over the country , and as far away as Chile . Despite the fact that Eva Perón never held a political office , she was eventually given a state funeral usually reserved for a head of state , along with a full Roman Catholic requiem mass . A memorial was held for the Argentine team during the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki due to Eva Perón 's death during those games .

On 9 August , Saturday , the body was transferred to the Congress Building for an additional day of public viewing , and a memorial service attended by the entire Argentine legislative body . The next day , after a final Mass , the coffin was laid on a gun carriage pulled by CGT officials . It was followed by Peron , his cabinet , Eva 's family and friends , the delegates and representatives of the Partido Peronista Femenino — then workers , nurses and students of the Eva Peron Foundation . Flowers were thrown from balconies and windows .

There were different interpretations of the popular mourning of Eva Perón 's death . Some reporters viewed the mourning as authentic , others saw a public succumbing to another of the " passion plays " of the Peronist regime . Time magazine reported that the Peronist government enforced the observance of a daily period of five minutes of mourning following a daily radio announcement .

During Perón 's time , children born to unmarried parents did not have the same legal rights as those born to married parents . Biographer Julie M. Taylor , professor of anthropology at Rice University , has said that Evita was well aware of the pain of being born " illegitimate . " Taylor speculates that Evita 's awareness of this may have influenced her decision to have the law changed so that " illegitimate " children would henceforth be referred to as " natural " children . Upon her death , the Argentine public was told that Evita was only 30 . The discrepancy was meant to dovetail with Evita 's earlier tampering with her birth certificate . After becoming the first lady in 1946 , Evita had her birth records altered to read that she had been born to married parents , and placed her birth date three years forward , making herself younger .

= = = Memorial plans = = =

Shortly after Evita 's death , Dr. Pedro Ara was approached to embalm the body . Fraser and Navarro write that it is doubtful that Evita ever expressed a wish to be embalmed , and suggest that it was most likely Juan Perón 's decision . Ara was a professor of anatomy who had studied in Vienna and maintained an academic career in Madrid . His work was occasionally referred to as " the art of death . " His highly advanced embalming technique consisted of replacing the corpse 's blood with glycerine , which preserved all organs including the brain and created a lifelike appearance , giving the body the appearance of " artistically rendered sleep . " Ara was known in Buenos Aires society for his work . Among the people he had embalmed was Spanish composer Manuel de Falla . Ara claims that his embalming of Evita 's corpse began on the night of her death and that by the next morning , " the body of Eva Perón was completely and infinitely incorruptible " and suitable for display to the public .

In the book Peron and the Enigmas of Argentina , biographer Robert D. Crassweller claims that the English @-@ speaking nations of North America and Europe largely misunderstood Argentina 's response to the death of Perón as well as the ornate funeral she was granted . Crassweller attributes this misunderstanding to the unique cultural makeup of the Peróns and Argentina , saying that the Peróns were of the Hispanic tradition and that their opposition was largely of British ancestry .

= = = Disappearance and return of corpse = = =

Shortly after Evita 's death , plans were made to construct a memorial in her honour . The monument , which was to be a statue of a man representing the descamisados , was projected to be larger than the Statue of Liberty . Evita 's body was to be stored in the base of the monument and , in the tradition of Lenin 's corpse , to be displayed for the public . While the monument was being constructed , Evita 's embalmed body was displayed in her former office at the CGT building for almost two years . Before the monument to Evita was completed , Juan Perón was overthrown in a military coup , the Revolución Libertadora , in 1955 . Perón hastily fled the country and was unable to make arrangements to secure Evita 's body .

Following his flight , a military dictatorship took power . The new authorities removed Evita 's body from display , and its whereabouts were a mystery for 16 years . From 1955 until 1971 , the military dictatorship of Argentina issued a ban on Peronism . It became illegal not only to possess pictures of Juan and Eva Perón in one 's home , but to speak their names . In 1971 , the military revealed that Evita 's body was buried in a crypt in Milan , Italy , under the name " María Maggi . " It appeared that her body had been damaged during its transport and storage , such as compressions to her face and disfigurement of one of her feet due to the body having been left in an upright position .

In 1995 , Tomás Eloy Martínez published Santa Evita , a fictionalized work propounding many new stories about the escapades of the corpse . Allegations that her body was the object of inappropriate attentions are derived from his description of an ' emotional necrophilia ' by embalmers , Coronel Koenig and his assistant Arancibia . Many primary and secondary references to his novel have inaccurately stated that her body had been defiled in some way resulting in the widespread belief in this myth . Also included are allegations that many wax copies had been made , that the corpse had been damaged with a hammer , and that one of the wax copies was the object of an officer 's sexual attentions .

= = = Final resting place = = =

In 1971 , Perón 's body was exhumed and flown to Spain , where Juan Perón maintained the corpse in his home . Juan and his third wife , Isabel , decided to keep the corpse in their dining room on a platform near the table . In 1973 , Juan Perón came out of exile and returned to Argentina , where he became president for the third time . Perón died in office in 1974 . His third wife , Isabel Perón , whom he had married on 15 November 1961 , and who had been elected vice @-@ president , succeeded him . She became the first female president in the Western Hemisphere . Isabel had Eva Perón 's body returned to Argentina and ( briefly ) displayed beside her husband 's . Perón 's body was later buried in the Duarte family tomb in La Recoleta Cemetery , Buenos Aires . The previous removal of Evita 's body was avenged by the Montoneros when they in 1970 stole Pedro Eugenio Aramburu 's corpse , whom they had previously killed . Montoneros then used the captive body of Aramburu to pressure for the repatriation of Evita 's body . Once Evita 's body arrived in Argentina the Montoneros gave up Aramburu 's corpse and abandoned it in a street in Buenos Aires .

The Argentine government took elaborate measures to make Perón 's tomb secure . The tomb 's marble floor has a trapdoor that leads to a compartment containing two coffins . Under that compartment is a second trapdoor and a second compartment . That is where Perón 's coffin rests . Biographers Marysa Navarro and Nicholas Fraser write that the claim is often made that her tomb is so secure that it could withstand a nuclear attack . " It reflects a fear " , they write , " a fear that the body will disappear from the tomb and that the woman , or rather the myth of the woman , will reappear . "

= = Legacy and criticism = =

= = = Argentina and Latin America = = =

In all of Latin America , only one other woman has aroused an emotion , devotion and faith comparable to those awakened by the Virgin of Guadalupe . In many homes , the image of Evita is on the wall next to the Virgin .

In his essay titled " Latin America " published in The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity , John McManners claims that the appeal and success of Eva Perón are related to Latin American mythology and concepts of divinity . McManners claims that Eva Perón consciously incorporated aspects of the theology of the Virgin and of Mary Magdalene into her public persona . Historian Hubert Herring has described Eva Perón as " Perhaps the shrewdest woman yet to appear in public life in Latin America . "

In a 1996 interview , Tomás Eloy Martínez referred to Eva Perón as " the Cinderella of the tango and the Sleeping Beauty of Latin America . " Martínez suggested she has remained an important cultural icon for the same reasons as fellow Argentine Che Guevara :

Latin American myths are more resistant than they seem to be . Not even the mass exodus of the Cuban raft people or the rapid decomposition and isolation of Fidel Castro 's regime have eroded the triumphal myth of Che Guevara , which remains alive in the dreams of thousands of young people in Latin America , Africa and Europe . Che as well as Evita symbolize certain naive , but effective , beliefs : the hope for a better world ; a life sacrificed on the altar of the disinherited , the humiliated , the poor of the earth . They are myths which somehow reproduce the image of Christ .

Although not a government holiday , the anniversary of Eva Perón 's death is marked by many Argentines each year . Additionally , Eva Perón has been featured on Argentine coins , and a form of Argentine currency called " Evitas " was named in her honor . Ciudad Evita ( Evita City ) , which was established by the Eva Perón Foundation in 1947 , is located just outside Buenos Aires .

Cristina Kirchner , the first elected female president in Argentine history , is a Peronist who has occasionally been referred to as " The New Evita . " Kirchner says she does not want to compare herself to Evita , claiming she was a unique phenomenon in Argentine history . Kirchner also says that women of her generation , who came of age in the 1970s during the military dictatorships in Argentina , owe a debt to Evita for offering an example of passion and combativeness . On 26 July 2002 , the 50th anniversary of Eva Perón 's death , a museum opened in her honor called Museo Evita . The museum , created by her great @-@ niece Cristina Alvarez Rodriquez , houses many of Eva Perón 's clothes , portraits , and artistic renderings of her life , and has become a popular tourist attraction . The museum was opened in a building that was once used by the Eva Perón Foundation .

In the book Eva Perón : The Myths of a Woman , cultural anthropologist Julie M. Taylor claims that Evita has remained important in Argentina due to the combination of three unique factors :

In the images examined , the three elements consistently linked — femininity , mystical or spirituality power , and revolutionary leadership — display an underlying common theme . Identification with any one of these elements puts a person or a group at the margins of established society and at the limits of institutional authority . Anyone who can identify with all three images lays an overwhelming and echoing claim to dominance through forces that recognize no control in society or its rules . Only a woman can embody all three elements of this power .

Taylor argues that the fourth factor in Evita 's continued importance in Argentina relates to her status as a dead woman and the power that death holds over the public imagination . Taylor suggests that Evita 's embalmed corpse is analogous to the incorruptibility of various Catholic saints , such as Bernadette Soubirous , and has powerful symbolism within the largely Catholic cultures of Latin America :

To some extent her continuing importance and popularity may be attributed not only to her power as a woman but also to the power of the dead . However , a society 's vision of the afterlife may be structured , death by its nature remains a mystery , and , until society formally allays the commotion it causes , a source of disturbance and disorder . Women and the dead — death and womanhood — stand in similar relation to structured social forms : outside public institutions , unlimited by official rules , and beyond formal categories . As a female corpse reiterating the symbolic themes of both woman and martyr , Eva Perón perhaps lays double claim to spiritual leadership .

John Balfour was the British ambassador in Argentina during the Perón regime , and describes Evita 's popularity :

She was by any standard a very extraordinary woman ; when you think of Argentina and indeed Latin America as a men dominated part of the world , there was this woman who was playing a very great role . And of course she aroused very different feelings in the people with whom she lived . The oligarchs , as she called the well @-@ to @-@ do and privileged people , hated her . They looked upon her as a ruthless woman . The masses of the people on the other hand worshipped her . They looked upon her as a lady bountiful who was dispensing Manna from heaven .

In 2011 , two giant murals of Evita were unveiled on the building facades of the current Ministry of Social Development , located on 9 de Julio Avenue . The works were painted by Argentine artist Alejandro Marmo . On 26 July 2012 , to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of Evita 's death , notes were issued in a value of 100 pesos . The controversial effigy of Julio Argentino Roca was replaced by that of Eva Duarte , making her the first actual woman to be featured on the currency of Argentina . The image in the notes is based on a 1952 design , whose sketch was found in the Mint , made by the engraver Sergio Pilosio with artist Roger Pfund . The printing totals 20 million notes ; it is not clear whether the government will replace the notes that feature Roca and the Desert Campaign .

= = = Allegations of fascism = = =

Biographers Nicholas Fraser and Marysa Navarro write that Juan Perón 's opponents had from the start accused Perón of being a fascist . Spruille Braden , a diplomat from the United States who was greatly supported by Juan Perón 's opponents , campaigned against Juan Perón 's first candidacy on the platform that Juan Perón was a fascist and a Nazi . Fraser and Navarro also theorize that the perception of the Peróns as fascists was enhanced during Evita 's 1947 European tour during which she was a guest of honor of Francisco Franco . By 1947 , Franco had become politically isolated as one of the few remaining fascists to retain power . Franco , therefore , was in desperate need of a political ally . With nearly a third of Argentina 's population of Spanish descent , it seemed natural for Argentina to have diplomatic relations with Spain . Commenting on the international perception of Evita during her 1947 European tour , Fraser and Navarro write , " It was inevitable that Evita be viewed in a fascist context . Therefore , both Evita and Perón were seen to represent an ideology which had run its course in Europe , only to re @-@ emerge in an exotic , theatrical , even farcical form in a faraway country . "

Laurence Levine , the former president of the U.S.-Argentine Chamber of Commerce , writes that in contrast to Nazi ideology , the Peróns were not anti @-@ Semitic . In the book Inside Argentina from Perón to Menem : 1950 – 2000 from an American Point of View , Levine writes :

The American government demonstrated no knowledge of Perón 's deep admiration for Italy ( and his distaste for Germany , whose culture he found too rigid ) . Nor did they appreciate that although anti @-@ Semitism existed in Argentina , Perón 's own views and his political associations were not anti @-@ Semitic . They paid no attention to the fact that Perón sought out the Jewish community in Argentina to assist in developing his policies and that one of his most important allies in organizing the industrial sector was José Ber Gelbard , a Jewish immigrant from Poland .

Biographer Robert D. Crassweller writes , " Peronism was not fascism " , and " Peronism was not Nazism . " Crassweller also refers to the comments of U.S. Ambassador George S. Messersmith . While visiting Argentina in 1947 , Messersmith made the following statement : " There is not as much social discrimination against Jews here as there is right in New York or in most places at home . "

Time Magazine published an article by Tomás Eloy Martínez — Argentine writer , journalist , and former director of the Latin American program at Rutgers University — titled " The Woman Behind the Fantasy : Prostitute , Fascist , Profligate — Eva Peron Was Much Maligned , Mostly Unfairly " . In this article , Martínez writes that the accusations that Eva Perón was a fascist , a Nazi , and a thief had been made against her for decades . He wrote that the allegations were untrue :

She was not a fascist — ignorant , perhaps , of what that ideology meant . And she was not greedy . Though she liked jewelry , furs and Dior dresses , she could own as many as she desired without the need to rob others .... In 1964 Jorge Luis Borges stated that ' the mother of that woman [ Evita ] ' was ' the madam of a whorehouse in Junín . ' He repeated the calumny so often that some still believe it or , more commonly , think Evita herself , whose lack of sex appeal is mentioned by all who knew her , apprenticed in that imaginary brothel . Around 1955 the pamphleteer Silvano Santander employed the same strategy to concoct letters in which Evita figures as an accomplice of the Nazis . It is true that ( Juan ) Perón facilitated the entrance of Nazi criminals to Argentina in 1947 and 1948 , thereby hoping to acquire advanced technology developed by the Germans during the war . But Evita played no part .

In his 2002 doctoral dissertation at Ohio State University , Lawrence D. Bell writes that the governments that preceded Juan Perón had been anti @-@ Semitic but that his government was not . Juan Perón " eagerly and enthusiastically " attempted to recruit the Jewish community into his government and set up a branch of the Peronist party for Jewish members , known as the Organización Israelita Argentina ( OIA ) . Perón 's government was the first to court the Argentine Jewish community and the first to appoint Jewish citizens to public office . Kevin Passmore writes that the Peronist regime , more than any other in Latin America , has been accused of being fascist . But he says that the Peronist regime was not fascist , and what passed for fascism under Perón never took hold in Latin America . Additionally , because the Peronist regime allowed rival political parties to exist , it cannot be described as totalitarian .

= = = International popular culture = = =

By the late 20th century , Eva Perón had become the subject of numerous articles , books , stage plays , and musicals , ranging from the biography The Woman with the Whip to a 1981 TV movie called Evita Perón with Faye Dunaway in the title role . The most successful rendering of Eva Perón 's life has been the musical production Evita . The musical began as a concept album co @-@ produced by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber in 1976 , with Julie Covington in the title role . Elaine Paige was later cast in the title role when the concept album was adapted into a musical stage production in London 's West End and won the 1978 Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Musical . In 1980 , Patti LuPone won the Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical for her performance as the title character in the Broadway production . Nicholas Fraser claims that to date " the musical stage production has been performed on every continent except Antarctica and has generated over $ 2 billion in revenue . "

As early as 1978 , the musical was considered as the basis for a movie . After a nearly 20 @-@ year production delay , Madonna was cast in the title role for the 1996 film version and won the Golden Globe Award for " Best Actress in a Musical or Comedy . " In response to the American film , and in an alleged attempt to offer a more politically accurate depiction of Evita 's life , an Argentine film company released Eva Perón : The True Story . The Argentine production starred actress Esther Goris in the title role . This movie was the 1996 Argentine submission for the Oscar in the category of " Best Foreign Language Film . "

Nicholas Fraser writes that Evita is the perfect popular culture icon for our times because her career foreshadowed what , by the late 20th century , had become common . During Evita 's time it was considered scandalous for a former entertainer to take part in public political life . Her detractors in Argentina had often accused Evita of turning public political life into show business . But by the late 20th century , Fraser claims , the public had become engrossed in the cult of celebrity and public political life had become insignificant . In this regard , Evita was perhaps ahead of her time . Fraser also writes that Evita 's story is appealing to our celebrity @-@ obsessed age because her story confirms one of Hollywood 's oldest clichés , the rags to riches story . Reflecting on Eva Perón 's popularity more than half a century after her death , Alma Guillermoprieto writes that , " Evita 's life has evidently just begun . "

= Halo : Uprising =

Halo : Uprising is a four @-@ issue American comic book limited series set in the Halo universe . The series was written by Brian Michael Bendis , illustrated by Alex Maleev , and published by Marvel Comics . Uprising tells a story set between the ending of the 2004 video game Halo 2 and the beginning of its sequel , Halo 3 , as Earth is under attack by a collective of alien races known as the Covenant . The series was intended to be released and concluded before Halo 3 shipped on September 25 , 2007 , but the final issue did not appear until April 2009 .

The series was brought together by Ruwan Jayatilleke , Marvel 's Vice President of Development . He attained the license to publish Halo comics , including the single @-@ volume The Halo Graphic Novel , in 2005 . The graphic novel 's critical and commercial success prompted Marvel to announce a new Halo limited series in 2006 with Jayatilleke serving as the series ' editor . Bendis , a long @-@ time Halo fan , was excited about adding to the franchise story .

Reception to the series was lukewarm . The series ' artistic style was generally praised . However , the lack of Master Chief @-@ focused action and character development — as well as the delays in publishing — led to average reviews . The series was commercially successful and appeared in the top slot of The New York Times Graphic Books bestsellers list .

= = Publication history = =

Marvel Vice President of Development Ruwan Jayatilleke contacted game developer Bungie about extending the Halo franchise to comics . Jayatilleke noted that Bungie 's dedication to creating a believable world compelling to both hardcore and casual fans made the series " an attractive fit " for Marvel . In 2005 , Marvel learned that Bungie had already created an original graphic novel , entitled The Halo Graphic Novel , but needed a publisher and distributor . Interested , Brian Michael Bendis and Jayatilleke visited Bungie to take up the offer of publishing the Halo Graphic Novel as well as to discuss the possibility of a tie @-@ in comic book series .

The Halo Graphic Novel proved to be a critical and commercial success ; the comic debuted at the number two position on the Diamond Comic Distributors ' sales charts and more than 100 @,@ 000 copies were published . Marvel Comics and Bungie announced the first Halo limited comic series , Halo : Uprising , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2006 .

Brian Michael Bendis , writer for the series , said in an interview he was " honored " to add to the Halo lore . He noted that the graphic novel brought " humanity and perspective " to the franchise , something not easily imparted through the games . Bendis described himself as a longtime player of Halo and had " done [ his ] Halo homework " , reading and playing everything Halo . Bendis stated that Bungie was open to the Marvel team exploring lesser @-@ known elements of the Halo universe or even bringing up new ideas , as opposed to sticking to a script or set of preplanned ideas from Bungie or Microsoft . The Philadelphia Daily News suggested that a Halo comic book would attract readers who had never picked up a comic book before . Bendis said that drawing casual gamers to the comics was a major goal for the series . While using established characters meant that Bendis had to cooperate with Bungie and Microsoft , he said he did not feel it was a restriction . " You can get pretty bloated and sloppy with total autonomy all the time . " The Bungie team allowed Bendis to explore lesser known areas of the Halo story , which he enjoyed . Writing the dialogue for the Master Chief , who is faceless and normally silent during gameplay , was a challenge ; Bendis scrapped much of the drafted dialogue to allow Maleev 's work to define the character .

Originally , Halo : Uprising 's entire four @-@ issue series was to be published before the September 25 , 2007 , release of Halo 3 . Bendis suggested that the series might be delayed unexpectedly due to the close cooperation between Marvel and Bungie . For unspecified reasons , the release of all issues of Halo : Uprising were pushed back . Issue # 1 's original date of August 15 , 2007 , was pushed back a week to August 22 . Issue # 2 's original date of August 29 was pushed back and released on November 21 . Issue # 3 was originally slated for a September 2007 release but was pushed to a final release date of nearly a year late in August 2008 . The constant revisions of the date became a running forum joke at the fan site Halo.Bungie.Org. Issue # 4 also saw multiple delays , pushed from a scheduled October 31 , 2007 release to March 4 and then March 18 , 2009 . Claude Errera of Halo.Bungie.Org noted that , given the series ' track record and the fact that the issue 's release had been moved more than a dozen times by that time , its appearance in March would be unlikely . In announcing two new Halo comic series from Marvel in February 2009 , Jayatilleke informed IGN that the final issue was in the process of being colored . The final release date for the issue was April 15 . The series was collected into a single volume released in May 2009 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 7851 @-@ 3647 @-@ 9 ) . The collected hardcover features a variety of bonus art and " making of " materials .

= = Plot = =

Uprising 's story begins after the events of Halo 2 , in which the alien collective known as the Covenant discovers the location of Earth and begins a full @-@ scale invasion of their enemy 's homeworld . The supersoldier Master Chief is stowed away aboard an ancient Forerunner ship . On a course set for Earth , he is overwhelmed by a Covenant strike force and rendered unconscious . In the next scene , Colonel James Ackerson is being tortured by Covenant forces on Mars , to whom he betrays the existence of something called " The Key of Osanalan . " Ackerson admits the Key is located in Cleveland , Ohio . In Cleveland , the narrative follows the point of view of a hotel concierge named Ruwan as the city falls under attack by Covenant forces . In the mayhem he meets a woman named Myras Tyla . Tyla remains calm even as Ruwan edges towards all @-@ out panic . The pair are captured and with other residents herded into a sports stadium . The Covenant declare that the humans must give up the location of the Key to save their lives ; Tyla is confused , but Ruwan states he knows exactly what it is .

On board the Forerunner ship , the Master Chief is captured and interrogated by Covenant forces , but manages to escape using a concealed weapon . On Earth , Ruwan and Tyla escape detection by the Covenant and appropriate a vehicle in an effort to escape . Ruwan reveals that the Key is in fact a fictional object that he and his brother James Ackerson made up as children ; James told the Covenant about the Key in order to prevent the outright destruction of Cleveland . After fighting Covenant forces , Ruwan and Tyla are rescued by marines and leave the city . The Master Chief attempts to kill the Covenant 's leader , Prophet of Truth , but is discovered as he takes aim ; Truth escapes as the Chief is left to kill the Prophet 's guards and find a way off the ship . Learning that there is no way to change the Forerunner ship 's destination , the Chief jumps to Earth using a piece of the vessel as a heat shield .

After informing the UNSC about the true nature of the Key , Ruwan volunteers to " give " the Key to the Covenant . He is captured and brought aboard a Covenant ship . While the Covenant believe he is to be rescued due to a tracker embedded in him , Ruwan reveals he is actually a target . A coilgun takes aim at his position and destroys the ship . Upon learning that the Key is a fake , the Brutes on Mars behead Ackerson . In a relief camp , Tyla writes a song about Ruwan .

= = Reception = =

Halo : Uprising was a commercial success . The first issue sold out within 24 hours , leading Marvel to reissue the installment . The collected hardcover edition was the best @-@ selling hardcover graphic book for the week ending June 13 , according to The New York Times .

Reception to the miniseries varied . Reviewer Kevin Powers for Comics Bulletin and Richard George of IGN praised the action sequences and Maleev 's visuals . The balance between action and story was also positively noted ; Powers said that the first two sequences of the opening issue " masterfully capture the spirit of the game " . On the other hand , IGN 's Jesse Schedeen , reviewing the second issue , stated the series ' appeal was mostly superficial : " try as they might to replicate [ Halo 's ] visceral moments , Bendis and Maleev just can 't replicate the same feeling on the printed page . "

Reviewers criticized the lack of Master Chief as a main character , similar to the response to The Halo Graphic Novel ; Schedeen said that " Master Chief is barely a guest star in his own book " , and that he was reduced to blasting aliens for much of the series . Schedeen felt that there was a lack of connections between the Ruwan plot and the Master Chief 's adventures , which was never satisfactorily resolved . The comic 's focus on Ruwan and Myra 's subplot was also seen as a major fault : Comics Bulletin 's Geoff Collins , in a review of the second issue , said that " as a comic book fan I ’ m interested [ in Ruwan and Myra ] , but the Halo fans I know could [ sic ] care less about them . And the story in this issue centers around them . " Schedeen was surprised to find that he only began to care about them in the final issue . The many delays in publishing were a frequent point of frustration as well . Schedeen summed up his reviews by saying that he was hopeful the production teams behind the upcoming Halo books " will learn from the mistakes made here and craft stories that can consistently capture what makes Halo fun . At the very least , let 's hope we don 't have to wait a year between issues anymore " .

= Species ( film ) =

Species is a 1995 American science fiction horror thriller film directed by Roger Donaldson and written by Dennis Feldman . It stars Natasha Henstridge , Ben Kingsley , Michael Madsen , Alfred Molina , Forest Whitaker and Marg Helgenberger . In the film , a motley crew of scientists and government agents tries to track down an alien seductress played by Natasha Henstridge before she successfully mates with a human male . Due to her ruthlessness , the alien character was cited as an example of negative treatment of female sexuality and aliens by the Hollywood film industry . The design of Sil was also linked to a chupacabra sighting .

The film was conceived by Feldman in 1987 , and was originally pitched as a film treatment in the style of a police procedural , entitled The Message . When The Message failed to attract the studios , Feldman re @-@ wrote it as a spec script , which ultimately led to the making of the film . The extraterrestrial in Species , an alien woman named Sil , was designed by H. R. Giger , also responsible for the beings from the Alien franchise . The effects combined practical models done by Giger collaborator Steve Johnson and XFX , with computer @-@ generated imagery done by Richard Edlund 's Boss Film Studios . Giger felt the film and the character were too similar to Alien , so he pushed for script changes .

Most of the principal photography was done in Los Angeles , California , where the film is set . Several scenes were filmed in Utah and at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico . The film was poorly received by critics , but nevertheless turned out to be a box office success , grossing US $ 113 million ( $ 176 million in 2016 dollars ) . It spawned one theatrical sequel ( Species II ) , as well as two direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels ( Species III and Species : The Awakening ) . Species was adapted into a novel by Yvonne Navarro and two comic book series by Dark Horse Comics , one of which was written by Feldman .

= = Plot summary = =

During the SETI program , Earth 's scientists send out transmissions ( shown to be the Arecibo message ) with information about Earth and its inhabitants , DNA structure , etc . , in hopes of finding life beyond Earth . They then receive transmissions from an alien source on how to create endless fuel effortlessly . Therefore , the scientists assume that this is a friendly alien species . From a second alien transmission , the scientists receive information about an alien DNA along with instructions on how to splice it with human DNA . A government team led by Xavier Fitch ( Ben Kingsley ) goes forward with the genetic experiment attempting to induce a female , under the ( later proved to be mistaken ) assumption that a female would have " more docile and controllable " traits . One of the hundred experimental ova produces a girl named Sil , who looks like a normal human but develops into a 12 @-@ year @-@ old in 3 months .

Sil 's violent outbursts during sleep make the scientists consider her a threat . They try to kill her using cyanide gas but she breaks out of her containment cell and escapes . The government assembles a team composed of anthropologist Dr. Stephen Arden ( Alfred Molina ) , molecular biologist Dr. Laura Baker ( Marg Helgenberger ) , " empath " Dan Smithson ( Forest Whitaker ) and mercenary Preston " Press " Lennox ( Michael Madsen ) to track and destroy Sil . Sil matures rapidly into an adult ( Natasha Henstridge ) in her early twenties and makes her way to Los Angeles . Her body strength , regenerative ability and intelligence make tracking her extremely difficult . The scientists fear she may mate with human males and produce offspring that could eliminate the human race . Sil is intent on producing offspring as soon as possible , and kills several people to prevent them from notifying the authorities or simply to use their clothing .

Sil first tries to mate with a man she meets at a nightclub ( Anthony Guidera ) , but after sensing that he is diabetic , she rejects him . Unsatisfied , he tries to rape her , prompting her to kill him by puncturing his skull with her tongue . She then tries to mate with John Carey ( Whip Hubley ) , a man she meets after a car accident . They swim in Carey 's pool where Sil forces him to open his swimming trunks in order to mate , but he refuses . This act is interrupted by Preston and Laura . She kills Carey , morphing into her alien form , a bipedal mutant with tentacles on her shoulders and back , and flees naked into a forest without being seen by the team . She pretends to be a rape victim to kidnap a woman ( Marliese K. Schneider ) in order to assume her identity . Sitting in the car near Carey 's home , she hypnotizes Fitch over distance to order the team to search for her in the nightclub . There , she is seen by Dan , prompting a car chase . She fakes her death by crashing the car , which she has previously filled with gasoline containers into a high @-@ voltage transformer , using the kidnapped woman as a stand @-@ in for her own body .

After cutting and dyeing her hair , Sil takes an attraction to Preston , having dreamt of him the previous night . After the team celebrates their apparent victory , she stalks them in their hotel , and they do not recognize her . Arden , who is upset at being single , walks into his room to find Sil waiting there . She has intercourse with Arden , then kills him when he realizes who she is . Dan senses that Sil is in the hotel and he alerts Preston , Laura , and the rest of the team . She morphs again and escapes and they follow her into the sewers where Fitch is subsequently killed . Sil gives birth and Dan finds her offspring in a cavern behind the sewers . The child attacks him and he kills it . Sil , angered , attacks the trio and tries to kill Preston and Dan . Preston uses a grenade launcher on her , blowing her head off and killing her . The trio leaves the area . The last scene shows a rat chewing on one of Sil 's severed tentacles ; it starts to mutate into a vicious beast and attacks another rat .

= = Cast = =

Natasha Henstridge as Sil

Michelle Williams as Young Sil

Ben Kingsley as Xavier Fitch

Michael Madsen as Preston " Press " Lennox

Alfred Molina as Dr. Stephen Arden

Forest Whitaker as Dan Smithson

Marg Helgenberger as Dr. Laura Baker

Whip Hubley as John Carey

Anthony Guidera as Robbie

= = Influence and themes = =

Given Sil grows rapidly and kills humans with ease , at a certain point film character Dr. Laura Baker even speculates if she was a biological weapon sent by a species who thought humans were like an intergalactic weed . Feldman declared that he wanted to explore this theme further in the script , as it discussed mankind 's place in the universe and how other civilizations would perceive and relate to humanity , considering that " maybe [ humans are ] not a potential threat , maybe a competitor , maybe a resource . " He also declared that more could be said about Sil 's existentialist doubts , as she does not know her origin or purpose , and only follows her instinct to mate and perpetuate the species .

Writing for the Journal of Popular Film & Television , Susan George authored a paper that dealt with the portrayal of procreation in Species , Gattaca and Mimic . George compares the character of Fitch to " an updated Dr. Frankenstein , " and explores the development of Sil 's maternal aspirations , which convert the character into an " archaic mother " figure similar to the xenomorph creature in the Alien series , both of which are , she claims , portrayed negatively . George further states that a recurring theme in science fiction films is a response to " this kind of powerful female sexuality and ' alien @-@ ness ' " in that " the feminine monster must die as Sil does at the end of Species . " Feldman himself considered that an underlying theme regarded " a female arriving and seeking to find a superior mate . "

A five @-@ year investigation into accounts of the chupacabra , a well known cryptid , revealed that the original sighting report of the creature in Puerto Rico by Madeline Tolentino may have been inspired by the character Sil . This was detailed in paranormal investigator and skeptic Benjamin Radford 's book Tracking the Chupacabra . According to Virginia Fugarino of Memorial University of Newfoundland writing for the Journal of Folklore Research , Radford found a link between the original eyewitness report and the design of Sil in her alien form , and hypothesized that " [ Species ] , which [ Tolentino ] did see before her sighting , influenced what she believes she saw of the chupacabra . "

= = Production = =

= = = Writing and development = = =

Dennis Feldman had the idea for Species in 1987 , as he worked on another film about an alien invasion , Real Men . Having read an article by Arthur C. Clarke about the insurmountable odds against an extraterrestrial craft ever locating and visiting Earth , given that stellar distances are great , and faster @-@ than @-@ light travel is unlikely , Feldman started to think that it was " unsophisticated for any alien culture to come here in what [ he ] ' d describe as a big tin can . " Thus in turn he considered that the possibility of extraterrestrial contact was through information . Then he detailed that a message would contain instructions from across the void to build something that would talk to men . Instead of a mechanical device , Feldman imagined wetware . The visitor would adapt to Earth 's environment through DNA belonging to Earth 's organisms . Mankind has sent to space transmissions " giving out directions " such as the Arecibo message , which Feldman considered unwary , as they relay information to potential predators from outer space . He pointed out that " in nature , one species would not want a predator to know where it hides . "

Therefrom emerged a film treatment called The Message . The original script had more of a police procedural approach , with the alien being created by a " bathtub geneticist " who had just had his project aborted by the government , and a biologist who had worked on the project getting along with a police officer to search for the creature . Eventually Feldman came to believe this concept had some credibility issues , and instead changed the protagonists to a government team . After coining the name " Sil , " Feldman initially thought of forming an acronym , but in the end chose only the three @-@ letter name after learning about the codons of the genetic code , which can be represented in groups of three letters . Sil would originally emerge from a DNA sequence manipulating human DNA , and constantly mutate as she used the human junk DNA to access " all the defenses of the entire animal kingdom that [ humans ] evolved through – including ones that had never developed , plus ones [ Earth 's scientists ] don 't know about that have become extinct . " Among the research Feldman did for the script included going to sessions of UCLA 's Center for the Study of Evolution and the Origin of Life ( CSEOL ) , talking to SETI scientists , and visiting the Salk Institute for Biological Studies to talk with researchers working on the Human Genome Project . The Message was offered to several studios , but was passed up .

In 1993 , Feldman reworked his ideas into a spec script . This was sent to producer Frank Mancuso , Jr . , who had hired Feldman to adapt Sidney Kirkpatrick 's A Cast of Killers . The producer got attracted to the creative possibilites as the film offered " the challenge of walking that fine line between believability and pushing something as far as it can go . " Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer got interested on the project , and while Feldman had some initial disagreements on the budget , after considering other studios he signed with MGM . In turn , the now retitled Species attracted director Roger Donaldson , who was attracted to its blend of science fiction and thriller . The script underwent eight different drafts , written over an eight @-@ month period , before Donaldson was content that flaws in the story 's logic had been corrected . At one point another writer , Larry Gross , tried his hand with the script , but ultimately all the work was done by Feldman . Feldman would remain as a co @-@ producer . While the initial Species script suggested a love triangle between Sil and two government team members , the dissatisfaction of the crew eventually led to changes to the ending , which ended up featuring Sil having a baby that would immediately prove dangerous .

= = = Design = = =

Sil was designed by Swiss artist H. R. Giger , who also created the creatures in the Alien films . Donaldson thought Giger was the best man for the film after reading his compendium Necronomicon , and eventually he and Mancuso flew to Switzerland to meet the artist . What attracted Giger was the opportunity to design " a monster in another way — an aesthetic warrior , also sensual and deadly , like the women look in [ his ] paintings . " While Giger opted to stay in Switzerland to take care of his dying mother instead of flying to Los Angeles to accompany production , he built some puppets in his own studio , and later faxed sketches and airbrush paintings as production went through . The practical models were made by Steve Johnson and his company XFX , which had already worked with Giger 's designs in Poltergeist II . Giger had envisioned more stages of Sil 's transformation , but the film only employed the last one , where she is " transparent outside and black inside — like a glass body but with carbon inside , " with XFX doing the translucent skin based on what they had done for the aliens of The Abyss . Sil 's alien form had both full @-@ body animatronics with replaceable arms , heads and torsos , and a body suit . Richard Edlund 's Boss Film Studios was hired for over 50 shots of computer @-@ generated imagery , which included one of the earliest forms of motion capture effects . Using a two @-@ foot @-@ high ( 60 cm ) electric puppet that had sensors translating its movements to a digital Sil , Boss Films managed to achieve in one day what would have once taken as much as three weeks with practical effects .

Giger was unhappy with some elements he found to bear similarity with other movies , particularly the Alien franchise . At one point he sent a fax to Mancuso finding five similarities : a " chestburster " ( as Sil giving birth echoed the infant Alien breaking out of its host 's chest ) , the creature having a punching tongue ( Giger at first wanted Sil 's tongue to be composed of barbed hooks ) , a cocoon , the use of flame throwers , and having Giger as the creature designer . A great point of contention was the ending , which Giger considered derivative from the climaxes from both Alien 3 and Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . The designer felt that horror films frequently held some final confrontation with fire , which he considered old @-@ fashioned and linked to medieval witch trials . He sent some ideas for the climax to the producers , with them accepting to have Sil 's ultimate death occurring by headshot .

= = = Filming = = =

Filming happened mostly in Los Angeles , including location shooting at Sunset Strip , Silver Lake , Pacific Palisades , the Hollywood Hills and the Biltmore Hotel . Id Club , the nightclub featured in the film , was built within Hollywood 's Pantages Theater , while the hills above Dodger Stadium near Elysian Park were used for the car chase and crash where Sil fakes her death . For the opening scenes in Utah , the Tooele Army Depot dubbed as the outside of the research facility — the interiors were shot at the Rockwell International Corporation laboratory in California — and a Victorian @-@ era train station in Brigham City was part of Sil 's escape . Other locations included the Santa Monica Pier and the Arecibo telescope in Puerto Rico . The most complex sets involved the sewer complex and a tar @-@ filled granite cavern where the ending occurs . Donaldson wanted a maze quality for the sewers , which had traces of realism ( such as tree roots breaking through from the ceiling ) and artistic licenses . Production designer John Muto intentionally designed the sewers wider and taller than real ones , as well as with walkways , but nevertheless aiming for a claustrophobic and realistic atmosphere . The underground tunnels were built out of structural steel , metal rod , plaster and concrete to endure the fire effects , and had its design based on the La Brea Tar Pits , with Muto describing them as " just the sort of place in which a creature from another planet might feel at home . "

= = Release and reception = =

Species received a wide theatrical release on July 7 , 1995 . Its opening weekend was $ 17 @.@ 1 million , MGM 's biggest opening that far and second in the box office ranking behind Apollo 13 . Budgeted at $ 35 million , the film earned a total of $ 113 million worldwide ( $ 176 million adjusted for inflation ) , including $ 60 million in the United States . The film was released on DVD on March 26 , 1997 , and on VHS on August 3 , 1999 . The original DVD featured a booklet with trivia , production notes and a making @-@ of featurette . On July 25 , 2006 , the film was released on Blu @-@ ray .

The film received lukewarm reviews . On Rotten Tomatoes , Species holds an approval of 34 % based on 35 reviews . Roger Ebert gave it 2 out of 4 stars , criticizing the film 's plot and overall lack of intelligence . Cristine James from Boxoffice magazine gave the film 2 out of 5 stars , describing it as " ' Alien ' meets ' V ' meets ' Splash ' meets ' Playboy 's Erotic Fantasies : Forbidden Liaisons , ' diluted into a diffuse , misdirected bore . " James Berardinelli gave the film 2 ½ out of 4 stars , stating that " as long as you don 't stop to think about what 's going on , Species is capable of offering its share of cheap thrills , with a laugh or two thrown in as well . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly found the film lacking in imagination and special effects , also commenting that Alfred Molina " sport [ s ] a haircut that 's scarier than the creature . " Variety 's review of the film described it as a " gripping if not overly original account of an extraterrestrial species attempting to overwhelm our own " and that Ben Kingsley and other lead actors " have only two @-@ dimensional roles to engage them " . The review mentions the similarity between H.R. Giger 's design of Sil and his work on Alien .

Scott Weinberg of DVD Talk praised the acting , Feldman 's screenplay and Donaldson 's direction . He concluded by saying that Species makes for " a very good time for the genre fans . " Mick LaSalle , writing for San Francisco Chronicle , was notedly less enthusiastic , quipping that if " Species were a little bit worse , it would have a shot at becoming a camp classic . " Los Angeles Times critic Peter Rainer described Species as " a pretty good Boo ! movie " , finding it an entertaining thriller while unoriginal and with ineffective tonal shifts .

= = Related works = =

= = = Adaptations = = =

Yvonne Navarro co @-@ wrote a novelization based on the original screenplay with Dennis Feldman . The book gives several in @-@ depth details about the characters not seen in the film , such as Sil 's ability to visualize odors and determine harmful substances from edible items by the color . Gas appears black , food appears pink , and an unhealthy potential mate appears to give off green fumes . Other character details include Preston 's background in tracking down AWOL soldiers as well as the process of decoding the alien signal . Although no clues are given as to its origin , it is mentioned that the message was somehow routed through several black holes to mask its point of origin .

Dark Horse Comics published a four @-@ issue comic book adapting the film , written by Feldman and penciled by Jon Foster . Dark Horse would also publish a mini @-@ series with an all @-@ new storyline , Species : Human Race , released in 1997 . West End Games released a World of Species sourcebook for its Masterbook role @-@ playing game system .

= = = Sequels = = =

The first sequel to Species , Species II was released theatrically in April 1998 . The film depicts astronauts on a mission to Mars being attacked by the aliens from Species , and the events that ensue upon their return to Earth . There , Dr. Baker has been working on Eve , a more docile clone of Sil . Madsen and Helgenberger reprised their roles , while Henstridge played Eve . Species II was received by critics worse than the first film , garnering a 9 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes , and Madsen denounced it as a terrible film . The film 's director , Peter Medak , attributed the failure of the film to not picking up the infected rat ending of the original film . Navarro later authored the novelization for Species II which followed the film 's original screenplay with added scenes .

The second sequel , Species III followed in 2004 . It premiered on Sci @-@ Fi Channel on November 27 , 2004 with a DVD release on December 7 . The film 's plot starts where Species II ends , revolving around Sunny Mabrey 's character Sara , the daughter of Eve , reared by a doctor played by Robert Knepper . Sara , an alien @-@ human hybrid , seeks other hybrids to mate with . Henstridge cameos at the beginning of the film . Two out of six critics mentioned on Rotten Tomatoes gave it a positive rating , with DVD Talk 's reviewer noting that it is " a more cohesive and sensible flick than [ Species II ] is , but ultimately , it 's just a lot of the same old schtick , " while Film Freak Central called it " amateurish " and " vapid . " A fourth film , Species : The Awakening was filmed in 2007 , following the schedule of Species III of Sci @-@ Fi Channel premiere and subsequent DVD release . None of the actors from the original film returned in this sequel , which instead starred Helena Mattsson as the alien @-@ hybrid seductress .

= John of Brienne =

John of Brienne ( c . 1170 – 27 March 1237 ) , also known as John I , was King of Jerusalem from 1210 to 1225 and Latin Emperor of Constantinople from 1229 to 1237 . He was the youngest son of Erard II of Brienne , a wealthy nobleman in Champagne . John , originally destined for an ecclesiastical career , became a knight and owned small estates in Champagne around 1200 . After the death of his brother , Walter III , he ruled the County of Brienne on behalf of his minor nephew Walter IV ( who lived in southern Italy ) .

The barons of the Kingdom of Jerusalem proposed that John marry Maria , Queen of Jerusalem . With the consent of Philip II of France and Pope Innocent III , he left France for the Holy Land and married the queen ; the royal couple were crowned in 1210 . After Maria 's death in 1212 John administered the kingdom as regent for their infant daughter , Isabella II ; an influential lord , John of Ibelin , attempted to dethrone him . John was a leader of the Fifth Crusade . Although his claim of supreme command of the crusader army was never unanimously acknowledged , his right to rule Damietta ( in Egypt ) was confirmed shortly after the town fell to the crusaders in 1219 . He claimed the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia on behalf of his second wife , Stephanie of Armenia , in 1220 . After Stephanie and their infant son died that year , John returned to Egypt . The Fifth Crusade ended in failure ( including the recovery of Damietta by the Egyptians ) in 1221 .

John was the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe ( Italy , France , England , León , Castile and Germany ) to seek assistance for the Holy Land . He gave his daughter in marriage to Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1225 , and Frederick ended John 's rule of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Although the popes tried to persuade Frederick to restore the kingdom to John , the Jerusalemite barons regarded Frederick as their lawful ruler . John administered papal domains in Tuscany , became the podestà of Perugia and was a commander of Pope Gregory IX 's army during Gregory 's war against Frederick in 1228 and 1229 .

He was elected emperor in 1229 as the senior co @-@ ruler ( with Baldwin II ) of the Latin Empire , and was crowned in Constantinople in 1231 . John III Vatatzes , Emperor of Nicaea , and Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria occupied the last Latin territories in Thrace and Asia Minor , besieging Constantinople in early 1235 . John directed the defence of his capital during the months @-@ long siege , with the besiegers withdrawing only after Geoffrey II of Achaea and united fleets from Italian towns defeated their fleet in 1236 . The following year , John died as a Franciscan friar .

= = Early life = =

John was the youngest of the four sons of Erard II , Count of Brienne , and Agnes of Montfaucon . He seemed " exceedingly old ... about 80 " to the 14 @-@ year @-@ old George Akropolites in 1231 ; if Akropolites ' estimate was correct , John was born around 1150 . However , no other 13th @-@ century authors described John as an old man . His father referred to John 's brothers as " children " in 1177 and mentioned the tutor of John 's oldest brother , Walter III , in 1184 ; this suggests that John 's brothers were born in the late 1160s . Modern historians agree that John was born after 1168 , probably during the 1170s .

Although his father destined John for a clerical career , according to the late 13th @-@ century Tales of the Minstrel of Reims he " was unwilling " . Instead , the minstrel continued , John fled to his maternal uncle at the Clairvaux Abbey . Encouraged by his fellows , he became a knight and earned a reputation in tournaments and fights . Although elements of the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims are apparently invented ( for instance , John did not have a maternal uncle in Clairvaux ) , historian Guy Perry wrote that it may have preserved details of John 's life . A church career was not unusual for youngest sons of 12th @-@ century noblemen in France ; however , if his father sent John to a monastery he left before reaching the age of taking monastic vows . John " clearly developed the physique that was necessary to fight well " in his youth , because the 13th @-@ century sources Akropolites and Salimbene di Adam emphasize his physical strength .

Erard II joined the Third Crusade and died in the Holy Land in 1191 . His oldest son , Walter III , succeeded him in Brienne . John was first mentioned in an 1192 ( or 1194 ) charter issued by his brother , indicating that he was a prominent figure in Walter 's court . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , John participated in a war against Peter II of Courtenay . Although the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims claimed that he was called " John Lackland " , according to contemporary charters John held Jessains , Onjon , Trannes and two other villages in the County of Champagne around 1200 . In 1201 , Theobald III granted him additional estates in Mâcon , Longsols and elsewhere . After Theobald 's death his widow Blanche of Navarre persuaded John to sell his estate at Mâcon , saying that it was her dowry .

Walter III of Brienne died in June 1205 while fighting in southern Italy . His widow Elvira of Sicily gave birth to a posthumous son , Walter IV , who grew up in Italy . John assumed the title of count of Brienne , and began administering the county on his nephew 's behalf in 1205 or 1206 . As a leading vassal of the count of Champagne , John frequented the court of Blanche of Navarre ( who ruled Champagne during her son 's minority ) . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , she loved John " more than any man in the world " ; this annoyed Philip II of France .

The two versions of Ernoul 's chronicle tell different stories about John 's ascent to the throne of Jerusalem . According to one version , the leading lords of Jerusalem sent envoys to France in 1208 asking Philip II to select a French nobleman as a husband for their queen Maria . Taking advantage of the opportunity to rid himself of John , Philip II suggested him . In the other version an unnamed knight encouraged the Jerusalemite lords to select John , who accepted their offer with Philip 's consent . John visited Pope Innocent III in Rome . The pope donated 40 @,@ 000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land , stipulating that John could spend the money only with the consent of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and the grand masters of the Knights Templar and the Knights Hospitaller .

= = King of Jerusalem = =

= = = Co @-@ ruler = = =

John landed at Acre on 13 September 1210 ; the following day , Patriarch of Jerusalem Albert of Vercelli married him to Queen Maria . John and Maria were crowned in Tyre on 3 October . The truce concluded by Amalric II , King of Jerusalem and the Ayyubid sultan Al @-@ Adil I had ended by John 's arrival . Although Al @-@ Adil was willing to renew it , Jerusalemite lords did not want to sign a new treaty without John 's consent . During John and Maria 's coronation , Al @-@ Adil 's son Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa pillaged the area around Acre but did not attack the city . After returning to Acre , John raided nearby Muslim settlements in retaliation .

Although about 300 French knights accompanied him to the Holy Land , no influential noblemen joined him ; they preferred participating in the French Albigensian Crusade or did not see him as sufficiently eminent . John 's cousin , Walter of Montbéliard , joined him only after he was expelled from Cyprus . Montbéliard led a naval expedition to Egypt to plunder the Nile Delta . After most of the French crusaders left the Holy Land , John forged a new truce with Al @-@ Adil by the middle of 1211 and sent envoys to Pope Innocent urging him to preach a new crusade .

= = = Conflicts = = =

Maria died shortly after giving birth to their daughter , Isabella , in late 1212 . Her death triggered a legal dispute , with John of Ibelin ( who administered Jerusalem before John 's coronation ) questioning the widowed king 's right to rule . The king sent Raoul of Merencourt , Bishop of Sidon , to Rome for assistance from the Holy See . Pope Innocent confirmed John as lawful ruler of the Holy Land in early 1213 , urging the prelates to support him with ecclesiastical sanctions if needed . Most of the Jerusalemite lords remained loyal to the king , acknowledging his right to administer the kingdom on behalf of his infant daughter ; John of Ibelin left the Holy Land and settled in Cyprus .

The relationship between John of Brienne and Hugh I of Cyprus was tense . Hugh ordered the imprisonment of John 's supporters in Cyprus , releasing them only at Pope Innocent 's command . During the War of the Antiochene Succession John sided with Bohemond IV of Antioch and the Templars against Raymond @-@ Roupen of Antioch and Leo I , King of Cilician Armenia , who were supported by Hugh and the Hospitallers . However , John sent only 50 knights to fight the Armenians in Antiochia in 1213 . Leo I concluded a peace treaty with the Knights Templar late that year , and he and John reconciled . John married Leo 's oldest daughter , Stephanie ( also known as Rita ) , in 1214 and Stephanie received a dowry of 30 @,@ 000 bezants . Quarrels among John , Leo I , Hugh I and Bohemond IV are documented by Pope Innocent 's letters urging them to reconcile their differences before the Fifth Crusade reached the Holy Land .

= = = Fifth Crusade = = =

Pope Innocent proclaimed the Fifth Crusade in 1213 , with the " liberation of the Holy Land " ( the reconquest of Jerusalem ) its principal object . The first crusader troops , commanded by Leopold VI of Austria , landed at Acre in early September 1217 . Andrew II of Hungary and his army followed that month , and Hugh I of Cyprus and Bohemond IV of Antioch soon joined the crusaders . However , hundreds of crusaders soon returned to Europe because of a famine following the previous year 's poor harvest . A war council was held in the tent of Andrew II , who considered himself the supreme commander of the crusader army . Other leaders , particularly John , did not acknowledge Andrew 's leadership . The crusaders raided nearby territory ruled by Al @-@ Adil I for food and fodder , forcing the sultan to retreat in November 1217 . In December John besieged the Ayyubid fortress on Mount Tabor , joined only by Bohemond IV of Antioch . He was unable to capture it , which " encouraged the infidel " , according to the contemporary Jacques de Vitry .

Andrew II decided to return home , leaving the crusaders ' camp with Hugh I and Bohemond IV in early 1218 . Although military action was suspended after their departure , the crusaders restored fortifications at Caesarea and Atlit . After new troops arrived from the Holy Roman Empire in April , they decided to invade Egypt . They elected John supreme commander , giving him the right to rule the land they would conquer . His leadership was primarily nominal , since he could rarely impose his authority on an army of troops from many countries .

The crusaders laid siege to Damietta , on the Nile , in May 1217 . Although they seized a strategically @-@ important tower on a nearby island on 24 August , Al @-@ Kamil ( who had succeeded Al @-@ Adil I in Egypt ) controlled traffic on the Nile . In September , reinforcements commanded by Pope Honorius III 's legate Cardinal Pelagius ( who considered himself the crusade 's supreme commander ) arrived from Italy .

Egyptian forces attempted a surprise attack on the crusaders ' camp on 9 October , but John discovered their movements . He and his retinue attacked and annihilated the Egyptian advance guard , hindering the main force . The crusaders built a floating fortress on the Nile near Damietta , but a storm blew it near the Egyptian camp . The Egyptians seized the fortress , killing nearly all of its defenders . Only two soldiers survived the attack ; they were accused of cowardice , and John ordered their execution . Taking advantage of the new Italian troops , Cardinal Pelagius began to intervene in strategic decisions . His debates with John angered their troops . The soldiers broke into the Egyptian camp on 29 August 1219 without an order , but they were soon defeated and nearly annihilated . During the ensuing panic , only the cooperation of John , the Templars , the Hospitallers and the noble crusaders prevented the Egyptians from destroying their camp .

In late October , Al @-@ Kamil sent messengers to the crusaders offering to restore Jerusalem , Bethlehem and Nazareth to them if they withdrew from Egypt . Although John and the secular lords were willing to accept the sultan 's offer , Pelagius and the heads of the military orders resisted ; they said that the Moslems could easily recapture the three towns . The crusaders ultimately refused the offer . Al @-@ Kamil tried to send provisions to Damietta across their camp , but his men were captured on 3 November . Two days later , the crusaders stormed into Damietta and seized the town . Pelagius claimed it for the church , but he was forced to acknowledge John 's right to administer it ( at least temporarily ) when John threatened to leave the crusaders ' camp . According to John of Joinville , John seized one @-@ third of Damietta 's spoils ; coins minted there during the following months bore his name . Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa , Sultan of Damascus , invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem and pillaged Caesarea before the end of 1219 .

John 's father @-@ in @-@ law , Leo I of Armenia , died several months before the crusaders seized Damietta . He bequeathed his kingdom to his infant daughter , Isabella . John and Raymond @-@ Roupen of Antioch ( Leo 's nephew ) questioned the will 's legality , each demanding the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia for themselves . In a February 1220 letter , Pope Honorius declared John Leo 's rightful heir . Saying that he wanted to assert his claim to Cilicia , John left Damietta for the Kingdom of Jerusalem around Easter 1220 . Although Al @-@ Mu 'azzam Isa 's successful campaign the previous year also pressed John to leave Egypt , Jacques de Vitry and other Fifth Crusade chroniclers wrote that he deserted the crusader army .

Stephanie died shortly after John 's arrival . Contemporary sources accused John of causing her sudden death , claiming that he severely beat her when he heard that she tried to poison his daughter Isabella . Their only son died a few weeks later , ending John 's claim to Cilicia . Soon after Pope Honorius learned about the deaths of Stephanie and her son , he declared Raymond @-@ Roupen the lawful ruler of Cilicia and threatened John with excommunication if he fought for his late wife 's inheritance .

John did not return to the crusaders in Egypt for several months . According to a letter from the prelates in the Holy Land to Philip II of France , lack of funds kept John from leaving his kingdom . Since his nephew Walter IV was approaching the age of majority , John surrendered the County of Brienne in 1221 . During John 's absence from Egypt , Al @-@ Kamil again offered to restore the Holy Land to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in June 1221 ; Pelagius refused him . John returned to Egypt and rejoined the crusade on 6 July 1221 at the command of Pope Honorius .

The commanders of the crusader army decided to continue the invasion of Egypt , despite ( according to Philip d 'Aubigny ) John 's strong opposition . The crusaders approached Mansurah , but the Egyptians imposed a blockade on their camp . Outnumbered , Pelagius agreed to an eight @-@ year truce with Al @-@ Kamil in exchange for Damietta on 28 August . John was among the crusade leaders held hostage by Al @-@ Kamil until the crusader army withdrew from Damietta on 8 September .

= = = Negotiations = = =

After the Fifth Crusade ended " in colossal and irremediable failure " , John returned to his kingdom . Merchants from Genoa and Pisa soon attacked each other in Acre , destoying a significant portion of the town . According to a Genoese chronicle , John supported the Pisans and the Genoese left Acre for Beirut .

John was the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe , and had decided to seek aid from the Christian powers before he returned from Egypt . He also wanted to find a suitable husband for his daughter , to ensure the survival of Christian rule in the Holy Land . John appointed Odo of Montbéliard as a bailli to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem in his absence .

He left for Italy in October 1222 to attend a conference about a new crusade . At John 's request , Pope Honorius declared that all lands conquered during the crusade should be united with the Kingdom of Jerusalem . To plan the military campaign , the pope and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II met at Ferentino in March 1223 ; John attended the meeting . He agreed to give his daughter in marriage to Frederick II after the emperor promised that he would allow John to rule the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the rest of his life .

John then went to France , although Philip II was annoyed at being excluded from the decision of Isabella 's marriage . Matilda I , Countess of Nevers , Erard II of Chacenay , Albert , Abbot of Vauluisant and other local potentates asked John to intervene in their conflicts , indicating that he was esteemed in his homeland . John attended the funeral of Philip II at the Basilica of St Denis in July ; Philip bequeathed more than 150 @,@ 000 marks for the defence of the Holy Land . John then visited England , attempting to mediate a peace treaty between England and France after his return to France .

He made a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in March 1224 . According to the Latin Chronicle of the Kings of Castile , John went to the Kingdom of León to marry one of the elder daughters of Alfonso IX of León ( Sancha or Dulce ) because Alfonso had promised him the kingdom " along with her " . The marriage could jeopardize the claim of Sancha 's and Dulce 's half @-@ brother , Ferdinand III of Castile , to León . To protect her son 's interests , Ferdinand 's mother Berengaria of Castile decided to give her daughter ( Berengaria of León ) to John in marriage . Although modern historians do not unanimously accept the chronicle 's account of John 's plan to marry Sancha or Dulce , they agree that the queen of France ( Blanche of Castile , Berengaria of Castile 's sister ) played an important role in convincing John to marry her niece . The marriage of John and Berengaria of León was celebrated in Burgos in May 1224 .

About three months later , he met Emperor Frederick 's son Henry in Metz and visited Henry 's guardian , Engelbert , Archbishop of Cologne . From Germany John went to southern Italy , where he persuaded Pope Honorius to allow Emperor Frederick to postpone his crusade for two years . Frederick married John 's daughter , Isabella ( who had been crowned queen of Jerusalem ) , on 9 November 1225 . John and Frederick 's relationship became tense . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , John got into a disagreement with his new son @-@ in @-@ law because Frederick seduced a niece of Isabella who was her lady @-@ in @-@ waiting . In the other version of the chronicle John often " chastised and reproved " his son @-@ in @-@ law , who concluded that John wanted to seize the Kingdom of Sicily for his nephew Walter IV of Brienne and tried to murder John ( who fled to Rome ) . Frederick declared that John had lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem when Isabella married him ; he styled himself king of Jerusalem for the first time in December 1225 . Balian of Sidon , Simon of Maugastel , Archbishop of Tyre , and the other Jerusalemite lords who had escorted Isabella to Italy acknowledged Frederick as their lawful king .

= = Papal service = =

Pope Honorius did not accept Frederick 's unilateral act , and continued to regard John as the rightful king of Jerusalem . In an attempt to take advantage of the revived Lombard League ( an alliance of northern Italian towns ) against Frederick II , John went to Bologna . According to a version of Ernoul 's chronicle , he declined an offer by the Lombard League representatives to elect him their king . Even though this account was fabricated , John remained in Bologna for over six months . The dying Pope Honorius appointed John rector of a Patrimony of Saint Peter in Tuscany ( part of the Papal States ) on 27 January 1227 , and urged Frederick II to restore him to the throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Honorius ' successor , Gregory IX , confirmed John 's position in the Papal States on 5 April and ordered the citizens of Perugia to elect him their podestà .

Gregory excommunicated Frederick II on 29 September 1227 , accusing him of breaking his oath to lead a crusade to the Holy Land ; the emperor had dispatched two fleets to Syria , but a plague forced them to return . His wife Isabella died after giving birth to a son , Conrad , in May 1228 . Frederick continued to consider himself king of Jerusalem , in accordance with the precedent set by John during Isabella 's minority .

The imperial army invaded the Papal States under the command of Rainald of Urslingen in October 1228 . Although John defeated the invaders in a series of battles , it took a counter @-@ invasion by another papal army in southern Italy to drive Rainald back to Sulmona . John laid a siege before returning to Perugia in early 1229 to conclude negotiations with envoys of the Latin Empire of Constantinople , who were offering him the imperial crown .

= = Emperor of Constantinople = =

= = = Election = = =

The Latin Emperor of Constantinople , Robert I , died in January 1228 . His brother Baldwin II succeeded him , but a regent was needed to rule the Latin Empire since Baldwin was ten years old . Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria was willing to accept the regency , but the barons of the Latin Empire suspected that he wanted to unite the Latin Empire with Bulgaria . They offered the imperial crown instead to John , an ally of the Holy See .

After months of negotiation , John and the envoys from the Latin Empire signed a treaty in Perugia which was confirmed by Pope Gregory on 9 April 1229 . John was elected emperor of the Latin Empire for life as senior co @-@ ruler with Baldwin II , who would marry John 's daughter Marie . The treaty also prescribed that although Baldwin would rule the Latin lands in Asia Minor when he was 20 years old , he would become sole emperor only after John 's death . John also stipulated that his sons would inherit Epirus and Macedonia , but the two regions still belonged to Emperor of Thessalonica Theodore Doukas .

After signing the treaty , John returned to Sulmona . According to the contemporary Matthew Paris , he allowed his soldiers to plunder nearby monasteries to obtain money . John lifted the siege of Sulmona in early 1229 to join Cardinal Pelagius , who launched a campaign against Capua . Frederick II ( who had crowned himself king of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ) returned to Italy , forcing the papal troops to withdraw .

John went to France to recruit warriors to accompany him to Constantinople . Pope Gregory did not proclaim John 's expedition to the Latin Empire a crusade , but promised papal privileges granted to crusaders to those who joined him . During his stay in France , John was again an intermediary between local potentates and signed a peace treaty between Louis IX of France and Hugh X of Lusignan . He returned to Italy in late 1230 . John 's envoys signed a treaty with Jacopo Tiepolo , Doge of Venice , who agreed to transport him and his retinue of 500 knights and 5 @,@ 000 commoners to Constantinople in return for John 's confirmation of Venetian possessions and privileges in the Latin Empire . Shortly after John left for Constantinople in August , Pope Gregory acknowledged Frederick II 's claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem .

= = = Rule = = =

John was crowned emperor in Hagia Sophia in autumn 1231 ; by then , his territory was limited to Constantinople and its vicinity . The Venetians urged him to wage war against John III Vatatzes , Emperor of Nicaea , who supported a rebellion against their rule in Crete . According to Philippe Mouskes ' Rhymed Chronicle , John could make " neither war nor peace " ; because he did not invade the Empire of Nicaea , most French knights who accompanied him to Constantinople returned home after his coronation . To strengthen the Latin Empire 's financial position , Geoffrey II of Achaea ( John 's most powerful vassal ) gave him an annual subsidy of 30 @,@ 000 hyperpyra after his coronation .

Taking advantage of John III Vatatzes ' invasion of Rhodes , John launched a military expedition across the Bosphorus against the Empire of Nicaea in 1233 . His three @-@ to @-@ four @-@ month campaign " achieved little , or nothing " ; the Latins only seized Pegai , now Biga in Turkey . With John 's approval , two Franciscan and two Dominican friars wanted to mediate a truce between the Latin Empire and Nicaea in 1234 but it was never signed . In a letter describing their negotiations , the friars described John as a " pauper " abandoned by his mercenaries .

John III Vatatzes and Ivan Asen II concluded a treaty dividing the Latin Empire in early 1235 . Vatatzes soon seized the last outposts of the empire in Asia Minor and Gallipoli , and Asen occupied the Latin territories in Thrace . Constantinople was besieged in an effort to persuade the defenders to gather in one place , enabling an invasion elsewhere . Although the besiegers outnumbered the defenders , John repelled all attacks on the town 's walls . Mouskes compared him to Hector , Roland , Ogier the Dane and Judas Maccabeus in his Rhymed Chronicle , emphasizing his bravery .

A Venetian fleet forced Vatatzes ' naval forces to withdraw , but after the Venetians departed for home the Greeks and Bulgarians besieged Constantinople again in November 1235 . John sent letters to European monarchs and the pope , pleading for assistance . Since the survival of the Latin Empire was in jeopardy , Pope Gregory urged the crusaders to defend Constantinople instead of the Holy Land . A combined naval force from Venice , Genoa , Pisa and Geoffrey II of Achaea broke through the blockade . Asen soon abandoned his alliance with Vatatzes , who was forced to lift the siege in 1236 .

= = = Death = = =

According to three 13th @-@ century authors ( Matthew Paris , Salimbene di Adam and Bernard of Besse ) , John became a Franciscan friar before his death . They agree that John 's declining health contributed to his conversion , but Bernard also described a recurring vision of an old man urging the emperor to join the Franciscans . Most 13th @-@ century sources suggest that John died between 19 and 23 March 1237 , the only Latin emperor to die in Constantinople .

According to the Tales of the Minstrel of Reims , he was buried in Hagia Sophia . Perry wrote that John , who died as a Franciscan friar , may have been buried in the Franciscan church dedicated to Saint Francis of Assisi which was built in Galata during his reign . In a third theory , proposed by Giuseppe Gerola , a tomb decorated with the Latin Empire coat of arms in Assisi 's Lower Basilica may have been built for John by Walter VI , Count of Brienne .

= = Family = =

John 's first wife ( Maria the Marquise , born 1191 ) was the only child of Isabella I of Jerusalem and her second husband , Conrad of Montferrat . Maria inherited Jerusalem from her mother in 1205 . John and Maria 's only child , Isabella ( also known as Yolanda ) , was born in late 1212 .

Stephanie of Armenia became John 's second wife in 1214 . She was the only daughter of Leo II of Armenia and his first wife , Isabelle ( niece of Sibylle , the third wife of Bohemond III of Antioch ) . Stephanie gave birth to a son in 1220 , but she and her son died that year .

John married his third wife , Berengaria of León , in 1224 ; she was born around 1204 to Alfonso IX of León and Berengaria of Castile . John and Berengaria 's first child , Marie , was born in 1224 . Their first son , Alphonse , was born during the late 1220s . Berengaria 's cousin , Louis IX of France , made him Grand Chamberlain of France and he acquired the County of Eu in France with his marriage . John 's second son , Louis , was born around 1230 . His youngest son , John , who was born in the early 1230s , was Grand Butler of France .

= Boise National Forest =

Boise National Forest is a federally protected area covering 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.@ 07 km2 ) of the U.S. state of Idaho as part of the national forest system . Created on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , it is managed by the U.S. Forest Service as four units : the Cascade , Emmett , Lowman , and Mountain Home ranger districts .

The Idaho Batholith underlays most of Boise National Forest , forming the forest 's Boise , Salmon River , and West mountain ranges ; the forest reaches a maximum elevation of 9 @,@ 730 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) on Steel Mountain . Common land cover includes sagebrush steppe and spruce @-@ fir forests ; there are 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) of streams and rivers and 15 @,@ 400 acres ( 62 km2 ) of lakes and reservoirs . Boise National Forest contains 75 percent of the known populations of Sacajawea 's bitterroot , a flowering plant endemic to Idaho .

The Shoshone people occupied the forest before European settlers arrived in the early 1800s . Many of the early settlers were trappers and prospectors before gold was discovered in 1862 . After the 1860s Boise Basin gold rush ended , mining of tungsten , silver , antimony , and gold continued in the forest until the mid @-@ twentieth century . Recreation opportunities and facilities include over 70 campgrounds , whitewater and flatwater boating , cabin rentals , and 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) of trails for hiking , biking , horseback riding , and motorized off @-@ road vehicle use . The Forest Service has an objective to maintain timber , range , water , recreation , and wildlife for multiple use and sustained yield of its resources .

= = History = =

Archaeological evidence indicates that human habitation in Idaho began towards the end of the last ice age : bone fragments about 10 @,@ 000 years old have been found in Wilson Butte Cave , an inflationary cave on the Snake River Plain believed to have been occupied by indigenous people until as recently as the 17th century . A change of climate around 7000 years ago dried up much of the Great Basin , forcing the Shoshone people northward into the mountainous areas of central Idaho . Most of what is now Boise National Forest was sparsely inhabited by Native Americans , and several archaeological sites , including campsites , rock shelters , burial grounds , and pictographs have been found along rivers in the area . Trappers and fur traders of European descent first arrived in the area in the early 1800s , starting with John Jacob Astor 's Pacific Fur Company in October 1811 . Donald Mackenzie and Francois Payette trapped in the area of Boise National Forest in 1819 . By 1840 the fur trade was coming to an end , but the westward migration on the Oregon Trail , which passed south of the forest , was beginning . The first settlers moved into the mountains in the 1860s after gold was discovered in Idaho , which forced many of the Shoshone out and led to conflicts throughout the state , including the Bannock War in southern Idaho .

Prospectors George Grimes and Moses Splawn were the first to discover gold in the forest at the eponymous Grimes Creek on August 2 , 1862 . Subsequent gold discoveries at Rocky Bar in 1863 and Atlanta in 1864 increased the rush of people to Idaho , and in 1863 Idaho City , with a population of 6 @,@ 267 , surpassed Portland , Oregon as the largest city in the Pacific Northwest . The Idaho gold rush was largely over by 1870 , and the population of the Boise Basin fell from 16 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 . In 1898 the forest 's first gold dredge was built in Placerville and followed by several others . By 1951 when the last dredges shut down , at least 2 @.@ 3 million ounces ( 65 @.@ 2 million grams ) of gold had been produced from the Boise Basin area . Silver was mined along the Crooked River from 1882 until 1921 , but a silver mine at Silver Mountain proved unsuccessful . Following a shortage of mercury during World War II , mines in the Stibnite area became the country 's largest producer of tungsten and second largest source of mercury . The most important known placer deposit of niobium and tantalum in the United States is located in Bear Valley . From 1953 until 1959 dredges there produced $ 12 @.@ 5 million ( $ 101 million today ) in niobium , tantalum , and uranium . Other minerals mined in the forest include antimony and molybdenum .

= = = U.S. Forest Service = = =

Boise National Forest was created on July 1 , 1908 from part of Sawtooth National Forest , and originally covered 1 @,@ 147 @,@ 360 acres ( 4 @,@ 643 @.@ 2 km2 ) . The U.S. President was given the authority to establish forest reserves administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior by the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 . With the passage of the Transfer Act of 1905 , forest reserves were transferred to the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the newly created U.S. Forest Service . Present @-@ day Boise National Forest was first protected as part of two forest reserves by proclamations issued by President Theodore Roosevelt : Sawtooth Forest Reserve ( created on May 29 , 1905 and expanded on November 6 , 1906 ) and Payette Forest Reserve ( created on June 3 , 1905 ) . After forest reserves were renamed national forests in 1908 , Boise National Forest was split from Sawtooth National Forest into an independent national forest . On April 1 , 1944 the entirety of what was then Payette National Forest was transferred to Boise National Forest , and simultaneously Weiser and Idaho national forests were combined to reestablish the present @-@ day Payette National Forest , which is to the north of Boise National Forest . In 1933 the Boise Basin Experimental Forest was created on 8 @,@ 740 acres ( 35 @.@ 4 km2 ) of the forest near Idaho City to study the management of ponderosa pine . The Lucky Peak Nursery was established in 1959 to produce trees for planting on burned or logged lands on the national forests of the Intermountain region .

After the creation of the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) in 1933 , nine camps and eight subcamps were set up in Boise National Forest , but the number of camps was reduced from 1934 until the program was closed in 1942 . Work conducted by the CCC included fire suppression , fish habitat improvement , and construction of guard houses , fire lookouts , campgrounds , roads , and trails , among other facilities .

= = Management = =

Boise National Forest is managed by the U.S. Forest Service , an agency within the Department of Agriculture , as five units called ranger districts . The ranger districts are Cascade ( 400 @,@ 000 acres or 1 @,@ 600 square kilometers ) , Emmett ( 350 @,@ 000 acres or 1 @,@ 400 square kilometers ) , Idaho City ( 400 @,@ 000 acres ) , Lowman ( 400 @,@ 000 acres ) , and Mountain Home ( 650 @,@ 000 acres or 2 @,@ 600 square kilometers ) ; each has an office in their respective cities and is managed by a district ranger , while forest headquarters are located in the city of Boise . Congress proclaimed 2 @,@ 648 @,@ 273 acres ( 10 @,@ 717 @.@ 18 km2 ) of Idaho part of Boise National Forest , but the forest manages only 2 @,@ 203 @,@ 703 acres ( 8 @,@ 918 @.@ 07 km2 ) . The proclaimed boundary is set and can only be changed by Congress whereas the administered boundary can be shifted among adjacent national forests without congressional approval . For management ( and from the visitor 's perspective ) the forest 's boundaries are its administered area .

= = Geography and geology = =

Elevations in the forest range from 2 @,@ 800 feet ( 850 m ) in the North Fork Payette River Canyon to 9 @,@ 730 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) at the top of Steel Mountain , a gain of 6 @,@ 930 feet ( 2 @,@ 110 m ) . The forest contains several subranges of the Rocky Mountains , including the Boise , Salmon River , and West mountain ranges . Much of the forest is underlain by the Idaho Batholith , and the forest is dominated by granitic rock , but intrusions of basalt can be found to the west and other volcanic rocks to the south .

North of the South Fork Payette River and east of the North Fork Payette River , the forest is part of the Salmon River Mountains , which extend north and east outside the forest 's boundaries . The South Fork Salmon River Range and the North Fork Range are subranges of the Salmon River Mountains within Boise National Forest . The Boise Mountains cover much of the southern portion of the forest and contain the forest 's highest point , Steel Mountain , but the range 's highest point , Two Point Mountain , lies outside of the forest 's boundary . The Trinity Mountains are a subrange in southeastern part of the Boise Mountains that reach their peak at 9 @,@ 451 feet ( 2 @,@ 881 m ) on Trinity Mountain . The westernmost portion of the forest south and west of Lake Cascade are part of the West Mountains , which reach their highest point at 8 @,@ 320 feet ( 2 @,@ 540 m ) on Snowbank Mountain . The Danskin Mountains are a smaller range on the forest 's southern border that run northwest to southeast .

= = = Waterways = = =

There are an estimated 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) of perennial and intermittent streams and 15 @,@ 400 acres ( 62 km2 ) of lakes and reservoirs in the forest . The Forest Service provides access to and recreation opportunities at the seven reservoirs it borders , although it does not own or manage them . There are numerous natural lakes in the forest , most of which are tarns created by alpine glaciers during the Pleistocene . The largest , Warm Lake , is 26 miles ( 42 km ) east of Cascade in Valley County ; many of the smaller lakes are in the Trinity and West mountains . Annual water yield on the forest is estimated at 4 @.@ 1 million acre @-@ feet ( 5 @.@ 1 × 109 m3 ) . The southern portion of the forest is drained by the Boise River , the central and western portions by the Payette River , northeastern portion by the Salmon River , and far western portions of the Emmett Ranger District by the Weiser River . All four rivers are tributaries of the Snake River , which itself is a tributary of the Columbia River in the Pacific basin .

= = Climate = =

Daily high temperatures range from 9 to 29 ° F ( − 13 to − 2 ° C ) in winter to 80 to 90 ° F ( 27 to 32 ° C ) in summer , while lower elevations can experience conditions over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Idaho 's mountain ranges can block Arctic air in the winter , but when cold air masses do enter the area , they sometimes stagnate in the Snake and Salmon river valleys , causing very cold temperatures to persist . Summer and fall are generally dry , while intense short @-@ duration thunderstorms can occur in late spring and early summer as atmospheric moisture interacts with warm temperatures and steep topography via orographic lifting . During winter , warm , moist air from the Pacific Ocean often brings rain at lower elevations in addition to snowfall throughout the forest . The influence of these Pacific maritime air masses increases as latitude increases in the forest . Average annual snowfall ranges from 55 inches ( 140 cm ) in drier areas and at lower elevations to 70 inches ( 180 cm ) in wetter locations and higher elevations . The growing season within the forest ranges from over 150 days in lower elevations to less than 30 days in alpine areas .

= = Natural resources = =

Boise National Forest is within the Idaho Batholith ecoregion , which is a level III ecoregion in the larger level I Northwestern Forested Mountains . In addition to species listed or proposed for listing as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act , the Forest Service maintains an independent listing of sensitive species for which it is directed to " develop and implement management practices to ensure that species do not become threatened or endangered because of Forest Service actions . " As of February 2013 there were 27 species in Boise National Forest listed as sensitive species : 6 mammals , 1 amphibian , 1 fish , 13 birds , and 6 plants .

= = = Flora = = =

An estimated 76 percent of Boise National Forest is forest , which according to the Forest Service is considered land capable of supporting trees on at least 50 percent of its area . The forests are primarily coniferous evergreens , dominated by Douglas fir and ponderosa and lodgepole pines at lower elevations and Engelmann spruce , subalpine fir , and whitebark pine at higher elevations . Grand fir and western larch ( a coniferous deciduous tree ) grow in the northern part of the forest where there are moister conditions . Quaking aspen , a broadleaf deciduous tree , grows both in stands among conifers and in monotypic stands throughout the forest at elevations above 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Non @-@ forested areas occupy 23 percent of the forest , primarily on south @-@ facing slopes , lower elevations in the forest 's southern latitudes , or high @-@ elevation areas and are dominated by grasses , forbs , or shrubs .

Sacajawea 's bitterroot is a plant species endemic to central Idaho , including parts of Boise National Forest , being found nowhere else in the world . Only about two dozen populations of the plant are known to exist , and three @-@ quarters of these are in Boise National Forest . It is usually found at elevations ranging from 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 9 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) above sea level and produces white flowers shortly after snowmelt .

Boise National Forest is directed by the U.S. Forest Service to " control the establishment , spread , or invasion of non @-@ indigenous plant species in otherwise healthy native vegetative ecosystems . " The forest 's plan addresses the need to control invasive plants , and management efforts include chemical , mechanical , and biological control methods . Invasive plants that are of particular concern in Boise National Forest include spotted knapweed , yellow star @-@ thistle , rush skeletonweed , and leafy spurge , among others .

= = = Vegetation communities = = =

The warmest , driest forested areas occur on south @-@ facing slopes from 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) to 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) . Due to the occurrence of frequent non @-@ lethal fires , ponderosa pine dominates these forests alongside Douglas fir . The understory consists of bluebunch wheatgrass , Idaho fescue , mountain snowberry , and bitterbrush in drier areas and elk sedge , pinegrass , white spirea , mallow ninebark , and common snowberry at higher elevations .

In cool , moist areas ranging from 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 6 @,@ 800 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , Douglas fir is predominant . Lodgepole pine and quaking aspen may be found alongside Douglas fir in cooler areas , both moist and dry , but particularly where frost pockets form . Understories in this forest type are dominated by mountain maple , mountain ash , and blue huckleberry in moister areas and white spirea , common snowberry , elk sedge , and pinegrass in drier areas . Between 3 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) and 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) in the moist northern parts of the forest , grand fir is predominant and western larch is one of the first trees to become established during ecological succession following disturbances , whereas understories consist of mountain maple , mountain ash , blue huckleberry , and mallow ninebark . Subalpine fir dominates from 4 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) to 7 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) along with mountain maple , serviceberry , Scouler 's willow , Sitka alder , menziesia , Utah honeysuckle , and mountain ash .

Lodgepole pine dominates in cold , dry areas from 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) to 9 @,@ 200 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) . The understory in lodgepole pine forests can be sparse but includes grasses , forbs , huckleberries , and grouse whortleberry , although fires in these forests are typically lethal to trees and understories alike . At the highest elevations , forests consist of subalpine fir alongside whitebark pine and Engelmann spruce . Grasses and forbs tolerant to freezing throughout the growing season occupy the understory .

Sagebrush typically dominates drier , non @-@ forested areas at lower elevations . Species that commonly occur with sagebrush include Sandberg bluegrass , wild onion , milk vetches , bluebunch wheatgrass , bitterbrush , gray horsebrush , green rabbitbrush , and others . In riparian areas below 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) , trees such as black cottonwood , narrowleaf cottonwood , thinleaf alder , water birch , and mountain maple grow with shrubs including chokeberry and willows . Riparian areas in largely treeless habitats such as sagebrush steppe primarily consist of willows along with thinleaf alder , chokecherry , mountain maple , shrubby cinquefoil , fireweed , saxifrage , and grasses .

= = = Fauna = = =

Habitats in Boise National Forest support nearly 300 terrestrial vertebrate species and 28 fish species . The most common large animals are mule deer and elk , but other mammals present include moose , black bears , pronghorn , mountain lions , coyote , bobcat , yellow @-@ bellied marmot , beaver , and gray wolves .

Gray wolves are top predators that were reintroduced amidst controversy to central Idaho in the mid @-@ 1990s to restore ecosystem stability . The wolves have since expanded their range and established packs in most of Boise National Forest . Wolves and mountain lions are the forest 's top large mammal predators and have no predators of their own except humans . Most of the forest 's native mammal species are present in the forest , with the exception of grizzly bears , which have become locally extinct , and plans for their reintroduction to central Idaho have been proposed since the 1990s but have not progressed .

Of the 28 fish species present in the forest , 11 are not native and have been introduced by humans . Rainbow trout , chinook salmon , westslope cutthroat trout , bull trout , and mountain whitefish are all native to some of the forest 's waterways , while brook trout are a common invasive species that compete with the forest 's salmonids . The forest 's management indicator species is bull trout because they are sensitive to habitat changes and depend on specific habitat conditions . Sockeye salmon are native to the Salmon River watershed in the northern part of the forest , but dam construction on the Columbia and Snake rivers has hampered the migration of this anadromous fish and caused its population to collapse . Warm Lake supports the forest 's only native population of Kokanee salmon , the resident ( non @-@ migratory ) form of sockeye salmon . However , due to introductions by humans , Anderson Ranch , Arrowrock , Lucky Peak , and Deadwood reservoirs now support populations of Kokanee salmon . To provide additional recreational fishing opportunities , the Idaho Department of Fish and Game stocks several of the forest 's waterways with rainbow trout , while reservoirs are also stocked with Kokanee or chinook salmon and Lake Cascade is stocked with coho salmon and steelhead , the anadromous form of rainbow trout .

Over 270 bird species have been observed in central Idaho , including 36 accidental species – those that are not normally found in the region but have been observed on at least one occasion . Golden eagles and greater sage @-@ grouse can be found over sagebrush steppe , whereas bald eagles can be seen along rivers . The Forest Service has listed northern goshawks , flammulated owls , and white @-@ headed woodpeckers as a sensitive species in the forest .

The few amphibians present in the forest include the Rocky Mountain tailed frog , long @-@ toed salamander , and Columbia spotted frog , which has been listed as a sensitive species . Common snakes include bullsnakes , garter snakes , and rubber boas .

= = = Fire ecology = = =

Boise National Forest 's 2010 forest plan recognizes that fire and other disturbances play important roles in maintaining the character and function of ecosystems . However , previous management strategies ( as recently as the 1990 forest plan ) treated fire as an undesirable process , and the Organic Act of 1897 explicitly stated that forests were to be protected from destruction by fire . In historic conditions fires naturally occurred on the landscape ; the suppression of fires allowed dead trees to accumulate in excess of historic levels and land cover types to change , such as a shift to higher shrub and tree densities . An estimated 14 percent of the land in Boise National Forest has been affected by fires since the early 1990s , and about 10 percent of the land capable of timber production was burned so severely that land cover shifted from forest to grass and shrubland ( as of 2010 ) .

Between 2004 and 2013 an average of 74 @,@ 325 acres ( 300 @.@ 78 km2 ) were burned by fires per year with a maximum of 346 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 402 km2 ) in 2007 and a minimum of 152 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) in 2008 . For example , in 2012 there were 26 fires started by people and 109 started by lightning , which together burned a total of 152 @,@ 000 acres ( 620 km2 ) . The Trinity Ridge Fire alone burned 146 @,@ 800 acres ( 594 km2 ) over two months , although it was not confined to Boise National Forest lands .

The revised 2010 forest plan recognized the need to develop plans to manage wildfires at the wildland – urban interface , use prescribed fire as a tool to manage ecosystem health , and meet air quality requirements set by the Clean Air Act . The forest operates a fire management plan under federal fire policy that gives fire personnel direction for responding to unintended ignitions . Occasionally , area closures and restrictions on use , such as prohibition of campfires , are implemented to aid in wildfire prevention . Following severe fires , area closures may be put in place to protect the public from risks such as falling trees and landslides . Proactive fire management strategies include prescribed burns and mechanical reduction of fuel levels . For instance , in 2014 Boise National Forest planned to conduct 7 @,@ 919 acres ( 32 @.@ 05 km2 ) of prescribed burns and 155 acres ( 0 @.@ 63 km2 ) of mechanical treatment . The forest seasonally maintains staff at seven fire lookout towers , while six others remain unstaffed .

= = Recreation = =

There are over 70 campgrounds in Boise National Forest and groups of more developed recreation facilities at the Trinity Mountains , Warm Lake , and Deadwood and Sage Hen reservoirs . As in most national forests , the majority of the land in Boise National Forest is open to dispersed camping ( outside of developed campgrounds ) . One of the forest 's fire lookouts , Deadwood Lookout , is now available as a cabin for the public to rent , among other sites . Bicycles are allowed on forest roads and on more than 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) of multiple @-@ use trails , whereas over 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of trails are open to motorized recreation . The Danskin Mountains Off @-@ Highway Vehicle Trail System contains 150 miles ( 240 km ) of motorcycle and ATV trails on 60 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 @,@ 000 ha ) of land that is generally open from April through November . The forest 's Trinity Mountain Recreation Area includes the highest drivable ( 4 @-@ wheel drive recommended ) road in Idaho , which ascends to the Trinity Mountain Lookout at an elevation of over 9 @,@ 400 feet ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) . In 2013 revenues from recreation and special use fees amounted to $ 454 @,@ 635 , while expenses totaled US $ 352 @,@ 550 ; the difference is allocated to the following season 's startup costs .

= = = Waterways = = =

Rivers in Boise National Forest offer the opportunity for rafting and kayaking through rapids up to class four , with the most difficult sections on the South Fork and main stems of the Payette River . Numerous developed boat launch sites provide access to rivers for whitewater enthusiasts , and Dagger Falls is the primary launching site for visitors to the Middle Fork of the Salmon River and Frank Church River of No Return Wilderness . Motorized boating is permitted on Anderson Ranch Reservoir , Deadwood Reservoir , and Warm Lake .

= = = Winter activities = = =

During winter , visitors to the forest can participate in activities including snowmobiling , snowshoeing , and downhill and cross @-@ country skiing . The Bogus Basin ski area is located within the forest north of Boise and has 7 chairlifts and 53 runs on 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 11 km2 ) of skiable terrain . There are 137 miles ( 220 km ) of groomed snowmobile trails in the Garden Valley system in the Emmett Ranger District and several Mongolian @-@ style yurts available for rental in winter .

= = = Scenic roads = = =

Boise National Forest is home to three of Idaho 's scenic byways , all of which are paved highways accessible to roadworthy vehicles . The Payette River Scenic Byway is an 80 @-@ mile ( 130 km ) route between Eagle and McCall on Idaho State Highway 55 . The route follows the Payette River between McCall and Horseshoe Bend , but the majority of the highway does not pass through Boise National Forest ; only a small portion north of Horseshoe Bend is in the Emmett Ranger District . Over half of the 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) Wildlife Canyon Scenic Byway , which travels between highway 55 and Lowman , passes through the forest , parallels the South Fork of the Payette River , and is signed as the Banks @-@ Lowman Road . The Ponderosa Pine Scenic Byway is a 130 @-@ mile ( 210 km ) road between Stanley and Boise following Idaho State Highway 21 . This route passes over Arrowrock Reservoir and through Idaho City and Lowman , where it connects with the Wildlife Canyon Byway . North and east of Lowman the byway partially follows the South Fork of the Payette River before ascending to the 7 @,@ 037 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 145 m ) Banner Creek Summit at the forest 's boundary with Salmon @-@ Challis National Forest .

= Pokiri =

Pokiri ( English : Rogue ) is a 2006 Indian Telugu @-@ language action film , written and directed by Puri Jagannadh . The film was produced by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni by their respective production companies Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions . The film stars Mahesh Babu and Ileana D 'Cruz ; Prakash Raj , Nassar and Sayaji Shinde appear in prominent roles . The plot revolves around the life of an undercover police officer , Krishna Manohar , who infiltrates a mafia gang headed by a Dubai @-@ based don Ali Bhai , under the pseudonym Pandu .

Made on a budget of around ₹ 100 — 120 million , the film 's principal photography commenced in November 2005 and lasted until April 2006 . Most of the film was shot in and around Hyderabad and Chennai , except for a song which was shot at the province of Phuket in Thailand and the city of Bangkok . Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer , and it was edited by Marthand K. Venkatesh . The soundtrack and background score were composed by Mani Sharma .

Pokiri was released on 28 April 2006 , to positive critical feedback , and collected a distributor 's share of ₹ 420 million . The film grossed ₹ 660 million worldwide and remained the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film for three years , until it was surpassed by Magadheera in 2009 . The film was also one of the fourteen southern Indian films to be screened at the International Indian Film Academy Awards ( IIFA ) Film festival in 2006 . The film won four Nandi Awards and two Filmfare Awards . The film 's success catapulted D 'Cruz into stardom and brought recognition to Jagannadh as a writer and director .

The film was remade into Tamil as Pokkiri in 2007 by Prabhu Deva with Vijay and Asin portraying the lead roles . Deva remade the film into Hindi as Wanted in 2009 with Salman Khan and Ayesha Takia portraying the lead roles . In 2010 , the film was again remade in Kannada as Porki by M. V. Sridhar with Darshan and Pranitha Subhash portraying the lead roles .

= = Plot = =

In Hyderabad , two rival mafia gangs headed by Dubai @-@ based don Ali Bhai , and Narayana resort to criminal activities such as extortion , murder , and coercion for various reasons . The new commissioner of police , Sayyad Mohammad Pasha Qadri , focuses on making the city a better place by working at arresting all of them . Pandu , a remorseless gangster living in Hyderabad along with his friends , is hired by Narayana and attacks Ali Bhai 's henchmen . He later joins Ali Bhai 's gang for monetary reasons . He falls in love with Shruti , an aerobics teacher , who rejects his advances .

Shruti lives with her widowed mother and brother and her neighbour Brahmi , a software engineer , who pesters her to marry him . A corrupt police officer named Pasupathy , who works for Ali Bhai , is attracted to Shruti . He is determined to make her his mistress , undeterred by Shruti 's multiple rejections . After Pandu kills a henchman of Narayana , he is confronted by Pasupathy and is able to prevent Shruti from being molested . She meets him the next day to thank him , and Pandu introduces himself as a self @-@ employed person who undertakes any activity for money . They develop unspoken romantic feelings for each other angering Pasupathy .

Shruti 's employer , Suryanarayana , suggests that she marry the man she loves . To repel Pasupathy 's advances , she meets Pandu and proposes to him . After an attack by Narayana 's henchmen , who are murdered by Pandu , he reveals that he is a gangster and suggests that she might want to rethink her proposal . After Shruti distances herself from Pandu , Pasupathy frames her with a mock sexual assault by a few gangsters unbeknownst to her family and the other villagers . He intends this act to ruin her life and subsequently force her to be his mistress . Learning this , Pandu confronts Pasupathy and warns him that he will face dire consequences if he is found guilty of being involved .

Ali Bhai visits Hyderabad and assassinates Narayana . He meets Pandu to discuss the murder of a minister by blowing up a balloon . Pandu rejects this as it would involve killing innocents . At the same time as they are arguing , Qadri arrests Ali Bhai and tortures him . Ali Bhai 's henchmen retaliate by filming Qadri 's daughter as she is enticed into sexual activity by the minister 's son , and release it to the media . They also kidnap her , forcing the police to release Ali Bhai . At the same time , Pandu manages to catch the gangsters who pretended to rape Shruti and she reconciles with him .

Qadri 's daughter is sedated and reveals that an undercover police officer , whose father 's name is Suryanarayana , had infiltrated the gang for some time . Ali Bhai kills Suryanarayana 's son Ajay , assuming he is the informant . However , Suryanarayana reveals that Ajay was his adopted son , and that Pandu is actually Krishna Manohar I. P. S. , his biological son , who had infiltrated his gang at Qadri 's direction . Suryanarayana is killed and Manohar forces Pasupathy to kill Ali Bhai before he initiates his plan to set off bombs across Hyderabad .

Manohar kills Ali Bhai 's henchmen one by one at Binny Mills . Ali Bhai offers Pasupathy a hefty sum to kill Manohar but his attempt fails . In a final confrontation , Manohar kills Ali Bhai by slitting his throat . Qadri 's daughter is saved and when Pasupathy tries to backstab Manohar , he is shot dead by the latter who then says , " Okkasari commit ayitte , naa maata nene vinanu " ( English : Once I commit myself , I 'll never back off ) .

= = Cast = =

= = Production = =

= = = Origin = = =

In 2004 , after Andhrawala ' s commercial failure , its director Puri Jagannadh planned a film titled Sri Krishnudu from Surabhi Company starring Chiranjeevi in the lead role . He later decided that explaining the story to Chiranjeevi , talking him into accepting the role , and filming the movie , would be a long , tiring process . He chose instead to revive the script of Uttam Singh S / O Suryanarayana which he had written during the production of Badri ( 2000 ) . He approached Pawan Kalyan to play the lead role , but he declined it . Later , he approached Ravi Teja who agreed to play the lead ; Nagendra Babu was to produce the film . However , Teja was approached by Cheran , an award winning director , to remake the 2004 Tamil film Autograph in Telugu . Teja was eager to be involved in the remake as he liked the original very much . As a result , the production Uttam Singh S / O Suryanarayana was temporarily shelved . Jagannadh meanwhile directed and produced 143 ( 2004 ) . Teja had backed out of participating in it citing scheduling conflicts with other existing commitments . Jagannadh wanted to experiment by casting Sonu Sood in the lead role but this too failed to materialise .

On 3 November 2004 , Jagannadh met Mahesh Babu at the Taj Hotel in Hyderbad to outline the film 's plot . It told the story of Uttam Singh , an undercover police officer , infiltrating a mafia gang as a criminal , with the intention of killing its kingpin . Mahesh liked the script but suggested Jagannadh tweak the script 's backdrop to suit the Telugu @-@ speaking peoples ' sensibilities . Jagannadh agreed and also replaced the existing title with Pokiri . Mahesh wanted the film 's production to begin in 2005 allowing him to complete his current commitments . While he waited for Mahesh , Jagannadh directed Akkineni Nagarjuna in Super ( 2005 ) . While reworking the script , Jagannadh took inspiration from Marana Mrudangam ( 1988 ) and State Rowdy ( 1989 ) . Pokiri was produced jointly by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni 's production companies , Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions respectively , on a budget of ₹ 100 — 120 million .

= = = Cast and crew = = =

For Pokiri , Mahesh sported a longer hair style than in his previous films and shed five kilograms of weight . He used a new wardrobe and the same pair of shoes throughout the film . Jagannadh wanted to cast Ayesha Takia as the female lead . Due to a last minute change , the makers opted to replace Takia and considered several actresses including Deepika Padukone . Jagannadh approached Parvati Melton to play the female lead . She declined the offer because , at that time , her parents were against her decision to become an actress . He also approached Kangana Ranaut who could not accept the role because of scheduling conflicts with the filming of her scenes in Gangster ( 2006 ) . After seeing stills of Ileana D 'Cruz in her Telugu debut Devadasu ( 2006 ) , Jagannadh signed her as the female lead since he needed a girl who looked like a teenager to play the role of the aerobics teacher .

Prakash Raj and Ashish Vidyarthi were cast as the film 's primary antagonists . Raj played a mafia kingpin and Vidyarthi played a corrupt police officer , a villain 's role he finds more fun to play than that of a hero . Sayaji Shinde and Nassar played the two other principal characters in the film . Jyothi Rana played the role of the mafia kingpin 's moll , marking her debut in Telugu cinema . Isai and Subbaraju portrayed negative roles as well , with the former also making his debut in Telugu cinema . Ali played the role of a beggar and shared screen @-@ space with Brahmanandam and Venu Madhav . Jagannadh added this trio to the film to provide situational humour . Master Bharath played the role of D 'Cruz 's brother . Mumaith Khan performed an item number in the film .

Jagannadh wrote the film 's story , screenplay and dialogue with Meher Ramesh assisting him as script associate . Though having worked with Chakri many times in the past , at Mahesh 's suggestion , Jagannadh instead chose Mani Sharma to compose the film 's music . Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer and Marthand K. Venkatesh its editor . Chinna and Krishna were the film 's art director and executive producer respectively .

= = = Filming = = =

Pokiri was shot predominantly in and around Hyderabad , especially in the Annapurna Studios , the aluminium factory near Gachibowli , Gayathri Hills and the Golconda Fort in 100 working days , from November 2005 to April 2006 . Most of the scenes were shot in a single take though it took time for Mahesh to adjust to Jagannadh 's style of filmmaking . Chennai @-@ based stylist Chaitanya Rao designed the costume styling for Mahesh and D 'Cruz . By late February 2006 , eighty percent of the film shoot had been completed with the film 's climax and two songs remaining . This made it Mahesh 's fastest shot Telugu film with him in the lead role .

The song " Gala Gala " was shot in the province of Phuket in Thailand , and the city of Bangkok . Prior to the filming of the song " Jagadame " , Shyam K. Naidu was busy on the set of Munna ( 2007 ) and was unable to shoot it so cinematographer K. V. Guhan , who had worked on Mahesh 's Athadu ( 2005 ) , was recruited instead . The film 's climax sequences were shot in March 2006 at the defunct Binny Mills located in Chennai under the supervision of FEFSI Vijayan . He suggested that Jagannadh include a scene where Prakash Raj fails to hear anything for a while after he is hit by Mahesh during the climax sequence .

Mahesh stated in an interview that he had to shoot the film 's climax and two songs continuously for thirty @-@ eight days , adding that he had to visit a hospital to be treated for shoulder pain . During the shooting of an underwater sequence , a few electrical lights were used . The electricians changed the lines , creating a short circuit which resulted in the death of one of the unit members . Mahesh had gotten out of the pool two seconds before the accident happened which he termed a " miracle " .

= = Music = =

The official soundtrack of Pokiri was composed by Mani Sharma , with lyrics written by Bhakarabhatla , Kandikonda and Viswa . Jagannadh wanted Sharma to compose six songs , with two duets between the lead pair , three solo numbers by the male lead , and an item number . During the shoot of Sivamani ( 2003 ) , Jagannadh listened to the song " Listen to the Falling Rain " which sounded like the song " Gala Gala Parutunna Godarila " from the Telugu film Gowri ( 1974 ) . He later came to learn that the latter song was inspired by the former , and he decided to reuse the same tune with modernised instruments and different lyrics . Sharma was accused of copying the tune of the song " Jaleo " composed by Ricky Martin for the song " Devuda " sung by Naveen .

The film 's soundtrack , marketed by Aditya Music , was released on 4 April 2006 , at Hotel Viceroy in Hyderabad with Mahesh 's father Krishna attending the event as the guest of honour . Sify called the soundtrack a peppy one and chose " Gala Gala " as the pick of the album . IndiaGlitz called it a " run of the mill " album that lacks freshness . The reviewer chose " Devuda " , " Gala Gala " and " Ippatikinka " as the picks of the album , rating each 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Cinegoer rated the soundtrack 3 out of 5 stars and stated : " The first time you hear Pokiri , the sound of it is good ; it doesn 't start to grow on you after a while , but a few of the numbers are hummable and ring in your ears " , calling it a " mixed bag for Mani Sharma " . The reviewer chose " Dole Dole " and " Gala Gala " as the picks of the album , rating each 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 .

= = Release and reception = =

Pokiri was scheduled for a worldwide release on 21 April 2006 . Due to delays in post @-@ production activities , the film 's release was postponed to 28 April 2006 , clashing with the release of Bangaram and Veerabhadra . The film received an ' A ' ( Adults only ) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification for containing obscene sequences and excessive violence . Dil Raju 's Sri Venkateswara Creations , Mallikharjuna films and Great India films acquired the theatrical distribution rights of Nizam , Ceded and overseas regions respectively . Pokiri was one of the fourteen southern Indian films that were screened at the IIFA film festival 2006 held at the Dubai International Convention Centre in Dubai , United Arab Emirates .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Reviewing the film , The Hindu wrote : " An out and out action flick , one can see the director 's thirst to cash in on the audience craze for such films . Nevertheless it 's Mahesh Babu 's show all the way . " Regarding Mahesh 's performance in the film , Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu wrote : " Mahesh 's understated performance in Pokiri allows him to effortlessly reclaim the title of a star , overshadowing more questionable recent career choices " . Sify stated that Pokiri was designed as a : " mass masala extravaganza which satisfies the undemanding viewers " . The reviewer added that Mahesh 's screen presence works to the advantage of the film .

Rediff stated : " Sporting a new , rugged look , ' Prince ' Mahesh Babu has stolen the show . He carries the film on his shoulders , consolidating his winning streak after last year 's Athadu . Another highlight of the film is its well @-@ choreographed action sequences ( if you can digest the violence ) , which give it a slick look . " IndiaGlitz gave a positive review stating : " In Pokiri , the hero is introduced to us a ruthless baddie , part of the huge underbelly of mafia . By the time we come to the denouement , there is much twist and turn . If you like some racy action , fun , glamour and love , then Pokiri would be your kind of film . "

= = = Box office = = =

According to Sify , Pokiri took an " extraordinary " opening across the globe and was able to cash in on the four @-@ day weekend holiday . Pokiri was released in a single screen , the Jayaprada theatre in Chennai , where 98 @.@ 5 % of seats were sold putting it in second place in the city 's box office chart , which Sify called an " awesome " feat . The film completed a fifty @-@ day run on 17 June 2006 , in nearly 300 centres and had earned US $ 350 @,@ 000 to become the highest grossing Telugu film in the United States . By July 2006 , the film had earned approximately ₹ 350 — 400 million and become the highest grossing Telugu film of all time . The film earned ₹ 120 million in the Nizam region alone , breaking the previous record set in the region by Indra ( 2002 ) and earned approximately ₹ 25 million at the United States box office .

The film completed a 100 @-@ day run in 200 centres and a 175 @-@ day run in 63 centres . The film completed a 200 @-@ day run in 15 centres , and a 365 @-@ day run at a theatre in Kurnool , becoming the first Telugu film to do so in the last two and a half decades . The film was screened in Bhagiratha theatre , Kurnool for 500 days at the rate of four shows per day and collected a share of ₹ 6 million . In its lifetime , Pokiri grossed ₹ 660 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 420 million at the global box office . It held that position until 2009 when Magadheera pushed it to second place after its nine @-@ day run .

= = = Awards = = =

= = Remakes = =

The film has been remade in various languages across India . The film was remade into Tamil as Pokkiri by Prabhu Deva featuring Vijay and Asin in the lead roles , and marked Deva 's debut as a director of Tamil cinema . Deva remade the film into Hindi as Wanted in 2009 featuring Salman Khan and Ayesha Takia . Wanted became the second highest grossing Hindi film of all time at that point . Pokiri was remade into Kannada as Porki in 2010 by M. D. Sridhar featuring Darshan and Pranitha Subhash in the lead roles .

= = Legacy = =

Pokiri 's success elevated Mahesh to super @-@ stardom and brought recognition to Jagannadh as a writer and director . The sequences featuring Brahmanandam as a software engineer , the comedy track of Ali and Brahmanandam , Mahesh asking D 'Cruz to give him upma at the railway station were acclaimed . The fashion trend of wearing doctor sleeves increased in Andhra Pradesh after Mahesh sported them and they continue to influence fashion even today . After the film 's release , many films were released subsequently that had titles bordering on cuss words including Jagannadh 's next film Desamuduru ( 2006 ) . Mahesh revealed that he became confused after the film 's success :

It was such a huge hit , that if someone came to me with a script , I would approach the result of the film before approaching the character . I only wanted to act in movies that were like Pokiri , I think that was a mistake . It all got to me and I felt that I needed a break from films itself . Initially , I wanted just a seven @-@ month break . I signed Khaleja after nine months , but it just kept getting delayed and the break ended up becoming a two @-@ year @-@ long holiday . But I didn 't freak out ... I relaxed for the first time in life .

Pokiri was D 'Cruz 's breakthrough film in Telugu . In June 2006 , Trade analyst Sridhar Pillai said that the Andhra Pradesh trade felt that her glamour , screen presence , and on @-@ screen chemistry with Mahesh worked to the film 's advantage . Pillai called her the " new pin @-@ up girl of Telugu cinema " . Talking about being typecast after her success in Ye Maaya Chesave ( 2010 ) as its female lead , Samantha Ruth Prabhu cited the example of D 'Cruz being typecast in similar roles after the success of Pokiri saying that it had become mandatory for her to wear a bikini in every film since .

Pokiri was parodied by several films . In Desamuduru , the character Gudumba Shankar , a saint played by Ali , is seen imitating Mahesh 's mannerism from the song " Dole Dole " . Brahmanandam 's introduction scene in the film Jalsa ( 2008 ) is a spoof of Mahesh 's introduction as a police in Pokiri . The same sequence was spoofed in the films Sudigadu ( 2012 ) where the protagonist is named Shiva Manohar I. P. S. , and also in Race Gurram ( 2014 ) . In Dookudu ( 2011 ) , Mahesh is briefly seen as a film director who makes Prithviraj and M. S. Narayana recite the dialogue " Evvadu Kodithe Dimma Thirigi mind block aipodhdho , vaade Pandugaadu " from Pokiri . The protagonist in Eega ( 2012 ) , a fly , imitates Mahesh 's mannerisms from the song " Jagadame " after injuring the antagonist played by Sudeep .

= 2008 Bahrain Grand Prix =

The 2008 Bahrain Grand Prix ( formally the V Gulf Air Bahrain Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 6 April 2008 at the Bahrain International Circuit , in Sakhir , Bahrain . It was the third race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 57 @-@ lap race was won by Felipe Massa for the Ferrari team . Kimi Räikkönen was second in the other Ferrari , and BMW Sauber driver Robert Kubica was third .

The race began with Kubica in pole position alongside Massa ; Lewis Hamilton , the eventual Drivers ' Champion , started from third , alongside Räikkönen . Kubica was passed by Massa into the first corner , and then by Räikkönen on the third lap . The Ferraris dominated at the front of the race , leading to their one @-@ two finish . Hamilton had a slow start after almost stalling on the grid , and dropped back to ninth . The McLaren driver ran into the back of Fernando Alonso 's Renault a lap later , breaking off the McLaren 's front wing and dropping Hamilton to the back of the field .

Kubica 's strong finish promoted BMW Sauber to the lead in the Constructors ' Championship , after BMW driver Nick Heidfeld finished fourth . Ferrari and McLaren trailed , one and two points behind , respectively . Räikkönen took the lead in the Drivers ' Championship , with 19 points , three points ahead of Heidfeld and five ahead of Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen , with 15 races remaining in the season .

= = Report = =

= = = Background = = =

The Grand Prix was contested by 22 drivers , in 11 teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull Racing , Williams , Toro Rosso and Super Aguri . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race ; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves .

Prior to the race , McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton led the Drivers ' Championship with 14 points , and Ferrari driver Kimi Räikkönen was second with 11 points . Behind Hamilton and Räikkönen in the Drivers ' Championship , Nick Heidfeld was third , also with 11 points , in a BMW Sauber , and Hamilton 's McLaren teammate Heikki Kovalainen was fourth with 10 points . Heidfeld 's teammate Robert Kubica was fifth with eight points . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren – Mercedes were leading with 24 points , five points ahead of BMW Sauber . Ferrari were third with 11 points .

Ferrari dominated the previous round in Malaysia , where Felipe Massa had claimed pole position , and led his teammate Räikkönen in second place through the opening stages of the race , before spinning off and retiring midway through . Räikkönen went on to win the race , and expressed his optimism about Bahrain : " I have finished third in three successive Grands Prix in Bahrain . Time and again something has gone wrong . Sakhir is one of those circuits where I really want to win . Finally . "

In the opening two races , Massa came under fire from the press for two errors that left him without points : a collision with Red Bull driver David Coulthard in Australia and his spin at Malaysia . Massa promised that the first two races would not be indicative of the rest of the season : " It was not the start to the season that I wanted , but there are still 16 races to go and 160 points up for grabs . In the next few races I plan to get back all the points I have lost in the opening two rounds . "

Hamilton won the opening race in Australia , but managed to finish only fifth after a qualifying penalty and a botched pit stop in Malaysia . The season began well for Kubica , as he qualified second in Australia and finished second in Malaysia . Kubica predicted his team could maintain their momentum into the third race : " I 'm confident that we can be very competitive here as well . "

A week before the start of the Grand Prix weekend , the News of the World alleged that Max Mosley , the president of Formula One 's governing body , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , had engaged in sexual acts with five prostitutes . While Mosley denied the allegations , he cancelled his scheduled appearance at the Bahrain Grand Prix . Several teams condemned Mosley 's alleged actions and asked for his resignation , and while for a time the controversy threatened to overshadow the race , Mosley eventually retained his position and successfully sued the News of the World for the report .

= = = Practice and qualifying = = =

Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . The Ferraris outpaced the other teams in the first session on a dusty track surrounded by the sand dune desert of Sakhir . Massa 's time of 1 : 32 @.@ 233 was quicker than Räikkönen 's , who was slowed down by an early excursion across the sand , requiring a pit stop . Nico Rosberg of Williams , Hamilton , McLaren driver Heikki Kovalainen , Williams driver Kazuki Nakajima and Kubica rounded out the top seven . In the second session , Hamilton lost control of his car and slid sideways into a wall . Hamilton emerged unharmed from the collision , but his McLaren suffered significant damage . Except for the crash , the second session ended like the first : once again , Massa led Räikkönen to Ferrari one @-@ two , ahead of Kovalainen , Hamilton and Kubica . The third session was again held on a dusty track , where Rosberg was quickest with a time of 1 : 32 @.@ 521 . Massa took second , ahead of Red Bull driver Mark Webber , Toyota driver Jarno Trulli , David Coulthard of Red Bull , Nakajima and Kubica . Räikkönen was ninth quickest , and Hamilton 18th .

The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes , and cars that finished the session 17th position or lower were eliminated from qualifying . The second part of the qualifying session lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 16 . The final part of the qualifying session determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which failed to make the final session could refuel before the race , so ran lighter in those sessions . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .

Kubica clinched the first pole position of his career with a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 096 . Massa qualified less than 0 @.@ 03 seconds behind the BMW and joined Kubica on the front row of the grid . Hamilton took third place , using his team 's spare chassis ; Räikkönen was next quickest , and despite being critical of his car 's set @-@ up was confident in its racing ability . Kovalainen would line up fifth on the grid alongside Heidfeld , who had trouble maximising performance from his tyres . Trulli took seventh place , ahead of Rosberg and Honda driver Jenson Button . Renault driver Fernando Alonso was the last driver to make the third session ; Webber missed out on the top ten by 0 @.@ 009 seconds and would start the race in 11th position . Button 's teammate Rubens Barrichello took 12th place after a gearbox problem interrupted his second session laps , ahead of Timo Glock of Toyota , Nelson Piquet of Renault and Toro Rosso driver Sébastien Bourdais . Nakajima was the slowest of the second session drivers , and took 16th . Coulthard qualified 17th , ahead of Giancarlo Fisichella of Force India . Toro Rosso driver Sebastian Vettel took 19th , and blamed his set @-@ up : " I felt it was more a case of the car driving me than me driving the car . " Fisichella 's teammate Adrian Sutil qualified 20th , ahead of Anthony Davidson of Super Aguri . Davidson 's teammate Takuma Sato spun out and crashed into the barriers . Sato 's accident damaged his rear wing and suspension and left him unable to continue in the session .

= = = Race = = =

The weather and conditions on the grid were before dry for the race . The air temperature was 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) with signs of a breeze which could blow sand onto the track and impede the cars ' grip . Massa got the best start of the frontrunners off the line , as he passed Kubica into the first corner to take the lead . Hamilton 's poor start caused his anti @-@ stall system to kick in , and he was passed by six drivers to fall back to ninth . Räikkönen benefited from Hamilton 's start by moving up to third , ahead of Kovalainen , Trulli and Heidfeld . As Massa extended his lead at the front of the race , Hamilton , who trailed Alonso , collided with the back of the Renault , knocking the McLaren 's front wing off the car . Suffering handling difficulties , Hamilton returned to the pit @-@ lane for a new nose section , and rejoined in 18th place . Räikkönen took second place when he passed Kubica on lap three ; Heidfeld took fourth when he passed Trulli and Kovalainen in separate manoeuvres . Further down the field , Vettel retired from the race on the first lap after twice colliding with other cars ; Button , Sutil and Coulthard pitted to repair early damage .

By lap 10 , Massa had opened his lead over Räikkönen to 4 @.@ 4 seconds , ahead of Kubica , Heidfeld , Kovalainen and Trulli . Kubica was the first of the frontrunners to pit , on lap 17 . Räikkönen and Trulli followed on lap 20 ; Massa pitted from the lead one lap later . Following the first round of pit stops , the gap between the Ferraris was 5 @.@ 4 seconds , however by lap 31 Räikkönen had closed to within four seconds of his teammate . Massa held a 3 @.@ 6 second lead over Räikkönen when the two Ferraris pitted for the final time on laps 39 and 38 , respectively , and Massa retained his lead into the final stint . Kubica pitted on lap 41 , Heidfeld on lap 45 , and Kovalainen on lap 47 .

Coulthard and Button collided on lap 18 when Button attempted to pass the Red Bull on the inside at turn eight ; the Honda lost its front wing and retired a lap later after two pit stops . Hamilton continued his climb back through the field ; he moved from 18th , passing Piquet , Davidson , Sutil and Bourdais in separate manoeuvres , to sit in 14th by the time he pitted on lap 31 . Piquet retired on lap 42 with transmission failure , requiring a gearbox change before the next race .

Massa took his first win of the season when he crossed the line at the end of the 57th lap , 3 @.@ 3 seconds ahead of the second @-@ placed Räikkönen . Kubica took third , ahead of his teammate Heidfeld , and Kovalainen , who set the fastest lap of the race on lap 49 , with a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 193 , despite being slower than the frontrunners for much of the race . Trulli , Webber , Glock and Alonso rounded out the top ten , after Glock 's Toyota held off a quick Alonso late in the race . Barrichello and Fisichella finished strongly , ahead of Hamilton , who managed only 13th . Nakajima , Bourdais , Davidson and Sato took the next four places ; Coulthard and Sutil finished last on track after their respective crashes demoted them to the back of the field . Vettel , Button and Piquet were the three retirements from the race .

= = = Post @-@ race = = =

The top three finishers appeared on the podium and in the subsequent press conference , where Massa appeared relieved : " For sure the race was pretty difficult because I didn 't want to make any mistakes . I didn 't push as much either , just tried to bring the car home and just controlling the pace as well . " Massa said that he struggled with grip early , owing to oil in the middle sector of the course . Räikkönen 's second place promoted him to the lead in the Drivers ' Championship , and he expressed his optimism about future races :

The whole weekend has been pretty difficult , one of those things when we cannot really get the car right ... We are leading the Championship which is the main thing and we know that we have the speed once we get everything right . The race was quite difficult but anyhow I am happy with second .

Kubica said that his poor start was due to wheelspin off the line , and the presence of oil on the track impeded the performance of his car , leading to Räikkönen 's pass : " But anyway I think it was a good result : third and fourth for the team and leading the Constructors ' Championship , so it was good weekend . "

Hamilton accepted responsibility for his near stall on the grid : " I hadn 't hit the switch early enough and therefore we were not in the launch map and went straight into anti @-@ stall , and when everyone else was in their launch mode , I wasn 't . " Renault dismissed suggestions that Alonso had brake tested Hamilton in the incident that led to the McLaren 's wing breaking off . Pat Symonds , Renault 's head of engineering , said his team 's telemetry indicated Alonso was on full throttle down the straight , and had not touched the brakes : " I think all I can say from our side is that there is no blame attributable to Fernando , which is what some of the speculation might be . " McLaren F1 CEO Martin Whitmarsh said that Hamilton 's front wing had broken seconds before the impact , and that the resulting downforce reduction had sucked Hamilton into Alonso 's slipstream faster than expected . However , photos indicate that the front wing on the McLaren could have broken even earlier when Hamilton nudged a car ( believed to be Alonso ) on the opening lap . The later incident left Alonso with damage to the back of the car , impairing his attempts to pass Glock late in the race .

Räikkönen 's second @-@ placed finish gave him a three @-@ point lead over Heidfeld in the Drivers ' Championship , with 19 points , ahead of Hamilton , Kubica and Kovalainen , each with 14 points . BMW Sauber 's strong performance gave them the lead in the Constructors ' Championship , with 30 points , ahead of Ferrari with 29 points and McLaren with 28 points .

= = Classification = =

= = = Qualifying = = =

= = = Race = = =

= = Championship standings after the race = =

Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .

= Kalyanasundara =

Kalyanasundara ( कल ् याणसुन ् दर , literally " beautiful marriage " ) , also spelt as Kalyansundar and Kalyana Sundara , and known as Kalyanasundara @-@ murti ( " icon of the beautiful marriage " ) , Vaivahika @-@ murti ( वैवाहिक @-@ मूर ् ति , " nuptial icon " ) and Panigrahana @-@ murti ( पाणिंग ् रहण @-@ मूर ् ति ) ( " icon related to panigrahana ritual " ) , is the iconographical depiction of the wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati . The couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana ( " accepting the hand " ) ritual of a Hindu wedding , where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his .

The couple , depicted in the centre , are accompanied by a host of divinities and other celestial beings . The god Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi are often pictured as giving away the bride to Shiva . The god Brahma is shown as the officiating priest .

The Kalyanasundara icon is not the object of popular worship and is usually used only in the celebrations of the divine marriage in annual temple festivals . However , Kalyanasundara scenes are found across India in caves , sculptures and on temple walls .

= = Legend = =

Various Hindu scriptures narrate the story of the union of Shiva and Parvati , with some variation . After the death of his first wife Sati , Shiva withdrew from society and engrossed himself in deep mediation . Taking advantage of the situation , the asura ( demon ) king Tarakasura secured from the god Brahma the boon that he could be killed only by the son of Shiva . Believing himself effectively immortal , Tarakasura terrorized the beings of the universe and defeated the gods . Meanwhile , Parvati , the reincarnation of Sati , was born to Himavan , the god of the Himalayas and his wife the apsara Mena . She underwent severe austerities to compel Shiva to marry her . The gods , desperate to hasten the birth of Shiva 's son , sent Kamadeva , the god of love , to disturb Shiva 's meditation . Though Shiva was awakened , Kamadeva was burnt up by Shiva 's fury . Implored by the other gods to marry , Shiva agreed , but decided to test Parvati 's devotion first . The Saptarishi ( the seven sages ) approached Parvati and mocked Shiva to dissuade her ; however Parvati remained resolute . Then Shiva himself , disguised as an old ascetic , visited Parvati and vilified himself in her presence . As an angry Parvati was about to leave , Shiva revealed his true form to her and promised to marry her , pleased with her love and devotion . The couple married and produced a son , Kartikeya , who subsequently slew Tarakasura .

= = Iconography = =

= = = Textual descriptions = = =

The Agamic texts like the Amsumadbhedagama , the Uttara @-@ kamaikagama and the Purva @-@ Karanagama prescribe the iconography of the Kalyanasunadara icon .

A young four @-@ armed Shiva and a beautiful two @-@ armed Parvati should be the central figures , performing the panigrahana ( " accepting the hand " ) ritual of a Hindu wedding , where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his . Shiva stands in tribhanga posture , with one of his legs straight and firmly on the ground and the other one slightly bent . Shiva wears a jata @-@ mukuta ( a headdress formed of piled , matted hair ) on his head , adorned with a crescent moon . He wears serpents as earrings , as a waist band and as a necklace . Various gold ornaments adorn his body . His back hands carry a parashu ( axe ) and a mriga ( deer ) . His front left hand makes the varada mudra ( " blessing @-@ giving gesture " ) and his front right hand is stretched ahead to receive the hand of the bride . A dark @-@ complexioned Parvati , adorned in silk and gold finery , stands to the left of Shiva , blushing with her head bent slightly as she extends her right arm to hold Shiva 's right hand . She holds a nilotpala ( blue lotus ) in her left arm .

The god Vishnu and his consorts Lakshmi and Bhudevi should be represented as taking the place of Parvati 's parents in the ceremony . The four @-@ armed Vishnu should be shown in the background in between Shiva and Parvati ; in one of his front hands is a golden pot from which he pours water over the hands of the couple , symbolizing giving away the bride to the groom . He holds his usual attributes , the sudarshana chakra ( discus ) and a shankha ( conch ) , in his back arms . Vishnu 's wives , dressed in royal finery , stand behind Parvati and hold her waist , symbolizing the handing over .

The four @-@ headed god Brahma should be shown seated on the ground in the foreground officiating as the wedding priest and making offerings to the homa ( sacred fire ) in the kunda ( fire @-@ altar ) . The four @-@ armed god holds a sruka and sruva ( sacrificial ladle and spoon ) in his front arms and a kamandalu ( water @-@ pot ) and akshamala ( rosary ) in his back arms . The presence of the fire also indicates another important ritual of the Hindu wedding , saptapadi ( " seven steps " ) where the bride and groom go around the fire seven times .

The figure of Shiva should be tallest , followed by that of Vishnu , Parvati and Vishnu 's wives . Various deities like the eight guardians of the directions , the eight Vasus , the seven Matrika goddesses , celestial beings such as Yakshas and Gandharvas , sages and siddhas may be depicted standing with folded arms in the background .

= = = Depictions = = =

The complete scene of the wedding is not always depicted . Sometimes , only the principal participants are shown . Chola bronzes featuring only Shiva and Parvati as described in the wedding scene are found . South Indian sculptures , like those from Madurai , feature only the couple and Vishnu . In this configuration , Parvati is depicted in the centre with Vishnu on the left giving away her hand to Shiva on the right . Sometimes as in the Elephanta Caves , Parvati 's biological father Himavan , instead of Vishnu , is depicted giving away his daughter to Shiva .

Other deviations from the texts may appear in the attributes held by the divine couple . Parvati may hold a mirror , instead of the lotus . Shiva may be shown holding the trishula ( trident ) and damaru ( drum ) in his back hands . Regional variations in iconography may also occur . In Bengal , Shiva holds a karttari ( knife ) , the ceremonial weapon that a Hindu groom from Bengal is expected to carry in a wedding .

Various wedding guests are depicted in the scene . Shiva 's attendant ganas enjoy the festivities ; playing drums or dancing . The vahanas ( vehicles ) of the couple , Shiva 's bull Nandi and Parvati 's lion , are sometimes pictured in the scene . In vertical panel depictions , the celestial guests are often shown flying over Shiva and Parvati . While the gods are pictured flying on their respective vahanas ( e.g. Indra on his elephant , Agni on a ram ) and with their consorts ; semi @-@ divine beings like Vidyadharas fly without vehicles . An anachronism found in a few Kalyanasundara scenes is the presence of the yet @-@ unborn children of Shiva and Parvati , Ganesha and Kartikkeya . Examples of this anachronism are found at the Rameshvara Cave of Ellora , and in a 9th @-@ century sculpture from Uttar Pradesh now housed in Los Angeles County Museum of Art .

= = Worship = =

Though Kalyanasundara icons are found across India in caves , sculptures and temple walls , no sect is centred on their worship . The icon is a popular feature on temple gopurams ( temple towers ) .

In South Indian Shiva temples like those in Tiruvenkadu and Chidambaram , the bronze Kalyanasundara images of Shiva and Parvati are used in annual temple festivals to commemorate the divine union . Special halls are reserved for the annual ceremonial wedding of the deities . The Kalyanasundara bronzes are used only in this festival and kept unused the rest of the year .

At the Meenakshi Amman Temple , women worship the Kalyanasundara sculpture to find husbands .

Kalyanasundara is worshipped in Thirumanancheri as god of Marriages . The idols of Lord shiva in the form of Kalyanasundara and Parvathi is worshipped by the unmarried men and women for early marriage . There are also people who have completed the marriages come here to complete rituals .

= SS El Sol =

SS El Sol was a cargo ship built in 1910 for the Morgan Line , a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Company . During World War I , she was known as USAT El Sol in service with the United States Army and as USS El Sol ( ID @-@ 4505 ) in service with the United States Navy . At the end of war , she reverted to her original name of SS El Sol .

SS El Sol was one of four sister ships that carried cargo and a limited number of passengers for the Morgan Line . She was acquired by the U.S. Army after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , and converted to carry horses and mules to France . In August 1918 , the ship was transferred to the U.S. Navy and continued transporting animals through the end of the war .

El Sol returned to the Morgan Line in 1919 and sailed with them until March 1927 , when she sank in New York Harbor after colliding with Sac City of the American Diamond Line . A portion of the ship 's cargo was salvaged but the ship was scrapped later in the year .

= = Early career = =

SS El Sol was a cargo and passenger steamship launched on 11 May 1910 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. of Newport News , Virginia ( yard no . 130 ) , and delivered to the Atlantic division of the Morgan Line on 20 August 1910 . She was the first of four sister ships ; the other three being El Mundo , El Oriente , and El Occidente . El Sol was 6 @,@ 008 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was 430 feet 1 inch ( 131 @.@ 09 m ) long by 53 feet 1 inch ( 16 @.@ 18 m ) abeam , and made 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) . The vessel sailed for the Morgan Line , the brand name of the Southern Pacific Steamship Company ( a subsidiary of the Southern Pacific Railroad ) , which employed her to carry cargo and a limited number of passengers between New York ; New Orleans , the eastern terminus of the Southern Pacific line ; and Galveston , Texas .

= = World War I = =

After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , El Sol was requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) on behalf of the United States Army , who designated her as an animal transport ship . Although there is no information about the specific conversion of El Sol , for other ships this typically meant that any second- or third @-@ class passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried .

Sources do not reveal all of El Sol 's movements , but it is known that she departed on her second trip to France from Newport News on 10 February 1918 . Carrying 650 animals , El Sol headed to New York to join in a convoy with fellow Army transport Pastores , and U.S. Navy troop transports Covington , DeKalb , Manchuria , George Washington , President Grant , and Susquehanna . The convoy was escorted by Huntington when it departed from New York on 18 February , and arrived at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 4 March . Ten animals on board El Sol died or were destroyed during the crossing .

The next recorded activity of El Sol was on 3 August , when she was transferred from the Army to the U.S. Navy and commissioned the same day with Lieutenant Commander G. Anderson , USNRF , in command . El Sol was assigned to the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and continued to carry animals and supplies for the U.S. Army .

By August , each animal transport ship had a transport veterinarian and a permanent veterinary detachment to care for the animals while on board the ship . El Sol had also been joined by two of her sister ships , El Oriente and El Occidente in animal transport duty . She next departed Newport News on 23 August 1918 with 520 horses and mules on board . Upon arrival at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 19 September , El Sol delivered her complete load of animals ; none had died during the passage . After returning to the U.S. , El Sol departed again on 30 October with another 620 animals on board . Docking in Bordeaux on 13 November — two days after the Armistice — she again delivered her full load of animals .

El Sol made two more roundtrips for the NOTS over the next five months . While returning to the United States from her last NOTS sailing in late March 1919 , El Sol responded to distress calls from Scranton , a Navy troop transport which had a damaged rudder and was disabled . El Sol came to the aid of the stricken ship , which was 900 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km ) east of New York , to attempt to take her under tow . During the day on 28 March , Scranton attempted to run a towline to El Sol by sending a launch in the rolling seas , but it capsized , killing three men . Ultimately , El Sol stood by Scranton for over 40 hours until minesweeper Penguin arrived and took Scranton under tow .

At the conclusion of her last NOTS voyage on 3 April , El Sol was converted to a troop transport and assigned to the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force on 15 April . El Sol returned 2 @,@ 714 healthy and wounded American servicemen from France in two voyages . Decommissioned on 18 September , El Sol was returned to the Morgan Line soon after .

= = Postwar civilian service = =

El Sol resumed cargo service with the Morgan Line , where she had 8 years of uneventful operation . On 11 March 1927 , however , El Sol was inbound to New York with a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cargo of pig iron , copper , and bales of cotton . When a heavy fog settled over New York Harbor , Captain Charles H. Knowles ordered his ship to anchor until the fog cleared . As El Sol was being maneuvered into position at about 07 : 45 , the American Diamond Line ship Sac City hit a glancing blow to El Sol , bounced off and then struck El Sol a second time , ripping through El Sol 's plating . Sac City 's bow had some slight damage , but El Sol sank quickly in about 60 feet ( 18 m ) of water about a half @-@ mile ( 800 m ) south of the Statue of Liberty . Out of El Sol 's crew of 45 men , 44 were rescued ; the ship 's carpenter , who could not swim , was last seen clutching the ship 's rail as it went below the surface .

El Sol settled on the bottom at a 45 ° angle with only the tops of her masts protruding above the surface ; the Morgan Line house flag — a blue house flag with a red M inside a white star — still fluttered in the breeze . Even though the sunken vessel was not considered a hazard to navigation , in another fog two days later a Staten Island Ferryboat nearly hit El Sol 's wreck .

In a hearings before the United States Steamboat Inspection Service , Captain Knowles of El Sol and the captain of Sac City were both cleared of wrongdoing in the collision , and the blame was laid on the heavy fog . On 31 July , The New York Times reported on the cargo salvage operations still underway on the wreck of El Sol . In three months of continuous operations , the salvage company reported that about 35 % of the sunken ship 's cargo had been recovered . The hulk of El Sol was scrapped later in 1927 .

= Hoover Dam =

Hoover Dam , once known as Boulder Dam , is a concrete arch @-@ gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River , on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona . It was constructed between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression and was dedicated on September 30 , 1935 , by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers , and cost over one hundred lives . The dam was controversially named after President Herbert Hoover .

Since about 1900 , the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods , provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power . In 1928 , Congress authorized the project . The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies , Inc . , which began construction on the dam in early 1931 . Such a large concrete structure had never been built before , and some of the techniques were unproven . The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties . Nevertheless , Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on March 1 , 1936 , more than two years ahead of schedule .

Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead , the largest reservoir in the United States by volume . The dam is located near Boulder City , Nevada , a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project , about 30 mi ( 48 km ) southeast of Las Vegas , Nevada . The dam 's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada , Arizona , and California . Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction ; nearly a million people tour the dam each year . The heavily travelled U.S. 93 ran along the dam 's crest until October 2010 , when the Hoover Dam Bypass opened .

= = Background = =

= = = Search for resources = = =

As the United States developed the Southwest , the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water . An initial attempt at diverting the river for irrigation purposes occurred in the late 1890s , when land speculator William Beatty built the Alamo Canal just north of the Mexican border ; the canal dipped into Mexico before running to a desolate area Beatty named the Imperial Valley . Though water from the Imperial Canal allowed for the widespread settlement of the valley , the canal proved expensive to maintain . After a catastrophic breach that caused the Colorado River to fill the Salton Sea , the Southern Pacific Railroad spent $ 3 million in 1906 – 07 to stabilize the waterway , an amount it hoped vainly would be reimbursed by the Federal Government . Even after the waterway was stabilized , it proved unsatisfactory because of constant disputes with landowners on the Mexican side of the border .

As the technology of electric power transmission improved , the Lower Colorado was considered for its hydroelectric @-@ power potential . In 1902 , the Edison Electric Company of Los Angeles surveyed the river in the hope of building a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) rock dam which could generate 10 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . However , at the time , the limit of transmission of electric power was 80 miles ( 130 km ) , and there were few customers ( mostly mines ) within that limit . Edison allowed land options it held on the river to lapse — including an option for what became the site of Hoover Dam .

In the following years , the Bureau of Reclamation ( BOR ) , known as the Reclamation Service at the time , also considered the Lower Colorado as the site for a dam . Service chief Arthur Powell Davis proposed using dynamite to collapse the walls of Boulder Canyon , 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of the eventual dam site , into the river . The river would carry off the smaller pieces of debris , and a dam would be built incorporating the remaining rubble . In 1922 , after considering it for several years , the Reclamation Service finally rejected the proposal , citing doubts about the unproven technique and questions as to whether it would in fact save money .

= = = Planning and agreements = = =

In 1922 , the Reclamation Service presented a report calling for the development of a dam on the Colorado River for flood control and electric power generation . The report was principally authored by Davis , and was called the Fall @-@ Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall . The Fall @-@ Davis report cited use of the Colorado River as a federal concern , because the river 's basin covered several states , and the river eventually entered Mexico . Though the Fall @-@ Davis report called for a dam " at or near Boulder Canyon " , the Reclamation Service ( which was renamed the Bureau of Reclamation the following year ) found that canyon unsuitable . One potential site at Boulder Canyon was bisected by a geologic fault ; two others were so narrow there was no space for a construction camp at the bottom of the canyon or for a spillway . The Service investigated Black Canyon and found it ideal ; a railway could be laid from the railhead in Las Vegas to the top of the dam site . Despite the site change , the dam project was referred to as the " Boulder Canyon Project " .

With little guidance on water allocation from the Supreme Court , proponents of the dam feared endless litigation . A Colorado attorney proposed that the seven states which fell within the river 's basin ( California , Nevada , Arizona , Utah , New Mexico , Colorado and Wyoming ) form an interstate compact , with the approval of Congress . Such compacts were authorized by Article I of the United States Constitution but had never been concluded among more than two states . In 1922 , representatives of seven states met with then @-@ Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover . Initial talks produced no result , but when the Supreme Court handed down the Wyoming v. Colorado decision undermining the claims of the upstream states , they became anxious to reach an agreement . The resulting Colorado River Compact was signed on November 24 , 1922 .

Legislation to authorize the dam was introduced repeatedly by Representative Phil Swing ( R @-@ Calif . ) and Senator Hiram Johnson ( R @-@ Calif . ) , but representatives from other parts of the country considered the project as hugely expensive and one that would mostly benefit California . The 1927 Mississippi flood made Midwestern and Southern congressmen and senators more sympathetic toward the dam project . On March 12 , 1928 , the failure of the St. Francis Dam , constructed by the city of Los Angeles , caused a disastrous flood that killed up to 600 people . As that dam was a curved @-@ gravity type , similar in design to the arch @-@ gravity as was proposed for the Black Canyon dam , opponents claimed that the Black Canyon dam 's safety could not be guaranteed . Congress authorized a board of engineers to review plans for the proposed dam . The Colorado River Board found the project feasible , but warned that should the dam fail , every downstream Colorado River community would be destroyed , and that the river might change course and empty into the Salton Sea . The Board cautioned : " To avoid such possibilities , the proposed dam should be constructed on conservative if not ultra @-@ conservative lines . "

On December 21 , 1928 President Coolidge signed the bill authorizing the dam . The Boulder Canyon Project Act appropriated $ 165 million for the Hoover Dam along with the downstream Imperial Dam and All @-@ American Canal , a replacement for Beatty 's canal entirely on the U.S. side of the border . It also permitted the compact to go into effect when at least six of the seven states approved it . This occurred on March 6 , 1929 with Utah 's ratification ; Arizona did not approve it until 1944 .

= = = Design , preparation and contracting = = =

Even before Congress approved the Boulder Canyon Project , the Bureau of Reclamation was considering what kind of dam should be used . Officials eventually decided on a massive concrete arch @-@ gravity dam , the design of which was overseen by the Bureau 's chief design engineer John L. Savage . The monolithic dam would be thick at the bottom and thin near the top , and would present a convex face towards the water above the dam . The curving arch of the dam would transmit the water 's force into the abutments , in this case the rock walls of the canyon . The wedge @-@ shaped dam would be 660 ft ( 200 m ) thick at the bottom , narrowing to 45 ft ( 14 m ) at the top , leaving room for a highway connecting Nevada and Arizona .

On January 10 , 1931 , the Bureau made the bid documents available to interested parties , at five dollars a copy . The government was to provide the materials ; but the contractor was to prepare the site and build the dam . The dam was described in minute detail , covering 100 pages of text and 76 drawings . A $ 2 million bid bond was to accompany each bid ; the winner would have to post a $ 5 million performance bond . The contractor had seven years to build the dam , or penalties would ensue .

The Wattis Brothers , heads of the Utah Construction Company , were interested in bidding on the project , but lacked the money for the performance bond . They lacked sufficient resources even in combination with their longtime partners , Morrison @-@ Knudsen , which employed the nation 's leading dam builder , Frank Crowe . They formed a joint venture to bid for the project with Pacific Bridge Company of Portland , Oregon ; Henry J. Kaiser & W. A. Bechtel Company of San Francisco ; MacDonald & Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles ; and the J.F. Shea Company of Portland , Oregon . The joint venture was called Six Companies , Inc. as Bechtel and Kaiser were considered one company for purposes of 6 in the name . The name was descriptive and was an inside joke among the San Franciscans in the bid , where " Six Companies " was also a Chinese benevolent association in the city . There were three valid bids , and Six Companies ' bid of $ 48 @,@ 890 @,@ 955 was the lowest , within $ 24 @,@ 000 of the confidential government estimate of what the dam would cost to build , and five million dollars less than the next @-@ lowest bid .

The city of Las Vegas had lobbied hard to be the headquarters for the dam construction , closing its many speakeasies when the decision maker , Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur came to town . Instead , Wilbur announced in early 1930 that a model city was to be built in the desert near the dam site . This town became known as Boulder City , Nevada . Construction of a rail line joining Las Vegas and the dam site began in September 1930 .

= = Construction = =

= = = Labor force = = =

Soon after the dam was authorized , increasing numbers of unemployed people converged on southern Nevada . Las Vegas , then a small city of some 5 @,@ 000 , saw between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 unemployed descend on it . A government camp was established for surveyors and other personnel near the dam site ; this soon became surrounded by a squatters ' camp . Known as McKeeversville , the camp was home to men hoping for work on the project , together with their families . Another camp , on the flats along the Colorado River , was officially called Williamsville , but was known to its inhabitants as " Ragtown " . When construction began , Six Companies hired large numbers of workers , with more than 3 @,@ 000 on the payroll by 1932 and with employment peaking at 5 @,@ 251 in July 1934 . " Mongolian " ( Chinese ) labor was prevented by the construction contract , while the number of blacks employed by Six Companies never exceeded thirty , mostly lowest @-@ pay @-@ scale laborers in a segregated crew , who were issued separate water buckets .

As part of the contract , Six Companies , Inc. was to build Boulder City to house the workers . The original timetable called for Boulder City to be built before the dam project began , but President Hoover ordered work on the dam to begin in March 1931 rather than in October . The company built bunkhouses , attached to the canyon wall , to house 480 single men at what became known as River Camp . Workers with families were left to provide their own accommodations until Boulder City could be completed , and many lived in Ragtown . The site of Hoover Dam endures extremely hot weather , and the summer of 1931 was especially torrid , with the daytime high averaging 119 @.@ 9 ° F ( 48 @.@ 8 ° C ) . Sixteen workers and other riverbank residents died of heat prostration between June 25 and July 26 , 1931 .

The Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW or " Wobblies " ) , though much @-@ reduced from their heyday as militant labor organizers in the early years of the century , hoped to unionize the Six Companies workers by capitalizing on their discontent . They sent eleven organizers , several of whom were arrested by Las Vegas police . On August 7 , 1931 , the company cut wages for all tunnel workers . Although the workers sent away the organizers , not wanting to be associated with the " Wobblies " , they formed a committee to represent them with the company . The committee drew up a list of demands that evening and presented them to Crowe the following morning . He was noncommittal . The workers hoped that Crowe , the general superintendent of the job , would be sympathetic ; instead he gave a scathing interview to a newspaper , describing the workers as " malcontents " .

On the morning of the 9th , Crowe met with the committee and told them that management refused their demands , was stopping all work , and was laying off the entire work force , except for a few office workers and carpenters . The workers were given until 5 p.m. to vacate the premises . Concerned that a violent confrontation was imminent , most workers took their paychecks and left for Las Vegas to await developments . Two days later , the remainder were talked into leaving by law enforcement . On August 13 , the company began hiring workers again , and two days later , the strike was called off . While the workers received none of their demands , the company guaranteed there would be no further reductions in wages . Living conditions began to improve as the first residents moved into Boulder City in late 1931 .

A second labor action took place in July 1935 , as construction on the dam wound down . When a Six Companies manager altered working times to force workers to take lunch on their own time , workers responded with a strike . Emboldened by Crowe 's reversal of the lunch decree , workers raised their demands to include a $ 1 @-@ per @-@ day raise . The company agreed to ask the Federal government to supplement the pay , but no money was forthcoming from Washington . The strike ended .

= = = River diversion = = =

Before the dam could be built , the Colorado River needed to be diverted away from the construction site . To accomplish this , four diversion tunnels were driven through the canyon walls , two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side . These tunnels were 56 ft ( 17 m ) in diameter . Their combined length was nearly 16 @,@ 000 ft , or more than 3 miles ( 5 km ) . The contract required these tunnels to be completed by October 1 , 1933 , with a $ 3 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ day fine to be assessed for any delay . To meet the deadline , Six Companies had to complete work by early 1933 , since only in late fall and winter was the water level in the river low enough to safely divert .

Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931 . Shortly afterward , work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall . In March 1932 , work began on lining the tunnels with concrete . First the base , or invert , was poured . Gantry cranes , running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete . The sidewalls were poured next . Movable sections of steel forms were used for the sidewalls . Finally , using pneumatic guns , the overheads were filled in . The concrete lining is 3 feet ( 1 m ) thick , reducing the finished tunnel diameter to 50 ft ( 15 m ) . The river was diverted into the two Arizona tunnels on November 13 , 1932 ; the Nevada tunnels were kept in reserve for high water . This was done by exploding a temporary cofferdam protecting the Arizona tunnels while at the same time dumping rubble into the river until its natural course was blocked .

Following the completion of the dam , the entrances to the two outer diversion tunnels were sealed at the opening and halfway through the tunnels with large concrete plugs . The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels . The inner diversion tunnels were plugged at approximately one @-@ third of their length , beyond which they now carry steel pipes connecting the intake towers to the power plant and outlet works . The inner tunnels ' outlets are equipped with gates that can be closed to drain the tunnels for maintenance .

= = = Groundworks , rock clearance and grout curtain = = =

To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river 's diversion , two cofferdams were constructed . Work on the upper cofferdam began in September 1932 , even though the river had not yet been diverted . The cofferdams were designed to protect against the possibility of the river flooding a site at which two thousand men might be at work , and their specifications were covered in the bid documents in nearly as much detail as the dam itself . The upper cofferdam was 96 ft ( 29 m ) high , and 750 feet ( 230 m ) thick at its base , as thicker than the dam itself . It contained 650 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material .

When the cofferdams were in place and the construction site was drained of water , excavation for the dam foundation began . For the dam to rest on solid rock , it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached . Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933 . During this excavation , approximately 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cu yd ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material was removed . Since the dam was an arch @-@ gravity type , the side @-@ walls of the canyon would bear the force of the impounded lake . Therefore , the side @-@ walls were excavated too , to reach virgin rock as weathered rock might provide pathways for water seepage .

The men who removed this rock were called " high scalers " . While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes , the high @-@ scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite . Falling objects were the most common cause of death on the dam site ; the high scalers ' work thus helped ensure worker safety . One high scaler was able to save life in a more direct manner : when a government inspector lost his grip on a safety line and began tumbling down a slope towards almost certain death , a high scaler was able to intercept him and pull him into the air . The construction site had , even then , become a magnet for tourists ; the high scalers were prime attractions and showed off for the watchers . The high scalers received considerable media attention , with one worker dubbed the " Human Pendulum " for swinging co @-@ workers ( and , at other times , cases of dynamite ) across the canyon . To protect themselves against falling objects , some high scalers took cloth hats and dipped them in tar , allowing them to harden . When workers wearing such headgear were struck hard enough to inflict broken jaws , they sustained no skull damage , Six Companies ordered thousands of what initially were called " hard boiled hats " ( later " hard hats " ) and strongly encouraged their use .

The cleared , underlying rock foundation of the dam site was reinforced with grout , called a grout curtain . Holes were driven into the walls and base of the canyon , as deep as 150 feet ( 46 m ) into the rock , and any cavities encountered were to be filled with grout . This was done to stabilize the rock , to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock , and to limit " uplift " — upward pressure from water seeping under the dam . The workers were under severe time constraints due to the beginning of the concrete pour , and when they encountered hot springs or cavities too large to readily fill , they moved on without resolving the problem . A total of 58 of the 393 holes were incompletely filled . After the dam was completed and the lake began to fill , large numbers of significant leaks into the dam caused the Bureau of Reclamation to look into the situation . It found that the work had been incompletely done , and was based on less than a full understanding of the canyon 's geology . New holes were drilled from inspection galleries inside the dam into the surrounding bedrock . It took nine years ( 1938 – 47 ) under relative secrecy to complete the supplemental grout curtain .

= = = Concrete = = =

The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6 , 1933 , 18 months ahead of schedule . Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures , the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem . Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam was built in a single continuous pour , the concrete would take 125 years to cool and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble . Instead , the ground where the dam was to rise was marked with rectangles , and concrete blocks in columns were poured , some as large as 50 ft square ( 15 m ) and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high . Each five @-@ foot form contained a series of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) steel pipes through which first cool river water , then later ice @-@ cold water from a refrigeration plant was run . When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting , the pipes were filled with grout . Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns , which were grooved to increase the strength of the joins .

The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet high ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) and almost 7 feet in diameter ; Crowe was awarded two patents for their design . These buckets , which weighed 20 short tons ( 18 t ) when full , were filled at two massive concrete plants on the Nevada side , and were delivered to the site in special railcars . The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways , which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column . As the required grade of aggregate in the concrete differed depending on placement in the dam ( from pea @-@ sized gravel to 9 @-@ inch or 23 cm stones ) , it was vital that the bucket be maneuvered to the proper column . When the bottom of the bucket opened up , disgorging 8 cu yd ( 6 @.@ 1 m3 ) of concrete , a team of men worked it throughout the form . Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day , each bucket only deepened the concrete in a form by an inch , and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body .

A total of 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 480 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete was used in the dam before concrete pouring ceased on May 29 , 1935 . In addition , 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 cu yd ( 850 @,@ 000 m3 ) were used in the power plant and other works . More than 582 miles ( 937 km ) of cooling pipes were placed within the concrete . Overall , there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two @-@ lane highway from San Francisco to New York . Concrete cores were removed from the dam for testing in 1995 ; they showed that " Hoover Dam 's concrete has continued to slowly gain strength " and the dam is composed of a " durable concrete having a compressive strength exceeding the range typically found in normal mass concrete " . Hoover Dam concrete is not subject to alkali – silica reaction ( ASR ) as the Hoover Dam builders happened to use nonreactive aggregate , unlike that at downstream Parker Dam , where ASR has caused measurable deterioration .

= = = Dedication and completion = = =

With most work finished on the dam itself ( the powerhouse remained uncompleted ) , a formal dedication ceremony was arranged for September 30 , 1935 , to coincide with a western tour being made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . The morning of the dedication , it was moved forward three hours from 2 p.m. Pacific time to 11 a.m. ; this was done because Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes had reserved a radio slot for the President for 2 p.m. but officials did not realize until the day of the ceremony that the slot was for 2 p.m. Eastern Time . Despite the change in the ceremony time , and temperatures of 102 ° F ( 39 ° C ) , 10 @,@ 000 people were present for the President 's speech in which he avoided mentioning the name of former President Hoover , who was not invited to the ceremony . To mark the occasion , a three @-@ cent stamp was issued by the United States Post Office Department — bearing the name " Boulder Dam " , the official name of the dam between 1933 and 1947 . After the ceremony , Roosevelt made the first visit by any American president to Las Vegas .

Most work had been completed by the dedication , and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late 1935 and early 1936 to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government . The parties came to an agreement and on March 1 , 1936 , Secretary Ickes formally accepted the dam on behalf of the government . Six Companies was not required to complete work on one item , a concrete plug for one of the bypass tunnels , as the tunnel had to be used to take in irrigation water until the powerhouse went into operation .

= = = Construction deaths = = =

There were 112 deaths associated with the construction of the dam . The first was J. G. Tierney , a surveyor who drowned on December 20 , 1922 , while looking for an ideal spot for the dam . Ninety @-@ six of the deaths occurred during construction at the site . Of the 112 fatalities , 91 were Six Companies employees , three were BOR employees , and one was a visitor to the site , with the remainder employees of various contractors not part of Six Companies .

Not included in the official fatalities number were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia . Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning , brought on by the use of gasoline @-@ fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels , and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims . The site 's diversion tunnels frequently reached 140 ° F ( 60 ° C ) , enveloped in thick plumes of vehicle exhaust gases . A total of 42 workers were recorded as having died from pneumonia ; none were listed as having died from carbon monoxide poisoning . No deaths of non @-@ workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period .

= = = Architectural style = = =

The initial plans for the facade of the dam , the power plant , the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam . The Bureau of Reclamation , more concerned with the dam 's functionality , adorned it with a Gothic @-@ inspired balustrade and eagle statues . This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale , so Los Angeles @-@ based architect Gordon B. Kaufmann , then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation , was brought in to redesign the exteriors . Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design , and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project . He designed sculptured turrets rising seamlessly from the dam face and clock faces on the intake towers set for the time in Nevada and Arizona — the two states are in different time zones , but as Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time , the clocks display the same time for more than half the year .

At Kaufmann 's request , Denver artist Allen Tupper True was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam . True 's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region . Although some initially were opposed to these designs , True was given the go @-@ ahead and was officially appointed consulting artist . With the assistance of the National Laboratory of Anthropology , True researched authentic decorative motifs from Indian sand paintings , textiles , baskets and ceramics . The images and colors are based on Native American visions of rain , lightning , water , clouds , and local animals — lizards , serpents , birds — and on the Southwestern landscape of stepped mesas . In these works , which are integrated into the walkways and interior halls of the dam , True also reflected on the machinery of the operation , making the symbolic patterns appear both ancient and modern .

With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers , True also devised an innovative color @-@ coding for the pipes and machinery , which was implemented throughout all BOR projects . True 's consulting artist job lasted through 1942 ; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker , Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants . True 's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in The New Yorker , part of which read , " lose the spark , and justify the dream ; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme " .

Complementing Kaufmann and True 's work , the Norwegian @-@ born , naturalized American sculptor Oskar J.W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam . His works include the monument of dedication plaza , a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas @-@ reliefs on the elevator towers . In his words , Hansen wanted his work to express " the immutable calm of intellectual resolution , and the enormous power of trained physical strength , equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment " , because " [ t ] he building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring . " Hansen 's dedication plaza , on the Nevada abutment , contains a sculpture of two winged figures flanking a flagpole .

Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a " star map " . The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt 's dedication of the dam . This is intended to help future astronomers , if necessary , calculate the exact date of dedication . The 30 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) bronze figures , dubbed " Winged Figures of the Republic " , were each formed in a continuous pour . To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface , they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted . Hansen 's bas @-@ relief on the Nevada elevator tower depicts the benefits of the dam : flood control , navigation , irrigation , water storage , and power . The bas @-@ relief on the Arizona elevator depicts , in his words , " the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant . "

= = Operation = =

= = = Power plant and water demands = = =

Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments . A U @-@ shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam , its excavation was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933 . Filling of Lake Mead began February 1 , 1935 , even before the last of the concrete was poured that May . The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30 , 1935 — a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures . To make the powerhouse roof bombproof , it was constructed of layers of concrete , rock , and steel with a total thickness of about 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) , topped with layers of sand and tar .

In the latter half of 1936 , water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation , and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine @-@ generators , all on the Nevada side , began operating . In March 1937 , one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August . By September 1939 , four more generators were operating , and the dam 's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world . The final generator was not placed in service until 1961 , bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1 @,@ 345 megawatts at the time . Original plans called for 16 large generators , eight on each side of the river , but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17 . The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality , before the dam 's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable . The present contracts for the sale of electricity expire in 2017 .

Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines , it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse . The intakes provide a maximum hydraulic head ( water pressure ) of 590 ft ( 180 m ) as the water reaches a speed of about 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The entire flow of the Colorado River passes through the turbines . The spillways and outlet works ( jet @-@ flow gates ) are rarely used . The jet @-@ flow gates , located in concrete structures 180 feet ( 55 m ) above the river , and also at the outlets of the inner diversion tunnels at river level , may be used to divert water around the dam in emergency or flood conditions , but have never done so , and in practice are only used to drain water from the penstocks for maintenance . Following an uprating project from 1986 to 1993 , the total gross power rating for the plant , including two 2 @.@ 4 megawatt Pelton turbine @-@ generators that power Hoover Dam 's own operations is a maximum capacity of 2080 megawatts . The annual generation of Hoover Dam varies . The maximum net generation was 10 @.@ 348 TWh in 1984 , and the minimum since 1940 was 2 @.@ 648 TWh in 1956 . The average power generated was 4 @.@ 2 TWh / year for 1947 @-@ 2008 . In 2015 , the dam generated 3 @.@ 6 TWh . To lower the minimum power pool elevation from 1 @,@ 050 to 950 feet ( 320 to 290 m ) , five wide @-@ head turbines , designed to work efficiently with less flow , will be online by 2017 . Due to lack of water , the dam mostly provides power only during periods of peak demand .

Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam . Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self @-@ sustaining : proceeds from the sale of power repaid the 50 @-@ year construction loan , and those revenues also finance the multimillion @-@ dollar yearly maintenance budget . Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands .

Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses . Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals . The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All @-@ American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam . In total , water from the Lake Mead serves 18 million people in Arizona , Nevada and California and supplies the irrigation of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 @,@ 000 ha ) of land .

= = = = Power distribution = = = =

Electricity from the dam 's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty @-@ year contract , authorized by Congress in 1934 , which ran from 1937 to 1987 . In 1984 , Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations from the dam from 1987 to 2017 . The powerhouse was run under the original authorization by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison ; in 1987 , the Bureau of Reclamation assumed control . In 2011 , Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067 , after setting aside 5 % of Hoover Dam 's power for sale to Native American tribes , electric cooperatives , and other entities . The new arrangement will begin in 2017 . The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated is allocated as follows :

= = = Spillways = = =

The dam is protected against over @-@ topping by two spillways . The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment , running roughly parallel to the canyon walls . The spillway entrance arrangement forms a classic side @-@ flow weir with each spillway containing four 100 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 30 m ) and 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) steel @-@ drum gates . Each gate weighs 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 kg ) and can be operated manually or automatically . Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions . The gates are unable to entirely prevent water from entering the spillways but are able to maintain an extra 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) of lake level . Water flowing over the spillways drops dramatically into 600 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 180 m ) , 50 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 15 m ) spillway tunnels before connecting to the outer diversion tunnels , and reentering the main river channel below the dam . This complex spillway entrance arrangement combined with the approximate 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) elevation drop from the top of the reservoir to the river below was a difficult engineering problem and posed numerous design challenges . Each spillway 's capacity of 200 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 700 m3 / s ) was empirically verified in post @-@ construction tests in 1941 .

The large spillway tunnels have been used only twice , for testing in 1941 and because of flooding in 1983 . During both times , when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used , engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock . The 1941 damage was attributed to a slight misalignment of the tunnel invert ( or base ) , which caused cavitation , a phenomenon in fast @-@ flowing liquids in which vapor bubbles collapse with explosive force . In response to this finding , the tunnels were patched with special heavy @-@ duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror @-@ smooth . The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets , which both slow the water and decrease the spillway 's effective capacity , in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage . The 1983 damage , also due to cavitation , led to the installation of aerators in the spillways . Tests at Grand Coulee Dam showed that the technique worked , in principle .

= = = Roadway and tourism = = =

There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam , which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93 . In the wake of the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks , authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited . Pending the completion of the bypass , restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam . Some types of vehicles were inspected prior to crossing the dam while semi @-@ trailer trucks , buses carrying luggage , and enclosed @-@ box trucks over 40 ft ( 12 m ) long were not allowed on the dam at all , and were diverted to U.S. Route 95 or Nevada State Routes 163 / 68 . The four @-@ lane Hoover Dam Bypass opened on October 19 , 2010 . It includes a composite steel and concrete arch bridge , the Mike O 'Callaghan – Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge , 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) downstream from the dam . With the opening of the bypass , through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam , dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side .

Hoover Dam opened for tours in 1937 after its completion , but following Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II , during which only authorized traffic , in convoys , was permitted . After the war , it reopened September 2 , 1945 , and by 1953 , annual attendance had risen to 448 @,@ 081 . The dam closed on November 25 , 1963 and March 31 , 1969 , days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower . In 1995 , a new visitors ' center was built , and the following year , visits exceeded one million for the first time . The dam closed again to the public on September 11 , 2001 ; modified tours were resumed in December and a new " Discovery Tour " was added the following year . Today , nearly a million people per year take the tours of the dam offered by the Bureau of Reclamation . Increased security concerns by the government have led to most of the interior structure being inaccessible to tourists . As a result , few of True 's decorations can now be seen by visitors .

= = Environmental impact = =

The changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam 's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta . The construction of the dam has been credited as causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem . For six years after the construction of the dam , while Lake Mead filled , virtually no water reached the mouth of the river . The delta 's estuary , which once had a freshwater @-@ saltwater mixing zone stretching 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the river 's mouth , was turned into an inverse estuary where the level of salinity was higher close to the river 's mouth .

The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam . The dam eliminated the natural flooding , which threatened many species adapted to the flooding , including both plants and animals . The construction of the dam devastated the populations of native fish in the river downstream from the dam . Four species of fish native to the Colorado River , the Bonytail chub , Colorado pikeminnow , Humpback chub , and Razorback sucker , are listed as endangered .

= = Naming controversy = =

During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928 , the press generally referred to the dam as " Boulder Dam " or as " Boulder Canyon Dam " , even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon . The Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1928 ( BCPA ) never mentioned a proposed name or title for the dam . The BCPA merely allows the government to " construct , operate , and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon " .

When Secretary Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17 , 1930 , he named the dam " Hoover Dam " , citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents , though none had been so honored during their terms of office . Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was " the great engineer whose vision and persistence ... has done so much to make [ the dam ] possible " . One writer complained in response that " the Great Engineer had quickly drained , ditched , and dammed the country . "

After Hoover 's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration , Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13 , 1933 that the dam be referred to as " Boulder Dam " . Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president , that Congress had never ratified his choice , and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam . Unknown to the general public , Attorney General Homer Cummings informed Ickes that Congress had indeed used the name " Hoover Dam " in five different bills appropriating money for construction of the dam . The official status this conferred to the name " Hoover Dam " had been noted on the floor of the House of Representatives by Congressman Edward T. Taylor of Colorado on December 12 , 1930 , but was likewise ignored by Ickes .

When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30 , 1935 , he was determined , as he recorded in his diary , " to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam . " At one point in the speech , he spoke the words " Boulder Dam " five times within thirty seconds . Further , he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person , it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson , a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation . Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam , and the Republican @-@ leaning Los Angeles Times , which at the time of Ickes ' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign " HOOVER DAM , " reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes , but having no greater success .

In the following years , the name " Boulder Dam " failed to fully take hold , with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed . Memories of the Great Depression faded , and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II . In 1947 , a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name " Hoover Dam . " Ickes , who was by then a private citizen , opposed the change , stating , " I didn 't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with . "

= Tropical Storm Abby ( 1964 ) =

Tropical Storm Abby was an exceptionally small tropical cyclone that had minor effects across Southeast Texas in early August 1964 . Forming as a tropical depression out of a trough south of Louisiana on August 5 , the system moved generally westward . It was not until August 7 that the system began to organize . That day , an eye rapidly formed within the system and it became a tropical storm just 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Soon thereafter , a weather reconnaissance plane reported a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) at the storm 's center . Around 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) , the newly named Abby attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . It subsequently made landfall near Matagorda , Texas four hours later . Once onshore gradual weakening ensued , though a brief period of re @-@ organization delayed its dissipation . Abby degenerated into an area of showers on August 8 southwest of San Antonio , Texas .

Prior to Abby 's landfall in Texas , gale warnings were issued for the coast and residents on Matagorda Island were evacuated . Overall , the storm 's impacts were limited due to its small size . Only two structures sustained damage in Matagorda , one being destroyed by a possible tornado , and the remaining effects resulted from flooding in Jackson and Victoria Counties . Total damage from the storm was estimated at $ 750 @,@ 000 with the majority stemming from crops .

= = Meteorological history = =

On August 5 , 1964 , a weak trough emerged from Florida over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico . According to the Atlantic hurricane database ( referred to as HURDAT ) , the system developed into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) that day , with its center located roughly 160 mi ( 260 km ) south @-@ southeast of the Mississippi River Delta . Moving generally west , the system exhibited no signs of further development as it neared the Texas coastline . However , on August 7 , radar images from Brownsville , Galveston , Lake Charles , and Victoria showed an abrupt increase in organization . During the afternoon hours , banding features consolidated around a developing eye and weather reconnaissance planes were dispatched to the system . Forecasters initially mistook the eye as a hook echo @-@ type feature at the end of a squall line . It is estimated that the depression became a tropical storm by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) , roughly 60 mi ( 95 km ) southeast of Galveston , Texas . Operationally , the system was not even monitored as a depression this time , with the classification and naming of Tropical Storm Abby occurring at 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 .

Abby was an unusually small storm , with its entire circulation being far less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) in diameter . Around 16 : 00 UTC ( 11 : 00 a.m. CDT ) on August 7 , reconnaissance measured a central barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) within Abby , the lowest in relation to the system . They also reported peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) in squalls , which would rank as a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . These winds were seen to be an overestimate by forecasters and discarded , however . The system attained its maximum winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 18 : 00 UTC ( 1 : 00 p.m. CDT ) and subsequently made landfall just northeast of Matagorda , Texas at 22 : 00 UTC ( 5 : 00 p.m. CDT ) . Irvin Velbrecht , a forecaster at the Weather Bureau ( now known as the National Weather Service ) in Galveston , described the storm as a " perfectly miniature hurricane . " Despite moving onshore , Abby 's core continued to organize and it developed a closed eyewall roughly three hours later . Thereafter the storm began to gradually weaken , passing over Edna around 02 : 00 UTC on August 8 ( 9 : 00 p.m. CDT on August 7 ) . Weakening to a depression hours later , Abby ultimately degenerated into an area of showers and dissipated southwest of San Antonio by 12 : 00 UTC ( 7 : 00 a.m. CDT ) .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Owing to the abrupt nature of Abby 's development on August 7 , residents had little time to prepare for the storm . According to Irvin Velbrecht , " in the absence of aircraft reconnaissance and radar information , two reasonably new tools in storm detection , Abby could well have formed and approached the shore before knowledge of a tropical storm was gained . " Gale warnings were raised from Galveston to San Antonio immediately following the storm 's formation and were kept in place through the morning of August 8 . Evacuation orders were issued for Matagorda Island and most complied , with some deciding to remain at their homes . Personnel at Matagorda Island Air Force Base were evacuated to Victoria . Red Cross facilities were readied and public shelters were opened in the area . At the mouth of the Colorado River , seagoing vessels were tied down with extra rope . Within the Weather Bureau , members of the Galveston office were the first to notice the system and relayed to the other offices in the area to attune their radars to follow the system .

Abby 's small size resulted in its effects being limited to areas within the immediate track . Sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) with gusts to 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) were measured by the Army Corps of Engineers in Matagorda . Near the town , a possible tornado unroofed a barn and tossed the structure 225 ft ( 69 m ) ; this building previously had withstood the effects of Hurricane Carla in 1961 . Winds estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tore part of the roof off a fishing warehouse in Matagorda itself . Along the coast , tides ranged from 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal from Matagorda to Freeport . Four men and five dogs required rescue after their vessel became stranded on the Colorado River .

Heavy rains accompanied the system across Texas . Most areas along the immediate track received at least 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) of rain , with a peak value of 6 @.@ 14 in ( 156 mm ) recorded at the Victoria International Airport . The hardest hit areas were in Jackson and Victoria counties where the heaviest rains fell . In these areas , flooding and strong winds damaged the cotton and rice crops ; however , effects of the rice crop were more limited due to losses from earlier storms as well as ongoing harvesting . Some flooding also took place across the Atascosa River watershed , but no damage resulted . Overall , property damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 while agricultural losses reached $ 600 @,@ 000 .

= 7 Independent Company ( Rhodesia ) =

7 Independent Company ( 7 Indep Coy ; French : 7ème Compagnie indépendante ) was a short @-@ lived company of francophone volunteers in the Rhodesian Army during the Rhodesian Bush War . Numbering about 200 men at its peak , it was unique in the history of the Rhodesian Army as an exclusively expatriate unit . It existed between November 1977 and May 1978 as a company in the 1st Battalion , the Rhodesia Regiment , and served two counter @-@ insurgency tours on Operation Hurricane in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) .

During the Bush War , the Rhodesian Army augmented its ranks with foreign volunteers , who were accepted into regular regiments with the same pay and conditions of service as locals . Most foreign recruits enlisted in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , which launched an overseas recruitment programme in 1974 , but required successful applicants to speak good English . The Army attempted to alleviate the strain on its troops during late 1977 by recruiting French @-@ speakers as well , and formed a designated company in the Rhodesia Regiment for them . The regiment already had six independent companies , so the francophone unit became 7 Independent Company .

The company 's men , a mixture of former French paratroopers , ex @-@ Foreign Legionnaires and young adventurers , had trouble from the start integrating with the Rhodesian forces , and became unsettled by the respective ranks they were given in the Rhodesian Army . In an attempt to raise their morale and create a strong esprit de corps , the Army issued them beret insignias backed with the French tricolour and allowed them to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia each morning . Apparently under the impression that they had signed up as highly paid mercenaries , many of the French troopers returned home after their first bush trip , unhappy to have received no more money than a regular Rhodesian soldier .

On operations their performance was generally below par , but the Frenchmen were involved in some successful actions during February and early March 1978 . Their oppressive treatment of the black villagers they encountered made them very unpopular in the operational area . The Rhodesians quickly deemed the experiment a failure and following a series of disasters for the company during the latter part of its second tour , including two friendly fire incidents and several fatalities , it was disbanded in May 1978 . Forces led by one of its members , Bob Denard , later that month executed a coup d 'état in the Comoros with French , Rhodesian and South African governmental support .

= = Background = =

Following a dispute with the British government regarding terms for the granting of full independence , the predominantly white minority government of the self @-@ governing colony of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) , led by Ian Smith , unilaterally declared independence on 11 November 1965 . Britain and the United Nations refused to recognise this and each imposed economic sanctions on Rhodesia . Meanwhile , the country 's two most prominent communist @-@ backed black nationalist groups , the Zimbabwe African National Union and the Zimbabwe African People 's Union , mobilised their respective guerrilla armies , the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , for what they called the " Second Chimurenga " , with the goal of overthrowing the government and introducing black majority rule .

The Rhodesian Bush War was the result , beginning in earnest on 21 December 1972 when ZANLA attacked Altena and Whistlefield Farms near Centenary in the country 's north @-@ east . The Rhodesian Security Forces launched Operation Hurricane in response and fought back strongly , reducing the number of guerrillas active within the country to under 300 by December 1974 . In the period October – November 1974 , they killed more nationalist fighters than in the previous two years combined . However , a South African @-@ brokered ceasefire , which the security forces respected and the insurgents ignored , helped the nationalists to win back ground . By 1977 there were 2 @,@ 500 guerrillas operating in Rhodesia , with several times that number in training abroad .

The Rhodesian Army , though mostly made up of local men , also included some foreign volunteers , who were integrated into regular units under the same salary and conditions of service . Almost all of the foreigners served in the Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) , a heliborne commando battalion with a glamorous international reputation . The RLI initiated a major overseas recruitment drive in 1974 , targeting potential volunteers from Europe , Oceania and the Americas , and requiring successful applicants to speak good English . This campaign was bearing considerable fruit by May 1976 , when the RLI 's largest ever intake included more foreign volunteers than any before , and the enlisting of men from overseas into the RLI would increase yet further . By 1977 – 78 there were around 1 @,@ 500 foreigners in the Rhodesian forces . However , the Rhodesian Army remained stretched and low on manpower .

= = Formation and training = =

The idea for a francophone unit came from a French national , François Cramer , who had business interests and connections in Rhodesia . He proposed it to Major @-@ General Sandy MacLean , then the Rhodesian Army 's second @-@ in @-@ command , while they were visiting France together . MacLean relayed the idea to the General Staff in Salisbury , which decided in late 1977 to form a " French battalion " to alleviate the strain on its regular units . A Rhodesian officer of French extraction , Cyril Bernard , warned his superiors strongly against the scheme , but was ultimately himself sent to France to start the project . On the way he stopped in Zurich , Switzerland , where MacLean gave him final approval for the operation and a budget of US $ 30 @,@ 000 . They resolved to recruit mainly in Paris and Lyon . Bernard then entered France and renewed old connections from the French military academy at Saint @-@ Cyr .

Recruitment was carried out by a former French paratrooper , Roger Bruni , operating from an apartment on Rue Bachaumont in central Paris . Advertisements , placed in newspapers such as France Soir , offered " a job with a future abroad ... minimum age 22 , former non @-@ commissioned officers preferred " . The body of men eventually assembled varied widely in terms of age , background and experience , but was based largely around ex @-@ paratroopers and former Foreign Legionnaires . The average age was about 25 . French @-@ speaking veterans of an assortment of African and Middle Eastern conflicts spanning the previous two decades successfully applied , but past service did not prove a necessity ; some of the men accepted had no military experience . Most of them spoke English only at a basic level if at all .

Once signed up , each man was instructed to travel to Switzerland , where appropriate visas were swiftly procured from the South African Embassy . In early November 1977 , the French recruits flew from Zurich to Johannesburg on a South African Airways liner , then to Salisbury by Air Rhodesia . Already in Rhodesia waiting for the men were their leaders : Major Roland de l 'Assomption , an ex @-@ officer of the French Army 's crack 11th Shock Parachute Regiment , and a former officer of the Gabonese President Omar Bongo 's guard ; and Major Mario La Viola , once a non @-@ commissioned officer in the Foreign Legion 's 2nd Parachute Regiment . Beneath them were the Antillean Captain Toumi , who became the first black officer in the regular Rhodesian Army as the unit 's second @-@ in @-@ command , and " Colonel " Bob Denard , an infamous French soldier of fortune nicknamed le chien de guerre — " the dog of war " .

According to an anonymous veteran of the unit , it mostly comprised recently discharged servicemen from the French forces who were having trouble adapting to civilian life . " They didn 't know how to do anything else , only how to jump with a parachute and obey orders , " he explained , " and they liked that kind of thing . " Others , he said , were members of the political far right who had joined up " to kill commies and blacks " , and some were criminals hoping to escape the attention of the French police . Each signed on for two years . The French @-@ speaking unit was placed in the Rhodesia Regiment ( RR ) as an " independent company " . The RR already had six of these ( made up of Rhodesians ) , so the Frenchmen became 7 Independent Company .

The Rhodesian Army sought to forge a strong esprit de corps among the new recruits , and to this end extended them several sentimental allowances : for example , morale amongst the Frenchmen rose when they were informed that the Rhodesian insignia on their berets would be backed with the French tricolour . In a similar vein , their request for permission to raise the flag of France alongside that of Rhodesia outside their headquarters each morning was approved . French @-@ speaking men already in the army were attached to the unit to act as interpreters and assist with coordination and tactical instruction . Some of these were Mauritians , who by virtue of their upbringing spoke both English and French at a native @-@ like level . The company itself , which numbered about 200 men , was assigned headquarters near Salisbury at Cranborne Barracks , the home of the Rhodesian Light Infantry . It was organised in the same manner as a standard Rhodesian independent company , the only exception being its exclusively francophone personnel .

Spirits were high during the unit 's brief training period as the men enjoyed playing sports , observing the country scenery and experiencing the night @-@ life of the nearby capital . They were not adequately trained , receiving only a basic medical examination , a few days ' fitness training and a cursory explanation of proper conduct in the bush . They expressed surprise when instructed to paint stripes of camouflage green on their weapons and combat boots in the Rhodesian fashion , having never before heard of such a practice .

The first dent to morale came after about a week when the volunteers were first issued ranks in the Rhodesian Army . In the eyes of some of the French @-@ speaking soldiers , the ranks assigned appeared to have been chosen almost at random by their superiors , and did not reflect their actual respective levels of training , ability and experience . Some men who considered themselves to have been overlooked began to have problems with discipline . The brazen attitude of most of the company 's soldiers jarred strongly with that of their Rhodesian commanders , who had high standards regarding presentation and dress which many of the Frenchmen had little inclination to meet .

= = Service = =

= = = First bush trip = = =

The francophone company was first deployed out of its barracks in late November 1977 , when it was sent to Bindura , about 88 kilometres ( 55 mi ) north @-@ east from Salisbury , for a few days in the bush on Operation Hurricane , the Army 's operational area which covered Rhodesia 's north @-@ east against guerrilla activity . After this passed without major incident , the Frenchmen were despatched to Rusambo , a camp in the Chimanda Tribal Trust Lands , near Rushinga , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) north @-@ east from the capital and less than 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the border with Mozambique . Most insurgents in this area belonged to ZANLA .

A company of men from the Territorial Force was already stationed at Rusambo , advised by a team of intelligence officers . " Sticks " of four men ( three FN FAL riflemen and an MAG gunner ) would be sent out into the bush from Rusambo for periods of up to two weeks , equipped with a radio to communicate with the base . Their task while in action was to seek out guerrillas by means of patrolling , ambushing and operating observation and listening posts . Once a group of insurgents was spotted , the stick leader would report their positions ; Rusambo would then alert the Army and request a Fireforce . If Fireforce were available , it would arrive and engage the cadres ; if not , the stick in the field would have to handle the situation itself .

At first , men from 7 Independent Company were sent out in sticks mixed with the Territorials , but problems soon arose regarding proper regimen and the language barrier . When the Frenchmen were then sent out alone , their Land Rovers prominently flying the French flag , the issue of language was resolved , but that of indiscipline remained . Though discretion was paramount if they were to observe enemy movements covertly and effectively , the men of 7 Independent Company were found to have difficulty maintaining this and sometimes made careless mistakes which risked revealing their presence . Moreover , when investigations were made of local kraals , marked tension soon arose between the Frenchmen and the local black population ; the soldiers ' ignorance of English or Shona made it very difficult for discussions to take place and , according to other Rhodesian units who came into contact with them , the French soldiers took out their frustration on the villagers , often using excessive force in their attempted interrogations . Nyamahoboko Police Station received a report of a 7 Independent Company man raping a young tribeswoman in a dense thicket , but did not act on it . According to one history of the Rhodesia Regiment , " it was indicated that the Frenchmen had received instruction that all black people were to be regarded as terrorists " .

The Rhodesian Army quickly deemed the French experiment a failure . It reassigned 7 Independent Company in late November to Marymount Mission , a small settlement to the east of Rusambo where there was a minor police station . The number of patrols they would embark on was reduced . Two of the company 's vehicles were ambushed by cadres between Marymount and Rusambo on 6 January 1978 , resulting in two men being injured , one fatally so . A week later another truck was surprised on the same bush road , resulting in one death and three serious casualties . The company was brought back from the bush four days later for rest and recuperation ( R & R ) in Salisbury .

= = = Strike = = =

During their 15 @-@ day rest periods the company 's men congregated around the Belgian @-@ owned Elizabeth Hotel , in the centre of the city at the corner of Causeway and Manica Road . Many of them became seriously disaffected when they first received their salary from the Rhodesian Army . Having apparently been misled about wages of up to R $ 1 @,@ 000 per month ( ₣ 7 @,@ 000 ) by the French recruiters , they were surprised to find that their basic monthly pay was actually R $ 245 ( ₣ 1 @,@ 800 ) , the same as a regular Rhodesian soldier . Moreover , some were upset that they had been paid in Rhodesian dollars , which because of the country 's international isolation could not easily be exchanged for foreign currencies . Although it was not as much as they had been expecting , one disenchanted veteran of the unit afterwards admitted that the tax @-@ exempt R $ 245 wage , which came with a $ 10 special @-@ unit supplement , was still more than enough money for them to live comfortably in Salisbury during their time off .

The pay dispute split the unit . About two thirds went on strike , saying they would not return to action unless the Army upped their wages and paid them in foreign currency . Meanwhile , some of the more contented Frenchmen made steps to remain permanently , buying cars and having their wives join them in Salisbury . The Army detained the strike 's ringleaders for insubordination . With neither side willing to budge — the Army refused to give the strikers extra pay or special treatment , saying this would contravene Rhodesia 's policy not to engage mercenaries — the disaffected men were repatriated to France at their own request . The Rhodesian Army considered disbanding the unit altogether , but persevered when Major de l 'Assomption convinced his superiors that his remaining men were still loyal and eager to continue serving .

= = = Second bush trip ; dissolution = = =

Starting on 11 February 1978 , 7 Independent Company spent half a week at Mount Darwin , where there was a major Army base . The company acquitted themselves well during this time , but one of their number was badly injured in a motor accident . They returned to Rusambo , where the camp was now manned by the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , Criminal Investigation Department and Special Branch , guarded by a group of Coloured and Indian @-@ Rhodesian soldiers . On 26 February , the Frenchmen spotted a group of seven cadres indoctrinating tribespeople at a local kraal , and called up Fireforce . The RLI men who arrived killed four of the seven , including one carrying detailed documents . The next day 7 Independent Company observed 11 guerrillas entering another kraal , but this time the Fireforce took too long to arrive . The French company took part in a large contact on 1 March , fighting alongside an RLI Fireforce against 28 cadres ; 18 insurgents were killed in this contact without loss for the Rhodesian Army .

Soon after this , two sticks from 7 Independent Company were despatched to Marymount , led by a deputy intelligence officer who began sending them out on more regular night patrols . The following months were a disaster for the locally based Rhodesian forces ; first one stick fired on another , causing an injury , then a BSAP Land Rover hit a mine , killing two members of the French company . A further Frenchman died in an ambush by insurgents before another friendly fire incident on 19 April 1978 resulted in a fatality . On several occasions during this bush trip the area was " frozen " ; regular army units were confined to their camps while the Selous Scouts operated against the guerrillas . With morale amongst the Frenchmen plummeting , bringing their unit close to collapse , its officers at Rusambo frantically worked to keep it together . The company did not last much longer once back in Salisbury for R & R. Soon after three of its troopers were placed in detention at Llewellin Barracks , the unit was formally dissolved in May 1978 . The only personnel retained by the Army were the interpreters , who were returned to their former units .

= = Legacy = =

Supported by the French , Rhodesian and South African governments and with Rhodesian logistical assistance , forces led by Denard took part in a coup d 'état in the Comoros later in May , toppling Ali Soilih ( who Denard had himself put into power three years earlier ) . The Comoros subsequently became a key location for Rhodesian " sanction @-@ busting " operations , providing a convenient end @-@ user certificate for clandestine shipments of weapons and equipment bound for Rhodesia in spite of the UN embargo . South Africa , also under a UN arms boycott because of apartheid , received war materiel through the Comoros in a similar fashion .

Some 7 Independent Company men became civilians in Rhodesia , which was reconstituted as Zimbabwe in 1980 . Two of them , Gervais Henri Alfred Boutanquoi and Simon Marc Chemouil ( both former Foreign Legionnaires ) , were executed in April 1983 , despite a late plea from French authorities for clemency , having been found guilty of robbing and murdering Richard Kraft , a Karoi café owner . Witness Mangwende , the Zimbabwean Minister of Foreign Affairs , issued a statement clarifying that the execution was for the murder and unrelated to their earlier " service as mercenaries during the time of the Smith regime . "

= Jenova Chen =

Xinghan Chen ( simplified Chinese : 陈星汉 ; traditional Chinese : 陳星漢 ; pinyin : Chén Xīnghàn ; born October 8 , 1981 ) , known professionally as Jenova Chen , is a Chinese video game designer . He is the designer of the award @-@ winning games Cloud , Flow , Flower , and Journey , and is co @-@ founder of Thatgamecompany . Chen is from Shanghai , where he earned a bachelor 's degree in computer science with a minor in digital art and design . He then moved to the United States , where he earned a master 's degree from the University of Southern California 's Interactive Media Division . While there he created Cloud and Flow , and met fellow student Kellee Santiago . After a brief period at Maxis working on Spore , he founded Thatgamecompany with Santiago and became the company 's creative director . The company signed a three @-@ game deal with Sony Computer Entertainment , and has sold Flow , Flower , and Journey through the PlayStation Network .

As Chen was born in a culture other than the culture he now lives in , he tries to make games that appeal universally to all people . His goal with his games is to help video games mature as a medium by making games that inspire emotional responses in the player that other games are lacking . Although he and Thatgamecompany can and have made more traditional games , he does not plan on commercially developing any of them , as he does not think that it fits with their goals as an independent video game developer .

= = Biography = =

Chen was born in Shanghai on October 8 , 1981 , and lived there until 2003 . His parents were " a middle @-@ class family " , and his father worked in the software development industry , having previously worked on " one of the earliest giant computers in China " . Although Chen was interested in art and drawing as a young child , his father influenced him towards computers , entering him in programming contests from when he was 10 years old . He found himself interested in video games that he saw there , but was not as enthusiastic about programming . While a teenager , he had deep emotional experiences with games that he played , including The Legend of Sword and Fairy , which he ascribes to the fact that he was not as exposed to books , films , or life events that other people would have had those experiences with . These experiences drove him to try to create those types of feelings in games as an adult , when more emotional maturity had caused his " standards to rise " in what would move him in a game . It was during high school that he chose the English name Jenova after a character in Final Fantasy VII , wanting a name that would be unique anywhere he used it as there were " thousands of Jason Chens " .

He earned a degree in Computer Science & Engineering in Shanghai Jiao Tong University , which due to his background in computers he found " quite easy " , but describes himself as spending much of his time there teaching himself digital art and animation , and later did a minor in digital art and design at Donghua University . Still interested in video games , he was involved in making three video games as part of a student group while in school . Upon graduating , he had trouble finding a job in the Chinese video game industry that combined his interests of " engineering , art , and design " , and additionally felt that " very few games [ had ] actually achieved those qualities that would be interesting to an adult " . He also considered working in digital animation for films .

He then went to the United States to earn a master 's degree in the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California . Chen studied in the Interactive Media Program , a new division of the School of Cinematic Arts . His intention at the time was to use the degree to get the kind of job he wanted back in China . At USC , he became inspired when he went to the Game Developers Conference , where he positively compared the games he had made in college with the student work present at the Independent Games Festival portion of the conference . While at USC he met Kellee Santiago , another student in the same program , and the two decided to work together on games that would be outside of the mainstream . Their first game , which won a grant of twenty thousand dollars from USC to produce , was Cloud , released in 2005 , which " focuses on a young hospital patient who soars in his mind despite being trapped indoors " . The idea was partially based on himself , as when he was a child he was often hospitalized for asthma . It was designed as an attempt to " expand the spectrum of emotions video games evoke " . At a student showcase at the Game Developers Conference , Chen and Santiago showed the game to a representative from Sony , John Hight , saying that it was the first game in the " Zen " genre . Hight was interested , though no deal was forthcoming . The game won the Best Student Philosophy award at the Slamdance Guerilla Games Competition and a Student Showcase award at the Independent Games Festival , and was showcased on Spike TV , G4TV , and CBS Sunday .

Chen felt that the reason that Cloud had been so warmly received was because the emotions it sparked in players were different than any other game available at the time , and believed that it was his " calling " to make more games that changed what people saw video games as . Chen went on to do his master 's thesis the following year in the concept of dynamic difficulty adjustment , where the game adjusts how it reacts to the player based on the past and present actions of that player . Chen illustrated his ideas with Flow , a Flash game made with Nicholas Clark . The game involves the player guiding an aquatic microorganism through various depths of the ocean , consuming other organisms and evolving in the process . It was released in March 2006 ; it received 100 @,@ 000 downloads in its first two weeks and by July had been downloaded over 650 @,@ 000 times . A PlayStation 3 version was announced in May 2006 as a downloadable game via the PlayStation Store , and was released in February 2007 . A version for the PlayStation Portable , developed by SuperVillain Studios , was released in March 2008 . Flow became the most downloaded game on the PlayStation Network in 2007 , and won Best Downloadable Game at the Game Developers Choice Awards .

After graduating , Chen and Santiago formed their own game company , Thatgamecompany , in Los Angeles where he still lives and signed a deal with Sony for three PlayStation Store games . The PS3 version of Flow was the first , and while it was in development Chen worked for Maxis on the game Spore . Upon Flow 's release , Chen returned to Thatgamecompany and began working on their second game .

= = = Thatgamecompany = = =

The next game , Flower , was Chen and Thatgamecompany 's " first game outside the safety net of academia " . Chen was the creative director in charge of the game , while Santiago was the producer and Clark was the lead designer . The company ranged in size from six to nine people at varying stages of the game 's development . Flower was intended by Chen to primarily to provoke positive emotions in the player , and to act as " an emotional shelter " . Chen described the game as " an interactive poem exploring the tension between urban and nature " . He decided on a " nature " theme early in the development process , saying that he " had this concept that every PlayStation is like a portal in your living room , it leads you to somewhere else . I thought ; wouldn 't it be nice if it was a portal that would allow you to be embraced by nature . " Chen designed the game around the idea that the primary purpose of entertainment products like video games was the feelings that they evoked in the audience , and that the emotional range of most games was very limited . To make Flower have the " emotional spectrum " that he wanted , Chen looked at the development process as creating a work of art , rather than a " fun " game , which would not provoke the desired emotions . In 2008 , during Flower 's development , Chen was named to the MIT Technology Review TR35 as one of the top 35 innovators in the world under the age of 35 .

After Flower was released to critical praise and awards , Chen and Thatgamecompany moved on to their next game , Journey . Journey was intended by Chen to focus on the element of communication and social interaction in video games . Since in most games the communication between players is focused on specific goals , in Journey Chen intended for the player to be able to either play alone or to come across other players , but not be able to communicate with them directly . Instead , players have to build relationships with each other through their actions , helping each other or leaving as they choose . Journey was released on the PlayStation Network on March 13 , 2012 , and has received critical acclaim .

= = Influences and philosophy = =

Chen plays a wide variety of video games , but he names his greatest influences as Katamari Damacy , Ico and Shadow of the Colossus . He also names Final Fantasy VII as an influence , and the game that he took his adopted name from . He personally plays games " competitively " , including titles such as Street Fighter IV and StarCraft . He feels he has a competitive nature , which he has turned towards " winning " at being a game designer by creating games that are unlike what is in the market rather than towards creating competitive games . As he was raised in China and works in America , Chen feels that he cannot fully relate to either culture as a game designer . As such , instead of trying to make games that fit perfectly with one culture he tries to make games that tap into feelings that are universal and independent of culture .

When Chen quit Maxis to re @-@ join Thatgamecompany , he did so knowing that it would mean taking less pay and having a less stable career . He felt , though , that it was important to the industry and medium as a whole to create games that provoked different emotional responses in the player than just excitement or fear . While Chen is not opposed to making action games , and his company has made internal " exciting " games that were well received at Sony , he feels that there is no point to Thatgamecompany commercially producing games like that instead of working for existing game developers , as they would not be making anything new that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio . Similarly , Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make " big budget blockbuster games " , as the pressure on profits that that entails would stifle the innovation that he wants Thatgamecompany to focus on . Chen believes that for video games to become a mature medium like film , the industry as a whole needs to create a wide range of emotional responses to their games , similar to how film has thriller , romance , and comedy genres based on the emotions they provoke . He feels that there are only three ways for video games to impact adults in the same way they do children : " intellectually , whereby the work reveals a new perspective about the world that you have not seen before , " by " emotionally touching someone , " and " by creating a social environment where the intellectual or emotional stimulation could happen from other people . "

= E. W. Hornung =

Ernest William Hornung ( 7 June 1866 – 22 March 1921 ) was an English author and poet known for writing the A. J. Raffles series of stories about a gentleman thief in late 19th @-@ century London . Hornung was educated at Uppingham School ; as a result of poor health he left the school in December 1883 to travel to Sydney , where he stayed for two years . He drew on his Australian experiences as a background when he began writing , initially short stories and later novels .

In 1898 he wrote " In the Chains of Crime " , which introduced Raffles and his sidekick , Bunny Manders ; the characters were based partly on his friends Oscar Wilde and his lover , Lord Alfred Douglas , and also on Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson . The series of Raffles short stories were collected for sale in book form in 1899 , and two further books of Raffles short stories followed , as well as a poorly received novel . Aside from his Raffles stories , Hornung was a prodigious writer of fiction , publishing numerous books from 1890 , with A Bride from the Bush to his 1914 novel The Crime Doctor .

The First World War brought an end to Hornung 's fictional output . His son , Oscar , was killed at the Second Battle of Ypres in July 1915 . Hornung joined the YMCA , initially in England , then in France , where he helped run a canteen and library . He published two collections of poetry during the war , and then , afterwards , one further volume of verse and an account of his time spent in France , Notes of a Camp @-@ Follower on the Western Front . Hornung 's fragile constitution was further weakened by the stress of his war work . To aid his recuperation , he and his wife visited the south of France in 1921 . He fell ill from influenza on the journey , and died on 22 March 1921 , aged 54 .

Although much of Hornung 's work has fallen into obscurity , his Raffles stories continued to be popular , and have formed numerous film and television adaptations . Hornung 's stories dealt with a wider range of themes than crime : he examined scientific and medical developments , guilt , class and the unequal role played by women in society . Two threads that run through a sizeable proportion of his books are Australia and cricket ; the latter was also a lifelong passion .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life : 1866 – 86 = = =

Hornung was born Ernest William Hornung on 7 June 1866 at Cleveland Villas , Marton , Middlesbrough ; he was nicknamed Willie from an early age . He was the third son , and youngest of eight children , of John Peter Hornung ( 1821 – 86 ) and his wife Harriet née Armstrong ( 1824 – 96 ) . John was christened Johan Petrus Hornung in the Transylvania region of Hungary and , after working in Hamburg for a shipping firm , had moved to Britain in the 1840s as a coal and iron merchant . John married Harriet in March 1848 , by which time he had anglicised his name . At the age of 13 Hornung joined St Ninian 's Preparatory School in Moffat , Dumfriesshire before enrolling at Uppingham School in 1880 . Hornung was well liked at school , and developed a lifelong love of cricket despite limited skills at the game , which were further worsened by bad eyesight , asthma and , according to his biographer Peter Rowland , a permanent state of generally poor health .

When Hornung was 17 his health worsened ; he left Uppingham and travelled to Australia , where it was hoped by his family that the climate would be beneficial . On his arrival he was employed as a tutor to the Parsons family in Mossgiel in the Riverina , south @-@ western New South Wales . In addition to teaching , he spent time working in remote sheep stations in the outback and contributing material to the weekly magazine The Bulletin ; he also began writing what was to become his first novel . Although he spent only two years in Australia , the experience was " the making of him and ... the making of his career as a writer " , according to Rowland . Another biographer , Mark Valentine , wrote that Hornung " seems to have regarded this period as one of the most satisfying of his life " .

= = = Return to England : 1886 – 98 = = =

Hornung returned to England in February 1886 , before the death of his father in November . From a position of relative prosperity , John 's coal and iron business had encountered difficulties and he was in financially straitened circumstances by the time of his death . Hornung found work in London as a journalist and story writer , often publishing his work under a pseudonym , although in 1887 he published his first story under his own name , " Stroke of Five " , which appeared in Belgravia magazine . His work as a journalist was during the period of Jack the Ripper and the series of five murders , which were undertaken against a background of rising urban crime in London ; it was around this time that Hornung developed an interest in criminal behaviour .

Hornung had worked on the novel manuscript he brought back from Australia and , between July and November 1890 , the story , " A Bride from the Bush " , was published in five parts in the Cornhill Magazine . It was also released that year as a book — his first . The story — described by Rowland as an " assured , graceful comedy of manners " — used Hornung 's knowledge of Australia as a backdrop , and the device of an Australian bride to examine British social behaviour ; the novel was well received by critics . In 1891 Hornung became a member of two cricket clubs : the Idlers , whose members included Arthur Conan Doyle , Robert Barr and Jerome K. Jerome , and the Strand club .

Hornung knew Doyle 's sister , Constance ( " Connie " ) Aimée Monica Doyle ( 1868 – 1924 ) , whom he had met when he visited Portugal . Connie was described by Doyle 's biographer , Andrew Lycett , as being attractive , " with pre @-@ Raphaelite looks ... the most sought @-@ after of the Doyle daughters " . By December 1892 , when Hornung , Doyle and Jerome visited the Black Museum at Scotland Yard , Hornung and Connie were engaged , and in 1893 Hornung dedicated his second novel , Tiny Luttrell , " to C.A.M.D. " They were married on 27 September 1893 , although Doyle was not at the wedding and relations between the two writers were sometimes strained . The Hornungs had a son , Arthur Oscar , in 1895 ; while his first name was from Doyle , who was also Arthur 's godfather , the boy 's middle name was probably after Doyle and Hornung 's mutual friend Oscar Wilde and it was by his second name that he was known . In 1894 Doyle and Hornung began work on a play for Henry Irving , on the subject of boxing during the Regency ; Doyle was initially eager and paid Hornung £ 50 as a down payment before he withdrew after the first act had been written : the work was never completed .

Like Hornung 's first novel , Tiny Luttrell had Australia as a backdrop and also used the plot device of an Australian woman in a culturally alien environment . The Australian theme was present in his next four novels : The Boss of Taroomba ( 1894 ) , The Unbidden Guest ( 1894 ) , Irralie 's Bushranger ( 1896 ) and The Rogue 's March ( 1896 ) . In the last of these Hornung wrote of the Australian convict transport system , and showed evidence of a " growing fascination with the motivation behind criminal behaviour and a deliberate sympathy for the criminal hero as a victim of events " , while Irralie 's Bushranger introduced the character Stingaree , an Oxford @-@ educated , Australian gentleman thief , in a novel that " casts doubt on conventional responses " to a positive criminal character , according to Hornung 's biographer , Stephen Knight .

= = = Introducing Raffles : 1898 – 1914 = = =

In 1898 Hornung 's mother died , aged 72 and he dedicated his next book , a series of short stories titled Some Persons Unknown , to her memory . Later that year Hornung and his wife visited Italy for six months , staying in Posillipo ; his account of the location appeared in an article of the May 1899 edition of Cornhill Magazine . The Hornungs returned to London in early 1899 , to a house in Pitt Street , West Kensington , where they lived for the next six years .

The fictional character Stingaree proved to be a prototype of a character Hornung used in a series of six short stories published in 1898 in Cassell 's Magazine , A. J. Raffles . The character was modelled on George Cecil Ives , a Cambridge @-@ educated criminologist and talented cricketer who , like Raffles , was a resident of the Albany , a gentlemen 's only residence in Mayfair . The first tale of the series " In the Chains of Crime " was published in June that year , titled " The Ides of March " . The stories were collected into one volume — with two additional tales — under the name The Amateur Cracksman , which was published the following year . Hornung used a narrative form similar to Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories , with Raffles and his partner @-@ in @-@ crime ( and former school fag ) Bunny Manders being the criminal counterparts to Holmes and Dr. Watson — although Rowland writes that Raffles and Manders " were also fictionalized versions of Wilde and Bosie " ( Wilde 's lover , Lord Alfred Douglas ) . — and he dedicated the stories to his brother @-@ in @-@ law : " To A.C.D. This form of flattery " . Doyle had warned against writing the stories , and reflected in his memoirs that " there are few finer examples of short @-@ story writing in our language than these , though I confess I think they are rather dangerous in their suggestion . I told him so before he put pen to paper , and the result has , I fear , borne me out . You must not make the criminal the hero " . The book was a popular and financial success , although some critics also echoed Doyle 's fears . The reviewer in The Spectator wrote that " stern moralists " would consider the book 's premise " as a new , ingenious , artistic , but most reprehensible application of the crude principles involved in the old @-@ fashioned hero @-@ worship of Jack Sheppard and Dick Turpin " . The book ends with Manders imprisoned and Raffles apparently dead , something that left The Spectator reviewer " expressing [ their ] satisfaction that this audaciously entertaining volume is not issued in a cheap form . It is emphatically a feat of virtuosity rather than a tribute to virtue . "

After publishing two novels , Dead Men Don 't Tell Tales in 1899 and Peccavi in 1900 , Hornung published a second collection of Raffles stories , The Black Mask , in 1901 . The nearly broke Manders is told to apply for the post of a nurse to an elderly invalid , who then reveals himself to be Raffles , who , as Manders describes , had " aged twenty years ; he looked fifty at the very least . His hair was white ; there was no trick about that ; and his face was another white . The lines about the corners of the eyes and mouth were both many and deep " . In the final story of the collection , " The Knees of the Gods " , Raffles and Manders enlist in the army to fight in the Second Boer War ; the story closes with Manders wounded and Raffles killed . The critics again complained about the criminal aspect ; The Spectator declared " this sort of book presents crime in a form too entertaining and attractive to be moral " , while the reviewer for The Illustrated London News thought that Hornung 's " invention has obviously flagged ... It is laughable , in a sense which the author never intended , to hear these burglars rant about the honour of Old England . It is a pity that the man who wrote Peccavi should stoop to this " .

In 1903 Hornung collaborated with Eugène Presbrey to write a four @-@ act play , Raffles , The Amateur Cracksman , which was based on two previously published short stories , " Gentlemen and Players " and " The Return Match " . The play was first performed at the Princess Theatre , New York , on 27 October 1903 with Kyrle Bellew as Raffles , and ran for 168 performances .

In 1905 , after publishing four other books in the interim , Hornung brought back the character Stingaree , previously seen in Irralie 's Bushranger . Later that year he responded to public demand and produced a third series of short Raffles stories in A Thief in the Night , in which Manders relates some of his and Raffles 's earlier adventures . The reviewer for the Boston Herald thought that " the sentimental side of the story has never before been shown so dramatically and romantically " , and described the book as " thrilling and exciting " . Hornung 's next book was published in 1909 and was the final Raffles story , the full @-@ length novel Mr. Justice Raffles ; the book was poorly received , with the reviewer for The Observer asking if " Hornung is perhaps a little tired of Raffles " , and stating that " it has not the magic or the ' go ' of the first Raffles , and there is no good in pretending that it has " . During the course of the year he collaborated with Charles Sansom to write a play A Visit From Raffles , which was performed in November that year at the Brixton Empress Theatre , London .

Hornung turned away from Raffles thereafter , and in February 1911 published The Camera Fiend , a thriller whose narrator is an asthmatic cricket enthusiast with an ironmaster father , much as Hornung was himself . The story concerned the attempts of a scientist to photograph the soul as it left the body . Hornung followed this up with Fathers of Men ( 1912 ) and The Thousandth Woman ( 1913 ) before Witching Hill ( 1913 ) , a collection of eight short stories in which he introduced the characters Uvo Delavoye and the narrator Gillon , whom Rowland considers to be " reincarnations of Raffles and Bunny " . Hornung 's next work , The Crime Doctor ( 1914 ) marked the end of his fictional output .

= = = First World War and aftermath = = =

Oscar Hornung left Eton College in 1914 , intending to enter King 's College , Cambridge later that year . When Britain entered the war against Germany , he volunteered , and was commissioned into the Essex Regiment . He was killed at the Second Battle of Ypres on 6 July 1915 , aged 20 . Although heartbroken by the loss , Hornung was adamant that some good would come of it and he edited a privately issued collection of Oscar 's letters home under the title Trusty and Well Beloved , released in 1916 . Around this time he joined an anti @-@ aircraft unit . In either 1916 or 1917 he joined the YMCA and did volunteer work in England for soldiers on leave ; in March 1917 he visited France , writing a poem about his experience afterwards — something he had been doing more frequently since Oscar 's death — and a collection of his war poetry , Ballad of Ensign Joy , was published later that year .

In July 1917 Hornung 's poem , " Wooden Crosses " , was published in The Times , and in September , " Bond and Free " appeared . Towards the end of the year , he was accepted as a volunteer in a YMCA canteen and library " a short distance behind the Front Line " . During his service in Arras , in February 1918 he borrowed a staff car from a friend and visited his son 's grave near Ypres , before returning to the library in Arras . Hornung was concerned about support for pacifism among troops , and wrote to his wife about it . When she spoke to Doyle about the matter , rather than discussing it with Hornung he informed the military authorities . Hornung was angered by Doyle 's action , and " told him there was no need for him to ' butt in ' except for his own ' satisfaction ' . " Relations between the two men were strained as a result . Hornung continued to work at the library until the German Spring Offensive in March overran the British positions and he was forced to retreat , firstly to Amiens and then , in April , back to England . He stayed in England until November 1918 , when he again took up his YMCA duties , establishing a rest hut and library in Cologne . In 1919 Hornung 's account of his time spent in France , Notes of a Camp @-@ Follower on the Western Front , was published . Doyle later wrote of the book that " there are parts of it which are brilliant in their vivid portrayal " , while Hornung 's biographer , Alison Cox , described the book as " one of the best records of the war as experienced on the front lines " . That year Hornung also published his third and final volume of poetry , The Young Guard .

= = = Death and legacy = = =

Hornung finished his work with the YMCA and returned to England probably in early 1919 , according to Rowland . He worked on a new novel but was hampered by poor health . His wife 's health was of even greater concern , so in February 1921 they took a holiday in the south of France to recuperate . He fell ill on the train with a chill that turned into influenza and pneumonia from which he died on 22 March 1921 , aged 54 . He was buried in Saint @-@ Jean @-@ de @-@ Luz , in the south of France , in a grave adjacent to that of Gissing . Doyle , returning from a spiritualist lecture tour of Australia , received the news in Paris and travelled south in time for the funeral .

When Hornung had still been courting Doyle 's sister , Doyle wrote that " I like young Willie Hornung very much ... he is one of the sweetest @-@ natured and most delicate @-@ minded men I ever knew " . Honouring him after his death , Doyle wrote that he " was a Dr. [ Samuel ] Johnson without the learning but with a finer wit . No one could say a neater thing , and his writings , good as they are , never adequately represented the powers of the man , nor the quickness of his brain " . His obituarist in The Times described him as " a man of large and generous nature , a delightful companion and conversationalist " .

Much of Hornung 's work fell out of favour as time passed ; Rowland observed that " all of Hornung 's other works have been forgotten , with the possible exception of Stingaree , but the cricketing Cracksman continues to enthral " . The idea of a criminal as a positive character was one of Hornung 's legacies , and Twentieth @-@ Century Literary Criticism states that " critics have also interpreted Raffles as a prototype of the antihero in modern crime fiction " . The academic Frank Wadleigh Chandler , describing Raffles 's death , writes that " all his creator 's attempts to portray him as a hero , rather than an anti @-@ hero , deservedly fail . " Valentine highlights one aspect of the stories was the mix of " devilry and daring " demonstrated by Raffles ; in this respect he was a literary " forerunner of The Saint , James Bond and other insouciant types " . The writer Colin Watson agrees , and called Hornung " a precursor of [ Ian ] Fleming " .

The character continued in book form : the writer Philip Atkey , under the pseudonym Barry Perowne , obtained permission from the Hornung estate to continue the Raffles stories , and seven more novels followed between 1933 and 1940 , with Raffles transformed from a gentleman thief to a tough adventurer . Perowne continued the series in 1950 , and 14 of his stories were published in the 1974 volume Raffles Revisited . Hornung 's original stories have undergone a number of reprints , and when all the short stories were published in a single volume , Graham Greene considered it " a splendid idea " . In 1975 Greene had written a play based on the Raffles stories , The Return of A.J. Raffles , which premiered at the Royal Shakespeare Company , with Denholm Elliott as Raffles .

There were several Raffles films made during Hornung 's lifetime , Further films followed in the years after his death , including Raffles , the Amateur Cracksman ( 1925 ) , with House Peters , Sr. ; Raffles ( 1930 ) , featuring Ronald Colman ; The Return of Raffles ( 1933 ) , with George Barraud ; and Raffles ( 1939 ) , starring David Niven ; the last of these was a Samuel Goldwyn Productions remake of their own 1930 film , which the academic Victor E. Neuburg called the " most memorable portrayal " of the character .

The BBC has dramatised some of Hornung 's Raffles stories for radio , first in the 1940s and again in the 1990s , when Nigel Havers played Raffles . In 1977 Anthony Valentine played the thief , and Christopher Strauli his partner , in a Yorkshire Television series . A 2001 TV version , The Gentleman Thief , adapted the stories for a contemporary audience , with Havers playing the lead .

= = Writing = =

= = = Style and technique = = =

Hornung 's prose is widely admired for its lucid @-@ yet @-@ simple style . Oliver Edwards , writing in The Times , considered that " not the least attractive part of the Raffles books is the simple , plain , unaffected language in which each one of them is written " . The obituarist in the same newspaper agrees , and thinks Hornung had " a power of good and clear description and a talent for mystery and surprise " . Colin Watson also considers the point , and observes that in Hornung 's writing , " superfluous description has been avoided and account of action is to the point " , while Doyle admired his " sudden use of the right adjective and the right phrase " , something the writer and journalist Jeremy Lewis sees as a " flamboyant , Kiplingesque taste for the vivid " .

Critics have observed that Hornung 's stories and novels are well @-@ structured . George Orwell wrote that Hornung was " a very conscientious and on his level a very able writer . Anyone who cares for sheer efficiency must admire his work " . Watson states that Hornung 's " writing has pace . The stories , however ridiculous , carry the readers along briskly " . According to Cox , " Hornung 's work showed steady maturation " during his career , a point that Doyle also agreed with , although Edwards disagrees , and thinks The Crime Doctor to be one of Hornung 's weaker books .

Hornung 's approach to characters differed from other contemporary authors . Cox notes that Hornung " frequently chose to write from the perspective of the criminal " , and while many of Hornung 's novels contained criminal activity as a major element of the plot , the critic for Contemporary Authors states that the works do not " belong to the crime @-@ fiction genre " . Hornung 's works included elements from more general fiction , " such as false identities , disguises , and disowned heiresses " .

= = = Major themes = = =

The academic Nick Rance identifies three categories of Raffles stories : " the rise of the New Woman " , in which Raffles either escapes from romantic entanglements , or uses the infatuations of a woman in order to achieve his aims ; " the rise of the plutocracy " , in which Raffles steals from the nouveau riche as much as the upper classes ; and those stories that seek " to reaffirm or re @-@ establish a sense of middle @-@ class identity " . The last category is based on Raffles not being a member of " Society " , only being accepted because of his cricketing ability and associated fame . From this point , Raffles 's stealing from the rich is a " rearguard action on behalf of the puritan values " which was perceived as making up middle @-@ class values , although Rance also states that those values are obscured because of the changing boundaries between the classes . Gariepy makes the same point , and considers that " Raffles 's daring exploits and fantastic adventures symbolized the growing rebellion against Victorian sensibility at the turn of the century " .

Hornung kept abreast of scientific and medical developments , and was keen to incorporate them into his stories which , the critic for Contemporary Authors states , shows Hornung had " a streak of modernity and decided interest in new ideas " . The Camera Fiend uses the modern technology of the camera as an instrument central to the plot , while the protagonist of The Crime Doctor uses psychology to identify criminals .

Throughout the Raffles stories patriotism runs as an intermittent theme — to such an extent that the writer William Vivian Butler describes him as a " super @-@ patriot " . In the course of the short story " A Jubilee Present " Raffles , celebrating Queen Victoria 's diamond jubilee , steals a gold cup from the British Museum and sends it to the queen , telling Manders that " we have been ruled over for sixty years by infinitely the finest monarch in the world " . In " The Knees of the Gods " , Raffles volunteers for service in the Second Boer War , changing his name and hair colour — he jokes to Manders that he is prepared to " dye for his country " — and he later confesses his true identity to his superiors in order to unmask a spy .

Some of Hornung 's novels , including The Shadow of the Rope , No Hero and The Thousandth Woman , are notable for " portraying women in a rather modern , favorable light " , according to the critic for Contemporary Authors , showing concern for their unequal position in society . Cox identifies a theme of guilt running through a number of works . Among these is Peccavi , in which a clergyman lives his life trying to atone for an earlier crime ; Shadow of the Rope , in which a woman is accused of her husband 's murder ; and The Thousandth Woman , in which a woman stands by her lover after he is accused of murder .

Although Hornung 's Australian experience was brief , it influenced most of his literary work from A Bride from the Bush published in 1899 , to Old Offenders and a Few Old Scores , which was published after his death . According to Chandler , " nearly two @-@ thirds of [ Hornung 's ] books refer in varying degrees to Australian incidents and experiences " , with " even Raffles " starting his criminal career in Australia . Some of Horning 's works — such as A Bride from the Bush — were praised for their accuracy of detail in depicting the Australian environment , although the detail could overwhelm the storyline , as in The Rogue 's March .

Cricket was one of Hornung 's lifelong passions , and he was delighted to become a member of the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1907 . The sport also permeated his stories , with Raffles playing for the Gentlemen of England . Rance observes that Raffles compares law @-@ breaking and cricket : " crime is reckoned as another and better sport " .

Raffles does on occasion disparage his game , commenting to Manders in " Gentlemen and Players " , " where 's the satisfaction of taking a man 's wicket when you want his spoons ? " Valentine also considers the point , and sees Raffles 's cricket as a front for his criminal activities , citing Raffles 's praise for cricket for " the glorious protection it affords a person of my proclivities " .

Watson examines Raffles 's actions within the broader context of sportsmanship , with Raffles acting within his own moral code " of what is ' done ' and ' not done ' . " Orwell , in his essay " Raffles and Miss Blandish " , observes that when Raffles feels remorse , it " is almost purely social ; he has disgraced ' the old school ' , he has lost his right to enter ' decent society ' , he has forfeited his amateur status and become a cad " .

= Nina Simone =

Nina Simone ( / ˈniːnə sᵻˈmoʊn / ; born Eunice Kathleen Waymon ; February 21 , 1933 – April 21 , 2003 ) was an American singer , songwriter , pianist , arranger , and civil rights activist who worked in a broad range of musical styles including classical , jazz , blues , folk , R & B , gospel , and pop .

Born in North Carolina , the sixth child of a preacher , Simone aspired to be a concert pianist . With the help of the few supporters in her hometown of Tryon , North Carolina , she enrolled in the Juilliard School of Music in New York .

Waymon then applied for a scholarship to study at the prestigious Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia , where she was denied despite a well @-@ received audition . Simone became fully convinced this rejection had been entirely due to her race , a statement that has been a matter of controversy . Years later , two days before her death , the Curtis Institute of Music bestowed an honorary degree on Simone .

To make a living , Eunice Waymon changed her name to " Nina Simone " . The change related to her need to disguise herself from family members , having chosen to play " the devil 's music " or " cocktail piano " at a nightclub in Atlantic City . She was told in the nightclub that she would have to sing to her own accompaniment , and this effectively launched her career as a jazz vocalist .

Simone recorded more than forty albums , mostly between 1958 , when she made her debut with Little Girl Blue , and 1974 , and had a hit in the United States in 1958 with " I Loves You , Porgy " .

Simone 's musical style fused gospel and pop with classical music , in particular Johann Sebastian Bach , and accompanied expressive , jazz @-@ like singing in her contralto voice .

= = Biography = =

= = = Youth ( 1933 – 54 ) = = =

Simone was born Eunice Kathleen Waymon in South Carolina but raised in Tryon , North Carolina . The sixth of eight children in a poor family , she began playing piano at age three ; the first song she learned was " God Be With You , Till We Meet Again " . Demonstrating a talent with the instrument , she performed at her local church . But her concert debut , a classical recital , was given when she was 12 . Simone later said that during this performance , her parents , who had taken seats in the front row , were forced to move to the back of the hall to make way for white people . She said that she refused to play until her parents were moved back to the front , and that the incident contributed to her later involvement in the civil rights movement .

Simone 's mother , Mary Kate Waymon ( 1902 - April 30 , 2001 ) , was a Methodist minister and a housemaid . Simone 's father , John Divine Waymon ( 1898 - October 24 , 1972 ) , was a handyman who at one time owned a dry cleaning business , but also suffered bouts of ill health . Simone 's music teacher helped establish a special fund to pay for her education . Subsequently , a local fund was set up to assist her continued education . With the help of this scholarship money she was able to attend Allen High School for Girls in Asheville , North Carolina .

After her graduation , Simone spent the summer of 1950 at the Juilliard School , preparing for an audition at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia . Her application , however , was denied . As her family had relocated to Philadelphia in the expectation of her entry to Curtis , the blow to her aspirations was particularly heavy , and she suspected that her application had been denied because of racial prejudice . Discouraged , she took private piano lessons with Vladimir Sokoloff , a professor at Curtis , but never re @-@ applied to the institution . For several years , she worked a number of menial jobs and taught piano in Philadelphia .

= = = Early success ( 1954 – 59 ) = = =

To fund her private lessons , Simone performed at the Midtown Bar & Grill on Pacific Avenue in Atlantic City , whose owner insisted that she sing as well as play the piano , which increased her weekly income to $ 90 a week . In 1954 , she adopted the stage name " Nina Simone " . " Nina " ( from niña , meaning " little girl " in Spanish ) , and " Simone " was taken from the French actress Simone Signoret , whom she had seen in the movie Casque d 'Or . Knowing her mother would not approve of playing the " Devil 's Music " , she used her new stage name to remain undetected . Simone 's mixture of jazz , blues , and classical music in her performances at the bar earned her a small but loyal fan base .

In 1958 , she befriended and married Don Ross , a beatnik who worked as a fairground barker , but quickly regretted their marriage . Playing in small clubs in the same year , she recorded George Gershwin 's " I Loves You , Porgy " ( from Porgy and Bess ) , which she learned from a Billie Holiday album and performed as a favor to a friend . It became her only Billboard top 20 success in the United States , and her debut album Little Girl Blue soon followed on Bethlehem Records . Simone lost more than $ 1 million in royalties ( notably for the 1980s re @-@ release of My Baby Just Cares for Me ) and never benefited financially from the album 's sales because she had sold her rights outright for $ 3 @,@ 000 .

= = = Becoming popular ( 1959 – 64 ) = = =

After the success of Little Girl Blue , Simone signed a contract with Colpix Records and recorded a multitude of studio and live albums . Colpix relinquished all creative control to her , including the choice of material that would be recorded , in exchange for her signing the contract with them . After the release of her live album Nina Simone at Town Hall , Simone became a favorite performer in Greenwich Village . By this time , Simone performed pop music only to make money to continue her classical music studies and was indifferent about having a recording contract . She kept this attitude toward the record industry for most of her career .

Simone married a New York police detective , Andrew Stroud , in 1961 . He later became her manager and the father of her daughter Lisa , but he abused Simone psychologically and physically .

= = = Civil rights era ( 1964 – 74 ) = = =

In 1964 , Simone changed record distributors from the American Colpix to the Dutch Philips , which also meant a change in the contents of her recordings . She had always included songs in her repertoire that drew upon her African @-@ American origins ( such as " Brown Baby " by Oscar Brown and " Zungo " by Michael Olatunji in her album Nina at the Village Gate in 1962 ) . On her debut album for Philips , Nina Simone in Concert ( live recording , 1964 ) , for the first time she openly addressed the racial inequality that was prevalent in the United States with the song " Mississippi Goddam " , her response to the June 12 , 1963 , murder of Medgar Evers and the September 15 , 1963 , bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham , Alabama , that killed four young black girls and partially blinded a fifth girl who survived . She remarked that the title and the song itself was , " like throwing 10 bullets back at them " , becoming one of many other protest songs written by Simone . The song was released as a single , and it was boycotted in certain southern states . Specifically , promotional copies were smashed by a Carolina radio station and returned to Simone 's record label . " Old Jim Crow " , on the same album , addressed the Jim Crow laws .

From then on , a civil rights message was standard in Simone 's recording repertoire , becoming a part of her live performances . During the rise of her political activism , the release of her musical work grew more infrequent . Simone performed and spoke at many civil rights meetings , such as at the Selma to Montgomery marches . Simone advocated violent revolution during the civil rights period , rather than Martin Luther King 's non @-@ violent approach , and she hoped that African Americans could , by armed combat , form a separate state . Her message to the public signified the transition from the non @-@ violent approach to social change that was advocated by Martin Luther King into the more militant state that was implemented by Malcolm X and the associates of the Black Nationalist Movement . Nevertheless , she wrote in her autobiography that she and her family regarded all races as equal .

Simone moved from Philips to RCA Victor during 1967 . She sang " Backlash Blues " , written by her friend Langston Hughes on her first RCA album , Nina Simone Sings the Blues ( 1967 ) . On Silk & Soul ( 1967 ) , she recorded Billy Taylor 's " I Wish I Knew How It Would Feel to Be Free " and " Turning Point " . The album ' Nuff Said ! ( 1968 ) contains live recordings from the Westbury Music Fair , April 7 , 1968 , three days after the murder of Martin Luther King , Jr . She dedicated the whole performance to him and sang " Why ? ( The King Of Love Is Dead ) " , a song written by her bass player , Gene Taylor , directly after the news of King 's death had reached them . In the summer of 1969 , she performed at the Harlem Cultural Festival in Harlem 's Mount Morris Park .

Together with Weldon Irvine , Simone turned the late Lorraine Hansberry 's unfinished play To Be Young , Gifted and Black into a civil rights song . Hansberry had been a personal friend whom Simone credited with cultivating her social and political consciousness . She performed the song live on the album Black Gold ( 197gdjfhfhx0 ) . A studio recording was released as a single , and renditions of the song have been recorded by Aretha Franklin ( on her 1972 album Young , Gifted and Black ) and by Donny Hathaway .

= = = Later life ( 1974 – 1993 ) = = =

Disappointed that she was not producing the mega @-@ hits that she had hoped for , Simone left the US in September 1970 , flying to Barbados and expecting Stroud to communicate with her when she had to perform again . However , Stroud interpreted Simone 's sudden disappearance , and the fact that she had left behind her wedding ring , as an indication of a desire for a divorce . As her manager , Stroud was in charge of Simone 's income .

Simone recorded her last album for RCA , It Is Finished , in 1974 , and did not make another record until 1978 , when she was persuaded to go into the recording studio by CTI Records owner Creed Taylor . The result was the album Baltimore , which , while not a commercial success , was fairly well received critically and marked a quiet artistic renaissance in Simone 's recording output . Her choice of material retained its eclecticism , ranging from spiritual songs to Hall & Oates ' " Rich Girl . " Four years later Simone recorded Fodder on My Wings on a French label .

During the 1980s , Simone performed regularly at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in London , where she recorded the album Live at Ronnie Scott 's in 1984 . Although her early on @-@ stage style could be somewhat haughty and aloof , in later years , Simone particularly seemed to enjoy engaging her audiences sometimes by recounting humorous anecdotes related to her career and music and by soliciting requests . In 1987 , the original 1958 recording of " My Baby Just Cares for Me " was used in a commercial for Chanel No. 5 perfume in Britain . This led to a re @-@ release of the recording , which stormed to number 4 on the UK 's NME singles chart , giving her a brief surge in popularity in the UK .

When Simone returned to the United States , she learned that a warrant had been issued for her arrest for unpaid taxes ( as a protest against her country 's involvement with the Vietnam War ) , and returned to Barbados to evade the authorities and prosecution . Simone stayed in Barbados for quite some time and she had a lengthy affair with the Prime Minister , Errol Barrow . A close friend , singer Miriam Makeba , then persuaded her to go to Liberia . Later , she lived in Switzerland and the Netherlands , before settling in France in 1993 . During a 1998 performance in Newark , she announced , " If you 're going to come see me again , you 've got to come to France , because I ain 't coming back . "

Simone published her autobiography , I Put a Spell on You , in 1992 . She recorded her last album , A Single Woman in 1993 , where she depicted herself as such " single woman . " This album reflected her solitude and pain . She continued to tour through the 1990s but rarely traveled without an entourage . During the last decade of her life , Simone had sold more than one million records making her a global catalog best @-@ seller . This was accompanied by the CD revolution , global exposure through media television and the novelty of the Internet .

= = = Illness and death = = =

Simone had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder in the late 1980s . In 1993 , Simone settled near Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence in Southern France . She had suffered from breast cancer for several years before she died in her sleep at her home in Carry @-@ le @-@ Rouet , Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône on April 21 , 2003 . Her funeral service was attended by singers Miriam Makeba and Patti LaBelle , poet Sonia Sanchez , actor Ossie Davis , actress Ruby Dee , and hundreds of others . Simone 's ashes were scattered in several African countries . She is survived by her daughter , Lisa Celeste Stroud , an actress and singer , who took the stage name Simone , and has appeared on Broadway in Aida .

= = = Reputation = = =

Simone was known for her temper and frequent outbursts . In 1985 , she fired a gun at a record company executive , whom she accused of stealing royalties . Simone said she " tried to kill him " but " missed " . In 1995 , she shot and wounded her neighbor 's son with an air gun after the boy 's laughter disturbed her concentration . According to a biographer , Simone took medication for a condition from the mid @-@ 1960s on . All this was only known to a small group of intimates , and kept out of public view for many years , until the biography Break Down and Let It All Out written by Sylvia Hampton and David Nathan revealed this in 2004 , after her death . Singer @-@ songwriter Janis Ian , a one @-@ time friend of Simone 's , related in her own autobiography , Society 's Child : My Autobiography , two incidents to illustrate Simone 's volatility : One incident in which she forced a shoe store cashier , at gunpoint , to take back a pair of sandals she 'd already worn ; and another in which Simone demanded a royalty payment from Ian herself as an exchange for having recorded one of Ian 's songs , and then ripped a pay telephone out of its wall when she was refused .

= = Musical style = =

= = = Simone standards = = =

Throughout her career , Simone assembled a collection of songs that would later become standards in her repertoire . Some were songs that she wrote herself , while others were new arrangements of other standards , and others had been written especially for the singer . Her first hit song in America was her rendition of George Gershwin 's " I Loves You , Porgy " ( 1958 ) . It peaked at number 18 in the pop singles chart and number 2 on the black singles chart . During that same period Simone recorded " My Baby Just Cares for Me " , which would become her biggest success years later , in 1987 , after it was featured in a 1986 Chanel No. 5 perfume commercial . A music video was also created by Aardman Studios . Well known songs from her Philips albums include " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " on Broadway @-@ Blues @-@ Ballads ( 1964 ) , " I Put a Spell on You " , " Ne me quitte pas " ( a rendition of a Jacques Brel song ) and " Feeling Good " on I Put a Spell On You ( 1965 ) , " Lilac Wine " and " Wild Is the Wind " on Wild is the Wind ( 1966 ) .

" Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " , " Feeling Good " , and " Sinner Man " ( Pastel Blues , 1965 ) have remained popular in terms of cover versions ( most notably a version of the former song by The Animals ) , sample usage , and its use on soundtracks for various movies , TV @-@ series , and video games . " Sinner Man " has been featured in the TV series Scrubs , Person of Interest , The Blacklist , Sherlock , and Vinyl , as well as in movies such as The Thomas Crown Affair , Miami Vice , and Inland Empire , and sampled by artists such as Talib Kweli and Timbaland . The song " Don 't Let Me Be Misunderstood " was sampled by Devo Springsteen on " Misunderstood " from Common 's 2007 album Finding Forever , and by little @-@ known producers Rodnae and Mousa for the song " Don 't Get It " on Lil Wayne 's 2008 album Tha Carter III . " See @-@ Line Woman " was sampled by Kanye West for " Bad News " on his album 808s & Heartbreak . The 1965 rendition of " Strange Fruit " originally by Billie Holiday was sampled by Kanye West for " Blood on the Leaves " on his album Yeezus .

Simone 's years at RCA @-@ Victor spawned a number of singles and album tracks that were popular , particularly in Europe . In 1968 , it was " Ain 't Got No , I Got Life " , a medley from the musical Hair from the album ' Nuff Said ! ( 1968 ) that became a surprise hit for Simone , reaching number 4 on the UK Singles Chart and introducing her to a younger audience . In 2006 , it returned to the UK Top 30 in a remixed version by Groovefinder .

The following single , a rendition of the Bee Gees 's " To Love Somebody " , also reached the UK Top 10 in 1969 . " The House of the Rising Sun " was featured on Nina Simone Sings the Blues in 1967 , but Simone had recorded the song in 1961 and it was featured on Nina at the Village Gate ( 1962 ) , predating the versions by Dave Van Ronk and Bob Dylan . It was later covered by The Animals , for whom it became a signature hit .

= = = Performing style = = =

Simone 's bearing and stage presence earned her the title " High Priestess of Soul " . She was a piano player , singer and performer , " separately , and simultaneously . " As a composer and arranger , Simone moved from gospel to blues , jazz , and folk , and to numbers with European classical styling . Besides using Bach @-@ style counterpoint , she called upon the particular virtuosity of the 19th @-@ century Romantic piano repertoire — Chopin , Liszt , Rachmaninoff , and others . Onstage , she incorporated monologues and dialogues with the audience into the program , and often used silence as a musical element . She compared it to " mass hypnosis . I use it all the time . " Throughout most of her life and recording career she was accompanied by percussionist Leopoldo Fleming and guitarist and musical director Al Schackman . She 's known to have lived 10 years with Emmanuel Macron from France

= = Legacy and influence = =

= = = Music = = =

Musicians who have cited Simone as important for their own musical upbringing include Elton John ( who named one of his pianos after her ) , Aretha Franklin , Adele , David Bowie , Emeli Sandé , Antony and the Johnsons , Dianne Reeves , Sade , Beyoncé , Janis Joplin , Nick Cave , Van Morrison , Christina Aguilera , Elkie Brooks , Talib Kweli , Mos Def , Kanye West , Lena Horne , Bono , John Legend , Elizabeth Fraser , Cat Stevens , Anna Calvi , Lykke Li , Peter Gabriel , Maynard James Keenan , Cedric Bixler @-@ Zavala , Mary J. Blige , Fantasia Barrino , Michael Gira , Angela McCluskey , Lauryn Hill , Patrice Babatunde , Alicia Keys , Lana Del Rey , Hozier , Matt Bellamy , Ian MacKaye , Kerry Brothers , Jr . , Krucial , Amanda Palmer , Steve Adey and Jeff Buckley . John Lennon cited Simone 's version of " I Put a Spell on You " as a source of inspiration for the Beatles ' song " Michelle " .

Simone 's music has been featured in soundtracks of various motion pictures and video games , including but not limited to , La Femme Nikita ( 1990 ) , Point of No Return ( 1993 ) , The Big Lebowski ( 1998 ) , Notting Hill ( 1999 ) , Any Given Sunday ( 1999 ) , The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) , Disappearing Acts ( 2000 ) , Six Feet Under ( 2001 ) , The Dancer Upstairs ( 2002 ) , Before Sunset ( 2004 ) , Cellular ( 2004 ) , Inland Empire ( 2006 ) , Miami Vice ( 2006 ) , Sex and the City ( 2008 ) , The World Unseen ( 2008 ) , Revolutionary Road ( 2008 ) , Home ( 2008 ) , Watchmen ( 2009 ) , The Saboteur ( 2009 ) , Repo Men ( 2010 ) , and Beyond the Lights ( 2014 ) . Frequently her music is used in remixes , commercials , and TV series including " Feeling Good " , which featured prominently in the Season Four Promo of Six Feet Under ( 2004 ) . Simone 's " Take Care of Business " is the closing theme of " The Man From U.N.C.L.E. " ( 2015 )

= = = Film = = =

The documentary Nina Simone : La légende ( The Legend ) was made in the 1990s by French filmmakers , based on her autobiography I Put a Spell on You . It features live footage from different periods of her career , interviews with family , various interviews with Simone then living in the Netherlands , and while on a trip to her birthplace . A portion of footage from The Legend was taken from an earlier 26 @-@ minute biographical documentary by Peter Rodis , released in 1969 and entitled simply , Nina . Her filmed 1976 performance at the Montreux Jazz Festival is available on video courtesy of Eagle Rock Entertainment and is screened annually in New York City at an event called " The Rise and Fall of Nina Simone : Montreux , 1976 " which is curated by Tom Blunt .

Footage of Simone singing " Mississippi Goddamn " for 40 @,@ 000 marchers at the end of the Selma to Montgomery marches can be seen in the 1970 documentary King : A Filmed Record ... Montgomery to Memphis and the 2015 Liz Garbus documentary , What Happened , Miss Simone ?

Plans for a Simone biographical film were released at the end of 2005 , to be based on Simone 's autobiography I Put a Spell on You ( 1992 ) and to focus on her relationship in later life with her assistant , Clifton Henderson , who died in 2006 ; Simone 's daughter , Simone Kelly , has since refuted the existence of a romantic relationship between Simone and Henderson on account of his homosexuality . Cynthia Mort , screenwriter of Will & Grace and Roseanne , has written the screenplay and directed the film , Nina , which stars Zoe Saldana in the title role . In May 2014 , the film was shown to potential distributors at the Cannes Film Festival , but has , as of August 2014 , not been seen by reviewers .

In 2015 , two documentary features about Simone 's life and music were released . The first , directed by Liz Garbus , What Happened , Miss Simone ? was produced in cooperation with Simone 's estate and her daughter , who also served as the film 's executive producer . The film was produced as a counterpoint to the unauthorized Cynthia Mort film , and featured previously unreleased archival footage . It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2015 and was distributed by Netflix on June 26 , 2015 . It was nominated on January 14 , 2016 for a 2016 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . The Amazing Nina Simone is an independent film directed by Jeff L. Lieberman and is also scheduled for release in 2015 . The director initially consulted with Simone 's daughter before going the independent route and instead worked closely with her siblings , predominantly Sam Waymon .

= = = Honors = = =

Simone was the recipient of a Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 2000 for her interpretation of " I Loves You , Porgy . " She has also received fifteen Grammy Award nominations . On Human Kindness Day 1974 in Washington , D.C. , more than 10 @,@ 000 people paid tribute to Simone . Simone received two honorary degrees in music and humanities , from the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Malcolm X College . She preferred to be called " Dr. Nina Simone " after these honors were bestowed upon her .

Two days before her death , Simone was awarded an honorary degree by the Curtis Institute of Music , the music school that had refused to admit her as a student at the beginning of her career .

In 2002 , the city of Nijmegen , Netherlands , named a street after her , the Nina Simone straat ; she had lived in Nijmegen between 1988 and 1990 . On August 29 , 2005 , the city of Nijmegen , concert hall De Vereeniging , and more than fifty artists ( amongst whom were Frank Boeijen , Rood Adeo , and Fay Claassen ) honoured Simone with the tribute concert Greetings From Nijmegen .

Simone was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2009 .

In 2010 , a statue in her honor was erected in Trade Street in her native Tryon , North Carolina .

= = Discography = =

= = = Albums = = =

= = = Chart singles = = =

= Vistara =

Tata SIA Airlines Limited , operating as Vistara , is an Indian domestic airline based in Gurgaon with its hub at Delhi @-@ Indira Gandhi International Airport . The carrier , a joint venture between Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines , commenced operations on 9 January 2015 with its inaugural flight between Delhi and Mumbai . The airline had carried more than two million passengers by June 2016 and as of April 2016 , has a 2 @.@ 3 % share of the domestic carrier market . The airline operates to seventeen destinations with a fleet of Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft . Vistara was the first airline to introduce premium economy seats on domestic routes in India .

= = History = =

The airline was founded in 2013 as a joint venture ( JV ) between India 's conglomerate Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines ( SIA ) . The two companies had made a bid in the mid @-@ 1990s to launch a full service carrier in India that was unsuccessful , being denied regulatory approval by the Indian government . With India opening up its airline sector for 49 percent foreign direct investment ( FDI ) in 2012 , Tata and SIA once again decided to float a JV airline company in India . The JV , Tata SIA Airlines Limited ( TSAL ) , was envisaged as a premium full @-@ service carrier to cater to the demands of high @-@ end business travellers in India 's civil aviation market dominated by low @-@ cost carriers . India 's Foreign Investment Promotion Board approved the JV in October 2013 , allowing SIA to take a 49 percent stake in the airline . The two parent companies initially pledged to invest a combined US $ 100mn as start @-@ up capital , with Tata Sons owning 51 percent and Singapore Airlines owning the remaining 49 percent . This was part of Tata 's second major foray into the aviation sector along with a minority stake in AirAsia India . The company 's first venture , Tata Airlines , was established in the 1930s and later became the flag carrier Air India after nationalization .

The company unveiled its brand identity " Vistara " on 11 August 2014 . The name was taken from the Sanskrit word Vistaar , meaning " limitless expanse " . Vistara received its air operator 's certificate from the Directorate General of Civil Aviation on 15 December 2014 and started operations on 9 January 2015 . Vistara became the first carrier to operate domestic services out of the new Terminal 2 at Mumbai 's Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport . On 24 August 2015 , Vistara inaugurated the Aviation Security Training Institute , an in @-@ house institute for training its cockpit and cabin crew , security staff and others related to aviation industry . The institute has secured the necessary approvals from the nodal body Bureau of Civil Aviation Security . From the first month of operation , Vistara consistently achieved very high on @-@ time performance ( OTP ) records of over 90 percent , the highest among India 's domestic carriers . On 20 August 2015 , Vistara declared it had carried half a million passengers in just over seven months of operations . As of February 2016 , Vistara has a share of 2 % in the domestic carrier market .

= = Corporate affairs = =

In March 2015 , Vistara shifted to its new office at the One Horizon Center tower in Sector 43 , Gurgaon , a satellite city of Delhi . Vistara chose Phee Teik Yeoh as the chief executive officer ( CEO ) and Giam Ming Toh as the chief commercial officer ( CCO ) , both with Singapore Airlines background . Initially it started out with a three @-@ member board comprising Swee Wah Mak ( SIA group ) , Mukund Rajan and Prasad Menon ( Tata group ) , with the latter as chairman . In August 2015 , the airline expanded the board by introducing two new members , Som Mittal and Sangeeta Pendurkar , along with an equity infusion of ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) , part of ₹ 5 billion ( US $ 74 million ) initially planned by Tata and SIA together . In January 2016 , Bhaskar Bhat , former Managing Director of Titan , joined as the new chairman following Prasad Menon 's retirement . In March 2016 , Vistara appointed Sanjiv Kapoor as its chief strategy and commercial officer as the successor to Giam Ming Toh who was scheduled to leave in mid April 2016 following completion of his deputation at Vistara .

= = Destinations = =

As of May 2016 , Vistara flies to the following destinations within India :

= = = Interline agreements = = =

Vistara has interline agreements with the following airlines :

Air France

British Airways

Jet Airways

SilkAir

Air India

Singapore Airlines

= = Fleet = =

As of 31 May 2016 , Vistara operates the following aircraft :

Vistara took delivery of its first aircraft at New Delhi on 25 September 2014 . The airline plans to take delivery of all thirteen of its original Airbus A320 aircraft by 2016 and seven Airbus A320neo aircraft of its initial order by 2018 . In March 2015 , Phee Teik Yeoh announced that the airline is planning to procure an unspecified number of both narrow @-@ body and wide @-@ body aircraft to enhance the domestic network and launch international flights within two years .

= = Services = =

= = = Cabin = = =

= = = = Business class = = = =

Being a full @-@ service carrier , Vistara offers 16 business class seats , four rows in 2 @-@ 2 configuration , in its 148 @-@ seater Airbus A320 @-@ 200 fleet . The business class seats are 20 @.@ 12 inches ( 511 mm ) wide with 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) seat pitch .

= = = = Premium Economy = = = =

Vistara was the first airline in India to introduce Premium Economy class in the domestic market . At present it offers 36 premium economy seats , six rows in 3 @-@ 3 configuration , out of total 148 seats in the single aisle Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft in its fleet . Each being 18 inches ( 460 mm ) wide and having a pitch of 33 – 36 inches ( 840 – 910 mm ) .

= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =

As of April 2016 , Vistara 's Airbus A320 @-@ 200s do not have in @-@ flight entertainment screens installed and it provides pre @-@ loaded tablets for its business @-@ class fliers . In March 2016 , Vistara started beaming content directly to passengers ' personal electronic devices through one @-@ way Wi @-@ Fi connection through BAE Systems IntelliCabin in @-@ flight entertainment system .

= = = Catering = = =

The in @-@ flight food is catered by TajSATS Air Catering , another joint venture between Tata and a Singaporean company , headed by Chef Arun Batra , formerly the executive chef of the Taj Hotels group . Vistara offers four different meals for each cabin for different time of the day — breakfast , refreshment , lunch and dinner with options of one vegetarian and one non @-@ vegetarian dish in economy class ; two vegetarian dishes and one non @-@ vegetarian dish in premium economy ; and two vegetarian and two non @-@ vegetarian dishes for business @-@ class cabin . The menu is typically changed every seventh day and there are different menus for lunch and dinner . It also provides special meals upon request 24 hours before departure .

= = = Lounge = = =

On 29 March 2016 , Vistara inaugurated premium lounge service for its Business @-@ class passengers and Club Vistara Gold card holders at the departure level of Terminal 3 of Indira Gandhi International Airport at Delhi . The lounge is spread across 250 square metres on the air @-@ side and can seat 75 passengers at a time .

= = Frequent @-@ flyer program = =

Vistara uses Club Vistara as its frequent @-@ flyer program ; it operates as a value based program and awards points on the basis of money spent on tickets rather that miles travelled by passengers . On 29 January 2015 , Vistara announced a partnership agreement with Singapore Airlines ( SIA ) which would allow Club Vistara members to earn and redeem miles with the KrisFlyer program on SIA and Silk Air flights and vice versa .

= Portrait of Monsieur Bertin =

Portrait of Monsieur Bertin is an 1832 oil @-@ on @-@ canvas painting by Jean @-@ Auguste @-@ Dominique Ingres . It depicts Louis @-@ François Bertin ( 1766 – 1841 ) , the French writer , art collector and director of the pro @-@ royalist Journal des débats . Ingres completed the portrait during his first period of success ; having achieved acclaim as a history painter , he accepted portrait commissions with reluctance , regarding them as a distraction from more important work . Bertin was a friend and a politically active member of the French upper @-@ middle class . Ingres presents him as a personification of the commercially minded leaders of the liberal reign of Louis Philippe I. He is physically imposing and self @-@ assured , but his real @-@ life personality shines through – warm , wry and engaging to those who had earned his trust .

The painting had a prolonged genesis . Ingres agonised over the pose and made several preparatory sketches . The final work faithfully captures the sitter 's character , conveying both a restless energy and imposing bulk . It is an unflinchingly realistic depiction of ageing and emphasises the furrowed skin and thinning hair of an overweight man who yet maintains his resolve and determination . He sits in three @-@ quarter profile against a brown ground lit from the right , his fingers are pronounced and highly detailed , while the polish of his chair reflects light from an unseen window .

Ingres ' portrait of Bertin was a critical and popular success , but the sitter was a private person . Although his family worried about caricature and disapproved , it became widely known and sealed the artist 's reputation . It was praised at the Paris Salon of 1833 , and has been influential to both academic painters such as Léon Bonnat and later modernists including Pablo Picasso and Félix Vallotton . Today art critics regard it as Ingres ' finest male portrait . It has been on permanent display at the Musée du Louvre since 1897 .

= = Background = =

Louis @-@ François Bertin was 66 in 1832 , the year of the portrait . He befriended Ingres either through his son Édouard Bertin , a student of the painter , or via Étienne @-@ Jean Delécluze , Ingres ' friend and the Journal 's art critic . In either case the genesis of the commission is unknown . Bertin was a leader of the French upper class and a supporter of Louis Philippe and the Bourbon Restoration . He was a director of the Le Moniteur Universel until 1823 , when the Journal des débats became the recognised voice of the liberal @-@ constitutional opposition after he had come to criticize absolutism . He eventually gave his support to the July Monarchy . The Journal supported contemporary art , and Bertin was a patron , collector and cultivator of writers , painters and other artists . Ingres was sufficiently intrigued by Bertin 's personality to accept the commission .

It was completed within a month , during Ingres ' frequent visits to Bertin 's estate of retreat , Le Château des Roches , in Bièvres , Essonne . Ingres made daily visits , as Bertin entertained guests such as Victor Hugo , his mistress Juliette Drouet , Hector Berlioz , and later Franz Liszt and Charles Gounod . Ingres later made drawings of the Bertin family , including a depiction of his host 's wife and sketches of their son Armand and daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Cécile . The portrait of Armand evidences his physical resemblance to his father .

Ingres ' early career coincided with the Romantic movement , which reacted against the prevailing neoclassical style . Neoclassicism in French art had developed as artists saw themselves as part of the cultural center of Europe , and France as the successor to Rome . Romantic painting was freer and more expressive , preoccupied more with colour than with line or form , and more focused on style than on subject matter . Paintings based on classical themes fell out of fashion , replaced by contemporary rather than historical subject matter , especially in portraiture . Ingres resisted this trend , and wrote , " The history painter shows the species in general ; while the portrait painter represents only the specific individual — a model often ordinary and full of shortcomings . " From his early career , Ingres ' main source of income was commissioned portraits , a genre he dismissed as lacking in grandeur . The success of his The Vow of Louis XIII at the 1824 Salon marked an abrupt change in his fortunes : he received a series of commissions for large history paintings , and for the next decade he painted few portraits . His financial difficulties behind him , Ingres could afford to concentrate on historical subjects , although he was highly sought @-@ after as a portraitist . He wrote in 1847 , " Damned portraits , they are so difficult to do that they prevent me getting on with greater things that I could do more quickly . "

Ingres was more successful with female than male portraits . His 1814 Portrait of Madame de Senonnes was described as " to the feminine what the Louvre 's Bertin is to the masculine " . The sitter for his 1848 Portrait of Baronne de Rothschild looks out at the viewer with the same directness as Bertin , but is softened by her attractive dress and relaxed pose ; she is engaging and sympathetic rather than tough and imposing .

= = The portrait = =

= = = Preparation and execution = = =

Ingres was self @-@ critical and consumed by self @-@ doubt . He often took months to complete a portrait , leaving large periods of inactivity between sittings . With Bertin , he agonised in finding a pose to best convey both the man 's restless energy and his age . At least seven studies survive , three are signed and dated . Ingres was a master draftsman and the sketches , if not fully realised , are highly regarded in their own right . The sketches are exemplary in their handling of line and form , and similar in size .

The earliest study has Bertin standing and leaning on a table in an almost Napoleonic pose . His hard , level stare is already established , but the focus seems to be on his groin rather than his face . It is obvious that Ingres struggled with the sketch ; the head is on a square of attached paper which must have replaced an earlier cut @-@ out version , and other areas have been rubbed over and heavily reworked . The next extant drawing shows Bertin seated , but the chair is missing . The last extant sketch is the closest to the eventual painting , with a chair , though his bulk has not yet been filled out .

Frustrated by his inability to capture his subject , Ingres broke down in tears in his studio , in company . Bertin recalled " consoling him : ' my dear Ingres , don 't bother about me ; and above all don 't torment yourself like that . You want to start my portrait over again ? Take your own time for it . You will never tire me , and just as long as you want me to come , I am at your orders . ' " After agreeing to a breathing spell Ingres finally settled on a design . Early biographers provide differing anecdotes regarding the inspiration for the distinctive seated pose . Henri Delaborde said Ingres observed Bertin in this posture while arguing politics after dinner with his sons . According to Eugène Emmanuel Amaury Duval ( he said was related to him by Bertin ) , Ingres noticed a pose Bertin took while seated outside with Ingres and a third man at a café .

Bertin said that Ingres , confident that he had finally established the pose for the portrait , " came close and speaking almost in my ear said : ' Come sit tomorrow , your portrait is [ as good as ] done . ' " Bertin 's final pose reverses the usual relationship between the two men . The artist becomes the cool , detached observer ; Bertin , usually calm and reasoned , is now restless and impatient , mirroring Ingres ' irritation at spending time on portraiture .

= = = Description = = =

Bertin is presented as strong , energetic and warm @-@ hearted . His hair is grey verging on white , his fingers spread across his knees . Bertin 's fingers were described in 1959 by artist Henry de Waroquier as " crab @-@ like claws ... emerging from the tenebrous caverns that are the sleeves of his coat . " The bulk of his body is compacted in a tight black jacket , black trousers and brown satin waistcoat , with a starched white shirt and cravat revealing his open neck . He wears a gold watch and a pair of glasses in his right pocket . In the view of art historian Robert Rosenblum , his " nearly ferocious presence " is accentuated by the tightly constrained space . The chair and clothes appear too small to contain him . His coiled , stubby fingers rest on his thighs , barely protruding from the sleeves of his jacket , while his neck cannot be seen above his narrow starched white collar .

The painting is composed in monochrome , muted colours ; predominately blacks , greys and browns . The exceptions are the whites of his collar and sleeves , the reds in the cushion and the light reflecting on the leather of the arm @-@ chair . In 19th @-@ century art , vivid colour was associated with femininity and emotion ; male portraiture tended towards muted shades and monochrome . Bertin leans slightly forward , boldly staring at the viewer in a manner that is both imposing and paternal . He seems engaged , and poised to speak , his body fully towards the viewer and his expression etched with certainty . Influenced by Nicolas Poussin 's 1650 Self @-@ Portrait with Allegory of Painting , Ingres minutely details the veins and wrinkles of his face . Bertin is in three @-@ quarter profile , against a gold – brown background lit from the right . He rests on a curved @-@ back mahogany chair , the arms of which reflect light falling from the upper left of the pictorial space .

Ingres seems to have adapted elements of the approach and technique of Hans Holbein 's 1527 Portrait of William Warham , now in the Louvre . Neither artist placed much emphasis on colour , preferring dark or cool tones . The Warham portrait seems to have informed the indicators of Bertin 's aging and the emphasis on his fingers . Jacques @-@ Louis David also explored hyper @-@ realism in his depictions of Cooper Penrose ( 1802 ) and Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès ( 1817 ) . In the later painting , David shows tiny glints of light reflecting on the sitter 's chair and painstakingly details " every wayward curl of [ Sieyès ' ] closely cropped auburn hair . "

The Greek meander pattern at the foot of the wall is unusually close to the picture plane , confining the sitter . The wall is painted in gold , adding to the sense of a monumental portrait of a modern icon . The details of Bertin 's face are highly symmetrical . His eyes are heavily lidded , circled by oppositely positioned twists of his white collar , the winds of his hair , eyebrows and eyelids . His mouth turns downwards at the left and upwards to the right . This dual expression is intended to show his duality and complex personality : he is a hard @-@ nosed businessman , and a patron of the arts . The reflection of a window can be seen in the rim of Bertin 's chair . It is barely discernible , but adds spatial depth . The Portrait of Pope Leo X ( c . 1519 ) by Raphael , a source for the Bertin portrait , also features a window reflection of the pommel on the pope 's chair .

The painting is signed J.Ingres Pinxit 1832 in capitals at the top left , and L.F. Bertin , also in capitals , at the upper right . The frame is the original , and thought to have been designed by Ingres himself . It shows animals around a sinuous and richly carved grapevine . Art historians Paul Mitchell and Lynn Roberts note that the design follows an old French tradition of placing austere male portraits within " exuberantly carved " frames . The frame closely resembles that of Raphael 's c . 1514 – 15 Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione , a painting that influenced Ingres , especially in colour and tone .

= = Reception = =

Monsieur Bertin was exhibited at the 1833 Salon alongside his 1807 Portrait of Mme Devauçay . It met with near universal praise to become his most successful artwork to that point . It sealed his reputation as a portraitist , reaching far enough into public consciousness to become a standard for newspaper political satires . Today it is considered his greatest portrait . Ingres viewed all this as a mixed blessing , remarking that " since my portraits of Bertin and Molé , everybody wants portraits . There are six that I 've turned down , or am avoiding , because I can 't stand them . " Before the official exhibition , Ingres displayed the painting in his studio for friends and pupils . Most were lavish in their praise , although Louis Lacuria confided to a friend that he feared people might " find the colouring a bit dreary " . He proved correct ; at the Salon , critics praised the draftsmanship , but some felt the portrait exemplified Ingres ' weakness as a colourist . It was routinely faulted for its " purplish tone " — which the ageing of the oil medium has transformed over time to warm greys and browns . Bertin 's wife Louis @-@ Marie reportedly did not like the painting ; his daughter , Louise , thought it transformed her father from a " great lord " to a " fat farmer " .

Given the standings of the two men , the painting was received in both social and political terms . A number of writers mentioned Bertin 's eventful career , in tones that were , according to art historian Andrew Carrington Shelton , either " bitingly sarcastic [ or ] fawningly reverential " . There were many satirical reproductions and pointed editorials in the following years . Aware of Bertin 's support of the July Monarchy , writers at the La Gazette de France viewed the portrait as the epitome of the " opportunism and cynicism " of the new regime . Their anonymous critic excitedly wondered " what bitter irony it expresses , what hardened skepticism , sarcasm and ... pronounced cynicism " .

Several critics mentioned Bertin 's hands . Twentieth @-@ century art historian Albert Boime described them as " powerful , vulturine ... grasping his thighs in a gesture ... projecting ... enormous strength controlled " . Some contemporary critics were not so kind . The photographer and critic Félix Tournachon was harshly critical , and disparaged what he saw as a " fantastical bundle of flesh ... under which , instead of bones and muscles , there can only be intestines – this flatulent hand , the rumbling of which I can hear ! " Bertin 's hands made a different impression on the critic F. de Lagenevais , who remarked : " A mediocre artist would have modified them , he would have replaced those swollen joints with the cylindrical fingers of the first handy model ; but by this single alteration he would have changed the expression of the whole personality ... the energetic and mighty nature " .

The work 's realism attracted a large amount of commentary when it was first exhibited . Some saw it as an affront to Romanticism , others said that its small details not only showed an acute likeness , but built a psychological profile of the sitter . Art historian Geraldine Pelles sees Bertin as " at once intense , suspicious , and aggressive " . She notes that there is a certain amount of projection of the artist 's personality and recalls Théophile Silvestre 's description of Ingres ; " There he was squarely seated in an armchair , motionless as an Egyptian god carved of granite , his hands stretched wide over parallel knees , his torso stiff , his head haughty " . Some compared it to Balthasar Denner , a German realist painter influenced by Jan van Eyck . Denner , in the words of Ingres scholar Robert Rosenblum , " specialised in recording every last line on the faces of aged men and women , and even reflections of windows in their eyes . " The comparison was made by Ingres ' admirers and detractors alike . In 1833 , Louis de Maynard of the Collège @-@ lycée Ampère , writing in the influential L 'Europe littéraire , dismissed Denner as a weak painter concerned with hyperrealistic " curiosities " , and said that both he and Ingres fell short of the " sublime productions of Ingres ' self @-@ proclaimed hero , Raphael . "

The following year Ingres sought to capitalise on the success of his Bertin portrait . He showed his ambitious history painting The Martyrdom of Saint Symphorian at the 1834 Salon , but it was harshly criticised ; even Ingres ' admirers offered only faint praise . Offended and frustrated , Ingres declared he would disown the Salon , abandon his residence in Paris for Rome , and relinquish all current positions , ending his role in public life . This petulance was not to last .

Bertin bequeathed the portrait to his daughter Louise ( 1805 – 77 ) on his death . She passed it to her niece Marie @-@ Louise @-@ Sophie Bertin ( 1836 – 93 ) wife of Jules Bapst , a later director of the Journal des débats . They bequeathed it to their niece Cécile Bapst , its last private owner . In 1897 Cécile sold it to the Musée du Louvre for 80 @,@ 000 francs .

= = Legacy = =

The Bertin portrait has been hugely influential . At first it served as a model for depictions of energetic and intellectual 19th @-@ century men , and later as a more universal type . Several 1890s works closely echo its form and motifs . Jean @-@ Joseph Benjamin @-@ Constant 's monochrome and severe 1896 Portrait of Alfred Chauchard is heavily indebted , while Léon Bonnat 's stern 1892 portrait of the aging Ernest Renan has been described as a " direct citation " of Ingres ' portrait .

Its influence can be seen in the dismissive stare and overwhelming physical presence of the sitter in Pablo Picasso 's 1906 Portrait of Gertrude Stein . Picasso admired Ingres and referred to him throughout his career . His invoking of Bertin can be read as a humorous reference to , according to Robert Rosenblum , " Stein 's ponderous bulk and sexual preference " . Stein does not possess Bertin 's ironic stare , but is similarly dressed in black , and leans forward in an imposing manner , the painting emphasising her " massive , monumental presence " . In 1907 the Swiss artist Félix Vallotton depicted Stein , in response to Picasso , making an even more direct reference to Ingres ' portrait , prompting Édouard Vuillard to exclaim , " That 's Madame Bertin ! "

The influence continued through the 20th century . Gerald Kelly recalled Bertin when painting his restless and confined series of portraits of Ralph Vaughan Williams in 1952 – 61 . In 1975 Marcel Broodthaers produced a series of nine black and white photographs on board based on Ingres ' portraits of Bertin and Mademoiselle Caroline Rivière .

= Harajuku Lovers Tour =

The Harajuku Lovers Tour was the first solo concert tour of American recording artist Gwen Stefani . The tour began through October to November 2005 , to support of her debut studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . Although Stefani embarked on multiple tours with her band No Doubt , she initially opted not to participate in a tour to promote her album , an attitude that the singer eventually abandoned due to the commercial success of Love . Angel . Music . Baby .

The Harajuku Lovers Tour consisted of only one leg , which encompassed a three @-@ month @-@ long series of performances that visited cities throughout the United States and Canada . Stefani recruited hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas , rapper M.I.A. , and singer Ciara to accompany her as opening acts for her endeavors . The tour produced varying responses from contemporary critics , who despite praising Stefani 's vocals , were critical of other aspects of the show such as its musical material . According to Billboard , the tour grossed $ 22 million from 37 concerts , from which 20 sold @-@ out . A video album , titled Harajuku Lovers Live , was released in DVD format in conjunction with her 2006 album The Sweet Escape and features the singer performing at the Honda Center in Anaheim , California , Stefani 's birthplace .

= = Background = =

Stefani announced a tour to support her first solo studio album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) on June 27 , 2005 , giving details of sixteen dates from October 16 to November 10 . The announcement on June 27 also included the fact that hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas , who are also signed to Interscope Records , would be the opening act for all the announced dates except November 3 . The group , who were backing their album Monkey Business , ended up touring with Stefani until November 14 . On August 8 , it was announced that singer @-@ songwriter and rapper M.I.A. would take over as the opening act from November 16 to November 25 , although it wasn 't until August 17 that the extra dates from November 11 to November 25 were officially added to the tour . M.I.A. toured with Stefani , backing her album Arular , until December 1 . On September 29 , the final set of dates , November 26 to December 21 , were added to the tour and it was announced that the third and final opening act for Stefani 's tour would be singer Ciara , backing her album Goodies , from December 3 to December 21 .

Stefani initially did not intend to tour to support the album , responding " What tour ? " to a question from MTV News in December 2004 regarding a possible tour . She later mentioned several times that she had not originally intended to tour in support of the album , referring to her " illegal tour " and apologizing for her breaking her promise not to tour on stage at the Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul , Minnesota on November 14 and admitting " I just wanted to make a record . I didn 't want to tour , I was too tired , then you guys kept buying the record , and I had to come out and see you guys " on stage at Winnipeg on November 16 . In a September interview with MTV News , Stefani said of the tour : " I 'm looking forward to it , it 's going to be unbelievable . [ ... ] I would love to try to roll a little bit of ' Orange County Girl ' in there . We 'll see . Anything can happen in rehearsals . I don 't even know how long the show can be right now . "

= = Concert synopsis = =

Stefani opened the show with the song " Harajuku Girls " , an ode to Harajuku , the fashion district of Tokyo , Japan . She appeared on stage wearing a tiara and baby doll outfit , sitting in the red velvet and gold throne from the cover of Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and surrounded by her backing dancers , also called the Harajuku Girls , while video images of Harajuku itself played on screens behind her . Her second song was the first single from the album , " What You Waiting For ? " , which she began as a ballad before bringing it up to its usual pace . Stefani and the Harajuku Girls then left the stage to change into one @-@ piece bathing suits while her band continued to play , before returning to perform " The Real Thing " . A group of four breakdancers came on stage to perform while Stefani left the stage again to change into a black @-@ and @-@ white leather tracksuit . For the next song , the album 's sixth single " Crash " , the audience were then divided into male and female halves and , as images of a car hood bouncing to the beat were broadcast , each half took turns to sing the lyric " back it up , back it up " . Stefani then performed the fourth single from the album , " Luxurious " .

Stefani changed outfits again into a pair of black hot pants to perform " Rich Girl " , the album 's second single , while walking along a catwalk into the crowd and giving fans high @-@ fives . She then sang " Danger Zone " and " Long Way to Go " , both intimate songs , before performing two new songs back @-@ to @-@ back : " Wind It Up " , which would become the first single from her second album The Sweet Escape , and " Orange County Girl " . " Wind It Up " was performed with a carnival vibe and " Orange County Girl " was accompanied by a video montage of childhood photos of Stefani and images of items mentioned in the song . She changed into a silver sequinned cocktail dress for the fourth single from her first album , " Cool " .

In early performances of the show , Stefani 's next song was " Hollaback Girl " , the album 's third and best @-@ selling single , performed in a drumming costume and singing with the audience . This was followed by an encore of " Serious " and " Bubble Pop Electric " , for which Stefani was brought out in a stretcher by the Harajuku Girls . However , in later performances , " Hollaback Girl " was saved for the encore and preceded by the two other songs .

= = Critical response = =

Critics were divided with the Harajuku Lovers Tour . Patrick MacDonald of the Seattle Times , while applauding Stefani 's song @-@ writing efforts and the show 's " frothy fun " antics , reprimanded the singer 's dancing and limited material , given that she performed only twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two from The Sweet Escape but none from previous work with her band No Doubt . In regards to the musical selection , MacDonald concluded that half the songs are " eminently forgettable " , a view echoed by Winnipeg Sun columnist Rob Williams , who described some of the album tracks as " filler " . Despite these objections , Williams issued her MTS Center performance a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars . " But sometimes the music didn 't matter when there was as much eye candy as Stefani provided " , opined the Winnipeg Sun writer . " She is an extremely striking figure and the choreography , light show , backup dancers and frequent costume changes all added to the spectacle , which ended up being more style than substance . "

Mike Ross of the Edmonton Sun was impressed with Stefani 's ability to engage the audience , a quality that earned her the description of the " effervescent hostess " from the journalist . In his four star review for the concert , he commended the " swell " music and " amazing " choreography ; " It also had merit as a choreographic tour @-@ de @-@ force — thanks in large part to a quartet each of talented dancing geisha girls and B @-@ boys " , remarked Ross . Stefani 's different outfits and set pieces also won praise . " So you could have enjoyed last night 's concert as a fashion show . Or a music video , sure " , Ross concluded . Although she called Stefani the " new princess of pop " and praised the singer 's charismatic presence during the show , Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun felt that the concert was " definitely of the lightweight variety in the music department " and noted that , although Stefani models herself after Madonna , she is " no real threat " . She gave the concert three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five .

MTV 's Corey Moss compared Stefani 's performance to Madonna with regard to " the eight costume changes to the dancers to the theatrics to , hell , even the music itself " and avouched that she sounded completely different from how she did with No Doubt . Moss asserted that the No Doubt lead vocalist was the " most captivating thing onstage " with her " confident strut and dead @-@ on vocals " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times admired the " glamour and groove " antics of the show and how Stefani " flaunt [ ed ] the perks of stardom " . He praised her music , describing the album as " a smart [ record ] , with honed rhythm tracks that flit from funk to pop , electronics to rock " , although calling most tracks " superficial " , being about " style " , " success " , " shopping " and " sex " .

Jim Harrison of SoundSpike affirmed that the Harajuku Lovers Tour lacked a strong musical setlist , and also felt that Stefani 's stage presence was absent . He stated that she " doesn 't have many songs that translate well in a live setting " from her album Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and suggested that she should have included songs by No Doubt for " much @-@ needed shots of adrenaline " for the audience , who were , according to Harrison , " figuratively sitting on their hands and literally yawning four songs into the set " . Harrison felt that Stefani seemed truly " lost on stage without a band " , ultimately describing her performance as " [ lacking in ] energy " , " lukewarm " and seemingly " on autopilot " . Furthermore , the SoundSpike writer thought that her performance was akin to that of fellow American recording artist Britney Spears , which was " utterly unsuitable for both the song selection and her style " . However , he did praise the rendition of " Hollaback Girl " , calling it " great " and " Gwen being all Gwen can be " , and called the breakdancing " pretty cool " .

= = Broadcast and recordings = =

Stefani 's performance in late November 2005 in her home town of Anaheim , California was recorded and released on DVD as a video album Harajuku Lovers Live . It was released on December 5 , 2006 , the same release date as Stefani 's second album , The Sweet Escape . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller . The concert features performances of all twelve songs from Love . Angel . Music . Baby. and two new songs from her second studio album , The Sweet Escape , as well as interviews with the musicians and dancers and a documentary of tour preparation . The DVD received similar mixed reviews to the concerts themselves . Reviewers praised Stefani 's musical performances and stage presence , but criticizing the lack of material and the long costume changes . The DVD was certified gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association and platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association .

= = Opening acts = =

The Black Eyed Peas ( October 16 – November 14 )

M.I.A. ( November 16 – December 1 )

Ciara ( December 3 – December 21 )

= = Set list = =

= = Tour dates = =

= Laborintus II ( 2012 recording ) =

Laborintus II is a 2012 album by Belgian orchestra Ictus Ensemble , vocal group Nederlands Kamerkoor and American vocalist Mike Patton . It is a recording of the 1965 work of the same name by Italian composer Luciano Berio , which featured lyrics taken from fellow Italian Edoardo Sanguineti 's 1956 poem Laborintus . The performance was recorded live at the 2010 Holland Festival .

Berio 's composition employs elements of jazz and electronic music , and Sanguineti 's libretto borrows ideas from the works of Dante Alighieri , T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound as well as using his own original work . Berio named " memory , death and usury " as the work 's main concerns , believing these themes to be present in Dante 's work .

Released on July 10 , 2012 , the album debuted at number 23 on the American Billboard Classic Albums chart . It has received mixed reviews from critics , most of whom highlighted its challenging and free @-@ form composition .

= = Production = =

Laborintus II is a recording of the 1965 composition of the same name by Luciano Berio , who wrote it for the 700th anniversary of Dante Alighieri 's birth . The libretto was provided by Edoardo Sanguineti , who included elements of his 1956 poem Laborintus in it . AllMusic 's Thom Jurek described the original poem as speaking of " the timelessness of love and mourning , while acting as a critique of the commoditization of all things " . In addition to Sanguineti 's own poetry — itself based on themes found in Dante 's Divina Commedia , Convivio and La Vita Nuova — the work uses excerpts from the Bible and the writings of poets T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound . Musically , Laborintus II incorporates elements of jazz and electronic music while sometimes evoking the style of Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi .

Berio described the main structure of Laborintus II as a " catalogue , in its medieval meaning " ( exemplified by the Etymologies of Isodore of Seville ) , using Dante 's themes of " memory , death and usury " . Members of the Dutch choir Nederlands Kamerkoor , which performed in the recording , have also cited usury as a key theme in the work , describing the composition as " an indictment against the practice " . Of the form , Berio wrote : " Individual words and sentences are sometimes to be regarded as autonomous entities , and sometimes to be perceived as part of the sound structure as a whole . " The instrumentation of Laborintus II was written as an " extension " of the vocal material ; its electronic section is likewise an extension of the instrumental music . Berio used car tyres and a blow @-@ up doll on stage in a performance of the work at the Holland Festival in 1973 .

The album was recorded live at the Holland Festival on June 18 , 2010 , in the Muziekgebouw aan ' t IJ . The work was performed by Mike Patton and the Belgian Ictus Ensemble conducted by Georges @-@ Elie Octors . Solos were performed by Ictus Ensemble clarinetist Dirk Descheemaeker , trumpeter Loïc Dumoulin , trombonist Michel Massot , double bass player Géry Cambier , and percussionists Michael Weilacher and Gerrit Nulens . Nederlands Kamerkoor provided the choral accompaniments . The album marks only the third recording of the composition to have been released since it was first broadcast on French radio by Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française . Patton has said of the work , " I can listen to Berio and Nono as easily as I can to Morricone but like all modern music of Italy , it is unfortunately marginalized ... Maybe because of the language barrier , maybe because it ’ s not easily understood . Berio , who was teaching in California when he wrote this piece , was listening to jazz , pop and folk music and incorporated all of it in his works without prejudice . "

= = Composition = =

Laborintus II combines orchestral , choral and spoken elements throughout its three parts . Patton 's spoken narration is delivered in Italian , although taped samples feature Sanguineti speaking in English . From a whisper to a shout , the words carry a variety of emotional tones as the work progresses . The choral parts respond to the narration both with unified chanting and with disjointed arguing , the latter serving to increase the tension . They are accompanied by three female vocalists whose voices range from soprano singing to " cooing " and " howling " .

The music incorporates elements of jazz and 20th @-@ century avant @-@ garde . The instruments in the orchestra frequently interrupt both each other and the female voices , and some sections of the composition seem as though they are improvised . Laborintus II makes use of both traditional percussion instruments and electronic sounds , and their interplay serves to " erect musical and textural architectures , then disassemble them quickly " . Max Feldman has compared the style to that of Raymond Scott .

The first part of the composition features the three female voices creating a " mournful " tone while the orchestra plays recurring musical passages . The second part is a discordant crescendo , as Patton 's narration becomes increasingly shouted and the orchestral accompaniment more " hyperactive " . The third and final part returns to a calmer tone , focussing on drums and jazz woodwind instruments .

= = Track listing = =

All lyrics written by Edoardo Sanguineti , all music composed by Luciano Berio .

= = Personnel = =

= = Release and reception = =

Laborintus II was released on July 10 , 2012 , through Patton 's record label Ipecac Recordings . In the United States , the album debuted on the Billboard Classic Albums chart at number 23 ; it spent one week on the chart .

The album received mixed reviews from critics . Review aggregation website Metacritic awarded it an average score of 58 out of 100 , based on eight reviews . Writing for The A.V. Club , Chris Mincher rated the album B − , calling it " challenging , uncompromising , and bordering on inaccessible " . Mincher felt that the album was abstract and difficult but contained " hidden payoffs " to reward repeated hearings . He called Patton 's arrangements " haunting " and " wraithlike " . AllRovi 's Thom Jurek rated the album 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , describing the recording as " a very nearly dazzling endeavor that rewards patience mightily " . Jurek felt that , as an album , Laborintus II was difficult to grasp at first , by virtue of being a recording of theatrical music , but he praised the performance of Ictus Ensemble , writing of their " bracing freshness and mischievous glee " . Eli Kleman of Sputnikmusic rated it 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , finding it " fascinating if not unwieldy " . He felt that Laborintus II was perhaps Patton 's most ambitious album to date , but noted that the musician has previously produced similarly avant @-@ garde records in the past . Kleman described the composition as " somber , beautiful , and ominous , but always affecting " .

Max Feldman of PopMatters awarded Laborintus II a rating of seven out of ten , finding Berio 's composition " challenging " and " exhausting " . He noted the work 's free jazz elements , comparing it to the 1970 Miles Davis album Bitches Brew . Feldman felt that the music " constantly emphasises its own unpredictability " . Consequence of Sound 's Carson O 'Shoney rated the album three stars out of five , calling it " unlike anything else you ’ ve ever heard " . O 'Shoney felt that the music might need more than one hearing to appreciate it , adding that it " runs the gauntlet from quiet , jazzy atmospherics to brazen , unsettling primal noise " . A review for Q magazine described Laborintus II as " tedious " , finding the album disorienting . Spin 's Christopher R. Weingarten rated it 7 out of 10 , calling it an " orchestra / tape collision crisper " .

= Residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations =

The residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations is the official residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Nations . As of 2016 it was located in a suite of rooms on the 42nd floor of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York City leased by the U.S. Department of State . Described in press reports as " palatial " , the establishment of the current residence in 1947 marked the first time in history that an ambassadorial residence had been located in a hotel .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

Beginning in 1947 , shortly after the siting of the United Nations secretariat in New York , the U.S. State Department took a long @-@ term lease for occupancy of a suite of rooms by the U.S. ambassador at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria , a luxury hotel constructed in 1931 . The establishment of the ambassador 's residence at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria made it the first hotel in history to house an ambassadorial residence . In 1960 , a townhouse at Sutton Place , originally constructed by J.P. Morgan in 1921 , was donated to the U.S. government by then owner Arthur Houghton with the intention it be used as a new ambassadorial residence . However , ambassador Adlai Stevenson II determined the home was not to his liking and the residence continued at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria . ( The Sutton Place townhouse was subsequently re @-@ gifted by the United States to the United Nations and currently serves as the official residence of the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations . )

In 1978 , Ebony reported that Andrew Young and his family explored the possibility of moving out of the suite at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria and into a house instead . Young , who was the first ambassador to live in the suite with " young children " , stated that " [ t ] he Waldorf is very nice , and its convenient , but I just have problems trying to bring up a small child in a hotel . " However , the search ultimately " became a media issue " and Young elected to stay in the suite . Nevertheless , he opined that " [ p ] eople tried to make it seem like I was saying that the Waldorf wasn 't good enough for us " .

As of 1999 , the State Department was paying $ 360 @,@ 000 per year to lease the suite on a rolling basis ; the lease is renewed every ten years with an optional one or two year short @-@ term extension . In 2015 , it was announced the State Department would no longer permit staff to be housed at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria , due to security concerns arising from the recent purchase of the property by Chinese business interests . Whether the decision would impact the status of the residence was not made clear , however , as of March 2016 the hotel was still being occupied by the U.S. ambassador .

= = = Notable residents = = =

Madeleine Albright , George H. W. Bush , John Bolton , Adlai Stevenson II , Samantha Power , and Bill Richardson are among notable former residents of the suite . During his tenure as ambassador , Richard Holbrooke elected not to occupy the 42nd floor apartment , choosing instead to live in his private Manhattan home . In his place , the residence was temporarily occupied by Holbrooke 's assistant , then 27 @-@ year old Randolph Eddy . According to reports , Holbrooke and his wife , journalist Kati Marton , would throw " glittery parties " in the suite " where pols and foreign ministers mixed with the likes of Robert De Niro and Sarah Jessica Parker . " As of July 2014 , Power lived in the suite with her husband , Harvard Law School professor Cass Sunstein , and their two young children .

= = Design = =

The suite is located on " the very top floor " of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . Described in press accounts as " palatial , " the residence is decorated with , among other items , a Jim Dine painting , an Alexander Calder mobile , and a grand piano , and features " twinkling city views " of the New York skyline . The front door to the suite is framed by a golden eagle . It is located on the opposite side of the corridor from the " royal suite " , so @-@ called as it was long used by the Duke of Windsor as his unofficial New York City residence .

As of 1971 , the interior of the suite was sectioned into nine rooms , including five bedrooms and a living room with a 48 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) tall ceiling , which was used to " host large official receptions . " Dorothy Bush Koch noted that the apartment was designed with " high ceilings , handsome old woodwork , working fireplaces , and big windows with beautiful views of New York City . "

= K @-@ 22 ( Kansas highway ) =

K @-@ 22 is a 3 @.@ 087 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 968 km ) highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . Located entirely within Washington County , the route runs from U.S. Route 36 ( US @-@ 36 ) north to the city limit of Haddam . A previous designation of the route existed in the 1930s from Wichita to Topeka , but was deprecated . The current alignment was designated in the 1940s .

= = Route description = =

K @-@ 22 begins at an intersection with US @-@ 36 , known as 17th Road . The route continues south as Deer Road toward Vining . From this intersection , K @-@ 22 heads north along Deer Road through a grassland area to an intersection with 18th Road . The route then crosses the Mulberry Creek and runs near it until it reaches Haddam . The roadway then crosses Mill Creek before meeting its northern terminus at the south city limit of Haddam near an intersection with Main Street . Deer Road continues north toward the Nebraska state line , but does not cross it .

The route is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , who is responsible for constructing and maintaining highways in the state . As part of this role , KDOT regularly surveys traffic on their highways . These surveys are most often presented in the form of annual average daily traffic , which is the number of vehicles that use a highway during an average day of the year . In 2010 , KDOT calculated that a total of 205 vehicles used the road daily , including 45 trucks . No part of the highway has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's defence , mobility , and economy .

= = History = =

The first designation for K @-@ 22 was established by 1927 and ran from US @-@ 54 near Liberal to US @-@ 36 near Halford . During this time , most of the route was a dirt road , except for a portion near Garden City , which was paved . This routing was relinquished by 1932 . By 1933 , a new routing was created , and the road instead began in Wichita , headed east along US @-@ 54 to Eureka and north to Emporia . From Emporia , the route turned northeast toward Scranton and north into Topeka . This designation was decommissioned between January and July 1938 . The current designation of K @-@ 22 was established in 1941 . No alignment changes have taken place since then .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Washington County .

= Tropical Storm Jose ( 2005 ) =

Tropical Storm Jose was a short @-@ lived tropical storm which made landfall in central Mexico during August 2005 . Jose was the tenth named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and the fourth of six tropical cyclones ( three hurricanes and three tropical storms ) to make landfall in Mexico in that year .

Tropical Storm Jose formed in the Bay of Campeche on August 22 and made landfall in the Mexican state of Veracruz the next day . It retained tropical characteristics for less than one day before dissipating , but still brought heavy levels of rainfall to the region . Mudslides caused by the rainfall killed eight people , six of those directly , and caused $ 45 million ( 2005 USD ) in damage .

= = Meteorological history = =

Tropical Storm Jose was first identified as a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 8 , 2005 . On August 13 , the system spawned Tropical Depression Ten over the central Atlantic ; the wave itself continued westward , entering the Caribbean on August 17 . Slight development took place as the system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula ; however , by the time it entered the Bay of Campeche on August 21 , little convection was associated with the system . The following morning , convection exploded under highly favorable divergence from an upper @-@ level anticyclonic flow . According to readings from the QuikSCAT satellite , a well @-@ defined low pressure center developed by 1200 UTC , prompting the National Hurricane Center to classify the system as Tropical Depression Eleven . At this time , the depression was situated roughly 110 mi ( 175 km ) east of Veracruz , Mexico .

Situated over very warm waters and within an area of low wind shear , the depression was able to quickly organize ; however , due to its proximity to land , the NHC noted , " the system does not have very long ... to take advantage of these favorable conditions . " Located to the south of a mid @-@ level ridge , the depression tracked just north of due west and kept this motion through the remainder of its existence . The depression rapidly intensified as it moved to the west , becoming Tropical Storm Jose just six hours later . The global model guidance initially failed to resolve the storm 's track well , with some models indicating that it would stall offshore . Jose continued to strengthen as it moved towards the coast and made landfall in the state of Veracruz early on August 23 with winds reaching a peak of 60 mph ( 90 km / h ) . As Jose made its landfall an eye was beginning to form , although the storm was still well short of hurricane intensity . Tropical Storm Jose quickly weakened after landfall and dissipated that afternoon in the mountains of central Mexico only 24 hours after forming .

= = Preparations and Impact = =

As Tropical Storm Jose formed so close to shore there was a lead time of less than 9 hours on the tropical storm warning for the Veracruz coastline . The area covered by the warning issued on August 22 was extended southwards as Jose intensified , before being canceled soon after landfall on August 23 . The advisories issued by the National Hurricane Center emphasized that rainfall from Jose was the primary threat .

Tropical Storm Jose was responsible for damaging crops , highways and homes ; flooding districts in several cities in the state of Veracruz , and the evacuation of 80 @,@ 000 people to shelters . The government of that state estimated the damages caused by the storm to be approximately $ 45 million ( 2005 USD ) . Approximately 120 municipalities were affected by the torrential rain , but the majority of the damage was concentrated to eight of them : Martínez de la Torre , Misantla , Nautla , San Rafael , Vega de la Torre , Actopan , Cardel and Úrsulo Galván . Damage to the highway infrastructure was estimated at $ 33 million ( 2005 USD ) .

It was also reported that the storm damaged at least 16 @,@ 000 homes and about 250 square kilometers ( 60 thousand acres ) of land used for cattle . In addition over 420 square kilometers ( 103 thousand acres ) of various crops , including sugarcane , corn and bananas , were flooded . Many boats were also lost as a result of Jose . 90 active medical brigades were sent to the region to reduce the risk of infections amongst the affected population .

Jose was responsible for six direct casualties . One of these deaths was the result of a mud slide that killed a man was in Xalapa , Veracruz . The other five deaths were also due to mudslides in Oaxaca .

= Norsk Spisevognselskap =

Norsk Spisevognselskap A / S , often abbreviated NSS or shortened to Spisevognselskapet , was a Norwegian state enterprise which operated restaurant carriages on Norwegian trains and restaurants at railway stations and railway hotels . The company was established in December 1918 , and started a catering service in 1919 . Originally owned by the Norwegian Trunk Railway , it was acquired by the state in 1926 . Meals served in the restaurant carriages were relatively expensive , although they were available to all passengers . In the 1950s , the company began using serving trolleys on trains .

In January 1975 , NSS merged with the convenience @-@ store chain Narvesen Kioskkompani into a new company called Narvesen – Spisevognselskapet . This enterprise was partly owned by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and Fritt Ord , before it merged with the Reitan Group and was delisted from the Oslo Stock Exchange .

= = Background = =

From the 1854 establishment of railways in Norway to 1909 , no dining service was offered aboard trains ; passengers were allowed to bring food with them . Train stations also lacked dining facilities . The first dining service was started by restaurateur Carl Christiansen . He established the restaurant at Drammen Station , and in 1907 was asked by NSB to establish a dining service aboard the express trains on the Bergen Line , which would open in 1909 . After investigating similar operations in England and Germany , he ordered two carriages from Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk . These were to be paid for by the state , but the Parliament of Norway delayed the grants after a long debate regarding the suitability of restaurant carriages on trains . The plans were opposed by the teetotaler faction of Parliament , but there was a majority in favor of dining service . To get the carriages in time , Christiansen personally guaranteed the production cost in case a state grant was not allocated . After the parliamentary decision , the cost of the carriages was refunded by NSB . In 1910 , when President of the United States Theodore Roosevelt visited Oslo to receive the Nobel Peace Prize , several restaurant carriages were ordered solely for the occasion . Two years later , restaurant carriages were put in regular service on the Østfold Line .

= = Early days = =

In 1916 , the executive board of the state railways wanted to centralise the operation of restaurant carriages and the most important station restaurants in Norway under one management . The board stated that they wanted to minimise the conflict of interest between the railway company and the dining @-@ car operator . They also saw centralising operations as a way to allocate a larger share of the revenue to the railway company , and to ensure a high quality of service on new lines . At that time the Sørland Line and Dovre Line were in the planning stages , and the NSB intended to introduce dining services on these when they opened . Oslo East Station and its restaurant were operated by the private Norwegian Trunk Railway . In an agreement signed on 18 September 1918 both railway companies agreed that a new restaurant operator would be controlled by the Norwegian Trunk Railway , but this company had to abide by the NSB 's decision of how many restaurant carriages to operate on any line .

This model was inspired by Sweden , where a separate dining company had been established ; this company paid the railway company part of its revenue and a fixed fee per restaurant carriage . The Swedish model involved including the operation of station restaurants at locations where the restaurant carriages would have depots . On 21 December 1918 , A.S Norsk Spisevognselskap was established with a share capital of 200 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . It had 20 shares ; 17 were owned by the Trunk Railway , and one by each of three directors : Waldemar Stoud Platou , Gotfred Furuholmen and Christian Emil Stoud Platou — the former representing the Trunk Railway and the latter being director @-@ general of the NSB . In January 1919 , Waldemar Platou was appointed chair and Christiansen managing director . The company took over Christiansen 's four restaurant carriages and the restaurant at Oslo Ø on 1 April 1919 .

On 2 February 1926 , Parliament voted to nationalise the Trunk Railway . During the debate , the organisation of Spisevognselskapet was criticised ; with the nationalisation , the state became the sole owner of Spisevognselskapet . On 31 March 1927 , the Ministry of Labour recommended that the company remain a state @-@ owned limited company ; the minority in parliament wanted a state enterprise . During the 1930s , Sigurd Astrup was managing director of Norsk Spisevognselskap . In 1948 , Erling Mossige was appointed managing director of the company . He was succeeded by Knut Tvedt in 1960 . The company had 75 employees in 1919 , and 591 in 1949 .

= = Restaurant carriages = =

The restaurant carriages of the NSS were open to everyone , but dining was so expensive that only passengers travelling in first class used the service . Usually , three or four dishes were offered in the restaurant carriages . A four @-@ course dinner cost five Norwegian kroner in the 1920s , which was expensive at the time . Warm dishes , such as soups and sauces , were usually prepared at a small stove in the restaurant carriage 's kitchen . On busy days , prepared steaks were delivered from rail depots . The kitchens were staffed by two maids and one attendant . Blocks of ice were often used instead of refrigerators .

With the opening of the Dovre Line , Spisevognselskapet established dining @-@ car service on 25 June 1921 . In 1921 a train ride from Kristiania to Trondheim lasted approximately 15 hours , and the average waiting time at each station was between 10 and 15 minutes . On 1 July 1925 dining service was introduced on the Valdres Line , from 1 July 1926 on the Brevik Line , from May 1934 on the Nordland Line and from 15 May 1936 on the Røros Line . In 1948 210 @,@ 000 meals were served on board , in addition to sandwiches and drinks . The company also offered a light breakfast on night trains on the Kongsvinger , Østfold and Dovre lines . During the Second World War , dining @-@ car service was discontinued .

After the war trains faced competition from aviation and automobiles , and serving trolleys were installed on Norwegian trains . In 1965 cart service on trains was centralised and standardised ; food service was faster , and prices were lowered . During the 1970s cafeteria cars were used , where passengers could serve themselves .

= = Restaurants = =

NSS derived most of its revenue from the operation of restaurants at railway stations ; in 1939 , this amounted to 80 % . Initially , the company operated the restaurant at Oslo Ø ; from 1921 , it also took over operation of the restaurants at Oslo West Station , Hamar , Koppang , Opdal and Elverum . The following year , four more restaurants were added : Støren , Myrdal , Dokka and Hell . NSS also established its first kiosk , at Bergen Station . In 1923 , the company was allowed to take over all restaurants in the railway districts of Oslo and Hamar ; by 1925 , it had taken over operation of the restaurants at Lillehammer , Hønefoss , Jessheim , Kornsjø , Halden , Ski , Eidsvoll , Otta , Dombås , Åndalsnes , Kongsvinger , Trondheim , Rena , Roa , Ringebu , Bjorli and Finse .

After this NSS decided not to obtain many additional restaurants , as it did not see value in such a strategy . From 1930 through 1934 the company took over restaurants at Ål , Jaren , Lillestrøm and Tønsberg , along with dining service on the steamship Skibladner , which ran on Mjøsa . During the first half of the 1940s it again acquired new restaurants , including the one at Kristiansand Station . In 1940 and 1941 the company made a solid profit , but lack of food from 1942 onwards transformed the profit to a loss . During the late 1940s NSS also took over the restaurants at Drammen and Sarpsborg , as well as the one at Oslo Airport , Fornebu .

= = Hotels = =

In 1919 the Norwegian Trunk Railway operated one hotel , which was built as part of Eidsvoll Station . Operation of the 20 @-@ room hotel was taken over by Spisevognselskapet on 14 October 1924 . NSB was at the time building the Dovre Line between Oslo and Trondheim , and was considering establishing hotels where the line passed through Dovrefjell . Both Hjerkinn and Fokkstua were considered , but these areas were served by other operators . Instead , Spisevognselskapet established the Oppdal Tourist Hotel adjacent to Oppdal Station and it opened on 28 June 1924 . The 60 @-@ bed hotel had a floor area of 605 square metres ( 6 @,@ 510 sq ft ) and was marketed as a tourist destination , with bobsleigh and curling during the winter and tennis and croquet in summer . The hotel was closed for part of 1929 , because the municipality would not allow it to serve alcoholic beverages .

In Oslo , the company had its offices and workings spread around town . The main depot was at the East Station ; the head office was at Fred . Olsens gate 21 from 1919 to 1921 , at Kongens gate 29 until 1932 , and at Tollbodgaten 24 until 1938 . Management wanted to centralise both a new depot and administrative offices at a single location close to the railway station , preferably co @-@ located with a hotel . In 1936 work began on a hotel at Jernbanetorget , but the project was cancelled . The proposed hotel would have had 100 rooms across the street from Oslo Ø . However , the plans were blocked by Parliament ( which was opposed to the state railway operating hotels ) . Instead , the administration moved into Nylandsveien 10 , in a new building built on a lot owned by NSB .

In Bergen the company established Hotel Terminus Bergen along with other investors , but the hotel failed to make money . In the late 1940s the company bought Grand Hotell Bellevue in Ålesund , and later operated Saltfjellet Tourist Hotel for a short period . In 1952 , Oslo Municipality 's Viking Hotel was completed , and Spisevognselskapet was selected as the operator . It remained the hotel 's operator until 1976 when the government sold it to Eiendomsinvest , which outbid Spisevognselskapet by several million krone .

= = Dissolution = =

Narvesen had an exclusive agreement with NSB to operate newsagent 's shops at all railway stations , except in stations with restaurants , which were operated by Spisevognselskapet . Narvesen had a near @-@ monopoly on newsagents in Norway , and rented facilities in many public places . The owners of Narvesen intended to create a foundation to obtain the company ; when plans for this started in 1972 , they had difficulties finding a way to transfer shares to the foundation without having to pay tax on the transaction . However , the tax laws permitted a tax @-@ free transaction if it was part of a restructuring . A merger with Spisevognselskapet would be considered a restructuring , and in 1974 Fritt Ord was established to take over Narvesen 's owners ' share of the company . The agreement between Narvesen and NSB was made in July 1974 ; in December it was passed by Parliament , although the Conservative Party and Progress Party voted against the merger . A.S Narvesen – Spisevognselskapet was established on 1 January 1975 . Fritt Ord owned 50 % of the new company and NSB 41 % . It assumed the Narvesen name in 1979 .

By the late 1980s , the company had sold all its hotel operations . The merged company retained the obligation to operate dining services on the trains , which throughout the 1980s necessitated considerable subsidies from NSB . In 1988 , NSB decided to organize the operation of the dining services through tendered contracts ; the first contract ( from 1990 through 1995 ) was won by TogService , a Narvesen subsidiary . The owners had an agreement that neither could sell without the approval of the other . In 1995 NSB sold its shares with Fritt Ord 's approval , and the company was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange .

In 1999 , Fritt Ord reduced its stock share in Narvesen from 51 % to 34 % . In the fall of 2000 , Fritt Ord accepted a proposal to merge Narvesen with the Reitan Group . The merged company was named ReitanNarvesen ; Fritt Ord held 16 @.@ 2 % of its shares . In November 2001 Fritt Ord sold its shares of ReitanNarvesen , which was renamed Reitan Handel and delisted from the Oslo Stock Exchange .

= The Actor 's Children =

The Actor 's Children is a 1910 American silent short drama written by Lloyd Lonergan and produced by the Thanhouser Company in New Rochelle , New York . The film features Orilla Smith , Yale Boss , Frank Hall Crane and Nicholas Jordan . The production was not the first film subject by the company , but it was the first to be released . Both Barry O 'Neil and Lloyd B. Carleton have been credited as the director of the production . Edwin Thanhouser stated that 19 copies of the film were produced and distributed to dealers .

The film begins with two unemployed parents obtaining employment in an upcoming theater production . Shortly after returning home , the landlady shows up and demands the rent , but can not collect . She gives them one week , but the theater production does not manifest and the parents again search for work . While they are out , the landlady finds a tenant and puts the children out on the street . They end up dancing for an organ grinder and are saved by a theater manager who puts them on his vaudeville bill . The parents come into a fortune and are reunited by their children at the theater . The film was met with positive reviews and some criticism for its acting and scenario , but the industry had reasons to encourage the success of Edwin Thanhouser 's company . A print of the film exists , but it was the subject of nitrate deterioration .

= = Plot = =

The plot of the film was best convened through a published synopsis in trade which introduced the names of the cast and the backstory . Eugenie Freeman and Paul Temple , marry and have two children , a boy and a girl . The parents have been unemployed , but the film starts with the parents finding work in an upcoming production at a theater . As they return home , they are interrupted by the landlady , Mrs. O 'Brien , who demands the rent . The landlady does not car about the family 's misfortune and is upset when she cannot collect . She provides one week for the Temple family to pay up .

The production is postponed and the parents are out looking for work when a prospective tenant appears . Mrs. O 'Brien shows him the room and he is interested , but does not know what to do with the children . Mrs. O 'Brien puts the children out onto the street where they dance to the music played by an organ grinder . The organ grinder earns more money from their dancing and he entices the children to return to his hovel and teaches them to dance . The organ grinder instructs them to dance for money . The children are rescued by a theater manager and finds them a place in the theater program .

In the meantime , the parents have searched for their children and suddenly come into a fortune when a relative bequeaths a large sum of money to them . The parents search for their children in large gatherings and find their children dancing on the vaudeville bill from their theater box . The family is reunited and the film concludes .

= = Cast = =

Frank H. Crane as the actor ( adult male lead )

Orilla Smith as the actor 's daughter ( little girl )

Yale Boss as the actor 's son ( little boy )

Nicholas Jordan as a comedian

= = Production = =

The script for the production was written by Lloyd F. Lonergan , who employed the deus ex machina dramatic technique in the conclusion of the plot . In film , this is the sudden inheritance and parents finding their children in the theater . The two children , Orilla Smith and Yale Boss , were child actors with prior film experience and did not have any further known connection to the Thanhouser Company after the production . The cameraman , Blair Smith , used a camera rented by the Columbia Phonograph Company and had its inventor , Joseph Bianchi , assist in the camera 's operation and use . The director of has both been credited to Barry O 'Neil and Lloyd B. Carleton in numerous trade sources . Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser Company , but this film was not the Thanhouser Company 's first subject . Instead , it was The Mad Hermit produced in autumn 1909 and shelved until August 9 , 1910 . The exact order of the productions is not known , but a work titled Aunt Nancy Telegraphs was filmed in December 1909 and never released . Certain parts of The Actor 's Children were produced in the last week of February 1910 .

The director of the film is not known , but two possibles exist . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company until moving to the Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . The confusion between the directing credits stems from the industry practice of not crediting the film directors , even in studio news releases . Q. David Bowers says that the attribution of these early directors often comes from a collection of contemporary publications or interviews .

= = Release = =

The single reel drama , approximately 1000 ft , was released on March 15 , 1910 by the Thanhouser Company . In later years , Edwin Thanhouser recalled that 19 copies of the film were produced and sent out to dealers throughout the United States . Of these 19 copies produced , ten were returned , some with letters of interest in future Thanhouser productions . The film was viewed across the United States with advertisements for showings in Pennsylvania , Wisconsin , Kansas , and Washington

= = Reception and impact = =

The Actor 's Children was released with enthusiasm and positive reviews in trade publications . The Moving Picture World reviews would be favorable and without much criticism , even calling the acting convincing . A more honest review in The New York Dramatic Mirror was written by a reviewer who was pleased with the production , but offered criticism about the production 's weaker aspects . The reviewer found there to be too much emphasis on the unimportant parts and a lack of emotion from the actors , and the child actors performance was faulted by repeatedly looking at the camera . Critical reception of the film may not have been entirely neutral for a number of reasons . Edwin Thanhouser was a well @-@ liked gentleman who had many friends in the Patents Company that likely wanted him to succeed . Furthermore , writers in the magazines hoped that Independents would succeed and challenge the Patents Company 's stranglehold on the industry . Also , film critics and reviewers of the era would balance the negativity of even the worst films with some favorable aspects . Even without any ulterior motives , the film may have been worthy of a favorable review .

The release managed to survive against considerable odds , but the surviving print is not without severe faults . The surviving print has considerable nitrate deterioration and very poor picture quality in certain parts . This film survives in the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences film archives .

= The Stolen Eagle =

" The Stolen Eagle " is the series premiere of the British @-@ American historical drama television series Rome . Written by series creator Bruno Heller and directed by Michael Apted , the episode first aired in the United States on Home Box Office ( HBO ) on August 28 , 2005 , and on the BBC in the United Kingdom and Ireland on November 2 . Rome was given a budget of $ 100 million , making it the largest amount both networks had ever spent on a series . Heller centered the series ' narrative on the perspectives of two common soldiers , similar to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from Shakespeare 's Hamlet . Apted shot the episode at Cinecittà , the Roman studio where the epic films Ben @-@ Hur and Cleopatra were filmed . On the set , realism and authenticity were emphasized more than grandiosity , with depictions of a cosmopolitan city of all social classes .

As the wars in Gaul come to an end , Julius Caesar ( Ciarán Hinds ) is faced with both triumph and tribulation . On the heels of his victory comes news of his daughter 's death . Awarded with the adulation of the people , he also garners the enmity of politicians in Rome , including Pompey the Great ( Kenneth Cranham ) . In Rome , Pompey must balance honor and politics as he is urged to betray his former friend . Meanwhile , Caesar 's niece Atia of the Julii ( Polly Walker ) tries to steer her family on the dangerous path between the growing divisions of power . In the Gallic countryside , two unlikely allies ( Kevin McKidd and Ray Stevenson ) journey to reclaim the stolen standard of the Roman legion .

HBO described its marketing strategy as " its largest , most aggressive for a new series , " and media outlets estimated its cost at $ 10 million . On its first broadcast , an estimated 3 @.@ 8 million US viewers watched the episode . On its first airing in the UK and Ireland , it secured an estimated audience of 6 @.@ 6 million people . Critical reception was largely mixed , with several reviewers writing that the episode suffered from slow storytelling . " The Stolen Eagle " garnered four major awards , including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects and the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series .

= = Plot = =

During the Siege of Alesia in 52 BC , Centurion Lucius Vorenus of the 13th Legion commands his men as Gallic warriors fall on his line . In contrast to the Gauls ' chaotic charge , the Roman files fight with precision , until one drunk legionary , Titus Pullo , breaks ranks and charges into the crowd of Gauls . Vorenus angrily orders him back into formation , but Pullo hits him . Later , the assembled soldiers watch as Pullo is flogged and condemned to death for his disorderly conduct . The day after , Vercingetorix , " King of the Gauls " , is brought before Julius Caesar and made to surrender , ending the eight @-@ year @-@ long Gallic Wars . Caesar 's niece , Atia of the Julii , orders her son Octavian to deliver a horse she has purchased straight to Caesar in Gaul to ensure that he remembers them above all other well @-@ wishers . Caesar himself receives news that his daughter , married to his friend Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus with whom he shares power in Rome , has died in childbirth along with her stillborn daughter . A blood tie broken between them , Caesar orders a new wife be found for Pompey .

In the Roman Senate , Cato the Younger moves that Caesar be stripped of his command and recalled to Rome to answer charges of misusing his office and illegal warmongering . Pompey , as sole Consul present , vetoes the motion , insisting in trusting Caesar . At the theater that night , Scipio introduces his daughter Cornelia Metella to Pompey as a prospective wife , while Cato warns him that he must ally against Caesar before it is too late . Pompey again asserts that Caesar means no harm , although privately , he is troubled by Caesar 's rising prestige and power and gives orders to one of his slaves who is leaving on a trip to Gaul . At night in the encampment of the 13th Legion , the Aquila ( Eagle Standard ) is stolen by brigands . To avoid a potentially disastrous drop in morale , Mark Antony orders Vorenus to retrieve it . As Vorenus feels the mission is doomed to failure , he has the condemned Pullo released from the stockade to assist him .

In camp , Caesar welcomes Marcus Junius Brutus , his unofficial stepson whose mother is Caesar 's lover , Servilia of the Junii . Later , at a party hosted by Servilia , Brutus confides to Pompey that the loss of the eagle has made Caesar unusually vulnerable as his men are on the brink of mutiny . On the road to Caesar 's camp in Gaul , Octavian is taken captive by brigands . For Caesar 's request , Atia instructs her daughter Octavia to marry Pompey by first divorcing her husband Glabius , despite Octavia 's protests that they are deeply in love . Atia then presents Octavia to Pompey at a party and offers her for premarital relations , which Pompey takes advantage of .

Vorenus and Pullo set off in search of the eagle , encountering and rescuing Octavian from his captors . Octavian thanks them and promises that they will be rewarded . Vorenus and Pullo discover Pompey 's slave with the eagle hiding in the bandit cart and kill him , realizing the bandits were hired by Pompey . A politically astute Octavian explains that their mission is only a gesture , since the theft of the eagle is actually a blessing in disguise to Caesar . Civil war between Caesar and Pompey is inevitable , but Caesar needs Pompey to make the first move so as not to appear the aggressor ; Pompey is likely to do that if he believes Caesar 's soldiers are on the verge of desertion . The trio returns in triumph to camp , where a surprised yet grateful Caesar takes the eagle back and more than adequate proof of Pompey 's hostility . He sends Pompey the head of his slave and informs him of his next move , to winter the 13th Legion at Ravenna on the Italian border , in preparation for pressing his rights to the Consulship . Pompey breaks all ties with Caesar and takes Cornelia as his wife . Octavia , humiliated at being used by Pompey and heartbroken over her pointless divorce , says she wants him dead .

= = Production = =

= = = Conception and writing = = =

" The Stolen Eagle " was written by executive producer and co @-@ creator Bruno Heller and directed by Michael Apted , who also directed the following two episodes . Heller said the era of the Roman Empire was " pivotal in Western history . If things hadn 't turned out the way they did at that particular point , the world that we live in now would be very different . " He decided to tell the story of the series from the perspectives of two common soldiers , Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo . According to Heller , " They are the only two ordinary soldiers mentioned by Caesar in his book , so the idea was to do a sort of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern take . I essentially took the seed of that idea to try to tell a big historical epic , but from the street level , the everyman 's point of view . "

The episode title is a reference to the standard of the Roman legion , a symbol that represents the legion 's unity . While the storyline detailing its theft was based on fiction , Heller believed that it showed how Caesar could turn " misfortune into opportunity . He was always one step ahead of his enemies . " Certain characters were changed from their traditional images ; for instance , while Brutus has been portrayed as the noblest Roman , Heller and historical consultant Jonathan Stamp thought it would be interesting to have him forced into his later role through his ancestry . Alluding to the fact that Brutus ' great great great grandfather " drove the last king out of Rome " , Stamp said that " his family history was pushing him in one direction , his emotions in another . "

= = = Casting = = =

The producers cast relatively unknown British actors for the series . Scottish actress Lindsay Duncan , who was cast as Servilia , believed that she and other UK actors " can do old , can do classic , and you believe it . " She also said that because of long distances , American actors or those of other nationalities were avoided : " Transporting actors from [ Los Angeles ] to Rome on a regular basis does not look good for the budget . We 're quite cheap . " Stamp described Servilia as " the great love of [ Julius ] Caesar 's life , his mistress and by all counts the only woman he truly loved . " Irish actor Ciarán Hinds was cast as Caesar . Hinds first thought it was " silly " to be offered the part , but then " you think it 's quite an honour to be chosen to play it . And then you think , ' Oh shit I 've got to do it ' , and then , well , ' I suppose someone has to do it ! ' " Heller had believed that Hinds would make " a great Caesar " for a long time , and considered the series " extremely lucky " for being able to cast him .

Scottish actor Kevin McKidd , who had never appeared in a television series that necessitated over twelve months of filming , was cast as Lucius Vorenus , one of the lead characters . McKidd said , " What was different about this show is you get 14 months to really get into every nook and cranny of the character , in a way you don 't get a chance to explore when you do a movie or a theater play . Initially , it was a terrifying prospect . But once you got over that , you realize what a great opportunity it was . " Heller described his character as " very much a Roman of the Old School , a stoic man devoted to duty and religion and the legion . " Ray Stevenson played Titus Pullo , a soldier who befriends Vorenus . McKidd said that " they 're kind of thrown together by fate , by chance , but somewhere along the line they start to stick ... [ They ] keep finding themselves accidentally at the epicenter of tumultuous events and immense change , so they 're kind of clinging to each other . "

Caesar 's niece , Atia , was portrayed by actress Polly Walker . According to Heller , while most auditioning actresses assumed that the character was the series ' villainess , Walker made " [ Atia ] bigger than life but completely real ... She could read the phone book with that kind of brio and joy . " Rather than a villain , Heller wrote her to be " a real life force . Everything she 's doing is for the good of her family , her children . No matter how evil it gets , it 's always for good reason . " Walker was pleased with her " very complex character . I found it exciting to play such massive emotions and deal with such interesting , to say the least , situations . I saw it as a huge challenge , and I have huge admiration for this character . A lot of people might consider her to be sort of evil or bad , but I think she 's wonderful . She 's just a survivor , doing what she 's got to do . "

= = = Filming = = =

The series was given a budget of $ 100 million ( £ 58 million ) , the largest both HBO and the BBC had ever devoted to a series . The season was filmed between March 2004 and July 2005 , at locations in or around Rome , and on a set considered " to be the biggest and most expensive ever built for television . " It was built at Cinecittà , where the epic films Ben @-@ Hur ( 1959 ) and Cleopatra ( 1963 ) had been filmed . Production designer Joseph Bennett built a set that emphasized authenticity and realism rather than grandiosity . He said ,

People think of Rome as white and cold and beautiful , powerful but distant . But based on the research , I don 't think it was like that at all . If you go to Pompeii , you 're struck by how garish it is , even now . The temples and sculptures were all brightly painted . Rome was like Pompeii , but much bigger . And Rome was so noisy it was impossible to sleep . It was like hell . Think of it as a combination of New York and Calcutta , with insane wealth and insane poverty . It was pretty extreme .

The series begins with opening credits that depict traditional Roman myths , such as Romulus and Remus , the city 's foundation mythos . For inspiration , visual effects and design company A52 explored museums , read the script and researched Roman history . They created the opening sequence entirely in @-@ house . VFX artist Kirk Balden said of production , " On many projects , you start off with storyboards and everyone has a good idea of what it 's going to look like when it 's completed . This project was very experimental right to the very end . The tone of it is pretty much unlike anything we 've done and most of what any of us here have seen . There 's a lot there that creatively sets the stage for the series . "

Heller was responsible for writing the episode 's voice @-@ over , despite his dislike of the task . He said that despite it being his " 400th version , " he was " still not happy with it . " He believed that an early scene in which cart distributes spoils in front of Pompey represented the first real sense of how the series would depict city life . He said , " I think this is the first time that we get sense of the version of Rome that the show is pushing , " which was a very different version than viewers may have been used to . To him , Rome was " colorful and painted " and cosmopolitan . A later scene featuring Cicero the Younger in the Senate proved difficult to film because of the large number of Italian extras who did not speak English . In the DVD audio commentary , he said that " this is one of those scenes where you need really great assistant directors , because all of these Italian extras who have no idea whatsoever what [ Cicero 's ] saying , so to keep them interested and focused and concentrated on what 's going on is a real trick . "

Anachronistic stirrups were used to ensure the safety of the actors , though the crew attempted to conceal or camouflage them for historical authenticity , as they were not then used by the Roman cavalry . Extras playing soldiers attended a boot camp under the guidance of a former Royal Marine . Those actors portraying legionnaires learned to fight by thrusting , not slashing their weapons . Artisans reportedly handmade four thousand costumes using authentic period materials such as cotton , linen , wool and silk , all of which were hand @-@ dyed on set . Pullo was originally written to be a poor horse rider , a reflection that " Romans were notoriously bad horsemen , " according to Heller . However , Stevenson turned out to be " probably the best horseman on the show , " so they rewrote this characteristic because bad horsemanship is difficult to fake .

James Madigan , the visual effects supervisor , approached the series as a feature film , observing that " every aspect of the production took meticulous care with every detail , the costumes , the set dressing , the acting , and the attention to historical fact . As you worked on it , you really got the feeling that Rome was going to look like something we had never seen on TV before , so our vfx approach very much wanted to respect that . " Madigan attempted to seamlessly mesh the visual effects with the physical sets and depend less on CGI . A friend told Madigan that after seeing the pilot , " he didn ’ t see any vfx shots , even though there are dozens of shots throughout episode 1 . That means we did our job well . "

= = Marketing = =

HBO said its marketing plan for the series was , " its largest , most aggressive push for a new series " . The channel broadcast the first three episodes seven days a week at various times during the day . Non @-@ subscribers could preview the first two episodes during the first week of September 2005 . HBO implemented an outdoor marketing campaign in major cities and produced movie @-@ style trailers which preceded a number of films in cinemas . Entertainment Weekly , Vanity Fair , Time , and GQ published full @-@ size articles about the series . The History Channel broadcast five nights of documentaries featuring the Roman Empire , which were hosted by Stevenson , McKidd , and Varma , a collaboration which was the first of its kind between the two networks .

David Baldwin , the executive vice president of program planning , said , " This is a huge series for us . We wanted to give it every opportunity to be seen by as many people as possible . " Media outlets estimated that the entire marketing campaign cost HBO $ 10 million , the most the network had spent on marketing a series to that point .

Commentators viewed the success of Rome as crucial for the network , especially after the past mixed reception of Carnivàle and K @-@ Street . In July 2005 , James Hibberd of Television Week wrote that Rome was viewed " as the network 's best shot for adding another literate , must @-@ see drama to its schedule " . Writing for the same publication , Tom Shales said that HBO " has made such a fuss over Rome , and the network itself has put such painful pressure on the show ( and its producers ) to make a hefty impact , that it 'll be scorned like a leper if it fails to make a truly gigantic splash . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" The Stolen Eagle " was first broadcast on August 28 , 2005 in the United States on HBO and in Canada on The Movie Network and Movie Central . An estimated 3 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , less than the series premieres of Carnivale and Deadwood but consistent with the series finale of Six Feet Under . In the UK and Ireland , the premiere was broadcast on BBC 2 on November 2 , 2005 . According to The Independent , more than 6 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode .

= = = Critical reception = = =

" The Stolen Eagle " received generally mixed reviews from television critics , many of whom criticized its slow pace . Mark A. Perigard of The Boston Herald wrote , " Less perverse than I , Claudius , more entertaining than American Broadcasting Company 's ( ABC ) toga twister Empire , " Rome " gets off to an uneven start . " Terry Morrow of the Dayton Daily News criticized the premiere , writing that " the opener , like most pilots , is so bogged down with introducing faces and setting up the story that it turns into a long and tedious journey . " Morrow also said the episode suffered from lacking one " standout , signature character " , though he believed that the " flaws in Rome should clear up in time , given HBO 's knack for winning dramas . It 's an epic story , and one worth savoring if you can muddle through the demands of slow storytelling in the beginning . "

The Scotsman 's Robert McNeil thought that the premiere was " shocking , but also rather slow , as characters are established . Maybe it 'll get better . In the meantime , to paraphrase Roger McGough , I came , I saw , I concurred with those who say : Rome wasn 't built in an hour . " Similarly opinionated was The Cincinnati Post 's Rick Bird , who said that like other HBO series , Rome " takes a while to get going . After the first episode you will mostly be confused with a dizzying array of characters , intrigue and subplots . Hang in there . By the second episode things take shape and one should be hooked by episode three with this steamy romp through antiquity and its lusty intrigue . " Bird found some positive elements ; the episode , he said , was " enhanced by marvelous filmmaking including elaborate sets and costumes . Small @-@ screen film art has rarely painted such a realistic picture of ancient Rome . "

Paul English of The Daily Record wrote that " Rome is visually dazzling , full of vim and tantalizingly seductive , " adding that " McKidd 's growling turn as Ceasar 's [ sic ] footsoldier Lucius Vorenus will undoubtedly propel him into the US major league . " Writing for the Los Angeles Daily News , David Kronke failed to find the series very remarkable , writing that " notwithstanding some lurid sex and gruesome violence , [ it is ] as conventional as anything the network has ever done . Sword @-@ and @-@ sandals epics have become familiar Hollywood staples ... and those expecting something that takes up where the legendarily decadent BBC / PBS series I , Claudius left off may be in for something of a disappointment . " Television Without Pity graded the episode with a B.

Some viewers criticized the graphic nudity seen in the pilot , especially in the US . Heller commented , " Romans didn 't have our body shame and fear of sexuality . I think that is part of the modern fascination with that world . There was a lack of shame about those things , that we had to portray with a lack of shame in order to make it work . "

= = = Accolades = = =

= Roxas ( Kingdom Hearts ) =

Roxas ( Japanese : ロクサス , Hepburn : Rokusasu ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . First revealed during the final scenes of the 2004 title Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , Roxas is a " Nobody " , a being created when the series ' main character Sora briefly loses his heart during the first game of the series . Kingdom Hearts II reveals that Roxas is a member of Organization XIII , a group of Nobodies who needed Roxas as he could wield the Keyblade , a weapon that allows him to capture hearts . As a member of the organization , Roxas bears the title " Key of Destiny " ( めぐりあう鍵 , Meguriau Kagi , lit . " Serendipitous Key " ) . He is also the protagonist of the video game Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , which revolves around his origins . In the Japanese games , Roxas is voiced by Kōki Uchiyama , while Jesse McCartney takes the role in the English versions .

Since his first cameo in the series , director Tetsuya Nomura has stated that Roxas is an important character to the series , and that in order to explain his back story in more detail than done in Kingdom Hearts II , Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days was created . Since his introduction in Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas has received positive critical response from video game publications with most of them focusing on his development in 358 / 2 Days . Various types of merchandising have been released based on his character .

= = Characteristics = =

Roxas is depicted as a spiky blond @-@ haired teenager with blue eyes . As a civilian he wears a white jacket along with a black jacket and white trousers . As a member of Organization XIII , Roxas wears a black coat that covers most of his body including his hood along with the other members . His weapon is the Keyblade known as Kingdom Key ( キングダムチェーン , Kingudamu Chēn , Kingdom Chain ) , resembling a classic skeleton key , with a long silver keychain extending from the hilt , and a Mickey Mouse token on the end of the keychain , but the player is able to modify it during Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days using different keychains . Roxas also becomes able to dual @-@ wield Keyblades after leaving the Organization , and exclusively uses the Oathkeeper ( 約束のお守り , Yakusoku no Omamori , lit . " Oath 's Charm " ) , whose shaft displays two hearts , and its handle bears two angel wings , and the Oblivion ( 過ぎ去りし思い出 , Sugisarishi Omoide , lit . " Passing Memories " ) .

Roxas ' personality significantly changes across the series due to the fact that when first introduced , he appears with fake memories that make him believe he is a common teenager and spends most of his time with his friends . When learning that he is Sora 's Nobody and remembering his past , Roxas gives up his existence so that Sora could continue existing , but still expresses happiness for his fate . During his time in the Organization , Roxas develops a calmed personality based on the experiences he has as a result of having no memories of a previous life unlike other Nobodies .

= = Appearances = =

Roxas ' first appearances were cameos in " Another Side , Another Story " , a bonus trailer found in Kingdom Hearts , and in the ending of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories . In Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas is introduced as a boy living in a digital replica of a city called Twilight Town . Unaware of the virtual nature of the city , Roxas begins to dream about the adventures of Sora , the series ' protagonist . He later encounters Axel , a member of Organization XIII who was given orders to rescue him , and Naminé , a Nobody who tells him he is Sora 's other half . Shortly after meeting , Ansem the Wise , the creator of the virtual world , Roxas learns the nature of Twilight Town as well as that Ansem erased his memory , and implanted false ones to make Roxas unaware of his past and then make him merge with Sora . Ansem leads Roxas to an old mansion where once reaching an asleep Sora , Roxas rejoins with him , allowing Sora to wake up . Sora later learns that Roxas is his Nobody , created during the events of the first game after Sora briefly turned into a Heartless . Xemnas brought Roxas to Organization XIII as he could wield the Keyblade , a weapon which would help them to capture hearts . Roxas later betrayed the Organization and encountered one of Sora 's friends , Riku , who captured him to help Sora wake up . Roxas makes two appearances near the end of the game . The first is in a mental battle with Sora depicted as a cut @-@ scene , and the second is with Naminé , who has merged with her other self , Kairi . In the re @-@ released version of the title , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Roxas ' fight against Sora was expanded , making him a boss character . The battle was meant to be interactive in Kingdom Hearts II , but time constraints imposed from creating fights for the other Organization XIII members prevented inclusion . With the opportunity to include the fight , Nomura 's team worked hard to make it entertaining for players . Additional scenes regarding Roxas ' past were added to the game to add to the mystery around him .

Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , a prequel to Kingdom Hearts II , reveals Roxas ' life with Organization XIII . Unlike the other Organization members , Roxas lacks memories of his previous life . During Roxas ' time in the Organization , he is placed under Axel 's watch , and the two become friends . After Axel is sent to Castle Oblivion , Roxas is entrusted with Xion , another Keyblade wielder , whom he befriends . Roxas reacts to Sora 's memory restoration and starts questioning why he uses the Keyblade and doubt the Organization 's motives . When he discovers that Xion is a replica of Sora created by Xemnas , Roxas is compelled to defect from Organization XIII to find answers and meet Sora . After doing so , he encounters Xion , who tries to attack and absorb him so that she would become the " real " Sora ; however , the fight ends with Xion 's defeat who entruts Roxas to free the hearts the Organization captured . The death of his friend , coupled with full knowledge of how deranged Xemnas truly is , inspires Roxas to defeat Xemnas and release the hearts he and Xion captured for the Organization . On his way , Roxas is confronted by Riku who knocks him unconscious in order to help Ansem and Naminé wake up Sora .

A virtual representation of Roxas appears as a boss character in the mobile phone game Kingdom Hearts coded , in which he confronts a virtual representation of Sora , he later appears in the ending as one of the people connected to Sora 's heart who may have a chance at returning one day . He makes a cameo appearance at the end of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , where he is shown with Xion and Axel eating sea @-@ salt ice cream in Twilight Town , as well as in Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance where Roxas contacts both Axel and Sora through dreams . He also appears in Shiro Amano 's manga and Tomoko Kanemaki 's novels , which reprise his role in the video games . The book Kingdom Hearts : Another Report includes a novel called Roxas – Somewhere in Time that retells Roxas ' days in the Organization with the exception of his befriending Xion .

= = Creation and development = =

After Roxas first made a cameo at the end of Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , the director of the series , Tetsuya Nomura , was questioned about the character . However , he refrained from revealing too much detail about him and stated that he would become an important , playable character for the franchise . The developers wrote Roxas ' story in Kingdom Hearts II to add mixed feelings to the game in a short time frame . After receiving a positive fan response regarding Roxas ' sad scenario , Nomura concluded that it was well executed . He also stated that Roxas ' merging with Sora in the game was one of his most memorable scenes from the series . Nomura later commented that Roxas was one of the first characters created for Organization XIII , and was always intended to be the 13th member . The meaning of Roxas ' name was meant to be revealed in a scene in Kingdom Hearts II that shows the letters in the word " Sora " rearranged with the " X " added to expand the connection between the characters . This scene , however , was omitted as Nomura found it difficult to implement time @-@ wise . Since his debut in Kingdom Hearts II , Roxas has been voiced by Kōki Uchiyama in Japanese and by Jesse McCartney in the English versions .

After Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix was released , Nomura wanted to expand Roxas ' role in the series to explain the events between his birth and his disappearance from Organization XIII . For Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , the staff thought that Roxas ' role as a member of the group would be a suitable theme for the plot . Roxas was chosen as the game 's protagonist as the staff thought that having a main character besides Sora would help to introduce gamers to the series ' first Nintendo DS title . Co @-@ director Tomohiro Hasegawa explained that Roxas ' height was originally lower and as the game continued development , the staff decided to increase it . Nomura desired to portray Roxas ' activities different from Sora 's . In Sora 's games , he is on a journey around the worlds , while Roxas always returns to Organization XIII after each mission . The staff constructed Roxas ' interactions with the Disney characters to be different from Sora 's as the Organization was meant to be secret in the game 's story . Nomura told the writers that he wanted Roxas to learn something from each of his missions or just to have something to think about . Nomura later clarified that Roxas ' personality was different from the one portrayed in Kingdom Hearts II as he does not actively attempt to come into contact with other characters . With Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , Nomura wanted to reveal why Roxas left Organization XIII . Although Nomura found it to be a sad story it , he considered Zack Fair 's ending in Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII more tragic . His last words in the game were also Nomura 's most significant ones from the title as he wanted it to connect to Kingdom Hearts II 's first scene , which is actually the same scene . Uchiyama expressed sadness when the game ended development as he would not play the character for a long time .

Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix 's secret ending features a character named Ventus that bears a striking resemblance to Roxas . Nomura commented that , despite how similar they are , Roxas and Ventus are not the same character . Additionally , he stated that by playing Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , players will be able to distinguish Roxas from Ventus . In another interview , Nomura implied both characters are related , specifically to Sora , but he wanted fans to imagine reasons for such connection . The Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Ultimania clarified the connection , stating that Roxas and Ventus look alike because Ventus ' heart entered Sora 's body and Roxas ' birth allowed Ventus ' heart to reside in Roxas . This also confirms the mystery about Roxas having a heart in contrast to other Nobodies which allows him to express emotions despite his lack of memories from a past , something that Nobodies use to show emotions .

= = Reception = =

Roxas has been featured in various types of merchandising published by Square Enix . An action figure was released as part of the Play Arts action figures series . Other items sold include plush , keychains and replicas of his necklace .

Roxas ' character has received a positive critical response by both fans and video game publications . During February 2010 , Roxas was twenty @-@ eighth in a Famitsu poll featuring the most popular video game characters from Japan . In another poll , Roxas was voted as the second most popular Kingdom Hearts character with his fight against Sora ranked as the best scene from the series . His fighting sequences from the first game 's secret ending were labelled by GameSpy as one of the best video game cinematic moments . While reviewing Kingdom Hearts II Jeff Haynes of IGN said that Roxas was a " likable kid " . Ron Fahey of Eurogamer took a similar stance , calling him a " likeable enough young chap who just happens to be troubled by memories and visions of people he doesn 't even know " . His playable position in the game was regarded as a transitional arc , being used to introduce the gameplay to players that are new to the franchise . Cavin Smith from PSXextreme also called Roxas a likable character and stated that the revelation regarding his existence in Kingdom Hearts II is " a shocker of a revelation for any RPG ! " The New York Times liked the fact that the player controls Roxas in Kingdom Hearts II 's introduction instead of the protagonist Sora , avoiding the continuation of Sora 's search for his friends . Additionally , he found the switch from Roxas ' story to Sora 's after a few hours " a little jarring " . Andrew Reiner from Game Informer emphasizes his role as a " troubled boy " , calling his story arc " an amazing chain of events " , particularly noting that the revelation of his nature as a Nobody creates a " devilish yet remarkable plot twist " which may impact the player in a way that he " may not want Sora back " . On the other hand , UGO Networks commented that due to the game 's initial focus on Roxas , gamers would have to wait until playing as Sora to experience the most exciting parts of the title .

Before Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days was released , 1UP.com featured Roxas at the top of their " Why You Should Care About Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days " feature , calling him " The darling of fanfiction and doujinshi writers everywhere " , and commenting on what he does during his only year within Organization XIII . Roxas ' role as protagonist was labelled by G4TV as an attempt to " satiate the ravenous fanboy " due to the explanation from his background . While reviewing 358 / 2 Days , PALGN 's Adam Ghiggino praised Roxas ' development during the title , expressing that even gamers who did not like his character in Kingdom Hearts II would care about him as " he evolves from a self @-@ described ' zombie ' to a strong @-@ willed and interesting character " . Ghiggino especially noted his relation with Xion and Axel , which he found charming despite the fact that they repeatedly meet at the top of a clock tower in a large number scenes . A similar response was made by Game Informer , who commented that although such scenes were " dull " , Roxas ' relation with Xion and Axel was appealing and the game 's ending would make up for such moments . GamesRadar also commented that Roxas " starts off like a zombie , but rapidly develops a personality " during the title and joked about the numerous times he eats ice cream . His growth in the game was also labelled as one of the most enjoyable elements from the title . IGN agreed , calling Roxas ' friendship " heart @-@ aching " . On the other hand , 1UP.com mentioned that although Roxas ' relationship with Xion and Axel is appealing , some of his first missions feel like " lonely , sad affairs " . His maneuvers in the game were praised by GameSpot for being easy to learn despite how complex they look , while IGN liked the variation between all of them .

Due to his resemblance with Ventus , video game publications initially thought that Roxas would be one of the protagonists from Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep . However , when it was revealed that the two were different , publications still discussed how similar they were and if there was a connection between them .

= Back to Tennessee ( song ) =

" Back to Tennessee " is a country rock song by American singer @-@ songwriter and actor Billy Ray Cyrus . It released as the second single from Cyrus ' eleventh studio album of the same name on February 2 , 2009 by Lyric Street Records . Cyrus drafted the song after learning that Hannah Montana : The Movie , a film he would star in , would be set in Tennessee . The song , developed with the aid of co @-@ songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder , includes country rock elements while describing Cyrus ' longing to return to the South , where he grew up , after spending several years in Los Angeles . " Back to Tennessee " was featured in both Hannah Montana : The Movie and its soundtrack .

" Back to Tennessee " was well received by critics , though some felt it took the album 's message too literally . It was a moderate commercial achievement for Cyrus and charted within the top fifty of the Billboard magazine chart Hot Country Songs . The song 's music video was directed by Declan Whitebloom and features scenes of Cyrus at a beach inter cut with clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song was performed in several venues .

= = Development = =

Cyrus moved to Los Angeles to star on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana in 2006 . Cyrus 's character , Robby Ray Stewart , is a former country singer and the father of Miley Stewart , a popstar played by Miley Cyrus , Cyrus ' real life daughter . The television series became a worldwide hit and the basis for Hannah Montana : The Movie , a feature film released in 2009 .

Cyrus first read the script for Hannah Montana : The Movie while in Malibu in early 2008 . The film 's plot features the Stewarts leaving Hollywood for a summer and returning to Tennessee , their home state , to reconnect with their southern roots . Having grown up in Kentucky , Cyrus was excited to learn the film would be set in the country and fought for it to be filmed on location . " They were gonna film it in a different state [ but ] I just knew that Tennessee had all the facilities , the man power , and the ability to make this film great , " said Cyrus . In addition , Cyrus believed that " in real life , Miley and [ he ] needed to come back home " , saying , " It was important for us to come back to where we are from and remember who we are . " Once filming in Tennessee was settled , Cyrus was " overcome with a very positive emotion of coming back home " and wrote " Back to Tennessee " with the aid of songwriters Tamara Dunn and Matthew Wilder .

Cyrus recorded " Back to Tennessee " for the film Hannah Montana : The Movie , in which his character performs the song at a fundraiser to save the meadows near his hometown from development . Cyrus says the song is " part of the cornerstone " of the film because it reflects the film 's theme of escaping the fast @-@ paced , glitzy world of Hollywood in search of a simpler country lifestyle . Cyrus commented ,

" It 's about remembering , you know , where you come from . It 's always important to be aware of where you 're at and always be looking to where you wanna go , but most importantly don 't forget where you come from . That 's ' Back to Tennessee ' is all about [ ... ] With me , I always try to keep it real with the music , you know . Line by line you listen to the song and you know that I 'm walking the walk and talking the talk . It 's what this song 's all about . It definitely comes from the heart . "

= = Composition = =

" Back to Tennessee " is one of the more rock music influenced tracks on Back to Tennessee . It is set in common time with a country rock tempo of 120 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of C major . The song has the following chord progression , C — C7 — C.

Cyrus said of the lyrics , " If you download " Back to Tennessee " and listen to the whole song , you 'll hear exactly how I felt after four years of Hannah Montana , and living in Los Angeles and giving up my previous life and existence and who I am and where I come from . You 'll hear a guy who 's immersed in music , and my love and desire and need to go back home . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times interpreted the song as an apology " both to [ Cyrus 's ] teenage self and , by extension , to the daughter under his wing . " Both Caramanica and Alison Stewart of The Washington Post took interest in the lines , " Great big town / So full of users " . Caramanica said the line recognized that " fame is illusory " and " talk [ ed ] about some of his daughter ’ s famous friends " , while Stewart interpreted the line as a description of Hollywood life in general .

= = Critical reception = =

The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Shelly Fabian of About.com said , " There 's a special quality to this single that might be able to help people get past ' that one song ' from Billy Ray Cyrus 's past and realize there 's so much more to the man than something from two decades ago . " While reviewing the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack , Heather Phares of Allmusic said the song " fits in smoothly with an acoustic version of Rascal Flatts ' witty ' Backwards ' " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said , " His hard @-@ won insight is the next best thing to a good swaddle . " Allison Stewart of The Washington Post described " Back to Tennessee " as a " fusillade of strident twang rock track " . She added that the song was " eager " and that it explained " Country as Country Can Be " . Yahoo ! Music thought the song was followed Back to Tennessee 's message " too literally " . The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards , but failed to achieve a nomination .

= = Chart performance = =

In the United States , " Back to Tennessee " failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 , the country 's main singles chart , but charted on the country @-@ genre chart . In the week ending March 7 , 2009 , " Back to Tennessee " debuted at number fifty @-@ nine on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs . " The Climb " , by Cyrus ' daughter , Miley Cyrus , debuted at number forty @-@ eight the same week , the first time a father and daughter had separate charting songs on the chart since Johnny Cash and Rosanne Cash charted in 1990 with " Silver Stallion " and " One Step over the Line " , respectively . On the week ending April 25 , 2009 , the song reached its peak at number forty @-@ seven on the chart .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Back to Tennessee " was directed by Declan Whitebloom and premiered on March 12 , 2009 on CMT . It was partially shot in Malibu , California , where Cyrus wrote the song . Like the song , the video represents Cyrus ' desire to return home . Cyrus explained ,

" When I see the video for ' Back to Tennessee , ' there 's a lot of emotion there . It 's a combination between the Hannah Montana movie and going back to the actual spot where I wrote the song . I wrote the song in Malibu , and we went back to Malibu to film the video . I had never done a video exactly where I wrote the song . Then we take my little blue truck from the movie and travel back across the country . Again , it becomes a very articulate picture of what that song 's about . It 's everything a video is supposed to be . "

Cyrus 's " little blue truck " is the blue 1990 Ford Ranger that he drove in the film , which was transported to California to be used in the video . The video prominently features clips of Hannah Montana : The Movie , particularly the scene in which Cyrus performs " Back to Tennessee " . Cyrus 's backup band in that performance includes part of Taylor Swift 's band , Bucky Covington , and Marcel . About the video as a whole , Cyrus said , " I hope when people , you know , watch the video . I hope that they can feel what this song is about . I hope they can relate to that in their life and their world . "

The video commences with the Hannah Montana : The Movie performance , in which Cyrus and his backup band perform atop a stage in a crowded barn . The video then switches to its principal setting , which features Cyrus on a beach at sunset . Cyrus is seen in a black T @-@ shirt tossing rocks at the ocean and looking at a picture of a blond woman . The woman is portrayed by Melora Hardin , who plays Lorelai , Robby Ray 's love interest in Hannah Montana : The Movie . As the video progresses , Cyrus is also seen with the blue Ford Ranger , either driving it or leaning against it while playing an acoustic guitar . The video also includes clips of Lorelai , Robby Ray , Miley Stewart , and Miley Stewart 's love interest , Travis Body . The video ends with Cyrus , looking down , walking next to the seashore .

= = Live performances = =

Cyrus performed " Back to Tennessee " as part of the AOL Sessions on April 13 , 2009 . He also performed the song and several others in a London Apple Store on April 24 , 2009 . The set , along with some songs by Miley , were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as an extended play titled iTunes Live from London . On August 1 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at the 2009 Hannity Freedom Concert , a concert supporting the Freedom Alliance Scholarship Fund .

= M @-@ 108 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 108 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The highway followed Nicolet Street , although some maps also labeled it as the Mackinaw Highway . The road was on the boundary between Emmet and Cheboygan counties .

The original M @-@ 108 designation dated back to 1928 . This version was transferred to local control in 1957 , but revived later under a different routing in 1960 . On April 29 , 2010 , the Petoskey News @-@ Review reported that the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) will rebuild the roadway in preparation to transfer it back to local control once again . MDOT and local officials signed memoranda of understanding , completing the transfer of the roadway on December 9 , 2010 .

= = Route description = =

The 1 @.@ 069 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 720 km ) long route connected two interchanges off Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) on the south side of Mackinaw City with a tourist welcome center . The southern terminus was at a partial interchange with I @-@ 75 ( exit 337 ) just south of Mackinaw City on the boundary between Emmet and Cheboygan counties . This interchange is about two miles ( 3 km ) north of the northern terminus of US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) . M @-@ 108 followed Nicolet Street north from I @-@ 75 into the Village of Mackinaw City past the Thunder Falls Water Park and some local motels to an intersection with US 23 . North of the US 23 intersection is the Michigan Welcome Center and other tourist amenities on the west side of the street . State maintenance ends at the intersection with the off @-@ ramp from northbound I @-@ 75 exit 338 .

= = History = =

In 1928 , the first M @-@ 108 designation was commissioned along a rare three @-@ legged route connecting the State Highway Ferry Docks with the Fort Michilimackinac State Historic Park and US 31 . At one point while traveling westbound on M @-@ 108 , motorists could turn right onto northbound M @-@ 108 or left onto southbound M @-@ 108 . In preparation for the opening of the Mackinac Bridge , the Michigan State Highway Department transferred all of M @-@ 108 to local control in late 1957 , decommissioning the designation at the same time . In 1960 , the current M @-@ 108 was commissioned along the current routing .

On April 29 , 2010 , MDOT announced plans to transfer M @-@ 108 in its entirety to the Village of Mackinaw City and Emmet County . In preparation for this transfer , MDOT repaved , widened and reconstructed the roadway . While rebuilding the section of the highway between US 23 and the northern terminus , the Welcome Center was closed . Plans had this section to be completed , and the center to bed reopened , for Memorial Day weekend , with the remainder of construction to be completed in August . Following the transfer to local control , M @-@ 108 ceased to be a state highway and the designation was decommissioned . Previous news reports stated that the roadway was too small to merit highway status under federal guidelines . The transfer was completed on December 9 , 2010 when MDOT and local officials signed memoranda of understanding to affect the transfer . The section within the Village of Mackinaw City was transferred to the village , and the remainder to Emmet County .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway was on the Emmet – Cheboygan county line .

= Blackwyche =

Blackwyche is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game for the Commodore 64 in 1985 . The game is the third instalment of the Pendragon series and is a sequel to Entombed . In the game , aristocrat adventurer Sir Arthur Pendragon is trapped on board a haunted galleon and must free the soul of its captain . The game is presented in a 3D isometric format .

The Pendragon series was created and designed by brothers Dave and Bob Thomas , with Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper otherwise being uninvolved in development . The game 's setting and graphics were heavily inspired by HMS Victory and the surrounding city of Portsmouth . The game was met with mixed reviews upon release . Critics were divided over the game 's graphics and re @-@ usage of sprites , but criticised the game for its vast similarities to its predecessors . It was followed by a final instalment to the series , Dragon Skulle , which was released later in 1985 .

= = Gameplay = =

The game is presented in a isometric format and is set on board a haunted galleon named the Blackwyche . Sir Arthur Pendragon 's main objective is to free the soul of its former captain , Richard Cavendish . Pendragon can utilise various weapons such as knives , daggers and a magic sword to defend himself from enemy skeletons . The player begins the game with full energy and it will slightly deplete every time the player is hit by an enemy . If Pendragon completely runs out of energy , a large skeletal hand will drag the player off @-@ screen , thus killing him .

Various segments of maps are scattered around the galleon , which will form a complete view of the game 's overworld once all the segments are picked up . Other scattered items in the game include keys for locked doors , gunpowder to fire cannons and pieces of jewellery , the latter having no additional use other than adding to the player 's score .

= = Development = =

Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company was known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " ; one team would work on graphics while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming .

The Pendragon series was created by brothers Dave and Robert ( Bob ) Thomas , rather than Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper . Dave Thomas began his career in 1983 when he started producing multiple games for the Atari 400 , including moderate @-@ sellers such as Warlok , which later won him GB £ 5 @,@ 000 in a competition from Calisto Software . Although he began working for the company in producing video games , he later quit due to the strain of his daily , 68 mi ( 109 km ) commute . Shortly after quitting Calisto Software , Dave Thomas started work on The Staff of Karnath , the first instalment of what would become the Pendragon series . Bob Thomas was a trained technical illustrator for the Ministry of Defence and had experience with designing interiors for the Royal Navy . According to Dave Thomas , the setting of Blackwyche was heavily inspired by the HMS Victory and the surrounding naval city of Portsmouth . The name of " Sir Arthur Pendragon " was copied from the character of the Black Prince Pendragon from Jack the Giant Killer .

The graphics of the game were designed by Bob Thomas , whereas the code was written by Dave Thomas . The Thomas brothers decided to show their progress of the game to Tim and Chris Stamper for evaluation , despite feeling embarrassed due to their workspace being inside their parents ' attic . Impressed by the game , the Stamper brothers commissioned an entire series to be released for the Commodore 64 . Dave Thomas recalled that every game they produced was met with little interference from Ultimate ; once a game was complete , it would be sent to quality assessment and subsequently published for release .

= = Reception = =

The game received mixed reviews upon release . A reviewer of CVG thought the graphics were identical to its predecessor , Entombed , and criticised the low detail of the player @-@ character , Sir Arthur Pendragon . Eugene Lacey of Commodore User praised the graphics , stating that they were smoother and slightly more detailed , despite acknowledging that they appeared similar to its predecessor . Stuart Cooke of Your Commodore thought the graphics were too " repetitive " and stated that he had trouble determining which section of the game he was on due to the similarities of all the colours . Reviewers of Zzap ! 64 criticised the graphics , stating the sprites to be " awful " , and animation as " crummy " with little or no range of colouring . The sprite of Sir Arthur Pendragon was frequently criticised by reviewers of Zzap ! 64 , with one reviewer expressing frustration on why Ultimate continued to re @-@ use the same sprites in their games . Another reviewer condemned the 3D animation , stating that it appeared out of proportion and " frustrating " . Tony Hetherington of Computer Gamer similarly criticised the graphics , owing to the " duplicated landscapes " and identical usage of colours , concluding that it was a disappointing game .

Lacey heralded the gameplay to be " purely addicting " and considered Blackwyche to the best of the series . Harding opinionated the game to be " miles better " than its predecessor , whereas Cooke thought the gameplay was repetitive , owing to its number of locations . Reviewers of Zzap ! 64 criticised the overall gameplay , stating that the puzzles were poor , unchallenging and often gave them the sense of " deja @-@ vu " with its similarities to its predecessors . One reviewer of the same magazine considered the game to be a poor attempt at an arcade @-@ adventure game , stating that the ideas were poorly implemented . Hetherington concluded that Blackwyche was a disappointment for an Ultimate game , considering their previous hit titles such as Atic Atac and Knight Lore .

= Hoyt Wilhelm =

James Hoyt Wilhelm ( July 26 , 1922 – August 23 , 2002 ) , nicknamed " Old Sarge " , was an American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher with the New York Giants , St. Louis Cardinals , Cleveland Indians , Baltimore Orioles , Chicago White Sox , California Angels , Atlanta Braves , Chicago Cubs , and Los Angeles Dodgers between 1952 and 1972 . He is a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame .

After growing up in North Carolina and fighting in World War II , Wilhelm spent several years in the minor leagues before starting his MLB career . He was best known for his knuckleball , which enabled him to have great longevity . He appeared occasionally as a starting pitcher , but he pitched mainly as a specialist relief man , a role in which he won 124 games , still the record for relief pitchers . He was the first pitcher to reach 200 saves and the first to appear in 1 @,@ 000 games .

Wilhelm , who did not enter the major leagues until his late twenties , pitched until he was nearly 50 years old . Wilhelm retired with one of the lowest career earned run averages in baseball history . After retiring as a player in the early 1970s , he held coaching roles with the New York Yankees and Atlanta Braves for many years . He was a longtime resident of Sarasota , Florida , where he died in a nursing home of heart failure in 2002 .

= = Early life = =

Wilhelm was one of eleven children born to poor tenant farmers John and Ethel ( née Stanley ) Wilhelm in Huntersville , North Carolina . He played baseball at Cornelius High School in Cornelius , North Carolina . There , he began experimenting with a knuckleball after reading about pitcher Dutch Leonard . He felt that , because he could not throw fast , honing a knuckleball offered him his best shot at success . He used a tennis ball to practice .

Wilhelm made his professional debut with the Mooresville Moors of the Class @-@ D North Carolina State League in 1942 . He served in the United States Army in the European Theater during World War II . Wilhelm participated in the Battle of the Bulge , where he was wounded , earning the Purple Heart for his actions . He played his entire career with a piece of shrapnel lodged in his back as a result of this injury . He rose to the rank of staff sergeant . Wilhem was nicknamed " Old Sarge " because of his service in the military .

He returned to the Moors in 1946 , following his military service . Over the 1946 and 1947 seasons , Wilhelm earned 41 wins with Mooresville . He later recalled being dropped from a Class D minor league team and having the manager tell him to forget about the knuckleball , but he persisted with it . The Boston Braves purchased Wilhelm from Mooresville in 1947 . On November 20 , 1947 , Wilhelm was drafted by the New York Giants from the Braves in the 1947 minor league draft .

Wilhelm 's first assignment in the Giants organization was in Class B with the 1948 Knoxville Smokies , for whom he registered 13 wins and 9 losses . He spent a few games that season with the Class A Jacksonville Tars of the South Atlantic League . Wilhelm returned to Jacksonville in 1949 , earning a 17 – 12 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 66 earned run average ( ERA ) . With the Class AAA Minneapolis Millers in 1950 , Wilhelm was the starting pitcher in 25 of his 35 games pitched , registering a 15 – 11 record with a 4 @.@ 95 ERA . His ERA came down to 3 @.@ 94 in 1951 with Minneapolis , but his record finished at 11 – 14 . Wilhelm had been used in a similar role that season , mostly starting games but also making eleven relief appearances .

= = Major league career = =

= = = Early years = = =

Though Wilhelm was primarily a starting pitcher in the minor leagues , he had been called up to a Giants team whose strong starting pitchers had led them to a National League ( NL ) pennant the year before . Giants manager Leo Durocher did not think that Wilhelm 's knuckleball approach would be effective for more than a few innings at a time . He assigned Wilhelm to the team 's bullpen .

Wilhelm made his MLB debut with the Giants on April 18 , 1952 at age 29 , giving up a hit and two walks while only recording one out . On April 23 , 1952 , in his second game with the New York Giants , Wilhelm batted for the first time in the majors . Facing rookie Dick Hoover of the Boston Braves , Wilhelm hit a home run over the short right @-@ field fence at the Polo Grounds . Although he went to bat a total of 432 times in his career , he never hit another home run .

Pitching exclusively in relief , Wilhelm led the NL with a 2 @.@ 43 ERA in his rookie year . He won 15 games and lost three . Wilhelm finished in the top ten in Most Valuable Player Award voting that season , becoming the first relief pitcher to finish that high . He finished second in the Rookie of the Year Award voting . Wilhelm made 69 relief appearances in 1953 , his win @-@ loss record decreased to 7 – 8 and he issued 77 walks against 71 strikeouts . Wilhelm was named to the NL All @-@ Star team that year , but he did not play in the game because team manager Charlie Dressen did not think that any of the catchers could handle his knuckleball . The Giants renewed Wilhelm 's contract in February 1954 .

In 1954 , Wilhelm was a key piece of the pitching staff that led the 1954 Giants to a world championship . He pitched 111 innings , finishing with a 12 – 4 record and a 2 @.@ 10 ERA . During one of Wilhelm 's appearances that season , catcher Ray Katt committed four passed balls in one inning to set the major league record ; the record has subsequently been tied twice . When Stan Musial set a record by hitting five home runs in a doubleheader that year , Wilhelm was pitching in the second game and gave up two of the home runs . The 1954 World Series represented Wilhelm 's only career postseason play . He pitched 2 1 ⁄ 3 innings over two games , earning a save in the third game . The team won the World Series in a four @-@ game sweep .

Wilhelm 's ERA increased to 3 @.@ 93 over 59 games and 103 innings pitched in 1955 , but he managed a 4 – 1 record . He finished the 1956 season with a 4 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 83 ERA in 89 1 ⁄ 3 innings . Sportswriter Bob Driscoll later attributed Wilhelm 's difficulties in the mid @-@ 1950s to the decline in the career of Giants catcher Wes Westrum , writing that baseball was " a game of inches , and for Hoyt , Wes had been that inch in the right direction . "

= = = Middle career = = =

On February 26 , 1957 , Wilhelm was traded by the Giants to the St. Louis Cardinals for Whitey Lockman . At the time of the trade , St. Louis manager Fred Hutchinson described Wilhelm as the type of pitcher who " makes us a definite pennant threat ... He 'll help us where we need help the most . " In 40 games with the Cardinals that season , he earned 11 saves but finished with a 1 – 4 record and his highest ERA to that point in his career ( 4 @.@ 25 ) . The Cardinals placed him on waivers in September and he was claimed by the Cleveland Indians , who used him in two games that year .

In 1958 , Cleveland manager Bobby Bragan used Wilhelm occasionally as a starter . Although he had a 2 @.@ 49 ERA , none of the Indians ' catchers could handle Wilhelm 's knuckleball . General manager Frank Lane , alarmed at the large number of passed balls , allowed the Baltimore Orioles to select Wilhelm off waivers on August 23 , 1958 . In Baltimore , Wilhelm lived near the home of third baseman Brooks Robinson and their families became close friends . On September 20 of that year , Wilhelm no @-@ hit the eventual World Champion New York Yankees 1 @-@ 0 at Memorial Stadium , in only his ninth career start . He allowed two baserunners on walks and struck out eight . The no @-@ hitter had been threatened at one point in the ninth inning when Hank Bauer bunted along the baseline , but Robinson allowed the ball to roll and it veered foul . The no @-@ hitter was the first in the franchise 's Baltimore history ; the Orioles had moved from St. Louis after the 1953 season .

Orioles catchers had difficulty catching the Wilhelm knuckleball again in 1959 and they set an MLB record with 49 passed balls . During one April game , catcher Gus Triandos had four passed balls while catching for Wilhelm and he described the game as " the roughest day I ever put in during my life . " Author Bill James has written that Wilhelm and Triandos " established the principle that a knuckleball pitcher and a big , slow catcher make an awful combination . " Triandos once said , " Heaven is a place where no one throws a knuckleball . "

Despite the passed balls , Wilhelm won the American League ERA title with a 2 @.@ 19 ERA . During the 1960 season , Orioles manager Paul Richards devised a larger mitt so his catchers could handle the knuckleball . Richards was well equipped with starting pitchers during that year . By the middle of the season , he said that eight of his pitchers could serve as starters . Wilhelm started 11 of the 41 games in which he appeared . He earned an 11 – 8 record , a 3 @.@ 31 ERA and seven saves . He only started one game the following year , but he was an All @-@ Star , registered 18 saves and had a 2 @.@ 30 ERA .

In 1962 , Wilhelm had his fourth All @-@ Star season , finishing with a 7 – 10 record , a 1 @.@ 94 ERA and 15 saves . On January 14 , 1963 , Wilhelm was traded by the Orioles with Ron Hansen , Dave Nicholson and Pete Ward to the Chicago White Sox for Luis Aparicio and Al Smith . Early in that season , White Sox manager Al López said that Wilhelm had improved his pitching staff by 40 percent . He said that Wilhelm was " worth more than a 20 @-@ game winner , and he works with so little effort that he probably can last as long as Satchel Paige . " He registered 21 saves and a 2 @.@ 64 ERA .

In 1964 , Wilhelm finished with career highs in both saves ( 27 ) and games pitched ( 73 ) . His ERA decreased to 1 @.@ 99 that season ; it remained less than 2 @.@ 00 through the 1968 season . In 1965 , Wilhelm contributed to another passed balls record when Chicago catcher J. C. Martin allowed 33 of them in one season . That total set a modern single @-@ season baseball record for the category . Wilhelm 's career @-@ low ERA ( 1 @.@ 31 ) came in 1967 , when he earned an 8 – 3 record for the White Sox with 12 saves .

In the 1968 season , Wilhelm was getting close to breaking the all @-@ time games pitched record belonging to Cy Young ( 906 games ) . Chicago manager Eddie Stanky began to think about using Wilhelm as a starting pitcher for game number 907 . However , the White Sox fired Stanky before the record came up . Wilhelm later broke the record as a relief pitcher . He also set MLB records for consecutive errorless games by a pitcher , career victories in relief , games finished and innings pitched in relief . Despite Wilhelm 's success , the White Sox , who had won at least 83 games per season in the 1960s , performed poorly . They finished 1968 with a 67 – 95 record .

Wilhelm was noted during this period for his mentoring of relief pitcher Wilbur Wood , who came to the 1967 White Sox in a trade . Wood sometimes threw a knuckleball upon his arrival in Chicago , but Wilhelm encouraged him to throw it full @-@ time . By 1968 , Wood won 13 games , saved 16 games and earned a 1 @.@ 87 ERA . He credited Wilhelm with helping him to master the knuckleball , as the White Sox coaches did not know much about how to throw it . Between 1968 and 1970 , Wood pitched in more games ( 241 ) than any other pitcher and more innings ( 400 1 ⁄ 3 ) than any other relief pitcher .

After the 1968 season , MLB expanded and an expansion draft was conducted in which the new teams could select certain players from the established teams . The White Sox left Wilhelm unprotected , possibly because they did not believe that teams would have interest in a much older pitcher . On October 15 , 1968 , Wilhelm was chosen in the expansion draft by the Kansas City Royals as the 49th pick . That offseason , he was traded by the Royals to the California Angels for Ed Kirkpatrick and Dennis Paepke .

= = = Later career = = =

In 44 games pitched for the 1969 California Angels , Wilhelm had a 2 @.@ 47 ERA , ten saves and a 5 – 7 record . On September 8 , 1969 , Wilhelm was traded by the Angels with Bob Priddy to the Atlanta Braves for Clint Compton and Mickey Rivers . He finished the 1969 season by pitching eight games for the Braves , earning four saves and recording a 0 @.@ 73 ERA over 12 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Wilhelm spent most of the 1970 season with the Braves , pitching in 50 games for the team and earning ten saves .

On September 21 , 1970 , Wilhelm was selected off waivers by the Chicago Cubs , for whom he appeared in three games . He was traded back by the Cubs to the Braves for Hal Breeden after the season . As the Cubs acquired Wilhelm late in the season to bolster their playoff contention , which was a source of controversy , Commissioner Bowie Kuhn investigated the transaction . In December , Kuhn ruled that he did not find evidence of impropriety associated with the transactions that sent Wilhelm to the Cubs and quickly back to the Braves .

Wilhelm was released by the Braves on June 29 , 1971 , having pitched in three games for that year 's Braves . He signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 10 , 1971 . He appeared in nine MLB games for the Dodgers , giving up two earned runs in 17 2 ⁄ 3 innings . He also pitched in eight games that season for the team 's Class AAA minor league affiliate , the Spokane Indians . He started six of those games and registered a 3 @.@ 89 ERA . He pitched in 16 games for the Dodgers in 1972 , registering a 4 @.@ 62 ERA over 25 innings . The Dodgers released him on July 21 , 1972 . He never appeared in another game .

At the time of his retirement , Wilhelm had pitched in a then @-@ MLB record 1 @,@ 070 games . He is recognized as the first pitcher to have saved 200 games in his career , and the first pitcher to appear in 1 @,@ 000 games . He is also one of the oldest players to have pitched in the major leagues ; his final appearance was 16 days short of his 50th birthday . Wilhelm retired with the lowest career earned run average of any major league hurler after 1927 ( Walter Johnson ) who pitched more than 2 @,@ 000 innings .

= = Later life = =

After his retirement as a player , Wilhelm managed two minor league teams in the Atlanta Braves system for single seasons . He led the 1973 Greenwood Braves of the Western Carolinas League to a 61 – 66 record , then had a 33 – 33 record with the 1975 Kingsport Braves of the Appalachian League . He also worked as a minor league pitching coach for the New York Yankees for 22 years . As a coach , Wilhelm said that he did not teach pitchers the knuckleball , believing that people had to be born with a knack for throwing it . He sometimes worked individually with major league players who wanted to improve their knuckleballs , including Joe Niekro . The Yankees gave Wilhelm permission to work with Mickey Lolich in 1979 even though Lolich pitched for the San Diego Padres .

Wilhelm was on the ballot for the Baseball Hall of Fame for eight years before he was elected . After Wilhelm failed to garner enough votes for induction in 1983 , sportswriter Jim Murray criticized the voters , saying that while Wilhelm never had the look of a baseball player , he was " the best player in history at what he does . " He fell short by 13 votes in 1984 . Wilhelm was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985 . At his induction ceremony , he said that he had achieved all three of his initial major league goals : appearing in a World Series , being named to an All @-@ Star team , and throwing a no @-@ hitter .

He and his wife Peggy lived in Sarasota , Florida . They raised three children together : Patti , Pam , and Jim . Wilhelm died of heart failure in a Sarasota nursing home in 2002 .

= = Legacy = =

Wilhelm was known as a " relief ace " and his teams used him in a new way that became a trend . Rather than bringing in a relief pitcher only when the starting pitcher had begun to struggle , teams increasingly called upon their relief pitchers toward the end of any close game . Wilhelm was the first relief pitcher elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame .

He is also remembered as one of the most successful and " probably the most famous ' old ' player in history . " Although , due largely to his military service , he did not debut in the major leagues until he was already 29 years old , Wilhelm nonetheless managed to appear in 21 major league seasons . He earned the nickname " Old Folks " while he still had more than a decade left in his playing career . He was the oldest player in Major League Baseball for each of his final seven seasons .

Former teammate Moose Skowron commented on Wilhelm 's key pitch , saying , " Hoyt was a good guy , and he threw the best knuckleball I ever saw . You never knew what Hoyt 's pitch would do . I don 't think he did either . " Baseball executive Roland Hemond agreed , saying , " Wilhelm 's knuckleball did more than anyone else 's ... There was so much action on it . " Before Wilhelm , the knuckleball was primarily mixed in to older pitchers ' repertoires at the end of their careers to offset their slowing fastballs and reduce stress on their arms , thereby extending their careers . Wilhelm broke with tradition when he began throwing the pitch as a teenager and on nearly every pitch . The New York Times linked his knuckleball with that of modern pitcher R.A. Dickey , as Wilhelm taught pitcher Charlie Hough the knuckleball in 1971 and Hough taught it to Dickey while coaching with the Texas Rangers .

= Politics of Croatia =

The politics of Croatia are defined by a parliamentary , representative democratic republic framework , where the Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government in a multi @-@ party system . Executive power is exercised by the Government and the President of Croatia . Legislative power is vested in the Croatian Parliament ( Croatian : Sabor ) . The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature . The parliament adopted the current Constitution of Croatia on 22 December 1990 and decided to declare independence from Yugoslavia . The declaration of independence came into effect on 8 October 1991 . The constitution has since been amended several times . The first modern parties in the country developed in the middle of the 19th century , and their agenda and appeal changed , reflecting major social changes , such as the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary , the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , dictatorship and social upheavals in the kingdom , World War II , the establishment of Communist rule and the breakup of the SFR Yugoslavia .

The President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik / ica Republike ) is the head of state and the commander in chief of the Croatian armed forces and is directly elected to serve a five @-@ year term . The government ( Croatian : Vlada ) , the main executive power of Croatia , is headed by the prime minister , who has four deputy prime ministers , three of whom also serve as government ministers . Seventeen ministers are in charge of particular activities . The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget , executing the laws , and guiding the foreign and internal policies . The parliament is a unicameral legislative body . The number of Sabor representatives ranges from 100 to 160 ; they are elected by popular vote to serve four @-@ year terms . The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws ; adoption of the government budget , declarations of war and peace , defining national boundaries , calling referenda and elections , appointments and relief of officers , supervising the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor , and granting of amnesties . The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular presidential and parliamentary elections , and the election of county prefects and assemblies , and city and municipal mayors and councils .

Croatia has a three @-@ tiered , independent judicial system governed by the Constitution of Croatia and national legislation enacted by the Sabor . The Supreme Court ( Croatian : Vrhovni sud ) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia . There are other specialised courts in Croatia — commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court , misdemeanour courts , the Superior Misdemeanour ( criminal ) Court , the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court ( Croatian : Ustavni sud ) . The State Attorney 's Office represents the state in legal proceedings .

= = Legal framework = =

Croatia is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic . Following the collapse of the ruling Communist League , Croatia adopted a new constitution in 1990 – which replaced the 1974 constitution adopted by the Socialist Republic of Croatia – and organised its first multi @-@ party elections . While the 1990 constitution remains in force , it has been amended four times since its adoption — in 1997 , 2000 , 2001 and 2010 . Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991 , which led to the breakup of Yugoslavia . Croatia 's status as a country was internationally recognised by the United Nations in 1992 . Under its 1990 constitution , Croatia operated a semi @-@ presidential system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system . Government powers in Croatia are divided into legislative , executive and judiciary powers . The legal system of Croatia is civil law and , along with the institutional framework , is strongly influenced by the legal heritage of Austria @-@ Hungary . By the time EU accession negotiations were completed on 30 June 2010 , Croatian legislation was fully harmonised with the Community acquis .

= = Executive = =

The President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik / ica Republike ) is the head of state ; he or she is directly elected and serves a five @-@ year term . The president is the commander in chief of the armed forces , has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor ( Parliament ) through a simple majority vote , and has some influence on foreign policy . The most recent presidential election was held on 10 January 2010 and was won by Ivo Josipović . He took the oath of office on 18 February 2010 . The constitution limits holders of the presidential office to a maximum of two terms and prevents the president from being a member of any political party . Consequently , the president @-@ elect withdraws from party membership before inauguration . President Josipović did so on 15 February 2010 .

The government ( Croatian : Vlada ) , the main executive power of Croatia , is headed by the prime minister who has four deputies , three of whom also serve as government ministers. there are seventeen other ministers who are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor ; these are in charge of particular sectors of activity . As of 23 December 2011 , the Deputy Prime Ministers are Radimir Čačić , Neven Mimica , Branko Grčić , and Milanka Opačić . Government ministers are from the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , and the Croatian People 's Party - Liberal Democrats ( HNS ) and Istrian Democratic Assembly ( IDS ) . The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget , executing the laws , and guiding the country 's foreign and domestic policies . The government 's official residence is at Banski dvori . As of 23 December 2011 , the prime minister is Zoran Milanović .

= = Legislature = =

The Parliament of Croatia ( Croatian : Sabor ) is a unicameral legislative body . A second chamber , the Chamber of Counties ( Croatian : Županijski dom ) , was set up in 1993 pursuant to the 1990 Constitution . The Chamber of Counties was originally composed of three deputies from each of the twenty counties and the city of Zagreb . However , as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives , it was abolished in 2001 and its powers were transferred to the county governments . The number of Sabor representatives can vary from 100 to 160 ; they are all elected by popular vote and serve four @-@ year terms . 140 members are elected in multi @-@ seat constituencies , up to six members are chosen by proportional representation to represent Croatians living abroad and five members represent ethnic and national communities or minorities . The two largest political parties in Croatia are the SDP and the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) . The last parliamentary election was held on 4 December 2011 in Croatia and on 3 and 4 December 2011 abroad .

The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods ; the first from 15 January to 30 June , and the second from 15 September to 15 December . Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic , by the president of the parliament or by the government . The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution , enactment of laws , adoption of the state budget , declarations of war and peace , alteration of the country 's boundaries , calling and conducting referenda and elections , appointments and relief of office , supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor , and granting amnesty . Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present , except in cases of constitutional issues .

= = Elections = =

The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular elections for the office of the President of the Republic , parliamentary , county prefects , county assemblies , city and municipal mayors and city and municipal councils . The President of the Republic is elected to a five @-@ year term by a direct vote of all citizens of Croatia . A majority vote is required to win . A runoff election round is held in cases where no candidate secures the majority in the first round of voting . The presidential elections are regulated by the constitution and dedicated legislation ; the latter defines technical details , appeals and similar issues .

140 members of parliament are elected to a four @-@ year term in ten multi @-@ seat constituencies , which are defined on the basis of the existing county borders , with amendments to achieve a uniform number of eligible voters in each constituency to within 5 % . Citizens of Croatia living abroad are counted in an eleventh constituency ; however , its number of seats was not fixed for the last parliamentary election . It was instead calculated based on numbers of votes cast in the ten constituencies in Croatia and the votes cast in the eleventh constituency . In the 2007 parliamentary election the eleventh constituency elected five MPs . Constitutional changes first applied in the 2011 parliamentary election have abolished this scheme and permanently assigned three MPs to the eleventh constituency . Additionally , eight members of parliament are elected by voters belonging to twenty @-@ two recognised minorities in Croatia : the Serb minority elects three MPs , Hungarians and Italians elect one MP each , Czech and Slovak minorities elect one MP jointly , while all other minorities elect two more MPs to the parliament . The Standard D 'Hondt formula is applied to the vote , with a 5 % election threshold . The last parliamentary election , held in 2011 , elected 151 MPs .

The county prefects and city and municipal mayors are elected to four @-@ year terms by majority of votes cast within applicable local government units . A runoff election is held if no candidate achieves a majority in the first round of voting . Members of county , city , and municipal councils are elected to four @-@ year terms through proportional representation ; the entire local government unit forms a single constituency . The number of council members is defined by the councils themselves based on applicable legislation . Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national minorities are represented in the council as required by the constitution . If the minorities are not represented , further members , who belong to the minorities and who have not been elected through the proportional representation system , are selected from electoral candidate lists and added to the council .

= = = Latest presidential election = = =

= = = Latest parliamentary election = = =

= = Judiciary = =

Croatia has a three @-@ tiered , independent judicial system governed by the constitution and national legislation enacted by the Sabor . The Supreme Court ( Croatian : Vrhovni sud ) is the highest court of appeal in Croatia ; its hearings are open and judgments are made publicly , except in cases where the privacy of the accused is to be protected . Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent until seventy years of age . The president of the Supreme Court is elected for a four @-@ year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic . As of 2011 , the president of the Supreme Court is Branko Hrvatin . The Supreme Court has civil and criminal departments . The lower two levels of the three @-@ tiered judiciary consist of county courts and municipal courts . There are fifteen county courts and sixty @-@ seven municipal courts in the country .

There are other specialised courts in Croatia ; commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court , misdemeanour courts that try trivial offences such as traffic violations , the Superior Misdemeanour Court , the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court ( Croatian : Ustavni sud ) . The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding compliance of legislation with the constitution , repeals unconstitutional legislation , reports any breaches of provisions of the constitution to the government and the parliament , declares the speaker of the parliament acting president upon petition from the government in the event the country 's president becomes incapacitated , issues consent for commencement of criminal procedures against or arrest of the president , and hears appeals against decisions of the National Judicial Council . The court consists of thirteen judges elected by members of the parliament for an eight @-@ year term . The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court judges for a four @-@ year term . As of June 2012 , the president of the Constitutional Court is Jasna Omejec . The National Judicial Council ( Croatian : Državno Sudbeno Vijeće ) consists of eleven members , specifically seven judges , two university professors of law and two parliament members , nominated and elected by the Parliament for four @-@ year terms , and may serve no more than two terms . It appoints all judges and court presidents , except in case of the Supreme Court . As of January 2015 , the president of the National Judicial Council is Ranko Marijan , who is also a Supreme Court judge .

The State Attorney 's Office represents the state in legal procedures . As of August 2012 , Mladen Bajić is the General State Attorney , and there are twenty @-@ three deputies in the central office and lower @-@ ranking State Attorneys at fifteen county and thirty @-@ three municipal State Attorney 's Offices . The General State Attorney is appointed by the parliament . A special State Attorney 's Office dedicated to combatting corruption and organised crime , USKOK , was set up in late 2001 .

= = Local government = =

Croatia was first subdivided into counties ( Croatian : županija ) in the Middle Ages . The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and the subsequent recapture of the same territory , and changes to the political status of Dalmatia , Dubrovnik and Istria . The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s , when the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively . After 1945 under Communist rule , Croatia , as a constituent part of Yugoslavia , abolished these earlier divisions and introduced municipalities , subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities . Counties , significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre @-@ 1920s subdivisions , were reintroduced in 1992 legislation . In 1918 , the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar , Gospić , Ogulin , Požega , Vukovar , Varaždin , Osijek and Zagreb ; the 1992 legislation established fifteen counties in the same territory . Since the counties were re @-@ established in 1992 , Croatia is divided into twenty counties and the capital city of Zagreb , the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time . In some instances , the boundaries of the counties have been changed , with the latest revision taking place in 2006 . The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities .

The county prefects , city and municipal mayors are elected to four @-@ year terms by a majority of votes cast within applicable local government units . If no candidate achieves a majority in the first round , a runoff election is held . Members of county , city and municipal councils are elected to four @-@ year terms , through proportional representation with the entire local government unit as a single constituency .

The number of members of the councils is defined by the councils themselves , based on applicable legislation . Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national ethnic minorities are represented on the council as required by the constitution . Further members who belong to the minorities may be added to the council in no candidate of that minority has been elected through the proportional representation system . Election silence , as in all other types of elections in Croatia , when campaigning is forbidden , is enforced the day before the election and continues until 19 : 00 hours on the election day when the polling stations close and exit polls may be announced . Six nationwide local elections have been held in Croatia since 1990 , the most recent being the 2009 local elections to elect county prefects and councils , and city and municipal councils and mayors . In 2009 , the HDZ @-@ led coalitions won a majority or plurality in fifteen county councils and thirteen county prefect elections . SDP @-@ led coalitions won a majority or plurality in five county councils , including the city of Zagreb council , and the remaining county council election was won by IDS @-@ SDP coalition . The SDP won four county prefect elections and the city of Zagreb mayoral election , the HSS won three county prefect elections , and the HNS and the HDSSB won a single county prefect election each .

= = History = =

= = = Within Austria @-@ Hungary = = =

Events of 1848 in Europe and the Austrian Empire brought dramatic changes to Croatian society and politics , provoking the Croatian national revival that strongly influenced and significantly shaped political and social events in Croatia . At the time , the Sabor and Ban Josip Jelačić advocated the severance of ties with the Kingdom of Hungary , emphasising links to other South Slavic lands within the empire . Several prominent Croatian political figures emerged , such as Ante Starčević , Eugen Kvaternik , Franjo Rački and Josip Juraj Strossmayer . A period of neo @-@ absolutism was followed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement , which granted limited independence to Croatia . This was compounded by Croatian claims of uninterrupted statehood since the early Middle Ages as a basis for a modern state . Two political parties that evolved in the 1860s and contributed significantly to the sentiment were the Party of Rights , led by Starčević and Kvaternik , and the People 's Party , led by Janko Drašković , Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski , Josip Juraj Strossmayer and Ivan Mažuranić . They were opposed by the National Constitutional Party , which was in power for most of the period between the 1860s and the 1918 , and advocated closer ties between Croatia and Hungary .

Other significant parties formed in the era were the Serb People 's Independent Party , which later formed the Croat @-@ Serb Coalition with the Party of Rights and other Croat and Serb parties . The Coalition ruled Croatia between 1903 and 1918 . The leaders of the Coalition were Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević . The Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) , established in 1904 and led by Stjepan Radić , advocated Croatian autonomy but achieved only moderate gains by 1918 . In Dalmatia , the two major parties were the People 's Party – a branch of the People 's Party active in Croatia @-@ Slavonia – and the Autonomist Party , advocating maintaining autonomy of Dalmatia , opposite to the People 's Party demands for unification of Croatia @-@ Slavonia and Dalmatia . The Autonomist Party , most notably led by Antonio Bajamonti , was also linked to Italian irredentism . By 1900 , the Party of Rights had made considerable gains in Dalmatia . The Autonomists won the first three elections , but all elections since 1870 were won by the People 's Party . In the period 1861 – 1918 there were seventeen elections in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia and ten in the Kingdom of Dalmatia .

= = = First and Second Yugoslavia = = =

After the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , the HSS established itself as the most popular Croatian political party and was very popular despite efforts to ban it . The 1921 constitution defined the kingdom as a unitary state and abolished the historical administrative divisions , which effectively ended Croatian autonomy ; the constitution was opposed by HSS . The political situation deteriorated further as Stjepan Radić of the HSS was assassinated in the Yugoslav Parliament in 1928 , leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929 . The HSS , now led by Vladko Maček , continued to advocate the federalisation of Yugoslavia , resulting in the Cvetković – Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia . The Yugoslav government retained control of defence , internal security , foreign affairs , trade , and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown @-@ appointed Ban . This arrangement was soon made obsolete with the beginning of World War II , when the Independent State of Croatia , which banned all political opposition , was established . Since then , the HSS continues to operate abroad .

In the 1945 election , the Communists were unopposed because the other parties abstained . Once in power , the Communists introduced a single @-@ party political system , in which the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was the ruling party and the Communist Party of Croatia was its branch . In 1971 , the Croatian national movement , which sought greater civil rights and the decentralisation of the Yugoslav economy , culminated in the Croatian Spring , which was suppressed by the Yugoslav leadership . In January 1990 , the Communist Party fragmented along national lines ; the Croatian faction demanded a looser federation .

= = = Modern Croatia = = =

In 1989 , the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia decided to tolerate political parties in response to growing demands to allow political activities outside the Communist party . The first political party founded in Croatia since the beginning of the Communist rule was the Croatian Social Liberal Party ( HSLS ) , established on 20 May 1989 , followed by the Croatian Democratic Union on 17 June 1989 . In December 1989 , Ivica Račan became the head of the reformed Communist party . At the same time , the party cancelled political trials , released political prisoners and endorsed a multi @-@ party political system . The Civil Organisations Act was formally amended to allow political parties on 11 January 1990 , legalising the parties that were already founded .

By the time of the first round of the first multi @-@ party elections , held on 22 April 1990 , there were 33 registered parties . The most relevant parties and coalitions were the League of Communists of Croatia – Party of Democratic Changes ( the renamed Communist party ) , the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , and the Coalition of People 's Accord ( KNS ) , which included the HSLS led by Dražen Budiša , and the HSS , which resumed operating in Croatia in December 1989 . The runoff election was held on 6 May 1990 . The HDZ , led by Franjo Tuđman , won ahead of the reformed Communists and the KNS . The KNS , led by Savka Dabčević @-@ Kučar and Miko Tripalo – who had led the Croatian Spring – soon splintered into individual parties . The HDZ maintained a parliamentary majority until the 2000 parliamentary election , when it was defeated by the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , led by Račan . Franjo Gregurić , of the HDZ , was appointed prime minister to head a national unity government in July 1991 as the Croatian War of Independence escalated in intensity . His appointment lasted until August 1992 . During his term , Croatia 's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia took effect on 8 October 1991 . The HDZ returned to power in the 2003 parliamentary election , while the SDP remained the largest opposition party .

Franjo Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 and 1997 . During his terms , the Constitution of Croatia , adopted in 1990 , provided for a semi @-@ presidential system . After Tuđman 's death in 1999 , the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government . Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms in 2000 and 2005 on a Croatian People 's Party ( HNS ) ticket . Ivo Josipović , an SDP candidate , won the presidential elections in December 2009 and January 2010 . Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović defeated Josipović in the January 2015 election run @-@ off , becoming the first female president of Croatia .

= Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal =

Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal ( born Wesley Cook April 24 , 1954 ) is a convicted murderer who was sentenced to death in 1982 for the 1981 murder of Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner . His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment without parole .

Abu @-@ Jamal became involved in black nationalism in his youth and was a member of the Black Panther Party until October 1970 , after which he became a radio journalist , eventually becoming president of the Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists . On December 9 , 1981 , Faulkner was fatally shot while conducting a routine traffic stop of Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother , William Cook . Abu @-@ Jamal was found at the scene with a bullet wound from Faulkner 's gun and his own discharged revolver beside him . He was arrested and charged with Faulkner 's murder .

Prosecution witnesses identified Abu @-@ Jamal as the shooter and two testified that he had confessed to shooting Faulkner . A jury convicted Abu @-@ Jamal on all counts and sentenced him to death . He spent the next 30 years on death row . After a succession of all possible appeals by Abu @-@ Jamal were exhausted , his conviction was upheld but his death sentence vacated . He was resentenced to life in prison without parole . District Attorney Seth Williams later stated that no further appeals would be filed in pursuit of the death penalty .

Activists , celebrities , and liberal groups have criticized the fairness of Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial , professed his innocence , and opposed his death sentence . The Faulkner family , public authorities , police organizations , and conservative groups have maintained that Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial was fair , his guilt undeniable , and his death sentence appropriate . Once described as " perhaps the world 's best known death @-@ row inmate " by The New York Times , during his imprisonment Abu @-@ Jamal has published books and commentaries on social and political issues , including Live from Death Row ( 1995 ) .

= = Early life and activism = =

Abu @-@ Jamal was given the name Mumia in 1968 by his high school teacher , a Kenyan instructing a class on African cultures in which students took African classroom names . According to Abu @-@ Jamal , ' Mumia ' means " Prince " and was the name of Kenyan anti @-@ colonial African nationalists who fought against the British before Kenyan independence . He adopted the surname Abu @-@ Jamal ( " father of Jamal " in Arabic ) after the birth of his son Jamal on July 18 , 1971 . His first marriage at age 19 , to Jamal 's mother , Biba , was short @-@ lived . Their daughter , Lateefa , was born shortly after the wedding . Abu @-@ Jamal married his second wife , Marilyn ( known as " Peachie " ) , in 1977 . Their son , Mazi , was born in early 1978 . By 1981 , Abu @-@ Jamal was living with his third and current wife , Wadiya .

= = = Involvement with the Black Panthers = = =

In his own writings , Abu @-@ Jamal describes his adolescent experience of being " kicked ... into the Black Panther Party " after suffering a beating from " white racists " and a policeman for his efforts to disrupt a George Wallace for President rally in 1968 . From the age of 14 , he helped form the Philadelphia branch of the Black Panther Party with Defense Captain Reggie Schell , and other Panthers , taking appointment , in his own words , as the chapter 's " Lieutenant of Information " , exercising a responsibility for writing information and news communications . In one of the interviews he gave at the time he quoted Mao Zedong , saying that " political power grows out of the barrel of a gun " . That same year , he dropped out of Benjamin Franklin High School and took up residence in the branch 's headquarters . He spent late 1969 in New York City and early 1970 in Oakland , living and working with BPP colleagues in those cities . He was a party member from May 1969 until October 1970 and was subject to Federal Bureau of Investigation COINTELPRO surveillance , with which the Philadelphia police cooperated , from then until about 1974 .

= = = Education and journalism career = = =

After returning to his old high school after his departure from the Panthers , Abu @-@ Jamal was suspended for distributing literature calling for " black revolutionary student power " . He also led unsuccessful protests to change the school name to Malcolm X High . After attaining his GED , he studied briefly at Goddard College in rural Vermont .

By 1975 he was pursuing a vocation in radio newscasting , first at Temple University 's WRTI and then at commercial enterprises . In 1975 , he was employed at radio station WHAT and he became host of a weekly feature program of WCAU @-@ FM in 1978 . He was also employed for brief periods at radio station WPEN , and became active in the local chapter of the Marijuana Users Association of America . From 1979 he worked at National Public Radio @-@ affiliate ( NPR ) WUHY until 1981 when he was asked to submit his resignation after a dispute about the requirements of objective focus in his presentation of news . As a radio journalist he earned the moniker " the voice of the voiceless " and was renowned for identifying with and giving exposure to the MOVE anarcho @-@ primitivist commune in Philadelphia 's Powelton Village neighborhood , including reportage of the 1979 – 80 trial of certain of its members ( the " MOVE Nine " ) convicted of the murder of police officer James Ramp . During his broadcasting career , his high @-@ profile interviews included Julius Erving , Bob Marley and Alex Haley , and he was elected president of the Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists .

At the time of Daniel Faulkner 's murder , Abu @-@ Jamal was working as a taxicab driver in Philadelphia two nights a week to supplement his income . He had been working part @-@ time as a reporter for WDAS , then an African @-@ American @-@ oriented and minority @-@ owned radio station .

= = Arrest for murder and trial = =

At 3 : 55 am on December 9 , 1981 , in Philadelphia , close to the intersection at 13th and Locust Streets , Philadelphia Police Department officer Daniel Faulkner conducted a traffic stop on a vehicle belonging to William Cook , Abu @-@ Jamal 's younger brother . During the traffic stop , Abu @-@ Jamal 's taxi was parked across the street . He ran across the street towards Cook 's car , where Faulkner was shot from behind and then in the face . Abu @-@ Jamal was shot by Faulkner in the stomach . Faulkner died at the scene from the gunshot to his head . Police arrived and arrested Abu @-@ Jamal , who was found wearing a shoulder holster . His revolver , which had five spent cartridges , was beside him . Abu @-@ Jamal was taken directly from the scene of the shooting to Thomas Jefferson University Hospital , where he received treatment for his wound .

Abu @-@ Jamal was charged with the first @-@ degree murder of Officer Faulkner . The case went to trial in June 1982 in Philadelphia . Judge Albert F. Sabo initially agreed to Abu @-@ Jamal 's request to represent himself , with criminal defense attorney Anthony Jackson acting as his legal advisor . During the first day of the trial , Sabo warned Abu @-@ Jamal that he would forfeit his legal right to self @-@ representation if he kept being intentionally disruptive in a fashion that was unbecoming under the law . Due to Abu @-@ Jamal 's continued disruptive behavior , Sabo ruled that Abu @-@ Jamal forfeited his right to self @-@ representation .

= = = Prosecution case at trial = = =

The prosecution presented four witnesses to the court . Robert Chobert , a cab driver who testified he was parked behind Faulkner , identified Abu @-@ Jamal as the shooter . Cynthia White , a prostitute , testified that Abu @-@ Jamal emerged from a nearby parking lot and shot Faulkner . Michael Scanlan , a motorist , testified that from two car lengths away , he saw a man , matching Abu @-@ Jamal 's description , run across the street from a parking lot and shoot Faulkner . Albert Magilton , a pedestrian who did not see the actual murder , testified to witnessing Faulkner pull over Cook 's car . At the point of seeing Abu @-@ Jamal start to cross the street toward them from the parking lot , Magilton turned away and lost sight of what happened next .

The prosecution also presented two witnesses who were at the hospital after the shootings . Hospital security guard Priscilla Durham and police officer Garry Bell testified that Abu @-@ Jamal confessed in the hospital by saying , " I shot the motherfucker , and I hope the motherfucker dies . "

A .38 caliber Charter Arms revolver , belonging to Abu @-@ Jamal , with five spent cartridges was retrieved beside him at the scene . He was wearing a shoulder holster , and Anthony Paul , the Supervisor of the Philadelphia Police Department 's firearms identification unit , testified at trial that the cartridge cases and rifling characteristics of the weapon were consistent with bullet fragments taken from Faulkner 's body . Tests to confirm that Abu @-@ Jamal had handled and fired the weapon were not performed , as contact with arresting police and other surfaces at the scene could have compromised the forensic value of such tests .

= = = Defense case at trial = = =

The defense maintained that Abu @-@ Jamal was innocent and that the prosecution witnesses were unreliable . The defense presented nine character witnesses , including poet Sonia Sanchez , who testified that Abu @-@ Jamal was " viewed by the black community as a creative , articulate , peaceful , genial man " . Another defense witness , Dessie Hightower , testified that he saw a man running along the street shortly after the shooting although he did not see the actual shooting itself . His testimony contributed to the development of a " running man theory " , based on the possibility that a " running man " may have been the actual shooter . Veronica Jones also testified for the defense , but she did not see anyone running . Other potential defense witnesses refused to appear in court . Abu @-@ Jamal did not testify in his own defense . Nor did his brother , William Cook , who told investigators at the crime scene : " I ain 't got nothing to do with this . "

= = = Verdict and sentence = = =

The jury delivered a unanimous guilty verdict after three hours of deliberations .

In the sentencing phase of the trial , Abu @-@ Jamal read to the jury from a prepared statement . He was then cross @-@ examined about issues relevant to the assessment of his character by Joseph McGill , the prosecuting attorney .

In his statement Abu @-@ Jamal criticized his attorney as a " legal trained lawyer " who was imposed on him against his will and who " knew he was inadequate to the task and chose to follow the directions of this black @-@ robed conspirator , Albert Sabo , even if it meant ignoring my directions " . He claimed that his rights had been " deceitfully stolen " from him by Sabo , particularly focusing on the denial of his request to receive defense assistance from non @-@ attorney John Africa and being prevented from proceeding pro se . He quoted remarks of John Africa , and said :

Does it matter whether a white man is charged with killing a black man or a black man is charged with killing a white man ? As for justice when the prosecutor represents the Commonwealth the Judge represents the Commonwealth and the court @-@ appointed lawyer is paid and supported by the Commonwealth , who follows the wishes of the defendant , the man charged with the crime ? If the court @-@ appointed lawyer ignores , or goes against the wishes of the man he is charged with representing , whose wishes does he follow ? Who does he truly represent or work for ? ... I am innocent of these charges that I have been charged of and convicted of and despite the connivance of Sabo , McGill and Jackson to deny me my so @-@ called rights to represent myself , to assistance of my choice , to personally select a jury who is totally of my peers , to cross @-@ examine witnesses , and to make both opening and closing arguments , I am still innocent of these charges .

Abu @-@ Jamal was subsequently sentenced to death by the unanimous decision of the jury .

= = Appeals and review = =

= = = State appeals = = =

Direct appeal of his conviction was considered and denied by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania on March 6 , 1989 , subsequently denying rehearing . The Supreme Court of the United States denied his petition for writ of certiorari on October 1 , 1990 , and denied his petition for rehearing twice up to June 10 , 1991 .

On June 1 , 1995 , his death warrant was signed by Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge . Its execution was suspended while Abu @-@ Jamal pursued state post @-@ conviction review . At the post @-@ conviction review hearings , new witnesses were called . William " Dales " Singletary testified that he saw the shooting and that the gunman was the passenger in Cook 's car . Singletary 's account contained discrepancies which rendered it " not credible " in the opinion of the court . William Harmon , a convicted fraudster , testified that Faulkner 's murderer fled in a car which pulled up at the crime scene , and could not have been Abu @-@ Jamal . However , Robert Harkins testified that he had witnessed a man stand over Faulkner as the latter lay wounded on the ground , who shot him point @-@ blank in the face and then " walked and sat down on the curb " .

The six judges of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania ruled unanimously that all issues raised by Abu @-@ Jamal , including the claim of ineffective assistance of counsel , were without merit . The Supreme Court of the United States denied a petition for certiorari against that decision on October 4 , 1999 , enabling Ridge to sign a second death warrant on October 13 , 1999 . Its execution in turn was stayed as Abu @-@ Jamal commenced his pursuit of federal habeas corpus review .

In 1999 , Arnold Beverly claimed that he and an unnamed assailant , not Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal , shot Daniel Faulkner as part of a contract killing because Faulkner was interfering with graft and payoff to corrupt police . The Beverly affidavit became an item of division for Mumia 's defense team , as some thought it usable and others rejected Beverly 's story as " not credible " .

Private investigator George Newman claimed in 2001 that Chobert had recanted his testimony . Commentators also noted that police and news photographs of the crime scene did not show Chobert 's taxi , and that Cynthia White , the only witness at the trial to testify to seeing the taxi , had previously provided crime scene descriptions that omitted it . Cynthia White was declared to be dead by the state of New Jersey in 1992 although Pamela Jenkins claimed that she saw White alive as late as 1997 . Mumia supporters often claim that White was a police informant and that she falsified her testimony against Abu @-@ Jamal . Priscilla Durham 's step @-@ brother , Kenneth Pate , who was imprisoned with Abu @-@ Jamal on other charges , has since claimed that Durham admitted to not hearing the hospital confession . The hospital doctors stated that Abu @-@ Jamal was " on the verge of fainting " when brought in and they did not overhear a confession . In 2008 , the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania rejected a further request from Abu @-@ Jamal for a hearing into claims that the trial witnesses perjured themselves on the grounds that he had waited too long before filing the appeal .

On March 26 , 2012 the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania rejected his most recent appeal for retrial asserted on the basis that a 2009 report by the National Academy of Science demonstrated that forensic evidence put by the prosecution and accepted into evidence in the original trial was unreliable . It was reported to be the former death row inmate 's last legal appeal .

= = = Federal ruling directing resentencing = = =

Abu @-@ Jamal did not make any public statements about Faulkner 's murder until May 2001 . In his version of events , he claimed that he was sitting in his cab across the street when he heard shouting , then saw a police vehicle , then heard the sound of gunshots . Upon seeing his brother appearing disoriented across the street , Abu @-@ Jamal ran to him from the parking lot and was shot by a police officer . The driver originally stopped by police officer Faulkner , Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother William Cook , did not testify or make any statement until April 29 , 2001 , when he claimed that he had not seen who had shot Faulkner .

Judge William H. Yohn Jr. of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania upheld the conviction but vacated the sentence of death on December 18 , 2001 , citing irregularities in the original process of sentencing . Particularly ,

... the jury instructions and verdict sheet in this case involved an unreasonable application of federal law . The charge and verdict form created a reasonable likelihood that the jury believed it was precluded from considering any mitigating circumstance that had not been found unanimously to exist .

He ordered the State of Pennsylvania to commence new sentencing proceedings within 180 days and ruled that it was unconstitutional to require that a jury 's finding of circumstances mitigating against determining a sentence of death be unanimous . Eliot Grossman and Marlene Kamish , attorneys for Abu @-@ Jamal , criticized the ruling on the grounds that it denied the possibility of a trial de novo at which they could introduce evidence that their client had been framed . Prosecutors also criticized the ruling ; Officer Faulkner 's widow Maureen described Abu @-@ Jamal as a " remorseless , hate @-@ filled killer " who would " be permitted to enjoy the pleasures that come from simply being alive " on the basis of the judgment . Both parties appealed .

= = = Federal appeal = = =

On December 6 , 2005 , the Third Circuit Court admitted four issues for appeal of the ruling of the District Court :

in relation to sentencing , whether the jury verdict form had been flawed and the judge 's instructions to the jury had been confusing ;

in relation to conviction and sentencing , whether racial bias in jury selection existed to an extent tending to produce an inherently biased jury and therefore an unfair trial ( the Batson claim ) ;

in relation to conviction , whether the prosecutor improperly attempted to reduce jurors ' sense of responsibility by telling them that a guilty verdict would be subsequently vetted and subject to appeal ; and

in relation to post @-@ conviction review hearings in 1995 – 6 , whether the presiding judge , who had also presided at the trial , demonstrated unacceptable bias in his conduct .

The Third Circuit Court heard oral arguments in the appeals on May 17 , 2007 , at the United States Courthouse in Philadelphia . The appeal panel consisted of Chief Judge Anthony Joseph Scirica , Judge Thomas Ambro , and Judge Robert Cowen . The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania sought to reinstate the sentence of death , on the basis that Yohn 's ruling was flawed , as he should have deferred to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court which had already ruled on the issue of sentencing , and the Batson claim was invalid because Abu @-@ Jamal made no complaints during the original jury selection . Although Abu @-@ Jamal 's jury was racially mixed with 2 blacks and 10 whites at the time of his unanimous conviction , his counsel told the Third Circuit Court that Abu @-@ Jamal did not get a fair trial because the jury was racially biased , misinformed , the judge was a racist , and noted that the prosecution used eleven out of fourteen peremptory challenges to eliminate prospective black jurors . Terri Maurer @-@ Carter , a former Philadelphia court stenographer claimed in a 2001 affidavit nearly 20 years after the trial that she overheard Judge Sabo say " Yeah , and I 'm going to help them fry the nigger " in the course of a conversation with three people present regarding Abu @-@ Jamal 's case . Sabo denied having made any such comment .

On March 27 , 2008 , the three @-@ judge panel issued a majority 2 – 1 opinion upholding Yohn 's 2001 opinion but rejecting the bias and Batson claims , with Judge Ambro dissenting on the Batson issue . On July 22 , 2008 , Abu @-@ Jamal 's formal petition seeking reconsideration of the decision by the full Third Circuit panel of 12 judges was denied . On April 6 , 2009 , the United States Supreme Court also refused to hear Abu @-@ Jamal 's appeal , allowing his conviction to stand . On January 19 , 2010 , the Supreme Court ordered the appeals court to reconsider its decision to rescind the death penalty , with the same three @-@ judge panel convening in Philadelphia on November 9 , 2010 , to hear oral argument . On April 26 , 2011 , the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reaffirmed its prior decision to vacate the death sentence on the grounds that the jury instructions and verdict form were ambiguous and confusing . The Supreme Court declined to hear the case in October .

= = = Death penalty dropped = = =

On December 7 , 2011 , District Attorney of Philadelphia R. Seth Williams announced that prosecutors , with the support of the victim 's family , would no longer seek the death penalty for Abu @-@ Jamal . Faulkner had indicated she did not wish to relive the trauma of another trial , and that it would be extremely difficult to present the case against Abu @-@ Jamal again , after the passage of 30 years and the deaths of several key witnesses . Williams , the prosecutor , said that Abu @-@ Jamal will spend the rest of his life in prison without the possibility of parole , a sentence that was reaffirmed by the Superior Court of Pennsylvania on July 9 , 2013 . After the press conference , Maureen Faulkner made an emotional statement harshly condemning Abu @-@ Jamal :

I would like to say that I believe the lowest dimension of hell has been reserved for child molesters and unrepentant murderers , like Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal . After thirty years of waiting , the time remaining before Abu @-@ Jamal stands before his ultimate judge . It doesn 't seem so far off as it once did when I was younger . I look forward to that day so I can finally close the chapter of my life and live with the gratification and assurance that Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal will finally receive the punishment he deserves , for all eternity .

= = Life as a prisoner = =

In 1991 Abu @-@ Jamal published an essay in the Yale Law Journal , on the death penalty and his death row experience . In May 1994 , Abu @-@ Jamal was engaged by National Public Radio 's All Things Considered program to deliver a series of monthly three @-@ minute commentaries on crime and punishment . The broadcast plans and commercial arrangement were canceled following condemnations from , among others , the Fraternal Order of Police and US Senator Bob Dole ( Kansas Republican Party ) . Abu @-@ Jamal sued NPR for not airing his work , but a federal judge dismissed the suit . The commentaries later appeared in print in May 1995 as part of Live from Death Row .

In 1999 , he was invited to record a keynote address for the graduating class at The Evergreen State College . The event was protested by some . In 2000 , he recorded a commencement address for Antioch College . The now defunct New College of California School of Law presented him with an honorary degree " for his struggle to resist the death penalty " . On October 5 , 2014 , he gave the commencement speech at Goddard College , via playback of a recording . As before , the choice of Abu @-@ Jamal was controversial .

With occasional interruptions due to prison disciplinary actions , Abu @-@ Jamal has for many years been a regular commentator on an online broadcast , sponsored by Prison Radio , as well as a regular columnist for Junge Welt , a Marxist newspaper in Germany . In 1995 , he was punished with solitary confinement for engaging in entrepreneurship contrary to prison regulations . Subsequent to the airing of the 1996 HBO documentary Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal : A Case For Reasonable Doubt ? , which included footage from visitation interviews conducted with him , the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections acted to ban outsiders from using any recording equipment in state prisons . In litigation before the US Court of Appeals in 1998 he successfully established his right to write for financial gain in prison . The same litigation also established that the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections had illegally opened his mail in an attempt to establish whether he was writing for financial gain . When , for a brief time in August 1999 , he began delivering his radio commentaries live on the Pacifica Network 's Democracy Now ! weekday radio newsmagazine , prison staff severed the connecting wires of his telephone from their mounting in mid @-@ performance . He was later allowed to resume his broadcasts , and hundreds of his broadcasts have been aired on Pacifica Radio .

His publications include Death Blossoms : Reflections from a Prisoner of Conscience , in which he explores religious themes , All Things Censored , a political critique examining issues of crime and punishment , Live From Death Row , a diary of life on Pennsylvania 's death row , and We Want Freedom : A Life in the Black Panther Party , which is a history of the Black Panthers drawing on autobiographical material .

At the end of January 2012 he was released into general prison population at State Correctional Institution – Mahanoy . He went into diabetic shock on March 30 , 2015 and has been diagnosed with active Hepatitis C. In August 2015 his attorneys filed suit in the US District Court for the Middle District of Pennsylvania upon the allegation that he has not received appropriate medical care for his health conditions .

= = Popular support and opposition = =

Labor unions , politicians , advocates , educators , the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund , and human rights advocacy organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have expressed concern about the impartiality of the trial of Abu @-@ Jamal , though Amnesty International neither takes a position on the guilt or innocence of Abu @-@ Jamal nor classifies him as a political prisoner . They are opposed by the family of Daniel Faulkner , the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , the City of Philadelphia , Republican politicians , and the Fraternal Order of Police . In August 1999 , the Fraternal Order of Police called for an economic boycott against all individuals and organizations that support Abu @-@ Jamal .

Abu @-@ Jamal has been made an honorary citizen of about 25 cities around the world , including Montreal , Palermo , and Paris .

In 2001 , he received the sixth biennial Erich Mühsam Prize , named after an anarcho @-@ communist essayist , which recognizes activism in line with that of its namesake . In October 2002 , he was made an honorary member of the German political organization Society of People Persecuted by the Nazi Regime – Federation of Anti @-@ Fascists ( VVN @-@ BdA ) which Germany 's Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution has considered to be influenced by left @-@ wing extremism .

On April 29 , 2006 , a newly paved road in the Parisian suburb of Saint @-@ Denis was named Rue Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal in his honor . In protest of the street @-@ naming , US Congressman Michael Fitzpatrick and Senator Rick Santorum , both members of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania , introduced resolutions in both Houses of Congress condemning the decision . The House of Representatives voted 368 – 31 in favor of Fitzpatrick 's resolution . In December 2006 , the 25th anniversary of the murder , the executive committee of the Republican Party for the 59th Ward of the City of Philadelphia — covering approximately Germantown , Philadelphia — filed two criminal complaints in the French legal system against the city of Paris and the city of Saint @-@ Denis , accusing the municipalities of " glorifying " Abu @-@ Jamal and alleging the offense " apology or denial of crime " in respect of their actions .

In 2007 , the widow of Officer Faulkner coauthored a book with Philadelphia radio journalist Michael Smerconish entitled Murdered by Mumia : A Life Sentence of Pain , Loss , and Injustice . The book was part memoir of Faulkner 's widow , part discussion in which they chronicled Abu @-@ Jamal 's trial and discussed evidence for his conviction , and part discussion on supporting the death penalty . J. Patrick O 'Connor , editor and publisher of crimemagazine.com , argues in his book The Framing of Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal that the preponderance of evidence establishes that it was not Abu @-@ Jamal but a passenger in Abu @-@ Jamal 's brother 's car , Kenneth Freeman , who killed Faulkner , and that the Philadelphia Police Department and District Attorney 's Office framed Abu @-@ Jamal . His book was criticized in the American Thinker as " replete with selective use of testimony , distortions , unsubstantiated charges , and a theory that has failed Abu @-@ Jamal in the past . "

In 2009 , Radio host Rush Limbaugh professed no doubt about Abu @-@ Jamal 's guilt , calling him a " notorious Philadelphia murderer " .

In early 2014 , President Barack Obama nominated Debo P. Adegbile , a former lawyer for the NAACP who worked on Abu @-@ Jamal 's case , to head the civil rights division of the Justice Department , but the nomination was rejected by the U.S. Senate on a bipartisan basis because of Adegbile 's prior public support of Abu @-@ Jamal .

In April 10 , 2015 Marylin Zuniga , a teacher at Forest Street Elementary School in Orange , New Jersey , was suspended without pay after asking her students to write letters to Abu @-@ Jamal , who fell ill in prison due to complications from diabetes , without approval from the school or parents . Some parents and police leaders denounced her actions . On the other hand , community members , parents , teachers , and professors expressed their support and condemned Zuniga 's suspension . Scholars and educators nationwide including Noam Chomsky , Chris Hedges and Cornel West among others signed a letter calling for her immediate reinstatement . On May 13 , 2015 The Orange Preparatory Academy board voted to dismiss Marylin Zuniga after hearing from her and several of her supporters .

= = Written works = =

Writing on the Wall : Selected Prison Writings of Mumia Abu @-@ Jamal City Lights Publishers ( 2015 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0872866751

The Classroom and the Cell : Conversations on Black Life in America Third World Press ( 2011 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0883783375

Jailhouse Lawyers : Prisoners Defending Prisoners V. The U.S.A City Lights Publishers ( 2009 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0872864696

We Want Freedom : A Life In The Black Panther Party South End Press ( 2008 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0896087187

Faith Of Our Fathers : An Examination Of The Spiritual Life Of African And African @-@ American People Africa World Pr ( 2003 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1592210190

All Things Censored Seven Stories Press ( 2000 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1583220221

Death Blossoms : Reflections From A Prisoner Of Conscience Plough Publishing House ( 1997 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0874860863

Live from Death Row Harper Perennial ( 1996 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0380727667

= Brandon Minor =

Brandon Ricardo Minor ( born July 24 , 1988 ) is a former American football running back . He was signed by the Bears as an undrafted free agent in 2010 , but after being released during the final cuts , he has been on the New Orleans Saints and Indianapolis Colts practice squads in 2010 . He played college football at Michigan .

At Michigan , he finished second on the team in rushing as a freshman and a sophomore and led the team in rushing as a junior and a senior . As a junior , he was an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection by the coaches . He had previously been ranked as the number one high school football fullback in the nation , according to Rivals.com.

He spent his first two years at Michigan serving as one of the primary backups to Mike Hart . In his third year , he emerged from a field of five runners who were vying to replace Hart , including two true freshmen , as the leading rusher and scorer . He has shared starting responsibilities in his junior and senior seasons . He entered his senior season on the watch lists for the Doak Walker Award and the Maxwell Award . ESPN.com ranked him as the 22nd best player and third best running back in the Big Ten Conference before the season started .

Following two seasons spent on various inactive NFL rosters , he became a defendant in a drug possession case . He is scheduled to face his charges in court in January 2012 .

= = Youth career = =

Minor grew up as a Michigan Wolverines fan . His mother , Julie Gilliam , has pictures of him at age six wearing a Michigan uniform . At age nine , Minor wrote the university to inquire about becoming a Michigan football player . Every year he and his mother watched the Michigan - Ohio State game and rooted for Michigan .

= = = High school = = =

Minor inherited the Varina High School starting varsity team role as a sophomore in 2003 , and he gained 209 rushing yards in his first start . That season , he helped his team reach the Virginia Central Region , Division 6 championship ( the qualifying game for the Virginia High School League state semifinals ) . He concluded the regular season as an All @-@ District first @-@ team selection and after the playoffs was selected as a second @-@ team all @-@ region choice . During the season he rushed for 1 @,@ 750 yards and 22 touchdowns for the 10 – 2 ( 7 – 0 ) Varina Blue Devils . Minor also played varsity basketball as a sophomore . During the season , he once made seven three @-@ point field goals in a game .

As a junior , when Varina 's former Capital District offensive player of the year Army Spc . Clarence Adams III died serving the 91st Engineer Battalion , 1st Cavalry Division in Baghdad , Iraq , Minor gave up his number 3 to wear Adams ' # 33 as a tribute . In the District championship game , he rushed for 239 yards on 27 carries , including four touchdown runs . In the subsequent Central Region , Division 6 semifinals , he set a Central Region playoff record by rushing for 296 yards , but his undefeated top @-@ ranked team was upset . He concluded the season as both a first @-@ team all @-@ district and all @-@ Metro Region selection after compiling 2 @,@ 091 yards rushing and scoring 32 rushing touchdowns ( plus 2 receiving touchdowns ) . He was also selected to the Group AAA Virginia High School Football Coaches Association all @-@ state second @-@ team by the coaches .

Entering his senior season , he was ranked as the sixth best senior football player in Virginia by TechSideline.com. The Roanoke Times described him as " one of the top five recruits in the state " at the time of his August 2005 visit to see the first day of Virginia Tech Hokies football practice . At the time , he was considering Miami , Michigan , Florida , Virginia Tech , Tennessee , LSU and Ohio State . However , he started the season on crutches , due to a torn hip flexor . He returned to the lineup for the team 's final regular season game and rushed for 174 yards on 28 carries . Davon Morgan , his cousin , who now plays strong safety for Virginia Tech , was the team 's quarterback . Despite missing most of the season , he was still honored as an all @-@ district and all @-@ region selection . His three @-@ year career totals were 4 @,@ 259 yards and 64 touchdowns . As a graduating senior he was the number one ranked high school football fullback in the nation , according to rivals.com. Following his senior season , he scored the only touchdown in the East @-@ West Virginia High School Coaches Association All @-@ star game .

= = College career = =

= = = Lloyd Carr era = = =

In January 2006 , Minor selected the University of Michigan . Although he did not enroll in the 2006 Summer semester , he reported to Michigan on June 16 for strength and conditioning training . Minor and fellow freshman Carlos Brown were behind three returning running backs ( Mike Hart , Kevin Grady and senior Jerome Jackson ) on the depth chart entering the season . Minor was considered the less heralded than Brown , who was regarded as the fastest player on the team . On opening day , only Hart and Grady had more carries than Minor , in part because Jackson , who entered his senior season with 505 career rushing yards , did not dress . In his first carry as a Wolverine , he rushed for 24 yards against the Vanderbilt Commodores during the September 2 season opening game . Nonetheless , the depth chart was not very clear behind Hart . By late September , Minor was clearly third on the depth chart and it seemed that Brown might be redshirted . When Hart left the game due to injury against Michigan State on October 7 , Minor scored his first touchdown on a 40 @-@ yard run . He had his first 100 @-@ yard game on November 4 , when he rushed for 108 yards on 12 carries , including a 40 @-@ yard touchdown run in a 34 – 26 win against Ball State . As true freshman member of the 2006 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor rushed for a total of 238 yards on 42 carries , which was second on the team to Hart .

During April 2007 , Grady tore his anterior cruciate ligament and was lost for the season . In August , Brown broke his hand . It appeared Minor was seriously injured on October 13 when he was carted off the field and left the stadium wearing a protective boot on crutches . However , he recovered and for the next two weeks he and Brown combined to replace the injured Hart . He had his second 100 @-@ yard game and first 150 @-@ yard game on October 27 of that season during the 34 – 10 Little Brown Jug game victory against the Minnesota Golden Gophers when he rushed for 157 yards on 21 carries , including a 46 @-@ yard run and one touchdown . Although Hart returned to play in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on November 3 , he left the game early and Minor started the second half . Hart missed the next game on November 10 , but Brown and Minor had poor performances . In all three of Hart 's full game absences , Brown was the starter . As a sophomore on the 2007 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor improved his rushing totals to 385 yards on 90 carries , which was again second on the team to Hart .

= = = Rich Rodriguez era = = =

In 2008 Rich Rodriguez replaced Lloyd Carr as head coach . In the spring , Brown broke his finger weightlifting and Grady was still trying to get healthy . In early August , it appeared that juniors Brown and Minor would vie for the starting job because fourth @-@ year junior Grady was under suspension related to driving while intoxicated charges . However , in camp it became apparent very quickly that true freshmen Sam McGuffie and Michael Shaw , would have a significant role in the newly installed spread option offense . With both Brown and Minor nursing injuries , McGuffie was tentatively penciled into the starting position on the depth chart .

As a junior member of the 2008 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor became the team leader in rushing . However , he only started four games , while McGuffie started 6 , Brown started 1 and Shaw started 1 . McGuffie was the starter until he lost the job to Minor . Minor gave way to Shaw ( November 8 ) and Brown ( November 15 ) as the starter due to his injuries . Minor totalled 533 yards on 103 carries . He had nine rushing touchdowns and added two as a receiver . Of these eleven touchdowns , seven came in a three @-@ week span that included a 117 @-@ yard two @-@ touchdown rushing effort against Penn State on October 18 and a 155 @-@ yard three @-@ touchdown rushing effort against Purdue on November 1 . Sandwiched between these efforts , Minor scored on a 19 @-@ yard reception to compliment his 55 yards and a rushing touchdown in the Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on October 25 . The Penn State game was Minor 's first career start . During Minor 's junior year , he played with a wrist injury that impaired his ability to hold the football with his right arm and his ability to stiffarm opponents . He was impaired by a variety of injuries throughout the season . At the conclusion of the 2008 Big Ten Conference football season , Minor was chosen as an honorable mention all @-@ conference selection by the coaches .

McGuffie transferred to the Rice Owls after the season . As a senior member of the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team , Minor was named to a pair of watch lists : ( Doak Walker Award and Maxwell Award ) . He was also selected by ESPN as the 22nd best player and 3rd best running back ( behind Evan Royster and John Clay ) in the Big Ten Conference before the season started . Minor missed the first game of the season due to a high ankle sprain . In the second game , which was the 2009 Michigan – Notre Dame rivalry game , he rushed for 106 yards and a touchdown on 16 carries during the 38 – 34 victory over Notre Dame . The ankle sprain hampered him much of the season and caused him to miss the October 17 game against Delaware State . He had a season @-@ high 154 @-@ yard , 3 @-@ touchdown effort against Purdue on November 7 . A shoulder injury kept him out of the last game of the season against Ohio State . Over the course of his collegiate career , he accumulated 20 rushing touchdowns and 1 @,@ 658 yards . The torn rotator cuff also kept him from participating in the January 23 , 2010 East – West Shrine Game .

= = Professional career = =

= = = 2010 = = =

Minor signed as an undrafted free agent with the Chicago Bears on April 24 , 2010 , after going undrafted in the 2010 NFL Draft . He was released on September 1 . He then signed with the New Orleans Saints to their practice squad . However , Minor was back with the Bears before being released at the beginning of October and signed by the Indianapolis Colts . Minor was released by the Colts in October . In November , Minor tried out for the Green Bay Packers before ending the season as a member of the Denver Broncos ' practice squad .

= = = 2011 = = =

On September 4 , 2011 , the Broncos placed Minor on injured reserve . They waived him on October 10 . In November 2011 , he was " charged with possession of marijuana with intent to distribute " by the Virginia Commonwealth University police department following a traffic stop . He is scheduled for a traffic court appearance on January 18 .

= Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood =

" Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 18 , 1993 . In the episode , Bart , intoxicated from an all @-@ syrup squishee , mistakenly joins the Junior Campers , a Boy Scout @-@ style organization that 's not affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America . After finding advantages to being a member , Bart gets taken in by the group and eventually goes rafting on a father @-@ son outing with Homer .

The episode was written by Dan McGrath and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . Ernest Borgnine guest starred in the episode as himself . He recorded his lines at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles . The episode makes cultural references to the films My Dinner with Andre , The Terminator , On the Town , Crocodile Dundee , Deliverance , Friday the 13th , and Boyz n the Hood ( in the title ) as well as the song " Sugar , Sugar " by The Archies . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .

= = Plot = =

After being forced to leave the amusement arcade for being out of money , Bart and Milhouse find $ 20 that Homer lost and order a Super Squishee made entirely out of syrup from Apu at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart . With their senses reeling from the high sugar content of the drink , they spend the rest of the money on a night out in town . The next morning , Bart wakes up with a hangover and realizes that in the revelry of the night before he joined the Junior Campers , a Boy Scout @-@ style organization that is not affiliated with the Boy Scouts of America .

Although Bart initially intends to drop out of the group as soon as possible , he decides to attend a meeting to avoid a pop quiz at school . Bart dislikes the first meeting , but when he finds out that he gets to have a pocket knife , he decides to keep attending . After a while , Bart starts to enjoy being a member of the Junior Campers , which Homer mocks him relentlessly for . Next , a father @-@ son rafting trip is to be held , so Bart has to bring Homer . Homer does not enjoy the experience , especially when he learns that he and Bart have to share a raft with Ned Flanders and his son , Rod . Due to Homer losing the map after making it into a makeshift hat , they accidentally take the wrong turn and find themselves lost at sea . They stay stranded with no food or water for several days , as no rescue is forthcoming ; the Springfield Police Department refuses to search for them because the Coast Guard boat they were using is out of refreshments . After several other failed attempts at being rescued or finding food , the raft springs a leak after Homer accidentally drops a pocket knife he was intending to gift to Bart. All seems lost , but then Homer smells his way to a Krusty Burger on an off @-@ shore oil rig . They are saved , and Bart is proud of his father .

Meanwhile , the other Junior Campers , led by Ernest Borgnine , take the correct route , ironically they end up in an even worse position : after finding themselves trapped in a dark , tangled swamp ( while being hunted by mountain men ) , they are attacked by a bear that Borgnine tries but fails to fight off ( due to Homer stealing his Swiss Army Knife ) , and they finally flee to an abandoned summer camp . At the camp , they start singing songs , but are soon attacked by an unseen figure lurking in the woods , and their fates are left unknown .

= = Production = =

" Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " was written by Dan McGrath and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . The episode was recorded at the Village Recorder in West Los Angeles . Ernest Borgnine guest starred in the episode as himself . The staff liked his work on the films Marty and From Here to Eternity , so they asked him to do a guest appearance on the show . Borgnine felt he could not say no to the offer because his grandchildren were fans of the show . In the final scene of the episode , Borgnine plays a guitar and sings campfire songs with the children . Borgnine was a guitar player in real life , so he brought his own guitar with him to the recording studio . Borgnine apologized because he felt that he was not being able to sing very well , but Nancy Cartwright , who provides the voice of Bart , thought his voice " added to the authenticity of his character " . The Simpsons 's creator Matt Groening thought the recording sessions with Borgnine were " so much fun " . Hank Azaria , who provides the voice of Apu , commented that Borgnine " had no idea what the hell he was doing . He 's a good actor , and he read his lines just fine , but he had no idea what the show was , no idea what we were doing . "

In her book My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy , Cartwright comments that she was a fan of Borgnine 's performance in Marty . She writes that the film had " changed [ her ] forever " , and that it made her " realize that actors have the power through their work to inspire and enlighten others . " She recalls that when Borgnine arrived for the recording session , she " lost all coolness " and ran up to him and exclaimed " ohmygod , Marty ! "

= = Cultural references = =

When Bart and Milhouse visit the local video arcade at the beginning of the episode , Martin Prince is seen playing an arcade game based on the 1981 film My Dinner with Andre . Other games at the arcade include a game based on the 1984 film The Terminator . The " Springfield , Springfield " number performed by Bart and Milhouse on their night out in town is a reference to the musical number " New York , New York " from the film On the Town , starring Gene Kelly and Frank Sinatra . During a scene in which Hans Moleman and Moe fight with knives , Hans tells Moe , " You call that a knife ? This is a knife ! " , a reference to a line from the 1986 film Crocodile Dundee . Ernest Borgnine introduces himself a la Troy McClure to the Junior Campers by recalling his role in From Here to Eternity , a film which modern children are unlikely to have seen . During a hallucination , Homer imagines himself singing the song " Sugar , Sugar " by The Archies while dancing with lollipops and ice cream cones . While on the raft , Homer misquotes lines from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner when he says " Water , water everywhere / Let 's all have a drink . The scene in which Borgnine and the other rafters drift through a dark forest watched by mountain men is a reference to a scene in the 1972 film Deliverance , and the scene features the music from the film 's " Dueling Banjos " scene . The unseen person or creature that attacks Borgnine at the end of the episode is implied to be Jason Voorhees from the Friday the 13th film series .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " Boy @-@ Scoutz ' n the Hood " finished 35th in the ratings for the week of November 15 to November 21 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 0 , translating to 12 @.@ 3 million households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .

Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A terrific episode , with Homer so stupid it isn 't true , yet still saving the day . Seeing Ned Flanders get it wrong is great , but the show @-@ stealer is a toss @-@ up between Borgnine 's great self @-@ deprecating role , the ironic seagull , and the dolphins . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson called it a " brilliant episode from start to finish " . He commented that " We see what an amazing amount of goods and services one can purchase in Springfield with only $ 20 , and we get a fun spoof of scouting . Add to that terrific rivalry moments between Bart and Homer and the show excels . " Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict called the plot of the episode " typically inspired " , and gave it a grade of A. Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 5 out of 5 . TV DVD Reviews 's Kay Daly wrote : " And just when you think the Simpsons ' creators have taken parody as far as it can go , they air an episode like this . The writers cram the 22 @-@ minute episode with allusions to movie genres including disaster movies , Broadway musicals , adventure @-@ suspense and classic teen horror . " Adam Suraf of Dunkirkma.net named it one of his ten favorite episodes of the show . He called the musical sequence a " classic " . Rick Porter of Zap 2 It wrote in that he was not a " fan " of the episode 's second half : " Despite the presence of Borgnine , Homer is a little too aggressively stupid for my taste " . He thought the first part was " absolutely brilliant " , though .

Kurt M. Koenigsberger analyzed a scene from the episode in his piece " Commodity Culture and Its Discontents " , published in the compilation work Leaving Springfield : The Simpsons and the Possibility of Oppositional Culture edited by John Alberti . He commented that The Simpsons ' literary and cultural awareness extends to the " conventions of its own medium " in this episode . Bart criticizes an Itchy & Scratchy episode because Itchy stakes down Scratchy 's appendages and props his belly to form a tent with faulty knots . With Homer looking on from the couch , Lisa reminds Bart that cartoons do not simply reproduce reality , a point hammered on as a second Homer meanders past the living @-@ room window . Koenigsberger said that " this moment and many others like it reveal a strong sense of self @-@ awareness within the show , an awareness especially characteristic of high modernism . "

In the United Kingdom , when the 300th episode was shown , Sky 1 held a Golden D 'ohnuts evening , in which viewers voted for their favourite episodes to win in each category . This episode won the category of : Best School Jinx .

= Last Exit on Brooklyn =

The Last Exit on Brooklyn was a Seattle University District coffeehouse established in 1967 by Irv Cisski . It is known for its part in the history of Seattle 's counterculture , for its pioneering role in establishing Seattle 's coffee culture , and as a former chess venue frequented by several master players .

= = History = =

The Last Exit on Brooklyn opened on June 30 , 1967 at 3930 Brooklyn Avenue NE near the University of Washington campus in a small light @-@ industrial building leased from the University . It was one of the pioneer espresso bars in Seattle , adding an espresso machine shortly after Café Allegro opened the first in 1975 . The Last Exit was known for its original espresso concoction named the Caffè Medici – " a doppio poured over chocolate syrup and orange peel with whipped cream on top " . Described in 1985 as " America 's second oldest , continuously running coffeehouse " , it was also known for its inexpensive food and as a venue for folk music and bohemian conversation .

The Last Exit was also notable as a popular destination for Seattle 's amateur and professional Go and chess players including Peter Biyiasas , Viktors Pupols , and Yasser Seirawan , who wrote of the venue , " Those first chess lessons soon led me to the legendary Last Exit on Brooklyn coffee house , a chess haven where an unlikely bunch of unusual people congregates to do battle . " Interviewed by Sports Illustrated in 1981 , Seirawan described the Last Exit as " Scrabble players , backgammon players , chess and game hustling ... This became my home . This was to become my family . "

When interviewed by Mary Lasher of Chess Life in 1985 , owner Irv Cisski said , " So what if games @-@ people turn away business . They add flavor . Chess and Go are assets to a coffeehouse . " The Last Exit was the subject of a 1987 retrospective in The Seattle Times in which Cisski described his intent to " create a haven where students and the benign crazies " were welcome and where " everyone felt equal and there were no sacred cows " . It was later described by Seattle writer and journalist Knute Berger as

one of Seattle 's great ' 60s landmarks , a gathering place for UW students , radicals , poets , nut jobs , chess masters , teens , intellectuals , workers , musicians , artists , beatniks , and hippies ... I remember the din , the open @-@ mike music , cigarette smoke , impromptu poetry readings , the arguments of lefties , libertarians , crackpots , and cultists . You could hear the rhythm and roar of the counterculture as it lived and breathed .

Cisski died on August 25 , 1992 . In 1993 the University repossessed the building occupied by the coffeehouse , and the Last Exit 's new owners moved it to upper University Way . The Last Exit on Brooklyn closed in 2000 . The space the original Last Exit once occupied now houses staff members from the University of Washington 's Human Resources Department .

= = In popular culture = =

The Last Exit was included in Clark Humphrey 's 2006 book of historical photographs , Vanishing Seattle .

Descriptions of the interior and atmosphere of the Last Exit appear in Kristin Hannah 's 2008 novel , Firefly Lane , in David Guterson 's 2008 novel , The Other , and in Marjorie Kowalski Cole 's 2012 The City Beneath the Snow : Stories .

= Laurence Olivier =

Laurence Kerr Olivier , Baron Olivier , OM ( / ˈlɒrəns kɜːr ɒˈlɪvieɪ / ; 22 May 1907 – 11 July 1989 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century . He also worked in films throughout his career , playing more than fifty cinema roles . Late in his career , he had considerable success in television roles .

His family had no theatrical connections , but Olivier 's father , a clergyman , decided that his son should become an actor . After attending a drama school in London , Olivier learned his craft in a succession of acting jobs during the late 1920s . In 1930 he had his first important West End success in Noël Coward 's Private Lives , and he appeared in his first film . In 1935 he played in a celebrated production of Romeo and Juliet alongside Gielgud and Peggy Ashcroft , and by the end of the decade he was an established star . In the 1940s , together with Richardson and John Burrell , Olivier was the co @-@ director of the Old Vic , building it into a highly respected company . There his most celebrated roles included Shakespeare 's Richard III and Sophocles 's Oedipus . In the 1950s Olivier was an independent actor @-@ manager , but his stage career was in the doldrums until he joined the avant garde English Stage Company in 1957 to play the title role in The Entertainer , a part he later played on film . From 1963 to 1973 he was the founding director of Britain 's National Theatre , running a resident company that fostered many future stars . His own parts there included the title role in Othello ( 1964 ) and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice ( 1970 ) .

Among Olivier 's films are Wuthering Heights ( 1939 ) , Rebecca ( 1940 ) , and a trilogy of Shakespeare films as actor @-@ director : Henry V ( 1944 ) , Hamlet ( 1948 ) , and Richard III ( 1955 ) . His later films included Sleuth ( 1972 ) , Marathon Man ( 1976 ) , and The Boys from Brazil ( 1978 ) . His television appearances included an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence ( 1960 ) , Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1973 ) , Love Among the Ruins ( 1975 ) , Cat on a Hot Tin Roof ( 1976 ) , Brideshead Revisited ( 1981 ) and King Lear ( 1983 ) .

Olivier 's honours included a knighthood ( 1947 ) , a life peerage ( 1970 ) and the Order of Merit ( 1981 ) . For his on @-@ screen work he received four Academy Awards , two British Academy Film Awards , five Emmy Awards and three Golden Globe Awards . The National Theatre 's largest auditorium is named in his honour , and he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards , given annually by the Society of London Theatre . He was married three times , to the actresses Jill Esmond from 1930 to 1940 , Vivien Leigh from 1940 to 1960 , and Joan Plowright from 1961 until his death .

= = Life and career = =

= = = Family background and early life ( 1907 – 24 ) = = =

Olivier was born in Dorking , Surrey , the youngest of the three children of the Revd Gerard Kerr Olivier ( 1869 – 1939 ) and his wife Agnes Louise , née Crookenden ( 1871 – 1920 ) . Their elder children were Sybille ( 1901 – 89 ) and Gerard Dacres " Dickie " ( 1904 – 58 ) . His great @-@ great @-@ grandfather was of French Huguenot descent , and Olivier came from a long line of Protestant clergymen . Gerard Olivier had begun a career as a schoolmaster , but in his thirties he discovered a strong religious vocation and was ordained as a priest of the Church of England . He practised extremely high church , Ritualist Christianity and liked to be addressed as " Father Olivier " . This made him unacceptable to most Anglican congregations , and the only church posts he was offered were temporary , usually deputising for regular incumbents in their absence . This meant a nomadic existence , and for Laurence 's first few years , he never lived in one place long enough to make friends .

In 1912 , when Olivier was five , his father secured a permanent appointment as assistant priest at St Saviour 's , Pimlico . He held the post for six years , and a stable family life was at last possible . Olivier was devoted to his mother , but not to his father , whom he found a cold and remote parent . Nevertheless , he learned a great deal of the art of performing from him . As a young man Gerard Olivier had considered a stage career and was a dramatic and effective preacher . Olivier wrote that his father knew " when to drop the voice , when to bellow about the perils of hellfire , when to slip in a gag , when suddenly to wax sentimental ... The quick changes of mood and manner absorbed me , and I have never forgotten them . "

In 1916 , after attending a series of preparatory schools , Olivier passed the singing examination for admission to the choir school of All Saints , Margaret Street , in central London . His elder brother was already a pupil , and Olivier gradually settled in , though he felt himself to be something of an outsider . The church 's style of worship was ( and remains ) Anglo @-@ Catholic , with emphasis on ritual , vestments and incense . The theatricality of the services appealed to Olivier , and the vicar encouraged the students to develop a taste for secular as well as religious drama . In a school production of Julius Caesar in 1917 , the ten @-@ year @-@ old Olivier 's performance as Brutus impressed an audience that included Lady Tree , the young Sybil Thorndike , and Ellen Terry , who wrote in her diary , " The small boy who played Brutus is already a great actor . " He later won praise in other schoolboy productions , as Maria in Twelfth Night ( 1918 ) and Katherine in The Taming of the Shrew ( 1922 ) .

From All Saints , Olivier went on to St Edward 's School , Oxford , from 1920 to 1924 . He made little mark until his final year , when he played Puck in the school 's production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream ; his performance was a tour de force that won him popularity among his fellow pupils . In January 1924 , his brother left England to work in India as a rubber planter . Olivier missed him greatly and asked his father how soon he could follow . He recalled in his memoirs that his father replied , " Don 't be such a fool , you 're not going to India , you 're going on the stage . "

= = = Early acting career ( 1924 – 29 ) = = =

In 1924 Gerard Olivier , a habitually frugal man , told his son that not only must he gain admission to the Central School of Speech Training and Dramatic Art , but he must also gain a scholarship with a bursary to cover his tuition fees and living expenses . Olivier 's sister had been a student there and was a favourite of Elsie Fogerty , the founder and principal of the school . Olivier later speculated that it was on the strength of this that Fogerty agreed to award him the bursary .

One of Olivier 's contemporaries at the school was Peggy Ashcroft , who observed he was " rather uncouth in that his sleeves were too short and his hair stood on end but he was intensely lively and great fun " . By his own admission , he was not a very conscientious student , but Fogerty liked him and later said that he and Ashcroft stood out among her many pupils . On leaving the school after a year , Olivier gained work with small touring companies before being taken on in 1925 by Sybil Thorndike and her husband , Lewis Casson , as a bit @-@ part player , understudy and assistant stage manager for their London company . He modelled his performing style on that of Gerald du Maurier , of whom he said , " He seemed to mutter on stage but had such perfect technique . When I started I was so busy doing a du Maurier that no one ever heard a word I said . The Shakespearean actors one saw were terrible hams like Frank Benson . " His concern to speak naturally and avoid what he called " singing " Shakespeare 's verse was the cause of much frustration in his early career , with critics regularly decrying his delivery .

In 1926 , on Thorndike 's recommendation , Olivier joined the Birmingham Repertory Company . His biographer Michael Billington describes the Birmingham company as " Olivier 's university " , where in his second year he was given the chance to play a wide range of important roles , including Tony Lumpkin in She Stoops to Conquer , the title role in Uncle Vanya , and Parolles in All 's Well That Ends Well . Billington adds that the engagement led to " a lifelong friendship with his fellow actor Ralph Richardson that was to have a decisive effect on the British theatre . "

While playing the juvenile lead in Bird in Hand at the Royalty Theatre in June 1928 , Olivier began a relationship with Jill Esmond , the daughter of the actors Henry V. Esmond and Eva Moore . Olivier later recounted that he thought " she would most certainly do excellent well for a wife ... I wasn 't likely to do any better at my age and with my undistinguished track @-@ record , so I promptly fell in love with her . "

In 1928 Olivier created the role of Stanhope in R. C. Sherriff 's Journey 's End , in which he scored a great success at its single Sunday night premiere . He was offered the part in the West End production the following year , but turned it down in favour of the more glamorous role of Beau Geste in a stage adaptation of P. C. Wren 's 1929 novel of the same name . Journey 's End became a long @-@ running success ; Beau Geste failed . The Manchester Guardian commented , " Mr. Laurence Olivier did his best as Beau , but he deserves and will get better parts . Mr. Olivier is going to make a big name for himself " . For the rest of 1929 Olivier appeared in seven plays , all of which were short @-@ lived . Billington ascribes this failure rate to poor choices by Olivier rather than mere bad luck .

= = = Rising star ( 1930 – 35 ) = = =

In 1930 , with his impending marriage in mind , Olivier earned some extra money with small roles in two films . In April he travelled to Berlin to film the English @-@ language version of The Temporary Widow , a crime comedy with Lilian Harvey , and in May he spent four nights working on another comedy , Too Many Crooks . During work on the latter film , for which he was paid £ 60 , he met Laurence Evans , who became his personal manager . Olivier did not enjoy working in film , which he dismissed as " this anaemic little medium which could not stand great acting " , but financially it was much more rewarding than his theatre work .

Olivier and Esmond married on 25 July 1930 at All Saints , Margaret Street , although within weeks both realised they had erred . Olivier later recorded that the marriage was " a pretty crass mistake . I insisted on getting married from a pathetic mixture of religious and animal promptings . ... She had admitted to me that she was in love elsewhere and could never love me as completely as I would wish " . Olivier later recounted that following the wedding he did not keep a diary for ten years and never followed religious practices again , although he considered those facts to be " mere coincidence " , unconnected to the nuptials .

In 1930 Noël Coward cast Olivier as Victor Prynne in his new play Private Lives , which opened at the new Phoenix Theatre in London in September . Coward and Gertrude Lawrence played the lead roles , Elyot Chase and Amanda Prynne . Victor is a secondary character , along with Sybil Chase ; the author called them " extra puppets , lightly wooden ninepins , only to be repeatedly knocked down and stood up again " . To make them credible spouses for Amanda and Elyot , Coward was determined that two outstandingly attractive performers should play the parts . Olivier played Victor in the West End and then on Broadway ; Adrianne Allen was Sybil in London , but could not go to New York , where the part was taken by Esmond . In addition to giving the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Olivier his first successful West End role , Coward became something of a mentor . In the late 1960s Olivier told Sheridan Morley :

He gave me a sense of balance , of right and wrong . He would make me read ; I never used to read anything at all . I remember he said , " Right , my boy , Wuthering Heights , Of Human Bondage and The Old Wives ' Tale by Arnold Bennett . That 'll do , those are three of the best . Read them " . I did . ... Noël also did a priceless thing , he taught me not to giggle on the stage . Once already I 'd been fired for doing it , and I was very nearly sacked from the Birmingham Rep. for the same reason . Noël cured me ; by trying to make me laugh outrageously , he taught me how not to give in to it . My great triumph came in New York when one night I managed to break Noël up on the stage without giggling myself . "

In 1931 RKO Pictures offered Olivier a two @-@ film contract at $ 1 @,@ 000 a week ; he discussed the possibility with Coward , who , irked , told Olivier " You 've no artistic integrity , that 's your trouble ; this is how you cheapen yourself . " He accepted and moved to Hollywood , despite some misgivings . His first film was the drama Friends and Lovers , in a supporting role , before RKO loaned him to Fox Studios for his first film lead , a British journalist in a Russia under martial law in The Yellow Passport , alongside Elissa Landi and Lionel Barrymore . The cultural historian Jeffrey Richards describes Olivier 's look as an attempt by Fox Studios to produce a likeness of Ronald Colman , and Colman 's moustache , voice and manner are " perfectly reproduced " . Olivier returned to RKO to complete his contract with the 1932 drama Westward Passage , which was a commercial failure . Olivier 's initial foray into American films had not provided the breakthrough he hoped for ; disillusioned with Hollywood , he returned to London , where he appeared in two British films , Perfect Understanding with Gloria Swanson and No Funny Business — in which Esmond also appeared . He was tempted back to Hollywood in 1933 to appear opposite Greta Garbo in Queen Christina , but was replaced after two weeks of filming because of a lack of chemistry between the two .

Olivier 's stage roles in 1934 included Bothwell in Gordon Daviot 's Queen of Scots , which was only a moderate success for him and for the play , but led to an important engagement for the same management ( Bronson Albery ) shortly afterwards . In the interim he had a great success playing a thinly disguised version of the American actor John Barrymore in Edna Furber 's Theatre Royal . His success was vitiated by his breaking an ankle two months into the run , in one of the athletic , acrobatic stunts with which he liked to enliven his performances .

In 1935 , under Albery 's management , John Gielgud staged Romeo and Juliet at the New Theatre , co @-@ starring with Peggy Ashcroft , Edith Evans and Olivier . Gielgud had seen Olivier in Queen of Scots , spotted his potential , and now gave him a major step up in his career . For the first weeks of the run Gielgud played Mercutio and Olivier played Romeo , after which they exchanged roles . The production broke all box @-@ office records for the play , running for 189 performances . Olivier was enraged at the notices after the first night , which praised the virility of his performance but fiercely criticised his speaking of Shakespeare 's verse , contrasting it with his co @-@ star 's mastery of the poetry . The friendship between the two men was prickly , on Olivier 's side , for the rest of his life .

= = = Old Vic and Vivien Leigh ( 1936 – 38 ) = = =

In May 1936 Olivier and Richardson jointly directed and starred in a new piece by J. B. Priestley , Bees on the Boatdeck . Both actors won excellent notices , but the play , an allegory of Britain 's decay , did not attract the public and closed after four weeks . Later in the same year Olivier accepted an invitation to join the Old Vic company . The theatre , in an unfashionable location south of the Thames , had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912 . Her drama company specialised in the plays of Shakespeare , and many leading actors had taken very large cuts in their pay to develop their Shakespearean techniques there . Gielgud had been in the company from 1929 to 1931 , and Richardson from 1930 to 1932 . Among the actors whom Olivier joined in late 1936 were Edith Evans , Ruth Gordon , Alec Guinness and Michael Redgrave . In January 1937 he took the title role in an uncut version of Hamlet , in which once again his delivery of the verse was unfavourably compared with that of Gielgud , who had played the role on the same stage seven years previously to enormous acclaim . The Observer 's Ivor Brown praised Olivier 's " magnetism and muscularity " but missed " the kind of pathos so richly established by Mr Gielgud " . The reviewer in The Times found the performance " full of vitality " , but at times " too light ... the character slips from Mr Olivier 's grasp " .

After Hamlet , the company presented Twelfth Night in what the director , Tyrone Guthrie , summed up as " a baddish , immature production of mine , with Olivier outrageously amusing as Sir Toby and a very young Alec Guinness outrageous and more amusing as Sir Andrew " . Henry V was the next play , presented in May to mark the Coronation of George VI . A pacifist , as he then was , Olivier was as reluctant to play the warrior king as Guthrie was to direct the piece , but the production was a success , and Baylis had to extend the run from four to eight weeks .

Following Olivier 's success in Shakespearean stage productions , he made his first foray into Shakespeare on film in 1936 , as Orlando in As You Like It , directed by Paul Czinner , " a charming if lightweight production " , according to Michael Brooke of the British Film Institute 's ( BFI 's ) Screenonline . The following year Olivier appeared alongside Vivien Leigh in the historical drama Fire Over England . He had first met Leigh briefly at the Savoy Grill and then again when she visited him during the run of Romeo and Juliet , probably early in 1936 , and the two had begun an affair sometime that year . Of the relationship , Olivier later said that " I couldn 't help myself with Vivien . No man could . I hated myself for cheating on Jill , but then I had cheated before , but this was something different . This wasn 't just out of lust . This was love that I really didn 't ask for but was drawn into . " While his relationship with Leigh continued he conducted an affair with the actress Ann Todd , and possibly had a homosexual fling with the actor Henry Ainley , according to the biographer Michael Munn .

In June 1937 the Old Vic company took up an invitation to perform Hamlet in the courtyard of the castle at Elsinore , where Shakespeare located the play . Olivier secured the casting of Leigh to replace Cherry Cottrell as Ophelia . Because of torrential rain the performance had to be moved from the castle courtyard to the ballroom of a local hotel , but the tradition of playing Hamlet at Elsinore was established , and Olivier was followed by , among others , Gielgud ( 1939 ) , Redgrave ( 1950 ) , Richard Burton ( 1954 ) , Derek Jacobi ( 1979 ) , Kenneth Branagh ( 1988 ) and Jude Law ( 2009 ) . Back in London , the company staged Macbeth , with Olivier in the title role . The stylised production by Michel Saint @-@ Denis was not well liked , but Olivier had some good notices among the bad . On returning from Denmark , Olivier and Leigh told their respective spouses about the affair and that their marriages were over ; Esmond moved out of the marital house and in with her mother . After Olivier and Leigh made a tour of Europe in mid 1937 they returned to separate film projects — A Yank at Oxford for her and The Divorce of Lady X for him — and moved into a property together in Iver , Buckinghamshire .

Olivier returned to the Old Vic for a second season in 1938 . For Othello he played Iago , with Richardson in the title role . Guthrie wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago 's villainy is driven by suppressed homosexual love for Othello . Olivier was willing to co @-@ operate , but Richardson was not ; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier 's Iago , and Richardson 's Othello seemed underpowered . After that comparative failure , the company had a success with Coriolanus starring Olivier in the title role . The notices were laudatory , mentioning him alongside great predecessors such as Edmund Kean , William Macready and Henry Irving . The actor Robert Speaight described it as " Olivier 's first incontestably great performance " . This was Olivier 's last appearance on a London stage for six years .

= = = Hollywood and the Second World War ( 1939 – 43 ) = = =

In 1938 Olivier joined Richardson to film the spy thriller Q Planes , released the following year . Frank Nugent , the critic for The New York Times , thought Olivier was " not quite so good " as Richardson , but was " quite acceptable " . In late 1938 , lured by a salary of $ 50 @,@ 000 , the actor travelled to Hollywood to take the part of Heathcliff in the 1939 film Wuthering Heights , alongside Merle Oberon and David Niven . In less than a month Leigh had joined him , explaining that her trip was " partially because Larry 's there and partially because I intend to get the part of Scarlett O 'Hara " — the role in Gone with the Wind in which she was eventually cast . Olivier did not enjoy making Wuthering Heights , and his approach to film acting , combined with a dislike for Oberon , led to tensions on set . The director , William Wyler , was a hard taskmaster , and Olivier learned to remove what Billington described as " the carapace of theatricality " to which he was prone , replacing it with " a palpable reality " . The resulting film was a commercial and critical success that earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actor , and created his screen reputation . Caroline Lejeune , writing for The Observer , considered that " Olivier 's dark , moody face , abrupt style , and a certain fine arrogance towards the world in his playing are just right " in the role , while the reviewer for The Times wrote that Olivier " is a good embodiment of Heathcliff ... impressive enough on a more human plane , speaking his lines with real distinction , and always both romantic and alive . "

After returning to London briefly in mid @-@ 1939 , the couple returned to America , Leigh to film the final takes for Gone with the Wind , and Olivier to prepare for filming of Alfred Hitchcock 's Rebecca — although the couple had hoped to appear in it together . Instead , Joan Fontaine was selected for the role of Mrs de Winter , as the producer David O. Selznick thought that not only was she more suitable for the role , but that it was best to keep Olivier and Leigh apart until their divorces came through . Olivier followed Rebecca with Pride and Prejudice , in the role of Mr. Darcy . To his disappointment Elizabeth Bennet was played by Greer Garson rather than Leigh . He received good reviews for both films and showed a more confident screen presence than he had in his early work . In January 1940 Olivier and Esmond were granted their divorce . In February , following another request from Leigh , her husband also applied for their marriage to be terminated .

On stage , Olivier and Leigh starred in Romeo and Juliet on Broadway . It was an extravagant production , but a commercial failure . In The New York Times Brooks Atkinson praised the scenery but not the acting : " Although Miss Leigh and Mr Olivier are handsome young people they hardly act their parts at all . " The couple had invested almost all their savings in the project , and its failure was a grave financial blow . They were married in August 1940 , at the San Ysidro Ranch in Santa Barbara .

The war in Europe had been under way for a year and was going badly for Britain . After his wedding Olivier wanted to help the war effort . He telephoned Duff Cooper , the Minister of Information under Winston Churchill , hoping to get a position in Cooper 's department . Cooper advised him to remain where he was and speak to the film director Alexander Korda , who was based in the US at Churchill 's behest , with connections to British Intelligence . Korda — with Churchill 's support and involvement — directed That Hamilton Woman , with Olivier as Horatio Nelson and Leigh in the title role . Korda saw that the relationship between the couple was strained . Olivier was tiring of Leigh 's suffocating adulation , and she was drinking to excess . The film , in which the threat of Napoleon paralleled that of Hitler , was seen by critics as " bad history but good British propaganda " , according to the BFI .

Olivier 's life was under threat from the Nazis and pro @-@ German sympathisers . The studio owners were concerned enough that Samuel Goldwyn and Cecil B. DeMille both provided support and security to ensure his safety . On the completion of filming , Olivier and Leigh returned to Britain . He had spent the previous year learning to fly and had completed nearly 250 hours by the time he left America . He intended to join the Royal Air Force but instead made another propaganda film , 49th Parallel , narrated short pieces for the Ministry of Information , and joined the Fleet Air Arm because Richardson was already in the service . Richardson had gained a reputation for crashing aircraft , which Olivier rapidly eclipsed . Olivier and Leigh settled in a cottage just outside RAF Worthy Down , where he was stationed with a training squadron ; Noël Coward visited the couple and thought Olivier looked unhappy . Olivier spent much of his time taking part in broadcasts and making speeches to build morale , and in 1942 he was invited to make another propaganda film , The Demi @-@ Paradise , in which he played a Soviet engineer who helps improve British @-@ Russian relationships .

In 1943 , at the behest of the Ministry of Information , Olivier began working on Henry V. Originally he had no intention of taking the directorial duties , but ended up directing and producing , in addition to taking the title role . He was assisted by an Italian internee , Filippo Del Giudice , who had been released to produce propaganda for the Allied cause . The decision was made to film the battle scenes in neutral Eire , where it was easier to find the 650 extras . John Betjeman , the press attaché at the British embassy in Dublin , played a key liaison role with the Irish government in making suitable arrangements . The film was released in November 1944 . Brooke , writing for the BFI , considers that it " came too late in the Second World War to be a call to arms as such , but formed a powerful reminder of what Britain was defending . " The music for the film was written by William Walton , " a score that ranks with the best in film music " , according to the music critic Michael Kennedy . Walton also provided the music for Olivier 's next two Shakespearean adaptations , Hamlet ( 1948 ) and Richard III ( 1955 ) . Henry V was warmly received by critics . The reviewer for The Manchester Guardian wrote that the film combined " new art hand @-@ in @-@ hand with old genius , and both superbly of one mind " , in a film that worked " triumphantly " . The critic for The Times considered that Olivier " plays Henry on a high , heroic note and never is there danger of a crack " , in a film described as " a triumph of film craft " . There were Oscar nominations for the film , including Best Picture and Best Actor , but it won none and Olivier was instead presented with a " Special Award " . He was unimpressed , and later commented that " this was my first absolute fob @-@ off , and I regarded it as such . "

= = = Co @-@ directing the Old Vic ( 1944 – 47 ) = = =

Throughout the war Tyrone Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going , even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near @-@ ruin . A small troupe toured the provinces , with Sybil Thorndike at its head . By 1944 , with the tide of the war turning , Guthrie felt it time to re @-@ establish the company in a London base and invited Richardson to head it . Richardson made it a condition of accepting that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate . Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues , but the former declined , saying , " It would be a disaster , you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me . " It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell . The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier ; the Sea Lords consented , with , as Olivier put it , " a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful . "

The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company . Thorndike was joined by , among others , Harcourt Williams , Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton . It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays : Peer Gynt , Arms and the Man , Richard III and Uncle Vanya . Olivier 's roles were the Button Moulder , Sergius , Richard and Astrov ; Richardson played Peer , Bluntschli , Richmond and Vanya . The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences ; Uncle Vanya had a mixed reception , although The Times thought Olivier 's Astrov " a most distinguished portrait " and Richardson 's Vanya " the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos " . In Richard III , according to Billington , Olivier 's triumph was absolute : " so much so that it became his most frequently imitated performance and one whose supremacy went unchallenged until Antony Sher played the role forty years later " . In 1945 the company toured Germany , where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen ; they also appeared at the Comédie @-@ Française theatre in Paris , the first foreign company to be given that honour . The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly " made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world . "

The second season , in 1945 , featured two double bills . The first consisted of Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second . He received good notices , but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff . In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated , in the title roles of Oedipus Rex and The Critic . In the two one @-@ act plays his switch from searing tragedy and horror in the first half to farcical comedy in the second impressed most critics and audience members , though a minority felt that the transformation from Sophocles 's bloodily blinded hero to Sheridan 's vain and ludicrous Mr Puff " smacked of a quick @-@ change turn in a music hall " . After the London season the company played both the double bills and Uncle Vanya in a six @-@ week run on Broadway .

The third , and final , London season under the triumvirate was in 1946 – 47 . Olivier played King Lear , and Richardson took the title role in Cyrano de Bergerac . Olivier would have preferred the roles to be reversed , but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear . Olivier 's Lear received good but not outstanding reviews . In his scenes of decline and madness towards the end of the play some critics found him less moving than his finest predecessors in the role . The influential critic James Agate suggested that Olivier used his dazzling stage technique to disguise a lack of feeling , a charge that the actor strongly rejected , but which was often made throughout his later career . During the run of Cyrano , Richardson was knighted , to Olivier 's undisguised envy . The younger man received the accolade six months later , by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered . The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors , Lord Esher . He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it . He was encouraged by Guthrie , who , having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier , had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame .

In January 1947 Olivier began working on his second film as a director , Hamlet ( 1948 ) , in which he also took the lead role . The original play was heavily cut to focus on the relationships , rather than the political intrigue . The film became a critical and commercial success in Britain and abroad , although Lejeune , in The Observer , considered it " less effective than [ Olivier 's ] stage work . ... He speaks the lines nobly , and with the caress of one who loves them , but he nullifies his own thesis by never , for a moment , leaving the impression of a man who cannot make up his own mind ; here , you feel rather , is an actor @-@ producer @-@ director who , in every circumstance , knows exactly what he wants , and gets it " . Campbell Dixon , the critic for The Daily Telegraph thought the film " brilliant ... one of the masterpieces of the stage has been made into one of the greatest of films . " Hamlet became the first non @-@ American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture , while Olivier won the Award for Best Actor .

In 1948 Olivier led the Old Vic company on a six @-@ month tour of Australia and New Zealand . He played Richard III , Sir Peter Teazle in Sheridan 's The School for Scandal and Antrobus in Thornton Wilder 's The Skin of Our Teeth , appearing alongside Leigh in the latter two plays . While Olivier was on the Australian tour and Richardson was in Hollywood , Esher terminated the contracts of the three directors , who were said to have " resigned " . Melvyn Bragg in a 1984 study of Olivier , and John Miller in the authorised biography of Richardson , both comment that Esher 's action put back the establishment of a National Theatre for at least a decade . Looking back in 1971 , Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1948 " was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country " . The Times said that the triumvirate 's years were the greatest in the Old Vic 's history ; as The Guardian put it , " the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit " .

= = = Post @-@ war ( 1948 – 51 ) = = =

By the end of Australian tour , both Leigh and Olivier were exhausted and ill , and he told a journalist , " You may not know it , but you are talking to a couple of walking corpses . " Later he would comment that he " lost Vivien " in Australia , a reference to Leigh 's affair with the Australian actor Peter Finch , whom the couple met during the tour . Shortly afterwards Finch moved to London , where Olivier auditioned him and put him under a long @-@ term contract with Laurence Olivier Productions . Finch and Leigh 's affair continued on and off for several years .

Although it was common knowledge that the Old Vic triumvirate had been dismissed , they refused to be drawn on the matter in public , and Olivier even arranged to play a final London season with the company in 1949 , as Richard III , Sir Peter Teazle , and Chorus in his own production of Anouilh 's Antigone with Leigh in the title role . After that , he was free to embark on a new career as an actor @-@ manager . In partnership with Binkie Beaumont he staged the English premiere of Tennessee Williams 's A Streetcar Named Desire , with Leigh in the central role of Blanche DuBois . The play was condemned by most critics , but the production was a considerable commercial success , and led to Leigh 's casting as Blanche in the 1951 film version . Gielgud , who was a devoted friend of Leigh 's , doubted whether Olivier was wise to let her play the demanding role of the mentally unstable heroine : " [ Blanche ] was so very like her , in a way . It must have been a most dreadful strain to do it night after night . She would be shaking and white and quite distraught at the end of it . "

The production company set up by Olivier took a lease on the St James 's Theatre . In January 1950 he produced , directed and starred in Christopher Fry 's verse play Venus Observed . The production was popular , despite poor reviews , but the expensive production did little to help the finances of Laurence Olivier Productions . After a series of box @-@ office failures , the company balanced its books in 1951 with productions of Shaw 's Caesar and Cleopatra and Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra which the Oliviers played in London and then took to Broadway . Olivier was thought by some critics to be under par in both his roles , and some suspected him of playing deliberately below his usual strength so that Leigh might appear his equal . Olivier dismissed the suggestion , regarding it as an insult to his integrity as an actor . In the view of the critic and biographer W. A. Darlington , he was simply miscast both as Caesar and Antony , finding the former boring and the latter weak . Darlington comments , " Olivier , in his middle forties when he should have been displaying his powers at their very peak , seemed to have lost interest in his own acting " . Over the next four years Olivier spent much of his time working as a producer , presenting plays rather than directing or acting in them . His presentations at the St James 's included seasons by Ruggero Ruggeri 's company giving two Pirandello plays in Italian , followed by a visit from the Comédie @-@ Française playing works by Molière , Racine , Marivaux and Musset in French . Darlington considers a 1951 production of Othello starring Orson Welles as the pick of Olivier 's productions at the theatre .

= = = Independent actor @-@ manager ( 1952 – 54 ) = = =

While Leigh made Streetcar in 1951 , Olivier joined her in Hollywood to film Carrie , based on the controversial novel Sister Carrie ; although the film was plagued by troubles , Olivier received warm reviews and a BAFTA nomination . Olivier began to notice a change in Leigh 's behaviour , and he later recounted that " I would find Vivien sitting on the corner of the bed , wringing her hands and sobbing , in a state of grave distress ; I would naturally try desperately to give her some comfort , but for some time she would be inconsolable . " After a holiday with Coward in Jamaica , she seemed to have recovered , but Olivier later recorded , " I am sure that ... [ the doctors ] must have taken some pains to tell me what was wrong with my wife ; that her disease was called manic depression and what that meant — a possibly permanent cyclical to @-@ and @-@ fro between the depths of depression and wild , uncontrollable mania . He also recounted the years of problems he had experienced because of Leigh 's illness , writing , " throughout her possession by that uncannily evil monster , manic depression , with its deadly ever @-@ tightening spirals , she retained her own individual canniness — an ability to disguise her true mental condition from almost all except me , for whom she could hardly be expected to take the trouble . "

In January 1953 Leigh travelled to Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) to film Elephant Walk with Peter Finch . Shortly after filming started she suffered a breakdown , and returned to Britain where , between periods of incoherence , she told Olivier that she was in love with Finch , and had been having an affair with him ; she gradually recovered over a period of several months . As a result of the breakdown , many of the Oliviers ' friends learned of her problems . Niven said she had been " quite , quite mad " , and in his diary , Coward expressed the view that " things had been bad and getting worse since 1948 or thereabouts . "

For the Coronation season of 1953 , Olivier and Leigh starred in the West End in Terence Rattigan 's Ruritanian comedy , The Sleeping Prince . It ran for eight months but was widely regarded as a minor contribution to the season , in which other productions included Gielgud in Venice Preserv 'd , Coward in The Apple Cart and Ashcroft and Redgrave in Antony and Cleopatra .

Olivier directed his third Shakespeare film in September 1954 , Richard III ( 1955 ) , which he co @-@ produced with Korda . The presence of four theatrical knights in the one film — Olivier was joined by Cedric Hardwicke , Gielgud and Richardson — led an American reviewer to dub it " An @-@ All @-@ Sir @-@ Cast " . The critic for The Manchester Guardian described the film as a " bold and successful achievement " , but it was not a box @-@ office success , which accounted for Olivier 's subsequent failure to raise the funds for a planned film of Macbeth . He won a BAFTA award for the role and was nominated for the Best Actor Academy Award , which Yul Brynner won .

= = = Last years with Leigh ( 1955 – 56 ) = = =

In 1955 Olivier and Leigh were invited to play leading roles in three plays at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre , Stratford . They began with Twelfth Night , directed by Gielgud , with Olivier as Malvolio and Leigh as Viola . Rehearsals were difficult , with Olivier determined to play his conception of the role despite the director 's view that it was vulgar . Gielgud later commented :

Somehow the production did not work . Olivier was set on playing Malvolio in his own particular rather extravagant way . He was extremely moving at the end , but he played the earlier scenes like a Jewish hairdresser , with a lisp and an extraordinary accent , and he insisted on falling backwards off a bench in the garden scene , though I begged him not to do it . ... But then Malvolio is a very difficult part .

The next production was Macbeth . Reviewers were lukewarm about the direction by Glen Byam Shaw and the designs by Roger Furse , but Olivier 's performance in the title role attracted superlatives . To J. C. Trewin , Olivier 's was " the finest Macbeth of our day " ; to Darlington it was " the best Macbeth of our time " . Leigh 's Lady Macbeth received mixed but generally polite notices , although to the end of his life Olivier believed it to have been the best Lady Macbeth he ever saw .

In their third production of the 1955 Stratford season , Olivier played the title role in Titus Andronicus , with Leigh as Lavinia . Her notices in the part were damning , but the production by Peter Brook and Olivier 's performance as Titus received the greatest ovation in Stratford history from the first @-@ night audience , and the critics hailed the production as a landmark in post @-@ war British theatre . Olivier and Brook revived the production for a continental tour in June 1957 ; its final performance , which closed the old Stoll Theatre in London , was the last time Leigh and Olivier acted together .

Leigh became pregnant in 1956 and withdrew from the production of Coward 's comedy South Sea Bubble . The day after her final performance in the play she miscarried and entered a period of depression that lasted for months . The same year Olivier decided to direct and produce a film version of The Sleeping Prince , retitled The Prince and the Showgirl . Instead of appearing with Leigh , he cast Marilyn Monroe as the showgirl . Although the filming was challenging because of Monroe 's behaviour , the film was appreciated by the critics .

= = = Royal Court and Chichester ( 1957 – 63 ) = = =

During the production of The Prince and the Showgirl , Olivier , Monroe and her husband , the American playwright Arthur Miller , went to see the English Stage Company 's production of John Osborne 's Look Back in Anger at the Royal Court . Olivier had seen the play earlier in the run and disliked it , but Miller was convinced that Osborne had talent , and Olivier reconsidered . He was ready for a change of direction ; in 1981 he wrote :

I had reached a stage in my life that I was getting profoundly sick of — not just tired — sick . Consequently the public were , likely enough , beginning to agree with me . My rhythm of work had become a bit deadly : a classical or semi @-@ classical film ; a play or two at Stratford , or a nine @-@ month run in the West End , etc etc . I was going mad , desperately searching for something suddenly fresh and thrillingly exciting . What I felt to be my image was boring me to death .

Osborne was already at work on a new play , The Entertainer , an allegory of Britain 's post @-@ colonial decline , centred on a seedy variety comedian , Archie Rice . Having read the first act — all that was completed by then — Olivier asked to be cast in the part . He had for years maintained that he might easily have been a third @-@ rate comedian called " Larry Oliver " , and would sometimes play the character at parties . Behind Archie 's brazen façade there is a deep desolation , and Olivier caught both aspects , switching , in the words of the biographer Anthony Holden , " from a gleefully tacky comic routine to moments of the most wrenching pathos " . Tony Richardson 's production for the English Stage Company transferred from the Royal Court to the Palace Theatre in September 1957 ; after that it toured and returned to the Palace . The role of Archie 's daughter Jean was taken by three actresses during the various runs . The second of them was Joan Plowright , with whom Olivier began a relationship that endured for the rest of his life . Olivier said that playing Archie " made me feel like a modern actor again " . In finding an avant @-@ garde play that suited him , he was , as Osborne remarked , far ahead of Gielgud and Ralph Richardson , who did not successfully follow his lead for more than a decade . Their first substantial successes in works by any of Osborne 's generation were Alan Bennett 's Forty Years On ( Gielgud in 1968 ) and David Storey 's Home ( Richardson and Gielgud in 1970 ) .

Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his supporting role in 1959 's The Devil 's Disciple . The same year , after a gap of two decades , Olivier returned to the role of Coriolanus , in a Stratford production directed by the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Peter Hall . Olivier 's performance received strong praise from the critics for its fierce athleticism combined with an emotional vulnerability . In 1960 he made his second appearance for the Royal Court company in Ionesco 's absurdist play Rhinoceros . The production was chiefly remarkable for the star 's quarrels with the director , Orson Welles , who according to the biographer Francis Beckett suffered the " appalling treatment " that Olivier had inflicted on Gielgud at Stratford five years earlier . Olivier again ignored his director and undermined his authority . In 1960 and 1961 Olivier appeared in Anouilh 's Becket on Broadway , first in the title role , with Anthony Quinn as the king , and later exchanging roles with his co @-@ star .

Two films featuring Olivier were released in 1960 . The first — filmed in 1959 — was Spartacus , in which he portrayed the Roman general , Marcus Licinius Crassus . His second was The Entertainer , shot while he was appearing in Coriolanus ; the film was well received by the critics , but not as warmly as the stage show had been . The reviewer for The Guardian thought the performances were good , and wrote that Olivier " on the screen as on the stage , achieves the tour de force of bringing Archie Rice ... to life " . For his performance , Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor . He also made an adaptation of The Moon and Sixpence in 1960 , winning an Emmy Award .

The Oliviers ' marriage was disintegrating during the late 1950s . While directing Charlton Heston in the 1960 play The Tumbler , Olivier divulged that " Vivien is several thousand miles away , trembling on the edge of a cliff , even when she 's sitting quietly in her own drawing room " , at a time when she was threatening suicide . In May 1960 divorce proceedings started ; Leigh reported the fact to the press and informed reporters of Olivier 's relationship with Plowright . The decree nisi was issued in December 1960 , which enabled him to marry Plowright in March 1961 . A son , Richard , was born in December 1961 ; two daughters followed , Tamsin Agnes Margaret — born in January 1963 — and Julie @-@ Kate , born in July 1966 .

In 1961 Olivier accepted the directorship of a new theatrical venture , the Chichester Festival . For the opening season in 1962 he directed two neglected 17th @-@ century English plays , John Fletcher 's 1638 comedy The Chances and John Ford 's 1633 tragedy The Broken Heart , followed by Uncle Vanya . The company he recruited was forty strong and included Thorndike , Casson , Redgrave , Athene Seyler , John Neville and Plowright . The first two plays were politely received ; the Chekhov production attracted rapturous notices . The Times commented , " It is doubtful if the Moscow Arts Theatre itself could improve on this production . " The second Chichester season the following year consisted of a revival of Uncle Vanya and two new productions — Shaw 's Saint Joan and John Arden 's The Workhouse Donkey . In 1963 Olivier received another BAFTA nomination for his leading role as a schoolteacher accused of sexually molesting a student in the film Term of Trial .

= = = National Theatre = = =

= = = = 1963 – 68 = = = =

At around the time the Chichester Festival opened , plans for the creation of the National Theatre were coming to fruition . The British government agreed to release funds for a new building on the South Bank of the Thames . Lord Chandos was appointed chairman of the National Theatre Board in 1962 , and in August Olivier accepted its invitation to be the company 's first director . As his assistants , he recruited the directors John Dexter and William Gaskill , with Kenneth Tynan as literary adviser or " dramaturge " . Pending the construction of the new theatre , the company was based at the Old Vic . With the agreement of both organisations , Olivier remained in overall charge of the Chichester Festival during the first three seasons of the National ; he used the festivals of 1964 and 1965 to give preliminary runs to plays he hoped to stage at the Old Vic .

The opening production of the National Theatre was Hamlet in October 1963 , starring Peter O 'Toole and directed by Olivier . O 'Toole was a guest star , one of occasional exceptions to Olivier 's policy of casting productions from a regular company . Among those who made a mark during Olivier 's directorship were Michael Gambon , Maggie Smith , Alan Bates , Derek Jacobi and Anthony Hopkins . It was widely remarked that Olivier seemed reluctant to recruit his peers to perform with his company . Evans , Gielgud and Paul Scofield guested only briefly , and Ashcroft and Richardson never appeared at the National during Olivier 's time . Robert Stephens , a member of the company , observed , " Olivier 's one great fault was a paranoid jealousy of anyone who he thought was a rival " .

In his decade in charge of the National , Olivier acted in thirteen plays and directed eight . Several of the roles he played were minor characters , including a crazed butler in Feydeau 's A Flea in Her Ear and a pompous solicitor in Maugham 's Home and Beauty ; the vulgar soldier Captain Brazen in Farquhar 's 1706 comedy The Recruiting Officer was a larger role but not the leading one . Apart from his Astrov in the Uncle Vanya , familiar from Chichester , his first leading role for the National was Othello , directed by Dexter in 1964 . The production was a box @-@ office success and was revived regularly over the next five seasons . His performance divided opinion . Most of the reviewers and theatrical colleagues praised it highly ; Franco Zeffirelli called it " an anthology of everything that has been discovered about acting in the past three centuries . " Dissenting voices included The Sunday Telegraph , which called it " the kind of bad acting of which only a great actor is capable ... near the frontiers of self @-@ parody " ; the director Jonathan Miller thought it " a condescending view of an Afro Caribbean person " . The burden of playing this demanding part at the same time as managing the new company and planning for the move to the new theatre took its toll on Olivier . To add to his load , he felt obliged to take over as Solness in The Master Builder when the ailing Redgrave withdrew from the role in November 1964 . For the first time Olivier began to suffer from stage fright , which plagued him for several years . The National Theatre production of Othello was released as a film in 1965 , which earned four Academy Award nominations , including another for Best Actor for Olivier .

During the following year Olivier concentrated on management , directing one production ( The Crucible ) , taking the comic role of the foppish Tattle in Congreve 's Love for Love , and making one film , Bunny Lake is Missing , in which he and Coward were on the same bill for the first time since Private Lives . In 1966 , his one play as director was Juno and the Paycock . The Times commented that the production " restores one 's faith in the work as a masterpiece " . In the same year Olivier portrayed the Mahdi , opposite Heston as General Gordon , in the film Khartoum .

In 1967 Olivier was caught in the middle of a confrontation between Chandos and Tynan over the latter 's proposal to stage Rolf Hochhuth 's Soldiers . As the play speculatively depicted Churchill as complicit in the assassination of the Polish prime minister Władysław Sikorski , Chandos regarded it as indefensible . At his urging the board unanimously vetoed the production . Tynan considered resigning over this interference with the management 's artistic freedom , but Olivier himself stayed firmly in place , and Tynan also remained . At about this time Olivier began a long struggle against a succession of illnesses . He was treated for prostate cancer and , during rehearsals for his production of Chekhov 's Three Sisters he was hospitalised with pneumonia . He recovered enough to take the heavy role of Edgar in Strindberg 's The Dance of Death , the finest of all his performances other than in Shakespeare , in Gielgud 's view .

= = = = 1968 – 74 = = = =

Olivier had intended to step down from the directorship of the National Theatre at the end of his first five @-@ year contract , having , he hoped , led the company into its new building . By 1968 because of bureaucratic delays construction work had not even begun , and he agreed to serve for a second five @-@ year term . His next major role , and his last appearance in a Shakespeare play , was as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice , his first appearance in the work . He had intended Guinness or Scofield to play Shylock , but stepped in when neither was available . The production by Jonathan Miller , and Olivier 's performance , attracted a wide range of responses . Two different critics reviewed it for The Guardian : one wrote " this is not a role which stretches him , or for which he will be particularly remembered " ; the other commented that the performance " ranks as one of his greatest achievements , involving his whole range " .

In 1969 Olivier appeared in two war films , portraying military leaders . He played Field Marshal French in the First World War film Oh ! What a Lovely War , for which he won another BAFTA award , followed by Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding in Battle of Britain . In June 1970 he became the first actor to be created a peer for services to the theatre . Although he initially declined the honour , Harold Wilson , the incumbent prime minister , wrote to him , then invited him and Plowright to dinner , and persuaded him to accept .

After this Olivier played three more stage roles : James Tyrone in Eugene O 'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1971 – 72 ) , Antonio in Eduardo de Filippo 's Saturday , Sunday , Monday and John Tagg in Trevor Griffiths 's The Party ( both 1973 – 74 ) . Among the roles he hoped to play , but could not because of ill @-@ health , was Nathan Detroit in the musical Guys and Dolls . In 1972 he took leave of absence from the National to star opposite Michael Caine in Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's film of Anthony Shaffer 's Sleuth , which The Illustrated London News considered to be " Olivier at his twinkling , eye @-@ rolling best " ; both he and Caine were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor , losing to Marlon Brando in The Godfather .

The last two stage plays Olivier directed were Jean Giradoux 's Amphitryon ( 1971 ) and Priestley 's Eden End ( 1974 ) . By the time of Eden End , he was no longer director of the National Theatre ; Peter Hall took over on 1 November 1973 . The succession was tactlessly handled by the board , and Olivier felt that he had been eased out — although he had declared his intention to go — and that he had not been properly consulted about the choice of successor . The largest of the three theatres within the National 's new building was named in his honour , but his only appearance on the stage of the Olivier Theatre was at its official opening by the Queen in October 1976 , when he made a speech of welcome , which Hall privately described as the most successful part of the evening .

= = = Later years ( 1975 – 89 ) = = =

Olivier spent the last fifteen years of his life in securing his finances and dealing with worsening health , which included thrombosis and dermatomyositis , a degenerative muscle disorder . Professionally , and to secure financial security , he made a series of advertisements for Polaroid cameras in 1972 , although he stipulated that they must never be shown in Britain ; he also took a number of cameo film roles , which were in " often undistinguished films " , according to Billington . Olivier 's move from leading parts to supporting and cameo roles came about because his poor health meant he could not get the necessary long insurance for larger parts , with only short engagements in films available .

Olivier 's dermatomyositis meant he spent the last three months of 1974 in hospital , and he spent early 1975 slowly recovering and regaining his strength . When strong enough , he was contacted by the director John Schlesinger , who offered him the role of a Nazi torturer in the 1976 film Marathon Man . Olivier shaved his pate and wore oversized glasses to enlarge the look of his eyes , in a role that the critic David Robinson , writing for The Times , thought was " strongly played " , adding that Olivier was " always at his best in roles that call for him to be seedy or nasty or both " . Olivier was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role , and won the Golden Globe of the same category .

In the mid @-@ 1970s Olivier became increasingly involved in television work , a medium of which he was initially dismissive . In 1973 he provided the narration for a 26 @-@ episode documentary , The World at War , which chronicled the events of the Second World War , and won a second Emmy Award for Long Day 's Journey into Night ( 1973 ) . In 1975 he won another Emmy for Love Among the Ruins . The following year he appeared in adaptations of Tennessee Williams 's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Harold Pinter 's The Collection . In 1978 he appeared in the film The Boys from Brazil , playing the role of Ezra Lieberman , an ageing Nazi hunter ; he received his eleventh Academy Award nomination . Although he did not win the Oscar , he was presented with an Honorary Award for his lifetime achievement .

Olivier continued working in film into the 1980s , with roles in The Jazz Singer ( 1980 ) , Inchon ( 1981 ) , The Bounty ( 1984 ) and Wild Geese II ( 1985 ) . He continued to work in television ; in 1981 he appeared as Lord Marchmain in Brideshead Revisited , winning another Emmy , and the following year he received his tenth and last BAFTA nomination in the television adaptation of John Mortimer 's stage play A Voyage Round My Father . In 1983 he played his last Shakespearean role as Lear in King Lear , for Granada Television , earning his fifth Emmy . He thought the role of Lear much less demanding than other tragic Shakespearean heroes : " No , Lear is easy . He 's like all of us , really : he 's just a stupid old fart . " When the production was first shown on American television , the critic Steve Vineberg wrote :

Olivier seems to have thrown away technique this time — his is a breathtakingly pure Lear . In his final speech , over Cordelia 's lifeless body , he brings us so close to Lear 's sorrow that we can hardly bear to watch , because we have seen the last Shakespearean hero Laurence Olivier will ever play . But what a finale ! In this most sublime of plays , our greatest actor has given an indelible performance . Perhaps it would be most appropriate to express simple gratitude .

The same year he also appeared in a cameo alongside Gielgud and Richardson in Wagner , with Burton in the title role ; his final screen appearance was as an old , wheelchair @-@ bound soldier in Derek Jarman 's 1989 film War Requiem .

After being ill for the last twenty @-@ two years of his life , Olivier died of renal failure on 11 July 1989 at his home near Steyning , West Sussex . His cremation was held three days later , before a funeral in Poets ' Corner of Westminster Abbey in October that year .

= = Awards , honours and memorials = =

In 1947 Olivier was appointed a Knight Bachelor , and in 1970 he was given a life peerage ; the Order of Merit was conferred on him in 1981 . He also received honours from foreign governments . In 1949 he was made Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog by the Danish government ; the French appointed him Officier , Legion of Honour , in 1953 ; the Italian government created him Grande Ufficiale , Order of Merit of the Italian Republic , in 1953 ; and in 1971 he was granted the Order of Yugoslav Flag with Golden Wreath .

From academic and other institutions , Olivier received honorary doctorates from the university of Tufts , Massachusetts ( 1946 ) , Oxford ( 1957 ) and Edinburgh ( 1964 ) . He was also awarded the Danish Sonning Prize in 1966 , the Gold Medallion of the Royal Swedish Academy of Letters , History and Antiquities in 1968 ; and the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in 1976 .

For his work in films , Olivier received four Academy Awards : an honorary award for Henry V ( 1947 ) , a Best Actor award and one as producer for Hamlet ( 1948 ) , and a second honorary award in 1979 to recognise his lifetime of contribution to the art of film . He was nominated for nine other acting Oscars and one each for production and direction . He also won two British Academy Film Awards out of ten nominations , five Emmy Awards out of nine nominations , and three Golden Globe Awards out of six nominations . He was nominated once for a Tony Award ( for best actor , as Archie Rice ) but did not win .

In February 1960 , for his contribution to the film industry , Olivier was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame , with a star at 6319 Hollywood Boulevard ; he is included in the American Theater Hall of Fame . In 1977 Olivier was awarded a British Film Institute Fellowship .

In addition to the naming of the National Theatre 's largest auditorium in Olivier 's honour , he is commemorated in the Laurence Olivier Awards , bestowed annually since 1984 by the Society of West End Theatre . In 1991 Gielgud unveiled a memorial stone commemorating Olivier in Poets ' Corner at Westminster Abbey . In 2007 , the centenary of Olivier 's birth , a life @-@ sized statue of him was unveiled on the South Bank , outside the National Theatre ; the same year the BFI held a retrospective season of his film work .

= = Technique and reputation = =

Olivier 's acting technique was minutely crafted , and he was known for changing his appearance considerably from role to role . By his own admission , he was addicted to extravagant make @-@ up , and unlike Richardson and Gielgud , he excelled at different voices and accents . His own description of his technique was " working from the outside in " ; he said , " I can never act as myself , I have to have a pillow up my jumper , a false nose or a moustache or wig ... I cannot come on looking like me and be someone else . " Rattigan described how at rehearsals Olivier " built his performance slowly and with immense application from a mass of tiny details " . This attention to detail had its critics : Agate remarked , " When I look at a watch it is to see the time and not to admire the mechanism . I want an actor to tell me Lear 's time of day and Olivier doesn 't . He bids me watch the wheels go round . "

Tynan remarked to Olivier , " you aren 't really a contemplative or philosophical actor " ; Olivier was known for the strenuous physicality of his performances in some roles . He told Tynan this was because he was influenced as a young man by Douglas Fairbanks , Ramon Navarro and John Barrymore in films , and Barrymore on stage as Hamlet : " tremendously athletic . I admired that greatly , all of us did . ... One thought of oneself , idiotically , skinny as I was , as a sort of Tarzan . " According to Morley , Gielgud was widely considered " the best actor in the world from the neck up and Olivier from the neck down . " Olivier described the contrast thus : " I 've always thought that we were the reverses of the same coin ... the top half John , all spirituality , all beauty , all abstract things ; and myself as all earth , blood , humanity . "

Together with Richardson and Gielgud , Olivier was internationally recognised as one of the " great trinity of theatrical knights " who dominated the British stage during the middle and later decades of the 20th century . In an obituary tribute in The Times , Bernard Levin wrote , " What we have lost with Laurence Olivier is glory . He reflected it in his greatest roles ; indeed he walked clad in it — you could practically see it glowing around him like a nimbus . ... no one will ever play the roles he played as he played them ; no one will replace the splendour that he gave his native land with his genius . " Billington commented :

[ Olivier ] elevated the art of acting in the twentieth century ... principally by the overwhelming force of his example . Like Garrick , Kean , and Irving before him , he lent glamour and excitement to acting so that , in any theatre in the world , an Olivier night raised the level of expectation and sent spectators out into the darkness a little more aware of themselves and having experienced a transcendent touch of ecstasy . That , in the end , was the true measure of his greatness .

After Olivier 's death , Gielgud reflected , " He followed in the theatrical tradition of Kean and Irving . He respected tradition in the theatre , but he also took great delight in breaking tradition , which is what made him so unique . He was gifted , brilliant , and one of the great controversial figures of our time in theatre , which is a virtue and not a vice at all . "

Olivier said in 1963 that he believed he was born to be an actor , but his colleague Peter Ustinov disagreed ; he commented that although Olivier 's great contemporaries were clearly predestined for the stage , " Larry could have been a notable ambassador , a considerable minister , a redoubtable cleric . At his worst , he would have acted the parts more ably than they are usually lived . " The director David Ayliff agreed that acting did not come instinctively to Olivier as it did to his great rivals . He observed , " Ralph was a natural actor , he couldn 't stop being a perfect actor ; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination . " The American actor William Redfield had a similar view :

Ironically enough , Laurence Olivier is less gifted than Marlon Brando . He is even less gifted than Richard Burton , Paul Scofield , Ralph Richardson and John Gielgud . But he is still the definitive actor of the twentieth century . Why ? Because he wanted to be . His achievements are due to dedication , scholarship , practice , determination and courage . He is the bravest actor of our time .

In comparing Olivier and the other leading actors of his generation , Ustinov wrote , " It is of course vain to talk of who is and who is not the greatest actor . There is simply no such thing as a greatest actor , or painter or composer " . Nonetheless , some colleagues , particularly film actors such as Spencer Tracy , Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall , came to regard Olivier as the finest of his peers . Peter Hall , though acknowledging Olivier as the head of the theatrical profession , thought Richardson the greater actor . Others , such as the critic Michael Coveney , awarded the palm to Gielgud . Olivier 's claim to theatrical greatness lay not only in his acting , but as , in Hall 's words , " the supreme man of the theatre of our time " , pioneering Britain 's National Theatre . As Bragg identified , " no one doubts that the National is perhaps his most enduring monument " .

= = Stage roles and filmography = =

= Freakum Dress =

" Freakum Dress " is a song by American singer and songwriter Beyoncé from her second solo studio album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . It was written by Beyoncé , Rich Harrison , and Makeba Riddick . " Freakum Dress " is similar to songs that Destiny 's Child used to record in the 1990s . The song is complete with whistles , cymbal dominated scatter rhythms and a beat , which is augmented by hi @-@ hats and plinking keyboard pulses . In the song , Beyoncé advises women who have partners with straying eyes to put on alluring dresses and grind on other guys in dance clubs , to regain their affections .

" Freakum Dress " was generally well received by music critics who complimented Beyoncé 's vocals as well as the assertiveness with which she delivers the lyrics . Many of them also noted that the beat of song melds very well with the vocal arrangement and the instruments used . The music video for the song was directed by Ray Kay , with co @-@ direction from Beyoncé , for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) . It features Beyoncé dancing with women of different ages , races , and sizes . Thirty metallic dresses were designed by Tina Knowles and were used in the production . Beyoncé explained that the main reason behind shooting a video for the song was to show what a " freakum dress " looks like . The song was part of the set lists during Beyoncé 's worldwide tours The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) and I Am ... World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . Later , in 2012 , the song was performed during her revue Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live .

= = Recording and conception = =

" Freakum Dress " was conceived at Sony Music Studios , in New York City , when Beyoncé enlisted Harris to co @-@ produce for her album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . She and Harrison had previously collaborated on her 2003 single " Crazy in Love " . She arranged for Harrison , Sean Garrett and Rodney Jerkins to be given individual rooms at the studio . In this way , Beyoncé fostered " healthy competition " between the producers by going into each of their rooms and commenting on the " great beats " the others were creating . Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel noted that " Freakum Dress " and " Suga Mama " ( 2006 ) , Harrison 's other contribution to B 'Day " fall short of originality but mimic the Chi Lites [ sic ] percussion section [ of " Crazy in Love " ] yet again " , adding , " Harrison is like the Indiana Jones of soul , constantly pulling out forgotten gems of the past for sampling [ ... ] You can 't help but think : Thank God someone wrote music in the past that can be repurposed now . " Harrison wrote " Freakum dress to demonstrate how a sassy sartorial item that can help recharge to a relationship " , with Beyoncé and Makeba Riddick also contributing In an interview with USA Today , Beyoncé talked about the content " Freakum Dress " , stating that an outfit which reminds of the best moments in a couple 's life , is a necessity for every woman 's wardrobe .

In June 2006 , Beyoncé invited Tamara Coniff of Billboard to a New York recording studio . There she premiered several songs from the album including " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) and " Freakum Dress " , both were cited as possible second singles although in the end it was actually " Ring the Alarm " that became B 'Day 's second single . Beyoncé told Coniff that " Freakum Dress " was one of her favorite songs ever .

= = Music and theme = =

According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation , " Freakum Dress " is a moderate R & B song pacing in common time , written in the key of F major . The verses alternate from the chords of F ♯ and C. The track also draws from the hip hop , funk , and dance @-@ pop genres . Mike Joseph of PopMatters observed that the song shows influences by 1970s funk music , and contains limited elements of 1980s go @-@ go . According to Phil Harrison of Timeout , " Freakum Dress " consists of a steady " long crescendo , welding galloping beats and a steamrolling two @-@ note riff " , accompanied by several genres of music , which he qualified as " multi @-@ tracked " . Spence D. of IGN Music noted that the song consists of frequent whistles as well as crashing cymbal dominated scatter rhythms and a beat which fits the " powerful , loud , confident lines " in which Beyoncé asks for the attention of her man , and urges women to have a beautiful dress to spice up their sexual life . " Freakum Dress " opens with a spoken introduction . Throughout the song , Beyoncé sings her lines in an assertive manner on melding shattering hi @-@ hats " and plinking keyboard pulses .

According to Joseph , " Freakum Dress " is thematically similar to " Bills , Bills , Bills " ( 1999 ) and " Say My Name " ( 2000 ) , from the Destiny 's Child era . Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times noted that " Freakum Dress " celebrates showing off . Jon Pareles of The New York Times viewed the concept of the song as not merely having a nice wardrobe to entice men , but it also serves as " a means of self @-@ assertion . " In the song , the female protagonist pulls out her best dress to remind her potentially wandering mate of what he is leaving at home . Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly added that Beyoncé also seemingly gives professional advice to women on how to hold a man 's attention in a long @-@ term relationship . She sings : " I think I 'm ready / Been locked up in the house way too long / It 's time to get it , [ be ] cause once again he 's out doing wrong [ ... ] Wear very skimpy clothes ... " . Joseph commented that in the song , Beyoncé is capable of wearing anything to keep her man by her side rather than dumping him . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe added that after having skirted her best dress , Beyoncé eyes other guys in dance clubs to make her own man jealous , in the hope of regaining his attention but she also makes sure that he really pays when he does her wrong . Beyoncé later refers to her " freakum dress " in " Jealous " , a track from her fifth studio album Beyoncé ( 2013 ) .

= = Reception = =

The song received mostly positive reviews . Phil Harrison of Timeout called " Freakum Dress " a magnificent production thanks to its vocal arrangements and commented that its beat can " drive the boys crazy . " Brian Hiatt of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that even though " Freakum Dress " is less harmonically and melodically produced than " Crazy In Love " ( 2003 ) and songs from the Destiny 's Child era , it remains a good track due to its highly energetic beat . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music called the track " discordant " and " menacing " while Jon Pareles of The New York Times called it " overwrought " . On a separate review , Jon Pareles said that the song will remain as one of Beyoncé most memorable tracks thanks to its streak of rage which is " perfectly groomed but unmistakable " . Bill Lamb of About.com chose " Freakum Dress " as one of the three best songs on the entire record , and called it a powerful , emotionally intensive and energetic track . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian called the song a " lighthearted crunk spree " that reminds girls of the significance of having a nice dress in their wardrobe .

Mike Joseph of PopMatters complimented the overall concept of the song but noted that the lyrics do not " radiate " enough warmth . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine jokingly said that Beyoncé has added the term " Freakum Dress " " to the pop lexicon . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today said that " self @-@ assurance is evident on a tune on B 'Day called ' Freakum Dress ' " while another review by the staff members of the same magazine complimented the songs sexual imagery stating : " When Ms. Bootylicious [ Beyoncé ] sings of squeezing that jelly into a ' Freakum Dress ' , the imagination runs wilder than any video would . Darryl Sterdan , writing for the Canadian website Jam ! , complimented the song 's " bashing beat and irresistible chorus " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic described " Freakum dress " as a " blaring and marching " track . Calling " Freakum Dress " one of the best dance track that Beyoncé has ever sung , Norman Mayers of Prefix Magazine chose it as one of the standout songs of the album . While reviewing B 'Day , Chuck Arnold of People magazine wrote , " ' ladies ' anthem ' Freakum Dress ' finds Beyoncé working all her bootylicious powers over some slamming funk " . " Freakum Dress " reached number twenty @-@ five on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart issue dated September 9 , 2007 . The same day , it also charted on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles at number sixteen .

= = Music video = =

= = = Concept and filming = = =

The music video was co @-@ directed by Ray Kay and Beyoncé for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album , which was released the same month : it was one of eight videos shot in two weeks for the album . The choreography was done by Danielle Polanco and Jonte ' Moaning , who used a 1980 ’ s retro set . Beyoncé explained the concept of the video at MTV : " It 's probably the most flamboyant video , and the metallic dresses are so beautiful , they added so much color . I had to do a video for this song . Everyone wanted to know what a ' freakum dress ' was , and you can 't really explain it , you have to see it . Everyone has their own version , so we had so many women — of different races , sizes , shapes , ages — because we all have those dresses we pull out when we need to shut it down . "

After two weeks of shooting , Beyoncé decided to call her mother Tina . The latter designed thirty dresses for the video , with eight of them for her daughter . Due to limited time , certain dress were sewed on the spot in approximately ten minutes each by taking fabric from one dress , making a slit in it , draping it and putting a belt on it . The glasses that Beyoncé wears in the video were borrowed from her make @-@ up artist , Francesca Tolot . The video was finished in about eighteen hours of filming and it features Ebony Haith from America 's Next Top Model , Cycle 1 . Throughout the video , Beyoncé can be seen fixing her hair in a neon mirror and is surrounded by neon @-@ constructed doors , catwalks and podiums . It premiered on BET 's 106 & Park and on American Music Channel , among others , before the release of the video anthology .

= = = Synopsis and reception = = =

The video begins with Beyoncé dancing in front of a target before moving to her putting on blush and lipstick next to two other men in a room full of neon framed mirrors . The men then pull a dress onto her and as the chorus begins , she walks by several women dancing on neon boxes before beginning to do a dance routine with them . As the chorus ends , she is shown surrounded by several men in a dark room and dancing in front of barcode @-@ like walls . The video then moves to her walking down a neon catwalk . As the bridge starts , she begins doing a fierce dance routine , while constantly switching dresses . A scene is then shown with her dancers pretending to be paparazzi swarming her with microphones , before ending with Beyoncé whipping her hair in front of the target . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave a negative review for the video , describing it as " sloppily edited " . He further commented that it " plays out like a cheap fashion show for House of Deréon instead of the couture @-@ as @-@ weapons anthem it should be " .

= = Live performances = =

Although Beyoncé did not perform " Freakum Dress " in any televised appearances , the song was part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , where she directly started the song with the line : " Stop , I ain ’ t ready yet — wait , let me fix my hair ... " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance , stating : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes [ ... ] " . Tonya Turner of The Courier @-@ Mail reported that tracks like " Freakum Dress " , " moved fans to screams of endearment " . David Schmeichel of Jam ! wrote that Beyoncé performed a " ballsy " version of the song . Anthony Venutolo of New Jersey On @-@ Line wrote that Beyoncé " boiled over " during the performance of the song . It was included as the third track on Beyoncé 's live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) .

It was also part of the set list on the I Am ... World Tour . When Beyoncé performed the song in Sunrise , Florida on June 29 , 2009 , she was wearing a glittery gold leotard . As she sang , animated graphics of turntables , faders and other club equipment were projected behind Beyoncé , her dancers and musicians . Beyoncé was accompanied by her two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three imposing backup vocalists called the Mamas and a lead guitarist , Bibi McGill . During the performance , she bent backwards at her guitarist 's feet . Jonathon Moran of The Sunday Telegraph praised Beyoncé 's dancing during the performance of the song on the I Am ... World Tour . " Freakum Dress " was included as the fourth track on the deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . According to Andy Kellman of Allmusic , the performance has a " hard rock overhaul " .

In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Freakum Dress " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . While singing the song , Beyoncé was wearing a black dress and performed a " strut @-@ heavy footwork " . Dan DeLuca from The Philadelphia Inquirer noted that " her rock moves on songs like ' Freakum Dress , ' which find her facing off with a leather @-@ jacketed lead guitarist , tend to be of the screaming @-@ solo @-@ played @-@ on @-@ a @-@ Flying Vee variety . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times mentioned " Freakum Dress " in the " almost continuous high point " of the concert . Jim Farber of Daily News wrote that " The first , and last parts of the show stressed the steeliest Beyoncé , told in bold songs " like " Freakum Dress " . Brad Wete , writing for Complex noted that Beyoncé was " wagging her bootyliciousness at the audience " while performing the song . The performance of " Freakum Dress " was included on the live album Live in Atlantic City ( 2013 ) which was filmed during the revue . In 2013 the song was a part of the set list during The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour .

= = Usage in media = =

On June 24 , 2009 , American actress Cameron Diaz danced to " Freakum Dress " during the show It 's On with Alexa Chung .

Competitors lip synced along to " Freakum Dress " in the fifth episode of the first season of RuPaul 's Drag Race .

Jazmine Sullivan references the song in her song " Mascara " .

= = Chart performance = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes .

Vocals : Beyoncé Knowles

Writing : Beyoncé Knowles , Rich Harrison , Makeba , Angela Beyincé

Producing : Rich Harrison , Beyoncé Knowles

Recording : Jim Caruana

Assisted by : Rob Kinelski and Jamie Rosenberg

Mixing : Jason Goldstein & Rich Harrison

Assisted by : Steve Tolle

= Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruiser =

The Derfflinger class was a class of three battlecruisers ( German : Schlachtkreuzer ) of the Imperial German Navy . The ships were ordered for the 1912 – 13 Naval Building Program of the German Imperial Navy as a reply to the Royal Navy 's three new Lion @-@ class battlecruisers that had been launched a few years earlier . The preceding Moltke class and the incrementally improved Seydlitz represented the end of the evolution of Germany 's first generation of battlecruisers . The Derfflinger class had considerable improvements , including a larger primary armament , all of which was mounted on the centerline , eliminating the restricted arc of the amidships turret . The ships were also larger than the preceding classes . The Derfflinger class used a similar propulsion system , and as a result of the increased displacement were slightly slower .

The class comprised three ships : Derfflinger , Lützow , and Hindenburg . All three of the ships saw active service with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. Derfflinger was commissioned shortly after the outbreak of war , and was present at most of the naval actions in the North Sea , including the battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland . Lützow was commissioned in August 1915 , and only participated in the raid on Yarmouth before being sunk at Jutland . Hindenburg was commissioned into the fleet in May 1917 , and saw no major action . Derfflinger and Hindenburg were interned at Scapa Flow following the armistice in November 1918 . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , who was in command of the interned High Seas Fleet , ordered the ships to be scuttled in an attempt to prevent their possible seizure by the Royal Navy .

= = Design = =

The Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruisers were a result of the fourth and final Naval Law , which was passed in 1912 . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used public outcry over the British involvement in the Agadir Crisis of 1911 to pressure the Reichstag into appropriating additional funds to the Navy . The Fourth Naval Law secured funding for three new dreadnoughts , two light cruisers , and an extra 15 @,@ 000 officers and men in the Navy for 1912 . The three dreadnoughts secured in the bill became Derfflinger , Lützow , and Hindenburg . Design work on the first two ships began in October 1910 and continued until June 1911 ; Hindenburg was built to a slightly modified design , which was created between May and October 1912 .

When design work began , the navy department was asked to submit new requirements to fix deficiencies found in the preceding battlecruiser classes , which primarily covered propulsion systems and the main armament . Previous battlecruisers used a four shaft arrangement for their engines ; reducing the number to three would allow the new ships to equip a diesel engine on the central shaft . This would substantially increase the cruising range , and would ease the transfer of fuel and reduce the number of crew needed to operate the ships ' machinery . The navy department also argued for an increase in the main battery guns , from 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) guns to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) weapons . This was because the latest British battleships had thicker main belt armor , up to 300 millimeters ( 12 in ) . Since the German battlecruisers were intended to fight in the line of battle , their armament needed to be sufficiently powerful to penetrate the armor of their British opponents . Weight increases were managed by reducing the number of guns , from 10 to 8 — the increase in gun caliber added only 36 tons to the ships ' displacement . Tirpitz argued against the increase in gun caliber , for he thought the 28 cm gun was powerful enough .

A new construction technique was employed to save weight . Previous battlecruisers were built with a combination of transverse and longitudinal steel frames ; the Derfflinger @-@ class ships dispensed with the transverse frames and used only the longitudinal ones . This enabled the ship to retain structural strength and a lower weight . As with all preceding capital ships , the outer hull spaces between the hull wall and the torpedo bulkhead were used for coal storage .

On 1 September 1910 , the design board chose the 30 @.@ 5 cm , to be mounted in four twin turrets on the centerline of the ship . The armor layout was kept the same as in Seydlitz . In the meantime , pressure from the British public and media had forced the British Parliament to step up ship building . Kaiser Wilhelm II requested that the build time for the new battlecruisers be reduced to two years each , as opposed to three years . This proved unfeasible , because neither the armor or armament firms could supply the necessary materials according to an expedited schedule .

= = = General characteristics = = =

Derfflinger and Lützow were 210 m ( 689 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline and 210 @.@ 40 m ( 690 ft 3 in ) long overall . Hindenburg was slightly longer , at 212 @.@ 50 m ( 697 ft 2 in ) at the waterline and 212 @.@ 80 m ( 698 ft 2 in ) overall . All three ships had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) , and a draft of between 9 @.@ 20 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) forward and 9 @.@ 57 m ( 31 ft 5 in ) aft . The first two ships were designed to displace 26 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 200 long tons ) with a standard load , and up to 31 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 30 @,@ 700 long tons ) at combat weight . Hindenburg displaced slightly more , at 26 @,@ 947 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 521 long tons ) standard and 31 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 31 @,@ 000 long tons ) fully laden . The ships ' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted . Derfflinger 's hull contained 16 watertight compartments , though Lützow and Hindenburg had an additional seventeenth compartment . All three ships had a double bottom that ran for 65 % of the length of the hull . This was a decrease from preceding German battlecruisers , which had a double bottom for at least 75 % of the hull .

The ships were regarded as excellent sea boats by the German navy . The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were described as having had gentle motion , though they were " wet " at the casemate deck . The ships lost up to 65 % speed with the twin rudders hard over , and heeled up to 11 degrees . This was greater than any of the preceding battlecruiser designs , and as a result , anti @-@ roll tanks were fitted to Derfflinger . The three ships had a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 60 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) . The standard crew for one of the vessels was 44 officers and 1 @,@ 068 men ; when serving as the flagship for the I Scouting Group , the ships carried an additional 14 officers and 62 men . The Derfflingers carried smaller craft , including one picket boat , three barges , two launches , two yawls , and two dinghies .

= = = Machinery = = =

By the time construction work on Derfflinger began , it was determined that the diesel engine was not ready for use . Instead , the plan to use a three @-@ shaft system was abandoned and the ships reverted to the standard four @-@ shaft arrangement . Each of the three ships were equipped with two sets of marine @-@ type turbines ; each set drove a pair of 3 @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 90 m ( 12 ft 10 in ) in diameter on Derfflinger and Lützow and 4 m ( 13 ft 1 in ) in diameter on Hindenburg . Each set consisted of a high- and low @-@ pressure turbine — the high @-@ pressure machines drove the outer shafts while the low @-@ pressure turbines turned the inner pair . Steam was supplied to the turbines from 14 coal @-@ fired marine @-@ type double boilers and eight oil @-@ fired marine @-@ type double @-@ ended boilers . Each ship was equipped with a pair of turbo @-@ electric generators and a pair of diesel @-@ electric generators that provided a total of 1 @,@ 660 kilowatts at 220 volts . Each ship was equipped with two rudders .

The engines for first two ships were designed to provide 62 @,@ 138 shaft horsepower ( 46 @,@ 336 kW ) , at 280 revolutions per minute . This would have given the two ships a top speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) . During trials , Derfflinger 's engines achieved 75 @,@ 586 shp ( 56 @,@ 364 kW ) , but a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) . Lützow 's engines reached 79 @,@ 880 shp ( 59 @,@ 570 kW ) and a top speed of 26 @.@ 4 knots ( 48 @.@ 9 km / h ; 30 @.@ 4 mph ) . Hindenburg 's power plant was rated at 71 @,@ 015 shp ( 52 @,@ 956 kW ) at 290 rpm , for a top speed of 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) . On trials she reached 94 @,@ 467 shp ( 70 @,@ 444 kW ) and 26 @.@ 6 knots ( 49 @.@ 3 km / h ; 30 @.@ 6 mph ) . Derfflinger could carry 3 @,@ 500 t ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ) of oil ; at a cruising speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , she had a range of 5 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 400 km ; 6 @,@ 400 mi ) . Lützow carried 3 @,@ 700 t ( 3 @,@ 600 long tons ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 tons of oil , though she had no advantage in range over her sister Derfflinger . Hindenburg also stored 3 @,@ 700 tons of coal , as well as 1 @,@ 200 t ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of oil ; her range at 14 knots was rated at 6 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 300 km ; 7 @,@ 000 mi ) .

= = = Armament = = =

The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were armed with eight 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) SK L / 50 guns in four twin gun turrets , two forward of the main superstructure in a superfiring pair and two to the rear of the ship , in a similar arrangement . The guns were housed in Drh.L C / 1912 mounts on the first two ships , and in Drh.L C / 1913 mounts on Hindenburg . The turrets were trained with electric motors , while the guns were elevated hydraulically , up to 13 @.@ 5 degrees . The guns fired 405 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 894 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shells at a muzzle velocity of 855 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 805 ft / s ) . At 13 @.@ 5 degrees , the shells could hit targets out to 18 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) . The turrets were modified in 1916 to increase the elevation maximum to 16 degrees . This correspondingly increased the range to 20 @,@ 400 m ( 22 @,@ 300 yd ) . The ships carried 720 shells , or 90 per gun ; each gun was supplied with 65 armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells and 25 semi @-@ AP shells for use against targets with less armor protection . The 30 @.@ 5 cm gun had a rate of fire of between 2 – 3 shells per minute , and was expected to fire 200 shells before replacement was necessary . The guns were also capable of firing 405 @.@ 9 kg ( 894 @.@ 8 lb ) high explosive shells . The shells were loaded with two RP C / 12 propellant charges : a main charge in a brass cartridge that weighed 91 kg ( 201 lb ) and a fore charge in a silk bag that weighed 34 @.@ 5 kg ( 76 lb ) . The propellant magazines were located underneath the shell rooms for the two forward turrets as well as the rear superfiring turret ; the arrangement was reversed for the rearmost turret .

The ships were designed to carry fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns , mounted in casemates along the superstructure . Because Derfflinger had to be fitted with anti @-@ roll tanks , two of the casemated guns had to be removed , to allow enough room in the hull . Lützow and Hindenburg were equipped with the designed number of guns . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 yd ) , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m ( 18 @,@ 400 yd ) . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of five to seven rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 99 @.@ 8 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 31 @.@ 2 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced .

The three ships carried a variety of 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in several configurations . The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were initially equipped with eight of these weapons , all in single mounts ; four were placed in the forward superstructure and four in the aft superstructure . The ships also carried four 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns , which were emplaced around the forward funnel , with the exception of Lützow , which carried the Flak guns around the rear funnel . After 1916 , the four 8 @.@ 8 cm guns in the forward superstructure were removed . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 19 @.@ 8 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m ( 30 @,@ 019 ft 8 in ) at 70 degrees .

The ships were also armed with submerged torpedo tubes in their hulls . Derfflinger was equipped with four 50 cm tubes ; the later ships were armed with more powerful 60 cm weapons . The tubes were arranged with one in the bow , one in the stern , and two on the broadside . Derfflinger 's 50 cm torpedoes were the G7 type , 7 @.@ 02 m ( 276 in ) long and armed with a 195 kg ( 430 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedo had a range of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 370 yd ) when set at a speed of 37 knots , and up to 9 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 170 yd ) at 27 knots . The 60 cm torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 8 m long and carried a 210 kg ( 463 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 550 yd ) when set at a speed of 36 knots ; at a reduced speed of 30 knots , the range increased significantly to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 15 @,@ 310 yd ) .

= = = Armor = = =

The Derfflinger @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . They had an armor belt that was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the ship were . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm thick in less important areas , to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship .

The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . On Hindenburg , the thickness of the turret roofs was increased to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm @-@ worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters .

= = Construction = =

Of the three ships in its class , only Derfflinger was ordered as an addition to the fleet , under the provisional name " K " . The other two ships were to intended to replace obsolete vessels ; Lützow was ordered as Ersatz Kaiserin Augusta for the elderly protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta and the contract for Hindenburg was issued under the provisional name Ersatz Hertha , to replace the protected cruiser Hertha .

Derfflinger was constructed at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg under construction number 213 . She was the least expensive of the three ships , at a cost of 56 million gold marks . The ship was ready to be launched on 14 June 1913 , but during the ceremony , one of the wooden sledges upon which the hull rested became jammed . It took until 12 July for her to enter the water . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 September 1914 , shortly after the outbreak of World War I. Lützow was built at the Schichau dockyard in Danzig under construction number 885 , at the cost of 58 million gold marks . The ship was launched on 29 November 1913 , and after lengthy trials , commissioned on 8 August 1915 . Hindenburg , the final member of the class , was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 34 . The ship was built at a cost of 59 million gold marks , the most expensive of the three vessels . She was launched on 1 August 1915 and commissioned on 10 May 1917 .

= = Units = =

= = = SMS Derfflinger = = =

Named after Georg von Derfflinger , a German field marshal during the Thirty Years ' War , Derfflinger was commissioned on 1 September 1914 . A dockyard crew transferred the ship from Hamburg to Kiel , via the Skagen . The ship was assigned to the I Scouting Group at the end of October . Damage to the ship 's turbines sustained during trials prevented the ship from seeing active service until 16 November . On 15 December , the ship took part in the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby . She was also present during the battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . The ship was hit once by a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch shell from one of the British battlecruisers ; in response , she heavily damaged HMS Lion . Repair work was completed by 16 February , but Derfflinger 's starboard turbine was accidentally damaged on 28 June , and the ship was again in the dockyard until August . On 24 April 1916 , Derfflinger took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth .

On 31 May , Derfflinger was heavily engaged during the Battle of Jutland , as the second ship in the German battlecruiser line . She sustained 21 major hits during the battle , but dealt considerable damage to the British battlecruiser force as well . At 16 : 26 , HMS Queen Mary sank after a magazine explosion that tore the ship apart ; she had been targeted with a hail of heavy @-@ caliber gunfire from Derfflinger and Seydlitz . Two hours later , at 18 : 30 , HMS Invincible suffered a similar fate , though Derfflinger was assisted by her sister Lützow . During the engagement , Derfflinger had both of her rear turrets knocked out by British gunfire . Her crew suffered 157 men killed and 26 wounded , which was the highest casualty figure for any German ship not sunk . The resilience of the vessel earned her the nickname " Iron Dog " from her British adversaries . Repair work lasted until 15 October , during which the ship had her pole mast removed and replaced with a tripod mast . The ship conducted training operations until November , at which point she returned to active duty with the fleet .

Following the German capitulation in November 1918 , Derfflinger was interned with a significant portion of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . On 21 June 1919 , with the guard ships of the Royal Navy out on maneuvers , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered that the fleet be scuttled . The resulting scuttling of the German fleet saw some 66 vessels of various types sunk . Among those was Derfflinger , which sank at 14 : 45 . The ship was raised in 1939 to be broken up for scrap metal , but the outbreak of World War II intervened . The ship , which remained capsized , was anchored off the island of Risa until 1946 , at which point she was sent to Faslane Port , where she was broken up . The ship 's bell was delivered to the German Federal Navy on 30 August 1965 .

= = = SMS Lützow = = =

Lützow was named after Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow , a Prussian lieutenant @-@ general who fought during the Napoleonic Wars . The ship was commissioned on 8 August 1915 , and then underwent trials . On 25 October , while still running sea trials , Lützow 's port low pressure turbine were severely damaged . She was sent to Kiel for repairs , which lasted until late January 1916 . The ship went on additional trials that lasted until 19 February . Lützow was by then fully operational , and assigned to the I Scouting Group on 20 March 1916 . She took part in two fleet advances , on 25 March and 21 – 22 April , without any major incidents . The following day , on 23 April , Lützow , along with her sister Derfflinger and the battlecruisers Seydlitz , Moltke , and Von der Tann , bombarded Yarmouth . While en route to the target , Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper 's flagship Seydlitz was heavily damaged by mines . As a result , Lützow was transferred to the role of squadron flagship . During the operation , the German battlecruisers encountered British light forces , and a running battle ensued . Lützow engaged the light cruiser HMS Conquest and hit her several times .

At the Battle of Jutland , she was the first ship in the German line , and Hipper 's flagship , and drew fire from the British battlecruisers which included hits below her waterline . Shortly after the start of the battlecruiser action , Lützow hit her opponent Lion several times ; one hit knocked out Lion 's " Q " turret , and the resulting magazine fire nearly destroyed the ship . Shortly after 19 : 00 , the armored cruisers Defence and Warrior inadvertently ran into the German line ; Lützow opened fire immediately , followed by several German dreadnoughts . In a hail of shells , Defence 's ammunition magazines detonated and the ship was sunk . At around the same time , the fresh battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron engaged their German opposites . Between 19 : 26 and 19 : 34 , Lützow sustained four 12 @-@ inch shell hits in her bow from the British battlecruisers ; these eventually proved to be fatal . Despite this , at 19 : 30 , the combined fire of Lützow and her sister Derfflinger destroyed the battlecruiser Invincible . By 20 : 15 , Lützow had been hit five more times , including hits on her two forward turrets .

By 22 : 15 , Lützow had shipped nearly 2 @,@ 400 tons of water , and the ship was dangerously down by the bows . After midnight , attempts were made to steer the ship in reverse . This failed when the bow became submerged enough to bring the stern out of the water ; by 02 : 20 , the screws and both rudders were coming out of the water and the ship was no longer able to steer . The order to abandon ship was given , and at 02 : 47 , Lützow was sunk by the torpedo boat G38 . The ship was lost because the flooding in the bow could not be controlled ; the forward pump system failed and the central system could not keep up with the rising water . The crew was picked up by four torpedo boats that had been escorting the crippled battlecruiser ; during the battle the ship suffered 116 men killed .

= = = SMS Hindenburg = = =

Hindenburg was the last battlecruiser completed for the Imperial German Navy , and as such had a very short career . She was commissioned 10 May 1917 , and was fully operational by 20 October 1917 , too late to see any major action in World War I. On 17 November Hindenburg and Moltke , along with the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group , were acting as distant support for German minesweepers off the German coast when they were attacked by British battlecruisers . The raid was brief ; by the time Hindenburg and Moltke arrived on the scene , the British ships had broken off the attack and withdrawn . Six days later , Hindenburg replaced Seydlitz as flagship of the I Scouting Group . On 23 April 1918 , the ship took part in an abortive fleet advance into the North Sea that attempted to intercept an Allied convoy . Moltke sustained mechanical damage while en route , and as a result , Vice Admiral Hipper decided to cancel the operation . On 11 August , Hipper was promoted to Admiral and given command of the entire High Seas Fleet . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter replaced Hipper as the commander of the I Scouting Group ; he raised his flag on Hindenburg the following day .

Hindenburg was interned at Scapa Flow , along with her sister Derfflinger and the rest of the German battlecruisers . She was scuttled on 21 June 1919 , and sank at 17 : 00 . Several unsuccessful attempts to raise her were made ; on 23 July 1930 the ship was finally raised . From 1930 to 1932 she was scrapped at Rosyth . Her bell was presented to the German Federal Navy on 28 May 1959 .

= O 'Brien @-@ class destroyer =

The O 'Brien class of destroyers was a class of six ships designed by and built for the United States Navy shortly before the United States entered World War I. The O 'Brien class was the third of five classes of destroyers that were known as the " thousand tonners " , because they were the first U.S. destroyers over 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) displacement .

The design of what became the O 'Brien class was the result of discussions between the General Board of the United States Navy and the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance . What resulted was a design that was an incremental development of the Aylwin class , which itself was similar to the first of the thousand tonners , the Cassin class ( which displaced about a third more than the preceding Paulding class ) . The key difference in the O 'Brien class was the increase in torpedo size , going up to 21 inches ( 533 mm ) from the preceding classes ' 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedoes .

The ships had a median displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) , were just over 305 feet ( 93 m ) in length , and had a beam of about 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) . All of the ships had two direct @-@ drive steam turbines and a combination of other engines for cruising at speeds less than 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . All of the ships were designed for a maximum speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . As built , they were armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns and had four twin 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes with a load of eight torpedoes , but all were later equipped with depth charges . The ships were built by four private American shipyards — Bath Iron Works , Fore River Shipbuilding Company , New York Shipbuilding Corporation , and William Cramp and Sons — and were laid down between September and November 1913 ; launched between April 1914 and February 1915 ; and commissioned into the U.S. Navy between June 1914 and August 1915 .

All six ships operated in the Atlantic or Caribbean until the U.S. entrance into World War I in April 1917 , when all six were sent overseas to Queenstown , Ireland , for convoy escort duties . Several of the ships rescued passengers and crew from ships sunk by U @-@ boats , and several had encounters with U @-@ boats themselves ; Nicholson helped sink U @-@ 58 in November 1917 , the first U @-@ boat sunk by the U.S. Navy . All six members of the class had returned to the United States in January 1919 and were decommissioned by June 1922 . In 1924 , two of the six — Ericsson and McDougal — were commissioned into the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . They were returned to U.S. Navy custody in 1932 and 1933 , respectively . All six ships had been sold for scrapping by June 1936 .

= = Background = =

For the 1913 fiscal year , the General Board of the United States Navy determined that six destroyers would be authorized . The design for Destroyers No. 51 through No. 56 — what became the O 'Brien class , was to closely follow the design of the Cassin and Aylwin classes from fiscal year 1912 . The chief of the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Ordnance ( BuOrd ) suggested that the new destroyers be equipped with ten torpedo tubes and urged that the new 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo be adopted . The General Board agreed in principle , adopting the 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , but eliminated BuOrd 's proposed centerline torpedo tubes and keeping the number of tubes at eight , the same as the Cassin and Aylwin classes . The additional weight of the larger torpedoes , 5 long tons ( 5 @.@ 1 t ) of top weight , was offset by reducing the planned two aft @-@ facing guns to a single one . This gave the class four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , which , again , matched the battery of the Cassin and Aylwin classes . The design for the O 'Brien class was approved on 20 August 1912 , and authorized by Congress on 4 March 1913 .

= = Design = =

As built , the O 'Brien @-@ class ships were 305 feet 5 inches ( 93 @.@ 09 m ) in length ( overall ) , were 31 feet 2 inches ( 9 @.@ 50 m ) abeam , and had a standard draft of 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The hull shape featured the distinctive high forecastle typical of U.S. destroyer classes since the 1908 – 09 Smith class , the first destroyers designed to be truly ocean @-@ going vessels . The ships displaced between 1 @,@ 020 and 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 and 1 @,@ 110 t ) with a median of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) .

The ships were equipped with two propeller shafts and two direct @-@ drive , Zoelly steam turbines fed by four White @-@ Forster boilers . The power plant of the ships generated 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) which drive the ships to the design speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) . Because of inherent inefficiency of turbines at low speeds , all of the ships were equipped with supplemental cruising engines for travel at speeds under 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . All except Cushing were equipped with supplemental triple @-@ expansion reciprocating engines : O 'Brien , Nicholson , and Winslow each had a pair of reciprocating engines for cruising ; McDougal and Ericsson were outfitted with only one . Instead of reciprocating engines , Cushing was equipped with a pair of geared steam turbines for cruising .

The main battery of the O 'Brien class consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .

The O 'Brien ships were also equipped with four twin 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , for a total load of eight Mark 8 torpedoes . Although the General Board had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien class , they were not originally outfitted with the weapons ; the later Sampson class was the first American destroyer class so armed . Likewise , there is no record of any of the O 'Brien ships being outfitted with mine @-@ laying apparatus . During World War I , most American destroyers were used in anti @-@ submarine warfare roles , and were equipped with depth charges and delivery systems , such as Y @-@ guns and depth charge racks . O 'Brien @-@ class ships were equipped with depth charges during the war , but no specific mentions of the types of depth charges used or delivery system are recorded in secondary sources .

= = = Comparisons with other " thousand tonners " = = =

The " thousand tonners " were the 26 United States Navy destroyers of five classes — Cassin , Aylwin , O 'Brien , Tucker , and Sampson — so named because they were the first U.S. Navy destroyers to have displacements greater than 1 @,@ 000 long tons . The Cassin class , the first of the thousand tonners , displaced about a third more than the preceding Paulding class . The introduction of the thousand tonners led to the Pauldings and other older , smaller displacement destroyers of previous classes to be dismissively called " flivvers " , a nickname also commonly applied to the Ford Model T.

The O 'Brien class was the third of the five classes of " thousand tonners " . The earlier Cassin- ( DD @-@ 43 to DD @-@ 46 ) and Aylwin @-@ class ( DD @-@ 47 to DD @-@ 50 ) ships were about the same length as the O 'Brien ships and all had median displacements in the range of 1 @,@ 020 – 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 040 – 1 @,@ 070 t ) ; the later Tucker- ( DD @-@ 57 to DD @-@ 62 ) and Sampson @-@ class ( DD @-@ 63 to DD @-@ 68 ) ships were about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) longer and had median displacements of 1 @,@ 090 – 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 – 1 @,@ 120 t ) . All five classes were armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , but the torpedo size and complement varied . All were equipped with four twin torpedo tubes loaded with eight torpedoes except for the Sampsons ( which had four triple tubes carrying twelve torpedoes ) , but the Cassin and Aylwin classes were armed with 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedoes . The O 'Brien ships were the first armed with the new21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) Mark 8 torpedoes ; the Tucker and Sampson ships also used the 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . The Sampsons were the only group originally equipped with anti @-@ aircraft guns , a pair of 1 @-@ pounder ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) guns with a caliber of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) .

= = Construction = =

The construction of the six O 'Brien @-@ class ships was allocated to four U.S. shipbuilders . William Cramp constructed a trio of O 'Brien destroyers , while the Fore River Shipbuilding Company , Bath Iron Works , and New York Shipbuilding Corporation built one ship each . The keels for all six ships were laid down between July and November 1913 , with McDougal being the first and Ericsson the last . All were launched between April 1915 and January 1915 , with McDougal again being the first and Winslow being the last . McDougal was commissioned in June 1914 , two months after her launch ; the rest were commissioned between April and August 1915 , with Cushing the final ship to enter service . The cost of each ship for hull and machinery was $ 790 @,@ 000 .

= = Ships in class = =

All six members of the class served in the Atlantic or Caribbean throughout their U.S. Navy careers . In October 1916 , with the United States still neutral in World War I , five of the six class members ( all except Nicholson ) were among the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five ships torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket .

After the United States entered the war in April 1917 , all six class members were sent overseas to Queenstown , Ireland , for convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine duties . McDougal was in the first group of six American destroyers that arrived at Queenstown on 4 May ; Ericsson and Winslow followed in the second group , which arrived thirteen days later , and Cushing , Nicholson , and O 'Brien in the third group , a week after that . Several of the ships had encounters with U @-@ boats during the war : Nicholson , working with Fanning in November 1917 , helped to sink U @-@ 58 , which was the first U @-@ boat sunk by the U.S. Navy ; earlier , in June , O 'Brien had depth @-@ charged U @-@ 16 and was thought by the British Admiralty to have seriously damaged the U @-@ boat , but post @-@ war analysis of records showed that U @-@ 16 survived the attack and returned safely to port .

All six ships returned to the United States in January 1919 and served in various roles over the next two years . Cushing was decommissioned in August 1920 , followed by Nicholson and McDougal in May 1922 , and the remaining three in the following month . In June 1924 , two of the six ships — Ericsson and McDougal — were reactivated for service with the United States Coast Guard 's " Rum Patrol " . Ericsson was returned to the U.S. Navy in May 1932 , and McDougal in June 1933 ; both were sold for scrapping in 1934 . O 'Brien was sold for scrapping in 1935 , and the remaining three in June 1936 .

= = = USS O 'Brien ( DD @-@ 51 ) = = =

USS O 'Brien ( Destroyer No. 51 / DD @-@ 51 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in July 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of Jeremiah O 'Brien and his five brothers , Gideon , John , William , Dennis , and Joseph who , together on the sloop Unity , captured a British warship during the American Revolutionary War .

After O 'Brien 's May 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , O 'Brien was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland .

After returning to the United States in January 1919 , O 'Brien returned to European waters in May to serve as one of the picket ships for the NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic . O 'Brien was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1935 sold for scrapping in April .

= = = USS Nicholson ( DD @-@ 52 ) = = =

USS Nicholson ( Destroyer No. 52 / DD @-@ 52 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in August 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of five members of the Nicholson family who gave distinguished service in the American Revolutionary War , the War of 1812 , and the American Civil War : brothers James , Samuel , and John Nicholson ; William Nicholson , son of John ; and James W. Nicholson , grandson of Samuel .

After Nicholson 's April 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Nicholson was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . In October 1917 , Nicholson steamed to the rescue of SS J. L. Luckenbach , driving off German submarine U @-@ 62 , which had shelled the American cargo ship for over three hours . In November , Nicholson and another U.S. destroyer , Fanning , were responsible for sinking German submarine U @-@ 58 , the first submarine taken by U.S. forces during the war . In September 1918 , Nicholson helped drive off U @-@ 82 after that U @-@ boat had torpedoed the American troopship Mount Vernon off the coast of France .

Upon returning to the United States after the war , Nicholson was placed in reduced commission in November 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 sold for scrapping in June .

= = = USS Winslow ( DD @-@ 53 ) = = =

USS Winslow ( Destroyer No. 53 / DD @-@ 53 ) was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in October 1913 and launched in February 1915 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Ancrum Winslow , a U.S. Navy officer notable for sinking the Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama during the American Civil War .

After Winslow 's August 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Winslow was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Winslow made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .

Upon returning to the United States after the war , Winslow was placed in reduced commission in December 1919 . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 53 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 sold for scrapping in June .

= = = USS McDougal ( DD @-@ 54 ) = = =

USS McDougal ( Destroyer No. 54 / DD @-@ 54 ) was laid down by Bath Iron Works of Bath , Maine , in July 1913 and launched in April 1914 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of David Stockton McDougal , a U.S. Navy officer notable for his leadership during an 1863 battle off Japan while in command of Wyoming .

After McDougal 's June 1914 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 6 crewmen from a sunken Dutch cargo ship to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , McDougal was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , McDougal made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of ships sunk by the German craft . After a collision with a British cargo ship in February 1918 , McDougal was under repair until mid @-@ July , and afterwards , operated out of Brest , France .

Upon returning to the United States after the war , McDougal conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in May 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC McDougal ( CG @-@ 6 ) until May 1933 , when she was returned to the Navy . In November she dropped her name to free it for a new destroyer of the same name , becoming known only as DD @-@ 54 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in July 1934 sold for scrapping in August .

= = = USS Cushing ( DD @-@ 55 ) = = =

USS Cushing ( Destroyer No. 55 / DD @-@ 55 ) was laid down by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy , Massachusetts , in September 1913 and launched in January 1915 . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of William B. Cushing , a U.S. Navy officer best known for sinking the Confederate ironclad warship CSS Albemarle during the American Civil War .

After Cushing 's August 1915 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Cushing was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland . Cushing made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .

Upon returning to the United States after the war , Cushing was placed in reserve in reduced commission . She was decommissioned at Philadelphia in August 1920 . She was struck for the Naval Vessel Register in January 1936 and was sold for scrapping in June .

= = = USS Ericsson ( DD @-@ 56 ) = = =

USS Ericsson ( Destroyer No. 56 / DD @-@ 56 ) was laid down by the New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , in November 1913 and launched in August of the following year . The ship was the second U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of John Ericsson , the Swedish @-@ born builder of the ironclad warship USS Monitor during the American Civil War .

After Ericsson 's May 1916 commissioning , she sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of the U.S. destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 , and carried 81 passengers from a sunken British ocean liner to Newport , Rhode Island . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Ericsson was part of the first U.S. destroyer squadron sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Ericsson made several unsuccessful attacks on U @-@ boats , and rescued survivors of several ships sunk by the German craft .

Upon returning to the United State after the war , Ericsson conducted operations with the destroyers of the Atlantic Fleet until August 1919 , when she was placed in reserve , still in commission . After a brief stint of operations in mid 1921 , she was placed in reserve until she was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . In June 1924 , Ericsson was transferred to the United States Coast Guard to help enforce Prohibition as a part of the " Rum Patrol " . She operated under the name USCGC Ericsson ( CG @-@ 5 ) until May 1932 , when she was returned to the Navy . She was sold for scrap in August 1934 .

= Who Am I ( Casting Crowns song ) =

" Who Am I " is a song recorded by Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman , it was released on February 22 , 2004 , as the second single from the band 's 2003 self @-@ titled debut album . A pop rock and adult contemporary ballad , the song is based around the piano and utilizes orchestral sounds . Lyrically , the song is centered on worshiping God . The song received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , with several regarding it as one of the best songs on their debut album .

" Who Am I " received the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards , and it was also nominated for Worship Song of the Year . It achieved success on Christian radio , topping the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts as well as simultaneously peaking atop the Radio & Records Christian AC , Christian CHR , and INSPO charts . It has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying sales of over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads . Casting Crowns has performed the song in concert as well as at special events , and re @-@ recorded the song in 2013 for their acoustic album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One .

= = Background and composition = =

According to Casting Crowns ' lead singer Mark Hall , the idea for " Who Am I " came while he was driving home with his wife and children one night . Hall , who was having personal worship time during the drive , recounts that he wondered " Who am I to think I can just call up to God whenever I want , from the middle of nowhere , and expect Him to hear me ? " Hall says " immediately I started thinking I 'm a new creation , I 'm more than a conqueror ... I 'm [ also ] grass , that is rises up and is gone in a day " . In an interview , he commented that " me being a conqueror is true , but at the same time I need to understand that my life is a vapor , and me being able to even pray to [ God ] is because of what he 's done for me " . " Who Am I " was produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman . It was recorded at Glow In The Dark Studio in Decatur , Georgia and Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee , and it was engineered by Matt Goldman and Sam Hewitt .

" Who Am I " is a song with a length of five minutes and thirty @-@ five seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is in set common time in the key of B major and has a tempo of 66 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G ♯ 3 to the high note of F ♯ 3 . " Who Am I " has been described as a pop rock and adult contemporary ballad . Based around the piano and featuring orchestral sounds , it begins slowly before building up into a musical crescendo . Lyrically , the song is centered in praising God , relating a theme of nothingness without Christ .

= = Reception = =

" Who Am I " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine described the song as a " standout " from the album . Tom Lennie of Cross Rhythms noted it as one of the best songs from their debut album . In 2007 , Andree Farias of Christianity Today described it as one of the many Casting Crowns songs that have become " beloved anthems of the Christian faith " . In 2013 , Roger Gelwicks described it as an " AC radio favorite " but felt it was " dated " . At the 36th GMA Dove Awards , " Who Am I " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ; It was also nominated for Worship Song of the Year .

" Who Am I " was released to Christian adult contemporary , Christian CHR , and Soft AC / Inspirational radio on January 22 , 2004 as the second single from the band 's debut album . It spent six weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs songs chart and two weeks atop the Hot Christian AC chart . It also simultaneously topped the Radio & Records Christian AC , Christian CHR , and INSPO charts . In July 26 , 2011 , it was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying sales of over 500 @,@ 000 digital downloads .

= = Live performances and other uses = =

On October 5 , 2003 at the band 's church in Atlanta , Casting Crowns performed " Who Am I " . This performance was included on their 2004 live album Live from Atlanta . The band performed the song on May 6 , 2004 at the Nationally Broadcast Concert of Prayer event , held at Daytona International Speedway in front of nearly 10 @,@ 000 people ; the band 's performance , along with the rest of those participating in the three @-@ hour event , was simulcast nationally on television , radio , and the internet . The band performed the song on October 27 , 2004 at the Pontiac Silverdome in Detroit , Michigan as part of a Bush @-@ Cheney ' 04 campaign rally . The event was attended by around 20 @,@ 000 people .

At a concert at the Giant Center in Hershey , Pennsylvania held on April 1 , 2005 , Casting Crowns performed it as the third song on their set list . On July 10 , 2005 at a concert at Seaholm High School in Ypsilanti , Michigan , Casting Crowns performed it as their third song in their set list . At a concert at Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey , Casting Crowns performed an acoustic version of the song . At a concert on November 12 , 2005 in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania 's Stabler Arena , Casting Crowns performed the song as the thirteenth song in their set . The band performed the song at a February 5 , 2010 concert at the Sprint Center in Kansas City , Missouri . In 2009 , the band was invited to perform in North Korea at the 2009 Spring Friendship Art Festival ; the band 's set list at the festival included a Korean @-@ language version of " Who Am I " .

" Who Am I " was included on the 2004 compilation album WOW Hits 2005 , the 2006 compilation album WOW Worship : Aqua , and the 2008 compilation album WOW Essentials , as well as the band 's 2004 live album Live from Atlanta . The band re @-@ recorded the song for their 2013 acoustic album The Acoustic Sessions : Volume One ; unlike the original , which featured Mark Hall on lead vocals , the acoustic version features Megan Garrett on lead vocals .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits taken from Allmusic .

= = Charts = =

= = = Certifications = = =

= = Release and radio history = =

= We 'll Always Have Paris ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =

" We 'll Always Have Paris " is the 24th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , first aired on May 2 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The story and script were both created by Deborah Dean Davis and Hannah Louise Shearer , and the episode was directed by Robert Becker .

Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the crew respond to a distress call from Dr. Paul Manheim ( Rod Loomis ) . While the crew must deal with the results of Manheim 's haywire experiments with time , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) must deal with his former love Jenice ( Michelle Phillips ) , who is also Manheim 's wife .

The story of the episode was influenced by the film Casablanca , and was affected by the timing of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike . Because of the strike , the script was written in five days and it was only when it was filmed that it was discovered to be incomplete . Shearer was not happy with the result and felt that the on @-@ screen chemistry of Stewart and Phillips was lacking . Reviews of the episode have been mixed , with one reviewer summing it up by saying " there ’ s nothing I can point to at this episode and say is wrong , but it ’ s one of the more forgettable episodes . "

= = Plot = =

The Enterprise , along with other ships in the sector , experience a localized time @-@ distortion , and soon after receive a distress @-@ call from Dr. Paul Manheim in a nearby system . Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) recalls that Manheim was ejected from the Federation Science Institute for conducting unauthorized experiments . They find the distress signal coming from a facility on a planetoid surrounded by a force @-@ field . When they make contact with the facility , a woman requests help to save her husband , Dr. Manheim , and lowers the shields .

The two are brought aboard and while Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) tends to Dr. Manheim , who is having convulsions , Picard discovers his wife is Jenice , Picard 's former love from before he decided to join Starfleet . Jenice warns that her husband was working privately in his laboratory , but that she didn 't know what he was working on . She also alerts the crew to numerous security protocols that he has installed at the facilities . As the crew prepares to send an away @-@ team to investigate the laboratory , they experience more time distortions , described by Data ( Brent Spiner ) as " Manheim effects " . In one instance Picard , Riker and Data enter a turbolift only to see their past selves conversing outside of the lift . The crew find that they cannot complete a transporter beam to the facility due to the instabilities .

Dr. Manheim recovers long enough to explain that he was doing experiments involving time , gravity , and funnels to other universes , and suspects his last experiment is running out @-@ of @-@ hand . Manheim explains that he is trapped between two dimensions and Data determines that the experiment must be shut down during a time fluctuation or else it will simply grow larger . Manheim provides the crew with the correct coordinates to beam down to avoid the security fields . Picard admits to Jenice that he worried about losing her again after he left her in Paris , and vows to correct Dr. Manheim 's experiment .

As he is affected less by the distortions , Data is sent down alone and disables the remaining security measures before entering Manheim 's laboratory . He finds a column of energy emanating from a dimensional matrix , the source of the time distortions . Data , though briefly affected by the time distortions , is able to add anti @-@ matter to the matrix , causing the matrix to stabilize and halt the time distortions . Dr. Manheim fully recovers , and he and Jenice thank Picard and the crew for their help . Picard and Jenice use the holodeck to recreate one more encounter at a Paris café , before she returns with her husband to the planet .

= = Production = =

" We 'll Always Have Paris " is named in reference to the Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman film Casablanca . As well as the title of the episode and the love triangle in the story , the Blue Parrot Café from the film is directly mentioned by Captain Picard . Casablanca was also the basis for the earlier Star Trek : The Original Series novel The Entropy Effect , and would be so again in the Deep Space Nine episode " Profit and Loss " .

The story was originally pitched by Hannah Louise Shearer and Deborah Dean Davis , who were also given the job of developing the script . The writing of the episode suffered from the timing of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike , with Shearer and Dean Davis completing the script in five days . The premise of the story was a combination of their idea of a story " about a professor whose work wasn 't appreciated and had to go off on his own " and that of Maurice Hurley who wanted a story with a time anomaly . The final draft was dated 22 February and featured numerous differences from the filmed version , including Jenice being called Laura , a number of different interactions for the crew , and Riker , Worf and Data all being involved in shutting down Manheim 's equipment . The script was finalised a week before the episode was filmed , but the writers strike caused further issues when it was discovered during filming that the scene where Data was to fix the time distortions hadn 't been completed .

Robert Legato and Rick Berman spent forty minutes on the telephone with Shearer during the strike . While she refused to write the lines during the strike , Berman suggested dialogue and Shearer would give opinions with Legato taking down handwritten notes . Legato decided on the directing notes himself , and used a whip pan shot instead of an effects shot to film the three Datas as director Robert Becker had never used effects shots previously . Shearer wasn 't happy with the final result , saying " we were writing the most romantic episode in the world " but that " it was toned down 75 % " .

Shearer later complained of a lack of chemistry between Michelle Phillips and Patrick Stewart , which Phillips blamed on the conflicted nature of the character in that she was committed to her husband but also wanted to see Picard once more . Phillips , a Star Trek fan , is better known for being a member of the 1960s group The Mamas & the Papas . Rod Loomis ' previous science fiction outing was in Bill and Ted 's Excellent Adventure as Sigmund Freud , and Lance Spellerberg would later return in " The Icarus Factor " where his transporter chief gained the name Ensign Herbert . The image of 24th century Paris was a matte painting which was re @-@ used in Star Trek VI : The Undiscovered Country where it was hung outside the office of the Federation president .

= = Reception = =

" We 'll Always Have Paris " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing May 5 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 9 @.@ 7 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the same ratings received as the previous episode , " Skin of Evil " .

Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode on behalf of TrekNation in September 2007 , comparing certain elements of the episode to Casablanca and the series finale " All Good Things ... " . These included the ending where time distortions caused Data to be replicated three time in " We 'll Always Have Paris " compared to the similar situation with three Picards in " All Good Things ... " . Overall she thought that the episode was better than she recalled previously . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " described the episode as too simple , especially the ending which he said was " they give Data a canister , which he sticks into a hall of mirrors ; problem solved " .

Zack Handlen , reviewing the episode for The A.V. Club in May 2010 , said that he enjoyed the " time blips " in the episode , but that he wasn 't a fan of the romance between Jenice and Picard . He also felt that there wasn 't much follow up on Manheim 's experiments and that he seemed to be left to cause a more serious accident in the future . Keith DeCandido watched the episode for Tor.com in July 2011 . He thought that Michele Phillips was " incredibly radiant " , and said , " there ’ s nothing I can point to at this episode and say is wrong , but it ’ s one of the more forgettable episodes " , giving it a score of four out of ten .

= = Home media release = =

The first home media release of " We 'll Always Have Paris " was on VHS cassette was on July 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and was released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .

= Burn =

A burn is a type of injury to skin , or other tissues , caused by heat , cold , electricity , chemicals , friction , or radiation . Most burns are due to heat from hot liquids , solids , or fire . Among women in many areas of the world the risk is related to the use of open cooking fires or unsafe cook stoves . Alcoholism and smoking are other risk factors . Burns can also occur as a result of self harm or violence between people .

Burns that affect only the superficial skin layers are known as superficial or first @-@ degree burns . They appear red without blisters and pain typically lasts around three days . When the injury extends into some of the underlying skin layer , it is a partial @-@ thickness or second @-@ degree burn . Blisters are frequently present and they are often very painful . Healing can require up to eight weeks and scarring may occur . In a full @-@ thickness or third @-@ degree burn , the injury extends to all layers of the skin . Often there is no pain and the burn area is stiff . Healing typically does not occur on its own . A fourth @-@ degree burn additionally involves injury to deeper tissues , such as muscle , tendons , or bone . The burn is often black and frequently leads to loss of the burned part .

Burns are generally preventable . Treatment depends on the severity of the burn . Superficial burns may be managed with little more than simple pain medication , while major burns may require prolonged treatment in specialized burn centers . Cooling with tap water may help pain and decrease damage ; however , prolonged cooling may result in low body temperature . Partial @-@ thickness burns may require cleaning with soap and water , followed by dressings . It is not clear how to manage blisters , but it is probably reasonable to leave them intact if small and drain them if large . Full @-@ thickness burns usually require surgical treatments , such as skin grafting . Extensive burns often require large amounts of intravenous fluid , due to capillary fluid leakage and tissue swelling . The most common complications of burns involve infection . Tetanus toxoid should be given if not up to date .

In 2013 , fire and heat resulted in 35 million injuries . This resulted in about 2 @.@ 9 million hospitalizations and 238 @,@ 000 dying . Most deaths due to burns occur in the developing world , particularly in Southeast Asia . While large burns can be fatal , treatments developed since 1960 have improved outcomes , especially in children and young adults . In the United States , approximately 96 % of those admitted to a burn center survive their injuries . Burns occur at similar frequencies in men and women . The long @-@ term outcome is related to the size of burn and the age of the person affected .

= = Signs and symptoms = =

The characteristics of a burn depend upon its depth . Superficial burns cause pain lasting two or three days , followed by peeling of the skin over the next few days . Individuals suffering from more severe burns may indicate discomfort or complain of feeling pressure rather than pain . Full @-@ thickness burns may be entirely insensitive to light touch or puncture . While superficial burns are typically red in color , severe burns may be pink , white or black . Burns around the mouth or singed hair inside the nose may indicate that burns to the airways have occurred , but these findings are not definitive . More worrisome signs include : shortness of breath , hoarseness , and stridor or wheezing . Itchiness is common during the healing process , occurring in up to 90 % of adults and nearly all children . Numbness or tingling may persist for a prolonged period of time after an electrical injury . Burns may also produce emotional and psychological distress .

= = Cause = =

Burns are caused by a variety of external sources classified as thermal ( heat @-@ related ) , chemical , electrical , and radiation . In the United States , the most common causes of burns are : fire or flame ( 44 % ) , scalds ( 33 % ) , hot objects ( 9 % ) , electricity ( 4 % ) , and chemicals ( 3 % ) . Most ( 69 % ) burn injuries occur at home or at work ( 9 % ) , and most are accidental , with 2 % due to assault by another , and 1 @-@ 2 % resulting from a suicide attempt . These sources can cause inhalation injury to the airway and / or lungs , occurring in about 6 % .

Burn injuries occur more commonly among the poor . Smoking is a risk factor , although alcohol use is not . Fire @-@ related burns are generally more common in colder climates . Specific risk factors in the developing world include cooking with open fires or on the floor as well as developmental disabilities in children and chronic diseases in adults .

= = = Thermal = = =

In the United States , fire and hot liquids are the most common causes of burns . Of house fires that result in death , smoking causes 25 % and heating devices cause 22 % . Almost half of injuries are due to efforts to fight a fire . Scalding is caused by hot liquids or gases and most commonly occurs from exposure to hot drinks , high temperature tap water in baths or showers , hot cooking oil , or steam . Scald injuries are most common in children under the age of five and , in the United States and Australia , this population makes up about two @-@ thirds of all burns . Contact with hot objects is the cause of about 20 @-@ 30 % of burns in children . Generally , scalds are first- or second @-@ degree burns , but third @-@ degree burns may also result , especially with prolonged contact . Fireworks are a common cause of burns during holiday seasons in many countries . This is a particular risk for adolescent males .

= = = Chemical = = =

Chemicals cause from 2 to 11 % of all burns and contribute to as many as 30 % of burn @-@ related deaths . Chemical burns can be caused by over 25 @,@ 000 substances , most of which are either a strong base ( 55 % ) or a strong acid ( 26 % ) . Most chemical burn deaths are secondary to ingestion . Common agents include : sulfuric acid as found in toilet cleaners , sodium hypochlorite as found in bleach , and halogenated hydrocarbons as found in paint remover , among others . Hydrofluoric acid can cause particularly deep burns that may not become symptomatic until some time after exposure . Formic acid may cause the breakdown of significant numbers of red blood cells .

= = = Electrical = = =

Electrical burns or injuries are classified as high voltage ( greater than or equal to 1000 volts ) , low voltage ( less than 1000 volts ) , or as flash burns secondary to an electric arc . The most common causes of electrical burns in children are electrical cords ( 60 % ) followed by electrical outlets ( 14 % ) . Lightning may also result in electrical burns . Risk factors for being struck include involvement in outdoor activities such as mountain climbing , golf and field sports , and working outside . Mortality from a lightning strike is about 10 % .

While electrical injuries primarily result in burns , they may also cause fractures or dislocations secondary to blunt force trauma or muscle contractions . In high voltage injuries , most damage may occur internally and thus the extent of the injury cannot be judged by examination of the skin alone . Contact with either low voltage or high voltage may produce cardiac arrhythmias or cardiac arrest .

= = = Radiation = = =

Radiation burns may be caused by protracted exposure to ultraviolet light ( such as from the sun , tanning booths or arc welding ) or from ionizing radiation ( such as from radiation therapy , X @-@ rays or radioactive fallout ) . Sun exposure is the most common cause of radiation burns and the most common cause of superficial burns overall . There is significant variation in how easily people sunburn based on their skin type . Skin effects from ionizing radiation depend on the amount of exposure to the area , with hair loss seen after 3 Gy , redness seen after 10 Gy , wet skin peeling after 20 Gy , and necrosis after 30 Gy . Redness , if it occurs , may not appear until some time after exposure . Radiation burns are treated the same as other burns . Microwave burns occur via thermal heating caused by the microwaves . While exposures as short as two seconds may cause injury , overall this is an uncommon occurrence .

= = = Non accidental = = =

In those hospitalized from scalds or fire burns , 3 – 10 % are from assault . Reasons include : child abuse , personal disputes , spousal abuse , elder abuse , and business disputes . An immersion injury or immersion scald may indicate child abuse . It is created when an extremity or the lower body ( buttock or perineum ) is held under the surface of hot water . It typically produces a sharp upper border and is often symmetrical . Other high @-@ risk signs of potential abuse include : circumferential burns , the absence of splash marks , a burn of uniform depth , and association with other signs of neglect or abuse .

Bride burning , a form of domestic violence , occurs in some cultures , such as India where women have been burned in revenge for what the husband or his family consider an inadequate dowry . In Pakistan , acid burns represent 13 % of intentional burns , and are frequently related to domestic violence . Self @-@ immolation ( setting oneself on fire ) is also used as a form of protest in various parts of the world .

= = Pathophysiology = =

At temperatures greater than 44 ° C ( 111 ° F ) , proteins begin losing their three @-@ dimensional shape and start breaking down . This results in cell and tissue damage . Many of the direct health effects of a burn are secondary to disruption in the normal functioning of the skin . They include disruption of the skin 's sensation , ability to prevent water loss through evaporation , and ability to control body temperature . Disruption of cell membranes causes cells to lose potassium to the spaces outside the cell and to take up water and sodium .

In large burns ( over 30 % of the total body surface area ) , there is a significant inflammatory response . This results in increased leakage of fluid from the capillaries , and subsequent tissue edema . This causes overall blood volume loss , with the remaining blood suffering significant plasma loss , making the blood more concentrated . Poor blood flow to organs such as the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract may result in renal failure and stomach ulcers .

Increased levels of catecholamines and cortisol can cause a hypermetabolic state that can last for years . This is associated with increased cardiac output , metabolism , a fast heart rate , and poor immune function .

= = Diagnosis = =

Burns can be classified by depth , mechanism of injury , extent , and associated injuries . The most commonly used classification is based on the depth of injury . The depth of a burn is usually determined via examination , although a biopsy may also be used . It may be difficult to accurately determine the depth of a burn on a single examination and repeated examinations over a few days may be necessary . In those who have a headache or are dizzy and have a fire @-@ related burn , carbon monoxide poisoning should be considered . Cyanide poisoning should also be considered .

= = = Size = = =

The size of a burn is measured as a percentage of total body surface area ( TBSA ) affected by partial thickness or full thickness burns . First @-@ degree burns that are only red in color and are not blistering are not included in this estimation . Most burns ( 70 % ) involve less than 10 % of the TBSA .

There are a number of methods to determine the TBSA , including the Wallace rule of nines , Lund and Browder chart , and estimations based on a person 's palm size . The rule of nines is easy to remember but only accurate in people over 16 years of age . More accurate estimates can be made using Lund and Browder charts , which take into account the different proportions of body parts in adults and children . The size of a person 's handprint ( including the palm and fingers ) is approximately 1 % of their TBSA .

= = = Severity = = =

To determine the need for referral to a specialized burn unit , the American Burn Association devised a classification system . Under this system , burns can be classified as major , moderate and minor . This is assessed based on a number of factors , including total body surface area affected , the involvement of specific anatomical zones , the age of the person , and associated injuries . Minor burns can typically be managed at home , moderate burns are often managed in hospital , and major burns are managed by a burn center .

= = Prevention = =

Historically , about half of all burns were deemed preventable . Burn prevention programs have significantly decreased rates of serious burns . Preventive measures include : limiting hot water temperatures , smoke alarms , sprinkler systems , proper construction of buildings , and fire @-@ resistant clothing . Experts recommend setting water heaters below 48 @.@ 8 ° C ( 119 @.@ 8 ° F ) . Other measures to prevent scalds include using a thermometer to measure bath water temperatures , and splash guards on stoves . While the effect of the regulation of fireworks is unclear , there is tentative evidence of benefit with recommendations including the limitation of the sale of fireworks to children .

= = Management = =

Resuscitation begins with the assessment and stabilization of the person 's airway , breathing and circulation . If inhalation injury is suspected , early intubation may be required . This is followed by care of the burn wound itself . People with extensive burns may be wrapped in clean sheets until they arrive at a hospital . As burn wounds are prone to infection , a tetanus booster shot should be given if an individual has not been immunized within the last five years . In the United States , 95 % of burns that present to the emergency department are treated and discharged ; 5 % require hospital admission . With major burns , early feeding is important . Hyperbaric oxygenation may be useful in addition to traditional treatments .

= = = Intravenous fluids = = =

In those with poor tissue perfusion , boluses of isotonic crystalloid solution should be given . In children with more than 10 @-@ 20 % TBSA burns , and adults with more than 15 % TBSA burns , formal fluid resuscitation and monitoring should follow . This should be begun pre @-@ hospital if possible in those with burns greater than 25 % TBSA . The Parkland formula can help determine the volume of intravenous fluids required over the first 24 hours . The formula is based on the affected individual 's TBSA and weight . Half of the fluid is administered over the first 8 hours , and the remainder over the following 16 hours . The time is calculated from when the burn occurred , and not from the time that fluid resuscitation began . Children require additional maintenance fluid that includes glucose . Additionally , those with inhalation injuries require more fluid . While inadequate fluid resuscitation may cause problems , over @-@ resuscitation can also be detrimental . The formulas are only a guide , with infusions ideally tailored to a urinary output of > 30 mL / h in adults or > 1mL / kg in children and mean arterial pressure greater than 60 mmHg .

While lactated Ringer 's solution is often used , there is no evidence that it is superior to normal saline . Crystalloid fluids appear just as good as colloid fluids , and as colloids are more expensive they are not recommended . Blood transfusions are rarely required . They are typically only recommended when the hemoglobin level falls below 60 @-@ 80 g / L ( 6 @-@ 8 g / dL ) due to the associated risk of complications . Intravenous catheters may be placed through burned skin if needed or intraosseous infusions may be used .

= = = Wound care = = =

Early cooling ( within 30 minutes of the burn ) reduces burn depth and pain , but care must be taken as over @-@ cooling can result in hypothermia . It should be performed with cool water 10 – 25 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 – 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) and not ice water as the latter can cause further injury . Chemical burns may require extensive irrigation . Cleaning with soap and water , removal of dead tissue , and application of dressings are important aspects of wound care . If intact blisters are present , it is not clear what should be done with them . Some tentative evidence supports leaving them intact . Second @-@ degree burns should be re @-@ evaluated after two days .

In the management of first and second @-@ degree burns , little quality evidence exists to determine which dressing type to use . It is reasonable to manage first @-@ degree burns without dressings . While topical antibiotics are often recommended , there is little evidence to support their use . Silver sulfadiazine ( a type of antibiotic ) is not recommended as it potentially prolongs healing time . There is insufficient evidence to support the use of dressings containing silver or negative @-@ pressure wound therapy .

= = = Medications = = =

Burns can be very painful and a number of different options may be used for pain management . These include simple analgesics ( such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen ) and opioids such as morphine . Benzodiazepines may be used in addition to analgesics to help with anxiety . During the healing process , antihistamines , massage , or transcutaneous nerve stimulation may be used to aid with itching . Antihistamines , however , are only effective for this purpose in 20 % of people . There is tentative evidence supporting the use of gabapentin and its use may be reasonable in those who do not improve with antihistamines . Intravenous lidocaine requires more study before it can be recommended for pain .

Intravenous antibiotics are recommended before surgery for those with extensive burns ( > 60 % TBSA ) . As of 2008 , guidelines do not recommend their general use due to concerns regarding antibiotic resistance and the increased risk of fungal infections . Tentative evidence , however , shows that they may improve survival rates in those with large and severe burns . Erythropoietin has not been found effective to prevent or treat anemia in burn cases . In burns caused by hydrofluoric acid , calcium gluconate is a specific antidote and may be used intravenously and / or topically . Recombinant human growth hormone ( rhGH ) in those with burns that involve more than 40 % of their body appears to speed healing without affecting the risk of death .

= = = Surgery = = =

Wounds requiring surgical closure with skin grafts or flaps ( typically anything more than a small full thickness burn ) should be dealt with as early as possible . Circumferential burns of the limbs or chest may need urgent surgical release of the skin , known as an escharotomy . This is done to treat or prevent problems with distal circulation , or ventilation . It is uncertain if it is useful for neck or digit burns . Fasciotomies may be required for electrical burns .

= = = Alternative medicine = = =

Honey has been used since ancient times to aid wound healing and may be beneficial in first- and second @-@ degree burns . There is tentative evidence that honey helps heal partial thickness burns . The evidence for aloe vera is of poor quality . While it might be beneficial in reducing pain , and a review from 2007 found tentative evidence of improved healing times a subsequent review from 2012 did not find improved healing over silver sulfadiazine . There were only three randomized controlled trials for the use of plants for burns , two for aloe vera and one for oatmeal .

There is little evidence that vitamin E helps with keloids or scarring . Butter is not recommended . In low income countries , burns are treated up to one @-@ third of the time with traditional medicine , which may include applications of eggs , mud , leaves or cow dung . Surgical management is limited in some cases due to insufficient financial resources and availability . There are a number of other methods that may be used in addition to medications to reduce procedural pain and anxiety including : virtual reality therapy , hypnosis , and behavioral approaches such as distraction techniques .

= = Prognosis = =

The prognosis is worse in those with larger burns , those who are older , and those who are females . The presence of a smoke inhalation injury , other significant injuries such as long bone fractures , and serious co @-@ morbidities ( e.g. heart disease , diabetes , psychiatric illness , and suicidal intent ) also influence prognosis . On average , of those admitted to United States burn centers , 4 % die , with the outcome for individuals dependent on the extent of the burn injury . For example , admittees with burn areas less than 10 % TBSA had a mortality rate of less than 1 % , while admittees with over 90 % TBSA had a mortality rate of 85 % . In Afghanistan , people with more than 60 % TBSA burns rarely survive . The Baux score has historically been used to determine prognosis of major burns . However , with improved care , it is no longer very accurate . The score is determined by adding the size of the burn ( % TBSA ) to the age of the person , and taking that to be more or less equal to the risk of death . Burns in 2013 resulted in 1 @.@ 2 million years lived with disability and 12 @.@ 3 million disability adjusted life years .

= = = Complications = = =

A number of complications may occur , with infections being the most common . In order of frequency , potential complications include : pneumonia , cellulitis , urinary tract infections and respiratory failure . Risk factors for infection include : burns of more than 30 % TBSA , full @-@ thickness burns , extremes of age ( young or old ) , or burns involving the legs or perineum . Pneumonia occurs particularly commonly in those with inhalation injuries .

Anemia secondary to full thickness burns of greater than 10 % TBSA is common . Electrical burns may lead to compartment syndrome or rhabdomyolysis due to muscle breakdown . Blood clotting in the veins of the legs is estimated to occur in 6 to 25 % of people . The hypermetabolic state that may persist for years after a major burn can result in a decrease in bone density and a loss of muscle mass . Keloids may form subsequent to a burn , particularly in those who are young and dark skinned . Following a burn , children may have significant psychological trauma and experience post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . Scarring may also result in a disturbance in body image . In the developing world , significant burns may result in social isolation , extreme poverty and child abandonment .

= = Epidemiology = =

In 2013 fire and heat resulted in 35 million injuries . This resulted in about 2 @.@ 9 million hospitalizations and 238 @,@ 000 dying . This is down from 300 @,@ 000 deaths in 1990 . This makes it the 4th leading cause of injuries after motor vehicle collisions , falls , and violence . About 90 % of burns occur in the developing world . This has been attributed partly to overcrowding and an unsafe cooking situation . Overall , nearly 60 % of fatal burns occur in Southeast Asia with a rate of 11 @.@ 6 per 100 @,@ 000 . The number of fatal burns has increased from 280 @,@ 000 in 1990 to 338 @,@ 000 in 2010 .

In the developed world , adult males have twice the mortality as females from burns . This is most probably due to their higher risk occupations and greater risk @-@ taking activities . In many countries in the developing world , however , females have twice the risk of males . This is often related to accidents in the kitchen or domestic violence . In children , deaths from burns occur at more than ten times the rate in the developing than the developed world . Overall , in children it is one of the top fifteen leading causes of death . From the 1980s to 2004 , many countries have seen both a decrease in the rates of fatal burns and in burns generally .

= = = Developed countries = = =

An estimated 500 @,@ 000 burn injuries receive medical treatment yearly in the United States . They resulted in about 3 @,@ 300 deaths in 2008 . Most burns ( 70 % ) and deaths from burns occur in males . The highest incidence of fire burns occurs in those 18 – 35 years old , while the highest incidence of scalds occurs in children less than five years old and adults over 65 . Electrical burns result in about 1 @,@ 000 deaths per year . Lightning results in the death of about 60 people a year . In Europe , intentional burns occur most commonly in middle aged men .

= = = Developing countries = = =

In India , about 700 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 people per year sustain significant burns , though very few are looked after in specialist burn units . The highest rates occur in women 16 – 35 years of age . Part of this high rate is related to unsafe kitchens and loose @-@ fitting clothing typical to India . It is estimated that one @-@ third of all burns in India are due to clothing catching fire from open flames . Intentional burns are also a common cause and occur at high rates in young women , secondary to domestic violence and self @-@ harm .

= = History = =

Cave paintings from more than 3 @,@ 500 years ago document burns and their management . The earliest Egyptian records on treating burns describes dressings prepared with milk from mothers of baby boys , and the 1500 BCE Edwin Smith Papyrus describes treatments using honey and the salve of resin . Many other treatments have been used over the ages , including the use of tea leaves by the Chinese documented to 600 BCE , pig fat and vinegar by Hippocrates documented to 400 BCE , and wine and myrrh by Celsus documented to 100 CE . French barber @-@ surgeon Ambroise Paré was the first to describe different degrees of burns in the 1500s . Guillaume Dupuytren expanded these degrees into six different severities in 1832 .

The first hospital to treat burns opened in 1843 in London , England and the development of modern burn care began in the late 1800s and early 1900s . During World War I , Henry D. Dakin and Alexis Carrel developed standards for the cleaning and disinfecting of burns and wounds using sodium hypochlorite solutions , which significantly reduced mortality . In the 1940s , the importance of early excision and skin grafting was acknowledged , and around the same time , fluid resuscitation and formulas to guide it were developed . In the 1970s , researchers demonstrated the significance of the hypermetabolic state that follows large burns .

= Tropical Storm Brenda ( 1960 ) =

Tropical Storm Brenda was the second named storm of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 28 , and after moving ashore over the Florida Peninsula , it attained tropical storm status . Brenda accelerated northeast along the U.S. East Coast , ultimately peaking as a moderate storm with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) before crossing the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England ; it dissipated on July 31 over southern Canada . The storm inflicted moderate damage in Florida , the worst since Hurricane Easy of 1950 , and dropped heavy rainfall as far north as New York City . Total damage is estimated at US $ 5 million , and only indirect deaths are blamed on the cyclone .

= = Meteorological history = =

A weak low @-@ pressure area that organized in the northeast Gulf of Mexico began to intensify on July 28 , while located west of the Tampa Bay . Early in its life , the system had a broad circulation with primarily light winds , similar to that of a subtropical storm . The storm is estimated to have become a tropical depression earlier the previous day as it moved toward the northeast . It made landfall along the Florida coast near Cross City and continued inland , gradually accelerating . It likely attained tropical storm status at around 1200 UTC on July 28 while its center was situated west of Tampa . The cyclone was named Brenda after reconnaissance aircraft confirmed that it had reached tropical storm strength .

Brenda tracked northward , hugging the Georgia and South Carolina coasts before moving inland over North Carolina . It attained its peak winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in the late evening of July 29 , while situated south of Wilmington . Several hours later , the storm emerged over the Chesapeake Bay moving northeast at about 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) . Brenda crossed the Delmarva Peninsula and rapidly tracked into southern New Jersey . The storm crossed the state and eventually made another landfall on Long Island before making yet another landfall in coastal Connecticut .

At around 0000 UTC on July 31 , Brenda moved into Massachusetts . Shortly thereafter , it lost its tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . It dissipated by August 1 over southern Canada . Because Brenda was in the vicinity of land for most of its course , it was not able to intensify beyond tropical storm status .

= = Preparations and impact = =

In advance of the storm , tropical storm advisories and wind warnings were issued from Florida to Maine .

Rainfall from Tropical Storm Brenda affected at least 16 states . The heaviest precipitation fell in western Florida near Tampa , east of the storm 's center ; the Tampa International Airport recorded 14 @.@ 57 in ( 370 mm ) of rainfall . Extensive flooding occurred in the west @-@ central Florida Peninsula . Wind gusts exceeded 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and the storm produced 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high waves along the coast , leading to considerable erosion . However , storm tides were not severe . Around the Naples area , Brenda 's effects were primarily light , although small boat and dock facilities and roads sustained some damage . A private seawall at Clearwater was breached in two places by the cyclone .

Brenda was considered the worst storm to strike the area since Hurricane Easy in 1950 . While no casualties are directly blamed on the storm , at least one traffic @-@ related death took place . According to an American Red Cross Disaster Service report encompassing eight Florida counties , 11 houses sustained significant damage , while 567 suffered more minor damage . Around 590 families were affected overall . Total monetary damage is placed at near $ 5 million .

Tides along the Outer Banks of North Carolina were generally reported at 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above @-@ normal . In and around Wilmington , the storm caused minor damage to roofs and windows of some beachfront structures . Power was temporarily interrupted due to fallen tree limbs . Heavy rainfall caused flooding on streams and rivers , and in some areas the precipitation helped to end a serious drought . Some boats were swamped , and the winds ripped the roof off a cottage at Long Beach . The heavy rain and high tides flooded tobacco fields .

Moderate rains extended northward into the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , with lighter totals reported farther north in New York . At New York City , 4 @.@ 79 in ( 122 mm ) of precipitation fell , beating the one @-@ day July record of 3 @.@ 80 in ( 97 mm ) set in 1872 . The heavy rains flooded parts of LaGuardia Airport . Elsewhere , reports of 3 to 5 in ( 76 to 127 mm ) were common throughout New Jersey , Delaware , Maryland and Virginia . High winds also affected portions of the northeastern United States , gusting to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) across southern New England . Tides often ran 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above @-@ normal throughout the region . The storm caused travel delays and ran several ships aground , but otherwise inflicted little serious damage . The storm forced the cancellation of two American League baseball games and the postponement of several other sporting events .

= Stanley Price Weir =

Brigadier General Stanley Price Weir , DSO , VD , JP ( 23 April 1866 – 14 November 1944 ) was a public servant and Australian Army officer . During World War I , he commanded the 10th Battalion of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) during the landing at Anzac Cove and the subsequent Gallipoli Campaign , and during the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm in France .

Weir returned to Australia at his own request in late 1916 at the age of 50 , and in 1917 he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and was mentioned in dispatches for his performance at Pozières and Mouquet Farm . He went on to become the first South Australian Public Service Commissioner . He was given an honorary promotion to brigadier general on his retirement from the Australian Military Forces in 1921 . Weir was retired as public service commissioner in 1931 . In retirement he contributed to various benevolent and charitable organisations , and died in 1944 .

= = Early life = =

Weir was born in Norwood , South Australia , on 23 April 1866 , a son of Alfred Weir and Susannah Mary ( née Price ) . His father was a carpenter , who had emigrated to South Australia from Aberdeen , Scotland , in 1839 , two years after the colony was founded . Weir attended Moore 's School , the Norwood Public School , and Pulteney Street Grammar School . In 1879 , at the age of 13 , he joined the Surveyor General 's Department as an office assistant . He assisted the surveyor who pegged out the land at the rear of Government House , Adelaide , for the Torrens Parade Ground , and was later promoted to clerk . On 14 May 1890 , he married Rosa Wadham at the Christian Chapel , Norwood . He rose through the department to be appointed Survey Storekeeper , Custodian of Plans and Custodian of Government Motor Cars , on 1 July 1911 . He was appointed a justice of the peace on 10 September 1914 .

= = Early military service = =

Weir enlisted in the part @-@ time South Australian Volunteer Military Force in March 1885 , joining the 1st Battalion , Adelaide Rifles , as a private . By 1890 , he had been promoted to colour sergeant . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion , Adelaide Rifles , on 19 March 1890 , and was promoted to captain on 25 May 1893 . When the South African War broke out he volunteered for service with the South Australian Bushmen 's Corps , but mounted officers were preferred , and he was not selected .

On 1 July 1903 , the Adelaide Rifles became the 10th Infantry Regiment of the Commonwealth Military Forces , and Weir was appointed adjutant . He was promoted to major on 1 January 1904 , and appointed as regimental second @-@ in @-@ command . He was awarded the Long Service and Good Conduct Medal in 1905 , and the Volunteer Officers ' Decoration in 1908 . On 22 June 1908 , Weir was promoted to lieutenant colonel and appointed the commanding officer of the 10th Infantry Regiment . On 1 January 1912 , he was transferred to the unattached list but this only lasted until 1 July , when the universal training scheme was introduced . He was soon appointed to command the 19th Infantry Brigade , and on 9 September 1913 he was promoted to colonel .

= = World War I = =

On 12 August 1914 , Weir received a telegram from Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , the designated commander of the 3rd Brigade , offering him the command of the 10th Battalion . Weir promptly accepted , and on 17 August was appointed as a lieutenant colonel in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , making him the first South Australian to be commissioned in the AIF . He retained his rank of colonel in the part @-@ time forces in an honorary capacity .

= = = Gallipoli = = =

Weir assembled and trained his battalion at the Morphettville Racecourse , then embarked with them on the transport Ascanius on 20 October 1914 as the first convoy of Australian troops departed for overseas service . On arrival in Fremantle , six companies of the 11th Battalion were embarked on the transport , and Weir was appointed Officer Commanding Troops for the voyage . The troops began disembarking at Alexandria on 6 December 1914 , and were entrained for Cairo , where they began to set up camp at Mena . The Australian Official War Historian , Charles Bean , described Weir as being " somewhat above average in years " for a battalion commander . Following the Allied decision to land a force on the Gallipoli Peninsula , the 3rd Brigade was selected as the covering force for the landing at Anzac Cove . The 10th Battalion embarked for the Greek island of Lemnos in the northern Aegean Sea on 1 March 1915 , and after further training on Lemnos , the battalion was one of the first two battalions ashore on the morning of 25 April 1915 .

During the landing , when the boats carrying the lead elements of the battalion were around 40 yards ( 37 m ) from shore , according to Bean , Weir observed to another officer in his boat that everything was silent , but soon after Ottoman troops began firing at the landing force . Weir landed with the scout platoon , and urged both his men and those of the 9th Battalion to immediately begin climbing the cliffs that overlooked the beach . Weir , along with " B " and " C " Companies of the battalion , reached what later became known as " Plugge 's Plateau " . Heavy fighting followed the initial landing and , within five days , half of Weir 's battalion had been killed or wounded . The Australian and New Zealand advance inland from Anzac Cove was subsequently checked by the defending Ottoman forces and was eventually contained in a small beachhead inside a series of ridges that ranged around the cove . Weir was the only commanding officer from the 3rd Brigade to go forward of the first ridge , and a ridge running off the 400 Plateau subsequently became known as " Weir Ridge " .

As stalemate set in , Weir continued to command his battalion throughout the early stages of the campaign until 25 August , when he was appointed acting brigadier general and placed in command of the 3rd Brigade . On 11 September , he became ill and was evacuated to Malta , where he was admitted to hospital . He was subsequently evacuated to the United Kingdom , where he convalesced until January 1916 , when he was appointed commandant of the Australian reinforcement camp at Weymouth , Dorset .

= = = Western Front = = =

Weir 's health had not completely recovered by the time he embarked for Egypt , and he rejoined his battalion on 4 March 1916 . After his departure , the 10th had fought through the remainder of the campaign before being withdrawn along with the rest of the Allied force in December 1915 . The battalion was subsequently moved back to Egypt . In mid @-@ 1916 , the bulk of the AIF was transferred to the Western Front , and Weir led the 10th Battalion through July and August 1916 during the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm . At Pozières , the battalion suffered 350 casualties in four days . By the time of the battle , Weir was the only original battalion commander remaining in the 1st Australian Division , and had turned 50 years of age . On 23 August , immediately after Mouquet Farm , Weir was again appointed acting commander of the 3rd Brigade . Exhausted , on 7 September 1916 he asked to be relieved , and his request was granted . He returned to Australia on 23 September 1916 , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 14 December . In the Australian official history of the war , Bean observed that despite his age , Weir " took his battalion into the front line , commanded it there throughout its first battle , and remained longer in the field than almost any of the senior militia officers who had left with the original force " .

= = Post @-@ war military service = =

After his AIF appointment was terminated , Weir resumed his service in the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . In 1917 , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and the Russian Empire Order of St. Anne , 2nd Class , with Swords , and was mentioned in dispatches for his performance at Pozières and Mouquet Farm . From 1917 to 1920 , he was aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor @-@ General of Australia , Sir Ronald Craufurd Munro Ferguson . Weir retired from the CMF as an honorary brigadier general in March 1921 , his last appointment being as commander of the 20th Infantry Brigade . He was only the second South Australia @-@ born officer to reach the rank of brigadier general . On 31 March 1921 , Weir was appointed Honorary Colonel of the 10th Battalion , a position he held for many years .

= = Later life = =

Weir had two significant advantages in his return to a civilian career . Firstly , he was repatriated well before most servicemen and , secondly , South Australia had implemented a policy of preferment of returned servicemen for government employment . These circumstances helped him gain appointment as the first South Australian Public Service Commissioner in 1916 . Weir was not suited to this role , being unable to navigate the competing personal and political agendas of senior public servants and politicians , and was soon sidelined . In 1925 , legislative changes made it possible for the government to replace Weir , and this took place in 1930 . In the last year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before his retirement in 1931 , Weir was the chairman of both the Central Board of Health and the Public Relief Board , excelling at the latter .

On 8 June 1923 , after many years of poor health , Weir 's wife Rosa died . He married Lydia Maria Schrapel in 1926 . Weir led an active retirement , contributing to several religious , charitable and welfare organisations and activities . These included the Norwood and Maylands Churches of Christ , Benevolent and Stranger 's Friend Society , the Our Boys Institute ( OBI ) , the Masonic Lodge , Cheer Up Society , and YMCA . At various times he served as President of the Commonwealth Club , the Churches of Christ Union , the St. Peters Sub @-@ Branch of the Returned and Services League , and the Cheer Up Society .

Weir wrote the foreword for the history of the 10th Battalion , titled The Fighting 10th : A South Australian Centenary Souvenir of the 10th Battalion , AIF 1914 – 1919 , which was written by a former member of the battalion , Cecil Lock , and published in 1936 . In 1943 , Weir was badly injured in a car accident while returning from an OBI camp at Victor Harbor . It was believed that his injuries in the accident contributed to his death on 14 November 1944 . Weir was survived by his wife Lydia , and his son Lionel and daughter Beryl from his first marriage . His brother , Harrison Weir , was the State Government Printer . Weir was buried in West Terrace Cemetery .

= = Awards = =

Weir received the following honours and awards :

Long Service and Good Conduct Medal in 1905

Volunteer Officers ' Decoration on 11 April 1908

Distinguished Service Order on 1 January 1917

Mentioned in despatches on 4 January 1917

Order of St. Anne , 2nd Class , with Swords ( Russian Empire ) on 15 February 1917

King George V Silver Jubilee Medal on 6 May 1935

= = Promotions = =

Weir 's military career commenced in March 1885 , when he enlisted as a private . He quickly rose to the rank of colour sergeant before being commissioned in 1890 . He rose from private to brigadier general over a career spanning 36 years . His officer promotion dates were :

Lieutenant on 19 March 1890

Captain on 25 May 1893

Major on 1 January 1904

Lieutenant colonel on 22 June 1908

Colonel on 9 September 1913

Lieutenant colonel ( AIF ) on 17 August 1914

Brigadier general ( honorary ) on 17 March 1921

= Chapter 1 ( House of Cards ) =

" Chapter 1 " ( sometimes " Episode 101 " ) is the pilot episode of the American political thriller drama television series House of Cards and is the first episode of the first season . It premiered on February 1 , 2013 , when it was released along with the rest of the first season on the American streaming service Netflix . This episode became the first web television webisode to earn Primetime Emmy Awards and nominations . " Chapter 1 " was written by series developer Beau Willimon and directed by executive producer David Fincher . The episode also earned 3 other Emmy nominations as well as WGA : Episodic Drama and DGA – Drama Series nominations .

Frank Underwood ( Kevin Spacey ) is an ambitious Democratic congressman and the House Majority Whip . Underwood helped ensure the election of President Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) , who promised to appoint Underwood as Secretary of State . However , before Walker is sworn in , Chief of Staff Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) announces that the president will not honor the agreement and will instead nominate Senator Michael Kern . Furious at Walker 's betrayal , Underwood and his wife Claire ( Robin Wright ) , an environmental activist , make a pact to destroy Kern . When Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) makes her resources available , she becomes one of their pawns .

The episode was well received by most television critics . They praised the production values of the series as well as the performances of the lead actors .

= = Plot = =

South Carolina Congressman Frank Underwood ( Kevin Spacey ) , the Democratic Majority Whip , leaves his house in Washington , D.C. after hearing his neighbors ’ dog get hit by a car . As he comforts the mortally @-@ wounded dog , he looks into the camera and says “ Moments like this require someone who will act , who will do the unpleasant thing , the necessary thing , ” before calmly proceeding to strangle it . This introduces both his habit of breaking the fourth wall to narrate , and his cold and vicious nature . Frank and his wife , Claire ( Robin Wright ) , go on to attend a New Year ’ s Eve party in honor of the new President @-@ elect , Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) , a fellow Democrat and winner of the 2012 election . Frank confesses to the viewer that he does not like Walker , but saw his political potential early on and ingratiated himself to him , putting himself in line to be nominated as Walker ’ s Secretary of State after 22 years in Congress .

Frank meets with Walker 's Chief of Staff , Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) , whom Frank recommended for the job . She reveals that she and Walker have decided to rescind their promise to nominate him as Secretary of State because they want him to remain in Congress and use his political expertise to get the President @-@ elect ’ s education reform agenda passed . Frank is initially incensed , but when Linda asks if he will continue to be an ally to the future President he says that he will . Linda reveals that Senator Michael Kern ( Kevin Kilner ) has been chosen for the position instead . Despite his statement to the contrary , Frank feels personally betrayed and , with Claire ’ s encouragement , begins to formulate a plot for revenge , which he shares with his Chief of Staff , Doug Stamper ( Michael Kelly ) . Mrs. Underwood , meanwhile , is forced to downsize the non @-@ profit organization she manages , the Clean Water Initiative , which had been promised a large donation upon her husband ’ s confirmation as Secretary , without which the organization is forced to substantially curtail its budget .

On a whim , Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , a young reporter for the Washington Herald who is stuck covering trivial “ human interest ” stories , pays a late @-@ night visit to Frank at his home . She offers to be Frank ’ s undercover mouthpiece in the press in exchange for the elevated profile that she would gain from breaking substantive stories . Meanwhile , Peter Russo ( Corey Stoll ) , a young , inexperienced congressman from Philadelphia , is arrested for drunk driving . Stamper finds out about the arrest and immediately contacts the D.C. police commissioner , offering Underwood ’ s support for his mayoral campaign in exchange for releasing Russo and completely covering up the incident . Russo is picked up from jail by his secretary and romantic partner , Christina Gallagher ( Kristen Connolly ) . He lies to her , telling her that he was alone when he was arrested when , in fact , there was a prostitute in the car ( Rachel Brosnahan ) .

Frank meets with Congressman Donald Blythe ( Reed Birney ) , a committed progressive liberal who has long pushed for education reform , with whom the Walker administration wants to work on a bill . Frank dismisses his proposal as too ambitious and asks him to rewrite it . Frank secretly passes a copy of Blythe ’ s proposal to Zoe . He then meets with Senator Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) and suggests that she ought to consider seeking the nomination for Secretary of State . He also privately confronts Congressman Russo about his arrest and checkered history of substance abuse and soliciting prostitutes , and demands Russo ’ s loyalty in exchange for making the incident disappear .

Zoe takes the draft of the education bill to the Herald ’ s political editor , Lucas Goodwin ( Sebastian Arcelus ) , and its chief editor , Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) , who gives her the lead on the story over the more experienced chief political correspondent Janine Skorsky ( Constance Zimmer ) . The episode ends the morning after Walker ’ s inauguration , with Frank visiting his favorite restaurant , Freddy ’ s BBQ Joint , for breakfast . On the front page of the Washington Herald is Zoe ’ s story about Blythe ’ s “ far left ” education plan .

= = Production = =

The episode was directed by David Fincher and was written by Beau Willimon , who has served as an aide to Charles Schumer , Howard Dean and Hillary Clinton . Independent studio Media Rights Capital purchased the rights to House of Cards , with the intent on creating a series . Netflix agreed to contribute an undisclosed fixed fee to production costs in March 2011 . As he was completing his work on The Curious Case of Benjamin Button , Fincher was introduced to the original miniseries by his agent and sought to develop a series with Eric Roth . House of Cards was pitched to several cable networks , including HBO , AMC and Showtime . Netflix , interested in launching their own original programming , outbid the networks , picking the series up for 26 episodes , totaling two seasons . Netflix was the only bidder that was interested in purchasing the rights without seeing a completed pilot . Thus , the show was not forced into manipulating story arcs introduced in the pilot to create artificial cliffhangers .

= = = Casting = = =

Fincher stated that every main cast member was their first choice . In the first read through , he said " I want everybody here to know that you represent our first choice — each actor here represents our first choice for these characters . So do not fuck this up . " Spacey , whose last regular television role was in the series Wiseguy , responded positively to the script . He then played Richard III , which Fincher said was " great training " . Spacey supported the decision to release all of the episodes at once , believing that this type of release pattern will be increasingly common with television shows . He said , " When I ask my friends what they did with their weekend , they say , ' Oh , I stayed in and watched three seasons of Breaking Bad ' or it 's two seasons of Game of Thrones " . He was officially cast on March 18 , 2011 . Robin Wright was approached by Fincher to star in the series when they worked together in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo . She was cast as Claire Underwood in June 2011 . Kate Mara was cast as Zoe Barnes in early February 2012 . Mara 's sister , Rooney Mara , worked with Fincher in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo , and when Kate Mara read the part of Zoe , she " fell in love with the character " and asked her sister to " put in a word for me with Fincher " . The next month , she got a call for an audition .

= = = Cast = = =

In order billed in the episode opening credits :

= = = Filming = = =

While Netflix had ventured into original programming by greenlighting foreign shows that were new to United States audiences with shows such as Lilyhammer , House of Cards represented the first show made for Netflix . Filming for the first season began in January 2012 in Harford County , Maryland .

" Chapter 1 " sets the tone for the environs of the series . According to David Carr the political environs have such " marbleness " that it belies the clandestine nature of political activities , including those of Underwood who says he is there to " clear the pipes and keep the sludge moving " . The fictional newspaper , The Washington Herald , is set with " brutal " lighting and drab furniture , in part because it was filmed at the real life Baltimore Sun offices . Carr uses several pejorative adjectives to describe Barnes ' apartment including sad , grubby , dirty , dreary and humble but note that this implies that the digital revolution is dominated by people " on laptops who have no furniture " . Similarly , Underwood and his associates are nattily clad , Barnes shows a lack of fashion recognition .

= = = Release = = =

The episode was broadcast online by Netflix on February 1 , 2013 as part of the simultaneous release of all 13 episodes of season 1 of the series . The debut date was a weekend when there was little competition on television other than Super Bowl XLVII and a new episode of Downton Abbey on PBS . Netflix broadcast " Chapter 1 " and " Chapter 2 " to critics several days in advance of the release .

= = Reception = =

= = = Reviews = = =

The episode received positive reviews from critics . Elements of the opening scene were lauded . Matt Roush of TV Guide praised Spacey 's self introduction as a Machiavellian politician in which he says " I have no patience for useless things . " Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert noted that " the first two episodes were expertly directed by David Fincher " and Spacey 's harmonious cadence such as those used in the first scene of this episode " makes even his character ’ s mercy killing of an injured dog — which he does by hand — seem a little less brutal . " Not only is Underwood described as Machiavellian , one critic from The New York Times notes that his belief in the omnipresence of dirt expressed as " Nobody ’ s a Boy Scout , not even a Boy Scout " harkens back to Willie Stark in All the King 's Men who said " There 's always something " .

Time television critic James Poniewozik , notes that by the end of the first episode Frank establishes that his metaphor of choice is meat because both literally and figuratively it is his preference . He may begin a day with a celebratory rack of ribs , because " I ’ m feelin ’ hungry today ! " , but also he describes life with meat metaphors : he describes the White House Chief of Staff with grudging admiration : " She ’ s as tough as a two @-@ dollar steak . " ; he plans to destroy an enemy the way " you devour a whale . One bite at a time . " ; and he endures a tedious weekly meeting with House leaders , he tells us , by " [ imagining ] their lightly salted faces frying in a skillet . " Poniewozik notes that all of this comes from a character whose name , Underwood is a reference to the hallmark deviled ham of the William Underwood Company .

Roush also notes that the first two weeks show how Claire " runs a charity with a brutally iron fist " . While Frank is Machiavellian , Claire presents a woman urging on her husband 's assertion of power in the image of Lady Macbeth . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an ice @-@ queen wife . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weakness saying " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes what she sees of their relationship in the first two episodes as pivotal to the show 's success : " Benign though they may seem — and their harmless air is what makes the Underwoods so effective as political plotters — this is a power couple with the same malignant chemistry as pairs of serial killers , where each needs the other in order to become lethal " .

Gilbert also notes that Mara 's surprising naivete is a welcome respite against a backdrop of a " terminally jaded " cast . As the show begins , aspiring journalist Zoe Barnes is desperate to rise from covering the " Fairfax County Council " beat to covering " ' what 's behind the veil ' of power in the Capitol hallways . " Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times notes that by the end of the first episode , Mara 's Barnes is among the cadre of Frank 's accomplices . After she pleads for a relationship with him by promising to earn his trust and not " ask any questions " , Frank uses her fiendishly . However , Ashley Parker of The New York Times considers her unfathomably aggressive and too overt , transactional and sexual . Parker points out that Barnes ' statement " I protect your identity , I print what you tell me , and I 'll never ask any questions " almost discredits itself .

The Washington Post 's Stuever has many complaints about the show including the fact that it is about Washington , DC , but filmed in Baltimore . He also complains about its entrance into the television landscape littered with " more fictitious administrations than anyone can keep track of " . He says that perspective will affect your perception of the show . Those not already inundated with " Type A personalities inside the Beltway " in their daily lives may be drawn to the show . However , it is not likely a show that will serve well those who spend a lot of time with the issues that the show deals with . After viewing the first two episodes , Stuever also finds fault with the use of breaking the fourth wall , describing it as " the show 's unwise narrative trope " . The Wall Street Journal 's Smith defends the fourth wall as an " artifice that generally works well here to loosen our bearings " .

Ryan McGee of The A.V. Club notes Russo seems to employ vices without restraint , which is a respite from the other exacting characters in the episode and a makes him a sort of metaphor for the show . McGee also notes that the episode includes " establishing shots within Zoe ’ s apartment that offer up almost everything you need to know about her current position in life " .

= = = Accolades = = =

On July 18 , 2013 , House of Cards ( along with Netflix 's other web series ' Arrested Development and Hemlock Grove ) earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2013 . Among House of Cards ' nine nominations , " Chapter 1 " received four nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards and 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards becoming the first webisode ( online @-@ only episode ) of a television series to receive a major Primetime Emmy Award nomination : Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for David Fincher . This episode also received several Creative Arts Emmy Award nominations , including Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series , Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series , and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic ) . Although the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series is not a category that formally recognizes an episode , Spacey submitted " Chapter 1 " for consideration due to his nomination .

On September 15 , at the Creative Arts Emmy Award presentation , " Chapter 1 " and Eigil Bryld earned the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series , making " Chapter 1 " the first ever Emmy @-@ awarded webisode . Then on September 22 , David Fincher won Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for directing the pilot episode " Chapter 1 " , bringing the series to a total of three wins and marking the first ever win for a webisode at the Primetime Emmy award ceremony . None of the Emmy awards were considered to be in major categories , however .

= Alice in Chains =

Alice in Chains is an American rock band formed in Seattle , Washington , in 1987 by guitarist and songwriter Jerry Cantrell and original lead vocalist Layne Staley . The initial lineup was rounded out by drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr , who was replaced in 1993 by Mike Inez .

Although widely associated with grunge music , the band 's sound incorporates heavy metal elements . Since its formation , Alice in Chains has released five studio albums , three EPs , two live albums , four compilations , and two DVDs . The band is known for its distinctive vocal style , which often included the harmonized vocals of Staley and Cantrell ( and later William DuVall ) .

Alice in Chains rose to international fame as part of the grunge movement of the early 1990s , along with other Seattle bands such as Nirvana , Pearl Jam , and Soundgarden . The band was one of the most successful music acts of the 1990s , selling over 20 million albums worldwide , and over 14 million in the US alone . In 1992 the band 's second album , Dirt , was released to critical acclaim and was certified quadruple platinum . Their third album , Alice in Chains , was released in 1995 and has been certified double platinum . It achieved No. 1 position on the Billboard 200 chart . The band has had 14 top ten songs on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and nine Grammy Award nominations .

Although never officially disbanding , Alice in Chains was plagued by extended inactivity from 1996 onwards due to Staley 's substance abuse , which resulted in his death in 2002 . The band reunited in 2005 for a live benefit show , performing with a number of guest vocalists . They toured in 2006 , with William DuVall taking over as lead vocalist full @-@ time . The new line @-@ up released the band 's fourth studio album , Black Gives Way to Blue , in 2009 . The album received gold certification by the RIAA . In 2013 , the band released The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , its fifth studio album . The band has toured extensively and released several videos in support of these albums . Alice in Chains is currently working on their sixth studio album .

= = History = =

= = = Formation and early years ( 1984 – 89 ) = = =

Before the formation of Alice in Chains , then @-@ drummer Layne Staley landed his first gig as a vocalist when he auditioned to sing for a local glam metal band known as Sleze after receiving some encouragement from his stepbrother Ken Elmer . Other members of this group at that time were guitarists Johnny Bacolas and Zoli Semanate , drummer James Bergstrom , and bassist Byron Hansen . This band went through several lineup changes culminating with Nick Pollock as their sole guitarist and Bacolas switching to bass before discussions arose about changing their name to Alice in Chains . This was prompted by a conversation that Bacolas had with a singer from another band about backstage passes . Due to concerns over the reference to female bondage , the group ultimately chose to spell it differently as Alice N ' Chains to allay any parental concerns , though Staley 's mother Nancy McCallum has said she was still not happy with this name at first .

Staley met guitarist Jerry Cantrell while working with Alice N ' Chains at Music Bank rehearsal studios . The two struggling musicians became roommates , living in a rehearsal space they shared . Alice N ' Chains soon disbanded , and Staley joined a funk band that also required a guitarist at the time . Staley asked Cantrell to join as a sideman . Cantrell agreed on condition that Staley join Cantrell 's band , which at the time included drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr . Eventually the funk project broke up , and in 1987 Staley joined Cantrell 's band on a full @-@ time basis , playing in clubs around the Pacific Northwest , often stretching 15 minutes of material into a 45 @-@ minute set . The band played a couple of gigs , calling themselves different monikers , including Diamond Lie , the name of Cantrell 's previous band , before eventually adopting the name that Staley 's previous band had initially flirted with , Alice in Chains .

Local promoter Randy Hauser became aware of the band at a concert and offered to pay for demo recordings . However , one day before the band was due to record at the Music Bank studio in Washington , police shut down the studio during the biggest cannabis raid in the history of the state . The final demo , completed in 1988 , was named The Treehouse Tapes and found its way to the music managers Kelly Curtis and Susan Silver , who also managed the Seattle @-@ based band Soundgarden . Curtis and Silver passed the demo on to Columbia Records ' A & R representative Nick Terzo , who set up an appointment with label president Don Ienner . Based on The Treehouse Tapes , Ienner signed Alice in Chains to Columbia in 1989 . The band also recorded another untitled demo over a three @-@ month period in 1989 . This recording can be found on the bootleg release Sweet Alice .

= = = Facelift and Sap ( 1990 – 92 ) = = =

Alice in Chains soon became a top priority of the label , which released the band 's first official recording in July 1990 , a promotional EP called We Die Young . The EP 's lead single , " We Die Young " , became a hit on metal radio . After its success , the label rushed Alice in Chains ' debut album into production with producer Dave Jerden . Cantrell stated the album was intended to have a " moody aura " that was a " direct result of the brooding atmosphere and feel of Seattle " .

The resulting album , Facelift , was released on August 21 , 1990 , peaking at number 42 in the summer of 1991 on the Billboard 200 chart . Facelift was not an instant success , selling under 40 @,@ 000 copies in the first six months of release , until MTV added " Man in the Box " to regular daytime rotation . The single hit number 18 on the Mainstream rock charts , with the album 's follow up single , " Sea of Sorrow " , reaching number 27 , and in six weeks Facelift sold 400 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The album was a critical success , with Steve Huey of AllMusic citing Facelift as " one of the most important records in establishing an audience for grunge and alternative rock among hard rock and heavy metal listeners . "

Facelift was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) by the end of 1990 , while the band continued to hone its audience , opening for such artists as Iggy Pop , Van Halen , Poison , and Extreme . In early 1991 , Alice in Chains landed the opening slot for the Clash of the Titans tour with Anthrax , Megadeth , and Slayer , exposing the band to a wide metal audience but receiving mainly poor reception . Alice in Chains was nominated for a Best Hard Rock Performance Grammy Award in 1992 for " Man in the Box " but lost to Van Halen for their 1991 album For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge .

Following the tour , Alice in Chains entered the studio to record demos for its next album , but ended up recording five acoustic songs instead . While in the studio , drummer Sean Kinney had a dream about " making an EP called Sap " . The band decided " not to mess with fate " , and on March 21 , 1992 , Alice in Chains released their second EP , Sap . The EP was released while Nirvana 's Nevermind was at the top of the Billboard 200 charts , resulting in a rising popularity of Seattle @-@ based bands , and of the term " grunge music " . Sap was certified gold within two weeks . The EP features guest vocals by Ann Wilson from the band Heart , who joined Staley and Cantrell for the choruses of " Brother " , " Am I Inside " , and " Love Song " . The EP also features Mark Arm of Mudhoney and Chris Cornell of Soundgarden , who appeared together on the song " Right Turn " , credited to " Alice Mudgarden " in the liner notes . In 1992 , Alice in Chains appeared in the Cameron Crowe film Singles , performing as a " bar band " . The band also contributed the song " Would ? " to the film 's soundtrack , whose video received an award for Best Video from a Film at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards .

= = = Dirt ( 1992 – 93 ) = = =

In March 1992 , the band returned to the studio . With new songs written primarily on the road , the material has an overall darker feel than Facelift , with six of the album 's thirteen songs dealing with the subject of addiction . " We did a lot of soul searching on this album . There 's a lot of intense feelings . " Cantrell said , " We deal with our daily demons through music . All of the poison that builds up during the day we cleanse when we play " .

On September 29 , 1992 , Alice in Chains released its second album , Dirt . The album peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 and since its release has been certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA , making Dirt the band 's highest selling album to date . The album was a critical success , with Steve Huey of Allmusic praising the album as a " major artistic statement , and the closest they ever came to recording a flat @-@ out masterpiece " . Chris Gill of Guitar World called Dirt " huge and foreboding , yet eerie and intimate " , and " sublimely dark and brutally honest " . Dirt spawned five top 30 singles , " Would ? " , " Rooster " , " Them Bones " , " Angry Chair " , and " Down in a Hole " , and remained on the charts for nearly two years . Alice in Chains was added as openers to Ozzy Osbourne 's No More Tears tour . Days before the tour began , Layne Staley broke his foot in an ATV accident , forcing him to use crutches on stage . Starr left the band shortly after the Rock in Rio concert in January of 1993 and was replaced by former Ozzy Osbourne bassist Mike Inez . In 1993 , the band recorded two songs with Inez , " What the Hell Have I " and " A Little Bitter " , for the Last Action Hero soundtrack . During the summer of 1993 , Alice in Chains toured with the alternative music festival Lollapalooza , their last major tour with Staley .

= = = Jar of Flies ( 1993 – 94 ) = = =

Following Alice in Chains ' extensive 1993 world tour , Staley said the band " just wanted to go into the studio for a few days with our acoustic guitars and see what happened " . " We never really planned on the music we made at that time to be released . But the record label heard it and they really liked it . For us , it was just the experience of four guys getting together in the studio and making some music . "

Columbia Records released Alice in Chains ' second acoustic @-@ based EP , Jar of Flies , on January 25 , 1994 . Written and recorded in one week , Jar of Flies debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , becoming the first ever EP — and first Alice in Chains release — to top the charts . Paul Evans of Rolling Stone called the EP " darkly gorgeous " , and Steve Huey stated " Jar of Flies is a low @-@ key stunner , achingly gorgeous and harrowingly sorrowful all at once " . Jar of Flies features Alice in Chains ' first number @-@ one single on the Mainstream Rock charts , " No Excuses " . The second single , " I Stay Away " , reached number ten on the Mainstream rock charts , while the final single " Don 't Follow " , reached number 25 . After the release of Jar of Flies , Staley entered rehab for heroin addiction . The band was scheduled to tour during the summer of 1994 with Metallica , Suicidal Tendencies , Danzig , and Fight , as well as a slot during Woodstock 94 , but while in rehearsal for the tour , Staley began using heroin again . Staley 's condition prompted the other band members to cancel all scheduled dates one day before the start of the tour , putting the band on hiatus . Alice in Chains was replaced by Candlebox on the tour .

= = = Alice in Chains ( 1995 – 96 ) = = =

While Alice in Chains was inactive during 1995 , Staley joined the " grunge supergroup " Mad Season , which also featured Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready , bassist John Baker Saunders from The Walkabouts , and Screaming Trees drummer Barrett Martin . Mad Season released one album , Above , for which Staley provided lead vocals and the album artwork . The album spawned a number @-@ two single , " River of Deceit " , as well as a home video release of Live at the Moore . In April 1995 , Alice in Chains entered Bad Animals Studio in Seattle with producer Toby Wright , who had previously worked with Corrosion of Conformity and Slayer . While in the studio , an inferior version of the song " Grind " was leaked to radio , and received major airplay . On October 6 , 1995 , the band released the studio version of the song to radio via satellite uplink . On November 7 , 1995 , Columbia Records released the eponymous album , Alice in Chains , which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and has since been certified double platinum . Of the album 's four singles , " Grind " , " Again " , " Over Now " , and " Heaven Beside You " , three feature Cantrell on lead vocals . Jon Wiederhorn of Rolling Stone called the album " liberating and enlightening , the songs achieve a startling , staggering and palpable impact . " The song " Got Me Wrong " unexpectedly charted three years after its release on the Sap EP . The song was re @-@ released as a single on the soundtrack for the independent film Clerks in 1995 , reaching number seven on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . The band opted not to tour in support of Alice in Chains , adding to the rumors of drug abuse .

Alice in Chains resurfaced on April 10 , 1996 , to perform their first concert in two and a half years for MTV Unplugged , a program featuring all @-@ acoustic set lists . The performance featured some of the band 's highest charting singles , including " Down in a Hole " , " Heaven Beside You " , " No Excuses " and " Would ? " , and introduced a new song , " Killer Is Me " . The show marked Alice in Chains ' only appearance as a five @-@ piece band , adding second guitarist Scott Olson . A live album of the performance was released in July 1996 , debuting at number three on the Billboard 200 , and was accompanied by a home video release , both of which received platinum certification by the RIAA . Alice in Chains performed four shows supporting the reunited original Kiss lineup on their 1996 / 97 Alive / Worldwide Tour , including the final live appearance of Layne Staley on July 3 , 1996 , in Kansas City , Missouri . Shortly after the show , Staley was found unresponsive after he overdosed on heroin and was taken to the hospital . Although he recovered , the band was forced to go on hiatus .

= = = Hiatus and the death of Layne Staley ( 1996 – 2002 ) = = =

Although Alice in Chains never officially disbanded , Staley became a recluse , rarely leaving his Seattle condominium following the death of his ex @-@ fiancée Demri Parrott due to infective endocarditis . " Drugs worked for me for years " , Staley told Rolling Stone in 1996 , " and now they 're turning against me ... now I 'm walking through hell " . Unable to continue with new Alice in Chains material , Cantrell released his first solo album , Boggy Depot , in 1998 , also featuring Sean Kinney and Mike Inez . In 1998 , Staley reunited with Alice in Chains to record two new songs , " Get Born Again " and " Died " . Originally intended for Cantrell 's second solo album , the songs were reworked by Alice in Chains and were released in the fall of 1999 on the box set , Music Bank . The set contains 48 songs , including rarities , demos , and previously released album tracks and singles . The band also released a 15 @-@ track compilation titled Nothing Safe : Best of the Box , serving as a sampler for Music Bank , as well as the band 's first compilation album ; a live album , simply titled Live , released on December 5 , 2000 ; and a second compilation , titled Greatest Hits in 2001 .

By 2002 , Cantrell had finished work on his second solo album , Degradation Trip . Written in 1998 , the album 's lyrical content focused heavily on what Cantrell regarded as the demise of Alice in Chains , which still remained evident as the album approached its June 2002 release . However , in March that year , Cantrell commented , " We 're all still around , so it 's possible [ Alice in Chains ] could all do something someday , and I fully hope someday we will . "

After a decade of battling drug addiction , Layne Staley was found dead in his condominium on April 19 , 2002 , two weeks after his actual death . His mother and stepfather became alarmed when accountants noticed that money was no longer being withdrawn from his accounts . With assistance from the police , they broke into his condo and made the discovery . An autopsy revealed Staley had died from a mixture of heroin and cocaine . His friends speculate that in addition to drugs , he may have contracted an illness that his body could not fight off , due to a compromised immune system . In his last interview , given months before his death , Staley admitted , " I know I 'm near death , I did crack and heroin for years . I never wanted to end my life this way . " Cantrell dedicated his 2002 solo album , released two months after Staley 's death , to his memory .

= = = Reunion shows ( 2005 – 08 ) = = =

In 2005 , Jerry Cantrell , Mike Inez , and Sean Kinney reunited to perform a benefit concert in Seattle for victims of the tsunami disaster that struck South Asia in 2004 . The band featured Damageplan vocalist Pat Lachman , as well as other special guests including Maynard James Keenan of Tool and Ann Wilson of Heart . On March 10 , 2006 , the surviving members performed at VH1 's Decades Rock Live concert , honoring fellow Seattle musicians Ann and Nancy Wilson of Heart . They played " Would ? " with vocalist Phil Anselmo of Pantera and Down and bass player Duff McKagan of Guns N ' Roses and Velvet Revolver , then they played " Rooster " with Comes with the Fall vocalist William DuVall and Ann Wilson . The band followed the concert with a short United States club tour , several festival dates in Europe , and a brief tour in Japan . To coincide with the band 's reunion , Sony Music released the long @-@ delayed third Alice in Chains compilation , The Essential Alice in Chains , a double album that includes 28 songs .

DuVall joined Alice in Chains as lead singer during the band 's reunion concerts . Duff McKagan again joined the band for the reunion tour , playing rhythm guitar on selected songs . Before the tour , Kinney mentioned in an interview that he would be interested in writing new material , but not as Alice in Chains . However , AliceinChains.com reported that the band had begun writing new material , with DuVall on lead vocals .

= = = Black Gives Way to Blue ( 2008 – 10 ) = = =

Blabbermouth.net reported in September 2008 that Alice in Chains would enter the studio that October to begin recording a new album for a summer 2009 release . In October 2008 , Alice in Chains began recording its fourth studio album at the Foo Fighters ' Studio 606 in Los Angeles with producer Nick Raskulinecz . At the Revolver Golden God Awards , Jerry Cantrell said that the group had finished recording in March 2009 and were mixing the album for a September release . In April 2009 , it was reported that the new Alice in Chains album would be released by Virgin / EMI , making it the band 's first label change in its 20 @-@ plus year career . On June 11 , 2009 , Blabbermouth.net reported that the new album would be titled Black Gives Way to Blue and was officially set to be released on September 29 , 2009 . On June 30 , 2009 , the song " A Looking in View " was released as the first single from the album . It was made available for a limited time as a free download through the official Alice in Chains website in early July . The music video for the song debuted via the official website on July 7 , 2009 . The second single , " Check My Brain " , was released to radio stations on August 14 , 2009 and was made available for purchase on August 17 , 2009 . In addition , it was announced that Elton John appears on the album 's title track .

In September 2008 , it was announced that Alice in Chains would headline Australia 's Soundwave Festival in 2009 , alongside Nine Inch Nails and Lamb of God . In February 2009 , it was also announced that Alice in Chains would play at the third annual Rock on the Range festival . On August 1 , 2009 , Alice in Chains performed , along with Mastodon , Avenged Sevenfold , and Glyder , at Marlay Park , Dublin as direct support to Metallica . The band made an appearance on Later Live ... With Jools Holland on November 10 , 2009 , performing " Lesson Learned " , " Black Gives Way To Blue " , and " Check My Brain " as the final performance of the episode .

To coincide with the band 's European tour , Alice in Chains released its next single , " Your Decision " , on November 16 in the UK and on December 1 in the US . The fourth single from the album was " Lesson Learned " and was released to rock radio in mid @-@ June . On May 18 , 2010 , Black Gives Way to Blue was certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .

Along with Mastodon and Deftones , Alice in Chains toured the United States and Canada in late 2010 on the Blackdiamondskye tour , an amalgam of the three bands ' latest album titles ( Black Gives Way to Blue , Diamond Eyes , and Crack the Skye ) .

= = = Future plans and the death of Mike Starr ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =

In April 2010 , Cantrell revealed to MTV News that Alice in Chains was contemplating making a fifth studio album in the foreseeable future . He explained , " There are thoughts . We 'll see how far we get . Staying in the moment is a good way to live and we certainly hope that it happens . I don 't see any reason why it wouldn 't [ happen ] . " DuVall also commented on the next album and Alice in Chains ' future , " we 've got a lot of water to sail before we do that . There 's a lot of shows . But yeah , generally speaking , yeah , we 're excited about the future . I don 't anticipate some long layoff . "

DuVall revealed in September 2010 that Alice in Chains had not begun writing their next album yet , but " there 's plenty of riffs flying around . " He added , " That was the case when we first started back up . We would just stockpile these fragments , and then some time later we would sift through the mountain of stuff , and that 's what became Black Gives Way to Blue . The same thing has been happening since we 've been touring Black Gives Way to Blue , so it would be only natural to at some point say , ' Hey , we 've got a lot of stuff . Let 's sift through and see what we 've got this time . ' " DuVall also mentioned that it was possible that the new album would feature songs that were written for Black Gives Way to Blue .

On March 8 , 2011 , former Alice in Chains bassist Mike Starr was found dead at his home in Salt Lake City . Police told Reuters they were called to Starr 's home at 1 : 42 pm and found his body ; Starr was 44 . Reports later surfaced that Starr 's roommate had seen him mixing methadone and anxiety medication hours before he was found dead . Later reports indicated Starr 's death may have been linked to two different types of antidepressants prescribed to him by his doctor . A public memorial was held for Starr at the Seattle Center 's International Fountain on March 20 , 2011 . A private memorial was also held , which Jerry Cantrell and Sean Kinney attended according to Mike Inez .

= = = The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here and next album ( 2011 – present ) = = =

On March 21 , 2011 , Alice in Chains announced that they were working on a fifth studio album , and both Cantrell and Inez later made statements that they had begun the recording process . The album was expected to be finished by summer of 2012 and released by the end of 2012 or beginning of 2013 . While Alice in Chains were writing for the album in 2011 , Cantrell required surgery , which delayed recording the new material . In an interview published in May 2012 , Cantrell explained , " The thing that set me back is I had some bone spurs [ and ] cartilage issues in my shoulders . I had the same issue in the other shoulder about six years ago so I 've had them both done now . It 's a repetitive motion injury from playing . "

In December 2012 , Cantrell confirmed that the new album had been completed , and the first single , " Hollow " , debuted online on December 18 , available for digital download in January 2013 , along with an official music video . On February 13 , 2013 , Alice in Chains posted on Facebook that their new album title would be an anagram of the letters H V L E N T P S U S D A H I E E O E D T I U R R. The next day they announced that the album would be called The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , which was released on May 28 , 2013 , debuting at number two on the Billboard 200 . The band released videos for the songs " Stone , " " Voices , " and the title track later in 2013 .

Alice in Chains toured the U.S. in the spring of 2013 , with further international dates in the summer . In the spring and summer of 2014 they embarked on a more extensive tour of Canada , Europe , and the U.S. Asked in September 2013 if Alice in Chains would make another album , Cantrell replied , " It 'll be a while . It 's [ been ] four years since we put the last one out , but at least it 's not the gap that was between the last one , so that 's about right - about three to four years . " In May 2014 Cantrell stated that Alice in Chains would wrap up their tour in the fall , take a break , then begin work on their next studio album .

In January 2015 , Alice in Chains performed in the halftime show of the NFC Championship game between the Seattle Seahawks and the Green Bay Packers at CenturyLink Field in Seattle . Cantrell is a lifelong Seahawks fan and often attends their games .

In March 2015 , Alice in Chains announced dates for a U.S. summer tour , set to begin on July 17 in Pala , CA and end in Bethlehem , PA on August 16 . A second leg of the tour was announced in June 2016 , including select shows opening for Guns N ' Roses as part of the Not in This Lifetime ... Tour .

As of May 2015 , according to Blabbermouth.net , Alice in Chains has been working on their follow @-@ up to The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , which was expected to be released later in the year . Bassist Mike Inez said that the band has been " throwing around riffs for a new record " and " taking it nice and slow . " Asked in a June 2016 interview if Alice in Chains has begun recording their new album , frontman William DuVall replied , " I don 't know . I know we 'll be probably talking about that kind of thing over the next few months . It 's still early yet . We 've gotta get through this tour first . "

= = Musical style = =

Although Alice in Chains has been labeled grunge by the mainstream media , Jerry Cantrell identifies the band as primarily heavy metal . He told Guitar World in 1996 , " We 're a lot of different things ... I don 't quite know what the mixture is , but there 's definitely metal , blues , rock and roll , maybe a touch of punk . The metal part will never leave , and I never want it to " . The Edmonton Journal has stated , " Living and playing in Seattle might have got them the grunge tag , but they 've always pretty much been a classic metal band to the core . " Over the course of their career , the band 's sound has also been described as alternative metal , sludge metal , doom metal , drone rock , hard rock , and alternative rock . Regarding the band 's constant categorization by the media , Cantrell stated " When we first came out we were metal . Then we started being called alternative metal . Then grunge came out and then we were hard rock . And now , since we 've started doing this again I 've seen us listed as : hard rock , alternative , alternative metal and just straight metal . I walked into an HMV the other day to check out the placement and see what 's on and they 've got us relegated back into the metal section . Right back where we started ! " . According to Mike Inez , they were always the metal stepchildren of the Seattle scene .

Jerry Cantrell 's guitar style combines " pummeling riffs and expansive guitar textures " to create " slow , brooding minor @-@ key grinds " . He is also recognized for his natural ability to blend acoustic and electric guitars . While down @-@ tuned , distorted guitars mixed with Staley 's distinctive " snarl @-@ to @-@ a @-@ scream " vocals appealed to heavy metal fans , the band also had " a sense of melody that was undeniable " , which introduced Alice in Chains to a much wider audience outside of the heavy metal underground .

According to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic , Alice in Chains ' sound has a " Black Sabbath @-@ style riffing and an unconventional vocal style " . The band has been described by Erlewine as " hard enough for metal fans , yet their dark subject matter and punky attack placed them among the front ranks of the Seattle @-@ based grunge bands " . Three of the band 's releases feature acoustic music , and while the band initially kept these releases separate , Alice in Chains ' self @-@ titled album combined the styles to form " a bleak , nihilistic sound that balanced grinding hard rock with subtly textured acoustic numbers " .

Alice in Chains is also noted for the unique vocal harmonies of Staley ( or DuVall ) and Cantrell , which included overlapping passages , dual lead vocals , and trademark harmonies typically separated by a major third . Alyssa Burrows said the band 's distinctive sound " came from Staley 's vocal style and his lyrics dealing with personal struggles and addiction " . Staley 's songs were often considered " dark " , with themes such as drug abuse , depression , and suicide , while Cantrell 's lyrics often dealt with personal relationships .

= = Legacy = =

Alice in Chains has sold more than 14 million albums in the United States , around 35 million worldwide , released two number @-@ one albums , had 21 top 40 singles , and has received nine Grammy nominations . The band was ranked number 34 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . Alice in Chains was named 15th greatest live band by Hit Parader , with vocalist Layne Staley placing as 27th greatest heavy metal vocalist of all time . The band 's second album , Dirt , was named 5th best album in the last two decades by Close @-@ Up magazine . In August 2009 , Alice in Chains won the Kerrang ! Icon Award .

Alice in Chains has had a large impact on many bands , such as Godsmack , who are named after the song off their sophomore album Dirt . According to Jon Wiederhorn of MTV , Godsmack has " sonically followed Alice in Chains ' lead while adding their own distinctive edge " . Godsmack singer and founder Sully Erna has also cited Layne Staley as his primary influence . Staind has covered Alice in Chains ' song " Nutshell " live , which appears on the compilation The Singles : 1996 @-@ 2006 , and also wrote a song entitled " Layne " , dedicated to Staley , on the album 14 Shades of Grey . Three Days Grace also performs a cover of " Rooster " , which can be seen on the DVD Live at the Palace . Other bands that have been inspired by Alice in Chains include Creed , Nickelback , Taproot , Stone Sour , Puddle of Mudd , Queens of the Stone Age , A Pale Horse Named Death , Godsmack , Smile Empty Soul , Avenged Sevenfold , Cold , Hurt , Incubus , Hoobastank , Mudvayne , 10 Years , Breaking Benjamin , Days of the New , and Tantric . Metallica said they have always wanted to tour with the band , citing Alice in Chains as a major inspiration for their 2008 release , Death Magnetic . Metallica also recorded " Rebel Of Babylon " as a tribute to Layne Staley , but the song was left off Death Magnetic due to manufacturing restrictions and then later released on a four @-@ song EP , Beyond Magnetic .

Alice in Chains has also had a significant influence on modern heavy metal . Their songs were covered by various metal bands such as Opeth , Dream Theater , Secrets of the Moon , Suicide Silence , and Grave . Pantera and Damageplan guitarist Dimebag Darrell had expressed his admiration for Jerry Cantrell 's guitar work in an interview for Guitar International saying that " the layering and the honest feel that Jerry Cantrell gets on [ Alice in Chains ' Dirt ] record is worth a lot more than someone who plays five million notes " . Anders Fridén of Swedish melodic death metal band In Flames cited Layne Staley as an inspiration for his vocals on the band 's later albums . In addition to fellow musicians , the band has also received praise from critics , with Steve Huey of AllMusic calling them " one of the best metal bands of the ' 90s " upon reviewing the 1999 compilation Nothing Safe .

= = Band members = =

= = = Timeline = = =

= = Discography = =

Facelift ( 1990 )

Dirt ( 1992 )

Alice in Chains ( 1995 )

Black Gives Way to Blue ( 2009 )

The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here ( 2013 )

= = Awards and nominations = =

Alice in Chains has received nine Grammy nominations . Their first nomination was for the song " Man in the Box " , nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance in 1992 . The album Dirt was nominated in the same category in 1993 . Six more songs were nominated between 1995 and 2011 , and the album The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here was nominated for Best Engineered Album , Non Classical in 2014 .

The music video for the song " Would ? " , Alice in Chains ' contribution to the 1992 film , Singles , won the award for Best Video from a Film at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards . In 2009 they won the Kerrang ! Icon award , and in 2010 they won the Revolver Golden Gods award for Black Gives Way to Blue .

American Music Awards

The American Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony created by Dick Clark in 1973 .

Grammy Awards

The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences .

MTV Video Music Awards

The MTV Video Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony established in 1984 by MTV .

= 2007 Hawaii Bowl =

The 2007 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl was a post @-@ season college football bowl game between the Boise State University Broncos from the Western Athletic Conference ( WAC ) and the East Carolina University Pirates from Conference USA ( C @-@ USA ) at the Aloha Stadium in Honolulu , Hawaiʻi on December 23 , 2007 . The game was the final competition of the 2007 football season for each team and resulted in a 41 – 38 East Carolina victory , even though sportsbooks favored Boise State to win by 10 ½ points . Many experts believed East Carolina to be big underdogs to Boise State , which had defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2007 Fiesta Bowl . The 2007 Hawaiʻi Bowl paid $ 750 @,@ 000 to each team 's conference in exchange for their participation .

The game , which was the sixth edition of the bowl , was expected to be an offensive shootout . Boise State averaged 42 @.@ 4 points during the 2007 season , while East Carolina averaged 31 . That expectation turned out to be justified as East Carolina took a 31 – 14 lead in the first half . The Broncos fought back in the second half , however , tying the score at 38 late in the fourth quarter after East Carolina 's Chris Johnson fumbled the ball , allowing Bronco defender Marty Tadman to recover the ball and return it 47 yards for a touchdown . The game remained tied until the final moments as East Carolina 's Ben Hartman made a 34 – yard game @-@ winning field goal as time expired . The attendance of 30 @,@ 467 was the largest crowd to attend a Hawaiʻi Bowl game that did not feature the host school . Boise State 's loss dropped them to a final 2007 record of 10 – 3 , while East Carolina 's final @-@ game win earned them a record of 8 – 5 .

= = Selection process = =

The Hawaiʻi football team normally receives an automatic bid to the game unless the team is selected to participate in a BCS game or is not bowl eligible . If either of those events happen , the WAC selects its next @-@ highest ranked team to compete in the game . In 2007 , Hawaiʻi was selected to play on January 1 , 2008 in the Sugar Bowl against Georgia , marking just the second time since the creation of the Hawaiʻi Bowl that Hawaiʻi would not participate . The only previous time that Hawaiʻi failed to make an appearance was in 2005 , when the Warriors finished their season with a 5 – 7 record and were not eligible for a bowl game .

Conference USA fields the other team in the Hawaiʻi Bowl . The Liberty Bowl has the first selection of C @-@ USA teams , and GMAC Bowl picks second . After those two are picked , the conference provides a team for the Hawaiʻi Bowl and three other bowls . In 2007 , the University of Central Florida accepted the bid to compete in the Liberty Bowl , Tulsa accepted the bid to compete in the GMAC Bowl , leaving East Carolina to be selected by the Hawaiʻi Bowl on December 1 , 2007 .

Boise State was undefeated in conference play going into the final game of the regular season , and suffered just one out @-@ of @-@ conference loss . In that final game , BSU lost 39 – 27 to undefeated Hawaiʻi . Following the game , the Broncos decided to travel to Hawaiʻi , rather than play at home in the Humanitarian Bowl , which is located at Boise 's home stadium in Boise , Idaho and features a matchup between a WAC team and one from the Atlantic Coast Conference . Boise ended its regular season 10 – 2 overall and 7 – 1 in conference play .

East Carolina , meanwhile , had been in first place in the C @-@ USA 's East Division with just two games remaining . A loss to Marshall University in that second @-@ to @-@ last game , however , put ECU into second place in its division , and thus out of competition for the Conference USA Championship . After winning against conference foe Tulane in the final game of the season , the Pirates decided to travel to the Hawaiʻi Bowl . East Carolina ended the regular season 7 – 5 overall , and 6 – 2 in conference play .

= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =

On December 1 , 2007 , Hawaiʻi Bowl representatives announced East Carolina and Boise State as the competitors in the 2007 edition of the game . It would be the first time in history that the two teams had ever met . Two weeks after the announcement , Boise State 's top wide receiver Jeremy Childs , cornerback Keith McGowen , and linebacker Ben Chandler were declared out for the game after violating team rules . In an online contest held by ESPN.com in the weeks leading up to the game , 98 % of the participants voted that Boise State would beat East Carolina . Participants also gave 32 out of 32 " confidence points " on average , indicating the highest possible confidence in the predicted outcome .

= = = Boise State offense versus East Carolina defense = = =

Boise State came into the game averaging 42 @.@ 75 points and 475 @.@ 67 yards per game , the fourth and twelfth highest totals in college football . Senior quarterback Taylor Tharp led the offense by more than 3 @,@ 000 yards and 28 touchdowns , headed into the 2007 Hawaiiʻ Bowl . On the ground , the Broncos were led by junior running back Ian Johnson , who had 17 touchdowns and 1 @,@ 030 yards in the regular season . Wide receiver Jeremy Childs also was a potent threat on offense , averaging 87 @.@ 08 receiving yards per game , and backup running back D.J. Harper rushed for 41 @.@ 44 yards per game on average . Johnson and Childs both earned First Team All @-@ WAC honors , and Tharp was named to Second Team All @-@ WAC . Offensive tackle Ryan Clady was the team 's only All @-@ American , and promised to do a good job protecting Taylor Tharp on the offensive line .

East Carolina had been shaky on defense . ECU ranked 98th in total defense and 115th in passing defense , giving up an average of 436 @.@ 42 yards per game . Despite that fact , the Pirates did well in the turnover battle , gaining 27 turnovers while losing just 13 – a margin of + 14 – good enough for ninth in the country . In addition , the ECU defense ranked eleventh nationally in tackles for loss . Defensive linemen Zack Slate and C.J. Wilson and defensive back Van Eskridge took C – USA All – Conference second team honors .

= = = East Carolina offense versus Boise State defense = = =

Boise State faced the nation 's top all @-@ purpose yards leader , All @-@ American Chris Johnson . Johnson racked up an average of 212 @.@ 67 all @-@ purpose yards per game during the 2007 season , making him a potent threat on offense . Taking snaps for the offense were quarterbacks Patrick Pinkney and Rob Kass . Pinkney had a passer rating of 131 @.@ 58 , while Kass had a comparable rating of 122 @.@ 94 . The top receiver for the Pirates was Jamar Bryant , who averaged 3 @.@ 5 catches for 52 @.@ 17 yards per game . In addition to Chris Johnson , who was named to the C – USA All – Conference second team , offensive lineman Josh Coffman received C – USA All @-@ Conference second team honors .

The Broncos ' defense , meanwhile , was ranked number one in the WAC in total defense , scoring defense , rushing defense , and pass defense . The team 's defense ranked number two in the conference in pass efficiency defense , turnover margin , and sacks . Defensive lineman Nick Schlekeway and defensive back Marty Tadman both received All – WAC first team honors and promised to pose difficulties for the Pirates ' offensive front .

= = Game summary = =

The 2007 Hawaiʻi Bowl kicked off on December 23 , 2007 at 8 : 00 p.m EST in front of an estimated crowd of 30 @,@ 467 , which was the largest crowd in Hawaiʻi Bowl history for a game not featuring the Hawai 'i football team . The game was nationally televised on ESPN , and was watched by an estimated average of 1 @.@ 6 million people , good enough for a television rating of 1 @.@ 47 . East Carolina had to travel 4 @,@ 861 miles ( 7 @,@ 823 km ) one way , making it the longest bowl trip of the season for any team during the 2007 bowl season . Boise State , meanwhile , traveled 2 @,@ 835 miles ( 4 @,@ 562 km ) to Hawaiʻi . Due to the distance involved , East Carolina fans wishing to support their school , but unable to travel to the game , bought 2 @,@ 709 tickets for troops stationed in Hawaiʻi as a show of support . The weather at kickoff was mostly cloudy with winds from the northeast at 13 miles ( 21 km ) . The temperature was 77 ° F ( 25 ° C ) . For the officiating crew , the referee was Terry Leyden , umpire was Kevin Matthews , and the linesman was Bob Bahne . The line judge was Bart Longson , the back judge was Joe Johnston and the field judge was Ed Vinzant . The side judge was Craig Falkner .

= = = First quarter = = =

East Carolina won the pre @-@ game coin toss and deferred the ball until the second half , allowing Boise State to receive the ball to begin the game . The Broncos received the opening kickoff at their 4 – yard line and went three @-@ and @-@ out . Following the Broncos ' punt , East Carolina began its first possession of the game on its 43 – yard line . The offense marched to the 19 – yard line of Boise State , but was stopped on third down . ECU kicker Ben Hartman was sent into the game and made a field goal from 36 yards away .

East Carolina kicked the ball to Boise State 's Austin Smith and he returned the kickoff 89 yards for a touchdown . The touchdown and extra point made the score 7 – 3 and gave Boise State its only lead of the game .

The next two drives for each team ended in punts . On East Carolina 's third drive , Chris Johnson rushed on the first play 68 yards for a touchdown . With the point after , East Carolina lead 10 – 7 . The next Boise State drive ended in a three and out , and the Broncos kicked the ball away . The Pirates marched down the field 55 yards , but the quarter ended before ECU had a chance to score .

At the end of the first quarter , East Carolina led Boise State 10 – 7 .

= = = Second quarter = = =

ECU began the second quarter on Boise 's 30 – yard line , and quarterback Patrick Pinkney continued the Pirates ' drive with a 14 – yard rush . After three more successful plays , Dominique Lindsay rushed 3 yards for a touchdown . Kicker Ben Hartman converted the point after , which made the score 17 – 7 ECU .

The Broncos ' first drive of the second quarter was halted after a holding penalty and an incomplete pass denied BSU a chance for a first down . Boise was forced to kick the ball away once more . The Pirates ' second drive of the quarter began at their 26 – yard line . ECU needed just four plays to march 74 yards down the field for a touchdown . On the drive , Chris Johnson rushed for 46 yards and threw an 18 – yard pass for a touchdown . After the touchdown and the extra point kick , ECU led 24 – 7 .

Boise State 's first play after the post @-@ touchdown kickoff was intercepted by Pirates ' defender Travis Williams . Despite the turnover , East Carolina was unable to attain a first down , and went three @-@ and @-@ out before punting . On Boise 's second play of the new drive following the punt , the team earned its first first down of the game . The Broncos continued the drive by going 69 yards in eight plays , culminating in a touchdown . The series included five complete passes and two rushes . With the score , The Broncos had closed the gap to ten points : 24 – 14 East Carolina .

East Carolina started their series on their 41 – yard line . A substitution infraction on ECU and an incomplete pass forced ECU to punt the ball away . On the Broncos ' fourth drive of the second quarter , the team began with three complete passes for 18 yards . On the fourth play , however , BSU 's Titus Young fumbled the ball away . Pirates ' defender Jay Ross recovered the fumble , and ECU had another chance on offense before the end of the first half . East Carolina ran five plays for 38 yards . With the clock running down , ECU elected to kick a field goal . The kick was good , and made the score 31 – 14 ECU . Boise State had one final chance on offense , and Boise Quarterback Taylor Tharp went two @-@ for @-@ four , but ran out of time before coming into field goal range .

At halftime , East Carolina led Boise State 31 – 14 .

= = = Third quarter = = =

Because Boise State had received the opening kickoff , East Carolina received the ball to open the second half . ECU completed seven rushes and four passes for 74 yards in five minutes and 53 seconds . On the last play of the drive , Brandon Simmons rushed three yards for a touchdown , and ECU increased its lead to 38 – 14 .

To begin its first series of the second half , Boise State returned the post @-@ touchdown kickoff 55 yards . Two quick plays later , Boise quarterback Taylor Tharp completed a pass to Jeremy Avery for a touchdown , cutting East Carolina 's lead to 17 points , 38 – 21 .

After the punt , the Pirates were unable to obtain a first down . Three plays netted only two yards , and ECU was forced to punt the ball away . On the ensuing drive , Boise State completed three first downs on the series . BSU kicker Kyle Brotzman , converted a 31 yard field goal and the Broncos shrank the ECU lead further . The series went 40 yards in nine plays . It took the team two minutes and 37 seconds to score .

East Carolina took the kickoff on the 39 – yard line , after a Boise player illegally touched the ball on the 39 . Pinkney threw an incomplete pass to start the drive , and after two more plays failed to convert the first down , ECU was forced to punt the ball away . After a touchback , Boise State began at its 20 – yard line . The Broncos completed three plays for 11 yards before the third quarter ended .

At the end of the third quarter , East Carolina led Boise State 38 – 24 .

= = = Fourth quarter = = =

BSU started the fourth quarter by throwing two incomplete passes . Tharp then completed two passes for a combined 39 yards before Pirates ' defender J.J. Milbrook intercepted Tharp 's fifth pass of the quarter . Milbrook returned the interception 27 yards . The Pirates completed one first down but failed to convert the interception into points . Kicker Matt Dodge came into the game , ostensibly to punt the ball away . In a trick play , he rushed the ball instead , picking up the first down . Despite the trick play 's success , the Pirates were not able to gain another first down . On fourth down , Dodge came out again , and this time punted the ball 47 yards for a touchback . The Broncos began the second drive of the fourth quarter by going 80 yards in nine plays for a touchdown . It took just three minutes and 59 seconds and BSU only three first downs . Boise had now cut the Pirates ' lead to 38 – 31 .

On the next drive , ECU brought in a new quarterback , Rob Kass . Kass was initially successful , and gained a few first downs . The Boise State defense stiffened , however , and ECU was forced to punt the ball away . After a touchback , Boise State began on its 20 – yard line . Running back Jeremy Avery rushed for four yards on the first play . On the third play , Tharp completed a pass for nine yards for a first down . Tharp then passed three straight times for 32 yards and two first downs . On subsequent plays , Tharp rushed for six yards and passed for another six to convert BSU 's third first down of the drive . Three plays later , however , the Broncos ' Titus Young fumbled the ball for the second time in the game , and as before , ECU recovered , seemingly sealing the victory .

After a Boise State unsportsmanlike conduct penalty , ECU began its their 39 – yard line , needing only to rush the ball to keep the clock moving in order to secure the win . On the second rush by Chris Johnson , however , he fumbled the ball . The fumble was recovered by Broncos ' defender Marty Tadman at the ECU 47 – yard line and returned all the way for a touchdown . After the PAT , Boise State tied East Carolina 38 – 38 . The fumble and touchdown turned what had been an inevitable ECU victory into a tie game .

Boise kicked the ball deep , hoping to stop the Pirates ' offense and force overtime . Following the kick , ECU began at its own nine – yard line . The Pirates began the drive with one minute and 16 seconds left in the game . Dominique Lindsay rushed for two yards before Rob Kass completed a pass to Jamar Bryant for 39 yards , enough for a first down near midfield . The Pirates ' continued to move forward , passing for short yardage and rushing for short gains that kept the clock moving , but advanced the ball closer to field goal range . On the third to the last play , Kass rushed for seven yards , and ECU took a timeout with 15 seconds left . Rob Kass lost one yard while moving the ball towards the center of the field in order to set up a game @-@ ending kick . ECU took its last timeout , again stopping the clock . With four seconds remaining on the clock , ECU kicker Ben Hartman converted a 34 – yard field goal to take the lead and the win , 41 – 38 , as time ran out .

= = Final statistics = =

East Carolina running back Chris Johnson finished the game with 223 rushing yards , 32 receiving yards , and 153 return yards for a total of 408 all @-@ purpose yards . That mark broke the NCAA bowl record for all @-@ purpose yards previously set by Alabama 's Sherman Williams against Ohio State in the 1995 Citrus Bowl . On the basis of his record @-@ setting performance , Johnson was named the game 's Most Valuable Player . On the opposite side of the ball , Boise State tailback Jeremy Avery had a solid , if unspectacular , outing . He produced 69 rushing yards , 43 receiving yards , 41 kick – return yards , and caught a 25 – yard touchdown pass . Both Johnson and Avery received the Most Valuable Player award for their respective teams .

Boise State committed four turnovers , compared with East Carolina 's one . The Broncos fumbled the ball away twice and threw two interceptions . Despite the disparity in turnover margin , the teams were strikingly similar in several statistical categories , indicating the closeness of the game : Each team earned seven points off the turnovers . Both teams committed 50 yards in penalties ; the Pirates had seven penalties to the Broncos ' four . In addition , both teams earned 22 first downs .

= = = Boise State statistical recap = = =

Boise State University had 368 total offensive yards during the game . About 73 % of BSU 's total offense came through the air , as quarterback Taylor Tharp passed for 270 yards . The remaining 98 yards came on the ground from five different rushers . Running back Jeremy Avery ran for a team @-@ high 69 yards on 10 carries , while running back D.J. Harper had the only Boise State rushing touchdown of the game .

Tharp 's 30 completions were caught by eight different receivers . Austin Pettis led the team with nine catches for 89 yards , and his total accounted for one – third of the team 's receiving yards . Two receivers , Jeremy Avery and Ryan Putnam , accounted for all of the team 's receiving touchdowns . Avery had four catches for 43 yards , while Putnam had one catch for three yards .

Taylor Tharp 's two interceptions were the second @-@ most he had thrown in a game during 2007 , and brought his season interception total to 11 . He completed 30 of 44 pass attempts , a completion percentage of 68 @.@ 2 % . His 270 yards were 13 yards more than his season average of 257 yards . With only two passing touchdowns , Tharp tied for his third @-@ worst passing game in 2007 , faring worse only in the win against Weber State , loss to Washington , win against Fresno State , and loss to Hawaiʻi . Tharp was sacked once by Pirates ' defensive lineman C.J. Wilson for a seven yard loss .

Boise State 's defense had a hard time stopping the East Carolina offense , especially in the first half . The Pirates ' 31 points were the most scored all year by East Carolina in the first half . Leading the Broncos ' defense was safety Marty Tadman . Tadman had seven solo tackles , three assisted tackles , and recorded a defensive touchdown after recovering Chris Johnson 's fumble late in the fourth quarter . Linebacker Kyle Gingg also starred on defense , recording seven solo tackles , one assisted tackle , and one tackle for a one @-@ yard loss . A total of 23 players recorded at least one tackle .

Kyle Brotzman handled all the kicking duties for Boise State , punting the ball four times for 169 yards . His longest punt was 52 yards , and one kick was downed inside the Pirates ' 20 yard line . His only field goal was a 31 – yard kick that came with three minutes and 11 seconds left in the third quarter . Brotzman kicked off seven times for 384 yards , averaging 54 @.@ 9 yards per kick with no touchbacks . Marty Tadman had BSU 's only punt return for -1 yard . The Broncos ' special teams had more luck on kickoff returns . Three players had kickoff returns . Austin Smith returned four kickoffs for 173 yards . His 89 – yard return for a touchdown in the first quarter was the team 's longest of the game and gave Boise State its only lead of the game . Jeremy Avery returned two kicks for 41 yards , and Titus Young returned one kick for 52 yards .

Boise State controlled the time of possession only during the fourth quarter , when the Broncos scored 14 points to tie the game . Overall , however , Boise State only controlled the ball for 26 minutes and 16 seconds , in comparison to East Carolina 's 33 minutes and 44 seconds .

= = = East Carolina statistical recap = = =

Almost 70 % of the Pirates ' rushing offense came from running back Chris Johnson , and the rushing offense itself consisted of two – thirds of East Carolina 's total offensive effort . Six additional rushers contributed 99 yards on the ground . The longest rush of the game – 68 yards – came from Johnson . Quarterback Patrick Pinkney played much of the game , completing 12 passes in 19 attempts . Pinkney threw for 118 yards and one touchdown , but the longest pass came from the Pirates ' second quarterback , Rob Kass . Kass threw a 36 – yard pass in the fourth quarter to keep the Pirates ' game @-@ winning drive alive . The pass was Kass 's only completion out of three attempts . Almost one – third of East Carolina 's total offense came from the air .

Ben Hartman and Matt Dodge both contributed to East Carolina 's kicking game . Dodge punted the ball seven times for 302 yards . His longest was a 61 – yard kick , and he had four touchbacks . Hartman and Dodge shared kickoff duty . Dodge had four kickoffs , compared with Hartman 's three . Dodge averaged 60 @.@ 5 yards per kick , while Hartman averaged 57 yards . In addition , Hartman added six points to the scoreboard from field goal attempts . He was two for two , with the second field goal attempt being the game @-@ winner in the fourth quarter . Dwayne Harris handled all punt returns . He fielded two punts , returning them for a total of five yards . Kickoff @-@ return duty was handled by Chris Johnson . He returned six kickoffs for 153 yards , with his longest return consisting of 39 yards .

East Carolina 's defense managed a strong performance statistically and in real terms . The most obvious examples of this were the two interceptions and two forced fumbles . On the first play of the second drive of the second quarter , Boise State quarterback Taylor Tharp threw an interception to defensive back Travis Williams . Williams also recorded eight solo tackles — the second @-@ highest total for the Pirates – and a forced fumble . The other interception came from defensive back J.J. Milbrook , who also boasted three solo tackles , tying him for fifth – best on the team . Linebacker Jeremy forced the final Broncos turnover , gaining the ball and four yards on the play . In addition to his forced fumble , Chambliss recorded four solo tackles . The Pirates ' defense as a whole only gave up three yards in the first quarter and did not allow a first down until halfway through the second quarter .

That strong defensive effort limited the Broncos ' third – down conversion rate to 50 % . Until the fourth quarter , BSU was just two for seven on third – down attempts . On offense , the Pirates fared slightly better , going six for fifteen on third downs .

= = After @-@ effects = =

The win by East Carolina knocked # 24 Boise State out of the final AP Poll of the year . This was the first time BSU was not ranked in the AP Poll top 25 since October 28 , 2007 . Because of his impressive performance , Chris Johnson was invited to the 2008 Senior Bowl . After the game , East Carolina finished the season 8 @-@ 5 , the highest win total since 2000 . This also marked Coach Skip Holtz 's first Bowl win . Boise State finished the season 10 @-@ 3 . This marked Coach Chris Petersen first post @-@ season loss .

= The Boat Race 1999 =

The 145th Boat Race took place on 3 April 1999 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Featuring the tallest rower in Boat Race history , Cambridge won the race in the second @-@ fastest time ever . It was their seventh consecutive victory in the event .

In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis in the fastest time ever , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1998 race by three lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 75 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .

The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .

Andrew Lindsay was confident that the Oxford crew would be more motivated than their opponents : " our advantage over Cambridge is that we are hungry for the victory . Everyone in the Oxford boat is driven to go and win this damn thing " . He was making his third and final appearance in the race having lost in both the 1997 and 1998 race . His grandfather represented Cambridge in the 1930s , and his uncle , Alexander Lindsay , rowed for the losing Oxford crew in the 1959 race before triumphing the following year . Cambridge boat club president and Canadian international rower Brad Crombie was also making his third Boat Race appearance , attempting to complete a hat @-@ trick of victories . Sean Bowden was the head coach of Oxford . His Cambridge counterpart , Robin Williams , suggested " it still feels like all or nothing to us . The fear of defeat , the aim of trying to push the limits is motivation itself " . Just as he had done in the 1993 race , umpire Mark Evans introduced modifications to the starting procedure , suggesting that he would be content to hold the crews for up to ten seconds between issuing the " set " and " go " commands . Cambridge 's Williams remarked : " I 'm happy as long as both crews abide by it " , Bowden was nonplussed " Go is when you start races . I 'm happy . "

The race was sponsored for the first time by Aberdeen Asset Management , and both crews were competing for the Aberdeen Asset Trophy . It was the fiftieth anniversary of the BBC 's coverage of the event and over the preceding five years had secured an average audience in excess of six million .

= = Crews = =

The Oxford crew weighed @-@ in at an average of 14 st 10 lb ( 93 @.@ 2 kg ) , 0 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 23 kg ) more per rower than Cambridge . Josh West , rowing at number four for Cambridge , became the tallest rower in Boat Race history at 6 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 06 m ) . The Oxford crew comprised three Britons , three Americans , a Swede , a Canadian and a German , while Cambridge were represented by five Britons , two Americans , a German and a Canadian . Three former Blues returned for Cambridge in Wallace , Crombie and Smith , while Oxford saw Humphreys and Lindsay return . Vian Sharif , the Cambridge cox , became the tenth female to steer a Boat Race crew , and was the lightest competitor at the event since the 1986 race .

= = Race = =

Bookmakers could not initially separate the crews , offering odds on for either boat to win . However , as the start of the race approached , Williams had suggested that he was worried by his crew 's " inconsistency " and Oxford were declared favourites . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Despite being warned by umpire Davis , Cambridge were soon half @-@ a @-@ length ahead , and a second clear by the Mile Post . The lead was extended to a length by Hammersmith Bridge and Sharif had steered her boat into a better angle of attack . Pushing on , Cambridge were seven seconds up by Chiswick Steps and nine seconds at Barnes Railway Bridge . They passed the finishing post three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths ahead , with an eleven @-@ second advantage over the Dark Blues . The Light Blues finished in 16 minutes 41 seconds , a time only bettered once before , in 1998 . It was the first time since 1936 that Cambridge had secured seven consecutive victories .

In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their ninth victory in ten years , and in a record time of 16 minutes 58 seconds which beat the fastest time recorded in 1996 and repeated in 1998 . Cambridge won the 51st Women 's Boat Race by one length in a time of 6 minutes 1 second , their eighth consecutive victory .

= = Reaction = =

Oxford 's Bowden was dumbstruck : " I 'm really floored . I just haven 't got any answers until I talk to the crew . " His number four , Toby Ayer admitted : " my impression is that they were quicker than us and that is a very hard thing to have to say . " Cambridge 's Williams noted : " I thought it would be a bit more competitive than that . " Cambridge boat club president Crombie exclaimed " that 's the most fun I 've ever had rowing for Cambridge . "

= Hoysala literature =

Hoysala literature is the large body of literature in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages produced by the Hoysala Empire ( 1025 – 1343 ) in what is now southern India . The empire was established by Nripa Kama II , came into political prominence during the rule of King Vishnuvardhana ( 1108 – 1152 ) , and declined gradually after its defeat by the Khilji dynasty invaders in 1311 .

Kannada literature during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio @-@ religious developments of the Jain and Veerashaiva faiths , and to a lesser extent that of the Vaishnava faith . The earliest well @-@ known brahmin writers in Kannada were from the Hoysala court . While most of the courtly textual production was in Kannada , an important corpus of monastic Vaishnava literature relating to Dvaita ( dualistic ) philosophy was written by the renowned philosopher Madhvacharya in Sanskrit .

Writing Kannada literature in native metres was first popularised by the court poets . These metres were the sangatya , compositions sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument ; shatpadi , six @-@ line verses ; ragale , lyrical compositions in blank verse ; and tripadi , three @-@ line verses . However , Jain writers continued to use the traditional champu , composed of prose and verse . Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets but also by noblemen , commanders , ministers , ascetics and saints associated with monasteries .

= = Kannada writings = =

= = = Overview = = =

Beginning with the 12th century , important socio @-@ political changes took place in the Deccan , south of the Krishna river . During this period , the Hoysalas , native Kannadigas from the Malnad region ( hill country in modern Karnataka ) were on the ascendant as a political power . They are known to have existed as chieftains from the mid @-@ 10th century when they distinguished themselves as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani . In 1116 , Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana defeated the Cholas of Tanjore and annexed Gangavadi ( parts of modern southern Karnataka ) , thus bringing the region back under native rule . In the following decades , with the waning of the Chalukya power , the Hoysalas proclaimed independence and grew into one of the most powerful ruling families of southern India . Consequently , literature in Kannada , the local language , flourished in the Hoysala empire . This literature can be broadly subdivided as follows : works dominated by the themes of Jain writings , contrasting works by Veerashaiva writers not belonging to the vachana poetic tradition , rebuttals to Shaiva writings from Jain writers , early brahminical works ( Vaishnava ) , works from the birth of the Bhakti ( devotional ) movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking region , writings on secular topics , and the first writings in native metres ( ragale , sangatya and shatpadi ) .

As in earlier centuries , Jain authors wrote about tirthankars ( saints ) , princes and other personages important to the Jain religion . Jain versions of the Hindu epics such as the Ramayana and Bhagavata ( tales of Hindu god Krishna ) were also written . According to R. Narasimhacharya , a noted scholar on Kannada literature , more Jain writers wrote in Kannada than in any other Dravidian language during the " Augustan age " of Kannada literature , from the earliest known works to the 12th century . The Veerashaiva writers , devotees of the Hindu god Shiva , wrote about his 25 forms in their expositions of Shaivism . Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata . Breaking away from the old Jain tradition of using the champu form for writing Kannada literature , Harihara penned poems in the ragale metre in Siva @-@ ganada @-@ ragalegalu ( 1160 ) . His nephew Raghavanka established the shatpadi tradition by writing a unique version of the story of King Harishchandra in Harishchandra Kavya ( 1200 ) . Sisumayana introduced the sangatya metre in his Anjanacharita and Tripuradahana ( 1235 ) . However , some scholars continued to employ Sanskritic genres such as champu ( Ramachandra Charitapurana ) , shataka ( 100 verse compositions , Pampa sataka ) and ashtaka ( eight line verse compositions , Mudige ashtaka ) .

The exact beginnings of the haridasa movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking region have been disputed . Belur Keshavadasa , a noted Harikatha scholar , claimed in his book Karnataka Bhaktavijaya that the movement was inspired by saint Achalananda Dasa of Turvekere ( in the modern Tumkur district ) in the 9th century . However , neither the language used in Achalananda Dasa 's compositions nor the discovery of a composition with the pen name " Achalanada Vitthala " , which mentions the 13th @-@ century philosopher Madhvacharya , lends support to the 9th @-@ century theory . Naraharitirtha ( 1281 ) , one of earliest disciples of Madhvacharya , is therefore considered the earliest haridasa to write Vaishnava compositions in Kannada . Secular topics were popular and included treatises on poetry ( Sringararatnakara ) and writings on natural sciences ( Rattasutra ) , mathematics ( Vyavaharaganita ) , fiction ( Lilavati ) , grammar ( Shabdamanidarpana ) , rhetoric ( Udayadityalankara ) and others .

Important contributions were made by some prominent literary families . One Jain family produced several authors , including Mallikarjuna , the noted anthologist ( 1245 ) ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law Janna ( 1209 ) , the court poet of King Veera Ballala II ; Mallikarjuna 's son Keshiraja ( 1260 ) , considered by D. R. Nagaraj , a scholar on literary cultures in history , to be the greatest theorist of Kannada grammar ; and Sumanobana , who was in the court of King Narasimha I and was the maternal grandfather of Keshiraja . Harihara ( 1160 ) and his nephew Raghavanka ( 1200 ) , poets who set the trend for using native metres , came from a Shaiva family ( devotees of the god Shiva ) .

The support of the Hoysala rulers for the Kannada language was strong , and this is seen even in their epigraphs , often written in polished and poetic language , rather than prose , with illustrations of floral designs in the margins . In addition to the Hoysala patronage , royal support was enjoyed by Kannada poets and writers during this period in the courts of neighbouring kingdoms of the western Deccan . The Western Chalukyas , the southern Kalachuris , the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and the Silharas of Kolhapur are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature .

Writers bilingual in Kannada and Telugu gained popularity which caused interaction between the two languages , a trend that continued into modern times . The Veerashiva canon of the Kannada language was translated or adapted into Telugu from this time period . Palkuriki Somanatha ( 1195 ) , a devotee of social reformer Basavanna , is the most well @-@ known of these bilingual poets . The Chola chieftain Nannechoda ( c . 1150 ) used many Kannada words in his Telugu writings . After the decline of the Hoysala empire , the Vijayanagara empire kings further supported writers in both languages . In 1369 , inspired by Palkuriki Somanatha , Bhima Kavi translated the Telugu Basavapurana to Kannada , and King Deva Raya II ( c . 1425 ) had Chamarasa 's landmark writing Prabhulingalile translated into Telugu and Tamil . Many Veerashaiva writers in the court of the 17th century Kingdom of Mysore were multilingual in Kannada , Telugu and Sanskrit while the Srivaishnava ( a sect of Vaishnavism ) Kannada writers of the court were in competition with the Telugu and Sanskrit writers .

Information from contemporary records regarding several writers from this period whose works are considered lost include : Maghanandi ( probable author of Rama Kathe and guru of Kamalabhava of 1235 ) , Srutakirti ( guru of Aggala , and author of Raghava Pandaviya and possibly a Jina @-@ stuti , 1170 ) , Sambha Varma ( mentioned by Nagavarma of 1145 ) , Vira Nandi ( Chandraprabha Kavyamala , 1175 ) , Dharani Pandita ( Bijjala raya Charita and Varangana Charita ) , Amrita Nandi ( Dhanvantari Nighantu ) , Vidyanatha ( Prataparudriya ) , Ganeshvara ( Sahitya Sanjivana ) , Harabhakta , a Veerashaiva mendicant ( Vedabhashya , 1300 ) , and Siva Kavi ( author of Basava Purana in 1330 ) .

= = = Jain epics = = =

During the early 12th @-@ century ascendancy of the Hoysalas , the kings of the dynasty entertained imperial ambitions . King Vishnuvardhana wanted to perform Vedic sacrifices befitting an emperor , and surpass his overlords , the Western Chalukyas , in military and architectural achievements . This led to his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism . Around the same time , the well @-@ known philosopher Ramanujacharya sought refuge from the Cholas in Hoysala territory and popularised the Sri Vaishnava faith , a sect of Hindu Vaishnavism . Although Jains continued to dominate culturally in what is now the southern Karnataka region for a while , these social changes would later contribute to the decline of Jain literary output . The growing political clout of the Hoysalas attracted many bards and scholars to their court , who in turn wrote panegyrics on their patrons .

Nagachandra , a scholar and the builder of the Mallinatha Jinalaya ( a Jain temple in honor of the 19th Jain tirthankar , Mallinatha , in Bijapur , Karnataka ) , wrote Mallinathapurana ( 1105 ) , an account of the evolution of the soul of the Jain saint . According to some historians , King Veera Ballala I was his patron . Later , he wrote his magnum opus , a Jain version of the Hindu epic Ramayana called Ramachandra Charitapurana ( or Pampa Ramayana ) . Written in the traditional champu metre and in the Pauma charia tradition of Vimalasuri , it is the earliest extant version of the epic in the Kannada language . The work contains 16 sections and deviates significantly from the original epic by Valmiki . Nagachandra represents King Ravana , the villain of the Hindu epic , as a tragic hero , who in a moment of weakness commits the sin of abducting Sita ( wife of the Hindu god Rama ) but is eventually purified by her devotion to Rama . In a further deviation , Rama 's loyal brother Lakshmana ( instead of Rama ) kills Ravana in the final battle . Eventually , Rama takes jaina @-@ diksha ( converts to Digambara monk ) , becomes an ascetic and attains nirvana ( enlightenment ) . Considered a complementary work to the Pampa Bharatha of Adikavi Pampa ( 941 , a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata ) , the work earned Nagachandra the honorific " Abhinava Pampa " ( " new Pampa " ) . Only in the Kannada language do Jain versions exist of the Hindu epics , the Mahabharata and Ramayana , in addition to their brahminical version .

Kanti ( 1108 ) , known for her wit and humour , was one of the earliest female poets of the Kannada language and a contemporary of Nagachandra , with whom she indulged in debates and repartees . Rajaditya , a native of either Puvinabage or Raibhag ( the modern Belgaum district ) , was in the Hoysala court during the days of King Veera Ballala I and King Vishnuvardhana . He wrote in easy verse on arithmetic and other mathematical topics and is credited with three of the earliest writings on mathematics in the Kannada language : Vyavaharaganita , Kshetraganita and Lilavati . Udayaditya , a Chola prince , authored a piece on rhetoric called Udayadityalankara ( 1150 ) . It was based on Dandin 's Sanskrit Kavyadarsa .

= = = Age of Harihara = = =

Harihara ( or Harisvara , 1160 ) , who came from a family of karnikas ( accountants ) in Hampi , was one of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana poetic tradition . He is considered one of the most influential Kannada poets of the Hoysala era . A non @-@ traditionalist , he has been called " poet of poets " and a " poet for the masses " . Kannada poetry changed course because of his efforts , and he was an inspiration for generations of poets to follow . Impressed by his early writings , Kereya Padmarasa , the court poet of King Narasimha I , introduced him to the king , who became Harihara 's patron . A master of many metres , he authored the Girijakalyana ( " Marriage of the mountain born goddess – Parvati " ) in the Kalidasa tradition , employing the champu style to tell a 10 @-@ part story leading to the marriage of the god Shiva and Parvati . According to an anecdote , Harihara was so against eulogising earthly mortals that he struck his protégé Raghavanka for writing about King Harishchandra in the landmark work Harishchandra Kavya ( c . 1200 ) . Harihara is credited with developing the native ragale metre . The earliest poetic biographer in the Kannada language , he wrote a biography of Basavanna called Basavarajadevara ragale , which gives interesting details about the protagonist while not always conforming to popular beliefs of the time . Ascribed to him is a group of 100 poems called the Nambiyanana ragale ( also called Shivaganada ragale or Saranacharitamanasa – " The holy lake of the lives of the devotees " ) after the saint Nambiyana . In the sataka metre he wrote the Pampa sataka , and in the ashtaka metre , the Mudige ashtaka in about 1200 .

Famous among Vaishnava writers and the first brahmin writer ( of the Smartha sect ) of repute , Rudrabhatta wrote Jagannatha Vijaya ( 1180 ) in a style considered a transition between ancient and medieval Kannada . Chandramouli , a minister in the court of King Veera Ballala II , was his patron . The writing , in champu metre , is about the life of the god Krishna . Leading to the god 's fight with Banasura , it is based on an earlier writing , Vishnupurana .

Nemichandra , court poet of King Veera Ballala II and the Silhara King Lakshmana of Kholapur , wrote Lilavati Prabandham ( 1170 ) , the earliest available true fiction ( and hence a novel ) in Kannada , with an erotic bent . Written in the champu metre , with the ancient town Banavasi as the background , it narrates the love story of a Kadamba prince and a princess who eventually marry after facing many obstacles . The story is based on a c . 610 Sanskrit original called Vasavadatta by Subhandu . His other work , Neminathapurana , unfinished on account of his death ( and hence called Ardhanemi or " incomplete Nemi " ) , details the life of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha while treating the life of the god Krishna from a Jain angle .

Palkuriki Somanatha , a native of modern Karnataka or Andhra Pradesh , is considered one of the foremost multi @-@ lingual Shaiva ( or Shiva @-@ following ) poets of the 12th and 13th centuries . Historians are divided about the time and place of his birth and death and his original faith . He was adept in the Sanskrit , Telugu and Kannada languages . He was a devotee of Basavanna ( the founder of the Veerashaiva movement ) , and all his writings propagate that faith . It is generally accepted that he was born a brahmin and later adopted the Shaiva faith , although according to the scholar Bandaru Tammayya he was born a Jangama ( follower of the Shaiva faith ) . His time of birth has been identified as either the 12th century or late 13th century . In Kannada , his most important writings are Silasampadane , Sahasragananama and Pancharatna . His well @-@ known poems , written in the ragale metre , are Basava ragale , Basavadhya ragale and Sadguru ragale . He is known to have humbled many Vaishnava poets in debates .

Other well @-@ known personalities from the 12th century included several Jain writers . These include Aggala , who authored Chandraprabhapurana ( 1189 ) , an account of the life of the eighth Jain tirthankar Chandraprabha ; Sujanottamsa , who wrote a panegyric on Gomateshwara of Shravanabelagola ; and Vritta Vilasa , who authored Sastra sara and Dharmaparikshe ( 1160 ) . The latter was Vilasa 's version of the Sanskrit original of the same name written by Amitagati c . 1014 . In this champu writing , the author narrates the story of two Kshatriya princess who went to Benares and exposed the vices of the gods after discussions with the brahmins there . The author questions the credibility of Hanuman ( the Hindu monkey god ) and the Vanaras ( monkey @-@ like humanoids in the Hindu epic Ramayana ) . Although controversial , the work sheds useful information on contemporary religious beliefs . Kereya Padmarasa , a Veerashaiva poet patronised by King Narasimha I , wrote Dikshabodhe in the ragale metre in 1165 . He would later become the protagonist of a biographical work called Padmarajapurana written by his descendant Padmanaka in c . 1400 . The brahmin poet Deva Kavi authored a romance piece called Kusumavali ( 1200 ) , and brahmin poet Kavi Kama ( 12th century ) authored a treatise called Sringara @-@ ratnakara on the rasa ( flavor ) of poetical sentiment . Sumanobana ( 1170 ) was a poet @-@ grammarian and the Katakacharya ( " military teacher " ) under King Narasimha I. He was also a priest in Devagiri , the Seuna Yadava capital .

= = = Jain – Veerashaiva conflict = = =

Harihara 's nephew and protégé , the dramatic poet Raghavanka of Hampi , whose style is compared to that of 10th @-@ century poet Ranna , was the first to establish the shatpadi metre in Kannada literature in the epic Harishchandra Kavya ( 1200 ) . According to L. S. Seshagiri Rao , it is believed that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been interpreted in this way . The writing is an original in tradition and inspiration that fully develops the potential of the shatpadi metre . The narration has many noteworthy elegiac verses such as the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva from snake bite . The very writing that made Raghavanka famous was rejected by his guru , Harihara . His other well @-@ known writings , adhering to strict Shaiva principles and written to appease his guru , are the Siddharama charitra ( or Siddharama Purana ) , a larger than life stylistic eulogy of the compassionate 12th @-@ century Veerashaiva saint , Siddharama of Sonnalige ; the Somanatha charitra , a propagandist work that describes the life of saint Somayya ( or Adaiah ) of Puligere ( modern Lakshmeshwar ) , his humiliation by a Jain girl and his revenge ; the Viresvara charita , a dramatic story of the blind wrath of a Shaiva warrior , Virabhadra ; the Hariharamahatva , an account of the life of Harisvara of Hampi ; and Sarabha charitra . The last two classics are considered lost .

In 1209 , the Jain scholar , minister , builder of temples and army commander Janna wrote , among other classics , Yashodhara Charite , a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing with sadomasochism , transmigration of the soul , passion gone awry and cautionary morals for human conduct . The writing , although inspired by Vadiraja 's Sanskrit classic of the same name , is noted for its original interpretation , imagery and style . In one story , the poet tells of the infatuation of a man for his friend 's wife . Having killed his friend , the man abducts the wife , who dies of grief . Overcome by repentance , he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman . The stories of infatuation reach a peak when Janna writes about the attraction of Amrutamati , the queen , to the ugly mahout Ashtavakra , who pleases the queen with kicks and whip lashes . This story has piqued the interest of modern researchers . In honour of this work , Janna received the title Kavichakravarthi ( " Emperor among poets " ) from his patron , King Veera Ballala II . His other classic , Anathanatha Purana ( 1230 ) , is an account of the life of the 14th tirthankar Ananthanatha .

Andayya , taking a non @-@ conformist path that was never repeated in Kannada literature , wrote Madana Vijaya ( " Triumph of cupid " , 1217 – 1235 ) using only pure Kannada words ( desya ) and naturalized Sanskrit words ( tadbhava ) and totally avoiding assimilated Sanskrit words ( tatsamas ) . This is seen by some as a rebuttal meant to prove that writing Kannada literature without borrowed Sanskrit words was possible . The poem narrates the story of the moon being imprisoned by the god Shiva in his abode in the Himalayas . In his anger , Kama ( Cupid , the god of love , also called Manmata ) assailed Shiva with his arrows only to be cursed by Shiva and separated from his beloved . Kama then contrived to rid himself of Shiva 's curse . The work also goes by other names such as Sobagina Suggi ( " Harvest of Beauty " ) , Kavane Gella ( " Cupid 's Conquest " ) and Kabbigara @-@ kava ( " Poets defender " ) . Kama has an important place in Jain writings even before Andayya . The possibility that this writing was yet another subtle weapon in the intensifying conflict between the dominant Jains and the Veerashaivas , whose popularity was on the rise , is not lost on historians .

Mallikarjuna , a Jain ascetic , compiled an anthology of poems called Suktisudharnava ( " Gems from the poets " ) in 1245 in the court of King Vira Someshwara . Some interesting observations have been made by scholars about this important undertaking . While the anthology itself provides insight into poetic tastes of that period ( and hence qualifies as a " history of Kannada literature " ) , it also performs the function of a " guide for poets " , an assertive method of bridging the gap between courtly literary intelligentsia and folk poetry . Being a guide for " professional intellectuals " , the work , true to its nature , often includes poems eulogising kings and royalty but completely ignoring poems of the 12th @-@ century vachana canon ( Veerashaiva folk literature ) . However , the selection of poems includes contributions from Harihara , the non @-@ conformist Veerashaiva writer . This suggests a compromise by which the author attempts to include the " rebels " .

Other notable writers of the early 13th century were Bhanduvarma , author of Harivamsabhyudaya and Jiva sambhodana ( 1200 ) , the latter bearing on morals and renunciation , and written addressing the soul ; Balachandra Kavi Kandarpa , the author of the Belgaum fort inscription who claimed to be " master of four languages " ; Maghanandycharya , the author of an extinct commentary on the Jain theological work Sastrasara Samuccaya @-@ tiku ( 1209 ) for which there are references , and the available commentary called padarthasara giving a complete explanation of Sanskrit and Prakrit authoritative citations ; Hastimalla , who wrote Purvapurana ; Chandrama , author of Karkala Gomateshvara charite , and Sisumayana , who introduced a new form of composition called sangatya in 1232 . He wrote an allegorical poem called Tripuradahana ( " Burning of the triple fortress " ) and Anjanacharita . The latter work was inspired by Ravisena 's Sanskrit Padma charitra . Somaraja , a Veerashaiva scholar , wrote a eulogy of Udbhata , the ruler of Gersoppa , and called it Sringarasara ( or Udbhatakavya , 1222 ) . Other Jain writers were Parsva Pandita , author of Paravanathapurana , and Gunavarma II , the author of the story of the ninth Jain tirthankar Pushpadanta called Pushpadanta purana ( both were patronised by the Ratta kings of Saundatti ) . Polalva Dandanatha , a commander , minister , and the builder of the Harihareshwara temple in Harihar , wrote Haricharitra in 1224 . He was patronised by King Veera Ballala II and his successor , King Vira Narasimha II . Puligere Somanatha authored a book on morals called Somesvarasataka .

= = = Consolidation of grammar = = =

Keshiraja was a notable writer and grammarian of the 13th century . He came from a family of famous poet @-@ writers . Although five of Keshiraja 's writings are not traceable , his most enduring work on Kannada grammar , Shabdamanidarpana ( " Mirror of Word Jewels " , 1260 ) , is available and testifies to his scholarly acumen and literary taste . True to his wish that his writing on grammar should " last as long as the sun , the moon , the oceans and the Meru mountain lasted " , Shabdamanidarpana is popular even today and is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar . It is prescribed as a textbook for students of graduate and post @-@ graduate studies in the Kannada language . Although Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar ( of the Katantra school ) and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar ( by King Amoghavarsha I of the 9th century and grammarian Nagavarma II of 1145 ) , his work has originality . Keshiraja 's lost writings are Cholapalaka Charitam , Sri Chitramale , Shubhadraharana , Prabodhachandra and Kiratam ( or Kiratarjuniyam ) .

A major development of this period that would have a profound impact on Kannada literature even into the modern age was the birth of the Haridasa ( " servants of Hari or Vishnu " ) movement . This devotional movement , although reminiscent in some ways of the Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century ( which produced Vachana poetry and taught devotion to the god Shiva ) , was in contrast intimately devoted to the Hindu god Vishnu as the supreme God . The inspiration behind this movement was the philosophy of Madhvacharya of Udupi . Naraharitirtha ( 1281 ) is considered the first well @-@ known haridasa and composer of Vaishnava devotional songs in Kannada . Before his induction into the Madhva order , he had served as a minister in the court of Kalinga . The Vaishnava poetry however disappeared for about two centuries after Naraharitirtha 's death before resurfacing as a popular form of folk literature during the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire . Only three of Naraharitirtha 's compositions are available today .

Other writers worthy of mention are Mahabala Kavi , the author of Neminathapurana ( 1254 ) , an account of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha , and Kumudendu , author of a Jain version of the epic Ramayana in shatpadi metre called Kumudendu Ramayana in 1275 . The effort was influenced by Pampa Ramayana of Nagachandra . Kumara Padmarasa , son of Kereya Padmarasa , wrote the Sananda Charitre in shatpadi metre . Ratta Kavi , a Jain noble , wrote a quasi @-@ scientific piece called Rattasutra ( or Rattamala ) in 1300 . The writing bears on natural phenomena such rain , earthquakes , lightning , planets and omens . A commentary on the Amara Khosa , considered useful to students of the language , called Amara Khosa Vyakhyana was written by the Jain writer Nachiraja ( 1300 ) . Towards the end of the Hoysala rule , Nagaraja wrote Punyasrava in 1331 in champu style , a work that narrates the stories of puranic heroes in 52 tales and is said to be a translation from Sanskrit .

= = Sanskrit writings = =

The Vaishnava movement in the Kannada @-@ speaking regions found momentum after the arrival of the philosopher Ramanujacharya ( 1017 – 1137 ) . Fleeing possible persecution from the Chola King ( who was a Shaiva ) , Ramanujacharya sought refuge initially in Tondanur and later moved to Melkote . But this event had no impact on Vaishnava literature in Hoysala lands at that time . However , the teachings of Madhvacharya ( 1238 – 1317 ) , propounder of the Dvaita philosophy , did have a direct impact on Vaishnava literature , in both the Sanskrit and Kannada languages . This body of writings is known as haridasa sahitya ( haridasa literature ) .

Born as Vasudeva in Pajaka village near Udupi in 1238 , he learnt the Vedas and Upanishads under his guru Achyutapreksha . He was initiated into sanyasa ( asceticism ) after which he earned the name Madhvacharya ( or Anandatirtha ) . Later , he disagreed with the views of his guru and began to travel India . He successfully debated with many scholars and philosophers during this time and won over Naraharitirtha , a minister in Kalinga , who would later become Madhvacharya 's first notable disciple . Unlike Adi Shankaracharya ( 788 – 820 ) who preached Advaita philosophy ( monism ) and Ramanujacharya who propounded Vishishtadvaita philosophy ( qualified monism ) , Madhvacharya taught the Dvaita philosophy ( dualism ) .

Madhvacharya taught complete devotion to the Hindu god Vishnu , emphasising Jnanamarga or the " path of knowledge " , and insisted that the path of devotion " can help a soul to attain elevation " ( Athmonathi ) . He was however willing to accept devotion to other Hindu deities as well . He wrote 37 works in Sanskrit including Dwadasha Sutra ( in which his devotion to the god Vishnu found full expression ) , Gita Bhashya , Gita Tatparya Nirnaya , Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya , Bhagavata Tatparya Nirnaya , Mayavada Khandana and Vishnu Tattwa Nirnaya . To propagate his teachings he established eight monasteries near Udupi , the Uttaradhi monastery , and the Raghavendra monastery in Mantralayam ( in modern Andhra Pradesh ) and Nanjanagud ( near modern Mysore ) .

The writings of Madhvacharya and Vidyatirtha ( author of Rudraprshnabhashya ) may have been absorbed by Sayanacharya , brother of Vidyaranya , the patron saint of the founders of the Vijayanagara empire in the 14th century . Bharatasvamin ( who was patronised by Hoysala King Ramanatha ) wrote a commentary on Samaveda , Shadgurusishya wrote commentary on Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka , and Katyayana wrote Sarvanukramani . A family of hereditary poets whose names have not been identified held the title " Vidyachakravarti " ( poet laureate ) in the Hoysala court . One of them wrote Gadyakarnamrita , a description of the war between Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II and the Pandyas , in the early 13th century . His grandson with the same title , in the court of king Veera Ballala III , composed a poem called Rukminikalyana in 16 kandas ( chapters ) and wrote commentaries ( on poetics ) on the Alankarasarvasva and Kavyaprakasa . Kalyani Devi , a sister of Madhvacharya , and Trivikrama , his disciple , wrote commentaries on the Dvaita philosophy . To Trivikrama is ascribed a poem narrating the story of Usha and Aniruddha called Ushaharana . Narayana Pandita composed Madhwavijaya , Manimanjari and a poem called Parijataharana . The Jain writer Ramachandra Maladhari authored Gurupanchasmriti .

= = Literature after the Hoysalas = =

Literary developments during the Hoysala period had a marked influence on Kannada literature in the centuries to follow . These developments popularised folk metres which shifted the emphasis towards desi ( native or folk ) forms of literature . With the waning of Jain literary output , competition between the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava writers came to the fore . The Veerashaiva writer Chamarasa ( author of Prabhulingalile , 1425 ) and his Vaishnava competitor Kumaravyasa ( Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari , 1450 ) popularised the shatpadi metric tradition initiated by Hoysala poet Raghavanka , in the court of Vijayanagara King Deva Raya II . Lakshmisa , the 16th – 17th century writer of epic poems , continued the tradition in the Jaimini Bharata , a work that has remained popular even in the modern period . The tripadi metre , one of the oldest in the Kannada language ( Kappe Arabhatta inscription of 700 ) , which was used by Akka Mahadevi ( Yoganna trividhi , 1160 ) , was popularised in the 16th century by the mendicant poet Sarvajna . Even Jain writers , who had dominated courtly literature throughout the classical period with their Sanskritic champu style , began to use native metres . Among them , Ratnakaravarni is famous for successfully integrating an element of worldly pleasure into asceticism and for treating the topic of eroticism with discretion in a religious epic written in the native sangatya metre ( a metre initiated by Hoysala poet Sisumayana ) , his magnum opus , the Bharatadesa Vaibhava ( c . 1557 ) .

Though the Vaishnava courtly writings in Kannada began with the Hoysala poet Rudrabhatta and the devotional song genre was initiated by Naraharitirtha , the Vaishnava movement began to exert a strong influence on Kannada literature only from the 15th century on . The Vaishnava writers consisted of two groups who seemed to have no interaction with each other : the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty , and the Bhakti ( devotion ) writers ( also known as haridasas ) who played no role in courtly matters . The Bhakti writers took the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs composed using folk genres such as the kirthane ( a musical composition with refrain , based on tune and rhythm ) , the suladi ( a composition based on rhythm ) and the ugabhoga ( a composition based on melody ) . Kumara Vyasa and Timmanna Kavi were well @-@ known among the Brahmin commentators , while Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa were the most notable of the Bhakti writers . The philosophy of Madhvacharya , which originated in the Kannada @-@ speaking region in the 13th century , spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries . The itinerant haridasas , best described as mystic saint @-@ poets , spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada , winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana ( enlightenment ) , bhakti ( devotion ) and vairagya ( detachment ) .

Vachana poetry , developed in reaction to the rigid caste @-@ based Hindu society , attained its peak in popularity among the under @-@ privileged during the 12th century . Though these poems did not employ any regular metre or rhyme scheme , they are known to have originated from the earlier tripadi metrical form . The Veerashaivas , who wrote this poetry , had risen to influential positions by the Vijayanagara period ( 14th century ) . Court ministers and nobility belonging to the faith , such as Lakkanna Dandesa and Jakkanarya , not only wrote literature but also patronised talented writers and poets . Veerashaiva anthologists of the 15th and 16th centuries began to collect Shaiva writings and vachana poems , originally written on palm leaf manuscripts . Because of the cryptic nature of the poems , the anthologists added commentaries to them , thereby providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance . An interesting aspect of this anthological work was the translation of the Shaiva canon into Sanskrit , bringing it into the sphere of the Sanskritic ( marga or mainstream as opposed to desi or folk ) cultural order .

= 1939 Pacific hurricane season =

The 1939 Pacific hurricane season ran through the summer and fall of 1939 . Before the satellite age started in the 1960s , data on east Pacific hurricanes are extremely unreliable . Most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land . However , 1939 saw a large number of storms threaten California .

= = Storms = =

= = = Hurricane One = = =

On June 12 , a hurricane was detected . The lowest pressure reported by a ship was 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . The hurricane was last seen June 13 .

= = = Possible Tropical Cyclone Two = = =

A possible tropical cyclone was located off the coast of Mexico on June 27 . A ship reported a gale and a pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The system was last seen on June 28 .

= = = Tropical Cyclone Three = = =

On July 19 , a tropical cyclone was detected . A ship reported a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 7 millibars ( 29 @.@ 55 inHg ) .

= = = Tropical Cyclone Four = = =

On July 29 , a tropical cyclone was located midway between Manzanillo and Acapulco . It moved up the coast , and a ship reported a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) on July 29 as the cyclone made landfall in the vicinity of Manzanillo .

= = = Tropical Cyclone Five = = =

A small tropical cyclone was detected on August 31 . A ship reported gales and a pressure of 1 @,@ 003 @.@ 3 millibars ( 29 @.@ 63 inHg ) .

= = = Hurricane Six = = =

From September 4 to 7 , the remnants of a hurricane brought heavy rain to Southern California . The storm delivered over a year 's worth of rainfall to Blythe , while Imperial received more than two year 's worth . The flooding caused major damage in Mecca , California , and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water swamped Thermal .

= = = Hurricane Seven = = =

A tropical cyclone was first detected south of Acapulco on September 5 . It intensified into a hurricane and moved northwestward . A ship sailing through the eye reported a pressure reading of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) . The tropical cyclone made landfall somewhere along the Baja California Peninsula . It dissipated inland over the northern part of the peninsula on September 12 . Remnants of this tropical storm , in association with a trough , caused rain of up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in southern California on September 11 and 12 .

= = = Tropical Cyclone Eight = = =

On September 5 , a tropical cyclone formed off the coast of Costa Rica . It also headed northwest and dissipated over the southern part of Baja California on September 15 . The lowest reported pressure was 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . From September 19 to 21 , remnants of this tropical cyclone caused rain measuring up to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) in Southern California .

= = = Hurricane Nine = = =

On September 14 , a tropical cyclone formed off the coast of Central America . This tropical storm tracked northwestward and intensified into a hurricane . The sea @-@ level pressure dropped to 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) or lower . The hurricane recurved gradually to the northeast and weakened over cool seas . On September 25 , this tropical storm made landfall near Long Beach , California , and dissipated inland .

The tropical storm caught Southern Californians unprepared . It brought heavy rain and flooding to the area , which killed 45 people . At sea , 48 were killed . The storm caused heavy property damage amounting to $ 2 million ( 1939 USD ) in total , mostly to crops and coastal infrastructure .

= = = Hurricane Ten = = =

On October 23 , a tropical cyclone formed south of Cabo Corrientes . It intensified and headed roughly due north . A steamer , the Nevadan , caught in the eye of this extremely intense hurricane , recording a corrected central pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Even with modern tropical cyclone observation techniques available , this reading still qualifies this cyclone as one of the most intense on record . The steep pressure gradient between the Nevadan and the external hurricane conditions off of Manzanillo , Colima caused several tarpaulins to burst . Other shipping was disrupted off the Mexican coast by the intense tropical cyclone .

The hurricane made landfall near Cabo Corrientes on October 25 and dissipated shortly thereafter . Onshore , the storm caused an extensive swath of damage . Homes were destroyed in the towns of Santiago Ixcuintla and Rosamorada in the Mexican state of Nayarit , displacing hundreds of people . In Puerto Vallarta , a strong storm surge flooded a section of the town , destroying several homes . Tobacco , corn , and rice crops in the region suffered considerable damage . The strong winds downed power lines , resulting in the delayed dissemination of damage reports . Although no exact casualty total was documented , reports indicated that the tropical cyclone caused a " few casualties " . After the storm , US $ 6 @,@ 000 was donated to help aid the displaced in the states of Nayarit and Jalisco , while doctors and nurses were sent to those areas .

= G.I. Joe : Retaliation =

G.I. Joe : Retaliation is a 2013 American military science fiction action film directed by Jon M. Chu , based on Hasbro 's G.I. Joe toy , comic and media franchises . Written by Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick , the film is a sequel to 2009 's G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra while also serving as a soft reboot of the franchise .

Retaliation features an ensemble cast , with Byung @-@ hun Lee , Ray Park , Jonathan Pryce , Arnold Vosloo , and Channing Tatum reprising their roles from the first film . Luke Bracey takes over the role of Cobra Commander , replacing Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt . Dwayne Johnson , D. J. Cotrona , Adrianne Palicki , Ray Stevenson , and Bruce Willis round out the principal cast .

In the film , with Cobra operative Zartan still impersonating the President of the United States , the terrorist organization is able to frame the Joes as traitors , and have them nearly decimated in an airstrike . Cobra Commander places the world leaders under Cobra 's control , and gains access to their advanced warheads . Outnumbered and outgunned , the surviving Joes form a plan with the original G.I. Joe , General Joseph Colton , to overthrow the Cobra Commander and his allies .

Originally slated for release in June 2012 , the film was delayed in order to convert to 3D and boost interest in international markets . It was released in North America on March 28 , 2013 , and received generally negative reviews , but was a box office success , grossing over $ 375 million worldwide .

= = Plot = =

Duke ( Channing Tatum ) has become the leader of the G.I. Joe unit , which is framed for stealing nuclear warheads from Pakistan by Zartan ( Arnold Vosloo ) , who is impersonating the President of the United States ( Jonathan Pryce ) . The unit is subsequently decimated in a military air strike with Duke among the casualties . The only survivors are Roadblock ( Dwayne Johnson ) , Flint ( D.J. Cotrona ) , and Lady Jaye ( Adrianne Palicki ) .

Meanwhile , Storm Shadow ( Byung @-@ hun Lee ) and Firefly ( Ray Stevenson ) rescue Cobra Commander ( Luke Bracey ) from an underground maximum @-@ security prison in Germany , leaving Destro behind . Storm Shadow is injured during the escape and retreats to a temple in the Himalayas to recover . Upon learning that he is alive , the Blind Master ( RZA ) , leader of the Arashikage Clan , sends Snake Eyes ( Ray Park ) and his apprentice Jinx ( Élodie Yung ) , Storm Shadow 's cousin , to capture Storm Shadow so he can answer for the murder of his uncle , the Hard Master .

Roadblock , Flint , and Lady Jaye return to the United States where they set up a base of operations in a rundown gym . After Zartan announces that Cobra will replace the Joes as America 's elite special forces unit , Lady Jaye deduces that someone is impersonating the President , and Roadblock leads them to General Joseph Colton ( Bruce Willis ) , who provides them with weapons , and helps them infiltrate a fundraising event that the President will be attending . Lady Jaye steals a sample of the President 's DNA and confirms that he is Zartan . They escape after a confrontation with Firefly and Zandar ( Matt Gerald ) , the head of the U.S. Secret Service 's Presidential Detail and a member of Cobra .

Snake Eyes and Jinx locate and capture Storm Shadow after a battle with ninjas and take him to Japan , where Storm Shadow reveals that Zartan murdered the Hard Master , and that he joined Cobra to avenge his uncle . Storm Shadow then accompanies Snake Eyes and Jinx as they join the Joes ' efforts to stop Cobra .

Zartan invites the world leaders to a summit at historic Fort Sumter , where he blackmails them into disabling their nuclear arsenals , and reveals that he has created Project Zeus : seven orbital kinetic bombardment weapons of mass destruction at his command . He destroys central London to prove his superiority , and threatens to destroy other capitals if the countries don 't submit to Cobra . Storm Shadow betrays Cobra Commander and kills Zartan , revealing Cobra 's deception to the world leaders . While Snake Eyes , Jinx , and Flint fight Cobra 's soldiers , Cobra Commander activates the remaining six weapons and instructs Firefly to protect the launch device . Firefly is killed in combat by Roadblock , who deactivates and destroys the orbital weapons . Meanwhile , Colton and Lady Jaye rescue the President .

Cobra Commander escapes during the battle and Storm Shadow disappears after avenging his uncle . The real President addresses the nation at a White House ceremony where Roadblock , Lady Jaye , Flint , Jinx , and Snake Eyes are commemorated as heroes . Colton presents Roadblock with an M1911 pistol that belonged to General George S. Patton , to use when he finally finds Cobra Commander and to avenge Duke . Roadblock proudly raises the weapon and fires a single shot in honor of his fallen comrades .

= = Cast = =

= = = G.I. Joe = = =

Dwayne Johnson as Marvin F. Hinton / Roadblock

Ray Park as Snake Eyes

Adrianne Palicki as Jaye Burnett / Lady Jaye

D.J. Cotrona as Dashiell R. Faireborn / Flint

Élodie Yung as Kim Arashikage / Jinx

Bruce Willis as General Joseph Colton

Channing Tatum as Conrad S. Hauser / Duke

Joseph Mazzello as Mouse

Ryan Hansen as Grunt

Jim Palmer as Clutch

= = = Cobra = = =

Luke Bracey as Rexford Lewis / Cobra Commander

Robert Baker as the voice of Cobra Commander

Byung @-@ hun Lee as Thomas " Tommy " Arashikage / Storm Shadow

Ray Stevenson as Firefly

Arnold Vosloo as Zartan

Matt Gerald as Zandar / Havoc

= = = Other characters = = =

Jonathan Pryce as the President of the United States

Walton Goggins as Warden Nigel James

RZA as Blind Master

DeRay Davis as Stoop

Joe Chrest as the Chief of Staff

James Carville as himself

Skai Jackson as Roadblock 's Daughter

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

After the financially successful release of The Rise of Cobra , Rob Moore , the studio vice chairman of Paramount Pictures , stated in 2009 that a sequel would be developed . In January 2011 , Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick , the writers of Zombieland , were hired to write the script for the sequel . The movie was originally thought to be titled G.I. Joe : Cobra Strikes , which was later denied by Reese . Stephen Sommers was originally going to return as director of the sequel , but Paramount Pictures announced in February 2011 that Jon Chu would direct the sequel . In July 2011 , the sequel 's name was revealed to be G.I. Joe : Retaliation . Chu would later declare that Paramount wanted a reboot that also served as a sequel to The Rise of Cobra since " a lot of people saw the first movie so we don 't want to alienate that and redo the whole thing . "

= = = Casting = = =

In January 2011 , it was confirmed that Byung @-@ hun Lee would reprise his role as Storm Shadow in the sequel . Channing Tatum and Ray Park also returned , as Duke and Snake Eyes , respectively . Rachel Nichols , the actress who played Scarlett in the first film , stated that most cast members would not be returning , except for the three aforementioned actors . In March 2011 , Sienna Miller stated that she would not be returning for a sequel . Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt also confirmed that he would not be returning as Cobra Commander in the sequel .

In June 2011 , Dwayne Johnson was cast as Roadblock , D.J. Cotrona and RZA were cast as Flint and Blind Master respectively , while Élodie Yung was in talks for the role of Jinx . In July 2011 , Adrianne Palicki was confirmed for the lead female role of Lady Jaye , and Ray Stevenson was confirmed to portray the villain Firefly . Arnold Vosloo also confirmed that he would reprise his role of Zartan , although in the final film Vosloo appears only in a couple of non @-@ dialogue scenes , with Jonathan Pryce playing Zartan in most scenes . Joseph Mazzello was confirmed to play Mouse . In August 2011 , Walton Goggins was added as Warden Nigel James , and it was confirmed that Bruce Willis was cast to star in the film as the original G.I. Joe . The character of Joe Colton was a replacement for fan @-@ favorite Joe character Sgt. Slaughter . Sgt. Slaughter stated that he " was originally supposed to be the part of Bruce Willis ' [ as ] Sgt. Slaughter but because we had a conflict in toy companies , Hasbro and Mattel , I wasn 't able to do it . It 's one of those things , Rock ( Dwayne Johnson ) doesn 't have a contract so he can do what he wants to do and he 's been very successful " .

In September , a casting call sheet leaked to the Internet revealed that Cobra Commander would appear in the sequel , though it was unknown who would play the character . Chu said that fans would get a glimpse of Destro in the film , but Christopher Eccleston would not reprise his role in the sequel . On May 1 , 2012 , it was confirmed by Jon Chu that G.I. Joe : Retaliation 's Cobra Commander is Rex Lewis , the same character that Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt played in The Rise of Cobra . Actor Robert Baker confirmed that he is the voice of Cobra Commander in the sequel .

= = = Filming = = =

Principal photography began in August 2011 in Louisiana . On November 22 , 2011 , a crew member died in an accident at a New Orleans warehouse that was serving as a soundstage for the production . The incident happened while crew members were changing out a set . The battle on the Himalayas was shot in a New Orleans warehouse previously used to build NASA rockets , that had been fitted with a green screen wall at a very steep angle with a lot of rigging above to swing the stunt people through .

Fort Pike in Louisiana stands in for Fort Sumter in South Carolina as the site of the climactic summit meeting of the leaders of nuclear @-@ armed countries .

= = = Visual effects = = =

Retaliation had 700 visual effects shots , which were mostly handled by three effects companies . Visual effects supervisor Zachary Kinnery declared that while the visuals aimed for the " big and bold " typical of the franchise , Retaliation would be the first to attempt " a bit more of that gritty realism . " The major part of the effects was given to Digital Domain , which for 227 effects created digital vehicles and aircraft that had to " look fantastic but which are also plausible " , given they had to match practical models , the Zeus satellite and a sequence where Zartan shows his nanomite @-@ related disguise to the president - done with the same head replacement software developed for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button and Tron : Legacy . Industrial Light & Magic made the London destruction , a digital White House , and the mountain sword fight , which had computer @-@ generated backgrounds and digital augmentation of the stunt people 's performance . Method Studios was responsible for the desert attack , Firefly 's explosive bugs , and the malfunction on the underground prison . Saints LA handled minor effects such as compositing and news graphics .

= = = Music = = =

The film 's score was composed by Henry Jackman .

= = Release = =

Previously slated for release on June 29 , 2012 , Paramount announced in May 2012 that they were delaying the film 's release until March 29 , 2013 ( but was later moved to March 28 , 2013 ) , in order to convert the movie to 3D and boost interest in international markets .

The delay " gobsmacked " the film industry , according to Deadline.com , because Paramount had already implemented a substantial advertising campaign beginning with a Super Bowl commercial , because " warehouses full of " toys were waiting for the film 's launch , and because it was one of only three Paramount @-@ produced films scheduled for Summer 2012 ( along with The Dictator and Katy Perry : Part of Me ) . The studio also wanted to avoid competing with Tatum 's Magic Mike , also scheduled for June 29 , Deadline reported .

= = = Ban in Pakistan = = =

The film was banned by the Central Board of Film Censors of Pakistan due to initial scenes at the beginning of the movie which depict the country negatively , according to film censor board officials . A Karachi @-@ based cinema posted on its Facebook page that the film would not be screened due to restrictions by the censor board . The censorship was due to the film 's depiction of Pakistan as an unstable state and the fictional portrayal of a " foreign invasion of Pakistan ’ s nuclear installations " , which caught the ire of film censor authorities . Consequently , restrictions were imposed on screening the movie countrywide . According to an official at the censor board , the film portrayed Pakistan negatively not only on the issue of the War on Terror but also on the international standing of the country : " There is a scene which shows the assassination of the Pakistani president and the imposition of martial law , which is not a fair representation of the country . " Another cinema official explained " There were obviously several objectionable things which would never have passed the censors , but these things are also relevant to the content of the film . "

= = = Promotion = = =

On December 12 , 2011 , the premiere trailer for the film was released on YouTube exclusively from Machinima.com. The trailer itself features a remix of the White Stripes ' song " Seven Nation Army " by The Glitch Mob . Following the release of the trailer , Interview magazine featured G.I. Joe : Retaliation in " Thursday video Face @-@ Off " against the indie film Alter Egos on January 12 , 2012 . A shorter teaser trailer for the film aired during Super Bowl XLVI , containing music by Jay @-@ Z. A Japanese trailer focusing on actor Byung @-@ hun Lee was released in April 2012 . The second full trailer made its debut on April 24 , 2012 , containing a viral marketing initiative inviting viewers to interact with a website and Facebook application for the film . On December 13 , 2012 , a third trailer was released featuring more footage of London 's destruction . In January 2013 , a four @-@ minute clip of the film featuring a ninja battle between Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow was attached with IMAX screenings of Hansel and Gretel : Witch Hunters . A soundtrack of the score by composer Henry Jackman was released in April 2013 .

A toyline for the film was confirmed by Hasbro in February 2012 . Despite the movie 's release being moved from June 2012 to March 2013 , the initial assortments of figures , vehicles , and role @-@ play items were shipped to retailers , and appeared on store shelves in May 2012 . A Variety article was published stating that the already released figures had been pulled from the shelves and recalled by Hasbro , although the company 's official statement indicated that existing product would be sold through . New product shipments were halted by Hasbro , but existing Retaliation figures were available in Target , Wal @-@ Mart , and Toys R Us as late as December 2012 . The toyline was re @-@ released in the United States in February 2013 .

= = = Home media = = =

G.I. Joe : Retaliation was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and Blu @-@ ray 3D on July 30 , 2013 . A Blu @-@ ray " Extended Action Cut " added 12 minutes of footage and uncensored violence was also available , with the United States version being a Best Buy exclusive .

The film topped No. 1 on both the Blu @-@ ray and DVD sales charts with at least 54 % of both Blu @-@ ray and DVD units sold . The film also topped weekend rentals as well .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 28 % approval rating with an average rating of 4 @.@ 5 / 10 based on 161 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Though arguably superior to its predecessor , G.I. Joe : Retaliation is overwhelmed by its nonstop action and too nonsensical and vapid to leave a lasting impression . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 41 % , indicating " mixed or average reviews " , based on 31 critics , which was higher than the first film 's 32 % average score .

Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice wrote in a positive review that " this [ movie ] pushes right past competent into mostly legitimately enjoyable " but added that " the movie is still dumb as catbutt . It 's an honest and accomplished dumbness , however , where the stupidest stuff seems to be there because the movie would be less fun without it . " The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy was critical about the film 's use of 3D and accurate reflection of the franchise 's comic book and cartoon origins , but predicted it would still earn better than its predecessor , G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a grade of " B- " , calling it " well @-@ executed technocratic action fluff " and commented : " In its dehumanized and trivial way , it 's a triumph of razor @-@ sharp , hyper @-@ violent style over formulaic substance ... Hollywood has now evolved to the point that it can deliver these kinds of thrills with maximum brute force and keep the impact so light that the result can still be regarded as a ' harmless ' diversion for 14 @-@ year @-@ olds . " Glen Heath Jr. of Slant Magazine gave it two out of four stars , criticizing the film 's " cut @-@ happy style " and plot , but lauding the action sequences and Chu 's direction as " poetry in high @-@ speed motion . " Writing for Indiewire 's The Playlist Blog , Todd Gilchrist gave the film a " B- " and wrote : " As one might expect , there are more than a handful of loose ends once justice has been served , but there ’ s something to be said for a film which aims to please in a sincere and straightforward way , without attempting to be the biggest ever . ' Retaliation ' is no masterpiece , but it ’ s a movie whose fun doesn ’ t feel like a four @-@ letter word "

In a negative review , Betsey Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times panned the " overwhelmingly complicated , globe @-@ hopping , enemies within , enemies without story line " and 3D but noted that " the humor , when it works , offers ' Retaliation ' some redemption . " She ended with : " It 's convoluted . Frankly no one should have to think that hard to keep up with the Joes . " Another negative review came from Variety Magazine 's Justin Chang , who ridiculed the movie 's large @-@ scale destruction of foreign cities , writing : " Audiences who thrilled to the sight of Paris under biochemical attack in Cobra will be pleased to watch London endure an even more horrific fate here , although the sequence is tossed off in quick , almost ho @-@ hum fashion , with no time to dwell on anything so exquisitely crass as the spectacle of the Eiffel Tower collapsing . " He summarized the movie as " a more straight @-@ faced brand of idiocy than its cheerfully dumb 2009 predecessor . "

PopMatters journalist J.C. Maçek III wrote " For fans who bought the toys , watched the cartoon and read the comics during the ‘ 80s and now have like @-@ aged children of their own ( all of which I did and do ) , might I suggest proceeding to watch this fun film with your kids , but compromise so that you can leave the commentary track on . The film will remain a treat for the eyes , but you can more easily gloss over those parts that will make you apologize to your brain . "

Writing for Empire magazine , Olly Richards gave the movie 2 stars out of 5 and compared it unfavorably with its predecessor , writing : " The first film you could at least laugh at . This takes all its silly ingredients and smushes them down flat . ' Retaliation ' over @-@ promises and under @-@ delivers . " Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun Times gave the movie 1 @.@ 5 stars out of a possible four , branding it a " ridiculous and overblown debacle " that contained " nothing but well @-@ packaged garbage " and further adding : " To say ' G.I. Joe : Retaliation ' is a video game for the big screen is to insult a number of video games that are far more creative , challenging and better @-@ looking . "

Despite the negative critical response , audiences responded favorably . CinemaScore polls found that audiences gave the film an average grade of A @-@ minus .

= = = Box office = = =

G.I. Joe : Retaliation grossed $ 122 @,@ 523 @,@ 060 in North America and $ 253 @,@ 217 @,@ 645 internationally for a worldwide total of $ 375 @,@ 740 @,@ 705 . Overall , according to Box Office Mojo it is the 25th highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 in North America , the 18th highest @-@ grossing film worldwide that year , the highest @-@ grossing film in the G.I. Joe film series , and the fifth highest @-@ grossing Hasbro film .

In North America , the film grossed $ 10 @.@ 5 million on its opening day at the top of the box office . The film retained the No. 1 spot over the three @-@ day weekend and grossed $ 40 @.@ 5 million , which is the third @-@ highest Easter debut ever behind Furious 7 and Clash of the Titans . However , this was lower than its predecessor 's opening weekend of $ 54 @.@ 7 million . The international response was even more positive , with $ 80 @.@ 3 million across the weekend .

= = Sequel = =

On April 1 , 2013 , reports surfaced that there will be a third G.I. Joe film , and it will likely be in 3D . The studio announced that Chu will return to direct the third film . While at the 2013 San Diego Comic Con , Chu talked about bringing Scarlett back in the next film . The writers of the second film are also thinking about bringing back the Baroness in the sequel . Johnson is interested in returning as Roadblock for the sequel , and Park has talked about a possible return as Snake Eyes and also including his pet wolf Timber . Producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura has stated he is open to doing a G.I. Joe / Transformers crossover , which Chu stated that he would be interested in directing . Bonaventura told Beijing News that he hoped that Johnson and Willis would return , the script is still in the writing stage , and that they are considering adding a third important role . On September 10 , 2013 , Chu was confirmed to direct the film , along with writer Evan Daugherty ( Snow White and the Huntsman , Divergent , Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles ) to pen the film 's script . On December 5 , 2013 , Daugherty talked about writing the film 's script and his feelings about Duke being killed , but Chu told MTV that Tatum may return as Duke in the sequel . On April 2 , 2014 , in an interview with Collider , Johnson believes that Chu may not return to direct , due to working on the live action Jem film , but they may find another director for the film . It was revealed that the third film will have a 2016 release date . On June 23 , 2014 , di Bonaventura told Collider in an interview that they 're meeting with new directors and filming may start in early 2015 . On July 1 , 2014 , Variety reported that Jonathan Lemkin will write the script for the film and will focus on Roadblock with Johnson returning . On February 5 , 2015 , Film Divider reported that the twins Tomax and Xamot and Matt Trakker from the TV series M.A.S.K. will be appearing . On April 2 , 2015 , the studio hired Aaron Berg to write the film , and D. J. Caruso to direct the film . On November 23 , 2015 , Deadline reported that Akiva Goldsman will lead a writers room for the next G.I. Joe film .

= Burns ' Heir =

" Burns ' Heir " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 14 , 1994 . In the episode , Mr. Burns has a near @-@ death experience which prompts him to find an heir to inherit his wealth after he dies . Although Bart is initially rejected , Burns soon decides to choose him after seeing him as " a creature of pure malevolence " . Marge convinces Bart to go spend some time with Burns , and soon becomes more disruptive than normal to his own family and decides to go live with Mr. Burns .

" Burns ' Heir " was written by Jace Richdale , his only writing credit . David Silverman was originally going to direct the episode , but he was so swamped with his work as supervising director that it was reassigned to Mark Kirkland . While the Simpsons are at a movie , there is a parody of the THX sound Deep Note . The THX executives liked the parody so much that the scene was made into an actual THX movie trailer , with the scene being redone for the widescreen aspect ratio . A deleted scene from the episode sees Mr. Burns release a " Robotic Richard Simmons " as a way of getting rid of Homer . The scene was cut , but later included in the season seven clip show " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " .

= = Plot = =

Mr. Burns almost drowns while taking a bath after Smithers puts a sponge on his head that weighs him down . Later , after realizing that no one will carry on his legacy when he dies , Burns decides to try to find an heir that will inherit his vast fortune . He holds an audition and many of the boys in Springfield try out , including Nelson Muntz , Martin Prince , and Milhouse Van Houten . Bart and Lisa also try out and fail ; Lisa because she is a girl , and Bart because he read Homer 's badly @-@ worded proposal . Angry and humiliated after the audition ends , only made worse by Burns kicking him in the butt with a mechanical boot , Bart pays him back by vandalizing his mansion . Mr. Burns approves of Bart 's malevolence and decides to accept him as his heir .

Homer and Marge sign a legal document which officially names Bart as Mr. Burns ' heir . Marge suggests that Bart should spend some time with Mr. Burns . While initially repelled by Mr. Burns ' coldness , Bart begins to take a liking to him after Burns promises to give Bart whatever he wants out of his life . Bart decides to abandon his family because Mr. Burns allows him to do anything he likes . Bart 's family becomes angry and wants him back , so they decide to sue Mr. Burns , but due to hiring Lionel Hutz as their lawyer , the court ends up deciding that Mr Burns is Bart 's biological father . The Simpsons get a Private Investigator deprogrammer to kidnap Bart , but the deprogrammer wrongly takes Hans Moleman instead and brainwashes him into thinking he 's a part of the Simpson family .

Meanwhile , Bart becomes lonely and wants to go back to his family . Mr. Burns does not want him to leave and tricks him into thinking that his family hates him , using a falsified video with actors playing the Simpson family . Bart decides that Burns is his true father and the two celebrate by firing employees at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant by ejecting them through a trap door . However , one of the employees is Homer and Mr. Burns then tries to break Bart 's ties with his family by forcing him to fire Homer . Bart instead " fires " Burns and drops him through a trap door . Bart decides that he loves his family , and moves back in with them .

= = Production = =

" Burns ' Heir " was the first episode in which Jace Richdale received a writers ' credit , although he was a part of the show 's staff for several seasons . When he was starting out as a writer on the show , Richdale was told to come up with some story ideas and he came up with the basic plot off the top of his head . David Silverman was originally going to direct the episode , but he was so swamped with his work as supervising director that it was reassigned to Mark Kirkland . While the Simpsons are at a movie , there is a parody of the THX sound Deep Note . During that scene , a man 's head explodes in a reference to the film Scanners . The THX executives liked the parody so much that the scene was made into an actual THX movie trailer , with the scene being redone for the widescreen aspect ratio .

A deleted scene from the episode sees Mr. Burns release a " Robotic Richard Simmons " as a way of getting rid of Homer , which dances to a recording of K.C. and the Sunshine Band 's " Shake Your Booty " . Simmons was originally asked to guest star , according to David Mirkin , he was " dying to do the show " , but declined when he found out he would voice a robot . It was fully animated , but was cut from " Burns ' Heir " because it often did not get a good reaction during table reads . According to Bill Oakley , there was a " significant division of opinion amongst the staff as to whether Richard Simmons was a target The Simpsons should make fun of " because it was " well @-@ trod territory " . They also felt it distracted viewers from the story . To the production staff 's surprise , the scene would make the audience " erupt with laughter " when screened at animation conventions and college presentations , so they decided to insert it in the season seven clip show " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " .

= = Cultural references = =

The episode parodies THX 's infamous ' Deep Note ' .

The trailer advertising Mr. Burns ' search for an heir is a loose parody of the trailer for Toys , a 1992 comedy starring Robin Williams .

Mr. Burns also sings " Let 's All Go to the Lobby " .

Marge 's fantasy about Bart graduating from Harvard University with Mr. Burns ' money is interrupted by a fantasy of her being lifted into the sky by Lee Majors , accompanied by a sound effect from The Six Million Dollar Man , in which Majors played the title character .

Mr. Burns states that he got the idea for installing cameras all through town from Sliver , which he calls a " delightful romp " .

Moe using a home @-@ made sliding action holster with a pistol while looking in a mirror is a reference to Travis Bickle from Taxi Driver .

The scene in which Homer is secretly eating flowers is a reference to a scene in The Last Emperor where the empress eats flowers .

The young boy saying , " Today , sir ? Why , it 's Christmas Day ! " makes a reference to Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol .

The room in which " Bart " ( who is really Hans Moleman ) is deprogrammed in is room number 101 , which is in reference to the novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four .

In the deleted scene , the Richard Simmons robot healing itself after Smithers shoots it with a shotgun is a reference to the T @-@ 1000 from Terminator 2 : Judgment Day .

= = Reception = =

In its original broadcast , " Burns ' Heir " finished 53rd in ratings for the week of April 11 – 17 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , and was viewed in 8 @.@ 85 million households . The show dropped four places in the rankings after finishing 49th the previous week . It was the third highest rated show on Fox that week following Living Single and Married ... with Children .

The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote that , " the episode lacks the emotional punch of others in which members of the family are separated . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that the episode was " such a great concept that it ’ s a surprise no [ one ] went for it earlier . " He felt that it " occasionally veers on the edge of mushiness , but it avoids becoming too sentimental . It 's a blast to see Burns ’ world from Bart ’ s point of view . DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 5 out of 5 while DVD Verdict gave the episode a Grade B score . Paul Campos of Rocky Mountain News described the Robotic Richard Simmons scene as " a level of surreal comedy that approaches a kind of genius " .

Homer 's quote , " Kids , you tried your best and you failed miserably . The lesson is never try " , was added to The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations in August 2007 .

= Cougar =

The cougar ( Puma concolor ) , also commonly known as the mountain lion , puma , panther , or catamount , is a large felid of the subfamily Felinae native to the Americas . Its range , from the Canadian Yukon to the southern Andes of South America , is the greatest of any large wild terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere . An adaptable , generalist species , the cougar is found in most American habitat types . It is the second @-@ heaviest cat in the New World , after the jaguar . Secretive and largely solitary by nature , the cougar is properly considered both nocturnal and crepuscular , although there are daytime sightings . The cougar is more closely related to smaller felines , including the domestic cat ( subfamily Felinae ) , than to any species of subfamily Pantherinae , of which only the jaguar is native to the Americas .

The cougar is an ambush predator and pursues a wide variety of prey . Primary food sources are ungulates , particularly deer , but also livestock . It also hunts species as small as insects and rodents . This cat prefers habitats with dense underbrush and rocky areas for stalking , but can also live in open areas . The cougar is territorial and survives at low population densities . Individual territory sizes depend on terrain , vegetation , and abundance of prey . While large , it is not always the apex predator in its range , yielding to the jaguar , gray wolf , American black bear , and grizzly bear . It is reclusive and mostly avoids people . Fatal attacks on humans are rare , but have recently been increasing in North America as more people enter their territories .

Prolific hunting following European colonization of the Americas and the ongoing human development of cougar habitat has caused populations to drop in most parts of its historical range . In particular , the cougar was extirpated in eastern North America in the beginning of the 20th century , except for an isolated Florida panther subpopulation . Breeding populations have moved east into the far western parts of the Dakotas , Nebraska , and Oklahoma . Transient males have been verified in Minnesota , Missouri , Wisconsin , Iowa , the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , and Illinois , where a cougar was shot in the city limits of Chicago and , in at least one instance , observed as far east as coastal Connecticut . Reports of eastern cougars ( P. c. cougar ) still surface , although it was declared extirpated in 2011 .

= = Naming and etymology = =

With its vast range across the length of the Americas , P. concolor has dozens of names and various references in the mythology of the indigenous Americans and in contemporary culture . Currently , it is referred to as " puma " by most scientists and by the populations in 21 of the 23 countries in the Americas where " puma " is the common name in Spanish or Portuguese . The cat has many local or regional names in the United States and Canada , of which cougar , puma , mountain lion , and panther are popular . " Mountain lion " was a term first used in writing in 1858 from the diary of George A. Jackson of Colorado . Other names include catamount ( probably a contraction from " cat of the mountain " ) , mountain screamer , and painter . Lexicographers regard painter as a primarily upper @-@ Southern US regional variant on panther . The word panther is commonly used to specifically designate the black panther , a melanistic jaguar or leopard , and the Florida panther , a subspecies of cougar ( P. c. coryi ) .

P. concolor holds the Guinness record for the animal with the greatest number of names , with over 40 in English alone .

" Cougar " may be borrowed from the archaic Portuguese çuçuarana ; the term was originally derived from the Tupi language susua 'rana , meaning " similar to deer ( in hair color ) " . A current form in Brazil is suçuarana . It may also be borrowed from the Guaraní language term guaçu ara or guazu ara . Less common Portuguese terms are onça @-@ parda ( brown onça , in distinction of the black @-@ spotted [ yellow ] one , onça @-@ pintada , the jaguar ) or leão @-@ baio ( lit. chestnut lion ) , or unusually non @-@ native puma or leão @-@ da @-@ montanha , more common names for the animal when native to a region other than South America ( especially for those who do not know that suçuaranas are found elsewhere but with a different name ) . People in rural regions often refer to both the cougar and the jaguar as simply gata ( she @-@ cat ) , and outside of the Amazon , both are colloquially referred to as simply onça by many people ( that is also a name for the leopard in Angola ) .

In the 17th century , German naturalist Georg Marcgrave named the cat the cuguacu ara . Marcgrave 's rendering was reproduced by his associate , Dutch naturalist Willem Piso , in 1648 . Cuguacu ara was then adopted by English naturalist John Ray in 1693 . The French naturalist Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon in 1774 ( probably influenced by the word " jaguar " ) converted the cuguacu ara to cuguar , which was later modified to " cougar " in English .

The first English record of " puma " was in 1777 , where it had come from the Spanish , who in turn borrowed it from the Peruvian Quechua language in the 16th century , where it means " powerful " .

= = Taxonomy and evolution = =

Cougars are the largest of the small cats . They are placed in the subfamily Felinae , although their bulk characteristics are similar to those of the big cats in the subfamily Pantherinae . The family Felidae is believed to have originated in Asia about 11 million years ago . Taxonomic research on felids remains partial , and much of what is known about their evolutionary history is based on mitochondrial DNA analysis , as cats are poorly represented in the fossil record , and significant confidence intervals exist with suggested dates . In the latest genomic study of the Felidae , the common ancestor of today 's Leopardus , Lynx , Puma , Prionailurus , and Felis lineages migrated across the Bering land bridge into the Americas 8 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 5 million years ago ( Mya ) . The lineages subsequently diverged in that order . North American felids then invaded South America 3 Mya as part of the Great American Interchange , following formation of the Isthmus of Panama . The cougar was originally thought to belong in Felis ( Felis concolor ) , the genus which includes the domestic cat . As of 1993 , it is now placed in Puma along with the jaguarundi , a cat just a little more than a tenth its weight .

The cougar and jaguarundi are most closely related to the modern cheetah of Africa and western Asia , but the relationship is unresolved . The cheetah lineage is suggested by some studies to have diverged from the Puma lineage in the Americas ( see American cheetah ) and migrated back to Asia and Africa , while other research suggests the cheetah diverged in the Old World itself . The outline of small feline migration to the Americas is thus unclear .

A high level of genetic similarity has been found among North American cougar populations , suggesting they are all fairly recent descendants of a small ancestral group . Culver et al. propose the original North American population of P. concolor was extirpated during the Pleistocene extinctions some 10 @,@ 000 years ago , when other large mammals , such as Smilodon , also disappeared . North America was then repopulated by a group of South American cougars .

= = = Subspecies = = =

Until the late 1980s , as many as 32 subspecies were recorded ; genetic study of mitochondrial DNA found many of these are too similar to be recognized as distinct at a molecular level . Following the research , the canonical Mammal Species of the World ( 3rd ed . ) recognizes six subspecies , five of which are solely found in Latin America :

Argentine cougar ( Puma concolor cabrerae ) Pocock , 1940 :

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms hudsonii and puma

Costa Rican cougar ( P. c. costaricensis ) Merriam , 1901

Eastern South American cougar ( P. c. anthonyi ) Nelson and Goldman , 1931 :

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms acrocodia , borbensis , capricornensis , concolor , greeni , and nigra

North American cougar ( P. c. couguar ) Kerr , 1792 :

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms arundivaga , aztecus , browni , californica , floridana , hippolestes , improcera , kaibabensis , mayensis , missoulensis , olympus , oregonensis , schorgeri , stanleyana , vancouverensis , and youngi

Northern South American cougar ( P. c. concolor ) Linnaeus , 1771 :

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms bangsi , incarum , osgoodi , soasoaranna , sussuarana , soderstromii , suçuaçuara , and wavula

Southern South American cougar ( P. c. puma ) Molina , 1782 :

includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus , concolor , patagonica , pearsoni , and puma

Incerta sedis

Florida panther ( P. c. coryi )

The status of the Florida panther remains uncertain . It is still regularly listed as subspecies P. c. coryi in research works , including those directly concerned with its conservation . Culver et al. noted low microsatellite variation in the Florida panther , possibly due to inbreeding ; responding to the research , one conservation team suggests , " the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the use of genetics in puma taxonomy is not resolved at this time . "

= = Biology and behavior = =

= = = Physical characteristics = = =

Cougars are slender and agile members of the cat family . They are the fourth @-@ largest cat ; adults stand about 60 to 90 cm ( 24 to 35 in ) tall at the shoulders . Adult males are around 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long nose @-@ to @-@ tail and females average 2 @.@ 05 m ( 6 @.@ 7 ft ) , with overall ranges between 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 75 m ( 4 @.@ 9 to 9 @.@ 0 ft ) nose to tail suggested for the species in general . Of this length , 63 to 95 cm ( 25 to 37 in ) is comprised by the tail . Males typically weigh 53 to 100 kg ( 115 to 220 lb ) , averaging 62 kg ( 137 lb ) . Females typically weigh between 29 and 64 kg ( 64 and 141 lb ) , averaging 42 kg ( 93 lb ) . Cougar size is smallest close to the equator , and larger towards the poles . The largest recorded cougar , shot in 1901 , weighed 105 @.@ 2 kg ( 232 lb ) ; claims of 125 @.@ 2 kg ( 276 lb ) and 118 kg ( 260 lb ) have been reported , though they were most likely exaggerated . On average , adult male cougars in British Columbia weigh 56 @.@ 7 kg ( 125 lb ) and adult females 45 @.@ 4 kg ( 100 lb ) , though several male cougars in British Columbia weighed between 86 @.@ 4 and 95 @.@ 5 kg ( 190 to 210 lb ) .

The head of the cat is round and the ears are erect . Its powerful forequarters , neck , and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey . It has five retractable claws on its forepaws ( one a dewclaw ) and four on its hind paws . The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey .

Cougars can be almost as large as jaguars , but are less muscular and not as powerfully built ; where their ranges overlap , the cougar tends to be smaller on average . Besides the jaguar , the cougar is on average larger than all felids apart from lions and tigers . Despite its size , it is not typically classified among the " big cats " , as it cannot roar , lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus of Panthera . Compared to " big cats " , cougars are often silent with minimal communication through vocalizations outside of the mother @-@ offspring relationship . Cougars sometimes voice low @-@ pitched hisses , growls , and purrs , as well as chirps and whistles , many of which are comparable to those of domestic cats . They are well known for their screams , as referenced in some of their common names , although these screams are often misinterpreted to be the calls of other animals .

Cougar coloring is plain ( hence the Latin concolor ) but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings . The coat is typically tawny , but ranges to silvery @-@ grey or reddish , with lighter patches on the underbody , including the jaws , chin , and throat . Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails ; juveniles are pale , and dark spots remain on their flanks . Despite anecdotes to the contrary , all @-@ black coloring ( melanism ) has never been documented in cougars . The term " black panther " is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species , particularly jaguars and leopards .

Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family . This physique allows it great leaping and short @-@ sprint ability . The cougar is able to leap as high as 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) in one bound , and as far as 40 to 45 ft ( 12 to 13 @.@ 5 m ) horizontally . The cougar 's top running speed ranges between 64 and 80 km / h ( 40 and 50 mph ) , but is best adapted for short , powerful sprints rather than long chases . It is adept at climbing , which allows it to evade canine competitors . Although it is not strongly associated with water , it can swim .

= = = Hunting and diet = = =

A successful generalist predator , the cougar will eat any animal it can catch , from insects to large ungulates ( over 500 kg ) . Like all cats , it is an obligate carnivore , meaning it needs to feed exclusively on meat to survive . The mean weight of vertebrate prey ( MWVP ) that pumas attack increases with the puma 's body weight ; in general , MWVP is lower in areas closer to the equator . Its most important prey species are various deer species , particularly in North America ; mule deer , white @-@ tailed deer , elk and even bull moose are taken . Other species such as the bighorn and Dall 's sheep , horse , fallow deer , caribou , mountain goat , coyote , pronghorn , and domestic livestock such as cattle and sheep are also primary food bases in many areas . A survey of North America research found 68 % of prey items were ungulates , especially deer . Only the Florida panther showed variation , often preferring feral hogs and armadillos .

Investigation in Yellowstone National Park showed that elk , followed by mule deer , were the cougar 's primary targets ; the prey base is shared with the park 's gray wolves , with which the cougar competes for resources . Another study on winter kills ( November – April ) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99 % of the cougar diet . Learned , individual prey recognition was observed , as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep , while others relied heavily on the species .

In Pacific Rim National Park Reserve , scat samples showed raccoons to make up 28 % of the cougar 's diet , harbor seals and blacktail deer 24 % each , North American river otters 10 % , California sea lion 7 % , and American mink 4 % ; the remaining 3 % were unidentified .

In the Central and South American cougar range , the ratio of deer in the diet declines . Small to mid @-@ sized mammals are preferred , including large rodents such as the capybara . Ungulates accounted for only 35 % of prey items in one survey , about half that of North America . Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items . Other listed prey species of the cougar include mice , porcupines , beavers , raccoons , hares , guanaco , peccary , vicuna , rhea , and wild turkey . Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south , but this is rarely recorded in North America . Not all of their prey is listed here due to their large range .

Though capable of sprinting , the cougar is typically an ambush predator . It stalks through brush and trees , across ledges , or other covered spots , before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite . The cougar is capable of breaking the neck of some of its smaller prey with a strong bite and momentum bearing the animal to the ground .

Kills are generally estimated around one large ungulate every two weeks . The period shrinks for females raising young , and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature around 15 months . The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot , covers it with brush , and returns to feed over a period of days . The cougar is generally reported to not be a scavenger , and rarely consumes prey it has not killed , but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California , suggesting more opportunistic behavior .

= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =

Females reach sexual maturity between one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to three years of age . They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive lives , though the period can be as short as one year . Females are in estrus for about 8 days of a 23 @-@ day cycle ; the gestation period is approximately 91 days . Females are sometimes reported as monogamous , but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common . Copulation is brief but frequent . Chronic stress can result in low reproductive rates when in captivity as well as in the field .

Only females are involved in parenting . Female cougars are fiercely protective of their cubs , and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as Grizzly bears in their defense . Litter size is between one and six cubs ; typically two . Caves and other alcoves that offer protection are used as litter dens . Born blind , cubs are completely dependent on their mother at first , and begin to be weaned at around three months of age . As they grow , they begin to go out on forays with their mother , first visiting kill sites , and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own . Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter . When cougars are born , they have spots , but they lose them as they grow , and by the age of 2 1 / 2 years , they will completely be gone

Young adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier ; males tend to leave sooner . One study has shown high mortality amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range , often due to conflicts with other cougars ( intraspecific competition ) . Research in New Mexico has shown that " males dispersed significantly farther than females , were more likely to traverse large expanses of non @-@ cougar habitat , and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches . "

Life expectancy in the wild is reported at eight to 13 years , and probably averages eight to 10 ; a female of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island . Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity . One male North American cougar ( P. c. couguar ) , named Scratch , was two months short of his 30th birthday when he died in 2007 . Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease , competition with other cougars , starvation , accidents , and , where allowed , human hunting . Feline immunodeficiency virus , an endemic HIV @-@ like virus in cats , is well @-@ adapted to the cougar .

= = = Social structure and home range = = =

Like almost all cats , the cougar is a solitary animal . Only mothers and kittens live in groups , with adults meeting only to mate . It is secretive and crepuscular , being most active around dawn and dusk .

Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly . Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 km2 ( 58 to 386 sq mi ) with female ranges half the size . Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km2 ( 10 sq mi ) , but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km2 ( 500 sq mi ) for males . In the United States , very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains , in excess of 775 km2 ( 300 sq mi ) . Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but , at least where studied , not with those of other males , which serves to reduce conflict between cougars . Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other . Scrape marks , urine , and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates . Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory .

Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain , vegetation , and prey abundance . One female adjacent to the San Andres Mountains , for instance , was found with a large range of 215 km2 ( 83 sq mi ) , necessitated by poor prey abundance . Research has shown cougar abundances from 0 @.@ 5 animals to as much as 7 ( in one study in South America ) per 100 km2 ( 38 sq mi ) .

Because males disperse farther than females and compete more directly for mates and territory , they are most likely to be involved in conflict . Where a subadult fails to leave his maternal range , for example , he may be killed by his father . When males encounter each other , they hiss , spit , and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down . Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young , transient animals into conflict with established individuals .

= = Ecology = =

= = = Distribution and habitat = = =

The cougar has the largest range of any wild land animal in the Americas . Its range spans 110 degrees of latitude , from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes . Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type : it is found in all forest types , as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts . The cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush , but can live with little vegetation in open areas . Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons , escarpments , rim rocks , and dense brush .

The cougar was extirpated across much of its eastern North American range ( with the exception of Florida ) in the two centuries after European colonization , and faced grave threats in the remainder of its territory . Currently , it ranges across most western American states , the Canadian provinces of Alberta , Saskatchewan and British Columbia , and the Canadian territory of Yukon . There have been widely debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America . DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America , while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports , from the mid @-@ western Great Plains through to eastern Canada . The Quebec wildlife services ( known locally as MRNF ) also considers cougar to be present in the province as a threatened species after multiple DNA tests confirmed cougar hair in lynx mating sites . The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther , which is critically endangered . There have been unconfirmed sightings in Elliotsville Plantation , Maine ( north of Monson ) ; and in New Hampshire , there have been unconfirmed sightings as early as 1997 . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Natural Resources confirmed a cougar sighting in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . Typically , extreme @-@ range sightings of cougars involve young males , which can travel great distances to establish ranges away from established males ; all four confirmed cougar kills in Iowa since 2000 involved males .

On April 14 , 2008 , police shot and killed a cougar on the north side of Chicago , Illinois . DNA tests were consistent with cougars from the Black Hills of South Dakota . Less than a year later , on March 5 , 2009 , a cougar was photographed and unsuccessfully tranquilized by state wildlife biologists in a tree near Spooner , Wisconsin , in the northwestern part of the state .

Other eastern sightings since 2010 have occurred in locations such as Greene County , Indiana , Greenwich and Milford , Connecticut , Morgan County Pike County , and Whiteside County , Illinois , and Bourbon County , Kentucky .

South of the Rio Grande , the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) lists the cat in every Central and South American country . While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America , much less is known about the cat in its southern range .

The cougar 's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50 @,@ 000 by the IUCN , with a declining trend . US state @-@ level statistics are often more optimistic , suggesting cougar populations have rebounded . In Oregon , a healthy population of 5 @,@ 000 was reported in 2006 , exceeding a target of 3 @,@ 000 . California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested , between 4 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 .

In 2012 research in Río Los Cipreses National Reserve , Chile , based in 18 motion @-@ sensitive cameras counted a population of two males and two females , one of them with at least two cubs , in an area of 600 km2 , that is 0 @.@ 63 cougars every 100 km2 .

= = = Habitat fragmentation = = =

With the increase of human development and infrastructure growth in California , the North American Cougar populations are becoming more isolated from one another .

= = = Ecological role = = =

Aside from humans , no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild , although conflicts with other predators or scavengers occur . The Yellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter @-@ predator interaction in North America . Of the three large predators , the massive grizzly bear appears dominant , often although not always able to drive both the gray wolf pack and the cougar off their kills . One study found that American black bears visited 24 % of cougar kills in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks , usurping 10 % of carcasses . Bears gained up to 113 % , and cougars lost up to 26 % , of their respective daily energy requirements from these encounters . Accounts of cougars and black bears killing each other in fights to the death have been documented from the 19th century . In spite of the size and power of the cougar , there have also been accounts of both brown and black bears killing cougars , either in disputes or in self @-@ defense .

The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey , especially in winter . Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat . One report describes a large pack of 7 to 11 wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens . Conversely , lone female or young wolves are vulnerable to predation , and have been reported ambushed and killed by cougars . Various accounts of cougars killing lone wolves , including a six @-@ year @-@ old female , have also been documented . Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities , and disrupting the feline 's behavior . Preliminary research in Yellowstone , for instance , has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves . In nearby Sun Valley , Idaho , a cougar / wolf encounter that resulted in the death of the cougar was documented . One researcher in Oregon noted : " When there is a pack around , cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens ... A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf , but the pack phenomenon changes the table . "

Both species , meanwhile , are capable of killing mid @-@ sized predators , such as bobcats and coyotes , and tend to suppress their numbers . Although cougars can kill coyotes , the latter have been documented attempting to prey on cougar cubs .

In the southern portion of its range , the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory . The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap , reducing the cougar 's size and also further reducing the likelihood of direct competition . Of the two felines , the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey .

As with any predator at or near the top of its food chain , the cougar impacts the population of prey species . Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region . For example , a study in British Columbia observed that the population of mule deer , a favored cougar prey , was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed @-@ upon white @-@ tailed deer was increasing . The Vancouver Island marmot , an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population , has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation . Nevertheless , there is a measurable effect on the quality of deer populations by puma predation .

In the southern part of South America , the puma is a top level predator that has controlled the population of guanaco and other species since prehistoric times .

= = Hybrids = =

A pumapard is a hybrid animal resulting from a union between a cougar and a leopard . Three sets of these hybrids were bred in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Carl Hagenbeck at his animal park in Hamburg , Germany . Most did not reach adulthood . One of these was purchased in 1898 by Berlin Zoo . A similar hybrid in Berlin Zoo purchased from Hagenbeck was a cross between a male leopard and a female puma . Hamburg Zoo 's specimen was the reverse pairing , the one in the black @-@ and @-@ white photo , fathered by a puma bred to an Indian leopardess .

Whether born to a female puma mated to a male leopard , or to a male puma mated to a female leopard , pumapards inherit a form of dwarfism . Those reported grew to only half the size of the parents . They have a puma @-@ like long body ( proportional to the limbs , but nevertheless shorter than either parent ) , but short legs . The coat is variously described as sandy , tawny or greyish with brown , chestnut or " faded " rosettes .

= = Conservation status = =

The World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) currently lists the cougar as a " least concern " species . The cougar is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts .

In the United States east of the Mississippi River , the only unequivocally known cougar population is the Florida panther . Until 2011 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) recognized both an Eastern cougar ( claimed to be a subspecies by some , denied by others ) and the Florida panther , affording protection under the Endangered Species Act . Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American cougar , with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized , while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists . In 2003 the documented count for the Florida sub @-@ population was 87 individuals . In March 2011 , the USFWS declared the Eastern cougar extinct . With the taxonomic uncertainty about its existence as a subspecies as well as the possibility of eastward migration of cougars from the western range , the subject remains open .

This uncertainty has been recognized by Canadian authorities . The Canadian federal agency called Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada rates its current data as " insufficient " to draw conclusions regarding the eastern cougar 's survival , and says on its Web site " Despite many sightings in the past two decades from eastern Canada , there are insufficient data to evaluate the taxonomy or assign a status to this cougar . " Notwithstanding numerous reported sightings in Ontario , Quebec , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia , it has been said that the evidence is inconclusive : " . . . there may not be a distinct ' eastern ' subspecies , and some sightings may be of escaped pets . "

The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range . As of 1996 , cougar hunting was prohibited in Argentina , Brazil , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , French Guiana , Guatemala , Honduras , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Suriname , Venezuela , and Uruguay . The cat had no reported legal protection in Ecuador , El Salvador , and Guyana . Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada , although they are protected from all hunting in the Yukon ; it is permitted in every U.S. state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean , with the exception of California . Texas is the only state in the United States with a viable population of cougars that does not protect that population in some way . In Texas , cougars are listed as nuisance wildlife and any person holding a hunting or a trapping permit can kill a cougar regardless of the season , number killed , sex or age of the animal . Killed animals are not required to be reported to Texas Parks and Wildlife Department . Conservation work in Texas is the effort of a non @-@ profit organization , Balanced Ecology Inc ( BEI ) , as part of their Texas Mountain Lion Conservation Project . Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs , until the animal is ' treed ' . When the hunter arrives on the scene , he shoots the cat from the tree at close range . The cougar cannot be legally killed without a permit in California except under very specific circumstances , such as when a cougar is in act of pursuing livestock or domestic animals , or is declared a threat to public safety . Permits are issued when owners can prove property damage on their livestock or pets . For example , multiple dogs have been attacked and killed , sometimes while with the owner . Many attribute this to the protection cougars have from being hunted and are now becoming desensitized to humans ; most are removed from the population after the attacks have already occurred . Statistics from the Department of Fish and Game indicate that cougar killings in California have been on the rise since the 1970s with an average of over 112 cats killed per year from 2000 to 2006 compared to six per year in the 1970s . They also state on their website that there is a healthy number of cougars in California . The Bay Area Puma Project aims to obtain information on cougar populations in the San Francisco Bay area and the animals ' interactions with habitat , prey , humans , and residential communities .

Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal , environmental degradation and habitat fragmentation , and depletion of their prey base . Wildlife corridors and sufficient range areas are critical to the sustainability of cougar populations . Research simulations have shown that the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200 km2 ( 850 sq mi ) or more . As few as one to four new animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence , foregrounding the importance of habitat corridors .

On March 2 , 2011 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declared the Eastern cougar ( Puma concolor couguar ) officially extinct .

= = Relationships with humans = =

= = = In mythology = = =

The grace and power of the cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas . The Inca city of Cusco is reported to have been designed in the shape of a cougar , and the animal also gave its name to both Inca regions and people . The Moche people represented the puma often in their ceramics . The sky and thunder god of the Inca , Viracocha , has been associated with the animal .

In North America , mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in the stories of the Hocąk language ( " Ho @-@ Chunk " or " Winnebago " ) of Wisconsin and Illinois and the Cheyenne , amongst others . To the Apache and Walapai of Arizona , the wail of the cougar was a harbinger of death . The Algonquins and Ojibwe believe that the cougar lived in the underworld and was wicked , whereas it was a sacred animal among the Cherokee .

= = = Livestock predation = = =

During the early years of ranching , cougars were considered on par with wolves in destructiveness . According to figures in Texas in 1990 , 86 calves ( 0 @.@ 0006 % of a total of 13 @.@ 4 million cattle & calves in Texas ) , 253 Mohair goats , 302 Mohair kids , 445 sheep ( 0 @.@ 02 % of a total of 2 @.@ 0 million sheep & lambs in Texas ) and 562 lambs ( 0 @.@ 04 % of 1 @.@ 2 million lambs in Texas ) were confirmed to have been killed by cougars that year . In Nevada in 1992 , cougars were confirmed to have killed 9 calves , 1 horse , 4 foals , 5 goats , 318 sheep and 400 lambs . In both cases , sheep were the most frequently attacked . Some instances of surplus killing have resulted in the deaths of 20 sheep in one attack . A cougar 's killing bite is applied to the back of the neck , head , or throat and they inflict puncture marks with their claws usually seen on the sides and underside of the prey , sometimes also shredding the prey as they hold on . Coyotes also typically bite the throat region but do not inflict the claw marks and farmers will normally see the signature zig @-@ zag pattern that coyotes create as they feed on the prey whereas cougars typically drag in a straight line . The work of a cougar is generally clean , differing greatly from the indiscriminate mutilation by coyotes and feral dogs . The size of the tooth puncture marks also helps distinguish kills made by cougars from those made by smaller predators .

Remedial hunting appears to have the paradoxical effect of increased livestock predation and complaints of human @-@ puma conflicts . In a 2013 study the most important predictor of puma problems were remedial hunting of puma the previous year . Each additional puma on the landscape increased predation and human @-@ puma complaints by 5 % but each additional animal killed on the landscape the previous year increased complaints by 50 % , an order of magnitude higher . The effect had a dose @-@ response relationship with very heavy ( 100 % removal of adult puma ) remedial hunting leading to a 150 % – 340 % increase in livestock and human conflicts . This effect is attributed to the fact that inexperienced younger male pumas are most likely to approach human developments , whereas remedial hunting removes older pumas who have learned to avoid people in their established territories . Remedial hunting enables younger males to enter the former territories of the older animals .

= = = Attacks on humans = = =

= = = = North American subspecies = = = =

The pertinent North American subspecies is P. concolor couguar .

Due to the expanding human population , cougar ranges increasingly overlap with areas inhabited by humans . Attacks on humans are very rare , as cougar prey recognition is a learned behavior and they do not generally recognize humans as prey . Attacks on people , livestock , and pets may occur when a puma habituates to humans or is in a condition of severe starvation . Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer , when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory .

Between 1890 and 1990 , in North America there were 53 reported , confirmed attacks on humans , resulting in 48 nonfatal injuries and 10 deaths of humans ( the total is greater than 53 because some attacks had more than one victim ) . By 2004 , the count had climbed to 88 attacks and 20 deaths .

Within North America , the distribution of attacks is not uniform . The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 ( after just three from 1890 to 1985 ) , including three fatalities . Lightly populated New Mexico reported an attack in 2008 , the first there since 1974 .

As with many predators , a cougar may attack if cornered , if a fleeing human stimulates their instinct to chase , or if a person " plays dead " . Standing still may cause the cougar to consider a person easy prey . Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact , loud shouting , and any other action to appear larger and more menacing , may make the animal retreat . Fighting back with sticks and rocks , or even bare hands , is often effective in persuading an attacking cougar to disengage .

When cougars do attack , they usually employ their characteristic neck bite , attempting to position their teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord . Neck , head , and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal . Children are at greatest risk of attack , and least likely to survive an encounter . Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64 % of all victims – and almost all fatalities – were children . The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia , particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense . Preceding attacks on humans , cougars display aberrant behavior , such as activity during daylight hours , a lack of fear of humans , and stalking humans . There have sometimes been incidents of pet cougars mauling people .

Research on new wildlife collars may be able to reduce human @-@ animal conflicts by predicting when and where predatory animals hunt . This can not only save human lives and the lives of their pets and livestock but also save these large predatory mammals that are important to the balance of ecosystems .

= = = = Other subspecies = = = =

The puma of the plains of South America ( P. concolor cabrerae , called the Argentine cougar by North Americans ) is noted for its extreme unwillingness to attack humans . According to the Anglo @-@ Argentine naturalist William Henry Hudson " It does not attack man , and Azara is perfectly correct when he affirms that it never hurts , or threatens to hurt , man or child , even when it finds them sleeping . This , however , is not a full statement of the facts ; the puma will not even defend itself against man " . And : " All who have killed or witnessed the killing of the puma — and I have questioned scores of hunters on this point — agree that it resigns itself in this unresisting , pathetic manner to death at the hands of man . Claudio Gay , in his Natural History of Chili , says , " When attacked by man its energy and daring at once forsake it , and it becomes a weak , inoffensive animal , and trembling , and uttering piteous moans , and shedding abundant tears , it seems to implore compassion from a generous enemy " . Hudson adds that , except in relation to man , the puma is a ferocious animal , attacking even the much stronger jaguar .

= New York State Route 164 =

New York State Route 164 ( NY 164 ) is a short state highway located entirely in the town of Patterson in northeastern Putnam County , New York , in the United States . It is a short , two @-@ lane back road that does not pass through any major populated areas and serves primarily as a connector between NY 311 and NY 22 . NY 164 also allows for faster passage from Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) to the Putnam Lake area via NY 311 . The route was originally designated as NY 312 during the 1930s and later became part of NY 216 . NY 164 was established on January 1 , 1970 , following the truncation of NY 216 to its current eastern terminus .

= = Route description = =

In the west , NY 164 splits off from NY 311 a short distance east of I @-@ 84 . It crosses under the Metro North tracks three times , including two one @-@ lane underpasses with limited sight to the other side . It passes along the northern base of a small mountain and turns slightly southward . The highway turns due eastward and intersects with County Route 64 in the hamlet of Towners . Just to the north is Mandel Pond , and the route makes a series of erratic turns around small mountains , passing south of Cornwall Hill as it does so . NY 164 turns south @-@ southeast and ends at NY 22 in Patterson , east of the East Branch Croton River .

= = History = =

The entirety of modern @-@ day NY 164 was originally designated as NY 312 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . When the NY 312 designation was shifted south to its current location in the town of Southeast c . 1937 , its former routing in Patterson became part of an extended NY 216 , which connected with its current routing by way of modern NY 311 , NY 292 and NY 55 . NY 216 was truncated to its current length on January 1 , 1970 . The portion of its former alignment between NY 311 and NY 22 was then redesignated as NY 164 .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Patterson , Putnam County .

= Sorraia =

The Sorraia is a rare breed of horse indigenous to the portion of the Iberian peninsula , in the Sorraia River basin , in Portugal . The Sorraia is known for its primitive features , including a convex profile and dun coloring with primitive markings . Concerning its origins , a theory has been advanced by some authors that the Sorraia is a descendant of primitive horses belonging to the naturally occurring wild fauna of Southern Iberia . Studies are currently ongoing to discover the relationship between the Sorraia and various wild horse types , as well as its relationship with other breeds from the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa .

Members of the breed are small , but hardy and well @-@ adapted to harsh conditions . They were occasionally captured and used by native farmers for centuries , and a remnant population of these nearly extinct horses was discovered by a Portuguese zoologist in the early 20th century . Today , the Sorraia has become the focus of preservation efforts , with European scientists leading the way and enthusiasts from several countries forming projects and establishing herds to assist in the re @-@ establishment of this breed from its current endangered status .

= = Characteristics = =

The Sorraia breed stands between 14 @.@ 1 and 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 57 and 59 inches , 145 and 150 cm ) high , although some individuals are as small as 12 @.@ 3 hands ( 51 inches , 130 cm ) The head tends to be large , the profile convex , and the ears long . The neck is slender and long , the withers high , and the croup slightly sloping . The legs are strong , with long pasterns and well @-@ proportioned hooves . These horses have good endurance and are easy keepers , thriving on relatively little fodder . They have a reputation for being independent of temperament , but tractable .

On adult horses , the lay of the hair can create the appearance of stripes or " barring " on the neck and chest . Also due to the lay of the hair , newborn foals can appear to have stripes all over , reminiscent of zebra stripes . The breed standard refers to this as " hair stroke " .

= = = Color = = =

Sorraia are generally dun or a dun variation called grullo . Dun coloring includes primitive markings such as a black dorsal stripe , black tipped ears , horizontal striping on the legs and a dark muzzle area . The dark muzzle area is in contrast to some other dun @-@ colored horse breeds , who have light @-@ colored muzzle areas and underbellies , possibly due to the presence of pangare genetics . Sorraia horses have bi @-@ colored manes and tails with lighter colored hairs that fringe the outside of the longer growing black hair . This is a characteristic shared with other predominantly dun @-@ colored breeds , such as the Fjord horse . Purebred Sorraia occasionally have white markings , although they are rare and undesired by the breed 's studbook .

= = Genetics = =

The relationship between the Sorraia and other breeds remains largely undetermined , as is its relationship to the wild horse subspecies , the Tarpan and the Przewalski 's Horse . The Sorraia originally developed in the southern part of the Iberian peninsula. d 'Andrade hypothesized that the Sorraia would be the ancestor of the Southern Iberian breeds . Morphologically , scientists place the Sorraia as closely related to the Gallego and the Asturcon , but genetic studies using mitochondrial DNA show that the Sorraia forms a cluster that is largely separated from most Iberian breeds . Some evidence links this cluster with Konik and domestic Mongolian horses . At the same time , one of the maternal lineages is shared with the Lusitano . Genetic evidence has not supported an hypothesis that the Sorraia is related to the Barb horse , an African breed introduced to Iberia by the Moors .

Multiple authors have suggested that the Sorraia might be a descendant of the Tarpan based on shared morphological features , principally the typical color of its coat . Other authors simply state that the Sorraia has " evident primitive characteristics " , although they do not refer to a specific ancestor . However , there have been no genetic studies comparing the Sorraia with the Tarpan , and similarity of external morphology is an unreliable measure of relatedness .

Genetic studies to date have been inconclusive about the closest relative of the Sorraia . On one hand , studies using mitochondrial DNA showed a relationship with the Przewalski 's Horse , in that Przewalski 's Horse has a unique haplotype ( A2 ) not found in domestic horses , which differs by just one single nucleotide from one of the major Sorraia haplotypes ( JSO41 , later A7 ) . In comparison , genetic distances within the domestic horse are as large as 11 nucleotide differences . However , this relationship with the Przewalski 's Horse was contradicted in another study using microsatellite data that showed that the genetic distance between the Prewalski 's Horse and the Sorraia was the largest . Such conflicting results can arise when a population passes through a genetic bottleneck , and evidence suggests that the Sorraia , among other rare breeds , has recently passed through a bottleneck , effectively obscuring the position of this breed in the family tree of the domestic horse . Thus , the morphological , physiological , and cultural characteristics of the Sorraia are the subject of continued study to better understand the relationship between various Iberian horse breeds and wild horse subspecies .

= = History = =

Although it is known that the Sorraia developed in the southern part of the Iberian peninsula , the breed was isolated and unknown to science until the 20th century . Despite the lack of documentation , attempts have been made to reconstruct its history . Paleolithic parietal art images in the region depict equines with a distinct likeness to the Sorraia , with similar zebra @-@ like markings . Analysis of mtDNA has been performed on Mustangs in the western United States that show similar mtDNA patterns between some Mustangs and the Sorraia breed . Spanish conquistadors took Iberian horses , some of whom closely resembled the modern @-@ day Sorraia , to the Americas in their conquests , probably as pack animals . Similarities between the Sorraia and several North and South American breeds are shown in the dun and grullo coloring and various physical characteristics . This evidence suggests that the Sorraia , their ancestors , or other horses with similar features , may have had a long history in the Iberian region and a role in the creation of American breeds .

Otherwise , the Sorraia breed was lost to history until 1920 , when Portuguese zoologist and paleontologist Dr. Ruy d 'Andrade first encountered the Sorraia horse during a hunting trip in the Portuguese lowlands . This remnant herd of primitive horses had continued to live a wild existence in these lowlands , which were rather inaccessible and had been used as a hunting preserve by Portuguese royalty until the early 1900s . At the time of d 'Andrade 's initial meeting the breed , the horses were ill @-@ regarded by native farmers , although they were considered hardy native fauna that lived off of the uncultivated lands and salt marshes in the local river valleys . For centuries , peasant farmers of the area would occasionally capture the horses and use them for agricultural work , including threshing grain and herding bulls .

In the 1920s and 1930s , as mechanization became more prevalent , both wild and domesticated breeding stock diminished to almost nothing , and d 'Andrade , along with his son Fernando , encouraged the conservation of the breed . In 1937 , d 'Andrade began a small herd of his own with five stallions and seven mares from horses obtained near Coruche , Portugal . All Sorraias currently in captivity descend from these original horses obtained by d 'Andrade , and it is believed that the remnant wild herds of the breed died out soon after . These horses were kept in a habitat similar to their native one . In 1975 , two other farms took up the Sorraia 's cause and acquired small herds to help with conservation . In 1976 , three stallions and three mares were imported to Germany from Portugal to begin a sub @-@ population there . In March 2004 , a small breeding herd of Sorraia horses was released on the estate of a private land owner who dedicated a portion of his property so that these horses could live completely wild , as did their ancestors . The refuge created for them is in the Vale de Zebro region of south western Portugal , one of places so named because this is where the Sorraia 's predecessors dwelt .

Two Sorraia stallions were imported to the United States in the early 21st century . In 2006 , another Sorraia stallion was imported to Canada where a Sorraia Mustang Preserve has been established on Manitoulin Island in Ontario . Unrelated to existing preservation efforts which work in conjunction with the Sorraia Mustang Studbook , another project by a consortium of breeders in the United States is attempting to establish a separate network and studbook . These breeders have gathered Spanish Mustangs that through mtDNA testing show a genetic relationship with the Sorraia and are breeding them according to both genotype and phenotype in an attempt to help preserve what they are calling the " American Sorraia " .

Today , the breed is nearly extinct , with fewer than 200 horses existing as of 2007 , including around 80 breeding mares . The Food and Agriculture Organization considers it to be maintaining critical risk status . The first studbook was published in 2004 , dedicated to maintaining a written record of the bloodlines of the Sorraia . Sorraias are present mainly in Portugal , with a small population in Germany . While not bred for a specific use , the Sorraia horses are versatile and have been used in herding bulls , dressage riding and light harness .

= = = Naming = = =

Dr. Ruy d 'Andrade gave the breed their name of " Sorraia " . D 'Andrade took the name from the Sorraia River in Portugal . The breed had previously been known by the local Portuguese as " zebro " or " zebra " , due to their markings . In the time of Christopher Columbus , the Sorraia was also known as the Marismeño , but the Sorraia and the Marismeño have evolved into two different breeds over time . Today , the name Marismeño refers to a population of semiferal horses living in Doñana Natural Park in Spain .

= Haifa =

Haifa ( Hebrew : חֵיפָה Hefa , Hebrew pronunciation : [ ħeˈfa ] , colloquial Hebrew pronunciation : [ ˈχai ̯ fa ] Hayfa ; Arabic : حيفا Hayfa ) , the third @-@ largest city in the State of Israel , has a population of over 277 @,@ 082 . Another 300 @,@ 000 people live in towns directly adjacent to the city including Daliyat al @-@ Karmel , the Krayot , Nesher , Tirat Carmel , and some kibbutzim . Together these areas form a contiguous urban area , home to nearly 600 @,@ 000 residents , which makes up the inner core of the Haifa metropolitan area , the second- or third @-@ most populous metropolitan area in Israel . It is also home to the Bahá 'í World Centre , a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a destination for Baha 'i pilgrims .

Built on the slopes of Mount Carmel , the settlement has a history spanning more than 3 @,@ 000 years . The earliest known settlement in the vicinity was Tell Abu Hawam , a small port city established in the Late Bronze Age ( 14th century BCE ) . In the 3rd century CE , Haifa was known as a dye @-@ making center . Over the centuries , the city has changed hands : being conquered and ruled by the Phoenicians , Persians , Hasmoneans , Romans , Byzantines , Arabs , Crusaders , Ottomans , British , and the Israelis . Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 , the Haifa Municipality has governed the city .

As of 2016 the city is a major seaport located on Israel 's Mediterranean coastline in the Bay of Haifa covering 63 @.@ 7 square kilometres ( 24 @.@ 6 sq mi ) . It lies about 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) north of Tel Aviv and is the major regional center of northern Israel . Two respected academic institutions , the University of Haifa and the Technion , are located in Haifa , in addition to the largest k @-@ 12 school in Israel , the Hebrew Reali School . The city plays an important role in Israel 's economy . It is home to Matam , one of the oldest and largest high @-@ tech parks in the country . Haifa Bay is a center of heavy industry , petroleum refining and chemical processing . Haifa formerly functioned as the western terminus of an oil pipeline from Iraq via Jordan .

= = Etymology = =

The earliest named settlement within the domain of modern @-@ day Haifa was a city known as Sycaminum . Tel Shikmona Hebrew meaning " mound of the Ficus sycomorus " ( Arabic Tell el @-@ Semak or Tell es @-@ Samak , meaning " mound of the fish " ) preserved and transformed this ancient name and is mentioned once in the Mishnah ( composed c . 200 CE ) for the wild fruits that grow around it . , with locals using it to refer to a coastal tell at the foot of the Carmel Mountains that contains its remains .

The name Efa first appears during Roman rule , some time after the end of the 1st century , when a Roman fortress and small Jewish settlement were established not far from Tell es @-@ Samak . Haifa is also mentioned more than 100 times in the Talmud , a book central to Judaism .

Hefa or Hepha in Eusebius of Caesarea 's 4th @-@ century work , Onomasticon ( Onom . 108 , 31 ) , is said to be another name for Sycaminus . This synonymizing of the names is explained by Moshe Sharon who writes that the twin ancient settlements , which he calls Haifa @-@ Sycaminon , gradually expanded into one another , becoming a twin city known by the Greek names Sycaminon or Sycaminos Polis . References to this city end with the Byzantine period .

Around the 6th century , Porphyreon or Porphyrea is mentioned in the writings of William of Tyre , and while it lies within the area covered by modern Haifa , it was a settlement situated south of Haifa @-@ Sycaminon .

Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century , Haifa was used to refer to a site established on Tell es @-@ Samak upon what were already the ruins of Sycaminon ( Shiqmona ) . Haifa ( or Haifah ) is mentioned by the mid @-@ 11th @-@ century Persian chronicler Nasir Khusraw , and the 12th- and 13th @-@ century Arab chroniclers , Muhammad al @-@ Idrisi and Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi .

The Crusaders , who captured Haifa briefly in the 12th century , call it Caiphas , and believe its name related to Cephas , the Aramaic name of Simon Peter . Eusebius is also said to have referred to Hefa as Caiaphas civitas , and Benjamin of Tudela , the 12th @-@ century Jewish traveller and chronicler , is said to have attributed the city 's founding to Caiaphas , the Jewish high priest at the time of Jesus .

Other spellings in English have included Caipha , Kaipha , Caiffa , Kaiffa and Khaifa .

Haifa al- ' Atiqa ( Arabic : " Ancient Haifa " ) is another name used by locals to refer to Tell es @-@ Samak , as it was the site of Haifa when it was a hamlet of 250 residents , before it was moved in 1764 @-@ 5 to a new fortified site founded by Zahir al @-@ Umar 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ) to the east . The new village , the nucleus of modern Haifa , was originally named al @-@ imara al @-@ jadida ( Arabic : " the new construction " ) , but locals called it Haifa al @-@ Jadida ( Arabic : " New Haifa " ) at first , and then simply Haifa . In the early 20th century , Haifa al ' Atiqa was repopulated as a predominantly Arab Christian neighborhood of Haifa as it expanded outward from its new location .

The ultimate origin of the name Haifa remains unclear . One theory holds it derives from the name of the high priest Caiaphas . Some Christians believe it was named for Saint Peter , whose Aramaic name was Keiphah . Another theory holds it could be derived from the Hebrew verb root חפה ( hafa ) , meaning to cover or shield , i.e. Mount Carmel covers Haifa ; others point to a possible origin in the Hebrew word חוֹף ( hof ) , meaning shore , or חוֹף יָפֶה ( hof yafe ) , meaning beautiful shore .

= = History = =

= = = Early history = = =

A small port city known today as Tell Abu Hawam was established Late Bronze Age ( 14th century BCE ) . During the 6th century BCE , Greek geographer Scylax told of a city " between the bay and the Promontory of Zeus " ( i.e. , the Carmel ) which may be a reference to Shikmona , a locality in the Haifa area , during the Persian period . By Hellenistic times , the city had moved to a new site south of what is now Bat Galim because the port 's harbour had become blocked with sand . About the 3rd century CE , the city was first mentioned in Talmudic literature , as a Jewish fishing village and the home of Rabbi Avdimi and other Jewish scholars . A Greek @-@ speaking population living along the coast at this time was engaged in commerce .

Haifa was located near the town of Shikmona , a center for making the traditional Tekhelet dye used in the garments of the high priests in the Temple . The archaeological site of Shikmona is southwest of Bat Galim . Mount Carmel and the Kishon River are also mentioned in the Bible . A grotto on the top of Mount Carmel is known as the " Cave of Elijah " , traditionally linked to the Prophet Elijah and his apprentice , Elisha . In Arabic , the highest peak of the Carmel range is called the Muhraka , or " place of burning , " harking back to the burnt offerings and sacrifices there in Canaanite and early Israelite times

Early Haifa is believed to have occupied the area which extends from the present @-@ day Rambam Hospital to the Jewish Cemetery on Yafo Street . The inhabitants engaged in fishing and agriculture .

Under Byzantine rule , Haifa continued to grow but did not assume major importance . Following the Arab conquest of Palestine in the 630s @-@ 40s , Haifa was largely overlooked in favor of the port city of ' Akka . Under the Rashidun Caliphate , Haifa began to develop . In the 9th century under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates , Haifa established trading relations with Egyptian ports and the city featured several shipyards . The inhabitants , Arabs and Jews , engaged in trade and maritime commerce . Glass production and dye @-@ making from marine snails were the city 's most lucrative industries .

= = = Crusader , Ayyubid and Mamluk rule = = =

Prosperity ended in 1100 or 1101 , when Haifa was besieged and blockaded by the Crusaders and then conquered after a fierce battle with its Jewish inhabitants and Fatimid garrison . Under the Crusaders , Haifa was reduced to a small fortified coastal stronghold . It was a part of the Principality of Galilee within the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Following their victory at the Battle of Hattin , Saladin 's Ayyubid army captured Haifa in mid @-@ July 1187 and the city 's Crusader fortress was destroyed . The Crusaders under Richard the Lionheart retook Haifa in 1191 .

In the 12th century religious hermits started inhabiting the caves on Mount Carmel , and in the 13th century they formed a new Catholic monastic order , the Carmelites . Under Muslim rule , the church which they had built on Mount Carmel was turned into a mosque , later becoming a hospital . In the 19th century , it was restored as a Carmelite monastery , the Stella Maris Monastery . The altar of the church as we see it today , stands over a cave associated with Prophet Elijah .

In 1265 , the army of Baibars the Mamluk captured Haifa , destroying its fortifications , which had been rebuilt by King Louis IX of France , as well as the majority of the city 's homes to prevent the European Crusaders from returning . For much of their rule , the city was desolate in the Mamluk period between the 13th and 16th centuries . Information from this period is scarce . During Mamluk rule in the 14th century , al @-@ Idrisi wrote that Haifa served as the port for Tiberias and featured a " fine harbor for the anchorage of galleys and other vessels .

= = = Ottoman era = = =

In 1596 , Haifa appeared in Ottoman tax registers as being in the Nahiya of Sahil Atlit of the Liwa of Lajjun . It had a population of 32 Muslim households and paid taxes on wheat , barley , summercrops , olives , and goats or beehives .

Haifa was a hamlet of 250 inhabitants in 1764 @-@ 5 . It was located at Tell el @-@ Semak , the site of ancient Sycaminum . In 1765 Zahir al @-@ Umar , the Arab ruler of Acre and the Galilee , moved the population to a new fortified site 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ) to the east and laid waste to the old site . According to historian Moshe Sharon , the new Haifa was established by Zahir in 1769 . This event marked the beginning of the town 's life at its modern location . After al @-@ Umar 's death in 1775 , the town remained under Ottoman rule until 1918 , with the exception of two brief periods .

In 1799 , Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Haifa during his unsuccessful campaign to conquer Palestine and Syria , but soon had to withdraw ; in the campaign 's final proclamation , Napoleon took credit for having razed the fortifications of " Kaïffa " ( as the name was spelled at the time ) along with those of Gaza , Jaffa and Acre .

Between 1831 and 1840 , the Egyptian viceroy Muhammad Ali governed Haifa , after his son Ibrahim Pasha had wrested its control from the Ottomans . When the Egyptian occupation ended and Acre declined , the importance of Haifa rose .

The arrival of the German Templers in 1868 , who settled in what is now known as the German Colony of Haifa , was a turning point in Haifa 's development . The Templers built and operated a steam @-@ based power station , opened factories and inaugurated carriage services to Acre , Nazareth and Tiberias , playing a key role in modernizing the city .

The first major Jewish Immigration took place at the middle 19th century from Morocco , with small immigration from Turkey few years later . A wave of European Jews arrived at the end of the 19th century from Romania . The Central Jewish Colonisation Society in Romania purchased over 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) near Haifa . As the Jewish settlers had been city dwellers , they hired the former fellahin tenants to instruct them in agriculture .

In 1909 , Haifa became important to the Bahá 'í Faith when the remains of the Báb , founder of the Bábí Faith and forerunner of Bahá 'u'lláh in the Bahá 'í Faith , were moved from Acre to Haifa and interred in the shrine built on Mount Carmel . Bahá 'ís consider the shrine to be their second holiest place on Earth after the Shrine of Bahá 'u'lláh in Acre . Its precise location on Mount Carmel was shown by Bahá 'u'lláh himself to his eldest son , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá , in 1891 . `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá planned the structure , which was designed and completed several years later by his grandson , Shoghi Effendi . In a separate room , the remains of `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá were buried in November 1921 .

A branch of the Hejaz railway , known as the Jezreel Valley railway , was built between 1903 and 1905 . This event accelerated the growth of Haifa , which became a township ( nahiya ) centre in Akka in the sanjak of Beyrut Eyalet before the end of Ottoman rule . The Technion Institute of Technology was established around this time , that is , in 1912 .

= = = British Mandate = = =

Haifa was captured from the Ottomans in September 1918 by Indian horsemen of the British Army after overrunning Ottoman positions armed with spears and swords . On 22 September , British troops were heading to Nazareth when a reconnaissance report was received indicating that the Turks were leaving Haifa . The British made preparations to enter the city and came under fire in the Balad al @-@ Sheikh district ( today Nesher ) . After the British regrouped , an elite unit of Indian horsemen were sent to attack the Turkish positions on the flanks and overrun their artillery guns on Mount Carmel .

Under the British Mandate , Haifa became an industrial port city . The Bahá 'í Faith in 1918 and today has its administrative and spiritual centre in the environs of Haifa . Over the next few decades the number of Jews increased steadily , due to immigration , especially from Europe . The Arab immigration on the other hand swelled by influx of Arabs , coming mainly from surrounding villages as well as Syrian Hauran . The Arab immigration mainly came as a result of prices and salary drop . Between the censuses of 1922 and 1931 , the Muslim , Jewish , and Christian populations rose by 217 % , 256 % , and 156 % , respectively .

Haifa 's development owed much to British plans to make it a central port and hub for Middle @-@ East crude oil . The British Government of Palestine developed the port and built refineries , thereby facilitating the rapid development of the city as a center for the country 's heavy industries . Haifa was also among the first towns to be fully electrified . The Palestine Electric Company inaugurated the Haifa Electrical Power Station already in 1925 , opening the door to considerable industrialization . The State @-@ run Palestine Railways also built its main workshops in Haifa .

By 1945 the population had shifted to 33 percent Muslim , 20 percent Christian and 47 percent Jewish . In 1947 , about 70 @,@ 910 Arabs ( 41 @,@ 000 Muslims , 29 @,@ 910 Christians ) and 74 @,@ 230 Jews were living there . The Christian community were mostly Greek @-@ Melkite Catholics .

The 1947 UN Partition Plan in late November 1947 designated Haifa as part of the proposed Jewish state . Arab protests over that decision evolved into violence between Jews and Arabs that left several dozen people dead during December . On 30 December 1947 , members of the Irgun , a Jewish underground militia , threw bombs into a crowd of Arabs outside the gates of the Consolidated Refineries in Haifa , killing six and injuring 42 . In response Arab employees of the company killed 39 Jewish employees in what became known as the Haifa Oil Refinery massacre . The Jewish Haganah militia retaliated with a raid on the Arab village of Balad al @-@ Shaykh , where many of the Arab refinery workers lived , in what became known as the Balad al @-@ Shaykh massacre . Control of Haifa was critical in the ensuing civil war , since it was the major industrial and oil refinery port in British Palestine .

British forces in Haifa redeployed on 21 April 1948 , withdrawing from most of the city while still maintaining control over the port facilities . Two days later the downtown , controlled by a combination of local and foreign ( ALA ) Arab irregulars was assaulted by Jewish forces in Operation Bi 'ur Hametz , by the Carmeli Brigade of the Haganah , commanded by Moshe Carmel . The operation led to a massive displacement of Haifa 's Arab population . According to The Economist at the time , only 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 of the city 's 62 @,@ 000 Arabs remained there by 2 October 1948 .

Contemporaneous sources emphasized the Jewish leadership 's attempt to stop the Arab exodus from the city and the Arab leadership as a motivating factor in the refugees ' flight . According to the British district superintendent of police , " Every effort is being made by the Jews to persuade the Arab populace to stay and carry on with their normal lives , to get their shops and business open and to be assured that their lives and interests will be safe . " Time Magazine wrote on 3 May 1948 :

The mass evacuation , prompted partly by fear , partly by orders of Arab leaders , left the Arab quarter of Haifa a ghost city ... By withdrawing Arab workers their leaders hoped to paralyze Haifa .

Benny Morris said Haifa 's Arabs left due to of a combination of Zionist threats and encouragement to do so by Arab leaders . Ilan Pappé writes that the shelling culminated in an attack on a Palestinian crowd in the old marketplace using three @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) mortars on 22 April 1948 . Shabtai Levy , the Mayor of the city , and some other Jewish leaders urged Arabs not to leave . According to Ilan Pappé , Jewish loudspeakers could be heard in the city ordering Arab residents to leave " before it 's too late . " Morris quotes British sources as stating that during the battles between 22 and 23 April 100 Arabs were killed and 100 wounded , but he adds that the total may have been higher .

= = = State of Israel = = =

After the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948 Haifa became the gateway for Jewish immigration into Israel . During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , the neighborhoods of Haifa were sometimes contested . After the war , Jewish immigrants were settled in new neighborhoods , among them Kiryat Hayim , Ramot Remez , Ramat Shaul , Kiryat Sprinzak , and Kiryat Eliezer . Bnei Zion Hospital ( formerly Rothschild Hospital ) and the Central Synagogue in Hadar Hacarmel date from this period . In 1953 , a master plan was created for transportation and the future architectural layout .

In 1959 , a group of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews , mostly Moroccan Jews , rioted in Wadi Salib , claiming the state was discriminating against them . Their demand for “ bread and work ” was directed at the state institutions and what they viewed as an Ashkenazi elite in the Labor Party and the Histadrut .

Tel Aviv gained in status , while Haifa suffered a decline in the role as regional capital . The opening of Ashdod as a port exacerbated this . Tourism shrank when the Israeli Ministry of Tourism placed emphasis on developing Tiberias as a tourist centre .

Nevertheless , Haifa 's population had reached 200 @,@ 000 by the early 1970s , and mass immigration from the former Soviet Union boosted the population by a further 35 @,@ 000 .

Many of Wadi Salib 's historic Ottoman buildings have now been demolished , and in the 1990s a major section of the Old City was razed to make way for a new municipal center .

From 1999 to 2003 , several Palestinian suicide attacks took place in Haifa ( in Maxim and Matza restaurants , bus 37 , and others ) , killing 68 civilians .

In 2006 , Haifa was hit by 93 Hezbollah rockets during the Second Lebanon War , killing 11 civilians and leading to half of the city 's population fleeing at the end of the first week of the war . Among the places hit by rockets were a train depot and the oil refinery complex .

= = Demographics = =

Haifa is Israel 's third @-@ largest city , consisting of 103 @,@ 000 households , or a population of 266 @,@ 300 . Immigrants from the former Soviet Union constitute 25 % of Haifa 's population . According to the Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics , Israeli Arabs constitute 10 % of Haifa 's population , the majority living in Wadi Nisnas , Abbas and Halissa neighborhoods .

Haifa is commonly portrayed as a model of co @-@ existence between Arabs and Jews , although tensions and hostility do still exist .

Between 1994 and 2009 , the city had a declining and aging population compared to Tel Aviv and Jerusalem , as young people moved to the center of the country for education and jobs , while young families migrated to bedroom communities in the suburbs . However , as a result of new projects and improving infrastructure , the city managed to reverse its population decline , reducing emigration while attracting more internal migration into the city . In 2009 , positive net immigration into the city was shown for the first time in 15 years .

= = = Religious and ethnic communities = = =

The population is heterogeneous . Jews comprise some 82 % of the population , almost 14 % are Christians ( the majority of whom are Arab Christians ) and , some 4 % are Muslims ( of which many are Ahmadis ) . Haifa also includes Druze and Bahá 'í communities . In 2006 , 27 % of the Arab population was aged 14 and under , compared to 17 % of the Jewish and other population groups . The trend continues in the age 15 @-@ 29 group , in which 27 % of the Arab population is found , and the age 30 @-@ 44 group ( 23 % ) . The population of Jews and others in these age groups are 22 % and 18 % respectively . Nineteen percent of the city 's Jewish and other population is between 45 and 59 , compared to 14 % of the Arab population . This continues with 14 % of Jews and others aged 60 – 74 and 10 % over age 75 , in comparison to 7 % and just 2 % respectively in the Arab population .

In 2006 , 2 @.@ 9 % of the Jews in the city were Haredi , compared to 7 @.@ 5 % on a national scale . However , the Haredi community in Haifa is growing fast due to a high fertility rate . 66 @.@ 6 % were secular , compared to a national average of 43 @.@ 7 % . A significant portion of the immigrants from the former Soviet Union either lack official religious @-@ ethnic classification or are Non @-@ Jews as they are from mixed @-@ marriage families of some Jewish origin . There is also a Scandinavian Seamen Protestant church , established by Norwegian Righteous Among the Nations pastor Per Faye @-@ Hansen .

Haifa is the center of liberal Palestinian culture , as it was under British colonial rule . The Palestinian neighborhoods , which are mixed Muslim and Christian , are in the lowlands near the sea while Jewish neighborhoods are at higher elevation . An active Palestinian cultural life has developed in the 21st century .

= = Geography = =

Haifa is situated on the Israeli Mediterranean Coastal Plain , the historic land bridge between Europe , Africa , and Asia , and the mouth of the Kishon River . Located on the northern slopes of Mount Carmel and around Haifa Bay , the city is split over three tiers . The lowest is the center of commerce and industry including the Port of Haifa . The middle level is on the slopes of Mount Carmel and consists of older residential neighborhoods , while the upper level consists of modern neighborhoods looking over the lower tiers . From here views can be had across the Western Galilee region of Israel towards Rosh HaNikra and the Lebanese border . Haifa is about 90 kilometers ( 55 @.@ 9 mi ) north of the city of Tel Aviv , and has a large number of beaches on the Mediterranean .

= = Flora and fauna = =

The Carmel Mountain has three main wadis : Lotem , Amik and Si ’ ach . For the most part these valleys are undeveloped natural corridors that run up through the city from the coast to the top of the mountain . Marked hiking paths traverse these areas and they provide habitat for wildlife such as wild boar , golden jackal , hyrax , Egyptian mongoose , owls and chameleons .

= = Climate = =

Haifa has a hot @-@ summer Mediterranean climate with hot , dry summers and cool , rainy winters ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) . Spring arrives in March when temperatures begin to increase . By late May , the temperature has warmed up considerably to herald warm summer days . The average temperature in summer is 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) and in winter , 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Snow is rare in Haifa , but temperatures around 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) can sometimes occur , usually in the early morning . Humidity tends to be high all year round , and rain usually occurs between September and May . Annual precipitation is approximately 629 millimeters ( 25 in ) .

= = Neighborhoods = =

Haifa has developed in tiers , from the lower to the upper city on the Carmel . The oldest neighborhood in the modern Haifa is Wadi Salib , the Old City center near the port , which has been bisected by a major road and razed in part to make way for government buildings . Wadi Salib stretches across to Wadi Nisnas , the center of Arab life in Haifa today . In the 19th century , under Ottoman rule , the German Colony was built , providing the first model of urban planning in Haifa . Some of the buildings have been restored and the colony has turned into a center of Haifa nightlife .

The first buildings in Hadar were constructed at the start of the 20th century . Hadar was Haifa 's cultural center and marketplace throughout the 1920s and into the 1980s , nestled above and around the Haifa 's Arab neighborhoods . Today Hadar stretches from the port area near the bay , approximately halfway up Mount Carmel , around the German Colony , Wadi Nisnas and Wadi Salib . Hadar houses two commercial centers ( one in the port area , and one midway up the mountain ) surrounded by some of the city 's older neighborhoods .

Neve Sha 'anan , a neighborhood located on the second tier of Mount Carmel , was founded in the 1920s . West of the port are the neighborhoods of Bat Galim , Shikmona Beach , and Kiryat Eliezer . To the west and east of Hadar are the Arab neighborhoods of Abbas and Khalisa , built in the 1960s and 70s . To the south of Mount Carmel 's headland , along the road to Tel Aviv , are the neighborhoods of Ein HaYam , Shaar HaAliya , Kiryat Sprinzak and Neve David .

Above Hadar are affluent neighborhoods such as the Carmel Tzarfati ( French Carmel ) , Merkaz Ha 'Carmel , Romema , Ahuzat Ha 'Carmel ( Ahuza ) , Carmeliya , Vardiya , Ramat Golda , Ramat Alon and Hod Ha 'Carmel ( Denya ) . While there are general divisions between Arab and Jewish neighborhoods , there is an increasing trend for wealthy Arabs to move into affluent Jewish neighborhoods . Another of the Carmel neighborhoods is Kababir , home to the National Headquarters of Israel 's Ahmadiyya Muslim Community ; located near Merkaz HaCarmel and overlooking the coast .

= = Urban development = =

Recently , residential construction has been concentrated around Kiryat Haim and Kiryat Shmuel , with 75 @,@ 000 m2 ( 807 @,@ 293 sq ft ) of new residential construction between 2002 – 2004 , the Carmel , with 70 @,@ 000 m2 ( 753 @,@ 474 sq ft ) , and Ramot Neve Sha 'anan with approximately 70 @,@ 000 m2 ( 753 @,@ 474 sq ft ) Non @-@ residential construction was highest in the Lower Town , ( 90 @,@ 000 sq m ) , Haifa Bay ( 72 @,@ 000 sq m ) and Ramot Neve Sha 'anan ( 54 @,@ 000 sq m ) . In 2004 , 80 % of construction in the city was private .

Currently , the city has a modest number of skyscrapers and high @-@ rise buildings , and many additional high @-@ rise buildings are planned , have been approved , or are under construction . Though buildings rising up to 20 stories were built on Mount Carmel in the past , the Haifa municipality banned the construction of any new buildings taller than nine stories on Mount Carmel in July 2012 .

The neighborhood of Wadi Salib , located in the heart of downtown Haifa , is being redeveloped . Most of its Jewish and Arab residents are considered squatters and have been gradually evicted over the years . The Haifa Economic Corporation Ltd is developing two 1 @,@ 000 square meter lots for office and commercial use . Some historic buildings have been renovated and redeveloped , especially into nightclubs and theaters , such as the Palace of the Pasha , a Turkish bathhouse , and a Middle Eastern music and dance club , which has been converted into theaters and offices .

In 2012 , a new , massive development plan was announced for Haifa 's waterfront . According to the plan , the western section of the city 's port will be torn down , and all port activity will be moved to the east . The west side of the port will be transformed into a tourism and nightlife center and a point of embarkation and arrival for sea travel through the construction of public spaces , a beach promenade , and the renovation of commercial buildings . The train tracks that currently bisect the city and separate the city 's beach from the rest of Haifa will also be buried . A park will be developed on the border of the Kishon River , the refineries ' cooling towers will be turned into a visitors ' center , and bridges will lead from the port to the rest of the city . Massive renovations are also currently underway in Haifa 's lower town , in the Turkish market and Paris Square , which will become the city 's business center . In addition , the ammonia depository tank in the Haifa bay industrial zone will be dismantled , and a new one built in an alternative location .

Another plan seeks to turn the western section of Haifa Port into a major tourism and nightlife center , as well as a functioning point of embarkation and arrival for sea travel . All port activity will be moved to the western side , and the area will be redeveloped . Public spaces and a beach promenade will be developed , and commercial buildings will be renovated .

As part of the development plans , the Israeli Navy , which has a large presence in Haifa , will withdraw from the shoreline between Bat Galim and Hof Hashaket . A 5 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ) long esplanade which will encircle the shoreline will be constructed . It will include a bicycle path , and possibly also a small bridge under which navy vessels will pass on their way to the sea .

In addition , a 50 @,@ 000 square @-@ meter entertainment complex that will contain a Disney theme park , cinemas , shops , and a 25 @-@ screen Multiplex theater will be built at the Check Post exit from the Carmel Tunnels .

In 2014 , a new major plan for the city was proposed , under which extensive development of residential , business , and leisure areas will take place with the target of increasing the city 's population by 60 @,@ 000 by 2025 . Under the plan , five new neighborhoods will be built , along with new high @-@ tech parks . In addition , existing employment centers will be renovated , and new leisure areas and a large park will be built .

= = Economy = =

The common Israeli saying , " Haifa works , Jerusalem prays , and Tel Aviv plays " attests to Haifa 's reputation as a city of workers and industry . The industrial region of Haifa is in the eastern part of the city , around the Kishon River . It is home to the Haifa oil refinery , one of the two oil refineries in Israel ( the other refinery being located in Ashdod ) . The Haifa refinery processes 9 million tons ( 66 million barrels ) of crude oil a year . Its nowadays unused twin 80 @-@ meter high cooling towers , built in the 1930s , were the tallest buildings built in the British Mandate period .

Matam ( short for Merkaz Ta 'asiyot Mada - Scientific Industries Center ) , the largest and oldest business park in Israel , is at the southern entrance to the city , hosting manufacturing and R & D facilities for a large number of Israeli and international hi @-@ tech companies , such as Intel , IBM , Microsoft , Motorola , Google , Yahoo ! , Elbit , CSR , Philips , and Amdocs . The campus of the University of Haifa is also home to IBM Haifa Labs .

The Port of Haifa is the leader in passenger traffic among Israeli ports , and is also a major cargo harbor , although deregulation has seen its dominance challenged by the Port of Ashdod .

Haifa malls and shopping centers include Hutsot Hamifratz , Horev Center Mall , Panorama Center , Castra Center , Colony Center ( Lev HaMoshava ) , Hanevi 'im Tower Mall , Kanyon Haifa , Lev Hamifratz Mall and Grand Kanyon .

In 2010 , Monocle magazine identified Haifa as the city with the most promising business potential , with the greatest investment opportunities in the world . The magazine noted that " a massive head @-@ to @-@ toe regeneration is starting to have an impact ; from scaffolding and cranes around town , to renovated façades and new smart places to eat " . The Haifa municipality had spent more than $ 350 million on roads and infrastructure , and the number of building permits had risen 83 % in the previous two years .

In 2014 , it was announced that a technology @-@ focused stock exchange would be established to compete with the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange .

Currently , some 40 hotels , mostly boutique hotels , are planned , have been approved , or are under construction . The Haifa Municipality is seeking to turn the city into Northern Israel 's tourist center , from where travelers can embark on day trips into Acre , Nazareth , Tiberias , and the Galilee .

A new life sciences industrial park containing five buildings with 85 @,@ 000 square meters of space on a 31 @-@ duman ( 7 @.@ 75 acre ) site is being built adjacent to the Matam industrial park .

= = = Tourism = = =

In 2005 , Haifa has 13 hotels with a total of 1 @,@ 462 rooms . The city has a 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) shoreline , of which 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) are beaches . Haifa 's main tourist attraction is the Bahá 'í World Centre , with the golden @-@ domed Shrine of the Báb and the surrounding gardens . Between 2005 and 2006 , 86 @,@ 037 visited the shrine . In 2008 , the Bahá 'í gardens were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The restored German Colony , founded by the Templers , Stella Maris and Elijah 's Cave also draw many tourists .

Located in the Haifa district are the Ein Hod artists ' colony , where over 90 artists and craftsmen have studios and exhibitions , and the Mount Carmel national park , with caves where Neanderthal and early Homo Sapiens remains were found .

A 2007 report commissioned by the Haifa Municipality calls for the construction of more hotels , a ferry line between Haifa , Acre and Caesarea , development of the western anchorage of the port as a recreation and entertainment area , and an expansion of the local airport and port to accommodate international travel and cruise ships .

= = Arts and culture = =

Despite its image as a port and industrial city , Haifa is the cultural hub of northern Israel . During the 1950s , mayor Abba Hushi made a special effort to encourage authors and poets to move to the city , and founded the Haifa Theatre , a repertory theater , the first municipal theater founded in the country . The principal Arabic theater servicing the northern Arab population is the al @-@ Midan Theater . Other theaters in the city include the Krieger Centre for the Performing Arts and the Rappaport Art and Culture Center . The Congress Center hosts exhibitions , concerts and special events .

The New Haifa Symphony Orchestra , established in 1950 , has more than 5 @,@ 000 subscribers . In 2004 , 49 @,@ 000 people attended its concerts . The Haifa Cinematheque , founded in 1975 , hosts the annual Haifa International Film Festival during the intermediate days of the Sukkot holiday . Haifa has 29 movie theaters . The city publishes a local newspaper , Yediot Haifa , and has its own radio station , Radio Haifa .

During the 1990s , Haifa hosted the Haifa Rock & Blues Festival featuring Bob Dylan , Nick Cave , Blur and PJ Harvey . The last festival was held in 1995 with Sheryl Crow , Suede and Faith No More as headliners .

= = = Museums = = =

Haifa has over a dozen museums . The most popular museum is the Israel National Museum of Science , Technology , and Space , which recorded almost 150 @,@ 000 visitors in 2004 . The museum is located in the historic Technion building in the Hadar neighborhood . The Haifa Museum of Art houses a collection of modern and classical art , as well as displays on the history of Haifa . The Tikotin Museum of Japanese Art is the only museum in the Middle East dedicated solely to Japanese art . Other museums in Haifa include the Museum of Prehistory , the National Maritime Museum and Haifa City Museum , the Hecht Museum , the Dagon Archaeological Museum of Grain Handling , the Railway Museum , the Clandestine Immigration and Navy Museum , the Israeli Oil Industry Museum , and Chagall Artists ' House . As part of his campaign to bring culture to Haifa , Mayor Abba Hushi provided the artist Mane @-@ Katz with a building on Mount Carmel to house his collection of Judaica , which is now a museum . The Haifa Educational Zoo at Gan HaEm park houses a small animal collection including Syrian brown bears , now extinct from Israel . Wןthin the zoo is the Pinhas House biology institute . In the close vicinity of Haifa , on the Carmel , the Northern " Hai @-@ Bar " ( " wild life " ) operated by Israel 's Parks and Reserves Authority for the purpose of breeding and reintroduction of species now extinct from Israel , such as Persian Fallow Deer .

= = Government = =

As an industrial port city , Haifa has traditionally been a Labor party stronghold . The strong presence of dock workers and trade unions earned it the nickname ' Red Haifa . ' In addition , many prominent Arabs in the Israeli Communist Party , among them Tawfik Toubi , Emile Habibi , Zahi Karkabi , Bulus Farah and Emile Toma , were from Haifa .

In recent years , there has been a drift toward the center . This was best signified by , in the 2006 legislative elections , the Kadima party receiving about 28 @.@ 9 % of the votes in Haifa , and Labor lagging behind with 16 @.@ 9 % .

Before 1948 , Haifa 's Municipality was fairly unusual as it developed cooperation between the mixed Arab and Jewish community in the city , with representatives of both groups involved in the city 's management . Under mayor al @-@ Haj , between 1920 and 1927 , the city council had six Arab and two Jewish representatives , with the city run as a mixed municipality with overall Arab control . Greater cooperation was introduced under Hasan Bey Shukri , who adopted a positive and conciliatory attitude toward the city 's Jews and gave them senior posts in the municipality . In 1940 , the first Jewish mayor , Shabtai Levy , was elected . Levy 's two deputies were Arab ( one Muslim , the other Christian ) , with the remainder of the council made up of four Jews and six Arabs .

Today , Haifa is governed by its 12th city council , headed by the mayor Yona Yahav . The results of municipal elections decide on the makeup of the council , similarly to the Knesset elections . The city council is the legislative council in the city , and has the authority to pass auxiliary laws . The 12th council , which was elected in 2003 , has 31 members , with the liberal Shinui @-@ Greens ticket holding the most seats ( 6 ) , and Likud coming second with 5 . Many of the decisions passed by the city council are results of recommendation made by the various municipal committees , which are committees where non @-@ municipal organs meet with representatives from the city council . Some committees are spontaneous , but some are mandatory , such as the security committee , tender committee and financial committee .

= = = Mayors = = =

= = Medical facilities = =

Haifa medical facilities have a total of 4 @,@ 000 hospital beds . The largest hospital is the government @-@ operated Rambam Hospital with 900 beds and 78 @,@ 000 admissions in 2004 . Bnai Zion Hospital and Carmel Hospital each have 400 beds . Other hospitals in the city include the Italian Hospital , Elisha Hospital ( 100 beds ) , Horev Medical Center ( 36 beds ) and Ramat Marpe ( 18 beds ) . Haifa has 20 family health centers . In 2004 , there were a total of 177 @,@ 478 hospital admissions .

Rambam Medical Center was in the direct line of fire during the Second Lebanon War in 2006 and was forced to take special precautions to protect its patients . Whole wings of the hospital were moved to large underground shelters .

= = Education = =

Haifa is home to two internationally acclaimed universities and several colleges The University of Haifa , founded in 1963 , is at the top of Mt . Carmel . The campus was designed by the architect of Brasília and United Nations Headquarters in New York , Oscar Niemeyer . The top floor of the 30 @-@ story Eshkol Tower provides a panoramic view of northern Israel . The Hecht Museum , with important archeology and art collections , is on the campus of Haifa University .

The Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , described as Israel 's MIT , was founded in 1912 . It has 18 faculties and 42 research institutes . The original building now houses Haifa 's science museum . The Hebrew Reali School was founded in 1913 . It is the largest k @-@ 12 school in Israel , with 4 @,@ 000 students in 7 branches , all over the city . The first technological high school in Israel , Bosmat , was established in Haifa in 1933 .

Other academic institutions in Haifa are the Gordon College of Education and Sha 'anan Religious Teachers ' College , the WIZO Haifa Academy of Design and Education , and Tiltan College of Design . The Michlala Leminhal College of Management and the Open University of Israel have branches in Haifa . The city also has a nursing college and the P.E.T Practical Engineering School .

As of 2006 – 07 , Haifa had 70 elementary schools , 23 middle schools , 28 academic high schools and 8 vocational high schools . There were 5 @,@ 133 pupils in municipal kindergartens , 20 @,@ 081 in elementary schools , 7 @,@ 911 in middle schools , 8 @,@ 072 in academic high schools , 2 @,@ 646 in vocational high schools , and 2 @,@ 068 in comprehensive district high schools . 86 % of the students attended Hebrew @-@ speaking schools and 14 % attended Arab schools . 5 % were in special education . In 2004 , Haifa had 16 municipal libraries stocking 367 @,@ 323 books .

Two prestigious Arab schools in Haifa are the Orthodox School , run by the Greek Orthodox church , and the Nazareth Nuns ' School , a Catholic institution .

= = Transportation = =

Haifa is served by six railway stations and the Carmelit , currently Israel 's only subway system ( another is under construction in Tel Aviv ) . The Nahariya – Tel Aviv Coastal Railway main line of Israel Railways runs along the coast of the Gulf of Haifa and has six stations within the city . From south @-@ west to north @-@ east , these stations are : Haifa Hof HaCarmel , Haifa Bat Galim , Haifa Merkaz HaShmona , Lev HaMifratz , Hutzot HaMifratz and Kiryat Haim . Together with the Kiryat Motzkin Railway Station in the northern suburb Kiryat Motzkin , they form the Haifa - Krayot suburban line ( " Parvarit " ) . There are direct trains from Haifa to Tel Aviv , Ben Gurion International Airport , Nahariya , Akko , Kiryat Motzkin , Binyamina , Lod , Ramla , Beit Shemesh , Jerusalem and other locations , but all trains to Beersheba skips all Haifa stations

Haifa 's intercity bus connections are operated almost exclusively by the Egged bus company , which operates two terminals :

HaMifratz Central Bus Station , adjacent to the Lev HaMifratz Railway Station

Haifa Hof HaCarmel Central Bus Station , adjacent to the Hof HaCarmel Railway Station

Lines to the North of the country use HaMifratz Central Bus Station and their coverage includes most towns in the North of Israel . Lines heading south use Haifa Hof HaCarmel Central Bus Station .

Destinations directly reachable from Hof HaCarmel CBS include Tel Aviv , Jerusalem , Eilat , Raanana , Netanya , Hadera , Zikhron Ya 'akov , Atlit , Tirat Carmel , Ben Gurion International Airport and intermediate communities . There are also three Egged lines that have their terminus in the Ramat Vizhnitz neighborhood and run to Jerusalem , Bnei Brak and Ashdod . These used to be " mehadrin " ( i.e. gender segregated ) lines .

All urban lines are run by Egged . There are also share taxis that run along some bus routes but do not have an official schedule . In 2006 , Haifa implemented a trial network of neighborhood mini @-@ buses – named " Shkhunatit " and run by Egged . In December 2012 , GetTaxi , an app and taxi service which allows users to hail a cab using their smartphone without contacting the taxi station by identifying and summoning the closest taxi . In the current initial phase , 50 taxis from the service are operating in Haifa .

Haifa and the Krayot suburbs also have a new Phileas concept bus rapid transit system called the Metronit . These buses , operating with hybrid engines , follow optical strips embedded in designated lanes of roads , providing tram @-@ like public transportation services . The Metronit consists of 100 18 @-@ meter buses , each with the capacity for 150 passengers , operating along 40 km ( 25 mi ) of designated roadways . The new system officially opened on 16 August 2013 serving three lines .

Haifa is one of the few cities in Israel where buses operate on Shabbat . Bus lines operate throughout the city on a reduced schedule from late Saturday morning onwards , and also connect Haifa with Nesher , Tirat Karmel , Yokneam , Nazareth , Nazareth Illit and intermediate communities . Since the summer of 2008 , night buses are operated by Egged in Haifa ( line 200 ) and the Krayot suburbs ( line 210 ) . During the summer of 2008 these lines operated 7 nights a week . During the winter their schedule is limited to Thursday , Friday and Saturday nights , making them the only buses in Israel to operate on Friday night . Haifa is also the only city in Israel to operate a Saturday bus service to the beaches during summer time . Egged lines run during Saturday mornings from many neighborhoods to the Dado and Bat Galim beaches , and back in the afternoon .

The Haifa underground railway system is called Carmelit . It is a subterranean funicular on rails , running from downtown Paris Square to Gan HaEm ( Mother 's Park ) on Mount Carmel . With a single track , six stations and two trains , it is listed in Guinness World Records as the world 's shortest metro line . The Carmelit accommodates bicycles .

Haifa also has a cable car . The Haifa Cable Car gondola lift consists of six cabins and connects Bat Galim on the coast to the Stella Maris observation deck and monastery atop Mount Carmel . It serves mainly tourists . There are currently plans to add a 4 @.@ 4 kilometre commuter cable car service to Haifa 's public transport system , running from HaMifratz Central Bus Station at the foot of Mount Carmel to the Technion , and then to the University of Haifa .

= = = Air and sea transport = = =

Haifa Airport serves domestic flights to Tel Aviv and Eilat as well as international charters to Cyprus , Greece and Jordan . The airliners that operates flights from Haifa are Arkia and Israir . There are currently plans to expand services from Haifa . Cruise ships operate from Haifa port primarily to destinations in the Eastern Mediterranean , Southern Europe and Black Sea .

= = = Roads = = =

Travel between Haifa and the center of the country is possible by road with Highway 2 , the main highway along the coastal plain , beginning at Tel Aviv and ending at Haifa . Furthermore , Highway 4 runs along the coast to the north of Haifa , as well as south , inland from Highway 2 . In the past , traffic along Highway 2 to the north of Haifa had to pass through the downtown area of the city ; the Carmel Tunnels , opened for traffic 1 December 2010 , now route this traffic under Mount Carmel , reducing congestion in the downtown area .

= = Sports = =

The main stadiums in Haifa are the 14 @,@ 002 @-@ seat Kiryat Eliezer Stadium and Thomas D 'Alesandro Stadium . Neve Sha 'anan Athletic Stadium seats 1 @,@ 000 . Construction of the Sammy Ofer Stadium , a UEFA @-@ approved 30 @,@ 820 seat stadium was completed in 2014 .

The city 's two main football clubs are Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Haifa who both currently play in the Israeli Premier League and share the Sammy Ofer Stadium as their home pitch . Maccabi has won twelve Israeli titles , while Hapoel has won one .

The city also has an American football club , the Haifa Underdogs , that are a part of the Israeli Football League and play in Yoqneam Stadium . The team lost in the championship game of the league 's inaugural season , but won one title as part of American Football Israel , which merged with the Israeli Football League in 2005 .

The city has several clubs in the regional leagues , including Beitar Haifa in Liga Bet ( the fourth tier ) and Hapoel Ahva Haifa , F.C. Haifa Ruby Shapira and Maccabi Neve Sha 'anan Eldad in Liga Gimel ( the fifth tier ) .

Haifa has a professional basketball club , Maccabi Haifa . Maccabi Haifa was recently promoted to Israeli Basketball Super League , the top division . The team plays at Romema Arena , which seats 5 @,@ 000 .

The Haifa Hawks are an ice hockey team based out of the city of Haifa . They participate in the Israeli League , the top level of Israeli ice hockey .

In 1996 , the city hosted the World Windsurfing Championship . The Haifa Tennis Club , near the southwest entrance to the city , is one of the largest in Israel . John Shecter , Olympic horse breeder and owner of triple cup champion Shergar was born here .

= = Twin towns - sister cities = =

Haifa is twinned with the following cities :

= New York State Route 185 =

New York State Route 185 ( NY 185 ) is an east – west state highway in Essex County , New York , in the United States . It serves as a connector between NY 9N and NY 22 in Crown Point and the Lake Champlain Bridge , by which the highway enters Vermont and becomes Vermont Route 17 ( VT 17 ) . NY 185 , named Bridge Road , passes through Crown Point State Historic Site and runs the entire length of Crown Point , a peninsula protruding into Lake Champlain .

NY 185 was assigned on April 4 , 2008 , as a signed replacement for New York State Route 910L , an unsigned reference route . It is the third signed designation that Bridge Road has carried , preceded by New York State Route 347 ( during the early 1930s ) and NY 8 ( 1930s to the 1960s ) . NY 185 originally connected to the Champlain Bridge on its east end ; however , that structure was closed and demolished in late 2009 . Its replacement opened to traffic in November 2011 .

= = Route description = =

NY 185 begins at an intersection with NY 9N and NY 22 in Crown Point . The route progresses eastward as a two @-@ lane highway named Bridge Road . Heading away from the western terminus , there is a fork in the road : to the left is NY 185 , and to the right is a road to a housing development . Most of NY 185 runs along the lowlands around Lake Champlain , making curves at intersections , and heading on relatively flat elevations . As the highway approaches the lake , it makes a curve to the north . There , it intersects with County Route 48 ( Lake Road ) and begins to follow the lake shore .

The highway passes to the east of the Crown Point State Historic Site and its campground before ascending up the approach to the Lake Champlain Bridge . After making a final curve to the northeast , NY 185 begins to cross Lake Champlain by way of the bridge . The route ends at the Vermont state line at the bridge 's midpoint , and the roadway continues into Vermont as VT 17 .

= = History = =

The Champlain Bridge was built in 1929 , connecting Crown Point in New York to Chimney Point in Vermont . A short connector highway between the bridge — which connected to VT 17 in Vermont — and NY 22 in Crown Point , named Bridge Road , was originally designated as NY 347 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 347 became part of an extended NY 8 c . 1934 .

NY 8 was truncated south to Hague c . 1968 , eliminating a lengthy overlap with NY 22 and NY 9N . Its former routing along Bridge Road became NY 903 , an unsigned reference route . The NY 903 designation was later replaced with NY 910L when a new numbering system for reference routes was adopted by the New York State Department of Transportation , and NY 910L itself was redesignated and signed as NY 185 on April 4 , 2008 .

On October 16 , 2009 , the Champlain Bridge was closed to traffic due to structural concerns . The bridge was demolished on December 28 , 2009 , as a result of those concerns , temporarily reducing NY 185 in purpose to a spur route linking NY 9N and NY 22 to Crown Point . Its replacement , the Lake Champlain Bridge , opened to traffic on November 7 , 2011 .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Crown Point , Essex County .

= Fernando Torres =

Fernando José Torres Sanz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ ferˈnando ˈtores ] ; born 20 March 1984 ) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a striker for La Liga club Atlético Madrid .

Torres started his career with Atlético Madrid , progressing through their youth system to the first team squad . He made his first team debut in 2001 and finished his time at the club having scored 75 goals in 174 La Liga appearances . Prior to his La Liga debut , Torres played two seasons in the Segunda División for Atlético Madrid , making 40 appearances and scoring seven goals .

Torres joined Premier League club Liverpool in 2007 , after signing for a club record transfer fee . He marked his first season at Anfield by being Liverpool 's first player since Robbie Fowler in the 1995 – 96 season to score more than 20 league goals in a season . The most prolific goalscoring spell of his career , he became the fastest player in Liverpool history to score 50 league goals . He was named in the FIFA World XI in 2008 and 2009 . Torres left the club in January 2011 to join Chelsea for a British record transfer fee of £ 50 million , which made him the most expensive Spanish player in history . In his first full season at Chelsea , Torres won the FA Cup and the UEFA Champions League , despite receiving criticism for a comparatively low goal @-@ scoring record . The following season he scored in the final of the 2012 – 13 UEFA Europa League , helping Chelsea to win the competition for the first time .

Torres is a Spanish international and made his debut against Portugal in 2003 . He has been capped over 100 times and is his country 's third @-@ highest goalscorer of all time . With Spain he has participated in six major tournaments ; UEFA Euro 2004 , the 2006 FIFA World Cup , UEFA Euro 2008 , the 2010 FIFA World Cup , UEFA Euro 2012 and the 2014 FIFA World Cup . Spain won the three tournaments from 2008 to 2012 , with Torres scoring in the finals of both Euro 2008 and Euro 2012 .

= = Early career = =

Born in Fuenlabrada , Community of Madrid , Torres became interested in football as a child and joined his first team , Parque 84 , at the age of five . His father José Torres worked during Torres ' childhood , and his mother Flori Sanz travelled daily with him to training sessions . His grandfather was not a passionate football fan , but took pride in being an Atlético Madrid supporter , and Torres inherited his love for the club .

Torres started playing football as a goalkeeper , the position his brother played in . When he was seven years old , however , he started playing regularly as a striker in an indoor league for the neighbourhood club , Mario 's Holland , using the characters from the anime Captain Tsubasa as inspiration . Three years later , aged 10 , he progressed to an 11 @-@ side team , Rayo 13 . He scored 55 goals in a season and was one of three Rayo 13 players to earn a trial with Atlético . He impressed the scouts and joined the club 's youth system at the age of 11 in 1995 .

= = Club career = =

= = = Atlético Madrid = = =

After progressing through the ranks , Torres won his first important youth title in 1998 . Atlético sent an under @-@ 15 team to compete in the Nike Cup , in Spain and Europe , to play against youth teams from other clubs ; Atlético won the tournament . He was later voted the best player in Europe for the age group . In 1999 , at the age of 15 , Torres signed his first professional contract with Atlético . He spent his first year playing in the youth team and participated in the Honor Division when he was 16 . The 2000 – 01 season had started badly , as Torres suffered from a cracked shinbone which kept him out until December . Torres trained with the first team to get prepared for pre @-@ season , but eventually made his debut for the team on 27 May 2001 , at the Vicente Calderón Stadium , against CD Leganés . A week later , he scored his first goal for the club against Albacete Balompié and the season finished with Atlético narrowly missing out on promotion to La Liga .

Atlético were promoted to La Liga at the end of the 2001 – 02 season , although Torres did not perform well in the season , as he netted only 6 times in 36 appearances in the Segunda División . Torres ' first season in La Liga , 2002 – 03 , was better , however , as he scored 13 goals in 29 appearances , with Atlético finishing in 11th place . In July 2003 , soon after his takeover of the club , Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich had a £ 28 million bid for Torres rejected by Atlético 's board . In the 2003 – 04 season , his second in La Liga , Torres made further strides , scoring 19 league goals in 35 appearances , meaning he finished as joint third highest scorer in the league . At the age of 19 , Torres was named Atlético 's captain . Atlético narrowly missed out on qualification for the UEFA Cup , but by finishing in seventh place in the 2003 – 04 season , they qualified for the 2004 UEFA Intertoto Cup , giving Torres a first taste of a competition at the European level . He scored two goals in the two fourth round matches against OFK Beograd , with one coming in each leg . Atlético reached the Final , but lost 3 – 1 on a penalty shoot @-@ out to Villarreal CF following a 2 – 2 draw on aggregate . FA Premier League champions Chelsea were believed to be interested in signing Torres during the summer of 2005 , but Atlético president Enrique Cerezo said that they had " no chance " of signing him . Cerezo later said in January 2006 that the club was willing to listen to offers for Torres , and Torres claimed Newcastle United of the FA Premier League had made a bid to sign him in March .

He stated after the 2006 FIFA World Cup that he had turned down an offer to join Chelsea at the end of the 2005 – 06 season . Torres scored 14 league goals in the 2006 – 07 season . The English media reported that he was the main transfer target of Premier League Liverpool , but Cerezo stated " We 've received no offer from Liverpool or any other club or player " . However , a few days later , new reports suggested Atlético had agreed a deal with Liverpool for Torres ; the fee was rumoured to be £ 25 million with Luis García moving to Atlético in a separate transfer deal . On 30 June , Atlético announced a deal to sign Diego Forlán from Villarreal , in what was seen as a move to replace Torres before his departure became official . On 2 July , it was reported that Torres had cut short a vacation to fly back to Madrid to finalise the move to Liverpool . The following day , Torres passed a medical at Liverpool 's Melwood training ground . He held a press conference in Madrid on 4 July to bid farewell to the Atlético fans , before completing his move to Liverpool on a six @-@ year contract . The transfer fee was the highest in Liverpool 's history . In March 2008 , manager Rafael Benítez stated in an interview with The Times that Torres was acquired for around £ 20 million , although this figure takes into account García 's move to Atlético .

= = = Liverpool = = =

= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =

Torres made his competitive debut for Liverpool against Aston Villa in a 2 – 1 win on 11 August 2007 . He made his first appearance in the UEFA Champions League four days past his first performance in a 1 – 0 victory over Toulouse , after coming on as a 79th minute substitute . His first Premier League goal came on his Anfield debut on 19 August 2007 , in the 16th minute in a 1 – 1 draw against Chelsea . His first hat @-@ trick came in a 4 – 2 victory over Reading in the League Cup on 25 September 2007 , with all of his goals coming in the second half . His first goals in the Champions League came on his third appearance in the competition as Liverpool beat Porto 4 – 1 on 28 November 2007 , as he scored twice .

Torres was named the Premier League Player of the Month for February 2008 , during which he scored four goals in four appearances , including a hat @-@ trick against Middlesbrough on 23 February 2008 . This hat @-@ trick and another in a 4 – 0 victory over West Ham United on 5 March 2008 meant he became the first Liverpool player since Jack Balmer in November 1946 to score a hat @-@ trick in successive home matches . Later in March , after he scored a 47th @-@ minute header against Reading at Anfield , becoming the first Liverpool player since Robbie Fowler in the 1995 – 96 season to score 20 league goals in a season . In April , he scored another Champions League goal , this time against Arsenal in the quarter @-@ final second leg , as Liverpool advanced to the semi @-@ final . This goal took him onto 29 goals for the 2007 – 08 season in all competitions , eclipsing Michael Owen 's personal record for goals in a season . On 11 April 2008 , it was announced Torres had made a six @-@ man shortlist for the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award , which was eventually won by Cristiano Ronaldo of Manchester United . The Spanish international was also nominated for the PFA Young Player of the Year Award , which was won by Cesc Fàbregas of Arsenal and was named in the PFA Team of the Year . In May , he finished second to Ronaldo for the FWA Footballer of the Year award .

On 4 May 2008 , Torres scored a 57th @-@ minute winner against Manchester City , which equalled the consecutive Anfield league goal record of eight games set by Roger Hunt . After scoring his 24th league goal in the final game of the season , a 2 – 0 win against Tottenham Hotspur , he set a new record for the most prolific foreign goal scorer in a debut season in England , eclipsing Ruud van Nistelrooy 's 23 goals . He ended the season in joint second place with Emmanuel Adebayor in the race for the Premier League golden boot . Torres was subject to media speculation that Chelsea were willing to pay £ 50 million to sign him but Torres responded by saying it would be " many years " before he left Liverpool . Liverpool co @-@ owner Tom Hicks also negated the idea of a transfer , saying he would not allow Torres to leave the club at any price .

= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =

Torres made a scoring start to the 2008 – 09 Premier League season with a 25 yard shot into the bottom right @-@ hand corner away at Sunderland , which was the only goal in a 1 – 0 win on 16 August 2008 . He suffered a hamstring tear in a 0 – 0 draw against Aston Villa , which would keep him out for two to three weeks . Torres made his return in a 2 – 1 victory against Marseille in the Champions League and went on to score two goals in the Merseyside derby against Everton on 27 September 2008 to give Liverpool a 2 – 0 win . He followed this up with another two goals the following weekend against Manchester City in a 3 – 2 win away at the City of Manchester Stadium as Liverpool came back from a two @-@ goal deficit . The first of these was the thousandth Liverpool goal to be scored in the Premier League . Torres picked up a hamstring injury during a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier , meaning he was likely to miss three games for Liverpool . On 22 October 2008 , Liverpool played Torres ' former club Atlético in the Champions League at the Vicente Calderón Stadium , but his injury meant he missed out on the game . The Atlético president , Enrique Cerezo , had given him a VIP invitation to watch the game , but he declined this to continue his rehabilitation from injury in Merseyside . He was named in the FIFPro World XI team for the 2007 – 08 season on 27 October 2008 .

Torres made his return for Liverpool on 8 November 2008 after coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 0 victory against West Bromwich Albion ( West Brom ) . He said he would be interested in returning to former club Atlético eventually , saying " I don 't know if I will retire there , but I would like to go back and finish some things that are left to do . " He was ruled out of action for two to three weeks following Liverpool 's 1 – 0 victory over Marseille in the Champions League in November , where he picked up a hamstring strain , which was later extended to at least four weeks by specialists . He was named on the shortlist for the FIFA World Player of the Year award in December , and eventually came in third place behind Ronaldo and Lionel Messi . Torres returned to action on 3 January 2009 as a substitute with a goal in the 2 – 0 win over Preston North End ; his first in the FA Cup . He scored two late goals for Liverpool to secure a 2 – 0 victory over Chelsea on 1 February 2009 . Despite having spent a year and a half at the club , Torres was chosen as number 50 in The Times 's list of " The 50 greatest Liverpool players " , reinforcing the impact he had made at Liverpool in such a short period of time .

Torres faced his old rivals Real Madrid on 10 March 2009 in the Champions League last 16 and due to an ankle injury , he had a painkilling injection before the game to enable him to play . He scored the first goal of the game , which ended as a 4 – 0 victory , meaning Liverpool progressed to the quarter @-@ finals 5 – 0 on aggregate . Four days later he lined up against Manchester United at Old Trafford and he scored the equaliser in a game that finished as a 4 – 1 victory . He was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the second season running in April 2009 . Torres scored his 50th goal for Liverpool on 24 May 2009 against Tottenham on the final day of the 2008 – 09 season , which was his 84th appearance .

= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =

Following the end of the season , he agreed a new contract with Liverpool , which he signed on 14 August . By signing this contract , Torres had the option of a one @-@ year extension after the contract 's expiration in 2013 . Torres scored two goals in a 3 – 2 win over West Ham United on 19 September 2009 , a result that took Liverpool to third in the Premier League . A week later he scored his first hat @-@ trick of the 2009 – 10 Premier League season in a 6 – 1 victory over Hull City at Anfield . He was named Premier League Player of the Month for September , after scoring five goals during the month and becoming the Premier League 's top goalscorer . On 25 October 2009 , he scored the first goal in a 2 – 0 victory for Liverpool over Manchester United , after which Benítez praised Torres ' performance , saying " We were waiting for that final pass . When it came we knew he would score . " Torres was named in the FIFPro World XI for the second successive season in December 2009 . His stoppage @-@ time winning goal against Aston Villa on 29 December 2009 made him the fastest Liverpool player ever to score 50 league goals . He was substituted on 65 minutes in a 1 – 1 draw with Birmingham City on 4 April 2010 , which Benítez justified by saying Torres was " exhausted " . Torres made his last appearance of the season scoring twice in a 4 – 1 victory over Benfica in the Europa League on 8 April 2010 , and it was announced on 18 April that he would miss the rest of the season to undergo knee surgery . This meant that Torres finished the season with 22 goals in 32 games in all competitions , finishing as Liverpool 's top scorer for the second time .

= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =

Following Roy Hodgson 's appointment as Liverpool manager he stated that Torres would not be sold by the club , saying " He is not for sale and we don 't welcome any offers for him . We want to keep him . " Hodgson dismissed reports Torres was set to leave Liverpool by saying " He has told us that he is looking forward to Monday , to getting back to work and looking forward to playing for Liverpool next season . That is what I know so other reports , I would suggest , are erroneous . " Torres stated his commitment to Liverpool on 3 August , saying " My commitment and loyalty to the club and to the fans is the same as it was on my first day when I signed . "

He made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in the opening game , a 1 – 1 draw with Arsenal on 14 August 2010 , entering the game as a substitute in the 74th minute . He scored his first goal of the season with the winner in a 1 – 0 victory over West Brom on 29 August 2010 , which was his 50th goal at Anfield in all competitions . Torres scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory at home to Blackburn Rovers on 24 October 2010 , which was his first goal since August . He scored his final goals for Liverpool in a 3 – 0 win away at Wolverhampton Wanderers on 22 January 2011 .

= = = Chelsea = = =

On 27 January 2011 , Torres was the subject of a £ 40 million bid from Chelsea , which was rejected by Liverpool . He subsequently handed in an official transfer request to Liverpool the next day , which was rejected . Torres completed his move to Chelsea on a five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 31 January 2011 for an undisclosed fee reported to be £ 50 million , which set a new record for a British transfer and made him the sixth most expensive footballer in history . He made his Chelsea debut on 6 February 2011 in a 1 – 0 home defeat to former club Liverpool . On 23 April 2011 , Torres scored his first goal for Chelsea against West Ham United in a 3 – 0 victory , which ended a run of 903 minutes of football without a goal . This was his only goal for Chelsea in the 2010 – 11 season , having made 18 appearances for his new club .

= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =

Torres got the 2011 – 12 season underway in Chelsea 's 0 – 0 draw away against Stoke City on 14 August 2011 , in which his " link @-@ up play was sharp , plus he was willing to make intelligent runs into space to receive the ball " . He scored his second goal at Chelsea , and his first of the season , on 18 September 2011 , during an away game against Manchester United , which was the side 's only goal in a 3 – 1 defeat . He scored his second goal of the season at home to Swansea City in a 4 – 1 victory . However , 10 minutes after his goal , a two @-@ footed challenge on Mark Gower resulted in his first red card in English football and a three @-@ match domestic suspension . On 19 October 2011 , Torres scored two goals in a 5 – 0 victory against Genk in the Champions League , his first in Europe since the quarter @-@ final of the 2008 – 09 Champions League with his old club Liverpool , against Chelsea . His next Chelsea goals came after scoring twice and also assisting two others against Championship side Leicester City in an FA Cup quarter @-@ final on 18 March 2012 , ending a goal drought that stretched 24 games . On 31 March 2012 , Torres scored his first Premier League goal since 24 September 2011 , against Aston Villa in a 4 – 2 away win .

Torres came on as a substitute for Didier Drogba on 24 April 2012 to score a last @-@ minute goal against FC Barcelona in the Champions League semi @-@ final , which gave Chelsea a 2 – 2 draw , and also eliminated Barcelona from the tournament , as Chelsea won 3 – 2 on aggregate . He scored the first hat @-@ trick of his Chelsea career in a 6 – 1 win against Queens Park Rangers at Stamford Bridge on 29 April 2012 . Torres came on in the second half of the 2012 UEFA Champions League Final on 19 May 2012 , directly after Bayern Munich 's opening goal , and following a 1 – 1 draw after extra time Chelsea won the penalty shoot @-@ out 4 – 3 . His first full season at Chelsea finished with 11 goals in 49 games .

= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =

Torres started the 2012 – 13 season in the 2012 FA Community Shield against Manchester City at Villa Park , where he scored the opening goal , as Chelsea lost 3 – 2 . On 19 August 2012 , he appeared in Chelsea 's first league match in a 2 – 0 away win against Wigan Athletic . Torres scored his first goal of the season in Chelsea 's next match on 22 August 2012 , a 4 – 2 home win against Reading , scoring the third goal to give his side the lead . He also scored against Newcastle United , Arsenal and Norwich City as Chelsea topped the table in the early weeks of the season .

Torres was sent off for receiving two yellow cards against Manchester United on 28 October 2012 , the second for diving , leaving Chelsea with nine men after teammate Branislav Ivanović was also sent off ; the team went on to lose 3 – 2 . Torres scored his first goal in the Champions League for the season after deflecting Shakhtar Donetsk goalkeeper Andriy Pyatov 's clearance into goal , as Chelsea needed a 94th @-@ minute winner from Victor Moses to secure a 3 – 2 victory on 7 November 2012 . On 21 November 2012 , Roberto Di Matteo was replaced as Chelsea manager by Rafael Benítez , who had previously coached Torres at Liverpool . It was reported that one reason for Benítez 's appointment was to help Torres return to his best form .

Torres ended a goal drought that stretched over 11 hours of game time with two goals in Chelsea 's 6 – 1 defeat of Nordsjælland in the Champions League on 5 December 2012 . Three days later he scored another two goals , ending a run of eight Premier League games without a goal , as Chelsea defeated Sunderland 3 – 1 . He then scored in Chelsea 's 2012 FIFA Club World Cup semi @-@ final 3 – 1 win against Monterrey of the Mexican Liga MX on 13 December 2012 , before playing in the 1 – 0 defeat to Brazilian Série A side Corinthians in the final three days later .

On 14 March 2013 , Torres scored the third goal as Chelsea defeated Steaua București 3 – 1 to advance 3 – 2 on aggregate to the quarter @-@ final of the Europa League . With this goal , Torres became the first player to score in seven different competitions in one season . In April 2013 , Torres acknowledged his struggles at Chelsea , saying : " I want to do the things I used to do . I did them at Atlético , I did them at Liverpool , but I am not doing them at Chelsea " , but he vowed to " try his heart out " to regain his best form . He scored twice against Rubin Kazan in the 3 – 1 win in the first leg of the Europa League quarter @-@ final on 4 April 2013 , before scoring again in the second leg 3 – 2 defeat , with Chelsea progressing to the semi @-@ final 5 – 4 on aggregate . Torres scored the opening goal in Chelsea 's 2 – 1 triumph over Benfica in the 2013 UEFA Europa League Final on 15 May 2013 . During the final game of the season , a 2 – 1 home win over Everton , he scored his first league goal of 2013 , and finished the season with 22 goals in 64 games .

= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =

Torres was selected to start by Chelsea 's new manager José Mourinho against Hull City on the opening day of the 2013 – 14 season , where he won a fifth minute penalty kick . He scored his first goal of the season in the 2013 UEFA Super Cup against Bayern Munich . On 28 September 2013 , he was sent off after receiving two yellow cards in Chelsea 's 1 – 1 Premier League draw with Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane .

Torres made his 100th start for Chelsea against Schalke 04 in a Champions League match on 22 October 2013 and marked the occasion by scoring two goals in a 3 – 0 win . His first Premier League goal of the season came on 27 October as he scored the winning goal in the 90th minute over title challengers Manchester City , while also providing the assist for André Schürrle 's opener .

= = = Milan = = =

Torres joined Serie A club Milan on a two @-@ year loan on 31 August 2014 . On his arrival he expressed a desire to emulate some of the club 's greatest strikers , stating he wanted , " My shirt to rank alongside [ Marco ] van Basten , [ George ] Weah and [ Filippo ] Inzaghi . " He debuted on 20 September 2014 , replacing Andrea Poli for the last 14 minutes of a 1 – 0 home defeat against Juventus and scored his first Milan goal with a looping header in their 2 – 2 draw with Empoli two days later .

= = = Return to Atlético Madrid = = =

On 27 December 2014 , it was announced that Torres ' move to Milan would be made permanent on 5 January 2015 , but two days later he agreed to rejoin La Liga club Atlético Madrid on loan until the end of the 2015 – 16 season . The loan was agreed after Alessio Cerci went the opposite way from Atlético to Milan on the same day ( 5 January 2015 ) . Torres ' unveiling at the Vicente Calderón Stadium on 4 January 2015 drew a crowd of 45 @,@ 000 . He played the first match of his second spell on 7 January 2015 , starting in the first leg of a Copa del Rey last 16 tie against Real Madrid . He had no shots on target and was replaced by Koke after 59 minutes , but Atlético won 2 – 0 . Eight days later in the second leg , he scored two goals — in the first minute of each half — as Atlético advanced , his first goals in an away Madrid derby . Torres scored in the first minute again in the quarter @-@ finals , albeit in a 2 – 3 home defeat against Barcelona .

On 17 March , Torres scored the winning kick in Atlético 's 3 – 2 penalty shoot @-@ out defeat of Bayer Leverkusen in the second leg of the teams ' Champions League round of 16 tie . On 21 March , he scored his first La Liga goal since his return in the third minute of a 2 – 0 win against Getafe CF .

After the departure of Mario Mandžukić , Torres changed his shirt number from 19 back to his usual 9 and is wearing it in the 2015 – 16 season .

On 6 February 2016 , Torres scored his 100th goal with Atlético Madrid in a 3 – 1 home league victory against SD Eibar on his 295th appearance for the club . The following month he marked the occasion of his 300th appearance for Atlético Madrid by scoring the winning goal in a 3 – 1 victory over Valencia .

On 5 April 2016 , Torres scored the opening goal of Atlético 's UEFA Champions League quarter @-@ final with FC Barcelona at Camp Nou , before being sent off ten minutes later in an eventual 2 – 1 loss .

On 5 July 2016 , Torres extended his contract to a permanent contract for one year with Atlético Madrid .

= = International career = =

In February 2001 , Torres won the Algarve Tournament with the Spain national under @-@ 16 team . The under @-@ 16s took part in the 2001 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship in May , which they also won , with Torres scoring the only goal in the Final , as well as finishing as the tournament 's leading scorer , and was also named the player of the tournament . In September 2001 , Torres represented the under @-@ 17 team at the 2001 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship , but the team failed to progress through the group stage . In July 2002 , he won the 2002 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship with the under @-@ 19 team and was again the only goalscorer in the Final . Also , he finished as top scorer and was named player of the tournament .

Torres made his debut for the senior team on 6 September 2003 in a friendly against Portugal . His first goal for Spain came against Italy on 28 April 2004 . He was selected for the Spanish squad for UEFA Euro 2004 . After appearing as a late substitute in Spain 's first two group games , he started for the deciding game against Portugal . Spain were losing 1 – 0 and , towards the end of the game , he hit the post .

He scored seven goals in 11 appearances in qualifying for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , making him Spain 's top scorer for qualification , including a vital two goals against Belgium and his first international hat @-@ trick against San Marino . At his first ever appearance in a FIFA World Cup finals at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany , Torres scored the final goal in a 4 – 0 victory over Ukraine with a volley . In the second group match , Torres scored twice against Tunisia , first in the 76th minute to take Spain 2 – 1 into the lead , and then again from a penalty kick in the 90th . With three goals , he finished the tournament as Spain 's top scorer along with fellow striker David Villa .

He was called up for Spain 's UEFA Euro 2008 squad , where he set up Villa to score Spain 's first goal of the tournament in the first game in the group stage against Russia . Torres came under criticism for apparently refusing to shake the hand of Spanish manager , Luis Aragonés , after being substituted . He subsequently denied being angry with the coaching , saying that he was actually " irritated with himself " . He scored his first goal of the tournament in Spain 's next game , a 2 – 1 win over Sweden . Torres scored the winner and was named the man of the match in the final against Germany in a 1 – 0 victory . He said " It 's just a dream come true . This is my first title and I hope it 's the first of many . Victory in a Euro , it is almost as big as a World Cup . We are used to watching finals on television , but today we were here and we won . My job is to score goals . I want to win more titles and be the most important player in Europe and the world . " He was later named as a striker along with his striking partner Villa in the Team of the Tournament .

Torres made his 60th appearance for Spain in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification victory over Turkey on 28 March 2009 , becoming the youngest player to reach this milestone .

He was named in Spain 's team for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup in June . He scored his second hat @-@ trick for Spain after 17 minutes into a Confederations Cup game against New Zealand on 14 June , thus recording the fastest hat @-@ trick by a player for Spain . He played for Spain as they were defeated 2 – 0 by the United States in the semi @-@ final , as well as the third @-@ place play @-@ off , which Spain won 3 – 2 against South Africa after extra time .

Having undergone knee surgery on 18 April 2010 , and missed the end of the Premier League season , Torres ' rehabilitation and fitness was closely monitored by Spain manager Vicente del Bosque . Although still out injured , Torres was selected for Spain 's 2010 FIFA World Cup squad in May . On 8 June , Torres made his first appearance on the field in exactly two months , coming on as a substitute on 66 minutes against Poland in a pre @-@ World Cup friendly .

He came on as a substitute on 61 minutes in Spain 's opening World Cup game on 16 June , a 1 – 0 defeat to Switzerland . He started the next two games against Honduras and Chile and although his performances in the group stage were described as below @-@ par , he received backing from manager Vicente del Bosque . Torres came on as a substitute on 105 minutes in the final as Spain won the FIFA World Cup for the first time following a 1 – 0 victory over the Netherlands on 11 July 2010 .

Torres was selected in Del Bosque 's UEFA Euro 2012 squad . In his first start of the tournament he netted two goals as Spain defeated the Republic of Ireland 4 – 0 to knock them out of the tournament . In the UEFA Euro 2012 Final , Torres came on as a substitute against Italy , scoring one goal and assisting another , as Spain won a second consecutive European Championship with a 4 – 0 victory . This secured him the Golden Boot for the tournament with three goals and one assist , having played fewer minutes than Mario Gómez , who also had three goals and one assist .

Torres won his 100th cap against Saudi Arabia on 7 September 2012 , making him the sixth highest capped player for Spain , and started the game as captain in Iker Casillas ' absence . He became the first person in history to score four goals in one game in a FIFA Confederations Cup match during a 10 – 0 win over Tahiti on 20 June 2013 in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup . Torres also became the first player to score two hat @-@ tricks in the FIFA Confederations Cup , and with five goals and one assist won the tournament 's Golden Shoe , ahead of Fred having played fewer minutes .

In his first international for 11 months , Torres scored a penalty in a World Cup warm @-@ up match against Bolivia on 30 May 2014 . The day after , he was named in Spain 's final squad for the tournament , ahead of Álvaro Negredo and Fernando Llorente . After substitute appearances in the team 's opening two matches , Torres was named in the starting line @-@ up for the third group match with the team 's elimination already confirmed . He scored Spain 's second goal in a 3 – 0 defeat of Australia in Curitiba .

= = Style of play = =

Torres has been described as having " an eye for the spectacular and is capable of world @-@ class skill " and being a " technically proficient , highly successful striker " . He has the ability to find himself in goalscoring positions , using his pace and vision to get in behind defenders .

= = Personal life = =

Torres ' parents are José Torres and Flori Sanz . He has two older siblings , Israel ( born 1977 ) and María Paz ( born 1976 ) . He married Olalla Domínguez Liste on 27 May 2009 in a private ceremony with just two witnesses at the local town hall in El Escorial , Madrid . They had been a couple since 2001 and are thought to have met in the Galician seaside town of Estorde , Cee , where Torres would go on family holidays each year to escape the Spanish capital . The couple have two children , a daughter , Nora , born on 8 July 2009 at the Hospital La Rosaleda , in Santiago de Compostela , Galicia , and a son , Leo , born on 6 December 2010 at Liverpool Women 's Hospital , with Torres missing the fixture against Aston Villa at Anfield .

In 2009 , it was reported that Torres had amassed a personal fortune of £ 14 million . He features in the video for " Ya nada volverá a ser como antes " by Spanish pop rock group El Canto del Loco , whose singer , Dani Martín , shares a strong friendship with the footballer . He makes a cameo appearance in the 2005 comedy film Torrente 3 : El protector . In 2009 , he released an autobiography entitled Torres : El Niño : My Story . Torres is a keen admirer of the works of J. R. R. Tolkien and has a tattoo reading " Fernando " in Tengwar on his left forearm .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Club = = =

As of match played 28 May 2016 .

= = = International = = =

As of match played 23 June 2014 .

= = Honours = =

= = = Club = = =

Atlético Madrid

Segunda División : 2001 – 02

Chelsea

FA Cup : 2011 – 12

UEFA Champions League : 2011 – 12

UEFA Europa League : 2012 – 13

= = = International = = =

Spain U16

UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship : 2001

Spain U19

UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship : 2002

Spain

UEFA European Championship : 2008 , 2012

FIFA World Cup : 2010

FIFA Confederations Cup : Third place 2009 , Runner @-@ up 2013

= = = Individual = = =

UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship Player of the Tournament : 2001

UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Championship top scorer : 2001

UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship Player of the Tournament : 2002

UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship top scorer : 2002

Premier League PFA Team of the Year : 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09

Premier League Player of the Month : February 2008 , September 2009

Premier League Goal of the Month : April 2009 @,@

UEFA Euro 2008 Final : Man of the Match

UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament : 2008

UEFA Team of the Year : 2008

FIFA FIFPro World XI : 2008 , 2009

ESM Team of the Year : 2007 – 08

FIFA World Player of the Year third place : 2008

Ballon d 'Or third place : 2008

FIFA Confederations Cup Silver Shoe : 2009

Marca Leyenda award : 2012

UEFA Euro Golden Boot : 2012

FIFA Confederations Cup Golden Shoe : 2013

Decorations

Prince of Asturias Award for Sports : 2010

Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sports Merit : 2011

= Mark Stockwell =

Mark William Stockwell ( born 5 July 1963 ) is an Australian former competition swimmer and three @-@ time Olympic medallist . Stockwell is a Queensland native who specialised in freestyle sprint events , and had a successful international swimming career during the mid @-@ 1980s , including the Olympics , Pan Pacific Championships , and Commonwealth Games . Following his retirement from competitive swimming , he has become a successful business executive and has been active in the administration of national sports organisations in Australia .

= = Early years and education = =

Stockwell was born and raised in Brisbane , Queensland , the son of Bill and Necia Stockwell . He is a 1980 graduate of St Laurence 's College , a Roman Catholic boys ' high school in Brisbane . Stockwell was an Australian Institute of Sport scholarship holder from 1982 to 1984 , and again in 1987 . He undertook commerce and engineering studies at the University of Queensland , and economics coursework at the Australian National University . He also attended the University of Florida in the United States .

= = Swimming career = =

Stockwell won three medals at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . In the men 's 100 @-@ metre freestyle , Stockwell finished in 50 @.@ 24 seconds and claimed a silver medal behind American swimmer Rowdy Gaines ' Olympic record time of 49 @.@ 80 seconds . The outcome was controversial , however , because of a premature starter gun and a quick start by Gaines . Gaines ' coach , Richard Quick , knew of starter Frank Silvestri 's tendency to fire the starter gun almost immediately when the competitors mounted the blocks . Gaines gained about a metre 's head start on the competition ; he held Stockwell off to claim the gold medal . Video of the event confirmed that Stockwell had not been set when the starter pulled the trigger . Stockwell and the Australian Olympic Federation lodged an official protest , but it was denied .

Stockwell , along with teammates Greg Fasala , Neil Brooks and Michael Delany , won another silver medal in the men 's 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay , finishing in 3 : 19 @.@ 68 – just 0 @.@ 63 of a second behind the Americans ' new world record of 3 : 19 @.@ 05 . He also teamed up with Mark Kerry ( backstroke ) , Peter Evans ( breaststroke ) , and Glenn Buchanan ( butterfly ) , swimming the freestyle anchor leg to win the bronze medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre medley relay ( 3 : 43 @.@ 25 ) behind the Americans ( 3 : 39 @.@ 30 ) and Canadians ( 3 : 43 @.@ 25 ) . He and his freestyle relay teammates were dubbed the " Mean Machine " by the Australian media . Stockwell was the only Australian athlete to win three Olympic medals in 1984 .

After the Olympics , Stockwell attended the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , United States , where he swam for coach Randy Reese 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition during the 1984 – 85 school year . He won three SEC titles ( 50- and 100 @-@ yard freestyle , 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay ) , and received All @-@ American honours in the same three events . While attending the university , he dated his future wife , Tracy Caulkins , who was also a Florida Gators swimmer . He and Caulkins had met in the warm @-@ up pool at the 1984 Olympics .

He followed his Olympic performance with a bronze medal for his third @-@ place finish in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle ( 23 @.@ 44 ) , and a fourth in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 51 @.@ 64 ) at the 1985 Pan Pacific Championships in Tokyo . By the time the 1986 Commonwealth Games were held in Edinburgh , Stockwell had fallen back from his Olympic times in Los Angeles . He claimed a gold medal with his Australian teammates Fasala , Matthew Renshaw and Neil Brooks in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre relay ( 3 : 21 @.@ 58 ) , and finished seventh in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle ( 51 @.@ 61 ) . He retired from competitive swimming in 1986 . In December 1989 , The Age newspaper recognized Stockwell as one of the three best Australian swimmers of the 1980s .

= = Life after swimming = =

Stockwell married American competition swimmer Tracy Caulkins , a three @-@ time Olympic gold medallist , in her hometown of Nashville , Tennessee in 1991 . He lives in Brisbane , with his wife and their five children . He received an Australian Sports Medal for his swimming achievements in 2000 . Stockwell was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame in 2009 .

He is the managing director of the family @-@ owned property development , investment and management firm , W. A. Stockwell Pty Ltd , based in Queensland . He and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Mike Kelso are co @-@ owners of the company that was established as a construction firm by his parents more than sixty years ago . The firm has had successful development ventures in residential , leisure , retail , commercial and industrial property , and has undertaken a phased AU $ 350 million residential development in Brisbane 's West End . He and his family members were included among the 14 new entries on the 2014 " Rich List , " with a combined estimated net worth of AU $ 101 million .

He serves on the board of directors of the Australian Sports Commission , and is the deputy chairman of the board . He is also the chairman of the Australian Sports Foundation , a non @-@ profit company that raises money for Australian sport projects . He previously served as the chairman of the Gold Coast 2018 Commonwealth Games Organising Committee , having led the committee through its successful application process , but was sacked by Campbell Newman . He is the chairman of Trade and Investment Queensland , the Queensland state government 's foreign investment and export program , and a past president of the Queensland division of the Property Council of Australia , and previously served on its national board .

Stockwell is the past chairman and a trustee of the St Laurence 's Old Boys ' Foundation , which funds need @-@ based scholarships for boys whose families cannot otherwise afford the tuition and fees at his high school , St Laurence 's College . He is a Trustee of the Stockwell Foundation , a charitable organisation established by him and his wife to benefit at @-@ risk children .

= Dota 2 =

Dota 2 is a free @-@ to @-@ play multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) video game developed and published by Valve Corporation . The game is the stand @-@ alone sequel to Defense of the Ancients ( DotA ) , a mod for the 2002 video game Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos and its expansion pack , The Frozen Throne . Dota 2 was released for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux in July 2013 , following a Windows @-@ only public beta testing phase that began in 2011 . Dota 2 is one of the most actively played games on Steam , with peaks of over a million concurrent players , and was praised by critics for its gameplay , production quality , and faithfulness to its predecessor , despite being criticized for its steep learning curve .

Dota 2 is played in matches between two five @-@ player teams , each of which occupies a base in a corner of the playing field . Each player controls one of 111 playable characters , called " heroes " , that feature unique abilities and styles of play . During a match , the player collects gold , items , and experience points for their hero , while fighting heroes of the opposite team . A team wins by being the first to destroy the other side 's " Ancient " building , located within the opposing base .

Development of Dota 2 began in 2009 when IceFrog , lead designer of the original Defense of the Ancients mod , was hired by Valve for the same role . Dota 2 initially used the original Source game engine until it was ported over to Source 2 in September 2015 , making it the first game to use it . The game also allows for the community to create custom game modes , maps , and cosmetics for the heroes , which are then uploaded to the Steam Workshop . The popularity of Dota 2 has led to official merchandise being produced for it , including apparel , accessories , toys , and promotional tie @-@ ins to other games and media .

Dota 2 has a widespread and active eSports scene , with teams from across the world playing in various leagues and tournaments . Premium Dota 2 tournaments often have prize pools totaling millions of dollars , the highest of any eSport . The largest of them is known as The International , which is hosted by Valve and takes place annually at the KeyArena in Seattle . Starting in 2015 , Valve also began sponsoring smaller , but seasonally held tournaments known as the Majors , the first of which was held in Frankfurt , Germany . Dedicated media coverage of professional tournaments are broadcast live on the internet , and sometimes on television networks , with peak viewership numbers in the millions .

= = Gameplay = =

Dota 2 is a multiplayer online battle arena ( MOBA ) video game set in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment , presented from a high @-@ angle perspective . Two five @-@ player teams , referred to as the Radiant and Dire , compete in matches on a single asymmetrical playing field . Each player commands one of the 111 characters , called " heroes " , which each feature unique abilities , design , and styles of play . At the start of a match , each hero has an experience level of one . During the game , they level up and become more powerful by accumulating experience points through combat . Whenever a hero gains a level , the player is able to unlock a new ability for them , improve one already learned , or increase their base attributes . Each hero 's method of combat is influenced by its primary attribute : strength , intelligence , agility , which also affects the hero 's health points ( HP ) , mana points ( MP ) , and attack speed , respectively . If a hero runs out of health points and dies , a timer begins to count down until they are able to respawn and get back into the game . A hero also loses a portion of their unspent gold each time they die .

The Radiant and Dire occupy bases in opposite corners of the playing field , divided by a crossable river . Within each base is a critical building called the " Ancient " , along with a fountain that respawns and heals that side 's heroes . A match ends when one side breaches the enemy team 's base and destroys the Ancient within . The two bases are connected by three paths , referred to as " lanes " , which are guarded by defensive towers and computer @-@ controlled creatures called " creeps " . These creatures periodically spawn in groups and travel along the lanes to attack any enemy heroes , creeps , and buildings in sight . Creeps spawn from two buildings , called the " barracks " , that exist in each lane and are located in the base . Destroying all six of the enemy team 's barracks allows for stronger creeps for the attacking side to spawn with significantly enhanced health and damage , known as " mega creeps " . Also present are " neutral creeps " that are hostile to both Radiant and Dire side , and reside in marked locations on the map known as " camps " . Camps are located in the area between the lanes known as the " jungle " , which both sides of the map have . Neutral creeps do not attack unless provoked , and will respawn if killed . The most powerful neutral creep is named " Roshan " , who is a unique boss that may be killed by either side to obtain an item that allows a one @-@ time resurrection by the hero that holds it . Roshan will respawn between 8 – 11 minutes after being killed , and becomes progressively harder to kill as the match continues over time .

Gold is primarily obtained by killing enemy heroes , destroying enemy structures , and killing creeps , the latter act being called " farming " . Only the hero that lands the killing blow on a creep obtains gold from it , an act called " last hitting " , but all nearby allies receive gold when an enemy hero dies . Players are also able to " deny " allied units and structures by destroying them , which then prevents their opponents from getting full experience . Gold is then spent on items that provide unique active and passive abilities , in addition to attribute enhancements to their wearer , depending on the item . The player also receives a small , continuous stream of gold over the course of a match .

Dota 2 often features seasonal events that present players with themed game modes , which do not follow the game 's standard rules , including the Halloween @-@ themed Diretide event , the Christmas @-@ themed Frostivus event , and the New Bloom Festival , which celebrated the coming of spring . In October 2015 , a Halloween @-@ themed " capture point " game mode was released , titled " Colosseum " . The move to the Source 2 engine in 2015 also saw the addition of community @-@ created custom game modes , with the more popular ones having dedicated server hosting by Valve . In March 2016 , Valve introduced the " Custom Game Pass " option to custom game modes , which allows content creators to add exclusive features , content , and other changes to their game mode , for a fee .

= = Development = =

The Dota series began in 2003 with Defense of the Ancients ( DotA ) — a mod for Blizzard Entertainment 's Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos — created by the pseudonymous designer " Eul " . An expansion pack for Warcraft III , entitled The Frozen Throne , was released later that year ; and a series of Defense of the Ancients clone mods for the new game competed for popularity . DotA : Allstars by Steve Feak was the most successful , and Feak , with his friend Steve Mescon , created the official Defense of the Ancients community website and the holding company DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC . When Feak retired from DotA : Allstars in 2005 , a friend , under the pseudonym " IceFrog " , became its lead designer . The popularity of Defense of the Ancients increased significantly : it became one of the most popular mods in the world , and , by 2008 , a prominent eSports title . IceFrog and Mescon later had a falling out in May 2009 , which prompted the former to establish a new community website at playdota.com.

Valve 's interest in the Defense of the Ancients property began when several veteran employees , including Team Fortress designer Robin Walker , became fans of the mod and attempted to play it competitively . The company corresponded with IceFrog by email about his long @-@ term plans for the project , which culminated with his being hired to direct a sequel . IceFrog first announced his new position through his blog in October 2009 , and Dota 2 was unveiled by Game Informer on October 13 , 2010 . The resultant surge of traffic crashed Game Informer 's servers .

Valve adopted the word " Dota " , derived from the original mod 's acronym , as the name for its newly acquired franchise . Producer Erik Johnson argued that the word referred to a concept , and was not an acronym . Shortly after the announcement of Dota 2 , Valve filed a trademark claim to the Dota name . At Gamescom 2011 , company head Gabe Newell explained that the trademark was needed to develop a sequel with the already @-@ identifiable brand . Holding the Dota name to be a community asset , Feak and Mescon filed an opposing trademark for " DOTA " on behalf of DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC ( then a subsidiary of Riot Games ) in August 2010 . Rob Pardo , the executive vice president of Blizzard Entertainment , similarly stated that the DotA name belonged to the mod 's community . Blizzard acquired DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC from Riot Games and filed an opposition against Valve in November 2011 , citing Blizzard 's ownership of both the Warcraft III World Editor and DotA @-@ Allstars , LLC as proper claims to the franchise . The dispute was settled in May 2012 : Valve retained commercial franchising rights to the " Dota " brand , but non @-@ commercial use of the name by third @-@ parties was allowed .

An early goal of the Dota 2 team was the adaptation of DotA 's aesthetic style for the Source engine . The Radiant and Dire factions replaced the Sentinel and Scourge from the mod , respectively . The appearances of each side 's heroes were adjusted to be more individualized , with less traits specific to either faction . Character names , abilities , items and map design from Defense of the Ancients were largely retained , with some changes due to copyright issues . In the first Q & A session regarding Dota 2 , IceFrog explained that the game would build upon the mod without making significant changes to its core . Valve contracted major contributors from the Defense of the Ancients community , including Eul and artist Kendrick Lim , to assist with the sequel . Additional contributions from sources outside of Valve were also sought regularly for Dota 2 , as to continue Defense of the Ancients 's tradition of community @-@ sourced development . One of the composers of Warcraft III : Reign of Chaos , Jason Hayes , was hired to collaborate with Tim Larkin in the creation of the soundtrack . Valve had Half @-@ Life series writer Marc Laidlaw , science fiction author Ted Kosmatka , and Steam support employee Kris Katz write new dialog and background lore for the heroes . In addition to that , Valve also had all of the heroes ' voice acting completely redone . Notable voice actors for the English version include Nolan North , Dave Fennoy , Jon St. John , Ellen McLain , Fred Tatasciore , Merle Dandridge , Jen Taylor , and John Patrick Lowrie , among various others .

The Source engine itself was updated with new features to accommodate Dota 2 , such as high @-@ end cloth modeling and improved global lighting . The game features Steam integration , which provides its social component and Cloud storage for personal settings . In November 2013 , Valve introduced a coaching system , which allows experienced players to tutor newer players with special in @-@ game tools . As with previous Valve multiplayer titles , players are able to spectate live matches of Dota 2 played by others , and local area network ( LAN ) multiplayer support allows for local competitions . Some of these events may be spectated via the purchase of tickets from the " Dota Store " , which give players in @-@ game access to both live and completed matches . Ticket fees are apportioned in part to tournament organizers . In an upcoming update , Dota 2 will support spectating a game in virtual reality ( VR ) , powered by SteamVR .

Dota 2 includes a matchmaking system , which is measured by a numerical value known as " matchmaking rating " ( MMR ) . MMR is updated based on if a player 's team won or lost , which will then increase or decrease , respectively . The game 's servers , known as the " Game Coordinator " , attempts to balance both teams based on each player 's MMR , with each team having roughly a 50 % chance to win in any given game . Ranked game modes with a separately tracked MMR also exist , which differ from unranked games by making MMR publicly visible , encouraging players who want to play in a more competitive environment , among other changes . The game also includes a report system , which allows for players to discourage and punish player behavior that intentionally provides a negative experience . Other features include an improved replay system from Defense of the Ancients , in which a completed game can be downloaded in @-@ client and viewed at a later time , and the " hero builds " feature , which provide integrated guides created by the community that highlight to the player on what items should be bought on their hero , and which abilities to level up .

As part of a plan to develop Dota 2 into a social network , Newell announced in April 2012 that the game would be free @-@ to @-@ play , and that community contributions would be a cornerstone feature . That June , the Dota 2 team confirmed that the full roster of heroes and items would remain available without charge . Instead , revenue is generated through the Dota Store , which offers for @-@ purchase exclusively cosmetic virtual goods , including custom clothing and weapons for their heroes , along with music packs by notable artists such as electronic music artist deadmau5 , Taiwanese songwriter JJ Lin , and video game composers Chance Thomas , Jeremy Soule , and Lennie Moore . Until the game 's official release in 2013 , players were able to purchase an early access bundle , which included a digital copy of Dota 2 and several cosmetic items . Included as optional downloadable content ( DLC ) , the Dota 2 Workshop Tools are a set of Source 2 software development kit ( SDK ) tools that allow content creators to create new cosmetics for the heroes themselves , as well as custom game modes and maps . Highly rated cosmetics , through the Steam Workshop , are available in the in @-@ game store if they are accepted by Valve . This model was fashioned after that of Valve 's Team Fortress 2 , which had earned Workshop designers of cosmetic items of that game over $ 3 @.@ 5 million by June 2011 . In January 2014 , Newell revealed that the average Steam Workshop contributor for Dota 2 and Team Fortess 2 made approximately $ 15 @,@ 000 from their creations the previous year . In 2015 , sales of Dota 2 cosmetics had earned Valve over $ 238 million in revenue , according to the digital game market research group SuperData .

Valve documented the lives and stories of three professional players at the first International , Singaporean Benedict " hyhy " Lim , Ukrainian Danil " Dendi " Ishutin , and American Clinton " Fear " Loomis . In August 2012 , GameTrailers announced that Valve was developing this material into a documentary film . Throughout June 2013 , Valve conducted private screenings of the film with small groups outside the company . When an invitation was leaked by Kotaku , Valve 's vice president of marketing , Doug Lombardi , confirmed that the documentary was in development and revealed its name as Free to Play . The documentary was released on March 19 , 2014 , and was distributed for free through outlets including Steam , iTunes , and YouTube .

= = Release = =

After being tested extensively by Valve , Dota 2 was first unveiled to the public at the inaugural International event , the game 's premier eSport tournament , at Gamescom in 2011 . To coincide with the event , Valve began sending out closed beta invitations ; the first few invites were sent out shortly after Gamescom . During the event , Newell speculated that Dota 2 would likely ship in 2012 , despite original plans for a full release in late 2011 . In September 2011 , Valve scrapped its previous development and release plans , which would have kept the game in its closed beta phase for over a year . The new plans , which IceFrog revealed via an online announcement , were to begin beta testing as soon as possible and to implement the remaining heroes afterward . Simultaneously , Valve announced that the non @-@ disclosure agreement for the beta was being lifted , allowing testers to discuss the game and their experiences publicly . After nearly two years of beta testing , Dota 2 was officially released on Steam for Microsoft Windows on July 9 , 2013 , and later for OS X and Linux on July 18 , 2013 . Two months following the game 's release , Newell claimed that updates to Dota 2 generated up to three percent of global internet traffic . In December 2013 , the final restrictions against unlimited global access to Dota 2 were lifted after the game 's infrastructure and servers were substantially bolstered . In March 2016 , a large update fixed many long @-@ standing bugs and issues with the game , while also adding many community requested features .

In order to abide by the standards set by the economic legislation of specific countries , Valve opted to contract with nationally @-@ based developers for publishing . In October 2012 , the leading Beijing @-@ based video game publisher , Perfect World , announced the acquisition of the exclusive rights of Dota 2 in China . The Chinese version also has a region @-@ specific " Low Violence " mode , which censors and changes most depictions of blood , gore , and skulls in order for the game to follow censorship policies of the country . In November 2012 , a similar publishing deal was made with the Tokyo @-@ based company Nexon to distribute and market the game in South Korea and Japan . In November 2015 , Nexon announced they would no longer be operating servers for Dota 2 , allowing Valve to take over direct distribution and marketing of the game those regions .

Tie @-@ ins to other video games and media have also been added to Dota 2 since release , including custom Half @-@ Life 2 , Bastion , Portal , Trine , The Stanley Parable , Rick and Morty , and Fallout 4 announcer packs , which replace the game 's default announcer with themed ones based on those series . To coincide with the Windows release of Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 HD in August 2015 , a bundle containing a custom loading screen , a Moogle ward , and a Chocobo courier was added the same month . In April 2016 , Valve announced a cross @-@ promotional workshop contest for Sega 's Total War : Warhammer .

= = = Transition to Source 2 = = =

In June 2015 , Valve announced that the entirety of Dota 2 would be ported over to the Source 2 game engine in an update called Dota 2 Reborn . The beta was released to the public in June 2015 . On September 9 , 2015 , Reborn was officially released out of beta , which included a new user interface framework design , ability for custom game modes created by the community , and the full replacement of the original Source engine with Source 2 , making Dota 2 the first game to use it . Largely attributed to technical difficulties players experienced with the update , the global player base experienced a sharp drop of approximately sixteen percent the month following the release of Reborn . However , after various updates and patches , over a million concurrent players were playing again in January 2016 , with that being the largest amount of users since March 2015 . The move to Source 2 also allowed the use of the Vulkan graphics API , which was released as an opt @-@ in feature in May 2016 , becoming one of the first games to offer it .

= = Professional competition = =

To ensure that enough Defense of the Ancients players would take up Dota 2 and to showcase the game 's capabilities , Valve sponsored sixteen accomplished Defense of the Ancients teams to compete at The International , a Dota 2 specific eSports tournament , for a $ 1 million prize in 2011 . The International became an annual championship tournament in 2012 , with the venue changing to Seattle , Washington . In its third year , The International allowed crowdfunding to add to its prize pool through an interactive , in @-@ game item called a " compendium " . Compendiums , which are optional and must be purchased separately , allow players who buy them to directly raise prize money for The International by spending money on unique compendium cosmetics and other in @-@ game items , with 25 % of all the revenue made going directly to the prize pool . Sales from the 2013 compendium helped raise over $ 2 @.@ 8 million , making The International 2013 reclaim its previous title as having the largest prize pool in eSports history from the League of Legends Season 2 World Championship . Since then , each annual tournament of The International has broken the previous one 's prize pool record , with the fourth iteration of the tournament raising over $ 10 @.@ 9 million , exceeding the prizes pools of the Super Bowl , Masters Tournament , and Tour de France . At The International 2015 , the prize pool exceeded $ 18 @.@ 4 million , earning the champion team , Evil Geniuses , over $ 6 million .

Following the inaugural event of The International , several other eSport events began to transition from Defense of the Ancients to Dota 2 , including the Electronic Sports World Cup . DreamHack would also support Dota 2 in 2011 , following a year without support for the original , on account of the other multiplayer online battle arena titles , Heroes of Newerth and League of Legends . By the end of its first year in its beta phase , Dota 2 was one of the highest @-@ paying eSport titles of 2011 , second only to StarCraft II . In 2012 , Dota 2 began as an official title for the World Cyber Games annual event at World Cyber Games 2012 . The Electronic Sports League ( ESL ) began a seasonal tournament for Dota 2 called the RaidCall EMS One in 2013 , which was the largest independent tournament for Dota 2 by the beginning of 2013 . Beginning in September 2013 , the Association for Chinese eSports began a league , called the WPC ACE Dota 2 League , which had the largest third @-@ party prize pool in Dota 2 eSports history at the time . At Electronic Entertainment Expo 2013 , Nexon announced the investment of two billion South Korean won , ( approximately $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) , into amateur and professional leagues in South Korea for 2013 , to coincide with the launch of their distribution agreement in the fall of that year . Modeled after the interactive compendium for The International , Valve introduced a compendium third @-@ party tournament organizers could sell , beginning with the ASUS ROG DreamLeague in February 2014 . In February 2015 , the Valve @-@ sponsored Dota 2 Asia Championships was held in Shanghai with a prize pool of over $ 3 million , raised through compendium sales .

In total , professional Dota 2 tournaments had earned teams and players nearly $ 65 million dollars in prize money by June 2016 , which was more than twice the amount of League of Legends tournaments , making it the highest earning eSport game at the time .

= = = Majors = = =

Starting in 2015 , Valve began sponsoring smaller , but seasonally held tournaments with a fixed $ 3 million prize pool , known as the Dota Major Championships . The format for the tournaments are based on the series of the same name that Valve also sponsors for their first @-@ person shooter game , Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive . The first of which , hosted and produced by ESL , was the Frankfurt Major held from November 13 – 21 , 2015 , at the Festhalle Frankfurt in Frankfurt , Germany , and was won by OG . The next Major was hosted and produced by Perfect World , and was held at the Mercedes @-@ Benz Arena in Shanghai from March 2 – 6 , 2016 , and was won by Team Secret . The third and final Major of the 2015 – 2016 season was hosted and produced by PGL , and was held at the Mall of Asia Arena in Manila from June 7 – 12 , 2016 . The tournament was won by OG , becoming the first team to repeat as champions of a Dota 2 Major .

After the introduction of the Majors , The International championship was then considered to be the cumulative " Summer Major " , with the 2016 iteration being the first one under the new format . The International 2016 also broke the record for the highest prize pool in eSports history , surpassing the record that The International 2015 had set the previous year .

= = = Media coverage = = =

The primary medium for professional Dota 2 coverage is through the video game live streaming platform , Twitch.tv. For most major events , tournament coverage is done by a selection of eSports organizations and personnel who provide on @-@ site commentary , analysis , and player interviews surrounding the event in progress , similar to traditional sports . Live Dota 2 games and coverage have also been broadcast on television networks around the world , such as ESPN in the United States , Sport1 in Germany , TV 2 Zulu in Denmark , Xinwen Lianbo in China , Astro in Malaysia , and TV5 in the Philippines .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Dota 2 received universal acclaim , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . PC Gamer previewed the game in September 2012 , stating the game was " an unbelievably deep and complex game that offers the purest sequel to the original Defense of the Anicents . Rewarding like few others , but tough " , giving it a rating of 85 / 100 . Adam Biessener , the editor who authored the announcement article for Dota 2 for Game Informer in 2010 , praised Valve for maintaining the same mechanics and game balance that made Defense of the Ancients successful nearly a decade prior and Quintin Smith of Eurogamer described Dota 2 as the " supreme form of the MOBA which everyone else working in the genre is trying to capture like lightning in a bottle " . The most frequently praised aspects of the game were its depth , delivery , and overall balance . Chris Thursten of PC Gamer described the gameplay as being " deep and rewarding " . Martin Gaston of GameSpot complimented Valve for the delivery and artistic design of Dota 2 , citing the execution of the user interface design , voice acting and characterization as exceeding those of the game 's competitors . Phill Cameron of IGN praised Dota 2 for its freely @-@ available game balance that was not affected by cosmetic items .

While the majority of reviewers gave Dota 2 highly positive reviews , a common criticism was that the game maintains a steep learning curve that requires exceptional commitment to overcome . While providing a moderately positive review that praised Valve 's product stability , Fredrik Åslund from the Swedish division of Gamereactor described his first match of Dota 2 as one of the most humiliating and inhospitable experiences of his gaming career , citing the learning curve and players ' attitudes as unwelcoming . Benjamin Danneberg of GameStar alluded to the learning curve as a " learning cliff " , calling the newcomer 's experience to be painful , with the tutorial feature new to the Dota franchise only being partially successful . In a review for the Metro newspaper , Dota 2 was criticized for not compensating for the flaws with the learning curve from Defense of the Ancients , as well as the sometimes hostile community , as is often the case for multiplayer online battle arena games .

Peter Bright of Ars Technica directed criticism at the ability for third @-@ party websites to allow gambling and betting on match results and in @-@ game items , similar to controversies that also exist with Valve 's Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive . Using Dota 2 as an example , Bright also stated that he thought Valve built gambling elements directly into their games , and had issues with the unregulated practice , which was often used by underage players and regions where gambling is illegal . In response to the controversy , Valve and Dota 2 producer , Erik Johnson , stated that they would be taking action against the third @-@ party sites , saying the practice was " not allowed by our API nor our user agreements " .

In May 2013 , Dota 2 reached almost 330 @,@ 000 concurrent players and held the record for the game with the most concurrent users in Steam history , breaking its own record set in March the same year . Simultaneous with this benchmark , it was determined that the concurrent number of Dota 2 players in May 2013 outweighed the number of players for the rest of Steam 's top ten most @-@ played games combined . In February 2015 , Dota 2 became the first game in Steam 's history to have over one million concurrent players . Also in 2015 , Dota 2 was the third most watched game on Twitch.tv , after League of Legends and Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive . Concurrent viewership numbers of professional Dota 2 matches have reached upwards of two million .

= = = Awards and accolades = = =

Following its first public showing in 2011 , Dota 2 won IGN 's People 's Choice Award . In December 2012 , PC Gamer listed Dota 2 as a nominee for the 2012 Game of the Year award , as well as the best electronic sports title of the year . The game won 2013 eSport of the year awards from PC Gamer and onGamers . GameTrailers awarded the game the award for Best PC Game of 2013 . For IGN 's Best of 2013 award series , Dota 2 won the awards for Best PC Strategy & Tactics Game , as well as Best PC Multiplayer Game . The game 's awards for IGN 's Best of 2013 won their People 's Choice Award counterparts , as well . Similarly , Game Informer recognized Dota 2 for the categories of Best PC Exclusive , Best Competitive Multiplayer and Best Strategy of 2013 . In the 2013 edition of Game Revolution 's countdown of the top twenty @-@ five PC video games of all time , Dota 2 was listed in the number four position . Dota 2 was nominated for a number of Game of the Year awards by Destructoid , including the award for the best competitive game . While the staff selected StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , Dota 2 received the majority of the votes distributed between the nine nominees . In 2014 , Dota 2 was nominated for best multiplayer game at the 10th British Academy Games Awards , but lost to Grand Theft Auto V. In 2015 , Dota 2 was nominated for eSports Game of the Year at The Game Awards 2015 , and won the award for best MOBA at the 2015 Global Game Awards .

= = = Merchandise = = =

The popularity of Dota 2 led Valve to produce apparel , accessories , posters , and a number of other products featuring the heroes and other elements from the game . In addition , Valve secured licensing contracts with third @-@ party producers ; the first of these deals concerned a Dota 2 SteelSeries QcK + mousepad , which was announced at Gamescom 2011 . In September 2012 , Weta Workshop , the prop studio that creates the " Aegis of Champions " trophy for winners of The International , announced a product line that would include statues , weapons , and armor based on Dota 2 characters and items . In February 2013 , the National Entertainment Collectibles Association announced a new toy line featuring hero @-@ themed action figures at the American International Toy Fair . After the conclusion of The International 2015 finals , Valve awarded the Collector 's Aegis of Champions , which was a 1 / 5th scale brass replica of the Aegis of Champions trophy , to those with compendiums of 1 @,@ 000 levels or more . For The International 2016 , Valve began selling a limited edition Dota 2 themed HTC Vive virtual reality headset . Valve have also created webcomics related to the game , featuring some of the heroes and detailing their background lore .

= Don 't Take It Personally , Babe , It Just Ain 't Your Story =

don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story is a 2011 indie video game by Christine Love . Intended as a spiritual sequel to Love 's Digital : A Love Story , the game was developed over the course of a month and was released as a free download on April 4 , 2011 . Don 't take it personally is a visual novel , with the majority of the plot taking place outside of the player 's control except for key decisions . It follows a new high school literature teacher in 2027 over the course of a semester , with the ability to see private messages between students at any time without their knowledge . It deals with themes of privacy and relationships in the future . The game was received positively , with critics praising the interplay between the metafictional elements of the story and those of the game itself , with special acknowledgment reserved for the writing .

= = Gameplay = =

Don 't take it personally is a visual novel , or interactive fiction game where the majority of the story is told through still images of the speaking characters in front of anime @-@ style backgrounds with text overlaid . The player 's viewpoint follows one character , the teacher in a school , with the player seeing his thoughts as well as his and the other characters ' statements . The player advances the conversations the teacher is in or witnesses at will , but cannot go backwards and has little control over what any of the characters , including the teacher , are saying except at a few key moments . At these points , the player is presented with two or three choices for what the teacher says ; which option is chosen can change what path the plot takes , in either a minor or major way .

In a departure from most visual novels the player can also see , at any time , the equivalent of texts and Facebook postings between the students on a school social network called AmieConnect ( often shortened to " Amie " ) , as well as conversation threads on a 4chan @-@ like imageboard that serve as foreshadowing for future plot points . These extra conversations take place in parallel to in @-@ person conversations between characters , occasionally at the same time ; the player is notified anytime a new text message or post is made . A single playthrough of the game takes " over an hour " .

= = Scenario = =

= = = Setting = = =

The game is set in a private high school in Ontario , in 2027 . The player follows a new 11th @-@ grade literature teacher at the school , John Rook , who has recently had his second divorce and is undergoing , in his words , a " bizarre midlife crisis " that has led him to quit his career in computers and become a teacher . The students in his class are Arianna Belle @-@ Essai , Kendall Flowers , Taylor Gibson , Charlotte Grewal , Isabella Hart , Nolan Striukas , and Akira Yamazaki . Rook and all of the students have school @-@ issued computers , which the students use to communicate between each other in private and public messages . Rook , and therefore the player , can see all of the messages that the students send , even the private ones ; the school administration has told Rook that it is for monitoring online bullying , and that he is not to let anyone know that he can see students ' private messages .

= = = Plot = = =

Soon after the game opens , the player learns that Kendall and Charlotte have just broken up out of a lesbian relationship , while a few weeks prior Taylor and Nolan had broken up out of a heterosexual relationship . Arianna develops a crush on the teacher , which in the player 's first decision point Rook can reciprocate or not . Akira soon comes out as gay , finding to his dismay that everyone else already knew . He then attempts to enter into a relationship with Nolan , who is unsure how to respond ; Rook can encourage him to try it out or let him decide on his own , but he enters a relationship with Akira regardless .

The next day , Isabella misses a meeting she set up with Rook , and does not return to the class . Through Amie texts and wall posts , the other students insinuate that she committed suicide , while the school is unable to provide Rook with any contact information for her . Class continues without her , and a little while later Arianna , if the player rejected her earlier in the game , makes another attempt to have a relationship with Rook . The player may choose to accept or reject her again . Through Amie , Rook learns that both Charlotte and Kendall wish to resume their relationship , and can influence Charlotte to try again or not , which changes whether or not they get back together . Taylor jealously and unsuccessfully tries to drive a wedge between Nolan and Akira .

As the end of term approaches , Rook begins getting strange emails about Isabella 's death , and begins seeing shinigami figures . Upset by these occurrences , when Akira 's mother asks to speak to him concerning misuses of Amie , he assumes that she has found out that he is spying on the students ' conversations . When he meets her , he finds that Isabella is alive and had simply moved away ; the students made it look like she was dead via Amie as a prank that got out of control . Furthermore , they already knew that he could see their messages ; Akira 's mother explains that the students have no idea of online privacy , having always had technology like Amie , and assumed that anything they put online might be read by anyone . The game ends with Rook having a casual lunch with the students , a date with Arianna , or neither , depending on the choices made during the game by the player .

= = Development = =

Don 't take it personally was developed over the course of a month , and was released as a free download on April 4 , 2011 . It was written and developed by Christine Love , with artwork made for the game by Auro @-@ Cyanide , artwork licensed from Tokudaya and Kimagure After , and with music licensed from Rengoku Teien and propanmode . It was created using the Ren 'Py engine . It was Love 's longest game to date , and her first attempt at a game with a branching storyline . It was intended as " a spiritual sequel of sorts " to Digital : A Love Story , a 2010 game by Love . The game was made for NaNoRenO ( National Ren 'ai Game Writing Month ) , a month @-@ long contest in the vein of National Novel Writing Month ( NaNoWriMo ) where developers attempt to create a visual novel in one month . Love 's favorite character to write was Kendall .

= = Reception = =

Don 't take it personally was chosen as a " freeware game pick " by IndieGames 's Michael Rose , who said that it was worth playing through multiple times in order to see the different paths the story takes depending on the player 's choices . Pete Davidson of GamePro noted the game as an example of the " creativity " missing in many large @-@ budget titles , and praised the story , calling Love " a writer first and a game developer second . " Alec Meer of Rock , Paper , Shotgun described the game as " a game about love , sex and the internet " that was " capable of being profoundly moving " and was about " what it is to feel like someone ’ s kicked me straight in the heart . " He praised Love 's ability to use dialogue to effect an emotional response , though he noted that the game seemed to lose some of its impact in the final chapters and felt that the use of the " 12chan " threads as a Greek chorus was " perhaps a meta @-@ layer too far " .

Aaron Poppleton of PopMatters called the game " a meditation on privacy in the modern age " and " one of the more thoughtful games to come out in a long time . " He criticized the art direction of the game , saying that the limitation of creating the game in a month led to poor artwork and an unpolished presentation that lets down the possibilities of the story . He did note that the story and writing of the game made the downsides of the game " almost entirely a moot point " , and that it is a very strong game . Pete Davidson of PC World , in an article about the treatment of sexuality in video games , called out the game as an example of a game that used sexual themes maturely to explore love and relationships . Emily Short of Gamasutra , in a discussion about the game , said that it was definitely worth playing and full of " charming characters , colorful dialogue , and important questions " , but criticized the uneven exploration of issues regarding privacy versus personal boundaries . She said that the game 's lack of focus on Rook 's issues with personal and professional boundaries was a weakness in the story , given that the distinction between boundaries and privacy was crucial to the plot . Love collated common criticisms and reviews of the game on her blog , summarizing that while it was less praised than Digital : A Love Story , most players seemed to like the way she wrote the relationships and overall story , though her portrayal of Rook was weak and that many players seemed to miss that he was intended to be " an absolutely awful teacher " and that the potential relationship with Arianna was intended to be creepy and make the player feel bad . She also noted that her use of licensed artwork was detracting from the game 's potential in comparison to the reaction to the custom works .

The Daily Telegraph gave the visual novel the award for " Best Script " in its video game awards of 2011 , stating that " Love 's layered narrative of a high school teacher embroiled in his student ’ s worries goes places most mainstream video games wouldn 't dare . "

= The Dreamscape =

" The Dreamscape " is the ninth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . It centers on a Fringe investigation of a Massive Dynamic employee who , after believing himself to be under attack by a swarm of sharp @-@ winged butterflies , jumps out of a window . Meanwhile , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) continues her visions of the deceased John Scott ( Mark Valley ) , and discovers how he related to a deadly psychoactive drug synthesized by Massive Dynamic .

" The Dreamscape " was written by series staff writers Julia Cho and Zack Whedon , and was directed by Fred Toye . To create the opening scene , they " relied entirely on actor performance , " with guest actor Ptolemy Slocum simulating being cut , freezing for the crew to apply prosthetic make @-@ up , and then unfreezing to continue shooting the scene . VFX coordinator Christopher Stollard wished the computer generated butterflies to look as realistic as possible , and modeled them after mounted butterfly specimens his team studied .

The episode first aired in the United States on November 25 , 2008 on the Fox network . It was watched by an estimated 8 @.@ 73 million viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 . Reviews of the episode were mixed , with one reviewer believing it " certainly moves [ the series ] in the right direction " .

= = Plot = =

Massive Dynamic executive Mark Young ( Ptolemy Slocum ) delivers a presentation at the company ’ s Manhattan office . When he is done and the other attendees have left , he sees an unusual butterfly . Upon picking it up , he experiences a cut on his hand and is then attacked by a swarm . Mark jumps out of a window , to his death . Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) , despite preparing to go out to dinner with her sister , instead agrees to Phillip Broyles ' ( Lance Reddick ) demand that she join the Fringe team 's investigation at the scene . While examining the body , Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) sees lacerations on Young ’ s skin and notes a lack of corresponding tears on his shirt . At the scene , Olivia has a brief vision of her deceased lover John Scott ( Mark Valley ) watching them , which troubles her .

Later , in the lab at Harvard Walter 's autopsy reveals a synthetic compound in Mark 's blood , though any link to the cuts is not yet known to them . Olivia receives an email from someone who claims to be John Scott , listing an address for her to visit . Upon arriving she finds boxes , one of which contains a group of toads . At the lab , Walter finds that the toads contain a " psychoactive compound " , a hallucinogen that affects the fear center of the brain . They conclude that Mark ’ s brain was so convinced of something happening to his body that actual physical marks appeared . Mark was infected with a large dosage , leading them to attribute his death to murder .

Olivia admits to Walter how she found the address and learns that her brain still contains some of John 's memories . Wishing to discover what else John knew and prevent any further visions from occurring , Olivia insists on returning to Walter ’ s sensory deprivation tank . Inside the tank , Olivia sees a memory of John in a restaurant . Despite Walter 's vehement protest that it is impossible , Olivia is convinced that John Scott saw her . Afterwards , she sees John meeting with Mark and two other unidentified men . After Mark and another man leave , John kills the other man . Olivia believes the group were looking to sell the compound as a street drug , and is able to track down the other man , George Morales ( Yul Vazquez ) . Once apprehended , he denies killing Mark and demands immunity and protection from Massive Dynamic , who he believes was responsible for Mark 's death as well as other recent fringe events . Olivia confronts Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) about her suspicions , but George is murdered before he can be of further help to them . Later that night , Olivia gets another email from John Scott simply saying , " I SAW YOU . IN THE RESTAURANT . "

Meanwhile , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) is contacted by Tess ( Susan Misner ) , a woman from his past who warns him to leave Boston . When he meets her , Peter intuits that she is being abused by her boyfriend Michael ( David Vadim ) . He ambushes Michael and warns him not to touch Tess again . Michael then informs local crime boss Worth ( Tom Riis Farrell ) that Peter is back in town .

= = Production = =

" The Dreamscape " , the season 's ninth episode , was co @-@ written by staff writer Zack Whedon and playwright Julia Cho . It was Whedon 's first contribution to the series , and Cho 's second . In an interview fifteen days before the broadcast of " The Dreamscape " , showrunner and executive producer Jeff Pinkner stated that it and several surrounding episodes would be " stand @-@ alone in quality , but at the same time we [ will ] start to peel back another layer of the onion " to transition the second half of the season into a " new chapter . " Anna Torv later commented that she wished for Olivia to " lighten up " during the first season , " but every time she did , something would happen . " The writers inputted small scenes to shine more light on her character , which included Olivia dressing up for a night out but then " the phone rings . It ’ s Broyles , and she wipes the lipstick off , puts on a coat , and goes out . That ’ s it . You ’ re on call . She breaks my heart . "

Fred Toye served as the episode director , his second after directing " The Ghost Network " six installments earlier . To create the opening scene of character Mark Young being " attacked " by butterflies , Toye shot it in multiple phases . Series co @-@ creator Roberto Orci preferred the opening scene to involve a " more subtle " death , so Young was made to die from falling out a window , which was " a real thing , something that 's not imagined or whimsical " . VFX coordinator Christopher Stollard stated that his crew " relied entirely on actor performance , " with guest actor Ptolemy Slocum communicating often with the crew during filming . He shot his scenes in short bursts . Slocum summarized that he " would experience the [ butterfly ] cut and then we would freeze , apply make @-@ up [ to create the cut on his skin ] , and then unfreeze and move on " filming . On his first day , Slocum stated that he wore more than 75 individual prosthetics over his entire chest and arms .

Stollard wished the butterflies to be as realistic as possible , and modeled them after mounted butterfly specimens his team studied . The butterflies were computer generated animations and added later in post @-@ production . To create the illusion of Young falling through the window , the visual effects crew placed small explosive charges on the tempered glass window ; Slocum 's stuntman Jared Burke then jumped through while they triggered the glass to explode . Two cameras , one high and one profile , were positioned to shoot the fall , and were composited together later into a matte painting of the World Trade Building . The fall was filmed multiple times with a green screen , with the stuntman falling on a cushion . While on @-@ set , Toye explained of the shoot , " with all the pieces put together with the visual effects and with the performance we got with our actor Ptolemy , it 's going to be fabulous . " A crewman believed that the addition of music to Young 's fall made the scene " far more elegant and more of a statement . " In a December 2012 interview , actress Jasika Nicole stated that she developed a fear of butterflies as a result of this episode .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings and marketing = = =

" The Dreamscape " first aired on November 25 , 2008 in the United States on the Fox network . With its timeslot dominated by the Dancing With the Stars season finale , Fringe attracted an estimated 8 @.@ 73 million viewers , down from the previous week 's audience of 9 @.@ 36 million . This placed it in third place in its timeslot , behind The Mentalist . The episode also came in third place among viewers aged 18 – 49 , as it earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 10 ratings share ; this means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast .

Fringe 's marketing team designed and launched www.massivedynamic.com near the beginning of the first season . Parts of the website can be seen in " The Dreamscape " , including on Olivia 's computer as she researches the company .

= = = Reviews = = =

Noel Murray of The A. V. Club was generally favorable to the episode , giving it a B + . He wrote , " Much like Fringe fan favorite ' The Arrival ' ( not a favorite of mine , sorry to say ) , ' The Dreamscape ' is an episode more involved with insinuation and mythology @-@ building than with telling a complete @-@ in @-@ one story . But perhaps because I 've come to trust Fringe more over its recent run of entertaining episodes , I enjoyed it fairly well , and found myself trying to figure out what kind of thematic connections I could make using the notion of the body reacting to mere thoughts . " Travis Fickett of IGN rated the episode 7 @.@ 8 / 10 , explaining that it " certainly moves in the right direction " . Fickett found the " coolest moment " to be when Olivia witnesses John Scott 's memory , and he also appreciated Peter 's backstory ( " It 's more than Peter usually gets , but what we know isn 't much and isn 't very exciting . " ) . Fickett criticized Olivia however for leaving the man at the hospital unsuitably protected .

SFScope reviewer Sarah Stegall enjoyed Peter 's sideplot and hoped to learn more of his past , but thought the " cute in @-@ jokes " were meant to distract the audience from a " thin " plot " full of holes " . She added that " the shallow , cookie @-@ cutter plotting " was starting to annoy her , and noted that while the series had the potential to become " a breakout show like The X @-@ Files or Lost ... its major weakness is the continual reliance on the worn @-@ out cliché of the Big Bad Corporation , " which had become " stale and dry . "

Jane Boursaw of AOL 's TV Squad wrote , " Another great episode tonight , and some of the little symbols we see leading into commercials were actually in tonight 's episode , " referring specifically to the hallucinatory butterflies and the frogs / toads found in the basement . Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times took notice here of the pattern of Easter eggs teasing the next episode of the series . This feature of the show had earlier been touched on in an interview with showrunner Jeff Pinkner . As an example , the previous episode " The Equation " had contained a shot of a butterfly on a trashcan , foreshadowing the hallucinated butterfly attack in this episode .

In a 2016 retrospective of the series , A.V. Club writer Joshua Alston considered " The Dreamscape " as a strong example of Fringe 's " monster of the week " episodes that predominated the first season , showing " how much effort and imagination went into the self @-@ contained stories " .

= True Blue ( Madonna song ) =

" True Blue " is a song by American singer Madonna . It is the title track from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) , and was released as the album 's third single on September 29 , 1986 by Sire Records . Written and produced by Madonna and Steve Bray , the song deals with the feelings of Madonna for her then @-@ husband Sean Penn . A dance @-@ pop song , it features instrumentation from a rhythm guitar , a synthesizer , keyboards , and drums . The main chorus is backed by an alternate one , incorporating a chord progression generally found in doo @-@ wop music .

Received by the critics as a light @-@ hearted and cute retro song , " True Blue " topped the charts in UK , Ireland and Canada and became another consecutive top ten song in U.S. for Madonna by reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 . The original music video portrayed her again with a new look , leaner and sporting platinum blond bushy hair . An alternate video was made through the " Make My Video " contest on MTV . The final selected videos had a similar theme of a 1950s @-@ inspired setting and the storyline following the lyrics of the song . " True Blue " has been performed on the Who 's That Girl World Tour ( 1987 ) and the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) .

= = Writing and composition = =

Madonna wrote and produced the song with Steve Bray . According to her , " True Blue " takes its title from a favourite expression of her then husband Sean Penn and to his very pure vision of love and was a direct tribute to him as well as the album , which was as a whole inspired by her " unabashed valentine " for Penn . In an interview , Bray said , " She [ Madonna ] was very much in love . It was obvious if she 's in love she 'll write love songs . If she 's not in love she definitely won 't be writing love songs . " In 2015 , Madonna said that " True Blue " is " a song about true love . I didn 't know what I was talking about when I wrote it . "

" True Blue " is a dance @-@ pop song inspired by the Motown 's girl groups from the 1960s which are considered the direct antecedents of Madonna 's musical sound . The song is composed in the key of B major . It is set in compound quadruple meter , commonly used in doo @-@ wop , and has a moderate tempo of 118 beats per minute . " True Blue " features instrumentation from a rhythm guitar , a synthesizer , keyboards , and drums for the bassline , with a basic sequence of I – vi – IV – V ( B – G ♯ m – E – F ♯ ) as its main chord progression .

Madonna 's vocal range spans a bit less than one and a half octaves , from F ♯ 3 to B4 . The chorus is backed by sounds of bells ringing , an alternate verse — " This time I know it 's true " — which is sung by three back @-@ up singers during the interlude , and a bass counter melody which introduces her vocals during the second chorus . The lyrics are constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , with the theme being Madonna 's feelings for Sean Penn ; it even uses the archaic love word " dear " in the line " Just think back and remember , dear " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

Davitt Sigerson from Rolling Stone magazine in a review of the album True Blue said that the song " squanders a classic beat and an immensely promising title " , LAUNCHcast 's Bill Holdship said that " True Blue " is " Madonna 's wonderful tribute to the late ' 50s / early ' 60s " girl groups " . In his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography , journalist J. Randy Taraborrelli described the song as " the light @-@ hearted , fun track of the whole True Blue album project having a retro 1950 's feel to it " . In the book Rock ' n ' Roll Gold Rush which contains information about various artists and their singles , author Maury Dean said that the song as a " masterwork of simplicity interwoven with secret complexity " adding that " on one hand , it 's just a basic steetcorner ditty , with four basic chords . In another context , it 's a counterpoint harmonic blanket , twirling with star @-@ spangled timbre and dynamic drive . " Rikky Rooksby , in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , said that " True Blue " is " a song that is merely cute and not really up to being the title track of an album " .

The Wichita Eagle did not like the song , believing that it was " sassless and neutered " as compared to the other songs on the record . However , Daniel Brogan of The Chicago Tribune believed the song was good , calling it " impressive " like the rest of the album , and Jan DeKnock of the same paper believed it was " charming " . Steve Morse of The Boston Globe , when describing the song , said that it was a " bid to be an ' 80s Helen of Troy " .

= = = Chart performance = = =

" True Blue " was released in the United States in October 1986 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 , six weeks later it reached its peak of number three , remaining at the position for three consecutive weeks , and spent a total of 16 weeks on the chart . The song performed equally well on the other Billboard charts , peaking at number five on Adult Contemporary , and number six on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In October 1998 , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the song debuted at number 84 the RPM singles chart on September 27 , 1986 , reached the top for one week in November 1986 , and stayed on the chart for 23 weeks . It ended at the 37th position of the year @-@ end chart .

In the United Kingdom , " True Blue " was released on September 29 , 1986 . It debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart , before climbing to number one the next week , becoming Madonna 's third number @-@ one single there . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in October 1986 . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 545 @,@ 000 copies there . The song peaked at number one for two weeks in October 1986 in Ireland , making it her fourth number @-@ one single on the Irish Singles Chart . Both in Australia and New Zealand , the song reached the top five , and was certified platinum in the former region by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Europe " True Blue " also topped the Eurochart Hot 100 for one week in October 1986 . It peaked in the top five in Belgium , Italy , and the Netherlands , and in the top ten in Austria , France , Germany , and Switzerland .

= = Music videos = =

= = = Official version = = =

" True Blue " had two music videos to accompany it . Shot in early September 1986 in New York , Madonna 's own video for the song was directed by James Foley , who worked with Madonna in her videos for " Live to Tell " and " Papa Don 't Preach " , produced by Robert Colesberry and David Massar with photography by Michael Ballhaus . The Foley version features Madonna with three dancers and a 1950s car in an all @-@ blue diner . Madonna changes her hairstyle from short @-@ cropped in " Papa Don 't Preach " to a bushy platinum blonde hairdo and sings the song in choreographed moves backed by her dancers . It displays a flashing back to fifties rock 'n'roll youth culture .

The blue background changes to a sunny one as she sings " The sun is bursting right out of the sky " to go @-@ along with the lyrical meaning of the song . Two of Madonna 's close friends , Erika Belle and Debi Mazar appear in the video . The video was released at a time when she was going through a failed marriage with then husband actor Sean Penn . During this period , Madonna focused on more traditional fashion and attitudes and tried to appear more respectful of traditional gender roles . After shedding her trampy sex @-@ kitten and boy @-@ toy image with the " Live to Tell " music video , Madonna again adopted a new look for this video . Madonna attended aerobics classes at Hollywood health centre The Sports Connection , which was responsible for her toned down look in the video .

= = = " Make My Video " contest = = =

Sire Records decided to opt for a promotional device in the United States that would involve MTV viewers to make their own videos for " True Blue " . In the fall of 1986 , MTV asked its viewers to submit their own videos . The contest was known as " Madonna 's ' Make My Video ' Contest " . The winner was awarded a trip to MTV 's New York studio where Madonna presented a $ 25 @,@ 000 check live on MTV . Thousands of viewers submitted their recorded tapes which were mainly made using home @-@ made video equipment and featured themselves or relatives as the actors . MTV publicist Peter Danielson said that many of the submissions featured teenagers imitating Madonna . All the entries were shown in a continuous run on MTV as promised . The same song was played over and over for the whole day , but each time with a different video made by the finalists . Author Lisa A. Lewis said that this event emphasized the effect Madonna had on different kind of audiences due to the popularity and response to the contest . MTV selected ten finalists based mainly on a standard of popularity rather than slickness of production or concept creativity .

The concepts used in the videos were wide ranging and included a number of different ideas to interpret the lyrical meaning of the song . The final three entries selected , portrayed a fifties @-@ style production referring to the thematic content of the song . The song 's narration about " True Love " formed the basis of the rest of the semi @-@ finalist videos but was used in very different ways . The videos were choreographed featuring heterosexual romance , though no particular male or female protagonist was singled out . Some even adopted a kind of literal montage technique rather than structuring the video around a narrative line .

The winning entry was by Angel Gracia and Cliff Guest and it showed the female protagonist ( played by the director 's sister Anabel Garcia ) being supported and guided by her girlfriends who introduce her with the male protagonist . The girl even goes to the boy 's door to gift him flowers , thereby reversing the usual gender @-@ directed pattern of gift @-@ giving . The male protagonist is portrayed as a " perfect boy " ( played by William Fitzgibbon ) having the sensibilities like attentiveness , cuteness , playfulness like a friend ( after the lyrics " You 're my best friend " ) and not sexual overtones . The video in @-@ turn contrasts him with a self @-@ centered boy who puts on sunglasses , throws his leather jacket over his shoulder and walks away from the girl . Other videos portrayed a girl pining for her sailor , U.S.-Soviet relations and an arguing couple with the girl in a scene inspired by the music video of Tina Turner 's 1984 single " What 's Love Got to Do with It " .

= = Live performances = =

Madonna first performed the song on her 1987 " Who 's That Girl World Tour " . She came up on the stage wearing a blue dress to sing the song after finishing a performance of " Lucky Star " . In a similar setting to the original music video of the song , Madonna is backed up by her singers who play her girlfriends . At the end of the song Madonna is asked to dance again by the dancer playing her man in the performance . Her dance in the performance ( and also some other performances in the tour ) was choreographed by Jeffrey Hornaday from Flashdance . Two different performances of the song on the tour were included on two live video releases : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 .

Madonna did not perform the song again until 2015 , as part of her Rebel Heart Tour . She performed an acoustic , ukulele @-@ driven version of the song sitting on top of a tire stack while asking the crowd to sing along with her . Writing for the Daily News , Jim Farber felt that during the performance " [ Madonna ] emphasized a rare sincerity " while Jordan Zivitz from the Montreal Gazette opined that " it was both endearingly quaint and , supersized by an unprompted singalong from more than 16 @,@ 000 voices , a goosebumps moment that felt more grandiose in its way than the showpieces surrounding it " . Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa gave a similar feedback , saying that the " lovely acoustic version of " True Blue " was a rare bow to romance , the sweetest of Madonna sentiments " .

= = Formats and track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Madonna – lyrics , producer , vocals

Steve Bray – drums , keyboards , lyrics , producer

Bruce Gaitsch – rhythm guitar

Fred Zarr – additional keyboards

Steve Peck – engineer

Shep Pettibone – remixing

Herb Ritts – photography

Jeri McManus – design / artwork

Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Invisible rail =

The invisible rail , Wallace 's rail , or drummer rail ( Habroptila wallacii ) is a large flightless rail that is endemic to the island of Halmahera in North Maluku , Indonesia , where it inhabits impenetrable sago swamps adjacent to forests . Its plumage is predominantly dark slate @-@ grey , and the bare skin around its eyes , the long , thick bill , and the legs are all bright red . Its call is a low drumming sound which is accompanied by wing @-@ beating . The difficulty of seeing this shy bird in its dense habitat means that information on its behaviour is limited .

Recorded dietary items include sago shoots and insects , and it also swallows small stones to help break up its food . It is apparently monogamous , but little else is known of its courtship behaviour . The only known nest was a shallow bowl in the top of a rotting tree stump that was lined with wood chips and dry leaves . The two young chicks were entirely covered in black down typical of precocial newly hatched rails . The estimated population of 3 @,@ 500 – 15 @,@ 000 birds and the restricted range mean that the invisible rail is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Habitat loss has occurred through the harvesting of sago and conversion of the wetlands to rice cultivation , and the rail is eaten by local people . The described nest was in an area frequented by local villagers , so the rail may be more adaptable to habitat changes than had been thought .

= = Taxonomy = =

The rails are a large and very widespread family , with nearly 150 species . They are small to medium @-@ sized , terrestrial or wetland birds , and their short bodies are often flattened laterally to help them move through dense vegetation . Island species readily become flightless ; of 53 extant or recently extinct taxa restricted to islands , 32 have lost the ability to fly .

The invisible rail , first classified by English zoologist George Robert Gray in 1860 , is the only member of the monotypic genus Habroptila . The genus name Habroptila derives from the Greek habros , " delicate , pretty , splendid " and ptilon , " feather , wing " ; wallacii commemorates British zoologist Alfred Russel Wallace . Local names include " soisa " , " tibiales " and " rèie " .

This rail is related to the New Guinea flightless rail , Megacrex inepta , and the chestnut rail , Eulabeornis castaneoventris , all three Australasian genera probably being derived from Amaurornis ancestors . Storrs Olson argued that the genus Megacrex was so similar to Habroptila that Megacrex should be considered a junior synonym of Habroptila , resulting in two species in the genus . This was further lumped in Sidney Dillon Ripley 's 1977 monograph of the Rallidae ; he included Habroptila within the large genus Rallus . This suggestion was , however , not accepted by Gerlof Fokko Mees , who pointed out distinct differences in the shape and structure of the bill . A molecular phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial DNA sequence similarity found that Habroptila is part of evolutionary radiation within the broad genus Gallirallus that took place around 400 @,@ 000 years ago in the region .

= = Description = =

The invisible rail is a large , 33 to 40 cm ( 13 – 16 in ) long , flightless bird . The adult has a mainly dark slate @-@ grey body , dark brown plumage on the lower back , rump and wings , and a black uppertail . Its underparts are slightly paler slate @-@ grey than the back , and the bare skin around the eye , the long , thick bill and the strong legs are bright red . It has a small spine at the bend of the wings . The sexes are identical in appearance ; the plumage of fledged immature birds has not been described .

The invisible rail is superficially similar to the purple swamphen , Porphyrio porphyrio , which has recently been found in Halmahera , but that species is larger , with a short , thick red bill and a red forehead shield ; it also has purple underparts and a white undertail . The invisible rail is different from the Calayan rail , Gallirallus calayanensis , in that it is larger and lacks the barred plumage of that species ; there is no overlap between the ranges of the two species .

The call is a low drumming , accompanied by a tuk , tuk , tuk made with the wings . The nature of the vocalisation led to a local legend that the sound is made by the bird beating on a hollow tree or branch with its feet . Gerd Heinrich noted the local name " soisa " , meaning drum , and described the call as being a subdued drumming purre – purre – purre – purre – purre which sometimes ends in a loud shrill scream . The bird also produced a dull hum similar to the voice of the banded pig ( Sus scrofa vittatus ) and reminiscent of the call of the snoring rail ( Aramidopsis plateni ) . Calling is most frequent in the early morning or late evening , and a human tapping a sago stem with a machete may elicit a response from the bird . A quieter version of the call is given at the nest . Other sounds attributed to this rail , such as loud screams , may be incorrect , since they are like those produced by the pale @-@ vented bush @-@ hen ( Amaurornis moluccana ) .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The invisible rail inhabits the dense , spiky sago swamps of Halmahera , particularly where forest adjoins the boggy areas . Claims that the rail occurs in alang @-@ alang grass are thought to have arisen from confusion with the pale @-@ vented bush @-@ hen . German ornithologist Gerd Heinrich , who prepared for his Halmahera trip by rolling in stinging nettles , wrote of the sago swamp habitat in the 1930s :

I am solidly confident no European has ever seen this rail alive , for that requires such a degree of toughening and such demands on oneself as I cannot so easily attribute to others . Habroptila is shielded by the awful thorns of the sago swamps ... In this thorn wilderness , I walked barefoot and half @-@ naked for weeks .

Sightings of the rail from 1950 to 2003 were from a restricted area of West Halmahera Regency , at the base of the western peninsula of the island , but it was recorded prior to 1950 as far as the southern point of Halmahera . More recent records showed that it is still present in a significantly larger area , including the northeast of the island , and locals claim that it also occurs in the swamps near Kao , in the northwest .

= = Behaviour = =

The difficult habitat and retiring nature of the invisible rail mean that information on its lifestyle is sparse , and there are few confirmed sightings . Recorded food items include sago shoots and insects . It also feeds at cut sago plants , although it is unclear whether it is eating the decaying plant or searching for other edible items . It swallows small stones , as do all rails , to help break up its food in the gizzard .

The invisible rail is thought to be monogamous , but little else is known of its courtship behaviour prior to nesting . A report of 4 – 5 striped chicks was long thought to be incorrect , since such a plumage is not normal for rails . In this family , chicks are typically precocial , downy and black , with any ornamentation confined to the head , bare flesh , or specially modified plume feathers .

The issue was resolved in November 2010 when a nest was found in the top of a rotting tree stump , 1 m ( 39 in ) above ground level and 46 m ( 151 ft ) in from the edge of a dry swamp forest in Aketajawe @-@ Lolobata National Park . The nest depression was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in depth , with a lower layer of small wood chips at its base and a lining of dead leaves . The egg shells were brownish @-@ white with dark brown and black markings of different sizes . The two very young chicks were entirely covered in black down , contrasting with a white pollux ( the equivalent of the thumbnail on a human hand ) and pink index nail . The bill was black with a white tip , and the legs were black @-@ streaked brown . The eyes had grey irises and blue pupils . Rail chicks leave the nest soon after hatching , so the chicks were assumed to be only a day or two old .

= = Status = =

Bird species with a restricted range are especially vulnerable to human activities , and eight of the 26 bird species occurring only in the Northern Maluku Endemic Bird Area are threatened , including the invisible rail . Almost a quarter of all rail species have conservation concerns , and flightless island species are particularly at risk , at least 15 species having become extinct since 1600 . The estimated population of the invisible rail is 3 @,@ 500 – 15 @,@ 000 birds , and its restricted range and small population mean that the species is classified as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , although this rail is so poorly known that it may be more common than the estimates suggest .

Habitat loss has occurred through commercial harvesting of the sago , or conversion to rice cultivation and fishponds . The rail is a prized food for local people who catch it with traps made from strings of bark and hunt it with dogs . The only described nest was in an area well @-@ used by local villagers , and the rail may be more adaptable to habitat changes than had been thought . There were also several sightings in northeast Halmahera in 2008 and 2011 , extending the area in which this bird has been seen in recent years .

= Project Chanology =

Project Chanology ( also called Operation Chanology ) was a protest movement against the practices of the Church of Scientology by members of Anonymous , a leaderless Internet @-@ based group that defines itself as ubiquitous . The project was started in response to the Church of Scientology 's attempts to remove material from a highly publicized interview with Scientologist Tom Cruise from the Internet in January 2008 .

The project was publicly launched in the form of a video posted to YouTube , " Message to Scientology " , on January 21 , 2008 . The video states that Anonymous views Scientology 's actions as Internet censorship , and asserts the group 's intent to " expel the church from the Internet " . This was followed by distributed denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks ( DDoS ) , and soon after , black faxes , prank calls , and other measures intended to disrupt the Church of Scientology 's operations . In February 2008 , the focus of the protest shifted to legal methods , including nonviolent protests and an attempt to get the Internal Revenue Service to investigate the Church of Scientology 's tax exempt status in the United States .

Reactions from the Church of Scientology regarding the protesters ' actions have varied . Initially , one spokesperson stated that members of the group " have got some wrong information " about Scientology . Another referred to the group as a group of " computer geeks " . Later , the Church of Scientology started referring to Anonymous as " cyberterrorists " perpetrating " religious hate crimes " against the church .

Detractors of Scientology have also criticized the actions of Project Chanology , asserting that they merely provide the Church of Scientology with the opportunity to " play the religious persecution card " . Other critics such as Mark Bunker and Tory Christman initially questioned the legality of Project Chanology 's methods , but have since spoken out in support of the project as it shifted towards nonviolent protests and other legal methods .

= = Background = =

The Church of Scientology has a history of conflict with groups on the Internet . In 1995 , attorneys for the Church of Scientology attempted to get the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology ( a.r.s. ) removed from Usenet . This attempt backfired and generated a significant amount of press for a.r.s. The conflict with a.r.s led the hacker group Cult of the Dead Cow to declare war on the Church of Scientology . The Church of Scientology mounted a 10 @-@ year legal campaign against Dutch writer Karin Spaink and several Internet service providers after Spaink and others posted documents alleged to be secret teachings of the organization . The Church of Scientology 's efforts ended in a legal defeat in a Dutch court in 2005 . This series of events is often referred to as " Scientology versus the Internet " .

= = = Tom Cruise video = = =

On January 14 , 2008 , a video produced by the Church of Scientology featuring an interview with Tom Cruise was posted on YouTube . In the video , music from Cruise 's Mission : Impossible films plays in the background , and Cruise makes various statements , including saying that Scientologists are the only people who can help after a car accident , and that Scientologists are the authority on getting addicts off drugs . According to The Times , Cruise can be seen in the video " extolling the virtues of Scientology " . The Daily Telegraph ( Australia ) characterized Cruise as " manic @-@ looking " during the interview , " gush [ ing ] about his love for Scientology " .

The Church of Scientology asserted that the video material that had been leaked to YouTube and other websites was " pirated and edited " and taken from a three @-@ hour video produced for members of Scientology . YouTube removed the Cruise video from their site under threat of litigation . The web site Gawker.com did not take down their copy of the Tom Cruise video , and other sites have posted the entire video . Lawyers for the Church of Scientology sent a letter to Gawker.com requesting the removal of the video , but Nick Denton of Gawker.com stated : " It 's newsworthy and we will not be removing it . "

= = = Formation = = =

Project Chanology was formulated by users of the English @-@ speaking imageboards 711chan.org and 4chan , the associated partyvan.info wiki , and several Internet Relay Chat channels , all part of a group collectively known as Anonymous , on January 16 , 2008 after the Church of Scientology issued a copyright violation claim against YouTube for hosting material from the Cruise video . The effort against Scientology has also been referred to by group members as " Operation Chanology " . A webpage called " Project Chanology " , part of a larger wiki , is maintained by Anonymous and chronicles planned , ongoing and completed actions by project participants . The website includes a list of suggested guerrilla tactics to use against the Church of Scientology . Members use other websites as well to coordinate action , including Encyclopedia Dramatica and the social networking site Facebook , where two groups associated with the movement had 3 @,@ 500 members as of February 4 , 2008 . A member of Anonymous told the Los Angeles Times that , as of February 4 , 2008 , the group consisted of " a loose confederation of about 9 @,@ 000 people " who post anonymously on the Internet . A security analyst told The Age that the number of people participating anonymously in Project Chanology could number in the thousands : " You can 't pin it on a person or a group of people . You 've thousands of people engaged to do anything they can against Scientology . "

Members of Project Chanology say their main goal is " to enlighten the Church of Scientology ( CoS ) by any means necessary . " Their website states : " This will be a game of mental warfare . It will require our talkers , not our hackers . It will require our dedicated Anon across the world to do their part . " Project Chanology 's stated goals include the complete removal of the Church of Scientology 's presence from the Internet and to " save people from Scientology by reversing the brainwashing " . Project Chanology participants plan to join the Church of Scientology posing as interested members in order to infiltrate the organization .

Andrea Seabrook of National Public Radio 's All Things Considered reported Anonymous was previously known for " technologically sophisticated pranks " such as spamming chat rooms online and " ordering dozens of pizzas for people they don 't like " . Ryan Singel of Wired appeared on the program on January 27 , 2008 , and told Seabrook that members of Anonymous were motivated by " the tactics the Church of Scientology uses to control information about itself " rather than the " controversial nature of Scientology itself " .

= = Activities = =

= = = Internet activities = = =

Project Chanology began its campaign by organizing and delivering a series of denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks against Scientology websites and flooding Scientology centers with prank calls and black faxes . The group was successful in taking down local and global Scientology websites intermittently from January 18 , 2008 until at least January 25 , 2008 . Anonymous had early success rendering major Scientology websites inaccessible and leaking documents allegedly stolen from Scientology computers . This resulted in a large amount of coverage on social bookmarking websites .

The denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks on Scientology.org flooded the site with 220 megabits of traffic , a mid @-@ range attack . Speaking with SCMagazineUS.com , a security strategist for Top Layer Networks , Ken Pappas said that he thought that botnets were involved in the Anonymous operation : " There are circles out there where you could take ownership of the bot machines that are already owned and launch a simultaneous attack against [ something ] like the church from 50 @,@ 000 PCs , all at the same time " .

In response to the attacks , on January 21 , 2008 the Scientology.org site was moved to Prolexic Technologies , a company specializing in safeguarding web sites from denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks . Attacks against the site increased , and CNET News reported that " a major assault " took place at 6 p.m. EST on January 24 , 2008 . Anonymous escalated the attack on Scientology on January 25 , 2008 and on January 25 , 2008 , the Church of Scientology 's official website remained inaccessible .

On January 21 , 2008 , Anonymous announced its goals and intentions via a video posted to YouTube entitled " Message to Scientology " , and a press release declaring " War on Scientology " , against both the Church of Scientology and the Religious Technology Center . In the press release , the group stated that the attacks against the Church of Scientology would continue in order to protect freedom of speech and to end what they characterized as the financial exploitation of church members .

The Tom Cruise video is referred to specifically at the start of the Anonymous YouTube video posting , and is characterized as a " propaganda video " . The video utilizes a synthesized voice and shows floating cloud images using a time lapse method as the speaker addresses the leaders of Scientology directly : " We shall proceed to expel you from the Internet and systematically dismantle the Church of Scientology in its present form ... " The video goes on to state : " We recognize you as serious opponents , and do not expect our campaign to be completed in a short time frame . However , you will not prevail forever against the angry masses of the body politic . Your choice of methods , your hypocrisy , and the general artlessness of your organization have sounded its death knell . You have nowhere to hide because we are everywhere ... We are Anonymous . We are Legion . We do not forgive . We do not forget . Expect us . " By January 25 , 2008 , only four days after its release , the video had been viewed 800 @,@ 000 times , and by February 8 , 2008 had been viewed over 2 million times . Author Warren Ellis called the video " creepy in and of itself " and a " manifesto , declaration of war , sharp political film " .

In a different video posted to YouTube , Anonymous addresses news organizations covering the conflict and criticizes media reporting of the incident . In the video , Anonymous criticizes the media specifically for not mentioning objections by the group to certain controversial aspects of the history of the Church of Scientology , and cited past incidents including the death of Lisa McPherson : " We find it interesting that you did not mention the other objections in your news reporting . The stifling and punishment of dissent within the totalitarian organization of Scientology . The numerous , alleged human rights violations . Such as the treatment and events that led to the deaths of victims of the cult such as Lisa McPherson . " Lisa McPherson was a Scientologist who died in 1995 under controversial circumstances . Initially , the Church of Scientology was held responsible and faced felony charges in her death . The charges were later dropped and a civil suit brought by McPherson 's family was settled in 2004 . This second video was removed on January 25 , 2008 , YouTube citing a " terms of use violation " . Organizers of the February 10 , 2008 , Project Chanology protests against the Church of Scientology told the St. Petersburg Times the event was timed to coincide with the birthday of Lisa McPherson .

In addition to DDoS attacks against Church of Scientology websites , Anonymous also organized a campaign on one of their websites to " begin bumping Digg " , referring to an attempt to drive up Scientology @-@ related links on the website Digg.com. On January 25 , 2008 , eight of the top ten stories on Digg.com were about either Scientology @-@ related controversies or Anonymous and attempts to expose Scientology . Digg CEO Jay Adelson told PC World that Anonymous had not manipulated the site 's algorithm system to prevent artificial poll results , stating : " They must have done a very good job of bringing in a diverse set of interests ... It just happened to hit a nerve that the Digg community was interested in . " Adelson said two other instances which similarly have dominated the Digg main page in the past were the Virginia Tech Massacre in the aftermath of the incident and the " 7 / 7 " London bombings in 2005 . Adelson commented on the popularity of Scientology theme within the Digg community : " In the history of Digg , there 's no question that the topic of Scientology has been of great interest to the community ... I can 't explain why . "

On January 29 , 2008 , Jason Lee Miller of WebProNews reported that a Google bomb technique had been used to make the Scientology.org main website the first result in a Google search for " dangerous cult " . Miller wrote that Anonymous was behind the Google bomb , and that they had also tried to bump Scientology up as the first result in Google searches for " brainwashing cult " , and to make the Xenu.net website first result in searches for " scientology " . Rob Garner of MediaPost Publications wrote : " The Church of Scientology continues to be the target of a group called Anonymous , which is using Google bombs and YouTube as its tools of choice . "

In a February 4 , 2008 , article , Scientology spokeswoman Karin Pouw told the Los Angeles Times that Church of Scientology 's websites " have been and are online . " Danny McPherson , chief research officer at Arbor Networks , claimed 500 denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks had been observed on the Scientology site in the week prior to February 4 , some of which were strong enough to bring the website down . Calling Anonymous a " motley crew of internet troublemakers " , Wired blogger Ryan Singel said that , while attempting to bypass the Prolexic servers protecting the Church of Scientology website , users of a misconfigured DDoS tool inadvertently and briefly had targeted the Etty Hillesum Lyceum , a Dutch secondary school in Deventer . Another hacking group associated with the project , calling themselves the " g00ns " , mistakenly targeted a 59 @-@ year @-@ old man from Stockton , California . They posted his home telephone number , address and his wife 's Social Security number online for other people to target . They believed that he was behind counter @-@ attacks against Project Chanology @-@ related websites by the Regime , a counter @-@ hack group who crashed one of the Project Chanology planning websites . The group allegedly attempted to gain personal information on people involved in Project Chanology to turn that information over to the Church of Scientology . After discovering they had wrongly targeted the couple , one of the members of the g00ns group called and apologized .

= = = Protests planned = = =

A new video entitled " Call to Action " appeared on YouTube on January 28 , 2008 , calling for protests outside Church of Scientology centers on February 10 , 2008 . As with the previous videos , the two @-@ minute video used a synthesized computer voice and featured stock footage of clouds and sky . The video was accompanied by a text transcript with British English spelling . The video denied that the group was composed of " super hackers " , stating : " Contrary to the assumptions of the media , Anonymous is not ' a group of super hackers . ' ... Anonymous is everyone and everywhere . We have no leaders , no single entity directing us . " The video said that Project Chanology participants include " individuals from all walks of life ... united by an awareness that someone must do the right thing . " Specific controversies involving the CoS were cited in the video as the explanation for actions by Anonymous .

In an email to CNET News , Anonymous stated that coordinated activities were planned for February 10 , 2008 , in many major cities around the world . Anonymous hoped to use " real world " protests to rally public opinion to their cause . According to the Associated Press , the protests were meant to draw attention to what the group refers to as a " vast money @-@ making scheme under the guise of ' religion ' " . By January 30 , 2008 , 170 protests had been planned outside Church of Scientology centers worldwide . A video posted to YouTube called " Code of Conduct " outlined twenty @-@ two rules to follow when protesting , and urged protestors to remain peaceful .

= = = February 2008 = = =

= = = = February 2 = = = =

On February 2 , 2008 , 150 people gathered outside a Church of Scientology center in Orlando , Florida to protest the organization 's practices . Small protests were also held in Santa Barbara , California ( during the Santa Barbara International Film Festival ) , and Manchester , England . Protesters in Orlando carried signs with messages " Knowledge is Free " and " Honk if you hate Scientology " . According to WKMG @-@ TV , the protesters called the Church of Scientology a " dangerous cult " and said the organization is responsible for crimes and deaths . The Orlando Sentinel reported that the protest was " part of a worldwide campaign by a group that calls itself Anonymous " , and an unnamed organizer who spoke to the paper stated that the group was protesting " a gross violation of the right to see free church material " , referring to the Tom Cruise video that was pulled from YouTube .

Protesters at the demonstration wore masks , and said they were attempting to inform the public about what they believed to be " restrictions of free speech and profiteering through pyramid schemes " by the Church of Scientology . They asserted they were not protesting the doctrine of Scientology , but rather alleged actions of individual Scientologists . One protester stated that he had created a Facebook group to organize the protest , explaining " It started online with a group called Anonymous ... They got upset with Scientology because the church hides important documents that are supposed to be released to the public . "

= = = = February 10 = = = =

On February 10 , 2008 , about 7 @,@ 000 people protested in at least 100 cities worldwide . Within 24 hours of the first protest , a search for " Scientology " and " protest " on Google Blog Search returned more than 4 @,@ 000 results and more than 2 @,@ 000 pictures on the image @-@ sharing site Flickr . Cities with turnouts of one hundred or more protesters included Adelaide , Melbourne , and Sydney , Australia ; Toronto , Canada ; London , England ; Dublin , Ireland ; and Austin , Dallas , Boston , Clearwater , and New York City , United States .

150 people protested at the Church of Scientology building in Sydney , Australia , carrying signs and wearing costumes . Participants were masked to maintain their anonymity and avoid possible retaliation from the Church of Scientology . Protesters chanted " Church on the left , cult on the right " ( in reference to the Church that was beside the Church of Scientology building ) , " Religion is free " and " We want Xenu " . Scientology staff locked down the building and set up a camera to record the event . After the protest in Sydney , a surge in online Internet traffic due to individuals attempting to view pictures from the protest crashed hundreds of websites when a server was overloaded . The Sydney protest was one of the first worldwide , and after the first images of the protest went online a surge in traffic drove the hosting company 's bandwidth usage up by 900 percent . The hosting company Digitalis temporarily prevented access to hundreds of its clients ' sites , and customer support representative Denis Kukic said the surge was unexpected : " We had no advance notice that there was going to be a sudden surge of traffic or that there would be more than 100 times the average traffic that this customer 's website normally consumes . "

Masked protesters in Seattle , Washington , United States congregated in front of the Church of Scientology of Washington . Protesters were quoted as saying , " We believe in total freedom of belief . We have nothing against the people of Scientology , however the Church of Scientology has committed crimes . They 're vehemently anti @-@ opposition . Anyone who opposes them , must go down . " A protester in Santa Barbara emphasized that their opposition was against the organization , not the belief system , and that they supported the Scientology split @-@ off group known as the Free Zone . Protesters turned out in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania despite unusually cold weather . The masked crowd consisted mainly of college students , including some who had travelled from as far as Penn State University .

Protesters in Boston , Los Angeles , Pittsburgh , Toronto , Edinburgh , London , and other cities worldwide , wore Guy Fawkes masks modeled after the 2005 film V for Vendetta . ( Guy Fawkes was an English Catholic executed for a 1605 attempt to destroy the House of Lords . In V for Vendetta , a rebel against a near @-@ future fascist regime uses the mask in his public appearances and distributes many of its copies to the population to enable mass protests . The Boston Globe characterized usage of the Guy Fawkes masks as " an allusion to the British insurgent and a film depicting an antigovernment movement " . Aaron Tavena of College Times wrote that the Guy Fawkes masks provided a " dramatic effect " to the protests , and Nick Jamison of The Retriever Weekly wrote : " During the February 10 protests , Anonymous was informative , Anonymous was peaceful , and Anonymous was effective . After seeing all of the pictures from the 10th with everyone in disguise , many sporting Guy Fawkes masks , I wanted to be a part of that . " Scott Stewart of University of Nebraska at Omaha 's The Gateway wrote : " Many participants sported Guy Fawkes masks to draw attention both to their identity as Anonymous and the Church of Scientology 's abuse of litigation and coercion to suppress anti @-@ Scientology viewpoints . "

The Internet meme Rickroll , where a link is given to a seemingly relevant website only to be directed to a music video of singer Rick Astley 's pop single " Never Gonna Give You Up " , has been used as a theme in the protests against Scientology . At February 10 protests in New York , Washington , D.C. , London and Seattle , protesters played the song through boomboxes and shouted the phrase " Never gonna let you down ! " , in what The Guardian called " a live rick @-@ rolling of the Church of Scientology " . In response to a website created by Scientologists showing an anti @-@ Anonymous video , Project Chanology participants created a website with a similar domain name with a video displaying the music video to " Never Gonna Give You Up " . In a March 2008 interview , Astley said that he found the rickrolling of Scientology to be " hilarious " ; he also said that he will not try to capitalize on the rickroll phenomenon with a new recording or remix of his own , but that he 'd be happy to have other artists remix it .

Following the protests , there were reports that YouTube was freezing the view counts on videos criticizing Scientology , including clips from the protests themselves , potentially preventing them from being displayed on YouTube 's front page . Similarly , the original " Message to Scientology " video had received nearly 2 @.@ 5 million views and yet failed to be featured as a " most @-@ watched " . The net neutrality activist group movieLOL strongly criticized YouTube for a " display of the decay of internet freedom " . YouTube 's official response stated : " There was an issue with video view counts not increasing that has now been resolved . The correct number of views should be displayed in the next 24 hours . Thanks for your patience . "

Jonathan Holmes , the presenter of the Australian watchdog program Media Watch , reported on two cases of media censorship of the protests . News.com.au pixelated a poster carried by a protester which was revealed , through a Today Tonight segment , to have displayed the word " CULT " . The Advertiser erased Tom Cruise 's name from a protest placard , rendering the placard 's message meaningless , without informing its readers . The Advertiser 's editor , Melvin Mansell , stated that the alteration had " slipped by " and that he was opposed to the publication of doctored photographs .

= = = March – December 2008 = = =

= = = = March 2008 = = = =

According to NBC11 , a woman from Anonymous contacted them and stated that protests were planned against Scientology each month through May 2008 ; and that a large protest was planned for two days after Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard 's birthday , March 15 . Carlos Moncada of The Tampa Tribune reported that an " open letter to the press from Anonymous " was sent out via e @-@ mail , and states that a protest is planned for March 15 , 2008 . The e @-@ mail refers to the Ides of March : " We , too , wish to celebrate this event , albeit in our own special way ... Beware the Ides of March , Church of Scientology ! " The March protests were titled " Operation Party Hard " .

Protests began in Australia on March 15 , 2008 , and were followed by protests in major cities worldwide including Brussels , London , Seattle , Phoenix , Manchester , and Los Angeles . Approximately 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 people protested in about 100 cities worldwide . The protests took place in locations in Australia , Europe , Canada , and the United States .

Approximately 200 masked protesters gathered outside the Church of Scientology 's headquarters in Adelaide , Australia . An anonymous spokesman told News.com.au that Scientology should lose its tax @-@ exempt status . About 150 protesters came to the Yonge Street headquarters of Scientology in Toronto , Canada ; sang " Happy Birthday " and chanted " we want cake " . During the Los Angeles protests , a plane flew overhead trailing a large sign that read " Honk if you think Scientology is a cult . " 150 protesters demonstrated in Clearwater , Florida , and a local organizer for Anonymous told The Tampa Tribune , " We feel that we have an obligation to educate the public about the things that have gone on and hopefully make the Church of Scientology understand that they have to change . "

Two people were arrested by DeKalb County , Georgia police for using megaphones while stepping onto the surrounding street opposite of the church during a protest . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution reported that five protesters were cited for " causing ' hazardous ' or ' offensive ' conditions " , and that eight motorists were pulled over by police and ticketed for excessive use of horns , after they honked while driving past the protest . The American Civil Liberties Union and Amnesty International are investigating the reaction of the police at the Atlanta protest . In contrast , a Los Angeles Police Department officer at the Los Angeles protest was widely praised after a video was uploaded to YouTube showing him acknowledging the demonstrators ' right to protest and encouraging them to stay on the sidewalk for their own safety .

= = = = April 2008 = = = =

Anonymous held its third international protest against Scientology on April 12 , 2008 . Named " Operation Reconnect " , the protest focused on increasing awareness of the Church of Scientology 's disconnection policy . Protesters around the world gathered in over 50 cities , including Toronto , London , Sydney , and Berlin . A subsequent international protest was planned for May 10 , 2008 , according to The University Register it was titled " Operation Battletoad Earth " , and an additional protest was planned for June 2008 . According to John DeSio of The Village Voice , the May 10 , 2008 protests were referred to as " Operation : Fair Game : Stop " , and National Nine News has reported that the full title of the May 10 protests is " Battletoad Earth : Operation Fairgame Stop " . The May 10 date was chosen as May 9 is the anniversary of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard 's book Dianetics : The Modern Science of Mental Health . Over 400 people were present at the May 10 , 2008 protests in cities in Australia . Wen Hsing , a member of Anonymous , commented to scopical.com.au about the Church of Scientology 's denial of its " Fair Game " policy : " Even if the name ' fair game ' is not in use , the Church of Scientology is an organisation that continues to practice a vicious policy of retribution against perceived enemies , and it teaches its members that extreme measures are morally justified if they aid the Church . "

= = = = May 2008 = = = =

On May 10 , a teenager who went to the protests in front of the Queen Victoria Street Church of Scientology in London was issued a court summons after being asked to take down a sign that read " Scientology is not a religion , it is a dangerous cult " . Posting anonymously on a forum , the teenager stated " Within five minutes of arriving ... I was told by a member of the police that I was not allowed to use ' that word ' " . He said that the police told him he had 15 minutes to take down the sign . The teenager did not , citing a 1984 high court ruling by Justice Latey which he described the Church of Scientology as a " cult " that was " corrupt , sinister and dangerous " . The sign was then confiscated . Shami Chakrabarti , the director of Liberty , a human rights group , said that , " They will be banning words like ' war ' and ' tax ' from placards and demonstrations next . This is just barmy " . On May 23 , 2008 , the legal action against the boy was dropped . A Crown Prosecution Service ( CPS ) spokesman said : " In consultation with the City of London Police , we were asked whether the sign was abusive or insulting . Our advice is that it is not abusive or insulting and there is no offensiveness ( as opposed to criticism ) , neither in the idea expressed nor in the mode of expression . " Anonymous also held a protest in Budapest , Hungary , in the same time and location as a program of the local Scientology church .

= = = = June – October 2008 = = = =

A protest was held June 14 , 2008 titled " Sea Arrrgh " ( a satirical reference to the Church of Scientology 's Sea Org ) . Protesters dressed up as pirates . According to Macquarie National News , members of Anonymous highlighted the controversial practices of the Sea Org , including what the protesters believe to be forced contracts where Scientologists work below a livable wage , that female Sea Org members who become pregnant are pressured to have abortions , and that children of families in the organization are made to perform difficult physical labor . An international protest held on July 12 , 2008 titled : " Spy vs. Sci " highlighted the Church of Scientology 's Office of Special Affairs . A press release by the group posed the question : " Why does something that describes itself as a religion need an intelligence agency that aggressively persecutes critics ? " The group posted a video in early August 2008 calling for renewed activity in their protest efforts , and planned a subsequent international protest for August 16 , 2008 . About 35 protesters gathered twice in September 2008 during the first preview and premiere of Arthur Miller 's play All My Sons . They encouraged Scientologist Katie Holmes , wife of Tom Cruise , to leave the Church . The most recent international organized protest was held October 18 , 2008 . Members of Anonymous dressed as zombies , and highlighted what they described as questionable deaths and suicides of Scientologists .

= = = = December 2008 = = = =

The film Valkyrie , starring and produced by Tom Cruise , premiered in New York City on December 17 . Entertainment reporter Roger Friedman noted that it was held " in the private screening room at the Time Warner Center . Not the Ziegfield [ sic ] or Loews Lincoln Square , where most premieres are held in public . " The venue was chosen in part to minimize the exposure to Scientology protestors gathered at the Time Warner Center . For the same reason , Cruise arrived at the December 18 Los Angeles screening through an underground tunnel . There were also Scientology protests at the European premiere in Berlin , where one protester got his V for Vendetta mask autographed by Tom Cruise . Chanology participants shared the limelight with a person in a bunny suit protesting against the hero worship of Claus von Stauffenberg .

= = = 2009 = = =

= = = = January – February 2009 = = = =

On January 8 , 2009 , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old male member of Anonymous ran into the New York Scientology building shirtless and covered with Vaseline , pubic hair , and toenail clippings . He then proceeded to toss books around and smear the mixture on objects in the building . The man , identified by police as Mahoud Samed Almahadin , was charged with burglary , criminal mischief , and aggravated harassment as hate crimes . Two weeks later , 21 @-@ year @-@ old film student and Anonymous member Jacob Speregen was charged with aggravated harassment and criminal mischief as hate crimes after he filmed Almahadin carrying out his prank . According to his mother and the video , Speregen was filming the event from behind the barricade . Scientology critics Mark Bunker and Jason Beghe disagreed with the individual 's actions .

Anonymous organized a 12th global protest against Scientology for January 10 , 2009 , to coincide with the Chanology movement 's first anniversary . On February 10 , 2009 , Anonymous released a statement : " Scientology operatives still continue to paint Anonymous in a negative light as a means of distracting attention from Scientology operations and attempting to discredit those who bring truth to the issues at hand . It just isn ’ t working . " The group claimed credit for leaks of internal Scientology documents that appeared on the website Wikileaks , and announced further global protests for subsequent weekends in February 2009 . Members of Anonymous continued to celebrate the one @-@ year anniversary of the Chanology movement during February 2009 , with protests held in locations including Hemet , California .

= = = = March – May 2009 = = = =

On March 3 , 2009 , the Board of Supervisors in Riverside County , California , voted to approve an ordinance which restricts residential picketing there to 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) or further from an individual 's residence . The ordinance was originally introduced by Supervisor Jeff Stone , board chairman , in November 2008 , and went through multiple changes . Critics of the ordinance stated that Stone proposed the measure due to favor for Scientology , which has its Hemet compound located in Riverside County . " The whole ordinance is tainted . The reasons behind it are tainted , " said county resident Lirra Bishop . Stone stated the measure was intended for all residents of the county , though he cited protests at Scientology 's Gold Base facility which houses residences and Scientology 's Golden Era Productions as an example of why the ordinance is needed . Protesters at Gold Base have included members of Anonymous , and Scientology officials claimed they were " threatened with violence " . Protesters told the Board of Supervisors that due to the lack of sidewalk near Gold Base , the anti @-@ picketing ordinance would severely hamper the ability to protest outside the Scientology compound .

After stating on October 17 , 2008 , that he would plead guilty to involvement in the January 2008 DDoS attacks against Church of Scientology websites , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old self @-@ described member of Anonymous entered a guilty plea related to hacking charges in May 2009 . A release from the US Justice Department said that the individual , a resident of New Jersey , " participated in the attack because he considered himself a member of an underground group called ' Anonymous ' " . Thom Mrozek , a spokesman for the Justice Department , said that the Church of Scientology had cooperated in the investigation . The individual faces a sentencing scheduled for August 2009 .

In May 2009 , members of Anonymous told WSMV @-@ TV that they were bullied by off @-@ duty security guards while protesting at a Scientology event in April in Nashville , Tennessee . According to WSMV @-@ TV , a protester stated he was assaulted by three Scientology security guards while on public property , 400 yd ( 370 m ) away from the Scientology building . The Church of Scientology had previously informed the security guards that the protesters were " dangerous people " . A protester was issued three citations by the Scientology security guards , but these were all dismissed by the district attorney . On May 8 , 2009 , WSMV @-@ TV reported that " laws appear to have been broken " in the manner in which the Scientology security guards handled the protesters . The Scientology security guards were not clearly identified as off @-@ duty police officers , and permits for the Scientology event attended by the Anonymous protesters were for the wrong day . " The armed people from the other county are not identified police officers . You 're looking for a problem " , said John M. L. Brown , a Fraternal Order of Police attorney .

= = = = November 2009 = = = =

In November 2009 , the New York Post interviewed former Scientologist Mandy Mullen , who had joined the Manhattan organization in 2008 after seeing information on 4chan about Chanology protests . Over the next year , she recalled cases of members being coerced into donating more and more money . When she told her " leader " that she had looked at websites run by anti @-@ Scientology protesters ( and disagreed with them ) , he reportedly replied " That 's like saying I don 't burn niggers , I just like to party with the KKK ! " In Fall 2008 Mullen left the church , joining a group of Chanology protesters across the street . Church of Scientology Manhattan President John Carmichael issued a response the following week , stating " Mandy Mullen 's story about Scientology ... is all lies in the service of Anonymous , a hate group that targets our Church , or even anyone who just falls onto their radar . " On November 13 , 2009 , Independent Australian Senator Nick Xenophon used parliamentary privilege to accuse the Church of Scientology of being a criminal organisation .

= = = Campaign against Scientology 's tax @-@ exempt status = = =

A woman who stated she was a member of Anonymous told KNTV that the group has shifted strategy to activities which fight Scientology but are not deemed illegal by the United States government , including an attempt to get the Internal Revenue Service to investigate the Church of Scientology 's 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax @-@ exempt status . Another woman from Anonymous told Newsweek that the group plans to accomplish this through a lobbying campaign . United States tax authorities removed the Church of Scientology 's tax @-@ exemption status in 1967 , stating that the organization 's auditing techniques served as a for @-@ profit operation for L. Ron Hubbard . In 1984 , the United States Tax Court ruled that the Church of Scientology was guilty of " manufacturing and falsifying records to present to the IRS , burglarizing IRS offices and stealing government documents , and subverting government processes for unlawful purposes . " The Church of Scientology 's tax @-@ exempt status in the United States was reinstated in 1993 .

A member of Anonymous calling herself " Envie " told Today Tonight that the group has longer term plans against the Church of Scientology : " We are incredibly determined ... There are those of us who have been talking about plans for the next 12 to 18 months . " A member of Anonymous calling herself " Sarah " spoke with Radar magazine about a letter @-@ writing campaign : " We 're sending letters to senators and congresspeople requesting that their tax @-@ exempt status be looked at . "

= = Church of Scientology response = =

In a January 25 , 2008 statement made to News.com.au , a spokesman for the Church of Scientology said , " These types of people have got some wrong information about us . " A Toronto , Canada spokesperson for the Church of Scientology said she didn 't " give a damn " if the group Anonymous was responsible for disrupting access to the Scientology site . Church spokeswoman Yvette Shank told Sun Media that she thought the Anonymous members were a " pathetic " group of " computer geeks " . On January 26 , 2008 , CNET News reported that Karin Pouw , public affairs director for the Church of Scientology , did not address their specific request for a comment about the denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks but instead only responded to the appearance of the Tom Cruise video on YouTube . Pouw stated that the video consisted of " pirated and edited " excerpts of Cruise from a 2004 Scientology event , and that after the video appeared , there was increased traffic to Scientology sites as shown by top lists compiled by search engines . Pouw went on to state " Those wishing to find out the Church of Scientology 's views and to gain context of the video have the right to search official Church Web sites if they so desire . "

On January 28 , 2008 , Radar Online reported that the Church of Scientology asked the U.S. Attorney General 's office in Los Angeles , the Federal Bureau of Investigation , and the Los Angeles Police Department to start a criminal investigation of possible criminal activity related to the DDoS attacks . An unnamed source told Radar that the Church of Scientology argued to law enforcement that the Internet attacks are a form of " illegal interference with business . " Radar also reported that in statements to law enforcement the Church of Scientology emphasized its status as a religious organization in the United States in order to assert that the DDoS attacks can be classed as hate crimes . The day after the Church of Scientology complained to law enforcement about the DDoS attacks , one of the main Project Chanology sites was down , and a message on the site said that their site crashed due to attacks from Scientologists . In a statement issued to Wikinews , a Church of Scientology employee confirmed that actions of Anonymous had been reported to law enforcement : " Activities of Anonymous have been reported to the Authorities and actions are being taken . Their activities are illegal and we do not approve of them . At the same time , our main work is to improve the environment , make people more able and spiritually aware . ... yes , we are taking action . "

The Church of Scientology issued a statement explaining the website move to Prolexic Technologies : " The attacks have defaced and rendered inoperable a number of CoS web sites . But as a very wealthy institution , the Church has fought back with technological answers . On January 21 , the Church of Scientology moved its domain to Prolexic Technologies , a group that specializes in protecting Web sites from [ denial of service ] attacks by creating a safe tunnel by filtering all incoming mail and then allowing only clean messages through . "

Lee Sheldon of the Church of Scientology of Orlando and Lee Holzinger of the Church of Scientology of Santa Barbara issued similar statements regarding the February 2 , 2008 protests in Florida and California , respectively . Sheldon stated " we recognize the right to legal protest " , and Holzinger said " People have the right to express themselves ... The Church of Scientology has always defended the right of freedom of expression . " Both representatives also expressed concerns regarding the spread of " hate speech " .

The Church of Scientology released a statement regarding the February 10 , 2008 worldwide protests , which was published February 7 , 2008 in the St. Petersburg Times . In the statement , the Church of Scientology called the organizers of the protests " cyberterrorists " , and stated : " We take this seriously because of the nature of the threats this group has made publicly . We will take every step necessary to protect our parishioners and staff as well as members of the community , in coordination with the local authorities . " The statement also referred to the actions of members of Project Chanology as " hate crimes " and " religious bigotry " , and in a media release said that the group is guided by Communist Manifesto and Mein Kampf ; one of the organizers of the protest responded to the latter allegation by stating : " I don 't know where they got that from , but I don 't think that 's true considering that I am a capitalist and a Jew " . Pat Harney , spokeswoman for the Church of Scientology in Clearwater , Florida told the St. Petersburg Times : " We are dealing with a worldwide threat ... This is not a light matter . " In preparation for the February 10 , 2008 protests outside Scientology 's spiritual headquarters in Clearwater , the Church of Scientology spent $ 4 @,@ 500 to hire ten off @-@ duty police officers for security . Clearwater Police Department spokeswoman Elizabeth Daly @-@ Watts stated that the off @-@ duty police officers will make sure that protesters do not trespass on Scientology property or violate the law , but will report to police supervisors and not representatives of the Church of Scientology .

The Church of Scientology posted a YouTube video claiming that Anonymous are " terrorists " and alleging that Anonymous is perpetrating " hate crimes " against the church . The video does not provide any evidence supporting their claims , and the FBI has not named any suspects for several of the threats mentioned . Anonymous has denied involvement in the more severe accusations . The church also released a DVD containing the YouTube video . The DVD called Anonymous a " dangerous " group and accused them of making threats against Scientology . Men claiming to be from the law firm Latham and Watkins delivered the DVD to family members of at least one person who protested .

YouTube user " AnonymousFacts " , which Radar Online described as an associate of Scientology , displayed the names and personal information of several supposed Anonymous members and accused the group of violent threats and terrorism . YouTube quickly took the video down and suspended the " AnonymousFacts " account .

The Church of Scientology sought an injunction and a restraining order to prevent Anonymous from protesting on March 15 , 2008 , citing threats allegedly made by Anonymous . Both the injunction and the restraining order were denied . On March 31 , 2008 , Radar Online reported that representatives of law firms delivered legal letters to suspected Anons , often at their homes . The Church filed complaints of trespassing and criminal harassment against Boston organizer Gregg Housh , who was charged with disturbing an assembly of worship , disturbing the peace , and harassment . The District Attorney 's office dropped the harassment charge , and Judge Thomas Horgan issued a continuance without finding for the remaining charges .

In a May 8 , 2008 appearance on CNN , Church of Scientology spokesman Thomas W. Davis said that Scientology was " dealing with ninety @-@ six death threats , bomb threats , acts of violence , vandalism " from the group Anonymous . CNN 's John Roberts responded , stating that the Federal Bureau of Investigation found nothing connecting Anonymous to the Church of Scientology 's accusations of violence : " You are leveling these accusations at this group , the F.B.I. , which is looking into it , says it has found nothing to connect this group Anonymous with what you 're talking about , or death threats against members of the church , the F.B.I. at this point says - it has no reason to believe that charges would be leveled against this group . "

= = Reaction = =

Andreas Heldal @-@ Lund , founder of the Scientology @-@ critical website and non @-@ profit organization Operation Clambake , released a statement criticizing the digital assault against Scientology . Heldal @-@ Lund commented , " People should be able to have easy access to both sides and make up their own opinions . Freedom of speech means we need to allow all to speak - including those we strongly disagree with . I am of the opinion that the Church of Scientology is a criminal organisation and a cult which is designed by its delusional founder to abuse people . I am still committed to fight for their right to speak their opinion . " He also stated that " Attacking Scientology like that will just make them play the religious persecution card ... They will use it to defend their own counter actions when they try to shatter criticism and crush critics without mercy . "

Mark Bunker , an Emmy Award @-@ winning journalist and Scientology critic who runs the website XenuTV.com , posted a video to YouTube and asked Anonymous to tone down their campaign against the Church of Scientology . According to NPR 's Morning Edition , Bunker has " become a revered voice to many members of Anonymous " , and they refer to him as " Wise Beard Man " . Bunker told Newsweek that he was pleased to see a large group of young individuals acting against Scientology , but stated he was also concerned for their safety : " I know the way Scientology works : they 're going to get these people in trouble ... I 'm very concerned about their safety , and I 'm concerned about the Scientologists ' safety , too . " Bunker stated that he has received 6 @,@ 000 emails from individuals who say they are part of Anonymous . Bunker attended the February 10 , 2008 protest against Scientology in Los Angeles .

Tory Christman , a critic of Scientology and former Scientologist from 1969 to 2000 , stated she disapproved of illegal tactics but felt encouraged by the new influx of critics of Scientology . Christman told Morning Edition : " It feels like we 've been out in this desert , fighting this group one @-@ on @-@ one by ourselves , and all of a sudden this huge army came up with not only tons of people , thousands of people , but better tools ... " Scientology critic Arnaldo Lerma told the St. Petersburg Times he was impressed by a video of a protest against Scientology which took place in Orlando , Florida : " I 've never seen anything like that before . This is incredible . I wouldn 't have believed it if I didn 't see it on a Web cam . "

In a February 4 , 2008 appearance on the G4 television program Attack of the Show ! , Mark Ebner , journalist and author of the book Hollywood , Interrupted , and Nick Douglas of Gawker.com commented on Project Chanology . Ebner stated that " Hacking their site is not really the best way to go about taking them ( the Church of Scientology ) down . Most critics you talk to want the Scientology site to be up there so that people who are interested can see the stupidity they have on the web and at the same time they can go - they are a few keystrokes from getting a thousand other opinions . " Nick Douglas explained that the group decided to shift their strategy away from the attacks to Scientology websites : " Anonymous even decided that they were going to stop that attack , that it was a bad idea . It 's the usual thing they used to do when they really hadn 't had a thought out plan , and here they 're realizing they actually have to figure out some real plan against a real enemy . "

University of Alberta professor Stephen A. Kent weighed in on the issue , and said " I think these disruptions probably are illegal . At the very least , they ’ re forms of harassment ... We now have three parties involved . Anonymous , Scientology and law enforcement . " Kent stated that " The hacker community has been angry at Scientology for ( their ) attempts to block free speech on the Internet . " Reaction to the denial of service attack on the Church of Scientology websites was mixed in message board forums for PC World . Some readers praised the actions of Anonymous , while others commented that the DDoS attacks bring more attention to Scientology . The Economist likened the DDoS attacks used by Project Chanology to " cyberwarfare techniques normally associated with extortionists , spies and terrorists " , and referred to Anonymous as " internet activists " .

Dan Schultz of PBS 's MediaShift Idea Lab commented that the movement " ... is a really fascinating case study of how current technologies and information dissemination via digital media can snowball into something that actually results in real world action " . In a follow @-@ up piece , Schultz discussed the tools used by digital media to achieve community impact , including lower barriers to entry and greater efficiencies through the use of information systems . Schultz wrote " For members of Anonymous I 'm betting most of these things are already unspoken understandings " , and pointed to their use of memes and cited the forums of the website enturbulation.org as an example of the group 's ability to collaborate effectively to accomplish goals .

In a May 8 , 2008 report on the recent actions of Anonymous against Scientology , CNN reporter Kareen Wynter commented : " Legal experts say the church may be facing its biggest challenge yet – trying to protect its image , in a loosely policed medium seen by millions of people . In a July 2008 interview with Entertainment Weekly , Alan Moore had this to say about the use of the Guy Fawkes motif , adopted from his comic V for Vendetta : " I was also quite heartened the other day when watching the news to see that there were demonstrations outside the Scientology headquarters over here , and that they suddenly flashed to a clip showing all these demonstrators wearing V for Vendetta [ Guy Fawkes ] masks . That pleased me . That gave me a warm little glow . "

= = = Audio / video = = =

NBC11 Staff ( January 24 , 2008 ) . " Group Wants To Destroy Scientology , Video : ' We Do Not Forgive ' - An anonymous group of hackers , fittingly known as " Anonymous " , has declared war on the Church of Scientology " . KNTV ( NBC Universal , Inc . ) . ( Video broadcast . )

" Know Your Meme : Project Chanology " , Know Your Meme Season 2008 , Episode 13 , " Rocketboom " , YouTube , December 31 , 2008 . ( Video podcast )

Seymour , Brian ( February 7 , 2008 ) . " The Anonymous war on Scientology : The Church of Scientology is already banned in several countries but now it is facing one of its biggest threats from a group called Anonymous . " . Today Tonight ( Yahoo ! News ) . ( Video broadcast )

Wynter , Kareen ( May 8 , 2008 ) . " Attacking Scientology : The Church of Scientology faces a new breed of Internet attacks . Kareen Wynter reports . " . CNN . ( Video broadcast )

Seabrook , Andrea ( January 27 , 2008 ) . " Hackers Target Scientology Web Sites " . All Things Considered ( NPR ) . ( Radio broadcast )

Masters , Kim ; Renée Montagne ( February 7 , 2008 ) . " ' Anonymous Wages Attack on Scientologists : The fight started when the Scientologists tried to get a video of Tom Cruise off the Internet . " . Morning Edition : Digital Culture ( National Public Radio ) . ( Radio broadcast )

Braiker , Brian ( February 11 , 2008 ) . " ' Anonymous ' Takes on Scientology : Online activists take their protest against the Church of Scientology to the streets . " . The Bryant Park Project ( National Public Radio ) . ( Radio broadcast )

Miller , Nancy ; Baker , Chris ( September 30 , 2009 ) . " Storyboard Podcast : The Assclown Offensive " . Wired News . ( Audio podcast )

= Transportation in Omaha =

Transportation in Omaha , Nebraska , includes most major modes , such as pedestrian , bicycle , automobile , bus , train and airplane . While early transportation consisted of ferries , stagecoaches , steamboats , street railroads , and railroads , the city 's transportation systems have evolved to include the Interstate Highway System , parklike boulevards and a variety of bicycle and pedestrian trails . The historic head of several important emigrant trails and the First Transcontinental Railroad , its center as a national transportation hub earned Omaha the nickname " Gate City of the West " as early as the 1860s .

During a tumultuous pioneer period characterized by its centrality in proximity to the Western United States , transportation in Omaha demanded the construction of massive warehouses where frontier settlers could stock up and communities west of Omaha got food and supplies to build themselves with . Riverboats and stagecoaches jammed the riverside city with a variety of newcomers , prospectors and shady characters . Early Omaha also landed the Union Pacific Railroad headquarters , leading to its important place in national railroad lore .

After quickly growing into a city , Omaha failed to pave its streets accordingly . A chaotic transportation system was highlighted by several miles of successful horsecar tracks ; however , the city only ever had four miles ( 6 km ) of cable car service . Several early suburbs were built on reliance of service from these lines , including Dundee , Benson and Kountze Place . In the early 1880s an extensive boulevard system was built to create a park @-@ like atmosphere for drivers throughout the city . The Trans @-@ Mississippi Exposition in 1889 led to the construction of many new transportation features , particularly the magnificent Burlington Station .

In the 1930s the city 's transportation system was marred by violent protests . Transit workers wanted to unionize , and with the main company 's management against any effort to change Omaha 's reputation as a non @-@ unionized city . After the introduction of buses in the early 1950s , streetcars were closed down , and in the last years of the decade the city began construction on its components in the Interstate Highway System .

Today Omaha 's transportation system is growing with the city , and trails for bicycles and pedestrians , as well as public transportation , highways and parkways , and other innovations are being developed . The city has a section of the Lincoln Highway listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and there are more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of Interstate and freeway lanes , more than any other area in the state of Nebraska .

= = Pioneer period = =

Omaha was not projected to become a great city or bigger than its neighbor across the Missouri River , Council Bluffs , Iowa . In 1856 a land speculator reported to his East Coast concerns that ,

" C. Bluffs is steadily growing down towards the river and someday it will be one great city on both sides the river with Rail Road & foot & Carriage Bridges connecting the two – and this is now the hope and talk of the Bluffers . " - J. Barker , 1856 .

In August 1859 Abraham Lincoln visited land he had invested in Council Bluffs , and while there did not consider it worth the time to cross the river to the village of Omaha .

= = = Water traffic = = =

In 1804 , fifty years before the city of Omaha was founded , the Lewis and Clark Expedition first arrived via the Missouri River . The 1806 Fort Lisa and 1820 Cabanne 's Trading Post were important fur trading outposts located in proximity to the river , along with earlier Fontenelle 's Post in Bellevue . The Engineer Cantonment was built by Captain Stephen Watts Kearny 's Yellowstone Expedition in 1819 . The Expedition 's craft , the Western Engineer , was the first steamboat to successfully venture up the Missouri River to the Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs area .

The Missouri was the reason Omaha was founded , and continued to be important to the city 's growth for many years . In 1853 William D. Brown had the first vision for the city , leading him to found the Lone Tree Ferry crossing the Missouri River from Council Bluffs , Iowa . Later the Council Bluffs and Nebraska Ferry Company hired Alfred D. Jones to plat Omaha City , which was among the first settlements in the Nebraska Territory . Along with the Lone Tree Ferry Landing in Downtown Omaha , other ferries were established in the Omaha area at Florence , Saratoga and Bellevue . Large steamboats would carry provisions up the Missouri from St. Louis , stocking the warehouses in Jobbers Canyon and loading the trains of the Union Pacific and at the Omaha Quartermaster Depot , which in turn supplied the U.S. Army 's Department of the Platte .

The Banner State was the first steamboat to land materials for building the city in early 1854 , before the city was formally founded . Until 1879 Captain Joseph La Barge was the principal figure among the Missouri steamboat captains in the early years of the city . According to J. Sterling Morton , the golden era for steamboating on the Missouri was from 1855 to 1860 , just before the advent of the railroads . In 1857 , 174 steamboats carrying 13 @,@ 000 tons of freight tied up at Omaha wharves . When Omaha became the outfitting center for Colorado gold seekers headed for Pikes Peak in 1859 , 268 steamboats arrived at Omaha between March and November .

With railroads becoming the dominant form of long @-@ range shipping and passenger travel in the early 1870s , riverboats like those in Omaha became obsolete . However , as late at 1949 the steamship Avalon was letting passengers in Omaha , before becoming one of the famous St. Louis steamboats in the 1960s .

= = = Railroads = = =

In 1863 , ground was broke near Miller 's Landing on the Missouri River for the First Transcontinental Railroad . Along with local financier Edward Creighton , George Francis Train was the promoter who was mostly responsible for the city landing the railroad . He was made rich from its convenient placement near land that he owned ( near Deer Park . The Union Pacific Railroad has been headquartered in Omaha since its inception in 1867 . In 1872 , Union Pacific opened the first [ railroad ] bridge across the Missouri to Omaha .

= = = Trails = = =

In the 1860s and 1870s , the city became a major outfitting center for the major trails that went across Nebraska , including the Oregon , California and Mormon Trails . Jobbers Canyon was built in Downtown Omaha for the purpose of outfitting these migrants . Stagecoach lines had arrived by 1858 , including the Local Stage Coach Company in 1857 , and the Western Stage Company which began its easterly and westerly routes in Omaha . The Pony Express and Wells Fargo lines maintained offices in the city .

= = = Streets = = =

Omaha had terrible streets through the late 1880s , which caused many residents to believe the city was not progressing appropriately . This lack of responsiveness by the city government was caused by property owners throughout the city who did not want to pay for improvements . On rainy days stagecoaches would sink up to their hubcaps , and residents wore knee @-@ high boots to wade through the mud , and at times rivers ran through the streets .

= = = Public transportation = = =

In 1867 Ezra Millard , Andrew J. Hanscom , and Augustus Kountze formed the Omaha Horse Railway Company to provide horsecar service in the city . By the late 1870s the line had five miles ( 8 km ) of track , 10 cars , 70 horses , 20 employees and 495 @,@ 000 passengers annually . The Omaha Cable Tramway Company was the city 's only cable car , and started in 1884 and ended in 1895 after consolidating with the Horse Railway as the Omaha Street Railway Company . In 1896 the new company disbanded as competitors moved in . An electric car was built by Eurastus Benson between Omaha and Benson specifically to promote that suburbs development during this time .

= = 1880s - 1950 = =

= = = Streets = = =

In 1880 only a quarter mile of Omaha 's estimated 118 miles ( 190 km ) of streets were paved . In 1883 Andrew Rosewater , brother of newspaper owner Edward Rosewater , became city engineer and began an ambitious project to modernize city streets . By 1886 the city had 44 miles ( 71 km ) of paved streets , including asphaltum , Colorado sandstone , Sioux Falls granite and wooden blocks .

In 1889 Horace W.S. Cleveland proposed that the city of Omaha develop a series of " broad ornamental avenues , known as boulevards or parkways " designed " with a tasteful arrangement of trees and shrubbery at the sides and in the center " , similar to the comprehensive plans of European cities in the mid @-@ 19th century . His plan was accepted by the city 's Parks Commission , resulting in the construction of Omaha 's Prettiest Mile Boulevard in 1892 , and dozens of other boulevards in the through to the present . Today , Fontenelle and Lincoln boulevards are among the many remnants of the early plan ; Sorenson Parkway is a modern version of the historical plan . Saddle Creek Boulevard , currently known as Saddle Creek Road , which was originally the westernmost boulevard in the system .

= = = Bridges = = =

While the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge was the first railroad bridge across the river , the 1 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 430 m ) Douglas Street Bridge opened in 1888 as the first road bridge . The East Omaha Bridge was originally opened in 1893 , and rebuilt a decade later in 1903 . The Mormon Bridge was first attempted to be built across the river in 1932 , and failed ; it was finally successfully constructed in 1952 . The South Omaha Bridge opened in 1936 . The Knights of Ak @-@ Sar @-@ Ben operated the Douglas Street Bridge as a toll bridge from 1938 to 1947 . The bridge was removed in 1968 . Traffic was carried by a new girder bridge built in 1966 for I @-@ 480 . The Saddle Creek Underpass , over which is the Dodge Street Overpass , was completed in 1934 by the Works Progress Administration . Over 1 @,@ 175 cubic yards ( 898 m3 ) of dirt were excavated to lower Saddle Creek Road sufficiently to pass under the overpass , which is still in use today . Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992 , it is part of the Bridges in Nebraska Multiple Property Submission as well .

= = = Highways = = =

In 1889 Otto Baysdorfer built Omaha 's first auto , an electric car . The " Ottomobile " was the first of nearly a dozen car manufacturers eventually started in Omaha . The Ottomobile weighed 265 pounds , had two cylinders , and could achieve a speed of 15 miles per hour . An " Auto Row " developed along Farnam Street and featured dealers , garages , and parts stores .

The original Lincoln Highway in Omaha was designated through Omaha in 1913 . Crossing the Missouri River into Omaha on the old Douglas Street Bridge , it traveled west on Dodge Street , then meandered across the state following section lines . Some of these sections were built exclusively to accommodate the highway . Important buildings on the Lincoln Highway in Omaha included the Hupmobile Building , the Nash Building at 902 @-@ 912 Farnam and 901 @-@ 911 Douglas streets , and the Blackstone Hotel at Farnum Street and 36th Street . Additionally , the Rose Blumkin Performance Arts Center at 20th and Farnum Street and the Farnum Street Automobile Row , from 30th to 40th Streets were both important landmarks .

In 1930 49 @,@ 128 autos were registered in Omaha ; ten years later 65 @,@ 489 were registered to drive on local streets .

After trucks became popular in the 1910s , the Omaha Stockyards grew exponentially . Cattle , hogs and sheep were shipped cheaper by truck than by trains . In 1919 27 % of livestock at the Stockyards was shipped by truck ; by 1940 's it rose to over 75 % . In 1955 the Stockyards became the biggest livestock distribution center in the United States , and almost all of the cattle was shipped by truck .

= = = Airport = = =

The aforementioned Baysdorfer provided Omaha with another invention by successfully flying an airship in the city in 1889 . In 1929 a bond was passed that would construct the Omaha Municipal Airport in East Omaha . This was thought to embody the city 's hope for the future ; however , air travel did not become popular in Omaha until the 1960s . The land was swampy and had to be filled in with silt taken from the bottom of Carter Lake . Northwest Airlines started service between Minneapolis and Omaha in 1930 .

In the late 1940s Eppley Airfield was completed . In 1959 the airport was named for Eugene C. Eppley , the Omaha Eppley Hotel magnate . Eppley 's estate donated $ 1 million to be used to convert the Omaha Municipal Airport into a jet port .

= = = Public transportation = = =

The Omaha and Council Bluffs Railway and Bridge Company was founded in 1886 in order to span the Missouri River . In the late 1880s the city had five franchise companies providing transit services within city limits . They included the Omaha and Southwestern Street Railway Company , which provided services to Kountze Place , Dundee , Bemis Park and the Gold Coast neighborhoods . Short lines ran with limited purposes : one went only to a baseball field at the end of its line , while another ran to and from a park .

By 1901 local businessman Gurdon W. Wattles consolidated several of the older horsecar and cable car companies to create the Omaha and Council Bluffs Streetcar Company , which later became the Omaha Traction Company . After receiving a 30 @-@ year franchise from the city of Omaha , the company established a mass transit system that covered the entire city , including commuter trains and interurbans .

= = = = Traction Company strike = = = =

Wattles was vehemently opposed to unionization , and in 1909 fought strikes in favor of unionization with hired policemen and rampant violence . By 1934 the Amalgamated Association of Street and Electric Railway Employees was organized in Omaha .

However , by April 1935 the fragile truce between pro @-@ open shop management and pro @-@ union forces broke . A long , violent strike ensued . Strikebreakers were hired , and within four days the company rolled out heavily fortified streetcars , complete with windows covered by heavy wire and armed guards on board . While few cars attracted passengers , the cars encountered little resistance . The company resisted calls for arbitration from the Omaha City Council , and continued employing strikebreakers . In early May violence broke out , with rifle attacks , violent beatings and bombings across the city . In June riots broke out throughout the city with mobs burning streetcars , looting and two deaths . The city government lost control of the violence and called in the National Guard , which sent 1 @,@ 800 troops while Governor Robert Cochran declared martial law and ordered the streetcars to stop running . After the governor intervened and Wattles allowed arbitration , a number of agreements were made . However , no changes occurred , and strikebreakers stayed on the job . The violence ended , court cases ensued , and the situation slowly faded away . The Omaha Traction Company never unionized .

= = = Omaha Belt Line = = =

The Omaha Belt Line was formed in 1883 by the Union Pacific ; some shady dealings by Jay Gould brought the Belt Line into the control of the Missouri Pacific Railroad by 1885 , when it was constructed with Union Pacific materials under the control of the MoPac . Stations along with Line included the Florence Depot , Webster Street Station and the Ralston Station . Operated by that company until the early 1960s , today the Line is largely abandoned , with a section redeveloped into the recreational MoPac Trail .

= = 1950 @-@ present = =

= = = Streets = = =

Starting in 1950 the city has continuously developed and redeveloped its major streets , particularly relying on them for east @-@ west traffic . Major east @-@ west thoroughfares in Omaha include Fort , Ames , Maple , Blondo , Dodge , Pacific , Center , L , Q and Harrison streets . Major north @-@ south thoroughfares in Omaha include North and South 24th streets , 30th street , Saddle Creek Road , and 72nd , 84th , 90th , and 120th streets . South 10th Street is important in South Omaha .

= = = Highways = = =

The first long segment of Interstate 80 in Nebraska to be opened was a fifty @-@ mile section between Dodge Street in Omaha and the West Lincoln interchange in 1961 .

Construction of the freeway in North Omaha in the 1970s faced many hurdles . Built immediately after the construction of I @-@ 480 , this 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) section was originally supposed to be designated as Interstate 580 . However , the city refused to invest the additional money the federal government required in order to gain the designation . Coupled with social unrest in the 1970s , the highway is blamed for causing a 30 percent housing loss and major increase in crime . The freeway became the route of U.S. Highway 75 and is known locally as the North Freeway .

Today , Omaha is well connected to the Interstate Highway System . The city has eleven highway exits along Interstate 80 . From that Interstate drivers can connect to Nebraska Highway 50 , US 275 / NE 92 , I @-@ 680 and I @-@ 480 / US 75 . Continuing north , I @-@ 680 connects with I @-@ 29 near Crescent , Iowa and reconnects with I @-@ 80 near Neola , Iowa ; I @-@ 480 cuts through Downtown Omaha to connect with I @-@ 29 in Council Bluffs , Iowa . The North Freeway also veers from I @-@ 480 , and in 2005 , the Nebraska Department of Roads began a project to bring the I @-@ 480 / US 75 interchange up to Interstate standards . Construction is expected to be complete in 2009 , and it is unknown if the North Freeway will receive an Interstate designation upon completion of the project .

There are a number of important arterial roads throughout Omaha . U.S. Route 75 comes south through Omaha from Fort Calhoun along North 30 Street , North Freeway , I @-@ 480 and Kennedy Freeway , exiting through Bellevue . U.S. Route 6 crosses into the city from Council Bluffs on I @-@ 480 , also called the Gerald R. Ford Freeway in honor of the Omaha native son . It then follows Dodge Street , until it intersects South 204th Street , when it runs south towards Gretna . Nebraska Highway 64 assumes the route of the former Military Road northwest out of Omaha , following Maple Road and West Maple Road to converge with US 275 at Waterloo . US 275 becomes Nebraska Highway 92 after crossing the South Omaha Veterans Memorial Bridge , following Missouri Avenue , which then becomes " L " Street . At South 132nd Street , at which point it veers northeast to follow the old Mormon Trail along Industrial Road when it joins West Center Road , crossing the Platte River and continuing westward .

In 2005 a portion of the Lincoln Highway in Omaha was listed on the National Register of Historic Places .

= = = = Traffic monitoring = = = =

Beginning in fall 2007 there will be more than 30 traffic cameras operating on Omaha area freeways , including one at I @-@ 80 near Gretna and another on West Dodge near 120th Street . Operated by the Nebraska Department of Roads , the sensors and cameras are not used to catch speeders or for other traffic enforcement . The state also operates an extensive traffic operations center that utilizes the cameras to monitor Omaha traffic patterns . Similar to traffic monitoring centers in Lincoln and North Platte , the one in Omaha is the biggest and has the greatest capability to provide traffic information .

= = = Public transportation = = =

The Omaha Traction Company , which operated as the Street Railway Company , changed its name to the Omaha Transit Company when streetcar service ended in the city in 1952 . After World War II Omahans preferred their automobiles and new highways . When the Urban Mass Transit Act of 1964 was passed , Omaha 's private transit companies were not able to apply for federal subsidies available to public transit operators . The Omaha Transit Company ceased operations on June 30 , 1972 , when the City of Omaha assumed authority for public transportation in the city . City Transit Lines , another private company in Omaha , went out of business on that day as well . The Metro Area Transit Authority was created by the Nebraska Legislature , consisting of a five @-@ member board appointed by the mayor and confirmed by Omaha 's City Council and the Douglas County Commissioners . It acquired the assets of the Omaha Transit Company and selected assets of the City Transit Lines of Council Bluffs , along with more than $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in federal funding . The Authority operates today as Metro Area Transit , or MAT .

Today the Authority supervises the level of service , miles and hours of operation within Omaha , and maintains individual service contracts with local authorities outside Omaha . Currently , MAT has three contracts , including the cities of Council Bluffs , Bellevue and the Tri @-@ Communities of Ralston , LaVista and Papillion .

MAT recently completed three new transit centers , which function much like airport hubs . Located at Benson Park , Westroads Mall , and Metro Community College in South Omaha , they are designed to bolster the city 's public busing needs . These join existing centers in Midtown and North Omaha .

= = = = Light rail = = = =

In recent years the city of Omaha has grown exponentially , and with a renewed focus on public transit , there have been plans for new streetcars and light rail in the city , including a movement initiated by former mayor Hal Daub , which in a 2003 City Council action , failed to reach approval by only one vote . The currently proposed streetcars would cost $ 55 million and run in a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) loop through Downtown Omaha and NoDo . It would cost about $ 2 million per year to operate and would serve almost 7 @,@ 000 passengers in its first year . One route would run the cars from Creighton University near 20th and Webster streets , proceeding east to 10th Street , passing by the Qwest Center and moving south to Jackson Street in the Old Market . After that it would then move west to 16th Street and then north to Farnam before returning to 10th Street .

= = = Air = = =

Today Eppley Airfield sits on 2 @,@ 650 acres ( 10 @.@ 7 km2 ) and handles approximately 400 flights a week . There are two concourses that hold 20 gates . The airport handled more than 4 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2007 , and as of September 2008 , Southwest Airlines is the largest carrier handling approximately 24 percent of passengers . United is the second @-@ largest carrier , handling approximately 19 percent of passengers . Currently all regularly scheduled flights from Eppley Airfield terminate within the United States .

Airlines serving Omaha include American , Delta , Frontier , Southwest , United and US Airways .

= = = Trails = = =

Omaha was completely devoid of trails leading up to early 1989 . That year the city began developing trails , and since then the city of Omaha has developed approximately 67 miles ( 108 km ) of paved recreational trails , and another 35 miles ( 56 km ) of trails are scheduled for completion within the next eight years .

Paved and unpaved trails and paths are used for recreational and commuter purposes throughout the city . Popular among bicyclists , runners , hikers and recreational walkers , these trails are included in comprehensive plans for the city of Omaha , the Omaha metro area , Douglas County , and long @-@ distance coordinated plans between the municipalities of southeast Nebraska .

The Missouri River Pedestrian Bridge will connect Miller 's Landing to Council Bluffs in 2009 . A riverfront trail will run the length of the river from the South Omaha Bridge to N.P. Dodge Park .

= = = Water traffic = = =

An anomaly in the city 's transportation is the River City Star , a passenger excursion paddleboat that sails between Omaha and Council Bluffs . The boat is docked at Miller 's Landing near the Qwest Center , near mile marker 617 on the Missouri River .

Marinas for public usage are operated by the Omaha Parks and Recreation Department . Dodge Park , located in North Omaha , has 326 slips , while the new Riverfront Marina in Downtown Omaha has 31 . Levi Carter Park , which has a long history as a water haven , offers non @-@ restricted boating for jet skis , recreational boating and water skiing . No wake boating allowed available at Lake Cunningham , Standing Bear Lake or Zorinsky Lake ; however , these lakes offer opportunities for sailing , fishing and pleasure boating . Cunningham Lake offers a small marina where rental boats are available .

The Port of Omaha was located downtown where Miller 's Landing is now . In addition to handling outbound barge shipments of grain , it also handled inbound shipments of steel and asphalt .

The Omaha District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers operates from the city .

= = Image gallery = =

= Clocks ( song ) =

" Clocks " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was written and composed , as a collaboration between all the members of the band , for their second album , A Rush of Blood to the Head . Built around a piano riff , the song features cryptic lyrics of contrast and urgency themes . Several remixes of the track exist and its riff has been widely sampled .

" Clocks " debuted to critical and commercial success , with critics mainly commenting on the song 's piano melody . It was released in the United Kingdom as the third single from A Rush of Blood to the Head , where it reached number nine in the UK Singles Chart . It was released in the United States as the album 's second single , it reached number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 9 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart . It won the Grammy Award for Record of the Year .

= = Background and writing = =

" Clocks " was written and composed during the late stages of production of Coldplay 's second album , A Rush of Blood to the Head . A riff popped into Chris Martin 's mind late one night in Liverpool when he came in to the studio , where he then developed it on piano . According to Martin , " Clocks " was inspired by the English rock band Muse . Martin presented the riff to the band 's guitarist , Jonny Buckland , who then added a layer of guitar chords to the basic track : " He picked up his guitar [ a sure sign that he likes a song ] and played these brilliant chords ... It was like a chemical reaction process . " ( The syncopated piano arpeggio that gives the song its signature sound also bears a similarity to a syncopated arpeggio that is repeated several times in Alex De Grassi 's 1981 instrumental " Clockwork . " )

Before writing and composing " Clocks , " the band had already written 10 songs for the album . But as they thought it was too late for the song 's inclusion in the album , since A Rush Of Blood To The Head was nearing completion , they recorded a demo and saved it with other unfinished tracks , labeling it " Songs for # 3 ; " the band projected these tracks for what would be their third album .

By June 2002 , Coldplay were ready to present the album to their record label Parlophone . However , Martin felt it was " rubbish ; " they were so far from being completely satisfied with the album that both the band and Parlophone delayed the release . After a headlining tour , Coldplay went on working " Songs for # 3 . " Phil Harvey , a friend of Martin and the band 's manager , heard it and egged him on to rework " Clocks " immediately . With lyrics that speak of urgency , Harvey pointed out that its meaning would contradict Martin 's idea of stashing the track . Thus persuaded by Harvey , Martin then further developed " Clocks , " while other band members supplemented their ideas based on the main piano track , adding bass and drums . Coldplay recorded the song very quickly , since they were running after the postponed schedule of A Rush of Blood to the Head , which was released two months later .

= = Composition = =

" Clocks " has a repeating piano melody , and features a minimalist soundscape of drums and bass guitar . Martin applied an ostinato , with emphasis that imitates a three against two polyrhythm , as well as a descending scale on the piano chord progression , which switches from major to minor chords . The music of " Clocks " is also provided using synthesizers and a sparse string arrangement .

The themes of the lyrics include contrast , contradictions and urgency . According to Jon Wiederhon of MTV News , " Martin seems to address the helplessness of being in a dysfunctional relationship he doesn 't necessarily want to escape . " The lyrics are cryptic ; the ending lines of the second verse emphasize contradicting emotion : " Come out upon my seas / Cursed missed opportunities / Am I a part of the cure / Or am I part of the disease ? " The song 's title also " metaphorically alludes " to its lyrics , " pushing one to wonder about the world 's obsession with time while connecting it to the theory : make the best of it when we ’ re here , present and alive . "

The song is in the key of E flat Mixolydian , with a main chord progression of E ♭ - B ♭ m - Fm .

= = Personnel = =

Chris Martin – lead vocals , piano , synthesizer

Jonny Buckland – electric guitar

Guy Berryman – bass guitar

Will Champion – drums , backing vocals

= = Release and music video = =

Coldplay released " Clocks " in Europe on 24 March 2003 as the album 's third single . The single was issued with two B @-@ sides : " Animals , " which was one of the band 's favourite songs performed on tour but was not included in the album , and " Crests of Waves . " The single 's cover , created by Sølve Sundsbø as with the album 's and its other singles , is a portrayal of Chris Martin . Across the United States , while preparing " The Scientist " as the album 's second release , Coldplay 's US label felt the song failed to " provide enough of a blood rush for American listeners ; " instead , they released " Clocks " as the second single in the US .

A music video was filmed in support of the song . It was directed by British film maker Dominic Leung , and shot at Docklands ' ExCeL Building in London . It features the band performing the song , with a laser show , in front of a staged audience , mostly local college students . Stage effects and blue @-@ red light transitions give the video a surreal feel , while a stoic crowd make up the audience .

= = Reception = =

The song received acclaim from music critics . Rob Sheffield , in his review of the album for Rolling Stone magazine , said : that " [ guitarist ] Buckland shines in excellent psychedelic rockers such as ... ' Clocks . ' " David Cheal of The Daily Telegraph said that " Clocks " features a " hypnotic piano riff , a pounding , almost frantic rhythm , and a contagious tune , all building to a gorgeously serene climax with Martin 's floaty voice singing . " Scott Floman , music critic for Goldmine magazine , described the song as " a stunningly pretty piano rocker , absolutely perfect and is simply one of the finest songs of the decade . "

" Clocks " won the Record of the Year at the 2004 Grammy Awards . It was nominated for Best Single at the 2003 Q Awards . " Clocks " was ranked at number 68 on Pitchfork 's Top 100 Singles of 2000 @-@ 04 . It was ranked at number 155 on Pitchfork Media 's 500 Greatest Songs of the 2000s list . In October 2011 , NME placed it at number 148 on its list " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " . In February 2013 the song was voted by listeners of BBC Radio 6 Music as the greatest song released during the 10 years the station had been broadcasting .

The single was successful in radio throughout 2003 and appeared on several singles charts worldwide . In the United Kingdom , the song peaked at number nine and in the United States rose to number 29 . It also reached number seven in Canada and number 28 in Australia .

= = = The piano riff and its parallels = = =

" Clocks " has been regarded as one of the finest achievements of Coldplay ; the song 's piano progression remains the band 's signature creation . According to The New York Times , the opening piano arpeggios of " Clocks " have been widely sampled . Also , many of the songs in X & Y feature influences from " Clocks . " Brian Cohen of Billboard magazine noted that " Clocks " served as a " launching pad " for songs featured in X & Y , " several of which echo that track either in structure or feel . " " Speed of Sound , " the first single from Coldplay 's third album , X & Y , is similar to " Clocks , " in that the two songs have the same descending chord progression . According to The New York Times , American singer Jordin Sparks 's 2008 single " No Air " " breathes life into the overfamiliar piano line " from " Clocks . " The song " Should I Go " by American singer Brandy Norwood , from her album Afrodisiac , samples the piano riff of " Clocks , " as does Mexican singer Alejandro Fernández 's 2007 single " Te Voy A Perder . " In 2009 , French DJ David Guetta , featuring Kelly Rowland , released the song " When Love Takes Over , " which has a piano introduction like " Clocks . " A riff similar to " Clocks " was also used for the 2009 song " Shining Down " by Chicagoan hip hop artist Lupe Fiasco and featuring Matthew Santos . An analogous riff can also be heard in the DJ Cahill Remix of the Agnes song I Need You Now . Rolling Stone ranked it # 490 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2010 .

= = Usage in media = =

Throughout 2003 , " Clocks " was featured in various commercials , movies and television programs : from the BBC using a sample to advertise Freeview TV , WWE promos featuring the return of American professional wrestler Kurt Angle , HBO , the 2002 Irish drama film In America , and an episode of the American medical drama television series ER . The song was played in its entirety during the ending credits for the 2003 film Confidence and was also featured on the TV shows The Sopranos , Third Watch , Hindsight , and Family Guy . In late 2003 , the song was used in a trailer for the movie Peter Pan . This song was also used in the 2006 Disney film , The Wild and the 2014 Blue Skies film , Rio 2 .

= = Reworked version and remixes = =

A number of versions and remixes of " Clocks " exist .

Norwegian duo Röyksopp made a remixed version of the song , pressed on 1000 , limited @-@ edition 12 " vinyl records , 100 of which were made available through the band 's official website . The version placed fifth in the Triple J Hottest 100 , 2003 ( the original version of the song placed 69th the previous year ) .

In 2004 , R & B singer Brandy , together with producer Timbaland , sampled " Clocks " for her song " Should I Go " on her fourth studio album Afrodisiac .

A remixed cover of the song is included on the soundtrack of the 2007 video game Dance Dance Revolution : Hottest Party for the Wii console .

The song , albeit with altered lyrics , appears in the Two and a Half Men episode " Twanging Your Magic Clanger . "

Live versions appeared on Coldplay 's live albums Live 2003 , LeftRightLeftRightLeft ( 2009 ) , and Live 2012 .

A version of the song in the style of Buena Vista Social Club appears on the 2006 Rhythms del Mundo album .

A further version based on the 2006 Rhythms Del Mundo version was released as part of the 2010 album Revival . It features " Lele " of Los Van Van .

= = Track listings = =

Official remixes

" Clocks " ( Royksopp Trembling Heart Mix )

" Clocks " ( Fedde le Grand Remix )

" Clocks " ( Deep Dish Mix )

" Clocks " ( Gabriel & Dresden ' I Gotta Thank You ' Mix )

" Clocks " ( Tom Middleton 's Cosmos Mix )

" Clocks " ( Judge Jules Remix )

" Clocks " ( David X Mix )

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Khoo Kheng @-@ Hor =

Khoo Kheng @-@ Hor ( Chinese : 邱庆河 ; pinyin : Qiū Qìnghé ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Khu Khìng @-@ hô ; born 2 March 1956 ) is a Malaysian author and speaker on contemporary application of the 500 BC Chinese military treatise , The Art of War , by renowned military strategist Sun Tzu . In the 1990s , Khoo was the first Sun Tzu student in South @-@ east Asia to link and teach the general 's principles in relation to business and management . To date , Khoo has written over 26 business and management books , most of which are based on Sun Tzu 's Art of War as he made it his life 's mission to " suntzunize " as many people as possible . In 1997 , although a Malaysian citizen , he was appointed as honorary Assistant Superintendent of Police by the Singapore Police Force in recognition for his contribution as consultant @-@ trainer to the police force of Singapore . His first novel , Taikor , was nominated by the National Library of Malaysia for the 2006 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award . Since 1999 , Khoo has gone into retirement and occasionally travels in Malaysia and Singapore to share the wisdom of Sun Tzu 's strategies for success and happiness upon requests from his readers and supporters .

= = Life = =

= = = Early years = = =

Khoo was born in 1956 in the Penang state of Malaysia . He received his formal education at St. Xavier 's Institution before leaving for Singapore in 1974 , to continue his pre @-@ university education at St. Joseph 's Institution . After completing his studies in 1978 , he worked as a journalist with The Star in Kuala Lumpur until 1980 when he joined Malaysia 's largest sugar refinery , Malayan Sugar Manufacturing Company Berhad , as a personnel manager .

To help him in tackle the numerous challenging tasks he faced in Malayan Sugar then , his future wife , Judy Hwang , gave him some notes of her translation of Sun Tzu 's Art of War from Chinese to English , as he is not conversant in Chinese . Khoo immediately took keen interest in the military treatise and began to learn and apply Sun Tzu 's teachings into his work . Throughout his professional career , Sun Tzu 's Art of War was his indispensable guide . Khoo married Judy , a former Taiwanese singer in early 1982 . In 1983 , he moved to Kuala Lumpur as sales and marketing manager . When Asian sugar baron Robert Kuok was invited to turn around the ailing Multi @-@ Purpose group of companies in 1987 , Khoo joined them as administration manager at Magnum Corporation . In 1989 , he left Magnum to head the personnel and administration department of Metroplex Holdings Berhad , where he later became the general manager within just four months , managing The Mall shopping complex . Khoo initiated a series of management and sales policies that enabled The Mall to secure the ' Best Shopping Mall ' award for two years in a row . In the same year , he began writing his first best @-@ seller hit ; War at Work – Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War in Today 's Business World , which was a collection of memoranda based on Sun Tzu 's Art of War he wrote to his managers at The Mall .

From the early 1980s , Khoo tried to pursue a Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) degree from various universities , but all of them rejected his application as he did not possess a first degree for admission . Khoo only had two professional diplomas – a Diploma in Administrative Management and a Certified Diploma in Accounting and Finance from ACCA . He finally received an unconditional offer from the University of Stirling after he impressed the visiting Director of the MBA programme showing how he managed the award @-@ winning shopping mall . In 1989 , accompanied by his wife , he left Malaysia to pursue his MBA studies in Scotland and graduated with Distinction in 1991 . Instead of returning to Malaysia , he went to Singapore again to seek better opportunities there and was offered the job as Director of Operations for Kentucky Fried Chicken ( KFC ) .

= = = Retrenchment = = =

In early 1994 , Khoo was retrenched from KFC as a result of an ownership change , despite contributing to increased sales and profitability . He said :

Months before leaving my office , I had already looked around for another job , but unfortunately , top jobs are hard to come by . I felt like a ronin then . It occurred to me then that if no daimyo wanted to employ me , then I would be my own little warlord and employ myself .

From his home near Outram Park , Khoo set up Stirling Training & Management Consultants Pte Ltd , a training and consultancy firm , which assisted clients in planning and implementing strategies , and motivating their executives through his proprietary " Management : The Sun Tzu Way " programmes . He runs the company with his wife , who handles all the accounting and administration . Half of his time is spent elsewhere , conducting management seminars for businessmen and employees of multinational corporations . Khoo also lectured part @-@ time on Strategic Management for Singapore Institute of Management 's external degree programmes . In early 1999 , he co @-@ authored with Nigel Munro @-@ Smith , a lecturer at RMIT University in Australia , to produce a book titled Reader Friendly Strategic Management that brings out the essentials of strategic management for beginners .

= = = Early retirement = = =

In 1999 , at the age of 43 , Khoo decided to ' hang up his sword ' ( as described in his own words ) to live a quiet and leisurely life in Cameron Highlands of Malaysia , with his wife and their " four @-@ legged son , " Bandit , a Yorkshire Terrier to this very day . When asked on his decision to live in the mountains , Khoo said :

Life is more than work , work , work or just making money . I don 't want to be like the preacher in the Book of Ecclesiastes who lamented that he looked on all labours that he had laboured to do , and he beheld only vanity and a striving after wind . We may not be very wealthy but we have made enough to live by since we do not subscribe to a lavish lifestyle . So why not have time to do the things we like to do for a change ?

The seclusion of his mountain sanctuary offers him a good opportunity to pursue and enjoy his lifelong passion in writing his books wholeheartedly at a leisurely pace . Upon requests from his readers and supporters , Khoo still travels once a month for a few days to " suntzunize " – a term he coined for sharing the wisdom of Sun Tzu 's strategies for success and happiness for his seminar and conference audiences . Khoo has " suntzunized " thousands of " pupils " of his clients , among whom were well @-@ known corporations like AIA , Cisco Systems , Citibank , Hewlett @-@ Packard , Intel , Johnson & Johnson , Port of Singapore Authority , among many others , and also government bodies such as the Prime Minister 's Office of Singapore , Brunei and Malaysia . To keep in touch with his readers , Khoo writes monthly newsletters touching on contemporary issues using Sun Tzu 's perspective . While not travelling in the region to teach , he enjoys writing fiction and has had three fiction books published to date – Taikor , Mamasan and Nanyang .

= = = Commendation = = =

As a consultant @-@ trainer to the Singapore Police Force since 1995 , Khoo has taught many police officers in Singapore how to use Sun Tzu 's principles of " Generalship " to be effective leaders and team builders . In 1997 , he was sent for intensive training and thereafter appointed as honorary Assistant Superintendent of Police ( ASP ) in recognition for his contribution to the police force of Singapore . On 1 July 2009 , Khoo was promoted to the hononary rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police for his long years of service to the police force . Khoo was listed as one of the top 50 great minds and thinkers by Great Minds , an American think @-@ tank , for being " one of the outstanding figures in their own fields of endeavours , who have taught and enlightened the minds of other fellow human beings all over the world . "

= = His works = =

= = = Sun Tzu series = = =

Sun Tzu ( pinyin : Sun Zi ; c . 544 BC — 496 BC ) was a native of the Qi state ( now Huimin county in Shandong ) during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history , that was characterised by warring factions and a fragmented state . He came to the attention of King He Lu of Wu , who was impressed by his 13 @-@ chapter military treatise , The Art of War . In 512 BC , He Lu made Sun Tzu his Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Wu army . For almost 20 years , the armies of Wu were victorious over their hereditary enemies , the kingdoms of Chu and Yue . In 496 BC , after He Lu died from his wounds in battle , his son , Fu Chai succeeded him . After numerous victories in battles , Fu Chai became arrogant and began to indulge in merrymaking . In time , the king started to disregard Sun Tzu 's counsel and began to distance himself from Sun Tzu . Sensing this , Sun Tzu wisely gave up his position and left Wu for Qi in retirement . Fu Chai and his generals did not follow Sun Tzu 's precepts and his kingdom was subsequently conquered by Chu in 473 BC . Out of shame , Fu Chai committed suicide after he had fled with the remnants of his defeated army .

As a contemporary teacher of Sun Tzu 's Art of War , Khoo has written over 26 books on business and management based on its principles such as :

Crime Prevention : The Sun Tzu Way ( 2006 )

Win Without Fighting ( 2006 )

Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War ( 2002 ) – A six handguides collection

Sun Tzu : The Keeper of CEO 's Conscience ( 1997 )

Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War in Corporate Politics ( 1995 )

Sun Tzu and Management ( 1992 )

War at Work : Applying Sun Tzu 's Art of War in Today Business World ( 1990 )

Due to his ability to translate what is a complicated treatise into an easily readable and understandable prose for a beginner , Khoo 's Sun Tzu series were well received and continue to grow in scope and depth in later years . He additionally manages to add realism by injecting real @-@ life situations culled from his 15 years in management , that provoke much thought and encourage readers to assess their own performance , and take positive measures to become more effective in their workplace and interpersonal relationships .

= = = Novels = = =

His first novel , Taikor , was released in late 2004 . It is a historical saga of Malaya which traces the years 1922 to 1982 , telling the story of Ya Loong , from his family 's migration from South Thailand to Penang after his father 's death . It was among the 132 entries nominated for the 2006 International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award .

His second novel , Mamasan , is about life of those people working in the glitzy world of nightclubbing and their customers who patronise nightclubs . Along with the main tale , Khoo spins other tales covering love , juvenile delinquency , deceit versus honesty , murder , corruption and power abuse of police officers . It was released in April 2007 .

His third novel , Nanyang , is a historical saga about the multi @-@ racial people who inhabit the lands of the ' Southern Ocean ' , as early Chinese migrants called Malaya and Singapore . It was seen through the lives of four generations as they toiled and struggled for wealth and power , for their beliefs and freedom , and felt their hopes and dreams for their future and those of their offsprings , as Nanyang eventually became two separate fledging nations . It hit the book stores in October 2007 .

= The Wave ( Miike Snow song ) =

" The Wave " is a song performed by Swedish indie pop band Miike Snow . It was released as the second single from the band 's second studio album Happy to You ( 2012 ) on 14 May 2012 , through Columbia Records . The song was written and produced by the band . Musically , " The Wave " is an electropop song with marching band influences and autoharp , military drum and piano instrumentation . It features Swedish musician Gustav Ejstes on autoharp and the Swedish Army drum corps on military drums .

The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who commended its catchiness and musical direction . However , some critics were divided regarding lead singer Andrew Wyatt 's falsetto vocals . The single failed to match the commercial performance of Happy to You 's lead single " Paddling Out " ; it only charted on the Flemish Ultratip chart at number 43 . Andreas Nilsson directed the single 's accompanying music video , the second part in a continuous story that began in the " Paddling Out " video .

= = Background and release = =

" The Wave " was written and produced by Miike Snow 's three members : Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg and Andrew Wyatt . The song was recorded alongside the rest of their second studio album Happy to You ( 2012 ) during the second half of 2011 . The band had more " creative freedom " while making the album , compared to their 2009 self @-@ titled debut album . They felt they could " plan the process more " , which included inviting the Swedish Army drum corps to play military drums on several tracks , such as " The Wave " . Karlsson told Billboard that his favorite part of the song occurs during the second verse , in which all band members are hitting the drums simultaneously . " We hit anything we could hit at the same time ... and it sounded kind of cool " , he said . Nils Törnqvist is credited for playing the drums , while David Lindberg , Jonathan Lundberg and Claes Malmberg played the military drums . Swedish musician Gustav Ejstes of band Dungen played the autoharp , and the band provided additional instruments , arrangement and programming . Niklas Flyckt mixed the track at Robotberget , Miike Snow 's own studio in Stockholm , Sweden .

The song was selected as the second single from Happy to You . Initially , Axtone Records released Thomas Gold 's remix exclusively on the online music store Beatport on 14 May 2012 . A mere week later , a digital extended play ( EP ) was released in Europe through Columbia Records . The release features the radio edit of the original song and remixes by Gold , Brodinski and Style of Eye . The EP was released in the United States on 12 June 2012 , through Universal Republic and Downtown Records .

Prior to the release of both their second album and single , the band announced on February 2012 that they were going to play two UK shows in May : Manchester 's HMV Ritz on May 30 and London 's O2 Academy Brixton on May 31 . For their show at the O2 Academy Brixton , the band launched an interactive video of their performance of " The Wave " in which viewers could choose from where in the venue they could experience the show . On September 15 , 2012 , Karlsson and Winnberg were guests on BBC Radio 1 's Essential Mix in which they premiered exclusive new remixes of their songs .

= = Composition = =

" The Wave " is a piano @-@ based electropop piece with a " marching band vibe " . Chris Schulz of The New Zealand Herald described it as an " electro @-@ anthem " with a " skittery dubstep throb " . Instrumentation is provided by an autoharp , drums , handclaps , military drums , percussion and a piano . In an interview for Complex , Wyatt said that the song is built in " tsunami form " , stating that " the real pay @-@ off " does not come until the final refrain . According to critic Josh Modell of Spin , the song " dips its toes in the kind of Brit @-@ rock purveyed by Elbow but mixes in some organic , tribal fun à la Yeasayer " . Wyatt sings with falsetto vocals , which Chris Martins of The A.V. Club thought recalled a " sad @-@ faced " Peter Gabriel . In the chorus , Wyatt sings , " My love won 't be saved / We 'll all be staring at the wave " . Winnberg told Billboard that " The Wave " " kind of sums up a lot what Miike Snow is about " .

= = Reception = =

Critical reception of " The Wave " was generally positive . Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly named it one of the best tracks on Happy to You , while Will Salmon of Clash and Amber Genuske of The Huffington Post called it a standout . Exclaim ! ' s Ashley Hampson deemed it " incredibly catchy " , writing that it " capitalize [ s ] on the falsetto musings of vocalist Andrew Wyatt " . Andy Baber of musicOMH described the track as " much more like the Miike Snow that many came to know and love " . The writer praised the piano and marching drums for " giving the song a sense of direction that the opener lacked " . Caroline Sullivan , writing for The Guardian , commented that " a martial beat , contrastingly languid vocals and a snaggy hookline give ' The Wave ' a toothsome kick " , and Slant Magazine 's Kevin Liedel wrote that the beat " succeeds " .

Chris Schulz of The New Zealand Herald said that the song , alongside the album tracks " Paddling Out " and " Bavarian # 1 ( Say You Will ) " , " will swirl around in your head for days and demand repeat plays " . Spin 's Josh Modell named it a highlight of the album ; he wrote that if the album as a whole sounded like " The Wave " , " it could fill arenas " . Chris Martins of The A.V. Club wrote , " Though Wyatt 's vocals recall a sad @-@ faced Peter Gabriel , the song is steeped in the kind of effervescent magic that makes Lykke Li and Peter Bjorn and John stars in their own right . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters was critical of Wyatt 's vocal performance ; he wrote that " we really get a sense of how Wyatt 's voice hinders the group " . He said that the singer intones the lyrics " somewhat abstractly , but with absolutely no sense of gravity to be found in his voice at all " .

" The Wave " only charted on the Flemish Ultratip chart in Belgium ; it debuted at number 84 in the issue dated 30 June 2012 . The following week , the single rose 12 positions to number 72 , and to number 54 the next . In the issue dated 28 July 2012 , its fifth and final week on the chart , it obtained its peak position of number 43 .

= = Music video = =

Andreas Nilsson directed the music video for " The Wave " , a continuation of the video for Happy to You 's lead single " Paddling Out " . Picking up where the first part left of , the video follows Jean Noel , a human man who has received plastic surgery from aliens to be transformed into the " perfect specimen " . In an interview for The Creators Project , Nilsson explained how the videos were conceptualized : " The concept of this was born after long evenings of me and the band talking about gene technology in contemporary science . We share a mutual excitement in what 's happening on the medical scene right now . " " The Wave " was filmed before " Paddling Out " , although the latter was released first . Wyatt explained to Billboard , " We really liked [ director ] Andreas 's images and I think they go together in a way that feels truthful with what we do ... and you can read into it in different ways . "

The video for " The Wave " begins with the aliens ' spaceship crashing to Earth . The camera then hovers over a playground where dozens of children appear to be dead . Several policemen arrive at the scene and begin to remove the bodies by putting them in wheelbarrows . Meanwhile , Jean Noel is seen running on a desert road . The policemen then begin to dig graves for the corpses . Jean Noel then spots another specimen who looks just like him and the two begin to run . They are soon joined by more specimens before arriving at the playground . By chanting at the policemen , the specimens appear to mind control them into dance . Jean Noel continues to run and stops when he sees the crashed spaceship . The video ends with the band 's jackalope logo .

The video was made available for download through the iTunes Store on 13 March 2012 , in conjunction with the digital release of Happy to You . It later premiered on YouTube on 14 March 2012 . It received generally positive reviews . Amber Genuske of The Huffington Post stated that it lacked a plotline , but praised its production . Tom Breihan of Stereogum called it " slapsticky absurdism " and wrote , " I don 't think it 's supposed to be depressing , but it totally is . "

= = Track listings = =

Beatport remix download

" The Wave " ( Thomas Gold remix ) – 6 : 35

Digital EP

" The Wave " ( radio edit ) – 3 : 36

" The Wave " ( Thomas Gold mix ) – 6 : 35

" The Wave " ( Brodinski remix ) – 5 : 00

" The Wave " ( Style of Eye remix ) – 5 : 01

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the Happy to You liner notes .

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Washington State Route 516 =

State Route 516 ( SR 516 ) is a 16 @.@ 49 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 54 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving communities in southern King County . The highway travels east as the Kent @-@ Des Moines Road and the Kent @-@ Kangley Road from a concurrency with SR 509 in Des Moines through Kent and Covington to an intersection with SR 169 in Maple Valley . SR 516 , designated as part of the National Highway System within Kent , intersects three major freeways in the area : Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in western Kent , SR 167 in downtown Kent , and SR 18 in Covington . The roadway , built in the 1890s , was codified in 1937 as Secondary State Highway 1K ( SSH 1K ) from Des Moines to Kent and SSH 5A from Kent to Maple Valley . The two highways were combined during the 1964 highway renumbering to form SR 516 on its current route .

= = Route description = =

SR 516 begins in Des Moines at Marine View Drive as SR 509 turns north towards Burien near the East Passage of Puget Sound . The two concurrent highways travel east on the Kent @-@ Des Moines Road past Highline Community College and Mount Rainier High School to an intersection with SR 99 in western Kent , where SR 509 turns south towards Tacoma . Shortly thereafter , SR 516 intersects I @-@ 5 at a partial cloverleaf interchange and continues east onto a four @-@ lane divided highway over the Green River and its pedestrian and bicycle trail into downtown Kent . The highway serves as the southern terminus of SR 181 before intersecting SR 167 in a diamond interchange at the western edge of downtown Kent . SR 516 shifts south onto Willis Street and crosses the Interurban Trail and a BNSF rail line before turning north onto Central Avenue and east onto Smith Street near Kent Station . The highway travels southeast along Mill Creek onto the Kent @-@ Kangley Road and serves as the southern terminus of SR 515 at Kent @-@ Meridian High School before leaving Kent for Covington . SR 516 passes Lake Meridian as 272nd Street and intersects SR 18 at a diamond interchange located in Covington . The highway continues east past Pipe Lake and into Maple Valley before crossing the Cedar to Green River Trail and ending at an intersection with SR 169 .

Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of the highway was between SR 181 and the SR 167 interchange , serving 38 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was its western terminus at SR 509 , serving 8 @,@ 900 vehicles . SR 516 between I @-@ 5 and SR 167 within western Kent is designated as part of the National Highway System , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

The Kent @-@ Kangley Road was built as a wagon road by King County by the late 1890s and was upgraded to a paved highway after being codified as two highways during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways system in 1937 : SSH 1K and SSH 5A . SSH 1K traveled 12 @.@ 76 miles ( 20 @.@ 54 km ) south from U.S. Route 99 and Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) through Burien and east through Des Moines to US 99 and PSH 1 in Midway . SSH 5A traveled 14 @.@ 50 miles ( 23 @.@ 34 km ) east from US 99 and PSH 1 in Midway across the Green River into Kent , intersecting SSH 5M , PSH 5 , and SSH 5C , before ending at the Enumclaw – Renton branch of PSH 5 in Maple Valley . The two highways were combined during the 1964 highway renumbering to form SR 516 and codified into law in 1970 . The highway traveled east from SR 509 in Des Moines through I @-@ 5 at Midway , SR 167 in Kent , and SR 18 in Covington to SR 169 in Maple Valley . SR 509 was re @-@ aligned in 1991 onto SR 516 and SR 99 , forming new concurrencies , until the completion of a new north – south freeway .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is in King County .

= Stefan Wever =

Stefan Matthew Wever ( born 22 April 1958 ) is a former professional baseball pitcher . He made his Major League Baseball debut , incidentally his only game , with the New York Yankees in 1982 , and had a 0 – 1 record a 27 @.@ 00 earned run average ( ERA ) , and two strikeouts in that game .

Born in West Germany , Wever moved to the United States as a child , where he took up baseball . He played baseball in high school and the University of California , Santa Barbara , which led to him being drafted by the New York Yankees . After four seasons in the minor leagues , Wever made his major league debut on 17 September 1982 . In his debut , he suffered a shoulder injury , which he tried to pitch through for two years before having surgery in 1984 . He tried to come back from the injury in 1985 , but retired . After retiring , he opened a bar in San Francisco , which he continues to run .

= = Early life = =

Wever was born in Marburg , West Germany in 1958 . He immigrated to the United States with his mother and twin sister at six and lived in Boston until he was 12 , when he moved to San Francisco . He attended Lowell High School , where he played on the school 's baseball team . During his senior year , Wever helped lead the Lowell Cardinals to the city championship game , and he graduated in 1976 .

After graduating from high school , Wever was not looked at by college recruiters due to a lack of competition he faced . As a result , he attended the University of California , Santa Barbara on an academic scholarship , and walked on to the school 's baseball team . In three seasons with the Santa Barbara Gauchos , he had 18 wins , 17 losses , 199 strikeouts , and 15 complete games ; the losses and complete games were at that time school records . After his junior year , Wever was drafted by the New York Yankees in the sixth round of the 1979 Major League Baseball draft . He was given a signing bonus of $ 16 @,@ 000 , and officially signed with the team shortly after the draft concluded .

= = Baseball career = =

Wever began his professional career in 1979 with the Oneonta Yankees of the New York – Penn League ( NYPL ) . He pitched in ten games for the team , finishing the season with a 6 – 3 record , a 1 @.@ 77 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 70 strikeouts . In the Yankees ' championship series against the Geneva Cubs , he pitched a shutout and threw nine strikeouts to win the first game and help the Yankees win the NYPL Championship . The following year , Wever was promoted to the Fort Lauderdale Yankees of the Florida State League . That year , he had a 7 – 3 record , a 3 @.@ 64 ERA and 94 innings pitched in 15 games .

In 1981 , Wever began the season remaining with Fort Lauderdale . He had a 7 – 3 record and a 2 @.@ 00 ERA in 12 games before being promoted to the Nashville Sounds of the Southern League , the Yankees ' AA affiliate . With Nashville , he had a 5 – 2 record and 2 @.@ 05 ERA in nine appearances . Wever 's pitching coach in Nashville was Hall of Famer Hoyt Wilhelm . Wilhelm felt he had the ability but not the confidence to pitch in the majors , and spent his time in Nashville working on that aspect of Wever 's game . The following season , Weber was almost unanimously named to the Southern League All @-@ Star team , thanks to 11 wins and 116 strikeouts through the end of June . He improved to a 16 @-@ 6 record , a 2 @.@ 78 ERA , and 191 strikeouts , won the Southern League Pitcher of the Year award , and accomplished the pitcher 's Triple Crown , leading the league in wins , ERA , and strikeouts . He led Nashville to the Southern League championship , and right after doing so , the Yankees called Weber up to the major leagues .

His first and only major league appearance came against the Milwaukee Brewers on 17 September 1982 . The first two batters he faced were Paul Molitor and Robin Yount , both future Hall of Famers , one of only a few players in history to do so . Partway through the first inning , he felt a twinge in his shoulder ; not wanting to leave his first game early , he pitched through it , and allowed five runs in the first . Partway through the third , after three more runs allowed , Wever was taken out of the game . He pitched for 2 ⅔ innings and had eight earned runs , two strikeouts , and three wild pitches . Entering the 1983 season , Wever was projected to be the fifth starter in the Yankees ' starting rotation . Because of continued pain in his shoulder , he instead spent the season with the AAA Columbus Clippers , where he went 1 – 4 with a 9 @.@ 78 ERA in seven appearances .

Wever spent 1984 with Fort Lauderdale , where he went 1 – 3 in seven games . After the seven games , he visited Dr. James Andrews , who diagnosed the twinge he suffered two years earlier as a torn rotator cuff and torn labrum ; it explained why he had been throwing 85 mph since the injury , compared to 95 mph beforehand . He had surgery shortly afterward , and spent the rest of the year rehabbing the injury . He attempted a comeback in 1985 with the Albany @-@ Colonie Yankees , and had a 4 @.@ 91 ERA in five games with the team . In June , having continued to pitch through shoulder pain , Wever retired from baseball and ended his professional career .

= = Post @-@ playing career = =

After retiring from baseball , Wever returned to school , and earned a bachelor 's degree in English literature from the University of California , Berkeley . He married Melinda in 1988 , and three years later opened up the Horseshoe Tavern , a bar in San Francisco 's Marina District , which he continues to run .

While working at his bar , Wever made a return to baseball in a coaching role . He was named varsity baseball coach at Redwood High School in Larkspur , California in 2008 , after having volunteered for the freshman team the year before . He was forced to resign in 2010 due to a diagnosis of large @-@ cell lymphoma . He went on to continue coaching youth baseball camps and leagues , and was bench coach for the San Rafael Pacifics in 2013 . He now spends three days a week feeding the homeless at SF 's St. Anthony 's Dining Room .

= Djedkare Isesi =

Djedkare Isesi ( known in Greek as Tancherês ) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the eighth and penultimate ruler of the Fifth Dynasty in the late 25th century to mid 24th century BCE , during the Old Kingdom period . Djedkare succeeded Menkauhor Kaiu and was in turn succeeded by Unas . His relations to both of these pharaohs remain uncertain , although it is often conjectured that Unas was Djedkare 's son owing to the smooth transition between the two .

Djedkare likely enjoyed a long reign of over 40 years , which heralded a new period in the history of the Old Kingdom . Breaking with a tradition followed by his predecessors since the time of Userkaf , Djedkare did not build a temple to the sun god Ra , possibly reflecting the rise of Osiris in the Egyptian pantheon . More significantly , Djedkare effected comprehensive reforms of the Egyptian state administration , the first undertaken since the inception of the system of ranking titles . He also reorganised the funerary cults of his forebears buried in the necropolis of Abusir and reformed the corresponding priesthood . Djedkare commissioned expeditions to Sinai to procure copper and turquoise , to Nubia for its gold and diorite and to the fabled Land of Punt for its incense . One such expedition had the earliest recorded instance of oracular divination undertaken to ensure an expedition 's success . The word " Nub " , meaning gold , to designate Nubia is first recorded during Djedkare 's reign . Under his rule , Egypt also entertained continuing trade relations with the Levantine coast and made punitive raids in Canaan . In particular , one of the earliest depictions of a battle or siege scene was found in the tomb of one of Djedkare 's subjects .

Djedkare was buried in a pyramid in Saqqara named Nefer Djedkare ( " Djedkare is perfect " ) , which is now ruined owing to theft of stone from its outer casing during antiquity . The burial chamber still held Djedkare 's mummy when it was excavated in the 1940s . Examinations of the mummy revealed that he died in his fifties . Following his death , Djedkare was the object of a cult that lasted at least until the end of the Old Kingdom . He seemed to have been held in particularly high esteem during the mid @-@ Sixth Dynasty , whose pharaohs lavished rich offerings on his cult . Archaeological evidence suggests the continuing existence of this funerary cult throughout the much later New Kingdom period ( c . 1550 – 1077 BCE ) . Djedkare was also remembered by the Ancient Egyptians as the king of vizier Ptahhotep , the purported author of The Maxims of Ptahhotep , one of the earliest pieces of philosophic wisdom literature .

The reforms implemented by Djedkare are generally assessed negatively in modern Egyptology as his policy of decentralization created a virtual feudal system that transferred much power to the high and provincial administrations . Some Egyptologists such as Naguib Kanawati argue that this contributed heavily to the collapse of the Egyptian state during the First Intermediate Period , c . 200 years later . These conclusions are rejected by Nigel Strudwick , who says that in spite of Djedkare 's reforms , Ancient Egyptian officials never amassed enough power to rival that of the king .

= = Attestations = =

= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =

Djedkare is well attested in sources contemporaneous with his reign . The tombs of many of his courtiers and family members have been discovered in Giza , Saqqara and Abusir . They give insights into the administrative reforms that Djedkare conducted during his reign and , in a few cases , even record letters that the king sent to his officials . These letters , inscribed on the walls of tombs , typically present royal praises for the tomb owner .

Another important source of information about Egypt during the reign of Djedkare Isesi is the Abusir papyri . These are administrative documents , covering a period of 24 years during Djedkare 's reign ; they were discovered in the mortuary temples of pharaohs Neferirkare Kakai , Neferefre and queen Khentkaus II . In addition to these texts , the earliest letters on papyrus preserved to the present day also date to Djedkare 's reign , dealing with administrative or private matters .

= = = Historical sources = = =

Djedkare is attested in four ancient Egyptian king lists , all dating to the New Kingdom . The earliest of these is the Karnak king list , dating to the reign of Thutmose III ( 1479 – 1425 BCE ) , where Djedkare is mentioned on the fifth entry . Djedkare 's prenomen occupies the 32nd entry of the Abydos King List , which was written during the reign of Seti I ( 1290 – 1279 BCE ) . Djedkare is also present on the Saqqara Tablet ( 31st entry ) where he is listed under the name " Maatkare " , probably because of a scribal error . Djedkare 's prenomen is given as " Djed " on the Turin canon ( third column , 24th row ) , probably because of a lacuna affecting the original document from which the canon was copied during the reign of Ramses II ( 1279 – 1213 BCE ) . The Turin canon credits Djedkare with 28 years of reign .

In addition to these sources , Djedkare is mentioned on the Prisse Papyrus dating to the 12th Dynasty ( c . 1990 – 1800 BCE ) . The papyrus records The Maxims of Ptahhotep and gives Djedkare 's nomen " Isesi " to name the pharaoh whom the purported authors of the maxims , vizier Ptahhotep , served . Djedkare was also probably mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BCE ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that a pharaoh " Tancherês " ( Ancient Greek Τανχέρης ) reigned for 44 years as the eighth and penultimate king of the Fifth Dynasty . Given its position within the dynasty , Tancherês is believed to be the Hellenized name of Djedkare Isesi .

= = Family = =

= = = Parents = = =

Djedkare 's parentage is unknown ; in particular his relation with his predecessors Menkauhor Kaiu and Nyuserre Ini cannot be ascertained . Djedkare is generally thought to have been the son of Menkauhor Kaiu , but the two might instead have been brothers and sons of Nyuserre Ini . Another hypothesis suggests that Djedkare and Menkauhor could have been cousins , being sons of Nyuserre and Neferefre respectively . The identity of Djedkare 's mother is similarly unknown .

= = = Queens = = =

The name of Djedkare Isesi 's principal wife is not known . An important queen consort whose name is lost was very likely the owner of a large pyramid complex located to the northeast of Djedkare 's pyramid in Saqqara . This could indicate that she was the mother of Djedkare 's successor , Unas , or that Djedkare owed the throne to her . The very high status of this queen is suggested by some features of her funerary complex that are otherwise reserved to kings : her pyramid has its own satellite pyramid , has a causeway leading from a valley temple up to a mortuary temple devoted to the cult of the queen and had an entrance hall pr @-@ wrw , an open courtyard and a square antechamber . Furthermore , some reliefs showing the queen had been reworked with royal insignia and vultures added above her head . Since the construction of the queen 's pyramid was apparently undertaken after the planning of Djedkare 's pyramid and her relief had been reworked , the Egyptologist Klaus Baer suggests that this queen may have ruled after the death of Djedkare , playing an important role in his succession . This is rejected by other Egyptologists , such as Michel Baud , owing to the lack of evidence for a regency or interregnum between Djedkare and Unas .

The Egyptologist Wilfried Seipel has proposed that this pyramid was initially intended for queen Meresankh IV , whom he and Verner see as a wife of Djedkare . Seipel contends that Meresankh was finally buried in a smaller mastaba in Saqqara North after she fell into disgrace . Alternatively , Aidan Dodson and Dyan Hilton have proposed that she was a wife of the preceding king , Menkauhor Kaiu .

= = = Sons = = =

Only one son of Djedkare Isesi has been identified for certain , Neserkauhor , who bore the title of " eldest beloved king 's son of his body " . Neserkauhor also bore the title of Iry @-@ pat , showing that he was an important member of the royal court , as well as a priestly title " Greatest of the Five in the temple of Thot " , suggesting that he may have been a vizier or had similar occupations .

As well as Neserkauhor , there is indirect evidence that princes Raemka and Kaemtjenent are sons of Djedkare based on the dating and general location of their tombs in Saqqara . For example , the tomb of Kaemtjenent mentions vizier Rashepses , who served during the reign of Djedkare . Raemka also bore the title of " king 's son of his body " , almost exclusively reserved to true princes of royal blood . The locations of Raemka 's and Kaemtjenent 's tombs have led some Egyptologists to believe that both princes are sons of queen Meresankh IV buried nearby , who would thus be one of Djedkare 's wives . These conclusions are debated , in particular in the case of Kaemtjenent , whose title of " king 's son " may have been purely honorific .

A high official named Isesi @-@ ankh could have been yet another son of Djedkare Isesi , as suggested by his name meaning " Isesi lives " . Yet , similarities in the titles and locations of the tombs of Isesi @-@ ankh and Kaemtjenent have led Egyptologists to propose that they could instead be brothers and sons of Meresankh IV , or that the former is a son of the latter . Even though Isesi @-@ ankh bore the title of " king 's son " , the Egyptologists Michel Baud and Bettina Schmitz argue that this filiation was fictitious , being only an honorary title .

Finally , the successor of Djedkare , Unas , is thought to have been his son in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question . The main argument in favor of this filiation is that the succession from Djedkare Isesi to Unas seems to have been smooth , as suggested indirectly , for example , by the Abusir papyri . Indirect evidence also comes from the reliefs of Unas ' causeway , which show many officials bearing names incorporating " Isesi " , suggesting at the very least that Unas did not perceive Djedkare as an antagonist .

= = = Daughters = = =

Several daughters of Djedkare Isesi have been identified by the title of " king 's daughter of his body " and the general date of their tomb . These include Kekheretnebti , whose filiation is clearly indicated by her other title of " Beloved of Isesi " , Meret @-@ Isesi , Hedjetnebu , and Nebtyemneferes . Less certain is the filiation of Kentkhaus III , wife of vizier Senedjemib Mehi , who bore the title of " king 's daughter of his body " . It is debated whether this title indicates a true filiation or if it is only honorary .

= = Chronology = =

The relative chronological position of Djedkare Isesi as the eighth and penultimate ruler of the Fifth Dynasty , succeeding Menkauhor Kaiu and preceding Unas on the throne , is well established by historical sources and confirmed by archaeological evidence .

The duration of Djedkare 's reign is much less certain . Djedkare 's time on the throne is well documented by the Abusir papyri , numerous royal seals and contemporary inscriptions ; taken together , they indicate a fairly long rule for this king . While the Turin canon credits him with 28 years of reign , there is direct evidence for an even longer reign . Several artefacts and inscriptions have been uncovered relating to Djedkare 's rejuvenation or " sed " festival , normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign . For example , the tomb of one of Djedkare 's viziers , Senedjemib Inti , relates construction works undertaken during the year of the 16th cattle count in preparation for the festival ceremonies . An alabaster vase now on display at the Louvre museum bears an inscription celebrating Djedkare 's first sed festival , indicating in all likelihood that he reigned beyond his 30th year on the throne .

One of the Abusir papyri was found to be dated to the " Year of the 22nd Count , IV Akhet day 12 " , constituting Djedkare 's latest known date . This date might correspond to any time from the 32nd year of Djedkare 's reign up to his 44th year on the throne , depending on whether the cattle count was once every two years or once every year and a half . The higher estimate is close to Manetho 's 44 @-@ year figure credited to Tancherês , the Hellenized name of Djedkare , although this may just be coincidental . Modern estimates thus put Djedkare 's reign length as certainly more than 33 years and , if the cattle count was regularly biennial , at least 42 to 44 years . This makes Djedkare the longest reigning king of the Fifth Dynasty .

= = Reign = =

The reign of Djedkare Isesi heralded a new period in the history of the Old Kingdom . First , Djedkare Isesi did not build a sun temple , as his predecessors had done since the time of Userkaf , some 80 years earlier . This may be a result of the increased prominence of Osiris compared with the sun god Ra during the late Fifth Dynasty . The importance of this cult becomes manifest when the Pyramid Texts of the pyramid of Unas are inscribed a few decades later . In this context , it is perhaps noteworthy that the only known statue of Djedkare Isesi was discovered in the ruins of the temple of Osiris , in Abydos . Another manifestation of the winds of change during Djedkare 's time on throne is the confirmation of the relocation of the royal necropolis from Abusir , where it had been since the reign of Sahure , to Saqqara , where Menkauhor Kaiu , Djedkare and his successor , Unas , built their pyramids . Abusir may have become overcrowded by the time of Menkauhor 's accession and the capital may have been shifted south to Saqqara along with the royal necropolis around the same time . The abandonment of Abusir as a royal necropolis and the termination of sun temple building are possibly related given the close association between the two since the reign of Userkaf .

= = = Domestic reforms = = =

During his reign Djedkare effected significant reforms of the state administration and priesthood , in particular that pertaining to the funerary cults in the necropolis of Abusir . These evolutions are witnessed by changes in priestly titles and more broadly , in the system of ranking titles of high officials , which was modified for the first time in its existence . For example , the priesthood of the royal pyramids was reorganized , with Djedkare changing the titles and functions of the priests from " priest of king " to " priest of the pyramid " . Princes of royal blood could once more hold administrative titles , a prerogative they had lost during the early Fifth Dynasty . At the same time , viziers could now hold the prestigious titles of Iry @-@ pat and Haty @-@ a and , as " overseer of the royal scribes " , became the head of the scribal administration . At least one vizier , Seshemnefer III , even bore the title of " king 's son of his body " , one of the most distinguished titles at the time and normally reserved to princes of royal blood . Yet neither Seshemnefer III 's father nor his mother seems to have belonged to the royal family . For the period spanning the reign of Djedkare until that of Teti , viziers were furthermore responsible for the weaponry of the state , both for military and other purposes . Following the reforms undertaken by Djedkare , three viziers would be in office at the same time : two in the Memphite region and a Southern one , the " governor of Upper Egypt " , with a seat at Abydos . In total six viziers were appointed during Djedkare 's reign .

Lower ranking officials lost power during the late Fifth Dynasty and were frequently limited to holding only one high title , a departure from the preceding period . Such functions as " overseer of the granary " and " overseer of the treasury " disappear from the record some time between Djedkare 's reign and that of Teti , while men of lower status became head of the legal administration . Consequently , the viziers concentrated more power than before while lower echelons of the state administration were reduced . At the same time , the size of the provincial administration was increased , and it also became more autonomous from the central government . In particular , the nomarchs were responsible in their provinces for performing works hitherto conducted by Memphite officials .

= = = Building activities = = =

The main building activity undertaken during the reign of Djedkare Isesi was the construction of his pyramid complex in Saqqara . Djedkare also either completed or undertook restoration works in the funerary complex of Nyuserre Ini in Abusir , as indicated by a now damaged inscription , which must have detailed Djedkare 's activities on the site . Further building works took place in Abusir during the second half of Djedkare 's reign following the curious decision by members of the royal family to be buried there rather than next to Djedkare 's pyramid in Saqqara . A group of mastabas was thus constructed for princess Kekheretnebti and her daughter Tisethor , princess Hedjetnebu , the courtiers Mernefu and Idu , who was buried with his wife Khenit , and prince Neserkauhor .

Djedkare Isesi also undertook building activities in relation with his " sed " festival as indicated by a decree that he sent to his vizier Senedjemib Inti on the year of the 16th cattle count , praising him for his work . The decree mentions the construction of a broad rectangular court or artificial lake for the jubilee of the king , some 1000 cubits long and 400 cubits wide , amounting to c . 525 m × 231 m ( 1 @,@ 722 ft × 758 ft ) . The court was located within the precincts of a palace built for the ceremonies of the " sed " festival , which was probably located in the vicinity of his pyramid . Another decree addressed to Senedjemib Inti and later inscribed on the walls of his mastaba records the decoration of a chapel of Hathor in the palace of the king . This chapel was most likely built during his reign .

Djedkare may have left some of his monuments unfinished at his death , as suggested by several relief @-@ bearing blocks inscribed with his name and which were found reused in the pyramid of king Unas . Their original setting remains unknown .

= = = Activities outside Egypt = = =

= = = = Expeditions to mines and quarries = = = =

Three or four rock inscriptions dating to Djedkare 's reign have been found in the Wadi Maghareh in Sinai , where mines of copper and semi @-@ precious stones were exploited throughout the Old Kingdom , from the Fourth until the Sixth Dynasty . These inscriptions record three expeditions sent to look for turquoise : the earliest one , dated to the third or fourth cattle count – possibly corresponding to the sixth or eighth year of Dejdkare 's reign – explicitly recalls the arrival of the mining party to the " hills of the turquoise " after being given " divine authority for the finding of semi @-@ precious stones in the writing of the god himself , [ as was enacted ] in the broad court of the temple Nekhenre " . This sentence could indicate the earliest known record of an oracular divination undertaken in order to ensure the success of the expedition prior to its departure , Nekhenre being the sun temple of Userkaf . Another inscription dating to the year of the ninth cattle count – possibly Djedkare 's 18th year on the throne – shows the king " subduing all foreign lands . Smiting the chief of the foreign land " . The expedition that left this inscription comprised over 1400 men and administration officials . Some Egyptologists have proposed that these men were also sent to mine copper .

These expeditions departed Egypt from the port of Ain Sukhna , on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez , as revealed by papyri and seals bearing Djedkare Isesi 's name found on the site . The port comprised large galleries carved into the sandstone serving as living quarters and storage places . The wall of one such gallery was inscribed with a text mentioning yet another expedition to the hills of turquoise in the year of the seventh cattle count – possibly Djedkare 's 14th year on the throne .

South of Egypt , Djedkare dispatched at least one expedition to the diorite quarries located 65 km ( 40 mi ) north @-@ west of Abu Simbel . Djedkare was not the first king to do so , as these quarries were already exploited during the Fourth Dynasty and continued to be so during the Sixth Dynasty and later , in the Middle Kingdom period ( c . 2055 BCE – c . 1650 BCE ) .

Djedkare probably also exploited gold mines in the Eastern Desert and in Nubia : indeed , the earliest mention of the " land of gold " – an Ancient Egyptian term for Nubia – is found in an inscription from the mortuary temple of Djedkare Isesi .

= = = = Trade relations = = = =

Egypt entertained continuing trade relations with the Levant during Djedkare 's reign , possibly as far north as Anatolia . A gold cylinder seal bearing the serekh of Djedkare Isesi together with the cartouche of Menkauhor Kaiu is now on display at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston . The seal , whose gold may originate from the Pactolus river valley in western Anatolia , could attest to wide ranging trade @-@ contacts during the later Fifth Dynasty , but its provenance remains unverifiable .

Trade contacts with Byblos , on the coast of modern @-@ day Lebanon , are suggested by a fragmentary stone vessel unearthed in the city and bearing the inscription " King of Upper and Lower Egypt , Djedkare [ living ] forever " . A biographical inscription discovered in the tomb of Iny , a Sixth Dynasty official , provides further evidence for an Egyptian expedition to Byblos during Djedkare 's reign . Iny 's inscription relates his travels to procure lapis lazuli and lead or tin for pharaoh Merenre , but starts by recounting what must have been similar events taking place under Djedkare .

To the south of Egypt , Djedkare also sent an expedition to the fabled land of Punt to procure the myrrh used as incense in the Egyptian temples . The expedition to Punt is referred to in the letter from Pepi II Neferkare to Harkuf some 100 years later . Harkuf had reported that he would bring back a " dwarf of the god 's dancers from the land of the horizon dwellers " . Pepi mentions that the god 's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum had returned from Punt with a dwarf during the reign of Djedkare Isesi and had been richly rewarded . The decree mentions that " My Majesty will do for you something greater than what was done for the god 's sealbearer Werdjededkhnum in the reign of Isesi , reflecting my majesty 's yearning to see this dwarf " .

Djedkare 's expedition to Punt is also mentioned in a contemporaneous graffito found in Tumas , a locality of Lower Nubia some 150 km ( 93 mi ) south of Aswan , where Isesi 's cartouche was discovered .

= = = = Warfare = = = =

Not all relations between Egypt and its neighbors were peaceful during Djedkare 's reign . In particular , one of the earliest known depictions of a battle or city being besieged is found in the tomb of Inti , an official from the 21st nome of Upper Egypt , who lived during the late Fifth Dynasty . The scene shows Egyptian soldiers scaling the walls of a near eastern fortress on ladders . More generally , ancient Egyptians seem to have regularly organised punitive raids in Canaan during the later Old Kingdom period but did not attempt to establish a permanent dominion there .

= = Pyramid = =

Djedkare built his pyramid in South Saqqara . It was called Nefer Isesi or Nefer Djedkare in Ancient Egyptian , variously translated as " Isesi / Djedkare is beautiful " or " Isesi / Djedkare is perfect " . It is known today as " Haram el @-@ Shawwâf El @-@ Kably " , meaning " the Southern Sentinel pyramid " , because it stands on the edge of the Nile valley .

The pyramid originally comprised six or seven steps made of irregular and roughly hewn limestone blocks and mortar , of which only three survive . This core was overlaid by casing stones of white Tura limestone , which have been stolen in antiquity . At the time of its construction the pyramid stood 52 m ( 171 ft ) high with a base length of 78 @.@ 75 m ( 258 @.@ 4 ft ) and an inclination angle of 52 ° .

In the interior of the pyramid a descending passage led , behind three granite portcullises , to an antechamber , three magazine rooms and the burial chamber . In it , pieces of alabaster and a faience bead on a gold thread were discovered as well as many fragments of what was originally a large sarcophagus of dark grey basalt . The sarcophagus was sunk into the floor of the burial chamber together with a niche for the canopic chest of the king to its north @-@ east . An almost complete mummy was discovered in the remnants of the sarcophagus . An examination by Ahmed Batrawi of these skeletal remains , excavated in the mid @-@ 1940s under the direction of Abdel Salam Hussein , suggests that Djedkare died at the age of 50 to 60 years old .

To the east of the pyramid , Djedkare 's mortuary temple was laid out . The east facade of the mortuary temple was flanked by two massive stone structures , which resemble the later pylons . The mortuary temple is connected via a yet unexcavated causeway to a valley temple .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Impact of the reforms = = =

For Nigel Strudwick , the reforms of Djedkare Isesi were undertaken as a reaction to the rapid growth of the central administration in the first part of the Fifth Dynasty which , Baer adds , had amassed too much political or economic power in the eyes of the king . Joyce Tyldesley sees the reign of Djedkare Isesi as the very beginning of a decline in the importance of the king , in conjunction with the gradual rise of the power wielded by the high and provincial administration . Concurrent with this trend is a process of decentralization , with local loyalties slowly superseding allegiance to the central state . Since offices and in particular , the vizierate , could be inherited the reforms of Djedkare Isesi created a " virtual feudal system " as Nicolas Grimal writes , with much power in the hands of a few puissant officials . This is best witnessed by the large , magnificent mastaba tombs that Djedkare 's viziers built . In this context , Djedkare 's reforms of the ranking system might have been an attempt at maintaining a sprawling administration under control , yet ultimately failed . For some Egyptologists , such as Naguib Kanawati , this failure contributed in no small part to the fall of the Old Kingdom , but others , including Strudwick , believe the reasons of the collapse must be sought elsewhere as the power of an administration official never approached that of the king .

The reforms of Djedkare Isesi played an important role in flourishing of the arts during the later Old Kingdom , as artisans and craftsmen could now find many wealthy patrons beyond the king . This created a surge in the number of commissions leading to a general improvement of the artistic works . This also provided the artisans with a new wealth , which they used to build their own large funerary complexes .

= = = Funerary cult = = =

= = = = Old Kingdom = = = =

Djedkare Isesi was the object of a funerary cult established at his death and which lasted until the end of the Old Kingdom nearly 200 years later . Provisions for this cult were produced in several agricultural estates set up during Djedkare 's reign . The names of some of these estates have been found inscribed on the walls of the tombs of his courtiers : " Ra desires that Isesi lives " , " Heqa desires that Izezi live " , " Perfect of emulation is Isesi " , " The mnza @-@ vessel of Djedkare " , " Perfect of favors is Isesi " , " Seshat makes Isesi live " , " The Ka of Isesi is foremost " , " Dominion belongs to Izezi " , " Work of the command of Izezi " , " Bastet wishes that Izezi lives " , " Horus perpetuates Izezi " , " The offerings of Izezi " , and " Izezi is one who loves life " .

Djedkare seems to have been held in high esteem during the Sixth Dynasty . For example , Merenre Nemtyemsaf I chose to place his pyramid complex close to that of Djedkare . In addition , the South Saqqara Stone , a royal annal dating to the reign of Merenre or of his successor Pepi II , records rich offerings being made to Djedkare on behalf of the king . An estimated 92 % of the text inscribed on the stone was lost when it was roughly polished to be reused as a sarcophagus lid , possibly in the late First Intermediate ( c . 2160 – 2055 BC ) to early Middle Kingdom period ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) .

More generally , an historical or literary tradition concerning events in the time of Djedkare seems to have flourished toward the end of Old Kingdom as can be inferred from the tombs of Harkuf and Iny . These two officials were in charge of expeditions to foreign lands – Punt and Byblos – under Merenre I and Pepi II and both relate similar expeditions that took place during the time of Djedkare Isesi .

= = = = New Kingdom = = = =

The funerary cult of Djedkare Isesi enjoyed a revival during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1077 BCE ) . For the early part of this period , this is best attested by the Karnak king list , a list of kings commissioned by pharaoh Thutmose III . The list was not meant to be exhaustive , rather it gave the names of Thutmose 's forefathers whom he wanted to honor by dedicating offerings .

For the later New Kingdom , a relief from the Saqqara tomb of the priest Mehu , dating to the 19th or 20th Dynasty shows three gods faced by several deceased pharaohs . These are Djoser and Sekhemket , of the Third Dynasty and Userkaf , founder of the Fifth Dynasty . He is followed by a fourth king whose name is damaged but which is often read " Djedkare " or , much less likely , " Shepseskare " . The relief is an expression of personal piety on Mehu 's behalf , who prayed to the ancient kings for them to recommend him to the gods .

= Route 261 ( Delaware – Pennsylvania ) =

Delaware Route 261 ( DE 261 ) and Pennsylvania Route 261 ( PA 261 ) , also known as Foulk Road , is a 6 @.@ 88 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 07 km ) state highway running through Delaware and Pennsylvania . DE 261 runs 4 @.@ 62 miles ( 7 @.@ 44 km ) through New Castle County , Delaware from an interchange with U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) and DE 141 north of Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) near Fairfax , Delaware , a community north of Wilmington , northeast to the Pennsylvania state line . The road runs through suburban areas of Brandywine Hundred as a four @-@ lane road south of DE 92 and a two @-@ lane road north of DE 92 . At the Pennsylvania state line , Foulk Road becomes PA 261 and continues 2 @.@ 26 miles ( 3 @.@ 64 km ) through Bethel Township in Delaware County , intersecting PA 491 in Booths Corner before ending at an interchange with US 322 .

DE 261 was originally designated along Foulk Road in the 1930s . In the 1960s , most of the route was widened into a four @-@ lane road . The southern terminus at US 202 was reconstructed into an interchange in the 2000s . PA 261 was first designated in 1928 along Foulk Road between the Delaware border and PA 61 and PA 161 in Chelsea . The route was extended north along Valley Brook Road to US 1 in Chester Heights by 1940 . The northern terminus of PA 261 was moved to its current location by 1980 .

= = Route description = =

= = = Delaware = = =

DE 261 begins at an interchange with US 202 and the northern terminus of DE 141 north of Alapocas Run State Park near Fairfax , heading northeast on four @-@ lane divided Foulk Road . The road heads near business parks , becoming an undivided road . The route continues through the suburban Brandywine Hundred area , passing residences along with a few businesses . DE 261 remains a four @-@ lane undivided road through this area , occasionally widening into a divided highway at intersections . The route intersects several roads including Murphy Road , Shipley Road , and Silverside Road . Between Shipley and Silverside roads , the road passes to the west of Brandywine High School . Farther northeast , DE 261 comes to the intersection with DE 92 , at which point it turns north and becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that passes more homes . The route ends at the Pennsylvania state line .

DE 261 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 22 @,@ 555 vehicles at the Silverside Road intersection to a low of 10 @,@ 414 vehicles at the Pennsylvania border . None of DE 261 is part of the National Highway System .

= = = Pennsylvania = = =

PA 261 begins at the Pennsylvania state line and continues northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Foulk Road through Bethel Township in Delaware County , passing through residential areas as it crosses Zebley Road . In the community of Booths Corner , PA 261 crosses PA 491 , at which point the road passes a few businesses . North of this intersection , the road runs between a tank farm to the west and Bethel Springs Elementary School to the east prior to crossing Bethel Road and entering wooded residential neighborhoods . PA 261 ends at an interchange with US 322 , with Foulk Road continuing north to an intersection with Concord Road , Chelsea Road , and Valley Brook Road .

PA 261 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 9 @,@ 400 vehicles between the Delaware border and PA 491 to a low of 7 @,@ 200 vehicles between the Bethel Road intersection and US 322 . None of PA 261 is part of the National Highway System .

= = History = =

= = = Delaware = = =

By 1920 , what is now DE 261 existed as a county road . When Delaware first assigned state highway numbers by 1936 , what is now DE 261 had been upgraded to a state highway , but did not receive a number at that time . By 1938 , DE 261 was designated onto its current alignment between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border , continuing the PA 261 designation . DE 261 was widened into a four @-@ lane road between US 202 and Silverside Road by 1966 . The four @-@ lane portion was extended north to Naamans Road a year later . In summer 2007 , construction on converting the intersection with US 202 into interchange was completed as part of the Blue Ball Properties project , a project undertaken to improve roads in this area as part of AstraZeneca locating their North American headquarters to the area . DE 141 was also realigned to intersect US 202 and DE 261 at this interchange . The total cost of the project was $ 123 million .

= = = Pennsylvania = = =

When Pennsylvania first legislated its highways in 1911 , what would become PA 261 was legislated as part of Legislative Route 180 between the Delaware border and Chelsea . PA 261 was first designated in 1928 to run from the Delaware border to PA 61 ( Concord Road ) and PA 161 ( Chelsea Road ) in Chelsea , following Foulk Road . By 1940 , PA 261 was extended north along Valley Brook Road from US 322 ( which replaced PA 61 ) to US 1 in Chester Heights . By 1980 , the northern terminus of PA 261 was truncated to its current location at the interchange with US 322 .

= = Major intersections = =

= Comair Flight 5191 =

Comair Flight 5191 , marketed as Delta Connection Flight 5191 , was a scheduled United States ( US ) domestic passenger flight from Lexington , Kentucky , to Atlanta , Georgia , operated on behalf of Delta Connection by Comair . On the morning of August 27 , 2006 , at around 06 : 07 EDT , the Bombardier Canadair Regional Jet 100ER that was being used for the flight crashed while attempting to take off from Blue Grass Airport in Fayette County , Kentucky , four miles ( 6 kilometers ) west of the central business district of the City of Lexington .

The aircraft was assigned the airport 's runway 22 for the takeoff , but used runway 26 instead . Runway 26 was too short for a safe takeoff , causing the aircraft to overrun the end of the runway before it could become airborne . It crashed just past the end of the runway , killing all 47 passengers and two of the three crew . The flight 's first officer was the only survivor .

Although not the pilot in command , according to the cockpit voice recorder transcript , the first officer was the pilot flying at the time of the accident . In the National Transportation Safety Board report on the crash , investigators concluded that the likely cause of the crash was pilot error .

= = Flight details = =

The flight was sold under the Delta Air Lines brand as Delta Connection Flight 5191 ( DL5191 ) and was operated by Comair as Comair Flight 5191 ( OH5191 ) . It is usually identified as Comair Flight 5191 .

The flight had been scheduled to land at Hartsfield @-@ Jackson Atlanta International Airport at 7 : 18 a.m.

The aircraft involved was a 50 @-@ seat Bombardier Canadair Regional Jet CRJ @-@ 100ER , serial number 7472 . Manufactured in Canada in January 2001 , it was delivered to the airline on January 30 , 2001 .

= = Crash = =

The aircraft was assigned the airport 's Runway 22 for the takeoff , but used Runway 26 instead . Analysis of the cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) indicated the aircraft was cleared to take off from Runway 22 , a 7 @,@ 003 feet ( 2 @,@ 135 m ) strip used by most airline traffic at Lexington . Instead , after confirming " Runway two @-@ two " , Captain Jeffrey Clay taxied onto Runway 26 , an unlit secondary runway only 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long , and turned the controls over to First Officer James Polehinke for takeoff . The air traffic controller was not required to maintain visual contact with the aircraft ; after clearing the aircraft for takeoff , he turned to perform administrative duties and did not see the aircraft taxi to the runway .

NTSB investigators concluded that the likely cause of the crash was pilot error . The board concluded that Clay and Polehinke ignored clues that they were on the wrong runway , failed to confirm their position on the runway and talked too much , in violation of " sterile cockpit " procedures . Comair later accepted responsibility for the crash , but also placed blame on the airport , for what it called poor runway signs and markings , and the Federal Aviation Administration , which had only one air traffic controller on duty , contrary to a memo it had previously issued to have two workers on overnight shifts . A judge ruled that , since it was owned by county governments , the airport had sovereign immunity and could not be sued by Comair .

Based upon an estimated takeoff weight of 49 @,@ 087 pounds ( 22 @,@ 265 kg ) , the manufacturer calculated a speed of 138 knots ( 159 miles per hour or 256 kilometers per hour ) and a distance of 3 @,@ 744 feet ( 1 @,@ 141 m ) would have been needed for rotation ( increasing nose @-@ up pitch ) , with more runway needed to achieve lift @-@ off . At a speed approaching 100 knots ( 120 mph ) , Polehinke remarked , " That is weird with no lights " referring to the lack of lighting on Runway 26 – it was about an hour before daybreak . " Yeah " , confirmed Clay , but the flight data recorder gave no indication either pilot tried to abort the takeoff as the aircraft accelerated to 137 knots ( 158 mph ) .

Clay called for rotation but the aircraft sped off the end of the runway before it could lift off . It then struck a low earthen wall adjacent to a ditch , becoming momentarily airborne , clipped the airport perimeter fence with its landing gear , and smashed into trees , separating the fuselage and flight deck from the tail . The aircraft struck the ground about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) from the end of the runway . Forty @-@ nine of the 50 people on board perished in the accident ; most of them died instantly in the initial impact . The resulting fire destroyed the aircraft .

= = Victims = =

All 47 passengers and two of the three crew members on board the flight died . Comair released the passenger manifest on August 29 , 2006 .

Most of the passengers were US citizens from the Lexington area , ranging in age from 16 to 72 . They included a young couple who had been married the previous day and were traveling to California on their honeymoon .

A memorial service for the victims was held on August 31 , 2006 , at the Lexington Opera House . A second public memorial service was held on September 10 , 2006 , at Rupp Arena in Lexington . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader published a list of the victims with short biographies .

The Flight 5191 Memorial Commission was established shortly after the crash to create an appropriate memorial for the victims , first responders , and community that supported them . The Commission chose the University of Kentucky Arboretum as its memorial site .

= = Survivor = =

James Polehinke , the first officer , suffered serious injuries , including multiple broken bones , a collapsed lung , and severe bleeding . Lexington @-@ Fayette and airport police officers pulled Polehinke out of the wreckage . Polehinke underwent surgery for his injuries , including an amputation of his left leg . Doctors later determined that Polehinke had suffered brain damage and has no memory of the crash or the events leading up to it . As of August 2007 , Polehinke was a wheelchair user . During the same month , Polehinke filed a lawsuit against the airport and the company that designed the runway and taxi lights . A January 2014 episode of Piers Morgan Live reported that Polehinke was paraplegic .

The estates or families of 21 of the 47 passengers filed lawsuits against Polehinke . In response , Polehinke 's attorney , William E. Johnson , raised the possibility of contributory negligence on the part of the passengers . When asked by the plaintiffs ' attorney , David Royse , what that meant , Johnson replied that " ... ( they ) ... should have been aware of the dangerous conditions that existed in that there had been considerable media coverage about the necessity of improving runway conditions at the airport . " At the time Johnson submitted the contributory negligence defense , he had not yet been able to speak to Polehinke himself . By the time newspapers reported on the court documents , Johnson said he had already told Royse , who criticized the statements , that he would withdraw the argument . Prior to his employment by Comair , Polehinke worked for Gulfstream International as a captain .

= = Aftermath = =

During the course of its investigation , the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) discovered that tower staffing levels at Blue Grass Airport violated an internal policy as reflected in a November 16 , 2005 , memorandum requiring two controllers during the overnight shift : one in the tower working clearance , ground , and tower frequencies , and another , either in the tower or remotely at Indianapolis Center , working TRACON ( radar ) . At the time of the accident , the single controller in the tower was performing both tower and radar duties . On August 30 , 2006 , the FAA announced that Lexington , as well as other airports with similar traffic levels , would be staffed with two controllers in the tower around the clock effective immediately .

Comair discovered after the accident that all of its pilots had been using an airport map that did not accurately reflect changes made to the airport layout during ongoing construction work . The NTSB later determined that this did not contribute to the accident . Construction work was halted after the accident on the orders of Fayette Circuit Judge Pamela Goodwine in order to preserve evidence in the crash pending the inspection by safety experts and attorneys for the families of the victims .

In April 2007 , acting on a recommendation made by the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) during its investigation of Comair 5191 , the FAA issued a safety notice that reiterated advice to pilots to positively confirm their position before crossing the hold @-@ short line onto the take @-@ off runway , and again when initiating takeoff . And in May , acting on another NTSB recommendation , the FAA advised that pilot training should include specific guidance on runway lighting requirements for take @-@ off at night .

The NTSB released several reports on January 17 , 2007 , including transcripts and recordings of the CVR and an engineering report .

In April 2007 , the NTSB made four further recommendations , three measures to avoid fatigue affecting the performance of air traffic controllers , and one to prevent controllers from carrying out non @-@ essential administrative tasks while aircraft are taxiing under their control . Although these recommendations were published during the course of the NTSB 's investigation into the accident to Comair Flight 5191 , they were in part prompted by four earlier accidents , and the Board was unable to determine whether fatigue contributed to the Comair accident .

In July 2007 , a flying instructor for Comair testified that he would have failed both pilots for violating Sterile Cockpit Rules . Later the same month , the NTSB released its final report into the accident , citing this " non @-@ pertinent conversation " as a contributing factor in the accident .

In July 2008 , United States District Judge Karl Forester ruled Delta will not be held liable for the crash , because while Comair is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Atlanta @-@ based airline , Comair maintains its own management and policies , and employs its own pilots . In December of the following year , Forester granted a passenger family 's motion for " partial summary judgment " determining , as a matter of law , that Comair 's flight crew was negligent , and that this negligence was a substantial factor causing the crash of Flight 5191 .

Runway 8 / 26 on Blue Grass Airport was closed on March 2009 , and the new 4000 foot runway , runway 9 / 27 , opened on August 4 , 2010 . This runway has been built on a separate location not connected to the runway 22 .

Families of 45 of the 47 passengers sued Comair for negligence . ( Families of the other two victims settled with the airline before filing litigation . ) Three sample cases were due to be heard on August 4 , 2008 ; but the trial was indefinitely postponed after Comair reached a settlement with the majority of the families . Cases brought by Comair against the airport authority and the FAA , arguing each should share in the compensation payments , are now resolved . The case against the airport authority was dismissed on sovereign immunity grounds , and this ruling was upheld by the Kentucky Supreme Court on October 1 , 2009 . In Comair 's case against the United States , a settlement was reached with the United States agreeing to pay 22 % of the liability for the crash , while Comair agreed to pay the remaining 78 % .

All but one of the passengers ' families settled their cases . After a four @-@ day jury trial in Lexington , Kentucky , that ended on December 7 , 2009 , the estate and daughters of 39 ‑ year ‑ old Bryan Woodward were awarded compensatory damages in the amount of $ 7 @.@ 1 million . While Comair challenged this verdict as excessive , on April 2 , 2010 , Judge Forester overruled Comair 's objections and upheld the verdict .

The Woodward case , formally known as Hebert v. Comair , was set for a punitive damages jury trial July 19 , 2010 . In that trial a different jury was to decide whether Comair was guilty of gross negligence that was a substantial factor causing the crash and , if so , the amount of any punitive damages the jury deemed appropriate . The decision to allow a jury trial was reversed in a later hearing , with the judge ruling that the company couldn 't be punished for the " reprehensible conduct " of its pilot .

= = Probable cause = =

During a public meeting on July 26 , 2007 , the NTSB announced the probable cause of the accident , as follows :

The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the flight crew members ' failure to use available cues and aids to identify the airplane 's location on the airport surface during taxi and their failure to cross @-@ check and verify that the airplane was on the correct runway before takeoff . Contributing to the accident were the flight crew 's nonpertinent conversations during taxi , which resulted in a loss of positional awareness and the Federal Aviation Administration 's failure to require that all runway crossings be authorized only by specific air traffic control clearances .

Captain Clay 's wife strongly disputes laying primary blame on the pilots , stating that other factors contributed , " including an under @-@ staffed control tower and an inaccurate runway map " .

= = Similar accidents and incidents = =

In 1993 , a commercial jet at Blue Grass Airport was cleared for takeoff on Runway 22 but mistakenly took Runway 26 instead . Tower personnel noticed the mistake and canceled the aircraft 's takeoff clearance just as the crew realized their error . The aircraft subsequently made a safe departure from Runway 22 .

In January 2007 , a Learjet was cleared to take off at Blue Grass Airport on runway 22 , but mistakenly turned onto runway 26 . Takeoff clearance was canceled by the local controller prior to the start of the takeoff roll .

On October 31 , 2000 , the crew of Singapore Airlines Flight 006 mistakenly used a closed runway for departure from Chiang Kai @-@ shek International Airport , Taipei . The Boeing 747 @-@ 400 collided with construction equipment during the takeoff roll , resulting in the deaths of 83 of the 179 passengers and crew on board .

= Berg ( station ) =

Berg is a station on the Sognsvann Line ( line 6 ) of the Oslo Metro in Norway . Located between Ullevål stadion and Tåsen stations , it is the first station after the Ring Line leaves the Sognsvann Line . The station is located 6 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) from Stortinget station . Berg is amongst the original stations on the line , and was opened on 10 October 1934 . It was upgraded and rebuilt in the 1990s , when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded from light rail to rapid transit standard . Three accidents have taken place at Berg station , the latest in 2008 . The area around the station is mainly residential . Berg Upper Secondary School is located approximately 100 metres ( 330 ft ) from the station .

= = History = =

Berg station was opened on 10 October 1934 , when the municipally owned company Akersbanerne had completed the Sognsvann Line from Majorstuen to Sognsvann . Residential areas at Sogn , Tåsen and Berg were starting to grow , in pace with a larger suburban development plan . Akersbanerne bought new property along the line , upon which new houses were to be designed by the Norwegian architect Kristofer Lange ( 1886 – 1977 ) .

The line was originally double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll ( now Østhorn ) station and single @-@ tracked from Korsvoll to Sognsvann . On 21 February 1939 , the section from Korsvoll to Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks , and Korsvoll station had its name changed to Østhorn .

In the 1980s , the stations on the Sognsvann Line were rebuilt . The platforms were lengthened from fitting two @-@ car to fitting four @-@ car trains and the platform height was increased . The third rail made it impossible to cross the line at @-@ grade ; an underpass was therefore constructed at Berg station . The station was also redesigned in concrete with steel columns and wooden sheds designed by architect Arne Henriksen .

In 1991 , Oslo Sporveier presented plans involving a rapid transit circle line in Oslo , connecting the newly built hospital Rikshospitalet with the rest of the city . A detailed suggestion was presented by Oslo Sporveier in August 1996 . In the local newspaper Aftenposten Aften there was a debate on whether there should be a ring line from Berg along the National Road 150 towards Gaustad over Rikshospitalet , or whether the Ullevål Hageby Line should be extended from John Colletts plass to Rikshospitalet , thereby creating a correspondence with the Sognsvann Line at the new station Forskningsparken . In the first plans , Berg was meant to be a station on the new ring line . This plan was discarded since local residents feared noise pollution and destroyed lawns . Even though Berg was not made a station on the Ring Line , noise shields were put up along the Sognsvann Line .

Berg station has seen many accidents and almost @-@ accidents . In 1965 , a deadly accident occurred between Ullevål and Berg stations , when a train ran over a 33 @-@ year @-@ old man walking in the tracks . In 2002 , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old man was run over by a metro train approaching the station . The man survived the accident with minor wounds . In 2008 , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old drunk man was found crawling around on the tracks between the platforms . The police removed him from the station and sent him home in a taxi .

= = Service = =

Berg is served by line 6 on the Sognsvann Line , operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter . The rapid transit serves the station every 15 minutes , except in the late evening and on weekend mornings , when there is a 30 @-@ minute headway . Travel time along the 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) portion to Stortinget in the city center is 11 minutes .

The station provides correspondence to the bus lines 23 and 24 at a nearby bus stop in Kaj Munks vei .

= = Facilities = =

Berg has two platforms , each with a wooden shed and ticket machines . The sheds are designed by Arne Henriksen in a minimalistic and standardised style with constructions of wood and steel .

= = = Location = = =

Berg is located in the borough of Nordre Aker , northeast of the residential area Ullevål Hageby , northwest of Voldsløkka , west of Tåsen , south of Nordberg and east of Sogn . The area Berg is named after an old farm from 1264 with the same name . The street John Colletts allé , starting from John Colletts plass in Ullevål Hageby , ends at Berg station . Kaj Munks vei , as part of the Norwegian National Road 150 , runs parallel with the line from Ullevål stadion via Berg to Tåsen , and continues thereafter towards Nydalen . There are many Swiss chalet and functionalist style houses in the residential area around the station . Berg Upper Secondary School is located 100 metres ( 330 ft ) from the station .

= Adams River ( British Columbia ) =

The Adams River is a tributary to the Thompson and Fraser Rivers in British Columbia , Canada . Beginning in the Monashee Mountains to the north , the Upper Adams River flows mainly southward and eventually reaches Adams Lake . The Lower Adams River begins at the southern end of the lake and flows into the extreme western end of Shuswap Lake . The river is one of the most important sockeye salmon breeding areas in North America . The run occurs in mid @-@ October and can bring millions of fish to a concentrated area near the river mouth . Excavations of Secwepemc villages on the river have shown a long tradition of habitation and salmon fishing in the area . The river also served as an important transportation route for early logging operations in the watershed .

= = Course = =

The headwaters of the Adams are several unnamed glaciers at roughly 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) elevation in the north @-@ east region of the Monashee Range of the Columbia Mountains . The upper portion of the river flows roughly south and southwest through wetlands and passes through two small lakes , Tumtum and Mica . It has sections of rapids and whitewater , and flows over cataracts below Tumtum Lake . Its flow drops by 5 metres ( 16 ft ) per kilometre in certain sections . After travelling for 94 kilometres ( 58 mi ) and entering the Shuswap Highland , it enters the northern end of Adams Lake .

Adams Lake is roughly 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) along its north @-@ south axis , and reaches a maximum depth of 457 metres ( 1 @,@ 499 ft ) , making it the 24th deepest lake in the world . The Lower Adams issues from the extreme southern end of the lake and travels 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) through a narrow valley . It empties into Shuswap Lake near the community of Squilax . From Adams Lake to the Shuswap , the Lower Adams drops 60 metres ( 200 ft ) in elevation .

= = = Tributaries = = =

Tributaries of the Upper Adams include :

Oliver Creek

Dudgeon Creek

Sunset Creek

Fisher Creek

Adams Lake and the Lower Adams are fed by :

Cayenne Creek

Sinmax Creek

Momich River

Hiuihill ( Bear ) Creek

Nikwikwaia ( Gold ) Creek

= = History = =

= = = Secwepemc = = =

The Secwepemc people have lived in the Adams River valley for millennia . A 1977 study by the provincial government along the lower river found sixty @-@ six sites with evidence of habitation dating to 2000 BCE . The abundance of the salmon run made the river an important food source and trade commodity for First Nations people in the region .

Ethnographer James Teit records that the people of the Adams River area formed a sub @-@ group of the Secwepemc called the " Sxste 'lln " , now known as the Adams Lake Indian Band . The Sxste 'lln moved between summer and winter camps at the outlet of the lower river and the Little River area near Chase . The river 's namesake , Chief Sel @-@ howt @-@ ken ( baptized as Adam by Oblate missionaries ) was a Sxste 'lln leader in the 1860s . Like more than 200 of his people , he died in the 1862 smallpox epidemic .

= = = Adams River Lumber Company = = =

Although prospectors , surveyors , and trappers had travelled the region in the 1800s , the first large scale activity in the river valley by Europeans was logging . J.P. McGoldrick , an experienced lumberman from Spokane , established the Adams River Lumber Company in 1909 . He licensed large tracts of timber along both the Upper and Lower rivers , as well as the surrounding plateau . McGoldrick 's company is described as the first major industrial operation in the British Columbia Interior .

A camp was built on the upper river and logging operations began at Tumtum Lake . The cut logs were run down the river , then towed in booms by the company owned sternwheeler Helen down Adams Lake . The logs then were run down the Lower river to the mill at Chase . In 1908 , Adams River Logging constructed a " splash dam " at the outlet of the Lower Adams . This dam allowed operators to raise the water level of Adams Lake . When sufficient logs had been collected above the dam , the gates were opened and the resulting flood carried the logs to Shuswap Lake . This proved to be destructive to the salmon run as it damaged the gravel beds the fish use to spawn .

In order to move logs from the plateau above the Lower river , Adams River Lumber constructed several flumes . The flumes were elevated wooden troughs filled with water that floated logs down to the valley bottom . The largest of these was at Bear Creek . It incorporated trestles up to 25 metres ( 82 ft ) high and was capable of moving 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 ft ) of logs per month . It was the largest flume in North America at its peak . The structures were dismantled after the areas became logged out .

Although logging continues in the region , the Adams is no longer used for log transport .

= = Ecology = =

= = = Flora = = =

Much of the ecology of the watershed has been affected by wildfires and forestry , and is considered to be in a seral phase . The river travels through several different vegetation zones . In its upper reaches , the Adams flows through the Interior Cedar Hemlock zone . These forests are similar to the coastal forests of British Columbia and contain old @-@ growth trees up to 1000 years in age . Old @-@ growth stands along the river also contain rare species of lichen , likely isolated by the last Ice Age . The floodplain of the Upper Adams contains wetland species of deciduous trees such as black cottonwood as well as a dense layer of shrubs including black twinberry , red @-@ osier dogwood , and thimbleberry . The lower river is dominated by the drier Interior Douglas Fir vegetation zone . Other conifer species present are Ponderosa pine , Engelmann spruce , and alpine fir . The area around the river mouth has been altered by human activities such as farming and livestock grazing .

= = = Fauna = = =

= = = = Sockeye salmon = = = =

Adams River sockeye travel from their spawning grounds to the South Thompson River , then into the Fraser River , and enter the Pacific . From the Strait of Georgia , they spend three years in the open ocean following Arctic currents to Alaska and the Aleutian islands . They then retrace their route to the Adams , completing a round trip of over 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) . They complete the arduous trip upstream , including navigating the swift waters and rapids of the Fraser Canyon , in just seventeen days . They do not eat during this period ; instead they rely on fat reserves stored up from heavy feeding in the Strait of Georgia in the late summer . It is at this point that the salmon take on their distinctive red hue , with the male fish also developing large humped backs and aggressive hooked mouths . How they are able navigate back to their natal river is not fully understood , but a highly developed olfactory system is believed to play a part .

The alluvial gravel deposits that form the Adams river bottom are ideal for the development of salmon roe and alevins . The temperature and neutral Ph of the water is also well @-@ suited to the sockeye . Shuswap Lake , below the river , is called a " nursery lake " by biologists due to its high concentration of picoplankton , a food source for young salmon .

= = = = Dominant runs = = = =

The Adams River run occurs every year , but every fourth year ( called a " dominant " year ) , the numbers are much higher . 2014 was the most recent dominant run . According to Canada 's Department of Fisheries and Oceans , the Fraser River sockeye run of 2010 was the largest since 1913 , numbering an estimated 34 million fish . At least 3 @,@ 866 @,@ 000 of these fish returned to the Adams River to spawn . There is no clear consensus as to why the Adams stock has rebounded so remarkably ( 1991 saw an estimated return of 718 fish ) . In the Globe and Mail , Simon Fraser University biologist John Reynolds said “ [ predicting salmon numbers ] is massively complex , even for a scientist . ”

= = = = Other fauna = = = =

The Adams River valley supports large populations of mule deer , with smaller herds of white @-@ tail deer . Black bears are common in the watershed . The bear population grows substantially during the fall as they gather from adjacent valleys to feed on the spawning salmon . In the upper river valley , moose are common , and the headwaters of the river contain grizzly bear habitat . Several species of aquatic mammals are found on the river , including beaver , mink , and river otter .

The river 's mouth has populations of Canada geese and swans . Other waterfowl include mallards , green @-@ winged teal , and goldeneye . The river supports Bald eagle and osprey populations , whose eyries can be seen high up in black cottonwood and dead conifers . Grouse , especially ruffed grouse , are numerous throughout the valley .

= = Protected areas = =

The Adams passes through the 5 @,@ 733 hectare Upper Adams River Provincial Park and the 1 @,@ 076 hectare Roderick Haig @-@ Brown Provincial Park , which provides trails and platforms for salmon viewing . Human visitors to Roderick Haig @-@ Brown Provincial Park were estimated at 160 @,@ 000 in 2010 . Haig @-@ Brown was a Canadian conservationist , writer and a member of the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission .

= Independence Day ( India ) =

Independence Day , observed annually on 15 August is a national holiday in India commemorating the nation 's independence from the British Empire on 15 August 1947 . India attained independence following an Independence Movement noted for largely nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience led by the Indian National Congress ( INC ) . Independence coincided with the partition of India , in which the British Indian Empire was divided along religious lines into the Dominions of India and Pakistan ; the partition was accompanied by violent riots and mass casualties , and the displacement of nearly 15 million people due to sectarian violence . On 15 August 1947 , Jawaharlal Nehru , who had become the first Prime Minister of India that day , raised the Indian national flag above the Lahori Gate of the Red Fort in Delhi . On each subsequent Independence Day , the prime minister has raised the flag and given a speech .

The holiday is observed throughout India with flag @-@ hoisting ceremonies , parades and cultural events . Indians celebrate the day by displaying the national flag on their attire , accessories and homes ; by listening to patriotic songs , watching patriotic movies ; and bonding with family and friends . Books and films feature the independence and partition in their narrative . There have been threats of terrorist attack on and around 15 August by separatist and militant organisations .

= = History = =

European traders had established outposts on the Indian subcontinent by the 17th century . Through overwhelming military strength , the British East India company subdued local kingdoms and established themselves as the dominant force by the 18th century . Following the Rebellion of 1857 , the Government of India Act 1858 led the British Crown to assume direct control of India . In the decades following , civic society gradually emerged across India , most notably the Indian National Congress Party , formed in 1885 . The period after World War I was marked by British reforms such as the Montagu – Chelmsford Reforms , but it also witnessed the enactment of the repressive Rowlatt Act and calls for self @-@ rule by Indian activists . The discontent of this period crystallized into nationwide non @-@ violent movements of non @-@ cooperation and civil disobedience , led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi .

During the 1930s , reform was gradually legislated by the British ; Congress won victories in the resulting elections . The next decade was beset with political turmoil : Indian participation in World War II , the Congress ' final push for non @-@ cooperation , and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism led by the All @-@ India Muslim League . The escalating political tension was capped by Independence in 1947 . The jubilation was tempered by the bloody partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan .

= = = Independence Day before Independence = = =

At the 1929 Lahore session of the Indian National Congress , the Purna Swaraj declaration , or " Declaration of the Independence of India " was promulgated , and 26 January was declared as Independence Day . The Congress called on people to pledge themselves to civil disobedience and " to carry out the Congress instructions issued from time to time " until India attained complete independence . Celebration of such an Independence Day was envisioned to stoke nationalistic fervour among Indian citizens , and to force the British government to consider granting independence .

The Congress observed 26 January as the Independence Day between 1930 and 1946 . The celebration was marked by meetings where the attendants took the " pledge of independence " . Jawaharlal Nehru described in his autobiography that such meetings were peaceful , solemn , and " without any speeches or exhortation " . Gandhi envisaged that besides the meetings , the day would be spent " ... in doing some constructive work , whether it is spinning , or service of ' untouchables , ' or reunion of Hindus and Mussalmans , or prohibition work , or even all these together " . Following actual independence in 1947 , the Constitution of India came into effect on and from 26 January 1950 ; since then 26 January is celebrated as Republic Day .

= = = Immediate background = = =

In 1946 , the Labour government in Britain , its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II , realised that it had neither the mandate at home , the international support , nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless India . In February 1947 , Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that the British government would grant full self @-@ governance to British India by June 1948 at the latest .

The new viceroy , Lord Mountbatten , advanced the date for the transfer of power , believing the continuous contention between the Congress and the Muslim League might lead to a collapse of the interim government . He chose the second anniversary of Japan 's surrender in World War II , 15 August , as the date of power transfer . The British government announced on 3 June 1947 that it had accepted the idea of partitioning British India into two states ; the successor governments would be given dominion status and would have an implicit right to secede from the British Commonwealth . The Indian Independence Act 1947 ( 10 & 11 Geo 6 c . 30 ) of the Parliament of the United Kingdom partitioned British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan ( including what is now Bangladesh ) with effect from 15 August 1947 , and granted complete legislative authority upon the respective constituent assemblies of the new countries . The Act received royal assent on 18 July 1947 .

= = = Partition and independence = = =

Millions of Muslim , Sikh and Hindu refugees trekked across the newly drawn borders in the months surrounding independence . In Punjab , where the borders divided the Sikh regions in halves , massive bloodshed followed ; in Bengal and Bihar , where Mahatma Gandhi 's presence assuaged communal tempers , the violence was mitigated . In all , between 250 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence . While the entire nation was celebrating the Independence Day , Gandhi stayed in Calcutta in an attempt to stem the carnage . On 14 August 1947 , the Independence Day of Pakistan , the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being ; Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi .

The Constituent Assembly of India met for its fifth session at 11 pm on 14 August in the Constitution Hall in New Delhi . The session was chaired by the president Rajendra Prasad . In this session , Jawaharlal Nehru delivered the Tryst with Destiny speech proclaiming India 's independence .

The members of the Assembly formally took the pledge of being in the service of the country . A group of women , representing the women of India , formally presented the national flag to the assembly .

The Dominion of India became an independent country as official ceremonies took place in New Delhi . Nehru assumed office as the first prime minister , and the viceroy , Lord Mountbatten , continued as its first governor general . Gandhi 's name was invoked by crowds celebrating the occasion ; Gandhi himself however took no part in the official events . Instead , he marked the day with a 24 @-@ hour fast , during which he spoke to a crowd in Calcutta , encouraging peace between Hindu and Muslim .

= = Celebration = =

Independence Day , one of the three national holidays in India ( the other two being the Republic Day on 26 January and Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday on 2 October ) , is observed in all Indian states and union territories . On the eve of Independence Day , the President of India delivers the " Address to the Nation " . On 15 August , the prime minister hoists the Indian flag on the ramparts of the historical site Red Fort in Delhi . Twenty @-@ one gun shots are fired in honour of the solemn occasion . In his speech , the prime minister highlights the past year 's achievements , raises important issues and calls for further development . He pays tribute to the leaders of the Indian independence movement . The Indian national anthem , " Jana Gana Mana " is sung . The speech is followed by march past of divisions of the Indian Armed Forces and paramilitary forces . Parades and pageants showcase scenes from the independence struggle and India 's diverse cultural traditions . Similar events take place in state capitals where the Chief Ministers of individual states unfurl the national flag , followed by parades and pageants .

Flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural programmes take place in governmental and non @-@ governmental institutions throughout the country . Schools and colleges conduct flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural events . Major government buildings are often adorned with strings of lights . In Delhi and some other cities , kite flying adds to the occasion . National flags of different sizes are used abundantly to symbolise allegiance to the country . Citizens adorn their clothing , wristbands , cars , household accessories with replicas of the tri @-@ colour . Over a period of time , the celebration has changed emphasis from nationalism to a broader celebration of all things India .

The Indian diaspora celebrates Independence Day around the world with parades and pageants , particularly in regions with higher concentrations of Indian immigrants . In some locations , such as New York and other US cities , 15 August has become " India Day " among the diaspora and the local populace . Pageants celebrate " India Day " either on 15 August or an adjoining weekend day .

= = Security threats = =

As early as three years after independence , the Naga National Council called for a boycott of Independence Day in northeast India . Separatist protests in this region intensified in the 1980s ; calls for boycotts and terrorist attacks by insurgent organisations such as the United Liberation Front of Assam and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland , marred celebrations . With increasing insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir from the late 1980s , separatist protesters boycotted Independence Day there with bandh ( strikes ) , use of black flags and by flag burning . Terrorist outfits such as Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Taiba , the Hizbul Mujahideen and the Jaish @-@ e @-@ Mohammed have issued threats , and have carried out attacks around Independence Day . Boycotting of the celebration has also been advocated by insurgent Maoist rebel organisations .

In the anticipation of terrorist attacks , particularly from militants , security measures are intensified , especially in major cities such as Delhi and Mumbai and in troubled states such as Jammu and Kashmir . The airspace around the Red Fort is declared a no @-@ fly zone to prevent aerial attacks and additional police forces are deployed in other cities .

= = In popular culture = =

On Independence Day and Republic Day , patriotic songs in Hindi and regional languages are broadcast on television and radio channels . They are also played alongside flag hoisting ceremonies . Patriotic films are broadcast . Over the decades , according to The Times of India , the number of such films broadcast has decreased as channels report that audiences are oversaturated with patriotic films . The population cohort that belong to the Generation Next often combine nationalism with popular culture during the celebrations . This mixture is exemplified by outfits and savouries dyed with the tricolour and designer garments that represent India 's various cultural traditions . Retail stores offer Independence Day sales promotions . Some news reports have decried the commercialism . Indian Postal Service publishes commemorative stamps depicting independence movement leaders , nationalistic themes and defence @-@ related themes on 15 August .

Independence and partition inspired literary and other artistic creations . Such creations mostly describe the human cost of partition , limiting the holiday to a small part of their narrative . Salman Rushdie 's novel Midnight 's Children ( 1980 ) , which won the Booker Prize and the Booker of Bookers , wove its narrative around children born at midnight of 14 – 15 August 1947 with magical abilities . Freedom at Midnight ( 1975 ) is a non @-@ fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surrounding the first Independence Day celebrations in 1947 . Few films center on the moment of independence , instead highlighting the circumstances of partition and its aftermath . On the Internet , Google has commemorated Independence Day since 2003 with a special doodle on its Indian homepage .

= The One I Love ( manga ) =

The One I Love ( Japanese : わたしのすきなひと , Hepburn : Watashi no Sukinahito ) is a romantic , slice @-@ of @-@ life shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga by Clamp , an all @-@ female , manga artist team consisting of Satsuki Igarashi , Mokona , Tsubaki Nekoi , and Nanase Ohkawa . Appearing as a monthly serial in the Japanese manga magazine Monthly Young Rose from December 1993 to June 1995 , the twelve stories were collected into a bound volume by Kadokawa Shoten and published in July 1995 . The One I Love contains twelve independent manga stories , each focusing on an aspect of love and accompanied by an essay . Ohkawa wrote the essays while Nekoi illustrated the manga ; it was the first time she primarily illustrated a manga by Clamp . Some of the stories draw on the life experiences of the women while others take inspiration from conversations they had with friends .

In 2003 , Tokyopop licensed The One I Love for an English @-@ language translation in North America , and published it in October 2004 . Viz Media republished the manga in February 2015 . The manga has also been translated into other languages . Reviewers have identified a few themes in the collection . They had a range of reactions to The One I Love : some considered it heartfelt entertainment , while others reviewed it less positively , as a badly done take on romance .

= = Plot = =

Each story of The One I Love consists of seven pages of manga and an accompanying essay .

" Different " ( ちがう , Chigau ) : A girl asks to meet her boyfriend in the park after they have had a fight . She wants to apologize , but she does not know what to say . She wears a kimono instead . When she meets her boyfriend , she finds that he is dressed up too ; he had the same idea as she did .

" Cute " ( かわいい , Kawaii ) : A girl reflects on the word " cute " with her boyfriend . She cannot visualize " cute , " so she does not understand why it makes her happy when he says that she is cute .

" I Miss You " ( あいたい , Aitai ) : A girl has doubts about staying with her boyfriend , who has a very demanding work schedule . In the end , he skips work to visit her , and she decides that their romantic relationship will work out .

" A Younger Man " ( としした , Toshishita ) : A young woman working at a bakery reflects on a past unsuccessful relationship with a younger man . In the end , a younger bakery worker asks her on a date , and she is hopeful that their romantic relationship will work out .

" Suddenly " ( とつぜん , Totsuzen ) : A girl working in a design company thinks about her past relationships , and one of her coworkers , whom she does not get along with . When a design job goes wrong and that coworker offers his ideas , she realizes that she is in love with him .

" Together " ( いっしょに , Isshoni ) : A girl reflects on her childhood sweetheart , who introduced her to playing the harmonica .

" Pretty " ( きれい , Kirei ) : A girl panics as she decides what to wear to meet her boyfriend . When she is late to meet him , she realizes that her boyfriend always thinks she is pretty no matter what she wears .

" Insecure " ( ふあん , Fuan ) : A girl has a dream about her boyfriend ending their relationship , and she is worried that it is a premonition .

" Courage " ( ゆうき , Yûki ) : A girl confesses her love on Valentine 's Day .

" Normal " ( ふつう , Futsû ) : A young woman has doubts about getting married to her boyfriend . In the end , she realizes that even if they marry , nothing will change between them .

" Apart " ( はなれる , Hanareru ) : A young woman wonders if her long @-@ distance boyfriend is being faithful . In the end , she finds out that he is very dedicated to her .

" Marriage " ( けっこん , Kekkon ) : A young woman about to be married is nervous about her future . She is worried that she might change , but her husband reassures her that they will change together .

= = Development = =

The One I Love was developed by Clamp — the all @-@ female , manga artist team consisting of Satsuki Igarashi , Mokona , Tsubaki Nekoi , and Nanase Ohkawa . The group decided on the theme of romance after considering the target audience of the manga magazine Monthly Young Rose , whose editors had asked them for a manga . For The One I Love , Ohkawa wrote the essays , and Nekoi illustrated the manga , the first time she primarily illustrated a series for the group . For costumes , Ohkawa used " Anon non @-@ no Olive " as a reference . Additionally , the preview panels of each story featured different visual motifs , primarily girls and animals . In retrospective , Nekoi self @-@ deprecatingly thought that her illustrations of the female protagonists , including working women , made them resemble junior high students .

Some of the stories in The One I Love contain autobiographical elements . " Different " and " Cute " draw on Ohkawa 's personal experiences , while " Together " draws on Mokona 's . Additionally , " Suddenly " is based on her admiration of manga artist Hagiwara Kuzushi 's dedication to his fans . " Normal " , " Apart " , and " Insecure " were inspired by Ohkawa 's conversations with friends , and " I Miss You " has its origins in a conversation with manga artist Okazaki Takeshi , who rarely saw his girlfriend because of his work . " A Younger Man " stems from Ohkawa 's conversation with actor Tonesaku Toshihide and his thoughts on men and age in a relationship . In contrast , " Courage " appeared as a Valentine 's Day story in the February issue of Young Rose ; Clamp rarely had opportunities to create seasonal stories , as the magazine that typically serialized their work did not run seasonal stories .

= = Release = =

Written and illustrated by Clamp , the stories of The One I Love appeared as a monthly serial in Monthly Young Rose from December 1993 to June 1995 . Kadokawa Shoten collected the stories into a bound volume , and published it on July 16 , 1995 .

In 2003 , Tokyopop announced that it had licensed The One I Love for an English @-@ language translation , along with four other manga by Clamp ; it published The One I Love on October 12 , 2004 . However , on May 31 , 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its publishing branch in North America , with all of its Japanese manga licenses returned . Viz Media digitally republished the manga on February 10 , 2015 . The One I Love has also been translated into other languages , including French by Editions Tonkam , and German by Egmont Manga & Anime .

= = Reception = =

A reviewer for Anime News Network , Mikhail Koulikov wrote that readers would have various reactions to The One I Love : he felt that some would regard it as " charming " and others would find it upsetting that the female protagonists were primarily defined by their worry over their relationships . While considering it one of Clamp 's minor works , he stated that it was " unusual " for including some colored pages when the majority of manga is printed in black and white ; being a slice @-@ of @-@ life manga ; and featuring Tsubaki Nekoi 's art , as prior to the time of his review , most of their works translated into English had been drawn by another member of Clamp . Koulikov wrote that " insecurity and self @-@ doubt " served as the theme of the anthology . Johanna Draper Carlson , a reviewer for Publishers Weekly , wrote that some of the stories were worrisome , particularly one that she felt " justifies having an interest in whatever your boyfriend likes , " and contained stereotypes as a result of limited space . She also stated that the essays included generalizations about women and " quickly become redundant . " In Manga : The Complete Guide , Mason Templar suggested a possible theme of being one 's self in relationships , but felt that it appeared " almost anti @-@ feminist in execution , " as only the female characters underwent a change in behavior . Templar rated the series one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , and criticized it as a naïve take on romance ; Templar suggested Cardcaptor Sakura , Chobits , or Man of Many Faces as better examples of Clamp 's romantic manga . A reviewer of the French edition wrote that repetitive nature of the stories detracted from the manga 's appeal , and made for a " laborious " reading experience , although the reviewer felt that a " romantic " reader would not mind this . Conversely , another reviewer for Anime News Network , Liann Cooper , wrote that the stories were " incredibly sweet and touching " and were best read a few stories at a time . According to Cooper , The One I Love would appeal to fans of Clamp or shōjo , manga targeted towards girls .

= Hurricane Abby ( 1960 ) =

Hurricane Abby was the only tropical cyclone in the Caribbean Sea during the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season . The second tropical cyclone and first named storm season , Abby developed on July 10 from a tropical wave in the vicinity of the Lesser Antilles . Abby rapidly intensified into a hurricane after being a tropical storm for less than six hours . It briefly peaked as a category 2 hurricane before weakening back . Abby rapidly weakened to a minimal tropical storm a few days thereafter . The storm re @-@ strengthened into a hurricane as it began to parallel the coast of Honduras . Hurricane Abby made landfall in British Honduras ( present @-@ day Belize ) on July 15 . Abby dissipated over Mexico later the next day . The remnants of Abby ultimately became Hurricane Celeste in the Pacific Ocean . Despite passing through or near several countries , Hurricane Abby had a relatively light impact on land , resulting in just $ 640 @,@ 500 ( 1960 USD , $ 5 @.@ 16 million 2016 USD ) in damage and six fatalities .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Hurricane Abby were possibly from a tropical wave that moved in the vicinity of the Lesser Antilles in early July 1960 . Ships and a few weather stations on July 9 reported the existence of a tropical cyclone . On July 9 , it had operationally been classified as a tropical storm upon formation , though a later analysis revealed that it was only a tropical depression . The depression passed near Barbados early on July 10 before rapidly intensifying into a hurricane . Hurricane Abby accelerated toward the west and made landfall in St. Lucia as a minimal category 1 hurricane . Abby emerged into the Caribbean Sea a few hours later . As it headed generally westward , it also gradually strengthened . By July 11 , Hurricane Abby had attained peak intensity as a 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) category 2 hurricane .

The intensity of Abby began to gradually level off , though it re @-@ intensified slightly in the Caribbean , before eventually weakening further . Abby was downgraded to a tropical storm on the morning of July 13 ; it was center roughly 222 mi ( 357 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica at the time . Just six hours thereafter , Abby had maximum sustained winds of only 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Abby re @-@ intensified at a relatively quick pace , as it was near hurricane status again when it passed just to the north of Honduras on July 14 .

Late on July 14 , Abby had re @-@ intensified into a hurricane . A few hours later , Abby passed over the island of Roatán at about midnight ( EDT ) on July 15 . It made a third and final landfall on July 15 when it moved inland over British Honduras ( presently known as Belize ) as a minimal hurricane . Abby quickly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical storm only a few hours later over land . While Abby approached the border of Guatemala and Mexico , it had weakened further to a tropical depression . Abby dissipated while situated over the Mexican state of Tabasco on July 16 . The remnants crossed over Mexico into the Pacific Ocean and regenerated into Hurricane Celeste on July 20 . Hurricane Celeste lasted for two days in the Pacific before it dissipated on July 22 .

= = Preparations and impact = =

= = = Lesser Antilles = = =

There were many watches and warning issued during the passage of Hurricane Abby throughout the Caribbean . Some gale warnings were issued from the Grenadines to Guadeloupe starting on July 10 . Around 1600 UTC later that day , a hurricane watch was issued for the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico . Several hours later , the watch was extended to include Dominican Republic and Haiti . All warnings were discontinued later , after the storm passed by .

Hurricane Abby bypassed Barbados a tropical depression , which resulted in minimal effects . Maximum sustained winds on Barbados were reported at 23 mph ( 57 km / h ) , while gusts were recorded up to 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . There are no other effects known on Barbados . St. Lucia had borne the brunt of the storm when Hurricane Abby made landfall as a category 1 hurricane . Rainfall on the island totaled at 6 @.@ 80 in ( 172 @.@ 7 mm ) . Tropical storm force winds were recorded on the island for the passage of Hurricane Abby on July 10 , though there were no hurricane force winds reported . In addition , a roof collapsed in on a house , killing six of the residents living there . The passage of Hurricane Abby also resulted in $ 435 @,@ 000 ( 1960 USD , $ 3 @.@ 48 million 2016 USD ) of damage on St. Lucia . Martinique was near the path of Hurricane Abby , which resulted in some effects . The Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport in Fort @-@ de @-@ France recorded rainfall at nearly three inches ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) , while rain in another village was measured at nearly four inches ( 101 @.@ 2 mm ) . Winds on Martinique were also at least tropical storm force during the passage of Hurricane Abby . However , wind gusts on Martinique were around 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , greater than that which was observed on St. Lucia . There were also damaged roads and bridges , mainly due to landslides . The island nation of Dominica was also affected by Hurricane Abby . Hurricane Abby produced nearly six in ( 152 @.@ 4 mm ) of rain on the island . Winds were also similar to those that were measured on Barbados . Hurricane Abby left about $ 65 @,@ 000 ( 1960 USD , $ 520 thousand 2016 USD ) in damage to Dominica .

= = = Greater Antilles and Central America = = =

It was initially believed that Abby would affect Jamaica with gale force winds and heavy rainfall , and the U.S. Weather Bureau noted that " interests " on the island should monitor the progress of the storm . However , Abby remained far south of the island , and the impact it had on the island , if any , is unknown . Citizens of the Cayman Islands , Central America , and the Yucatan Peninsula were also to remain on alert during the passage of Abby . The U.S. Weather Bureau later warned citizens in British Honduras and Honduras to " take all precautions for the protection of life and property against dangerous winds and abnormally high seas " .

Hurricane Abby also produced 1 @.@ 62 in ( 41 @.@ 14 mm ) of rain on Swan Island . On the islands north of Honduras , reports were received until winds reached 52 mph ( 83 @.@ 7 km / h ) , and then communications were lost . In Belize City , which was 75 mi ( 120 @.@ 7 km ) north of where Abby made landfall , wind gusts were reported to 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Minor property damage was reported in British Honduras , totaling to BZ $ 6 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 3 @,@ 000 1960 USD ; $ 24 thousand 2016 USD ) . In addition , agricultural losses reached BZ $ 75 @,@ 000 ( about $ 37 @,@ 500 1960 USD ; $ 300 thousand 2016 USD ) . Although Abby nearly made landfall in Honduras and eventually entered Mexico , no effects were reported , but the U.S. Weather Bureau believed that flooding and there were seas of at least 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal .

Throughout its path , Abby caused only about $ 600 @,@ 000 ( 1960 USD , $ 4 @.@ 8 million 2016 USD ) in damage and six fatalities .

= 2010 Alabama Crimson Tide football team =

The 2010 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2010 NCAA Division I FBS football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 116th overall season , 77th as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and its 19th within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his fourth year , and played their home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of ten wins and three losses ( 10 – 3 , 5 – 3 in the SEC ) and defeated Michigan State 49 – 7 in the Capital One Bowl .

Alabama entered the season as defending national champions , and began the 2010 season as the preseason number one team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls . Favored to win a second consecutive SEC championship and be in contention for the national championship , the Crimson Tide opened the season with five consecutive victories over San Jose State , Penn State , Duke , Arkansas and Florida . However , Alabama completed the regular season with only nine victories and losses to South Carolina , LSU and Auburn and finished fourth in the Western Division . After the regular season , the Crimson Tide accepted an invitation to compete in the Capital One Bowl in Orlando . Against Big Ten co @-@ champions Michigan State , Alabama won by a final score of 49 – 7 and captured both a third straight ten win season and top ten finish .

= = Before the season = =

During the 2009 campaign , the Crimson Tide finished the season undefeated , 14 – 0 , with wins over several ranked opponents that included No. 7 Virginia Tech , No. 20 Ole Miss , No. 22 South Carolina , No. 9 LSU , No. 1 Florida in the SEC Championship , and No. 2 Texas in the BCS National Championship Game . They finished the season as the consensus National Champions , being voted No. 1 in the AP and Coaches ' Polls in securing Alabama 's first national title since 1992 . In addition to the national title , sophomore running back Mark Ingram became the first Alabama player to win the Heisman Trophy .

In February 2010 , eighteen players each signed an individual National Letter of Intent to play college football at Alabama . The 2010 recruiting class was ranked nationally in the top five by several recruiting services including Rivals , Scout , ESPNU and CBS College Sports . Spring practice began on March 12 and concluded with the annual A @-@ Day game on April 17 . Televised live by ESPN , the Crimson team of offensive starters defeated the White team of defensive starters by a final score of 23 – 17 before 91 @,@ 312 fans in Bryant – Denny Stadium . The game was decided after the end of regulation when Brandon Gibson caught a 39 @-@ yard touchdown pass from AJ McCarron in sudden death . For their performances , Marcell Dareus earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A @-@ Day Game Award and Mark Ingram earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A @-@ Day Game Award .

By August , Alabama had a combined 21 players on 12 different preseason award watch lists . These included both Mark Barron , Marcell Dareus and Dont ’ a Hightower for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Julio Jones for the Fred Biletnikoff Award ; Hightower and Nico Johnson for the Butkus Award ; Ingram for the Walter Camp Award ; James Carpenter , Dareus and Hightower for the Lombardi Award ; Ingram and Greg McElroy for the Maxwell Award ; Barron , Dareus and Hightower for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; McElroy for the Davey O 'Brien Award ; Carpenter and Barrett Jones for the Outland Trophy ; William Vlachos for the Rimington Trophy ; Barron for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Ingram for the Doak Walker Award .

= = = Returning starters = = =

Alabama had 10 returning starters from the previous season , including eight on offense and two on defense . The most notable departures from the previous year were linebackers Eryk Anders , Rolando McClain and Cory Reamer ; cornerbacks Javier Arenas , Kareem Jackson and Marquis Johnson ; defensive ends Brandon Deaderick and Lorenzo Washington ; nose tackle Terrence Cody ; safety Justin Woodall ; offensive linemen Drew Davis and Mike Johnson ; and tight end Colin Peek . Additionally , all of special teams players were replaced following the departures of punter P.J. Fitzgerald , placekicker Leigh Tiffin , long snapper Brian Selman and Arenas as the return specialist .

= = = Recruiting class = = =

Alabama 's recruiting class was highlighted by eight players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 16 DeMarcus Milliner ( CB ) ; No. 32 Phillip Sims ( QB ) ; No. 36 John Fulton ( CB ) ; No. 54 Adrian Hubbard ( DE ) ; No. 74 Chad Lindsay ( OG ) ; No. 89 Keiwone Malone ( WR ) ; No. 99 C.J. Mosley ( OLB ) ; and No. 132 Brian Vogler ( TE ) . Alabama signed the No. 5 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 4 recruiting class according to Scout . The football program received 18 letters of intent on National Signing Day , February 3 , 2010 .

= = Schedule = =

The 2010 schedule was officially released on September 2 , 2009 . In accordance with conference rules , Alabama faced all five Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , and Ole Miss . They also faced three Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee , Florida , and South Carolina . Alabama did not play SEC opponents Georgia , Kentucky and Vanderbilt . The contest against Ole Miss served as the 2010 homecoming game .

Alabama also played four non @-@ conference games . The game against Penn State was originally scheduled as part of the 2004 season , however the series was moved back at the request of Alabama due to fallout from NCAA sanctions being levied on the program . The non @-@ conference schedule also included games against San Jose State of the Western Athletic Conference , Duke of the Atlantic Coast Conference and Georgia State of the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . On December 5 , it was announced Alabama would face Big Ten co @-@ champion Michigan State in the Capital One Bowl . In what was the first meeting between the programs , the Tide defeated the Spartans 49 – 7 and secured their third consecutive ten @-@ win season .

Alabama played six of its SEC opponents the week following the opponents ' bye week . These SEC teams who scheduled a bye week before facing the Crimson Tide included South Carolina , Ole Miss , Tennessee , LSU , Mississippi State and Auburn . Georgia State also had a bye week prior to playing Alabama , for a total of seven consecutive opponents playing Alabama the week following their bye . On July 1 , 2010 , the game against Georgia State was moved from Saturday , November 20 to Thursday , November 18 to give Alabama additional time to prepare for its game against Auburn . The Sagarin computer ratings calculated Alabama 's 2010 strength of schedule to be the fifth most difficult out of the 245 Division I teams . The Cosgrove Computer Rankings calculated it as the 12th most difficult out of the 120 Division I FBS teams in its rankings .

Source : Rolltide.com All @-@ time Football Results : 2010 Season

= = Coaching staff = =

The only change to the coaching staff from the 2009 season was the departure of James Willis , an associate head and outside linebackers coach , to become the defensive coordinator at Texas Tech . Willis was replaced on the staff with Jeremy Pruitt on January 15 . Other assistants that declined positions at other programs included Jim McElwain declining an offer to become San Jose State 's head coach and Kirby Smart declining an offer to become Georgia 's defensive coordinator .

= = Game notes = =

= = = San Jose State = = =

The Crimson Tide began their defense of their 2010 BCS championship at home against the San Jose State Spartans , and before a record crowd in a newly expanded Bryant – Denny Stadium , Alabama was victorious 48 – 3 . Alabama scored a touchdown on their first possession on a one @-@ yard Trent Richardson run to complete an eight @-@ play , 71 @-@ yard drive . The Spartans responded on the next drive with their only points of the game on a 31 @-@ yard Harrison Waid field goal to make the score 7 – 3 . On the ensuing drive the Alabama extended their lead to 14 – 3 with a 48 @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Marquis Maze . Alabama again reached the endzone early in the second quarter on a 39 @-@ yard Richardson run and a 29 @-@ yard AJ McCarron pass to Julio Jones to make the score 28 – 3 . Cade Foster scored the final points of the half as time expired on a 31 @-@ yard field goal to bring the halftime score to 31 – 3 .

Alabama opened the second half by scoring on their first two possessions . Eddie Lacy scored on a 37 @-@ yard run and Foster hit a 24 @-@ yard field goal to extend the Crimson Tide lead to 41 – 3 . Lacy scored the final points of the game with a 10 @-@ yard run to make the final score 48 – 3 . Both McElroy and McCarron combined to pass for 334 yards on 22 completions and a pair of touchdowns . For the game , the Alabama outgained San Jose in total offense by a margin of 591 – 175 . The 101 @,@ 821 in attendance marked the first crowd of over 100 @,@ 000 to attend a football game in the state of Alabama .

= = = Penn State = = =

With ESPN 's College GameDay in town , Alabama defeated the Penn State Nittany Lions 24 – 3 in a renewal of their historic rivalry . Alabama scored first on a 36 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Greg McElroy to Kevin Norwood in the first quarter . The Crimson Tide added to their lead in the second quarter with a 14 @-@ yard McElroy touchdown pass to Preston Dial and a 31 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal to take a 17 – 0 lead at the half . After a scoreless third , Trent Richardson scored on a one @-@ yard run and Penn State 's Collin Wagner hit a 36 @-@ yard field goal to make the final score to 24 – 3 .

Richardson led the team in rushing with 144 yards on 22 carries , and was also the first back to gain over 100 yards on the ground against Penn State since their 2008 game against Iowa . The defense also stood out with Mark Barron , Robert Lester and Will Lowery each making an interception and Alabama only allowing 283 yards of total offense . After compiling 207 all @-@ purpose yards and scoring a touchdown , Richardson was named Co @-@ SEC Offensive Player of the Week with South Carolina 's Marcus Lattimore . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Nittany Lions to 9 – 5 .

= = = Duke = = =

In Alabama 's first @-@ ever trip to Duke , the Crimson Tide defeated the Blue Devils by a final score of 62 – 13 in front of the largest crowd at Wallace Wade Stadium since the 1994 season . Playing in his first game of the 2010 season following knee surgery , Mark Ingram ran for a team high 152 yards on nine carries with two touchdowns .

Greg McElroy completed 14 of 20 passes for 258 yards , with three touchdowns and one interception . In the second quarter Trent Richardson scored Alabama 's first special teams touchdown of the season with a 96 @-@ yard kickoff return . Other offensive highlights included Richardson gaining 66 yards on seven carries and Eddie Lacy gaining 53 yards on seven carries with each scoring a touchdown on the ground . Through the air , Julio Jones led the team with 106 receiving yards on six catches with he , Darius Hanks and Preston Dial each making a touchdown reception .

The game also marked the return of Marcell Dareus following a two @-@ game suspension from the NCAA for receiving improper benefits . After allowing 13 points in the first half , the Alabama defense shut out the Duke offense in the second half . The 62 points scored by the Tide were the most since a 62 – 0 victory over Tulane during the 1991 season , and the 45 points scored in the first half were the most scored in one half since scoring 45 in the second half of the 1973 victory over California . The 626 yards of total offense were the most amassed by an Alabama team since gaining 644 against LSU in 1989 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Blue Devils to 3 – 1 .

= = = Arkansas = = =

In the first game played between two teams ranked in the top ten at Donald W. Reynolds Razorback Stadium since the 1979 season , Alabama was victorious with a 24 – 20 come @-@ from @-@ behind victory . After Ryan Mallett connected on an early touchdown to take a 7 – 0 lead , Alabama responded with a 54 @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run to tie the game at 7 – 7 . Arkansas retook the lead with a field goal and a one @-@ yard Mallett run to take a 17 – 7 lead at the half . Midway through the third , Arkansas extended their lead to 20 – 7 .

Alabama brought the score to 20 – 14 late in the third after a 20 @-@ yard Trent Richardson touchdown reception from Greg McElroy . The Arkansas lead was then cut to three after a 36 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal with just over 6 : 00 remaining in the fourth . After Robert Lester intercepted a Mallett pass and returned it to the 12 @-@ yard line , Ingram took the next three snaps that culminated in a one @-@ yard touchdown run to take a 24 – 20 lead . After a late Dre Kirkpatrick interception , McElroy gained a first down on a fourth and inches quarterback sneak to seal the victory for the Crimson Tide . Ingram led the team with 157 yards rushing on 24 carries and Richardson finished with 85 yards on eight carries . Kirkpatrick led the defense with nine tackles and an interception . For his five @-@ tackle , two @-@ interception performance , Robert Lester was recognized as both the FWAA / Bronko Nagurski National Defensive Player of the Week and the SEC Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks to 11 – 8 ( 14 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .

= = = Florida = = =

In a rematch of the previous two SEC Championship Games , Alabama defeated the Florida Gators 31 – 6 . Alabama opened the scoring with a 28 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal in the first , and then scored a trio of second @-@ quarter touchdowns . Mark Ingram scored on runs of six and one — yard with the third coming on a 19 @-@ yard Marquis Maze touchdown pass to Michael Williams on a wide receiver pass . Florida got on the board late in the second with a 39 @-@ yard Chas Henry field goal to bring the halftime score to 24 – 3 . After a second Henry field goal , C. J. Mosley returned an interception 35 @-@ yards for a touchdown to make the final score 31 – 6 .

Although Florida outgained the Crimson Tide in total offense 281 to 273 yards , their three turnovers resulted in 21 Alabama points . In addition to Mosley , Nico Johnson intercepted Trey Burton in the end zone and Dre Kirkpatrick intercepted a John Brantley pass . The game marked the first time Florida had been held without a touchdown since their previous visit to Tuscaloosa in 2005 , and resulted in Alabama leading the nation in scoring defense by allowing only 45 points through five games . Courtney Upshaw was named the SEC Defensive Player of the Week after making seven total tackles , with four for losses , a fumble recovery and two pass deflections . Chance Warmack was recognized as the SEC 's Offensive Lineman of the Week for his performance . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gators to 21 – 14 ( 22 – 14 without the NCAA vacation of the 2005 victory ) .

= = = South Carolina = = =

With ESPN 's College GameDay in town and in front of a sold out Williams – Brice , Alabama was upset by the South Carolina Gamecocks 35 – 21 . After Alabama scored on its opening drive with a 32 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal , South Carolina responded with three consecutive touchdowns . Stephen Garcia threw three touchdown passes , with the first to Marcus Lattimore for nine @-@ yards followed by strikes of 26 and 15 @-@ yards to Alshon Jeffery , to give South Carolina a 21 – 3 lead in the second quarter . Alabama reached the end zone late in the second on a nine @-@ yard Greg McElroy pass to Julio Jones to make the halftime score 21 – 9 after the extra point failed .

On the first play from scrimmage in the third quarter , Garcia threw the ball out of the end zone for a safety following a bad snap . After the free kick , Alabama scored on a 39 @-@ yard Shelley field goal , to make the score 21 – 14 . After a one @-@ yard Lattimore touchdown run , Alabama answered with a 51 @-@ yard Darius Hanks touchdown reception from McElroy , to make the score 28 – 21 . However , Lattimore scored on a two @-@ yard touchdown run late in the fourth to give the Gamecocks a 35 – 21 victory . The win marked South Carolina 's first all @-@ time victory over a team ranked number one in the AP poll .

For the game , McElroy set a career high in passing for 315 yards on 27 of 34 passes , and Jones had a team high 118 yards on eight catches . Marcell Dareus was recognized as an honorable mention SEC Defensive Player of the Week for his eight tackle performance . The 34 points allowed by the Crimson Tide defense were the most allowed since giving up 41 to LSU in 2007 . The loss also marked the end of a 29 @-@ game regular season win streak , an overall 19 @-@ game win streak , and an 18 @-@ game regular season conference winning streak . It was Alabama 's first overall loss since being defeated by Utah in the 2009 Sugar Bowl and their first regular season and regular season conference loss since losing to Auburn in 2007 . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gamecocks to 10 – 4 ( 12 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .

= = = Ole Miss = = =

A week after their first regular season loss since the 2007 season , Alabama defeated their long @-@ time rival , the Ole Miss Rebels on homecoming in Tuscaloosa 23 – 10 . The Crimson Tide took a 10 – 0 lead in the first quarter on a seven @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Preston Dial and a 49 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal . Scoring continued in the second quarter with Alabama 's Jeremy Shelley and Foster connecting on field goals of 19 and 44 @-@ yards . Mississippi 's Bryson Rose connected on a 22 @-@ yard field goal to make the halftime score 16 – 3 . In the third quarter , McElroy connected with Trent Richardson for an 85 @-@ yard touchdown reception . The catch was the fourth longest touchdown reception in school history . Later in the quarter , Jeremiah Masoli connected with Melvin Harris on a 15 @-@ yard touchdown reception to make the final score 23 – 10 .

On special teams , Marquis Maze totaled 125 yards on six punt returns and was named SEC Co @-@ Special Teams Player of the Week for his performance . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Rebels to 44 – 9 – 2 ( 48 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .

= = = Tennessee = = =

In the 93rd edition of the Third Saturday in October , the Crimson Tide defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 41 – 10 . Tennessee scored first , on a 59 @-@ yard Tauren Poole touchdown run to take an early 7 – 0 lead . Alabama responded by scoring on its next two drives : a 36 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal , and a one @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown run to take a 10 – 7 lead . The second quarter closed with a 42 @-@ yard Shelley field goal and a 33 @-@ yard field goal by Michael Palardy of Tennessee to make the halftime score 13 – 10 .

Alabama opened the second half by driving 70 yards in four plays , with Julio Jones having receptions of 38 and 19 yards and Mark Ingram punching in the touchdown from one @-@ yard out to extend their lead to 20 – 10 . After Palardy missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal , Trent Richardson ran the ball 65 yards for a touchdown on the second play of the ensuing drive for a 27 – 10 Alabama lead . Later , Robert Lester intercepted a Matt Simms pass , and Alabama extended its lead to 34 – 10 , after an 80 @-@ yard drive with Ingram scoring from one @-@ yard out . Alabama scored the final points of the evening in the fourth quarter when AJ McCarron hit Richardson for a five @-@ yard touchdown reception to make the final score 41 – 10 . It was Alabama 's most lopsided victory over Tennessee since defeating the Volunteers 35 – 0 in 1963 .

For the game , Julio Jones set a school record with 221 receiving yards , eclipsing the previous mark of 217 yards set by David Palmer against Vanderbilt in 1993 . Ingram and Richardson finished with 88 and 119 yards on the ground respectively . For his performance , left tackle James Carpenter was selected as the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week . With his 117 yards on 14 carries , Tauren Poole ended Alabama 's 41 @-@ game streak of not allowing a 100 @-@ yard rusher dating back to BenJarvus Green @-@ Ellis 's 131 yard performance for Ole Miss in 2007 . The game also marked the first between Nick Saban and Derek Dooley who previously worked for Saban as an assistant coach at LSU and with the Miami Dolphins . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Volunteers to 47 – 38 – 7 ( 48 – 37 – 8 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .

= = = LSU = = =

Coming off their bye week and in what was dubbed by some as " Saban Bowl IV , " Alabama was upset by their long @-@ time rival , the LSU Tigers 24 – 21 . LSU scored first on a 45 @-@ yard Josh Jasper field goal to take a 3 – 0 lead . Alabama scored their first points early in the second quarter on a one @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Trent Richardson to take a 7 – 3 lead at the half .

Both teams traded touchdowns in the third . The Tigers scored first on a 75 @-@ yard Rueben Randle reception from Jordan Jefferson , and the Crimson Tide responded with a five @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run . LSU scored 14 fourth quarter points to secure the victory with a pair of Jasper field goals and a one @-@ yard Stevan Ridley touchdown run and a successful two @-@ point conversion . Alabama responded with a nine @-@ yard Julio Jones touchdown reception , but was unable to get a defensive stop late in the game preserving the 24 – 21 LSU victory . Turnovers proved costly for Alabama with LSU scoring field goals on drives after a McElroy interception in the first and fumble in the fourth . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 45 – 24 – 5 .

= = = Mississippi State = = =

A week after being upset by LSU , Alabama returned to Bryant – Denny and began a three @-@ game homestand to end the season by defeating long @-@ time rival Mississippi State 30 – 10 . The Crimson Tide took a 6 – 3 lead in the first quarter by trading field goals with the Bulldogs on a 36 @-@ yarder from Jeremy Shelley , a 24 @-@ yarder from Derek DePasquale and a 45 @-@ yarder from Cade Foster . In the second , Alabama reached the end zone for the first time on the evening after Greg McElroy hit Marquis Maze for a 45 @-@ yard touchdown reception and a 13 – 3 lead . After a punt on the next Bulldog series , an 80 @-@ yard Maze touchdown return was called back as a result of an illegal block on the play by Alex Watkins . On the next play , Mark Ingram took a short bubble screen pass from McElroy 78 @-@ yards for a 20 – 3 lead at the half .

On their first offensive possession of the second half , and on the third consecutive offensive play , Alabama scored on a long touchdown play . This time Julio Jones ran the ball 56 @-@ yards for a touchdown to extend the Alabama lead to 27 – 3 . Shelley scored Alabama 's final points in the fourth on a 28 @-@ yard field goal with State scoring their lone touchdown late on a 27 @-@ yard Chad Bumphis touchdown reception from Tyler Russell . The Alabama defense allowed only 149 rushing yards , registered five sacks and two interceptions .

In this game , the Crimson Tide wore Nike Pro Combat uniforms for the first time . These uniforms featured crimson jerseys with grey and white houndstooth numbers , a houndstooth stripe on the helmet , houndstooth gloves and an American flag sewn into one of the sleeves in honor of Veterans Day . The houndstooth design was chosen as a tribute to former Alabama coach Bear Bryant who was known for wearing a houndstooth fedora during games . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 73 – 18 – 3 ( 75 – 17 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .

= = = Georgia State = = =

Originally scheduled to be played on November 20 , in July 2010 this game was moved to Thursday , November 18 to give the Crimson Tide extra time to prepare for its game against Auburn . In the first ever meeting against the Georgia State Panthers , the Crimson Tide was victorious 63 – 7 . Alabama scored first on an eight @-@ yard Greg McElroy pass to Julio Jones . After a Mark Barron interception ended the first Georgia State drive , Alabama responded with a 71 @-@ yard drive capped by a one @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run to take a 14 – 0 lead .

In the second quarter , Alabama scored on a defensive play when C. J. Mosley returned a Drew Little interception 41 @-@ yards for a touchdown . Alabama then extended their lead to 28 – 0 on a ten @-@ yard Jones touchdown reception from McElroy . At the end of the Panthers next possession , Chavis Williams blocked a Bo Schlechter punt that was returned 22 @-@ yards for a touchdown by Brandon Gibson . On the following kickoff , an Albert Wilson fumble was recovered by Gibson to give the Tide possession deep in Panther territory . Four plays later , Alabama extended their lead to 42 – 0 on a three @-@ yard Eddie Lacy touchdown run . On the ensuing kickoff , the Panthers scored their only points on the evening when Wilson returned the kickoff 97 @-@ yards for a touchdown and a halftime score of 42 – 7 .

With the game in hand midway through the second quarter , Alabama played many of its reserve players in the second half . The Tide scored in the third quarter first on a seven @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Chris Underwood and again on an one @-@ yard Demetrius Goode touchdown run after a Chris Jordan interception to take a 56 – 7 lead into the final period . In the fourth , Jalston Fowler scored on a 36 @-@ yard touchdown run to make the final score 63 – 7 .

After he completed 12 of 13 passes , McElroy set a new single @-@ game Alabama record for completion percentage of 92 @.@ 3 percent to break the previous record he set against North Texas in 2009 . The game also marked the first time Alabama played on a Thursday night since defeating Southern Miss in 2001 , and the return of both former Alabama head coach Bill Curry as the Panthers ' head coach and quarterback Star Jackson who transferred to Georgia State prior to the 2010 season . The 63 points were the most scored by an Alabama team since defeating Vanderbilt 63 – 3 in 1979 .

= = = Auburn = = =

In the 75th edition of the Iron Bowl , the Auburn Tigers overcame a 24 @-@ point deficit to defeat the Crimson Tide 28 – 27 . Alabama opened a 21 – 0 lead after the first quarter with touchdown scores on their first three offensive possessions . Touchdowns were scored on a nine @-@ yard Mark Ingram run , a 68 @-@ yard Julio Jones reception from Greg McElroy and on a 12 @-@ yard Darius Hanks reception from McElroy . The lead was pushed to 24 – 0 in the second quarter after a 20 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal before the Tigers began their comeback .

Auburn scored their first points late in the second on a 36 @-@ yard Cam Newton pass to Emory Blake to bring the score to 24 – 7 at the half . With the only Alabama points in the third scored on a 32 @-@ yard Shelley field goal , Auburn brought the margin to 27 – 21 entering the fourth on a 70 @-@ yard Cam Newton touchdown pass to Terrell Zachery and a one @-@ yard Newton run . The Tigers took a 28 – 27 lead in the fourth on a seven @-@ yard Philip Lutzenkirchen reception from Newton that held to the end of regulation .

With his 10 catch , 199 yard performance , Julio Jones set Alabama single @-@ season records for both receptions and receiving yards in eclipsing the previous marks of 67 receptions by D. J. Hall in 2007 and 1 @,@ 056 yards by Hall in 2006 . The loss ended a 20 @-@ game home winning streak for the Tide dating back to the 2007 loss to Louisiana – Monroe , and brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 40 – 34 – 1 . The CBS telecast of this game earned a 7 @.@ 5 rating , the highest for any game of the 2010 college football season through week 13 .

= = = Michigan State = = =

On December 5 , Capital One Bowl officials announced Alabama would face the Big Ten co @-@ champion Michigan State Spartans in the 2011 Capital One Bowl . In a strong defensive performance where the Spartans were held to a total of minus @-@ 48 yards rushing , Alabama was victorious 49 – 7 . Alabama scored touchdowns on their first four offensive possessions . Mark Ingram scored first on an one @-@ yard touchdown run to complete a 13 @-@ play , 79 @-@ yard drive on Alabama 's first possession . After a Robert Lester interception of a Kirk Cousins pass on the Spartans ' opening drive , the Tide scored on an eight @-@ yard Trent Richardson touchdown run . Alabama extended their lead to 28 – 0 at the half following touchdown runs of six and 35 @-@ yards by Ingram and Julio Jones .

After holding Michigan State to a three @-@ and @-@ out to open the third quarter , Alabama scored its fifth touchdown in six offensive possessions when Marquis Maze scored on a 37 @-@ yard Greg McElroy pass . Up by 35 points late in the third , the Crimson Tide pulled many of their starters that resulted in many players seeing action from deep in the depth chart . Eddie Lacy extended the lead to 49 – 0 with touchdown runs of twelve @-@ yards in the third and 62 @-@ yards in the fourth quarter . Michigan State scored their only points late in the fourth on a 49 @-@ yard Bennie Fowler touchdown reception from Keith Nichol to make the final score 49 – 7 . The 42 @-@ point margin of victory was Alabama 's largest in a bowl game since defeating Syracuse 61 – 6 in the 1953 Orange Bowl .

The minus @-@ 48 yards rushing allowed by the Alabama defense was the fewest ever allowed in a bowl game and the second fewest allowed all @-@ time only eclipsed by a minus @-@ 49 yard performance against Houston in 1962 . With his pair of touchdowns , Mark Ingram established a new Alabama record for career rushing touchdowns with 42 to eclipse the previous mark of 41 set by Shaun Alexander . The contest also marked both Nick Saban 's and Bobby Williams ' first game against the Spartans since their respective terms as Michigan State 's head coach between 1995 – 1999 and 2000 – 2002 .

= = Depth chart = =

Starters and backups .

= = Rankings = =

Entering the 2010 season , the Crimson Tide was ranked No. 1 in the AP and Coaches ' Preseason Polls . The No. 1 preseason ranking was the first for Alabama since the 1978 season . In week six , Alabama dropped to the No. 8 ranking in both the AP and Coaches ' Poll following their loss to South Carolina . The Tide rebounded in the rankings though week nine , rising to No. 5 before dropping to No. 11 in the AP and No. 12 in the Coaches ' Poll following their loss at LSU . After their loss to Auburn , Alabama dropped to No. 15 in the AP , No. 18 in the Coaches ' Poll and No. 16 in the final BCS standings . Following the victory over Michigan State in the Capital One Bowl , Alabama finished No. 10 in the final AP , No. 11 in the final Coaches ' Polls .

= = After the season = =

As part of the A @-@ Day celebrations on April 16 , the 2010 team captains Greg McElroy , Dont 'a Hightower and Mark Barron were honored at the Walk of Fame ceremony at the base of Denny Chimes . Later that day , as recognition for becoming the fifth Alabama head coach to win a national championship with the 2009 squad , the University unveiled a statue of coach Saban along the Walk of Champions outside Bryant – Denny Stadium .

= = = Final statistics = = =

After their victory over Michigan State in the Capitol One Bowl , Alabama 's final team statistics were released . On the defensive side of the ball , they ranked third in scoring defense ( 13 @.@ 54 points per game ) , fifth in total defense ( 286 @.@ 38 yards per game ) , tenth in rushing defense ( 110 @.@ 15 yards per game ) and thirteenth in passing defense ( 176 @.@ 23 yards per game ) . They were also the conference leaders in both scoring and total defense . On offense , nationally the Crimson Tide ranked 18th in scoring offense ( 35 @.@ 69 points per game ) , 22nd in total offense ( 444 @.@ 08 yards per game ) , 27th in passing offense ( 261 @.@ 15 yards per game ) and 29th in rushing offense ( 182 @.@ 92 yards per game ) . Individually , Robert Lester led the SEC with an average of 0 @.@ 62 interceptions per game .

= = = Awards = = =

In the weeks following the SEC Championship Game , multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on @-@ field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions . At the team awards banquet on December 6 , Mark Barron , Dont 'a Hightower , and Greg McElroy were each named the permanent captains of the 2010 squad . At that time Julio Jones was named the 2010 most valuable players with Dont 'a Hightower and Mark Barron named defensive players of the year and Greg McElroy and Mark Ingram named the offensive players of the year .

The SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards . Defensive back Mark Barron , wide receiver Julio Jones and offensive guard Barrett Jones were all named to the AP All @-@ SEC First Team . Offensive lineman James Carpenter , defensive lineman Marcell Dareus , running back Mark Ingram , linebacker Dont 'a Hightower and defensive back Robert Lester were all named to the AP All @-@ SEC Second Team . Quarterback Greg McElroy and center William Vlachos were each named AP All @-@ SEC Honorable Mention . Four players were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC First Team including Barron , James Carpenter , Marcell Dareus and Julio Jones . Barrett Jones , William Vlachos , Mark Ingram , Dont 'a Hightower , return specialist Trent Richardson and defensive backs Robert Lester and Dre Kirkpatrick were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC Second Team . Four players were named to the Freshman All @-@ SEC Coaches ' Team including offensive lineman D.J. Fluker , linebacker C.J. Mosley , defensive back Dee Milliner and punter Cody Mandell .

In addition to the conference awards , several players were also named to various national All @-@ American Teams . Julio Jones and Mark Barron were named to the AP All @-@ American Second Team and Marcell Dareus and Barrett Jones were named to the AP All @-@ American Third Team . Barron was also named to the All @-@ America team by the Football Writers Association of America ( FWAA ) . Quarterback Greg McElroy , tight end Preston Dial and offensive lineman James Carpenter were all selected to play in the Under Armour Senior Bowl .

= = = Coaching changes = = =

In the week following the Capitol One Bowl victory , several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff . Defensive line coach Bo Davis resigned his position to serve as the defensive tackles coach for Texas . The following day , Chris Rumph was hired by Coach Saban from Clemson to replace Davis as defensive line coach . On January 12 , assistant head coach and offensive line coach Joe Pendry announced his retirement . The following day , former Miami interim head coach Jeff Stoutland was hired to replace Pendry as offensive line coach . On January 21 , wide receivers coach and recruiting coordinator Curt Cignetti resigned his position to accept the head coaching job at Indiana University of Pennsylvania . On February 7 , Mike Groh was hired a Cignetti 's replacement as wide receivers coach and recruiting coordinator .

= = = NFL Draft = = =

Of all the draft @-@ eligible juniors , Mark Ingram , Julio Jones and Marcell Dareus declared their eligibility for the 2011 NFL Draft on January 7 . At the time of their announcement , each was projected as a first round pick . Five Alabama players , two seniors and three juniors , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine . The invited players were offensive lineman James Carpenter , quarterback Greg McElroy , defensive end Marcell Dareus , running back Mark Ingram , and wide receiver Julio Jones . In the draft , Alabama set a school record with four players selected in the first round . The first round selections were Dareus ( 3rd Buffalo Bills ) , Jones ( 6th Atlanta Falcons ) , Carpenter ( 25th Seattle Seahawks ) and Ingram ( 28th New Orleans Saints ) . McElroy was selected in the seventh round ( 208th New York Jets ) . Preston Dial signed as an undrafted free agent with the Detroit Lions in July 2011 after the NFL labor dispute was resolved .

= James Robert Baker =

James Robert Baker ( October 18 , 1946 – November 5 , 1997 ) was an American author of sharply satirical , predominantly gay @-@ themed transgressional fiction . A native Californian , his work is set almost entirely in Southern California . After graduating from UCLA , he began his career as a screenwriter , but became disillusioned and started writing novels instead . Though he garnered fame for his books Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams and Boy Wonder , after the controversy surrounding publication of his novel , Tim and Pete , he faced increasing difficulty having his work published . According to his life partner , this was a contributing factor in his suicide .

Baker 's work has achieved cult status in the years since his death , and two additional novels have been posthumously published . First @-@ edition copies of his earlier works have become collector 's items . His novel Testosterone was adapted to a film of the same name , though it was not a financial success . Two other books have been optioned for films , but they have not been produced .

= = Early life = =

Baker was born in Long Beach , California and raised in what he considered a " stifling , Republican Southern Californian household " . Rebelling against his parents , he became attracted to the fringe elements of society , including beatniks ( anyone living as a bohemian , acting rebelliously , or appearing to advocate a revolution in manners ) , artists and gays . In high school during the 1960s he explored his sexuality at underground gay teen nightclubs , while living in fear that his abusive father would find out . At one point , his father hired a private detective to follow him , when he suspected Baker was having an affair with a male neighbor . This family dynamic would be used in many of his novels , most extensively in Boy Wonder .

Baker began taking drugs , and became , in his own words , " an out of control , teenage speed freak " . He also began drinking heavily , attributing it to the fact that he was closeted . However , even after coming out , his substance abuse remained excessive and " still had a life of its own " . After sobering up , he attended UCLA film school , where he was one of the winners of the Samuel Goldwyn Writing Awards , and directed two films : Mouse Klub Konfidential and Blonde Death . Mouse Klub Konfidential , a film about a Mickey Mouse Club Mouseketeer who becomes a gay bondage pornographer , was a controversial entry in the 1976 San Francisco 's LGBT Film Festival , as some thought Baker was actually advocating Nazism . It is also credited with having caused Michael Medved to abandon his dream of film making and instead become a film critic .

= = Writer = =

Baker 's lifelong ambition was to write . Upon graduating from UCLA , he spent approximately five years writing Hollywood screenplays in the early 1980s , a process he hated . While financially successful , he was frustrated that his work was not being produced . " I felt like a door @-@ to @-@ door salesman going to all these [ story ] pitch meetings ... [ filled with ] rabid , hideous morons " . He became discouraged and disillusioned , and turned his attention to novels .

His first book , Adrenaline , was published under the pseudonym James Dillinger . A story of two gay fugitive lovers on the run , it presaged the satire and drug fueled violence so prominent in his later books . Here Baker began developing the themes that dominated his following works : anarchy ; angry and somewhat paranoid gay men ; the dark underside of Los Angeles , juxtaposed with its sunny outward image ; the hypocrisy of organized religion ; anonymous sex and its implications in the age of AIDS ; and homophobia and the oppression of gays in a Republican dominated America . Its plot device of underdog characters forced into flight due to circumstances beyond their control was one Baker explored in all of his subsequent work . The modest success of this novel encouraged him to devote himself to what have become his best known works , Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams ( a novel revolving around a character loosely based on record producer Phil Spector ) and the 1986 release Boy Wonder . After the novel was published , he stopped screenwriting in order to solely concentrate on books . He spent the bulk of each day writing and researching , and acted out characters and scenes of his novels on videotape to perfect the dialogue .

His primary focus was gay @-@ themed writing , though he also wrote about the entertainment industry . Mostly satirical , his writing was filled with increasingly clear anger and disdain for the Republican neo @-@ con agenda , especially after the AIDS pandemic began to take a large toll on the gay community . A very strong voice in gay literature , Baker had admirers and detractors for his gay radical stance , both in the mainstream literary community as well as the gay community itself .

A self @-@ described anarchist , Baker has been categorized as a writer of transgressional fiction , in that his novels are frequently populated by sociopathic , nihilistic characters who engage in taboo behaviors such as heavy drug use , incest , necrophilia and other practices ; and often commit acts of extreme , surrealistic violence . A man of eclectic tastes , Baker cited as literary influences writers and film directors ranging from Proust to Jim Thompson and Sam Peckinpah . He also admired the punk writer Dennis Cooper .

His work is filled with pop cultural references to both film and music , as well as politics . Orson Welles ' Touch of Evil and John Ford 's The Searchers are mentioned prominently in more than one of his books , and Roxy Music is referenced in virtually every novel he wrote . The imagery in his novels is largely cinematic , with expressions such as " fade in / fade out " , " quick cut " and " VistaVision " ; and sentences such as " a montage traces the next fifteen years " and " If the last reel of Cheryl 's life had been a CinemaScope Technicolor movie ... " . With driven narratives , his books have the feel of a movie set down on paper .

= = Critical reception = =

Baker 's work received mixed reviews . His only two books not specifically gay themed ( though containing gay characters and a somewhat gay sensibility ) , Boy Wonder and Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams , were better received by critics , and more popular with readers , though he was never a bestselling novelist . Baker himself estimated that his books sold approximately 25 @,@ 000 copies each . His following book , however , Tim and Pete , met with hostile reviews , primarily for its advocacy of political assassination and terror tactics in combating AIDS discrimination . Baker himself was ambivalent on the subject . " I think assassination does change things ... But I 'm not really calling for violence , " he said . " It 's a novel , not a position paper . "

In a 1993 interview , however , Baker stated :

I think a strong case can be made that political assassination actually does change things . If you look at the assassinations in this country in the 1960s you can certainly see how it affected history in a very profound way . So if you killed right wing figures , you 'd also be altering the course of history , and eliminating people who might very well be president in 1996 and those who are making bashing gays their number one issue right now . On the one hand , I 'm not advocating PWA 's turn themselves into human bombs , but on the other hand I have to admit that if I clicked on CNN and heard somebody had blown Patrick Buchanan 's head clean off , I 'd be elated , and to say otherwise would be a lie .

There were also charges of racism , due to his portrayals of blacks and Hispanics . Baker denied those charges , and pointed out that the protagonist later realized that the blacks were also gay and the Latina " was just a sweet old woman putting up with a lot of ( stuff ) that I couldn 't even imagine . " He went on to say , " I just wanted to explore the conflicts between gays and Latinos and gays and blacks ... the real feelings [ and the ] misapprehensions of each other . I realized it wouldn 't all be nice and politically correct . If blacks ( and Latinos ) want my respect , they have to deal with their own homophobia . I 'm not playing guilty liberal anymore " .

The book caused a great deal of controversy among critics , with some calling it " irresponsible " , and saying it was " determined to give offense " and " appears to endorse violence " . One critic of the book wrote , " The work rapidly becomes an apology for political terrorism and effectively advocates the assassination of the entire American New Right . While the reasons for such a vengeance motif are perhaps evident , can it really be countenanced ? Are we still justified in referring to this as art ? And even if we are , is there a point at which such invective ( and such suggestions ) become simply counterproductive ? " Another critic , however , called it " a masterful creation " and wrote : " In coming years Baker will be seen as having understood the implications of this period in our history while the rest of us were simply living it " . It polarized the reading public as well , with letters to the editor of major newspapers both supporting and opposing Baker 's ideology . Baker himself was aware that the book would be controversial , and deliberately provoked much of the reaction he received . He said : " Tim and Pete tries to convey in print what people really think rather than what they should think or what 's P.C. My fantasy was to leave readers so infuriated they 'd throw down the book and march right out to a gun store because they wanted to see the finale so bad they realize the only way it 'd happen is if they make it happen in real life ! "

= = Death = =

After the reception of Tim and Pete , with several critics calling him " The Last Angry Gay Man " , Baker faced increasing difficulty finding a publisher for his work and his financial position became precarious . He was only able to publish one novella , Right Wing , and that was self @-@ published on the Internet .

Baker 's life partner , Ron Robertson , believes that this difficulty led Baker on a quick , downwards emotional spiral . Baker killed himself at his home on November 5 , 1997 , by asphyxiation in his garage . His death was noted in literary circles and mainstream press ; the Gay Times in the United Kingdom wrote , " Baker 's suicide is particularly tragic because it robs American gay writing of a refreshingly distinctive voice quite unlike the po @-@ faced prose of so many of his contemporaries . "

= = Legacy = =

Since his death , Baker 's reputation has steadily increased among critics and the reading public ; and his works now have cult status in the literary community . By 2006 , first editions of Adrenaline , Boy Wonder , Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams and Tim and Pete had become collector 's items and commanded high prices at rare book stores .

Robertson , now Baker 's literary executor , was successful in having two additional novels published after Baker 's death . One of those , Testosterone , was filmed in 2003 . Directed by David Moreton and starring Antonio Sabato Jr . , the plot was significantly altered and the film was a critical and financial failure . Both Boy Wonder and Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams have been optioned for the movies several times , most recently in 2004 , though they were never produced . Baker 's work has also been published in Germany , Sweden , Italy , Great Britain , Australia , Japan and Russia .

Though Tim and Pete was his most controversial work , Boy Wonder is generally considered his magnum opus , and remains his most popular book . A black satire of the film industry , it is also a parody of the " oral biographies " popularized by George Plimpton with his books about Edie Sedgwick and Truman Capote , in that the protagonist 's life is revealed in the form of interviews between the writer and the characters . Though it has been praised as " one of the few novels from the last couple of decades that could justifiably be called a classic " , reviewers have also pointed out that it is probably unfilmable due to its bitter cynicism regarding the movie industry .

Baker 's last published work , Right Wing , as well as his posthumous novels Testosterone and Anarchy , represent a stylistic departure in that he inserts himself into the plot as either a secondary character or the protagonist . The latter two were edited , and in the case of Anarchy , partially rewritten by his editor , Scott Brassart . Testosterone needed only minor changes , while Anarchy underwent an entire rewrite , with Brassart restructuring the plot and streamlining over 500 pages of prose and notes into a fast @-@ paced , 250 page novel . For the reader , however , it is only Baker 's voice as writer that is heard .

Three of Baker 's books have thus far not been published : White Devils , Proto Punk , and Crucifying Todd . Additionally , he wrote two screenplays which have not as yet been filmed : Inez and Desert Women .

= = Published works = =

Adrenaline ( 1985 ) Signet Books / New American Library ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 451 @-@ 13563 @-@ 6

Fuel @-@ Injected Dreams ( 1986 ) E. P. Dutton ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 24417 @-@ 2

Boy Wonder ( 1988 ) New American Library ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 453 @-@ 00597 @-@ 5

Tim and Pete ( 1993 ) Simon & Schuster ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 79184 @-@ 1

Right Wing ( 1996 , only published on the Internet )

Testosterone ( published posthumously 2000 ) Alyson Publications ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55583 @-@ 567 @-@ 5

Anarchy ( published posthumously 2002 ) Alyson Publications ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55583 @-@ 743 @-@ 3

= Ernie Cooksey =

Ernest George Cooksey ( 11 June 1980 – 3 July 2008 ) was an English footballer , who was described as a utility player . He could play as a left @-@ sided defender and midfielder as well as in a central @-@ midfield role . He started as a trainee with Colchester United , before joining non @-@ League clubs Heybridge Swifts , Bishop 's Stortford , Chesham United and Bromley . In 2002 , he joined Southern Football League Premier Division side Crawley Town before turning professional with Football League side Oldham Athletic in 2003 .

He then moved to Rochdale in 2004 and Boston United in 2007 , totalling 140 appearances in the Football League over a four @-@ year period . He dropped down back into non @-@ League football , joining Conference National club Grays Athletic , making 19 league appearances .

Cooksey had a form of skin cancer removed from his back in 2006 , but was diagnosed with a recurrence of a malignant melanoma in February 2008 . He died in the early hours of 3 July 2008 , aged 28 .

= = Football career = =

= = = Early career = = =

Cooksey had started his career as a trainee with Colchester United , prior to moving onto a number of non @-@ League clubs . His first move was to Heybridge Swifts before joining Bishop 's Stortford in 1998 . He then moved onto Chesham United in 2000 , leaving in 2002 to have a brief spell at Bromley .

He joined Southern Football League Premier Division club , Crawley Town in July 2002 , ready for the 2002 – 03 season . Cooksey made his debut for Crawley on 26 August , against Welling United coming on as a substitute , after he returned from coaching schoolchildren in Las Vegas , United States for six @-@ months . He made 34 appearances , scoring once during his spell with Crawley , helping them to finish seventh in the Southern Football League Premier Division .

= = = Turning professional = = =

Cooksey joined Oldham Athletic on trial in July 2003 . At the age of 23 , he stepped up three leagues into professional football permanently when Iain Dowie signed him on for financially troubled Oldham in August , who were in the Second Division . Bob Dowie , who was Cooksey 's former manager at Chesham United , recommended the player to his brother , Iain . He followed in the footsteps of Fitz Hall and Wayne Andrews who also joined the club from Chesham as recommendations from Bob Dowie . Cooksey scored twice in Oldham 's 3 – 0 home victory over Carlisle United in their FA Cup first round match on 8 November 2003 . When the new season , 2003 – 04 , started Cooksey was unable to make his debut due to suspension . He made 37 Second Division appearances for Oldham in the 2003 – 04 season , scoring four goals .

Cooksey started the 2004 – 05 season with Oldham Athletic , playing one match , away against Luton Town on 7 August . He was released by Oldham on 15 September , after he was left out of manager Brian Talbot 's plans . He dropped down into the Third Division , newly renamed as League Two and signed for Rochdale a day later on 16 September , despite discussing terms with Carlisle United . He made his debut , away against Mansfield Town in the 1 – 0 away defeat on 18 September . During his first season with Rochdale , Cooksey picked up six yellow cards and two red cards on the field . However , his first red card of the season against Notts County was later overturned and downgraded to a yellow after a successful appeal to The FA .

At the start of the 2006 – 07 season , he signed a 12 @-@ month extension to his contract . He spent more than two years with League Two side Rochdale , before joining Boston United in the January transfer window of 2007 . Boston United were reduced to just 12 professionals on their books in the closing stages of the 2006 – 07 season , as the club could not afford to pay players wages . Cooksey had not been paid since February , and was spending £ 30 a day in fuel travelling from his Manchester home . He spent six months at Boston United and played 16 League Two games , but was unable to prevent them from being relegated from The Football League on the final day of the season .

= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =

Following his release from Boston United , Cooksey stated that he 'd like to reunite with former Boston manager Steve Evans , who was now manager of Cooksey 's previous club , Crawley Town . He had an unsuccessful trial at Barnet , before joining Conference National side Grays Athletic in July 2007 . He made his debut in Grays ' first game of the season away to Torquay United in the 0 – 0 draw , on 12 August . Cooksey was sent @-@ off in Grays ' 1 – 0 home defeat on 8 September , for a mistimed tackle on Michael Brough , as his trailing leg caught the opposition player . His last ever game before his death was for Grays Athletic at home in a Conference National match , against Exeter City on 16 February 2008 . Cooksey played the full 90 minutes in the 2 – 0 defeat . During the 2007 – 08 season , he made 19 appearances in the Conference for Grays .

= = Playing style = =

Cooksey was a utility player , due to his versatility on the left @-@ flank and in the centre of midfield as a box @-@ to @-@ box midfielder . He was predominately a midfielder , throughout his career playing in the centre or on the left @-@ wing . During his spell with Grays Athletic , he was used as a defender , playing as a left full @-@ back .

= = Personal life and illness = =

Before joining Oldham Athletic in August 2003 , Cooksey worked as a builder fitting false ceilings , leaving the better @-@ paid job to fulfil a lifelong ambition to become a professional footballer .

In early 2008 , he was diagnosed with malignant melanoma , a severe form of skin cancer . He had fought the disease before , when he had a form of skin cancer removed from his back in 2006 . Cooksey suspected his cancer originated from a six @-@ month spell coaching schoolchildren in the searing heat of Las Vegas in the United States . In April 2008 , Grays Athletic staged a benefit match for Cooksey . The match consisted of former professional players , as well as current professionals such as Leroy Lita , Nicky Shorey , Aaron McLean , Ray Parlour , Justin Edinburgh , Iain Dowie , Bob Dowie , Clive Allen , Scott Fitzgerald and Paul Merson . He returned to his former club Oldham Athletic in May 2008 , where another benefit match was staged for his appeal at Boundary Park , attended by 1 @,@ 500 fans to see such former players as John Barnes , Luther Blissett and Chris Waddle as well as television actors from Coronation Street .

Cooksey was born in Bishop 's Stortford . He died in the early hours of 3 July 2008 , at the age of 28 , five weeks before partner Louise Newlove was due to give birth to their first child . Newlove gave birth to their daughter , Isabella @-@ Georgia Cooksey , on 27 July 2008 .

= = Tributes = =

Before the League Cup match between Oldham Athletic and Rochdale on 12 August 2008 , both sets of players and management emerged from the tunnel wearing special Ernie Cooksey t @-@ shirts bearing the number 4 , the shirt number he wore at both clubs . The t @-@ shirts bore both clubs ' crests on the front along with the slogan " ERNIE COOKSEY – A TRUE GENT " , and the reverse read " 4 ERNIE " . A bucket collection also took place with all the proceeds going to a fund set up in Cooksey 's name . Additionally , his family , including partner Louise , were present at the game .

Oldham Athletic fans had a St George 's Cross flag made in his honour , which was due to be displayed at Oldham 's matches , as well as being taken abroad for England international fixtures . The tribute flag was stolen in February 2009 , when Spanish hooligans attacked English fans in Seville before an international friendly on 20 February , stealing England flags from fans as trophies . The flag was replaced after a number of donations helped to cover the costs .

= Simon de Montfort 's Parliament =

Simon de Montfort 's Parliament was an English parliament held from 20 January 1265 until mid @-@ March the same year , instigated by Simon de Montfort , a baronial rebel leader .

Simon de Montfort had seized power in England following his victory over Henry III at the Battle of Lewes during the Second Barons ' War , but his grip on the country was under threat . In an attempt to gather more support he summoned representatives from not only the barons and the knights of the shires , as had occurred in previous parliaments , but also burgesses from the major towns . The resulting parliament in London discussed radical reforms and temporarily stabilised Montfort 's political situation . Montfort was killed at the Battle of Evesham later that year , but the idea of inviting both knights and burgesses to parliaments became more popular under the reign of Henry 's son Edward I. By the 14th century this had become the norm , with the gathering becoming known as the House of Commons . This parliament is sometimes referred to as the first English parliament and Montfort himself is often termed the founder of the Commons .

= = Background = =

In 1258 , King Henry III of England faced a revolt among the English barons . Anger had grown about the way the King 's officials were raising funds , the influence of his Poitevin relatives at court and his unpopular Sicilian policy ; even the English Church had grievances over its treatment by the King . Within Henry 's court there was a strong feeling that the King would be unable to lead the country through these problems . On 30 April , Hugh Bigod marched into Westminster in the middle of the King 's parliament , backed by his co @-@ conspirators , including Simon de Montfort , the Earl of Leicester , and carried out a coup d 'état . Henry , fearful that he was about to be arrested and imprisoned , agreed to abandon his policy of personal rule and instead govern through a council of 24 barons and churchmen , half chosen by the King and half by the barons .

The pressure for reform continued to grow unabated and a parliament met in June . The term " parliament " had first appeared in the 1230s and 1240s to describe large gatherings of the royal court , and parliamentary gatherings were held periodically throughout Henry 's reign . They were used to agree upon the raising of taxes which , in the 13th century , were single , one @-@ off levies , typically on movable property , intended to support the King 's normal revenues for particular projects . During Henry 's reign , the counties had begun to send regular delegations to these parliaments , and came to represent a broader cross @-@ section of the community than simply the major barons .

The new parliament passed a set of measures known as the Provisions of Oxford , which Henry swore to uphold . These provisions created a smaller council of 15 members , elected solely by the barons , which then had the power to appoint England 's justiciar , chancellor and treasurer , and which would be monitored through triennial parliaments . Pressure from the lesser barons and the gentry present at Oxford also helped to push through wider reform , intended to limit the abuse of power by both the King 's officials and the major barons . More radical measures were passed by the new council the next year , in the form of the Provisions of Westminster .

The disagreements between the leading barons involved in the revolt soon became evident . Montfort championed radical reforms that would place further limitations on the authority and power of the major barons as well as the Crown ; others promoted only moderate change , while the conservative barons expressed concerns about the existing limitations on the King 's powers . Over the next four years , neither Henry nor the barons were able to restore stability in England , and power swung back and forth between the different factions . By early 1263 , what remained of Henry 's authority had disintegrated and the country slipped back towards open civil war . Montfort convened a council of rebel barons in Oxford to pursue his radical agenda and by October , England faced a likely civil war . Montfort marched east with an army and London rose up in revolt . Montfort took Henry and Queen Eleanor prisoner , and although he maintained a fiction of ruling in Henry 's name , the rebels completely replaced the royal government and household with their own , trusted men .

Montfort 's coalition began to quickly fragment , Henry regained his freedom of movement and renewed chaos spread across England . Henry appealed to his brother @-@ in @-@ law Louis of France for arbitration in the dispute ; Montfort was initially hostile to this idea , but , as war became more likely again , he decided to agree to French arbitration as well . Initially Montfort 's legal arguments held sway , but in January 1264 , Louis announced the Mise of Amiens , condemning the rebels , upholding the King 's rights and annulling the Provisions of Oxford . The Second Barons ' War finally broke out in April , when Henry led an army into Montfort 's territories . Becoming desperate , Montfort marched in pursuit of Henry and the two armies met at the Battle of Lewes on 14 May . Despite their numerical superiority , Henry 's forces were overwhelmed . Captured , Henry was forced to pardon the rebel barons and reinstate the Provisions of Oxford , leaving him , as historian Adrian Jobson describes , " little more than a figurehead " .

= = Parliament = =

Simon de Montfort claimed to be ruling in the King 's name through a council of officials . However , he had effective political control over the government even though he was not himself the monarch , the first time this had happened in English history . Montfort successfully held a parliament in London in June 1264 to confirm new constitutional arrangements for England ; four knights were summoned from each county , chosen by the county court , and were allowed to comment on general matters of state – the first time this had occurred . Montfort was unable to consolidate his victory at Lewes , however , and widespread disorder persisted across the country . In France , Eleanor made plans for an invasion of England with the support of Louis .

In response , and hoping to win wider support for his government , Montfort summoned a new parliament for 20 January 1265 which continued until mid March that year . It was held at short notice , with the summons being issued on 14 December , leaving little time for attendees to respond . He summoned not only the barons , senior churchmen and two knights from each county , but also two burgesses from each of the major towns such as York , Lincoln , Sandwich , and the Cinque Ports , the first time this had been done . Due to the lack of support for Montfort among the barons , only 23 of them were summoned to parliament , in comparison to the summons issued to 120 churchmen , who largely supported the new government ; it is unknown how many burgesses were called . The event was overseen by King Henry , and held in the Palace of Westminster , London , which was the largest city in England , and whose continuing loyalty was essential to Montfort 's cause .

This parliament was a populist , tactical move by Montfort in an attempt to gather support from the regions , and the historian Jeffrey Hamilton characterises it as " a very partisan assembly , not some sort of proto @-@ democratic representative body " . Once again the representatives were allowed to comment on wider political matters than just the usual issues of taxation . The business of the parliament focused on enforcing the Provisions of Westminster , in particular its restrictions on the major nobles , and promising judicial help to those who felt they were suffering from unfair feudal lordship .

The parliament bought temporary calm but opposition grew once more , particularly as Montfort and his immediate family began to amass a huge personal fortune . Prince Edward escaped his captors in May and formed a new army , resulting in a fresh outbreak of civil war . Edward pursued Monfort 's forces through the Welsh Marches , before striking east to attack his fortress at Kenilworth and then turning once more on the rebel leader himself . Montfort , accompanied by the captive Henry , was unable to retreat and the Battle of Evesham ensued . Edward was triumphant and Montfort 's corpse was mutilated by the victors . In places the now leaderless rebellion dragged on , with some rebels gathering at Kenilworth , which Henry and Edward took after a long siege in 1266 . The remaining pockets of resistance were mopped up , and the final rebels , holed up on the Isle of Ely , surrendered in July 1267 , marking the end of the war .

= = Legacy = =

Henry III ruled England until his death in 1272 , continuing to summon parliaments , sometimes including the county knights and on one occasion including burgesses from the towns . After 1297 under Edward I 's reign , this became the norm , and by the early 14th century it was normal to include the knights and burgesses , a grouping that would become known as the " Commons " of England and , ultimately , form the " House of Commons " .

Simon de Montfort 's parliament of 1265 is sometimes referred to as the first English parliament , because of its inclusion of both the knights and the burgesses , and Montfort himself is often regarded as the founder of the House of Commons . The 19th century historian William Stubbs popularised the 1295 " Model Parliament " of Edward I as the first genuine parliament ; however , modern scholarship questions this analysis . The historian David Carpenter describes Montfort 's 1265 parliament as " a landmark " in the development of parliament as an institution during the medieval period .

= = = Modern recognition = = =

The Parliament of the United Kingdom presented a loyal address to Queen Elizabeth II in 1965 to mark the 700th anniversary of Montfort 's Parliament , and the Queen addressed both Houses of Parliament . The House of Lords Record Office , now known as the Parliamentary Archives , organised an exhibition in the Houses of Parliament of several important Acts of Parliament . Some of these documents were displayed again in a 2015 exhibition .

In 2015 , Parliament planned a year @-@ long programme of events called " Parliament in the Making " , coordinated with Parliament Week , including events to mark the 750th anniversary of Montfort 's Parliament . The BBC broadcast a " Democracy Day " on 20 January to coincide with the 750th anniversary consisting of live discussions and debate about parliament and democracy . It was presented in partnership with the Speaker ’ s Office of the House of Commons , including broadcasts from inside the Palace of Westminster . Westminster Abbey held a special evensong on 22 January commemorating the anniversary of the Montfort parliament and the development of rights and representation .

= USS O 'Brien ( DD @-@ 51 ) =

USS O 'Brien ( Destroyer No. 51 / DD @-@ 51 ) was the lead ship of O 'Brien @-@ class destroyers built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the second US Navy vessel named in honor of Jeremiah O 'Brien and his five brothers Gideon , John , William , Dennis , and Joseph who , together on the sloop Unity , captured a British warship during the American Revolutionary War .

O 'Brien was laid down by William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia in September 1913 and launched in July 1914 .

After her May 1915 commissioning , O 'Brien sailed off the east coast and in the Caribbean . She was one of seventeen destroyers sent out to rescue survivors from five victims of German submarine U @-@ 53 off the Lightship Nantucket in October 1916 . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , O 'Brien was sent overseas to patrol the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland .

After returning to the United States in January 1919 , O 'Brien revisited European waters in May to serve as one of the picket ships for the NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic . O 'Brien was decommissioned at Philadelphia in June 1922 . She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register in March 1935 and sold for scrapping in April .

= = Design and construction = =

O 'Brien was authorized in March 1913 as the lead ship of the O 'Brien class , which was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to William Cramp and Sons of Philadelphia which laid down her keel on 8 September 1913 . On 20 July 1914 , O 'Brien was launched by sponsor Miss Marcia Bradbury Campbell , great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of Gideon O 'Brien , one of the ship 's namesakes . Gideon and his four brothers — John , William , Dennis , and Joseph — were crewmen aboard sloop Unity , under the command of their brother Jeremiah O 'Brien , when that vessel captured HMS Margaretta on 12 June 1775 during the American Revolutionary War ; the destroyer O 'Brien was named after all six brothers , and was the second US Navy vessel named in their honor . As built , the destroyer was 305 ft 3 in ( 93 @.@ 04 m ) in length , 31 ft 1 in ( 9 @.@ 47 m ) abeam , and drew 9 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 90 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 050 long tons ( 1 @,@ 070 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 171 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) when fully loaded .

O 'Brien had two Zoelly steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional pair triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each connected to one of the propeller shafts , for cruising purposes . Four oil @-@ burning White @-@ Forster boilers powered the engines , which could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , moving the ship at up to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) .

O 'Brien 's main battery consisted of four 4 in ( 100 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 lb ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 lb ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yd ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .

O 'Brien was also equipped with four twin 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the O 'Brien @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for O 'Brien or any of the other ships of the class .

= = Pre @-@ World War I = =

O 'Brien was commissioned into the United States Navy on 22 May 1915 under the command of Lieutenant Commander C. E. Courtney , after which she conducted her shakedown cruise between Newport , Rhode Island , and Hampton Roads , Virginia . In fleet exercises off New York in November , O 'Brien collided with the destroyer Drayton , in a minor incident that carried away part of Drayton 's topmast and wireless gear . In December , she was assigned to the 5th Division , Torpedo Flotilla , Atlantic Fleet . From early 1916 @-@ spring of 1917 , she operated with the Fleet along the East Coast and in Cuban waters .

At 05 : 30 on 8 October 1916 , wireless reports came in of a German submarine stopping ships near the Lightship Nantucket , off the eastern end of Long Island . After an SOS from the British steamer SS West Point was received at about 12 : 30 , Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves ordered O 'Brien and other destroyers at Newport to attend to survivors .

The American destroyers arrived on the scene at about 17 : 00 when the U @-@ boat , U @-@ 53 under the command of Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose , was in the process of stopping the Holland @-@ America Line cargo ship Blommersdijk . Shortly after , U @-@ 53 stopped the British passenger ship Stephano . As Rose had done with three other ships U @-@ 53 had sunk earlier in the day , he gave passengers and crew aboard Blommersdijk and Stephano adequate time to abandon the ships before sinking the pair . In total , 226 survivors from U @-@ 53 's five victims were rescued by the destroyer flotilla .

In February 1917 , one of O 'Brien 's gun crews hit a target at 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) eight times in eight attempts with one of the destroyer 's 4 in ( 100 mm ) guns , a feat which earned the crew and O 'Brien recognition in The Independent , a weekly newsmagazine published in Boston .

= = World War I = =

Returning from winter maneuvers off Cuba in March 1917 , the ship was in the York River when the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April , entering World War I. After fitting out at Brooklyn Navy Yard , she got underway from New York on 15 May with Cummings , Nicholson , Cushing , and Sampson , and joined convoy at Halifax , Nova Scotia , en route to Ireland . Upon arrival at Queenstown on 24 May , O 'Brien was assigned to the 6th Destroyer Division which cooperated with the British forces . She patrolled off the Irish coast in company with other destroyers answering distress calls and meeting eastbound convoys to escort them through the war zone .

While escorting SS Elysia 12 nmi ( 14 mi ; 22 km ) off Queenstown on 16 June , lookouts on O 'Brien sighted a periscope . Heading toward the submarine for an attack , a lookout in the foretop saw the submerged boat pass close along the starboard side . A depth charge was dropped but no immediate evidence of damage was found . Nearly three hours later , the British vessel HMS Jessamine reported a large patch of oil in approximately the same position . The next morning , Cushing also reported and confirmed Jessamine 's report . The British Admiralty believed the submarine was probably seriously damaged . However , later investigation reveals that German submarine U @-@ 16 , the submarine in question , continued to operate and completed her cruise .

In the summer of 1918 , O 'Brien was transferred to the French coast where she continued her antisubmarine patrols through the end of the war .

= = Inter @-@ war period = =

After the signing of the Armistice on 11 November , which ended all fighting , O 'Brien transported mail and passengers between Brest , France , and Plymouth , England . She returned to New York on 8 January 1919 , but returned to European waters in May when she served as one of the rescue pickets stationed along the route across the Atlantic flown by three Navy NC @-@ type seaplanes in the first aerial crossing of the Atlantic .

In 1919 , she assisted in the unsuccessful first attempt to lay the Ambrose Channel pilot cable . In July 1920 , she was assigned the hull code of DD @-@ 51 under the US Navy 's alphanumeric classification system . O 'Brien was decommissioned at Philadelphia on 5 June 1922 . The ship was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 8 March 1935 , and broken up at the Philadelphia Navy Yard , and her materials sold for scrap on 23 April . The ship 's bell remains in the Plattsburgh Memorial Chapel on the former Plattsburgh Air Force Base .

= Christine Hakim =

Herlina Christine Natalia Hakim ( born 25 December 1956 ) , also known by the popular name Christine Hakim , is an Indonesian actress , film producer , and activist . Born to a devout Muslim family of a mixed @-@ race background in Jambi , she grew up in Yogyakarta , aspiring to be an architect or psychologist . This changed after she was discovered by Teguh Karya for his 1973 movie Cinta Pertama , a role which garnered her a Citra Award for Best Actress and convinced her to follow a career in acting . Since then , she has starred in numerous films , including 1977 's Badai Pasti Berlalu and 1988 's Tjoet Nja ' Dhien ; she also had a minor role in the 2010 Hollywood movie Eat Pray Love . As of 2011 , she has won six Citra Awards , received a lifetime achievement award from the Cinemanila International Film Festival , and served as a member of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival

Hakim began branching out from acting in 1998 , beginning with roles as producer of Daun di Atas Bantal and Pasir Berbisik and eventually spreading to documentary film @-@ making and an activist for education and autism . Beginning in 2008 , she has served as Indonesia 's goodwill ambassador to UNESCO , focusing on educational issues .

= = Biography = =

Hakim was born in Kuala Tungkal , Jambi on 25 December 1956 , but grew up in Yogyakarta . She is of mixed descent , with her relatives coming from Padang , Aceh , Banten , Pekalongan , Madiun , and the Middle East ; this caused her to question her identity as a child and teenager . Despite being devout Muslims , her parents named her Christine and Natalia because she was born on Christmas Day .

Originally , Hakim did not intend to be an actress , but an architect or psychologist . However , she was cast in Teguh Karya 's 1973 film Cinta Pertama after he saw pictures of her modelling in a magazine ; despite only modelling to help her friend and not wanting to act , she was unable to decline Karya 's request for fear of being impolite to such a " warm and friendly " person . She later described Karya as having " reeled [ her ] in , slowly , slowly , like a fisherma , " and considered leaving acting after wrapping up filming . Her work in Cinta Pertama garnered her a Citra Award for Best Actress , which convinced her to continue acting . Karya later told her that he had fought with his producer over her casting ; the producer expressed concern that Hakim was " too thin and had no chest , " to which Karya replied " are we selling a film or are we selling breasts ? "

The following year , Hakim starred in another Karya @-@ directed film , Kawin Lari ( Elope ) . The experience gave her a greater understanding of acting , causing her to " see life from a different perspective in studying [ her ] character . " It was followed by a role in 1976 's Sesuatu yang Indah ( Something Beautiful ) , directed by Wim Umboh . Sesuatu yang Indah was the first film in which Hakim used her own voice ; her voice had been dubbed by Titi Qadarsih in previous movies ; Hakim 's own voice had been considered " too heavy . " The next year , she starred in Badai Pasti Berlalu , appearing on the poster and the cover of the soundtrack album .

Hakim presented 14 Indonesian films at the Nantes Three Continents Festival in November 1983 ; she had acted in half of them . Two years later she became an observer at the Cannes Film Festival , striking up a working relationship with Pierre Risient , who later assisted her in bringing her films to Cannes .

One of these was Eros Djarot 's 1988 film Tjoet Nja ' Dhien , in which Hakim was cast as Acehnese guerilla leader Cut Nyak Dhien . It won the 1989 Cannes Film Festival award for Best International Film , being screened in Le Semaine de Critique . Hakim later described the role as a " huge honour " and " very challenging " ; she has credited the role for answering her questions on her identity . The film later became Indonesia 's submission to the 62nd Academy Awards for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film .

Hakim screened her first work as a producer , Daun di Atas Bantal ( Leaf on a Pillow ) during Un Certain Regard at Cannes ten years later . When producing the film , she chose young director Garin Nugroho , whom she perceived to be highly talented ; she also took the leading role . During production , she made a mistake that required the reshooting of all footage . In an attempt to cut expenses , she had saved all cans of exposed film to send to the developing lab at once ; the lab then notified her that a technical fault with the camera had rendered all of it unusable and that the problem could have been detected earlier had she sent each can as it was filmed .

Another production , 2001 's Pasir Berbisik ( Whispering Sands ) , went more smoothly . The film , which Hakim co @-@ produced and played the leading role , was screened at the Deauville Asian Film Festival . The following year she was appointed to the jury of the Cannes Film Festival , along with Michelle Yeoh . In 2005 she received a special tribute during the opening ceremony of the 7th Deauville Asian Film Festival .

In 2003 , Hakim began work with RCTI and Metro TV on the TV show Untukmu Guru ( For You , Teacher ) . Five years later , Hakim was selected Indonesia ’ s voluntary goodwill ambassador for UNESCO ; she has used the position to promote education , push for education reforms in Indonesia , and promote disaster relief programs in South @-@ East Asia .

Hakim 's first Hollywood experience came in 2010 , Hakim played Wayan , a Balinese jamu seller , alongside Julia Roberts in Eat Pray Love . Arriving in Bali three days before shooting , she found herself rushed to read the script , be fitted , and rid herself of her green hair . She met with the person her character was based on to prepare for her role . That same year , Hakim accepted a FIAPF Award for her " outstanding achievements " ; she compared the award to Viagra , saying that it " make [ s ] [ her ] stronger to satisfy [ audiences ] " .

Hakim is also a documentary filmmaker . She has made a documentary on the Indonesian UNESCO World Heritage Sites , and in 2011 produced a documentary on autism to " educate the public " that was released to coincide with World Autism Awareness Day . As of May 2011 , she is producing a documentary on the Dayak people of Kalimantan . She is considering making a fiction film based on their culture .

= = Activism = =

Beginning in the early 2000s , Hakim became an activist , with a focus on education . After the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , she went on numerous humanitarian trips to Aceh . She later founded the Christine Hakim feature , a foundation to promote public education about autism . She has urged the government to eliminate misconceptions regarding autism , calling the refusal to accept autistic students in public schools " a violation of human rights " .

= = Personal life = =

In 2000 , Hakim married Dutchman Jeroen Lezer , a film producer , writer and actor . They currently live in Cibubur East Jakarta with Hakim 's mother and adopted daughter Shena ; Bruce Emond of The Jakarta Post describes her home as being " like a lush secret garden amid the creeping suburbia " .

Hakim generally avoids discussing her personal life with the press and is unwilling to discuss topics that are not of public interest . In 1992 she said that " 90 percent of the journalists here aren 't interested in [ her ] films , they just want to know about [ her ] private life . "

= = Legacy = =

Hakim has been described as the " grande dame of Indonesian cinema " as well as " Indonesia ’ s foremost actress " . She has also received a lifetime achievement award at the Cinemanila International Film Festival .

Hakim has received several awards for her films :

Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Cinta Pertama ( 1973 )

Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Sesuatu Yang Indah ( 1976 )

Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Pengemis dan Tukang Becak ( 1978 )

Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Di Balik Kelambu ( 1982 )

Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Kerikil @-@ Kerikil Tajam ( 1984 )

Citra Award for Best Leading Actress , for Tjoet Nja ' Dhien ( 1988 )

Best Actress at Asia Pacific International Film Festival

Hakim has refused a position on the Asia Pacific Screen Awards numerous times , due to being unable to reconcile her schedule with the awards .

= = Filmography = =

Cinta Pertama ( First Love ; 1973 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1974 , Surabaya )

Atheis ( Atheist ; 1974 )

Ranjang Pengantin ( Wedding Bed ; 1974 )

Kawin Lari ( Elope ; 1975 )

Si Doel Anak Modern ( Doel the Modern Child ; 1976 )

Sesuatu yang Indah ( Something Beautiful ; 1977 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1977 , Jakarta )

Badai Pasti Berlalu ( The Storm Will Surely Pass ; 1977 )

Petualang @-@ Petualang ( Wanderers ; 1977 )

Pengemis dan Tukang Becak ( The Beggar and the Pedicab Driver ; 1978 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1979 , Palembang )

Dr. Siti Pertiwi ( 1980 )

Seputih Hatinya , Semerah Bibirnya ( As White as the Heart , as Red as the Lips ; 1982 )

Di Balik Kelambu ( Behind the Screen ; 1982 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1983 , Medan )

Ponirah Terpidana ( Ponirah is Convicted ; 1984 )

Kerikil @-@ Kerikil Tajam ( Sharp Pebbles ; 1984 ) ( awarded Citra FFI 1985 , Bandung )

Tjoet Nja ' Dhien ( 1988 ) ( awarded Citra FFI )

Nemuru Otoko - Japan ( 1994 ) ( The Sleeping Man ; 1994 )

De Gordel van Smaragd - Netherlands ( 1997 ) ( The Tropic of Emerald ; 1997 )

Daun di Atas Bantal ( Leaf on a Pillow ; 1998 )

Pasir Berbisik ( Whispering Sands ; 2001 )

Merantau ( Find Oneself ; 2009 )

Jamila dan Sang Presiden ( Jamila and the President ; 2009 )

Eat Pray Love ( 2010 )

Sang Kiai ( 2013 ) ( The Clerics ; 2013 )

Pendekar Tongkat Emas ( 2014 ) ( The Golden Cane Warrior ; 2014 )

De Reis - Netherlands ( Short ) ( 2014 ) ( The Journey ; 2014 )

Guru Bangsa HOS Tjokroaminoto ( 2014 ) ( HOS Tjokroaminoto : Teacher of the People ; 2014 )

= A Month in the Country ( film ) =

A Month in the Country is a 1987 British film directed by Pat O 'Connor . The film is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by J. L. Carr , and stars Colin Firth , Kenneth Branagh , Natasha Richardson and Patrick Malahide . The screenplay was by Simon Gray .

Set in rural Yorkshire during the summer of 1920 , the film follows a destitute World War I veteran employed to carry out restoration work on a Medieval mural discovered in a rural church while coming to terms with the after @-@ effects of the war .

Shot during the summer of 1986 and featuring an original score by Howard Blake , the film has been neglected since its 1987 cinema release and it was only in 2004 that an original 35 mm film print was discovered due to the intervention of a fan .

= = Plot = =

Set in 1920 , the film follows the experiences of Tom Birkin ( Colin Firth ) , who has been employed under a bequest to carry out restoration work on a Medieval mural discovered in a church in the small rural community of Oxgodby , Yorkshire . The escape to the idyllic countryside is cathartic for Birkin , haunted by his experiences in World War I. Birkin soon fits into the slow @-@ paced life of the remote village , and over the course of the summer uncovering the painting begins to lose his trauma @-@ induced stammer and tics .

In particular , he forms a close friendship with archaeologist James Moon ( Kenneth Branagh ) , another veteran , who like Birkin has been emotionally scarred by the war . Moon is employed in the village under the same bequest , working to uncover a mysterious lost grave , but is more interested in discovering the remains of an earlier Saxon church building in the field next to the churchyard .

Birkin becomes accepted into the Nonconformist family of Mr Ellerbeck the station master ( Jim Carter ) , with whom he dines on Sundays ; the hospitality of the chapel congregation is contrasted against the established church , who have consigned the penniless Birkin to sleep in the church belfry . Ellerbeck 's children eventually persuade Birkin to preach a sermon at a nearby Methodist chapel . Birkin also forms an emotional , albeit unspoken , attachment to Alice Keach ( Natasha Richardson ) , the young wife of the vicar . The vicar himself ( Patrick Malahide ) is portrayed unsympathetically as an obstruction to the work in the church , viewing the medieval painting as symptomatic of the superstition prevalent in the community .

= = Cast = =

A Month in the Country featured film debuts or early roles of several notable British actors . Although it was the third cinema feature film to cast Colin Firth , it was his first lead role . Similarly , it was Kenneth Branagh 's first cinema film , and Natasha Richardson 's second . Conversely , it was the last role of David Garth who died in May 1988 .

Colin Firth as Tom Birkin

Kenneth Branagh as James Moon

Natasha Richardson as Alice Keach

Patrick Malahide as the Reverend J.G. Keach

Jim Carter as Ellerbeck

Vicki Arundale as Kathy Ellerbeck

Martin O 'Neil as Edgar Ellerbeck

Richard Vernon as Colonel Hebron

Tim Barker as Mossop

David Garth as Old Birkin

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

Initially intended to be a made @-@ for @-@ TV film , the film 's producer Kenith Trodd upgraded his original plan to a cinema feature . The original working title for the film was " Falling Man " . Playwright Simon Gray was commissioned to write the screenplay , and Pat O ’ Connor chosen to direct . In contrast to the book , which is narrated as a recollection by Birkin as an old man , the film is set entirely in the 1920s , except for a brief moment towards the end . In initial drafts of the screenplay , Gray had included a narrator , but O 'Connor felt this was not the correct way to present the story :

I felt that if I couldn ’ t do it in the present , suggesting internal pain by performance , then I wouldn ’ t really want to do it at all .

Funding for the film was scarce , and it eventually fell to Euston Films ( a subsidiary of Thames Television ) and Channel Four Films , who had had some success with low budget features such as My Beautiful Laundrette .

= = = Filming = = =

To compensate for the lack of budget , a very tight shooting schedule was planned over 28 days , during which Kenneth Branagh was only available for two weeks and was performing on @-@ stage nightly in London .

Despite being set in Yorkshire , the majority of location filming was moved to Buckinghamshire , although Levisham railway station and the surrounding area in North Yorkshire were utilised . The location shooting of the film began on August 18 , 1986 at St. Mary 's church in Radnage . Filming was periodically hindered by inclement weather — the perfect summer in which the book was set was not forthcoming , and scenes were filmed during breaks in heavy rain . Interiors were shot at Bray Studios in Berkshire .

The church , which is a main location for the film , was substantially set @-@ dressed . Despite having several original medieval wall paintings , the largest addition was the creation of the medieval mural by artist Margot Noyes . To create the impression of an austere country church , Victorian stone flags were replaced with brick pavers for the duration of filming and the original wall paintings covered up . Plastic guttering and other modern additions were covered up or removed . The churchyard had several gravestones added , including the large box tomb which is a focus of several scenes .

Several members of the local community were used as extras in the film , and local children were recruited by the director to collect butterflies to be released out @-@ of @-@ shot to create a " summer feeling " . However there was some opposition to the disruption caused by the filming , and also problems involving unwelcome damage to a section of the interior plasterwork , which had to be restored after filming had concluded .

= = = Music = = =

The soundtrack of the film was written by Howard Blake , and is scored entirely for string orchestra in the style of early 20th Century British music . Blake notes that the style chosen was intended to complement and contrast recordings of classical music during particular scenes : Verdi 's Quattro pezzi sacri was used during the uncovering of the mediaeval mural and a flashback montage of the First World War which opened the film utilised an excerpt from Schubert 's Deutsche Messe ( D. 872 ) " Zum Sanctus : Heilig , heilig ist der Herr " .

Howard Blake recalls : " I went to a viewing and saw that the film was very profound , with a serious anti @-@ war theme , but a certain amount of ' found ' choral music had already been laid in by the editors ... I explained that I loved the film and I thought the choral / orchestral music worked brilliantly but it was very big and rich and I felt a score would have to emerge from it and be very pure and expressive and quite small — and that I could only hear this in my head as done by strings only . " Blake decided to compose his score to match the key of the Schubert Mass , in order for the music to continue seamlessly . However , during the recording session with his orchestra , the Sinfonia of London , he found that the Schubert piece was running slow and therefore flat , and he had to ask the players to tune flat to match his intended key .

Due to the small budget of the film , Blake agreed " in lieu of a reasonable fee " to retain the copyright to his music . The score was subsequently arranged into a suite for string orchestra , and is available on CD in a recording by the English Northern Philharmonia conducted by Paul Daniel .

= = Reception and awards = =

Upon its release in 1987 , the film was generally well received by critics . Rita Kempley , writing in The Washington Post suggested " It 's all rather Arthurian , with its chivalric hero on his spiritual quest , the atmosphere suffused , seeming to dance with once and future truths . " Tom Hutchinson in the Mail on Sunday praised " a script whose delight is in the rounded reality of its characters " . Janet Maslin , writing in The New York Times praised O 'Connor 's direction , suggesting it lent the film " a strong sense of yearning , as well as a spiritual quality more apparent in the look of the film than in its dialogue . " Desmond Ryan of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote " Rarely has the impossibility of love been more wrenchingly presented than in the scenes of dashed hope between Firth and Richardson .

However , Nigel Andrews of the Financial Times found it " like a pastoral parable that has been left outside in the damp too long , causing its batteries to go flat " and following a 2008 screening , Sam Jordison of The Guardian suggested " even though this film is ( unusually ) faithful to the book ... it is really little better than inoffensive . Somehow the magic that makes JL Carr 's book so precious is missing . "

The film was the recipient of two awards : Pat O 'Connor won the Silver Rosa Camuna at the Bergamo Film Meeting in 1987 and Howard Blake was awarded the Anthony Asquith Award for Musical Excellence by the British Film Institute in 1988 . In addition , Colin Firth was nominated for an Evening Standard Award . The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival .

= = DVD and Blu @-@ ray release = =

Following its cinema release , the film was transferred to VHS in 1991 in a pan and scan edition . However , when Glyn Watkins , a poet who had been encouraged by J.L. Carr early in his career , wanted to screen the film at the launch of a poetry book in 2003 at the National Media Museum in Bradford , the museum found that all original 35mm film prints had disappeared .

Undeterred , Watkins contacted the agents of the cast and director , and eventually the online fan clubs " Friends of Firth " and " Ken Friends " . He discovered that the film had appeared as part of the National Film Theatre 's Branagh season in May 1999 , and that the film 's American distributors , Warner Bros. , had a print in a bonded warehouse . However , it was unclear who possessed the rights to the film . Only after several months it was found that Channel 4 still owned the rights , and the film was eventually released on a limited @-@ edition Region 2 DVD in late 2004 . However , the DVD is now no longer widely available in the United Kingdom . In 2008 , a complete 96 minute print was located in the Academy Film Archive in Los Angeles and a campaign began to have it restored and released on DVD . A limited edition Region A Blu @-@ ray release of the full 96 minute version of the film is planned on 14 July 2015 .

= Hydnellum peckii =

Hydnellum peckii is an inedible ( though not toxic ) fungus , and a member of the genus Hydnellum of the family Bankeraceae . It is a hydnoid species , producing spores on the surface of vertical spines or tooth @-@ like projections that hang from the undersurface of the fruit bodies . It is found in North America , Europe , and was recently discovered in Iran ( 2008 ) and Korea ( 2010 ) . Hydnellum peckii is a mycorrhizal species , and forms mutually beneficial relationships with a variety of coniferous trees , growing on the ground singly , scattered , or in fused masses .

The fruit bodies typically have a funnel @-@ shaped cap with a white edge , although the shape can be highly variable . Young , moist fruit bodies can " bleed " a bright red fluid that contains a pigment known to have anticoagulant properties similar to heparin . The unusual appearance of the young fruit bodies has earned the species several descriptive common names , including strawberries and cream , the bleeding Hydnellum , the bleeding tooth fungus , the red @-@ juice tooth , and the Devil 's tooth . Although Hydnellum peckii fruit bodies are readily identifiable when young , they become brown and nondescript when they age .

= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =

The species was first described scientifically by American mycologist Howard James Banker in 1913 . Italian Pier Andrea Saccardo placed the species in the genus Hydnum in 1925 , while Walter Henry Snell and Esther Amelia Dick placed it in Calodon in 1956 ; Hydnum peckii ( Banker ) Sacc. and Calodon peckii Snell & E.A. Dick are synonyms of Hydnellum peckii .

The fungus is classified in the stirps ( species thought to be descendants of a common ancestor ) Diabolum of the genus Hydnellum , a grouping of similar species with the following shared characteristics : flesh that is marked with concentric lines that form alternating pale and darker zones ( zonate ) ; an extremely peppery taste ; a sweetish odor ; spores that are ellipsoid , and not amyloid ( that is , not absorbing iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , acyanophilous ( not staining with the reagent Cotton Blue ) , and covered with tubercules ; the presence of clamp connections in the hyphae . Molecular analysis based on the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer DNA of several Hydnellum species placed H. peckii as most closely related to H. ferrugineum and H. spongiosipes .

The specific epithet honors mycologist Charles Horton Peck . The fungus is known in the vernacular by several names , including " strawberries and cream " , the " bleeding Hydnellum " , the " red @-@ juice tooth " , " Peck 's hydnum " , the " bleeding tooth fungus " , and the " devil 's tooth " .

= = Description = =

As in all mushroom @-@ producing fungi , the fruit bodies ( sporocarps ) are the reproductive structures that are produced from fungal mycelium when the appropriate environmental conditions of temperature , humidity and nutrient availability are met . Hydnellum peckii is a stipitate hydnoid fungus , meaning that it has a cap atop a stipe ( stem ) , and a form resembling a Hydnum — characterized by a teeth @-@ like hymenium , rather than gills or pores on the underside of the cap . Fruit bodies growing closely together often appear to fuse together ( this is called " confluence " ) . They can reach a height of up to 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) . Fresh fruit bodies exude a striking , thick red fluid when they are moist .

The cap 's surface is convex to flattened , more or less uneven and sometimes slightly depressed in the center . It is usually densely covered with " hairs " that give it a texture similar to felt or velvet ; these hairs are sloughed off in age , leaving the caps of mature specimens smooth . Its shape varies from somewhat round to irregular , 4 to 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) , or even as much as 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) wide as a result of confluence . The cap is initially whitish , but later turns slightly brownish , with irregular dark @-@ brown to nearly black blotches where it is bruised . In maturity , the surface is fibrous and tough , scaly and jagged , grayish @-@ brown in the upper part of the cap , and somewhat woody . The flesh is a pale pinkish @-@ brown .

The teeth are slender , cylindrical and tapering ( terete ) , less than 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) long , and become shorter closer to the cap edge . They are crowded together , with typically between three and five teeth per square millimeter . Pinkish @-@ white initially , they age to a grayish @-@ brown . The stem is thick , very short , and often deformed . It becomes bulbous where it penetrates the ground , and may root into the soil for several centimeters . Although it may reach up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in total length , and is 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , only about 0 @.@ 1 to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 0 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) appear above ground . The upper part is covered with the same teeth found on the underside of the cap , whereas the lower part is hairy and often encases debris from the forest floor . The odor of the fruit body has been described as " mild to disagreeable " , or , as Banker suggested in his original description , similar to hickory nuts .

= = = Microscopic features = = =

In deposit , the spores appear brown . Viewing them with a light microscope reveals finer details of their structure : they are roughly spherical but end abruptly in a small point , their surfaces are covered with small , wart @-@ like nodules , and their size is between 5 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 µm . The spores are in amyloid , meaning they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent .

Hydnellum peckii 's cells ( the hyphae ) also present various characters useful for its characterization . The hyphae that form the cap are hyaline ( translucent ) , smooth , thin @-@ walled , and 3 – 4 µm thick . They collapse when dry , but may be readily revived with a weak ( 2 % ) solution of potassium hydroxide . Those in the cap form an intricate tangle with a tendency to run longitudinally . They are divided into cellular compartments ( septa ) and have clamp connections — short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division . The basidia , the spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium , are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 35 – 40 by 4 @.@ 7 – 6 µm .

= = = Similar species = = =

Hydnellum diabolus ( the species epithet is given the neuter diabolum in some publications ) has a very similar appearance , so much so that some consider it and H. peckii to be synonymous ; H. diabolus is said to have a sweetish pungent odor that is lacking in H. peckii . The differences between the two species are amplified in mature specimens : H. diabolus has an irregularly thickened stem , while the stem of H. peckii is thickened by a " definite spongy layer " . Additionally , old specimens of H. peckii have a smooth cap , while H. diabolus is tomentose . The related species H. pineticola also exudes pink droplets of liquid when young and moist . Commonly found growing under conifers in northeastern North America , H. pineticola tastes " unpleasant " , but not acrid . Fruit bodies tend to grow singly , rather than in fused clusters , and , unlike H. peckii , they do not have bulbous stems .

= = Ecology = =

Hydnellum peckii is a mycorrhizal fungus , and as such establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of certain trees ( referred to as " hosts " ) , in which the fungus exchanges minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host . The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of a broad range of tree species , in an intimate association that is especially beneficial to the host ( termed ectomycorrhizal ) , as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree .

The ectomycorrhizal structures of H. peckii are among a few in the Bankeraceae that have been studied in detail . They are characterized by a plectenchymatous mantle — a layer of tissue made of hyphae tightly arranged in a parallel orientation , or palisade , and which rarely branch or overlap each other . These hyphae , along with adhering mineral soil particles , are embedded in a gelatinous matrix . The hyphae of the ectomycorrhizae can become chlamydospores , an adaptation that helps the fungus tolerate unfavorable conditions . Chlamydospores of H. peckii have a peculiar structure — markedly distinct from those of other Bankeraceae — with thick , smooth inner walls and an outer wall that is split radially into warts . The most striking characteristic of the ectomycorrhizae as a whole is the way the black outer layers of older sections are shed , giving a " carbonized appearance " . The majority of the underground biomass of the fungus is concentrated near the surface , most likely as " mycelial mats " — dense clusters of ectomycorrhizae and mycelium . The mycelium is also known to extend far beyond the site of the fruit bodies , as far as 337 centimeters ( 11 @.@ 1 ft ) away .

Molecular techniques have been developed to help with conservation efforts of stipitate hydnoid fungi , including H. peckii . While the distribution of the fungus has traditionally been determined by counting the fruit bodies , this method has a major drawback in that fruit bodies are not produced consistently every year , and the absence of fruit bodies is not an indication of the absence of its mycelium in the soil . More modern techniques using the polymerase chain reaction to assess the presence of the fungal DNA in the soil have helped alleviate the issues in monitoring the presence and distribution of fungi mycelia .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

The fruit bodies of Hydnellum peckii are found growing solitary , scattered , or clustered together on the ground under conifers , often among mosses and pine needle litter . H. peckii is a " late @-@ stage " fungus that , in boreal forests dominated by jack pine , typically begins associating with more mature hosts once the canopy has closed . A preference for mountainous or subalpine ecosystems has been noted .

The fungus has a wide distribution in North America , and is particularly common in the Pacific Northwest ; its range extends north to Alaska and east to North Carolina . In the Puget Sound area of the U.S. state of Washington , it is found in association with Douglas @-@ fir , fir , and hemlock . Along the Oregon Coast it has been collected under lodgepole pine . In addition to North America , the mushroom is widespread in Europe , and its presence has been documented in Italy , Germany , and Scotland . The species is common in the latter location , but becoming increasingly rare in several European countries , such as Norway , The Netherlands , and the Czech Republic . Increased pollution in central Europe has been suggested as one possible factor in the mushroom 's decline there . Reports from Iran in 2008 and Korea in 2010 were the first outside Europe and North America .

= = Uses = =

Although the fruit bodies of H. peckii have been described as resembling " Danish pastry topped with strawberry jam " , and Hydnellum species in general are not known to be poisonous , they are inedible due to their extremely bitter taste . This acridity persists even in dried specimens .

The fruit bodies of this and other Hydnellum species are prized by mushroom dyers . The colors may range from beige when no mordant is used , to various shades of blue or green depending on the mordant added .

= = Chemistry = =

Screening of an extract of Hydnellum peckii revealed the presence of an effective anticoagulant , named atromentin ( 2 @,@ 5 @-@ dihydroxy @-@ 3 @,@ 6 @-@ bis ( 4 @-@ hydroxyphenyl ) -1,4 @-@ benzoquinone ) , and similar in biological activity to the well @-@ known anticoagulant heparin . Atromentin also possesses antibacterial activity , inhibiting the enzyme enoyl @-@ acyl carrier protein reductase ( essential for the biosynthesis of fatty acids ) in the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae .

Hydnellum peckii can bioaccumulate the heavy metal caesium . In one Swedish field study , as much as 9 % of the total caesium of the topmost 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of soil was found in the fungal mycelium . In general , ectomycorrhizal fungi , which grow most prolifically in the upper organic horizons of the soil or at the interface between the organic and mineral layers , are involved in the retention and cycling of caesium @-@ 137 in organic @-@ rich forest soils .

= Gregory Helms =

Gregory Shane Helms ( born July 12 , 1974 ) is an American professional wrestler who is currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under his birth name . In TNA , he is the manager for former TNA X Division Champion Trevor Lee . He is best known for his time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , where he wrestled as The Hurricane , Gregory Helms , and Hurricane Helms and also for his time with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) , where he wrestled as " Sugar " Shane Helms .

Helms first began wrestling in 1991 at the age of 16 , and wrestled in numerous independent promotions , including the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts , winning numerous light heavyweight and tag team championships . In 1999 , he signed with WCW , and gained fame as " Sugar " Shane Helms , a member of 3 Count . During his time there he won both the WCW Hardcore Championship and the WCW Cruiserweight Championship . When WCW was bought by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , now WWE ) , Helms ' contract was kept by WWF . Helms renamed himself " The Hurricane " and won the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . He later picked up a sidekick , Rosey , and they won the World Tag Team Championship together .

He dropped the superhero gimmick in 2005 , and began wrestling under his real name . He once again won the Cruiserweight Championship in early 2006 , and held it for over a year , becoming the longest reigning Cruiserweight Champion and the longest reigning champion of any kind in SmackDown history . After being out of action for over a year after neck fusion surgery Helms returned to SmackDown in September 2008 , referring to himself as Hurricane Helms , before moving to the ECW brand where he reverted to his Gregory Helms name , and became the backstage interviewer . In mid @-@ 2009 , he brought back The Hurricane character , and appeared as both Gregory Helms and The Hurricane on ECW . After ECW was cancelled , Helms was released by WWE on February 26 , 2010 , and returned to the independent circuit .

= = Professional wrestling career = =

= = = Early career ( 1991 – 1999 ) = = =

Helms began wrestling at the age of 16 in 1991 . He won his first championship shortly afterwards , by defeating " Playboy " T.C. Cruise to become the Southern Wrestling Alliance ( SWA ) Light Heavyweight Champion . Helms spent the majority of his early career in his home state of North Carolina , winning numerous light heavyweight championships .

Helms began calling himself " The Show " Shane Helms , and teamed with " Big Daddy " Mike Maverick , initially using the team name Assault and Battery . They later dubbed themselves The Serial Thrillaz , and won several independent tag championships . The pair also began wrestling in the Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts ( OMEGA ) , which was founded by The Hardy Boyz ( Matt and Jeff ) . The Serial Thrillaz won the OMEGA Tag Team Championship twice between 1997 and 1998 , before they began competing for Southern Championship Wrestling ( SCW ) . They won the SCW Tag Team Championship , and Helms also won the SCW Heavyweight Championship . SCW would mark the end of the Serial Thrillaz , as Helms vacated both titles before moving on to NWA Worldwide . Once there , Helms joined the Bad Street Boys with Shannon Moore , Christian York , and Joey Matthews .

= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =

Helms and his friend Shannon Moore signed with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) in May 1999 . In WCW , Helms , along with Moore and Evan Karagias , formed the heel ( villainous ) stable ( faction ) 3 Count , and the trio debuted on the December 23 episode of WCW Thunder . The trio was a parody of the boy bands ' N Sync and the Backstreet Boys , and their gimmick involved making music videos and performing songs before their matches .

3 Count collectively won the WCW Hardcore Championship on WCW Monday Nitro in February 2000 . This win made 3 Count the first trio to win the Hardcore Championship . At Uncensored , Brian Knobbs defeated all members of 3 Count to win the Hardcore Championship . During a match , Helms suffered a broken nose , and was sidelined while he recovered . Upon his return , Tank Abbott had been added to the group , as a fan , and was utilized in an enforcer role . 3 Count had a long @-@ running feud ( scripted rivalry ) with The Jung Dragons , with the Dragons attempting to steal 3 Count 's fictional recording contract . This led to a ladder match between the two teams at New Blood Rising , which 3 Count won due to Abbott 's interference . As a result , Abbott claimed that he should be the lead singer of 3 Count , and was kicked out by the other three members , leading to a feud .

3 Count later disbanded as Moore and Helms kicked Karagias out of the group for attempting to steal the spotlight . At the same time , the Jung Dragons turned on Jamie Noble , who formed a team with Karagias . The three teams met in a Triangle match at Mayhem , which 3 Count won . They also wrestled each other in a number one contendership ladder match at Starrcade , to earn a WCW Cruiserweight Championship match , in which both Moore and Helms grabbed the contract at the same time . As a result , they later wrestled for the opportunity to wrestle for the championship , which Helms won , although he lost the subsequent championship match to Chavo Guerrero at the Sin pay @-@ per @-@ view .

Moore and Helms would leave WCW briefly in 2001 to wrestle in NWA Wildside , where they held the Wildside Tag Team Championship for one day . Helms became the number one contender for the Cruiserweight Championship after winning a match at SuperBrawl Revenge , but was attacked by Karagias and Moore afterwards . Despite the attack , Helms would go on to defeat Guerrero for the WCW Cruiserweight Championship at Greed and was the reigning Cruiserweight Champion immediately before WCW was bought out by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . Helms ' contract with WCW was one of twenty @-@ five that were included in WWF 's purchase of WCW .

= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =

= = = = Early appearances ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =

Helms made his WWF debut on the July 5 , 2001 episode of SmackDown ! , using the name " Hollywood " Gregory Helms . He was part of the Invasion storyline as a member of The Alliance losing his Cruiserweight Championship in a one @-@ on @-@ one match to another Alliance member , Billy Kidman .

Helms began wrestling as " The Hurricane " on August 27 , and also began wearing a superhero costume . That night , he won the WWF European Championship from Matt Hardy with help from Ivory , but lost it to Bradshaw on October 22 , 2001 . In September 2001 , Helms formed a tag team with Lance Storm who was now managed by Ivory and Helms later picked up a sidekick , in Molly Holly who began to call herself " Mighty Molly " , and the two came to the arena in a custom " Hurri @-@ Cycle " ( with Molly in the sidecar ) . The team of Helms and Storm began feuds with teams like The Hardy Boyz and Big Show and Spike Dudley . Helms and Storm got a shot at the WCW Tag Team Championship against The Hardy Boyz at No Mercy in a losing effort .

During 2002 , The Hurricane won the WWF Hardcore Championship at WrestleMania X8 , but Molly betrayed him , hitting him in the back of the head with a frying pan , and defeating him for the championship . Helms was later drafted to the SmackDown ! brand following the brand extension , and he won the Cruiserweight Championship from Tajiri and Billy Kidman in a triple threat match . He lost it to Jamie Noble at King of the Ring . Later in 2002 , he was traded to Raw , won the World Tag Team Championship with Kane , and held them for around a month in an alliance known as Hurri @-@ Kane .

= = = = Teaming with Rosey ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = = =

In 2003 , Hurricane feuded with The Rock . In backstage segments , The Rock referred to The Hurricane as " The Hamburglar " ( in part because his mask was similar to the Hamburglar 's ) . The feud culminated in a match on Raw , in which The Rock dominated . Hurricane , however , was able to roll up The Rock from behind after The Rock was distracted by Stone Cold Steve Austin 's appearance on the ramp .

In late 2003 , Hurricane " discovered " Rosey 's potential as a superhero and christened him " Rosey , the Super Hero in Training " ( the " S.H.I.T. " ) . On May 1 , at Backlash , Rosey and The Hurricane defeated La Résistance in the finals of a Tag Team Turmoil match to win the World Tag Team Championship . Not long after winning the championship , Stacy Keibler joined Rosey and The Hurricane as their sidekick , " Super Stacy " . In August 2005 , Rosey and The Hurricane lost Keibler as their sidekick when she and Christy Hemme were traded to the SmackDown ! brand . On September 5 , 2005 Hurricane and Rosey were defeated by Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch during Cade and Murdoch 's debut match on Raw . As a result , Cade and Murdoch earned a title match at the Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view . During the title match , Murdoch delivered an elevated DDT on The Hurricane to the outside . The DDT caused Hurricane to suffer a storyline " stinger " and allowed Cade and Murdoch to beat the injured Hurricane later in the match to win the World Tag Team Titles .

During the next few weeks , the pair began a losing streak , mainly caused by Hurricane 's on @-@ screen injuries . During the October 17 episode of Raw , The Hurricane was assaulted by Kurt Angle at the request of Vince McMahon . After the beating , footage was shown of The Hurricane ripping off his mask and striking Rosey because he did not help him fend off Angle . The next week , The Hurricane no @-@ showed a World Tag Team Title match , leaving Rosey to face the champions alone . During the match , The Hurricane ( out of costume ) appeared at the top of the entrance ramp , reverting to his real name , Gregory Helms , and watched as Rosey was double teamed and defeated . After the match , Helms announced that he was fed up with being funny for the crowd , and that he was sick of carrying Rosey as a tag team partner . This turned him into a heel in the process . On the November 7 episode of Raw , Helms and Rosey faced off in a singles match , which Helms won . Subsequently , Helms wrestled mostly on Raw 's sister show , Heat . On the January 2 , 2006 episode of Raw Helms confronted Jerry Lawler over jokes that Lawler had been making at Helms ' expense , and Lawler said that when Helms was The Hurricane , he was entertaining and called Helms a joke . Helms responded by slapping Lawler , who hit Helms back . This confrontation led to Lawler defeating Helms in a match at New Year 's Revolution .

= = = = Cruiserweight Champion and injury ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =

At the 2006 Royal Rumble , Helms participated in an Open Invitational match for the Cruiserweight Championship and won , even though he was a Raw superstar and the championship was defended solely on SmackDown ! . As a result , he returned to the SmackDown ! brand in February 2006 to start a feud with Nunzio , Kid Kash and the other cruiserweights . During this time , Helms defeated Nunzio in a one @-@ on @-@ one match . The next week , he was supposed to defend against Kid Kash , but Kash was away on a family emergency , so Scotty 2 Hotty took his place . Helms defeated him and declared that he was better than all the other cruiserweights . As a result , all the cruiserweights at the show invaded the ring and attacked Helms . It was later announced by SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long that at the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Helms would face all the cruiserweights in a match for the title . Helms was able to retain the championship . Later , Long mandated that Helms had to defend his title against a cruiserweight each week on SmackDown ! to prove that he truly was better than all the cruiserweights . Helm 's first defense under this new rule was against Psicosis of The Mexicools ; Helms retained by cheating .

In early March 2006 , Helms suffered a broken nose . After complaining to Long about having to wrestle on the March 10 episode of SmackDown ! , Long told Helms that he did not have to defend his title , but put Helms in a champion versus champion match against the United States Champion , Chris Benoit . During the match , Helms attempted to leave , but was blocked by other cruiserweights who threw Helms back into the ring , resulting in Helms losing the match . Helms underwent successful surgery on his nose and was expected to miss five to six weeks . During this time SmackDown ! announcers stated that Helms had a no @-@ compete clause in his contract allowing him to waive the thirty @-@ day title defense rule due to any injury . Helms returned to the ring on the April 28 episode of SmackDown ! , teaming with MNM to face Super Crazy , London and Kendrick in a six @-@ man tag team match . Helms continued to defend his belt during pay @-@ per @-@ views , but he made more regular appearances on SmackDown ! ' s sister show , Velocity .

Helms continued defending his title against other cruiserweights , while on occasion facing off against SmackDown ! ' s other title holders in champion versus champion matches . Helms faced World Heavyweight Champion Rey Mysterio on June 16 and United States Champion Bobby Lashley on July 7 but lost both matches . Eventually , Helms became the longest cruiserweight champion in WWE history , as well as the longest reigning champion of any kind in SmackDown ! history . For much of late 2006 , he feuded with Matt Hardy , with whom Helms exchanged several victories in matches on SmackDown ! . In Helms ' hometown of Raleigh , North Carolina , at the 2006 No Mercy pay @-@ per @-@ view , Hardy beat Helms . The two rivals also joined opposing teams at Survivor Series , where Helms was in Team Rated @-@ RKO , and Hardy was a member of Team DX ; Team Rated @-@ RKO lost the match .

Helms went on to feud with Jimmy Wang Yang over the Cruiserweight Title , after a tag team match in which Matt Hardy and Yang defeated Helms and Sylvan . The feud ended after Helms defeated him to retain the title at Armageddon in December 2006 . In 2007 , Helms once again feuded with the entire Cruiserweight division on SmackDown ! . During this feud , Helms ' reign as Cruiserweight Champion came to an end at No Way Out , when he was unable to win a Cruiserweight open invitational , which saw Chavo Guerrero win the championship . Shortly after losing the championship , Helms formed a tag team with Guerrero , but they did not win any matches as a team .

On May 18 , 2007 , WWE reported that Helms had broken two vertebrae in his neck , one of which was pressing on his spinal cord . He underwent surgery with Dr. Lloyd Youngblood to repair them approximately a week later . Following the surgery , Helms was announced to be out for a year and a half due to the injury .

= = = = Interviewer and The Hurricane 's return ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =

Helms returned on the September 19 , 2008 , episode of SmackDown in a non @-@ wrestling role . Throughout the show , he appeared in short video promos , called " Hurrapops " , referring to himself as " Hurricane Helms " , a modified version of his old ring name " The Hurricane " , and mocked heel superstars including Shelton Benjamin and Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder . In the following weeks , he mocked several other superstars in the " Hurrapops " , ending each promo with the phrase , " I 'm just sayin ' ! " On the November 28 episode of SmackDown , a " Hurrapop " appeared in which Helms announced that he would make his return to the ring on the next episode of SmackDown . On the December 5 episode of SmackDown , Helms defeated Montel Vontavious Porter in his ring return . Helms was quickly scripted into a feud with the United States Champion Shelton Benjamin , defeating him in two non @-@ title matches on SmackDown , although he failed to win a championship match on December 26 .

On April 15 , 2009 , Helms was drafted to the ECW brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . Helms made his ECW debut as a backstage interviewer on April 28 , 2009 , reverting to his Gregory Helms ring name , interviewing Evan Bourne . He started a storyline where , while he was interviewing someone , a scripted accident would occur , leading to Helms leaving the interview seconds before the person in distress was saved by The Hurricane . On the August 11 , 2009 episode of ECW , Helms was attacked by Paul Burchill after Helms denied being The Hurricane . The Hurricane later attacked Burchill in the ring dressed in his Hurricane attire , to save Yoshi Tatsu . The next week on ECW , he made his in @-@ ring debut for the brand as The Hurricane , and defeated Burchill . He continued to feud with Burchill , who attempted to expose The Hurricane 's true identity , until the November 17 episode of ECW when The Hurricane defeated Burchill in a mask versus career match .

On February 26 , 2010 , Helms was released from his WWE contract .

= = = Independent circuit ( 2010 – present ) = = =

Following his WWE release , Helms began wrestling on the independent circuit , including for the Canadian Wrestling 's Elite as Hurricane Helms . On October 23 , 2010 , Helms made his debut for Jersey All Pro Wrestling , where he , under his Hurricane gimmick , defeated Azrieal . On January 10 , 2011 , Helms signed a contract with Lucha Libre USA . In the promotion , Helms allied himself with Marco Corleone , and in his debut for the promotion at the January 22 tapings , he defeated Corleone 's rival and Lucha Libre USA Champion Lizmark Jr. via disqualification .

On January 29 , 2011 Helms made his debut for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla ( PWG ) , during the WrestleReunion 5 weekend , in a match , where he was defeated by Joey Ryan . He also took part in 20 @-@ Man Legends Battle Royale , making his second appearance of the night . He eliminated Cruel Connection , but later was thrown out by Shane Douglas and Terry Funk .

In April 2011 , Helms wrestled at Carolina Wrestling Federation ( Mid @-@ Atlantic ) where he defeated Ric Converse and won the vacant PWI International Heavyweight Championship . In 2013 , Helms returned to the revived OMEGA , now called OMEGA Championship Wrestling , and on October 12 , he defeated Shane Williams to advance in a tournament for the OMEGA Championship . On November 16 , 2013 , Helms was defeated by Chris Hero at a Pro Wrestling Syndicate event .

= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2015 – present ) = = =

In March 2015 , Helms received a tryout for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) as an agent and began working for the company within that capacity that same month . At Bound for Glory , Helms made his on @-@ screen debut under his full birth name to congratulate the TNA X Division Champion Tigre Uno . On the February 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , Helms assisted Trevor Lee in defeating Tigre Uno for the X Division Championship , turning heel in the process .

= = Personal life = =

Helms is a comic book fan , and one of his favorite characters is the Green Lantern . He has a tattoo on his biceps which is the Lantern 's logo and his original WWE character , The Hurricane , was inspired by the Green Lantern . In 2008 , he got a tattoo of his last name on his upper back . Helms owns a motorcycle called " The Hurri @-@ Cycle " , which he got when he was using The Hurricane gimmick . Helms is good friends with Jeff Hardy , Matt Hardy and Shannon Moore.He appears on The Hardy Show , The Hardys ' internet show . He also performed as the stunt double of actor David Arquette in the movie Ready to Rumble .

On March 19 , 2007 , Sports Illustrated posted on its website an article in its continuing series investigating a steroid and HGH ring used by a number of professional athletes in several sports . That article mentioned several current and former WWE wrestlers , including Helms who was alleged to have obtained HGH . WWE has since made a statement on this situation , mentioning that the allegations preceded the Talent Wellness program WWE launched in April 2006 . On August 30 , 2007 , an article by Sports Illustrated named Helms and nine other wrestlers to be given growth hormone not in compliance with the WWE Talent Wellness program . He was said to have received testosterone , HGH and nandrolone between November 2003 and February 2007 .

On May 6 , 2008 , Helms was assaulted in a club in Johnston County , North Carolina , by an acquaintance , Dustin Narron . An argument between the two of them led to Narron hitting Helms in the face . Narron was later charged with assault and battery . On January 27 , 2010 , Helms and fellow WWE wrestler Chris Jericho were arrested in Fort Mitchell , Kentucky after leaving a bar . A police report stated that Helms had punched Jericho and the other passengers in the cab they were sharing . Helms and Jericho were given tickets for public intoxication and released after each posted a $ 120 bail bond . On March 13 , 2011 , Helms was cited for affray following an altercation at a bar in Smithfield , North Carolina .

On May 5 , 2011 , Helms and his girlfriend were involved in a motorbike accident in North Carolina , for which Helms was charged with driving under the influence . Helms suffered a broken leg , ankle , jaw , and nose during the accident , as well as sustaining other fractures and receiving over 200 stitches , while his girlfriend sustained a broken neck . As a result of the accident , Helms ' foot had to be reconstructed with four plates and 22 screws .

Helms was previously in a relationship with fellow professional wrestler Jamie Szantyr , from 2004 @-@ 2009 who is better known by her ring name Velvet Sky . In June 2012 , Helms ' girlfriend gave birth to his first child , a boy named Sebastian .

= = In wrestling = =

Finishing moves

Eye of the Hurricane ( WWF / E ) / Nightmare on Helms Street ( WCW / WWE ) ( Spinning headlock elbow drop )

Hurrichokeslam ( Chokeslam ) – 2002 – 2003 ; used rarely thereafter

Avalanche Swinging Neckbreaker – 2005 @-@ 2007 ; used rarely thereafter

Double knee facebreaker

Shining wizard – 2003 – present

Vertebreaker – 2000 – 2003

Signature moves

Diving splash

Elbow smash

European uppercut on the turnbuckle as a counter to an oncoming opponent

Frog splash into a diving crossbody

Headscissors takedown

Hurricanrana

Hurri @-@ clothesline ( Leaping clothesline )

Jumping neckbreaker

Jumping tornado DDT

Overcast ( Diving neckbreaker )

Somersault plancha

Straight jacket sitout rear mat slam

Sugarsmack ( WCW ) / Hurri @-@ Kick ( WWF ) ( Superkick )

Suplex

Topé con hilo

TopSpin Facebuster ( Fireman 's carry spun out into a facebreaker knee smash ) ( often followed by a shining wizard )

X @-@ Plex

Managers

Mike Maverick

Ivory

Mighty Molly

Super Stacy

Tank Abbott

Wrestlers managed

Trevor Lee

Andrew Everett

Nicknames

" Hollywood "

" The Show "

" Sugar "

" Supernatural "

Entrance themes

World Championship Wrestling

" Can 't Get You Out of My Heart " by 3 Count

" Do the Three Count " by 3 Count

" Vertebreaker " by Jimmy Hart and Howard Helm

World Wrestling Entertainment

" Eye of the Hurricane " by Jim Johnston ( WWF / E ; August 2001 – October 2005 ; August 2009 – February 2010 )

" Fire Storm A " by Wolfgang Killian & Hermann Langschwert ( WWE ; November 2005 – February 2007 )

" It 's Time " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; February 2007 – January 2009 )

= = Championships and accomplishments = =

Carolina Championship Wrestling Alliance

CCWA Light Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )

Empire State Wrestling

ESW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Johnny Adams

New Dimension Wrestling

NDW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Mike Maverick

NWA Wildside

NWA Wildside Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Shannon Moore

Other titles

NAPW Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )

Organization of Modern Extreme Grappling Arts

OMEGA Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Mike Maverick

Pro Wrestling Illustrated

PWI ranked him 21 of the 500 best singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2003

Pro Wrestling International

PWI International Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )

Southern Championship Wrestling

SCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )

SCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Mike Maverick

Southern Wrestling Alliance

SWA Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )

Texas Championship Wrestling

TCW Texas Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Lenny Lane

World Championship Wrestling

WCW Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )

WCW Cruiserweight Championship ( 1 time )

World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment

WWF European Championship ( 1 time )

WWF Hardcore Championship ( 1 time )

WWE Cruiserweight Championship ( 3 times )

World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Kane ( 1 ) and Rosey ( 1 )

World Wrestling Organization

WWO Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )

Wrestling Observer Newsletter

Best Gimmick ( 2001 )

= = = Lucha de Apuesta record = = =

= New York State Route 38 =

New York State Route 38 ( NY 38 ) is a north – south state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States . Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 96 in the town of Owego in Tioga County . The northern terminus is at a junction with NY 104A in the town of Sterling in Cayuga County . NY 38 is a two @-@ lane local road for most of its length . The route is the main access road to parts of Auburn , Dryden , Newark Valley and Port Byron . It passes through mountainous terrain in Tioga and Cortland counties , but the terrain levels out as it heads through the Finger Lakes area and Cayuga County .

The route intersects several long @-@ distance highways , including NY 13 in Dryden , U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 in Auburn , and NY 31 in Port Byron . It passes over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) north of Port Byron ; however , there is no connection between the two . NY 38 has two suffixed routes . The first , NY 38A is an alternate route of NY 38 between Moravia and Auburn , while the other , NY 38B , is a simple east – west connector in the Southern Tier . While NY 38 runs along the western shore of Owasco Lake , NY 38A travels to Auburn along a routing east of the lake .

NY 38 passes along or near waterbodies for much of its length . From its southern end in Owego to the town of Harford , the route parallels Owego Creek or a branch of said creek . Between Groton and Mentz , it runs along the aforementioned Owasco Lake and its inlet ( south of the lake ) and outlet ( north of the lake ) . It also comes within 4 miles ( 6 km ) of Lake Ontario at its northern end .

In the 1920s , the portion of NY 38 between Owego and Freeville was designated as New York State Route 42 while the segment from Freeville to Moravia was the southern part of New York State Route 26 , a highway that continued north from Moravia to Syracuse . NY 38 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , utilizing all of pre @-@ 1930 NY 42 , the Freeville – Moravia portion of NY 26 , and a previously unnumbered highway north to Sterling . Originally , NY 38 extended south into the village of Owego by way of an overlap with NY 96 . It was truncated to its current southern terminus by 1994 .

= = Route description = =

All of NY 38 — save for two sections within the city of Auburn — is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . In Auburn , the route is city @-@ maintained to the north and south of where the route meets US 20 and NY 5 in downtown Auburn . The portion of NY 38 that runs between and overlaps with those two routes is state @-@ maintained .

= = = Tioga and Cortland counties = = =

NY 38 begins at an intersection with NY 96 about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of the Owego village limits in the town of Owego . The road heads northeastward as a two @-@ lane highway , paralleling Owego Creek as it proceeds along the base of a valley surrounding the waterway . The Tioga County portion of NY 38 passes through mostly rural , forested areas with only small , scattered pockets of development . The route continues toward the hamlet of Flemingville , where the Owego Creek splits into western and eastern branches . NY 38 does not enter the community ; instead , it bypasses it to the southeast and follows the eastern branch of Owego Creek into the town of Newark Valley .

The amount of homes along the route begins to increase as NY 38 approaches the village of Newark Valley . Just south of the village limits , NY 38 intersects NY 38B , a spur leading to NY 26 in Maine . The route continues into the small village as South Main Street and passes by several blocks of homes and commercial buildings . At Water Street , NY 38 becomes North Main Street ; however , from this point north , most of the village is situated on the opposite bank of Owego Creek . As a result , NY 38 continues through the village limits but passes very few buildings before seamlessly exiting the community and entering another rural area .

The route continues on , crossing over Owego Creek and passing the Newark Valley Country Club about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Newark Valley village before entering the town of Berkshire . In Berkshire , NY 38 serves the hamlet of Berkshire , a small community situated directly on the highway . The route continues on through the narrowing creek valley into the town of Richford and the hamlet of the same name , where it meets NY 79 in the community 's center . After Richford , the valley continues to narrow for just under 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before reversing course as the route heads into Cortland County and the town of Harford .

NY 38 clips the extreme southwestern corner of Cortland County ; as a result , only 3 @.@ 38 miles ( 5 @.@ 44 km ) of the route is located within the county . Just north of the county line , the route meets NY 200 in the hamlet of Harford Mills . NY 200 is little more than an alternate route to NY 221 , which NY 38 meets in the hamlet of Harford 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the northeast . In between Harford Mills and Harford , the east branch of Owego Creek separates from NY 38 and heads north to follow NY 221 instead . NY 38 continues northwest out of Harford hamlet and into Tompkins County .

= = = Tompkins County = = =

Upon entering the border town of Dryden , NY 38 emerges from the valley and becomes Dryden – Harford Road as it heads northwestward through a more low @-@ lying but still undeveloped area . The highway gradually curves to the north toward the village of Dryden , where the route changes names to South Street upon entering the village limits . It continues north across Virgil Creek and past three blocks of homes to the commercial village center , where it intersects both NY 13 and NY 392 . The latter begins here and heads off to the east while the former joins NY 38 along North Street .

The overlap between NY 13 and NY 38 ends at the northern village line . At this point , NY 13 continues north while NY 38 forks to the west , running along the village limits on Freeville Road for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) through an area with only a handful of homes . While doing so , the route passes to the south of the Dryden Middle and High School complex . NY 38 heads onward through an open , undeveloped area , curving to the northwest and eventually to the north as it approaches the village of Freeville , where it serves the William George Agency for Children 's Services at the southern village line . It remains on Freeville Road until Railroad Street , where it turns west and proceeds into the densely populated village center . Here , it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 366 at a junction situated adjacent to Fall Creek .

NY 38 proceeds out of Freeville , passing over Fall Creek and heading north along Groton Road through a lightly populated area of the town of Dryden . The route passes by a mixture of open fields , forests , and isolated homes on its way to the Dryden – Groton town line , where it meets the southern terminus of NY 34B southeast of the hamlet of Peruville . NY 38 parallels the Owasco Inlet into Groton and the village of the same name , becoming Peru Road at the southern village line . It continues north , following South and Main Streets through the densely populated village to an intersection with NY 222 's western terminus at Cortland Street . At this point , NY 38 becomes Cayuga Street and winds its way northward along the Owasco Inlet and out of the village . Now known as Locke Road , NY 38 heads the northwest through another rural , largely undeveloped area into Cayuga County .

= = = Cayuga County = = =

Cayuga County , located in the Finger Lakes region of New York , has a highly unorthodox shape . Most of the county is only about 15 miles ( 24 km ) wide from its western border to its eastern edge . From north to south , however , it extends from Locke north to the Lake Ontario shoreline — a distance of about 55 miles ( 89 km ) . NY 38 passes through much of the county , ending about 4 miles ( 6 km ) south of the shoreline in Sterling . As a result , over half of NY 38 's routing is located in the county , with the midpoint located near the city of Auburn .

= = = = County line to Auburn = = = =

The route heads northwest from the county line , following the Owasco Inlet through open fields and past small patches of trees to the large hamlet of Locke . NY 38 heads north – south through the residential community as Main Street and intersects NY 90 at the center of the hamlet . North of the community , the highway crosses over the Owasco Inlet and enters another rural area dominated by fields situated amongst forests . Upon crossing into the town of Moravia , the amount of development along the highway increases as it passes Fillmore Glen State Park and approaches the village of Moravia .

In Moravia , a highly developed village comprising several blocks of homes and businesses , NY 38 is known as Main Street as it heads north into the village center . At Cayuga Street , NY 38 intersects NY 38A , the second of its two suffixed routes . NY 38A heads eastward from this point while NY 38 turns to follow West Cayuga Street across Owasco Inlet and out of the village . Past the inlet , NY 38 curves to the north and runs along the western edge of the Owasco Flats , a wide , flat @-@ bottomed , undeveloped valley at the foot of Owasco Lake . The flats give way to the lake in Cascade , a hamlet in the town of Venice , at which point NY 38 begins to climb up the western edge of the lake valley . It reaches the lip of the valley 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) later in the town of Scipio .

For the next 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) , the route passes by open fields as it overlooks the lake to the east . The route gradually descends back into the valley as it heads further northward into the town of Fleming . Once in Fleming , NY 38 runs along the lakeshore and serves a long line of lakeside homes as it passes by a series of fields to the west . The amount of development along the route begins to increase at the northern end of the lake in the hamlet of Melrose Park , where NY 38 meets NY 437 by way of a traffic circle . At this point , NY 437 becomes the primary lakeside highway while NY 38 becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway and heads northwest as Lake Avenue toward the city of Auburn .

As NY 38 enters Auburn , it passes by Auburn High School before heading north through densely populated blocks filled with homes . The divided highway ends abruptly at Swift Street , where NY 38 turns west to follow the two @-@ lane undivided Swift Street west for seven blocks to NY 34 ( South Street ) . Here , NY 38 leaves Swift Street and joins NY 34 on South Street . The two routes follow South Street past the William H. Seward House into downtown Auburn , where the homes are replaced with businesses at Lincoln Street . Three blocks later , South Street intersects with the East Arterial ( eastbound US 20 and NY 5 ) . The overlap between NY 34 and NY 38 ends one block later at the West Arterial ( westbound US 20 and NY 5 ) , where NY 38 turns to follow the Arterial for a block to the west .

At State Street , NY 38 leaves US 20 and NY 5 and heads north through the city 's north side , crossing the Owasco Outlet and serving the Auburn Correctional Facility . The route passes through several blocks of commercial and residential development up to Grant Street , where it begins to taper off . It ceases almost entirely near the northern city line at York Street , where the homes along the highway become more sporadic and spaced apart .

= = = = North of Auburn = = = =

Now in the town of Throop , NY 38 follows the Owasco Outlet through open , mostly flat areas dotted with houses amongst fields and trees . Within Throop , it serves the small hamlet of Sawyers Corners , where NY 38 meets Turnpike Road ( County Route 10B or CR 10B ) . North of this junction , the houses give way to dense forests as the route continues along the waterway into the town of Mentz and the village of Port Byron a short distance north of the town line . It follows Main Street through a mostly commercial and industrial portion of the village to the village center , where it intersects NY 31 at Rochester and Utica Streets . NY 38 turns west , overlapping NY 31 along Rochester Street .

The two routes cross the Owasco Outlet and enter a more residential area of the community , where NY 38 splits from NY 31 and continues north along Canal Street . The route crosses over the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) as it leaves the village limits and heads north into a largely undeveloped area of forests and fields . At North Port Byron , a sparsely populated hamlet 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of Port Byron , NY 38 passes over the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision railroad line . The highway continues on , becoming Conquest Road and crossing the Seneca River ( Erie Canal ) at Mosquito Point , near where Owasco Outlet flows into the river . NY 38 enters the town of Conquest upon traversing the waterway .

NY 38 continues north as an unnamed highway to the hamlet of Conquest , a small community built up around the intersection of NY 38 and Fuller and Slayton Roads . It continues on into the town of Victory , where the undeveloped fields give way to cultivated fields used as farmland . The route heads through mostly desolate surroundings to the hamlet of Victory , a slightly larger community centered on NY 38 . The route proceeds through the hamlet , passing by several homes on its way to a junction with NY 370 just north of the community . Past this point , the homes cease again as NY 38 presses on through more fields and forests to the town of Sterling .

Just north of the town line in the small hamlet of North Victory , NY 38 intersects NY 104 . Past this point , the route heads through mostly undeveloped , forested areas on its way to the hamlet of Finches Corners . North of here , the forests cede slightly as the amount of fields along the highway increases . The highway continues on to the hamlet of Sterling , where it ends at an intersection with NY 104A ( the Seaway Trail ) just south of the hamlet 's center and 4 miles ( 6 km ) south of the Lake Ontario shoreline .

= = History = =

= = = Old roads = = =

Several portions of modern NY 38 were originally part of turnpikes and plank roads during the 1800s . On April 13 , 1819 , the New York State Legislature passed a law incorporating the Cortland and Owego Turnpike Company . The company was tasked with building a highway — the Cortland and Owego Turnpike — from Owego north to the then @-@ village of Cortland . It roughly followed what is now NY 38 north from Owego to the vicinity of Harford , where it turned north to access Virgil . It continued to Cortland by way of modern NY 215 .

On April 13 , 1825 , the legislature chartered the Auburn and Port Byron Turnpike Company . The Auburn and Port Byron Turnpike began at the Auburn State Prison in Auburn and proceeded northward along the routing of NY 38 to meet the north branch of the Seneca Turnpike in the town of Brutus ( now Throop ) . From there , the turnpike continued on NY 38 through Port Byron to the Seneca River , where it ended at a bridge crossing the river at Mosquito Point . In 1851 , the Auburn and Moravia Plank Road Company was incorporated . They were tasked with connecting Moravia to Auburn by way of a plank road along the western side of Owasco Lake ( now NY 38 ) .

= = = Designation = = =

When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the portion of what is now NY 38 from Freeville to Moravia became part of NY 26 , a north – south highway extending from Freeville to Syracuse via Skaneateles . By 1926 , the segment of current NY 38 between Freeville and Owego was designated as NY 42 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the entirety of NY 42 and the portion of NY 26 south of Moravia was incorporated into the new NY 38 , which extended north from Moravia to NY 3 ( modern NY 104A ) in Sterling . The section of the route adjacent to Owasco Lake was still being constructed at the time of NY 38 's assignment ; it was completed c . 1932 .

NY 38 originally overlapped with NY 96 ( designated as NY 15 in 1930 ) through Owego to a terminus at the modern junction of NY 96 and NY 434 south of the village . The overlap was extended slightly along Southside Drive to NY 17 exit 64 in the 1960s following the construction of the Southern Tier Expressway through the area . It was removed altogether when NY 38 was truncated to the northern end of the overlap by 1994 .

= = Suffixed routes = =

NY 38A ( 21 @.@ 91 miles or 35 @.@ 26 kilometres ) runs from Moravia to NY 359 , near Mandana and NY 41A in southwestern Onondaga County , and then towards Auburn . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .

NY 38B ( 7 @.@ 69 miles or 12 @.@ 38 kilometres ) is a short spur in Broome and Tioga counties connecting NY 38 in Newark Valley in the west to NY 26 in Maine in the east . It was assigned in the early 1950s .

= = Major intersections = =

= Westminster Assembly =

The Westminster Assembly of Divines was a council of theologians ( or " divines " ) and members of the English Parliament appointed to restructure the Church of England which met from 1643 to 1653 . Several Scots also attended , and the Assembly 's work was adopted by the Church of Scotland . As many as 121 ministers were called to the Assembly , with nineteen others added later to replace those who did not attend or could no longer attend . It produced a new Form of Church Government , a Confession of Faith or statement of belief , two catechisms or manuals for religious instruction ( Shorter and Larger ) , and a liturgical manual , the Directory for Public Worship , for the Churches of England and Scotland . The Confession and catechisms were adopted as doctrinal standards in the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian churches , where they remain normative . Amended versions of the Confession were also adopted in Congregational and Baptist churches in England and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . The Confession became influential throughout the English @-@ speaking world , but especially in American Protestant theology .

The Assembly was called by the Long Parliament before and during the beginning of the First English Civil War . The Long Parliament was influenced by Puritanism , a religious movement which sought to further reform the church . They were opposed to the religious policies of King Charles I and William Laud , Archbishop of Canterbury . As part of a military alliance with Scotland , Parliament agreed that the outcome of the Assembly would bring the English Church into closer conformity with the Church of Scotland . The Scottish Church was governed by a system of elected assemblies of elders called presbyterianism , rather than rule by bishops , called episcopalianism , which was used in the English church . Scottish commissioners attended and advised the Assembly as part of the agreement . Disagreements over church government caused open division in the Assembly , despite attempts to maintain unity . The party of divines who favoured presbyterianism was in the majority , but political and military realities led to greater influence for the congregationalist party . Congregationalists favoured autonomy for individual congregations rather than the subjection of congregations to regional and national assemblies entailed in presbyterianism . Parliament eventually adopted a presbyterian form of government , but it lacked the power the presbyterian divines desired . During the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , all of the documents of the Assembly were repudiated and episcopal church government was reinstated in England .

The Assembly worked in the Reformed Protestant theological tradition , also known as Calvinism . It took the Bible as the authoritative word of God , from which all theological reflection must be based . The divines were committed to the Reformed doctrine of predestination — that God chooses certain men to be saved and enjoy eternal life rather than eternal punishment . There was some disagreement at the Assembly over the doctrine of particular redemption — that Christ died only for those chosen for salvation . The Assembly also held to Reformed covenant theology , a framework for interpreting the Bible . The Assembly 's Confession is the first of the Reformed confessions to teach a doctrine called the covenant of works , which teaches that before the fall of man , God promised eternal life to Adam on condition that he perfectly obeyed God .

= = Background = =

Parliament called the Westminster Assembly during a time of increasing hostility between Charles I , monarch of England and Scotland , and the Puritans . Puritans could be distinguished by their insistence that worship practices be supported implicitly or explicitly by the Bible , while their opponents gave greater authority to traditional customs . They believed the Church of England , which had separated itself from the Catholic Church during the English Reformation , was still too heavily influenced by Catholicism . They sought to rid the church and nation of any of these remaining influences . This included the Church 's episcopal polity , or rule by a hierarchy of bishops . Puritans , unlike separatists , did not leave the established church . Under Charles , the Puritans ' opponents were placed in high positions of authority , most notably William Laud who was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 , even though these " high churchmen " were in the minority . Puritans were forced to keep their views private or face fines and imprisonment . Laud promoted advocates of Arminianism , a theological perspective opposed to the Reformed theology of the Puritans . Worship practices such as kneeling at communion , bowing at the name of Christ , and the placement of communion tables at the East end of churches were also reinstated . To the Puritans , these seemed to be a step in the direction of Catholicism .

There were also conflicts between the king and the Scots , whose church was ruled by a system of elected assemblies called presbyterianism . James , Charles 's predecessor as King of Scotland , made it clear that he intended to impose elements of episcopal church government and the Book of Common Prayer on the Scots beginning in 1604 . The Scots considered this a reversion to Roman Catholicism . Charles furthered English impositions on the Church of Scotland in 1636 and 1637 . This led to the First Bishops ' War between Charles and the Scots in 1639 . Charles called what came to be known as the Short Parliament to raise funds for the war , but he soon dissolved it when it began voicing opposition to his policies . Following the Second Bishops ' War with the Scots in 1640 , Charles was forced to call another parliament to raise additional funds .

What came to be known as the Long Parliament also began to voice vague grievances against Charles , many of which were religious in nature . Parliament had many Puritans and Puritan @-@ sympathizing members , who generally opposed the existing episcopal system , but there was little agreement over what shape the church should take . Later in 1640 , the Root and Branch petition was presented to the House of Commons , the lower house of Parliament . It was signed by about 15 @,@ 000 Londoners and called for total elimination of the episcopal system . Committees were organized in the House of Commons to enact religious reforms , leading to the imprisonment of Archbishop Laud and his supporters in the Tower of London as retaliation for their repression of Puritans . The Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber , courts which had inflicted severe punishments on Puritan dissenters , were also abolished .

= = Calling the assembly = =

The idea of a national assembly of theologians to advise Parliament on further church reforms was first presented to the House of Commons in 1641 . Such a proposal was also included in the Grand Remonstrance , a list of grievances which Parliament presented to Charles on 1 December that year . Charles responded on 23 December that the church required no reforms . Undeterred , Parliament passed three bills in 1642 appointing an assembly and stipulating that its members would be chosen by Parliament . Charles , whose royal assent was required for the bills to become law , was only willing to consider such an assembly if the members were chosen by the clergy . This was the practice for selection of members of Convocation , the assembly of clergy of the Church of England .

Defying the king , between 12 February and 20 April 1642 , each county delegation of England in Commons chose two divines , in addition to two for each county of Wales , four for London , and two for each University ( Oxford and Cambridge ) . County delegations often chose divines from their own county , but not always . Commons chose the members in this way to ensure that their local constituencies were represented in the decision . The House of Lords , Parliament 's upper house , added another fourteen names on 14 May , to which Commons agreed . Meanwhile , relations continued to deteriorate between the king and Parliament . Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham on 22 August , marking the beginning of the First English Civil War . The start of the war lent support to the cause of the Assembly in Parliament , because holding it would convince the Scots that Parliament was serious about reforming the church and induce the Scots to come to their aid . On the other hand , the war added strain to the already busy Parliament .

Parliament finally passed an ordinance to hold the assembly on its own authority without Charles 's assent on 12 June 1643 . It named as many as 121 ministers and thirty non @-@ voting parliamentary observers : twenty from Commons , and ten from the House of Lords . The Assembly was almost entirely English ; Parliament appointed Englishmen for the counties of Wales , but the French stranger churches ( churches of Protestant refugees from Catholic France ) sent two ministers in place of any from the Channel Islands . Many of the divines were internationally recognized scholars of the Bible , ancient languages , patristics , and scholastic theology . Many were also famous preachers . Most of these theologians had retained their positions in the Church during the tenure of William Laud . Some had been ejected from their churches or cited by ecclesiastical courts for their views . Some had fled to the Continent , and one to the American colonies . Nonetheless , they all considered themselves members of the Church of England and had received episcopal ordination . Most were conformists , meaning they agreed to follow the Act of Uniformity 1558 and the Book of Common Prayer .

The Assembly was strictly under the control of Parliament , and was only to debate topics which Parliament directed . Assembly members were not permitted to state their disagreements with majority opinions or share any information about the proceedings , except in writing to Parliament . Parliament chose William Twisse , an internationally respected theologian , to be the Assembly 's prolocutor or chairman . Due to Twisse 's ill health , Cornelius Burges , whom Parliament appointed as one of several assessors , served as prolocutor pro tempore for most of the Assembly . Twenty @-@ two appointed members of the Assembly died before 1649 , and they along with those who did not attend for other reasons were replaced by another nineteen members . Three non @-@ voting scribes were also added in 1643 .

= = Revising the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles = =

The Assembly 's first meeting began with a sermon by William Twisse in the nave of Westminster Abbey on 1 July 1643 . The nave was so full that the House of Commons had to send members ahead to secure seats . Following the sermon , the divines processed to the Henry VII Chapel , which would be their place of meeting until 2 October when they moved to the warmer and more private Jerusalem Chamber . After their initial meeting they adjourned for about a week , as Parliament had not yet given specific instructions .

On 6 July , they received a set of rules from Parliament and were ordered to examine the first ten of the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles , the current doctrinal standard of the Church of England , and " to free and vindicate the Doctrine of them from all Aspersions of false Interpretations " . After a day of fasting , the Assembly took a vow , as directed by Parliament , to " not maintain any thing in Matters of Doctrine , but what I think , in my conscience , to be truth " . The divines organized themselves into three standing committees , though each committee was open to any member of the Assembly . The committees would be assigned topics and prepare propositions for debate in the full Assembly following each morning of committee meetings . In addition , over 200 ad hoc committees were appointed for tasks such as examination of candidate preachers , college fellows , and suspected heretics .

The Assembly resolved , after some debate , that all the doctrines of the Thirty @-@ Nine articles would need to be proven from the Bible . Assembly members were prone to long speeches and they made slow progress , frustrating the leadership . The eighth of the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles recommended the Apostles ' Creed , Nicene Creed , and Athanasian Creed , considered to be basic statements of orthodoxy , to be received and believed . The Assembly was unable to resolve conflicts between those who would not be bound by creeds and those who wished to retain the existing language that the creeds be " thoroughly received and believed " . The " excepters " , who took the former position , argued that the articles only require the " matter " of the creeds be believed . On 25 August the article was put off until the rest of the articles could be dealt with . This early disagreement on fundamental issues revealed deep rifts between different factions of the assembly .

= = Debating church government = =

From the beginning of the First Civil War , the Long Parliament recognized that they would need assistance from the Scots . In return for a military alliance , the Scottish Parliament required the English to sign the Solemn League and Covenant in 1643 , which stipulated that the English would bring their church into greater conformity with the Church of Scotland . The Scottish Parliament sent commissioners to London to represent Scotland 's interests to the English Parliament . Eleven of these , four theologians and seven members of Parliament , were also invited to the Assembly . The commissioners were given the opportunity to become full voting members of the Assembly but declined , preferring to maintain their independence as commissioners of their own nation and church . Samuel Rutherford , George Gillespie , and Alexander Henderson were the most outspoken of the commissioners .

On 12 October 1643 , Parliament ordered the Assembly to cease work on the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles and to begin to frame a common form of church government for the two nations . The Assembly would spend a quarter of its full sessions on the subject of church government . The majority of the Assembly members supported presbyterian polity , or church government by elected assemblies of lay and clerical representatives , though many were not dogmatically committed to it . Several members of this group , numbering about twenty and including William Twisse , favoured a " primitive " episcopacy , which would include elements of presbyterianism and a reduced role for bishops .

There were also several congregationalists , who favoured autonomy for individual local churches . Their most influential divines were Thomas Goodwin , Philip Nye , Sidrach Simpson , Jeremiah Burroughs , and William Bridge . They were often called the " dissenting brethren " in the Assembly . They have sometimes been labelled " Independents " , but they rejected this term . The Assembly members for the most part reserved the label " Independent " for separatists who left the established church . The congregationalist divines cannot be equated with separatists and Brownists , as they had accepted episcopal ordination and remained in the Church of England . Their influence was assisted by the success of Oliver Cromwell and his New Model Army in the ongoing civil war . Cromwell and many others in the army supported congregationalism .

A third group of divines were known as Erastians , a term for those who believed that the state should have significant power over the church . The entire Assembly was Erastian in the sense that the body had been called by Parliament and was completely under state control . Those labelled " Erastian " at the Assembly believed the civil authority , rather than church officers , should hold the power of church discipline . This included the power to withhold communion from unrepentant sinners . They did not see any particular form of church government as divinely mandated , and because of this the dissenting brethren allied with them when it became clear that a presbyterian establishment would be much less tolerant of congregationalism than Parliament . There were only two divines at the Assembly who held the Erastian view , John Lightfoot and Thomas Coleman , but the presence of members of Parliament , especially John Selden , as well as the fact of parliamentary oversight of the Assembly , gave Erastian views disproportional influence .

Several episcopalians , supporters of the existing system of bishops , were also included in the summoning ordinance , but Parliament may have nominated them to lend greater legitimacy to the Assembly and not have expected them to attend because Charles had not approved of the Assembly . Only one , Daniel Featley , participated , and he only until his arrest for treason in October 1643 .

Debate on church officers began on 19 October . The Assembly began with the issue of ordination , as many of the divines were concerned about the rise of various sectarian movements and the lack of any mechanism for ordination of ministers of the established church . While some members did not seem to think ordination necessary for preachers ( though they should not administer the sacraments without it ) , a majority of the divines thought any regular preaching without ordination unacceptable and wished to erect a provisional presbytery for purposes of ordination . There was also debate at this early stage over the nature of the visible church . The congregationalists considered a church to be a single local congregation , while the majority considered the national church to be a unity and were alarmed at the prospect of a disintegrated English church . Despite these debates , up until the end of 1643 there was hope that a common church government could be framed that would be satisfactory to all parties involved .

On 3 or 4 January 1644 , the five leading dissenting brethren signalled a break with the rest of the Assembly when they published An Apologeticall Narration , a polemical pamphlet appealing to Parliament . It argued that the congregational system was more amenable to state control of religious matters than that of the presbyterians because they did not desire the church to retain any real power except to withdraw fellowship from aberrant congregations . By 17 January , the majority of the Assembly had become convinced that the best way forward was a presbyterian system similar to that of the Scots , but the dissenting brethren were allowed to continue to state their case in hope that they could eventually be reconciled . It was hoped that by avoiding asserting that presbyterianism was established by divine right , the congregationalists could be accommodated .

Despite these efforts , on 21 February it became clear just how fundamentally opposed the groups were . Philip Nye , one of the dissenting brethren , asserted in a speech that a presbytery set over local congregations would become as powerful as the state and was dangerous to the commonwealth , provoking vigorous opposition from presbyterians . The next day , the Assembly finally began to establish a prescription for presbyterian government . Owing to a strong belief in the unity of the church , the Assembly continued to try to find ways to reconcile the dissenting brethren with the majority throughout 1644 , including the establishment of a special committee for that purpose in March . However , on 15 November , the dissenting brethren presented their reasons for disagreement with the rest of the Assembly to Parliament , and on 11 December the majority submitted a draft of a presbyterian form of government .

= = Conflicts with Parliament = =

Relations between the Assembly and Parliament were already deteriorating in 1644 , when Parliament ignored the Assembly 's request that " grossly ignorant and notoriously profane " individuals be barred from communion . While members of Parliament agreed that the sacrament should be kept pure , many of them disagreed with the presbyterian majority in the Assembly over who had the final power of excommunication , taking the Erastian view that it was the state . Also , by 1646 , Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army had won the war on behalf of Parliament . Cromwell , along with a majority of the army , was strongly in favour of religious toleration for all sorts of Christians even if the national church was to be presbyterian . His rise to power as a result of his military victories made the idea of a strictly presbyterian settlement without freedom of worship for others very unlikely . Parliament at least wanted to know which sins in particular were grave enough to trigger excommunication by the church ; the Assembly was reticent to provide such information , as the majority considered the power of the church in this area to be absolute .

In May 1645 , Parliament passed an ordinance allowing excommunicants to appeal the church 's sentences to Parliament . Another ordinance on 20 October contained a list of sins to which the church would be limited in its power to excommunicate . To the majority of the divines ' dismay , an even more Erastian ordinance was proposed in March 1646 . The Assembly published a protest , provoking the Commons to charge it with breach of privilege and to submit nine questions to the divines on the matter . Votes were to be included with the answers , an attempt to force the divines associated with the protest petition to reveal themselves .

The Nine Queries , as they came to be called , focused on the divine right ( jure divino ) of church government . While the presbyterian divines were capable of defending their vision for church government as established by divine right in the Bible , they were unwilling to answer the queries because doing so would further expose the disunity of the Assembly and weaken their case in Parliament . In July 1647 , the New Model Army invaded London and conservative members of Parliament were forced out . Parliament passed an ordinance establishing religious tolerance and ensuring that the Assembly 's vision of a national , compulsory presbyterian church would never come to fruition . In London , where support for presbyterianism was greatest , presbyteries were established in only sixty @-@ four of 108 city parishes , and regional presbyterian classes were only formed in fourteen of England 's forty counties . A planned national general assembly never met . Many presbyterians did , however , establish voluntary presbyteries in what was a de facto free church situation until the Restoration in 1660 , when a compulsory episcopal system was reinstated .

The new Form of Government was much more acceptable to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . They passed it on 10 February 1645 , contingent on some particularities of presbyterian government which were expected to be worked out in a forthcoming Directory for Church Government . At the same time they announced their desire to formally unite the two churches . Following the rise of Cromwell and the secret Engagement of some Scots with Charles this hope was abandoned , and the documents were never formally adopted . The General Assembly ceased to function under Cromwell and the kings who succeeded him from 1649 to 1690 .

= = Confession , catechisms , and the Directory for Public Worship = =

During and after the debates over church government , the Assembly framed other documents which did not cause open rifts . The Directory for Public Worship , which was to replace the Book of Common Prayer , was swiftly written in 1644 and passed by Parliament on 3 January 1645 . The Directory , accepted by the Scots as well , took a middle course between the presbyterians and congregationalists . The presbyterians for the most part preferred a fixed liturgy while congregationalists favoured extemporaneous prayer . The Directory consisted of an order for services with sample prayers . The Assembly also recommended a psalter , translated by Francis Rous for use in worship .

A Confession of Faith to replace the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles was begun in August 1646 . While there is little record of the actions of the Assembly during the writing of the Confession , it is clear that there were significant debates in the Assembly over almost every doctrine found in it . The Confession was printed and sent to Parliament in December . The House of Commons requested scripture citations be added to the Confession , which were provided in April 1648 . Parliament approved the Confession with revisions to the chapters on church censures , synods and councils , and marriage on 20 June 1648 . The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland had already adopted the Confession without revision in 1647 . The restoration of Charles II in 1660 effectively made this legislation a nullity .

The Assembly had already done significant work on a catechism between December 1643 and January 1647 containing fifty @-@ five questions , before it decided to create two catechisms rather than one . The Larger Catechism , intended to assist ministers in teaching the Reformed faith to their congregations . The Shorter Catechism was based on the Larger Catechism but intended for use in teaching the faith to children . Parliament demanded scripture proofs for the catechisms as well . The Scots General Assembly approved both catechisms in 1648 .

The Assembly understood its mandate under the Solemn League and Covenant to have been fulfilled on 14 April 1648 when it delivered the scripture citations to Parliament , and the Scottish Commissioners had already left by the end of 1647 . The Assembly continued to meet primarily for the purpose of examination of ministers for ordination . Most of the divines were unhappy with the republican Commonwealth that emerged after Colonel Pride 's Purge of the Long Parliament in 1648 . As a result , a majority stopped attending rather than agree to the oath of Engagement to the Commonwealth that was imposed in 1649 . Newspapers continued to report on the meetings of the Assembly as late as March 1653 . The Assembly must have stopped meeting sometime between then and Cromwell 's dissolution of the Rump Parliament on 20 April 1653 .

= = Theology = =

The Assembly was a product of the British Reformed tradition , taking as a major source the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles as well as the theology of James Ussher and his Irish Articles of 1615 . The divines also considered themselves to be within the broader European Reformed tradition . They were in frequent correspondence with continental Reformed theologians , and sought their approval . They also drew upon the pre @-@ Reformation British theological tradition , which emphasized biblical knowledge and was influenced by the Augustinian theological tradition exemplified by Anselm , Thomas Bradwardine , and John Wycliffe . The recorded debates of the Assembly are full of citations of church fathers and medieval scholastic theologians .

The Confession starts with the doctrine of revelation , or how people can know about God . The divines believed knowledge of God was available to people through nature as well as the Bible , but they also believed that the Bible , or Scripture , is the only way in which people attain saving knowledge of God . The doctrine of Scripture was also a particularly important area of debate at the time . Scholars had begun to argue that the Hebrew vowel points , marks added to the text to aid in pronunciation , of the Old Testament were probably not part of the original . This caused significant debate between Reformed polemicists and Roman Catholics . Catholics argued that such a discovery demonstrated the need for an authoritative magisterium to interpret the Bible as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of perspicuity , that the essential teachings of the Bible could be interpreted by anyone . English Reformed writers in particular took up the work of defending the Reformed doctrine . The divines had a strong view of the inspiration of the Bible , and believed that God revealed himself in the propositions found in Scripture . While the issue of biblical inerrancy , the belief that there are no errors in the Bible , did not arise until the eighteenth century , the divines clearly did not believe the Bible to contain any errors . Many of the divines held a rather mechanical view of biblical inspiration , believing that not only the words and ideas but also the letters and vowel points of the Hebrew text were inspired by God . On the other hand , they acknowledged that the text was written by humans in their own styles . They did not make any distinction between essential and incidental matters with respect to biblical inspiration .

Puritans believed that God is sovereign over all of history and nature and that none of what were called his decrees would be frustrated . There was significant debate in the Assembly over the relationship of God 's decree of predestination , or choice to save some people , to the redemption purchased by Christ 's death . Many of the Reformed during this period taught that Christ died with the purpose only to save those who were eternally chosen to be saved , a doctrine called particular redemption . A vocal minority of the divines of the Assembly argued for a position known as hypothetical universalism . Edmund Calamy held such a view , and he argued that Christ 's death , as well as saving those who had been chosen , offered salvation to all people on condition that they believe . The Assembly 's Confession did not teach such a view , and its language is much more amenable to a particular redemption interpretation , but there is a general agreement among scholars that the Confession 's language allows an hypothetical universalist interpretation .

Covenant theology is an interpretive framework used by Reformed theologians which was significantly developed during the seventeenth century . Under this scheme , as articulated by the Assembly , God 's dealings with men are described in terms of two covenants : the covenant of works and covenant of grace . The Westminster Confession was the first major Reformed symbol to explicitly mention the covenant of works ( sometimes called the covenant of life ) , in which God offered Adam eternal life on condition of perfect obedience . In the fall of man , Adam broke the covenant of works by eating of the tree of knowledge of good and evil . To remedy this , God offered salvation apart from human initiative in what was called the covenant of grace . This covenant allowed man to enjoy eternal life despite his inability to obey God 's law perfectly . The idea of the covenant of grace was a much more common feature of orthodox Reformed theology . The Westminster divines set these two covenants against each other as the two major ways in which God deals with people .

The divines were even more strongly opposed to Catholicism than to William Laud and his followers , the Laudians . They associated both Catholicism and Laudianism with Arminianism and persecution . Before the civil war , the divines saw these two groups as the greatest threat to the church . With the rise of radical sectarian movements during the war , the divines became much more concerned with these groups than polemics against Catholicism . The divines were particularly concerned with those they labeled antinomians . This was a loose term for those who saw the moral law as in some way no longer relevant for Christians . The divines saw these groups as more immediately threatening than Catholicism .

= = Legacy = =

The work of the Westminster Assembly was repudiated by the Church of England during the Restoration in 1660 . The Act of Uniformity 1662 , a law requiring even greater adherence to the Book of Common Prayer and support for episcopalianism than had previously been required , forced Puritan ministers to leave the Church . Though some presbyterians continued to desire to be readmitted to the established church , restrictions on worship for non @-@ conformists led to presbyterians putting aside differences with congregationalists and adopting congregational church orders .

The Civil War brought with it the end of the consensus among English Protestants that there should be a single church imposed by the state , though there was still not complete freedom of religion . The ideals of the dissenting brethren of the Assembly were significant in the rise of denominationalism , the doctrine that the church is found in several institutions rather than a single one in a given location . Though Protestants already commonly recognized the validity of churches in different territories , the outcome of the Assembly 's debates marks the wider acceptance of the idea that several true churches may be found in the same territory .

The Confession produced by the Assembly was adopted with amendments by Congregationalists in England in the form of the 1658 Savoy Declaration , as well as by Particular Baptists in the form of the 1689 Baptist Confession . When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland was reestablished in 1690 following the Glorious Revolution , it ratified the Westminster Confession , but not any other document produced at Westminster . The Confession remains , according to the 1929 Declaratory Articles , the Church of Scotland 's " principal subordinate standard " , subordinate to the Bible . Memorization of the Shorter Catechism has been made a requirement for children in many Presbyterian churches .

The migrations and missionary efforts of each of these groups lead to the widespread significance of the Westminster Assembly throughout the English @-@ speaking world . The Assembly 's Confession was particularly influential in American Protestant theology . It was included with congregationalist changes as part of the 1648 Cambridge Platform , a statement produced by ministers of colonial Massachusetts and the surrounding region , and again in colonial Connecticut as part of the 1708 Saybrook Platform . The Confession was modified for American Baptists in the 1707 Philadelphia Confession . The Adopting Act of 1729 required American Presbyterians to agree to the theology of the Assembly 's Confession , and the Confession remains a part of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) ' s Book of Confessions . The Confession has been called " by far the most influential doctrinal symbol in American Protestant history " by the historian of religion Sydney E. Ahlstrom .

= The Goat Puzzle =

The Goat Puzzle , also known as The Infamous Goat Puzzle , The Infamous Goat , The Wretched Goat , The Goat of Lochmarne , or simply The Goat , is a puzzle featured in Revolution Software 's 1996 classic point and click adventure game Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars . In the puzzle , protagonist George Stobbart must gain access to an underground dig located in a castle in Lochmarne , Ireland , by avoiding getting butted by a fierce goat . It is often explained to be difficult due to challenging the player in a way different from previous puzzles in the game . It is also noted by many gamers and various publications as one of the hardest video game puzzles of all time . The puzzle was simplified in The Shadow of the Templars ' 2009 director 's cut .

= = Puzzle and solution = =

Revolution Software 's point and click adventure game Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars was first released in 1996 . While investigating a murder , protagonist and player character George Stobbart finds himself uncovering a dark mystery regarding the Knights Templar . A medieval manuscript which he obtained during the investigation leads him to a castle located in Lochmarne , Ireland . As he cannot enter the castle through the main entrance door , he climbs a haystack , which stops short of the top of the wall . He puts a sewer key which he obtained at the beginning of the game in a crack in the wall , which forms a step , allowing him to climb over the wall . Inside the castle , an entrance to an underground dig is located . A tied @-@ up goat is sitting near the entrance ; however , the chain to which it is tied is long enough to allow it to prevent George from reaching the entrance by butting him . An old piece of farming machinery is located at the left side of the screen , but George is unable to interact with it , as the goat continues to butt him . George must allow the goat to butt him when trying to reach the entrance , but while the goat is returning to its original position , the player must click on the farming machinery , which causes George to quickly jump up and run to the machinery and slightly reposition it . When returned to its original position , the goat again charges and butts George , but while doing so , gets its chain entangled with the machinery , due to its repositioning . This allows George to move freely and enter the dig .

= = Legacy = =

The puzzle is considered by many gamers and publications to be one of the most challenging video game puzzles of all time . Broken Sword creator and Revolution CEO Charles Cecil and Broken Sword designer Steve Ince , as well as publications which have covered it , explain that the puzzle was challenging because the player was not met with any " time critical " puzzle prior to this point in the game , which would mean they " would not necessarily make the connection that clicking on the machinery at a key moment would make this happen . "

Chris Csullion of Official Nintendo Magazine said that " if you 've played [ Broken Sword ] , the words ' the goat puzzle ' will probably make you break out in a cold sweat . " Geoff Thew of Hardcore Gamer wrote that Broken Sword was known for " intricate , challenging puzzles ( some infamously so ) . " The puzzle appeared on Computer and Video Games ' 2011 feature , " Gaming 's hardest puzzles " . In 2012 , it was listed on GameFront 's " 5 Crazy Difficult and Intricate Video Game Puzzles " . During a classic postmortem for The Shadow of the Templars at the European Game Developers Conference in August 2014 , when Cecil brought up the topic of difficult puzzles , a member of the audience shouted " That fucking goat ! " ; laughter ensued , and Cecil added : " It was very unfair , and it was absolutely bewildering . " He also continued , claiming he knew he had " made it " when a taxi driver once questioned him about his occupation : upon finding out he had written Broken Sword the driver exclaimed , " Ah , so you 're the one responsible for the goat puzzle ! "

The puzzle was simplified in The Shadow of the Templars ' 2009 director 's cut by , according to Cecil , adding a more logical solution . This version of the game includes a diary , in which the character takes notes ; After completing the goat puzzle , George 's diary reads : " So the ' ghost of Lochmarne ' is no more than a fierce Billy goat . For a moment I thought it was going to be incredibly awkward to get past , but in the end it was surprisingly simple . Who would have known ? " , as a reference to the original puzzle 's reputation . An easter egg involving a talking goat was included in The Shadow of the Templars ' sequel , Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror ( 1997 ) . A goat puzzle was featured in Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse , in the beginning and ending of 2014 second and final episode of the title , as part of the achieved $ 800 @,@ 000 Kickstarter " stretch goal " .

= Sinclair Sovereign =

The Sinclair Sovereign was a high @-@ end calculator introduced by Clive Sinclair 's company Sinclair Radionics in 1976 . It was an attempt to escape from the unprofitable low end of the market , and one of the last calculators Sinclair produced . Made with a case of pressed steel that a variety of finishes , it cost between GB £ 30 and GB £ 60 at a time when other calculators could be purchased for under GB £ 5 . A number of factors meant that the Sovereign was not a commercial success , including the cost , high import levies on components , competition from cheaper calculators manufactured abroad , and the development of more power @-@ efficient designs using liquid @-@ crystal displays . Though it came with a five @-@ year guarantee , issues such as short battery life limited its usefulness . The company moved on to producing computers soon afterwards .

The design by John Pemberton won a Design Council award , and there are examples of the Sovereign in the Museum of Modern Art in New York . It had a Mostek MK50321N main integrated circuit and a small memory register , a LED display , and could perform a variety of a number of basic mathematical operations besides four @-@ function arithmetic .

= = History = =

The Sovereign was one of the last calculators produced during Sinclair 's foray into the calculator market that had started with the Sinclair Executive in September 1972 . The Executive had retailed for GB £ 80 when introduced , but in little over a year it was possible to purchase a Sinclair calculator for GB £ 20 and by November of 1976 a model was available for GB £ 4 @.@ 95 . Cheaper calculators with liquid @-@ crystal displays instead of light @-@ emitting diodes were becoming more popular , and had much longer battery lives of months or years . Such calculators were available for well under GB £ 10 , with all the functionality of the more expensive models . The impossibility of selling " simple " calculators profitibly led Sinclair to introduce models such as the Cambridge Scientific , introduced in August 1975 at a price of GB £ 29 @.@ 95 .

The Sovereign , released in 1976 , represented an attempt to move upmarket in an increasingly saturated market . In December 1976 , the chrome plated version of the Sovereign cost GB £ 30 and the gold @-@ plated version GB £ 60 , including VAT , but profit margins on the Sovereign were so small that Sinclair ended up selling the Sovereign at a loss , and it was not a commercial success . The Sovereign was made in England , like every other Sinclair calculator except the President .

Sinclair would shortly stop producing calculators and instead focus on computers , starting with the MK14 in 1977 . The loss of the calculator market was due in part to technological development leading to smaller and cheaper components , which put heavy pressure on profit margins . An import levy of up to 17 @.@ 5 % was placed on components , but the duty for calculators imported from Japan or Hong Kong could be as little as 5 % , making it unprofitable to produce calculators in the UK . Sinclair also had some problems with the reliability of earlier calculators that had adversely affected its reputation , but the Sovereign was sold with a " full and unconditional " five year guarantee .

= = Design = =

The Sovereign came in satin chrome and gold @-@ plated models , with leather pouches and fitted wooden cases . It had an 8 @-@ digit seven @-@ segment display that used red light @-@ emitting diodes , with a decimal point to the right of each digit that could be illuminated as necessary . Power was provided by two 1 @.@ 35 mercury button cells . The Sovereign measured 36 by 141 by 12 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 42 in × 5 @.@ 55 in × 0 @.@ 47 in ) , which made it small and sleek compared to other calculators of the time .

The Sovereign was unusual because the casing was made from pressed steel , which gave it a much higher quality feel compared to injection moulded plastic . This allowed a variety of paint and plating options , including black painted , chrome @-@ plated , silver @-@ plated , and gold @-@ plated , and a limited edition silver @-@ plated version , inscribed to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 1977 , were also produced . Asprey of London was rumoured to have produced two Sovereigns in solid gold , costing GB £ 2 @,@ 750 each .

The design , by John Pemberton , won the Design Council Award in 1977 , as the Executive had in 1973 , and there are examples in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York . Sovereigns are highly collectible , and used models command high prices .

= = = Functions = = =

As well as addition , subtraction , multiplication and division , it had reciprocal and square @-@ root functions , and the ability to multiply by a fixed constant . With an eight @-@ digit display , the calculator could display positive numbers between 0 @.@ 0000001 and 99 @,@ 999 @,@ 999 , and negative numbers between -0.000001 and -9,999,999 . Calculators of the time tended to have displays of between 3 and 12 digits , as reducing the number of digits was an effective way of reducing the cost of the calculator . A number outside that range leads to an overflow , and the screen flashes and all keys except the clear key are rendered inoperable to inform the user of the error . A independent memory register could read information from the screen , and information could only be taken from the memory onto the screen . Five keys were used for memory operations .

The Sovereign used a Mostek MK50321N main integrated circuit , the same as the Sinclair Wrist Calculator and some variants of the Sinclair Cambridge . Clive Sinclair had assumed that people would prefer attractive illuminated LED displays to LCD displays , which incidentally also required more expensive CMOS chips . However , his calculators were designed with the assumption they would be turned off between calculations , which did not prove to be the case . Advertisements suggested that the batteries would last " about a year " under normal use , but in reality the small button cell batteries and comparatively high power consumption meant a short battery life compared to the competition .

= Survivor Series ( 1992 ) =

Survivor Series ( 1992 ) was the sixth annual Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view professional wrestling event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on November 25 , 1992 , at the Richfield Coliseum in Richfield Township , Ohio . The buildup to the pay @-@ per @-@ view consisted of feuds scripted by the WWF 's writers , and the matches that took place at the event had pre @-@ determined outcomes that had been decided by the company .

In the main event , Bret Hart retained his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Shawn Michaels . The card also included a highly @-@ promoted match in which the team of Randy Savage and Mr. Perfect defeated the team of Ric Flair and Razor Ramon by disqualification ; The Ultimate Warrior was advertised for the show but left the company and was replaced by Perfect . Also featured were two speciality matches : The Undertaker won a coffin match against Kamala , and The Big Boss Man defeated Nailz in a nightstick on a pole match .

Some of the matches were changed after they were first announced , as several wrestlers left the WWF shortly before the event . Critics have praised the main event and the tag team match that was won by Savage and Perfect . Although the remaining bouts have received low ratings , critics have felt that those two matches made the event worth watching .

= = Background = =

In the storyline behind the match between The Big Boss Man and Nailz , Nailz claimed that while he was serving time in prison , the Big Boss Man , who was a guard at the prison , mistreated Nailz . In early 1992 , Nailz appeared in introductory vignettes to talk about his hatred of the Big Boss Man . Upon his debut in the WWF , Nailz attacked Bossman and stole his nightstick , which he used to attack his opponents over the following months .

Shortly after Tatanka 's debut in the WWF , he became involved in a feud with Rick Martel . They faced each other at WrestleMania VIII , and Tatanka defeated Martel . The following month , Martel gained revenge by attacking Tatanka with an atomizer of cologne and stealing the eagle feathers that Tatanka carried to symbolize his Lumbee heritage .

Ric Flair and his " executive consultant " Mr. Perfect had been allies in the WWF for much of 1992 . After Flair lost the WWF World Heavyweight Championship to Macho Man Randy Savage at WrestleMania VIII , Flair and Perfect initiated a feud with Savage . They interfered in Savage 's match at SummerSlam and caused him to lose by countout . The rivalry continued , and Flair received assistance from Perfect and Razor Ramon to win the title back from Savage on September 1 , which aired on the September 14 edition of WWF Prime Time Wrestling . The WWF planned for Savage to team with the Ultimate Warrior in a match against Flair and Ramon at Survivor Series . The Ultimate Warrior left the WWF , however , before the match could take place . Two possible reasons have been given for his departure . The first states that he was fired due to allegations of steroid abuse , while the other states that he was upset with the WWF 's future plans for his character . The WWF was forced to change the plan and decided to turn Perfect into a babyface ( fan favorite ) from a heel . Perfect and Flair began having conflicts while teaming together , and Perfect accepted Savage 's offer on the November 16 episode of WWF Prime Time Wrestling to team with him at Survivor Series .

Money Inc . ( " Million Dollar Man " Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) had been feuding with The Natural Disasters ( Earthquake and Typhoon ) since February 1992 when manager Jimmy Hart turned on Earthquake and Typhoon in favor of helping Money , Inc . With Hart 's assistance , Money , Inc. defeated the Legion of Doom for the WWF Tag Team Championship on February 7 , 1992 . Five months later , Earthquake and Typhoon defeated Money Inc. to win the championship . The Natural Disasters were also feuding with The Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) and defeated them in a title match at SummerSlam 1992 . A match was then announced for Survivor Series in which The Natural Disasters would team with The Bushwhackers ( Luke and Butch ) to face Money , Inc. and the Beverly Brothers . However , when The Nasty Boys ( Brian Knobbs and Jerry Sags ) , also managed by Hart , were scheduled to face The Natural Disasters for the title on October 13 , Hart replaced The Nasty Boys at the last minute with Money , Inc . , who went on to regain the championship with help from The Headshrinkers . This led to a break @-@ up between Hart and the Nasty Boys , who received the Bushwhackers ' spot in the Survivor Series match to get revenge against Jimmy Hart and Money , Inc .

At SummerSlam 1992 in August , The Undertaker defeated Kamala . Harvey Wippleman , Kamala 's manager wanted revenge , so a rematch was scheduled for Survivor Series . The match was promoted as the WWF 's first coffin match , in which the winner would place the loser in a coffin after the match .

The WWF also planned a match featuring The British Bulldog defending the WWF Intercontinental Championship against The Mountie at Survivor Series . The WWF released Smith due to steroid allegations , however , and he was made to drop the title belt to Shawn Michaels on the November 14 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event . Jake Roberts was set to challenge Bret Hart , who had won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship on October 12 , for his title , but the promotion could not come to terms with Roberts . Ultimately , the WWF neglected to include an Intercontinental Championship match on the card , instead pitting Michaels against Hart . In this match , Hart 's title was defended while Michaels ' title was not .

= = Event = =

Prior to the pay @-@ per @-@ view broadcast , Crush defeated the Repo Man via submission . In the first televised match , High Energy ( Owen Hart and Koko B. Ware ) faced The Headshrinkers ( Samu and Fatu ) . Samu used his strength advantage to control the opening of the match against Hart . Ware entered the match and gained the advantage over both opponents until he attempted to knock The Headshrinkers ' heads against each other . According to WWF storylines , Samoans like The Headshrinkers have thick skulls and cannot be hurt in the head ; as a result , The Headshrinkers no @-@ sold the attack . Afa , The Headshrinkers ' manager , attacked Ware while the referee was distracted . Samu and Fatu took turns attacking Ware , and Fatu performed a thrust kick on Ware . The Headshrinkers used rulebreaking tactics to control the match until Hart was able to enter the match . He performed dropkicks from the top rope against both Headshrinkers . As he tried to attack Samu from the top rope again , Samu caught him and powerslammed him before Fatu executed a diving splash to get the pinfall victory .

The next match , between The Big Boss Man and Nailz , was a nightstick on a pole match . A nightstick was suspended above the ring and could be used as a weapon once it was retrieved . Nailz began the match by attempting to get the nightstick , but Boss Man stopped him . Nailz choked Boss Man before making another unsuccessful attempt to climb the pole and obtain the nightstick . Boss Man punched Nailz and then tried to climb the pole . Nailz stopped him , performed a back body drop , and choked Boss Man again . Boss Man regained control but missed a splash , which gave Nailz another chance to retrieve the nightstick . Both men clotheslined each other , but Boss Man recovered first and got the nightstick . He hit Nailz with it , but Nailz took it and used it against Boss Man . Boss Man performed the Boss Man slam , his finishing move , before pinning Nailz to win the match .

Tatanka controlled the opening of the next match against " The Model " Rick Martel with several throws and dropkicks . Martel responded by wearing Tatanka down with a front facelock . Tatanka escaped , but Martel used another front facelock almost immediately . He performed a neckbreaker on Tatanka before going back to the same hold as before . Tatanka gained the advantage by performing a clothesline on Martel . Martel ran at Tatanka , but Tatanka moved out of the way and Martel hit his shoulder against the ring post . Tatanka focused on attacking Martel 's injured shoulder but eventually was thrown out of the ring by Martel . Martel 's advantage was short @-@ lived , as Tatanka performed a series of backhand chops and a Tomahawk chop from the top rope before nailing The Model with a Samoan drop . Tatanka got the pinfall victory and retrieved his feathers from Martel after the match . While the match was in progress , Doink the Clown , who had not yet been named or debuted as a wrestler in the WWF , stood in the aisle and made balloon animals before popping them to upset the children in the audience .

In the next contest , Ric Flair and Razor Ramon wrestled against Mr. Perfect and Randy Savage . Ramon and Perfect began the match , but Flair entered after Perfect insulted him . Perfect threw Flair into the corner , and Flair 's momentum carried him over the top rope to the ring apron . Savage attacked Flair and then took Perfect 's place in the ring to maintain the advantage over Flair . From outside the ring , Ramon hit Savage with his knee and Flair and Ramon took turns attacking Savage 's knee . While Ramon performed a half Boston crab on Savage , Perfect considered leaving the match and abandoning Savage . Savage recovered briefly by trying to pin Flair , but Ramon performed a chokeslam on Savage . Ric Flair attempted to attack Savage from the top rope , but Savage threw him to the ring floor instead . Perfect executed a neckbreaker and an atomic drop on Ramon . Outside of the ring , Flair attacked Savage with a chair . The referee was knocked unconscious , and Perfect tried to pin Ramon by performing a PerfectPlex . Because no referee was available to count the pinfall , a substitute referee came to the ring . The first referee recovered as Perfect attempted to pin Flair with a PerfectPlex . Flair escaped the pin attempt , and he and Ramon attacked Perfect until the referees were unable to keep the match under control . As a result , Ramon and Flair were disqualified , and the victory was awarded to Perfect and Savage .

In the next match , Virgil faced Yokozuna , who was billed at 505 pounds . Virgil was unable to knock Yokozuna down with several dropkicks . Yokozuna performed a savate kick on Virgil before throwing him to the ring floor twice . He executed a legdrop on Virgil , but Virgil regained the advantage when Yokozuna accidentally ran into the ring pole while trying to attack Virgil . Yokozuna won the match after a splash in the corner and a Banzai Drop .

The following match was a tag team elimination match , in which The Natural Disasters ( Earthquake and Typhoon ) teamed with the Nasty Boys ( Jerry Sags and Brian Knobbs ) to face Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) and the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) . The rules stated that when any man was eliminated , his tag team partner would also be eliminated . Blake Beverly and Typhoon began the match , but Beau and Earthquake soon entered the ring as well . The Natural Disasters gained control of the match by attacking Blake Beverly , and the Nasty Boys entered the ring to assist the Disasters . Blake attacked Sags and tagged out of the match . Beau entered but was bodyslammed by Sags ; Sags got distracted , however , which allowed Beau to suplex him and bring DiBiase into the match . Money Inc. took turns attacking Sags until Earthquake entered the ring . Earthquake performed an Earthquake splash by sitting on Beau Beverly to pin him and eliminate both Beverly Brothers . Earthquake fought DiBiase , but both men eventually left the ring and were replaced by their partners . Typhoon performed a splash on Schyster but was tripped by DiBiase . Schyster pinned Typhoon to eliminate The Natural Disasters . While Schyster was celebrating , Sags quickly pinned him to win the match for the Nasty Boys .

The coffin match , in which The Undertaker faced Kamala , came next . Kamala began the match by running in fear from The Undertaker . He gained the early advantage , however , by suddenly turning around and attacking The Undertaker . Kamala bodyslammed The Undertaker three times and performed three splashes . In an attempt to revive The Undertaker , Paul Bearer , his manager , held up an urn that was said to be the source of The Undertaker 's power . Kim Chee , one of Kamala 's handler 's attacked Bearer . The Undertaker picked up the urn , which had rolled into the ring , and hit Kamala with it . The Undertaker pinned Kamala to win the match , placed him in a coffin , and nailed the lid shut .

In the main event of the card , Bret Hart defended his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Shawn Michaels . Hart controlled the beginning of the match by repeatedly executing armdrags and armbars but Michaels gained the advantage when " The Hitman " missed a charge into the corner and collided shoulder @-@ first with the ring post . Michaels then threw Hart into another ring post and wore him down by executing a front facelock . Hart was able to avoid Michaels ' first attempt at his finisher , the modified back suplex , and rallied with his trademark moves including an elbow from the second rope , running bulldog and a superplex . Michaels recovered and performed a superkick on Hart and was able this time to apply his suplex , but Hart kicked out . After Hart missed a desperation crossbody and crotched himself on the ropes , Shawn attempted a dropkick from the middle rope but Hart grabbed Michaels ' legs and applied the Sharpshooter , his finishing move . He retained his championship by forcing Michaels to submit .

= = Aftermath = =

Ric Flair and Mr. Perfect continued their feud , although Flair legitimately requested to be released from his WWF contract in order to return to World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . His request was granted on the condition that he help build up Perfect as a credible babyface . The two men attacked each other during the battle royal at Royal Rumble 1993 , and Perfect eliminated Flair from the match . The following night , Perfect defeated Flair in a loser leaves town match . Flair did not return to the WWF until McMahon purchased WCW in 2001 .

The Undertaker 's feud with Harvey Wippleman continued for several months after Survivor Series . At Royal Rumble 1993 , Wippleman introduced a new wrestler named Giant Gonzalez . Despite not being scheduled in the match , Gonzalez attacked The Undertaker and eliminated him from the Royal Rumble match . The two men faced each other at WrestleMania IX , where Gonzalez was disqualified for attacking The Undertaker with a rag soaked in chloroform . Wippleman led Gonzalez and Mr. Hughes in another attack on The Undertaker , in which Hughes stole The Undertaker 's urn . The feud was resolved at SummerSlam 1993 , when The Undertaker defeated Gonzalez in a Rest in Peace match .

Yokozuna 's push continued , and he won the battle royal main event at Royal Rumble 1993 to earn a WWF Championship match against Bret Hart at WrestleMania IX . At WrestleMania , he defeated Hart to win the title belt . He immediately challenged Hulk Hogan to a match however , and WrestleMania ended with Yokozuna losing the WWF Championship to Hogan in 21 seconds .

Kevin Wacholz , who had portrayed Nailz , left the WWF shortly after Survivor Series . Upset about his pay from SummerSlam 1992 , he confronted WWF owner Vince McMahon and reportedly attacked him physically . He later testified against McMahon during a trial in which McMahon was accused of distributing steroids to wrestlers . Wacholz ' statements have been reported as having a harmful effect on the prosecution 's case because his anger at McMahon overshadowed his testimony .

Shawn Michaels became involved in a feud with his former tag team partner , Marty Jannetty . The team had split up earlier in the year when Michaels attacked Jannetty . Michaels defeated Jannetty at Royal Rumble 1993 , but the two traded the Intercontinental Championship back and forth in subsequent rematches .

= = = Reception = = =

Survivor Series 1992 was attended by 17 @,@ 500 fans , the same number as the previous year . It drew more fans than any of the following three Survivor Series event would draw . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate was 1 @.@ 4 , which means that 1 @.@ 4 percent of households to which the event was available purchased the pay @-@ per @-@ view . This was , to that point , the lowest buyrate in Survivor Series history and down more than one @-@ third from the previous year 's 2 @.@ 2 buyrate . The buyrate was higher than that of any of the following twelve Survivor Series events , however .

Writing for The History of WWE , Matt Pettycord stated that the event was " pretty decent " considering that The Mountie , Davey Boy Smith , and the Ultimate Warrior left the company shortly before the event . On a five @-@ star scale , he rated only the Flair / Ramon vs. Savage / Perfect match and the Hart vs. Michaels match higher than one star . He stated that the event is " recommended , but not required " , although the WWF Championship match was a " must @-@ see " .

Adam Gutschmidt , reviewing the event for Online Onslaught , gave a rating of one @-@ quarter star for the Nightstick on a Pole match and one @-@ half star each for the High Energy vs. The Headshrinkers match and the Yokozuna vs. Virgil match . He enjoyed the WWF Championship match , although he was disappointed by its lack of buildup prior to the event . He also felt that the Flair / Ramon vs. Savage / Perfect match was a good one until the ending got out of control . Pro Wrestling Torch columnist agreed , stating that the WWF Championship match was the best and that the Flair / Ramon vs. Savage / Perfect bout was also enjoyable , but he recommended fast @-@ forwarding through the rest of the show .

The event was released in North America on VHS by Coliseum Video on February 11 , 1993 . The VHS version was released in the United Kingdom on March 8 , 1993 . A DVD version is also available in the United Kingdom ; it was packaged together with Survivor Series 1991 as part of the WWE Tagged Classics line and released on November 7 , 2005 .

= = Results = =

= = = Survivor Series elimination match = = =

^ 1

= Ouw Peh Tjoa =

Ouw Peh Tjoa ( Chinese : 水淹金山 ; Hokkien for Black and White Snakes ) , also known by the Malay @-@ language title Doea Siloeman Oeler Poeti en Item ( meaning Two Snakes , One White and One Black ) , is a 1934 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) . It was directed and produced by The Teng Chun . Adapted from Legend of the White Snake , a Chinese folktale , it follows a magical snake who passes as a human but ultimately dies . The film , now possibly lost , was followed by one sequel , Anaknja Siloeman Oeler Poeti , in 1936 .

= = Plot = =

After meditating for several hundred years , a magical white snake transforms into a beautiful woman . Her competitor , a black snake , does likewise . The two compete for the love of a man named Khouw Han Boen . Ultimately Khouw agrees to marry the ( former ) white snake , but when her true identity is revealed he attempts to cancel their wedding . The snake @-@ woman , crying , tells Khouw 's boss that they are to be married , and ultimately Khouw is guilted into marrying her .

As time passes , Khouw sees his wife occasionally transform into a snake . She is always , however , able to convince him otherwise . He falls further in love with her , and their marriage is a happy one . After several months he is accosted by a priest , Hoat Hae Sian Soe , who then leads an attempt to kill the snake @-@ woman . She escapes , pursued by the priests .

The priests catch the snake and prepare to kill her , but are stopped by the goddess Kwan Im , who tells the stunned pursuers that the snake is pregnant and thus must not be killed . A month after the snake gives birth , the priests return . The snake @-@ woman gives her child to Khouw and then surrenders herself to her fate . She is captured in a magical jar and brought away .

= = Production = =

Ouw Peh Tjoa was directed and produced by The Teng Chun for his company , Cino Motion Pictures . Since releasing Sam Pek Eng Tay in 1931 , based on the legend of the Butterfly Lovers , The Teng Chun had released a series of films based on Chinese legends and folktales , including Pat Bie To ( Eight Beautiful Women ; 1932 ) and Pat Kiam Hiap ( Eight Swordsmen ; 1933 ) . These stories were selected because the peranakan Chinese in the Indies were unable to understand Mandarin and Cantonese imports from China , but wanted to see films based on Chinese mythology . Overall , The Teng Chun 's films emphasised the martial art silat and were generally profitable , allowing him to dominate the industry .

The cast of this black @-@ and @-@ white film is unrecorded . The dialogue , captured by the film 's director @-@ cum @-@ producer , was in Malay . The snakes used in the production of this film came from The Teng Chun 's personal zoo .

= = Release and reception = =

According to The , in a 1970s interview , Ouw Peh Tjoa was released in 1934 . Newspaper advertisements show the film being screened by February 1935 . The film mostly targeted ethnic Chinese audiences . Advertising material , however , emphasised the use of spoken Malay and described the film as " full of astonishments and all forms of magic fights " ; through these action sequences , Ouw Peh Tjoa proved popular among native audiences . The film was exported to Singapore , part of the Straits Settlements , where there was a large ethnic Chinese population .

The success of Ouw Peh Tjoa allowed The Teng Chun to import new equipment for his studio ( renamed Java Industrial Film ) , which he used in his future productions . The film was followed in 1936 by a sequel , Anaknja Siloeman Oeler Poeti ( Child of the White Snake ) . The Teng Chun continued releasing films based on Chinese legends until 1937 , a year after Albert Balink 's Pareh changed domestic perceptions of profitable film storylines . The 's later films adapted stories closer to the native populace of the Indies and focussing on events that could happen in day @-@ to @-@ day life . Through 1940 and 1941 Java Industrial Films was the most productive studio in the Indies , until it was shut down during the Japanese occupation which began in March 1942 .

Screenings of Ouw Peh Tjoa continued until at least 1953 . The film is now likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .

= = Explanatory notes = =

= HMS Comet ( H00 ) =

HMS Comet was a C @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . She saw service in the Home and Mediterranean Fleets and the ship spent six months during the Spanish Civil War in late 1936 in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Comet transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy ( RCN ) in 1938 and renamed HMCS Restigouche . During World War II , she served as a convoy escort in the battle of the Atlantic , on anti @-@ submarine patrols during the invasion of Normandy , and was employed as a troop transport after VE Day for returning Canadian servicemen , before being decommissioned in late 1945 . Restigouche was sold for scrap in 1946 .

= = Design and construction = =

Comet displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 865 long tons ( 1 @,@ 895 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Comet carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .

The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Comet had a single QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt AA gun between her funnels , and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the aft end of her forecastle deck . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) AA gun was removed in 1936 and the 2 @-@ pounders were relocated to between the funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . Three depth @-@ charge chutes were fitted , each with a capacity of two depth charges . After World War II began this was increased to 33 depth charges , delivered by one or two rails and two throwers .

The ship was ordered on 15 July 1930 from Portsmouth Dockyard under the 1929 Programme . Comet was laid down on 12 September 1930 , launched on 30 September 1931 , as the 14th ship to carry the name , and completed on 2 June 1932 .

= = Service history = =

After sea trials in May 1932 , Comet was commissioned for service in the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla , Home Fleet , in early June . On 21 July , she was damaged in a collision with her sister Crescent at Chatham and repaired at Chatham Dockyard between 28 July and 20 August . The ship was refitted at Chatham from 20 July to 3 September 1934 . Following the Italian invasion of Abyssinia , Comet was sent in August 1935 to the Red Sea with the other ships of the 2nd Flotilla to monitor Italian warship movements until March 1936 .

Comet returned to the UK in April 1936 and refitted at Sheerness between 23 April and 29 June before resuming duty with the Home Fleet . In July she was deployed for patrol duties off the Spanish coast in the Bay of Biscay to intercept shipping carrying contraband goods to Spain and to protect British flagged shipping during the first stages of the Spanish Civil War . On 9 August she assisted the crew of the crippled British yacht Blue Shadow off Gijon , after the small vessel was shelled by mistake by the Nationalist cruiser Almirante Cervera . The ship was briefly placed in reserve in late 1936 while discussions were held about transferring her to the Royal Canadian Navy . Two of her sisters were chosen instead and Comet was recommissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet as plane guard for the aircraft carrier Glorious on 29 December .

In April 1937 she returned to Portsmouth with Glorious , and on 20 May the ship participated in the Coronation Review of the fleet at Spithead by King George VI . Four days later , Comet began a refit at Portsmouth that lasted until 18 June . The ship resumed plane guard duties for Glorious in the Mediterranean . She began a major refit at Chatham on 26 May 1938 to bring her up to Canadian specifications that included the installation of Type 124 ASDIC .

= = = Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy = = =

On 11 June she was commissioned by the RCN and renamed Restigouche , although her refit was not completed until 20 August . Restigouche was assigned to the Canadian Pacific Coast and arrived at Esquimalt on 7 November 1938 . She remained there until she was ordered to Halifax , Nova Scotia on 15 November 1939 where she escorted local convoys , including the convoy carrying half of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to the UK on 10 December . Restigouche was ordered to Plymouth on 24 May 1940 and arrived there on 31 May . Upon arrival , the ship 's rear torpedo tube mount was removed and replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun and the 2 @-@ pounders were exchanged for quadruple Mark I mounts for the QF 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mark III machine gun .

On 9 June , Restigouche was ordered to Le Havre , France to evacuate British troops , but none were to be found and the ship investigated the small port of Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux some 40 miles ( 64 km ) northeast of Le Havre on 11 June . They found some elements of the 51st Infantry Division , but had not received any orders to evacuate and refused to do so . Whilst recovering her landing party , the ship was taken under fire by a German artillery battery , but she was not hit and returned fire . After returning to England , Restigouche escorted several troop convoys on the last legs of their journeys from Canada , Australia and New Zealand in mid @-@ June . On 23 June , the ship escorted the ocean liner SS Arandora Star to St. Jean de Luz to evacuate Polish troops and British refugees trapped by the German Army in south @-@ western France ( Operation Ariel ) . On 25 June 1940 , Restigouche , her sister HMCS Fraser , and the light cruiser HMS Calcutta were returning from St. Jean de Luz when Fraser was rammed by Calcutta in the Gironde estuary at night . Struck forward of the bridge by the cruiser 's bow , Fraser was cut in half , although the rear part of the ship did not immediately sink . All but 47 of the ship 's crew and evacuees were rescued by Restigouche and other nearby ships . The rear portion had to be sunk by Restigouche .

The ship was transferred to the Western Approaches Command afterwards for convoy escort duties . She sailed for Halifax at the end of August for a refit that lasted until October . Upon its completion , Restigouche remained at Halifax for local escort duties until January 1941 when she sailed for the UK where she was reassigned to the Western Approaches Command . The ship was ordered to St. John 's , Newfoundland on 30 May to reinforce escort forces in the Western Atlantic . Whilst guarding the battleship Prince of Wales at Placentia Bay on 8 August , Restigouche damaged her propellers when she struck bottom and required repairs that lasted until October . She was not out of dockyard hands for very long before she was badly damaged by a storm while en route to join Convoy ON @-@ 44 on 12 December . Repairs at Greenock lasted until 9 March 1942 and her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder above the bridge had been removed by this time in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar .

Other changes made during the war ( exactly when these occurred is unknown ) included the replacement of ' A ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar , exchanging her two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform , and the removal of her 12 @-@ pounder AA gun . Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was also added . Two QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss guns were fitted on the wings of her bridge to deal with U @-@ boats at short ranges . ' Y ' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased to at least 60 depth charges .

Restigouche was assigned to the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force when her refit was finished and served with a variety of escort groups . The ship was permanently assigned to Escort Group C4 in April 1943 and received a refit between August and December . She rejoined the escort group upon completion of the refit until she was transferred to 12th Escort Group in early 1944 for anti @-@ submarine operations in the Western Approaches . In June – July 1944 , Restigouche patrolled in the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay hunting for German submarines trying to sink Allied shipping . On the night of 5 – 6 July , the ship and the rest of the 12th Escort Group sank three small German patrol boats off Brest . The following month , the 12th Support Group , including Restigouche , engaged three minesweepers on 12 August , without sinking any . The ship was sent to Canada for a lengthy refit later in the month . After working up in Bermuda , she arrived at Halifax on 14 February 1945 and began escorting local convoys . This lasted until the end of the war in May , after which the ship was used to transfer returning troops from Newfoundland to mainland Canada until she was paid off on 5 October . Restigouche was sold for scrap in 1946 .

= = Ship 's bell = =

The Christening Bells Project at Canadian Forces Base Esquimalt Naval and Military Museum includes information about the baptism of babies in the ship 's bell . The bell is currently held by the Royal Canadian Legion , Lantzville , British Columbia .

= = Trans @-@ Atlantic convoys escorted = =

= History of artificial intelligence =

The history of artificial intelligence ( AI ) began in antiquity , with myths , stories and rumors of artificial beings endowed with intelligence or consciousness by master craftsmen ; as Pamela McCorduck writes , AI began with " an ancient wish to forge the gods . "

The seeds of modern AI were planted by classical philosophers who attempted to describe the process of human thinking as the mechanical manipulation of symbols . This work culminated in the invention of the programmable digital computer in the 1940s , a machine based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning . This device and the ideas behind it inspired a handful of scientists to begin seriously discussing the possibility of building an electronic brain .

The Turing test was proposed by British mathematician Alan Turing in his 1950 paper Computing Machinery and Intelligence , which opens with the words : " I propose to consider the question , ' Can machines think ? ' " The term ' Artificial Intelligence ' was created at a conference held at Dartmouth College in 1956 . Allen Newell , J. C. Shaw , and Herbert A. Simon pioneered the newly created artificial intelligence field with the Logic Theory Machine ( 1956 ) , and the General Problem Solver in 1957 . In 1958 , John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky started the MIT Artificial Intelligence lab with $ 50 @,@ 000 . John McCarthy also created LISP in the summer of 1958 , a programming language still important in artificial intelligence research .

In 1973 , in response to the criticism of James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from congress , the U.S. and British Governments stopped funding undirected research into artificial intelligence . Seven years later , a visionary initiative by the Japanese Government inspired governments and industry to provide AI with billions of dollars , but by the late 80s the investors became disillusioned and withdrew funding again .

= = Precursors = =

McCorduck ( 2004 ) writes " artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history , a dream in urgent need of being realized , " expressed in humanity 's myths , legends , stories , speculation and clockwork automatons .

= = = AI in myth , fiction and speculation = = =

Mechanical men and artificial beings appear in Greek myths , such as the golden robots of Hephaestus and Pygmalion 's Galatea . In the Middle Ages , there were rumors of secret mystical or alchemical means of placing mind into matter , such as Jābir ibn Hayyān 's Takwin , Paracelsus ' homunculus and Rabbi Judah Loew 's Golem . By the 19th century , ideas about artificial men and thinking machines were developed in fiction , as in Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein or Karel Čapek 's R.U.R. ( Rossum 's Universal Robots ) , and speculation , such as Samuel Butler 's " Darwin among the Machines . " AI has continued to be an important element of science fiction into the present .

= = = Automatons = = =

Realistic humanoid automatons were built by craftsman from every civilization , including Yan Shi , Hero of Alexandria , Al @-@ Jazari and Wolfgang von Kempelen . The oldest known automatons were the sacred statues of ancient Egypt and Greece . The faithful believed that craftsman had imbued these figures with very real minds , capable of wisdom and emotion — Hermes Trismegistus wrote that " by discovering the true nature of the gods , man has been able to reproduce it . "

= = = Formal reasoning = = =

Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the process of human thought can be mechanized . The study of mechanical — or " formal " — reasoning has a long history . Chinese , Indian and Greek philosophers all developed structured methods of formal deduction in the first millennium BCE . Their ideas were developed over the centuries by philosophers such as Aristotle ( who gave a formal analysis of the syllogism ) , Euclid ( whose Elements was a model of formal reasoning ) , Muslim mathematician al @-@ Khwārizmī ( who developed algebra and gave his name to " algorithm " ) and European scholastic philosophers such as William of Ockham and Duns Scotus .

Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull ( 1232 – 1315 ) developed several logical machines devoted to the production of knowledge by logical means ; Llull described his machines as mechanical entities that could combine basic and undeniable truths by simple logical operations , produced by the machine by mechanical meanings , in such ways as to produce all the possible knowledge . Llull 's work had a great influence on Gottfried Leibniz , who redeveloped his ideas .

In the 17th century , Leibniz , Thomas Hobbes and René Descartes explored the possibility that all rational thought could be made as systematic as algebra or geometry . Hobbes famously wrote in Leviathan : " reason is nothing but reckoning " . Leibniz envisioned a universal language of reasoning ( his characteristica universalis ) which would reduce argumentation to calculation , so that " there would be no more need of disputation between two philosophers than between two accountants . For it would suffice to take their pencils in hand , down to their slates , and to say each other ( with a friend as witness , if they liked ) : Let us calculate . " These philosophers had begun to articulate the physical symbol system hypothesis that would become the guiding faith of AI research .

In the 20th century , the study of mathematical logic provided the essential breakthrough that made artificial intelligence seem plausible . The foundations had been set by such works as Boole 's The Laws of Thought and Frege 's Begriffsschrift . Building on Frege 's system , Russell and Whitehead presented a formal treatment of the foundations of mathematics in their masterpiece , the Principia Mathematica in 1913 . Inspired by Russell 's success , David Hilbert challenged mathematicians of the 1920s and 30s to answer this fundamental question : " can all of mathematical reasoning be formalized ? " His question was answered by Gödel 's incompleteness proof , Turing 's machine and Church 's Lambda calculus . Their answer was surprising in two ways .

First , they proved that there were , in fact , limits to what mathematical logic could accomplish . But second ( and more important for AI ) their work suggested that , within these limits , any form of mathematical reasoning could be mechanized . The Church @-@ Turing thesis implied that a mechanical device , shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 , could imitate any conceivable process of mathematical deduction . The key insight was the Turing machine — a simple theoretical construct that captured the essence of abstract symbol manipulation . This invention would inspire a handful of scientists to begin discussing the possibility of thinking machines .

= = = Computer science = = =

Calculating machines were built in antiquity and improved throughout history by many mathematicians , including ( once again ) philosopher Gottfried Leibniz . In the early 19th century , Charles Babbage designed a programmable computer ( the Analytical Engine ) , although it was never built . Ada Lovelace speculated that the machine " might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent " . ( She is often credited as the first programmer because of a set of notes she wrote that completely detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the Engine . )

The first modern computers were the massive code breaking machines of the Second World War ( such as Z3 , ENIAC and Colossus ) . The latter two of these machines were based on the theoretical foundation laid by Alan Turing and developed by John von Neumann .

= = The birth of artificial intelligence 1952 – 1956 = =

In the 1940s and 50s , a handful of scientists from a variety of fields ( mathematics , psychology , engineering , economics and political science ) began to discuss the possibility of creating an artificial brain . The field of artificial intelligence research was founded as an academic discipline in 1956 .

= = = Cybernetics and early neural networks = = =

The earliest research into thinking machines was inspired by a confluence of ideas that became prevalent in the late 30s , 40s and early 50s . Recent research in neurology had shown that the brain was an electrical network of neurons that fired in all @-@ or @-@ nothing pulses . Norbert Wiener 's cybernetics described control and stability in electrical networks . Claude Shannon 's information theory described digital signals ( i.e. , all @-@ or @-@ nothing signals ) . Alan Turing 's theory of computation showed that any form of computation could be described digitally . The close relationship between these ideas suggested that it might be possible to construct an electronic brain .

Examples of work in this vein includes robots such as W. Grey Walter 's turtles and the Johns Hopkins Beast . These machines did not use computers , digital electronics or symbolic reasoning ; they were controlled entirely by analog circuitry .

Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch analyzed networks of idealized artificial neurons and showed how they might perform simple logical functions . They were the first to describe what later researchers would call a neural network . One of the students inspired by Pitts and McCulloch was a young Marvin Minsky , then a 24 @-@ year @-@ old graduate student . In 1951 ( with Dean Edmonds ) he built the first neural net machine , the SNARC . Minsky was to become one of the most important leaders and innovators in AI for the next 50 years .

= = = Turing 's test = = =

In 1950 Alan Turing published a landmark paper in which he speculated about the possibility of creating machines that think . He noted that " thinking " is difficult to define and devised his famous Turing Test . If a machine could carry on a conversation ( over a teleprinter ) that was indistinguishable from a conversation with a human being , then it was reasonable to say that the machine was " thinking " . This simplified version of the problem allowed Turing to argue convincingly that a " thinking machine " was at least plausible and the paper answered all the most common objections to the proposition . The Turing Test was the first serious proposal in the philosophy of artificial intelligence .

= = = Game AI = = =

In 1951 , using the Ferranti Mark 1 machine of the University of Manchester , Christopher Strachey wrote a checkers program and Dietrich Prinz wrote one for chess . Arthur Samuel 's checkers program , developed in the middle 50s and early 60s , eventually achieved sufficient skill to challenge a respectable amateur . Game AI would continue to be used as a measure of progress in AI throughout its history .

= = = Symbolic reasoning and the Logic Theorist = = =

When access to digital computers became possible in the middle fifties , a few scientists instinctively recognized that a machine that could manipulate numbers could also manipulate symbols and that the manipulation of symbols could well be the essence of human thought . This was a new approach to creating thinking machines .

In 1955 , Allen Newell and ( future Nobel Laureate ) Herbert A. Simon created the " Logic Theorist " ( with help from J. C. Shaw ) . The program would eventually prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Russell and Whitehead 's Principia Mathematica , and find new and more elegant proofs for some . Simon said that they had " solved the venerable mind / body problem , explaining how a system composed of matter can have the properties of mind . " ( This was an early statement of the philosophical position John Searle would later call " Strong AI " : that machines can contain minds just as human bodies do . )

= = = Dartmouth Conference 1956 : the birth of AI = = =

The Dartmouth Conference of 1956 was organized by Marvin Minsky , John McCarthy and two senior scientists : Claude Shannon and Nathan Rochester of IBM . The proposal for the conference included this assertion : " every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it " . The participants included Ray Solomonoff , Oliver Selfridge , Trenchard More , Arthur Samuel , Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon , all of whom would create important programs during the first decades of AI research . At the conference Newell and Simon debuted the " Logic Theorist " and McCarthy persuaded the attendees to accept " Artificial Intelligence " as the name of the field . The 1956 Dartmouth conference was the moment that AI gained its name , its mission , its first success and its major players , and is widely considered the birth of AI .

= = The golden years 1956 – 1974 = =

The years after the Dartmouth conference were an era of discovery , of sprinting across new ground . The programs that were developed during this time were , to most people , simply " astonishing " : computers were solving algebra word problems , proving theorems in geometry and learning to speak English . Few at the time would have believed that such " intelligent " behavior by machines was possible at all . Researchers expressed an intense optimism in private and in print , predicting that a fully intelligent machine would be built in less than 20 years . Government agencies like ARPA poured money into the new field .

= = = The work = = =

There were many successful programs and new directions in the late 50s and 1960s . Among the most influential were these :

= = = = Reasoning as search = = = =

Many early AI programs used the same basic algorithm . To achieve some goal ( like winning a game or proving a theorem ) , they proceeded step by step towards it ( by making a move or a deduction ) as if searching through a maze , backtracking whenever they reached a dead end . This paradigm was called " reasoning as search " .

The principal difficulty was that , for many problems , the number of possible paths through the " maze " was simply astronomical ( a situation known as a " combinatorial explosion " ) . Researchers would reduce the search space by using heuristics or " rules of thumb " that would eliminate those paths that were unlikely to lead to a solution .

Newell and Simon tried to capture a general version of this algorithm in a program called the " General Problem Solver " . Other " searching " programs were able to accomplish impressive tasks like solving problems in geometry and algebra , such as Herbert Gelernter 's Geometry Theorem Prover ( 1958 ) and SAINT , written by Minsky 's student James Slagle ( 1961 ) . Other programs searched through goals and subgoals to plan actions , like the STRIPS system developed at Stanford to control the behavior of their robot Shakey .

= = = = Natural language = = = =

An important goal of AI research is to allow computers to communicate in natural languages like English . An early success was Daniel Bobrow 's program STUDENT , which could solve high school algebra word problems .

A semantic net represents concepts ( e.g. " house " , " door " ) as nodes and relations among concepts ( e.g. " has @-@ a " ) as links between the nodes . The first AI program to use a semantic net was written by Ross Quillian and the most successful ( and controversial ) version was Roger Schank 's Conceptual dependency theory .

Joseph Weizenbaum 's ELIZA could carry out conversations that were so realistic that users occasionally were fooled into thinking they were communicating with a human being and not a program . But in fact , ELIZA had no idea what she was talking about . She simply gave a canned response or repeated back what was said to her , rephrasing her response with a few grammar rules . ELIZA was the first chatterbot .

= = = = Micro @-@ worlds = = = =

In the late 60s , Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert of the MIT AI Laboratory proposed that AI research should focus on artificially simple situations known as micro @-@ worlds . They pointed out that in successful sciences like physics , basic principles were often best understood using simplified models like frictionless planes or perfectly rigid bodies . Much of the research focused on a " blocks world , " which consists of colored blocks of various shapes and sizes arrayed on a flat surface .

This paradigm led to innovative work in machine vision by Gerald Sussman ( who led the team ) , Adolfo Guzman , David Waltz ( who invented " constraint propagation " ) , and especially Patrick Winston . At the same time , Minsky and Papert built a robot arm that could stack blocks , bringing the blocks world to life . The crowning achievement of the micro @-@ world program was Terry Winograd 's SHRDLU . It could communicate in ordinary English sentences , plan operations and execute them .

= = = The optimism = = =

The first generation of AI researchers made these predictions about their work :

1958 , H. A. Simon and Allen Newell : " within ten years a digital computer will be the world 's chess champion " and " within ten years a digital computer will discover and prove an important new mathematical theorem . "

1965 , H. A. Simon : " machines will be capable , within twenty years , of doing any work a man can do . "

1967 , Marvin Minsky : " Within a generation ... the problem of creating ' artificial intelligence ' will substantially be solved . "

1970 , Marvin Minsky ( in Life Magazine ) : " In from three to eight years we will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human being . "

= = = The money = = =

In June 1963 , MIT received a $ 2 @.@ 2 million grant from the newly created Advanced Research Projects Agency ( later known as DARPA ) . The money was used to fund project MAC which subsumed the " AI Group " founded by Minsky and McCarthy five years earlier . DARPA continued to provide three million dollars a year until the 70s . DARPA made similar grants to Newell and Simon 's program at CMU and to the Stanford AI Project ( founded by John McCarthy in 1963 ) . Another important AI laboratory was established at Edinburgh University by Donald Michie in 1965 . These four institutions would continue to be the main centers of AI research ( and funding ) in academia for many years .

The money was proffered with few strings attached : J. C. R. Licklider , then the director of ARPA , believed that his organization should " fund people , not projects ! " and allowed researchers to pursue whatever directions might interest them . This created a freewheeling atmosphere at MIT that gave birth to the hacker culture , but this " hands off " approach would not last .

= = The first AI winter 1974 – 1980 = =

In the 70s , AI was subject to critiques and financial setbacks . AI researchers had failed to appreciate the difficulty of the problems they faced . Their tremendous optimism had raised expectations impossibly high , and when the promised results failed to materialize , funding for AI disappeared . At the same time , the field of connectionism ( or neural nets ) was shut down almost completely for 10 years by Marvin Minsky 's devastating criticism of perceptrons . Despite the difficulties with public perception of AI in the late 70s , new ideas were explored in logic programming , commonsense reasoning and many other areas .

= = = The problems = = =

In the early seventies , the capabilities of AI programs were limited . Even the most impressive could only handle trivial versions of the problems they were supposed to solve ; all the programs were , in some sense , " toys " . AI researchers had begun to run into several fundamental limits that could not be overcome in the 1970s . Although some of these limits would be conquered in later decades , others still stymie the field to this day .

Limited computer power : There was not enough memory or processing speed to accomplish anything truly useful . For example , Ross Quillian 's successful work on natural language was demonstrated with a vocabulary of only twenty words , because that was all that would fit in memory . Hans Moravec argued in 1976 that computers were still millions of times too weak to exhibit intelligence . He suggested an analogy : artificial intelligence requires computer power in the same way that aircraft require horsepower . Below a certain threshold , it 's impossible , but , as power increases , eventually it could become easy . With regard to computer vision , Moravec estimated that simply matching the edge and motion detection capabilities of human retina in real time would require a general @-@ purpose computer capable of 109 operations / second ( 1000 MIPS ) . As of 2011 , practical computer vision applications require 10 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 MIPS . By comparison , the fastest supercomputer in 1976 , Cray @-@ 1 ( retailing at $ 5 million to $ 8 million ) , was only capable of around 80 to 130 MIPS , and a typical desktop computer at the time achieved less than 1 MIPS .

Intractability and the combinatorial explosion . In 1972 Richard Karp ( building on Stephen Cook 's 1971 theorem ) showed there are many problems that can probably only be solved in exponential time ( in the size of the inputs ) . Finding optimal solutions to these problems requires unimaginable amounts of computer time except when the problems are trivial . This almost certainly meant that many of the " toy " solutions used by AI would probably never scale up into useful systems .

Commonsense knowledge and reasoning . Many important artificial intelligence applications like vision or natural language require simply enormous amounts of information about the world : the program needs to have some idea of what it might be looking at or what it is talking about . This requires that the program know most of the same things about the world that a child does . Researchers soon discovered that this was a truly vast amount of information . No one in 1970 could build a database so large and no one knew how a program might learn so much information .

Moravec 's paradox : Proving theorems and solving geometry problems is comparatively easy for computers , but a supposedly simple task like recognizing a face or crossing a room without bumping into anything is extremely difficult . This helps explain why research into vision and robotics had made so little progress by the middle 1970s .

The frame and qualification problems . AI researchers ( like John McCarthy ) who used logic discovered that they could not represent ordinary deductions that involved planning or default reasoning without making changes to the structure of logic itself . They developed new logics ( like non @-@ monotonic logics and modal logics ) to try to solve the problems .

= = = The end of funding = = =

The agencies which funded AI research ( such as the British government , DARPA and NRC ) became frustrated with the lack of progress and eventually cut off almost all funding for undirected research into AI . The pattern began as early as 1966 when the ALPAC report appeared criticizing machine translation efforts . After spending 20 million dollars , the NRC ended all support . In 1973 , the Lighthill report on the state of AI research in England criticized the utter failure of AI to achieve its " grandiose objectives " and led to the dismantling of AI research in that country . ( The report specifically mentioned the combinatorial explosion problem as a reason for AI 's failings . ) DARPA was deeply disappointed with researchers working on the Speech Understanding Research program at CMU and canceled an annual grant of three million dollars . By 1974 , funding for AI projects was hard to find .

Hans Moravec blamed the crisis on the unrealistic predictions of his colleagues . " Many researchers were caught up in a web of increasing exaggeration . " However , there was another issue : since the passage of the Mansfield Amendment in 1969 , DARPA had been under increasing pressure to fund " mission @-@ oriented direct research , rather than basic undirected research " . Funding for the creative , freewheeling exploration that had gone on in the 60s would not come from DARPA . Instead , the money was directed at specific projects with clear objectives , such as autonomous tanks and battle management systems .

= = = Critiques from across campus = = =

Several philosophers had strong objections to the claims being made by AI researchers . One of the earliest was John Lucas , who argued that Gödel 's incompleteness theorem showed that a formal system ( such as a computer program ) could never see the truth of certain statements , while a human being could . Hubert Dreyfus ridiculed the broken promises of the 60s and critiqued the assumptions of AI , arguing that human reasoning actually involved very little " symbol processing " and a great deal of embodied , instinctive , unconscious " know how " . John Searle 's Chinese Room argument , presented in 1980 , attempted to show that a program could not be said to " understand " the symbols that it uses ( a quality called " intentionality " ) . If the symbols have no meaning for the machine , Searle argued , then the machine can not be described as " thinking " .

These critiques were not taken seriously by AI researchers , often because they seemed so far off the point . Problems like intractability and commonsense knowledge seemed much more immediate and serious . It was unclear what difference " know how " or " intentionality " made to an actual computer program . Minsky said of Dreyfus and Searle " they misunderstand , and should be ignored . " Dreyfus , who taught at MIT , was given a cold shoulder : he later said that AI researchers " dared not be seen having lunch with me . " Joseph Weizenbaum , the author of ELIZA , felt his colleagues ' treatment of Dreyfus was unprofessional and childish . Although he was an outspoken critic of Dreyfus ' positions , he " deliberately made it plain that theirs was not the way to treat a human being . "

Weizenbaum began to have serious ethical doubts about AI when Kenneth Colby wrote DOCTOR , a chatterbot therapist . Weizenbaum was disturbed that Colby saw his mindless program as a serious therapeutic tool . A feud began , and the situation was not helped when Colby did not credit Weizenbaum for his contribution to the program . In 1976 , Weizenbaum published Computer Power and Human Reason which argued that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life .

= = = Perceptrons and the dark age of connectionism = = =

A perceptron was a form of neural network introduced in 1958 by Frank Rosenblatt , who had been a schoolmate of Marvin Minsky at the Bronx High School of Science . Like most AI researchers , he was optimistic about their power , predicting that " perceptron may eventually be able to learn , make decisions , and translate languages . " An active research program into the paradigm was carried out throughout the 60s but came to a sudden halt with the publication of Minsky and Papert 's 1969 book Perceptrons . It suggested that there were severe limitations to what perceptrons could do and that Frank Rosenblatt 's predictions had been grossly exaggerated . The effect of the book was devastating : virtually no research at all was done in connectionism for 10 years . Eventually , a new generation of researchers would revive the field and thereafter it would become a vital and useful part of artificial intelligence . Rosenblatt would not live to see this , as he died in a boating accident shortly after the book was published .

= = = The neats : logic and symbolic reasoning = = =

Logic was introduced into AI research as early as 1958 , by John McCarthy in his Advice Taker proposal . In 1963 , J. Alan Robinson had discovered a simple method to implement deduction on computers , the resolution and unification algorithm . However , straightforward implementations , like those attempted by McCarthy and his students in the late 60s , were especially intractable : the programs required astronomical numbers of steps to prove simple theorems . A more fruitful approach to logic was developed in the 1970s by Robert Kowalski at the University of Edinburgh , and soon this led to the collaboration with French researchers Alain Colmerauer and Philippe Roussel who created the successful logic programming language Prolog . Prolog uses a subset of logic ( Horn clauses , closely related to " rules " and " production rules " ) that permit tractable computation . Rules would continue to be influential , providing a foundation for Edward Feigenbaum 's expert systems and the continuing work by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon that would lead to Soar and their unified theories of cognition .

Critics of the logical approach noted , as Dreyfus had , that human beings rarely used logic when they solved problems . Experiments by psychologists like Peter Wason , Eleanor Rosch , Amos Tversky , Daniel Kahneman and others provided proof . McCarthy responded that what people do is irrelevant . He argued that what is really needed are machines that can solve problems — not machines that think as people do .

= = = The scruffies : frames and scripts = = =

Among the critics of McCarthy 's approach were his colleagues across the country at MIT . Marvin Minsky , Seymour Papert and Roger Schank were trying to solve problems like " story understanding " and " object recognition " that required a machine to think like a person . In order to use ordinary concepts like " chair " or " restaurant " they had to make all the same illogical assumptions that people normally made . Unfortunately , imprecise concepts like these are hard to represent in logic . Gerald Sussman observed that " using precise language to describe essentially imprecise concepts doesn 't make them any more precise . " Schank described their " anti @-@ logic " approaches as " scruffy " , as opposed to the " neat " paradigms used by McCarthy , Kowalski , Feigenbaum , Newell and Simon .

In 1975 , in a seminal paper , Minsky noted that many of his fellow " scruffy " researchers were using the same kind of tool : a framework that captures all our common sense assumptions about something . For example , if we use the concept of a bird , there is a constellation of facts that immediately come to mind : we might assume that it flies , eats worms and so on . We know these facts are not always true and that deductions using these facts will not be " logical " , but these structured sets of assumptions are part of the context of everything we say and think . He called these structures " frames " . Schank used a version of frames he called " scripts " to successfully answer questions about short stories in English . Many years later object @-@ oriented programming would adopt the essential idea of " inheritance " from AI research on frames .

= = Boom 1980 – 1987 = =

In the 1980s a form of AI program called " expert systems " was adopted by corporations around the world and knowledge became the focus of mainstream AI research . In those same years , the Japanese government aggressively funded AI with its fifth generation computer project . Another encouraging event in the early 1980s was the revival of connectionism in the work of John Hopfield and David Rumelhart . Once again , AI had achieved success .

= = = The rise of expert systems = = =

An expert system is a program that answers questions or solves problems about a specific domain of knowledge , using logical rules that are derived from the knowledge of experts . The earliest examples were developed by Edward Feigenbaum and his students . Dendral , begun in 1965 , identified compounds from spectrometer readings . MYCIN , developed in 1972 , diagnosed infectious blood diseases . They demonstrated the feasibility of the approach .

Expert systems restricted themselves to a small domain of specific knowledge ( thus avoiding the commonsense knowledge problem ) and their simple design made it relatively easy for programs to be built and then modified once they were in place . All in all , the programs proved to be useful : something that AI had not been able to achieve up to this point .

In 1980 , an expert system called XCON was completed at CMU for the Digital Equipment Corporation . It was an enormous success : it was saving the company 40 million dollars annually by 1986 . Corporations around the world began to develop and deploy expert systems and by 1985 they were spending over a billion dollars on AI , most of it to in @-@ house AI departments . An industry grew up to support them , including hardware companies like Symbolics and Lisp Machines and software companies such as IntelliCorp and Aion .

= = = The knowledge revolution = = =

The power of expert systems came from the expert knowledge they contained . They were part of a new direction in AI research that had been gaining ground throughout the 70s . " AI researchers were beginning to suspect — reluctantly , for it violated the scientific canon of parsimony — that intelligence might very well be based on the ability to use large amounts of diverse knowledge in different ways , " writes Pamela McCorduck . " [ T ] he great lesson from the 1970s was that intelligent behavior depended very much on dealing with knowledge , sometimes quite detailed knowledge , of a domain where a given task lay " . Knowledge based systems and knowledge engineering became a major focus of AI research in the 1980s .

The 1980s also saw the birth of Cyc , the first attempt to attack the commonsense knowledge problem directly , by creating a massive database that would contain all the mundane facts that the average person knows . Douglas Lenat , who started and led the project , argued that there is no shortcut ― the only way for machines to know the meaning of human concepts is to teach them , one concept at a time , by hand . The project was not expected to be completed for many decades .

Chess playing programs HiTech and Deep Thought defeated chess masters in 1989 . Both were developed by Carnegie Mellon University ; Deep Thought development paved the way for the Deep Blue .

= = = The money returns : the fifth generation project = = =

In 1981 , the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry set aside $ 850 million for the Fifth generation computer project . Their objectives were to write programs and build machines that could carry on conversations , translate languages , interpret pictures , and reason like human beings . Much to the chagrin of scruffies , they chose Prolog as the primary computer language for the project .

Other countries responded with new programs of their own . The UK began the ₤ 350 million Alvey project . A consortium of American companies formed the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation ( or " MCC " ) to fund large scale projects in AI and information technology . DARPA responded as well , founding the Strategic Computing Initiative and tripling its investment in AI between 1984 and 1988 .

= = = The revival of connectionism = = =

In 1982 , physicist John Hopfield was able to prove that a form of neural network ( now called a " Hopfield net " ) could learn and process information in a completely new way . Around the same time , David Rumelhart popularized a new method for training neural networks called " backpropagation " ( discovered years earlier by Paul Werbos ) . These two discoveries revived the field of connectionism which had been largely abandoned since 1970 .

The new field was unified and inspired by the appearance of Parallel Distributed Processing in 1986 — a two volume collection of papers edited by Rumelhart and psychologist James McClelland . Neural networks would become commercially successful in the 1990s , when they began to be used as the engines driving programs like optical character recognition and speech recognition .

= = Bust : the second AI winter 1987 – 1993 = =

The business community 's fascination with AI rose and fell in the 80s in the classic pattern of an economic bubble . The collapse was in the perception of AI by government agencies and investors – the field continued to make advances despite the criticism . Rodney Brooks and Hans Moravec , researchers from the related field of robotics , argued for an entirely new approach to artificial intelligence .

= = = AI winter = = =

The term " AI winter " was coined by researchers who had survived the funding cuts of 1974 when they became concerned that enthusiasm for expert systems had spiraled out of control and that disappointment would certainly follow . Their fears were well founded : in the late 80s and early 90s , AI suffered a series of financial setbacks .

The first indication of a change in weather was the sudden collapse of the market for specialized AI hardware in 1987 . Desktop computers from Apple and IBM had been steadily gaining speed and power and in 1987 they became more powerful than the more expensive Lisp machines made by Symbolics and others . There was no longer a good reason to buy them . An entire industry worth half a billion dollars was demolished overnight .

Eventually the earliest successful expert systems , such as XCON , proved too expensive to maintain . They were difficult to update , they could not learn , they were " brittle " ( i.e. , they could make grotesque mistakes when given unusual inputs ) , and they fell prey to problems ( such as the qualification problem ) that had been identified years earlier . Expert systems proved useful , but only in a few special contexts .

In the late 80s , the Strategic Computing Initiative cut funding to AI " deeply and brutally . " New leadership at DARPA had decided that AI was not " the next wave " and directed funds towards projects that seemed more likely to produce immediate results .

By 1991 , the impressive list of goals penned in 1981 for Japan 's Fifth Generation Project had not been met . Indeed , some of them , like " carry on a casual conversation " had not been met by 2010 . As with other AI projects , expectations had run much higher than what was actually possible .

= = = The importance of having a body : Nouvelle AI and embodied reason = = =

In the late 80s , several researchers advocated a completely new approach to artificial intelligence , based on robotics . They believed that , to show real intelligence , a machine needs to have a body — it needs to perceive , move , survive and deal with the world . They argued that these sensorimotor skills are essential to higher level skills like commonsense reasoning and that abstract reasoning was actually the least interesting or important human skill ( see Moravec 's paradox ) . They advocated building intelligence " from the bottom up . "

The approach revived ideas from cybernetics and control theory that had been unpopular since the sixties . Another precursor was David Marr , who had come to MIT in the late 70s from a successful background in theoretical neuroscience to lead the group studying vision . He rejected all symbolic approaches ( both McCarthy 's logic and Minsky 's frames ) , arguing that AI needed to understand the physical machinery of vision from the bottom up before any symbolic processing took place . ( Marr 's work would be cut short by leukemia in 1980 . )

In a 1990 paper , " Elephants Don 't Play Chess , " robotics researcher Rodney Brooks took direct aim at the physical symbol system hypothesis , arguing that symbols are not always necessary since " the world is its own best model . It is always exactly up to date . It always has every detail there is to be known . The trick is to sense it appropriately and often enough . " In the 80s and 90s , many cognitive scientists also rejected the symbol processing model of the mind and argued that the body was essential for reasoning , a theory called the embodied mind thesis .

= = AI 1993 – present = =

The field of AI , now more than a half a century old , finally achieved some of its oldest goals . It began to be used successfully throughout the technology industry , although somewhat behind the scenes . Some of the success was due to increasing computer power and some was achieved by focusing on specific isolated problems and pursuing them with the highest standards of scientific accountability . Still , the reputation of AI , in the business world at least , was less than pristine . Inside the field there was little agreement on the reasons for AI 's failure to fulfill the dream of human level intelligence that had captured the imagination of the world in the 1960s . Together , all these factors helped to fragment AI into competing subfields focused on particular problems or approaches , sometimes even under new names that disguised the tarnished pedigree of " artificial intelligence " . AI was both more cautious and more successful than it had ever been .

= = = Milestones and Moore 's Law = = =

On 11 May 1997 , Deep Blue became the first computer chess @-@ playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion , Garry Kasparov . The super computer was a specialized version of a framework produced by IBM , and was capable of processing twice as many moves per second as it had during the first match ( which Deep Blue had lost ) , reportedly 200 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 moves per second . The event was broadcast live over the internet and received over 74 million hits .

In 2005 , a Stanford robot won the DARPA Grand Challenge by driving autonomously for 131 miles along an unrehearsed desert trail . Two years later , a team from CMU won the DARPA Urban Challenge by autonomously navigating 55 miles in an Urban environment while adhering to traffic hazards and all traffic laws . In February 2011 , in a Jeopardy ! quiz show exhibition match , IBM 's question answering system , Watson , defeated the two greatest Jeopardy ! champions , Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings , by a significant margin .

These successes were not due to some revolutionary new paradigm , but mostly on the tedious application of engineering skill and on the tremendous power of computers today . In fact , Deep Blue 's computer was 10 million times faster than the Ferranti Mark 1 that Christopher Strachey taught to play chess in 1951 . This dramatic increase is measured by Moore 's law , which predicts that the speed and memory capacity of computers doubles every two years . The fundamental problem of " raw computer power " was slowly being overcome .

= = = Intelligent agents = = =

A new paradigm called " intelligent agents " became widely accepted during the 90s . Although earlier researchers had proposed modular " divide and conquer " approaches to AI , the intelligent agent did not reach its modern form until Judea Pearl , Allen Newell and others brought concepts from decision theory and economics into the study of AI . When the economist 's definition of a rational agent was married to computer science 's definition of an object or module , the intelligent agent paradigm was complete .

An intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success . By this definition , simple programs that solve specific problems are " intelligent agents " , as are human beings and organizations of human beings , such as firms . The intelligent agent paradigm defines AI research as " the study of intelligent agents " . This is a generalization of some earlier definitions of AI : it goes beyond studying human intelligence ; it studies all kinds of intelligence .

The paradigm gave researchers license to study isolated problems and find solutions that were both verifiable and useful . It provided a common language to describe problems and share their solutions with each other , and with other fields that also used concepts of abstract agents , like economics and control theory . It was hoped that a complete agent architecture ( like Newell 's SOAR ) would one day allow researchers to build more versatile and intelligent systems out of interacting intelligent agents .

= = = " Victory of the neats " = = =

AI researchers began to develop and use sophisticated mathematical tools more than they ever had in the past . There was a widespread realization that many of the problems that AI needed to solve were already being worked on by researchers in fields like mathematics , economics or operations research . The shared mathematical language allowed both a higher level of collaboration with more established and successful fields and the achievement of results which were measurable and provable ; AI had become a more rigorous " scientific " discipline . Russell & Norvig ( 2003 ) describe this as nothing less than a " revolution " and " the victory of the neats " .

Judea Pearl 's highly influential 1988 book brought probability and decision theory into AI . Among the many new tools in use were Bayesian networks , hidden Markov models , information theory , stochastic modeling and classical optimization . Precise mathematical descriptions were also developed for " computational intelligence " paradigms like neural networks and evolutionary algorithms .

= = = AI behind the scenes = = =

Algorithms originally developed by AI researchers began to appear as parts of larger systems . AI had solved a lot of very difficult problems and their solutions proved to be useful throughout the technology industry , such as data mining , industrial robotics , logistics , speech recognition , banking software , medical diagnosis and Google 's search engine .

The field of AI receives little or no credit for these successes . Many of AI 's greatest innovations have been reduced to the status of just another item in the tool chest of computer science . Nick Bostrom explains " A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications , often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it 's not labeled AI anymore . "

Many researchers in AI in 1990s deliberately called their work by other names , such as informatics , knowledge @-@ based systems , cognitive systems or computational intelligence . In part , this may be because they considered their field to be fundamentally different from AI , but also the new names help to procure funding . In the commercial world at least , the failed promises of the AI Winter continue to haunt AI research , as the New York Times reported in 2005 : " Computer scientists and software engineers avoided the term artificial intelligence for fear of being viewed as wild @-@ eyed dreamers . "

= = = Where is HAL 9000 ? = = =

In 1968 , Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick had imagined that by the year 2001 , a machine would exist with an intelligence that matched or exceeded the capability of human beings . The character they created , HAL 9000 , was based on a belief shared by many leading AI researchers that such a machine would exist by the year 2001 .

Marvin Minsky asks " So the question is why didn 't we get HAL in 2001 ? " Minsky believes that the answer is that the central problems , like commonsense reasoning , were being neglected , while most researchers pursued things like commercial applications of neural nets or genetic algorithms . John McCarthy , on the other hand , still blames the qualification problem . For Ray Kurzweil , the issue is computer power and , using Moore 's Law , he predicts that machines with human @-@ level intelligence will appear by 2029 . Jeff Hawkins argues that neural net research ignores the essential properties of the human cortex , preferring simple models that have been successful at solving simple problems . There are many other explanations and for each there is a corresponding research program underway .

= Cyclone Graham =

Cyclone Graham of the 2002 – 03 Australian region cyclone season was a weak tropical storm that affected Australia during late February and early March 2003 . Graham originated from an area of convection that emerged onto water after sitting over Australia on 23 February . The interaction with a monsoon trough formed an area of low pressure that developed into Tropical Cyclone Graham on 27 February . The storm moved slowly to the east @-@ southeast , and after turning to the south it peaked as a tropical storm and made landfall on Western Australia the next day . The cyclone weakened as it moved inland , and dissipated on 1 March . The storm dropped heavy rainfall and caused high winds , which produced flooding and downed trees . One fatality occurred , though no significant damages were reported .

= = Meteorological history = =

On 23 February 2003 , an area of convection that was situated over land for roughly a week emerged over open waters along the northern coast of Australia . The strengthening of a deep , persistent monsoon trough contributed to cyclogenesis , and a low pressure area formed . By 25 February , the low developed a banding feature in which the highest winds were located . Though the storm was located in an area of unfavorable wind shear , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) began to issue gale warnings on the system at 0100 UTC the next day , while the low was located several hundred miles north @-@ northeast of Port Hedland . The disturbance was initially nearly stationary as it showed signs of organization due to relaxed shear , and at 0700 UTC on 27 February , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) designated the storm as Tropical Cyclone Graham , as it had attained 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds . The first warning was issued on Graham later that day .

Initially exhibiting characteristics of a monsoonal low , a mid @-@ level ridge to the south of Graham caused strong westerly winds that moved the storm slowly east @-@ southeastward . However , a deep trough eroded the ridge , allowing the cyclone to move more towards the south . According to the JTWC , the storm had intensified late on 28 February , though at the same time the BoM noted the slight weakening of the storm . Graham reached its peak intensity that day while nearing the coast .

The storm made landfall at Western Australia 's Eighty Mile Beach at 1400 UTC on 28 February , and began to weaken . The storm had dissipated on 1 March ; the BoM issued their last advisory on the cyclone at 0400 UTC that day , while similarly , the JTWC issued their last advisory just two hours later . The storm 's remnants died out in the country 's desert .

= = Impact = =

In advance of the cyclone , the communities of Wallal , Sandfire , Punmu and Telfer were put on alert . A warning was issued for Bidyadanga , Pardoo and Cotton Creek . The storm 's landfall in Western Australia brought heavy rainfall and high winds . The storm dropped 163 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) of rain at Telfer in one night , over half the town 's annual average ; total rainfall reached 175 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) there . The heavy rain caused flooding and road closures , and swelled a river passing through Fitzroy Crossing , though the river only topped its banks slightly . Near that town , at Blue Bush Creek , while a group of people attempted to cross floodwaters , two men were swept away . Both men were rescued , though one died before emergency services arrived . In addition to the flooding , a number of trees were downed . No significant damages were reported .

Following the storm , the name Graham was retired from the Australian region basin .

= Languedoc @-@ Roussillon wine =

Languedoc @-@ Roussillon wine , including the vin de pays labeled Vin de Pays d 'Oc , is produced in southern France . While " Languedoc " can refer to a specific historic region of France and Northern Catalonia , usage since the 20th century ( especially in the context of wine ) has primarily referred to the northern part of the Languedoc @-@ Roussillon région of France , an area which spans the Mediterranean coastline from the French border with Spain to the region of Provence . The area has around 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 800 km2 ) under vines and is the single biggest wine @-@ producing region in the world , being responsible for more than a third of France 's total wine production . In 2001 , the region produced more wine than the United States .

= = History = =

The history of Languedoc wines can be traced to the first vineyards planted along the coast near Narbonne by the early Greeks in the fifth century BC . Along with parts of Provence , these are the oldest planted vineyards in France . The region of Languedoc has belonged to France since the thirteenth century and the Roussillon was acquired from Spain in the mid @-@ seventeenth century . The two regions were joined as one administrative region in the late 1980s .

From the 4th century through the 18th and early 19th centuries , the Languedoc had a reputation for producing high quality wine . In Paris during the 14th century , wines from the St. Chinian area were prescribed in hospitals for their " healing powers " . During the advent of the Industrial Age in the late 19th century , production shifted towards mass @-@ produced le gros rouge — cheap red wine that could satisfy the growing work force . The use of highly prolific grape varieties produced high yields and thin wines , which were normally blended with red wine from Algeria to give them more body .

The phylloxera epidemic in the 19th century severely affected the Languedoc wine industry , killing off many of the higher quality Vitis vinifera that were susceptible to the louse . American rootstock that was naturally resistant to phylloxera did not take well to the limestone soil on the hillside . In place of these vines , acres of the lower quality Aramon , Alicante Bouschet and Carignan were planted .

During both World Wars the Languedoc was responsible for providing the daily wine rations given to French soldiers . In 1962 , Algeria gained its independence from France , bringing about an end to the blending of the stronger Algerian red wine to mask the thin le gros rouge . This event , coupled with French consumers moving away from cheap red wines in the 1970s , has contributed to several decades of surplus wine production in France , with Languedoc as the largest contributor to the European " wine lake " and recurring European Union subsidies aimed at reducing production . These developments prompted many Languedoc producers to start refocusing on higher quality , but has also led to many local and regional protests , including violent ones from the infamous Comité Régional d 'Action Viticole ( CRAV ) .

Despite the general reputation as a mass producer and a consensus that the region is in the midst of an economic crisis , parts of the Languedoc wine industry are experiencing commercial success due to outside investment and an increased focus on quality . Sales have been improved by many vineyards that concentrate on creating a good brand name rather than relying on the sometimes infamous regional designations . Some vineyards have adopted the youngest batch of AOC classifications developed in the late 1990s , while other vineyards eschew designated blends entirely and are instead shifting toward bottling single varietal wines , a practice increasingly demanded by consumers in the large New World wine market .

= = Climate and geography = =

The Languedoc @-@ Roussillon region shares many terrain and climate characteristics with the neighboring regions of Southern Rhone and Provence . The region stretches 150 miles ( 240 km ) from the Banyuls AOC at the Spanish border and Pyrenees in the west , along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea to the Rhone River and Provence in the east . The northern boundaries of the region sit on the Massif Central with the Cévennes mountain ranges and valleys dominating the area . Many vineyards are located along the Hérault River .

Vineyards in the Languedoc are generally planted along the coastal plains of the Mediterranean while those in the Roussillon are to be found in the narrow valleys around the Pyrenees . The peak growing season ( between May and August ) is very dry and the majority of annual rainfall occurs during the winter . In the Languedoc , the plains area is the most arid and hottest region of France . The region 's Mediterranean climate is very conducive to growing a large amount of a wide variety of grapes , with vintners in the area excelling in mass production . The average annual temperature is 57 ° F ( 14 ° C ) . The tramontane inland wind from the northwest often accentuates the dry climate ; drought is the most common threat to vine production , with French AOC and European Union regulation prohibiting the use of irrigation . In December 2006 , the French government responded to global warming concerns and relaxed some of the irrigation regulations .

In 1999 severe weather had damaging effects on the wine producing industry , including hailstorms in May that affected Roussillon and a rain surge in mid November that saw a year 's worth of rain fall in 36 hours in the areas of Corbières and Minervois in the western Languedoc .

The composition of soil in the Languedoc varies from the chalk , limestone and gravel based soils inland to more alluvial soils near the coast . Some of the more highly rated vineyards are laid on top of ancient riverbed stones similar to those of Châteauneuf @-@ du @-@ Pape .

= = Appellations = =

The five best known appellations in the Languedoc include Languedoc AOC ( formerly known as the Coteaux du Languedoc ) , Corbières AOC , Faugères , Minervois AOC , and Saint @-@ Chinian AOCs . The vast majority of Languedoc wines are produced by wine cooperatives which number more than 500 . However , the appellation system in the region is undergoing considerable changes with both new appellations being created and existing ones changing . One recent change is that the Coteaux du Languedoc has changed name to Languedoc and been extended to include also the Roussillon .

Within the larger Languedoc AOC appellations are several sub @-@ districts , or Cru 's , with distinct wine styles of their own . Some of these sub @-@ districts have pending AOC applications to become appellations in their own right and some have been granted sub @-@ appellations to the umbrella appellation Languedoc AOC . These include the Quatourze , La Clape , Montpeyroux , St. Saturnin , Picpoul de Pinet , Terrasses du Larzac , and Pic St.-Loup.

The boundary of the eastern Languedoc with the Southern Rhône Valley wine region was moved slightly in 2004 , with the result that Costières de Nîmes AOC is now a Rhône appellation rather than a Languedoc one . In that year , INAO moved the responsibility for oversight of this appellation 's wine to the regional committee of the Rhône valley . Local producers of Côtes du Rhône @-@ styled wines made from Syrah and Grenache lobbied for this change since the local winemaking traditions did not coincide with administrative borders , and presumably due to the greater prestige of Rhône wines in the marketplace . Such changes of borders between wine regions are very rare , so out of habit , Costières de Nîmes remains listed as a Languedoc wine in many publications .

= = Grapes = =

The Languedoc @-@ Roussillon area is home to numerous grape varieties , including many international varieties like Merlot , Cabernet Sauvignon , Sauvignon blanc , and Chardonnay . The traditional Rhône grapes of Mourvedre , Grenache , Syrah , and Viognier are also prominent .

Chardonnay is a major white grape , used in the Vin de Pays d 'Oc and the sparkling Crémant de Limoux . Others include Chenin blanc and Mauzac , which is also the principal grape in the sparkling Blanquette de Limoux . The sweet fortified wines of the Muscat de Frontignan and Muscat de St @-@ Jean Minervois regions are made with the Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains grapes . In the Muscat de Rivesaltes AOC , fortified wines are made from Muscat of Alexandria grapes .

Among the reds , Grenache , Syrah , Carignan , Cinsault , and Mourvedre are major grapes of the Corbières , Faugères , Fitou , and Minervois AOCs . Cinsault is also commonly used in rosé production along with Lladoner Pelut , Picpoul noir , Terret noir , and Grenache . Grenache is also the main grape used in the fortified wines of the Banyuls and Rivesaltes region . Some of the oldest vines in France are Carignan grapes . Winemakers often use carbonic maceration to soften the tannins .

Other varieties that can be found include Roussanne , Marsanne , Vermentino , Bourboulenc , Clairette blanche , Grenache blanc , Grenache gris , Picpoul , Maccabéo , and Rolle .

= = Wines and taxonomy = =

Wines from the Languedoc can carry an enormous number of names , ranging from broad regional designations like Vin de Pays d 'Oc to very specific geographical classifications with restrictions on grape variety , like Corbières and Minervois . Since the 1990s , the INAO has been creating smaller AOC classifications which take into account the intricate microclimates and soil variations in the Languedoc @-@ Roussillon . Younger appellations like the Cabardes and subregions like Minervois la Livinière , Corbières @-@ Boutenac and St @-@ Chinian @-@ Berlou are much smaller in scope . While these new appellations have been praised for consistently improving their product , others have criticized the additions for further complicating an already esoteric system of classification .

The majority of wine produced in the Languedoc are labeled vin ordinaire . There is also sizable production of Vins Doux Naturels .

= = = Vins de Pays = = =

The introduction of the vins de pays , a classification produced under less stringent regulations than those of an AOC , opened up the Languedoc wine industry to the labeling of varietal wines and the blending of international varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon , Merlot , Syrah and Chardonnay . Examples include Vin de pays d 'Oc , Vin de pays d 'Aude , Vin de pays de l 'Hérault , and Vin de Pays du Gard . Winemakers such as Guy Anderson , Thierry Boudinaud and E. & J. Gallo Winery capitalized on this new horizon , producing wines like FAT bastard and Red Bicyclette .

= = = Vins Doux Naturels = = =

Vins Doux Naturels are " naturally sweet " wines that have been fortified with brandy to stop fermentation , leaving residual sugar to add sweetness to the wine . The majority of Languedoc sweet white wines are made with a variety of Muscat grapes . The red fortified wines of the Banyuls are made from Grenache grapes , normally have an alcohol level between 16 and 17 % and carry residual sugars in the 8 to 12 % range .

In Banyuls , winemakers use various methods to " bake " their wines to encourage deep raisin colors . Some winemakers utilize a solera system of transporting the wine among different size barrels of various ages that are left out in the sun to warm . Others will put the wine in large glass jars to expose it to direct sunlight . In addition to the dark color , the resulting wines often have a nutty , rancid taste called rancio . In the Banyuls Grand Cru AOC the wine is required to be aged in wood barrels for two and a half years .

= = = Crémant de Limoux = = =

The crémant produced in the Languedoc is made according to the Méthode Traditionnelle - formerly known as méthode champenoise , the same method used to produce the Champagne , including a second fermentation in the bottle to encapture the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast - in the small villages around the town of Limoux . The wines are normally composed of 70 % Mauzac and a 30 % combination of Chardonnay and Chenin blanc . AOC regulations require a year of aging on the lees . The Blanquette de Limoux , when labelled méthode ancestrale , is composed entirely of Mauzac , undergoes only one fermentation and is aged approximately three months less on the lees before the bottling , the actual date being determined by the moon 's cycle .

= Silver Bullet ( roller coaster ) =

Silver Bullet is a western @-@ themed steel inverted roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard located at Knott 's Berry Farm , an amusement park in Buena Park , California . The $ 16 million roller coaster was announced on December 1 , 2003 and opened on December 7 , 2004 . A first rider auction was also held where people would bid on seats to be the first riders . The track is approximately 3 @,@ 125 feet ( 952 m ) long and the lift hill is about 146 feet ( 45 m ) tall . The ride lasts two minutes and thirty seconds and features six inversions including a vertical loop , cobra roll , zero @-@ g roll , and two corkscrews .

= = History = =

On May 28 , 2003 , a trademark for the name " Silver Bullet " was filed by Cedar Fair , the owners of the park . Construction for the new roller coaster began in September 2003 with the relocation of The Church of Reflections . As part of a $ 85 million investment in all Cedar Fair parks , Silver Bullet was announced to the public on December 1 , 2003 . The final piece of track was placed on September 30 , 2004 . On November 5 , 2004 , Knott 's Berry Farm launched a " First Rider Auction " in which people from anywhere in the world would bid against each other in order to be one of the first public riders on Silver Bullet on December 7 , 2004 . Although sixty seats were made available , only 13 of these received bids . Out of those bids , the highest bid was $ 200 ( US ) , and a total of $ 1643 was raised with all the money going to the Speech & Language Development Center of Buena Park . After construction and testing was completed , the roller coaster opened first to the media , then to the public on December 7 , 2004 though the initial scheduled opening was on Christmas Eve of 2004 . Silver Bullet was also one of four attractions that opened at Knott 's Berry Farm in the same year and carries a western theme .

= = Ride experience = =

Silver Bullet 's layout passes through three of the park 's themed areas : Ghost Town , Fiesta Village , and Indian Trails .

After the train departs from the station , it makes a 90 degree right turn before beginning to climb the 146 @-@ foot ( 45 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train goes through a pre @-@ drop before entering the 109 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) downward right drop . Once at the bottom , the train enters a 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) loop . After exiting the loop , the train makes a banked right turn leading into the cobra roll . Almost immediately after , the train goes through a zero @-@ gravity roll followed by a downward left helix . Then , the train enters the first of two corkscrews which are separated by a banked left turn . Next , the train enters an upward left helix ( the beginning of the helix is close to water ) before entering the brake run . The train then makes a right turn into a second , shorter , brake run which leads straight back to the station . One cycle lasts approximately two minutes and thirty seconds .

= = = Track = = =

The steel track of Silver Bullet is approximately 3 @,@ 125 feet ( 952 m ) long , and the height of the lift is approximately 146 feet ( 45 m ) high . Silver Bullet , along with all of Bolliger & Mabillard 's other roller coasters , was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio and erected by Coan Construction Company . The track is filled with sand to reduce the noise made by the trains . Silver Bullet was also the first Bolliger & Mabillard inverted roller coaster to use magnetic brakes in the brake run . The track and supports of the lift hill are red , with the remaining track being yellow with red rails and the remaining supports colored white .

= = = Trains = = =

Silver Bullet operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that can seat four riders in a single row , for a total of 32 riders per train . The seats are coloured light blue , with orange over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints and tri @-@ color wheel coverings ( red , orange , and yellow ) .

= = Reception = =

Joel Taylor from Amusement Business praised the ride saying , " In all , it 's an exhilarating 2 1 / 2 minutes from start to finish . " He was also impressed with the ride 's smoothness and overall excitement , stating that the ride is , " smooth and comfortable while delivering twisting , stomach @-@ churning excitement . "

= = = Awards = = =

Since Silver Bullet 's debut in 2004 , it has consistently been ranked in the top 140 positions in Mitch Hawker 's Best Roller Steel Coaster Poll . It peaked at position 99 in 2010 . The roller coaster has never placed on the Golden Ticket Awards .

^ No Steel Roller Coaster Poll was held in 2011 .

= Blackburn Firecrest =

The Blackburn B @-@ 48 Firecrest , given the SBAC designation YA.1 , was a single @-@ engine naval strike fighter built by Blackburn Aircraft for service with the British Fleet Air Arm during World War II . It was a development of the troubled Firebrand , designed to Air Ministry Specification S.28 / 43 , for an improved aircraft more suited to carrier operations . Three prototypes were ordered with the company designation of B @-@ 48 and the informal name of " Firecrest " , but only two of them actually flew . The development of the aircraft was prolonged by significant design changes and slow deliveries of components , but the determination by the Ministry of Supply in 1946 that the airframe did not meet the requirements for a strike fighter doomed the aircraft . Construction of two of the prototypes was continued to gain flight @-@ test data and the third was allocated to strength testing . The two flying aircraft were sold back to Blackburn in 1950 for disposal and the other aircraft survived until 1952 .

= = Design = =

The Firebrand required significant effort by Blackburn to produce a useful aircraft and the first discussions on a redesign of the aircraft with a laminar @-@ flow wing took place in September 1943 . The new wing was estimated to reduce the weight of the wing by 700 lb ( 318 kg ) and increase the aircraft speed by 13 mph ( 21 km / h ) . The extent of redesign increased and this led to a new fuselage and other improvements . In October 1943 , Blackburn 's design staff , led by G.E. Petty , started work on this development of the Firebrand which led to Specification S.28 / 43 being issued by the Air Ministry on 26 February 1944 covering the new aircraft . The specification was designed around a Bristol Centaurus 77 radial engine with contra @-@ rotating propellers that allowed the size of the rudder to be reduced .

The new design , given the company designation B @-@ 48 , was known unofficially by Blackburn as the " Firecrest " but was always known by its specification number by the Air Ministry and Navy . It was a low @-@ winged , single @-@ seat , all @-@ metal monoplane . Aft of the cockpit the fuselage was an oval @-@ shaped stressed @-@ skin semi @-@ monocoque , but forward it had a circular @-@ section , tubular @-@ steel frame . The cockpit of the Firecrest was moved forward and raised the pilot 's position so that he now looked over the wing leading edge , and down the nose . The canopy was adapted from the Hawker Tempest fighter . In the rear fuselage was a single 52 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 240 l ; 62 US gal ) fuel tank with two 92 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 420 l ; 110 US gal ) fuel tanks in the centre wing section . The aircraft had a redesigned , thinner , inverted gull wing of laminar flow aerofoil section . The wing consisted of a two @-@ spar centre section with just over 6 @.@ 5 degrees of anhedral and outer panels with 9 degrees of dihedral . It could be hydraulically folded in two places to allow more compact storage in the hangar decks of aircraft carriers . Four Fowler flaps were fitted to give good low @-@ speed handling for landing and the wing had retractable dive brakes on both surfaces . In the course of the redesign the structure was simplified which reduced weight by 1 @,@ 400 lb ( 635 kg ) and even after the fuel capacity was increased by 70 imperial gallons ( 320 l ; 84 US gal ) the gross weight was still 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) less than that of the Firebrand .

Work on two prototypes was authorised in November 1943 , but proposals for alternative engines delayed progress . In 1945 , it was decided that as well as adding another Centaurus @-@ engined prototype , there should be three prototypes with the Napier E.122 ( a development of the Sabre ) as Specification S.10 / 45 . The Ministry believed that this would enable Blackburn to develop their knowledge of aerodynamic and structural design and support the engine development at Napier . However , it was found that the S.10 / 45 aircraft could only be balanced if the E.122 powerplant was placed behind the pilot . The necessary redesign and 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 454 kg ) weight increase , coupled with the limited funds available to the Royal Navy , meant that it could no longer be justified and the S.10 / 45 was cancelled on 8 October . While in final design , the Centaurus 77 engine with contra @-@ rotating propellers was cancelled in January 1946 and a conventional 2 @,@ 825 @-@ horsepower ( 2 @,@ 107 kW ) Centaurus 57 was substituted . This engine was found to require flexible mounts and was modified into the Centaurus 59 . The vertical stabiliser and rudder had to be enlarged from 33 to 41 square feet ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 8 m2 ) to counteract the new engine 's torque . In September 1946 a strength analysis conducted by the Ministry of Supply revealed that the aircraft would require strengthening to serve as a strike fighter and that a costly redesign would be required to bring it up to requirements . This would have made it comparable in weight and performance to the Westland Wyvern which had already flown so no contract was placed for production aircraft .

Delayed by the late delivery of its propeller , the first prototype was rolled out at Brough in February 1947 and then taken by road to RAF Leconfield where it made its maiden flight on 1 April that year . All three prototypes were completed by the end of September and the third prototype had been modified to reduce the outer @-@ wing dihedral to 3 degrees . Both the second and third prototypes remained unflown when the Ministry of Supply ordered that flying be ceased and work on the aircraft be stopped . Later in the month , however , the third prototype was allocated to tests of powered aileron controls , as testing of the first prototype had shown that while adequate at cruise speed , the ailerons were heavy both at low and high speed . The second prototype was allocated to structural testing .

The third prototype made its maiden flight in early 1948 , but the pace of the flight testing was leisurely with only 7 hours and 40 minutes completed by 30 November , over half of which were connected with air show performances . Testing concluded in March 1949 when the officer in charge concluded that there was no further purpose to the tests . While the Firecrest was faster than the Firebrand , and gave its pilot a much better view from the cockpit , it was otherwise disappointing , with test pilot and naval aviator Captain Eric Brown claiming that the Firecrest was even less manoeuvrable than the sluggish Firebrand , while the powered ailerons gave lumpy controls , leading to instability in turbulent air .

= = Operational history = =

Operational experience had found Blackburn 's Firebrand strike fighter to be far from suited to carrier operations . In particular , the pilot sat near the wing 's trailing edge , looking over a very long and wide nose which gave a particularly poor view for landing . The Firecrest had also been rendered obsolete by the arrival of gas turbine engines , and while Blackburn did draw up proposals for turboprop @-@ powered derivatives of the Firecrest , ( as the B @-@ 62 ( Y.A.6 ) with the Armstrong Siddeley Python engine ) , these went unbuilt , with orders instead going to Westland for the Wyvern . The two flying prototypes remained in use until 1949 , being sold back to Blackburn in 1950 , and were later scrapped .

= = Aircraft = =

RT651

One of two prototypes ordered on 1 January 1944 to Specification S.28 / 43 . The airframe was sold by the Controller of Supplies ( Air ) to Blackburn on 17 April 1950 .

RT656

The second of two prototypes ordered on 1 January 1944 , it was used for structural testing before being disposed of in 1952 .

VF172

A third aircraft was ordered on 18 April 1945 and it was used for research into power @-@ boosted ailerons during February 1948 . The airframe was sold to Blackburn on 17 October 1949 .

Three further prototypes were ordered on 14 March 1945 against Specification S.10 / 45 and powered by Napier E.122 engine , but the order was cancelled and the aircraft were not built .

= = Operators = =

United Kingdom

Fleet Air Arm ( never entered service )

= = Specifications = =

Data from Blackburn Aircraft since 1909

General characteristics

Crew : one pilot

Length : 39 ft 3 ½ in ( 11 @.@ 98 m )

Wingspan : 44 ft 11 ½ in ( 13 @.@ 71 m )

Height : 14 ft 6 in ( 4 @.@ 42 m )

Wing area : 361 @.@ 5 ft ² ( 33 @.@ 60 m ² )

Empty weight : 10 @,@ 513 lb ( 4 @,@ 779 kg )

Loaded weight : 15 @,@ 280 lb ( 6 @,@ 645 kg )

Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Centaurus 59 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine , 2 @,@ 475 hp ( 1 @,@ 846 kW )

Performance

Maximum speed : 380 mph ( 330 knots , 612 km / h ) at 19 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 790 m )

Cruise speed : 213 mph ( 185 knots , 343 km / h ) at 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m )

Range : 900 mi ( 783 nmi , 1 @,@ 450 km )

Service ceiling : 31 @,@ 600 ft ( 9 @,@ 630 m )

Rate of climb : 2 @,@ 500 ft / min ( 12 @.@ 7 m / s )

Armament

Guns : Provision for 2 × .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine guns under or in wing ( not fitted to prototypes )

Rockets : 8 × RP @-@ 3 rocket projectiles on underwing rails

Bombs : 1 × 2 @,@ 097 lb ( 951 kg ) torpedo , or

2 × 250 lb ( 110 kg ) bombs , one under each wing , in lieu of torpedo

= Magadheera =

Magadheera ( English : Great Warrior ) is a 2009 Indian Telugu @-@ language romantic @-@ action film , written by K. V. Vijayendra Prasad and directed by S. S. Rajamouli . Based on the theme of reincarnation , the film was produced by Allu Aravind of Geetha Arts . The film stars Ram Charan and Kajal Aggarwal , while Dev Gill and Srihari appear in prominent roles . The plot revolves around four people : a valiant warrior in charge of the princess ' safety ; the princess who loves him ; her cousin who lusts after her ; and an emperor who wants to conquer their kingdom . They all die before their wishes are fulfilled and are reborn after 400 years , at which point the warrior kills the scheming cousin with the support of the reformed emperor and wins over the princess .

Made on a budget of ₹ 350 million , the production was launched on 2 March 2008 while principal photography commenced on 19 March 2008 . The cinematography was done by K. K. Senthil Kumar , and was edited by Kotagiri Venkateshwara Rao . Production design was done by R. Ravinder , while the action sequences were choreographed by Peter Hein and the duo of Ram — Lakshman . The visual effects were designed by R. C. Kamalakannan , with assistance from Adel Adili and Pete Draper . It is the first Telugu film to list a " visual effects producer " in its credits . The soundtrack was composed by M. M. Keeravani , who collaborated with Kalyani Malik to score the background music .

Magadheera was released on 31 July 2009 across 1250 screens worldwide , to critical acclaim , and collected a distributor 's share of ₹ 731 million . The film grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion worldwide and remained the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time for five years , until it was surpassed by Attarintiki Daredi in 2013 . Its 1000 @-@ day theatrical run surpassed Chandramukhi ( 2005 ) as the longest running South Indian film . It is also the first Telugu film to have a home media release in Blu @-@ ray . The film won the National Award for Best Choreography and Best Special Effects at the 57th National Film Awards as well as winning six Filmfare Awards , nine Nandi Awards and ten CineMAA Awards . The film 's success catapulted the lead actors into stardom .

The film was dubbed into Tamil as Maaveeran and Malayalam as Dheera : The Warrior , and was released simultaneously on 27 May 2011 in more than 100 and 50 screens respectively , with both versions being commercially successful . In 2014 , the film was further remade in Bengali as Yoddha : The Warrior by Raj Chakraborty with Dev and Mimi Chakraborty portraying the lead roles .

= = Plot = =

Harsha , a dirt @-@ bike racer , is taking an auto rickshaw to the airport in the rain . He spots the blurry outline of a woman trying to flag the auto down , and gestures to her that it is already occupied . As he does , their fingers accidentally touch , and Harsha feels an electric current passing through him , which triggers a few fleeting images . Later , feeling that this was the girl he was destined to be with , he enquires about her to a woman named Indira ( called " Indu " ) , without realising that she is the same girl . Indu , thinking that he is stalking her , misdirects him . She and her friends take advantage of Harsha , duping him out of his finances . Meanwhile , Indu 's distant cousin Raghuveer , lusts after her . He manipulates Indu and her father into trusting him . However , whenever he attempts to touch a sleeping Indu , he sees visions of a warrior slitting his throat . Raghuveer consults a tantrik , Ghora , who reveals to him that in a prior life , he was a prince who lusted after Indu , and was killed by her lover , a warrior . Raghuveer is determined to find the reincarnation of the warrior and kill him . Meanwhile , Harsha discovers how Indu and her friends have been defrauding him , and she falls in love with him .

Raghuveer discovers that Harsha is the reincarnation of the warrior . He murders Indu 's father and frames Harsha , causing Indu to hate Harsha . As Raghuveer and Indu leave in a helicopter , Harsha tries to catch them but fails ; falling into a lake , he faces a near @-@ death experience and learns about his past life in 1609 . In that year , Emperor Sher Khan is preparing to invade the kingdom of Udayghar when he hears of the brave warrior Kala Bhairava ( Harsha ) , commander of the Udayghad army . King Vikram Singh 's daughter , Mithravindha Devi ( Indu ) , loves Bhairava , but he holds himself back . Her cousin , Ranadev Billa ( Raghuveer ) , lusts after Mithra and plans a competition between himself and Bhairava ; the winner will marry her and the loser will be banished from Udayghad . Bhairava 's victory leads to Ranadev 's banishment . Vikram Singh , however , secretly requests that Bhairava not marry his daughter , because Bhairava has a high chance of dying in battle , and he does not wish to see Mithra widowed . Though shocked , Bhirava concedes to the king 's request and publicly declines to marry Mithra , leaving her distraught .

Bhairava then takes Mithra , his soldiers , and his caretakers to the Bhairavakona temple atop a cliff to seek blessings from God . Mithra demands Bhairava admit his love for her . When he does not respond , she upsets the sacred items they have brought for the puja and , using her own blood , paints an image on a nearby rock of Bhairava leaving his true love to do his duty . An injured soldier arrives to tell Bhairava that Ranadev and Sher Khan 's army have killed Vikram Singh and are now rushing toward them . They arrive shortly , and Sher Khan challenges Bhairava to battle his soldiers . Bhairava boldly accepts the challenge and kills a hundred soldiers , but is severely injured in the process . Sher Khan , impressed by Bhairava 'a bravery , has a change of heart . However , Ranadev continues attacking , eventually wounding Mithra fatally , but he is in turn killed by Bhairava . A dying Mithra asks Bhairava to confess his love , but before he can respond , she dies and falls off the cliff . Distraught , he follows her and falls to his own death .

After learning about his past life , Harsha is rescued from the lake by a fisherman named Solomon ( who is the reincarnation of Sher Khan ) and , with Soloman 's help , visits Udayghad . He gains access to Raghuveer 's palace and overhears Ghora telling Raghuveer that if Indu 's memories of the past are not revived within the day they can never be revived , and she will be with Raghuveer forever . Harsha kidnaps Indu and takes her to Bhairavakona and in the process , Ghora is accidentally killed by Raghuveer . Raghuveer arrives by helicopter and asks Indu to come with him ; however Indu sees Mithra 's painting , and her past @-@ life memories are revived ; she reunites with Harsha . Harsha fights Raghuveer , and with the help of Solomon , manages to kill him .

= = Cast = =

Ram Charan as Kala Bhairava and Harsha . Kala Bhairava is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Udayghad army who dies in battle in 1609 . His reincarnation , Harsha , is a dirt @-@ bike racer in 2009 , who falls in love with Indu . When Harsha discovers his past life , he saves Indu from her cousin Raghuveer , who killed her father and framed Harsha as the murderer .

Kajal Aggarwal as Mithravinda Devi and Indu . Mithravinda Devi is the crown princess of Udayghad who is in love with Bhairava and also dies in 1609 . In 2009 , her reincarnation is Indira ( alias Indu ) , a carefree student . She falls in love with Harsha but believes him to be her father 's murderer because of Raghuveer 's deception . She reunites with Harsha in the end after remembering her past life .

Dev Gill as Ranadev Billa and Raghuveer . Ranadev Billa is Mithravinda 's cousin who lusts after her and is jealous of Bhairava . He , after killing Mithravinda , is killed by Bhairava . His reincarnation , Raghuveer , is Indu 's cousin who lusts after her . He is the first to remember his past life , and murders Indu 's father in both eras . He is finally killed by Harsha .

Srihari as Sher Khan and Solomon . Sher Khan is a Muslim emperor who invades Udayghad . He realises Bhairava 's potential just before his death but fails to save him . His reincarnation , Solomon , is a fisherman who is a native to Srikakulam . He helps Harsha to reunite with Indu , and plays a vital role in Raghuveer 's death .

Rao Ramesh as Ghora , a hunchbacked old tantrik who advises Raghuveer . He helps Raghuveer in remembering his past . His conversation with Raghuveer helps Harsha to remind Indu of her past . Ghora is accidentally killed by Raghuveer .

Sarath Babu as Vikram Singh , the king of Udayghad and father of Mithravinda . He respects Bhairava for his valour but believes that he will die in battle and consequently requests that Bhairava hold back his love for Mithra . Vikram is murdered by Ranadev when Sher Khan invades the kingdom .

Surya as Bhoopathi Varma , Indu 's father . Raghuveer manipulates him for access to Indu and kills him just before he accepts Harsha 's proposal to marry Indu .

Sunil as Harsha 's gullible friend . He accompanies him most of the time and constantly warns him about Indu exploiting him financially .

Sameer as Maan Singh , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Sher Khan 's army who informs Sher Khan about Bhairava 's strengths .

Cameo appearances

Chiranjeevi in a cameo appearance in the item song " Bangaru Kodipetta " .

Mumaith Khan as Reshma , the dirt bike race organiser . She also appears in " Bangaru Kodipetta " .

Kim Sharma as Hamsa , a dancer who appears in the item song " Jorsey " .

Brahmanandam as Indu 's neighbour .

Hema as Sasikala .

Saloni Aswani as Solomon 's girlfriend .

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

K. V. Vijayendra Prasad was watching a Marathi film where two warriors Sivaji and Tanaji are attacked by Mughal Army . Once the duo can reach Sinhagad fort , they can kill the army together effectively . While Sivaji escapes to the fort for support , Tanaji fights with the army and dies in the process leaving Sivaji in grief . Prasad took this as an inspiration and wrote a story on the theme of reincarnation of a bodyguard who serves a queen . He fights 100 warriors and dies in his attempt to re @-@ enthrone his queen after she is overthrown by her conspirators . He is reborn after 400 years and fulfils his ambition of placing her on the throne by making her a Chief Minister or a popular social worker like Medha Patkar . It was subsequently rejected and after fifteen years , his son director S. S. Rajamouli selected this script , but made several changes to it . Rajamouli re @-@ characterised the queen as a princess to create a vital love story for the film , as he felt that the relationship between a queen and a bodyguard would be only about loyalty and honesty .

Production for the film was officially launched on 2 March 2008 at FNCC in Hyderabad . B. V. S. N. Prasad co @-@ produced the film with Allu Aravind under his production banner , Geetha Arts . M. Rathnam was announced as the dialogue writer while Rajamouli 's usual associates K. K. Senthil Kumar , Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao and M. M. Keeravani worked on the film 's cinematography , editing and music respectively .

After many potential titles , Magadheera was considered and finalised in early February 2009 . Tamil and Malayalam dubbed versions were planned in mid February 2009 . The film 's Tamil dubbed version was titled as Maaveeran , named after the 1986 Tamil film . Geetha Arts collaborated with Udhayanidhi Stalin for the Tamil version and distributed it under his production banner , Red Giant Movies . K. Bhagyaraj wrote the dialogues for Maaveeran . The Malayalam version was titled Dheera — The Warrior and was distributed by Pallavi films .

= = = Casting = = =

After considering several actresses ( including Tamannaah ) for the princess role , Kajal Aggarwal was selected by Rajamouli as the female lead opposite Ram Charan after conducting a photoshoot in his office . Rajamouli said that he wanted to cast her as the female lead in Yamadonga ( 2007 ) after her Telugu debut Lakshmi Kalyanam ( 2007 ) , but she was unavailable . He added that he wanted somebody " good looking , who would look like a princess and who had dates available " and finalised her because she met all of these prerequisites . After conducting her photoshoot , Rajamouli explained the story and Mithra 's characterisation to her in 45 minutes . He said she needed to treat the hero arrogantly , but do so out of love for the hero . Kajal kept this in mind and acted accordingly while playing the dual roles of a princess from 400 years ago and a modern @-@ day college student . Kajal called both her roles " unique and challenging " .

Dev Gill was selected to portray the film 's antagonist . Rajamouli was criticised for selecting him considering Gill 's previous film , Krishnarjuna ( 2008 ) , but remained adamant about casting him . He said that he had to cast a good looking man as the film 's villain because the heroine needed to find him trustworthy . For this film , Gill had to practice horse riding in Ramoji Film City ; Ram Charan was already an experienced equestrian . Srihari was cast in his role in the film in early April 2008 . Kim Sharma was selected to perform one of the two item numbers in the film in early June 2008 . Saloni Aswani made a cameo appearance in the film and shot for three days . She was subsequently signed for Rajamouli 's next project , Maryada Ramanna ( 2010 ) , before Magadheera was even released .

Rao Ramesh was cast as a tantrik who helps Gill 's character in the present era . Mumaith Khan was selected for another item number , a remix version of the hit song " Bangaru Kodipetta " from Gharana Mogudu ( 1992 ) ; Gharana Mogudu 's music was also composed by M. M. Keeravani . Chiranjeevi made a special appearance after the song , making Magadheera the first film he appeared in after his entry into politics . When Rajamouli suggested the idea of a cameo appearance , Chiranjeevi was initially hesitant till the director narrated the complete sequence and the importance of the song .

= = = Costume designs = = =

Regarding his looks in the film , Ram Charan said , " Personality wise there isn ’ t really much difference to Kalabhairava but I have to tell you minor changes like the shape of my mustache , a slight voice modulation , the background scale , the atmosphere and even the ‘ Chandrabindu ’ worked wonders on screen and gave a totally different look and feel and I felt like it was an altogether different side of me . When I was told of the characterization of ‘ Kalabhairava ’ , I had an impression of a young , passionate soldier and naturally it had to have a great body and an authoritative voice . So , we also worked on it . We actually went to Rajasthan and observed the local culture and their way of dressing , we researched a lot about their costumes , history and great personalities 400 years ago and planned it accordingly . " Ram Charan sported a long hairdo for both of his characters in the film .

To design the armour used by Charan in his role as Kalabhairava , art director R. Ravinder wanted the precise measurements of Charan 's body ; they used plaster of Paris to make a mould of Charan 's body shape from which they created a statue . They designed costumes for the statue and had Charan try them on once they were satisfied with the designs . In an interview with Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com , the film 's stylist , Rama Rajamouli , said that it took one month to develop the right look for the olden period before she began working on the materials and costumes for the film . She added that all of the film 's costumes were designed by her and stitched in Hyderabad , and that Kajal 's costumes were heavily detailed as she needed to look rich , elegant and bright . Rajamouli had some disagreements with cinematographer K. K. Senthil Kumar over the colours of the costumes . Her decision of having Kajal wear a dress of baby pink and pista green during the war sequence at Bhairavakona was initially opposed by Rajamouli , but later agreed to after the director saw the final edit . She also used minimal jewellery for the princess 's outfits .

= = = Filming = = =

The film 's principal photography was expected to begin on 26 February 2008 , and then on 15 March 2008 , but finally began on 19 March 2008 in Rajasthan . Initial shooting occurred for 10 days in Rann of Kutch , Gujarat . Art director Ravinder went to Chennai and gave details of their requirements to a prominent chariot @-@ making specialist . After rejecting the maker 's first iron skeletons , Ravinder opted to design them himself , and prepared three models of chariots with different heights to be used , depending on the camera ’ s location and other technical requirements . He used fibre material for the iron skeleton 's exteriors . For a scene in which neither the hero nor the villain was present on the chariot , Ravinder measured a short person and designed a hidden chamber in which he could sit and secretly control the horses . While the chariot race sequence was shot in Dholavira , the sequence in which the chariot sinks in quicksand was shot at a set comprising three acres in Ramoji Film City .

K. K. Senthil Kumar scouted for locations in Gujarat , looking for dry , open lands to shoot the chariot race sequence . They found salt lands with white sands in Dholavira . To shoot the sequence there , they wanted a light weight vehicle to follow the horses ; they bought a Maruti van , removed the vehicle 's top and mounted the camera along with a jimmy jib atop it . A part of the song Dheera Dheera was also shot there , requiring filmmakers to plant a dry tree and a couple of oxen for use in the song 's backdrop . An item number featuring Kim Sharma and Ram Charan was shot in late June 2008 in a specially erected fisherman colony . It was set up on the first floor of Annapurna Studios and cost less than ₹ 3 million . Ravinder explained , " The set should look like an outdoor location , but need to be constructed in an indoor floor . I constructed exteriors of around 28 houses in that floor with detailed interior plan for the house of Srihari . I also constructed a small boat and a big wheeled fish with thermocol . When director wanted smoke @-@ effect for a shot I held the heavy smoke machine on my shoulders in a low angle for the required effect . "

After filming key parts of the film in Rajasthan , suburbs of Hyderabad , and at Badami in Karnataka , filming continued in Ramoji Film City in a specially erected set named Bhairavakona in late October 2008 . Two more schedules , one from 3 – 10 December and one in January , were also shot at the Bhairavakona set . The sequence of Charan killing 100 warriors , also at Bhairavakona , included a bridge . As the set did not permit for shooting with low angles , a separate half @-@ bridge was erected at Bhoot Bangla in Road No. 22 of Banjara Hills . The bridge , which had a height of 60 feet ( 18 m ) and a length of 100 feet ( 30 m ) , was constructed on top of a rocky hill using steel beams as the skeleton and wooden material as support . It was built in around 20 days by over 60 men amid heavy rains . 20 trucks of black soil were transported from Ramoji Film City for the bridge set , as that type of soil was only available in the former location .

After the completion of shooting at the arena set in Ramoji Film City , the arena set was demolished and a set for heroine 's house was constructed in its place . This was the last set constructed for this film . By late September 2008 , 70 % of the film 's shoot was complete . The remix version of " Bangaru Kodipetta " was shot by Ram Charan and Mumaith Khan under the supervision of Prem Rakshith at Chennai Port , although Visakhapatnam Port was first considered . Filming continued in and around Hyderabad very discreetly in November 2008 . Stunt sequences by Ram Charan and some stuntmen were shot in mid @-@ December 2008 at Hyderabad . By mid February 2009 , the film 's scripted part had been wrapped up , with only some songs left to shoot . The song " Nakosam Nuvvu " was shot in Switzerland while " Panchadara Bomma Bomma " was shot at Golkonda Fort in Hyderabad . Both songs were duets shot by Ram Charan and Kajal . K. K. Senthil Kumar said in an interview that Magadheera could not have been made in eight months because of its long pre @-@ production and post @-@ production phases . Over two lakhs worth of props , including swords , daggers , knives , bows and arrows , pouches , armour , footwear and other accessories , were used in the film . They were designed by 160 workers , including welders , molders , carpenters , painters , cobblers , artists , tailors and leather men , who worked for two months in the Geetha Arts Studio . Five people were appointed exclusively to look after these props . However , during the film 's shoot both Peter Hein and Ram Charan suffered major injuries . The former fell down from a height of 80 — 90 feet during the composition of a stunt and was advised a bed rest for four months . Charan faced severe leg fractures , while Rajamouli said that Peter " met with an accident on the sets , had two broken ribs , fractured hands and jaw and lost all his teeth . Within a month , he was back on the sets with his face and body covered in bandages and plaster . He could barely lift his hands to shoot . "

= = = Visual effects = = =

R. C. Kamalakannan was the VFX producer of this film . Magadheera was the first Telugu film in which the position of " Visual Effects Producer " was used in the credits . He was assisted by a team of five experts from abroad and a 62 dedicated group members apart from 130 people from the company EFX in Chennai and Hyderabad . Special effects and CG was used for about 1 hour and 40 minutes out of the total 2 hours and 35 minutes in the film . 15 % of the frames in the film 's scenes of Udayghad city were actually shot with a camera ; the rest were CG extension . For the scenes in the stadium , CG extension was slightly above 50 % . For the stadium , Italian concept artist Marco Rolandi began with a CAD drawing and made his first 3D concept in 5 days . It took five months for Marco to reach the design shown in the film and as imagined by Rajamouli . Simultaneously , Iranian 3D technical director Adel Adili , who worked with Kamalakannan for Anji ( 2004 ) , Yamadonga and Arundathi ( 2009 ) , was working on the 3D Udayghad city . He started with a city @-@ plan and added streets , buildings , mountains , temples , palaces , water bodies , a huge waterfall , rivers , gates , a moat and trees , all of which were planned and received Rajamouli 's approval before being executed to full scale . Adili redesigned Marco 's 3D stadium to suit Indian aesthetics and made it fit perfectly within the city .

Pete Draper , who worked with Kamalakanna in Ghajini ( 2008 ) , was selected as the pipeline technical director of the film . At that time , Kamalakannan was in Iran finalising the CG stadium and City with Adili . The majority of the film was shot in anamorphic format , but a Super 35 camera gate and lens were used for the stadium episode to minimise distortion . Post @-@ production of the stadium scenes were given to Prasad EFX , and the film set up their own render farm in Chennai . The post process was done in several stages after the scan . The live stadium had only 7 steps , in which live people were positioned in 6 steps while the remaining 12 steps were CG extension . Adili created 3D CG people to fill the CG steps and their actions in a library of 3000 frames .

Draper designed the birds in two flows : one flow kept flying around the stadium , while the other flow took off from a position dome and landed on a target dome . Rajamouli used those birds in several shots . Upon finishing the stages of the stadium composite , Kamalakannan flew to Iran again to work with Adel for the 3D city shots which were created entirely in CG . Adili designed 3D horses for the hero and villain and Draper designed the 3D people flocking behind the horses . About Adili 's work , Kamalakannan said , " When we started the city @-@ shot renders , it has taken several hours to render one frame . But Adili re @-@ corrected the geometry and applied several path breaking ideas , so even on 24 July , just a week before the film release , we were able to do corrections , render and submit . " ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) was spent solely on VFX for Magadheera .

= = = Piracy = = =

During the film 's shoot at Ramoji Film City in late November 2008 , a 500 square feet ( 46 m2 ) film can , containing two or three scenes , was discovered missing from Rainbow lab . The filmmakers filed a case at Hayathnagar police station . Security personnel and film unit members searched , but failed to recover the reels . Rajamouli 's unit said it was not important if the scenes from the can were aired online since they were not crucial scenes , were all on a blue matte and lacked finishing . Later , raw footage from the film was seen on the internet but no details about the culprits were found . After the photographs and small video clips were leaked on the Internet , some of the film unit members felt that the loss might have been a ploy on the part of the producers to create hype .

= = Themes and influences = =

The film is based on the concept of reincarnation and eternal love . According to Rediff , the rewritten script 's basic storyline is that " Love remains eternal and it will follow generations and generations . There is always a big victory for Love . " The film 's flashback sequences were used as a flip switch between the film 's olden and present day eras . Initially the film featured a scene in which the present day heroine accidentally receives a dupatta preserved in a museum that is used in the flashbacks as the dupatta Bhairava and Ranadheer race for . However , separate dupattas were used in the film as Rajamouli felt that getting the dupatta from the flashback would complicate the narrative .

In her book Bimal Roy 's Madhumati : Untold Stories from Behind the Scenes , writer Rinki Bhattacharya compared the reincarnation theme of Magadheera with that of Madhumati ( 1958 ) , Karz ( 1980 ) , Karan Arjun ( 1995 ) and Om Shanti Om ( 2007 ) . Touching the heroine unleashes locked memories within the hero that transport him to Rajasthan in 1609 from contemporary Hyderabad . Bhattacharya also compared Magadheera to another Telugu film , Mooga Manasulu ( 1964 ) . Rajamouli told Subhash K. Jha that he was inspired by Karan Arjun to make films based on reincarnation .

= = Music = =

M. M. Keeravani composed the film 's soundtrack . It features six songs including the remixed version of his own composition " Bangaru Kodipetta " from the film Gharana Mogudu . The soundtrack of the Tamil dubbed version , Maaveeran , had three additional tracks . The Telugu soundtrack was launched at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad on 28 June 2009 . The Tamil version was launched on 25 April 2011 in Chennai .

= = Release = =

Geetha Arts released the film on 31 July 2009 , with 625 digital UFO prints in 1250 theatres across the globe , making Magadheera the biggest release for a Telugu film in history . Its release included more than 1000 screens in Andhra Pradesh alone . The film opened up with 25 prints overseas in almost 40 locations . Magadheera was the first Telugu film to be released on 21 screens in North America . Huge vinyl posters featuring Ram Charan and his father , cameo performer Chiranjeevi , were put up at all of the theatres in Krishna District . Posters also featured the head of Chiranjeevi 's political party , former MLA Vangaveeti Radhakrishna , which added political importance to the release . The Tamil dubbed version Maaveeran and Malayalam dubbed version Dheera — The Warrior were released in more than 100 screens and 50 screens respectively on 27 May 2011 .

= = = Distribution = = =

Raju Hirwani , the owner of Supreme Music , ventured into overseas distribution with Magadheera . He distributed the film in the USA via Blue Sky Cinemas Inc . The distribution rights of non @-@ US countries , including the UK , Ireland , Middle East , Australia , New Zealand and Singapore , were acquired by Krishna Productions . The theatrical rights of Australia and New Zealand were sold to Tollyfilmz . The film 's Singaporean rights were sold to Pragati films . Gulf and Kuwait theatrical rights were sold to K. A. Chowdary and Basheer respectively . Red Giant Movies distributed Maaveeran while Pallavi films distributed Dheera — The Warrior . The film 's Karnataka distributor , Vijayakumar , was disciplined for breaking the rules of the Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce by simultaneously releasing a non @-@ Kannada film in more than 21 screens in the state . The proceeds of 21 screens were given to him while the rest was confiscated by the Chamber of Commerce . The KFCC also suspended Vijaykumar , who was KFCC 's secretary for distribution , from its executive committee .

Joint collector Gaurav Uppal convened a meeting of film exhibitors and distributors , warning them against black @-@ marketing tickets to Magadheera . This was after local leaders , attempting to acquire a maximum number of tickets , blocked and booked tickets to the film in advance , to enthuse their supporters during the local civic polls in Guntur . Special teams of revenue , police and commercial tax officers were appointed to keep watch at ticket counters and ensure that each person was issued only one ticket . Priority was ordered to be given for the sanitation , safety and comfort of the viewers . Authorities in Vijayawada ensured the strict checking and prevention of black @-@ marketing of tickets . However , Ram Charan 's fans resorted to sloganeering and an impromptu protest demonstration in the office of Revenue Divisional Officer K. Hymavathi in Machilipatnam . They demanded the screening of a benefit show and the advance sale of tickets after being rejected by the management of the twin theatres , Siri Venkata and Siri Krishna , where the film was screened . Their plea was rejected by the officer , who said that the tickets would be issued only to those who came in queue and that no special concessions would be made for fans .

= = = Mishaps = = =

On 9 August 2009 , two persons , identified as NIT student M. Praveen Kumar and Ganesh , were killed and 15 others sustained severe injuries after being electrocuted while jostling for tickets for Magadheera at the theatre Bhavani in Kazipet , Warangal . The screening of Magadheera at theatres in Vizianagaram was prohibited by the then minister Botsa Satyanarayana until safety measures were complied with . Satyanarayana 's announcement followed the death of five people in Salur Village due to an electrical accident at the Lakshmi theatre screening Magadheera .

= = = Accusation of plagiarism = = =

Folk lyricist Vangapandu Prasada Rao alleged that his 40 @-@ year @-@ old folk song " Em Pillado Eldamostavaa " , which was featured in T. Krishna 's Ardharathri Swatanthram ( 1986 ) , was used by film director Rajamouli and Allu Aravind in the Magadheera song " Jorsey " without Rao 's consent . Activists of PDSU , POW and PYL staged a protest demonstration in front of the Ashok 70 MM theatre in Nizamabad , where the film was screened , to demand the removal of the song . The protesters said that the song was written by Rao during the famous Srikakulam armed struggle four decades prior and had been misused to portray an obscene duet in the film . They added that the song was used without the permission of the writer and that the depiction defeated the very purpose of the song , which was written in a revolutionary spirit . They demanded a public apology by the makers to Rao . A few reports stated that Rao demanded Aravind pay him compensation of ₹ 5 million .

After the completion of the film 's 175 day run , novelist S. P. Chary accused the film of being based on a novel that he had written and published as a serial under the title Chanderi in a monthly magazine in 1998 . He demanded that filmmakers compensate him for using his idea without consent , and threatened to take legal action if the producers did not heed his demands , or remade the film in another language . He added that he deserved to be credited for the story and alleged that Allu Arjun and Allu Sirish were trying to postpone his acknowledgment by discussing the issue with him .

= = = Home media = = =

Magadheera was the first Telugu film in India to have a home media release in Blu @-@ ray format . During the release announcement , Allu Sirish said that although they initially were reluctant to go for it , given the fact that there were approximately only 2500 Blu @-@ ray devices in Andhra Pradesh , the overwhelming demand for it made him rethink the decision . He added , " Sharing this vision with us was Sri Balaji Videos , the largest home @-@ video label in Andhra Pradesh . Together , we 're bringing out Magadheera on Blu @-@ ray . Though Bhavani Videos released Nagarjuna 's King ( 2008 ) on Blu @-@ ray , it was only for the overseas market . This makes Magadheera the first Blu @-@ ray film to be released in India and with a bonus disc with additional footage . We 're also a holding a press event on this regard to officially announce the launch of the movie on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . "

A press note announced that the DVDs would be available beginning the third week of March 2010 while the Blu @-@ ray would be available 2 weeks later . The launch ceremony took place in a Marriott Hotel on 27 February 2010 . The first DVD was released by M. M. Keeravani and was presented by journalist Pasupuleti Ramarao . The DVD was released in NTSC video format and Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 surround audio format on 5 March 2010 . The Blu @-@ ray disc released on 13 April 2010 . Magadheera held the top position in sales for its 720p Blu @-@ ray edition with 5 @.@ 1 Dolby digital sound format as of July 2014 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

Suresh Krishnamoorthy of The Hindu summarised , " Magadheera is not for the weak @-@ hearted , those who do not like the sight of blood and neither is it for those who like movies with storylines that are much @-@ closer @-@ to @-@ everyday- reality . But Rajamouli excels in story @-@ telling . The way he has used the flashback as a flip switch , going back and forth and taking the viewer through a 400 @-@ year journey in a jiffy is interesting . The rest is about how well technology , creativity , imagination and innovation are leveraged to present what is an eye @-@ pleasing experience for viewers . " B. V. S. Prakash of The Times of India wrote , " Despite a few narrative lapses , the much @-@ hyped semi @-@ periodic epic lives up to expectations . Unlike his previous action @-@ centric films , director Rajamouli dishes a heart @-@ touching love story in a lavish canvas convincingly . Also kudos for the way he has visualised and presented the film . " He added , " After not @-@ so @-@ impressive Chirutha , Ram Charan Tej returns as a valiant soldier and breathes life into the larger @-@ than @-@ life role with ease . Similarly , Kajal known for simple lover girl roles transforms into a determined princess and truly impresses . Dev Gil is adequate as the ruthless villain " , and rated the film 3 out of 5 .

Oneindia Entertainment stated , " S. S. Rajamouli has chosen a fantastic love story for his movie Magadheera and linked it to a love story that dated back to some 400 years . He has filled complete energy in the film and no doubt , the graphic works and modern technology are perfectly used for the movie . As a whole , the film reminds the audiences of watching a Hollywood movie with perfect local flavor " , and called the film 's screenplay by Rajamouli a highlight . Upperstall.com stated " Magadheera is not an epic , not a legend , not even a cult movie , but it is certainly an artistic extravaganza and a sensory treat . Like we said before , a must watch ! A mast watch ! " .

Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com called the film " technically brilliant " and wrote " A reincarnation story is not often seen in Telugu cinema and SS Rajamouli uses this theme for Ram Charan Teja 's second film Magadheera . It 's a magnum opus production with great technical work . The graphics are excellent for a Telugu movie . Overall , the movie is a mainstream one with good packaging . " She rated the film 3 out of 5 . Sify called the film a " brilliant entertainer " and wrote , " Set against the backdrop of an eerie theme — reincarnation — Magadheera unfolds on the screen with multiple shades of entertainment . When the movie was launched last year , director Rajamouli dared to reveal the central theme of the story . He has succeeded in his attempt , as he was able to keep the screenplay and narration gripping from start to finish . The second half has the soul in it . " Sify summarised , " In short , the movie encompasses some of the best commercial elements that Telugu audience have seen in the recent past . "

IndiaGlitz called the film " royal and spellbinding " and opined , " The film deserves a special credit for many reasons , notable among them is the grandeur of the movie and the amazing technical aspects . This is surely a path breaker in terms of Telugu film making and with the likes of ' Arundhati ' , Tollywood sure is proud to have this one in its league . It is a valiant attempt to bring such genre to the modern day audience and present it with finesse so that it fits the historical angle and the today 's angle . " However , Rajamouli was accused of lifting scenes from films like Gladiator ( 2000 ) , Troy ( 2004 ) , The Myth ( 2005 ) and 300 ( 2007 ) .

= = = Box office = = =

The film collected a share of approximately ₹ 200 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 0 million ) in its first week in Andhra Pradesh alone , of which a share of ₹ 71 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) was collected in Nizam region . Sixteen centres collected ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) , each of which was an all @-@ time state record . It collected a share of ₹ 381 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 7 million ) in 21 days in Andhra Pradesh . By the end of its four @-@ week run , the film was declared a blockbuster and collected a share of ₹ 435 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 5 million ) in 28 days and ₹ 470 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 0 million ) in 35 days . The film completed a 50 @-@ day run in 302 centres on 18 September 2009 . By then , the film had collected ₹ 650 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 7 million ) and stood strong .

The film completed its 100 @-@ day run in 223 centres and grossed over ₹ 1 @.@ 25 billion ( US $ 19 million ) without satellite and audio rights . By then it had surpassed Rajinikanth 's Sivaji ( 2007 ) , which grossed ₹ 650 million ( US $ 9 @.@ 7 million ) in Tamil Nadu , and stood second to Ghajini ( 2008 ) , which reached ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . The film completed a 175 @-@ day run in 3 centres and , by then , collected a share of ₹ 580 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 6 million ) . The film completed a 365 @-@ day run in Vijayalakshmi theatre in Kurnool on 31 July 2010 and a 1000 @-@ day run in the same theatre on 26 April 2012 . The film collected a share of ₹ 731 million ( US $ 11 million ) at the worldwide box office in its lifetime with a gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) . It was declared the highest grosser in the history of Telugu cinema and stood in the first place in the list of Telugu films with highest worldwide shares . It held that position until 2013 when Attarintiki Daredi pushed it to the second spot .

More than 50 % of the film 's lifetime collections were from the Nizam region . The film also did well in the overseas box office . It was released in New Jersey with three prints on three screens and collected a record share of more than 150 @,@ 000 dollars , turning the highest amount raised overseas by a Telugu film ; the previous record holder was Trivikram Srinivas ' Jalsa ( 2008 ) , which collected more than 100 @,@ 000 dollars . It grossed 102 @,@ 000 dollars in its first two days in New Jersey and a share of 95 @,@ 000 dollars in Virginia with two prints as of mid August 2009 . It collected a share of 78 @,@ 000 dollars in the San Francisco Bay Area with a single print . It managed to sell 2300 tickets in Minneapolis ; the previous record for tickets sold there for a Telugu film was 1200 . The film 's overseas records were beaten two years later by Dookudu ( 2011 ) , although disputes have arisen over which film holds the Tollywood all @-@ time sales record .

= = Legacy = =

Magadheera 's success turned Kajal into one of the most sought @-@ after actresses in Telugu cinema and catapulted her into the foray of leading Telugu actresses . The film was also considered a fate changer in the career of Ram Charan . The role of Sher Khan played by Srihari was considered as one of the best roles in his career and also catapulted S. S. Rajamouli to stardom . Dev Gill attained stardom with this film and went on to work in several South Indian films as an antagonist . After the release of Magadheera , people began recognising him as Ranadheer . According to writer Gopimohan , Magadheera started a trend of experimentation with period , socio @-@ fantasy and spiritual themes that was continued in films like Panchakshari ( 2010 ) , Nagavalli ( 2010 ) , Anaganaga O Dheerudu ( 2011 ) , Mangala ( 2011 ) , Sri Rama Rajyam ( 2011 ) and Uu Kodathara ? Ulikki Padathara ? ( 2012 ) .

The props used in this film , including weapons like swords and shields , were auctioned by Movie Artist Association . Actors , technicians , and the general public were invited to bid and the proceeds were used to aid poor artists in the Telugu film industry . Actor Sivaji Raja started the bidding by offering ₹ 50 @,@ 000 for the sword that Ram Charan used and comedian Venu Madhav started the bidding for the shield with ₹ 25 @,@ 000 . B. V. S. N. Prasad bid for both the sword and knife for ₹ 100 @,@ 000 . The bidding started on 7 May 2010 online in the association 's official website and ended on 16 May . The winners were declared on 20 May 2010 . After Magadheera , S. S. Rajamouli worked on a small budget film Maryada Ramanna ( 2010 ) which , according to Crazy Mohan , was similar to the act of S. S. Vasan directing the small budget film Mr. Sampat ( 1952 ) after Chandralekha ( 1948 ) . Rajamouli explained his decision by saying , " I decided that my next project would be Maryada Ramanna during the Magadheera shooting itself because it is a 1 and half year project that demands lot of physical labor and mental strain . I didn 't want to commit another physically exhausting film immediately after Magadheera . Maryada Ramanna gave us time to recharge our batteries so that we could come up with another huge project . " He revealed Maryada Ramanna 's plot before its launch to minimise the expectations of his audience after Magadheera 's success .

Tammareddy Bharadwaja said " Ever since Arundhati and Magadheera did well at the box office , the rest of the industry started following their footsteps . Also , since there is an irrational craze to make high budget films right now , producers are turning towards mythological films . It is the only genre where you can boast of spending crores for creating the sets and the look of the film . But what they don 't realize is that if these films flop , the blow to the producer will be severe . " Films like Anaganaga O Dheerudu ( 2011 ) and Shakti ( 2011 ) were commercial failures and Badrinath ( 2012 ) was an average grosser ; all being fantasy films in which the protagonist is a warrior . The promos of Badrinath looked similar to Magadheera and the former 's director V. V. Vinayak along with its male lead Allu Arjun kept insisting that Badrinath is dissimilar to Magadheera . Producer Natti Kumar said " If a hero delivers a hit , producers run after him for five years and burn their fingers only after six or eight flops . It 's the same story with movies . Since Magadheera became a hit , every other hero and director wants to do period film where there is scope to spend crores . They don 't work on the script , story or relevance . It is a pure display of graphics , heroes ' abs and grandeur . The plot is lost . Magadheera worked because it was a novel genre then , but why will people want to see the same things again ? " .

Janani Iyer cited the character of Mithravinda played by Kajal in the film as one of her dream roles . Ram Gopal Varma refused to call Magadheera a film and instead termed it as an event that comes " once in a blue moon " . While commenting on Mahesh Babu 's Aagadu ( 2014 ) , he said that Magadheera looked like a 750 crore film when compared to Aagadu if the latter was a 75 crore film and added , " My comparison between " Aagadu " and " Magadheera " is mainly because they both are the most expensive films for their own individual times . " Reviewing the Tamil film Anegan ( 2014 ) , few critics opined that the film had traces of Magadheera mainly due to the theme of reincarnation . The Tamil dubbed version of the Telugu film Yevadu ( 2014 ) , which featured Charan in one of the lead roles and Kajal in a crucial cameo , was titled Magadheera .

= = Awards and nominations = =

The film won the National Award for Best Choreography and Best Special Effects at the 57th National Film Awards . The film also won six Filmfare Awards , nine Nandi Awards , and ten CineMAA Awards .

= = Remakes = =

Ram Charan decided not to debut in Bollywood with Magadheera 's Hindi remake , as he believed the film might not be recreated well . In an interview with The Times of India , Charan said , " When I met Anil Kapoor some time back , he told me I will ask Boney Kapoor to remake Magadheera with you in Hindi . But I said I don 't know if I would want to do the remake . Magadheera is a lovely film which can 't be recreated . " The film was remade in Bengali as Yoddha : The Warrior in 2014 ; it was directed by Raj Chakraborty with Dev and Mimi Chakraborty playing the lead roles . The 2014 Kannada film Brahma , according to its director R. Chandru , was inspired by Magadheera but was not a remake . In August 2014 , Shahid Kapoor expressed his desire to reprise Ram Charan 's role in a Hindi remake saying , " I have been wanting to do Magadheera for the longest . I have seen the film and loved it ..... I think it ’ s a killer subject . " In late November 2014 , Sajid Nadiadwala confirmed that he would direct the film 's Hindi remake with Kapoor as the lead . When asked by Subhash K. Jha the reason for not directing the Hindi remake , Rajamouli said " I 've already spent two years of my life on it . I ’ d rather make something else . Magadheera was my toughest film to make . Very tiring . "

= Hurricane Flossy ( 1956 ) =

Hurricane Flossy originated from a tropical disturbance in the eastern Pacific Ocean and moved across Central America into the Gulf of Mexico as a tropical depression on September 21 , 1956 , which became a tropical storm on September 22 and a hurricane on September 23 . The hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) before it struck the central Gulf coast of the United States as a Category 1 hurricane on September 24 , and evolved into an extratropical cyclone on September 25 . It was the first hurricane to affect oil refining in the Gulf of Mexico . The tropical cyclone led to flooding in New Orleans , and broke a drought across the eastern United States . The death toll was 15 , and total damages reached $ 24 @.@ 8 million ( 1956 USD ) .

= = Meteorological history = =

A tropical disturbance moved northward , crossing Guatemala from the eastern Pacific ocean into the northwest Caribbean Sea between September 20 and September 21 . It became a tropical cyclone soon after emerging into the Caribbean , and moved across the Yucatán Peninsula as a tropical depression before becoming a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico on September 22 and a hurricane on September 23 . It turned sharply east @-@ northeast across the Mouth of the Mississippi river on September 24 as a minor hurricane . The storm continued east @-@ northeast and made landfall in Florida east of Pensacola . The system evolved into an extratropical cyclone soon after passing out of the Sunshine State and continued moving east to northeast hugging the Atlantic Seaboard to near the Virginia Capes before moving slowly through the shipping lanes between Canada and Bermuda , blocked by a high pressure system in southeast Canada .

= = Preparations = =

By the morning of September 22 , hurricane watches were posted for the upper Texas and Louisiana coasts . By the morning of September 24 , hurricane warnings were in effect from Grand Isle , Louisiana to Fort Walton Beach , Florida while storm warnings were in effect from Morgan City , Louisiana to St. Marks , Florida . The approach of the hurricane led to the evacuation of 15 aircraft from Florida to Ardmore Air Force Base , in Oklahoma .

= = Impact = =

= = = Gulf of Mexico = = =

This was the first hurricane to cause significant disruption to oil refining in the Gulf of Mexico . Several hundred active wells went out of service , and drilling came to a halt for a few days during and after the cyclone 's passage . One of Humble company 's tenders saw three @-@ quarters of its mooring chains compromised , which swung it around into an adjacent oil platform , causing $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1956 USD ) . The cost to downtime in production was greater than the damage Flossy created to the oil rigs . There was no loss of life . Due to the impact of Flossy on oil refining in the Gulf of Mexico , the American Petroleum Institute formed a committee called Fundamental Research on Weather Forecasting . Their goal was to use mathematical models and historic data to better predict hurricane formation and path . Studies went on into 1962 , but no reliable forecast mechanism was found .

= = = United States = = =

In Louisiana , wind @-@ blown sand from the beach spread over area highways due to the hurricane . A total of 16 @.@ 70 inches ( 424 mm ) of rainfall fell at Golden Meadow , Louisiana . Burrwood , Louisiana 's pressure fell to 29 @.@ 03 inHg ( 983 @.@ 1 hPa or mb ) . Hundreds lost their homes in the storm . The storm surge was significant enough to submerge Grand Isle , Louisiana . At Ostrica Lock , the storm tide reached 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . Extensive coastal erosion was caused by the cyclone across the Mississippi Delta . In New Orleans , Louisiana , about 2 @.@ 5 square miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) were flooded as portions of the seawall were overtopped . Cattle drowned across the region , and crops such as citrus , sugar cane , and pecan were heavily damaged .

Winds as high as 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) struck coastal Mississippi . A total of 16 @.@ 30 inches ( 414 mm ) of rain fell at Gulf Shores . In Montgomery , Alabama , the tent used to house the Eastern Hills Baptist Church was destroyed . Across northern Florida , southern Alabama , and Georgia , Flossy was considered drought @-@ breaking . In southwest Georgia , high winds from Flossy damaged the corn and cotton crops . The lowest pressure reported was 28 @.@ 93 inches / 979 @.@ 8 hPa or mb at Pensacola Naval Air Station . The storm tide at Laguna Beach , Florida , reached 7 @.@ 4 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) above mean sea level . As tides damaged some piers and small craft , and resulted in severe beach erosion . At least three tornadoes touched down throughout northern Florida in association with Flossy . One damaged or destroyed numerous structures in Gulf County ; two others in Jefferson and Suwannee counties caused little or no damage .

Further northeast , rains brought by Flossy helped relieve drought conditions across the Carolinas , and were considered beneficial . Winds as high as 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) were recorded in Washington , D.C .. The gas screw vessel Mary Anne was lost at the Hampton Roads Naval Base . High tides caused by the then @-@ extratropical cyclone led to water 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) deep in sections of Norfolk . The Back River Light collapsed during the storm , 127 years after it was built . Severe flooding occurred along the state 's coastline , including interior bays . This occurred despite efforts to curb the storm surge with 500 tons ( 454 tonnes ) of broken rock .

Total damages to Louisiana , Florida , Alabama , the Carolinas , and Virginia was $ 24 @.@ 8 million ( 1956 USD ) .

= Battle of Binh Gia =

The Battle of Binh Gia ( Vietnamese : Trận Bình Giã ) , which was part of a larger communist campaign , was conducted by the Viet Cong from December 28 , 1964 , to January 1 , 1965 , during the Vietnam War in Bình Giã . The battle took place in Phước Tuy Province ( now part of Bà Rịa – Vũng Tàu Province ) , South Vietnam .

The year of 1964 marked a decisive turning point in the Vietnam War . Following the ousting of President Ngô Đình Diệm in 1963 , South Vietnam 's top army generals continued to vie with each other for control of the country ’ s military @-@ dominated government instead of combating the emerging forces of the National Liberation Front , also known as the Viet Cong . The fragility of the South Vietnamese government was reflected on the battlefield , where its military experienced great setbacks against the Viet Cong . Taking advantage of Saigon 's political instability , Communist leaders in Hanoi began preparing for war . Even though key members of North Vietnam 's Politburo disagreed on the best strategy to reunite their country , they ultimately went ahead to prepare for armed struggle against South Vietnam and their American supporters .

Towards the end of 1964 , the National Liberation Front commenced a series of large @-@ scale military operations against the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , as ordered by the North Vietnamese government . As part of their Winter @-@ Spring Offensive , the Viet Cong unleashed its newly created 9th Division against the South Vietnamese forces at Bình Giã , fighting a large set @-@ piece battle for the first time . Over a period of four days , the Viet Cong 9th Division held its ground and mauled the best units the South Vietnamese army could send against them , only breaking after intense attack by U.S. bombers .

= = Background = =

In 1964 , the political establishment in South Vietnam was still in turmoil . Following the coup that ousted Ngô Đình Diệm , the military situation quickly worsened as the National Liberation Front ( NLF , also known as Viet Cong ) gained significant ground in the countryside because the Military Revolutionary Council which governed South Vietnam , lacked direction both in terms of policy and planning . Furthermore , General Dương Văn Minh , as the Chairman of the Military Revolutionary Council , and his civilian Prime Minister Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ favoured a political resolution instead of using military force , which brought them into conflict with the United States over the best strategy to end the Communist threat in South Vietnam . As a result , both men became increasingly unpopular among the military generals who held real political power in Saigon . On January 30 , 1964 , General Nguyễn Khánh successfully ousted Dương Văn Minh from the Military Revolutionary Council without firing a single shot . For much of the year , Khánh spent most of his efforts on consolidating political power , instead of fighting the Viet Cong .

In contrast to the political unrest in Saigon , the Communist leadership in North Vietnam were far more concerned about the best strategy to fight the South Vietnamese government and their American supporters . While all leaders in Hanoi shared the same goal of eventual reunification of their homeland , different factions within the Communist Party disagreed on the best method to achieve their desired goal . Members of North Vietnam 's Politburo were divided by the issues surrounding the Soviet strategy of peaceful co @-@ existence versus the Chinese strategy of supporting national liberation movements in emerging countries . Despite their differences of opinion , the Communist Party leadership ultimately made preparations for armed struggle in South Vietnam . From Hanoi 's perspective , the military regime in Saigon was able to hold out because the Communist main forces were still not ready to fight a conventional war , so North Vietnam must focus on the development of its military force in the shortest period of time . In the meantime , however , the war must be kept at its current level in order to prevent the full involvement of the United States military .

On October 11 , 1964 , the National Liberation Front in South Vietnam was ordered to carry out a series of military operations as part of the Communist winter @-@ spring offensive . The NLF Nam Bo ( Mekong Delta ) Regional Command established a sub @-@ command under the leadership of Trần Đình Xu , with Nguyễn Hòa as the deputy commander , and Lê Trọng Tấn as the political commissar . Their mission was to inflict damage on the regular units of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) and destroy the strategic hamlets constructed by the former Ngô Đình Diệm regime . The National Liberation Front in South Vietnam identified the regions of Bình Long @-@ Phước Long and Bà Rịa @-@ Long Khánh , along Route 14 , as the main targets for their offensive . Meanwhile , the Central Military Commission in Hanoi appointed General Nguyen Chi Thanh as the commander of North Vietnamese military operations in southern Vietnam . Other high @-@ ranking officers such as Major Generals Lê Trọng Tấn and Trần Độ , and Colonel Hoàng Cầm were sent to South Vietnam to supervise the military build @-@ up which would commence in November 1964 .

= = Prelude = =

In July 1964 , the 271st and 272nd Regiments of the People 's Liberation Armed Forces ( PLAF ) , began moving into the provinces of Bình Dương , Bình Long and Phước Long to carry out their mission . During the first phase of their campaign , the Viet Cong regiments overran several strategic hamlets at Xan Sang , Cam Xe , Dong Xa , and Thai Khai . Between August and September 1964 , Viet Cong regiments executed deep thrusts into Bình Dương and Châu Thành to apply additional pressure on South Vietnamese outposts situated on Route 14 . During the second phase of their campaign , the Viet Cong ambushed two South Vietnamese infantry companies and destroyed five armoured vehicles , which consisted of M24 Chaffee light tanks and M @-@ 113 APCs . The PLAF defeated regular South Vietnamese units at the strategic hamlets of Bình Mỹ and Bình Co .

Following the completion of the initial stages in their campaign , the Viet Cong forces were ordered to regroup and prepare for the next offensive in the Long Khánh region . Viet Cong soldiers from the two regiments were assembled in War Zone D , where they were trained to attack well @-@ fortified enemy strongholds . On November 20 , 1964 , the Viet Cong reached the Long Khánh battlefield , having completed a 200 kilometres march from War Zone D. On the battlefield the Viet Cong 186th Battalion ( from Military Region 5 ) , the 500th and 800th Battalions ( from Military Region 7 ) , and the 445th Company also joined the offensive . To kick @-@ start their offensive in the Baria @-@ Long Khánh region , the Viet Cong selected Bình Giã as their next target . Bình Giã was a small village located in Phước Tuy Province , about 67 kilometres away from South Vietnam 's capital of Saigon .

During the war about 6 @,@ 000 people lived in Bình Giã , and most of whom were staunchly anti @-@ communist . The inhabitants of Bình Giã were Roman Catholic refugees who had fled from North Vietnam in 1954 during Operation Passage to Freedom because of fears of Communist persecution . To prepare for their main battle , the Viet Cong 272nd Regiment was ordered to block Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 2 and 15 , and destroy any South Vietnamese units attempting to reach Bình Giã from the south @-@ western flank of the battlefield . In the days leading up to the battle , the Viet Cong often came out to harass the local militia forces . On December 9 , 1964 , the 272nd Regiment destroyed an entire South Vietnamese mechanised rifle company along Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 2 , destroying 16 M @-@ 113 APCs . On December 17 , the 272nd Regiment destroyed another six armoured vehicles on Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 15 .

= = Battle = =

During the early hours of December 28 , 1964 , elements of the Viet Cong 271st Regiment and the 445th Company , signaled their main attack on Bình Giã by penetrating the village 's eastern perimeter . There , they clashed with members of the South Vietnamese Popular Force militiamen , which numbered about 65 personnel . The South Vietnamese militia fighters proved no match for the Viet Cong and their overwhelming firepower , so they quickly retreated into underground bunkers , and called for help . Once the village was captured , Colonel Ta Minh Kham , the Viet Cong regimental commander , established his command post in the main village church and waited for fresh reinforcements , which came in the form of heavy mortars , machine guns and recoil @-@ less rifles . To counter South Vietnamese helicopter assaults , Colonel Kham 's troops set up a network of defensive fortifications around the village , with trenches and bunkers protected by land mines and barbed wire . The local Catholic priest , who was also the village chief , sent a bicycle messenger out to the Bà Rịa district headquarters to ask for a relief force . In response , the Bà Rịa district chief sent out elements of two Vietnamese Rangers battalions to retake Bình Giã . On December 29 , two companies of the ARVN 33rd Ranger Battalion and a company from the 30th Ranger Battalion were airlifted into area located west of Bình Giã , by helicopters from the U.S. 118th Aviation Company to face an enemy force of unknown size .

However , as soon as the soldiers from the 30th and 33rd Ranger Battalions arrived at the landing zone , they were quickly overwhelmed by the Viet Cong in a deadly ambush . The entire 30th Ranger Battalion was then committed to join the attack , but they too did not initially succeed in penetrating the strong Viet Cong defensive lines . Several more companies of the Rangers then arrived for an attack from multiple directions . Two companies of the 33rd Ranger Battalion advanced from the northeast . One of them came to the outskirts of the village but was unable to break through the enemy defenses . The other one , trying to outflank the enemy , had been lured into a kill zone in open terrain at the coffee plantation and were quickly obliterated in an ambush by the three VC battalions using heavy weapons . The two companies suffered a 70 percent casualty rate , and survivors were forced to retreat to the nearby Catholic church . The 30th Rangers had more success by assaulting from the western direction and succeeded in fighting their way into the village , aided by local residents . It however also suffered heavy losses , with the battalion commander and his American adviser severely wounded . The local civilians in Bình Giã retrieved weapons and ammunition from the dead Rangers , and hid the wounded government soldiers from the Viet Cong . The 38th Ranger Battalion , on the other hand , landed on the battlefield unopposed by the Viet Cong , and they immediately advanced on Bình Giã from the south . Soldiers from the 38th Rangers spent the whole day fighting but they could not break through their enemies ' defences to link up with the survivors hiding in the church , and fell back after calling in mortar fire to decimate Viet Cong fighters moving to encircle them .

The morning of December 30 , the 4th South Vietnamese Marine Battalion moved out to Biên Hòa Air Base , waiting to be airlifted into the battlefield . The 1 / 4th Marine Battalion was the first unit to arrive on the outskirts of Bình Giã , but the 1st Company commander decided to secure the landing zone , to wait for the rest of the battalion to arrive instead of moving on to their objective . After the rest of the 4th Marine Battalion had arrived , they marched towards the Catholic church to relieve the besieged Rangers . About one and a half hours later , the 4th Marine Battalion linked up with the 30th , 33rd and 38th Ranger Battalions , as the Viet Cong began withdrawing to the northeast . That afternoon the 4th Marine Battalion recaptured the village , but the Viet Cong was nowhere to be seen , as all their units had withdrawn from the village during the previous night , linking with other Viet Cong elements in the forest to attack the government relief forces . On the evening of December 30 , the Viet Cong returned Bình Giã and attacked from the south @-@ eastern perimeter of the village . The local villagers , who discovered the approaching Viet Cong , immediately sounded the alarm to alert the ARVN soldiers defending the village . The South Vietnamese were able to repel the Viet Cong , with support from U.S. Army helicopter gunships flown out from Vung Tau airbase .

While pursuing the Viet Cong , a helicopter gunship from the U.S. 68th Assault Helicopter Company was shot down and crashed in the Quảng Giao rubber plantation , about four kilometres away from Bình Giã , killing four of its crewmen . On December 31 , the U.S. Marines Advisory Group sent a team of four personnel , led by Captain Donald G. Cook , to Bình Giã to observe conditions on the battlefield . At the same time , the 4th Marine Battalion was ordered to locate the crashed helicopter and recover the bodies of the dead American crewmen . Acting against the advice of his American advisor , Major Nguyễn Văn Nho , commander of the 4th Marine Battalion , sent his 2 / 4th Marine Battalion company out to the Quảng Giao rubber plantation . Unknown to the 4th Marine Battalion , the Viet Cong 271st Regiment had assembled in the plantation . About one hour after they had departed from the village of Bình Giã , the commander of the 2 / 4th Marine Battalion reported via radio that his troops had found the helicopter wreckage , and the bodies of four American crewmen . Shortly afterwards , the Viet Cong opened fire and the 2 / 4th Marine Battalion was forced to pull back . In an attempt to save the 2nd Company , the entire 4th Marine Battalion was sent out to confront the Viet Cong . As the lead element of the 4th Marine Battalion closed in on the Quảng Giao plantation , they were hit by accurate Viet Cong artillery fire , which was soon followed by repeated human wave attacks . Having absorbed heavy casualties from the Viet Cong 's ambush , the 2 / 4th Marine Battalion had to fight their way out of the plantation with their bayonets fixed . During the entire ordeal , the company did not receive artillery support because the plantation was beyond the range of 105mm artillery guns based in Phước Tuy and Bà Rịa . They however escaped with the crucial support of the U.S. aircraft and helicopters whose rocket attacks forced the enemy to pull back and halted their attempt at pursuit .

In the morning of December 31 , the 4th Marines Battalion returned to the crash site with the entire force and the American graves were located and their corpses were dug up . At about 3 pm , a single U.S. helicopter arrived on the battlefield to evacuate the casualties , but they only picked up the bodies of the four American crewmen , while South Vietnamese casualties were forced to wait for another helicopter to arrive . At 4 pm , Major Nguyễn Văn Nho ordered the 4th Marine Battalion to carry their casualties back to the village , instead of continuing to wait for the helicopters . As the 4th Marine Battalion began their return march , three Viet Cong battalions , with artillery support , suddenly attacked them from three directions . The battalion 's commanding and executive officers were immediately killed and air support was not available . Two ARVN Marine companies managed to fight their way out of the ambush and back to Bình Giã , but the third was overrun and almost completely wiped out . The fourth company desperately held out at a hilltop against Viet Cong artillery barrages and large infantry charges , before slipping out through the enemy positions at dawn . The 4th Marines Battalion of 426 men lost a total of 117 soldiers killed , 71 wounded and 13 missing . Among the casualties were 35 officers of the 4th Marine Battalion killed in action , and the four American advisers attached to the unit were also wounded . Backed by U.S. Air Force bombers , on January 1 three battalions of ARVN Airborne reinforcements arrived , they were too late as most of the Viet Cong had already withdrawn from the battlefield .

= = Aftermath = =

The battle of Bình Giã reflected the Viet Cong 's growing military strength and influence , especially in the Mekong Delta region . It was the first time the National Liberation Front launched a large @-@ scale operation , holding its ground and fighting for four days against government troops equipped with armor , artillery and helicopters , and aided by U.S. air support and military advisers . The Viet Cong demonstrated that , when well @-@ supplied with military supplies from North Vietnam , they had the ability to fight and inflict damage even on the best ARVN units . For the first time in their history , the NLF was able to control a government stronghold for several days , and inflict heavy casualties on regular units of the South Vietnamese army in a large set @-@ piece battle .

The Viet Cong suffered light casualties with only 32 soldiers officially confirmed killed , and they did not leave a single casualty on the battlefield . In recognition of the 271st Regiment 's performance during the Bình Giã campaign , the NLF High Command bestowed the title ' Bình Giã Regiment ' on the unit to honour their achievement . Following the Bình Giã campaign , the NLF went on to occupy Hoài Đức District and the strategic hamlets of Đất Đỏ , Long Thành and Nhơn Trạch along Inter @-@ provincial Road No. 2 and 15 . They also expanded the Hát Dịch base area , which was located in Bà Rịa and Bình Thuận provinces , to protect the important sea transportation routes used by the Vietnam People 's Navy to supply Viet Cong units around the regions of the Mekong River .

Unlike their adversaries , the South Vietnamese military suffered heavily in their attempts to recapture the village of Bình Giã and secure the surrounding areas . The South Vietnamese and their American allies lost the total of about 201 personnel killed in action , 192 wounded and 68 missing . In just four days of fighting , two of South Vietnam 's elite Ranger companies were destroyed and several others suffered heavy losses , while the 4th Marine Battalion was rendered ineffective as a fighting force . At that stage of the war , Bình Giã was the worst defeat experienced by any South Vietnamese army . Despite the humiliating defeat inflicted on them , the South Vietnamese army stubbornly considered the battle as their victory and erected a monument at the site of the battle to acknowledge the sacrifices of the soldiers who had fallen to retake Bình Giã .

= = Order of battle ( ground forces ) = =

= = = Viet Cong = = =

271st Regiment ( renamed the 1st PLAF Regiment and became part of the 9th Division on 2 Sep 1965 )

272nd Regiment ( renamed the 2nd PLAF Regiment and became part of the 9th Division on 2 Sep 1965 )

186th Battalion

500th Battalion

514th Battalion

800th Battalion

445th Company

80th Artillery Detachment

= = = Army of the Republic of Vietnam = = =

1st Airborne Battalion

3rd Airborne Battalion

7th Airborne Battalion

4th Marine Battalion

29th Ranger Battalion

30th Ranger Battalion

33rd Ranger Battalion

35th Ranger Battalion

38th Ranger Battalion

Two artillery platoons and one section of M @-@ 24 tanks in support .

= June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina =

In June 1941 , Serbs in eastern Herzegovina rebelled against the authorities of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , an Axis puppet state established during World War II on the territory of the defeated Kingdom of Yugoslavia . As the NDH imposed its authority , members of the fascist Ustaše ruling party began a campaign of persecution against Serbs throughout the country . In eastern Herzegovina , the Ustaše perpetrated a series of massacres and attacks against the majority Serb population commencing in the first week of June . Between 3 and 22 June 1941 , spontaneous clashes occurred between NDH authorities and groups of Serbs in the region .

The German invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June . Over the next two days , the sporadic revolts by Serbs against the NDH in eastern Herzegovina erupted into mass rebellion , triggered by Ustaše persecution , Serb solidarity with the Russian people , hatred and fear of the NDH authorities , and other factors . Serb rebels , under the leadership of both local Serbs and Montenegrins , attacked police , gendarmerie , Ustaše and Croatian Home Guard forces in the region . In the first few days , the rebels captured gendarmerie posts in several villages , set up roadblocks on the major roads and ambushed several military vehicles . On the night of 26 June , the rebels mounted a sustained attack on the town of Nevesinje in an attempt to capture it , but the garrison held out until the morning of 28 June when NDH troops broke through the rebel roadblocks .

On 28 June , the rebels ambushed a truckload of Italian soldiers , prompting the Italian Army commander in the NDH to warn the NDH government that he would take unilateral action to secure communication routes . A further gendarmerie post was destroyed by the rebels , and in the evening the rebels captured the village of Avtovac , looting and burning it , and killing dozens of non @-@ Serb civilians . The following day an Italian column cleared the rebels from Avtovac and relieved the hard @-@ pressed NDH garrison in the town of Gacko . From 3 July , an NDH force of over 2 @,@ 000 fanned out from Nevesinje , clearing towns , villages and routes of rebels . The rebel forces did not put up any significant opposition to the clearing operation , and either retreated into nearby Montenegro , or hid their weapons in the mountains and went home . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control of all towns and major transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .

= = Background = =

The Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) was founded on 10 April 1941 , during the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers . The NDH consisted of most of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina , together with some parts of modern @-@ day Serbia . It was essentially an Italo – German quasi @-@ protectorate , as it owed its existence to the Axis powers , who maintained occupation forces within the puppet state throughout its existence . In the immediate aftermath of the Yugoslav surrender on 17 April , former Royal Yugoslav Army troops returned to their homes in eastern Herzegovina with their weapons . This was a significant security concern for the fledgling NDH government due to the proximity of the border with Montenegro , the close relationship between the people of eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro , and widespread banditry in the region . On the day after the surrender , the commander of the NDH armed forces , Vojskovođa ( Marshal ) Slavko Kvaternik issued a proclamation demanding the surrender of all weapons to NDH authorities by 24 April .

On 24 April , the NDH created five military command areas , including Bosnia Command and Adriatic Command , both of which were initially headquartered in Sarajevo . Each of the five military commands included several district commands . Adriatic Command included the districts of Knin and Sinj in the Dalmatian hinterland , and Mostar and Trebinje in eastern Herzegovina . The NDH began to mobilise soldiers for the Home Guard , with six battalions identified to join Adriatic Command . The battalions were mobilised from areas outside of eastern Herzegovina , and were to be ready by 20 May . The aggressive actions of the Ustaše fifth column during the Axis invasion made Serb civilian leaders in eastern Herzegovina apprehensive about the NDH , and they attempted to obtain Italian protection , and urged the Italians to annex eastern Herzegovina to the neighboring Italian @-@ occupied territory of Montenegro . A collaborationist " Interim Advisory Committee " of Montenegrin separatists was advocating the establishment of an " independent " Montenegrin state , and a similar committee of separatist Serbs was formed in eastern Herzegovina . A delegation from that committee arrived in Cetinje in Montenegro on 6 May to ask for Italian protection . Similarly , a delegation of Muslims from eastern Herzegovina travelled to Sarajevo , the historic Bosnian capital , to urge the NDH authorities to link eastern Herzegovina to that city .

Due to the poor response to the demand for the surrender of weapons , the deadline was extended several times until a date of 8 July was fixed . On 17 May , courts @-@ martial were established to try those that were arrested in possession of weapons , and those found guilty were immediately executed by firing squad . The precedent for this brutal repressive measure against Serbs had already been established by the Germans . It was clear from the outset that the NDH weapons laws were not being enforced as strictly against Croats as they were against Serbs . Securing the border between eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro was considered a high priority due to concerns that the Montenegrin Federalist Party had revived Montenegrin claims to parts of the NDH that had been promised to the Kingdom of Montenegro in the 1915 Treaty of London .

The Italians handed over the administration of eastern Herzegovina to the NDH government on 20 May 1941 , following the signing of the Treaties of Rome , which ceded formerly Yugoslav territory along the Adriatic coast to Italy . The Italians did not immediately withdraw all their troops from the region . The NDH moved quickly to establish its authority in the towns and districts of eastern Herzegovina , which included appointing mayors and prefects , the creation of local units of the Ustaše Militia , and deploying hundreds of gendarmes , Croatian Home Guards and Ustaše Militia units from outside eastern Herzegovina . These forces were brought in to maintain order . The academic Professor Alija Šuljak was appointed the Ustaše commissioner for eastern Herzegovina .

On 20 May , the recently formed Home Guard battalions began to deploy into the Adriatic Command area . On 27 May , 6 officers and 300 gendarmes of the Sarajevo @-@ based 4th Gendarmerie Regiment were deployed into parts of eastern Herzegovina . They established platoon strength posts in Nevesinje , Trebinje , Gacko and Bileća , with their headquarters also in Bileća . The Dubrovnik @-@ based 2nd Gendarmerie Regiment established posts in Stolac and Berkovići . The headquarters of Adriatic Command was transferred to Mostar in late May , and General Ivan Prpić was appointed as its commander .

By 29 May , the battalions of Adriatic Command were in their garrison locations : the 6th Battalion at Mostar , the 7th Battalion at Trebinje , and the 10th Battalion in the Dubrovnik area . The other two Adriatic Command battalions were deployed to Knin and Sinj far to the west . The 18th Battalion was allocated as a reserve and was garrisoned in Mostar . Main Ustaše Headquarters was tasked to recruit one battalion for duties within the Adriatic Command area . Home Guard battalions had a standard structure , consisting of a headquarters company , three infantry companies , a machine gun platoon and a communications section , while battalions of the Ustaše Militia consisted of a headquarters , three companies and a motorised section . Even after the establishment of NDH authorities in eastern Herzegovina , Italian forces maintained their presence in the region . The 55th Regiment of the 32nd Infantry Division Marche remained garrisoned in Trebinje , with the 56th Regiment based in Mostar . The 49th MVSN Legion ( Blackshirts ) were also stationed in Bileća . The Italians maintained a troop presence in Nevesinje until 17 June , and conducted almost daily motorised patrols throughout eastern Herzegovina .

The NDH authorities established new administrative sub @-@ divisions , organising the state into counties ( Croatian : velike župe ) and then districts ( Croatian : kotar ) . Eastern Herzegovina was covered by the counties of Hum and Dubrava . Hum County included the districts of Mostar and Nevesinje , and Dubrava County included the districts of Bileća , Gacko , Stolac , Ravno and Trebinje . The Župan ( county prefect ) of Hum was Josip Trajer with his seat in Mostar , and the Župan of Dubrava was Ante Buć , based in Dubrovnik .

According to the Yugoslav census of 1931 , the population of eastern Herzegovina comprised 4 per cent Croats , 28 per cent Muslims , and 68 per cent Serbs . According to Professor Jozo Tomasevich , the estimated population of the districts of Bileća , Gacko and Nevesinje was only around 1 @.@ 1 per cent Croat , so in those areas nearly all the NDH government appointments and local Ustaše units were staffed by Muslims , an ethnic group that made up about 23 @.@ 7 per cent of the local population . The poor Muslim peasants of eastern Herzegovina largely sided with the Ustaše . The NDH government immediately tried to strengthen their position by vilifying the Serbs , who , according to Tomasevich , comprised around 75 per cent of the population .

= = Prelude = =

The Ustaše began to impose the new laws on the Serb population of the NDH . On 28 May , a group of ten young Ustaše students from the University of Zagreb arrived in Trebinje and began removing signs written in the Cyrillic script used by Serbs . On 1 June , in several towns and villages in eastern Herzegovina , Serbs were shot and businesses belonging to Serb merchants and others were seized . On that day , the Ustaše students in Trebinje shot nine Serbs and arrested another fifteen , apparently due to their links to the inter @-@ war Chetnik Association . Differences began to appear between the brutal treatment of Serbs by the Ustaše and the more careful approach of the other NDH authorities such as the Home Guard , who were aware of the potential danger created by Ustaše methods . In early June , the NDH authorities began operations to confiscate weapons from the population , meeting with immediate resistance . On 1 June , the residents of the village of Donji Drežanj , near Nevesinje , refused to co @-@ operate with weapons collectors . In response , the Ustaše killed a number of Serbs and burned their homes .

On 3 June , there were several incidents in which armed villagers spontaneously retaliated against the local authorities . That afternoon , 20 Ustaše were entering Donji Drežanj to confiscate firearms when they were attacked by a group of armed villagers . The villagers withdrew after a short firefight , with one of their number being captured . Reinforcements from the Home Guard and gendarmerie soon arrived , along with more Ustaše who burned another 20 houses and shot a woman . On the night of 4 / 5 June , a group under the control of the Ustaše commissioner for the Gacko district , Herman Tonogal , killed 140 Serbs in the village of Korita , near Bileća , and threw their bodies into a nearby sinkhole . Another 27 Serbs from the village were killed between this massacre and 9 June , and over 5 @,@ 000 head of livestock were stolen and distributed to Muslim villages in the Gacko area for the exclusive use of the Ustaše . The estimated number of Serbs killed at Korita vary from 133 to 180 .

In the immediate aftermath , Serbs and Montenegrins from the local area attacked villages , and Adriatic Command sent the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion from Bileća to reinforce the Ustaše . After a brief clash near Korita , during which the Ustaše and gendarmerie lost one killed and several wounded , the rebels withdrew across the nearby border into Montenegro . The 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion spent the night in the village of Stepen before establishing itself as the Avtovac garrison the following day . Due to its exposure to fire from rebels overlooking their location , the gendarmes were unable to re @-@ occupy their post in Stepen , which meant that the Stepen – Korita road was no longer secure . On 8 June , the district office in Gacko reported to Adriatic Command that they had taken 200 Serbs as hostages and issued a proclamation to the population to cease fighting and surrender their weapons . As this proclamation met with no response , on 10 June the Ustaše Commissioner for Bosnia and Herzegovina , Jure Francetić , had 19 hostages shot ( one escaped ) . On 12 June , the gendarmerie in Ravno shot four people on the orders of the Ustaše commissioner for Ljubinje . Such actions led to Serb peasants leaving their villages to seek safety in more remote areas , and Muslim villagers became increasingly nervous about their Serb neighbours .

In mid @-@ June , the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Bileća wrote to Adriatic Command complaining about the activities of the Ustaše , referring to them as " armed scum and animals " who were dishonouring " honest Croats " . When the Italians heard that the Ustaše had burned two villages across the border in Montenegro , they sent an intelligence officer to Gacko to investigate the unrest . He did not accept the explanation of the gendarmerie commander in Gacko , who claimed that the violence was caused by " personal hatred and revenge " , and met with rebels . The rebels did not attack him or his security escort , and told him that the reason behind the rebellion was that " Croats and Turks are beating us and throwing us into a pit " . He concluded that the cause of the unrest was the attempt to disarm the Serb community .

On 17 and 18 June , Tonogal and Lieutenant Colonel Aganović , gendarmerie commander for eastern Herzegovina , made an attempt to calm the situation by visiting villages east of the Gacko – Avtovac road to re @-@ establish peace in the area . They received a written message from four villages that they did not acknowledge the NDH authorities , and wanted the message to be passed on to the Italians . The residents of the villages of Jasenik and Lipnik were willing to talk and return to work , but they asked that the gendarmerie not visit their villages , as this would tempt the Montenegrins to attack . Aganović assessed that while this was probably true , their request was insincere . The gendarmerie commander in Bileća believed that the reason for the rebellion was that the local Serbs were wedded to the idea of Greater Serbia , and did not accept that their villages were part of the NDH . This approach essentially meant that local Serbs wanted the NDH authorities to leave them alone and not impose on their lives . According to the historian Davor Marijan , this was a poor choice that gave the Ustaše an excuse to take radical action .

The response of the NDH authorities to resistance had been to burn down the villages where this had occurred , and there were mass shootings of Serbs , which escalated the level of violence even further . In late May and June , 173 Serbs had been rounded up , tortured and killed in Nevesinje , and in early June , another 140 Serbs had been killed at Ljubinje . In response , Serbs attacked Ustaše officials and facilities , and conducted raids themselves , killing Muslim villagers .

= = Uprising = =

The NDH authorities only had weak forces in eastern Herzegovina at the time the mass uprising occurred , roughly equal to two Croatian Home Guard battalions , as well as gendarmerie posts in some towns . This was barely adequate to guard important locations , and was insufficient for offensive action . Deployed forces consisted of one company of the 10th Battalion in Trebinje , the headquarters and a reinforced company of the 7th Battalion in Bileća ( the balance of the battalion being divided between Gacko and Avtovac ) , and a company of the 6th Battalion in Nevesinje . The remainder of the 10th Battalion was deploying to Trebinje at the time the rebellion broke out .

= = = 23 – 24 June = = =

The first indication that the situation had changed significantly was on 23 June , when a group of 200 Ustaše clashed with a group of rebels they estimated to number between 600 and 1 @,@ 000 . After an extended firefight near the village of Stepen , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of Korita , during which they suffered several casualties , the Ustaše also burned down four villages . They then entered two Muslim @-@ majority villages in the area and arrested 13 Serbs who had not been involved in the earlier fighting . The arrested Serbs were transported north to Avtovac and shot . That night , all adult Serbs above the age of 16 in Gacko , 4 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) northwest of Avtovac , were arrested , and 26 were immediately shot . The rest were transported 50 km ( 31 mi ) west to a camp in Nevesinje . Over the period 23 – 25 June , 150 Serbs from the village of Ravno , 30 km ( 19 mi ) southwest of Ljubinje , were arrested and killed at the gendarmerie post , and the remainder of the population fled to the hills .

On 23 and 24 June , spontaneous mass gatherings occurred at several villages in the Gacko and Nevesinje districts . These rallies were prompted by the news of the German invasion of the Soviet Union , and those attending them voted to fight against the Ustaše . Professor Marko Attila Hoare states that the full @-@ scale uprising resulted from the Ustaše retaliation against attempts of the Serbs of eastern Herzegovina to defend themselves , combined with the launching of the German invasion on 22 June . At dawn on 24 June , the area of Nevesinje descended into full @-@ scale revolt , with around 400 armed rebels engaging the Home Guard garrison . By 24 June , the uprising had reached a massive scale across eastern Herzegovina , with between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 armed rebels in total , including some Montenegrins .

= = = 25 June = = =

On the morning of 25 June , the company of the 6th Battalion at Nevesinje reported that rebels were gathering to attack the town ; Nevesinje 's Ustaše commissioner claimed that the rebel force numbered 5 @,@ 000 , and were led by a former Yugoslav Army colonel . About 10 : 00 , the town was attacked from the south and southwest . In response , the Home Guard despatched two more companies of the 6th Battalion from Mostar to Nevesinje . That morning , reports also arrived from Bileća and Stolac that rebels were approaching the village of Berkovići from the north , and had captured the gendarmerie post at Gornji Lukavac . About 11 : 30 , the Ustaše commissioner for Stolac reported that 3 @,@ 000 Montenegrins had gathered between Nevesinje and Stolac , and he requested the immediate supply of 150 rifles for his men . A rebel attack on the gendarmerie post in the village of Divin near Bileća was repulsed around midday . A platoon of Home Guard reinforcements and weapons for the Ustaše arrived at Stolac in the afternoon , and Bileća was held throughout the day .

Reports of the uprising reached Kvaternik during 25 June , but he dismissed them and the reports of 5 @,@ 000 rebels , cancelling Adriatic Command 's redeployment of the 21st Battalion from Slavonski Brod as well as a request to the Italians for air reconnaissance support . He stated that the suppression of the uprising could be handled by local forces . Loss of communication with Nevesinje resulted in rumours that the town had fallen to the rebels . The gendarmerie post at Fojnica ( near Gacko ) was captured on the afternoon of 25 June , with the survivors escaping to Gacko . Newspapers reported rumours that Gacko and Avtovac had fallen to the rebels . Having already despatched a reinforced company towards Nevesinje from Sarajevo earlier in the day , Adriatic Command ordered the rest of the battalion to follow . The initial company group had already reached Kalinovik some 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) from Nevesinje , and the rest of the battalion was expected to spend the night of 25 / 26 June there before arriving in Nevesinje around noon on 26 June . Kvaternik received an updated report on the situation in eastern Herzegovina during the night , and Prpić travelled from Sarajevo to Mostar to take control of operations , to find that information about the situation in eastern Herzegovina was unclear , but suggested that NDH forces could be facing serious difficulties .

= = = 26 June = = =

On the morning of 26 June , the company of the 6th Battalion that had been sent from Mostar continued towards Nevesinje , but almost immediately came under fire from a rebel group . With the assistance of Ustaše , the Home Guard were able to hold their ground , but they were unable to break through to Nevesinje . That afternoon , two aircraft of the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske , ZNDH ) from Sarajevo conducted an armed reconnaissance over eastern Herzegovina , and discovered that NDH forces still held Nevesinje . They observed barricades across the Mostar – Nevesinje road , and strafed a group of 50 rebels north of Nevesinje near the village of Kifino Selo . Prpić bolstered the force on the Mostar – Nevesinje road with the 17th Battalion , recently arrived from Sarajevo , and sent his deputy , Colonel Antun Prohaska to command it . The 17th Battalion joined that force at 20 : 00 . About 17 : 00 , the company of the 11th Battalion reached Nevesinje from Kalinovik , and a further company of the battalion was despatched from Sarajevo , along with the battalion commander .

In the southern part of the area of operations around Stolac , the situation was significantly calmer than around Nevesinje , although a group of 200 Ustaše at Berkovići were falsely claiming that they were being surrounded by rebels at night . Despite this claim , they had suffered no casualties . Regardless , Prpić sent them ammunition and a platoon of the 18th Battalion . At 19 : 00 on 26 June , Francetić arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to be briefed on the situation . He resolved that he would travel to Berkovići the following day and take personal command of the Ustaše unit there .

Around Gacko and Avtovac in the north , the day had been quiet . When the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Gacko reported rebels gathering near the town , Prpić sent a truck @-@ mounted platoon with an ammunition resupply . The platoon was ambushed en route , with 14 Home Guardsmen being captured . Gacko was reinforced later in the day from troops in Avtovac . On the night of 26 June , the Nevesinje garrison was subjected to a sustained attack by the rebels , but held out .

The NDH authorities in Trebinje heard rumours that the Serbs could start an uprising there on 28 June , the feast day of Saint Vitus , and warned NDH forces in the region to be prepared for a revolt . As a result of these reports , the Poglavnik ( leader ) of the NDH , Ante Pavelić , issued orders threatening that anyone who spread these rumours would be court @-@ martialled . On the eve of the feast day , both the gendarmerie and Ustaše took several hostages in case the rumours were true . Later , the gendarmerie released their hostages , but the 19 hostages held by the Ustaše were killed . In contrast to the actions of the Ustaše , the Home Guard units in the area tried to calm the situation down .

= = = 27 – 28 June = = =

On the morning of 27 June , Prpić launched a three @-@ pronged assault to clear the routes to Nevesinje . Prohaska commanded the push east along the Mostar – Nevesinje road by a force close to two battalions , Francetić led his unit of Ustaše north from Berkovići through the mountains via Odžak to approach Nevesinje from the south , and two companies of the 11th Battalion thrust southwest along the road from Plužine . Once this task was complete , the NDH forces were to vigorously pursue the rebels and destroy them .

The Prohaska group deployed with one company on the road , and elements of the 17th Battalion and 70 Ustaše on the left flank . Their attack commenced about 10 : 00 , and although they faced strong resistance from the rebels , aided by strafing and bombing by ZNDH aircraft , they reached villages on the outskirts of Nevesinje after fighting that lasted until dawn on 28 June . One Home Guard battalion halted and took up a defensive stance , and the commander was threatened with dismissal by Prpić before he resumed the attack . Francetić 's Ustaše unit also faced heavy fighting , and had to call for ammunition resupply on two occasions . One of the resupply vehicles was ambushed by rebels between Stolac and Berkovići , and some ammunition was finally delivered by passenger car during the night . Elsewhere , rebels attacked Gacko and Avtovac , and one ZNDH aircraft was shot down by rebel machine gun fire near Avtovac . That night , Prpić telephoned Kvaternik and advised him that the imposition of martial law was necessary to restore order to Herzegovina . Army Chief of Staff General Vladimir Laxa was immediately appointed by Pavelić to control both Hum and Dubrava counties , which incorporated much of eastern Herzegovina .

On 28 June , Laxa became the overall commander of all NDH authorities in Hum and Dubrava counties , which included Ustaše , Home Guard , civil administration , gendarmerie and police . Military courts were established to deal with those resisting the NDH authorities . Armed guards were posted at the entrance to towns and villages , and any armed civilians were to be disarmed and brought to military authorities . Laxa issued an order that gave the rebels until 2 July to submit to the authorities . On that day , after the Prohaska group broke through to Nevesinje from Mostar , Prohaska sent a company of the 6th Battalion to Kifino Selo to meet the two companies of the 11th Battalion advancing from Plužine . Despite ZNDH air support , the company of the 6th Battalion was attacked by rebels near the entrance to Kifino Selo and the majority broke and ran . Prohaska had to send reserves to block the road between Nevesinje and Kifino Selo , and the companies from the 11th Battalion began to reconnoitre the rebel positions towards Odžak .

Also on that morning , the 200 Home Guard troops and about 50 armed locals in Avtovac were attacked from three directions by rebels . They recovered from their initial surprise and held the town during the day , but in the evening a renewed assault caused them to withdraw from Avtovac and retreat to the villages of Međuljići and Ključ . Upon capturing Avtovac , the rebels looted the village , burned down a large number of Muslim homes and killed 32 Muslim civilians , mostly women , children and the elderly . Gacko was also attacked by the rebels , with eight soldiers killed , and one officer and 12 soldiers wounded . Also on 28 June , two Italian Army trucks driving from Bileća to Avtovac were ambushed by rebels , who killed three soldiers and wounded 17 . Around 18 : 00 , the Italian command advised Kvaternik that they would be clearing the route from Bileća via Gacko to Nevesinje on an unspecified future date . During the fighting around Gacko , several ZNDH aircraft were forced to land due to pilot casualties and engine trouble . ZNDH air support operations were suspended due to lack of fuel and spares for the aircraft .

There was no improvement in the situation around Stolac , and an Ustaše unit made up of armed civilians proved to be of such low combat value that Laxa spoke to Francetić and criticised its performance . South of Bileća , rebels destroyed the gendarmerie post in a village , killing seven gendarmes . Dozens of gendarmes were sent from Trebinje to assist them , but they were stopped by rebels and withdrew into a village schoolhouse . In the afternoon a platoon of the 10th Home Guard Battalion was sent north from Trebinje to support the gendarmes , but they were attacked near the village of Mosko , and withdrew into a defensive position . They were reinforced by a second platoon during the night , and were given orders to clear the road from Trebinje to Bileća on the following morning ahead of the Italians .

= = = 29 – 30 June = = =

At dawn on 29 June , the rebels attacked the Ustaše in a village on the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Prohaska demanded help from Mostar , and planned to send a force from Nevesinje to assist . From Mostar , a company of the 21st Battalion was despatched to relieve the Ustaše , who had managed to hold off the rebels . The Home Guard company then took over the post from the Ustaše . The same day , two new battalions arrived in Mostar , the 23rd Battalion from Osijek and the 15th Battalion from Travnik . These reinforcements arrived just as Prpić received confirmation that Avtovac had been captured by the rebels . The remaining small garrison in Gacko , consisting of only 20 gendarmes and 30 Ustaše , were holding out but expecting more attacks by the rebels . In the morning , the attack by elements of the 10th Battalion stalled until the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Julije Reš , personally took command of the operation , clearing the way for the Italians . The promised Italian intervention commenced about midday , and about 100 trucks of Italian soldiers arrived in Gacko about 17 : 00 . As they had passed through Avtovac , the rebels had left the town and withdrawn to villages to the east . About 18 : 00 , the 10th Battalion relieved the besieged gendarmes in the village schoolhouse . ZNDH aircraft from Mostar airfield flew reconnaissance sorties over the area and dropped leaflets over Stolac , Stepen , Avtovac , Gacko and Plužine .

After the garrison of Nevesinje had been relieved , Laxa directed his main effort towards the Gacko and Avtovac districts . Sensitive to the fact that the Italians had not respected the territorial borders of the NDH when they sent their column to Gacko , he considered it very important that Croatian military and political prestige be restored , otherwise the Italians might decide to remain in the area rather than withdraw to their garrison near the Adriatic coast . He planned to follow this consolidation by clearing the border areas with Montenegro then clearing the hinterland of any remaining rebels . For this last task he intended to deploy a yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ formed special unit to be led by Lieutenant Colonel Josip Metzger . The task of re @-@ asserting NDH authority in the Gacko and Avtovac districts was allocated to Prohaska 's group , consisting of the 6th Battalion , one company of the 18th Battalion , two companies of the 17th Battalion , and the recently arrived 15th and 21st Battalions , which were to be sent to Nevesinje from Mostar . Prohaska was to act in concert with the 11th Battalion who were already in the vicinity of Plužine , just to the north of the Nevesinje – Gacko road . In preparation , the 15th Battalion was trucked to Nevesinje , and a company of the 17th Battalion conducted a coordinated attack with the 11th Battalion on rebel positions near Kifino Selo . This attack was defeated by the rebels , and a battalion commander was killed .

During the remainder of the day , the Italians collected the bodies of their dead from the rebel ambush on 28 June , and rescued some Home Guard troops that had escaped Avtovac , but then returned to Plana , just north of Bileća . The value of further operations in the Gacko and Avtovac areas was brought into question when the Italians reported that both towns had been burned to the ground , and all the inhabitants had been massacred . The Italians blamed Montenegrins attached to the rebels for the destruction and killings in the two towns . The Italian estimate of rebel strength was around 3 @,@ 000 armed with machine guns , artillery and anti @-@ aircraft guns . A German intelligence officer from Sarajevo arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to receive a briefing on the situation . The small garrison of Gacko was anticipating an attack by rebels during the night , but in the afternoon 180 Home Guardsmen that had withdrawn from Avtovac arrived to bolster their position , and the night passed without incident .

= = = 1 – 7 July = = =

On 1 July , an Italian armoured unit arrived in Gacko to reinforce the garrison . An Ustaše operation to clear the insurgents from the Stolac district began on 3 July , meeting with success and opening of the road from Berkovci north to Odžak . The Ustaše did not go closer to Nevesinje as they were not in uniform , and were concerned that the Home Guards would mistake them for rebels . During this operation , three Ustaše were killed , including their commander , and the Ustaše fighters killed ten rebels and captured two . In the belongings of one of the captured rebels , the Ustaše located a report by the " National Movement for the Liberation of Nevesinje " ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Narodni pokret za oslobođenje Nevesinja ) , which was apparently how the rebels referred to themselves . The report made it clear that the rebels were using military tactics and organisation , and hinted at co @-@ operation with the Italians . According to information gathered by the police , the local rebel leadership included former Mostar merchant Čedo Milić , the Bjelogrlić brothers from Avtovac , the Orthodox priest Father Mastilović from Nadinići , and a Captain Radović from Avtovac . Montenegrins involved in the leadership of the uprising included Colonel Bajo Stanišić , Major Minja Višnjić , and Radojica Nikčević from Nikšić .

Following the Italian intervention , Prpić was able to proceed with the task of clearing the wider area of Nevesinje from 3 July , ensuring NDH control of population centres and roads . On 5 July , he replaced his deputy Prohaska with Colonel Franjo Šimić , and assigned him a force consisting of the 6th , 11th , 15th and 17th Battalions , a company of the 18th Battalion and a troop of artillery . The force numbered 62 officers and 2 @,@ 062 men , with heavy weapons including four 100 mm Skoda houfnice vz 14 mountain howitzers , six heavy machine guns and twenty @-@ seven light machine guns . Šimić seized the crossroads near Kifino Selo and Plužine , securing it with one company of the 11th Battalion , then sent the 15th Battalion to Gacko and the 17th Battalion to Berkovići . A half company of the 21st Battalion secured the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Once this was completed , the major roads in eastern Herzegovina were secured . These operations proceeded without significant fighting , as some of the rebels retreated over the border with Montenegro , and others hid their weapons in the mountains and returned to their homes . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control over all the towns and transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .

= = Aftermath = =

Tomasevich states that the uprising was a " spontaneous , unorganised outburst " that was doomed to failure , and involved neither the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović nor the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Komunistička partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) . He contends that the uprising was the result of several factors , including the Ustaše persecutions , fear and hatred of the NDH authorities , a local tradition of rebellion against the Ottoman Empire , the poor economic conditions in eastern Herzegovina , and news of the launching of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union . Hoare concurs with Tomasevich that the uprising was in the tradition of the Herzegovinian rebellions against the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century , such as the uprisings in 1875 – 77 . Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau , the German Plenipotentiary General in the NDH , believed that the Italians might have deliberately avoided interfering in the uprising . General Renzo Dalmazzo , the commander of the Italian 6th Army Corps , blamed the Ustaše and Muslims for stoking the revolt .

In eastern Herzegovina , the KPJ had little impact until mid @-@ August 1941 , well after the initial revolt had been suppressed . During the lead @-@ up to the mass uprising , the KPJ organisation in Herzegovina would not commit itself , as it was waiting for orders from the provincial organisation in Sarajevo , which was expecting direction from the KPJ Central Committee to launch a general uprising across Yugoslavia . Once they became aware of the German attack on the Soviet Union , the KPJ in Herzegovina voted to join the mass uprising , but this only occurred on 24 June , when the uprising was already in full swing . According to Milazzo , the rebels remained a threat throughout eastern Herzegovina well into July , although the uprising in Herzegovina did not advance until the Bosnia @-@ wide revolt occurred at the end of July , by which time the KPJ was ready for active involvement in the fighting .

= Crush ( video game ) =

Crush is a platformer @-@ puzzle video game developed by Kuju Entertainment 's Zoë Mode studio and published by Sega in 2007 for the PlayStation Portable . Its protagonist is Danny , a young man suffering from insomnia , who uses an experimental device to explore his mind and discover the cause of his sleeplessness . Each level of the game , representing events from Danny 's life and inspired by artists such as Tim Burton and M.C. Escher , requires the player to control Danny as he collects his " lost marbles " and other thoughts .

Crush 's primary gameplay feature involves manipulating each game level between 3D and 2D views , allowing the player to reach platforms and locations inaccessible from within a different view . This element was noted by critics to be similar to one in Super Paper Mario , also released in 2007 , though the Zoë Mode team had envisioned the concept five years prior . Crush received positive reviews upon release , with critics praising its incorporation of this dimension @-@ shifting component alongside other aspects of the game presentation . Though Crush won several gaming awards , including PSP game of the month , it failed to meet the developer 's sales expectations . A port of the game for the Nintendo 3DS called Crush 3D was announced on January 19 , 2011 and was made available on January 13 , 2012 in Europe and on March 6 , 2012 in North America .

= = Plot = =

While Crush and its Nintendo 3DS port Crush 3D retain the same gameplay mechanics and premise , the two versions feature different plots .

= = = PSP version = = =

( Note : The voice actors for the story are unknown at the moment as Zoë Mode never credited them )

The protagonist of the game , a young man named Danny , suffers from chronic insomnia caused by worry , stress , and repressed memories . He is admitted to a mental institution for it , where he consults a mad scientist , Dr. Reubens , who treats Danny with his Cognitive Regression Utilizing pSychiatric Heuristics ( C.R.U.S.H. ) device , which has a sentient female persona . The device 's helmet places Danny under hypnosis , during which he can regain control of his sanity by collecting his lost marbles , and facing his primal fears in the form of monsters ( i.e. cockroaches , slugs ) . Danny starts spilling the beans to Reubens about his city life ; moving into his first apartment and his suffering job as a chef ( because " the ladies love a man who can cook " ) . He heavily depends on Reubens for some serious help if he wants to get rid of his insomnia . Later , when C.R.U.S.H. projects the image of a bucket and shovel at the beach onto the helmet , he recalls his love life some few years ago with a girl named Tina Ash ( who Reubens mistakenly thought was Danny 's mother ) . Returning the next summer , Danny is jilted for a more handsome man . Devastated , Danny ends up sitting on the pier crying , inadvertently falling into the ocean below , but eventually rescued . Reubens claims Danny 's rejection made him " shy away from the fairer sex " , and tells him to get some rest . The next day , Dr. Reubens tunes up his machine to " match [ Danny 's ] abnormally low cognitive frequency . " Danny recommends he give them some time alone , but the word " alone " has Reubens allude to the time Danny was heavily abused as a young boy at a local funfair by three thugs , however , Danny discloses that he ditched his parents to go to the funfair alone , but they find and rescue him . He then promised his parents that he 'd " stay with them forever . " Dr. Reubens uses this evidence to come to a conclusion that homesickness is the cause of his insomnia , recommending that Danny moves back into his parents ' house , but his conclusion is proved wrong when Danny returns one more time . Dr. Reubens lashes out at Danny for wearing out his machine , demanding that Danny fess up to where he " buried [ his ] pain " and if he is merely " toying " with them . Pushing the limit , Reubens subjects Danny to regress all the way to his childhood , when he was only six years old , against Danny 's own will . Danny cries at the breaking point , dictating that Reubens stop " unlocking doors that should stay bolted , " but in the end , Danny mutters the words , " Come back , " implying that his parents went out on a date and left him at his house alone , with disturbing shadows of the night leaving Danny in psychological trauma . Danny discovers that his childhood fears at that time , principally being afraid of the dark , are the real cause his insomnia , sending him " spiraling back into [ his ] six @-@ year @-@ old self . " Reubens is full of disgust that his treatment was a complete waste and that Danny ruined his machine due to his nyctophobia , but tells Danny he 's cured . Right when Reubens begins to snap Danny out of hypnosis , C.R.U.S.H. , following suit in Reubens thoughts , goes over the edge and seems to attack Danny 's mind , with Reubens panicking and Danny 's life on the line while the screen fades to black at the start of the attempt .

= = = 3DS version = = =

Doctor ' Doc ' Doccerson ( instead of Reubens in the PSP version ) , is infuriated that all of his inventions failed , but today he ' shall surpass them all ' with his latest invention , C.R.U.S.H. He uses a tape recorder for his scientific narrative on the experiment . With the help of his best friend and protégé , Danny ( a running gag consists of him correcting Doc throughout the game ) , he enters his mind as his subject to C.R.U.S.H. , but after a few tests , Danny is trapped inside C.R.U.S.H. , where he can collect his lost marbles ( which will unlock new dressing gowns / robe designs ) and facing his fears in the form of monsters ( i.e. cockroaches , slugs ) . At one point , Doc tells Danny that C.R.U.S.H. will not let Danny out due to " unresolved feelings . " The two question that reasoning as they progress . Towards the end , C.R.U.S.H. interrupts contact between Danny and Doc , overly infatuated with Danny . Danny slowly admits to C.R.U.S.H. that she is simply a machine and compares it to " flirting with a parking meter . " C.R.U.S.H. , infuriated , sends Danny back to his childhood as a result . When Doc comes back into contact with Danny , Danny lashes out at Doc for building a machine " with the heart of a teenage girl " who " LOLd " at him . Doc , calming Danny down , explains how this " subconscious " is not really his , but old data , and suddenly Danny becomes shocked when he realizes he took the place of someone who underwent treatment with C.R.U.S.H. ( being the PSP Danny ) , but " she knows [ he 's ] not the same . " C.R.U.S.H. really wanted Danny to clear her head . In the ending , Danny finally escapes and is free out of C.R.U.S.H 's mind . He and Doc discuss C.R.U.S.H 's future , while Doc says that he 'll fix her . In a sudden plot twist , it turns out that they were not in the real world at all , but all the levels throughout the game are outside Doc 's lab . C.R.U.S.H. smiles and laughs into the camera , she winks and the screen cuts to black .

= = Gameplay = =

Crush contains ten levels in each of the four locations , all based on an event in Danny 's past . The levels represent Danny 's mind : a dark city landscape with many tall buildings and the occasional street lamp , a hotel resting aside a seaside location , a dark and mysterious funfair , and a haunted childhood bedroom . Levels are mostly composed of platforms formed by blocks . The player 's goal in each level is to collect marbles , which give the player points based on their color . The exit from the level is opened once a predetermined number of points have been collected . Danny can crawl into narrow areas and jump a small height .

The main gameplay feature of Crush is the ability to transpose the layout of a level between 2D and 3D representations to reach seemingly inaccessible areas and solve the game 's puzzles . The player can switch the third @-@ person camera between four directional side views and a top @-@ down view at any time while in 3D . When in these views , the player can have Danny " crush " the level , collapsing all 3D elements into 2D ; crushing from side views results in a 2D platformer @-@ like view , while crushing from the top @-@ down view provides a 2D top @-@ down perspective . Crushing can connect and merge platforms on the same visual plane in the 3D view but separated by a large distance , creating pathways across the level in the 2D view . The player can also " uncrush " the level at any time . Certain blocks , when crushed , become either obstacles through which Danny cannot pass , or ledges the player can use to reach other parts of the level . Attempts to crush a level in any manner that would harm Danny are thwarted . However , uncrushing can leave Danny in a helpless state , such as hanging in mid @-@ air .

Enemy monsters inhabit the levels , but the player can crush them by flattening impassable blocks against them . The player may also encounter timers in the form of alarm clocks that will begin to elapse when crushed for the first time and can only be stopped when Danny jumps on them . Danny wakes from his mental explorations if he falls off the level or too high of a surface , is touched by a monster , or fails to stop a timer , but the C.R.U.S.H. device reinserts him at the start of the level or the last checkpoint Danny passed .

Throughout the levels are scattered large spheres and cylinders , which the player can roll when crushed appropriately . These can then be used as platforms or to depress switches . Jigsaw pieces can be collected to reveal concept art and extras in the game 's menus . Some of Danny 's " thoughts " , represented by glowing neon icons on the walls of the level , are only activated when the level is crushed in a manner that does not obscure them . Some thoughts allow Danny to jump higher or stop time . Once the player completes each level , they are graded by the duration of Danny 's stay on the level , how many times Danny " woke up " , and a bonus for collecting all marbles , the jigsaw piece , and a hidden thought trophy . The thought trophy , once completed by crushing , unlocks a level 's special challenge mode for later play which requires time @-@ limited completion of the level with an allotted number of crushes .

= = Development = =

In an interview , Zoë Mode executive producer Paul Mottram claimed that the game concept was envisioned in 2002 , but work did not actually begin until 2006 . The initial concept was built on the crushing mechanism between 2D and 3D , and they only had to create appropriate obstacles to prevent players from simply " crushing " across the level . Mottram noted that during the development of Crush , the gameplay of Super Paper Mario had not yet been revealed , and thus the team was surprised to learn that it shared a similar feature .

Mottram stated that the crushing mechanism had been developed and refined for six months before developing the story and characters ; the development team wanted to have " a normal person in an impossible situation " . The art and level design were inspired by Tim Burton , Mike Mignola , and M.C. Escher . The plot was originally more morbid than in the final product , with Danny dying and the rest of the game told as flashbacks .

The game levels were developed on a level editor on the PlayStation Portable , but Zoë Mode were not able to refine the editor in time for shipping . Mottram said " It would be great to see user generated content and this is something we have been seriously thinking about for the future " and that downloadable content " would work perfectly with the Crush level structure and I am sure that fans of the game would be eager to see more levels . " Mottram has stated they would like to market a sequel based on the highly positive feedback they had received ; however , with other Zoë Mode projects such as SingStar and Play taking precedence , he does not know when this could be .

= = Reception = =

Crush received generally positive reviews , with aggregate scores of 83 out of 100 from Metacritic and 82 % from Game Rankings . The game was highly praised for its innovative approach to gameplay . Ryan Davis of GameSpot appreciated Crush for owing " very little of its novel concept to games that preceded it " . Nick Suttner of 1UP called the game a " cognitively rewarding , expertly designed puzzle experience that truly plays like nothing else " . Reviews were mixed on the game 's learning curve . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham praised the ordering of the puzzle elements , that new gaming elements are introduced at " an ideal pace " , and that most puzzles have solutions where the player must " think ' outside the box ' " . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead commented that the game introduces these elements too quickly and " doesn 't give you much time to put the basics into practice " . Some critics found that elements of the game detracted from the game 's uniqueness . X @-@ Play 's Greg Orlando , while stating that this was " one of the most novel games ever made " , noted that it was " simply not very fun " , as it lacked many player incentives beyond manipulating the world and collecting objects on each level . Reviewers noted that some puzzles were awkward due to the selection of the PlayStation Portable 's controls . Reviewers found the game 's story poor , but this was overcome by the gameplay elements ; Charles Harold of the New York Times said " the minimal story is as forgettable as its puzzles are ingenious " . GamesRadar included it in their list of the 100 most overlooked games of its generation . Editor Jason Fanelli stated that the ability to switch from 2D to 3D was " one of the most unique ( at the time ) features we ’ ve ever seen . "

IGN awarded Crush PSP Game of the Month for May 2007 . GameSpy called Crush the third best PlayStation Portable game and the " PSP Puzzle Game of the Year " for its Game of the Year 2007 awards . Similarly , IGN awarded Crush the " Best PSP Puzzle Game " , " Most Innovative PSP Game " , and " Best PSP Game No One Played " awards in their Game of the Year 2007 selections . Crush won the 2007 Develop Conference Industry Award for " Best New Handheld IP " . According to Paul Mottram , positive reception of the game did not translate into high sales , but the game " will hopefully stick around for a while and continue to shift units " .

= Odyssey Number Five =

Odyssey Number Five is the fourth studio album by the Australian rock band Powderfinger , produced by Nick DiDia and released on 4 September 2000 by Universal Music . It won the 2001 ARIA Music Award for Highest Selling Album , Best Group and Best Rock Album . The album was the band 's shortest yet , focusing on social , political , and emotional issues that had appeared in prior works , especially Internationalist .

The album produced four singles . The most successful , " My Happiness " , reached # 4 on the ARIA Singles Chart , won the 2001 ARIA Music Award for " Single of the Year " , and topped Triple J 's Hottest 100 in 2000 . The album also featured " These Days " , which topped Triple J 's Hottest 100 in 1999 . The album was also ranked at number 1 in Triple J 's Hottest 100 Australian Albums of All Time poll in 2011 .

Many critics lauded the album as Powderfinger 's best work ; one stated that the album was " the Finger 's Crowning Glory " , however , others were critical of the " imitation " contained in the album . Overall , the album won five ARIA Music Awards in 2001 and was certified platinum seven times , and earned an eighth in 2004 . Odyssey Number Five was Powderfinger 's first album to chart in the United States , and the band toured extensively around North America to promote its release .

= = Background , recording , and production = =

In a 1997 interview , Powderfinger bassist John Collins hinted that the group 's next album would be similar to their previous album , Internationalist , while frontman Bernard Fanning said in September 2000 that the lyrics on the album , like those on " Waiting for the Sun " , were his " most personal and direct yet " . Fanning said his lyrics were based on the " obstacles in the way of being in a relationship , especially in our work situation " .

Powderfinger worked with producer Nick DiDia on Odyssey Number Five , as they had done on Internationalist , finishing the album in August 2000 after six weeks of recording . The band spent this time ensuring higher quality songs than on Internationalist , which had featured out @-@ of @-@ tune guitars on " Passenger " .

Odyssey Number Five was Powderfinger 's shortest album when recorded , running for approximately 45 minutes . The focus of the album was on restraint , with more simplistic lyrics than previously , and with a plain and simple message intended . Fanning said of his songwriting ethic : " You try and make it something that ’ s got some substance , but also , you can never do that at the cost of it having relevance to what you ’ re singing . " Powderfinger manager Paul Piticco commented that " their ethos is to be pushing the limits of their songwriting ability " .

Like Powderfinger 's previous album Internationalist , Odyssey Number Five commented on social and political issues heavily , with the primary point of focus being Aboriginal affairs . The lyrics of " Like a Dog " attacked former Prime Minister of Australia John Howard 's Liberal government for its treatment of Indigenous Australians , and for breaking the " relaxed and comfortable " promise he made in the Australian federal election , 1996 . Lead singer Bernard Fanning related this to the band 's other ethical stances — refusing to appear on Hey Hey it 's Saturday , for its anti @-@ gay commentary , or not allowing Powderfinger songs to be used in jingles , amongst others — stating , " We 're not here to set an example . We just want to be happy with ourselves and not end up with a guilty conscience . " Fanning said that despite " Like a Dog " being about a political issue , it was not a political song , rather just Powderfinger " voicing our opinions " . The band worked with boxer Anthony Mundine on the song 's music video , whom Fanning praised as " the perfect lead , in terms of what the song is about and the fact that he ’ s prepared to speak up for what he believes in . "

As well as providing social commentary , Odyssey Number Five also discussed love , a recurring motif in Fanning 's songwriting . Fanning noted that one of the causes of this was his passion for soul and gospel music , stating that he " listen [ s ] to a lot of soul music that 's unashamedly about love and how good it makes you feel " . Lead guitarist Ian Haug agreed , and also noted that the band as a whole were fully committed to Fanning 's lyrics , stating " It 's really important for us to agree with what Bernard is singing . "

Odyssey Number Five marked Powderfinger 's first successful attempt to enter the United States market . Fanning told Billboard in a 2001 interview that the band were not taking anything for granted , however , stating , " In America , we haven 't really done any work yet to deserve any major popularity " , with the " vibes " on previous albums failing to reach the American mainstream . Powderfinger toured extensively around the country , performing in 22 cities . As a result of these efforts , " My Happiness " was briefly placed on rotation on KROQ @-@ FM and several other radio stations . The song ultimately peaked at # 23 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . This success was assisted by the band appearing on the Late Show with David Letterman , and by supporting Coldplay on tour . Guitarist Darren Middleton summarised their work in the United States by stating " This year has been a bit of a blur . "

= = Album and single releases = =

Odyssey Number Five was released on 4 September 2000 , on the Grudge / Universal record labels . The album was released in the United Kingdom on Polydor , with 15 minutes of video and an additional track Nature Boy , at a later date . A sampler version was released in the United States in 2001 , containing five tracks .

Four singles were released from the album . " My Kind of Scene " was the first ; released as a promotional single in June 2000 . The track was written for the 2000 film Mission : Impossible II , and appeared on its soundtrack . Collins and Middleton recalled that the song was written and produced with photos of Tom Cruise and Nicole Kidman on the wall of the band 's studio " as inspiration " . They noted that the band made three songs in response to the Mission : Impossible II request , and that " My Kind of Scene " was chosen over " Up & Down & Back Again " and " Whatever Makes You Happy " .

The second single from the album was " My Happiness " , released on 14 August 2000 in Australia . " My Happiness " entered the ARIA Singles Chart at # 4 , and spent 24 weeks on the chart , making it Powderfinger 's highest charting single in Australia . It peaked at # 7 on the New Zealand singles chart , and spent 23 weeks in the top 50 . Furthermore , " My Happiness " was Powderfinger 's first single to chart in the USA , reaching # 23 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart .

" Like a Dog " was released as the third single on 15 January 2001 . The song was heavy in political sentiment , akin to " The Day You Come " on Internationalist . The riff for the song was written by Ian Haug , and the song 's music video featured Australian Aboriginal boxer Anthony Mundine , and was based on the 1980 Martin Scorsese film Raging Bull . Drummer Jon Coghill said the song revolved around the question of " why the hell won ’ t John Howard say sorry to the Aboriginal people ! " " Like a Dog " spent one week on the ARIA Singles Chart , at # 40 .

Two songs from the album , " The Metre " and " Waiting for the Sun " , were released as a double A @-@ side to form the final single . The single was released on 21 August 2001 , and included a cover of Iron Maiden 's " Number of the Beast " . " Waiting for the Sun " was written by Fanning as a devotional , gospel style song . He said of the song ; " It ’ s about being in a relationship and being really heavily happy with it . " " The Metre " spent one week on the ARIA Singles Chart , at # 31 .

= = Reception = =

Odyssey Number Five mostly gained positive reviews , and was more successful than its predecessor , Internationalist . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Marc Weingarten gave the album a B + . He stated that album entered new " terrain " in guitar rock , complimenting the " scratching and clawing guitars " , drawing comparisons to Travis ( " prim " ) and Oasis ( " mock @-@ grandiose " ) .

Allmusic reviewer Dean Carlson disliked the album , giving it a rating of one and a half stars . He described it as " little more than a slightly off @-@ base perspective into the world of mid @-@ 90s American grunge " , and described it as highly similar to Neil Young . Carlson 's only praise was for songs " Odyssey # 5 " and " My Happiness " , stating that " [ t ] oo often , Powderfinger is too earnest , a bit too careful in their career " . Carlson noted that despite his critique , the album achieved some success in the American market .

Devon Powers of PopMatters complimented Fanning 's vocals , and said the focus of the album was " meaty , rolling ballads " . Powers said that many of the songs on the album were " the kind of songs you put on repeat for hours , or days " . The main critique was for the " faster numbers " , stating that " Like a Dog " " sounds mostly a little bored " . The review concluded by noting that the best songs on Odyssey were those not available as " fleeting radio singles and background music " .

Odyssey Number Five won the 2001 ARIA Awards for " Album of the Year " , " Highest Selling Album " , " Best Rock Album " , " Best Cover Art " , and " Best Group " . " My Happiness " won the award for " Single of the Year " , while " Like a Dog " was nominated for " Highest Selling Single " and " Best Video " . At the 2002 ARIA Awards , " The Metre " was nominated for " Best Group " . The album was named " Album of the Year " by Rolling Stone Australia readers , with " My Happiness " taking out " Song of the Year " and Powderfinger receiving " Band of the Year " .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= = = ARIA Awards = = =

= = = Other accolades = = =

= = Track listing = =

All songs written by Powderfinger :

" Waiting for the Sun " – 3 : 54

" My Happiness " – 4 : 36

" The Metre " – 4 : 33

" Like a Dog " – 4 : 20

" Odyssey # 5 " – 1 : 44

" Up & Down & Back Again " – 4 : 24

" My Kind of Scene " – 4 : 37

" These Days " – 4 : 58

" We Should Be Together Now " – 3 : 42

" Thrilloilogy " – 6 : 10

" Whatever Makes You Happy " – 2 : 28

" Nature Boy " ( UK release ) – 3 : 37

= = Personnel = =

= Amanita muscaria =

Amanita muscaria , commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita , is a mushroom and psychoactive basidiomycete fungus , one of many in the genus Amanita . Native throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere , Amanita muscaria has been unintentionally introduced to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere , generally as a symbiont with pine and birch plantations , and is now a true cosmopolitan species . It associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees .

This iconic toadstool is a large white @-@ gilled , white @-@ spotted , usually red mushroom , and is one of the most recognisable and widely encountered in popular culture . Several subspecies with differing cap colour have been recognised , including the brown regalis ( often considered a separate species ) , the yellow @-@ orange flavivolvata , guessowii , formosa , and the pinkish persicina . Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2008 show several sharply delineated clades that may represent separate species .

Although classified as poisonous , reports of human deaths resulting from its ingestion are extremely rare . After parboiling — which weakens its toxicity and breaks down the mushroom 's psychoactive substances — it is eaten in parts of Europe , Asia , and North America . Amanita muscaria is noted for its hallucinogenic properties , with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound muscimol . The mushroom was used as an intoxicant and entheogen by the peoples of Siberia , and has a religious significance in these cultures . There has been much speculation on possible traditional use of this mushroom as an intoxicant in other places such as the Middle East , Eurasia , North America , and Scandinavia .

= = Taxonomy and naming = =

The name of the mushroom in many European languages is thought to be derived from its use as an insecticide when sprinkled in milk . This practice has been recorded from Germanic- and Slavic @-@ speaking parts of Europe , as well as the Vosges region and pockets elsewhere in France , and Romania . Albertus Magnus was the first to record it in his work De vegetabilibus some time before 1256 , commenting vocatur fungus muscarum , eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas , " it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies . "

The 16th @-@ century Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius traced the practice of sprinkling it into milk to Frankfurt in Germany , while Carl Linnaeus , the " father of taxonomy " , reported it from Småland in southern Sweden , where he had lived as a child . He described it in volume two of his Species Plantarum in 1753 , giving it the name Agaricus muscarius , the specific epithet deriving from Latin musca meaning " fly " . It gained its current name in 1783 , when placed in the genus Amanita by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , a name sanctioned in 1821 by the " father of mycology " , Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries . The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as January 1 , 1821 , the date of Fries 's work , and so the full name was then Amanita muscaria ( L. : Fr . ) Hook . The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi , and names can now be considered valid as far back as May 1 , 1753 , the date of publication of Linnaeus 's work . Hence , Linnaeus and Lamarck are now taken as the namers of Amanita muscaria ( L. ) Lam ..

The English mycologist John Ramsbottom reported that Amanita muscaria was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden , and bug agaric was an old alternate name for the species . French mycologist Pierre Bulliard reported having tried without success to replicate its fly @-@ killing properties in his work Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France ( 1784 ) , and proposed a new binomial name Agaricus pseudo @-@ aurantiacus because of this . One compound isolated from the fungus is 1 @,@ 3 @-@ diolein ( 1 @,@ 3 @-@ Di ( cis @-@ 9 @-@ octadecenoyl ) glycerol ) , which attracts insects . It has been hypothesised that the flies intentionally seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties . An alternative derivation proposes that the term fly- refers not to insects as such but rather the delirium resulting from consumption of the fungus . This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person 's head and cause mental illness . Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation , meaning the " mad " or " fool 's " version of the highly regarded edible mushroom Amanita caesarea . Hence there is oriol foll " mad oriol " in Catalan , mujolo folo from Toulouse , concourlo fouolo from the Aveyron department in Southern France , ovolo matto from Trentino in Italy . A local dialect name in Fribourg in Switzerland is tsapi de diablhou , which translates as " Devil 's hat " .

= = = Classification = = =

Amanita muscaria is the type species of the genus . By extension , it is also the type species of Amanita subgenus Amanita , as well as section Amanita within this subgenus . Amanita subgenus Amanita includes all Amanita with inamyloid spores . Amanita section Amanita includes the species which have very patchy universal veil remnants , including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the cap to a series of patches or warts . Most species in this group also have a bulbous base . Amanita section Amanita consists of A. muscaria and its close relatives , including A. pantherina ( the panther cap ) , A. gemmata , A. farinosa , and A. xanthocephala . Modern fungal taxonomists have classified Amanita muscaria and its allies this way based on gross morphology and spore inamyloidy . Two recent molecular phylogenetic studies have confirmed this classification as natural .

Amanita muscaria varies considerably in its morphology , and many authorities recognise several subspecies or varieties within the species . In The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , German mycologist Rolf Singer listed three subspecies , though without description : A. muscaria ssp. muscaria , A. muscaria ssp. americana , and A. muscaria ssp. flavivolvata .

Contemporary authorities recognise up to seven varieties :

A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of A. muscaria by mycologist József Geml and colleagues found three distinct clades within this species representing , roughly , Eurasian , Eurasian " subalpine " , and North American populations . Specimens belonging to all three clades have been found in Alaska ; this has led to the hypothesis that this was the centre of diversification for this species . The study also looked at four named varieties of the species : var. alba , var. flavivolvata , var. formosa ( including var. guessowii ) , and var. regalis from both areas . All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades , evidence that these morphological forms are polymorphisms rather than distinct subspecies or varieties . Further molecular study by Geml and colleagues published in 2008 show that these three genetic groups , plus a fourth associated with oak – hickory – pine forest in the southeastern United States and two more on Santa Cruz Island in California , are delineated from each other enough genetically to be considered separate species ; thus A. muscaria as it stands currently is evidently a species complex . The complex also includes at least three other closely related taxa that are currently regarded as species : A. breckonii is a buff @-@ capped mushroom associated with conifers from the Pacific Northwest , and the brown @-@ capped A. gioiosa and A. heterochroma from the Mediterranean Basin and from Sardinia respectively . Both of these last two are found with Eucalyptus and Cistus trees , and it is unclear whether they are native or introduced from Australia .

= = Description = =

A large , conspicuous mushroom , Amanita muscaria is generally common and numerous where it grows , and is often found in groups with basidiocarps in all stages of development . Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like white eggs . After emerging from the ground , the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow pyramid @-@ shaped warts . These are remnants of the universal veil , a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young . Dissecting the mushroom at this stage will reveal a characteristic yellowish layer of skin under the veil ; this is helpful in identification . As the fungus grows , the red colour appears through the broken veil and the warts become less prominent ; they do not change in size , but are reduced relative to the expanding skin area . The cap changes from globose to hemispherical , and finally to plate @-@ like and flat in mature specimens . Fully grown , the bright red cap is usually around 8 – 20 cm ( 3 – 8 in ) in diameter , although larger specimens have been found . The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms .

The free gills are white , as is the spore print . The oval spores measure 9 – 13 by 6 @.@ 5 – 9 μm ; they do not turn blue with the application of iodine . The stipe is white , 5 – 20 cm high ( 2 – 8 in ) by 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , and has the slightly brittle , fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms . At the base is a bulb that bears universal veil remnants in the form of two to four distinct rings or ruffs . Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the partial veil ( which covers the gills during development ) in the form of a white ring . It can be quite wide and flaccid with age . There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness .

Although very distinctive in appearance , the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red mushroom species in the Americas , such as Armillaria cf. mellea and the edible Amanita basii — a Mexican species similar to A. caesarea of Europe . Poison control centres in the U.S. and Canada have become aware that amarill ( Spanish for ' yellow ' ) is a common name for the A. caesarea @-@ like species in Mexico . Amanita caesarea can be distinguished by its entirely orange to red cap which lacks the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric . Furthermore , the stem , gills and ring of A. caesarea are bright yellow , not white . The volva is a distinct white bag , not broken into scales . In Australia , the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette ( Amanita xanthocephala ) , which grows in association with eucalypts . The latter species generally lacks the white warts of A. muscaria and bears no ring .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Amanita muscaria is a cosmopolitan mushroom , native to conifer and deciduous woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere , including higher elevations of warmer latitudes in regions such as Hindu Kush , the Mediterranean and also Central America . A recent molecular study proposes that it had an ancestral origin in the Siberian – Beringian region in the Tertiary period , before radiating outwards across Asia , Europe and North America . The season for fruiting varies in different climates : fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America , but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast . This species is often found in similar locations to Boletus edulis , and may appear in fairy rings . Conveyed with pine seedlings , it has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere , including Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and South America , where it can be found in the southern Brazilian states of Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul .

Ectomycorrhizal , Amanita muscaria forms symbiotic relationships with many trees , including pine , spruce , fir , birch , and cedar . Commonly seen under introduced trees , A. muscaria is the fungal equivalent of a weed in New Zealand , Tasmania and Victoria , forming new associations with southern beech ( Nothofagus ) . The species is also invading a rainforest in Australia , where it may be displacing the native species . It appears to be spreading northwards , with recent reports placing it near Port Macquarie on the New South Wales north coast . It was recorded under silver birch ( Betula pendula ) in Manjimup , Western Australia in 2010 . Although it has apparently not spread to eucalypts in Australia , it has been recorded associating with them in Portugal .

= = Toxicity = =

Amanita muscaria poisoning has occurred in young children and in people who ingested the mushrooms for a hallucinogenic experience . Occasionally it has been ingested in error , because immature button forms resemble puffballs . The white spots sometimes wash away during heavy rain and the mushrooms then may appear to be the edible A. caesarea .

Amanita muscaria contains several biologically active agents , at least one of which , muscimol , is known to be psychoactive . Ibotenic acid , a neurotoxin , serves as a prodrug to muscimol , with approximately 10 – 20 % converting to muscimol after ingestion . An active dose in adults is approximately 6 mg muscimol or 30 to 60 mg ibotenic acid ; this is typically about the amount found in one cap of Amanita muscaria . The amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region and season to season , which can further confuse the issue . Spring and summer mushrooms have been reported to contain up to 10 times more ibotenic acid and muscimol than autumn fruitings .

A fatal dose has been calculated as 15 caps . Deaths from this fungus A. muscaria have been reported in historical journal articles and newspaper reports , but with modern medical treatment , fatal poisoning from ingesting this mushroom is extremely rare . Many older books list Amanita muscaria as " deadly " , but this is an error that implies the mushroom is more toxic than it is . The North American Mycological Association has stated there were no reliably documented fatalities from eating this mushroom during the 20th century . The vast majority ( 90 % or more ) of mushroom poisoning deaths are from eating the greenish to yellowish " death cap " , ( A. phalloides ) or perhaps even one of the several white Amanita species which are known as destroying angels .

The active constituents of this species are water @-@ soluble , and boiling and then discarding the cooking water at least partly detoxifies A. muscaria . Drying may increase potency , as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol . According to some sources , once detoxified , the mushroom becomes edible .

= = = Pharmacology = = =

Muscarine , discovered in 1869 , was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in A. muscaria . Muscarine binds with muscarinic acetylcholine receptors leading to the excitation of neurons bearing these receptors . The levels of muscarine in Amanita muscaria are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi such as Inocybe erubescens , the small white Clitocybe species C. dealbata and C. rivulosa . The level of muscarine in A. muscaria is too low to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning .

The major toxins involved in A. muscaria poisoning are muscimol ( 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ 5 @-@ aminomethyl @-@ 1 @-@ isoxazole , an unsaturated cyclic hydroxamic acid ) and the related amino acid ibotenic acid . Muscimol is the product of the decarboxylation ( usually by drying ) of ibotenic acid . Muscimol and ibotenic acid were discovered in the mid @-@ 20th century . Researchers in England , Japan , and Switzerland showed that the effects produced were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol , not muscarine . These toxins are not distributed uniformly in the mushroom . Most are detected in the cap of the fruit , a moderate amount in the base , with the smallest amount in the stalk . Quite rapidly , between 20 and 90 minutes after ingestion , a substantial fraction of ibotenic acid is excreted unmetabolised in the urine of the consumer . Almost no muscimol is excreted when pure ibotenic acid is eaten , but muscimol is detectable in the urine after eating A. muscaria , which contains both ibotenic acid and muscimol .

Ibotenic acid and muscimol are structurally related to each other and to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system : glutamic acid and GABA respectively . Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters , muscimol being a potent GABAA agonist , while ibotenic acid is an agonist of NMDA glutamate receptors and certain metabotropic glutamate receptors which are involved in the control of neuronal activity . It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication . Muscimol is the agent responsible for the majority of the psychoactivity .

Muscazone is another compound that has more recently been isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric . It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by ultra @-@ violet radiation . Muscazone is of minor pharmacological activity compared with the other agents . Amanita muscaria and related species are known as effective bioaccumulators of vanadium ; some species concentrate vanadium to levels of up to 400 times those typically found in plants . Vanadium is present in fruit @-@ bodies as an organometallic compound called amavadine . The biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown .

= = = Symptoms = = =

Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects . Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight , effects can range from nausea and twitching to drowsiness , cholinergic crisis @-@ like effects ( low blood pressure , sweating and salivation ) , auditory and visual distortions , mood changes , euphoria , relaxation , ataxia , and loss of equilibrium .

In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes delirium , somewhat similar in effect to anticholinergic poisoning ( such as that caused by Datura stramonium ) , characterised by bouts of marked agitation with confusion , hallucinations , and irritability followed by periods of central nervous system depression . Seizures and coma may also occur in severe poisonings . Symptoms typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours , but certain effects can last for several days . In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 to 24 hours . The effect is highly variable between individuals , with similar doses potentially causing quite different reactions . Some people suffering intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards . Retrograde amnesia and somnolence can result following recovery .

= = = Treatment = = =

Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning . If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours , activated charcoal is given . Gastric lavage can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion . Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is no longer recommended in any poisoning situations .

There is no antidote , and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication . Though sometimes referred to as a deliriant and while muscarine was first isolated from A. muscaria and as such is its namesake , muscimol does not have action , either as an agonist or antagonist , at the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor site , and therefore atropine or physostigmine as an antidote is not recommended . If a patient is delirious or agitated , this can usually be treated by reassurance and , if necessary , physical restraints . A benzodiazepine such as diazepam or lorazepam can be used to control combativeness , agitation , muscular overactivity , and seizures . Only small doses should be used , as they may worsen the respiratory depressant effects of muscimol . Recurrent vomiting is rare , but if present may lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances ; intravenous rehydration or electrolyte replacement may be required . Serious cases may develop loss of consciousness or coma , and may need intubation and artificial ventilation . Hemodialysis can remove the toxins , although this intervention is generally considered unnecessary . With modern medical treatment the prognosis is typically good following supportive treatment .

= = = Psychoactive use = = =

The wide range of psychedelic effects can be variously described as depressant , sedative @-@ hypnotic , dissociative , and deliriant ; paradoxical effects may occur . Perceptual phenomena such as macropsia and micropsia may occur , which may have been the inspiration for the effect of mushroom @-@ consumption in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , although " no evidence has ever been found that linked Carroll to recreational drug use " . Additionally , A. muscaria cannot be commercially cultivated , due to its mycorrhizal relationship with the roots of pine trees . However , following the outlawing of psilocybin mushrooms in the United Kingdom in 2006 , the sale of the still legal A. muscaria began increasing .

Professor Marija Gimbutas , a renowned Lithuanian historian , reported to R. Gordon Wasson on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania . In remote areas of Lithuania Amanita muscaria has been consumed at wedding feasts , in which mushrooms were mixed with vodka . The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to export A. muscaria to the Lapps in the Far North for use in shamanic rituals . The Lithuanian festivities are the only report that Wasson received of ingestion of fly agaric for religious use in Eastern Europe .

= = = Siberia = = =

Amanita muscaria was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia . Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic @-@ speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian @-@ speaking peoples of the Russian Far East . There are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of A. muscaria was not practised by these peoples . In western Siberia , the use of A. muscaria was restricted to shamans , who used it as an alternative method of achieving a trance state . ( Normally , Siberian shamans achieve trance by prolonged drumming and dancing . ) In eastern Siberia , A. muscaria was used by both shamans and laypeople alike , and was used recreationally as well as religiously . In eastern Siberia , the shaman would take the mushrooms , and others would drink his urine . This urine , still containing psychoactive elements , may be more potent than the A. muscaria mushrooms with fewer negative effects such as sweating and twitching , suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom .

The Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric ( wapaq ) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home . In the story , the deity Vahiyinin ( " Existence " ) spat onto earth , and his spittle became the wapaq , and his saliva becomes the warts . After experiencing the power of the wapaq , Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children , the people , could learn from it . Among the Koryaks , one report said that the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy , who could afford to buy the mushrooms .

= = = Other reports of use = = =

The Finnish historian T. I. Itkonen mentions that A. muscaria was once used among the Sami people : sorcerers in Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots . In 1979 , Said Gholam Mochtar and Hartmut Geerken published an article in which they claim to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use of this mushroom among a Parachi @-@ speaking group in Afghanistan . There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of A. muscaria among two Subarctic Native American tribes . Ojibwa ethnobotanist Keewaydinoquay Peschel reported its use among her people , where it was known as the miskwedo . This information was enthusiastically received by Wasson , although evidence from other sources was lacking . There is also one account of a Euro @-@ American who claims to have been initiated into traditional Tlicho use of Amanita muscaria .

= = = Vikings = = =

The notion that Vikings used A. muscaria to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784 . Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans . The notion has become widespread since the 19th century , but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers . Muscimol is generally a mild relaxant , but it can create a range of different reactions within a group of people . It is possible that it could make a person angry , or cause them to be " very jolly or sad , jump about , dance , sing or give way to great fright " .

= = Fly trap = =

Amanita muscaria is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol . Recently , an analysis of nine different methods for preparing A. muscaria for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent ( milk or water ) and that thermal and mechanical processing led to faster extraction of ibotenic acid and muscimol .

= = In Religion = =

= = = Soma = = =

In 1968 , R. Gordon Wasson proposed that A. muscaria was the Soma talked about in the Rig Veda of India , a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time . He noted that descriptions of Soma omitted any description of roots , stems or seeds , which suggested a mushroom , and used the adjective hári " dazzling " or " flaming " which the author interprets as meaning red . One line described men urinating Soma ; this recalled the practice of recycling urine in Siberia . Soma is mentioned as coming " from the mountains " , which Wasson interpreted as the mushroom having been brought in with the Aryan invaders from the north . Indian scholars Santosh Kumar Dash and Sachinanda Padhy pointed out that both eating of mushrooms and drinking of urine were proscribed , using as a source the Manusmṛti . In 1971 , Vedic scholar John Brough from Cambridge University rejected Wasson 's theory and noted that the language was too vague to determine a description of Soma . In his 1976 survey , Hallucinogens and Culture , anthropologist Peter T. Furst evaluated the evidence for and against the identification of the fly agaric mushroom as the Vedic Soma , concluding cautiously in its favour .

= = = Christianity = = =

Philologist , archeologist , and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogenic consumption of A. muscaria in his 1970 book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross , but his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of ethnomycology . The book was roundly discredited by academics and theologians , including Sir Godfrey Driver , Emeritus Professor of Semitic Philology at Oxford University , and Henry Chadwick , the Dean of Christ Church , Oxford . Christian author John C. King wrote a detailed rebuttal of Allegro 's theory in the 1970 book A Christian View of the Mushroom Myth ; he notes that neither fly agarics nor their host trees are found in the Middle East , even though cedars and pines are found there , and highlights the tenuous nature of the links between biblical and Sumerian names coined by Allegro . He concludes that if the theory was true , the use of the mushroom must have been " the best kept secret in the world " as it was so well concealed for two thousand years .

= = Culinary use = =

The toxins in A. muscaria are water @-@ soluble . When sliced thinly , or finely diced and boiled in plentiful water until thoroughly cooked , it seems to be detoxified . Although its consumption as a food has never been widespread , the consumption of detoxified A. muscaria has been practiced in some parts of Europe ( notably by Russian settlers in Siberia ) since at least the 19th century , and likely earlier . The German physician and naturalist Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff wrote the earliest published account on how to detoxify this mushroom in 1823 . In the late 19th century , the French physician Félix Archimède Pouchet was a populariser and advocate of A. muscaria consumption , comparing it to manioc , an important food source in tropical South America that must be detoxified before consumption .

Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America . A classic description of this use of A. muscaria by an African @-@ American mushroom seller in Washington , D.C. , in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville . In this case , the mushroom , after parboiling , and soaking in vinegar , is made into a mushroom sauce for steak . It is also consumed as a food in parts of Japan . The most well @-@ known current use as an edible mushroom is in Nagano Prefecture , Japan . There , it is primarily salted and pickled .

A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of A. muscaria as a food and describes detoxification methods . They advocate that Amanita muscaria be described in field guides as an edible mushroom , though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it . The authors state that the widespread descriptions in field guides of this mushroom as poisonous is a reflection of cultural bias , as several other popular edible species , notably morels , are toxic unless properly cooked .

= = Legal Status = =

= = = Australia = = =

Muscimol found within Amanita muscaria is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and / or State or Territory Health Authorities .

= = = The Netherlands = = =

Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina are illegal to buy , sell , or possess since December 2008 . Possession of amounts larger than 0.5g dried or 5g fresh lead to a criminal charge .

= = = United Kingdom = = =

It is illegal to produce , supply , or import this drug under the Psychoactive Substance Act , which came into effect on May 26th , 2016 .

= = Cultural depictions = =

The red @-@ and @-@ white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture . Garden ornaments and children 's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies , such as the Smurfs , often show fly agarics used as seats , or homes . Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance , albeit in a subtle manner . In the Victorian era they became more visible , becoming the main topic of some fairy paintings . Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series Super Mario Bros. ( specifically two of the power @-@ up items and the platforms in several stages ) , and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film Fantasia .

= = = Literature = = =

An account of the journeys of Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the mukhomor there was published in English in 1736 . The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo @-@ Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel , Citizen of the World . The mushroom had been identified as the fly agaric by this time . Other authors recorded the distortions of the size of perceived objects while intoxicated by the fungus , including naturalist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke in his books The Seven Sisters of Sleep and A Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi . This observation is thought to have formed the basis of the effects of eating the mushroom in the 1865 popular story Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . A hallucinogenic " scarlet toadstool " from Lappland is featured as a plot element in Charles Kingsley 's 1866 novel Hereward the Wake based on the medieval figure of the same name . Thomas Pynchon 's 1973 novel Gravity 's Rainbow describes the fungus as a " relative of the poisonous Destroying Angel " and presents a detailed description of a character preparing a cookie bake mixture from harvested Amanita muscaria . Fly agaric shamanism is also explored in the 2003 novel Thursbitch by Alan Garner .

= Burning of women in England =

In England , burning was a legal punishment inflicted on women found guilty of high treason , petty treason and heresy . Over a period of several centuries , female convicts were publicly burnt at the stake , sometimes alive , for a range of activities including coining and mariticide .

While men guilty of heresy were also burned at the stake , those who committed high treason were instead hanged , drawn and quartered . The English jurist William Blackstone supposed that the difference in sentencing , although " full as terrible to the sensation as the other " , could be explained by the desire not to publicly expose a woman 's body . Public executions were well @-@ attended affairs , and contemporary reports detail the cries of women on the pyre as they were burned alive . It later became commonplace for the executioner to strangle the convict , and for the body to be burned post @-@ mortem .

In the latter half of the eighteenth century , changing attitudes to such public displays prompted Sir Benjamin Hammett MP to denounce the practice in Parliament . His bill , by no means the first such attempt to end the public burning of women , led to the Treason Act 1790 , which abolished the sentence .

= = Crimes punishable by burning = =

= = = Treason = = =

By the end of the thirteenth century , several offences against either one 's lord , or one 's king , were treasonable . High treason , defined as transgressions against the sovereign , was first codified during King Edward III 's reign by the Treason Act 1351 . It clarified exactly what crimes constituted treason , following earlier , somewhat " over zealous " interpretations of England 's legal codes . For instance , high treason could be committed by anyone found to be compassing the king 's death or counterfeiting his coin . High treason remained distinct though , from what became known as petty treason : the killing of a lawful superior , such as a husband by his wife . Though twelfth century contemporary authors made few attempts to differentiate between high treason and petty treason , enhanced punishments may indicate that the latter was treated more seriously than an ordinary felony .

As the most egregious offence an individual could commit , viewed as seriously as though the accused had personally attacked the monarch , high treason demanded the ultimate punishment . But whereas men guilty of this crime were hanged , drawn and quartered , women were drawn and burned . In his Commentaries on the Laws of England the 18th @-@ century English jurist William Blackstone noted that the sentence , " to be drawn to the gallows , and there to be burned alive " , was " full as terrible to the sensation as the other " . Blackstone wrote that women were burned rather than quartered as " the decency due to the sex forbids the exposing and publicly mangling their bodies " . However , an observation by historian Jules Michelet , that " the first flame to rise consumed the clothes , revealing poor trembling nakedness " , may , in the opinion of historian Vic Gatrell , suggest that this solution is " misconceived " . In The Hanging Tree , Gatrell concludes that the occasional live burial of women in Europe gave tacit acknowledgement to the possibility that a struggling , kicking female hanging from a noose could " elicit obscene fantasies " from watching males .

= = = Heresy = = =

Another law enforceable by public burning was De heretico comburendo , introduced in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV . It allowed for the execution of persons of both sexes found guilty of heresy , thought to be " sacrilegious and dangerous to souls , but also seditious and treasonable . " Bishops were empowered to arrest and imprison anyone suspected of offences related to heresy and , once convicted , send them to be burned " in the presence of the people in a lofty place " . Although the act was repealed in 1533 / 34 , it was revived over 20 years later at the request of Queen Mary I who , during the Marian persecutions , made frequent use of the punishment it allowed .

De heretico comburendo was repealed by the Act of Supremacy 1558 , although that act allowed ecclesiastical commissions to deal with occasional instances of heresy . Persons declared guilty , such as Bartholomew Legate and Edward Wightman , could still be burned under a writ of de heretico comburendo issued by the Court of Chancery . The burning of heretics was finally ended by the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1677 which , although it allowed ecclesiastical courts to charge people with " atheism , blasphemy , heresy , schism , or other damnable doctrine or opinion " , limited their power to excommunication .

= = Execution of the sentence = =

Public executions were normally attended by large crowds . For the killing in 1546 of Anne Askew , charged with heresy and tortured at the Tower of London , a " Substancyall Stage " was built to seat the various officials who presided over her burning . A witness to proceedings reported that Askew was so badly injured by her torture that she was unable to stand . Instead , " the dounge carte was holden up betwene ij sarjantes , perhaptes syttyng there in a cheare " .

A pamphlet detailing the burning in April 1652 of Joan Peterson , the so @-@ called Witch of Wapping , also describes the execution of Prudence Lee , found guilty of mariticide . Lee was apparently brought on foot , between two sheriff 's officers and dressed in a red waistcoat , to the place of execution in Smithfield . There she confessed to having " been a very lewd liver , and much given to cursing and swearing , for which the Lord being offended with her , had suffered her to be brought to that untimely end " . She admitted to being jealous of and arguing with her husband , and stabbing him with a knife . The executioner put her in a pitch barrel , tied her to the stake , placed the fuel and faggots around her and set them alight . Lee was reported to have " desired all that were present to pray for her " and , feeling the flames , " shrike [ d ] out terribly some five or six several times . " Burning alive for murder was abolished in 1656 , although burning for adultery remained . Thereafter , out of mercy , the condemned were often strangled before the flames took hold . Notable exceptions to this practice were the burnings in 1685 and 1726 of Elizabeth Gaunt , found guilty of high treason for her part in the Rye House Plot , and Catherine Hayes , for petty treason . Hayes apparently " rent the air with her cries and lamentations " when the fire was lit too early , preventing the executioner from strangling her in time . She became the last woman in England to be burned alive .

The law also allowed for the hanging of children aged seven years or more . Mary Troke , " but sixteen years of age " , was burned at Winchester in 1738 for poisoning her mistress . An unidentified 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl imprisoned at Newgate was more fortunate . Found guilty in 1777 of being an accomplice to treason , for concealing whitewashed farthings on her person ( at her master 's request ) , she had been sentenced to burn . She was saved by the intervention of Thomas Thynne , 1st Marquess of Bath , who happened to be passing .

= = Changing attitudes = =

In 1786 , Phoebe Harris and her accomplices were " indicted , for that they , on the 11th of February last , one piece of false , feigned , and counterfeit money and coin , to the likeness and similitude of the good , legal , and silver coin of this realm , called a shilling , falsely , deceitfully , feloniously , and traiterously did counterfeit and coin " . Watched by a reported 20 @,@ 000 people , she was led to the stake and stood on a stool , where a noose , attached to an iron bolt driven into the top of the stake , was placed around her neck . As prayers were read , the stool was taken away and over the course of several minutes , her feet kicking as her body convulsed , Harris choked to death . About 30 minutes later , faggots were placed around the stake , her body was chained into position , and subsequently burned for over two hours .

Executions like this had once passed with little to no comment in the press . Historically , while fewer women than men were subjected to capital punishment , proportionately more were acquitted , found guilty of lesser charges , or pardoned if condemned . In centuries past , these women were judged by publications such as The Newgate Calendar to have succumbed to their own perversions , or to have been led astray . But while 18th and 19th @-@ century women guilty of treasonable crimes were still seen as villains , increasingly , the cause of their descent was ascribed to villainous men . Those people concerned about the brutality inflicted on condemned women were , in Gatrell 's opinion , " activated by the sense that even at their worst women were creatures to be pitied and protected from themselves , and perhaps revered , like all women from whom men were born . " Commenting on Harris 's execution , The Daily Universal Register claimed that the act reflected " a scandal upon the law " , " a disgrace to the police " and " was not only inhuman , but shamefully indelicate and shocking " . The newspaper asked " why should the law in this species of offence inflict a severer punishment upon a woman , than upon a man " ?

Harris 's fate prompted William Wilberforce to sponsor a bill which , if passed , would have abolished the practice . But as one of its proposals would have allowed the anatomical dissection of criminals other than murderers , the House of Lords rejected it . Though sympathetic to reform of England 's Bloody Code , Lord Chief Justice Loughborough saw no need to change the law : " Although the punishment , as a spectacle , was rather attended with circumstances of horror , likely to make a more strong impression on the beholders than mere hanging , the effect was much the same , as in fact , no greater degree of personal pain was sustained , the criminal being always strangled before the flames were suffered to approach the body " .

When on 25 June 1788 Margaret Sullivan was hanged and burned for coining , the same newspaper ( by then called The Times ) wrote :

There is something so inhuman in burning a woman , for what only subjects a man to hanging , that human nature shudders at the idea . Must not mankind laugh as our long speeches against African slavery — and our fine sentiments on Indian cruelties , when just in the very eye of the Sovereign we roast a female fellow creature alive , for putting a pennyworth of quicksilver on a half @-@ penny worth of brass . The savage barbarity of the punishment — and the smallness of the offence in the eye of God are contrasts that should meet the consideration of Government .

The Gentleman 's Magazine addressed the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger :

the woman was brought out attended by a priest of the Romish persuasion , and as soon as she came to the stake she was placed upon a stool , which was instantly removed from under her , and she left suspended , when the faggots were placed around her , and being set on fire she was soon consumed to ashes . — Mr. Pitt , himself a lawyer , ' tis hoped , will not suffer this cruel remain of savage legislation to escape his notice , and continue a disgrace to the enlightened sense of this country .

Although in his objections to Wilberforce 's 1786 bill Loughborough had noted that these women were dead long before they suffered the flames , many newspapers of the day made no such distinction . The Times incorrectly stated that Sullivan was burned alive , rhetoric which , in Dr Simon Devereaux 's opinion , could be " rooted in the growing reverence for domesticated womanhood " that might have been expected at the time . As many objections may also have been raised by the perceived iniquity of drawing and burning women for coining , whereas until 1783 , when the halting of executions at Tyburn removed ritualistic dragging from public view , men were simply drawn and hanged . A widening gulf between the numbers of men and women whipped in London ( during the 1790s , 393 men versus 47 women ) , which mirrors a similar decline in the sending of women to the pillory , may also indicate an imposition of commonly @-@ held gender ideals on English penal practices .

= = Abolition = =

The burning in 1789 of Christian Murphy , for coining , received practically no attention from the newspapers ( perhaps owing to practical limitations on how much news they could publish across only four pages ) , but it may have been enacted by Sir Benjamin Hammett , a former sheriff of London . Hammett was also an MP , and in 1790 he introduced to Parliament a Bill for Altering the Sentence of Burning Women . He denounced the punishment as " the savage remains of Norman policy " which " disgraced our statutes " , as " the practice did the common law " . He also highlighted how a sheriff who refused to carry out the sentence was liable to prosecution . William Wilberforce and Hammett were not the first men to attempt to end the burning of women . Almost 140 years earlier , during the Interregnum , a group of lawyers and laymen known as the Hale Commission ( after its chairman Matthew Hale ) , was tasked by the House of Commons to take " into consideration what inconveniences there are in the law " . Among the proposed reforms was the replacement of burning at the stake with hanging , but , mainly through the objections of various interested parties , none of the commission 's proposals made it into law during the Rump Parliament . Hammett was confident though . He believed that public opinion was on his side and that " the House would go with him in the cause of humanity " . The change in execution venues , from Tyburn to Newgate , also attracted criticism . Following Phoebe Harris 's burning in 1786 , as well as questioning the inequality of English law The Times complained about the location of the punishment and its effect on locals :

When remission of burning was refused , the scene of inhumanity should have been changed ; the consequences have been serious ; several persons in the neighbourhood of Newgate lying ill , have been severely affected by the smoke which issued from the body of the unhappy female victim .

Another factor was the fate of Sophia Girton , found guilty of coining . Hammett 's bill was introduced only four days before Girton 's fate was to be decided , but a petition for her respite from burning , supported by another sheriff of London ( either Thomas Baker or William Newman ) and brought to King George III 's notice by William Grenville , proved successful . Devereaux suggests that her impending fate lent weight to the eventual outcome of Hammett 's bill , which was to abolish the burning of women for treason through the Treason Act 1790 . Christian Murphy , who at her execution in 1789 was " drest in a clean striped gown , a white ribbon , and a black ribbon round her cap " , was the last woman in England to be burned .

= Strand , London =

Strand ( or the Strand ) is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster , Central London . It runs just over 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar , where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London , and is part of the A4 , a main road running west from inner London .

The road 's name comes from the Old English strond , meaning the edge of a river , as it historically ran alongside the north bank of the River Thames . The street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries , with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river . These included Essex House , Arundel House , Somerset House , Savoy Palace , Durham House and Cecil House . The aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century , following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops , restaurants and taverns . The street was a centre point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century , and several venues remain on the Strand . At the east end of the street are two historic churches ; St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes .

Several authors , poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand , including Charles Dickens , Ralph Waldo Emerson and Virginia Woolf . The street has been commemorated in the song , " Let 's All Go Down the Strand " , now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall .

= = Geography = =

The street is the main link between the two cities of Westminster and London . It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square , parallel to the River Thames , to Temple Bar which is the boundary between the two city districts ; the road ahead being Fleet Street . Traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych , connected at both ends to the Strand . The road marks the southern boundary of the Covent Garden district and forms part of the Northbank business improvement district .

The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway , then in 1185 as Stronde and in 1220 as la Stranda . It is formed from the Old English word ' strond ' , meaning the edge of a river . Initially it referred to the shallow bank of the once much wider Thames , before the construction of the Victoria Embankment . The name was later applied to the road itself . In the 13th century it was known as ' Densemanestret ' or ' street of the Danes ' , referring to the community of Danes in the area .

Two London Underground stations were once named Strand : a Piccadilly line station ( which was renamed Aldwych station ) that operated between 1907 and 1994 and a former Northern line station which today forms part of Charing Cross station . ' Strand Bridge ' was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction ; it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo . London Bus routes 6 , 23 , 139 and 176 all run along the Strand , as do numerous night bus services .

= = History = =

During Roman Britain , what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester , known as " Iter VIII " on the Antonine Itinerary , and which later became known by the name Akeman Street . It was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD , and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych . Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards , leaving no mark of the old town , and the area returned to fields .

In the Middle Ages , the Strand became the principal route between the separate settlements of the City of London ( the civil and commercial centre ) and the royal Palace of Westminster ( the national political centre ) . In the archaeological record , there is considerable evidence of occupation to the north of Aldwych , but much along the former foreshore has been covered by rubble from the demolition of the Tudor Somerset Place , a former royal residence , to create a large platform for the building of the first Somerset House , in the 17th century . The landmark Eleanor 's Cross was built in the 13th century at the western end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile . It was demolished in 1647 by the request of Parliament during the First English Civil War , but reconstructed in 1865 .

The west part of the Strand was in the parish of St Martin in the Fields and in the east it extended into the parishes of St Clement Danes and St Mary le Strand . Most of its length was in the Liberty of Westminster , although part of the eastern section in St Clement Danes was in the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex . The precinct of the Savoy , located approximately where the approach to Waterloo Bridge is now , had the Strand as its northern boundary . All of these parishes and places became part of the Strand District in 1855 , except St Martin in the Fields which was governed separately . The Strand District Board of Works was based at No. 22 , Tavistock Street . Strand District was abolished in October 1900 and became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster .

= = = Palaces = = =

From the 12th century onwards , large mansions lined the Strand including several palaces and townhouses inhabited by bishops and royal courtiers , mainly located on the south side , with their own river gates and landings directly on the Thames . The road was poorly maintained , with many pits and sloughs , and a paving order was issued in 1532 to improve traffic .

What later became Essex House on the Strand was originally an Outer Temple of the Knights Templar in the 11th century . In 1313 , ownership passed to the Knights of St John . Henry VIII gave the house to William , Baron Paget in the early 16th century . Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , rebuilt the house in 1563 , originally calling it Leicester House . It was renamed Essex House after being inherited by Robert Devereux , 2nd Earl of Essex , in 1588 . It was demolished around 1674 and Essex Street , leading up to the Strand , was built on the location by property speculator Nicholas Barbon .

Arundel House was originally the town house of the Bishops of Bath and Wells . It was owned by William FitzWilliam , 1st Earl of Southampton between 1539 and his death in 1542 , with ownership passing to Thomas Seymour in 1545 . After Seymour was executed in 1549 , the property was sold to Henry FitzAlan , Earl of Arundel , and was owned by the Earldom for much of the 16th and 17th century . In 1666 , it became the meeting place of the Royal Society following the destruction of the previous venue due to the Great Fire of London . The house was demolished in 1678 and Arundel Street , adjoining the Strand , was built on the site .

Somerset House was built by Edward Seymour , Duke of Somerset , regent of England from 1547 to 1549 , demolishing three inns and the church of the Nativity of Our Lady and the Innocents in the process . After Somerset was executed in 1552 , it became an occasional residence for Princess Elizabeth . On her ascension to the throne in 1558 , she returned part of the house to Seymour 's family ( with ownership passing to his son , Edward Seymour , 1st Earl of Hertford ) with the remainder being an occasional meeting place for the Royal Society . After Elizabeth 's death in 1603 , it was owned by Anne of Denmark , wife of James VI and I. The building was renamed Denmark House in commemoration of Anne 's brother , Christian IV of Denmark . Following James ' death in 1625 , his body lay there intestate for a month . It was taken over by Parliament in 1645 following the Civil War , renaming it back to Somerset House . It had an irregular series of owners and residents for much of the 18th century until its demolition in 1775 . The house was rebuilt as a series of government buildings . The Stamp Office , later to become the Inland Revenue was established in Somerset House in 1789 . In the late 20th century , a number of art galleries were set up on vacant parts , including the Courtauld Institute of Art and the King 's College London School of Law .

Savoy Palace was the London residence of John of Gaunt , King Richard II 's uncle and the nation 's power broker . In the 14th century the Savoy was the most magnificent nobleman 's mansion in England . During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , rebels , led by Wat Tyler , inflamed by opposition to the poll tax promoted by John of Gaunt , systematically demolished the Savoy and everything in it . In 1512 it was rebuilt as the Savoy Hospital for the poor . It gradually fell into dereliction and was divided into multiple tenancies . It was demolished in 1816 – 20 to build the approach road to Waterloo Bridge. eventually being demolished in the 19th century . The Savoy Hotel now occupies this site .

Durham House , the historic London residence of the Bishop of Durham , was built circa 1345 and demolished in the mid @-@ 17th century . Having once been the home of Anne Boleyn , it had become derelict by the mid @-@ 17th century and was demolished in 1660 . Durham Street and the Adelphi Buildings were built on its site . York House was built as the London residence for the Bishop of Norwich not later than 1237 . At the time of the Reformation it was acquired by King Henry VIII and came to be known as York House when he granted it to the Archbishop of York in 1556 . In the 1620s it was acquired by the royal favourite George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham , and after an interlude during the Civil War it was returned to George Villiers , 2nd Duke of Buckingham , who sold it to developers in 1672 . It was then demolished and new streets and buildings built on the site , including George Street , Villiers Street , Duke Street , Of Alley , and Buckingham Street .

Cecil House , also called Exeter House or Burghley House , built in the 16th century by Lord Burghley as an expansion of an existing Tudor house . Exeter House was demolished in 1676 and Exeter Exchange built on the site . A menagerie was built on the upper floors in 1773 , which was later run by Edward Cross , who housed lions , tigers , monkeys and hippopotami . In 1826 , an elephant , Chunee , nearly broke free from its cage and had to be destroyed ; the skeleton was later put on display . The exchange was demolished in 1829 , with the menagerie moving to the Surrey Zoological Gardens , and replaced by Exeter Hall , noted for its Evangelical meetings . This was demolished in 1907 , and the site is now occupied by the Strand Palace Hotel .

Other significant palaces along the Strand include Worcester House , formerly the Inn , or residence , of the Bishop of Carlisle . , Salisbury House , used for royal lodgings in the 15th and 16th centuries , Hungerford House , which was demolished and replaced , in turn , by Hungerford Market and Charing Cross station , and Northumberland House , a large Jacobean mansion , the historic London residence of the Dukes of Northumberland ; built in 1605 and demolished in 1874 . Northumberland Avenue now occupies the site . The official residence of the Secretary of State , next door at No. 1 the Strand , became the first numbered address in London . Apart from the rebuilt Somerset House , all of these buildings have been demolished and replaced from the 17th century onwards . A New Exchange was built on part of the gardens of Durham House , in 1608 @-@ 9 , facing the Strand . This high @-@ class shopping centre enjoyed considerable popularity but was eventually destroyed in 1737 .

= = = Modern era = = =

During the 17th century , many of the grand mansions on the Strand were demolished as the aristocracy moved to the West End . The Duck and Drake tavern on Strand was famed as a venue for the conspirators involved in the Gunpowder Plot . In the time of the Civil War , the Nag 's Head tavern was the venue of a meeting between Henry Ireton and some of the Levellers which resulted in the production of Remonstrance of the Army , demanding the abolition of the monarchy and the trial of King Charles I.

In the 18th century , coffee and chop houses were established on the street ; Twinings was established at No. 206 in 1706 by Thomas Twining , supplier of tea to Queen Anne . The company claims to be the oldest ratepayer in Westminster . The Grecian Coffee House ran from around 1702 to 1803 , while Tom 's ran from 1706 to around 1775 . Though these premises were well @-@ known , the alleyways around the Strand were regular haunts for pickpockets and prostitutes during this time . The Rose Tavern , at the eastern end of the street , was frequented by lawyers during the 18th century . It was later demolished and became Thanet Place . The Crown and Anchor was the main meeting place for the Catholic Association and helped established the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 . It was later used for Catholic politicians such as Daniel O 'Connell to address constituents . The original premises burned down in 1854 , but was rebuilt . Simpson 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Strand originally started at No. 100 in 1828 as a smoking and dining club . It later became a restaurant . The Strand was also notable in the 18th century as a centre for the British book trade , with numerous printers and publishers along the street . The prominent bookseller Andrew Millar is an example of one of the most successful publishers who owned a shop there .

King 's College London was founded in 1828 . The Strand Campus , based next to the church of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Strand , was designed by Robert Smirke and constructed in 1829 – 31 . King 's College Hospital opened as a branch of the college in 1840 , and became a constituent part of the University of London in 1908 . The current campus building was constructed in 1966 . In 2015 , the college acquired Strand House , Bush House and other buildings in the Aldwych Quarter . The Royal Courts of Justice , at the eastern end of the Strand , was designed in the mid @-@ 1860s by G.E. Street as a replacement for the older courts at Westminster Hall , though construction was so delayed that he died shortly before Queen Victoria opened the courts in 1882 . The West Green extension to the courts opened in 1911 , while the Queen 's Building opened in 1968 .

The architect John Nash redeveloped the western end of the Strand in the 1830s , including the construction of Charing Cross Hospital . In the 19th century , much of the Strand was rebuilt and the houses to the south no longer backed onto the Thames , separated from the river by the Victoria Embankment constructed in 1865 – 70 and reclaiming 37 acres ( 15 ha ) of land . The street became well known for theatres , and at one point contained more than any other ; including the Tivoli Music Hall at No. 65 , the Adelphi , Gaiety , Savoy , Terry 's and Vaudeville . In the 21st century , only the Adelphi , Vaudeville and Savoy remain . The Piccadilly branch line from Holborn to Aldwych was built partly to serve theatre traffic . The Coal Hole tavern was founded at No. 91 in the early 19th century , and frequented by coal @-@ heavers working on the Thames . The impresario Renton Nicholson held song @-@ and @-@ supper evenings at the inn , featuring tableaux vivants . The actor Edmund Kean established the Wolf Club at the venue , which is now commemorated by the Wolf Room .

Charing Cross railway station was built on the Strand in 1864 , providing a boat train service to Europe , which stimulated the growth of hotels in the area to cater for travellers . These included the Charing Cross Hotel , attached to the station itself . Today , there are several luggage outlets and tourist agents on the Strand , as well as old postage stamp dealers . The philatelist Stanley Gibbons opened a shop at No. 435 in 1891 . It moved to No. 391 in 1893 , and is now currently based at No. 399 .

The Strand Palace Hotel was designed by F.J.Wills and constructed in 1925 – 30 . The entrance was rebuilt in 1968 , with the original being moved to the Victoria and Albert Museum . The Strand underwent extensive redevelopment in the mid @-@ 20th century . The length of road from St Mary 's eastwards up to St Clement 's was widened in 1900 , subsuming the former Holywell Street which forked from the Strand and ran parallel with it to the north , leaving the two churches of St Mary Le Strand and St.Clement Danes as islands in the centre of the road . Gaiety Theatre was demolished , to be replaced by Citibank House , while Villiers House and New South Wales House were both built in 1957 – 59 . New South Wales House was subsequently demolished in 1996 and replaced by an office block . In 1998 , a statue of Oscar Wilde was built at the junction of Adelaide Street and Duncannon Street , adjoining the western end of the Strand .

= = Churches = =

The church of St Clement Danes is believed to date from the 9th century . The name may have come from Harold Harefoot , a Danish king who ruled England around 1035 – 40 and is buried in the church , or from a place of refuge for Danes after the conquest of Alfred the Great . It was transferred to the Order of the Knights Templar by Henry II in 1189 . It survived the Great Fire in 1666 , but was declared unsafe and rebuilt by Christopher Wren in 1679 . The building was damaged during the Blitz in 1941 , gutting much of the interior , and was rebuilt in 1958 by Sam Lloyd , since when it has served as the central church of the Royal Air Force . The church is one of two possible origins for the " St Clement 's " in the nursery rhyme " Oranges and Lemons " , though more contemporary accounts suggest St Clement 's , Eastcheap in the City of London to be more likely .

St Mary le Strand was designed by James Gibbs and completed in 1717 , to replace a previous church demolished to make way for Somerset House . It was the first building to be designed by Gibbs , who was influenced by Wren and Michelangelo . The column on top of the church was originally designed to support a statue of Queen Anne , but was replaced with a spire following Anne 's death in 1714 . It survived the Blitz but was in poor shape until John Betjeman led a campaign to restore it in the 1970s . Essex Street Chapel , the birthplace of British Unitarianism , abuts onto the Strand . The original chapel was built in 1774 , but damaged in the Blitz . It was restored after the war , and now serves as the denominational headquarters .

= = Notable residents = =

The print seller Rudolph Ackermann lived and worked at No. 101 The Strand between 1797 and 1827 . His shop was one of the first to have gas lighting fitted .

In the 19th century , The Strand became a newly fashionable address and many avant @-@ garde writers and thinkers gathered here , among them Thomas Carlyle , Charles Dickens , John Stuart Mill , Ralph Waldo Emerson and the scientist Thomas Henry Huxley . No. 142 was the home of radical publisher and physician John Chapman , who published contemporary authors from this house during the 1850s and edited the journal Westminster Review from 1851 . George Eliot lived at No. 142 between 1851 and 1855 . Virginia Woolf regularly travelled along the Strand , and a King 's College building named after her is in nearby Kingsway .

= = Cultural references = =

The Strand is the subject of a famous music hall song " Let 's All Go Down the Strand " , composed by Harry Castling and C. W. Murphy . The song opens with a group of tourists , staying the night at Trafalgar Square about to embark for Rhineland . The chorus of " Let 's all go down the Strand – have a banana " is now recognised as a stereotypical part of Cockney music hall and parodied by English comedian Bill Bailey . English composer Percy Grainger used the name for his 1911 piano trio Handel in the Strand .

Virginia Woolf has written about the Strand in several of her essays , including " Street Haunting : A London Adventure , " and the novel Mrs. Dalloway . T. S. Eliot alludes to the Strand in his 1905 poem " At Graduation " and in his 1922 poem " The Waste Land " ( part III , The Fire Sermon , v. 258 : " and along the Strand , up Queen Victoria Street " ) . John Masefield also refers to a " jostling in the Strand " in his poem " On Growing Old " . The street name also figures in the 1958 poem " Buses on the Strand " by Richard Percival Lister , which in 2013 was featured as part of TFL ’ s " Poems on the Underground " scheme , appearing in tube carriages all over London .

John Betjeman used the title of the song for a television documentary made for Associated @-@ Rediffusion in 1967 . The same year , Margaret Williams used it for a stage comedy . The Strand Magazine , which began publishing in 1891 , was named after the street . A BBC World Service arts and culture radio series was called The Strand . Bush House , situated on the Strand , was home to the World Service between 1941 and 2012 .

The standard British Monopoly board has the Strand in a group with two roads it connects to ; Fleet Street and Trafalgar Square .

= President Evil =

" President Evil " is the fifth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the forty @-@ ninth episode overall . Written by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and directed by Nick Marck , the episode premiered on The CW on October 31 , 2006 .

The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica investigates when two masked men rob a Halloween party and steal Veronica 's necklace from Lilly Kane ( Amanda Seyfried ) . Meanwhile , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) helps Dean O 'Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) find the biological father of his stepson , the only person who can give the stepson a life @-@ saving bone marrow transplant .

Dianna Agron , Richard Grieco , Ryan Pinkston , and Robert Ri 'chard guest star or make their first appearances as recurring characters in the episode . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics , with general praise towards Veronica and Weevil 's relationship and criticism for the case of the week and the episode 's ending .

= = Synopsis = =

Veronica shows one of the rape victims ( Krista Kalmus ) the photo of a suspect , but she doesn ’ t recognize him . In criminology class , Veronica does a case study of Weevil ( Francis Capra ) , and the class enjoys it . After the study , Veronica tells Weevil that she ’ s dating Logan ( Jason Dohring ) , and he reacts negatively . Veronica then walks into Mars Investigations and finds Cyrus O ’ Dell and his wife ( Jaime Ray Newman ) talking with Keith , while Veronica herself does some detective work . Keith informs Veronica that Dean O ’ Dell ’ s stepson is dying and that he wants Keith to find the boy ’ s biological father . At Mercer 's ( Ryan Devlin ) party , two masked men enter and steal everyone ’ s valuables , including the necklace that Lilly gave Veronica . Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) is failing his mechanical engineering class , a subject in which he wanted to major . Meanwhile , Keith tracks down the husband , and Veronica accuses Weevil of robbing the party .

At the meeting , Dean O ’ Dell ’ s wife asks the ex @-@ husband to give their son a bone marrow transplant . Meanwhile , Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) arrests Weevil for the robbery . Veronica visits Weevil in prison before she decides to look into a pizza delivered to Weevil ’ s house . Sheriff Lamb tells Keith that the ex @-@ husband has disappeared before accusing Keith in the ex @-@ husband ’ s disappearance . Keith thinks that Dean O ’ Dell was involved in the disappearance , but when he visits Dean , it turns out that Dean 's wife and stepson have disappeared to a hospital in Mexico , presumably taking the ex @-@ husband with them . Wallace visits a “ tutor ” , who gives him a mysterious “ study guide ” before going back to for the “ answers . ” Veronica notices the masks being used in a short film , but they were stolen . When they are in Mexico , Dean O ’ Dell reveals that he lied to Keith about their whereabouts .

Veronica tracks the casino robber down to a volunteer police officer . She has evidence , and the police comes to arrest him . However , they don ’ t find the necklace . At the hospital , Keith hesitates when O ’ Dell asks him what he would do if Veronica were in danger . Veronica gets her necklace back from the perpetrator ’ s daughter . Because he gave bone marrow , the ex @-@ husband now has a much more favorable divorce settlement . Veronica tracks down the suspect in the photo , Wang Yi , but his roommate tells Veronica that he is Claire ’ s boyfriend .

= = Production = =

" President Evil " was written by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and directed by Nick Marck , marking Moskin 's first writing credit , Mulei 's first writing credit for the show , and Marck 's eighth directing credit for Veronica Mars . Dianna Agron , famous for her role as Quinn Fabray on Glee , makes her first appearance on the series in this episode as Jenny , Veronica 's classmate . She would eventually appear on several episodes of the third season .

Richard Grieco , known for his role as Dennis Booker on the original 21 Jump Street TV series , appears for the first time as Steve Batando , Mindy O 'Dell 's ex @-@ husband . In 2012 , the New York Daily News called Grieco 's role on Veronica Mars " his last mainstream role " . Ryan Pinkston guest stars as Danny Rossow , a pizza shop employee . He would go on to make a guest appearance on series creator Rob Thomas 's later show Party Down . Robert Ri 'chard appears as Mason , Wallace 's friend .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original broadcast , " President Evil " was viewed by 2 @.@ 70 million viewers , ranking 99th of 101 in the weekly rankings . This figure was a decrease in 630 @,@ 000 viewers from the previous episode , Charlie Don 't Surf .

= = = Reviews = = =

The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman , writing for IGN , gave a mostly positive review , giving it a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , indicating that it was a " good " episode . He stated , " Things are still a bit wobbly on Veronica Mars this season , though this episode had some elements that hopefully herald a turn in the right direction . " While criticizing the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , he was more laudatory to the subplots , calling Sheriff Lamb arresting Weevil " the most entertaining scene of the episode " and that " the episode definitely picked up in the last act . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , gave a very mixed review , commenting positively on Veronica and Weevil 's relationship while criticizing other aspects of the episode . " While ' President Evil ' was not a favorite , and has a few annoying moments , it was generally a perfectly adequate episode of Veronica Mars . That is , until the ending . [ … ] The implication here is one that I 've been dreading for a few episodes : that the radical feminist Lilith House has staged Claire 's rape , and possibly others . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B- " .

Reviewer Alan Sepinwall also had mixed comments , comparing the episode to House and stating , " And yet as much as Veronica was annoying me , as much as I wanted to yell at her for automatically jumping to conclusions with Weevil ( more on that in a minute ) , this was maybe my favorite episode of the season . [ … ] Hell , they even had a cliffhanger ending to the mystery arc for the first time in forever . I dug it . " Price Peterson of TV.com gave a mostly negative review , writing , " This episode was not the best ! Not terrible by any means , but it felt lacking in certain ways , particularly when it came to the total lack of Piz and Dick . Where were they ? Also this episode made it clear that Logan didn 't have all that much to do on the show anymore . "

= Dave Sisler =

David Michael Sisler ( October 16 , 1931 – January 9 , 2011 ) was a professional baseball pitcher who played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1956 through 1962 . Early in his career , Sisler was a starter , then later was used as a middle reliever and occasionally as a closer . He reached the majors in 1956 with the Boston Red Sox after he completed a two @-@ year obligation in the active military . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons with the Red Sox , he was traded to the Detroit Tigers in 1959 and served the team through the 1960 season . Before the 1961 season , he was selected by the Washington Senators in the 1960 Major League Baseball expansion draft , for whom he played the 1961 season . He was then traded to the Cincinnati Reds in 1962 , playing one season at the major league level , and one in their minor league system .

His most productive years came with Boston , where he won 24 games from 1956 to 1958 , averaging 138 innings each season . After that , he appeared strictly as a reliever and saved a career @-@ high 11 games for the Senators . In a seven @-@ season career , Sisler posted a 38 – 44 record with a 4 @.@ 33 ERA in 247 appearances , including 29 saves , 12 complete games , one shutout and 656 ⅓ innings . Sisler retired from baseball after the 1963 season to become an investment firm executive , a career that lasted for over 30 years , retiring as a vice @-@ chairman for A. G. Edwards .

His father , Hall of Famer George Sisler ; and one of his brothers , Dick Sisler , also played baseball at the major league level ; while another brother , George Sisler , Jr . , was a general manager for several minor league baseball teams , and later became president of the International League from 1966 to 1976 .

= = Early life = =

Sisler was born on October 16 , 1931 , in St. Louis , Missouri , to George Sisler , a Baseball Hall of Fame player , and Kathleen . He played baseball in high school and when he was 16 he went to work for his father who was a coach in the Brooklyn Dodgers organization . Dave kept statistics and was occasionally allowed to pitch . The Dodgers did not envision a future with him and did not pursue a contract due to his commitment to Princeton and future military obligation . Sisler was signed by the Boston Red Sox of the American League ( AL ) after his time with Princeton , and began his professional baseball career at the age of 21 in 1953 for the Albany Senators in the class @-@ A Eastern League . He pitched in 21 games that season , 20 as their starting pitcher ; he had a 12 – 7 win – loss record , an ERA of 2 @.@ 60 in 135 innings pitched . He did not play professional baseball in either 1954 or 1955 due to his active military service .

= = Major League career = =

= = = Boston Red Sox = = =

After his military commitment , he re @-@ joined the organization , and began the season with the Red Sox . He made his major league debut on April 26 , 1956 , a one @-@ inning relief appearance against the New York Yankees . His first MLB victory came seven days later , a three @-@ inning relief appearance against the Yankees in Boston . On August 5 , in his sixth start , he pitched a seven @-@ inning complete game 2 @-@ 1 victory over the Cleveland Indians and their pitching star , future Hall of Famer Bob Lemon . In total , he appeared in 39 games his first season , 14 as their starting pitcher , had a 9 – 8 win – loss record with three saves , 98 strikeouts , and a 4 @.@ 66 ERA in 142 ⅓ inning pitched . He tied for the AL league with a 1 @.@ 000 fielding percentage by not committing a single error , although he had the sixth highest total of hit batsmen with seven . Following the season , Sisler was praised for his performance ; he was selected by Boston area sportswriters as the " Harry Agganis Award " winner , given annually to whom they voted as the top Boston Red Sox rookie , and was named to the 1956 " Rookie All @-@ Star Team " .

On January 17 , 1957 , Sisler was re @-@ signed by the Red Sox . The Red Sox expected Sisler to be a candidate for a pitching rotation slot . He impressed his coaching staff during early spring practices , manager Mike " Pinky " Higgins commented that Sisler " looks good ; he 's more mature and shows more confidence " . When the regular season began , he was initially effective , winning three games against one defeat in his first four starts , including two complete game victories against the Yankees . At this point , he was 4 – 0 against the Yankees , earning him the moniker " Yankee Killer " from sportswriter Chester L. Smith of the Pittsburgh Press . Although his ERA of 4 @.@ 88 was considered high , it was due in large part to his loss against the Kansas City Athletics who scored six earned runs in just two innings . On July 4 , he defeated the Yankees once again , making him 5 – 0 against them in his career , and 7 – 4 overall for the 1957 season , and had lowered his ERA to 4 @.@ 02 . That was his last victory of the season , however , which he followed with two consecutive losses , pitching a total of four innings ; he did not appear in another game until September 2 . He recorded a save against the Baltimore Orioles on September 7 , but closed the season with two consecutive losses against the Yankees , though he pitched well in the second game , giving up just three hits and two earned runs in eight innings . His season totals include a 7 – 8 record , and a 4 @.@ 72 ERA in 122 ⅓ inning pitched .

Sisler began the 1958 spring training in spectacular form , pitching a total of nine hitless innings and allowed just one baserunner in 28 batters faced ; the last 27 in order . However , he finished the spring with two consecutive losses , including one to the Pittsburgh Pirates , with whom his father was a special assistant to their manager . He opened the regular season with a complete game victory against the Yankees on April 16 . On May 2 , he pitched his only career complete game shutout , a 6 – 0 victory against the Detroit Tigers and future Hall of Famer Jim Bunning , improving his record to 3 – 1 for the season . Over the next two months , his average innings pitched declined during his starts , and on several occasions he entered the game in relief . He went winless from June 12 to August 9 , when he defeated the Yankees . He recorded just one more victory in 1958 , and completed the season with an 8 – 9 record , a 4 @.@ 94 ERA , and 71 strikeouts in a career @-@ high 149 ⅓ innings pitched .

On February 8 , 1959 , the Red Sox announced that they had Sisler signed for the 1959 season . After what was considered a " disappointing " season , he did not impress with his first outing in spring training , giving up two hits and five bases on balls in just two innings of work . Lack of pitching depth was a noted weakness for the Red Sox entering the season , with unpredictable youth and with hopes that Sisler could regain his previous level of success . Sisler opened the season slated as a relief pitcher with the idea that he would start in certain cases . In three relief appearances through April , he had a 6 @.@ 75 ERA in 6 ⅔ inning pitched . Management decided that his performance along with a pitching staff that they considered inexperienced , Sisler and Ted Lepcio were traded to the Detroit Tigers on May 2 for starting pitcher Billy Hoeft .

= = = Detroit Tigers = = =

Hoeft , who won 20 games for the Tigers in 1956 , had continually under @-@ performed since , and was noted for being in the manager 's " doghouse " ; however , TimesDaily sportswriter Hap Halbrooks commented , " I can 't see where they ( Tigers ) gained a thing in this transaction . " The Tigers had lost 15 of their first 17 games of the season before the trade and decided that changes were needed . In addition to the Sisler trade they fired manager Bill Norman and replaced him with Jimmy Dykes . These moves initially proved effective , sparking a winning game streak , which began by defeating the Yankees in both games of a doubleheader on May 3 . Continuing their rebound , the Tigers faced the Red Sox next , winning two of three , and Sisler pitched a scoreless one @-@ inning relief appearance against his former team on May 6 . Used exclusively in relief , Sisler pitched in 32 games for the Tigers , winning one game against three losses and collected seven saves , which was seventh most in the AL , and he did not record an error .

Sisler returned to the Tigers for the 1960 season , and manager Dykes noted that he was not confident that his bullpen could help when needed , pointing to the previous season as a reference . The Tigers bullpen had won just nine games in 1959 , but began 1960 with three straight victories , with Sisler pitching a scoreless two @-@ inning appearance on April 22 . His performance was considered a surprise , due to having a poor spring training . Although he pitched well in his first game of the season , he quickly lost his form , and by May 18 , his ERA had risen to 5 @.@ 06 and had a 1 – 2 record . It was at this point in the season that he began to turn his fortunes around and regained his effectiveness , and by August 12 he had lowered his ERA to 1 @.@ 90 . His season totals included a 2 @.@ 47 ERA and a 7 @-@ 5 win @-@ loss record , both career bests , and added six saves in 80 innings pitched .

= = = Washington Senators = = =

After the 1960 season , it was announced that the AL were going to create two new teams , one in Los Angeles and one in Washington , D. C. Although he was thought of as the Tigers ' best reliever during the season , Sisler was listed by the Tigers as eligible for the 1960 Major League Baseball expansion draft . The draft occurred on December 14 , 1960 and Sisler was selected by the Washington Senators with the fourth overall pick . The Senators received communication from several teams that were interested in Sisler , namely the Milwaukee Braves of the National League ( NL ) and the Athletics , but decided to trade their first pick in the expansion draft , Bobby Shantz , instead . New manager Mickey Vernon defined Sisler 's role with the team before the season began , designating him as their top relief pitcher . Sisler felt slighted by the Tigers , having been left unprotected by the team , and had considered retiring from baseball , but ultimately decided to sign with the Senators .

Sisler was solid for much of the first half of the season , not allowing an earned run until May 19 , and by June 5 he had an ERA of 0 @.@ 74 , a 1 – 0 record with seven saves . It was at the point that his effectiveness declined rapidly , allowing runs to score in four of his next five appearances . In a game against the Red Sox on June 18 , he relieved starter Carl Mathias , and immediately gave up bases on balls to the first two batters he faced , which forced in two runs , then gave up a grand slam to Jim Pagliaroni . He followed with another base on balls , and was relieved without having recording an out . Over the course of the next couple months , with his ERA steadily rising , his playing time was lessened , making just six appearances in the month of July , and five in August . He made his last major league start on August 31 against the Tigers , giving up seven hits and six earned runs for the loss . In 45 total appearances in 1961 , he had a 2 – 8 win @-@ loss record and finished sixth in AL with 11 saves . On September 16 , the Senators agreed to send $ 75 @,@ 000 ( $ 593 @,@ 900 current dollar adjustment ) and a player to be named later to the Cincinnati Reds of the NL for pitcher Claude Osteen . To complete the transaction , Washington sent Sisler to the Reds as that player named on November 28 .

= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =

The Reds were the NL champions in 1961 , and with the addition of Sisler , Dave Hillman , and Moe Drabowsky to ensure stability to their pitching staff in 1962 , the team 's management had high hopes of a return to the World Series . Sisler , who was expected to be used as a relief pitcher , joined a Reds team that already had his brother Dick , who was their first base coach . His father , still with Pittsburgh , mentioned that he was relieved that his son did not play in a recent series between the Pirates and Reds , recalling how the mixed emotions he felt when his elder son , Dick , helped defeat the Dodgers in an important game in 1950 by hitting a home run . The younger Sisler 's season did not begin well ; in his ten appearances by June 5 , he allowed a run in all but three , and had a 4 @.@ 97 ERA . On June 19 , Sisler pitched a scoreless inning in victory against the Pirates , the time first time George watched his son pitch as an opponent . Although Sisler 's season was a disappointment , he completed the season well , allowing just one earned run over the course of his final eight games , as well as earning the victory on September 23 , his final major league appearance . His totals for the season included a 4 – 3 record , a 3 @.@ 92 ERA , and one save in 43 ⅔ innings pitched .

For the coming 1963 season , manager Fred Hutchinson envisioned the same the role for Sisler , coming out of the bullpen with the idea that he would occasionally start . The Reds announced on February 9 that Sisler had signed for the 1963 season , although he did not make the Reds ' NL club and was optioned to their class @-@ AAA team , the San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) . In 35 games pitched for the Padres , he started six , had a 6 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 40 ERA in 90 innings . On March 18 , 1964 , it was announced that Sisler retired from baseball to join an Investment company .

= = Later life = =

After his baseball career , Sisler became an executive with the investment firm A. G. Edwards for more than 30 years , reaching the level of vice @-@ chairman . A. G. Edwards was a sponsor of a semi @-@ professional baseball team located in St. Petersburg , Florida ; when the " Stockbrokers " were invited to play in season @-@ ending tournament to decide a champion , Sisler , a senior executive for the firm , denied the funding for the team , forcing them to decline if no other monies were raised . It was an unexpected decision considering that Sisler was former baseball player , but he did not feel that A. G. Edwards was benefitting , with the costs of running the team becoming more than originally agreed to by contract .

In 2004 , the possibility arose of his father 's record of 257 hits in a season being surpassed by Ichiro Suzuki of the Seattle Mariners . Living in Dallas , Texas at the time , Sisler and his son Dave followed Ichiro 's progress throughout the season . Both had mixed feelings about the record chase ; they were happy that George Sisler 's name was being talked about and that people were re @-@ discovering him as a player , but both were hoping that , if the record was not broken in 154 games , there would be an asterisk noting that it took Ichiro more games to achieve it . Ichiro finished the season with 262 hits , and the Mariners extended an invitation for the entire Sisler family to attend the celebration at Safeco Field . The younger Sisler was prevented by an emergency heart procedure from travelling to Seattle . Both remarked that the Mariners were a classy organization for extending the invitation .

Sisler died on January 9 , 2011 of prostate cancer at the age of 79 in St. Louis , Missouri . He was survived by his wife Janet , son and three grandchildren .

= Cole Hamels =

Colbert Michael " Cole " Hamels ( born December 27 , 1983 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played in MLB for the Philadelphia Phillies from 2006 to 2015 .

Originally from San Diego , California , Hamels excelled in Rancho Bernardo High School both academically and athletically . The Phillies drafted him out of high school in the first round of the 2002 MLB Draft ( 17th ) , and he began his career in the Phillies minor league system . Numerous issues , including an injury sustained in a bar fight as well as other injuries , occurred during his first few minor league seasons . Having reached the Triple @-@ A level , he was the top pitcher in the Phillies ' minor league system in 2006 .

In May 2006 , Hamels made his major league debut for the Phillies . After securing a long @-@ term spot as a member of the Phillies starting rotation in his rookie season , he made large strides in the 2007 Major League Baseball season and won the Phillies ' top major league pitcher award . He was the top pitcher on the team entering the 2008 season , and during the Phillies ' postseason run , during which they ultimately won the 2008 World Series , he won the World Series Most Valuable Player Award . Since then , he has been a top starter in the Phillies ' rotation . After the 2008 season , Hamels signed a three @-@ year contract with the Phillies . His statistics declined over the next two seasons , struggling through a tumultuous 2009 campaign and somewhat bouncing back in 2010 , however still not approaching his 2008 numbers . Over the next few seasons , Hamels was joined by fellow all @-@ star pitchers including Roy Halladay , Cliff Lee , and Roy Oswalt , and flourished with them , putting up some of his top career seasons before suffering from poor run support in 2013 . With the decline of his aging teammates as the team missed the postseason for the next few years , Hamels remained one of the Phillies ' consistent stars . Hamels was traded to the Texas Rangers in 2015 where he sparked their run to the AL West title .

= = Early life = =

Cole Hamels attended Meadowbrook Middle School and Rancho Bernardo High School in San Diego . He was a " gifted student " , and scored a 1510 ( out of 1600 ) on the SAT . Scouts were interested in Hamels while he was in high school primarily because his fastball was clocked as high as 94 miles per hour ( 151 km / h ) , and his secondary offerings were considered advanced . However , some teams lost interest when Hamels broke his left humerus during his sophomore year . Nonetheless , Hamels was drafted in the first round of the 2002 Major League Baseball draft by the Philadelphia Phillies , who held the 17th overall selection .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Minor league career = = =

Hamels began his professional baseball career in 2003 , pitching for the Class A Lakewood BlueClaws of the South Atlantic League . Later that season , he was promoted to the Clearwater Threshers of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League . He finished the year by receiving the Paul Owens Award , given to the best pitcher in the Phillies ' minor league system .

During the next two seasons , however , Hamels suffered through several injuries , and pitched only sparingly . He missed most of the 2004 season with elbow tendinitis , making only four starts . In 2005 , he broke his pitching hand in a bar fight before the season began ; after rehabilitation , he was assigned to Clearwater . In July , the Phillies promoted him to the Class AA Reading Phillies of the Eastern League , where he surrendered the first home run of his professional career in his first start . Subsequently , he was shut down for the remainder of the season with back spasms .

In 2006 , a healthy Hamels started again at Clearwater , and after a brief stint in Reading , he was promoted to the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Red Barons of the Class AAA International League . In three games at Scranton , he struck out 36 batters while giving up only one walk and one run . His minor league statistics included a record of 14 – 4 with a 1 @.@ 43 ERA and 273 strikeouts in 35 games pitched . For his performance , the Phillies promoted him to the major league club .

= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =

= = = = 2006 = = = =

Hamels was called up to the Philadelphia Phillies in May 2006 . In his Major League Baseball debut on May 12 , he pitched five scoreless innings , allowing one hit , striking out seven batters , walked five , while earning a no @-@ decision against the Cincinnati Reds . In his second career start , Hamels was dominant until the seventh inning , during which he was pulled after he allowed several baserunners , but again received a no @-@ decision . A shoulder injury scratched Hamels from the lineup of what would have originally been his third major league start . He was put on the 15 @-@ day disabled list and returned on June 6 to defeat the Arizona Diamondbacks 10 – 1 for his first Major League victory . On August 14 , 2006 , Hamels had his best start of his rookie season , shutting out the New York Mets over eight innings and striking out nine in the Phillies ' 13 – 0 victory . He finished his rookie season with a 9 – 8 record , a 4 @.@ 08 earned run average ( ERA ) , and 145 strikeouts ( third among NL rookies ) in 132 1 ⁄ 3 innings ( sixth among NL rookies ) .

= = = = 2007 = = = =

Hamels entered the 2007 season having done significant work in the weight room in the offseason and at spring training . His tenacity came to fruition when , on April 21 , 2007 , Hamels pitched his first major league complete game , allowing one run on five hits and two walks while setting a career high with 15 strikeouts . Just three days before , the Phillies moved their opening day starter Brett Myers to the bullpen to be the closer , making Hamels the team 's number one starter . On May 16 , he carried a perfect game into the seventh inning , but then walked leadoff hitter Rickie Weeks and surrendered a home run to the next batter , J. J. Hardy .

For his strong performance during the first half of the season , Hamels was , for the first time in his career , selected a member of the NL All Star Team . As Hamels had been the Phillies only consistent starter to that point , even to the point that one columnist said the Phillies are a joke " as long as we are forced to look forward to someone other than Cole Hamels on the mound " , the Phillies acquired Kyle Lohse to supplement the rotation soon before the trading deadline . Several weeks later , Hamels was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list ( DL ) with a mild left elbow strain . After the Phillies activated him from the DL , on September 28 , he helped the Phillies take over first place in the National League East by striking out 13 Washington Nationals over 8 innings in a 6 – 0 win . Two days later , the team clinched a spot in the playoffs for the first time in 14 years . In the first game of the National League Division Series , he started for the Phillies , but surrendered three runs , three hits , and an " uncharacteristic " four walks , while striking out seven in 62 ⁄ 3 innings ; he was assessed the loss . Ultimately , the Phillies lost the series . Hamels finished with a regular @-@ season record of 15 – 5 , a 3 @.@ 39 ERA , and 177 strikeouts in 183 1 ⁄ 3 innings . The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America presented him the " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher " award .

= = = = 2008 = = = =

Before the season began in March , Hamels made a complaint about the Phillies underpaying him , saying it was a " low blow " and he was " caught off @-@ guard " with the gap between what he and his agent John Boggs felt was a fair reward for his performance in the previous season and what he was paid ( the Phillies paid him US $ 500 @,@ 000 , barely above the minimum salary for MLB players despite Hamels ' strong performance ) .

Though Hamels was the " clear @-@ cut ace " , Charlie Manuel penciled in Brett Myers as the Phillies ' opening day starter because Myers accepted his role as closer the preceding season , putting the team ahead of his personal wishes to start .

By the end of April , Hamels led the Phillies in most pitching categories , including wins ( 3 ) , ERA ( 2 @.@ 70 ) , and innings pitched ( 43 ⅓ ) . Continuing his dominance into May , Hamels recorded his first career complete game shutout against the Atlanta Braves on the 15th of that month . By June , Myers had been demoted to the minor leagues due to his ineffectiveness , leaving Hamels alone atop the rotation . Hamels was snubbed from a selection to the All @-@ Star Game despite strong numbers . For the season , Hamels was 14 – 10 with a 3 @.@ 09 ERA and 196 strikeouts in 227 1 ⁄ 3 innings ; he had the lowest on @-@ base percentage @-@ against ( OBP ) in the majors at .272 . FanGraphs also rated his changeup as the most effective in the majors .

Hamels pitched in Game 1 of the National League Division Series against the Brewers , pitching " eight spectacular two @-@ hit shutout innings " during which he struck out nine hitters , notching his first career playoff win , and the Phillies ' first playoff win since 1993 . He commented , " I knew the importance of the game . And it 's something where , because of last year , I learned what it really takes in trying to ... kind of mellow out , not to have that sort of excitement where you can 't really control everything . " He was named the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the National League Championship Series , going 2 – 0 in the NLCS with a 1 @.@ 93 ERA and winning the series clincher on October 15 in Los Angeles .

Hamels was selected the Phillies starter for Game 1 of the World Series ; the Phillies won 3 – 2 , and Hamels earned his fourth win of the postseason . Hamels also started Game 5 , which was suspended due to rain after the top of the sixth inning tied at 2 @-@ 2 , and receiving a no @-@ decision ; when game five resumed the Phillies won 4 @-@ 3 to clinch the World Series . Overall , Hamels made five postseason starts in 2008 , going 4 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 80 ERA . Hamels threw a total of 35 innings during the postseason , and held opponents scoreless in 28 of them ; he never allowed more than one run in any of the seven innings in which he did not hold opponents scoreless . Hamels was named the 2008 World Series MVP .

Subsequently , Jayson Stark wrote ,

The names on the list are the names who have carved their legends in the month of October ... We know their names because October was their kind of month , and they belong on that list because they once did something very few pitchers have ever done . They all won four starts in the same postseason . And now they have company ... a 24 @-@ year @-@ old left @-@ hander named Cole Hamels . And with every time the Phillies handed him the baseball in October 2009 , it became more apparent that he is one of the sports ' most special talents .

The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America presented him the " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher " award for the second consecutive year .

= = = = 2009 = = = =

Hamels started his 2009 season by signing a three @-@ year , $ 20 @.@ 5 million contract with the Phillies . On February 14 , the first day of spring training for pitchers and catchers , when asked who the Opening Day starter would be , manager Charlie Manuel responded , " Yeah , you might as well go ahead and pencil him in . I don 't think there 's any sense in me playing games . Go ahead , pencil him in . "

However , Hamels left spring training on March 16 after feeling tightness between innings , and flew to Philadelphia to have his left elbow examined by Dr. Michael Ciccotti . " This will obviously set me back a couple of days , and I don 't think that should be a big deal " , said Hamels . Ciccotti found no structural damage in his arm , yet Hamels still did not pitch on Opening Day as expected ; Myers did for the third consecutive season . For the first time in his career , he went winless in his first four starts , and left back @-@ to @-@ back starts early due to injury in late April , sustaining a left @-@ shoulder contusion and an ankle sprain respectively . From June on , however , he returned to his previous form , recording two complete @-@ game shutouts ( tied for the NL @-@ lead ) , striking out at least 10 batters in two separate games , and amassing a 21 @-@ inning scoreless streak from August 21 to September 6 , while allowing just two home runs in his final eight starts . In July , the Phillies augmented their starting rotation by acquiring two former Cy Young Award winners in Cliff Lee and Pedro Martínez from a trade and a free agent signing respectively . Due to his early season injury struggles , Hamels posted a 10 – 11 record and a 4 @.@ 32 ERA in the regular season , his first major league season in which he posted a sub-.500 record , and the worst ERA of his career to that point .

Hamels started Game 2 of the 2009 National League Division Series against the Colorado Rockies , allowing four earned runs through five innings to take the loss . Nevertheless , the Phillies won the series , three games to one . He earned the win in Game 1 of the National League Championship Series as the Phillies beat the Dodgers , 8 – 6 . Hamels started Game 3 of the World Series against the New York Yankees , pitching 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings , allowing 5 earned runs and taking the loss as the Yankees won that game 8 @-@ 5 . Afterward , he told reporters , " I can 't wait for it ( the season ) to end . It 's been mentally draining . It 's one of those things where , a year in , you just can ’ t wait for a fresh start . " Later in the series , after the Phillies won game five , a confrontational Brett Myers mockingly asked Hamels : " What are you doing here ? I thought you quit . " The Phillies lost the World Series to the New York Yankees in six games .

Rob Neyer a sabermetrician and columnist for ESPN.com , contradicted anyone who asserted Hamels ' skills had deteriorated , instead commenting ,

" Last October , everybody was ready to anoint Hamels some sort of superhero . This was largely because he went 4 – 0 during the Phillies ' championship run , but also because he went 14 – 10 with a 3 @.@ 09 ERA during the regular season . Last season , Hamels ' strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio was 3 @.@ 7 ; this year it 's 3 @.@ 8 . Last year , Hamels gave up 1 @.@ 1 home runs per nine innings ; this year he 's given up 1 @.@ 3 homers per nine . The only real difference between the 2008 Hamels and the 2009 Hamels is luck . "

Phillies ' pitching coach Rich Dubee and Hamels himself blamed Hamels ' demeanor for some of his decline , noting , " He is such a perfectionist … his approach wasn ’ t very good last year . His success won ’ t come back until his demeanor changes " and " The more angry you get , it 's that much tougher to execute your next pitch . I think I let [ expectations ] get to me " respectively .

= = = = 2010 = = = =

Entering the 2010 season , the Phillies traded away Cliff Lee , but in doing so , acquired Roy Halladay in a " mega @-@ trade " . They did not re @-@ sign Myers , and Halladay was named the Phillies ' opening day starter . Among Hamels ' season highlights were a start on June 7 against the San Diego Padres during which he threw 61 ⁄ 3 innings of no @-@ hit baseball , winning five consecutive starts including three consecutive scoreless starts from late @-@ August to mid @-@ September , and striking out 13 batters , tied for his second @-@ highest career total , on September 13 against the Florida Marlins .

The Phillies finished with the best record in MLB . Hamels started Game 3 of the National League Division Series against the Cincinnati Reds and , for the first time in his postseason career , pitched a complete game shutout . The Phillies advanced to the National League Championship Series facing the San Francisco Giants , where Hamels took the loss in Game 3 giving up three runs as the Giants ' Matt Cain shutout the Phillies , en route to the Phillies ' ultimate elimination in six games .

Statistically , Hamels rebounded from his previous season by posting a 12 – 11 record with a 3 @.@ 06 ERA , the latter of which was , at the time , a career @-@ best . He also struck out a career high 211 batters . Throughout the season , he was plagued by a lack of run support ; in 1 ⁄ 3 of his starts , the Phillies did not score a single run while he was in the game . Moreover , he received the fifth @-@ lowest run support in the NL . Nevertheless , he allowed three or fewer earned runs in 26 of his 33 starts . Jeff Nelson " facetiously " evaluated Hamels ' season as follows :

" Headcase . Immature . Soft . Unprepared . He wouldn ’ t pitch on three @-@ days rest if asked . He 's not a big game pitcher . He sounds like a whiny 7 @-@ year old – these were some of the descriptions I heard and read from many Phillies fans following Cole Hamels ’ disappointing 2009 season . Heck , some people even wanted him traded after what he said during the ’ 09 World Series . To the naked eye , Cole just wasn ’ t right two years ago . Fast forward a year later and Hamels all the sudden ‘ found his game . ’ He ‘ flicked a switch ’ or ‘ put his game face on . ’ He was more prepared heading in to 2010 or he was cured from the Verducci effect . "

= = = = 2011 = = = =

On December 15 , 2010 , Cliff Lee returned to the Phillies as he signed a free @-@ agent contract with Philadelphia for five years and $ 120 million with a vesting option for a sixth year . After this signing , the Phillies ' starting rotation consisted of Roy Halladay , Roy Oswalt , Cliff Lee , Cole Hamels , and Joe Blanton . This rotation was considered one of the best in pitching history by many . Halladay , Oswalt , Lee , and Hamels were dubbed the ' Phantastic Phour ' by fans and the media .

Hamels entered the 2011 season with a large amount of excitement and hype from fans and the media . By the All @-@ Star game , Hamels was 4 – 3 . On July 3 , when the rosters for the 2011 MLB All @-@ Star Game in Phoenix , Arizona were broadcast on TBS , it was announced that Hamels was voted onto the National League team along with fellow pitchers and teammates Roy Halladay , Cliff Lee , Plácido Polanco , and Shane Victorino . He was not eligible to play , however , because he had pitched the Sunday prior to the All @-@ Star Game . Hamels shared his dismay with this rule , saying , " It 's one of those things where people who don 't play the game make the rules . "

The Phillies finished with the best record in MLB for the second year in a row . In the 2011 National League Division Series against the St. Louis Cardinals , Hamels started Game 3 which resulted in a 3 @-@ 2 win to give the Phillies a 2 @-@ 1 series lead , however the Phillies would lose Games 4 and 5 to be eliminated .

Hamels finished the 2011 season with a record of 14 – 9 , 194 strikeouts , an ERA of 2 @.@ 79 , and a 0 @.@ 986 WHIP . He finished fifth in the Cy Young Award voting behind Clayton Kershaw , Roy Halladay , Cliff Lee , and Ian Kennedy , respectively .

= = = = 2012 = = = =

During the 2011 off @-@ season , Hamels underwent elbow and hernia surgeries . Hamels had missed scheduled starts in August due to a stiff shoulder , and loose bodies were removed from his elbow to fix his problems . Hamels was ready to pitch by the start of Spring training 2012 .

On January 17 , Hamels and the Philadelphia Phillies agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 15 million contract to avoid arbitration . This was the highest salary ever paid to a pitcher eligible for arbitration before free agency .

On May 6 , Hamels was suspended for five games after hitting Bryce Harper in his lower back with a pitch , after admitting that it was intentional . On July 21 , 2012 , Hamels hit his first career home run off San Francisco Giants pitcher Matt Cain , who had homered off of him in the top half of the same inning , the first time in MLB that two pitchers had hit home runs off of each other in the same inning .

Hamels would stay a Phillie when he agreed to a contract extension on July 24 . The six @-@ year , $ 144 million contract was the second @-@ largest contract ever signed by a pitcher . The deal included a vesting option for 2019 worth $ 24 million . If the option didn 't vest , it would have turned into a club option for $ 20 million that included a $ 6 million buyout .

Hamels finished the season with career highs in wins ( 17 ) and strikeouts ( 216 ) , and finished eighth in the NL Cy Young Award voting . His 3 @.@ 05 ERA ranked second @-@ best in his career ( behind only his 2 @.@ 79 ERA in 2011 ) . The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America presented him the " Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher " award .

= = = = 2013 = = = =

Before the 2013 season in spring training , manager Charlie Manuel named Hamels the 2013 opening day starter , which Matt Gelb of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote was a " long time coming " . In his first career opening day start on April 1 against the Atlanta Braves , Hamels surrendered five earned runs in five innings and took the loss .

Particularly early in the season , Hamels was plagued by a lack of run support ; as of May 27 , he had the fifth @-@ lowest in the major leagues . He lost his eighth start on May 27 , declining to a record of 1 – 8 , which one Sports Illustrated column attributed more to the Phillies poor offense than Hamels . Nevertheless , it was " easily ... Hamels ’ worst performance of his eight @-@ year career " . Aside from offensive struggles while Hamels was pitching , the Phillies defense struggled , though Hamels kept a positive attitude , once commenting that his luck should improve , as " I 've been doing pretty well on the plane in poker . " Towards the end of the season , however , Hamels " put it together " ; in his final 11 starts. he surrendered more than three runs only once . In total , he amassed an 8 – 14 record with a 3 @.@ 60 ERA in 220 innings and 202 strikeouts ( sixth in NL ) . Despite struggles from his teammates , Bill Baer noted that Hamels ,

" ... was worse at generating swings and misses . His strikeout rate declined by 2 @.@ 6 percent and his overall swinging strike rate declined by 2 @.@ 1 percent . That doesn ’ t seem like a whole lot , but consider that opposing hitters swung at 1 @,@ 774 pitches during the 2013 season . A 2 @.@ 1 percent decrease means 37 fewer swings and misses . That 's a combination of 37 more balls in play or foul balls prolonging an at @-@ bat . "

Despite Hamels ' poor record and ERA , 25 of his 33 starts were quality starts , and thus he gave his team a chance to win 25 times , yet only got eight wins .

= = = = 2014 = = = =

Before the 2014 season , Hamels announced that he would not be ready to pitch on Opening Day because of tendonitis in his biceps . On April 6 Hamels pitched in a Minor League Class A @-@ Advanced game , striking out four while allowing two earned runs on three hits in four innings . He made his first start of the season on April 23 .

Despite lack of run support contributing to a poor win @-@ loss record , Hamels was among the best pitchers in the National League , and was even mentioned as a Cy Young candidate . On September 1 , Hamels pitched six innings of a Phillies combined no @-@ hitter against the Atlanta Braves . Hamels was pulled for a pinch hitter in the top of the seventh due to having five walks , a hit @-@ batter , and 108 pitches through six innings . Overall , Hamels was the only consistent star on the Phillies , finished sixth in Cy Young voting , and was frequently mentioned as a candidate to be traded in the offseason to bolster the Phillies ' lackluster farm system , after he avoided being dealt at the July trading deadline .

= = = = 2015 = = = =

At the start of the 2015 season , there was much focus and speculation regarding trade possibilities surrounding Hamels . The Boston Red Sox , Los Angeles Dodgers , Texas Rangers , Chicago Cubs , New York Yankees , and San Francisco Giants expressed interest in trading for him during the 2015 season .

On July 25 , 2015 , in what would be his final start for the Phillies before being traded , Hamels no @-@ hit the Chicago Cubs 5 – 0 at Wrigley Field , striking out 13 and only giving up two walks , both to Dexter Fowler and besting the Cubs ' Jake Arrieta — himself a no @-@ hit pitcher a month later , on August 30 of that season . It was the first no @-@ hitter against the Cubs since Sandy Koufax 's perfect game in 1965 , and first at Wrigley since the Cubs ' Milt Pappas in 1972 . Hamels also joined Vida Blue , Mike Witt , Kent Mercker and Kevin Millwood as no @-@ hit pitchers who also pitched in a combined no @-@ hitter .

= = = Texas Rangers = = =

On July 31 , 2015 , Hamels was traded to the Texas Rangers along with Jake Diekman in exchange for Matt Harrison , Nick Williams , Jorge Alfaro , Jake Thompson , Alec Asher , and Jerad Eickhoff . Hamels became the first pitcher to be traded during a regular season after pitching a no @-@ hitter in his final start with the team that traded him . Bert Blyleven had been the last pitcher to pitch a no @-@ hitter in his final start with the team that traded him ; after pitching a no @-@ hitter for the Rangers in his final start of the 1977 season , he was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates that offseason .

With the Rangers , Hamels went 7 @-@ 1 in 12 starts with a 3 @.@ 66 ERA . The Rangers were under .500 as late as August 3 but posted a winning record for the remainder of the 2015 season and eventually overtook the Houston Astros in September for the American League West division lead . The Rangers clinched the AL West title on the final day of the season , as Hamels threw a complete @-@ game three @-@ hitter in a 9 @-@ 2 win over the Los Angeles Angels , the team 's 6th division title and 7th postseason appearance in franchise history . Hamels ' positive effect on the Rangers was compared to that of the Toronto Blue Jays ' David Price , another ace starting pitcher who helped spearhead a run to the postseason after blending in seamlessly with a struggling team who acquired him at the trade deadline .

The Rangers lost to the Toronto Blue Jays in five games in the Division Series after squandering a 2 @-@ 0 series lead . Hamels received a no @-@ decision in Game 2 as he left the game tied , but the Rangers won in 14 innings . Hamels started Game 5 , and was pulled in the bottom of the 7th inning while the Rangers were leading 3 @-@ 2 ; the Jays subsequently scored 4 runs to win 6 @-@ 3 , and Hamels was charged with the loss as he was responsible for the runners on base .

Starting in 2016 , the Texas Rangers have a special cheering section known as Hamels Heroes , whenever Hamels starts at Globe Life Park . It was inspired by the success of the Seattle Mariners ' " King 's Court " for Felix Hernandez .

Hamels was named the Opening Day starter for the Rangers in 2016 . On Opening Day , after allowing two home runs in two innings , Hamels calmed down to pitch 7 strong innings , while only allowing two runs on 4 hits and 8 strikeouts for a 2016 Opening Day win against the Seattle Mariners . On June 12 , in a start against Seattle , Hamels recorded his 2,000th career strikeout , becoming the 77th player , and 7th active player , to reach the milestone .

= = Scouting report = =

Hamels is known throughout baseball for possessing one of the better changeups in the game . In 2012 , Fangraphs ranked Hamels as having the fourth best changeup in the game trailing only Jason Vargas , Tommy Milone , and Félix Hernández . The Hardball Times called his changeup a " killer " pitch to right @-@ handed hitters , noting that while it is also effective against left @-@ handed hitters , when they put it in play , they generally have success . Rangers pitching coach Mike Maddux said of Hamels ,

" It 's a difficult task to try to get young guys to throw changeups , because their whole amateur career is spent staring at the scout with the gun . For a young guy to have a good changeup , that 's an aptitude right there . It 's pitchability . "

The development of Hamels ' changeup is attributed by his high school pitching coach , Mark Furtak , to the fact that in high school he broke his arm . He could no longer work on his curveball for several months , and was forced to focus on the changeup . Chipper Jones , who was a star @-@ third baseman for the rival Atlanta Braves commented that Hamels is the " best lefthander in the National League ... you have to respect his fastball , and his change @-@ up is devastating . If you 're guessing fastball and you get change @-@ up , you 're way out in front of it . His change @-@ up is a soft sinker that just falls down . " Aside from the changeup , he throws a four @-@ seam fastball in the low 90s ( can reach 94 to 96 miles per hour ( 151 to 154 km / h ) ) , a cutter 87 to 89 miles per hour ( 140 to 143 km / h ) , and an " inconsistent " curveball that sometimes loops and other times is sharp , and hovers in the mid @-@ 70s ( around 73 to 77 miles per hour ( 117 to 124 km / h ) ) . Prior to the conception and advent of his cutter , he briefly threw a two @-@ seam fastball around 2008 and 2009 , before debuting his cutter in 2010 . Once he attained a " feel " for how to effectively utilize his cutter , it helped him increase his groundball rate ( percentage of balls in play that were groundballs ) , including to over 50 @-@ percent in 2011 .

= = Personal life = =

= = = Family = = =

Hamels , who is of Dutch descent , is the oldest of three children . He grew up in San Diego , where his parents still live . He now resides in Newtown Square , Pennsylvania with his wife , Heidi Strobel , whom he married on December 31 , 2006 , but they are making plans to move to the Dallas , Texas area full @-@ time during the 2015 offseason . Strobel was a contestant on the sixth season of the reality show Survivor : The Amazon . They had their first child , son Caleb Michael , on October 9 , 2009 , and their second son , Braxton , on November 2 , 2011 . On December 24 , 2012 , they adopted a baby girl from Ethiopia named Reeve .

= = = The Hamels Foundation = = =

Hamels created and currently runs an organization known as The Hamels Foundation with his wife , Heidi Strobel . The foundation was created in 2008 . The Hamels Foundation funds childhood programs in Philadelphia and Africa .

= Kyra ( Charmed ) =

Kyra , also known by her title the Seer , is a fictional character from the American television supernatural drama Charmed , which aired on the WB Television Network ( the WB ) from 1998 to 2006 . Charmed follows the supernatural adventures of the Charmed Ones , a trio of sisters known as the most powerful witches of all time . The character was created by executive producer Brad Kern and was portrayed by actress Charisma Carpenter . Carpenter was invited on the show after acting with Charmed cast member Holly Marie Combs on the ABC Family television film See Jane Date ( 2003 ) . The actress ' original contract was a guest star role that included three episodes in season seven , with media outlets reporting the possibility of Carpenter becoming a series regular .

A demon characterized by her powers of divination and precognition , she eventually forms a friendship with Leo Wyatt ( Brian Krause ) and the Charmed Ones , specifically Phoebe Halliwell ( Alyssa Milano ) , after expressing her desire to become human . Despite being killed by the demon Zankou ( Oded Fehr ) on the show , the character makes further canonical appearances in the comic book series Charmed : Season 10 . Her storylines focus on her involvement with witch Prue Halliwell 's new destiny , and her romantic relationship with the newly revived Benjamin Turner ( the father of Cole Turner ) .

The Kyra character has received mixed feedback from critics , and has been defined by her sex appeal and called " overtly sexual , coy and kitteny " , and " tasty " . Critics have positively and negatively compared the role to Carpenter 's previous performance as Cordelia Chase on the supernatural dramas Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 1997 ) and Angel ( 1999 ) ; Demian of Television Without Pity criticized the character as a copy of Chase because of her lack of a unique identity .

= = Development = =

= = = Casting and creation = = =

Charisma Carpenter was invited to appear on Charmed because of her friendship with Holly Marie Combs after they had worked together on the ABC Family television film See Jane Date . Kyra was created as a separate character from the Seer ( Debbi Morgan ) , who was featured as the primary antagonist in the second half of season four . Carpenter joked that she was surprised to be considered for such a minor part on the show as a guest star . In an interview with her official fansite , Charmed cast member Rose McGowan stated that she looked forward to new characters like Kyra and Kyle Brody joining the show , saying " [ w ] e are all delighted to have them on board " .

According to Kristin Veitch of TV Guide , representatives from the WB Television Network ( the WB ) released a statement indicating the possibility of Kyra being promoted to star billing . In August 2004 , Carpenter was set to star in a UPN mid @-@ season replacement comedy called Like Cats and Dogs , but she expressed interest in doing more episodes of Charmed if the pilot was not picked up by the network . She stated while she enjoyed working in the supernatural genre , and viewed it as " familiar " territory , she was hesitant about committing to the show 's demanding shooting schedule as it would take time away from raising her son .

Kyra was one of three characters with precognition that Carpenter has played in her career , including Cordelia Chase from supernatural dramas Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel , and Heather from the Syfy horror film Voodoo Moon ( 2006 ) . In an interview with film journal Static Mass Emporium , Carpenter did not personally identify as a " vision girl " , but described feeling a love for roles involving seers .

= = = Characterization = = =

In an interview with Charmed Magazine , Carpenter described Kyra as having the same sassiness as Cordelia Chase , added that Kyra was " totally evil and a lot sexier " than Chase . She felt that the emphasis on sexuality was the main aspect of the character 's personality , calling her " overtly sexual , coy , and kitteny " . While she viewed Chase as a " smartass " , Carpenter defined Kyra as a " temptress " and a " jezebel " and opined that her flirtatious banter with Leo Wyatt was meant to be a part of her own agenda . She stated that the way she portrayed Kyra was influenced by her revealing outfit , feeling that every woman on Charmed had to look and act " hot " and " notoriously sexy " .

Pat Shand , the writer of Charmed : Season 10 , said he incorporated Kyra in the comic book series as he enjoyed her dialogue and Carpenter 's performance of the character ; he wrote : " To write dialogue for a character played by Charisma is to hear Charisma in your head . Who would turn that down ? " . Shand commended Carpenter 's ability to voice characters in " a very unique rhythm " and called the process of replicating that energy in the form of comics as " a blast " and " super easy " in comparison with the show 's other characters .

When discussing the development of the season , Shand said that the pairing of Kyra and Prue Halliwell 's storylines was a " natural fit " , especially since both characters were his favorites from the series . He clarified that Kyra 's return , specifically her relationship with Benjamin , was central to the season and called it " straight up plot " and " inextricable " from Prue 's storylines in response to fans ' concerns about the character being limited to being part of a subplot . While the two women never interacted on the show , he explained that Prue sifted through " all of the seers in all of the history to see who best tell her what 's the deal " with her new powers and destiny . Shand said Kyra was a vital part of Prue 's plans to perform the Advent , a ritual that would resurrect a powerful race of evil demons known as the Old Ones .

= = Appearances = =

= = = Television = = =

The Kyra character first appears in the season seven episode " Cheaper by the Coven " , when she helps Leo Wyatt ( Brian Krause ) uncover the identity of a masked demon attacking his son Wyatt Halliwell . She is shown as possessing the powers of precognition and divination through the use of a magical pool . She later works with the half @-@ demon Sirk on his plans to track down and kill his mortal relatives in order to seal his transformation as a full demon . As a demon , Kyra cannot feel emotions , but she is shown to be curious about the world of mortals . Longing to experience the emotions she sees in her visions , she contacts the Elders ( a council of whitelighters which governs the forces of good ) to make a deal where she would trade her information on the then unknown threat , the Avatars , if she is made human . The Avatars are later revealed to a group of magical beings capable of warping reality who devote themselves to creating a world without good or evil . As word of Kyra 's betrayal spreads across the Underworld , Leo is sent to save her and bring her to the Halliwell Manor during the negotiations .

While at the manor , Kyra bonds with Phoebe Halliwell ( Alyssa Milano ) over their shared powers of premonition . She guides Phoebe and Lieutenant Darryl Morris ( Dorian Gregory ) to Inspector Sheridan ( Jenya Lano ) , a member of the San Francisco police department who was placed in a coma by FBI agent Kyle Brody ( Kerr Smith ) ; Brody had sequestered Sheridan after she discovered the truth about the Halliwell sisters being witches . Kyra shares her premonition of the Avatars with Phoebe . While the prior episodes established the Avatar as a threat , Kyra 's vision shows Phoebe and her future daughter living in a utopia where demons no longer exist . After witnessing the vision , Phoebe has a premonition of the demon Zankou ( Oded Fehr ) vanquishing Kyra . In order to prevent Kyra 's death , Phoebe convinces the Elders to provide a spell to turn Kyra human . During this time , Kyra forces Leo to reveal his true identity as an Avatar to the sisters . While Piper Halliwell ( Holly Marie Combs ) helps her to prepare for her new life as a mortal , Kyra reveals her real name and abandons her title as " the Seer " . Before the sisters can transform Kyra into a mortal , Zankou kills her because of her betrayal of the demonic world , and his fear of what she might tell the sisters . Her death is a turning point in the season as it pushes the sisters to agree to meet and to help the Avatars build their new world .

= = = Literature = = =

In Charmed : Season 10 ( the canonical comic book continuation of the TV series ) , Prue Halliwell summons Kyra from the past in order to better understand her new identity as the guardian of the Nexus of the All ( a spiritual energy that forms the basis of all magic ) . After completing a ritual that allowed Prue to enter her own mind , she turns Kyra human . Despite being overjoyed at her transformation , Kyra is uncertain about her plans for the future . She decides to reconnect with the other Halliwell sisters and devote her life to doing good . She begins by helping the newly resurrected Benjamin Turner , who is the father of Cole Turner ( Julian McMahon ) , readjust to his new life . As they spend more time together , Kyra falls in love with Benjamin and they start a romantic relationship . At the end of issue # 18 ( " Tribunal and Tribulations " ) , Prue kidnaps Kyra , along with Bejnamin and the archai ( a magical being capable of opening portals through reality ) Tyler Michaels , and takes them to a space deep within the Earth .

= = Reception = =

Throughout her run on Charmed , Kyra received mixed critical feedback . Television critic Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer deemed the character a " tasty demon seer " and entertainment news website Hypable 's Karen Rought praised her as being the most memorable incarnation of the Seer and a fitting role for Carpenter after her previous performance as Chase . SpoilerTV 's Gavin Hetherington called Kyra a " great highlight of the season " . Charmed Magazine 's Tara Dilullo viewed Carpenter as the perfect actress to play Kyra as she " spent the better part of her career facing down the supernatural with a snark and a smile " . In an article from Today , reader Patrick Kelly cited Carpenter 's appearance on Charmed as an indicator of her popularity among the 16- to 39 @-@ year @-@ old male demographic .

Nadim of Nad 's Reviews opined that Carpenter should have been offered a permanent part on the show Pat Shand criticized the show 's decision to kill the character , saying that she would have filled the role of the " fourth main character " or " non @-@ Charmed One getting all that screen time " in season eight rather than novice witch Billie Jenkins ( Kaley Cuoco ) . He added that he wished that the character had a spin @-@ off with Cole Turner and Darryl Morris .

Demian of Television Without Pity praised the show 's decision to hire an actor from one of Joss Whedon 's shows , but was critical of Kyra 's introduction in the episode " Cheaper by the Coven " , saying that Carpeter was misused and " given so little to do " . He referred to the character negatively as " Cordelia Lite " . Parodying the character 's lack of a concrete identity , he referenced Kyra as " Charisma " and " Cordelia " in his recaps of the later episodes .

= Réunion ibis =

The Réunion ibis or Réunion sacred ibis ( Threskiornis solitarius ) is an extinct species of ibis that was endemic to the volcanic island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean . The first subfossil remains were found in 1974 , and the ibis was first scientifically described in 1987 . Its closest relatives are the Malagasy sacred ibis , the African sacred ibis , and the straw @-@ necked ibis .

Travellers ' accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries described a white bird that flew with difficulty , and it was subsequently referred to as the Réunion solitaire . In the mid 19th century , the old travellers ' accounts were incorrectly assumed to refer to white relatives of the dodo , due to one account specifically mentioning dodos on the island , and because 17th @-@ century paintings of white dodos had recently surfaced . However , no fossils referable to dodo @-@ like birds were ever found on Réunion , and it was later questioned whether the paintings had anything to do with the island . Other identities were suggested as well , based only on speculation . In the late 20th century , the discovery of a subfossil ibis led to the idea that the old accounts actually referred to an ibis species instead . The idea that the solitaire and the subfossil ibis are identical has only met with limited dissent , and is now widely accepted .

Combined , the old descriptions and subfossils show that the Réunion ibis was mainly white , with this colour merging into yellow and grey . The wing tips and plumes of ostrich @-@ like feathers on its rear were black . The neck and legs were long , the beak was relatively straight and short for an ibis . It was more robust in build than its extant relatives , but was otherwise quite similar to them . Subfossil wing @-@ bones indicate it had reduced flight capabilities , a feature perhaps linked to seasonal fattening . The diet of the Réunion ibis was worms and other items foraged from soil . It preferred solitude ( hence the name " solitaire " ) . In the 17th century , it lived in mountainous areas , but it may have been confined to these remote heights by heavy hunting by humans and predation by introduced animals in the more accessible areas of the island . Visitors to Réunion praised its flavour , and therefore sought after its flesh . These factors are believed to have driven the Réunion ibis to extinction by the early 18th century .

= = Taxonomy = =

The taxonomic history of the Réunion ibis is convoluted and complex , due to the ambiguous and meagre evidence that was available to scientists until recently . The supposed " white dodo " of Réunion is now believed to have been an erroneous conjecture based on the few contemporary reports which described the Réunion ibis , combined with paintings of white dodos from Mauritius by the Dutch painters Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn II ( and derivatives ) from the 17th century that surfaced in the 19th century .

The English Chief Officer John Tatton was the first to mention a specifically white bird on Réunion , in 1625 . The French occupied the island from 1646 and onwards , and referred to this bird as the " solitaire " . M. Carré of the French East Indies Company described the solitaire in 1699 , explaining the reason for its name :

I saw a kind of bird in this place which I have not found elsewhere ; it is that which the inhabitants call the Oiseaux Solitaire for to be sure , it loves solitude and only frequents the most secluded places ; one never sees two or more together ; it is always alone . It is not unlike a turkey , if it did not have longer legs . The beauty of its plumage is a delight to see . It is of changeable colour which verges upon yellow . The flesh is exquisite ; it forms one of the best dishes in this country , and might form a dainty at our tables . We wished to keep two of these birds to send to France and present them to His Majesty , but as soon as they were on board ship , they died of melancholy , having refused to eat or drink .

A marooned French Huguenot , François Leguat , used the name " solitaire " for the Raphine bird he encountered on the nearby island of Rodrigues in the 1690s , but it is thought he borrowed the name from a 1689 tract by Marquis Henri Duquesne which mentioned the Réunion species . Duquesne himself had probably based his own description on an earlier one . No specimens of the solitaire were ever preserved . The two individuals Carré attempted to send to the royal menagerie in France did not survive in captivity . Billiard claimed that Bertrand @-@ François Mahé de La Bourdonnais sent a " solitaire " to France from Réunion around 1740 . Since the Réunion ibis is believed to have gone extinct by this date , the bird may actually have been a Rodrigues solitaire .

The only contemporary writer who referred specifically to " dodos " inhabiting Réunion was the Dutch sailor Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe , though he did not mention their colouration :

There were also Dod @-@ eersen [ old Dutch for dodos ] , which have small wings , and so far from being able to fly , they were so fat that they could scarcely walk , and when they tried to run , they dragged their under side along the ground .

When his journal was published in 1646 , it was accompanied by an engraving which is now known to have been copied after one of the dodos in the Flemish painter Roelant Savery 's " Crocker Art Gallery sketch " . Since Bontekoe was shipwrecked and lost all his belongings after visiting Réunion in 1619 , he may not have written his account until he returned to Holland , seven years later , which would put its reliability in question . He may have concluded in hindsight that it was a dodo , finding what he saw similar to accounts of that bird .

= = = Early interpretation = = =

In the 1770s , the French naturalist Comte de Buffon stated that the dodo inhabited both Mauritius and Réunion . It is unclear why he included Réunion , but he also combined accounts about the Rodrigues solitaire and a third bird ( " oiseau de Nazareth " , now thought to be a dodo ) under the same section . English naturalist Hugh Edwin Strickland discussed the old descriptions of the Réunion solitaire in his 1848 book The Dodo and Its Kindred , and concluded it was distinct from the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire . Baron Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the scientific name Apterornis solitarius for the Réunion solitaire in 1848 , apparently making it the type species of the genus , in which he also included two other Mascarene birds only known from contemporary accounts , the red rail and the Réunion swamphen . As the name Apterornis had already been used for a different bird by Richard Owen , and the other former names were likewise invalid , Bonaparte coined the new binomial Ornithaptera borbonica in 1854 ( Bourbon was the original French name for Réunion ) . In 1854 , Hermann Schlegel placed the solitaire in the same genus as the dodo , and named it Didus apterornis . He restored it strictly according to contemporary accounts , which resulted in an ibis or stork @-@ like bird instead of a dodo . As it was considered congeneric with the dodo , the Réunion solitaire was long believed to also be a member of the Dididae family of pigeons .

In 1856 , William Coker announced the discovery of a 17th @-@ century " Persian " painting of a white dodo among waterfowl , which he had been shown in England . The artist was later identified as Pieter Withoos , and many prominent 19th @-@ century naturalists subsequently assumed the image depicted the white solitaire of Réunion , a possibility originally proposed by ornithologist John Gould . Simultaneously , several similar paintings of white dodos by Pieter Holsteyn II were discovered in the Netherlands . In 1869 , the English ornithologist Alfred Newton argued that the Withoos ' painting and engraving in Bontekoe 's memoir depicted a living Réunion dodo that had been brought to Holland , while explaining its blunt beak as a result of beak trimming to prevent it from injuring humans . He also brushed aside the inconsistencies between the illustrations and descriptions , especially the long , thin beak implied by one contemporary account .

Newton 's words particularly cemented the validity of this connection among contemporary peers , and several of them expanded on his views . Dutch zoologist Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans suggested that the discrepancies between the paintings and the old descriptions were due to the paintings showing a female , and that the species was therefore sexually dimorphic . Walter Rothschild claimed the yellow wings might have been due to albinism in this particular specimen , since the old descriptions described these as black . By the early 20th century , many other paintings and even physical remains were claimed to be white dodos , amid much speculation . Some believed the solitaire of the old descriptions was rather a species similar to the Rodrigues solitaire . Rothschild commissioned British artist Frederick William Frohawk to restore the Réunion solitaire as both a white dodo , based on the Withoos painting , and as a distinct bird based on Dubois ' description , for his 1907 book Extinct Birds . In 1953 , the Japanese writer Masauji Hachisuka went as far as referring to the white dodos of the paintings as Victoriornis imperialis , and the solitaire of the accounts as Ornithaptera solitarius .

= = = Recent interpretation = = =

Until the late 1980s , belief in the existence of a white dodo on Réunion was the orthodox view , and only a few researchers doubted the connection between the solitaire accounts and the dodo paintings . They cautioned that no conclusions could be made without solid evidence such as fossils , and that nothing indicated that the white dodos in the paintings had anything to do with Réunion . In 1970 , Robert W. Storer predicted that if any such remains were found , they would not belong to Raphinae , or even Columbidae .

The first subfossil bird remains on Réunion were found in 1974 , and assigned to a stork , Ciconia sp . The remains were found in a cave , which indicated it had been brought there and eaten by early settlers . It was speculated that the remains could have belonged to a large , mysterious bird described by Leguat , and called " Leguat 's giant " by some ornithologists . " Leguat 's giant " is now thought to be based on a locally extinct population of flamingos . In 1987 , subfossils of a recently extinct species of ibis from Réunion were described as Borbonibis latipes , and thought related to the bald ibises of the genus Geronticus . In 1994 , the " stork " remains were shown to belong to this ibis as well . The 1987 discovery led biologist Anthony S. Cheke to suggest to one of the describers , Francois Moutou , that the subfossils may have been of the Réunion solitaire . This suggestion was published by the describers of Borbonibis in 1995 , and they also reassigned it to the genus Threskiornis , now combined with the specific epithet solitarius from de Sélys @-@ Longchamps ' 1848 binomial for the solitaire . The authors pointed out that the contemporary descriptions matched the appearance and behaviour of an ibis more than a member of the Raphinae , especially since a fragment of a comparatively short and straight ibis mandible was discovered in 1994 , and because ibis remains were abundant in some localities ; it would be strange if contemporary writers never mentioned such a relatively common bird , whereas they mentioned most other species subsequently known from fossils .

The possible origin of the 17th @-@ century white dodo paintings has also recently been examined by biologist Arturo Valledor de Lozoya in 2003 , and independently by experts of Mascarene fauna Anthony Cheke and Julian Hume in 2004 . The Withoos and Holsteyn paintings are clearly derived from each other , and Withoos likely copied his dodo from one of Holsteyn 's works , since these were probably produced at an earlier date . All later white dodo pictures are thought to be based on these paintings . According to the aforementioned writers , it appears these pictures were themselves derived from a whitish dodo in a previously unreported painting containing , called Landscape with Orpheus and the Animals , produced by Roelant Savery c . 1611 . The dodo was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague ; a walghvogel ( old Dutch for dodo ) described as having a " dirty off @-@ white colouring " was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II to whom Savery was contracted at the time ( 1607 – 1611 ) . Savery 's several later dodo images all show greyish birds , possibly because he had by then seen a normal specimen . Cheke and Hume concluded the painted specimen was white due to albinism , and that this peculiar feature was the reason it was collected from Mauritius and brought to Europe . Valledor de Lozoya instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait , a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens , or simply due to artistic license .

No fossil remains of dodo @-@ like birds have ever been found on Réunion . A few later sources take issue with the proposed ibis @-@ identity of the solitaire , and have even regarded the " white dodo " as a valid species . British writer Errol Fuller agrees that the 17th @-@ century paintings do not depict Réunion birds , but has questioned whether the ibis subfossils are necessarily connected to the solitaire accounts . He notes that no evidence indicates the extinct ibis survived until the time Europeans reached Réunion . Cheke and Hume have dismissed such sentiments as being mere " belief " and " hope " in the existence of a dodo on the island .

= = = Evolution = = =

The volcanic island of Réunion is only three million years old , whereas Mauritius and Rodrigues , with each their flightless Raphine species , are eight to ten million years old , and it is unlikely that either bird would have been capable of flying after five or more million years of adapting to the islands . Therefore , it is unlikely that Réunion could have been colonised by flightless birds from these islands , and only flighted species on the island have relatives there . Three million years is enough time for flightless and weak flying abilities to have evolved in bird species on Réunion itself . But such species would have been wiped out by the eruption of the volcano Piton des Neiges between 300 @,@ 000 and 180 @,@ 000 years ago . Most recent species would therefore likely be descendants of animals which had recolonised the island from Africa or Madagascar after this event , which is not enough time for a bird to become flightless .

In 1995 , morphological study suggested the closest extant relatives of the Réunion ibis are the African sacred ibis ( T. aethiopicus ) of Africa and the straw @-@ necked ibis ( T. spinicollis ) of Australia . It has also been suggested that it was closest to the Malagasy sacred ibis ( T. bernieri ) , and therefore of ultimately African origin .

= = Description = =

Contemporary accounts described the species as having white and grey plumage merging into yellow , black wing tips and tail feathers , a long neck and legs , and limited flight capabilities . Sieur Dubois ' 1674 account is the most detailed contemporary description of the bird , here as translated by Hugh Strickland in 1848 :

Solitaires . These birds are so called because they always go alone . They are the size of a large Goose , and are white , with the tips of the wings and tail black . The tail feathers resemble those of an Ostrich ; the neck is long , and the beak is like that of a Woodcock , but larger ; the legs and feet like those of Turkeys . This bird has recourse to running , as it flies but very little .

The plumage colouration mentioned is similar to that of the related African sacred ibis and straw @-@ necked ibis , which are also mainly white and glossy black . In the reproductive season , the ornamental feathers on the back and wing tips of the African sacred ibis look similar to the feathers of an ostrich , which echoes Dubois ' description . Likewise , a subfossil lower jaw found in 1994 showed that the bill of the Réunion ibis was relatively short and straight for an ibis , which corresponds with Dubois ' woodcock comparison . Cheke and Hume have suggested that the French word ( bécasse ) from Dubois ' original description , usually translated to " woodcock " , could also mean oystercatcher , another bird with a long , straight , but slightly more robust , bill . They have also pointed out that the last sentence is mistranslated , and actually means the bird could be caught by running after it . The bright colouration of the plumage mentioned by some authors may refer to iridescence , as seen in the straw @-@ necked ibis .

Subfossils of the Réunion ibis show that it was more robust , likely much heavier , and had a larger head than the African sacred and straw @-@ necked ibises . It was nonetheless similar to them in most features . Rough protuberances on the wing bones of the Réunion ibis are similar to those of birds that use their wings in combat . It was perhaps flightless , but this has not left significant osteological traces ; no complete skeletons have been collected , but of the known pectoral elements , only one feature indicates reduction in flight capability . The coracoid is elongated and the radius and ulna are robust , as in flighted birds , but a particular foramen between a metacarpal and the alular is otherwise only known from flightless birds , such as some ratites , penguins , and several extinct species . As contemporary accounts are inconsistent on whether the solitaire was flightless or had some flight capability , Mourer @-@ Chauvire suggested that this was dependent on seasonal fat @-@ cycles , meaning that individuals fattened themselves during cool seasons , but were slim during hot seasons ; perhaps it could not fly when it was fat , but could when it was not . However , Dubois specifically stated the solitaires did not have fat @-@ cycles , unlike most other Réunion birds .

= = Behaviour and ecology = =

The species was termed a land @-@ bird by Dubois , so it did not live in typical ibis habitats such as wetlands . It has been proposed that this is because the ancestors of the bird colonised Réunion before swamps had developed , and had therefore become adapted to the available habitats . They were perhaps prevented from colonising Mauritius as well due to the presence of red rails there , which may have occupied a similar niche . It appears to have lived in high altitudes , and perhaps had a limited distribution . The only mention of its diet and exact habitat is Jean Feuilley 's account from 1708 , which is also the last record of a living individual :

The solitaires are the size of an average turkey cock , grey and white in colour . They inhabit the tops of mountains . Their food is only worms and filth , taken on or in the soil .

The diet and mode of foraging described by Feuilley matches that of an ibis , whereas members of the Raphinae are known to have been fruit eaters . Accounts by early visitors indicate the species was found near their landing sites , but they were found only in remote places by 1667 . The bird may have survived in eastern lowlands until the 1670s . Though many late 17th century accounts state the bird was good food , Feuilley stated it tasted bad . This may be because it changed its diet when it moved to more rugged , higher terrain , to escape pigs that destroyed its nests ; since it had limited flight capabilities , it probably nested on the ground .

Many other endemic species of Réunion became extinct after the arrival of man and the resulting disruption of the island 's ecosystem . The Réunion ibis lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the hoopoe starling , the Mascarene parrot , the Réunion parakeet , the Réunion swamphen , the Réunion owl , the Réunion night heron , and the Réunion pink pigeon . Extinct reptiles include the Réunion giant tortoise and an undescribed Leiolopisma skink . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Réunion and Mauritius , but vanished from both islands .

= = Extinction = =

As Réunion was populated by settlers , the Réunion ibis appears to have become confined to the tops of mountains . Introduced predators such as cats and rats took a toll . Overhunting also contributed and several contemporary accounts state the bird was widely hunted for food . In 1625 , John Tatton described the tameness of the bird and how easy it was to hunt , as well as the large quantity consumed :

There is store of land fowle both small and great , plenty of Doves , great Parrats , and such like ; and a great fowle of the bignesse of a Turkie , very fat , and so short winged , that they cannot fly , being white , and in a manner tame : and so be all other fowles , as having not been troubled nor feared with shot . Our men did beat them down with sticks and stones . Ten men may take fowle enough to serve fortie men a day .

In 1671 , Melet mentioned the culinary quality of this species , and described the slaughter of several types of birds on the island :

( A ) nother sort of bird called solitaires which are very good ( to eat ) and the beauty of their plumage is most fascinating for the diversity of bright colours that shine on their wing and around their necks ... There are birds in such great confusion and so tame that it is not necessary to go hunting with firearms , they can so easily be killed with a little stick or rod . During the five or six days that we were allowed to go into the woods , so many were killed that our General [ de La Haye ] was constrained to forbid anyone going beyond a hundred paces from the camp for fear the whole quarter would be destroyed , for one needed only to catch one bird alive and make it cry out , to have in a moment whole flocks coming to perch on people , so that often without moving from one spot one could kill hundreds . But , seeing that it would have been impossible to wipe out such a huge quantity , permission was again given to kill , which gave great joy to everyone , because very good fare was had at no expense .

The last definite account of the " solitaire " of Réunion was Feuilley 's from 1708 , indicating that the species probably became extinct sometime early in the century . In the 1820s , Louis Henri de Freycinet asked an old slave about drontes ( old Dutch word for dodo ) , and was told the bird existed around Saint @-@ Joseph when his father was an infant . This would perhaps be a century earlier , but the account may be unreliable . Cheke and Hume suspect that feral cats initially hunted wildlife in the lowlands and later turned to higher inland areas , which were probably the last stronghold of the Réunion ibis , as they were unreachable by pigs . The species is thought to have been driven to extinction around 1710 – 1715 .

= December 1964 South Vietnamese coup =

The December 1964 South Vietnamese coup took place before dawn on December 19 , 1964 , when the ruling military junta of South Vietnam led by General Nguyễn Khánh dissolved the High National Council ( HNC ) and arrested some of its members . The HNC was an unelected legislative @-@ style civilian advisory body they had created at the request of the United States — South Vietnam 's main sponsor — to give a veneer of civilian rule . The dissolution dismayed the Americans , particularly the ambassador , Maxwell D. Taylor , who engaged in an angry war of words with various generals including Khánh and threatened aid cuts . They were unable to do anything about the fait accompli that had been handed to them , because they strongly desired to win the Vietnam War and needed to support the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . Instead , Taylor 's searing verbal attacks were counterproductive as they galvanized the Vietnamese officers around the embattled Khánh . At the time , Khánh 's leadership was under threat from his fellow generals , as well as Taylor , who had fallen out with him and was seeking his removal .

The genesis of the removal of the HNC was a power struggle within the ruling junta . Khánh , who had been saved from an earlier coup attempt in September 1964 by the intervention of some younger generals dubbed the Young Turks , was indebted to them and needed to satisfy their wishes to stay in power . The Young Turks disliked a group of older officers who had been in high leadership positions but were now in powerless posts , and wanted to sideline them completely . As a result , they decided to hide their political motives by introducing a policy to compulsorily retire all general officers with more than 25 years of service . The chief of state Phan Khắc Sửu , an elderly figure appointed by the military to give a semblance of civilian rule , did not want to sign the decree without the agreement of the HNC , which mostly consisted of old men . The HNC recommended against the new policy , and the younger officers , led by I Corps commander General Nguyễn Chánh Thi and Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , disbanded the body and arrested some of its members along with other politicians .

As a result of this event , Taylor summoned Khánh to his office . Khánh sent Thi , Kỳ , the commander of the Republic of Vietnam Navy Admiral Chung Tấn Cang and IV Corps commander General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , and after beginning with " Do all of you understand English ? " , Taylor harshly berated them and threatened cuts in aid . While angered by Taylor 's manner , the officers defended themselves in a restrained way . The next day Khánh met Taylor and the Vietnamese leader made oblique accusations that the U.S. wanted a puppet ally ; he also criticized Taylor for his manner the previous day . When Taylor told Khánh he had lost confidence in his leadership , Taylor was threatened with expulsion , to which he responded with threats of total aid cuts . Later however , Khánh said he would leave Vietnam along with some other generals he named , and during a phone conversation , asked Taylor to help with travel arrangements . He then asked Taylor to repeat the names of the would @-@ be exiles for confirmation , and Taylor complied , not knowing that Khánh was taping the dialogue . Khánh then showed the tape to his colleagues out of context , misleading them into thinking that Taylor wanted them expelled from their own country to raise the prestige of his embattled leadership .

Over the next few days , Khánh embarked on a media offensive , repeatedly criticizing U.S. policy and decrying what he saw as an undue influence and infringement on Vietnamese sovereignty , explicitly condemning Taylor and declaring the nation 's independence from " foreign manipulation " . Khánh and the Young Turks began preparations to expel Taylor before changing their minds ; however , Khánh 's misleading tactics had rallied the Young Turks around his fragile leadership for at least the short @-@ term future . The Americans were forced to back down on their insistence that the HNC be restored and did not carry through on Taylor 's threats to cut off aid , despite Saigon 's defiance .

= = Background = =

On September 26 , 1964 , Nguyễn Khánh and the senior officers in his military junta created a semblance of civilian rule by forming the High National Council ( HNC ) , an appointed advisory body akin to a legislature . This came after lobbying by American officials — led by Ambassador Maxwell Taylor — in Vietnam , as they placed great value in the appearance of civilian legitimacy , which they saw as vital to building a popular base for any government . Khánh put his rival General Dương Văn Minh — who he had deposed in a January 1964 coup — in charge of picking the 17 members of the HNC , and Minh filled it with figures sympathetic to him . The HNC then made a resolution to recommend a political model with a powerful head of state , which would likely be Minh , given their sympathy towards him . Khánh did not want his rival taking power , so he and the Americans convinced the HNC to dilute the powers of the position to make it unappealing to Minh , who was then sent on an overseas diplomatic goodwill tour to remove him from the political scene . However , Minh was back in South Vietnam after a few months and the power balance in the junta was still fragile .

The HNC , which had representatives from a wide range of social groups , selected the aging civilian politician Phan Khắc Sửu as chief of state , and Suu chose Trần Văn Hương as prime minister , a position that had greater power . However , Khánh and the senior generals retained the real power . At the same time , a group of Catholic officers were trying to replace Khánh with their co @-@ religionist , General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , and the incumbent was under pressure . During 1964 , South Vietnam had suffered a succession of setbacks on the battlefield , in part due to disunity in the military and a focus on coup plotting . In the meantime , both Saigon and Washington were planning a large @-@ scale bombing campaign against North Vietnam in an attempt to deter communist aggression , but were waiting for stability in the south before starting the air strikes .

= = Compulsory retirement policy = =

Khánh and a group of younger officers called the Young Turks — led by chief of the Vietnam Air Force , Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ , commander of I Corps General Nguyễn Chánh Thi and IV Corps commander Thiệu — wanted to forcibly retire officers with more than 25 years of service , as they thought them to be lethargic and ineffective , but most importantly , rivals for power . Most of the older officers had more experience under the Vietnamese National Army during the French colonial era , and some of the younger men saw them as too detached from the modern situation . The Young Turks had quite a lot of influence over Khánh , as Thi and Kỳ had intervened militarily to save him from a coup attempt in September by Generals Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức .

One of the specific and unspoken aims of this proposed policy was to remove Generals Minh , Trần Văn Đôn , Lê Văn Kim and Mai Hữu Xuân from the military . This quartet , along with Tôn Thất Đính , had been the leading members of a junta that overthrew President Ngô Đình Diệm in November 1963 . The generals who deposed Diệm did not trust Khánh because of his habit of changing sides , and Khánh was angered by their snubs . Khánh put Don , Kim , Xuan and Dinh under arrest in Da Lat after his January coup , claiming they were about to make a deal with the communists , a falsehood to cover up his motive of revenge . These four thus became known as the " Da Lat Generals " . Khánh later released them and placed them into meaningless desk jobs with no work to do , although they were still being paid . Khánh did this as he thought the Young Turks had become too powerful and he hoped to use the Da Lat Generals as a counterweight . All this time , Minh had been allowed to continue as a figurehead chief of state due to his popularity , but Khánh was intent on sidelining him too . The Young Turks were fully aware of Khánh 's motives for rehabilitating the Da Lat Generals , and wanted to marginalize them . In public , Khánh and the Young Turks claimed the Da Lat Generals and Minh , who had returned from his overseas tour , had been making plots with the Buddhist activists to regain power .

Suu 's signature was required to pass the ruling , but he referred the matter to the HNC to get their opinion . The HNC turned down the request . There was speculation the HNC did this as many of them were old , and therefore did not appreciate the generals ' negativity towards seniors — some South Vietnamese mockingly called the HNC the High National Museum . On December 19 , a Saturday , the generals moved to dissolve the HNC by arresting some of its members . The HNC had already ceased to function in any meaningful way , as only 9 of the 17 members were still occasionally attending its meetings , and few on a regular basis .

= = Dissolution of the High National Council = =

Before dawn on December 19 , there were troop movements in the capital as the junta deposed the civilians . The operation was commanded by Thi — who had travelled into Saigon from I Corps in the far north — and Kỳ . The national police , which was under the control of the army , moved through the streets , arresting five HNC members , other politicians and student leaders they deemed to be an obstacle to their aims . Minh and the other aging generals were arrested and flown to Pleiku , a Central Highlands town in a Montagnard area , while other officers were simply imprisoned in Saigon . The junta 's forces also arrested around 100 members of the National Salvation Council ( NSC ) of Le Khac Quyen ; the NSC was a new party active in central Vietnam in the I Corps region and opposed to the expansion of the war . It was aligned with Thi and the Buddhist activist monk Thích Trí Quang , but as Thi was active in the purge , it was believed he had fallen out with Quyen .

At this point , Khánh had not spoken up and allowed the impression that the moves had been made without his consultation or against his will , and an attempt on the part of other officers to take power themselves . Hương had actually privately endorsed the dissolution of the HNC , as both he and the Young Turks thought it would allow them to gain more power and influence over Khánh .

The infighting exasperated Taylor , the US Ambassador to South Vietnam and former Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff , who felt the disputes between the junta 's senior officers were derailing the war effort . Only a few days earlier , General William Westmoreland — the commander of US forces in Vietnam — had invited him and the Vietnamese generals home to a dinner . There Taylor asked for an end to the persistent changes in leadership , and Khánh and his men assured him of stability . Westmoreland warned that persistent instability would turn the American political class and public against Saigon , as they would deem it useless to support such a regime . Taylor initially cabled the State Department back in the US to state a " naked military fist " had " crumpled [ the ] carefully woven fabric of civilian government " , and that the arrest of the civilians would be " immediately and understandably interpreted by all the world as another military coup , setting back all that had been accomplished " since the formation of the HNC and the creation of a veneer of civilian rule . He went on to say that an " inescapable conclusion that if a group of military officers could issue decisions abolishing one of the three fundamental organs of the governmental structure ... and carry out military arrests of civilians , that group of military officers has clearly set themselves above and beyond the structure of government in Vietnam . " Taylor bemoaned the fact that the generals had shown no second thoughts about ignoring US policy recommendations , particularly in disregarding his explicit advice to maintain stable civilian rule , at least at a nominal level . Taylor issued a thinly disguised threat to cut aid , releasing a public statement saying Washington might reconsider its military funding if " the fabric of legal government " was not reinstated .

= = Angry confrontations with Maxwell Taylor = =

Taylor summoned Khánh to his office , but the Vietnamese leader sent Thi , Kỳ , Thiệu and Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , the commander of the Republic of Vietnam Navy , instead . Taylor asked the four to sit down and then said " Do all of you understand English ? " The ambassador then angrily denounced the officers . According to Stanley Karnow , Taylor " launched into a tirade , scolding them as if he were still superintendent of West Point and they a group of cadets caught cheating " . He said " I told you all clearly at General Westmoreland 's dinner we Americans were tired of coups . Apparently I wasted my words . " He decried the removal of the HNC as " totally illegal " , and said it had " destroyed the government @-@ making process " , and that " I made it clear that all the military plans I know you would like to carry out are dependent on government stability " , something he felt had been lost with the dismissal of the HNC . He said " ... you have made a real mess . We cannot carry you forever if you do things like this . " Taylor believed the HNC to be an essential part of the government , because as an American , he believed civilian legitimacy was a must . For him , the HNC was a necessary step in a progression towards an elected civilian legislature , which he regarded as critical for national and military morale . The historian Mark Moyar regarded Taylor 's intervention as unnecessary , and noted that there had been many instances of fierce fighting in Vietnamese history despite the complete absence of democracy throughout the nation 's history . Taylor also reminded them of an earlier meeting where he had discussed an American plan to expand the war , increase funding for the South Vietnamese military , and to go on the offensive against the communists at the request of Khánh . Taylor said the Americans would not be able to help Saigon pursue their desired military strategy if the political machinations did not stop . Taylor said that if the military did not transfer some powers or advisory capacity back to the HNC or another civilian institution , aid would be withheld , and some planned military operations against the Ho Chi Minh trail — which was being used to infiltrate communists into the south — would be suspended .

The four officers were taken aback by Taylor 's searing words and felt they had been humiliated . A decade after the incident , Kỳ described Taylor as " the sort of man who addressed people rather than talked to them " , referencing the confrontation . Karnow said " For the sake of their own pride , they [ the Vietnamese officers ] resented being treated in ways that reminded them of their almost total dependence on an alien power . How could they preserve a sense of sovereignty when Taylor , striving to push them into ' getting things done ' , behaved like a viceroy ? " However , Thi also took a perverse pleasure in riling Taylor . He was seen by a CIA officer soon after , grinning . When asked why he was happy , Thi said " Because this is one of the happiest days of my life ... Today I told the American ambassador that he could not dictate to us . " Nevertheless , Taylor 's conduct had rankled the officers , stirring their latent sense of nationalism and anti @-@ Americanism ; Khánh would exploit this to strengthen his fragile position in the junta .

Khánh 's quartet of delegates responded to Taylor in a circumlocutory way . They remained calm and did not resort to direct confrontation . Kỳ said the change was necessary , as " the political situation is worse than it ever was under Diệm " . Kỳ explained that the situation mandated the dissolution of the council , saying " We know you want stability , but you cannot have stability until you have Unity . " He claimed some HNC members were disseminating coup rumors and creating doubt among the population , and that " both military and civilian leaders regard the presence of these people in the High National Council as divisive of the Armed Forces due to their influence " . Kỳ further accused some of the HNC members of being communist sympathizers and cowards who wanted to stop the military from strengthening . He promised to explain the decision at a media conference and vowed that he and his colleagues would return to purely military roles in the near future . Thiệu added " I do not see how our action has hurt the Hương government ... Hương now has the full support of the Army and has no worries from the High National Council , which we have eliminated . " Cang said " It seems ... we are being treated as though we were guilty . What we did was only for the good of the country . "

When Taylor said the moves detracted from Hương and Suu 's powers , the officers disagreed and said they supported the pair in full and that Hương had approved of the HNC 's dissolution . Taylor was unimpressed by the reassurances , concluding with " I don 't know whether we will continue to support you after this ... You people have broken a lot of dishes and now we have to see how we can straighten out this mess . " Taylor 's deputy , U. Alexis Johnson felt the discussion had become counterproductive and was increasing the problem . He suggested that should the generals feel unwilling to alter their position immediately , they should refrain from actions that would preclude a later change of heart . He proposed they merely announce the removal of certain members of the HNC rather than the dissolution of the entire body , hoping the HNC could be reconstituted with figures they deemed to be more satisfactory . The four officers did not give a clear answer to Johnson 's idea , indicating they had not made a concrete decision by saying " the door is not closed " .

= = = Taylor meets Hương = = =

When Taylor met Hương afterwards , he urged the prime minister to reject the dissolution of the HNC . Hương said he and Suu had not been notified of the moves , but agreed to step in and take over the body 's work . Taylor nevertheless asked Hương to publicly condemn the coup and call on the army to release those arrested . Hương also said he would be willing to reorganize his administration to meet the wishes of the military , and that retaining their support was essential in keeping a civilian government functional . Taylor said the US did not agree with military rule as a principle , and might reduce aid , but Hương was unmoved and said the Vietnamese people " take a more sentimental than legalistic approach " and that the existence of civilian procedure and the HNC was much less pressing than the " moral prestige of the leaders " . American military advisers and intelligence officers who liaised with senior junta members found they were unconcerned with any possible legal ramifications of their actions .

Later , despite Taylor 's pleas to keep the dissolution of the HNC secret in the hope it would be reversed , Kỳ , Thi , Thiệu and Cang called a media conference , where they maintained the HNC had been dissolved in the nation 's best interests . The quartet vowed to stand firm and not renege on their decision . They also proclaimed their ongoing confidence for Suu and Hương . Two days later , Khánh went public in support of the Young Turks ' coup against the HNC , condemning the advisory body and asserting the army 's right to intervene if " disputes and differences create a situation favorable to the common enemies : Communism and colonialism " . The generals announced they had formed a new body called the Armed Forces Council ( AFC ) to succeed the current Military Revolutionary Council , and referred to the dissolution of the HNC as Decision No. 1 of the AFC . The American policymakers viewed the public moves by the Vietnamese generals as " throwing down the gauntlet " and challenging their counsel .

= = = Taylor meets Khánh = = =

The day after the Young Turks ' press conference , Taylor privately met Khánh at the latter 's office . He complained about the dissolution of the HNC and said it did not accord with the values of the alliance and the loyalty Washington expected of Saigon . He added that the US could not cooperate with two governments at once : a military regime that held power while a civilian body took the responsibility . Khánh testily replied that Vietnam was not a satellite of the US and compared the situation to the US support of the successful coup against Diệm , saying that loyalty was meant to be reciprocated . Khánh had hinted that he felt the Americans were about to have him deposed like Diệm , who was then assassinated , but this rankled Taylor , who had argued against the regime change . Taylor then bemoaned Khánh , saying he had lost confidence in the Vietnamese officer , recommending Khánh resign and go into exile . He also said military supplies currently being shipped to Vietnam would be withheld after arriving in Saigon and that American help in planning and advising military operations would be suspended .

Khánh bristled and said " You should keep to your place as Ambassador ... as Ambassador , it is really not appropriate for you to be dealing in this way with the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces on a political matter , nor was it appropriate for you to have summoned some of my generals to the Embassy yesterday . " He threatened to expel Taylor , who responded by saying a forced departure would mean the end of US support . However , Khánh later said he was open to the possibility of going abroad and asked Taylor if he thought this would be good for the country , to which the ambassador replied in the affirmative . Khánh also said he took responsibility for his generals ' actions , and expressed regret at what they had done . Khánh then ended the meeting , saying he would think about his future .

Later , Khánh phoned Taylor from his office and expressed his desire to resign and go abroad along with several other generals , asking for the Americans to fund the travel costs . He then read Taylor the list of generals for whom arrangements needed to be made , and asked the ambassador to repeat the names for confirmation . Taylor did so , unaware Khánh was taping the dialogue . Afterwards , Khánh played the tape out of context to his colleagues , giving them the impression Taylor was calling for their expulsion from their own country . Khánh then asked his colleagues to participate in a campaign of fomenting anti @-@ American street protests and to give the impression the country did not need Washington 's aid . A CIA informant reported the recent arguments with Taylor had incensed the volatile Thi so much that he had privately vowed to " blow up everything " and " kill Phan Khắc Sửu , Trần Văn Hương and Nguyễn Khánh and put an end to all this . Then we will see what happens . "

= = Public media campaign by Khánh = =

On the morning of December 22 , as part of his Order of the Day , a regular message to the armed forces over Radio Vietnam , Khánh went back on his promise to leave the country and announced , " We make sacrifices for the country 's independence and the Vietnamese people 's liberty , but not to carry out the policy of any foreign country . " He said it was " better to live poor but proud as free citizens of an independent country rather than in ease and shame as slaves of the foreigners and Communists . " Khánh pledged support for both Hương and Suu 's civilian rule , and condemned colonialism in a thinly veiled reference to the US .

Khánh explicitly denounced Taylor in an exclusive interview with Beverly Deepe published in the New York Herald Tribune on December 23 , saying " if Taylor did not act more intelligently , Southeast Asia would be lost " and that the US could not expect to succeed by modelling South Vietnam on American norms . Khánh said Taylor and the US would need to be " more practical and not have a dream of having Vietnam be an image of the United States , because the way of life and people are entirely different . " He added that Taylor 's " attitude during the last 48 hours — as far as my small head is concerned — has been beyond imagination " . Justifying the removal of the HNC , Khánh said they were " exploited by counter @-@ revolutionary elements who placed partisan considerations above the homeland 's sacred interest . " Khánh also threatened to divulge the content of his discussion with Taylor , saying " One day I hope to tell the Vietnamese people and the American people about this ... It is a pity because Gen. Taylor is not serving his country well . "

Khánh had not divulged that angry discussions had occurred in private , so Deepe was unsure what had happened between Taylor and Khánh to provoke such an outburst . She contacted the US Embassy to ask what the dispute was about . At first , the Americans defended Taylor without referring to what the problem was , stating : " Ambassador Taylor has undertaken no activities which can be considered improper in any way ... All his activities are designed to serve the best interests of both Vietnam and the United States . " The State Department issued a statement later in the day in more robust terms , saying " Ambassador Taylor has been acting throughout with the full support of the U.S. government ... a duly constituted government exercising full power ... without improper interference ... is the essential condition for the successful prosecution of the effort to defeat the Viet Cong . " The following day , Secretary of State Dean Rusk said aid would have to be cut , as the programs being funded needed an effective government to be useful . Taylor later responded by calling the generals ' actions an " improper interference " into the purview of civilian government .

Defying Taylor earned Khánh heightened approval among his junta colleagues , as the ambassador 's actions were seen as an insult to the nation . On the night of December 23 , Khánh convinced his fellow officers to join him in lobbying Hương to declare Taylor persona non grata and expel him from South Vietnam . They were confident Hương could not reject them and side with a foreign power at the expense of the military that had installed him , and made preparations to meet him the next day . Khánh also told Hương that if Taylor was not ejected , he and the other generals would hold a media conference and release " detailed accounts " of the ambassador 's confrontation with the quartet and his " ultimatum to General Khánh " the day after . However , someone in the junta was a CIA informant and reported the incident , allowing American officials to individually lobby the officers to change their stance . At the same time , the Americans informed Hương if Taylor was expelled , US funding would stop . The next day , the generals changed their mind and when they met Hương at his office , only asked him to formally denounce Taylor 's behavior in his meetings with Khánh and his quartet and to " take appropriate measures to preserve the honor of all the Vietnamese armed forces and to keep national prestige intact " .

On December 24 , Khánh issued a declaration of independence from " foreign manipulation " , and condemned " colonialism " , explicitly accusing Taylor of abusing his power . At the time , Khánh was also secretly negotiating with the communists , hoping to put together a peace deal so he could expel the Americans from Vietnam , although this effort did not lead anywhere in the two months before he was forced out of power . For his part , Taylor privately told Americans journalists that Khánh was expressing opposition to the US merely because he knew he had lost Washington 's confidence . Taylor said Khánh was completely unprincipled and was stirring up anti @-@ American sentiment purely to try to shore up his political prospects , not because he thought US policy was harmful to South Vietnam . The US media were generally very critical of Khánh 's actions and did not blame Taylor for the disharmony . Peter Grose of The New York Times said " It almost seems as if Viet Cong insurgents and the Saigon government conspired to make the United States feel unwelcome . " The Chicago Tribune lampooned Khánh 's junta , calling it a " parody of a government " and saying it would not survive for a week without US support and describing the generals as " remittance men on the United States ' payroll " . However , the New York Herald Tribune said it was dangerous to pressure South Vietnam too much , citing the instability that followed the American support for the coup against Diệm , who had resisted US advice so often . It said " The issue is not General Khánh versus General Taylor . It is whether the Vietnamese still have the will to exist as an independent state . " The newspaper said if the answer was yes , then both Washington and Saigon would have to look beyond personalities .

Angry with Deepe for airing Khánh 's grievances against him , Taylor invited every other US journalist in Saigon to this private briefing . Taylor gave the journalists his account of the dispute and discussions with the generals , and hoped it would be useful background information for the media , so they would understand what he had done and not reach negative conclusions about his conduct in their writing . Due to the sensitivity of the situation , he asked them to keep the remarks off the record . However , someone at the briefing informed Deepe of what Taylor had said , and she published the remarks on December 25 under the title " Taylor Rips Mask Off Khánh " . In this article , comments were also attributed to Taylor describing some South Vietnamese officers as borderline " nuts " and accusing many generals of staying in Saigon and allowing their junior officers to run the war as they saw fit . Deepe 's article caused an uproar due to the tension between Taylor and the Vietnamese generals .

= = Brinks Hotel bombing = =

At the same time , Westmoreland became concerned with the growing antipathy towards the US and requested the United States Pacific Command ( CINCPAC ) : " In view of the current unstable political situation ... and the possibility that this situation could lead to anti @-@ American activities of the unknown intensity , request Marine Landing Force now off Cap Varella be positioned out of sight of land off Cap St. Jacques soonest . " Better known as Vũng Tàu , Cap St. Jacques was a coastal city at the mouth of the Saigon River around 80 km southeast of the capital . Westmoreland also put American marines based at Subic Bay in the Philippines on notice .

On the same day , the Viet Cong bombed the Brinks Hotel , where US officers were billeted , killing two Americans and injuring around 50 people , civilian bystanders and military personnel . As a result , there was a suspicion among a minority that Khánh 's junta had been behind the attack , even though the Viet Cong had claimed responsibility through a radio broadcast . When the Americans started making plans to retaliate against North Vietnam , they did not tell Khánh and his junta . Westmoreland , Taylor , and other senior US officers in Saigon and Washington urged President Lyndon Baines Johnson to authorize reprisal bombings against North Vietnam , Taylor predicting : " Some of our local squabbles will probably disappear in enthusiasm which our action would generate . " Johnson refused and one reason was the political instability in Saigon . Johnson reasoned the international community and the American public were unlikely to believe the Viet Cong were behind the attack , feeling they would instead blame local infighting for the violence . Johnson administration officials did not conclude that the communists were responsible until four days after the attack . The State Department cabled Taylor , saying " In view of the overall confusion in Saigon " , public US and international opinion towards an American air strike would be that the Johnson administration was " trying to shoot its way out of an internal [ South Vietnamese ] political crisis " .

= = Fall out = =

As a result of the tension in late @-@ December , the standoff remained . The US hoped the generals would relent because they could not survive and be able to repel the communists or rival officers without aid from Washington . On the other hand , Khánh and the Young Turks expected the Americans would become more worried about the communist gains first and acquiesce to their fait accompli against the HNC . The generals were correct .

The South Vietnamese eventually had their way . As the generals and Hương were unwilling to reinstate the HNC , Taylor sent General John L. Throckmorton to meet them and mend relations . Throckmorton told the Vietnamese generals they had read too much into Taylor 's comments and that the US had no intention of pressuring them out of power with aid cuts . Cang appeared unimpressed , while Thiệu and Kỳ made indirect and vague comments about what they perceived to be misleading tactics during the talks . Khánh appeared reassured by Throckmorton 's overtures and made a public statement on December 30 , saying he was not as hostile to the Americans as reported , and he wanted Thiệu and Cang to meet the Americans to relieve any remaining tension . He also claimed privately that the statements attributed to him by Deepe were false and set up a bilateral committee to discuss tensions . The generals eventually won out , as the Americans did not move against them in any way for their refusal to reinstate the HNC . The South Vietnamese won in large part because the Americans had spent so much on the country , and could not afford to abandon it and lose to the communists over the matter of military rule , as a communist takeover would be a big public relations coup for the Soviet bloc . According to Karnow , for Khánh and his officers , " their weakness was their strength " . An anonymous South Vietnamese government official said " Our big advantage over the Americans is that they want to win the war more than we do . "

The only concession the AFC made was on January 6 , 1965 , when they made a charade move of officially renouncing all their power to Hương , who was asked to organize elections . They also agreed to appoint a civilian body and release those arrested in December . Khánh had proposed to reinstate civilian rule if a military " organ of control " was created to keep control of them , but Taylor quashed the idea . This resulted in an official announcement by Hương and Khánh three days later , in which the military again reiterated their commitment to civilian rule through an elected legislature and a new constitution , and that " all genuine patriots " would be " earnestly assembled " to collaborate in making a plan to defeat the communists . The Americans were not impressed with the statement , which was shown to Taylor before it was made public ; the State Department dourly announced that " it appears to represent some improvement to the situation " . Nevertheless , Khánh and Taylor were both signatories to this January 9 announcement .

Although the coup was a political success for Khánh , it was not enough to stabilize his leadership in the long run . During the dispute over the HNC , Khánh had tried to frame the dispute in nationalistic terms against what he saw as overbearing US influence . In the long run , this failed , as South Vietnam and the senior officers ' careers and advancement were dependent on US aid . Taylor hoped Khánh 's appeals to nationalism might backfire by causing his colleagues to fear a future without US funding . The Americans were aware of Khánh 's tactics and exploited it by persistently trying to scare his colleagues with the prospect of a military heavily restricted by the absence of US funding . After the December coup , Taylor felt the fear of US abandonment " raised the courage level of the other generals to the point of sacking " Khánh , as many were seen as beholden above all to their desire for personal advancement . In January and February 1965 , Khánh sensed he could no longer work with Taylor and the Americans , and that his support in the junta was unreliable , so he began to try to set up secret peace talks with the communists . Planning for discussions was only beginning , but this was unacceptable to the Americans and hardline anti @-@ communists in the junta , as it meant the bombing campaign against North Vietnam would not be possible . When Khánh 's plans were discovered , US @-@ encouraged plotting intensified . On February 19 – 20 , a coup occurred , and after the original plot was put down by the Young Turks , they forced Khánh into exile as well . With Khánh out of the way , the bombing campaign started .

= 1998 National League Wild Card tie @-@ breaker game =

The 1998 National League wild @-@ card tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1998 regular season , played between the Chicago Cubs and San Francisco Giants to determine the winner of the National League ( NL ) wild card . The game took place at Wrigley Field in Chicago , on September 28 , 1998 . The Cubs won the game 5 – 3 , holding the Giants scoreless for the majority of the game until the Giants threatened heavily in the ninth inning and scored all three of their runs . As a result of the game , the Cubs qualified for the postseason and the Giants did not .

The game was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 89 – 73 . The Cubs won a coin flip late in the season which , by rule at the time , awarded them home field for the game . This victory advanced the Cubs to the 1998 NL Division Series ( NLDS ) where they were swept by the Atlanta Braves , ending the Cubs ' season . Michael Jordan , a popular Chicago sportsman then ending his career with the Chicago Bulls , threw the game 's ceremonial first pitch . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .

= = Background = =

The Chicago Cubs finished the previous season at the bottom of the Central division with a 68 – 94 record while the Giants won the West at 90 – 72 , though were defeated by the eventual 1997 World Series champion Florida Marlins in the NLDS . The Giants ' Barry Bonds drew criticism for his postseason performance , which had been a recurring criticism dating back to his time with the Pittsburgh Pirates . The Cubs made several offseason acquisitions following the 1997 season including trading Doug Glanville for second baseman Mickey Morandini along with signing Jeff Blauser and Henry Rodríguez as free agents .

One notable event of the 1998 season was the race for the home run title and Roger Maris ' single @-@ season record of 61 home runs between the Cubs ' Sammy Sosa and the Cardinals ' Mark McGwire . McGwire ultimately won , setting a new record of 70 while Sosa closed the season with 66 . Bonds would top their totals with 73 home runs in 2001 , setting the current record , while McGwire and Sosa 's totals remain the second and third highest figures in MLB history . Additionally , three teams finished the 1998 season within one game of one another in the race for the National League wild card : the Cubs , Giants , and New York Mets . This late @-@ season race included a dramatic Cubs loss to the Brewers on September 23 . The Cubs led 7 – 5 with two outs and the bases loaded for the Brewers in the bottom of the ninth inning when Brant Brown dropped a fly ball , allowing three unearned runs to score on his error and losing the Cubs the game . This loss gained notoriety for announcer and former @-@ Cub Ron Santo 's call of the final play , yelling " Oh , no ! " as the final runs scored .

The Mets were tied with the Cubs and Giants in the wild @-@ card race as late in the season as September 25 at 88 – 72 . However , the Mets lost their remaining two games and finished their season one game back of the Cubs and Giants who ended tied at 89 – 73 . This record was also the best non @-@ division @-@ winning record and as such a tie @-@ breaker was necessary to determine the wild @-@ card winner . A coin flip on September 14 gave the Cubs ' home field advantage , setting Wrigley Field as the location for the game . In the event of a three @-@ way tie the Cubs were presented with the choice to either host two home games or receive a bye and play the winner of a Mets @-@ Giants game on the road because they had the best combined record against the Mets and Giants . Cubs ' general manager Ed Lynch decided on the second option , though the choice was moot as the Mets fell out of the race . The Cubs ' Steve Trachsel and Mark Gardner of the Giants were slated to start the tie @-@ breaker on the September 28 .

= = Game summary = =

Box score for Monday September 28 , 1998 — 7 : 10 p.m. ( CT ) at Wrigley Field in Chicago

The game remained scoreless in the early innings , with only two baserunners apiece for each team through the first three innings . The Giants loaded the bases with two outs in the top of the 4th inning , but Brian Johnson struck out to end the inning . The first runs of the game came in the top of the 5th as Henry Rodriguez singled to lead off the inning and scored on a home run by Gary Gaetti to give the Cubs a 2 – 0 lead . The Cubs threatened again in the next inning with singles by Lance Johnson and Sammy Sosa . Rich Rodriguez relieved Gardner , but loaded the bases with a walk to Mark Grace and allowed a single to Matt Mieske which scored two more runs and extended the Cubs ' lead to 4 – 0 . John Johnstone relieved Rodriguez and closed the inning without further scoring .

After getting one out in the top of the 7th , Steve Trachsel allowed a single and a walk to pinch hitters Brent Mayne and Armando Ríos respectively . The Cubs double switched , bringing in Matt Karchner to relieve Trachsel and Orlando Merced to play left field . Karchner induced another out before loading the bases on a single by Shawon Dunston . Félix Heredia entered in relief of Karchner and got Barry Bonds to ground out to first base to end the inning . The Cubs further extended their lead in the bottom of the 8th inning . After Alvin Morman got Morandini to strike out to open the inning the Giants double switched to bring in José Mesa to pitch and Bill Mueller at third base . Mesa allowed a single to Sammy Sosa and a double to Mark Grace which advanced Sosa to third . Following a ground out Mesa threw a wild pitch while facing Gaetti and Sosa scored to make the game 5 – 0 .

The Giants responded in the top of the 9th , scoring their only runs of the game . Kevin Tapani allowed successive singles to Brent Mayne and Mueller to open the inning before Terry Mulholland relieved him . Stan Javier singled to score Mayne and Ellis Burks then walked to load the bases . Bonds came to bat with the bases loaded for the second time in the game and lined out to deep right field , scoring Mueller on a sacrifice fly and Javier advanced to third base . Rod Beck entered and got successive outs by Jeff Kent , which scored Javier , and Joe Carter to end the game 5 – 3 for the Cubs .

= = Aftermath = =

Chicago 's win clinched the team 's 15th postseason berth in franchise history , their first in 9 years since losing in the 1989 National League Championship Series . The Cubs ' presence in the postseason , playing for a spot in the World Series , led several sportswriters to reference the Curse of the Billy Goat and the difficulties the Cubs ' had faced since 1945 . The Billy Goat story suggests that Billy Sianis cursed the Cubs after he and his goat were asked to leave game four of the 1945 World Series . The playoff berth matched the Cubs with the Atlanta Braves in the NLDS , where the Cubs were swept three games to none . The Cubs have not made the World Series since 1945 and have not won a title since 1908 .

In baseball statistics tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . For example , the Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted that Sammy Sosa could have added to his notable home run total in the game . Sosa did add to his league @-@ leading strikeout total with one in the 4th inning . Beck also added to his league @-@ leading total in games played and earned his 51st save of the season which finished 2nd to Trevor Hoffman 's 53 but is tied for the 9th highest single @-@ season save total in MLB history . Several Cubs and Giants won awards for their regular season performances including Rookie of the Year honors for Kerry Wood , a Silver Slugger Award for Sosa , and a Rawlings Gold Glove Award for J. T. Snow . Sosa also won the Most Valuable Player award , earning 30 out of 32 first place votes ( with McGwire taking the remaining 2 ) .

Barry Bonds drew criticism after the game for his poor performance , including twice making an out with the bases loaded , with some suggesting that Bonds often played poorly in " big games " . Bonds ' 0 – 4 performance with an RBI and a strikeout earned him a − .186 win probability added ( WPA ) , the lowest figure for any player in the game . WPA is a statistic which takes the game situation into account to quantify how a player altered his team 's chances of winning . Bonds ' figure translates into decreasing the Giants ' chances of success by 18 @.@ 6 % . The book Game of Shadows , which details Bonds ' suggested use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs ( PED ) , argues that Bonds grew jealous and resentful of the attention Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa were given during their record chase . As a result , according to Game of Shadows , Bonds turned to weight training under Greg Anderson who began providing him with steroids and other PEDs following the 1998 season .

= Corpus Christi Bay =

Corpus Christi Bay is a scenic semi @-@ tropical bay on the Texas coast found in San Patricio and Nueces counties , next to the major city of Corpus Christi . It is separated from the Gulf of Mexico by Mustang Island , and is fed by the Nueces River and Oso Creek from its western and southern extensions , Nueces Bay and Oso Bay . The bay is located approximately 136 miles ( 219 km ) south of San Antonio , and 179 miles ( 288 km ) southwest of Houston .

Corpus Christi Bay has a rich history of human settlement along its shores that dates back millennia and is responsible for the growth of Corpus Christi , and the smaller ports of Ingleside and Portland . It is an important natural estuary that supports a diverse collection of wildlife , and attracts many tourists . The bay 's abundance of petroleum and natural gas has attracted industry , and its strategic location on the Texas coast is ideal for military establishment .

= = History = =

The shores of Corpus Christi ( or Body of Christ ) Bay are thought to have been inhabited by the Karankawa Indians before the European discovery . Archeological evidence suggests that pre @-@ Karankawa peoples used the area near Oso Bay as a burial ground between 500 BC and 500 AD . It is believed to have first been spotted by Europeans on Corpus Christi Day 1519 , when Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda navigated its waters . Joaquín de Orobio y Basterra came across the bay in 1746 , when given orders to settle the area between Tampico , Mexico , and the mouth of the San Antonio River at San Antonio Bay . He named the bay after St. Michael the Archangel , but the name did not stick and was referred to as " Corpus Christi Bay " in a 1766 report by Diego Ortiz Parrilla . Explorer Blas María de la Garza Falcón is believed to have been the first man to purchase land on the bay in 1746 . Shortly thereafter the short @-@ lived settlement of Villa de Vedoya was founded on the mouth of the Nueces River .

The first trading post on Corpus Christi Bay was established by Henry Kinney in 1838 in present @-@ day Corpus Christi . By the 1840s , the area developed into a settlement named after the bay , and a deepwater port was established in the 1870s . A bayfront that included a 32 @-@ foot overlooking statue of Jesus Christ was designed by Mount Rushmore sculptor Gutzon Borglum in 1928 , but was turned down by the city in 1930 . Later efforts to build a statue on the shore were also rejected . The bayside port would later grow into a major city , and had a population of 277 @,@ 454 people during the 2000 U.S. census . In addition to Corpus Christi , Kinney also found Nuecestown ( known to settlers as The Motts ) in 1852 , near the confluence of the Nueces River and Nueces Bay . The town was attacked by Mexican robbers in 1875 , and underwent a steep decline . It is now a ghost town located in the Corpus Christi city limits . The city of Ingleside was founded on the northern shore of the bay in 1854 , and grew slowly . It had a population of 9 @,@ 388 in the 2000 census . Likewise , the city of Portland located on the northeastern bluff between the Nueces and Corpus Christi Bays , did not grow as rapidly as Corpus Christi , following its 1891 founding . During the 2000 census , it had 14 @,@ 827 residents .

For transportation on the bay , steamboats were commonplace between Corpus Christi and Ingleside during the 1930s . Native Americans used a route made up of a series of shallow oyster beds , dubbed Reef Road . The passage , which was about 18 to 24 inches in depth , could be navigated on foot or horseback during low tides to travel across the opening of Nueces Bay into Corpus Christi Bay . White settlers discovered the road in the 1860s , and it became a common way to pass from Portland to Corpus Christi via buggy , although its jagged course had to be marked with posts and horses would sometimes fall off the beds and drown . A wooden causeway connecting Portland and Corpus Christi was first constructed in 1915 , but was repeatedly rebuilt and destroyed by several storms . A permanent concrete bridge was erected in the 1950s , and a double lane was added in 1988 . The approximately mile long structure is today known as the Nueces Bay Causeway .

The bay has been strategically important for the military . General Zachary Taylor stationed his men on Rincon Point during the Mexican @-@ American War , and a Union invasion was halted by Confederates on the same point in 1862 , during the American Civil War . The Port of Corpus Christi was used by the Confederates to bring in supplies during the war effort until the Union bombarded Corpus Christi and occupied the bay and port from 1863 to 1870 . In 1940 , the Naval Air Station Corpus Christi was established on the bay , and by 1944 had transformed into a major base with one main air station and six additional stations . Notably , during a March 1960 practice run from the base , future Senator John McCain lost track of his altitude and speed , and his single @-@ seat , single @-@ pistoned @-@ engine AD @-@ 6 Skyraider crashed into Corpus Christi Bay and sank to the bottom . He squeezed out of the cockpit , swam ten feet to the surface , and was carried to safety by a rescue helicopter , therefore escaping without major injuries .

= = Features = =

The shoreline of Corpus Christi Bay is included in the Texas Coastal Plain in South Texas . The surrounding land is semi @-@ arid and is used for ranching and other agricultural purposes . The bay itself is considered subtropical , and was described by Gutzon Borglum as " the most beautiful bay on the Texas coast . "

On average , the system is 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep , and covers approximately 497 square kilometers ( 192 sq mi ) . It is the fourth largest estuarine system in Texas behind Galveston Bay , Laguna Madre and Matagorda Bay . The two main extensions are : Nueces Bay , which extends west to the mouth of the Nueces River , and Oso Bay , which extends south to the mouth of Oso Creek . Every second , approximately 34 cubic meters ( 9 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) of water flows into the bay . The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at Aransas Pass . As a result of the seawater exchange , the bay 's salinity is 22 parts per thousand ( ppt ) , which is lower than the seawater average of 35 ppt .

Following the shoreline beginning at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi on the bay 's southeastern peninsula , the features of the bay can be best described . Moving northwest from the air station , Oso Bay must be crossed at its confluence with Corpus Christi Bay . On the other side of the meeting is Ward Island ( actually a peninsula ) , where Texas A & M University – Corpus Christi is found . Further northwest , the shore begins to curve and off in the distance across the bay , the skyline of Corpus Christi is visible . Following the shore , the land dips inward and forms Emerald Cove , where a seawall has been constructed . Out in the bay , the Alta Vista Reef can be spotted from this location . Moving north along the shore , the seawall continues into the main city , until it reaches Industrial Canal , which has been dredged south of Nueces Bay and extends into the main bay to Port Aransas . Another seawall , which starts in Emerald Cove with gaps at places such as a spoils island that can be viewed in the bay and the canal , is slightly out in the water . This seawall ends when it reaches land at the southern portion of Corpus Christi Beach . North of the canal , Corpus Christi Beach is found along the shore to Rincon Point , where Corpus Christi Bay opens to Nueces Bay and must be crossed using the Nueces Bay Causeway to Indian Point near Portland , from where Indian Reef juts from offshore . Past Portland , the shore curves to the southeast where the large La Quinta Island forms on the backdrop of industrial plants in Ingleside . The La Quinta Channel has been dredged between the island and the shore and meets the Jewell Fulton canal at the confluence of Kinney Bayou . Ingleside Cove is formed in this area between La Quinta Island and an island named Ingleside Point . The shore then curves to the southwest where Ingleside on the Bay is located on southern shore of the bay 's northeastern peninsula . To the southeast , a series of islands form the boundary between Corpus Christi and Redfish Bays .

= = Ecosystem = =

The Environmental Protection Agency has designated the Corpus Christi Bay system as an estuary of national significance . More than 234 species of fish are found in the bay , including the Gafftopsail catfish , Hardhead catfish , Atlantic croaker , Atlantic cutlassfish , Black drum , Red drum , Southern flounder , Crevalle jack , Ladyfish , Inshore lizardfish , Atlantic midshipman , Silver perch , Pinfish , Smooth puffer , Scaled sardine , Bighead searobin , Sand seatrout , Spotted seatrout , Sheepshead , Gray snapper , Common snook , and the Tripletail .

In 2009 , $ 1 million of federal stimulus money was delegated to the restoration of the marshland near the Nueces Bay Causeway to increase the population of birds and fish . The Coastal Bend Bays and Estuaries Program and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service collaborated to place soil and plant marsh near the causeway to allow a larger nursing location for fish and provide greater quantities of food for water birds . Over 490 species of birds have been found in the area including the brown pelican , black @-@ billed whistling duck , reddish egret , white @-@ faced ibis , pauraque , buff @-@ bellied hummingbird , golden @-@ fronted woodpecker , long @-@ billed thrasher , olive sparrow , Neotropic cormorant , laughing gull , Franklin 's gull , ring @-@ billed gull , herring gull , gull @-@ billed tern , common loon , brown @-@ crested flycatcher , hooded oriole , peregrine falcon and piping plover . Bird populations are protected and can be viewed at the Hans and Pat Suter Wildlife Refuge on Oso Bay .

= = Industry = =

Corpus Christi Bay is a natural harbor , and its port has contributed to the growth of the main port city of Corpus Christi . Corpus Christi is the 5th largest port in the United States , and the deepest on the Gulf of Mexico . The channel to the Gulf was dredged through the bay to the jetties at Port Aransas . Freight exchanged at the port include seafood , industrial and agricultural goods and petroleum . Six oil refineries and 1 @,@ 500 wells are located near the bay as well as a large supply of natural gas . In 1987 alone , $ 277 million of oil and gas were produced in the area . Metals , stone products , glass , chemicals , and gypsum products are also produced near the bay . Ingleside originally focused its economy on agriculture , notably viticulture . Later , industrial plants including those established by the Brauer Corporation , Reynolds Metals ( five miles away ) and DuPont opened . La Quinta Channel was dredged by the Army Corps of Engineers in the 1950s .

Tourism to the bay is encouraged by the area 's climate , fishing and birding opportunities as well as sites in Corpus Christi including Corpus Christi beach , Texas State Aquarium , USS Lexington Museum , the bayfront marina , and the Corpus Christi Museum of Science and History . The bay was also the site of the 2008 U.S. Wind and Water Open , as well as the Texas International Boat Show in 2008 , 2009 and 2010 .

= 1990 Pacific hurricane season =

The 1990 Pacific hurricane season is the fifth most active season on record and is the third most active season in terms of ACE Indices . The 1990 season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . However , these bounds were slightly exceeded when Hurricane Alma formed on May 12 .

Hurricane Alma became the third earliest tropical cyclone in the Eastern Pacific basin since the satellite era began in 1966 , while Trudy is the third strongest October eastern Pacific hurricane on record . Overall , the impact of this season was minimal . Tropical Storm Rachel made two landfalls in Mexico and brought rain to the United States . Hurricane Boris brought light showers to California .

= = Season summary = =

The 1990 eastern North Pacific hurricane season was active in terms of number of storms that attained at least tropical storm intensity and of Accumulated Cyclone Energy . All of the tropical cyclones of this year developed from westward @-@ moving African tropical waves . The season established several tropical storm records for this basin and was marked by several strong hurricanes . There were 21 named tropical cyclones , seven below the record established by the 1992 Pacific hurricane season two years later , but four more than the long @-@ term average . Sixteen of those named storms , twice the average and four more than the previous record , reached hurricane intensity . Only Cristina , Douglas , Aka , Rachel , and Simon did not reach hurricane strength . Six of those hurricanes reached Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Hurricanes Hernan and Trudy were among the strongest ever observed in this area . Alma became the earliest named tropical cyclone for the eastern Pacific ocean east of the 140th meridian west . The eastern Pacific produced four tropical depressions that did not reach tropical storm status .

With the exception of Marie and Polo , these systems developed between 5 ° and 15 ° N , east of the longitude of Baja California in the climatologically favored area for tropical cyclogenesis . After their development , most of the tropical cyclones moved on a west to northwest track and dissipated over cool waters without affecting land . Rachel was the only system to make landfall . In addition , one tropical storm formed in the Central Pacific and eventually crossed the International Dateline before dissipating .

= = Storms = =

= = = Hurricane Alma = = =

A tropical wave emerged from Africa on April 29 . It then moved across the Atlantic , crossed northern South America , and entered the Pacific Ocean on May 9 . Convection started to increase with the wave just to the south of Panama . The wave moved westward and continued to become better organized over the next few days . On May 12 , the wave had become organized enough and was designated Tropical Depression One @-@ E.

Tropical Depression One @-@ E moved slowly to the northwest while strengthening slowly due to easterly vertical wind shear . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Alma on May 14 . The storm quickly strengthened once the vertical wind shear relaxed and was near hurricane force by the morning of May 15 . Hurricane Alma reached its peak intensity early on May 16 with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The hurricane entered an area of southwesterly wind shear caused by an upper @-@ level ridge of high pressure . The increasing vertical wind shear and cooler water caused Alma to weaken to a tropical storm . On May 17 , the storm continued to weaken and became a depression . The next day , the system dissipated as a tropical cyclone well west of mainland Mexico . Alma became the earliest named storm and hurricane in the satellite era in the east Pacific proper .

= = = Hurricane Boris = = =

A tropical wave came off the northwest coast of Africa on May 20 . The wave did not significantly develop as it moved west across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . Once it crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean , cloudiness increased considerably with the system on May 31 . It became well @-@ enough organized to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Two @-@ E on June 2 . After becoming a depression , the system moved to the west @-@ northwestward . Upper @-@ level easterly vertical wind shear limited the amount of the initial strengthening . However , an increase in convective banding led to its upgrade to Tropical Storm Boris on June 4 , 500 mi ( 800 km ) southwest of Manzanillo . Further strengthening occurred due to an anticyclone aloft fostered additional development , and by June 5 , Boris became a hurricane . The hurricane began to move to the north @-@ northwest in response to a trough off of the West Coast of the United States . Strengthening continued , and the storm reached its peak strength with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 977 mb ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . The hurricane 's cloud pattern became elongated along a southwest @-@ northeast axis on June 6 due to an increased amount of vertical wind shear . Boris was downgraded to a tropical storm later in the day on June 6 . The deep convection of the tropical storm decreased , as Boris moved over cooler waters . It was downgraded to a tropical depression on June 7 due to these factors . The depression dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 8 as the system quickly lost its tropical characteristics . A small circulation remained in the cloud field offshore the northwest coast of Baja California for a few more days .

The winds in the eyewall of Boris ripped off the sails of the Azure Dream sailboat . Outer rainbands from the storm produced moderate rain in several Mexican states . In Mexico , rainfall peaked at 8 @.@ 83 in ( 224 mm ) near San Lucas , Michoacán . The remnants of Boris also brought sporadic rainfall over the western United States , with precipitation being reported in Arizona , California , Colorado , Nevada and Wyoming . The remnants of Boris were responsible for causing the wettest June in San Diego since records began in 1850 ; however , not even 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rain fell at that location . Rainfall from the remnant system in the United States peaked at 3 @.@ 28 in ( 83 mm ) over the Santa Rita Mountains . No other direct damages or casualties were reported from Boris .

= = = Tropical Storm Cristina = = =

A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa on May 28 . The wave moved across Central America into the northeastern Pacific Ocean , where convection organized with the system on June 6 . The system became well @-@ enough organized to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Three @-@ E on June 8 , while 920 mi ( 1 @,@ 480 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . The depression continued to strengthen , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Cristina on June 9 .

Cristina initially had well @-@ established upper @-@ level outflow . It failed to reach hurricane status , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) due to movement of its associated upper @-@ level anticyclone to the north over Mexico which caused Cristina to be exposed to easterly vertical wind shear . Cristina moved generally northwestward , which eventually placed the storm in cooler waters , and caused the deep convection of the system to dissipate . On June 14 , Cristina diminished to a tropical depression . Cristina moved west @-@ northwestward with the low @-@ level flow . The depression dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 16 , after a lack of deep convection for 48 hours .

= = = Tropical Storm Douglas = = =

A tropical wave moved off the northwest coast of Africa on June 5 . It continued westward across the tropical North Atlantic and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave entered the northeastern Pacific Ocean on June 16 , where it generated an area of increased cloudiness . Organization of thunderstorm activity increased late on June 18 and early on June 19 . Tropical Depression Four @-@ E formed on June 19 , when it was 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico after evidence of low @-@ level circulation for the past 24 hours . The depression moved in a west @-@ northwest direction , due to a subtropical ridge north of the depression . Satellite analysis indicated that the depression had reached tropical storm force strength , and it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Douglas on June 19 , while 230 mi ( 370 km ) southwest of Acapulco . Douglas reached peak strength of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) on June 21

A tropical storm warning was issued on June 21 , from Punta Tejupan to Cabo Corrientes before being discontinued on June 22 . Tropical Storm Douglas brushed the western coast of Mexico . The center of circulation approached within 17 mi ( 27 km ) of the coast of Mexico on June 22 . Douglas then began to weaken because of interaction with the mountainous terrain of Mexico . The system continued to weaken despite warm water temperatures and favorable upper @-@ level conditions . Douglas dissipated early on June 24 , while 138 mi ( 222 km ) south @-@ southeast off the southern tip of Baja California . The highest rainfall report from Mexico from Douglas totaled 11 @.@ 07 in ( 281 mm ) at La Huerta . No deaths or damage were reported .

= = = Hurricane Elida = = =

A tropical wave came off the coast of Africa into the eastern Atlantic Ocean on June 10 and 11 . The system moved across the Atlantic and entered into the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The wave became a significant tropical system , with cyclonic turning in the lower and middle layers of the system 's cloudiness on June 25 . The center of circulation was located 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . The system exhibited sufficient organization to be considered Tropical Depression Five @-@ E on June 26 . The depression quickly strengthened and became Tropical Storm Elida later that day . The track of Elida was west @-@ northwestward to northwestward from June 27 through June 28 . Some rainbands moved over the mountainous region of southwestern Mexico , but no flooding , damage , or casualties were reported as a result . Elida continued strengthening and it was upgraded to a hurricane early on June 28 passing directly over Socorro Island later in the day , right as Elida reached peak strength of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , dropping 3 @.@ 7 in ( 94 mm ) of rain on the island . Some windows broke also as a result , and minor structural damage was reported as a result on the island .

A high @-@ pressure area to the north forced Elida to move more westward on June 29 . Convection began to decrease in the hurricane as it moved into cooler waters , and it weakened to a tropical storm later in the day . It then weakened to a tropical depression on July 1 , and dissipated on July 2 .

= = = Tropical Depression Six @-@ E = = =

An area of disturbed weather south of Acapulco organized into Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on June 29 and the system began to move northwest . Originally the system was expected to reach tropical storm strength and near hurricane intensity by late on July 2 or early on July 3 , however persistent vertical wind shear over the system impeded its development . After convection began to merge into the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Tropical Depression Six @-@ E , stating that the depression dissipated , and regeneration seemed unlikely .

However , wind shear began to decrease , and convection associated with the remnants of Tropical Depression Six @-@ E quickly began to increase . Although the low @-@ level circulation was near the edge of the deep convection , the National Hurricane Center resumed advisories on Tropical Depression Six @-@ E by July 1 . Intensification into a tropical storm was again predicted , but Tropical Depression Six @-@ E remained poorly defined , and eventually dissipated on July 4 .

= = = Hurricane Fausto = = =

A tropical wave came off the northwest coast of Africa on June 19 . The wave crossed the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , into the warm waters of the northeastern Pacific Ocean , on July 2 . An area of disturbed weather moved northwards towards the Gulf of Tehuantepec and became Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E early on July 6 . The depression moved northwest , and because of increased organization of deep convection , was designated Tropical Storm Fausto on July 7 , 265 mi ( 426 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . A weakly defined eye formed on July 8 , and the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Fausto , 310 mi ( 500 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas .

Fausto peaked in strength with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a central pressure of 979 mb ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) on July 9 . Fausto passed 40 mi ( 60 km ) north of Socorro Island causing a northwest wind of 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) , and 4 @.@ 3 in ( 110 mm ) of rain at that location . The hurricane fluctuated in intensity on July 10 , before weakening into a tropical storm later that day , 403 mi ( 649 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas . The weakening Fausto moved over continuing cooler waters , and was downgraded to a tropical depression on June 11 , 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas . The depression dissipated as a tropical cyclone on June 13 , and its low level circulation of clouds persisted for a few days .

= = = Hurricane Genevieve = = =

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on June 25 and moved across the Atlantic Ocean and central Caribbean Sea with little development . Within the western Caribbean Sea , convection developed with the wave on July 7 . The system became better organized as it moved into the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E on July 11 . The depression moved west @-@ northwest , with a good outflow to the north , and gradually strengthened into Tropical Storm Genevieve later that day . Genevieve continued to strengthen , reaching hurricane strength on July 13 . The storm approached within 23 mi ( 37 km ) of Socorro Island where a sustained wind of 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) and gust of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) were reported , before the weather equipment on the island failed .

The hurricane began to turn west because of the strengthening and growing ridge to its north . Increasing outflow aloft began to form , and the hurricane reached its peak strength of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) with a well @-@ defined eye at its center of circulation . Genevieve turned northwest on July 16 into an area with strong vertical wind shear and low water temperatures . The hurricane quickly weakened into a tropical storm on July 17 and then into a tropical depression on July 18 . Genevieve dissipated as a tropical cyclone later in the day , reduced to a circulation in the stratocumulus cloud field .

= = = Hurricane Hernan = = =

A tropical wave that moved off the northwest coast of Africa on July 4 passed through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave moved across Central America into the northeastern Pacific Ocean on July 15 . Thunderstorm activity increased in the system between July 16 and 18 before rainbands became present within the tropical disturbance on July 19 . Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E formed later that day while 565 mi ( 910 km ) southwest of Acapulco , Mexico .

Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E strengthened into Tropical Storm Hernan on July 21 while 684 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . The tropical storm continued to strengthen and as it moved to the northwest , and became a hurricane late on July 21 . Hernan continued to strengthen and as it passed 145 mi ( 230 km ) southwest of Clarion Island . On July 23 , Hernan reached its peak strength of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and minimum pressure of 928 mb ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) as the center of circulation was 207 mi ( 335 km ) south @-@ southwest of Clarion Island . On July 24 , concentric eyewalls ( one eyewall located inside another ) formed around the center of Hernan , which was the first time this pattern had been observed with an eastern Pacific hurricane .

Hernan kept Category 4 hurricane intensity a few more days and hurricane strength for six days overall . The hurricane weakened into a tropical storm on July 28 as it moved over cooler waters . Hernan turned more to the west as its low level center became separated from its thunderstorm activity and was steering by a surface high @-@ pressure system to its north . Hernan moved over cooler waters , dissipating as a tropical cyclone early on July 31 .

= = = Hurricane Iselle = = =

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on July 7 . The wave moved west , but it was not until it moved across the Caribbean Sea that the wave 's convection organized . The system entered into the northeastern Pacific Ocean with concentrated convection and a surface center of circulation while southeast of Acapulco . Moving west @-@ northwest , Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E formed on July 20 393 mi ( 632 km ) south of Puerto Ángel , Mexico . Early on the following day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Iselle . The storm continued strengthening while in the proximity of Hurricane Hernan , becoming a hurricane on July 22 .

The hurricane continued to move west @-@ northwest through its duration , and reached its peak strength of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) on July 25 . Iselle crossed Socorro Island , which recorded a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) sustained wind and heavy rain on July 25 . The hurricane weakened on following days after it moved over cooler waters , downgraded to a tropical storm on July 28 and subsequently into a tropical depression on July 30 . The depression dissipated later that day , after losing its low @-@ level circulation 588 mi ( 946 km ) southwest of San Diego .

= = = Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E = = =

On July 24 a tropical disturbance behind Hurricane Hernan strengthened into a tropical depression . Due to the close proximity of Hernan to its west , the development of the depression was hindered due to vertical wind shear from the outflow of Hernan . This wind shear dissipated the depression on July 26 , and its remnants were absorbed by the nearby cyclone . No damages or casualties were caused by the depression as it was well out to sea .

= = = Tropical Storm Aka = = =

Tropical Storm Aka was the only tropical storm to form in the Central North Pacific during 1990 . An area of disturbed weather began to organize on August 6 . By August 7 , the system became well @-@ enough organized to become designated Tropical depression One @-@ C. The depression intensified into a tropical storm while moving west , to the south of the Hawaiian Islands . On August 10 , Tropical Storm Aka peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The storm continued to move west and approached Johnston Island , though the island 's weather did not deteriorate . The tropical storm crossed the International Date Line on August 13 . Aka weakened back into a depression and dissipated two days later on August 15 .

= = = Tropical Depression Diana = = =

Hurricane Diana struck eastern Mexico and managed to hold together , remaining a tropical depression as it entered the eastern Pacific Ocean late on August 8 . Although Tropical Depression Diana entered the eastern Pacific , the National Hurricane Center did not re @-@ classify the system . No re @-@ intensification occurred after the system entered the eastern Pacific , and it had dissipated as a tropical cyclone by the following day . The remnant tropical disturbance recurved through the Gulf of California while developing significant convection before it moved into northwest Mexico , which brought rainfall amounts of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) to local areas within the state of Sonora . The remnant disturbance moved into the American Southwest on August 11 .

= = = Tropical Depression Two @-@ C = = =

Tropical Depression Two @-@ C was the second and last tropical cyclone to develop within the north @-@ central Pacific Ocean in 1990 . The depression developed from a tropical disturbance well southeast of Hawaii , which became much better organized on the night of August 10 . The tropical depression moved in a west northwest direction for the next 18 hours and then changed to a west @-@ southwest track on August 11 . As it turned more to the southwest , the depression weakened until it dissipated on August 13 about 600 mi ( 970 km ) south @-@ southeast of Hilo , Hawaii .

= = = Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E = = =

A persistent area of thunderstorm activity southwest of Puerto Vallarta became better organized and strengthened into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E on August 16 . Moving northwest , the system developed slowly as it was embedded within the Intertropical Convergence Zone . Easterly shear kept the system from reaching tropical storm strength and caused its ultimate dissipation on August 19 . No damages or fatalities were caused by this depression .

= = = Hurricane Julio = = =

A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on August 5 , moving across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The system entered the northeastern Pacific Ocean , and became well @-@ enough organized to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E on August 17 while centered 404 mi ( 650 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . The depression moved on a west @-@ northwestward track and strengthened , becoming Tropical Storm Julio on August 18 . Strengthening continued and Julio reached hurricane strength on August 19 . The cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on August 21 . The storm turned westward and began weakening . Julio regained tropical storm status on August 23 and tropical depression status on August 24 before dissipating as a tropical cyclone later that day . No damage was reported from Julio .

= = = Hurricane Kenna = = =

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 9 , and spawned Tropical Storm Fran four days later , before it moved through the southern Windward Islands on August 14 . While Fran dissipated shortly after that , the tropical wave progressed into the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The wave spawned Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E 808 mi ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hurricane Julio . The depression moved westward for the next several days . As Julio weakened , the depression began to increase in strength . It became Tropical Storm Kenna on August 22 and continued to strengthen into a hurricane on August 25 , peaking with winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) the next day . On August 26 , a strong frontal trough weakened the high pressure system to the storm 's north , causing a turn to the north during the next few days . The hurricane weakened in response to cooler water and increasing vertical wind shear , which removed convection from its center . Kenna weakened back to tropical storm strength on August 28 , then into a tropical depression on August 29 . The system dissipated as a tropical cyclone on August 30 .

= = = Hurricane Lowell = = =

A tropical wave moved off the northwestern coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on August 11 . After moving across the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea without development , the system moved through the Intertropical Convergence Zone of the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The cloudiness moved northward toward the Gulf of Tehuantepec on August 22 . The thunderstorm activity organized sufficiently for the system to be upgraded to Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E on August 23 while 298 mi ( 480 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward and strengthened into a tropical storm 217 mi ( 350 km ) south @-@ southwest of Puerto Vallarta on August 25 . The storm began to turn more westward due to a strengthening high pressure system to its north and was upgraded to a hurricane on August 27 while 286 mi ( 460 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . As the high to the north continued to strengthen , the hurricane turned west @-@ southwest .

Thunderstorm activity with the hurricane began to weaken and Lowell was downgraded back to tropical storm status on August 28 . The tropical storm then turned to a north @-@ northwestward with the storm passing over cooler waters . On August 31 , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression , with only minimal amounts of deep convection remaining within its circulation . Lowell dissipated as a tropical cyclone on September 1 , though a low @-@ level circulation of clouds could be seen on satellite imagery for the next few days . No damage or casualties was reported as a result of Lowell .

= = = Hurricane Marie = = =

A tropical wave moved off the northwestern coast of Africa on August 16 . The wave moved west through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave moved across Central America and into the northeastern Pacific Ocean , on August 29 . Isolated convection with the system increased while south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec as the system moved northwest parallel to the southwest coast of Mexico . Once convective activity increased , the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E on September 7 while centered 659 mi ( 1 @,@ 060 km ) southwest of Clarion Island .

A weaker than normal high pressure system controlled the movement of the depression , and the system moved slowly to the west through its duration . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Marie on September 8 , and into a hurricane on September 9 , while 522 mi ( 840 km ) south @-@ southwest of Clarion Island . Marie reached its peak intensity of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) on September 11 . The hurricane crossed into the central North Pacific on September 14 as a hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . The hurricane weakened thereafter and on September 17 Marie regained tropical storm status . The system weakened into a tropical depression on September 19 and dissipated as a tropical cyclone on September 21 near the Hawaiian coast . No casualties or damages were caused by Marie .

= = = Hurricane Norbert = = =

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa and across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without significant development . The wave entered the northeastern Pacific Ocean and began to show signs of organized thunderstorm development . Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E formed on September 10 while centered 758 mi ( 1 @,@ 220 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . The depression became better organized and strengthened into Tropical Storm Norbert later in the day .

On September 12 , Norbert absorbed Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E which was in close proximity . Norbert strengthened as it moved north @-@ northwestward . The tropical storm was upgraded to a hurricane on September 14 , and formed an eye on September 15 . The storm reached its peak strength of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) sustained winds that day . Turning north of due west , Norbert then weakened as it moved over cooler waters . It was downgraded to a tropical storm later on September 15 , and then to a tropical depression on September 18 . Norbert dissipated as a tropical cyclone on September 19 after losing all its deep convection .

= = = Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E = = =

On September 12 , satellite images indicated that the eighteenth tropical depression of the season formed southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Located in close proximity to Tropical Storm Norbert , the depression would soon enter a region of colder sea surface temperatures , and the National Hurricane Center noted that only very little intensification was possible . As predicted , Norbert hindered further intensification of Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E. The National Hurricane Center noted six hours later that the depression would likely be absorbed into Norbert . The National Hurricane Center later believed that Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E was " dominating " the interaction between the two systems , and was forecast to absorb Norbert . Unlike the latter prediction , Norbert absorbed Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E later that day .

= = = Hurricane Odile = = =

A tropical wave move off the coast of Africa on September 5 , and crossed the Atlantic waters , the Caribbean Sea and eventually into the Pacific Ocean as a weak system . An area of convection entered into the northeastern Pacific Ocean a few hundred miles south of Acapulco , Mexico . On September 2 , Tropical Depression Nineteen @-@ E formed from this convection , while 746 mi ( 1 @,@ 201 km ) south @-@ southeast from the southern tip of Baja California . The depression moved on a west @-@ northwestward track , rounding the southwest side of a strong high pressure system . The depression continued to strengthen and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Odile on September 24 and into a hurricane on September 25 . Its intensity peaked with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) on September 26 .

The hurricane began to turn more northwestward in response to a high @-@ pressure system weakening to its north . Odile began to weaken as it moved over cooler waters on September 28 . The cyclone regained tropical storm status on September 29 while it slowly progressed northward . The system weakened into a tropical depression status on September 30 . Once it lost its deep convection , Odile was steered southwestward by the low @-@ level flow , before it dissipated as a tropical cyclone on October 2 . Its remaining low @-@ level circulation of clouds continued on a southwestward course thereafter .

= = = Tropical Storm Rachel = = =

In mid @-@ September , a weak tropical wave moved off the coast of Northwest Africa . It moved westward and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean early on September 23 . Cloudiness became concentrated with the system south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . On September 27 , the organized thunderstorm area was upgraded to Tropical Depression Twenty One @-@ E while 230 mi ( 370 km ) south of Acapulco . The depression developed slowly , and became a tropical storm on September 30 . As Rachel briefly moved northward , before re @-@ curving and accelerating towards the Mexican coast . The storm passed over the southern portion of Baja California Sur on October 2 . Rachel made its final landfall midway between Los Mochis and Culiacán , and became the only system to make landfall from the eastern north Pacific Ocean in 1990 . Rachel decayed rapidly over land , and the final public advisory on Rachel was issued early on October 3 @.@  its remnants continued accelerating over Texas until they lost their identity .

The highest rainfall total from the system in Mexico totaled 9 @.@ 85 in ( 250 mm ) at Santa Anita near the tip of Baja California . Across northern Mexico , thousands were homeless , and 18 people died . In Texas , Rachel 's remnants caused heavy rain . Flooding occurred in the Big Bend area .

= = = Hurricane Polo = = =

Polo originated from a tropical wave that moved off the African coast on September 2 which spawned Hurricane Isidore in the Atlantic basin . On September 14 , the system increased in convection as it was moving to the west and approaching Central America . The southern extent of the wave crossed into the Pacific Ocean on September 18 .

The wave continued westward and related thunderstorm activity increased during the following week . The convective system organized into Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E on September 28 nearly midway between Mexico and Hawaii . Initially , the depression drifted toward the northwest due to a large upper @-@ level trough located to its west . Polo strengthened rapidly into a hurricane early on September 30 , with its winds peaking at 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Since the storm was very small , vertical wind shear caused significant weakening thereafter . On October 1 , Polo regained tropical storm strength as it was crossing into the north Central Pacific basin . It dissipated as a tropical cyclone later that day . There were no casualties or damages caused by Polo .

= = = Tropical Storm Simon = = =

A weakly defined tropical wave moved off the northwest coast of Africa on September 20 , and crossed the northern portion of the tropical Atlantic and northern South America without significant organization . The wave moved into the northeastern Pacific waters , off the coast of Colombia on September 30 . As the wave passed over southern Central America , rainbands and cloudiness increased with the system between October 1 and October 3 , before the system merged with the ITCZ from October 4 to October 6 . Signs of convective organization reappeared on October 8 , and by October 9 , the system was upgraded to Tropical Depression Twenty Two @-@ E 578 mi ( 930 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .

The depression continued to develop and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Simon on October 10 while 604 mi ( 972 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Due to a high @-@ pressure system to the north @-@ northwest , Simon continued on a west @-@ northwestward path . The tropical storm continued to strengthen to its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) by late on October 11 . Simon passed over cooler waters and weakened back into a tropical depression on October 13 . The depression moved on a westward course , and the low @-@ level circulation was displaced from its deep convection during the following day . Simon then dissipated as a tropical cyclone early on October 15 across the open waters of the northeast Pacific .

= = = Hurricane Trudy = = =

A tropical wave moved across the northeast Pacific Ocean and formed a tropical depression south of Mexico on October 16 . It strengthened at a moderate pace and reached hurricane intensity on October 18 . Trudy entered a favorable environment and explosively intensified , reaching its first peak in strength on October 20 . At that time , an upper @-@ level trough drifted Trudy north , which increased vertical shear , causing it to substantially weaken the system back to Category 1 hurricane status . The trough outran the storm and was replaced by a ridge which turned the storm back to the west and led to its re @-@ intensification to a Category 4 hurricane . Another upper level trough approached which pulled Trudy northward once again , and sheared the hurricane apart . The cyclone dissipated on November 1 . Eventually , some of its moisture spread over parts of Mexico and the United States .

Except for Socorro Island , Trudy had no impact on land . The island reported hurricane force winds for seven hours . Trudy also had an unusually large eye , which was as large as 58 mi ( 93 km ) wide . Trudy is the fourth @-@ strongest Pacific hurricane in October , behind Kenna of the 2002 season , Rick of the 2009 season , and Patricia of the 2015 season . Trudy also spent 78 hours of its life as a Category 4 hurricane , longer than any other hurricane in the Eastern Pacific basin .

= = = Hurricane Vance = = =

An area of disturbed weather , possibly related to a tropical wave , organized into Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E on October 21 . It strengthened into Tropical Storm Vance early on October 23 and then into a hurricane two days later . Vance moved parallel to the west coast of Mexico and approached the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . Before it could strike land , a high @-@ pressure area blocked Vance 's path and forced the storm to transcribe a small clockwise loop over a two @-@ day period . During the loop , Vance encountered wind shear and cool waters stirred up by Trudy as well as earlier in its duration . Vance weakened to a tropical storm on October 27 and a depression on October 30 . The cyclone dissipated late on October 31 .

= = Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) Rating = =

The table on the right shows the ACE for each storm in the season . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .

The figures in parentheses are for storms in the Central Pacific basin west of 140 ° W ; those not in parenthesis are for the Eastern Pacific basin .

The cumulative ACE for the Eastern Pacific this season fell within the official " Above Normal " grading , being one of the most active . This occurred because the season had many intense storms that lasted for a long period of time . Also it is important to note that this is the third highest ACE , only behind the 1992 and 2015 seasons respectively .

= = 1990 storm names = =

The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1990 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1996 season . This is the same list used for the 1984 season . Storms were named Trudy and Vance for the first time in 1990 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .

One name from the Central Pacific list was used – Aka . It was the first usage for that name .

= Track and field =

Track and field is a sport which includes athletic contests established on the skills of running , jumping , and throwing . The name is derived from the sport 's typical venue : a stadium with an oval running track enclosing a grass field where the throwing and jumping events take place . Track and field is categorised under the umbrella sport of athletics , which also includes road running , cross country running , and race walking .

The running events , which include sprints , middle and long @-@ distance events , race walking and hurdling , are won by the athlete with the fastest time . The jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who achieves the greatest distance or height . Regular jumping events include long jump , triple jump , high jump and pole vault , while the most common throwing events are shot put , weight , javelin , discus and hammer . There are also " combined events " or " multi events " , such as pentathlon consisting of five events , heptathlon consisting of seven events , and decathlon consisting of ten events.For every multi event , athletes participate in a combination of sprinting , jumping , throwing , middle distance , and long distance events . Most track and field events are individual sports with a single victor , but a number are relay races consisting of four members . Events are almost exclusively divided by gender , although both the men 's and women 's competitions are usually held at the same venue .

It is one of the oldest sports . In ancient times , it was an event held in conjunction with festivals and sports meets such as the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece . In modern times , the two most prestigious international track and field competitions are athletics competition at the Olympic Games and the IAAF World Championships in Athletics . The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body .

Records are kept of the best performances in specific events , at world and national levels , right down to a personal level . However , if athletes are deemed to have violated the event 's rules or regulations , they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased .

In North America , the term track and field may be used to refer to other athletics events , such as the marathon , rather than strictly track @-@ based events .

= = History = =

The sport of track and field has its roots in human prehistory . Track and field @-@ style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions , as running , jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression . The first recorded examples of organized track and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games . At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia , Greece , only one event was contested : the stadion footrace . The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further running competitions , but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is recognized today — it comprised a five @-@ event competition of the long jump , javelin throw , discus throw , stadion footrace , and wrestling .

Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period , and they spread to Rome in Italy around 200 BC . After the period of Classical antiquity ( in which the sport was largely Greco @-@ Roman influenced ) new track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages . The stone put and weight throw competitions popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modern shot put and hammer throw events . One of the last track and field events to develop was the pole vault , which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century .

Discrete modern track and field competitions , separate from general sporting festivals , were first recorded in the 19th century . These were typically organised by educational institutions , military organisations and sports clubs as competitions between rival establishments . Competitions in the English public schools were conceived as human equivalents of horse racing , fox hunting and hare coursing , influenced by a Classics @-@ rich curriculum . The Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt is the oldest running club in the world , with written records going back to 1831 and evidence that it was established by 1819 . The school organised Paper Chase races in which runners followed a trail of paper shreds left by two " foxes " ; even today RSSH runners are called " hounds " and a race victory is a " kill " . The first definite record of Shrewsbury 's ( cross @-@ country ) Annual Steeplechase is in 1834 , making it the oldest running race of the modern era . The school also lays claim to the oldest track and field meeting still in existence , originating in the Second Spring Meeting first documented in 1840 . This featured a series of throwing and jumping events with mock horse races including the Derby Stakes , the Hurdle Race and the Trial Stakes . Runners were entered by " owners " and named as though they were horses . 13 miles ( 21 km ) away and a decade later , the first Wenlock Olympian Games were held at Much Wenlock racecourse . Events at the 1851 Wenlock Games included a " half @-@ mile foot race " ( 805 m ) and a " leaping in distance " competition .

In 1865 , Dr William Penny Brookes of Wenlock helped set up the National Olympian Association , which held their first Olympian Games in 1866 at The Crystal Palace in London . This national event was a great success , attracting a crowd of over ten thousand people . In response , that same year the Amateur Athletic Club was formed and held a championship for " gentlemen amateurs " in an attempt to reclaim the sport for the educated elite . Ultimately the " allcomers " ethos of the NOA won through and the AAC was reconstituted as the Amateur Athletic Association in 1880 , the first national body for the sport of athletics . The AAA Championships , the de facto British national championships despite being for England only , have been held annually since 3 July 1880 with breaks only during two world wars and 2006 – 2008 . The AAA was effectively a global governing body in the early years of the sport , codifying its rules for the first time .

Meanwhile , the United States began holding an annual national competition — the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships — first held in 1876 by the New York Athletic Club . The establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States ( the Amateur Athletic Union in 1888 ) and France ( the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889 ) put the sport on a formal footing and meant that international competitions became possible .

The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high for track and field . The Olympic athletics programme , comprising track and field events plus a marathon race , contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics . The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and field events , both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws . The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next decades , and track and field contests remained among the Games ' most prominent . The Olympics was the elite competition for track and field , and only amateur sportsmen could compete . Track and field continued to be a largely amateur sport , as this rule was strictly enforced : Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was revealed that he had played baseball professionally .

That same year , the International Amateur Athletic Federation ( IAAF ) was established , becoming the international governing body for track and field , and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport . The National Collegiate Athletic Association held their first Men 's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921 , making it one of the most prestigious competitions for students , and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student Games in 1923 . The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships , which was followed by the European Athletics Championships in 1934 .

Up until the early 1920s , track and field had been almost exclusively a male @-@ only pursuit . A growing women 's sports movement in Europe and North America led to the establishment of the Women 's World Games in 1921 and this ultimately caused the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928 Summer Olympics . In China , women 's track and field events were being held in the 1920s , but were subject to criticism and disrespect from audiences . In 1923 , physical education advocate Zhang Ruizhen called for greater equality and participation of women in Chinese track and field . The rise of Kinue Hitomi and her 1928 Olympic medal for Japan signified the growth of women 's track and field in East Asia . More women 's events were gradually introduced as years progressed ( although it was only towards the end of the century that the men 's and women 's programmes approached parity of events ) . Marking an increasingly inclusive approach to the sport , major track and field competitions for disabled athletes were first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics .

With the rise of numerous regional championships , as well as the growth in Olympic @-@ style multi @-@ sport events ( such as the Commonwealth Games and the Pan @-@ American Games ) , competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread . From the 1960s onwards , the sport gained more exposure and commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations . After over half a century of amateurism , the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s . As a result , the Amateur Athletic Union was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non @-@ amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics : The Athletics Congress ( later USA Track and Field ) . The IAAF soon followed suit in 1982 , abandoning amateurism , and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations . The following year saw the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics — the first ever global competition just for athletics — which , with the Olympics , became one of track and field 's most prestigious competitions .

The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 1980s , with a number of athletes becoming household names ( such as Carl Lewis , Sergey Bubka , Sebastian Coe , Zola Budd and Florence Griffith @-@ Joyner ) . Many world records were broken in this period , and the added political element between competitors of the United States , East Germany , and the Soviet Union , in reaction to the Cold War , only served to stoke the sport 's popularity . The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science , and there were many changes to coaching methods , athlete 's diet regimes , training facilities and sports equipment . This was also accompanied by an increase in the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs , and prominent cases , such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and Marion Jones , damaged the public image and marketability of the sport .

From the 1990s onwards , track and field became increasingly more professional and international , as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations . The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997 , and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League — an annual series of major track and field meetings in Europe — provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form of a US $ 1 million jackpot . In 2010 , the series was replaced by the more lucrative IAAF Diamond League , a fourteen @-@ meeting series held in Europe , Asia , North America and the Middle East — the first ever worldwide annual series of track and field meetings .

= = Events = =

Track and field events are divided into three broad categories : track events , field events , and combined events . The majority of athletes tend to specialise in just one event ( or event type ) with the aim of perfecting their performances , although the aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines . Track events involve running on a track over a specified distances and — in the case of the hurdling and steeplechase events — obstacles may be placed on the track . There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a baton to their team member at the end of a certain distance .

There are two types of field events : jumps , and throws . In jumping competitions , athletes are judged on either the length or height of their jumps . The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a board or marker , and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled . In the jumps for height , an athlete must clear their body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards . The majority of jumping events are unaided , although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose @-@ built sticks in the pole vault .

The throwing events involve hurling an implement ( such as a heavy weight , javelin or discus ) from a set point , with athletes being judged on the distance that the object is thrown . Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events . Points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end of all events is the winner .

Note : Events in italics are competed at indoor world championships only

= = = Running = = =

= = = = Sprints = = = =

Races over short distances , or sprints , are among the oldest running competitions . The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event , the stadion race , which was a race from one end of the stadium to the other . Sprinting events are focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed . Three sprinting events are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships : the 100 metres , 200 metres , and 400 metres . These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements that later changed to metric : the 100 m evolved from the 100 yard dash , the 200 m distances came from the furlong ( or 1 / 8 of a mile ) , and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter @-@ mile race .

At the professional level , sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained . Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events , with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors . Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete 's maximum speed . All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance . Human physiology dictates that a runner 's near @-@ top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so because lactic acid builds up once leg muscles begin to suffer oxygen deprivation . Top speed can only be maintained for up to 20 metres .

The 60 metres is a common indoor event and indoor world championship event . Less @-@ common events include the 50 metres , 55 metres , 300 metres and 500 metres which are run in some high school and collegiate competitions in the United States . The 150 metres , though rarely competed , has a star @-@ studded history : Pietro Mennea set a world best in 1983 , Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head @-@ to @-@ head over the distance in 1997 , and Usain Bolt improved Mennea 's record in 2009 .

= = = = Middle distance = = = =

The most common middle @-@ distance track events are the 800 metres , 1500 metres and mile run , although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle @-@ distance event . The 880 yard run , or half mile , was the forebear of the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s . The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track , which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century .

Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starter 's pistol they head towards the innermost track to follow the quickest route to the finish . In 800 m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 100 m of the race . This rule was introduced to reduce the amount of physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race . Physiologically , these middle @-@ distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic and anaerobic energy producing systems , and also that they have strong speed endurance .

The 1500 m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events . Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other 's 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s . The prominence of the distances were maintained by Roger Bannister , who ( in 1954 ) was the first to run the long @-@ elusive four @-@ minute mile , and Jim Ryun 's exploits served to popularise interval training . Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe , Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle @-@ distance running in the 1980s . From the 1990s onwards , North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to dominate the 1500 and mile events .

Beyond the short distances of sprinting events , factors such as an athlete 's reactions and top speed becomes less important , while qualities such as pace , race tactics and endurance become more so .

= = = = Long distance = = = =

There are three common long distance running events in track and field competitions : 3000 metres , 5000 metres and 10 @,@ 000 metres . The latter two races are both Olympic and World Championship events outdoors , while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships . The 5000 m and 10 @,@ 000 m events have their historical roots in the 3 @-@ mile and 6 @-@ mile races . The 3000 m was historically used as a women 's long distance event , entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984 , but this was abandoned in favour of a women 's 5000 m event in 1995 .

In terms of competition rules and physical demands , long distance track races have much in common with middle @-@ distance races , except that pacing , stamina , and race tactics become much greater factors in performances . However , a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle- and long @-@ distance events , including Saïd Aouita who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m . The use of pace @-@ setters in long distance events is very common at the elite level , although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to win .

The long distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the " Flying Finns " , such as multiple Olympic champion Paavo Nurmi . The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods , but Ron Clarke 's world record @-@ breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even @-@ paced running . The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners in long distance events . Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes , in particular , have since remained dominant in these events .

= = = = Relay races = = = =

Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams . Typically , a team is made up of four runners of the same sex . Each runner completes their specified distance ( referred to as a leg ) before handing over a baton to a team mate , who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton . There is usually a designated area where athletes must exchange the baton . Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the change within the area , or if the baton is dropped during the race . A team may also be disqualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors .

Relay races emerged in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races between firemen , who would hand a red pennant on to team mates every 300 yards . There are two very common relay events : the 4 × 100 metres relay and the 4 × 400 metres relay . Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one @-@ off men 's medley relay featured in 1908 Olympics . The 4 × 100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track , meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit of the track . Teams in a 4 × 400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend , at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner @-@ most part of the circuit . For the second and third baton change overs , team mates must align themselves in respect of their team position – leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slower teams must await the baton on outer lanes .

The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays . As with 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m events , all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances , with the less commonly contested distances being the 4 × 200 m , 4 × 800 m and 4 × 1500 m relays . Other events include the distance medley relay ( comprising legs of 1200 m , 400 m , 800 m , and 1600 m ) , which is frequently held in the United States , and a sprint relay , known as the Swedish medley relay , which is popular in Scandinavia and held at the World Youth Championships in Athletics programme . Relay events have significant participation in the United States , where a number of large meetings ( or relay carnivals ) are focused almost exclusively on relay events .

= = = = Hurdling = = = =

Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England . The first known event , held in 1830 , was a variation of the 100 @-@ yard dash that included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles . A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this , holding a 120 @-@ yard race ( 110 m ) with ten hurdles of 3 @-@ foot and 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 06 m ) in height ( each placed 10 yards ( 9 m ) apart ) , with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the start and finish , respectively . French organisers adapted the race into metric ( adding 28 cm ) and the basics of this race , the men 's 110 metres hurdles , has remained largely unchanged . The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford , where ( around 1860 ) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1 @.@ 06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course . The modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics : the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3 @-@ foot ( 91 @.@ 44 cm ) hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track , with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish , respectively . Women 's hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm ( 2 ft 9 in ) for the 100 m event and 76 cm ( 2 ft 6 in ) for the 400 m event .

By far the most common events are the 100 metres hurdles for women , 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes . The men 's 110 m has been featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men 's 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games . Women 's initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event , which entered the Olympic programme in 1932 . This was extended to the 100 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics , but it was not until 1984 that a women 's 400 m hurdles event took place at the Olympics ( having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year ) .

Outside of the hurdles events , the steeplechase race is the other track and field event with obstacles . Just as the hurdling events , the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford , England . However , this event was born as a human variation on the original steeplechase competition found in horse racing . A steeplechase event was held on a track for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men 's 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races . The event was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the standard event . The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954 , and the event is held on a 400 m circuit that includes a water jump on each lap . Despite the long history of men 's steeplechase in track and field , the women 's steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005 , with its first Olympic appearance coming in 2008 .

= = = Jumping = = =

= = = = Long jump = = = =

The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events , having its roots as one of the events within the ancient Greek pentathlon contest . The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth , with the winner being the one who jumped farthest . Small weights ( Halteres ) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end to gain extra momentum and distance . The modern long jump , standardised in England and the United States around 1860 , bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used . Athletes sprint along a length of track that leads to a jumping board and a sandpit . The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand disturbed by the athlete 's body .

The athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men 's long jump competition and a women 's competition was introduced at the 1948 Summer Olympics . Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities . However , athletes must also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed . In addition to the traditional long jump , a standing long jump contest exists which requires that athletes leap from a static position without a run @-@ up . A men 's version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912 .

= = = = Triple jump = = = =

Similar to the long jump , the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit . Originally , athletes would hop on the same leg twice before jumping into the pit , but this was changed to the current " hop , step and jump " pattern from 1900 onwards . There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece : while some historians claim that a contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games , others such as Stephen G. Miller believe this is incorrect , suggesting that the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Croton having jumped 55 ancient feet ( around 16 @.@ 3 m ) . The Book of Leinster , a 12th @-@ century Irish manuscript , records the existence of geal @-@ ruith ( triple jump ) contests at the ancient Tailteann Games .

The men 's triple jump competition has been ever @-@ present at the modern Olympics , but it was not until 1993 that a women 's version gained World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later . The men 's standing triple jump event featured at the Olympics in 1900 and 1904 , but such competitions have since become very uncommon , although it is still used as a non @-@ competitive exercise drill .

= = = = High jump = = = =

The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century . Further competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there . Athletes have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area . The men 's high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women 's competition followed in 1928 .

Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event . High jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late 19th century , using either the Scissors , Eastern cut @-@ off or Western roll technique . The straddle technique became prominent in the mid @-@ 20th century , but Dick Fosbury overturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head @-@ first technique in the late 1960s – the Fosbury Flop – which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics . This technique has become the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 1980s onwards . The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912 , but is now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill .

= = = = Pole vault = = = =

In terms of sport , the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe , and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics competitions in Germany in the 1770s . One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria , England in 1843 . The basic rules and technique of the event originated in the United States . The rules required that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces the bar . Bamboo poles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became standard . Landing mattresses were introduced in the mid @-@ 20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights .

The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track , plant the pole in the metal box , and vault over the horizontal bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing mattress . While earlier versions used wooden , metal or bamboo , modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglass or carbon fibre . The pole vault has been an Olympic event since 1896 for men , but it was over 100 years later that the first women 's world championship competition was held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships . The first women 's Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000 .

= = = Throwing = = =

Track and field contains some of the foremost kinds of throwing sports , and the four major disciplines are the only pure throwing events to feature at the Olympic Games .

= = = = Shot put = = = =

The genesis of the shot put can be traced to pre @-@ historic competitions with rocks : in the Middle ages the stone put was known in Scotland and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland . In the 17th century , cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to the modern sport . The term " shot " originates from the use of round shot @-@ style ammunition for the sport . The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and required that competitors take legal throws within a square throwing area of seven feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) on each side . This was amended to a circle area with a seven @-@ foot diameter in 1906 , and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds ( 7 @.@ 26 kg ) . Throwing technique was also refined over this period , with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side @-@ step and throw technique arising in the United States in 1876 .

The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896 and a women 's competition using a 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 82 lb ) shot was added in 1948 . Further throwing techniques have arisen since the post @-@ war era : in the 1950s Parry O 'Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the " glide " , breaking the world record 17 times along the way , while Aleksandr Baryshnikov and Brian Oldfield introduced the " spin " or rotational technique in 1976 .

= = = = Discus throw = = = =

As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon , the history of the discus throw dates back to 708 BC . In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal , and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics . This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens , which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing . By the 1912 Olympics , the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2 @.@ 5 m squared throwing area became the standard . The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 pounds ) in weight and 22 cm ( 8 inches ) in diameter in 1907 . The women 's discus was among the first women 's events on the Olympic programme , being introduced in 1928 .

= = = = Javelin throw = = = =

As an implement of war and hunting , javelin throwing began in prehistoric times . Along with the discus , the javelin was the second throwing event in the ancient Olympic pentathlon . Records from 708 BC show two javelin competition types co @-@ existing : throwing at a target and throwing the javelin for distance . It was the latter type from which the modern event derives . In ancient competitions , athletes would wrap an ankyle ( thin leather strip ) around the javelin that acted as a sling to facilitate extra distance . The javelin throw gained much popularity in Scandinavia in the late 18th century and athletes from the region are still among the most dominant throwers in men 's competitions . The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releases the javelin before the foul line .

The first Olympic men 's javelin throw contest was held in 1908 and a women 's competition was introduced in 1932 . The first javelins were made of various types of wood , but in the 1950s , former athlete Bud Held introduced a hollow javelin , then a metal javelin , both of which increased throwers performances . Another former athlete , Miklós Németh invented the rough @-@ tailed javelin and throws reached in excess of 100 m – edging towards the limits of stadia . The distances and the increasing number of horizontal landings led the IAAF to redesign the men 's javelin to reduce distance and increase the implement 's downward pitching moment to allow for easier measurement . Rough @-@ tailed designs were banned in 1991 and all marks achieved with such javelins were removed from the record books . The women 's javelin underwent a similar redesign in 1999 . The current javelin specifications are 2 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 7 m in length and 800 grams in weight for men , and 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 3 m and 600 g for women .

= = = = Hammer throw = = = =

The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann Games around 1800 BC , which featured events such as throwing either a weight attached to a rope , a large rock on a wooden handle , or even a chariot wheel on a wooden axle . Other ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle – the root of the term " hammer throw " due to their resemblance to the tools . In 16th century England , contests involving the throwing of actual blacksmith 's Sledgehammers were recorded . The hammer implement was standardised in 1887 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event . The weight of the metal ball was set at 16 pounds ( 7 @.@ 26 kg ) while the attached wire had to measure between 1 @.@ 175 m and 1 @.@ 215 m .

The men 's hammer throw became an Olympic event in 1900 but the women 's event – using a 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 82 lb ) weight – was not widely competed until much later , finally featuring on the women 's Olympic programme in 2000 . The distances thrown by male athletes became greater from the 1950s onwards as a result of improved equipment using the denser metals , a switch to concrete throwing areas , and more advanced training techniques . Professional hammer throwers as historically large , strong , sturdy athletes . However , qualities such as refined technique , speed and flexibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legal throwing area has been reduced from 90 to 34 @.@ 92 degrees and throwing technique involves three to four controlled rotations .

= = = Combined events = = =

Combined ( or multi @-@ discipline ) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events , earning points for their performance in each event , which adds to a total points score . Outdoors , the most common combined events are the men 's decathlon ( ten events ) and the women 's heptathlon ( seven events ) . Due to stadium limitations , indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events , resulting in the men 's heptathlon and the women 's pentathlon . Athletes are allocated points based on an international @-@ standard points scoring system , such as the decathlon scoring table .

The Ancient Olympic pentathlon ( comprising long jump , javelin , discus , the stadion race and wrestling ) was a precursor to the track and field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics ( Intercalated Games ) . A men 's all @-@ around was held at the 1904 Summer Olympics , contested between five American and two British athletes .

= = Stadium = =

= = = Outdoor = = =

The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums that first hosted such competitions . The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval @-@ shaped running track and an area of turf within this track — the field . In earlier competitions , track lengths varied : the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333 @.@ 33 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics , while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile ( 536 @.@ 45 m ) at Francis Field . As the sport developed , the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks must be split into six to eight running lanes . Precise widths for the lanes were established , as were regulations regarding the curvature of the track . Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard in the late 1960s . 3M 's Tartan track ( an all @-@ weather running track of polyurethane ) gained popularity after its use at the 1968 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard for the sport . Many track and field stadiums are multi @-@ purpose stadiums , with the running track surrounding a field built for other sports , such as the various types of football .

The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events . The long jump and triple jump areas comprise a straight , narrow 40 @-@ metre running track with a sandpit at one or both ends . Jumps are measured from a take off board — typically a small strip of wood with a plasticine marker attached — which ensures athletes jump from behind the measurement line . The pole vault area is also a 40 @-@ metre running track and has an indentation in the ground ( the box ) where vaulters plant their poles to propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto cushioned landing mats . The high jump is a stripped down version of this , with an open area of track or field that leads to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it .

The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium . The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track . The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently across the Pitch ( sports field ) in the middle of the stadium , ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of causing damage or injury . The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage usually situated in one of the corners of the field . The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field of play and throws travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium . The shot put features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end . The throwing area is a sector . Some stadia also have a water jump area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races .

= = = Indoor = = =

Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums , which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events . Full @-@ size indoor arenas ( i.e. those fully equipped to host all events for the World Indoor Championships ) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents . Typically , a central area is surrounded by a 200 @-@ metre oval track with four to eight lanes . The track can be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably . There is also a second running track going straight across the field area , parallel to the straights of the main circuit . This track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events , which are held almost exclusively indoors .

Another common adaptation is a 160 @-@ yard track ( 11 laps to a mile ) that fits into a common basketball court sized arena . This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances , which gradually was phased out by different organizations in the 1970s and 1980s . Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden , and the Sunkist Invitational formerly held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena .

All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues . The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts . The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track . Shot put ( or weight throw ) is the only throwing event held indoors due to size restrictions . The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event , but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier .

In addition to hosting the World Indoor Championships , the IAAF has hosted the IAAF World Indoor Tour since 2016 .

= = Rules = =

= = = Track rules = = =

The rules of track athletics or of track events in athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) . The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009 . Key rules of track events are those regarding starting , running and finishing .

= = = = Starting = = = =

The start of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide . In all races that are not run in lanes the start line must be curved , so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish . Starting blocks may be used for all races up to and including 400 m ( including the first leg of the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 400 m ) and may not be used for any other race . No part of the starting block may overlap the start line or extend into another lane .

All races must be started by the report of the starter 's gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after they have ascertained that athletes are steady and in the correct starting position . An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with their hands or feet when on their marks .

For sprint races up to 400 m , the starter gives two commands : " on your marks " to instruct athletes to approach the start line , followed by " set " to advise the athletes that the start of the race is imminent . The commands of the starter are typically given in the native language in national competitions , or in English or French in international competitions . Once all athletes are set in their starting position , the gun or an approved starting apparatus must be fired or activated . If the starter is not satisfied that all are ready to proceed , the athletes may be called out of the blocks and the process started over .

There are different types of starts for races of different distances . Middle- and long @-@ distance races mainly use the waterfall start . This is when all athletes begin on a curved line that moves farther out at the outer edge of the track . Competitors are allowed to move towards the inside lane right away , as long as it is safe to do so . For some middle @-@ distance races , such as 800 m , each athlete starts in their own lane . Once the gun fires , they must run in the lane they began in until markers on the track notify them it is time to move towards the inside lane . For sprint races , athletes begin in start blocks and must stay in their own lane for the entire race .

An athlete , after assuming a final set position , may not commence his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun , or approved starting apparatus . If , in the judgment of the starter or recallers , he does so any earlier , it is considered a false start . It is deemed a false start if , in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands " on your marks " or " set " as appropriate after a reasonable time ; or an athlete after the command " on your marks " disturbs other athletes in the race through sound or otherwise . If the runner is in the " set " position and moves , then the runner is also disqualified . As of 2010 , any athlete making a false start is disqualified .

In International elite competition , electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes . If the athlete reacts in less than 0 @.@ 1 second , an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start .

= = = = Running the race = = = =

For sprinting events ( bar the 4 × 400 m relay and the indoor 400 metres ) , each athlete must run the race within their allocated lane from start to finish . If an athlete leaves their lane or steps on the line demarking each lane the athlete will be disqualified . Lane rules also apply for initial periods of other track races , for example , the beginning of the 800 m . Similar rules apply for longer distance races when a large field of athletes is present and separate starting points are designated , with the field merging into one group shortly after the starting phase .

Any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete , in a way that impedes his progress , should be disqualified from that event . However , if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane , and if no material advantage is gained , the athlete should not be disqualified .

= = = = The finish = = = =

The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide . The finishing position of athletes is determined by the order in which any part of their torso ( as distinguished from the head , neck , arms , legs , hands or feet ) reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line . Fully automatic timing systems ( photo timing ) are becoming more and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets , improving the accuracy , while eliminating the need for eagle @-@ eyed officials on the finish line . Fully automatic timing ( FAT ) is required for high level meets and any time a ( sprint ) record is set ( though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches ) .

With the accuracy of the timing systems , ties are rare . Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows : In determining whether there has been a tie in any round for a qualifying position for the next round based on time , a judge ( called the chief photo finish judge ) must consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second . If the judge decides that there has been a tie , the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or , if that is not practicable , lots must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round . In the case of a tie for first place in any final , the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete again . If he decides it is not , the result stands . Ties in other placings remain .

= = = Field rules = = =

In general , most field events allow a competitor to take their attempt individually , under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition . Each attempt is measured to determine who achieved the longest distance .

Vertical jumps ( high jump and pole vault ) set a bar at a particular height . The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar ( flat ) . Three failures in a row ends the competitor 's participation in the event . The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt , which can be used to strategic advantage ( of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses ) . A pass could be used to save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings . After all competitors have either cleared , passed or failed their attempts at a height , the bar goes up . The amount the bar goes up is predetermined before the competition , though when one competitor remains , that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts . A record is kept of each attempt by each competitor . After all competitors have taken their attempts , the one jumping the highest is the winner , and so on down the other competitors in the event . Ties are broken by first , the number of attempts taken at the highest height ( fewest wins ) , and then if still tied , by the total number of misses in the competition as a whole . The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for first place or a qualifying position . If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers , all tied competitors take a fourth jump at the last height . If they still miss , the bar goes down one increment where they again jump . This process continues until the tie is broken .

Horizontal jumps ( long jump and triple jump ) and all throws must be initiated behind a line . In the case of horizontal jumps , that line is a straight line perpendicular to the runway . In the case of throws , that line is an arc or a circle . Crossing the line while initiating the attempt invalidates the attempt — it becomes a foul . All landings must occur in a sector . For the jumps , that is a sand filled pit , for throws it is a defined sector . A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a foul ( the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector ) . Assuming a proper attempt , officials measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line . The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest distance between the point and the line . To accomplish this , the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line in jumps , or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws . The officials at the landing end of the tape have the zero , while the officials at the point of initiation measure and record the length . Whenever a record ( or potential record ) occurs , that measurement is taken ( again ) with a steel tape , and observed by at least three officials ( plus usually the meet referee ) . Steel tapes are easily bent and damaged , so are not used to measure everyday competitions . For major competitions , each competitor gets three tries . The top competitors ( usually 8 or 9 depending on that competition 's rules or the number of lanes on the track ) gets three more tries . At that level of competition , the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set — so the competitor in first place at the end of the third round is last , while the last competitor to qualify goes first . Some meets rearrange the competition order again for the final round , so the final attempt is taken by the leader at that point . At other competitions , meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts . Whatever the format , all competitors get an equal number of attempts .

= = Equipment = =

Men and women have different weights for their throwing implements – men 's javelin is 800 grams compared to 600 for women , men 's weight throw is 35 pounds compared to 20 for women , men 's discus is 2 kilograms to women 's 1 , men 's shot put is 16 pounds compared to 8 pounds for women , and men 's hammer throw is also 16 pounds to the women 's 8 . Additionally , men 's high hurdles are at height of 42 inches compared to women 's hurdles which are 33 inches . For the intermediate hurdles ( 400 meter hurdles ) , the men 's hurdle height is 36 inches compared to 30 inches for women .

= = Organizations = =

The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics organisations . The International Association of Athletics Federations is the global governing body for track and field , and athletics as a whole . The governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies . Some national federations are named after the sport , including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association , but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies . These national federations regulate sub @-@ national and local track and field clubs , as well as other types of running clubs .

= = Competitions = =

= = = Olympics , Paralympics and world championships = = =

The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics . Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic and Paralympic athletics programmes , which occur every four years . Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympics since its inception in 1896 , and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympic and Paralympic Games . Events such as the 100 metres receive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic or Paralympic sporting event .

The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the IAAF . The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913 , but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 – the IAAF World Championships in Athletics . The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon and racewalking competitions . Initially , this worked on a quadrennial basis but , after 1991 , it changed to a biennial format . In terms of indoor track and field , the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics has been held every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events .

= = = Other championships = = =

Similar to the event programmes at the Olympics , Paralympics and World Championships , track and field forms a significant part of continental championships . The South American Championships in Athletics , created in 1919 , was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championships became the second championships of this type in 1934 . The Asian Athletics Championships and African Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania started its championships in 1990 .

There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe ( European Athletics Indoor Championships ) and Asia ( Asian Indoor Athletics Championships ) . There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America , which may be ( in part ) due to the success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships . Most countries have a national championship in track and field and , for athletes , these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions . Some countries hold many track and field championships at high school and college @-@ level , which help develop younger athletes . Some of these have gained significant exposure and prestige , such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships . However , the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country to country .

= = = Multi @-@ sport events = = =

Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics and Paralympics , the sport is featured within the athletics programmes of many major multi @-@ sport events . Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic @-@ style model were the World University Games in 1923 , the Commonwealth Games in 1930 , and the Maccabiah Games in 1932 . The number of major multi @-@ sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within them . Typically , track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games .

After the Olympic and Paralympic Games , the most prominent events for track and field athletes include the three IOC @-@ sanctioned continental games : the All @-@ Africa Games , Asian Games , and the Pan American Games . Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade , and World Masters Games have significant participation from track and field athletes . Track and field is also present at the national games level , with competitions such as the Chinese National Games serving as the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes .

= = = Meetings = = =

One @-@ day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport – they are the most basic level of track and field competition . Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club , or by a group or business that serves as the meeting promoter . In the case of the former , athletes are selected to represent their club or institution . In the case of privately run or independent meetings , athletes participate on an invitation @-@ only basis .

The most basic type of meetings are all @-@ comers track meets , which are largely small , local , informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete . As meetings become more organized they can gain official sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport .

At the professional level , meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the " Golden Four " competition , comprising meetings in Zürich , Brussels , Berlin and Oslo . This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998 , which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour . In 2010 , the Golden League idea was expanded globally as the IAAF Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one @-@ day track and field meetings .

= = Records = =

Athletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions . Doing so can not only serve as a way of determining the winner in an event , but it can also be used for historical comparison ( i.e. a record ) . A large variety of record types exist and men 's and women 's performances are recorded separately . The foremost types of records organise athlete 's performances by the region they represent — beginning with national records , then continental records , up to the global or world record level . National governing bodies control the national record lists , the area associations organise their respective continental lists , and the IAAF ratifies world records .

The IAAF ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria . The IAAF first published a world records list in 1914 , initially for men 's events only . There were 53 recognised records in running , hurdling and relay , and 12 field records . World records in women 's events began in 1936 as more events were gradually added to the list , but significant changes were made in the late 1970s . First , all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 1976 , with the sole exceptional being the mile run due to the prestige and history of the event . The following year , all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic timing was used ( as opposed to the traditional hand @-@ timing stopwatch method ) . In 1981 , electronic timing was made compulsory for all world record runs in track and field , with times being recorded to within one hundredth of a second . Two additional types of world record were introduced in 1987 : world records for indoor competitions , and world records for junior athletes under 20 years old .

The next most important record type are those achieved at a specific competition . For example , the Olympic records represent the best performances by athletes at the Summer Olympics . All major championships and games have their relevant competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a note of their meet records . Other record types include : stadium records , records by age range , records by disability , and records by institution or organisation . Cash bonuses are usually offered to athletes if they break significant records , as doing so can generate greater interest and public attendance in track and field competitions .

= = Doping = =

Track and field athletes are banned from ingesting or using certain substances by governing bodies for the sport , from the national to the international level . The IAAF 's constitution incorporates the World Anti @-@ Doping Code among other anti @-@ doping measures . Practices such as blood doping and the use of anabolic steroids , peptide hormones , stimulants , or diuretics can give athletes a physical competitive advantage in track and field . The use of such substances in track and field is opposed on both ethical and medical grounds . Given that the sport functions by measuring and comparing athletes ' performances , performance @-@ enhancing substances create an uneven playing field — athletes who do not use doping substances have a disadvantage over rivals who do . Medically , the use of banned substances may have an adverse effect upon athletes ' health . However , some exemptions are made for athletes who take banned substances for therapeutic use , and athletes are not sanctioned for usage in these cases , such as Kim Collins ' failed drug test due to asthma medication .

Athletes have historically been willing to take legal and health risks to improve their performance , with some even stating their willingness to risk their lives , as exemplified by research by Mirkin , Goldman and Connor in researching attitudes to the so @-@ called Goldman dilemma . To prevent use of performance @-@ enhancing substances , athletes must submit to drug tests that are conducted both in and out of competition by anti @-@ doping officials or accredited medical staff . Penalized athletes are susceptible to higher testing upon return to competition . Athletes found to have taken substances on the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency 's banned list receive sanctions and may be banned from competition for a period of time that corresponds to the seriousness of the infraction . However , the use of substances not on the prohibited list may also result in sanctions if the substance is deemed similar to a banned substance in either composition or effect . Athletes may also be sanctioned for missing tests , seeking to avoid testing or tampering with results , refusing to submit to testing , through circumstantial evidence , or confession of use .

Doping has played a significant part in the modern history of track and field . State @-@ sponsored doping in East Germany with hormones and anabolic steroids marked the rise of women from the German Democratic Republic in track and field from the late 1960s to the 1980s . A number of these women , such as Marita Koch , broke world records and were highly successful at international competitions . Some athletes , who were following a doping plan from their teenage years , suffered significant health problems as a result of the regime . Ben Johnson ran a new world record in the 100 metres at the 1988 Seoul Olympics but was later banned for using anabolic steroids . In the mid @-@ first decade of the 21st century , the BALCO Scandal eventually resulted in the downfall of prominent sprinters such as Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery , among others , through their usage of banned substances . Doping problems have also been associated with sprinters such as Tyson Gay , Michael Rogers , and Justin Gatlin , all from the United States . Doping has also affected entire nations , such as Russia , which has been banned from competing at both the Indoor World Championships and the Olympics in 2016 . This ban was imposed in 2016 after major allegations of doping and covering up were discovered in 2015 .

= = Related sports = =

Track and field bears most similarity to the others categorised under the sport of athletics , specifically cross country running , and road forms of racewalking and running . All these forms of racing tend to record finishing times , have strictly defined start and finish points , and are generally individual in nature . Middle- and long @-@ distance runners usually participate in cross country and road events , in addition to the track . Track racewalkers are most typically road specialists as well . It is unusual for track and field athletes outside of these two groups to compete in cross country or road events .

Varieties of strength athletics , such as the World 's Strongest Man and highland games , often incorporate forms of footracing carrying heavy objects as well as throwing events such as the caber toss and keg toss , which bear similarities to track and field throwing events .

= Isabella Beeton =

Isabella Mary Beeton ( née Mayson ; 14 March 1836 – 6 February 1865 ) , also known as Mrs Beeton , was an English journalist , editor and writer . Her name is particularly associated with her first book , the 1861 work Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management . She was born in London and , after schooling in Islington , north London , and Heidelberg , Germany , she married Samuel Orchart Beeton , an ambitious publisher and magazine editor .

In 1857 , less than a year after the wedding , Isabella began writing for one of her husband 's publications , The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . She translated French fiction and wrote the cookery column , though all the recipes were plagiarised from other works or sent in by the magazine 's readers . In 1859 the Beetons launched a series of 48 @-@ page monthly supplements to The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine ; the 24 instalments were published in one volume as Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management in October 1861 , which sold 60 @,@ 000 copies in the first year . Isabella was working on an abridged version of her book , which was to be titled The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery , when she died of puerperal fever in February 1865 at the age of 28 . She gave birth to four children , two of whom died in infancy , and had several miscarriages . Two of her biographers , Nancy Spain and Kathryn Hughes , posit the theory that Samuel had unknowingly contracted syphilis in a premarital liaison with a prostitute , and had unwittingly passed the disease on to his wife .

The Book of Household Management has been edited , revised and enlarged several times since Isabella 's death and is still in print as at 2016 . Food writers have stated that the subsequent editions of the work were far removed from and inferior to the original version . Several cookery writers , including Elizabeth David and Clarissa Dickson Wright , have criticised Isabella 's work , particularly her use of other people 's recipes . Others , such as the food writer Bee Wilson , consider the censure overstated , and that Beeton and her work should be thought extraordinary and admirable . Her name has become associated with knowledge and authority on Victorian cooking and home management , and the Oxford English Dictionary states that by 1891 the term Mrs Beeton had become used as a generic name for a domestic authority . She is also considered a strong influence in the building or shaping of a middle @-@ class identity of the Victorian era .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life , 1836 – 54 = = =

Isabella Mayson was born on 14 March 1836 in Marylebone , London . She was the eldest of three daughters to Benjamin Mayson , a linen factor ( merchant ) and his wife Elizabeth ( née Jerrom ) . Shortly after Isabella 's birth the family moved to Milk Street , Cheapside , from where Benjamin traded . He died when Isabella was four years old , and Elizabeth , pregnant and unable to cope with raising the children on her own while maintaining Benjamin 's business , sent her two elder daughters to live with relatives . Isabella went to live with her recently widowed paternal grandfather in Great Orton , Cumberland , though she was back with her mother within the next two years .

Three years after Benjamin 's death Elizabeth married Henry Dorling , a widower with four children . Henry was the Clerk of Epsom Racecourse , and had been granted residence within the racecourse grounds . The family , including Elizabeth 's mother , moved to Surrey and over the next twenty years Henry and Elizabeth had a further thirteen children . Isabella was instrumental in her siblings ' upbringing , and collectively referred to them as a " living cargo of children " . The experience gave her much insight and experience in how to manage a family and its household .

After a brief education at a boarding school in Islington , in 1851 Isabella was sent to school in Heidelberg , Germany , accompanied by her stepsister Jane Dorling . Isabella became proficient in the piano and excelled in French and German ; she also gained knowledge and experience in making pastry . She had returned to Epsom by the summer of 1854 and took further lessons in pastry @-@ making from a local baker .

= = = Marriage and career , 1854 – 61 = = =

Around 1854 Isabella began a relationship with Samuel Orchart Beeton . His family had lived in Milk Street at the same time as the Maysons — Samuel 's father still ran the Dolphin Tavern there — and Samuel 's sisters had also attended the same Heidelberg school as Isabella . Samuel was the first British publisher of Harriet Beecher Stowe 's Uncle Tom 's Cabin in 1852 and had also released two innovative and pioneering journals : The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine in 1852 and the Boys ' Own magazine in 1855 . The couple entered into extensive correspondence in 1855 — in which Isabella signed her letters as " Fatty " — and they announced their engagement in June 1855 . The marriage took place at St Martin 's Church , Epsom , in July the following year , and was announced in The Times . Samuel was " a discreet but firm believer in the equality of women " and their relationship , both personal and professional , was an equal partnership . The couple went to Paris for a three @-@ week honeymoon , after which Samuel 's mother joined them in a visit to Heidelberg . They returned to Britain in August , when the newlyweds moved into 2 Chandos Villas , a large Italianate house in Pinner .

Within a month of returning from their honeymoon Isabella was pregnant . A few weeks before the birth , Samuel persuaded his wife to contribute to The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine , a publication that the food writers Mary Aylett and Olive Ordish consider was " designed to make women content with their lot inside the home , not to interest them in the world outside " . The magazine was affordable , aimed at young middle class women and was commercially successful , selling 50 @,@ 000 issues a month by 1856 . Isabella began by translating French fiction for publication as stories or serials . Shortly afterwards she started to work on the cookery column — which had been moribund for the previous six months following the departure of the previous correspondent — and the household article . The Beetons ' son , Samuel Orchart , was born towards the end of May 1857 , but died at the end of August that year . On the death certificate , the cause of death was given as diarrhoea and cholera , although Hughes hypothesises that Samuel senior had unknowingly contracted syphilis in a premarital liaison with a prostitute , and had unwittingly passed the condition on to his wife , which would have infected his son .

While coping with the loss of her child , Isabella continued to work at The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . Although she was not a regular cook , she and Samuel obtained recipes from other sources . A request to receive the readers ' own recipes led to over 2 @,@ 000 being sent in , which were selected and edited by the Beetons . Published works were also copied , largely unattributed to any of the sources . These included Eliza Acton 's Modern Cookery for Private Families , Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper , Marie @-@ Antoine Carême 's Le Pâtissier royal parisien , Louis Eustache Ude 's The French Cook , Alexis Soyer 's The Modern Housewife or , Ménagère and The Pantropheon , Hannah Glasse 's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , Maria Eliza Rundell 's A New System of Domestic Cookery , and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli . Suzanne Daly and Ross G. Forman , in their examination of Victorian cooking culture , consider that the plagiarism makes it " an important index of mid @-@ Victorian and middle @-@ class society " because the production of the text from its own readers ensures that it is a reflection of what was actually being cooked and eaten at the time . In copying the recipes of others , Isabella was following the recommendation given to her by Henrietta English , a family friend , who wrote that " Cookery is a Science that is only learnt by Long Experience and years of study which of course you have not had . Therefore my advice would be compile a book from receipts from a Variety of the Best Books published on Cookery and Heaven knows there is a great variety for you to choose from . "

The Beetons partly followed the layout of Acton 's recipes , although with a major alteration : whereas the earlier writer provided the method of cooking followed by a list of the required ingredients , the recipes in The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine listed the components before the cooking process . Isabella 's standardised layout used for the recipes also showed the approximate costs of each serving , the seasonality of the ingredients and the number of portions per dish . According to the twentieth @-@ century British cookery writer Elizabeth David , one of the strengths of Isabella 's writing was in the " clarity and details of her general instructions , her brisk comments , her no @-@ nonsense asides " . Margaret Beetham , the historian , sees that one of the strengths of the book was the " consistent principle of organisation which made its heterogeneous contents look uniform and orderly " , and brought a consistent style in presentation and layout . Whereas Daly and Forman consider such an approach as " nothing if not formulaic " , Hughes sees it as " the thing most beloved by the mid Victorians , a system " .

During the particularly bitter winter of 1858 – 59 Isabella prepared her own soup that she served to the poor of Pinner , " Soup for benevolent purposes " ; her sister later recalled that Isabella " was busy making [ the ] soup for the poor , and the children used to call with their cans regularly to be refilled " . The recipe would become the only entry in her Book of Household Management that was her own . After two years of miscarriages , the couple 's second son was born in June 1859 ; he was also named Samuel Orchart Beeton . Hughes sees the miscarriages as further evidence of Samuel 's syphilis .

As early as 1857 the Beetons had considered using the magazine columns as the basis of a book of collected recipes and homecare advice , Hughes believes , and in November 1859 they launched a series of 48 @-@ page monthly supplements with The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . The print block for the whole series of the supplements was set from the beginning so the break between each edition was fixed at 48 pages , regardless of the text , and in several issues the text of a sentence or recipe is split between the end of one instalment and the beginning of the next .

The Beetons decided to revamp The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine , particularly the fashion column , which the historian Graham Nown describes as " a rather drab piece " . They travelled to Paris in March 1860 to meet Adolphe Goubaud , the publisher of the French magazine Le Moniteur de la Mode . The magazine carried a full @-@ sized dress pattern outlined on a fold @-@ out piece of paper for users to cut out and make their own dresses . The Beetons came to an agreement with Goubaud for the Frenchman to provide patterns and illustrations for their magazine . The first edition to carry the new feature appeared on 1 May , six weeks after the couple returned from Paris . For the redesigned magazine , Samuel was joined as editor by Isabella , who was described as " Editress " . As well as being co @-@ editors , the couple were also equal partners . Isabella brought an efficiency and strong business acumen to Samuel 's normally disorganised and financially wasteful approach . She joined her husband at work , travelling daily by train to the office , where her presence caused a stir among commuters , most of whom were male . In June 1860 Isabella and Samuel travelled to Killarney , Ireland , for a fortnight 's holiday , leaving their son at home with his nurse . The Beetons enjoyed the sightseeing , although on the days it rained , they stayed inside their hotel and worked on the next edition of The Englishwoman 's Domestic Magazine . Isabella was impressed with the food they were served , and wrote in her diary that the dinners were " conducted in quite the French style " .

In September 1861 the Beetons released a new , weekly publication called The Queen , the Ladies ' Newspaper . With the Beetons busy running their other titles , they employed Frederick Greenwood as the editor .

= = = Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management and later , 1861 – 65 = = =

The complete version of Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , consisting of the 24 collected monthly instalments , was published on 1 October 1861 ; it became one of the major publishing events of the nineteenth century . Isabella included an extensive 26 @-@ page " Analytical Index " in the book . Although not an innovation — it had been used in The Family Friend magazine since 1855 — Hughes considers the index in the Book of Household Management to be " fabulously detailed and exhaustively cross @-@ referenced " . Of the 1 @,@ 112 pages , over 900 contained recipes . The remainder provided advice on fashion , child care , animal husbandry , poisons , the management of servants , science , religion , first aid and the importance in the use of local and seasonal produce . In its first year of publication , the book sold 60 @,@ 000 copies . It reflected Victorian values , particularly hard work , thrift and cleanliness . Christopher Clausen , in his study of the British middle classes , sees that Isabella " reflected better than anyone else , and for a larger audience , the optimistic message that mid @-@ Victorian England was filled with opportunities for those who were willing to learn how to take advantage of them " . The food writer Annette Hope thinks that " one can understand its success . If ... young ladies knew nothing of domestic arrangements , no better book than this could have been devised for them . "

The reviews for Book of Household Management were positive . The critic for the London Evening Standard considered that Isabella had earned herself a household reputation , remarking that she had " succeeded in producing a volume which will be , for years to come , a treasure to be made much of in every English household " . The critic for the Saturday Review wrote that " for a really valuable repertory of hints on all sorts of household matters , we recommend Mrs Beeton with few misgivings " . The anonymous reviewer for The Bradford Observer considered that " the information afforded ... appears intelligible and explicit " ; the reviewer also praised the layout of the recipes , highlighting details relating to ingredients , seasonality and the times needed . Writing in The Morning Chronicle , an anonymous commentator opined that " Mrs Beeton has omitted nothing which tends to the comfort of housekeepers , or facilitates the many little troubles and cares that fall to the lot of every wife and mother . She may safely predict that this book will in future take precedence of every other on the same subject . " For the 1906 edition of the book , The Illustrated London News 's reviewer considered the work " a formidable body of domestic doctrine " , and thought that " the book is almost of the first magnitude " .

Samuel 's business decisions from 1861 were unproductive and included an ill @-@ advised investment in purchasing paper — in which he lost £ 1 @,@ 000 — and a court case over unpaid bills . His hubris in business affairs brought on financial difficulties and in early 1862 the couple had moved from their comfortable Pinner house to premises over their office . The air of central London was not conducive to the health of the Beetons ' son , and he began to ail . Three days after Christmas his health worsened and he died on New Year 's Eve 1862 at the age of three ; his death certificate gave the cause as " suppressed scarlatina " and " laryngitis " . In March 1863 Isabella found that she was pregnant again , and in April the couple moved to a house in Greenhithe , Kent ; their son , who they named Orchart , was born on New Year 's Eve 1863 . Although the couple had been through financial problems , they enjoyed relative prosperity during 1863 , boosted by the sale of The Queen to Edward Cox in the middle of the year .

In the middle of 1864 the Beetons again visited the Goubauds in Paris — the couple 's third visit to the city — and Isabella was pregnant during the visit , just as she had been the previous year . On her return to Britain she began working on an abridged version of the Book of Household Management , which was to be titled The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery . On 29 January 1865 , while working on the proofs of the dictionary , she went into labour ; the baby — Mayson Moss — was born that day . Isabella began to feel feverish the following day and died of puerperal fever on 6 February at the age of 28 .

Isabella was buried at West Norwood Cemetery on 11 February . When The Dictionary of Every @-@ Day Cookery was published in the same year , Samuel added a tribute to his wife at the end :

Her works speak for themselves ; and , although taken from this world in the very height and strength , and in the early days of womanhood , she felt satisfaction — so great to all who strive with good intent and warm will — of knowing herself regarded with respect and gratitude .

= = Legacy = =

In May 1866 , following a severe downturn in his financial fortunes , Samuel sold the rights to the Book of Household Management to Ward , Lock and Tyler ( later Ward Lock & Co ) . The writer Nancy Spain , in her biography of Isabella , reports that , given the money the company made from the Beetons ' work , " surely no man ever made a worse or more impractical bargain " than Samuel did . In subsequent publications Ward Lock suppressed the details of the lives of the Beetons — especially the death of Isabella — in order to protect their investment by letting readers think she was still alive and creating recipes — what Hughes considers to be " intentional censorship " . Those later editions continued to make the connection to Isabella in what Beetham considers to be a " fairly ruthless marketing policy which was begun by Beeton but carried on vigorously by Ward , Lock , and Tyler " . Those subsequent volumes bearing Isabella 's name became less reflective of the original . Since its initial publication the Book of Household Management has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .

Isabella and her main work have been subjected to criticism over the course of the twentieth century . Elizabeth David complains of recipes that are " sometimes slapdash and misleading " , although she acknowledges that Prosper Montagné 's Larousse Gastronomique also contains errors . The television cook Delia Smith admits she was puzzled " how on earth Mrs Beeton 's book managed to utterly eclipse ... [ Acton 's ] superior work " , while her fellow chef , Clarissa Dickson Wright , opines that " It would be unfair to blame any one person or one book for the decline of English cookery , but Isabella Beeton and her ubiquitous book do have a lot to answer for . " In comparison , the food writer Bee Wilson opines that disparaging Isabella 's work was only a " fashionable " stance to take and that the cook 's writing " simply makes you want to cook " . Christopher Driver , the journalist and food critic , suggests that the " relative stagnation and want of refinement in the indigenous cooking of Britain between 1880 and 1930 " may instead be explained by the " progressive debasement under successive editors , revises and enlargers " . David comments that " when plain English cooks " were active in their kitchens , " they followed plain English recipes and chiefly those from the Mrs Beeton books or their derivatives " . Dickson Wright considers Beeton to be a " fascinating source of information " from a social history viewpoint , and Aylett and Ordish consider the work to be " the best and most reliable guide for the scholar to the domestic history of the mid @-@ Victorian era " .

Despite the criticism , Clausen observes that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' has ... been for over a century the standard English cookbook , frequently outselling every other book but the Bible " . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the term Mrs Beeton became used as a generic name for " an authority on cooking and domestic subjects " as early as 1891 , and Beetham opines that " ' Mrs. Beeton ' became a trade mark , a brand name " . In a review by Gavin Koh published in a 2009 issue of The BMJ , Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management was labelled a medical classic . In Isabella 's " attempt to educate the average reader about common medical complaints and their management " , Koh argues , " she preceded the family health guides of today " . Robin Wensley , a professor of strategic management , believes that Isabella 's advice and guidance on household management can also be applied to business management , and her lessons on the subject have stood the test of time better than some of her advice on cooking or etiquette .

Following the radio broadcast of Meet Mrs. Beeton , a 1934 comedy in which Samuel was portrayed in an unflattering light , and Mrs Beeton , a 1937 documentary , Mayston Beeton worked with H. Montgomery Hyde to produce the biography Mr and Mrs Beeton , although completion and publication were delayed until 1951 . In the meantime Nancy Spain published Mrs Beeton and her Husband in 1948 , updated and retitled in 1956 to The Beeton Story . In the new edition Spain hinted at , but did not elucidate upon , on the possibility that Samuel contracted syphilis . Several other biographies followed , including from the historian Sarah Freeman , who wrote Isabella and Sam in 1977 ; Nown 's Mrs Beeton : 150 Years of Cookery and Household Management , published on the 150th anniversary of Isabella 's birthday , and Hughes 's The Short Life and Long Times of Mrs Beeton , published in 2006 . Isabella was ignored by the Dictionary of National Biography for many years : while Acton was included in the first published volume of 1885 , Isabella did not have an entry until 1993 .

There have been several television broadcasts about Isabella . In 1970 Margaret Tyzack portrayed her in a solo performance written by Rosemary Hill , in 2006 Anna Madeley played Isabella in a docudrama , and Sophie Dahl presented a documentary , The Marvellous Mrs Beeton , in the same year .

The literary historian Kate Thomas sees Isabella as " a powerful force in the making of middle @-@ class Victorian domesticity " , while the Oxford University Press , advertising an abridged edition of the Book of Household Management , considers Isabella 's work a " founding text " and " a force in shaping " the middle @-@ class identity of the Victorian era . Within that identity , the historian Sarah Richardson sees that one of Beeton 's achievements was the integration of different threads of domestic science into one volume , which " elevat [ ed ] the middle @-@ class female housekeeper 's role ... placing it in a broader and more public context " . Nown quotes an unnamed academic who thought that " Mrs Beetonism has preserved the family as a social unit , and made social reforms a possibility " , while Nicola Humble , in her history of British food , sees The Book of Household Management as " an engine for social change " which led to a " new cult of domesticity that was to play such a major role in mid @-@ Victorian life " . Nown considers Isabella

... a singular and remarkable woman , praised in her lifetime and later forgotten and ignored when a pride in light pastry ... were no longer considered prerequisites for womanhood . Yet in her lively , progressive way , she helped many women to overcome the loneliness of marriage and gave the family the importance it deserved . In the climate of her time she was brave , strong @-@ minded and a tireless champion of her sisters everywhere .

= Martin Keamy =

First Sergeant Martin Christopher Keamy is a fictional character played by Kevin Durand in the fourth season and sixth season of the American ABC television series Lost . Keamy is introduced in the fifth episode of the fourth season as a crew member aboard the freighter called the Kahana that is offshore the island where most of Lost takes place . In the second half of the season , Keamy served as the primary antagonist . He is the leader of a mercenary team hired by billionaire Charles Widmore ( played by Alan Dale ) that is sent to the island on a mission to capture Widmore 's enemy Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) from his home , then torch the island .

Unlike Lost 's ensemble of characters who , according to the writers , each have good and bad intentions , the writers have said that Keamy is evil and knows it . Durand was contacted for the role after one of Lost 's show runners saw him in the 2007 film 3 : 10 to Yuma . Like other Lost actors , Durand was not informed of his character 's arc when he won the role . Throughout Durand 's nine @-@ episode stint as a guest star in the fourth season , little was revealed regarding Keamy 's life prior to his arrival on the island and Durand cited this as a reason why the audience " loved to hate " his villainous character . Critics praised the writers for breaking Lost tradition and creating a seemingly heartless character , while Durand 's performance and appearance were also reviewed positively . Keamy returned in the final season for a tenth and eleventh appearance .

= = Arc = =

Originally from Las Vegas , Nevada , Martin Keamy was a First Sergeant of the United States Marine Corps , serving with distinction from 1996 to 2001 . In the three years before the events of Lost in 2004 , he worked with various mercenary organizations in Uganda . In fall 2004 , Keamy is hired by Widmore to lead a mercenary team to the island via freighter then helicopter and extract Ben for a large sum of money . Once he captures Ben , Keamy has orders to kill everyone on the island ( including the forty @-@ plus survivors of the September 22 , 2004 crash of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 : the protagonists of the series ) by torching it .

Keamy boards the freighter Kahana in Suva , Fiji sometime between December 6 and December 10 . On the night of December 25 , helicopter pilot Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) flies Keamy and his mercenary team , which consists of Omar ( Anthony Azizi ) , Lacour , Kocol , Redfern and Mayhew , to the island . On December 27 , the team ambushes several islanders in the jungle , taking Ben 's daughter Alex Linus ( Tania Raymonde ) hostage and killing her boyfriend Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) and her mother Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) . The team infiltrates the Barracks compound where Ben resides , blowing up the house of 815 survivor Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) and fatally shooting three 815 survivors ( played by extras ) . Keamy attempts to negotiate for Ben 's surrender in exchange for the safe release of Alex . Believing that he is bluffing , Ben does not comply , and Keamy shoots Alex dead . Ben retaliates by summoning the island 's smoke monster , which brutally assaults the mercenaries and fatally wounds Mayhew .

Upon returning to the freighter , Keamy unsuccessfully attempts to kill Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) , whom he has discovered is Ben 's spy , then obtains the " secondary protocol " from a safe . The protocol contains instructions from Widmore for finding Ben if he finds out Keamy 's intention to torch the island , which he apparently had . The protocol contains details about a 1980s research station called the " Orchid " that was previously run by a group of scientists working for the Dharma Initiative . Keamy is also informed by Captain Gault that Keamy and his mercenary squad may be suffering from some sort of mental sickness , a notion Keamy dismisses . Later in the day , Omar straps a dead man 's switch to Keamy , rigged to detonate C4 on the freighter if Keamy 's heart stops beating . That night , Frank refuses to fly the mercenaries to the island . In a display of power , Keamy slits the throat of the ship 's doctor Ray ( Marc Vann ) and throws him overboard and later outdraws and shoots Captain Gault ( Grant Bowler ) during a tense standoff . Frank flies the remaining five mercenaries back to the island . On December 30 , the team apprehends Ben at the Orchid and takes him to the chopper where they are ambushed and killed by Ben 's people — referred to as the " Others " by the 815 survivors — and 815 survivors Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) . After a chase to recapture Ben and a brawl with Sayid , Keamy is shot in the back by Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , who leaves him for dead , unaware of Keamy 's bulletproof vest . Later , Keamy descends into the Orchid 's underground level via its elevator to stalk Ben , who hides in the shadows . Goading Ben with taunts about his daughter 's death , Keamy is ambushed by Ben , who beats him into submission with an expandable baton before stabbing him repeatedly in the neck . Though Locke attempts to save his life for the sake of the freighter , Keamy dies and the dead man 's trigger detonates the explosives on the freighter , killing nearly everyone aboard .

In the afterlife , Keamy is a business associate of Mr. Paik , Sun ’ s ( Yunjin Kim ) father . Mr. Paik sends Jin ( Daniel Dae Kim ) to LA to give Keamy a watch and $ 25 @,@ 000 , intended to be Keamy 's reward for killing Jin . However , the money is confiscated at customs in LAX , and Keamy is disappointed to discover it missing . He takes Jin to a restaurant and has him tied up in a freezer . Shortly after , Omar , one of Keamy 's henchmen , captures Sayid and brings him to the same restaurant . Keamy explains to Sayid that his brother has been shot because he borrowed money and failed to pay it back . After Keamy threatens Sayid 's family , Sayid retaliates and shoots Keamy in the chest , presumably killing him .

= = Personality = =

During the casting process , Keamy was described as a military type in his late @-@ twenties who does not question orders . Chris Carabott of IGN wrote that " in a show that features characters fraught with uncertainty , Keamy is the polar opposite and his Marine mentality definitely sets him apart . His team has a physical advantage and with the help of Mr. Widmore , they have a tactical advantage as well . Keamy is like a bulldog being thrown into a cage full of kittens ( except for [ Iraqi military torturer ] Sayid ) " . Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post , stated that " Keamy is Crazy ! … out of all the bad guys on the Island — past , present , and future — Keamy has to be one of the most dangerous ones . Not because of how big he is , or the weaponry , but his willingness to kill at the drop of a hat . That doesn 't bode well for our Losties [ protagonists ] . " Co @-@ show runner / executive producer / writer Carlton Cuse has stated that he and the other writers create " complex " characters because they " are interested in exploring how good and evil can be embodied in the same characters and [ the writers are also intrigued ] the struggles we all have [ , ] to overcome the dark parts of our souls " ; however , he later clarified that there is an exception : " Keamy 's bad , he knows he 's bad , but he 's ... a guy that does the job . " Damon Lindelof stated that " the great thing about Keamy is that he is like a ... merciless survivor . [ There ] ' s this great moment [ in the season finale ] where he just sort of hackie @-@ sacks [ a grenade thrown at him ] over to where [ his ally ] Omar is standing . Omar is certainly an acceptable casualty as far as Keamy is concerned . " According to a featurette in the Lost : The Complete Fourth Season – The Expanded Experience DVD set , Keamy likes " heavy weaponry " and " physical fitness " and dislikes " negotiations " and " doctors " .

= = Development = =

A remake of the 1957 film 3 : 10 to Yuma opened in theaters on September 7 , 2007 . Lost 's co @-@ show runner / executive producer / head writer / co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof enjoyed Kevin Durand 's supporting performance as Tucker and checked to see if he was available for a role on Lost . The casting director had Durand read a page of dialogue for the new character Keamy ; Durand was offered the role in early October and he traveled to Honolulu in Hawaii — where Lost is filmed on location — by October 17 , 2007 . A former stand @-@ up comic and rapper from Thunder Bay , Ontario , Canada , with the stage name " Kevy D " , Durand had seen only around six episodes of Lost by the time that he won the part . When he was shooting , he was confused by the story , later stating " I didn 't want to know anything or be attached to anybody . I 'm glad I didn 't . But now that I 'm on it , I 'll watch all of it . " Durand revealed his appreciation for the cast , crew and scripts and the fact that he had the chance to act as someone with a similar physical appearance to himself , as he had previously done roles that had not prompted recognition from viewers on the street .

Durand was never informed of his character 's arc and only learned more of Keamy 's importance to the plot as he received new scripts ; thus , he was thrilled when the role was expanded for his third appearance , in " The Shape of Things to Come " , when he kills Alex and Durand compared his excitement to that of " a kid in a candy store . " He also stated that " you really don 't know what 's going to happen in the next episode and you get the scripts pretty late , so it is pretty secretive and it 's kind of exciting that way [ because ] you 're really forced to get in the moment and say the words and play the guy " . Durand was initially met with negative reaction from fans on the street for this action and he defended his murderous character by arguing that it was actually more Ben 's fault for failing to negotiate with Keamy ; later , fans warmed up to Keamy . Despite the antagonist 's increasing popularity and fanbase , it became apparent to Durand that fans were hoping for Keamy 's death in what promised to be a showdown in the season finale . Throughout his nine @-@ episode run , Keamy never receives an episode in which his backstory is developed through flashbacks and Durand holds this partially responsible for the negative reaction to his character , saying that the audience " [ has not ] really seen anything outside of Keamy 's mission , so I think they definitely want him put down . " Following the season 's conclusion , Durand stated that he would not be surprised if his character returned in the fifth season and concluding that " Lost was really fun . If I can have that experience in any genre , I 'd take it . "

Durand returned for the sixth season episodes " Sundown " and " The Package " , following a twenty @-@ two episode absence since his character 's death in the fourth season finale . Keamy appears in the " flash sideways " parallel timeline in September 2004 working for Sun Kwon 's father Mr. Paik to assassinate her new husband Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) upon the couple 's arrival in Los Angeles . Keamy and his sidekick Omar are also extorting money from Sayid 's brother Omer , prompting Sayid to shoot them both , aiding Jin 's rescue process .

= = Reception = =

Professional television critics deemed Martin Keamy a welcome addition to the cast . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly commented that Kevin Durand " is emerging as a real find this season ; he plays that mercenary part with a scene @-@ stealing mix of menace and damaged vulnerability . " After Jensen posted what he thought were the fifteen best moments of the season , the New York Post 's Jarett Wieselman " ha [ d ] to complain about one glaring omission from EW 's list : Martin Keamy . I have loved this character all season long — and not just solely for [ his ] physical attributes ... although those certainly don 't hurt . " Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger reflected , " He was only on the show for a season and not featured all that much in that season , but Kevin Durand always made an impression as Keamy . Lots of actors might have his sheer physical size , but there 's a sense of danger ( insanity ? ) that you can 't build at the gym , you know ? " IGN 's Chris Carabott wrote that " Keamy is one of the more striking new additions to Lost [ in the fourth ] season ... and is a welcome addition to the Lost universe . " Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune stated that Keamy has " so much charisma " and she would " rather find out more about [ him ] than most of the old @-@ school Lost characters " . TV Guide 's Bruce Fretts agreed with a reader 's reaction to Durand 's " chilling portrayal " of Keamy and posted it in his weekly column . The reader , nicknamed " huntress " , wrote " love him or hate him , nobody is neutral when it comes to Keamy , which is the hallmark of a well @-@ played villain . Even the camera seems to linger on Durand , who conveys malice with just a look or tilt of his head . This role should give Durand 's career a well @-@ deserved boost " . Following his demise , Whitney Matheson of USA Today noted that " it seems Keamy , Lost 's camouflaged baddie , is turning into a bit of a cult figure . " A " hilarious " blog containing Keamy digitally edited into various photographs , posters and art titled " Keamy 's Paradise " was set up in early June 2008 . TV Squad 's Bob Sassone thought that the blog was " a great idea " and " funny " and he called Keamy " the Boba Fett of Lost " . In 2009 , Kevin Durand was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role in a Television Series .

Reaction to the antagonist 's death was mixed . Kristin Dos Santos of E ! criticized the writing for Keamy when he futilely asks Sayid where his fellow 815 survivors are so that he can kill them , but enjoyed his attractive physique , writing that " that guy is deep @-@ fried evil , and he must die horribly for what he did to Alex , but in the meantime , well , he 's certainly a well @-@ muscled young man " . The Huffington Post 's Jay Glatfelter also called for Keamy 's death , stating that " nothing would be better to me than him getting run over by Hurley 's Dharma Bus " , alluding to a scene in the third season finale . Dan Compora of SyFy Portal commented that " Keamy took a bit too long to die . Yes , he was wearing a bulletproof vest so it wasn 't totally unexpected , but it was a bit predictable . " In a review of the season finale , Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad declared her disappointment in the conclusion of Keamy 's arc , stating that " it 's always a shame when the hot guys die , [ especially when ] Kevin Durand did an amazing job with the character … he 'll be missed . " In a later article titled " Lost Season Four Highlights " , Martell noted Durand 's " strong performance " that was " particularly fun to watch " and wrote that " we [ the audience ] all know that Widmore 's the big bad , but Keamy became the face of evil on the island in his stead . "

= Kaboom ( Parks and Recreation ) =

" Kaboom " is the sixth episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation , and the twelfth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 22 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie tries to have the pit filled in and injures Andy in the process , opening Pawnee up to a possible lawsuit .

The episode was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Charles McDougall , and featured guest performances by comedians Paul Scheer and H. Jon Benjamin . " Kaboom " saw the filling in of the Pawnee pit , a focal plot device in Parks and Recreation since the first episode . As part of a multi @-@ network television campaign to spotlight volunteerism , the episode prominently featured the real @-@ life organization KaBOOM ! , a charity that builds playgrounds in locations all over the United States .

According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million household viewers , an improvement over the previous week . " Kaboom " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising the series for resolving the long @-@ standing pit subplot .

It is the only episode of the entire series in which Aubrey Plaza does not appear as April Ludgate .

= = Plot = =

The episode opens with Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) receiving a speakerphone call about abnormal transactions on her credit card . The purchases turn out to all be legitimate , but Leslie cancels the card anyway out of embarrassment when Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) hears about her unusual purchases , including a " bucket of cake " , a man pillow in the shape of Daniel Craig , and tuition to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . Later , the parks department and Ann ( Rashida Jones ) visit neighboring Indiana town Eagleton to help build a playground in a single day , as part of an event by the charity KaBOOM ! There , Leslie and Ann find Ann 's ex @-@ boyfriend Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , who claims to be volunteering , but in reality , is coming for the free food . He tells Leslie and Ann that he now has a home with the drummer of his band . Leslie is inspired by the energy of the group and its leader Keef ( Paul Scheer ) , which prompts her to take proactive measures in filling in the pit in Pawnee and turning it into a park . While discussing the matter with her parks department , Mark ( Paul Schneider ) takes her aside and suggests she simply fill it in without permission . Leslie decides to take his advice and rents a bulldozer to fill in the pit .

Leslie meets Ann at the pit with the rented bulldozer , which starts filling it in with dirt . However , they failed to realize Andy was inside his tent in the pit , and he is injured when mounds of dirt fall on him . He is taken to the hospital , where Ann is assigned as his nurse . An angry Ron ( Nick Offerman ) tells Leslie the town is now open to a large potential lawsuit from Andy , and he sends her to visit him along with their city attorney Scott ( H. Jon Benjamin ) . Meanwhile , Andy is excited to be near Ann and insists it will lead to them getting back together , but Ann tells him she is very happy dating Mark , who unlike Andy has a job , apartment and future . A disheartened Andy decides he has to get money to impress Ann . When Leslie visits , he regretfully tells her he and his attorney Wendell Adams ( Chris Tallman ) are going to sue Pawnee .

Leslie is convinced she can reason with Andy if they can talk without their lawyers , but Andy will not return her calls . Finally , Ann calls Andy and asks him to come to her house . Later that day , he arrives completely naked , having assumed Ann wanted to take him back . A disgusted Ann leaves the house , leaving Leslie and Andy to talk . Andy admits he is suing the town in an attempt to win Ann back , and she thinks of a different way he can impress her . The next day at city hall , Andy tells Leslie and Scott he will drop the lawsuit if they agree to fill in the pit right away . Scott agrees , unaware it was a trick between Andy and Leslie . The next day the pit is filled in and turned into a lot , and an impressed Ann waves at Andy while the construction work is going on . The episode ends with Keef riding a motorboat , revealing his role in KaBOOM ! was an elaborate prank to get the playground built , and announcing he is going to build a hospital in a poor part of China .

= = Production = =

" Kaboom " was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Charles McDougall . The Pawnee pit , which has been a focal plot device in Parks and Recreation since the first episode , is filled in during this episode . " Kaboom " features actor and comedian Paul Scheer in a guest appearance as the KaBOOM ! organizer . Scheer has previously worked with Aziz Ansari on the MTV sketch comedy show , Human Giant . " Kaboom " also featured H. Jon Benjamin , a voice actor from Archer , Dr. Katz , and Home Movies , as Pawnee 's lawyer . Chris Pratt actually appeared naked during filming of a scene in which he arrived at Ann 's house without clothes on . Michael Schur , co @-@ creator of Parks and Recreation , said the scene was written because Pratt " loves taking his clothes off " .

The script prominently features KaBOOM ! , a real @-@ life charitable organization that builds playgrounds in locations all over the United States . Parks and Recreation included the charity in the episode as part of a charity campaign called " I Participate " , sponsored by the Entertainment Industry Foundation . The campaign involves more than 60 shows on NBC ABC , CBS , Fox and several other networks , all of which spotlighted real @-@ life charities in an effort to encourage volunteerism . Greg Daniels , the series executive producer and co @-@ creator , was responsible for choosing the KaBOOM ! charity . In an editorial featured on The Huffington Post after the " Kaboom " aired , KaBOOM ! chief executive officer Darell Hammond called the episode " Ka @-@ PERFECT ! " and said , " The writers certainly captured the spirit that fuels each of our ( playground ) builds – something that inspires volunteers to continue their great work and strive even harder to give back to their communities . "

Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , two deleted scenes from " Kaboom " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . The first two @-@ minute clip included extended scenes of the KABOOM ! park construction , including Tom text messaging instead of working , Leslie and Ann competing with children , and Paul Scheer doing the Worm dance move . Leslie also seeks advice from her mother ( played by Pamela Reed ) after putting Pawnee in danger of a lawsuit . In the second , 15 @-@ second clip , Ann complains to Mark about Andy appearing naked at her apartment , which Mark only finds amusing .

= = Cultural references = =

Andy says he volunteers at several organizations in order to get their free food at their events . He specifically identifies the Red Cross , which he says has " amazing cookies " , and Meals on Wheels , which he described as a " bonanza " .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast on October 22 , 2009 , " Kaboom " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It was a slight increase from the previous week 's episode , " Sister City " . " Kaboom " received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said " Kaboom " was the best episode of the second season , and called Parks and Recreation " one of the funniest shows on TV right now " . Heisler praised the show for not shying away from outrageousness , and called Andy 's naked entrance " by far the highlight of the series " . Entertainment Weekly writer Henning Fog said " Kaboom " continued a trend of superior Parks episodes in season two , and praised the episode for filling in the pit , claiming it " both tied up a plot thread that had overstayed its welcome and put to rest any lingering ghosts from the first six episodes " . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode was funny and served as good character development for Leslie and Andy . But Fowler also said " some scenes fell flat " , and questioned why Ann would continue to harbor feelings for the immature Andy .

= Middle Colonies =

The Middle Colonies comprised the middle region of the Thirteen Colonies of the British Empire in North America . Much of the area was part of the New Netherland until the British exerted their control over the region . The English captured much of the area in its war with the Dutch around 1664 , and the majority of the conquered land became the Province of New York . The Duke of York and the King of England would later grant others ownership of the land which would become the Province of New Jersey and the Province of Pennsylvania . The Delaware Colony later separated from Pennsylvania , which was founded by William Penn .

The Middle Colonies had lots of rich soil , which was allowing the area to become a major exporter of wheat and other grains . The lumber and shipbuilding industries enjoyed success in the Middle Colonies because of the abundant forests , and Pennsylvania saw moderate success in the textile and iron industry . The Middle Colonies were the most ethnically and religiously diverse British colonies in North America , they had settlers coming from all parts of Europe . Civil unrest in Europe and other colonies saw an influx of immigrants to the Middle Colonies in the 18th century . With the new arrivals came various religions which were protected in the Middle Colonies by written freedom of religion laws . This tolerance was very unusual and distinct from other British colonies .

= = History = =

The Middle Colonies were explored by Henry Hudson on a journey into the Hudson River and Delaware Bay in 1609 . The Dutch soon claimed the land . Although the Swedes and the Dutch fought over the land in the 1630s through the ultimately the Dutch claimed the land , calling it New Netherland . In the 1660s , the English largely conquered this land from the Dutch , renaming the area New York after the Duke of York , James II . The colony 's land was periodically granted to various proprietors and split into the Province of New York and the Province of Pennsylvania .

= = Province of New Jersey = =

King Charles II renamed the land west of the Hudson River New Jersey and gave the region between New England and Maryland to his brother , the Duke of York ( later King James II of England ) as a proprietary colony . James II later granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had been loyal to him through the English Civil War : Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton . This land grant became the Province of New Jersey .

In 1665 , the Concession and Agreement was written in an effort to entice settlers to New Jersey . This document provided for religious freedom , no taxes without assembly approval , and a governor appointed by the proprietors . The first governor appointed in this way was Philip Carteret , who founded Elizabethtown . Colonists were required to pay annual quit @-@ rent taxes . On March 18 , 1674 , after encountering difficulty collecting the taxes , Lord Berkeley sold his share in the colony to Edward Byllynge , a Quaker businessman from London . This sale divided New Jersey into East Jersey and West Jersey ; however , the border between the two was not agreed upon until the Quintipartite Deed in 1676 . From 1701 to 1765 , colonists skirmished in the New York @-@ New Jersey Line War over disputed colonial boundaries .

On April 15 , 1702 , Queen Anne united West and East Jersey into one Royal Colony , the Province of New Jersey . Edward Hyde , 3rd Earl of Clarendon became the royal colony 's first governor . After Hyde was recalled to England in 1708 over charges of graft , bribery , and corruption , the governor of New York was charged to also preside over New Jersey . Finally , in 1738 , King George II appointed a separate governor , Lewis Morris , to run New Jersey .

The Provincial Congress of New Jersey , made up of elected delegates , formed in January 1776 to govern the colony . The Congress had Royal Governor William Franklin arrested on June 15 , declaring him " an enemy to the liberties of this country " . On July 2 , 1776 , New Jersey enacted the New Jersey State Constitution , soon after having empowered delegates to the Continental Congress , on June 21 , to join in a declaration of independence . The United States Declaration of Independence ended their colonial status .

= = Province of Pennsylvania = =

King Charles II granted the land for the Pennsylvania Colony to William Penn on March 4 , 1681 as payment for a debt the crown owed his family . Penn wrote the Frame of Government of Pennsylvania before departing for the colony , which called for religious tolerance towards many groups , including the Religious Society of Friends and local natives . As a proprietary colony , Penn governed Pennsylvania , yet its citizens were still subject to the English crown and laws . Penn 's cousin William Markham served as the first colonial deputy governor .

Demarcated by the 42nd parallel north and 39th parallel north , Pennsylvania was bordered by the Delaware River and the colonies of New York , Maryland , and New Jersey . In 1704 , Dutch land given to Penn by the Duke of York was separated and once again became part of the Delaware Colony . From 1692 to 1694 , revolution in England deprived Penn of the governance of his colony . The Pennsylvania Assembly took this opportunity to request expanded power for elected officials , led by David Lloyd . Upon visiting the colony in 1669 and 1701 , Penn eventually agreed to allow their Charter of Privileges to be added to the constitution . When the British banned western expansion in 1764 , fighting among colonists and against the natives swelled . In 1773 , Arthur St. Clair ordered the arrest of a Virginian officer who was commanding troops against armed settlers loyal to Pennsylvania . Pennsylvanian revolutionary sentiment continued to grow , and Philadelphia , the largest city in America , soon became the meeting place of the Continental Congress . The publication of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 by locally elected revolutionaries concluded the history of the Colony , and began the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania .

= = Province of New York = =

The first Dutch settlements in the New York area appeared around 1613 . The English captured the New Netherland Colony from the Dutch in 1664 , renaming it the Province of New York after the King 's brother , the Duke of York ( later King James II ) . The Dutch recaptured the colony in July 1673 during the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War , but gave it back to the English under the Treaty of Westminster in exchange for Suriname . The Duke of York never governed the colony himself : he instead appointed governors , councils , and other officers to run the government . Richard Nicolls served as the first governor of New York .

In 1665 , the Province of New Jersey split from New York ; however , the New York @-@ New Jersey Line War continued until the final borders were decided in 1769 , and approved by the legislatures and the King in 1772 and 1773 respectively . A Colonial Assembly convened in October 1683 , making New York the last colony to have an assembly . A constitution was drafted and passed on October 30 , 1683 , giving the colonists many rights , including the rights to taxation without representation . However , upon learning of the constitution , James II declared it void .

When the Duke of York became King James II of England , New York became a royal province . In May 1688 the province briefly became part of the Dominion of New England . When James II was overthrown , the citizens of New York rebelled against the Royal Governor in Leisler 's Rebellion . When Henry Sloughter became governor in March 1691 , the rebellion was crushed and its leader , Jacob Leisler was arrested , tried , and executed for treason . New York 's charter and constitution were reinstated soon after . In April 1775 , American patriots formed the New York Provincial Congress to replace the assembly . Governor William Tryon and all royal officials were forced from the colony on October 19 , 1775 . Colonial status ended for the new state with the United States Declaration of Independence in July 1776 .

= = Delaware Colony = =

Delaware changed hands between the Dutch and Swedes between 1631 and 1655 . The Dutch maintained control of Delaware until 1664 , when Sir Robert Carr took New Amstel for the Duke of York , renaming it New Castle . A Deputy of the Duke governed Delaware from 1664 to 1682 . When William Penn received his land grant of Pennsylvania in 1681 , he received the Delaware area from the Duke of York , and dubbed them " The Three Lower Counties on the Delaware River " . In 1701 , after he had troubles governing the ethnically diverse Delaware territory , Penn agreed to allow them a separate colonial assembly .

= = Geography = =

The partly unglaciated Middle Colonies enjoyed fertile soil vastly different from the nearby New England Colonies , which contained more rocky soil . Because of the large grain exports resulting from this soil , the colonies came to be known as the Bread Basket Colonies . Pennsylvania became a leading exporter of wheat , corn , rye , hemp , and flax , making it the leading food producer in the colonies , and later states , between the years of 1725 and 1840 . Broad navigable rivers of relaxed current like the Susquehanna River , the Delaware River , and the Hudson River attracted diverse business . Fur trappers moved along these rivers , and there was enough flow to enable milling with water wheel power .

= = Industry = =

Abundant forests attracted both the lumbering and shipbuilding industries to the Middle Colonies . These industries , along with the presence of deep river estuaries , led to the appearance of important ports like New York and Philadelphia . While the Middle Colonies had far more industry than the Southern Colonies , it still did not rival the industry of New England . In Pennsylvania , sawmills and gristmills were abundant , and the textile industry grew quickly . The colony also became a major producer of pig iron and its products , including the Pennsylvania long rifle and the Conestoga wagon . Other important industries included printing , publishing , and the related industry of papermaking .

= = Politics = =

The Middle Colonies political groups began as small groups with narrowly focused goals . These coalitions eventually grew into diverse and large political organizations , evolving especially during the French and Indian War .

The Middle Colonies were generally run by Royal or Proprietary Governors and elected Colonial Assemblies . Many Middle Colony constitutions guaranteed freedom of religion and forbade taxation without representation . Royal governors were arrested or overthrown on more than one occasion , most notably when New Jersey arrested its governor and during Leisler 's Rebellion in New York . Growing unrest in the Middle Colonies eventually led the region to become the meeting place for the Continental Congress , and a center for revolution . However , there were numerous pockets of neutrals and Loyalists .

= = Demographics = =

The Middle Colonies tended to mix aspects of the New England and Southern Colonies . Landholdings were generally farms of 40 to 160 acres ( 16 – 65 hectares ) , owned by the family that worked it . In New York 's Hudson Valley , however , the Dutch patroons operated very large landed estates and rented land to tenant farmers .

Ethnically , the Middle Colonies were more diverse than the other British colonial regions in North America and tended to be more socially tolerant . For example , in New York , any foreigner professing Christianity was awarded citizenship , leading to a more diverse populace . As a consequence , early German settlements in the Americas concentrated in the Middle Colonies region . Indentured servitude was especially common in Pennsylvania , New Jersey , and New York in the eighteenth century , though fewer worked in agriculture .

German immigrants favored the Middle Colonies . German immigration greatly increased around 1717 , and many immigrants began coming from the Rhineland . They were erroneously labeled the Pennsylvania Dutch ( the German word for German is " Deutsch " ) , and comprised one @-@ third of the population by the time of the American Revolution . The industry and farming skills they brought with them helped solidify the Middle Colonies ' prosperity . They were noted for tight @-@ knit religious communities , mostly Lutheran but also including many smaller sects such as the Moravians , Mennonites and Amish

The Scotch @-@ Irish began immigrating to the Middle Colonies in waves after 1717 . They primarily pushed farther into the western frontier of the colonies , where they repeatedly confronted the Indians . Other groups included the French Huguenots , Welsh , Dutch , Swedes , Swiss , and Scots Highlanders .

= = = English colonists = = =

When the English took direct control of the Middle Colonies around 1664 , many Quakers from Rhode Island had already been pushed into the region by Puritans , while Episcopalian businessmen settled in Philadelphia and New York City .

Welsh Quakers , Baptists and Methodists settled in the Welsh Tract of Pennsylvania . While some Welsh colonists like Roger Williams , left to found Rhode Island , Anne Hutchinson founded a seed settlement in New York . Rhode Island was not initially counted as part of New England , having been excluded from the New England Confederation , but later joined the Dominion of New England . Thus , the definition of the Middle Colonies sometimes changed and overlapped with Rhode Island 's colonial boundaries . After joining the Dominion of New England , however , Rhode Island was permanently thought of as a New England colony . New York 's initial possession of parts of Maine ensured a close relationship with other New England colonies like Vermont and a continuing New England influence in the colony .

Both William Penn and the Lords Baltimore encouraged Irish Protestant immigration , hoping they could obtain indentured servants to work on their estates and on colonial developments . Often areas of the Middle Colonies displayed prevalent Irish cultural influence .

= = = Labor = = =

Labor was always in short supply . The most common solution was indentured servitude of young whites . These were teenagers in Britain or Germany whose parents arranged for them to work for families in the colonies until age 21 , in exchange for their ocean passage . The great majority became farmers or farm wives . By the mid @-@ eighteenth century , African American slaves comprised 12 % of the population of New York . Most were house servants in Manhattan , or farmworkers on Dutch estates .

= = = Religion = = =

The Middle Colonies were the religiously diverse part of the British Empire , with a high degree of tolerance . The Penn family were Quakers , and the colony became a favorite destination for that group as well as German Lutherans , German Reformed and numerous small sects such as Mennonites , Amish and Moravians , not to mention Scotch Irish Presbyterians . The Dutch Reformed were strong in upstate New York and New Jersey , and Congregationalists were important in Long Island . The First Great Awakening invigorated religiosity and helped stimulate the growth of Congregational , Methodist and Baptist churches . Non @-@ British colonists included Dutch Calvinist , Swedish Lutherans , Palatine Mennonites , and the Amish .

= = Historiography = =

Bodle , Wayne . " Themes and Directions in Middles Colonies Historiography , 1980 @-@ 1994 , " William and Mary Quarterly , July 1994 , Vol . 51 Issue 3 , pp 355 – 88 in JSTOR

Bodle , Wayne . " The " Myth of the Middle Colonies " Reconsidered : The Process of Regionalization in Early America , " Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography , Vol . 113 , No. 4 ( Oct. , 1989 ) , pp. 527 @-@ 548 in JSTOR

Greenberg , Douglas . " The Middle Colonies in Recent American Historiography , " William and Mary Quarterly , July 1979 , Vol . 36 Issue 3 , pp 396 – 427 in JSTOR

= Bath Assembly Rooms =

The Bath Assembly Rooms , designed by John Wood , the Younger in 1769 , are a set of elegant assembly rooms located in the heart of the World Heritage City of Bath in England which are now open to the public as a visitor attraction . They are designated as a Grade I listed building .

During the Georgian era Bath became fashionable . The architects John Wood , the Elder and his son John Wood , the Younger laid out new areas of housing for residents and visitors . Assembly rooms had been built early in the 18th century , but a new venue for balls , concerts and gambling was envisaged in the area between Queen Square , The Circus and the Royal Crescent . Robert Adam submitted a proposal that was rejected as too expensive . John Wood , the Younger raised funding through a Tontine and construction started in 1769 . The New or Upper Assembly Rooms opened with a grand ball in 1771 and became the hub of fashionable society , being frequented by Jane Austen and Charles Dickens , along with the nobility of the time .

The Bath stone building has rooms arranged in a U shape . There are four main function rooms in the complex : the 100 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 30 m ) ballroom — the largest Georgian interior in Bath ; the tea room ; the card room ; and the octagon . The rooms have Whitefriars crystal chandeliers and are decorated with fine art . In the 20th century they were used as a cinema and in 1931 were taken over by the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings and restored . They were bombed and burnt out during the Second World War , with restoration undertaken by Sir Albert Richardson before reopening in 1963 . They are now owned by the National Trust and operated by Bath and North East Somerset Council for public functions . The basement of the building provides a home to the Fashion Museum .

= = History = =

Several areas of Bath had undergone development during the Stuart period , and development increased during Georgian times in response to the increasing number of visitors to the spa and resort town who required accommodation . The architects John Wood , the Elder and his son John Wood , the Younger laid out the new quarters in streets and squares , the identical façades of which gave an impression of palatial scale and classical decorum . Much of the creamy gold Bath stone used for construction throughout the city was obtained from the limestone Combe Down and Bathampton Down Mines , which were owned by Ralph Allen ( 1694 – 1764 ) .

Much of the development at this time consisted of new residential areas away from the old city centre . Queen Square was the first speculative development by John Wood , the Elder , who lived in one of the houses . The Circus consists of three long , curved terraces designed by the elder John Wood to form a circular space or theatre intended for civic functions and games . The games give a clue to the design , the inspiration behind which was the Colosseum in Rome . The most spectacular of Bath 's terraces is the Royal Crescent , built between 1767 and 1774 and designed by the younger John Wood . Gay Street links Queen Square to The Circus . All of which were designed by John Wood , the Elder in 1735 and completed by his son John Wood , the Younger .

The heart of the Georgian city was Wood 's Pump Room , which , together with its associated Lower Assembly Rooms , was designed by Thomas Baldwin , a local builder responsible for many other buildings in the city , including the terraces in Argyle Street and the Guildhall , The Lower Assembly Rooms consisted of two buildings . The first built in 1708 for Thomas Harrison overlooking Parade Gardens between North Parade and Bath Abbey . A large ballroom was added in 1720 , with further enlargement in 1749 and 1810 when it became known as The Kingston Assembly Rooms . In 1728 another building , known as Lindsey 's Assembly Rooms , was constructed , lasting until demolition around 1820 for the building of York Street . Harrison 's Lower Assembly Rooms were devastated by a fire in 1821 and rebuilt , lasting until demolition in 1933 for road improvements on the site now known as " Bog Island " .

In around 1770 the neoclassical architect Robert Adam designed Pulteney Bridge , a three @-@ arched bridge spanning the River Avon . He used as his prototype an original , but unused , design by Andrea Palladio for the Rialto Bridge in Venice . Adam also submitted plans for the new Assembly Rooms but these were rejected as too costly . John Wood , the Younger raised funding for the construction of the Assembly Rooms by the use of a Tontine , an investment plan that is named after the Neapolitan banker Lorenzo de Tonti , who is credited with inventing it in France in 1653 . It combines features of a group annuity and a lottery . Each subscriber pays an agreed sum into the fund , and thereafter receives an annuity . As members die , their shares devolve to the other participants , and so the value of each annuity increases . On the death of the last member , the scheme is wound up . Construction started in 1769 and was completed in 1771 , when a grand opening was held .

The Assembly Rooms formed the hub of fashionable Georgian society in the city , the venue being described as " the most noble and elegant of any in the kingdom " . They were originally known as the Upper Rooms as there was also a lower assembly room in the city , which closed soon after the Upper Rooms opened . They served the newly built fashionable area which included The Circus , Queen Square and the Royal Crescent .

People would gather in the rooms in the evening for balls and other public functions , or simply to play cards . Mothers and chaperones bringing their daughters to Bath for the social season , hoping to marry them off to a suitable husband , would take their charge to such events where , very quickly , one might meet all the eligible men currently in the City . At one concert in 1779 , attended by around 800 ladies and gentlemen , 60 members of the nobility were present . During the season , which ran from October to June , at least two balls a week were held , in addition to a range of concerts and other events . Scenes such as this feature in the novels of Jane Austen , who lived in Bath with her parents and sister from 1801 to 1805 . Her two novels set in Bath , Northanger Abbey and Persuasion , were published in 1818 and both mention the Assembly Rooms :

Mrs Allen was so long in dressing , that they did not enter the ball @-@ room till late . The season was full , the room crowded , and the two ladies squeezed in as well as they could . As for Mr Allen , he repaired directly to the card @-@ room , and left them to enjoy a mob by themselves .

Sir Walter , his two daughters , and Mrs Clay , were the earliest of all their party at the rooms in the evening ; and as Lady Dalrymple must be waited for , they took their station by one of the fires in the Octagon Room .

Charles Dickens also visited Bath on several occasions . He gave public readings in the Assembly Rooms and mentions them in The Pickwick Papers ( published in 1837 ) :

In the ball @-@ room , the long card @-@ room , the octagonal card @-@ room , the staircases , and the passages , the hum of many voices , and the sound of many feet , were perfectly bewildering . Dresses rustled , feathers waved , lights shone , and jewels sparkled . There was the music — not of the quadrille band , for it had not yet commenced ; but the music of soft tiny footsteps , with now and then a clear merry laugh — low and gentle , but very pleasant to hear in a female voice , whether in Bath or elsewhere .

George Bridgetower , an Afro @-@ Polish @-@ born virtuoso violinist , made his debut at the Assembly Rooms in 1789 . Another young violinist , Thomas Linley the younger , played a series of concerts between 1771 and 1776 . Many of the concerts during the late 18th and early 19th centuries were organised by Venanzio Rauzzini .

In the 20th century several changes took place , with the Ballroom becoming a cinema , until the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings became the owners in 1931 . The building was restored by A Mowbray Green in 1938 , with Oliver Messel as the interior designer . During the Bath Blitz of 25 / 26 April 1942 , one of the retaliatory raids on England by the Baedeker Blitz following the RAF 's raid on Lübeck , the Assembly Rooms were bombed and burnt out inside . After the cessation of hostilities in Europe , they were restored by Sir Albert Richardson , with work being completed in 1963 . The ballroom ceiling had to be repaired after it collapsed in 1989 .

= = Architecture = =

The limestone building has a slate hipped roof . It is rectangular with a projecting doric portico entrance and an extension to the rear . The interior is laid out in a U shape , with the larger Ball Room and Tea Room along either side with the octagonal Card Room at the end . The rooms have Whitefriars crystal chandeliers and are decorated with pictures by Thomas Gainsborough , Allan Ramsay ( artist ) , Edwin Long and William Hoare .

The Ballroom has five chandeliers and capacity for up to 500 people . It is over 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and nearly 45 feet ( 14 m ) wide . The ceiling is 42 feet ( 13 m ) high . The Tea Room holds up to 250 people . It was the location for a banquet attended by The Prince of Wales for the BBC television series the Great British Menu . It is 60 feet ( 18 m ) long and 42 feet ( 13 m ) wide . The Octagon is named for the shape of the room has four fireplaces . It is 42 feet ( 13 m ) across . It originally held an organ in the musicians gallery . In 1777 the Card Room was added . This is now used as a bar .

= = Current use = =

Today the rooms are owned by the National Trust and operated by Bath and North East Somerset Council . The main rooms are still available for hire for private functions . They are also used for concerts , including ones that are part of the Bath International Music Festival .

The basement of the building provides a home to the Fashion Museum , which was known before 2007 as the Museum of Costume . The collection was started by Doris Langley Moore , who gave her collection to the city of Bath in 1963 . It focuses on fashionable dress for men , women and children from the late 16th century to the present day and has more than 30 @,@ 000 objects . The earliest pieces are embroidered shirts and gloves from about 1600 .

The grandeur of the building make it a popular location for feature films and television series set in the Georgian period . The BBC have used it as a location for the filming of an adaptation of Northanger Abbey in 1986 and in 1995 Persuasion .

= Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine =

Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine was a pulp magazine which was launched in December 1936 . It was published by Harold Hersey , and was an attempt to cash in on the growing comics boom , and the popularity of the Flash Gordon comic strip in particular . The magazine contained a novel about Flash Gordon and three unrelated stories ; there were also eight full @-@ page color illustrations . The quality of both the artwork and the fiction was low , and the magazine only saw a single issue . It is now extremely rare .

= = Publication history and contents = =

Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . After 1931 , when Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories was launched , no new science fiction magazines appeared for several years . In 1934 a science fiction comic strip following the adventures of superhero Flash Gordon appeared in newspapers and quickly became popular . In 1936 the strip spawned a movie serial in thirteen parts , also titled Flash Gordon . Late that year Harold Hersey , an experienced pulp magazine editor and publisher , decided to launch three new magazines based on comics . The first two were titled Dan Dunn Detective Magazine and Tailspin Tommy Air Adventure Magazine ; these were launched in September and October 1936 respectively . The third was Flash Gordon Strange Adventures Magazine , which saw a single issue , dated December 1936 ; it was copyrighted by both Hersey and King Features , the syndicate that owned the copyright to Flash Gordon . Dan Dunn and Tailspin Tommy produced one more issue each before Hersey closed down the venture . It is not known why only one issue of Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine appeared ; poor sales figures from the other magazines may have been responsible , or Hersey may simply have run out of money , or possibly King Features , the owner of the copyright to Flash Gordon , only granted rights to Hersey for one issue , and withdrew from the venture after the first issue appeared . Sf historian Everett Bleiler notes that Hersey did not mention the venture in his autobiographical Pulpwood Editor , published a year later , and adds that " given Hersey 's usual attempts to glorify himself and to gild his failures , this silence suggests a fiasco larger than usual " .

The magazine contained a lead novel and three short stories . The novel , The Master of Mars , by James Edison Northford ( or Northfield ; the name is spelled one way on the contents page and the other way at the head of the story ) , has been described by Bleiler as " moronic " . Bleiler also comments that of three short stories , one is dated and another third @-@ rate . Two of the stories were by R.R. Winterbotham ; one , " The Saga of the Smokepot " , was published under his own name ; the other , " The Last War " , was published under the pseudonym " R.R. Botham " . The other story , " The Man Without a Brain " , is a collaboration between R.C. Vance ( or R.C. Vane ; as with Northford , the magazine is inconsistent in spelling the name ) and F.K. Young .

Hersey 's idea was to have a pulp magazine about comic strip characters ; he hoped that there would be sufficient overlap between pulp readers and comics fans to make the magazine successful . The presentation was like that of a typical pulp , but with eight full page color illustrations , all by Fred Meagher , who had previously illustrated Westerns . Bleiler describes the artwork as crude and " far inferior to the sometimes elegant work " of Alex Raymond , the creator of Flash Gordon .

The attempt to market pulp fiction to comics fans turned out to be the wrong approach : the comics field was on the verge of dramatic successes , but the crossover appeal for pulp magazines was not there . The magazine was not widely known at the time it was issued , and has since become extremely rare .

= = Bibliographic details = =

The publisher of Flash Gordon Strange Adventure Magazine was C.J.H. Publishing Co . , based in New York . The sole issue was numbered volume 1 , number 1 ; it was in large pulp format , with 96 pages and was priced at 10 cents . Harold Hersey was the president of C.J.H. and the editor of the magazine . A facsimile of the magazine was released as a book in 2005 .

= Tropical Storm Olaf ( 1997 ) =

Tropical Storm Olaf was an erratic and long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that brought heavy rainfall to regions of Mexico , which would be devastated by Hurricane Pauline a week later . The sixteenth named storm of the 1997 season , Olaf formed on September 26 off the southern coast of Mexico . It moved northward and quickly intensified , reaching peak winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) before weakening and hitting Oaxaca as a tropical depression . In Mexico , El Salvador , and Guatemala , the system brought heavy rainfall , which killed 18 people and caused flooding and damage . It was originally thought that Olaf dissipated over Mexico , although its remnants continued westward for a week . It interacted with Hurricane Pauline , which caused Olaf to turn to the southeast and later to the north to strike Mexico again , finally dissipating on October 12 .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Olaf were from a tropical wave first noted over Central America on September 22 . It moved slowly through the eastern Pacific Ocean , and gradually developed an area of convection . Concurrently , an upper @-@ level low @-@ pressure area moved from the Gulf of Mexico across Mexico into the Pacific , which produced wind shear across the region ; wind shear is the difference in wind speed and direction in the atmosphere , and is usually harmful to tropical cyclogenesis . The disturbance associated with the tropical wave persisted and developed outflow . This caused the upper @-@ level low to move away from the system . On September 26 , it was sufficiently organized to be classified Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E , while located about 345 miles ( 560 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec .

A few hours after developing , the depression attained tropical storm status , or winds of at least 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Upon doing so , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) gave it the name " Olaf " . The upper @-@ level low , which was moving away from the region , caused the storm to move northward toward the Mexican coast . Olaf quickly intensified , as evidenced by reports from a nearby ship , and the winds reached 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) by late on September 27 ; the NHC anticipated further intensification to hurricane status , or winds of at least 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Instead , interaction with the rough terrain of Mexico caused weakening . Olaf made landfall on Salina Cruz , Oaxaca early on September 29 as a 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) tropical depression . Within a few hours , the circulation was not evident on satellite imagery , and the NHC discontinued advisories .

Despite being considered dissipated , a re @-@ analysis of satellite imagery indicated the circulation of Olaf persisted as turned to the west toward open waters . Early on September 30 , the system reached the Pacific , and it continued westward for about a week , during which it retained some convective activity . On October 5 , Olaf turned toward the east , as it interacted with the large circulation of developing Hurricane Pauline . Later that day , the NHC resumed issuing advisories , while it was located about 560 miles ( 900 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . The system turned to the southeast , and , failing to organize , the NHC discontinued advisories on October 8 . Three days later , after the remnants of Olaf turned toward the north , the NHC again resumed advisories , when it was just 70 miles ( 115 km ) south @-@ southwest of Tecomán , Colima . Late on October 12 , the circulation of Olaf made its final landfall near Manzanillo , Colima , and it quickly dissipated . An associated area of thunderstorms moved over open waters again , but failed to redevelop .

= = Impact and preparations = =

Prior to moving ashore , a tropical storm warning was issued from Punta Maldonado , Guerrero to Tapachula , Chiapas and the Port of Chiapas , near the Mexico – Guatemala border . When Olaf was strengthening faster than anticipated , the advisory was upgraded to a hurricane warning , although it was downgraded to a tropical storm after the intensification did not occur . Upon making its first landfall , Tropical Depression Olaf produced gusty winds and heavy rains along the southeastern coast of Mexico . The peak 24 ‑ hour rainfall total was 6 @.@ 71 inches ( 17 @.@ 1 cm ) in Juchitán de Zaragoza in Oaxaca ; the highest rainfall total throughout Olaf 's duration was 27 @.@ 73 inches ( 70 @.@ 4 cm ) at a station called Soyalapa / Comaltepec in Oaxaca . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Guatemala and El Salvador .

Across the affected region , the heavy rainfall caused flooding , which resulted in 18 deaths . In Mexico , the flooding damaged 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 km2 ) of coffee , corn , and other crops ; in Chiapas , the coffee crop damage represented a severe cut into the yearly total . The precipitation flooded many buildings across the region , including 30 houses in the Chiapas capital of Tuxtla Gutiérrez , when a river exceeded its banks . In mountainous regions , mudslides left dozens of small villages isolated from the outside world . Along the coast , high waves of up to 16 feet ( 5 m ) forced the closure of all ports in three Mexican states , which affected thousands of fishermen . Further west , three fishing vessels were reported missing near Acapulco , prompting rescue parties . The storm also forced the closure of several airports . In its final landfall , there was no damage reported ; precipitation in that region peaked at 2 @.@ 96 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 cm ) in Coquimatlán , Colima .

Following the storm , the Mexican government sent food , water , and housing supplies to affected families in Oaxaca . Less than a week after Olaf moved through southern Mexico , Hurricane Pauline struck the same region with much stronger winds . Pauline caused heavier rainfall and more damage , killing at least 250 people . Some regions received 10 days of heavy rainfall .

= Road to the North Pole =

" Road to the North Pole " is the seventh episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . Directed by Greg Colton and co @-@ written by Chris Sheridan and Danny Smith , the episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 12 , 2010 . In " Road to the North Pole " , two of the show 's main characters , baby Stewie and anthropomorphic dog Brian , who are voiced by series creator Seth MacFarlane , go on an adventure to the North Pole in an attempt to kill Santa Claus . They eventually discover a dreary , polluting factory full of disease @-@ ridden elves and carnivorous , feral reindeer , along with a sickly , exhausted Santa who begs to be killed . Stewie and Brian take pity on him , however , and decide to fulfill Christmas by delivering gifts to the entire globe , albeit unsuccessfully .

The " Road to " episodes which have aired throughout various seasons of Family Guy were inspired by the Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour , though this episode was not originally conceived as a " Road to " show . The episode is the second Family Guy Christmas special after the season three episode , " A Very Special Family Guy Freakin ' Christmas " , also written by Danny Smith . It was first announced at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .

Critical responses to the episode were mostly positive ; critics praised its storyline and its numerous cultural references , although it also received criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 03 million homes during its original airing in the United States . The episode featured guest performances by Drew Barrymore , H. Jon Benjamin , David Boreanaz , Carrie Fisher , and Karley Scott Collins , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . It is narrated by Ron MacFarlane , Seth MacFarlane 's father . It was nominated for 3 Emmy Awards : Outstanding Music Composition for a Series , Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . It later won for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . The song " Christmastime Is Killing Us " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media .

= = Plot = =

Brian takes Stewie to the mall , only to get a rude brush @-@ off from Santa . As a result , Stewie vows to kill Santa for blowing him off and forces Brian to take him to the North Pole . Attempting to trick Stewie , he brings him to a Santa 's Village amusement park . Soon discovering the charade , Stewie threatens to shoot Brian if he does not take him to the real North Pole . Stewie hitches a ride with a trucker and so Brian follows him all the way to Canada . On the way , Stewie accidentally causes a traffic pileup by discharging a flare pistol in the cab of the truck , which catches fire and explodes . Crashing his car in a chain reaction , Brian becomes angry and tells Stewie that Santa does not exist . Stewie becomes frustrated and continues to attempt to hitchhike . The pair then encounter a Canadian who gives them his snowmobile .

Continuing north , they soon run out of gas , but receive help from the Aurora Boreanaz , who instructs them to stay at a nearby cabin . The two survive the night in the cabin and set out on foot the next morning . They finally make it to Santa 's workshop , only to find a dark , gloomy factory in a dreary , polluted , lifeless wasteland , Santa a sickly and somewhat psychopathic old man , the elves horribly inbred and mutated from Santa 's attempt to keep up with the increasing toy demands year after year , and the reindeer carnivorous feral monsters that eat the elves who wandered out into the snow to die of exhaustion . Santa suddenly collapses and is too sick to deliver the presents . Brian and Stewie agree to do it , only to waste time at their first stop and leave , after being discovered by a family , whom they tie up . The reindeer eat each other .

On Christmas morning , everybody wakes up to find no presents under their trees . They turn on the news , which is broadcasting the same story . Brian and Stewie appear on the broadcast and bring the dying Santa out in a wheelchair , explaining that humanity 's greed is killing him and if they don 't shorten their demands to one Christmas present a year , they may have to give up Christmas altogether . Chastened , everyone agrees and , one year later , Santa has recovered , the workshop is once again a lively , colorful Christmassy cottage and the elves and reindeer are all rejuvenated .

= = Production and development = =

" Road to the North Pole " is the sixth episode of the " Road to " episodes of the series which air through various seasons of the show . It was directed by Family Guy veteran Greg Colton , this being the first episode he has directed since the eighth season episode " Go Stewie , Go . " This is also Colton 's third " Road to " episode , the first being " Road to Germany " and the second being " Road to the Multiverse . " The episode was written by Chris Sheridan and Danny Smith , this being the first Smith wrote since " Partial Terms of Endearment , " and his first " Road to " episode . It included staff writers Alex Carter , Andrew Goldberg and Elaine Ko . It is an hour @-@ long special with three musical numbers . Ron MacFarlane , Seth MacFarlane 's father , served as the episode 's narrator . This is also the first " Road to " episode to be composed by Ron Jones .

Two of the musical numbers , " All I Really Want for Christmas " and " Christmastime is Killing Us " were released as digital downloads on iTunes . " Christmastime is Killing Us " was available on December 3 , 2010 , while " All I Really Want for Christmas " was made available on December 10 , 2010 .

In addition to the regular cast , the episode also guest starred actress Drew Barrymore , voice actor H. Jon Benjamin , actor David Boreanaz , actress Karley Scott Collins , actress Carrie Fisher , actor Ron MacFarlane , father of series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , actor Bruce McGill , voice actor Will Ryan , voice actress Tara Strong and actress Nana Visitor . Recurring guest voice actors John G. Brennan , actor Chris Cox , actor Ralph Garman , writer Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .

= = Cultural references = =

This episode as well as the entire " Road to " series in Family Guy is a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films which were released from 1940 to 1962 , starring actors Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and actress Dorothy Lamour . The opening credits show images with Brian and Stewie referencing other Christmas specials such as The Nutcracker , A Christmas Carol , How the Grinch Stole Christmas , Frosty the Snowman and Home Alone . The credits also show Brian and Stewie performing winter activities , such as snowball fights , making snow angels and putting coal in the ( Meg 's ) Christmas socks instead of gifts . Ron MacFarlane , who narrated part of the episode , mentioned that Kenny Rogers was supposed to be there .

The episode opens with a musical number in which the members of Quahog sing about what they want for Christmas . Peter wishes to have actress and models Jessica Biel and Megan Fox . He also wishes to have lunch with Michael Landon 's ghost and wants twelve kegs of beer . Lois wishes to visit the Spanish coasts , and " Mexico , with two black guys and some blow " . Chris wishes for Jennifer Garner and Meg wishes for a Lexus . The neighbors of Quahog also wish for gifts : Herbert wishes for a drummer boy ( there is a picture of singer Nick Jonas on the wall while he wishes for this ) , Mayor Adam West wishes for a tinkertoy , Carl wishes for a Blu @-@ ray version of The Wiz and Consuela wishes for more Lemon Pledge . Continuing with the song , Jillian Russell wishes for Easter eggs , Joe wishes for one day when kids don 't stare at him , Bonnie wants platinum @-@ plated silverware , Quagmire wants " Japanese girls of no restraint " to choke him and then whip him and Mort ( who is Jewish ) says he will sue if they put a Christmas tree in the airport . The song ends with various characters appearing in an advent calendar .

Brian and Stewie go to the mall so they can meet Santa , but Peter is asking Santa for gifts ( he asks for a game of Uno , a Magna Doodle , a pet chink ( a mix of a chinchilla and a mink ) and a Charles in Charge lunchbox . ) When the mall Santa leaves for the night and Brian demands that he let Stewie sit in his lap , Santa mentions he will be at Applebee 's . Stewie says that Santa leaving before he got a chance to sit in his lap felt like a bigger betrayal than the betrayal of Gary Busey by reality ; this takes us to Busey looking himself in the mirror asking his reflection , in the form of a crazed clown , how he is doing .

Brian and Stewie decide to go to the North Pole to kill Santa , but Brian does not want Stewie to get disappointed if Santa is not what everybody thinks he is ; to this Stewie responds that Brian is as negative as Eeyore from Winnie @-@ the @-@ Pooh . To prevent Stewie from going to the North Pole he tells him that Santa is not real ; Stewie questions this , also asking if Elmo , SpongeBob SquarePants and Curious George aren 't real . On their way to the North Pole , Brian and Stewie find themselves in Canada , where they meet a man with a thick Canadian accent ; they also see the Aurora borealis and the Aurora Boreanaz ( an aurora with David Boreanaz 's face ) .

When they finally get to the North Pole and find it polluted and lifeless , Stewie compares it to Bridgeport , Connecticut ; thus resulting in a cutaway to a Bridgeport resident writing an angry letter to the Family Guy writer staff about Stewie 's comment . When Santa Claus is near death , he shocks Stewie by saying " I 'll be with Allah soon " . When Brian and Stewie decide to deliver the presents for Santa , in their travel the Statue of Liberty can be seen . Unfortunately , they are not able to deliver the presents , and the next morning the residents of Quahog are upset because they have no presents , but Mort says he got eight mediocre gifts .

= = Reception = =

" Road to the North Pole " was broadcast on December 12 , 2010 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's second show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 8 @.@ 03 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Amazing Race and Undercover Boss on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating American Dad ! and The Simpsons in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased significantly from the previous week 's episode .

This episode received generally positive response from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave " Road to the North Pole " a positive review , stating that it is " a satisfying episode of Family Guy all around , filled with funny gags and nice moments . " He especially praised the musical segments , and the portrayal of the North Pole , writing that " the way the episode kept piling more and more ridiculous horrors on top of each other kept the whole thing funny . " He rated the episode an " A- " . Jason Hughes of TV Squad also praised the songs and the depiction of Santa 's factory , though he found the delivery of the episode 's message " heavy @-@ handed . " Kate Moon of TV Fanatic gave the episode 3 @.@ 6 out of 5 stars . She said , " I had mixed feelings about this one , despite its clever moments and hopeful ending . While I normally have no problems about Family Guy ’ s shocking or offensive themes , I felt bit disconcerted about the direction of this Christmas episode . " She went on to say , " Perhaps it was the way that the series stomped on something as innocent as Santa and his elves and twisted them all around . Or perhaps it was the cannibalistic reindeer . Whatever the specific reason , the irreverent nature of Family Guy seemed just a little too graphic for me this time around . "

The Parents Television Council , a conservative campaigning critic of Seth MacFarlane works , named Family Guy its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for " Road to the North Pole " for the week ending on December 17 , 2010 . It got this rating due to sexual content and excessive violent scenes including the scene in which Stewie beats a man to death with a baseball bat , and the scenes featuring Seth MacFarlane 's father , Ron , while also stating , " Forget naughty or nice . This show was simply nauseating . " Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave " Road to the North Pole " a 47 out of a possible 100 , said " A little more interesting plot wise than the usual fare but otherwise just as gruesome " . He especially disliked the portrayal of Santa and his elves and the violence .

The episode was also nominated for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics ( for song " Christmastime Is Killing Us " , written by Ron Jones , Seth MacFarlane , and Danny Smith ) and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . It won for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation .

The series was successfully nominated in 2009 , but failed to merit an award . Mark Hentemann , executive producer and showrunner of Family Guy said of the nominating process , " We had internal discussions in the writers ' room , and it seemed like we were much more akin to the other primetime comedies than we were to children 's shows in animation . We assumed we would not get anywhere , and so it was a great surprise when we got the nomination . "

" Christmastime Is Killing Us " was nominated for Best Song Written for a Visual Media at the 54th Grammy Awards .

= Ed Barrow =

Edward Grant Barrow ( May 10 , 1868 – December 15 , 1953 ) was an American manager and front office executive in Major League Baseball . He served as the field manager of the Detroit Tigers and Boston Red Sox . He served as business manager ( de facto general manager ) of the New York Yankees from 1921 to 1939 and as team president from 1939 to 1945 , and is credited with building the Yankee dynasty . Barrow was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1953 .

Born in a covered wagon in Springfield , Illinois , Barrow worked as a journalist and soap salesman before entering the business of baseball by selling concessions at games . From there , Barrow purchased minor league baseball teams , also serving as team manager , and served as president of the Atlantic League . After managing the Tigers in 1903 and 1904 and returning to the minor leagues , Barrow became disenchanted with baseball , and left the game to operate a hotel .

Barrow returned to baseball in 1910 as president of the Eastern League . After a seven @-@ year tenure , Barrow managed the Red Sox from 1918 through 1920 , leading the team to victory in the 1918 World Series . When Red Sox owner Harry Frazee began to sell his star players , Barrow joined the Yankees . During his quarter @-@ century as their baseball operations chief , the Yankees won 14 AL pennants and 10 World Series titles .

= = Early life = =

Barrow was born in Springfield , Illinois , the oldest of four children , all male , born to Effie Ann Vinson @-@ Heller and John Barrow . Barrow 's father fought in the Ohio Volunteer Militia during the American Civil War . Following the war , Barrow 's parents , with John 's mother , brothers , and sisters , traveled in a covered wagon to Nebraska ; Barrow was born on a hemp plantation belonging to relatives during the trip . The Barrows lived in Nebraska for six years before moving to Des Moines , Iowa . His middle name , Grant , was bestowed on him in honor of Ulysses S. Grant , the Civil War general .

Barrow worked as mailing clerk for the Des Moines News in 1887 , receiving a promotion to circulation manager within a year . He became a reporter for the Des Moines Leader after graduating from high school . He became city editor , earning $ 35 a week ( $ 922 in current dollar terms ) . In his last two years living in Des Moines , Barrow established a baseball team , which included future baseball stars Fred Clarke , Ducky Holmes , and Herm McFarland .

Barrow moved to Pittsburgh in 1889 , where he worked as a soap salesman , believing there was money in this business . However , Barrow lost all of money in this business , and went to work as a desk clerk in a Pittsburgh hotel .

= = Baseball career = =

= = = Early career = = =

Barrow partnered with Harry Stevens in 1894 to sell concessions at baseball games . He helped George Moreland form the Interstate League , a Class @-@ C minor league , in 1894 . Barrow , with Stevens and Al Buckenberger , purchased the Wheeling Nailers of the Interstate League in 1896 . Barrow served as field manager until the collapse of the league that season . The team continued in the Iron and Oil League for the rest of the year .

Barrow then bought the Paterson Silk Weavers of the Class @-@ A Atlantic League , managing them for the rest of the 1896 season . Barrow discovered Honus Wagner throwing lumps of coal at a railroad station in Pennsylvania , and signed him to his first professional contract . Barrow sold Wagner to the Louisville Colonels of the National League ( NL ) for $ 2 @,@ 100 the next year ( $ 59 @,@ 732 in current dollar terms ) . With poor attendance , Barrow brought in professional boxers as a draw : he had James J. Corbett play first base while John L. Sullivan and James J. Jeffries umpired . He also hired Lizzie Arlington , the first woman in professional baseball , to pitch a few innings a game .

From 1897 through 1899 , Barrow served as president of the Atlantic League . During this time , in the winter of 1898 – 99 , Barrow and Jake Wells established a movie theater in Richmond , Virginia . Barrow managed Paterson again in 1899 , but the league folded after the season .

With the money earned from the sale of the Richmond movie theater , Barrow purchased a one @-@ quarter share of the Toronto Maple Leafs of the Class @-@ A Eastern League in 1900 from Arthur Irwin , and served as the team 's manager . Irwin , hired to be the manager of the Washington Senators of the NL , brought his most talented players with him . Rebuilding the Maple Leafs , Barrow acquired talented players , such as Nick Altrock , and the team improved from a fifth @-@ place finish in 1899 , to a third @-@ place finish in 1900 , and a second @-@ place finish in 1901 . The Maple Leafs won the league championship in 1902 , even though they lost many of their most talented players , including Altrock , to the upstart American League ( AL ) .

Barrow managed in the major leagues with the Detroit Tigers of the AL in 1903 , finishing fifth , a thirteen @-@ game improvement from their 1902 finish . With the Tigers , Barrow feuded with shortstop Kid Elberfeld . Tigers ' owner Sam Angus sold the team to William Yawkey before the 1904 season . Barrow managed the Tigers again in 1904 , but unable to coexist with Frank Navin , Yawkey 's secretary @-@ treasurer , Barrow tendered his resignation . He then managed the Montreal Royals of the Eastern League for the rest of the season . He managed the Indianapolis Indians of the Class @-@ A American Association in 1905 and Toronto in 1906 . Disheartened with baseball after finishing in last place , Barrow hired Joe Kelley to manage Toronto in 1907 , and after signing the rest of the team 's players , became manager of the Windsor Arms Hotel in Toronto .

= = = Return to baseball = = =

Barrow returned to baseball in 1910 , managing Montreal . The Eastern League hired Barrow as its president the next year , giving him an annual salary of $ 7 @,@ 500 ( $ 190 @,@ 473 in current dollar terms ) . He served in this role from 1911 through 1917 , and engineered the name change to " International League " before the 1912 season . As league president , he contended with the creation of the Federal League in 1914 , which competed as a major league , and established franchises in International League cities , including Newark , New Jersey , Buffalo , New York , and Baltimore , Maryland . He attempted to gain major league status for the league in 1914 , but was unsuccessful . When the Federal League collapsed , Barrow was the only league president to forbid the outlaw players from playing in his league .

After the 1917 season , Barrow attempted to organize the " Union League " , to compete against the AL and NL as a third major league , by merging four International League clubs with four teams from the American Association . Several International League owners opposed Barrow 's policies , including his attempt to form the Union League , and felt he was too close personally to Ban Johnson . When the league 's owners voted to cut his pay to $ 2 @,@ 500 after the 1917 season ( $ 46 @,@ 175 in current dollar terms ) , Barrow resigned .

Barrow became manager of the Boston Red Sox in 1918 . As the team lost many of its better players during World War I , Barrow encouraged owner Harry Frazee to purchase Stuffy McInnis , Wally Schang , Bullet Joe Bush , and Amos Strunk from the Philadelphia Athletics for $ 75 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 179 @,@ 923 in current dollar terms ) . During the season , Barrow feuded with his assistant , Johnny Evers , who undermined Barrow 's leadership . The Red Sox won the 1918 World Series . Recognizing that star pitcher Babe Ruth was also a great power hitter , Barrow had Ruth pinch hit on days when he wasn 't scheduled to pitch . When Ruth told Barrow that he could only pitch or hit , Barrow decided that Ruth 's bat was more useful than his pitching , and transitioned him from a pitcher into an outfielder . Ruth had a public dispute with Barrow in July 1918 and was reported in the press as intending to leave the Red Sox , although the situation was soon smoothed over .

After the 1918 season , Frazee , now in debt , began selling the contracts of star players . He traded Dutch Leonard , Duffy Lewis , and Ernie Shore to the New York Yankees , obtaining Ray Caldwell , Slim Love , Frank Gilhooley , Roxy Walters , and cash . Frazee sold Carl Mays to the Yankees during the 1919 season . The Red Sox struggled in 1919 , finishing sixth in the AL . Frazee sold Ruth to the Yankees after the season , against Barrow 's warnings . The Red Sox finished in fifth in 1920 .

= = = New York Yankees = = =

After the 1920 season , Barrow resigned from the Red Sox to become the business manager of the Yankees , replacing the deceased Harry Sparrow . He took control of building the roster , which was usually the field manager 's responsibility in those days . With the Yankees , Barrow handled the signing of player contracts , although owner Jacob Ruppert personally handled the contracts of Ruth and Lou Gehrig .

Barrow installed himself in the Yankees ' infrastructure between co @-@ owner Tillinghast L 'Hommedieu Huston and manager Miller Huggins , as Huston frequently criticized Huggins . Barrow told Huggins : " You 're the manager , and you 'll not be second guessed by me . Your job is to win ; mine is to get you the players you need to win . " When Huggins suspended Ruth indefinitely on August 29 , 1925 for " misconduct off the playing field " , while also fining him $ 5 @,@ 000 ( $ 67 @,@ 467 in current dollar terms ) , Barrow supported Huggins .

In his first move with the Yankees , Barrow brought Red Sox coach Paul Krichell with him to New York as a scout . He purchased a share in the club in 1924 . He also discovered executive George Weiss , whom he mentored . Barrow also orchestrated a series of trades with his former club , mainly to keep Frazee afloat . These trades netted the Yankees such stars as Bullet Joe Bush , Joe Dugan and George Pipgras . It has been argued that these trades only looked lopsided in favor of the Yankees only because the players sent to Boston suffered a rash of injuries . However , this is belied by the fact that Barrow almost certainly knew who was coming to New York in these deals ; he 'd managed nearly all of them in Boston .

The Yankees sought to develop their own players , rather than buying them from other teams , especially after the investment of $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 362 @,@ 261 in current dollar terms ) in Lyn Lary and Jimmie Reese in 1927 . However , Weiss and Bill Essick convinced Barrow to approve the purchase of Joe DiMaggio from the Pacific Coast League .

Barrow was considered a potential successor to AL president Ban Johnson in 1927 , but Barrow declared that he was not interested in the job . When Huggins died in 1929 , Barrow chose Bob Shawkey to replace him as manager , passing over Ruth , who wanted the opportunity to become a player @-@ manager . Barrow also prevented Ruth from managing other teams after he departed the Yankees , by suggesting to executives of other teams that Ruth was not equipped to manage a baseball team . Although Ruth and Barrow had been together for all but one season from 1918 to 1934 , the two had never gotten along . The Sporting News named Barrow their Executive of the Year in 1937 .

After Ruppert 's death in 1939 , his will left the Yankees and other assets in a trust for his descendants . The will also named Barrow president of the Yankees , with full authority over the team 's day @-@ to @-@ day operations . Barrow was named Executive of the Year by The Sporting News in 1941 , the second time he won the award . The estate sold the team to a group of Larry MacPhail , Dan Topping , and Del Webb in 1945 , and Barrow sold his 10 % stake in the team to the group . Barrow remained as chairman of the board and an informal adviser . Though he signed a five @-@ year contract to remain with the team , he exercised a clause in his contract to free himself as of December 31 , 1946 , in order to officially retire from baseball . AL president Will Harridge offered Barrow the job of Commissioner of Baseball to succeed Kenesaw Mountain Landis ; Barrow declined , as he felt he was too old and his health was in decline .

= = Personal life = =

Barrow was known as " Uncle Egbert " to his friends ; according to writer Tom Meany , Babe Ruth referred to him as " Barrows , " treating him as if he were " a butler in an English drawing room comedy . " He resided in Rye , New York . He first married in 1898 , but did not discuss it in any of his writings . His second marriage was to Fannie Taylor Briggs in January 1912 ; he raised her five @-@ year @-@ old daughter from her previous marriage , Audrey , as his own daughter .

Barrow was an able boxer . He once fought John L. Sullivan in an exhibition for four rounds .

Barrow was hospitalized on July 7 , 1953 at the United Hospital of Port Chester , New York and died on December 15 , at the age of 85 , due to a malignancy . His body was kept at Campbell 's Funeral Home and interred in Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla , Westchester County , New York .

= = Legacy = =

Barrow was the first executive to put numbers on player uniforms . He also announced the retirement of Lou Gehrig 's uniform number , the first number to be retired . Barrow was also the first executive to allow fans to keep foul balls that entered the stands . Barrow was also the first to require the playing of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , the United States ' national anthem , before every game , not only on holidays .

In May 1950 , an exhibition game was played in honor of Barrow , with Barrow managing a team of retired stars . Barrow was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1953 .

On April 15 , 1954 , the Yankees dedicated a plaque to Barrow , which first hung on the center field wall at Yankee Stadium , near the flagpole and the monuments to Babe Ruth , Lou Gehrig and Miller Huggins . The plaques later moved to the stadium 's Monument Park .

= Spanish Hill =

Spanish Hill is a hill located in the borough of South Waverly , Pennsylvania . The hill is controversial among historians and archaeologists ; opinions regarding the origin of structures found on the site vary from embankments created by early farmers , to the remnants of a Native American village and battlements , due to the site 's similarity to the description found in the account of Étienne Brûlé of a settlement called Carantouan . The area in the hill 's vicinity was previously occupied by Susquehannock Native Americans . It was a common site for both amateur and professional archaeology , as well as relic hunting . The source of the name remains unknown , but various theories have been proposed as to its origin .

= = Geography = =

In 1795 , François Alexandre Frédéric visited Spanish Hill while en route to Canada . He described the hill as " a mountain in the shape of a sugar loaf , about 100 feet high , with level top , on which are remains of intrenchments . One perpendicular breastwork is still remaining , plainly indicating a parapet and ditch . " In 1833 , another individual visiting the hill described " the remains of a wall which runs around the whole exactly on the brow , and within a deep ditch or intrenchment running round the whole summit . " In 1898 , I.P. Shepard created a sketch of Spanish Hill , including the portions still visible at the time as well as those no longer extant . Shepard enlisted the assistance of a longtime local resident , Charles Henry Shepard , who claimed to remember " fortifications as consisting of an embankment with a trench behind , giving a height of four or five feet on the inside . " In addition , an indent was discovered on the site which was pronounced to be a corn cache by Beauchamp .

According to John S. Clark , a surveyor and historian active in the area until the early twentieth century , the topography and size of the site were appropriate to correspond with Brûlé 's description of Carantouan ; Brûlé described a palisaded town , populated by approximately 800 warriors and 4 @,@ 000 individuals in total . He also described the dwellings and fortifications as being similar to those utilized by the Wyandot people . Clark 's conclusions were based in part on surveys he conducted at the site in 1878 , when he observed what he believed were fortifications atop the hill . Amateur archaeologist Ellsworth C. Cowles conducted an excavation at the base of the hill in 1932 , uncovering what he described as " seventy five postholes extending east and west , " as well as the " effigy of a huge animal . "

= = History = =

Originally created by receding glaciers , Spanish Hill comprises approximately 10 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 m2 ) of earth in a site that is part of the Sayre quadrangle . Located at an elevation of 978 feet ( 298 m ) above sea level , it rises approximately 230 feet ( 70 m ) over the nearby floodplain of the Chemung River . The hill is located in South Waverly , Pennsylvania , in Bradford County , just south of the state border with New York , inside of territory once occupied by the Susquehannock people . It has been acknowledged and studied by historians and archaeologists for over two hundred years . The source of the name is unknown , but individuals traveling through the area between 1795 and 1804 described " Spanish Ramparts " as a feature of the hill , and some of the earliest settlers to the region report that local Native Americans referred to the hill either as " Hispan " or " Espan . " In 1615 , Étienne Brûlé was sent to the area by Samuel de Champlain to meet with Native American tribes in the hope of finding assistance to fight the Iroquois , against whom Champlain had allied with the Wyandot people . During his voyage , Brûlé recorded a town called Carantouan ( meaning " Big Tree , " according to ethnologist William Martin Beauchamp ) , which was subsequently included on a map published by de Champlain in 1632 . In the early nineteenth @-@ century , a Native American man who lived in the area near Spanish Hill reportedly refused to ascend it , for fear of a deadly spirit that lived on top . According to the man , the spirit spoke with a thunderous voice and " made holes through Indians ' bodies . " Archaeologist Louise Welles Murray suggested that this could be a reference to cannon or musket fire .

In the early twentieth century , archaeological and historical research was conducted regarding a potential connection between Carantouan and the structures described on the hill . After surveying the area in spring and fall , archaeologist L.D. Shoemaker discovered evidence of Native American habitation , including shell heaps , corn and flint chips , along with various other implements . In 1918 , historian and archaeologist George P. Donehoo , after a survey of the site , determined that it was impossible for Spanish Hill to have been the site of the town described by Brûlé . He cited the sharp incline , which would have made ascension difficult , as well as the lack of water and archaeological evidence on the hill as evidence against it having been the location of Carantouan . Speculation that Spanish Hill was the site of the village was also countered by James Bennett Griffin , who found nothing of interest in the area following an archaeological survey in 1931 . However , historian Deb Twigg suggests that prior excavations conducted by early twentieth @-@ century archaeologist Warren Moorehead , as well as years of heavy farming activity in the area may have contributed to the lack of artifacts found during the Griffin expedition . As Twig wrote : “ Until more information is known , it seems imprudent to eliminate Spanish Hill as a possible site related to the nation of Carantouan , as some researchers have done . ”

The site was a popular location , both for archaeological excavations and amateur collecting . According to Twigg , Spanish Hill was " looted " by Moorehead , and his finds likely sold to collectors . In addition , the area was heavily scoured by relic collectors approximately since the early nineteenth @-@ century .

On October 15 , 1915 , the Historical Society of Bradford County , Pennsylvania , dedicated a memorial on Spanish Hill in honor of the tricentennial of the arrival of Brûlé to the present @-@ day border of Pennsylvania . Later , in 1939 , Section of Painting and Sculpture artist Musa McKim depicted the hill in a mural entitled " Spanish Hill and the Early Inhabitants of the Vicinity , " for display in the United States Post Office branch of nearby Waverly , New York . The hill was nearly demolished and used for highway fill in 1970 , but the efforts were reportedly halted due to lobbying by local amateur archaeologist Ellsworth Cowles .

= S.R. 819 =

" S.R. 819 " is the ninth episode of the sixth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 17 , 1999 in the United States . The episode was written by John Shiban , and directed by Daniel Sackheim . The episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " S.R. 819 " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 1 , being watched by 15 @.@ 7 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .

The show centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder and Scully have 24 hours to save Assistant Director Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) from a biologically engineered disease . In order to combat the disease , Scully looks for a medical answer , while Mulder searches for the culprits behind the attack on Skinner 's life . To aid him in this task , Mulder reaches out to Senator Matheson , whom he hopes can help him find who is responsible before time runs out .

Before the writing of " S.R. 819 " , the writers for The X @-@ Files felt that the character of Walter Skinner was becoming too " expendable " . John Shiban , the writer of the episode , decided to re @-@ work Skinner back into the series ' mythology by crafting the episode around him . Mitch Pileggi had to endure long bouts of make @-@ up application , a process that he admitted he " hated " . The nanobots in the blood sample were designed on a computer and then rendered for the final footage .

= = Plot = =

The episode opens with Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) unwell and horribly discolored in hospital . His veins are a sickly purple hue and are pulsating ominously . Suddenly , he goes into cardiac arrest and the doctors begin to pronounce him dead .

Twenty @-@ four hours earlier , Skinner loses a boxing match after experiencing a dizzy spell . He is discharged from the hospital but Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) witness a bruise on his ribs growing . After trawling through security footage from the entrance to the J. Edgar Hoover Building , Scully recognizes a physicist by the name of Dr. Kenneth Orgel , who advises the Senate subcommittee on ethics and new technology , who stopped Skinner in the hall that same morning . Mulder and Skinner travel to the physicist 's house but find he is being held hostage . Mulder apprehends one of the kidnappers , who does not speak English . They release him since he has papers showing diplomatic immunity . Mulder does a background check on him anyway .

The background check leads Mulder to Senator Richard Matheson ( Raymond J. Barry ) , which results in a dead end . Scully discovers Skinner 's blood sample and , after checking , she finds that Skinner 's blood contains multiplying carbon . Meanwhile , Skinner ends up in hospital following a gunfight in the FBI parking garage . Mulder and Scully reunite at the hospital , where Mulder tells Scully that Skinner was investigating a health funding bill called S.R. 819 . Later , the physicist dies of the same carbon blood condition from which Skinner is sick .

Skinner remembers having seen , on numerous occasions , a bearded man who showed up suspiciously and who is actually running the scheme . He saves Skinner and sacrifices one of his own men . The case is closed and Skinner is , once again , aggravated with the agents , ordering them to report exclusively to Assistant Director Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) . The bearded man was actually Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , a rogue FBI agent who formerly worked for the Syndicate , who continues to control the potentially debilitating nanotechnology in Skinner 's system .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

The character of Walter Skinner had evolved over the course of The X @-@ Files ' sixth season . At the start of season six , however , the producers and writers felt that Skinner 's character was becoming " expendable " . With their transfer away from the X @-@ Files division , Mulder and Scully saw less and less of their former boss . Originally , John Shiban , the writer of the episode , wanted to infect Mulder with nanobots . However , he decided that since the audience knew Mulder would not be killed , this plot would not be very effective . In order to compensate for this loss , Shiban decided to re @-@ work Skinner back into the series mythology by putting him in Mulder 's place . Shiban , inspired by the 1950 noir film D.O.A. and its 1988 remake which he jokingly called " [ two ] pretty bad movies " , decided to craft an episode of The X @-@ Files around the conceit of " a guy who 's been poisoned [ and ] has only a short time to live and has to use that time to find out why and by whom he 's being murdered " .

Shiban began crafting his story by borrowing a nanobot plot that had been considered by various writers for several seasons . Shiban and the rest of the writers made it a point to give Alex Krycek control over Skinner . In this manner , Skinner once again became a mysterious character , one whose true loyalties were being tested . Shiban noted that , " [ Krycek 's control ] gives Skinner an agenda that Mulder doesn 't know about [ ... ] Which was something we ultimately used again in the seasonender [ sic ] , and will carry us into next year " .

= = = Filming and effects = = =

Originally , a " time @-@ consuming " fight scene between Skinner and Krycek was supposed to take place . The scenes were cut because of time @-@ constraints and budgetary reasons . However , Skinner 's boxing match proved easy to stage . Mitch Pileggi , who had boxed competitively in college , went for " refresher course [ s ] " at the Goosen Gym in Los Angeles . He later remarked , " It makes me happy that some people will assume there was a stunt double in the ring . There wasn 't ! [ ... ] We both had a pretty good time " . Location manager Ilt Jones called " S.R. 819 " the " damn parking lot episode " . He was tasked with finding the variety of parking lots used in the episode . He later joked that , " I started to wake up screaming about barriers and parking tickets and entrances and exit ramps " .

Pileggi had to endure long bouts of make @-@ up application . To create the principal illusion of monstrous veins , long black faux @-@ veins were glued onto his face , arms , and torso . Pileggi , who had had to endure little to no make @-@ up during the early seasons , noted that , " They did a beautiful job and [ the veins ] looked awesome , but man , I hated it ! I really don 't know how those guys on Star Trek or Babylon 5 can stand having that done to them every day . I just wouldn 't work if that 's what it took " . To show the nanobot infection progressing , special effects makeup supervisor John Vulich used two different make @-@ up sets . The two sets were then mixed together electronically in post @-@ production to give the effect of disease progression . The nanobots in the blood sample were designed on a computer and then cloned with an animation program . Composer Mark Snow 's score for the episode was inspired by Daniel Sackheim 's " big @-@ time feature @-@ like action " .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" S.R. 819 " first aired in the United States on January 17 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 2 , 1999 and received 690 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the second most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " He has 24 hours to solve his own murder ... or die . " The episode was nominated for three 2000 Emmy Awards by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .

The episode was met with mixed to positive reviews from critics . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying , " ' S.R. 819 ' re @-@ established some wonderful conspiracy overtones and perhaps set the stage for more interesting developments in the future . It touched base with the very roots The X @-@ Files sprung out of and did so in strong fashion . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V Club gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it a " B " . He enjoyed the plot , calling it " fun " , praised the twist ending , and called the nanobot makeup effects " legitimately terrifying " . He did , however , write critically of Skinner 's role in the episode , noting that his lack of presence made the entry a " disappointing one " . In addition , VanDerWerff criticized the fact that the teaser shows Skinner dying ; he wrote that " [ t ] here ’ s very little gas in the idea of Skinner dying " and that most of the viewers knew he would not die .

Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris cited severe problems with " Skinner 's emotional journey " as the main detractors for the episode . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , on the other hand , awarded the episode two out of five stars in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen . The two , despite writing positively of the " traditional X @-@ File " feel , called the episode " a return to the sort of murky storylining which promises so much but delivers so little " .

= Paranthodon =

Paranthodon ( pə @-@ RAN @-@ thə @-@ don ) is a genus of extinct stegosaurian dinosaur that lived in South Africa during the Early Cretaceous , approximately 145 @.@ 5 – 136 @.@ 4 million years ago . Discovered in 1845 , it was one of the first stegosaurians found . Its only remains , a partial skull and isolated teeth , were found in the Kirkwood Formation . Although Owen initially identified the fragments as those of the pareiasaur Anthodon , after years of storage in the British Museum of Natural History , Broom identified the partial skull as belonging to a different genus , and named the specimen Palaeoscincus africanus . Several years later , Nopcsa , unaware of Broom 's new name , similarly concluded that it represented a new taxon , and named the binomial Paranthodon owenii . However , since the Nopcsa 's species name was assigned after Broom 's , and Broom did not assign a new genus , both names are now synonyms under the current naming , Paranthodon africanus . The genus name was chosen from the Ancient Greek para , " near " and Anthodon , for the originally proposed similarity of the specimens .

In identifying the remains as those of Palaeoscincus , Broom basically classified Paranthodon as an ankylosaurian , a statement backed by the research of Coombs . Nopcsa however , identified the genus as a stegosaurid , which most modern studies agree with . In 1981 , the genus was reviewed , and found to be a valid genus of stegosaurid . Paranthodon is one of a few genera found in the Kirkwood Formation ; other such taxa include theropods , like Nqwebasaurus ; ornithopods ; and sauropods , like Algoasaurus .

= = Discovery and naming = =

In 1845 , amateur geologists William Guybon Atherstone and Andrew Geddes Bain discovered several fossils near Dassieklip , Cape Province , in the Bushmans River Valley . This was the first dinosaur find in all of the Southern Hemisphere and Africa . In 1849 and 1853 , Bain sent some of the fossils to the British paleontologist Richard Owen for identification . Among them was an upper jaw Bain referred to as the " Cape Iguanodon " ; as such the site was named " Iguanodonhoek " . Atherstone published about the find in 1857 , but lamented in 1871 that it had thus far received no attention in London . Only in 1876 did Owen name a series of specimens from the collection as Anthodon serrarius . Anthodon means " flower tooth " . The partial holotype skull BMNH 47337 , the left jaw BMNH 47338 , the matrix BMNH 47338 including bone fragments and impressions of the anterior skull , and the vertebrae BMNH 47337a were all assigned to Anthodon . In 1882 , Othniel Charles Marsh assigned Anthodon to Stegosauridae based on BMNH 47338 , and in 1890 , Richard Lydekker found that although Anthodon was a pareiasaur , its teeth were similar to those of Stegosauridae .

In 1909 , the South @-@ African paleontologist Robert Broom visited the collection of the British Museum of Natural History . He concluded that Owen had mixed the partial distorted skull , teeth , and a mandible of a pareiasaur and a partial upper jaw of a dinosaur BMNH 47338 , which were actually from two different species . Broom kept the name Anthodon for the pareiasaur , but identified the other fossil as a member of the genus Palaeoscincus , naming the new species Paleoscincus africanus in 1912 . He found that the anatomy of the teeth were quite different , even thought they resembled each other , as well as those of Stegosaurus . In 1929 , Baron Franz Nopcsa , unaware of Broom 's previous publication , provided a new name for Broom 's P. africanus , as D.M.S. Watson believed that the jaw should be differentiated from Anthodon . Nopcsa named the species Paranthodon Owenii , with the genus name derived from the Latin para , meaning " similar " , " near " , or " beside " , and Anthodon , and specific name honoring Owen . Due to present conventions , the specific name was later emended to owenii . In 1978 , Walter Coombs incorporated both names into the current nomenclature , Paranthodon africanus , as Paranthodon was the first new genus for the fossils and africanus was the first named species . This makes Palaeoscincus africanus and Paranthodon owenii junior synonyms of Paranthodon africanus .

The holotype of Paranthodon , BMNH 47338 , was found in a layer of the Kirkwood Formation dated between the Berriasian and early Valanginian ages . It consists of the back of the snout , containing the maxilla with teeth , the posterior caudodorsal ramus of the premaxilla , part of the nasals , and some isolated teeth probably from the lower jaw . One additional specimen can be assigned to it based on the dentition , BMNH 47992 , including only isolated teeth sharing the same morphology as those from the holotype . However , the teeth do not bear any autapomorphies of Paranthodon , and were referred to an indeterminate stegosaurid in 2008 .

= = Description = =

Paranthodon was a small stegosaurid relative to larger relatives such as Stegosaurus . Thomas R. Holtz Jr. estimated that the animal was 5 @.@ 0 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) long and weighed between 454 and 907 kg ( 1 @,@ 001 and 2 @,@ 000 lb ) . The snout is elongated , though not extremely so , and convex on top . The back of the premaxilla is long and broad , and the external nares are large . The teeth have a prominent primary ridge . The fossilized nasal and maxillary bones are relatively complete , and an incomplete premaxilla is also preserved . The partial snout resembles Stegosaurus in its large posterior premaxillary process and the extension of the palate . However , Stegosaurus is the only stegosaurid known from adequate cranial material to compare with Paranthodon , and even though their resemblance is great , tooth morphology is very distinguishing among the stegosaurians . For example , cranial material is only known from Stegosaurus , Paranthodon , Kentrosaurus , and Tuojiangosaurus , and in all of them , the tooth morphology differs .

The maxilla of Paranthodon preserves the tooth row , and shows that there is little to no overhang . This differs from ankylosaurians , where there is a large amount of overhang of the maxilla . The teeth also have a middle ridge , with five fewer prominent ridges on either side . This is similar to the size ridges seen on Kentrosaurus . Like all stegosaurians , the denticles on the teeth are rounded at the tips , in contrast to ankylosaurians . Also , like Huayangosaurus , but unlike Kentrosaurus and Stegosaurus , Paranthodon possesses a prominent buccal margination ( a ridge beside the tooth row ) . Paranthodon teeth preserve wear , possibly cause by rubbing with other teeth . However , wear is absent on most teeth , similar to Huayangosaurus , meaning it is likely that Paranthodon lacked occlusion between teeth . Paranthodon is distinguished from other stegosaurs by a long , wide , posterior process of the premaxilla , teeth in the maxilla with a very large cingulum , and large ridges on the tooth crowns . Not all of these features were considered valid in a 2008 review of Stegosauria , with the only autapomorphy found being the possession of a partial second bony palate on the maxilla .

= = Classification = =

Currently , Paranthodon is classified as a stegosaurus related to Stegosaurus , Tuojiangosaurus , and Loricatosaurus . However , when Broom assigned the name Palaeoscincus africanus to the Paranthodon fossils , he classified them as an ankylosaurian . This classification was later changed by Nopcsa , who found that Paranthodon best resembled a stegosaurid ( before the group was truly defined ) . Coombs ( 1978 ) found Paranthodon to be an ankylosaurian , like Brooms , naming it Ankylosauria incertae sedis . However , in reviews by Galton in 1981 , it was found to instead represent a stegosaurid from the Late Cretaceous . Multiple phylogenetic analyses have placed Paranthodon in Stegosauria , and often in Stegosauridae . A 2010 analysis including nearly all species of stegosaurians found that Paranthodon was outside Stegosauridae , and in a polytomy with Tuojiangosaurus , Huayangosaurus , Chungkingosaurus , Jiangjunosaurus , and Gigantspinosaurus . However , when the latter two genera were removed , Paranthodon grouped with Tuojiangosaurus just outside Stegosauridae , and Huayangosaurus grouped with Chungkingosaurus in Huayangosauridae . Below is the analysis with all included genera .

Other analyses have found Paranthodon closely related to Tuojiangosaurus , Loricatosaurus , and Kentrosaurus within Stegosaurinae . Even though phylogenetic analyses recognize Paranthodon as a stegosaurid , the type material actually bears no synapomorphies of Stegosauria . However , the material is likely of stegosaurian nature , and phylogenies by many authors have found it to be within the group .

= = Paleoecology = =

The Kirkwood Formation is in South Africa , and many fossils of different species and genera have been discovered in it , with Paranthodon being the first uncovered . The formation is of a Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age , with the oldest deposits from the Tithonian , about 145 @.@ 5 million years ago , and the youngest rocks being from the Valanginian , about 136 @.@ 4 million years ago . A large variety of different animal groups have been found in the formation , including dinosaurs , at least two different sphenodontian lizards , multiple teleost fishes , a few crocodylians , some frog specimens , and also turtles . However , a large amount of the material of the Kirkwood formation only includes isolated teeth or partial and fragmentary pieces of bone . Dinosaurs of the formation include a basal tetanuran and the primitive ornithomimosaurian Nqwebasaurus , the possible brachiosaurid Algoasaurus and a potential titanosaurian , and many ornithischians , Paranthodon , a genus of iguanodontian , and a " hypsilophodontid " ( the family Hypsilophodontidae is no longer considered to be a natural grouping ) .

= History of Bradford City A.F.C. =

Bradford City Association Football Club — also known informally as Bradford City — are an English football club founded in Bradford in 1903 to introduce the sport to the West Riding of Yorkshire , which until then had been almost entirely inclined towards rugby league . Before they had even played their first game , City were elected to the Football League to replace Doncaster Rovers in Division Two , and took over the Valley Parade stadium , which has been their permanent home ground ever since . The club won the Division Two title in 1908 and the FA Cup in 1911 , both under the management of Peter O 'Rourke , before they were relegated from Division One in 1921 – 22 .

City were relegated again five seasons later , but when O 'Rourke was reappointed as manager before the 1928 – 29 season , they broke several club records to earn promotion back to Division Two . After eight seasons in Division Two , City returned to Division Three , and they remained in the third and fourth tiers of the English football league system until 1985 – 86 . During that time , they endured several periods of financial hardship , and in 1985 , their ground suffered a disastrous fire in which 56 people died , on a day the club and their fans were supposed to be celebrating promotion .

In 1987 – 88 , the club came close to returning to the top division when they missed out on promotion on the final day of the season . Following relegation back to Division Three , after Geoffrey Richmond became chairman in January 1994 the club 's fortunes were lifted . He helped to take them to their first appearance at Wembley and subsequently into the Premier League , where they played for two seasons . Following Richmond 's self @-@ proclaimed " six weeks of madness " and the collapse of television channel ITV Digital , the club suffered its first spell in administration . Another period under administration followed , and City dropped through the leagues of professional English football back to the bottom tier of The Football League , until promotion in 2012 – 13 brought them back up a division . In January 2013 , City became the first club from the fourth tier of English football since 1962 to reach the Football League Cup final , and the first fourth @-@ tier club ever to reach a major Wembley Cup Final .

= = Early successes ( 1903 – 19 ) = =

League football was established in the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1894 when the West Yorkshire League was formed . A year later the Bradford Schools Football and Athletic Association abandoned its rugby roots to adopt the association football code . Several clubs across Bradford , including Bradford ( Park Avenue ) , also adopted the code during the latter years of the 19th century . By 1901 , a team called Bradford City had played in the leagues within the city , playing for two seasons , but disbanded at the end of the 1902 – 03 season . On 30 January 1903 , Scotsman James Whyte , a sub @-@ editor of the Bradford Observer , met with Football Association representative John Brunt at Valley Parade , the home of Manningham Football Club , to discuss establishing a Football League club within the city . Manningham FC were a rugby league club formed in 1880 and became a founding member of the Northern Rugby Football Union in 1895 . A series of meetings was held , and on 29 May 1903 , at the 23rd annual meeting of Manningham FC , the committee decided to leave the rugby code and switch to association football . The Football League , which saw the invitation as a chance to introduce football to the rugby league @-@ dominated area of the West Riding , elected the club , which had been renamed Bradford City , to the league with a total of 30 votes to replace Doncaster Rovers .

Bradford City became the first league football team from the county , before they even had a team or played a game . They and Chelsea , who were elected to the league two years later , share the distinction of being the only clubs to join the league without having played a competitive fixture . A summer archery contest , which had been organised to raise money for the rugby league club , was used to finance the new club , and Manningham 's colours of claret and amber were adopted as Bradford City 's kit , but with Manningham 's hoops changed to stripes .

Robert Campbell was appointed by a 13 @-@ man sub @-@ committee to be the club 's first secretary @-@ manager from a shortlist of 30 applicants . Secretarial duties were carried out by committee member Whyte , with Campbell 's role more on the playing side . The committee assembled a squad at the cost of £ 917 10s 0d . Their first game was a 2 – 0 defeat away at Grimsby Town on 1 September 1903 , and first home game was six days later against Gainsborough Trinity , played in front of a crowd of 11 @,@ 000 including the Lord Mayor and Lady Mayoress of Bradford . It was not until the third game against Burton United that the club recorded their first victory , on the way to a 10th @-@ place finish in Division Two . The club faced having to apply for re @-@ election in their second season , until five wins in the final six games lifted the club to eighth position . In November 1905 , Peter O 'Rourke , one of the club 's centre @-@ halves , was appointed manager , with his last game as a player coming the following month . He guided City to finishes of 11th and fifth and then earned promotion to Division One in 1907 – 08 . The season had started with an 8 – 1 victory over Chesterfield and included another six victories when City scored five goals or more , before promotion and then the title were assured with successive victories over Derby County and Burnley in April .

Ahead of their first campaign in Division One , Bradford City embarked upon their first continental tour ; despite victories over German side Aachen and Belgian club Verviers , the club 's first league victory in the top division did not come until the fifth attempt with a 4 – 1 defeat of Bury . It was their only win in the first 14 games . Results improved in the second half of the season but it was not until a 1 – 0 win on the final game of the season against Manchester United with a goal from Frank O 'Rourke that City prevented an immediate relegation back to Division Two . The following season included a ten @-@ game undefeated spell as Bradford finished seventh , but this was bettered in the 1910 – 11 season , which is Bradford City 's most successful campaign . Their league finish of fifth remains the club 's highest position , and an FA Cup triumph , with a 1 – 0 win over Newcastle United in the 1911 final is the club 's only major honour . The first- and third @-@ round victories were secured with solitary goals from Dicky Bond , but he missed the final four games of the run because of club suspension , the first of which was a 1 – 0 defeat of Burnley in the fourth round in front of 39 @,@ 146 fans , a crowd which remains Valley Parade 's highest attendance . The biggest win of the run came in the semi @-@ finals with a 3 – 0 victory over Blackburn Rovers . City 's supporters were taken to the final in London on 11 special trains , but the game with Newcastle at Crystal Palace ended in a goalless draw and was even described as a " decidedly dull and uneventful game " . The draw meant a replay was necessary . It took place four days later on 26 April 1911 at Old Trafford , Manchester , when a single goal from Jimmy Speirs in the 15th minute gave Bradford a 1 – 0 victory . They were the first winners of a new trophy , appropriately made by Bradford jewellers Fattorini 's .

Bradford 's defence of the FA Cup was ended in the fourth round by Barnsley , who went on to succeed Bradford as the holders . The 3 – 2 defeat , played at Bramall Lane , Sheffield , following two draws , brought an end to 11 consecutive clean sheets in the FA Cup — a competition record . The sequence also included a 12th clean sheet in the second replay against Barnsley which was abandoned because of crowd trouble . The cup run had included the first Bradford derby between City and cross @-@ city rivals Bradford ( Park Avenue ) . In the league , City finished 11th , the first of four consecutive mid @-@ table finishes before league football was suspended because of the First World War . City 's FA Cup hero Speirs , who had joined Leeds City , was one of many footballers to lose his life during the war . Bradford City players who died included Bob Torrance , another FA Cup winner , and Evelyn Lintott , as well as several reserve team players . Frank Buckley and Jock Ewart were seriously wounded , and Dicky Bond was taken prisoner @-@ of @-@ war . In 1921 , Bond laid a commemorative wreath on the Cenotaph in memory of his fallen colleagues prior to a league game at Arsenal .

= = Inter @-@ war years ( 1919 – 38 ) = =

With several retirements during the war , it was a new @-@ look side that took to the field for the 1919 – 20 season , when league football resumed . The 15th @-@ place finish in the league was City 's lowest since their first season in Division One , and a fourth @-@ round FA Cup exit away at Bristol City was blamed on a pre @-@ game trip to Fry 's chocolate works . It was a position replicated the following season . After ten campaigns in Division One , City were relegated back to Division Two , when they lost all of their final five games of the 1921 – 22 season . It would be 77 years until Bradford City again competed in the top division of English football .

Having lost O 'Rourke as manager in 1921 , after he had struggled to cope with the death of his son two years earlier , Bradford 's results suffered back in Division Two . Both Bradford City and Bradford ( Park Avenue ) had been relegated in 1922 , and with the rise of fellow West Yorkshire side Huddersfield Town , attendances in Bradford dropped . City 's average attendance fell from a record high of 22 @,@ 585 in 1920 – 21 to between 12 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 in Division Two . Five consecutive bottom half finishes culminated in relegation to Division Three ( North ) in 1926 – 27 , when they finished bottom of the table following a then record 8 – 0 defeat to Manchester City on the final day of the season . New manager Colin Veitch missed out on guiding the club to an immediate promotion when they finished sixth , but at the end of the season the players had not been paid and the bank was unable to advance any more money because of the club 's overdraft . Had it not been for donations by fans , Bradford City would not have started the following campaign . A new board was appointed , and they reinstated Peter O 'Rourke as manager . Success was immediate , when the 1928 – 29 season started with a record 11 – 1 victory over Rotherham United , as the side scored a club record 128 goals to earn promotion by just one point . City 's successful team had also brought the fans back and the average attendance of 18 @,@ 551 is the highest average recorded by the club , since 1925 , when The Football League started to keep official records .

O 'Rourke left for a second time in May 1930 , after he resigned because he was not allowed to sign a player he wanted . City spent eight seasons back in Division Two but the nearest they came to stepping up to the top flight was in 1933 – 34 when at one point they topped the division . Their sixth @-@ place finish was the highest position since the club had been in Division One and would not be bettered until the 1980s . Relegation back to Division Three ( North ) came in 1936 – 37 . City were runners @-@ up in the Division Three North Challenge Cup a year later before they won the same competition in the last year before league football was again suspended because of war .

= = Lower divisions ( 1946 – 81 ) = =

New manager Jack Barker lasted just eight months until he was replaced by former Leeds United player Jack Milburn upon the resumption of league football in 1946 . Milburn led City to fifth position in his first season but only lasted another season himself . With only one team promoted from Division Three ( North ) each season , City remained at that level until they were placed in Division Three in 1958 – 59 after a league re @-@ organisation , following a 20 @-@ year high position of third the previous season . In 1960 , eight years after part of the ground 's Midland Road stand had been closed following examinations of the foundations ordered as a result of the 1946 Burnden Park disaster , the entire stand was closed , leaving the ground with just three stands . After just three years in Division Three , City dropped into Division Four in 1960 – 61 , although that season they did defeat Division One side Manchester United in City 's first ever League Cup tie . United , like many other top flight clubs , would not enter the competition again until six years later .

Despite a club record 9 – 1 defeat to Colchester United on 30 December 1961 , City came fifth in 1961 – 62 , thanks to David Layne 's 34 league goals — his total remains a club record for a season — but missed out on promotion by just one point . Layne left for Sheffield Wednesday and City finished 23rd the following season , forcing them to apply for re @-@ election . In 1966 , the club directors moved the pitch 2 @.@ 74 metres ( 3 @.@ 00 yd ) closer to the main stand , creating enough space for them to add a new safe standing area on the Midland Road side of the ground and open all four stands for the first time since 1960 . Attendances continued to drop and a new record low of 1 @,@ 353 was set on 12 May 1966 against Wrexham . It prompted chairman Stafford Heginbotham to hold a crisis meeting in the city 's St George 's Hall to raise new funds and safeguard the future of the club . The club 's indifferent form on the field continued , with another re @-@ election and two narrow promotion failures , before promotion was gained in 1968 – 69 . Only the previous season , City had had three managers , when Grenville Hair , who had replaced Willie Watson , died just two months into his reign , after he collapsed at the end of a training session .

Striker Bobby Ham , whose 18 goals had helped City into Division Three , was again top goalscorer the following season , but the club 's stint in Division Three was short @-@ lived . Once Ham , and fellow Bradford @-@ born striker Bruce Bannister , who scored 60 goals during seven seasons with the club , both left , City were relegated back into the bottom division in 1971 – 72 . The spell in Division Three had also been notable for the debut of Ces Podd , who went on to play a record 502 league games during 14 seasons with the club . City spent five seasons back in Division Four . In 1975 – 76 they had their best FA Cup run in more than 50 years after defeating Norwich City , before they were knocked out in the quarter @-@ finals by eventual winners Southampton 1 – 0 . A year later more than 40 goals from the trio of Dominican striker Joe Cooke , Terry Dolan and Don Hutchins helped City to another promotion when they finished in fourth position . The club 's board failed to strengthen the squad the following season , resulting in an instant return to Division Four . Under new manager George Mulhall , City spent three seasons in mid @-@ table , although a late spell of form nearly earned promotion in 1979 – 80 .

= = Bantam progressivism ( 1981 – 90 ) = =

In May 1981 , City appointed former England international defender Roy McFarland as their new manager . After starting the 1981 – 82 season with a defeat and a draw , City went top of the table during a run of nine successive league victories , equalling a 30 @-@ year club record . The run came to an end against Sheffield United in front of 13 @,@ 711 fans at Valley Parade , producing then club record gate receipts of £ 17 @,@ 938 . Arctic conditions across Britain meant City played only once during December , but they went back to the top of the Division Four table in January . City finished the season second , five points behind Sheffield United , and were promoted back to Division Three . Three months into the following campaign , McFarland and his assistant Mick Jones handed in their resignation and left for Derby County . Derby had to pay a large fine and compensation to City for poaching the pair . Chairman Bob Martin turned to another England centre @-@ back and appointed Trevor Cherry as McFarland 's replacement from West Yorkshire rivals Leeds United . Cherry and assistant Terry Yorath continued to build on McFarland 's start to the period which would later be called " Bantam Progressivism " by fanzine The City Gent . Despite not recording their first win for more than two months , the pair guided City to 12th position .

The club were again in financial difficulties , and in June 1983 , Martin called in the receivers and the club was put up for sale . A Save Bradford City Fund was launched on 24 July , and former chairman Stafford Heginbotham and former board member Jack Tordoff bought the club , forming a new company , and enabling the team to start the new league campaign . Centre forward Bobby Campbell was sold to Derby County to balance the books and John Hawley brought in as his replacement . City struggled on the pitch and won just one of their first 15 games leaving them in the relegation zone . Campbell had played just 11 games during four months with Derby and so he returned to Bradford initially on a loan transfer . His return coincided with a club record ten successive league victories . Campbell finished the season with nine goals , Hawley with 22 , but City finished seventh and missed out on promotion .

The good form continued the following season , and from October to mid @-@ December 1984 , City embarked on a 13 @-@ match unbeaten run , during which time Campbell became the club 's all @-@ time leading goalscorer , beating Frank O 'Rourke 's 70 @-@ year @-@ old record . City went top of the division and held onto their lead , opening an 11 @-@ point cushion by February . Promotion was secured in April and the club 's first championship title since 1929 after a 2 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers . The success was overshadowed when fire ripped through Valley Parade 's main stand 40 minutes into the final game of the season on 11 May 1985 against Lincoln City . A total of 56 people died and the club did not play another game at Valley Parade for nearly 20 months .

City instead played home games at Elland Road , Leeds Road and Odsal during the 1985 – 86 season , when they came 13th , and for the first half of the 1986 – 87 campaign . They returned to Valley Parade , which had undergone a £ 2.6m redevelopment , on Boxing Day 1986 against Derby County . After managing the side during the financial hardship and time away from their home ground , Cherry was dismissed only ten days after the return to Valley Parade . Club coach Terry Dolan was appointed as manager and he led the side away from relegation and to a finish of 10th place . By September 1987 , Dolan 's side topped Division Two for the first time in 54 years . They finished fourth after a final day defeat to Ipswich Town and missed out on promotion after they lost to Middlesbrough in the play @-@ offs . Leading players Stuart McCall and John Hendrie , who had both stayed for another season in a bid to take City into Division One , both left , and within two seasons City again dropped into Division Three . In January 1988 Stafford Heginbotham resigned as the Club 's Chairman due to ill health .

= = Richmond era and administration ( 1990 onwards ) = =

For three seasons , City finished in mid @-@ table in Division Three and the new Division Two , when the leagues were renamed following the formation of the Premier League . In January 1994 , Geoffrey Richmond took over as chairman . He cleared the debts , loaned the club £ 2 @.@ 3 million , and promised the fans he would take the club to the Premier League within five years . In his first season as chairman , the club finished in seventh place with Frank Stapleton as manager . Stapleton was sacked and was replaced by Lennie Lawrence . Lawrence could only finish 14th in his first season , before he left for Luton Town in November 1995 to be replaced by his assistant Chris Kamara .

Kamara secured a play @-@ off spot with a final day victory over Hull City , before City defeated Blackpool in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals . The final against Notts County was City 's first game at Wembley . Goals from Des Hamilton and Mark Stallard gave them a 2 – 0 win , which secured promotion to Division One . Kamara used 42 players in 1996 – 97 when City avoided relegation with a 3 – 0 victory in the final game against Queens Park Rangers . Kamara was sacked in January 1998 after an FA Cup defeat to Manchester City , when Richmond claimed the manager had taken the club as far as he could . Richmond again elevated from within and Paul Jewell , who had been at the club since 1988 , was installed as manager , originally on a caretaker basis . He was appointed full @-@ time in May 1998 and Richmond backed his new appointment with a multi @-@ million transfer budget . Jewell signed strikers Lee Mills , from Port Vale and Isaiah Rankin , from Arsenal , for £ 1 million and £ 1 @.@ 3 million respectively , and signed former captain Stuart McCall from Rangers on a free transfer to lead the side . Despite a poor start , the club secured promotion to the top division for the first time in 77 years with a 3 – 2 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers in the final game of the 1998 – 99 season .

City 's success meant that Dean Windass , who had signed from Oxford United in March , became the club 's third £ 1 million signing of the season . Windass had originally been signed for £ 950 @,@ 000 , but an additional fee of £ 50 @,@ 000 was paid to Oxford because of City 's promotion . Jewell broke the club 's transfer record to add a fourth seven @-@ figure signing when he paid £ 1 @.@ 4 million to Leeds United for David Wetherall . Jewell added other senior players including Neil Redfearn and Dean Saunders , prompting the media to call his team " Dad 's Army " . When City defeated Middlesbrough 1 – 0 with a late goal from Saunders , his goal celebration mocked the critics ' comments . City failed to win another game until their eighth game of the season , and Sky Sports pundit Rodney Marsh said they would be relegated and promised to shave off his hair at a home game if they avoided such a fate . A run of nine home games without defeat and consecutive victories in April gave City hope of avoiding relegation on the final day of the season . A final day 1 – 0 victory over Liverpool , with a goal from Wetherall , who had played every minute of the season , and Wimbledon 's defeat , meant City survived with a record low of 36 points .

Less than two months after City stayed up , Jewell left to join Sheffield Wednesday , to be replaced by his assistant , Chris Hutchings . The club entered the Intertoto Cup , the first time they had competed in a European competition , in which they were defeated by FC Zenit Saint Petersburg in the semi @-@ finals . Richmond gave Hutchings more money than Jewell to spend in the transfer market , and Bradford paid a club record £ 2 @.@ 5 million for David Hopkin and £ 1 @.@ 5 million for Ashley Ward , and signed Italian striker Benito Carbone on wages of £ 40 @,@ 000 per week . Richmond also continued to re @-@ develop the ground , which increased the capacity to 25 @,@ 136 , but later referred to his spending as his " six weeks of madness " . In their second season in the Premier League , City struggled for form and Hutchings was sacked after a start to the season in which he recorded just one victory from 12 league games . Under new manager Jim Jefferies , the club were unable to avoid relegation , which was confirmed with a 2 – 1 defeat at Everton , when they missed two penalties , before finishing the season with just 26 points .

Jefferies was sacked in December 2001 following a training ground rift with captain McCall . Nicky Law was appointed his successor , and the club finished the season in 15th place . During the summer , with debts of nearly £ 13 million — as a result of the collapse of ITV Digital and the fall @-@ out from Richmond 's self @-@ proclaimed " six weeks of madness " — the club were forced into administration . The players were all released , but Carbone waived much of the money owed to him , to help the club survive under new owners Julian Rhodes and Gordon Gibb . City fulfilled their fixtures during the 2002 – 03 season but finished 19th .

Former England captain Bryan Robson took over as new manager during the following season , but , under his management , City won only seven games from 28 and were relegated in 23rd place . Robson left and was replaced by his assistant Colin Todd . The club went into administration for a second time , but Todd led them to 11th in each of the following two seasons . Following fan pressure and a poor run of results , Rhodes sacked Todd on 12 February 2007 , with City just three points above the relegation zone . Wetherall was appointed player @-@ manager on a temporary basis and then for the rest of the season , but City were relegated following a 3 – 0 defeat to Chesterfield . During the summer of 2007 , former midfielder Stuart McCall returned as manager with City in the bottom tier for the first time in 25 years . He set himself a target of earning promotion back to League One in his first season , but twice missed out on promotion before he left the club in February 2010 with City lying 16th in League Two .

In January 2013 , City became the first club from the fourth tier of English football since Rochdale in 1962 to reach the Football League Cup final , and the first fourth tier club ever to reach a major Wembley Cup Final . They defeated three Premier League sides en route to the final – Wigan Athletic 4 – 2 on penalties in the fourth round , Arsenal 3 – 2 on penalties in the quarter @-@ finals and Aston Villa 4 – 3 on aggregate over the two legs of the semi @-@ final . They met Premier League side Swansea City in the final at Wembley , but lost 0 – 5 . On 18 May 2013 , the club returned to Wembley where they defeated Northampton Town 3 – 0 in the League Two Playoff Final to secure a place in League One for 2013 – 14 . On 24 January 2015 , Bradford City caused an upset by beating Premier League leaders Chelsea 4 – 2 away in the FA Cup . The victory sent Bradford through to the fifth round for the first time in 18 years . There , they defeated another top @-@ flight team , Sunderland , to reach their first FA Cup semi @-@ final since 1976 , in front of their biggest home crowd for 50 years .

= Aerith Gainsborough =

Aerith Gainsborough ( Japanese : エアリス ・ ゲインズブール , Hepburn : Earisu Geinzubūru ) — transliterated Aeris Gainsborough in the English releases of Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy Tactics — is a player character in Square 's ( now Square Enix ) role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . She was designed by Tetsuya Nomura with influence from Yoshinori Kitase , Hironobu Sakaguchi and Yoshitaka Amano .

In Final Fantasy VII , she is a young woman who joins the eco @-@ terrorist organization AVALANCHE . As the story progresses , AVALANCHE begin to pursue the game 's antagonist Sephiroth , and the player learns that she is the last surviving Cetra , or " Ancient " , one of the planet 's oldest races . She has also appeared in the later @-@ released Compilation of Final Fantasy VII and Kingdom Hearts series .

Her voice actor is Maaya Sakamoto in Japanese . In English releases , her voice actors are singer and actress Mandy Moore in Kingdom Hearts , actress Mena Suvari in Kingdom Hearts II and Final Fantasy VII Advent Children , and actress Andrea Bowen in Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . The character and the events surrounding her death in Final Fantasy VII have met with an overall positive reception from critics and fans .

= = Appearances = =

= = = Final Fantasy VII = = =

Aerith Gainsborough is first introduced as a flower seller , when she briefly converses with Cloud Strife , a mercenary working for the anti @-@ government group AVALANCHE , who are fleeing from the bombing of a Mako reactor . The two later meet in Aerith 's church in the Sector 5 slums , where she is faced with the possibility of capture by the Turks . Aerith asks Cloud to be her bodyguard for the cost of one date . She is eventually apprehended , but is ultimately rescued by Cloud and his allies . Aerith then joins them in the pursuit of Sephiroth , while also embarking on her own journey of self @-@ discovery .

After a failed attempt to foil Sephiroth 's theft of the Black Materia , Aerith ventures alone into the Forgotten City . Cloud and his companions give chase , eventually finding her praying at an altar . As Aerith looks up to smile at Cloud , Sephiroth appears and kills her by impaling her through the torso . Cloud carries Aerith 's body out into a lake in the Forgotten City , and releases her back to the Planet . Reeve Tuesti , the head of Shinra Urban and Development , brings the news of her death to Elmyra Gainsborough , Aerith 's adoptive mother . The party later learns the reason for Aerith being in the Forgotten City ; through her White Materia , Aerith was able to summon Holy , the only force capable of repelling the ultimate destructive magic , Meteor , which has been summoned by Sephiroth . Although Aerith successfully cast Holy before her death , it is held back by the power of Sephiroth 's will . When Sephiroth is finally defeated and Holy is released , it appears that it is too late to function as effectively as it should , as Meteor has already come too near to the Planet 's surface . While Holy clashes with Meteor , attempting to prevent its impact , the gravity of both Meteor and the Planet pulling on Holy in opposite directions weakens it . Aerith is seen praying with both hands interlocked whilst urging the lifestream to ultimately defend the planet . The Planet 's Lifestream then flows forth , intervening between Holy and Meteor , and acting as a battering ram while aiding in the destruction of Meteor .

= = = Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =

In Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , set several years prior to the events of Final Fantasy VII , Aerith becomes the target of the original incarnation of AVALANCHE , led by Elfé , who seek to prevent Shinra from acquiring the last surviving Cetra . Instead , AVALANCHE intend to use her to learn the whereabouts of the Promised Land for their own purposes , although a member of the Turks tries to protect her .

Aerith makes several appearances in the CGI film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , as Cloud 's spiritual guide , urging him to move on with his life and to forgive himself for the tragedies that were beyond his control , telling him that she never blamed him for her death . During their spiritual reunion , Aerith speaks to Cloud in an open meadow laden with flowers , cheerfully and kindheartedly poking fun at how he needlessly burdens himself with the past . However , she also acknowledges his suffering and offers kind words of support . One of Aerith 's interactions with Cloud comes when each member of the original game 's party helps in Cloud 's final attack against Bahamut SIN ; she appears as the last party member to assist Cloud . She also appears in the final scene of the movie , along with Zack Fair , where she gives Cloud more words of encouragement before she and Zack walk into the light . Near the end of the film , it is discovered that water mixed with the Lifestream flows beneath the flowerbed in Aerith 's church , which manifests itself as a cure for Geostigma .

The On the Way to a Smile novella " Case of the Lifestream – Black & White " focuses on Aerith and Sephiroth 's respective journeys through the Lifestream after the end of the game but before the events of the film . The " Black " section deals with Sephiroth , the " White " section with Aerith .

Aerith also appears in the prequel game Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII . At the age of 16 , she meets Zack , for whom she develops feelings during his stay in Midgar . Aerith and Zack develop a romantic relationship , but Zack is killed at the end of Crisis Core after being held in a Mako chamber for four years in the Shinra Mansion basement . During those years , Aerith helped her adopted mother earn a living by growing and selling flowers , a job that results in her meeting Cloud at the beginning of Final Fantasy VII .

= = = Other appearances = = =

Aerith 's character has appeared in several games outside of the Final Fantasy VII continuity . In Final Fantasy Tactics , she appears as a flower girl ; when a group of criminals harasses her , Cloud appears and the player engages in battle with the group , letting her escape . Itadaki Street Special features a playable version of Aerith , as well as other Final Fantasy VII characters Tifa Lockhart , Cloud Strife , and Sephiroth . She also appears in Itadaki Street Portable with the same characters from Special , with the addition of Yuffie Kisaragi . While not playable , Aerith appears in the fighting game Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy as an assistant character . She is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as a sub @-@ character representing Final Fantasy VII . In LittleBigPlanet 2 , Aerith is featured as a downloadable character model .

Aerith makes an appearance in the Kingdom Hearts series as a member of a group dedicated to defeating the Heartless ; the group also includes other Final Fantasy VII characters and Leon of Final Fantasy VIII . In the plot of Kingdom Hearts , Aerith suggests a method for defeating the Heartless to protagonists Donald Duck , Goofy and Sora . Throughout the game , she also gives advice to the player . She also appears in Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories as a perceptive figment of Sora 's memories . Aerith returns in Kingdom Hearts II , wearing a modified version of her dress from Before Crisis . She , Leon and Yuffie run a restoration committee for the town of Hollow Bastion .

Hoshi o Meguru Otome ( Maiden who Travels the Planet ) , a novel written by Benny Matsuyama which appears in the Final Fantasy VII Ultimania Ω guide , follows Aerith 's journey through the Lifestream immediately after her death in Final Fantasy VII . Aerith is mentioned in a graffiti in the subway station early in the animated film Wreck @-@ It Ralph ; the graffiti reads " Aerith Lives " .

= = Concept and creation = =

Aerith was designed by Tetsuya Nomura , with influence from director and scenario writer Yoshinori Kitase and Hironobu Sakaguchi , whilst Yoshitaka Amano created conceptual artwork which also helped to influence her design . She has green eyes and long brown hair tied in a braid with a pink ribbon . She wears a long pink dress , a bolero jacket , and brown hiking boots . The long dress was designed to appear ladylike and as a contrast to Tifa Lockhart 's miniskirt . During development , Aerith was supposed to be Sephiroth 's sister as both designs resembled each other , but they were made former lovers with Aerith remembering Sephiroth when meeting Cloud as both are ex @-@ SOLDIERS . Late during development , Aerith 's first love was changed to Zack Fair .

Her green eyes were meant to symbolize nature and also served as another contrast to Tifa 's brown eyes . Nomura did not change much of Aerith 's design for Advent Children , but her design was updated in Kingdom Hearts with the removal of her bolero jacket , which made her attire appear more as Amano had originally drawn her . Other changes included the addition of bracelets and a belt . Nomura modified her dress in Before Crisis , adding white and green colors , and this version was also used as the basis for her design in Kingdom Hearts II .

Aerith 's original Japanese name is エアリス Earisu , pronounced [ eaɽisu ̥ ] . This was transliterated to " Aeris " in Final Fantasy VII and Final Fantasy Tactics , but in later products has been changed to " Aerith " . Both transliterations have basis , as the Japanese " su " ( ス ) is used when transcribing " s " ( / s / ) and " th " ( / θ / ) to Japanese . However , official Japanese material uses the spelling " Aerith " , and developers have stated that " Aerith " is a near @-@ anagram of " Earth " . Prior to the game 's release , Western gaming magazines , such as the May 1996 issue of Computer and Video Games , also referred to her as " Aerith " .

In early planning stages of Final Fantasy VII , Aerith was to be one of only three protagonists ; herself , Cloud and Barret . During a phone call to Kitase , it was suggested that at some point in the game , one of the main characters should die , and after much discussion as to whether it should be Barret or Aerith , the producers chose Aerith . Nomura stated in a 2005 Electronic Gaming Monthly interview : " Cloud 's the main character , so you can 't really kill him . And Barrett ... [ sic ] well , that 's maybe too obvious . " While designing Final Fantasy VII , Nomura was frustrated with the " perennial cliché where the protagonist loves someone very much and so has to sacrifice himself and die in a dramatic fashion to express that love . " He found this trope appeared in both films and video games from North America and Japan , and asked " Is it right to set such an example to people ? " Kitase concluded : " In the real world things are very different . You just need to look around you . Nobody wants to die that way . People die of disease and accident . Death comes suddenly and there is no notion of good or bad . It leaves , not a dramatic feeling but great emptiness . When you lose someone you loved very much you feel this big empty space and think , ' If I had known this was coming I would have done things differently . ' These are the feelings I wanted to arouse in the players with Aerith 's death relatively early in the game . Feelings of reality and not Hollywood . "

According to Nomura , " death should be something sudden and unexpected , and Aerith 's death seemed more natural and realistic . " He said : " When I reflect on Final Fantasy VII , the fact that fans were so offended by her sudden death probably means that we were successful with her character . If fans had simply accepted her death , that would have meant she wasn 't an effective character . " From the original release of the game , rumors have circulated that Aerith can be resurrected in or that the original plan was to have her come back , but this was scrapped in development . Nomura has categorically stated that neither of these rumors were ever true ; " the world was expecting us to bring her back to life , as this is the classic convention . " A lengthy petition asking for Aerith 's revival by Japanese players was sent to Kitase , but he dismissed it , pointing out that " there are many meanings in Aerith 's death and [ her revival ] could never happen . "

= = Musical theme = =

A leitmotif associated with Aerith is played several times throughout Final Fantasy VII ; it is first heard during the flashback scenes with Aerith 's mother at her house , and is repeated as she is killed by Sephiroth . It was composed by famed Final Fantasy composer Nobuo Uematsu . The piece " Flowers Blooming in the Church " is based on it .

" Aerith 's Theme " is very popular among Final Fantasy fans , and has inspired an orchestral version , a piano version , and a vocal version performed by the artist Rikki ( who also performed " Suteki Da Ne " for Final Fantasy X ) . A piano arrangement of the theme appears twice in Advent Children , and the track " Water " also echoes shades of the theme : the opening phrase of " Aerith 's Theme " appears just prior to the climax of the track " Divinity II " , which shortly thereafter includes as its final line the Latin phrase " Sola Dea fatum novit " ( " Only the goddess knows fate " ) , and is also featured during the end credits of the film . It also has been reinterpreted on the OverClocked ReMix Final Fantasy VII compilation Voices of the Lifestream . In 2013 , " Aerith 's Theme " achieved the third place in the Classic FM Hall of Fame .

= = Reception = =

Aerith has received an overall positive reception from critics . GamesTM referred to her as a " gaming legend . " RPGamer 's Stuart Hoggan opined that although Aerith " represented the token damsel in distress , " she " broke the mould in terms of personality , " possessing " an admirable pluck that was not brassy nor off @-@ putting . " In 2007 , she was included in Tom 's Games list of top 50 greatest female characters in video game history , for her death scene and the beauty of her appearance and personality . That same year , she was named the fifth best character of all time in Dengeki PlayStation 's retrospective awards feature about the original PlayStation . IGN ranked her the number two in their top Final Fantasy VII character list – a rank higher than the game 's protagonist , Cloud Strife . GameTrailers ranked her at the top of their list of " babes who are out of your league " in 2010 . Heath Hooker of GameZone ranked Aerith as fifth on his 2012 top list of Final Fantasy characters and wrote she " has become an icon in not only the Final Fantasy series , but also in video game history . " Her relation with Cloud has also received positive response , including the two being listed in IGN 's article about the best video game romances .

Her death in Final Fantasy VII has received a great deal of attention . According to GamesTM , her death helped establish the popularity of Final Fantasy VII . Players commented on message boards and blogs about the emotional impact the scene held . Fans submitted a petition to Yoshinori Kitase requesting her return . GameSpy numbers her demise as the 10th greatest cinematic moments in video game history , while its readers voted it the second most cinematic moment . GamePro considers her death sequence to be the greatest of all gaming moments . Tom 's Games called the scene " one of the most powerful and memorable scenes of the Final Fantasy series — or any other game , for that matter . " Edge called her death the " dramatic highpoint " of Final Fantasy VII , and suggested that reintroducing her through the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII titles " arguably undermines this great moment . " In 2005 , Electronic Gaming Monthly listed Final Fantasy VII number six in their list of ten most important games , stating that without this game , " Aeris wouldn 't have died , and gamers wouldn 't have learned how to cry . " ScrewAttack has added Aerith 's death to their top 10 " OMGWTF " moments , referring to it as one of the " touchiest moments in video game history . " In 2011 , IGN ranked her death scene at No. 1 in its list of top video game moments . In 2012 , PlayStation Magazine included it among the ten most emotional PlayStation moments .

The character is also popular among gamers , especially Japanese and fans of the Final Fantasy series . Aerith has been included in most of GameFAQs ' " Character Battle " contests , though she progressed only a few rounds each time . In 2010 , Famitsu readers voted Aerith as the 24th best video game character . In 2013 , Aerith was voted the second favorite female Final Fantasy character in an official poll by Square Enix . That same year , Complex ranked her as the seventh greatest Final Fantasy character of all time .

= Forbidden Fruit ( J. Cole song ) =

" Forbidden Fruit " is a song by American hip hop recording artist J. Cole . The song was sent to radio stations in August 2013 , as the third official single from Cole 's second studio album , Born Sinner ( 2013 ) . " Forbidden Fruit " was produced by Cole himself and features a guest appearance from frequent collaborator and fellow American rapper Kendrick Lamar , who contributes vocals to the song 's hook . The song features a sample of American jazz musician Ronnie Foster 's " Mystic Brew " , most recognized from its use on hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest 's " Electric Relaxation " . The song was met with mixed reviews from music critics . " Forbidden Fruit " would peak at number 46 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .

= = Background = =

" Forbidden Fruit " was the last song recorded and produced by J. Cole for his second album , Born Sinner ( 2013 ) . It was recorded as a replacement for another song which Cole was forced to remove from the album 's track listing after failing to obtain sample clearance from the estate of Jimi Hendrix . The song 's production is based around a looped sample of American jazz musician Ronnie Foster 's " Mystic Brew " , which was also famously sampled by hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest on their 1993 song " Electric Relaxation " . Cole was inspired to incorporate the Foster sample into " Forbidden Fruit " after hearing " Electric Relaxation " , saying :

I was like , " Oh , man . What if ? " You know what I mean ? Like , " What if I could just do it my way ? " You know what I mean ? It 's such a classic and people are so afraid to touch classics . And I was just like , " What if I could flip it ? " So I just went and found the original sample .

American rapper Kendrick Lamar is featured on " Forbidden Fruit " , which is the only track on the standard edition of Born Sinner with a fellow rapper credited as a featured artist . Lamar does not rap a verse on the song ; he instead contributes vocals to its refrain . " Forbidden Fruit " contains lyrics referencing Born Sinner 's release date coinciding with that of Yeezus by American rapper Kanye West .

= = Release and promotion = =

At the June 24 , 2013 stop in Houston , Texas on the Dollar and a Dream concert tour , J. Cole brought out Kendrick Lamar to perform the song , along with the J. Cole @-@ produced " HiiiPower " . In June 2013 , MTV reported that " Forbidden Fruit " would be released as the third single from Born Sinner . On August 1 , 2013 , the song impacted American mainstream urban radio .

= = Critical reception = =

" Forbidden Fruit " received mixed reviews from critics . Erin Lowers of Exclaim ! cited the song as one of the album 's standout tracks , saying that it " embodies a silent confidence , paying homage to a legendary group while speaking on releasing an album the same day as Kanye West , bringing Born Sinner full @-@ circle . " Julia Leconte of Now praised Cole 's sampling of " Mystic Brew " as done " exceptionally well " and named " Forbidden Fruit " the best track from Born Sinner . David Jeffries of AllMusic expressed a similar sentiment , writing that " Forbidden Fruit " is driven by its " Blue Note @-@ inspired " backbeats .

August Brown of the Los Angeles Times gave the song a negative review , commenting that " Kendrick Lamar somehow packs more personality into a halfhearted hook on ' Forbidden Fruit ' than Cole gets in the song " . Phillip Mlynar of Spin felt that " [ the song 's ] quirky bass line and warm @-@ keys motif are so recognizable that it 's a brow @-@ furrowing challenge to hear anything other than Q @-@ Tip and Phife 's original vocals in the space between the beat and the new raps . " Mlynar further stated that " Cole himself ( along with Kendrick Lamar 's guest spot ) ends up evaporating entirely — he 's upstaged by loftier artists who aren 't even there . " Contrarily , Ali Shaheed Muhammad of A Tribe Called Quest expressed his appreciation for Cole 's production : " [ He ] didn 't like try to do what was already done . [ He ] brought other parts to the sample that you caught that I was like , ' Oh , nice ! ' "

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Born Sinner .

J. Cole – lead vocals , songwriting , production

Ronnie Foster – songwriting , sample credit

Ron Gilmore – keyboards

Juro " Mez " Davis – mixing

Kendrick Lamar – guest vocals

= = Chart performance = =

= = Radio history = =

= Old Pine Church =

Old Pine Church ( also historically known as Mill Church , Nicholas Church , and Pine Church ) is a mid @-@ 19th century church near Purgitsville , West Virginia . It is among the earliest extant log churches in Hampshire County , along with Capon Chapel and Mount Bethel Church .

The church was constructed in 1838 to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's earliest settlers were of German descent , Old Pine Church may also have been built as a meeting place for Schwarzenau Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . The church is believed to have also been a meeting place for German Methodist settlers . By 1870 , the church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination , and in 1878 , the church 's congregation split into White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church congregations . Both congregations continued to use the church until 1907 .

Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to perform a restoration of the church . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , due to its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands . "

The church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building sheathed in brown @-@ painted wooden German siding . The original hewn log beams are visible beneath the church , with some bark remaining on the logs . The church 's interior ceiling measures approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 metres ) in height and is clad in pressed metal panels . Several of its pews date from 1857 . In the church 's adjoining cemetery , the earliest extant gravestone dates from 1834 , and several unmarked interment sites may exist from as early as 1759 . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , " Old Pine Church and cemetery is an excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes . "

= = Location = =

Old Pine Church and its cemetery are located along the steeply sloped Old Pine Church Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 220 / 15 ) , approximately 1 @.@ 66 miles ( 2 @.@ 67 kilometres ) south of the unincorporated community of Purgitsville . The church and cemetery are situated on 2 @.@ 3 acres ( 0 @.@ 93 hectares ) atop a bluff to the west of United States Route 220 , at an elevation of 1 @,@ 129 feet ( 344 metres ) . The property is surrounded by old @-@ growth forests .

The church is in a rural area of southwestern Hampshire County within the Mill Creek valley . Patterson Creek Mountain , a forested narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the west of Mill Creek valley , and the forested western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Mill Creek Mountain rise to the valley 's east . The Trough on the South Branch Potomac River is located across Mill Creek Mountain , approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of the church .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

Old Pine Church 's land tract was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 .

The church is in the Mill Creek valley . As tensions with Native Americans were beginning to ease , Lord Fairfax sought to entice white settlers to the sparsely settled lands of his Northern Neck Proprietary . The valley was one of the first parts of present @-@ day Hampshire County to be settled by whites , beginning in the mid @-@ 18th century . Settlers were drawn by the valley 's fertility . As the valley 's population grew , the unincorporated community of Purgitsville developed along Mill Creek as a trading post village ; it was named for Henry Purgitt ( or Purgate ) , who acquired 400 acres ( 160 ha ) in the Mill Creek valley on January 7 , 1785 , and received a further land transfer of 137 acres ( 55 ha ) in 1794 . Purgitsville continued to develop throughout the course of the 19th century , during which time it grew to include a small store , a post office , and a blacksmith shop .

= = = Establishment = = =

The dates of the earliest church cannot be verified , but a church building may have been constructed at the site of Old Pine Church as early as around 1814 , and possibly as early as 1792 .

On September 24 , 1838 , William Pomkrotz and his wife , Milly , deeded a tract of land to a group of trustees , charged with constructing " a church or house for public worship for the use and convenience of Ministers and others of the Christians [ sic ] Denominations Whatsoever " . While the deed mentioned an existing meeting house on the site , there is no extant evidence of a prior structure . According to architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi , no particular Christian denomination received sole ownership of the edifice , which suggests that the church was intended to serve as a nondenominational " union church " . The church 's earliest resident minister was reportedly Nicholas Leatherman , whose wife , Elizabeth High , was the daughter of George High , one of the church 's original trustees .

= = = Brethren affiliation = = =

Few records of the church 's history exist , possibly because no single denomination or organization took ownership . Several Christian denominations held meetings at Old Pine Church , including the Schwarzenau Brethren ( or German Baptist Brethren ) , which began holding services at the church in the late 19th century . As many of the Mill Creek valley 's settlers were of German descent , the Old Pine Church structure may also have been built as a meeting place for Brethren adherents , known as " Dunkers " or " Dunkards " . It is believed that Old Pine Church was also used by German Methodists . The Brethren was a Christian denomination of Anabaptist origin that practiced baptism by triune immersion and exercised nonresistance . Triune immersion consists of dipping a new believer into water three times , once for each of the entities of the Holy Trinity . Brethren adherents believed only in the New Testament , and professed no other creeds . The interior of Old Pine Church , which consists of a single common space for all worshippers , also illustrates the building 's connection with the Brethren and the denomination 's beliefs regarding slavery . According to the minutes from the 1782 meeting of the Brethren in Franklin County , Virginia , " It has been unanimously considered that it cannot be permitted in any way by the church that a member should purchase Negroes or keep them as Slaves . " While many residents in Hampshire County prior to the American Civil War were slaveholders , it is thought that Brethren adherents in the county did not own slaves or depend upon slave labor .

The Brethren denomination had been present in the South Branch Potomac River valley from as early as the 1750s although records of early Brethren congregations are not extant , possibly because they were served by itinerant ministers . As early as 1785 , two brothers with the surname of Powers led a Brethren congregation in the area . In Dr. Emmert F. Bittinger 's historical research on the Brethren Church in Hampshire County in his Allegheny Passage ( 1990 ) , it is noted that the Church of the Brethren denomination recognized Old Pine Church as belonging to the larger Beaver Run congregation , which was centered approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Old Pine Church . The Beaver Run congregation was the first organization of the Brethren in Hampshire County . Old Pine Church and its predecessor structures were probably utilized by members of the Beaver Run congregation because the distance between the northern region of the valley and the church on Beaver Run was too great to traverse easily . Thus , Old Pine Church began as a mission of the Beaver Run congregation . Because of its location in the vicinity of the Hardy County boundary line , the district served by the church spanned both counties .

By 1870 , Old Pine Church was primarily used by the Brethren denomination . Around 1870 , the Nicholas congregation of Brethren was worshiping at the church and was led by Dr. Leatherman . According to the Beaver Run Church Book , membership at Old Pine Church was 78 in 1879 and numbered 100 in 1881 . The Beaver Run congregation modified its district 's boundaries in 1879 , which may have resulted in a division of the congregation at Old Pine Church into two factions : White Pine Church of the Brethren and Old Pine Church . Both churches continued to worship at Old Pine Church at different times . White Pine Church of the Brethren worshiped at the church from the 1870s until the construction of their own church building in 1907 . By 1897 , Old Pine Church remained under collective ownership by several Christian denominations although the Brethren were the church 's largest shareholders . White Pine Church of the Brethren remained listed in the Brethren Conference Minutes as " Pine Church " until 1912 , when members of the church petitioned the Brethren Conference to change their name from " Pine " to " White Pine " .

Old Pine Church reportedly housed a school in the early 20th century while still serving as a center for worship . A small one @-@ room addition to the church was constructed to the north façade of the building , which served as the boarding room for the school 's teacher . The Old Pine Church also continued to be used for funeral services and reunions .

= = = Restoration = = =

In 1968 , residents of the Purgitsville community raised the necessary funds to restore Old Pine Church : the church 's original windows were repaired and the unpainted weatherboards painted ; a new roof was installed and the original wood floor replaced . The boarding room addition was probably removed ( nothing of it now remains ) and the pressed metal ceiling may have been added .

= = = Current use = = =

As of 2012 , Old Pine Church is still used for community gatherings , funeral services , revival meetings , and an annual church service . Regular church services have not taken place in the church since the middle of the 20th century . The church 's adjacent cemetery also continues to be used for burials . Throughout its existence , Old Pine Church has been known by various names , including " Mill Church " , " Nicholas Church " , and simply " Pine Church " .

In 2008 , the Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission embarked upon an initiative to place structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places following a series of surveys of historic properties throughout the county . The county received funding for the surveying and documentation of Hampshire County architecture and history from the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History . Old Pine Church was one of the first eight historic properties to be considered for placement on the register as a result of the county 's initiative . The other seven properties were : Capon Chapel , Fort Kuykendall , Hickory Grove , Hook Tavern , North River Mills Historic District , Springfield Brick House , and Valley View . According to Hampshire County Commission 's compliance officer , Charles Baker , places of worship were not typically selected for inclusion in the register ; Old Pine Church and Capon Chapel were exceptions because both " started out as meeting houses " . Old Pine Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , because of its " significant settlement @-@ era rural religious architecture in the Potomac Highlands " .

= = Architecture = =

= = = Church exterior = = =

Old Pine Church is a large , one @-@ story , gablefront log building . Its symmetrical front façade faces west and encompasses a main entrance consisting of a double set of four @-@ paneled doors . The main entrance is reached by two concrete steps , on either side of which is a modern metal handrail . Above the entrance is a small wooden sign painted white reading " Old Pine Church " in black lettering . On either side of the doors are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows .

Placed symmetrically in the north and south sides of the church are two nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows . Between the two windows on the church 's north elevation is an exterior concrete block chimney . The layout of the east @-@ facing rear elevation of the church is also symmetrical , and features three nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows , with the center window placed above and between the other two windows . The church 's windows have been repaired using materials consistent with original construction .

At the base of each of the church 's four corners is a large uncut stone pier . Fieldstones span the church 's perimeter foundations , which were added at a later date to discourage intrusion by animals . The original hewn log beams , still retaining bark , can be seen under the church . The church is covered with brown @-@ painted wooden German siding and is crowned by a modern standing @-@ seam metal roof .

Architectural historian Sandra Scaffidi states that the simple form and construction of Old Pine Church are indicative of the early settlers ' access to materials and are an example of the log construction techniques used in the religious architecture of Hampshire County 's earliest settlers . She adds that Old Pine Church is representative of a " simple design and form common to the early ecclesiastical buildings " and an " excellent example of one of the area 's early rural church complexes " .

= = = Church interior = = =

The church 's interior exhibits an open architectural plan . A plain wooden frame pulpit stands against the rear wall , underneath the middle window . The church 's floor consists of pine boards installed during the church 's 1968 restoration .

The church 's ceiling , measuring approximately 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height , is clad in pressed metal panels . A small opening allows for access to the church 's attic . The unadorned window wells measure approximately 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) . The interior walls are covered in plasterboard , which remains unfinished .

The church 's small wood @-@ burning stove originally occupied the center of the sanctuary but was moved to the church 's north wall in later years . It continues to serve as the church 's sole source of heat .

Several of the church 's pews date from 1857 and remain in use . The pews , quite simple in form , have a " minimalist appearance " . Each pew consists of a long wooden plank that serves as the seat , with a thin rail supported by three spindles as the backrest . The pews are supported by three arched supports joined to the seat by a mortise and tenon joint and reinforced with nails . The newer pews exhibit identical design elements but are constructed with modern nails and timber . Though most of the pews are arranged against the church 's west elevation with a center aisle , two are along the north elevation and four are along the south elevation . The pulpit is situated at the east elevation . There is an upright piano in the northeastern corner of the church .

= = Cemetery = =

Old Pine Church is surrounded on three sides by a cemetery containing approximately 200 interments , the oldest section of which is located to the immediate east and south of the church building . The earliest remaining gravestone dates from 1834 , but several unmarked interment sites in the surrounding cemetery may date from as early as 1759 . The church 's sign along U.S. Route 220 erroneously lists the date of the cemetery 's oldest interment sites as 1792 .

The cemetery 's headstones are oriented both to the east and to the west . The majority are simple in design , inscribed with birth and death dates , and consist of a combination of rounded , arched stones , rectangular stones , and pyramidal @-@ shaped obelisks that appear to be cut from limestone . In the cemetery 's southern section are several small rectangular stones that probably serve as footstones . Beginning around 1950 , the gravestones erected in the cemetery became more intricate with polished granite surfaces lying atop rough @-@ cut stone foundations .

Old Pine Church 's cemetery is surrounded by several mature trees , with a large oak tree overhanging the southwestern area of the cemetery . Outside of the National Register of Historic Places boundary to the northwest of Old Pine Church lies a second parcel of land acquired around 1950 for additional burials . The cemetery is enclosed by a chicken wire fence supported by wooden posts , with a large gate to the north of the church which allows machinery access into the cemetery .

= God of War video game collections =

God of War is an action @-@ adventure video game series loosely based on Greek mythology . Debuting in 2005 , the series has become a flagship title for the PlayStation brand and the character Kratos is one of its most popular characters . The series consists of seven games across multiple platforms . Five of these have been re @-@ released through three separate compilations for the PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) platform : God of War Collection ( 2009 ) , God of War : Origins Collection ( 2011 ) , and God of War Saga ( 2012 ) . With the exception of God of War III in the God of War Saga , each collection features remastered ports of the games that were not originally released on the PS3 . God of War III was later remastered as God of War III Remastered and released on PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) in July 2015 . God of War : Betrayal and God of War : Ascension are the only installments that have not been remastered for a newer platform or included in a collection .

Each collection was praised for how the games were remastered , as well as their price . IGN claimed that the God of War Collection was the " definitive way to play the game [ s ] " . God of War Collection prompted Sony to make a new line of remastered games for the PlayStation 3 ( which has expanded to the PlayStation Vita and the PlayStation 4 ) . Although the Origins Collection was criticized for its lack of new bonus content , IGN said that " Sony succeeded at making good games better . " For the Saga , Digital Trends claimed it is " perhaps the best value buy for any console available . "

= = God of War Collection = =

God of War Collection is a remastered port of God of War and God of War II for the PlayStation 3 on a single Blu @-@ ray Disc that was released in North America on November 17 , 2009 . It is the first game under Sony 's line of " Classics HD . " The collection was included in the God of War III Ultimate Trilogy Edition , released on March 18 , 2010 , in Australia and New Zealand , and on March 19 in Europe . It was released in Japan as a standalone on March 18 , where it was distributed by Capcom , and was later released as part of the God of War III Trilogy Edition , which included God of War III and God of War Collection , on March 25 . It was released as a standalone in Australia on April 29 and in Europe on April 30 . At the 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) , a PlayStation Vita version of God of War Collection was announced , and it was released on May 6 , 2014 , in North America , May 9 in Europe , May 14 in Australia , and May 15 in Japan .

God of War and God of War II were ported by Bluepoint Games and feature high @-@ definition 720p anti @-@ aliased graphics at 60 frames per second and Trophies . The bonus materials of the original two @-@ disc PlayStation 2 version of God of War II are included with the Blu @-@ ray version of the collection . The port was produced as a result of feedback from fans of the series and was viewed as a means of introducing new players to the series before God of War III was released . The God of War III game demo from E3 2009 was included with early copies of the collection . Sanzaru Games was responsible for porting the collection to the Vita .

Sony 's Santa Monica Studio — the games ' original developer — ran a sweepstakes in November 2009 for the release of God of War Collection . The grand prize was an autographed " Gold " disc , exclusive artwork created and signed by a God of War team member , a Limited Edition Kratos T @-@ shirt , and a limited edition 10 inches ( 25 cm ) figurine of Kratos . First place prize was a copy of God of War Collection signed by the development team . Winners were announced in December 2009 .

On November 2 , 2010 , God of War Collection was released as a digital download on the PlayStation Store . PlayStation Plus subscribers can download a one @-@ hour trial of each game . For a limited time , Plus subscribers received a God of War III skin with the purchase of each game : " Phantom of Chaos " ( God of War ) and " Forgotten Warrior " ( God of War II ) respectively . The bonus materials for God of War II were not included with the digital download version . Patch update version 1 @.@ 01 , released on September 5 , 2012 , allows the PlayStation 3 version of God of War Collection to be played on the PlayStation Vita via the Remote Play function .

= = = Reception = = =

God of War Collection received critical acclaim from critics . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 90 @.@ 78 % based on 43 reviews and 91 / 100 based on 50 reviews and the PlayStation Vita version 75 @.@ 00 % based on 15 reviews and 73 / 100 based on 28 reviews .

The PlayStation 3 version received critical acclaim . IGN gave the game an " Editor 's Choice " Award , praised the enhanced resolutions , lower price point , and smoother frame rates , and stated it was the " definitive way to play the game " . 1up.com noted the tremendous increase in visuals but said the in @-@ engine cut @-@ scenes appeared blurry . GamePro stated the collection is " two fantastic games on one disc for a low price ; puts you in the right mindset for God of War 3 . " PlayStation LifeStyle ( 5 / 5 ) said " Those ... familiar with Kratos will enjoy the extra polish the Collection brings to two of the best games from the PS2 era . " Due to the success of God of War Collection , Sony announced that further titles would receive similar treatment for release under its new " Classics HD " brand . By June 2012 , God of War Collection had sold more than 2 @.@ 4 million copies worldwide , making it the eighteenth best @-@ selling PlayStation 3 game of all time .

= = God of War : Origins Collection = =

God of War : Origins Collection ( God of War Collection – Volume II in Europe and Australia ) is a remastered port of the two PlayStation Portable installments in the series — Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta — for the PlayStation 3 on a single Blu @-@ ray Disc . It was announced at the Sony press conference at E3 2011 and was ported by Ready at Dawn , the developer of the PlayStation Portable games . The collection was released on September 13 , 2011 , in North America , September 16 in Europe , September 29 in Australia , and October 6 in Japan . God of War : Origins Collection was also released in North America as a digital download on the PlayStation Store on September 13 .

God of War : Origins Collection features native 1080p high @-@ definition video , anti @-@ aliased graphics at 60 frames per second , DualShock 3 rumble features , Trophies , and is the only God of War release to feature Stereoscopic 3D . The God of War – Game Directors Live documentary , Kratos Legionnaire bonus skin , and Forest of the Forgotten combat arena ( originally pre @-@ order bonuses for Ghost of Sparta ) are also included with the Origins Collection .

= = = Reception = = =

God of War : Origins Collection received positive reviews from critics . It received a score of 86 @.@ 62 % based on 41 reviews on GameRankings and 84 / 100 based on 58 reviews on Metacritic .

IGN stated , " Sony succeeded at making good games better " and that it " acts as a time lapse experiment for players to get a really good look at how a developer evolves from one game to another . " GamePro noted the lack of new bonus content , and said , " 3D doesn 't necessarily radically redefine the experience . It does , however , make things like boss fights and magical effects much more mesmerizing " , but added that , " all of the in @-@ game cinematics are not in 3D , which is ... unfortunate considering how cutscenes are such an integral part of the storytelling in any God of War game " . By June 2012 , God of War : Origins Collection had sold 711 @,@ 737 copies worldwide .

= = God of War Saga = =

God of War Saga is a collection of five of the God of War games for the PlayStation 3 released as part of Sony 's PlayStation Collections line on August 28 , 2012 , in North America . The collection includes God of War , God of War II , God of War III , Chains of Olympus , and Ghost of Sparta . It features two Blu @-@ ray Discs — God of War I and II on the first and III on the second — and a voucher to download Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta . The games retain the same features as their first PS3 releases . The collection also includes exclusive bonus content and a voucher for a one @-@ month trial of PlayStation Plus . The games , with the exception of God of War III , are also available to download from the PlayStation Store . From September 27 until October 5 , 2012 , to celebrate the release of God of War Saga , PlayStation.Blog ran a weekly countdown of the top five God of War epic moments as voted by the God of War Facebook community . " The Death of Ares " from the original God of War was voted as the " # 1 most epic God of War moment of All Time . "

In Latin America , an exclusive version of God of War Saga , titled God of War : Omega Collection , was released in November 2012 . The Omega Collection features three Blu @-@ ray discs , as opposed to two , with Chains of Olympus and Ghost of Sparta included on the third disc . It also includes a SteelBook game case with exclusive artwork and a limited edition bronze statue of Kratos , created by an Argentine artist .

= = = Reception = = =

Ryan Fleming of Digital Trends wrote that the collection " is perhaps the best value buy for any console available " , and that for fans of the series , " this collection is not for you " as all games ( with the exception of God of War III ) are available for download , and it will " likely be redundant . " However , new or inexperienced players should buy it . Fleming added that it was odd that the PSP games were included as downloads , and would like to have seen content migrate over to the PlayStation Vita . Jeffrey L. Wilson of PC Magazine gave the collection a 4 out of 5 and called it " an excellent purchase for anyone looking for cinematic , blood @-@ drenched action – especially newcomers who get five titles for the price of one " , but added that long time fans may not find much value in the collection .

= Territorial era of Minnesota =

The territorial era of Minnesota covers the history of the land that is now the modern US state of Minnesota from the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 , to its achieving statehood in 1858 . The Minnesota Territory itself was formed only in 1849 but the area had a rich history well before this . Though there was a long history of European presence in the area before 19th century , it was during the 19th century that the United States began to establish a firm presence in what would become Minnesota .

Many of the facets of Minnesota culture that are perceived as the area 's early history in fact originated after this period . Notably , the heavy Scandinavian immigration for which the state is known , and the pioneering days chronicled by author Laura Ingalls Wilder occurred after statehood in the later 19th century . Unlike these later years , the first half of the 19th century was characterized by sparsely populated communities , harsh living conditions , and to some degree , lawlessness .

This era was a period of economic transition . The dominant enterprise in the area since the 17th century had been the fur trade . The Dakota Sioux , and later the Ojibwe , tribes hunted and gathered pelts trading with French , British , and later American traders at Grand Portage , Mendota , and other sites . This trade gradually declined during the early 19th century as demand for furs in Europe diminished . The lumber industry grew rapidly , replacing furs as the key economic resource . Grain production began to develop late during this time as an emerging economic basis as well . Saw mills , and later grain mills , around Fort Snelling and Saint Anthony Falls in east @-@ central Minnesota became magnets for development . By the end of the era east @-@ central Minnesota had replaced northern Minnesota as the economic center of the area .

This era was also as a period of cultural transition . At the time the U.S. took possession of the region , Native Americans were by far the largest ethnic groups . Their role in the fur trade gave them a steady stream of income and significant political influence even as the French , British , and Americans asserted territorial claims on the area . French and British traders had mixed with native society in the area for many decades peacefully contributing to the society and creating new ethnic groups consisting of mixed @-@ race peoples . As the Americans established outposts in the area and the fur trade declined , the dynamics changed dramatically . The economic influence of the Native Americans diminished and American territorial ideology increasingly sought to limit their influence . Large waves of immigration in the 1850s very suddenly changed the demographics so that within a few years the population shifted from predominantly native to predominantly people of European descent . The native and mixed @-@ race populations continued to influence the territory 's culture and politics , even at the end of the territorial era , though by the time statehood was achieved that influence was in steep decline . Heavy immigration from New England and New York led to Minnesota 's being labeled the " New England of the West " .

= = Background = =

During the 17th century a Native American tribe known as the Ojibwe , or Chippewa , reached Minnesota as part of a westward migration . Having come from a region around Maine , they were experienced at dealing with European traders . Tensions rose between the Ojibwe and the Santee , or Eastern Dakota , Sioux , who were dominant in the area , during the ensuing years .

French exploration in Minnesota is known have begun in the 17th century with explorers like Radisson , Groseilliers , and Le Sueur . After France signed a treaty with a number of tribes to allow trade in the area , French settlements began to appear . Trader Daniel Greysolon , Sieur du Lhut explored the western area of Lake Superior helping to advance trade and leading to the establishment of Fond du Lac ( part of modern Duluth , which was named after du Lhut ) . Roman Catholic priest Louis Hennepin , captured by the Sioux in 1680 while exploring North America with famed explorer La Salle , discovered and named Saint Anthony Falls . The next account of an expedition into Minnesota 's interior was that of Captain Jonathan Carver of Connecticut who reached Saint Anthony Falls in 1766 . In the later 18th century trader Peter Pond explored the Minnesota River valley noting significant European settlement in the region in addition to the natives .

Explorers searching for the fabled Northwest Passage and large inland seas in North America continued to pass through this region . Fort Beauharnois was built by the French in 1721 on Lake Pepin to facilitate exploration . In the 17th century a lucrative trade developed between Native Americans who trapped animals near the Great Lakes and traders who shipped the animal furs to Europe . For two centuries this trade network was the prime economic driver in the area . A notable result of this trade network was the Métis people , a mixed @-@ race community descended from Native Americans and French traders , as well as other mixed @-@ race peoples . In particular during the latter 18th century numerous French and English traders in the Minnesota region purchased Sioux wives in order to establish kinship relationships with the Sioux so as to secure their supply of furs from the tribes .

The British Hudson 's Bay Company was formed in 1670 to capitalize on the Native American fur trade near Hudson Bay . The company came to dominate the North American trade in the 18th century . The North West Company of Montreal was formed in 1779 to compete with Hudson 's Bay Company establishing their western headquarters and key exchange point at Grand Portage in what is now Minnesota . Grand Portage , with its two wharves and numerous warehouses , became one of Britain 's four main fur trading posts , along with Niagara , Detroit , and Michilimackinac . British ships crossed Lake Superior regularly transporting supplies to the region and bringing back valuable furs . Even after Grand Portage became property of the U.S. in 1783 the British operations , such as North West Company and the XY Company , continued to operate in the area for some time .

Though the various parts of what is now Minnesota were claimed at different times by Spain , France , and Britain , none of these nations made significant efforts to establish major settlements in the area . Instead the French and the British established mostly trading posts and utilized the natives in the area as suppliers .

All of the land east of the Mississippi River was granted to the United States by the Second Treaty of Paris at the end of the American Revolution in 1783 . This included what would become modern day Saint Paul but only part of Minneapolis , including the northeast , north @-@ central and east @-@ central portions of the state . The wording of the treaty in the Minnesota area depended on landmarks reported by fur traders , who erroneously reported an " Isle Phelipeaux " in Lake Superior , a " Long Lake " west of the island , and the belief that the Mississippi River ran well into modern Canada . Much of this region was claimed by other states who subsequently ceded these to the federal government .

Most of the remaining areas of what is now the state were purchased in 1803 from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase ( the area west of the Mississippi having been recently acquired by France from Spain ) . Parts of northern Minnesota were considered to be in Rupert 's Land , a large territory owned by Hudson 's Bay Company . The exact definition of the boundary between Minnesota and British North America was not addressed until the Anglo @-@ American Convention of 1818 .

Until 1818 the entire Red River Valley in what is today southeastern Manitoba and northwestern Minnesota was considered British and was subject to several colonization schemes by the Hudson 's Bay Company , particularly the Red River Colony ( also known as the Selkirk Settlement ) established in 1811 . The valley had , in fact , been occupied by Métis since the middle 17th century . The Red River Colony , established to supply the British fur trade , was fraught with problems from the beginning but became important in the Minnesota area 's early fur trade as well as supplying many early settlers to the region .

= = Pioneers and exploration = =

At the beginning of the 19th century many parts of the Minnesota area were already well traveled by British and French explorers . Though the region 's population was mostly Native American , there were important British trading posts in the area with many European and mixed @-@ race settlers , particularly in the north . Grand Portage , in particular , had long been established as the major trading center for the North West Company .

David Thompson , a British fur trader for the North West Company of Montreal , completed numerous surveys and maps of the North American frontier . In 1797 he completed the first known map of the Minnesota area , in what was then the Northwest Territory . The Jay Treaty , however , obliged most of the British settlers to withdraw their settlements in 1796 , though mixed @-@ race peoples remained .

In 1805 U.S. Lieutenant Zebulon Pike was sent by General Wilkinson , governor of the Louisiana Territory , to enforce U.S. sovereignty against British traders in the area and establish diplomatic and trading relationships with the native tribes . He met with the Sioux leadership in central Minnesota to secure rights for the U.S. to an area near Saint Anthony Falls , which would later become the city of Saint Paul . Though a treaty was signed by some leaders from the Sioux tribes , its legitimacy ( including whether the Sioux understood it ) was dubious and ultimately his efforts did little to establish the authority of the U.S. in the area .

In 1817 Major Stephen H. Long of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led a waterborne expedition from Prairie du Chien to reach Saint Anthony Falls . He documented much of the terrain today occupied by Minneapolis and Saint Paul as well as the Native American villages that existed there at the time .

In 1818 the 49th parallel was established as the boundary between the United States and British North America . However , the point where the Red River crossed this line was not marked until 1823 , when Stephen Long conducted a survey expedition . The expedition determined , among other things , that the fur trading post of Pembina lay just inside the U.S. border .

Several efforts were made to determine the source of the Mississippi River . In 1823 Italian explorer Giacomo Constantino Beltrami who had split from the Long expedition in Pembina , found Lake Julia which he believed was the source of the Mississippi River . The actual source was found in 1832 , when Henry Schoolcraft was guided by a group of Ojibwe headed by Ozaawindib ( " Yellow Head " ) to a lake in northern Minnesota . Schoolcraft named it Lake Itasca , combining the Latin words veritas ( " truth " ) and caput ( " head " ) .

In 1835 George William Featherstonhaugh conducted a geological survey of the Minnesota River valley and wrote an account entitled A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor . Joseph Nicollet scouted the area in the late 1830s accompanied by John C. Frémont , exploring and mapping the Upper Mississippi River basin , the Saint Croix River , and the land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers .

= = Forts = =

An important facet of the British and American frontier was a system of forts built by the military . The forts provided safe shelter for soldiers and explorers on the frontier and a base of operations for expeditions , both military and commercial . The first forts in the area had been French , particularly Fort Beauharnois , built during the 18th century and later abandoned because of the French and Indian War with the British . British Fort Charlotte at Grand Portage became essential to the fur trade protecting and supplying British traders as well as the area natives . This British fort operated in the area ( illegally ) until 1803 , even after the area 's becoming recognized as part of the United States . Other French and British fortifications , such as Fort St. Charles , had existed in the region but had been abandoned much earlier .

In 1814 the U.S. government built Fort Shelby , later rebuilt as Fort Crawford , near modern Minnesota in what is now Prairie du Chien , Wisconsin . Fort Crawford would play a significant role in U.S. involvement in Minnesota , particularly as the site of the Treaty of Prairie du Chien . The first major U.S. military presence inside the boundaries of modern Minnesota was Fort Saint Anthony , later renamed Fort Snelling ( after the fort 's commander Josiah Snelling ) . The land for the fort , at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers , had been acquired in 1805 by legendary explorer Zebulon Pike . When concerns mounted about the fur trade in the area , construction of the fort began in 1819 and was completed in 1825 . One of the missions of the fort was to mediate disputes between the Ojibwe and the Dakota tribes . Lawrence Taliaferro , an agent of the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs who became an important figure in these mediations , spent 20 years at the fort , finally resigning in 1839 .

Fort Ripley was built in 1848 – 1849 in central Minnesota near modern Little Falls . It was built to provide a military presence on the frontier near the new Winnebago reservation created as the tribe was moved from Iowa . In addition it helped to serve as a buffer between the Dakota Sioux and the Ojibwe .

Fort Ridgely was built in 1853 – 1854 near the Dakota reservation in southwestern Minnesota , near modern New Ulm . It was named by U.S. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis in honor of three army officers named Ridgely who had died in the Mexican @-@ American War . The fort was created to watch over the Minnesota River Valley , in addition to the larger frontier . It replaced Fort Doge in Iowa , which was decommissioned during the same period . The fort operated as a military post until 1867 .

Fort Abercrombie was built in 1858 on the Red River at what is now the border between Minnesota and North Dakota near modern McCauleyville . The fort had to be moved soon afterward because of flooding problems . It was created to spur settlement of the Red River Valley , protect steamboat traffic on the river , and protect wagon trains travelling to Montana .

In addition to these military bases , private companies operated numerous trading posts in the region that were often referred to as " forts " , though they typically had little in the way of defensive fortifications .

= = Native Americans = =

The two main Native American tribal groups which dominated Minnesota at the time the lands were acquired by the United States were the more established Dakota Sioux , and the Ojibwe who had migrated into the area more recently . The two groups fought bitter territorial wars during the 18th century . In the mid @-@ 18th century the Battle of Kathio , in which the Ojibwe defeated the Sioux , permanently established northeastern Minnesota , particularly Mille Lacs Lake , as Ojibwe territory relegating the Sioux to southern and western Minnesota . Skirmishes between the groups continued in the 19th century including a battle near Lac Traverse in 1818 , a battle near Stillwater in 1839 ( the site became known as " Battle Hollow " ) , and another on the Yellow Medicine River in 1854 .

During the War of 1812 most of the Dakota and Ojibwe sided with the British though at various times some aided the Americans or took the opportunity to attack enemy tribes ( a notable American loyalist was the Dakota chief Tamaha , or " Rising Moose , " an admirer of Pike , who joined the U.S. army at Saint Louis ) . Though Grand Portage was the only part of Minnesota that saw significant conflict during the war , natives throughout the region were recruited to fight further east in areas such as Green Bay . In particular the half @-@ Dakota British captain Joseph Renville heavily recruited among the Mdewakanton branch of the Dakota Sioux including chiefs Little Crow and Wapasha .

From 1815 to 1821 employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company and the North West Company engaged in various territorial conflicts known as the " fur trade wars , " including the famous Battle of Seven Oaks at what is now Winnipeg , Manitoba . As a result of these conflicts numerous Métis migrated from the Red River area to central and eastern Minnesota , particularly in the vicinity of Saint Paul . This " Red River Exodus " became a major source of francophone immigration into Minnesota during the territorial era . The Métis and other mixed @-@ race groups were often regarded as French Canadian " whites " rather than " Indians " .

By the 1820s , animal resources were in decline in the area leading to increased competition among the tribes for game and for furs to sell . Collusion among the fur trading companies led to a dramatic drop in fur prices during the late 1820s causing impoverishment for many Sioux hunters . The U.S. government strongly encouraged the tribes to turn from hunting to farming , trading the woodlands for the plains .

Increasing territorial conflict between the Sioux and the Ojibwe on the western frontier , particularly along the Mississippi river , led the U.S. government to attempt to mediate the conflicts . President Andrew Jackson 's policy toward the tribes ultimately was to either pacify them sufficiently to allow westward expansion of American settlers , or else remove the tribes from the areas in which they prevented settlement . The First Treaty of Prairie du Chien ( 1825 ) , among its provisions established southern Minnesota as well as much of modern North and South Dakota as the homeland of the Dakota Sioux . The Ojibwe were given northern Minnesota and much of Wisconsin . The U.S. government , though , failed to enforce the treaty agreements leading to Little Crow 's pronouncement to Indian agent Taliaferro in 1829 : " We made peace to please you , but if we are badly off we must blame you for causing us to give up so much of our lands to our enemies . "

Following an 1846 treaty , the Winnebago tribes of Iowa were relocated to the Long Prairie reservation in central Minnesota in the late 1840s establishing an important presence in the territory . Because of the poor land in the new reservation the tribe subsequently negotiated a treaty in 1856 allowing them to relocate further south to Blue Earth but ceding substantial land in the process .

All of the native tribes experienced gradual disillusionment with the U.S. government because of its inability or unwillingness to honor its treaty commitments . The major leaders among the tribes were Wabasha and Little Crow among the Dakota Sioux , Flat Mouth and Hole @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Day among the Ojibwe , and Winneshiek among the Winnebago . The success of treaty negotiations between the U.S. and the tribes was in great part facilitated by the mixed race families such as the Faribaults and the Renvilles .

The Treaty of Traverse des Sioux in 1851 gave all of the Wahpeton and Sisseton Sioux ( upper Sioux ) lands west of the Mississippi River to the U.S. government . The Treaty of Mendota that same year ceded the Mdewakanton and Wahpekute Sioux ( lower Sioux ) lands in southern Minnesota , requiring relocation to an area near modern Morton . Both treaties , however , were amended to during the ratification process to eliminate the explicit guarantees of lands retained by the tribes . Additionally much of the promised payments were never delivered in part ostensibly because of debts owed by the Sioux to the fur traders .

Despite American hunger for land , the leadership in the Minnesota Territory did not actually want to remove the Sioux from the territory . Federal subsidies to the tribes were heavily siphoned by the U.S. settlements and removal of the tribes from the territory would have meant loss of this income .

Increasing impoverishment among the Sioux and continued treaty violations on the part of the United States would soon lead to bloodshed . In 1857 a renegade band of Sioux led by war chief Inkpaduta attacked the community of Spirit Lake , Iowa near the Minnesota border killing between 35 and 40 " white " settlers ( the event would be referred to as the Spirit Lake Massacre ) . They went on to attack Springfield , Minnesota ( modern Jackson ) killing seven before being turned back . In 1862 , bands of Sioux launched the Dakota War in which they were defeated . Apart from those killed in the war , 38 Dakota Sioux were killed in a mass execution in Mankato , the largest mass execution in the U.S. history . Hundreds more Sioux and European @-@ Americans were killed in the U.S. government 's subsequent eradication of the Sioux nation in Minnesota and the new Dakota Territory .

= = Commercial enterprises = =

The most important commercial enterprise in the early part of the territorial era was the lucrative fur trade . At the beginning of the 19th century two British companies competed for dominance in the North American trade : Hudson 's Bay Company and the North West Company . The North West company had used Grand Portage as its western headquarters along with other smaller companies that operated in the area . Grand Portage was one of the four principal British trading and shipping points furs in North America . Following the Treaty of Paris , in 1783 , British operations at Grand Portage were technically illegal though the trade continued . However , beginning in 1801 the North West Company began re @-@ establishing its headquarters north of the border at the newly constructed Fort William in what is now Ontario . After 1804 Grand Portage had been reduced to a minor trading center and most traders eventually abandoned the area . In 1842 , the Hudson Bay Company , which had by then absorbed the North West Company , shipped out a final band of Ojibwe who were employed by the company .

Before 1816 the majority of the fur trading posts in the Minnesota area were owned by the North West Company , but by 1821 the American Fur Company , founded in 1808 by John Jacob Astor in New York , had taken over most of these . As well as Grand Portage , another significant fur shipping point in Minnesota was Fort Frances in the Rainy Lake region , near modern International Falls in the far north of the state . This location became significant as it was key to multiple waterways for shipping furs to the Atlantic . Both the North West Company and the American Fur Company had posts at this location . Pembina , originally part of the Red River Colony , was a significant trading post for the Hudson 's Bay Company , and once it was claimed by the U.S. , became for a time key to U.S. interests in the fur trade . By 1830 American Fur dominated the trade within the United States because of the exclusion of British companies by the U.S. government .

Beginning in the 1820s , a fur trading route developed between the Red River Colony ( in modern Manitoba ) and the trading posts in Minnesota , first primarily at Mendota and later at Saint Paul . The system of ox cart trails came to be known as the Red River Trails and was used principally by the Métis as a way to avoid the fur trade monopoly of the Hudson 's Bay Company ( which had absorbed the North West Company ) . Though this cross @-@ border trade was entirely illegal and violated the policies of the Hudson 's Bay Company , enforcement against the trade by American and British authorities was virtually non @-@ existent . The trail system would reach its peak usage in the mid @-@ 19th century . The Hudson 's Bay Company continued to expand its presence north of the U.S. border establishing new posts such as Fort Alexander and Rat Portage .

The fur trade was in decline by the late 1830s . The American Fur Company went bankrupt in 1842 , though the Missouri Fur Company and other operations kept the trade from collapsing entirely . As this trade declined the lumber industry began to grow substantially in areas such as the Saint Croix Valley where valuable white pine was plentiful . New saw mills appeared in Marine and Stillwater . Lumber was typically cut during winter and sent downstream in the spring . In 1848 , businessman Franklin Steele built the first private sawmill on the Saint Anthony Falls ( which would later become the town of Saint Anthony ) opening commercial lumbering on the Mississippi River . More sawmills quickly followed . Soon the Saint Croix and Mississippi Rivers in Minnesota had become major conduits for lumber headed for Saint Louis and other destinations .

The first flour mill in Minnesota was built in 1823 at Fort Snelling as a retrofitting of a lumber mill . The first private grain mill was built in Washington County by Samuel Bowles . Minneapolis gained its first grain mill in 1847 . During the 1850s grain production began to develop rapidly but Minnesota did not become a significant grain exporter until 1858 .

In 1823 the first steamboat , known as the Virginia , arrived at Fort Snelling carrying Indian agent Lawrence Taliaferro . By the 1830s a steady , if not yet large , stream of steamboat traffic plied the river including some ships listed as ferrying " pleasure parties " . The first railroad to reach the Mississippi ( in Illinois ) , the Rock Island Railroad , was completed in the 1854 . The event was celebrated with sightseeing excursions from Rock Island up the Mississippi into Minnesota . Those excursions touched off such a wave of interest in Minnesota that 56 @,@ 000 tourists visited Saint Paul by steamboat in 1856 .

In 1849 James Goodhue began publication of the Minnesota Pioneer newspaper in Saint Paul ( the paper would later be renamed the St. Paul Pioneer Press ) . By the time the area achieved statehood 89 newspapers had been established . Information about Minnesota published in these periodicals spread throughout the United States and Europe . Advertising campaigns were launched in the northeastern U.S. and Europe to lure European settlers . These efforts met with limited success though they would become much more successful after statehood .

Saint Anthony , with its scenic waterfalls , rapidly developed as a destination for tourists traveling the Mississippi on steamboats . The Winslow House , a luxury hotel overlooking the falls , was constructed in 1857 . By the late 1860s Saint Anthony had become a popular summer resort for wealthy southerners .

One of the major sources of income in the territory during the 1850s was U.S. government annuity payments to the Ojibwe and other tribes required by earlier treaties . These payments amounted to more than $ 380 @,@ 000 per year on average ( $ 10 @.@ 8 million in present @-@ day terms ) compared to approximately $ 120 @,@ 000 per year ( $ 3 @.@ 41 million in present @-@ day terms ) given to the territory itself for development . Because of corruption , and mishandling of the payments to the tribes , a great deal of the money was used directly by U.S. settlers for commercial and community development with questionable benefit to the tribes . At the beginning of the Minnesota Territory , in fact , these payments were the territory 's most important source of income since the fur trade was no longer as lucrative as it had once been and other exports were still negligible .

= = Settlements = =

During most of this era Native Americans outnumbered European / U.S. settlers in what is now Minnesota . Significant Dakota Sioux settlements in the Minnesota area included Kaposia , located in what is now Saint Paul before being moved by the 1837 treaty . Significant Ojibwe settlements included Misizaaga 'igan ( Mille Lacs ) and Nagaajiwanaang ( Fond du Lac ) , as well as the community that had developed around the Grand Portage commerce .

When the Minnesota Territory was established in 1848 the Native American settlements in the territory still rivaled the American settlements in size . According to some scholars , the Mandan / Hidatsa village of Like @-@ a @-@ Fishhook in what is now North Dakota , with a population of 700 , was the largest settlement in the Minnesota Territory . The numerous other settlements in the territory gave a total Native American population of over 25 @,@ 000 in 1849 which easily outnumbered the 4535 " white " settlers .

At the outset of the 19th century most of the European settlements were related to the fur trade . The largest of these settlements were trading posts established by the North West Company , particularly those at Sandy Lake , Leech Lake , and Fond du Lac . Historian Grace Lee Nute has documented over 100 fur trading posts of varying sizes in the Minnesota area before statehood . Most of these posts were eventually taken over by the American Fur Company . When several hundred settlers abandoned the Red River Colony in the 1820s , they entered the United States by way of the Red River Valley , instead of moving to eastern Canada or returning to Europe , adding to the Minnesota region 's population .

Construction on Fort Snelling began in 1820 and was finished in 1825 . The Fort became a magnet for settlement in east @-@ central Minnesota . Nearby Mendota was established during the same period and , as the regional headquarters for the American Fur Company , also drew settlement in the area soon becoming Minnesota 's commercial center . Many of the first stone buildings in the territory were constructed in Mendota by employees of the American Fur Company , which bought animal pelts at that location from 1825 to 1853 .

The logging industry spurred further development of settlements . Before railroads , lumbermen relied mostly on river transportation to bring logs to market , which made Minnesota 's timber resources attractive . Towns like Marine on Saint Croix , founded as Marine Mills , and Stillwater became significant lumber centers fed by the Saint Croix River , while Winona was supplied lumber by areas in southern Minnesota and along the Minnesota River .

In the 1830s a group of squatters , mostly Métis from the ill @-@ fated Red River Colony , established a camp near the fort . Because of complaints from some residents at the fort , new restrictions were placed on the squatters forcing them to move down the Mississippi River , first to a site known as Fountain Cave , and then even further downriver . Pierre " Pig 's Eye " Parrant , a popular moonshiner among the group , established a saloon at the new site , and the squatters named their settlement " Pig 's Eye " after Parrant ( later changing the name to Lambert 's Landing , and finally Saint Paul after the local chapel ) . The location was a convenient site for a steamboat landing and by 1847 a steamboat line had established the town as a regular stop . This attractive advantage for commerce caused the settlement to develop significantly , soon eroding Mendota 's prominence .

The sutler ( general store operator ) at Fort Snelling , Franklin Steele , who had established lumbering interests in the area , staked a claim to lands adjacent to Saint Anthony Falls following the land cessions of the 1837 Objibwe treaty . In 1848 he built a sawmill at the falls establishing the basis of the town of Saint Anthony which grew there . John H. Stevens , an employee of Franklin Steele , pointed out that land on the west side of the falls would make a good site for future mills . Since the land on the west side was still part of the military reservation , Stevens made a deal with Fort Snelling 's commander . Stevens would provide free ferry service across the river in exchange for a tract of 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) at the head of the falls . Stevens received the claim and built a house , the first house in Minneapolis , in 1850 . Later in 1854 , Stevens platted the city of Minneapolis on the west bank . In 1855 the first bridge across the main channel of the Mississippi ( anywhere in the nation ) was built between Minneapolis and Saint Anthony .

By 1851 , treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government had opened much of Minnesota to U.S. settlement . Fort Snelling was no longer a frontier outpost . Efforts to establish Minnesota as a prominent future state in the Union were swift . In 1851 territorial legislature petitioned the U.S. Congress for land to build a railroad between Milwaukee , Wisconsin and Saint Paul . That same year the legislature incorporated the University of Minnesota and established its endowment ( though the University would not admit students until many years later ) .

In 1848 when the Minnesota Territory was formed there were four major " white " settlements : Saint Paul , Saint Anthony ( part of modern Minneapolis ) , Stillwater , and Pembina ( now part of North Dakota ) . New settlements began to appear more rapidly . Mankato was established in 1852 by entrepreneurs Jackson , Johnson , and Williams . Saint Peter was established in 1853 by Captain William Bigelow Dodd . New Ulm was established in 1854 by German immigrants . Rochester was established by George Head in 1854 . Not all of the new settlements were established by immigrants from the eastern U.S. and Europe , though . The town of Faribault , for example , was established in 1852 by Alexander Faribault , a Minnesota native of mixed French @-@ Canadian / Dakota ancestry .

The influx of settlers in the 1850s transformed Minnesota from a sparsely populated territory of less than 10 @,@ 000 " white " settlers and a significantly larger native population , to a substantial population center of over 150 @,@ 000 predominantly European settlers . The city of Saint Paul expanded from less than 400 people in 1848 to over 2500 in 1852 and over 10 @,@ 000 in 1860 .

As a result of heavy immigration from New England and New York — regions where most major towns had originated as trading centers rather than political or manufacturing centers — many new settlements in Minnesota were laid out so as to heavily favor the business districts rather than the city halls or courthouses . This plan and the philosophy behind it spurred the growth of economic links between the communities and with other parts of the U.S.

In 1856 the Minnesota Territory established its first Commissioner of Emigration , Eugene Burnand . Through advertisements and speeches to new immigrants to the U.S. in New York , Burnand expanded the immigration trend which later created a large German community after statehood .

= = Society = =

Until the 1850s the Native American population vastly outnumbered the population of European ancestry in the area . Nevertheless , the division between " Indian " and " white " during this era was always somewhat vague . In general persons of mixed descent were considered " white " if they dressed in European clothing and adopted European customs . " Indians " were those who lived in traditional native lifestyles . Even as the U.S. began to establish its authority over the region and some settlers from the U.S. began to arrive the Native American population continued to hold significant political and social influence as a result of the fur trade . As experienced hunters they were important to one of North America 's major business enterprises . The decline of this trade during the later part of the era marked the decline of Native American influence .

Following the 1837 treaty the Saint Croix Triangle , between the Saint Croix and Mississippi Rivers , had been opened to U.S. settlement . Still until the later establishment of the Minnesota Territory this triangle remained an island of " white " culture and settlement . The vast majority of the Minnesota area , though , was " Indian country " . Contemporary accounts of larger towns such as Mendota , Saint Anthony , and Saint Paul in the 1840s indicate that the majority of the population was predominantly of French and Métis ancestry . Even in these communities European culture , was not strictly dominant . Commenting on Minnesota 's culture of the 1840s , Governor Alexander Ramsey described the streets of Saint Paul saying that it was common to see " the blankets and painted faces of Indians , and the red sashes and mocassins of French voyageurs and half @-@ breeds , greatly predominating over the less picturesque costume of the Anglo @-@ American race . "

It is in fact likely that a very large percentage of the " white " population reported in the 1850 census was of partially Native American ancestry . Many men of mixed racial ancestry became respected members of " white " society . William W. Warren , for example , was the son of an American entrepreneur ( who hailed from New York before he began working in John Jacob Astor 's American Fur Company ) and a mixed @-@ blood Ojibwe mother ( whose father had been in the old French and British fur trade ) was educated in the East and in the early 1850s lived on the Upper Mississippi , in part working as an independent translator and Indian Agency contractor . Warren was a good writer — his newspaper articles were eventually published as the only 19th century compendium of Ojibwe history and was elected to the territorial legislature before his death from consumption .

With the establishment of the Minnesota Territory in 1848 and the treaty of 1851 waves of immigrants from the U.S. and Europe came to the territory rapidly changing the demographics . Even as these changes occurred in many areas the vagueness of the racial divisions between " Indians " and " whites " persisted . As late as 1857 it was common practice in some jurisdictions for men to be allowed to vote based on whether or not they were wearing European clothing . According to some observers natives at a given polling location would share a single pair of trousers each wearing them only long enough to cast a ballot .

Logging and trading communities in the territory , such as International Falls , were often known as centers of lawlessness and vice . Saloons were commonly the social centers of the towns with brothels and " bath houses " adding to the character of the society . These gathering places attracted trappers , traders , smugglers , and numerous others traveling through the countryside .

The late 1840s and 1850s witnessed large @-@ scale immigration from the Eastern U.S. and Europe . By 1860 approximately 80 % percent of Minnesota 's U.S.-born population came from New York and New England . The state was in fact for a time known as the " New England of the West " . Maine , in particular , contributed a large number of immigrants , probably because of the large number of lumbermen in Maine and the growing lumber industry in Minnesota .

By the 1850s racist ideology , which was becoming prevalent in much of the U.S. , began to affect Minnesota more significantly than it had in the past . The ruling class was composed of primarily Anglo @-@ American Protestants . Settlers from the U.S. increasingly discussed " white " inhabitants as the key to Minnesota 's future with an eye toward marginalizing the role that other " inferior " races would have in the future . Author James Wesley Bond in 1853 described Minnesota before the 1850s as " a waste of woodland and prairie , uninhabited save by the different hordes of savage tribes from time immemorial . " Prejudices in the territory , however , were complicated . As late as 1840 mulattos in Saint Paul were commonly treated as equals to others in the community with children of all races attending the same schools . By the late 1840s , however , all blacks had been completely disenfranchised . In addition they were prevented from running for office and their children were segregated in schools . By contrast Irish Catholics and Native Americans who adopted European lifestyles were allowed to vote and their children were not segregated in the classrooms . Paradoxically whereas Anglo @-@ Americans generally accepted business development by African Americans , they largely opposed business development by Irish immigrants .

Minnesota was a multi @-@ lingual area throughout the era . During the earlier parts of the era French and English were widely used but Ojibwe , Sioux , and Michif ( the language of the Métis ) were more widespread . By the late 1850s English had grown to be the most spoken language . New immigrants , though , brought additional languages to the territory . Newspapers were published in German ( Die Minnesota Deutsche Zeitung ) , Swedish ( Minnesota Posten ) , and Norwegian ( Folkets Rost ) . Irish Gaelic , Czech and other languages were used in various communities as well .

Most of the population of the region in earlier decades followed traditional tribal religious practices . However , Roman Catholicism had been known in the area long before its acquisition by the U.S. because of the many French traders who lived and intermarried there . Catholic missionary activity among the Métis expanded greatly in the early 19th century with the Catholic Church becoming particularly established in Saint Paul . Protestantism was rather a much newer phenomenon though some Protestant missionaries had entered the region in the early 19th century as well . The first Protestant church appeared in 1848 ( Market Street Church , Saint Paul ) . The waves of immigration in the 1850s , however , would rapidly make Prostestants the largest religious group .

= = African Americans and slavery = =

The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 in theory outlawed slavery in the Northwest Territory including the Minnesota area . The ordinance specifically stated

There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory , otherwise than in the punishment of crime , whereof the party shall have been duly convicted .

The ordinance was nevertheless seen as ambiguous in that it did not specifically address the slaves already in the territories , and it discussed the " free " population of the territories seemingly implying that a slave population would exist . French traders in the territories , and later even American army officers ( including Josiah Snelling who commanded his namesake fort ) , continued to hold slaves with the blessings of many in Congress .

The number of African Americans in the territory during this period was quite small but not insignificant . Newcomers continued to bring slaves with them , but there were many free blacks as well , some working as servants and some as completely independent pioneers . Information about the black immigrants during the earlier periods is sparse , but records do show that most of those at Fort Snelling were slaves . Records from 1850 indicate a population of 39 free blacks out of a total population of 6 @,@ 077 citizens in the territory ( which excluded Native American tribes ) . Before the 1840s these free persons could often expect to be treated equal to other racial groups . By the time Minnesota had achieved statehood , however , blacks had been disenfranchised and schools were segregated . Despite this , from the start of the Minnesota Territory in 1848 the leadership was predominantly antislavery thus ending the practice in this era .

One of the most famous of the early African Americans in the territory was George Bonga . He was born in Minnesota in 1802 , his father Pierre Bonga the son of a freed slave and his mother a member of the Ojibwe tribe . Bonga was schooled in Montreal and eventually became a fur trader in the Northwest territories . He went on to serve as an interpreter in negotiations with the Ojibwe ( particularly as a representative of Michigan Governor Lewis Cass ) . His brother Stephen served as the Ojibwe interpreter at Fort Snelling for the 1837 treaty .

In the 1850s , Fort Snelling played a key role in the infamous Dred Scott court case . Slaves Dred Scott and his wife were taken to the fort by their master , John Emerson . They lived at the fort and elsewhere in territories where slavery was prohibited . After Emerson 's death , the Scotts argued that since they had lived in free territory , they were no longer slaves . Ultimately in 1857 the U.S. Supreme Court sided against the Scotts . This decision helped to fuel rancor over slavery leading to the Bleeding Kansas conflicts , the Panic of 1857 , and eventually the American Civil War .

= = Government and politics = =

In the earlier part of the 19th century the area which is today Minnesota was not recognized as a single entity . The Mississippi River had divided the eastern British / French lands of North America from the western Spanish lands and even after the Louisiana Purchase this was for a time seen as a separation between territories . The division between the U.S. territories in the region and the British territories remained ambiguous until the Anglo @-@ American Convention of 1818 , which set the border with British North America at the 49th parallel west of the Lake of the Woods ( except for a small chunk of land now dubbed the Northwest Angle ) . Border disputes east of the Lake of the Woods continued until the Webster @-@ Ashburton Treaty of 1842 .

Throughout the first half of the 19th century , the northeastern portion of the state was a part of the Northwest Territory , formed in 1787 . After Ohio 's statehood the area became part of the new Illinois Territory in 1809 . After Illinois ' statehood the area was incorporated into the Michigan Territory in 1818 and later became part of the Wisconsin Territory in 1836 . The western and southern areas of the state were not formally organized until 1838 , when they became part of the Iowa Territory .

Following the admission of Wisconsin as a state in 1848 , the Minnesota area was temporarily without a government , though John Catlin , the former secretary of the Wisconsin Territory , claimed governorship of what remained of the territory as a short @-@ term measure . By this time Minnesota 's residents were largely Democrats and , as the U.S. Congress was at that time controlled by Democrats , they hoped Congress might be sympathetic to their concerns . In that same year a meeting was held in Stillwater , nominally led by Caitlin and later known as the " Stillwater Convention " , to discuss establishing a new territory . The participants elected Henry Sibley as a representative to Congress .

Stephen A. Douglas ( D ) , the chair of the United States Senate Committee on Territories , drafted the bill authorizing the Minnesota Territory in 1848 . He had envisioned a future for the upper Mississippi valley , so he was motivated to keep the area from being carved up by neighboring territories . In 1846 , he had prevented Iowa from including Fort Snelling and Saint Anthony Falls within its northern border . In 1847 , he kept the organizers of Wisconsin from including Saint Paul and Saint Anthony Falls . The Minnesota Territory was established from the lands remaining from Iowa Territory and Wisconsin Territory on March 3 , 1849 . The Minnesota Territory extended far into what is now North Dakota and South Dakota , to the Missouri River . There was a dispute over the shape of the state to be carved out of Minnesota Territory . An alternate proposal that was only narrowly defeated would have made the 46th parallel the state 's northern border and the Missouri River its western border , thus giving up the whole northern half of the state in exchange for the eastern half of what later became South Dakota .

Alexander Ramsey ( W ) became the first governor of Minnesota Territory and Henry Hastings Sibley ( D ) became the territorial delegate to the United States Congress . Henry M. Rice ( D ) , who replaced Sibley as the territorial delegate in 1853 , worked in Congress to promote Minnesota interests . He lobbied for the construction of a railroad connecting Saint Paul and Lake Superior , with a link from Saint Paul to the Illinois Central Railroad .

= = Organization and statehood = =

Before 1856 there was minimal discussion of statehood within Minnesota . However , as discussion of a potential transcontinental railroad in the U.S. became serious , leaders in Minnesota recognized that a territory was in a weak position to lobby for this economic opportunity .

In December 1856 , Rice brought forward two bills in Congress : an enabling act that would allow Minnesota to form a state constitution , and a railroad land grant bill . The enabling act defined a state containing both prairie and forest lands with the boundaries drawn as they are today . The bid for statehood came at a time when North @-@ South tensions in the U.S. were rising , tensions that would later lead to the American Civil War . Debate over admitting Minnesota as a free state was heated , but the enabling act was finally passed on February 26 , 1857 .

A constitutional convention was assembled in the territory in July 1857 . Divisions between Republicans and Democrats led to the drafting of two separate constitutions . The larger cities of Saint Paul , Saint Anthony , and Stillwater were the domain of the Democrats whereas agrarian southern Minnesota was the domain of the Republicans . A single constitution was finally worked out between the two factions though the more powerful Democrats ultimately prevailed on most issues . The resentment between the two parties remained so acrimonious that two separate copies of the constitution had to be used so that members of each party did not have to sign a copy signed by members of the other party . The copies were signed on August 29 , 1857 and an election was called on October 13 , 1857 to approve the document . 30 @,@ 055 voters approved the constitution , while 571 rejected it .

The state constitution was sent to the United States Congress for ratification in December 1857 . The approval process was drawn out for several months while Congress debated over issues that had stemmed from the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act . Once questions surrounding Kansas were settled the bill for Minnesota 's admittance was passed . The eastern half of the Minnesota Territory , under the boundaries defined by Henry Mower Rice , became the country 's 32nd state on May 11 , 1858 . The western part remained unorganized until its incorporation into the Dakota Territory on March 2 , 1861 .

= = In popular culture = =

In 1855 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , who had never explored Minnesota himself , published The Song of Hiawatha containing many references to regions in Minnesota . The story was based on Ojibwe legends carried back east by other explorers and traders ( particularly those collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft ) .

Joseph Rolette ( also known as " Jolly Joe " ) was a fur trader and territorial legislator of partially Métis ( mixed French / Native American ) ancestry who became an iconic figure known in Minnesota history for his irreverence . His most famous escapade was one in which , following the passage of a bill in 1857 which would have moved the territorial capital from Saint Paul to Saint Peter , Rolette absconded with the bill preventing it from becoming law . This and other stories were passed down for generations making Rolette as much a legend as a historical figure .

The " Gopher State " moniker , by which the state today is widely known , was selected in the mid @-@ 19th century as a means to create an identity for the state . Though some believed that " Beaver State " should be selected instead as more dignified , a political cartoon featuring a gopher soon solidified " Gopher State " as the more well @-@ known identity .

= Mitsuyo Maeda =

Mitsuyo Maeda ( 前田 光世 , Maeda Mitsuyo , born December 18 , 1878 in Funazawa village , Hirosaki , Aomori , Japan – November 28 , 1941 ) , a Brazilian naturalized as Otávio Maeda ( Portuguese pronunciation : [ oˈtavju mɐˈedɐ ] ) , was a Japanese judōka ( judo expert ) and prizefighter in no holds barred competitions . He was also known as Count Combat or Conde Koma in Spanish and Portuguese , a nickname he picked up in Spain in 1908 . Along with Antônio Soshihiro Satake ( another naturalized Brazilian ) , he pioneered judo in Brazil , the United Kingdom , and other countries .

Maeda was fundamental to the development of Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu , including through his teaching of Carlos Gracie and others of the Gracie family . He was also a promoter of Japanese emigration to Brazil . Maeda won more than 2 @,@ 000 professional fights in his career . His accomplishments led to him being called the " toughest man who ever lived " and being referred to as the father of Brazilian Jiu @-@ jitsu .

= = Biography = =

Maeda was born in Funazawa Village , Hirosaki City , Aomori Prefecture , Japan , on November 18 , 1878 . He attended Kenritsu Itiu high school ( currently Hirokou — a Hirosaki school ) . As a child , he was known as Hideyo . He practiced sumo as a teenager , but lacked the ideal build for the sport . Because of the interest generated by stories about the success of judo at contests between judo and jujutsu that were occurring at the time , he changed from sumo to judo . In 1894 , at seventeen years of age , his parents sent him to Tokyo to enroll in Waseda University . He took up Kodokan judo the following year .

= = = Formative years at the Kodokan = = =

Arriving in the Kodokan , Maeda , who was 164 cm tall and weighed 64 kg , was confused with a delivery boy due to his country manners and demeanor . He was spotted by judo 's founder Kano Jigoro , and assigned to Tsunejiro Tomita ( 4th dan at the time ) , the smallest of the teachers of the Kodokan 's shiten @-@ no , to illustrate that in judo size is not important . Tomita was the first Kodokan judoka and a close friend of Kano . According to Koyasu Masao ( 9th dan ) :

Although the weakest of Kodokan shiten @-@ no , Tomita was able to defeat the great jujutsu champion of that time , Hansuke Nakamura , from the Tenjin Shin 'yō @-@ ryū style .

With Soishiro Satake , Maeda formed the head of the second generation of Kodokan judoka , which had replaced the first by the beginning of the 20th century . Satake , at 175 cm and 80 kg , was unmatched in amateur sumo but admitted that he himself was not able to match Maeda in judo . Satake would later travel to South America with Maeda and settle in Manaus , Amazonas State , while Maeda continued traveling . Satake would become the founder , in 1914 , of the first historically registered judo academy in Brazil . He and Maeda are considered the pioneers of judo in Brazil .

At that time , there were few graduated Kodokan judoka . Maeda and Satake were the top graduated professors at Waseda University , both sandan ( 3rd dan ) , along with Matsuhiro Ritaro ( nidan or 2nd dan ) and six other shodan ( 1st dan ) . Kyuzo Mifune registered at the Kodokan in 1903 and attracted the attention of Maeda , who commented , " you are strong and competent , therefore , you will certainly leave your mark in the Kodokan ... " Mifune went to learn under Sakujiro Yokoyama and later , already a celebrated judoka , Mifune said that Maeda 's words were a great incentive , as he regarded Maeda with the greatest admiration , even though Yokoyama was his sensei ( instructor ) .

According to Mifune , in 1904 Maeda lost to Yoshitake Yoshio by hane goshi , after defeating three adversaries in succession , but in a following tsukinami @-@ shiai defeated eight adversaries in a row and was awarded the rank of 4th dan ( yondan ) . Mifune also states that Maeda was one of the most vigorous promoters of judo , although not by teaching the art , instead generating recognition of judo through his many combats with contenders from other disciplines . Maeda treated experienced and inexperienced students alike , throwing them as if in real combat . He reasoned that this behavior was a measure of respect towards his students , but it was often misunderstood and frightened many youngsters , who would abandon him in favor of other professors .

= = = Prelude to Kodokan 's expansion = = =

In 1879 , Ulysses S. Grant , the former President of the United States , visited Japan . While in Tokyo , he attended a jujutsu presentation at Shibusawa Eiichi 's home in Asukayama . Kano Jigoro was one of the jujutsuka present . At that time , jujutsu was just starting to become known in Europe and the Americas . Excepting literal circus acts , few non @-@ Japanese had much chance of seeing or learning about the art . Even in Japan , judo and jujutsu were not considered separate disciplines at that time . Indeed , it was not until 1925 that there started to be clear differentiation of the names in Japan , and outside Japan , judo and jujutsu were not completely separated until the 1950s .

In 1903 , a senior Kodokan instructor named Yamashita Yoshiaki traveled to the United States at the request of the Seattle businessman Sam Hill . In Washington , DC , Yamashita 's students included Theodore Roosevelt and other prominent Americans . At Roosevelt 's request , Yamashita also taught judo at the US Naval Academy . Capitalizing on the publicity , the Japanese Legation in the USA asked the Kodokan to send more judo teachers to America , providing continuity to Yamashita 's work . Tomita reluctantly accepted the task ; Maeda and Satake embraced the opportunity .

= = = Career = = =

= = = = United States = = = =

Tomita , Maeda , and Satake sailed from Yokohama on November 16 , 1904 , and arrived in New York City on December 8 , 1904 .

Early in 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave several public demonstrations of judo . On February 17 , 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave a demonstration at Princeton University , when Maeda threw N. B. Tooker , a Princeton football player , while Tomita threw Samuel Feagles , the Princeton gymnasium instructor . On February 21 , 1905 , they gave a judo demonstration at the United States Military Academy at West Point , where Tomita and Maeda performed kata ( patterns ) — nage @-@ no , koshiki , ju @-@ no , and so on . At the request of the crowd , Maeda wrestled a cadet and threw him easily . Because Tomita had been the thrower in the kata , the cadets wanted to wrestle him too . Tomita threw the first ( Charles Daly ) without any trouble . However , Tomita twice failed to throw another football player named Tipton using tomoe @-@ nage ( stomach throw ) . Afterwards , the New York sportswriters claimed the victory for the cadets because Tomita was thrown , whereas the Japanese embassy staff proclaimed that Tomita had achieved a moral victory , on the grounds that he was a far smaller man .

A conflicting account provided by the New York Times on February 21 , referring to Tomita as " Prof. Tomet , " states that

In any event , later that year the US Military Academy hired a former world champion professional wrestler , Tom Jenkins , instead of a judo teacher , a job Jenkins kept until his retirement in 1942 .

The Japanese experts did better at the New York Athletic Club on March 8 , 1905 : " Their best throw was a sort of flying cartwheel , " said an article in the New York Times , describing Maeda 's match with John Naething , a 200 lb wrestler . " Because of the difference in methods the two men rolled about the mat like schoolboys in a rough @-@ and @-@ tumble fight . After fifteen minutes of wrestling , Maeda secured the first fall . Ultimately , however , Naething was awarded the match by pin fall . " On March 21 , 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave a " jiu @-@ do " demonstration at Columbia University attended by about 200 people . Following introductions , Tomita demonstrated falls and throws , then Maeda threw the university 's wrestling instructor . According to the student newspaper , " Another interesting feature was the exhibition of some of the obsolete jiu jitsu tricks for defense with a fan against an opponent armed with the curved Japanese sword . " Translations were provided by chemist Takamine Jokichi .

During April 1905 , Tomita and Maeda started a judo club in a commercial space at 1947 Broadway in New York . Members of this club included Japanese expatriates , plus a European American woman named Wilma Berger . On July 6 , 1905 , Tomita and Maeda gave a judo exhibition at the YMCA in Newport , Rhode Island . On September 30 , 1905 , they gave a demonstration at another YMCA , in Lockport , New York . In Lockport , the local opponent was Mason Shimer , who wrestled Tomita unsuccessfully .

On November 6 , 1905 , Maeda was reported visiting professional wrestler Akitaro Ono in Asheville , North Carolina ; after this , Maeda was no longer routinely associated with Tomita in the US newspapers . On December 18 , 1905 , Maeda was in Atlanta , Georgia , for a professional wrestling match with Sam Marburger . The contest was best of three , two falls with jackets and one without , and Maeda won the two with jackets and lost the one without . According to the Atlanta papers , Maeda listed his residence as the YMCA in Selma , Alabama .

Maeda was fond of the name and started using it to promote his art thereafter .

= = = = Cuba , Mexico , and Central America = = = =

During November 1908 , Maeda went to Paris , France , apparently to see his friend Akitaro Ono . From Paris , he went to Havana , arriving there on December 14 , 1908 , and his twice @-@ a @-@ day wrestling act quickly proved to be very popular . On July 23 , 1909 , Maeda left Havana for Mexico City . His debut in Mexico City took place at the Virginia Fabregas Theater on July 14 , 1909 . This show was a private demonstration for some military cadets . Shortly afterwards , Maeda began appearing at the Principal Theater . His standing offer was 100 pesos ( US $ 50 ) to anyone he could not throw , and 500 pesos ( US $ 250 ) to anyone who could throw him . The Mexican Herald did not record anyone taking his money .

During September 1909 , a Japanese calling himself ' Nobu Taka ' arrived in Mexico City for the purpose of challenging Maeda for what the Mexican Herald said would be the world jujutsu championship . After several months of public wrangling , Taka and Maeda met at the Colon Theater on November 16 , 1909 ; Taka won . There was an immediate rematch , and four days later , Maeda was pronounced the champion . It was later revealed that Taka was , in fact , Maeda 's old friend , Soishiro Satake .

In January 1910 , Maeda took part in a wrestling tournament in Mexico City . During the semifinals , Maeda drew with Hjalmar Lundin . This is a different result than Lundin recalled in his 1937 memoirs . Said Lundin , " Having been accustomed to handling the big Greco @-@ Roman wrestlers with ease , the Jap thought he could do likewise with me , but in the first encounter I got the better of him , after which my confidence returned . I had no trouble then in winning the match . It was a surprise to the crowd and a set @-@ back for Koma . He had been the hero all week , but as soon as he was beaten the fans , true to form , called him a bum . "

In July 1910 , Maeda returned to Cuba , where he tried to arrange matches with Frank Gotch and Jack Johnson . The Americans ignored him — there was no money to be made wrestling him , and much money to be lost if they lost to him . On August 23 , 1910 , Maeda wrestled Jack Connell in Havana ; the result was a draw . During 1911 , Maeda and Satake were joined in Cuba by Akitaro Ono and Tokugoro Ito . The four men were known as the ' Four Kings of Cuba.'

The Four Kings were very popular in Cuba , and the Japanese media were proud of the reputation they were bringing to judo and Japan . Consequently , on January 8 , 1912 , the Kodokan promoted Maeda to 5th dan . There was some resistance to this decision because there were those in Japan who did not approve of his involvement in professional wrestling . In 1913 , Tokugoro Ito stayed in Cuba while Maeda and Satake went to El Salvador , Costa Rica , Honduras , Panama , Colombia , Ecuador and Peru . In El Salvador , the president was assassinated while Maeda was there , and in Panama , the Americans tried to pay him to lose ; in response , they kept moving south . In Peru they met Laku , a Japanese jujutsuka who taught the military , and invited him to join them . They were then joined by Okura in Chile , and by Shimitsu in Argentina . The troupe arrived in Brazil on November 14 , 1914 .

= = = = Brazil = = = =

According to a copy of Maeda 's passport provided by Gotta Tsutsumi , head of Belém 's Associação Paramazônica Nipako , Maeda arrived in Porto Alegre on November 14 , 1914 , where his first exhibition in Brazil took place . After appearing in Porto Alegre , Maeda and his companions moved throughout the country : on August 26 , 1915 , Maeda , Satake , Okura , Shimitsu , and Laku were at Recife ; during October 1915 , they were in Belém , finally arriving in Manaus on December 18 , 1915 . Tokugoro Ito arrived some time later .

On December 20 , 1915 , the first demonstration in Belém took place at the Theatro Politheama . The O Tempo newspaper announced the event , stating that Conde Koma would show the main jiu @-@ jitsu techniques , excepting the prohibited ones . He would also demonstrate self @-@ defense techniques . After that , the troupe would be accepting challenges from the crowd , and there would be the first sensational match of jiu @-@ jitsu between Shimitsu ( champion of Argentina ) and Laku ( Peruvian military professor ) . On December 22 , 1915 , according to O Tempo , jiu @-@ jitsu world champion Maeda , head of the Japanese troupe , and Satake , New York champion , performed an enthusiastic and sensational jiu @-@ jitsu match . On the same day , Nagib Assef , an Australian Greco @-@ Roman wrestling champion of Turkish origin , challenged Maeda . On December 24 , 1915 , Maeda defeated in seconds the boxer Barbadiano Adolpho Corbiniano , who became one of his disciples . On January 3 , 1916 at Theatro Politheama , Maeda finally fought Nagib Assef , who was thrown off the stage and pinned into submission by arm @-@ lock . On January 8 , 1916 , Maeda , Okura , and Shimitsu boarded the SS Antony and left for Liverpool . Tokugoro Ito went to Los Angeles . Satake and Laku stayed in Manaus teaching , according to O Tempo , jiu @-@ jitsu . After 15 years together , Maeda and Satake had finally split up . Of this last trip , little is known . Maeda went from England to Portugal , Spain , and France , coming back to Brazil in 1917 alone . Settling in Belém do Pará , Maeda married D. May Iris .

Maeda was still popular in Brazil , and recognized as a great fighter , although he only fought sporadically after his return . Around 1918 – 1919 , Maeda accepted a challenge from the famous capoeirista Pé de Bola . Maeda allowed Pé de Bola to use a knife in the fight . The capoeirista was 190 cm tall and weighed 100 kg . Maeda won the match quickly . In 1921 , Maeda founded his first judo academy in Brazil . It was called Clube Remo , and its building was a 4 m x 4 m shed . Later , it was moved to the Fire Brigade headquarters and then to the church of N. S. de Aparecida . In 1991 , the Academy was located in the SESI and was run by Alfredo Mendes Coimbra , of the third generation of Conde Koma 's descendants .

On September 18 , 1921 , Maeda , Satake , and Okura were briefly in New York City . They were aboard the Booth Line steamship SS Polycarp . All three men listed their occupations as professors of " juitso " . After leaving New York , the three men went to the Caribbean , where they stayed from September to December 1921 . At some point in this trip , Maeda was joined by his wife . In Havana , Satake and Maeda took part in some contests . Their opponents included Paul Alvarez , who wrestled as Espanol Icognito . Alvarez defeated Satake and Yako Okura — the latter being billed as a former instructor at the Chilean Naval Academy — before being himself beaten by Maeda . Maeda also defeated a Cuban boxer called Jose Ibarra , and a French wrestler called Fournier . The Havana papers attributed Maeda with a Cuban student called Conde Chenard .

= = = Later years = = =

In 1925 , Maeda became involved with helping settle Japanese immigrants near Tome @-@ açú , a Japanese @-@ owned company town in Pará , Brazil . This was part of a large tract in the Amazon forest set aside for Japanese settlement by the Brazilian government . The crops grown by the Japanese were not popular with the Brazilians , and the Japanese investors eventually gave up on the project . Maeda also continued teaching judo , now mostly to the children of Japanese immigrants . Consequently , in 1929 , the Kodokan promoted him to 6th dan , and on November 27 , 1941 , to 7th dan . Maeda never knew of this final promotion , because he died in Belém on November 28 , 1941 . The cause of death was kidney disease .

In May 1956 , a memorial to Maeda was erected in Hirosaki City , Japan . The dedication ceremony was attended by Risei Kano and Kaichiro Samura .

= = Influence on the creation of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu = =

Gastão Gracie was a business partner of the American Circus in Belém . In 1916 , Italian Argentine circus Queirolo Brothers staged shows there and presented Maeda . In 1917 , Carlos Gracie — 14 ‑ year @-@ old son of Gastão Gracie — watched a demonstration by Maeda at the Da Paz Theatre and decided to learn judo ( also known at the time as ' Kano Jiu @-@ Jitsu ' ) . Maeda accepted Gracie and Luiz França as students [ 1 ] , and the youth went on to become a great exponent of the art and ultimately , with his younger brother Hélio Gracie , founded Gracie Jiu @-@ Jitsu , modern Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu . In 1921 , Gastão Gracie and his family moved to Rio de Janeiro . Carlos , then 17 years old , passed Maeda 's teachings on to his brothers Osvaldo , Gastão , and Jorge . Hélio is considered by many as the founder of Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu ( though others , such as Carlson Gracie , have pointed to Carlos as the founder ) .

= = Maeda 's philosophy of combat = =

According to Renzo Gracie 's book Mastering Jujitsu , Maeda not only taught the art of judo to Carlos Gracie , but also taught a particular philosophy about the nature of combat based on his travels competing and training alongside catch @-@ wrestlers , boxers , savate fighters , and various other martial artists . The book details Maeda 's theory that physical combat could be broken down into distinct phases , such as the striking phase , the grappling phase , the ground phase , and so on . Thus , it was a smart fighter 's task to keep the fight located in the phase of combat that best suited his own strengths . The book further states that this theory was a fundamental influence on the Gracie approach to combat . The approach included armed versus armed , armed versus unarmed , unarmed , standing ( tachiwaza , 立ち技 ) , kneeling ( suwariwaza , 座技 ) , and ground work ( newaza , 寝技 ) , close quarters ( hakuheijugi , 白兵主義 ) , and other forms of combat . It was employed by other proponents of judo ( ' Kano jiu @-@ jutsu ' ) who , like Maeda , engaged in challenge match fighting overseas as judo spread internationally ( e.g. , Yukio Tani in the United Kingdom from 1905 , Mikonosuke Kawaishi in France , and others ) .

= Kitsune =

Kitsune ( 狐 , キツネ , IPA : [ kitsu ͍ ne ] ) is the Japanese word for fox . Foxes are a common subject of Japanese folklore ; in English , kitsune refers to them in this context . Stories depict them as intelligent beings and as possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom . According to Yōkai folklore , all foxes have the ability to shape shift into men or women . While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others — as foxes in folklore often do — other stories portray them as faithful guardians , friends , lovers , and wives .

Foxes and human beings lived close together in ancient Japan ; this companionship gave rise to legends about the creatures . Kitsune have become closely associated with Inari , a Shinto kami or spirit , and serve as its messengers . This role has reinforced the fox 's supernatural significance . The more tails a kitsune has — they may have as many as nine — the older , wiser , and more powerful it is . Because of their potential power and influence , some people make offerings to them as to a deity .

Conversely foxes were often seen as " witch animals " , especially during the superstitious Edo period ( 1603 – 1867 ) , and were goblins who could not be trusted ( similar to some badgers and cats ) .

= = Origins = =

Japanese fox myths had its origins in Chinese mythology . Chinese folk tales tell of fox spirits called húli jīng ( Chinese : 狐狸精 ) that may have up to nine tails ( Kyūbi no Kitsune in Japanese ) . Many of the earliest surviving stories are recorded in the Konjaku Monogatarishū , an 11th @-@ century collection of Chinese , Indian , and Japanese narratives . The nine @-@ tailed foxes came to be adapted as a motif from Chinese mythology to Japanese mythology .

Smyers ( 1999 ) notes that the idea of the fox as seductress and the connection of the fox myths to Buddhism were introduced into Japanese folklore through similar Chinese stories , but she maintains that some fox stories contain elements unique to Japan .

= = = Etymology = = =

The full etymology is unknown . The oldest known usage of the word is in the 794 text Shin 'yaku Kegonkyō Ongi Shiki . Other old sources include Nihon Ryōiki ( 810 – 824 ) and Wamyō Ruijushō ( c . 934 ) . These oldest sources are written in Man 'yōgana which clearly identifies the historical spelling as ki1tune . Following several diachronic phonological changes , this becomes kitsune .

Many etymological suggestions have been made , though there is no general agreement :

Myōgoki ( 1268 ) suggests that it is so called because it is " always ( tsune ) yellow ( ki ) " .

Early Kamakura period Mizukagami indicates that it means " came ( ki ) [ perfective aspect particle tsu ] to bedroom ( ne ) " due to a legend that a kitsune would change into one 's wife and bear children .

Arai Hakuseki in Tōga ( 1717 ) suggests that ki means " stench " , tsu is a possessive particle , and ne is related to inu , the word for " dog " .

Tanikawa Kotosuga in Wakun no Shiori ( 1777 – 1887 ) suggests that ki means " yellow " , tsu is a possessive particle , and ne is related to neko , the word for cat .

Ōtsuki Fumihiko in Daigenkai ( 1932 – 1935 ) proposes that the word comes from kitsu , which is onomatopoeia for the bark of a fox , and ne , which may be an affix or an honorific word meaning a servant of an Inari shrine .

Nozaki also suggests that the word kitsune was originally onomatopoetic . Kitsu represented a fox 's yelp and came to be the general word for fox . -Ne signifies an affectionate mood .

Kitsu is now archaic ; in modern Japanese , a fox 's cry is transcribed as kon kon or gon gon .

One of the oldest surviving kitsune tales provides a widely known folk etymology of the word kitsune . Unlike most tales of kitsune who become human and marry human males , this one does not end tragically :

Ono , an inhabitant of Mino ( says an ancient Japanese legend of A.D. 545 ) , spent the seasons longing for his ideal of female beauty . He met her one evening on a vast moor and married her . Simultaneously with the birth of their son , Ono 's dog was delivered of a pup which as it grew up became more and more hostile to the lady of the moors . She begged her husband to kill it , but he refused . At last one day the dog attacked her so furiously that she lost courage , resumed vulpine shape , leaped over a fence and fled .

" You may be a fox , " Ono called after her , " but you are the mother of my son and I love you . Come back when you please ; you will always be welcome . "

So every evening she stole back and slept in his arms .

Because the fox returns to her husband each night as a woman but leaves each morning as a fox , she is called Kitsune . In classical Japanese , kitsu @-@ ne means come and sleep , and ki @-@ tsune means always comes .

= = Characteristics = =

Kitsune are believed to possess superior intelligence , long life , and magical powers . They are a type of yōkai , or spiritual entity , and the word kitsune is often translated as fox spirit . However , this does not mean that kitsune are ghosts , nor that they are fundamentally different from regular foxes . Because the word spirit is used to reflect a state of knowledge or enlightenment , all long @-@ lived foxes gain supernatural abilities .

There are two common classifications of kitsune . The zenko ( 善狐 , literally good foxes ) are benevolent , celestial foxes associated with Inari ; they are sometimes simply called Inari foxes . On the other hand , the yako ( 野狐 , literally field foxes , also called nogitsune ) tend to be mischievous or even malicious . Local traditions add further types . For example , a ninko is an invisible fox spirit that human beings can only perceive when it possesses them .

Physically , kitsune are noted for having as many as nine tails . Generally , a greater number of tails indicates an older and more powerful fox ; in fact , some folktales say that a fox will only grow additional tails after it has lived 100 years . One , five , seven , and nine tails are the most common numbers in folk stories . When a kitsune gains its ninth tail , its fur becomes white or gold . These kyūbi no kitsune ( 九尾の狐 , nine @-@ tailed foxes ) gain the abilities to see and hear anything happening anywhere in the world . Other tales credit them with infinite wisdom ( omniscience ) .

= = = Shapeshifting = = =

A kitsune may take on human form , an ability learned when it reaches a certain age — usually 100 years , although some tales say 50 . As a common prerequisite for the transformation , the fox must place reeds , a broad leaf , or a skull over its head . Common forms assumed by kitsune include beautiful women , young girls , or elderly men . These shapes are not limited by the fox 's age or gender , and a kitsune can duplicate the appearance of a specific person . Foxes are particularly renowned for impersonating beautiful women . Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone , especially at dusk or night , could be a fox . Kitsune @-@ gao or fox @-@ faced refers to human females who have a narrow face with close @-@ set eyes , thin eyebrows , and high cheekbones . Traditionally , this facial structure is considered attractive , and some tales ascribe it to foxes in human form . Variants on the theme have the kitsune retain other foxlike traits , such as a coating of fine hair , a fox @-@ shaped shadow , or a reflection that shows its true form .

In some stories , kitsune have difficulty hiding their tails when they take human form ; looking for the tail , perhaps when the fox gets drunk or careless , is a common method of discerning the creature 's true nature . A particularly devout individual may in some cases even be able to see through a fox 's disguise merely by perceiving them . Kitsune may also be exposed while in human form by their fear and hatred of dogs , and some become so rattled by their presence that they revert to the form of a fox and flee .

One folk story illustrating these imperfections in the kitsune 's human shape concerns Koan , a historical person credited with wisdom and magical powers of divination . According to the story , he was staying at the home of one of his devotees when he scalded his foot entering a bath because the water had been drawn too hot . Then , " in his pain , he ran out of the bathroom naked . When the people of the household saw him , they were astonished to see that Koan had fur covering much of his body , along with a fox 's tail . Then Koan transformed in front of them , becoming an elderly fox and running away . "

Other supernatural abilities commonly attributed to the kitsune include possession , mouths or tails that generate fire or lightning ( known as kitsunebi ) , willful manifestation in the dreams of others , flight , invisibility , and the creation of illusions so elaborate as to be almost indistinguishable from reality . Some tales speak of kitsune with even greater powers , able to bend time and space , drive people mad , or take fantastic shapes such as a tree of incredible height or a second moon in the sky . Other kitsune have characteristics reminiscent of vampires or succubi and feed on the life or spirit of human beings , generally through sexual contact .

= = = Kitsunetsuki = = =

Kitsunetsuki ( Japanese : 狐憑き , 狐付き ) , also written kitsune @-@ tsuki , literally means " the state of being possessed by a fox " . The victim is usually a young woman , whom the fox enters beneath her fingernails or through her breasts . In some cases , the victims ' facial expressions are said to change in such a way that they resemble those of a fox . Japanese tradition holds that fox possession can cause illiterate victims to temporarily gain the ability to read . Though foxes in folklore can possess a person of their own will , kitsunetsuki is often attributed to the malign intents of hereditary fox employers , or tsukimono @-@ suji .

Folklorist Lafcadio Hearn describes the condition :

Strange is the madness of those into whom demon foxes enter . Sometimes they run naked shouting through the streets . Sometimes they lie down and froth at the mouth , and yelp as a fox yelps . And on some part of the body of the possessed a moving lump appears under the skin , which seems to have a life of its own . Prick it with a needle , and it glides instantly to another place . By no grasp can it be so tightly compressed by a strong hand that it will not slip from under the fingers . Possessed folk are also said to speak and write languages of which they were totally ignorant prior to possession . They eat only what foxes are believed to like — tofu , aburagé , azukimeshi , etc . — and they eat a great deal , alleging that not they , but the possessing foxes , are hungry .

He goes on to note that , once freed from the possession , the victim will never again be able to eat tofu , azukimeshi , or other foods favored by foxes :

Exorcism , often performed at an Inari shrine , may induce a fox to leave its host . In the past , when such gentle measures failed or a priest was not available , victims of kitsunetsuki were beaten or badly burned in hopes of forcing the fox to leave . Entire families were ostracized by their communities after a member of the family was thought to be possessed .

In Japan , kitsunetsuki was noted as a disease as early as the Heian period and remained a common diagnosis for mental illness until the early 20th century . Possession was the explanation for the abnormal behavior displayed by the afflicted individuals . In the late 19th century , Dr. Shunichi Shimamura noted that physical diseases that caused fever were often considered kitsunetsuki . The belief has lost favor , but stories of fox possession still occur , such as allegations that members of the Aum Shinrikyo cult had been possessed .

In medicine , kitsunetsuki is a culture @-@ bound syndrome unique to Japanese culture . Those who suffer from the condition believe they are possessed by a fox . Symptoms include cravings for rice or sweet adzuki beans , listlessness , restlessness , and aversion to eye contact . Kitsunetsuki is similar to but distinct from clinical lycanthropy .

= = = Hoshi no tama = = =

Depictions of kitsune or their possessed victims may feature round or onion @-@ shaped white balls known as hoshi no tama ( ほしのたま , star balls ) . Tales describe these as glowing with kitsunebi . Some stories identify them as magical jewels or pearls . When not in human form or possessing a human , a kitsune keeps the ball in its mouth or carries it on its tail . Jewels are a common symbol of Inari , and representations of sacred Inari foxes without them are rare .

One belief is that when a kitsune changes shape , its hoshi no tama holds a portion of its magical power . Another tradition is that the pearl represents the kitsune 's soul ; the kitsune will die if separated from it for long . Those who obtain the ball may be able to extract a promise from the kitsune to help them in exchange for its return . For example , a 12th @-@ century tale describes a man using a fox 's hoshi no tama to secure a favor :

" Confound you ! " snapped the fox . " Give me back my ball ! " The man ignored its pleas till finally it said tearfully , " All right , you 've got the ball , but you don 't know how to keep it . It won 't be any good to you . For me , it 's a terrible loss . I tell you , if you don 't give it back , I 'll be your enemy forever . If you do give it back though , I 'll stick to you like a protector god . "

The fox later saves his life by leading him past a band of armed robbers .

= = Portrayal = =

Embedded in Japanese folklore as they are , kitsune appear in numerous Japanese works . Noh , kyogen , bunraku , and kabuki plays derived from folk tales feature them , as do contemporary works such as anime , manga and video games . Japanese metal idol band Babymetal refer to the kitsune myth in their lyrics and include the use of fox masks , hand signs , and animation interludes during live shows . Western authors of fiction have also made use of the kitsune legends .

= = = Servants of Inari = = =

Kitsune are associated with Inari , the Shinto deity of rice . This association has reinforced the fox 's supernatural significance . Originally , kitsune were Inari 's messengers , but the line between the two is now blurred so that Inari Ōkami may be depicted as a fox . Likewise , entire shrines are dedicated to kitsune , where devotees can leave offerings . Fox spirits are said to be particularly fond of a fried sliced tofu called aburage , which is accordingly found in the noodle @-@ based dishes kitsune udon and kitsune soba . Similarly , Inari @-@ zushi is a type of sushi named for Inari Ōkami that consists of rice @-@ filled pouches of fried tofu . There is speculation among folklorists as to whether another Shinto fox deity existed in the past . Foxes have long been worshipped as kami .

Inari 's kitsune are white , a color of good omen . They possess the power to ward off evil , and they sometimes serve as guardian spirits . In addition to protecting Inari shrines , they are petitioned to intervene on behalf of the locals and particularly to aid against troublesome nogitsune , those spirit foxes who do not serve Inari . Black foxes and nine @-@ tailed foxes are likewise considered good omens .

According to beliefs derived from fusui ( feng shui ) , the fox 's power over evil is such that a mere statue of a fox can dispel the evil kimon , or energy , that flows from the northeast . Many Inari shrines , such as the famous Fushimi Inari shrine in Kyoto , feature such statues , sometimes large numbers of them .

Kitsune are connected to the Buddhist religion through the Dakiniten , goddesses conflated with Inari 's female aspect . Dakiniten is depicted as a female boddhisattva wielding a sword and riding a flying white fox .

= = = Tricksters = = =

Kitsune are often presented as tricksters , with motives that vary from mischief to malevolence . Stories tell of kitsune playing tricks on overly proud samurai , greedy merchants , and boastful commoners , while the crueler ones abuse poor tradesmen and farmers or devout Buddhist monks . Their victims are usually men ; women are possessed instead . For example , kitsune are thought to employ their kitsunebi to lead travelers astray in the manner of a will o ' the wisp . Another tactic is for the kitsune to confuse its target with illusions or visions . Other common goals of trickster kitsune include seduction , theft of food , humiliation of the prideful , or vengeance for a perceived slight .

A traditional game called kitsune @-@ ken ( fox @-@ fist ) references the kitsune 's powers over human beings . The game is similar to rock , paper , scissors , but the three hand positions signify a fox , a hunter , and a village headman . The headman beats the hunter , whom he outranks ; the hunter beats the fox , whom he shoots ; the fox beats the headman , whom he bewitches .

This ambiguous portrayal , coupled with their reputation for vengefulness , leads people to try to discover a troublesome fox 's motives . In one case , the 16th @-@ century leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi wrote a letter to the kami Inari :

To Inari Daimyojin ,

My lord , I have the honor to inform you that one of the foxes under your jurisdiction has bewitched one of my servants , causing her and others a great deal of trouble . I have to request that you make minute inquiries into the matter , and endeavor to find out the reason of your subject misbehaving in this way , and let me know the result .

If it turns out that the fox has no adequate reason to give for his behavior , you are to arrest and punish him at once . If you hesitate to take action in this matter I shall issue orders for the destruction of every fox in the land . Any other particulars that you may wish to be informed of in reference to what has occurred , you can learn from the high priest of Yoshida .

Kitsune keep their promises and strive to repay any favor . Occasionally a kitsune attaches itself to a person or household , where they can cause all sorts of mischief . In one story from the 12th century , only the homeowner 's threat to exterminate the foxes convinces them to behave . The kitsune patriarch appears in the man 's dreams :

My father lived here before me , sir , and by now I have many children and grandchildren . They get into a lot of mischief , I 'm afraid , and I 'm always after them to stop , but they never listen . And now , sir , you 're understandably fed up with us . I gather that you 're going to kill us all . But I just want you to know , sir , how sorry I am that this is our last night of life . Won 't you pardon us , one more time ? If we ever make trouble again , then of course you must act as you think best . But the young ones , sir — I 'm sure they 'll understand when I explain to them why you 're so upset . We 'll do everything we can to protect you from now on , if only you 'll forgive us , and we 'll be sure to let you know when anything good is going to happen ! "

Other kitsune use their magic for the benefit of their companion or hosts as long as the human beings treat them with respect . As yōkai , however , kitsune do not share human morality , and a kitsune who has adopted a house in this manner may , for example , bring its host money or items that it has stolen from the neighbors . Accordingly , common households thought to harbor kitsune are treated with suspicion . Oddly , samurai families were often reputed to share similar arrangements with kitsune , but these foxes were considered zenko and the use of their magic a sign of prestige . Abandoned homes were common haunts for kitsune . One 12th @-@ century story tells of a minister moving into an old mansion only to discover a family of foxes living there . They first try to scare him away , then claim that the house " has been ours for many years , and ... we wish to register a vigorous protest . " The man refuses , and the foxes resign themselves to moving to an abandoned lot nearby .

Tales distinguish kitsune gifts from kitsune payments . If a kitsune offers a payment or reward that includes money or material wealth , part or all of the sum will consist of old paper , leaves , twigs , stones , or similar valueless items under a magical illusion . True kitsune gifts are usually intangibles , such as protection , knowledge , or long life .

= = = Wives and lovers = = =

Kitsune are commonly portrayed as lovers , usually in stories involving a young human male and a kitsune who takes the form of a human woman . The kitsune may be a seductress , but these stories are more often romantic in nature . Typically , the young man unknowingly marries the fox , who proves a devoted wife . The man eventually discovers the fox 's true nature , and the fox @-@ wife is forced to leave him . In some cases , the husband wakes as if from a dream , filthy , disoriented , and far from home . He must then return to confront his abandoned family in shame .

Many stories tell of fox @-@ wives bearing children . When such progeny are human , they possess special physical or supernatural qualities that often pass to their own children . The astrologer @-@ magician Abe no Seimei was reputed to have inherited such extraordinary powers .

Other stories tell of kitsune marrying one another . Rain falling from a clear sky — a sunshower — is called kitsune no yomeiri or the kitsune 's wedding , in reference to a folktale describing a wedding ceremony between the creatures being held during such conditions . The event is considered a good omen , but the kitsune will seek revenge on any uninvited guests , as is depicted in Akira Kurosawa 's film Dreams .

Stephen Turnbull , in " Nagashino 1575 " , relates the tale of the Takeda clan 's involvement with a fox @-@ woman . The warlord Takeda Shingen , in 1544 , defeated in battle a lesser local warlord named Suwa Yorishige and drove him to suicide after a " humiliating and spurious " peace conference , after which Shingen forced marriage on Suwa Yorishige 's beautiful 14 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Lady Koi — Shingen 's own niece . Shingen , Turnbull writes , " was so obsessed with the girl that his superstitious followers became alarmed and believed her to be an incarnation of the white fox @-@ spirit of the Suwa Shrine , who had bewitched him in order to gain revenge . " When their son Takeda Katsuyori proved to be a disastrous leader and led the clan to their devastating defeat at the battle of Nagashino , Turnbull writes , " wise old heads nodded , remembering the unhappy circumstances of his birth and his magical mother " .

= New York State Route 448 =

New York State Route 448 ( NY 448 ) is a 3 @.@ 90 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 28 km ) long state highway in western Westchester County , New York , in the United States . The route begins in the village of Sleepy Hollow at U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and goes in a northeast direction through the Pocantico Hills community in Mount Pleasant . It ends at NY 117 in Mount Pleasant , near the junction of NY 117 with Saw Mill River Road ( NY 9A and NY 100 ) and the Taconic State Parkway . From 1930 to the early 1970s , NY 448 was part of NY 117 .

= = Route description = =

NY 448 begins at an intersection with New Broadway and US 9 ( North Broadway ) in the village of Sleepy Hollow , then heads through a residential area as Bedford Road . After the Webber Avenue intersection , NY 448 turns to the northeast , where it passes the athletic fields of Sleepy Hollow High School . NY 448 intersects with Sleepy Hollow Road , which leads into a residential development and parallels NY 448 northeastward for a short distance .

Near the southern edge of Rockefeller State Park Preserve , NY 448 turns east and enters Kykuit , the estate of the Rockefeller family . At the hamlet of Pocantico Hills , the highway intersects with Lake Road and turns to the northeast , passing through more residential areas as it leaves the estate . NY 448 passes the Pocantico Hills Central School on its way , continuing northeast towards Phelps Way ( NY 117 ) . The road continues through a vacant area and heads northward into Mount Pleasant , where NY 448 terminates at an intersection with NY 117 . Bedford Road continues east of this point as part of NY 117 .

= = History = =

The entirety of NY 448 was originally designated as part of NY 117 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . In 1932 – 33 , John D. Rockefeller offered to straighten a short section of NY 117 that passed through Kykuit , the Rockefeller family estate , citing safety concerns . The state expressed similar sentiments in 1949 , deeming the stretch unsafe for commercial traffic . By the 1960s , the annual average daily traffic count along NY 117 had grown to 5 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , far more than the 1 @,@ 800 that the road had originally been built to serve . This led the New York State Legislature to approve plans for a new alignment for NY 117 in 1965 . The new road would be located north of the existing road , relieving traffic congestion on the Albany Post Road ( US 9 ) and NY 117 and providing access to NY 9A , US 9 , the Taconic State Parkway and the proposed Hudson River Expressway in the North Tarrytown area .

Several different routes were considered for the alignment . The path ultimately selected by the state was a four @-@ lane , limited @-@ access highway 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the current alignment that would cost $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( 1966 USD ) . Another proposed route would have cost $ 8 million ( 1966 USD ) , containing additional grades and curves while coming closer to the Rockefeller estate . Construction on the new NY 117 was expected to begin before the end of 1966 . The reaction from area residents was mixed , with some believing that the only beneficiaries of a realigned NY 117 was the Rockefeller family . Rumors that the Rockefeller family had wanted NY 117 moved had existed as early as the 1930s , and US Representative Richard Ottinger believed that Nelson Rockefeller , then the Governor of New York , was using his political power to move NY 117 away from Kykuit at the cost of the state . An aide to the Rockefellers denied this charge .

The Sleepy Hollow Valley Committee , comprising 11 members whose homes were in the right @-@ of @-@ way of the new alignment , protested that the route would destroy the countryside . They were opposed by the Potantico Hills Residents Committee , as most residents in Potantico Hills supported the new alignment . The former committee filed a lawsuit in the New York State Supreme Court to block the new roadway , and they were joined in their efforts by conservationist groups and the village of North Tarrytown . On June 28 , 1966 , the case was heard by the court . Engineers with the New York State Department of Highways were accused of showing " unprecedented pell @-@ mell haste " in working on a project with the Rockefellers before any injunctions could stop it . State Attorney General Joseph Romano countered that the state was not conspiring to provide anyone special benefits , saying that NY 117 was dangerous for years and opponents to the project were " thinking up little gimmicks , picayune arguments and ethereal ideas to mislead the court . "

A request by the state to dismiss the suit was denied in August 1966 , and the case was eventually heard by the state Court of Appeals , the highest court in the state . In the meantime , the state built the easternmost mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the new alignment , which was not affected by the lawsuit . On July 7 , 1967 , the court ruled 6 – 1 in favor of the Sleepy Hollow Valley Committee . As a result , the western half of the new road was moved an additional mile to the north , bypassing North Tarrytown completely . The new alignment of NY 117 was completed in the early 1970s , and its former alignment along Bedford Road was redesignated as NY 448 .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Westchester County .

= Hurricane Tanya ( 1995 ) =

Hurricane Tanya was the final storm of the very active 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . The twenty @-@ first tropical cyclone , nineteenth named storm , and eleventh hurricane of the season , Tanya developed from a tropical wave while well north of the Lesser Antilles on October 26 . The system headed northeastward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Tanya on October 27 . Tanya meandered around the central Atlantic , and further intensified into a hurricane on October 29 . Thereafter , Tanya tracked northeastward before curving to the east @-@ northeast . After switching to an eastward direction , Tanya weakened to a tropical storm on November 1 . Later that day , Tanya passed through the Azores as it was transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .

Throughout the Azores , the extratropical remnants of Tanya produced high winds . As a result , extensive property damage occurred , which included destroyed or damaged houses , and sunken boats ; there were also reports of significant damage to agriculture . However , an exact damage toll figure in unknown . In addition , there was one fatality and several injuries .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Hurricane Tanya were from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa in the middle of October . The wave closely followed the path of Tropical Storm Sebastien and was unable to develop in the tropical Atlantic as it moved westward . The system did not begin to become organized until October 25 while south @-@ southeast of Bermuda . However , the Dvorak technique was still unable to classify the system until October 26 as the low @-@ cloud swirl became better organized while moving northward in the central Atlantic . That evening , a closed circulation had formed , and it was classified as Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ One by the National Hurricane Center . On the morning of October 27 , it strengthened into a tropical storm , becoming the 19th as well as the final named storm of the season . Operationally , it was not declared a tropical cyclone until that point , when it was immediately declared Tropical Storm Tanya .

Immediately after becoming a tropical storm , the movement of Tanya became hindered by a nearby upper @-@ level low , and it quickly turned eastward before virtually stalling early on October 28 . The upper @-@ level low also influenced Tanya in giving it some subtropical characteristics , including a comma @-@ shaped cloud band and maximum winds far from the center of the storm at the time . Despite that , the storm gradually strengthened as it remained over warm waters of about 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . That afternoon , it gained full tropical characteristics , as an eye featured was beginning to form in the central dense overcast . The eye became clearly defined , although it was small in size . Early on October 29 , Tropical Storm Tanya was upgraded to a hurricane , the eleventh of the 1995 season , as it turned northward in response to the nearby low .

Later on October 29 , while slowly tracking north , Tanya leveled off as a low @-@ end Category 1 hurricane . By the next morning , a cold front to the west forced Tanya to accelerate in a more easterly track . It remained fairly well organized with a distinct eye as it became wedged in a narrow zone of warm air between the cold front to the west and the upper @-@ level low to the northeast . Despite slightly cooler water , Tanya strengthened a bit more that afternoon , reaching its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) with a barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) as the forward speed increased . That intensity was maintained until late on October 31 , when Tanya began to weaken as it traveled over cooler waters and the eye became obscured . Early on November 1 , Tanya began to lose tropical characteristics while still a hurricane . Hurricane Tanya was also heading rapidly northeast towards the Azores at the time . Tanya was downgraded from a hurricane to a tropical storm on November 1 . Despite weakening , the wind field of Tanya became larger . That evening , Tanya was declared fully extratropical as it passed the Azores . The remnant cyclone turned north , before being absorbed by another extratropical cyclone early on November 3 .

= = Impact , naming and records = =

Hurricane Tanya was not considered a threat to land , as it did not move through the Azores while a tropical cyclone . The Azores were hit very hard by the storm , which had just been declared extratropical when it hit the region . Damage was particularly severe on the islands of Faial , Pico , Terceira and São Jorge . Extensive property damage was reported , including many sunk boats , many houses were damaged and some destroyed and significant agricultural damage . Many trees and power lines were also knocked down , cutting electricity and hampering communications in the area . The highest wind gusts reported in the Azores were around 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) . After the storm , a resolution was submitted to the European Parliament by the Government of Portugal and a disaster area was declared in the islands . One Spanish fisherman drowned and several people were injured .

There were many reports of tropical storm @-@ force winds from ships in the north Atlantic . One ship , with the call sign GBSA , encountered Tanya 's winds twice and reported the strongest winds from any ship , 71 mph ( 112 km / h ) .

Hurricane Tanya was the first storm to be designated with a name starting with " T " since naming of Atlantic tropical cyclones began in 1950 .

= Sweet Love ( Chris Brown song ) =

" Sweet Love " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , taken from his fifth studio album , Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Brown , Cory Marks , Greg Curtis , Jamal " Polow da Don " Jones , Jason " JP " Perry and Tommy Doyle Jr . , while the production was handled by Polow da Don and Perry . The song was sent to urban contemporary radio in the United States on April 10 , 2012 , as the second single from the album . " Sweet Love " is a slow jam R & B ballad which incorporates elements of electronic music . The lyrics of the song revolve around Brown asking his lover to take off her clothes so that they can have sex .

" Sweet Love " garnered positive reviews from music critics , who complimented the song 's sexual lyrics . In the United States , it peaked at number 25 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 89 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The accompanying music video was co @-@ directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown , and filmed at Universal Studios in Los Angeles , California . It displays intimate scenes of Brown and his lover partaking in sexual activity , women levitating out of their beds , and Brown dancing . Critics were complimentary of the video 's sexual themes and presentation .

= = Background and release = =

" Sweet Love " was written by Chris Brown , Cory Marks , Greg Curtis , Jamal " Polow da Don " Jones , Jason " JP " Perry and Tommy Doyle Jr . , while the production was handled by Polow da Don and Perry . The audio mixing was completed by Jaycen Joshua , with assistance by Trehy Harris . Curtis played keyboards on the song . On March 28 , 2012 , Brown announced via his official Twitter account that he would be releasing " Sweet Love " and " Till I Die " as the next two singles from Fortune , after the lead single " Turn Up the Music " . Later that same day , he posted a link to a stream of " Sweet Love " . The artwork for the single was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , and debuted online on March 30 , 2012 . It displays Brown sitting on the floor , staring up at the legs of one of the three women . Rap @-@ Up magazine described the artwork as " grown and sexy " . " Sweet Love " was officially sent to urban contemporary playlists in the United States on April 10 , 2012 . It was released as a one @-@ track digital download in Oceania and most European countries on April 13 , 2012 . However , in the US , " Sweet Love " was released on April 17 , 2012 . A remix of the song by American R & B singer R. Kelly , was posted online on July 26 , 2012 .

= = Composition and lyrics = =

" Sweet Love " is a slow jam R & B ballad that displays elements of electronic music ; it lasts for a duration of three minutes and 19 seconds long . The instrumentation is provided by a keyboard , synthesizers , percussion and a drum machine . According to Nadeska Alexis of MTV 's Rapfix , Brown sings in a falsetto tone , which she found to be reminiscent of Michael Jackson . Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush described the ballad as " very Michael Jackson and neo @-@ Bieber " . JusMusic of Singersroom noted that " Sweet Love " is inspired by Silk 's " Freak Me " ( 1993 ) . Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun musically compared the song to Prince . The theme of " Sweet Love " revolves around sex . It contains lyrics about Brown asking his lover to take off her clothes so that they can have sex . During the chorus , he harmonizes : " Oooh baby let 's get naked / Just so we can make sweet love / All these sensations got me going crazy for you / Inside on top of you / Grinding inside and out of you / Baby I know what to do / Let 's just take our clothes off " .

= = Reception = =

" Sweet Love " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Nadeska Alexis of MTV 's Rapfix wrote that Brown " keeps the sexiness at an all time high " with lyrics that " could easily win any girl over " . Contessa Gayles of AOL 's The Boombox described " Sweet Love " as " baby making music " , while Mark Edward Nero of About.com labeled it as " a straight @-@ up sex jam " . Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush called the song a sexy R & B jam that could " easily woo Rihanna back " . David Shapiro of Fuse TV viewed " Sweet Love " as " auditory pornography " and commented that the lyrics had him " blushing " . Joseph Patterson of MTV UK labeled it one of Brown 's classic songs " for the lovers " . Maura Johnston of Rolling Stone awarded " Sweet Love " three stars out of five , and noted that Brown appears to be transitioning from singing songs about partying in clubs to singing about sex . Johnston continued writing that the music video for the song " would be almost pornographically unnecessary " . Robbie Daw of Idolator wrote that the ballad ticks all the boxes for its " synthy melody , decent beat " and Brown 's " vocal harmonies " , but felt that it is not " the most innovative offering " from Brown . Melinda Newman of HitFix wrote that in " Sweet Love " , it appears " there are two songs at war here as the synth drum beat totally overwhelms and clashes with the ballad " . She criticized the song for being " memorable for all the wrong reasons " .

In the United States , " Sweet Love " debuted at number 90 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in the issue dated April 14 , 2012 . After spending 12 weeks ascending the chart , " Sweet Love " peaked at number 25 in the issue dated July 7 , 2012 . The song remained on the chart for a total of 15 weeks . On the Billboard Hot 100 , " Sweet Love " debuted and peaked at number 89 in the issue dated May 5 , 2012 .

= = Music video = =

The accompanying music video for " Sweet Love " was co @-@ directed by Godfrey Taberez and Brown , and filmed on the back lot of Universal Studios in Los Angeles , California . The video was shot from 6 : 00 am to 6 : 00 pm . Twenty models were hired for the shooting of the scenes where they are levitating from their beds . On April 26 , 2012 , several photos from the shoot were posted online , showing women levitating out of their beds in the streets as Brown walked by them . The video premiered on Vevo on May 25 , 2012 . A behind the scenes video was released on May 26 , 2012 , a day after the video premiered online .

As the song begins , Brown watches a woman , who appears as a hologram , lying in a bed . This scene is intercut with scenes of Brown singing in front of a flowing backdrop . He then approaches the woman , and together they appear under white bedsheets . Brown is then seen walking down a street , while women are shown levitating out of their beds as he passes by them . He then enters a limo and starts caressing various ghostlike female figures . Brown then returns to the bedroom where he " strips shirtless and makes passionate love " to the woman " as they are showered in water " . He later enters a dance studio , where he performs a dance routine with other shirtless male dancers , while several women watch them from across the room . Towards the end of the video , more scenes are shown of Brown and the woman in the bedroom .

Melinda Newman of HitFix called the video " undeniably steamy " . Emily Hewett of the Metro wrote that the video featured " flawless dance moves " from Brown . Robbie Daw of Idolator noted that Brown " makes things real sexy " in the video , but was unsure if " we should be turned on or utterly creeped out " . Jessica Sager of PopCrush noted that Brown " channels his R & B side " and added that he is " a bit of a clumsy romantic " . Jessica Sinclair of the Long Island Press described the video as a " juicy new entertainment " for Brown 's fans in anticipation of his new album . Jazmine Gray of Vibe magazine described the video as " hot , heavy and really wet " . Upon its release , the video went viral and received over one million views in its first day of release .

= = Track listing = =

Digital download

" Sweet Love " – 3 : 19

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Kakapo =

The kakapo ( Māori : kākāpō or night parrot ) , Strigops habroptilus ( Gray , 1845 ) , also called owl parrot , is a species of large , flightless , nocturnal , ground @-@ dwelling parrot of the super @-@ family Strigopoidea endemic to New Zealand .

It has finely blotched yellow @-@ green plumage , a distinct facial disc of sensory , vibrissa @-@ like feathers , a large grey beak , short legs , large feet , and wings and a tail of relatively short length . A combination of traits make it unique among its kind ; it is the world 's only flightless parrot , the heaviest parrot , nocturnal , herbivorous , visibly sexually dimorphic in body size , has a low basal metabolic rate and no male parental care , and is the only parrot to have a polygynous lek breeding system . It is also possibly one of the world 's longest @-@ living birds . Its anatomy typifies the tendency of bird evolution on oceanic islands , with few predators and abundant food : a generally robust physique , with accretion of thermodynamic efficiency at the expense of flight abilities , reduced wing muscles , and a diminished keel on the sternum . Like many other New Zealand bird species , the kakapo was historically important to the Māori , the indigenous people of New Zealand , appearing in many of their traditional legends and folklore . It was hunted and used as a resource by Māori , both for its meat as a food source and for its feathers , which were used to make highly valued pieces of clothing . It was also sometimes kept as a pet .

The kakapo is critically endangered ; as of March 2014 , with an additional six from the first hatchings since 2011 , the total known population was only 123 living individuals , as reported by the Kakapo Recovery programme , most of which have been given names . Because of Polynesian and European colonisation and the introduction of predators such as cats , rats , ferrets , and stoats , the kakapo was almost wiped out . Conservation efforts began in the 1890s , but they were not very successful until the implementation of the Kakapo Recovery plan in the 1980s . As of April 2012 , surviving kakapo are kept on three predator @-@ free islands , Codfish ( Whenua Hou ) , Anchor and Little Barrier islands , where they are closely monitored . Two large Fiordland islands , Resolution and Secretary , have been the subject of large @-@ scale ecological restoration activities to prepare self @-@ sustaining ecosystems with suitable habitat for the kakapo . The New Zealand government is willingly providing the use of these islands to kakapo conservation . A successful breeding season in 2016 saw 34 chicks fledge , taking the total population to 157 .

= = Taxonomy , systematics and naming = =

The kakapo was originally described by English ornithologist George Robert Gray in 1845 . The name " kakapo " is the English transliteration of " kākāpō " which is derived from the Māori terms kākā ( " parrot " ) + pō ( " night " ) . Its generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek strix , genitive strigos " owl " , and ops " face " , while its specific epithet comes from habros " soft " , and ptilon " feather " . It has so many unusual features that it was initially placed in its own tribe , Strigopini . Recent phylogenetic studies have confirmed the unique position of this genus as well as the closeness to the kākā and the kea , both belonging to the New Zealand parrot genus Nestor . Together , they are now considered a separate family within the parrots , Strigopidae . Within the Strigopidae , the kakapo is placed in its own tribe , Strigopini . The common ancestor of the kakapo and the genus Nestor became isolated from the remaining parrot species when New Zealand broke off from Gondwana , around 82 million years ago . Around 70 million years ago , the kakapo diverged from the genus Nestor .

Earlier ornithologists felt that the kakapo might be related to the ground parrots and night parrot of Australia due to their similar colouration , but this is contradicted by recent studies ; rather , the cryptic colour seems to be adaptation to terrestrial habits that evolved twice convergently .

= = Description = =

The kakapo is a large , rotund parrot ; the adult can measure from 58 to 64 cm ( 23 to 25 in ) in length , and weight can vary from 0 @.@ 95 to 4 kg ( 2 to 9 lb ) at maturity . Males are larger than females . Twenty @-@ eight males were found to average 2 kg ( 4 @.@ 4 lb ) in one study , and 39 males were found to average 2 @.@ 06 kg ( 4 @.@ 5 lb ) in another . In the same studies , 28 females were found to average 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) and 18 females averaged 1 @.@ 28 kg ( 2 @.@ 8 lb ) . However , one source states that females will not breed until they attain a threshold weight of 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) . They are the heaviest living species of parrot ; while the largest males attain much heavier weights than any other extant parrot , kakapos average about 400 g ( 14 oz ) more than a hyacinth macaw . The kakapo cannot fly , having short wings for its size and lacking the pronounced keel bone ( sternum ) that anchors the flight muscles of other birds . It uses its wings for balance , support , and to break its fall when leaping from trees . Unlike other land birds , the kakapo can accumulate large amounts of body fat to store energy , making it the heaviest parrot .

The upper parts of the kakapo have yellowish moss @-@ green feathers barred or mottled with black or dark brownish grey , blending well with native vegetation . Individuals may have strongly varying degrees of mottling and colour tone and intensity — museum specimens show that some birds had completely yellow colouring . The breast and flank are yellowish @-@ green streaked with yellow . The belly , undertail , neck and face are predominantly yellowish streaked with pale green and weakly mottled with brownish @-@ grey . Because the feathers do not need the strength and stiffness required for flight , they are exceptionally soft , giving rise to the specific epithet habroptilus . The kakapo has a conspicuous facial disc of fine feathers resembling the face of an owl ; thus , early European settlers called it the " owl parrot " . The beak is surrounded by delicate vibrissae or " whiskers " , which the bird uses to sense the ground for navigation as it walks with its head lowered . The mandible is mostly ivory @-@ coloured , with part of the upper mandible being bluish @-@ grey . The eyes are dark brown . Kakapo feet are large , scaly , and , as in all parrots , zygodactyl ( two toes face forward and two backward ) . The pronounced claws are particularly useful for climbing . The ends of the tail feathers often become worn from being continually dragged on the ground .

The female is easily distinguished from the male : she has a more narrow and less domed head , her beak is narrower and proportionally longer , her cere and nostrils smaller , her legs and feet more slender and pinkish grey , and her tail proportionally longer . While her plumage colour is not very different from that of the male , the toning is more subtle , with less yellow and mottling . She tends to resist more and be more aggressive than the male when handled . A nesting female also has a brood patch on the bare skin of the belly .

Like many parrots , the kakapo has a variety of calls . As well as the booms ( see below for a recording ) and chings of their mating calls , it will often skraark to announce its location to other birds .

The kakapo has a well @-@ developed sense of smell , which complements its nocturnal lifestyle . It can discriminate among odours while foraging , a behaviour reported for only one other parrot species . One of the most striking characteristics of the kakapo is its pleasant and powerful odour , which has been described as musty . Given the kakapo 's well @-@ developed sense of smell , this scent may be a social chemosignal . The smell often alerts predators to the largely defenceless kakapo .

= = = Anatomy = = =

The skeleton of the kakapo differs from other parrots in several features associated with flightlessness . Firstly , it has the smallest relative wing size of any parrot . Its wing feathers are shorter , more rounded , and less asymmetrical and have fewer distal barbules to lock the feathers together . The sternum is small and has a low , vestigial keel and a shortened spina externa . As in other flightless birds and some other flighted parrots , the furcula is not fused but consists of a pair of clavicles lying in contact with each coracoid . As in other flightless birds , the angle between the coracoid and sternum is enlarged . The kakapo has a larger pelvis than other parrots . The proximal bones of the leg and arm are disproportionately long and the distal elements are disproportionately short .

The pectoral musculature of the kakapo is also modified by flightlessness . The pectoralis and supracoracoideus muscles are greatly reduced . The propatagialis tendo longus has no distinct muscle belly . The sternocoracoideus is tendinous . There is an extensive cucularis capitis clavicularis muscle that is associated with the large crop .

= = Ecology and behaviour = =

It seems that the kakapo – like many of New Zealand 's bird species – has evolved to occupy an ecological niche normally filled by various species of mammal ( the only non @-@ marine mammals native to New Zealand are three species of small bats ) . Before the arrival of humans , the kakapo was distributed throughout the three main islands of New Zealand . It lived in a variety of habitats , including tussocklands , scrublands and coastal areas . It also inhabited forests , including those dominated by podocarps ( rimu , matai , kahikatea , totara ) , beeches , tawa , and rata . In Fiordland , areas of avalanche and slip debris with regenerating and heavily fruiting vegetation – such as five finger , wineberry , bush lawyer , tutu , hebes , and coprosmas – became known as " kakapo gardens " .

The kakapo is primarily nocturnal ; it roosts under cover in trees or on the ground during the day and moves around its territories at night .

Though the kakapo cannot fly , it is an excellent climber , ascending to the crowns of the tallest trees . It can also " parachute " – descending by leaping and spreading its wings . In this way it may travel a few metres ( yards ) at an angle of less than 45 degrees .

Having lost the ability to fly , it has developed strong legs . Movement is often by way of a rapid " jog @-@ like " gait by which it can move many kilometres . A female has been observed making two return trips each night during nesting from her nest to a food source up to 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) away and the male may walk from its home range to a mating arena up to 5 km ( 3 mi ) away during the mating season ( October – January ) .

Young birds indulge in play fighting , and one bird will often lock the neck of another under its chin . The kakapo is curious by nature and has been known to interact with humans . Conservation staff and volunteers have engaged extensively with some kakapo , which have distinct personalities .

The kakapo was a very successful species in pre @-@ human New Zealand , and one of the reasons for this was their set of adaptations to effectively avoid predation from native birds of prey , which were their only predators in the past . However , these same behaviours have been of no use to them when faced with the mammalian predators which were introduced to New Zealand after human settlement , because these hunt in different ways . As hunters , birds behave very differently from mammals , relying on their powerful vision to find prey , and thus they usually ( with the exception of owls ) hunt by day . Apart from the two surviving New Zealand raptors , the New Zealand falcon and swamp harrier , there were two other birds of prey in pre @-@ human New Zealand : Haast 's eagle and Eyles ' harrier . All four species soared overhead searching for prey in daylight , and to avoid these avian predators , the kakapo 's ancestors adopted camouflaged plumage and became nocturnal . In addition , when the kakapo feels threatened , it freezes , so that it is more effectively camouflaged in the forest vegetation which their plumage resembles . It was not entirely safe at night , when the laughing owl was active , and it is apparent from their nest deposits on Canterbury limestone cliffs that the kakapo was among their prey .

Mammalian predators , in contrast to birds , rely on their sense of smell and hearing to find prey and often hunt by night . The kakapo 's adaptations to avoid avian predation have thus been useless against its new enemies – this is one of the reasons for its massive decline since the introduction of dogs , cats and mustelids – see Conservation : Human impact . A typical way for humans to hunt down the kakapo is by releasing trained dogs .

= = = Diet = = =

The beak of the kakapo is adapted for grinding food finely . For this reason , the kakapo has a very small gizzard compared to other birds of their size . It is generally herbivorous , eating native plants , seeds , fruits , pollen and even the sapwood of trees . A study in 1984 identified 25 plant species as kakapo food . It is particularly fond of the fruit of the rimu tree , and will feed on it exclusively during seasons when it is abundant . The kakapo has a distinctive habit of grabbing a leaf or frond with a foot and stripping the nutritious parts of the plant out with its beak , leaving a ball of indigestible fibre . These little clumps of plant fibres are a distinctive sign of the presence of the bird . The kakapo is believed to employ bacteria in the fore @-@ gut to ferment and help digest plant matter .

Kakapo diet changes according to the season . The plants eaten most frequently during the year include some species of Lycopodium ramulosum , Lycopodium fastigium , Schizaea fistulosa , Blechnum minus , Blechnum procerum , Cyathodes juniperina , Dracophyllum longifolium , Olearia colensoi and Thelymitra venosa . Individual plants of the same species are often treated differently . Kakapo leave conspicuous evidence of their feeding activities , over feeding areas that range between 10 by 10 metres ( 30 ft × 30 ft ) and 50 by 100 metres ( 160 ft × 330 ft ) per individual . Kakapo feeding grounds almost always host manuka and yellow silver pine scrubs .

= = = Reproduction = = =

The kakapo is the only species of flightless parrot in the world , and the only flightless bird that has a lek breeding system . Males loosely gather in an arena and compete with each other to attract females . Females listen to the males as they display , or " lek " . They choose a mate based on the quality of his display ; they are not pursued by the males in any overt way . No pair bond is formed ; males and females meet only to mate .

During the courting season , males leave their home ranges for hilltops and ridges where they establish their own mating courts . These leks can be up to 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) from a kakapo 's usual territory and are an average of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) apart within the lek arena . Males remain in the region of their court throughout the courting season . At the start of the breeding season , males will fight to try to secure the best courts . They confront each other with raised feathers , spread wings , open beaks , raised claws and loud screeching and growling . Fighting may leave birds with injuries or even kill them .

Each court consists of one or more saucer @-@ shaped depressions or " bowls " dug in the ground by the male , up to 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) deep and long enough to fit the half @-@ metre length of the bird . The kakapo is one of only a handful of birds in the world which actually constructs its leks . Bowls are often created next to rock faces , banks , or tree trunks to help reflect sound - the bowls themselves function as amplifiers to enhance the projection of the males ' booming mating calls . Each male 's bowls are connected by a network of trails or tracks which may extend 50 metres ( 160 ft ) along a ridge or 20 metres ( 70 ft ) in diameter around a hilltop . Males meticulously clear their bowls and tracks of debris . One way researchers check whether bowls are visited at night is to place a few twigs in the bowl ; if the male visits overnight , he will pick them up in his beak and toss them away .

To attract females , males make loud , low @-@ frequency ( below 100 Hz ) booming calls from their bowls by inflating a thoracic sac . They start with low grunts , which increase in volume as the sac inflates . After a sequence of about 20 loud booms , the male kakapo emits a high @-@ frequency , metallic " ching " sound . He stands for a short while before again lowering his head , inflating his chest and starting another sequence of booms . The booms can be heard at least 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away on a still night ; wind can carry the sound at least 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . Males boom for an average of eight hours a night ; each male may produce thousands of booms in this time . This may continue every night for three or four months during which time the male may lose half his body weight . Each male moves around the bowls in his court so that the booms are sent out in different directions . These booms are also notorious for attracting predators , because of the long range at which they can be heard .

Females are attracted by the booms of the competing males ; they too may need to walk several kilometres from their territories to the arena . Once a female enters the court of one of the males , the male performs a display in which he rocks from side to side and makes clicking noises with his beak . He turns his back to the female , spreads his wings in display and walks backwards towards her . He will then attempt copulation for 2 to 14 minutes . Once the birds have mated , the female returns to her home territory to lay eggs and raise the chicks . The male continues booming in the hope of attracting another female .

The female kakapo lays 1 or 2 eggs ( rarely 3 ) per breeding cycle , with long intervals between laying of first and second eggs . She nests on the ground under the cover of plants or in cavities such as hollow tree trunks . The female incubates the eggs faithfully , but is forced to leave them every night in search of food . Predators are known to eat the eggs and the embryos inside can also die of cold in the mother 's absence . Kakapo eggs usually hatch within 30 days , bearing fluffy grey chicks that are quite helpless . After the eggs hatch , the female feeds the chicks for three months , and the chicks remain with the female for some months after fledging . The young chicks are just as vulnerable to predators as the eggs , and young have been killed by many of the same predators that attack adults . Chicks leave the nest at approximately 10 to 12 weeks of age . As they gain greater independence , their mothers may feed the chicks sporadically for up to 6 months .

Because the kakapo is long @-@ lived , with an average life expectancy of 95 years and the maximum at about 120 years , it tends to have an adolescence before it starts breeding . Males do not start to boom until about 5 years of age . It was thought that females reached sexual maturity at 9 years of age , but this idea was debunked in the 2008 breeding season when two 6 @-@ year @-@ old females named Apirama and Rakiura laid eggs . Generally females do not seek out males until they are between 9 and 11 years old . The kakapo does not breed every year and has one of the lowest rates of reproduction among birds . Breeding occurs only in years when trees mast ( fruit heavily ) , providing a plentiful food supply . Rimu mast occurs only every three to five years , so in rimu @-@ dominant forests such as those on Codfish Island , kakapo breeding occurs as infrequently .

Another aspect of the kakapo 's breeding system is that a female can alter the sex ratio of her offspring depending on her condition . A female who eats protein @-@ rich foods produces more male offspring ( males have 30 % – 40 % more body weight than females ) . Females produce offspring biased towards the dispersive sex when competition for resources ( such as food ) is high and towards the non @-@ dispersive sex when food is plentiful . A female kakapo will likely be able to produce eggs even when there are few resources , while a male kakapo will be more capable of perpetuating the species when there are plenty , by mating with several females . This supports the Trivers – Willard hypothesis . The relationship between clutch sex ratio and maternal diet has conservation implications , because a captive population maintained on a high quality diet will produce fewer females and therefore fewer individuals valuable to the recovery of the species .

= = Conservation = =

Fossil records indicate that in pre @-@ Polynesian times , the kakapo was New Zealand 's third most common bird and it was widespread on all three main islands . However , the kakapo population in New Zealand has declined massively since human settlement of the country . Since 1891 , conservation efforts have been made to prevent extinction . The most successful scheme has been the Kakapo Recovery Programme ; this was implemented in 1989 and continues .

= = = Human impact = = =

The first factor in the decline of the kakapo was the arrival of humans . Māori folklore suggests that the kakapo was found throughout the country when the Polynesians first arrived in Aotearoa 700 years ago . Subfossil and midden deposits show that the bird was present throughout the North Island , South Island and Stewart Island / Rakiura before and during early Māori times . Māori hunted the kakapo for food and for their skins and feathers , which were made into cloaks . They used the dried heads as ear ornaments . Due to its flightlessness , strong scent and habit of freezing when threatened , the kakapo was easy prey for the Māori and their dogs . Its eggs and chicks were also preyed upon by the Polynesian rat or kiore , which the Māori brought to New Zealand . Furthermore , the deliberate clearing of vegetation by Māori reduced the habitable range for kakapo . Although the kakapo was extinct in many parts of the islands by the time Europeans arrived , including the Tararua and Aorangi Ranges , it was still present in the central part of the North Island and forested parts of the South Island .

Beginning in the 1840s , European settlers cleared vast tracts of land for farming and grazing , further reducing kakapo habitat . They brought more dogs and other mammalian predators , including domestic cats , black rats and stoats . Europeans knew little of the kakapo until George Gray of the British Museum described it from a skin in 1845 . As the Māori had done , early European explorers and their dogs ate kakapo . In the late 19th century , the kakapo became well known as a scientific curiosity , and thousands were captured or killed for zoos , museums and collectors . Most captured specimens died within months . From at least the 1870s , collectors knew the kakapo population was declining ; their prime concern was to collect as many as possible before the bird became extinct .

In the 1880s , large numbers of mustelids ( stoats , ferrets and weasels ) were released in New Zealand to reduce rabbit numbers , but they also preyed heavily on many native species including the kakapo . Other browsing animals , such as introduced deer , competed with the kakapo for food , and caused the extinction of some of its preferred plant species . The kakapo was reportedly still present near the head of the Whanganui River as late as 1894 , with one of the last records of a kakapo in the North Island being a single bird caught in the Kaimanawa Ranges by Te Kepa Puawheawhe in 1895 .

= = = Early protection efforts = = =

In 1891 , the New Zealand government set aside Resolution Island in Fiordland as a nature reserve . In 1894 , the government appointed Richard Henry as caretaker . A keen naturalist , Henry was aware that native birds were declining , and began catching and moving kakapo and kiwi from the mainland to the predator @-@ free Resolution Island . In six years , he moved more than 200 kakapo to Resolution Island . By 1900 , however , stoats had swum to Resolution Island and colonised it ; they wiped out the nascent kakapo population within 6 years .

In 1903 , three kakapo were moved from Resolution Island to the nature reserve of Little Barrier Island north @-@ east of Auckland , but feral cats were present and the kakapo were never seen again . In 1912 , three kakapo were moved to another reserve , Kapiti Island , north @-@ west of Wellington . One of them survived until at least 1936 , despite the presence of feral cats for part of the intervening period .

By the 1920s , the kakapo was extinct in the North Island and its range and numbers in the South Island were declining . One of its last refuges was rugged Fiordland . There , during the 1930s , it was often seen or heard , and occasionally eaten , by hunters or roadworkers . By the 1940s , reports of kakapo were becoming scarce .

= = = 1950 – 89 conservation efforts = = =

In the 1950s , the New Zealand Wildlife Service was established and began making regular expeditions to search for the kakapo , mostly in Fiordland and what is now the Kahurangi National Park in the northwest of the South Island . Seven Fiordland expeditions between 1951 and 1956 found only a few recent signs . Finally , in 1958 a kakapo was caught and released in the Milford Sound catchment area in Fiordland . Six more kakapo were captured in 1961 ; one was released and the other five were transferred to the aviaries of the Mount Bruce Bird Reserve near Masterton in the North Island . Within months , four of the birds had died and the fifth died after about four years . In the next 12 years , regular expeditions found few signs of the kakapo , indicating that numbers were continuing to decline . Only one bird was captured in 1967 ; it died the following year .

By the early 1970s , it was uncertain whether the kakapo was still an extant species . At the end of 1974 , scientists located several more male kakapo and made the first scientific observations of kakapo booming . These observations led Don Merton to speculate for the first time that the kakapo had a lek breeding system . From 1974 to 1976 , 14 kakapo were discovered but all appeared to be males . This raised the possibility that the species would become extinct , because there might be no surviving females . One male bird was captured in the Milford area in 1975 , christened " Richard Henry " , and transferred to Maud Island . All the birds the Wildlife Service discovered from 1951 to 1976 were in U @-@ shaped glaciated valleys flanked by almost @-@ vertical cliffs and surrounded by high mountains . Such extreme terrain had slowed colonisation by browsing mammals , leaving islands of virtually unmodified native vegetation . However , even here , stoats were present and by 1976 the kakapo was gone from the valley floors and only a few males survived high on the most inaccessible parts of the cliffs .

Before 1977 , no expedition had been to Stewart Island / Rakiura to search for the bird . In 1977 , sightings of kakapo were reported on Stewart Island . An expedition to the island found a track and bowl system on its first day ; soon after , it located several dozen kakapo . The finding in an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare area of fire @-@ modified scrubland and forest raised hope that the population would include females . The total population was estimated at 100 to 200 birds .

Mustelids have never colonised Stewart Island / Rakiura , but feral cats were present . During a survey , it was apparent that cats killed kakapo at a rate of 56 % per year . At this rate , the birds could not survive on the island and therefore an intensive cat control was introduced in 1982 , after which no cat @-@ killed kakapo were found . However , to ensure the survival of the remaining birds , scientists decided later that this population should be transferred to predator @-@ free islands ; this operation was carried out between 1982 and 1997 .

= = = Kakapo Recovery programme = = =

In 1989 , a Kakapo Recovery programme was developed and a Kakapo Recovery Group established to implement it . The New Zealand Department of Conservation replaced the Wildlife Service for this task . The first action of the plan was to relocate all the remaining kakapo to suitable islands for them to breed . None of the New Zealand islands were ideal to establish kakapo without rehabilitation by extensive re @-@ vegetation and the eradication of introduced mammalian predators and competitors . Four islands were finally chosen : Maud , Hauturu / Little Barrier , Codfish and Mana . Sixty @-@ five kakapo ( 43 males , 22 females ) were successfully transferred onto the four islands in five translocations . Some islands had to be rehabilitated several times when feral cats , stoats and weka kept appearing . Little Barrier Island was eventually viewed as unsuitable due to the rugged landscape , the thick forest and the continued presence of rats , and its birds were evacuated in 1998 . Along with Mana Island , it was replaced with two new kakapo sanctuaries , Chalky Island ( Te Kakahu ) and Anchor Island . The entire kakapo population of Codfish Island was temporarily relocated in 1999 to Pearl Island in Port Pegasus while rats were being eliminated from Codfish . All kakapo on Pearl and Chalky Islands were moved to Anchor Island in 2005 .

A key part of the Recovery Plan is the supplementary feeding of females . The kakapo breeds only once every two to five years , when a certain type of plant species , primarily Dacrydium cupressinum ( rimu ) , produces protein @-@ rich fruit and seeds . Observations of the relationship between intermittent breeding and the plant 's mast year help biologists choose which suitable supplementary foods to increase kakapo breeding frequency . In 1989 , six preferred foods ( apples , sweet potatoes , almonds , Brazil nuts , sunflower seeds and walnuts ) were supplied ad libitum each night to 12 feeding stations . Males and females ate the supplied foods , and females nested on Little Barrier Island in the summers of 1989 – 91 for the first time since 1982 , although nesting success was low .

Supplementary feeding not only increases kakapo breeding frequency , but also affects the sex ratio of kakapo offspring , as maternal conditions influence this ratio . ( See section " Reproduction " . ) This finding was subsequently used to increase the number of female chicks by deliberately manipulating maternal conditions . During the winter of 1981 , only females lighter than 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) were given supplementary feeding to avoid raising their body condition , and the sex ratio results in 1982 were close to parity , eliminating the male @-@ biased sex ratios in the unrestricted feeding .

Though breeding can be improved by supplementary feeding , the survival of young kakapo is hampered by the presence of Polynesian rats . Of 21 chicks that hatched between 1981 and 1994 , nine were either killed by rats or died and were subsequently eaten by rats . Nest protection has been intensified since 1995 by using traps and poison stations as soon as a nest had been detected . A small video camera and infra @-@ red light source watch the nest continuously , and will scare approaching rats with flashing lights and loud popping sounds . To increase the success rate of nesting , a nest watcher places a small thermostatically controlled electric blanket over the eggs or chicks , whenever the female leaves the nest for food . The survival rate of chicks has increased from 29 % in unprotected nests to 75 % in protected ones .

To monitor the kakapo population continuously , each bird is equipped with a radio transmitter . Every known kakapo , barring some young chicks , has been given a name by Kakapo Recovery Programme officials . It is an affectionate way for conservation staff to refer to individual birds , and a stark reminder of how few remain . Artificial incubation of eggs and hand @-@ raising of chicks have often been used to improve the condition of the eggs and chicks . In November 2005 , the population comprised 41 females and 45 males , including four fledglings ( 3 females and 1 male ) bred in 2005 . The oldest known kakapo , " Richard Henry " , was thought to be 80 years old at the time of his death in December 2010 .

In 2006 , the Kakapo Recovery Programme presented a new management plan that would run from 2006 to 2016 . The key goals of this plan are to increase the female population to at least 60 by 2016 , increase genetic diversity , maintain or restore a sufficiently large habitat to accommodate the expected increase in the kakapo population , and maintain public awareness and support .

The Kakapo Recovery programme has been successful , with the numbers of kakapo increasing steadily . Adult survival rate and productivity have both improved significantly since the programme 's inception . However , the main goal is to establish at least one viable , self @-@ sustaining , unmanaged population of kakapo as a functional component of the ecosystem in a protected habitat . To help meet this conservation challenge , two large Fiordland islands , Resolution ( 20 @,@ 860 ha ) and Secretary ( 8 @,@ 140 ha ) , have been prepared for re @-@ introduction of the kakapo with large @-@ scale ecological restoration activities . Ultimately , the Kakapo Recovery vision for the species is to restore the " mauri " ( Maori for " life @-@ force " ) of the kakapo by breeding 150 adult females .

During the 2008 – 2009 summer breeding season , the total population of kakapo rose to over 100 for the first time since monitoring began , reaching 123 by February 2012 . Twenty two of the 34 chicks had to be hand @-@ reared because of a shortage of food on Codfish Island .

In 2012 , seven kakapo were transferred to Little Barrier Island , in an attempt to establish a successful breeding programme . Kakapo were last on the island in 1999 .

In March 2014 , with the kakapo population having increased to 126 , the bird 's recovery was used by Melbourne artist Sayraphim Lothian as a metaphor for the recovery of Christchurch , parallelling the " indomitable spirit of these two communities and their determination to rebuild " .

= = In Māori culture = =

The kakapo is associated with a rich tradition of Māori folklore and beliefs . The bird 's irregular breeding cycle was understood to be associated with heavy fruiting or " masting " events of particular plant species such as the Rimu which led Māori to credit the bird with the ability to tell the future . Used to substantiate this claim were reported observations of these birds dropping the berries of the Hinau and Tawa trees ( when they were in season ) into secluded pools of water to preserve them as a food supply for the summer ahead ; in legend this became the origin of the Māori practice of immersing food in water for the same purpose .

= = = Use for food and clothing = = =

The meat of kakapo made good eating and was considered by Māori to be a delicacy and it was hunted for food when it was still widespread . One source states that its flesh " resembles lamb in taste and texture " , although European settlers have described the bird as having a " strong and slightly stringent [ sic ] flavour . "

In breeding years , the loud booming calls of the males at their mating arenas made it easy for Māori hunting parties to track the kakapo down , and it was also hunted while feeding or when dust @-@ bathing in dry weather . The bird was caught , generally at night , using snares , pitfall traps , or by groups of domesticated Polynesian dogs which accompanied hunting parties – sometimes they would use fire sticks of various sorts to dazzle a bird in the darkness , stopping it in their tracks and making the capture easier . Cooking was done in a hāngi or in gourds of boiling oil . The flesh of the bird could be preserved in its own fat and stored in containers for later consumption – hunters of the Ngāi Tahu tribe would pack the flesh in baskets made from the inner bark of totara tree or in containers constructed from kelp . Bundles of kakapo tail feathers were attached to the sides of these containers to provide decoration and a way to identify their contents . Also taken by the Māori were the bird 's eggs , which are described as whitish " but not pure white " , and about the same size as a kererū egg .

As well as eating the meat of the kakapo , Māori would use kakapo skins with the feathers still attached or individually weave in kakapo feathers with flax fibre to create cloaks and capes . Each one required up to 11 @,@ 000 feathers to make . Not only were these garments considered very beautiful , they also kept the wearer very warm . They were highly valued , and the few still in existence today are considered taonga ( treasures ) — indeed , the old Māori adage " You have a kākāpō cape and you still complain of the cold " was used to describe someone who is never satisfied . Kakapo feathers were also used to decorate the heads of taiaha , but were removed before use in combat .

Despite this , the kakapo was also regarded as an affectionate pet by the Māori . This was corroborated by European settlers in New Zealand in the 19th century , among them George Edward Grey , who once wrote in a letter to an associate that his pet kakapo 's behaviour towards him and his friends was " more like that of a dog than a bird " .

= = = In the media = = =

The conservation of the kakapo has made the species well known . Many books and documentaries detailing the plight of the kakapo have been produced in recent years , one of the earliest being Two in the Bush , made by Gerald Durrell for the BBC in 1962 . A feature @-@ length documentary , The Unnatural History of the Kakapo won two major awards at the Reel Earth Environmental Film Festival . Two of the most significant documentaries , both made by NHNZ , are Kakapo – Night Parrot ( 1982 ) and To Save the kakapo ( 1997 ) . The BBC 's Natural History Unit also featured the kakapo , including a sequence with Sir David Attenborough in The Life of Birds . It was also one of the endangered animals Douglas Adams and Mark Carwardine set out to find for the radio series and book Last Chance to See . An updated version of the series has been produced for BBC TV , in which Stephen Fry and Carwardine revisit the animals to see how they are getting on almost 20 years later , and in January 2009 , they spent time filming the kakapo on Codfish Island . Footage of a kakapo named Sirocco attempting to mate with Carwardine 's head was viewed by millions worldwide , leading to Sirocco becoming " spokes @-@ bird " for New Zealand wildlife conservation in 2010 , as part of the International Year of Biodiversity . The kakapo was featured in the episode " Strange Islands " of the documentary series South Pacific , originally aired on 13 June 2009 . Kakapo were also used as an example of unique island fauna in the episode " Worlds Apart " of the series The Living Planet .

= Live & Kicking =

Live & Kicking is a BBC Saturday morning children 's magazine programme , running from 1993 to 2001 . The fourth in a succession of Saturday morning shows , it was the replacement for Going Live ! , and took many of its features from it , such as phone @-@ ins , games , comedy , competitions and the showing of cartoons . Once Live & Kicking had become established in series two , it reached its height in popularity during series four , when it was presented by Zoë Ball and Jamie Theakston ; their final episode won a BAFTA award . After this the series ratings dropped with the launch of SMTV Live on ITV and was eventually cancelled in 2001 .

= = History = =

Live & Kicking was conceived as a replacement for Going Live ! , a successful Saturday morning programme that had been running for six years . It was first broadcast on 2 October 1993 at 9 am on BBC1 . The original hosts were Andi Peters , Emma Forbes who had presented a cookery segment in Going Live ! , and John Barrowman . For the second series , John was relegated to host the showbiz Electric Circus segment , leaving Andi and Emma to become the main hosts . He left after one series of Electric Circus to concentrate on acting . Comedy duo Trevor and Simon and Peter Simon , in the Run the Risk segment , were also regulars who had featured on Going Live ! .

While the first series was not as popular as its predecessor , the second series was more successful . It was broadcast during the winter months , from September to April , with Fully Booked replacing it during the summer . New episodes of the Rugrats were shown . The series went out opposite ITV 's What 's Up Doc ? but during its third series issues were raised by the ITC , and a number of people left including Don Austen and John Eccleston ( Bro and Bro 's puppeteers ) who defected to Live & Kicking to star as a couple of leprechaun brothers Sage & Onion .

Andi Peters expressed his intention to move on in March 1996 , and Emma Forbes decided to follow after finding out she was pregnant .

They were replaced by Zoë Ball and Jamie Theakston , who presented it for three series . According to the BBC , the show 's popularity was at its peak during the 1996 / 1997 series when the show regularly had 2 @.@ 5 million viewers . Around this time Mr. Blobby , played by Barry Killerby , also appered on series .

After three series , Ball decided to move on due to a hectic schedule , and Theakston followed . The final episode hosted by Ball and Theakston later won the show a children 's BAFTA award for Best Entertainment show in November 1999 .

The show returned in Autumn 1999 with new presenters Emma Ledden and Steve Wilson , . They only lasted for one series , due to ratings dropping to 1 @.@ 6 million during their tenure . At the same time rival SMTV Live on competitor channel ITV was relaunched to feature more comedic elements and began to gain popularity , known for its innuendo and features . Fully Booked , the BBC 's summer replacement , was also revamped and retitled as FBi , but ratings continued to drop . The following October , the final series was a complete revamp , with a line @-@ up of four : Ortis Deley , Katy Hill , Trey Farley and Sarah Cawood .

Ratings continued to plummet , due to the continuing success of SMTV Live . In March 2001 , the BBC made an unprecedented move and extended the series over the summer , like SMTV was broadcast , but announced it would be the final series . Hill was replaced by Heather Suttie as the show was moved to BBC Scotland on 21 April until 15 September 2001 when the final show aired . It was replaced by The Saturday Show , which continued to be broadcast all year round .

= = Format = =

Live & Kicking was a weekly magazine show broadcast every Saturday morning , normally from September to April and later all year for the final series , and it was aimed at young people . It featured music performances , " hot seat " questions for celebrity guests , phone @-@ ins , games , comedy sketches , competitions , and television programmes and cartoons . It used the taglines " Miss it , miss out " and " The only way to start your weekend " on promotional adverts for the show . As well as the main presenters , there were regulars such as comedy duo Trevor and Simon , and later Ben , Gez and Rich from The Cheese Shop and SuperGirly . A segment in the first few series that was an adaptation of Going Live 's Double Dare was Run the Risk , a game in which teams of children completed various obstacle courses and challenges . Gunge was often included to make the tasks harder . Run The Risk was later broadcast separately . From 1994 until 2000 , there was a showbiz segment called the Electric Circus , which featured the latest films , music , computer games and gossip . It was first presented by John Barrowman after he stepped aside as a regular presenter , and was later hosted by a variety of people .

The first series featured the computerised head of a cat named " Ratz " who provided links , but this was dropped after one series . It was replaced by commentator Mitch Johnson , who , as well as providing commentary and links for each item , would interact with both audience and presenters too . From the second series , two puppet leprachauns , later named as Sage and Onion became regulars . They were played by Don Austen and John Eccleston , and were designed and built by Darryl Worbey Studios . They performed comedy sketches throughout the morning , and often interacted with the people in the studio . Another comedy character who first appeared in the third series was Mr Blobby , who had previously appeared in Noel 's House Party . Most regular features were dropped for the final series , when the show was revamped . A feature that stuck throughout was the jingle for the phone number , first 081 811 8181 , then 0181 811 8181 , then 0845 610 1515 .

As well as the television show , Live and Kicking launched a music CD , composed of the best music that artists had sung live on the programme . A video game called Live and Kicking : Showmaker was also created , where the user could combine elements of the show to create their own television production on a small scale . A monthly magazine was also produced , though towards the end of Live & Kicking 's production , the sales of the magazine dropped significantly , reflecting its loss of viewers .

For series five and six , there was a short version of the show that aired on Friday afternoons called L & K Friday , but this was cancelled after two series . The regular Saturday presenters Jamie Theakston and Zoë Ball presented the first series , and Steve Wilson and Liz Fraser presented the second series . A 90 @-@ minute version of the show also aired on BBC Choice and was entitled L & K Replay .

In May 2000 , two months before Steve & Emma were officially resigned from Live & Kicking , the show was brought back for a one @-@ off special during the summer break . It was to mix in with the BBC 's Music Live and the show was titled as Music Live & Kicking with Steve & Emma returning to present along with future presenter Ortis Deley and special guest presenter Stephen Gately of Boyzone . This special was dedicated to a series of music performances ( hence the title ) and was the first edition to be broadcast in widescreen .

One of the last features was L & K Castaway , a spin @-@ off of the BBC reality show Castaway 2000 . Each week , six children would spend four days on a remote Scottish island , learning how to survive , among other skills . Points were earned through passing various tasks , and were lost if contestants entered the " Temptation Hut " , which contained various modern electrical appliances .

= = Demise and replacement = =

The Ball and Theakston series are considered to be when Live & Kicking was at its peak in popularity . After their final series in 1999 , it was believed the BBC would replace Live & Kicking with another programme , as its two predecessors had both lasted six years . Instead , they continued with Live & Kicking , with new presenters Emma Ledden and Steve Wilson . The series was the beginning of the end for the show ; Ledden and Wilson did not know each other at the start of the series , and so there was none of the interaction between them , as seen between Ball and Theakston . Additionally , SMTV Live which broadcast opposite on ITV was slowly becoming more popular , and gaining the audience the BBC was losing . After just one series , Ledden and Wilson 's contracts were not renewed . Wilson later said that they were dropped just as they were starting to form a relationship , and that Ant & Dec , presenters of SMTV Live , had the edge over them as they had known each other much longer . Ledden had already been dropped when Wilson went through several meetings with the BBC . He decided it was better to leave after one good series , rather than do a second " lame " series , and went on to appear in rival SMTV Live 's 100th show , in the Friends skit , ' Chums ' . When Live & Kicking returned in October 2000 , it was completely revamped , with brand new titles and a line @-@ up of four presenters . However , this did nothing to increase viewing figures , and the chemistry between the presenters was even less apparent . It was decided not to end the show in April and replace it with a summer show , because the replacement FBi had lost even more viewers for the BBC . Live & Kicking continued until September after a move to Glasgow where the summer show had normally been filmed . Just before the move it was announced it would be the final series . The principal reason given for the decision was the increasing loss of viewers to SMTV Live , which had a similar format and was more successful . Live and Kicking was replaced by The Saturday Show , fronted by Dani Behr and Joe Mace , which was shown all year round until September 2003 when it began an Autumn @-@ Spring / Summer loop with Dick and Dom in da Bungalow . Live & Kicking was featured in the BBC 's It Started with Swap Shop programme in 2006 , where Noel Edmonds interviewed the first pair of presenters , Andi Peters and Emma Forbes , about their time on the show .

= = Programmes = =

Rugrats ( 1993 – 2001 )

The Simpsons ( 1997 – 2000 )

X @-@ Men ( 1993 – 1996 )

Kenan and Kel ( 1997 – 2001 )

Smart Guy ( 1997 – 2000 )

The Wild Thornberrys ( 1999 – 2001 )

Roswell Conspiracies ( 2000 – 2001 )

Monster Rancher ( 1999 – 2001 )

Clarissa Explains It All ( 1993 – 1996 )

Grimmy ( 1994 )

Eek ! The Cat

= Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman =

Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman ( March 18 , 1845 – February 27 , 1863 ) was an American Union Army soldier of Native Hawaiian descent . Considered one of the " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , he was among a group of more than one hundred documented Native Hawaiian and Hawaii @-@ born combatants who fought in the American Civil War while the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi was still an independent nation .

Born and raised in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , he was the eldest son of Kinoʻoleoliliha , a Hawaiian high chiefess , and Benjamin Pitman , an American pioneer settler from Massachusetts . Through his father 's business success in the whaling and sugar and coffee plantation industries and his mother 's familial connections to the Hawaiian royal family , the Pitmans were quite prosperous and owned lands on the island of Hawaiʻi and in Honolulu . He and his older sister were educated in the mission schools in Hilo alongside other children of mixed Hawaiian descent . After the death of his mother in 1855 , his father remarried to the widow of a missionary , thus connecting the family to the American missionary community in Hawaiʻi . However , following the deaths of his first wife and later his second wife , his father decided to leave the islands and returned to Massachusetts with his family around 1860 . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time .

Leaving school without his family 's knowledge , he made the decision to fight in the Civil War in August 1862 . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian recruits of the time and enlisted in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , a white regiment . He served as a private in the Union Army fighting in the Battle of Antietam and the Maryland Campaign . In his company , Private Robert G. Carter befriended the part @-@ Hawaiian soldier and wrote in later life of their common experience in the 22nd Massachusetts . Compiled decades afterward from old letters , Carter 's account described the details surrounding his final fate in the war . On the march to Fredericksburg , Pitman was separated from his regiment and captured by Confederate guerrilla forces . He was forced to march to Richmond and incarcerated in the Confederate Libby Prison , where he contracted " lung fever " from the harsh conditions of his imprisonment and died on February 27 , 1863 , a few months after his release on parole in a prisoner exchange . Modern historians consider Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman to be the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War .

For a period of time after the end of the war , the legacy and contributions of Pitman and other documented Hawaiian participants in the American Civil War were largely forgotten except in the private circles of descendants and historians . However , there has been a revival of interest in recent years in the Hawaiian community . In 2010 , these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " were commemorated with a bronze plaque erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu .

= = Early life and family = =

Timothy Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was born March 18 , 1845 , in Hilo , Hawaiʻi , the first son and second child of Benjamin Pitman and Kinoʻoleoliliha . Originally a native of Salem , Massachusetts , Pitman 's father was an early pioneer , businessman and sugar and coffee plantation owner on the island of Hawaiʻi , who profited greatly from the kingdom 's booming whaling industry in the early 1800s . On his father 's side , he was a great @-@ grandson of Joshua Pitman ( 1755 – 1822 ) , an English @-@ American carpenter on the ship  Franklin  under Captain Allen Hallett during the American Revolutionary War . On his mother 's side , Pitman was a descendant of Kameʻeiamoku , one of the royal twins ( with Kamanawa ) who advised Kamehameha I in his conquest of the Hawaiian Islands , and also of the early American or English sea captain Harold Cox , who lent his name to George " Cox " Kahekili Keʻeaumoku II , the Governor of Maui . Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman shared his Hawaiian name with his maternal grandfather Hoʻolulu , who , along with his brother Hoapili , helped conceal the bones of King Kamehameha I in a secret hiding place after his death . In the Hawaiian language , the name " Hoʻolulu " means " to be calm " , as a ship in a protected harbor . His siblings were Mary Ann Pitman Ailau ( 1838 – 1905 ) , Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman ( 1852 – 1918 ) and half @-@ sister Maria Kinoʻole Pitman Morey ( 1858 – 1892 ) .

Because of his father 's success in business and his mother 's descent from Hawaiian royalty , the Pitman family was considered quite prosperous and were host to the royal family when they visited Hilo . Besides being one of the leading merchants in town , his father also served the government as district magistrate of Hilo . Henry 's mother , Kinoʻole , had inherited control over much of the lands in Hilo and Ōlaʻa from her own father , and King Kamehameha III had granted her use of the ahupuaʻa of Hilo after her marriage . During Henry 's early childhood , the family lived in the mansion that Benjamin Pitman had built in 1840 , in an area known as Niopola , one of the favored resort spots of ancient Hawaiian royalty . The residence also became known as the Spencer House after Pitman sold it to his business partner Captain Thomas Spencer . The property later became the site of the Hilo Hotel , built in 1888 and torn down in 1956 . In the 1850s the family moved to the capital of Honolulu where Benjamin Pitman took up banking and built a beautiful two @-@ story house that he named Waialeale ( " rippling water " ) at the corner of Alakea and Beretania Streets .

= = Education = =

While in Hawaiʻi , Pitman and his older sister Mary attended Mrs. Wetmore 's children 's school in Hilo . The school was located at the Wetmores ' residence on Church Street . Taught by Lucy Sheldon Taylor Wetmore , the wife of American missionary doctor and government physician Charles Hinckley Wetmore , the two elder Pitman children received their education in English rather than Hawaiian . This was unusual since Hawaiian was the official language of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi , and all other schools in Hilo were conducted in the Hawaiian language . Mrs. Wetmore taught the children reading , writing , spelling , arithmetic and singing , while also reinforcing the curriculum with a strong adherence to the principles of the Protestant faith . Like the Pitman siblings , many of their classmates were also of half @-@ Hawaiian ( hapa @-@ kanaka ) descent with a majority of them being Chinese @-@ Hawaiians ( hapa @-@ pake ) .

After the death of his mother Kinoʻole in 1855 , Pitman 's father remarried to Maria Louisa Walsworth Kinney , the widow of American missionary Rev. Henry Kinney . The Kinneys were part of the Twelfth Company of missionaries from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to arrive in 1848 . The marriage aligned the Pitman children with the American missionary community . They were called " cousins " by the children of the missionaries and considered part of the extended missionary family of Hawaiʻi . This first stepmother died in 1858 after giving birth to their father 's fourth child , a daughter named Maria Kinoʻole ( 1858 – 1892 ) . The Pitman family returned to Massachusetts in 1860 where his father remarried to his third wife Martha Ball , giving his four children another stepmother . According to an 1887 biography written by Robert G. Carter , a private who would later serve in the same company as Pitman , he was neglected after his mother 's death by his father and stepmother , who " subjected [ him ] to neglect and treatment , that with his sensitive nature he could not bear " . He continued his education in the public schools of Roxbury , where the Pitman family lived for a period of time . The 1860 United States Census registered Pitman under his teacher Solomon Adams as residing and presumably being educated in Newton , also in the Boston area .

Growing into adolescence , he was said to strongly resemble his Hawaiian mother . Robert G. Carter gave a brief description of his appearance in wartime letters first published in 1897 :

[ A ] tall , slim boy , straight as an arrow . His face was a perfect oval , his hair was as black as a raven 's wing , and his eyes were large and of that peculiar soft , melting blackness , which excites pity when one is in distress . His skin was a clear , dark olive , bordering on the swarthy , and this , with his high cheek bones , would have led us to suppose that his nationality was different from our own , had we not known that his name was plain Henry P. There was an air of good breeding and refinement about him , that , with his small hands and feet , would have set us to thinking , had it not been that in our youth and intensely enthusiastic natures , we gave no thought to our comrades ' personal appearance . We can look back now and see the shy , reserved nature of the boy , the dark , melancholy eyes , the sad smile , the sensitive twitching of the lips .

= = American Civil War = =

After the outbreak of the American Civil War , the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi under King Kamehameha IV declared its neutrality on August 26 , 1861 . But many Native Hawaiians and Hawaiian @-@ born Americans ( mainly descendants of the American missionaries ) both abroad and in the islands volunteered and enlisted in the military regiments of various states in the Union and the Confederacy . Individual Native Hawaiians had been serving in the United States Navy and Army since the War of 1812 , and even more served during the American Civil War . Many Hawaiians sympathized with the Union because of Hawaiʻi 's ties to New England through its missionaries and the whaling industries , and the ideological opposition of many to the institution of slavery .

= = = Enlistment and service = = =

On August 14 , 1862 , Pitman left school without his family 's knowledge and volunteered to serve in the Union Army and fight in the American Civil War . He apparently never informed his family in advance about the choice to join the war because the news of his enlistment was reported back in Hawaiʻi 's American missionary community as " Henry Pitman has run away from home and gone [ to war ] . " Carter described Pitman 's rationale for enlisting : " In the midst of the clamor of war , when the very air vibrated with excitement , the wild enthusiasm of the crowds , and the inspiring sound of the drum , his Indian nature rose within him . His resolve was made . "

Pitman was a hapa @-@ haole , of part Hawaiian and part Caucasian descent . His father was white and his native @-@ born mother was also part Caucasian from her own mother , who was the daughter of Captain Cox and a Hawaiian chiefess . Despite his mixed @-@ race ancestry , Pitman avoided the racial segregation imposed on other Native Hawaiian volunteers in this period . Most Native Hawaiians who participated in the war were assigned to colored regiments , but Pitman 's fair skin color meant he was able to serve in a white unit , indicating that unit assignment may have been influenced by how dark Hawaiians appeared . Historians Bob Dye , James L. Haley and others claimed Pitman was placed in the colored regiments because of his mixed race , but regiment records indicate otherwise .

Pitman served as a private in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , Company H. This regiment was also named the " Henry Wilson 's Regiment " after Col. Henry Wilson , who commanded the unit in 1861 . Col. William S. Tilton was the commander during Pitman 's brief term of service . The regiment was part of the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac under the command of Major General George B. McClellan . During this period , the regiment fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run and was involved in the Maryland Campaign fighting in the Battle of Antietam , the bloodiest single @-@ day battle in American history , and the Battle of Shepherdstown . His regiment was on the march to the Battle of Fredericksburg when Pitman was captured by Confederate troops .

= = = Imprisonment and death = = =

The most detailed account of Pitman 's final fate in the War came from Robert G. Carter . In November 1862 , Pitman was captured near Warrenton Junction on the march toward Fredericksburg , Virginia , during the weeks prior to the Battle of Fredericksburg . He had fallen behind the group because his feet had blistered and swollen due to the tightness of " a pair of thin , high @-@ heeled and narrow soled boots " he had purchased . One of his comrades temporarily stayed behind to care for him but later decided to move on with the rest of the camp for fear of disciplinary consequences of falling out without authority . He was urged to move on , but without much success . Pitman 's last words to his comrade were , " I will be in camp by night , good by . " His fellow soldiers never saw him again and considered him missing . Shortly after he was left , a band of Confederate guerrillas under Colonel John S. Mosby captured the weary and defenseless soldier without a struggle . The inscription on his tombstone differs slightly from Carter 's account , stating he was captured by J. E. B. Stuart 's cavalry instead .

After Pitman 's capture , he was marched to Richmond in a weak physical state . He was imprisoned in the Confederate Libby Prison and Belle Isle , which were notoriously harsh prisons . Pitman 's letters home described his place of incarceration as the " Pen " where " the filthy meat [ was ] thrown to them as if they were dogs " . The condition of his incarceration including the shortage of food , lack of sanitation , overcrowding and his physical weakness made him susceptible to virulent diseases present in the Confederate prisons . Carter described how the prisons " wore out the brave spirit " . During a prisoner exchange , Pitman was released by the Confederate Army at City Point , Virginia , on December 12 , 1862 , and then sent to Annapolis Parole Camp . Suffering from complications due to the conditions of his imprisonment , he contracted " lung fever " , which was perhaps pneumonia . Carter wrote later how his friend had " linger [ ed ] feebly a few weeks , like the flickering of an expiring flame , then quietly pass [ ed ] away to an eternal life " . Pitman died at Parole Camp on February 27 , 1863 , just weeks short of his eighteenth birthday . According to historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance , Pitman " has the unfortunate distinction of being the only known Hawaiian or Pacific Islander to die as a prisoner of war in the Civil War . "

Considering him missing , Pitman 's regiment did not discover his final fate until news of his funeral at Roxbury was received in the spring of the following year . His remains were returned to his family in Massachusetts after his death in Parole Camp . Benjamin Pitman , his father , had him buried in a family plot in Mount Auburn Cemetery . On one side of the Pitman family grave marker was placed the inscription :

Timothy Henry Pitman

Born at Hilo , Hawaii

Mar. 18 , 1845

Died at Camp Parole

Annapolis , MD , Feb 'y 27 , 1863

Aged 17 years 11 mos . 9 daysA member of Co . H , 22nd Regiment

Mass . Vols . , was with his Regiment in the

battles of South Mountain , Antietam and

Sharpsburg . Was taken prisoner by Stuart 's

cavalry on the march to Fredricksburg ;

Imprisoned in Libby Prison , paroled and

sent to Camp Parole , Annapolis , and died in

camp of pneumonia .

= = Legacy = =

After his death , the memory of Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman was honored by friends and family members back in Massachusetts and Hawaiʻi . During a return to Hawaiʻi in 1917 , his younger brother Benjamin Keolaokalani Franklin Pitman and his wife Almira Hollander Pitman , discovered a grandson of a nephew was named Kealiʻi i Kaua i Pakoma ( meaning " Chief that fought the Potomac " ) in honor of his deceased older brother . Similarly , Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman Beckley , the second son of his Hawaiian first cousin George Charles Moʻoheau Beckley , was also named after him . Shortly after his death , Pitman was eulogized back in Hawaiʻi by Martha Ann Chamberlain , Corresponding Secretary of the Hawaiian Mission Children 's Society :

Our cousin , Henry Pitman , the first of Hawaii 's sons to fall in the war , died at Annapolis Parole Camp , Feb. 27 , of lung fever , serving as a soldier in the Union army . His remains were deposited in Mt . Auburn Cemetery , near Boston , Mass . He died in a just cause . Let his memory be embalmed among our band .

After the war , the military service of Hawaiians , including Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman , were largely forgotten , disappearing from the collective memories of the American Civil War and the history of Hawaiʻi . However , in recent years , Hawaiian residents and historians and descendants of Hawaiian combatants in the conflict have insisted on the need to remember " our boys from Hawaii " . Renewed interest in the stories of these individuals and this particular period of Hawaiian @-@ American history have inspired efforts to preserve the memories of the Hawaiians who served in the war . On August 26 , 2010 , on the anniversary of the signing of the Hawaiian Neutrality Proclamation , a bronze plaque was erected along the memorial pathway at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific in Honolulu recognizing these " Hawaiʻi Sons of the Civil War " , the more than one hundred documented Hawaiians who served during the American Civil War for both the Union and the Confederacy . Pitman 's great @-@ grandniece Diane Kinoʻole o Liliha Pitman Spieler attended the ceremony . Pitman Spieler stated , " I 'm very proud of a young man of his age – he was quite young – who served in the Civil War for his family . "

In 2013 , Todd Ocvirk , Nanette Napoleon , Justin Vance , Anita Manning and others began the process of creating a historical documentary about the individual experiences and stories of Hawaii @-@ born soldiers and sailors of the American Civil War , including Pitman , Samuel C. Armstrong , Nathaniel Bright Emerson , James Wood Bush , J. R. Kealoha and many other unnamed combatants of both the Union and the Confederacy . In 2014 , Maui @-@ based author Wayne Moniz wrote a fictionalized story based on the lives and Civil War service of Hawaiian soldiers like Henry Hoʻolulu Pitman in his book Pukoko : A Hawaiian in the American Civil War . In 2015 , the sesquicentennial of the end of the war , the National Park Service released a publication titled Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War about the service of the large number of combatants of Asian and Pacific Islander descent who fought during the war . The history of Hawaiʻi 's involvement and the biographies of Pitman , Bush , Kealoha and others were co @-@ written by historians Anita Manning and Justin Vance .

= Church of Christ Pantocrator , Nesebar =

The Church of Christ Pantocrator ( Bulgarian : църква „ Христос Пантократор “ , tsarkva „ Hristos Pantokrator “ or църква „ Христос Вседържател “ , tsarkva „ Hristos Vsedarzhatel “ , Byzantine Greek : Ναός Χριστού Παντοκράτωρος ) is a medieval Eastern Orthodox church in the eastern Bulgarian town of Nesebar ( medieval Mesembria ) , on the Black Sea coast of Burgas Province . Part of the Ancient Nesebar UNESCO World Heritage Site , the Church of Christ Pantocrator was constructed in the 13th – 14th century and is best known for its lavish exterior decoration . The church , today an art gallery , survives largely intact and is among Bulgaria 's best preserved churches of the Middle Ages .

= = History = =

The Church of Christ Pantocrator is usually dated to the late 13th or early 14th century . University of Pennsylvania scholar Robert G. Ousterhout places its construction in the mid @-@ 14th century . Rough Guides author Jonathan Bousfield attributes its building to the rule of Tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria ( r . 1331 – 1371 ) , though during this time control of Nesebar changed many times between the Second Bulgarian Empire and Byzantium . The church is dedicated to Christ Pantocrator , a name of God which hails him as the " Ruler of All " in Greek .

The church is located on Mesembria Street , near the entrance to Nesebar 's old town . Nowadays , it houses an art gallery which exhibits works by Bulgarian artists . As it belongs to the old town of Nesebar , the Church of Christ Pantocrator forms part of the Ancient City of Nesebar UNESCO World Heritage Site and the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria . Since 1927 , it has been under state protection as a " national antiquity " , and it was listed among Bulgaria 's monuments of culture of national importance in 1964 .

= = Architecture = =

The church is designed in late Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square style . It was constructed from stones and brickwork , a construction technique known as opus mixtum , and measures 16 by 6 @.@ 90 metres ( 52 @.@ 5 ft × 22 @.@ 6 ft ) , 16 by 6 @.@ 70 metres ( 52 @.@ 5 ft × 22 @.@ 0 ft ) , or 14 @.@ 20 by 4 @.@ 80 metres ( 46 @.@ 6 ft × 15 @.@ 7 ft ) , depending on the source . The walls of the church are 0 @.@ 80 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) thick . The colour of the bricks gives the church a ruddy appearance .

The church features a narthex and a cella ( or " naos " ) with an essentially rectangular elongated plan . The narthex is small , but has a medieval tomb underneath it . There are four entrances to the church : two accessing the cella from the south and west , and another two for the narthex from the west and north . The apse of the church has three small parts which overlap each other to form a single , larger unit . The prothesis and diaconicon of the church are located by the apse .

The dome , octagonal in shape , stands prominently on top of the centre of the cella . It was supported by four now @-@ destroyed columns which were located directly beneath it . The integrated bell tower has been built on top of the narthex , as was customary in contemporary Byzantine church architecture , and extends from the rectangular main structure . The bell tower was originally rectangular , though it is now partially ruined . It was reached from the south by means of a stone staircase .

= = Decoration = =

The best @-@ known feature of the Church of Christ Pantocrator is the rich and colourful decoration of its exterior walls . The most lavishly decorated part of the church is the east side with the apse , and as a whole all sides of the church exhibit different ornamentation . Interchanging strips of three or four rows of bricks and carved stones , which create an optical pattern , are the most basic type of decoration used . Rows of blind arches , four @-@ leaved floral motifs , triangular ornaments , circular turquoise ceramics and brick swastika friezes run along the east wall . Ousterhout likens the appearance of the church 's superimposed arcades to an aqueduct ; an earlier example of that configuration can be observed in the Cappadocian church of Çanlı Kilise near Aksaray , Turkey . The inclusion of swastikas in the decoration is considered unusual and curious to tourists . It is explained by the medieval use of the swastika as a symbol of the Sun .

The decoration of the elongated north and south walls includes brick blind arches in the bottom part and a large arch for each wall adjacent to the dome with a columned window in the middle . There are windows above the lower arches of the north and south facade . The dome , which also exhibits a large number of ornamental details and ceramics , features eight windows , one for each of its sides . The medieval frescoes which were painted on the interior walls of the church have been only fragmentarily preserved .

= Kir 'Shara =

" Kir 'Shara " is the ninth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . It was writer Michael Sussman 's third episode of the season , while it was director David Livingston 's second . The episode was the third in a three @-@ part story arc , following on from the episodes " The Forge " and " Awakening " . " Kir 'Shara " and the Vulcan arc showed themes relating to the Protestant Reformation resulting in comparisons to books such as The Da Vinci Code and The Celestine Prophecy , while the Kir 'Shara itself was compared to the Nag Hammadi library .

Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , Enterprise attempts to avert a war , and is caught in a crossfire between Vulcan and Andorian starships . Meanwhile . Captain Archer , Commander T 'Pol , and T 'Pau aim to take the Kir 'Shara to the Vulcan capital , and use it to reveal Administrator V 'Las ' plot to the rest of the Vulcan High Command .

In addition to the guest stars returning from the previous arc episodes , or the episode " Home " , Jeffrey Combs returned as Shran . The episode was shot across seven days using mostly standing sets , with only an Andorian brig built specifically for this episode . " Kir 'Shara " also saw the return of the Vulcan lirpa , a weapon which had been first introduced in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Amok Time " . The episode originally aired on December 3 , 2004 on UPN . It received a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 1 / 4 percent , which equalled the highest ratings seen during the fourth season . It was warmly received by critics who praised Combs ' performance and noted that this episode was an indication of the improving quality of the series . However there was mixed opinion regarding the ending of the episode .

= = Plot = =

Enterprise heads to Andoria after Ambassador Soval informs them that the Vulcans believe they have been developing Xindi weapon technology . Soval guides Enterprise to a nebula where the Andorian fleet is hiding . Commander Shran is dubious , and abducts and tortures Soval . After believing him , Enterprise joins a fleet of six Andorian ships to intercept the Vulcans . Commander Tucker attempts to buy time by ordering Enterprise directly between the two fleets — this works for a while until Administrator V 'Las orders them to be targeted too .

Meanwhile , at The Forge , Captain Archer , Commander T 'Pol , and T 'Pau , having found the sacred Kir 'Shara ( which the Syrrannites believe will usher a Vulcan enlightenment ) , endeavor to take it to the capital . En route , T 'Pol and T 'Pau discuss the taboo of mind @-@ melds , and T 'Pau offers to mind @-@ meld with T 'Pol . She states the meld is safe when performed by those trained in the art , and that Pa 'nar Syndrome is merely the by @-@ product of an improperly conducted meld . The trio are then attacked by Major Talok and Vulcan commandos , and T 'Pol is captured while the others escape . She tells her captors that they are headed to Mount Seleya in order to mislead them from their true destination .

She is then taken to the capital . Archer and T 'Pau also arrive after T 'Pol 's husband , Koss , provides transporter security codes . They present the Kir 'Shara to the Command and reveal that the embassy bombing was merely a pretext to weaken the pacifist Syrranites prior to the Andorian strike . Visibly angered , V 'Las lunges for the Kir 'Shara , but is stunned by High @-@ Minister Kuvak , who orders the fleet to stand down . Enterprise returns to Vulcan , and Koss visits to release T 'Pol from their marriage . Meanwhile , the Vulcan High Command is dissolved , granting Earth greater autonomy , and the katra of Surak is transferred to a Vulcan high priest . V 'Las , relieved of his post , meets secretly with Talok , revealed as a Romulan agent , who states that the reunification of their worlds is only a matter of time .

= = Production = =

Like " Home " , " Kir 'Shara " was written by Michael Sussman and was his third script during the fourth season . David Livingston directed the episode , which was his second episode of the season having previously directed " Borderland " . Most of the guest stars had appeared in the previous episode " Awakening " , including Robert Foxworth as Administrator V 'Las , Kara Zediker as T 'Pau and John Rubinstein as Kuvak . In addition , Michael Reilly Burke resumes his role as Koss for the third time , having appeared in the role both in " Home " and " The Forge " . Also appearing , having appeared in " Home " , was Jack Donner as a Vulcan priest . Donner appeared in The Original Series episode " The Enterprise Incident " as the Romulan Commander Subcommander Tal . " Kir 'Shara " also saw the return of Jeffrey Combs as the Andorian Commander Shran for the sixth time as well as Gary Graham as Ambassador Soval , who has appeared as a recurring character in Enterprise since the pilot episode " Broken Bow " .

Filming began on October 4 , 2004 and continued until October 12 . Despite the desert locations , all filming took place on soundstages . These represented a variety of places throughout the Vulcan desert @-@ like Forge . The remaining sets used were either standing sets , or those which had been constructed for the previous two episodes . The exceptions to that were two sets to represent scenes on board Commander Shran 's Andorian vessel . The Andorian bridge set , which had been used previously in the series , had a single wall brought out of storage in order to appear as a backdrop for Shran when he appears on the Enterprise viewscreen . The Andorian brig was built specifically for this episode for scenes with Shran and Soval .

Re @-@ appearing in " Kir 'Shara " were the traditional Vulcan weapon , the lirpa , which was first introduced in The Original Series episode " Amok Time " . The lirpa is a long shaft with a crescent blade on one end and a spiked cudgel on the other . Brand new props were built for this episode , modifying the original design by making them more lightweight . They were wielded in " Kir 'Shara " by Vulcan commandos , who were all played by stunt actors in non @-@ speaking roles . Additional stunt doubles were required for Archer , T 'Pol , T 'Pau and Talok while two puppeteers were needed for the Andorian antennae seen on screen .

= = Themes = =

" Kir 'Shara " followed up the events of the previous two episodes in the story arc as well some of the elements seen earlier in the season in the episode " Home " . " The Forge " sees Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) and T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) travel into the Vulcan desert known as the Forge in order to find a renegade faction of Vulcans , known as the Syrrannites . During the journey , Archer has the katra of Surak transferred into him . In " Awakening " , the duo meet the Syrrannites and find out they are peaceful . After Enterprise leaves orbit , the Vulcans start bombarding the caves where the Syrrannites are located , killing T 'Pol 's mother , T 'Les ( Joanna Cassidy ) .

Speaking about " Awakening " , show runner Manny Coto had previously said that he envisaged the story arc to be about a Vulcan reformation as a metaphor to the real @-@ world 16th century Protestant Reformation with T 'Pau playing the role of Martin Luther . This view was supported by the 2010 book Star Trek As Myth , which saw the original Vulcan religion prior to the Reformation arc seen from " The Forge " onwards as equating to the Catholic Church while the Syrannites were the Protestants . In doing so , Administrator V 'Las is therefore linked to the anti @-@ Christ in much the same way that the Protestant Reformation saw the Pope as the anti @-@ Christ . In this role , the Romulans in the story take the place of the subversive devils to form an unholy alliance .

It was also suggested that the Kir 'Shara itself was similar in context to the Nag Hammadi library , which was a collection of thirteen codices found in Nag Hammadi , Egypt , in 1945 that date back to between the 2nd to 5th centuries . Unlike those codices , the Vulcan High Council attempts to suppress the revelation of the Kir 'Shara in a similar manner to the Catholic Church 's suppression seen in other fictional works such as Dan Brown 's The Da Vinci Code or James Redfield 's The Celestine Prophecy .

= = Reception = =

" Kir 'Shara " was first aired in the United States on UPN on December 3 , 2004 . The broadcast saw the episode come in fourth place during the timeslot , with a Nielsen rating of 2 @.@ 1 / 4 percent . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all households , and 4 percent of all those watching television at the time of broadcast . It gained higher ratings than The WB , who aired What I Like About You and Grounded for Life . The ratings equalled the highest ratings of the season so far , which were previously achieved by " Borderland " , " Cold Station 12 " and " The Augments " .

TV Guide listed " Kir 'Shara " on its Hot List for the day , while the preview by IGN said that the show " finally grows up and becomes a Star Trek series this week " . It described " Kir 'Shara " as " far from a perfectly executed Trek story but they get enough right to make it a lot easier to overlook the few things they miss . " It said that there had been an overall improvement in the fourth season , and that " this could become some of the best Star Trek ever made " . It gave " Kir 'Shara " a rating of four and a half out of five . In Matthew Kappell 's book Star Trek As Myth , he said that he felt that the revelation that the previous Vulcan administration was working with the Romulans all along " suddenly makes sense of years of previously incomprehensible Vulcan policy " and linked to The Next Generation episode " Unification " .

Herc , in his review for Ain 't It Cool News , praised the reliability of Jeffrey Combs as Shran , but thought that there were no major surprises . Herc did say that the biggest shock was the revelation that the Romulans were behind the bombing of the Human Embassy . He gave it a rating of three out of five . Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation , calling it an " absolutely gripping episode " except for the " ludicrousness of the ending " . She made the admission about the ending that , " I suppose the Romulans had to show up at some point , I guess Vulcan is as good a place as any . " She thought that the torture scenes were " pointless " , but was pleased with the characterisation seen in Archer , T 'Pol and Tucker . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " said that the episode was " not perfect , but good " with an " intriguing " ending . He also praised Jeffrey Combs as Shran , and thought that the torture screens were potent but that the ending was rushed . He gave the episode a rating of three out of four . The first home media release of " Kir 'Shara " was in the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .

= Meralda Warren =

Meralda Elva Junior Warren ( born 28 June 1959 ) is an artist and poet of Pitcairn Island , a remote British Overseas Territory in the South Pacific . She works in both English and Pitkern , the island 's distinctive creole language . Her book , Mi Base side orn Pitcairn , written with the island 's six children , is the first to be written and published in both English and Pitkern . As an artist , she works with tapa cloth , a Polynesian tradition . She has also published a cookbook featuring Pitcairn Island cuisine .

Warren has also served as the island 's nurse , its only police officer , a ham radio operator , and as a member of the territory 's governing council , among many other roles .

= = Biography = =

Warren was born on Pitcairn Island on 28 June 1959 , the second child of Jacob Ralph " Chippie " Warren ( 1920 – 2007 ) and Mavis Mary Brown ( born 1936 ) . Warren is the sister of Jay Warren ( born 1950 ) who served as the third mayor of the Pitcairn Islands ( 2004 – 2007 ) , and previously as the colony 's 29th magistrate ( 1991 – 1997 ) . She is a first cousin of Mike Warren ( born 1964 ) , the colony 's fourth mayor ( 2007 – 2014 ) . She is the descendant of mutineers from the famed Mutiny on the Bounty ( 1789 ) and of the Tahitian men and women who journeyed with the mutineers in settling the island in 1790 .

= = = Artist , poet , author and many other jobs = = =

Warren is a poet , and the author of two books , including Mi Base side orn Pitcairn ( " My Favourite Place on Pitcairn " ) , written with children on Pitcairn Island . It is the first book written and published in Pitkern and English .

Her works include a cookbook , Taste of Pitcairn featuring the cuisine of the Pitcairn Islands , and poetry in both Pitkern and English . Pitkern is an English @-@ based creole language derived from eighteenth @-@ century English and Tahitian . She writes poetry in both English and Pitkern .

In 2007 , Warren revived Pitcairn 's tradition of art created on tapa cloth , a woven bark cloth common in Polynesian culture . Her works have been displayed in museums and galleries in Tahiti , Norfolk Island , and New Zealand . In 2011 , she was one of seven artists awarded a Commonwealth Connections International Arts Residency , which provided a grant of £ 8 @,@ 000 that allowed her to work with other artists in New Zealand . She is the first recipient from the Pitcairn Islands .

Pitcairn has a small population . The island 's 48 residents often serve in several capacities or jobs . Warren describes her many roles on her personal website :

Travelling with patients to New Zealand and Tahiti and taking up Nursing , Radio Operator for the shore to ship skeds from ZBP station and twice daily contact with Auckland international Radio telephone link , Working in our Co @-@ op store , Council member for many years as well as being the Governors appointee member to council a few times , Becoming the first female Police & Immigration Officer for a few years . Lands Commission president , Lands court member , Bee keeper since 1978 . ASL operator for siesmic Vault , Installing wireless networking throughout Adamstown , Duncan cleaner , Contract Lawnmowing jobs , and many misc jobs inc Tourism and Entertainment . PHEWWwww. it became apprent to me that what I enjoy most is my art . ( T ) his is getting pushed aside whilst I am working these time consuming no pay or low paid positions which was making me very tired and yes .... Bitchy [ sic ]

Beginning in 1996 , Warren served as the island 's only police officer . However , since no one had been arrested on the island since the 1950s , her duties involved issuing driving licenses and stamping visitors ' passports . Warren had no qualifications or formal training to be a police officer , and was given the job because everyone on the island had a " job " . The island 's jail was described as " the size of a garden shed and riddled with termites , " and its cells had been used to store building materials and lifejackets . When the island came into the international spotlight due to a sexual abuse scandal , a law enforcement professional sent to the island criticized their practices , stating " It was glaringly obvious ... that their standard of policing was not really adequate . "

Warren was elected on 15 December 2004 to the Island Council . As a radio operator , she broadcasts under the call sign VP6MW .

= = = Pitcairn 's sexual abuse trial = = =

Warren was an outspoken critic of accusations that the island 's girls had been sexually abused when young , and the prosecution of a selected number of Pitcairn 's male residents . She claimed that young girls on Pitcairn customarily became sexually active after age 12 , a practice of underage sex that had been accepted as a Polynesian tradition since the settlement of the island in 1790 . One resident , Olive Christian , said of her girlhood , " We all thought sex was like food on the table . "

Many Pitcairn Island men blamed the British police for persuading the women involved to press charges . Some of the women agreed , and advocated a conspiracy theory that the trial was , in Warren 's words , " a British plot to jail the [ community 's ] able @-@ bodied men and ' close ' the island " , and that the British officials " picked on all the viable young men , the ones who are the backbone of this place . "

A majority of the island 's residents denied or excused the allegations . During the trial , Warren circulated a poem titled " Is Seven a Lucky Number ? " that criticized the British government and lawyers ' attempts to impose British law against their island 's traditions .

As the case wore on , Warren reflected that " the bottom had fallen out of our world … We lost our trust for each other . " Her brother , Jay Warren , who was accused of " indecent assault " , was the only defendant among the seven accused to be acquitted on 24 October 2004 .

Warren was convicted of assault during a drunken disagreement with another resident when the two were angered by tensions over the sexual abuse matter . The case was prosecuted by a Crown prosecutor and tried by a New Zealand magistrate . Warren was fined NZ $ 60 . The case cost the British government NZ $ 40 @,@ 000 to prosecute .

= = Works = =

1986 : A Taste of Pitcairn : The First Pitcairn Island Cookbook ( cookbook )

2005 : A Taste of Pitcairn : The First Pitcairn Island Cookbook ( cookbook ) ( updated edition )

2008 : Mi Base side orn Pitcairn ( " My Favourite Place on Pitcairn " ) , with 6 children on Pitcairn

= 2nd Battalion 9th Marines =

2nd Battalion , 9th Marines ( 2 / 9 ) was an infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps . Formed during World War I , the unit played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in the Battles of Guam and Iwo Jima during the World War II . The battalion distinguished itself in the defense of Khe Sanh during the Vietnam War , and later participated in an ill fated invasion of Koh Tang Island in Southeast Asia , with the intention of rescuing the crew of the SS Mayaguez . During Operation Desert Storm , the battalion served as the lead battalion for the III Marine Expeditionary Force ( III MEF ) .

2 / 9 also participated in various humanitarian missions . The battalion helped evacuate Americans from Northern China during the Chinese Civil War and in various occasions participated in providing relief to the victims of typhoons . In 1992 , the battalion participated in Operation Restore Hope in Somalia .

2nd Battalion 9th Marines served until September 2 , 1994 , when it was deactivated to make room for one of three light armor reconnaissance battalions . It was part of the 9th Marine Regiment and the 3rd Marine Division . On July 13 , 2007 , 2nd Battalion 9th Marines was re @-@ activated again as part of the 6th Marine Regiment and replaced the Anti @-@ Terrorism Battalion ( ATBN ) . On April 1 , 2015 it was deactivated as part of a post @-@ war drawdown .

= = Battalion composition = =

A Battalion in the Marine Corps is headed by the Battalion Commander , usually a Lieutenant Colonel and sometimes a Colonel , his staff , headquarters , and the Battalion Sergeant Major . It usually consists of 3 @-@ 5 companies , with a total of 300 to 1 @,@ 200 Marines . 2nd Battalion 9th Marines comprises a Headquarters & Service ( H & S ) Company , Weapons Company and three Infantry Companies : Echo , Fox , and Golf . During the Vietnam war the Battalion comprised Headquarters & Service ( H & S ) Company , and Four Infantry Companies Echo , Fox , Golf , and Hotel . Each Company had its own weapons platoon with 3 squads of M 60 machine guns ( 7 @.@ 62 ) and 60 mm mortars and ether 3 @.@ 5 inch Rocket Launchers ( super bazooka ) or later LAAWS .

= = History = =

= = = Early years = = =

With the advent of World War I , the United States expanded the Armed Forces , to include the United States Marine Corps . The 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines ( also known as 2 / 9 ) was created and activated on November 20 , 1917 at Quantico , Virginia . During this period , there was turmoil in Cuba 's sugar producing regions . American companies operated the island 's sugar industry , which was vital to the economy of the United States . The battalion 's first mission was to keep order in the island and once this was accomplished , it was reassigned . There were rumors that German agents were going to disrupt Mexican oil shipments to Texas . The battalion was sent to Texas to safeguard these shipments . 2 / 9 was disbanded after the war on April 25 , 1919 only to be reactivated in 1925 . The battalion 's main objective was to train reserve Marines and its headquarters was now transferred to Kansas City , Missouri with two companies stationed at St. Louis . 2 / 9 was once again disbanded in 1937 .

= = = World War II = = =

In April 1942 , five months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , the unit was activated as part of the 2nd Marine Division . The headquarters was at Camp Elliot in San Diego , California , where it underwent intensive amphibious training . Before being reassigned to the 3rd Marine Division , the unit was assigned to Amphibious Corps , Pacific Fleet . The regiment was sent to Guadalcanal on July 1943 to relieve the 1st Marine Division . 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines participated in the Bougainville campaign of the Solomon Islands in the latter part of 1943 . On July 21 , 1944 , 2 / 9 participated in the invasion of Guam . The Japanese forces staged seven counterattacks , however the Marines prevailed despite the fact that they suffered over 50 % casualties . It was during this initial battle that one Marine , Captain Louis H. Wilson Jr . , ( who would in the future become a Commandant of the Marine Corps ) earned the Medal of Honor .

The 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines were part of the reserve forces for the Battle of Iwo Jima and were committed to the action five days after D @-@ Day . Among the Marines who distinguished themselves on Iwo Jima was Private Wilson D. Watson who received the Medal of Honor . After the island was secured , the unit was sent back to Guam where they underwent training for a possible invasion of the Japanese mainland . The invasion never occurred since hostilities between Japan and the United States came to an end . The 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was sent to Camp Pendelton where , in December 1945 , it was once again disbanded .

= = = Post World War II = = =

In November 1948 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was again reestablished . The final stages of fighting between the Nationalists and the Communists , in the Chinese Civil War ( also known as the War of Liberation ) , occurred between 1945 and 1950 . When the fighting escalated , the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines were ordered to Northern China to evacuate all Americans . This mission was accomplished by March 1949 and after which the battalion was sent to Camp Lejeune , North Carolina and was renamed as the 3rd Battalion , 6th Marine .

On June 25 , 1950 , war broke out between the provisional governments of North and South Korea as they competed for control over the Korean peninsula . North Korea was supported by the People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) of the People 's Republic of China and South Korea by the allies under the aegis of the United Nations which included the United States . The conflict is known as the Korean War . The 1st Marine Division was sent in and saw action in the Battle of Chosin Reservoir . In 1952 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was reactivated and underwent training in Japan with the intention of participating in the conflict as part of the 3rd Marine Division . However an armistice was signed on July 27 , 1953 , and the unit did not deploy to Korea . Even though 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines did not actively participate in the conflict , the unit was awarded the Korean Service Streamer and National Defense Service Medal Streamer . The 3rd Marine Divisions headquarters was moved to Okinawa in 1955 and in 1959 the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines returned to the 1st Marine Division . In 1960 , the battalion returned to the 3rd Marine Division in Okinawa .

= = = Vietnam War = = =

The Vietnam War , was a conflict between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRVN , DRV or North Vietnam ) and the Republic of Vietnam ( RVN or South Vietnam ) , which eventually involved their respective allies . In 1959 , the United States sent military advisors to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . By 1965 , there were 25 @,@ 000 military advisors in South Vietnam and on March 8 , 1965 , the United States Marines became the first US combat troops to land in South Vietnam , with a force of 3 @,@ 500 .

The 3d Marine Division began operating in Vietnam when on March 6 , 1965 , they opened a Marine Compound at the Da Nang Air Base . On July 4 , 1965 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines were ordered to Vietnam from Okinawa . 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines fought battles in or around Danang , Hue , Phu Bai , Đông Hà , Camp Carroll , Cam Lộ , Con Thien , Than Cam Son , Quảng Trị , Cửa Việt , Vandegrift Combat Base and what is considered by many as their most vicious engagement , the Battle of Khe Sanh .

In September 1962 , U.S. military forces constructed an airstrip outside the town of Khe Sanh which became known as the Khe Sanh Combat Base . In 1965 the U.S. Special Forces constructed a base next to it . The base 's defense was codenamed Operation Scotland and manned by the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines from 1967 . It was used as a staging ground for a number of attacks on North Vietnamese ( NVA ) troop movements down the Ho Chi Minh Trail .

From April to June 1966 , the 2 / 9 Marines were caught in crossfire of the Buddhist Uprising , when much of the forces of I Corps rebelled against Prime Minister and Air Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky , the head of the ruling junta , who had dismissed their commander , General Nguyen Chanh Thi .

In April and May 1967 various " Hill Fights " on Hills 861 , 881 North and 881 South between the 2 / 9 Marines and NVA occurred . In January 1968 , Khe Sanh Combat Base came under heavy attack in what is known as the Battle of Khe Sanh . The main objective of the Communists was to draw off American troops into the countryside in preparation for the Tet Offensive . Despite being outnumbered , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines held their ground and the North Vietnamese were driven off of the area around after experiencing heavy casualties by heavy aerial bombardments by B @-@ 52s .

From January 22 to March 18 , 1969 , 2 / 9 participated in Operation Dewey Canyon which was a sweep of the A Shau Valley and the last major offensive by the Marine Corps in Vietnam .

In August 1969 , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was ordered to return to Camp Schwab , Okinawa . During this period the unit was assigned to sea duty in and around the waters of Vietnam and continued to receive combat training at Camp Fuji , Japan and Subic Bay in the Philippines .

= = = = Mayaguez Incident = = = =

On May 12 , 1975 , barely two weeks after the fall of Saigon , Khmer Rouge forces seized a U.S. flagged merchant ship , the SS Mayaguez in recognized international sea lanes claimed as territorial waters by Cambodia and removed its crew for questioning . The Khmer Rouge naval forces used abandoned US Navy " Swift Boats " in the seizure of the U.S. container ship .

Calling the seizure " piracy " , President Ford ordered a military response to retake the ship and its 39 @-@ man crew , mistakenly thought to be on Koh Tang Island . On May 13 , two A @-@ 7D Corsairs saw the 39 man crew board a fishing boat and saw people disembarking fishing boats at Koh Tang Island . They assumed that the Mayaguez crew was on the island . Elements of the 1st Battalion , 4th Marines , the 2nd Battalion , 4th Marines , and the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines , were flown to an advanced staging of a joint US Task Force . On May 14 , the Marines from Company D , 1st Battalion , 4th Marines boarded the Mayaguez only to find it deserted and raised the American flag . A Thai fishing boat with a Thai crew and the 39 crew members of the SS Mayaguez which had been set free , approached the USS Wilson .

= = = = Battle of Koh Tang Island = = = =

2nd Battalion , 9th Marines landed on Koh Tang Island where the crew of the SS Mayaguez was believed to be held , they were unaware that the crew was already in American hands . The Marines and the CH @-@ 53 helicopters which transported them , were attacked by the Khmer Rouge with machine guns , mortars , and rocket propelled grenade launchers in what became known as the Battle of Koh Tang Island . When the battalion received word of the safe arrival of the Mayaguez crew on the USS Wilson the Marines planned their withdrawal once they received orders from the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff to that effect . After the last helicopter left , a head count showed that 3 Marines were left behind on the island . They were : PFC Gary Hall , LCpl . Joseph Hargrove , and Pvt Danny Marshall from E CO , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines . The three Marines were captured by the Khmer Rouge within a few days , tortured , executed , and buried in a common , unmarked grave on Koh Tang Island .

The Mayagüez incident with the Khmer Rouge , which ended on May 15 , 1975 , marked the last official battle of the 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines in the Vietnam War . The unit deployment program was put into practice in February 1979 , and 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines became the first battalion to rotate to the United States . A total of 18 Marines were killed on the last day of the SS Mayaguez rescue operation . They are the last Marines listed on the timeline of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial located in Washington , D.C.

= = = Post Vietnam era = = =

= = = = Operations Desert Shield & Desert Storm = = = =

Before the August 2 , 1990 , invasion of Kuwait by Saddam Hussein 's Iraqi forces , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was deployed to Okinawa , Japan as part of the Unit Deployment Program . In October 1990 the unit deployed to the Republic of the Philippines where it became the Ground Combat Element of Marine Air @-@ Ground Task Force ( MAGTF ) 4 @-@ 90 . On November 1990 , the island of Cebu , a Philippine providence , was devastated by a typhoon . Members of the battalion provided assistance during the disaster relief efforts . The Battalion remained in the Philippines until April 1991 when it returned to Okinawa , Japan . Subsequently the Battalion returned to Camp Pendleton in August 1991 .

= = = = Operation " Restore Hope " = = = =

The 5th Marine Regiment designated 2 / 9 to participate in the Marine Expeditionary Unit deployment cycle during November 1991 . With the successful culmination of the Special Operations Capable Exercise ( SOCEX ) , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines became the designated Battalion Landing Team ( BLT ) for the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit ( 15th MEU ) .

During this period , there were two main factions in the Republic of Somalia who provoked an all out war which became known as the Somalian Civil War . One of the factions was led by Ali Mahdi Mohamed , who became president ; and the other , by the warlord Mohammed Farah Aidid .

In 1991 , the United States initiated Operation Provide Relief ( UNOSOM I ) which was part of a United Nations ( UN ) endorsed effort called The Unified Task Force ( UNITAF ) , to provide humanitarian relief . In August 1992 , President George H. Bush sent , 25 @,@ 000 US troops ( mostly US Marines from I MEF ) to the Republic of Somalia and the mission was renamed Operation Restore Hope , also known as UNOSOM II . Its main objectives were to provide humanitarian relief , initiate ' nation building ' , disarm the various factions , restore law and order , help the people set up a representative government , and restore the infrastructure .

That same month , 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines was deployed to Somalia . BLT 2 / 9 's mission as the lead unit , was to secure the port and airfield in Mogadishu which allowed the rapid build @-@ up of forces in @-@ country . The mission was accomplished between December 9 , 1992 and February 1993 . The Somalis referred to Marines of 2nd Battalion , 9th Marines as The Black Boots . On January 30 , 1993 , a Marine patrol was ambushed in Mogadishu by gunmen faithful to warlord Mohammed Farah Aidid bringing about casualties . 2 / 9 remained in Somalia until April 1993 when they returned to Camp Pendleton . The battalions next two deployments were to Fort Sherman , Panama during one of which they participated in the Javelin anti @-@ tank missile evaluation program . On September 2 , 1994 , 2nd Battalion 9th Marines was deactivated and redesignated 2nd Battalion 4th Marines .

= = = 2000 @-@ present = = =

On December 7 , 2006 , Headquarters Marine Corps released a message stating that 2nd Battalion 9th Marines would be reactivated during 2007 as part of the continuing Global War on Terror . 2nd Battalion 9th Marines was re @-@ activated on July 13 , 2007 and replaced the Anti @-@ Terrorism Battalion ( ATBn ) . In September 2008 , Marines and Sailors from 2 / 9 deployed to Al Anbar Province in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . They were based in the city of Ramadi and returned in April 2009 without any Marines or Sailors killed in action . July 2010 Marines and Sailors from 2 / 9 deployed to Marjah , Helmand Province , Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom . In December 2010 Echo Company from 2 / 9 were attached to 3 / 5 in Sangin , Afghanistan where they earned the notorious nickname of " Green Hats . " They returned February 2011 . They redeployed back to Marjah December 2011 and returned July 2012 . Echo and Weapons companies deployed once more to Afghanistan from January through April 2013 , participating in combat operations out of Camp Leatherneck . On April 1 , 2015 the battalion was deactivated in a ceremony at Camp Lejeune .

= = Medal of Honor recipients = =

The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States . It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself or herself " ... conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States ... " . The following table contains the names of the men who were recipients of the Medal of Honor while serving in 2 / 9 . They are listed in accordance to the " Date of Action " in which the MoH citation was made . † indicates that the Medal of Honor was awarded posthumously

= = Commandants of the Marine Corps = =

The Commandant of the United States Marine Corps is the highest @-@ ranking officer of the United States Marine Corps and a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , reporting to the Secretary of the Navy but not to the Chief of Naval Operations . Three Marines who served in 2nd Battalion 9th Marines became Commandant of the Marine Corps . They are listed in the table in accordance to the years in which they served as Commandants and their ranks are those which they held while serving in 2 / 9 , they were :

= = Distinguished Marines = =

Other Marines who served in the 2nd Battalion 9th Marines during their careers , who subsequently distinguished themselves by either becoming a general officer ( O @-@ 7 and above ) or recipients of the Medal of Honor while assigned to a different unit were :

= = Other notable former members = =

Bing West , served in the mortar platoon during the Vietnam War in 1965 .

= = Unit awards = =

A unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited . Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the awarded unit citation . 2 / 9 has been presented with the following awards :

= Directed acyclic graph =

In mathematics and computer science , a directed acyclic graph ( DAG / ˈdæɡ / ) , is a finite directed graph with no directed cycles . That is , it consists of finitely many vertices and edges , with each edge directed from one vertex to another , such that there is no way to start at any vertex v and follow a consistently @-@ directed sequence of edges that eventually loops back to v again . Equivalently , a DAG is a directed graph that has a topological ordering , a sequence of the vertices such that every edge is directed from earlier to later in the sequence .

DAGs may be used to model many different kinds of information . The reachability relation in a DAG forms a partial order , and any finite partial order may be represented by a DAG using reachability . The program evaluation and review technique uses DAGs to model the milestones and activities of large human projects , and schedule these projects to use as little total time as possible . Scheduling of computer operations such as the updates to a spreadsheet or the compilation operations in a makefile can also be performed using topological orderings of DAGs . Combinational logic blocks in electronic circuit design , and the operations in dataflow programming languages , involve acyclic networks of processing elements . DAGs can also represent collections of events and their influence on each other , either in a probabilistic structure such as a Bayesian network or as a record of historical data such as family trees or the version histories of distributed revision control systems . DAGs can also be used as a compact representation of sequence data , such as the directed acyclic word graph representation of a collection of strings , or the binary decision diagram representation of sequences of binary choices .

Important polynomial time computational problems on DAGs include topological sorting ( finding a topological ordering ) , construction of the transitive closure and transitive reduction ( the largest and smallest DAGs with the same reachability relation , respectively ) , and the closure problem , in which the goal is to find a minimum @-@ weight subset of vertices with no edges connecting them to the rest of the graph . Transforming a directed graph with cycles into a DAG by deleting as few vertices or edges as possible ( the feedback vertex set and feedback edge set problem , respectively ) is NP @-@ hard , but any directed graph can be made into a DAG ( its condensation ) by contracting each strongly connected component into a single supervertex . The problems of finding shortest paths and longest paths can be solved on DAGs in linear time , in contrast to arbitrary graphs for which shortest path algorithms are slower and longest path problems are NP @-@ hard .

The corresponding concept for undirected graphs is a forest , an undirected graph without cycles . Choosing an orientation for a forest produces a special kind of directed acyclic graph called a polytree . However there are many other kinds of directed acyclic graph that are not formed by orienting the edges of an undirected acyclic graph . Moreover , every undirected graph has an acyclic orientation , an assignment of a direction for its edges that makes it into a directed acyclic graph . To emphasize that DAGs are not the same thing as directed versions of undirected acyclic graphs , some authors call them acyclic directed graphs or acyclic digraphs .

= = Definitions = =

A graph is formed by a collection of vertices and edges , where the vertices are structureless objects that are connected in pairs by edges . In the case of a directed graph , each edge has an orientation , from one vertex to another vertex . A path in a directed graph can be described by a sequence of edges having the property that the ending vertex of each edge in the sequence is the same as the starting vertex of the next edge in the sequence ; a path forms a cycle if the starting vertex of its first edge equals the ending vertex of its last edge . A directed acyclic graph is a directed graph that has no cycles .

A vertex v of a directed graph is said to be reachable from another vertex u when there exists a path that starts at u and ends at v. As a special case , every vertex is considered to be reachable from itself ( by a path with zero edges ) . If a vertex can reach itself via a nontrivial path ( a path with one or more edges ) , then that path is a cycle , so another way to define directed acyclic graphs is that they are the graphs in which no vertex can reach itself via a nontrivial path .

A topological ordering of a directed graph is an ordering of its vertices into a sequence , such that for every edge the start vertex of the edge occurs earlier in the sequence than the ending vertex of the edge . A graph that has a topological ordering cannot have any cycles , because the edge into the earliest vertex of a cycle would have to be oriented the wrong way . Therefore , every graph with a topological ordering is acyclic . Conversely , every directed acyclic graph has a topological ordering . Therefore , this property can be used as an alternative definition of the directed acyclic graphs : they are exactly the graphs that have topological orderings .

= = Mathematical properties = =

= = = Reachability , transitive closure , and transitive reduction = = =

The reachability relationship in any directed acyclic graph can be formalized as a partial order ≤ on the vertices of the DAG . In this partial order , two vertices u and v are ordered as u ≤ v exactly when there exists a directed path from u to v in the DAG ; that is , when v is reachable from u . However , different DAGs may give rise to the same reachability relation and the same partial order . For example , the DAG with two edges a → b and b → c has the same reachability relation as the graph with three edges a → b , b → c , and a → c . Both of these DAGS produce the same partial order , in which the vertices are ordered as a ≤ b ≤ c .

If G is a DAG , its transitive closure is the graph with the most edges that represents the same reachability relation . It has an edge u → v whenever u can reach v. That is , it has an edge for every related pair u ≤ v of distinct elements in the reachability relation of G , and may therefore be thought of as a direct translation of the reachability relation ≤ into graph @-@ theoretic terms . The same method of translating partial orders into DAGs works more generally : for every finite partially ordered set ( S , ≤ ) , the graph that has a vertex for each member of S and an edge for each pair of elements related by u ≤ v is automatically a transitively closed DAG , and has ( S , ≤ ) as its reachability relation . In this way , every finite partially ordered set can be represented as the reachability relation of a DAG .

The transitive reduction of a DAG G is the graph with the fewest edges that represents the same reachability relation as G. It is a subgraph of G , formed by discarding the edges u → v for which G also contains a longer path connecting the same two vertices . Like the transitive closure , the transitive reduction is uniquely defined for DAGs . In contrast , for a directed graph that is not acyclic , there can be more than one minimal subgraph with the same reachability relation .

If a DAG G has a reachability relation described by the partial order ≤ , then the transitive reduction of G is a subgraph of G that has an edge u → v for every pair in the covering relation of ≤ . Transitive reductions are useful in visualizing the partial orders they represent , because they have fewer edges than other graphs representing the same orders and therefore lead to simpler graph drawings . A Hasse diagram of a partial order is a drawing of the transitive reduction in which the orientation of each edge is shown by placing the starting vertex of the edge in a lower position than its ending vertex .

= = = Topological ordering = = =

Every directed acyclic graph has a topological ordering , an ordering of the vertices such that the starting endpoint of every edge occurs earlier in the ordering than the ending endpoint of the edge . The existence of such an ordering can be used to characterize DAGs : a directed graph is a DAG if and only if it has a topological ordering . In general , this ordering is not unique ; a DAG has a unique topological ordering if and only if it has a directed path containing all the vertices , in which case the ordering is the same as the order in which the vertices appear in the path .

The family of topological orderings of a DAG is the same as the family of linear extensions of the reachability relation for the DAG , so any two graphs representing the same partial order have the same set of topological orders .

= = = Combinatorial enumeration = = =

The graph enumeration problem of counting directed acyclic graphs was studied by Robinson ( 1973 ) . The number of DAGs on n labeled vertices , for n = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , … ( without restrictions on the order in which these numbers appear in a topological ordering of the DAG ) is

1 , 1 , 3 , 25 , 543 , 29281 , 3781503 , … ( sequence A003024 in the OEIS ) .

These numbers may be computed by the recurrence relation

<formula>

Eric W. Weisstein conjectured , and McKay et al . ( 2004 ) proved , that the same numbers count the ( 0 @,@ 1 ) matrices for which all eigenvalues are positive real numbers . The proof is bijective : a matrix A is an adjacency matrix of a DAG if and only if A + I is a ( 0 @,@ 1 ) matrix with all eigenvalues positive , where I denotes the identity matrix . Because a DAG cannot have self @-@ loops , its adjacency matrix must have a zero diagonal , so adding I preserves the property that all matrix coefficients are 0 or 1 .

= = = Related families of graphs = = =

A polytree is a directed graph formed by orienting the edges of a free tree . Every polytree is a DAG . In particular , this is true of the arborescences formed by directing all edges outwards from the roots of a tree .

A multitree ( also called a strongly unambiguous graph or a mangrove ) is a directed graph in which there is at most one directed path ( in either direction ) between any two vertices ; equivalently , it is a DAG in which , for every vertex v , the subgraph reachable from v forms a tree .

= = Computational problems = =

= = = Topological sorting and recognition = = =

Topological sorting is the algorithmic problem of finding a topological ordering of a given DAG . It can be solved in linear time . Kahn 's algorithm for topological sorting builds the vertex ordering directly . It maintains a list of vertices that have no incoming edges from other vertices that have not already been included in the partially constructed topological ordering ; initially this list consists of the vertices with no incoming edges at all . Then , it repeatedly adds one vertex from this list to the end of the partially constructed topological ordering , and checks whether its neighbors should be added to the list . The algorithm terminates when all vertices have been processed in this way . Alternatively , a topological ordering may be constructed by reversing a postorder numbering of a depth @-@ first search graph traversal .

It is also possible to check whether a given directed graph is a DAG in linear time , either by attempting to find a topological ordering and then testing for each edge whether the resulting ordering is valid or alternatively , for some topological sorting algorithms , by verifying that the algorithm successfully orders all the vertices without meeting an error condition .

= = = Construction from cyclic graphs = = =

Any undirected graph may be made into a DAG by choosing a total order for its vertices and directing every edge from the earlier endpoint in the order to the later endpoint . The resulting orientation of the edges is called an acyclic orientation . Different total orders may lead to the same acyclic orientation , so an n @-@ vertex graph can have fewer than n ! acyclic orientations . The number of acyclic orientations is equal to | χ ( − 1 ) | , where χ is the chromatic polynomial of the given graph .

Any directed graph may be made into a DAG by removing a feedback vertex set or a feedback arc set , a set of vertices or edges ( respectively ) that touches all cycles . However , the smallest such set is NP @-@ hard to find . An arbitrary directed graph may also be transformed into a DAG , called its condensation , by contracting each of its strongly connected components into a single supervertex . When the graph is already acyclic , its smallest feedback vertex sets and feedback arc sets are empty , and its condensation is the graph itself .

= = = Transitive closure and transitive reduction = = =

The transitive closure of a given DAG , with n vertices and m edges , may be constructed in time O ( mn ) by using either breadth @-@ first search or depth @-@ first search to test reachability from each vertex . Alternatively , it can be solved in time O ( nω ) where ω < 2 @.@ 373 is the exponent for fast matrix multiplication algorithms ; this is a theoretical improvement over the O ( mn ) bound for dense graphs .

In all of these transitive closure algorithms , it is possible to distinguish pairs of vertices that are reachable by at least one path of length two or more from pairs that can only be connected by a length @-@ one path . The transitive reduction consists of the edges that form length @-@ one paths that are the only paths connecting their endpoints . Therefore , the transitive reduction can be constructed in the same asymptotic time bounds as the transitive closure .

= = = Closure problem = = =

The closure problem takes as input a directed acyclic graph with weights on its vertices and seeks the minimum ( or maximum ) weight of a closure , a set of vertices with no outgoing edges . ( The problem may be formulated for directed graphs without the assumption of acyclicity , but with no greater generality , because in this case it is equivalent to the same problem on the condensation of the graph . ) It may be solved in polynomial time using a reduction to the maximum flow problem .

= = = Path algorithms = = =

Some algorithms become simpler when used on DAGs instead of general graphs , based on the principle of topological ordering . For example , it is possible to find shortest paths and longest paths from a given starting vertex in DAGs in linear time by processing the vertices in a topological order , and calculating the path length for each vertex to be the minimum or maximum length obtained via any of its incoming edges . In contrast , for arbitrary graphs the shortest path may require slower algorithms such as Dijkstra 's algorithm or the Bellman – Ford algorithm , and longest paths in arbitrary graphs are NP @-@ hard to find .

= = Applications = =

= = = Scheduling = = =

Directed acyclic graphs representations of partial orderings have many applications in scheduling for systems of tasks with ordering constraints . An important class of problems of this type concern collections of objects that need to be updated , such as the cells of a spreadsheet after one of the cells has been changed , or the object files of a piece of computer software after its source code has been changed . In this context , a dependency graph is a graph that has a vertex for each object to be updated , and an edge connecting two objects whenever one of them needs to be updated earlier than the other . A cycle in this graph is called a circular dependency , and is generally not allowed , because there would be no way to consistently schedule the tasks involved in the cycle . Dependency graphs without circular dependencies form DAGs .

For instance , when one cell of a spreadsheet changes , it is necessary to recalculate the values of other cells that depend directly or indirectly on the changed cell . For this problem , the tasks to be scheduled are the recalculations of the values of individual cells of the spreadsheet . Dependencies arise when an expression in one cell uses a value from another cell . In such a case , the value that is used must be recalculated earlier than the expression that uses it . Topologically ordering the dependency graph , and using this topological order to schedule the cell updates , allows the whole spreadsheet to be updated with only a single evaluation per cell . Similar problems of task ordering arise in makefiles for program compilation and instruction scheduling for low @-@ level computer program optimization .

A somewhat different DAG @-@ based formulation of scheduling constraints is used by the program evaluation and review technique ( PERT ) , a method for management of large human projects that was one of the first applications of DAGs . In this method , the vertices of a DAG represent milestones of a project rather than specific tasks to be performed . Instead , a task or activity is represented by an edge of a DAG , connecting two milestones that mark the beginning and completion of the task . Each such edge is labeled with an estimate for the amount of time that it will take a team of workers to perform the task . The longest path in this DAG represents the critical path of the project , the one that controls the total time for the project . Individual milestones can be scheduled according to the lengths of the longest paths ending at their vertices .

= = = Data processing networks = = =

A directed acyclic graph may be used to represent a network of processing elements . In this representation , data enters a processing element through its incoming edges and leaves the element through its outgoing edges .

For instance , in electronic circuit design , static combinational logic blocks can be represented as an acyclic system of logic gates that computes a function of an input , where the input and output of the function are represented as individual bits . In general , the output of these blocks cannot be used as the input unless it is captured by a register or state element which maintains its acyclic properties . Electronic circuit schematics either on paper or in a database are a form of directed acyclic graphs using instances or components to form a directed reference to a lower level component . Electronic circuits themselves are not necessarily acyclic or directed .

Dataflow programming languages describe systems of operations on data streams , and the connections between the outputs of some operations and the inputs of others . These languages can be convenient for describing repetitive data processing tasks , in which the same acyclically @-@ connected collection of operations is applied to many data items . They can be executed as a parallel algorithm in which each operation is performed by a parallel process as soon as another set of inputs becomes available to it .

In compilers , straight line code ( that is , sequences of statements without loops or conditional branches ) may be represented by a DAG describing the inputs and outputs of each of the arithmetic operations performed within the code . This representation allows the compiler to perform common subexpression elimination efficiently .

= = = Causal structures = = =

Graphs that have vertices representing events , and edges representing causal relations between events , are often acyclic – arranging the vertices in linear order of time , all arrows point in the same direction as time , from parent to child ( due to causality affecting the future , not the past ) , and thus have no loops .

For instance , a Bayesian network represents a system of probabilistic events as vertices in a directed acyclic graph , in which the likelihood of an event may be calculated from the likelihoods of its predecessors in the DAG . In this context , the moral graph of a DAG is the undirected graph created by adding an ( undirected ) edge between all parents of the same vertex ( sometimes called marrying ) , and then replacing all directed edges by undirected edges .

Another type of graph with a similar causal structure is an influence diagram , the vertices of which represent either decisions to be made or unknown information , and the edges of which represent causal influences from one vertex to another . In epidemiology , for instance , these diagrams are often used to estimate the expected value of different choices for intervention .

= = = Genealogy and version history = = =

Family trees may be seen as directed acyclic graphs , with a vertex for each family member and an edge for each parent @-@ child relationship . Despite the name , these graphs are not necessarily trees because of the possibility of marriages between relatives ( so a child has a common ancestor on both the mother 's and father 's side ) causing pedigree collapse . The graphs of matrilineal descent ( " mother " relationships between women ) and patrilineal descent ( " father " relationships between men ) are trees within this graph . Because no one can become their own ancestor , family trees are acyclic .

For the same reason , the version history of a distributed revision control system generally has the structure of a directed acyclic graph , in which there is a vertex for each revision and an edge connecting pairs of revisions that were directly derived from each other . These are not trees in general due to merges .

In many randomized algorithms in computational geometry , the algorithm maintains a history DAG representing the version history of a geometric structure over the course of a sequence of changes to the structure . For instance in a randomized incremental algorithm for Delaunay triangulation , the triangulation changes by replacing one triangle by three smaller triangles when each point is added , and by " flip " operations that replace pairs of triangles by a different pair of triangles . The history DAG for this algorithm has a vertex for each triangle constructed as part of the algorithm , and edges from each triangle to the two or three other triangles that replace it . This structure allows point location queries to be answered efficiently : to find the location of a query point q in the Delaunay triangulation , follow a path in the history DAG , at each step moving to the replacement triangle that contains q . The final triangle reached in this path must be the Delaunay triangle that contains q .

= = = Data compression = = =

Directed acyclic graphs may also be used as a compact representation of a collection of sequences . In this type of application , one finds a DAG in which the paths form the given sequences . When many of the sequences share the same subsequences , these shared subsequences can be represented by a shared part of the DAG , allowing the representation to use less space than it would take to list out all of the sequences separately . For example , the directed acyclic word graph is a data structure in computer science formed by a directed acyclic graph with a single source and with edges labeled by letters or symbols ; the paths from the source to the sinks in this graph represent a set of strings , such as English words . Any set of sequences can be represented as paths in a tree , by forming a tree vertex for every prefix of a sequence and making the parent of one of these vertices represent the sequence with one fewer element ; the tree formed in this way for a set of strings is called a trie . A directed acyclic word graph saves space over a trie by allowing paths to diverge and rejoin , so that a set of words with the same possible suffixes can be represented by a single tree vertex .

The same idea of using a DAG to represent a family of paths occurs in the binary decision diagram , a DAG @-@ based data structure for representing binary functions . In a binary decision diagram , each non @-@ sink vertex is labeled by the name of a binary variable , and each sink and each edge is labeled by a 0 or 1 . The function value for any truth assignment to the variables is the value at the sink found by following a path , starting from the single source vertex , that at each non @-@ sink vertex follows the outgoing edge labeled with the value of that vertex 's variable . Just as directed acyclic word graphs can be viewed as a compressed form of tries , binary decision diagrams can be viewed as compressed forms of decision trees that save space by allowing paths to rejoin when they agree on the results of all remaining decisions .

= August ( Fringe ) =

" August " is the eighth episode of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe 's second season . The episode was co @-@ written by J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , and directed by Dennis Smith . The episode marked the first prominent appearance of more than one Observer , and follows the events that occur when one of them saves a girl from boarding a soon @-@ to @-@ be crashing plane . It featured two new guest stars , Peter Woodward and Eugene Lipinski .

The episode first aired on November 19 , 2009 in the United States to mostly positive reviews , with many critics praising the new revelations about the Observers . An estimated 5 @.@ 746 million viewers watched the episode on its first broadcast .

= = Plot = =

An Observer , " August " ( Peter Woodward ) abducts Christine Hollis ( Jennifer Missoni ) , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old art student in Boston . Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) and Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) learn of the events and realize the assailant matches the description of the Observer . However , after viewing video footage they find that it is not " September " ( Michael Cerveris ) , the Observer known for observing Pattern @-@ related cases and who previously saved Peter and his father Walter ( John Noble ) in 1985 , indicating there is more than one Observer . Olivia is confused as to August 's motives , as Observers are known to only observe events and not interfere with them . After questioning Christine 's roommate , Olivia learns she was to take a flight to Rome , Italy . Peter finds a picture of Christine from her childhood before her parents were killed in the 1989 San Francisco earthquake , and sees August in the background , indicating he has been observing her entire life . The plane to Rome would later crash , killing everyone on board . Because of this , the team realize August in fact saved her life .

At Massive Dynamic , Brandon ( Ryan McDonald ) theorizes to the team that Observers are time travelers , as they have been documented during several major events in history . They write in an incomprehensible language , and the number of Observer sightings has increased over the past few months , leaving the team wondering why . Meanwhile , August visits the other Observers , who are not happy that he saved a girl who was supposed to die in the plane crash . To correct his mistake , they send Donald Long ( Paul Rae ) , an assassin affiliated with the Observers to correct August 's actions . In an attempt to save Christine , August sends a secret message to Walter . During the meeting , August reveals Christine will die because she is not important ; Walter tells August that he has to make her important .

The team are later made aware of Christine 's location at a motel outside the city . However , Donald is on the trail also . August attempts to stop him , but Donald shoots him several times , before Peter and Olivia arrive to kill the assassin . September picks up August and while driving , September asks August why he saved Christine . August reveals that he is experiencing ' feelings ' and that he loves Christine , and asks if she would be safe . September informs him Christine will stay alive because she is now important ; she was responsible for the death of an Observer . August cries before succumbing to his wounds . In the end , Olivia takes a day off to spend time with her niece , Ella , at an amusement park . Two Observers watch the two , and they remark that everything is about to get " so hard " for Olivia .

= = Production = =

" August " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J. H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , while being directed by NCIS veteran Dennis Smith . They began shooting the episode during the second half of September 2009 , right after wrapping production on " Of Human Action " . Supervising producer Josh Singer later noted how " August " helped them write the rest of the season , " There was one episode , ' August ' , which was all about the Observers , that I feel was mythology without being mythology . And somehow , in working that episode , we sort of found a new creative vein . And it 's not that that episode was necessarily so related to everything else we did . But I feel like it sort of opened us up in terms of how we were feeling about the year " .

Up to the point the episode " August " aired , only one character that was part of a group known as " Observers " had been introduced . In this episode , two more such individuals were revealed : August ( played by Peter Woodward ) and December ( played by Eugene Lipinski ) . The creation of Observers was one of the first ideas the writers of Fringe thought of when developing the show in its early stages , when they asked each other , " What if there were these characters where all they did was watch ? " . Pinkner and Wyman thought of creating Observers by " looking for something ... iconic " that had the " quality of being invisible " . Though the Observer called September has appeared in every single Fringe episode in a brief cameo , he was first featured prominently in the fourth episode of the first season . The producers thought of unique characteristics for " somebody who wasn 't of our world , " evolving to the Observers having bald heads , no eyebrows , and " largely deadened " senses , which led to a love for extremely hot peppers .

Before the second season premiere aired in September 2009 , co @-@ creator J.R. Orci hinted that the audience was going to meet " many Observers " , and that in the season 's eighth episode , " You 're going to find out their role in the world , what they 're named after , and their connection to some of these characters . " Later on , when still leading up to the airing of " August " in another interview , Roberto Orci elaborated that " Individuality will be one of the things that they will be fanatically struggling with , actually . That was a fun one , because that one was one where you 're finally getting to pay off things you 've been setting up for a year . You finally get to open the toy box and really play with those toys " . Actor Michael Cerveris , who plays September , commented in an interview that as a result of the episode , viewers would learn that the Observers " are not completely devoid of feelings , and are not incapable of being attached to people they 're observing " . He also expressed relief that his character was no longer the sole Observer on the show , joking that " it was nice to feel like I 'm not the only freak in town for once " .

Actress Anna Torv stated in an interview with MTV News that " August " was one of her favorite episodes because " We sort of get to meet the Observers . At the moment what we know about them , they ... seemingly just observe . That 's kind of it , but [ in ] the episode that we have coming up , we 're not sure if all they do is just observe " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" August " premiered to an estimated 5 @.@ 746 million viewers in the United States , with a 2 @.@ 0 rating . The episode was down 9 % from the previous week 's episode " Of Human Action " , which had a rating of 2 @.@ 2 .

= = = Reviews = = =

MTV 's Josh Wigler thought the episode was " a touching , sad tale with a healthy mix of mythological advancement , " and couldn 't wait for more episodes about the Observers . Ramsey Isler of IGN gave the episode 7 @.@ 6 / 10 , writing that despite the hype , the episode was " just plain average " . He did however appreciate the new revelations about the Observers . After previewing the episode , Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker graded the episode an A- , explaining Fringe had become " one of the fastest , smartest , wittiest shows on television now " . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times called it a " good story peppered with a lot of great details ... ' August ' showed a greater connection to the larger Fringe universe " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club graded it with a B + , praising the " wonderfully moody " episode and how it was able to make the halting Observer dialogue work . Murray found some aspects lacking however , as he thought it was " a very sketchy episode , plot @-@ wise and mythology @-@ wise . Not a whole lot happened " . Website blogger io9 listed " August " as one of the " crucial " episodes new viewers must watch to get into the show .

= Ghost in the Shell ( 1995 film ) =

Ghost in the Shell , known in Japan as Mobile Armored Riot Police : Ghost In The Shell ( 攻殻機動隊 GHOST IN THE SHELL , Kōkaku Kidōtai Gōsuto In Za Sheru ) , is a 1995 science fiction anime film based on manga of the same title by Masamune Shirow . The film was written by Kazunori Itō , directed by Mamoru Oshii , animated by Production I.G , and starred the voices of Atsuko Tanaka , Akio Ōtsuka , and Iemasa Kayumi .

Ghost in the Shell follows the hunt by the public @-@ security agency Section 9 for a mysterious hacker known as the Puppet Master . With the assistance of her team , Motoko Kusanagi tracks and finds their suspect , only to be drawn into a complex sequence of political intrigue and a cover @-@ up as to the identity and goals of the Puppet Master .

The overarching philosophical themes of the film include self @-@ identity in a technologically advanced world . The music , composed by Kenji Kawai , included an ancient Japanese language in a wedding song that serves as a key piece of music leading up to the climax of the movie . Widely considered one of the greatest anime films of all time , critics particularly praised its visuals , which at the time were the most effective synthesis of traditional cel animation and CG animation . It has served as inspiration for filmmakers such as the Wachowskis .

In 2004 , Oshii directed Ghost in the Shell 2 : Innocence , billed as a separate work and not a true sequel . In 2008 , Oshii released an updated version of the original film , Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , that features new audio and updated 3D animation . A live @-@ action Hollywood Ghost in the Shell remake is scheduled for 2017 .

= = Plot = =

In 2029 , the world is interconnected by a vast electronic network that permeates every aspect of life . Much of humanity has access to this network through cybernetic bodies , or " shells " , which possess their consciousness and can give them superhuman abilities .

Major Motoko Kusanagi , an assault @-@ team leader for the Public Security Section 9 , is assigned to capture an elusive hacker known as the Puppet Master . Her team , Batou and Ishikawa , use triangulation to seek out the Puppet Master . Their suspect is a garbageman who believes he is using a program obtained from a sympathetic man to illegally " ghost @-@ hack " his wife 's mind to find his daughter . Kusanagi and her team arrest him and the man who gave him the program , but discover that their memories were either erased or implanted : " ghost @-@ hacked " by the Puppet Master .

A facility is hacked and programmed to assemble a female cybernetic body . The body escapes but is hit by a truck ; Section 9 investigates and examines the body , which seems to have a human " ghost " inside — perhaps the Puppet Master himself . Officials from rival agency Section 6 visit Section 9 and explain that the body was made to lure the Puppet Master 's ghost and trap it inside . Kusanagi espies the conversation and decides to disconnect her consciousness from her current body and connect or " dive into " the body and face the Puppet Master 's ghost . Before she succeeds , the ghost activates the body . Section 6 storms Section 9 and reclaims the body .

The information from the body leads Section 9 to uncover the mysterious Project 2501 . Section 6 claims the project was created to catch the hacker , but it was initiated before his appearance . Section 9 speculates that the project itself created the Puppet Master , who then escaped , and Section 6 now wants him back . Daisuke Aramaki , head of Section 9 , suspects that the project and the Puppet Master are tools of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The escape might lead to the release of secrets that could embarrass Section 6 and the Ministry .

The getaway car carrying the Puppet Master meets another , and they split off . Batou stops the first car and realizes it is a decoy . Kusanagi follows the second car to an abandoned building , where she is ambushed by a spider @-@ like armored vehicle . Batou arrives in time to save the badly damaged Kusanagi . With Batou on guard , Kusanagi faces the body stolen by Section 6 . The Puppet Master reveals himself and explains that , under Project 2501 , he was created by Section 6 to hack ghosts for individuals and Section 6 . While wandering various networks , the Puppet Master became sentient and began to contemplate his existence ; it troubled him that he could not reproduce or die . He plans to merge with Kusanagi 's ghost to experience mortality ; Kusanagi would live on with his ghost . As he could not crack Section 6 's attack protection , he was forced to escape in a physical body .

Batou tries to disconnect the dive , but the Puppet Master ghost @-@ hacks him . Helicopters from Section 6 arrive with orders to destroy everyone inside to cover up Project 2501 . The Puppet Master disrupts their targeting systems . As he starts merging with Kusanagi , snipers blow their heads off , along with Batou 's arm .

Kusanagi wakes up in a child @-@ sized cyborg body in Batou 's safehouse . Batou explains that her original body was destroyed in the fight ; he recovered her head and attached it to the new body . Kusanagi acknowledges she is now neither herself nor the Puppet Master , but a combination of both . Batou says he will always be there for her . She leaves the house and gazes out over the city .

= = Voice cast = =

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

Director Mamoru Oshii stated , " My intuition told me that this story about a futuristic world carried an immediate message for our present world . I am also interested in computers through my own personal experience with them . I had the same feeling about Patlabor and I thought it would be interesting to make a film that took place in the near future . There are only a few movies , even out of Hollywood , which clearly portray the influence and power of computers . I thought this theme would be more effectively conveyed through animation . " Oshii expanded on these thoughts in a later interview , noting that technology changes people and had become a part of the culture of Japan . He commented that his use of philosophy caused producers to become frustrated because of sparing use of action scenes . Oshii also acknowledged that a movie with more action would sell better , but he continued to make these movies anyway . When Oshii went back to make changes to the original Ghost in the Shell to re @-@ release it as Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , one of the reasons he gave was that the film did not resemble the sequel . He wanted to update the film to reflect changes in perspective .

= = = Design = = =

Hiroyuki Okiura , the character designer and key animation supervisor , designed a more mature and serious Motoko than Masamune Shirow 's original portrayal of the character in the manga . Okiura chose to depict a physically mature person to match Motoko 's mental age , instead of the youthful twenty @-@ something appearance in the manga . Motoko 's demeanor lacks the comedic facial expressions and rebellious nature depicted in the manga .

Oshii based the setting for Ghost in the Shell on Hong Kong . Oshii commented that his first thought to find an image of the future setting was an Asian city , but finding a suitable cityscape of the future would be impossible . Oshii chose to use the real streets of Hong Kong as his model . He also said that Hong Kong was the perfect subject and theme for the film with its countless signs and the cacophony of sounds . The film 's mecha designer Takeuchi Atsushi noted that while the film does not have a chosen setting , it is obviously based on Hong Kong because the city represented the theme of the film , the old and the new which exist in a strange relationship in an age of an information deluge . Before shooting the film , the artists drew sketches that emphasized Hong Kong 's chaotic , confusing and overwhelming aspects .

The Hong Kong setting is alluded to by the scene wherein the characters are drinking San Miguel Beer a cultural staple of the East Asian megalopolis .

= = = Animation = = =

Ghost in the Shell used a novel process called " digitally generated animation " ( DGA ) , which is a combination of cel animation , computer graphics ( CG ) , and audio that is entered as digital data . In 1995 , DGA was thought to be the future of animation , which mixed traditional animation with the emerging use of computer graphics , including digital cel work with visual displays . Editing was performed on an AVID system of Avid Technology , which was chosen because it was more versatile and less limiting than other methods and worked with the different types of media in a single environment .

The digital cel work included both original illustrations , compositions and manipulation with traditional cel animation to create a sense of depth and evoke emotion and feelings . Utilized as background , filters like a lens effect were used to create a sense of depth and motion , by distorting the front background and making the far background out of focus throughout the shot . Ghost in the Shell used a unique lighting system in which light and darkness were integrated into the cels with attention to light and shadow sources instead of using contrast to control the light . Hiromasa Ogura , the art director , described this as " a very unusual lighting technique . "

Some special effects , like Motoko 's " thermo @-@ optical camouflage " , were rendered through the use of TIMA software . The process uses a single illustration and manipulates the image as necessary to produce distortions for effect in combination with a background without altering the original illustration . The effect is re @-@ added back into the shot to complete the scene . While the visual displays used in the film were technically simple to create , the appearance of the displays underwent numerous revisions by the production team to best represent visual displays of the future . Another aspect of the CG use was to create images and effects that looked as if they were " perceived by the brain " and were generated in video and added to the film in its final stages .

The opening credits of the film were produced by the CG director , Seichi Tanaka . Tanaka converted code in a computer language displayed in romanized Japanese letters to numbers before inserting them into the computer to generate the credits . The origin of this code is the names of the film 's staff as written in a computer language .

Animation director Toshihiko Nishikubo was responsible for the realism and strove for accurate depictions of movement and effects . The pursuit of realism included the staff conducting firearms research at a facility in Guam . Nishikubo has highlighted the tank scene as an example of the movie 's realism , noting that bullets create sparks when hitting metal , but do not spark when a bullet strikes stone .

= = = Sound and music = = =

Ghost in the Shell 's recording was done with a high @-@ end studio to achieve superior sound throughout the film . A spatializer was used to alter the sound , specifically in the electronic brain conversations , to modify the voices .

Composer Kenji Kawai scored the film . For the main theme , Kawai tried to imagine the setting and convey the essence of that world in the music . He used the ancient Japanese language of Yamato in the opening theme " Making of a Cyborg " . The composition is a mixture of Bulgarian harmony and traditional Japanese notes ; the haunting chorals are a wedding song sung to dispel all evil influences . Symphony conductor Sarah Penicka @-@ Smith notes that the song 's lyrics are fitting for the union between Kusanagi and Project 2501 at the climax of the movie . Kawai originally wanted to use Bulgarian folk music singers , but used Japanese folk singers instead . " See You Everyday " is different from the rest of the soundtrack , being a pop song sung in Cantonese by Fang Ka Wing .

= = = Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 = = =

An updated version of the original film , titled Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 ( GHOST IN THE SHELL ／ 攻殻機動隊 2 @.@ 0 , Gōsuto in za sheru / Kōkaku kidōtai 2 @.@ 0 ) , was made in celebration for the release of The Sky Crawlers in 2008 . The Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 release features replacements of the original animations with the latest digital film and animation technologies , such as 3D @-@ CGI . It includes a new opening , digital screens and holographic displays , and omits several brief scenes .

The original soundtrack was also re @-@ arranged and re @-@ recorded . Kenji Kawai remixed the Version 2 @.@ 0 soundtrack in 6 @.@ 1 Channel Surround . Randy Thom of Skywalker Sound reprised his role as sound designer , having worked previously on Ghost in the Shell 2 : Innocence . In the new soundtrack , the Japanese voice dialogue was also re @-@ recorded , with some variation from the original script to modernize the speech . Yoshiko Sakakibara replaced Iemasa Kayumi as the voice of the Puppet Master .

= = Related media = =

Kenji Kawai 's original soundtrack for the film was released on November 22 , 1995 . The last track included Yoshimasa Mizuno 's pop song " See You Everyday " . After the release of Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , an updated version of the soundtrack was released on December 17 , 2008 .

A Photo @-@ CD of the film was released in Japan on November 20 , 1995 . A spin @-@ off novel written by Endo Akira , titled Ghost in the Shell : Burning City ( 攻殻機動隊灼熱の都市 , Kōkaku kidōtai shakunetsu no toshi ) , was published by Kodansha and released on November 1995 . It was followed by a sequel , titled Ghost in the Shell 2 : Star Seed ( 攻殻機動隊2 : Star Seed ) , released on January 1998 . A book titled Analysis of Ghost in the Shell was released on September 25 , 1997 by Kodansha .

= = Releases = =

The film had its world premiere at the Tokyo International Film Festival in October 1995 , before its general release in November . In Japan , the film was released on VHS on April 26 , 1996 . The DVD version was released on 25 February 2004 , and the Blu @-@ ray on 24 August 2007 . A special edition was released in December 2004 . The special edition contains an additional disc containing character dossiers , a creator biography , the director 's biography , Ghost in the Shell trailers and previews .

The " 2 @.@ 0 " version was released in theatres in Tokyo , Osaka , Nagoya , Fukuoka , and Sapporo on July 12 , 2008 . The film was released in DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 19 , 2008 , in Japan .

In North America , the film was released on VHS on June 18 , 1996 through Manga Entertainment , and on DVD on March 31 , 1998 by Anchor Bay Entertainment . Manga Entertainment released the film on Blu @-@ ray on 24 November 2009 ; this version contains the original film and the remastering , but omits the audio commentary and face @-@ to @-@ face interview with Oshii , which are listed on its box . Manga Entertainment and Anchor Bay Entertainment re @-@ released the film on Blu @-@ ray with a brand new HD film print on September 23 , 2014 . The release was met with some criticism for its poor translation of English subtitles and the lack of extra features .

= = Reception = =

The film was a box office hit when released in Japan and received positive reviews from film critics . It holds a 95 % approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 31 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , " A stunning feat of modern animation , Ghost in the Shell offers a thoughtful , complex treat for anime fans , as well as a perfect introduction for viewers new to the genre . "

Niels Matthijs of Twitch Film praised the film , stating , " Not only is Kokaku Kidotai an essential film in the canon of Japanese animation , together with Kubrick 's 2001 and Tarkovsky 's Solyaris it completes a trio of book adaptations that transcend the popularity of their originals and [ give ] a new meaning to an already popular brand . " He ranked it # 48 of his personal favorites . Clark Collis of Empire opined that the film was predictable , but praised its production values . Johnathan Mays of Anime News Network praised the animation combined with the computer effects , calling it " perhaps the best synthesis ever witnessed in anime " . Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies describes the film as " one of the best anime ever made " , praising screenplay , an " atmospheric score " , and adding that " action scenes as good as anything in the current Hollywood blockbuster are supported by CGI effects that can still astonish " .

Ghost in the Shell was the first anime video to reach Billboard 's # 1 video slot at the time of its release . The film ranked as the ninth top selling anime DVD movie in 2006 . It ranked 35 on Total Film 's 2010 top list of 50 Animated Films . The film ranked # 4 on Wizards Anime Magazine on their " Top 50 Anime released in North America " .

= = = Critical analysis = = =

Much critical attention has been paid to the film 's focus on sexuality and gender identity . Sharalyn Orbaugh has noted that the opening scene of Ghost in the Shell begins with the " perfect paradoxical introduction to a narrative that is all about the nature of sex / gender identity and self @-@ identity in general in a future world where sexual reproduction has given way to mechanical replication . " Motoko 's female identity and appearance are countered by an autonomous subjectivity , resulting in a " male " cyborg body which cannot menstruate . Orbaugh describes the juxtaposition of the opening scene depicting the creation of Motoko 's body and to her lack of menstruation as setting the theme of " reproductive sexuality in a posthuman subject . " The film depicts Motoko 's identity and ontological concerns , ending with the evolution of a being with full subjectivity , through a new form of reproduction with the Puppet Master . Austin Corbett commented on the lack of sexualization from her team as freedom from femininity , noting that Motoko is " overtly feminine , and clearly non @-@ female . " Carl Slivio has called Ghost in the Shell a " resistant film " , due to its inversion of traditional gender roles , its " valorization of the post @-@ gendered subject " , and its de @-@ emphasis of the sexual specificity of the material body .

= = Cultural impact = =

Ghost in the Shell influenced a number of prominent filmmakers . The Wachowskis , creators of The Matrix and its sequels , showed it to producer Joel Silver , saying , " We wanna do that for real . " The Matrix series took several concepts from the film , including the Matrix digital rain , which was inspired by the opening credits of Ghost in the Shell , and the way people accessed the Matrix through holes in the back of their necks . Other parallels have been drawn to James Cameron 's Avatar , Steven Spielberg 's AI : Artificial Intelligence , and Jonathan Mostow 's Surrogates .

= Yo @-@ Yo ( Nicola Roberts song ) =

" Yo @-@ Yo " is a song by British recording artist Nicola Roberts , released as the third and final single from Roberts ' debut solo album Cinderella 's Eyes on 6 January 2012 . Originally , " Yo @-@ Yo " was set to be Roberts ' debut single , but " Beat of My Drum " was selected in its place . " Beat of My Drum " and " Lucky Day " , Roberts ' previous singles , garnered positive comments from critics , but failed to impact commercially . " Yo @-@ Yo " was written by Roberts , Maya Von Doll and Dimitri Tikovoi while it was produced by latter , and was the first song to be composed by the group . Roberts also claimed the track had defined her musical style .

" Yo @-@ Yo " is a 1950s @-@ themed electropop and synthpop song in which Roberts sings about an undecided lover . The song received positive reviews from critics , who compared Roberts ' vocals to those of singer Kate Bush . Commercially , it was a failure , charting at number 111 on the UK Singles Chart . A music video was released on 30 November 2011 ; the video sees Roberts repeatedly changing outfit for a party in which she finds her love interest cheating on her , ending with an aggressive confrontation . It garnered positive critical responses although the low @-@ budget drew criticism . Roberts performed " Yo @-@ Yo " at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub and on the Alan Titchmarsh Show , among other occasions .

= = Background and writing = =

Nicola Roberts , who began her musical career as one fifth of the band Girls Aloud , struggled with loneliness and increasing isolation during her time with the group . A busy schedule and constant media criticism found her describing the time as a " blur " . Her exhaustion and troubles with negative media comments led to a state in which she had to harden herself , claiming that inside she was " dying " . These events inspired her debut album Cinderella 's Eyes . " Yo @-@ Yo " was the first song she had written with Maya von Doll and Dimitri Tikovoi for the album . The recording was also one of the first songs Roberts wrote , and it helped define her musical style . Roberts blogged about the production of the track , writing that :

The production ’ s incredible . The beat is just so constant and powerful . That was the first song that I wrote with Dimitri and Maya . I felt like I ’ d found my sound . And I was kind of looking at it like an outfit . So it was , ‘ if this was an outfit , what would this song need now ? ’ So we had the pretty dress , which was the chorus . We had the lovely shoes , which was the verse . ‘ But what do we need to really set this song off ? A big , fancy , bow in the hair would really set this song off . ’ So when I got to the middle eight I wanted to go really erratic , almost like taTu on All The Things She Said . I wanted it to be proper fucked up and crazy – hands in the air .

= = Release = =

Roberts ' debut single , " Beat of My Drum " , garnered acclaim from critics , but failed to impact commercially , charting at 27 in the United Kingdom . She released a follow @-@ up single , " Lucky Day " , which likewise garnered positive responses , but was even less successful commercially , charting at number 40 on both the Scottish and UK Singles charts . Writing as a guest blogger on the website Holy Moly in September 2011 , Roberts announced that " Yo @-@ Yo " would be released as the third single from Cinderella 's Eyes , initially citing a November release date ; the release was later delayed until January 2012 . Roberts had originally intended for " Yo @-@ Yo " to be the first single from the album , but " Beat of My Drum " was instead chosen at the " last minute " . Roberts stated that " it felt right to go with " the latter song . " Yo @-@ Yo " was released digitally on 2 January 2012 , with Roberts announcing on her official website that the single would be released in CD format featuring a live performance of the song in addition to the demo version of her song " Sticks + Stones " seven days later . Additionally , two EPs were released on 6 January 2012 .

= = Composition and critical reception = =

" Yo @-@ Yo " features 808 drums with a " dramatic " 1950s @-@ inspired pop " pastiche " . However , the 1950s concept " goes completely out of the window " for an " unhinged " bridge , which features a club mix which speeds up the drums featured in the song . The lyrics of the track discuss an uncertain relationship , leading to vulnerability , with Roberts describing it as a " dark " song . The song references a yo @-@ yo ; this is a metaphor for Roberts herself , a spinning yo @-@ yo " on the finger of a hot ' n ' cold lover " . Described as " confessional " by Robert Copsey of Digital Spy , the song has a " conversational " performance , and Roberts ' vocals were compared to that of singer Kate Bush .

The song received positive reviews from music critics . Emily Mackay , writing for NME , described the chorus as a " winning " one , and noted that " the impulse @-@ speed space synths are broken @-@ heartedly beguiling " . In a separate review , Lisa Wright from NME found that while the song didn 't match the success of " Beat of My Drum " . Wright said that the song is " Not a cuss @-@ ridden introduction to Nicola ’ s re @-@ emergence as an English Syd Tha Kyd , but a questionable metaphor about being like a crap ’ 90s toy . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy found Cinderella 's Eyes to be " frustratingly under @-@ appreciated " with " Yo @-@ Yo " being a " shining example of [ Roberts ' ] pop sensibilities " calling it " unashamedly radio friendly " .

= = Music video = =

= = = Synopsis = = =

The video begins with a man performing tricks with a yo @-@ yo in a white room , accompanied by shots showing Roberts in a " fashionable looking house " wearing a black silk dress . Then rapid shots show her in various other outfits , including a purple velvet dress , all the time showing the man performing tricks with the yo @-@ yo . As the chorus begins , Roberts is shown in the kitchen of the house , along with several women dancing with her . Another shot shows a man and a woman walking through a street embracing each other . This is later interspersed with shots of a fully clothed Roberts standing in a shower cubiclem getting increasingly wet . Roberts is shown leaving the house and seeing the man with whom she had danced with another woman . She returns to the house , and the man and Roberts are seen in the kitchen area with Roberts throwing a series of objects at him .

= = = Release and reception = = =

Prior to the release of the video , Roberts released still images to website 3am . These showed her in what was described as " some sort of untidy , yet fashionable looking house " , while one showed her with her legs above her head wearing " Kandee 's caramel kisses shoes " and a third and final seeing her " cosying up next to a handsome chap " . The same day , Roberts gave two more exclusive stills to website Digital Spy ; in one image , she was smelling roses , while , in the second , she was " playing with a pair of shoes " . The video was released on 30 November 2011 . After the official release , Nadia Mendoza of the Daily Mail stated the video was a departure from her previous two videos ( for " Beat of My Drum " and " Lucky Day " ) , saying that it " looks and sounds a lot more grown up as she teases viewers by stripping to her bra and frolicking in the shower . " Mendoza found that Roberts was " becoming quite the chameleon " and had " trampled all over her innocent charm to create a sex siren " , referencing her transformation throughout her videos . Katherine St Asaph , of Pop Dust , found that the video 's low budget had had a negative effect . She interpreted scenes with Roberts repeated changes clothing positively , noting " [ i ] t works because of the lyrics – what , besides other people , can mess with your feelings more than trying on clothes ? "

= = Live performances = =

Roberts performed " Yo @-@ Yo " at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub on 24 September 2011 . She pre @-@ recorded a performance of " Yo @-@ Yo " for UK television programme The Alan Titchmarsh Show during the same taping as a performance of " Lucky Day " . The taping came after deciding " Yo @-@ Yo " would be released as the third single from the album , with Roberts saying , " I absolutely love performing Yo @-@ Yo , it 's my favourite one to do [ ... ] So I feel really close to Yo @-@ Yo . I feel like I lose myself when I 'm performing it " . After the release of the single , Roberts performed on The Album Chart Show during a special dedicated to her , performing three tracks : " Yo @-@ Yo " , " Beat of My Drum " and " Sticks + Stones " . Roberts also performed the song on British chat show Loose Women and on the Digital Music Awards .

= = Charts = =

" Yo @-@ Yo " debuted at its peak of number 111 on the UK Singles Chart .

= = Formats and track @-@ listings = =

= = Release history = =

= Robbie Fowler =

Robert Bernard " Robbie " Fowler ( born 9 April 1975 ) is an English former professional footballer and manager who played as a striker from 1993 to 2012 . Fowler was known for being a natural scorer with an instinctive goal @-@ poaching ability .

Fowler is best remembered for his time at Liverpool and is the sixth @-@ highest goalscorer in the history of the Premier League . He scored 183 goals in total for Liverpool , 128 of which were scored in the Premier League ( 162 Premier League goals in total ) . He earned the nickname " God " from the Anfield crowd , becoming a club legend due to his ruthlessness in front of goal . He subsequently played for Leeds United and Manchester City , before returning to Liverpool in January 2006 .

He moved clubs 18 months later to sign for Cardiff City . He refused a one @-@ year " pay as you play " contract extension and signed with Blackburn Rovers on a three @-@ month deal on the same terms instead . In December 2008 , he departed Blackburn and forged a career in Australia with North Queensland Fury and Perth Glory . In 2011 , he joined Thai side Muangthong United as a player , but later was appointed player @-@ manager which he remained until his retirement in 2012 .

He was capped for England 26 times , scoring 7 goals . Fowler was included in England 's squads for Euro 96 , Euro 2000 and the 2002 FIFA World Cup .

= = Early life = =

Fowler was born in Toxteth , Liverpool and brought up in the inner city area of Liverpool . At this time he was known as Robert Ryder , his mother 's surname . He lived in Toxteth at the time of the 1981 Toxteth riots , when he was six years old . As a youngster he supported Everton F.C .. He played regularly for schoolboy team Thorvald , and once scored 16 times in a 26 – 0 rout .

= = Club career = =

= = = Liverpool = = =

Fowler 's career began with Liverpool . He signed as a youth team player on leaving school in the middle of 1991 , signing professional terms on his 17th birthday , 9 April 1992 .

Fowler 's first involvement with the Liverpool first team came on 13 January 1993 , when he was an unused substitute in an FA Cup third round tie against Bolton Wanderers . In the following close season , Fowler helped the England under @-@ 18 team win the 1993 European Championship , before making a scoring first @-@ team debut in Liverpool 's 3 – 1 win in a first round League Cup tie at Fulham on 22 September 1993 . Fowler scored all five goals in the second leg at Anfield two weeks later , making him the fourth player in Liverpool 's history to score five in a senior fixture . He scored his first league hat @-@ trick against Southampton in only his fifth league game . His very first league goal for the Reds had come on 16 October 1993 , when an 87th @-@ minute equaliser at home to struggling Oldham Athletic saved the Reds from what would have been one of the biggest Premier League shocks of the season , with a last gasp own goal giving Liverpool a 2 – 1 win . He scored twice in a thrilling 3 – 3 draw at Tottenham Hotspur on 18 December .

His first 13 games for the club yielded 12 goals , and he was rewarded with an England Under @-@ 21 debut against San Marino in November 1993 , in which he scored England 's opening goal in the third minute . Fowler was unable to sustain his goal @-@ a @-@ game ratio throughout the season , but finished his first season as the club 's leading scorer with 18 goals in all competitions , although Ian Rush had scored more goals in the league . It was , however , a disappointing season for Liverpool , as they finished eighth in the Premier League without making any impact in any of the major competitions , though the departure of Graeme Souness as manager and the appointment of Roy Evans as successor built up hope for the future .

= = = = Success and fame = = = =

In the 1994 – 95 season , Fowler was an ever @-@ present for Liverpool , playing in all of their 57 competitive matches , including the victory in the 1995 League Cup final , and a match against Arsenal in which he scored the Premier League 's second fastest hat @-@ trick ever , in four minutes and 33 seconds . His record stood for twenty years until broken by Sadio Mané on 16 May 2015 for Southampton against Aston Villa , who scored three goals in two minutes and 56 seconds .

Fowler also scored braces against Aston Villa , Ipswich Town , Chelsea and Norwich City in the league that season .

Fowler was voted the PFA Young Player of the Year in two consecutive years in 1995 and 1996 , a feat equalled only by Ryan Giggs and Wayne Rooney .

Throughout the mid and late 1990s , Fowler was widely considered to be the most natural finisher playing in England . Fowler sealed this reputation as he scored more than 30 goals for three consecutive seasons , up to 1997 . He remains the only player to have scored 30 plus goals in his first three full seasons in England scoring 98 goals with a total of 116 in 3 and a half years , something which has also yet to be beaten in La Liga , Seria A and the Bundesliga too . Fowler 's partnership with Steve McManaman was largely described as the reason why Liverpool had become the club known for being the most potent attacking force in England at the time , and Fowler was renowned for scoring goals of all varieties , from every angle and distance , with McManaman describing him as the " greatest goalscorer of all time . "

Stan Collymore , Fowler 's strike partner from 1995 to 1997 , said in his autobiography that Fowler was the best player he has ever played alongside . Fowler and Collymore were among the most prolific goal @-@ scoring strike partnerships in England during the 1995 – 96 season . In the same season he scored twice in a 4 – 3 victory over Newcastle United , a match voted the best of the decade in a Premier League poll . The match helped prevent Newcastle from winning the league , but it was not enough for Liverpool to clinch the title ; they finished third while Manchester United were crowned champions . Fowler also played in his first FA Cup final that season , but was on the losing side as Manchester United won 1 – 0 .

Fowler received a call @-@ up to the full England squad and won his first cap on 27 March 1996 as a substitute in a friendly against Bulgaria . His first start at international level was against Croatia which was the England game following his substitute appearance . Fowler was part of the England squad for Euro 1996 , making two appearances in the tournament . On 14 December 1996 , he scored four against Middlesbrough , including his hundredth for Liverpool . This meant he reached a century of goals one game quicker than his first strike partner , Ian Rush , in just 165 games .

That year , he also won a UEFA Fair Play award for denying that he had been fouled by Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman at Highbury after a penalty had been given . After unsuccessfully trying to persuade the referee to change his decision about the penalty , Fowler took it tamely and Seaman saved . However , Seaman failed to hold on to the ball and Jason McAteer scored from the rebound . Though many people believe that he deliberately took the penalty kick poorly for reasons of fair play , Fowler said at the time : " As a goalscorer it 's part of my job to take it and I wanted to score it . I tried to score . I never missed on purpose . It just happened , it was a bad penalty . "

= = = = Spice Boys = = = =

Fowler was part of a group of Liverpool players from the mid @-@ 1990s who were dubbed " The Spice Boys " by the press following a series of off @-@ field controversies . The term was coined by the Daily Mail , and arose due to misplaced rumours that Fowler was dating Spice Girl Emma Bunton . The term was subsequently used in a derogatory manner , implying Fowler and colleagues such as Jamie Redknapp , Stan Collymore , David James and Steve McManaman were underachieving playboys .

Fowler 's performance in the 1997 – 98 football season was marred by a knee ligament injury that kept him out of action for half the season and caused him to miss the 1998 World Cup . During this period of injury , fellow Liverpool striker , Michael Owen rose to prominence , making his debut in 1997 . Owen established himself in the Liverpool team in Fowler 's absence .

In 1999 , Fowler was fined £ 60 @,@ 000 by his club for bringing the game into disrepute . While celebrating his goal against Liverpool 's Merseyside rivals , Everton , Fowler used the white line of the penalty area to simulate cocaine use . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier stated that this was a Cameroonian grass @-@ eating celebration , learnt from teammate Rigobert Song . Defending himself , Fowler later said this was a response to Everton fans who had insulted him with false accusations of drug abuse . Fowler received a four @-@ match suspension from the FA for this incident . At the same FA disciplinary hearing , Fowler received a further two match suspension due to a separate incident in which he had taunted the Chelsea defender Graeme Le Saux by waving his backside at him as Le Saux 's wife and children watched from the stands . Fowler later attempted to justify his actions by suggesting his taunts were simply an extension of gamesmanship . The FA imposed a £ 32 @,@ 000 fine and a six @-@ match ban for the two incidents . Fowler has since apologized to Le Saux for the incident .

= = = = Winning the cup treble = = = =

The 2000 – 01 season was Fowler 's most successful season . He appeared in three finals , scoring 17 goals and lifting three trophies in a unique cup treble . In the absence of Jamie Redknapp , who was sidelined by injury , Fowler was named as Liverpool captain when he started . However he found himself the third @-@ choice Liverpool striker , with Houllier favouring a forward partnership of Michael Owen and Emile Heskey .

He took part in a fourth round League Cup hammering of Stoke City , scoring a hat @-@ trick in an 8 – 0 victory , which was second only to the club 's biggest ever win in 1986 – a 10 – 0 defeat of Fulham . In the League Cup final against Birmingham City , the club 's first cup final since 1996 , he captained the side and scored in the 30th minute . Liverpool went on to win the trophy on penalties , with Fowler scoring Liverpool 's fifth in the shootout . Fowler picked up the Alan Hardaker Man of the Match award and lifted the trophy .

Fowler 's season picked up from there as he scored several important goals including one against runaway champions Manchester United and a free kick in the FA Cup semi @-@ final against Wycombe Wanderers . Fowler featured as a substitute in the 2001 FA Cup Final coming on as a 77th @-@ minute replacement for Vladimír Šmicer . Liverpool , who were 1 – 0 down at that point , eventually won the game 2 – 1 with two goals from Owen . Fowler raised the trophy along with Sami Hyypiä and Jamie Redknapp .

Four days later he was a substitute again in Liverpool 's third final , the 2001 UEFA Cup Final against Deportivo Alavés . He came on in the 64th minute for Heskey with the score at 3 – 3 . He scored seven minutes later but Alavés equalised before full @-@ time and Liverpool eventually won with a golden goal , an own goal , in the 116th minute . Fowler and Hyypiä then raised Liverpool 's third trophy of the season together . Liverpool 's next and final game of the season was against Charlton Athletic and Fowler scored twice in a 4 – 0 victory at The Valley that assured them UEFA Champions League qualification for the next season .

= = = = Liverpool departure = = = =

Fowler began the 2001 – 02 season controversially , after being dropped by the then manager Gérard Houllier from the Liverpool squad for the 2001 Charity Shield match following a training ground confrontation with assistant manager Phil Thompson . He made an appearance in Liverpool 's 3 – 2 European Super Cup victory over Bayern Munich , but starts were intermittent . In October 2001 , he scored his first league hat @-@ trick for three years , helping Liverpool beat Leicester City 4 – 1 , but was dropped for the following league match . Though Fowler had been on a contract extension from 1999 ( unlike Steve McManaman – who exercised his Bosman entitlement the very same year ) , Fowler was linked to Lazio , Arsenal and Leeds , and Liverpool 's management as well as fans and the media constantly reported that what happened with McManaman ( regarded as a huge financial loss ) would never be repeated and thus the club never rejected those bids without consideration . This meant that coupled with Fowler 's relationship with Houllier , speculation over Fowler 's future persisted for most of Houllier 's tenure and became an issue that divided Liverpool fans . His last appearance for Liverpool was against Sunderland , in which he was substituted at half @-@ time .

= = = Leeds United = = =

Despite his popularity with Liverpool fans , who referred to Fowler as " God " , Michael Owen and Emile Heskey had established themselves as Liverpool 's regular strike partnership , leaving Fowler on the fringes of the first team . This , along with his difficult relationship with Houllier , made him seek regular first team football away from Anfield in the form of a £ 12 million move to Leeds United . Fowler maintains that Houllier forced him out of Liverpool , and accused Houllier of pressuring the Liverpool Echo newspaper to use its influence to turn opinion against him .

The transfer went ahead just one month after his hat @-@ trick at Leicester . He made his Leeds debut in an away game against Fulham in December 2001 , the same ground where he had made his Liverpool debut eight years earlier . Fowler scored 12 goals in the remainder of the season , helping Leeds to a UEFA Cup qualifying place . Fowler was included in the England squad for the 2002 World Cup , but only made one appearance , coming on as substitute in a second round win over Denmark .

Fowler suffered an aggravation of a pre @-@ existing hip injury in the 2002 – 03 pre @-@ season , and did not recover until December . Struggling to gain fitness , and seeing team @-@ mates sold off due to a financial crisis , Fowler 's form and market value diminished . It was despite this decrease in form that he still , in total , scored 15 goals in 31 appearances for Leeds ; achieving an impressive strike rate of just less than one goal every two games . In 2002 – 03 , Leeds finished 15th in the Premier League and a severe financial crisis was developing .

= = = Manchester City = = =

In the 2002 – 03 season , Fowler was transferred to Manchester City following a protracted transfer saga . Fowler initially turned down the move , and a dispute between Manchester City manager Kevin Keegan and chairman David Bernstein over whether the transfer should take place due to medical concerns resulted in Bernstein leaving the club . Following encouragement from Keegan , Fowler finally signed for Manchester City on 16 January 2003 for an initial fee of £ 3 million and a further £ 3 million dependent upon appearances . Bizarre transfer conditions meant Leeds United still paid a significant proportion of Fowler 's wages . Fowler made his Manchester City debut against West Bromwich Albion on 1 February 2003 , but made a poor start to his Manchester City career , scoring just two goals in the remainder of the season .

Fowler continued to struggle with fitness problems in the 2003 – 04 season , completing the full 90 minutes only nine times , however he did score against his old club Liverpool in a 2 – 2 draw at home . The arrival of close friend , Steve McManaman , from Real Madrid gave Fowler hope , but the pair failed to rekindle their prolific partnership from their time at Liverpool , and received criticism from the fans and tabloids for their salaries , alleged excesses as well as named and shamed in a sex scandal covered by the News of the World that year .

Despite the slump , Fowler rallied for the following campaign , and showed a marked improvement in the second half of the 2004 – 05 season , scoring his 150th Premiership goal in the 3 – 2 win over Norwich City on 28 February 2005 . However , his failure to convert a 90th @-@ minute penalty kick against Middlesbrough 's Mark Schwarzer in the final game of the season prevented Manchester City from gaining a place in the UEFA Cup . Despite this , Fowler ended the season as the club 's joint top goal scorer and gained the approval of the fans , finishing in the top three in the fans ' Player of the Year poll . Fowler later described this as " one of the proudest achievements of my career " .

Fowler had injury problems at the start of the 2005 – 06 season and rarely featured when fit , making just two substitute appearances in the first four months of the season . His first start of the season came against Scunthorpe United in the FA Cup on 7 January 2006 , in which he scored a hat @-@ trick . The following week he scored Manchester City 's third goal in their 3 – 1 win against local rivals Manchester United after coming on as substitute . However , Fowler made only one more appearance for Manchester City before returning to Liverpool on a free transfer .

= = = Return to Liverpool = = =

On 27 January 2006 , Fowler rejoined Liverpool from Manchester City on a free transfer , signing a contract until the end of the season . Fowler had remained a Liverpool fan after he left the club ; he was in the Istanbul crowd when Liverpool won the Champions League in 2005 .

The fans were overjoyed to learn that Fowler had returned ; there were large banners in the game against Birmingham City which read ' God – number eleven , welcome back to heaven ' , with ' God ' being Fowler 's nickname while he was previously at Liverpool .

Fowler 's return against Birmingham City in February 2006 was labelled by the tabloid press as the stuff of fairytales , and he himself said he felt like " a kid waking up on Christmas morning every day " . Fowler 's first appearance back at Anfield was as a substitute against Birmingham , receiving a standing ovation upon his introduction . After his return , he had three goals ruled out for offside , before finally getting off the mark on 15 March 2006 in a home game against Fulham , the same opponents against which he scored his first ever goal for Liverpool 13 years earlier .

Fowler 's next Liverpool goal , against West Bromwich Albion , meant he overtook Kenny Dalglish in the club 's all @-@ time top scorers . His resurgence continued as he marked his 31st birthday with a goal against Bolton Wanderers . He made it four goals in five games when he scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory over Blackburn Rovers on 16 April 2006 . However , Fowler 's fitness remained a concern . In March 2006 , manager Rafael Benítez commented on Fowler 's work and progress by saying , " to buy a Robbie Fowler who is fit and scoring goals would cost a lot , maybe £ 10m or more " . Despite concerns about his fitness , Fowler finished the 2005 – 06 season scoring on a more consistent basis than Liverpool 's other strikers . In May 2006 he was offered a new one @-@ year contract with the club , and celebrated by scoring the first goal in Liverpool 's last league game of the season in a 3 – 1 away win at Portsmouth . It was his final game of the season as he was unable to take part in the club 's FA Cup Final success due to being cup @-@ tied .

Fowler featured rarely in his final Liverpool season , making only six league starts . Bizarrely , all three of his League goals were penalties against Sheffield United . One of these was in the away game on the opening day of the season , and the other two in the reverse fixture at Anfield . Appearances in other competitions were more common due to Rafael Benítez 's squad rotation policy . On 25 October 2006 Fowler was named as Liverpool 's captain for the first time since his return in a League Cup tie against Reading , scoring just before half @-@ time in a 4 – 3 win .

On 5 December , Fowler scored his first two goals in the UEFA Champions League competition proper against Galatasaray ( he had previously scored during a qualifying tie some six years prior against FC Haka ) , though Liverpool lost 3 – 2 .

On 1 May 2007 he was a substitute in the Champions League semi @-@ final against Chelsea , brought on in the last few minutes of extra @-@ time . He set up an attack for Dirk Kuyt but the shot went straight at the Chelsea goalkeeper . The match went into a penalty shoot @-@ out that Liverpool won . Fowler was due to take the fifth and final spot @-@ kick , but the game had already ended when Kuyt slotted home his winning penalty .

In what transpired to be his last appearance for the club , against Charlton Athletic on 13 May , Fowler was given the captain 's armband one final time . He was substituted two minutes from the final whistle and given a standing ovation . He finished his second run as a Liverpool player with a UEFA Champions League runners @-@ up medal , although he was not named in either the starting eleven or the seven substitutes . He became a free agent on 1 July having scored 183 goals in 369 appearances during his two spells at the club .

= = = Cardiff City = = =

On 21 July 2007 Fowler signed a two @-@ year contract to play for Cardiff City . He missed the season 's opening fixtures due to a lack of fitness , making his debut in a League Cup tie on 28 August . He scored his first two Cardiff goals on 22 September against Preston North End , scoring with two headers . Fowler scored twice in his next game , a third round League Cup tie against West Brom , which Cardiff won 4 – 2 . This led to a fourth round tie against Fowler 's former club Liverpool , at Anfield , to which even the Liverpool faithful crowd urged Fowler to score seeing that it may be the last time he would play in Anfield but Cardiff were knocked out in a 2 – 1 defeat .

In November , Fowler travelled to Frankfurt , Germany to see Dr. Hans @-@ Wilhelm Müller @-@ Wohlfahrt , a specialist sports injuries doctor , to try and resolve a recurring hip problem that had left him lacking fitness in early season fixtures for the Bluebirds . The treatment involved taking around twenty @-@ eight injections into his hip . He returned to full training in late November and made his comeback on 15 December as a late substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat against Bristol City . However he went on to suffer another injury blow just days later after a mistimed tackle in training from club captain Darren Purse left him with damaged ankle ligaments . Due to the new injury blow Cardiff and Fowler made plans for him to go to Colorado , United States to undergo keyhole surgery on the hip problem , which had plagued him in recent seasons , in the hope that it would finally resolve the problem .

On 17 January 2008 , it was announced that Fowler could miss the rest of the 2007 – 08 season for Cardiff after his hip operation revealed that the injury was worse than previously thought . Surgeons were forced to perform a micro @-@ fracture in order for the hip to heal properly . Despite this , he attempted to make a comeback at the end of the season to play in the FA Cup final against Portsmouth and was included in the 18 @-@ man match squad . He did not feature in the game in and thus did not receive a runners @-@ up medal having not made an appearance in the competition .

= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =

Fowler was offered a new pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ play contract with Cardiff for the 2008 – 09 season in May 2008 and was expected to sign the contract . However , he pulled out of the deal , preferring to accept an offer of a trial at Blackburn Rovers from former Liverpool colleague Paul Ince . The move left Cardiff manager Dave Jones and chairman Peter Ridsdale furious after the club had assisted Fowler 's rehabilitation throughout the summer . After training with Blackburn and appearing in a handful of friendlies he was offered a six @-@ month deal by the club to last until January , but Fowler turned down the deal due to it being a shorter offer than the previous one he had rejected at Cardiff . After turning down the offer , Fowler made a shock enquiry about returning to Cardiff on the deal he had originally turned down , prompting anger from supporters and a swift " no thanks " from the club .

Fowler concluded the trial period at Blackburn by agreeing to a three @-@ month pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ play deal . He stated that he was eager to return to the Premier League and that his pre @-@ existing relationship with Ince would not earn him any preferential treatment . He made his first appearance against Everton in a 1 – 0 win in the League Cup on 24 September . With a month left on his contract at Blackburn , Fowler received interest from League Two side Grimsby Town . Fowler , a noted friend of then Grimsby manager Mike Newell had held talks at Blundell Park over a possible Player / Coach role with the club .

His three @-@ month deal at Blackburn expired on 12 December 2008 , and after not being offered a new contract was released by the club , he entered talks with new Australian A @-@ League club North Queensland Fury .

= = = North Queensland Fury = = =

Fowler signed with the North Queensland Fury on 4 February 2009 and became their inaugural marquee player ; with his family relocating to Townsville for the 2009 – 10 season of the Australian A @-@ League . It was an important signing for the new franchise who struggled to sign a marquee player , while some questioned whether Fowler would be able to cope with the heat and humidity of North Queensland .

Fowler made his debut in July 2009 in a 2 – 1 pre @-@ season loss against Wolverhampton Wanderers in Perth after recovering from groin and hip complaints . Fowler was subsequently named North Queensland Fury 's captain for the 2009 – 10 season and the first in the club 's history . He scored his first A @-@ League goal from a penalty kick in his club 's first competitive match against Sydney FC on Saturday 8 August 2009 . In rounds four , five , and six Fowler scored Solo 's Hyundai A @-@ League Goal of the Week .

Shortly after his arrival in Australia , it was reported in the British media that Fowler would be making a swift return to his homeland and sign for League One side Tranmere Rovers , who had just appointed Fowler 's former Liverpool team mate John Barnes as manager . However , Fowler was quick to dismiss talk of a quick return to England . When Barnes was dismissed three months later , it was reported that Tranmere had approached Fowler about becoming player @-@ manager , but these reports too were dismissed .

Controversy erupted around Fowler after he reportedly refused to play against the Brisbane Roar on 23 January after being named on the interchange bench for the clash . He however returned to the starting line up for two of the last three games of the season . Fowler ended the season collecting a hat @-@ trick of awards at the clubs end @-@ of @-@ season awards night , he was awarded the clubs Player of the Year , Players ' Player of the Year and the Golden Boot as top goal scorer . On 15 June 2010 , Fowler confirmed that he is taking legal action over the ending of his playing contract with North Queensland Fury . He is suing the Fury and Football Federation Australia , which took over the running of the club .

= = = Perth Glory = = =

On 27 April 2010 , it was announced that Fowler had agreed to become part of Glory 's squad for the 2010 – 11 A @-@ League season . Fowler reportedly ignored offers from Middle East clubs as well as Sydney FC to play in Perth . He joined the Glory for pre @-@ season training in mid @-@ June , following World Cup sponsorship commitments . Fowler scored his first goal for Perth on 29 August , a penalty against Melbourne Heart . He followed this up with a headed goal the following week against the Wellington Phoenix . In the following match , Fowler 's hat @-@ trick gave the Glory a 3 – 1 victory against Melbourne Victory at the Dairy Famers Stadium in Townsville . Fowler ended the year as top scorer for the club .

= = = Muangthong United = = =

On 7 July 2011 Fowler agreed to play with Muangthong United , signing a one @-@ year contract . In a press conference he stated that the weather conditions of Nonthaburi should not be a problem as he had played in Townsville and Perth . He was quickly a hit with Muangthong fans and the Thai public in general ; he attended Thailand 's World Cup Qualifier against Oman wearing the national team 's shirt . He has since played a handful of scoreless games , both at the Yamaha Stadium and on the road in the AFC Cup , until the Twin Qilins were eliminated from the competition by Al @-@ Kuwait . After the sacking of Henrique Calisto as head coach , Fowler was made player / coach .

On 16 October 2011 , after 250 minutes of play , Fowler scored his first goal for MTU against Chiangrai . He scored his 250th club career goal on 21 December 2011 against TTM Phichit . On 28 February 2012 Fowler announced he had left the club following Slavisa Jokanovic 's appointment as coach .

= = = Return to England and retirement = = =

On 1 March 2012 , Blackpool manager Ian Holloway confirmed that Fowler was training with the Seasiders and that he could earn a deal until the end of the season . However , they could not agree a deal and Fowler decided against signing when Karl Oyston offered the striker just £ 100 a week with £ 5 @,@ 000 for every first @-@ team appearance .

On 22 September 2012 Fowler announced that he is " all but retired from professional football . " He said this on the television show Soccer AM . In an interview in March 2013 , he said that he was " not officially retired " and would " jump at the opportunity to play again . " Fowler has also stated in other interviews that he is currently completing his coaching licences . Fowler was on a six @-@ man shortlist and interviewed for the vacant manager 's job at Conference side Macclesfield Town in May 2013 , but caretaker manager John Askey was eventually appointed on a full @-@ time basis .

Fowler featured in Steven Gerrard 's testimonial match against Olympiacos F.C. on 3 August 2013 . He came off the bench in the 73rd minute to a big reception from Liverpool fans , but failed to score a goal .

On 21 April 2014 , Fowler also featured in a charity match to commemorate the lives of the 96 Liverpool fans who died in the Hillsborough Disaster . Fowler scored both goals for his team in a 2 @-@ 2 draw .

On 2 January 2015 , Fowler tweeted " Gutted about Steven , but what an unbelievable player ... I 'm officially hanging my boots up as from now ... A sad day for me " and so officially announced his retirement .

= = = Soccer Aid = = =

In May 2016 it was revealed that Fowler would return to the pitch to play for England in Soccer Aid , a charity football match in aid of UNICEF , alongside Jamie Carragher .

= = International career = =

Fowler earned his first cap for England on 27 March 1996 , coming on as a 76th @-@ minute substitute in the 1 – 0 friendly win against Bulgaria at Wembley Stadium . On 24 April , he won his second cap and made his first start for England in the 0 – 0 draw with Croatia . Despite only having 3 caps to his name , England manager Terry Venables selected Fowler in his 22 @-@ man squad for Euro 1996 . Fowler went on to make two substitute appearances in the tournament , featuring in the 4 – 1 win against the Netherlands in the final group game , and in the 0 – 0 draw against Spain in the quarter @-@ finals , a game England won on penalties .

Fowler did not feature during England 's qualifying campaign for the 1998 FIFA World Cup , mainly due to a serious knee ligament injury , and thus missed out on Glenn Hoddle 's 22 @-@ man squad for the tournament . He did , however , manage to score his first goal for his country on 29 March 1997 , netting the second goal in a 2 – 0 friendly win against Mexico at Wembley Stadium . A second goal followed in his next cap on 15 November , netting just before half @-@ time in the 2 – 0 friendly win against Cameroon .

On 9 June 1999 , Fowler played in his first competitive game for England in nearly three years , starting in the 1 – 1 draw with Bulgaria during Euro 2000 qualifying . Kevin Keegan named Fowler in the preliminary squad for Euro 2000 , and after featuring in the three warm @-@ up games against Brazil , Ukraine , and Malta , he was named in the final squad on 1 June 2000 . Fowler did not play in the tournament as England were eliminated in the group stages .

Fowler scored his fourth goal for England on 25 May 2001 , netting the second goal in the 4 – 0 friendly win against Mexico at Pride Park , Derby . On 5 September , he scored his first competitive goal for England in the 2 – 0 win against Albania at St James ' Park , Newcastle . This was during qualifying for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . England qualified for the World Cup , and after scoring in friendlies against Italy and Cameroon , Fowler was selected in Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson 's 23 @-@ man squad for the tournament in South Korea and Japan . He didn 't appear in any of England 's group matches , but on 15 June 2002 , he came on as a second @-@ half substitute in the 3 – 0 win against Denmark in the Round of 16 . This turned out to be Fowler 's last cap for his country . He won a total of 26 caps for England and scored 7 goals .

= = Coaching career = =

= = = Milton Keynes Dons = = =

On returning to England , Fowler has worked with League One side Milton Keynes Dons on an ad @-@ hoc basis to assist the club 's coaching staff . On 7 April 2011 , Bury confirmed that Fowler would join their coaching staff for one week to assist Richie Barker . Fowler briefly coached Liverpool 's strikers in April 2011 .

= = = Muangthong United = = =

Muangthong took action and sacked Henrique Calisto as head coach . A statement on the Muangthong website read : " The Board have appointed Robbie Fowler as the acting Head Coach and terminate the contract of Portuguese boss Henrique Calisto . The contract is until the end of the season and the team must adapt to long @-@ term goals if it is to succeed in Asia " , thus making Fowler player / coach of Muangthong United .

= = = Liverpool Academy = = =

In October 2013 it was announced that Fowler would be taking up a coaching role with Liverpool FC at the academy .

On 9 September 2014 , it was revealed Fowler had applied for the vacant head coach / manager job at his former club Leeds United .

= = Style of play = =

A prolific goal @-@ scorer , Fowler was a quick and opportunistic striker , with good technical ability . Although naturally left @-@ footed , he possessed an accurate , powerful shot from both inside and outside the area with both feet ; he was also effective in the air . Despite his reputation as a " goal @-@ poacher " , he was also a creative player , capable of linking up well with other players , and laying off the ball to other strikers . Despite his talent , he was also known to be injury @-@ prone throughout his career .

= = Personal life = =

Fowler married wife Kerrie on 9 June 2001 in the town of Duns in Scotland . Together they have three daughters named Madison , Jaya , and Mackenzie , and one son , Jacob .

Fowler is a supporter of Liverpool F.C. and regularly attends matches at Anfield . He does media work for Abu Dhabi Sports Channel , Sky Sports and ITV .

In association with long term friend Steve McManaman , Fowler has invested in several racehorses through a chattily named company The Macca and Growler Partnership , most notably 2003 Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother Celebration Chase runner @-@ up Seebald . In 2005 , Fowler was listed as one of the 1 @,@ 000 wealthiest Britons by the Sunday Times Rich List , with the paper estimating he has a property portfolio of more than 80 , while his Robbie Fowler Sports Promotions company has been reported to have net assets of £ 1 @.@ 58 million . Other business interests including a large property portfolio have resulted in Fowler 's net wealth totaling £ 28 million . This gave rise to the affectionate Manchester City Football Club chant , We all live in a Robbie Fowler house , sung to the tune of Yellow Submarine .

On 2 September 2005 , Fowler released a book called Fowler : My Autobiography , about his time as a footballer and the issues surrounding him . Since his transfer to Liverpool he has updated it and included a section about his return to Anfield . Excerpts published in newspapers included criticism of the England management .

In June 2008 , Fowler participated alongside McManaman in Steve Nash and Claudio Reyna 's Showdown in Chinatown , an 8 @-@ on @-@ 8 charity soccer game at Sara D. Roosevelt Park in Manhattan with McManaman making five of the goals , including one for Fowler .

In 2011 , Fowler and McManaman participated in a Select World XI against Chechen dictator Ramzan Kadyrov and his select XI in a public relations fundraiser in the war @-@ torn nation 's capital of Grozny . The match caused much press bewilderment in the western world , mainly due to Kadyrov 's abysmal human rights record and known practices of torture and rape as weapons of rule . British press also cited the use of and payment of footballers to parade the event as particularly " evil " , with The Guardian labelling it " Football 's moment in Bed with Kadyrov " .

Fowler is a cousin of boxer and 2014 Commonwealth Games gold medallist Antony Fowler .

= = Career statistics = =

= = Managerial statistics = =

= = Honours = =

= = = Club = = =

Liverpool

FA Cup : 2000 – 01

League Cup : 1994 – 95 , 2000 – 01

FA Charity Shield : 2001

UEFA Cup : 2000 – 01

UEFA Super Cup : 2001

= = = International = = =

England

UEFA European Under @-@ 18 Football Championship : 1993

= = = Individual = = =

PFA Young Player of the Year Award : 1995 , 1996

UEFA Fair Play Award : 1997

Alan Hardaker Trophy : 2001

North Queensland Fury Player of the Year : 2010

North Queensland Fury Golden Boot : 2010

North Queensland Fury Players ' Player of the Year : 2010

Perth Glory Golden Boot : 2011

Premier League Player of the Month : December 1995 , January 1996

= Ode on Indolence =

The " Ode on Indolence " is one of five odes composed by English poet John Keats in the spring of 1819 . The others were " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode to Psyche " . The poem describes the state of indolence , otherwise known as laziness , and was written during a time when he felt that he should devote his efforts to earning an income instead of composing poetry . After finishing the spring poems , Keats wrote in June 1819 that its composition brought him more pleasure than anything else he had written that year . Unlike the other odes he wrote that year , " Ode on Indolence " was not published until 1848 , 27 years after his death .

The poem is an example of Keats 's break from the structure of the classical form . It follows the poet 's contemplation of a morning spent in idleness . Three figures are presented — Ambition , Love and Poesy — dressed in " placid sandals " and " white robes " . The narrator examines each using a series of questions and statements on life and art . The poem concludes with the narrator giving up on having all three of the figures as part of his life . Some critics regard " Ode on Indolence " as inferior to the other four 1819 odes . Others suggest that the poem exemplifies a continuity of themes and imagery characteristic of his more widely read works , and provides valuable biographical insight into his poetic career .

= = Background = =

By the spring of 1819 , Keats had left his poorly paid position as a surgeon at Guy 's Hospital , Southwark , London , to devote himself to poetry . On 12 May 1819 , he abandoned this plan after receiving a request for financial assistance from his brother , George . Unable to help , Keats was torn by guilt and despair and sought projects more lucrative than poetry . It was under these circumstances that he wrote " Ode on Indolence " .

In a letter to his brother dated 19 March 1819 , Keats discussed indolence as a subject . He may have written the ode as early as March , but the themes and stanza forms suggest May or June 1819 ; when it is known he was working on " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode to Psyche " . During this period , Keats 's friend Charles Armitage Brown transcribed copies of the spring odes and submitted them to publisher Richard Woodhouse . Keats wrote to his friend Sarah Jeffrey : " [ T ] he thing I have most enjoyed this year has been writing an ode to Indolence . " Despite this enjoyment , however , he was not entirely satisfied with " Ode on Indolence " , and it remained unpublished until 1848 .

Keats 's notes and papers do not reveal the precise dating of the 1819 odes . Literary scholars have proposed several different orders of composition , arguing that the poems form a sequence within their structures . In The Consecrated Urn , Bernard Blackstone observes that " Indolence " has been variously thought the first , second , and final of the five 1819 odes . Biographer Robert Gittings suggests " Ode on Indolence " was written on 4 May 1819 , based upon Keats 's report about the weather during the ode 's creation ; Douglas Bush insists it was written after " Nightingale " , " Grecian Urn " , and " Melancholy " . Based on his examination of the stanza forms , Keats biographer Andrew Motion thinks " Ode on Indolence " was written after " Ode to Psyche " and " Ode to a Nightingale " , although he admits there is no way to be precise about the dates . Nevertheless , he argues that " Ode on Indolence " was probably composed last .

= = Structure = =

" Ode on Indolence " relies on ten line stanzas with a rhyme scheme that begins with a Shakespearian quatrain ( ABAB ) and ends with a Miltonic sestet ( CDECDE ) . This pattern is used in " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , which further unifies the poems in their structure in addition to their themes .

The poem contains a complicated use of assonance ( the repetition of vowel sounds ) , as evident in line 19 , " O why did ye not melt , and leave my sense " , where the pairs ye / leave and melt / sense share vowel sounds . A more disorganized use of assonance appears in line 31 , " A third time pass 'd they by , and , passing , turn 'd " , in which the pairs third / turn 'd , time / by , and pass 'd / passing share vowel sounds . The first line exemplifies the poem 's consistent iambic pentameter scansion :

Keats occasionally inverts the accent of the first two syllables of each line or a set of syllables within the middle of a line . 2 @.@ 3 % of the internal syllables are inverted in the " Ode on Indolence " , whereas only 0 @.@ 4 % of the internal syllables of his other poems contain such inversions .

= = Poem = =

The poem relies on a first @-@ person narration style similar to " Ode to Psyche " . It begins with a classical scene from an urn in a similar manner to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , but the scene in " Indolence " is allegorical . The opening describes three figures that operate as three fates :

One morn before me were three figures seen ,

With bowed necks , and joined hands , side @-@ faced ;

And one behind the other stepp 'd serene ,

In placid sandals , and in white robes graced ;

They pass 'd , like figures on a marble urn

When shifted round to see the other side ;

They came again , as , when the urn once more

Is shifted round , the first seen shades return ;

And they were strange to me , as may betide

With vases , to one deep in Phidian lore . ( Lines 1 – 10 )

The figures remain mysterious as they circle around the narrator . Eventually they turn towards him and it is revealed that they are Ambition , Love , and Poesy , the themes of the poem :

A third time pass 'd they by , and , passing , turn 'd

Each one the face a moment whiles to me ;

Then faded , and to follow them I burn 'd

And ached for wings , because I knew the three :

The first was a fair Maid , and Love her name ;

The second was Ambition , pale of cheek ,

And ever watchful with fatigued eye ;

The last , whom I love more , the more of blame

Is heap 'd upon her , maiden most unmeek , —

I knew to be my demon Poesy . ( Lines 31 – 40 )

The poet wishes to be with the three figures , but he is unable to join them . The poem transitions into the narrator providing reasons why he would not need the three figures and does so with ambition and love , but he cannot find a reason to dismiss poesy :

They faded , and , forsooth ! I wanted wings :

O folly ! What is Love ? and where is it ?

And for that poor Ambition — it springs

From a man 's little heart 's short fever @-@ fit ;

For Poesy ! — no , — she has not a joy , —

At least for me , — so sweet as drowsy noons ,

And evenings steep 'd in honied indolence ;

O , for an age so shelter 'd from annoy ,

That I may never know how change the moons ,

Or hear the voice of busy common @-@ sense ! ( lines 41 – 50 )

Concluding the poem , the narrator argues that the figures should be treated as figures , and that he would not be misled by them :

So , ye three ghosts , adieu ! Ye cannot raise

My head cool @-@ bedded in the flowery grass ;

For I would not be dieted with praise ,

A pet @-@ lamb in a sentimental farce !

Fade softly from my eyes , and be once more

In masque @-@ like figures on the dreary urn ;

Farewell ! I yet have visions for the night ,

And for the day faint visions there is store ;

Vanish , ye phantoms , from my idle spright ,

Into the clouds , and never more return ! ( lines 51 – 60 )

= = Themes = =

The poem centres on humanity and human nature . When the poet sees the figures , he wants to know their names and laments his ignorance . Eventually , he realizes that they are representative of Love , Ambition , and Poetry . While he longs , he fears they are out of reach and therefore tries to reject them . He argues that love is what he needs least and dismisses it by questioning what " love " actually means ( " What is Love ? and where is it ? " ) . He rejects ambition , but it requires more work ( " And for that poor Ambition — it springs / From a man 's little heart 's short fever @-@ fit ; " ) . Unlike the personas of Love and Ambition , the narrator is unable to find a reason to banish Poesy ( Poetry ) , which reflects the poets ' inner conflict : should he abandon poetry to focus on a career in which he can earn a decent living ? Keats 's sought to write great poetry but feared his pursuit of literary prominence was based on a delusional view of his own merit as a poet . Further , he was incapable of completing his epic , " Hyperion " . As Walter Jackson Bate explains , to Keats " Neither a finished ' grand Poem ' nor even the semblance of a modest financial return seemed nearer . "

Keats realized that he could never have Love , could not fulfil his Ambition , and could not spend his time with Poesy . The conclusion of " Ode to Indolence " is a dismissal of both the images and his poetry as figures that would only mislead him . Even indolence itself seems unattainable ; Andrew Motion writes that the figures force Keats to regard indolence as " the privilege of the leisured class to which he did not belong . " If the poem is read as the final poem in the 1819 ode series , " Ode on Indolence " suggests that Keats is resigned to giving up his career as a poet because poetry cannot give him the immortality he wanted from it . Ironically , the poem provided Keats with such immortality . Besides the biographical component , the poem also describes Keats 's belief that his works should capture the beauty of art while acknowledging the harshness of life . In this way , the poems as a group capture Keats 's philosophy of negative capability , the concept of living with unreconciled contradictory views , by trying to reconcile Keats 's desire to write poetry and his inability to do so by abandoning poetry altogether and accepting life as it is .

Within the many poems that explore this idea — among them Keats 's and the works by his contemporaries — Keats begins by questioning suffering , breaks it down to its most basic elements of cause and effect , and draws conclusions about the world . His own process is filled with doubt , but his poems end with a hopeful message that the narrator ( himself ) is finally free of desires for Love , Ambition , and Poesy . The hope contained within " Ode on Indolence " is found within the vision he expresses in the last stanza : " I yet have visions for the night / And for the day faint visions there is store . " Consequently , in her analysis of The Odes of John Keats , Helen Vendler suggests that " Ode on Indolence " is a seminal poem constructed with themes and images that appeared more influential in his other , sometimes later , poems . The ode is an early and entirely original work that establishes the basis of Keats 's notion of soul making , a method by which the individual builds his or her soul through a form of education consisting of suffering and personal experience . This is a fundamental preoccupation of the Romantics , who believed the way to reconcile man and nature was through this soul development , education — the combination of experience and contemplation — and that only this process , not the rationality of the previous century , would bring about true Enlightenment .

The classical influences Keats invoked affected other Romantic poets , but his odes contain a higher degree of allusion than most of his contemporaries ' works . As for the main theme , indolence and poetry , the poem reflects the emotional state of being Keats describes in an early 1819 letter to his brother George :

[ I ] ndolent and supremely careless ... from my having slumbered till nearly eleven ... please has no show of enticement and pain no unbearable frown . Neither Poetry , nor Ambition , nor Love have any alertness of countenance as they pass by me : they seem rather like three figures on a greek vase — a Man and two women — whom no one but myself could distinguish in their disguisement .

Willard Spiegelman , in his study of Romantic poetry , suggests that the indolence of the poem arises from the narrator 's reluctance to apply himself to the labour associated with poetic creation . Some critics provide other explanations , and William Ober claims that Keats 's description of indolence may have arisen from the use of opium .

= = Critical response = =

Literary critics regard " Ode on Indolence " as inferior to Keats 's other 1819 odes . Walter Evert wrote that " it is unlikely that the ' Ode on Indolence ' has ever been anyone 's favorite poem , and it is certain that it was not Keats 's . Why he excluded it from the 1820 volume we do not know , but it is repetitious and declamatory and structurally infirm , and these would be reasons enough . " Bate indicated that the poem 's value is " primarily biographical and not poetic " .

" Ode on Indolence " is sometimes called upon as a point of comparison when discussing Keats 's other poems . Charles Wentworth Dilke observed that while the poem can be read as a supplemental text to assist the study of " Grecian Urn " , it remains a much inferior work . In 2000 , Thomas McFarland wrote in consideration of Dilke 's comparison : " Far more important than the similarity , which might seem to arise from the urns in Keats 's purview in both Ode on Indolence and Ode on a Grecian Urn ... is the enormous dissimilarity in the two poems . Ode on Indolence ... is a flaccid enterprise that hardly bears mention alongside that other achievement . "

Sidney Colvin , in his 1917 biography on Keats , grouped " Indolence " with the other 1819 odes in categorizing Keats 's " class of achievements " . In 1948 , Lord Gorell described the fifth stanza as , " lacking the magic of what the world agrees are the great Odes " but describes the language as " [ d ] elicate , charming even " . Later , in a 1968 biography of Keats , Gittings describes the importance of the poem : " The whole ode , in fact , has a borrowed air , and he acknowledged its lack of success by not printing it with the others ... Yet with its acceptance of the numb , dull and indolent mood as something creative , it set the scene for all the odes that followed . "

In 1973 , Stuart Sperry described it as " a rich and nourishing immersion in the rush of pure sensation and its flow of stirring shadows and ' dim dreams ' . In many ways the ode marks both a beginning and an end . It is both the feeblest and potentially the most ambitious of the sequence . Yet its failure , if we choose to consider it that , is more the result of deliberate disinclination than any inability of means . " Andrew Motion , in 1997 , argued , " Like ' Melancholy ' , the poem is too articulate for its own poetic good ... In two of his May odes , ' Melancholy ' and ' Indolence ' , Keats defined themes common to the whole group with such fierce candour that he restricted their imaginative power . His identity had prevailed . "

= Erving Goffman =

Erving Goffman ( 11 June 1922 – 19 November 1982 ) was a Canadian @-@ American sociologist and writer , considered " the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century " . In 2007 he was listed by The Times Higher Education Guide as the sixth most @-@ cited author in the humanities and social sciences , behind Anthony Giddens and ahead of Jürgen Habermas .

Goffman was the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association . His best @-@ known contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction . This took the form of dramaturgical analysis , beginning with his 1959 book , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . Goffman 's other major works include Asylums ( 1961 ) , Stigma ( 1963 ) , Interaction Ritual ( 1967 ) , Frame Analysis ( 1974 ) , and Forms of Talk ( 1981 ) . His major areas of study included the sociology of everyday life , social interaction , the social construction of self , social organization ( framing ) of experience , and particular elements of social life such as total institutions and stigmas .

= = Life = =

Goffman was born 11 June 1922 , in Mannville , Alberta , Canada , to Max Goffman and Anne Goffman , née Averbach . He was from a family of Ukrainian Jews who had emigrated to Canada at the turn of the century . He had an older sibling , Frances Bay , who became an actress . The family moved to Dauphin , Manitoba , where his father operated a successful tailoring business .

From 1937 Goffman attended St. John 's Technical High School in Winnipeg , where his family had moved that year . In 1939 he enrolled at the University of Manitoba , majoring in chemistry . He interrupted his studies and moved to Ottawa to work in the film industry for the National Film Board of Canada , established by John Grierson . Later he developed an interest in sociology . Also during this time , he met the renowned North American sociologist , Dennis Wrong . Their meeting motivated Goffman to leave the University of Manitoba and enroll at the University of Toronto , where he studied under C. W. M. Hart and Ray Birdwhistell , graduating in 1945 with a BA in sociology and anthropology . Later he moved to the University of Chicago , where he received an MA ( 1949 ) and PhD ( 1953 ) in sociology . For his doctoral dissertation , from December 1949 to May 1951 he lived and collected ethnographic data on the island of Unst in the Shetland Islands .

In 1952 Goffman married Angelica Choate ; in 1953 , their son Thomas was born . Angelica suffered from mental illness and committed suicide in 1964 . Outside his academic career , Goffman was known for his interest , and relative success , in the stock market and in gambling . At one point , in pursuit of his hobbies and ethnographic studies , he became a pit boss at a Las Vegas casino .

In 1981 Goffman married sociolinguist Gillian Sankoff . The following year , their daughter Alice was born . In 1982 Goffman died in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , on 19 November , of stomach cancer . Their daughter , Alice Goffman , is also a sociologist .

= = Career = =

The research that Goffman had done in Unst inspired him to write his first major work , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life ( 1956 ) . After graduating from the University of Chicago , in 1954 – 57 he was an assistant to the athletic director at the National Institute for Mental Health in Bethesda , Maryland . Participant observation done there led to his essays on mental illness and total institutions which came to form his second book , Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates ( 1961 ) .

In 1958 Goffman became a faculty member in the sociology department at the University of California , Berkeley , first as a visiting professor , then from 1962 as a full professor . In 1968 he moved to the University of Pennsylvania , receiving the Benjamin Franklin Chair in Sociology and Anthropology , due largely to the efforts of Dell Hymes , a former colleague at Berkeley . In 1969 he became a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1970 Goffman became a cofounder of the American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization and coauthored its Platform Statement . In 1971 he published Relations in Public , in which he tied together many of his ideas about everyday life , seen from a sociological perspective . Another major book of his , Frame Analysis , came out in 1974 . He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1977 – 78 . In 1979 , Goffman received the Cooley @-@ Mead Award for Distinguished Scholarship , from the Section on Social Psychology of the American Sociological Association . He was elected the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association , serving in 1981 – 82 ; he was , however , unable to deliver the presidential address in person due to progressing illness .

Posthumously , in 1983 , he received the Mead Award from the Society for the Study of Symbolic Interaction .

= = Influence and legacy = =

Goffman was influenced by Herbert Blumer , Émile Durkheim , Sigmund Freud , Everett Hughes , Alfred Radcliffe @-@ Brown , Talcott Parsons , Alfred Schütz , Georg Simmel and W. Lloyd Warner . Hughes was the " most influential of his teachers " , according to Tom Burns . Gary Alan Fine and Philip Manning state that Goffman never engaged in serious dialogue with other theorists . His work has , however , influenced and been discussed by numerous contemporary sociologists , including Anthony Giddens , Jürgen Habermas and Pierre Bourdieu .

Though Goffman is often associated with the symbolic interaction school of sociological thought , he did not see himself as a representative of it , and so Fine and Manning conclude that he " does not easily fit within a specific school of sociological thought " . His ideas are also " difficult to reduce to a number of key themes " ; his work can be broadly described as developing " a comparative , qualitative sociology that aimed to produce generalizations about human behavior " .

Goffman made substantial advances in the study of face @-@ to @-@ face interaction , elaborated the " dramaturgical approach " to human interaction , and developed numerous concepts that have had a massive influence , particularly in the field of the micro @-@ sociology of everyday life . Many of his works have concerned the organization of everyday behavior , a concept he termed " interaction order " . He contributed to the sociological concept of framing ( frame analysis ) , to game theory ( the concept of strategic interaction ) , and to the study of interactions and linguistics . With regard to the latter , he argued that the activity of speaking must be seen as a social rather than a linguistic construct . From a methodological perspective , Goffman often employed qualitative approaches , specifically ethnography , most famously in his study of social aspects of mental illness , in particular the functioning of total institutions . Overall , his contributions are valued as an attempt to create a theory that bridges the agency @-@ and @-@ structure divide – for popularizing social constructionism , symbolic interaction , conversation analysis , ethnographic studies , and the study and importance of individual interactions . His influence extended far beyond sociology : for example , his work provided the assumptions of much current research in language and social interaction within the discipline of communication .

Impression Management is defined as when an individual attempts to present an acceptable image to those around him or her verbally or nonverbally ( 480 ) . This definition is based on Goffman ’ s idea that individuals see themselves as others view them , so in essence they attempt to see themselves as if they are outside looking in ( 480 ) . Goffman also dedicating this work to discover the subtle ways humans present acceptable images by concealing information that may conflict with the images for a particular situation . For instance , concealing tattoos when applying for a job in which tattoos would be inappropriate , or hiding a bizarre obsession such as collecting / interacting with dolls which society as a whole may see as abnormal .

Goffman does break from his connection with George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer in that while he does not reject the way in which individuals perceive themselves , he was more interested in the actual physical proximity or the “ interaction order ” that molds the self ( 481 ) . In other words , Goffman believed that impression management can only be achieved if the audience is in sync with the individual ’ s perception of self . If the audience is in disagreement with the image an individual is presenting then the individual ’ s presentation of self is interrupted . Individuals present images of themselves based on how society thinks they should act in a particular situation . This decision on how to act is decided based on the concept of definition of the situation . The definition are all predetermined and individuals choose how they will act by choosing the proper behavior for the social situation they are in . Goffman draws from William Thomas for this concept as well . Thomas believed that people are born into a particular social class and so the definitions of the situations will encounter have been previously defined for them ( 480 ) . For instance when an individual from a high class background goes to a black tie affair the predefined definition of situation would be that they must mind their manors and act according to their class .

In 2007 Goffman was listed by The Times Higher Education Guide as the sixth most @-@ cited author in the humanities and social sciences , behind Anthony Giddens and ahead of Jürgen Habermas . His popularity with the general public has been attributed to his writing style , described as " sardonic , satiric , jokey " , and as " ironic and self @-@ consciously literary " , and to its being more accessible than that of most academics . His style has also been influential in academia , and is credited with popularizing a less formal style in academic publications .

His students included Carol Brooks Gardner , Charles Goodwin , Marjorie Goodwin , John Lofland , Gary Marx , Harvey Sacks , Emanuel Schegloff , David Sudnow and Eviatar Zerubavel .

Despite his influence , according to Fine and Manning there are " remarkably few scholars who are continuing his work " , nor has there been a " Goffman school " ; thus , his impact on social theory has been simultaneously " great and modest " . Fine and Manning attribute the lack of subsequent Goffman @-@ style research and writing to the nature of his signature style , which they consider very difficult to duplicate ( even " mimic @-@ proof " ) , and also to his writing style and subjects not being widely valued in the social sciences . With regard to his style , Fine and Manning remark that he tends to be seen either as a scholar whose style is difficult to reproduce , and therefore daunting to those who might wish to emulate his style , or as a scholar whose work was transitional , bridging the work of the Chicago school and that of contemporary sociologists , and thus of less interest to sociologists than the classics of either of those two groups . With regard to his subjects , Fine and Manning observe that the topic of behavior in public places is often stigmatized as being trivial , and thus unworthy of serious scholarly attention .

Nonetheless , Fine and Manning note that Goffman is " the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century " . Elliott and Turner see him as " a revered figure – an outlaw theorist who came to exemplify the best of the sociological imagination " , and " perhaps the first postmodern sociological theorist " .

= = Works = =

= = = Early works = = =

Goffman 's early works consist of his graduate writings of 1949 – 53 . His master 's thesis was a survey of audience responses to a radio soap opera , Big Sister . One of its most important elements was a critique of his research methodology – of experimental logic and of variable analysis . Other writings of the period include Symbols of Class Status ( 1951 ) and On Cooling the Mark Out ( 1952 ) . His doctoral dissertation , Communication Conduct in an Island Community ( 1953 ) , presented a model of communication strategies in face @-@ to @-@ face interaction , and focused on how everyday life rituals affect public projections of self .

= = = Presentation of Self = = =

Goffman 's The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life was published in 1956 , with a revised edition in 1959 . He had developed the book 's core ideas from his doctoral dissertation . It was Goffman 's first and most famous book , for which he received the American Sociological Association 's 1961 MacIver Award .

Goffman describes the theatrical performances that occur in face @-@ to @-@ face interactions . He holds that when an individual comes in contact with another person , he attempts to control or guide the impression that the other person will form of him , by altering his own setting , appearance and manner . At the same time , the person that the individual is interacting with attempts to form an impression of , and obtain information about , the individual . Goffman also believes that participants in social interactions engage in certain practices to avoid embarrassing themselves or others . Society is not homogeneous ; we must act differently in different settings . This recognition led Goffman to his dramaturgical analysis . He saw a connection between the kinds of " acts " that people put on in their daily lives and theatrical performances . In a social interaction , as in a theatrical performance , there is an onstage area where actors ( individuals ) appear before the audience ; this is where positive self @-@ concepts and desired impressions are offered . But there is , as well , a backstage – a hidden , private area where individuals can be themselves and drop their societal roles and identities .

= = = Asylums = = =

Goffman is sometimes credited with having in 1957 coined the term " total institution " , though Fine and Manning note that he had heard it in lectures by Everett Hughes in reference to any type of institution in which people are treated alike and in which behavior is regulated . Regardless of whether Goffman coined the term " total institution " , he popularized it with his 1961 book , Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates . The book has been described as " ethnography of the concept of the total institution " . The book was one of the first sociological examinations of the social situation of mental patients in psychiatric hospitals and a major contribution to understanding of social aspects of mental illness .

The book is composed of four essays : " Characteristics of Total Institutions " ( 1957 ) ; " The Moral Career of the Mental Patient " ( 1959 ) ; " The Underlife of a Public Institution : A Study of Ways of Making Out in a Mental Hospital " ; and " The Medical Model and Mental Hospitalization : Some Notes on the Vicissitudes of the Tinkering Trades " . The first three essays focus on the experiences of patients ; the last , on professional @-@ client interactions . Goffman is mainly concerned with the details of psychiatric hospitalization and with the nature and effects of the process he calls " institutionalization " . He describes how institutionalization socializes people into the role of a good patient , someone " dull , harmless and inconspicuous " – a condition which in turn reinforces notions of chronicity in severe mental illness . Total institutions greatly affect people 's interactions ; yet , even in such places , people find ways to redefine their roles and reclaim their identities .

Asylums has been credited with helping catalyze the reform of mental health systems in a number of countries , leading to reductions in the numbers of large mental hospitals and of the individuals locked up in them . It has also been influential in the anti @-@ psychiatry movement .

= = = Behavior in Public = = =

In Behavior in Public Places ( 1963 ) , Goffman again focuses on everyday public interactions . He draws distinctions between several types of public gatherings ( " gatherings " , " situations " , " social occasions " ) and types of audiences ( acquainted versus unacquainted ) .

= = = Stigma = = =

Goffman 's book Stigma : Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity ( 1963 ) examines how , to protect their identities when they depart from approved standards of behavior or appearance , people manage impressions of themselves – mainly through concealment . Stigma pertains to the shame that a person may feel when he or she fails to meet other people 's standards , and to the fear of being discredited – which causes the individual not to reveal his or her shortcomings . Thus , a person with a criminal record may simply withhold that information from fear of being judged by whomever that person happens to encounter .

= = = Interaction Ritual = = =

Interaction Ritual : Essays on Face @-@ to @-@ Face Behavior is a collection of six Goffman essays . The first four were originally published in the 1950s , the fifth in 1964 , and the last was written for the collection . They include : " On Face @-@ work " ( 1955 ) ; " Embarrassment and Social Organization " ( 1956 ) ; " The Nature of Deference and Demeanor " ( 1956 ) ; " Alienation from Interaction " ( 1957 ) ; " Mental Symptoms and Public Order " ( 1964 ) ; and " Where the Action Is " .

The first essay , " On Face @-@ work " , discusses the concept of face , which is the positive self @-@ image that an individual holds when interacting with others . Goffman believes that face " as a sociological construct of interaction , is neither inherent in nor a permanent aspect of the person " . Once an individual offers a positive self @-@ image of him or herself to others , that individual feels a need to maintain and live up to that image . Inconsistency in how a person projects him or herself in society risks embarrassment and discrediting . Therefore , people remain guarded , to ensure that they do not show themselves to others in an unfavorable light .

= = = Strategic Interaction = = =

Goffman 's book Strategic Interaction ( 1969 ) is his contribution to game theory . It discusses the compatibility of game theory with the legacy of the Chicago School of sociology and with the perspective of symbolic interactionism . It is one of his few works that clearly engage with that perspective . Goffman 's view on game theory was shaped by the works of Thomas Schelling . Goffman presents reality as a form of game , and discusses its rules and the various moves that players can make ( the " unwitting " , the " naive " , the " covering " , the " uncovering " , and the " counter @-@ uncovering " ) .

= = = Frame Analysis = = =

Frame Analysis : An Essay on the Organization of Experience ( 1974 ) is Goffman 's attempt to explain how conceptual frames – ways to organize experience – structure an individual 's perception of society . This book is thus about the organization of experience rather than the organization of society . A frame is a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives that organize experiences and guide the actions of individuals , groups and societies . Frame analysis , then , is the study of the organization of social experience . To illustrate the concept of the frame , Goffman gives the example of a picture frame : a person uses the frame ( which represents structure ) to hold together his picture ( which represents the content ) of what he is experiencing in his life .

The most basic frames are called primary frameworks . A primary framework takes an individual 's experience or an aspect of a scene that would originally be meaningless and makes it meaningful . One type of primary framework is a natural framework , which identifies situations in the natural world and is completely biophysical , with no human influences . The other type of framework is a social framework , which explains events and connects them to humans . An example of a natural framework is the weather , and an example of a social framework is a meteorologist who predicts the weather . Focusing on the social frameworks , Goffman seeks to " construct a general statement regarding the structure , or form , of experiences individuals have at any moment of their social life " .

Goffman saw this book as his magnum opus , but it was not as popular as his earlier works .

The Frame Analyses of Talk

In Frame Analyses , Erving Goffman provides a platform for understanding and interpreting the interaction between individuals engaging speech communication . In the chapter “ The Frame Analyses of Talk , ” the focus is put on how words are exchanged and what is being said , specifically in informal talk or conversation . The concept of framing is introduced through an exploration of why misunderstandings occur in these basic , everyday conversations . He argues that they are more errors in verbal framing than anything else . The types of frames Goffman is considering are discussed in previous sections of the book , “ fabrications , keyings , frame breaks , misframing , and , of course , frame disputes . ” That a frame can assume so many forms is the basis of his analyses , “ these framings are subject to a multitude of different transformations - the warrant for a frame analysis in the first place . ”

Goffman ’ s key idea is that most conversation is simply a replaying of a strip – what he describes as a personal experience or event . When we talk with others , the speaker ’ s goal is often always the same , to provide “ evidence for the fairness or unfairness of his current situation and other grounds for sympathy , approval , exoneration , understanding , or amusement . And what his listeners are primarily obliged to do is to show some kind of audience appreciation . " Essentially , through interaction , we are only looking to be heard , not inspire any kind of action but simply to know that someone listened and understood . This is why often a simple head nod or grunt is accepted as an appropriate response in conversation .

Goffman explains that the way a conversation is keyed is critical to understanding the intent behind many utterances in everyday speech . Key is probably best understood as the tone of the dialogue which can change numerous times during an interaction . Signaling a change in key is one way that framing often takes place , “ special brackets will have to be introduced should he want to say something in a relatively serious way : " Kidding aside , " " Now , I 'm really serious about this , " and other such tags become necessary as a means of momentarily down keying the flow of words . ”

Folklorist Richard Bauman builds heavily on Goffman ’ s work , specifically on the idea of key , in his work pertaining to an analysis of the performance frame . Bauman details that a performance is dependent on it being properly keyed , without this , the display will not be successful . His work on performance analyses is deeply indepted to what Goffman establishes here in “ Frame Analyses . ”

Context is one other element to framing that is essential . " The participants will be bound by norms of good manners : through frequency and length of turns at talk , through topics avoided , through circumspection in regard to references about self , through attention offered eagerly or begrudgingly @-@ through all these means , rank and social relationship will be given their due . " Certain things can and will be said in one scenario that would never be uttered in another . An awareness of these social framings is critical , just as is an awareness of the audience . Depending on who you ’ re speaking with ( a teacher , a child , a loved one , a friend , a pet , etc . ) you will curve your speech to fit the frame of what your intended audience is expecting .

Goffman uses the metaphor of conversation being a stage play . A plays tone will shift throughout the performance due to the actions taken by the actors ; this is similar to how a discussion is keyed – based on what either person says or does over the course of an interaction , the key will change accordingly . The parallels go further , though . Goffman also claims that a speaker details a drama more often than they provide information . They invite the listener to empathize and , as was explained above , they ’ re often not meant to be stirred to take action , but rather to show appreciation ; during a play this generally takes the form of applause .

Other similarities include engaging in the suspense the speaker is attempting to create . In both scenarios , you must put aside the knowledge that the performers know the outcome of the event being relayed and , in a sense , play along . This is integral to his stance as he explains “ the argument that much of talk consists of replayings and that these make no sense unless some form of storyteller 's suspense can be maintained shows the close relevance of frame @-@ indeed , the close relevance of dramaturgy @-@ for the organization of talk . ” Lastly , because the replaying of strips is not extemporaneous , but rather preformulated , it is yet another parallel between a stage production and conversation . All of these things work in concert to provide a foundation of how talk is framed .

= = = Gender Advertisements = = =

Gender Advertisements is a 1979 book that , as part of Goffman 's series of studies in the anthropology of visual communication , deals with the topic of gender representation in advertising . The book is a visual essay about sex roles in advertising , differences in the depictions of men and women and the subtle , underlying messages about the sexual roles projected by masculine and feminine images in advertising , as well as and symbolism in advertising . In the book Goffman examined over 500 advertisements in order to find general patterns in stereotypical gender representation , which he placed into six categories :

Relative Size : Goffman argues that social situation is expressed through the relative size of the persons in the advertisements , with men showing their superiority through their girth and height .

Feminine Touch : Women are frequently depicted touching persons or objects in a ritualistic manner , occasionally just barely touching the object or person .

Function Ranking : When a man and woman are shown in a collaborative manner , the male is more likely to be shown as the higher ranked person than the woman .

The Family : When families are depicted in advertising , parents are shown to be closer to their children of the same gender and in some instances men are shown separate from the rest of the family , in a protective manner .

Ritualization of Subordination : Difference is expressed by lowering oneself physically . Superiority and disdain , holding the body erect and the head high .

Licensed Withdrawal : Goffman states that women in advertisements are frequently depicted as removed from the scene around them , either physically turning away from the scene or appearing lost in thought .

In her 2001 work Measuring Up : How Advertising Affects Self @-@ Image , Vickie Rutledge Shields stated that the work was " unique at the time for employing a method now being labeled ' semiotic content analysis ' " and that it " [ provided ] the base for textual analyses ... such as poststructuralist and psychoanalytic approaches " . She also noted that feminist scholars like Jean Kilbourne " [ built ] their highly persuasive and widely circulated findings on the nature of gender in advertising on Goffman 's original categories " .

= = = Forms of Talk = = =

Goffman 's book , Forms of Talk ( 1981 ) , includes five essays : " Replies and Responses " ( 1976 ) ; " Response Cries " ( 1978 ) ; " Footing " ( 1979 ) ; " The Lecture " ( 1976 ) ; and " Radio Talk " ( 1981 ) . Each essay addresses both verbal and non @-@ verbal communication through a sociolinguistic model . The book provides a comprehensive overview of the study of talk . In the introduction , Goffman identifies three themes that recur throughout the text : " ritualization , participation framework , and embedding " .

The first essay , " Replies and Responses " , concerns " conversational dialogue " and the way people respond during a conversation , both verbally and non @-@ verbally . The second essay , " Response Cries " , considers the use of utterances and their social implications in different social contexts . Specifically , Goffman discusses " self @-@ talk " ( talking to no one in particular ) and its role in social situations . Next , in " Footing " , Goffman addresses the way that footing , or alignment , can shift during a conversation . The fourth essay , " The Lecture " , originally an oral presentation , describes different types and methods of lecture . Lastly , in " Radio Talk " , Goffman describes the types and forms of talk used in radio programming and the effect they have on listeners .

= = Positions = =

In his career , Goffman worked at the :

University of Chicago , Division of Social Sciences , Chicago : assistant , 1952 – 53 ; resident associate , 1953 – 54 ;

National Institute of Mental Health , Bethesda , Maryland : visiting scientist , 1954 – 57 ;

University of California , Berkeley : assistant professor , 1957 – 59 ; professor , 1959 – 62 ; professor of sociology , 1962 – 68 ;

University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia : Benjamin Franklin Professor of Anthropology and Sociology , 1969 – 82 .

= = Selected works = =

1959 : The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . University of Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 013571 @-@ 8 . Anchor Books edition

1961 : Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates . New York , Doubleday . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 013739 @-@ 4

1961 : Encounters : Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction – Fun in Games & Role Distance . Indianapolis , Bobbs @-@ Merrill .

1963 : Behavior in Public Places : Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings . The Free Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 02 @-@ 911940 @-@ 5

1963 : Stigma : Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity . Prentice @-@ Hall . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 62244 @-@ 7

1967 : Interaction Ritual : Essays on Face @-@ to @-@ Face Behavior . Anchor Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 70631 @-@ 5

1969 : Strategic Interaction . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 02804 @-@ X

1969 : Where the action is . Allen Lane . ISBN 0 @-@ 7139 @-@ 0079 @-@ 2

1971 : Relations in Public : Microstudies of the Public Order . New York : Basic Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 131957 @-@ 0

1974 : Frame analysis : An essay on the organization of experience . London : Harper and Row . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 090372 @-@ 5

1979 : Gender Advertisements . Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 132076 @-@ 5

1981 : Forms of Talk . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8122 @-@ 7790 @-@ 6

= Cater 2 U =

" Cater 2 U " is a song by American recording group Destiny 's Child , taken from their fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) . Columbia Records released it as the album 's fourth and final single on June 14 , 2005 . The song was written by band members Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Ricky " Ric Rude " Lewis and Robert Waller , with Beyoncé , Rude and Jerkins handling its production . An R & B ballad talking about a woman 's desire to cater to the male love interest of her life , " Cater 2 U " contains synthesizers in its instrumentation . A lawsuit filled by singer @-@ songwriter Rickey Allen in 2006 , claimed the group only recorded a cover of the song which was originally his ; however the case was settled in 2009 .

" Cater 2 U " received mixed reviews from music critics who , despite generally praising its composition and the group members ' vocal performances , criticized the lyrical content . The song was nominated in two categories at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006 and received an award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo at the 2006 Soul Train Music Awards . " Cater 2 U " was commercially successful in the US , peaking at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , further receiving a gold certification . The song also appeared in the top ten in New Zealand and top twenty in Australia , while also receiving minor chart placement in Belgium and Netherlands .

A music video for the song was filmed by Jake Nava and shot at the Red Rock Canyon State Park in California . It features the trio at a desert with each member singing at a separate set and later a choreographed dance during the chorus . To further promote " Cater 2 U " , Destiny 's Child performed the song during several televised appearances and at the 2005 BET Awards . In addition , " Cater 2 U " was added to the set list of Destiny 's Child 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in 2005 . Both Beyoncé and Rowland performed the song during their solo tours after Destiny 's Child 's disbandment . A cover version of " Cater 2 U " was performed by Usher and Babyface at the 2005 World Music Awards as a tribute to the group due to their disbandment that followed the same year .

= = Background = =

" Cater 2 U " was written by band members Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Ricky " Ric Rude " Lewis and Robert Waller . The production was handled by Beyoncé , Rude and Jerkins with the band members also serving as the vocal producers . The song was recorded in 2004 at Sony Music Studios in New York City with guidance from Jeff Villanueva and Jim Caruna . The audio mixing was done by Tony Maserati while the mastering was finished by Tom Coyne .

During an interview with MTV News , Beyoncé talked about the meaning of the song : " It basically talks about how a guy inspires you ... You want to make him happy and you want to cater to him . I know it 's going to be surprising to a lot of people that the independent survivors are being submissive to their man , but it 's important that people know that , you know , it 's fine if your man deserves it and gives that back to you . " " Cater 2 U " was released as the fourth and final single from Destiny Fulfilled . It was first released in the US as an extended play ( EP ) consisting of the audio version of the song along with four remixes on June 14 , 2005 . On July 19 another EP was released containing the original version and six remixes . Six days later an extended play of the single was released in Italy . " Cater 2 U " was included on two of Destiny 's Child 's compilation albums : the greatest hits album # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Love Songs ( 2013 ) .

= = = Lawsuit = = =

Chicago @-@ based singer @-@ songwriter Rickey Allen pushed allegations that " Cater 2 U " was inspired by a song he had composed with the same title and spelling , which was copyrighted in the mid @-@ 1990s and 2000 and performed locally during that time . He claimed he handed over a version to producer Maurice Joshua , who allegedly went on to cover the song with Destiny 's Child . Joshua denied his claims , noting that he never held a copy of Allen 's song . Allen filed a lawsuit against the group for compensation in a Chicago , Illinois court in 2006 where the trio was due to appear in December 10 for an eight @-@ day trial . However , they managed to avoid any given court dates after their public split in 2005 and agreed to settle behind closed doors . In early December 2009 it was confirmed by Chicago Sun @-@ Times that the group had reached a settlement with Allen . His attorney , Matthew Wildermuth , said in a statement , " I can confirm that yes , [ the case ] did settle . All of the issues have been amicably resolved and the case is going to be dismissed . [ Allen is ] excited about being able to devote time to posturing his musical career . All legal terms and agreement will not be released and the case will be dismissed by a judge " .

= = Composition = =

" Cater 2 U " is a four @-@ minute long R & B ballad . In her book American Music , Nicolae Sfetcu found influences of quiet storm in the song 's composition . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Cater 2 U " was composed using common time in the key of D major with a slow tempo of 63 beats per minute . The vocal elements span from A3 to B4 . Instrumentally it consists of silky synthesizers " slink [ ing ] and slurp [ ing ] " throughout , creating a seductive feel as stated by Dimitri Ehlrich of Vibe and writers of Billboard magazine . As the song progresses , it builds to a symphonic crescendo .

Lyrically , " Cater 2 U " talks about females wanting to submissevely serve their male love interests and take care of them as they admire their hard work and are inspired by them . The trio further sings about the men of their lives and the way in which they will take care of them . " Cater 2 U " was written as a continuation on the previous song on Destiny Fulfilled , " Soldier " ; after the trio sings about finding a suitable lover in the aforementioned song , they express a will to cater to him in " Cater 2 U " . In the second edition of the book Introducing Cultural Studies , the authors argued that the song contained lyrics about objectification of women , which suggested that their gender role was to " ' keep herself up ' , ' keep it right ' , ' cater to ' their man by providing him with his dinner , a foot rub , a manicure , fetching his slippers , and much more , on demand " . An editor writing in The Times of India found a theme of feminine assertiveness in " Cater 2 U " ; he noted that " the women come off not so much as lovers as full @-@ service romantic servants " . J. Freedom du Lac , a staff writer of The Washington Post wrote that the song 's theme was supplication .

Beyoncé opens the song listing the things she would do for her man during her verses : brush his hair , take his shoes off , give him a manicure , rub his feet , help him put his do @-@ rag on , undo his cufflinks . She also sings the lines " Let me feed you , let me run your bath water , whatever you desire " after the thins she had previously listed . Rowland was noted for nearly rapping her solo part during which she promises to " keep my figure right , " " keep my hair fixed " and acknowledges that if her man comes later home while she 's asleep , " all he 's gotta do is tap her on the shoulder and ' I 'll roll over . ' " Williams sings her solo verses during the song 's bridge .

= = Critical reception = =

Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly noted the song was one of Destiny Fulfilled 's " nice bits here and there " , adding , " the pillow @-@ talky pandering of ' Cater 2 U ' ... is hard to resist . " AllMusic 's writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine included " Cater 2 U " as one of the highlights on the album . Slant Magazine writer Eric Henderson opined , " But just about the only element of the whole album that really sticks is the Laura Bush @-@ worthy domestic complacency of ' Cater 2 U , ' in which the trio espouses their joy in total submission . " Dimitri Ehrlich from Vibe magazine found that " the sexy trio is far more believable on the seductive R & B ballad ' Cater 2 U , ' in which they set the feminist movement back more than a century over the course of four minutes " . Andy Battaglia writing for The A.V. Club felt that the song and " Soldier " " make sassy end @-@ runs around notions of womanly subservience , but their best musical moments hide in tiny melismatic twirls instead of hooks " . The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan wrote that " Cater 2 U " was one of the songs that showcased " the girliness in the trio , musically and lyrically " . In a review of Love Songs , Amanda Koellner from the website Consequence of Sound described " Cater 2 U " as a " sleek " album opener . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine hailed the song " sexy " while USA Today 's Elysa Gardner felt it was more " gently sensuous " . Rebecca Thomas from MTV News felt that the song differentiated from the trio 's other material and added " While the Third Wave set may have side @-@ eyed the gushy ballad , male fans eagerly welcomed [ it ] " .

The lyrics of the song were criticized with BBC 's Nick Reynolds saying that although the group " reinvent [ ed ] themselves as domestic goddesses for some lucky man " , the song was neither convincing nor good . He further opined " I thought they were supposed to be independent women ? ! " juxtaposing it with the group 's earlier song " Independent Women " ( 2000 ) . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone echoed his statements , writing " Jerkins should hang his head in shame for having a hand in the maudlin ' Cater 2 U , ' a saccharine tune about how low Knowles , Rowland and Williams will stoop to prove their devotion to their man ... Since when did these independent women become so craven ? " . Sean Fennessey of Pitchfork Media also stated that " their swan song of sorts ... completely defies the winking empowerment most of their greatest jams provided " . He further described the production as " milky and slight " , the chorus as " limp " and the song overally as " a Prince mock @-@ up of the worst kind " . Jess Harvell of the same website offered similar criticism : " [ The song ] reneged on everything early DC stood for in a parade of kept @-@ wifey pleas " . Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine dismissed the sincerity of the lyrics classifying " Cater 2 U " as a " queasy " song . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph panned it as " cringe inducing , with lots of sensuous moaning " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer wrote , " I thought this was the kind of song bands recorded by mistake then hid guiltily in the attic " .

= = = Recognition = = =

At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006 , " Cater 2 U " was nominated in two categories : Best R & B Song and Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals ultimately losing in both . The same year , the song won an award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo at the 2006 Soul Train Music Awards . It was one of the Award Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at the 2006 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards . In 2013 , Lindsey Weber from the website Vulture listed " Cater 2 U " at number seven on her list of the 25 best songs by Destiny 's Child . Weber went on to describe it as " probably the least feminist song " of the band 's material , " the best song ever to lyrically use the phrase ' run your bathwater ' " and hailed Williams for her contribution during the bridge . On the occasion of Beyoncé 's 32nd birthday , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard included " Cater 2 U " at number 25 on the list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " .

= = Chart performance = =

In the US , the song entered at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart for the chart issue dated April 30 , 2005 . In its fifth week of charting it moved to number 83 on May 28 . After several weeks of ascending the chart , " Cater 2 U " peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending August 13 , 2005 . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs the song entered the top ten of the chart at number six in its 19th week of charting on July 9 , 2005 . It became the band 's fourth top ten single from Destiny Fulfilled and the group 's twelfth top ten song . On the chart issue dated July 30 , 2005 , " Cater 2 U " moved from the position of four to three which became its peak and stayed there for three additional consecutive weeks . With that feat , it became the second single from Destiny Fulfilled and the group 's seventh overall top five single on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold on December 13 , 2005 for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . Its ringtone was further certified platinum on June 14 , 2006 for selling 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .

In the Netherlands , " Cater 2 U " peaked at number 60 in its first week of charting on September 17 , 2005 . " Cater 2 U " debuted at number 20 on the Ultratip chart in the Flanders region of Belgium and moved to its peak position of 18 the following week on October 8 , 2005 which also became its final . It performed better on the same chart in the Wallonia region of the country where it peaked at the position of eight on October 22 . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number 15 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 21 , 2005 and lasted six weeks in the chart 's top 50 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " Cater 2 U " first appeared on August 29 , 2005 at the position of seven . It moved to number nine the following week and started gradually descending the chart . It last appeared on October 10 at number 40 after seven weeks of charting .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Cater 2 U " was directed by Jake Nava . It was shot back to back with the video for " Girl " and large parts were filmed at Red Rock Canyon State Park in California . On July 5 , 2005 , the music video was released on MTV 's official website . It is also featured on the DualDisc edition of the album # 1 's as well as on the Japanese version of the DVD Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta . In 2013 , it was included on the album Destiny 's Child Video Anthology which contained every music video the group had filmed during their career . An image taken from the video of " Cater 2 U " was used as the cover artwork for the DVD . The video opens with a fast instance of a sun rising in the sky and moves to the girls standing nude together . Each singer is featured in her own desert scene performing individually during her respective verse ; Beyoncé is seen on a diving board next to a swimming pool , Rowland on a deserted road where she dances next to a silver car from which she had previously got out of and Williams on a sunlounger . During the chorus the group members are seen wearing fishtail evening dresses , performing a choreographed dance routine for the camera and three males who watch them from the side ; the men are never filmed in the same shot as Destiny 's Child . During the end , each member is seen together with one of their male partners and the video fades away showing the trio nude again as during the beginning .

While reviewing the video of " Cater 2 U " , Rashaun Hall of MTV News felt that " [ the trio ] have decided to go au naturale — tastefully , of course " . He further concluded that the clip " is all about scenery and the beauty of the trio " . In their book Music Video and the Politics of Representation , Diane Railton and Paul Watson felt that the presence of men " seems utterly superfluous to the video 's spectacle of female bodies and female pleasures " . They further noted that the video 's imagery and performance managed to proceed without a reference to its lyrics and elaborated ,

" Indeed , the abstracted emptiness of its desert spaces , the posed tableaux of the women 's bodies and the noticeable lack of attention directed to its male subjects by both the camera and the group , does not simply jar with the lyrical narrative of female subordination but in fact reinforces the image of Destiny 's Child as independent women who are in control of their own lives . That is to say , the video ( re ) establishes an image of women who are in control of their own bodies , their own desires , their relationship with men and their friendships with women . "

= = Live performances and cover version = =

On November 16 , 2004 Destiny 's Child performed " Cater 2 U " during the television show Good Morning America broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The song was performed on June 28 during the 2005 BET Awards in Los Angeles . Midway through the performance , for which the members wore form @-@ fitting , floor @-@ length brown gowns , they randomly picked Terrence Howard , Nelly and Magic Johnson from the audience to the stage and performance a lap dance for them . Corey Moss of MTV News felt that their performance was one of the more memorable of the night . Emily Tan from the website Idolator noted that the performance was one of the band 's best further writing , " No one expected the girls to get as down and dirty as they did ... But it looked like no one was complaining . " Steve Baltin writing for Rolling Stone remarked that the group provided " some sizzle " . The trio gave a live rendition of " Cater 2 U " again at NBC 's The Today Show show on July 29 , 2005 . A writer of People magazine felt that " Beyoncé shimmies and shakes things up " during the performance . An acoustic version was also performed on MTV in 2005 during the its Spring Break coverage .

In 2005 , " Cater 2 U " was part of the set list of the group 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It where they performed it in the same style as during the BET Awards , following the popularity of that performance . During the performance , the trio , dressed in long blue floor @-@ length gowns , called three men from the audience to the stage and performed a choreography similar to a lap dance . In a review of a concert in the UK , Adenike Adenitire of MTV News felt that the song was suitable to " slow things down " following the previous energetic performances of the show . " Cater 2 U " was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour in that city . Following the group 's disbandment , both Beyoncé and Rowland included " Cater 2 U " in the set list of their respective solo tours . The former performed it as part of a Destiny 's Child medley included during the concerts of The Beyoncé Experience in 2007 . It was subsequently included in the live DVD , The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) which included a concert filmed at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California . Similarly , Rowland performed " Cater 2 U " live during her Lights Out Tour ( 2013 ) as part of a segment which included songs by Destiny 's Child . Usher and Babyface performed " Cater 2 U " at the 2005 World Music Awards on August 31 as a tribute to Destiny 's Child due to their disbandment . Byron Flitsch of MTV described their duet as " sensual " . In 2009 , " Cater 2 U " was referenced in Lil Wayne and Drake 's song " My Darlin ' Baby " .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the album Destiny Fulfilled .

Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams

Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , and Tenitra Michelle Williams

Recording : Jeff Villanueva and Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , NYC

Audio mixing : Tony Maserati

Audio mastering : Tom Coyne

Guitarist : Tim Stewart

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Marshall Applewhite =

Marshall Herff Applewhite , Jr . ( May 17 , 1931 – March 26 , 1997 ) , also known as " Bo " and " Do " , among other names , was an American cult leader who founded what became known as the Heaven 's Gate religious group and organized their mass suicide in 1997 - claiming the lives of thirty @-@ nine people .

A native of Texas , Applewhite attended several universities and , as a young man , served in the United States Army . After finishing school at Austin College , he taught music at the University of Alabama . He later returned to Texas , where he led choruses and served as the chair of the music department at the University of St. Thomas in Houston . He left the school in 1970 , citing emotional turmoil . His father 's death a year later brought on severe depression . In 1972 , he developed a close friendship with Bonnie Nettles , a nurse ; together , they discussed mysticism at length and concluded that they were called as divine messengers . They operated a bookstore and teaching center for a short while , and then began to travel around the U.S. in 1973 to spread their views . They only gained one convert . In 1975 , Applewhite was arrested for failing to return a rental car and was jailed for six months . In jail , he further developed his theology .

After Applewhite 's release , he traveled to California and Oregon with Nettles , eventually gaining a group of committed followers . Applewhite and Nettles told their followers that they would be visited by extraterrestrials who would provide them with new bodies . Applewhite initially stated that he and his followers would physically ascend to a spaceship , where their bodies would be transformed , but later , he came to believe that their bodies were the mere containers of their souls , which would later be placed into new bodies . These ideas were expressed with language drawn from Christian eschatology , the New Age movement , and American popular culture .

The group received an influx of funds in the late 1970s , which it used to pay housing and other expenses . In 1985 , Nettles died , leaving Applewhite distraught and challenging his views on physical ascension . In the early 1990s the group took more steps to publicize their theology . In 1996 , they learned of the approach of Comet Hale – Bopp and rumors of an accompanying spaceship . They concluded that this spaceship was the vessel that would take their spirits on board for a journey to another planet . Believing that their souls would ascend to the spaceship and be given new bodies , the group members committed mass suicide in their mansion . A media circus followed the discovery of their bodies . In the aftermath , commentators and academics discussed how Applewhite persuaded people to follow his commands , including suicide . Some commentators attributed his followers ' willingness to commit suicide to his skill as a manipulator , while others argued that their willingness was due to their faith in the narrative that he constructed .

= = Early life and education = =

Marshall Herff Applewhite was born in Spur , Texas , on May 17 , 1931 , to Marshall Herff Applewhite Sr. and his wife Louise née Winfield ; he had three siblings . The son of a Presbyterian minister , Applewhite became very religious as a child .

Applewhite attended Corpus Christi High School and Austin College ; at the latter school , he was active in several student organizations and was moderately religious . He earned a bachelor 's degree in philosophy in 1952 and subsequently enrolled at Union Presbyterian Seminary to study theology , hoping to become a minister . He married Anne Pearce around that time , and they later had two children . Early in his seminary studies , he decided to leave the school to pursue a career in music , becoming the music director of a Presbyterian church in North Carolina . He was a baritone singer and enjoyed spirituals and the music of Handel . In 1954 , he was drafted by the United States Army and served in Austria and New Mexico as a member of the Army Signal Corps . He left the military in 1956 and enrolled at the University of Colorado , where he earned a master 's degree in music and focused on musical theater .

= = Career = =

Applewhite moved to New York City in an unsuccessful attempt to launch a professional singing career upon finishing his education in Colorado . He then taught at the University of Alabama . He lost his position there after pursuing a sexual relationship with a male student ; his religious education was likely not supportive of same @-@ sex relationships and he was subsequently frustrated by his sexual desires . He separated from his wife when she learned of the affair in 1965 , and they divorced three years later .

After leaving the University of Alabama , Applewhite moved to Houston , Texas , in 1965 to teach at the University of St. Thomas . His students regarded him as an engaging speaker and a stylish dresser . He served as chair of the music department ; he also became a locally popular singer , serving as the choral director of an Episcopal church and performing with the Houston Grand Opera . In Texas , he was briefly openly gay but also pursued a relationship with a young woman , who left him under pressure from her family , greatly upsetting him . He resigned from the University of St. Thomas in 1970 , citing depression and other emotional problems . Robert Balch and David Taylor , sociologists who studied Applewhite 's group , speculate that this departure was prompted by another affair between Applewhite and a student . The president of the university later recalled that he was often mentally jumbled and disorganized near the end of his employment .

In 1971 , Applewhite briefly moved to New Mexico , where he operated a delicatessen . He was popular with customers but decided to return to Texas later that year . His father died around that time ; the loss took a significant emotional toll on him , causing severe depression . His debts mounted , forcing him to borrow money from friends .

= = Introduction to Nettles and first travels = =

In 1972 , Applewhite met Bonnie Nettles , a nurse with an interest in theosophy and Biblical prophecy . The two quickly became close friends ; he later recalled that he felt like he had known her for a long time and concluded that they had met in a past life . She told him their meeting had been foretold to her by extraterrestrials , persuading him that he had a divine assignment . By that time , he had begun to investigate alternatives to traditional Christian doctrine , including astrology . He also had had several visions , including one in which he was told that he was chosen for a role like that of Jesus . In her 2005 profile of Applewhite , Susan Raine speculates that he had a schizophrenic episode around this time .

Applewhite soon began to live with Nettles . Although they cohabited , their relationship was not a sexual one , fulfilling his longtime wish to have a deep and loving , yet platonic , relationship . She was married with two children , but after she became close with Applewhite , her husband divorced her , and she lost custody of her children . Applewhite permanently broke off contact with his family as well . He saw Nettles as his soulmate , and some of his acquaintances later recalled that she had a strong influence on him . Raine writes that Nettles " was responsible for reinforcing his emerging delusional beliefs " , but psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton speculates that Nettles ' influence helped him avoid further psychological deterioration .

Applewhite and Nettles opened a bookstore known as the Christian Arts Center , which carried books from a variety of spiritual backgrounds . They also launched a venture known as Know Place to teach classes on mysticism and theosophy . They closed these businesses a short time later . In February 1973 , they resolved to travel to teach others about their beliefs and drove throughout the Southwest and Western U.S ; Lifton describes their travels as a " restless , intense , often confused , peripatetic spiritual journey " . While traveling , they had little money and occasionally resorted to selling their blood or working odd jobs for much @-@ needed funds . They subsisted solely on bread rolls at times , often camped out , and sometimes did not pay their lodging bills . One of their friends from Houston corresponded with them and agreed to accept their teachings . They visited her in May 1974 , and she became their first convert .

While traveling , Applewhite and Nettles pondered the life of St. Francis of Assisi and read works by authors including Helena Blavatsky , R. D. Laing , and Richard Bach . They kept a King James Version of the Bible with them and studied several passages from the New Testament , focusing on teachings about Christology , asceticism , and eschatology . Applewhite also read science fiction , including works by Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke . By June 1974 , Applewhite and Nettles ' beliefs had solidified into a basic outline . They concluded that they had been chosen to fulfill biblical prophecies , and that they had been given higher @-@ level minds than other people . They wrote a pamphlet that described Jesus ' reincarnation as a Texan , a thinly veiled reference to Applewhite . Furthermore , they concluded that they were the two witnesses described in the Book of Revelation and occasionally visited churches or other spiritual groups to speak of their identities , often referring to themselves as " The Two " , or " The UFO Two " . They believed that they would be killed and then restored to life and , in view of others , transported onto a spaceship . This event , which they referred to as " the Demonstration " , was to prove their claims . To their dismay , these ideas received a poor reception .

= = Arrest and proselytism = =

In August 1974 , Applewhite was arrested in Harlingen , Texas , for failing to return a car that he had rented in Missouri . He was extradited to St. Louis and jailed for six months . At the time , he maintained that he had been " divinely authorized " to keep the car . While jailed , he pondered theology and subsequently abandoned discussion of occult topics , in favor of extraterrestrials and evolution .

After Applewhite 's release , he and Nettles resolved to contact extraterrestrials and they sought like @-@ minded followers . They published advertisements for meetings , where they recruited disciples , whom they called " crew " . At the events , they purported to represent beings from another planet , the Next Level , who sought participants for an experiment . They claimed that those who agreed to take part in the experiment would be brought to a higher evolutionary level . He and Nettles referred to themselves as " Guinea " and " Pig " . Applewhite described his role as a " lab instructor " and served as the primary speaker , while Nettles , occasionally interjected clarifying remarks or corrections . The two seldom personally spoke with attendees , only taking phone numbers with which they could contact them . They initially named their organization the Anonymous Sexaholics Celibate Church , but it soon became known as the Human Individual Metamorphosis .

Applewhite believed in the ancient astronaut hypothesis , which claimed that extraterrestrials had visited humanity in the past and placed humans on Earth and would return to collect a select few . Parts of this teaching bear similarities to the Reformed Christian concept of election , likely owing to Applewhite 's Presbyterian upbringing . He often discussed extraterrestrials using phrases from Star Trek and stated that aliens communicated with him through the show .

Applewhite and Nettles sent advertisements to groups in California and were invited to speak to New Age devotees there in April 1975 . At this meeting , they persuaded about half of the 50 attendees to follow them . They also focused on college campuses , speaking at Cañada College in August . At a meeting in Oregon in September 1975 , they saw further recruitment success — about 30 people left their homes to follow the pair , prompting interest from media outlets . The coverage was negative : commentators and some former members mocked the group and leveled accusations of brainwashing against Applewhite and Nettles . Balch and Taylor state that Applewhite and Nettles eschewed pressure tactics , seeking only devoted followers .

Benjamin E. Zeller , an academic who studies new religions , notes that Applewhite and Nettles ' teachings focused on salvation through individual growth and sees this as similar to currents in the era 's New Age movement . Likewise , the importance of personal choice was also emphasized . Applewhite and Nettles denied connection with the New Age movement , viewing it as a human creation . Janja Lalich , a sociologist , who studies cults , attributes their recruitment success to their eclectic mix of beliefs and the way that they deviate from typical New Age teachings : discussing literal spaceships while retaining familiar language . Most of their disciples were young and interested in occultism or otherwise lived outside of mainstream society . They came from a variety of religious backgrounds , including Eastern religions and Scientology . Most were well versed in New Age teachings , allowing Applewhite and Nettles to convert them easily . Applewhite thought that his followers would reach a higher level of being , changing like a caterpillar becoming a butterfly ; this example was used in almost all of their early literature . Applewhite contended that this would be a " biological change into a different species , casting his teachings as scientific truth in line with secular naturalism . " He emphasized to his early followers that he was not speaking metaphorically , often using the words " biology " and " chemistry " in his statements . By the mid @-@ 1970s , he attempted to avoid the use of the term " religion " , seeing it as inferior to science . Although he dismissed religion as unscientific , he sometimes emphasized the need for faith in the aliens ' abilities to transform them .

= = Nomadic lifestyle = =

By 1975 , Applewhite and Nettles had taken the names " Bo " and " Peep " . They had about 70 followers and saw themselves as shepherds tending a flock . Applewhite believed that complete separation from Earthly desires was a prerequisite of ascension to the Next Level and emphasized passages in the New Testament in which Jesus spoke about forsaking worldly attachments . Members were consequently instructed to renounce : friends , family , media , drugs , alcohol , jewelry , facial hair , and sexuality . Furthermore , they were required to adopt biblical names . Applewhite and Nettles soon told them to adopt two @-@ syllable names that ended in " ody " and had three consonants in the first syllable , such as Rkkody , Jmmody , and Lvvody ; Applewhite stated that these names emphasized that his followers were spiritual children . Applewhite , Nettles , and their followers lived what religious scholar James Lewis describes as a " quasi @-@ nomadic lifestyle " . They usually stayed at remote campgrounds and did not speak about their beliefs . Applewhite and Nettles ceased having public meetings in April 1975 , and spent little time teaching doctrine to their converts . The leaders also had little contact with their dispersed followers , many of whom renounced their allegiance .

Applewhite and Nettles feared that they would be assassinated , and taught their followers that their deaths would be similar to those of the two witnesses of the Book of Revelation . Balch and Taylor believe that Applewhite 's prison experience and early rejection by audiences contributed to this fear . Applewhite and Nettles later explained to their followers that the former 's treatment by the press was a form of assassination and had fulfilled their prophecy . Applewhite took a materialistic view of the Bible , seeing it as a record of extraterrestrial contact with humanity . He drew heavily from the Book of Revelation , although he avoided traditional theological terminology and took a somewhat negative tone towards Christianity . He only lectured about a small number of verses and never tried to develop a system of theology .

By early 1976 , Applewhite and Nettles had settled on the names " Do " and " Ti " ; Applewhite stated that these were meaningless names . In June 1976 , they gathered their remaining followers at Medicine Bow National Forest in Southeastern Wyoming , promising a UFO visit . Nettles later announced that the visit had been cancelled . Applewhite and Nettles then split their followers into small groups , which they referred to as " Star Clusters " ,

From 1976 to 1979 , the group lived in campgrounds , usually in the Rocky Mountains or Texas . Applewhite and Nettles began to place greater demands on their followers ' heretofore loosely structured lives , which improved membership retention . They typically communicated with their disciples in writing or through assistants . Increasingly , they emphasized that they were the only source of truth — the idea that members could receive individual revelations was rejected in an attempt to prevent schisms . Applewhite also sought to prevent close friendships among his followers , fearing that this could lead to insubordination . Applewhite and Nettles insisted that their followers practice what they referred to as " flexibility " : strict obedience to their often shifting requests . The two leaders limited the group 's contacts with those outside the movement , even some who may have been interested in joining , ostensibly to prevent infiltration from hostile parties . In practice , this made their followers completely dependent upon them . Applewhite instructed his disciples to be like children or pets in their submission — their sole responsibility was to obey their leaders . Members were encouraged to constantly seek Applewhite 's advice and often ask themselves what their leaders would do when making a decision . To his followers , he did not seem dictatorial : many of them found him laid back and fatherly . In his 2000 study of the group , Winston Davis states that Applewhite mastered the " fine art of religious entertainment " , noting that many of his disciples seemed to enjoy their service . Applewhite organized seemingly arbitrary rituals that were intended to instill a sense of discipline in his followers ; he referred to these tasks as " games " . He also watched science @-@ fiction television programs with the rest of the group . Rather than issue direct commands , he attempted to express his preferences and nominally offer his disciples a choice . He emphasized that students were free to disobey if they chose , in what Lalich dubs the " illusion of choice " .

= = Housing and control = =

In the late 1970s , the group received a large sum of money , possibly an inheritance of a member or donations of followers ' income . This capital was used to rent houses , initially in Denver and later in Dallas . Applewhite and Nettles had about 40 followers then and lived in two or three houses : the leaders usually had their own house . The group was secretive about their lifestyle , covering their windows . Applewhite and Nettles arranged their followers ' lifestyles as a boot camp that would prepare them for the Next Level . Referring to their house as a " craft " , they regimented the lives of their disciples to the minute . Students who were not committed to this lifestyle were encouraged to leave ; departing members were given financial assistance . Lifton states that Applewhite wanted " quality over quantity " in his followers , although he occasionally spoke about gaining many converts .

Applewhite and Nettles sometimes made sudden , drastic changes to the group . On one occasion in Texas , they told their followers of a forthcoming visitation from extraterrestrials and instructed them to wait outside all night , at which point they informed them that this had been merely a test . Lalich sees this as a way that they increased their students ' devotion , ensuring that their commitment became irrespective of what they saw . Members became desperate for Applewhite 's approval , which he used to control them .

In 1980 , Applewhite and Nettles had about 80 followers , many of whom held jobs , often working with computers or as car mechanics . In 1982 , Applewhite and Nettles allowed their disciples to call their families . They further relaxed their control in 1983 , permitting their followers to visit relatives on Mother 's Day . They were only allowed short stays and were instructed to tell their families that they were studying computers at a monastery . These vacations were intended to placate families by demonstrating that the disciples remained with the group of their own accord .

= = Nettles ' death = =

In 1983 , Nettles had an eye surgically removed as a result of cancer diagnosed several years earlier . She lived for two more years , dying in 1985 . Applewhite told their followers that she had " traveled to the Next Level " because she had " too much energy to remain on Earth " , abandoning her body to make the journey . His attempt to explain her death in the terms of the group 's doctrine was successful , preventing the departure of all but one member . Applewhite became very depressed . He claimed that Nettles still communicated with him , but he suffered from a crisis of faith . His students supported him during this time , greatly encouraging him . He then organized a ceremony in which he symbolically married his followers ; Lalich views this as an attempt to ensure unity . Applewhite told his followers that he had been left behind by Nettles because he still had more to learn — he felt that she occupied " a higher spiritual role " than he did . He began identifying her as " the Father " and often referred to her with male pronouns .

Applewhite began to emphasize a strict hierarchy , teaching that his students needed his guidance , as he needed the guidance of the Next Level . Zeller notes that this naturally ensured that there would be no possibility of the group 's continuing if Applewhite were to die . A relationship with Applewhite was said to be the only way to salvation ; he encouraged his followers to see him as Christ . Zeller states that the group 's previous focus on individual choice was replaced with an emphasis on Applewhite 's role as a mediator . Applewhite maintained some aspects of their scientific teachings , but , in the 1980s , the group became more like a religion in its focus on faith and submission to authority .

After Nettles ' death , Applewhite also altered his view of ascension : previously , he had taught that the group would physically ascend from the Earth and that death caused reincarnation , but her death - which left behind an unchanged , corporeal body - forced him to say that the ascension could be spiritual . He then concluded that her spirit had traveled to a spaceship and received a new body and that he and his followers would do the same . In his view , the Biblical heaven was actually a planet on which highly evolved beings dwelt , and physical bodies were required to ascend there . Applewhite believed that once they reached the Next Level , they would facilitate evolution on other planets . He emphasized that Jesus , whom he believed was an extraterrestrial , came to Earth , was killed , and bodily rose from the dead before being transported onto a spaceship . According to Applewhite 's doctrine , Jesus was a gateway to heaven but had found humanity unready to ascend when he first came to the Earth . Applewhite then decided that there was an opportunity for humans to reach the Next Level " every two millennia " , and the early 1990s would therefore provide the first opportunity to reach the Kingdom of Heaven since the time of Jesus . Zeller notes that his beliefs were based on the Christian Bible but were interpreted through the lens of belief in alien contact with humanity .

Applewhite taught that he was a walk @-@ in , a concept that had gained popularity in the New Age movement during the late 1970s . Walk @-@ ins were said to be higher beings who took control of adult bodies to teach humanity . This concept informed Applewhite 's view of resurrection : he believed that his group 's souls were to be transported to a spaceship , where they would enter other bodies . Applewhite abandoned the metaphor of a butterfly in favor of describing the body as a mere container , a vehicle that souls could enter and exit . This dualism may have been the product of the Christology that Applewhite learned as a young man ; Lewis writes that the group 's teachings had " Christian elements [ that ] were basically grafted on to a New Age matrix " . In a profile of the group for Newsweek , Kenneth Woodward compares his dualism to that of ancient Christian Gnosticism , although Peters notes that his theology departs from Gnosticism by privileging the physical world .

In the wake of Nettles ' death , Applewhite became increasingly paranoid , fearing a conspiracy against his group . One member who joined in the mid @-@ 1980s recalled that Applewhite avoided new converts , worrying that they were infiltrators . He feared a government raid on their home and spoke highly of the Jewish defenders of Masada in ancient Israel who showed total resistance to the Roman Empire . Increasingly , he began to discuss the Apocalypse , comparing the Earth to an overgrown garden that was to be recycled or rebooted and humanity to a failed experiment . In accordance with the garden metaphor , he stated that the Earth would be " spaded under " . Woodward notes that Applewhite 's teaching about the Earth 's recycling is similar to the cyclical perspective of time found in Buddhism . Applewhite also utilized New Age concepts , but he differed from that movement by predicting that apocalyptic , rather than utopian , changes would soon occur on Earth . He contended that most humans had been brainwashed by Lucifer , but that his followers could break free of this control . He specifically cited sexual urges as the work of Lucifer . In addition , he stated that there were evil extraterrestrials , whom he referred to as " Luciferians " , who sought to thwart his mission . He argued that many prominent moral teachers and advocates of political correctness were actually Luciferians . This theme emerged in 1988 , possibly in response to the lurid alien abduction stories that were proliferating at the time .

= = Obscurity and evangelism = =

In the late 1980s , the group kept a low profile ; few people knew it still existed . In 1988 , they mailed a document that detailed their beliefs to a variety of New Age organizations . The mailing contained information about their history and advised people to read several books , which primarily focused on Christian history and UFOs . With the exception of the 1988 document , Applewhite 's group remained inconspicuous until 1992 , when they recorded a 12 @-@ part video series which was broadcast via satellite . This series echoed many of the teachings of the 1988 update , although it introduced a " universal mind " of which its hearers could partake .

Over the course of the group 's existence , several hundred people joined and left . In the early 1990s , their membership dwindled , numbering as few as 26 ; these defections gave Applewhite a sense of urgency . In May 1993 , the group took the name " Total Overcomers Anonymous " . They then spent $ 30 @,@ 000 to publish a full @-@ page advertisement in USA Today that warned of catastrophic judgment to befall the Earth . Its publication led about 20 former members to rejoin the group . This , along with a series of public lectures in 1994 , caused membership to double from its nadir at the beginning of the decade . By this time , Applewhite did not regiment his disciples ' lives as strictly as he had and spent less time with them .

In the early 1990s , Applewhite posted some of his teachings on the Internet , but he was stung by the resulting criticism . That year , he first spoke of the possibility of suicide as a way to reach the Next Level . He explained that everything " human " had to be forsaken , including the human body , before one could ascend . The organization was then renamed " Heaven 's Gate " . Davis speculates that this rejection may have encouraged him to attempt to leave Earth .

From June to October 1995 , the group lived in a rural part of New Mexico . They purchased 40 acres ( 0 @.@ 16 km2 ) and built a compound — which they referred to as the " Earth ship " — using tires and lumber ; Applewhite hoped to establish a monastery . This proved to be a difficult endeavor , particularly for the aging Applewhite : he was in poor health and , at one point , feared that he had cancer . Lifton notes that Applewhite 's active leadership of the group probably led to severe fatigue in his last years . The winter was very cold , and they abandoned the plan . Afterwards , they lived in several houses in the San Diego area .

The group increasingly focused on the suppression of sexual desire ; Applewhite and seven others opted for surgical castration . They initially had difficulty finding a willing surgeon , but eventually found one in Mexico . In Applewhite 's view , sexuality was one of the most powerful forces that bound humans to their bodies and thus hindered their efforts to evolve to the Next Level ; he taught that Next Level beings had no reproductive organs but that Luciferian beings had genders . He also cited a verse in the New Testament that said there would not be marriage in heaven . In addition , he required members to adopt similar clothing and haircuts , possibly to reinforce that they were a non @-@ sexual family .

= = Mass suicide = =

In October 1996 , the group rented a mansion in Rancho Santa Fe , California . That year , they recorded two video messages in which they offered their viewers a " last chance to evacuate Earth " . Around the same time , they learned of the approach of Comet Hale – Bopp . Applewhite now believed that Nettles was aboard a spaceship trailing the comet , and that she planned to rendezvous with them . He told his followers that the vessel would transport them to an empyrean destination , and that there was a government conspiracy to suppress word of the craft . In addition , he stated that his deceased followers would be taken by the vessel as well , a belief that resembled the Christian pretribulation rapture doctrine . It is not known how he learned of the comet or why he believed that it was accompanied by extraterrestrials or why he should have believed the dead Nettles would be with them .

In late March 1997 , the group isolated themselves and recorded farewell statements . Many members praised Applewhite in their final messages ; Davis describes their remarks as " regurgitations of Do 's gospel " . Applewhite recorded a video shortly before his death , in which he termed the suicides the " Final exit " of the group and remarked , " We do in all honesty hate this world " . Lewis speculates that Applewhite settled on suicide because he had said that the group would ascend during his lifetime and thus appointing a successor was unfeasible .

Religious scholar Catherine Wessinger posits that the suicides began on March 22 . Most members took barbiturates and alcohol and then placed bags over their heads . They wore Nike shoes and black uniforms with patches that read " Heaven 's Gate Away Team " . A bag that contained a few dollars and a form of identification was placed beside most bodies . The deaths occurred over three days ; Applewhite was one of the last four to die . Three assistants helped him commit suicide , then killed themselves . An anonymous tip led the sheriff 's department to search the mansion ; they found 39 bodies there on March 26 . It is the largest group suicide that has occurred in the U.S. Applewhite 's body was found seated on the bed of the mansion 's master bedroom . Medical examiners determined that his fears of cancer had been unfounded , but that he suffered from coronary atherosclerosis .

The deaths provoked a media circus , and Applewhite 's face was featured on the covers of Time and Newsweek on April 7 . His final message was widely broadcast ; Hugh Urban of Ohio State University describes his appearance in the video as " wild @-@ eyed [ and ] rather alarming " .

= = Analysis = =

Although many popular commentators , including psychologist Margaret Singer , speculate that Applewhite brainwashed his followers , many academics have rejected the " brainwashing " label as an oversimplification that does not express the nuances of the process by which the followers were influenced . Lalich speculates that they were willing to follow Applewhite in suicide because they had become totally dependent upon him , and hence were poorly suited for life in his absence . Davis attributes Applewhite 's success in convincing his followers to commit suicide to two factors : he isolated them socially and cultivated an attitude of complete religious obedience in them . Applewhite 's students had made a long @-@ term commitment to him , and Balch and Taylor infer that this is why his interpretations of events appeared coherent to them . Most of the dead had been members for about 20 years , although there were a few recent converts .

Lewis argues that Applewhite effectively controlled his followers by packaging his teachings in familiar terms . Richard Hecht of the University of California , Santa Barbara , echoes this sentiment , arguing that members of the group killed themselves because they believed the narrative that he had constructed , rather than because he psychologically controlled them . In his 2000 study of apocalyptic movements , John R. Hall posits that they were motivated to commit suicide because they saw it as a way to demonstrate that they had conquered the fear of death and truly believed Applewhite .

Urban writes that Applewhite 's life displays " the intense ambivalence and alienation shared by many individuals lost in late twentieth @-@ century capitalist society " . He notes that Applewhite 's condemnations of contemporary culture bear similarities to those of Jean Baudrillard at times , particularly their shared nihilist views . Urban posits that Applewhite found no way other than suicide to escape the society that surrounded him and states that death offered him a way to escape its " endless circle of seduction and consumption " .

While covering the suicides , several media outlets focused on Applewhite 's sexuality ; the New York Post dubbed him " the Gay Guru " . Gay rights activist Troy Perry argued that Applewhite 's repression , and society 's rejection , of same @-@ sex relationships ultimately led to his suicide . This idea has failed to gain support among academics . Zeller argues that Applewhite 's sexuality was not the primary driving force behind his asceticism , which he believes resulted from a variety of factors , though he grants sexuality a role .

Lalich states that Applewhite fit " the traditional view of a charismatic leader " , and Evan Thomas deems him a " master manipulator " . Lifton compares Applewhite to Shoko Asahara , the founder of Aum Shinrikyo , describing him as " equally controlling , his paranoia and megalomania gentler yet ever present " . Christopher Partridge of Lancaster University states that Applewhite and Nettles were similar to John Reeve and Lodowicke Muggleton , who founded Muggletonianism , a millennialist movement in 17th century England .

= Arbeideren ( Hamar ) =

Arbeideren ( " The Worker " ) was a Norwegian newspaper , published in Hamar , Hedmark county . It was started in 1909 as the press organ of the Labour Party in Hedemarken and its adjoining regions , and was called Demokraten ( " The Democrat " ) until 1923 . It was issued three days a week between 1909 and 1913 , six days a week in 1914 , three days a week again between 1914 and 1918 before again increasing to six days a week . It was renamed to Arbeideren in 1923 , and in the same year it was taken over by the Norwegian Communist Party . The Communist Party incorporated the newspaper Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad into Arbeideren in 1924 , and until 1929 the newspaper was published under the name Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad . After Arbeideren had gone defunct , the name was used by the Communist Party for other newspapers elsewhere .

The chief editors of the newspaper were Olav Kringen ( 1909 – 1913 ) , Ole Holmen ( 1912 – 1913 ) , Fredrik Monsen ( 1913 – 1916 ) , Paul O. Løkke ( 1916 – 1919 ) , Alfred Aakermann ( 1919 – 1920 ) , Olav Larssen ( 1920 – 1927 ) , and finally Trond Hegna , Ingvald B. Jacobsen , Olav Scheflo , Eivind Petershagen , and Jørgen Vogt ( between 1927 and 1929 ) . Fredrik Monsen , Evald O. Solbakken and Knut Olai Thornæs were acting editors from 1924 to 1925 .

= = Pre @-@ history = =

Demokraten was originally the name of a short @-@ lived newspaper in Hamar started by Leopold Rasmussen in 1852 , connected to the Marcus Thrane movement . Rasmussen started a second newspaper , Oplands @-@ Posten , in Hamar later in 1852 , to compete with his own Demokraten . An organ for the social liberal labour movement in the district , Arbeiderbladet existed from 1889 to 1892 and was published out of different cities , including in Hamar in the year 1890 .

A countywide chapter of the Labour Party was established in Hedmark in mid @-@ November 1904 . After the countywide party convention in Stange in 1906 , the convention summary had to be printed in the Kristiania @-@ based newspaper Social @-@ Demokraten , as it lacked its own local newspaper . The county board thus decided to buy 1 @,@ 500 copies of the Social @-@ Demokraten to distribute to its members . There was a growing notion that the party needed its own newspaper . In the same year , the labour movement in Solør ( south of Hedmark ) bought the paper Solungen , which had existed since 1904 . The takeover came into effect on 1 January 1907 , and publishing began the following year . Solungen pretended to be the labour movement organ for the whole of Hedmark , and outside of Solør it was published as Hedemarkens Amts Socialdemokrat ( Solungen ) . However , the rest of Hedmark county was not satisfied with this solution .

= = Labour Party period = =

= = = 1909 – 1913 = = =

The Hamar @-@ based newspaper Demokraten ( " The Democrat " ) was started on 15 September 1909 . The initiator and first editor was Olav Kringen , who had ample experience as the editor of Social @-@ Demokraten from 1903 until 1906 . Demokraten was the Labour Party organ for the Mjøsa Cities and Hedemarken , but in its first years it also covered Gudbrandsdalen and Østerdalen , two northern regions . The name Østoplandenes Socialistiske Partiblad was considered for the newspaper , but the historical name Demokraten prevailed . The name was suggested by local Labour MP Karl Amundsen . Demokraten 's coverage of Gudbrandsdalen soon ended , and in southern Østerdalen a new labour newspaper , Østerdalens Arbeiderblad , was set up in 1915 . In northern Østerdalen , Arbeidets Rett was popular among the labour movement . According to reports in Demokraten the newspaper again began to cover news from a part of Gudbrandsdalen , namely the city Lillehammer , in 1912 .

When it came to building up a new newspaper , Kringen had a certain personal drive , as he ran for parliament in 1909 . When he lost the election , he also lost interest to a certain degree . He resigned in 1912 and Ole Holmen , a member of the Vang municipal council , took over as chief editor . However , he ran afoul of other people involved with the newspaper and was fired in 1913 .

The newspaper originally had the tagline Socialistisk blad for Oplandene ( " Socialist Paper for Oplandene " ) , but in 1910 this was changed to Talsmand for Arbeiderbevægelsen ( " Spokesman for the Labour Movement " ) . It was printed by the company A. Sæther . The newspaper was issued three times a week until 1 July 1913 , from which point it was increased to six times a week . As part of this ambitious increase , Demokraten also had 3 @,@ 000 copies in circulation , unprecedented in its history .

= = = 1913 – 1916 = = =

In 1913 the newspaper 's supervisory council hired school teacher Fredrik Monsen to be the new editor . Olav Larssen started his journalist career as a subeditor in the same year . In the newspaper 's supervisory council vote , Monsen edged out Waldemar Carlsen with 22 to 4 votes , and also prevailed over other applicants who were seasoned editors , such as Ingvald Førre and Eugène Olaussen . Larssen prevailed over Carlsen and Førre in the vote for the new subeditor .

Only Monsen and Larssen were employed in the newspaper to work with editorial content . In 1913 , Monsen managed to contract known personalities from the labour movement as " regular contributors " . These were the nationally known figures Olav Kringen , Gunnar Ousland and Johan Falkberget , in addition to Lillehammer politician Petter Nilssen and the locally known politicians Arne Juland ( later MP ) and Andr . Juell . Danish expatriate Alfred Kruse joined in the autumn of 1913 . However , according to Larssen , the prominent writers contracted to Demokraten " seldomly wrote " anything .

In his memoirs , Larssen wrote that Monsen was " often aggressive " as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , especially when writing editorials . He got several adversaries in the city 's conservative community , especially after donning a badge with the broken rifle , a well @-@ known anti @-@ war symbol . The newspaper competed with the old and popular conservative Hamar Stiftstidende , the liberal left Oplandenes Avis , and the liberal Oplandet .

The practice of issuing the newspaper six days a week became harder after the outbreak of the First World War . The war caused a general rise in prices , and newspaper subscriptions and advertisements both declined . Demokraten had to revert to being issued three times a week starting 1 September 1914 . In December 1914 it adopted a new tagline , Organ for arbeiderpartiet i Hamar og Hedemarksbygdene ( " Organ for the Labour Party in Hamar and the Hamlets of Hedemarken " ) .

= = = 1916 – 1923 = = =

Monsen and Larssen both left Demokraten in 1916 . The next editors were Paul O. Løkke , who served from 1916 to 1919 , and Alfred Aakermann , from 1919 to 1920 . Larssen returned in 1920 as editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Georg Svendsen was the subeditor from 1918 until 1921 , when Evald O. Solbakken started in the newspaper as subeditor . Still , there were only two people to deliver the editorial content .

As the war years went , the newspaper 's finances gradually improved . The Norwegian state became more active in production and trade and contributed many advertisements . Demokraten acquired its own type @-@ setting machine in October 1918 and a printing press in 1917 , which it used from 1 January 1918 . From 1 July 1918 , circulation once again increased to six days a week .

= = Communist Party period = =

In 1923 , the newspaper was renamed Arbeideren ( " The Worker " ) , and the first issue with this name was released on 1 May 1923 , the International Workers ' Day . The change followed a letter in 1922 from the Comintern Executive , which stated that no newspaper belonging to a Comintern member organization should have " Social Democrat " or " Democrat " as a part of its title . The printing press of the party changed its name accordingly , to Arbeiderens trykkeri .

In the same year , 1923 , the Labour Party broke out of the Comintern . Subsequently the Communist Party broke away from the Labour Party . The local chapter of the Labour Party in Hamar decided to side with the Communist Party in November 1923 , in a 123 – 22 vote . Arbeideren was then taken away from Labour , as the supervisory council decided by a 65 to 5 vote that it should follow the Communists . Arbeideren was one of thirteen Labour newspapers that broke away from the party and followed the Communists ( one , Nordlys , later returned to Labour ) . Since 15 February 1924 the newspaper was published under the name Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad , as the Communist Party had seen fit to merge Arbeideren with Lillehammer @-@ based Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad .

Editor Larssen and subeditor Solbakken both joined the Communist Party in 1923 and continued running the newspaper . As Olav Larssen was asked by the party to be the acting editor of Norges Kommunistblad in the winter of 1924 – 1925 , Fredrik Monsen , Evald Solbakken , and Knut Olai Thornæs were acting editors between 1924 and 1925 . Larssen eventually drifted away from the mainstream of the Communist Party . In late 1926 and early 1927 he voiced his opinion in columns that the Communist Party should contribute to the imminent merger of the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Labour Party . A local party convention strongly rebuked this opinion . Larssen was thus replaced in January 1927 and left the Communist Party , and Solbakken soon followed suit . Fredrik Monsen left the party at the same time .

Information differs as to who replaced Larssen . According to Evald Solbakken , and also to the reference bibliography Norske aviser 1763 – 1969 , the replacement was Olav Scheflo , who needed a stand @-@ in , Ingvald B. Jacobsen , for the first period . According to the encyclopaedia Arbeidernes Leksikon and historian Einhart Lorenz , Trond Hegna was the editor in 1927 , before he took over Norges Kommunistblad in the summer of 1927 . Hegna 's main job was to edit the periodical Mot Dag , but in this period the people of Mot Dag had an informal influence on the Communist Party and several of their newspapers . Scheflo formally edited the newspaper from 1927 to 1928 , with Eivind Petershagen as acting editor from late 1927 . In 1928 Petershagen formally took over , only to have Jørgen Vogt become acting editor later that year . Vogt took over in 1929 .

As many newspapers belonging to the dwindling Communist Party , Arbeideren would cease to exist before the end of the 1920s . It was still published six times a week , but had to give up its printing press in 1929 , switching to Samtrykk in Oslo . The last ever issue of Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad was published on 4 October 1929 .

= = Aftermath = =

A month after Arbeideren went defunct , the Communist Party gave its name to a new newspaper , which was set up as the new main newspaper of the Communist Party in 1930 . This new paper was based in Oslo as the replacement of Norges Kommunistblad , which had been liquidated as well . Olav Larssen and Evald Solbakken found a new outlet in Hamar Arbeiderblad , which had been set up as the new Hamar organ of the Labour Party in 1925 . The Communist Party later tried to create a weekly newspaper in Hamar , Rød Front , but it was short @-@ lived and existed only between 1932 and 1933 . The Oslo version of Arbeideren went defunct in 1940 , and many years after that , the name was used from 1951 to 1953 for a third newspaper , published in Brumunddal , not far from Hamar city .

= Journey ( 2012 video game ) =

Journey is an indie video game developed by Thatgamecompany and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 . It was released on March 13 , 2012 , via the PlayStation Network . In Journey , the player controls a robed figure in a vast desert , traveling towards a mountain in the distance . Other players on the same journey can be discovered , and two players can meet and assist each other , but they cannot communicate via speech or text and cannot see each other 's names . The only form of communication between the two is a musical chime . This chime also transforms dull , stiff pieces of cloth found throughout the levels into vibrant red , affecting the game world and allowing the player to progress through the levels . The robed figure wears a trailing scarf , which when charged by approaching floating pieces of cloth , briefly allows the player to float through the air . The developers sought to evoke in the player a sense of smallness and wonder , and to forge an emotional connection between them and the anonymous players they meet along the way . The music , composed by Austin Wintory , dynamically responds to the player 's actions , building a single theme to represent the game 's emotional arc throughout the story .

Reviewers of the game praised the visual and auditory art as well as the sense of companionship created by playing with a stranger , calling it a moving and emotional experience , and have since listed it as one of the greatest games of all time . Journey won several " game of the year " awards and received several other awards and nominations , including a Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media nomination for the 2013 Grammy Awards . A retail " Collector 's Edition " , including Journey , Thatgamecompany 's two previous titles , and additional media , was released on August 28 , 2012 . The game was released digitally for the PlayStation 4 on July 21 , 2015 and a physical edition was released on October 2 , 2015 .

= = Gameplay = =

In Journey , the player takes the role of a robed figure in a desert . After an introductory sequence , the player is shown the robed figure sitting in the sand , with a large mountain in the distance . The path towards this mountain , the ultimate destination of the game , is subdivided into several sections traveled through linearly . The player can walk in the levels , as well as control the camera , which typically follows behind the figure , either with the analog stick or by tilting the motion @-@ sensitive controller . The player can jump with one button , or emit a wordless shout or musical note with another ; the length and volume of the shout depends on how the button is pressed , and the note stays in tune with the background music . These controls are presented pictorially in the beginning of the game ; at no point outside of the credits and title screen are any words shown or spoken .

The robed figure wears a trailing magical scarf which allows the player to briefly fly ; doing so uses up the scarf 's magical charge , represented visually by glowing runes on the scarf . The scarf 's runes are recharged by walking , or a variety of other means . Touching glowing symbols scattered throughout the levels lengthens the initially vestigial scarf , allowing the player to remain airborne longer . Larger strips of cloth are present in the levels and can be transformed from a stiff , dull gray to vibrant red by singing near them . Doing so may have effects on the world such as releasing bits of cloth , forming bridges , or levitating the player . This in turn allows the player to progress in the level by opening doors or allowing them to reach previously inaccessible areas . The robed figure does not have visible arms to manipulate the game world directly . Along the way , the player encounters flying creatures made of cloth , some of which help the player along . In later levels , the player also encounters hostile creatures made of stone , which upon spotting the player rip off parts of the figure 's scarf .

In each level , the player may come across one other player temporarily connected to their game . When players approach each other they charge one another 's scarves . They cannot communicate with each other beyond patterns of singing . Players can help each other by activating strips of cloth or showing paths , but cannot hinder each other and are not necessary for completing any level . When two players finish a section at the same time they remain together into the next one ; otherwise they are connected to new players when they move on . While all of the figures generally look the same , without gender or distinguishing characteristics , individual players can be told apart by unique symbols which are shown floating in the air when they sing and are displayed on their robes at all times . The entire game takes about two to three hours to complete .

= = Story = =

Journey 's story is told wordlessly throughout gameplay and using cutscenes . The player 's character begins on a sand dune in a seemingly endless desert . In the far distance looms a large , foreboding mountain with a glowing crevice that splits its peak . As the character approaches the mountain , they find remnants of a once @-@ thriving civilization , eroded by sand over time . Scattered throughout the ruins at the end of each area are stones at which the traveler rests ; these stones give the traveler the vision of meeting a larger , white @-@ robed figure in a circular room , with art on the walls describing the rise and fall of the civilization mirroring the player 's journey . The player must also contend with the ancient automatons left over from a war which ended the civilization , and which still roam the city looking for intruders .

The player continues to journey deeper into the remains of a once sprawling city at the base of the mountain . Eventually making it safely to the mountain , the traveler begins to climb it , struggling as they enter the colder climates and encounter deep snow and high winds . With the crevice still a fair distance away , the traveler falls and collapses in the snow . Six of the white @-@ robed figures appear before the character and grant the traveler new energy , allowing the player to reach the summit of the mountain and walk into and through the crevice as the screen fills with white . The player is then shown the game 's credits , playing over the ending cinematic . This cinematic shows a shooting star emanating from the crevice and traversing the path the traveler took through the ruins , and shows glimpses of other robed travelers heading towards the mountain . Eventually , the star comes to rest at the sand dune where the game began , and the player is given the option of starting the game again . As the credits end , the player is shown the PlayStation Network IDs of the other travelers who shared part of the trek .

= = Development = =

Journey was the last game made under a three @-@ game contract between Thatgamecompany and Sony , the first two being Flow and Flower . Development of the game began in 2009 , after the release of Thatgamecompany 's previous title Flower . The 18 @-@ person development team for Journey was composed mainly of creators of the company 's previous games ; co @-@ founder Jenova Chen was the creative director and Nick Clark returned as lead designer . Kellee Santiago , producer of Flow and Flower , did not reprise her duties , concentrating instead on her role as the company 's president , and was replaced by Robin Hunicke .

When development began , Sony expected the game to be completed in a year , rather than the more than three it finally took . Thatgamecompany always expected needing an extension ; according to Hunicke , they believed finishing the game within a year was " unrealistic " . Development ended up taking even longer than anticipated , as the team had difficulties paring down their ideas for the game and maintaining efficient communication . Over the course of development the team grew from seven to eighteen people . At the end of the second year , when Sony 's extension had run out , the game did not spark the emotions in the player that the team wanted . Sony agreed to another one @-@ year extension , but development ultimately exceeded even that .

The stress of the project led to the feeling there was not enough time or money to complete everything the team wished to , which added to the stress and caused arguments about the design of the game . The developers ended up reducing the overtime they spent on the project to avoid burning out , though it meant further delays and risked the company running out of money as the game neared completion . In a speech at the 16th annual D.I.C.E. Awards in 2013 , Chen admitted that the company had indeed been driven to bankruptcy in the final months of development , and that some of the developers had gone unpaid at the time . Hunicke described the solution to finally finishing the game as learning to let go of tensions and ideas that could not make it into the game and be " nice to each other . "

The game is intended to make the player feel " small " and to give them a sense of awe about their surroundings . The basic idea for the game , as designed by Chen , was to create a game that moved beyond the " typical defeat / kill / win mentality " of most video games . The team initially created a prototype named Dragon that involved players trying to draw away a large monster from other players , but eventually discarded it after finding it was too easy for players to ignore each other in favor of their own objectives .

The developers designed the game like a " Japanese garden " , where they attempted to remove all of the game elements that did not fit with the others , so the emotions they wanted the game to evoke would come through . This minimalism is intended to make the game feel intuitive to the player , so they can explore and feel a sense of wonder without direct instructions . The story arc of the game is designed to explicitly follow Joseph Campbell 's monomyth theory of narrative , or hero 's journey , so as to enhance the emotional connection of the players as they journey together . In his D.I.C.E. speech , Chen noted that three of their 25 testers had cried upon completing the game .

The multiplayer component of Journey was designed to facilitate cooperation between players without forcing it , and without allowing competition . It is intended to allow the players to feel a connection to other people through exploring with them , rather than talking to them or fighting them . The plan was " to create a game where people felt they are connected with each other , to show the positive side of humanity in them . " The developers felt the focus on caring about the other player would be diluted by too many game elements , such as additional goals or tasks , as players would focus on those and " ignore " the other player . They also felt having text or voice communication between players or showing usernames would allow players ' biases and preconceptions to come between them and the other player .

The game was released on March 13 , 2012 for download on the PlayStation Network . A PlayStation Home Game Space , or themed area , based on Journey was released on March 14 , 2012 and is similar in appearance to the game . A retail " Collector 's Edition " of the game was released on August 28 , 2012 . In addition to Journey , the disc @-@ based title includes Flow and Flower ; creator commentaries , art , galleries , and soundtracks for all three games ; non @-@ related minigames ; and additional content for the PlayStation 3 . In September 2012 , Sony and Thatgamecompany released a hardcover book entitled " The Art of Journey " , by the game 's art director Matt Nava , containing pieces of art from the game ranging from concept art to final game graphics . On July 21 , 2015 , Journey was released on the PlayStation Network for the PlayStation 4 , ported by United Kingdom studio Tricky Pixels ; owners of the digital PlayStation 3 version of the game were able to download the new version for free .

= = = Music = = =

The music in Journey was composed and orchestrated by Austin Wintory , who had previously worked with Thatgamecompany on the soundtrack for Flow . Wintory worked closely on the soundtrack with sound designer Steve Johnson , as well as the programming team , so the music would dynamically tie in to both the actions of the player and sound effects caused by nearby game objects , and feel as if it were " unfolding in real time " . Johnson felt having short pieces of music that looped without reacting to the player would be a " missed opportunity " , and wanted to create music that changed while still containing a composed emotional arc . Jenova Chen met with Wintory at the start of the game 's development to describe his vision for the project , and Wintory left the meeting and composed and recorded the main cello theme for the soundtrack that night . He continued to work on the soundtrack for the next three years , experimenting and discarding many ideas . The game 's orchestrations were performed by the Skopje Radio Symphonic Orchestra in Macedonia .

Unlike many games , where different songs have different themes for each character or area , Wintory chose to base all of the pieces on one theme which stood for the player and their journey , with cello solos especially representing the player . Wintory describes the music as " like a big cello concerto where you are the soloist and all the rest of the instruments represent the world around you " , though he describes it as not necessarily orchestral due to the inclusion of electronic aspects . The cello begins the game as " immersed in a sea of electronic sound " , before first emerging on its own and then merging into a full orchestra , mirroring the player 's journey to the mountain . While the game 's art style is based on several different cultures , Wintory tried to remove any overt cultural influences from the music to make it " as universal and culture @-@ less as possible " . Tina Guo features as the cellist for the soundtrack . She is a close friend of Wintory and has since performed " Woven Variations " with him , an eight @-@ minute orchestral variation on the Journey soundtrack . All of the non @-@ electronic instruments in the soundtrack were recorded with a live orchestra .

The soundtrack was released as an album on April 10 on iTunes and the PlayStation Network . The album is a collection of the soundtrack 's " most important " pieces , arranged by Wintory to stand alone without the context of the player 's actions . The album comprises 18 tracks and is over 58 minutes long . It features the voice of Lisbeth Scott for the final track , " I Was Born for This " . After its release , the soundtrack reached the top 10 of the iTunes Soundtrack charts in more than 20 countries . It also reached No. 116 on the Billboard sales charts , with over 4000 units sold in its first week after release , the second @-@ highest position of any video game music album to date . The soundtrack was released as a physical album by Sumthing Else Music Works on October 9 , 2012 . In 2012 Wintory released a download @-@ only album of music on Bandcamp titled Journey Bonus Bundle , which includes variations on themes from Journey and Flow . The soundtrack itself was subsequently released on Bandcamp on June 19 , 2013 . An album of piano arrangements titled Transfiguration was released on May 1 , 2014 , on Bandcamp as both a digital and physical album . A two @-@ record vinyl version of the album was released in 2015 .

In January 2016 , Wintory started a Kickstarter for a Journey Live concert tour , in which the fifteen @-@ piece Fifth House Ensemble from Chicago will perform the music from the game while a player works their way through the game . The ensemble will react to the player 's actions , using a specially @-@ scored version of the soundtrack , composed by Patrick O 'Malley with Wintory 's oversight , that breaks the music into small pieces to enable this reaction . Wintory had wanted to do a performance of the Journey soundtrack in this interactive manner , but did not have the time to rework the soundtrack for this purpose . Wintory came to know Dan Visconti , the composer for Fifth House Ensemble , after Visconti published his praise for the Journey soundtrack and had encouraged other members of the ensemble to play the game . The group saw how Journey 's soundtrack had been used for various Video Games Live concerts and believed they could pull off Wintory 's vision of an interactive concert , doing most of the reworking of the soundtrack under Wintory 's direction . Sony has provided Wintory with a version of the game developed by Tricky Pixels that disables the music to allow the ensemble to provide this , and other modifications required for the concert performance . The Kickstarter was launched for $ 9 @,@ 000 in funding for a four @-@ city tour , but within a few days already surpassed its funding levels , allowing for more cities to be included .

= = Reception = =

Journey received critical and commercial success worldwide . After its release , it became the fastest @-@ selling game to date on PlayStation Store in both North America and Europe . At the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo , prior to release , the game won awards for best download game from 1UP.com , GameSpy , and GameTrailers . After publication , the game was heavily honored at end of the year awards . At the 16th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards , formerly known as the Interactive Achievement Awards , Journey won 8 awards , the most honors received of the night ( which includes " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Innovation in Gaming " , " Casual Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction " , " Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction " , " Outstanding Achievement in Online Gameplay " , " Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " ) ; it was additionally nominated for " Downloadable Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Story " . Journey was selected as the best game of the year by IGN and GameSpot , among others .

The soundtrack was nominated for the Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 2013 Grammy Awards , the first video game soundtrack to be nominated for that category , though it did not win . Additionally , the game won the award for best music and was nominated for the best graphics award from IGN , and was selected as the best PlayStation Network game by GameSpot . At the Spike Video Game Awards , Journey won awards as the best PlayStation 3 game , the best indie game , and the game with the best music , and was additionally nominated for game of the year , best downloadable game , best graphics , and best song in a game for " I Was Born For This " . It received the 2013 Annie Award for video game animation . It won five awards at the 2013 British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards : Artistic Achievement , Audio Achievement , Game Design , Online Multiplayer and Original Music , and was nominated for Best Game , Game Innovation and Story . In March 2013 , it won six awards at the annual Game Developers Choice Awards : Best Audio , Best Game Design , Best Visual Arts , Best Downloadable Game , the Innovation Award , and Game of the Year .

Journey received high acclaim from critics who praised the visual and auditory art direction as well as the emotional response playing with a stranger created . It received the IGN Best Overall Game Award for 2012 and Ryan Clements of IGN described the game as " the most beautiful game of its time " , saying , " each moment is like a painting , expertly framed and lit " . Jane Douglas of GameSpot concurred , calling it " relentlessly beautiful " and lauding the visual diversity of the world and the depiction of the rippling sand ; Matt Miller of Game Informer added praise for the animation of the sand and creatures , saying the game was visually stunning . The music was also complimented , with Miller describing it as a " breathtaking musical score " and Douglas calling it " moving , dynamic music " .

Reviewers were especially pleased with the emotional experience of playing the game , particularly with other players . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer described it as a " non @-@ denominational religious experience " that , with the addition of another player , moves beyond metaphors and becomes a " pilgrimage " to the player . A reviewer writing for Edge magazine said the emotional arc of the game hits with " occasionally startling power " , while Patrick Shaw from Wired said the game made him feel a " wide range of emotions ... wonder , fear , even sadness . " Miller said all three times he played the game , " each time , without fail , individual moments ... managed to give me goosebumps , and those moments have remained on my mind for weeks afterward . " Joel Gregory of PlayStation Official Magazine praised the game 's story for being open to the player 's interpretation , leaving an ambiguity that drew him in . The addition of an unnamed second player was described by Donlan as brilliant and as a " master stroke " , and Edge said it made for " a more absorbing , more atmospheric experience " .

The few criticisms for the game centered on its length and pacing . Clements noted that not all players would appreciate a game with a " deliberate , melancholic pace " and short duration , comments echoed by the Edge review . Miller noted the lack of a complex gameplay elements in Journey , and Shaw was disappointed that the game was only a few hours long , though Douglas said the length was perfect . Miller concluded the game could be compared to " a musical concert , a well @-@ directed film , or a long @-@ awaited book " , while Clements concluded , " completing Journey will create memories that last for years . "

= Gold Beach =

Gold , commonly known as Gold Beach , was the code name for one of the five areas of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 , during the Second World War . Gold , the central of the five areas , was located between Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on the west and La Rivière on the east . High cliffs at the western end of the zone meant that the landings took place on the flat section between Le Hamel and La Rivière , in the sectors code @-@ named Jig and King . Taking Gold was to be the responsibility of the British Army , with sea transport , mine sweeping , and a naval bombardment force provided by the Royal Navy as well as elements from the Dutch , Polish and other Allied navies .

The objectives at Gold were to secure a beachhead , move west to capture Arromanches and establish contact with the American forces at Omaha , capture Bayeux and the small port at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , and to link up with the Canadian forces at Juno to the east . Forces attacking Gold faced elements of the German 352nd Infantry Division and German 716th Infantry Division . About 2 @,@ 000 men were stationed in the immediate area . Improvements to fortifications along the Normandy coast had been undertaken under the leadership of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel beginning in October 1943 .

On D @-@ Day at Gold , naval bombardment got underway at 05 : 30 , and amphibious landings commenced at 07 : 25 . High winds made conditions difficult for the landing craft , and the amphibious DD tanks were released close to shore or directly on the beach instead of further out as planned . Three of the four guns in a large emplacement at the Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer battery were disabled by direct hits from the cruisers Ajax and Argonaut at 06 : 20 . The fourth gun resumed firing intermittently in the afternoon , and its garrison surrendered on 7 June . Aerial attacks had failed to hit the Le Hamel strongpoint , which had its embrasure facing east to provide enfilade fire along the beach and had a thick concrete wall on the seaward side . Its 75 mm gun continued to do damage until 16 : 00 , when a modified Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers ( AVRE ) tank fired a large petard charge into its rear entrance . A second casemated emplacement at La Rivière containing an 88 mm gun was neutralised by a tank at 07 : 30 .

Meanwhile , infantry began clearing the heavily fortified houses along the shore and advanced on targets further inland . The British Commandos of No. 47 ( Royal Marine ) Commando advanced on Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin and captured it on 7 June in the Battle of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin . On the western flank , the 1st Battalion , Hampshire Regiment captured Arromanches ( future site of one of the artificial Mulberry harbours ) , and 69th Infantry Brigade on the eastern flank made contact with the Canadian forces at Juno . Company Sergeant Major Stanley Hollis received the only Victoria Cross awarded on D @-@ Day for his actions while attacking two pillboxes at the Mont Fleury battery . Due to stiff resistance from the German 352nd Infantry Division , Bayeux was not captured until the next day . British casualties at Gold are estimated at 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 100 . German casualties are unknown .

= = Background = =

= = = Operation Overlord = = =

After the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing for the creation of a second front in Western Europe . The decision to undertake a cross @-@ channel invasion of continental Europe within the next year was taken at the Trident Conference , held in Washington in May 1943 . The Allies initially planned to launch the invasion on 1 May 1944 , and a draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943 . General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) . General Bernard Montgomery was named as commander of the 21st Army Group , which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion .

On 31 December 1943 , Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the plan , which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions and two @-@ thirds of an airborne division . The two generals immediately insisted that the scale of the initial invasion be expanded to five divisions , with airborne descents by three divisions , to allow operations on a wider front . The change doubled the frontage of the invasion from 25 miles ( 40 km ) to 50 miles ( 80 km ) . This would allow for quicker offloading of men and materiel , make it more difficult for the Germans to respond , and speed up the capture of the port at Cherbourg . The need to acquire or produce extra landing craft and troop carrier aircraft for the expanded operation meant that the invasion had to be delayed to June .

The Americans , assigned to land at Utah and Omaha , were to cut off the Cotentin Peninsula and capture the port facilities at Cherbourg . The British at Sword and Gold , and the Canadians at Juno , were to capture Caen and form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen to protect the American flank , while establishing airfields near Caen . Possession of Caen and its surroundings would provide a suitable staging area for a push south to capture the town of Falaise . A secure lodgement would be established and an attempt made to hold all territory north of the Avranches @-@ Falaise line during the first three weeks . The Allied armies would then swing left to advance towards the River Seine . Montgomery envisaged a ninety @-@ day battle , ending when all the forces reached the Seine .

= = = Allied planning = = =

Originally , seventeen sectors along the Normandy coastline had been selected as possible invasion sites and each were provided with a code name taken from one of the spelling alphabets of the time . The coast was divided between Able , west of Omaha , to Rodger on the eastern flank of the invasion area . Eight further sectors were added when the planned invasion was extended to include Utah . Each sector was further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green , Red , and White . Gold did not refer to a particular beach but to a landing area . It was delineated by Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on the west and La Rivière on the east , and included Arromanches , location of one of the artificial Mulberry harbours that were to be constructed shortly after the invasion . High cliffs at the western end of the zone meant that the landings would be undertaken on the flat beach between Le Hamel and La Rivière , in the sectors code @-@ named Jig and King . The area immediately behind the beach was marshy , with open ground and bocage ( small fields surrounded by hedges and embankments ) further inland . Roads led to the south via Asnelles and Ver @-@ sur @-@ Mer . The terrain to the south @-@ east rose to a ridge at Meuvaines , where on D @-@ day were located machine gun nests of the German 726th Regiment .

The Allied Expeditionary Air Force undertook over 3 @,@ 200 photo reconnaissance sorties from April 1944 until the start of the invasion . Photos of the coastline were taken at extremely low altitude to show the invaders the terrain , obstacles on the beach , and defensive structures such as bunkers and gun emplacements . Inland terrain , bridges , troop emplacements , and buildings were also photographed , in many cases from several angles , to give the Allies as much information as possible . Members of Combined Operations Pilotage Parties clandestinely prepared detailed harbour maps , including depth soundings . At Gold , frogmen discovered the shore between Asnelles and La Rivière was soft and could not support the weight of tanks . Twelve Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers ( AVREs ) were fitted with bobbins to overcome this problem by deploying a roll of matting over the soft surface . The material would then be left in place to create a route for more conventional tanks .

Gold was assigned to the British XXX Corps , with the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division – commanded by Major General D.A.H. Graham – allotted as the assault division . It was an experienced division that had already seen combat in France , North Africa , and Sicily . The men underwent extensive training in amphibious landings , including Exercise Fabius , a major training exercise at Hayling Island in May 1944 . Demolition teams responsible for disabling underwater beach obstacles trained in swimming pools in the UK . Briefings were undertaken using detailed maps that used fictitious place names , and most of the men did not find out their destination until they were already on their way to Normandy . The amphibious landing was to be preceded by extensive air bombardment as well as naval bombardment by Bombarding Force K , a task force of eighteen ships , primarily cruisers and destroyers . Amphibious tanks of the 8th Armoured Brigade were to arrive at 07 : 20 , followed by infantry at 07 : 25 . The 231st Brigade was assigned to land at Jig , and 69th Brigade at King . The 231st was to head west to capture Arromanches and establish contact with the American forces at Omaha , while the 69th was to move east and link up with the Canadian forces at Juno . The 47th Royal Marine Commando was assigned to land at Gold , infiltrate inland , and capture the small port at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin from the landward side .

Arriving in the second wave on Jig , 56th Infantry Brigade was to capture Bayeux and a nearby ridge , thus cutting the N13 highway between Caen and Bayeux to make it difficult for the Germans to move in reinforcements . The second wave on King , 151st Infantry Brigade , was tasked with capturing the Caen road and railway , along with setting up positions on high ground between the Aure and Seulles rivers . Other forces involved in the landing included artillery regiments , signals corps , and engineering units .

= = = German defences = = =

In late 1943 , Hitler placed Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of improving the coastal defences along the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an Allied invasion , expected to take place sometime in 1944 . Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion , so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore . In the immediate area of Gold , between Le Hamel and La Rivière , seven defensive strongpoints designed to hold 50 men apiece were constructed . Two major concrete @-@ reinforced coastal artillery emplacements ( a battery of four 122 mm guns at Mont Fleury and the Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer battery , with four 150 mm guns ) were only partially completed by D @-@ Day . Rommel ordered wooden stakes , metal tripods , mines , and large anti @-@ tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks . Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach , he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high tide mark . Tangles of barbed wire , booby traps , and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry .

Hitler gave Rommel command of the newly re @-@ formed Army Group B , which included the 7th Army , the 15th Army , and the forces guarding the Netherlands . Reserves for this group included the 2nd , 21st , and 116th Panzer divisions . Recognizing that Allied air superiority would make it difficult if not impossible to move reserves into position once the invasion was underway , Rommel decided to concentrate the defences along the coast . The 716th Infantry Division , which had been stationed in the area since March 1942 , was significantly understrength , with only 6 @,@ 000 men . This unit received reinforcements , and some of the older men were replaced by younger soldiers . It was also supplemented by several battalions of Osttruppen ( eastern soldiers ) , conscripted Soviet prisoners of war . The 352nd Infantry Division , a full @-@ strength unit of around 12 @,@ 000 , was brought into the area by Rommel on 15 March and reinforced by two additional regiments . About 2 @,@ 000 men , a mixture from the two infantry divisions , were stationed in the coastal area between Arromanches and Asnelles .

= = Order of battle = =

= = = British forces = = =

50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , commanded by Major @-@ General D.A.H. Graham

69th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier F.Y.C. Knox

5th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment

6th Battalion , Green Howards

7th Battalion , Green Howards

151st Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier R.H. Senior

6th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry

8th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry

9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry

231st Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier A.G.B. Stanier

1st Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment

1st Battalion , Hampshire Regiment

2nd Battalion , Devonshire Regiment

Divisional troops

61st Reconnaissance Regiment , Royal Armoured Corps ( RAC ) ( 2 Squadrons )

2nd Battalion , Cheshire Regiment ( machine guns and heavy mortars )

357th , 358th & 465th Batteries , 90th Field Regiment , Royal Artillery ( RA ) ( Self @-@ propelled )

99th & 288th Batteries , 102nd ( Northumberland Hussars ) Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , RA

82nd Battery , 25th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA

233rd ( Northumbrian ) Field Company , Royal Engineers ( RE )

295th Field Company , RE

505th Field Company , RE

235th ( Northumbrian ) Field Park Company , RE ( bulldozers )

50th Divisional Signals , Royal Corps of Signals

149th , 186th & 200th Field Ambulances , Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC )

22nd Field Hygiene Section , RAMC

50th Divisional Provost Company , Royal Military Police ( RMP )

Formations attached for assault phase

Elements of 79th Armoured Division

Westminster Dragoons ( Flail tanks )

141st Royal Tank Regiment ( The Buffs ) ( Churchill Crocodiles ) ( 2 Troops )

81st & 82nd Assault Squadrons , 6th Assault Regiment , RE ( AVREs )

56th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier E.C. Pepper

2nd Battalion , Essex Regiment

2nd Battalion , Gloucestershire Regiment

2nd Battalion , South Wales Borderers

8th Armoured Brigade , commanded by Brigadier H.J.B. Carcroft

4th / 7th Royal Dragoon Guards ( DD Tanks )

Nottinghamshire Yeomanry ( DD Tanks )

76th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade , commanded by Brigadier E.R. Benson

113th Heavy Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA ( HQ only )

320th Battery , 93rd Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA

394th & 395th Batteries , 120th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA

152nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Operations Room , RA

A Troop , 356th ( Independent ) Searchlight Battery , RA

Additional units attached for assault phase

GHQ Liaison Regiment , RAC ( ' Phantom ' )

341st , 342nd , & 462nd Batteries , 86th ( East Anglian ) ( Hertfordshire Yeomanry ) Field Regiment , RA ( Self @-@ propelled )

413th , 431st & 511th Batteries , 147th ( Essex Yeomanry ) Field Regiment , RA ( Self @-@ propelled )

198th & 234th Batteries , 73rd Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , RA

662nd Air Observation Post Squadron , RA ( Ground crew of one flight only )

73rd Field Company , RE

280th Field Company , RE

203rd Field Ambulance , RAMC

168th Light Field Ambulance , RAMC

1st Royal Marine Armoured Support Regiment

No. 47 ( Royal Marine ) Commando

104 Beach Sub @-@ Area HQ

9 & 10 Beach Groups and Signal Section

69th , 89th , 90th & 183rd Field Companies , RE

21st & 23rd Stores Sections , RE

51st & 74th Mechanical Equipment Sections , RE

1043rd Port Operating Company , RE

953rd & 961st Inland Water Transport Companies , RE

2nd Battalion , Hertfordshire Regiment

6th Battalion , Border Regiment

305th , 536th & 705th General Transport Companies , Royal Army Service Corps ( RASC )

2nd & 5th Detail Issue Depots , RASC

244th Petrol Dept , RASC

3rd & 10th Casualty Clearing Stations , RAMC

3rd , 25th , 31st , 32nd & 35th Field Dressing Stations , RAMC

Nos 41 , 42 , 47 & 48 Field Surgical Units , RAMC

Nos 24 & 30 Field Transfusion Unit , RAMC

22nd & 23rd Port Details , RAMC

7th , 10th & 36th Ordnance Beach Detachments , Royal Army Ordnance Corps

24th & 25th Beach Recovery Sections , Royal Electrical & Mechanical Engineers ( REME )

XXX Corps Workshop , REME ( 2 Composite Workshops & 1 Light Recovery Section )

240th & 243rd Provost Companies , RMP

75th , 173rd , 209th & 280th ( Pioneer ) Companies , Pioneer Corps

= = = German forces = = =

From June 1942 , 716th Infantry Division covered the Grandcamps Sector , which stretched from the base of the Cotentin Peninsula to the Orne River near Caen , a distance of 77 kilometres ( 48 mi ) . When 352nd Infantry Division arrived on 15 March , the Grandcamps Sector was split into the Bayeux Sector ( from Carentan to Asnelles ) and the Caen Sector ( from Asnelles to the Orne ) . Most of the 716th Infantry Division remained where they were , and thus the defenses in Caen Sector ( site of the Gold landings ) were not substantially strengthened .

352nd Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Dietrich Kraiss915th Grenadier Regiment : south @-@ east of Bayeux , as reserves

916th Grenadier Regiment : covered Omaha and the westernmost part of Gold

352nd Artillery Regiment : covered Omaha and the westernmost part of Gold

716th Static Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter726th Infantry Regiment : two battalions in and around Le Hamel . Members of the 441st Ost Battalion garrisoned the coastal defenses . One battalion was stationed near Crépon as reserves .

736th Infantry Regiment : covered Juno , Sword , and the easternmost part of Gold

1716th Artillery Regiment : mobile and casemated batteries east and west of Crépon

= = Landings = =

Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with over 2 @,@ 200 British and American bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland . At Gold , naval bombardment by Bombarding Force K got underway at 05 : 30 , at which time the first waves of infantry were loading into their Landing Craft Assault ( LCAs ) for the run in to the beach . German defensive positions were attacked by medium and heavy bombers and by self @-@ propelled guns on board the landing craft . Results were good at Mont Fleury Battery and at Longues , where at 07 : 00 Ajax and Argonaut took out of commission three of the four guns . The fourth gun resumed firing sporadically in the afternoon , and the garrison surrendered the following day . Two heavily casemated gun emplacements ( an 88 mm gun at La Rivière overlooking King and a 75 mm gun at Le Hamel overlooking Jig ) were only lightly damaged , as they were heavily reinforced with concrete , especially on the seaward side . These positions had embrasures that permitted a wide range of enfilade fire on the beach . Four other German strong points in the immediate area were also only lightly damaged , and had to be individually assaulted as the day progressed .

= = = King Sector = = =

H @-@ Hour for the landing at Gold was set at 07 : 25 on King sector ( 50 minutes later than in the American landings , because of differences in the tide ) . The first wave on King was the 5th East Yorkshires and 6th Green Howards of 69th Brigade , assisted by amphibious DD tanks of the 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards . The 7th Green Howards landed at 08 : 20 . The original plan called for the 38 DD tanks to be launched from their landing craft tank ( LCTs ) about 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) out . Due to extremely choppy seas , they decided to run the tanks directly onto the beach . Infantry , engineers , and DD tanks arrived almost simultaneously . Units disembarking onto the beach immediately came under fire from the casemated 88 mm gun at La Rivière , and the infantry were forced to take cover behind the sea wall . The gun was taken out when a flail tank of the Westminster Dragoons fired a charge directly into its aperture . The 5th East Yorkshires , supported by several tanks , spent the rest of the morning clearing out the heavily fortified houses of La Rivière , at the loss of 90 men , including six officers .

Specialised armour arriving in the first wave included AVREs , mine flails , and armoured bulldozers . Clearing paths off the beach proved difficult , as the tanks got stuck in the mud or were taken out by mines . A lone mine flail tank finally cleared a path from the beach up toward the Mont Fleury Battery and Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer . This route was used by the Green Howards and tanks of the 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards , who cleared the remaining resistance at the Mont Fleury Battery . B Company moved on to attack trench positions and machine gun emplacements at Meuvaines Ridge , while C Company moved to the west of Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer to help cover the assault on Crépon , where roads led to the important targets of Bayeux and Caen . The 7th Green Howards attacked the gun battery at Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer , where they took 50 prisoners . Colour Sergeant @-@ Major Stanley Hollis earned the only Victoria Cross to be bestowed for actions on D @-@ Day . On the way to the Mont Fleury Battery , Hollis came under machine gun fire while investigating a pillbox , so he shot into the entrance with his Sten gun and dropped a grenade through the roof , killing most of the occupants . He cleared a nearby trench of enemy soldiers , whereupon the occupants of a second pillbox surrendered . Later in the day , he saved the lives of three men during an attempt to take out a field artillery installation at a farm near Crépon .

Scheduled to land at 11 : 00 on Jig , the 56th Infantry Brigade was re @-@ routed King , because the gun battery at Le Hamel was still operational . They proceeded towards their objective of Bayeux . 151st Brigade arrived at the same time and after meeting fierce resistance , they achieved their objective of controlling the road and railway between Bayeux and Caen . 56th Brigade made slow progress and had to dig in for the night some distance from Bayeux . 69th Brigade secured the eastern flank and by nightfall made contact with the Canadian forces on Juno .

= = = Jig Sector = = =

At Jig , the first wave of infantry ( the 1st Dorsetshires and 1st Hampshires of the 231st Infantry Brigade ) arrived at 07 : 25 , and immediately came under fire from the casemated 75 mm gun at Le Hamel . Due to navigation errors and the strong current , both groups came ashore well to the east of their intended landing points . The DD tank and Royal Marine Centaur tanks that were supposed to arrive in advance of the landing were delayed by rough seas and did not arrive until 08 : 00 . Many of the tanks got bogged down on the beach or were taken out by enemy fire . The tide came in quicker than expected , before many of the beach obstacles and mines were cleared , and some of the landing craft were damaged as a result . Two companies of the 1st Hampshires landed very close to the strong point at Le Hamel , and had to fight inland through enemy garrisons to get off the beach . Attempts to flank Le Hamel were made difficult by the surrounding machine gun placements , mines , and barbed wire . Elements of the 1st Hampshires captured the German strongpoint WN @-@ 36 at the eastern edge of the village of Asnelles . When they turned west to move along the beach towards their primary objective at Le Hamel , they came under heavy fire and had to break off the attack . Major Warren , in charge after the commanding officer Lieutenant Colonel Nelson Smith was wounded , decided that the troops would have to circle around and attack the emplacement from the rear , a process that took several hours . The troops began to have some success around 15 : 00 with the arrival of an AVRE tank of 82nd Assault Squadron . The tank fired two petards into the sanatorium , where most of the defenders were located . The German soldiers fled into fortified houses in Le Hamel and Asnelles , and were taken out in house @-@ to @-@ house combat . Few surrendered . The 75 mm gun was finally silenced at 16 : 00 , when the AVRE tank fired a large petard charge into the rear entrance of the casemate . C / A Company , 1st Hampshires and the AVRE tank proceeded west along the beach and took out strongpoint WN @-@ 38 at La Fontaine St Côme , taking 20 prisoners . Still further west , D Company captured strong point WN @-@ 39 at the Arromanches radar station , capturing 30 more defenders .

The 2nd Devons arrived at 08 : 15 , while the beach was still under heavy fire . One company stayed to help with the assault on Le Hamel , while the rest moved to capture the village of Ryes astride the road to Bayeux . Ryes was captured at around 16 : 30 . The 1st Dorsets attacked a German position on the beach at La Cabane des Douanes and headed inland to arc westward toward the high ground south of Arromanches . They cleared enemy positions at Le Bulot and Puits d 'Hérode , and arrived at their destination late in the morning . Joined by elements of the 1st Hampshires and covered by indirect fire from the naval forces offshore , they took Arromanches late in the afternoon .

= = = 47th Commando = = =

The 47th Royal Marine Commando was assigned to capture the small harbour at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , on the boundary with Omaha , about 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Arromanches and 8 miles ( 13 km ) from their landing point at Jig . The commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel C. F. Phillips , opted to attack from the south , as the site was well protected on the seaward side . The force of 420 men consisted of five troops of 63 men , a mortar and machine gun troop , a transport group with four tracked vehicles , and a headquarters group . The plan was to land at Gold at 09 : 25 , assemble at La Rosière , and move cross @-@ country to a ridge ( designated as Point 72 ) south of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , arriving at around 13 : 00 . Here they would call for indirect fire from the supporting vessels at sea and then move in to capture the town .

In rough seas and under enemy fire , the commandos began disembarking at Jig , some distance east of their intended position , at 09 : 50 . Five of their LCAs were sunk by beach obstacles or enemy fire , at the cost of 76 casualties . Major P. M. Donnell temporarily took charge until Phillips and some others who had got separated from the unit rejoined the group at 14 : 00 along the Meuvaines – Le Carrefour road . The commando took additional casualties in several skirmishes , including at La Rosière , on the way to Point 72 . They did not arrive there until 22 : 30 , too late to launch an attack , so they dug in for the night . The town and port were captured in the battle of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on 7 – 8 June 1944 .

= = = German response = = =

As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris had predicted two weeks of stormy weather , some Wehrmacht commanders were away from the front attending war games in Rennes , and many soldiers had been given leave . On D @-@ Day , Rommel was in Germany for his wife 's birthday and a meeting with Hitler to try to get more Panzers . The 352nd and 716th Divisions were placed on high alert after the Allied airborne landings , which had taken just after midnight behind Utah and Sword . The 2 @,@ 700 @-@ strong Kampfgruppe Meyer , near Bayeux as the divisional reserve , was sent to investigate the parachute drops behind Utah . Marcks recalled them when dawn broke and the scope of the invasion became apparent . One battalion was ordered to reinforce the German efforts at Omaha . The remainder were ordered to rendezvous with reinforcements at Villiers le Sec , 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) east of Bayeux , to launch a counter @-@ attack . Fired upon by Allied air forces , the column finally arrived in the late afternoon , at which time they were met by elements of the 69th Brigade . The British lost four tanks in the ensuing engagement but the Kampfgruppe was almost completely wiped out . Meyer was killed , and his detailed maps of German coastal emplacements fell into British hands .

Because Allied air superiority meant it would be difficult for the Germans to move up their reserves , Rommel believed that their best chance was to stop the invasion at the shore . The scope of the invasion meant that once these coastal defences were defeated and the troops scattered , it was difficult to defend territory inland or launch counter @-@ attacks . At 22 : 33 , Kraiss ordered the 352nd Division to create a defensive line north of Bayeux but this proved impossible , as most of the territory involved was already in British hands and all the defending units had taken serious losses . The Luftwaffe played only a minor role on D @-@ Day . At Gold , several small groups of bombers that arrived at sunset caused Allied casualties at Le Hamel and damaged a road near Ver @-@ sur @-@ Mer . At 06 : 00 on 7 June , the operations room of HMS Bulolo , offshore near Gold , was damaged by a bomber attack , but the ship was able to remain on station . The unit responsible was likely II . / Kampfgeschwader 40 ( KG 40 — Bomber Wing 40 ) . Under the command of Fliegerführer Atlantik ( Flyer Command Atlantic ) , it was based at Bordeaux – Merignac . On the evening of the 6 / 7 June 1944 , 26 Heinkel He 177 heavy bombers equipped with Henschel Hs 293 anti @-@ ship guided missiles attacked shipping over Normandy , included the Gold area . II . / KG 40 lost 13 aircraft to all causes during the attack .

The 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler were released before midnight from the OKW reserve and ordered to counter @-@ attack between Bayeux and the Orne , supplemented by 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and Panzer Lehr Division ; the armoured divisions began arriving on 8 June .

= = Aftermath = =

= = = Analysis = = =

Pockets of German resistance remained throughout the beachhead area and the British were stopped about 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) short of their D @-@ Day objectives . Bayeux , a primary D @-@ Day objective for 50th Division , was captured on 7 June . By the end of D @-@ Day , the 50th Division had lost around 700 men . Total casualties , from all units involved in operations at Gold , were in the region of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 100 casualties , of which 350 were killed . German losses are unknown ; at least 1 @,@ 000 were captured .

= = = Gold Beach after 6 June = = =

By the end of D @-@ Day , 24 @,@ 970 men had been landed at Gold Beach , along with 2 @,@ 100 vehicles and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of supplies . The follow @-@ up landings were slowed by the loss of 34 LCTs and the bad weather . The 24th Lancers and 61st Reconnaissance Regiment , due to land on D @-@ Day to help spearhead the drive towards Villers @-@ Bocage , were unable to put ashore until 7 June . In 2004 Trew wrote that the delay

effectively ruled out any chance of a thrust south ... [ and ] ... represented a major blow to Second Army 's intentions and Montgomery 's plan .

The 7th Armoured Division and the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division were the follow @-@ up divisions of XXX Corps . The 22nd Armoured Brigade ( the armoured component of the 7th Armoured Division ) was scheduled to land during the evening of 6 June , but it was unable to land until the next day . The bulk of the division landed from 9 – 10 June , with some elements landing later . The 49th Division came ashore on 12 June .

The first components of the Mulberry harbours were brought across the Channel on D + 1 and the structures were in use for unloading by mid @-@ June . One was constructed at Arromanches by British forces , the other at Omaha by American forces . A severe storm on 19 June destroyed the Omaha harbour . The Arromanches harbour was repaired and remained in use for the next ten months , with a maximum capacity of 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of stores per day . Of the British supplies landed in Normandy by the end of August , 35 % arrived via the Mulberry harbour and 15 % came in via the small harbours at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin and Courseulles @-@ sur @-@ Mer . Most shipments were brought in over the beaches until the port of Cherbourg was cleared of mines and obstructions on 16 July . The most important use of the Mulberry harbour was the unloading of heavy machinery that could not be brought across the beaches . Artificial breakwaters ( Gooseberries ) sheltered hundreds of ships during the storm of 17 – 23 June , and provided shelter for craft unloading stores at Juno and Sword . A joint Anglo @-@ American oil depot was constructed at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , fed via buoyed pipes known as " Tombola " from oil tankers moored offshore . Using this method , 175 @,@ 000 long tons ( 178 @,@ 000 t ) of petrol ( half for the Second Army ) was delivered by the end of August , by which time the underwater pipelines constructed in Operation Pluto were ready .

= = = Subsequent operations = = =

Fighting in the Caen area versus the 21st Panzer , the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend , and other units soon reached a stalemate . Operation Perch ( 7 – 14 June ) failed to take Caen , and the British were forced to withdraw to Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . After a delay because of storms during 17 – 23 June , Operation Epsom was launched on 26 June , an attempt by VIII Corps to swing around and attack Caen from the south @-@ west and establish a bridgehead south of the Odon . Although the operation failed to take Caen , the Germans suffered heavy tank losses and had committed every available Panzer unit to the operation . Caen was severely bombed on the night of 7 July and then occupied north of the River Orne in Operation Charnwood on 8 – 9 July . Two offensives during 18 – 21 July , Operation Atlantic and Operation Goodwood , captured the rest of Caen and the high ground to the south , but by then the city was nearly destroyed .

= = Tourism = =

The site of the Normandy landings is a popular tourist destination . The battery at Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer is well preserved , and its observation bunker houses a visitor centre . The gun emplacements at Le Hamel and La Rivière still exist , but many other batteries and defensive positions have been allowed to decay . Bayeux is home to the Musée Mémorial de la Bataille de Normandie and the Bayeux Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery . La Cambe German war cemetery is also near Bayeux . At Arromanches , many elements of the Mulberry Harbour are extant and a museum examines its construction and use . The radar station is the site of a visitor centre and theatre .

= Tautiška giesmė =

Tautiška giesmė ( The National Hymn ) is the national anthem of Lithuania , also known by its opening words " Lietuva , Tėvyne mūsų " ( official translation of the lyrics : " Lithuania , Our Homeland " , literally : " Lithuania , Our Fatherland " ) and as " Lietuvos himnas " ( Hymn of Lithuania ) . The music and lyrics were written in 1898 by Vincas Kudirka , when Lithuania was still part of the Russian Empire . The fifty @-@ word poem was a condensation of Kudirka 's conceptions of the Lithuanian state , the Lithuanian people , and their past . Shortly before his death in 1899 , the anthem was performed for Lithuanians living in Saint Petersburg , Russia .

The first public Lithuanian performance of the anthem took place in Vilnius in 1905 , and it became the official national anthem in 1919 , a year after Lithuania declared its independence . Following the occupation and annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union in 1940 , the anthem was forbidden to be played or sung in public .

" Tautiška giesmė " was reinstated in 1989 shortly before the reestablishment of Lithuanian independence and confirmed in the National Anthem Act ( 21 October 1991 ) . It was automatically included as the national anthem in 1992 , when the new Constitution was ratified after independence from the Soviet Union was achieved . The status of " Tautiška giesmė " as the National Anthem of Lithuania was further confirmed in 1999 with the passage of a national law stating that .

= = Creation = =

At the time when the poem Lietuva , Tėvyne mūsų was written , Lithuania was part of the Russian Empire . Kudirka , a medical student at the University of Warsaw , was writing as a columnist for the newspaper Varpas ( The Bell ) . In his Varpas columns , Kudirka urged Lithuanians to take pride in their heritage , discussed the problems the Russian Government was causing the Lithuanian population , and denounced those who wished to work for the Tsarist autocracy . In the course of writing for Varpas , he wrote down his thoughts on what Lithuania was and what it should be , resulting in the fifty @-@ word poem Lietuva , Tėvynė mūsų ( " Lithuania , Our Homeland " ) .

The poem described the heroic past of Lithuania and exhorted its people to care for the land , care for humanity , and live in honor . Kudirka also urged the country to become a source of enlightenment and virtue . Without a melody , Kudirka took the time to compose the music just before dying of tuberculosis . Both the melody and the lyrics were printed in Varpas in September 1898 . Upon his death in 1899 , Kudirka 's tomb was engraved with the second stanza of the anthem ( later destroyed by the authorities ) .

= = History = =

Before Kudirka 's death , the first performance of the poem occurred at a concert in St. Petersburg , Russia in 1899 . The concert was conducted by Česlovas Sasnauskas and was attended by Lithuanians , which St. Petersburg had the largest population of at that time . The anthem was first performed in Lithuania during the Great Seimas of Vilnius on December 3 , 1905 .

When Lithuania declared its independence from Russia in 1918 , the song was declared the national anthem . It held this status until Lithuania was annexed into the Soviet Union during World War II . During the interwar period , there had been suggestions to modify the words to include a reference to God . It was decided , in Kudirka 's memory , that the lyrics should remain as he had written them .

Immediately following the Soviet occupation of Lithuania , The Internationale replaced the Tautiška giesmė . When in 1944 ' The Internationale ' have been replaced by State Anthem of the Soviet Union in Soviet Union as official anthem , Tautiška giesmė was used as official anthem for the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic . An alternate anthem was created and introduced in 1950 . The music for that piece was composed by Balys Dvarionas and Jonas Švedas , and the words were written originally by Antanas Venclova . Following Stalin 's death in 1953 , its lyrics were modified by Vacys Reimeris to remove reference to the former dictator . This anthem stated that Lenin had lit the path to freedom , helped by the Russian people , and exhorted the Lithuanian people to work with peoples of the other Soviet Republics . The anthem was confirmed in Article 169 of the 1978 Constitution of the Lithuanian SSR . The song continued to be used until Lithuania broke away from the Soviet Union . Already in 1988 , the Tautiška giesmė was suggested as a replacement for the Soviet Lithuanian anthem . After preliminary approval by the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR and successive legislative bodies , its status as the national anthem was reconfirmed in 1992 . In that year , the Constitution of Lithuania was approved ; Article 19 of the document states that Tautiška giesmė will be the national anthem of Lithuania . The last law in relation to the national anthem was passed in 1999 ; it contained the official lyrics and protocol on how and when to play the anthem .

= = 1999 law = =

Signed into law by President Valdas Adamkus on June 9 , 1999 , the " Law on the National Anthem of the Republic of Lithuania " details when and where the national anthem is played and its performance protocols .

Article 2 of the law states that the anthem is to be played at the following occasions : At the beginning or ending of solemn sessions of the Seimas , on national holidays and memorial days , and at receptions and farewells of foreign heads of state on official visits to Lithuania — but only after the anthem of the foreign country has been played .

It is played in foreign countries to represent Lithuania , according to their own diplomatic protocols ; on national holidays and other days when the Flag of Lithuania is raised by order of the government ; when the flag is raised during public events sponsored by governmental institutions , business , and organizations ; and at the beginning and end of National Radio programming . The anthem may also be played at other occasions , such as sporting competitions .

When playing the anthem , the music may be either live or recorded . The anthem may be performed with a choir , an orchestra , a military band , or a combination of the latter two . Article 4 , section 2 , states that all participants are encouraged to sing the national anthem . When the anthem is played , all civilians are asked to stand in a gesture of respect to the anthem . If employees of national defense , police , and other military or military @-@ related organizations are present , they must respect the anthem in a way prescribed by their statutes . The anthem cannot be used as background music , purposes of advertisement , or for entertainment , such as karaoke . Public disrespect of the anthem may be punishable by law .

= = Lyrics = =

= Crosby Garrett Helmet =

The Crosby Garrett Helmet is a copper alloy Roman cavalry helmet dating from the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD . It was found by an unnamed metal detectorist near Crosby Garrett in Cumbria , England , in May 2010 . Later investigations found that a Romano @-@ British farming settlement had occupied the site where the helmet was discovered , which was located a few miles away from a Roman road and a Roman army fort . It is possible that the owner of the helmet was a local inhabitant who had served with the Roman cavalry .

The helmet appears to have been deliberately folded up and deposited in an artificial stone structure . It is thought to have been used for ceremonial occasions rather than for combat , and may already have been an antique by the time it was buried . It is of the same type as the Newstead Helmet ( found in 1905 ) and its design also has similarities with the Ribchester Helmet ( found in 1796 ) and the Hallaton Helmet ( found in 2000 ) , though its facial features are more akin to those of helmets found in southern Europe . Its design may allude to the Trojans , whose exploits the Romans re @-@ enacted in cavalry tournaments .

Dr Ralph Jackson , Senior Curator of Romano @-@ British Collections at the British Museum , has described the helmet as " ... an immensely interesting and outstandingly important find ... Its face mask is both extremely finely wrought and chillingly striking , but it is as an ensemble that the helmet is so exceptional and , in its specifics , unparalleled . It is a find of the greatest national ( and , indeed , international ) significance . "

On 7 October 2010 , the helmet was sold at Christie 's for £ 2 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 6 million ) to an undisclosed private buyer . Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery in Carlisle sought to purchase the helmet , with the support of the British Museum but was outbid . The helmet has so far been publicly displayed twice , once in a 2012 exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts , and again at Tullie House in 2013 @-@ 14 .

= = Description = =

The Crosby Garrett helmet is an almost complete example of a two @-@ piece Roman cavalry helmet . The visor portrays the face of a youthful , clean @-@ shaven male with curly hair . The headpiece is in the shape of a Phrygian cap , on the crest of which is a winged griffin that stands with one raised foot resting on an amphora . The visor was originally attached to the headpiece by means of a hinge ; the iron hinge pin has not survived , but its existence has been inferred from the presence of powdery deposits of iron oxide residue . The helmet would have been held in place using a leather strap attached from the wearer 's neck to a decorated rivet on either side of the helmet , below the ear . Wear marks caused by opening and closing the visor are still visible , and at some point the helmet was repaired using a bronze sheet which was riveted across two splits . Only two other Roman helmets complete with visors have been found in Britain – the Newstead Helmet and Ribchester Helmet .

The helmet and visor were cast from an alloy consisting of an average of 82 % copper , 10 % zinc and 8 % tin . This alloy was probably derived from melted @-@ down scrap brass with a low zinc content , with which some tin had been added to improve the quality of the casting . Some of the fragments show traces of a white metal coating , indicating that the visor would originally have been tinned to give the appearance of silver . The griffin was cast separately from a different alloy consisting of 68 % copper , 4 % zinc , 18 % tin and 10 % lead . The visor would originally have been a silver hue and the helmet would have had a coppery yellow appearance . The helmet 's creation can be dated to the late 2nd or early 3rd century from the use of a particular type of decorated rivet as well as some of its design features , such as its pierced eyes .

There has been much debate about the symbolic meaning of the helmet 's design . The griffin was the companion of Nemesis , the goddess of vengeance and fate . They were both seen as agents of death and were often linked with gladiatorial combat . The meaning of the face and headpiece are less clearly identifiable . Suggestions have ranged from the Greek god Attis and the hero Perseus , to the Roman gods Mithras and Jupiter Dolichenus , to a more general Eastern Mediterranean appearance that could possibly have been meant to suggest a Trojan identity . The Phrygian cap was often used by the Romans as a visual motif representing the Trojans .

= = Discovery and restoration = =

The helmet and visor were found in May 2010 in pastureland on a farm owned by Eric Robinson at Crosby Garrett in Cumbria . The finder , an unnamed metal detectorist in his 20s from Peterlee , County Durham , had been detecting with his father in two adjacent fields for some years but had previously only discovered some Roman coins and other small artefacts . The findspot is situated not far from a Roman road . A number of earthworks are located nearby , indicating the presence of a previously unrecorded ancient settlement . The area was strategically placed on the route to the northern frontier of Roman Britain within the territory of the Carvetii tribe . The Roman army would have been present in the area and would certainly have used the nearby road . A Roman auxiliary fort stood only 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the north @-@ east at Verterae ( Brough Castle ) .

Following the helmet 's discovery , the area around the findspot was investigated in a project sponsored by the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery and the Portable Antiquities Scheme . The earthworks noted earlier were found to be part of a substantial enclosure surrounded by ditches , within which buildings had once stood . The enclosure , which measures as much as 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) long on its southern side , combines both native British and Roman methods of fortification . A sunken area within the enclosure may possibly have served as a paddock for horses , while the evidence for the buildings is concentrated in the enclosure 's northern portion . The remnants of Romano @-@ British field systems in the surrounding area show that the area was under cultivation and animal remains found on the site indicate that the inhabitants also raised livestock , including sheep , goats and pigs . The presence of Roman pottery suggests that the inhabitants had adopted some elements of the Roman lifestyle , but their community may well have been there long before the Romans arrived . Archaeological evidence from the enclosure indicates that the site may have been first settled as far back as the Bronze Age , at least 1 @,@ 000 years before the helmet was deposited .

The finder discovered the helmet and visor buried together some 25 cm ( 10 in ) below the surface , at a site located on a ledge at the lower end of the settlement . It had been placed onto two stone slabs at the bottom of a hole which had been back @-@ filled with soil . A stone cap had been laid on top . The helmet was found in 33 large fragments and 34 small fragments and had apparently been folded before burial . The visor was mostly intact and had been placed face down . The griffin had become detached and was found with the helmet . No other artefacts were found at the time , but the subsequent Tullie House / PAS excavations at the findspot discovered a number of copper and iron objects , a bead and two Roman coins dating to between 330 @-@ 337 . The coins were found within the artificial stone feature in which the helmet had been deposited and may have been buried at the same time .

The finder did not initially realise that he had found a Roman artefact and thought at first that it was a Victorian ornament . He eventually identified it as Roman by consulting auction catalogues , searching the Internet and getting advice from dealers . Find Liaison Officers from the Portable Antiquities Scheme were notified of the discovery and visited the findspot along with the finder . Christie 's commissioned Darren Bradbury , an independent conservator and restorer , to restore the helmet and visor for sale . Although Christie 's was asked to delay the restoration so that a full scientific examination could be carried out , this request was not granted and information about the helmet 's burial may have been lost as a result . However , the British Museum was able to inspect the find during restoration and X @-@ ray fluorescence spectrometry was carried out to determine the composition of the headpiece , visor and griffin . Bradbury 's restoration work took some 240 hours and involved the repair of cracks and holes using resin and cyanoacrylate , retouched to match the appearance of the surrounding material .

= = Similarities and usage = =

The helmet and visor have marked similarities to a number of other Roman cavalry helmets . The visor is a cavalry sports type C ( H. Russell Robinson classification ) or type V ( Maria Kohlert classification ) . Similar examples have been found across the Roman Empire from Britain to Syria . It is of the same type as the Newstead Helmet , found in Scotland in 1905 , and its facial features most closely parallel a helmet that was found at Nola in Italy and is now in the British Museum . The rendering of the hair is similar to that of a type C helmet found at Belgrade in Serbia and dated to the 2nd century AD . The griffin ornament is unique , though it may parallel a lost " sphinx of bronze " that may originally have been attached to the crest of the Ribchester Helmet , discovered in Lancashire in 1796 . The headpiece is nearly unique ; only one other example in the form of a Phrygian cap has been found , in a fragmentary state , at Ostrov in Romania , dated to the second half of the 2nd century AD . Rings on the back of the helmet and on the griffin may have been used to attach colourful streamers or ribbons .

Such helmets were used for hippika gymnasia , cavalry tournaments that were performed in front of emperors and senior commanders . Horses and riders wore lavishly decorated clothes , armour and plumes while performing feats of horsemanship and re @-@ enacting historical and legendary battles , such as the wars of the Greeks and Trojans . According to the Roman writer Arrian :

[ T ] hose of high rank or superior in horsemanship wear gilded helmets of iron or bronze to draw the attention of the spectators . Unlike the helmets made for active service , these do not cover the head and cheeks only but are made to fit all round the faces of the riders with apertures for the eyes . . . From the helmets hang yellow plumes , a matter of décor as much as utility . As the horses move forward , the slightest breeze adds to the beauty of these plumes . — Arrian , Ars Tactica 34

Combat gear was issued by and belonged to the Roman army , and had to be returned at the end of a wearer 's service . Cavalry sports equipment appears to have been treated differently , as soldiers apparently privately commissioned and purchased it for their own use . They evidently retained it after they completed their service . Both helmets and visors have been found in graves and other contexts away from obvious military sites , as well as being deposited in forts and their vicinity . In some cases they were carefully folded up and buried , as in the case of the Guisborough Helmet . The Dutch historian Johan Nicolay has identified a " lifecycle " for Roman military equipment in which ex @-@ soldiers took certain items home with them as a reminder of their service and occasionally disposed of them away from garrison sites as grave goods or votive offerings .

The circumstances in which the Crosby Garret helmet was buried are still unclear , but the discoveries made by the post @-@ discovery Tullie House / PAS excavations have provided much more detail about its context . It was clearly deposited within an artificial feature that had been specially constructed ; Stuart Noon of the Museum of Lancashire suggests that the feature may have been intended as a memorial of some sort . It was not buried in an isolated spot but within a long @-@ occupied Romano @-@ British farming settlement that had clearly adopted aspects of Roman culture . Given the settlement 's proximity to Roman military locations , it is very possible that some of its inhabitants served with the Roman army , which often recruited mounted auxiliaries from among native peoples . The helmet may well already have been a valuable antique at the time of its burial ; if the coins found nearby reflect when it was buried , it could have been over a century old by the time it was deposited . It was deliberately broken before being buried in what may have been intended as a ritual sacrifice . The identity of its owner will never be known , but it could have been that a local inhabitant who had formerly served with the Roman cavalry was responsible for the helmet 's deposition .

= = Auction and controversy = =

Although the find was reported under the Portable Antiquities Scheme , it was not declared treasure under the 1996 Treasure Act because single items of non @-@ precious metal are not covered by the act . The finder and landowner were thus free to dispose of the helmet as they saw fit . The discovery was publicly announced by Christie 's in mid @-@ September 2010 ; the helmet was the centrepiece of its 7 October auction catalogue , featuring on the cover and six more pages . Its value was put at £ 200 @,@ 000 – £ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 309 @,@ 200 – $ 463 @,@ 800 ) . The Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery launched an appeal with the aim of purchasing the helmet and making it the focus of a new Roman frontier gallery due to open in 2011 . The campaign immediately attracted numerous donations , including £ 50 @,@ 000 from an anonymous overseas benefactor who offered the sum if a matching sum could be raised by the public ( it was ) ; a £ 1 million offer from the National Heritage Memorial Fund ; a £ 300 @,@ 000 pledge from the Headley Trust and the Monument Trust ; £ 200 @,@ 000 from the Art Fund ; and £ 75 @,@ 000 from the J Paul Getty Jr Charitable Trust . By the time of the auction three and a half weeks after the campaign had been launched , the museum had raised enough money to support a bid of up to £ 1 @.@ 7 million . Behind the scenes , efforts were made to persuade the finder and landowner to agree a private sale with the museum , but these approaches failed .

The initial estimate was passed within seconds of the auction opening . Six bidders pushed the price towards a million pounds and Tullie House was forced to drop out at £ 1 @.@ 7 million . Two remaining bidders took the bid past £ 2 million ; the winning bidder , an anonymous UK resident and fine art collector bidding by phone , paid a total of £ 2 @,@ 330 @,@ 468 @.@ 75 including the buyer 's premium and VAT . The outcome aroused controversy and prompted calls for the Treasure Act to be revised , though British Archaeology noted that the circumstances of the helmet 's discovery may have resulted in it being outside the scope of even a revised act . It is still possible that the helmet could come into public ownership ; if the winning bidder wishes to export it , an export licence would have to be applied for and if a temporary export bar was placed on it an opportunity could arise for funds to be raised by a public institution to purchase the helmet .

= = Display = =

Since its sale in 2010 , the helmet been on public display three times . It was lent by its owner to the Royal Academy of Arts in London , and was put on display from 15 September to 9 December 2012 as part of an exhibition of bronzes . From 1 November 2013 until 26 January 2014 the helmet was on display at the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery in Carlisle , and a printed guide was produced for the occasion . It was subsequently displayed at the British Museum from 28 January to 27 April 2014 .

= Liu Kang =

Liu Kang ( Chinese : 劉鋼 ; pinyin : Liúgāng ) is a fictional character from the Mortal Kombat fighting game series from Midway Games , introduced as one of the original seven player characters in the 1992 first game as a Shaolin monk who enters the Mortal Kombat tournament to save Earthrealm ( Earth ) . Since his victory in the tournament , Liu Kang becomes the Mortal Kombat series ' hero as the champion and chief defender of Earthrealm guided by his mentor , the thunder god Raiden . He also becomes romantically involved with Princess Kitana , the adopted daughter of evil Outworld emperor named Shao Kahn .

Designed with special moves intended to be easier to perform than the moves of other characters , Liu Kang has appeared in many of the Mortal Kombat fighting installments , in addition to starring with Kung Lao as the title characters of the action @-@ adventure game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , and being among the eleven series characters representing the franchise in the crossover game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . Liu Kang has extensively featured in alternate Mortal Kombat media and official merchandise , serving as the primary protagonist of the two feature @-@ length films and the Malibu Comics comic book adaptations , in addition to supporting roles in other media such as the 1995 Mortal Kombat novel and the animated series Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm . Critical and general reception of the character has been mainly favorable , although various aspects have been criticized .

= = Appearances = =

= = = In video games = = =

Introduced in the first Mortal Kombat game as a Chinese Shaolin Kung Fu fighting monk , Liu Kang 's main fighting style is Jeet Kune Do and he has experience with Kung Fu . He enters the tenth Mortal Kombat tournament in order to protect Earthrealm from being destroyed after having lost the previous nine tournaments . He defeats Grand Champion Goro and the tournament host , the nefarious sorcerer Shang Tsung , and emerges as the new Mortal Kombat champion . In the 1993 sequel Mortal Kombat II , Liu Kang finds many of his Shaolin brethren killed in a vicious attack by a horde of nomadic mutants led by Baraka under orders from the evil Outworld emperor Shao Kahn , Shang Tsung 's master . Enraged , Liu Kang decides to travel to Outworld to seek revenge , backed by friend and fellow Shaolin Kung Lao . At the tournament , Liu Kang fights Shao Kahn , eventually overpowering the emperor . In Mortal Kombat 3 ( 1995 ) , Liu Kang and his friends fight against Shao Kahn 's extermination squad which invaded Earthrealm . He once again defeats Shao Kahn , causing him and his forces to retreat back to Outworld .

In the events of Mortal Kombat 4 ( 1997 ) , Liu Kang discovers that his lover and ally , Princess Kitana , has been captured by the disgraced Elder God Shinnok 's forces , and begins gathering Earth 's warriors to defeat him . Liu Kang confronts Shinnok and once again emerges victorious with Kitana and her people having survived to the attack , but he is unable to commit himself to a relationship due to his duty as Earthrealm 's champion while Kitana has to remain in Outworld to rule her kingdom .

Liu Kang becomes unplayable for the first and only time in the Mortal Kombat series in 2002 's Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , in which the titular partnership of Shang Tsung and fellow sorcerer Quan Chi join forces to kill him in the game 's introductory sequence . In the events of Mortal Kombat : Deception ( 2004 ) , an unknown party reanimates Liu Kang 's corpse and sends it on a murderous rampage , causing Liu Kang 's soul to attempt to control it . He returns as a playable character in this game , albeit in undead form and as a secret character that can only be unlocked by completing the game 's Konquest Mode . His spirit enlists the reformed ninja Ermac to try to save Kitana and his Earthrealm allies — Johnny Cage , Jax , Sonya and Kung Lao — who had all been killed by the Deadly Alliance and then resurrected by the Dragon King Onaga for use as his slaves . Though they successfully accomplish this task , Liu Kang is still unable to fully regain control of his body in Mortal Kombat : Armageddon ( 2006 ) , where he is playable along with the entire series roster and in which it is revealed that Raiden had revived Liu Kang 's corpse in Deception . Liu Kang 's bond with Kitana had succeeded in keeping his power in check , with Nightwolf then assuming her position as Liu Kang 's " spiritual anchor " in attempt to find a way to reunite his body and soul , which he accomplishes in his ending . Liu Kang was among the many characters who were not given a biography for Armageddon , while in his own noncanonical in @-@ game ending , his body and soul reunite on their own before he confronts Raiden and defeats him in combat to become Earthrealm 's new protector .

Along with Kung Lao , Liu Kang is the lead character in the 2005 spinoff action @-@ adventure game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks . The game is a retelling of the storyline of the events leading up to Mortal Kombat II , and features the two Shaolin monks traveling to Outworld to find and defeat Shang Tsung , later ending in a fight with Shao Kahn and rescuing Kitana along the way . He is among the eleven characters representing the Mortal Kombat franchise in the 2008 crossover title Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , which features fights between characters from the Mortal Kombat and the DC Comics universes . In this game , Liu Kang appears as the protagonist of the first chapter of the Mortal Kombat story mode . Tobias said that the fight he expected to see in the game was between Liu Kang and Batman as he noted their back @-@ stories to be very similar , due to fact , both Liu Kang and Batman are fought in Raiden and Superman 's chapters respectively , trying to snap their rage influenced respective leaders back to their sense from killing the leader 's respective arch @-@ enemies , Lex Luthor and Shang Tsung , reminding them that Dark Kahn is their true enemy .

In the 2011 Mortal Kombat reboot video game , Liu Kang reprises his role from the first three tournaments as one of Raiden 's chosen warriors . Raiden , who has visions from the future in which Shao Kahn remained as the last warrior , believes that Liu Kang is the warrior which his future self chose as the savior . As in the first game , Liu Kang succeeds in defeating Goro and Shang Tsung , though Raiden 's amulet continues to crack , unchanging the future .

During the second tournament , Liu Kang meets Kitana , and the two engage romantically with each other in this timeline too . It is during this tournament that Kang begins to doubt Raiden 's visions after he ordered him and Kung Lao not to rescue Kitana , and when Lao is killed by Shao Kahn . He seemingly kills Shao Kahn , and avenges his fallen friend . However , Kahn survives , and begins plotting to invade Earthrealm .

When Shao Kahn is preparing to invade Earthrealm during the third game 's events , Liu Kang is among Earthrealm 's protectors , and notices Raiden 's futile attempts to alter the future . He and Raiden visit the Elder Gods in order to put a stop to Kahn 's plan , but refuse to intervene , stating that Kahn 's invasion is not a violation of Mortal Kombat , but the merging of Earthrealm and Outworld is . When they return , nearly all of their allies are dead , murdered by a soul @-@ infused Sindel , and Liu Kang rushes to Kitana , only for her to die in his arms . This , coupled with Raiden 's failed attempts in changing the future , and his plan to form an alliance with the Netherrealm , causes Kang to deem Raiden insane , and decides to take on Shao Kahn alone . He arrives as Kahn enters Earthrealm , but Raiden attempts to stops him as he realized Kahn had to win and merge the realms in order to avoid the events of the future . Having enough of Raiden 's continued mistakes , the two fight , but Kang is defeated . As he attempts to shoot a fireball at Raiden , the thunder god uses his lightning to protect him , inadvertently electrocuting Liu Kang , much to Raiden 's horror . Rushing to his burnt body , Raiden pleads for his forgiveness , but Kang coldly says to the Thunder God : " You ... have killed us ... all ... " and dies . After Raiden defeats Shao Kahn with the help of the Elder Gods , and thus changing the future , he and the surviving warriors , Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade , leave and begin the restoration of Earthrealm , and he takes Kang 's body with him .

Liu Kang returns in Mortal Kombat X. In the game 's Story Mode , he was resurrected by Quan Chi and now serves him as one of the revenants until Sub @-@ Zero , Scorpion and Jax are revived . He fights both Jax and Raiden in Story Mode , which he blames Raiden for his death . At the end of the story mode , he and Kitana become the new rulers of the Netherrealm due to Quan Chi 's death and Shinnok 's defeat . A now darker Raiden brings them Shinnok 's disembodied head as a warning for them not to attack Earthrealm .

= = = = Design = = = =

Liu Kang was originally going to be a Japanese character called Minamoto Yoshitsune , but Mortal Kombat co @-@ creator and character designer John Tobias stated that the staff could not " deal with the name . " According to Tobias , Liu Kang " was originally going to be a traditional monk – bald and in robes – but he wound up resembling Bruce Lee . " As stated on his Mortal Kombat : Armageddon bio card , Ed Boon mentioned that Liu Kang was designed to be the most easily " accessible " character , meaning that both casual and experienced gamers could play as him with little difficulty . According to Tobias , Liu Kang was purposely the only character that voiced his finishing move in the original game , and was " the best " in the first sequel . Liu Kang was the only character in the first game whose finishing move ( Fatality ) did not explicitly murder his opponent , and also without the background dimming . This was because Liu Kang was depicted therein as a Shaolin monk , who in general have strict beliefs regarding killing and murder . However , starting with Mortal Kombat II , he was given gory Fatalities as he was thereafter depicted as a renegade monk who decided to grow his hair back , and who had " strong Shaolin beliefs , but was no longer a part of the Shaolin monks . " In response to rumors that Liu Kang would die in Mortal Kombat II and therefore not make it into Mortal Kombat 3 , Boon said , " It 'd be like doing part three of Star Wars and not having Luke Skywalker in there . You don 't do that . " His eventual death caused Dan Forden , the music composer of the series , to make a " funeral song " for Liu Kang as he felt saddened for his death . The track titled " Liu Kang 's Tomb " would be used in Mortal Kombat : Deception in the arena that shows his tomb .

Liu Kang was played by Ho Sung Pak in the first two games , and John Tobias stated in an interview that he originally intended for the character to be a traditional bald monk , but the actor refused to shave his head . In the first game , Liu Kang was modeled after Bruce Lee , as he had short hair and went shirtless , with a threadbare outfit of only black pants and white shoes . In Mortal Kombat II , his outfit was enhanced with red stripes , and now included a red headband , black shoes , and studded wristguards ( the intro of MKII shows the younger version of the character defeating Shang Tsung in the background , while the updated character is in the foreground ) . In Mortal Kombat 3 , his hair was considerably longer , with the only alteration to his outfit being thin black leg strips wrapped above his ankles in order to give him a " sleeker " look for the game . He was given a red tank top in addition to his usual costume in Mortal Kombat 4 , but his alternate outfit was blue and featured him shirtless again . His wardrobe from the third game was carried over into Deception and Armageddon , but due to his resurrection , his skin was ash gray , and he wore hooked chains around his wrists . This form is also known by fans and Mortal Kombat producer Shaun Himmerick as " Zombie Liu Kang " . Nevertheless , his alternate outfit for both games featured him as a living person in order to contrast his undead form . In Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , he sported a slightly altered version of his third costume , in addition to a championship belt adorned with the Mortal Kombat dragon emblem . Although Liu Kang 's design in Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks remains similar to his Mortal Kombat II one , Himmerick said that it was the most revised one from the game , along with Kung Lao 's .

= = = = Gameplay = = = =

Liu Kang specializes in kicks , with his most common move being flying across the screen and connect with a kick to the opponent 's torso . Another such move is the " Bicycle Kick " in which Liu Kang flies across the screen with a series of multiple kicks to the opponent 's torso resembling pedaling a bicycle , hence the name . A different kind of his signature abilities is the " Dragon Fire " : with it Liu Kang sends a fiery flame in the shape of a Chinese dragon across the screen out of his hands at his opponent . After Mortal Kombat II , he gains the ability to perform this while crouching and in the air , same for Deception and Armageddon . The developers made Liu Kang immediately selectable in Mortal Kombat : Unchained , the PlayStation Portable port of Deception , as they noted that unlocking him in Deception had proved difficult .

Liu Kang 's first finishing move is the Fatality " Shaolin Uppercut " ; he performs a butterfly kick ( often mistaken for a cartwheel ) on his opponent , before hitting an uppercut that knocks them into the air for several seconds . In Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , there were two versions ; one where the victim explodes to pieces upon impact and the original , in which the opponent is torn to pieces upon falling to the ground . In another signature Fatality , he morphs into a large dragon , chomping the upper body of his opponent . This Fatality was turned into an Animality in Mortal Kombat 3 and back into a normal Fatality in Mortal Kombat 4 . In the Game Boy and Game Gear versions of Mortal Kombat II , the dragon torches the opponent with fire instead . The series ' composer and co @-@ designer John Vogel noted it to be his favorite Fatality due to how much Liu Kang 's appearance changes . Another famous Fatality of Liu Kang has him vanish and a Mortal Kombat arcade game machine drop down and crush his opponent . According to GameSpy 's MK2011 walkthrough , Liu Kang " inflicts better damage " than Kung Lao " by jumping around like a lunatic and kicking the crap out of everything he sees . "

= = = Other appearances = = =

Liu Kang was the hero of the comic book adaptation of the Mortal Kombat series Malibu Comics . In the first miniseries , Blood and Thunder , his backstory was mostly kept intact as a Shaolin monk out to restore the tournament to their righteous owners , with the only difference being that he was not the chosen one to defeat Goro , which instead fell on twin monk brothers named Sing and Sang , two original characters created specifically for the comics ; after they are killed by Goro in the third issue , Liu Kang becomes the Shaolin 's only hope in defeating Shang Tsung . The following miniseries , Battlewave , stated that Liu Kang won the first tournament after defeating Goro , which never appeared in the first miniseries . He returns to his normal life as an architect in Chicago , having left the Order of Light before the events of the first series . However , he suffers from constant attacks by an unknown force of ninjas and later receives help from Johnny Cage 's bodyguard Bo when Goro ambushes him in an office building . Eventually he decides to travel to Outworld , realizing that he cannot avoid Mortal Kombat .

Liu Kang is the primary hero of both Mortal Kombat movies , where he is portrayed by Robin Shou . Director Paul W. S. Anderson wanted Liu Kang 's character to be " really engaging " and chose Shou , noting his skills with martial arts . In the first film , he takes part in the tournament out of guilt over his brother 's death at the hands of Shang Tsung ( portrayed by Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa ) , and defeats Tsung in the final battle . As a result of the film 's style the relationship between Liu Kang and Kitana is more of a metaphysical than a romantic nature . Shou , along with Talisa Soto ( Kitana ) , was one of only two actors to reprise their roles in the sequel , Mortal Kombat : Annihilation ( Keith Cooke , who played Reptile , returned as well , but as the new Sub @-@ Zero ) . In the sequel , Liu Kang joins the Earthrealm warriors to stop Shao Kahn 's menace . In the animated film Mortal Kombat : The Journey Begins , serving as a prequel to the first film , Liu Kang appears as one of the main characters .

Liu Kang is also one of the lead characters in the 1996 animated series Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm , voiced by Brian Tochi . He is not the protagonist therein as opposed to the game storyline , instead sharing this role with several other Earthrealm heroes .

Liu Kang appears in the 2013 's second season of the web series Mortal Kombat : Legacy , portrayed by Brian Tee . Liu Kang in Legacy is portrayed as an anti @-@ hero and fighting on the side of Outworld rather than that of Earthrealm in the web series . In this version , he is shown to have left a monastery to live a normal life working at a diner with a fiancée . After watching a pair of thieves kill her in a robbery attempt , he becomes consumed with anger and revenge , and further distances himself from Kung Lao and the ideals that were taught to him . After working as a freelance assassin for a few years , he is approached by Shang Tsung , who convinces him that humanity is not worth protecting and asks him to join the realm of Outworld in the upcoming Mortal Kombat tournament , which he agrees to . During the tournament , he easily subdues Johnny Cage and Kurtis Stryker before being confronted by Kung Lao , who is surprised at his old friend 's change of allegiance .

In 1996 , Toy Island published a Liu Kang action figure which had a white shirt . Two Liu Kang action figures from Shaolin Monks were released by Jazwares . Apart from being flexible , both figures included different types of weapons such as swords and axes .

= = Reception = =

The character has received mostly very positive response by gaming publications . His relation with Kitana was ranked fourth in IGN 's list of best video game couples in 2006 . GameSpot featured him in their 2009 poll for the title of " All Time Greatest Game Hero " , in which he lost to Yoshi . UGO Networks ranked him as 94th on the 2008 list of top heroes of all time , noting his role in the Mortal Kombat series as well as character depth . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as 51st " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in games , adding that while " Sub @-@ Zero and Scorpion may get most of the fanfare " , Liu Kang " can shoot fireballs , whoops and hollers just like Bruce Lee , and pioneered the Animality with his dragon @-@ transformation fatality--it ’ s no wonder that Liu Kang ’ s the chosen champion of Earthrealm . " In 2014 , Jack Pooley of What Culture ranked him as the second greatest ever fighting game character .

Like all the characters from Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , Liu Kang was selected to be a playable character based on his popularity . Jesse Schedeen of IGN said that " it just wouldn 't be right having a game without [ Liu Kang ] , " noting him to be as fierce as the DC Universe characters in this game . In 2010 , GamePlayBook ranked Liu Kang as the second best Mortal Kombat character , commenting that " his nimbleness and fighting expertise make him an ideal pick " and how he is as good as zombie as when he was alive . In 2011 , Bright Hub ranked Liu Kang as the second best character in the series . In UGO 's 2012 list of top Mortal Kombat characters , Liu Kang was given first place . In 2013 , he was ranked as the fifth @-@ top Mortal Kombat character by Jon Hamlin of The Game Scouts for his popularity and " being incredibly important to the Mortal Kombat universe . " That same year , the readers of Dorkly voted him the series ' sixth greatest character .

Upon his death in Deadly Alliance , IGN 's Jeremy Dunham noted that Liu Kang was killed as the series needed " ' starting over ' mentality " , as he regarded Liu Kang as the series ' strongest character . Complex remarked that the Mortal Kombat developers " finally found their groove again with Deadly Alliance , which began by snapping Liu Kang 's neck . " Game Informer listed his death in their article about " characters that died under our watch " calling it a " shock " as Liu Kang was stated to be one of the " most loved " characters from the series .

His redesign in Mortal Kombat : Deception was praised by GameSpot for being one of the best ones from the title , and was featured in GamesRadar 's list of the " greatest zombie triumphs " in 2009 , but was also ranked as the ninth @-@ worst Mortal Kombat character by ScrewAttack in 2011 . Additionally , GamesRadar used Liu Kang as an example of a stereotype of gaming heroes who reveal an evil alter ego that ruins the character 's appealing traits , and considered him to be " a little like the Shaolin version of Goku , in that he 's saved his world countless times and come back from the dead even more frequently . " GamesRadar featured him the article about " kickass Bruce Lee clones " citing his similarities with Bruce Lee and with one of his shouts featured in famous quotes .

= = = Gameplay and finishing moves = = =

Liu Kang 's famous finishing move of turning into a dragon was ranked by ScrewAttack as the second best in the series , referred to as the most iconic Fatality in Mortal Kombat II , but his cartwheel Fatality from the original Mortal Kombat was ranked by ScrewAttack as the second worst in the series . Liu Kang 's dragon Fatality has also been listed as one of the best Fatalities from the series by both Game Informer and UGO in 2010 , as well as by Complex in 2013 . On the other hand , his Fatality in which he throws a Mortal Kombat arcade were pointed by both Game Informer and GamePro as one of the worst from the series , even as GamesRadar listed it among the reasons of Liu Kang being " boss " .

Some video game publications criticized his gameplay and shouts while others noted him to be entertaining . IGN 's Douglas Perry wrote that he preferred Liu Kang over Kung Lao as a playable character in Shaolin Monks because of his " intuitive fighting moves , " adding that his shouts were " annoying " yet " strangely pleasing . " GameDaily also complained about his voice , saying that " Liu Kang screams out like a chicken , " and GamesRadar wrote that " the strange squeals he emits during his trademark Bicycle Kick move are unforgettable . "

= Inocybe praetervisa =

Inocybe praetervisa is a small , yellow and brown mushroom in the Inocybaceae family , distinguished from other members of the genus by its unusual spores and bulb . The unusual spores led to the species being named the type species of the now @-@ abandoned genus Astrosporina ; recent studies have shown that such a genus could not exist , as the species with the defining traits do not form a monophyletic group . However , it is a part of several clades within the genus Inocybe . I. praetervisa grows on the ground in woodland , favouring beech trees , and can be found in Europe , North America and Asia . It is inedible and probably poisonous due to the presence of muscarine . The ingestion of muscarine can lead to SLUDGE syndrome , and could potentially lead to death due to respiratory failure .

= = Taxonomy and naming = =

Inocybe praetervisa was first described by Lucien Quélet in the first volume of Giacomo Bresadola 's 1883 publication Fungi tridentini . The species was moved to the genus Astrosporina by Joseph Schröter in 1889 , but this was rejected , and the name Astrosporina praetervisa is now considered an obligate synonym . Astrosporina praetervisa was the type species of the no longer recognised genus . The specific epithet praetervisa comes from the Latin word meaning " overlooked " .

Within the genus Inocybe , I. praetervisa has been placed in the subgenus Inocybe . Mycologist Rolf Singer places the species in the section Marginatae ; mycologist Thom Kuyper considers Marginatae a supersection , and includes I. praetervisa along with I. abietis , I. calospora and I. godeyi . Phylogenetics has shown that , in addition to the large clade of subgenus Inocybe , I. praetervisa forms a clade with I. calospora , I. lanuginosa and I. leptophylla . The species are similar in that all four have basidiospores with small nodules ; it was this feature that defined the genus Astrosporina , with then A. praetervisa as its type species . However , when phylogenetic analysis later concluded that nodulose @-@ spored Inocybe species do not form a monophyletic group , the name Astrosporina was deemed inappropriate at a generic level . But it may be considered useful at a lower level to refer to the clade of the four Inocybe species . Of those four , I. praetervisa is most closely related to I. calospora , with which it forms a smaller and closer clade . A different study also found the close relationship between I. praetervisa and I. calospora ; it also named I. teraturgus as a part of the clade containing I. praetervisa , I. calospora , I. lanuginosa and I. leptophylla .

= = Description = =

Inocybe praetervisa has a bell @-@ shaped ( later expanding ) cap of 3 to 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , which is a yellowish @-@ brown colour . It is fibrous , and splits from the margin ( which curves inwards ) to the centre . The stem is from 5 to 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height , and from 3 to 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 31 in ) thick . It is white , maturing to a pale straw @-@ yellow , and the whole stem is farinaceous , meaning it is covered in particles resembling meal . The stem has a distinct bulb at the base , which is moderately marginate , and lacks a ring . The flesh is white , and discolours to yellowish in the stem . The gills are initially whitish , but later become a clay @-@ brown with toothed , white edges . They are adnexed , meaning they connect to the stem by only part of their depth , and are crowded closely together .

= = = Microscopic features = = =

Inocybe praetervisa leaves a clay @-@ brown spore print , while the spores themselves are rectangular with a large number of " distinct , angular knobs " . In size , the spores measure between 10 and 12 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00039 and 0 @.@ 00047 in ) in length by between 7 and 9 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00028 and 0 @.@ 00035 in ) in width . Inocybe praetervisa has both pleuro- and cheilocystidia which are relatively spindle @-@ shaped with apical encrustation . The cystidia have hyaline or pale yellow walls .

= = = Similar species = = =

The species can be differentiated from the similar I. cookei by its " irregular , lumpy spores " . It is also similar to I. rimosa , but differs in the presence of a bulb . Another species that can be differentiated by the lack of a bulb is I. numerosigibba .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Inocybe praetervisa is an ectomycorrhizal species , and can be found on the ground in mixed , deciduous or even coniferous woodland . It typically favours beech . Mushrooms grow solitarily or in " trooping groups " in late summer and throughout autumn , though it is not commonly encountered species . It can be found in Europe , Asia and North America .

= = Edibility and toxicity = =

The species has a mild , indistinct taste , and a faint smell of flour . Mycologist Roger Phillips describes its edibility as " suspect " , recommending that it be avoided , and notes that it is possible that the species is poisonous ; most species of Inocybe have been shown to contain poisonous chemicals . Mycologist Ian Robert Hall lists the mushroom as containing the poisonous compound muscarine . Consumption of muscarine could lead to a number of physiological effects , including : excess salivation , lacrimation , uncontrollable urination and defecation , gastrointestinal problems and emesis ( vomiting ) ; this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE . Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure , sweating and death due to respiratory failure .

= Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery =

Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery ( 27 July 1851 – 19 November 1890 ) was a British noblewoman , the daughter of Baron Mayer de Rothschild and the wife of Archibald , Earl of Rosebery . After inheriting her father 's fortune in 1874 , she became the richest woman in Britain .

During the final quarter of the 19th century her husband , the Earl of Rosebery , was one of the most celebrated figures in Britain , an influential millionaire and politician , whose charm , wit , charisma and public popularity gave him such standing that he " almost eclipsed royalty . " Yet his Jewish wife , during her lifetime regarded as dull , overweight and lacking in beauty , remains an enigmatic figure largely ignored by historians and often regarded as notable only for financing her husband 's three ambitions : to marry an heiress , win the Epsom Derby , and become Prime Minister ( the second and third of these possibly apocryphal ambitions were achieved after her death ) . In truth , she was her husband 's driving force and motivation .

Her marriage into the aristocracy , while controversial at the time , gave her the social cachet in an antisemitic society that her vast fortune could not . She subsequently became a political hostess and philanthropist . Her charitable work was principally in the sphere of public health and causes associated with the welfare of working @-@ class Jewish women living in the poorer districts of London .

Having firmly assisted and supported her husband on his path to political greatness , she suddenly died in 1890 , aged 39 , leaving him , distraught and bereft of her support , to achieve the political destiny which she had plotted . His premiership of the United Kingdom was shambolic , and lasted barely a year . For over thirty years following her death , he wandered in a political wilderness , directionless and exceedingly eccentric , until his own death in 1929 .

= = Early years = =

Hannah de Rothschild was born in 1851 into a world of great wealth and luxury . She was the granddaughter of Baron Nathan Mayer Rothschild , who had founded N M Rothschild & Sons , the English branch of the Rothschilds ' banking empire . Niall Ferguson states in his History of the House of Rothschild that by the mid @-@ 19th century the Rothschilds regarded themselves as the nearest thing the Jews of Europe had to a royal family , and the equals of royalty . Whether or not this was strictly true , the many Rothschild homes and their art collections , in England , Austria , France and Germany , certainly rivalled those of the crowned heads of Europe .

Hannah de Rothschild 's father Baron Meyer Amschel de Rothschild married his cousin Juliana Cohen in 1850 . The marriage provided the impetus for Meyer to create what he described as " an enduring monument , " a country house of monumental proportions . His daughter Hannah , aged just six months , laid the foundation stone on 31 December 1851 . Throughout her life , Mentmore Towers was to be a fixed and pivotal point .

Within a few years of the mansion 's completion , attracted by the good hunting and proximity to London , Hannah 's relatives began to build estates nearby , all within a carriage drive of each other ; thus , Hannah grew up in an almost private world of unimaginable splendour and security . Pevsner has described this enclave of Rothschild properties as " the most conspicuous and significant aspect of Victorian architecture in Buckinghamshire . " In addition to Mentmore , Baron and Baroness Meyer de Rothschild had a large house in London , 107 Piccadilly ; The Zenaide , a luxurious yacht moored in the South of France ; and other smaller properties visited only seasonally and occasionally .

As an only child growing up in what were , in all but name , palaces , her childhood appears to have been quite lonely . She was a companion to her hypochondriac mother and , in later life , a hostess with her father during her mother 's long periods of indisposition . She was indulged by both parents and her formal education was neglected in favour of music and singing lessons , subjects in which she was accomplished . Her parents were very protective of her , attempting to ensure that she was never exposed to the risk of sickness or even the sight of poverty . As a result , she was never allowed to enter the cottages on the Rothschilds ' estates . A cousin , who seems to have disliked her , claims that Hannah was so sheltered that the phrase " the poor " was just a meaningless euphemism to her . This is likely to be an exaggeration , as from her teens onwards she used much of her fortune to improve the lot of the poor , in housing and education . Whatever the faults of her education , she possessed great confidence , impressing her Rothschild relations , who noted her poise and competence when she hosted a large house party at Mentmore for the Prince of Wales while only 17 years of age .

Mayer Amschel de Rothschild died in 1874 , leaving his daughter not only Mentmore ( with its priceless art collection ) , his London mansion , and innumerable investments , but also the sum of two million pounds sterling in cash ( equivalent to £ 167 million in present day terms ) . Thus , Hannah de Rothschild became the wealthiest woman in England .

= = Betrothal = =

Hannah de Rothschild was first introduced to her future husband , the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Earl of Rosebery , by Lady Beaconsfield , the wife of Benjamin Disraeli , at Newmarket Racecourse . The Disraelis were close friends and neighbours of the Rothschilds in Buckinghamshire .

Archibald , 5th Earl of Rosebery , born in 1847 , had inherited his title from his grandfather in 1868 , when aged 21 , together with an income of £ 30 @,@ 000 a year . He owned 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km ² ) in Scotland , and land in Norfolk , Hertfordshire , and Kent . His father had died when he was eight and he had been brought up by his mother , who had subsequently married Harry Powlett , 4th Duke of Cleveland . His mother was a distant figure , and their relationship was always strained . The Earls of Rosebery , whose family name was Primrose , were old , if undistinguished , members of the Scottish aristocracy . Rosebery was considered to be strikingly handsome and immensely cultivated . He was highly intelligent , and a brilliant future was forecast for him by his tutors at both Eton and Christ Church , Oxford .

As early as 1876 , there were rumours of an engagement . However , several hurdles had to be overcome before a marriage could take place . While the Jewish Rothschilds were accepted into society , and indeed were close friends of some members of the royal family including the Prince of Wales , as elsewhere in Europe , antisemitic feelings were prevalent in the upper echelons of society and particularly so among those closest to the Queen at court , where following the death of the Prince Consort in 1861 the Rothschilds became pointedly excluded . The Queens equerry Arthur Edward Hardinge referred to the Rothschild 's dining tables as " resplendent with the Hebrew gold " going so far as to say a visiting Russian royal needed a " corrective " visit to Westminster Abbey following acceptance of Rothschild hospitality . Queen Victoria herself expressed antisemitic views in 1873 when it was proposed that Lionel de Rothschild be elevated to the peerage the Queen refused and expressed a reluctance to make a Jew a peer – saying " to make a Jew a peer is a step she could not consent to " and furthermore stated to give " a title and mark of her approbation to a Jew " . Lord Spencer advised the Prince and Princess of Wales against attending a Rothschild ball with the words " The Prince ought only to visit those of undoubted position in Society . " However , this did not prevent the Prince from accepting Rothschild 's invitations and gifts privately . While one could be friends with Jews and accept their hospitality , their social status was still not sufficiently elevated to include marriage into the peerage without unfavourable comment .

Rosebery 's own mother was horrified at the thought of a Jewess , even a Rothschild , in the family . Rosebery too felt there was an impassable barrier of faith ; at this time , it was inconceivable that any children could be reared as Jews . Although it has been stated that Rosebery himself was devoid of any antisemitic views , this was not always true , especially in later life .

This factor also worked in reverse ; while Hannah de Rothschild was keen to marry Rosebery , she was also aware of many obstacles , the foremost being that she was devoted to her faith , and to leave it would be a severe moral wrench . Another obstacle was the Rothschild family itself : it was their custom to marry cousins to keep their fortune within the family . Ironically , Hannah herself had opposed the marriage of her cousin Annie de Rothschild to the Christian Eliot Yorke , the son of the Earl of Hardwicke , in 1866 . In fact , she was to be the third daughter of the family 's English branch to marry outside of the Jewish faith , but such was the fame of the bridegroom and the resultant publicity that the Jewish elders and press felt an example needed to be made . The Jewish Chronicle announced its " most poignant grief " at the prospect , and cryptically added , " If the flame seize on the cedars , how will fare the hyssop on the wall : if the leviathan is brought up with a hook , how will the minnows escape , " demonstrating what a threat to the social fabric of the Jewish faith the Jewish elders saw in the prospect of such a marriage . The quotation , originally from the Babylonian Talmud , can be taken to mean that the elders and respected members and more notable members of the Jewish faith should set a good example by strictly following the teachings of the Jewish articles of faith which frown upon marriage to members of other religions .

The formal engagement of marriage was announced on 3 January 1878 , a day Rosebery forever afterwards regarded as sacred . Writing to a friend in January 1878 , Rosebery described his wife as " very simple , very unspoilt , very clever , very warm @-@ hearted and very shy ... I never knew such a beautiful character . " The marriage was celebrated in London on 20 March 1878 at the Board Room of Guardians in Mount Street , and also in a Christian ceremony at Christ Church in Down Street , Piccadilly . To show " official " disapproval , no male member of the Rothschild family attended the ceremonies . However , any shortcomings in the guest list were compensated for by the guest of honour — the Prince of Wales — and Disraeli , who gave the bride away .

= = Marriage = =

For the first few years following their marriage , the Roseberys resided in London in the Piccadilly house Lady Rosebery had inherited from her father . However , as the couple 's social and political interests increased from 1882 , they leased the larger Lansdowne House . Lansdowne House was one of the finest of the aristocratic palaces in London , well suited to be the home of the political salon which Hannah Rosebery was to establish . Here political and social leaders of the day mixed with royalty , authors such as Henry James and Oscar Wilde , and other prominent social and intellectual figures of the time . Henry James , an occasional guest in the Roseberys ' homes , delivered one of the most unflattering condemnations of Lady Rosebery describing her as " ... large , coarse , Hebrew @-@ looking with hair of no particular colour and personally unattractive " .

The Roseberys divided their year among their various homes : London for the social season and parliament , Mentmore at weekends to entertain both political and shooting house @-@ parties . In August the household would move north to Dalmeny for the grouse shooting . In between , occasional days and the weeklong Derby meeting would be spent at their home " The Durdans " in Epsom . Though small by comparison to their other homes , this mansion was described by Henry James as the most homely and comfortable of the Roseberys ' many homes and as a delightful house full of books and sporting pictures , with just a few Gainsboroughs and Watteaux . Together the Earl and Countess of Rosebery added greatly to not only the Mentmore collection but also to that housed at Dalmeny House , Rosebery 's Scottish seat , amassing a great library of rare and continental volumes and a collection of artefacts formerly belonging to the Emperor Napoleon I.

= = = Relationship with Rosebery = = =

Published commentators on the Roseberys claim their marriage was happy , and there is no known evidence that Hannah was anything other than happy in her marriage , and quite a lot to suggest she was indeed blissfully happy . However , much evidence suggests that Rosebery , while professing to be happy , was at times irritated and bored by Hannah , who was always keen to accommodate his every whim .

There were times when Lady Rosebery 's devotion to her husband was tested . Rosebery may have not been antisemitic before his marriage ; however , the acerbic wit for which he was famous led him to make remarks that could have been taken in such a way , once his marriage had secured the Rothschild fortune . Rosebery seems to have disliked his first son , who he claimed looked " Jewish . " On seeing his son for the first time he remarked " Le Jew est fait , rien ne vas plus , " which must have been disconcerting for the child 's very Jewish mother . Rosebery , who has been described as febrile and supercilious , replied in a letter of congratulations on the birth of his heir from Mary Gladstone : " I cannot pretend to be much excited by an event which occurs to almost every human being and which may cause me a great deal of annoyance . " Rosebery then left his newborn child and wife ( who was again pregnant ) for a year @-@ long tour of Australia . On another occasion , when the Roseberys were travelling in India , Rosebery is reported to have announced " I will travel ahead , Hannah and the rest of the heavy baggage will follow the next day . "

While the marriage was based on warmth and esteem on Rosebery 's side and adoration on Hannah 's , it seems that Rosebery often found his wife 's devotion irritating , and this sometimes caused him to be impatient with her . He was often abrupt with her in public . She , by contrast , was completely enraptured by him , and would frequently ignore her neighbours at a dinner party to listen to her husband 's conversation further down the table , a faux pas almost considered a crime in Victorian society . Those who saw the couple alone at home " could not doubt the affection as well as the comprehension that united them . "

However , at times Rosebery 's behaviour could be eccentric . Gladstone remarked that Rosebery was , perhaps , rather too concerned with his health . Early in the marriage Rosebery decided to renovate the small ruined Barnbougle Castle ( the original Rosebery family seat ) , close to , and within sight of , Dalmeny House . Once renovation was complete in 1882 , Rosebery used it as a private retreat from his family , and began to spend his nights there alone . Always an insomniac , he claimed that the " stillness of the waters [ the nearby Firth of Forth ] were conducive to sleep . " Books were his passion , and he assembled a huge library in the small castle . Thus Rosebery was able to lead a life at Dalmeny with his wife , but also quite apart from her .

During their marriage the Roseberys travelled extensively , usually without their children . In September 1883 the couple left their children in the care of the nannies and nursery maids , supervised by Rosebery 's sister Lady Leconfield , for a long tour of America and Australia . Lady Rosebery owned large investments in North America , including ranches in Texas and mines in Montana . Their arrival in New York was widely reported , and a full and flattering description of Lady Rosebery was reported in The Herald . The newspaper went on to describe Rosebery as looking like a prosperous farmer . Lady Rosebery was very taken with California , from where she wrote : " The inhabitants are very entertaining ... the women are very handsome , think nothing of dresses costing £ 80 , " fix up " their faces very frequently and are generally divorced . " Having toured and been fêted in America , the party moved on to Australia via Honolulu . In Australia , Rosebery chose to indulge his habit of solitude , installing his wife in a hotel in Sydney , while he went off alone to tour the outback .

Rosebery 's frequent absences from his wife fuelled gossip that he was a secret homosexual . It has been claimed that the inscrutable air that Rosebery wore was a mask to disguise his secret homosexual life . The worry of this illegal secret , it was claimed , and fear of exposure , caused his insomnia and bouts of depression . It was even whispered that his Barnbougle Castle retreat was really a venue for clandestine assignations with young men . Rosebery 's possible homosexuality has been much discussed in recent times . Nothing conclusive has ever been found one way or the other , but it is possible that he had homosexual experiences while in the care of a paedophile housemaster at Eton in his youth . No evidence exists that his wife was aware of these rumours against her husband , or even that she would have understood them , bearing in mind her sheltered upbringing and limited education . Sex education was not part of a 19th @-@ century upper @-@ class girl 's schooling . The more public and precise accusations of Rosebery 's homosexuality by the Marquess of Queensberry did not occur until three years after Lady Rosebery 's death .

The relationship between the couple appears at times to have been almost that of a mother and child . Rosebery , a self @-@ centred , reserved man , prone to depression , pessimism and insecurity , had a difficult relationship with his mother who had been distant and openly preferred his younger brother . Lady Rosebery , an orphan and only child , appears to have been desperate to lavish affection . Once upon entering a book shop she told her children they were entering a toy shop , and when the disappointed children pointed out the obvious she replied " to your father this is a toy shop . " Lord Rosebery 's friend Edward Hamilton recorded her " notable faculty of getting other people to work and quickening their energies . " It seems she was the driving force of the relationship , with her feet firmly on the ground . She made herself the link between the world and her " thin skinned and neurotic " husband . While her husband sulked or withdrew with hurt pride from a situation , she came to the forefront to plead his case or cause . If she was aware of his faults she gave no indication of it .

= = = Children = = =

The marriage produced four children : Lady Sybil Primrose , born in 1879 ; Lady Margaret Primrose , born in 1881 ; the heir Harry Primrose , Lord Dalmeny ( later 6th Earl of Rosebery ) , born in 1882 ; and finally the Honourable Neil Primrose , born the same year as his elder brother .

As a mother , Lady Rosebery was presented with a dilemma : she was in fact already practically a mother to her husband who had no great feeling for a proximity to small babies . This was particularly evident in June 1880 when shortly after the birth of their first child Sybil , Rosebery wished to visit Germany for three months , to take a cure at a German spa ( he was recovering from what is now thought to have been a nervous breakdown ) . His wife dutifully accompanied him . However , Rosebery , clearly aware of his wife 's frustrated maternal instincts , reported that Hannah savoured every detail of the daily letters from London concerning the baby , and that she never complained at the forced separation .

More revealing is a comment Lady Rosebery herself made to her husband , " I sometimes think it is wrong that I have thought less of the children in comparison to you " shortly before her death in 1890 , suggesting that when a choice between her children and husband was forced on her , she always chose her husband . However , the same comment also hints that she was not unaware that her choice was at the cost of her children .

When assessing Lady Rosebery 's behaviour to her children it should be remembered that she lived in an era of plentiful nannies , wet nurses , nursemaids and governesses which the upper classes employed as the norm . These people were employed regardless of the mother 's affection towards her children ; it was inconceivable that a countess would nurse her own children , and to do so would have been breaking social conventions . Hence her seeming lack of attention to her children was not unusual – she was following the upper class conventions and " stiff upper lip " philosophies of her era . However , in spite of their prolonged absences from their children , the Roseberys do not appear to have been very distant or remote figures in the earliest stages of their children 's lives . Margot Asquith records how Rosebery loved to play and romp on the floor with the children .

= = Politics = =

It has been said of Hannah de Rothschild that she grew up with a good sense and presence of mind , enabling her to deputise for her mother on grand social occasions at Mentmore and in London . This gave her confidence and the experience to be the perfect political wife . Marriage to her altered Rosebery 's status , too : while his wife acquired Christian respectability and a title , Rosebery moved from being one of many wealthy and capable young noblemen to being one with unfathomable riches . This , coupled with his good looks , appealed to the public 's imagination and gave him glamour .

From the outset of the marriage , political members of the Rothschild family took an interest in Rosebery , and he was soon acclaimed as one of the rising hopes of the Liberal Party . As a hereditary peer , he already had a seat in the House of Lords and had made his maiden speech there on attaining his majority . But brilliant as he was , Rosebery tended to lethargy and boredom . Lord Granville in fact considered Rosebery 's wife to be the more ambitious of the pair , and even advised her " If you keep him up to the mark , [ he ] is sure to have his page in history . " The subtle driving of her often languid and lethargic husband to achieve his " page in history " was to become her raison d 'être . Rosebery 's secretary Thomas Gilmour noted : " She is thoroughly genuine and very tender and devoted to Lord Rosebery , it is easy to see that she is very proud of him , and she is a woman of considerable force of character and great energy , she may prove to be a powerful ally in his political career . " Rosebery was not a natural politician . He was an idealist who disliked the rancour of politics , in fact " his innate dislike of politics was something Lady Rosebery always fought against . " However , he was a gifted orator , and this was an era when platform speaking was beginning to replace House of Commons debate . On a tour of America before his marriage , Rosebery had been impressed by the campaigning of prospective political candidates ; in Britain little had changed in that respect since the hustings of the 18th century . He realised how an electorate could be swayed by a candidate touring his prospective constituency , aided by a well thought @-@ out series of events , rallies and advertising , with the candidate 's ideal and attractive family smiling by his side . Thus Lady Rosebery not only pushed and encouraged him behind the scenes but was now to become an encouraging and conspicuous figure by his side . In this way it could be said she was the first openly " political wife " in Britain .

This first became evident in the great campaign to re @-@ elect Gladstone . Known today as the Midlothian campaign , it was masterminded by the Roseberys . Rosebery used his influence to have Gladstone invited to stand as parliamentary candidate for Midlothian , near to Rosebery 's Dalmeny estate . Gladstone had nominally retired from politics after losing his Greenwich seat in 1874 , when Disraeli had been swept to power . The campaign was based at Dalmeny where Lady Rosebery hosted a series of large political house parties throughout the long campaign . The Tories were later to claim that Rosebery had paid for Gladstone 's campaign . Rosebery later admitted to spending £ 50 @,@ 000 .

The Roseberys ' house party would leave Dalmeny and tour towns and cities across Midlothian and Scotland , with Gladstone and the speakers often addressing vast crowds from the back of an American @-@ designed Pullman car specially acquired by Rosebery for the purpose . The scenes at these meetings have been described as something between a carnival and an evangelist 's revival meeting . While in the grounds of Dalmeny House itself , the public were treated to a great firework display .

Throughout all this , Gladstone was supported not only by the popular and charismatic Rosebery but also by an array of well @-@ dressed women including Lady Rosebery and Gladstone 's daughter Mary . These fashionable people – the celebrities of their day ( newspapers at the time gave many column inches each day to the doings of the upper classes ) – were as much a crowd @-@ puller as the political speakers , and Rosebery 's planning used that to full effect . One meeting was so packed that many were fainting : 70 @,@ 000 people applied for tickets in a hall capable of holding 6 @,@ 500 . Lady Rosebery reported , " I had never heard Archie ( Lord Rosebery ) speak in public politically before , but after the first minute I felt I could never be nervous at his making a speech the audience show him great affection . " [ sic ] However it was not just Gladstone and Rosebery the huge crowds had come to see , but also the dutifully supporting and smiling families . Lady Rosebery went on to describe how " They ( the crowds ) patted me on the back till my shoulders were sensitive . " Thus in Rosebery 's first serious involvement in politics , Disraeli was defeated and the newly elected MP for Midlothian became Prime Minister for the second time ( the caretaker liberal leader Lord Hartington retired in favour of Gladstone ) . It was also obvious that Lady Rosebery was a very evident and valuable political electioneering asset . As the Marquess of Crewe put it " she had cut her spurs . "

Her political mettle and ambitions for her husband were however to be more severely tested following the Liberal victory . Rosebery was , as expected , offered a position in Government by Gladstone . It had been rumoured that the position of Viceroy of Ireland or a cabinet place would be proffered , but it turned out to be the job of Under Secretary of the India Office . Rosebery immediately declined the post , giving as his reason that it would appear that he was being repaid for running Gladstone 's campaign ( as though the Viceregal position would not ) . When pressed further he cited ill health — he had been suffering from scarlet fever during the Midlothian campaign and now also appeared to be suffering a minor nervous breakdown . Political leaders urged Lady Rosebery to influence him , but she defended his decision , while stressing that his deterioration in health was only temporary . She had to be careful — if it appeared her husband had declined the offer on the grounds that it was too lowly , it would give substance to the claims being made that he was conceited and petulant . Whatever the truth , and it may be Rosebery 's own explanation that he " disliked hard work , " Lady Rosebery continued to solicit Gladstone for a job for Rosebery within the cabinet . In August 1880 , when Gladstone told her firmly that " There is nothing I can give him , " she claimed she had not been seeking a cabinet post and Gladstone had misunderstood her . At the same time she was canny enough to mention that Sir William Harcourt and Sir Charles Dilke , both radicals opposed to Gladstone 's policies , were " visiting them " and " thoughtful . " Lady Rosebery also began to befriend those politicians such as Lord Northbrook who empathised with her husband , while others such as Lord Granville and Lord Hartington she identified as aloof . She dismissed Lord Spencer with " I can never look on him as a great motive power , besides he does not mention Archie [ Rosebery ] to me . " This was the same Lord Spencer who had advised the Prince and Princess of Wales against visiting the homes of wealthy Jews .

Finally her soliciting paid off and in 1881 , Rosebery was offered a government position acceptable to him , that of Under Secretary at the Home Office with special responsibility for Scotland . He had sought the position feeling that Scotland was neglected by the Liberal Government who were more interested in Ireland . However , immediately upon assuming the job he began to demand a place in the cabinet . The office he sought was that of Lord Privy Seal , a position Gladstone refused on account of Rosebery 's inexperience in Government . It appeared that Rosebery was showing his true colours and he was accused of behaving like a spoilt child , with doubts cast over the honourableness of his reasons for refusing the Under Secretaryship of the India Office . Lady Rosebery , " conscious of her husband 's supreme ability , " wanted him in the cabinet and was furiously agitating her husband 's discontent until Rosebery threatened to resign his Home Office position . Lady Rosebery had an angry row with Gladstone 's wife , where Mrs Gladstone pointed out that if Rosebery resigned he would have nothing but horse racing to interest him , and that Lady Rosebery should be patient as her husband was young . Rosebery , accepting that a cabinet place was not going to be forthcoming , resigned from Government . Lady Rosebery , realising further appeal to the Gladstones was pointless , tried a new avenue — Lord Hartington , the immensely influential Secretary of State for War , who was already quarrelling with Gladstone over the Irish home rule problem , and whom she allegedly met by chance at Preston Railway Station . Inviting him into her carriage for the journey to London , she pleaded her husband 's case for three hours to her captive listener . The Roseberys then immediately left England and their children for a long trip to America and Australia . On their return in 1885 Rosebery was appointed Lord Privy Seal , complete with the seat in the cabinet which he sought .

Gladstone resigned as Prime Minister in 1885 following a Government defeat over the Irish home rule question . The new Tory government was led by Lord Salisbury . However , as a minority administration it was not expected to last , and a swift return of the former administration was anticipated . During this period serious ( if unproven ) charges of plotting and ruthless ambition were about to be levelled against Lady Rosebery . Sir Charles Dilke , considered as a likely replacement for Gladstone , and thus a rival to Rosebery in government , was implicated in one of the most scandalous and ruinous divorce cases of the era . Involvement in any divorce was social suicide in the 19th century , but the facts which emerged were enough to ensure it was political suicide as well . A friend of the Roseberys , Donald Crawford , MP , sued his wife Virginia for divorce naming Dilke as co @-@ respondent . There was little evidence and Dilke denied the charge , which could have been ultimately forgotten , if Virginia had not suddenly decided to sign a confession giving such lurid details that a great scandal was unavoidable . She claimed that not only had Dilke slept with her and taught her " French vices " , but also slept with her mother and partaken in a three @-@ in @-@ a @-@ bed orgy with Virginia and a maid . Dilke denied everything , but his hopes of high political office were ruined forever . Dilke claimed the whole thing was an embroidery of lies and conspiracies by his political enemies . Rumours began to circulate that the Roseberys , and Lady Rosebery in particular , were at the bottom of Dilke 's misfortune . In his futile quest to exonerate himself , and grasping at rumour , Dilke wrote to Rosebery accusing Lady Rosebery of having paid Virginia to make the confession . An outraged Rosebery denied all on his wife 's behalf , while in December 1885 Lady Rosebery 's only response on being told of Virginia Crawford 's confessions was : " Dilke 's behaviour is very astonishing in some reports , though it is not an actual surprise to me . " Early the following year Gladstone was returned to power and Rosebery was appointed Foreign Secretary in Gladstone 's third but brief term of office . Dilke 's political career was ruined , and for years afterwards he continued to expound the Rosebery conspiracy theory . Nothing was ever proven against Lady Rosebery and no tangible evidence exists to substantiate the claim .

The impartiality demanded by Rosebery 's new office forced him to sell many of his business interests , which had come by the way of the Rothschild family , to be seen to be avoiding a conflict of interest . However , his wife 's ambition and part in his rise to power was not only being recognised in high places , but clearly starting to irritate . On being told that Lady Rosebery was very keen for her husband to become Foreign Secretary , Gladstone replied " She would think herself capable of being Queen of the Realm and think the place only just good enough for her . " Rosebery was now on the path to political greatness , but Gladstone 's government fell the same year . Lady Rosebery was not to see her husband achieve the highest political office .

= = Philanthropy = =

Like many other women of her class and era , Lady Rosebery patronised a great number of charities . Her chief causes appear to have all been connected specifically to the assistance and welfare of women . She was president of the Scottish Home Industries Association , a charity which encouraged Scottish women to work profitably from home making plaid or other items of needlework and the like . In this way women , especially widowed mothers , remained in their homes able to care for their often large families while still earning an income .

Queen Victoria appointed her president of the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for Nurses in Scotland , the beginning of the district nurse system , which was to revolutionise health care for the rural poor and sick in Britain . She was also interested in general improvements in standards of nursing .

Like many of her Rothschild relatives she was also deeply involved with the welfare of young working @-@ class women of the Jewish faith who inhabited the poorer areas of London , in particular Whitechapel . There she founded the Club for Jewish Working Girls . She also donated to numerous other charities connected with Jewish causes . However , within a week of her death her husband began to cancel many of these subscriptions , prompting charges of antisemitism .

Her interest in education has been one of her most obvious surviving charitable legacies . She founded schools in all the villages surrounding the Roseberys ' estates . The Mentmore estate alone was serviced by three schools founded by her at Wingrave , Cheddington and Mentmore itself . Not only were the children educated at her expense by trained teachers , each was also provided with seasonal gifts of new clothes . Cheddington School remains in its original building with her cypher on its walls , while Wingrave School , which opened in 1877 , survives in new premises .

One of her more pioneering and innovative charitable causes was the oral instruction of what were then called the deaf and dumb .

= = Death and legacy = =

Lady Rosebery died of typhoid at Dalmeny in 1890 . She fought the disease , but it was found that she was also suffering from Bright 's disease , which had weakened her , making it impossible to survive the attack . She was buried in accordance with the rites of the Jewish faith . Rosebery found this particularly hard to bear , and wrote to Queen Victoria of the pain he experienced when " another creed steps in to claim the corpse . " It was only after her death that the doctors who had treated her disclosed to Rosebery that her kidney condition would have killed her within two years even if she had not contracted typhoid .

Her funeral was held on 25 November 1890 at Willesden Jewish Cemetery . As is the Jewish tradition , the service was attended only by male mourners , who included most members of Gladstone 's cabinet .

There is no evidence that Lady Rosebery drove her husband to follow her own political agenda , or that of her family . For her the rewards seem to have been the pleasure of seeing a husband she undoubtedly adored in the high office of which she felt him worthy . There is no doubt that she tempered her husband 's more radical views . Immediately following his wife 's death Rosebery retired from politics , writing in October 1891 " The sole object of my ambition has disappeared with the death of my wife . " Proof of the widespread belief in society that Lady Rosebery was the stable element of the partnership was confirmed shortly after her death , by Queen Victoria , following a then rare public speech by Rosebery , in which he supported Home Rule for Ireland . The Queen was shocked and thought the speech " almost communistic " and went on to attribute Rosebery 's " shocking and disappointing " behaviour to the fact that " poor Lady Rosebery is not there to keep him back . " While Queen Victoria always personally liked Rosebery , she mistrusted his politics . The Queen had thoroughly liked Lady Rosebery and wrote Rosebery several letters of condolence , likening his loss to the untimely death of her own consort , Prince Albert . It seems that the Queen 's antipathy to Jews was confined to elevating them to the peerage . This view had softened by 1885 . In 1890 she accepted a luncheon invitation from Lady Rosebery 's cousin Ferdinand de Rothschild and toured Waddesdon Manor albeit eating in a separate dining room to the Jewish members of the party .

Shortly after his wife 's death , Rosebery left his grieving children and went alone on a tour of Spain . Following a visit to El Escorial he wrote on the sepulchral wonders of the building , but added " for the dead alone the Taj is of course supreme . " On his return home he had designed for his wife a Victorian Gothic version of the Taj Mahal in miniature . For the remainder of his life he wore black and used black edged writing paper . Once , when talking with his daughter Sybil , he asked her what mourning she thought her mother would have worn had the situation been reversed . Sybil replied , " She would not have worn any , she would have died at once . "

Ronald Munro Ferguson has been quoted in 1912 as saying " many things would have gone otherwise had Lady Rosebery lived . Her loss is today as great a calamity from every point of view as it was at the time of her death . "

Widowhood changed Rosebery , both mentally and physically : he aged overnight , and began to refer to himself as an old man . Two years after her death , friends were still concerned that he was suicidal . Winston Churchill thought him maimed by her death , and later said of her " she was a remarkable woman on whom Rosebery leaned , she was ever a pacifying and composing element in his life which he was never able to find again because he could never give full confidence to anyone else . "

Sir Edward Hamilton , Rosebery 's closest friend , wrote :

Her qualities were portrayed in literature when Lady Rosebery was reputed to be the model for Marcella Maxwell in Mrs Humphry Ward 's novels Marcella ( 1894 ) and Sir George Tressady ( 1909 ) . The author lived at Stocks close to Lady Rosebery 's home at Mentmore and would certainly have known her , while in the books Marcella 's house is based on Hampden House , also in Buckinghamshire .

The Liberals did not return to office until 1892 . Lord Rosebery was eventually persuaded to enter government , becoming once again Foreign Secretary serving under Gladstone as Prime Minister . In 1894 on Gladstone 's retirement he achieved his wife 's ambitions and became Prime Minister , but by then Lady Rosebery was dead . Without her , Rosebery was a shadow of his former self , taking huge doses of morphine to combat insomnia and nerves . His Prime Ministership lasted barely a year , marred by problems and difficulties . For the remainder of his life and without his wife , as Queen Victoria phrased it , " to hold him back " , he became more and more eccentric and controversial in his decisions . His final years were blighted by ill health and a self @-@ enforced seclusion in Scotland . He died in 1929 .

Before their marriage and his full @-@ time entry into politics , Rosebery 's future wife had written with extraordinary foresight and ambition to him : " I work only to help you , if you are Prime Minister , let me imitate Montagu Corry . " Corry had been Disraeli 's influential private secretary on whom he had relied . Rosebery only ever trusted his wife . Without her to calm and order his life he was a neurotic wreck .

Lady Rosebery 's eldest son , Harry , who was less successful in politics than his father and brother , distinguished himself by becoming captain of Surrey County Cricket Club and owning two Epsom Derby @-@ winning horses . He succeeded his father as 6th Earl of Rosebery and died in 1974 . Margaret married her father 's old friend and biographer the Marquess of Crewe . Such was still the fame of her parents that London traffic was brought to a standstill on her wedding day in 1899 . Lady Crewe became one of the first women magistrates in Britain ; she died in 1955 . Lady Sybil has been summarised by one of her father 's biographers : " Even more eccentric than her father , she spent much of her time living in a caravan . " Neil , the second of the Roseberys ' sons , entered politics and a promising future was foretold for him . However , on the outbreak of World War I he joined the army , and was killed leading a charge at Gezer in 1917 .

Of Hannah Rosebery 's homes , the lease on Lansdowne House was surrendered shortly before her death , when the Roseberys purchased 38 Berkeley Square . This property was transformed into one of London 's most luxurious town houses . However , Lady Rosebery did not live to see the work completed . Her son Harry sold the house in 1938 , and it was demolished . A year later a bomb landed on the empty site during World War II . The Durdans was bequeathed to her daughter , Sybil , in 1929 and was sold together with its contents in 1955 . Lord and Lady Rosebery 's library there was given to the nation at this time . Mentmore , the grandest of the Roseberys ' homes , was sold by Lady Rosebery 's grandson , the 7th Earl of Rosebery , in 1977 , together with the Rothschild art collection , which Lady Rosebery had not only been intensely interested in but had enlarged considerably . She personally catalogued the collection , and prophetically wrote in the preface " In time to come , when , like all collections , this will be dispersed ( and I hope this will be long after my death ) this book may be of value . " Her two @-@ volume work and the collection it described remained so unknown that " Save Mentmore " ( a group attempting to halt the sale of Mentmore to keep the collection within Britain ) failed largely due to widespread public ignorance of both house and collection . A few pieces of furniture and paintings were taken to Dalmeny , ( the only house to remain in the family ) where they are displayed today , and three pictures including Drouais ' Madame de Pompadour were purchased for the National Gallery . The remainder of the collection was dispersed in a week @-@ long sale and is now scattered across the globe . A further sale of the " Continental Library , " to which she had added , was conducted in 1995 at the Aeolian Hall , London by Sotheby 's .

In June 2011 , Christie 's auctioned a set of pearl and diamond jewels ( a tiara , brooch and bracelet ) that were originally in Lady Rosebery 's ownership .

Today , Lady Rosebery is a mere footnote in the long history of her husband 's family , rather as Consuelo Vanderbilt is regarded in the Spencer @-@ Churchill family . Her husband , once one of the " most celebrated figures in Britain , " is a minor figure in British history . Thus , Hannah , Countess of Rosebery , in her day celebrated in the worlds of politics , philanthropy , and high society , is largely unknown and forgotten .

= Hurricane Uleki =

Hurricane Uleki , also referred as Typhoon Uleki , was a long @-@ lived tropical cyclone in August – September 1988 that had minimal effects on land . Originating from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone in late @-@ August , Uleki was identified as a tropical depression well to the southeast of Hawaii on August 28 . Steady organization ensued as it moved west , becoming a tropical storm on August 30 and a hurricane on August 31 . Rapid intensification took place thereafter and the storm reached its peak intensity on September 2 as a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Hurricane Hunters investigating the cyclone found peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) . Thereafter , Uleki stalled for two days to the southwest of Hawaii , resulting in heavy surf across the state . The dangerous swells killed two people on Oahu .

Unfavorable environmental conditions caused weakening of the hurricane by September 4 as it resumed a west @-@ northwest course away from Hawaii . Conditions later became favorable and Uleki acquired winds of 105 mph ( 165 mph ) on September 7 , constituting its secondary peak . The hurricane crossed the International Dateline on September 8 and was reclassified as typhoon . Remaining well away from land , the cyclone steadily weakened to a tropical storm by September 12 . Gradually turning north and later east , the degrading cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone four days later and ultimately dissipated on September 17 near the International Dateline .

= = Meteorological history = =

In late @-@ August 1988 , increased convective activity was noted along the Intertropical Convergence Zone by forecasters at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . An area of low pressure subsequently developed within this disturbance and was designated as Tropical Depression One @-@ C at 12 : 00 UTC on August 28 . Upon classification , the depression was situated roughly 800 mi ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii and moving west @-@ northwest . Steady intensification ensued over the following day with the system attaining gale @-@ force winds by 18 : 00 UTC on August 29 , at which time it was assigned the name Uleki . The storm later attained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) on August 31 and was dubbed a hurricane as it passed 350 mi ( 560 km ) south of Hilo . Thereafter , Uleki underwent a sudden period of rapid intensification and achieved major hurricane status later that day . After reaching this strength , Uleki 's forward motion gradually lessened and eventually almost ceased altogether on September 1 as upper @-@ level steering currents collapsed .

With the hurricane situated to the southwest of the Hawaiian Islands , Hurricane Hunters conducted several weather reconnaissance missions into the storm . On September 2 , they found maximum surface winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) ; this corresponded to the peak intensity of Uleki . At the time , Uleki displayed a well @-@ organized , tight circulation . The hurricane meandered in the same general area over the next two days , executing several small loops , with a slight northward drift . During this time , its circulation increased in coverage but became less @-@ organized as weakening ensued . Increased wind shear and restricted outflow took their toll on the hurricane . The cyclone 's winds dropped to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) by 12 : 00 UTC on September 4 as it resumed its west @-@ northwest track under the influence of a subtropical ridge away from the Hawaiian Islands . Uleki passed roughly halfway between Johnston Atoll and the French Frigate Shoals on September 5 . By September 7 , the weakened trend halted and environmental conditions favored reintensification . As Uleki neared the International Dateline , it regained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) .

At 00 : 00 UTC on September 8 , the CPHC transferred warning responsibility of Uleki to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the storm was subsequently referred to as a typhoon . Transfer of warnings occurred when the storm was at 178 ° W rather than at the dateline , where the boundary between the Central and West Pacific basins exists , for unknown reasons . Three hours later Uleki made its closest approach to Midway Atoll , passing 200 mi ( 320 km ) to the south . Shortly thereafter the system crossed the International Dateline and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) also began advising on the system . The JMA estimated Uleki to have had a pressure of 945 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) at this time ; however , this value was derived from satellite estimates rather than direct measurements . Uleki maintained this strength through September 10 as it continued on its west @-@ northwest course . On that day , the typhoon again entered a region of weak steering currents between two anticyclones within the subtropical ridge . A trough approaching from the west was forecast to prompt Uleki to turn east ; however , the typhoon maintained a general northwest motion in a stair @-@ stepped fashion . Increasing wind shear and cooler air soon imparted weakening , and Uleki degraded to a tropical storm by September 12 .

Continued effects from shear stripped the cyclone of all deep convection , and by September 14 only a band of cirrus clouds remained in association with Uleki . The JTWC issued their final warning on the system at 00 : 00 UTC that day accordingly . The JMA maintained the system as a tropical depression as the former typhoon began turning to the east . Uleki later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 16 as it accelerated to the east . The system dissipated the following day near the International Dateline , far from any major landmasses .

= = Preparations and impact = =

As the hurricane stalled to the southwest of Hawaii on September 3 , tropical storm watches were issued for Oahu , Kauai , and Niihau . High surf advisories were raised for all islands as well . Following Uleki 's turn to the west on September 5 , the tropical storm watches were discontinued . The storm 's erratic movement proved to be troublesome for forecasters and they continuously warned residents to be cautious and alert should the storm double @-@ back to the state . On September 4 , lifeguards at Waikiki Beach and Ala Moana Beach rescued 19 people caught in 5 to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) swells . Further north in Oahu , two people drowned after being caught in rough waters .

The storm moved roughly halfway between the French Frigate Shoals and Johnston Island on September 5 with no adverse effects in either region due to its weakened state . On September 7 , the 300 residents of Midway Atoll and United States Coast Guard personnel stationed on Kure Atoll prepared for possible hurricane @-@ force winds from the storm . Hurricane Uleki ultimately passed 200 mi ( 320 km ) south of Midway Atoll and produced some coastal flooding from increased surf . Some breaking waves spilled onto the runway at Henderson Field .

= 2016 Spanish Grand Prix =

The 2016 Spanish Grand Prix ( formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2016 ) was a Formula One motor race held on 15 May 2016 at the Circuit de Barcelona @-@ Catalunya in Montmeló , Spain . The race was the fifth round of the 2016 season , and marked the forty @-@ sixth running of the Spanish Grand Prix as a round of the Formula One World Championship . It was the twenty @-@ sixth time that the race has been held at the circuit .

Nico Rosberg was the defending race winner and entered the round with a forty @-@ three point lead over teammate Lewis Hamilton in the Drivers ' Championship . Their team , Mercedes , held an eighty @-@ one point lead over Ferrari in the Constructors ' Championship . Hamilton took pole position during qualifying , ahead of teammate Rosberg and Red Bull 's Daniel Ricciardo .

Max Verstappen won the race upon his debut for his new team Red Bull , having swapped his Toro Rosso seat with Daniil Kvyat ahead of the event . At the age of 18 years and 228 days , Verstappen became the youngest ever winner , the youngest driver to score a podium finish and the youngest ever to lead a lap of a Formula One race , breaking the previous records held by Sebastian Vettel . In the process he also became the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix . Both Mercedes drivers retired from the race following a collision with each other on the first lap , thus marking the first Mercedes double retirement since the 2011 Australian Grand Prix and the first time the team had not scored a point since the 2012 United States Grand Prix .

= = Report = =

= = = Background = = =

Daniil Kvyat and Max Verstappen traded places ahead of the race . Verstappen joined Red Bull Racing while Kvyat returned to Scuderia Toro Rosso . Red Bull 's team principal Christian Horner explained the driver swap with Verstappen 's talent , saying that the 18 @-@ year old Dutchman and Daniel Ricciardo had the potential to become Formula One 's best driver pairing . Furthermore , he stressed that Verstappen 's move to Red Bull would tie him to the team for the foreseeable future . Daniil Kvyat meanwhile expressed surprise at the decision , saying during Thursday 's press conference that he was " shocked " by his demotion , stressing that Red Bull did not give him a " real explanation " . Following problems with his power unit in both the Chinese and Russian Grand Prix , Lewis Hamilton received a redesigned MGU @-@ H unit , in a bid to solve the troubles which hampered him earlier . However , Mercedes was unable to guarantee that the problem would not appear again .

With Spain being the first race in Western Europe , and a mid @-@ season test coming up after the race , many teams introduced their first major car updates for the Grand Prix . Mercedes ran a new front wing with a " more pointy " nose during first free practice . Other changes were made to the engine cover and the rear wing . McLaren made more significant changes to their MP4 @-@ 31 , most notably on the front wing , which Sky Sports commentator Ted Kravitz called the " most intricate front wing I 've ever seen " . Force India updated their VJM09 to improve airflow . According to the team , they were looking for improved driveability rather than faster lap times . Renault introduced a new chassis for Jolyon Palmer . More significantly , the French manufacturer debuted a new version of their power unit for both their works team and Red Bull at the two @-@ day test following the race . All other teams except for Sauber also made changes to their cars , with the Swiss team continuing their financial struggles . They also announced that they would be forced to miss the mid @-@ season test , being unable to field a development driver , with regulations demanding that two out of four test days be driven by young driver talents . Both Sauber and Haas were allowed to use the updated version of Ferrari 's 2016 power unit , which the works team had already used in Russia two weeks earlier .

Going into the weekend , Nico Rosberg led the Drivers ' Championship , having taken the maximum number of 100 points from the first four races . Lewis Hamilton followed in second with 57 points , while Kimi Räikkönen was third with 43 points . Daniel Ricciardo followed in fourth , ahead of Sebastian Vettel . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes was first with 157 points , 81 points clear of second @-@ placed Ferrari . Behind them , Red Bull led fourth @-@ placed Williams by just six points .

= = = Free practice = = =

Per the regulations for the 2016 season , two 90 @-@ minute practice sessions were held on Friday and another 60 @-@ minute session was held before qualifying on Saturday . The Ferrari drivers , Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen , set the pace in the first session , both on the soft tyre compound . The Mercedes drivers Rosberg and Hamilton followed , albeit on the medium compound , recording more timed laps than their rivals . Both Red Bull cars followed in fifth and sixth , with Daniel Ricciardo faster than new teammate Max Verstappen . Valtteri Bottas was seventh for Williams , two places ahead of teammate Felipe Massa , who at one point spun out at turn five . Upon his return to Toro Rosso , Daniil Kvyat was unable to match the pace of his teammate Carlos Sainz Jr . , ending up half a second behind him . Esteban Ocon made his first free practice appearance of the season for Renault , replacing Jolyon Palmer , but was unable to set a timed lap . He suffered a tyre failure , caused by debris on the track . Force India 's Sergio Pérez managed only nine laps as he spent much of the session in the pit lane after smoke emerged from the rear of his car .

Mercedes topped the time sheets in the second session , now switching to the soft compound tyres as well , with Nico Rosberg two and a half @-@ tenths of a second clear of Kimi Räikkönen , while Lewis Hamilton was third fastest , more than seven tenths off Rosberg 's time . Räikkönen 's running was interrupted for a while when he was called back into the pitlane to investigate a fuel system problem , but was able to get back out . Fernando Alonso was seventh fastest for McLaren , but needed a replacement of his car 's plank after running wide over artificial grass surrounding the track . His teammate , Jenson Button , also experienced problems , having to stop at the end of the pitlane early in the session with an electrical issue . Renault 's problem from the first session continued : Jolyon Palmer , back in his car in place of Ocon , suffered a tyre failure on the start @-@ finish straight , bringing out red flags in the process . Renault and tyre supplier Pirelli were left puzzled over the failure , as in this incident , no sign of a cut from debris was found .

Nico Rosberg was again fastest in the third practice session on Saturday morning , setting a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 078 on his first timed run , a time that stood until the end of the session . Hamilton was second , 0 @.@ 126 seconds off , followed by Sebastian Vettel just two @-@ hundredths of a second behind him . In fourth place , Max Verstappen was faster than teammate Ricciardo for the first time , who finished fifth , ahead of Räikkönen . Upon beginning his preparation laps for qualifying , Rosberg had to come back into the garage , as a sensor on his car was malfunctioning . The team was capable of repairing the damage and he went back out for the final minutes of practice . Sergio Pérez was satisfied with the eighth fastest time , saying that the car had improved " everywhere " following the updates it had received .

= = = Qualifying = = =

Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with six drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . In the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , Nico Rosberg set a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 002 , the fastest of the weekend up to that point , two @-@ tenths of a second ahead of teammate Hamilton . Manor and Sauber occupied the back rows of the grid . Felipe Massa 's first lap was seven @-@ tenths of a second slower than the one from his teammate Bottas and as he was unable to set another timed lap , he became the surprise elimination in Q1 , behind Jolyon Palmer , who was dropped into 17th place by a late improvement from Jenson Button .

In Q2 , it was Hamilton who came out on top , exactly six @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Rosberg . Verstappen was third fastest , ahead of Ricciardo in fifth . Kimi Räikkönen had to abandon his first fast lap after running wide in turn four , but later set a time good enough for fourth . Meanwhile , Sebastian Vettel recorded just one timed lap , saving a set of tyres and was sixth . On his return to Toro Rosso , Kvyat was eliminated in 13th place , while teammate Sainz went through to Q3 . Sergio Pérez advanced as well , demoting his teammate Hülkenberg into elimination in the process , who would line up eleventh on the grid . Joining him on the sidelines for Q3 were Jenson Button in twelfth , with Romain Grosjean , Kevin Magnussen and Esteban Gutiérrez lining up behind Kvyat .

Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg were the first out in Q3 . Hamilton 's early sector times put him on course to a new fastest lap of the weekend , but a brake lockup at turn ten ruined his lap and tyres , handing provisional pole position to Rosberg . As the two Ferrari drivers struggled to find pace , Max Verstappen claimed second place for the time being , before the drivers went out for their second laps . Lewis Hamilton 's second flying lap bested Rosberg 's time by almost three @-@ tenths of a second , and saw him take the fifty @-@ second pole of his career . The two Red Bull cars of Ricciardo and Verstappen followed , with Räikkönen and Vettel for Ferrari in fifth and sixth respectively , both more than a second behind Hamilton . Valtteri Bottas was best of the rest ahead of Sainz , Pérez and Alonso . It was the first appearance in Q3 for McLaren since they resumed their association with Honda in 2015 .

= = = Race = = =

At the start , Nico Rosberg got around the outside of Hamilton in turn one , while Räikkönen lost positions due to a slow getaway . Sebastian Vettel got past Verstappen , but was immediately repassed on the approach to turn four . At the front of the race , coming out of turn three Hamilton and Rosberg collided ending the race of both Mercedes drivers . The collision resulted in a safety car period , with the order standing : Ricciardo , Verstappen , Sainz , Vettel and Räikkönen . The safety car came in at the end of lap four . Vettel got past Sainz on lap eight and Räikkönen tried to follow suit two laps later , but was forced off track into turn two . He completed the move one lap later at the same spot . Sainz and Button were the first to come into the pits for new tyres on lap 12 , followed by race leader Ricciardo one lap later , making Verstappen the first Dutchman to lead a Grand Prix , before he came in another lap later . When Vettel made a pit stop on lap 16 , he emerged third behind the two Red Bull drivers , all on the medium compound tyre .

By lap 20 , Sebastian Vettel was closing the gap to the two Red Bulls ahead of him , coming within three second of Verstappen . On lap 22 , Nico Hülkenberg retired when his power unit caught fire and he had to stop on the sidelines . While Massa had fought from 18th on the grid into tenth , his teammate Bottas was lying fifth by lap 25 , ahead of Sainz . On lap 28 , Ricciardo was again the first of the front runners to pit , taking on the soft compound . Vettel came in two laps later , making the same choice in tyres . This left Verstappen to lead Kimi Räikkönen , as it emerged that both would run on a different strategy , pitting only twice in contrast to the three stopping Vettel and Ricciardo . On lap 34 , the gap between the two leaders was 2 @.@ 1 seconds , before Verstappen came in on the following lap . Räikkönen responded one lap later , emerging behind Verstappen . On lap 39 , Vettel came in for his third and final stop , while Ricciardo stayed out for another four laps . When he returned to the track , he was behind Vettel , but on fresher tyres .

While Räikkönen closed on Verstappen at the front , Fernando Alonso 's home race ended on lap 47 , pulling over to the side of the track at turn three . Räikkönen managed to get into the one @-@ second window to activate the drag reduction system ( DRS ) , as Vettel was eight seconds behind him with Ricciardo closing on him in fourth place . By lap 57 , Ricciardo was close enough to use DRS as well , but unable to pass . Three laps later , Ricciardo made an attempt at overtaking into turn one , but braking too late left him running wide , allowing Vettel back through . As the front runners lapped backmarkers , Kvyat , after scoring the first fastest lap for himself and Toro Rosso , overtook Gutiérrez for tenth place . Two laps from finish , Ricciardo suffered a puncture and was forced to pit , but retained fourth place ahead of Bottas . On the last lap , Renault drivers Kevin Magnussen and Jolyon Palmer collided , but both made it to the finish . As Verstappen crossed the finish line , he became the youngest ever and first Dutch race winner in Formula One .

= = = Post @-@ race = = =

At the podium interviews , conducted by singer Plácido Domingo , Verstappen expressed delight about a " great race " , crediting his team with giving him a good car . Kimi Räikkönen said that while he was happy for Verstappen , he was disappointed not to have won . He blamed the lack of downforce while following as the reason why he had been unable to pass Verstappen . Vettel congratulated the winner as well , but lamented that his different strategy had not worked out in his favour . During the post @-@ race press conference , Räikkönen stressed that had anyone offered the team two podium positions after their poor performance in qualifying , they would have taken it " happily " . Fourth placed Ricciardo expressed bitterness over Red Bull 's decision to switch him to a three @-@ stop strategy , which eventually lost him a podium position , saying : " I 'm a bit devastated . A big part of me is happy the team are on winning form but it 's hard to celebrate " . His team later explained their decision , declaring that they had focused their strategy on Vettel , who they had considered the biggest threat .

In the Grand Prix , Max Verstappen broke several records : apart from being the youngest ever driver to win a race at 18 years and 228 days , he also was the youngest to stand on a Formula One podium , in both instances breaking Sebastian Vettel 's record set at the 2008 Italian Grand Prix by more than two years . Vettel had been 21 years and 2 months at the time . Verstappen also became the youngest driver to lead at least one lap of a Grand Prix , again overcoming a record set by Vettel , at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix . Verstappen also was the first driver born in the 1990s to win a Grand Prix . He received considerable praise after the race , with Sky Sports F1 's David Croft saying that he " has shown he has everything to be a world champion " . His father Jos Verstappen , himself a former Grand Prix driver , declared that he considered his son a better driver than himself , as race wins had eluded him during his own career in the sport . French sport newspaper L 'Équipe declared Verstappen to be " already a great " and " in the big leagues " . Verstappen was also the first Dutchman to win a race , with the Netherlands becoming the 22nd country to produce a race winner . He was the tenth different winner of the Spanish Grand Prix in as many past editions .

Following their collision , Hamilton and Rosberg were summoned to the stewards after the race but neither received a penalty , as the stewards rated their crash as a racing incident , with no driver in particular to blame . It emerged that Rosberg had chosen the wrong engine mode for the start , being down on power which led to Hamilton going for a passing manoeuvre . However , Rosberg remained convinced that he had done nothing wrong , saying : " I made it very clear I wasn 't going to leave any space on the inside and I was very surprised he went for the gap " . While Hamilton apologised to the team after the incident , he refused to accept blame for it . Opinions about the incident varied : While Mercedes 's executive chairman Niki Lauda blamed Hamilton for the crash , former F1 driver Anthony Davidson said on Sky Sports F1 that Rosberg 's move was " very aggressive " . Three @-@ time world champion Jackie Stewart said after the race that Mercedes should fine Hamilton for the crash : " Hamilton is to blame . Rosberg was allowed to protect himself . You don ’ t go for it on the first lap . " Mercedes 's head of motorsport Toto Wolff stressed after the race that the team would continue to let their drivers race against each other freely , a decision praised by former world champion Alain Prost . While Rosberg said after the race that he comtemplated having a talk with Hamilton about the situation , Mercedes later decided that they did " not need clear @-@ the @-@ air talks " . However , it later emerged that the pair did have a conversation about the incident before the next race in Monaco , which , according to Hamilton , was marked by " pure respect " . It was Mercedes 's first double retirement since the 2011 Australian Grand Prix , and the first time they failed to score a point since the 2012 United States Grand Prix , ending a 62 @-@ race long streak , the third longest in Formula One history .

For his last lap collision with teammate Jolyon Palmer , Kevin Magnussen received a ten @-@ second time penalty , dropping him one place to 15th . He also received two penalty points to his licence . Carlos Sainz received a reprimand from the stewards for leaving the pit lane one minute before it was allowed . He escaped a more severe penalty because he stopped shortly afterwards , thereby not gaining an advantage . Upon his return to Toro Rosso , Daniil Kvyat recorded the first fastest lap of his career , and the first for the Italian team in their 190th Grand Prix .

With 100 points from the first four races , Nico Rosberg remained on top of the Drivers ' Championship , while Hamilton 's retirement dropped him behind Räikkönen , who now trailed Rosberg by 39 points , four points ahead of Hamilton . Sebastian Vettel and Daniel Ricciardo were level on points with 48 , while Verstappen 's victory moved him into sixth on 38 . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes retained their lead on 157 points , but Ferrari closed the gap to 48 points , with Red Bull in third on 94 . Toro Rosso moved ahead of Haas into fifth , while Force India took seventh from McLaren .

= = Classification = =

= = = Qualifying = = =

= = = Race = = =

Notes

^ 1 – Kevin Magnussen originally finished 14th but received a ten @-@ second time penalty after the race for causing a collision with Jolyon Palmer .

= = = Standings after the race = = =

Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .

= Loverboy ( Mariah Carey song ) =

" Loverboy " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on July 16 , 2001 by Virgin Records America as the lead single from Glitter ( 2001 ) . Written and produced by Carey , Larry Blackmon , Thomas Jenkins and Clark Kent , " Loverboy " is built around a sample from " Candy " by Cameo , who are also featured on the track . Lyrically , the song finds Carey fantasizing about her loverboy , a man that will fulfill her physical and sexual desires . The recording was accompanied by an official remix , titled " Loverboy ( Remix ) " , featuring guest artists Ludacris , Da Brat , Shawnna and Twenty II .

The track was subject to controversy , following reports that Jennifer Lopez and Tommy Mottola ( Carey 's ex @-@ husband ) stole the idea of sampling the singer 's original planned sample , Yellow Magic Orchestra 's " Firecracker " , over a month after Carey had signed for it . Since Carey 's Glitter was to be released over a month after Lopez 's album , she changed the song 's melody to sample from " Candy " instead . Controversy ensued following its release ; Carey was hospitalized for severe mental and physical exhaustion , following poorly received television appearances involving the song and album .

After the song 's release in the United States , " Loverboy " stalled on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song reached a peak of number two on the Hot 100 but failed to top the chart due to weak radio airplay . Though finishing as the best @-@ selling song of 2001 in the United States , " Loverboy " became Carey 's first lead single to not reach number one . Internationally , the song failed to garner strong charting , reaching the top @-@ ten in Australia and Canada , and the top @-@ twenty in Italy and the United Kingdom .

" Loverboy " received generally mixed reviews from music critics ; many called the song unoriginal and dated while others felt that the featured artists ( primarily on the remix version ) overpowered Carey and made the song disorganized . A music video , directed by David LaChapelle , was shot for both versions of the song . The first version features Carey as a scantily @-@ clad car girl , waving a flag as her loverboy finishes a race . The video for the remix version features similar footage , only including shots of the song 's guests in race @-@ cars during their verses . Finally , she performed " Loverboy " live on The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour in 2016 .

= = Background and release = =

Following the release of " Loverboy " , Carey embarked on a short promotional campaign for the song . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . As the show 's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break , Carey came out onto the filming stage , pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men 's shirt . Seemingly anxious and exhilarated , Carey began giving out individual bars of ice cream to fans and guests on the program , while waving to the crowd down below on Times Square , while diverging into a rambling monologue regarding therapy . Carey then walked to Daly 's platform and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble , leading him to exclaim " Mariah Carey has lost her mind ! " . While she later revealed that Daly was aware of her presence in the building prior to her appearance , she admitted that he was meant to act surprised in order to provide a more dramatic effect for the program . Carey 's appearance on TRL garnered strong media attention , with many critics and newspapers citing her behavior as " troubled " and " erratic " . In the days following her appearance on TRL , Carey had begun displaying " erratic behavior " during a public record signing for the single at Tower Records in New York . As the appearance was filmed , she began rambling on several points , leading her to discuss radio @-@ host Howard Stern , and how his form of humor on his program bothered her greatly . At that point , Carey 's publicist Cindi Berger grabbed the microphone from her hand , and ordered the cameras to stop filming . Only days later , Carey began posting irregular voice notes and messages on her official website :

I 'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don 't feel that I should be doing music right now . What I 'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video . All I really want is [ to ] just be me and that 's what I should have done in the first place ... I don 't say this much but guess what , I don 't take care of myself .

After the quick removal of the messages , Berger commented that Carey had been " obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly " when she posted the letters . Two days later on July 26 , she was suddenly hospitalized , citing " extreme exhaustion " and a " physical and emotional breakdown " . Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey 's publicized breakdown and hospitalization , Virgin Records and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of both the film 's soundtrack and the film itself for three weeks : from August 21 to September 11 and from August 31 to September 21 , respectively . Following Carey 's absence from the public eye , as well as her abandonment of promotional appearances for the film and soundtrack , her unprecedented $ 100 million five @-@ album record deal with Virgin Records ( EMI Records ) was bought out for $ 50 million . The decision was brought out due to the low sales of the project , as well as the negative publicity surrounding her breakdown . Soon after , Carey flew to Capri , Italy for a period of five months , in which she began writing material for her new album , stemming from all the personal experiences she had endured throughout the past year . Additionally , she founded her own label modeled after her initials , MonarC Entertainment , and signed a new three @-@ album record deal with Island Records , valued at over $ 23 million .

At the time of the single 's release , Carey did not perform " Loverboy " live . The first performance of the song came 15 years later , on Carey 's Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour in 2016 .

= = Composition = =

" Loverboy " ' s hook is built around a sample of " Candy " , by Cameo . Aside from borrowing from the melody , " Loverboy " features Cameo as a lead vocalist on the track . According to Chuck Taylor from Billboard , " Loverboy " is reminiscent of several of Carey 's previous lead singles , as they too were predominantly built around samples of older songs . He described some of its background flourishes as " swirling harmonies overtop " , and noted the inclusion of many shouts and ad @-@ libs from Carey and Cameo . Due to the song 's heavy usage of the " Candy " sample , and the heavy blend of instrumentation and vocals , he said that to his bewilderment , the song was " devoid of a standard hook " . NME 's Elios Therepio felt the idea of sampling " Candy " was genius " on paper " , but once recorded , suffered from various miscalculations . He felt it didn 't match the success Carey 's previous single , " Fantasy " ( which also recalled its melody from an older song ) , and criticized the inclusion of several over @-@ the @-@ top " keyboard and synth arrangements " . Regarding Carey 's voice , aside from describing it as " obscured " , Therepio expressed his difficulty in understanding her lyrical phrases , claiming it was weakened from " no @-@ everyone @-@ can @-@ understand @-@ what @-@ you 're @-@ saying ' -itis " . Gil Kaufman from MTV News noted the inclusion of " bouncing funky bass [ and ] rock guitars " , while Roger Caitlin of the Hartford Courant described how Carey was often reduced to " breathy background vocals " on " Loverboy " . Lyrically , the song finds Carey looking for her " loverboy " , and a sugar @-@ daddy that 's going to " love her right " . Therepio found it ironic how Carey was crooning for a sugar @-@ daddy , when she had just left one ( referring to her older ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola ) . Additionally , he felt Carey was molding her image from that of a balladeer , to a " pin @-@ up image " of a pop star . The song 's lyrics are racy , and feature the protagonist asking for her " loverboy " to fulfill her sexual desires : " Loverboy come on and love me / Give me more " .

= = = Sampling controversy = = =

Throughout 2000 , Carey had already been writing and recording material for Glitter . During this period , she developed the concept for the album 's lead single , " Loverboy " . Originally , Carey had sampled the melody and hook from the 1978 Yellow Magic Orchestra song " Firecracker " , using an interpolation of it throughout the chorus and introduction . In early theatrical trailers for Glitter , the original version of " Loverboy " was still featured . As Carey had ended her contract with Columbia Records , Jennifer Lopez was signed by Tommy Mottola , and had begun recording material for her album , J.Lo ( 2001 ) . According to The Inc . ' s Irv Gotti , Mottola , head of Columbia and Carey 's ex @-@ husband , knew of Carey 's usage of the " Firecracker " sample , and attempted to have Lopez use the same sample before her . At the time , Carey had become increasingly paranoid over outside executives being informed about Glitter , especially following news of Lopez 's " theft " of the song . When the music publishers for " Firecracker " were questioned , they admitted Carey had licensed usage of the sample first , and Lopez had signed for it over one month later , under Mottola 's arrangement . Following the scandal , Carey was not able to use the original sample , as Lopez 's album was to be released far earlier than Glitter . She subsequently changed the composition of " Loverboy " , and incorporated a new sample , " Candy " by Cameo . According to Gotti , Mottola contacted him with instructions to create the Murder Remix of " I 'm Real " to sound exactly like another Glitter track he produced , titled " If We " featuring rappers Ja Rule and Nate Dogg . The " Firecracker " sample was eventually used by Lopez on her song " I 'm Real " , from her album J.Lo. The remix of Mariah 's " Loverboy " featured rapper Da Brat singing a pointed message about " bitches emulating [ her ] daily " , to the melody from " Firecracker " .

= = Critical reception = =

" Loverboy " was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics ; many were not impressed with the incorporation of the sample , and felt the song didn 't lead Carey into any newer ground or innovation . Additionally , several reviewers were not impressed with Carey 's concealed vocals and the song 's overly @-@ complicated production . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald described the song 's production as a " traffic @-@ jam " and wrote " ' Loverboy ' is another in an increasingly long line of glitzy , candy @-@ coated , creatively stunted song . " Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Natalie Nichols felt " Loverboy " was " predictable " and presented nothing new for Carey 's audience . USA Today 's Edna Gunderson wrote the song off as " skimpy " , while Glenn Gamboa from Newsday described its overall reception as " lukewarm " . Harry Guerin from Raidió Teilifís Éireann outed the song as one of Carey 's " finest moments " on Glitter , and disagreed with criticism regarding the " overly @-@ populated " musical background " . Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine listed the song as the only " recommended " song from Glitter , while Gil Kaufman of MTV News called it a " fun , uptempo dance number " . Craig Seymour from Entertainment Weekly rated " Loverboy " a C- , and criticized its lyrical content and production . An anonymous writer from The Guardian felt the song had " no decipherable tune " , due to the inclusion of electronic musical instruments and background shouts and ad @-@ libs . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor described the song as " self @-@ sabotage " , and felt Carey was gambling her longevity . He described the production as a " mumbo jumbo of disparate elements " , and wrote " the mighty may have fallen here " .

= = Chart performance = =

Prior to Virgin 's release of " Loverboy " , Carey halted all promotional appearances corresponding to the song . Citing an emotional breakdown and a subsequent hospitalization , Carey remained out of the public eye for several weeks . After its release , " Loverboy " failed to garner strong charting on prominent international markets , and received poor radio airplay throughout the United States . " Loverboy " peaked atop the Billboard 's Hot Singles Sales chart for four consecutive weeks , though due to weak airplay , managed to reach number two on the Billboard Hot 100 with " Bootylicious " by Destiny 's Child holding it back from the top position . " Loverboy " finished as the best @-@ selling single of 2001 in the United States , with sales of 571 @,@ 000 units , falling short of the previous year 's best @-@ seller , which accumulated sales upwards of one million copies . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the song Gold . In Canada , " Loverboy " peaked at number three on the singles chart , and charted for a total of thirteen weeks .

Throughout Australasia and Europe , the song peaked outside the top @-@ twenty in most countries . " Loverboy " debuted at its peak position of number seven on the Australian Singles Chart , during the week of July 29 , 2001 . The following week , the song began its decline , and experienced a total chart trajectory of seven weeks . The song was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . On July 29 , 2001 , " Loverboy " debuted at number 65 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , spending a total of three weeks in the chart . The song achieved relatively weak charting in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers 49 and 34 , respectively . Making its debut at its peak position of number 54 , " Loverboy " charted for a total of nine weeks in France , before falling out on November 3 , 2001 . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , the song made its debut at number 68 . The following week the song peaked at number 34 , before dropping outside the top 40 three weeks later , ending its five @-@ week run . On July 26 , 2001 , " Loverboy " debuted at number 49 on the Swedish Singles Chart , and reached a peak of number 44 . Similarly in Switzerland , the song peaked at number 66 , and spent only four weeks fluctuating inside the chart . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at its peak of number 12 . The following week , the song dropped to number 29 on the chart , before dropping outside the top @-@ forty two weeks later .

= = Remix = =

Aside from the regular version of the song , an official remix of " Loverboy " was included on Glitter . The song 's main remix , titled " Loverboy " ( Remix ) , uses the same sample as the album version and retains all of Carey 's original vocals . It has a different introduction , the singing and spoken parts of Cameo are greatly reduced ( and are not credited ) , and additional raps are included by Da Brat , Ludacris , Shawnna , and Twenty II . Critics panned the song , agreeing that the inclusion on the former pair only made it more difficult to hear and understand Carey 's singing . Many described their inclusion as " upstaging " the singer , while others felt they made the song increasingly tumultuous . NME writer Elios Therepio rated the remix five out of ten stars , and claimed the song to have been a much weaker lead single than Carey 's " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) . Jim Farber from Daily News criticized Brat 's verse , writing how it " cut right through " the production . The Morning Call 's Len Righi described the remix as " cloddish " , while Jim Abbott from the Orlando Sentinel felt the song 's guests " upstaged " Carey .

= = Music video = =

= = = Synopsis = = =

Two music videos , both directed by David LaChapelle , were shot for the song and its accompanying remix . The videos introduced a less demure image of Carey , one that received negative backlash from critics . She appears in the video with a lighter hair color than she had sported in the past , and wearing a series of revealing ensembles . Reviewers disregarded Carey 's newer image , primarily her double @-@ handkerchief bra , and likened her to younger pop singers such as Britney Spears , which they felt cheapened the singer . The video begins with Cameo driving all over a racetrack , while Carey , dressed in revealing clothing , is shown singing in various " car girl " positions at the track on a hot summer day . She flags down cars as the " flag girl " and dances as a " tire girl " in a kaleidoscope @-@ inspired sequence , before jumping out of a pop out cake to the roars of the crowd below . Several other scenes of Carey in a pink jumpsuit while riding on top of a race @-@ car are shown , during which Cameo continues the race . A video was also made for the remix and retains most of the shots of the original . In it , Ludacris and Shawnna can be seen rapping together as they ride in an old car , while Da Brat and Twenty II rap together in a more modern car without a hood .

= = = Reception = = =

The music video for " Loverboy " received generally mixed reviews from critics , many of whom felt Carey was portrayed in an overtly sexual manner . A writer from The Guardian criticized the video , calling it " wacky " and describing Carey 's choreography as " running amok " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani felt the video was " brilliantly over @-@ the @-@ top " , while an anonymous columnist from NME commented that it would cause male viewers to " play with themselves " after watching . In a countdown of the " The 5 Least Sexiest Music Videos " , Priya Elan from NME included the video at number three , writing how the singer " spins with the mad @-@ eyed grace of someone who hasn ’ t been to sleep for 72 hours " ( referring to Carey 's mention of insomnia as a reason for her breakdown ) . Japiya Burns of The Michigan Daily was critical of Carey 's portrayal in the video , primarily her double @-@ handkerchief bra . He felt that in doing so , Carey was cheapening herself and her image to resemble younger pop singers such as Britney Spears .

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits for Glitter adapted from the album 's liner notes .

Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals , background vocals

Larry Blackmon – songwriting

Tomi Jenkins – songwriting

Clark Kent – producer

Carl " Butch " Small – percussion

Peter Novak – engineer

Andrew Felluss – engineer

Ann Mincieli – engineer

Anthony Kilhoffer – engineer

Elliot Blakely – engineer

Dana Jon Chappelle – mixing

Michael " Mikizza " Schlesinger – mixing

Cameo – vocals

Mary Ann Tatum – background vocals

Remix

Da Brat – songwriting , vocals

Ludacris – songwriting , vocals

Shawnna – songwriting , vocals

Twenty II – songwriting , vocals

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Allah =

Allah ( / ˈælə , ˈɑːlə , əlˈlɑː / ; Arabic : الله , translit . Allāh , pronounced [ ɑɫ 'ɫɑh ] ) is the Arabic word referring to God in Abrahamic religions . The word is thought to be derived by contraction from al ilāh , which means " the God " , and has cognates in other Semitic languages , including Elah in Aramaic , ʾĒl in Canaanite and Elohim in Hebrew .

The word Allah has been used by Arabs of different religions since pre @-@ Islamic times . More specifically , it has been used as a term to refer to God by Muslims ( both Arab and non @-@ Arab ) and Arab Christians . It is now mainly used by Muslims and Arab Christians to refer to God . It is also often , albeit not exclusively , used in this way by Bábists , Bahá 'ís , Indonesian and Maltese Christians , and Mizrahi Jews . Similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies .

= = Etymology = =

The etymology of the word Allāh has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists . Grammarians of the Basra school regarded is as either formed " spontaneously " ( murtajal ) or as the definite form of lāh ( from the verbal root lyh with the meaning of " lofty " or " hidden " ) . Others held that it was borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew , but most considered it to be derived from a contraction of the Arabic definite article al- " the " and ilāh " deity , god " to al @-@ lāh meaning " the deity " , or " the God " . The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory , and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism .

Cognates of the name " Allāh " exist in other Semitic languages , including Hebrew and Aramaic . The corresponding Aramaic form is Elah ( אלה ) , but its emphatic state is Elaha ( אלהא ) . It is written as ܐܠܗܐ ( ʼĔlāhā ) in Biblical Aramaic and ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ ( ʼAlâhâ ) in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church , both meaning simply " God " . Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural ( but functional singular ) form Elohim ( אלהים ) , but more rarely it also uses the singular form Eloah ( אלוהּ ) . In the Sikh scripture of Guru Granth Sahib , the term Allah ( Punjabi : ਅਲਹੁ , translit . ਅਲਾਹ ) is used 37 times .

= = Usage = =

= = = Pre @-@ Islamic Arabians = = =

Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre @-@ Islamic inscriptions . Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre @-@ Islamic polytheistic cults . Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon . The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion . According to one hypothesis , which goes back to Julius Wellhausen , Allah ( the supreme deity of the tribal federation around Quraysh ) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal ( the supreme deity of Quraysh ) over the other gods . However , there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities . According to that hypothesis , the Kaaba was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca , about a century before the time of Muhammad . Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier , but we know nothing precise about this use . Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities . There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult . No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed . Muhammad 's father 's name was ʿAbd @-@ Allāh meaning " the slave of Allāh " .

= = = Christianity = = =

The Aramaic word for " God " in the language of Assyrian Christians is ʼĔlāhā , or Alaha . Arabic @-@ speakers of all Abrahamic faiths , including Christians and Jews , use the word " Allah " to mean " God " . The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for " God " than " Allah " . ( Even the Arabic @-@ descended Maltese language of Malta , whose population is almost entirely Roman Catholic , uses Alla for " God " . ) Arab Christians , for example , use the terms Allāh al @-@ ab ( الله الأب ) for God the Father , Allāh al @-@ ibn ( الله الابن ) for God the Son , and Allāh al @-@ rūḥ al @-@ quds ( الله الروح القدس ) for God the Holy Spirit . ( See God in Christianity for the Christian concept of God . )

Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works . They adopted the Muslim bismillāh , and also created their own Trinitized bismillāh as early as the 8th century . The Muslim bismillāh reads : " In the name of God , the Compassionate , the Merciful . " The Trinitized bismillāh reads : " In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit , One God . " The Syriac , Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words " One God " at the end . This addition was made to emphasize the monotheistic aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims .

According to Marshall Hodgson , it seems that in the pre @-@ Islamic times , some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba , a pagan temple at that time , honoring Allah there as God the Creator .

Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre @-@ Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el @-@ Jimal in Northern Jordan , which contained references to Allah as the proper name of God , and some of the graves contained names such as " Abd Allah " which means " the servant / slave of Allah " .

The name Allah can be found countless times in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia , as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the Himyarite and Aksumite kingdoms .

A Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad was martyred in Najran in 523 , as he had worn a ring that said " Allah is my lord " .

In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512 , references to Allah can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic , which called him " Allah " and " Alaha " , and the inscription starts with the statement " By the Help of Allah " .

In pre @-@ Islamic Gospels , the name used for God was " Allah " , as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the New Testament written by Arab Christians during the pre @-@ Islamic era in Northern and Southern Arabia .

Pre @-@ Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry " Ya La Ibad Allah " ( O slaves of Allah ) to invoke each other into battle .

" Allah " was also mentioned in pre @-@ Islamic Christian poems by some Ghassanid and Tanukhid poets in Syria and Northern Arabia .

= = = Islam = = =

In Islam , Allah is the unique , omnipotent and only deity and creator of the universe and is equivalent to God in other Abrahamic religions .

According to Islamic belief , Allah is the most common word to represent God , and humble submission to his will , divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith . " He is the only God , creator of the universe , and the judge of humankind . " " He is unique ( wāḥid ) and inherently one ( aḥad ) , all @-@ merciful and omnipotent . " The Qur 'an declares " the reality of Allah , His inaccessible mystery , His various names , and His actions on behalf of His creatures . "

In Islamic tradition , there are 99 Names of God ( al @-@ asmā ’ al @-@ ḥusná lit. meaning : ' the best names ' or ' the most beautiful names ' ) , each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah . All these names refer to Allah , the supreme and all @-@ comprehensive divine name . Among the 99 names of God , the most famous and most frequent of these names are " the Merciful " ( al @-@ Raḥmān ) and " the Compassionate " ( al @-@ Raḥīm ) .

Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase in shā ’ Allāh ( meaning ' if God wills ' ) after references to future events . Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of bismillāh ( meaning ' in the name of God ' ) .

There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims , including " Subḥān Allāh " ( Holiness be to God ) , " al @-@ ḥamdu lillāh " ( Praise be to God ) , " lā ilāha illā Allāh " ( There is no deity but God ) and " Allāhu akbar " ( God is greater ) as a devotional exercise of remembering God ( dhikr ) . In a Sufi practice known as dhikr Allah ( lit. remembrance of God ) , the Sufi repeats and contemplates on the name Allah or other divine names while controlling his or her breath .

Some scholars have suggested that Muḥammad used the term Allah in addressing both pagan Arabs and Jews or Christians in order to establish a common ground for the understanding of the name for God , a claim Gerhard Böwering says is doubtful . According to Böwering , in contrast with pre @-@ Islamic Arabian polytheism , God in Islam does not have associates and companions , nor is there any kinship between God and jinn . Pre @-@ Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind , powerful , inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control . This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God .

According to Francis Edwards Peters , " The Qur ’ ān insists , Muslims believe , and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews ( 29 : 46 ) . The Qur ’ an 's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham " . Peters states that the Qur 'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh , and as a universal deity , unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites .

= = As a loanword = =

= = = English and other European languages = = =

The history of the name Allāh in English was probably influenced by the study of comparative religion in the 19th century ; for example , Thomas Carlyle ( 1840 ) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God . However , in his biography of Muḥammad ( 1934 ) , Tor Andræ always used the term Allah , though he allows that this " conception of God " seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies .

Languages which may not commonly use the term Allah to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word . For example , because of the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula , the word ojalá in the Spanish language and oxalá in the Portuguese language exist today , borrowed from Arabic ( Arabic : إن شاء الله ) . This phrase literally means ' if God wills ' ( in the sense of " I hope so " ) . The German poet Mahlmann used the form " Allah " as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity , though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey .

Some Muslims leave the name " Allāh " untranslated in English . The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept .

= = = Malaysian and Indonesian language = = =

Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use Allah to refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages ( both of which are standardized forms of the Malay language . ) Mainstream Bible translations in the language use Allah as the translation of Hebrew Elohim ( translated in English Bibles as " God " ) . This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century . The first dictionary of Dutch @-@ Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl , Justus Heurnius , and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 ( revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin @-@ edition ) recorded " Allah " as the translation of the Dutch word " Godt " . Ruyl also translated Matthew in 1612 to Malay language ( first Bible translation to non @-@ European language , only a year after King James Version was published ) , which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629 . Then he translated Mark which was published in 1638 .

The government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage of the term Allah in any other but Muslim contexts , but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law , ruling that it was unconstitutional . While Allah had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries , the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of Allah by the Roman Catholic newspaper The Herald . The government appealed the court ruling , and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the appeal was heard . In October 2013 , the court ruled in favor of the government 's ban . In early 2014 , the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia . However , the use of Allah is not prohibited in the two Malaysian state of Sabah and Sarawak . The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long @-@ established and local Alkitab ( Bibles ) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years . Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia .

As a reaction to some media criticism , the Malaysian government has introduced a " 10 @-@ point solution " to avoid confusion and misleading information . The 10 @-@ point solution is in line with the spirit of the 18- and 20 @-@ point agreements of Sarawak and Sabah .

= = = In other scripts and languages = = =

Allāh in other languages that use Arabic script is spelled in the same way . This includes Urdu , Persian / Dari , Uyghur among others .

Assamese , Bengali : আল ্ লাহ Allah

Bosnian : Allah

Chinese ( Mandarin ) : 阿拉 Ālā , 安拉 Ānlā ; 真主 Zhēnzhǔ ( semantic translation as " the true master " ) , 胡大 Huda ( Khoda , from Persian language )

Czech , Slovak : Alláh

Greek : Αλλάχ Allách

Filipino : Alā or Allah

Hebrew : אללה Allah

Hindi : अल ् लाह Allāh

Malayalam : അള ് ളാഹ ് Aḷḷāh

Japanese : アラー Arā , アッラー Arrā , アッラーフ Arrāfu

Latvian : Allāhs

Maltese : Alla

Korean : 알라 Alla

Polish : Allah , also archaic Allach or Ałłach

Russian , Ukrainian , Bulgarian : Алла ́ х Allakh

Serbian , Belarusian , Macedonian : Алах Alah

Spanish , Portuguese : Alá

Thai : อัลลอฮ ์ Anláw

Punjabi ( Gurmukhi ) : ਅੱਲਾਹ Allāh , archaic ਅਲਹੁ Alahu ( in Sikh scriptures )

Turkish : Allah

= = Typography = =

The word Allāh is always written without an alif to spell the ā vowel . This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using alif to spell ā . However , in vocalized spelling , a small diacritic alif is added on top of the shaddah to indicate the pronunciation .

One exception may be in the pre @-@ Islamic Zabad inscription , where it ends with an ambiguous sign that may be a lone @-@ standing h with a lengthened start , or may be a non @-@ standard conjoined l @-@ h : -

الاه : This reading would be Allāh spelled phonetically with alif for the ā .

الإله : This reading would be al @-@ Ilāh = ' the god ' ( an older form , without contraction ) , by older spelling practice without alif for ā .

Many Arabic type fonts feature special ligatures for Allah .

= = = Unicode = = =

Unicode has a codepoint reserved for Allāh , ﷲ = U + FDF2 , in the Arabic Presentation Forms @-@ A block , which exists solely for " compatibility with some older , legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly " ; this is discouraged for new text . Instead , the word Allāh should be represented by its individual Arabic letters , while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature .

The calligraphic variant of the word used as the Coat of arms of Iran is encoded in Unicode , in the Miscellaneous Symbols range , at codepoint U + 262B ( ☫ ) .

= Moment of Surrender =

" Moment of Surrender " is a song by rock band U2 and the third track on their 2009 album No Line on the Horizon . During the initial recording sessions for the album in 2007 in Fez , Morocco , the band wrote the song with producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois within a few hours . Together , they recorded the song in a single take ; Eno called the song 's recording " the most amazing studio experience [ he 's ] ever had " . According to him and Lanois , the track is the closest the band came to realising their original concept for the album of writing " future hymns " . The seven @-@ minute song features gospel @-@ like vocals in the chorus , along with a predominantly organ- and piano @-@ based musical accompaniment . Lyrically , the song is about a drug addict who is undergoing a crisis of faith .

" Moment of Surrender " was praised by critics , many of whom called it one of the album 's stand @-@ out tracks . The song was compared to the group 's earlier ballads " With or Without You " and " One " . It was performed at all but two of the band 's concerts on the U2 360 ° Tour , most often as the closing song . During performances , the stage lights were dimmed and fans were urged to hold up their mobile phones to create " a stadium full of tiny stars " . Although it was not released as a single , Rolling Stone named " Moment of Surrender " the best song of 2009 , and in 2010 , they ranked it 160th on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " .

= = Writing and recording = =

" Moment of Surrender " was written by U2 and No Line on the Horizon producers / co @-@ writers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois during a two @-@ week recording session in Fez , Morocco between May and June 2007 . The song was developed within a few hours , and then recorded in a single take in a riad of the hotel Riad El Yacout . Eno began by creating a percussion loop of a " rolling hand drum " so that the band would have something to improvise along with when they joined him for songwriting and recording . However , Eno had not arranged the loop properly and the result was a strange , uneven beat that he compared to " a wheeled carriage that had one of the wheels a bit cracked " or " the way a camel moves " . Although Eno was trying to fix the loop , drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. began playing along to it . Eno then asked guitarist the Edge to play some chords . After a quick discussion about the chord changes and the meter ( in which they decided to have a " funny layout " that was not based on " eighths or sixteenths " ) , the six of them improvised the entirety of the piece .

As they began to play , bassist Adam Clayton developed a bassline . The part was originally based on the Grandmaster Melle Mel song " White Lines ( Don 't Don 't Do It ) " before Clayton changed to a more trance @-@ like bassline . Vocalist Bono created some melodies and sang over the music . During the album 's recording , Bono had become tired of writing in the first @-@ person and he began writing lyrics and singing from the perspective of different characters . During the writing of " Moment of Surrender " , Bono assumed the character of a drug addict having a crisis of faith . The song title was borrowed from the Alcoholics Anonymous term for when an addict admits being " powerless over alcohol " and needs help . Bono had attempted to use the phrase " vision over visibility " in the lyrics of earlier songs ; however , " Moment of Surrender " was the first song where he felt it was appropriate to be used . Eno called Bono 's singing in this character as " so heartbreaking agonized and vulnerable " , creating a feeling like " a knife to the heart " . Lanois contributed by developing the gospel @-@ like chorus . The uneven hi @-@ hat from the drum part stems from Mullen 's electronic drum kit malfunctioning during the song 's recording . Eno was amazed by each performer 's ability to develop and play their part without any instructions or cues . After the song 's recording completed , everyone in the studio , including a gathering of production personnel and visitors , was completely silent , and Eno suggested it was as if they had gone on an " emotional adventure of some kind " . He called the song 's recording " the most amazing studio experience I 've ever had " , and he believes the " emotional crescendo " heard in the song properly captures how they felt as they improvised the piece . Bono stated " it was a spell and we were in it " .

The song was played only once and received minor treatments afterwards , with the addition of a cello part in the introduction and some editing , which included removing a verse to reduce the song 's length . Eno was outraged that U2 wanted to shorten the song , and he was adamant that the band not alter the original track too much , saying , " These fucking guys , they 're supposed to be so spiritual — they don 't spot a miracle when it hits them in the face . Nothing like that ever happened to me in the studio in my whole life . " The band 's original concept for No Line on the Horizon was to create an album of future hymns — songs that would be played forever . According to Eno and Lanois , " Moment of Surrender " is the closest the band came to reaching that concept .

= = Composition = =

" Moment of Surrender " is played in common time at a tempo of 87 beats per minute in a key of A minor . The song makes use of the conventional verse @-@ chorus form . The song begins with an uneven percussion loop , before an ambient synthesiser fades in and the drums enter at 0 : 08 . A cello part joins and the synthesiser plays the chord progression C – Am – F – C – G – E – D7 . At the end of the progression , 47 seconds into the song , the intensity of the synthesier rises before an organ , bass guitar , and piano subsequently enter . At 1 : 16 , Bono 's vocals enter and the first verse begins , lasting three stanzas . After the first chorus concludes and the second verse begins at 2 : 59 , the Edge begins playing a guitar riff . The second verse lasts two stanzas . After the second chorus , a piano interlude begins , with Lanois contributing pedal steel . The Edge begins a slide guitar solo at 4 : 59 that many critics compared to the playing style of Pink Floyd 's David Gilmour . After the third chorus ends at 6 : 11 , " Oh @-@ oh @-@ ohhh " vocals and a guitar figure bring the song to its conclusion .

Lanois noted that the song had a very " Canadian sound " that was like a tribute to the Band , calling it the " Simcoe sound " . Rolling Stone said the song " merges a Joshua Tree @-@ style gospel feel with a hypnotically loping bass line and a syncopated beat " . The song makes prominent use of organ and piano .

= = Reception = =

" Moment of Surrender " was well received by critics after the release of No Line on the Horizon . David Fricke of Rolling Stone enjoyed the song , writing , " The rising @-@ falling effect of the harmony voices around Bono ... is a perfect picture of where he really wants to be , when he gets to the line about ' vision over visibility . ' " Blender considered it the high @-@ point of the album , comparing it to the band 's 1987 single " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " . Reviewer Rob Sheffield complimented the melding of bass , guitar , and vocals , calling it " the kind of gimme @-@ divinity anthem that U2 cut their teeth on , except it really does seem like they 've gotten better at these songs now that they 've picked up some bummed @-@ out adult grit . Bono actually sounds scared of something in this song , and whether his nightmares are religious or sexual , the fear gives his voice some heft . " NME felt that it was the " most impressive " song on the album , describing it as a " gorgeously sparse prayer built around Adam Clayton 's heartbeat bassline and Bono 's rough growl " , and noting that despite its seven @-@ minute length , it did not feel too long . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian was more critical of the song , saying it " doesn 't have enough of a tune to support the full seven @-@ minute gospel treatment " , a sentiment that The Times agreed with .

Spin reviewed the track favourably , calling it a " celebrity @-@ at @-@ the @-@ crossroads soul ballad " with an " ambient gospel sweep that 's both haunted and joyful " . Mojo praised the song 's musicianship , saying it was " graced by swaggering performances " and that the Edge 's " languid guitar solo " was reminiscent of David Gilmour . Q echoed these sentiments , commending Bono 's soulful singing and the Edge 's solo . The reviewer christened the song as " this album 's ' One ' or ' With or Without You ' , with added bonus points " . The Washington Post called the song one of the record 's highlights and enjoyed the track 's gospel qualities . The reviewer wrote , " The vocal harmonies on the choruses sound like something out of a church in some distant , dystopian world ; the woozy , slightly detuned piano adds to that impression ... " Hot Press gave the song a favourable review , calling it a " sweeping " track and suggesting it " conjure [ s ] the same spiritual vibe as Marvin Gaye 's ' Abraham , Martin & John ' " . Time gave No Line on the Horizon a negative review , but praised " Moment of Surrender " for its " heartbreaking melody " and Bono 's " Oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocals that reminded the critic of the end of " With or Without You " . Bono and Daniel Lanois both cited the song as their favourite track on the album , and Brian Eno thought the band should have chosen it as the album 's first single . Musician Gavin Friday described the song as " Al Green on Irish steroids " , and Hot Press editor Niall Stokes called it " a modern rock classic " that will " stand forever as one of U2 's most inspirational creations " .

Despite not being released as a single , " Moment of Surrender " charted in two countries . In the United States , the song appeared on the Mediabase Triple A chart at number 45 for the week of 17 November 2009 . In Belgium , the song appeared on the Ultratop 40 Singles Chart ( Wallonia ) for a week at number 35 .

= = Live performances = =

" Moment of Surrender " made its live debut on the opening night of the U2 360 ° Tour in Barcelona , Spain during the encore , as the show 's final song . It was played at nearly every subsequent concert on the tour as the closing song , being excluded from the setlist for only two of the tour 's 110 shows : the 9 December 2010 concert in Brisbane , Australia and the 29 May 2011 concert in Winnipeg . Prior to performances of " Moment of Surrender " , a disco ball was lowered and the stage lights turned off , and Bono encouraged fans to take out their mobile phones and create " a stadium full of tiny stars " . The National Post commented that despite being a " big @-@ concert cliché " , the move was effective and created a feeling of intimacy amongst the audience . Rolling Stone enjoyed the visual effect in context of the tour 's space theme , saying it " truly made it seem like the stadium had reached outerspace , with thousands of cellphone lights turning into stars " . The Daily Telegraph praised the " galaxy of mobile phones " , saying that despite the tour 's impressive stage and visual effects , " the most beautiful sight came when we couldn 't see [ the stage ] " . In reviewing a Paris show from July 2009 , the Sunday Times called " Moment of Surrender " the only track from No Line on the Horizon performed that evening that was strong enough to deserve inclusion with the rest of the show 's set list . NME was not as receptive to the song in a live setting , questioning the decision to end concerts with the song . A U2 360 ° Tour performance of " Moment of Surrender " appears on the group 's 2010 concert video U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl . In a review of the film , Andrew Mueller of Uncut called " Moment of Surrender " an " [ i ] ll @-@ chosen closer " , as well as " overlong and under @-@ realised " . In 2009 , the song was performed by the band on the 35th season premiere of Saturday Night Live , and at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall . On 18 June 2011 , Bono closed the song with lyrics from " Jungleland " to honor the recently deceased E Street Band saxophonist Clarence Clemons . The song was also one of only three non @-@ single tracks to be played by the band in their headline set at the Glastonbury Festival 2011 .

= = Legacy = =

" Moment of Surrender " appeared on several music publications ' " best of " lists for 2009 and the 2000s decade . Esquire called " Moment of Surrender " one of " The 10 Best Songs You ( Probably ) Didn 't Hear in 2009 " . Rolling Stone ranked it the best song of 2009 and the 36th @-@ best song of the decade , calling it " The most devastating ballad U2 — or anyone — has delivered since ' One . ' " In Rolling Stone 's voting for the decade 's best song , Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich placed " Moment of Surrender " in the number @-@ one spot on his ballot . Rolling Stone updated its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2010 and placed " Moment of Surrender " at number 160 — just one year after the song 's release — marking the fourth @-@ best position of any U2 song on the list .

" Moment of Surrender " is the tenth track in the Anton Corbijn film Linear , based on a story by Corbijn and Bono where a Parisian traffic cop travels across France and the Mediterranean Sea to visit his girlfriend in Tripoli . During the sequence , the cop ( played by Saïd Taghmaoui ) , leaves the bar and begins to wander the streets of Cádiz at night , eventually making his way down to the beach where he falls asleep on the sand . In the morning he wakes up and the next track , " Cedars of Lebanon " , begins .

A live performance of " Moment of Surrender " taken from an 18 September 2010 concert in Paris appeared on the group 's 2010 live EP Wide Awake in Europe .

= = Charts = =

= = Personnel = =

Additional keyboards – Terry Lawless

Cello – Caroline Dale

Production – Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois

Engineering – Richard Rainey

Engineering assistance – Chris Heaney

Additional engineering – Declan Gaffney , and Carl Glanville

Mixing – Daniel Lanois and Declan Gaffney

Mixing assistance – Tom Hough , Dave Clauss , and Dave Emery

= Gaboon viper =

Bitis gabonica , most commonly known as the Gaboon viper , is a viper species found in the rainforests and savannas of sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Like all vipers , it is venomous . It is not only the largest member of the genus Bitis , but also the world 's heaviest viperid , and it has the longest fangs – up to 2 inches in length ( 5 cm ) , and it has highest venom yield of any snake . Two subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .

= = Description = =

Adults average 125 – 155 cm ( 4 to 5 feet ) in total length ( body + tail ) with a maximum total length of 205 cm ( 81 in ) for a specimen collected in Sierra Leone . The sexes may be distinguished by the length of the teeth in relation to the total length of the body : approximately 12 % for males and 6 % for females . Adults , especially females , are very heavy and stout . One female had the following dimensions :

In their description of B. gabonica , Spawls et al .. ( 2004 ) give an average total length of 80 – 130 cm ( 32 to 51 @.@ 5 in ) , with a maximum total length of 175 cm ( 69 @.@ 3 in ) , saying the species may possibly grow larger still . They acknowledge reports of specimens over 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) , or even over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in total length , but claim there is no evidence to support this . A large specimen of exactly 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) total length , caught in 1973 , was found to have weighed 11 @.@ 3 kg ( 25 lb ) with an empty stomach . Very large specimens may possibly weigh up to 20 kg ( 44 lb ) , which would rank them as the world 's heaviest venomous snake ahead of the Eastern diamondback rattlesnake , but these masses are not known to have been verified .

The head is large and triangular , while the neck is greatly narrowed : almost one @-@ third the width of the head . A pair of " horns " is present between the raised nostrils — tiny in B. g. gabonica , but much larger in B. g. rhinoceros . The eyes are large and moveable , set well forward , and surrounded by 15 – 21 circumorbital scales . There are 12 – 16 interocular scales across the top of the head . Four or five scale rows separate the suboculars and the supralabials . There are 13 – 18 supralabials and 16 – 22 sublabials . The fangs may reach a length of 55 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) : the longest of any venomous snake .

Midbody , there are 28 – 46 dorsal scale rows , all of which are strongly keeled except for the outer rows on each side . The lateral scales are slightly oblique . The ventral scales number 124 – 140 : rarely more than 132 in males , rarely less than 132 in females . There are 17 – 33 paired subcaudal scales : males have no fewer than 25 , females no more than 23 . The anal scale is single .

The color pattern consists of a series of pale , subrectangular blotches running down the center of the back , interspaced with dark , yellow @-@ edged hourglass markings . The flanks have a series of fawn or brown rhomboidal shapes , with light vertical central bars . The belly is pale with irregular brown or black blotches . The head is white or cream with a fine , dark central line , black spots on the rear corners , and a dark blue @-@ black triangle behind and below each eye . The iris colour is cream , yellow @-@ white , orange or silvery .

= = Common names = =

The snake 's common names include Gaboon viper , butterfly adder , forest puff adder , whisper , swampjack , Gaboon adder , .

Originally a name given by the Portuguese , Gabon ( Gabão ) refers to the estuary on which the town of Libreville was built , in Gabon , and to a narrow strip of territory on either bank of this arm of the sea . As of 1909 , Gaboon referred to the northern portion of French Congo , south of the Equator and lying between the Atlantic Ocean and 12 ° E longitude .

= = Geographic range = =

This species can be found in Guinea , Ghana , Togo , Nigeria , Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Republic of the Congo , DR Congo , northern Angola , Central African Republic , South Sudan , Uganda , Kenya , eastern Tanzania , Zambia , Malawi , eastern Zimbabwe , Mozambique , and northeast KwaZulu @-@ Natal Province in South Africa . Mallow et al . ( 2003 ) also list Sierra Leone and Liberia in West Africa . The type locality is given as " Gabon " ( Africa ) .

= = Habitat = =

The Gaboon viper is usually found in rainforests and nearby woodlands , mainly at low altitudes , but sometimes as high as 1500 m . Spawls et al . ( 2004 ) mention a maximum altitude of 2100 m . According to Broadley and Cock ( 1975 ) , it is generally found in environments that are parallel to those occupied by its close relative , B. arietans , which is normally found in more open country .

In Tanzania , this species is found in secondary thickets , cashew plantations , and in agricultural land under bushes and in thickets . In Uganda , they are found in forests and nearby grasslands . They also do well in reclaimed forest areas : cacao plantations in West Africa and coffee plantations in East Africa . They have been found in evergreen forests in Zambia . In Zimbabwe , they only occur in areas of high rainfall along the forested escarpment in the east of the country . In general , they may also be found in swamps , as well as in still and moving waters . They are commonly found in agricultural areas near forests and on roads at night .

= = Behavior = =

Primarily nocturnal , Gaboon vipers have a reputation for being slow @-@ moving and placid . They usually hunt by ambush , often spending long periods motionless , waiting for suitable prey to happen by . On the other hand , they have been known to hunt actively , mostly during the first six hours of the night . In Kumasi , Ghana , they were regularly killed around some stables in an open area with the forest some 500 meters away — a sign that they were hunting rats in the grassland . They are usually very tolerant snakes , even when handled , and rarely bite or hiss , unlike most vipers . However , bites by bad @-@ tempered individuals do occur .

Locomotion is mostly rectilinear , in a sluggish " walking " motion of the ventral scales . They may writhe from side to side when alarmed , but only for short distances . Ditmars ( 1933 ) even described them as being capable of sidewinding .

If threatened , they may hiss loudly as a warning , doing so in a deep and steady rhythm , slightly flattening the head at the expiration of each breath . Despite this , they are unlikely to strike unless severely provoked ; however , they are one of fastest striking snakes in the world , so care should be taken in handling them .

There have been numerous descriptions of their generally unaggressive nature . Sweeney ( 1961 ) wrote they are so docile that they " can be handled as freely as any non @-@ venomous species " , although this is absolutely not recommended . In Lane ( 1963 ) , Ionides explained he would capture specimens by first touching them lightly on the top of the head with a pair of tongs to test their reactions . Anger was rarely displayed , so the tongs were usually set aside and the snakes firmly grasped by the neck with one hand and the body supported with the other as he picked them up and carried them to a box for containment . He said the snakes hardly ever struggled .

Parry ( 1975 ) described how this species has a wider range of eye movement than other snakes . Along a horizontal plane , eye movement can be maintained even if the head is rotated up or down to an angle of up to 45 ° . If the head is rotated 360 ° , one eye will tilt up and the other down , depending on the direction of rotation . Also , if one eye looks forward , the other looks back , as if both are connected to a fixed position on an axis between them . In general , the eyes often flick back and forth in a rapid and jerky manner . When asleep , there is no eye movement and the pupils are strongly contracted . The pupils dilate suddenly and eye movement resumes when the animal wakes up .

= = Feeding = =

Because of their large , heavy body size , the adults have no trouble eating prey as large as fully grown rabbits . When prey happens by , they strike with very fast precision from any angle . Once they strike their prey , they hang on to it with their large fangs rather than letting it go and waiting for it to die . This behaviour is very different from the behaviour of other species of vipers . These snakes feed on a variety of birds and mammals , such as doves , many different species of rodents , including field mice and rats , as well as hares and rabbits . There are also reports of more unlikely prey items , such as tree monkeys , the brush @-@ tailed porcupine ( Atherurus ) and even the small royal antelope ( Neotragus ) .

= = Reproduction = =

During peak sexual activity , males engage in combat . This starts with one male rubbing its chin along the back of the other . The second male will then raise its head as high as possible . As they both do the same , the necks intertwine . When the heads are level , they turn towards each other and push . Their bodies intertwine as they switch positions . They become oblivious to everything else , continuing even after they fall off a surface or into water . Sometimes they intertwine and squeeze so tightly that their scales stand out from the pressure . They have also been observed to strike at each other with mouths closed . Occasionally , the combatants will tire and break off the fight by " mutual consent " , resting for a while before resuming once more . The event is settled when one of the two succeeds in pushing the other 's head to the ground and raising its own by 20 – 30 cm . In captivity , combat may occur four or five times a week until courtship and copulation ends .

Gestation takes about 7 months , which suggests a breeding cycle of two to three years . A five @-@ year breeding cycle may also be possible . Usually , they give birth in late summer . B. g. gabonica produces 8 – 43 live young . B. g. rhinoceros may produce as many as 60 . However , the actual number of offspring rarely exceeds 24 . Neonates are 25 – 32 cm in length and weigh 25 – 45 g .

= = Venom = =

Bites from this species are rare , due to their extremely unaggressive nature and because their range is limited to rainforest areas . Due to their sluggishness and unwillingness to move even when approached , bites most often occur due to persons accidentally stepping on a Gaboon viper , but even then in some cases this does not guarantee a bite . However , when a bite does occur , it should always be considered a serious medical emergency . Even an average bite from an average @-@ sized specimen is potentially fatal . Antivenom should be administered as soon as possible to save the victim 's life if not the affected limb .

The snake 's cytotoxic venom itself is not considered particularly toxic based on tests conducted in mice . In mice , the LD50 is 0 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 0 mg / kg IV , 2 @.@ 0 mg / kg IP and 5 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 0 mg / kg SC . However , the venom glands are enormous and each bite produces the largest quantities of venom of any venomous snake ; this is partially due to the fact that , unlike many African vipers such as the Puff Adder , the Gaboon viper does not release after a bite , which enables it to inject larger amounts of venom . Yield is probably related to body weight , as opposed to milking interval . Brown ( 1973 ) gives a venom yield range of 200 – 1000 mg ( of dried venom ) , A range of 200 – 600 mg for specimens 125 – 155 cm in length has also been reported . Spawls and Branch ( 1995 ) state from 5 to 7 ml ( 450 – 600 mg ) of venom may be injected in a single bite .

A study by Marsh and Whaler ( 1984 ) reported a maximum yield of 9 @.@ 7 ml of wet venom , which translated to 2400 mg of dried venom . They attached " alligator " clip electrodes to the angle of the open jaw of anesthetized specimens ( length 133 – 136 cm , girth 23 – 25 cm , weight 1 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 4 kg ) , yielding 1 @.@ 3 – 7 @.@ 6 ml ( mean 4 @.@ 4 ml ) of venom . Two to three electrical bursts within a space of five seconds apart were enough to empty the venom glands . The Gaboon vipers used for the study were milked between seven and 11 times over a 12 @-@ month period , during which they remained in good health and the potency of their venom remained the same .

Based on how sensitive monkeys were to the venom , Whaler ( 1971 ) estimated 14 mg of venom would be enough to kill a human being : equivalent to 0 @.@ 06 ml of venom , or 1 / 50 to 1 / 1000 of what can be obtained in a single milking . Marsh and Whaler ( 1984 ) wrote that 35 mg ( 1 / 30 of the average venom yield ) would be enough to kill a man of 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) . Branch ( 1992 ) suggested that 90 – 100 mg would be fatal in humans . Due to the rarity of these type of snakebites , further investigation is needed .

In humans , a bite causes rapid and conspicuous swelling , intense pain , severe shock and local blistering . Other symptoms may include uncoordinated movements , defecation , urination , swelling of the tongue and eyelids , convulsions and unconsciousness . Blistering , bruising and necrosis may be extensive . There may be sudden hypotension , heart damage and dyspnoea . The blood may become incoagulable with internal bleeding that may lead to haematuria and haematemesis . Local tissue damage may require surgical excision and possibly amputation . Healing may be slow and fatalities during the recovery period are not uncommon .

= = Subspecies = =

= = Taxonomy = =

Lenk et al . ( 1999 ) discovered considerable differences between the two conventionally recognized subspecies of B. gabonica described above . According to their research , these two subspecies are as different from each other as they are from B. nasicornis . Consequently , Lenk et al . ( 1999 ) regard the western form as a separate species , B. rhinoceros .

= The Sixth Extinction =

" The Sixth Extinction " is the first episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was first shown on the Fox network on November 7 , 1999 , in the United States . The episode was written by Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . " The Sixth Extinction " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 , being watched by 17 @.@ 82 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) work desperately in an attempt to discover what is wrong with Mulder , who is imprisoned by his own frenetic brain activity , but they are unaware of Agent Diana Fowley ’ s ( Mimi Rogers ) duplicity . In the meanwhile , Scully is hunting for an ancient artifact in Africa .

" The Sixth Extinction " helped to explore new aspects of the series ' overarching mythology and was the second episode in a trilogy of episodes featuring Mulder 's severe reaction to the appearance of an alien artifact . The episode was written due to series creator Chris Carter 's fascination with the possibility that extraterrestrials were involved in the great extinctions that had happened millions of years ago .

= = Plot = =

On the coast of Côte d 'Ivoire , Scully sits in her tent studying detailed photographs of the spacecraft half @-@ buried on the beach nearby . A figure , the Primitive African Man , mysteriously appears before suddenly vanishing , after which Scully 's tent is swarmed by flying insects . Back in the United States , Walter Skinner visits a delusional Fox Mulder , who is being kept in a padded cell at a Georgetown hospital . Mulder seemingly attacks Skinner , but actually covertly passes him a torn shred of his hospital gown reading , " HELP ME " .

Scully is visited by Dr. Amina Ngebe , Solomon Merkmellen 's former colleague who warns Scully to not tell any of the locals about the swarm or the Primitive African Man , although word is already out on the " African internet " . Soon afterwards , one of the locals working on excavating the ship is apparently scalded by boiling seawater . With the arrival of Dr. Barnes another " plague " occurs – that night the ocean turns blood red .

Skinner revisits a heavily drugged Mulder , who cannot talk but writes " Kritschgau " . Skinner goes to visit Kritschgau , now unemployed and living in a low @-@ cost apartment , and convinces him to visit the hospital with him . Once there , Kritschgau believes Mulder has alien induced mind reading abilities and injects him with a drug ( phenytoin ) to slow down his brain activity . Later Diana Fowley and his doctor arrive , and with his mind @-@ reading abilities , Mulder is able to tell Skinner that he knows about him being indebted to Krycek , and Diana Fowley 's connections with the Cigarette Smoking Man .

Scully , with Dr. Barnes ' help , is able to translate some of the spaceship , which contains information on genetics and various religions . Dr. Barnes ' behavior becomes increasingly erratic however and , armed with a machete , he refuses to let Scully or Ngebe leave . He soon realizes that the craft is bringing dead fish back to life , and Scully and Ngebe take the opportunity to knock him out and escape . Scully sees the vanishing man again in the car as they drive off .

Kritschgau and Skinner put Mulder under additional tests to verify his abnormal brain activity . They again inject Mulder with phenytoin , but this time they are caught by Fowley and Mulder goes into a seizure . Meanwhile Dr. Barnes , in a bizarre type of experiment , kills his driver , but the driver soon reanimates and kills him instead . Scully flies back to the U.S. and visits Mulder at the hospital . On the African coast , Ngebe arrives with the police , finding Dr. Barnes dead and the spaceship gone .

= = Production = =

Frank Spotnitz said of the episode 's origins , " We 've destroyed all the stuff about Mulder 's father , the project , and the Syndicate . All the things that had sustained us for six years were suddenly gone . We had no crutches . From that point on , every time we sat down to write a mythology show , we knew it was going to be a completely different challenge . " Chris Carter saw the episode as a transitional episode , stating " I felt that , with " The Sixth Extinction " , I was just playing a supporting role and that the episode , essentially the middle episode of a three @-@ episode arc , was just a transitional episode to get us to ' Amor Fati ' , which was really less about the mythology and more about Mulder 's choices in life . "

David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson both had other commitments as the season began , resulting in the producers delaying filming for this episode . It ended up being filmed third in the season , after the episodes " Hungry " and " The Goldberg Variation " . Carter wrote the episode at the same time as Duchovny was working on the next episode , " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " . Kim Manners said preparations were confusing since it wasn 't known at the time how the storyline would unfold . Spotnitz said of the end result , " For me , it was a lot like a fifties monster movie with Scully out on the beach with this guy going nuts with a machete , the bug attacks , and the sea of blood . Yeah , it was supposed to be serious business but , overall , I thought it was shaping up as a pretty entertaining hour . "

The producers had to move the filming of the beach sequences from the previous episodes due to changes in the tides at that time of year . Similar to the previous episode , the spaceship was computer @-@ generated . The sequence where the locals are boiled by the ocean water was accomplished using underwater filming of stuntmen under various degrees of make up . Fifty thousand dead crickets were rented from a local entomologist for the scene where Scully 's tent was attacked by bugs . The live insects were portrayed by blowing popcorn and packing foam at Anderson with fans and editing it into insects in post production .

A large portion of the episode was based on the ancient astronaut theory , which proposes that intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth in antiquity or prehistory and made contact with humans . Frank Spotnitz later remarked that he was astounded at how little negative fan mail the show received , despite the fact that the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " story arc heavily hinted that aliens were the originators of the notion of God and religion . He credited the manner in which the show handled this delicate subject , saying , " Often in the past , we 've done stuff where I was sure we would get angry letters . But we rarely do . And the reason is because of the way we handle things . In ' Amor Fati ' we treated the religious side with respect . " The ancient astronaut themes were later revisited in the two season nine episodes " Provenance " and " Providence . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" The Sixth Extinction " was first shown in the United States on November 7 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million viewers and was the most watched episode of the seventh season in the United States . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 7 , 2000 , and received 1 @.@ 00 million viewers and was the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Something is driving Mulder insane . Something he 's been searching for . Something he shouldn 't have found . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .

= = = Reviews = = =

" The Sixth Extinction " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode a positive review , noting that the episode takes the themes of " Biogenesis " and " runs with them " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly awarded the episode a " B + " . Tucker praised series creator Chris Carter 's writing ability , stating that " the kickoff episode suggests the author 's limitless imagination for sustaining his alien @-@ nation tropes " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two called the episode " the most arresting season opener in years " and noted that it " promises that maybe there 's life in the old mythology yet . " Shearman and Pearson , however , did critique the lack of finality to the episode , but attributed most of this to the fact that the episode was the second of a three @-@ part mythology tale . Den of Geek writer Nina Sordi ranked " The Sixth Extinction , " along with " Biogenesis " and " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati , " as the fifth best episode of the series , writing , " it is evident that as [ The X @-@ Files ] progressed , the episodes surrounding those storylines and the breaking points Mulder and Scully endured push them further and further towards total , irreversible defeat . This is especially poignant when viewing this anxiety inducing trio of episodes . " Monica S. Kuebler of Exclaim magazine called " The Sixth Extinction " , along with " Biogenesis " and " Amor Fati " , one of the " best " episodes during the show 's " colonization " phase . Kenneth Silber of Space.com wrote positively of the episode , hoping that it foreshadowed answers to come , writing " As the middle installment of a three @-@ part story and what was then thought to be the final season premiere of The X @-@ Files , ' The Sixth Extinction ' is suffused with a somber pre @-@ apocalyptic mood , but one vivified by the possibility that soon we 'll have answers to the most important outstanding mysteries of the series . "

Not all reviews were so positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She noted that " Mulder 's situation is handled just poorly " and argued that Mulder 's illness was created solely to provide a cross @-@ season cliffhanger . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and called it a " weird bridge " . Largely , he criticized the episode for featuring " no real twists or complications here " in lieu of " things just [ … ] getting worse along a linear path " .

= Snow ( visual novel ) =

Snow ( スノー , Sunō ) is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Studio Mebius for Windows PCs on January 31 , 2003 . It was later ported without the erotic content to the Dreamcast , PlayStation 2 , and PlayStation Portable consoles . The story of Snow revolves around the life of Kanata Izumo , who is revisiting a village to help his relative manage a hot spring hotel . The gameplay in Snow follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the female main characters by the player character .

The game was successful in both sales and popularity , it was ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan at the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Snow was voted as the twenty @-@ sixth best bishōjo game by the readers of Dengeki G 's Magazine in 2007 . A manga titled Snow : Pure White based on the visual novel was serialized in Comptiq between the September and December 2003 issues . Five light novels and several comic anthologies were also released , as were audio dramas .

= = Gameplay = =

Snow is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Kanata Izumo . Much of its gameplay is spent reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents the story 's narrative and dialogue . The text is accompanied by character sprites , which represent who Kanata is talking to , over background art . Throughout the game , the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story , which take the place of the background art and character sprites .

There are four main plot lines in the original Windows release that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . Some decisions can lead the game to end prematurely and offer an alternative ending to the plot . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . In adult versions of the game , there are scenes depicting Kanata and a given heroine having sex .

= = Plot = =

= = = Story = = =

The story of Snow starts when Kanata Izumo , the main protagonist , revisits a small village called Ryūjinmura ( 龍神村 , lit . " village of the dragon god " ) , to help manage a local hotel with hot springs alongside his cousin Tsugumi . In the village , there is an old legend : In ancient times , Ryūjinmura was protected by the dragon goddess . However , one day the goddess fell in love with a human , which is strictly forbidden , and this incident caused the village to be always covered by snow after that . The game then tells the daily life of Kanata interacting with the village girls , and ultimately links the story to the legend . Snow follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .

= = = Main characters = = =

The player assumes the role of Kanata Izumo ( 出雲 彼方 , Izumo Kanata , voiced by Soichiro Hoshi ) , who is visiting Ryūjinmura as a part @-@ time worker of the local hotel owned by his cousin . During his stay , he meets his childhood friend Sumino Yukizuki ( 雪月 澄乃 , Yukizuki Sumino , voiced by Ayako Kawasumi ) , a soothing and gentle girl whose father has died . She loves anman ( a kind of mantou ) and claims it as " source of life " . Kanata also encounters a young energetic girl with a tomboy personality called Asahi Hiyorigawa ( 日和川 旭 , Hiyorigawa Asashi , voiced by Yukari Tamura ) , suddenly appearing before Kanata and claiming that she will " repulse the evil " from him .

In the outskirts of the village , Kanata meets the mysterious Shigure Kitazato ( 北里 しぐれ , Kitazato Shigure , voiced by Haruna Ikezawa ) ; Shigure has a shy personality and is extremely silent . The protagonist also finds a little girl called Ōka Wakō ( 若生 桜花 , Wakō Ōka , voiced by Tomoko Kaneda ) waiting around the jinja for her parents . She likes to play with her cat called Shamon ( シャモン ) . The physician of Ryujinmura has a daughter called Meiko Tachibana ( 橘 芽依子 , Tachibana Meiko , voiced by Naoko Watanabe ) , who is a close friend of Sumino . She likes to tease Kanata , and acts bizarrely in front of him . In Snow : Plus Edition , a new character referred to as Mysterious Girl ( 謎の少女 , Nazo no Shōjo , voiced by Ryōko Ono ) is introduced , bearing many secrets .

= = Development and release = =

After the completion of Zetsubō , Studio Mebius ( a brand under VisualArt 's ) started production on Snow . The artists for the visual novel were Asuka Pyon , who also drew the character designs , and Kobuichi . The scenario was written by three members of staff : Mochizuki Jet , Klein , and Jinno Masaki . I 've Sound , as well as T & N Music Factory , Famishin , and Fam contributed to the music composition . According to the liner notes on the original soundtrack of Snow , the producers acknowledged that the game 's structure resembled Key 's visual novels Kanon and Air . Yūichi Suzumoto , who is known for his work on Air , Clannad , and Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet , provided scenario assistance for Snow .

On January 31 , 2003 , Snow was released as both a CD @-@ ROM and DVD @-@ ROM compatible to the Windows 98 / ME / 2000 / XP operating systems . An all @-@ ages version for the Dreamcast was released by Interchannel on September 25 , 2003 . Later on February 26 , 2004 , Interchannel ported the game to the PlayStation 2 in both limited and regular editions ; the PS2 port adds an additional scenario for Meiko Tachibana , who was a supporting character in prior releases of Snow . A full voice version was released for Windows on September 24 , 2004 . Then on September 29 , 2006 , Snow : Plus Edition was released for Windows , sporting added parts from the console versions and introducing a new heroine . Snow is playable on NTT DoCoMo 's FOMA cell phones . A PlayStation Portable version of the game called Snow : Portable was released by Prototype on August 16 , 2007 . The standard edition for Windows was released on July 25 , 2008 , containing two fan discs , and the content from the portable edition of Snow . Finally , a downloadable version of the PSP edition was made available on the PlayStation Store by Prototype on January 21 , 2010 .

= = Related media = =

= = = Books and publications = = =

Five adult light novels written by Hangetsu Mitamura and published by Paradigm were released between June 2003 and January 2004 . The cover art and internal illustrations were drawn by Asuka Pyon , the artist who drew the artwork in the visual novel . The first novel , titled Snow : Hakanayuki ( Snow ～ 儚雪 ～ , Sumino ) , was released on June 25 , 2003 . The second novel was released on July 25 , 2003 , titled Snow : Chīsaki Inori ( Snow ～ 小さき祈り ～ , Asahi ) . The third novel , titled Snow : Inishie no Yūyake ( Snow ～ 古の夕焼け ～ ) , was released on September 20 , 2003 . The fourth novel , titled Snow : Kioku no Toge ( Snow ～ 記憶の棘 ～ , Shigure ) , was released on November 22 , 2003 . The fifth and final novel , titled Snow : Sora no Yurikago ( Snow ～ 空の揺りかご ～ , Oka ) , was released on January 16 , 2004 . A 192 @-@ page art book , titled Snow Art Works , and containing information such as story and character explanations , and images from the visual novel , was released by Paradigm on July 25 , 2003 .

= = = Manga = = =

A game @-@ based manga adaptation titled Snow : Pure White , and illustrated by Yuki Azuma , was serialized between the September and December 2003 issues of Comptiq . The individual chapters were later compiled into a single bound volume published by Kadokawa Shoten under the Kadokawa Comics Ace imprint on December 19 , 2003 .

Ohzora released a stand @-@ alone comic anthology , titled Snow Anthology Game Comics , under the Twin Heart Comics imprint on March 22 , 2003 . A two @-@ volume anthology series , titled Snow Comic Anthology , was released by Ichijinsha under the DNA Media Comics imprint between April 25 and June 25 , 2003 . The now @-@ defunct publisher Raporto released a comic anthology , titled Snow Game Comic , spanning two volumes in 2003 between April 25 and May 24 under the Raporto Comics imprint . Enterbrain released a single anthology , titled Snow Anthology Comic , under the Maji @-@ Cu Comics imprint on May 26 , 2003 .

= = = Music and audio CDs = = =

The opening theme for Snow is " Snow " sung by Yumi Matsuzawa , who also provided vocals for the ending themes " Futari no Ashiato " ( ふたりの足跡 ) and " Yuki no Kanata " ( 雪のかなた ) . The insert song " Sora no Yurikago " ( 空の揺りかご ) is by Ayako Kawasumi ; a single titled Snow Extra CD was released at Comiket 64 on August 15 , 2003 , containing " Sora no Yurikago " . These tracks were included with other background music in the Snow Original Soundtrack released on April 25 , 2003 . Before the visual novel 's release , Snow Image Album was released at Comiket 63 on December 28 , 2002 .

Three drama CDs based on Snow have been published , the first CD volume was released by Movic on August 22 , 2003 , focusing on Sumino Yukizuki . Movic released a second volume focusing on Asahi Hiyorigawa , on October 24 , 2003 . The third and final volume , telling the story of Ryūjinmura 's legend , was released by Frontier Works on August 25 , 2004 .

= = Reception = =

In a national sales ranking of bishōjo games conducted by PCNews , Snow DVD @-@ ROM premiered at number one , whilst the CD @-@ ROM release ranked at number three . During the beginning of February , Snow CD @-@ ROM 's ranking fell to number eight , whilst Snow DVD @-@ ROM charted just above at number seven . Snow DVD @-@ ROM charted again at number thirty one during mid @-@ February , whilst the CD @-@ ROM release had low enough sales to not chart . Finally , both the Snow CD @-@ ROM and Snow DVD @-@ ROM releases made their final charting appearances at number thirty three and forty six at the beginning of March , respectively .

Snow was the second most widely sold game of 2003 on Getchu.com , a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products . According to sales information taken from the Japanese Amazon website , Snow sold 64 @,@ 526 copies in 2003 . In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released . Snow ranked No. 26 out of 249 titles , with 11 votes . Snow is featured in the Lycèe Trading Card Game ; a set of playable Snow cards are included in the VisualArt 's 1 @.@ 1 booster pack . Snow is considered a classic " nakige " game .

= Miss Meyers =

Miss Meyers ( 1949 – March 1963 ) was an American Quarter Horse racehorse and broodmare , the 1953 World Champion Quarter Running Horse . She won $ 28 @,@ 725 ( equivalent to about $ 254 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) as well as 17 races . As a broodmare , she produced , or was the mother of , the first American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) Supreme Champion , Kid Meyers . She was the mother of three other foals , and was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2009 .

= = Early life = =

Miss Meyers was a chestnut @-@ colored mare born in 1949 and sired , or fathered , by Leo , a member of the AQHA Hall of Fame . Miss Meyers ' dam , or mother , was Star 's Lou . Star 's Lou 's father was Oklahoma Star P @-@ 6 , another AQHA Hall of Fame member . She was bred by O. C. Meyer , and later owned by Bruce A. Green .

= = Race career = =

Miss Meyers raced from 1952 until 1955 and won seven stakes races , placing second in seven others , and third in two more . She won 17 of her 59 starts on the racetrack . She placed second in another 15 races and third in 5 . Her total earnings on the track were $ 28 @,@ 727 ( approximately $ 253 @,@ 800 in 2016 dollars ) . Among her wins in stakes races were the 1952 Buttons and Bows Stakes , the 1953 California Championship , the 1953 Billy Anson Stakes , the 1953 Rocky Mountain Quarter Horse Association World Championship Dash , the 1955 Bart B Stakes , the 1955 Barbara B Stakes and the 1955 Traveler Stakes . She set four track records , twice at 350 yards ( 320 m ) , once at 400 yards ( 370 m ) , and once at 440 yards ( 400 m ) . In 1953 she was named the AQHA World Champion Quarter Running Horse , as well as the High Money Earning Horse ; the AQHA also awarded her the title of Superior Race Horse in 1954 . The highest speed index she achieved , a measure of how fast she was able to run , during her racing career was AAAT , the highest possible at the time . It was not until she was a four @-@ year @-@ old , during 1953 , that Miss Meyers performed well and started winning on the track . That year she won $ 15 @,@ 398 ( approximately $ 136 @,@ 200 in 2016 ) dollars , over half her lifetime earnings , as well as seven of her seventeen career wins .

= = Broodmare and legacy = =

After Miss Meyers retired from the racetrack , she became the dam of the first AQHA Supreme Champion , Kid Meyers , sired by fellow Hall of Famer Three Bars , a Thoroughbred . ( A Supreme Champion is a horse that is outstanding on the racetrack , as a riding horse at horse shows and also conformationally , or how well put together the horse is ) . Kid Meyers was a 1963 sorrel stallion , and had 23 starts on the racetrack , winning 6 times . He earned a total of $ 10 @,@ 655 ( approximately $ 77 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) on the track . After retiring from the racetrack , he earned his AQHA Champion in 1966 and his AQHA Supreme Champion in 1967 . His highest speed index was AAA . Unlike most foals , who nurse for months after birth , Kid Meyers was orphaned at the age of one month in March 1963 .

Miss Meyers had three other foals . Oh My Oh , a 1957 bay mare sired by the Thoroughbred stallion Spotted Bull , started 30 times , winning eight races for a total earnings of $ 12 @,@ 592 ( approximately $ 99 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) and coming in second in a stakes race . She earned an AAAT speed index . As a broodmare , she was the dam of All American Futurity winner Three Oh 's . Miss Meyers ' 1958 foal was Mr Meyers , a sorrel stallion sired by fellow Hall of Famer Go Man Go , who started 41 times , winning 9 times and placing third in four stakes races . His total race earnings were $ 25 @,@ 656 ( approximately $ 200 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) . He went on to earn an AQHA Champion title along with a Superior Race Horse award , to go with his AAAT speed index . Mr Meyers became a successful breeding stallion . Miss Meyers ' fourth foal was a 1959 chestnut mare named Milpool sired by Vandy . Milpool was never raced or entered in a horse show .

Miss Meyers died in March 1963 , shortly after having Kid Meyers . She was inducted into the AQHA 's American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 2009 .

= = Pedigree = =

= Far Away Places ( Mad Men ) =

" Far Away Places " is the sixth episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and the 58th episode of the series overall . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner and writer Semi Chellas , and directed by Scott Hornbacher . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on April 22 , 2012 .

The episode takes place almost entirely over a single day , telling three stories in a non @-@ linear narrative . Peggy becomes alienated after separate fights with her boyfriend Abe and a client . Roger and Jane take LSD with a group of intellectuals , altering how they see the world and allowing them to speak honestly about their marriage . Don and Megan leave the office and take an impromptu road trip to Plattsburgh , New York , which doesn 't turn out as planned after Megan becomes aggrieved with how Don treats her .

" Far Away Places " was watched by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers and achieved 0 @.@ 9 million viewers in the key 18 – 49 demographic . The episode received overwhelming critical acclaim , with many critics noting the episode 's formal experiments with and focus on the passage of time . The sequence where Roger and Jane take LSD was particularly celebrated for the visual excellence and performances by John Slattery and Peyton List . The theme of the episode was pinpointed by the series writers and television journalists as the desire to escape .

= = Plot = =

" Far Away Places " is split into three vignettes that take place almost entirely during a single day following the characters Peggy , Roger , and Don .

= = = Peggy = = =

The episode begins with Peggy 's day and a heated argument with her boyfriend Abe , over her preoccupation with work and the effect this has on their sex life . The argument ends with Abe leaving in a huff . After Don pulls Megan away for an impromptu trip to a Howard Johnson 's hotel in far northern New York , Peggy has to pitch to the Heinz executives without them . Peggy unsuccessfully tries to sell the Heinz executives on her concept . Frustrated , she leaves work , has a couple of drinks , and goes to see the film Born Free . She sees a young man smoking marijuana behind her , partakes herself , and eventually gives him a hand job . She returns to her office to see Ginsberg arguing with his father . After being told off by Ginsberg for eavesdropping , she falls asleep in Don 's office . She awakens to a call from Don , who seems alarmed for incomprehensible reasons . Don hangs up on her and Peggy returns to her office . When Peggy asks about Ginsberg 's life , Ginsberg initially claims to be a Martian , stating that Morris Ginsberg is not his father . Michael was born in a Nazi concentration camp and , after its liberation , Morris claimed him from a Swedish orphanage when Michael was five years old . Peggy returns home , affected by this story , and calls Abe . She tells him about Ginsberg and asks him to come over to be with her .

= = = Roger = = =

From Roger 's perspective of the day , he invites Don to go on a trip with him to a Howard Johnson 's in Plattsburgh , New York , hoping to get out of a dinner party with his wife Jane 's " snooty friends " and is subsequently disappointed when Don decides to take Megan on the trip instead . Roger and Jane go to the party , which is hosted by Jane 's therapist and her husband . After dinner , Roger asks Jane if they can leave , but Jane reminds Roger that he agreed to take LSD with the group and begs him to stay , as she doesn 't want to go through the experience alone . Roger is initially unimpressed with the drug , but comes around after his consciousness begins to change with vivid audio @-@ visual hallucinations . Roger and Jane return home via taxi and take a bath together , during which Roger imagines he is watching the 1919 World Series from the bathtub . The couple then talks candidly about their marriage for the first time . During this moment of awareness , Jane admits that she knows the marriage is over . The next morning , a jovial Roger says goodbye to a shocked Jane , who appears regretful about what she said the night before .

= = = Don = = =

The episode 's finale is Don 's day and the trip to Plattsburgh and Howard Johnson 's Restaurant and Motor Lodge . As he and Megan eat in the restaurant , Megan expresses her frustration at having her needs and desires take a back seat to Don 's . The discussion escalates into a fight , during which Megan makes a hurtful remark about Don 's mother , and Don storms out and drives off without her . Don returns sometime later and begins to worry when he can 't find Megan . He spends hours looking for and waiting for her , calling Peggy ( the other side of the conversation from the first part of the episode ) as well as Megan 's mother in Montreal .

After waiting for hours at Howard Johnson 's and phoning home repeatedly , Don drives home in the early morning to find Megan in their apartment with the security chain on the door . Don kicks the door in , violently struggles with Megan , and chases her through the apartment . Megan and Don trip and collapse on the floor as Megan weeps . Don tearfully hugs her at the waist and tells her he thought he had lost her .

= = = Epilogue = = =

That morning , Megan and Don return to Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce . Don is beckoned to the conference room , where Bert Cooper admonishes him for being " on love leave " . Don replies that his love life is none of Bert 's business . Bert retorts that it is , in fact , HIS business and admits astonishment that the firm is running as well as it is with how little Don is actually working . Bert leaves Don standing alone in the conference room as Don looks through the picture windows at the employees going about their business . Roger , full of enthusiasm , pops into the conference room and tells Don he has an announcement : " It 's going to be a beautiful day ! "

= = Production = =

Creator Matthew Weiner said " Far Away Places " was inspired by " anthologized French films " with " lots of short stories in them " , with all three short stories linked by a thematic " desire to go away " . He further explained that " Peggy has this moment where she tries to be Don and fails and then goes on Peggy 's version of Don – sexually irresponsible , and drunk , and working " . Elisabeth Moss said the handjob Peggy gives a stranger in the theatre is a " moment of forgetting " after the frustrating Heinz pitch .

Weiner spoke about the structure of the episode in June 2012 :

Structurally , I love this French movie by Max Ophüls called Le Plaisir . It 's three or four Guy de Maupassant stories that are told by a narrator , and then characters start to appear behind each other , their stories overlap and they are just walking through , and you realize it 's a complete world . What I loved about that was just telling the story from that one person ’ s point of view . In Peggy 's story , she 's in every scene , nothing happens without her there . And it 's the same thing with Don and the same thing with Roger . So you 're really getting this very private perspective , and then thematically holding it together by saying , " Here , this is about the status of the relationship . " We weren 't sure that it was going to work . The hardest part was breaking it up for commercials so that the Peggy and the Roger stories would be in the same segment and you wouldn 't come back and think you were in the middle of another episode .

He spoke about the writing of a scene of the episode in August 2012 :

I had , in the writers room , given this speech about Ginsberg saying he was a Martian . I delivered it as Ginsberg . We knew that Peggy 's story was going to climax with that , and it was going to be their great moment of intimacy ; he would distract her from her failure and bond with her in that strange way that people who feel separate do . Then , when we were writing the draft , I got the notes from the room , and the speech was like one sentence . We searched everywhere , and it turned out I had never pitched more than that one sentence : " I 'm a Martian . " I had a great version of it , but it turned out it had all been in my head in one way or another . It all had to come from scratch . Once I reduced the panic and tried to re @-@ create it , it did happen . So , to me , it still has a magical quality to it .

Weiner characterized Roger 's acid trip as an experience of " complete honesty " and an " experience of empathy , something he 's probably never experienced in his life . He doesn 't see the world through other people 's lives and that kind of epiphany to me is very beautiful , even though it 's the end of the relationship . They are alone in the truth together " .

While discussing the fight between Don and Megan , Weiner commented on the violence and passion , noting that " what you get is that Don loves this woman " and that Megan is " everything that 's good to him " . Jessica Pare commented on Don 's lack of respect for her work , and Jon Hamm judged Don 's actions as " immature " . However , Hamm regarded Don 's fear as " genuine " when he is unsure of Megan 's whereabouts . The flashback scene between Don and Megan in the car was actually shot for the fourth season finale , " Tomorrowland , written and directed by Weiner , but was cut . Weiner decided to reinsert this scene into the episode as a flashback .

The exterior scenes of the Howard Johnson 's hotel were filmed in October 2011 at the Regency Inn and Suites in Baldwin Park , California . The hotel operated as a Howard Johnson 's from 1967 until it was sold in 1995 .

Editor Christopher Gay spoke about the episode in August 2012 :

Narratively speaking , we wanted the stories of these three relations of Peggy , Roger , and Don to be their own story . We wanted to give you a little bit more each time you saw each of the three story lines so that when you got to the third one , everything totally made sense . I 've talked to people and they 've had to watch it a few times to fully digest . Also , the score in the episode is pretty unique and more tonal and atmospheric than what we normally do . It 's a guide , too , that helps you feel when one story is ending and another is coming in and knowing that the shift is happening . I think the score and the sound design definitely helped guide the narrative .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

The episode received overwhelmingly laudatory reviews from television critics , particularly for its unusual departure from the standard Mad Men episode structure and is considered to be one of the best in the series . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix exalted the episode and the " more formally experimental " season , admitting , " I 'm still not sure I understood 100 % of it . But I know I liked it . A lot . " Sepinwall characterized " Far Away Places " as " an episode that gave the feel of dropping acid even when everyone on camera was stone sober . Matt Weiner , co @-@ writer Semi Chellas , director Scott Hornbacher , and the actors combined to give us some of the most memorable moments the show has ever done . " Todd VanderWerff of The A.V. Club gave it an A grade , compared it to previous " structurally daring " episodes like " Seven Twenty Three " and " The Jet Set " , and praised the director for the " beautifully shot " episode and the " gorgeous image of [ Roger ] and Jane lying , heads touching , on the floor , admitting their marriage just isn ’ t working " , while noting that the enemy of the season is " the passage of time itself " .

Verne Gay of Newsday called it a good , but difficult episode , saying , " the story lines were all parallel – it was even an anthology , with each story mirroring the next ( bringing to mind that memorable scene when Roger , under the influence , is looking in the mirror and told to look away ) ... the themes of male @-@ female entanglement , and disentangle ( and yes , hair , once again is a predominant metaphor . ) The themes of travel ... of being a stranger in a strange land ... of life on Mars , or in Plattsburgh ... of alienation , pursuit , and of a generation born during the Holocaust , amid the Holocaust " . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said the LSD trip " was handled brilliantly here , with insight , surprises , unpredictability , excellent humor and a really lovely , smart ending " and the image of Jane and Roger on the floor as an example of the " visual excellence " of the episode . TIME magazine writer Nate Rawlings compared the episode to a David Lynch film and noted that all three " stories also shared the thematic connection of the struggle between professional and work life . "

IGN reviewer Eric Goldman praised the performances of John Slattery and Peyton List and said the episode " took three of the show 's best characters and rocked their worlds in very different ways , telling three separate stories that were all utterly involving and moving , and delivering one of the show 's best episodes ever in the process . This show continues to operate on a level few other series could dream of ... " . Roger Friedman of Forbes called the LSD sequences with Jane and Roger to be " so well @-@ written they were kind of transcendent " . Salon writer Nellie Engoron acclaimed the episode , while pointing out that " with this episode ’ s tilt of the seesaw back to the older generation from the flailing youngsters , we ’ re reminded that while the 1960s saw a cultural shift towards youth , like a drunk , no historical change walks a straight line . For all the claims that Don and others have made that the “ kids ” increasingly hold the cards , the real truth ( if we ’ re telling it ) is that older white guys like Bert and Roger never truly lost power , even if they began to hide behind the scenes while fresh young faces took the public glory . "

= = = Ratings = = =

The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers on the night of its original airing . It drew 0 @.@ 9 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .

= = = Awards = = =

" Far Away Places " was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards , for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series .

= Awakening ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =

" Awakening " is the eighth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on November 26 , 2004 on UPN . The script was written by André Bormanis and the episode was directed by Star Trek : Voyager alumni Roxann Dawson . The episode was the first of the season for both Bormanis and Dawson . The episode is the second of a three @-@ part episode arc which started in " The Forge " and concludes in " Kir 'Shara " .

Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the Vulcan government seek to make the Enterprise leave orbit so they can attack a renegade faction of Vulcans , and afterwards the long @-@ standing enemy of the Vulcans , the Andorians . Meanwhile , Captain Jonathan Archer and Commander T 'Pol have been captured by the Syrrannites , and it is discovered that Archer has the katra of Surak . He has visions which lead him to find an ancient Vulcan artefact called the " Kir 'Shara " as the group come under attack from the Vulcans .

Elements of the plot of the episode were compared by executive producer to the Protestant Reformation with the Vulcan High Command representing the Catholic Church . The producers took care to cast actors in the roles of T 'Pau and Surak who looked similar to the actors who portrayed those parts in The Original Series . Nielsen ratings for the first run of the episode saw a decrease from the first part of the trilogy , down to 1 @.@ 8 / 3 . The critical response was mixed , saying that whilst they were entertained by the episode , there were several elements in the plot which were problematic .

= = Plot = =

Ambassador Soval is summoned before Administrator V 'Las and the High Council to face punishment over his use of a mind meld . Since the act is widely considered to be criminal by the Vulcan authorities , Soval is summarily dismissed from the Ambassadorial service . Meanwhile , Captain Archer and Commander T 'Pol are questioned by the Syrrannites . After a short while , T 'Pol is taken to see her mother , T 'Les , and the two disagree about the tenets of the group — the Vulcan authorities call them extremists , a term T 'Les disagrees with . Soon , Archer begins to see visions of an old Vulcan , and the dissidents determine that he had the katra of Surak transferred into him via mind meld .

V 'Las , now largely unopposed on the Council , becomes increasingly obsessed with decisively ending the Syrrannite threat once and for all . He postpones his plans to bombard the encampment , after delays in convincing Enterprise to leave orbit . He contacts Starfleet , and the Admiralty give Commander Tucker direct orders , which he refuses to carry out directly . He attempts , with assistance from Soval , to send a rescue shuttlepod to " The Forge " , but they are intercepted by Vulcan patrol vessels . V 'Las then finally orders Vulcan warships to directly engage Enterprise , and Soval suggests that they should retreat before they are severely damaged .

A ritual is performed to transfer the katra into the mind of T 'Pau , but the attempt fails . Archer continues to see Surak who informs him that he must find the relic known as the " Kir 'Shara " . The Vulcan military begin to bombard the complex . Archer , T 'Pol , and T 'Pau remain behind to search for the relic , and Archer is able to use his knowledge to unlock a door to reveal it . As they exit , T 'Pol finds her mother , but she soon dies after being seriously injured in the attack . On Enterprise , Soval reveals that the Vulcans , despite the recent peace accord , are preparing a pre @-@ emptive strike against the Andorians , and Tucker orders an immediate course at maximum warp .

= = Production = =

" Awakening " was the second part of a three @-@ part trilogy of episodes during the fourth season of Enterprise that were created to deal with the differences between the Enterprise @-@ era Vulcans and those seen in series set later in the timeframe of the franchise . Show runner Manny Coto summed up these differences saying , " Our Vulcans lie , our Vulcans are monolithic , our Vulcans are not pacifistic . " He sought to introduce a situation which he compared to the 16th @-@ century Protestant Reformation and wanted to include a Vulcan character who would effectively be in the role of Martin Luther , while the Vulcan High Command represented the Catholic Church .

The episode saw the re @-@ casting of two roles which had previously appeared in episodes of The Original Series . These were the parts of T 'Pau and Surak . T 'Pau made her first appearance in " Amok Time " , where she was played by Celia Lovsky . For " Awakening " , Kara Zediker was cast in the role . Zediker had previously appeared in the first season of 24 as Elizabeth Nash . Surak had been played by Barry Atwater in " The Savage Curtain " , but this role was taken by Bruce Gray for " Awakening " . Gray had previously portrayed Admiral Chekote in The Next Generation episode " Gambit " and the Deep Space Nine episode " The Circle " . For both of these parts , the producers attempted to cast actors who looked similar to the originals .

Robert Foxworth reprises his role from the first part of the trilogy as Administrator V 'Las , and Joanna Casidy had previously portrayed T 'Les earlier in the season in the episode " Home " . John Rubinstein , who appears in " Awakening " as Koval , has previously appeared as a Mazarite earlier in the series in the episode " Fallen Hero " and had appeared in " The 37 's " , an episode of Voyager . Gary Graham returned as Soval , who he has portrayed throughout the series from the pilot episode onwards . Director Roxann Dawson has previously portrayed B 'Elanna Torres in Voyager , and " Awakening " marked the tenth episode of the series that she had directed . It was her only episode of season four , and her last on Enterprise . It was also writer André Bormanis ' first episode of the season , who had previously written several episodes of the series as well as Voyager .

Filming started on September 23 , 2004 , and concentrated on Enterprise ship scenes on the standing sets for the first two days . After that production moved to the cave sets , which were dressed with Vulcan artifacts . On the fourth day of production , those artifacts were removed so that the same sets could use used to film the visions that Archer has of Surak . All exterior scenes in the Vulcan desert @-@ like Forge were shot on a soundstage . The final day of filming took place on October 1 , when all the scenes set in the Vulcan High Command were filmed . These involved only Foxworth , Graham and Rubinstein as well as a handful of extras .

= = Reception and home media = =

" Awakening " was first aired in the United States on UPN on November 26 , 2004 . The broadcast saw the episode come in fifth place during the timeslot , with a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 8 / 3 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all households , and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It gained higher ratings than The WB , which aired re @-@ runs of What I Like About You and Grounded for Life , but was behind the other four major networks with NBC 's Dateline winning the hour with ratings of 5 @.@ 9 / 11 . The ratings received by Enterprise continued a downward trend in recent episodes , with ratings of 1 @.@ 9 / 3 received by the previous episode .

Michelle Erica Green , reviewing the episode for TrekNation was undecided about whether the main point of the episode where Captain Archer is expected to lead the Vulcans back to their main path of logic was a " wonderfully progressive concept or just regressive Trek in which humans have all the answers " . She thought that the change in Soval 's opinions in this episode was difficult to accept and that the other members of the main cast didn 't get a great deal to do in the episode . However , whilst she thought that " Awakening " was a visual improvement over " The Forge " , she was reserving judgement until she had seen the third part of the trilogy . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " thought that certain elements of the plot didn 't follow logical paths , such as how Archer found the Kir 'shara in a few minutes when apparently the Syrrannites had been looking for it for two years even though " it sits in a chamber behind a door that practically announces , ' IMPORTANT RELIC INSIDE ' ? " However , he called the episode entertaining and gave it a score of three out of four .

The first home media release of " The Forge " was in the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .

= Mole cricket =

Mole crickets are members of the insect family Gryllotalpidae , in the order Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) . Mole crickets are cylindrical @-@ bodied insects about 3 – 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , with small eyes and shovel @-@ like forelimbs highly developed for burrowing . They are present in many parts of the world and where they have been introduced into new regions , may become agricultural pests .

Mole crickets have three life stages , eggs , nymphs and adults . Most of their life in these stages is spent underground but adults have wings and disperse in the breeding season . They vary in their diet ; some species are vegetarian , mainly feeding on roots , others are omnivores , including worms and grubs in their diet , while a few are largely predacious . Male mole crickets have an exceptionally loud song ; they sing from a sub @-@ surface burrow that opens out into the air in the shape of an exponential horn . The song is an almost pure tone , modulated into chirps . It is used to attract females , either for mating , or for indicating favourable habitats for them to lay their eggs .

In Zambia , mole crickets are thought to bring good fortune , while in Latin America they are said to predict rain . In Florida , where Scapteriscus mole crickets are non @-@ native , they are considered pests , and various biological controls have been used . Gryllotalpa species have been used as food in West Java , Vietnam , and the Philippines .

= = Description = =

Mole crickets vary in size and appearance , but most of them are of moderate size for an insect , typically between 3 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 and 1 @.@ 4 in ) long as adults . They are adapted for underground life and are cylindrical in shape and covered with fine , dense hairs . The head , forelimbs , and prothorax are heavily sclerotinised but the abdomen is rather soft . The head bears two threadlike antennae and a pair of beady eyes . The two pairs of wings are folded flat over the abdomen ; in most species , the fore wings are short and rounded and the hind wings are membranous and reach or exceed the tip of the abdomen ; however , in some species the hind wings are reduced in size and the insect is unable to fly . The fore legs are flattened for digging but the hind legs are shaped somewhat like the legs of a true cricket ; however , these limbs are more adapted for pushing soil , rather than leaping , which they do rarely and poorly . The nymphs resemble the adults apart from the absence of wings and genitalia ; the wingpads become larger after each successive moult .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The Gryllotalpidae are a monophyletic group in the order Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) . Cladistic analysis of mole cricket morphology in 2015 identifies six tribes , of which four were then new : Indioscaptorini ( Scapteriscinae ) , Triamescaptorini , Gryllotalpellini and Neocurtillini ( Gryllotalpinae ) , and two existing tribes , Scapteriscini and Gryllotalpini , are revised . The group name is derived straightforwardly from Latin ' gryllus ' , cricket , and ' talpa ' , mole .

Within these subfamilies , genera include :

Gryllotalpa

Gryllotalpella

Leptocurtilla

Neocurtilla

† Pterotriamescaptor

Indioscaptor

Scapteriscus

Neoscapteriscus

Triamescaptor

† Archaeogryllotalpoides

† Cratotetraspinus

† Marchandia

† Palaeoscapteriscops

Mole cricket fossils are rare . A stem group fossil , Cratotetraspinus , is known from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil . Two specimens of Marchandia magnifica in amber have been found in the Lower Cretaceous of Charente @-@ Maritime in France . They are somewhat more abundant in the Tertiary amber of the Baltic and Dominican regions ; impressions are found in Europe and the American Green River Formation .

Mole crickets are not closely related to the " pygmy mole crickets " , the Tridactyloidea , which are in the grasshopper suborder Caelifera rather than the cricket suborder Ensifera . The two groups , and indeed their resemblance in form to the mammalian mole family Talpidae with their powerful front limbs , form an example of convergent evolution , both developing adaptations for burrowing .

= = Behavior = =

Adults of most species of mole cricket can fly powerfully , if not with agility , but males do so infrequently . The females typically take wing soon after sunset , and are attracted to areas where males are calling , which they do for about an hour after sunset . This may be in order to mate , or they may be influenced by the suitability of the habitat for egg @-@ laying , as demonstrated by the number of males present and calling in the vicinity .

= = = Life cycle = = =

Mole crickets are hemimetabolous meaning they undergo incomplete metamorphosis ; when nymphs hatch from eggs , the nymphs increasingly resemble the adult form as they grow and pass through a series of up to ten moults . After mating , there may be a period of one or two weeks before the female starts laying eggs . She burrows into the soil to a depth of 30 cm ( 12 in ) , ( 72 cm ( 28 in ) has been seen in the laboratory ) , and lays a clutch of 25 to 60 eggs . Neoscapteriscus females then retire , sealing the entrance passage , but in Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla species , the female has been observed to remain in an adjoining chamber to tend the clutch . Further clutches may follow over several months , according to species . Eggs need to be laid in moist ground and many nymphs die because of insufficient moisture in the soil . The eggs hatch in a few weeks , and as they grow , the nymphs consume a great deal of plant material either underground or on the surface . The adults of some species of mole cricket may move as far as 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) during the breeding season . Mole crickets are active most of the year , but overwinter as nymphs or adults in cooler climates , resuming activity in the spring .

= = = Burrowing = = =

Mole crickets live almost entirely below ground , digging tunnels of different kinds for the major functions of life , including feeding , escape from predators , attracting a mate ( by singing ) , mating , and raising of young .

Their main tunnels are used for feeding and for escape : they can dig themselves underground very rapidly , and can move along existing tunnels at high speed both forwards and backwards . Their digging technique is to force the soil to either side with their powerful , shovel @-@ like forelimbs , which are broad , flattened , toothed and heavily sclerotised ( the cuticle is hardened and darkened ) .

Males attract mates by constructing specially @-@ shaped tunnels in which they sing . Mating takes place in the male 's burrow ; the male may widen a tunnel to make room for the female to mount , though in some species mating is tail @-@ to @-@ tail . Females lay their eggs either in their normal burrows or in specially @-@ dug brood chambers which are sealed when complete in the case of the genus Neoscapteriscus or not sealed in the case of genera Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla .

= = = Song = = =

Male mole crickets sing by stridulating , always underground . In Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa the song is based on an almost pure tone at 3 @.@ 5 kiloHertz , loud enough to make the ground vibrate 20 cm all round the burrow ; in fact the song is unique in each species . In Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa the burrow is somewhat roughly sculpted ; in Gryllotalpa vineae , the burrow is smooth and carefully shaped , with no irregularities larger than 1 millimetre . In both species the burrow takes the form of a double exponential horn with twin openings at the soil surface ; at the other end there is a constriction , then a resonating bulb , and then an escape tunnel . A burrow is used for at least a week . The male positions himself head down with his head in the bulb , his tail near the fork in the tunnel .

Mole crickets stridulate like other crickets by scraping the rear edge of the left forewing , which forms a plectrum , against the lower surface of the right forewing , which has a ratchet @-@ like series of asymmetric teeth : the more acute edges face backwards , as do those of the plectrum . The plectrum can move forwards with little resistance ; but moving it backwards makes it catch each tooth , setting up a vibration in both wings . The sound @-@ producing stroke is the raising ( levation ) of the wings . The resulting song resembles the result of modulating a pure tone with a 66 Hertz wave to form regular chirps . In G. vineae , the wing levator muscle , which weighs 50 milligrams , can deliver 3 @.@ 5 milliWatts of mechanical power ; G. gryllotalpa can deliver about 1 milliWatt . G. vineae produces an exceptionally loud song from half an hour after sunset , continuing for an hour ; it can be heard up to 600 metres away . At a distance of 1 metre from the burrow , the sound has a mean power over the stridulation cycle of up to 88 decibels ; the loudest recorded peak power was about 92 decibels ; at the mouths of the burrow , the sound reaches around 115 decibels . G. gryllotalpa can deliver a peak sound pressure of 72 decibels and a mean of about 66 decibels . The throat of the horn appears to be tuned ( offering low inductive reactance ) , making the burrow radiate sound efficiently ; the efficiency increases when the burrow is wet and absorbs less sound . Mole crickets are the only insects that construct a sound @-@ producing apparatus . Given the known sensitivity of a cricket 's hearing ( 60 decibels ) , a night @-@ flying G. vineae female should be able to detect the male 's song at a range of 30 metres ; this compares to about 5 metres for a typical Gryllus cricket that does not construct a burrow .

The loudness of the song is correlated with the size of the male and the quality of the habitat , both indicators of male attractiveness . The loudest males may attract 20 females in one evening , when a quieter male may attract none . This behaviour enables acoustic trapping : females can be trapped in large numbers by broadcasting a male 's song very loudly .

= = = Food = = =

Mole crickets vary in their diets ; some like the tawny mole cricket are herbivores , others are omnivores , feeding on larvae , worms , roots , and grasses , and others like the southern mole cricket are mainly predacious . As well as consuming roots underground , mole crickets leave their burrows at night to forage for leaves and stems which they drag underground before consumption .

= = = = Predators , parasites and pathogens = = = =

Besides birds , toads and insectivorous mammals , the predators of mole crickets include subterranean assassin bugs , wolf spiders , and various beetles . The South American nematode Steinernema scapterisci kills Neocapteriscus mole crickets by introducing bacteria into their bodies , causing an overwhelming infection . Steinernema neocurtillae is native to Florida and attacks native Neocurtilla hexadactyla mole crickets . Parasitoid wasps of the genus Larra ( Hymenoptera : Crabronidae ) attack mole crickets , the female laying an egg on the external surface of the mole cricket , and the larva developing externally on the mole cricket host . Ormia depleta ( Diptera : Tachinidae ) is a specialized parasitoid of mole crickets in the genus Neoscapteriscus ; the fly 's larvae hatch from eggs inside her abdomen ; she is attracted by the call of the male mole cricket and deposits a larva or more on any mole cricket individual with which she comes in contact . Specialist predators of mole cricket eggs in China and Japan include the bombardier beetle Stenaptinus jessoensis whereas in South America they include the bombardier beetle Pheropsophus aequinoctialis ( Coleoptera : Carabidae ) ; the adult beetle lays eggs near the burrows of mole crickets , and the beetle larvae find their way to the egg chamber and eat the eggs . Fungal diseases can devastate mole cricket populations during winters with sudden rises of temperature and thaws . The fungus Beauveria bassiana can overwhelm adult mole crickets and several other fungal , microsporidian and viral pathogens have been identified . Mole crickets evade predators by living below ground , and vigorously burrowing if disturbed at the surface . As a last @-@ ditch defence , they eject a foul @-@ smelling brown liquid from their anal glands when captured ; they can also bite .

= = Distribution = =

Mole crickets are relatively common , but because they are nocturnal and spend nearly all their lives underground in extensive tunnel systems , they are rarely seen . They inhabit agricultural fields and grassy areas . They are present in every continent with the exception of Antarctica ; by 2014 , one hundred and seven species had been described and more species are likely to be discovered , especially in Asia . Neoscapteriscus didactylus is a widespread pest species , originating in South America it has spread to the West Indies and New South Wales in Australia . Gryllotalpa africana is a major pest in South Africa ; other Gryllotalpa species are widely distributed in Europe , Asia and Australia . They are native to Britain ( as to western Europe ) , but the former population of G. gryllotalpa may now be extinct in mainland Britain , surviving in the Channel Islands .

= = = Invasive mole crickets , and their biological control = = =

Invasive species are those that cause harm in their newly occupied area , where biological control may be attempted . The first @-@ detected invasive mole cricket species was Neoscapteriscus didactylus , a South American species reported as a pest in St. Vincent , West Indies as early as 1837 ; by 1900 , it was a major pest of agriculture in Puerto Rico . It had probably slowly expanded its range northwards , island by island , from South America . The only biological control program against N. didactylus was in Puerto Rico , and it succeeded in establishing the parasitoid wasp Larra bicolor from Amazonian Brazil . In 2001 , N. didactylus in Puerto Rico seemed to be a pest only in irrigated crops and turf . Small scale experimental applications of the nematode Steinernema scapterisci were made in irrigated turf , but survival of the nematode was poor . Very much later , this same species was reported as a pest in Queensland , Australia , presumably arriving by ship or plane . The next @-@ detected invasive species was in the late 19th century in Hawaii , probably by ship . It was named as Gryllotalpa africana , but was probably G. orientalis . It attacked sugarcane and was targeted with Larra polita from the Philippines in 1925 , apparently successfully .

The next detection was in Georgia , USA , and at that time was assumed to be N. didactylus from the West Indies . It was in fact three South American Neoscapteriscus species , N. abbreviatus , N . vicinus , and N. borellii , probably arrived in ship ballast . They caused major problems for decades as they spread in the southeastern USA.Scapteriscus mole cricket populations had built up since the early decades of the 20th century and damaged pastures , lawns , playing fields and vegetable crops . From the late 1940s chordane had been the insecticide of choice to control them , but when chordane was banned by the U.S. EPA in the 1970s , ranchers were left with no economic and effective control method . Especially to aid Florida ranchers , a project that became known as the UF / IFAS Mole Cricket Research Program was initiated in 1978 . In 1985 , a multi @-@ authored report was published on accomplishments . In 1988 , an account was published on prospects for biological control , and in 1996 an account of promising results with biological control . The program ended in 2004 after 25 years of running monitoring stations , and in 2006 a summary publication announced success : a 95 % reduction in mole cricket numbers in northern Florida , with biological control agents spreading potentially to all parts of Florida . Efforts to use Larra bicolor as a biological control agent in Florida began by importing a stock from Puerto Rico . It became established in a small area of southeastern Florida but had little effect on Neoscapteriscus populations . A stock from Bolivia became established in northern Florida and spread widely ( with some help ) to most of the rest of the state and neighboring states . Its survival depends upon the availability of suitable nectar sources .

Once it was discovered that gravid female Ormia depleta flies are attracted to the song of Neoscapteriscus males in South America , a path to trap these flies at synthetic mole cricket song was opened . Experimentation then led to a rearing method . Laborious rearing of over 10 @,@ 000 flies on mole cricket hosts allowed releases of living fly pupae at many sites in Florida from the far northwest to the far south , mainly on golf courses , and mainly in 1989 @-@ 1991 . Populations were established , began to spread , and were monitored by use of synthetic mole cricket song . Eventually it was discovered that the flies had a continuous population from about 29 degrees North all the way south to Miami , but that the flies failed to survive the winter north of about 29 degrees . Shipment and release of the flies to states north of Florida was thus a wasted effort . As the flies had been imported from 23 degrees South in Brazil and could not overwinter north of 29 degrees North in Florida , it was investigated in 1999 whether flies from 30 degrees South in Brazil might survive better in northern Florida , but they did not .

The third biological control agent to target Neoscapteriscus in Florida was the South American nematode Steinernema scapterisci . Small @-@ scale releases proved it could persist for years in mole @-@ cricket @-@ infested sandy Florida soils . Its use as a biopesticide against Neoscapteriscus was patented , making it attractive to industry . Industrial @-@ scale production on artificial diet allowed large @-@ scale trial applications in pastures and on golf courses , which succeeded in establishing populations in several counties , and these populations spread , but sales were disappointing , and the product was withdrawn from the market in 2014 .

= = = As pests = = =

The main damage done by mole crickets is as a result of their burrowing activities . As they tunnel through the top few centimetres of soil they push the ground up in little ridges , increasing evaporation of surface moisture , disturbing germinating seeds and damaging the delicate young roots of seedlings . They are also injurious to turf- and pasture @-@ grasses as they feed on the roots of the grasses , leaving the plants prone to drying @-@ out and damage by use .

In their native lands , mole crickets have natural enemies that keep them under control . This is not the case when they have been accidentally introduced to other parts of the world . In Florida they are considered pests and are described as " a serious problem " . A University of Florida Entomology report suggests that South American Neoscapteriscus mole crickets may have entered the United States at Brunswick , Georgia in ship 's ballast from southern South America around 1899 , but were at that time mistakenly believed to be from the West Indies . One possible remedy is biological pest control using the parasitoidal wasps Larra bicolor . Another remedy that has been successfully applied is use of the parasitic nematode Steinernema scapterisci . When this is applied in strips across grassland , it spreads throughout the pasture within a few months and not only controls the mole crickets , but remains infective in the soil for future years .

= = In human culture = =

= = = Folklore = = =

In Zambia , Gryllotalpa africana is held to bring good fortune to anyone who sees it . In Latin America , Scapteriscus and Neocurtilla mole crickets are said to predict rain when they dig into the ground . In Japan in the past they seem to have been associated with the worms / corpses / bugs that announce a persons sins to heaven in the Koshin / Koushin belief — see the spirit ghoul shokera / shoukera .

= = = As food = = =

Gryllotalpa mole crickets have sometimes been used as food in West Java and Vietnam . In Thailand mole crickets ( Thai : กระชอน ) are valued as food in Isan . They are usually eaten fried along with sticky rice .

In the Philippines , they are served as a delicacy called Camaro in the province of Pampanga and are a tourist attraction . They are also served in parts of Northern Luzon .

= Maryland Route 194 =

Maryland Route 194 ( MD 194 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 23 @.@ 87 miles ( 38 @.@ 42 km ) from MD 26 in Ceresville north to the Pennsylvania state line near Taneytown , where the highway continues as Pennsylvania Route 194 ( PA 194 ) toward Hanover . MD 194 is the main highway between Frederick and Hanover ; the state highway connects the towns of Walkersville and Woodsboro in northeastern Frederick County with Keymar and Taneytown in northwestern Carroll County . MD 194 was blazed as a migration route in the 18th century and a pair of turnpikes in Frederick County in the 19th century , one of which was the last private toll road in Maryland . The state highway , which was originally designated MD 71 , was built as a modern highway in Frederick County in the mid @-@ 1920s and constructed as Francis Scott Key Highway in Carroll County in the late 1920s and early 1930s . MD 194 received its modern route number in 1956 as part of a three @-@ route number swap . The state highway 's bypasses of Walkersville and Woodsboro opened in the early 1980s and mid @-@ 1990s , respectively .

= = Route description = =

MD 194 begins at an intersection with MD 26 ( Liberty Road ) in Ceresville . The roadway continues south as MD 26 , which crosses the Monocacy River on its way toward Frederick . MD 26 heads east from the intersection as a two @-@ lane road toward Libertytown . MD 194 heads north as Woodsboro Pike , which starts as a four @-@ lane divided highway but reduces to two lanes as the highway passes through the suburban communities of Discovery and Spring Garden , where the state highway passes the historic Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike Company Tollhouse . At Walkersville High School , the state highway enters the town of Walkersville and the highway 's old alignment , Frederick Street , splits to the north . MD 194 collects the other end of Frederick Street and passes between residential subdivisions before leaving the town at the highway 's intersection with Devilbiss Bridge Road and Daysville Road . The former road heads west toward the historic Harris Farm ; the latter highway leads to the 19th century Crum Road Bridge .

MD 194 parallels the Maryland Midland Railway 's north – south line , Israel Creek , and Laurel Hill north to Woodsboro . At the south end of the town , Main Street , which is unsigned MD 194A , continues straight north while MD 194 veers northeast to bypass the town . The state highway starts to run concurrently with MD 550 at Woodsboro Road , which heads east as MD 550 toward Libertytown . On the north side of town , MD 550 heads west as Woodsboro Creagerstown Road , which meets the northern end of Main Street before heading northwest toward Creagerstown and Thurmont . MD 194 veers northeast and has a grade crossing with the railroad track at New Midway , where the highway intersects Legore Road , which leads to the LeGore Bridge . The state highway passes through the village of Ladiesburg before crossing Little Pipe Creek , one of the tributaries of Double Pipe Creek , into Carroll County .

MD 194 continues as Francis Scott Key Highway through Keymar , where the north – south and east – west lines of the Maryland Midland Railway intersect . The state highway has a grade crossing of the east – west rail line and intersects Middleburg Road , which heads west as MD 77 . In the hamlet of Bruceville , MD 194 crosses Big Pipe Creek and intersects Keysville Bruceville Road , which heads northwest toward the village of Keysville and Terra Rubra , the birthplace of Francis Scott Key . The state highway passes the historic Winemiller Family Farm and Keefer @-@ Brubaker Farm on its way to Taneytown . MD 194 , which becomes Frederick Street , crosses a branch of Piney Creek and passes the Ludwick Rudisel Tannery House . In the center of the Taneytown Historic District , the state highway intersects MD 140 ( Baltimore Street ) , where MD 194 becomes York Street . After leaving Taneytown , the state highway becomes Francis Scott Key Highway again as it heads through farmland . MD 194 crosses Piney Creek before reaching its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania state line . The roadway continues north as PA 194 ( Frederick Pike ) toward Littlestown and Hanover .

MD 194 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from its southern terminus in Ceresville to Daysville Road in Walkersville and within the city of Taneytown .

= = History = =

In the 18th century , the corridor of what is now MD 194 was the Hanover – Frederick portion of the Monocacy Road , a migration route that connected Philadelphia and Winchester , Virginia via York , Frederick , Boonsboro , and Williamsport . The Frederick County portion of the highway later became the path of a pair of turnpikes . The Woodsboro and Double Pipe Creek Turnpike connected the namesake town and creek ; the Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike extended from Woodsboro south to the junction with the Liberty and Frederick Turnpike in Ceresville . The two turnpikes issuing from Ceresville were connected to Frederick by the Frederick and Woodsboro Turnpike . The Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike was the last privately maintained toll road in Maryland when it was purchased by the Maryland State Roads Commission , the predecessor to the Maryland State Highway Administration , in 1921 .

What is now MD 194 was originally designated MD 71 . The roads commission resurfaced the turnpikes ' macadam surface from Ceresville to Little Pipe Creek to a width of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) by 1926 . That same year , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of concrete road was constructed north from MD 32 ( now MD 140 ) in Taneytown . In 1930 , construction began to complete the concrete road that MD 71 would follow through Carroll County . The state highway was completed in five sections from a short distance north of Big Pipe Creek to the Pennsylvania state line in 1933 . The Carroll County section of MD 71 was dedicated as Francis Scott Key Highway in 1931 . The two sections of MD 71 were separated by a county @-@ maintained segment of highway through Keymar . This gap in the state road system remained through at least 1949 .

MD 71 received a new steel I @-@ beam bridge over Big Pipe Creek in 1940 ; this bridge was replaced in 2005 . The state highway was widened through Taneytown in 1948 . MD 71 's present steel I @-@ beam bridge over Little Pipe Creek at the county line was started in 1953 and completed in 1954 along with 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of approach roads . The state highway was reconstructed and widened from the Little Pipe Creek Bridge to New Midway in 1952 and 1953 . Reconstruction of the highway commenced from New Midway to Woodsboro in 1953 , from Woodsboro to Ceresville in 1956 , and from Taneytown to the Pennsylvania state line in 1957 .

In 1956 , MD 71 was involved in a three @-@ route number change involving highways in three different areas of the state . MD 71 was reassigned to the Blue Star Memorial Highway then under construction from Queenstown to the Delaware state line ; this designation lasted only three years before U.S. Route 301 was rerouted onto the highway in 1959 . MD 71 was designated MD 194 to match the adjacent numbered highway in Pennsylvania . MD 194 had previously been assigned to Flower Avenue in Takoma Park ; Flower Avenue was then designated MD 787 .

MD 194 's bypass of Walkersville was completed around 1981 . The state highway 's bypass of Woodsboro was under construction by 1995 and completed in 1997 ; Main Street through town was designated MD 194A . MD 550 , which ran concurrently with MD 194 along Main Street , joined the latter route on the new bypass and on a bypass section of its own at the north end of town . In conjunction with the reconstruction of MD 26 as a divided highway from Market Street ( then part of MD 355 ) in Frederick to Ceresville in 1997 , the MD 26 – MD 194 intersection was reconfigured so the primary movement through the intersection is between MD 26 to the west and MD 194 to the north ; the southernmost portion of MD 194 became an extension of the MD 26 divided highway . This configuration was chosen because two @-@ thirds of traffic passing through the intersection was between Frederick and Woodsboro .

= = Junction list = =

= = Auxiliary routes = =

MD 194 has four existing auxiliary routes and two that no longer exist . MD 194A and MD 194B are in Woodsboro . MD 194D and MD 194E are north of Taneytown . Former MD 194C and MD 194F were also north of Taneytown .

MD 194A is the designation for Main Street , which runs 1 @.@ 28 miles ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) between MD 194 on the south side of Woodsboro and MD 550 on the north side of Woodsboro . MD 194A is municipally maintained for 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from Mt . Hope Cemetery north to Coppermine Road .

MD 194B is the designation for a 0 @.@ 09 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) section of Main Street that is now a spur south from MD 194A just north of MD 194 's southern end at MD 194 .

MD 194C was the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) connector between MD 194 and former MD 853D . MD 194C and MD 853D were removed from the state highway system in 2004 due to the roadway being overgrown .

MD 194D is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and MD 853E , the old alignment that parallels the northbound direction of the modern highway south of Angell Road .

MD 194E is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and MD 853A , the old alignment that parallels the southbound direction of the modern highway south of the Pennsylvania state line .

MD 194F was the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and former MD 853D . MD 194F and MD 853D were removed from the state highway system in 2004 due to the roadway being overgrown .

= Le souper de Beaucaire =

Le souper de Beaucaire was a political pamphlet written by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1793 . With the French Revolution into its fourth year , civil war had spread across France between various rival political factions . Napoleon was involved in military action , on the government 's side , against some rebellious cities of southern France . It was during these events , in 1793 , that he spoke with four merchants from the Midi and heard their views . As a loyal soldier of the Republic he responded in turn , set on dispelling the fears of the merchants and discouraging their beliefs . He later wrote about his conversation in the form of a pamphlet , calling for an end to the civil war .

= = Background = =

During the French Revolution the National Convention became the executive power of France , following the execution of King Louis XVI . With powerful members , such as Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton , the Jacobin Club , a French political party established in 1790 , at the birth of the revolution , managed to secure control of the government and pursue the revolution to their own ends , culminating in a " Reign of Terror " . Its repressive policies resulted in insurrection across much of France , including the three largest cities after Paris , namely Lyon , Marseille and Toulon , in the south of France .

Citizens in the south were opposed to a centralised government , and to the decrees of its rule , which resulted in rebellion . Prior to the revolution France had been divided into provinces with local governments . In 1790 the government , the National Constituent Assembly , reorganised France into administrative departments in order to rebalance the uneven distribution of French wealth , which had been subject to feudalism under the monarchical Ancien Régime .

= = Rebellion in Southern France = =

In July 1793 Captain Napoleon Bonaparte , an artillery officer , was placed under the command of Jean @-@ Baptiste Carteaux to deal with rebels from Marseille situated in Avignon , where army munitions required by the French Army of Italy were being stored . On 24 July , Carteaux 's troops attacked rebellious National Guardsmen , killing several citizens during the siege , before capturing the town and army supplies . Afterwards , Napoleon travelled to nearby Tarascon to find wagons with which to transport the munition . He visited Beaucaire , across the river from Tarascon , which had been holding an annual fair . Napoleon arrived on 28 July , the last day of the fair , and went to a tavern where he shared supper and conversation with four merchants – two from Marseille , one from Montpellier and another from Nîmes .

That evening Napoleon and the four merchants discussed the revolution , subsequent rebellions , and their consequences . Speaking as a pro @-@ Republican , Napoleon supported the Jacobin cause , and explained the benefits of the revolution , whilst defending Carteaux 's actions in Avignon . One of the merchants from Marseille expressed his moderate views regarding the revolution , and reasons for supporting civil war against a central government . The merchant stressed that Marseille did not fight for the Royalist cause , but opposed the nature of the Convention itself , condemning its decrees and deeming the execution of citizens as unlawful . Napoleon concluded that the people of Marseille should reject counter @-@ revolutionary ideals and adopt the constitution of the French Republic in order to end the civil war and allow the regular army to restore France .

Following their conversation the group drank champagne until two in the morning , paid for by the Marseillais merchant .

= = Publication and recognition = =

Shortly after the events , possibly on the 29 July whilst still in Beaucaire , Napoleon wrote a political pamphlet titled Le souper de Beaucaire ( The supper at Beaucaire ) in which a soldier speaks with four merchants and sympathetic to their opinions attempts to dissipate their counter @-@ revolutionary sentiments .

The pamphlet was read by Augustin Robespierre , brother of Maximilien Robespierre , who was impressed by the revolutionary context . The pamphlet itself had little effect against the rebellious forces , but served to advance Napoleon 's career . He soon became recognised for his political ambitions by a Corsica @-@ born politician , and family friend , Christophe Saliceti , who arranged to have it published and distributed . Christophe 's influence , along with fellow Convention deputy Augustin Robespierre , advanced Napoleon into the position of senior gunner , at Toulon .

In Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte , a biography by Napoleon 's private secretary , Louis de Bourrienne , he notes that Le souper de Beaucaire was reprinted as a book – the first edition issued at the cost of the Public Treasury in August 1798 , and a second edition in 1821 , following Napoleon 's death . He also states , " It was during my absence from France that Bonaparte , in the rank of ' chef de bataillon ' [ major ] , performed his first campaign , and contributed so materially to the recapture of Toulon . Of this period of his life I have no personal knowledge , and therefore I shall not speak of it as an eye @-@ witness . I shall merely relate some facts which fill up the interval between 1793 and 1795 , and which I have collected from papers which he himself delivered to me . Among these papers is a little production , entitled ' Le Souper de Beaucaire ' , the copies of which he bought up at considerable expense , and destroyed upon his attaining the Consulate . "

= Jin – Song Wars =

The Jin – Song Wars were a series of conflicts between the Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and Han Chinese Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . In 1115 , the Jurchens rebelled against their overlords , the Khitan Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , and declared the formation of the Jin . Allying with the Song against their common enemy the Liao , the Jin promised to return to the Song the territories in northern China that had fallen under Liao control since 938 . The Jurchens ' quick defeat of the Liao combined with Song military failures made the Jin reluctant to cede these territories . After a series of failed negotiations that embittered both sides , the Jurchens attacked the Song in November 1125 , dispatching one army towards Taiyuan and the other towards Kaifeng , the Song capital .

Surprised by the news of an invasion , the Song general stationed in Taiyuan retreated from the city , which was besieged and later captured . As the second Jin army approached the capital , Emperor Huizong of the Song abdicated and fled south . A new emperor , Qinzong , was enthroned . The Jurchens began a siege against Kaifeng in 1126 , but Qinzong negotiated for their retreat from the capital after he agreed to pay a large annual indemnity . Qinzong reneged on the deal and ordered Song forces to defend the prefectures instead of fortifying the capital . The Jin resumed their war against the Song and again besieged Kaifeng in 1127 . The Chinese emperor was captured in an event known as the Jingkang Incident , the capital was looted , and the Song lost northern China to the Jin . Remnants of the Song retreated to southern China and , after brief stays in several temporary capitals , eventually relocated to Hangzhou . The retreat of the Song court marked the end of the Northern Song era and the beginning of the Southern Song .

The Jurchens tried to conquer southern China in the 1130s , but they were bogged down by a pro @-@ Song insurgency in the north and a counteroffensive by the Song generals Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and others . The generals regained some territories but retreated on the orders of the Southern Song emperor , who supported a peaceful resolution to the war . The Treaty of Shaoxing in 1142 settled the boundary between the two empires along the Huai River , but conflicts between the two dynasties continued until the fall of the Jin in 1234 . A campaign against the Song by the fourth Jin emperor , Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) , was unsuccessful . He lost the Battle of Caishi ( 1161 ) and was later assassinated by his own disaffected officers . An invasion of the Jin motivated by Song revanchism ( 1206 – 1208 ) was also unsuccessful . A decade later , the Jin launched an abortive military campaign against the Song in 1217 to compensate for the territory that they had lost to the invading Mongols . The Song formed an alliance with the Mongols in 1233 , and in the following year jointly captured Caizhou , the last refuge of the Jin emperor . The Jin dynasty collapsed that year in 1234 . After the demise of the Jin , the Song dynasty itself became a target of the Mongols , and fell in 1279 .

The wars engendered an era of technological , cultural , and demographic changes in China . Battles between the Song and Jin brought about the introduction of various gunpowder weapons . The siege of De 'an in 1132 was the first recorded appearance of the fire lance , an early ancestor of firearms . There were also reports of battles fought with primitive gunpowder bombs like the incendiary huopao or the exploding tiehuopao , incendiary arrows , and other related weapons . In northern China , the Jurchen tribes were the ruling minority of an empire that was predominantly inhabited by former subjects of the Northern Song . Jurchen migrants settled in the conquered territories and assimilated with the local culture . The Jin government instituted a centralized imperial bureaucracy modeled on previous Chinese dynasties , basing their legitimacy on Confucian philosophy . Song refugees from the north resettled in southern China . The north was the cultural center of China , and its conquest by the Jin diminished the international stature of the Song dynasty . The Southern Song , however , quickly returned to economic prosperity , and trade with the Jin was lucrative despite decades of warfare . The capital of the Southern Song , Hangzhou , expanded into a major city for commerce .

= = The fragile Song – Jin alliance = =

The Jurchens were a Tungusic @-@ speaking group of semi @-@ agrarian tribes inhabiting areas of northeast Asia that are now part of Northeast China . Many of the Jurchen tribes were vassals of the Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , an empire ruled by the nomadic Khitans that included most of modern Mongolia , a portion of North China , Northeast China , northern Korea , and parts of the Russian Far East . To the south of the Liao lay the Han Chinese Song Empire ( 960 – 1276 ) . The Song and Liao were at peace , but since a military defeat to the Liao in 1005 , the Song paid its northern neighbor an annual indemnity of 200 @,@ 000 bolts of silk and 100 @,@ 000 ounces of silver .

In 1114 , the chieftain Wanyan Aguda ( 1068 – 1123 ) united the disparate Jurchen tribes and led a revolt against the Liao . In 1115 he named himself emperor of the Jin " golden " dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) . Informed by a Liao defector of the success of the Jurchen uprising , the Song emperor Huizong ( r . 1100 – 1127 ) and his highest military commander the eunuch Tong Guan saw the Liao weakness as an opportunity to recover the Sixteen Prefectures , a line of fortified cities and passes that the Liao had annexed from the Shatuo Turk Later Jin in 938 , and that the Song had repeatedly but unsuccessfully tried to reconquer . The Song thus sought an alliance with the Jin against their common enemy the Liao .

Because the land routes between the Song and Jin were controlled by the Liao , diplomatic exchanges had to occur by traveling across the Bohai Sea . Negotiations for an alliance began secretly under the pretense that the Song wanted to acquire horses from the Khitans . Song diplomats traveled to the Jin court to meet Aguda in 1118 , while Jurchen envoys arrived in the Song capital Kaifeng the next year . At the beginning the two sides agreed to keep whatever Liao territory they would seize in combat . In 1120 , Aguda agreed to cede the Sixteen Prefectures to the Song in exchange for transfer to the Jin of the annual tributary payments that the Song had been giving the Liao . By the end of 1120 , however , the Jurchens had seized the Liao Supreme Capital , and offered the Song only parts of the Sixteen Prefectures . Among other things , the Jin would keep the Liao Western Capital of Datong at the western end of the Sixteen Prefectures . The two sides agreed that the Jin would now attack the Liao Central Capital , whereas the Song would seize the Liao Southern Capital , Yanjing ( modern day Beijing ) .

The joint attack against the Liao had been planned for 1121 , but it was rescheduled for 1122 . In February 23 of that year , the Jin captured the Liao Central Capital as promised . The Song delayed their entry into the war because it diverted resources to fighting the Western Xia in the northwest and suppressing a large popular rebellion in the south . When a Song army under Tong Guan 's command finally attacked Yanjing in May 1122 , the smaller forces of the weakened Liao repelled the invaders with ease . Another attack failed in the fall . Both times , Tong was forced to retreat back to Kaifeng . After the first attack , Aguda changed the terms of the agreement and only promised Yanjing and six other prefectures to the Song . In early 1123 it was Jurchen forces that easily took the Liao Southern Capital . They sacked it and enslaved its population .

The quick collapse of the Liao led to more negotiations between the Song and the Jin . Jurchen military success and their effective control over the Sixteen Prefectures gave them more leverage . Aguda grew increasingly frustrated as he realized that despite their military failures the Song still intended to seize most of the prefectures . In the spring of 1123 the two sides finally set the terms of the first Song – Jin treaty . Only seven prefectures ( including Yanjing ) would be returned to the Song , and the Song would pay an annual indemnity of 300 @,@ 000 packs of silk and 200 @,@ 000 taels of silver to the Jin , as well as a one @-@ time payment of one million strings of copper coins to compensate the Jurchens for the tax revenue they would have earned had they not returned the prefectures . In May 1123 Tong Guan and the Song armies entered the looted Yanjing .

= = War against the Northern Song = =

= = = The collapse of the Song – Jin alliance = = =

Barely one month after the Song had recovered Yanjing , Zhang Jue ( 張覺 ) , who had served as military governor of the Liao prefecture of Pingzhou about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east of Yanjing , killed the main Jin official in that city and turned it over to the Song . The Jurchens defeated his armies a few months later and Zhang took refuge in Yanjing . Even though the Song agreed to execute him in late 1123 , this incident put tension between the two states , because the 1123 treaty had explicitly forbidden both sides from harboring defectors . In 1124 , Song officials further angered the Jin by asking for the cession of nine more border prefectures . The new Jin emperor Taizong ( r . 1123 – 1135 ) , Aguda 's brother and successor , hesitated , but warrior princes Wanyan Zonghan and Wanyan Zongwang ( 完颜宗望 ) vehemently refused to give them any more territory . Taizong eventually granted two prefectures , but by then the Jin leaders were ready to attack their southern neighbor .

Before they could invade the Song , the Jurchens reached a peace agreement with their western neighbors the Tangut Western Xia in 1124 . The following year near the Ordos Desert , they captured Tianzuo , the last emperor of the Liao , putting an end to the Liao dynasty for good . Ready to end their alliance with the Song , the Jurchens began preparations for an invasion .

= = = First campaign = = =

In November 1125 Taizong ordered his armies to attack the Song . The defection of Zhang Jue two years earlier served as the casus belli . Two armies were sent to capture the major cities of the Song .

= = = = Siege of Taiyuan = = = =

The western army , led by Wanyan Zonghan , departed from Datong and headed towards Taiyuan through the mountains of Shanxi , on its way to the Song western capital Luoyang . The Song forces were not expecting an invasion and were caught off guard . The Chinese general Tong Guan was informed of the military expedition by an envoy he had sent to the Jin to obtain the cession of two prefectures . The returning envoy reported that the Jurchens were willing to forgo an invasion if the Song ceded control of Hebei and Shanxi to the Jin . Tong Guan retreated from Taiyuan and left command of his troops to Wang Bing . Jin armies besieged the city in mid January 1126 . Under Wang Bing 's command , Taiyuan held on long enough to stop the Jurchen troops from advancing to Luoyang .

= = = = First siege of Kaifeng = = = =

Meanwhile , the eastern army , commanded by Wanyan Zongwang , was dispatched towards Yanjing ( modern Beijing ) and eventually the Song capital Kaifeng . It did not face much armed opposition . Zongwang easily took Yanjing , where Song general and former Liao governor Guo Yaoshi ( 郭藥師 ) switched his allegiances to the Jin . When the Song had tried to reclaim the Sixteen Prefectures , they had faced fierce resistance from the Han Chinese population , yet when the Jurchens invaded that area , the Han Chinese did not oppose them at all . By the end of December 1125 , the Jin army had seized control of two prefectures and re @-@ established Jurchen rule over the Sixteen Prefectures . The eastern army was nearing Kaifeng by early 1126 .

Fearing the approaching Jin army , Song emperor Huizong planned to retreat south . The emperor deserting the capital would have been viewed as an act of capitulation , so court officials convinced him to abdicate . There were few objections . Rescuing an empire in crisis from destruction was more important than preserving the rituals of imperial inheritance . In January 1126 , a few days before the New Year , Huizong abdicated in favor of his son and was demoted to the ceremonial role of Retired Emperor . The Jurchen forces reached the Yellow River on January 27 , 1126 , two days after the New Year . Huizong fled Kaifeng the next day , escaping south and leaving the newly enthroned emperor Qinzong ( r . 1126 – 1127 ) in charge of the capital .

Kaifeng was besieged on January 31 , 1126 . The commander of the Jurchen army promised to spare the city if the Song submitted to Jin as a vassal ; forfeited the prime minister and an imperial prince as prisoners ; ceded the Chinese prefectures of Hejian , Taiyuan , and Zhongshan ; and offered an indemnity of 50 million taels of silver , 5 million taels of gold , 1 million packs of silk , 1 million packs of satin , 10 @,@ 000 horses , 10 @,@ 000 mules , 10 @,@ 000 cattle , and 1 @,@ 000 camels . This indemnity was worth about 180 years of the annual tribute the Song had been paying to the Jin since 1123 .

With little prospect of help from afar arriving , infighting broke out in the Song court between the officials who supported the Jin offer and those who opposed it . Opponents of the treaty like Li Gang ( 李剛 ; 1083 – 1140 ) rallied around the proposal of remaining in defensive positions until reinforcements arrived and Jurchen supplies ran out . They botched an ambush against the Jin that was carried out at night , and were replaced by officials who supported peace negotiations . The failed attack pushed Qinzong into meeting the Jurchen demands , and his officials convinced him to go through with the deal . The Song recognized Jin control over the three prefectures . The Jurchen army ended the siege in March after 33 days .

= = = Second campaign = = =

Almost as soon as the Jin armies had left Kaifeng , Emperor Qinzong reneged on the deal and dispatched two armies to repel the Jurchen troops attacking Taiyuan and bolster the defenses of Zhongshan and Hejian . An army of 90 @,@ 000 soldiers and another of 60 @,@ 000 were defeated by Jin forces by June . A second expedition to rescue Taiyuan was also unsuccessful .

Accusing the Song of violating the agreement and realizing the weakness of the Song , the Jin generals launched a second punitive campaign , again dividing their troops into two armies . Wanyan Zonghan , who had withdrawn from Taiyuan after the Kaifeng agreement and left a small force in charge of the siege , came back with his western army . Overwhelmed , Taiyuan fell in September 1126 , after 260 days of siege . When the Song court received news of the fall of Taiyuan , the officials who had advocated defending the empire militarily fell from favor again and were replaced by counselors who favored appeasement . In mid December the two Jurchen armies converged on Kaifeng for the second time that year .

= = = = Second siege of Kaifeng = = = =

After the defeat of several Song armies in the north , Emperor Qinzong wanted to negotiate a truce with the Jin , but he committed a massive strategic blunder when he commanded his remaining armies to protect prefectural cities instead of Kaifeng . Neglecting the importance of the capital , he left Kaifeng defended with fewer than 100 @,@ 000 soldiers . The Song forces were dispersed throughout China , powerless to stop the second Jurchen siege of the city .

The Jin assault commenced in mid December 1126 . Even as fighting raged on , Qinzong continued to sue for peace , but Jin demands for territory were enormous : they wanted all provinces north of the Yellow River . After more than twenty days of heavy combat against the besieging forces , Song defenses were decimated and the morale of Song soldiers was on the decline . On January 9 , 1127 , the Jurchens broke through and started to loot the conquered city . Emperor Qinzong tried to appease the victors by offering the remaining wealth of the capital . The royal treasury was emptied and the belongings of the city 's residents were seized . The Song emperor offered his unconditional surrender a few days later .

Qinzong , the former emperor Huizong , and members of the Song court were captured by the Jurchens as hostages . They were taken north to Huining ( modern Harbin ) , where they were stripped of their royal privileges and reduced to commoners . The former emperors were humiliated by their captors . They were mocked with disparaging titles like " Muddled Virtue " and " Double Muddled " . In 1128 the Jin made them perform a ritual meant for war criminals . The harsh treatment of the Song royalty softened after the death of Huizong in 1135 . Titles were granted to the deceased monarch , and his son Qinzong was promoted to Duke , a position with a salary .

= = = Reasons for Song failure = = =

Many factors contributed to the Song 's repeated military blunders and subsequent loss of northern China to the Jurchens . Traditional accounts of Song history held the venality of Huizong 's imperial court responsible for the decline of the dynasty . These narratives condemned Huizong and his officials for their moral failures . Early Song emperors were eager to enact political reforms and revive the ethical framework of Confucianism , but the enthusiasm for reforms gradually died after the reformist Wang Anshi 's expulsion as chancellor in 1076 . Corruption marred the reign of Huizong , who was more skilled as a painter than as a ruler . Huizong was known for his extravagance , and funded the costly construction of gardens and temples while rebellions threatened the state 's grip on power .

A modern analysis by Ari Daniel Levine places more of the blame on deficiencies in the military and bureaucratic leadership . The loss of northern China was not inevitable . The military was overextended by a government too assured of its own military prowess . Huizong diverted the state 's resources to failed wars against the Western Xia . The Song insistence on a greater share of Liao territory only succeeded in provoking their Jin allies . Song diplomatic oversights underestimated the Jin and allowed the unimpeded rise of Jurchen military power . The state had plentiful resources , with the exception of horses , but managed its assets poorly during battles . Unlike the expansive Han and Tang empires that preceded the Song , the Song did not have a significant foothold in Central Asia where a large proportion of its horses could be bred or procured . As Song general Li Gang noted , without a consistent supply of horses the dynasty was at a significant disadvantage against Jurchen cavalry : " the Jin were victorious only because they used iron @-@ shielded cavalry , while we opposed them with foot soldiers . It is only to be expected that [ our soldiers ] were scattered and dispersed . "

= = Wars with the Southern Song = =

= = = Southern retreat of the Song court = = =

= = = = The enthronement of Emperor Gaozong = = = =

The Jin leadership had not expected or desired the fall of the Song dynasty . Their intention was to weaken the Song in order to demand more tribute , and they were unprepared for the magnitude of their victory . The Jurchens were preoccupied with strengthening their rule over the areas once controlled by Liao . Instead of continuing their invasion of the Song , an empire with a military that outnumbered their own , they adopted the strategy of " using Chinese to control the Chinese " . The Jin hoped that a proxy state would be capable of administering northern China and collecting the annual indemnity without requiring Jurchen interventions to quell anti @-@ Jin uprisings . In 1127 , the Jurchens installed a former Song official , Zhang Bangchang ( 張邦昌 ; 1081 – 1127 ) , as the puppet emperor of the newly established " Da Chu " ( Great Chu ) dynasty . The puppet government did not deter the resistance in northern China , but the insurgents were motivated by their anger towards the Jurchens ' looting rather than by a sense of loyalty towards the inept Song court . A number of Song commanders , stationed in towns scattered across northern China , retained their allegiance to the Song , and armed volunteers organized militias opposed to the Jurchen military presence . The insurgency hampered the ability of the Jin to exert control over the north .

Meanwhile , one Song prince , Zhao Gou , had escaped capture . He had been held up in Cizhou while on a diplomatic mission , and never made it back to Kaifeng . He was not present in the capital when the city fell to the Jurchens . The future Emperor Gaozong managed to evade the Jurchen troops tailing him by moving from one province to the next , traveling across Hebei , Henan , and Shandong . The Jurchens tried to lure him back to Kaifeng where they could finally capture him , but did not succeed . Zhao Gou finally arrived in the Song Southern Capital at Yingtianfu ( 應天府 ; modern Shangqiu ) in early June 1127 . For Gaozong ( r . 1127 – 1162 ) , Yingtianfu was the first in a series of temporary capitals called xingzai 行在 . The court moved to Yingtianfu because of its historical importance to Emperor Taizu of Song , the founder of the dynasty , who had previously served in that city as a military governor . The symbolism of the city was meant to secure the political legitimacy of the new emperor , who was enthroned there on June 12 .

After reigning for barely one month , Zhang Bangchang was persuaded by the Song to step down as emperor of the Great Chu and to recognize the legitimacy of the Song imperial line . Li Gang pressured Gaozong to execute Zhang for betraying the Song . The emperor relented and Zhang was coerced into suicide . The killing of Zhang showed that the Song was willing to provoke the Jin , and that the Jin had yet to solidify their control over the newly conquered territories . The submission and abolition of Chu meant that Kaifeng was now back under Song control . Zong Ze ( 宗澤 ; 1059 – 1128 ) , the Song general responsible for fortifying Kaifeng , entreated Gaozong to move the court back to the city , but Gaozong refused and retreated south . The southward move marked the end of the Northern Song and the beginning of the Southern Song era of Chinese history .

The descendant of Confucius at Qufu , the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou , while the newly established Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou 's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng . Zhang Xuan 張選 , a great @-@ grandson of Zhang Zai , also fled south with Gaozong .

= = = = The move south = = = =

The Song disbandment of the Great Chu and execution of Zhang Bangchang antagonized the Jurchens and violated the treaty that the two parties had negotiated . The Jin renewed their attacks on the Song and quickly reconquered much of northern China . In late 1127 Gaozong moved his court further south from Yingtianfu to Yangzhou , south of the Huai River and north of the Yangtze River , by sailing down the Grand Canal . The court spent over a year in the city . When the Jurchens advanced to the Huai River , the court was partially evacuated to Hangzhou in 1129 . Days later , Gaozong narrowly escaped on horseback , just a few hours ahead of Jurchen vanguard troops . After a coup in Hangzhou almost dethroned him , in May 1129 he moved his capital back north to Jiankang ( modern @-@ day Nanjing ) on the south bank of the Yangtze . One month later , however , Zong Ze 's successor Du Chong ( 杜充 ) vacated his forces from Kaifeng , exposing Jiankang to attack . The emperor moved back to Hangzhou in September , leaving Jiankang in Du Chong 's hands . The Jin eventually captured Kaifeng in early 1130 .

From 1127 to 1129 , the Song sent thirteen embassies to the Jin to discuss peace terms and to negotiate the release of Gaozong 's mother and Huizong , but the Jin court ignored them . In December 1129 , the Jin started a new military offensive , dispatching two armies across the Huai River in the east and west . On the western front , an army invaded Jiangxi , the area where the Song dowager empress resided , and captured Hongzhou ( 洪州 , present @-@ day Nanchang ) . They were ordered to retreat a few months later when the eastern army withdrew .

Meanwhile , on the eastern front , Wuzhu commanded the main Jin army . He crossed the Yangtze southwest of Jiankang and took that city when Du Chong surrendered . Wuzhu set out from Jiankang and advanced rapidly to try to capture Gaozong . The Jin seized Hangzhou ( January 22 , 1130 ) and then Shaoxing further south ( February 4 ) , but general Zhang Jun 's ( 1086 – 1154 ) battle with Wuzhu near Ningbo gave Gaozong time to escape . By the time Wuzhu resumed pursuit , the Song court was fleeing on ships to islands off the coast of Zhejiang , and then further south to Wenzhou . The Jin sent ships to chase after Gaozong , but failed to catch him . They gave up the pursuit and the Jurchens retreated north . After they plundered the undefended cities of Hangzhou and Suzhou , they finally started to face resistance from Song armies led by Yue Fei and Han Shizhong . The latter even inflicted a major defeat on Jurchen forces and tried to prevent Wuzhu from crossing back to the north bank of the Yangtze . The small boats of the Jin army were outmatched by Han Shizhong 's fleet of seagoing vessels . Wuzhu eventually managed to cross the river when he had his troops use incendiary arrows to neutralize Han 's ships by burning their sails . Wuzhu 's troops came back south of the Yangtze one last time to Jiankang , which they pillaged , and then headed north . Yet the Jin had been caught off guard by the strength of the Song navy , and Wuzhu never tried to cross the Yangtze River again . In early 1131 , Jin armies between the Huai and the Yangtze were repelled by bandits loyal to the Song . Zhang Rong ( 張榮 ) , the leader of the bandits , was given a government position for his victory against the Jin .

After the Jin incursion that almost captured Gaozong , the sovereign ordered pacification commissioner Zhang Jun ( 1097 – 1164 ) , who was in charge of Shaanxi and Sichuan in the far west , to attack the Jin there to relieve pressure on the court . Zhang put together a large army , but was defeated by Wuzhu near Xi 'an in late 1130 . Wuzhu advanced further west into Gansu , and drove as far south as Jiezhou ( 階州 , modern Wudu ) . The most important battles between Jin and Song in 1131 and 1132 took place in Shaanxi , Gansu , and Sichuan . The Jin lost two battles at Heshan Yuan in 1131 . After failing to enter Sichuan , Wuzhu retreated to Yanjing . He returned to the western front again from 1132 to 1134 . The Jin attacked Hubei and Shaanxi in 1132 . Wuzhu captured Heshan Yuan in 1133 , but his advance was halted by a defeat at Xianren Pass . He gave up on taking Sichuan , and no more major battles were fought between the Jin and Song for the rest of the decade .

The Song court returned to Hangzhou in 1133 , and the city was renamed Lin 'an . The imperial ancestral temple was built in Hangzhou later that same year , a sign that the court had in practice established Hangzhou as the Song capital without a formal declaration . It was treated as a temporary capital . Between 1130 and 1137 , the court would sporadically move to Jiankang , and back to Hangzhou . There were proposals to make Jiankang the new capital , but Hangzhou won out because the court considered it a more secure city . The natural barriers that surrounded Hangzhou , including lakes and rice paddies , made it more difficult for the Jurchen cavalry to breach its fortifications . Access to the sea made it easier to retreat from the city . In 1138 , Gaozong officially declared Hangzhou the capital of the dynasty , but the label of temporary capital would still be in place . Hangzhou would remain the capital of the Southern Song for the next 150 years , growing into a major commercial and cultural center .

= = = Da Qi invades the Song = = =

Qin Hui , an official of the Song court , recommended a peaceful solution to the conflict in 1130 , saying that , " If it is desirable that there will be no more conflicts under Heaven , it is necessary for the southerners to stay in the south and the northerners in the north . " Gaozong , who considered himself a northerner , initially rejected the proposal . There were gestures toward peace in 1132 , when the Jin freed an imprisoned Song diplomat , and in 1133 , when the Song offered to become a Jin vassal , but a treaty never materialized . The Jin requirement that the border between the two states be moved south from the Huai River to the Yangtze was too large of a hurdle for the two sides to reach an agreement .

The continuing insurgency of anti @-@ Jin forces in northern China hampered the Jurchen campaigns south of the Yangtze . Reluctant to let the war drag on , the Jin decided to create Da Qi ( the " Great Qi " ) , their second attempt at a puppet state in northern China . The Jurchens believed that this state , nominally ruled by someone of Han Chinese descent , would be able to attract the allegiance of disaffected members of the insurgency . The Jurchens also suffered from a shortage of skilled manpower , and controlling the entirety of northern China was not administratively feasible . In the final months of 1129 , Liu Yu ( 劉豫 ; 1073 – 1143 ) won the favor of the Jin emperor Taizong . Liu was a Song official from Hebei who had been a prefect of Jinan in Shandong before his defection to the Jin in 1128 . Da Qi was formed late in 1130 , and the Jin enthroned Liu as its emperor . Daming in Hebei was the first capital of Qi , before its move to Kaifeng , former capital of the Northern Song . The Qi government instituted military conscription , made an attempt at reforming the bureaucracy , and enacted laws that enforced the collection of high taxes . It was also responsible for supplying a large portion of the troops that fought the Song in the seven years following its creation .

The Jin granted Qi more autonomy than the first puppet government of Chu , but Liu Yu was obligated to obey the orders of the Jurchen generals . With Jin support , Da Qi invaded the Song in November 1133 . Li Cheng , a Song turncoat who had joined the Qi , led the campaign . Xiangyang and nearby prefectures fell to his army . The capture of Xiangyang on the Han River gave the Jurchens a passage into the central valley of the Yangtze River . Their southward push was halted by the general Yue Fei . In 1134 , Yue Fei defeated Li and retook Xiangyang and its surrounding prefectures . Later that year , however , Qi and Jin initiated a new offensive further east along the Huai River . For the first time , Gaozong issued an edict officially condemning Da Qi . The armies of Qi and Jin won a series of victories in the Huai valley , but were repelled by Han Shizhong near Yangzhou and by Yue Fei at Luzhou ( 廬州 , modern Hefei ) . Their sudden withdrawal in 1135 in response to the death of Jin Emperor Taizong gave the Song time to regroup . The war recommenced in late 1136 when Da Qi attacked the Huainan circuits of the Song . Qi lost a battle at Outang ( 藕塘 ) , in modern Anhui , against a Song army led by Yang Qizhong ( 楊沂中 ; 1102 – 1166 ) . The victory boosted Song morale , and the military commissioner Zhang Jun ( 1097 – 1164 ) convinced Gaozong to begin plans for a counterattack . Gaozong first agreed , but he abandoned the counteroffensive when an officer named Li Qiong ( 酈瓊 ) killed his superior official and defected to the Jin with tens of thousands of soldiers . Meanwhile , Emperor Xizong ( r . 1135 – 1150 ) inherited the Jin throne from Taizong , and pushed for peace . He and his generals were disappointed with Liu Yu 's military failures and believed that Liu was secretly conspiring with Yue Fei . In late 1137 , the Jin reduced Liu Yu 's title to that of a prince and abolished the state of Qi . The Jin and Song renewed the negotiations towards peace .

= = = Song counteroffensive and the peace process = = =

Gaozong promoted Qin Hui in 1138 and put him in charge of deliberations with the Jin . Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and a large number of officials at court criticized the peace overtures . Aided by his control of the Censorate , Qin purged his enemies and continued negotiations . In 1138 the Jin and Song agreed to a treaty that designated the Yellow River as border between the two states and recognized Gaozong as a " subject " of the Jin . But because there remained opposition to the treaty in both the courts of the Jin and Song , the treaty never came into effect . A Jurchen army led by Wuzhu invaded in early 1140 . The Song counteroffensive that followed achieved large territorial gains . Song general Liu Qi ( 劉錡 ) won a battle against Wuzhu at Shunchang ( modern Fuyang in Anhui ) . Yue Fei was assigned to head the Song forces defending the Huainan region . Instead of advancing to Huainan , however , Wuzhu retreated to Kaifeng and Yue 's army followed him into Jin territory , disobeying an order by Gaozong that forbade Yue from going on the offensive . Yue captured Zhengzhou and sent soldiers across the Yellow River to stir up a peasant rebellion against the Jin . On July 8 , 1140 , at the Battle of Yancheng , Wuzhu launched a surprise attack on Song forces with an army of 100 @,@ 000 infantry and 15 @,@ 000 horsemen . Yue Fei directed his cavalry to attack the Jurchen soldiers and won a decisive victory . He continued on to Henan , where he recaptured Zhengzhou and Luoyang . Later in 1140 , Yue was forced to withdraw after the emperor ordered him to return to the Song court .

Emperor Gaozong supported settling a peace treaty with the Jurchens and sought to rein in the assertiveness of the military . The military expeditions of Yue Fei and other generals were an obstacle to peace negotiations . The government weakened the military by rewarding Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and Zhang Jun ( 1086 – 1154 ) with titles that relieved them of their command over the Song armies . Han Shizhong , a critic of the treaty , retired . Yue Fei also announced his resignation as an act of protest . In 1141 Qin Hui had him imprisoned for insubordination . Charged with treason , Yue Fei was poisoned in jail on Qin 's orders in early 1142 . Jurchen diplomatic pressure during the peace talks may have played a role , but Qin Hui 's alleged collusion with the Jin has never been proven .

After his execution , Yue Fei 's reputation for defending the Southern Song grew to that of a national folk hero . Qin Hui was denigrated by later historians , who accused him of betraying the Song . The real Yue Fei differed from the later myths based on his exploits . Contrary to traditional legends , Yue was only one of many generals who fought against the Jin in northern China . Traditional accounts have also blamed Gaozong for Yue Fei 's execution and submitting to the Jin . Qin Hui , in a reply to Gaozong 's gratitude for the success of the peace negotiations , told the emperor that " the decision to make peace was entirely Your Majesty 's . Your servant only carried it out ; what achievement was there in this for me ? "

= = = Treaty of Shaoxing = = =

On October 11 , 1142 , after about a year of negotiations , the Treaty of Shaoxing was ratified , ending the conflict between the Jin and the Song . By the terms of the treaty , the Huai River , north of the Yangtze , was designated as the boundary between the two empires . The Song agreed to pay a yearly tribute of 250 @,@ 000 taels of silver and 250 @,@ 000 packs of silk to the Jin .

The treaty reduced the Southern Song 's status to that of a Jin vassal . The document designated the Song as the " insignificant state " , while the Jin was recognized as the " superior state " . The text of the treaty has not survived in Chinese records , a sign of its humiliating reputation . The contents of the agreement were recovered from a Jurchen biography . Once the treaty had been settled , the Jurchens retreated north and trade resumed between the two empires . The peace ensured by the Shaoxing treaty lasted for the next seventy years , but was interrupted twice . One campaign was initiated by the Song and the other by the Jin .

= = = Further campaigns = = =

= = = = Prince of Hailing 's campaign = = = =

Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) led a coup against Emperor Xizong and became fourth emperor of the Jin dynasty in 1150 . Wanyan Liang presented himself as a Chinese emperor , and planned to unite China by conquering the Song . In 1158 , Wanyan Liang provided a casus belli by announcing that the Song had broken the 1142 peace treaty by acquiring horses . He instituted an unpopular draft that was the source of widespread unrest in the empire . Anti @-@ Jin revolts erupted among the Khitans and in Jin provinces bordering the Song . Wanyan Liang did not allow dissent , and opposition to the war was severely punished . The Song had been notified beforehand of Wanyan Liang 's plan . They prepared by securing their defenses along the border , mainly near the Yangtze River , but were hampered by Emperor Gaozong 's indecisiveness . Gaozong 's desire for peace made him averse to provoking the Jin . Wanyan Liang began the invasion in 1161 without formally declaring war . Jurchen armies personally led by Wanyan Liang left Kaifeng on October 15 , reached the Huai River border on October 28 , and marched in the direction of the Yangtze . The Song lost the Huai to the Jurchens but captured a few Jin prefectures in the west , slowing the Jurchen advance . A group of Jurchen generals were sent to cross the Yangtze near the city of Caishi ( south of Ma 'anshan in modern Anhui ) while Wanyan Liang established a base near Yangzhou .

The Song official Yu Yunwen was in command of the army defending the river . The Jurchen army was defeated while attacking Caishi between November 26 and 27 during the Battle of Caishi . The paddle @-@ wheel ships of the Song navy , armed with trebuchets that fired gunpowder bombs , overwhelmed the light ships of the Jin fleet . Jin ships were unable to compete because they were smaller and hastily constructed . The bombs launched by the Song contained mixtures of gunpowder , lime , scraps of iron , and a poison that was likely arsenic . Traditional Chinese accounts consider this the turning point of the war , characterizing it as a military upset that secured southern China from the northern invaders . The significance of the battle is said to have rivaled a similarly revered victory at the Battle of Fei River in the 4th century . Contemporaneous Song accounts claimed that the 18 @,@ 000 Song soldiers commanded by Yu Yunwen and tasked with defending Caishi were able to defeat the invading Jurchen army of 400 @,@ 000 soldiers . Modern historians are more skeptical and consider the Jurchen numbers an exaggeration . Song historians may have confused the number of Jurchen soldiers at the Battle of Caishi with the total number of soldiers under the command of Wanyan Liang . The conflict was not the one @-@ sided battle that traditional accounts imply , and the Song had numerous advantages over the Jin . The Song fleet was larger than the Jin 's , and the Jin were unable to use their greatest asset , cavalry , in a naval battle .

A modern analysis of the battlefield has shown that it was a minor battle , although the victory did boost Song morale . The Jin lost , but only suffered about 4 @,@ 000 casualties and the battle was not fatal to the Jurchen war effort . It was Wanyan Liang 's poor relationships with the Jurchen generals , who despised him , that doomed the chances of a Jin victory . On December 15 , Wanyan Liang was assassinated in his military camp by disaffected officers . He was succeeded by Emperor Shizong ( r . 1161 – 1189 ) . Shizong was pressured into ending the unpopular war with the Song , and ordered the withdrawal of Jin forces in 1162 . Emperor Gaozong retired from the throne that same year . His mishandling of the war with Wanyan Liang was one of many reasons for his abdication . Skirmishes between the Song and Jin continued along the border , but subsided in 1165 after the negotiation of a peace treaty . There were no major territorial changes . The treaty dictated that the Song still had to pay the annual indemnity , but the indemnity was renamed from " tribute " , which had implied a subordinate relationship , to " payment " .

= = = = Song revanchism = = = =

The Jin were weakened by the pressure of the rising Mongols to the north , a series of floods culminating in a Yellow River flood in 1194 that devastated Hebei and Shandong in northern China , and the droughts and swarming locusts that plagued the south near the Huai . The Song were informed of the Jurchen predicament by their ambassadors , who traveled twice a year to the Jin capital , and started provoking their northern neighbor . The hostilities were instigated by chancellor Han Tuozhou . The Song Emperor Ningzong ( r . 1194 – 1224 ) took little interest in the war effort . Under Han Tuozhou 's supervision , preparations for the war proceeded gradually and cautiously . The court venerated the irredentist hero Yue Fei and Han orchestrated the publishing of historical records that justified war with the Jin . From 1204 onwards , Song armed groups raided Jin settlements . Han Tuozhou was designated the head of national security in 1205 . The Song funded insurgents in the north that professed loyalist sympathies . These early clashes continued to escalate , partly abetted by revanchist Song officials , and war against the Jin was officially declared on June 14 , 1206 . The document that announced the war claimed the Jin lost the Mandate of Heaven , a sign that they were unfit to rule , and called for an insurrection of Han Chinese against the Jin state .

Song armies led by general Bi Zaiyu ( 畢再遇 ; d . 1217 ) captured the barely defended border city of Sizhou 泗州 ( on the north bank of the Huai River across from modern Xuyi County ) but suffered large losses against the Jurchens in Hebei . The Jin repelled the Song and moved south to besiege the Song town of Chuzhou 楚州 on the Grand Canal just south of the Huai River . Bi defended the town , and the Jurchens withdrew from the siege after three months . By the fall of 1206 , however , the Jurchens had captured multiple towns and military bases . The Jin initiated an offensive against Song prefectures in the central front of the war , capturing Zaoyang and Guanghua ( 光化 ; on the Han River near modern Laohekou ) . By the fall of 1206 , the Song offensive had already failed disastrously . Soldier morale sank as weather conditions worsened , supplies ran out , and hunger spread , forcing many to desert . The massive defections of Han Chinese in northern China that the Song had expected never materialized .

A notable betrayal did occur on the Song side , however : Wu Xi ( 吳曦 ; d . 1207 ) , the governor @-@ general of Sichuan , defected to the Jin in December 1206 . The Song had depended on Wu 's success in the west to divert Jin soldiers away from the eastern front . He had attacked Jin positions earlier in 1206 , but his army of about 50 @,@ 000 men had been repelled . Wu 's defection could have meant the loss of the entire western front of the war , but Song loyalists assassinated Wu on March 29 , 1207 , before Jin troops could take control of the surrendered territories . An Bing ( 安丙 ; d . 1221 ) was given Wu Xi 's position , but the cohesion of Song forces in the west fell apart after Wu 's demise and commanders turned on each other in the ensuing infighting .

Fighting continued in 1207 , but by the end of that year the war was at a stalemate . The Song was now on the defensive , while the Jin failed to make gains in Song territory . The failure of Han Tuozhou 's aggressive policies led to his demise . On December 15 , 1207 , Han was beaten to death by the Imperial Palace Guards . His accomplice Su Shidan ( 蘇師旦 ) was executed , and other officials connected to Han were dismissed or exiled . Since neither combatant was eager to continue the war , they returned to negotiations . A peace treaty was signed on November 2 , 1208 , and the Song tribute to the Jin was reinstated . The Song annual indemnity increased by 50 @,@ 000 taels of silver and 50 @,@ 000 packs of fabric . The treaty also stipulated that the Song had to present to the Jin the head of Han Tuozhou , who the Jin held responsible for starting the war . The heads of Han and Su were severed from their exhumed corpses , exhibited to the public , then delivered to the Jin .

= = = = Song – Jin war during the rise of the Mongols = = = =

The Mongols , a nomadic confederation , had unified in the middle of the twelfth century . They and other steppe nomads occasionally raided the Jin empire from the northwest . The Jin shied away from punitive expeditions and was content with appeasement , similar to the practices of the Song . The Mongols , formerly a Jin tributary , ended their vassalage in 1210 and attacked the Jin in 1211 . In light of this event , the Song court debated ending tributary payments to the weakened Jin , but they chose to avoid antagonizing the Jin . They refused Western Xia 's offers of allying against the Jin in 1214 and willingly complied when in 1215 the Jin rejected a request to lower the annual indemnity . Meanwhile , in 1214 , the Jin retreated from the besieged capital of Zhongdu to Kaifeng , which became the new capital of the dynasty . As the Mongols expanded , the Jin suffered territorial losses and attacked the Song in 1217 to compensate for their shrinking territory . Periodic Song raids against the Jin were the official justification for the war . Another likely motive was that the conquest of the Song would have given the Jin a place to escape should the Mongols succeed in taking control of the north . Shi Miyuan ( 史彌遠 ; 1164 – 1233 ) , the chancellor of Song Emperor Lizong ( r . 1224 – 1264 ) , was hesitant to fight the Jin and delayed the declaration of war for two months . Song generals were largely autonomous , allowing Shi to evade blame for their military blunders . The Jin advanced across the border from the center and western fronts . Jurchen military successes were limited , and the Jin faced repeated raids from the neighboring state of Western Xia . In 1217 , the Song generals Meng Zongzheng ( 孟宗政 ) and Hu Zaixing ( 扈再興 ) defeated the Jin and prevented them from capturing Zaoyang and Suizhou .

A second Jin campaign in late 1217 did marginally better than the first . In the east , the Jin made little headway in the Huai River valley , but in the west they captured Xihezhou and Dasan Pass ( 大散關 ; modern Shaanxi ) in late 1217 . The Jin tried to captured Suizhou in Jingxi South circuit again in 1218 and 1219 , but failed . A Song counteroffensive in early 1218 captured Sizhou and in 1219 the Jin cities of Dengzhou and Tangzhou were pillaged twice by a Song army commanded by Zhao Fang ( 趙方 ; d . 1221 ) . In the west , command of the Song forces in Sichuan was given to An Bing , who had previously been dismissed from this position . He successfully defended the western front , but was unable to advance further because of local uprisings in the area . The Jin tried to extort an indemnity from the Song but never received it . In the last of the three campaigns , in early 1221 , the Jin captured the city of Qizhou ( 蘄州 ; in Huainan West ) deep in Song territory . Song armies led by Hu Zaixing and Li Quan ( 李全 ; d . 1231 ) defeated the Jin , who then withdrew . In 1224 both sides agreed on a peace treaty that ended the annual tributes to the Jin . Diplomatic missions between the Jin and Song were also cut off .

= = = = Mongol – Song alliance = = = =

In February 1233 , the Mongols took Kaifeng after a siege of more than 10 months and the Jin court retreated to the town of Caizhou . In 1233 Emperor Aizong ( r . 1224 – 1234 ) of the Jin dispatched diplomats to implore the Song for supplies . Jin envoys reported to the Song that the Mongols would invade the Song after they were done with the Jin — a forecast that would later be proven true — but the Song ignored the warning and rebuffed the request . They instead formed an alliance with the Mongols against the Jin . The Song provided supplies to the Mongols in return for parts of Henan . The Jin dynasty collapsed when Mongol and Song troops defeated the Jurchens at the siege of Caizhou in 1234 . General Meng Gong ( 孟珙 ) led the Song army against Caizhou . The penultimate emperor of the Jin , Emperor Aizong , took his own life . His short @-@ lived successor , Emperor Mo , was killed in the town a few days later . The Mongols later turned their sights towards the Song . After decades of war , the Song dynasty also fell in 1279 , when the remaining Song loyalists lost to the Mongols in a naval battle near Guangdong .

= = Historical significance = =

= = = Cultural and demographic changes = = =

Jurchen migrants from the northeastern reaches of Jin territory settled in the Jin @-@ controlled lands of northern China . Constituting less than ten percent of the total population , the two to three million ruling Jurchens were a minority in a region that was still dominated by 30 million Han Chinese . The southward expansion of the Jurchens caused the Jin to transition their decentralized government of semi @-@ agrarian tribes to a bureaucratic Chinese @-@ style dynasty .

The Jin government initially promoted an independent Jurchen culture alongside their adoption of the centralized Chinese imperial bureaucracy , but the empire was gradually sinicized over time . The Jurchens became fluent in the Chinese language , and the philosophy of Confucianism was used to legitimize the ruling government . Confucian state rituals were adopted during the reign of Emperor Xizong ( 1135 – 1150 ) . The Jin implemented imperial exams on the Confucian Classics , first regionally and then for the entire empire . The Classics and other works of Chinese literature were translated into Jurchen and studied by Jin intellectuals , but very few Jurchens actively contributed to the classical literature of the Jin . The Khitan script , from the Chinese family of scripts , formed the basis of a national writing system for the empire , the Jurchen script . All three scripts were working languages of the government . Jurchen clans adopted Chinese personal names with their Jurchen names . Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ; r . 1150 – 1161 ) was an enthusiastic proponent of Jurchen sinicization and enacted policies to encourage it . Wanyan Liang had been acculturated by Song diplomats from childhood , and his emulation of Song practices earned him the Jurchen nickname of " aping the Chinese " . He studied the Chinese classics , drank tea , and played Chinese chess for recreation . Under his reign , the administrative core of the Jin state was moved south from Huining . He instated Beijing as the Jin main capital in 1153 . Palaces were erected in Beijing and Kaifeng , while the original , more northerly residences of Jurchen chieftains were demolished .

The emperor 's political reforms were connected with his desire to conquer all of China and to legitimize himself as a Chinese emperor . The prospect of conquering southern China was cut short by Wanyan Liang 's assassination . Wanyan Liang 's successor , Emperor Shizong , was less enthusiastic about sinicization and reversed several of Wanyan Liang 's edicts . He sanctioned new policies with the intent to slow the assimilation of the Jurchens . Shizong 's prohibitions were abandoned by Emperor Zhangzong ( r . 1189 – 1208 ) , who promoted reforms that transformed the political structure of the dynasty closer to that of the Song and Tang dynasties . Despite cultural and demographic changes , military hostilities between the Jin and the Song persisted until the fall of the Jin .

In the south , the retreat of the Song dynasty led to major demographic changes . The population of refugees from the north that resettled in Hangzhou and Jiankang ( modern Nanjing ) eventually grew greater than the population of original residents , whose numbers had dwindled from repeated Jurchen raids . The government encouraged the resettlement of peasant migrants from the southern provinces of the Song to the underpopulated territories between the Yangtze and the Huai rivers .

The new capital Hangzhou grew into a major commercial and cultural center . It rose from a middling city of no special importance to one of the world 's largest and most prosperous . During his stay in Hangzhou in the Yuan dynasty ( 1260 – 1368 ) , when the city was not as wealthy as it had been under the Song , Marco Polo remarked that " this city is greater than any in the world " . Once retaking northern China became less plausible and Hangzhou grew into a significant trading city , the government buildings were extended and renovated to better befit its status as an imperial capital . The modestly sized imperial palace was expanded in 1133 with new roofed alleyways and in 1148 with an extension of the palace walls .

The loss of northern China , the cultural center of Chinese civilization , diminished the international status of the Song dynasty . After the Jurchen conquest of the north , Korea recognized the Jin , not the Song , as the legitimate dynasty of China . The Song 's military failures reduced it to a subordinate of the Jin , turning it into a " China among equals " . The Song economy , however , recovered quickly after the move south . Government revenues earned from taxing foreign trade nearly doubled between the closing of the Northern Song era in 1127 and the final years of Gaozong 's reign in the early 1160s . The recovery was not uniform , and areas like Huainan and Hubei that had been directly affected by the war took decades to return to their pre @-@ war levels . In spite of multiple wars , the Jin remained one of the main trading partners of the Song . Song demand for foreign products like fur and horses went unabated . Historian Shiba Yoshinobu ( 斯波義信 , b . 1930 ) believes that Song commerce with the north was profitable enough that it compensated for the silver delivered annually as an indemnity to the Jin .

= = = Gunpowder warfare = = =

The battles between the Song and the Jin spurred the invention and use of gunpowder weapons . There are reports that the fire lance , one of the earliest ancestors of the firearm , was used by the Song against the Jurchens besieging De 'an ( 德安 ; modern Anlu in eastern Hubei ) in 1132 , during the Jin invasion of Hubei and Shaanxi . The weapon consisted of a spear attached with a flamethrower capable of firing projectiles from a barrel constructed of bamboo or paper . They were built by soldiers under the command of Chen Gui ( 陳規 ) , who led the Song army defending De 'an . The fire lances with which Song soldiers were equipped at De 'an were built for destroying the wooden siege engines of the Jin and not for combat against the Jin infantry . Song soldiers compensated for the limited range and mobility of the weapon by timing their attacks on the Jin siege engines , waiting until they were within range of the fire lances . Later fire lances used metal barrels , fired projectiles farther and with greater force , and could be used against infantry .

Early rudimentary bombs like the huopao fire bomb ( 火礮 ) and the huopao ( 火砲 ) bombs propelled by trebuchet were also in use as incendiary weapons . The defending Song army used huopao ( 火礮 ) during the first Jin siege of Kaifeng in 1126 . On the opposing side , the Jin launched incendiary bombs from siege towers down onto the city below . In 1127 , huopao ( 火礮 ) were employed by the Song troops defending De 'an and by the Jin soldiers besieging the city . The government official Lin Zhiping ( 林之平 ) proposed to make incendiary bombs and arrows mandatory for all warships in the Song navy . At the battle of Caishi in 1161 , Song ships fired pili huoqiu ( 霹靂火球 ) , also called pili huopao bombs ( 霹靂火砲 ) , from trebuchets against the ships of the Jin fleet commanded by Wanyan Liang . The gunpowder mixture of the bomb contained powdered lime , which produced blinding smoke once the casing of the bomb shattered . The Song also deployed incendiary weapons at the battle of Tangdao during the same year .

Gunpowder was also applied to arrows in 1206 by a Song army stationed in Xiangyang . The arrows were most likely an incendiary weapon , but its function may also have resembled that of an early rocket . At the Jin siege of Qizhou ( 蘄州 ) in 1221 , the Jurchens fought the Song with gunpowder bombs and arrows . The Jin tiehuopao ( 鐵火砲 , " iron huopao " ) , which had cast iron casings , are the first known bombs that could explode . The bomb needed to be capable of detonating in order to penetrate the iron casing . The Song army had a large supply of incendiary bombs , but there are no reports of them having a weapon similar to the Jin 's detonating bombs . A participant in the siege recounted in the Xinsi Qi Qi Lu ( 辛巳泣蘄錄 ) that the Song army at Qizhou had an arsenal of 3000 huopao ( 火礮 ) , 7000 incendiary gunpowder arrows for crossbows and 10000 for bows , as well as 20000 pidapao ( 皮大礮 ) , probably leather bags filled with gunpowder .

= T30 Howitzer Motor Carriage =

The T30 Howitzer Motor Carriage ( HMC ) was a United States Army self @-@ propelled gun used in World War II . Its design was based on requirements for an assault gun issued by the Armored Force in 1941 and it was built as an interim solution until a fully tracked design was complete .

Produced by the White Motor Company , the vehicle was simply a 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 mounted on a modified M3 Half @-@ track . It was first used in combat in the North African Campaign in November 1942 . It later served in Italy and France , and possibly in the Pacific . Some were later leased to French forces and the type was used as late as the First Indochina War in the 1950s .

= = Specifications = =

Based on the M3 Half @-@ track , the T30 's specifications were similar to its parent vehicle . It was 20 ft 7 in ( 6 @.@ 28 m ) long , 6 ft 5 in ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) wide , 8 ft 3 in ( 2 @.@ 51 m ) and high , and weighed 10 @.@ 3 short tons ( 9 @.@ 3 t ) . The suspension consisted of vertical volute springs for the tracks and leaf springs for the wheels , while the vehicle had a fuel capacity of 60 US gallons ( 230 l ) . It had a range of 150 mi ( 240 km ) and had a speed of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , and was powered by a White 160AX , 147 hp ( 110 kW ) , 386 in3 ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , six @-@ cylinder , gasoline engine , with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 3 : 1 . It had a power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 15 @.@ 8 hp / ton .

= = = Gun specifications = = =

The T30 's main armament was a short barreled 3 @.@ 0 in ( 75 mm ) pack howitzer . The 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 as mounted could depress nine degrees , elevate 50 degrees , and traverse 22 @.@ 5 degrees to each side . The vehicle had stowage for sixty rounds of 75 mm ammunition and , although it was not designed for anti @-@ tank use , it had a high explosive anti @-@ tank ( HEAT ) shell that could penetrate 3 in ( 76 mm ) of armor . The gun shield had 0 @.@ 375 in ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) thick armor , designed to stop a .30 cal ( 7 @.@ 62 mm ) bullet from 250 yards ( 230 m ) away .

= = Development = =

The T30 HMC was originally conceived in 1941 as an interim design to fulfil the Armored Force 's requirement for an assault gun to equip tank and armored reconnaissance units . The Ordnance Department design was based on the M3 Half @-@ track in order that it could be brought into service quickly . A prototype vehicle was authorized in October 1941 armed with an M1A1 75 mm Pack Howitzer and a mount that was designed to fit on a simple box structure in the back of an M3 Half @-@ track .

Authorization for the production of two prototypes was given in January 1942 ; first deliveries of the vehicle were made the following month from the White Motor Company . As it was seen as a temporary solution it was never given type classification . In September 1942 , the T30 was partially replaced by the Howitzer Motor Carriage M8 ( the same gun on an M3 Stuart ) . After that , it was declared as " limited standard " . A total of 500 were produced , all by the White Motor Company .

= = Service history = =

The T30 HMC entered service in November 1942 , seeing action for the first time in the North African Campaign . In the 1st Armored Division , each armored regiment was issued twelve T30s . Of these , three were used in each battalion headquarters platoon and three were used in each regimental reconnaissance platoon . In addition , the 6th and 41st Armored Infantry Regiments were each issued with nine T30 HMCs , with three of them being allocated to the headquarters platoon in each armored infantry battalion .

Most infantry divisions in the North African Campaign deployed a " cannon company " equipped with six T30s and two 105 mm T19 HMCs . In one encounter in North Africa , the T30 was used in an attempt to destroy German tanks . Although the T30s fired several volleys , the German tanks were barely damaged and the T30s were ordered to retreat under the cover of smoke to prevent losses . After several similar experiences , U.S. forces ceased the practice of employing self @-@ propelled howitzers or mortars in direct combat with tanks .

The T30 also served during the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 , the war in Italy in 1944 , and possibly in the Pacific . It was removed from infantry division use in March 1943 , following changes in the organization of US infantry battalions , and was replaced by towed howitzers . The T30 was eventually replaced by the M8 HMC , which was based on the M5 Stuart light tank , and which began entering service around the same time as the T30 . Only 312 T30 HMCs were delivered in their original configuration , as the last 188 were converted back into M3 Half @-@ tracks before they were delivered . Later on , the U.S. leased several to French forces and some were used as late as the First Indochina War before the vehicle was retired from service in the 1950s .

= Memory Almost Full =

Memory Almost Full is the fourteenth solo studio album by Paul McCartney , discounting his Wings @-@ era discography , his orchestral works and his output as the Fireman . It was released in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2007 and in the United States a day later . The album was the first release on Starbucks ' Hear Music label . It was produced by David Kahne and recorded at Abbey Road Studios , Henson Recording Studios , AIR Studios , Hog Hill Mill Studios and RAK Studios between October 2003 , and from 2006 to February 2007 . In between the 2003 and 2006 sessions , McCartney was working on another studio album , Chaos and Creation in the Backyard ( 2005 ) , with producer Nigel Godrich .

Memory Almost Full reached the Top 5 in both the UK and US , as well as Denmark , Sweden , Greece , and Norway . The Grammy @-@ nominated album has sold over 2 million copies worldwide and has been certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies just in the United States . The album was released in three versions : a single disc , a 2 @-@ CD set , and a CD / DVD deluxe edition , the latter of which was released on 6 November 2007 .

= = Background = =

Nine demos were recorded at The Mill studio in September 2003 by Paul McCartney and his touring band . A month later , in October , album sessions for Memory Almost Full began , and were produced by David Kahne and recorded at Abbey Road Studios . McCartney and the band recorded the songs " You Tell Me " , " Only Mama Knows " , " Vintage Clothes " , " That Was Me " , " Feet in the Clouds " , " House of Wax " , " The End of the End " , and " Whole Life " . However , the sessions were cut short and put on hiatus when McCartney started another album , Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , with producer Nigel Godrich . In the website constructed for the album , McCartney stated : " I actually started this album , Memory Almost Full , before my last album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , released September 2005 . ( ... ) When I was just finishing up everything concerned with Chaos and had just got the Grammy nominations ( 2006 ) I realised I had this album to go back to and finish off . So I got it out to listen to it again , wondering if I would enjoy it , but actually I really loved it . All I did at first was just listen to a couple of things and then I began to think , ' OK , I like that track – now , what is wrong with it ? ' And it might be something like a drum sound , so then I would re @-@ drum and see where we would get to . ( ... ) In places it 's a very personal record and a lot of it is retrospective , drawing from memory , like memories from being a kid , from Liverpool and from summers gone . The album is evocative , emotional , rocking , but I can 't really sum it up in one sentence " .

= = Recording = =

Many songs from Memory Almost Full were from a group of songs , which also included songs from Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , and some intended for the former nearly ended up on the latter . Any songs that were started , but not finished , for Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , McCartney didn 't want to re @-@ do for Memory Almost Full . As sessions for the album progressed McCartney wrote some more songs , something that McCartney used to do when he was in the Beatles . A song called " Perfect Lover " was recorded at either one of the three following studios : RAK Studios , AIR Studios or Ocean Way Studios ; sometime between November 2003 and April 2005 . " Perfect Lover " , in its original form was more folk @-@ like , similar to Chaos and Creation in the Backyard 's " Friends to Go " . " Perfect Lover " went through a minor lyrical change , the bridge was changed , and an overhaul of its musical arrangement , before it finally became " Ever Present Past " . Two years after the 2003 session , sessions for the album started again . The book Paul McCartney : Recording Sessions ( 1969 @-@ 2013 ) . A Journey Through Paul McCartney 's Songs After The Beatles reports that the recordings of the album were started in September – October 2003 and resumed in February 2004 at Abbey Road , with other sessions taking place between March 2006 and February 2007 .

New tracks were recorded at the following studios : McCartney 's home studio in Sussex , The Mill , Los Angeles ' Henson Studios , London 's RAK Studios and AIR Studios , and New York 's SeeSquared Studios . The songs recorded at those studios were " Nod Your Head " , " In Private " , " 222 " , " Gratitude " , " Mr. Bellamy " , " See Your Sunshine " , and " Ever Present Past " . Of those songs , " Mr. Bellamy " , " Ever Present Past " , " Gratitude " , " Nod Your Head " , and " In Private " were all recorded on the same day , in March 2006 . As well as working on songs from the first Memory Almost Full album session in 2003 , " Why So Blue " was re @-@ recorded . In total , between 20 and 25 songs were recorded for the album . " Dance Tonight " was recorded , along with " Feet in the Clouds " and " 222 " being reworked , between January and February 2007 at RAK Studios , as the last song recorded for the album . The album was mixed by Kahne and Andy Wallace .

= = Content = =

The Rock Radio website leaked a track listing for the album on 12 April 2007 . A day later , producer David Kahne stated on the same site that the leaked listing was bogus . In an interview with Billboard magazine in May 2007 , McCartney said that the album 's material was " in some ways a little bit retrospective . Some of them are of now , some of them hark back to the past , but all of them are songs I 'm very proud of . " McCartney played mandolin on the song " Dance Tonight " . He comments that " In searching the instrument to try and find chords , which I did with the guitar when I was 14 , probably , that freshness was brought back . " " Ever Present Past " , which McCartney called " personal " , originally started out as a song called " Perfect Lover " . " Ever Present Past " also includes references to the Beatles . In June 2007 , McCartney revealed that " See Your Sunshine " " is pretty much an out @-@ and @-@ out love song for Heather . A lot of the album was done before , during and after our separation . I didn 't go back and take out any songs to do with her . " " You Tell Me " is about McCartney 's memories of his previous wife , Linda .

" Mr. Bellamy " , the sixth song on the album , was thought by online fans to be about McCartney 's then @-@ recent divorce . McCartney invited Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke to play piano on the song , but he declined . The press ran articles claiming that Yorke had " snubbed " McCartney , but Yorke later revealed that he " really liked the song " but felt he would be unable to perform to the required standard . " Gratitude " is reportedly about the divorce between Heather Mills and McCartney .

The album features a five song @-@ medley , which in an interview with Billboard magazine , McCartney said that it was previously " something I wanted to revisit " as " nobody had been doing that for a while . " The medley was a group of intentionally written material , whereas McCartney had worked on the Beatles ' Abbey Road which , however , was actually made up of " bits we had knocking around . " The medley starts off with " Vintage Clothes " , which McCartney " sat down one day " to write , that was " looking back , [ and ] looking back . " , about life . It was followed by the bass @-@ led " That Was Me " , which is about his " school days and teachers " , the medley , as McCartney stated , then " progressed from there . " The next songs are " Feet in the Clouds " , about the inactivity while one is growing up , and " House of Wax " , about the life of being a celebrity . The final song in medley , " The End of the End " , was written at McCartney 's Cavendish Avenue home while playing on his father , Jim 's , piano .

= = Album title , and CD casing = =

Some people mentioned that the album 's title , Memory Almost Full , is an anagram of " for my soulmate LLM " ( the initials of Linda Louise McCartney ) . When asked if this was intentional , McCartney replied ; " Some things are best left a mystery " . In an interview with Pitchfork Media , McCartney clarified , " I must say , someone told me [ there is an anagram ] , and I think it 's a complete mystery , because it 's so complete . There does appear to be an anagram in the title . And it 's a mystery . It was not intentional . " The album 's title was actually inspired by a message that came up on his mobile phone . He thought the phrase summed up modern life .

A significant proportion of the CD release of Memory Almost Full incorporated a cover insert whose top @-@ right corner was intentionally folded down to the center of the insert , leaving the CD tray visible . The folded @-@ down white corner covers up the corner of the armchair image , but has the artist and album names printed so that the text is complete despite the fold . Upon opening and flattening out the cover insert , the armchair is complete , but the portion of the text which is printed on the folded @-@ down corner is not printed on the front of the cover , leaving the text incomplete . This was the first time such an artistic intervention occurred within a standard jewel @-@ case , and at first glance had the possibility of being viewed as a mis @-@ manufactured copy . McCartney on the CD case / album artwork : " I really wanted to make the CD a desirable object . Something that I know I 'd want to pick up from the shelf , something that would make people curious . "

= = Reception = =

Memory Almost Full received positive reaction . At Metacritic , the album earned an average score of 69 based on 23 reviews from critics , which indicates " Generally favorable reviews " . Evan Serpick of Rolling Stone magazine also compared the medley of five songs in the second part of the album to the famous song suite in The Beatles ' Abbey Road . This album was ranked number 22 on Rolling Stone 's list of the Top 50 Albums of 2007 .

= = Release = =

= = = Album = = =

The album was his first for Starbucks ' Hear Music record label , after previously having a 45 @-@ year @-@ old relationship with Capitol / EMI . The recording contract with Capitol / EMI ended a few months prior to the release of the album , after McCartney had found out that EMI were planning to take six months to set up a promotional plan for the album . McCartney was the first artist to sign to Hear Music . The album was released on 4 June 2007 in the UK , and a day later on the 5th in the US , and with a vinyl edition later in the month on 25 June . In the US , Memory Almost Full debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200 with about 161 @,@ 000 copies sold within the first week , making it McCartney 's highest @-@ charting album there since 1997 's Flaming Pie . 47 % of the album sales from the opening week were from Starbucks coffee shops , which were the best sales for any album in the history of Starbucks . While it was announced that copies of the album sold in the Starbucks coffee shops in the UK would not be counted by the Official UK Charts , because they are not registered in the copies counting system , Memory Almost Full , however , still managed to hit number 5 on the UK Album Charts . The album was also peaked at number 1 on Billboard Internet Sales Chart , and number 3 on Billboard Top Internet Albums Downloads .

It was also McCartney 's first album to be available as a digital download . Promotion for the album came in several forms , such as a worldwide listening party at over 10 @,@ 000 Starbucks stores on the day of the album 's US release , with an approximation of 6 million people hearing the album . At ten of the Starbucks stores , fans contributed in a video tribute , that aired on the internet on 18 June 2007 . Other promotions included a limited edition Paul McCartney Starbucks card , similar to what they had done for Ray Charles 's Genius Loves Company , the Starbucks @-@ owned satellite radio station XM Channel made a program about McCartney and the album , released one song prior to the album on iTunes , performed at iTunes Festival : London , and playing free shows . It was ranked at number 90 on the top @-@ 100 of the Billboard Year @-@ end chart , and number 177 on the UK year @-@ end chart . The album won awards for the Best PR Campaign award at the Music Week Awards ceremony , and the Online / Digital Campaign award by New Media Age . The album reportedly sold 105 @,@ 000 copies in his homeland until it was given away the standard version of the CD in a unique slip @-@ case as part of a promotion with British newspaper The Mail on Sunday for free , with the 18 May 2008 edition .

On 6 November 2007 , the album was re @-@ released as Memory Almost Full – Deluxe Edition . The set included one CD and one DVD . The CD included the standard album plus the three extra songs from the 2 @-@ CD edition . The DVD contained five tracks recorded live at The Electric Ballroom in London , and two music videos .

= = = Singles = = =

The first US single , " Ever Present Past " , made its radio debut on 20 April 2007 . Peaking at number 10 in the Bubbling Under Hot 100 , and also charting at number 16 on Billboard Adult Contemporary . The lead single for the rest of the world is " Dance Tonight " , released on McCartney 's 65th birthday in the UK , 18 June 2007 as a digital download , with a physical release a month later , on 23 July of a CD single and a 10 " shaped picture disc . The single peaked at number 46 on Billboard Hot Digital Songs , number 58 Billboard Pop 100 , and finally at number 69 on Billboard Hot 100 . The music video features Natalie Portman and Mackenzie Crook , and was directed by Michel Gondry . The music video had its premier exclusively on 23 May 2007 YouTube . " Dance Tonight " has appeared in an iTunes advert with McCartney playing the mandolin . " Ever Present Past " was released as a single in the UK , on 5 November , as a CD single and 7 " single . It peaked at number 85 . The third single , " Nod Your Head " , was released as a digital download single on 28 August 2007 via the iTunes Store .

= = Track listing = =

All songs written by Paul McCartney .

" Dance Tonight " – 2 : 54

" Ever Present Past " – 2 : 57

" See Your Sunshine " – 3 : 20

" Only Mama Knows " – 4 : 17

" You Tell Me " – 3 : 15

" Mr. Bellamy " – 3 : 39

" Gratitude " – 3 : 19

" Vintage Clothes " – 2 : 22

This track marks the start of a five @-@ song medley on the album .

" That Was Me " – 2 : 38

" Feet in the Clouds " – 3 : 24

" House of Wax " – 4 : 59

" The End of the End " – 2 : 57

" Nod Your Head " – 1 : 58

= = Personnel = =

Personnel per booklet .

= = Grammy = =

Memory Almost Full has been nominated in the following categories :

Best Pop Vocal Album for Memory Almost Full ( 2008 )

Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for " Dance Tonight " ( 2008 )

Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for " Only Mama Knows " ( 2008 )

Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for " That Was Me " ( 2009 )

= = Charts = =

Notes :

On the article that Concord Music Group posted on their official site in February 2007 ( a month before Memory Almost Full was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ) , Hear Music announced that shipments of the album reached a platinum status in the US . The label also claimed that the album gained a gold in other countries like Norway , though International Federation of the Phonographic Industry has not certified the album at any label there as of 2014 .

= Imagine ( John Lennon song ) =

" Imagine " is a song written and performed by the English musician John Lennon . The best @-@ selling single of his solo career , its lyrics encourage the listener to imagine a world at peace without the barriers of borders or the divisions of religion and nationality , and to consider the possibility that the focus of humanity should be living a life unattached to material possessions .

Lennon and Yoko Ono co @-@ produced the song and album of the same name with Phil Spector . Recording began at Lennon 's home studio at Tittenhurst Park , England , in May 1971 , with final overdubs taking place at the Record Plant , in New York City , during July . One month after the September release of the LP , Lennon released " Imagine " as a single in the United States ; the song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and the LP reached number one on the UK chart in November , later becoming the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed album of Lennon 's solo career . Although not originally released as a single in the United Kingdom , it was released in 1975 to promote a compilation LP and it reached number six in the chart that year . The song has since sold more than 1 @.@ 6 million copies in the UK ; it reached number one following Lennon 's murder in December 1980 . In 1985 , Central Park memorialized a portion of the park with a mosaic that reads " Imagine " in honor of Lennon .

BMI named " Imagine " one of the 100 most @-@ performed songs of the 20th century . The song ranked number 30 on the Recording Industry Association of America 's list of the 365 Songs of the Century bearing the most historical significance . It earned a Grammy Hall of Fame Award and an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . A UK survey conducted by the Guinness World Records British Hit Singles Book named it the second best single of all time , while Rolling Stone ranked it number three in their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . Since 2005 , event organisers have played it just before the New Year 's Times Square Ball drops in New York City . Dozens of artists have performed or recorded versions of " Imagine " , including Madonna , Stevie Wonder , Joan Baez , Elton John and Diana Ross . Emeli Sandé recorded a cover for the BBC to use during the end credits montage at the close of the 2012 Summer Olympics coverage in August 2012 . " Imagine " subsequently re @-@ entered the UK Top 40 , reaching number 18 .

= = Composition and writing = =

Several poems from Yoko Ono 's 1964 book Grapefruit inspired Lennon to write the lyrics for " Imagine " — in particular , one which Capitol Records reproduced on the back cover of the original Imagine LP titled " Cloud Piece " , reads : " Imagine the clouds dripping , dig a hole in your garden to put them in . " Lennon later said the composition " should be credited as a Lennon / Ono song . A lot of it — the lyric and the concept — came from Yoko , but in those days I was a bit more selfish , a bit more macho , and I sort of omitted her contribution , but it was right out of Grapefruit . " When asked about the song 's meaning during a December 1980 interview with David Sheff for Playboy magazine , Lennon told Sheff that Dick Gregory had given Ono and him a Christian prayer book , which inspired him the concept behind " Imagine " .

The concept of positive prayer ... If you can imagine a world at peace , with no denominations of religion — not without religion but without this my God @-@ is @-@ bigger @-@ than @-@ your @-@ God thing — then it can be true ... the World Church called me once and asked , " Can we use the lyrics to ' Imagine ' and just change it to ' Imagine one religion ' ? " That showed [ me ] they didn 't understand it at all . It would defeat the whole purpose of the song , the whole idea .

With the combined influence of " Cloud Piece " and the prayer book given to him by Gregory , Lennon wrote what author John Blaney described as " a humanistic paean for the people " . Blaney wrote , " Lennon contends that global harmony is within our reach , but only if we reject the mechanisms of social control that restrict human potential . " In the opinion of Blaney , with " Imagine " , Lennon attempted to raise people 's awareness of their interaction with the institutions that affect their lives . Rolling Stone 's David Fricke commented : " [ Lennon ] calls for a unity and equality built upon the complete elimination of modern social order : geopolitical borders , organised religion , [ and ] economic class . "

Lennon stated : " ' Imagine ' , which says : ' Imagine that there was no more religion , no more country , no more politics , ' is virtually the Communist manifesto , even though I 'm not particularly a Communist and I do not belong to any movement . " He told NME : " There is no real Communist state in the world ; you must realize that . The Socialism I speak about ... [ is ] not the way some daft Russian might do it , or the Chinese might do it . That might suit them . Us , we should have a nice ... British Socialism . " Ono described the lyrical statement of " Imagine " as " just what John believed : that we are all one country , one world , one people . " Rolling Stone described its lyrics as " 22 lines of graceful , plain @-@ spoken faith in the power of a world , united in purpose , to repair and change itself " .

Lennon composed " Imagine " one morning in early 1971 , on a Steinway piano , in a bedroom at his Tittenhurst Park estate in Ascot , Berkshire , England . Ono watched as he composed the melody , chord structure and almost all the lyrics , nearly completing the song in one brief writing session . Described as a piano ballad performed in the soft rock genre , the song is in the key of C major . Its 4 @-@ bar piano introduction begins with a C chord then moves to Cmaj7 before changing to F ; the 12 @-@ bar verses also follow this chord progression , with their last 4 bars moving from Am / E to Dm and Dm / C , finishing with G , G11 then G7 , before resolving back to C. The 8 @-@ bar choruses progress from F to G to C , then Cmaj7 and E before ending on E7 , a C chord substituted for E7 in the final bar . The 4 @-@ bar outro begins with F , then G , before resolving on C. With a duration of 3 minutes and 3 seconds and a time signature of 4 / 4 , the song 's tempo falls around 75 beats per minute .

= = Recording and commercial reception = =

Lennon and Ono co @-@ produced the song and album with Phil Spector , who commented on the track : " We knew what we were going to do ... It was going to be John making a political statement , but a very commercial one as well ... I always thought that ' Imagine ' was like the national anthem . " Lennon described his working arrangement with Ono and Spector : " Phil doesn 't arrange or anything like that — [ Ono ] and Phil will just sit in the other room and shout comments like , ' Why don 't you try this sound ' or ' You 're not playing the piano too well ' ... I 'll get the initial idea and ... we 'll just find a sound from [ there ] . "

Recording began at Ascot Sound Studios , Lennon 's newly built home studio at Tittenhurst Park , in May 1971 , with final overdubs taking place at the Record Plant , in New York City , during July . Relaxed and patient , the sessions began during the late morning , running to just before dinner in the early evening . Lennon taught the musicians the chord progression and a working arrangement for " Imagine " , rehearsing the song until he deemed the musicians ready to record . In his attempt to recreate Lennon 's desired sound , Spector had some early tapings feature Lennon and Nicky Hopkins playing in different octaves on one piano . He also initially attempted to record the piano part with Lennon playing the white baby grand in the couple 's all @-@ white room . However , after having deemed the room 's acoustics unsuitable , Spector abandoned the idea in favour of the superior environment of Lennon 's home studio . They completed the session in minutes , recording three takes and choosing the second one for release . The finished recording featured Lennon on piano and vocal , Klaus Voormann on bass guitar , Alan White on drums and the Flux Fiddlers on strings .

Issued by Apple Records in the United States in October 1971 , " Imagine " became the best @-@ selling single of Lennon 's solo career . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number one in Canada on the RPM national singles chart , remaining there for two weeks . Upon its release the song 's lyrics upset some religious groups , particularly the line : " Imagine there 's no heaven " . When asked about the song during one of his final interviews , Lennon said he considered it to be as strong a composition as any he had written with the Beatles . He described the song 's meaning and explicated its commercial appeal : " Anti @-@ religious , anti @-@ nationalistic , anti @-@ conventional , anti @-@ capitalistic , but because it is sugarcoated it is accepted ... Now I understand what you have to do . Put your political message across with a little honey . " In an open letter to Paul McCartney published in Melody Maker , Lennon said that " Imagine " was " ' Working Class Hero ' with sugar on it for conservatives like yourself " . On 30 November 1971 , the Imagine LP reached number one on the UK chart . It became the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed album of Lennon 's solo career .

= = Film and re @-@ releases = =

In 1972 , Lennon and Ono released an 81 @-@ minute film to accompany the Imagine album which featured footage of the couple in their home , garden and the recording studio of their Berkshire property at Tittenhurst Park as well as in New York City . A full @-@ length documentary rock video , the film 's first scene features a shot of Lennon and Ono walking through a thick fog , arriving at their house as the song " Imagine " begins . Above the front door to their house is a sign that reads : " This Is Not Here " , the title of Ono 's then New York art show . The next scene shows Lennon sitting at a white grand piano in a dimly lit , all @-@ white room . Ono gradually walks around opening curtains that allow in light , making the room brighter with the song 's progression . At the song 's conclusion , Ono sits beside Lennon at the piano , and they share a quaint gaze , then a brief kiss .

Several celebrities appeared in the film , including Andy Warhol , Fred Astaire , Jack Palance , Dick Cavett and George Harrison . Derided by critics as " the most expensive home movie of all time " , it premiered to an American audience in 1972 . In 1986 , Zbigniew Rybczyński made a music video for the song , and in 1987 , it won both the " Silver Lion " award for Best Clip at Cannes and the Festival Award at the Rio International Film Festival .

Released as a single in the United Kingdom in 1975 in conjunction with the album Shaved Fish , " Imagine " peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart . Following Lennon 's murder in 1980 , the single re @-@ entered the UK chart , reaching number one , where it remained for four weeks in January 1981 . " Imagine " was re @-@ released as a single in the UK in 1988 , peaking at number 45 , and again in 1999 , reaching number three . It has sold 1 @,@ 640 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of June 2013 , making it Lennon 's best @-@ selling single . In 1999 , on National Poetry Day in the United Kingdom , the BBC announced that listeners had voted " Imagine " Britain 's favourite song lyric . In 2003 , it reached number 33 as the B @-@ side to a re @-@ release of " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " .

= = Recognition and criticism = =

Rolling Stone described " Imagine " as Lennon 's " greatest musical gift to the world " , praising " the serene melody ; the pillowy chord progression ; [ and ] that beckoning , four @-@ note [ piano ] figure " . Included in several song polls , in 1999 , BMI named it one of the top 100 most @-@ performed songs of the 20th century . Also that year , it received the Grammy Hall of Fame Award and an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . " Imagine " ranked number 23 in the list of best @-@ selling singles of all time in the UK , in 2000 . In 2002 , a UK survey conducted by the Guinness World Records British Hit Singles Book ranked it the second best single of all time behind Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " . Gold Radio ranked the song number three on its " Gold 's greatest 1000 hits " list .

Rolling Stone ranked " Imagine " number three on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , describing it as " an enduring hymn of solace and promise that has carried us through extreme grief , from the shock of Lennon 's own death in 1980 to the unspeakable horror of September 11th . It is now impossible to imagine a world without ' Imagine ' , and we need it more than he ever dreamed . " Despite that sentiment , Clear Channel Communications included the song on its post @-@ 9 / 11 " do not play " list .

On 1 January 2005 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation named " Imagine " the greatest song in the past 100 years as voted by listeners on the show 50 Tracks . The song ranked number 30 on the Recording Industry Association of America 's list of the 365 Songs of the Century bearing the most historical significance . Virgin Radio conducted a UK favourite song survey in December 2005 , and listeners voted " Imagine " number one . Australians selected it the greatest song of all time on the Nine Network 's 20 to 1 countdown show on 12 September 2006 . They voted it eleventh in the youth radio network Triple J 's Hottest 100 Of All Time on 11 July 2009 .

Jimmy Carter said , " in many countries around the world — my wife and I have visited about 125 countries — you hear John Lennon 's song ' Imagine ' used almost equally with national anthems . " On 9 October 2010 , which would have been Lennon 's 70th birthday , the Liverpool Signing Choir performed " Imagine " along with other Lennon songs at the unveiling of the John Lennon Peace Monument in Chavasse Park , Liverpool , England . Beatles producer George Martin praised Lennon 's solo work , singling out the composition : " My favourite song of all was ' Imagine ' " . Music critic Paul Du Noyer described " Imagine " as Lennon 's " most revered " post @-@ Beatles song . Urish and Bielen called it " the most subversive pop song recorded to achieve classic status " . Fricke commented : " ' Imagine ' is a subtly contentious song , Lennon 's greatest combined achievement as a balladeer and agitator . "

Authors Ben Urish and Ken Bielen criticised the song 's instrumental music as overly sentimental and melodramatic , comparing it to the music of the pre @-@ rock era and describing the vocal melody as understated . According to Blaney , Lennon 's lyrics describe hypothetical possibilities that offer no practical solutions ; lyrics that are at times nebulous and contradictory , asking the listener to abandon political systems while encouraging one similar to communism . Author Chris Ingham indicated the hypocrisy in Lennon , the millionaire rock star living in a mansion , encouraging listeners to imagine living their lives without possessions . Others argue that Lennon intended the song 's lyrics to inspire listeners to imagine if the world could live without possessions , not as an explicit call to give them up . Blaney commented : " Lennon knew he had nothing concrete to offer , so instead he offers a dream , a concept to be built upon . "

Blaney considered the song to be " riddled with contradictions . Its hymn @-@ like setting sits uncomfortably alongside its author 's plea for us to envision a world without religion . " Urish and Bielen described Lennon 's " dream world " without a heaven or hell as a call to " make the best world we can here and now , since this is all this is or will be " . In their opinion , " because we are asked merely to imagine — to play a ' what if ' game , Lennon can escape the harshest criticisms " . Former Beatle Ringo Starr defended the song 's lyrics during a 1981 interview with Barbara Walters , stating : " [ Lennon ] said ' imagine ' , that 's all . Just imagine it . "

The morning after the November 2015 Paris attacks , German pianist Davide Martello brought a grand piano to the street out in front of the Bataclan , where 89 concertgoers had been shot dead the night before , and performed an instrumental version to honour the victims of the attacks ; video of his performance went viral . This led Katy Waldman of Slate to ponder why " Imagine " had become so frequently performed as a response to tragedy . In addition to its general popularity , she noted its musical simplicity , its key of C major , " the plainest and least complicated key , with no sharps or flats " aside from one passage with " a plaintive major seventh chord that allows a tiny bit of E minor into the tonic " . That piano part , " gentle as a rocking chair " , underpins lyrics that , Waldman says , " belongs to the tradition of hymns or spirituals that visualize a glorious afterlife without prophesizing any immediate end to suffering on earth " . This understanding is also compounded by the historical context of Lennon 's own violent death , " remind [ ing ] us that the universe can run ramshod over idealistic people " . Ultimately , the song " captures the fragility of our hope after a violent or destructive event ... [ bu ] t also reveals its tenacity " .

= = Notable performances and cover versions = =

In December 1971 , Lennon and Ono appeared at the Apollo Theater in Harlem . Lennon performed " Imagine " with an acoustic guitar , yielding the earliest known live recording of the song , later included on the John Lennon Anthology ( 1998 ) . In 1975 , he sang " Imagine " during his final public performance , a birthday celebration for Lew Grade .

Elton John performed the song regularly on his world tour in 1980 , including at his free concert in Central Park , a few blocks away from Lennon 's apartment in the Dakota building . On 9 December 1980 , the day after Lennon 's murder , Queen performed " Imagine " as a tribute to him during their Wembley Arena show in London . On 9 October 1990 , more than one billion people listened to a broadcast of the song on what would have been Lennon 's 50th birthday . Ratau Mike Makhalemele covered the song on an EP of Lennon covers in 1990 . In 1991 – 92 , Liza Minnelli performed the song in her show at Radio City Music Hall . Stevie Wonder gave his rendition of the song , with the Morehouse College Glee Club , during the closing ceremony of the 1996 Summer Olympics as a tribute to the victims of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing . In 2001 , Neil Young performed it during the benefit concert America : A Tribute to Heroes . Madonna performed " Imagine " during the benefit Tsunami Aid : A Concert of Hope . Peter Gabriel performed the song during the 2006 Winter Olympics opening ceremony .

Since 2005 , " Imagine " has been played prior to the New Year 's Eve ball drop at New York City 's Times Square . Beginning in 2010 , the song has been performed live ; first by Taio Cruz , then in 2011 by CeeLo Green and in 2012 by Train . However , Green received criticism for changing the lyric " and no religion too " to " and all religions true " , resulting in an immediate backlash from fans who believed that he had disrespected Lennon 's legacy by changing the lyrics of his most iconic song . Green defended the change by saying it meant to represent " a world [ where you ] could believe what [ you ] wanted " . The event got media attention outside of the US , with Britain 's The Guardian stating " Lennon 's original lyrics don 't praise pluralism or interchangeable religious truths – they damn them " .

More than 200 artists have recorded cover versions of " Imagine " . Joan Baez included it on 1972 's Come from the Shadows and Diana Ross recorded a version for her 1973 album , Touch Me in the Morning . In 1995 , Blues Traveler recorded the song for the Working Class Hero : A Tribute to John Lennon album and Dave Matthews has performed the song live with them . A Perfect Circle covered the song for the album eMOTIVe , released in 2004 . Dolly Parton recorded the song for her 2005 covers album Those Were the Days . A cover version of the song , performed by Italian singer Marco Carta , entered the top 20 in Italy in 2009 , peaking at number 13 . Seal , Pink , India.Arie , Jeff Beck , Konono Nº1 , Oumou Sangaré and others recorded a version for Herbie Hancock 's 2010 album The Imagine Project .

Hancock performed it with Arie , Kristina Train and Greg Phillinganes at the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize Concert on 11 December . On 13 February 2011 , the recording — with Pink , Seal , Malian singer Oumou Sangaré , India.Arie and Jeff Beck won a Grammy award for Best Pop Vocal Collaboration .

The song was performed as part of the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics . Performed by the Liverpool Philharmonic Youth Choir and the Liverpool Signing Choir , the choirs sang the first verse and accompanied Lennon 's original vocals during the rest of the song . A cover performed by Emeli Sandé was also used by the BBC for a closing montage that ended its coverage . " Imagine " subsequently re @-@ entered the UK Top 40 , reaching number 18 .

In 2015 , American singer / songwriter Lady Gaga performed the song at the 2015 European Games opening ceremony . The song was played for 70 @,@ 000 people in Baku , Azerbaijan that served as host of the event .

= = Personnel = =

John Lennon – vocals , piano

Klaus Voormann – bass

Alan White – drums

The Flux Fiddlers – strings

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = = Documentaries = = =

= Big Boy ( song ) =

" Big Boy " aka " I 'm A Big Boy Now " was the first single ever recorded by the Jackson 5 , which was released by Steeltown Records in January 1968 . The group played instruments on many of their Steeltown compositions , including " Big Boy " . The song was neither a critical nor commercial success , but the Jackson family were delighted with the outcome nonetheless .

The Jackson 5 would release a second single with Steeltown Records before moving to Motown Records . The group 's recordings at Steeltown Records were thought to be lost , but they were rediscovered more than 25 years later . They were remastered and released in 1995 , with " Big Boy " as the promotional lead single .

= = First record deal and lead single = =

The Jackson 5 began their career performing at talent contests , which they would often win . During a performance at Beckman Junior High in Gary , Indiana , the group were brought to the attention of Gordon Keith — a singer , record producer , and a founder @-@ owner of Steeltown Records , a company also located in Gary . Keith , Steeltown Records President in 1967 , signed " The Jackson Five " to a limited record deal with him only in November of that year , producing and and releasing " Big Boy " on January 30 , 1968 . The band recorded with their instruments and a backing group on the weekends . Michael Jackson sang lead vocals on the majority of the tracks beginning with " Big Boy " in 1967 which took a few hours to record . " Big Boy " was written by Eddie Silvers of Chicago and was recorded there . The group were paid three cents for each record sold , which was split equally amongst the five brothers and their drummer . The group 's first single " Big Boy " was backed with the B @-@ side " You 've Changed " . " The Jackson 5 and Johnny " ( Johnny Jackson on drums , no relation ) would go on to perform " Big Boy " and other songs locally throughout the Gary and South Chicago area before moving to California in 1969 .

= = Reception and Jackson family = =

The Jackson family gathered around a radio to hear the song broadcast for the first time . Michael Jackson — who was 9 years old at the time — said of the experience , " [ the family ] all laughed and hugged one another . We felt we had arrived . " The single " Big Boy " did not appear on any of Billboard 's music charts but sold in excess of 10 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Leaving Steeltown = =

" The Jackson Five " would release a second and final single through Steeltown Records — " We Don 't Have To Be Over 21 ( to Fall in Love ) " . The two singles were to be supported by an eleven track studio album but it was never released . On July 26 , 1968 , the group signed a contract with Motown Records . However , as the group 's Steeltown contract had not yet expired , the new contract could not be fully executed until March 11 , 1969 . Motown Records tried to get the group out of their Steeltown contract , and ultimately succeeded with a financial settlement .

= = Rediscovery = =

The master tapes to " Big Boy " were thought to be lost , but in 1994 , Jackson family friend Ben Brown found the tapes in his parents ' kitchen pantry . Brown reissued the record in 1995 , on the Inverted Records label — a week before Michael Jackson 's HIStory album was issued . He also remastered the song , selling it by mail order , along with an instrumental version , in a limited edition package consisting of a compact disc and cassette tape — the package could be purchased at a cost of approximately $ 30 . The reissue of " Big Boy " was promoted with a music video . In 2009 , Gordon Keith put items from the Steeltown era up for auction , including " a sizable number of mint @-@ condition copies of ' Big Boy ' " in 45 rpm format and 100 copies of " We Don 't Have To Be Over 21 ( to Fall in Love ) " . Keith stated , " I could use the money ... I got these guys off the ground ... I didn 't truly get real money for it " .

= Chagas disease =

Chagas disease , also known as American trypanosomiasis , is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi . It is spread mostly by insects known as Triatominae or kissing bugs . The symptoms change over the course of the infection . In the early stage , symptoms are typically either not present or mild , and may include fever , swollen lymph nodes , headaches , or local swelling at the site of the bite . After 8 – 12 weeks , individuals enter the chronic phase of disease and in 60 – 70 % it never produces further symptoms . The other 30 to 40 % of people develop further symptoms 10 to 30 years after the initial infection , including enlargement of the ventricles of the heart in 20 to 30 % , leading to heart failure . An enlarged esophagus or an enlarged colon may also occur in 10 % of people .

T. cruzi is commonly spread to humans and other mammals by the blood @-@ sucking " kissing bugs " of the subfamily Triatominae . These insects are known by a number of local names , including : vinchuca in Argentina , Bolivia , Chile and Paraguay , barbeiro ( the barber ) in Brazil , pito in Colombia , chinche in Central America , and chipo in Venezuela . The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion , organ transplantation , eating food contaminated with the parasites , and by vertical transmission ( from a mother to her fetus ) . Diagnosis of early disease is by finding the parasite in the blood using a microscope . Chronic disease is diagnosed by finding antibodies for T. cruzi in the blood .

Prevention mostly involves eliminating kissing bugs and avoiding their bites . Other preventative efforts include screening blood used for transfusions . A vaccine has not been developed as of 2013 . Early infections are treatable with the medication benznidazole or nifurtimox . Medication nearly always results in a cure if given early , but becomes less effective the longer a person has had Chagas disease . When used in chronic disease , medication may delay or prevent the development of end – stage symptoms . Benznidazole and nifurtimox cause temporary side effects in up to 40 % of people including skin disorders , brain toxicity , and digestive system irritation .

It is estimated that 7 to 8 million people , mostly in Mexico , Central America and South America , have Chagas disease as of 2013 . In 2006 , Chagas was estimated to result in 12 @,@ 500 deaths per year . Most people with the disease are poor , and most people with the disease do not realize they are infected . Large @-@ scale population movements have increased the areas where Chagas disease is found and these include many European countries and the United States . These areas have also seen an increase in the years up to 2014 . The disease was first described in 1909 by Carlos Chagas after whom it is named . It affects more than 150 other animals .

= = Signs and symptoms = =

The human disease occurs in two stages : an acute stage , which occurs shortly after an initial infection , and a chronic stage that develops over many years .

The acute phase lasts for the first few weeks or months of infection . It usually occurs unnoticed because it is symptom @-@ free or exhibits only mild symptoms that are not unique to Chagas disease . These can include fever , fatigue , body aches , muscle pain , headache , rash , loss of appetite , diarrhea , nausea , and vomiting . The signs on physical examination can include mild enlargement of the liver or spleen , swollen glands , and local swelling ( a chagoma ) where the parasite entered the body .

The most recognized marker of acute Chagas disease is called Romaña 's sign , which includes swelling of the eyelids on the side of the face near the bite wound or where the bug feces were deposited or accidentally rubbed into the eye . Rarely , young children , or adults may die from the acute disease due to severe inflammation / infection of the heart muscle ( myocarditis ) or brain ( meningoencephalitis ) . The acute phase also can be severe in people with weakened immune systems .

If symptoms develop during the acute phase , they usually resolve spontaneously within three to eight weeks in approximately 90 % of individuals . Although the symptoms resolve , even with treatment the infection persists and enters a chronic phase . Of individuals with chronic Chagas disease , 60 – 80 % will never develop symptoms ( called indeterminate chronic Chagas disease ) , while the remaining 20 – 40 % will develop life @-@ threatening heart and / or digestive disorders during their lifetime ( called determinate chronic Chagas disease ) . In 10 % of individuals , the disease progresses directly from the acute form to a symptomatic clinical form of chronic Chagas disease .

The symptomatic ( determinate ) chronic stage affects the nervous system , digestive system and heart . About two @-@ thirds of people with chronic symptoms have cardiac damage , including dilated cardiomyopathy , which causes heart rhythm abnormalities and may result in sudden death . About one @-@ third of patients go on to develop digestive system damage , resulting in dilation of the digestive tract ( megacolon and megaesophagus ) , accompanied by severe weight loss . Swallowing difficulties ( secondary achalasia ) may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to malnutrition .

20 % to 50 % of individuals with intestinal involvement also exhibit cardiac involvement . Up to 10 % of chronically infected individuals develop neuritis that results in altered tendon reflexes and sensory impairment . Isolated cases exhibit central nervous system involvement , including dementia , confusion , chronic encephalopathy and sensory and motor deficits .

The clinical manifestations of Chagas disease are due to cell death in the target tissues that occurs during the infective cycle , by sequentially inducing an inflammatory response , cellular lesions , and fibrosis . For example , intracellular amastigotes destroy the intramural neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the intestine and heart , leading to megaintestine and heart aneurysms , respectively . If left untreated , Chagas disease can be fatal , in most cases due to heart muscle damage .

= = Transmission = =

In Chagas @-@ endemic areas , the main mode of transmission is through an insect vector called a triatomine bug . A triatomine becomes infected with T. cruzi by feeding on the blood of an infected person or animal . During the day , triatomines hide in crevices in the walls and roofs .

The bugs emerge at night , when the inhabitants are sleeping . Because they tend to feed on people 's faces , triatomine bugs are also known as " kissing bugs " . After they bite and ingest blood , they defecate on the person . Triatomines pass T. cruzi parasites ( called trypomastigotes ) in feces left near the site of the bite wound .

Scratching the site of the bite causes the trypomastigotes to enter the host through the wound , or through intact mucous membranes , such as the conjunctiva . Once inside the host , the trypomastigotes invade cells , where they differentiate into intracellular amastigotes . The amastigotes multiply by binary fission and differentiate into trypomastigotes , which are then released into the bloodstream . This cycle is repeated in each newly infected cell . Replication resumes only when the parasites enter another cell or are ingested by another vector . ( See also : Life cycle and transmission of T. cruzi )

Dense vegetation ( such as that of tropical rainforests ) and urban habitats are not ideal for the establishment of the human transmission cycle . However , in regions where the sylvatic habitat and its fauna are thinned by economic exploitation and human habitation , such as in newly deforested areas , piassava palm culture areas , and some parts of the Amazon region , a human transmission cycle may develop as the insects search for new food sources .

T. cruzi can also be transmitted through blood transfusions . With the exception of blood derivatives ( such as fractionated antibodies ) , all blood components are infective . The parasite remains viable at 4 ° C for at least 18 days or up to 250 days when kept at room temperature . It is unclear whether T. cruzi can be transmitted through frozen @-@ thawed blood components .

Other modes of transmission include organ transplantation , through breast milk , and by accidental laboratory exposure . Chagas disease can also be spread congenitally ( from a pregnant woman to her baby ) through the placenta , and accounts for approximately 13 % of stillborn deaths in parts of Brazil .

Oral transmission is an unusual route of infection , but has been described . In 1991 , farm workers in the state of Paraíba , Brazil , were infected by eating contaminated food ; transmission has also occurred via contaminated açaí palm fruit juice and garapa . A 2007 outbreak in 103 Venezuelan school children was attributed to contaminated guava juice .

Chagas disease is a growing problem in Europe , because the majority of cases with chronic infection are asymptomatic and because of migration from Latin America .

= = Diagnosis = =

The presence of T. cruzi is diagnostic of Chagas disease . It can be detected by microscopic examination of fresh anticoagulated blood , or its buffy coat , for motile parasites ; or by preparation of thin and thick blood smears stained with Giemsa , for direct visualization of parasites . Microscopically , T. cruzi can be confused with Trypanosoma rangeli , which is not known to be pathogenic in humans . Isolation of T. cruzi can occur by inoculation into mice , by culture in specialized media ( for example , NNN , LIT ) ; and by xenodiagnosis , where uninfected Reduviidae bugs are fed on the patient 's blood , and their gut contents examined for parasites .

Various immunoassays for T. cruzi are available and can be used to distinguish among strains ( zymodemes of T.cruzi with divergent pathogenicities ) . These tests include : detecting complement fixation , indirect hemagglutination , indirect fluorescence assays , radioimmunoassays , and ELISA . Alternatively , diagnosis and strain identification can be made using polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) .

= = Prevention = =

There is currently no vaccine against Chagas disease . Prevention is generally focused on decreasing the numbers of the insect that spreads it ( Triatoma ) and decreasing their contact with humans . This is done by using sprays and paints containing insecticides ( synthetic pyrethroids ) , and improving housing and sanitary conditions in rural areas . For urban dwellers , spending vacations and camping out in the wilderness or sleeping at hostels or mud houses in endemic areas can be dangerous ; a mosquito net is recommended . Some measures of vector control include :

A yeast trap can be used for monitoring infestations of certain species of triatomine bugs ( Triatoma sordida , Triatoma brasiliensis , Triatoma pseudomaculata , and Panstrongylus megistus ) .

Promising results were gained with the treatment of vector habitats with the fungus Beauveria bassiana .

Targeting the symbionts of Triatominae through paratransgenesis can be done .

A number of potential vaccines are currently being tested . Vaccination with Trypanosoma rangeli has produced positive results in animal models . More recently , the potential of DNA vaccines for immunotherapy of acute and chronic Chagas disease is being tested by several research groups .

Blood transfusion was formerly the second @-@ most common mode of transmission for Chagas disease , but the development and implementation of blood bank screening tests has dramatically reduced this risk in the 21st century . Blood donations in all endemic Latin American countries undergo Chagas screening , and testing is expanding in countries , such as France , Spain and the United States , that have significant or growing populations of immigrants from endemic areas . In Spain , donors are evaluated with a questionnaire to identify individuals at risk of Chagas exposure for screening tests .

The US FDA has approved two Chagas tests , including one approved in April 2010 , and has published guidelines that recommend testing of all donated blood and tissue products . While these tests are not required in US , an estimated 75 – 90 % of the blood supply is currently tested for Chagas , including all units collected by the American Red Cross , which accounts for 40 % of the U.S. blood supply . The Chagas Biovigilance Network reports current incidents of Chagas @-@ positive blood products in the United States , as reported by labs using the screening test approved by the FDA in 2007 .

= = Management = =

There are two approaches to treating Chagas disease : antiparasitic treatment , to kill the parasite ; and symptomatic treatment , to manage the symptoms and signs of the infection . Management uniquely involves addressing selective incremental failure of the parasympathetic nervous system . Autonomic disease imparted by Chagas may eventually result in megaesophagus , megacolon and accelerated dilated cardiomyopathy . The mechanisms that explain why Chagas targets the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and spares the sympathetic autonomic nervous system remain poorly understood .

= = = Medication = = =

Antiparasitic treatment is most effective early in the course of infection , but is not limited to cases in the acute phase . Drugs of choice include azole or nitro derivatives , such as benznidazole or nifurtimox . Both agents are limited in their capacity to completely eliminate T. cruzi from the body ( parasitologic cure ) , especially in chronically infected patients , and resistance to these drugs has been reported .

Studies suggest antiparasitic treatment leads to parasitological cure in more than 90 % of infants but only about 60 – 85 % of adults treated in the first year of acute phase Chagas disease . Children aged six to 12 years with chronic disease have a cure rate of about 60 % with benznidazole . While the rate of cure declines the longer an adult has been infected with Chagas , treatment with benznidazole has been shown to slow the onset of heart disease in adults with chronic Chagas infections .

Treatment of chronic infection in women prior to or during pregnancy does not appear to reduce the probability the disease will be passed on to the infant . Likewise , it is unclear whether prophylactic treatment of chronic infection is beneficial in persons who will undergo immunosuppression ( for example , organ transplant recipients ) or in persons who are already immunosuppressed ( for example , those with HIV infection ) .

= = = Complications = = =

In the chronic stage , treatment involves managing the clinical manifestations of the disease . For example , pacemakers and medications for irregular heartbeats , such as the anti @-@ arrhythmia drug amiodarone , may be life saving for some patients with chronic cardiac disease , while surgery may be required for megaintestine . The disease cannot be cured in this phase , however . Chronic heart disease caused by Chagas disease is now a common reason for heart transplantation surgery . Until recently , however , Chagas disease was considered a contraindication for the procedure , since the heart damage could recur as the parasite was expected to seize the opportunity provided by the immunosuppression that follows surgery .

= = Epidemiology = =

Chagas disease affects 8 to 10 million people living in endemic Latin American countries , with an additional 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 living in nonendemic countries , including Spain and the United States . An estimated 41 @,@ 200 new cases occur annually in endemic countries , and 14 @,@ 400 infants are born with congenital Chagas disease annually. in 2010 it resulted in approximately 10 @,@ 300 deaths up from 9 @,@ 300 in 1990 .

The disease is present in 18 countries on the American continents , ranging from the southern United States to northern Argentina . Chagas exists in two different ecological zones . In the Southern Cone region , the main vector lives in and around human homes . In Central America and Mexico , the main vector species lives both inside dwellings and in uninhabited areas . In both zones , Chagas occurs almost exclusively in rural areas , where triatomines breed and feed on the more than 150 species from 24 families of domestic and wild mammals , as well as humans , that are the natural reservoirs of T. cruzi .

Although Triatominae bugs feed on them , birds appear to be immune to infection and therefore are not considered to be a T. cruzi reservoir . Even when colonies of insects are eradicated from a house and surrounding domestic animal shelters , they can re @-@ emerge from plants or animals that are part of the ancient , sylvatic ( referring to wild animals ) infection cycle . This is especially likely in zones with mixed open savannah , with clumps of trees interspersed by human habitation .

The primary wildlife reservoirs for Trypanosoma cruzi in the United States include opossums , raccoons , armadillos , squirrels , woodrats , and mice . Opossums are particularly important as reservoirs , because the parasite can complete its life cycle in the anal glands of this animal without having to re @-@ enter the insect vector . Recorded prevalence of the disease in opossums in the U.S. ranges from 8 @.@ 3 % to 37 @.@ 5 % .

Studies on raccoons in the Southeast have yielded infection rates ranging from 47 % to as low as 15 @.@ 5 % . Armadillo prevalence studies have been described in Louisiana , and range from a low of 1 @.@ 1 % to 28 @.@ 8 % . Additionally , small rodents , including squirrels , mice , and rats , are important in the sylvatic transmission cycle because of their importance as bloodmeal sources for the insect vectors . A Texas study revealed 17 @.@ 3 % percent T. cruzi prevalence in 75 specimens representing four separate small rodent species .

Chronic Chagas disease remains a major health problem in many Latin American countries , despite the effectiveness of hygienic and preventive measures , such as eliminating the transmitting insects . However , several landmarks have been achieved in the fight against it in Latin America , including a reduction by 72 % of the incidence of human infection in children and young adults in the countries of the Southern Cone Initiative , and at least three countries ( Uruguay , in 1997 , and Chile , in 1999 , and Brazil in 2006 ) have been certified free of vectorial and transfusional transmission . In Argentina , vectorial transmission has been interrupted in 13 of the 19 endemic provinces , and major progress toward this goal has also been made in both Paraguay and Bolivia .

Screening of donated blood , blood components , and solid organ donors , as well as donors of cells , tissues , and cell and tissue products for T. cruzi is mandated in all Chagas @-@ endemic countries and has been implemented . Approximately 300 @,@ 000 infected people live in the United States , which is likely the result of immigration from Latin American countries , and there have been only 23 human cases of domestically acquired vector @-@ borne Chagas disease reported between 1955 and 2014 . With increased population movements , the possibility of transmission by blood transfusion became more substantial in the United States . Transfusion blood and tissue products are now actively screened in the U.S. , thus addressing and minimizing this risk .

= = History = =

The disease was named after the Brazilian physician and epidemiologist Carlos Chagas , who first described it in 1909 . The disease was not seen as a major public health problem in humans until the 1960s ( the outbreak of Chagas disease in Brazil in the 1920s went widely ignored ) . Dr Chagas discovered that the intestines of Triatomidae ( now Reduviidae : Triatominae ) harbored a flagellate protozoan , a new species of the Trypanosoma genus , and was able to demonstrate experimentally that it could be transmitted to marmoset monkeys that were bitten by the infected bug . Later studies showed squirrel monkeys were also vulnerable to infection .

Chagas named the pathogenic parasite as Trypanosoma cruzi and later that year as Schizotrypanum cruzi , both honoring Oswaldo Cruz , the noted Brazilian physician and epidemiologist who successfully fought epidemics of yellow fever , smallpox , and bubonic plague in Rio de Janeiro and other cities in the beginning of the 20th century . Chagas was also the first to unknowingly discover and illustrate the parasitic fungal genus Pneumocystis , later infamously linked to PCP ( Pneumocystis pneumonia in AIDS victims ) . Confusion between the two pathogens ' life @-@ cycles led him to briefly recognize his genus Schizotrypanum , but following the description of Pneumocystis by others as an independent genus , Chagas returned to the use of the name Trypanosoma cruzi .

In Argentina , the disease is known as mal de Chagas @-@ Mazza , in honor of Salvador Mazza , the Argentine physician who in 1926 began investigating the disease and over the years became the principal researcher of this disease in the country . Mazza produced the first scientific confirmation of the existence of Trypanosoma cruzi in Argentina in 1927 , eventually leading to support from local and European medical schools and Argentine government policy makers .

It has been hypothesized that Charles Darwin might have suffered from Chagas disease as a result of a bite of the so @-@ called great black bug of the Pampas ( vinchuca ) ( see Charles Darwin 's illness ) . The episode was reported by Darwin in his diaries of the Voyage of the Beagle as occurring in March 1835 to the east of the Andes near Mendoza . Darwin was young and generally in good health , though six months previously he had been ill for a month near Valparaiso , but in 1837 , almost a year after he returned to England , he began to suffer intermittently from a strange group of symptoms , becoming incapacitated for much of the rest of his life . Attempts to test Darwin 's remains at Westminster Abbey by using modern PCR techniques were met with a refusal by the Abbey 's curator .

= = Research = =

Several experimental treatments have shown promise in animal models . These include inhibitors of oxidosqualene cyclase and squalene synthase , cysteine protease inhibitors , dermaseptins collected from frogs in the genus Phyllomedusa ( P. oreades and P. distincta ) , the sesquiterpene lactone dehydroleucodine ( DhL ) , which affects the growth of cultured epimastigote @-@ phase Trypanosoma cruzi , inhibitors of purine uptake , and inhibitors of enzymes involved in trypanothione metabolism . Hopefully , new drug targets may be revealed following the sequencing of the T. cruzi genome .

Chagas disease has a serious economic impact on the United States and the world . The cost of treatment in the United States alone , where the disease is not indigenous , is estimated to be $ 900 million annually , which includes hospitalization and medical devices such as pacemakers . The global cost is estimated at $ 7 billion .

Megazol in a study seems more active against Chagas than benznidazole but has not been studied in humans . Fexinidazole , an old drug rediscovered for this purpose is being tested in phase 2 clinical trials . A Chagas vaccine ( TcVac3 ) has been found to be effective in mice with plans for studies in dogs . It is hoped that it will be commercially available by 2018 .

= Diamond stingray =

The diamond stingray ( Dasyatis dipterura ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in the coastal waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile , and around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands . This bottom @-@ dweller generally inhabits sandy or muddy flats near rocky reefs and kelp forests , to a depth of 30 m ( 98 ft ) , though off Hawaii it may range considerably deeper . As its common name suggests , this species has an angular , diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc that is plain brown or gray above , with rows of tubercles along the midline and on the " shoulders " . The long , whip @-@ like tail has both dorsal and ventral fin folds , which distinguish this ray from the closely similar longtail stingray ( D. longa ) . It typically grows to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) across .

When searching for food , diamond stingrays may form groups of up to hundreds of individuals . It is most active at night and preys mainly on burrowing invertebrates and small bony fishes , which are extracted from the bottom via suction or digging . This species is aplacental viviparous : once the embryos exhaust their yolk supply , they are nourished by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females bear 1 – 4 pups every summer in estuaries ; mating is followed by a ten @-@ month period of either sperm storage or arrested embryonic development , after which the embryos rapidly mature over 2 – 3 months . The slowest @-@ growing stingray known , this species is not resilient against fishing pressure . It is caught for food by artisanal fishers in Latin America , particularly in Mexico where it is one of the most economically important rays . This has led it to be assessed as Near Threatened in Mexico by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , while the species as a whole is listed as Data Deficient . Though innocuous towards humans , the diamond stingray 's long , venomous tail spine is potentially dangerous .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

In 1880 , the diamond stingray was described twice by three American ichthyologists : as Dasybatus dipterurus by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert in Proceedings of the United States National Museum , and as Trygon brevis by Samuel Garman in Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology . Jordan and Gilbert 's account was published in May while Garman 's was published in October , making dipterurus ( feminine dipterura ) the correct name as it was published first . However , when Garman synonymized the two in 1913 he inappropriately gave precedence to brevis , leading to long @-@ standing confusion . Both Dasybatus and Trygon were later synonymized with the genus Dasyatis , but many authors still listed D. brevis in place of or in addition to D. dipterura . Garman also synonymized the Hawaiian stingray ( D. hawaiensis ) with D. dipterura in 1913 , which has since been followed by most authors but requires more study for confirmation .

The species syntypes were collected from San Diego Bay , California . The specific epithet dipterura is derived from the Latin di ( " two " ) , ptero ( " wing " ) , and ura ( " tail " ) , referring to the fin folds on both sides of its tail . Rat @-@ tailed stingray is a former common name for this species . Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphology , determined the diamond stingray and the bluntnose stingray ( D. say ) of the western Atlantic Ocean to be sister species , that likely diverged before or with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama ( c . 3 Ma ) . In addition , the two were found to be the second @-@ most basal taxa in their genus , after the common stingray ( D. pastinaca ) .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The diamond stingray is found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile , as well as around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands ; it is very abundant around Baja California and in the Gulf of California . At the northern and southern extremes of its range , it is generally only present during periods of suitably warm water brought about by El Niño . There is a record of this ray from off British Columbia , which is unconfirmed and would be highly anomalous as it is known to be a tropical and warm @-@ temperate species .

A bottom @-@ dwelling inhabitant of inshore waters , the diamond stingray favors sandy or muddy bottoms , often near rocky reefs or kelp forests . Off southern California , it usually occurs from the intertidal zone to a depth of 7 m ( 23 ft ) during the summer , shifting to depths of 13 – 18 m ( 43 – 59 ft ) during late fall and winter . For unknown reasons , it prefers to overwinter in kelp forests rather than sandy flats . Off Chile , the diamond stingray occurs at a similar depth of 3 – 30 m ( 10 – 100 ft ) . On the other hand , this species has been reported from as far down as 355 m ( 1 @,@ 165 ft ) off Hawaii , which if accurate would suggest that it utilizes a much greater range of depths than previously realized .

= = Description = =

The diamond stingray attains a disc width of 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) or possibly 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) ; females grow larger than males . Its pectoral fin disc is rhomboid in shape , slightly wider than long , with angular outer corners and subtly convex margins . The snout is blunt @-@ angled and non @-@ projecting . The eyes are fairly large and immediately followed by the spiracles ( paired respiratory openings ) . The mouth is strongly curved , containing 21 – 37 upper tooth rows and 23 – 44 lower tooth rows ; the teeth are small and blunt , and arranged into flattened surfaces . Three or five papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) are found in a row across the floor of the mouth .

The whip @-@ like tail generally measures up to one and half times the length of the disc , and bears one ( more if replacements have grown in ) long , slender , serrated spine on the upper surface , closer to the base than the tip . Behind the spine , there are long dorsal and ventral fin folds that rise gradually , reaching a relatively high apex before sloping down abruptly . The presence of the upper fin fold separates this species from the similar longtail stingray ( D. longa ) , which shares most of its range . However , the tail is often damaged , in which case differentiating the two species in the field becomes all but impossible . Young rays have completely smooth skin , while adults develop a row of low tubercles along the midline of the back , flanked by two shorter rows on the " shoulders " . The tail also becomes covered in prickles . This species is a uniform olive to brown to gray above , darkening to black on the tail , and off @-@ white below .

= = Biology and ecology = =

The diamond stingray is most active at night , spending much of the day buried in sand with only its eyes protruding . When foraging for food , it may be solitary but more commonly forms groups numbering up to the hundreds . There is strong segregation by sex and age . This species feeds on crustaceans , molluscs , and other invertebrates , as well as small bony fishes ; its powerful jaws and molar @-@ like teeth allow it to crush hard @-@ shelled prey . It mainly targets burrowing organisms , but may also take prey exposed on the bottom . There is a record of a female 69 cm ( 27 in ) across , that had gorged herself on at least 30 small crabs . In the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex , Baja California Sur , its most important source of food are pea crabs , followed by the razor clam Solyema valvulus , and then polychaete worms .

The typical hunting strategy of the diamond stingray is to cruise just above the sea floor , landing atop any prey encountered . It then quickly levers its body up @-@ and @-@ down with its disc , producing negative pressure to extract the prey from its burrow . This ray has also been known to excavate large pits by undulating its disc and spitting jets of water , so as to uncover buried prey . Diamond stingrays are frequently trailed by smaller fishes , including Mexican hogfish ( Bodianus diplotaenia ) , Galapagos porgies ( Calamus taurinus ) , greybar grunts ( Haemulon sexfasciatum ) , spinster wrasses ( Halichoeres nichols ) , and long @-@ spine porcupinefish ( Diodon holocanthus ) , which take advantage of the invertebrates stirred up by the ray 's activities . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium bullardi , A. dasi , A. rajivi , and A. soberoni , Anthocephalum currani , Parachristianella tiygonis , and Pseudochristianello elegantissima , the flukes Anaporrhutum euzeti and Probolitrema mexicana , and the monogenean Listrocephalos kearni .

Like other stingrays , the diamond stingray is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are initially nourished by yolk , and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , rich in proteins and lipids ) produced by the mother . Only the left ovary and uterus are functional in adult females . Several bays along the Pacific coast of Baja California are known to serve as nurseries . Most of the life history information available on this species has come from Bahía Magdalena , where females bear one litter of 1 – 4 pups per year . Courtship and mating occurs in late summer from July to August , but due to a ten @-@ month period of either sperm storage or diapause ( wherein the embryo becomes dormant ) , embryonic development does not begin until the following year and is completed within 2 – 3 months . Birthing takes place in summer from July to September in shallow estuaries ; the newborns measure 18 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) across . During El Niño years , the higher temperatures appear to shift the timing of birth forward . The diamond stingray has the lowest growth rate of any stingray species yet studied . Males reach sexual maturity at around 43 – 47 cm ( 17 – 19 in ) across and 7 years of age , while females grow slower still , reaching maturity at around 57 – 66 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) across and 10 years of age . The maximum lifespan has been estimated at least 19 years for males and 28 years for females .

= = Human interactions = =

At least one fatality off southern California has resulted from the long , venomous tail spine of the diamond stingray . However , it is not aggressive and will usually flee given the opportunity . This ray is not found off the United States in sufficient numbers to be economically important . Elsewhere in its range , it is caught in substantial numbers for human consumption , both intentionally and as bycatch ; the pectoral fins or " wings " are sold fresh or filleted and salted . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) notes that the diamond stingray 's low reproductive productivity renders it susceptible to population depletion , but currently lacks enough biological and fishery data to assess it beyond Data Deficient overall , or in the U.S. , Central , and South American parts of its range .

In Mexico , the diamond stingray is one of the most important components of Pacific artisanal shark and ray fisheries , comprising around a tenth of the total annual catch . Its significance is likely underestimated , as Mexican fishery reports frequently suffer from misidentifications and a lack of species @-@ specific data . It is mainly caught during summer and fall , being the most common ray landed in Bahía Magdalena , and second most common ray landed off Sonora state . Demersal gillnets are the main fishing gear employed ; both adult and juvenile rays easily become entangled in the mesh by their tail spines , with juveniles known to have comprised most of the Bahía Magdalena catch in 1998 – 2000 . This species is also often caught incidentally in bottom trawls , on longlines , and in fish traps . In the future , habitat degradation from increasing numbers of shrimp farms may pose an additional threat to this species in the region . As a result of these pressures , the IUCN has assessed the diamond stingray as Near Threatened in Mexican waters . No management schemes have yet been enacted for this species .

= George Calvert , 1st Baron Baltimore =

George Calvert , 1st Baron Baltimore ( 1579 – 15 April 1632 ) was an English politician and colonizer . He achieved domestic political success as a Member of Parliament and later Secretary of State under King James I. He lost much of his political power after his support for a failed marriage alliance between Prince Charles and the Spanish House of Habsburg royal family . Rather than continue in politics , he resigned all of his political offices in 1625 except for his position on the Privy Council and declared his Catholicism publicly . He was created Baron Baltimore in the Irish peerage upon his resignation . Baltimore Manor was located in County Longford , Ireland .

Calvert took an interest in the British colonization of the Americas , at first for commercial reasons and later to create a refuge for English Catholics . He became the proprietor of Avalon , the first sustained English settlement on the southeastern peninsula on the island of Newfoundland ( off the eastern coast of modern Canada ) . Discouraged by its cold and sometimes inhospitable climate and the sufferings of the settlers , Sir George looked for a more suitable spot further south and sought a new royal charter to settle the region , which would become the state of Maryland . Calvert died five weeks before the new Charter was sealed , leaving the settlement of the Maryland colony to his son Cecil , ( 1605 @-@ 1675 ) . His second son Leonard Calvert , ( 1606 @-@ 1647 ) , was the first colonial governor of the Province of Maryland . Historians have long recognized George Calvert as the founder of Maryland , in spirit if not in fact .

= = Family and early life = =

Little is known of the ancestry of the Yorkshire branch of the Calverts . At George Calvert 's knighting , it was claimed that his family originally came from Flanders ( a Dutch @-@ speaking area today across the English Channel in modern @-@ day Kingdom of Belgium ) . Calvert 's father , ( an earlier ) Leonard was a country gentleman who had achieved some prominence as a tenant of Lord Wharton , and was wealthy enough to marry a " gentlewoman " of a noble line , Alicia or Alice Crossland ( or sometimes spelled : " Crosland " ) . He established his family on the estate of the later @-@ built Kiplin Hall , near Catterick in Richmondshire , of Yorkshire . George Calvert was born at Kiplin in late 1579 ( birth month and day yet to be researched ) . His mother Alicia / Alice died on 28 November 1587 , when he was fifteen years old . His father then married Grace Crossland ( or sometimes spelled : " Crosland " ) , Alicia 's first cousin .

In 1569 , Sir Thomas Gargrave had described Richmondshire as a territory where all gentlemen were " evil in religion " , by which he meant predominately Roman Catholic ; it appears Leonard Calvert was no exception . During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , continuing the changes wrought in the previous century by her father , King Henry VIII making the Monarch , the supreme authority of the Christian Church in England , continuing the pace Protestant Reformation from the Continent of Europe , with the political , spiritual and temporal separation from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope / Papacy in Rome , therefore the Royal Government exerted authority over the matters of religious faith , practices and the Church . Acts mandating compulsory religious uniformity were enacted by Parliament and enforced through penal laws . The Acts of Supremacy and the Uniformity Act of 1559 also included an oath of allegiance to the Queen ( Henrietta Maria , wife of Charles I ) and an implicit denial of the Pope 's ( then Pope Paul IV ) authority over the English Church . This oath was required of any common " subject " ( synamous for citizen ) , who wished to hold high office , attend university , or take advantage of opportunities controlled by the state ( king / kingdom ) .

The Calvert household suffered the intrusion of the Elizabethan @-@ era religious laws . From the year of George 's birth onwards , his father , Leonard Calvert was subjected to repeated harassment by the Yorkshire authorities , who in 1580 extracted a promise of conformity from him , compelling his attendance at the Church of England services . In 1592 , when George was twelve , the authorities denounced one of his tutors for teaching " from a popish primer " and instructed Leonard and Grace to send George and his brother Christopher to a Protestant tutor , and , if necessary , to present the children before the commission " once a month to see how they perfect in learning " . As a result , the boys were sent to a Protestant tutor called Mr. Fowberry at Bilton . The senior Calvert had to give a " bond of conformity " ; he was banned from employing any Catholic servants and forced to purchase an English Bible , which was to " ly open in his house for everyone to read " .

In 1593 , records show that Grace Calvert was committed to the custody of a " pursuivant " , an official responsible for identifying and persecuting Catholics , and in 1604 , she was described as the " wife of Leonard Calvert of Kipling , non @-@ communicant at Easter last " .

George Calvert went up to Trinity College , at Oxford University matriculating in 1593 / 94 , where he studied foreign languages and received a bachelor 's degree in 1597 . As the oath of allegiance was compulsory after the age of sixteen , he would almost certainly have pledged conformity while at Oxford . The same pattern of conformity , whether pretended or sincere , continued through Calvert 's early life . After Oxford , he moved to London in 1598 , where he studied municipal law at Lincoln 's Inn for three years .

= = Marriage and family = =

In November 1604 , he married Anne Mynne in a Protestant , Church of England ceremony at St Peter 's , Cornhill , where his address was registered as St Martin in the Fields . His children , including his eldest son and heir , Cecil , who was born in the winter of 1605 – 06 , were all baptized as Christian Protestants . When Anne died on 8 August 1622 , she was buried at Calvert 's local Protestant parish church , St Martin in the Fields .

Calvert had a total of thirteen children : Cecil , who succeeded his father as the 2nd Baron Baltimore , Leonard , Anne , Mary , Dorothy , Elizabeth , Grace , Francis , George , Helen , Henry , John , and Philip .

= = Political success = =

Calvert named his son " Cecilius " ( 1605 @-@ 1675 ) for Sir Robert Cecil , first Earl of Salisbury , ( 1563 @-@ 1612 ) . Spymaster to Queen Elizabeth , whom Calvert had met during an extended trip to Europe between 1601 and 1603 , after which he became known as a specialist in foreign affairs . Calvert carried a packet for Cecilius from Paris , and so entered the service of the principal engineer on behalf of King James VI of Scotland 's succession to the English throne in 1603 , ( who then also assumed the title of King James I of England . )

King James rewarded Robert Cecil , whom he made a privy councillor and secretary of state , with the granting of the title of Earl of Salisbury in 1605 , and Lord High Treasurer in 1608 , making him the most powerful man at the royal court . As Cecil rose , Calvert rose with him . Calvert 's foreign languages , legal training , and discretion made him an invaluable aide to Robert Cecil , who , no lover of Catholics , seems to have accepted Calvert 's conformity as beyond question . Working at the center of court politics , Calvert exploited his influence by selling favors , an accepted practice for the times . Calvert accumulated a number of small offices , honors , and sinecures . In August 1605 , he attended the King at Oxford , and received an honorary master @-@ of @-@ arts degree in an elaborate ceremony at which the Duke of Lennox ( Ludovic Stewart ) , the earls of Oxford and Northumberland , and Cecilius received degrees . Given the prestige of the other graduates , Calvert 's was the last awarded , but his presence in such company signaled his growing stature .

In 1606 , the king made Calvert " clerk of the Crown " and " Assizes in Connaught " , County Clare , Ireland , his first royal appointment . In 1609 , James appointed him a " clerk of the Signet office " , a post which required the preparation of documents for the royal signature and brought Calvert into close contact with the king . Calvert also served in James 's First Parliament as a member for the borough of Bossiney , in the county of Cornwall , installed there by Cecil to support his policies . In 1610 , Calvert was appointed a " clerk of the Privy Council " . Each of these positions would have required an oath of allegiance .

With Robert Cecil 's support , George Calvert came into his own as an advisor and supporter of King James . In 1610 and 1611 , Calvert undertook missions to the continent on behalf of the King , visiting a number of embassies in Paris , Holland , and the Duchy of Cleves , and acting as an ambassador to the French Royal Court during the coronation of King Louis XIII , ( 1601 @-@ 1643 ) , in 1610 . A correspondent from France reported that Calvert gave " everyone great contentment with his discreet conversation . " In 1615 , James sent him to the continental Electorate of the Palatinate ( German ) , in the Holy Roman Empire , whose impoverished elector , Frederick V , Elector Palatine , ( 1596 @-@ 1632 ) , had married James 's daughter Elizabeth of Bohemia , ( 1596 @-@ 1662 ) , in 1613 . Calvert had to convey the King 's disapproval that Elizabeth , for lack of money , had given away expensive jewels to a gentlewoman leaving her employ . Elector Frederick 's decision in 1619 to accept the throne of Bohemia triggered a war with the powerful neighboring Habsburgs dynasty of Austria to the southwest in Vienna , which James attempted to end through a proposed alliance with the Kingdom of Spain .

In 1611 , James employed Calvert to research and transcribe his tract against the Dutch Protestant theologian Conrad Vorstius , ( 1569 @-@ 1622 ) . The following year , Cecil died , and Calvert acted as one of the four executors of his will . The king 's favourite , Sir Robert Carr , first Earl of Somerset , ( 1587 @-@ 1645 ) , Viscount Rochester , assumed the duties of secretary of state and recruited Calvert to assist with foreign policy , in particular the Latin and Spanish correspondence . Carr , soon raised to the earldom of Somerset , was not a success in the job , and fell from favour partly as a result of the murder of Thomas Overbury , ( 1581 @-@ 1613 ) , to which Carr 's wife , Frances , the former Countess of Essex and later Somerset , ( 1590 @-@ 1632 ) , pleaded guilty in 1615 . Carr 's place as James 's principal favorite was now taken by the handsome George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham , ( 1592 @-@ 1628 ) , with whom James was said to have been infatuated .

In 1613 , the King commissioned Calvert to investigate Roman Catholic grievances in Ireland , along with Sir Humphrey Wynch , ( 1555 @-@ 1625 ) , Sir Charles Cornwallis , ( XXX ? -1629 ) and Sir Roger Wilbraham , ( 1553 @-@ 1616 ) . The commission spent almost four months in Ireland , and its final report , partly drafted by Calvert , concluded that religious conformity should be enforced more strictly in Ireland , Catholic schools be suppressed , and bad priests removed and punished . The King resolved not to reconvene the Parliament of Ireland until the Catholics " shall be better disciplined " . In 1616 , James endowed Calvert with the manor of Danby Wiske in Yorkshire , which brought him into contact with Sir Thomas Wentworth , 1st Earl of Strafford , ( 1593 @-@ 1641 ) , who became his closest friend and political ally . Calvert was now wealthy enough to buy the " Kiplin Hall " estate in his home parish . ( Today , the University of Maryland operates a research centre there , while the main building is a house museum owned by the Kiplin Hall Trust . ) in his home parish ; and in 1617 , his social status received a further boost when he was knighted , then becoming " Sir George Calvert " .

In 1619 , Calvert completed his rise to power when James appointed him as one of the two principal secretaries of state . This followed the dismissal of Sir Thomas Lake , ( 1567 @-@ 1630 ) , due to scandals , including his wife 's indiscretions with state secrets . Not emerging as a candidate until the end of the selection process , Calvert 's appointment surprised him and most observers . Assuming he owed his promotion to the king 's increasingly powerful favourite , George Villiers , ( 1592 @-@ 1628 ) , later first Duke of Buckingham ) , he sent him a great jewel as a token of thanks . Villiers returned the jewel , however , saying he had had nothing to do with the matter . Calvert 's personal fortune was secured when he was additionally appointed a " commissioner of the treasury " with a pension of £ 1 @,@ 000 pounds sterling and a subsidy on imported raw silk , which would later be converted to another £ 1 @,@ 000 pension .

= = Secretary of State = =

In Parliament , a political crisis developed over the king 's policy of seeking a Spanish wife for Charles , Prince of Wales , as part of a proposed alliance with the Habsburgs . In the Parliament of 1621 , it fell to Calvert to advocate the " Spanish match " , as it came to be called , against the majority of Parliament , who feared an increase in Catholic influence on the state . As a result of his pro @-@ Spanish stance and defence of relaxations in the penal laws against Catholics , Calvert became estranged from many in the Commons , who were suspicious of his close familiarity with the Spanish ambassador 's court . Calvert also faced difficulties in his private life : his wife 's death on 8 August 1622 left him the single father of ten children , the oldest of whom , Cecil , was sixteen years old .

Although King James rewarded Calvert in 1623 for his loyalty by granting him a 2 @,@ 300 @-@ acre ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) estate in County Longford , in the central Ireland region of Leinster , where his seat was known as the " Manor of Baltimore " , Calvert was increasingly isolated from court circles as the Prince of Wales , ( heir to the Throne ) and the first Duke of Buckingham ( George Villiers ) wrested control of policy from the ageing James . Without consulting the diplomatically astute Calvert , the prince and the duke travelled to Spain to negotiate the Spanish marriage for themselves , with disastrous results . Instead of securing an alliance , the visit provoked a hostility between the two courts which quickly led to war . In a reversal of policy , Buckingham dismissed the treaties with Spain , summoned a war council , and sought a French marriage for the Welsh Prince .

= = Resignation and conversion to Catholicism = =

As the chief parliamentary spokesman for an abandoned policy , Calvert no longer served a useful purpose to the English Royal Court , and by February 1624 his duties had been restricted to placating the Spanish ambassador . The degree of his disfavour was shown when he was reprimanded for supposedly delaying diplomatic letters . Calvert bowed to the inevitable . On the pretext of ill health , he began negotiations for the sale of his position , finally resigning the secretariat in February 1625 .

No disgrace was attached to Calvert 's departure from office : the King , to whom he had always remained personally loyal , confirmed his place on the Privy Council and appointed him " Baron Baltimore " , in County Longford in Leinster of central Ireland . Immediately after Calvert resigned , he converted to Roman Catholicism .

The connection between Calvert 's resignation and his conversion to Roman Catholicism was a complex one . George Cottington , a former employee of Calvert , suggested in 1628 that Calvert 's conversion had been in progress a long time before it was made public . George Abbot , ( 1562 @-@ 1633 ) , the reigning Archbishop of Canterbury , ( and ecclesiastical head of the independent Church of England ) , reported that political opposition to Calvert , combined with his loss of office , had " made him discontented and , as the saying is , " Desperatio facit monachum " , so hee apparently did turne papist , which hee now professeth , this being the third time that he hath bene to blame that way [ sic ] " . Godfrey Goodman , the Bishop of Gloucester , later claimed Calvert had been a secret Catholic all along ( " infinitely addicted to the Catholic faith " ) , which explained his support for lenient policies towards Catholics and for the Spanish match .

However , no one had questioned Calvert 's conformity at the time , and if he had indeed been secretly Catholic , he had hidden it well . It seems more likely Calvert converted in late 1624 . At the time , Simon Stock , a Discalced Carmelite priest reported to the Congregation Propaganda Fide in Rome on November 15 that he had converted two Privy Councillors to Catholicism , one of whom historians are certain was Calvert . Calvert , who had probably met Stock at the Spanish embassy in London , later worked with the priest on a plan for a Catholic mission in his new first Newfoundland colony ( off modern Canada ) .

When King James I ( and VI of Scotland ) died in March 1625 , his successor King Charles I maintained Calvert 's barony but not his previous place on the Privy Council . Calvert then turned his attention to his Irish estates and his overseas investments . He was not entirely forgotten at court . After Buckingham 's dabblings in wars against Spain and France had ended in failure , he recalled Baltimore to court , and for a while may have considered employing him in the peace negotiations with Spain . Though nothing came of Baltimore 's recall , he renewed his rights over the silk @-@ import duties , which had lapsed with the death of James I , and secured Charles ' blessing for his venture in the " New Found Land " .

= = Colony of Avalon ( Newfoundland ) = =

Calvert had long maintained an interest in the exploration and settlement of the New World , beginning with his investment of twenty @-@ five pounds in the second Virginia Company in 1609 , and a few months later a more substantial sum in the East India Company , which he increased in 1614 . In 1620 , Calvert purchased a tract of land in Newfoundland from Sir William Vaughan , ( 1575 @-@ 1641 ) , a Welsh writer and colonial investor , who had earlier failed to establish a colony on the large sub @-@ Arctic island off the eastern coast of North America . He named the area of the peninsula as Avalon , after the legendary spot where Christianity was supposedly introduced to Roman Britain in ancient times . The plantation lay on what is now called the Avalon Peninsula and included the fishing station at " Ferryland " . Calvert almost certainly had a fishery project in mind at this stage .

Calvert dispatched Captain Edward Wynne and a group of Welsh colonists to Ferryland , where they landed in August 1621 , and set about constructing a settlement . Wynne sent positive reports concerning the potential for local fisheries and for the production of salt , hemp , flax , tar , iron , timber and hops . Wynne also praised the climate , declaring , " It is better and not so cold as England " and predicted that the colony would become self @-@ sufficient after one year . Others corroborated Wynne 's reports : for example , Captain Daniel Powell , who delivered a further party of settlers to Ferryland , wrote : " The land on which our Governor Calvert and / or Wynne planted is so good and commodious , that for the quantity , I think there is no better in many parts of England " ; but he added ominously that Ferryland was " the coldest harbour in the land " . Wynne and his men began work on various building projects , including a substantial house and the shoring up of the harbour . To protect them against marauding French warships , a recent hazard in the area , since the recent founding of New France in the interior ( modern Lower Canada of the 18th and 19th Centuries , Province of Quebec and Dominion of Canada ) along the St. Lawrence River , Calvert employed the pirate John Nutt .

The settlement appeared to be progressing so well that in January 1623 , Calvert obtained a concession from King James for the whole of Newfoundland , though the grant was soon reduced to cover only the southeastern Avalon peninsula , owing to competing claims from other English colonists . The final Charter constituted the province as a " county palatinate " , officially titled the " Province of Avalon " , under Calvert 's personal rule .

After resigning the Royal secretariat of state in 1625 , the new Baron Baltimore made clear his intention to visit the colony : " I intend shortly , " he wrote in March , " God willing , a journey for Newfoundland to visit a plantation which I began there some few years since . " His plans were disrupted by the death of King James I , and by the crackdown on Catholics with which King Charles I began his reign in order to appease his opponents . The new King required all privy councillors to take the oaths of supremacy and allegiance ; and since Baltimore , as a Catholic , had to refuse , he was obliged to step down from that cherished office . Given the new religious and political climate , and perhaps also to escape a serious outbreak of plague in England , Baltimore moved to his estates in Ireland . His expedition to Newfoundland had set sail without him in late May 1625 under Sir Arthur Aston , who became the new provincial Governor of Avalon .

A reference by David Rothe , bishop of Ossary , in Ireland , to a " Joane [ also recorded as Jane ] Baltimore now wife " of Calvert , reveals that Baltimore had recently remarried .

From the time of his conversion in 1625 onwards , Baltimore took care to cater for the religious needs of his colonists , both Catholic and Protestant . He had asked Simon Stock to provide priests for the 1625 expedition , but Stock 's recruits arrived in England after Aston had sailed . Stock 's own ambitions for the colony appear to have exceeded Baltimore 's : in letters to De Propaganda Fide in Rome , Stock claimed the Newfoundland settlement could act as a springboard for the conversion of natives not only in the New World but also in China , the latter via a passage he believed existed from the east coast to the Pacific Ocean .

= = Baltimore in Avalon = =

Baltimore was determined to visit his colony in person . In May 1626 , he wrote to Wentworth :

Aston 's return to England in late 1626 , along with all the Catholic settlers , failed to deter Baltimore , who finally sailed for Newfoundland in 1627 , arriving on July 23 and staying only two months before returning to England . He had taken both Protestant and Catholic settlers with him , as well as two secular priests , Thomas Longville and Anthony Pole ( also known as Smith ) , the latter remaining behind in the colony when Baltimore departed for England . The land Baltimore had seen was by no means the paradise described by some early settlers , being only marginally productive ; as the summer climate was deceptively mild , his brief visit gave Baltimore no reason to alter his plans for the colony .

In 1628 , he sailed again for Newfoundland , this time with his second wife Jane , most of his children , and 40 more settlers , to officially take over as Proprietary Governor of Avalon . He and his family moved into the house at Ferryland built by Wynne , a sizeable structure for the time , by colonial standards , and the only one in the settlement large enough to accommodate religious services for the community .

Matters connected to religion were to bedevil Baltimore 's stay in " this remote part of the worlde where I have planted my selfe [ sic ] " . He sailed at a time when English military preparations were underway to relieve the Huguenots at La Rochelle . He was dismayed to find that the war with France had spread to Newfoundland , and that he had to spend most of his time fighting off French attacks on English fishing fleets with his own ships the Dove and the Ark . As he wrote to Buckingham , " I came to builde , and sett , and sowe , but I am falne to fighting with Frenchmen [ sic ] " . His settlers were so successful against the French that they captured several ships , which they escorted back to England to help with the war effort . Baltimore was granted the loan of one of the ships to aid in his defence of the colony , as well as a share of the prize money .

Adopting a policy of free religious worship in the colony , Baltimore allowed the Catholics to worship in one part of his house and the Protestants in another . This novel arrangement proved too much for the resident Anglican priest , Erasmus Stourton — " that knave Stourton " , as Baltimore referred to him — who , after altercations with Baltimore , was placed on a ship for England , where he lost no time in reporting Baltimore 's practices to the authorities , complaining that the Catholic priests Smith and Hackett said mass every Sunday and " doe use all other ceremonies of the church of Rome in as ample a manner as tis used in Spayne [ sic ] " . and that Baltimore had the son of a Protestant forcibly baptised as a Catholic . Although Stourton 's complaints were investigated by the Privy Council , due to Baltimore 's support in high places , the case was dismissed .

Baltimore had become disenchanted with conditions in " this wofull country " , and he wrote to his old acquaintances in England lamenting his troubles . The final blow to his hopes was dealt by the Newfoundland winter of 1628 – 9 , which did not release its grip until May . Like others before them , the residents of Avalon suffered terribly from the cold and from malnutrition . Nine or ten of Baltimore 's company died that winter , and with half the settlers ill at one time , his house had to be turned into a hospital . The sea froze over , and nothing would grow before May . " Tis not terra Christianorum " , Baltimore wrote to Wentworth . He confessed to the king : " I have found ... by too deare bought experience [ that which other men ] always concealed from me ... that there is a sad face of wynter upon all this land " .

Baltimore solicited a new charter from the king . In order to found an alternative colony in a less hostile climate further south , he requested " a precinct " in Virginia , where he could grow tobacco . He wrote to his friends Francis Cottington and Thomas Wentworth enlisting their support for this new proposal , admitting the impression his abandonment of Avalon might make in England : " I shall rayse a great deal of talke and discourse and be censured by most men of giddiness and levity [ sic ] " . The king , perhaps guided by Baltimore 's friends at court , replied expressing concern for Baltimore 's health and gently advising him to forget colonial schemes and return to England , where he would be treated with every respect : " Men of your condition and breeding are fitter for other imployments than the framing of new plantations , which commonly have rugged & laborious beginnings , and require much greater meanes , in managing them , than usually the power of one private subject can reach unto " .

Baltimore sent his children home to England in August . By the time the king 's letter reached Avalon , he had departed with his wife and servants for Virginia .

= = Attempt to found a Mid @-@ Atlantic colony = =

In late September or October 1629 , Baltimore arrived in Jamestown , where the Virginians , who suspected him of designs on some of their territory and vehemently opposed Catholicism , gave him a cool welcome . They gave him the oaths of supremacy and allegiance , which he refused to take , so they ordered him to leave . After no more than a few weeks in the colony , Baltimore left for England to pursue the new charter , leaving his wife and servants behind . In early 1630 , he procured a ship to fetch them , but it foundered off the Irish coast , and his wife was drowned . Baltimore described himself the following year as " a long time myself a Man of Sorrows " .

Baltimore spent the last two years of his life constantly lobbying for his new charter , though the obstacles proved difficult . The Virginians , led by William Claiborne , who sailed to England to make the case , campaigned aggressively against separate colonising of the Chesapeake , claiming they possessed the rights to that area . Baltimore was short of capital , having exhausted his fortune , and was sometimes forced to depend on the assistance of his friends . To make matters worse , in the summer of 1630 , his household was infected by the plague , which he survived . He wrote to Wentworth : " Blessed be God for it who hath preserved me now from shipwreck , hunger , scurvy and pestilence ... "

His health declining , Baltimore 's persistence over the charter finally paid off in 1632 . The king first granted him a location south of Jamestown , but Baltimore asked the king to reconsider in response to opposition from other investors interested in settling the new land of Carolina into a sugar plantation . Baltimore eventually compromised by accepting redrawn boundaries to the north of the Potomac River , on either side of the Chesapeake Bay . The charter was about to pass when the fifty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Baltimore died in his lodgings at Lincoln 's Inn Fields , on 15 April 1632 . Five weeks later , on 20 June 1632 , the charter for Maryland passed the seals .

= = Legacy = =

In his will , written the day before he died , Baltimore beseeched his friends Wentworth and Cottington to act as guardians and supervisors to his first son Cecil , who inherited the title of Lord Baltimore and the imminent grant of Maryland . Baltimore 's two colonies in the New World continued under the proprietorship of his family . Avalon , which remained a prime spot for the salting and export of fish , was expropriated by Sir David Kirke , with a new royal charter which Cecil Calvert vigorously challenged , and it was finally absorbed into Newfoundland in 1754 . Although Baltimore 's failed Avalon venture marked the end of an early era of attempts at proprietary colonisation , it laid the foundation upon which permanent settlements developed in that region of Newfoundland .

Maryland became a prime tobacco exporting colony in the mid @-@ Atlantic and , for a time , a refuge for Catholic settlers , as George Calvert had hoped . Under the rule of the Lords Baltimore , thousands of British Catholics emigrated to Maryland , establishing some of the oldest Catholic communities in what later became the United States . However Catholic rule in Maryland was eventually nullified by the re @-@ assertion of royal control over the colony .

140 years after its first settlement , Maryland joined twelve other British colonies along the Atlantic coast in declaring their independence from British rule and the right to freedom of religion for all citizens in the new United States .

= Draining and development of the Everglades =

The history of draining and development of the Everglades dates back to the 19th century . During the Second Seminole War beginning in 1836 , the United States military 's mission was to seek out Seminole people in the Everglades and capture or kill them . Those missions gave the military the opportunity to map land that seemed to frustrate and confound them at every turn . A national push for expansion and progress toward the latter part of the 19th century stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use . According to historians , " From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century , the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned . Indeed , it was considered the proper thing to do . "

A pattern of political and financial motivation , and a lack of understanding of the geography and ecology of the Everglades have plagued the history of drainage projects . The Everglades are a part of a massive watershed that originates near Orlando and drains into Lake Okeechobee , a vast and shallow lake . As the lake exceeds its capacity in the wet season , the water forms a flat and very wide river , about 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide . As the land from Lake Okeechobee slopes gradually to Florida Bay , water flows at a rate of half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) a day . Before human activity in the Everglades , the system comprised the lower third of the Florida peninsula . The first attempt to drain the region was made by real estate developer Hamilton Disston in 1881 . Disston 's sponsored canals were unsuccessful , but the land he purchased for them stimulated economic and population growth that attracted railway developer Henry Flagler . Flagler built a railroad along the east coast of Florida and eventually to Key West ; towns grew and farmland was cultivated along the rail line .

During his 1904 campaign to be elected governor , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward promised to drain the Everglades , and his later projects were more effective than Disston 's . Broward 's promises sparked a land boom facilitated by blatant errors in an engineer 's report , pressure from real estate developers , and the burgeoning tourist industry throughout south Florida . The increased population brought hunters who went unchecked and had a devastating impact on the numbers of wading birds ( hunted for their plumes ) , alligators , and other Everglades animals .

Severe hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused catastrophic damage and flooding from Lake Okeechobee that prompted the Army Corps of Engineers to build a dike around the lake . Further floods in 1947 prompted an unprecedented construction of canals throughout southern Florida . Following another population boom after World War II , and the creation of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project , the Everglades was divided into sections separated by canals and water control devices that delivered water to agricultural and newly developed urban areas . However , in the late 1960s , following a proposal to construct a massive airport next to Everglades National Park , national attention turned from developing the land to restoring the Everglades .

= = Exploration = =

American involvement in the Everglades began during the Second Seminole War ( 1836 – 42 ) , a costly and very unpopular conflict . The United States spent between $ 30 million and $ 40 million and lost between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 lives . The U.S. military drove the Seminoles into the Everglades and were charged with the task of finding them , defeating them , and moving them to Oklahoma Indian territory . Almost 4 @,@ 000 Seminoles were killed in the war or were removed . The U.S. military was completely unprepared for the conditions they found in the Everglades . They tore their clothes on sawgrass , ruined their boots on the uneven limestone floor , and were plagued by mosquitoes . Soldiers ' legs , feet , and arms were cut open on the sawgrass and gangrene infection set in , taking many lives and limbs . Many died of mosquito @-@ borne illness . After slogging through mud , one private died in his tracks of exhaustion in 1842 . General Thomas Jesup admitted the military was overwhelmed by the terrain when he wrote to the Secretary of War in 1838 , trying to dissuade him from prolonging the war .

Opinion about the value of Florida to the Union was mixed : some thought it a useless land of swamps and horrible animals , while others thought it a gift from God for national prosperity . In 1838 comments in The Army and Navy Chronicle supported future development of southern Florida :

[ The ] climate [ is ] most delightful ; but , from want of actual observation , [ it ] could not speak so confidently of the soil , although , from the appearance of the surrounding vegetation , a portion of it , at least , must be rich . Whenever the aborigines shall be forced from their fastnesses , as eventually they must be , the enterprising spirit of our countrymen will very soon discover the sections best adapted to cultivation , and the now barren or unproductive everglades will be made to blossom like a garden . It is the general impression that these everglades are uninhabitable during the summer months , by reason of their being overflowed by the abundant rains of the season ; but if it should prove that these inundations are caused or increased by obstructions to the natural courses of the rivers , as outlets to the numerous lakes , American industry will remove these obstructions .

The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood part of the country . As late as 1823 , official reports doubted the existence of a large inland lake , until the military met the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in 1837 . To avenge repeated surprise attacks on himself and ammunition stores , Colonel William Harney led an expedition into the Everglades in 1840 , to hunt for a chief named Chekika . With Harney were 90 soldiers in 16 canoes . One soldier 's account of the trip in the St. Augustine News was the first printed description of the Everglades available to the general public . The anonymous writer described the hunt for Chekika and the terrain they were crossing : " No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it ; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees , and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian , from which the white man would never seek to drive them " .

The final blame for the military stalemate was determined to lie not in military preparation , supplies , leadership , or superior tactics by the Seminoles , but in Florida 's impenetrable terrain . An army surgeon wrote : " It is in fact a most hideous region to live in , a perfect paradise for Indians , alligators , serpents , frogs , and every other kind of loathsome reptile . " The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of wonder or hatred . In 1870 , an author described the mangrove forests as a " waste of nature 's grandest exhibition to have these carnivals of splendid vegetation occurring in isolated places where it is but seldom they are seen . " A band of hunters , naturalists , and collectors ventured through in 1885 , taking along with them the 17 @-@ year @-@ old grandson of an early resident of Miami . The landscape unnerved the young man shortly after he entered the Shark River : " The place looked wild and lonely . About three o 'clock it seemed to get on Henry 's nerves and we saw him crying , he would not tell us why , he was just plain scared . "

In 1897 , an explorer named Hugh Willoughby spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Miami River . He wrote about his observations and sent them back to the New Orleans Times @-@ Democrat . Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome , with numerous springs , and 10 @,@ 000 alligators " more or less " in Lake Okeechobee . The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River , " killing hundreds , but they continued to return " . Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been mapped and explored except for this part of Florida , writing , " ( w ) e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa . "

= = Drainage = =

As early as 1837 , a visitor to the Everglades suggested the value of the land without the water :

Could it be drained by deepening the natural outlets ? Would it not open to cultivation immense tracts of rich vegetable soil ? Could the waterpower , obtained by draining , be improved to any useful purpose ? Would such draining render the country unhealthy ? ... Many queries like these passed through our minds . They can only be solved by a thorough examination of the whole country . Could the waters be lowered ten feet , it would probably drain six hundred thousand acres ; should this prove to be a rich soil , as would seem probable , what a field it would open for tropical productions ! What facilities for commerce !

Territorial representative David Levy proposed a resolution that was passed in Congress in 1842 : " that the Secretary of War be directed to place before this House such information as can be obtained in relation to the practicability and probable expense of draining the everglades of Florida . " From this directive Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker requested Thomas Buckingham Smith from St. Augustine to consult those with experience in the Everglades on the feasibility of draining them , saying that he had been told two or three canals to the Gulf of Mexico would be sufficient . Smith asked officers who had served in the Seminole Wars to respond , and many favored the idea , promoting the land as a future agricultural asset to the South . A few disagreed , such as Captain John Sprague , who wrote he " never supposed the country would excite an inquiry , other than as a hiding place for Indians , and had it occurred to me that so great an undertaking , one so utterly impracticable , as draining the Ever Glades was to be discussed , I should not have destroyed the scratch of pen upon a subject so fruitful , and which cannot be understood but by those who have waded the water belly deep and examined carefully the western coast by land and by water . "

Nevertheless , Smith returned a report to the Secretary of the Treasury asking for $ 500 @,@ 000 to do the job . The report is the first published study on the topic of the Everglades , and concluded with the statement :

The Ever Glades are now suitable only for the haunt of noxious vermin or the resort of pestilent reptiles . The statesman whose exertions shall cause the millions of acres they contain , now worse than worthless , to teem with the products of agricultural industry ; that man who thus adds to the resources of his country ... will merit a high place in public favor , not only with his own generation , but with posterity . He will have created a State !

Smith suggested cutting through the rim of the Everglades ( known today as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge ) , connecting the heads of rivers to the coastline so that 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water would be drained from the area . The result , Smith hoped , would yield farmland suitable for corn , sugar , rice , cotton , and tobacco .

In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries . The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands . Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for such attempts , though attention and funds were diverted owing to the Civil War and Reconstruction . Not until after 1877 did attention return to the Everglades .

= = = Hamilton Disston 's canals = = =

After the Civil War , an agency named the Internal Improvement Fund ( IIF ) , charged with using grant money to improve Florida 's infrastructure through canals , rail lines , and roads , was eager to be rid of the debt incurred by the Civil War . IIF trustees found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston who was interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture . Disston was persuaded to buy 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land for $ 1 million in 1881 . The New York Times declared it the largest purchase of land ever by any individual . Disston began building canals near St. Cloud to lower the basin of the Caloosahatchee and Kissimmee Rivers . His workers and engineers faced conditions similar to those of the soldiers during the Seminole Wars ; it was harrowing , backbreaking labor in dangerous conditions . The canals seemed at first to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers . Another dredged waterway between the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Okeechobee was built , opening the region to steamboat traffic .

Disston 's engineers focused on Lake Okeechobee as well . As one colleague put it , " Okeechobee is the point to attack " ; the canals were to be " equal or greater than the inflow from the Kissimmee valley , which is the source of all the evil . " Disston sponsored the digging of a canal 11 miles ( 18 km ) long from Lake Okeechobee towards Miami , but it was abandoned when the rock proved denser than the engineers had expected . Though the canals lowered the groundwater , their capacity was inadequate for the wet season . A report that evaluated the failure of the project concluded : " The reduction of the waters is simply a question of sufficient capacity in the canals which may be dug for their relief " .

Though Disston 's canals did not drain , his purchase primed the economy of Florida . It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers alike . Within four years property values doubled , and the population increased significantly . One newcomer was the inventor Thomas Edison , who bought a home in Fort Myers . Disston opened real estate offices throughout the United States and Europe , and sold tracts of land for $ 5 an acre , establishing towns on the west coast and in central Florida . English tourists in particular were targeted and responded in large numbers . Florida passed its first water laws to " build drains , ditches , or water courses upon petition of two or more landowners " in 1893 .

= = = Henry Flagler 's railroads = = =

Due to Disston 's purchase , the IIF was able to sponsor railroad projects , and the opportunity presented itself when oil tycoon Henry Flagler became enchanted with St. Augustine during a vacation . He built the opulent Ponce de León Hotel in St. Augustine in 1888 , and began buying land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida , first from Jacksonville to Daytona , then as far south as Palm Beach in 1893 . Flagler 's establishment of " the Styx " , a settlement for hotel and rail line workers across the river from the barrier island containing Palm Beach , became West Palm Beach . Along the way he built resort hotels , transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations and the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms .

The winter of 1894 – 1895 produced a bitter frost that killed citrus trees as far south as Palm Beach . Miami resident Julia Tuttle sent Flagler a pristine orange blossom and an invitation to visit Miami , to persuade him to build the railroad farther south . Although he had earlier turned her down several times , Flagler finally agreed , and by 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay . Three months after the first train arrived , the residents of Miami , 512 in all , voted to incorporate the town . Flagler publicized Miami as a " Magic City " throughout the United States and it became a prime destination for the extremely wealthy after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened .

= = = Broward 's " Empire of the Everglades " = = =

Despite the sale of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) to Disston and the skyrocketing price of land , by the turn of the 20th century the IIF was bankrupt due to mismanagement . Legal battles ensued between the State of Florida and the railroad owners about who owned the rights to sell reclaimed land in the Everglades . In 1904 gubernatorial campaigning , the strongest candidate , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , made draining the Everglades a major plank . He called the future of south Florida the " Empire of the Everglades " and compared its potential to that of Holland and Egypt : " It would indeed be a commentary on the intelligence and energy of the State of Florida to confess that so simple an engineering feat as the drainage of a body of land above the sea was above their power " , he wrote to voters . Soon after his election , he fulfilled his promise to " drain that abominable pestilence @-@ ridden swamp " and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands . They began by taxing counties that would be affected by the drainage attempts , at 5 cents an acre , and formed the Everglades Drainage District in 1907 .

Broward asked James O. Wright — an engineer on loan to the State of Florida from the USDA 's Bureau of Drainage Investigations — to draw up plans for drainage in 1906 . Two dredges were built by 1908 , but had cut only 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of canals . The project quickly ran out of money , so Broward sold real estate developer Richard J. Bolles a million dollars worth of land in the Everglades , 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) , before the engineer 's report had been submitted . Abstracts from Wright 's report were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @,@ 500 km2 ) at a cost of a dollar an acre . The abstracts were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements , and Wright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible . Wright 's supervisor noted errors in the report , as well as undue enthusiasm for draining , and delayed its release in 1910 . Different unofficial versions of the report circulated — some that had been altered by real estate interests — and a version hastily put together by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher called U.S. Senate Document 89 included early unrevised statements , causing a frenzy of speculation .

Wright 's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult . Building canals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around Lake Okeechobee . The soil would be fertile after drainage , the climate would not be adversely affected , and the enormous lake would be able to irrigate farmland in the dry season . Wright based his conclusions on 15 years of weather data since the recording of precipitation began in the 1890s . His calculations concentrated on the towns of Jupiter and Kissimmee . Since weather data had not been recorded for any area within the Everglades , none was included in the report . Furthermore , the heaviest year of rain on record , Wright assumed , was atypical , and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of water due to the expense . Wright 's calculations for what canals should be able to hold were off by 55 percent . His most fundamental mistake , however , was designing the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches ( 10 cm ) of water a day , based on flawed data for July and August rainfall , despite available data that indicated torrential downpours of 10 inches ( 25 cm ) and 12 inches ( 30 cm ) had occurred in 24 @-@ hour periods .

Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report 's conclusions — notably Frank Stoneman , the editor of the Miami News @-@ Record ( the forerunner of The Miami Herald ) — the report was hailed as impeccable , coming from a branch of the U.S. government . In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage , and the real estate industry energetically misrepresented this mid @-@ level engineer as the world 's foremost authority on wetlands drainage , in charge of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation . However , the U.S. House of Representatives investigated Wright since no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it . Wright eventually retired when it was discovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report 's publication . One testified at the hearings : " I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineering work " .

Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost . Broward and his predecessor , William Jennings , were paid by Richard Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage . Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910 , but died before he could take office . He was eulogized across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration . Rapidly growing Fort Lauderdale paid him tribute by naming Broward County after him ( the town 's original plan had been to name it Everglades County ) . Land in the Everglades was being sold for $ 15 an acre a month after Broward died . Meanwhile , Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them . News of the Panama Canal inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port . Biscayne Bay was too shallow , so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainland Florida . The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades , so Flagler instead changed the plan to build to Key West in 1912 .

= = Boom and plume harvesting = =

Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newly dug canals . In April 1912 — the end of the dry season — reporters from all over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained , and they returned to their papers and raved about the progress . Land developers sold 20 @,@ 000 lots in a few months . But as news about the Wright report continued to be negative , land values plummeted , and sales decreased . Developers were sued and arrested for mail fraud when people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived in south Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon and instead found it completely underwater . Advertisements promised land that would yield crops in eight weeks , but for many it took at least as long just to clear . Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation only to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn . Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless . When the muck dried , it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms . Settlers encountered rodents , skinks , and biting insects , and faced dangers from mosquitoes , poisonous snakes and alligators . Though at first crops sprouted quickly and lushly , they just as quickly wilted and died , seemingly without reason . It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked copper and other trace elements . The USDA released a pamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the New River Canal would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized ; people in Ft . Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them .

With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities . Even decades earlier , Harriet Beecher Stowe had been horrified at the hunting by visitors , and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877 : " [ t ] he decks of boats are crowded with men , whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests , seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore . " Otters and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins . Otter pelts could fetch between $ 8 and $ 15 each . Raccoons , more plentiful , only warranted 75 cents each in 1915 . Hunting often went unchecked ; on one trip , a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters .

Wading birds were a particular target . Their feathers were used in women 's hats from the late 19th century until the 1920s . In 1886 , five million birds were estimated to have been killed for their feathers . They were usually shot in the spring , when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting . Aigrettes , as the plumes were called in the millinery business , sold in 1915 for $ 32 an ounce , also the price of gold . Millinery was a $ 17 @-@ million @-@ a @-@ year industry that motivated plume harvesters to lie in wait at the nests of egrets and other large birds during the nesting season , shoot the parents with small @-@ bore rifles , and leave the chicks to starve . Many hunters refused to participate after watching the gruesome results of a plume hunt . Still , plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana , New York City , London , and Paris . A dealer in New York paid at least 60 hunters to provide him with " almost anything that wore feathers , but particularly the Herons , Spoonbills , and showy birds " . Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day .

Plume harvesting became a dangerous business . The Audubon Society became concerned with the amount of hunting being done in rookeries in the mangrove forests . In 1902 , they hired a warden , Guy Bradley , to watch the rookeries around Cuthbert Lake . Bradley had lived in Flamingo within the Everglades , and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent him from hunting . Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first wildlife refuge when President Theodore Roosevelt set Pelican Island as a sanctuary in 1903 .

In the 1920s , after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction , Prohibition created a living for those willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba . Rum @-@ runners used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot : there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it . The advent of the fishing industry , the arrival of the railroad , and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedented numbers of residents in new towns like Moore Haven , Clewiston , and Belle Glade . By 1921 , 2 @,@ 000 people lived in 16 new towns around Lake Okeechobee . Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it began to be mass @-@ produced . Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $ 150 million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $ 30 @,@ 600 an acre . Miami became cosmopolitan and experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture . Hollywood movie stars vacationed in the area and industrialists built lavish homes . Miami 's population multiplied fivefold , and Ft . Lauderdale and Palm Beach grew many times over as well . In 1925 , Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) , most of it real estate advertising . Waterfront property was the most highly valued . Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view . Acres of south Florida slash pine were taken down , some for lumber , but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it . It was also termite @-@ resistant , but homes were needed quickly . Most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development .

= = Hurricanes = =

The canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill the promises made by real estate developers to local farmers . The winter of 1922 was unseasonably wet and the region was underwater . The town of Moore Haven received 46 inches ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) of rain in six weeks in 1924 . Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow , not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers , who often requested conflicting water levels in the lake . Fred Elliot , who was in charge of building the canals after James Wright retired , commented : " A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on the other side wants it lowered for his particular use " .

= = = 1926 Miami Hurricane = = =

The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the land and population boom , one of which was an absence of any severe storms . The last severe hurricane , in 1906 , had struck the Florida Keys . Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lull in storms . However , on September 18 , 1926 , a storm that became known as the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck with winds over 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) , and caused massive devastation . The storm surge was as high as 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in some places . Henry Flagler 's opulent Royal Palm Hotel was destroyed along with many other hotels and buildings . Most people who died did so when they ran out into the street in disbelief while the eye of the hurricane passed over , not knowing the wind was coming in from the other direction . " The lull lasted 35 minutes , and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people " , wrote Richard Gray , the local weather chief . " As a result , many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm . " In Miami alone , 115 people were counted dead — although the true figure may have been as high as 175 , because death totals were racially segregated . More than 25 @,@ 000 people were homeless in the city . The town of Moore Haven , bordering Lake Okeechobee , was hardest hit . A levee built of muck collapsed , drowning almost 400 of the town 's entire 1 @,@ 200 residents . The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches ( 46 to 61 cm ) above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger . Two days before the hurricane , an engineer predicted , " [ i ] f we have a blow , even a gale , Moore Haven is going under water " . The engineer lost his wife and daughter in the flood .

The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by downplaying its effects and turning down aid . The Miami Herald declared two weeks after the storm that almost everything in the city had returned to normal . The governor supported the efforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a special legislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief . As a result , the American Red Cross was able to collect only $ 3 million of $ 5 million needed . The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami , despite the attempts at hiding the effects . It also forced drainage commissioners to re @-@ evaluate the effectiveness of the canals . A $ 20 million plan to build a dike around Lake Okeechobee , to be paid by property taxes , was turned down after a skeptical constituency sued to stop it ; more than $ 14 million had been spent on canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering it when needed .

= = = 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane = = =

The weather was unremarkable for two years . In 1928 , construction was completed on the Tamiami Trail , named because it was the only road spanning between Tampa and Miami . The builders attempted to construct the road several times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone , filled it with rock and paved over it . Hard rains in the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet ; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor who demanded it be lowered . However , on September 16 , 1928 came a massive storm , now known as the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane . Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees ; the range of estimates of the dead spanned from 1 @,@ 770 ( according to the Red Cross ) to 3 @,@ 000 or more . Many were swept away and never recovered . The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade . The catastrophe made national news , and although the governor again refused aid , after he toured the area and counted 126 bodies still unburied or uncollected a week after the storm , he activated the National Guard to assist in the cleanup , and declared in a telegram : " Without exaggeration , the situation in the storm area beggars description " .

= = = Herbert Hoover Dike = = =

The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control of floods rather than drainage . The Okeechobee Flood Control District , financed by both state and federal funds , was created in 1929 . President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and , an engineer himself , ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake . Between 1930 and 1937 , a dike 66 miles ( 106 km ) long was built around the southern edge of the lake , and a shorter one around the northern edge . It was 34 feet ( 10 m ) tall and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) thick on the lake side , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick on the top , and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) thick toward land . Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers : the United States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) .

A massive canal 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep was also dug through the Caloosahatchee River ; when the lake rose too high , the excess water left through the canal to the Gulf of Mexico . Exotic trees were planted along the north shore levee : Australian pines , Australian oaks , willows , and bamboo . More than $ 20 million was spent on the entire project . Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built . The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 after World War II .

= = Drought = =

The effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately . An extended drought occurred in the 1930s , and with the wall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water , the Everglades became parched . Peat turned to dust , and salty ocean water entered Miami 's wells . When the city brought in an expert to investigate , he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area 's groundwater — here , it appeared on the surface . Draining the Everglades removed this groundwater , which was replaced by ocean water seeping into the area 's wells . In 1939 , 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Everglades burned , and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami . Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in some places . Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decomposition underwater because they were not mixed with oxygen . As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with the soil , the bacteria began to break down the soil . In some places , homes had to be moved on to stilts and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of topsoil was lost .

= = = Conservation attempts = = =

Conservationists concerned about the Everglades have been a vocal minority ever since Miami was a young city . South Florida 's first and perhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was Charles Torrey Simpson , who retired from the Smithsonian Institution to Miami in 1905 when he was 53 . Nicknamed " the Sage of Biscayne Bay " , Simpson wrote several books about tropical plant life around Miami . His backyard contained a tropical hardwood hammock , which he estimated he showed to about 50 @,@ 000 people . Though he tended to avoid controversy regarding development , in Ornamental Gardening in Florida he wrote , " Mankind everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy the good and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him " .

Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in 1905 , a crystallized effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association . It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934 , but there was not enough money during the Great Depression to buy the proposed 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 km2 ) for the park . It took another 13 years for it to be dedicated on December 6 , 1947 . One month before the dedication of the park , the former editor of The Miami Herald and freelance writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas published her first book , The Everglades : River of Grass . After researching the region for five years , she described the history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail , characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp . Douglas later wrote , " My colleague Art Marshall said that with [ the words " River of Grass " ] I changed everybody 's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant " . The last chapter was titled " The Eleventh Hour " and warned that the Everglades were approaching death , although the course could be reversed . Its first printing sold out a month after its release .

= = Flood control = =

Coinciding with the dedication of Everglades National Park , 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wet season responsible for 100 inches ( 250 cm ) of rain , ending the decade @-@ long drought . Although there were no human casualties , cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months . Agricultural interests lost about $ 59 million . The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protection after being threatened .

= = = Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project = = =

In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes ( C & SF ) and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this . The C & SF used four methods in flood management : levees , water storage areas , canal improvements , and large pumps to assist gravity . Between 1952 and 1954 in cooperation with the state of Florida it built a levee 100 miles ( 160 km ) long between the eastern Everglades and suburbs from Palm Beach to Homestead , and blocked the flow of water into populated areas . Between 1954 and 1963 it divided the Everglades into basins . In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas ( WCAs ) , and the Everglades Agricultural Area ( EAA ) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee . In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park . Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA , which released water in drier times and removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood . The WCAs took up about 37 percent of the original Everglades .

During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation . Between 1940 and 1965 , 6 million people moved to south Florida : 1 @,@ 000 people moved to Miami every week . Urban development between the mid @-@ 1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled . Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas . With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated with rapid expansion : traffic jams ; school overcrowding ; crime ; overloaded sewage treatment plants ; and , for the first time in south Florida 's urban history , water shortages in times of drought .

The C & SF constructed over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of canals , and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades . It produced a film , Waters of Destiny , characterized by author Michael Grunwald as propaganda , that likened nature to a villainous , shrieking force of rage and declared the C & SF 's mission was to tame nature and make the Everglades useful . Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supported the C & SF , as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water responsibly . However , an early report by the project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas : " The aesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood . The manatee and the orchid mean something to people in an abstract way , but the former cannot line their purse , nor the latter fill their empty bellies . "

Establishment of the C & SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity for its survival . One of the C & SF 's projects was Levee 29 , laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of the park . Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park ; before construction , water flowed in through open drain pipes . The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought for the Everglades , and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the Biscayne Aquifer — the fresh water source for South Florida — to stay filled . Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3 , and many were killed by cars . Biologists estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was halved ; otters nearly became extinct . The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90 percent from the 1940s . When park management and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C & SF for assistance , the C & SF offered to build a levee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through the mangroves and into Florida Bay . Though the C & SF refused to send the park more water , they constructed Canal 67 , bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic .

= = = Everglades Agricultural Area = = =

The C & SF established 470 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) for the Everglades Agricultural Area — 27 percent of the Everglades before development . In the late 1920s , agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muck produced profitable vegetable harvests . Adding 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of the compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) of manure . The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane , though sod , beans , lettuce , celery , and rice are also grown . Sugarcane became more consolidated an industry than did any other crop ; in 1940 the coalition of farms was renamed U.S. Sugar and this produced 86 percent of Everglades sugar . During the 1930s the sugarcane farmers ' coalition came under investigation for labor practices that bordered on slavery . Potential employees — primarily young black men — were lured from all over the U.S. by the promise of jobs , but they were held financially responsible for training , transportation , room and board and other costs . Quitting while debts were owed was punishable with jail time . By 1942 , U.S. Sugar was indicted for peonage in federal court , though the charges were eventually dismissed on a technicality . U.S. Sugar benefited significantly from the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods beginning in the early 1960s . In 1958 , before the Castro regime , 47 @,@ 000 acres ( 190 km2 ) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida ; by the 1964 – 1965 season , 228 @,@ 000 acres ( 920 km2 ) were harvested . From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six , one of which in Belle Glade set several world records for sugar production .

Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( 16 ha ) , on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones by which water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops . The water level for sugarcane is ideally maintained at 20 inches ( 51 cm ) below the surface soil , and after the cane is harvested , the stalks are burned . Vegetables require more fertilizer than sugarcane , though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of the Everglades by being flooded in the wet season . Sugarcane , however , requires water in the dry season . The fertilizers used on vegetables , along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the by @-@ product of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production , were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA , predominantly to Everglades National Park . The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades . One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient @-@ poor environment , and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology .

= = Turning point = =

A turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a replacement airport was proposed as Miami International Airport outgrew its capacities . Developers began acquiring land , paying $ 180 an acre in 1968 , and the Dade County Port Authority ( DCPA ) bought 39 square miles ( 100 km2 ) in the Big Cypress Swamp without consulting the C & SF , management of Everglades National Park or the Department of the Interior . Park management learned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from The Miami Herald the day it was announced . The DCPA bulldozed the land it had bought , and laid a single runway it declared was for training pilots . The new jetport was planned to be larger than O 'Hare , Dulles , JFK , and LAX airports combined ; the location chosen was 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of the Everglades National Park , within WCA 3 . The deputy director of the DCPA declared : " This is going to be one of the great population centers of America . We will do our best to meet our responsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land , sea , and air above us as the higher order of man intends . "

The C & SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100 conservation groups in the U.S. Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project . Business Week reported real estate prices jumped from $ 200 to $ 800 an acre surrounding the planned location , and Life wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area . The U.S. Geological Survey 's study of the environmental impact of the jetport started , " Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park " . The jetport was intended to support a community of a million people and employ 60 @,@ 000 . The DCPA director was reported in Time saying , " I 'm more interested in people than alligators . This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned . "

When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of raw sewage a day and 10 @,@ 000 short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) of jet engine pollutants a year , the national media snapped to attention . Science magazine wrote , in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project , " Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that , without careful planning , development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand " . The New York Times called it a " blueprint for disaster " , and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition : " It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment . " Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project , and the 78 @-@ year @-@ old Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it . She established Friends of the Everglades and encouraged more than 3 @,@ 000 members to join . Initially the U.S. Department of Transportation pledged funds to support the jetport , but after pressure , Nixon overruled the department . He instead established Big Cypress National Preserve , announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program . Following the jetport proposition , restoration of the Everglades became not only a statewide priority , but an international one as well . In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an International Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , and a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention , making it one of only three locations on earth that have appeared on all three lists .

= DuMont Television Network =

The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) Dumont / duːmɒnt / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , rivalling NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA . It began operation in the United States in 1946 . It was owned by DuMont Laboratories , a television equipment and set manufacturer . The network was hindered by the prohibitive cost of broadcasting , by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) which restricted the company 's growth , and even by the company 's partner , Paramount Pictures . Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television 's biggest stars of the 1950s ( Jackie Gleason ) , the network never found itself on solid financial ground . Forced to expand on UHF channels during an era when UHF was not yet a standard feature on television sets , DuMont fought an uphill battle for program clearances outside of their three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations in New York , Washington and Pittsburgh , finally ending network operations in 1956 .

DuMont 's latter @-@ day obscurity , caused mainly by the destruction of its extensive program archive by the 1970s , has prompted TV historian David Weinstein to refer to it as the " Forgotten Network " or " Network Is Long Gone " . A few popular DuMont programs , such as Cavalcade of Stars and Emmy Award winner Life Is Worth Living , appear in television retrospectives or are mentioned briefly in books about U.S. television history .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

DuMont Laboratories was founded in 1931 by Dr. Allen B. DuMont with only $ 1 @,@ 000 , and a laboratory in his basement . He and his staff were responsible for many early technical innovations , including the first consumer all @-@ electronic television set in 1938 . The company 's television sets soon became the gold standard of the industry . In 1942 , DuMont worked with the Army in developing radar technology during World War II . This ended up bringing in $ 5 million in capital for the company .

Early sales of television sets were hampered by the lack of regularly scheduled programming being broadcast . A few months after selling his first set in 1938 , DuMont opened his own New York area experimental television station ( W2XVT ) in Passaic , New Jersey . In 1940 , the station moved to Manhattan as W2XWV on channel 4 . Unlike CBS and NBC , which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II , DuMont continued full @-@ scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war . In 1944 , W2XWV became WABD ( callsign derived from DuMont 's initials ) moving to channel 5 in 1945 , the third commercial television station in New York . On May 19 , 1945 , DuMont opened experimental W3XWT in Washington , DC . A minority shareholder in DuMont Laboratories was Paramount Pictures , which had advanced $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1939 for a 40 % share in the company . Paramount had television interests of its own , having launched experimental stations in Los Angeles in 1939 and Chicago in 1940 , and DuMont 's association with Paramount ultimately proved to be a mistake .

Soon after his experimental Washington station signed on , DuMont began experimental coaxial cable hookups between his laboratories in Passaic , New Jersey , and his two stations . It is said that one of those broadcasts on the hookup announced that the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 . This was later considered to be the official beginning of the DuMont Network by both Thomas T. Goldsmith , the network 's chief engineer and DuMont 's best friend , and DuMont himself . Regular network service began on August 15 , 1946 , on WABD and W3XWT . In 1947 , W3XWT became WTTG , named after Goldsmith . The pair were joined in 1949 by WDTV ( channel 3 ) in Pittsburgh .

Although NBC in New York was known to have station @-@ to @-@ station television links as early as 1940 with WPTZ ( now KYW ) in Philadelphia and WRGB Schenectady , NY , DuMont received its station licenses before NBC resumed its previously sporadic network broadcasts after the war . ABC had just come into existence as a radio network in 1943 and did not enter network television until 1948 , when it signed on a flagship station in New York City , WJZ @-@ TV ( now WABC @-@ TV ) . CBS also waited until 1948 to begin network operations because it was waiting for the Federal Communications Commission to approve its color television system ( which it eventually did not ) . Other companies – including Mutual , the Yankee Network , and Paramount itself – were interested in starting television networks , but were prevented from successfully doing so by restrictive FCC regulations ; however , at least the Paramount Television Network actually did have some limited success in network operations in the late 1940s and early 1950s .

= = = Programming = = =

Despite no history of radio programming or stable of radio stars to draw on and perennial cash shortages , DuMont was an innovative and creative network . Without the radio revenues that supported mighty NBC and CBS , DuMont programmers relied on their wits and on connections with Broadway . Eventually , the network provided original programs that are remembered more than 60 years later .

The network largely ignored the standard business model of 1950s TV , in which one advertiser sponsored an entire show , enabling it to have complete control over its content . Instead , DuMont sold commercials to many different advertisers , freeing producers of its shows from the veto power held by sole sponsors . This eventually became the standard model for US television . Some commercial time was sold regionally on a co @-@ op basis , while other spots were sold network @-@ wide .

DuMont also holds another important place in American TV history . WDTV 's sign @-@ on made it possible for stations in the Midwest to receive live network programming from stations on the East Coast , and vice versa . Before then , the networks relied on separate regional networks in the two time zones for live programming , and the West Coast received network programming from kinescopes ( films shot directly from live television screens ) originating from the East Coast . On January 11 , 1949 , the coaxial cable linking East and Midwest ( known in television circles as " the Golden Spike , " in reference to the Golden spike that united the First Transcontinental Railroad ) was activated . The ceremony , hosted by DuMont and WDTV , was carried on all four networks . WGN @-@ TV ( channel 9 ) in Chicago and WABD in New York were able to share programs through a live coaxial cable feed when WDTV signed on in Pittsburgh , because the station completed the East Coast @-@ to @-@ Midwest chain , allowing stations in both regions to air the same program simultaneously , which is still the standard for US TV . It was another two years before the West Coast got live programming from the East ( and the East able to get live programming from the West ) , but this was the beginning of the modern era of network television .

The first broadcasts came from DuMont 's 515 Madison Avenue headquarters , and it soon found additional space , including a fully functioning theater , in the New York branch of Wanamaker 's department store at Ninth Street and Broadway . Later , a lease on the Adelphi Theatre on 54th Street and the Ambassador Theatre on West 49th Street gave the network a site for variety shows , and in 1954 , the lavish DuMont Tele @-@ Centre opened in the former Jacob Ruppert 's Central Opera House at 205 East 67th Street .

DuMont was the first network to broadcast a film production for TV : Talk Fast , Mister , produced by RKO in 1944 . DuMont also aired the first TV situation comedy , Mary Kay and Johnny , as well as the first network @-@ televised soap opera , Faraway Hill . Cavalcade of Stars , a variety show hosted by Jackie Gleason , was the birthplace of The Honeymooners ( Gleason took his variety show to CBS in 1952 , but filmed the " Classic 39 " Honeymooners episodes at DuMont 's Adelphi Theater studio in 1955 @-@ 56 ) . Bishop Fulton J. Sheen 's devotional program Life Is Worth Living went up against Milton Berle in many cities , and was the first show to compete successfully in the ratings against " Mr. Television " . In 1952 , Sheen won an Emmy Award for " Most Outstanding Personality " . The network 's other notable programs include :

Ted Mack 's The Original Amateur Hour , which began on radio in the 1930s under original host Edward Bowes

The Morey Amsterdam Show , a comedy / variety show hosted by Morey Amsterdam , which started on CBS before moving to DuMont in 1949

Captain Video and His Video Rangers , a hugely popular kids ' science fiction series

The Arthur Murray Party , a dance program

Down You Go , a popular panel show

Rocky King , Inside Detective , a private eye series starring Roscoe Karns

The Plainclothesman , a camera 's @-@ eye @-@ view detective series

Live coverage of boxing and professional wrestling , the latter featuring matches staged by the Capitol Wrestling Corporation , the predecessor to WWE

The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a Peabody Award @-@ winning education program

Cash and Carry , the first network @-@ televised game show

The Ernie Kovacs Show , the first truly innovative show in what was then visual radio , not television .

The network was a pioneer in TV programming aimed at minority audiences and featuring minority performers , at a time when the other American networks aired few television series for non @-@ whites . Among DuMont 's minority programs were The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ Tsong , starring Asian American film actress Anna May Wong , the first US TV show to star an Asian American , and The Hazel Scott Show , starring pianist and singer Hazel Scott , the first US network TV series to be hosted by a black woman .

Although DuMont 's programming pre @-@ dated videotape , many DuMont offerings were recorded on kinescopes . These kinescopes were said to be stored in a warehouse until the 1970s . Actress Edie Adams , the wife of comedian Ernie Kovacs ( both regular performers on early television ) testified in 1996 before a panel of the Library of Congress on the preservation of television and video . Adams claimed that so little value was given to these films that the stored kinescopes were loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay . Nevertheless , a number of DuMont programs survive at The Paley Center for Media in New York City , the UCLA Film and Television Archive in Los Angeles , in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia , and the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago .

Although nearly the entire DuMont film archive was destroyed , several surviving DuMont shows have been released on DVD . A large number of episodes of Life Is Worth Living have been saved , and they are now aired weekly on Catholic @-@ oriented cable network , the Eternal Word Television Network , which also makes a collection of them available on DVD ( in the biographical information about Fulton J. Sheen added to the end of many episodes , a still image of Bishop Sheen looking into a DuMont Television camera can be seen ) . Several companies that distribute DVDs over the Internet have released a small number of episodes of Cavalcade of Stars and The Morey Amsterdam Show . Two more DuMont programs , Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Rocky King , Inside Detective , have had a small amount of surviving episodes released commercially by at least one major distributor of public domain programming .

= = = = Awards = = = =

DuMont programs were by necessity low @-@ budget affairs , and the network received relatively few awards from the TV industry . Most awards during the 1950s went to NBC and CBS , who were able to out @-@ spend other companies and draw on their extensive history of radio broadcasting in the relatively new television medium . DuMont , however , did win a number of awards during its years of operation .

During the 1952 – 53 TV season , Bishop Fulton J. Sheen , host of Life Is Worth Living , won an Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Personality . Sheen beat out CBS 's Arthur Godfrey , Edward R. Murrow and Lucille Ball , who were also nominated for the same award . Sheen was also nominated for – but did not win – consecutive Public Service Emmys in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 .

DuMont received an Emmy nomination for Down You Go , a popular game show during the 1952 – 53 television season ( in the category Best Audience Participation , Quiz , or Panel Program ) . The network was nominated twice for its coverage of professional football during the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 television seasons .

The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a DuMont public affairs program , was awarded a Peabody Award in 1952 in the Education category . Sheen 's Emmy and the Science Review Peabody were the only national awards the DuMont Network received . Though DuMont series and performers continued to win local TV awards , by the mid @-@ 1950s the DuMont network no longer had a national presence .

= = = = Ratings = = = =

The earliest measurements of TV audiences were performed by the C. E. Hooper company of New York . DuMont performed well in the Hooper ratings ; in fact , DuMont 's talent program , The Original Amateur Hour , was the most popular series of the 1947 – 48 season . Variety ranked DuMont 's popular variety series Cavalcade of Stars as the tenth most popular series two seasons later .

In February 1950 , Hooper 's competitor A. C. Nielsen bought out the Hooperatings system . DuMont did not fare well with the change : none of its shows appeared on Nielsen 's annual top 20 lists of the most popular series . One of the DuMont Network 's biggest hits of the 1950s , Life is Worth Living , received Nielsen ratings of up to 11 @.@ 1 , attracting more than 10 million viewers . Sheen 's one @-@ man program – in which he discussed philosophy , psychology and other fields of thought from a Christian perspective – was the most widely viewed religious series in the history of television . 169 local television stations aired Life , and for three years the program competed successfully against NBC 's popular The Milton Berle Show . The ABC and CBS programs which aired in the same timeslot were cancelled .

Life is Worth Living was not the only DuMont program to achieve double @-@ digit ratings . In 1952 , Time magazine reported that popular DuMont game show Down You Go had attracted an audience estimated at 16 million viewers . Similarly , DuMont 's summer 1954 replacement series , The Goldbergs , achieved audiences estimated at 10 million . Still , these series were only moderately popular compared to NBC 's and CBS 's highest @-@ rated programs .

Nielsen was not the only company to report TV ratings , however . Companies such as Trendex , Videodex and Arbitron had also measured TV viewership . The adjacent chart comes from Videodex 's August 1950 ratings breakdown , as reported in Billboard magazine .

= = = Disputes with AT & T and Paramount = = =

DuMont struggled to get its programs aired in many parts of the country , in part due to technical limitations of network lines maintained by the telephone company AT & T Corporation . During the 1940s and 1950s , television signals were sent between stations via coaxial cable and microwave links which were owned by AT & T. The service provider did not have enough cable lines and microwave circuits to provide signal relay service from all four networks to all of their affiliates at the same time , so AT & T allocated times when each network could offer live programs to their affiliates . In 1950 , AT & T allotted NBC and CBS each over 100 hours of live prime time network service , but gave ABC only 53 hours , and DuMont just 37 . AT & T also required each television network to lease both radio and television lines . DuMont was the only television network without a radio network , but was forced to pay for a service it did not use . DuMont protested AT & T 's actions with the Federal Communications Commission , and eventually received a compromise .

DuMont 's biggest corporate hurdle , however , may have been with the company 's own partner , Paramount . Relations between the two companies were strained as early as 1939 , when Paramount opened experimental television stations in Los Angeles and Chicago without DuMont . Dr. DuMont claimed that the original 1937 acquisition proposal required Paramount to expand its television interests " through DuMont " . Paramount representative Paul Raibourn , who also was a member of DuMont 's board of directors , denied that any such restriction had ever been discussed ( Dr. DuMont was vindicated on this point by a 1953 examination of the original draft document ) .

DuMont aspired to grow beyond its three stations , applying for new television station licenses in Cincinnati and Cleveland in 1947 . This would give the network five owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( O & Os ) , the maximum allowed by the FCC at the time . However , DuMont was hampered by Paramount 's two stations , KTLA ( channel 5 ) in Los Angeles and WBKB ( channel 4 , now WBBM @-@ TV on channel 2 ) in Chicago – the descendants of the two experimental stations that rankled DuMont in 1940 . Although these stations never carried DuMont programming ( with the exception of KTLA for one year from 1947 to 1948 ) , and in fact competed against DuMont 's affiliates in those cities , the FCC ruled that Paramount essentially controlled DuMont , which effectively placed the network at the five @-@ station cap . Paramount 's exertion of influence over the network 's management and the power of its voting stock brought the FCC to its conclusion . Thus , DuMont was unable to open additional stations as long as Paramount owned stations or owned a portion of DuMont . Paramount refused to sell .

In 1949 , Paramount Pictures launched the Paramount Television Network , a service which provided local television stations with filmed television programs ; Paramount 's network " undercut the company that it had invested in . " Paramount did not share its stars , big budgets or filmed programs with DuMont ; the company had stopped financially supporting DuMont in 1941 . Although Paramount executives indicated they would produce programs for DuMont , the studio never supplied the network with programs or technical assistance . The acrimonious relationship between Paramount and DuMont came to a head during the 1953 FCC hearings regarding the ABC – United Paramount Theaters merger when Paul Raibourn , an executive at Paramount , publicly derided the quality of DuMont television sets in court testimony .

= = = Trouble from the start = = =

DuMont began with one basic disadvantage : unlike NBC , CBS and ABC , it did not have a radio network from which to draw big @-@ name talent , affiliate loyalty or radio profits to underwrite television operations until the television medium itself became profitable . Most early television licenses were granted to established radio broadcasters , and many longtime relationships with radio networks carried over to the new medium . As CBS and NBC ( and to a lesser extent , ABC ) gained their footing , they began to offer programming that drew on their radio backgrounds , bringing over the most popular radio stars . Early television station owners , when deciding which network would receive their main affiliation , were more likely to choose CBS 's roster of Lucille Ball , Jack Benny and Ed Sullivan , or NBC 's lineup of Milton Berle and Sid Caesar over DuMont , which offered a then @-@ unknown Jackie Gleason and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen . In smaller markets , with a limited number of stations , DuMont and ABC were often relegated to secondary status , so their programs got clearance only if the primary network was off the air or delayed via kinescope recording ( " teletranscriptions " in DuMont parlance ) .

Adding to DuMont 's troubles was the FCC 's 1948 " freeze " on television license applications . This was done to sort out the thousands of applications that had come streaming in , but also to rethink the allocation and technical standards laid down prior to World War II . It became clear soon after the war that 12 channels ( " channel 1 " had been removed from television broadcasting use because storms and other types of interference could severely affect the quality of signals on this channel ) were not nearly enough for national television service . What was to be a six @-@ month freeze lasted until 1952 , when the FCC opened the UHF spectrum . The FCC , however , did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability . In order to see UHF stations , most people had to buy an expensive converter . Even then , the picture quality was marginal at best . Tied to this was a decision to restrict VHF allocations in medium- and smaller @-@ sized markets . Television sets were not required to have all @-@ channel tuning until 1964 .

Forced to rely on UHF to expand , DuMont saw one station after another go dark due to dismal ratings . It bought small , distressed UHF station KCTY ( channel 50 ) in Kansas City , Missouri in 1954 , but ran it for just three months before shutting it down at a considerable loss after attempting to compete with three established VHF stations .

The FCC 's Dr. Hyman Goldin said in 1960 , " If there had been four VHF outlets in the top markets , there 's no question DuMont would have lived and would have eventually turned the corner in terms of profitability . "

= = = The end = = =

During the early years of television , there was some measure of cooperation among the four major U.S. television networks . However , as television grew into a profitable business , an intense rivalry developed between the networks , just as it had in radio . NBC and CBS competed fiercely for viewers and advertising dollars , a contest neither underfunded DuMont nor ABC could hope to win . According to author Dennis Mazzocco , " NBC tried to make an arrangement with ABC and CBS to destroy the DuMont network . " The plan was for NBC and CBS to exclusively offer ABC their most popular series after they had aired on the bigger networks . ABC would become a network of re @-@ runs , but DuMont would be shut out . ABC president Leonard Goldenson rejected NBC executive David Sarnoff 's proposal , but " did not report it to the Justice Department " .

DuMont survived the early 1950s only because of WDTV in Pittsburgh , the lone commercial VHF station in what was then the sixth @-@ largest market . WDTV 's only competition came from UHF stations and distant stations from Johnstown , Pennsylvania ; Youngstown , Ohio ; and Wheeling , West Virginia . No other commercial VHF station signed on in Pittsburgh until 1957 , giving WDTV a de facto monopoly on television in the area . Since WDTV carried secondary affiliations with the other three networks , DuMont used this as a bargaining chip to get its programs cleared in other large markets .

Despite its severe financial straits , by 1953 , DuMont appeared to be on its way to establishing itself as the third national network . DuMont programs aired live on 16 stations , but it could count on only seven primary stations – its three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( " O & Os " ) , plus WGN @-@ TV in Chicago , KTTV ( channel 11 ) in Los Angeles , KFEL @-@ TV ( channel 2 , now KWGN @-@ TV ) in Denver and WTVN @-@ TV ( channel 6 , now WSYX ) in Columbus , Ohio . In contrast , ABC had a full complement of five O & Os , augmented by nine primary affiliates . ABC also had a radio network ( it was descended from NBC 's Blue Network ) from which to draw talent , affiliate loyalty and a profit stream to subsidize television operations . However , ABC had only 14 primary stations , while CBS and NBC had over 40 each . By 1951 , ABC was badly overextended and on the verge of bankruptcy . That year , the company announced a merger with United Paramount Theaters ( the former theater division of Paramount Pictures , which was spun off as a result of the United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc. antitrust decision ) , but it was not until 1953 that the FCC approved the merger .

By this time , DuMont had begun to differentiate itself from NBC and CBS . It allowed its advertisers to choose the locations where their advertising ran , potentially saving them millions of dollars . By contrast , ABC operated like CBS and NBC even though it was only a fourth as large , forcing advertisers to purchase a large " must @-@ buy " list of stations .

ABC 's fortunes were dramatically altered in February 1953 , when the FCC cleared the way for UPT to buy the network . The merger provided ABC with a badly needed cash infusion , giving it the resources to mount " top shelf " programming and to provide a national television service on a scale approaching that of CBS and NBC . Through UPT president Leonard Goldenson , ABC also gained ties with the Hollywood studios that more than matched those DuMont 's producers had with Broadway .

Realizing that the ABC @-@ UPT deal put DuMont near extinction , network officials were receptive to a merger offer from ABC . Goldenson quickly brokered a deal with Ted Bergmann , DuMont 's managing director , under which the merged network would have been called " ABC @-@ DuMont " until at least 1958 and would have honored all of DuMont 's network commitments . In return , DuMont would get $ 5 million in cash , guaranteed advertising time for DuMont sets and a secure future for its staff . A merged ABC @-@ DuMont would have been a colossus rivaling CBS and NBC , as it would have owned stations in five of the six largest U.S. television markets ( excluding only Philadelphia ) as well as ABC 's radio network . It also would have inherited DuMont 's de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , and would have been one of two networks to have full ownership of a station in the nation 's capital ( the other being NBC ) . However , it would have had to sell a New York station – either DuMont 's WABD or ABC flagship WJZ @-@ TV ( channel 7 , now WABC @-@ TV ) , probably the former . It also would have had to sell two other stations – most likely ABC 's two smallest O & Os , WXYZ @-@ TV in Detroit and KGO @-@ TV in San Francisco ( both broadcasting on channel 7 ) – to get under the FCC 's limit of five stations per owner .

However , Paramount vetoed the plan almost out of hand due to antitrust concerns . A few months earlier , the FCC had ruled that Paramount controlled DuMont , and there were still some questions about whether UPT had really separated from Paramount .

With no other way to readily obtain cash , DuMont sold WDTV to Westinghouse Electric Corporation for $ 9 @.@ 75 million in late 1954 . While this gave DuMont a short @-@ term cash infusion , it eliminated the leverage the network had to get program clearances in other markets . Without its de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , the company 's advertising revenue shrank to less than half that of 1953 . By February 1955 , DuMont executives realized the company could not continue as a television network . The decision was made to shut down network operations and operate WABD and WTTG as independent stations . On April 1 , 1955 , most of DuMont 's entertainment programs were dropped . Bishop Sheen aired his last program on DuMont on April 26 and later moved to ABC . By May , just eight programs were left on the network , with only inexpensive shows and sporting events keeping what was left of the network going through the summer . The network also largely abandoned the use of the intercity network coaxial cable , on which it had spent $ 3 million in 1954 to transmit shows that mostly lacked station clearance . The company only retained network links for live sports programming and utilizing the company 's Electronicam process to produce studio @-@ based programming . Ironically , Electronicam is best remembered for being used by Jackie Gleason 's producers for the 39 @-@ half @-@ hour episodes of The Honeymooners that aired on CBS during the 1955 @-@ 56 television season .

In August , Paramount , with the help of other stockholders , seized full control of DuMont Laboratories . The last non @-@ sports program on DuMont , the game show What 's the Story , aired on September 23 , 1955 . After that , DuMont 's network feed was used only for occasional sporting events . DuMont 's last broadcast , a boxing match , aired on August 6 , 1956 . The date has also been reported as April 1950 , September 1955 , or August 4 , 1958 . According to one source , the final program aired on only five stations nationwide . It appears that the boxing show was syndicated to a few other east coast stations until 1958 , but likely not as a production of DuMont or its successor company .

DuMont spun off WABD and WTTG as the " DuMont Broadcasting Corporation " . The name was later changed to " Metropolitan Broadcasting Company " to distance the company from what was seen as a complete failure . In 1958 , John Kluge bought Paramount 's shares for $ 4 million , and renamed the company Metromedia in 1960 . WABD became WNEW @-@ TV and later WNYW ; WTTG still broadcasts under its original call letters as a Fox affiliate .

For 50 years , DuMont was the only major broadcast television network to cease operations , until CBS Corporation and Time Warner shut down two other struggling networks , UPN and The WB , in September 2006 to create The CW Television Network – whose schedule was originally composed largely of programs from both of its predecessor networks .

= = Fate of the DuMont stations = =

All three DuMont @-@ owned stations are still operating and coincidentally , all three are owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their respective networks , just as when they were part of DuMont . Of the three , only Washington 's WTTG still has its original call letters .

WTTG and New York 's WABD ( later WNEW @-@ TV , and now WNYW ) survived as Metromedia @-@ owned independents until 1986 , when Metromedia was purchased by the News Corporation to form the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company . Clarke Ingram , who maintained a DuMont memorial site , has suggested that Fox can be considered a revival , or at least a linear descendant , of DuMont .

Westinghouse changed WDTV 's call letters to KDKA @-@ TV after the pioneering radio station of the same name , and switched its primary affiliation to CBS immediately after the sale . Westinghouse 's acquisition of CBS in 1995 made KDKA @-@ TV a CBS owned @-@ and @-@ operated station .

= = DuMont programming library = =

DuMont produced more than 20 @,@ 000 television episodes during the decade from 1946 to 1956 . Because the shows were created prior to the launch of Ampex 's electronic videotape recorder in late 1956 , all of them were initially broadcast live in black and white , then recorded on film kinescope for reruns and for West Coast rebroadcasts . By the early 1970s , their vast library of 35mm and 16mm kinescopes eventually wound up in the hands of " a successor network , " who reportedly disposed of all of them in New York City 's East River to make room for more recent @-@ vintage videotapes in a warehouse . Other kinescopes were put through a silver reclaiming process , because of the microscopic amounts of silver that made up the emulsion of black @-@ and @-@ white film during this time . It is estimated that only about 350 complete DuMont television shows survive today , the most famous being virtually all of Jackie Gleason 's Honeymooners comedy sketches . Most of the existing episodes are believed to have come from the personal archives of DuMont 's hosts , such as Gleason and Dennis James .

= = Affiliates = =

At its peak in 1954 , DuMont was affiliated with around 200 television stations . In those days , television stations were free to " cherry @-@ pick " which programs they would air , and many stations affiliated with multiple networks , depending mainly on the number of commercial television stations available in a market at a given time ( markets where only one commercial station was available carried programming from all four major networks ) . Many of DuMont 's " affiliates " carried very little DuMont programming , choosing to air one or two more popular programs ( such as Life Is Worth Living ) and / or sports programming on the weekends . Few stations carried the full DuMont program lineup .

In its later years , DuMont was carried mostly on poorly watched UHF channels or had only secondary affiliations on VHF stations . DuMont ended most operations on April 1 , 1955 , but honored network commitments until August 1956 .

= = = Kinescopes = = =

Kinescopes of DuMont Network programs , from the Internet Archive : The Adventures of Ellery Queen , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , Cavalcade of Stars , Life Is Worth Living , Miss U.S. Television 1950 Contest , The Morey Amsterdam Show , The Old American Barn Dance , Okay Mother , On Your Way , Public Prosecutor , Rocky King — Detective , School House , They Stand Accused and A DuMont Network identification

= Bodyline =

Bodyline , also known as fast leg theory bowling , was a cricketing tactic devised by the English cricket team for their 1932 – 33 Ashes tour of Australia , specifically to combat the extraordinary batting skill of Australia 's Don Bradman . A bodyline delivery was one where the cricket ball was bowled towards the body of the batsman on the line of the leg stump , in the hope of creating leg @-@ side deflections that could be caught by one of several fielders in the quadrant of the field behind square leg . This was considered by many to be intimidatory and physically threatening , to the point of being unfair in a game once supposed to have gentlemanly traditions , although commercialisation of the game had subsequently tended to elevate the principle of " win at all costs " above traditional ideals of sportsmanship .

Although no serious injuries arose from any short @-@ pitched deliveries while a leg theory field was set , the tactic still led to considerable ill feeling between the two teams , with the controversy eventually spilling into the diplomatic arena . Over the next two decades , several of the Laws of Cricket were changed to prevent this tactic being repeated . Law 41 @.@ 5 states " At the instant of the bowler 's delivery there shall not be more than two fielders , other than the wicket @-@ keeper , behind the popping crease on the on side , " commonly referred to as being " behind square leg " . Additionally , Law 42 @.@ 6 ( a ) includes : " The bowling of fast short pitched balls is dangerous and unfair if the umpire at the bowler 's end considers that by their repetition and taking into account their length , height and direction they are likely to inflict physical injury on the striker " .

The occasional short @-@ pitched ball aimed at the batsman ( a bouncer ) has never been illegal and is still in widespread use as a tactic .

= = Genesis = =

The Australian cricket team toured England in 1930 . Australia won the five @-@ Test series 2 – 1 , with Don Bradman scoring 974 runs at a batting average of 139 @.@ 14 , an aggregate record that still stands . By the time of the next Ashes series of 1932 – 33 , Bradman 's average hovered around 100 , approximately twice that of all other world @-@ class batsmen . England feared that without resorting to drastic tactics , they might not be able to defeat Australia until Bradman — then aged 24 — retired , something that might be over a decade away . It was believed that something new was required to combat Bradman , but it was believed more likely that Bradman could be dismissed by leg @-@ spin as Walter Robins and Ian Peebles had supposedly caused him problems ; two leg @-@ spinners were included in the English touring party of 1932 – 33 . This view gradually came to change leading up to 1932 .

The idea of bodyline had originated in the Oval Test of the 1930 Ashes series . While Bradman was batting , the wicket became briefly difficult following rain . Bradman was seen to be uncomfortable facing deliveries which bounced higher than usual at a faster pace , being seen to step back out of the line of the ball . Former England player and Surrey captain Percy Fender was one who noticed , and the incident was much discussed by cricketers . However , given that Bradman scored 232 , it was not thought that a way to curb his prodigious scoring had been found . When Douglas Jardine later saw film footage of the Oval incident and noticed Bradman 's discomfort , he shouted , " I 've got it ! He 's yellow ! " Further details adding to the plan came from letters Fender received from Australia in 1932 , which described how Australian batsmen were increasingly moving across the stumps towards the off side to play the ball on the on side . Fender showed these letters to Jardine when it became clear that he was to captain MCC in Australia during the 1932 – 33 tour , and he also discussed Bradman 's discomfort at the Oval . It was also known in England that Bradman was dismissed for a four @-@ ball duck by fast bowler Eddie Gilbert , and looked very uncomfortable . Bradman had also appeared uncomfortable against the pace of Sandy Bell in his innings of 299 not out at the Adelaide Oval in South Africa 's tour of Australia earlier in 1932 , when the desperate bowler decided to bowl short to him , and fellow South African Herbie Taylor , according to Jack Fingleton , may have mentioned this to English cricketers in 1932 . Fender felt Bradman might be vulnerable to fast , short @-@ pitched deliveries on the line of leg stump . Jardine felt that Bradman was afraid to stand his ground against intimidatory bowling , citing instances in 1930 when he shuffled about , contrary to orthodox batting technique .

When Jardine was appointed England 's captain for the 1932 – 33 English tour of Australia , a meeting was arranged with Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr and his two fast bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce at London 's Piccadilly Hotel to discuss a plan to combat Bradman 's extraordinary skills . Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl on leg stump and make the ball come up into the body of the batsman . The bowlers agreed they could , and that it might prove effective . Jardine also visited Frank Foster who had toured Australia in 1911 – 12 to discuss field @-@ placing in Australia . Foster had bowled leg @-@ theory on that tour with his fielders placed close in on the leg side , as had George Hirst in 1903 – 04 .

A cordon of close @-@ in fielders would be arrayed behind the wicket and on the leg side to exploit batting errors elicited by this bowling line . In these circumstances , a batsman can either duck and risk being hit , or play the ball . Defensive shots rarely score runs and risk being caught in the cordon , while the pull and hook shots can result in a catch on the boundary , for which two men were usually set in " leg @-@ theory " bowling . Leg theory had been practised previously without resort to short @-@ pitched bowling , usually by slow or medium @-@ pace bowlers . This type of leg theory was aimed outside the line of leg stump ; the object being to test the batsman 's patience and force a rash stroke . It was occasionally an effective tactic , but was unattractive for spectators and never became widely used except by a handful of specialists such as Fred Root , the Worcestershire bowler and Warwick Armstrong , the former Australian captain .

However , there had been instances of what would later be recognised as bodyline prior to 1932 . In 1925 , Australian Jack Scott first bowled a form of bodyline in a state match for New South Wales , but his captain Herbie Collins disliked it and would not let him use it again when he was captain . Other Australian captains were less particular , including Vic Richardson who let him use those tactics when he moved to South Australia . He repeated them against the MCC in 1928 – 29 . In 1927 , in a Test trial match , " Nobby " Clark bowled short to a leg @-@ trap field . He was representing England in a side captained by Jardine . In 1928 – 29 , Harry Alexander bowled an early form of bodyline at the MCC tourists . Larwood used a form of bodyline on that same tour , bowling fast leg theory to a leg @-@ side field in two Test matches , although not with the same intensity and duration as came later . Bob Wyatt later claimed that Learie Constantine unsuccessfully used bodyline in 1929 – 30 in the West Indies .

Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the remainder of the 1932 season with varying but increasing success and several injuries to batsmen . Ken Farnes experimented with short @-@ pitched , leg @-@ theory bowling but was not selected for the tour . Bill Bowes also used short @-@ pitched bowling , notably against Jack Hobbs .

= = Antipathy between Australians and Jardine = =

Jardine 's first experience against Australia came when his Oxford University team played against the 1921 Australian touring side . In the second innings , Jardine was 96 not out when the game ended , having batted his team to safety . The tourists were criticised in the press for not allowing Jardine to reach his hundred , but they had tried to help him with some easy bowling . There has been speculation that this incident helped develop Jardine 's antipathy towards Australians , although Christopher Douglas denies this . Cricket historian David Frith believed it is possible that the abrasive Australian captain Warwick Armstrong could have addressed sarcastic comments to Jardine but Wisden believed his slow approach cost him his century .

Regardless of what happened in 1921 , Jardine 's conflicts with Australia solidified after he was selected to tour the country in 1928 – 29 . He began the tour with three consecutive hundreds . During the first century , the crowd engaged in some good @-@ natured joking at Jardine 's expense , but he was jeered by the crowd during his second hundred for batting too slowly . Jardine accelerated after another slow start , during which he was again barracked to score his third century . The crowds took an increasing dislike to him , mainly for his superior attitude and bearing , his awkward fielding , and particularly his choice of headwear . His first public action in South Australia was to take out the members of the South Australian team who had been to Oxford or Cambridge universities . Then , he wore a Harlequin cap , given to successful cricketers at Oxford . It was not unusual for Oxford and Cambridge cricketers to wear similar caps while batting , as both Jardine and MCC captain Percy Chapman did so on this tour , although it was slightly unorthodox to wear them while fielding . However , this was neither understood nor acceptable to the Australian crowds . They quickly took exception to the importance he seemed to place on class distinction . Although Jardine may simply have worn the cap out of superstition , it conveyed a negative impression to the spectators ; his general demeanour drew one comment of " Where 's the butler to carry the bat for you ? " Jardine 's cap became a focus for criticism and mockery from the crowds throughout the tour . Nevertheless , Jack Fingleton later claimed that Jardine could have won over the crowd by exchanging jokes or pleasantries with them . It is certain that Jardine by this stage had developed an intense dislike for Australian crowds . During his third century at the start of the tour , during a period of abuse from the spectators , he observed to a sympathetic Hunter Hendry that " All Australians are uneducated , and an unruly mob " . After the innings , when teammate Patsy Hendren remarked that the Australian crowds did not like Jardine , he replied " It 's fucking mutual " . During the tour , Jardine fielded next to the crowd on the boundary . There , he was roundly abused and mocked for his awkward fielding , particularly when chasing the ball . On one occasion , he spat towards the crowd while fielding on the boundary as he changed position for the final time .

During the journey to Australia , some players reported that Jardine told them to hate the Australians in order to defeat them , while instructing them to refer to Bradman as " the little bastard . " At this stage , he seemed to have settled on leg theory , if not full bodyline , as his main tactic .

Once the team arrived in Australia , Jardine quickly alienated the press by refusing to give team details before a match and being uncooperative during interviews . The press printed some negative stories as a result and the crowds barracked as they had done on his previous tour , which angered him .

= = In Australia = =

Although English bowlers did aim at the batsmen 's body in the opening tour matches , they did not follow through by packing the leg @-@ side field until Bill Woodfull led an Australian XI against the tourists in Melbourne on 18 – 22 November , in what was effectively a Test rehearsal . Jardine was rested from that match and his deputy , Bob Wyatt , deployed the full bodyline tactics for the first time on the tour . The match was drawn and Woodfull struggled , making 18 and a duck . Utilising his hopping technique and attempting to play unorthodox shots resembling overhead tennis smashes , Bradman failed to make an impact , and England were buoyed ahead of the Tests . Seeing the bruising balls hit the Australian batsmen on several occasions in this game and the next angered the spectators .

The English players and management were consistent in referring to their tactic as fast leg theory considering it to be a variant of the established and unobjectionable leg theory tactic . The inflammatory term " bodyline " was coined and perpetuated by the Australian press ( see below ) . English writers used the term fast leg theory . The terminology reflected differences in understanding , as neither the English public nor the Board of the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) — the governing body of English cricket — could understand why the Australians were complaining about what they perceived as a commonly used tactic . Some concluded that the Australian cricket authorities and public were sore losers . Of the four fast bowlers in the tour party , Gubby Allen was a voice of dissent in the English camp , refusing to bowl short on the leg side , and writing several letters home to England critical of Jardine , although he did not express this in public in Australia . A number of other players , while maintaining a united front in public , also deplored bodyline in private . The amateurs Bob Wyatt ( the vice @-@ captain ) , Freddie Brown and the Nawab of Pataudi opposed it , as did Walter Hammond and Les Ames among the professionals .

During the season , Woodfull 's physical courage , stoic and dignified leadership won him many admirers . He flatly refused to employ retaliatory tactics and did not publicly complain even though he and his men were repeatedly hit .

Australia lost heavily by ten wickets in the first Test at Sydney , when the bowling spearhead of bodyline , Harold Larwood , took ten wickets . Bradman missed the first Test due to illness , although Jardine refused to believe this and thought the real reason was that the batsman had suffered a nervous breakdown due to his tactical scheme . The only Australian batsman to make an impact was Stan McCabe , who resolutely stood his ground and impulsively hooked and pulled everything aimed at his upper body , undeterred by the prospect of taking a potentially lethal blow to the head . He scored 187 not out in four hours , an innings described by leading historian David Frith as " among the most stirring innings Test cricket has ever produced " .

Before the second Test in Melbourne , Woodfull had to wait until minutes before the game before he was confirmed as captain by the selectors . This caused the toss to be delayed and fomented speculation that the Australian Board of Control was considering the possibility of removing Woodfull because of his absolute refusal to allow his bowlers to use retaliatory tactics . His deputy Victor Richardson had advocated retaliation along with several other players . Richardson recalled Woodfull 's private response :

There is no way I will be influenced to adopt such tactics which bring such discredit to the game . I know Tim could do it but I am not going to participate in actions that can only hurt the game .

The media advocated the selection of Eddie Gilbert , an indigenous bowler of extreme pace , in order to return the bodyline barrage . In one tour match , Gilbert had bloodied Jardine and left a bruise the size of a saucer . Another suggested means of retaliation was Laurie Nash , whose notoriously abrasive personality and aggression saw him regarded as a thug . However , Woodfull was totally unmoved by such suggestions .

On the opening day , Bradman wildly hooked at Bill Bowes ' first ball ( a non @-@ bodyline ball ) and was dismissed for a golden duck , leaving the entire stadium in shock . Jardine , who was known for being extremely dour even by the standards of the day , openly exulted and danced wildly upon Bradman 's demise . Australia 's eventual victory was met by widespread public jubilation , as many believed that Australia had found a means of overcoming the tactics . Bradman scored a match @-@ winning century in the second innings , but it turned out to be his only triple figure score for the series , while Larwood was hampered by a bloodied foot and a slow pitch .

The controversy reached its peak during the second day of the Third Test . On 14 January , an all @-@ time record Adelaide Oval crowd of 50 @,@ 962 watched Australia finish off England 's first innings . Shortly after the start of Australia 's innings , Larwood , bowling to a conventional field setting , struck Woodfull an agonising blow under his heart with a short , lifting delivery . Woodfull was struck when he was bent over his bat and wicket , and not when upright as often imagined . As Woodfull bent down over his bat in pain for several minutes , an image that became one of the defining symbols of the series , the huge crowd began jeering , hooting and verbally abusing the English team . Jardine reacted by saying " Well bowled , Harold . " Tension and feelings ran so high that a riot was narrowly averted as police stationed themselves between the players and enraged spectators .

Jardine then ordered his team to move to bodyline positions immediately after Woodfull 's injury . Jardine wrote that Larwood had asked for the field , while Larwood said that it was Jardine 's decision . The capacity Saturday afternoon crowd viewed this as hitting a man when he was down . Journalist – cricketer Dick Whitington wrote that Jardine 's actions were seen as " an unforgivable crime in Australian eyes and certainly no part of cricket " . Mass hooting and jeering occurred after almost every ball . Whitington noted that " [ Umpire George ] Hele believes that had what followed occurred in Melbourne the crowd would have leapt the fence and belaboured the English captain , Larwood , and possibly the entire side " . Some English players later expressed fears that a large @-@ scale riot could break out and that the police would not be able to stop the irate home crowd , who were worried that Woodfull or Bradman could be killed , from attacking them .

During the over , another rising Larwood delivery knocked the bat out of Woodfull 's hands . He battled it out for 89 minutes , collecting more bruises before Allen bowled him for 22 . Later in the day , the English team manager Pelham Warner visited the Australian dressing room to express his sympathies to Woodfull . Woodfull had remained calm in public , refusing to complain about Jardine 's tactics . Woodfull 's abrupt response was meant to be private , but it was leaked to the press - the Adelaide leak :

I don 't want to see you , Mr Warner . There are two teams out there , one is playing cricket . The other is making no attempt to do so .

Woodfull reportedly added " This game is too good to be spoilt . It 's time some people got out of it " , hinting that he might withdraw his team from competition in protest . Australia 's Leo O 'Brien later reported that Warner was close to tears following Woodfull 's rebuke .

The leaking to the press of Woodfull 's comments to Warner angered the Australian captain . He had intended the comments to be private , and ill feeling grew in the Australian camp as speculation about who leaked the incident to the press grew and many of the team privately pointed the finger at Bradman . ( Bradman strenuously denied to his dying day that he had been responsible ; others , including Plum Warner , pointed the finger at Bradman 's team @-@ mate and journalist , Jack Fingleton . However , in his autobiography , Fingleton claimed that Sydney Sun reporter Claude Corbett had received the information from Bradman . )

The next day , Larwood fractured wicket @-@ keeper Bert Oldfield 's skull . This occurred when Oldfield mis @-@ hit a hook , which flew from the top edge off a traditional non @-@ bodyline ball ; Oldfield later admitted it was his fault . As a result of the injuries , the costs of insurance cover for players doubled . At the end of the fourth day 's play the Australian Board of Control for Cricket sent the following cable to the MCC in London :

Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body by the batsman the main consideration . This is causing intensely bitter feeling between the players , as well as injury . In our opinion it is unsportsmanlike . Unless stopped at once it is likely to upset the friendly relations existing between Australia and England .

Jardine however insisted his tactic was not designed to cause injury and that he was leading his team in a sportsmanlike and gentlemanly manner , arguing that it was up to the Australian batsmen to play their way out of trouble . He also secretly sent a telegram of sympathy to Oldfield 's wife and arranged for presents to be given to his young daughters .

The situation escalated into a diplomatic incident between the countries as the MCC — supported by the British public and still of the opinion that their fast leg theory tactic was harmless — took serious offence at being branded " unsportsmanlike " and demanded a retraction . Many people saw bodyline as fracturing an international relationship that needed to remain strong . Jardine , and by extension the entire English team , threatened to withdraw from the fourth and fifth Tests unless the Australian Board withdrew the accusation of unsporting behaviour . Public reaction in both England and Australia was outrage directed at the other nation . The Governor of South Australia , Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when the Australian prime minister , Joseph Lyons , met with members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour .

The English team continued to bowl bodyline in the remaining two Tests , but slower pitches meant the Australians , although frequently bruised , sustained no further serious injuries . England won the last three Tests to take the series 4 – 1 .

In the Test matches , Bradman countered bodyline by moving toward the leg side , away from the line of the ball , and cutting it into the vacant off side field . While this was dubious in terms of batting technique , it seemed the best way to cope with the barrage , and Bradman averaged 56 @.@ 57 in the series ( an excellent average for most , but well short of his career average of 99 @.@ 94 ) , while being struck above the waist by the ball only once . His team @-@ mates fared worse , with only Stan McCabe scoring a century .

= = In England = =

Bodyline continued to be bowled occasionally in the 1933 English season — most notably by Nottinghamshire , who had Carr , Voce and Larwood in their team . This gave the English crowds their first chance to see what all the fuss was about . Ken Farnes , the Cambridge University fast bowler , also bowled it in the University Match , hitting a few Oxford batsmen .

Jardine himself had to face bodyline bowling in a Test match . The West Indian cricket team toured England in 1933 , and , in the second Test at Old Trafford , Jackie Grant , their captain , decided to try bodyline . He had a couple of fast bowlers , Manny Martindale and Learie Constantine . Facing bodyline tactics for the first time , England first suffered , falling to 134 for 4 , with Wally Hammond being hit on the chin , though he recovered to continue his innings . Then Jardine himself faced Martindale and Constantine . Jardine never flinched . With Les Ames finding himself in difficulties , Jardine said , " You get yourself down this end , Les . I 'll take care of this bloody nonsense . " He played right back to the bouncers , standing on tiptoe , and played them with a dead bat , sometimes playing the ball one handed for more control . While the Old Trafford pitch was not as suited to bodyline as the hard Australian wickets , Martindale did take 5 for 73 , but Constantine only took 1 for 55 . Jardine himself made 127 , his only Test century . In the West Indian second innings , Clark bowled bodyline back to the West Indians , taking 2 for 64 . The match in the end was drawn but played a large part in turning English opinion against bodyline . The Times used the word bodyline , without using inverted commas or using the qualification so @-@ called , for the first time . Wisden also said that " most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that , while strictly within the law , it was not nice . "

In 1934 , Bill Woodfull led Australia back to England on a tour that had been under a cloud after the tempestuous cricket diplomacy of the previous bodyline series . Jardine had retired from International cricket in early 1934 after captaining a fraught tour of India and under England 's new captain , Bob Wyatt , agreements were put in place so that bodyline would not be used . However , there were occasions when the Australians felt that their hosts had crossed the mark with tactics resembling bodyline .

In a match between the Australians and Nottinghamshire , Voce , one of the bodyline practitioners of 1932 – 33 , employed the strategy with the wicket @-@ keeper standing to the leg side and took 8 / 66 . In the second innings , Voce repeated the tactic late in the day , in fading light against Woodfull and Bill Brown . Of his 12 balls , 11 were no lower than head height . Woodfull told the Nottinghamshire administrators that , if Voce 's leg @-@ side bowling was repeated , his men would leave the field and return to London . He further said that Australia would not return to the country in the future . The following day , Voce was absent , ostensibly due to a leg injury . Already angered by the absence of Larwood , the Nottinghamshire faithful heckled the Australians all day . Australia had previously and privately complained that some pacemen had strayed past the agreement in the Tests .

= = Origin of the term = =

Although Jack Worrall claimed that he had invented the term " bodyline " , it is more likely that it was coined by Sydney journalist Hugh Buggy who worked for The Sun in 1932 , and who happened to be a colleague of Jack Fingleton . Buggy sent a telegram to his newspaper from the Test after a day 's play . As a substitute for " in the line of the body " he used the term " bodyline " to keep the cost down , and the new term quickly became established .

= = Changes to the laws of cricket = =

As a direct consequence of the 1932 – 33 tour , the MCC introduced a new rule to the laws of cricket for the 1935 English cricket season . Originally , the MCC hoped that captains would ensure that the game was played in the correct spirit , and passed a resolution that bodyline bowling would breach this spirit . When this proved to be insufficient , the MCC passed a law that " direct attack " bowling was unfair and became the responsibility of the umpires to identify and stop . In 1957 , the laws were altered to prevent more than two fielders standing behind square on the leg side ; the intention was to prevent negative bowling tactics whereby off spinners and slow inswing bowlers aimed at the leg stump of batsmen with fielders concentrated on the leg side . However , an indirect effect was to make bodyline fields impossible to implement .

Later law changes , under the heading of " Intimidatory Short Pitched Bowling " , also restricted the number of " bouncers " which may be bowled in an over . Nevertheless , the tactic of intimidating the batsman is still used to an extent that would have been shocking in 1933 , although it is less dangerous now because today 's players wear helmets and generally far more protective gear . The West Indies teams of the 1980s , which regularly fielded a bowling attack comprising some of the best fast bowlers in cricket history , were perhaps the most feared exponents .

= = Legacy = =

Following the 1932 – 33 series , several authors , including many of the players involved , released books expressing various points of view about bodyline . Many argued that it was a scourge on cricket and must be stamped out , while some did not see what all the fuss was about . The series has been described as the most controversial period in Australian cricket history , and voted the most important Australian moment by a panel of Australian cricket identities . The MCC asked Harold Larwood to sign an apology to them for his bowling in Australia , making his selection for England again conditional upon it . Larwood was furious at the notion , pointing out that he had been following orders from his upper @-@ class captain , and that was where any blame should lie . Larwood refused , never played for England again , and became vilified in his own country . Douglas Jardine always defended his tactics and in the book he wrote about the tour , In Quest of the Ashes , described allegations that the England bowlers directed their attack with the intention of causing physical harm as stupid and patently untruthful . The immediate effect of the law change which banned bodyline in 1935 was to make commentators and spectators sensitive to the use of short @-@ pitched bowling ; bouncers became exceedingly rare and bowlers who delivered them were practically ostracised . This attitude ended after the Second World War , and among the first teams to make extensive use of short @-@ pitched bowling was the Australian team captained by Bradman between 1946 and 1948 . Other teams soon followed .

Outside the sport , there were significant consequences for Anglo @-@ Australian relations , which remained strained until the outbreak of World War II made cooperation paramount . Business between the two countries was adversely affected as citizens of each country avoided goods manufactured in the other . Australian commerce also suffered in British colonies in Asia : the North China Daily News published a pro @-@ bodyline editorial , denouncing Australians as sore losers . An Australian journalist reported that several business deals in Hong Kong and Shanghai were lost by Australians because of local reactions . English immigrants in Australia found themselves shunned and persecuted by locals , and Australian visitors to England were treated similarly . In 1934 – 35 a statue of Prince Albert in Sydney was vandalised , with an ear being knocked off and the word " BODYLINE " painted on it . Both before and after World War II , numerous satirical cartoons and comedy skits were written , mostly in Australia , based on events of the bodyline tour . Generally , they poked fun at the English .

In 1984 , Australia 's Network Ten produced a television mini @-@ series titled Bodyline , dramatising the events of the 1932 – 33 English tour of Australia . It starred Gary Sweet as Don Bradman , Hugo Weaving as Douglas Jardine , Jim Holt as Harold Larwood , Rhys McConnochie as Pelham Warner , and Frank Thring as Jardine 's mentor Lord Harris . The series took some liberties with historical accuracy for the sake of drama , including a depiction of angry Australian fans burning a British flag at the Sydney Cricket Ground , an event which was never documented . Larwood , having emigrated to Australia in 1950 , received several threatening and obscene phone calls after the series aired . The series was widely and strongly attacked by the surviving players for its inaccuracy and sensationalism .

To this day , the bodyline tour remains one of the most significant events in the history of cricket , and strong in the consciousness of many cricket followers . In a poll of cricket journalists , commentators , and players in 2004 , the bodyline tour was ranked the most important event in cricket history .

= Waterfall Gully , South Australia =

Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide . It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre . For the most part , the suburb encompasses one long gully with First Creek at its centre and Waterfall Gully Road running adjacent to the creek . At the southern end of the gully is First Falls , the waterfall for which the suburb was named . Part of the City of Burnside , Waterfall Gully is bounded to the north by the suburb of Burnside , from the north @-@ east to south @-@ east by Cleland Conservation Park ( part of the suburb of Cleland ) , to the south by Crafers West , and to the west by Leawood Gardens and Mount Osmond .

Historically , Waterfall Gully was first explored by European settlers in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , and quickly became a popular location for tourists and picnickers . The government chose to retain control over portions of Waterfall Gully until 1884 , when they agreed to place the land under the auspices of the City of Burnside . 28 years later the government took back the management of the southern part of Waterfall Gully , designating it as South Australia 's first National Pleasure Resort . Today this area remains under State Government control , and in 1972 the Waterfall Gully Reserve , as it was then known , became part of the larger Cleland Conservation Park .

Over the years Waterfall Gully has been extensively logged , and early agricultural interests saw the cultivation of a variety of introduced species as crops , along with the development of local market gardens and nurseries . Attempts to mine the area were largely unsuccessful , but the region housed one of the state 's earliest water @-@ powered mills , and a weir erected in the early 1880s provided for part of the City of Burnside 's water supply . Today the suburb consists primarily of private residences and parks .

= = History = =

The Mount Lofty Ranges , which encompass Waterfall Gully , was first sighted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 . The gully itself was discovered soon after the establishment of Adelaide , and Colonel William Light , the first Surveyor General of South Australia , was said to have " decided on the site for Adelaide when viewing the plains from the hills near Waterfall Gully " . Nevertheless , the gully had seen human visitors long before the arrival of the Europeans , as the native population had lived in the area for up to 40 @,@ 000 years prior to Flinders ' appearance off the South Australian coast .

= = = Ethnohistory = = =

In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Waterfall Gully and the surrounding Mount Lofty Ranges are part of the story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno . Travelling across the land of the native Kaurna people , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges . The ears of Nganno formed the peaks of Mount Lofty and Mount Bonython , and the region was referred to as Yur @-@ e @-@ billa , or " the place of the ears " . The name of the Greater Mount Lofty Parklands , Yurrebilla , was derived from this term , while the nearby town of Uraidla employs a more corrupted form .

Although Hardy states that the Kaurna people did not live in the ranges themselves , they did live on the lower slopes . An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local Kaurnas : " At every creek and gully you would see their wurlies [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some behind the Botanic Gardens on the banks of the river ; some toward the Ranges ; some on the Waterfall Gully . " Their main presence , demarcated by the use of fire against purchasers of land , was on the River Torrens and the creeks that flowed into it , including Waterfall Gully 's First Creek .

The land around Waterfall Gully provided the original inhabitants with a number of resources . The bark from the local stringybark trees ( Eucalyptus obliqua ) was used in the construction of winter huts , and stones and native timbers were used to form tools . Food was also present , and cossid moth larvae along with other species of plants and animals were collected . Nevertheless , there were only a few resources that could only be found on the slopes , and " both hunting and food gathering would in general have been easier on the rich plains " .

= = = Early colonial exploration = = =

One of the earliest accounts of Waterfall Gully comes from a " Mr Kent " who , along with Captain Collet Barker and Barker 's servant , Miles , climbed Mount Lofty in 1831 . In making their ascent the party skirted a ravine — described by Mr Kent as possessing " smooth and grassy sides " — which is believed by Anne Hardy to have been Waterfall Gully . Subsequent to Barker 's ascent , the first settlers who were recorded as having climbed Mount Lofty were Bingham Hutchinson and his servant , William Burt . The pair made three attempts to scale the mount before succeeding , and for their first attempt they attempted to traverse Waterfall Gully . The attempt was unsuccessful , but in July 1837 , Hutchinson wrote about the gully through which they had travelled . Waterfall Gully he wrote , had proven difficult , as the plants were so thickly grown as to provide a significant barrier to their progress . Near the point of surrender , Hutchinson described how they were " agreeably surprised by seeing a wall of rock about fifty or sixty feet [ fifteen to eighteen metres ] high , which stretched across the ravine , and from the top of it leapt the brook which had so long been [ their ] companion " . The brook was First Creek , and the waterfall they sighted is today known as First Falls .

Nevertheless , Hutchinson was not the first to see First Falls . The first known recorded sighting of the waterfall by a colonial was that of John William Adams , an emigrant of HMS Buffalo in early January 1837 , who named it " Adams ' Waterfall " . He was traveling with his wife , Susanna and a party consisting of Nicholson 's and Breaker 's who had the use of a dray to go into the hills . Adams states " we were opposite the spot where the Eagle on the Hill now is , and the question was put , who would volunteer to go down the hillside to try for water " .

= = = Development = = =

The area soon became a tourist attraction for the early South Australian colonists , and was a popular destination for picnickers . In 1851 Francis Clark wrote that " Waterfall Gully is the most picturesque place for a picnic that I have ever visited " , and by the 1860s the area had become known throughout Adelaide . The use of Waterfall Gully as picnic spot was facilitated by the decision of the government of the day not to subdivide the area containing the waterfalls . Section 920 , as it was designated , did not enter into private hands , and thus members of the public were able to access the area from the nearby suburb of Eagle on the Hill on Mount Barker road . The position of the Eagle on the Hill hotel proved advantageous for this , as it permitted visitors to stop by for lunch before walking down the hill in the afternoon .

Other parts of the Waterfall Gully area were subdivided , though , and much of the area was owned by Samuel Davenport . Davenport used the land for timber , grazing , and the cultivation of various crops , including olives and grapes for wine production . Other local residents ran market gardens and nurseries . For example , local residents Wilhelm Mügge and his wife Auguste Schmidt operated " one of the best nurseries and market gardens near Adelaide " , and gained a reputation for the cheeses produced from their local dairy farm . Along with farming , the hills and creek were prized areas for the sawyers and splitters , and a number of mines were established in the region from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century . In 1844 the first silver @-@ lead , manganese and iron mines were established in the area , while the 1890s saw a minor gold rush — although " only small quantities were extracted " . Of greater success was stone quarrying in Chambers ' Gully , which began in 1863 and increased in scale in 1912 .

Waterfall Gully was also the site of Burnside 's " first secondary industry " . In the late 1830s , Thomas Cain built a watermill on First Creek for John Cannan , which was then employed to power a sawmill on Cannan 's property . Cannan operated the mill as the " Traversbrook Mill " for approximately two years before selling the venture to a Mr. Finniss . Finniss opted to run the mill as a flour mill instead , and the mill was rebuilt and renamed " Finnissbrook Mill " . The mill continued to operate under a variety of owners until the late 1850s , but it was dismantled during the 1880s , and today only traces of the earthworks remain .

During this period the population of the nearby village of Burnside was expanding and required a new water supply . First Creek — which runs down Waterfall Gully and enters the River Torrens near today 's Botanic Gardens — was seen as the perfect solution to the water shortage . A weir was built during 1881 and 1882 , and was made to hold approximately two megalitres ( 530 @,@ 000 US gallons ) of water . A pipeline was constructed to the reservoir at Burnside South , and from there the water was used throughout the surrounding area . As a side effect , the weir also reduced the volume of water available to the local market gardeners , and over many years that aspect of the region disappeared .

While the route to the falls from Eagle on the Hill was on public land , the alternative route along the gully was through private properties . Nevertheless , many visitors chose this route , and a combination of public demand and a desire from some of the landowners for improved access to and from their properties — especially from the Mügge family — led to pressure to build a road through the gully . Although there was opposition from some of the locals , the Waterfall Gully road was built in the late 1880s .

The completion of the road led to an increase in visitor numbers . Rather than a bumpy horse ride , visitors could now catch the horse tram to the start of the gully , and walk , cycle or ride to the falls . To provide for tourists , the area gained a number of road @-@ side kiosks and produce stalls , and the Mügge family erected the two story Waterfall Hotel along the path . Furthermore , in 1912 the government opened a kiosk at the base of First Falls , designed in the " style of a Swiss chalet " . The hotel is a private residence today , but the kiosk continues to operate .

= = = Protection = = =

Although some parts of Waterfall Gully were transferred from the District Council of East Torrens ( now the Adelaide Hills Council ) to the City of Burnside in 1856 when the suburb 's current boundaries were established , the government of the day chose to retain control of a significant portion of Waterfall Gully . Thus it was not until 1884 that the remaining land was transferred to the control of the Burnside Council , eventuating largely through the efforts of Samuel Davenport and G. F. Cleland .

The land remained under the Burnside Council 's control until 1912 , when the Waterfall Gully Reserve was reclaimed by the government as the first National Pleasure Resort in the state . Initially the reserve was placed under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Advisory Board , but later it was moved to the Tourist Bureau , before finally becoming part of the National Park Commission 's portfolio .

In 1945 , much of the area that is today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , largely thanks to the efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland . Most of this land was combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up the gully to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to Greenhill Road . Waterfall Gully Reserve was added to the park in 1972 .

= = = Natural disasters = = =

Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding . The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area , and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Country Fire Service ( CFS ) . Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931 , and , on the night of 7 November 2005 , Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding . Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs : Bob Stevenson , Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service ( SES ) , commented that " There 's an area called Waterfall Gully Road , in the foothills , where one of the creeks comes down , and there 's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone . " Properties were flooded , two bridges nearly collapsed , and 100 m ( 330 ft ) of road was washed away . Burnside council workers , the CFS and the SES repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November . Much of the road had been inaccessible , and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month .

= = Geography = =

Waterfall Gully is situated at an average elevation of 234 m ( 768 ft ) above sea level , in an area of 6 @.@ 08 km2 ( 2 @.@ 35 sq mi ) . Its most notable geographical features are its gully and waterfall . Langman Reserve , a large local park , is 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the start of Waterfall Gully Road while much of the north @-@ eastern side of the gully is part of Cleland Conservation Park . Adjoining Waterfall Gully , 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away , is Chambers Gully , which used to function as a land @-@ fill , but has in the past decade been reclaimed as a park through volunteer work . It contains a number of old ruins , walking trails , and springs and is home to a significant number of native species .

Since European Settlement the native plant life has been considerably affected , with the native manna gum and blue gum woodlands being largely cleared for agricultural uses . The large amount of non @-@ native vegetation in the gully is predominantly the result of the early agriculture , although some species were introduced by accident . Introduced species include olive trees , hawthorn , fennel and blackberry . With the reduction of native flora , exotic fauna have flourished around the Waterfall Gully region . These include rabbits , blackbirds and starlings . However , not all of the native wildlife has been lost — bats ( in particular , Gould 's wattled bat ) , can be found in the area , as can superb fairy @-@ wrens and Adelaide rosellas , and a large number of unique Australian animals such as kangaroos , koalas and possums can be spotted on some of the walking trails .

= = Transport = =

Waterfall Gully is connected to the major Adelaide thoroughfare Greenhill Road by Waterfall Terrace and Glynburn Road , and cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb . According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 71 @.@ 9 % of residents in the census area employed private vehicles for their commute to work . Only a small proportion ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) walked to work and but 1 @.@ 2 % cycled , while only 3 @.@ 6 % of Waterfall Gully residents travel to work by bus . The closest bus route for Waterfall Gully is the 142 bus , provided by the multi @-@ service Adelaide Metro .

Waterfall Gully Road is meandering and in some parts quite narrow . This has led to concerns regarding safety , as the road is frequented by both pedestrians and cyclists . After the death of a cyclist in 2007 , calls for the repair and resurfacing of the road intensified , with two petitions being tabled in parliament . The accident also led to a safety audit being conducted by TransportSA , and although the results were not released to the public at the time , it called for an investigation of the entire length of the road . As of mid @-@ 2008 , there has been no clear plan released for the future of the road , with the road missing out on funding in the 2008 state budget .

= = Residents = =

In the 2001 Census , the population of the Waterfall Gully census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , Leawood Gardens and Mount Osmond ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.@ 08 square kilometers . Females outnumbered males 54 @.@ 2 % to 45 @.@ 8 % , and some 21 @.@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) . There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 .

The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , Uniting , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) . Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average . Christian belief ( 64 @.@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .

Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of incomes over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside . A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .

The census area that incorporates Waterfall Gully has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no " numerically significant " changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses . Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .

= = Attractions = =

The main attraction of Waterfall Gully is the waterfall , First Falls . It is at the south @-@ eastern end of the road , in land owned by Cleland Conservation Park . The weir at the bottom of the Waterfall was constructed in the late 19th century and was part of Adelaide 's early water supply . Development in the area has continued since the construction of a restaurant in 1912 . Developments over recent decades have included improving access to the site , upgrading the bridges , and the addition of new signage .

The Waterfall Gully Restaurant was constructed between 1911 and 1912 by South Australian architects Albert Selmar Conrad and his brother Frank , and was formally opened by Sir Day Bosanquet on 9 November 1912 . Built in the style of a Swiss chalet , the building has been heritage listed since 1987 , and is reputedly haunted by the ghost of a firefighter who died from burns suffered in 1926 .

Other fire tracks and walking trails wind around the hills that surround Waterfall Gully , branching off from Chambers Gully , Woolshed Gully or the area around First Creek . Destinations include Crafers , Eagle On The Hill , Mount Lofty , Mount Osmond and the Cleland Wildlife Park , located in the Cleland Conservation Park . The tracks have been completely rebuilt and resurfaced in the past ten years , and a number of older and more perilous routes have been sealed because of the difficult terrain . Many offer views of the city of Adelaide as well as the Gully itself . One of these is notable for connecting to the 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) Heysen Trail , and the trails are highly frequented .

= = Politics = =

Waterfall Gully is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman . In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher Pyne since 1993 . The results shown are from the closest polling station to Waterfall Gully — which is located outside of the suburb — at St David 's Church Hall on nearby Glynburn Road ( Burnside ) . Both electorates have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat . However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia Handshin , resulted in the electorate transforming from a " safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one " .

In local government , Waterfall Gully is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is David Parkin . Beaumont is currently represented by councilors Mark Osterstock and Anne Monceaux .

= Mariana ( poem ) =

" Mariana " is a poem by Alfred , Lord Tennyson , published in 1830 . The poem follows a common theme in much of Tennyson 's work — that of despondent isolation . The subject of Mariana is a woman who continuously laments her lack of connection with society . The isolation defines her existence , and her longing for a connection leaves her wishing for death at the end of every stanza . The premise of Mariana originates in William Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure , but the poem ends before Mariana 's lover returns . Tennyson 's version was adapted by others , including John Everett Millais and Elizabeth Gaskell , for use in their own works . The poem was well received by critics , and it is described by critics as an example of Tennyson 's skill at poetry .

= = Background = =

Tennyson wrote Mariana in 1830 and printed it within his early collection Poems , Chiefly Lyrical . Previously , he contributed poems to the work Poems by Two Brothers ( 1827 ) , where his early poems dealing with isolation and memory can be found . The theme was continued in the later collection , with poems like Mariana , Ode to Memory , and others representing the earlier poems .

During a visit to the Pyrenees during the summer of 1830 , Tennyson sought to give aid to Spanish rebels . During that time , he was affected by his experience and the influence appears in Mariana in the South , which was published in 1832 ; it is a later version that follows the idea of The Lady of Shalott .

= = Structure = =

Many of Tennyson 's poems are in the form of a dramatic monologue . However , Mariana , like The Lady of Shallott , is more accurately a lyrical narrative . It contains elements of dramatic monologies in that it contains a refrain that carries through the poem as found in Oriana and other poems . Oriana is completely a dramatic monologue and Mariana is not because Tennyson represents how the title figure is unable to linguistically control her own poem , which reinforces the themes of the poem . This technique is used again in Tennyson 's later poem , The Two Voices . The rhyme scheme of the poem , abab cddc efef , is different than the standard ballad rhyme that serves to contain the poem then allow a free expression . The middle quatrain of the stanzas returns in theme to the beginning in a cyclical pattern while the last quatrain 's lines contain the same words .

= = Poem = =

Within the poem , Tennyson does not teach the audience what melancholy means . Instead , he describes its various aspects as he begins :

With blackest moss the flower @-@ plots

Were thickly crusted , one and all :

The rusted nails fell from the knots

That held the pear to the gable @-@ wall .

The broken sheds looked sad and strange :

Unlifted was the clinking latch ;

Weeded and worn the ancient thatch

Upon the lonely moated grange .

She only said , " My life is dreary ,

He cometh not , " she said ;

She said , " I am aweary , aweary ;

I would that I were dead ! " ( lines 1 – 12 )

The narrator of the poem is disconnected from Mariana , and he is able to see what she cannot . In particular , he is able to describe the " sweet heaven " whereas Mariana refuses to take in the scene as well as she is unable to understand the movement of time :

Her tears fell with the dews at even ;

Her tears fell ere the dews were dried ;

She could not look on the sweet heaven ,

Either at morn or eventide . ( lines 13 – 16 )

She is surrounded by stillness and there is little movement within the poem . The water is calm and there is only the growth of moss :

About a stone @-@ cast from the wall

A sluice with blackened waters slept ,

And o 'er it many , round and small ,

The clustered marish @-@ mosses crept . ( lines 37 – 40 )

Mariana is trapped by her surroundings , and the last stanza begins with her becoming sensitive to sound as she starts to mentally lose her place in reality :

The sparrow 's chirrup on the roof ,

The slow clock ticking , and the sound

Which to the wooing wind aloof

The poplar made , did all confound

Her sense ; ( lines 73 – 77 )

The poem ends with a description that even the sunlight is unable to do anything more than reveal dust in her home :

but most she loathed the hour

When the thick @-@ moted sunbeam lay

Athwart the chambers , and the day

Was sloping toward his western bower . ( lines 77 – 80 )

The poem ends with an altered version of the refrain , which serves to show that although she wishes her death she is still alive and , in the final moment , allows her to end the poem instead of allowing the poem to end her :

Then , said she , " I am very dreary ,

He will not come , " she said ;

She wept , " I am aweary , aweary ,

O God , that I were dead ! " ( lines 81 – 84 )

= = Themes = =

Tennyson 's poems traditionally rely on the use of visual imagery for effect . In Mariana , Tennyson instead emphasises auditory imagery that serves to emphasise her solitude . Her hearing is sensitive and she is able to hear every sound , which only reveals the silence of her surroundings . Her solitude and loneliness causes her to be unable to recognise the beauty of her surroundings , and the world to her is dreary . In contrast to Tennyson 's other poems , including The Lady of Shalott , there is no movement within Mariana . There is also a lack of a true ending within the poem , unlike the later version Mariana in the South , which reworks the poem so there is a stronger conclusion that can be found within death .

The character of Mariana is connected to Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure ; there is a direct quotation of Shakespeare 's play in regards to a character of the same name . In Shakespeare 's play , Mariana is rejected by the character Angelo and lives alone as she pines over her love . Tennyson 's version is set in Lincolnshire , not Vienna as in the Shakespeare play . This makes the characters completely English . Additionally , the scene within the poem does not have any of the original context but the two works are connected in imagery with the idea of a dull life and a dejected female named Mariana . However , Tennyson is not the only one that uses the image ; John Everett Millais 's painting Mariana is based on Tennyson 's version of Mariana and lines 9 through 12 of Tennyson 's poem were used for the catalogue description of the painting . Similarly , Millais 's version served as the inspiration for Elizabeth Gaskell 's novel , Mariana . Tennyson 's Mariana and Gaskell 's main character , Ruth , are sensitive to the sounds around them and are constantly looking out of their window in image that represents their imprisonment within their homes . The image of Mariana used by Tennyson and the later works are equally of a woman who is weary .

The depictions of Mariana by Tennyson and in later works are not the same . The difference with Millais 's depiction is not in the image of a forlorn woman or of a woman who is unwilling to live an independent life ; instead , it is her sexualised depiction that is greater than found in Tennyson . His version also removes the dreariness of Tennyson 's and replaces it with a scene filled with vibrant colours . Gaskell 's depiction is of Ruth is similar to Tennyson in her weariness and wanting to die . However , she is a sexually independent figure when she rejects her lover who has returned . Tennyson 's character , on the other hand , would likely have happily accepted her lover . While Tennyson 's character cannot recognise beauty within nature , Gaskell 's character is able to turn to nature to gain spiritually in a manner similar to the Romantic poems , including Tintern Abbey by William Wordsworth or This Lime @-@ Tree Bower My Prison by Samuel Taylor Coleridge . There is also a connection with Mariana 's condition and the condition within Coleridge 's Dejection : An Ode . However , the narrator at the end of Dejection is able to be roused into movement whereas Mariana never reaches that point . Furthermore , Mariana is unlike the Romantic poems because the character is not one with nature or able to achieve transcendence through imagination . Furthermore , there is little outside of Mariana that exists within the poem as Mariana 's mood does not respond to changes in nature .

In terms of Tennyson 's other poems , there is a strong connection between the character Mariana and Tennyson 's other female characters . Both Mariana and Oriana have characters that experience a mental imprisonment , which are revealed in the poetic refrains . However , Oriana is able to have control over her own story when she serves as narrator of it while Mariana is denied control by Tennyson 's use of a third @-@ person narrative structure . The difference is further compounded by Oriana 's imprisonment coming from her own memories while Mariana 's is the external results of her lover having not returned . The character Fatima of Fatima is connected to Mariana simply because she is a reversal of Mariana 's character : Fatima , like Mariana , waits for her lover but suffers from an intense passion that causes her to lose control over her mind while also being able to experience the world around her . The character Oenone of Oenone is a combination of aspects from both Mariana 's and Fatima 's characters . In the revised version Mariana in the South , the second Mariana is similar to the Lady of Shalott in that they both live in a world between fantasy and reality .

= = Critical response = =

Jonathon Wearworth wrote in his early career , " The poem [ Mariana ] is an outstanding insight into the primitive ideal that is Tennyson 's take on life in all its worthlessness . "

In an early review in the 1831 Westminster Review , J. Fox praises the depiction of women within the whole of Poems , Chiefly Lyrics and says that Tennyson 's " portraits are delicate , his likenesses [ ... ] perfect , and they have life , character , and individuality . They are nicely assorted also to all the different gradations of emotion and passion which are expressed in common with the descriptions of them . There is an appropriate object for every shade of feeling , from the light touch of passing admiration to the triumphant madness of soul and sense , or the deep and everlasting anguish of survivorship . " A review by a " Professor Lyall " in 1878 argues , " As descriptive poetry , and for that feature of realistic description so characteristic of Tennyson 's muse , ' Mariana ' has , perhaps , not been surpassed even by him . "

Harold Nicolson , in 1923 , view the dreariness of Mariana and Tennyson 's other early works as an aspect that makes the early works better his later works . In T. S. Eliot 's 1936 Essays Ancient and Modern , he praises Tennyson 's ability to represent the visual , tactile , auditory , and olfactory aspects of the scene . Later in 1972 , Christopher Ricks argues that the poem is " one of Tennyson 's masterpieces in the art of the penultimate . "

Elaine Jordan argues , in her 1988 analysis of Tennyson 's works , that the poem 's depiction of " self @-@ infolding [ ... ] is a negation which involves the drawing @-@ in of forces in order perhaps to assert the self differently . Mariana is the most powerful expression , very early , of such a moment , though its assertiveness exists only as strong gloom in image and rhythm , not as narrative possibility except in the desire for an end to it all preferred over patience . " In 2002 , Ruth Glancy writes , " In the last stanza , Mariana 's grip on the present is loosening , and Tennyson 's mastery of sound and images is evident ( even in this early poem ) in his description of the house that echoes her utter desolation " . Anna Barton , in her 2008 analysis , declares Mariana " the most famous heroine of the 1830 volume " and that both The Ballad of Oriana and Mariana are " poems of greater substance that develop the poetic that Tennyson begins to establish in his briefer songs . "

= Mothers of the Disappeared =

" Mothers of the Disappeared " is a song by rock band U2 . It is the eleventh and final track on their 1987 album The Joshua Tree . The song was inspired by lead singer Bono 's experiences in Nicaragua and El Salvador in July 1986 , following U2 's involvement on Amnesty International 's A Conspiracy of Hope tour . He learned of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo , a group of women whose children had been " disappeared " by the Argentine and Chilean dictatorships . While in Central America , he met members of COMADRES , a similar organization whose children had been disappeared by the government in El Salvador . Bono sympathized with the Madres and COMADRES and wanted to pay tribute to their cause .

The song was written on a Spanish guitar , and the melody lifted from a piece Bono composed in Ethiopia in 1985 to help teach children basic forms of hygiene . The lyrics contain an implicit criticism of the Reagan Administration , which backed two South American regimes that seized power during coup d 'états and which provided financial support for the military regime in El Salvador . Thematically it has been interpreted as an examination of failures and contradictions in US foreign policy .

" Mothers of the Disappeared " was favourably received by critics , who variously described it as " powerful " , " a moving tribute " , and containing " stunning beauty and sadness " . The song was played seven times on the 1987 Joshua Tree Tour , and some recordings were considered for the ending sequence of the 1988 film Rattle and Hum . It was revived for four concerts on the 1998 PopMart Tour in South America , and for two of them , the Madres joined the band onstage for the performance , one of which was broadcast on television in Chile . Bono used the opportunity to ask General Pinochet to reveal to the Madres the locations of their children 's bodies . The song was played a further three times on the U2 360 ° Tour ; one performance was dedicated to Fehmi Tosun , an ethnic Kurd who was forcibly disappeared in Turkey in 1995 . Bono re @-@ recorded the song a cappella in 1998 for the album ¡ Ni Un Paso Atras ! .

= = Inspiration , writing , and recording = =

Recording sessions for The Joshua Tree began in January 1986 in Danesmoate House in Dublin , Ireland , and continued throughout the year . U2 briefly interrupted these sessions in June to join Amnesty International 's A Conspiracy of Hope tour . Following the first concert in San Francisco , lead singer Bono met René Castro , a Chilean mural artist . Castro had been tortured and held in a concentration camp for two years by the dictatorial Chilean government because his artwork criticised the Pinochet @-@ led regime that seized power in 1973 during a coup d 'état . Castro showed Bono a wall painting in the Mission District that depicted the ongoing plight in Chile and Argentina . He also learned of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo , a group of women whose children were forcibly disappeared by the Argentine government . The Madres ' children were students who had opposed the government during the Dirty War , and the coup d 'état that brought Jorge Rafael Videla into power . The Madres joined together to campaign for information regarding the locations of their children 's bodies and the circumstances of their deaths , believing them to have been kidnapped , tortured , and murdered .

Inspired by the mural , Bono took an extended break from recording into July , travelling to Nicaragua and El Salvador with his wife , Alison Hewson , to see firsthand the distress of peasants bullied by political conflicts and US military intervention . While there , they worked with the Central American Mission Partners ( CAMP ) , a human rights and economic development organization . In El Salvador they met members of the Comité de Madres Monsignor Romero ( COMADRES : Committee of the Mothers Monsignor Romero ) , an organization of women whose children were forcibly disappeared by the El Salvadoran government during the Salvadoran Civil War because they opposed the military regime that was in power . At one point during the trip , Bono , Alison , and a member of CAMP were shot at by government troops while on their way to deliver aid to a group of farmers . The shots were a warning and , according to author John Luerssen , the incident made Bono realize that " they didn 't care for their intrusion and they could kill them if they felt compelled . "

In 2006 , Bono recounted another experience he had in El Salvador , where he had seen a body thrown from a van into the road . He remarked , " People would just disappear . If you were part of the opposition , you might find an SUV with the windows blacked out parked outside your house .... If that didn 't stop you , occasionally they would come in and take you and murder you ; there would be no trial . " Bono understood the cause of the Madres and COMADRES and wanted to pay tribute to it . His experiences in Central America inspired the lyrics of " Mothers of the Disappeared " and another track from The Joshua Tree , " Bullet the Blue Sky " .

" Mothers of the Disappeared " was created and mixed at guitarist the Edge 's newly @-@ bought home , Melbeach , which U2 used as a recording studio . Bono wrote the song on his mother @-@ in @-@ law 's Spanish guitar , and drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. created a drum loop that was sampled by producer Brian Eno . The melody came from a song that Bono wrote in Ethiopia in 1985 to teach children about basic methods of hygiene . Producer Daniel Lanois was the principal mixer of the song . Bono , likening the studio itself to an instrument , described Lanois 's mix as a " performance " .

At the conclusion of the lyrics sheet for the song in the liner notes of The Joshua Tree , U2 listed addresses for several branches of Amnesty International , and proceeds from the song were donated to the organization . In 1998 , Bono re @-@ recorded the song a cappella in English and Spanish for the album ¡ Ni Un Paso Atras ! ( English : Not One Step Back ! ) , along with a recitation of the William Butler Yeats poem " Mother of God " . The album was created by the Madres in commemoration of the disappearance of their children . The tracks were also recorded for the 1999 film 20 Años ... 20 Poemas ... 20 Artistas ( 20 Years ... 20 Poems ... 20 Artists ) .

= = Composition and theme = =

" Mothers of the Disappeared " runs for 5 : 14 ( 5 minutes , 14 seconds ) . It is played in common time in a key of A. The song begins with the sound of rain hitting a roof , which fades in over the first fourteen seconds alongside the bass and a processed drum loop beat by Mullen which reverberates in the background . Thirty @-@ two seconds into the song , Mullen 's drums enter , playing a sporadic beat every four to five seconds . At the fifty @-@ second mark the drums play a more regular beat , and the Edge 's guitar , accompanied by Eno 's synthesizer , enters . The first verse begins at 1 : 28 , and introduces the chord progression of A5 – E5 – F ♯ m – D – A5 , which is played in the verses . At 2 : 41 Eno 's keyboards enter , and the song begins to follow a D – D5 – A5 chord progression , while Bono begins falsetto vocals . The second verse then begins at 3 : 01 . The lyrics end at 3 : 37 , and the song returns to the chord progression of D – D5 – A5 . The harmony gradually grows in volume until 4 : 33 , at which point the song enters into a coda ; the keyboards come to a finish and the guitar returns to playing A notes before fading over the next eight seconds alongside the bass . The synthesizer , drums , and drum loop conclude the song , fading out slowly over the last thirty @-@ one seconds .

Eno used a piano as a percussive instrument and mixed the result with the drum loop through a PCM70 effects unit to create a sound that bassist Adam Clayton called " eerie and foreign and scary " . Lanois stated that the processing of Mullen 's beat , which resulted in a drone @-@ like sound , became the song 's backbone and personality . Clayton described it as " evocative of that sinister death squad darkness " . Colm O 'Hare of Hot Press felt it was " the key sonic element " because it " [ evokes ] an abstract sense of evil and dread " .

In December 1986 , Bono stated that he had a love – hate relationship with America , and that this influenced his work on the album . Speaking of his encounter with COMADRES in El Salvador and their impact on the song , he said , " There 's no question in my mind of the Reagan Administration 's involvement in backing the regime that is committing these atrocities . I doubt if the people of America are even aware of this . It 's not my position to lecture them or tell them their place or to even open their eyes up to it in a very visual way , but it is affecting me and it affects the words I write and the music we make . " In 2007 , Clayton noted " We were looking at this America through a European lens , at a time when Britain was under Margaret Thatcher who was breaking the miners .... So we were singing from the same hymn sheet as the Clash but with our spotlight focused on injustice inside and outside America . " He said " ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' was not just a reflection on what had happened under the military government in Chile but also at the US which had supported that government " , and described Bono 's vocals as " prehistoric " , saying " it connects with something very primitive . "

Greg Garrett , an English professor at Baylor University , saw the song as an effort to " [ respond ] to growing interests in doing justice — and calling to attention American failures in that regard " , noting that the regimes in South America had been supported by the United States because of their anti @-@ communist positions , even though their tactics were in opposition to the democratic values that " America claims to champion around the world " . Lisa Hand of the Sunday Independent noted the influence of America on the track , remarking , " [ it ] does not confine itself simply to the music , but also extends to some of the lyrics . However , far from being a tribute to the star @-@ spangled banner , the words highlight the political untruths and ambiguities which exist within the U.S. ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' and ' Bullet the Blue Sky ' both take a hard look at the American involvement in South America " . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post described the song as " a simple lament of great beauty and sadness pleading for the realization that ideological battles about right and left obscure the more important issue of right and wrong . " Author David Kootnikoff described it as a " [ portrait ] of the American Dream gone rancid " .

= = Live performances = =

U2 debuted " Mothers of the Disappeared " on 14 April 1987 in San Diego , California , on the first leg of the Joshua Tree Tour , where it closed the concert in place of the band 's long @-@ time finale " 40 " . It was performed three more times on the leg ; twice to open the encore and once to conclude the main set . U2 revived the song seven months later on the third leg , playing it in the encore at three of the final four concerts on the tour .

The final two performances , in Tempe , Arizona , on 19 and 20 December 1987 , were filmed for the 1988 film Rattle and Hum . U2 sang the refrain " el pueblo vencerá " , which means " a people united will overcome " in Spanish , at the conclusion of the song . Bono noted that the Madres use the phrase for motivation . The Edge said " we 're so close to a Spanish speaking part of the world , we felt that maybe people at the concert might pick up on this lyric . " Bono added that they had closed every concert since 1983 with the song " 40 " , and so they were looking to replace it with " Mothers of the Disappeared " from that point on . He explained , " If the people of Arizona sing this , and if it goes into the film and onto the record , wherever we go in a way for the next few years , that will be taken up again . It 'll be an interesting experiment ... " . The footage was considered for the closing sequence of the film , but the band eventually decided against including it . " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " was used as the final live song , and " All I Want Is You " was chosen to play over the credits .

Following the seven performances on the Joshua Tree Tour , U2 did not perform " Mothers of the Disappeared " until 1998 , on the fourth leg of the PopMart Tour . It was played at three concerts in Argentina and once in Chile , concluding all four shows . Bono sang " el pueblo vencerá " at the end of each performance . The first rendition was on 5 February 1998 in Buenos Aires , where it was performed with the Madres accompanying them on stage . The song was played by just Bono and the Edge and was set against footage of the Madres on the video screen . At the conclusion of the song , the band members faced the Madres and applauded , an act in which the rest of the audience joined . Part of the performance was later included on the television documentary Classic Albums : The Joshua Tree .

The cost of the tickets was too high for many fans in South America , so the band broadcast the 11 February concert in Chile live on television . Knowing that many people in the country would be watching , they played " Mothers of the Disappeared " in place of " Wake Up Dead Man " . The stadium in which the concert was held had been used as a prison camp by Pinochet 's regime following the coup d 'état . Again it was performed solely by Bono and the Edge against footage of the Madres , and they invited the women to join them on stage a second time . The Madres held up photographs of their children and spoke about them briefly during the performance , an act which received a mixed reception from the audience . Bono made a plea to Pinochet , asking him to " tell these women where are the bones of their children . "

" Mothers of the Disappeared " was performed again on the fourth leg of the Vertigo Tour , on 26 February 2006 in Santiago and 2 March in Buenos Aires . Although it was rehearsed by the full band , it was played only by Bono and the Edge in an arrangement similar to the one from the PopMart Tour . The Edge performed the song on a charango that Chilean President Ricardo Lagos had given to Bono earlier that day . It was played at three concerts on the third leg of the U2 360 ° Tour in place of " MLK " . One performance in Istanbul , Turkey , was dedicated to Fehmi Tosun , an ethnic Kurd who was kidnapped in October 1995 and subsequently disappeared . The abduction was witnessed by his wife and daughter ; no information regarding his disappearance has ever been released .

= = Reception = =

" Mothers of the Disappeared " was favourably received by critics . Steve Morse of The Boston Globe called the song " powerful " and described the backing vocals as tender and choirlike . Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described it as a " hymn to human rights " . Adrian Thrills of NME called it " a simple , plaintive lament of stunning beauty and sadness " . Nicholas Jennings of Maclean 's felt that it was The Joshua Tree 's " most topical song " . Music journalist Andrew Mueller felt the track was a " wilfully downbeat finale " . In Rolling Stone , Steve Pond said " ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' is built around desolate images of loss , but the setting is soothing and restorative — music of great sadness but also of unutterable compassion , acceptance and calm . " Lennox Samuels of The Dallas Morning News stated that there was " an ineffable sadness in Bono 's vocals and images where ' Night hangs like a prisoner / Stretched over black and blue ' " , calling it " a moving tribute " to people around the world who had lost loved ones to warfare and conflict . He added " [ w ] hat 's remarkable about the song is that despite the intrinsic pain , it remains eerily cleansing . Even in the midst of decay and excess and horror , Bono can find hope and absolution . " In 2006 Bono described it as " a beautiful end to the album " , saying , " That song means as much to me as any of the songs on that album , it 's right up there for me , " and noting that it is a song " I 'm very proud of to this day . "

Barbara Jaeger of The Bergen Record likened " Mothers of the Disappeared " to " New Year 's Day " and " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " , stating that the band used all three to " stir political consciousness and to urge social commitment . " Thirteen years later , Ryan Jones , in his review of U2 's 2000 album All That You Can 't Leave Behind for the same publication , said the song " Peace on Earth " contained echoes of " Mothers of the Disappeared " in its lyrics and the tone of the instrumental prelude . In reviewing the group 's 2009 album No Line on the Horizon , Mueller said the closing " Cedars of Lebanon " " maintains this essentially optimistic group 's counter @-@ intuitive tradition of ending their albums with rueful comedowns " , likening it to " Mothers of the Disappeared " . McLeese believed that the song had its roots in " the folklike purity of traditional Irish music " . According to Luerssen the song is " notorious " in Central and South America , and it is often " played as an act of defiance " by the Madres . Art for Amnesty cited the song , and the effect it had in spreading Amnesty International 's human rights message , as one of the reasons why U2 were awarded the Ambassador of Conscience Award by the organization in 2005 .

Reflecting on the applause given to the Madres during the PopMart concert in Buenos Aires , the U2 magazine Propaganda called the result " about the most moving thing I 've ever seen on a rock stage . It was one of those ideas that really could have gone either way , but the obvious empathy of the audience towards these women made it an unforgettable moment . " Following the televised concert in Chile , Bono said " it was amazing and confounding to discover that on our most ' pop ' of tours some of the best shows were in political hotspots like Santiago , Sarajevo , Tel Aviv ... anywhere music meant more than entertainment " . He added " to be able to address General Pinochet from the stage on live television in Chile and say , ' Give the dead back to the living . Please , General Pinochet , tell these women where the bones of their sons and daughters are . ' That was an extraordinary moment ... certainly in my life and U2 's . " When asked if the negative reaction from some of the audience had disappointed the band Bono said it had not , stating " it 's proof to me that a rock ' n ' roll audience are not lemmings .... If they don 't agree with you , they will let you know — but that doesn 't mean they 're not fans .... I was flattered that we weren 't just playing to people who agreed with us . " U2 's performance was later credited with inspiring a protest in the Chilean Parliament against Pinochet , who was in the process of becoming a Senator for life after relinquishing his position as head of the armed forces . The opposition party brought in the Madres , who again held pictures of their disappeared children and asked for information on the location of their bodies .

" Mothers of the Disappeared " has been covered several times . The Vitamin String Quartet included it on their 2004 tribute album The String Quartet Tribute to U2 's The Joshua Tree . Paddy Casey recorded a version for the tsunami relief album Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 3 in 2005 .

= = Personnel = =

= Katherine Pulaski =

Commander Katherine Pulaski is a fictional medical doctor in the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . She is the chief medical officer aboard the Federation starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. Her medical skills saved the lives of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard and Commander William Riker , and she helped inspire Lt. Commander Data to create a hologram of Professor Moriarty that became self @-@ aware . Pulaski preferred to avoid the transporter , but was forced to rely on it to save her own life from an alien infection . Before arriving on the Enterprise @-@ D , she previously served on the USS Repulse . For a time , she was romantically involved with Kyle Riker , but they continued to remain friends .

Portrayed by American actress Diana Muldaur , Pulaski replaced the character of Commander Beverly Crusher for the second season after Gates McFadden 's contract was not renewed . Pulaski first appeared in the second season opener " The Child " , and made her final appearance in " Shades of Gray " . Before playing the role of Pulaski on The Next Generation , Muldaur appeared in Star Trek : The Original Series , playing different characters in the episodes " Return to Tomorrow " and " Is There in Truth No Beauty ? " She later worked with series creator Gene Roddenberry on a pilot for the series Planet Earth . McFadden returned to replace Muldaur in the third season , reprising her role as Dr. Crusher for the remainder of the series .

Reviewers criticized Pulaski 's approach , as well as her inability to fit in with the crew . Critics noted that her transporter phobia was reminiscent of Dr. Leonard McCoy from The Original Series , as was her relationship with Data ; Pulaski 's interaction with Data raised comparisons to that of McCoy and Spock from The Original Series . Episodes featuring Pulaski in a leading role , such as " Unnatural Selection " , produced divided opinions among critics , with some describing it as a key episode while others argued that it showed only the negative side of her role .

= = Concept and development = =

Towards the end of the first season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , staff members convinced Gene Roddenberry to drop Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher from the show . Executive producer Rick Berman opposed this decision . To allow for McFadden 's return in the future , Roddenberry wrote Crusher 's character out rather than killing her . McFadden 's departure led to an opening for a new cast member . The producers contacted American actress Diana Muldaur , unaware of her past involvement with Roddenberry 's Star Trek and Planet Earth pilot . In The Original Series , Muldaur played the role of a doctor in two episodes : as Dr. Ann Mulhall in " Return to Tomorrow " , and as Dr. Miranda Jones in " Is There in Truth No Beauty ? " Muldaur also worked on the pilot for Planet Earth after getting to know Roddenberry and his wife , Majel Barrett , through their annual Star Trek Christmas parties .

Muldaur was not required to audition for the role of Pulaski . Instead , she was given 15 VHS cassettes of the first season . She found it " very exciting " , noting it " got better and better and better " as she watched it . Christina Pickles was also considered for the part of Pulaski , a decision Berman described as " very tough " . Muldaur finally agreed to play the role , but asked Roddenberry to change the name of the character to Kate , which became Katherine . The character of Katherine Pulaski was modeled on Doctor Leonard McCoy from The Original Series . Like McCoy , Pulaski feared transporters and disliked unemotional colleagues . The dynamic between McCoy and Spock was revisited with the relationship between Pulaski and Lieutenant Commander Data . Muldaur believed that Roddenberry deliberately created the parallel between the two characters on the two shows .

Katherine Pulaski debuted in the second season episode " The Child " , with Whoopi Goldberg making her first appearance of the series as Guinan in the same episode . Even though Muldaur was a regular character on The Next Generation , she was only listed in the opening credits as a " Special Guest Star " . Overall , Muldaur described her experience portraying Pulaski as " hard work " . She expected to be cast for just one season , but was unaware of who would succeed her after she left . Following production of the second season , Muldaur left the series and joined the cast of L.A. Law . She used footage of the episode " Unnatural Selection " to gain the part . Gates McFadden returned to continue her role as Dr. Crusher on The Next Generation for the remainder of the series .

= = Appearances = =

Pulaski 's background is touched upon in the episode " The Icarus Factor " . She was previously romantically involved with Commander William Riker 's father Kyle Riker ( Mitchell Ryan ) , after she was part of a rescue team responding to a Tholian attack on a Federation Starbase . She realised that a romantic relationship with Riker would not work , but they remained friends . Directly prior to serving on the Enterprise @-@ D , she served on the USS Repulse under Captain Taggart , who was sorry to lose her .

In , " Elementary , Dear Data " she challenges Lt. Cmdr Data to solve an original Sherlock Holmes mystery on the holodeck . He accepts her challenge , which results in the creation of a self @-@ aware hologram of Professor Moriarty ( Daniel Davis ) . Pulaski joins Data and Lieutenant Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) , but is captured by Moriarty who also takes over manual control of the Enterprise . Moriarty demands that they find a way to enable him to leave the holodeck , but is persuaded by Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) to release control and be stored within the ship 's computer memory until a means can be found to grant his wish . ( Years later , Moriarty is released from the computer and takes control of the ship 's computer , again demanding his freedom . He is finally tricked into thinking that his wish was granted , but remains trapped inside a computer simulation ( " Ship in a Bottle " ) . )

Pulaski 's apprehension at using the transporter was evident in " The Schizoid Man " , where Dr. Selar ( Suzie Plakson ) went with the away team instead of Pulaski , as it required her to beam over to a transport vessel . However , the transporter would later save Pulaski 's life in " Unnatural Selection " , after she was infected with a disease from the planet Gagarin IV that accelerated her aging process . She uses the transporters to remove the infection and is returned to health .

She demonstrates her medical expertise on several occasions . In " Time Squared " , Pulaski discovers that the duplicate Captain Picard is out of sync in time and will slowly improve until he returns to the point at which he left . In the episode " Pen Pals " , Picard orders Pulaski to wipe the memories of a young girl called Sarjenka , whom Data had been corresponding with and helping in violation of the Prime Directive . Whilst in " Samaritan Snare " , she is summoned to Starbase 515 to perform heart surgery on Captain Picard as she is the most experienced surgeon nearby . This is despite Picard 's wish for her not to perform the surgery , due to his concern with the image it might give to the crew .

When the Enterprise arrives at the lost colony of Mariposa in " Up the Long Ladder " , the Mariposans kidnap Pulaski and Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) and steal their DNA to clone new members of their colony . Although technologically advanced , the Mariposans lack genetic diversity . When Pulaski and Riker discover the clones , they destroy them . Picard helps resolve the dispute by suggesting the Mariposans allow the Bringloidi , a preindustrial , rural people whose colony was destroyed , to migrate to their world . The Mariposans , however , have relied on cloning for 300 years , and no longer sexually reproduce . Pulaski notes that with time , they will become familiar with the practice once again , and recommends that the Mariposans form large , group marriages with the Bringloidi to create a healthy population .

Following Data 's defeat at a game of Strategema in " Peak Performance " , Pulaski and Councillor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) attempt to console him , but it is left to Captain Picard to convince Data that he is not malfunctioning . Pulaski 's final appearance on The Next Generation was in the episode " Shades of Gray " . When Commander Riker falls ill to a dangerous virus during an away team mission , Pulaski drives out the virus with a device that stimulates his memory centre . After she discovers that negative memories are more effective in removing the virus , she uses memories of fear and survival to save Riker 's life .

In the alternative future timeline portrayed in " Endgame " , the Star Trek : Voyager finale , Pulaski is said to have worked at the Starfleet Medical facility in San Francisco .

= = = Novels = = =

Pulaski appears in several books of the non @-@ canon novel series based on the adventures of the crew in The Next Generation and elsewhere in the same time period . In Peter David 's novel Vendetta ( 1991 ) , Pulaski is reassigned to the Repulse under Captain Taggart following her departure from the Enterprise . In Star Trek : Progress ( 2006 ) , a Starfleet Corps of Engineers book by Terri Osborne , Pulaski is on board the USS Progress when it visits Drema IV , as she wants to check up on the progress of Sarjenka , a young girl from The Next Generation episode " Pen Pals " . Pulaski also appeared alongside Wesley Crusher and Guinan in Michael Jan Friedman 's " All Good Things ... " ( 1994 ) , a novelisation of the The Next Generation series finale .

= = Reception and commentary = =

In their 1998 book , Star Trek 101 , Terry J. Erdmann and Paula M. Block called " Unnatural Selection " the key Pulaski episode . Science fiction writer Keith DeCandido felt that she displays all of her worst traits in this episode , including " her stubbornness , her intensity , her constant interrupting of people , her bitching out Data ( though at least this time she apologizes to him when he expresses concern over her health ) , and ... transporter @-@ phobia , because apparently she wasn 't enough like Dr. McCoy yet . " DeCandido described Pulaski as " annoying " and noted that this feeling was mirrored on screen by Captain Picard . In Science Fiction Television : A History , author M. Keith Booker observed that " Pulaski never quite meshed with the rest of the crew " .

The events of " Elementary Dear Data " led film professor Zoran Samardžija to suggest that Pulaski may have been inspired by the works of Friedrich Nietzsche . In Sherlock Holmes and Philosophy : The Footprints of a Gigantic Mind ( 2011 ) , Samardžija notes that Pulaski 's argument that Data lacks intuition is reminiscent of parts of Nietzsche 's 1878 work Human , All Too Human . The relationship between Pulaski and Data was further considered by Rhonda V. Wilcox in her article " Dating Data : Miscegenation in Star Trek : The Next Generation " ( 1993 ) . Wilcox notes that Pulaski " frequently challenges Data in terms of his machine nature , expressing scorn for his supposed insensitivity . " She compares Data 's emotionless state to slavery due to the reference in " The Child " to Maya Angelou 's 1969 work I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings .

= Noisy miner =

The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia . This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips on the tail feathers . The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing , and a broader white tip to the tail . Males , females and juveniles are similar in appearance , though young birds are a brownish @-@ grey . As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs , calls , scoldings and alarms , and almost constant vocalizations particularly from young birds . One of four species in the genus Manorina , the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies . The separation of the Tasmanian M. m. leachi is of long standing , and the mainland birds were further split in 1999 .

Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia , the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs . These include forests dominated by spotted gum , box and ironbark , as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared , such as recently burned areas , farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery . The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range , particularly human @-@ dominated habitats . The popularity of nectar @-@ producing garden plants such as the large @-@ flowered grevilleas was thought to play a role in its proliferation , but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from landscaping practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts .

Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial ; they forage , bathe , roost , breed and defend territory communally , forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds . Each bird has an ' activity space ' and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , the most stable units within the colony . The birds also form temporary flocks called ' coalitions ' for specific activities such as mobbing a predator . Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalizations , but also through ritualised displays which have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays . The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird , and chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occur throughout the day , targeted at both intruders and colony members .

Foraging in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground , the noisy miner mainly eats nectar , fruit and insects . Most time is spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts , and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , honeydew and lerp gathered from the foliage . The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display , but copulation is a frenzied communal event . It breeds all year long , building a deep cup @-@ shaped nest and laying two to four eggs . Incubation is by the female only , although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings . Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators . The noisy miner 's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human @-@ affected landscapes . Its territoriality means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance , and culling has been proposed , although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia .

= = Taxonomy = =

English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici , sive Systematis Ornithologiae , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : the chattering bee @-@ eater ( Merops garrulus ) , black @-@ headed grakle ( Gracula melanocephala ) , hooded bee @-@ eater ( Merops cucullatus ) , and white @-@ fronted bee @-@ eater ( Merops albifrons ) . Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot . It was as the chattering bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas Watling , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter . John Gould treated the name Merops garrulus as the original description , and renamed it Myzantha garrula in his 1865 work Handbook to the Birds of Australia , giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater , and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater . He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner , and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it cobaygin . Que que gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains .

In the early 20th century , Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead , because it was listed first by Latham in 1801 . This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature conserved the current name by formally suppressing the name M. garrula . The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words melas " black " , and kephale " head " , referring to its black crown . Other common names include Mickey miner and soldierbird . Four subspecies are recognised , including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania . The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard Schodde — titaniota from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as Mareeba , lepidota from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of Nyngan , and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southern South Australia . There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies . Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations .

The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as Meliphagidae , the other three being the black @-@ eared miner ( M. melanotis ) , the yellow @-@ throated miner ( M. flavigula ) , and the bell miner ( M. melanophrys ) . One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes , which gives them an odd ' cross @-@ eyed ' look . Within the genus , the noisy , black @-@ eared and yellow @-@ throated miners form the subgenus Myzantha . The noisy miner occasionally hybridizes with the yellow @-@ throated miner . Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .

= = Description = =

= = = Appearance = = =

The noisy miner is a large honeyeater , 24 – 28 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 4 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 36 – 45 centimetres ( 14 – 18 in ) , and weighing 70 – 80 grams ( 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 8 oz ) . Male , female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage : grey on the back and tail and on the breast , and otherwise white underneath , with white scalloping on the nape and hind @-@ neck and on the breast ; off @-@ white forehead and lores ; a black band over the crown , bright orange @-@ yellow bill and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye ; a prominent white tip to the tail ; a narrow olive @-@ yellow panel in the folded wing ; and orange @-@ yellow legs and feet . A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage , a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back , and a duller , greyish @-@ yellow skin patch behind the eye .

The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow @-@ throated miner and the black @-@ eared miner ; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown , while the others have grey heads .

= = = = Geographical variations = = = =

Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann 's rule ; namely , birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder . Adults from central @-@ eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive @-@ yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings , and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind @-@ neck and back , giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations . Wing length generally increases with latitude and M. m. leachi has measurably shorter wings than the nominate race , although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study of populations north of 30 ° S and south of the Murray River . The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind @-@ neck than the nominate race , a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels , and a slightly broader off @-@ white tip to the tail .

The far north Queensland subspecies titaniota has a shorter tail , paler crown , larger yellow skin patch , and paler upper parts without the yellow @-@ olive of the nominate race ; and lepidota , found in western New South Wales , is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown , and darker more mottled upperparts .

= = = Vocalisations = = =

As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species . Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater , it has a large and varied repertoire of songs , calls , scoldings and alarms . Most are loud and penetrating , and consist of harsh single notes . It has two broad @-@ frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory , or when predators ( including humans ) are sighted ; and a narrow @-@ frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen , such as the brown falcon ( Falco berigora ) , or other large flying birds including the Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) and the pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) . The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high @-@ pitched , slurred whistling notes . The broad @-@ frequency alarm calls are a series of ' churr ' notes , low pitched and harsh , occurring at low and high levels of intensity . The narrow @-@ band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and restricts information about its own location , while the broad @-@ band alarm is used to attract attention , and can initiate mobbing behaviour . These churring calls vary between individuals , and laboratory tests show noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds . Hence , this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species .

Contact or social facilitation calls are low @-@ pitched sounds that carry long distances . ' Chip ' calls are given by individual birds when foraging , and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest . Where there is a high level of social activity , such as during territorial disputes with conspecifics , calls are a series of quick , regular , single notes . The noisy miner has a mating display flight song , a soft warble of low @-@ frequency notes , given during short undulating flights by the male , and responded to by the female with a low @-@ frequency whistle . The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats , where it is an advantage to call from the air so as to overcome sound attenuation . Another display call , described as ' yammer ' , is a rapid rhythmical series of notes that is uttered during open @-@ bill , wing @-@ waving displays . The noisy miner has a song described as the ' dawn song ' — a communal song of clear whistled notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January . The dawn song , which is also sung at dusk , is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve antiphony .

A nestling begins to give the ' chip ' call soon after it emerges from the egg , and it calls frequently for the first two thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third . The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest , so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird . The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call , and makes a squealing sound when the adult delivers food . The begging call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling , but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range ( which may make it more directional ) . The rate of calling , on average , is 85 to 100 calls in a minute , and in open scrub the call can be heard up to a kilometre away . Subsong , a juvenile vocalization comprising elements of various calls , begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old .

The noisy miner also produces non @-@ vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill , usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species , or when mobbing a predator .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia , occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations , to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from Angledool to Balranald , through Victoria into south @-@ eastern South Australia , and eastern Tasmania . Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s . It is sedentary over its entire range . The noisy miner is territorial , and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended — which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner , with smaller species excluded .

The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests without understory shrubs . It is commonly found in open sclerophyll forests , including those on coastal dunes or granite outcrops ; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes ; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great Dividing Range ; mixed forests of eucalypts and cypress ( Callitris ) ; forests dominated by yapunya , mulga , gidgee , brigalow or emu bush ; in stands of belah and scattered clumps of boree ; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains , and areas dominated by exotic species such as European ash and willow . It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared , including recently burned areas , and modified habitats such as lightly @-@ timbered farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , bushland remnants in towns and cities , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .

The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties , heavy grazing that removes the understory , fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat , and urban landscaping practices that increase open eucalypt environments . It has been described as a ' reverse keystone ' species , as it is colonizing an ever @-@ increasing range of human @-@ dominated habitats , and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments . This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas . A field study across the South West Slopes of New South Wales , showed that the noisy miner 's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as fantails , whistlers , the restless flycatcher ( Myiagra inquieta ) , and other honeyeater species , and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients . While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large @-@ flowering grevillea cultivars has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners , recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas , and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase . Large @-@ flowered grevillea hybrids such as Grevillea ' Robyn Gordon ' can benefit the noisy miner , in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters , and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non @-@ migratory species . A field study in box @-@ ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum ( Eucalyptus leucoxylon ) , which reliably produces flowers ( and nectar ) each year . The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure .

While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded , the density of the population within that range has substantially increased . High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) or more from the forest / agricultural land edge . Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management , and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use , and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forests . There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels . Field work in Victoria showed noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from 150 to 300 m ( 490 to 980 ft ) into remnant woodland from the edges , with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas . This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner @-@ free areas — around 36 hectares ( 89 acres ) . Revegetation projects restoring buloke woodland , a species of she @-@ oak integral to the survival of the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorynchus banksii ) , have been interplanted with a nurse species , usually fast @-@ growing eucalypts . Noisy miner populations were more likely in those buloke woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare ( 6 @.@ 4 per acre ) . The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland .

= = Behaviour = =

= = = Social organization = = =

The noisy miner is a gregarious species , and the birds are rarely seen singly or in twos ; they forage , move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds

Within a colony , a male bird will occupy an ' activity space ' , which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males . Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds . Coteries are the most stable unit within the colony . The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity . These flocks , called ' coalitions ' , usually comprise five to eight birds , although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator . Membership of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space , or the activity ends or changes , as when the breeding season begins . Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds , but not other females , so that females will join coalitions with males in their area , but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition . The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born , and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony . A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season , found that they were all male birds , suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony . Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level .

Looking after the young is communal , with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing faecal sacs . Communal feeding increases after fledging , when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds if not driven off . Roosting is usually communal , with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other , usually near the end of a hanging branch up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above ground , within their activity space . They select a new site each evening , often selecting and rejecting several sites , and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group . They are often the last birds to roost at night , but appear to sleep soundly , undisturbed by torchlight . Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams , and from cattle troughs , often perching on a submerged branch . They bathe by diving head first into water and , when almost totally submerged , flapping their wings vigorously and ducking their heads under the water . They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to preen . They have been observed using rain- or dew @-@ soaked foliage to bathe , and in dry weather will dust @-@ bathe in dry soil or fine litter such as grass clippings . Bathing is communal , with birds stimulated to participate by observing others . They are occasionally observed anting .

= = = = Flock behaviour = = = =

The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group . Roosting , foraging , preening , bathing and dust @-@ bathing or anting are communal activities . Dawn song is a communal chorus , particularly during the breeding season . The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays . In ' long flight ' displays , initiated by either male or female birds , groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above the canopy for distances of up to 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from the colony , constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes . As they return the remaining birds show signs of agitation , and sometimes fly up to join them . The ' short flight ' display is performed by the male , and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds . In a ritualised movement , the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area , in a rhythmic undulating pattern , usually calling in flight . At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward swoop and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point . The ' head @-@ up flight ' is performed by the female during the nesting period , and may function to attract male helpers . In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically , with legs dangling and the head held up and back . It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site , and when carrying nest @-@ building material , and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members .

Postural displays include tall and low poses , pointing , open bill , and wing waving . The ' tall posture ' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat . The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched , and it faces the other bird . The ' low posture ' is a submissive gesture ; the bird sits low on the perch with legs obscured by fluffed feathers and often faces away from the other bird . Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely . ' Pointing ' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally , with feathers sleeked and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression . A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing . An ' open bill display ' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds , and by a female on the nest when other birds approach . The ' trident bill display ' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding and is a higher @-@ intensity submissive display . ' Wing waving ' is often performed at the same time as an open bill display . The wings are flexed and held slightly away from the body , and flapped out and up around three to six times . Wing waving may be accompanied by a yammer call . ' Eagle ' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out , in either a vertical or horizontal position .

Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye — when the feathers are completely sleeked the entire patch is visible , and when they are fluffed the patch is hidden . Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays , with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat postures , and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye patch when under attack from other members of the coterie .

On occasion early in the breeding season , mass displays erupt , where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing @-@ spreading displays , short flights , and constant calling . Displaying birds are attacked by others , and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions . Mass displays are more common in the early morning , can last for up to 40 minutes , and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour .

A ' corroboree ' ( from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians ) is a group display where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose hunchbacked , giving wing @-@ waving and open @-@ bill displays and the yammer call . A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment , such as a bird returning after an absence , or the repulsion of an intruder , or the coming together of different coteries . The corroboree appears to have a bonding function , and may involve all members of a colony .

= = = = Antagonistic behaviour = = = =

Described as " always at war with others of the feathered kind " in early notes , the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters . Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is antagonistic with chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day . The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds ; the species is also highly aggressive intraspecifically .

Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other , and one cause of a male @-@ biased sex @-@ ratio in colonies may be the females ' greater intolerance for each other , driving immatures out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females . Aggression at the nest is common between males . Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old , and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling . Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds , although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring , and infanticide has been recorded . There is little male to female aggression other than the ' driving flights ' that form part of the mating ritual . In direct attacks of young birds pecks are directed at the eye patch . Agonistic behaviour has been observed among nestlings , with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling .

The noisy miner colony unites to mob inter @-@ specific intruders and predators . The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point , expose eye patches , and often bill @-@ snap . Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder , some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder . The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still , as with a tawny frogmouth ( Podargus strigoides ) , or it leaves the area . Mobbing of snakes and goannas is particularly intense , and most species of bird , even non @-@ predators , entering the territory are immediately chased . The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian owlet @-@ nightjar ( Aegotheles cristatus ) during the day , grebes , herons , ducks and cormorants on lakes at the edge of territories , crested pigeons ( Ocyphaps lophotes ) , pardalotes , and rosellas . Non @-@ predatory mammals such as bats , cattle , sheep , and wallabies are also attacked , though less vigorously than birds .

Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder , and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the trespasser . Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes ; one noisy miner grasping a striated pardalote ( Pardalotus striatus ) by the wing while another pecked it on the head until it died ; and a sacred kingfisher ( Todiramphus sanctus ) being chased and harassed for over five hours and then found dead with a fractured skull .

= = = = Response to threats = = = =

Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in noisier sections of urban environments , such as main roads . The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats , rather than withdraw . A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight , and when they did they flew shorter distances . It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city . A field study in Canberra found that superb fairywrens ( Malurus cyaneus ) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls . This suggests the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species ' vocalisations .

= = = Feeding = = =

The noisy miner primarily eats nectar , fruit and insects , and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians . It is both arboreal and terrestrial , feeding in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground . It forages within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia . The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers , hanging upside down or straddling thin branches acrobatically to access the nectar ; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground ; gleans or hawks for invertebrates ; and picks through leaf litter for insects . It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of emu ( Dromaius novaehollandiae ) and eastern grey kangaroo ( Macropus giganteus ) searching for insects .

In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt species , and when in flower , callistemon , than in other plants including exotics . Most time was spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts , and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present . The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , honeydew and lerp gathered from the foliage of eucalypts . Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at banksias and grevilleas than other large honeyeaters such as little wattlebird ( Anthochaera chrysoptera ) and red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) .

Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including : spiders ; insects ( leaf beetles , ladybirds , stink bugs , ants , moth and butterfly larvae ) ; nectar ( from Jacaranda mimosifolia , Erythrina variegata , Lagunaria patersonia , Callistemon salignus , Callistemon viminalis , eucalypts Argyle apple , sugar gum , yellow gum , grey ironbark , and grey gum , Banksia ericifolia , B. integrifolia , B. serrata , Grevillea aspleniifolia , G. banksii , G. hookeriana , G. juniperina , G. rosmarinifolia , and flowering quince ) ; seeds from oats , wheat and pepper tree ; fruit from saltbush , mistletoe and crabapple ; frogs and skinks ; and other matter such as bread , pieces of meat and cheese , and food scraps .

In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species , the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies depending upon the resource it was foraging . When searching for nectar , which does not move but is readily depleted , the noisy miner uses a spatial memory @-@ based strategy , identifying characteristics of the environment — a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird 's activities . When searching for invertebrates , it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement ( they improve at finding invertebrates with practice ) . The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms , capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts .

= = = Breeding = = =

The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display ; displays can involve ' driving ' where the male jumps or flies at the female from 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) away , and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively . The female may perform a ' bowed @-@ wing display ' where the wings and tail are spread and quivered , with the wings arched and the head pointing down . The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal ' eagle display ' with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds . Copulation is frequent and conspicuous , with both males and females copulating with several birds , while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair . Copulation usually occurs on larger , exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day , although slightly more often between 11 : 00 and 13 : 00 when communal activities are less frequent . The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates promiscuously to recruit males to help care for the young , but recent genetic testing shows that 96 @.@ 5 % of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare . An observation of banded birds noted that while females copulated repeatedly , it was always with the same male . Mate switching between broods is uncommon , with pairs staying together over several years .

The noisy miner breeds all year long , with most activity from July through November , though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young . The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees , and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts , and also in wattles , Araucaria , Banksia , Bursaria , Hibiscus , mistletoe , Melaleuca , Pittosporum , Schinus and jacaranda . It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting , often near the end of drooping horizontal branches . Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site , rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location . The female alone builds the nest , which is deep and cup @-@ shaped , woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material , animal hair and spider webs . Occasionally the nest will include man @-@ made materials such as twine , scraps of material , and tissue paper . It is lined with wool , hair , feathers , flowers or plant down , and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the cocoons of the processional caterpillar . The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site , picking up material . She gathers material from disused nests of other birds , or dismantles its most recent nest to build a new one . The female completes the nest in five or six days . On average nests have an external diameter of 15 – 17 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 0 in ) and an external depth of 9 – 11 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) . The internal depth of the nest is around 5 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) .

Eggs vary greatly in size , shape and markings , but are generally elongated ovals ; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured ; freckled , spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red , sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey . The clutch consists of two to four eggs . Incubation is by the female only , and the incubation period is around sixteen days . Hatching is asynchronous , with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch . Young are naked at hatching , and develop a cover of down within two to three days . The fledging period is around sixteen days , and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty @-@ six and thirty days after fledging , but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty @-@ five days . The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged , and only able to fly downwards , and scramble up . They do not go far from the nest , return to it at night , and take some weeks to completely leave the nest . Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period , where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees . These birds are often mistakenly " rescued " . The fledglings seek out siblings if separated , and huddle together for up to three weeks after fledging .

The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any communally breeding bird , with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood . Only males help with a nest , and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood , some males devote all their time to a single nest , while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests . Behavioural evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair , or full siblings of the male parent . Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly , and if several arrive at once one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait . The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives , and never takes food from one of the helpers . Communal feeding of the young increases after fledging , and the young beg for food with constant ' chip chip ' calls and gaping mouths . The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged .

= = = = Nest predation = = = =

Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation , although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure . Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods , laying eggs early in the season , nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators ; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner 's open woodland habitat .

= = Conservation status = =

Being abundant throughout its significant range , the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation , and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species . The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented . The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds , its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements , and the level of leaf damage leading to die @-@ back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands , means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations . Some habitat restoration and revegetation projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habit that they prefer . A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest , and the use of eucalypts as fast @-@ growing nurse species . Both practices have sound ecological value , but allow the noisy miner to proliferate , so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts , and avoiding the creation of narrow protrusions , corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors . A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by wattles , species of which in the study area had bipinnate leaves . Hence the authors proposed revegetation projects include at least 15 % Acacia species with bipinnate leaves if possible , as well as shrubby understory plants .

Translocation of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats . In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated , colonies moved into the now unpopulated area but soon returned to their original territories . The translocated birds did not settle in a new territory . They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners , but instead wandered up to 4 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 6 mi ) from the release point , moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners — at least for the first 50 days following translocation . Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) back to their site of capture . Although noisy miners are protected across Australia , and a permit is required to cull them , culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact , particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life . An unsanctioned cull took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992 , which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity .

= Principe Amedeo @-@ class ironclad =

The Principe Amedeo class was a pair of ironclad warships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1870s and 1880s . They were the culmination of a major naval construction program designed to give Italy a powerful fleet of ironclads . The two ships , Principe Amedeo and Palestro , were the last Italian ironclads to feature sailing rigs and wooden hulls . They were armed with a battery of six 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns and were capable of a speed in excess of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ships had uneventful careers , spending much of it in Italy 's colonial empire . By the late 1880s , they were withdrawn from service and employed in secondary roles , first as headquarters ships for harbor defenses . Principe Amedeo was converted into a depot ship in 1895 and was discarded in 1910 , while Palestro was used as a training ship from 1894 to 1900 before being scrapped in 1902 – 04 .

= = Design = =

In 1862 , the Italian government under Prime Minister Urbano Rattazzi and his naval minister Carlo Pellion di Persano made the decision to build a fleet of ironclad warships . The Italian fleet had already acquired a pair of small , French @-@ built armored frigates of the Formidabile class , and two more vessels of the Re d 'Italia class had been ordered from the United States . Five more ironclads were ordered from foreign shipyards , three wooden steam frigates already under construction were converted into armored ships , and four more ironclads were ordered from Italian shipyards . The two Principe Amedeo @-@ class ships were the last two of this first generation of Italian ironclads . The design for Principe Amedeo was prepared by Inspector Engineer Giuseppe De Luca . He had initially planned on using entirely wooden hulls for the ships , but had changed to composite wood and iron construction by the time the ships were laid down .

= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =

The two ships differed slightly in size . Principe Amedeo was 79 @.@ 73 meters ( 261 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars , while Palestro was 78 @.@ 82 m ( 258 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Principe Amedeo had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) ; Palestro 's beam measured 17 @.@ 3 m ( 57 ft ) , and she had a draft of 8 m ( 26 ft ) . Both ships displaced 5 @,@ 761 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 670 long tons ; 6 @,@ 350 short tons ) normally , but Principe Amedeo displaced 6 @,@ 020 t ( 5 @,@ 920 long tons ; 6 @,@ 640 short tons ) at full load and Palestro reached 3 @,@ 218 t ( 3 @,@ 167 long tons ; 3 @,@ 547 short tons ) . They had a crew of 548 officers and men .

The ships ' propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel . The lead ship 's engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 2 knots ( 22 @.@ 6 km / h ; 14 @.@ 0 mph ) at 6 @,@ 117 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 561 kW ) , while Palestro made 12 @.@ 85 kn ( 23 @.@ 80 km / h ; 14 @.@ 79 mph ) at the same horsepower . They could steam for 1 @,@ 780 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 050 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ships were barque @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine ; Principe Amedeo and her sister were the last rigged ironclad to be built by Italy . The ships ' sail area were 36 @,@ 738 square feet ( 3 @,@ 413 @.@ 1 m2 ) for Principe Amedeo and 37 @,@ 361 sq ft ( 3 @,@ 471 @.@ 0 m2 ) for Palestro .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

Palestro and Principe Amedeo were both armed with a main battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , though they were mounted differently in each ship . Principe Amedeo carried hers in a single armored casemate located amidships , while Palestro 's guns were mounted in three armored casemates . The first was located forward , toward the bow , the second and third were placed close to the stern on each side of the ship . Both ships also carried an 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun that was mounted forward as a bow chaser . Later in her career , Principe Amedeo received a secondary battery of six 2 @.@ 9 in ( 74 mm ) guns and six machine guns , along with two torpedo tubes .

The two ships were protected by iron belt armor that was 8 @.@ 7 in ( 221 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull . The casemates were protected with 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) of iron plating , and the small conning tower had 2 @.@ 4 in ( 61 mm ) thick iron plates .

= = Ships = =

= = Service history = =

Neither ship had a particularly eventful career . They were completed too late to take part in the final stages of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , they were assigned to the Italian colonial empire , with occasional stints in the main Italian fleet . In 1880 , Palestro took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . The following year , Principe Amedeo was involved in a collision with the ironclad Roma during a hurricane , though neither ship was damaged .

In the late 1880s , both ships were withdrawn from frontline service and employed as headquarters ships for the defense of Taranto — Principe Amedeo — and La Maddalena — Palestro . Principe Amedeo was stricken from the naval register in 1895 and used as an ammunition depot ship in Taranto until 1910 , when she was sold for scrap . Palestro was employed as a training ship between 1894 and 1900 , when she too was stricken from the register . She was broken up between 1902 and 1904 .

= Cell nucleus =

In cell biology , the nucleus ( pl. nuclei ; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus , meaning kernel ) is a membrane @-@ enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus , but a few cell types , such as mammalian red blood cells , have no nuclei , and a few others have many .

Cell nuclei contain most of the cell 's genetic material , organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins , such as histones , to form chromosomes . The genes within these chromosomes are the cell 's nuclear genome and are structured in such a way to promote cell function . The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression — the nucleus is , therefore , the control center of the cell . The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope , a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm , and the nuclear matrix ( which includes the nuclear lamina ) , a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support , much like the cytoskeleton , which supports the cell as a whole .

Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules , nuclear pores are required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope . The pores cross both nuclear membranes , providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions . Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes . Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane @-@ bound sub compartments , its contents are not uniform , and a number of sub @-@ nuclear bodies exist , made up of unique proteins , RNA molecules , and particular parts of the chromosomes . The best @-@ known of these is the nucleolus , which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes . After being produced in the nucleolus , ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA .

= = History = =

The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered . What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( 1632 – 1723 ) . He observed a " lumen " , the nucleus , in the red blood cells of salmon . Unlike mammalian red blood cells , those of other vertebrates still contain nuclei .

The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in 1804 and in more detail in 1831 by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in a talk at the Linnean Society of London . Brown was studying orchids under microscope when he observed an opaque area , which he called the " areola " or " nucleus " , in the cells of the flower 's outer layer .

He did not suggest a potential function . In 1838 , Matthias Schleiden proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells , thus he introduced the name " cytoblast " ( cell builder ) . He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around " cytoblasts " . Franz Meyen was a strong opponent of this view , having already described cells multiplying by division and believing that many cells would have no nuclei . The idea that cells can be generated de novo , by the " cytoblast " or otherwise , contradicted work by Robert Remak ( 1852 ) and Rudolf Virchow ( 1855 ) who decisively propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells ( " Omnis cellula e cellula " ) . The function of the nucleus remained unclear .

Between 1877 and 1878 , Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin eggs , showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus . This was the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a ( single ) nucleated cell . This was in contradiction to Ernst Haeckel 's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be repeated during embryonic development , including generation of the first nucleated cell from a " monerula " , a structureless mass of primordial mucus ( " Urschleim " ) . Therefore , the necessity of the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time . However , Hertwig confirmed his observation in other animal groups , including amphibians and molluscs . Eduard Strasburger produced the same results for plants in 1884 . This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity . In 1873 , August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity . The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later , after mitosis was discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century ; the chromosome theory of heredity was therefore developed .

= = Structures = =

The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animal cells . In mammalian cells , the average diameter of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometres ( µm ) , which occupies about 10 % of the total cell volume . The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm , and is similar in composition to the cytosol found outside the nucleus . It appears as a dense , roughly spherical or irregular organelle .

= = = Nuclear envelope and pores = = =

The nuclear envelope , otherwise known as nuclear membrane , consists of two cellular membranes , an inner and an outer membrane , arranged parallel to one another and separated by 10 to 50 nanometres ( nm ) . The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and separates the cell 's genetic material from the surrounding cytoplasm , serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm . The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum ( RER ) , and is similarly studded with ribosomes . The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen .

Nuclear pores , which provide aqueous channels through the envelope , are composed of multiple proteins , collectively referred to as nucleoporins . The pores are about 125 million daltons in molecular weight and consist of around 50 ( in yeast ) to several hundred proteins ( in vertebrates ) . The pores are 100 nm in total diameter ; however , the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm wide , due to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore . This size selectively allows the passage of small water @-@ soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules , such as nucleic acids and larger proteins , from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus . These large molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead . The nucleus of a typical mammalian cell will have about 3000 to 4000 pores throughout its envelope , each of which contains an eightfold @-@ symmetric ring @-@ shaped structure at a position where the inner and outer membranes fuse . Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear basket that extends into the nucleoplasm , and a series of filamentous extensions that reach into the cytoplasm . Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins .

Most proteins , ribosomal subunits , and some DNAs are transported through the pore complexes in a process mediated by a family of transport factors known as karyopherins . Those karyopherins that mediate movement into the nucleus are also called importins , whereas those that mediate movement out of the nucleus are called exportins . Most karyopherins interact directly with their cargo , although some use adaptor proteins . Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone , as well as other small lipid @-@ soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling , can diffuse through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm , where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus . There they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand ; in the absence of ligand , many such receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression .

= = = Nuclear lamina = = =

In animal cells , two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with mechanical support : The nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork on the internal face of the envelope , while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope . Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores .

The nuclear lamina is composed mostly of lamin proteins . Like all proteins , lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported to the nucleus interior , where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina . Lamins found on the cytosolic face of the membrane , such as emerin and nesprin , bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural support . Lamins are also found inside the nucleoplasm where they form another regular structure , known as the nucleoplasmic veil , that is visible using fluorescence microscopy . The actual function of the veil is not clear , although it is excluded from the nucleolus and is present during interphase . Lamin structures that make up the veil , such as LEM3 , bind chromatin and disrupting their structure inhibits transcription of protein @-@ coding genes .

Like the components of other intermediate filaments , the lamin monomer contains an alpha @-@ helical domain used by two monomers to coil around each other , forming a dimer structure called a coiled coil . Two of these dimer structures then join side by side , in an antiparallel arrangement , to form a tetramer called a protofilament . Eight of these protofilaments form a lateral arrangement that is twisted to form a ropelike filament . These filaments can be assembled or disassembled in a dynamic manner , meaning that changes in the length of the filament depend on the competing rates of filament addition and removal .

Mutations in lamin genes leading to defects in filament assembly cause a group of rare genetic disorders known as laminopathies . The most notable laminopathy is the family of diseases known as progeria , which causes the appearance of premature aging in its sufferers . The exact mechanism by which the associated biochemical changes give rise to the aged phenotype is not well understood .

= = = Chromosomes = = =

The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes . Each human cell contains roughly two meters of DNA . During most of the cell cycle these are organized in a DNA @-@ protein complex known as chromatin , and during cell division the chromatin can be seen to form the well @-@ defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype . A small fraction of the cell 's genes are located instead in the mitochondria .

There are two types of chromatin . Euchromatin is the less compact DNA form , and contains genes that are frequently expressed by the cell . The other type , heterochromatin , is the more compact form , and contains DNA that is infrequently transcribed . This structure is further categorized into facultative heterochromatin , consisting of genes that are organized as heterochromatin only in certain cell types or at certain stages of development , and constitutive heterochromatin that consists of chromosome structural components such as telomeres and centromeres . During interphase the chromatin organizes itself into discrete individual patches , called chromosome territories . Active genes , which are generally found in the euchromatic region of the chromosome , tend to be located towards the chromosome 's territory boundary .

Antibodies to certain types of chromatin organization , in particular , nucleosomes , have been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases , such as systemic lupus erythematosus . These are known as anti @-@ nuclear antibodies ( ANA ) and have also been observed in concert with multiple sclerosis as part of general immune system dysfunction . As in the case of progeria , the role played by the antibodies in inducing the symptoms of autoimmune diseases is not obvious .

= = = Nucleolus = = =

The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus . It is not surrounded by a membrane , and is sometimes called a suborganelle . It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA , DNA coding for ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) . These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions ( NOR ) . The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes . The structural cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity , as ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the transient association of nucleolar components , facilitating further ribosomal assembly , and hence further association . This model is supported by observations that inactivation of rDNA results in intermingling of nucleolar structures .

In the first step of ribosome assembly , a protein called RNA polymerase I transcribes rDNA , which forms a large pre @-@ rRNA precursor . This is cleaved into the subunits 5.8S , 18S , and 28S rRNA . The transcription , post @-@ transcriptional processing , and assembly of rRNA occurs in the nucleolus , aided by small nucleolar RNA ( snoRNA ) molecules , some of which are derived from spliced introns from messenger RNAs encoding genes related to ribosomal function . The assembled ribosomal subunits are the largest structures passed through the nuclear pores .

When observed under the electron microscope , the nucleolus can be seen to consist of three distinguishable regions : the innermost fibrillar centers ( FCs ) , surrounded by the dense fibrillar component ( DFC ) , which in turn is bordered by the granular component ( GC ) . Transcription of the rDNA occurs either in the FC or at the FC @-@ DFC boundary , and , therefore , when rDNA transcription in the cell is increased , more FCs are detected . Most of the cleavage and modification of rRNAs occurs in the DFC , while the latter steps involving protein assembly onto the ribosomal subunits occur in the GC .

= = = Other subnuclear bodies = = =

Besides the nucleolus , the nucleus contains a number of other non @-@ membrane @-@ delineated bodies . These include Cajal bodies , Gemini of coiled bodies , polymorphic interphase karyosomal association ( PIKA ) , promyelocytic leukaemia ( PML ) bodies , paraspeckles , and splicing speckles . Although little is known about a number of these domains , they are significant in that they show that the nucleoplasm is not a uniform mixture , but rather contains organized functional subdomains .

Other subnuclear structures appear as part of abnormal disease processes . For example , the presence of small intranuclear rods has been reported in some cases of nemaline myopathy . This condition typically results from mutations in actin , and the rods themselves consist of mutant actin as well as other cytoskeletal proteins .

= = = = Cajal bodies and gems = = = =

A nucleus typically contains between 1 and 10 compact structures called Cajal bodies or coiled bodies ( CB ) , whose diameter measures between 0 @.@ 2 µm and 2 @.@ 0 µm depending on the cell type and species . When seen under an electron microscope , they resemble balls of tangled thread and are dense foci of distribution for the protein coilin . CBs are involved in a number of different roles relating to RNA processing , specifically small nucleolar RNA ( snoRNA ) and small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) maturation , and histone mRNA modification .

Similar to Cajal bodies are Gemini of Cajal bodies , or gems , whose name is derived from the Gemini constellation in reference to their close " twin " relationship with CBs . Gems are similar in size and shape to CBs , and in fact are virtually indistinguishable under the microscope . Unlike CBs , gems do not contain small nuclear ribonucleoproteins ( snRNPs ) , but do contain a protein called survival of motor neuron ( SMN ) whose function relates to snRNP biogenesis . Gems are believed to assist CBs in snRNP biogenesis , though it has also been suggested from microscopy evidence that CBs and gems are different manifestations of the same structure . Later ultrastructural studies have shown gems to be twins of Cajal bodies with the difference being in the coilin component ; Cajal bodies are SMN positive and coilin positive , and gems are SMN positive and coilin negative .

= = = = RAFA and PTF domains = = = =

RAFA domains , or polymorphic interphase karyosomal associations , were first described in microscopy studies in 1991 . Their function remains unclear , though they were not thought to be associated with active DNA replication , transcription , or RNA processing . They have been found to often associate with discrete domains defined by dense localization of the transcription factor PTF , which promotes transcription of small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) .

= = = = PML bodies = = = =

Promyelocytic leukaemia bodies ( PML bodies ) are spherical bodies found scattered throughout the nucleoplasm , measuring around 0 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 0 µm . They are known by a number of other names , including nuclear domain 10 ( ND10 ) , Kremer bodies , and PML oncogenic domains . PML bodies are named after one of their major components , the promyelocytic leukemia protein ( PML ) . They are often seen in the nucleus in association with Cajal bodies and cleavage bodies . PML bodies belong to the nuclear matrix , an ill @-@ defined super @-@ structure of the nucleus proposed to anchor and regulate many nuclear functions , including DNA replication , transcription , or epigenetic silencing . The PML protein is the key organizer of these domains that recruits an ever @-@ growing number of proteins , whose only common known feature to date is their ability to be SUMOylated . Yet , pml- / - mice ( which have their PML gene deleted ) cannot assemble nuclear bodies , develop normally and live well , demonstrating that PML bodies are dispensable for most basic biological functions .

= = = = Splicing speckles = = = =

Speckles are subnuclear structures that are enriched in pre @-@ messenger RNA splicing factors and are located in the interchromatin regions of the nucleoplasm of mammalian cells . At the fluorescence @-@ microscope level they appear as irregular , punctate structures , which vary in size and shape , and when examined by electron microscopy they are seen as clusters of interchromatin granules . Speckles are dynamic structures , and both their protein and RNA @-@ protein components can cycle continuously between speckles and other nuclear locations , including active transcription sites . Studies on the composition , structure and behaviour of speckles have provided a model for understanding the functional compartmentalization of the nucleus and the organization of the gene @-@ expression machinery splicing snRNPs and other splicing proteins necessary for pre @-@ mRNA processing . Because of a cell 's changing requirements , the composition and location of these bodies changes according to mRNA transcription and regulation via phosphorylation of specific proteins . The splicing speckles are also known as nuclear speckles ( nuclear specks ) , splicing factor compartments ( SF compartments ) , interchromatin granule clusters ( IGCs ) , B snurposomes . B snurposomes are found in the amphibian oocyte nuclei and in Drosophila melanogaster embryos . B snurposomes appear alone or attached to the Cajal bodies in the electron micrographs of the amphibian nuclei . IGCs function as storage sites for the splicing factors .

= = = = Paraspeckles = = = =

Discovered by Fox et al. in 2002 , paraspeckles are irregularly shaped compartments in the nucleus ' interchromatin space . First documented in HeLa cells , where there are generally 10 – 30 per nucleus , paraspeckles are now known to also exist in all human primary cells , transformed cell lines , and tissue sections . Their name is derived from their distribution in the nucleus ; the " para " is short for parallel and the " speckles " refers to the splicing speckles to which they are always in close proximity .

Paraspeckles are dynamic structures that are altered in response to changes in cellular metabolic activity . They are transcription dependent and in the absence of RNA Pol II transcription , the paraspeckle disappears and all of its associated protein components ( PSP1 , p54nrb , PSP2 , CFI ( m ) 68 , and PSF ) form a crescent shaped perinucleolar cap in the nucleolus . This phenomenon is demonstrated during the cell cycle . In the cell cycle , paraspeckles are present during interphase and during all of mitosis except for telophase . During telophase , when the two daughter nuclei are formed , there is no RNA Pol II transcription so the protein components instead form a perinucleolar cap .

= = = = Perichromatin fibrils = = = =

Perichromatin fibrils are visible only under electron microscope . They are located next to the transcriptionally active chromatin and are hypothesized to be the sites of active pre @-@ mRNA processing .

= = Function = =

The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location of translation in the cytoplasm , allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available to prokaryotes . The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle .

The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Inside its fully enclosed nuclear membrane , it contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material . This material is organized as DNA molecules , along with a variety of proteins , to form chromosomes .

= = = Cell compartmentalization = = =

The nuclear envelope allows the nucleus to control its contents , and separate them from the rest of the cytoplasm where necessary . This is important for controlling processes on either side of the nuclear membrane . In most cases where a cytoplasmic process needs to be restricted , a key participant is removed to the nucleus , where it interacts with transcription factors to downregulate the production of certain enzymes in the pathway . This regulatory mechanism occurs in the case of glycolysis , a cellular pathway for breaking down glucose to produce energy . Hexokinase is an enzyme responsible for the first the step of glycolysis , forming glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate from glucose . At high concentrations of fructose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , a molecule made later from glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , a regulator protein removes hexokinase to the nucleus , where it forms a transcriptional repressor complex with nuclear proteins to reduce the expression of genes involved in glycolysis .

In order to control which genes are being transcribed , the cell separates some transcription factor proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are activated by other signaling pathways . This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression . For example , in the case of NF @-@ κB @-@ controlled genes , which are involved in most inflammatory responses , transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the signaling molecule TNF @-@ α , binds to a cell membrane receptor , resulting in the recruitment of signalling proteins , and eventually activating the transcription factor NF @-@ κB . A nuclear localisation signal on the NF @-@ κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus , where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes .

The compartmentalization allows the cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA . Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins . The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation . Without the nucleus , ribosomes would translate newly transcribed ( unprocessed ) mRNA , resulting in malformed and nonfunctional proteins .

= = = Gene expression = = =

Gene expression first involves transcription , in which DNA is used as a template to produce RNA . In the case of genes encoding proteins , that RNA produced from this process is messenger RNA ( mRNA ) , which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein . As ribosomes are located outside the nucleus , mRNA produced needs to be exported .

Since the nucleus is the site of transcription , it also contains a variety of proteins that either directly mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the process . These proteins include helicases , which unwind the double @-@ stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it , RNA polymerases , which synthesize the growing RNA molecule , topoisomerases , which change the amount of supercoiling in DNA , helping it wind and unwind , as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate expression .

= = = Processing of pre @-@ mRNA = = =

Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts or pre @-@ mRNA . They must undergo post @-@ transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasm ; mRNA that appears in the cytoplasm without these modifications is degraded rather than used for protein translation . The three main modifications are 5 ' capping , 3 ' polyadenylation , and RNA splicing . While in the nucleus , pre @-@ mRNA is associated with a variety of proteins in complexes known as heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles ( hnRNPs ) . Addition of the 5 ' cap occurs co @-@ transcriptionally and is the first step in post @-@ transcriptional modification . The 3 ' poly @-@ adenine tail is only added after transcription is complete .

RNA splicing , carried out by a complex called the spliceosome , is the process by which introns , or regions of DNA that do not code for protein , are removed from the pre @-@ mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re @-@ form a single continuous molecule . This process normally occurs after 5 ' capping and 3 ' polyadenylation but can begin before synthesis is complete in transcripts with many exons . Many pre @-@ mRNAs , including those encoding antibodies , can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences . This process is known as alternative splicing , and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA .

= = Dynamics and regulation = =

= = = Nuclear transport = = =

The entry and exit of large molecules from the nucleus is tightly controlled by the nuclear pore complexes . Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without regulation , macromolecules such as RNA and proteins require association karyopherins called importins to enter the nucleus and exportins to exit . " Cargo " proteins that must be translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus contain short amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals , which are bound by importins , while those transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm carry nuclear export signals bound by exportins . The ability of importins and exportins to transport their cargo is regulated by GTPases , enzymes that hydrolyze the molecule guanosine triphosphate to release energy . The key GTPase in nuclear transport is Ran , which can bind either GTP or GDP ( guanosine diphosphate ) , depending on whether it is located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm . Whereas importins depend on RanGTP to dissociate from their cargo , exportins require RanGTP in order to bind to their cargo .

Nuclear import depends on the importin binding its cargo in the cytoplasm and carrying it through the nuclear pore into the nucleus . Inside the nucleus , RanGTP acts to separate the cargo from the importin , allowing the importin to exit the nucleus and be reused . Nuclear export is similar , as the exportin binds the cargo inside the nucleus in a process facilitated by RanGTP , exits through the nuclear pore , and separates from its cargo in the cytoplasm .

Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after post @-@ transcriptional modification is complete . This quality @-@ control mechanism is important due to these molecules ' central role in protein translation . Mis @-@ expression of a protein due to incomplete excision of exons or mis @-@ incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell ; thus , incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation .

= = = Assembly and disassembly = = =

During its lifetime , a nucleus may be broken down or destroyed , either in the process of cell division or as a consequence of apoptosis ( the process of programmed cell death ) . During these events , the structural components of the nucleus — the envelope and lamina — can be systematically degraded . In most cells , the disassembly of the nuclear envelope marks the end of the prophase of mitosis . However , this disassembly of the nucleus is not a universal feature of mitosis and does not occur in all cells . Some unicellular eukaryotes ( e.g. , yeasts ) undergo so @-@ called closed mitosis , in which the nuclear envelope remains intact . In closed mitosis , the daughter chromosomes migrate to opposite poles of the nucleus , which then divides in two . The cells of higher eukaryotes , however , usually undergo open mitosis , which is characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope . The daughter chromosomes then migrate to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle , and new nuclei reassemble around them .

At a certain point during the cell cycle in open mitosis , the cell divides to form two cells . In order for this process to be possible , each of the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes , a process requiring replication of the chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets . This occurs by the replicated chromosomes , the sister chromatids , attaching to microtubules , which in turn are attached to different centrosomes . The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell . In many cells , the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm , outside the nucleus ; the microtubules would be unable to attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope . Therefore , the early stages in the cell cycle , beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase , the nuclear membrane is dismantled . Likewise , during the same period , the nuclear lamina is also disassembled , a process regulated by phosphorylation of the lamins by protein kinases such as the CDC2 protein kinase . Towards the end of the cell cycle , the nuclear membrane is reformed , and around the same time , the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins .

However , in dinoflagellates , the nuclear envelope remains intact , the centrosomes are located in the cytoplasm , and the microtubules come in contact with chromosomes , whose centromeric regions are incorporated into the nuclear envelope ( the so @-@ called closed mitosis with extranuclear spindle ) . In many other protists ( e.g. , ciliates , sporozoans ) and fungi , the centrosomes are intranuclear , and their nuclear envelope also does not disassemle during cell division .

Apoptosis is a controlled process in which the cell 's structural components are destroyed , resulting in death of the cell . Changes associated with apoptosis directly affect the nucleus and its contents , for example , in the condensation of chromatin and the disintegration of the nuclear envelope and lamina . The destruction of the lamin networks is controlled by specialized apoptotic proteases called caspases , which cleave the lamin proteins and , thus , degrade the nucleus ' structural integrity . Lamin cleavage is sometimes used as a laboratory indicator of caspase activity in assays for early apoptotic activity . Cells that express mutant caspase @-@ resistant lamins are deficient in nuclear changes related to apoptosis , suggesting that lamins play a role in initiating the events that lead to apoptotic degradation of the nucleus . Inhibition of lamin assembly itself is an inducer of apoptosis .

The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus . Some viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and / or assemble . DNA viruses , such as herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus , and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane . This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane .

= = = Disease @-@ related dynamics = = =

Initially , it has been suspected that immunoglobulins in general and autoantibodies in particular do not enter the nucleus . Now there is a body of evidence that under pathological conditions ( e.g. lupus erythematosus ) IgG can enter the nucleus .

= = Nuclei per cell = =

Most eukaryotic cell types usually have a single nucleus , but some have no nuclei , while others have several . This can result from normal development , as in the maturation of mammalian red blood cells , or from faulty cell division .

= = = Anucleated cells = = =

An anucleated cell contains no nucleus and is , therefore , incapable of dividing to produce daughter cells . The best @-@ known anucleated cell is the mammalian red blood cell , or erythrocyte , which also lacks other organelles such as mitochondria , and serves primarily as a transport vessel to ferry oxygen from the lungs to the body 's tissues . Erythrocytes mature through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow , where they lose their nuclei , organelles , and ribosomes . The nucleus is expelled during the process of differentiation from an erythroblast to a reticulocyte , which is the immediate precursor of the mature erythrocyte . The presence of mutagens may induce the release of some immature " micronucleated " erythrocytes into the bloodstream . Anucleated cells can also arise from flawed cell division in which one daughter lacks a nucleus and the other has two nuclei .

In flowering plants , this condition occurs in sieve tube elements .

= = = Multinucleated cells = = =

Multinucleated cells contain multiple nuclei . Most acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae have naturally multinucleated cells . Other examples include the intestinal parasites in the genus Giardia , which have two nuclei per cell . In humans , skeletal muscle cells , called myocytes and syncytium , become multinucleated during development ; the resulting arrangement of nuclei near the periphery of the cells allows maximal intracellular space for myofibrils . Multinucleated and binucleated cells can also be abnormal in humans ; for example , cells arising from the fusion of monocytes and macrophages , known as giant multinucleated cells , sometimes accompany inflammation and are also implicated in tumor formation .

A number of dinoflagelates are known to have two nuclei . Unlike other multinucleated cells these nuclei contain two distinct lineages of DNA : one from the dinoflagelate and the other from a symbiotic diatom . Curiously the mitochondrion and the plastid of the diatom remain functional .

= = Evolution = =

As the major defining characteristic of the eukaryotic cell , the nucleus ' evolutionary origin has been the subject of much speculation . Four major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the existence of the nucleus , although none have yet earned widespread support .

The first model known as the " syntrophic model " proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus @-@ containing eukaryotic cell . ( Organisms of the Archaea and Bacteria domain have no cell nucleus . ) It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea , similar to modern methanogenic archaea , invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria , eventually forming the early nucleus . This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts , which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto @-@ eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria . The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins , including histones . Observations that myxobacteria are motile , can form multicellular complexes , and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya , support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell .

A second model proposes that proto @-@ eukaryotic cells evolved from bacteria without an endosymbiotic stage . This model is based on the existence of modern planctomycetes bacteria that possess a nuclear structure with primitive pores and other compartmentalized membrane structures . A similar proposal states that a eukaryote @-@ like cell , the chronocyte , evolved first and phagocytosed archaea and bacteria to generate the nucleus and the eukaryotic cell .

The most controversial model , known as viral eukaryogenesis , posits that the membrane @-@ bound nucleus , along with other eukaryotic features , originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus . The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands , mRNA capping , and tight binding to proteins ( analogizing histones to viral envelopes ) . One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular " predator " . Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses , on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes . It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis .

A more recent proposal , the exomembrane hypothesis , suggests that the nucleus instead originated from a single ancestral cell that evolved a second exterior cell membrane ; the interior membrane enclosing the original cell then became the nuclear membrane and evolved increasingly elaborate pore structures for passage of internally synthesized cellular components such as ribosomal subunits .

= = Gallery = =

= Until the Whole World Hears =

Until the Whole World Hears is the fourth studio album by American Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Released on November 27 , 2009 , the album was produced by Mark . A Miller and features a sound that has been described as ' pure American rock ' , ' soft adult contemporary ' , and ' CCM ' . Lyrically , the album discusses Christian subjects such as God , Jesus , and salvation , with several songs being reinventions of classic hymns . Until the Whole World Hears sold over 167 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , Casting Crowns ' highest sales week to date , and debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart . In the United States , the album ranked as the 37th best @-@ selling album of 2010 and the 137th best @-@ selling album of 2011 ; it ranked as the first and third best @-@ selling Christian album in those years , respectively . It has sold over 1 @.@ 1 million copies and been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .

Until the Whole World Hears received a mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception from critics and was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards . Three singles were released from the album : the title track , " If We 've Ever Needed You " , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " . The title track and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " both peaked atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart , while the latter also peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart ; " If We 've Ever Needed You " peaked at No. 5 on the Christian Songs chart . Two album cuts , " To Know You " and " Joyful , Joyful " , also appeared on the Christian Songs chart , peaking at numbers 27 and 3 , respectively .

= = Background and songwriting = =

Casting Crowns ' lead vocalist Mark Hall has stated that the band 's songs " have always come from our ministry in the church . They start as messages on Wednesday night , things we 're teaching our teenagers and their families " ; Until the Whole World Hears retains that same formula . Hall also stated that the musical sound of their songs is written so as not to conflict or detract from the lyrics , comparing the musical elements of his songs to a plate that the ' meat ' , the lyrics , are served on . A philosophy that " fuels " the album is the idea of putting " faith in action " ; Hall stated that he wanted believers to become more active in their faith , and to " get out of their pews and get involved in what God is doing " . " Always Enough " was written when a member of Hall 's church was killed in Afghanistan ; the band was unable to attend his funeral , as they were on the other side of the United States and couldn 't cancel their tour dates . Another song on the album , the title track , was inspired by the Biblical character of John the Baptist . Several songs on the album are reinventions of hymns , which Hall enjoyed experimenting with ; Hall retained the lyrics of the songs while reworking their melodies .

Until the Whole World Hears was produced by Mark A. Miller ; its executive producer was Terry Hemmings . It was recorded by Sam Hewitt , Michael Hewitt , and Dale Oliver at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee ; the string instrument tracks on the title track and " Always Enough " were recorded by Bobby Shin at Little Big Sound Studio in Nashville , Tennessee , while the string instrument tracks on " If We 've Ever Needed You " and " Joyful , Joyful " were recorded by John Painter and Leslie Richter at Ocean Way in Nashville . Crowd vocals on the title track and " Blessed Redeemer " were recorded by Carter Hassebroek , Darren Hughes and Billy Lord at Eagle 's Landing Baptist Church in McDonough , Georgia . Digital editing was handled by Michael Hewitt , while mixing was handled by Sam Hewitt . The album was mastered by Andrew Mendelson , Shelly Anderson , Natthaphol Abhigantaphand and Daniel Bacigalupi at Georgetown Masters in Nashville .

= = Composition = =

The overall sound of Until the Whole World Hears has been described as ' pure American rock ' , ' soft adult contemporary ' , and ' CCM ' . Robert Ham of Christianity Today regarded the album as comparable to the sound of rock bands Creed and Nickelback . One critic observed that most of the songs on the album " start off with chords plunked out on a piano or strummed slowly on a guitar , letting the song build slowly toward a massive wave of sound " . The title track has been described as having a " real rock vibe " infused by electric guitar riffs , while " Shadow of Your Wings " has been described as an " unashamed rock @-@ n @-@ roll jam " . " Joyful , Joyful " is driven by a " pulsing " and " driving " string section that " calls to mind Coldplay 's ' Viva la Vida ' " . " Mercy " and " Blessed Redeemer " feature female @-@ fronted vocals , the former sung by Megan Garrett and the latter sung by Melodee DeVevo ; on " At Your Feet " , Hector Cervantes and Juan DeVevo joining Mark Hall on vocals .

Every track on Until the Whole World Hears features references to Christian subjects such as God , Jesus , and salvation . " Joyful , Joyful " , " Blessed Redeemer " , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " were adopted from classic hymns . " Holy One " and " Shadow of Your Wings " are taken almost word for word from the Book of Psalms . " If We 've Ever Needed You " and " Always Enough " are " darker inspirational anthems " , while other songs explore themes such as repentance and forgiveness .

= = Release and sales = =

Until the Whole World Hears had first @-@ week sales of 167 @,@ 000 copies , Casting Crowns ' best sales week to date ; the album 's high first @-@ week sales enabled a No. 4 debut on the Billboard 200 . It also debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and at No. 12 on the Billboard Digital Albums chart . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album Platinum , signifying shipments of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . By April 2011 Until the Whole World Hears had sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies , and as of March 2014 the album has sold 1 @.@ 1 million copies . Billboard magazine ranked Until the Whole World Hears as the best @-@ selling Christian album and the 37th best @-@ selling album overall of 2010 . It also ranked as the 3rd best @-@ selling Christian album and the 137th best @-@ selling album overall of 2011 .

Three singles were released from Until the Whole World Hears . The title track was released as the album 's lead single and peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and at No. 23 on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart . " If We 've Ever Needed You " , the second single released from the album , peaked at No. 5 on the Christian Songs chart . " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " was released as the third single off the album and peaked atop the Christian Songs chart . It also peaked at No. 2 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and at No. 20 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . Two other songs off the album , " To Know You " and " Joyful , Joyful " , appeared on the Christian Songs chart ; they peaked at numbers 27 and 3 , respectively .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

Until the Whole World Hears met with an overall mixed to positive response from critics . Several critics regarded the musical aspects of the album as mediocre or sub @-@ par , while others praised the album 's lyrical content . Jared Johnson of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars and described it as a " powerful worship experience " , but also stated that " some might wonder how a little more variety would sound from such experienced professionals ... the band 's core sound continues to land in the AC cross hairs " . Andrew Greer of CCM Magazine commented that the album " ups the musical ante a bit , with some borderline poetic verses and interesting musical riffs " , but also commented that " many of these tracks still suffer from the ' Crowns Cliché Syndrome , ' using lyrical Christian @-@ ese to produce trite rhymes that seem hard @-@ pressed to energize a ready @-@ to @-@ worship crowd " . Robert Ham of Christianity Today criticized the album for using what he deemed as a repetitive musical formula , but also praised the song " Joyful , Joyful " , which he compared to Coldplay 's song " Viva la Vida " , as well as Megan 's Garrett 's vocals on " Mercy " . He concluded that Until the Whole World Hears " feels like a step backward creatively " . At Cross Rhythms , Tony Cummings rated the album seven out of ten squares , saying " this album is a little disappointing considering some of the glories that preceeded [ sic ] it . "

Debra Akins of Gospel Music Channel.com said the album " follows successfully in the footsteps of its predecessors " and " should further solidify Casting Crowns as a staple artist for Christian music fans everywhere " . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout gave Until the Whole World Hears two out of five stars , opining that " Casting Crowns has come down to a whole new low , such that it could be their most unremarkable record to date " and that " it is almost insulting to the listener to believe that one is supposed to find this project profound or listenable " . Paul Asay of Plugged In stated that " With appropriate apologies to the many talented and successful acts that straddle the secular and spiritual with their tunes , it 's great to have a band that speaks to the Christian heart with such power and eloquence — without apology " .

= = = Awards and accolades = = =

Until the Whole World Hears was nominated for the Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards Two of its three singles also received award nominations ; its title track was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Record Song of the Year at the 41st GMA Dove Awards , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " has been nominated for Song of the Year and Worship Song of the Year at the 43rd GMA Dove Awards . It was nominated for Top Christian Album at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards .

= = Track listing = =

( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )

= = Personnel = =

( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = = Album charts = = =

= = = Song charts = = =

= = = Certifications = = =

| }

= Ceres ( dwarf planet ) =

Ceres ( / ˈsɪəriːz / ; minor @-@ planet designation : 1 Ceres ) is the largest object in the asteroid belt that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Its diameter is approximately 945 kilometers ( 587 miles ) , making it the largest of the minor planets within the orbit of Neptune . The thirty @-@ third @-@ largest known body in the Solar System , it is the only one identified orbiting entirely within the orbit of Neptune that is a dwarf planet . Composed of rock and ice , Ceres is estimated to comprise approximately one third of the mass of the entire asteroid belt . Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt known to be rounded by its own gravity . From Earth , the apparent magnitude of Ceres ranges from 6 @.@ 7 to 9 @.@ 3 , and hence even at its brightest , it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye , except under extremely dark skies .

Ceres was the first asteroid discovered , by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo on 1 January 1801 . It was originally considered a planet , but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850s when many other objects in similar orbits were discovered .

Ceres appears to be differentiated into a rocky core and icy mantle , and may have a remnant internal ocean of liquid water under the layer of ice . The surface is probably a mixture of water ice and various hydrated minerals such as carbonates and clay . In January 2014 , emissions of water vapor were detected from several regions of Ceres . This was unexpected , because large bodies in the asteroid belt do not typically emit vapor , a hallmark of comets .

The robotic NASA spacecraft Dawn entered orbit around Ceres on 6 March 2015 . Pictures with a resolution previously unattained were taken during imaging sessions starting in January 2015 as Dawn approached Ceres , showing a cratered surface . Two distinct bright spots ( or high @-@ albedo features ) inside a crater ( different from the bright spots observed in earlier Hubble images ) were seen in a 19 February 2015 image , leading to speculation about a possible cryovolcanic origin or outgassing . On 3 March 2015 , a NASA spokesperson said the spots are consistent with highly reflective materials containing ice or salts , but that cryovolcanism is unlikely . On 11 May 2015 , NASA released a higher @-@ resolution image showing that , instead of one or two spots , there are actually several . On 9 December 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia @-@ rich clays . In June 2016 , near @-@ infrared spectra of these bright areas were found to be consistent with a large amount of sodium carbonate , ( Na

2CO

3 ) , implying that recent geologic activity was probably involved in the creation of the bright spots .

In October 2015 , NASA released a true color portrait of Ceres made by Dawn .

= = History = =

= = = Discovery = = =

Johann Elert Bode , in 1772 , first suggested that an undiscovered planet could exist between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Kepler had already noticed the gap between Mars and Jupiter in 1596 . Bode based his idea on the Titius – Bode law — a now @-@ discredited hypothesis Johann Daniel Titius first proposed in 1766 — observing that there was a regular pattern in the semi @-@ major axes of the orbits of known planets , marred only by the large gap between Mars and Jupiter . The pattern predicted that the missing planet ought to have an orbit with a semi @-@ major axis near 2 @.@ 8 astronomical units ( AU ) . William Herschel 's discovery of Uranus in 1781 near the predicted distance for the next body beyond Saturn increased faith in the law of Titius and Bode , and in 1800 , a group headed by Franz Xaver von Zach , editor of the Monatliche Correspondenz , sent requests to twenty @-@ four experienced astronomers ( dubbed the " celestial police " ) , asking that they combine their efforts and begin a methodical search for the expected planet . Although they did not discover Ceres , they later found several large asteroids .

One of the astronomers selected for the search was Giuseppe Piazzi , a Catholic priest at the Academy of Palermo , Sicily . Before receiving his invitation to join the group , Piazzi discovered Ceres on 1 January 1801 . He was searching for " the 87th [ star ] of the Catalogue of the Zodiacal stars of Mr la Caille " , but found that " it was preceded by another " . Instead of a star , Piazzi had found a moving star @-@ like object , which he first thought was a comet . Piazzi observed Ceres a total of 24 times , the final time on 11 February 1801 , when illness interrupted his observations . He announced his discovery on 24 January 1801 in letters to only two fellow astronomers , his compatriot Barnaba Oriani of Milan and Bode of Berlin . He reported it as a comet but " since its movement is so slow and rather uniform , it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet " . In April , Piazzi sent his complete observations to Oriani , Bode , and Jérôme Lalande in Paris . The information was published in the September 1801 issue of the Monatliche Correspondenz .

By this time , the apparent position of Ceres had changed ( mostly due to Earth 's orbital motion ) , and was too close to the Sun 's glare for other astronomers to confirm Piazzi 's observations . Toward the end of the year , Ceres should have been visible again , but after such a long time it was difficult to predict its exact position . To recover Ceres , Carl Friedrich Gauss , then 24 years old , developed an efficient method of orbit determination . In only a few weeks , he predicted the path of Ceres and sent his results to von Zach . On 31 December 1801 , von Zach and Heinrich W. M. Olbers found Ceres near the predicted position and thus recovered it .

The early observers were only able to calculate the size of Ceres to within an order of magnitude . Herschel underestimated its diameter as 260 km in 1802 , whereas in 1811 Johann Hieronymus Schröter overestimated it as 2 @,@ 613 km .

= = = Name = = =

Piazzi originally suggested the name Cerere Ferdinandea for his discovery , after the goddess Ceres ( Roman goddess of agriculture , Cerere in Italian , who was believed to have originated in Sicily and whose oldest temple was there ) and King Ferdinand of Sicily . " Ferdinandea " , however , was not acceptable to other nations and was dropped . Ceres was called Hera for a short time in Germany . In Greece , it is called Demeter ( Δήμητρα ) , after the Greek equivalent of the Roman Cerēs ; in English , that name is used for the asteroid 1108 Demeter .

The regular adjectival forms of the name are Cererian and Cererean , derived from the Latin genitive Cereris , but Ceresian is occasionally seen for the goddess ( as in the sickle @-@ shaped Ceresian Lake ) , as is the shorter form Cerean .

The old astronomical symbol of Ceres is a sickle , 〈 ⚳ 〉 ( ) , similar to Venus ' symbol 〈 ♀ 〉 but with a break in the circle . It has a variant 〈 〉 , reversed under the influence of the initial letter ' C ' of ' Ceres ' . These were later replaced with the generic asteroid symbol of a numbered disk , 〈 ① 〉 .

Cerium , a rare @-@ earth element discovered in 1803 , was named after Ceres . In the same year another element was also initially named after Ceres , but when cerium was named , its discoverer changed the name to palladium , after the second asteroid , 2 Pallas .

= = = Classification = = =

The categorization of Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement . Johann Elert Bode believed Ceres to be the " missing planet " he had proposed to exist between Mars and Jupiter , at a distance of 419 million km ( 2 @.@ 8 AU ) from the Sun . Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol , and remained listed as a planet in astronomy books and tables ( along with 2 Pallas , 3 Juno , and 4 Vesta ) for half a century .

As other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of Ceres , it was realized that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects . In 1802 , with the discovery of 2 Pallas , William Herschel coined the term asteroid ( " star @-@ like " ) for these bodies , writing that " they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them , even by very good telescopes " . As the first such body to be discovered , Ceres was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of minor @-@ planet designations . By the 1860s , the existence of a fundamental difference between asteroids such as Ceres and the major planets was widely accepted , though a precise definition of " planet " was never formulated .

The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet . A proposal before the International Astronomical Union for the definition of a planet would have defined a planet as " a celestial body that ( a ) has sufficient mass for its self @-@ gravity to overcome rigid @-@ body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium ( nearly round ) shape , and ( b ) is in orbit around a star , and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet " . Had this resolution been adopted , it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun . This never happened , however , and on 24 August 2006 a modified definition was adopted , carrying the additional requirement that a planet must have " cleared the neighborhood around its orbit " . By this definition , Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit , sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about a third of the mass of the belt . Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second , such as Ceres , were instead classified as dwarf planets .

Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt . It is sometimes assumed that Ceres has been reclassified as a dwarf planet , and that it is therefore no longer considered an asteroid . For example , a news update at Space.com spoke of " Pallas , the largest asteroid , and Ceres , the dwarf planet formerly classified as an asteroid " , whereas an IAU question @-@ and @-@ answer posting states , " Ceres is ( or now we can say it was ) the largest asteroid " , though it then speaks of " other asteroids " crossing Ceres ' path and otherwise implies that Ceres is still considered an asteroid . The Minor Planet Center notes that such bodies may have dual designations . The 2006 IAU decision that classified Ceres as a dwarf planet never addressed whether it is or is not an asteroid . Indeed , the IAU has never defined the word ' asteroid ' at all , having preferred the term ' minor planet ' until 2006 , and preferring the terms ' small Solar System body ' and ' dwarf planet ' after 2006 . Lang ( 2011 ) comments " the [ IAU has ] added a new designation to Ceres , classifying it as a dwarf planet . ... By [ its ] definition , Eris , Haumea , Makemake and Pluto , as well as the largest asteroid , 1 Ceres , are all dwarf planets " , and describes it elsewhere as " the dwarf planet – asteroid 1 Ceres " . NASA continues to refer to Ceres as an asteroid , as do various academic textbooks .

= = Orbit = =

Ceres follows an orbit between Mars and Jupiter , within the asteroid belt , with a period of 4 @.@ 6 Earth years . The orbit is moderately inclined ( i

= 10 @.@ 6 ° compared to 7 ° for Mercury and 17 ° for Pluto ) and moderately eccentric ( e =

0 @.@ 08 compared to 0 @.@ 09 for Mars ) .

The diagram illustrates the orbits of Ceres ( blue ) and several planets ( white and gray ) . The segments of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors , and the orange plus sign is the Sun 's location . The top left diagram is a polar view that shows the location of Ceres in the gap between Mars and Jupiter . The top right is a close @-@ up demonstrating the locations of the perihelia ( q ) and aphelia ( Q ) of Ceres and Mars . In this diagram ( but not in general ) , the perihelion of Mars is on the opposite side of the Sun from those of Ceres and several of the large main @-@ belt asteroids , including 2 Pallas and 10 Hygiea . The bottom diagram is a side view showing the inclination of the orbit of Ceres compared to the orbits of Mars and Jupiter .

Ceres was once thought to be a member of an asteroid family . The asteroids of this family share similar proper orbital elements , which may indicate a common origin through an asteroid collision some time in the past . Ceres was later found to have spectral properties different from other members of the family , which is now called the Gefion family after the next @-@ lowest @-@ numbered family member , 1272 Gefion . Ceres appears to be merely an interloper in the Gefion family , coincidentally having similar orbital elements but not a common origin .

= = = Resonances = = =

Ceres is in a near @-@ 1 : 1 mean @-@ motion orbital resonance with Pallas ( their proper orbital periods differ by 0 @.@ 2 % ) . However , a true resonance between the two would be unlikely ; due to their small masses relative to their large separations , such relationships among asteroids are very rare . Nevertheless , Ceres is able to capture other asteroids into temporary 1 : 1 resonant orbital relationships ( making them temporary trojans ) for periods up to 2 million years or more ; fifty such objects have been identified .

= = = Transits of planets from Ceres = = =

Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars can all appear to cross the Sun , or transit it , from a vantage point on Ceres . The most common transits are those of Mercury , which usually happen every few years , most recently in 2006 and 2010 . The most recent transit of Venus was in 1953 , and the next will be in 2051 ; the corresponding dates are 1814 and 2081 for transits of Earth , and 767 and 2684 for transits of Mars .

= = Rotation and axial tilt = =

The rotation period of Ceres ( the Cererian day ) is 9 hours and 4 minutes . It has a small axial tilt of 4 ° . This is nevertheless large enough for Ceres 's polar regions to contain permanently shadowed craters that are expected to act as cold traps and accumulate water ice over time , similar to the situation on the Moon and Mercury . About 0 @.@ 14 % of water molecules released from the surface are expected to end up in the traps , hopping an average of 3 times before escaping or being trapped .

= = Geology = =

Ceres has a mass of 9 @.@ 39 × 1020 kg as determined from the Dawn spacecraft . With this mass Ceres comprises approximately a third of the estimated total 3 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 2 × 1021 kg mass of the asteroid belt , which is in turn approximately 4 % of the mass of the Moon . Ceres is massive enough to give it a nearly spherical , equilibrium shape . Among Solar System bodies , Ceres is intermediate in size between the smaller Vesta and the larger Tethys . Its surface area is approximately the same as the land area of India or Argentina .

= = = Surface = = =

The surface composition of Ceres is broadly similar to that of C @-@ type asteroids . Some differences do exist . The ubiquitous features in Ceres ' IR spectrum are those of hydrated materials , which indicate the presence of significant amounts of water in its interior . Other possible surface constituents include iron @-@ rich clay minerals ( cronstedtite ) and carbonate minerals ( dolomite and siderite ) , which are common minerals in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites . The spectral features of carbonates and clay minerals are usually absent in the spectra of other C @-@ type asteroids . Sometimes Ceres is classified as a G @-@ type asteroid .

Ceres ' surface is relatively warm . The maximum temperature with the Sun overhead was estimated from measurements to be 235 K ( approximately − 38 ° C , − 36 ° F ) on 5 May 1991 . Ice is unstable at this temperature . Material left behind by the sublimation of surface ice could explain the dark surface of Ceres compared to the icy moons of the outer Solar System .

= = = = Observations prior to Dawn = = = =

Prior to the Dawn mission , only a few surface features had been unambiguously detected on Ceres . High @-@ resolution ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images taken in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface , which was nicknamed " Piazzi " in honor of the discoverer of Ceres . This was thought to be a crater . Later near @-@ infrared images with a higher resolution taken over a whole rotation with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics showed several bright and dark features moving with Ceres ' rotation . Two dark features had circular shapes and were presumed to be craters ; one of them was observed to have a bright central region , whereas another was identified as the " Piazzi " feature . Visible @-@ light Hubble Space Telescope images of a full rotation taken in 2003 and 2004 showed eleven recognizable surface features , the natures of which were then undetermined . One of these features corresponds to the " Piazzi " feature observed earlier .

These last observations indicated that the north pole of Ceres pointed in the direction of right ascension 19 h 24 min ( 291 ° ) , declination + 59 ° , in the constellation Draco , resulting in an axial tilt of approximately 3 ° . Dawn later determined that the north polar axis actually points at right ascension 19 h 25 m 40 @.@ 3 s ( 291 @.@ 418 ° ) , declination + 66 ° 45 ' 50 " ( about 1 @.@ 5 degrees from Delta Draconis ) , which means an axial tilt of 4 ° .

= = = = Observations by Dawn = = = =

Dawn revealed a large number of craters with low relief , indicating that they lie over a relatively soft surface , probably of water ice . One crater , with extremely low relief , is 270 km ( 170 mi ) in diameter , reminiscent of large , flat craters on Tethys and Iapetus . An unexpectedly large number of Cererian craters have central pits , and many have central peaks . Several bright spots have been observed by Dawn , the brightest spot ( " Spot 5 " ) located in the middle of an 80 @-@ kilometer ( 50 mi ) crater called Occator . From images taken of Ceres on 4 May 2015 , the secondary bright spot was revealed to actually be a group of scattered bright areas , possibly as many as ten . These bright features have an albedo of approximately 40 % that are caused by a substance on the surface , possibly ice or salts , reflecting sunlight . A haze periodically appears above Spot 5 , the best known bright spot , supporting the hypothesis that some sort of outgassing or sublimating ice formed the bright spots . In March 2016 , Dawn found definitive evidence of water molecules on the surface of Ceres at Oxo crater . JPL states : " This water could be bound up in minerals or , alternatively , it could take the form of ice . "

On 9 December 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia @-@ rich clays . Another team thinks the salts are sodium carbonate .

= = = Internal structure = = =

Ceres ' oblateness is consistent with a differentiated body , a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle . This 100 @-@ kilometer @-@ thick mantle ( 23 % – 28 % of Ceres by mass ; 50 % by volume ) contains up to 200 million cubic kilometers of water , which would be more than the amount of fresh water on Earth . This result is supported by the observations made by the Keck telescope in 2002 and by evolutionary modeling . Also , some characteristics of its surface and history ( such as its distance from the Sun , which weakened solar radiation enough to allow some fairly low @-@ freezing @-@ point components to be incorporated during its formation ) , point to the presence of volatile materials in the interior of Ceres . It has been suggested that a remnant layer of liquid water may have survived to the present under a layer of ice . Measurements taken by Dawn confirm that Ceres is both differentiated and has a shape consistent with hydrostatic equilibrium , which makes Ceres the smallest object confirmed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium , being 600 km smaller and less than half the mass of Saturn 's moon Rhea , the next smallest such object . Modeling has suggested Ceres could have a small metallic core from partial differentiation of its rocky fraction .

= = Atmosphere = =

There are indications that Ceres may have a tenuous water vapor atmosphere outgassing from water ice on the surface .

Surface water ice is unstable at distances less than 5 AU from the Sun , so it is expected to sublime if it is exposed directly to solar radiation . Water ice can migrate from the deep layers of Ceres to the surface , but escapes in a very short time . As a result , it is difficult to detect water vaporization . Water escaping from polar regions of Ceres was possibly observed in the early 1990s but this has not been unambiguously demonstrated . It may be possible to detect escaping water from the surroundings of a fresh impact crater or from cracks in the subsurface layers of Ceres . Ultraviolet observations by the IUE spacecraft detected statistically significant amounts of hydroxide ions near Ceres ' north pole , which is a product of water vapor dissociation by ultraviolet solar radiation .

In early 2014 , using data from the Herschel Space Observatory , it was discovered that there are several localized ( not more than 60 km in diameter ) mid @-@ latitude sources of water vapor on Ceres , which each give off approximately 1026 molecules ( or 3 kg ) of water per second . Two potential source regions , designated Piazzi ( 123 ° E , 21 ° N ) and Region A ( 231 ° E , 23 ° N ) , have been visualized in the near infrared as dark areas ( Region A also has a bright center ) by the W. M. Keck Observatory . Possible mechanisms for the vapor release are sublimation from approximately 0 @.@ 6 km2 of exposed surface ice , or cryovolcanic eruptions resulting from radiogenic internal heat or from pressurization of a subsurface ocean due to growth of an overlying layer of ice . Surface sublimation would be expected to be lower when Ceres is farther from the Sun in its orbit , whereas internally powered emissions should not be affected by its orbital position . The limited data available are more consistent with cometary @-@ style sublimation .

= = Origin and evolution = =

Ceres is possibly a surviving protoplanet ( planetary embryo ) , which formed 4 @.@ 57 billion years ago in the asteroid belt . Although the majority of inner Solar System protoplanets ( including all lunar- to Mars @-@ sized bodies ) either merged with other protoplanets to form terrestrial planets or were ejected from the Solar System by Jupiter , Ceres is thought to have survived relatively intact . An alternative theory proposes that Ceres formed in the Kuiper belt and later migrated to the asteroid belt . The discovery of ammonia salts in Occator crater supports an origin in the outer Solar System . Another possible protoplanet , Vesta , is less than half the size of Ceres ; it suffered a major impact after solidifying , losing ~ 1 % of its mass .

The geological evolution of Ceres was dependent on the heat sources available during and after its formation : friction from planetesimal accretion , and decay of various radionuclides ( possibly including short @-@ lived isotopes such as the cosmogenic nuclide aluminium @-@ 26 ) . These are thought to have been sufficient to allow Ceres to differentiate into a rocky core and icy mantle soon after its formation . This process may have caused resurfacing by water volcanism and tectonics , erasing older geological features . Due to its small size , Ceres would have cooled early in its existence , causing all geological resurfacing processes to cease . Any ice on the surface would have gradually sublimated , leaving behind various hydrated minerals like clay minerals and carbonates .

Today , Ceres appears to be a geologically inactive body , with a surface sculpted only by impacts . The presence of significant amounts of water ice in its composition raises the possibility that Ceres has or had a layer of liquid water in its interior . This hypothetical layer is often called an ocean . If such a layer of liquid water exists , it is hypothesized to be located between the rocky core and ice mantle like that of the theorized ocean on Europa . The existence of an ocean is more likely if solutes ( i.e. salts ) , ammonia , sulfuric acid or other antifreeze compounds are dissolved in the water .

= = Potential habitability = =

Although not as actively discussed as a potential home for microbial extraterrestrial life as Mars , Titan , Europa or Enceladus , there is evidence that Ceres ' icy mantle was once a watery subterranean ocean , and that has led to speculations that life could have existed there , and that hypothesized ejecta bearing microorganisms could have come from Ceres to Earth .

= = Observation and exploration = =

= = = Observation = = =

When Ceres has an opposition near the perihelion , it can reach a visual magnitude of + 6 @.@ 7 . This is generally regarded as too dim to be seen with the naked eye , but under exceptional viewing conditions a very sharp @-@ sighted person may be able to see it . Ceres was at its brightest ( 6 @.@ 73 ) on 18 December 2012 . The only other asteroids that can reach a similarly bright magnitude are 4 Vesta , and , during rare oppositions near perihelion , 2 Pallas and 7 Iris . At a conjunction Ceres has a magnitude of around + 9 @.@ 3 , which corresponds to the faintest objects visible with 10 × 50 binoculars . It can thus be seen with binoculars whenever it is above the horizon of a fully dark sky .

Some notable observations and milestones for Ceres include :

1984 November 13 : An occultation of a star by Ceres observed in Mexico , Florida and across the Caribbean .

1995 June 25 : Ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images with 50 @-@ kilometer resolution .

2002 : Infrared images with 30 km resolution taken with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics .

2003 and 2004 : Visible light images with 30 km resolution ( the best prior to the Dawn mission ) taken using Hubble .

2012 December 22 : Ceres occulted the star TYC 1865 @-@ 00446 @-@ 1 over parts of Japan , Russia , and China . Ceres ' brightness was magnitude 6 @.@ 9 and the star , 12 @.@ 2 .

2014 : Ceres was found to have an atmosphere with water vapor , confirmed by the Herschel space telescope .

2015 : The NASA Dawn spacecraft approached and orbited Ceres , sending detailed images and scientific data back to Earth .

= = = Exploration = = =

In 1981 , a proposal for an asteroid mission was submitted to the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . Named the Asteroidal Gravity Optical and Radar Analysis ( AGORA ) , this spacecraft was to launch some time in 1990 – 1994 and perform two flybys of large asteroids . The preferred target for this mission was Vesta . AGORA would reach the asteroid belt either by a gravitational slingshot trajectory past Mars or by means of a small ion engine . However , the proposal was refused by ESA . A joint NASA – ESA asteroid mission was then drawn up for a Multiple Asteroid Orbiter with Solar Electric Propulsion ( MAOSEP ) , with one of the mission profiles including an orbit of Vesta . NASA indicated they were not interested in an asteroid mission . Instead , ESA set up a technological study of a spacecraft with an ion drive . Other missions to the asteroid belt were proposed in the 1980s by France , Germany , Italy , and the United States , but none were approved . Exploration of Ceres by fly @-@ by and impacting penetrator was the second main target of the second plan of the multiaimed Soviet Vesta mission , developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991 – 1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding .

In the early 1990s , NASA initiated the Discovery Program , which was intended to be a series of low @-@ cost scientific missions . In 1996 , the program 's study team recommended as a high priority a mission to explore the asteroid belt using a spacecraft with an ion engine . Funding for this program remained problematic for several years , but by 2004 the Dawn vehicle had passed its critical design review .

It was launched on 27 September 2007 , as the space mission to make the first visits to both Vesta and Ceres . On 3 May 2011 , Dawn acquired its first targeting image 1 @.@ 2 million kilometers from Vesta . After orbiting Vesta for 13 months , Dawn used its ion engine to depart for Ceres , with gravitational capture occurring on 6 March 2015 at a separation of 61 @,@ 000 km , four months prior to the New Horizons flyby of Pluto .

Dawn 's mission profile calls for it to study Ceres from a series of circular polar orbits at successively lower altitudes . It entered its first observational orbit ( " RC3 " ) around Ceres at an altitude of 13 @,@ 500 km on 23 April 2015 , staying for only approximately one orbit ( fifteen days ) . The spacecraft will subsequently reduce its orbital distance to 4 @,@ 400 km for its second observational orbit ( " survey " ) for three weeks , then down to 1 @,@ 470 km ( " HAMO " ) for two months and then down to its final orbit at 375 km ( " LAMO " ) for at least three months . The spacecraft instrumentation includes a framing camera , a visual and infrared spectrometer , and a gamma @-@ ray and neutron detector . These instruments will examine Ceres ' shape and elemental composition . On 13 January 2015 , Dawn took the first images of Ceres at near @-@ Hubble resolution , revealing impact craters and a small high @-@ albedo spot on the surface , near the same location as that observed previously . Additional imaging sessions , at increasingly better resolution took place on 25 January , 4 , 12 , 19 , and 25 February , 1 March , and 10 and 15 April .

Dawn 's arrival in a stable orbit around Ceres was delayed after , close to reaching Ceres , it was hit by a cosmic ray , making it take another , longer route around Ceres in back , instead of a direct spiral towards it .

The Chinese Space Agency is designing a sample retrieval mission from Ceres that would take place during the 2020s .

= = Maps = =

= = = Map of quadrangles = = =

The following imagemap of the dwarf planet Ceres is divided into 15 quadrangles . They are named after the first craters whose names the IAU approved in July 2015 . The map image ( s ) were taken by the Dawn space probe .

= = Gallery = =

= = = True @-@ color images = = =

= = = Animations = = =

= Skye =

Skye , or the Isle of Skye ( / skaɪ / ; Scottish Gaelic : An t @-@ Eilean Sgitheanach or Eilean a ' Cheò ) , is the largest and most northerly major island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland . The island 's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous centre dominated by the Cuillins , the rocky slopes of which provide some of the most dramatic mountain scenery in the country . Although it has been suggested that the Gaelic Sgitheanach describes a winged shape there is no definitive agreement as to the name 's origins .

The island has been occupied since the Mesolithic period and its history includes a time of Norse rule and a long period of domination by Clan MacLeod and Clan Donald . The 18th @-@ century Jacobite risings led to the breaking up of the clan system and subsequent Clearances that replaced entire communities with sheep farms , some of which also involved forced emigrations to distant lands . Resident numbers declined from over 20 @,@ 000 in the early 19th century to just under 9 @,@ 000 by the closing decade of the 20th century . Skye 's population increased by 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001 . About a third of the residents were Gaelic speakers in 2001 , and although their numbers are in decline this aspect of island culture remains important .

The main industries are tourism , agriculture , fishing and forestry . Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area . The island 's largest settlement is Portree , known for its picturesque harbour . There are links to various nearby islands by ferry and , since 1995 , to the mainland by a road bridge . The climate is mild , wet and windy . The abundant wildlife includes the golden eagle , red deer and Atlantic salmon . The local flora is dominated by heather moor , and there are nationally important invertebrate populations on the surrounding sea bed . Skye has provided the locations for various novels and feature films and is celebrated in poetry and song .

= = Etymology = =

The first written references to the island are Roman sources such as the Ravenna Cosmography , which refers to Scitis and Scetis , which can be found on a map by Ptolemy . One possible derivation comes from skitis , an early Celtic word for winged , which may describe how the island 's peninsulas radiate out from a mountainous centre . Subsequent Gaelic- , Norse- and English @-@ speaking peoples have influenced the history of Skye ; the relationships between their names for the island are not straightforward . Various etymologies have been proposed , such as the " winged isle " or " the notched isle " but no definitive solution has been found to date and the placename may be from an earlier , non @-@ Gaelic language .

In the Norse sagas Skye is called Skíð , for example in the Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar and a skaldic poem in the Heimskringla from c . 1230 contains a line that translates as " the hunger battle @-@ birds were filled in Skye with blood of foemen killed " . The island was also referred to by the Norse as Skuy ( misty isle ) , Skýey or Skuyö ( isle of cloud ) . The traditional Gaelic name is An t @-@ Eilean Sgitheanach ( the island of Skye ) , An t @-@ Eilean Sgiathanach being a more recent and less common spelling . In 1549 Donald Munro , High Dean of the Isles , wrote of " Sky " : " This Ile is callit Ellan Skiannach in Irish , that is to say in Inglish the wyngit Ile , be reason it has mony wyngis and pointis lyand furth fra it , throw the dividing of thir foirsaid Lochis . " but the meaning of this Gaelic name is unclear .

Eilean a ' Cheò , which means island of the mist ( a translation of the Norse name ) , is a poetic Gaelic name for the island .

= = Geography = =

At 1 @,@ 656 square kilometres ( 639 sq mi ) , Skye is the second @-@ largest island in Scotland after Lewis and Harris . The coastline of Skye is a series of peninsulas and bays radiating out from a centre dominated by the Cuillin hills ( Gaelic : An Cuiltheann ) . Malcolm Slesser suggested that its shape " sticks out of the west coast of northern Scotland like a lobster 's claw ready to snap at the fish bone of Harris and Lewis " and W. H. Murray , commenting on its irregular coastline , stated that " Skye is sixty miles [ 100 km ] long , but what might be its breadth is beyond the ingenuity of man to state " . Martin Martin , a native of the island , reported on it at length in a 1703 publication . His geological observations included a note that :

There are marcasites black and white , resembling silver ore , near the village Sartle : there are likewise in the same place several stones , which in bigness , shape , & c . , resemble nutmegs , and many rivulets here afford variegated stones of all colours . The Applesglen near Loch @-@ Fallart has agate growing in it of different sizes and colours ; some are green on the outside , some are of a pale sky colour , and they all strike fire as well as flint : I have one of them by me , which for shape and bigness is proper for a sword handle . Stones of a purple colour flow down the rivulets here after great rains .

The Black Cuillin , which are mainly composed of basalt and gabbro , include twelve Munros and provide some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland . The ascent of Sgùrr a ' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit . These hills make demands of the hill walker that exceed any others found in Scotland and a full traverse of the Cuillin ridge may take 15 – 20 hours . The Red Hills ( Gaelic : Am Binnean Dearg ) to the south are also known as the Red Cuillin . They are mainly composed of granite that has weathered into more rounded hills with many long scree slopes on their flanks . The highest point of these hills is Glamaig , one of only two Corbetts on Skye .

The northern peninsula of Trotternish is underlain by basalt , which provides relatively rich soils and a variety of unusual rock features . The Kilt Rock is named after the tartan @-@ like patterns in the 105 metres ( 344 ft ) cliffs . The Quiraing is a spectacular series of rock pinnacles on the eastern side of the main spine of the peninsula and further south is the rock pillar of the Old Man of Storr .

Beyond Loch Snizort to the west of Trotternish is the Waternish peninsula , which ends in Ardmore Point 's double rock arch . Duirinish is separated from Waternish by Loch Dunvegan , which contains the island of Isay . The loch is ringed by sea cliffs that reach 295 metres ( 967 ft ) at Waterstein Head . Oolitic loam provides good arable land in the main valley . Lochs Bracadale and Harport and the island of Wiay lie between Duirinish and Minginish , which includes the narrower defiles of Talisker and Glen Brittle and whose beaches are formed from black basaltic sands . Strathaird is a relatively small peninsula close to the Cuillin hills with only a few crofting communities , the island of Soay lies offshore . The bedrock of Sleat in the south is Torridonian sandstone , which produces poor soils and boggy ground , although its lower elevations and relatively sheltered eastern shores enable a lush growth of hedgerows and crops . The islands of Raasay , Rona , Scalpay and Pabay all lie to the north and east between Skye and the mainland .

= = = Towns and villages = = =

Portree in the north at the base of Trotternish is the largest settlement ( estimated population 2 @,@ 264 in 2011 ) and is the main service centre on the island . Broadford , the location of the island 's only airstrip , is on the east side of the island and Dunvegan in the north @-@ west is well known for its castle and the nearby Three Chimneys restaurant . The 18th @-@ century Stein Inn on the Waternish coast is the oldest pub on Skye . Kyleakin is linked to Kyle of Lochalsh on the mainland by the Skye Bridge , which spans the narrows of Loch Alsh . Uig , the port for ferries to the Outer Hebrides , is on the west of the Trotternish peninsula and Edinbane is between Dunvegan and Portree . Much of the rest of the population lives in crofting townships scattered around the coastline .

= = = Climate = = =

The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream create a mild oceanic climate . Temperatures are generally cool , averaging 6 @.@ 5 ° C ( 43 @.@ 7 ° F ) in January and 15 @.@ 4 ° C ( 59 @.@ 7 ° F ) in July at Duntulm in Trotternish . Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are less frequent than on the mainland . Winds are a limiting factor for vegetation . South @-@ westerlies are the most common and speeds of 128 km / h ( 80 mph ) have been recorded . High winds are especially likely on the exposed coasts of Trotternish and Waternish . In common with most islands of the west coast of Scotland , rainfall is generally high at 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 59 – 79 in ) per annum and the elevated Cuillin are wetter still . Variations can be considerable , with the north tending to be drier than the south . Broadford , for example , averages more than 2 @,@ 870 mm ( 113 in ) of rain per annum . Trotternish typically has 200 hours of bright sunshine in May , the sunniest month . On 28 December 2015 , the temperature reached 15 ° C , beating the previous December record of 12 @.@ 9 ° C , set in 2013 . On 9 May 2016 , a temperature of 26 @.@ 7 ° C ( 80 @.@ 1 ° F ) was recorded at Lusa in the south @-@ east of the island .

= = History = =

= = = Prehistory = = =

A Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer site dating to the 7th millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland . Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand , Applecross , on the mainland coast of Wester Ross where tools made of a mudstone from An Corran have been found . Surveys of the area between the two shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed 33 sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits . Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation . These tools probably originate from the nearby island of Rum .

Rubha an Dùnain , an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin , has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards . There is a 2nd or 3rd millennium BC chambered cairn , an Iron Age promontory fort and the remains of other prehistoric settlement dating from the Bronze Age nearby . Loch na h @-@ Airde on the peninsula is linked to the sea by an artificial " Viking " canal that may date from the later period of Norse settlement . Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird peninsula , which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have become the seat of Clan MacKinnon .

= = = Early history = = =

The late Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish , although the historical record is sparse . Three Pictish symbol stones have been found on Skye and a fourth on Raasay . More is known of the kingdom of Dál Riata to the south ; Adomnán 's life of Columba , written shortly before 697 , portrays the saint visiting Skye ( where he baptised a pagan leader using an interpreter ) and Adomnán himself is thought to have been familiar with the island . The Irish annals record a number of events on Skye in the later 7th and early 8th centuries – mainly concerning the struggles between rival dynasties that formed the background to the Old Irish language romance Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin .

The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266 . However , apart from placenames , little remains of their presence on Skye in the written or archaeological record . Apart from the name " Skye " itself , all pre @-@ Norse placenames seem to have been obliterated by the Scandinavian settlers . Viking heritage is claimed by Clan MacLeod and Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan , during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight .

= = = Clans and Scottish rule = = =

The most powerful clans on Skye in the post – Norse period were Clan MacLeod , originally based in Trotternish , and Clan Macdonald of Sleat . Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles , the Mackinnons also emerged as an independent clan , whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird . Clan MacNeacail also have a long association with Trotternish , and in the 16th century many of the MacInnes clan moved to Sleat . The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods , and an attempt by the former to murder church @-@ goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg , resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578 .

After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 , Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops . Although she was born on South Uist her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish . Samuel Johnson and James Boswell 's visit to Skye in 1773 and their meeting with Flora MacDonald in Kilmuir is recorded in Boswell 's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides . Boswell wrote , " To see Dr. Samuel Johnson , the great champion of the English Tories , salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky , [ sic ] was a striking sight ; for though somewhat congenial in their notions , it was very improbable they should meet here " . Johnson 's words that Flora MacDonald was " A name that will be mentioned in history , and if courage and fidelity be virtues , mentioned with honour " are written on her gravestone . After this rebellion the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates .

Of the island in general , Johnson observed :

I never was in any house of the islands , where I did not find books in more languages than one , if I staid long enough to want them , except one from which the family was removed . Literature is not neglected by the higher rank of the Hebrideans . It need not , I suppose , be mentioned , that in countries so little frequented as the islands , there are no houses where travellers are entertained for money . He that wanders about these wilds , either procures recommendations to those whose habitations lie near his way , or , when night and weariness come upon him , takes the chance of general hospitality . If he finds only a cottage he can expect little more than shelter ; for the cottagers have little more for themselves but if his good fortune brings him to the residence of a gentleman , he will be glad of a storm to prolong his stay . There is , however , one inn by the sea @-@ side at Sconsor , in Sky , where the post @-@ office is kept .

Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period . Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century . It contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland . The 18th @-@ century Armadale Castle , once home of Clan Donald of Sleat , was abandoned as a residence in 1925 but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre . Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds , Knock Castle , and Dunscaith Castle , the legendary home of warrior woman , martial arts instructor ( and , according to some sources , Queen ) Scáthach . Caisteal Maol , built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon , is another ruin .

= = = Clearances = = =

In the late 18th century the harvesting of kelp became a significant activity but from 1822 on cheap imports led to a collapse of this industry throughout the Hebrides . During the 19th century , the inhabitants of Skye were also devastated by famine and Clearances . Thirty thousand people were evicted between 1840 and 1880 alone , many of them forced to emigrate to the New World . For example , the settlement of Lorgill on the west coast of Duirinish was cleared on 4 August 1830 . Every crofter under the age of seventy was removed and placed on board the Midlothian on threat of imprisonment , with those over that age being sent to the poorhouse . The " Battle of the Braes " involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices . The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers . This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission , which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands . Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters ' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order . The ruins of cleared villages can still be seen at Lorgill , Boreraig and Suisnish in Strath Swordale , and Tusdale on Minginish .

= = = Overview of population trends = = =

As with many Scottish islands , Skye 's population peaked in the 19th century and then declined under the impact of the Clearances and the military losses in the First World War . From the 19th century until 1975 Skye was part of the county of Inverness @-@ shire but the crofting economy languished and according to Slesser , " Generations of UK governments have treated the island people contemptuously . " a charge that has been levelled at both Labour and Conservative administrations ' policies in the Highlands and Islands . By 1971 the population was less than a third of its peak recorded figure in 1841 . However , the number of residents then grew by over 28 per cent in the thirty years to 2001 .

The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruthers 's remark circa 1852 that , " There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants . " Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island 's largest settlement has probably increased sixfold or more since then . During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50 per cent or more .

The island @-@ wide population increase of 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001 occurred against the background of an overall reduction in Scottish island populations of 3 per cent for the same period . By 2011 the population had risen a further 8 @.@ 4 % to 10 @,@ 008 with Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 .

= = = Gaelic = = =

Historically , Skye was overwhelmingly Gaelic @-@ speaking , but this changed between 1921 and 2001 . In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses , all Skye parishes were more than 75 per cent Gaelic @-@ speaking . By 1971 , only Kilmuir parish had more than three quarters Gaelic speakers while the rest of Skye ranged between 50 and 74 per cent . At that time , Kilmuir was the only area outside the Western Isles that had such a high proportion of Gaelic speakers . In the 2001 census Kilmuir had just under half Gaelic speakers , and overall , Skye had 31 per cent , distributed unevenly . The strongest Gaelic areas were in the north and south @-@ west of the island , including Staffin at 61 per cent . The weakest areas were in the west and east ( e.g. Luib 23 per cent and Kylerhea 19 per cent ) . Other areas on Skye ranged between 48 per cent and 25 per cent .

= = Government and politics = =

In terms of local government , from 1975 to 1996 , Skye , along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh , constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area . In 1996 the district was included into the unitary Highland Council , ( Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd ) based in Inverness and formed one of the new council 's area committees . Following the 2007 elections , Skye now forms a four @-@ member ward called " Eilean a ' Cheò " ; it is currently represented by two independents , one Scottish National Party , and one Liberal Democrat councillor .

Skye is in the Highlands electoral region and comprises a part of the Ross , Skye and Inverness West constituency of the Scottish Parliament , which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it . Currently this is David Thompson for the SNP . In addition , Skye forms part of the wider Ross , Skye and Lochaber constituency , which elects one member to the House of Commons in Westminster . The present Member of Parliament is Ian Blackford of the Scottish National Party , who took office after the SNP 's sweep in the General Election of 2015 . Prior to this , Charles Kennedy , a Liberal Democrat , had represented the area since the 1983 general election .

= = Economy = =

The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector , which accounts for about a third of the total workforce , principally in administration , education and health . The second largest employer in the area is the distribution , hotels and restaurants sector , highlighting the importance of tourism . Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle , the Clan Donald Visitor Centre , and The Aros Experience arts and exhibition centre in Portree . There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye , the largest being the public sector , with the Scottish Government owning most of the northern part of the island . Glendale is a community @-@ owned estate in Duirinish and the Sleat Community Trust , the local development trust , is active in various regeneration projects .

Small firms dominate employment in the private sector . The Talisker Distillery , which produces a single malt whisky , is beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island . Three other whiskies — Mac na Mara ( " son of the sea " ) , Tè Bheag nan Eilean ( " wee dram of the isles " ) and Poit Dhubh ( " black pot " ) — are produced by blender Pràban na Linne ( " smugglers den by the Sound of Sleat " ) , based at Eilean Iarmain . These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic @-@ language labels . There is also an established software presence on Skye , with Portree @-@ based Sitekit having expanded in recent years .

Crofting is still important , but although there are about 2 @,@ 000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land . Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important , especially fish farming of salmon and shellfish such as scampi . The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co @-@ op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan . There is a thriving arts and crafts sector .

The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than in the Highlands as a whole , and is seasonal in nature , in part due to the impact of tourism . The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland , significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years .

= = Transport = =

Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge , while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig , and from Kylerhea to Glenelg . Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist , and from Sconser to Raasay .

The Skye Bridge opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative and the high tolls charged ( £ 5 @.@ 70 each way for summer visitors ) met with widespread opposition , spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT ( Skye and Kyle Against Tolls ) . On 21 December 2004 it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed .

Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow , and there are local services on the island , mainly starting from Portree or Broadford . Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness , as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale .

The Isle of Skye Airfield at Ashaig , near Broadford , is used by private aircraft and occasionally by NHS Highland and the Scottish Ambulance Service for transferring patients to hospitals on the mainland .

The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig , linking most of the major settlements . Many of the island 's roads have been widened in the past forty years although there are still substantial sections of single track road .

= = Culture , media and the arts = =

Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig , the Scottish Gaelic college based near Kilmore in Sleat . In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland , known for its strict observance of the Sabbath .

Skye has a strong folk music tradition , although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island . Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island . Runrig 's second single and a concert staple is entitled Skye , the lyrics being partly in English and partly in Gaelic and they have released other songs such as " Nightfall on Marsco " that were inspired by the island . Celtic fusion band the Peatbog Faeries are based on Skye . Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time . Several Tull songs are written about Skye , including Dun Ringil , Broadford Bazaar , and Acres Wild ( which contains the lines " Come with me to the Winged Isle , / Northern father 's western child ... " in reference to the island itself ) . The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin ' Criminals and Sparks , but collapsed in 2007 . Electronic musician Mylo was born on Skye .

The poet Sorley MacLean , a native of the Isle of Raasay , which lies off the island 's east coast , lived much of his life on Skye . The island has been immortalised in the traditional song " The Skye Boat Song " and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf , although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island . John Buchan 's descriptions of Skye , as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast , are more true to life . I Diari di Rubha Hunis is a 2004 Italian language work of non @-@ fiction by Davide Sapienza . The international bestseller , The Ice Twins , by S K Tremayne , published around the world in 2015 @-@ 2016 , is set in southern Skye , especially around the settlement and islands of Isleornsay .

Skye has been used as a location for a number of feature films . The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon . Stardust , released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer , featured scenes near Uig , Loch Coruisk and the Quiraing . Another 2007 film , Seachd : The Inaccessible Pinnacle , was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island . Some of the opening scenes in Ridley Scott 's 2012 feature film Prometheus were shot at the Old Man of Storr . In 1973 The Highlands and Islands - a Royal Tour , a documentary about Prince Charles 's visit to the Highlands and Islands , directed by Oscar Marzaroli , was shot partly on Skye .

The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford . This weekly newspaper takes as its motto " An Tìr , an Cànan ' s na Daoine " ( " The Land , the Language and the People " ) , which reflects its radical , campaigning priorities . The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye , Wester Ross and the Outer Hebrides . Shinty is a popular sport played throughout the island and Portree @-@ based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990 .

= = Wildlife = =

The Hebrides generally lack the biodiversity of mainland Britain , but like most of the larger islands , Skye still has a wide variety of species . Observing the abundance of game birds Martin wrote :

There is plenty of land and water fowl in this isle - as hawks , eagles of two kinds ( the one grey and of a larger size , the other much less and black , but more destructive to young cattle ) , black cock , heath @-@ hen , plovers , pigeons , wild geese , ptarmigan , and cranes . Of this latter sort I have seen sixty on the shore in a flock together . The sea fowls are malls of all kinds - coulterneb , guillemot , sea cormorant , & c . The natives observe that the latter , if perfectly black , makes no good broth , nor is its flesh worth eating ; but that a cormorant , which hath any white feathers or down , makes good broth , and the flesh of it is good food ; and the broth is usually drunk by nurses to increase their milk .

Similarly , Samuel Johnson noted that :

At the tables where a stranger is received , neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting . A tract of land so thinly inhabited , must have much wild @-@ fowl ; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them . The moor @-@ game is every where to be had . That the sea abounds with fish , needs not be told , for it supplies a great part of Europe . The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks , but no hares . They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England , and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home . Sheep and goats are in great numbers , and they have the common domestic fowls . "

In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake , red @-@ throated diver , kittiwake , tystie , Atlantic puffin , goldeneye and golden eagle . The eggs of the last breeding pair of white @-@ tailed sea eagle in the UK were taken by an egg collector on Skye in 1916 but the species has recently been re @-@ introduced . The chough last bred on the island in 1900 . Mountain hare ( apparently absent in the 18th century ) and rabbit are now abundant and preyed upon by wild cat and pine marten . The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout , Atlantic salmon and water shrew . Offshore the edible crab and edible oyster are also found , the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay . There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh . Grey Seals can be seen off the Southern coast .

Heather moor containing ling , bell heather , cross @-@ leaved heath , bog myrtle and fescues is everywhere abundant . The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce a soil that sustains a rich plant life , but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora . The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal . The low @-@ lying fields of Waternish contain corn marigold and corn spurry . The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast mountain avens and fir clubmoss . Minginish produces fairy flax , cats @-@ ear and black bog rush . There is a fine example of Brachypodium @-@ rich ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating silver birch , hazel , bird cherry , and hawthorn .

The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of ragwort and bracken and identifies four non @-@ native , invasive species as threatening native biodiversity : Japanese knotweed , rhododendron , New Zealand flatworm and mink . It also identifies problems of over @-@ grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland , caused by the large numbers of red deer and sheep .

= Florida Atlantic University =

Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution . FAU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida , which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of coastline . Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with high research activity . The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate degree programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine . Programs of study cover arts and humanities , the sciences , medicine , nursing , accounting , business , education , public administration , social work , architecture , engineering , and computer science .

Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida , offering only upper @-@ division and graduate level courses . Initial enrollment was only 867 students , increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower @-@ division undergraduate students . As of 2012 , enrollment has grown to over 30 @,@ 000 students representing 140 countries , 50 states , and the District of Columbia . Since its inception , Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni .

In recent years , FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standings while also evolving into a more traditional university . The university has raised admissions standards , increased research funding , built new facilities , and established notable partnerships with major research institutions . Changes include an on @-@ campus stadium , additional on @-@ campus housing , and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010 .

= = History = =

= = = Establishment = = =

On July 15 , 1961 , to meet the burgeoning educational demands of South Florida , the state legislature passed an act authorizing the establishment of a new university in the City of Boca Raton . Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield , a 1940s @-@ era army airbase . During World War II , the airfield served as the Army Air Corps ' sole radar training facility . The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5 @,@ 860 acres ( 23 @.@ 7 km ² ) of adjacent land . A majority of the land was acquired from Japanese @-@ American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony . The land was seized through eminent domain , leaving many Japanese @-@ Americans little recourse in the early days of World War II .

The airbase was used for radar training , anti @-@ submarine patrols along the coast , and as a stop @-@ over point for planes being ferried to Africa and Europe via South America . The airfield was composed of four runways , still visible on the Boca Campus today and mainly used for parking .

By early 1947 , the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to Keesler Air Force Base in Mississippi . The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned .

= = = Expansion and growth = = =

Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14 , 1964 , with an initial student body of 867 students in five colleges . The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25 , 1964 , at the dedication and opening of the university . At the time of its opening , there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees . On @-@ campus housing for students was first added in September 1965 , when Algonquin Hall opened .

Florida Atlantic 's history is one of continuing expansion as the university 's service population has grown . The university originally served only upper @-@ division and graduate level students , because Florida intended the institution " to complement the state 's community college system , accepting students who had earned their associate degrees from those institutions . "

Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one @-@ campus university in 1971 , when it opened its Commercial Boulevard campus in Fort Lauderdale . Due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida , in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower @-@ division undergraduate students . The following year , the university added its third campus , in downtown Fort Lauderdale on Las Olas Boulevard .

= = = Recent history = = =

In 1989 , the Florida Legislature recognized demands for higher education in South Florida by designating Florida Atlantic as the lead state university serving Broward County . To fill this role , the university would establish a campus in Dania Beach in 1997 and another campus in the City of Davie in western Broward County in 1990 . Florida Atlantic later purchased 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 to establish a campus on the Treasure Coast . This would be the institution 's fifth campus . The university continued its expansion in 1999 when it opened its Jupiter Campus , named for the late John D. MacArthur . This campus houses the university 's honors college .

Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami 's Miller School of Medicine established a medical training program within the Charles E. Schmidt College of Biomedical Science in 2004 . Plans originally called for the construction of a new teaching hospital in coordination with Boca Raton Community Hospital on the main campus . Following successive budgets deficits in 2007 , the hospital delayed its participation indefinitely . However , Florida Atlantic later established its own College of Medicine in 2010 . The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution ( HBOI ) also joined the university in 2007 , creating Florida Atlantic 's seventh campus . To bring HBOI into the university family the Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million to Florida Atlantic to acquire the institution .

Florida Atlantic has changed dramatically since its opening in 1964 . As of 2013 , there are more than 30 @,@ 000 students attending classes on seven campuses spread across 120 miles ( 193 km ) . The university consists of ten colleges and employs more than 3 @,@ 200 faculty and staff . The university 's endowment decreased from $ 182 million in June 2008 to $ 142 million in January 2009 due to a worsening economy . However , with the national economic recovery the endowment has increased to $ 179 million by the end of 2012 .

Since its founding , the university has been led by seven presidents . The university 's immediate past president is Dr. Mary Jane Saunders . She was named president on March 3 , 2010 , then resigned on May 15 , 2013 . Her appointment followed the resignation of Frank Brogan . Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida , left the university in late 2009 to become Chancellor of the State University System of Florida . Past university presidents also included Dr. Anthony J. Catanese , Dr. Helen Popovich , Dr. Glenwood Creech , and Dr. Kenneth Rast Williams . On January 17 , 2014 , the Board of Trustees announced the selection of Dr. John W. Kelly , formerly a VP of Clemson University , to be the seventh president of the university with a starting date of March 1 , 2014 .

= = Academics = =

= = = Profile = = =

As of fall 2013 , the university 's student body consists of 24 @,@ 686 undergraduates , 4 @,@ 666 graduate and professional students , 64 medical students , and 1 @,@ 451 unclassified students . As of 2013 , the undergraduate student body contains 47 % ethnic minorities and includes students from more than 180 countries , 49 states , and the District of Columbia . For the undergraduate class of 2012 , the acceptance rate was 35 % for first @-@ time @-@ in @-@ college students .

The university has ten colleges which altogether offer over 180 different bachelor 's , master 's and doctoral degree programs : the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science , Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine , Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing , College for Design and Social Inquiry , College of Business , College of Education , College of Engineering and Computer Science , Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters , Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , and the Graduate College .

The university offers two honors options : the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College and a University Scholars Program . The Wilkes Honors College is located on the John D. MacArthur campus in Jupiter , Florida . It offers a liberal arts education in the platform of a public university , yet is comparable to a private liberal arts college . The Boca Raton campus houses the University Scholars Program , which offers special honors seminars , forums , courses , and advanced course substitution for freshmen .

In recent years , FAU has increased its admission requirements for prospective freshmen . The fall 2013 freshmen profile for the mid @-@ 50 % includes 3 @.@ 38 @-@ 3 @.@ 98 high school GPA , a 22 @-@ 26 ACT composite score , and a 1520 @-@ 1740 SAT total score . Following a surge in the university 's popularity , in early 2009 , the university created its first wait @-@ list for undergraduate enrollment . After February 15 , 2009 , applicants for admission in the 2009 – 2010 academic year were required to have a 3 @.@ 5 GPA or an SAT score of 1600 to be considered for admission .

The average class size at FAU for undergraduates is 33 students , and for graduate classes , 12 students . The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio is 20 : 1 . The top three undergraduate majors by enrollment are elementary education , accounting , and management , respectively . The top three graduate majors by enrollment are business administration , educational leadership , and accounting , respectively . The average age for first @-@ year students is 18 ; however , the average age for all undergraduates is 24 and the average age for graduate students is 33 . The average 4 @-@ year graduation rate for first @-@ time , non @-@ transfer students is 14 % while the 6 @-@ year graduation rate is 39 % .

Florida Atlantic University has long ranked as the most racially , ethnically and culturally diverse institution in Florida 's State University System . U.S. News & World Report has ranked FAU the 27th most diverse university in the nation . Florida Atlantic University students come from all 50 states , every county in Florida , and more than 180 countries . Enrichment opportunities include internships , hands @-@ on research , study abroad experiences , and 310 clubs and campus organizations .

The Lifelong Learning Society operates programs that serve the educational interests of more than 19 @,@ 000 senior citizens by providing classes focusing on subjects of specific interest , and audit options for regular university classes . Under the university 's Commercial Music Program , Hoot / Wisdom Recordings was created in 2002 , enabling students to work in all creative and business aspects of the music industry . This program generated music that landed a Top 10 spot on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales Chart during its first week of release . The university 's two @-@ story trading room simulator , located in the College of Business , provides hands @-@ on financial education using 25 dual @-@ monitor computers and can accommodate 50 people at one time . A second lab provides full audio / visual connectivity and 25 additional workstations . Florida Atlantic allows local financial businesses to use the Trading Room for training .

= = = Research = = =

Florida Atlantic is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a research university with high research activity . The university has established notable partnerships with major research institutions such as The Scripps Research Institute , the Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies , and the Max Planck Society .

The university is the home of two centers of excellence : The Center of Excellence in Biomedical and Marine Biotechnology and The Center for Ocean Energy Technology . These centers have been selected by Florida 's Emerging Technology Commission to receive grants to continue and increase their operations . Florida Atlantic beat out some of Florida 's top research universities , including the University of Florida and Florida State University , for the initial money from the state .

Since receiving its startup funding , Florida Atlantic has secured additional funds from other sources , including federal and private research grants . As a result , both centers have engaged in academic and industry partnerships , combining expertise in ocean engineering , marine biotechnology , functional genomics , proteomics , and bioinformatics . Researchers , scientists , and students at the centers are designing technologies to explore the sea , harvest renewable energy , discover new medicines , and develop new therapeutics to combat agents of bioterrorism . As a result of this research , in 2007 the university and Lockheed Martin announced an exclusive licensing agreement to develop and produce a rapidly deployable and autonomous mooring buoy system for military and scientific uses .

In 2010 , the United States Department of Energy designated FAU as one of three national centers for ocean energy research and development . The Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center joins centers in the Pacific Northwest ( University of Washington and Oregon State University ) and in Hawaii ( University of Hawaii ) . The Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center is undertaking research and development of technologies capable of generating renewable power from ocean currents and ocean thermal energy .

The university houses both an Imaging Technology Center and a NASA Imaging Technology Space Center . Located in the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the centers specialize in digital imaging research and development for use in both government and commercial applications in the areas of medical technology , surveillance , communications , education , inspection , scientific observation , manufacturing , visual recognition and identification , and motion picture and digital video . The Florida Atlantic Imaging Technology Center is developing a curriculum for digital imaging and processing , thereby establishing Florida Atlantic as the only university in the nation to offer this technical concentration . The NASA Imaging Technology Center is one of 12 NASA Research Partnership Centers throughout the nation which develop dual @-@ use research and development with the participation of NASA and other related industries in the US . The center occupies two sets of laboratories and administrative offices , one on Florida Atlantic 's main campus in Boca Raton , the other at the Fort Lauderdale campus .

Florida Atlantic is affiliated to the Research Park at Florida Atlantic University , with properties in Deerfield Beach and Boca Raton . The Research Park provides outside research facilities for companies which enable them to interact with the university community and its facilities , resources , and expertise . The Research Park operates the Technology Business Incubator ; The incubator works to foster the start @-@ up and growth of technology @-@ based businesses , seeking to scale them and build relationships for them with the university . The Boca Raton campus is also home to the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences , which includes the Machine Perception and Cognitive Robotics Laboratory

= = = Rankings = = =

For 2013 , Florida Atlantic University was classified as a second @-@ tier university by the U.S. News & World Report 's rankings of " Best Colleges . " U.S. News ranks universities into one of two tiers , with one being the highest , based on how they compare with other colleges in a peer assessment , retention rates , student selectivity , faculty resources , financial resources , graduation rates , and the amount of alumni giving . The university was named one of the 146 " Best Southeastern Colleges " in the United States by the Princeton Review . The Review also recognized FAU 's business program by naming the College of Business to their list of " Best 296 Business Schools " for 2009 . For 2011 , Florida Atlantic was ranked 249th in the nation by Washington Monthly . The magazine based its rankings on the following three criteria : " how well a university performs as an engine of social mobility ( ideally helping the poor to get rich rather than the very rich to get very , very rich ) , how well a university does in fostering scientific and humanistic research , and how well a university promotes an ethic of service to country . " The university was also ranked 28th in the United States and fourth in Florida by The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education magazine for awarding 738 bachelor 's degrees to Hispanic students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year .

= = Campus = =

Florida Atlantic University is a distributed university located on seven campuses spread across Palm Beach , Broward , and St. Lucie counties . The region is home to more than three million people . The university 's main campus is located in the City of Boca Raton in Palm Beach County . The county is also home to the John D. MacArthur Campus located in the City of Jupiter . In addition to its campuses in Palm Beach County , the university operates three campuses in the Broward County cities of Dania Beach , Davie , and Fort Lauderdale . Florida Atlantic University also operates two campuses in the St. Lucie County cities of Port St. Lucie and Fort Pierce . In addition to students who attend classes on the universities campuses , there are 1 @,@ 612 distance learning students who conduct their studies over the internet or through other means . These students account for 6 % of the university 's student body .

Florida Atlantic is a signatory of the American College & University Presidents Climate Commitment Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education . This commits the institution to ensuring all new construction projects meet the U.S. Green Building Council 's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Silver standards . In 2011 , The College of Engineering and Computer Science Building was LEED Platinum certified .

= = = Palm Beach County campuses = = =

= = = = Boca Raton = = = =

Florida Atlantic University 's main campus in Boca Raton was established on the remnants of a World War II American Army airbase in 1964 . Spanning 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 5 km ² ) , the site is located between the cities of Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale . The campus was designated a burrowing owl sanctuary in 1971 by the Audubon Society . The owls find the campus appealing because there are few predators , due to the university 's proximity to the Boca Raton Airport , and because the campus was originally cleared of vegetation when operating as an airbase during World War II . " The feisty bird , traditionally associated with wisdom and determination , serves as the university 's mascot . "

The Boca Raton campus is home to a wide variety of university programs and facilities . These facilities are labs and classrooms , housing for students , a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon shark tank for aquatic research , a movie theater , athletic and recreational facilities , and the student @-@ run record label Hoot / Wisdom Recordings . In addition to academic and cultural programs , the campus also houses Florida Atlantic 's Division I athletics program . The main campus serves approximately 19 @,@ 077 students , or 70 % of the university 's student body , offering a number of academic programs , activities , and services .

The Boca Raton campus also houses a number of other institutions , including the A. D. Henderson University School , FAU High School , one of two Florida Atlantic University Research Parks , and the Lifelong Learning Society .

= = = = Jupiter – John D. MacArthur Campus = = = =

In addition to the Boca Raton campus in southern Palm Beach County , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in northern Palm Beach County , in Jupiter . The John D. MacArthur Campus , named after businessman and philanthropist John D. MacArthur , was established in 1999 to serve residents of central and northern Palm Beach and southern Martin counties . The MacArthur Campus occupies 45 acres ( 0 @.@ 18 km ² ) , upon which are eight classroom and office buildings , a library , a 500 @-@ seat auditorium , two residence halls , a dining hall , museum building , and utility plant . The MacArthur Campus also houses the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , Scripps Florida , and the Max Planck Florida Institute . The campus serves approximately 1 @,@ 262 students , or 4 % of the university 's student body .

= = = Broward County campuses = = =

= = = = Dania Beach – SeaTech = = = =

The Dania Beach Campus , also known as SeaTech , was founded in 1997 as a state @-@ funded Type II research center . The institute is part of Florida Atlantic 's Department of Ocean Engineering which was founded in 1965 as the first ocean engineering undergraduate program in the nation . The campus is located on 8 acres ( 0 @.@ 03 km ² ) of land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway . SeaTech is home to university faculty and students engaged in sponsored ocean engineering research and development in the areas of acoustics , marine vehicles , hydrodynamics and physical oceanography , marine materials and nanocomposites . The Dania Beach Campus serves approximately 70 students , roughly 1 % of the university 's total student body .

= = = = Davie = = = =

The Davie Campus of Florida Atlantic University was established in 1990 on 38 acres ( 0 @.@ 15 km ² ) of land in western Broward County . The campus serves approximately 3 @,@ 488 students , or 13 % of the Florida Atlantic student body , making it the university 's second largest campus by enrollment . The campus features a multi @-@ story student union with offices for student government and student organizations , a multipurpose area and student lounge , a bookstore , and cafeteria . The union also contains a student health center that provides medical services and health counseling . Davie is also the home of " environmental research initiatives focused on Everglades restoration . " FAU colleges offering courses at the FAU Davie campus include Design and Social Inquiry ; Arts and Letters ; Business ; Education ; Nursing ; and Science . The campus is located on Broward College 's Central Campus . Students may enter BC as freshmen and graduate from FAU with undergraduate degrees in over 14 disciplines . More than 315 @,@ 000 square feet of carefully designed classrooms , laboratories and faculty , staff and student offices are located on this campus along with a shared @-@ use , 112 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot FAU / BC library designed for the 21st century .

Other support facilities include a shared Childcare Center , a student Wellness Center and a multi @-@ service Student Union . The campus also offers a rich and varied program of student activities provided by the Division of Student Affairs . Students have all of the services they require for career counseling , wellness , testing and evaluation , tutoring , health services , student government and financial aid , among others . Like a small college within a large university , the Davie Campus is seen as a " model " branch campus for the state of Florida and the nation .

= = = = Fort Lauderdale = = = =

The university has two buildings in downtown Fort Lauderdale , both of which are considered part of one Fort Lauderdale campus . The Askew Tower ( AT ) and the Higher Education Complex ( HEC ) on Las Olas Boulevard . The campus offers courses in communication , graphic design , architecture , and urban and regional planning . The campus is home to approximately 900 students or 3 @.@ 2 % of the university 's student body .

= = = St. Lucie County campuses = = =

= = = = Fort Pierce – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution = = = =

In addition to the Treasure Coast Campus , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution . Harbor Branch merged with the university in 2007 to become the HBOI at FAU . The Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million for the university to acquire the institution and its 600 acre ( 2 @.@ 4 km ² ) campus .

= = = Former Campuses = = =

= = = = Port St. Lucie – Treasure Coast Campus = = = =

Treasure Coast Campus of Florida Atlantic University operated through a partnership with Indian River State College ( IRSC ) . Florida Atlantic purchased 50 acres ( 0 @.@ 2 km ² ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 . At the end of Spring 2012 class term , Florida Atlantic University ended offering classes at the Port St. Lucie campus .

= = Athletics = =

Florida Atlantic 's 18 varsity sports teams , the Owls , compete in NCAA 's Division I. The Owls recently got in C @-@ USA for the 2013 – 14 season . The university 's athletics program began in 1979 , when Florida Atlantic first started sponsoring intercollegiate teams . Since then , the university has worked to expand the quality of its intercollegiate program by attracting coaches such as Howard Schnellenberger , Matt Doherty , Rex Walters and Mike Jarvis . In 2006 , the athletic department was ranked 79th in the nation by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( NACDA ) . Along with USA Today and the United States Sports Academy , NACDA recognized the university for its Division I athletic programs and accomplishments . " This ranking placed Florida Atlantic in the top 24 % of 326 NCAA Division I universities . The university 's colors are FAU Blue , FAU Red , and FAU Silver .

In 2008 , the Florida Atlantic football team finished six wins and six losses in regular season play and was invited to the Motor City Bowl . The Owls defeated Central Michigan University 24 – 21 , increasing their bowl record to two wins and zero losses . During the previous season , the football team beat Troy University in the final game of regular season play to become Sun Belt Co @-@ Champions and receive an invitation to the New Orleans Bowl . In just the seventh year of the football program 's history , and the third year playing in Division I , Florida Atlantic set NCAA records by both becoming the youngest program ever to receive an invitation to , and win , a bowl game . As a result of the New Orleans Bowl the university has seen a surge in school spirit .

In past seasons the Owls have garnered a number of accolades for their accomplishments . During the 2006 – 2007 season , the men 's basketball team was noted as " one of the Sun Belt Conference 's top offensive teams , " with a " scary offense " that earned it the reputation of the " best shooting team in the conference . " In 2010 , the men 's basketball team defeated its first @-@ ever Southeastern Conference opponent Mississippi State University 61 – 59 as well as Big East opponent the University of South Florida 50 – 42 en route to a 21 – 9 overall record and claimed the Sun Belt Conference title .

The baseball team was also recognized by the NCAA as ranking in the Top 10 in five team categories . The team was also ranked third in the nation in home runs per game ( 1 @.@ 66 ) and in slugging percentage ( .563 ) . In 2010 , the Owls baseball team was 37 – 24 ( 21 – 9 ) and claimed their first Sun Belt Conference regular @-@ season title .

= = = Traditions = = =

Florida Atlantic University is home to a number of sports @-@ related traditions and school spirit organizations .

Every fall before the first football game of the season , FAU 's Student Government Association sponsors the " Annual Football Kick @-@ Off Bonfire " wherein the opposing team 's mascot is burned in effigy . Also in football , Florida Atlantic challenges its rival Florida International ( FIU ) is the annual Shula Bowl . This intercollegiate football game is named after legendary coach Don Shula ; so named because at the time of its inception , both head coaches , Florida Atlantic 's Howard Schnellenberger and Florida International coach Don Strock , had worked under Shula at some point during their careers . Even though both universities have since moved on to new head coaches , the Shula Bowl is still played . As a home game , the competition takes place at university 's own stadium ; as an away game , the bowl is played at FIU Stadium in Miami .

For basketball , Florida Atlantic celebrates a " Midnight Madness " pep rally that introduces fans to the team and coaches as well as inspires a number of basketball @-@ related contests such as 3 Point Shoot Outs and Slam Dunk competitions . During the regular season , the " Bury the Burrow in Red " event calls for Florida Atlantic students to wear as much red as possible and fill the Burrow , the university 's multi @-@ purpose arena , during the annual basketball rivalry game between Florida Atlantic and Florida International University .

The official spirit group supporting Florida Atlantic athletics is the " prOWLers . " The group began in February 2002 to support the men 's basketball program during the team 's run for the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship . The group is funded by the Student Alumni Association , and can now be found at most sporting events cheering for Florida Atlantic . The prOWLers are joined by the Owl Rangers , a fan group that paints their bodies in the Florida Atlantic school colors . The hOWLetts are a student club that attend gameday events and assist in recruiting athletes .

Since 2002 , Florida Atlantic students have been using Owl Fingers ( the " OK " hand sign ) to show school pride and wish the athletic teams luck during football point after attempts ( PATs ) and basketball free throws . The Florida Atlantic University Athletics Department has chosen to use Owl Fingers as part of its " Salute the Hoot " 2012 marketing campaign that encourages students to " proudly raise the hand salute that depicts the eyes of the owl , FAU 's mascot . "

= = Student life = =

= = = Residential life = = =

Residential housing at Florida Atlantic University is available on the Boca Raton and John D. MacArthur campuses . " All full @-@ time freshmen are required to reside in university housing , " however , " exemptions from this policy are made for students who : are 21 or older by the first day of class , reside with parent ( s ) or legal guardian ( s ) within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of the Boca Raton campus , or are married . " As of 2011 , 4 @,@ 555 students live on @-@ campus in Boca Raton . The Wilkes Honors College on the MacArthur Campus requires all students live on @-@ campus within its two residence halls , however , exceptions are made for students who are 26 years of age , married , or have dependent children . As of 2011 , there are 231 students residing on @-@ campus at the honors college .

Boca Raton 's on @-@ campus housing facilities are : Algonquin Hall ( opened 1965 ) , Indian River Towers ( opened 2001 ) , Heritage Park Towers ( opened 2004 ) , Glades Park Towers ( opened 2007 ) , Parliament Hall ( opened 2013 ) , University Village Apartments ( UVA ) , and Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) ( opened 2011 ) . Heritage Park and Glades Park Towers each offer 602 beds with 96 single rooms . UVA and IVA exclusively serve upperclassmen while the other residence halls exclusively serve freshmen students , with Algonquin Hall serving all students . The university also offers upper @-@ division undergraduate and graduate student housing in the Business and Professional Women 's Scholarship House for women with a strong academic background .

One of the newest residences on the Boca Raton campus is the Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) , consisting of two buildings : IVA North and IVA South . It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed apartment @-@ style housing facility for upperclassmen , graduate , and medical students . It offers amenities that one would find in a high @-@ rise apartment complex : lounges , retail dining , fitness centers , a pool / cabana , a volleyball court , common areas , and more . The facility opened in fall 2011 . FAU 's newest residence hall is Parliament Hall , a lakeside freshmen housing facility offering 614 beds , a fitness center , lounges , retail dining , and views of the nearby Atlantic Ocean from top floors .

Within its existing residential life programs , Florida Atlantic offers a number of Learning Communities for freshmen and students with similar interests and concentrations . Participants meet people with similar interests , live on the same floor and take courses with others in their community , while receiving additional guidance related to those interests . The university 's Learning Community programs are divided into two categories , Freshman Learning Communities and Living Learning Communities . The freshman program offers 16 different concentrations , including business , nursing , and education . The Living program offers six concentrations for students residing in the Heritage Park Towers dormitory , including engineering , computer science , and a Women 's Leadership program .

The university 's Department of Housing and Residential Life and the university 's fraternities and sororities sponsor a program for freshmen and other students returning to Florida Atlantic in the fall semester . This program , called the " Weeks of Welcome , " spans 11 days and all campuses , and works to acclimate students with university life and to build a good on @-@ campus community . On each day , a number of different events are scheduled , including Hall Wars , which are athletic competitions between dormitories , Luaus , and a number of other events . The Weeks of Welcome is the second largest campus @-@ wide event held by Florida Atlantic .

= = = Student housing = = =

= = = Campus organizations and activities = = =

For the 2010 – 2011 academic year , Florida Atlantic had approximately 300 registered student organizations . Among the groups are academic organizations , honor societies , spiritual / religious organizations , diversity @-@ appreciation organizations , service organizations , personal interest organizations , sports clubs , and student government agencies . These clubs and organizations run the gamut from sailing to Ultimate Frisbee , from varsity and club sports and a jazz group to a pottery guild , from political organizations to chess and video game clubs . These organizations are funded by student tuition , from which $ 10 @.@ 00 per credit hour goes toward an activities and service fee fund . This generates approximately $ 9 million that is then given to student government for allocation to student clubs and organizations . The student government also finances other student life programs , including career fairs , the University Press , OWL TV and Owl Radio , and Homecoming .

Florida Atlantic 's homecoming , also known as the " Owl Prowl , " is celebrated annually in the fall semester . Events occur mainly on the Boca Raton Campus , but a number of other campuses host their own events as well . In the past , homecoming has had kickoff parties , costumed dances , bonfires , comedy shows , alumni events and dinners , a golf cart parade , and tailgating . Florida Atlantic students have an organized football tailgating area known as the Rat 's Mouth . The name references the Spanish translation of Boca Raton .

Florida Atlantic completed an $ 18 @.@ 6 million Recreation and Wellness Center in spring 2010 . The facility houses an outdoor leisure and lap pool , a cardio equipment and free weight room , two multipurpose rooms , three indoor courts and health club @-@ style locker rooms . In 2011 , the facility won the NIRSA Outstanding Sports Facilities Award . Other recreation facilities include a $ 4 @.@ 2 million track and field complex , with synthetic turf ( opened January 2007 ) , a ropes challenge course and the 6 @.@ 5 acre Henderson Fields , utilized most often by the FAU Intramural Sports and Club Sports programs .

= = = Greek life = = =

Florida Atlantic is home to approximately 28 chapters of national fraternities and sororities , encompassing approximately 1 @,@ 077 members or 5 % of the undergraduate population . The highpoint of Greek life at Florida Atlantic is " Greek Week . " This event is held annually during the spring semester and showcases a number of themed competitions between the university 's Greek organizations . There are currently no on @-@ campus Greek houses . However , a Greek Life Housing task force has been formed to explore various housing models , including the cost of construction , " and make recommendations on how to improve the overall quality of the Greek housing .... "

= = Alumni = =

Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening . Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David Paulison , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto Moreno , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida . Charles Ghigna or " Father Goose " is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist . Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto Rican author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays . Other alumni are Chris Carrabba , the lead singer of the band Dashboard Confessional ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good Privacy . Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian Carrot Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university . Alumnus and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during STS @-@ 119 in March 2009 .

= The Clean Tech Revolution =

The Clean Tech Revolution : The Next Big Growth and Investment Opportunity is a 2007 book by Ron Pernick and Clint Wilder , who say that commercializing clean technologies is a profitable enterprise that is moving steadily into mainstream business . As the world economy faces challenges from energy price spikes , resource shortages , global environmental problems , and security threats , clean technologies are seen to be the next engine of economic growth .

Pernick and Wilder highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications , and water filtration . Six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , are pushing clean technology into the mainstream : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology .

The book has been reviewed in USA Today , Business Week , Energy Priorities , Sustainability Investment News and several other magazines , and has been translated into seven languages . Clean Tech Nation is the sequel to The Clean Tech Revolution .

= = Themes = =

Pernick and Wilder explain that , in the 1970s , clean technology was considered “ alternative , ” the province of back @-@ to @-@ the @-@ land lifestyle advocates , altruistic environmentalists , and lab scientists on research grants . Such technology was in an early stage of development , was too expensive , it did not have widespread political support , and very few large , established companies were embracing the sector . Even at the start of the 21st century , the term clean tech was not yet in the financial or business community ’ s vocabulary . But now , throughout much of the world , in trends large and small , there is " the beginning of a revolution that is changing the places where we live and work , the products we manufacture and purchase , and the development plans of cities , regional governments , and nations around the globe . "

Pernick and Wilder define " clean tech " as " any product , service , or process that delivers value using limited or zero non @-@ renewable resources and / or creates significantly less waste than conventional offerings . " They highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications ( such as portable fuel cells ) , and water filtration . The authors explain how investors , entrepreneurs , and individuals can profit from technological innovation in these areas . Pernick and Wilder identify some specific clean technologies , companies , and regions that are leading the way .

The authors present a list of drivers for clean tech : " high energy prices , depleted natural resources , volatile sources of foreign oil , record deficits , and unprecedented environmental and security challenges " . The central message , which is repeated in almost every chapter , is that a clean tech revolution with benefit humanity worldwide , and will require significant collaboration between the public and private sectors .

Pernick and Wilder present examples which show that the " clean tech revolution " is already under way . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology . Emerging clean tech cities are seen to include Copenhagen , where wind power generates 20 percent of Denmark 's electricity , and Chicago , a leader in " green " buildings saving energy , heating and cooling costs . Statistics from the U.S. and from abroad , especially from China , India , Brazil , and Europe are presented .

The authors ' say that nuclear power and clean coal are not clean technologies . Apart from the risks associated with nuclear power , " multibillion @-@ dollar nuclear plants are simply not cost @-@ effective when compared with other energy sources . " The authors also believe that clean coal is an oxymoron for a myriad of reasons , including the sheer number of coal mine @-@ related deaths and the fact that coal @-@ fired plants , even some cleaner ones , are major contributors to serious illnesses such as asthma , heart disease , and mercury poisoning .

Pernick and Wilder do not recommend specific stocks or securities . They prefer to lay out a blueprint of opportunities , technologies , companies , and trends that may build successful businesses and strengthen economies .

= = Six C 's = =

Pernick and Wilder identify six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , that are pushing clean technology into the mainstream and driving rapid growth and expansion : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate .

Costs . " Perhaps the most powerful force driving today ’ s clean @-@ tech growth is simple economics . As a general trend , clean @-@ energy costs are falling as the costs of fossil fuel energy are going up . The future of clean tech is going to be , in many ways , about scaling up manufacturing and driving down costs . "

Capital . " An unprecedented influx of capital is changing the clean tech landscape , with billions of dollars , euros , yen , and yuan pouring in from a myriad of public and private sector sources . "

Competition . " Governments are competing aggressively in the highstakes race to dominate in the clean @-@ tech sector and build the jobs of the future . "

China . " Clean tech is being driven by the inexorable demands being placed on the earth not only by mature economies but also by the explosive demand for resources in China , India , and other developing nations . Their expanding energy needs are driving major growth in clean @-@ energy , transportation , building , and water @-@ delivery technologies . "

Consumers . " Savvy consumers are demanding cleaner products and services that use resources efficiently , reduce costs , and embrace quality over quantity . "

Climate . " The debate around climate change has gone from question mark to peer @-@ reviewed certainty , and smart businesses are taking heed . "

The six C ’ s are a simple list of factors , not necessarily a useful framework for understanding , or profiting from , the clean technology industry .

= = Release and reception = =

The Clean Tech Revolution was published by Collins as a 320 @-@ page hardcover book on June 12 , 2007 . An e @-@ book version was published by HarperCollins on June 7 , 2007 . In 2008 , a revised paperback edition was published , with a new sub @-@ title : Discover the Top Trends , Technologies and Companies to Watch . The book has been translated into seven languages .

Paul Gruber from the Erb Institute states that the The Clean Tech Revolution is logically organized and is " an excellent resource for those who would like a solid understanding of clean tech and the potential of each sector " . He also says that it is very useful for those seeking out the names of companies , NGOs , agencies , and people working on each technology . Gruber identifies one omission : the concern that major investments in clean technology parallel those made during the Internet boom , with the attendant fear that there " may be a bubble burst with clean tech " .

The physicist and environmentalist , Joseph Romm , has recommended The Clean Tech Revolution to people who are looking for one book to help them understand what is happening in clean technology . He says The Clean Tech Revolution is the only book that covers the whole gamut of the latest in clean energy .

Russ Juskalian from USA Today says The Clean Tech Revolution shows the green movement not in " heartstring terms " but as economically profitable . The real power players are the mainstream consumers , investors , entrepreneurs , governments and multinational corporations whose " eyes are trained on that most crucial of economic fundamentals : the bottom line " .

According to Reena Jana from Business Week , The Clean Tech Revolution is a " readable , straightforward guide to earth @-@ friendly business strategies " . The authors explain how businesses can follow the lead of companies such as Toyota by designing , selling , or funding inventive eco @-@ friendly products and services . Jana says that the Toyota Prius is just one well @-@ known example of successful clean technology in action .

Denis Du Bois , editor of Energy Priorities magazine , commented on the realistic and comprehensive coverage of the book . However , he suggests that The Clean Tech Revolution is not an explanation of the technologies and how they work , nor is it an analysis of energy or environmental policy . Policy is complicated and the authors avoid discussing it in detail . Little discussion ties the various clean technologies together and a " single @-@ minded American focus " dominates . There is very little on the influence of mass transit and urban planning in Europe and other progressive regions . The chapter on water focuses on filtration , which is already an area of considerable opportunity , affecting even " green " industries , such as photovoltaics manufacturing .

Francesca Rheannon in Sustainability Investment News says that the book does not ask the most challenging question of all : is " clean growth " an oxymoron ? She says that at a time when some experts say carbon emissions will need to be cut by 80 to 90 % by 2050 , the world may have to accept steady or even decreasing energy production , no matter how clean it is . Rheannon also states that there is little coverage of social issues . For example , nowhere is there mention of how water supply privatization and delivery by multinational corporations could affect the poor people of the world .

The Clean Tech Revolution was followed by the 2012 book Clean Tech Nation : How the U.S. Can Lead in the New Global Economy .

= = Authors = =

Author Ron Pernick is co @-@ founder and managing director of Clean Edge , a research and strategy firm in the United States which focuses on the commercialization of renewable energy and other clean technologies . Clint Wilder is senior editor at Clean Edge , and a veteran business and technology journalist . Both authors have been mapping clean technology trends for many years , and identifying business opportunities for prospective investors .

= Missouri River =

The Missouri River is the longest river in North America . Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri . The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces . When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .

For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation . More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains . The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase . The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .

The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century . The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region and blazed trails . Pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river . Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .

During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power . Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries . Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times . Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .

= = Course = =

From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River . The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains . Flowing west then north , it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the Beaverhead , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson . The Firehole River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the Gibbon to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park . These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .

The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream . The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains . Issuing from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls . It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the Marias River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the Musselshell River . Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .

Flowing eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the Poplar River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest . At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river . The Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam . Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west . It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence . While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .

The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest . It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary . At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north . The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west . Downstream , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas . The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri . To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River . It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and Gasconade Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City . The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .

= = Watershed = =

With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ 371 @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America . Comparable to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed . Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large . The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .

In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people . This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan . The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand . Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin . Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi . In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated . However , many northwestern cities , such as Billings , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .

With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the plow , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats . However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated . A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle . Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land . Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .

Elevations in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado . The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ 626 feet ( 2 @,@ 629 m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source . Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.@ 9 m / km ) from east to west . The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .

The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters . Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year . However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) . The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota . Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .

As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada . The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed . The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming . The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range . South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado . Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean . However , a large endorheic drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming . This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .

To the north , the much lower Laurentian Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the Souris , Sheyenne , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North . All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay . There are also several large endorheic basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan . The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin . Finally , on the south , the Ozark Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .

= = = Major tributaries = = =

Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth . Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .

The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / Smoky Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri . Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) . The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area . In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte . On the other end of the scale is the tiny Roe River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .

The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows . Length is measured to the hydrologic source , regardless of naming convention . The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long . However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to 749 miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) . Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .

The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem . Measured to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long . Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) . When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ 745 miles ( 6 @,@ 027 km ) .

= = = Discharge = = =

By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair . The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a strait between Lake Huron and Lake Erie . Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and Koksoak .

As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length . Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the " April Rise " or " Spring Fresh " , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the " June Rise " , caused by snowmelt and summer rainstorms in the Rocky Mountains . The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years . The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) . By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows . Evaporation from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .

The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River . The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( 621 m3 / s ) . This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin . At Kansas City , 366 @.@ 1 miles ( 589 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) . The river here drains about 484 @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .

The lowermost gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.@ 9 miles ( 157 @.@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 . About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann . The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 . Extremes of the flow vary even further . The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood . The lowest , a mere 602 cu ft / s ( 17 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .

= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = =

The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa . The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis . The Lower Missouri River has no Hydroelectric or Lock and dams but it has a plethora of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel . These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .

See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River

= = Geology = =

The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide Orogeny , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the Mesozoic through the early Cenozoic ) . This orogeny uplifted Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior Seaway , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now underlie much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River . This Laramide uplift caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed . The Laramide Orogeny is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .

The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the Ogallala Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic sedimentary rocks . The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of claystone , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate . Channel sandstones and finer @-@ grained overbank deposits of the fluvial Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago . The Miocene @-@ age Ogallala and the slightly younger Pliocene @-@ age Broadwater Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major aquifer .

Immediately before the Quaternary Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope . As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ Illinoian ( or possibly the Illinoian ) glaciation diverted the Missouri River southeastwards towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope . In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear Paw Mountains . Sapphires are found in some spots along the river in western Montana . Advances of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as Glacial Lakes Great Falls , Musselshell and others . As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and coulees including the Shonkin Sag , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long . When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the Bearpaws , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .

The Missouri 's nickname , the " Big Muddy " , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river . In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year . The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day . Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the meander belt ; every time the river changed course , it would erode tons of soil and rocks from its banks . However , damming and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course . Reservoirs along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year . Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .

= = First peoples = =

Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene . During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas . As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths . Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the Mound builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .

The Native Americans that lived along the Missouri had access to ample food , water , and shelter . Many migratory animals inhabited the plains at the time , providing them meat , clothing , and other everyday items ; there were also great riparian areas in the river 's floodplain that provided them with natural herbs and staple foods . No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre @-@ European period exist because they did not use writing . According to the writings of explorers , some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the Otoe , Missouria , Omaha , Ponca , Brulé , Lakota , Sioux , Arikara , Hidatsa , Mandan , Assiniboine , Gros Ventres and Blackfeet .

Natives used the Missouri , at least to a limited extent , as a path of trade and transport . In addition , the river and its tributaries formed tribal boundaries . Lifestyles of the indigenous mostly centered on a semi @-@ nomadic culture ; many tribes would have different summer and winter camps . However , the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south . A large cluster of walled Mandan , Hidatsa and Arikara villages situated on bluffs and islands of the river was home to thousands , and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders . Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes , possibly from feral European @-@ introduced populations , natives ' way of life changed dramatically . The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances , and thus facilitated hunting , communications and trade .

Once , tens of millions of American bison ( commonly called buffalo ) , one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley , roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin . Most Native American groups in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source , and their hides and bones served to create other household items . In time , the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples ' periodic controlled burnings of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth . The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt , an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide . However , after the arrival of Europeans in North America , both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population . Hunting eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred . Foreign diseases such as smallpox raged across the land , decimating Native American populations . Left without their primary source of sustenance , many of the remaining indigenous people were amalgamated into resettlement areas and reservations .

= = Early European explorers = =

In May 1673 , the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers , aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean . In late June , Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European discoverers of the Missouri River , which according to their journals was in full flood . " I never saw anything more terrific , " Jolliet wrote , " a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the Pekistanoui [ Missouri ] with such impetuosity that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger . The commotion was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself . " They recorded Pekitanoui or Pekistanoui as the local name for the Missouri . However , the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth , nor did they linger in the area . In addition , they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed ; the expedition turned back about 440 miles ( 710 km ) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi .

In 1682 , France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River , which included the lower portion of the Missouri . However , the Missouri itself remained formally unexplored until Étienne de Veniard , Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River . It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there ; he described the blond @-@ haired Mandans in his journals , so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present @-@ day North Dakota . Later that year , Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To Ascend The Missouri River , the first known document to use the name " Missouri River " ; many of the names he gave to tributaries , mostly for the native tribes that lived along them , are still in use today . The expedition 's discoveries eventually found their way to cartographer Guillaume Delisle , who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri . In 1718 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le Moyne , Sieur de Bienville requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his " outstanding service to France " .

Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706 , when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty @-@ one deaths . However , his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish Villasur expedition near present @-@ day Columbus , Nebraska on the Missouri River and temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana .

Bourgmont established Fort Orleans , the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River , near present @-@ day Brunswick , Missouri , in 1723 . The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist Comanche support against the Spanish , who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri . In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France . There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America . Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726 .

The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754 . By 1763 , France was defeated by the much greater strength of the British army and was forced to cede its Canadian possessions to the English and Louisiana to the Spanish in the Treaty of Paris , amounting to most of its colonial holdings in North America . Initially , the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license . However , this ended after news of the British Hudson 's Bay Company incursions in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D 'Eglise in the early 1790s . In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of Discoverers and Explorers of the Missouri , popularly referred to as the " Missouri Company " , and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri . In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste Truteau and Antoine Simon Lecuyer de la Jonchšre did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota .

Arguably the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans . The two set out along the Missouri , and established Fort Charles about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of present @-@ day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795 . At the Mandan villages in North Dakota , they expelled several British traders , and while talking to the populace they pinpointed the location of the Yellowstone River , which was called Roche Jaune ( " Yellow Rock " ) by the French . Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific , they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River .

In 1795 , the young United States and Spain signed Pinckney 's Treaty , which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans . Three years later , Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso . This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory . In 1801 , Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States .

Fearing that the cutoffs could occur again , President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $ 10 million . Instead , faced with a debt crisis , Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana , including the Missouri River , for $ 15 million – amounting to less than 3 ¢ per acre . The deal was signed in 1803 , doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory . In 1803 , Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean . By then , it had been discovered that the Columbia River system , which drains into the Pacific , had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , and it was widely believed that a connection or short portage existed between the two . However , Spain balked at the takeover , citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French . Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri , although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it .

Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty @-@ three people in three boats . Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , they found no trace of the Northwest Passage . The maps made by Lewis and Clark , especially those of the Pacific Northwest region , provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants . They also negotiated relations with multiple Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate , ecology and geology of the region . Many present @-@ day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition .

= = American frontier = =

= = = Fur trade = = =

As early as the 18th century , fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter , the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade . They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay , some from the Pacific Northwest ( see also : Maritime fur trade ) , and some from the midwestern United States . Most did not stay in the area for long , as they failed to find significant resources .

The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two @-@ year expedition . Their journals described lands rich with thousands of buffalo , beaver , and river otter ; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast . In 1807 , explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country . Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers , trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes , and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary , the Bighorn , in southern Montana . Although the business started small , it quickly grew into a thriving trade .

Lisa 's men started construction of Fort Raymond , which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn , in the fall of 1807 . The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for bartering with the Native Americans for furs . This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade , which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises , namely Hudson 's Bay . Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota ; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska . In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre Choteau , among others . In 1828 , the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers . Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin .

Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes . Trappers of the Hudson 's Bay Company , St. Louis Missouri Fur Company , American Fur Company , Rocky Mountain Fur Company , North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia , Colorado , Arkansas , and Saskatchewan river systems . During this period , the trappers , also called mountain men , blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West . Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships , providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start .

As the 1830s drew to a close , the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item . By this time , also , the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting . Furthermore , frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies . In some regions , the industry continued well into the 1840s , but in others such as the Platte River valley , declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise . The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850 , with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada . Despite the demise of the once @-@ prosperous trade , however , its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers , farmers , ranchers , adventurers , hopefuls , financially bereft , and entrepreneurs took their place .

= = = Settlers and pioneers = = =

The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century , particularly downstream from Kansas City , where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri . The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river , including the California , Mormon , Oregon , and Santa Fe trails . The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph , Missouri . Similarly , most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs , Iowa and Omaha . The Hannibal Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869 , and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis .

True to the then @-@ ideal of Manifest Destiny , over 500 @,@ 000 people set out from the river town of Independence , Missouri to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s . These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year @-@ long journey – economic crisis , and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush , for example . For most , the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha , Nebraska , where they would set out along the Platte River , which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastwards through the Great Plains . An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the dugout canoes they used , let alone the large sidewheelers and sternwheelers that would later ply the Missouri in increasing numbers . One explorer remarked that the Platte was " too thick to drink , too thin to plow " . Nevertheless , the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west . Covered wagons , popularly referred to as prairie schooners , provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s .

During the 1860s , gold strikes in Montana , Colorado , Wyoming and northern Utah attracted another wave of hopefuls to the region . Although some freight was hauled overland , most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers , as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah , Idaho and Wyoming . It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana , over 80 percent were transported by boat , a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction . A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams , Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River , to near Denver . The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route , as it passed through land held by often @-@ hostile Native Americans . Safer paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near Corinne , Utah during the gold rush period , which led to the large @-@ scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin .

As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains , they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes . This resulted in frequent raids , massacres and armed conflicts , leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes , which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous . As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans , they were soon broken , leading to huge wars . Over 1 @,@ 000 battles , big and small , were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations .

Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas , Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud 's War , in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army . The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory . In 1868 , the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed , which " guaranteed " the use of the Black Hills , Powder River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention . The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri ; pro @-@ slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark mayhem during Bleeding Kansas , leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri . Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of Boonville , which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river , discouraging the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy .

However , the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long . The Great Sioux War of 1876 – 77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming . These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort Laramie . When the settlers intruded onto the lands , they were attacked by Native Americans . U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners , and drive out the natives from the new settlements . During this bloody period , both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles , resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives . The war eventually ended in an American victory , and the Black Hills were opened to settlement . Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana .

= = Dam @-@ building era = =

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri , transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs . River development was stimulated by a variety of factors , first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin , and also by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River . Small , privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s , but the large flood @-@ control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s .

Between 1890 and 1940 , five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri , a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana . Black Eagle Dam , built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls , was the first dam of the Missouri . Replaced in 1926 with a more modern structure , the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls , diverting part of the Missouri 's flow into the Black Eagle power plant . The largest of the five dams , Ryan Dam , was built in 1913 . The dam lies directly above the 87 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) Great Falls , the largest waterfall of the Missouri .

In the same period , several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation . A small run @-@ of @-@ the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam to be built on the Missouri . This rock @-@ filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside . The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907 , but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies , causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig . At Great Falls , a section of the Black Eagle Dam was dynamited to save nearby factories from inundation . Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure , and stands to this day .

Holter Dam , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) downstream of Helena , was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River . When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company , its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains , a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as " the most remarkable clifts that we have yet seen … the tow [ er ] ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us . " In 1949 , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( USBR ) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area . By 1954 , the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam , whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) upstream of the present @-@ day dam .

" [ The Missouri 's temperament was ] uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman 's mind . " – Sioux City Register , March 28 , 1868

The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century , most notably in 1844 , 1881 , and 1926 – 1927 . In 1940 , as part of the Great Depression @-@ era New Deal , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana . Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50 @,@ 000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River . However , Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed , and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later . This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City , greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II .

Flooding damages on the Mississippi – Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944 , opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale . The 1944 act authorized the Pick – Sloan Missouri Basin Program ( Pick – Sloan Plan ) , which was a composite of two widely varying proposals . The Pick plan , with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power , called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri . The Sloan plan , which stressed the development of local irrigation , included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries .

In the early stages of Pick – Sloan development , tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at Riverdale , North Dakota and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries . This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin , and eventually the USBR proposed a solution : to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at Riverdale – today 's Garrison Dam , thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams . Because of this decision , the Yellowstone is now the longest free @-@ flowing river in the contiguous United States . In the 1950s , construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison , Oahe , Big Bend , Fort Randall and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan . Along with Fort Peck , which was integrated as a unit of the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the 1940s , these dams now form what is known as the Missouri River Mainstem System .

The six dams of the Mainstem System , chiefly Fort Peck , Garrison and Oahe , are among the largest dams in the world by volume ; their sprawling reservoirs also rank within the biggest of the nation . Holding up to 74 @.@ 1 million acre feet ( 91 @.@ 4 km3 ) in total , the six reservoirs can store more than three years ' worth of the river 's flow as measured below Gavins Point , the lowermost dam . This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America . In addition to storing irrigation water , the system also includes an annual flood @-@ control reservation of 16 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 1 km3 ) . Mainstem power plants generate about 9 @.@ 3 billion KWh annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1 @,@ 100 megawatts . Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries , namely the Bighorn , Platte , Kansas , and Osage Rivers , the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .

The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River , ordered downstream . Many of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams on the Missouri ( marked in yellow ) form very small impoundments which may or may not have been given names ; those unnamed are left blank . All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City ; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel .

= = Navigation = =

" [ Missouri River shipping ] never achieved its expectations . Even under the very best of circumstances , it was never a huge industry . " ~ Richard Opper , former Missouri River Basin Association executive director

Boat travel on the Missouri started with the wood @-@ framed canoes and bull boats of the Native Americans , which were used for thousands of years before the introduction of larger craft to the river upon colonization of the Great Plains . The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence , which started running between St. Louis and Keytesville , Missouri around 1819 . By the 1830s , large mail and freight @-@ carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis , and many traveled even farther upstream . A handful , such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone , were able to make it up the river as far as eastern Montana .

During the early 19th century , at the height of the fur trade , steamboats and keelboats began traveling nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana 's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth , carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas that the trappers frequented . This resulted in the development of the Missouri River mackinaw , which specialized in carrying furs . Since these boats could only travel downriver , they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis .

Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers , emigrants and miners ; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha . There , most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and unnavigable Platte River , which was described by pioneers as " a mile wide and an inch deep " and " the most magnificent and useless of rivers " . Steamboat navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full @-@ time on the Missouri , with many more smaller vessels . Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri . Side @-@ wheeler steamboats were preferred over the larger sternwheelers used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability .

The industry 's success , however , did not guarantee safety . In the early decades before the river 's flow was controlled by man , its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment , which prevented a clear view of the bottom , wrecked some 300 vessels . Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River , the average ship 's lifespan was short , only about four years . The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific Railroads marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri . Outcompeted by trains , the number of boats slowly dwindled , until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s . Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge , however , saw a revival in the early twentieth century .

= = = Passage to Sioux City = = =

Since the beginning of the 20th century , the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes , and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially straightened channels . In 1912 , the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth , a distance of 368 miles ( 592 km ) . This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river 's flow into a straight , narrow channel and prevent sedimentation . In 1925 , the USACE began a project to widen the river 's navigation channel to 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; two years later , they began dredging a deep @-@ water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City . These modifications have reduced the river 's length from some 2 @,@ 540 miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ) in the late 19th century to 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) in the present day .

Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the mid @-@ twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation . The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year @-@ round , and are capable of halting most of the river 's annual freshets . However , high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early @-@ 21st @-@ century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control .

In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase the river 's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet ( 91 m ) and a depth of nine feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . During work that continues to this day , the 735 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock dikes to direct the river 's flow and scour out sediments , sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels , and dredging the riverbed . However , the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth . In 2006 , several U.S. Coast Guard boats ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely silted . The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth .

In 1929 , the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the total amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons ( 13 @.@ 6 million metric tons ) , providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel . However , shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce , manufactured items , lumber , and oil averaged only 683 @,@ 000 tons ( 616 @,@ 000 t ) per year from 1994 to 2006 .

By tonnage of transported material , Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic , while Kansas has 12 percent , Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent . Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles ( 800 km ) of the river ; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels .

= = = Traffic decline = = =

Tonnage of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present . In the 1960s , the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons ( 11 Mt ) per year by 2000 , but instead the opposite has happened . The amount of goods plunged from 3 @.@ 3 million short tons ( 3 @.@ 0 Mt ) in 1977 to just 1 @.@ 3 million short tons ( 1 @.@ 2 Mt ) in 2000 . One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products , especially wheat . Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential . In 2006 , barges on the Missouri hauled only 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 180 @,@ 000 t ) of products which is equal to the amount of daily freight traffic on the Mississippi .

Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri . The failure of the USACE to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry . Currently , efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River , because of the efficiency and cheapness of river transport to haul agricultural products , and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes . Solutions such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are being considered . Drought conditions lifted in 2010 , in which about 334 @,@ 000 short tons ( 303 @,@ 000 t ) were barged on the Missouri , representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000 . However , flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – " wash [ ing ] away hopes for a bounce @-@ back year . "

There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River , but there are plenty of wing dams that jettie out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate . In contrast , the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61 @.@ 3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011 , and its locks are closed in the winter .

= = Ecology = =

= = = Natural history = = =

Historically , the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species . Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold , subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate , moist climate of Missouri . Today , the river 's riparian zone consists primarily of cottonwoods , willows and sycamores , with several other types of trees such as maple and ash . Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance , as land adjacent to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods . Because of its large sediment concentrations , the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates . However , the basin does support about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish , some of which are endangered such as the pallid sturgeon . The Missouri 's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals , such as minks , river otters , beavers , muskrats , and raccoons .

The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater ecoregions : the Upper Missouri , Lower Missouri and Central Prairie . The Upper Missouri , roughly encompassing the area within Montana , Wyoming , southern Alberta and Saskatchewan , and North Dakota , comprises mainly semiarid shrub @-@ steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age glaciations . There are no known endemic species within the region . Except for the headwaters in the Rockies , there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed . The Middle Missouri ecoregion , extending through Colorado , southwestern Minnesota , northern Kansas , Nebraska , and parts of Wyoming and Iowa , has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands . Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri , which is also home to about twice as many animal species . Finally , the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri , encompassing all or parts of Missouri , Kansas , Oklahoma and Arkansas . Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations , this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three . Thirteen species of crayfish are endemic to the lower Missouri .

= = = Human impacts = = =

Since the beginning of river commerce and industrial development in the 1800s , the Missouri has been severely polluted and its water quality degraded by human activity . Most of the river 's floodplain habitat is long gone , replaced by irrigated agricultural land . Development of the floodplain has led to increasing amounts of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation . Levees have been constructed along more than a third of the river in order to keep floodwater within the channel , but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas . Fertilizer runoff , which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients , is a major problem along the Missouri River , especially in Iowa and Missouri . This form of pollution also heavily affects the upper Mississippi , Illinois and Ohio Rivers . Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi .

Channelization of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower , deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna . Numerous dams and bank stabilization projects have been constructed to facilitate the conversion of 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land . Channel control has significantly reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish , birds and amphibians . By the early 21st century , declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for federally endangered bird and fish species .

The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century . Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE , it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees , dikes , and wing dams that constrict the river 's flow , thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks . By 2001 , there were 87 @,@ 000 acres ( 350 km2 ) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration .

Restoration projects have re @-@ mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures , prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico . A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River , evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment . The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River , including the creation of a " sediment budget " – an accounting of sediment transport , erosion , and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species .

= = Tourism and recreation = =

With over 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) of open water , the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin . Visitation has increased from 10 million visitor @-@ hours in the mid @-@ 1960s to over 60 million visitor @-@ hours in 1990 . Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965 , which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps , campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs . Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $ 85 – 100 million to the regional economy each year .

The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , some 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) long , follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source , retracing the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . Extending from Wood River , Illinois , in the east , to Astoria , Oregon , in the west , it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers . The trail , which spans through eleven U.S. states , is maintained by various federal and state government agencies ; it passes through some 100 historic sites , notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site .

Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or preservational use . The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point Dams that total 98 miles ( 158 km ) . These reaches exhibit islands , meanders , sandbars , underwater rocks , riffles , snags , and other once @-@ common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling . About forty @-@ five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river .

Downstream from Great Falls , Montana , about 149 miles ( 240 km ) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks . This part of the river , designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976 , flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 520 km2 ) preserve comprising steep cliffs , deep gorges , arid plains , badlands , archaeological sites , and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself . The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life ; recreational activities include boating , rafting , hiking and wildlife observation .

In north @-@ central Montana , some 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) along over 125 miles ( 201 km ) of the Missouri River , centering on Fort Peck Lake , comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge . The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development , except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam . Although there are few designated trails , the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping .

Many U.S. national parks , such as Glacier National Park , Rocky Mountain National Park , Yellowstone National Park and Badlands National Park are in the watershed . Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River , which is a 76 @-@ mile ( 122 km ) protected stretch of the Niobrara River , one of the Missouri 's longest tributaries . The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks , which include Three Forks of the Missouri , Fort Benton , Montana , Big Hidatsa Village Site , Fort Atkinson , Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District .

= Monty Can 't Buy Me Love =

" Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 2 , 1999 . In the episode , Mr. Burns is jealous of megastore owner Arthur Fortune , who is beloved by the people of Springfield . In order to win the people 's love , Burns gathers the help of Homer Simpson , Professor Frink and Groundskeeper Willie to capture the Loch Ness monster .

The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Ervin . The idea for the episode was pitched by the Simpsons writing staff , who wanted to make an episode in which Mr. Burns becomes a " thrillionaire " , a millionaire who goes on thrilling adventures . Although it would originally be green , a mistake in the overseas animation led to the Loch Ness monster looking pink , a mistake that was ultimately too expensive to fix .

In its original broadcast , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " was seen by approximately 7 @.@ 26 million viewers , and finished in 43rd place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the release of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .

= = Plot = =

On a normal afternoon , Marge wants Homer , Bart , Lisa , and Maggie to go for a walk . They agree when faced with the threat of having to talk to each other , and arrive at a Fortune Megastore , a venture of wealthy Arthur Fortune ( modelled on British entrepreneur Richard Branson ) . Fortune easily charms the crowd and hands out dollar bills to his customers . This embarrasses the unpopular Mr. Burns , who asks Homer to help him be loved by all .

As his first activity , Burns has Homer throw silver dollars from the top of a tall building , which instead of winning him popularity just causes injuries and terrifies the crowds below . Next , he writes out a check and tells Homer to donate it to the Springfield Hospital , but Homer is mistakenly believed to be the donor and receives the credit . Mr. Burns appears on a radio show called " Jerry Rude and the Bathroom Bunch " and is mocked by Rude . Feeling disappointed , Mr. Burns decides to go to Scotland to capture the legendary Loch Ness Monster with help from Homer , Professor Frink and Groundskeeper Willie . After little progress , Burns has the loch drained of water to expose the creature . After subduing the monster single @-@ handed ( although it is not shown , it is mentioned that the monster swallowed him ) , Burns has it sent to Springfield to be unveiled , where " Nessie " turns out to be friendly and charms all of the spectators .

However , during the unveiling of the monster , Burns is blinded by camera flashes . He runs into a camera , which crashes and starts a fire : the crowd panic and flee . Following this disaster , Homer then cheers up Burns by pointing out that being loved means you have to be nice to people everyday but being hated means you do not have to do anything . Burns agrees with that logic , saying " I 'm a selfish old crank--and that fits me like a Speedo ! " In the aftermath of the incident , Homer and Burns give Nessie a job at the " Vegas Town Casino " .

= = Production = =

" Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Ervin . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 2 , 1999 . The inspiration for the episode came from the concept of " thrillionaires " , a term the Simpsons writers found in an issue of The Economist to describe millionaires who " do really incredible stunts " and " go on amazing adventures " . The episode 's third act went through several incarnations , and the writers had a lot of ideas about what Burns should do once he has captured the Loch Ness monster . Eventually , the staff settled on the act 's current iteration , which was conceived by Simpsons writer George Meyer . According to current showrunner Al Jean , the color of the Loch Ness monster would originally be green , but when the overseas animation was completed , the Loch Ness monster had a " kind of pinkish " color . Because it would be too expensive to re @-@ color all the cels in which the monster appears , the staff decided to air the episode as it was , even though the monster was in the wrong color . Inside the Fortune Megastore , Simpsons staff writer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham can be seen .

The episode features American comedian and composer Michael McKean as Jerry Rude , a parody on the radio personality Howard Stern . Scully stated that McKean was " very funny " and that his Stern impression was " dead on the money " . The Simpsons staff originally asked Stern if he wanted to guest @-@ star in the episode , but he declined . Actor and producer Kevin Costner was portrayed by series regular cast member Hank Azaria , who voices Moe Szyslak among other characters in the series . Azaria also played Arthur Fortune , a character based on British business magnate Richard Branson . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Scully stated that Branson would have been a " great guest [ -actor ] " in the episode . The episode also features Groundskeeper Willie 's father , even though Willie in an earlier episode said that he was killed for stealing a pig .

= = Cultural references = =

In the beginning of the episode , the Simpsons watch a television program called Cash in Your Legacy , which is a parody on the PBS program Antiques Roadshow . Arthur Fortune is a parody of Branson and Fortune Megastore is a reference to Branson 's international record shop chain Virgin Megastores . On the cover of Billionaire Beat , a magazine that Burns reads in the episode , business magnates Bill Gates and Rupert Murdoch can be seen . In a scene in the episode , Burns assumes that " Don McNeill and his Breakfast Club " is currently the most popular radio program . Don McNeill 's Breakfast Club was a real radio program that , according to Scully , Swartzwelder used to listen to . Costner 's film The Postman is also referenced in the episode . Burns ' unveiling of the Loch Ness Monster is ruined as the numerous camera flashes blind him , causing him to knock over some lights , starting a fire . This is a reference to the film King Kong , although in the film the flashes enrage the captured gorilla Kong , as opposed to his captor .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast on May 2 , 1999 , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " received a 7 @.@ 3 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 26 million viewers . The episode finished in 43rd place in the ratings for the week of April 26 @-@ May 2 , 1999 . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge and Matt Selman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .

Following its home video release , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving the episode a positive review , Currentfilm.com considered it to be " one of the best Mr. Burns @-@ centric episodes ever " , and that it has " some classic Burns moments , especially when Monty describes exactly what it took for him to capture the creature . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide stated that , while the episode " doesn ’ t do a lot to expand the character " , it " manages a reasonable number of yuks " . He added that " A fun Howard Stern @-@ esque character done by Michael McKean helps make this a nice show . " David Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode has " Some funny moments " . Giving the episode a mixed review , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide said that the episode is " Very funny when it 's funny , very poor when it isn 't . " They wrote that the best part of the episode is " the Scottish stuff , " and " the idea that , once again , Burns is actually worried about his public image , as he was in ' The Joy of Sect ' . " Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News gave the episode a negative review , and wrote that " the story takes too long to get going " .

= Landing at Anzac Cove =

The landing at Anzac Cove on Sunday , 25 April 1915 , also known as the landing at Gaba Tepe , and to the Turks as the Arıburnu Battle , was part of the amphibious invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula by the forces of the British Empire , which began the land phase of the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War .

The assault troops , mostly from the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , landed at night on the western ( Aegean Sea ) side of the peninsula . They were put ashore one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of their intended landing beach . In the darkness , the assault formations became mixed up , but the troops gradually made their way inland , under increasing opposition from the Ottoman Turkish defenders . Not long after coming ashore the ANZAC plans were discarded , and the companies and battalions were thrown into battle piece @-@ meal , and received mixed orders . Some advanced to their designated objectives while others were diverted to other areas , then ordered to dig in along defensive ridge lines .

Although they failed to achieve their objectives , by nightfall the ANZACs had formed a beachhead , albeit much smaller than intended . In places they were clinging onto cliff faces with no organised defence system . Their precarious position convinced both divisional commanders to ask for an evacuation , but after taking advice from the Royal Navy about how practicable that would be , the army commander decided they would stay . The exact number of the day 's casualties is not known . The ANZACs had landed two divisions but over two thousand of their men had been killed or wounded , together with at least a similar number of Turkish casualties .

Since 1916 the anniversary of the landings on 25 April has been commemorated as Anzac Day , becoming one of the most important national celebrations in Australia and New Zealand . The anniversary is also commemorated in Turkey , the United Kingdom and Ireland .

= = Background = =

The Ottoman Turkish Empire entered the First World War on the side of the Central Powers on 31 October 1914 . The stalemate of trench warfare on the Western Front convinced the British Imperial War Cabinet that an attack on the Central Powers elsewhere , particularly Turkey , could be the best way of winning the war . From February 1915 this took the form of naval operations aimed at forcing a passage through the Dardanelles , but after several setbacks it was decided that a land campaign was also necessary . To that end , the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force was formed under the command of General Ian Hamilton . Three amphibious landings were planned to secure the Gallipoli Peninsula , which would allow the navy to attack the Turkish capital Constantinople , in the hope that would convince the Turks to ask for an armistice .

= = = Intention = = =

Lieutenant @-@ General William Birdwood , commanding the inexperienced Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , comprising the Australian Division and two brigades of the New Zealand and Australian Division , was ordered to conduct an amphibious assault on the western side of the Gallipoli Peninsula . The New Zealand and Australian Division normally also had two mounted brigades assigned to it , but these had been left in Egypt , as it was believed there would be no requirement or opportunities to use mounted troops on the peninsula . To bring the division up to strength , Hamilton had tried unsuccessfully to get a brigade of Gurkhas attached to them . In total ANZAC strength was 30 @,@ 638 men .

The location chosen for the operation was between the headland of Gaba Tepe and the Fisherman 's Hut , three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the north . Landing at dawn after a naval gunfire bombardment , the first troops were to seize the lower crests and southern spurs of Hill 971 . The second wave would pass them to capture the spur of Hill 971 , especially Mal Tepe . There they would be positioned to cut the enemy 's lines of communications to the Kilid Bahr Plateau , thus preventing the Turks from bringing reinforcements from the north to the Kilid Bahr Plateau during the attack by the British 29th Division which would advance from a separate beachhead further south @-@ west . The capture of Mal Tepe was " more vital and valuable than the capture of the Kilid Bahr Plateau itself . "

Birdwood planned to arrive off the peninsula after the moon had set , with the first troops landing at 03 : 30 , an hour before dawn . He declined the offer of an old merchant ship , loaded with troops , being deliberately grounded at Gaba Tepe . Instead , the troops were to travel in naval and merchant ships , transferring to rowing boats towed by small steamboats to make the assault .

First ashore would be the Australian Division , commanded by Major @-@ General William Bridges . The 3rd Australian Brigade , known as the covering force , were to capture the third ridge from Battleship Hill south along the Sari Bair mountain range to Gaba Tepe . The 2nd Australian Brigade , landing next , were to capture all the Sari Bar range up to Hill 971 on the left . The 26th Jacob 's Mountain Battery from the British Indian Army would land next and then the 1st Australian Brigade , the division 's reserve ; all were to be ashore by 08 : 30 . The New Zealand and Australian Division , commanded by Major @-@ General Alexander Godley , followed them ; the 1st New Zealand Brigade then the 4th Australian Brigade . Only after the second division had landed would the advance to Mal Tepe begin . The planners had come to the conclusion that the area was sparsely , if at all , defended , and that they should be able to achieve their objectives with no problems ; Turkish opposition had not been considered .

= = = Turkish forces = = =

The First World War Ottoman Turkish Army was modelled after the German Imperial Army , with most of its members being conscripted for two years ( infantry ) or three years ( artillery ) ; they then served in the reserve for the next twenty @-@ three years . The pre @-@ war army had 208 @,@ 000 men in thirty @-@ six divisions , formed into army corps and field armies . On mobilisation each division had three infantry and one artillery regiment for a total of around ten thousand men , or about half the size of the equivalent British formation . Unlike the largely inexperienced ANZACs , all the Turkish Army commanders , down to company commander level , were very experienced , being veterans of the Italo @-@ Turkish and Balkan Wars .

The British preparations could not be made in secret , and by March 1915 , the Turks were aware that a force of fifty thousand British and thirty thousand French troops was gathering at Lemnos . They considered there were only four likely places for them to land : Cape Helles , Gaba Tepe , Bulair , or on the Asiatic ( eastern ) coast of the Dardanelles .

On 24 March , the Turks formed the Fifth Army , a force of over 100 @,@ 000 men , in two corps of six divisions and a cavalry brigade , commanded by the German general Otto Liman von Sanders . The Fifth Army deployed the III Corps at Gallipoli and the XV Corps on the Asiatic coast . The 5th Division and a cavalry brigade were on the European mainland , positioned to support the III Corps if required . The III Corps had the 9th Division ( 25th , 26th and 27th Infantry Regiments ) , the 19th Division ( 57th , 72nd and 77th Infantry Regiments ) and the 7th Division ( 19th , 20th and 21st Infantry Regiments ) . The 9th Division provided coastal defence from Cape Helles north to Bulair , where the 7th Division took over , while the 19th Division at Maidos was the corps reserve . The area around Gaba Tepe , where the ANZAC landings would take place , was defended by a battalion of the 27th Infantry Regiment .

= = Anzac Cove = =

On 19 April orders were issued for the ANZACs to stop training , and for all ships and small boats to take on coal and stores , in preparation for a landing originally scheduled to occur on 23 April . Weather conditions delayed their departure from Lemnos until dawn on 24 April . The Royal Navy battleships Queen , Triumph , Prince of Wales , London , and Majestic , the cruiser Bacchante , seven destroyers and four transport ships led the way carrying the 3rd Brigade . They were followed by the rest of the force who were embarked in their own transport ships .

= = = First six companies = = =

At 01 : 00 on 25 April the British ships stopped at sea , and thirty @-@ six rowing boats towed by twelve steamers embarked the first six companies , two each from the 9th , 10th and 11th Battalions . At 02 : 00 a Turkish sentry reported seeing ships moving at sea , and at 02 : 30 the report was sent to 9th Division 's headquarters . At 02 : 53 the ships headed towards the peninsula , continuing until 03 : 30 when the larger ships stopped . With 50 yards ( 46 m ) to go , the rowing boats continued using only their oars .

Around 04 : 30 Turkish sentries opened fire on the boats , but the first ANZAC troops were already ashore at Beach Z , called Ari Burnu at the time , but later known as Anzac Cove . ( It was formally renamed Anzac Cove by the Turkish government in 1985 . ) They were one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) further north than intended , and instead of an open beach they were faced with steep cliffs and ridges up to around three hundred feet ( 91 m ) in height . However , the mistake had put them ashore at a relatively undefended area ; at Gaba Tepe further south where they had planned to land , there was a strong @-@ point , with an artillery battery close by equipped with two 15 cm and two 12 cm guns , and the 5th Company , 27th Infantry Regiment was positioned to counter @-@ attack any landing at that more southern point . The hills surrounding the cove where the ANZACs landed made the beach safe from direct fire Turkish artillery . Fifteen minutes after the landing , the Royal Navy began firing at targets in the hills .

On their way in , the rowing boats had become mixed up . The 11th Battalion grounded to the north of Ari Burnu point , while the 9th Battalion hit the point or just south of it , together with most of the 10th Battalion . The plan was for them to cross the open ground and assault the first ridge line , but they were faced with a hill that came down almost to the water line , and there was confusion while the officers tried to work out their location , under small arms fire from the 4th Company , 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry Regiment , who had a platoon of between eighty and ninety men at Anzac Cove and a second platoon in the north around the Fisherman 's Hut . The third platoon was in a reserve position on the second ridge . They also manned the Gaba Tepe strong @-@ point , equipped with two obsolescent multi @-@ barrelled Nordenfelt machine @-@ guns , and several smaller posts in the south .

Men from the 9th and 10th Battalions started up the Ari Burnu slope , grabbing the gorse branches or digging their bayonets into the soil to provide leverage . At the peak they found an abandoned trench , the Turks having withdrawn inland . Soon the Australians reached Plugge 's Plateau , the edge of which was defended by a trench , but the Turks had withdrawn to the next summit two hundred yards ( 180 m ) inland , from where they fired at the Australians coming onto the plateau . As they arrived , Major Edmund Brockman of the 11th Battalion started sorting out the mess , sending the 9th Battalion 's men to the right flank , the 11th Battalion 's to the left , and keeping the 10th Battalion in the centre .

= = = Second six companies = = =

The second six companies landed while it was still dark , the destroyers coming to within five hundred yards ( 460 m ) to disembark the troops , under fire . They also landed at Anzac Cove , but now as planned the 11th were in the north , 10th in the centre and the 9th in the south . The 12th Battalion landed all along the beach . This extended the beachhead 500 yards ( 460 m ) to the north of Ari Burnu , and 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the south . Landing under fire , some of the assaulting troops were killed in their boats , and others as they reached the beach . Once ashore they headed inland . In the south , the first men from the 9th and 12th Battalions reached the bottom of 400 Plateau .

In the north , the first men from the 11th and 12th Battalions started up Walker 's Ridge , under fire from a nearby Turkish trench . Around the same time Turkish artillery started bombarding the beachhead , destroying at least six boats . The Australians fought their way forward and reached Russell 's Top ; the Turks withdrew through The Nek to Baby 700 , 350 yards ( 320 m ) away . Coming under fire again the Australians went to ground , having advanced only around one thousand yards ( 910 m ) inland . Some also dug in at The Nek , a twenty yards ( 18 m ) piece of high ground between Malone 's Gully to the north and Monash Valley to the south . Around this time Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , commanding the 3rd Brigade , decided to change the corps plan . Concerned about a possible counter @-@ attack from the south , he decided to hold the Second Ridge instead of pushing forward to the Third or Gun Ridge . This hesitation suited the Turkish defence plans , which required the forward troops to gain time for the reserves to coordinate a counter @-@ attack .

= = = Turkish reaction = = =

At 05 : 45 , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mehmet Sefik of the Turkish 27th Infantry Regiment received orders to move his 1st and 3rd Battalions to the west and support the 2nd Battalion around Gaba Tepe . The two battalions were already assembled , having spent that night carrying out military exercises . They could not be sent to Ari Burnu as it was not marked on the Turkish maps . Colonel Halil Sami , commanding the 9th Division , also ordered the division 's machine @-@ gun company and an artillery battery to move in support of the 27th Infantry Regiment , followed soon after by an 77 mm artillery battery . At 08 : 00 Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mustafa Kemal , commanding the 19th Division , was ordered to send a battalion to support them . Kemal instead decided to go himself with the 57th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battery towards Chunuk Bair , which he realised was the key point in the defence ; whoever held those heights would dominate the battlefield . By chance , the 57th Infantry were supposed to have been on an exercise that morning around Hill 971 and had been prepared since 05 : 30 , waiting for orders .

At 09 : 00 Sefik and his two battalions were approaching Kavak Tepe , and made contact with his 2nd Battalion that had conducted a fighting withdrawal , and an hour and a half later the regiment was deployed to stop the ANZACs advancing any further . Around 10 : 00 Kemal arrived at Scrubby Knoll and steadied some retreating troops , pushing them back into a defensive position . As they arrived , the 57th Infantry Regiment were given their orders and prepared to counter @-@ attack . Scrubby Knoll , known to the Turks as Kemalyeri ( Kemal 's Place ) , now became the site of the Turkish headquarters for the remainder of the campaign .

= = Baby 700 = =

Baby 700 is a hill in the Sari Bair range , next to Battleship Hill or Big 700 . It was named after its supposed height above sea level , though its actual height is only 590 feet ( 180 m ) .

Maclagen sent the 11th Battalion , Captain Joseph Lalor 's company of the 12th Battalion and Major James Robertson 's of the 9th , towards Baby 700 . Brockman divided his own company , sending half up the right fork of Rest Gully , and half up the left , while Brockman and a reserve platoon headed up Monash Valley . As they moved forward , Turkish artillery targeted them with air burst shrapnel shells , which dispersed the companies . This , coupled with senior officers diverting men to other areas instead of towards Baby 700 , meant only fragments of the units eventually reached Baby 700 .

Arriving at Baby 700 , Captain Eric Tulloch , 11th Battalion , decided to take his remaining sixty men towards Battleship Hill , leaving Lalor 's company to dig in and defend The Nek . Tulloch moved around to the right before advancing towards the summit . The 11th Battalion crossed the first rise unopposed , but at the second , Turkish defenders around four hundred yards ( 370 m ) away opened fire on them . Going to ground , the Australians returned fire . When the Turkish fire slackened the remaining fifty men resumed their advance , reaching the now evacuated Turkish position , behind which was a large depression , with Battleship Hill beyond that . Still under fire they moved forward again , then around seven hundred yards ( 640 m ) from the summit The Turks opened fire on them from a trench . The Australians held out for thirty minutes , but increasing Turkish fire and mounting casualties convinced Tulloch to withdraw . No other ANZAC unit would advance as far inland that day .

At 08 : 30 Robertson and Lalor decided to take their companies up Baby 700 . Instead of going round to the right like Tulloch , they went straight up the centre , crossed over the summit onto the northern slope and went to ground . A spur on their left , leading to Suvla Bay , was defended by a Turkish trench system . At 09 : 15 Turkish troops started moving down Battleship Hill , and for the next hour they exchanged fire . Where the spur joined Baby 700 , a group of Australians from the 9th , 11th , and 12th Battalions crossed Malone 's Gully and charged the Turkish trench . A Turkish machine @-@ gun on Baby 700 opened fire on them , forcing them back , followed by a general withdrawal of Australian troops . The Turks had secured Battleship Hill and were now driving the Australians off Baby 700 . From his headquarters at the head of Monash Valley , Maclagen could see the Turks attacking , and started sending all available men towards Baby 700 .

= = = Second wave = = =

The 2nd Brigade landed between 05 : 30 and 07 : 00 , and the reserve 1st Brigade landed between 09 : 00 and 12 : 00 , already putting the timetable behind schedule . The 2nd Brigade , which was supposed to be heading for Baby 700 on the left , were instead sent to the right to counter a Turkish attack building up there . At 07 : 20 Bridges and his staff landed ; finding no senior officers on the beach to brief them , they set out to locate the 3rd Brigade headquarters .

The 1st Brigade was on the opposite flank to the 3rd Brigade and already getting involved in battles of its own , when its commander , Colonel Percy Owen , received a request from Maclagen for reinforcements . Owen sent two companies from the 3rd Battalion and one from the 1st Battalion ( Swannell 's ) to support the 3rd Brigade .

Soon after , Lalor 's company had been forced back to The Nek and the Turks were threatening to recapture Russell 's Top , and at 10 : 15 Maclagen reported to Bridges his doubts over being able to hold out . In response Bridges sent part of his reserve , two companies from the 2nd Battalion ( Gordon 's and Richardson 's ) , to reinforce the 3rd Brigade .

At 11 : 00 Swannell 's company arrived at the foot of Baby 700 , joining the seventy survivors of Robertson 's and Lalor 's companies . They immediately charged and chased the Turks back over the summit of Baby 700 , then stopped and dug in . The two 2nd Battalion companies arrived alongside them , but all the companies had taken casualties , among the dead being Swannell and Robertson .

By this time most of the 3rd Brigade men had been killed or wounded , and the line was held by the five depleted companies from the 1st Brigade . On the left , Gordon 's company 2nd Battalion , with the 11th and 12th Battalion 's survivors , charged five times and captured the summit of Baby 700 , but were driven back by Turkish counter @-@ attacks ; Gordon was among the casualties . For the second time Maclagen requested reinforcements for Baby 700 , but the only reserves Bridges had available were two 2nd Battalion companies and the 4th Battalion . It was now 10 : 45 and the advance companies of the 1st New Zealand Brigade were disembarking , so it was decided they would go to Baby 700 .

= = = Third wave = = =

The New Zealand Brigade commander had been taken ill , so Birdwood appointed Brigadier @-@ General Harold Walker , a staff officer already ashore , as commander . The Auckland Battalion had landed by 12 : 00 , and were being sent north along the beach to Walker 's Ridge on their way to Russell 's Top . Seeing that the only way along the ridge was in single file along a goat track , Walker ordered them to take the route over Plugge 's Plateau . As each New Zealand unit landed they were directed the same way to Baby 700 . However , in trying to avoid Turkish fire , they became split up in Monash Valley and Rest Gully , and it was after midday that two of the Auckland companies reached Baby 700 .

At 12 : 30 two companies of the Canterbury Battalion landed and were sent to support the Aucklands , who had now been ordered back to Plugge 's Plateau , and were forming on the left of the 3rd Brigade . The Canterbury companies moved into the line on the Aucklands ' left , waiting for the rest of their brigade to land . However , between 12 : 30 and 16 : 00 not one infantry or artillery formation came ashore . The ships carrying the New Zealanders were in the bay , but the steamers and rowing boats were being used to take the large numbers of wounded to the hospital ship . The transports with the 4th Australian Brigade on board were still well out at sea and not due to land until that evening . The landings recommenced around 16 : 30 when the Wellington Battalion came ashore , followed by the Otago Battalion around 17 : 00 , who were put into the line beside the Aucklanders . Next to land were the two other Canterbury companies , who were sent north to Walker 's Ridge to extend the corps left flank . Events ashore now forced a change in the disembarkation schedule , and at 17 : 50 orders were issued for the 4th Australian Brigade to start landing to boost the defence . It would take until the next day for the complete brigade to come ashore . The transports carrying both divisions ' artillery batteries had been forced further out to sea by Turkish artillery fire , and were unable to land .

= = = MacLaurin 's Hill = = =

MacLaurin 's Hill is a 1 @,@ 000 yard ( 910m ) long section of the Second Ridge that connects Baby 700 to 400 Plateau , with a steep slope on the ANZAC side down to Monash Valley . In the coming days Quinn 's , Steel 's and Courtney 's Posts would be built on the slope . The first ANZAC troops to reach the hill , from the 11th Battalion , found that the Turkish defenders had already withdrawn . As the Australians crested the hill they came under fire from Baby 700 , but to their front was a short , shallow slope into Mule Valley . When Major James Denton 's company of the 11th Battalion arrived at the hill they started digging in , and soon after received orders from MacLagen to hold the position at all costs . At 10 : 00 Turkish troops , advancing from Scrubby Knoll , got to within three hundred yards ( 270 m ) of the Australians on the hill , opening fire at them . Altogether there were two and a half companies from the 11th Battalion between Courtney 's Post , Steele 's Post , and Wire Gully . They had not been there long before the 3rd Battalion arrived to reinforce them .

= = 400 Plateau = =

The 400 Plateau , named for its height above sea level , was a wide and level plateau on the second ridge line , about six hundred by six hundred yards ( 550 by 550 m ) wide and around one thousand yards ( 910 m ) from Gun Ridge . The northern half of the plateau became known as Johnston 's Jolly , and the southern half as Lone Pine , with Owen 's Gully between them .

= = = 3rd Brigade = = =

If the landings had gone to plan , the 11th Battalion was supposed to be crossing the plateau heading north . The 10th Battalion , south of the plateau , was to capture a Turkish trench and artillery battery behind Gun Ridge . The 9th Battalion , furthest south , was to attack the artillery battery at Gaba Tepe , and the 12th Battalion was the reserve , with 26th Jacob 's Mountain Battery to establish their gun line on the plateau . Unknown to the ANZACs , the Turks had an artillery battery sited on 400 Plateau .

After landing , some of the 9th and 10th Battalion 's men headed for 400 Plateau . The first 10th Battalion platoon to arrive was commanded by Lieutenant Noel Loutit , and accompanied by the Brigade @-@ Major , Charles Brand . They discovered the Turkish battery in the Lone Pine sector , which was preparing to move . As the Australians opened fire the battery withdrew down Owen 's Gully . Brand remained on the plateau and ordered Loutit to continue after the Turkish battery . However , the guns had been hidden at the head of the gully and Loutit 's platoon moved beyond them . Around the same time , Lieutenant Eric Smith and his 10th Battalion scouts and Lieutenant G. Thomas with his platoon from the 9th Battalion arrived on the plateau , looking for the guns . As they crossed the plateau Turkish machine @-@ guns opened fire on them from the Lone Pine area . One of Thomas 's sections located the battery , which had started firing from the gully . They opened fire , charged the gun crews , and captured the guns . The Turks did manage to remove the breech blocks , making the guns inoperable , so the Australians damaged the sights and internal screw mechanisms to put them out of action . By now the majority of the 9th and 10th Battalions , along with brigade commander Maclagen , had arrived on the plateau , and he ordered them to dig in on the plateau instead of advancing to Gun Ridge . Unfortunately the units that had already passed beyond there were obeying their orders to " go as fast as you can , at all costs keep going " .

Loutit , Lieutenant J. Haig of the 10th , and thirty @-@ two men from the 9th , 10th , and 11th Battalions crossed Legge Valley and climbed a spur of Gun Ridge , just to the south of Scrubby Knoll . As they reached the top , about four hundred yards ( 370 m ) further inland was Gun Ridge , defended by a large number of Turkish troops . Loutit and two men carried out a reconnaissance of Scrubby Knoll , from the top of which they could see the Dardanelles , around three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east . When one of the men was wounded they returned to the rest of their group , which was being engaged by Turkish machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . Around 08 : 00 , Loutit sent a man back for reinforcements ; he located Captain J. Ryder of the 9th Battalion , with half a company of men at Lone Pine . Ryder had not received the order to dig in , so he advanced and formed a line on Loutit 's right . Soon after , they came under fire from Scrubby Knoll and were in danger of being cut off ; Ryder sent a message back for more reinforcements . The messenger located Captain John Peck , the 11th Battalion 's adjutant , who collected all the men around him and went forward to reinforce Ryder . It was now 09 : 30 and the men on the spur , outflanked by the Turks , had started to withdraw . At 10 : 00 the Turks set up a machine @-@ gun on the spur and opened fire on the withdrawing Australians . Pursued by the Turks , only eleven survivors , including Loutit and Haig , reached Johnston 's Jolly and took cover . Further back , two companies of the 9th and the 10th Battalions had started digging a trench line .

= = = 2nd Brigade = = =

As part of the second wave , the 2nd Brigade had been landing since 05 : 30 ; the 5th , 6th and 8th Battalions were supposed to cross 400 Plateau and head to Hill 971 , while the 7th Battalion on the left were to climb Plugge 's Plateau then make for Hill 971 . One 7th Battalion company , Jackson 's , landed beside the Fisherman 's Hut in the north and was almost wiped out ; only forty men survived the landing . At 06 : 00 Major Ivie Blezard 's 7th Battalion company , and part of another , were sent onto 400 Plateau by Maclagen to strengthen the defence . When the 7th Battalion commander Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Harold Elliott landed he realised events were not going to plan , and he headed to the 3rd Brigade headquarters to find out what was happening . Maclagen ordered him to gather his battalion at the south of the beachhead , as the 2nd Brigade would now form the division 's right flank , not left . When the 2nd Brigade commander Colonel James McCay arrived Maclagen convinced him to move his brigade to the south , swapping responsibility with the 3rd Brigade . Eventually agreeing , he established his headquarters on the seaward slope of 400 Plateau ( McCay 's Hill ) . Heading onto the plateau , McCay realised the ridge to his right , Bolton 's Ridge , would be a key point in their defence . He located the Brigade @-@ Major , Walter Cass , and ordered him to gather what men he could to defend the ridge . Looking around , he saw the 8th Battalion , commanded by Colonel William Bolton , moving forward , so Cass directed them to Bolton 's Ridge . As such , it was the only ANZAC battalion that remained together during the day . Eventually , around 07 : 00 , the rest of the brigade started arriving . As each company and battalion appeared they were pushed forward into the front line , but with no defined orders other than to support the 3rd Brigade . At 10 : 30 the six guns of the 26th Jacobs Mountain Battery arrived , positioning three guns each side of White 's Valley . At noon they opened fire on the Turks on Gun Ridge .

Within two hours half the Australian Division was involved in the battle of 400 Plateau . However , most of the officers had misunderstood their orders . Believing the intention was to occupy Gun Ridge and not hold their present position , they still tried to advance . The 9th and 10th Battalions had started forming a defence line , but there was a gap between them that the 7th Battalion was sent to fill . Seeing the 2nd Brigade coming forward , units of the 3rd Brigade started to advance to Gun Ridge . The advancing Australians did not then know that the counter @-@ attacking Turkish forces had reached the Scrubby Knoll area around 08 : 00 and were prepared for them . As the Australians reached the Lone Pine section of the plateau , Turkish machine @-@ guns and rifles opened fire , decimating the Australians . To the north other troops , advancing beyond Johnstone 's Jolly and Owen 's Gully , were caught by the same small arms fire . Soon afterwards a Turkish artillery battery also started firing at them . This was followed by a Turkish counter @-@ attack from Gun Ridge . Such was the situation they now found themselves in that at 15 : 30 McCay , now giving up all pretence of advancing to Gun Ridge , ordered his brigade to dig in from Owen 's Gully to Bolton 's Ridge .

= = = Pine Ridge = = =

Pine Ridge is part of the 400 Plateau , and stretches , in a curve towards the sea , for around one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Beyond Pine Ridge is Legge Valley and Gun Ridge and , like the rest of the terrain , it was covered in a thick gorse scrub , but also had stunted pine trees around eleven feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) tall growing on it .

Several groups of men eventually made their way to Pine Ridge . Among the first was Lieutenant Eric Plant 's platoon from the 9th Battalion . Captain John Whitham 's company of the 12th Battalion moved forward from Bolton 's Ridge when they saw the 6th Battalion moving up behind them . As the 6th Battalion reached the ridge , the companies carried on towards Gun Ridge , while Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Walter McNicoll established the battalion headquarters below Bolton 's Ridge . As the 6th Battalion moved forward they were engaged by Turkish small arms and artillery fire , causing heavy casualties . At 10 : 00 brigade headquarters received a message from the 6th Battalion asking for reinforcement , and McCay sent half the 5th Battalion to assist . At the same time the 8th Battalion were digging in on Bolton 's , except for two companies which moved forward to attack a group of Turks that had come up from the south behind the 6th Battalion . By noon the 8th Battalion was dug in on the ridge ; in front of them were scattered remnants of the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 9th Battalions , mostly out of view of each other in the scrub . Shortly after , McCay was informed that if he wanted the 6th Battalion to hold its position , it must be reinforced . So McCay sent his last reserves , a company of the 1st Battalion , and ordered the 8th to leave one company on the ridge and advance on the right of the 6th Battalion . The scattered formations managed to hold their positions for the remainder of the afternoon , then at 17 : 00 saw large numbers of Turkish troops coming over the southern section of Gun Ridge .

= = Turkish counter @-@ attack = =

Around 10 : 00 Kemal and the 1st Battalion , 57th Infantry were the first to arrive in the area between Scrubby Knoll and Chunuk Bair . From the knoll Kemal was able to observe the landings . He ordered the artillery battery to set up on the knoll , and the 1st Battalion to attack Baby 700 and Mortar Ridge from the North @-@ East , while the 2nd Battalion would simultaneously circle around and attack Baby 700 from the West . The 3rd Battalion would for the moment be held in reserve . At 10 : 30 Kemal informed II Corps he was attacking .

At 11 : 30 Sefik told Kemal that the ANZACs had a beachhead of around 2 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) , and that he would attack towards Ari Burnu , in conjunction with the 19th Division . Around midday Kemal was appraised that the 9th Division was fully involved with the British landings at Cape Helles , and could not support his attack , so at 12 : 30 he ordered two battalions of the 77th Infantry Regiment ( the third battalion was guarding Suvla Bay ) to move forward between the 57th and 27th Infantry Regiments . At the same time he ordered his reserve 72nd Infantry Regiment to move further west . Within the next half @-@ hour the 27th and 57th Infantry Regiments started the counter @-@ attack , supported by three batteries of artillery . At 13 : 00 Kemal met with his corps commander Esat Pasha and convinced him of the need to react in strength to the ANZAC landings . Esat agreed and released the 72nd and 27th Infantry Regiments to Kemal 's command . Kemal deployed the four regiments from north to south ; 72nd , 57th , 27th and 77th . In total , Turkish strength opposing the landing numbered between ten thousand and twelve thousand men .

= = = North = = =

At 15 : 15 Lalor left the defence of The Nek to a platoon that had arrived as reinforcements , and moved his company to Baby 700 . There he joined a group from the 2nd Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Leslie Morshead . Lalor was killed soon afterwards . The left flank of Baby 700 was now held by sixty men , the remnants of several units , commanded by a corporal . They had survived five charges by the Turks between 07 : 30 and 15 : 00 ; after the last charge the Australians were ordered to withdraw through The Nek . There , a company from the Canterbury Battalion had just arrived , with their commanding officer Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Douglas Stewart . By 16 : 00 the New Zealand companies had formed a defence line on Russell 's Top . On Baby 700 , there was on the left Morsehead 's and Lalor 's men , and at the top of Malone 's Gulley were the survivors of the 2nd Battalion and some men from the 3rd Brigade . On the right were the men left from the Auckland companies , and a mixed group from the 1st , 2nd , 11th and 12th Battalions . Once Stewart 's men were secure , he ordered Morsehead to withdraw . During a Turkish artillery bombardment of The Nek , Stewart was killed . The artillery heralded the start of a Turkish counter @-@ attack ; columns of troops appeared over the top of Battleship Hill and on the flanks and attacked the ANZAC lines .

At 16 : 30 the three battalions from the 72nd Infantry Regiment arrived and attacked from the north . At the same time the Australians and New Zealanders holding on at Baby 700 broke and ran back to an improvised line , from Walker 's Ridge in the north to Pope 's Hill in the south . The defence line at The Nek was now defended by nine New Zealanders , under the command of a sergeant ; they had three machine @-@ guns but the crews had all been killed or wounded . As the survivors arrived from Baby 700 their numbers rose to around sixty . Bridges in his divisional headquarters starting receiving messages from the front ; just after 17 : 00 Lieutenant @-@ Colonel George Braund on Walker 's Ridge advised he was holding his position and " if reinforced could advance " . At 17 : 37 Maclagen reported they were being " heavily attacked " , at 18 : 15 the 3rd Battalion signalled , " 3rd Brigade being driven back " . At 19 : 15 from Maclagen again " 4th Brigade urgently required " . Bridges sent two hundred stragglers , from several different battalions , to reinforce Braund and promised two extra battalions from the New Zealand and Australian Division which was now coming ashore .

Dusk was at 19 : 00 and the Turkish attack had now reached Malone 's Gulley and The Nek . The New Zealanders waited until the Turks came close , then opened fire in the darkness , stopping their advance . Seriously outnumbered , they asked for reinforcements . Instead , the supporting troops to their rear were withdrawn and the Turks managed to get behind them . So , taking the machine @-@ guns with them , they withdrew off Russell 's Top into Rest Gully . This left the defenders at Walker 's Ridge isolated from the rest of the force .

= = = South = = =

The Australians on 400 Plateau had for some time been subjected to sniping and artillery fire and could see Turkish troops digging in on Gun Ridge . Around 13 : 00 a column of Turkish reinforcements from the 27th Infantry Regiment , in at least battalion strength , were observed moving along the ridge @-@ line from the south . The Turks then turned towards 400 Plateau and advanced in extended order . The Turkish counter @-@ attack soon forced the advanced Australian troops to withdraw , and their machine @-@ gun fire caused them heavy casualties . It was not long before the attack had forced a wedge between the Australians on Baby 700 and those on 400 Plateau . The heavy Turkish fire onto Lone Pine forced the survivors to withdraw back to the western slope of 400 Plateau . At 14 : 25 Turkish artillery and small arms fire was so heavy that the Indian artillerymen were forced to push their guns back off the plateau by hand , and they reformed on the beach .

Although in places there was a mixture of different companies and platoons dug in together , the Australians were deployed with the 8th Battalion in the south still centred on Bolton 's Ridge . North of them , covering the southern sector of 400 Plateau , were the mixed together 6th and 7th Battalions , both now commanded by Colonel Walter McNicoll of the 6th . North of them was the 5th Battalion , and the 10th Battalion covered the northern sector of 400 Plateau at Johnston 's Jolly . But by now they were battalions in name only , having all taken heavy casualties ; the commanders had little accurate knowledge of where their men were located .

At 15 : 30 the two battalions of the Turkish 77th Infantry Regiment were in position , and with the 27th Infantry they counter @-@ attacked again . At 15 : 30 and at 16 : 45 McCay , now under severe pressure , requested reinforcements . The second time he was informed there was only one uninvolved battalion left , the 4th , and Bridges was keeping them in reserve until more troops from the New Zealand and Australian Division had been landed . McCay then spoke to Bridges direct and informed him the situation was desperate and if not reinforced the Turks would get behind him . At 17 : 00 Bridges released the 4th Battalion to McCay who sent them to the south forming on the left of the 8th Battalion along Bolton 's Ridge . They arrived just in time to help counter Turkish probing attacks , by the 27th Infantry Regiment , from the south .

At 17 : 20 McCay signalled Bridges that large numbers of unwounded men were leaving the battlefield and heading for the beaches . This was followed by Maclagan asking for urgent artillery fire support , onto Gun Ridge , as his left was under a heavy attack and at 18 : 16 Owen reported the left flank was " rapidly " being forced to retire . At dusk Maclagan made his way to Bridges headquarters and when asked for his opinion replied " It 's touch and go . If the Turks come on in mass formation ... I don 't think anything can stop them . " As it got dark the Turkish artillery ceased firing , and although small arms fire continued on both sides , the effects were limited when firing blind . Darkness also provided the opportunity to start digging more substantial trenches and to resupply the troops with water and ammunition .

The last significant action of the day was at 22 : 00 south of Lone Pine , when the Turks charged towards Bolton 's Ridge . By now the 8th Battalion had positioned two machine @-@ guns to cover their front , which caused devastation amongst the attackers , and to their left the 4th Battalion also became involved . When the Turks got to within fifty yards ( 46 m ) the 8th Battalion counter @-@ attacked in a bayonet charge and the Turks withdrew . The ANZAC defence was aided by Royal Navy searchlights providing illumination . Both sides now waited for the next attack , but the day 's events had shattered both formations and they were no longer in any condition to conduct offensive operations .

= = Aftermath = =

By nightfall , around sixteen thousand men had been landed , and the ANZACs had formed a beachhead , although with several undefended sections . It stretched along Bolton 's Ridge in the south , across 400 Plateau , to Monash Valley . After a short gap it resumed at Pope 's Hill , then at the top of Walker 's Ridge . It was not a large beachhead ; it was under two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in length , with a depth around 790 yards ( 720 m ) , and in places only a few yards separated the two sides . That evening Birdwood had been ashore to check on the situation , and , satisfied , returned to HMS Queen . Around 21 : 15 he was asked to return to the beachhead . There he met with his senior officers , who asked him to arrange an evacuation . Unwilling to make that decision on his own he signalled Hamilton ;

Both my divisional generals and brigadiers have represented to me that they fear their men are thoroughly demoralised by shrapnel fire to which they have been subjected all day after exhaustion and gallant work in morning . Numbers have dribbled back from the firing line and cannot be collected in this difficult country . Even New Zealand Brigade which has only recently been engaged lost heavily and is to some extent demoralised . If troops are subjected to shellfire again tomorrow morning there is likely to be a fiasco , as I have no fresh troops with which to replace those in firing line . I know my representation is most serious , but if we are to re @-@ embark it must be at once .

Hamilton conferred with his naval commanders , who convinced him an evacuation would be almost impossible , and responded ; " dig yourselves right in and stick it out ... dig , dig , dig until you are safe " . The survivors had to fight on alone until 28 April when four battalions of the Royal Naval Division were attached to the corps .

On the Turkish side , by that night the 2nd Battalion 57th Infantry were on Baby 700 , the 3rd Battalion , reduced to only ninety men , were at The Nek , and the 1st Battalion on Mortar Ridge . Just south of them was the 77th Infantry , next was the 27th Infantry opposite 400 Plateau . The last regiment , the 72nd Infantry , were on Battleship Hill . As for manpower , the Turks were in a similar situation to the ANZACs . Of the two regiments most heavily involved , the 57th had been destroyed , and the 27th were exhausted with heavy casualties . Large numbers of the 77th had deserted , and the regiment was in no condition to fight . The 72nd was largely intact , but they were a poorly trained force of Arab conscripts . The III Corps , having to deal with both landings , could not assist as they had no reserves available . It was not until 27 April that the 33rd and 64th Infantry Regiments arrived to reinforce the Turkish forces . The ANZACs , however , had been unable to achieve their obectives , and therefore dug in . Gallipoli , like the Western Front , turned into a war of attrition . The German commander , Liman von Saunders , was clear about the reasons for the outcome . He wrote that , " on the Turkish side the situation was saved by the immediate and independent action of the 19th Division . " The division commander , Kemal , became noted as " the most imaginative , most successful officer to fight on either side " during the campaign . As a commander he was able to get the most out of his troops , typified by his order to the 57th Infantry Regiment ; " Men , I am not ordering you to attack . I am ordering you to die . In the time that it takes us to die , other forces and commanders can come and take our place . "

In the following days there were several failed attacks and counter @-@ attacks by both sides . The Turks were the first to try during the Second attack on Anzac Cove on 27 April , followed by the ANZACs who tried to advance overnight 1 / 2 May . The Turkish Third attack on Anzac Cove on 19 May was the worst defeat of them all , with around ten thousand casualties , including three thousand dead . The next four months consisted of only local or diversionary attacks , until 6 August when the ANZACs , in connection with the Landing at Suvla Bay , attacked Chunuk Bair with only limited success . The Turks never succeeded in driving the Australians and New Zealanders back into the sea . Similarly , the ANZACs never broke out of their beachhead . Instead , in December 1915 , after eight months of fighting , they evacuated the peninsula .

= = = Casualties = = =

The full extent of casualties on that first day are not known . Birdwood , who did not come ashore until late in the day , estimated between three and four hundred dead on the beaches . The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage claims one in five of the three thousand New Zealanders involved became a casualty . The Australian War Memorial has 860 Australian dead between 25 – 30 April , and the Australian Government estimates 2 @,@ 000 wounded left Anzac Cove on 25 April , but more wounded were still waiting on the battlefields to be evacuated . The Commonwealth War Graves Commission documents that 754 Australian and 147 New Zealand soldiers died on 25 April 1915 . A higher than normal proportion of the ANZAC casualties were from the officer ranks . One theory was that they kept exposing themselves to fire , trying to find out where they were or to locate their troops . Four men were taken prisoner by the Turks .

It is estimated that the Turkish 27th and 57th Infantry Regiments lost around 2 @,@ 000 men , or fifty per cent of their combined strength . The full number of Turkish casualties for the day has not been recorded . During the campaign , 8 @,@ 708 Australians and 2 @,@ 721 New Zealanders were killed . The exact number of Turkish dead is not known but has been estimated around 87 @,@ 000 .

= = = Anzac Day = = =

The anniversary of the landings , 25 April , has since 1916 been recognised in Australia and New Zealand as Anzac Day , now one of their most important national occasions . It does not celebrate a military victory , but instead commemorates all the Australians and New Zealanders " who served and died in all wars , conflicts , and peacekeeping operations " and " the contribution and suffering of all those who have served . " Around the country , dawn services are held at war memorials to commemorate those involved . In Australia , at 10 : 15 , another service is held at the Australian War Memorial , which the prime minister and governor general normally attend . The first official dawn services were held in Australia in 1927 and in New Zealand in 1939 . Lower @-@ key services are also held in the United Kingdom and Ireland . In Turkey , large groups of Australians and New Zealanders have begun to gather at Anzac Cove , where in 2005 an estimated 20 @,@ 000 people attended the service to commemorate the landings . Attendance figures rose to 38 @,@ 000 in 2012 and 50 @,@ 000 in 2013 .

= Michelle Rzepecki =

Michelle Rzepecki ( born 6 November 1986 ) is an Australian goalball player classified as a B3 competitor . She made her debut for the Australia women 's national goalball team at the 2011 African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in goalball .

= = Personal life = =

Rzepecki was born on 6 November 1986 in Wollstonecraft , New South Wales , and is 173 centimetres ( 68 in ) tall . She has the visual disability rod monochromatism , which she acquired at birth . She can play the saxophone and piano . Rzepecki is a third @-@ generation Australian , as her grandfather moved to Australia from Germany . While attending Castle Hill High School , she returned to the country of her grandfather 's birth to do study abroad that was funded by a scholarship from the Society for Australian @-@ German Student Exchange Inc . She also lived in Bolivia for a while , working at a school for children with visual impairments . While there , she introduced the children to goalball . Part of her work in the country was funded by a mini @-@ grant . As of 2012 , she works as a Sydney Tower Skywalk guide .

= = Goalball = =

Rzepecki is a goalball player , and for visual disability sports , is classified as a B3 competitor . She is a centre and winger . She has a goalball scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport . Rzepecki started playing the sport in 2002 . She competed at the 2004 Australian National Goalball Championships , playing for the New South Wales goalball team which beat the Queensland goalball team in the finals . In 2011 , Rzepecki made her national team debut during the African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She played in the game against the New Zealand women 's national goalball team that Australia won . As a member of the 2011 team , she finished sixth at the IBSA Goalball World Cup .

The Australian Paralympic Committee had chosen to work on her development as a goalball player with the idea that she might be able to qualify for , and win a medal at , the 2016 Summer Paralympics . She was a named a member of the Aussie Belles that was going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics , in what would be her debut Games . That the team qualifyied for the Games came as a surprise , as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with an idea of the team qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics . An Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics , when they earned an automatic selection as hosts , and the team finished last in the competition . Going into the Paralympics , her team was ranked eighth in the world . In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament , the Belles played games against Japan , Canada , the United States and Sweden . They lost every game , and did not advance to the finals .

= The Good Terrorist =

The Good Terrorist is a 1985 political novel by Doris Lessing . It was first published in September 1985 in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape , and in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf . The story examines events in the life of Alice , a naïve and well @-@ intentioned squatter , who moves in with a group of radicals in London , and is drawn into their terrorist activities .

Lessing was inspired to write The Good Terrorist by the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) bombing of the Harrods department store in London in 1983 . She had been a member of the British Communist Party in the early 1950s , but later grew disillusioned with communism . Three reviewers labelled The Good Terrorist as a satire , while Lessing called it humorous . Some critics called the novel 's title an oxymoron , stating that it highlights Alice 's ambivalent nature , and that she is neither a good person , nor a good revolutionary .

The Good Terrorist divided reviewers , with some being impressed by the book 's insight and characterization , and others complaining about the novel 's style and the character 's lack of depth . One critic complimented Lessing 's " strong descriptive prose and her precise and realistic characterizations " , but another called the book 's text " surprisingly bland " , and described the characters as " trivial or two @-@ dimensional or crippled by self @-@ delusions " . The Good Terrorist was shortlisted for the Booker Prize , and won the Mondello Prize and the WH Smith Literary Award .

= = Plot summary = =

The Good Terrorist is written in third person from the point of view of Alice , an unemployed politics and economics graduate in her mid @-@ thirties who drifts from commune to commune . She considers herself a revolutionary , fighting against " fascist imperialism " , but is still dependent on her parents , whom she treats with contempt . In the early @-@ 1980s , Alice joins a squat of like @-@ minded " comrades " in a derelict house in London . Accompanying her is Jasper , a graduate she took in at a student commune she lived in fifteen years previously . Jasper became dependent on Alice and followed her from squat to squat . Alice fell in love with him , only to become frustrated later by his aloofness and bourgeoning homosexuality . Other members of the squat include Bert , their ineffective leader , and a lesbian couple , the maternal Roberta , and Faye , her unstable and fragile partner .

The abandoned house is in a state of disrepair and is earmarked by the City Council for demolition . To the indifference of the other comrades , Alice takes it upon herself to clean up and renovate the house , and convinces the Council that it is worth saving . She also persuades the authorities to restore the electricity and water supplies . Alice becomes the house 's " mother " , cooking for everyone , and dealing with the local police , who are trying to evict them . The members of the squat belong to the Communist Centre Union ( CCU ) , and attend demonstrations and pickets . Alice involves herself in some of these activities , but spends most of her time working on the house .

To be more useful to the struggle , Jasper and Bert travel to Ireland to persuade the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) to let the CCU join them , but they are rejected . They also take a trip to the Soviet Union to offer their services , but are turned down . The IRA and KGB , however , have begun taking notice of them and start using the house as a conduit for propaganda material and guns . Packages start arriving in the middle of the night , and Alice , to avoid attracting the attention of the police , raises objections . This results in visits to the house by strangers who question the squat 's decision making . After this , the comrades decide to ignore orders , to act on their own , and to consider themselves " Freeborn British Communists " .

Going it alone now , they start experimenting with explosives , and build a car bomb . Alice does not fully support this action , but accepts the majority decision . They target an upmarket hotel in Knightsbridge , but their inexperience results in the premature detonation of the bomb , which kills Faye and several passers @-@ by . The remaining comrades , shaken by what they have done , decide to leave the squat and go their own way . Alice , disillusioned by Jasper , chooses not to follow him and remains behind because she cannot bear to abandon the house she has put so much effort into . Despite her initial reservations about the bombing , Alice feels a need to justify their actions to others , but realises it would be fruitless because " [ o ] rdinary people simply didn 't understand " . She acknowledges that she is a terrorist now , though she cannot remember when the change happened .

= = Background = =

Doris Lessing 's interest in politics began in the 1940s while she was living in Southern Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) . She was attracted to a group of " quasi @-@ Communist [ s ] " and joined their Left Book Club in Salisbury ( now Harare ) . Later , prompted by the conflicts arising from racial segregation prominent in Rhodesia at the time , she also joined the Southern Rhodesian Labour Party . Lessing moved to London in 1949 and began her writing career there . She became a member of the British Communist Party in the early 1950s , and was an active campaigner against the use of nuclear weapons .

By 1964 , Lessing had published six novels , but grew disillusioned with Communism and , after reading The Sufis by Idries Shah , turned her attention to Sufism , an Islamic belief system . This prompted her to write her five @-@ volume " space fiction " series , Canopus in Argos : Archives , which drew on Sufi concepts . The series was not well received by some of her readers , who felt she had abandoned her " rational worldview " .

The Good Terrorist was Lessing 's first book to be published after the Canopus in Argos series , which prompted several retorts from reviewers , including , " Lessing has returned to Earth " , and " Lessing returns to reality " . Several commentators have labelled The Good Terrorist as a satire , while Lessing called it humorous . She said :

[ I ] t 's not a book with a political statement . It 's ... about a certain kind of political person , a kind of self @-@ styled revolutionary that can only be produced by affluent societies . There 's a great deal of playacting that I don 't think you 'd find in extreme left revolutionaries in societies where they have an immediate challenge .

Lessing said she was inspired to write The Good Terrorist by the IRA bombing of the Harrods department store in London in 1983 . She recalled , " the media reported it to sound as if it was the work of amateurs . I started to think , what kind of amateurs could they be ? " and realised " how easy it would be for a kid , not really knowing what he or she was doing , to drift into a terrorist group . " Lessing already had Alice in mind as the central character : " I know several people like Alice — this mixture of ... maternal caring , ... and who can contemplate killing large numbers of people without a moment 's bother . " She described Alice as " quietly comic [ al ] " because she is so full of contradictions . She said she was surprised how some of the characters ( other than Jasper , Alice 's love interest ) developed , such as the pill @-@ popping and fragile Faye , who turned out to be a " destroyed person " .

= = Genre = =

The Good Terrorist has been labelled a " political novel " by the publishers and some reviewers , including Alison Lurie in The New York Review of Books . Lurie stated that as political fiction , it is " one of the best novels ... about the terrorist mentality " since Joseph Conrad 's The Secret Agent ( 1907 ) , although this was questioned by William H. Pritchard in The Hudson Review , who wrote that compared to Conrad , The Good Terrorist is " shapeless " . Several commentators have pointed out that it is more a novel about politics than political fiction . In From the Margins of Empire : Christina Stead , Doris Lessing , Nadine Gordimer , Louise Yelin called the work a novel about politics , rather than a political novel per se .

The Good Terrorist has also been called a satire . In her book Doris Lessing : The Poetics of Change , Gayle Greene called it a " satire of a group of revolutionaries " , and Susan Watkins , writing in Doris Lessing : Border Crossings , described it as a " dry and satirical examination of a woman 's involvement with a left @-@ wing splinter group " . A biography of Lessing for the Swedish Academy on the occasion of her winning the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature described the book as " a satirical picture of the need of the contemporary left for total control and the female protagonist 's misdirected martyrdom and subjugation " . Yelin said the novel " oscillat [ ed ] between satire and nostalgia " . Academic Robert E. Kuehn felt that it is not satire at all . He stated while the book could have been a " satire of the blackest and most hilarious kind " , in his opinion Lessing " has no sense of humor , and instead of lashing [ the characters ] with the satirist 's whip , she treats them with unremitting and belittling irony " .

Virginia Scott called the novel a fantasy . Drawing on Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland in The International Fiction Review , she wrote that " [ Lessing 's ] Alice with her group of political revolutionaries can be seen as a serious fantasy which has striking parallels to ... Carroll 's Alice " . Both Alices enter a house and are confronted by seemingly impossible challenges : Carroll 's Alice has to navigate passages too small to fit through , while Lessing 's Alice finds herself in a barely inhabitable house that is earmarked for demolition . Both Alices are able to change their appearances : in Wonderland , Alice adjusts her size to suit her needs ; in The Good Terrorist , Alice changes her demeanour to get what she wants from others . Scott noted that at one point in The Good Terrorist , Faye refers to Alice as " Alice the Wonder , the wondrous Alice " , alluding to Carroll 's Alice .

= = Themes = =

The American novelist Judith Freeman wrote that one of the common themes in The Good Terrorist is that of keeping one 's identity in a collective , of preserving " individual conscience " . This theme suggests that problems occur when we are coerced into conforming . Freeman said that Alice is a " quintessential good woman ... the little Hausefrau revolutionary " , but turns bad under peer pressure .

Another theme present is the symbolic nature of the house . Margaret Scanlan stated that as in books like Mansfield Park and Jane Eyre , The Good Terrorist " defines a woman in terms of her house " . Writing in the journal Studies in the Novel , Katherine Fishburn said that Lessing often uses a house to symbolise " psychological or ontological change " , and that here , " the house ... symbolizes Alice 's function in the story " . Yelin described The Good Terrorist as " an urban , dystopian updating of the house @-@ as @-@ England genre , [ where ] ... England is represented by a house in London " . Writing in " Politics of Feminine Abuse : Political Oppression and Masculine Obstinacy in Doris Lessing 's The Good Terrorist " , Lalbakhsh and Yahya suggest that the house , and the " oppressive relations " in it , reflect the similarly oppressive relationships in the society it resides in .

Several critics have focused on the theme of motherhood . In " Mothers and Daughters / Aging and Dying " , Claire Sprague wrote that Lessing often dwells on the theme of mothers passing their behaviours onto their daughters , and how the cycle of daughters fighting their mothers permeates each generation . The British novelist Jane Rogers said that The Good Terrorist " is as unsparing and incisive about motherhood as it is about the extreme left " . She stated that motherhood here " is terrible " : Alice 's mother is reduced to despair continually yielding to her selfish daughter 's demands ; Alice mothers Jasper , and has a similar despairing relationship with him . Rogers added that motherhood is depicted here as a compulsion to protect the weak , despite their propensity to retaliate and hurt you .

Feminist themes and the subjugation of women have also been associated with The Good Terrorist . Scanlan indicated that while many of the comrades in the book are women , they find that political activity does not elevate their position , and that they are " trapped in the patriarchy they despise " . Yelin suggested that although Lessing ridicules the male members of the CCU and their role playing , she is also critical of the female members " who collude in male @-@ dominant political organizations and thus in their own oppression " . But with the book 's allusions to Jasper 's homosexuality , Yelin added that Lessing 's " critique of women 's infatuation with patriarchal misogyny and their emotional dependence on misogynist men " is muted by homophobia and the " misogyny pervasive in patriarchal constructions of ( male ) heterosexuality " . Lalbakhsh and Yahya noted that Lessing depicts Alice as a " typical housewife " who cares for her family , in this case , the squat , but is " ignored and neglected " . They concluded that Alice 's fate is sealed because , according to the British socialist feminist Juliet Mitchell , women are " fundamental to the human condition " , yet " their economic , social , and political roles ... are marginal " .

= = Critical analysis = =

Several critics have called The Good Terrorist 's title an oxymoron . Robert Boschman suggested it is indicative of Alice 's " contradictory personality " , that she renovates the squat 's house , yet is bent on destroying society . In The Hudson Review , George Kearns wrote that the title " hovers above the novel with ... irony " . The reader assumes that Alice is the " good terrorist " , but that while she may be a good person , she is " rotten at being a terrorist " . Writing in World Literature Today , Mona Knapp concluded that Lessing 's heroine , the " good terrorist " , is neither a good person , nor a good revolutionary . She knows how to renovate houses and manipulate people to her advantage , but she is unemployed and steals money from her parents . When real revolutionaries start using the squat to ship arms , she panics , and going behind her comrades ' backs , she makes a telephone call to the authorities to warn them . Knapp called Alice " a bad terrorist and a stunted human being " . Fishburn suggested that it is Lessing herself who is the " good terrorist " , symbolised here by Alice , but that hers is " political terrorism of a literary kind " , where she frequently disguises her ideas in " very domestic @-@ looking fiction " , and " direct [ ly ] challenge [ s ] ... our sense of reality " .

Kuehn described Alice as " well @-@ intentioned , canny and sometimes lovable " , but as someone who , at 36 , never grew up , and is still dependent on her parents . Yelin said Alice is " in a state of perpetual adolescence " , and her need to " mother everyone " is " an extreme case of psychological regression or failure to thrive " . Greene wrote that Alice 's " humanitarianism is ludicrous in her world " , and described her as " so furiously at odds with herself " because she is too immature to comprehend what is happening and her actions vary from being helpful to dangerous .

Boschman called Lessing 's narrative " ironic " because it highlights the divide between who Alice is and who she thinks she is , and her efforts to pretend there is no discrepancy . Alice refuses to acknowledge that her " maternal activities " stem from her desire to win her mother 's approval , and believing that her mother has " betrayed and abandoned " her , Alice turns to Jasper as a way to " continue to sustain her beliefs about herself and the world " . Even though Jasper takes advantage of her adoration of him by mistreating her , Alice still clings to him because her self @-@ image " vigorously qualifies her perception of [ him ] , and thus proliferates the denial and self @-@ deception " . The fact that Jasper has turned to homosexuality , which Alice dismisses as " his emotional life " , " suits her own repressed desires " . Kuehn called Alice 's obsession with the " hapless " and " repellent " Jasper " just comprehensible " , adding that she feels safe with his gayness , even though she has to endure his abuse .

Knapp stated that while Lessing exposes self @-@ styled insurrectionists as " spoiled and immature products of the middle class " , she also derides their ineptness at affecting any meaningful change . Lessing is critical of the state which " feeds the very hand that terrorizes it " , yet she also condemns those institutions that exploits the working class and ignores the homeless . Knapp remarks that Lessing does not resolve these ambiguities , but instead highlights the failings of the state and those seeking to overthrow it . Scanlan compared Lessing 's comrades to Richard E. Rubenstein 's terrorists in his book Alchemists of Revolution : Terrorism in the Modern World . Rubenstein wrote that when " ambitious idealists " have no " creative ruling class to follow or a rebellious lower class to lead [ they ] have often taken upon themselves the burden of representative action " , which he said " is a formula for disaster " .

= = Reception = =

Critics have been divided on The Good Terrorist . Elizabeth Lowry highlighted this in the London Review of Books : " [ Lessing ] has been sharply criticised for the pedestrian quality of her prose , and as vigorously defended " . The Irish literary critic Denis Donoghue complained that the style of the novel is " insistently drab " , and Kuehn referred to Lessing 's text as " surprisingly bland " . Lowry noted that the English academic Clare Hanson defended the book by saying that it is " a grey and textureless novel because it ... speaks a grey and textureless language " .

Freeman on the other hand called the book a " graceful and accomplished story " , and a " brilliant account of the types of individuals who commit terrorist acts " . Writing in the Los Angeles Times Freeman described Lessing as " one of our most valuable writers " who " has an uncanny grasp of human relationships " . In a review in the Sun @-@ Sentinel , Bonnie Gross described the novel as " rewarding reading " and Lessing 's " most accessible " book to date . She said it is the author 's " strong descriptive prose and her precise and realistic characterizations " that makes this book " remarkable " . Gross felt that while some of the male characters are not that strong , the female characters are much better developed , particularly Alice , whom she found memorable .

Amanda Sebestyen wrote in The Women 's Review of Books that at first glance the ideas in The Good Terrorist appear deceptively simple , and the plot predictable . But she added that Lessing 's strength is her " stoic narrat [ ion ] of the daily effort of living " , which excels in the way she describes day @-@ to @-@ day life in a squat . Sebestyen also liked the book 's depiction of Alice , who " speak [ s ] to me most disquietingly about myself and my generation " . In a review in off our backs , an American feminist publication , Vickie Leonard called The Good Terrorist a " fascinating book " that is " extremely well written " with characters that are " exciting " and " realistic " . Leonard added that even though Alice is not a feminist , the book illustrates the author 's " strong admiration for women and their accomplishments " .

Writing in The Guardian , Rogers described The Good Terrorist as " a novel in unsparing close @-@ up " that examines society through the eyes of individuals . She said it is " witty and ... angry at human stupidity and destructiveness " , and within the context of recent terrorist attacks in London , it is an example of " fiction going where factual writing cannot " . A critic in Kirkus Reviews wrote that Alice 's story is " an extraordinary tour de force — a psychological portrait that 's realistic with a vengeance " . The reviewer added that although Alice is " self @-@ deluding " and not always likeable , the novel 's strength are the characters and its depiction of political motivation .

Donoghue wrote in The New York Times that he did not care much about what happened to Alice and her comrades . He felt that Lessing presents Alice as " an unquestioned rigmarole of reactions and prejudices " , which leaves no room for any further interest . Donoghue complained that Lessing has not made up her mind on whether her characters are " the salt of the earth or its scum " . In a review in the Chicago Tribune , Kuehn felt that the work has little impact and is not memorable . He said Lessing 's real interest is character development , but complained that the characters are " trivial or two @-@ dimensional or crippled by self @-@ delusions " .

The Good Terrorist was shortlisted for the 1985 Booker Prize , and in 1986 won the Mondello Prize and the WH Smith Literary Award . In 2007 Lessing was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for being " part of both the history of literature and living literature " . In the award ceremony speech by Swedish writer Per Wästberg , The Good Terrorist was cited as " an in @-@ depth account of the extreme leftwing squatting culture that sponges off female self @-@ sacrifice " . Following Lessing 's death in 2013 , The Guardian put The Good Terrorist in their list of the top five Lessing books . Indian writer Neel Mukherjee included the novel in his 2015 " top 10 books about revolutionaries " , also published in The Guardian .

= = Publication history = =

The Good Terrorist was first published in September 1985 in hardcover in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape , and in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf . The first paperback edition was published in the United Kingdom in September 1986 by Grafton . An unabridged 13 @-@ hour audio cassette edition , narrated by Nadia May , was released in the United States in April 1999 by Blackstone Audio . The novel has been translated into several other languages since its first publication in English in 1985 , including Catalan , Chinese , French , German , Italian , Spanish and Swedish .

= Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster =

Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster , 4th Earl of Leicester and Lancaster , KG ( c . 1310 – 23 March 1361 ) , also Earl of Derby , was a member of the English nobility in the 14th century , and a prominent English diplomat , politician , and soldier . The son and heir of Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster , and Maud Chaworth , he became one of Edward III 's most trusted captains in the early phases of the Hundred Years ' War and distinguished himself with victory in the Battle of Auberoche . He was a founding member and the second Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1348 , and in 1351 was created duke . Grosmont was also the author of the book Livre de seyntz medicines , a highly personal devotional treatise . He is remembered as one of the founders and early patrons of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge , which was established by two of the guilds of the town in 1352 .

= = Family background and early life = =

Grosmont 's uncle , Thomas of Lancaster , was the son and heir of Edward I 's brother Edmund Crouchback . Through his inheritance and a fortunate marriage , Thomas became the wealthiest peer in England , but constant quarrels with King Edward II led to his execution in 1322 . Having no heir , Thomas 's possessions and titles went to his younger brother Henry – Grosmont 's father . Earl Henry of Lancaster assented to the deposition of Edward II in 1327 , but did not long stay in favour with the regency of Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer . When Edward III took personal control of the government in 1330 , relations with the Crown improved , but by this time the older Henry was already struggling with poor health and blindness .

Little is known of Grosmont 's early years , but that he was born at Grosmont Castle in Grosmont , Monmouthshire , Wales , and that he was born c . 1310 , not around the turn of the century as previously held . According to his own memoirs , he was better at martial arts than at academic subjects , and did not learn to read until later in life . In 1330 he was knighted , and represented his father in parliament . The next year he is recorded as participating in a royal tournament at Cheapside .

In 1333 he took part in Edward 's Scottish campaign , though it is unclear whether he was present at the great English victory at the Battle of Halidon Hill . After further service in the north , he was appointed the King 's lieutenant in Scotland in 1336 . The next year he was one of the six men Edward III promoted to the higher levels of the peerage . One of his father 's lesser titles , that of Earl of Derby , was bestowed upon Grosmont .

= = Service in France = =

With the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War in 1337 , Grosmont 's attention was turned towards France . He took part in several diplomatic missions and minor campaigns and was present at the great English victory in the naval Battle of Sluys in 1340 . Later the same year , he was required to commit himself as hostage in the Low Countries for the king 's considerable debts . He remained hostage until the next year and had to pay a large ransom for his own release . On his return he was made the king 's lieutenant in the north and stayed at Roxburgh until 1342 . The next years he spent in diplomatic negotiations in the Low Countries , Castile and Avignon .

In 1345 Edward III was planning a major assault on France . A three @-@ pronged attack would have the Earl of Northampton attacking from Brittany , the king himself from Flanders , while Grosmont was dispatched to Aquitaine to prepare a campaign in the south . Moving rapidly through the country , he confronted the Comte d ’ Isle at Auberoche on 21 October and there achieved a victory described as " the greatest single achievement of Lancaster 's entire military career " . The ransom from the prisoners has been estimated at £ 50 @,@ 000 . The next year , while Edward was carrying out his Crécy campaign , Grosmont laid siege to , and captured , Poitiers , before returning home to England in 1347 .

= = Duke of Lancaster = =

In 1345 , while Grosmont was in France , his father died . The younger Henry was now Earl of Lancaster – the wealthiest and most powerful peer of the realm . After participating in the Siege of Calais in 1347 , the king honoured Lancaster by including him as a founding knight of the Order of the Garter in 1348 . A few years later , in 1351 , Edward bestowed an even greater honour on Lancaster when he created him Duke of Lancaster . The title of duke was of relatively new origin in England ; only one other ducal title existed previously .

In addition to this , Lancaster was given palatinate status for the county of Lancashire , which entailed a separate administration independent of the crown . This grant was quite exceptional in English history ; only two other counties palatine existed : Durham , which was an ancient ecclesiastical palatinate , and Chester , which was crown property .

It is a sign of Edward 's high regard for Lancaster that he would bestow such extensive privileges on him . The two men were second cousins through their great @-@ grandfather Henry III and practically coeval ( Edward was born in 1312 ) , so it is natural to assume that a strong sense of camaraderie existed between them . Another factor that might have influenced the king 's decision was the fact that Henry had no male heir , so the grant was made for the Earl 's lifetime only , and not intended to be hereditary .

= = = Further prestige = = =

Lancaster spent the 1350s intermittently campaigning and negotiating peace treaties with the French . In 1350 he was present at the naval victory at Winchelsea , where he allegedly saved the lives of the Black Prince and John of Gaunt . The years 1351 @-@ 2 he spent on crusade in Prussia . It was here that a quarrel with Otto , Duke of Brunswick , almost led to a duel between the two men , narrowly averted by the intervention of the French king , John II . In the later half of the decade campaigning in France resumed . After a chevauchée in Normandy in 1356 and the siege of Rennes in 1358 , Lancaster participated in the last great offensive of the first phase of the Hundred Years ' War : the Rheims campaign of 1359 @-@ 60 . Then he was appointed principal negotiator for the Treaty of Brétigny , where the English achieved very favourable terms .

After returning to England in November 1360 , he fell ill early the next year , and died at Leicester Castle on 23 March . It is likely that the cause of death was the plague , which that year was making a second visitation of England . He was buried in the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke , Leicester , the church which he had built within the religious and charitable institution founded by his father next to Leicester Castle , and where he had re @-@ buried his father some years previously .

= = Private life = =

Lancaster was married to Isabella , daughter of Henry , Lord Beaumont , in 1330 . The two had no sons , but two daughters : Maud and Blanche . While Maud was married to William I , Duke of Bavaria , Blanche married Edward III 's son John of Gaunt . Gaunt ended up inheriting Lancaster 's possessions and ducal title , but it was not until 1377 , when the dying King Edward III was largely incapacitated , that he was able to restore the palatinate rights for the county of Lancaster . When Gaunt 's son Henry of Bolingbroke usurped the crown in 1399 and became Henry IV , the vast Lancaster inheritance , including the Lordship of Bowland , was merged with the crown as the Duchy of Lancaster .

We know more about Lancaster 's character than of most of his contemporaries through his memoirs , the Livre de seyntz medicines ( Book of the Holy Doctors ) . This book is a highly personal treatise on matters of religion and piety , but it also contains details of historical interest . It , among other things , revealed that Lancaster , at the age of 44 when he wrote the book in 1354 , suffered from gout . The book is primarily a devotional work though ; it is organized around seven wounds which Henry claims to have , representing the seven sins . Lancaster confesses to his sins , explains various real and mythical medical remedies in terms of their theological symbolism , and exhorts the reader to greater morality .

= = Ancestors = =

= I Am Unicorn =

" I Am Unicorn " is the second episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ sixth overall . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and first aired on September 27 , 2011 on Fox in the United States . It features the return of Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) to the show to direct a rival glee club at William McKinley High even while New Directions , the current club , is having trouble recruiting members . Shelby also wants Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Puck ( Mark Salling ) , the biological parents of her adopted daughter Beth , to be a part of Beth 's life . The director of New Directions , Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) sets up a " booty camp " for the less capable dancers in the club , and auditions for the school musical , West Side Story , begin .

The episode received mostly positive reviews , which ranged from okay to fabulous , with approval being given to the resurrection of neglected storylines from the show 's first season . One of these was the adoption of Beth , and critics were especially happy with the scene where Puck meets her , but there was widespread disdain for the explanation behind Shelby 's return , that of starting a rival glee club . There were only three musical numbers in the episode , though all three were given positive notices , with the overall favorite being Blaine 's performance of " Something 's Coming " from West Side Story at the end of the episode . All three songs were released as singles , available for download , and " Somewhere " , sung as a duet by Menzel and Lea Michele , charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . It did not chart on the Canadian Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down from the previous week 's season opener , " The Purple Piano Project " .

= = Plot = =

Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) institutes a " booty camp " to hone the dancing skills of New Directions members Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , and has Mike ( Harry Shum Jr . ) instruct them . As he is too busy to direct the upcoming school musical West Side Story , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) and New Directions member Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) take charge of it .

Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Kurt audition , respectively , for the lead roles of Maria and Tony ; she performs " Somewhere " from the show , and he performs " I 'm the Greatest Star " from Funny Girl . Kurt later eavesdrops on the directors and hears them question whether he is masculine enough for the role . He re @-@ auditions and attempts to give a more masculine performance , but they are unable to suppress laughter at his acting . Kurt is also running for class president , and accepts campaign help from Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , who wants to highlight his unique character by comparing him to a unicorn . Kurt feels her proposed campaign materials highlight only his gay side , and is upset when she goes against his wishes and posts them anyway . He discusses his image problem with his father , Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) , who recommends that he embrace his uniqueness . Kurt later changes his mind about his campaign 's approach and apologizes to Brittany , but is surprised to learn that she too has decided to run for class president .

Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) — Rachel 's biological mother , the adoptive mother of Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Puck 's daughter Beth , and the former coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline — is headhunted to coach a second glee club at McKinley High financed by Sugar Motta 's ( Vanessa Lengies ) wealthy and doting father . Shelby reaches out to Rachel , Puck and Quinn . She lets Puck see Beth , but rejects Quinn 's desire to do likewise due to Quinn 's bad @-@ girl attitude , appearance and behavior . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , who is running for Congress , convinces Quinn to feature in an anti @-@ arts video for her campaign . In it , Quinn confronts Will and blames him for her transformation into a bad girl , but Will reprimands her , reminds her of how the glee club and its members have always supported her in the past and tells her to grow up . After seeing a picture of a happy Beth and Puck , Quinn breaks down . She resumes her normal appearance , and Will and the New Directions welcome her back into the club . Puck tells Quinn he is proud of her , but Quinn reveals she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby , and intends to pursue full custody .

To avoid competing with Kurt , Blaine auditions for a supporting role with a rendition of " Something 's Coming " , one of Tony 's songs from the show . The directors are impressed , and ask if he will read for the part of Tony instead . Kurt , who was watching from above , silently walks out of the auditorium .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and was filmed in five days , from August 22 , 2011 through August 26 , 2011 . Broadway star Idina Menzel returns for the first time since the first season finale " Journey to Regionals " , when her character , Shelby Corcoran , adopted Quinn 's newborn baby , named Beth . On July 15 , 2011 , it was announced that Menzel would be returning to Glee in the third season " for a major arc that could span as many as 10 @-@ 12 episodes " . Series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy was quoted as saying , " I 'm really excited [ ... ] that Idina is joining the family again . We missed her last year and we 're happy that she is coming back . " The article also noted that her character , Shelby , would be " returning from New York to Ohio to join William McKinley High School as a new teacher " . Menzel herself said that she would " be back and forth in Glee all throughout the season " , which she was " very excited about " . Shelby 's adopted daughter is also appearing : Menzel tweeted that she was " shooting scenes with babies " . The drawing of the " Clown Pig " that Puck brings for Beth was actually drawn by Falchuk and Agron .

Recurring guest stars appearing in the episode include Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , Coach Beiste ( Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , student Sugar Motta ( Lengies ) and Menzel as Shelby . Second season series regular Mike O 'Malley , who plays Burt Hummel and also appears in the episode , is listed in the Fox press release as a guest star for this episode and receives a like credit in the episode itself .

Three singles were released from the episode : " I 'm the Greatest Star " from Funny Girl sung by Colfer , and covers of " Something 's Coming " and " Somewhere " from West Side Story — the former sung by Criss , and the latter a duet between Michele and Menzel .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" I Am Unicorn " was first broadcast on September 27 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 8 @.@ 60 million American viewers during its initial airing . It was beaten for the second week in a row in its timeslot by NCIS on CBS , which earned a 4 @.@ 2 / 12 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also by the second episode of New Girl , which follows Glee on Fox , and brought in a 4 @.@ 5 / 11 rating / share and 9 @.@ 28 million viewers . The Glee numbers were down from the previous week 's season opener , " The Purple Piano Project " , which netted a 4 @.@ 0 / 11 rating / share and 9 @.@ 21 million viewers .

In the United Kingdom , " I Am Unicorn " was watched on Sky1 by 995 @,@ 000 viewers , down 177 @,@ 000 from the season premiere the previous week . In Australia , the episode drew 729 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fifteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from the season premiere 's twelfth most @-@ watched program of the night and 760 @,@ 000 viewers in the previous week . In Canada , 1 @.@ 50 million viewers watched the episode , and it was the eighteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down eight slots and 28 % from the 2 @.@ 10 million who watched " The Purple Piano Project " .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Reviewers generally received this episode positively , though some , like IGN 's Robert Canning , thought it was merely " okay " ; he gave it a score of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 , and Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times said she " felt vaguely underwhelmed " and that the episode " lacked emotional resonance " . In contrast , The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave the episode a " B " , and called it " a marked improvement over the season premiere " , and complimented the way it " gave nearly all of the storylines an emotional core " . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times characterized it as " one of the tightest , best @-@ made , most well @-@ acted , and entertaining hours " from Glee in a very long time , and BuddyTV 's John Kubicek said that it was " quintessential Glee " and that " the show is once again a magical , fabulous unicorn . " Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle was " charmed " , " moved " , and " excited for what 's to come . "

The reappearance of storylines left dangling at the end of the first season was noted with approval by Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News and VanDerWerff , who both mentioned not only the big one about Quinn and Puck and baby Beth but also Artie 's love of directing , and variously added Rachel and Shelby , and movement on the Will and Emma relationship . The fact that Shelby had been hired to form a second glee club at McKinley , however , was greeted with derision by both reviewers — Urban called it " mind @-@ bogglingly idiotic " — and others as well . Reiter found the idea incomprehensible , and Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk wrote , " Given Will 's ongoing struggles to fill his own crooning baker 's dozen , this is about as realistic a plan as Michele Bachmann starting a rival chapter of PFLAG at Liberty University . " Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger characterized the notion of " Shelby deciding to give up a burgeoning Broadway career because she was missing her daughter grow up " to take a part @-@ time job in Lima as " ridiculous " , and the whole scenario as " more than a little bizarre " .

The effect of Shelby 's advent on Puck evoked the most praise . Benigno called the segment where Puck meets Beth " the best scene of this very young season " , The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg said it was a " top moment " , and Abby West of Entertainment Weekly dubbed it " the sweetest scene of the night " . VanDerWerff also called it " very sweet " and expressed hope that " the show will come up with something for him to do after mostly relegating him to weird comic relief last season . " The effect of her return on Quinn was greeted with less enthusiasm . Reiter was " not thrilled " by the possibility of a custody battle between Quinn and Shelby and called Quinn 's plan " half @-@ baked " , and Canning dismissed it as " clichéd drama " . Kubicek expressed interest in seeing " where this goes " , and VanDerWerff noted that Quinn has been " grieving giving up her child all this time and she didn 't even know it " , and characterized it as a " fairly powerful storyline " .

Critics were divided on Kurt 's storyline as he faced being perceived primarily as gay both when auditioning and when running for class president . VanDerWerff said it was " the most consistent " storyline , and Canning called it " the most familiar story " , but also described Kurt as " by far the most interesting and most layered " character , his stories " delivering the most emotional connections " , and this episode 's installments " entertaining territory " . Kubicek stated that there were " tons " of wonderful " Kurt moments " in the episode . Benigno called Kurt learning to embrace his gayness yet again on the show " kind of awkward " , and Hyman asked " Was this Kurt Accepts He 's Special 3 @.@ 0 or 4 @.@ 0 ? I can 't keep track . " Votta summed up Kurt 's audition quandary : " Kurt is fighting typecasting , and while the ninjitsu , fingerless gloves and climbing routine might have been an attempt to butch it up , instead Kurt played right into expectations with the over @-@ the @-@ top Funny Girl piece . " His attempt to rescue the situation by reauditioning via performing a Romeo and Juliet scene with Rachel evoked laughter from the three directors and Rachel herself , but as Votta points out , Kurt was " not actually being bad as Romeo " . Jayma Mays , who plays Emma , one of the directors in that scene , stated in an interview that she thought Kurt was " good " . Kurt finding himself in competition with Blaine was also touched on , but several reviewers were unhappy with the revelation that Blaine was not a senior like Kurt , as had been implied in the previous season . VanDerWerff wrote that Blaine " seems to have simultaneously gotten younger and had a complete personality transplant over the summer " , Votta noted " the continuity @-@ bending plot point that he 's somehow a Junior and not a Senior like his boyfriend " , and Urban allowed her exasperation to show : " Oh really , Glee ? Blaine 's a junior ? Blaine 's younger than Kurt ? Fine . FINE . " MTV 's Jim Cantiello went into rhyme to express his dismay : " It 's hard to keep my bearings straight / And oh , how it makes my heart ache / Kurt and Blaine were gonna move to New York together / But now they 'll have to wait " , referring to a scene in the " New York " episode where Kurt discussed the planned move with Rachel .

Goldberg was pleased that having Brittany volunteer to run Kurt 's campaign included an acknowledgment that he " went through hell " the previous year , and praised " Brittany logic " in general . Respers France loved that Brittany , in helping Kurt find his magical inner unicorn , was able to find her own . Reiter enjoyed the " delicious dose of Brittany @-@ isms " , which she called " the best part " of the episode , and Kubicek said that there were " tons of wonderful " Brittany moments . For Hyman , the " one sit @-@ up @-@ and @-@ take @-@ notice moment " was the confrontation between Will and Quinn where he told her to grow up . Respers France thought " Sue Sylvester 's attempt to use Quinn against the glee club was hilarious " , but VanDerWerff was unhappy with Quinn being coopted into " Sue ’ s ridiculous run for Congress " . Reiter wrote that it was " hard to muster much sympathy for Quinn " in the episode given the scene with Quinn and The Skanks : " Flushing someone 's head in a public toilet , threatening to cut them , and shaking them down for their lunch money are orders of magnitude more chilling than the face @-@ full @-@ of @-@ slushy bullying we 're used to seeing . "

= = = Music and performances = = =

The episode 's musical performances were well received by most reviewers . All three were Broadway songs , two from West Side Story and one from Funny Girl — the concentration on show tunes disappointed Reiter , and Canning felt they were all " too bland " , but others were happy with the selections including Hankinson who said he was " loving the Broadway @-@ bend to these first two episodes " , and added , " all three of tonight 's numbers were hands @-@ down fantastic . "

The duet of " Somewhere " featuring Rachel and Shelby was generally complimented . Both Benigno and Rae Votta of Billboard compared it favorably to their previous duet , Lady Gaga 's " Poker Face " , from season one . Benigno gave the performance a " B + " , while Michael Slezak of TVLine gave it an " A − " and praised their " powerful , evocative voices " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman was not impressed , and characterized it as " Lite FM snooze that does nothing to showcase these Broadway belters in a new and exciting way " . Amy Lee of The Huffington Post called it " pretty bland " , and said it was " getting annoying " that Rachel " sings every song as if she 's Barbra Streisand " . The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez , however , called the duet " pitch @-@ perfect " and " so sublime it makes you catch your breath " .

Kurt 's choice of " I 'm the Greatest Star " to audition for the role of Tony — the one song not from West Side Story — drew comment : Benigno ascribed it to Kurt 's " ability to make a talented ass of himself " , while Slezak was of the opinion that Kurt was " way too savvy , and way too hungry for the role " for that kind of misstep . Despite these plot @-@ related issues , both reviewers gave the performance an " A " , and Benigno noted both that " he nails it " and " last half of the song is a singing clinic . " VanDerWerff was not fond of the reliance on " gimmicky staging " , though Futterman called it " an impressive physical performance " , Votta stated that " Kurt sounds flawless and the performance is captivating " and Flandez complimented his " captivating high notes after high notes " , and added , " He 's a star unicorn , and he knows it . " Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that Kurt " was amazing singing Streisand , and for the first time I realized that he really is as big a star as Rachel . "

Blaine 's rendition of " Something 's Coming " was the most enthusiastically welcomed . It was the favorite number of Lee , VanDerWerff and Futterman ; Lee said it was " the best song " , and added , " he 's kinetic , impassioned and generally delightful as Blaine @-@ playing @-@ Tony . " VanDerWerff was even more complimentary with " by far the best performance " , and Futterman called it " the winning musical number of the episode " . Both Slezak and Benigno gave it a " B + " , and the former complimented Criss 's " breathless charm and boyish enthusiasm " , while the latter maintained that the actor is " at his best when he 's doing goofy pop numbers with kind of an off @-@ beat twist " . West gave the song an " A − " , and said " Blaine just knows how to own the stage and your TV screen " , while both Votta and Respers France wrote that he was the " perfect Tony " .

= = = Chart history = = =

One of the three cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and none charted on the Canadian Hot 100 or in England or Australia . The duet version of " Somewhere " appeared at number seventy @-@ five , the fourth time the song charted in the Hot 100 . By contrast , " Something 's Coming " , the episode 's other song from West Side Story , has never appeared in the Hot 100 , and failed to chart there again .

= Galentine 's Day =

" Galentine 's Day " is the 16th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 22nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 11 , 2010 . In the episode , Leslie and her boyfriend Justin seek to reunite Leslie 's mother , Marlene , with her teenage flame . Meanwhile , April 's feelings for Andy continue to bloom , while Ann appears to be growing apart from Mark .

The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur and directed by Ken Kwapis . " Galentine 's Day " featured a guest appearance by John Larroquette as Frank Beckerson , the long @-@ lost love of Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , who was played by Pamela Reed . It also featured the last in a string of guest performances by Justin Theroux as Leslie 's love interest , Justin Anderson .

According to Nielsen Media Research , " Galentine 's Day " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million household viewers , which marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series . It tied a record set with the previous episode , " Sweetums " , for the season 's highest rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews .

= = Plot summary = =

Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) throws her annual " Galentine 's Day " party for her female friends , celebrated the day before Valentine 's Day . She asks her mother , Marlene ( Pamela Reed ) , to tell the story about how she fell in love with a lifeguard that saved her from drowning in 1968 , but the two had to break it off over objections from Marlene 's parents . Leslie later tells the story to Justin ( Justin Theroux ) , who is amazed by the tale and wants to unite the two . He successfully tracks down Marlene 's old flame , Frank Beckerson ( John Larroquette ) , and convinces Leslie to go with him to Illinois and reunite the two on Valentine 's Day at the Senior Center Valentine 's Dance , which the parks department oversees .

Leslie and Justin meet Frank , a strange and depressed man that has constant panic attacks . Leslie begins to have doubts about bringing him to her mother and tries to call it off , but Justin insists that they should " let this unfold " . At the dance , where Andy 's ( Chris Pratt ) band Mouse Rat is playing , Frank meets up with Marlene , who is repulsed by Frank 's past , current unemployment and overall failure at life . She turns down his offer at a second chance at love , prompting him to storm onto the stage and denounce her over the microphone . Leslie apologizes to her mother for bringing Frank . She is later upset with Justin , but has trouble pinpointing the reasons for her dissatisfaction . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) explains that Justin is a " tourist , " meaning that he takes " vacations in people 's lives " and only cares about telling interesting stories to impress other people , which makes him selfish . Two older women then recognize Ron as jazz saxophonist Duke Silver , but he denies it . Leslie later breaks up with Justin , which Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) takes especially hard , reacting as if his parents were getting divorced .

Before the senior dance , Tom invites his ex @-@ wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) to his office to finally disclose his romantic feelings for her , but she rejects him . Not satisfied with the outcome , he attempts to blackmail her into a date using an alimony lawsuit as leverage . Tom and Wendy are later shown hugging and presumably making amends , although their conversation remains inaudible . Meanwhile , April 's ( Aubrey Plaza ) boyfriend Derek ( Blake Lee ) and his boyfriend Ben ( Josh Duvendeck ) mock the senior citizens , causing April to question why their interactions must constantly be " cloaked in like 15 layers of irony " . They accuse her of " lameness " , which they attribute to spending time with Andy , and provide her with several ultimatums . She breaks up with them in response . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) and Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , at the same time , celebrate their first Valentine 's Day together . In an interview with the camera crew , Ann describes the relationship as " good " , but her tone of voice and body language around Mark contradict her statements . She later becomes jealous when Andy dedicates a song to April , even going so far as to question April about the possibility of a budding relationship between April and Andy , to which April responds impatiently .

= = Production = =

" Galentine 's Day " was written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur and directed by Ken Kwapis . The episode featured a guest appearance by John Larroquette as Frank Beckerson , the long @-@ lost love of Leslie 's mother , Marlene Knope . When Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Greg Daniels announced the casting in January 2010 , he described Larroquette 's character as " He 's the one who got away . " " Galentine 's Day " also included an appearance by Pamela Reed , who has played Marlene Knope in several episodes , and the last of a string of slated guest appearances by Justin Theroux as Justin Anderson , a love interest for Leslie . The episode marked the return of Andy 's band , " Mouse Rat " , which was previously featured in the first season finale " Rock Show " . His bandmates are played by Mark Rivers ( drums ) , Andrew Burlinson ( guitar ) and Alan Yang ( bass ) , the latter of whom serves as a screenwriter for Parks and Recreation .

= = Cultural references = =

At the dance , a senior citizen approaches Ron Swanson and asks for an autograph from Duke Silver . This is a reference to the previous second season episode , " Practice Date " , which establishes Ron 's secret identity as a jazz musician . Leslie referred to her Galentine 's Day breakfast tradition as " Lilith Fair minus the angst and plus frittatas " , a reference to the concert tour and traveling music festival . She also said the love story between Marlene and Frank makes the 2004 romance film The Notebook look like the 2008 horror film Saw V. Mark gets Ann a necklace similar to the Heart of the Ocean , the fictional jewelry given to Kate Winslet 's character in the 1997 romantic drama film , Titanic . During one scene in " Galentine 's Day " , Leslie does a voice impersonation of U.S. President John F. Kennedy . When Tom mistakes the impression for that of the Arnold Schwarzenegger character Terminator , he prompts Leslie to do that impression as well .

Among the songs performed by Mouse Rat in " Galentine 's Day " were " The Way You Look Tonight " , originally performed by Fred Astaire in the 1936 film , Swing Time . Andy 's bandmate suggests he sings the " Let 's Call the Whole Thing Off " more like jazz musician and trumpeter Louis Armstrong , who Andy admits he has never heard of . Andy and his band also performs " I Only Have Eyes for You " and " I 've Got You Under My Skin " . Leslie said reuniting Marlene and Frank would be like reuniting Romeo and Juliet , the protagonists of the William Shakespeare play of the same name , or reuniting actress Jennifer Aniston and actor Brad Pitt . She also warns to the camera for Aniston to " stay away from John Mayer " , the musician who previously dated Aniston . In the days prior to the original broadcast of " Galentine 's Day " , Mayer publicly apologized for a number of explicit sexual and racial comments he had made in the past months , which prompted news outlets to praise Parks and Recreation for the timeliness of their Mayer joke . Ironically , in May 2011 , Jennifer Aniston started dating Justin Theroux , who guest starred in the episode , and they later married . Frank made a reference to a recurring gag from Arrested Development when , after being rejected , he announced to Marlene , " take one last look ... because you 'll never see this body again . "

= = Reception = =

In its original American NBC broadcast on February 11 , 2010 , " Galentine 's Day " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . This marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series . " Galentine 's Day " was seen by more viewers than the previous week 's episode " Sweetums " , which drew 4 @.@ 87 million viewers and was an itself an increase from previous episodes . " Galentine 's Day " drew an overall 3 @.@ 1 rating / 5 share , and a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers between 18 and 49 , the latter of which tied with " Sweetums " as the highest of its age group for the series . The subsequent episode , " Woman of the Year " , would also tie the two episodes for a series @-@ high rating in that 18 to 49 age group .

" Galentine 's Day " received generally positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez said , " The show managed to cram more character development into 22 minutes than I thought possible . Almost every couple had a major milestone of sorts last night . " Gonzalez complimented the acting of Aziz Ansari during his moments with Wendy , and praised the " touching moment " between Ron and Leslie when she realized she had to break up with Justin . Steve Kandell of New York magazine appreciated that Leslie was correct about Frank , and that Justin was the ignorant one . Kandell said the senior dance served as a " poignant backdrop " for the episode 's romantic subplots , but said the most intriguing show 's relationship is between Leslie and Ron . Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , said the episode was funny , but focused more attention on advancing various romantic subplots . Sepinwall said the scenes about Ann and Mark were " a nice reaction to the general blandness of that relationship " , but found it " frustrating " that the episode left the reason for Wendy and Tom 's resolution unclear in " Galentine 's Day " .

Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the episode for displaying some of Leslie 's stronger and more competent aspects , which he said makes audiences " much more willing to put up with her many , many eccentricities " . Heisler said he thought the Leslie and Justin relationship ended appropriately and praised Ansari 's performance , but added he was a little " taken aback " by how rudely Tom treated Wendy . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode had many funny moments and good character development , but he said some of the romantic relationships risked skewing the balance between " the sweet and the absurd " , and that some of the character moments " played out a bit too jarringly real for a show like this " . Kona Gallagher of TV Squad said she would like to see Leslie get a boyfriend who last longer than three episodes , unlike Justin Theroux and Louis C.K. , who played Leslie 's love interest Dave Sanderson earlier in the season . Gallagher praised Andy 's band and the befuddlement with which Andy reacted to the senior citizen audience . Mike Murphy of The Press Democrat said the episode was funny , and he particularly praised the " hilariously whacked @-@ out " performance of John Laroquette . Several commentators praised the joke about Andy 's new rock song " Sex Hair " , about how one can tell whether someone had sex because their hair is matted .

= = DVD release = =

" Galentine 's Day " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .

= Bossy ( Lindsay Lohan song ) =

" Bossy " is a song by American actress and singer @-@ songwriter Lindsay Lohan . The song was written and produced by Shaffer Smith , known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , while additional writing and production was done by Stargate members Mikkel Storleer Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . After leaking online in the beginning of May 2008 , Universal Motown officially released the song to media outlets , while its digital single was released on May 27 , 2008 . The song is influenced by electropop and dance @-@ pop . Lyrically , it is about a woman being strong enough to get what she wants when she wants it .

Critically , " Bossy " attained generally mixed reception upon release , many music critics generally praised the attitude of the song , but considered the song less catchy than Lohan 's previous efforts . Commercially , " Bossy " managed to peak at number 77 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and became Lohan 's first song from her entire music career , so far , to reach number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Play .

= = Background = =

" Bossy " was written by Shaffer Smith , known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , while additional writing and song production was done by Stargate members Mikkel Storleer Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . In the beginning of May 2008 , a clip of the song leaked on YouTube . As a result , Universal Motown released the full song to media outlets on May 7 , 2008 . In an interview with Billboard , Ne @-@ Yo revealed that he was approached by the label to write a song for Lohan : " I gotta admit , we were like ... Lindsay Lohan ? ' I mean , I 've written for Beyoncé , Mary J. Blige , Rihanna , Celine Dion and ... Lindsay Lohan ? But I will say this ; we gave her a quality record and she did a ridiculously fabulous job . I was so shocked I had to call her and apologize for what I was thinking because she did so good . I think the world is gonna be surprised . " In an interview with People Magazine , he revealed the song " it 's basically about a woman being strong enough to get what she wants when she wants it . In this case , ' Bossy ' is a term that describes confidence and power . " " Bossy " was digitally released on May 27 , 2008 , and it was set to appear on Lohan 's third studio album .

= = Critical reception = =

" Bossy " received mixed reviews from music critics . A Billboard review said " the track spotlights the raspy @-@ voiced singer 's dominating side as she rhymes about liking things her way over simple drums " , while Nick Levine of Digital Spy considered " Bossy " as an " electro @-@ dance @-@ pop [ song ] with attitude " , but commented that it " isn 't pop gold – the chorus lacks a bit of oomph and Lohan 's vocals still aren 't convincing – but it 's the first Lohan tune we 'd be prepared to listen to more than once . That , we suppose , is enough to constitute a small step forward " . Kate Brandli of Blogcritics said " Bossy " " is not nearly as good or as catchy as Miss Lohan 's previous musical attempts " , while commenting that its lyrical content " is an obvious reflection on Miss Lohan 's relationship with the paparazzi . As Miss Lohan sings in the lyrics , she does what she wants , she controls them , and not vice versa . Unfortunately , Miss Lohan 's logic is not entirely correct — neither party has the authority to boss the other around . That is , sadly , the price of fame these days — once people want in , they want total access and exposure . With some individual 's antics , like Miss Lohan and Britney Spears , it is difficult to garner sympathy for them " . " Bossy " reached number 77 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and became Lohan 's first song from her entire career to reach number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Play . The song also managed to peak on the Global Dance Tracks component chart .

= = Track listing = =

Digital download

" Bossy " – 4 : 10

= = Charts = =

= Biddenden Maids =

Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst ( or Chalkhurst ) , commonly known as the Biddenden Maids , were a pair of conjoined twins supposedly born in Biddenden , Kent , England , in the year 1100 . They are said to have been joined at both the shoulder and the hip , and to have lived for 34 years . It is claimed that on their death they bequeathed five plots of land to the village , known as the Bread and Cheese Lands . The income from these lands was used to pay for an annual dole of food and drink to the poor every Easter . Since at least 1775 , the dole has included Biddenden cakes , hard biscuits imprinted with an image of two conjoined women .

Although the annual distribution of food and drink is known to have taken place since at least 1605 , no records exist of the story of the sisters prior to 1770 . Records of that time say that the names of the sisters were not known , and early drawings of Biddenden cakes do not give names for the sisters ; it is not until the early 19th century that the names " Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst " were first used .

Edward Hasted , the local historian of Kent , has dismissed the story of the Biddenden Maids as a folk myth , claiming that the image on the cake had originally represented two poor women and that the story of the conjoined twins was " a vulgar tradition " invented to account for it , while influential historian Robert Chambers accepted that the legend could be true but believed it unlikely . Throughout most of the 19th century little research was carried out into the origins of the legend . Despite the doubts among historians , in the 19th century the legend became increasingly popular and the village of Biddenden was thronged with rowdy visitors every Easter . In the late 19th century historians investigated the origins of the legend . It was suggested that the twins had genuinely existed but had been joined at the hip only rather than at both the hip and shoulder , and that they had lived in the 16th rather than the 12th century .

In 1907 , the Bread and Cheese Lands were sold for housing , and the resulting income allowed the annual dole to expand considerably , providing the widows and pensioners of Biddenden with cheese , bread and tea at Easter and with cash payments at Christmas . Biddenden cakes continue to be given to the poor of Biddenden each Easter , and are sold as souvenirs to visitors .

= = Legend = =

According to tradition Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst , or Chalkhurst , were born to relatively wealthy parents in Biddenden , Kent , in the year 1100 . The pair were said to be conjoined at both the shoulder and the hip . They grew up conjoined , and are said to have " had frequent quarrels , which sometimes terminated in blows " . At the age of 34 , Mary Chulkhurst died suddenly . Doctors proposed to separate the still @-@ living Eliza from her sister 's body but she refused , saying " as we came together we will also go together " , and died six hours afterwards . In their wills , the sisters left five pieces of land in the Biddenden area comprising around 20 acres ( 8 ha ) in total to the local church , with the income from these lands ( claimed to have been 6 guineas per annum at the time of their death ) to provide an annual dole of bread , cheese and beer to the poor every Easter . Henceforward , the lands were to be known as the Bread and Cheese Lands .

= = History = =

The churchwardens of Biddenden continued to maintain the annual dole from the Bread and Cheese Lands . It is recorded that in 1605 , the custom that " on that day [ Easter ] our parson giveth unto the parishoners bread , cheese , cakes and divers barrels of beer , brought in there and drawn " was suspended on account of a visit from Charles Fotherby , the Archdeacon of Canterbury , owing to previous ceremonies having caused " much disorder by reason of some unruly ones , which at such time we cannot restrain with any ease " . In 1645 , rector William Horner claimed that the Bread and Cheese Lands were glebe ( land intended for the use of the parish priest ) , and attempted to take control of the lands . The case of the Bread and Cheese Lands was brought before the Committee for Plundered Ministers , who eventually found in favour of the charity in 1649 . Horner brought the case before the Court of the Exchequer in 1656 but again without success , and the charity continued to own the lands and to operate the annual Easter dole . Witness statements from these cases mention that the lands had been given by two women " who grew together in their bodies " , but do not give any name for the women .

In 1681 the " disorder and indecency " of the annual dole led to the threat of intervention by the Archbishop of Canterbury . The distribution of the dole ceased to be conducted inside the church ; it was moved to the church porch .

By 1770 , it is recorded that the annual dole took place immediately after the afternoon Easter service . The annual income from the Bread and Cheese Lands had risen to 20 guineas ( about £ 2 @,@ 600 in 2016 ) , and a huge quantity of food was distributed each year . By this time as well as the dole of bread , cheese and beer , hard bread rolls known as " Biddenden cakes " , moulded into an image of the sisters , were thrown to crowds from the church roof . The Biddenden cakes were flat , hard and made of flour and water , and were described as " not by any means tempting " ; one writer in 1860 described one as " a biscuit plaque " .

= = = Origins of the Biddenden Maids legend = = =

Although it is known that the charity had been in operation as early as 1656 , an anonymous article in The Gentleman 's Magazine in August 1770 is the earliest recorded account of the legend of the Biddenden Maids . This account states that the twins were joined at the hip only , rather than at both the hip and the shoulder , and that they lived to a relatively old age . The article explicitly states that their names were not recorded , and that they were known only as the " Maids of Biddenden " . The anonymous author recounts the story of their bequest of the lands to the parish to support the annual dole , and goes on to say that despite the antiquity of the events described , he has no doubt as to their authenticity . As with all accounts of the tradition prior to 1790 the author does not mention their alleged birth in 1100 , or the name of Chulkhurst ; these details first appeared in a broadside published in 1790 . The Antiquarian Repertory of 1775 says that the sisters had lived " as tradition says , two hundred and fifty years ago " . Drawings of Biddenden cakes from this period show that they featured an image of two women , possibly conjoined , but no names , dates or ages .

Historian Edward Hasted , in the third volume of The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent published in 1798 , dismissed the legend of the Biddenden Maids . He claimed that the Bread and Cheese Lands were the gift of two women named Preston ( although he elsewhere described the lands as having been " given by persons unknown " ) . Hasted stated that the Biddenden cakes had only begun to be moulded with the imprint of two women in the last 50 years ( i.e. since 1748 ) and that the figures were intended to represent " two poor widows , as the general objects of a charitable benefaction " . While he mentioned a legend that the figures represent two conjoined twins who died in their 20s and bequeathed the Bread and Cheese Lands to the parish , he dismissed it as " a vulgar tradition " .

Hasted 's arguments were largely accepted by influential historian Robert Chambers , and the story was generally treated as a folk myth . A letter to the British Medical Journal in 1869 pointed out that surnames were not in use in Kent in the 12th century , and that in older styles of English handwriting the 1 and 5 characters could easily be confused , and suggested a correct birthdate of 1500 . The Biddenden Maids were occasionally mentioned in pieces on conjoined twins , particularly after Chang and Eng Bunker proved that conjoined twins could live to an advanced age and lead relatively normal lives . Notes and Queries magazine called in 1866 for a close examination of Biddenden documents , the editors describing Hasted 's conclusions as " very obscure and unsatisfactory " and questioning why the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " should have been added to the design of cakes granted by a family named Preston , but no significant research into the tradition was carried out .

= = = Growth of the charity = = =

As the annual dole grew larger the Easter distribution became increasingly popular . In 1808 a broadside featuring a woodcut of the twins and a brief history of their alleged story was sold outside the church at Easter , the first recorded mention of the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " , and clay replicas of Biddenden cakes were sold as souvenirs .

In the 1820s , a new account of the Biddenden Maids was published , which claimed that a gravestone marked with a diagonal line near the rector 's pew in Biddenden church was the sisters ' burial place . In 1830 it was noted that Biddenden was becoming thronged by visitors every Easter , " attracted from the adjacent towns and villages by the usage , and the wonderful account of its origin , and the day is spent in rude festivity " . The large crowds were increasingly disorderly , and churchwardens on occasion had to use their staffs to hold back the mob . As a result , the distribution of the dole was moved from the church to the workhouse , but the crowds continued to cause problems . In 1882 Biddenden 's rector applied for authority to abandon the ceremony ; the Archbishop of Canterbury permitted the distribution of bread , cheese and Biddenden cakes to continue , but abolished the free beer in an effort to combat the problem of unruly crowds .

In 1900 , antiquarian George Clinch investigated the Biddenden Maids in detail . Examining the costumes of the figures on the Biddenden cake moulds , he concluded that the style of dress depicted dated from the reign of Mary I ( 1553 – 1558 ) , a date roughly consistent with the " two hundred and fifty years ago " reported in 1775 , and concluded that the tradition had originated in the 16th century . He suggested that the " 1100 " date on Biddenden cakes had originally read " 1500 " , and explained the absence of names on prints of 18th century Biddenden cakes as an engraving error . It is likely that the cake moulds examined by Clinch were not the original moulds , as the designs Clinch examined are strikingly different to the earliest surviving drawings of Biddenden cakes , published in 1775 . Writing in the early 1930s , William Coles Finch explains the confusion over the dates , saying " the old @-@ fashioned numeral five is so frequently taken as a one " . He lamented the quality of the Biddenden cake then being produced , compared to that of former years . Coles Finch stated that the villagers considered the then @-@ current cake to be unleavened bread .

= = Belief and scepticism = =

In almost all drawings and Biddenden cake designs , the twins are shown as conjoined at both the hip and the shoulder . Although such a fusion is theoretically possible , in that twins fused at one point may form a secondary fusion elsewhere , no case of a viable double fusion has ever been documented .

Although Clinch believed that the evidence pointed to the twins having genuinely existed but that they had lived in the 16th century , rather than the early 12th century as generally claimed , they are not mentioned in any journals or books from the period . This points against their having lived in the 16th century ; the case of Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo ( 1617 – after 1646 ) had prompted great interest in conjoined twins , and conjoined sisters surviving to adulthood in south east England would have been widely noted .

In 1895 , surgeon J. W. Ballantyne considered the case of the Biddenden Maids from a teratological perspective . He suggested that they had in fact been pygopagus ( twins joined at the pelvis ) . Pygopagus twins are known to put their arms around each other 's shoulders when walking , and Ballantyne suggested that this accounted for their apparently being joined at the shoulders in drawings . The pygopagus Millie and Christine McCoy had lived in Britain for a short time before going on to a successful singing career in the United States , and it was known from their case that such twins were capable of surviving to adulthood .

Jan Bondeson ( 1992 and 2006 ) proposed that , while the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " are not recorded in any early documents and are likely to have been a later addition , the existence of the twins and the claimed 1100 year of birth cannot be dismissed . Although mediaeval chronicles are unreliable , he noted multiple reports in the Chronicon Scotorum , the Annals of the Four Masters and the Annals of Clonmacnoise of a pair of conjoined sisters born in or around 1100 , although all three are records of Irish history and none mention Kent as the location . He concluded that the case of Christine McCoy , who survived for eight hours following the death of her polypagus twin Millie , shows that the claimed six hours between the deaths of the Biddenden Maids is plausible , and agreed with Ballantyne 's proposal that the idea that the twins were joined at the shoulder is a later misinterpretation of the figures on the Biddenden cake . He also pointed out that although there is no recorded version of the legend prior to 1770 , there would have been no possible motive for the villagers of the 18th century to fabricate the story .

= = Today = =

In 1907 , the Chulkhurst Charity was amalgamated with other local charities with similar purposes , to form the Biddenden Consolidated Charity , still functioning as a registered charity . The Bread and Cheese Lands were sold for housing , expanding the charity significantly to provide Biddenden pensioners and widows with bread , cheese , and tea at Easter , a cash payment at Christmas , and distribute Biddenden cakes . ( During the food rationing of the 1940s and early 1950s , the cheese was replaced by cocoa . Distribution of cheese resumed in 1951 . ) A wrought iron village sign showing the Biddenden Maids was erected on Biddenden village green in the 1920s .

The tradition of the dole continues to the present , and every Easter Monday tea , cheese and bread are given to local widows and pensioners through the windows of Biddenden 's former workhouse . All those eligible for the annual dole are given a Biddenden cake , and they are sold as souvenirs to visitors . The cakes are baked so hard as to be inedible , to allow better preservation as souvenirs ; they are baked in large batches every few years and kept until the stock runs out . Historically , the loaves used were of the archaic quartern loaf size , but this particular part of the tradition ended when Biddenden 's last bakery closed in the 1990s .

= Ælfric of Abingdon =

Ælfric of Abingdon ( Old English : Ælfrīc ; died 16 November 1005 ) , also known as Ælfric of Wessex , was a late 10th @-@ century Archbishop of Canterbury . He previously held the offices of abbot of St Albans Abbey and Bishop of Ramsbury , as well as likely being the abbot of Abingdon Abbey . After his election to Canterbury , he continued to hold the bishopric of Ramsbury along with the archbishopric of Canterbury until his death in 1005 . Ælfric may have altered the composition of Canterbury 's cathedral chapter by changing the clergy serving in the cathedral from secular clergy to monks . In his will he left a ship to King Æthelred II of England as well as more ships to other legatees .

= = Early life = =

Ælfric was the son of an earl of Kent and became a monk of Abingdon Abbey in Berkshire ( now Oxfordshire ) . He was very likely Abbot of Abingdon before becoming Abbot of St Albans Abbey around 975 , although some historians do not believe that he held the office of Abbot at Abingdon . Although the Historia Ecclesie Abbendonensis , or History of the Church of Abingdon , names Ælfric as abbot , the abbatial lists do not record him as such . Indirect corroboration of his being abbot at Abingdon is a grant of land to Ælfric personally ( instead of to the office he held ) while he was archbishop that had previously been unjustly taken from Abingdon . This land was to revert to Abingdon after Ælfric 's death .

= = Bishop and archbishop = =

Ælfric 's brother , Leofric , succeeded him as Abbot of St Albans when he became bishop . Between 991 and 993 , Ælfric rose to the Bishopric of Ramsbury , and possibly continued to hold office of abbot of St Albans while bishop . In 995 he was elevated to the see of Canterbury . He was translated , or moved with appropriate ecclesiastical ceremony , to Canterbury on 21 April 995 at a witenagemot held at Amesbury . Here he received the permission of " King Æthelred and all the witan " to be elevated to Canterbury . Ælfric continued to hold Ramsbury along with Canterbury until his death . The story that his brother was chosen first for Canterbury but refused , stems from confusion on the part of Matthew of Paris and historians generally hold the entire episode to be untrue .

Ælfric 's appointment to Canterbury caused consternation with the clergy of the cathedral chapter . In reaction , the chapter sent two members to Rome ahead of Ælfric and tried to secure the archbishopric for either of the monks . Pope Gregory V , however , would not appoint a candidate without royal permission , which neither of the monks had . Instead , when Ælfric arrived in Rome in 997 , he was appointed and received the pallium , a symbol of an archbishop 's authority . He also witnessed some miracles at the gravesite of Edward the Martyr at Shaftesbury Abbey , helping to lead to Edward 's sainthood .

A story was told that Ælfric introduced monks into the cathedral church of Christ Church , Canterbury , replacing the secular clerks that had taken over the foundation during the ninth century . Ælfric is said to have done this on the command of the pope . This story originally dates to soon after the Norman Conquest and originated with the monastic historians of Canterbury , and its veracity is unclear . He likely performed the marriage ceremony of King Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy in 1002 . A later tradition held that he consecrated a Bishop of Llandaff and two Bishops of St. David 's in Wales , which , if true , would have meant extending Canterbury 's jurisdiction into new territory .

Either Ælfric or his predecessor Sigeric wrote a letter to Wulfsige , Bishop of Sherborne about the duties of bishops to make sure that the laity did not despoil churches . The letter also urged Wulfsige to exhort the laity to strive for justice in their dealings with others , help widows and orphans , not fight , as well as other moral precepts . Ælfric also ordered the composition of the first Life of Dunstan , a hagiography , or saint 's life , of Dunstan , a predecessor as Archbishop of Canterbury . He also acted as a royal judge , once being ordered by King Æthelred to adjudicate a case between thegns , or local noblemen .

= = Death and legacy = =

Ælfric died on 16 November 1005 and was buried in Abingdon Abbey , later being translated to Canterbury Cathedral . His will survives and in it he left ships to the people of Wiltshire and Kent , with his best one , equipped for sixty men , going to King Æthelred . The hagiography of Dunstan was dedicated to Ælfric at the end of the 10th century . After his death , he was considered a saint with a feast day of 16 November .

= White Dog ( Gary novel ) =

White Dog , released in France as Chien Blanc , is a fictional autobiographical novel written by Romain Gary . Originally published as a short story in Life in 1970 ( 9 October ) , the full novel was published in 1970 in French in France by Éditions Gallimard . Gary 's English version of the novel was published in North America in the same year by New American Library . The novel provides a fictionalized account of Gary and his wife 's experiences in the 1960s with a stray Alabama police dog trained to attack black people on sight , and their attempts to have the dog reprogrammed .

Gary uses the novel as a vehicle to denounce both racism and the activists supporting African @-@ American rights , including his own ex @-@ wife and Marlon Brando . He also examines whether human responses to situations , including racism , are learned social behavior and whether they can be unlearned . In 1981 , it was adapted into the controversial film of the same name , in which director Samuel Fuller made various changes to the novel 's story to focus more on the dog and present a more pessimistic ending than the original novel . The film 's American release after negative press from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) led to concerns of boycotts .

= = Plot synopsis = =

A fictionalized memoir set in both the United States and France during the 1960s American civil rights movement , White Dog focuses on the events that occur after Gary and his then @-@ wife Jean Seberg , an actress and an activist , adopt a handsome and clearly well @-@ trained German Shepherd dog who comes back to their home with one of their other dogs . At first , the dog , which they name Batka , is an ideal new member of the family : intelligent , devoted , and quickly befriending the couple 's assortment of other animals . To their dismay , they discover that the dog , a former Alabama police dog , was trained to attack black people on sight . Although they are told the dog is too old to be retrained , they take him to a black dog trainer to try . Instead , the man trains the dog to attack white people , including Gary himself . Gary states that he changed the ending of the American version to be more optimistic .

= = Publication history = =

White Dog was first released as an English short story that appeared in Life magazine in 1968 . It was published as a full novel in 1970 in two languages and two countries . A French @-@ language version was published in France under the title Chien Blanc by Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 207027022X ) in April 1970 . Gary , who was multi @-@ lingual , also wrote an English version , which was published by New American Library in 1970 under its Signet label .

French

1970 , France , Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 207027022X ) , 256 pages , paperback

1972 , France , Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 2070360504 ) , 220 pages , paperback

English

1970 , United States , New American Library , 279 pages , paperback

2004 , United States , University Of Chicago Press ( ISBN 0226284301 ) , 290 pages , paperback

= = Themes = =

With the use of a " flippant tone and [ an ] uncomfortable use of sarcasm , " White Dog is Gary 's dissection of the paranoia generated by both racism and classism as he juxtaposes McCarthyism @-@ American , in which there is an " obsessive sniffing out of ' subversives ' and violent race riots , " against the barricades and race riots of France in 1968 . The violence depicted also provides a discourse on revolutionary social change , as it also leads to " a new order , a new reality . " Gary " excoriates American racism , black activism , and movie @-@ colony liberalism " and reflects on American race relations as a whole . He also documents his own " intolerance of intolerance that is the curse of tolerance " . Through the dog , Gary examines whether a learned response can be unlearned . He also poses the question of how much freedom and uniqueness a person can claim if humans responses are indeed learned by " social indoctrination . "

Within the novel , Gary makes " scathing attacks on self @-@ aggrandising Jewish pro @-@ black sentiment and self @-@ serving celebrity campaigners " , while making explicit attacks against Marlon Brando and Seberg for their involvement in civil rights movements and the latter 's involvement with the Black Panthers organization . In an interview about the novel , Gary states that as a " typical American idealist " she was an easy mark for people seeking money for causes , and he depicts this in the novel by having her frequently appearing in activist events writing checks . After her death , he called the novel the " story of her crusade " .

= = Reception = =

White Dog quickly became a bestseller in the United States after its English release . Phoebe Adams of The Atlantic felt the story was ironic , and noted that it was " presumably " true . She felt the depiction of Marlon Brando was " tartly funny " and that story as a whole served " as an excuse for Mr. Gary 's comments on racial affairs in this country , a matter on which is somewhat less pessimistic than the natives and a good deal more sensible . " The Globe and Mail 's H. J. Kirchhoff considered it a " riveting , thoughtful work " that serves as a metaphor for American racism . Julien Roumette felt Romain 's depiction of the racial tensions in America at the time was " meticulously reconstituted , with a realistic , even documentary , rather exceptional dimension . " Julia Weldon of Harper 's Magazine remarked with amusement that the events of the novel were ones that " only a Frenchman " could have found himself in . She felt the novel was a " decathlon event " in which Gary turned a " household crisis into a full @-@ scale allegory . " Overall , she praised the book as a " memorable portrait of guilt and largess in black and white " , noting she felt Gary had lived to " witness his own maturity " though she also wondered if he stretched the truth to " make himself a legend in his own time . "

= = Film adaptation = =

Paramount Pictures purchased the film rights for White Dog in 1975 , though the film itself was not produced until 1981 , after Gary 's suicide . Various changes were made from the original novel 's story , including the removal of Gary himself and a tighter focus on the dog . Gary 's wife was replaced in the script with a young , unmarried actress as Paramount wanted the film to show a strong contrast between the loving relationship between the protagonist and the dog 's random attacks . The novel 's hate @-@ filled Muslim black trainer was converted into the character named Keys , who genuinely wished to cure the animal . The novel 's original ending was also changed to make it more pessimistic . Directed by Samuel Fuller and starring Paul Winfield and Kristy McNichol , the film 's theatrical release was suppressed in the United States out of concern of negative press after rumors began circulating from the NAACP that the film was racist . It was released internationally in France and the United Kingdom in 1982 , and broadcast on various American cable television channels . Its first official American release came in December 2008 when The Criterion Collection released the original uncut film to DVD .

In reflecting on the film , Fuller notes that he had known Gary before being offered the chance to direct the White Dog adaptation , and greatly admired both Gary and the novel . He wanted to have the film dedicated to Gary , who had committed suicide before the film was completed , but the studio declined . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , he stated " I know [ Gary would ] have liked it . And he 'd have been pleased because his other books ( The Roots of Heaven , etc ) had not done well as films . "

= Condom =

A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS . It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner . Condoms are also used during fellatio and for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment . In the modern age , condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , polyisoprene , or lamb intestine . A female condom is also available , often made of nitrile rubber .

As a method of birth control , male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , having few side effects , and offering protection against sexually transmitted infections . With proper use — and use at every act of intercourse — women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2 % per @-@ year pregnancy rate . With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18 % per @-@ year . Condoms have been used for at least 400 years . Since the 19th century , they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world . While widely accepted in modern times , condoms have generated some controversy , primarily over what role they should play in sex education classes .

= = Medical uses = =

= = = Birth control = = =

The effectiveness of condoms , as of most forms of contraception , can be assessed two ways . Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently . Actual use , or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users , including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse . Rates are generally presented for the first year of use . Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates , but some studies use decrement tables .

The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied , ranging from 10 to 18 % per year . The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2 % per year . Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception ( such as spermicide ) for greater protection .

= = = Sexually transmitted infections = = =

Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) . They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women , but not eliminating it . While not perfect , the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS , genital herpes , cervical cancer , genital warts , syphilis , chlamydia , gonorrhea , and other diseases . Condoms are often recommended as an adjunct to more effective birth control methods ( such as IUD ) in situations where STD protection is also desired .

According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV / AIDS transmission by approximately 85 % relative to risk when unprotected , putting the seroconversion rate ( infection rate ) at 0 @.@ 9 per 100 person @-@ years with condom , down from 6 @.@ 7 per 100 person @-@ years . Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch and the World Health Organization found similar risk reductions of 80 – 95 % .

The 2000 NIH review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of gonorrhea for men . A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission of human papillomavirus ( HPV ) to women by approximately 70 % . Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes simplex virus @-@ 2 also known as genital herpes , in both men and women .

Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure , some disease transmission may occur even with a condom . Infectious areas of the genitals , especially when symptoms are present , may not be covered by a condom , and as a result , some diseases like HPV and herpes may be transmitted by direct contact . The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs , however , is inconsistent use .

Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially precancerous cervical changes . Exposure to human papillomavirus , even in individuals already infected with the virus , appears to increase the risk of precancerous changes . The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes . In addition , researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can aggravate existing cervical cancer , condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone .

= = = Causes of failure = = =

Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation , break due to improper application or physical damage ( such as tears caused when opening the package ) , or break or slip due to latex degradation ( typically from usage past the expiration date , improper storage , or exposure to oils ) . The rate of breakage is between 0 @.@ 4 % and 2 @.@ 3 % , while the rate of slippage is between 0 @.@ 6 % and 1 @.@ 3 % . Even if no breakage or slippage is observed , 1 – 3 % of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom .

" Double bagging " , using two condoms at once , is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber . This claim is not supported by research . The limited studies that have been done on the subject support that double bagging is likely not harmful and possibly beneficial .

Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure . If a failure occurs during application , the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins – such failures generally pose no risk to the user . One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse ; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one @-@ fifth that of unprotected intercourse .

Standard condoms will fit almost any penis , with varying degrees of comfort or risk of slippage . Many condom manufacturers offer " snug " or " magnum " sizes . Some manufacturers also offer custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condoms , with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation / comfort . Some studies have associated larger penises and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates ( and vice versa ) , but other studies have been inconclusive .

It is recommended for condoms manufacturers to avoid very thick or very thin condoms , because they are both considered less effective . Some authors encourage users to choose thinner condoms " for greater durability , sensation , and comfort " , but others warn that " the thinner the condom , the smaller the force required to break it " .

Experienced condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first @-@ time users , although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure . An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage . A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage , but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage .

Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control , pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom . The person may have run out of condoms , or be traveling and not have a condom with them , or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to " take a chance " . This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure ( as opposed to method or perfect use failure ) .

Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage . One motive is to have a child against a partner 's wishes or consent . Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients sabotaging condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use . Using a fine needle to make several pinholes at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness . Cases of such condom sabotage have occurred .

= = Adverse effects = =

The use of latex condoms by people with an allergy to latex can cause allergic symptoms , such as skin irritation . In people with severe latex allergies , using a latex condom can potentially be life @-@ threatening . Repeated use of latex condoms can also cause the development of a latex allergy in some people .

= = Use = =

Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil or plastic wrapper , in a rolled @-@ up form , and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then unrolled over the erect penis . It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect ; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device . After use , it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot , then disposed of in a trash receptacle . Condoms are used to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy during intercourse and to reduce the likelihood of contracting sexually @-@ transmitted infections ( STIs ) . Condoms are also used during fellatio to reduce the likelihood of contracting STIs .

Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex , although others incorporate condom application as part of their foreplay . Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom dulls sensation . Advantages of dulled sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation ; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement . Advocates of condom use also cite their advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , and having few side effects .

= = = Adult film industry = = =

In 2012 proponents gathered 372 @,@ 000 voter signatures through a citizens ' initiative in Los Angeles County to put Measure B on the 2012 ballot . As a result , Measure B , a law requiring the use of condoms in the production of pornographic films , was passed . This requirement has received much criticism and is said by some to be counter @-@ productive , merely forcing companies that make pornographic films to relocate to other places without this requirement . Producers claim that condom use depresses sales .

= = = Sex education = = =

Condoms are often used in sex education programs , because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly . A recent American Psychological Association ( APA ) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education , saying " comprehensive sexuality education programs ... discuss the appropriate use of condoms " , and " promote condom use for those who are sexually active . "

In the United States , teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations . Planned Parenthood , which advocates family planning and sex education , argues that no studies have shown abstinence @-@ only programs to result in delayed intercourse , and cites surveys showing that 76 % of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use .

= = = Infertility treatment = = =

Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and intrauterine insemination ( IUI ) require collection of semen samples . These are most commonly obtained through masturbation , but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse .

Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane , as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm . Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation , and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely . Also , compared with samples obtained from masturbation , semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts , sperm motility , and percentage of sperm with normal morphology . For this reason , they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis , and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as intracervical or intrauterine insemination . Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception , such as Catholicism , may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them .

For fertility treatments , a collection condom may be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse where the semen is provided by the woman 's partner . Private sperm donors may also use a collection condom to obtain samples through masturbation or by sexual intercourse with a partner and will transfer the ejaculate from the collection condom to a specially designed container . The sperm is transported in such containers , in the case of a donor , to a recipient woman to be used for insemination , and in the case of a woman 's partner , to a fertility clinic for processing and use . However , transportation may reduce the fecundity of the sperm . Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic .

Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of antisperm antibodies . The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner 's semen will lower her level of antisperm antibodies , and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued . However , condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates .

= = = Other uses = = =

Condoms excel as multipurpose containers and barriers because they are waterproof , elastic , durable , and ( for military and espionage uses ) will not arouse suspicion if found .

Ongoing military utilization began during World War II , and includes covering the muzzles of rifle barrels to prevent fouling , the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater demolitions , and storage of corrosive materials and garrotes by paramilitary agencies .

Condoms have also been used to smuggle alcohol , cocaine , heroin , and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs , tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the rectum . These methods are very dangerous and potentially lethal ; if the condom breaks , the drugs inside become absorbed into the bloodstream and can cause an overdose .

Medically , condoms can be used to cover endovaginal ultrasound probes , or in field chest needle decompressions they can be used to make a one @-@ way valve .

Condoms have also been used to protect scientific samples from the environment , and to waterproof microphones for underwater recording .

= = Types = =

Most condoms have a reservoir tip or teat end , making it easier to accommodate the man 's ejaculate . Condoms come in different sizes , from oversized to snug and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user 's partner . Condoms are usually supplied with a lubricant coating to facilitate penetration , while flavored condoms are principally used for oral sex . As mentioned above , most condoms are made of latex , but polyurethane and lambskin condoms also exist .

= = = Female condom = = =

Male condoms have a tight ring to form a seal around the penis while female condoms typically have a large stiff ring to keep them from slipping into the body orifice . The Female Health Company produced a female condom that was initially made of polyurethane , but newer versions are made of nitrile . Medtech Products produces a female condom made of latex .

= = = Materials = = =

= = = = Natural latex = = = =

Latex has outstanding elastic properties : Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa , and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800 % before breaking . In 1990 the ISO set standards for condom production ( ISO 4074 , Natural latex rubber condoms ) , and the EU followed suit with its CEN standard ( Directive 93 / 42 / EEC concerning medical devices ) . Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current . If the condom passes , it is rolled and packaged . In addition , a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing .

While the advantages of latex have made it the most popular condom material , it does have some drawbacks . Latex condoms are damaged when used with oil @-@ based substances as lubricants , such as petroleum jelly , cooking oil , baby oil , mineral oil , skin lotions , suntan lotions , cold creams , butter or margarine . Contact with oil makes latex condoms more likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils . Additionally , latex allergy precludes use of latex condoms and is one of the principal reasons for the use of other materials . In May 2009 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted approval for the production of condoms composed of Vytex , latex that has been treated to remove 90 % of the proteins responsible for allergic reactions . An allergen @-@ free condom made of synthetic latex ( polyisoprene ) is also available .

= = = = Synthetic = = = =

The most common non @-@ latex condoms are made from polyurethane . Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials , such as AT @-@ 10 resin , and most recently polyisoprene .

Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms , with most polyurethane condoms between 0 @.@ 04 mm and 0 @.@ 07 mm thick .

Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways : it conducts heat better than latex , is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light ( and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life ) , can be used with oil @-@ based lubricants , is less allergenic than latex , and does not have an odor . Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention , and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes .

However , polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones , and may be more likely to slip or break than latex , lose their shape or bunch up more than latex , and are more expensive .

Polyisoprene is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex . While significantly more expensive , it has the advantages of latex ( such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms ) without the protein which is responsible for latex allergies . Like polyurethane condoms , polyisoprene condoms are said to do a better job of transmitting body heat . Unlike polyurethane condoms , they cannot be used with an oil @-@ based lubricant .

= = = = Lambskin = = = =

Condoms made from sheep intestines , labeled " lambskin " , are also available . Although they are generally effective as a contraceptive by blocking sperm , it is presumed that they are likely less effective than latex in preventing the transmission of agents that cause STDs , because of pores in the material . This is based on the idea that intestines , by their nature , are porous , permeable membranes , and while sperm are too large to pass through the pores , viruses — such as HIV , herpes , and genital warts — are small enough to pass through . However , there are to date no clinical data confirming or denying this theory . Some believe that lambskin condoms provide a more " natural " sensation , and they lack the allergens that are inherent to latex , but because of their lesser protection against infection , other hypoallergenic materials such as polyurethane are recommended for latex @-@ allergic users and / or partners . Lambskin condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types and as slaughter by @-@ products they are also not vegetarian .

= = = Spermicide = = =

Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol @-@ 9 , a spermicidal chemical . According to Consumer Reports , condoms lubricated with spermicide have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy , have a shorter shelf life , and may cause urinary @-@ tract infections in women . In contrast , application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive efficacy of condoms .

Nonoxynol @-@ 9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs ( including HIV ) but recent studies have shown that , with frequent use , nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission . The World Health Organization says that spermicidally lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted . However , it recommends using a nonoxynol @-@ 9 lubricated condom over no condom at all . As of 2005 , nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol @-@ 9 and Planned Parenthood has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated .

= = = Ribbed and studded = = =

Textured condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners . The studs or ribs can be located on the inside , outside , or both ; alternatively , they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g @-@ spot or frenulum . Many textured condoms which advertise " mutual pleasure " also are bulb @-@ shaped at the top , to provide extra stimulation to the penis . Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms .

= = = Youth condoms = = =

In March 2010 , the Swiss government announced that it was planning to promote smaller condoms intended for boys and youths of 12 – 14 years old following concern about the pregnancy rate among adolescent girls , and also about the potential spread of AIDS among this age group . This was due to the fact that standard condoms were too wide and consequently failed to afford protection to adolescent boys during vaginal and anal intercourse . Family planning groups and the Swiss AIDS Federation had campaigned to have a narrower condom produced for youths after a number of studies , including a government study researched at the Centre for Development and Personality Psychology at Basel University , found that standard condoms were unsuitable for boys in this age range , and that the condoms either failed during use or that the boys rejected them altogether because they were too wide , and consequently they used no protection at all .

As a result of these studies , a condom aimed at 12- to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys is now produced and is available in Switzerland and in certain other countries . Manufactured by Ceylor , the " Hotshot " is a lubricated , teat @-@ ended latex condom which is narrower than a standard condom and has a tight band at the opening to ensure that it remains on the youth 's penis during intercourse . A standard condom has a diameter of 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 2 cm ) whereas the Hotshot has a diameter of 1 @.@ 7 inches ( 4 @.@ 5 cm ) . Both are the same length – 7 @.@ 4 inches ( 19 cm ) . In 2014 , in response to demand for condoms from a younger age @-@ group , German condom manufacturer Amor started producing another condom aimed at young people . Known as " Amor Young Love " , these lubricated condoms have a diameter of 1 @.@ 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 cm ) .

= = = Other = = =

The anti @-@ rape condom is another variation designed to be worn by women . It is designed to cause pain to the attacker , hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape .

A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis . These condoms are designed to maximize sperm life .

Some condom @-@ like devices are intended for entertainment only , such as glow @-@ in @-@ the dark condoms . These novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs .

= = Prevalence = =

The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries . Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women , or women in informal unions . Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in that country , condoms account for almost 80 % of contraceptive use by married women . On average , in developed countries , condoms are the most popular method of birth control : 28 % of married contraceptive users rely on condoms . In the average less @-@ developed country , condoms are less common : only 6 – 8 % of married contraceptive users choose condoms .

= = History = =

= = = Before the 19th century = = =

Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians . In ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome , pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman 's responsibility , and the only well documented contraception methods were female @-@ controlled devices . In Asia before the 15th century , some use of glans condoms ( devices covering only the head of the penis ) is recorded . Condoms seem to have been used for contraception , and to have been known only by members of the upper classes . In China , glans condoms may have been made of oiled silk paper , or of lamb intestines . In Japan , they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn .

In 16th century Italy , Gabriele Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis . The earliest documented strain of syphilis , first appearing in Europe in a 1490s outbreak , caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease . Falloppio 's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use : it describes linen sheaths soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use . The cloths he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis , and were held on with a ribbon . Falloppio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis .

After this , the use of penis coverings to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe . The first indication that these devices were used for birth control , rather than disease prevention , is the 1605 theological publication De iustitia et iure ( On justice and law ) by Catholic theologian Leonardus Lessius , who condemned them as immoral . In 1666 , the English Birth Rate Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of " condons " , the first documented use of that word ( or any similar spelling ) .

In addition to linen , condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and bladder . In the late 16th century , Dutch traders introduced condoms made from " fine leather " to Japan . Unlike the horn condoms used previously , these leather condoms covered the entire penis .

Casanova in the 18th century was one of the first reported using " assurance caps " to prevent impregnating his mistresses .

From at least the 18th century , condom use was opposed in some legal , religious , and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today : condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy , which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation ; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections , while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity ; and , they are not used consistently due to inconvenience , expense , or loss of sensation .

Despite some opposition , the condom market grew rapidly . In the 18th century , condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes , made from either linen treated with chemicals , or " skin " ( bladder or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and lye ) . They were sold at pubs , barbershops , chemist shops , open @-@ air markets , and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia . They later spread to America , although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes , due to both expense and lack of sex education .

= = = 1800 through 1920s = = =

The early 19th century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time . Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control to the condom . By the late 19th century many feminists expressed distrust of the condom as a contraceptive , as its use was controlled and decided upon by men alone . They advocated instead for methods which were controlled by women , such as diaphragms and spermicidal douches . Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their unreliability ( they were often riddled with holes , and often fell off or broke ) , but they discussed condoms as a good option for some , and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease .

Many countries passed laws impeding the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives . In spite of these restrictions , condoms were promoted by traveling lecturers and in newspaper advertisements , using euphemisms in places where such ads were illegal . Instructions on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe . Despite social and legal opposition , at the end of the 19th century the condom was the Western world 's most popular birth control method .

Beginning in the second half of the 19th century , American rates of sexually transmitted diseases skyrocketed . Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War , and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the Comstock laws . To fight the growing epidemic , sex education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time , teaching about venereal diseases and how they were transmitted . They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases . Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral watchdogs considered STDs to be punishment for sexual misbehavior . The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis .

The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers , beginning in the later 19th century . Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases . During World War I , the United States and ( at the beginning of the war only ) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use .

In the decades after World War I , there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe . Founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high . Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure . Some feminists continued to oppose male @-@ controlled contraceptives such as condoms . In 1920 the Church of England 's Lambeth Conference condemned all " unnatural means of conception avoidance " . London 's Bishop Arthur Winnington @-@ Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks , especially after weekends and holidays .

However , European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection , even in countries where they were illegal for the general population . Through the 1920s , catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items , including condoms and cigarettes . Quality testing became more common , involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure . Worldwide , condom sales doubled in the 1920s .

= = = Rubber and manufacturing advances = = =

In 1839 , Charles Goodyear discovered a way of processing natural rubber , which is too stiff when cold and too soft when warm , in such a way as to make it elastic . This proved to have advantages for the manufacture of condoms ; unlike the sheep 's gut condoms , they could stretch and did not tear quickly when used . The rubber vulcanization process was patented by Goodyear in 1844 . The first rubber condom was produced in 1855 . The earliest rubber condoms had a seam and were as thick as a bicycle inner tube . Besides this type , small rubber condoms covering only the glans were often used in England and the United States . There was more risk of losing them and if the rubber ring was too tight , it would constrict the penis . This type of condom was the original " capote " ( French for condom ) , perhaps because of its resemblance to a woman 's bonnet worn at that time , also called a capote .

For many decades , rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis @-@ shaped molds , then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber . In 1912 , Polish inventor Julius Fromm developed a new , improved manufacturing technique for condoms : dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution . Called cement dipping , this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid . Latex , rubber suspended in water , was invented in 1920 . Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement @-@ dipped rubber condoms , which had to be smoothed by rubbing and trimming . The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories . Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer : they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms , and had a shelf life of five years ( compared to three months for rubber ) .

Until the twenties , all condoms were individually hand @-@ dipped by semi @-@ skilled workers . Throughout the decade of the 1920s , advances in the automation of the condom assembly line were made . The first fully automated line was patented in 1930 . Major condom manufacturers bought or leased conveyor systems , and small manufacturers were driven out of business . The skin condom , now significantly more expensive than the latex variety , became restricted to a niche high @-@ end market .

= = = 1930 to present = = =

In 1930 the Anglican Church 's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples . In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement . The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical Casti connubii affirming its opposition to all contraceptives , a stance it has never reversed .

In the 1930s , legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed . But during this period Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany increased restrictions on condoms ( limited sales as disease preventatives were still allowed ) . During the Depression , condom lines by Schmid gained in popularity . Schmid still used the cement @-@ dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety . Firstly , cement @-@ dipped condoms could be safely used with oil @-@ based lubricants . Secondly , while less comfortable , these older @-@ style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical , a valued feature in hard times . More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s , and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States .

Throughout World War II , condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members , but also heavily promoted with films , posters , and lectures . European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war , even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941 . In part because condoms were readily available , soldiers found a number of non @-@ sexual uses for the devices , many of which continue to this day .

After the war , condom sales continued to grow . From 1955 – 1965 , 42 % of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control . In Britain from 1950 – 1960 , 60 % of married couples used condoms . The birth control pill became the world 's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 début , but condoms remained a strong second . The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the " world population crises " : by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone . ( This number has grown in recent decades : in 2004 , the government of India purchased 1 @.@ 9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics . )

In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations tightened , and more legal barriers to condom use were removed . In Ireland , legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978 . Advertising , however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions . In the late 1950s , the American National Association of Broadcasters banned condom advertisements from national television : this policy remained in place until 1979 .

After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection , the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV . Despite opposition by some political , religious , and other figures , national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe . These campaigns increased condom use significantly .

Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance , condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets , including in supermarkets and in discount department stores such as Wal @-@ Mart . Condom sales increased every year until 1994 , when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline . The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease preventatives has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue . Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America . As one response , manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous .

New developments continued to occur in the condom market , with the first polyurethane condom — branded Avanti and produced by the manufacturer of Durex — introduced in the 1990s , and the first custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condom , called TheyFit , introduced in the early 2000s .

Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow : one study predicted that developing nations would need 18 @.@ 6 billion condoms by 2015 . As of September 2013 , condoms are available inside prisons in Canada , most of the European Union , Australia , Brazil , Indonesia , South Africa , and the US states of Vermont ( on September 17 , 2013 , the Californian Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state 's prisons , but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval ) .

= = = Etymology and other terms = = =

The term condom first appears in the early 18th century . Its etymology is unknown . In popular tradition , the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England 's King Charles II , one " Dr. Condom " or " Earl of Condom " . There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person , and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne .

A variety of unproven Latin etymologies have been proposed , including condon ( receptacle ) , condamina ( house ) , and cumdum ( scabbard or case ) . It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word guantone , derived from guanto , meaning glove . William E. Kruck wrote an article in 1981 concluding that , " As for the word ' condom ' , I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown , and there ends this search for an etymology . " Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as " unknown " .

Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms . In North America condoms are also commonly known as prophylactics , or rubbers . In Britain they may be called French letters . Additionally , condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer 's name .

= = Society and culture = =

Some moral and scientific criticism of condoms exists despite the many benefits of condoms agreed on by scientific consensus and sexual health experts .

Condom usage is typically recommended for new couples who have yet to develop full trust in their partner with regard to STDs . Established couples on the other hand have few concerns about STDs , and can use other methods of birth control such as the pill , which does not act as a barrier to intimate sexual contact . Note that the polar debate with regard to condom usage is attenuated by the target group the argument is directed . Notably the age category and stable partner question are factors , as well as the distinction between heterosexual and homosexuals , who have different kinds of sex and have different risk consequences and factors .

Among the prime objections to condom usage is the blocking of erotic sensation , and / or the intimacy that barrier @-@ free sex provides . As the condom is held tightly to the skin of the penis , it diminishes the delivery of stimulation through rubbing and friction . Condom proponents claim this has the benefit of making sex last longer , by diminishing sensation and delaying male ejaculation . Those who promote condom @-@ free heterosexual sex ( slang : " bareback " ) claim that the condom puts a prophylactic barrier between partners , diminishing what is normally a highly sensual , intimate , and spiritual connection between partners .

= = = Religious = = =

Roman Catholic Church opposes all kinds of sexual acts outside of marriage , as well as any sexual act in which the chance of successful conception has been reduced by direct and intentional acts ( for example , surgery to prevent conception ) or foreign objects ( for example , condoms ) .

The use of condoms to prevent STD transmission is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine , and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high @-@ ranking Catholic authorities . A few , such as Belgian Cardinal Godfried Danneels , believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease , especially serious diseases such as AIDS . However , the majority view — including all statements from the Vatican — is that condom @-@ promotion programs encourage promiscuity , thereby actually increasing STD transmission . This view was most recently reiterated in 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI .

The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion . The church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa , but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial .

In a November 2011 interview , the Pope discussed for the first time the use of condoms to prevent STD transmission . He said that the use of a condom can be justified in a few individual cases if the purpose is to reduce the risk of an HIV infection . He gave as an example male prostitutes . There was some confusion at first whether the statement applied only to homosexual prostitutes and thus not to heterosexual intercourse at all . However , Federico Lombardi , spokesman for the Vatican , clarified that it applied to heterosexual and transsexual prostitutes , whether male or female , as well . He did , however , also clarify that the Vatican 's principles on sexuality and contraception had not been changed .

= = = Scientific and environmental = = =

More generally , some scientific researchers have expressed objective concern over certain ingredients sometimes added to condoms , notably talc and nitrosamines . Dry dusting powders are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up . Previously , talc was used by most manufacturers , but cornstarch is currently the most popular dusting powder . Talc is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity ( i.e. , via the vagina ) . Cornstarch is generally believed to be safe ; however , some researchers have raised concerns over its use as well .

Nitrosamines , which are potentially carcinogenic in humans , are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms . A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 times greater nitrosamine exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low . However , a 2004 study in Germany detected nitrosamines in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested , and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by 1.5- to 3 @-@ fold .

In addition , the large @-@ scale use of disposable condoms has resulted in concerns over their environmental impact via littering and in landfills , where they can eventually wind up in wildlife environments if not incinerated or otherwise permanently disposed of first . Polyurethane condoms in particular , given they are a form of plastic , are not biodegradable , and latex condoms take a very long time to break down . Experts , such as AVERT , recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle , as flushing them down the toilet ( which some people do ) may cause plumbing blockages and other problems . Furthermore , the plastic and foil wrappers condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable . However , the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass . Frequent condom or wrapper disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem .

While biodegradable , latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly . According to the Ocean Conservancy , condoms , along with certain other types of trash , cover the coral reefs and smother sea grass and other bottom dwellers . The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food .

= = = Cultural barriers to use = = =

In much of the Western world , the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use . In Japan , oral contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999 , and even then access was more restricted than in other industrialized nations . Perhaps because of this restricted access to hormonal contraception , Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in 2008 , 80 % of contraceptive users relied on condoms .

Cultural attitudes toward gender roles , contraception , and sexual activity vary greatly around the world , and range from extremely conservative to extremely liberal . But in places where condoms are misunderstood , mischaracterised , demonised , or looked upon with overall cultural disapproval , the prevalence of condom use is directly affected . In less @-@ developed countries and among less @-@ educated populations , misperceptions about how disease transmission and conception work negatively affect the use of condoms ; additionally , in cultures with more traditional gender roles , women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms .

As an example , Latino immigrants in the United States often face cultural barriers to condom use . A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender @-@ role norms in the Latino community , and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners . Women who participated in the study often reported that because of the general machismo subtly encouraged in Latino culture , their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the woman 's suggestion that they use condoms . A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low @-@ income American black women ; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion to their male partners that condoms be used .

A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University , and published in the Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among United States black men is linked to rates of condom use . As conspiracy beliefs about AIDS grow in a given sector of these black men , consistent condom use drops in that same sector . Female use of condoms was not similarly affected .

In the African continent , condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti @-@ condom campaigns by some Muslim and Catholic clerics . Among the Maasai in Tanzania , condom use is hampered by an aversion to " wasting " sperm , which is given sociocultural importance beyond reproduction . Sperm is believed to be an " elixir " to women and to have beneficial health effects . Maasai women believe that , after conceiving a child , they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child 's development . Frequent condom use is also considered by some Maasai to cause impotence . Some women in Africa believe that condoms are " for prostitutes " and that respectable women should not use them . A few clerics even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV . In the United States , possession of many condoms has been used by police to accuse women of engaging in prostitution . The Presidential Advisory Council on HIV / AIDS has condemned this practice and there are efforts to end it .

In March 2013 , technology mogul Bill Gates offered a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant through his foundation for a condom design that " significantly preserves or enhances pleasure " to encourage more males to adopt the use of condoms for safer sex . The grant information states : “ The primary drawback from the male perspective is that condoms decrease pleasure as compared to no condom , creating a trade @-@ off that many men find unacceptable , particularly given that the decisions about use must be made just prior to intercourse . Is it possible to develop a product without this stigma , or better , one that is felt to enhance pleasure ? ” The project has been named the " Next Generation Condom " and anyone who can provide a " testable hypothesis " is eligible to apply .

Middle @-@ Eastern couples who have not had children , because of the strong desire and social pressure to establish fertility as soon as possible within marriage , rarely use condoms .

= = = Major manufacturers = = =

One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that " boggles the mind " . Numerous small manufacturers , nonprofit groups , and government @-@ run manufacturing plants exist around the world . Within the condom market , there are several major contributors , among them both for @-@ profit businesses and philanthropic organizations . Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century .

= = Research = =

A spray @-@ on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases . As of 2009 , the spray @-@ on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes .

The Invisible Condom , developed at Université Laval in Québec , Canada , is a gel that hardens upon increased temperature after insertion into the vagina or rectum . In the lab , it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes simplex virus . The barrier breaks down and liquefies after several hours . As of 2005 , the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase , and has not yet been approved for use .

Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an erectogenic compound . The drug @-@ treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection , which should also help reduce slippage . If approved , the condom would be marketed under the Durex brand . As of 2007 , it was still in clinical trials . In 2009 , Ansell Healthcare , the makers of Lifestyle condoms , introduced the X2 condom lubricated with " Excite Gel " which contains the amino acid l @-@ arginine and is intended to improve the strength of the erectile response .

= Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleship =

The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships ( Project 23 , Russian : Советский Союз , " Soviet Union " ) , also known as " Stalin 's Republics " , were a class of battleships begun by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s but never brought into service . They were designed in response to the battleships being built by Germany . Only four hulls of the sixteen originally planned had been laid down by 1940 , when the decision was made to cut the program to only three ships to divert resources to an expanded army rearmament program .

These ships would have rivaled the Imperial Japanese Yamato class and America 's planned Montana class in size if any had been completed , although with significantly weaker firepower : nine 406 @-@ millimeter ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) guns compared to the nine 460 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) guns of the Japanese ships and a dozen 16 @-@ inch ( 406 @.@ 4 mm ) on the Montanas . However , they would have been superior to their German rivals , the Bismarck class , at least on paper . The failure of the Soviet armor plate industry to build cemented armor plates thicker than 230 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) would have negated any advantages from the Sovetsky Soyuz class 's thicker armor in combat .

Construction of the first four ships was plagued with difficulties as the Soviet shipbuilding and related industries were not prepared to build such large ships . One battleship , Sovetskaya Belorussiya , was cancelled on 19 October 1940 after serious construction flaws were found . Construction of the other three ships was suspended shortly after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , and never resumed . All three of the surviving hulls were scrapped in the late 1940s .

= = Design and development = =

Design work began in 1935 on new battleships in response to the existing and planned German battleships , and the Soviets made extensive efforts in Italy and the United States to purchase either drawings or the ships themselves in the late 1930s . The Italian firm of Gio . Ansaldo & C. proposed a ship of 42 @,@ 000 long tons ( 43 @,@ 000 t ) standard displacement with nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns , in size and appearance similar to the Italian battleship Littorio then under construction by the company . The U.S. firm of Gibbs & Cox provided four designs ; one for a conventional battleship , and three hybrid designs which combined battleship main armament with a raised flight deck on the central superstructure capable of operating up to 30 aircraft . While these projects proved useful to the Soviets , they decided to proceed with their own designs .

The first Tactical @-@ Technical Requirement ( abbreviated in Russian as TTZ ) for the large battleship design was issued on 21 February 1936 but proved too ambitious , specifying nine 460 mm guns and a speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) on a displacement of 55 @,@ 000 tons . The TTZ was revised in May 1936 by Admiral Orlov , Commander of the Soviet Navy , reducing speed to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , and weakening the secondary and anti @-@ aircraft batteries . A few months later Admiral Orlov further reduced the size of the battleship to 45 @,@ 000 tons and set the size of the main guns at 406 mm . Shortly afterward , the Soviet Union signed the Anglo @-@ Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty that limited battleships to a displacement of 35 @,@ 560 metric tons ( 35 @,@ 000 long tons ) , although they did add a proviso that allowed them to build ships of unlimited size to face the Imperial Japanese Navy if they notified the British . Yet another TTZ was approved by Orlov on 3 August for ships of 41 @,@ 500 tons with an armament of nine 406 @-@ millimeter , twelve 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) , twelve 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and forty 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , a maximum armor thickness of 380 mm ( 15 in ) and a speed of 30 knots .

The design of KB @-@ 4 , the surface ship design bureau of the Baltic Shipyard , was selected for further development although the lead designers were convinced that only a larger ship could fulfill the ambitious requirements . They did manage to get agreement on 22 November 1936 for a thickening of the deck armor that raised the displacement to about 47 @,@ 000 tons . Design work continued on this basis and technical work was completed for a ship of 47 @,@ 700 tons in April 1937 , but the designers continued to press their case for larger ships . The issue was resolved by Premier Stalin at a meeting on 4 July when he agreed to increase displacement to about 56 @,@ 000 tons . This forced the project to begin again .

The timing of the redesign proved to be inauspicious as the Great Purge was spreading through the ranks of the military and related industries . The original deadline for completion of design work by 15 October was missed , and an incomplete version was presented to the navy 's Shipbuilding Administration the next month . A number of details remained to be worked out , including the final design of the machinery plant , the 152 mm guns and the 100 mm gun mounts . In the meantime , extensive and expensive testing was conducted on the ship 's hull form , deck armor and torpedo protection ; 27 million rubles were spent on experimental work in 1938 alone . Over 100 models of the hull were tested in a ship model basin to find the best hull form and two one @-@ tenth @-@ scale launches were built at Sevastopol to test the hull 's maneuverability . An old steamship was fitted with a replica of the design 's armor decks and tested against 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bombs , proving that such ordnance would generally penetrate both the 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) upper and 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) middle decks before exploding on the armored deck . The main armor deck was raised one deck in consequence and a splinter deck added underneath it to stop any bomb or shell fragments that might penetrate the armor deck . The underwater protection system was tested on fifteen one @-@ fifth scale models and two full @-@ sized experimental barges . These tests proved that the torpedo belt system of multiple bulkheads was superior to the Pugliese system of a large tube filled with smaller sealed tubes , but it was too late to incorporate these test results into the design as construction was well underway by the time they were completed in late 1939 .

A revised design was approved on 28 February 1938 and the first ship was to be laid down on 15 July , but even this design was incomplete and would be revised later . Trials with similarly shaped motor launches suggested that the hull 's propulsive efficiency would be 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) less than planned , and this was accepted in the November 1938 revision as a maximum speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . However , a new propeller design proved to be more efficient and was predicted to increase speed to 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Another change was the deletion of the centerline rudder when tests showed that the two wing rudders would not be able to counteract its effects if it jammed . The weight toward the stern of the boat was calculated to be too great , producing a substantial stern @-@ down trim . To remedy this , the two 100 mm turrets mounted on the quarterdeck were deleted and the height of the armor belt abreast the rear turret was lowered , but this decision was reversed and they were restored by a decision of the State Defense Committee on 14 January 1941 . This forced a revision of the aircraft arrangements as the aircraft catapult had to be removed from the centerline of the quarterdeck ; two catapults were added to the sides of the quarterdeck instead .

= = = General characteristics = = =

As designed , the Project 23 @-@ class ships , as Sovetsky Soyuz and her sisters were designated , were 269 @.@ 4 meters ( 883 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 38 @.@ 9 meters ( 127 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 10 @.@ 4 meters ( 34 ft 1 in ) . They displaced 59 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 58 @,@ 220 long tons ) at standard load and 65 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 64 @,@ 121 long tons ) at full load , although weight estimates made in 1940 show that they would have exceeded 60 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 59 @,@ 052 long tons ) standard and 67 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 65 @,@ 942 long tons ) at full load .

The hull form was very full @-@ bodied , especially at the forward magazines , where the torpedo protection system added width to the beam . Coupled with the relatively low length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of 7 @.@ 14 : 1 , this meant that very powerful turbines were necessary to achieve even modest speeds . Stalin 's decision that the Project 23 @-@ class ships would use three shafts instead of four increased the load on each shaft and reduced propulsive efficiency , although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement . Metacentric height was designed at 3 @.@ 4 meters ( 11 ft 2 in ) and the tactical diameter was estimated at about 1 @,@ 170 meters ( 3 @,@ 840 ft ) .

The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships were provided with aircraft facilities to handle two to four KOR @-@ 2 flying boats which would be launched by the two catapults mounted on the stern . Two hangars were built into the after end of the forecastle deck to house two of them and cranes were provided at the forward end of the quarterdeck to hoist them out of the water .

= = = Machinery = = =

The machinery arrangement " provided good dispersal of the machinery spaces , but at the cost of very long runs for the wing shafts ( ca . 105 meters ( 344 @.@ 5 ft ) ) " . The turbine compartments for the wing shafts were located forward of boiler room No. 1 and aft of the No. 2 turret magazines . The engine room for the center shaft 's turbine was between boiler room No. 2 and No. 3 . This meant that the wing propeller shafts had to run underneath the boilers .

The steam turbines , and a license to build them , were originally going to be ordered from Cammell Laird in the United Kingdom , but their £ 700 @,@ 000 cost was more than the Soviets wanted to pay . Instead they bought them from Brown Boveri , using the technical information acquired from Cammell Laird in the process , for £ 400 @,@ 000 . Four single @-@ reduction , impulse @-@ reduction geared turbines were ordered from the Swiss firm , three to equip Sovetskaya Rossiya and one to serve as a pattern for the factory in Kharkiv that was to build the remainder . The three produced a total of 201 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 149 @,@ 886 kW ) . Six triangle @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers — two in each boiler room — powered the turbines at a working pressure of 37 kg / cm2 ( 3 @,@ 628 kPa ; 526 psi ) and a temperature of 380 ° C ( 716 ° F ) .

Maximum speed was estimated at 28 knots , using the revised propeller design , although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot . The normal fuel oil capacity was 5 @,@ 280 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 197 long tons ) , giving an estimated endurance of 6 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 700 km ; 7 @,@ 200 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) and 1 @,@ 890 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 500 km ; 2 @,@ 170 mi ) at full speed . Maximum fuel capacity was 6 @,@ 440 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 338 long tons ) which gave a range of 7 @,@ 680 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 220 km ; 8 @,@ 840 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots and 2 @,@ 305 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 269 km ; 2 @,@ 653 mi ) at full speed .

= = = Armament = = =

The main armament consisted of three electrically powered MK @-@ 1 triple turrets , each with three 50 @-@ caliber 406 mm B @-@ 37 guns . The guns could be depressed to − 2 ° and elevated to 45 ° . They had a fixed loading angle of 6 ° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to re @-@ aim the guns . It ranged from 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 6 rounds per minute depending on the elevation . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 6 @.@ 2 degrees per second and traverse at 4 @.@ 55 degrees per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried . The guns fired 1 @,@ 108 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 443 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 45 @,@ 600 meters ( 49 @,@ 900 yd ) .

The secondary armament consisted of twelve 57 @-@ caliber B @-@ 38 152 mm guns mounted in six dual MK @-@ 4 turrets . Their elevation limits were − 5 ° to + 45 ° with a fixed loading angle of 8 ° . Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 8 rounds per minute . They were provided with 170 rounds per gun . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second . They had a maximum range of about 30 @,@ 000 meters ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) with a 55 @-@ kilogram ( 121 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) .

Heavy anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) fire was provided by a dozen 56 @-@ caliber 100 mm B @-@ 34 dual @-@ purpose guns in six twin MZ @-@ 14 turrets with 400 rounds per gun . The ships began construction with only four turrets , but two additional turrets were restored to the quarterdeck in January 1941 . They could elevate to a maximum of 85 ° and depress to − 8 ° . They could traverse at a rate of 12 ° per second and elevate at 10 ° per second . They fired 15 @.@ 6 @-@ kilogram ( 34 lb ) high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of 895 m / s ( 2 @,@ 940 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 22 @,@ 241 meters ( 24 @,@ 323 yd ) against surface targets , but their maximum range against aerial targets was 9 @,@ 895 meters ( 32 @,@ 464 ft ) , the limit of their time fuse .

Light AA defense was handled by ten quadruple , water @-@ cooled , 46 @-@ K mounts fitted with 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns with 1800 rounds per gun . Initially only eight mounts were planned when the ships began construction , but two more were added later , probably in January 1941 , one on each side of the forward superstructure . Each mount was fully enclosed to protect the crew from the muzzle blast of the larger guns and against splinters . The guns fired .732 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @.@ 61 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 880 m / s ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft range was 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) .

= = = Fire control = = =

Each main gun turret was given a DM @-@ 12 12 @-@ meter ( 39 ft 4 in ) rangefinder for use in local control , but they were generally controlled by one of three KDP @-@ 8 fire @-@ control directors . These had two 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) stereoscopic rangefinders , one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship 's own shell splashes . Two of these were protected by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower @-@ mast . The other was mounted on top of the conning tower and was protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . They used a TsAS @-@ 0 mechanical computer to generate firing solutions . Four KDP @-@ 4t @-@ II directors , with two 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 1 in ) rangefinders each , controlled the secondary armament . One pair was on either side of the tower @-@ mast and the aft pair was on each side of the aft funnel . Three SPN @-@ 300 stabilized directors , each with a 4 @-@ meter rangefinder , controlled the heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns . There was one on each side of the forward funnel while the other was atop the rear superstructure .

= = = Protection = = =

Soviet armor plate plants proved incapable of producing plates of cemented armor thicker than 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) which forced the decision to replace cemented plates thicker than 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) with face @-@ hardened ones with less resistance in November 1940 . The plants tended to compensate by making the thicker plates harder , but this often made them more brittle and large numbers did not pass the acceptance tests . This would have significantly reduced the level of protection enjoyed by the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships in combat .

The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships devoted a total weight of 23 @,@ 306 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 938 long tons ) to armor protection , a slightly greater weight than that of the larger Japanese Yamato class ( 23 @,@ 262 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 895 long tons ) ) . Their armor was intended to resist 406 mm shells and 500 kg bombs , specifically shells fired from forward bearings between 35 ° and 50 ° from the centerline . This led to the very unusual situation where the armor belt thickened toward the bow to compensate for the narrowing of the ship near the forward magazines , which had to be compensated for by thicker armor . The belt was 148 @.@ 4 meters ( 486 ft 11 in ) long and covered 57 % of the total waterline length . It was inclined 5 ° to increase its resistance to flat @-@ trajectory shells . Over the machinery spaces it was 375 mm ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) thick and increased in steps until it was 420 mm ( 17 in ) thick over the forward magazines . It was 380 mm ( 15 in ) over the rear magazine . The belt armor was carried forward of the magazines at a thickness of 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) and terminated in a steeply sloped ( 30 ° ) transverse 285 mm ( 11 @.@ 2 in ) bulkhead that reduced to 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) at the lower deck where it was continued down to the inner bottom by a 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) bulkhead . Forward of this bulkhead was a 20 mm splinter belt that continued all the way to the bow . The main armor belt dropped down to the main deck from the upper deck abreast the aft turret to reduce weight . This " step " was protected by 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) plates . A 365 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 4 in ) transverse bulkhead separated the rear turret and the ship 's sides . The main part of the armored citadel was closed off by a 230 mm forward bulkhead and a 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) rear bulkhead , both of homogeneous armor . Splinter armor 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick covered the upper portion of the citadel .

The forecastle deck was 25 mm thick while the upper deck was 155 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) over the citadel . Below it , the 50 mm middle deck acted as a splinter deck . The upper deck was 100 mm thick above the 220 mm waterline belt extension . The bottom edge of the forward splinter belt met with a 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) arched deck . Another arched deck of the same thickness covered the stern aft of the rear transverse bulkhead .

The main gun turrets had faces 495 mm ( 19 @.@ 5 in ) thick with sides and roofs 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) thick . 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick plates protected the gun ports and 60 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) bulkheads separated each gun . The barbettes were 425 mm ( 16 @.@ 7 in ) thick above the upper deck . The MK @-@ 4 turrets had 100 mm faces and 65 mm sides . Their barbettes were 100 mm in thickness , but reduced to 65 mm on their inboard sides . 100 mm of armor protected the faces , sides and backs of the MZ @-@ 14 turrets for the 100 mm guns , but their roofs and barbettes were 100 mm thick . The forward conning tower had walls 425 mm thick while the rear conning tower had only 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) . The flag bridge in the tower @-@ mast had 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of protection .

The torpedo defense system was designed to withstand torpedoes with warheads equivalent to 750 kg ( 1 @,@ 653 lb ) of TNT . The ships were intended to be able to remain afloat with any five adjacent compartments flooded or with three torpedo hits and the destruction of the unarmored above @-@ water side . The Pugliese system protected 123 meters ( 403 ft 7 in ) of the ships ' midsection . At the aft end was a multi @-@ bulkhead protection system that extended another 33 meters ( 108 ft 3 in ) to the rear from the Pugliese system . The depth of the system was 8 @.@ 2 meters ( 26 ft 11 in ) amidships , but it reduced to 7 meters ( 23 ft 0 in ) fore and aft . The outer plating ranged from 11 to 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) in thickness while the inner bottom was 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) thick . The cylinder of the Pugliese system was also 7 mm thick while the semi @-@ circular main bulkhead was 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick with a flat 10 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) bulkhead behind it . The 3 @.@ 15 @-@ meter ( 10 ft 4 in ) diameter cylinder was intended to be immersed in fuel oil or water .

= = Construction = =

The August 1938 shipbuilding plan envisioned a total of 15 Project 23 @-@ class battleships , and this grandiose scheme was only slightly revised downward to 14 ships in the August 1939 plan . Eight of these were to be laid down before 1942 and the remaining six before 1947 . However , only four were actually laid down before the outbreak of World War II forced the Soviets to reassess their ambitious plans . On 19 October 1940 an order was issued , signed by Stalin and Molotov , that no new battleships would be laid down in order to concentrate on smaller ships ' building ( and also , probably , because more resources were required for the Army ) , one ship is to be scrapped , and priority should be given to only one of the three remaining battleships .

The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of so many large ships at the same time . The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 7 @,@ 874 @-@ long @-@ ton ) Kirov @-@ class cruisers , and even they had suffered from a number of production problems , but the Soviet leadership appeared to ignore the difficulties encountered in the construction of the Kirov class when ordering 14 much more ambitious ships . Construction of two more ships planned for Leningrad and Nikolayev had to move to the brand @-@ new Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk because the existing shipyards could not be expanded to handle so many large ships . Components for these two ships had to be manufactured at Leningrad and shipped via the White Sea – Baltic Canal to Molotovsk . Also , the turret shop at Nikolaev proved to be too poorly equipped to assemble the 406 mm mountings and the propeller shafts had to be ordered in 1940 from Germany and the Netherlands as the domestic plants were already overburdened with orders . Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1940 , and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications . Armor plate production was even more problematic as only 1 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 772 long tons ) of the anticipated 10 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 842 long tons ) were delivered in 1939 , and more than half of that was rejected . Furthermore , the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm , and inferior face @-@ hardened plates had to substitute for all thicknesses over 200 millimeters ( 8 in ) .

Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943 – 44 . Three turbines were delivered by Brown Boveri in 1939 to Arkhangelsk for the Sovetskaya Rossiya , but the Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941 . A prototype boiler was supposed to have been built ashore for evaluation , but it was not completed until early 1941 , which further complicated the production plan .

Construction of all three ships was ordered halted on 10 July 1941 , and the Sovetsky Soyuz was placed into long @-@ term conservation as the most advanced ship . However , all three were officially stricken from the Navy List on 10 September 1941 .

= = = Sovetsky Soyuz = = =

Sovetsky Soyuz ( Russian : Советский Союз — Soviet Union ) was formally laid down 15 July 1938 in Shipyard Nr. 189 ( Ordzhonikidze ) in Leningrad , although evidence suggests that construction actually began in January 1939 after her slipway was completed , the necessary cranes were in place , and working drawings had been completed . When the war began she was estimated to be 21 @.@ 19 % complete , with 15 @,@ 818 metric tons ( 15 @,@ 568 long tons ) of steel assembled on the slip . She was only lightly damaged by German air attacks and bombardments , and , as some material had been used during the Siege of Leningrad , she was estimated to be 19 @.@ 5 % complete after the end of the war . Some thought was given to completing her , but this was opposed as she was regarded as obsolete in light of the experience gained during the war . Stalin 's expressed desire to see one of the Project 23 @-@ class ships completed only delayed the decision to scrap her ; this was ordered on 29 May 1948 and was well underway by April 1949 .

= = = Sovetskaya Ukraina = = =

Sovetskaya Ukraina ( Russian : Советская Украина — Soviet Ukraine ) was laid down 31 October 1938 at Shipyard Nr. 198 ( Marti South ) in Nikolayev . When the war began she was 17 @.@ 98 % complete , with 13 @,@ 001 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 796 long tons ) assembled on the slipway . Some effort was made to launch the hull , but little work had been done to dredge the river at the foot of the slipway , and she was captured on 18 August 1941 , although retreating Soviet troops slightly damaged her hull . The Germans dismantled 200 feet ( 61 m ) of her bow and 100 feet ( 30 m ) of her stern for use in fortifications . They were forced to evacuate Nikolayev on 17 March 1944 and demolished the supporting blocks under her port side before they left , which gave her a list between 5 and 10 degrees and made her a total loss . She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947 .

= = = Sovetskaya Rossiya = = =

Sovetskaya Rossiya ( Russian : Советская Россия — Soviet Russia ) was laid down on 22 July 1940 in Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk . After the end of the war she was only 0 @.@ 97 % complete , with 2 @,@ 125 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 091 long tons ) of steel assembled . She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947 .

= = = Sovetskaya Belorussiya = = =

Sovetskaya Belorussiya ( Russian : Советская Белоруссия — Soviet Belorussia ) was laid down 21 December 1939 at Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk , but construction was suspended in mid @-@ 1940 when it was discovered that 70 @,@ 000 rivets used in her hull plating were of inferior quality . This fact probably influenced the decision to cancel her on 19 October 1940 . Material intended for her construction was used to construct a floating battery for the defense of Leningrad .

= Sang Pencerah =

Sang Pencerah ( The Enlightener ) is a 2010 Indonesian film directed by Hanung Bramantyo and starring Lukman Sardi , Zaskia Adya Mecca , and Slamet Rahardjo . It is a biopic of Ahmad Dahlan which describes how he came to found the Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah .

Sang Pencerah , produced to coincide with Muhammadiyah 's centenary , was announced in November 2009 . It was meant to be historically accurate , with much of the Rp . 12 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) budget paying for period costumes and sets . However , as documentation on the early years of Dahlan 's life is lacking , those scenes were fictionalised . Sang Pencerah marks the feature film debut of Ihsan Tarore and Giring Ganesha .

The film , released on 8 September 2010 during the Eid ul @-@ Fitr holiday , was meant to show different views of Islam ; however , it has also been interpreted as a critique of the current Muhammadiyah leadership . It was seen in theatres by over 1 million people – the only Indonesian film of 2010 to do so . It also received favourable critical reception , winning the 2011 Bandung Film Festival after being refused a nomination at the 2010 Indonesian Film Festival . However , some Muslim critics decried it as being too liberal .

= = Plot = =

Muhammad Darwis ( Ihsan Tarore ) is a youth in 19th @-@ century Kauman , Yogyakarta , and the son of Kyai Abubakar , the imam of the area 's mosque . Displeased with the mixture of Islam and animistic Javanese mysticism , which leads to poor Javanese spending exorbitant amounts of money on religious ceremonies , Darwis decides to go on the hajj to Mecca in Saudi Arabia . While there , he studies what he considers the true form of Islam over a period of five years .

Upon his return to Yogyakarta , Darwis ( now played by Lukman Sardi ) changes his name to Ahmad Dahlan and begins teaching Islam , preaching that prayers need only come from inner peace and do not require large donations or sacrifices . Conflict soon arises between Dahlan and the local kyais ( religious leaders ) after he shows that the direction in which they pray is wrong , pointing not to the Kaaba in Mecca but to Africa . The kyais , especially Cholil Kamaludiningrat ( Slamet Rahardjo ) , decry Dahlan as the leader of a cult and provoke a crowd of their followers to destroy the building next to Dahlan 's house used for studying prayer .

Dahlan continues to preach and teach , opening a school for native people , teaching Islam at a Dutch @-@ run school , and opening a small mosque ; he also marries his cousin , Siti Walidah . His actions , such as having his students sit on chairs instead of the traditional mats on the floor , lead to Kamaludiningrat decrying Dahlan as an unbeliever who is working to Westernise the local populace .

Despite continued resistance from Kamaludiningrat , Dahlan prevails and furthers his teaching . Together with Walidah , and the students Dirjo ( Abdurrahman Arif ) , Fahrudin ( Mario Irwinsyah ) , Hisyam ( Dennis Adishwara ) , Sangidu ( Ricky Perdana ) , and Sudja ( Giring Ganesha ) , he founds the progressive Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah , which preaches Islam without any influence from Javanese mysticism .

= = Production = =

The film announced in November 2009 . It was directed by Hanung Bramantyo , a Yogyakarta @-@ born Muslim filmmaker . Bramantyo , who had previously directed the Islamic @-@ themed Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( The Verses of Love ; 2008 ) , considered Dahlan his favourite national hero ; he later told The Jakarta Post that he admired the kyai 's spirit . He also said that he had been wanting to make the film since he was a teenager . The film was meant to coincide with the 100 year anniversary of Muhammadiyah 's founding .

Bramantyo attempted to make his film as historically accurate as possible . However , as no documentation of Dahlan 's life before he went to Mecca exists , the scenes showing Dahlan 's youth were fictionalized . The script underwent 12 revisions before the film was completed . Much of the film 's budget of Rp . 12 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) was spent on costumes and sets to ensure accuracy . The crew restored several old buildings for their shots and custom @-@ ordered 19th @-@ century style traditional garments for their scenes .

Bramatyo cast his wife , Zaskia Adya Mecca , as Ahmad Dahlan 's wife Siti Walidah — Mecca also served as casting director , in charge of auditioning the supporting cast . Before filming began , Mecca attempted to research the biographies of Dahlan and his wife , as she and the other young actors did not know much about the couple . However , she found such research difficult as the libraries did not have the information she needed .

Lukman Sardi , who played Dahlan , was also unaware of his character 's historical biography before researching it ; he noted that he was not very confident in playing the role . Indonesian Idol winner Ihsan Tarore was cast as the young Ahmad Dahlan , while the lead singer of the band Nidji , Giring Ganesha , was cast as Dahlan 's protege Sudja ; it was the feature film debut for both . Giring also wrote a song for the film , titled " Allah Maha Suci " ( " Allah , the All @-@ Pure " ) , over a period of two days .

On set , Mecca , who was pregnant at the time of shooting , found her physical condition " perfect " for the role as Walidah had been a large woman . However , her pregnancy led to Bramantyo worrying about a potential miscarriage during a scene where Mecca had to ride a traditional carriage with wooden wheels , which shook violently when moving .

= = Themes = =

In a 2011 interview with the Jakarta Globe after the release of his controversial film ? , Bramantyo said that he had intended Sang Pencerah to use Dahlan 's life to examine different aspects of Islam . He meant for the film to show Islam as being a peaceful and truthful religion . Pramono , writing for Tempo , notes that the film presents a different side of Dahlan , who is usually portrayed as an old , bearded man who , in his opinion , seems neither modernist nor progressive .

Ahmad Muttaqin , a lecturer on comparative religious studies at Sunan Kalijaga Islamic University in Yogyakarta , sees the film as a critique of the current Muhammadiyah leadership , whom he describes as " narrow minded , intolerant , hav [ ing ] poor social respect , [ ... ] rigid and allergic to progress " .

= = Release and reception = =

Sang Pencerah was released on 8 September 2010 , over the Eid ul @-@ Fitr holiday ; the increase in film attendance over the holiday is similar to blockbuster season for Hollywood films . According to Bramantyo , Sang Pencerah was seen by 1 @.@ 1 million people while in theatres ; a report from The Jakarta Globe says 1 @.@ 2 million . It was the only Indonesian film of 2010 to sell over a million tickets .

Bramatnyo was accused of working for Muhammadiyah when creating the film , an accusation which he denied . He also was criticised by some Muslim groups , which considered him too liberal . The film was not nominated for best picture at the 2010 Indonesian Film Festival after several nominees threatened to withdraw if Sang Pencerah was nominated . Sang Pencerah later won best picture at the Bandung Film Festival , held in Bandung , West Java , on 6 May 2011 .

Triwik Kurniasari , reviewing for The Jakarta Post , praised Sardi and Rahardjo 's acting ; noting that Sang Pencerah was " a good film and a conduit for young people to learn about their national heroes " . Asep Saefudin , writing for Antara , himself a graduate from Muhammadiyah schools , viewed the film as being well put together and reflective of the issues faced by Islamic modernists in the early 1900s . Pramono praised the film 's acting , soundtrack , and plot , especially Dahlan 's portrayal as a human with emotions and flaws instead of being perfect in every way . He found Sang Pencerah 's greatest weakness to be the language spoken by in some scenes , as it mixed Indonesian with Javanese ( something not done during the period portrayed ) , and the film 's stars – neither of whom is Javanese – had inaccurate accents .

= Underneath ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Underneath " is the twelfth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on March 31 , 2002 on the Fox network . The episode was written and directed by executive producer John Shiban . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 4 and was viewed by 4 @.@ 64 million households and 7 @.@ 3 million viewers . It received mixed reviews from critics .

The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett is determined to find an error in the DNA evidence that freed the convicted Robert Fassl , the " Screwdriver Killer " , whom he nearly caught in the act 13 years earlier . In the end , it is revealed that Fassl has a mental condition that splits him into two parts : the religious innocent and the vengeful killer .

" Underneath " marked the directorial debut of Shiban , who had been a writer for the series for several seasons . Reportedly , the episode contained " so many problems " that the Fox executives nearly refused to allow the finished product to air . At the last minute , however , they relented , and allowed the episode to be aired later on in the season , several weeks after its intended air date . Shiban originally wanted to film the sewer scenes in Los Angeles ' actual sewer system , but due to the events of September 11 , a sewer mock @-@ up was built on Stage 11 at the Fox studios .

= = Plot = =

Thirteen years before the present , Robert Fassl ( W. Earl Brown ) sits in his van . He later approaches a home and claims to be there to repair the cable . As Fassl holds up a piece of paper to show it to the family who called for the repair , blood spatter splashes across the paper . He looks up and sees the house 's occupants with slit throats in pools of blood . Abruptly , two police officers burst into the house and apprehend Fassl . One of the officers who goes to check out the kitchen , turns to reveal he is John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) as a young NYPD officer .

In the present , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) discusses Fassl 's release — due to DNA evidence — with an outraged Doggett . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) confirms that the test results conclusively disprove Fassl as the killer . Meanwhile , in court , Fassl notices a mysterious Bearded Man . After being released , he stays in a room belonging to his lawyer , Jana Fain , where he clutches a Rosary beads and prays frantically . When the Bearded Man appears , Fassl begs for the man not to hurt her . While Fain is unharmed , Fassl learns that the housekeeper , Mrs. Dowdy , has gone missing . Fassl finds her body , cleans up the blood , and dismembers her remains to cover up what has happened .

Scully tells Doggett that while the DNA test disproves Fassl 's culpability , it implicates a possible blood relative ; Fassl , however , is an only child . Reyes proposes that the murders are being conducted by an entity rather than a person . Meanwhile , Fassl approaches Assistant District Attorney Damon Kaylor and begs to be sent back to prison . Kaylor refuses , but is killed by the Bearded Man . After hearing of Kaylor 's disappearance , Reyes theorizes that Fassl 's piety and his unwillingness to acknowledge his darker half has given him the unwanted ability to physically change into another , more violent person .

The Bearded Man demands that Fassl kill Fain , beating him up when he doesn 't comply . As she tends to Fassl , Fain first sees the Bearded Man in his place . While staking out Fain 's house , the agents see the Bearded Man flee . Doggett pursues the Bearded Man while Reyes finds Fain alive . In the pursuit , Reyes falls through into a sewer , where she finds the remains of the Bearded Man 's victims . After a struggle with the Bearded Man , Doggett ends up apprehending Fassl , much to his confusion . Reyes tries to remind him that it does not matter as long as the case is solved .

= = Production = =

" Underneath " was written and directed by executive producer John Shiban . This marked his directorial debut . According to Shiban , part of the inspiration for the episode was that the series production staff had " actually talked for some time about doing a Jekyll / Hyde story but never quite found a way to do it " until the idea to use DNA came into play . Another inspiration for the episode was the 1949 film The Third Man , which featured a climactic chase through a sewage system .

The episode , which explores John Doggett 's backstory as a New York City police officer , was described as containing similar themes as those " explored on the Millennium series . " The episode guest @-@ starred Arthur Nascarella , who was a friend of series co @-@ star Robert Patrick . Patrick was essential in getting Nascarella cast on the show ; he later joked " I stole [ Nascarella 's ] New York accent in Copland [ sic ] and I stole it to do The X @-@ Files , but I got him cast in The X @-@ Files show . "

As the ninth season progressed and the show 's ratings began to plummet , Fox became more and more actively involved in the show 's style and direction . Although " Underneath " was the twelfth episode aired , it was actually the ninth episode produced during the season ; reportedly , the episode contained " so many problems " that the Fox executives very nearly nixed the finished product . At the last minute , however , they relented , and allowed the episode to be aired later on in the season , several weeks after its intended air date .

Shiban originally wanted to film the sewer scenes in Los Angeles ' actual sewer system , but the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power vetoed the idea and stated that " there 's a moratorium on shooting there since September 11 " , a position that Shiban called " understandable . " In order to make up for this , series art director Corey Kaplan was tasked with building a sewer replica ; she used the blueprints from the 1952 version of Les Misérables as an inspiration . Eventually , a complete set was built on Stage 11 at the Fox studios .

= = Reception = =

" Underneath " first aired in the United States on March 31 , 2002 on the Fox network . The episode later debuted in the United Kingdom on February 2 , 2003 on BBC One . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 4 @.@ 64 million households and over 7 @.@ 3 million viewers . " Underneath " was the 71st most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 31 .

The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – rating . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a negative review and called it " easily the worst of the season " . He awarded it a 4 out of 10 and concluded that , " We can only hope that none of the remaining episodes are Shiban @-@ related , and pray that he can do a much better job when he writes for Enterprise next season . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , and called the entry " solid and efficient " . The two complimented Shiban 's directorial efforts , noting that " as a director [ he ] makes ' Underneath ' shine " , but were critical of some of the " trademark X @-@ File moments " , citing " the surprise appearance of a face in the bathroom mirror " and " the climactic fight in a sewer " as examples . Shearman and Pearson , however , wrote positively of Shiban 's realistic depiction of Doggett . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , wrote that the episode felt " very familiar " but was impressed with the production design on the sewer set .

= Islais Creek =

Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du Vrees Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California . The name of the creek is derived from a Salinan Native American word " slay " or " islay " , the name for the Prunus ilicifolia wild cherries . Around the time of the Gold Rush , the area became an industrial hub , and the condition of the creek worsened . After the devastating earthquake in 1906 , the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris , reducing the waterbody to its present size . Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert , remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street . Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants , as they are important wildlife habitats .

= = Course = =

The historic Islais Creek , the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.@ 813 sq mi ; 20 @.@ 234 km2 ) , had two main branches . One originated near the southern slope of Twin Peaks , slightly north of Portola Drive . It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park paralleling Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I @-@ 280 . The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street . It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I @-@ 280 viaduct . Together , as a wider creek , it ran parallel to Alemany Boulevard and I @-@ 280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary , near Industrial Street and Oakdale Avenue . Precita Creek , a nearby creek that originated from Noe Valley , also joined Islais Creek at the César Chávez Boulevard and Evans Avenue intersection .

From its sources in the Glen Canyon , the entire creek stretched about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to the San Francisco Bay . The mouth was nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide , providing up to 85 % of the drinking water in San Francisco . Due to urban development , however , the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80 % from its historical extent . A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today , such as Bernal Heights , Hunters Point , Visitacion Valley , parts of the Mission and Potrero Hill , was once covered by the extent of the creek .

In 2007 , the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , which manages the city 's water , began investigating the possibility of " daylighting " underground portions of the creek . As of 2009 , remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay .

= = History = =

The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century . The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834 , named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area . By 1850 , water from the creek was used by farmers to irrigate crops . The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers swarmed into the city .

A railroad trestle was built over the creek and tidal flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex relatione The Board of State Harbor Commissioners VS . The Potrero And Bay View Railroad Company , Islais Creek was declared a non @-@ navigable waterway in 1883 .

In 1871 , the area along the creek became known as the city ’ s " New Butchertown " when more than 100 slaughterhouses opened . Since then , the condition of the creek deteriorated , literally becoming a dumping place of garbage , sewage , animal waste , and unsold meat products . The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as " Shit Creek " by San Franciscans , according to historian Karl Kortum .

After the 1906 earthquake , San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris , reducing the creek to its present size . During World War II , it served as docking areas for large ocean @-@ going tugs . The area also located the largest copra coconut processing plant in the United States West Coast . In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high copra crane , used to transport large amount of copras from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark . In the 1950s , Islais Creek was home to the largest sardine canning industry in the world . The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970 . Today , the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay .

Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas . Friends of Islais Creek , established back in 1984 , and David Erickson , a local community figure , were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek . The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The Bayview . With an additional of $ 100 @,@ 000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non @-@ profit organizations and governmental agencies , namely the Sierra Club , San Francisco Municipal Railway ( Muni ) , Department of Public Works , Public Utilities Commission , Port of San Francisco , and Caltrans , the park was finished in 1998 . Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek , the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone Sanctuary is named after the native inhabitants and has since became an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife , including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly .

On November 19 , 2001 , construction crews , while preparing to drill an electrical conduit ( consisting of six large 115kV electrical cables ) across the creek for the Muni Metro T Third Street light rail line , cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day . The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage . The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe . It was estimated that it would take more than $ 101 @,@ 660 to repair and $ 65 @,@ 000 for wildlife habitat restoration .

= = = Health hazard = = =

Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water , domestic sewage , and industrial wastewater , it is possible for the sewage to overflow . Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals , PCBs , bacteria , as well as organochlorines than other parts of the San Francisco Bay .

= = Transportation = =

The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek , carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street . It is a bascule @-@ type drawbridge . The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street . This crossing also uses a bascule bridge .

= Iguanodon =

Iguanodon ( / ᵻˈɡwɑːnədɒn / i @-@ GWAH @-@ nə @-@ don ; meaning " iguana @-@ tooth " ) is a genus of ornithopod dinosaur that existed roughly halfway between the first of the swift bipedal hypsilophodontids of the mid @-@ Jurassic and the duck @-@ billed dinosaurs of the late Cretaceous . While many species have been classified in the genus Iguanodon , dating from the late Jurassic Period to the late Cretaceous Period of Asia , Europe , and North America , research in the first decade of the 21st century suggests that there is only one well @-@ substantiated species : I. bernissartensis , which lived from the late Barremian to the earliest Aptian ages ( Early Cretaceous ) in Belgium and possibly elsewhere in Europe , between about 126 and 125 million years ago . Iguanodon were large , bulky herbivores . Distinctive features include large thumb spikes , which were possibly used for defense against predators , combined with long prehensile fifth fingers able to forage for food .

The genus was named in 1825 by English geologist Gideon Mantell , based on fossil specimens that are now assigned to Therosaurus and Mantellodon . Iguanodon was the second type of dinosaur formally named based on fossil specimens , after Megalosaurus . Together with Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus , it was one of the three genera originally used to define Dinosauria . The genus Iguanodon belongs to the larger group Iguanodontia , along with the duck @-@ billed hadrosaurs . The taxonomy of this genus continues to be a topic of study as new species are named or long @-@ standing ones reassigned to other genera .

Scientific understanding of Iguanodon has evolved over time as new information has been obtained from fossils . The numerous specimens of this genus , including nearly complete skeletons from two well @-@ known bonebeds , have allowed researchers to make informed hypotheses regarding many aspects of the living animal , including feeding , movement , and social behaviour . As one of the first scientifically well @-@ known dinosaurs , Iguanodon has occupied a small but notable place in the public 's perception of dinosaurs , its artistic representation changing significantly in response to new interpretations of its remains .

= = Description = =

Iguanodon were bulky herbivores that could shift from bipedality to quadrupedality . The only well @-@ supported species , I. bernissartensis , is estimated to have weighed about 3 @.@ 08 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 4 tons ) on average , and measured about 10 metres ( 33 feet ) long as an adult , with some specimens possibly as long as 13 metres ( 43 feet ) . These animals had large , tall but narrow skulls , with toothless beaks probably covered with keratin , and teeth like those of iguanas , but much larger and more closely packed .

The arms of I. bernissartensis were long ( up to 75 % the length of the legs ) and robust , with rather inflexible hands built so that the three central fingers could bear weight . The thumbs were conical spikes that stuck out away from the three main digits . In early restorations , the spike was placed on the animal 's nose . Later fossils revealed the true nature of the thumb spikes , although their exact function is still debated . They could have been used for defense , or for foraging for food . The little finger was elongated and dextrous , and could have been used to manipulate objects . The phalangeal formula is 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 4 , meaning that the innermost finger ( phalange ) has two bones , the next has three , etc . The legs were powerful , but not built for running , and each foot had three toes . The backbone and tail were supported and stiffened by ossified tendons , which were tendons that turned to bone during life ( these rod @-@ like bones are usually omitted from skeletal mounts and drawings ) .

Iguanodon teeth are , as the name suggests , like those of an iguana , but larger . Unlike hadrosaurids , which had columns of replacement teeth , Iguanodon only had one replacement tooth at a time for each position . The upper jaw held up to 29 teeth per side , with none at the front of the jaw , and the lower jaw 25 ; the numbers differ because teeth in the lower jaw are broader than those in the upper . Because the tooth rows are deeply inset from the outside of the jaws , and because of other anatomical details , it is believed that , as with most other ornithischians , Iguanodon had some sort of cheek @-@ like structure , muscular or non @-@ muscular , to retain food in the mouth .

= = Classification and origins = =

Iguanodon gives its name to the unranked clade Iguanodontia , a very populous group of ornithopods with many species known from the Middle Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous . Aside from Iguanodon , the best @-@ known members of the clade include Dryosaurus , Camptosaurus , Ouranosaurus , and the duck @-@ bills , or hadrosaurs . In older sources , Iguanodontidae was shown as a distinct family . This family traditionally has been something of a wastebasket taxon , including ornithopods that were neither hypsilophodontids or hadrosaurids . In practice , animals like Callovosaurus , Camptosaurus , Craspedodon , Kangnasaurus , Mochlodon , Muttaburrasaurus , Ouranosaurus , and Probactrosaurus were usually assigned to this family .

With the advent of cladistic analyses , Iguanodontidae as traditionally construed was shown to be paraphyletic , and these animals are recognised to fall at different points in relation to hadrosaurs on a cladogram , instead of in a single distinct clade . Essentially , the modern concept of Iguanodontidae currently includes only Iguanodon . Groups like Iguanodontoidea are still used as unranked clades in the scientific literature , though many traditional iguanodontids are now included in the superfamily Hadrosauroidea . Iguanodon lies between Camptosaurus and Ouranosaurus in cladograms , and is probably descended from a camptosaur @-@ like animal . At one point , Jack Horner suggested , based mostly on skull features , that hadrosaurids actually formed two more distantly related groups , with Iguanodon on the line to the flat @-@ headed hadrosaurines , and Ouranosaurus on the line to the crested lambeosaurines , but his proposal has been rejected .

The cladogram below follows an analysis by Andrew McDonald , 2012 .

= = Palaeobiology = =

= = = Feeding = = =

One of the first details noted about Iguanodon was that it had the teeth of a herbivorous reptile , although there has not always been consensus on how it ate . As Mantell noted , the remains he was working with were unlike any modern reptile , especially in the toothless , scoop @-@ shaped form of the lower jaw symphysis , which he found best compared to that of the two @-@ toed sloth and the extinct ground sloth Mylodon . He also suggested that Iguanodon had a prehensile tongue which could be used to gather food , like a giraffe . More complete remains have shown this to be an error ; for example , the hyoid bones that supported the tongue are heavily built , implying a muscular , non @-@ prehensile tongue used for moving food around in the mouth . The giraffe @-@ tongue idea has also been incorrectly attributed to Dollo via a broken lower jaw .

The skull was structured in such a way that as it closed , the bones holding the teeth in the upper jaw would bow out . This would cause the lower surfaces of the upper jaw teeth to rub against the upper surface of the lower jaw 's teeth , grinding anything caught in between and providing an action that is the rough equivalent of mammalian chewing . Because the teeth were always replaced , the animal could have used this mechanism throughout its life , and could eat tough plant material . Additionally , the front ends of the animal 's jaws were toothless and tipped with bony nodes , both upper and lower , providing a rough margin that was likely covered and lengthened by a keratinous material to form a cropping beak for biting off twigs and shoots . Its food gathering would have been aided by its flexible little finger , which could have been used to manipulate objects , unlike the other fingers .

Exactly what Iguanodon ate with its well @-@ developed jaws is not known . The size of the larger species , such as I. bernissartensis , would have allowed them access to food from ground level to tree foliage at 4 – 5 metres ( 13 – 16 ft ) high . A diet of horsetails , cycads , and conifers was suggested by David Norman , although iguanodonts in general have been tied to the advance of angiosperm plants in the Cretaceous due to the dinosaurs ' inferred low browsing habits . Angiosperm growth , according to this hypothesis , would have been encouraged by iguanodont feeding because gymnosperms would be removed , allowing more space for the weed @-@ like early angiosperms to grow . The evidence is not conclusive , though . Whatever its exact diet , due to its size and abundance , Iguanodon is regarded as a dominant medium to large herbivore for its ecological communities . In England , this included the small predator Aristosuchus , larger predators Eotyrannus , Baryonyx , and Neovenator , low @-@ feeding herbivores Hypsilophodon and Valdosaurus , fellow " iguanodontid " Mantellisaurus , the armoured herbivore Polacanthus , and sauropods like Pelorosaurus .

= = = Posture and movement = = =

Early fossil remains were fragmentary , which led to much speculation on the posture and nature of Iguanodon . Iguanodon was initially portrayed as a quadrupedal horn @-@ nosed beast . However , as more bones were discovered , Mantell observed that the forelimbs were much smaller than the hindlimbs . His rival Owen was of the opinion it was a stumpy creature with four pillar @-@ like legs . The job of overseeing the first lifesize reconstruction of dinosaurs was initially offered to Mantell , who declined due to poor health , and Owen 's vision subsequently formed the basis on which the sculptures took shape . Its bipedal nature was revealed with the discovery of the Bernissart skeletons . However , it was depicted in an upright posture , with the tail dragging along the ground , acting as the third leg of a tripod .

During his re @-@ examination of Iguanodon , David Norman was able to show that this posture was unlikely , because the long tail was stiffened with ossified tendons . To get the tripodal pose , the tail would literally have to be broken . Putting the animal in a horizontal posture makes many aspects of the arms and pectoral girdle more understandable . For example , the hand is relatively immobile , with the three central fingers grouped together , bearing hoof @-@ like phalanges , and able to hyperextend . This would have allowed them to bear weight . The wrist is also relatively immobile , and the arms and shoulder bones robust . These features all suggest that the animal spent time on all fours .

Furthermore , it appears that Iguanodon became more quadrupedal as it got older and heavier ; juvenile I. bernissartensis have shorter arms than adults ( 60 % of hindlimb length versus 70 % for adults ) . When walking as a quadruped , the animal 's hands would have been held so that the palms faced each other , as shown by iguanodontian trackways and the anatomy of this genus 's arms and hands . The three toed pes ( foot ) of Iguanodon was relatively long , and when walking , both the hand and the foot would have been used in a digitigrade fashion ( walking on the fingers and toes ) . The maximum speed of Iguanodon has been estimated at 24 km / h ( 15 mph ) , which would have been as a biped ; it would not have been able to gallop as a quadruped .

Large three @-@ toed footprints are known in Early Cretaceous rocks of England , particularly Wealden beds on the Isle of Wight , and these trace fossils were originally difficult to interpret . Some authors associated them with dinosaurs early on . In 1846 , E. Tagert went so far as to assign them to an ichnogenus he named Iguanodon , and Samuel Beckles noted in 1854 that they looked like bird tracks , but might have come from dinosaurs . The identity of the trackmakers was greatly clarified upon the discovery in 1857 of the hind leg of a young Iguanodon , with distinctly three @-@ toed feet , showing that such dinosaurs could have made the tracks . Despite the lack of direct evidence , these tracks are often attributed to Iguanodon . A trackway in England shows what may be an Iguanodon moving on all fours , but the foot prints are poor , making a direct connection difficult . Tracks assigned to the ichnogenus Iguanodon are known from locations including places in Europe where the body fossil Iguanodon is known , to Spitsbergen , Svalbard , Norway .

= = = Thumb spike = = =

The thumb spike is one of the best @-@ known features of Iguanodon . Although it was originally placed on the animal 's nose by Mantell , the complete Bernissart specimens allowed Dollo to place it correctly on the hand , as a modified thumb . ( This would not be the last time a dinosaur 's modified thumb claw would be misinterpreted ; Noasaurus , Baryonyx , and Megaraptor are examples since the 1980s where an enlarged thumb claw was first put on the foot , as in dromaeosaurids . )

This thumb is typically interpreted as a close @-@ quarter stiletto @-@ like weapon against predators , although it could also have been used to break into seeds and fruits , or against other Iguanodon . One author has suggested that the spike was attached to a venom gland , but this has not been accepted , as the spike was not hollow , nor were there any grooves on the spike for conducting venom .

= = = Possible social behaviour = = =

Although sometimes interpreted as the result of a single catastrophe , the Bernissart finds instead are now interpreted as recording multiple events . According to this interpretation , at least three occasions of mortality are recorded , and though numerous individuals would have died in a geologically short time span ( ? 10 – 100 years ) , this does not necessarily mean these Iguanodon were herding animals .

An argument against herding is that juvenile remains are very uncommon at this site , unlike modern cases with herd mortality . They more likely were the periodic victims of flash floods whose carcasses accumulated in a lake or marshy setting . The Nehden find , however , with its greater span of individual ages , more even mix of Dollodon or Mantellisaurus to Iguanodon bernissartensis , and confined geographic nature , may record mortality of herding animals migrating through rivers .

Unlike other purported herding dinosaurs ( especially hadrosaurs and ceratopsids ) , there is no evidence that Iguanodon was sexually dimorphic , with one sex appreciably different from the other . At one time , it was suggested that the Bernissart I. " mantelli " , or I. atherfieldensis ( Dollodon and Mantellisaurus , respectively ) represented a sex , possibly female , of the larger and more robust , possibly male , I. bernissartensis . However , this is not supported today .

= = = Paleopathology = = =

Evidence of a fractured hip bone was found in a specimen of Iguanodon , which had an injury to its ischium . Two other individuals were observed with signs of osteoarthritis as evidenced by bone overgrowths in their anklebones which are called osteophytes .

= = Discovery and history = =

= = = Gideon Mantell , Sir Richard Owen , and the discovery of dinosaurs = = =

The discovery of Iguanodon has long been accompanied by a popular legend . The story goes that Gideon Mantell 's wife , Mary Ann , discovered the first teeth of an Iguanodon in the strata of Tilgate Forest in Whitemans Green , Cuckfield , Sussex , England , in 1822 while her husband was visiting a patient . However , there is no evidence that Mantell took his wife with him while seeing patients . Furthermore , he admitted in 1851 that he himself had found the teeth . Not everyone agrees that the story is false , though . It is known from his notebooks that Mantell first acquired large fossil bones from the quarry at Whitemans Green in 1820 . Because also theropod teeth were found , thus belonging to carnivores , he at first interpreted these bones , which he tried to combine into a partial skeleton , as those of a giant crocodile . In 1821 Mantell mentioned the find of herbivorous teeth and began to consider the possibility that a large herbivorous reptile was present in the strata . However , in his 1822 publication Fossils of the South Downs he as yet did not dare to suggest a connection between the teeth and his very incomplete skeleton , presuming that his finds presented two large forms , one carnivorous ( " an animal of the Lizard Tribe of enormous magnitude " ) , the other herbivorous . In May 1822 he first presented the herbivorous teeth to the Royal Society of London but the members , among them William Buckland , dismissed them as fish teeth or the incisors of a rhinoceros from a Tertiary stratum . On 23 June 1823 Charles Lyell showed some to Georges Cuvier , during a soiree in Paris , but the famous French naturalist at once dismissed them as those of a rhinoceros . Though the very next day Cuvier retracted , Lyell reported only the dismissal to Mantell , who became rather diffident about the issue . In 1824 Buckland described Megalosaurus and was on that occasion invited to visit Mantell 's collection . Seeing the bones on 6 March he agreed that these were of some giant saurian — though still denying it was a herbivore . Emboldened nevertheless , Mantell again sent some teeth to Cuvier , who answered on 22 June 1824 that he had determined that they were reptilian and quite possibly belonged to a giant herbivore . In a new edition that year of his Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles Cuvier admitted his earlier mistake , leading to an immediate acceptance of Mantell , and his new saurian , in scientific circles . Mantell tried to corroborate his theory further by finding a modern @-@ day parallel among extant reptiles . In September 1824 he visited the Royal College of Surgeons but at first failed to find comparable teeth . However , assistant @-@ curator Samuel Stutchbury recognised that they resembled those of an iguana he had recently prepared , albeit twenty times longer .

In recognition of the resemblance of the teeth to those of the iguana , Mantell decided to name his new animal Iguanodon or " iguana @-@ tooth " , from iguana and the Greek word ὀδών ( odon , odontos or " tooth " ) . Based on isometric scaling , he estimated that the creature might have been up to 18 metres ( 59 feet ) long , more than the 12 metres ( 39 feet ) length of Megalosaurus . His initial idea for a name was Iguana @-@ saurus ( " Iguana lizard " ) , but his friend William Daniel Conybeare suggested that that name was more applicable to the iguana itself , so a better name would be Iguanoides ( " Iguana @-@ like " ) or Iguanodon . He neglected to add a specific name to form a proper binomial , but one was supplied in 1829 by Friedrich Holl : I. anglicum , which was later amended to I. anglicus .

Mantell sent a letter detailing his discovery to the local Portsmouth Philosophical Society in December 1824 , several weeks after settling on a name for the fossil creature . The letter was read to members of the Society at a meeting on 17 December , and a report was published in the Hampshire Telegraph the following Monday , 20 December , which announced the name , mis @-@ spelt as " Iguanadon " . Mantell formally published his findings on 10 February 1825 , when he presented a paper on the remains to the Royal Society of London .

A more complete specimen of similar animal was discovered in a quarry in Maidstone , Kent , in 1834 ( lower Lower Greensand Formation ) , which Mantell soon acquired . He was led to identify it as an Iguanodon based on its distinctive teeth . The Maidstone slab was utilized in the first skeletal reconstructions and artistic renderings of Iguanodon , but due to its incompleteness , Mantell made some mistakes , the most famous of which was the placement of what he thought was a horn on the nose . The discovery of much better specimens in later years revealed that the horn was actually a modified thumb . Still encased in rock , the Maidstone skeleton is currently displayed at the Natural History Museum in London . The borough of Maidstone commemorated this find by adding an Iguanodon as a supporter to their coat of arms in 1949 . This specimen has become linked with the name I. mantelli , a species named in 1832 by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in place of I. anglicus , but it actually comes from a different formation than the original I. mantelli / I. anglicus material . The Maidstone specimen , also known as Gideon Mantell 's " Mantel @-@ piece " , and formally labelled NHMUK 3741 was subsequently excluded from Iguanodon . It is classified as cf . Mantellisaurus by McDonald ( 2012 ) ; as cf . Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis by Norman ( 2012 ) ; and made the holotype of a separate species Mantellodon carpenteri by Paul ( 2012 ) .

At the same time , tension began to build between Mantell and Richard Owen , an ambitious scientist with much better funding and society connections in the turbulent worlds of Reform Act – era British politics and science . Owen , a firm creationist , opposed the early versions of evolutionary science ( " transmutationism " ) then being debated and used what he would soon coin as dinosaurs as a weapon in this conflict . With the paper describing Dinosauria , he scaled down dinosaurs from lengths of over 61 metres ( 200 feet ) , determined that they were not simply giant lizards , and put forward that they were advanced and mammal @-@ like , characteristics given to them by God ; according to the understanding of the time , they could not have been " transmuted " from reptiles to mammal @-@ like creatures .

In 1849 , a few years before his death in 1852 , Mantell realised that iguanodonts were not heavy , pachyderm @-@ like animals , as Owen was putting forward , but had slender forelimbs ; however , his passing left him unable to participate in the creation of the Crystal Palace dinosaur sculptures , and so Owen 's vision of the dinosaurs became that seen by the public for decades . With Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins , he had nearly two dozen lifesize sculptures of various prehistoric animals built out of concrete sculpted over a steel and brick framework ; two iguanodonts ( based on the Mantellodon specimen ) , one standing and one resting on its belly , were included . Before the sculpture of the standing iguanodont was completed , he held a banquet for twenty inside it .

= = = Bernissart = = =

The largest find of Iguanodon remains to that date occurred on 28 February 1878 in a coal mine at Bernissart in Belgium , at a depth of 322 m ( 1 @,@ 056 ft ) , when two mineworkers , Jules Créteur and Alphonse Blanchard , accidentally hit on a skeleton that they initially took for petrified wood . With the encouragement of Alphonse Briart , supervisor of mines at nearby Morlanwelz , Louis de Pauw on 15 May 1878 started to excavate the skeletons and in 1882 Louis Dollo reconstructed them . At least 38 Iguanodon individuals were uncovered , most of which were adults . In 1882 , the holotype specimen of I. bernissartensis became one of the first ever dinosaur skeletons mounted for display . It was put together in a chapel at the Palace of Charles of Lorraine using a series of adjustable ropes attached to scaffolding so that a lifelike pose could be achieved during the mounting process . This specimen , along with several others , first opened for public viewing in an inner courtyard of the palace in July 1883 . In 1891 they were moved to the Royal Museum of Natural History , where they are still on display ; nine are displayed as standing mounts , and nineteen more are still in the Museum 's basement . The exhibit makes an impressive display in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences , in Brussels . A replica of one of these is on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History and at the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge . Most of the remains were referred to a new species , I. bernissartensis , a larger and much more robust animal than the English remains had yet revealed , but one specimen was referred to the nebulous , gracile I. mantelli ( now Dollodon bampingi ) . The skeletons were some of the first complete dinosaur skeletons known . Found with the dinosaur skeletons were the remains of plants , fish , and other reptiles , including the crocodyliform Bernissartia .

The science of conserving fossil remains was in its infancy , and new techniques had to be improvised to deal with what soon became known as " pyrite disease " . Crystalline pyrite in the bones was being oxidized to iron sulphate , accompanied by an increase in volume that caused the remains to crack and crumble . When in the ground , the bones were isolated by anoxic moist clay that prevented this from happening , but when removed into the drier open air , the natural chemical conversion began to occur . To limit this effect , De Pauw immediately , in the mine @-@ gallery , re @-@ covered the dug @-@ out fossils with wet clay , sealing them with paper and plaster reinforced by iron rings , forming in total about six hundred transportable blocks with a combined weight of a hundred and thirty tons . In Brussels after opening the plaster he impregnated the bones with boiling gelatine mixed with oil of cloves as a preservative . Removing most of the visible pyrite he then hardened them with hide glue , finishing with a final layer of tin foil . Damage was repaired with papier @-@ mâché . This treatment had the unintended effect of sealing in moisture and extending the period of damage . In 1932 museum director Victor van Straelen decided that the specimens had to be completely restored again to safeguard their preservation . From December 1935 to August 1936 the staff at the museum in Brussels treated the problem with a combination of alcohol , arsenic , and 390 kilograms of shellac . This combination was intended to simultaneously penetrate the fossils ( with alcohol ) , prevent the development of mold ( with arsenic ) , and harden them ( with shellac ) . The fossils entered a third round of conservation from 2003 until May 2007 , when the shellac , hide glue and gelatine were removed and impregnated with polyvinyl acetate and cyanoacrylate and epoxy glues . Modern treatments of this problem typically involve either monitoring the humidity of fossil storage , or , for fresh specimens , preparing a special coating of polyethylene glycol that is then heated in a vacuum pump , so that moisture is immediately removed and pore spaces are infiltrated with polyethelene glycol to seal and strengthen the fossil .

Dollo 's specimens allowed him to show that Owen 's prehistoric pachyderms were not correct for Iguanodon . He instead modelled the skeletal mounts after the cassowary and wallaby , and put the spike that had been on the nose firmly on the thumb . He was not completely correct , but he also had the disadvantage of being faced with some of the first complete dinosaur remains . A problem that was later recognised was the bend he introduced into the tail . This organ was more or less straight , as shown by the skeletons he was excavating , and the presence of ossified tendons . In fact , to get the bend in the tail for a more wallaby or kangaroo @-@ like posture , the tail would have had to be broken . With its correct , straight tail and back , the animal would have walked with its body held horizontal to the ground , arms in place to support the body if needed .

Excavations at the quarry were stopped in 1881 , although it was not exhausted of fossils , as recent drilling operations have shown . During World War I , when the town was occupied by German forces , preparations were made to reopen the mine for palaeontology , and Otto Jaekel was sent from Berlin to supervise . The Allies recaptured Bernissart just as the first fossiliferous layer was about to be uncovered . Further attempts to reopen the mine were hindered by financial problems and were stopped altogether in 1921 when the mine flooded .

= = = Current research = = =

Research on Iguanodon decreased during the early part of the 20th century as World Wars and the Great Depression enveloped Europe . A new species that would become the subject of much study and taxonomic controversy , I. atherfieldensis , was named in 1925 by R. W. Hooley , for a specimen collected at Atherfield Point on the Isle of Wight .

Iguanodon was recorded from Africa based on teeth from Tunisia and elsewhere in the Sahara , but the description of Lurdusaurus and Ouranosaurus cast doubt on African records of Iguanodon . The genus was also recorded from Mongolia based on the description of I. orientalis , and in North America based on I. ottingeri from Utah . Another North American species , from South Dakota , once assigned to Iguanodon as I. lakotaensis , has since been reclassified as the genus Dakotadon .

Iguanodon was not part of the initial work of the dinosaur renaissance that began with the description of Deinonychus in 1969 , but it was not neglected for long . David B. Weishampel 's work on ornithopod feeding mechanisms provided a better understanding of how it fed , and David B. Norman 's work on numerous aspects of the genus has made it one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs . In addition , a further find of numerous Iguanodon skeletons , in Nehden , Nordrhein @-@ Westphalen , Germany , has provided evidence for gregariousness in this genus , as the animals in this areally restricted find appear to have been killed by flash floods . At least 15 individuals , from 2 to 8 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 26 @.@ 2 ft ) long , have been found here , although at least some of them are gracile iguanodontians and belong to the related Mantellisaurus or Dollodon ( described as I. atherfieldensis , at that time believed to be another species of Iguanodon ) .

Iguanodon material has also been used in the search for dinosaur DNA and other biomolecules . In research by Graham Embery et al . , Iguanodon bones were processed to look for remnant proteins . In this research , identifiable remains of typical bone proteins , such as phosphoproteins and proteoglycans , were found in a rib .

= = Species = =

Because Iguanodon is one of the first dinosaur genera to have been named , numerous species have been assigned to it . While never becoming the wastebasket taxon several other early genera of dinosaurs became ( such as Megalosaurus ) , Iguanodon has had a complicated history , and its taxonomy continues to undergo revisions . Although Gregory Paul recommended restricting I. bernissartensis to the famous sample from Bernissart , ornithopod workers like Norman and McDonald have disagreed with Paul 's recommendations , except exercising caution when accepting records of Iguanodon from France and Spain as valid .

I. anglicus was the original type species , but the holotype was based on a single tooth and only partial remains of the species have been recovered since . In March 2000 , the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature changed the type species to the much better known I. bernissartensis , with the new holotype being IRSNB 1534 . The original Iguanodon tooth is held at Te Papa Tongarewa , the national museum of New Zealand in Wellington , although it is not on display . The fossil arrived in New Zealand following the move of Gideon Mantell 's son Walter there ; after the elder Mantell 's death , his fossils went to Walter .

= = = Species currently accepted as valid = = =

Only two species assigned to Iguanodon are still considered to be valid .

I. bernissartensis , described by George Albert Boulenger in 1881 , is the type species for the genus . This species is best known for the many skeletons discovered in Bernissart , but is also known from remains across Europe . David Norman suggested that it includes the dubious Mongolian I. orientalis , but this has not been followed by other researchers .

I. galvensis , described in 2015 , is based on adult and juvenile remains found in Barremian @-@ age deposits in Teruel , Spain .

= = = Reassigned species = = =

I. hoggi ( also spelled I. boggii or hoggii ) , named by Owen for a lower jaw from the Tithonian – Berriasian @-@ age Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous Purbeck Beds of Dorset in 1874 , has been reassigned to its own genus , Owenodon .

Iguanodon albinus ( or Albisaurus scutifer ) , described by Czech palaeontologist Antonin Fritsch in 1893 , is a dubious nondinosaurian reptile now known as Albisaurus albinus .

I. atherfieldensis , described by R.W. Hooley in 1925 , was smaller and less robust than I. bernissartensis , with longer neural spines . It was renamed Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis in 2007 . The Bernissart specimen RBINS 1551 was described as Dollodon bampingi in 2008 , but McDonald and Norman returned Dollodon to synonymy with Mantellisaurus .

I. exogyrarum was described by Fritsch in 1878 . It is a nomen dubium based on very poor material and was renamed Ponerosteus in 2000 .

I. prestwichii ( also spelled I. prestwichi ) , described by John Hulke in 1880 , has been reassigned to Camptosaurus prestwichii or to its own genus Cumnoria .

Two species described by Richard Lydekker in the late 19th century have been reassigned to different genera .

I. dawsoni , described by Lydekker in 1888 , is known from two partial skeletons found in East Sussex , England , from the middle Valanginian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Wadhurst Clay . It is now the type species of Barilium .

I. fittoni was described by Lydekker in 1889 . Like I. dawsoni , this species was described from the Wadhurst Clay of East Sussex . It is now the type species of Hypselospinus .

I. hollingtoniensis ( also spelled I. hollingtonensis ) , described by Lydekker in 1889 has variously been considered a synonym of Hypselospinus fittoni or a distinct species assigned to the genus Huxleysaurus . A specimen from the Valanginian Wadhurst Clay Formation , variously assigned to I. hollingtoniensis and I. mantelli over the years , has an unusual combination of hadrosaurid @-@ like lower jaw and very robust forelimb ; Norman ( 2010 ) assigned this specimen to the species Hypselospinus fittoni , while Paul ( 2012 ) made it the holotype of a separate species Darwinsaurus evolutionis .

I. seelyi ( also incorrectly spelled I. seeleyi ) , described by Hulke two years after I. prestwichii , has been synonymised with Iguanodon bernissartensis , though this is controversial .

I. suessii , described by Emanuel Bunzel in 1871 , has been reassigned to Mochlodon suessi .

I. lakotaensis was described by David B. Weishampel and Philip R. Bjork in 1989 . The only well @-@ accepted North American species of Iguanodon , I. lakotaensis was described from a partial skull from the Barremian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Lakota Formation of South Dakota . Its assignment has been controversial . Some researchers suggest that it was more basal than I. bernissartensis , and related to Theiophytalia , but David Norman has suggested that it was a synonym of I. bernissartensis . Gregory S. Paul has since given the species its own genus , Dakotadon .

Iguanodon mantelli described by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in 1832 , was based on the same material as I. anglicus and is an objective junior synonym of the latter . Several taxa , including the holotype of Dollodon and Mantellodon , but also the dubious hadrosauroid Trachodon cantabrigiensis the hypsilophodont Hypsilophodon , and Valdosaurus , were previously mis @-@ assigned to I. mantelli .

I. hilli , coined by Edwin Tully Newton in 1892 for a tooth from the early Cenomanian Upper Cretaceous Lower Chalk of Hertfordshire , has been considered an early hadrosaurid of some sort . However , recent work places it as indeterminate beyond Hadrosauroidea outside Hadrosauridae .

I. orientalis , described by A. K. Rozhdestvensky in 1952 , was based on poor material , but a skull with a distinctive arched snout that had been assigned to it was renamed Altirhinus kurzanovi in 1998 . At the same time , I. orientalis was considered to be a nomen dubium because it cannot be compared to I. bernissartensis .

Harry Seeley described I. phillipsi in 1869 , but later reassigned it to Priodontognathus .

I. praecursor ( also spelled I. precursor ) , described by E. Sauvage in 1876 from teeth from an unnamed Kimmeridgian ( Late Jurassic ) formation in Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , France , is actually a sauropod , sometimes assigned to Neosodon , although the two come from different formations .

" I. mongolensis " ( Whitfield , 1992 ) is a nomen nudum from a photo caption in a book , of remains that would later be named Altirhinus .

Delapparentia turolensis was named in 2011 based on a specimen previously assigned to Iguanodon bernissartensis .

= = = Species referred to Iguanodon that were originally named as nominal species of other genera = = =

I. valdensis , a renaming of Vectisaurus valdensis by Ernst van den Broeck in 1900 . Originally named Vectisaurus valdensis by Hulke in 1879 based on vertebral and pelvic remains , it was from the Barremian stage of the Isle of Wight . It was considered a juvenile specimen of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis , or an undetermined species of Mantellisaurus , but is indeterminate beyond Iguanodontia .

I. foxii ( also spelled I. foxi ) was originally described by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1869 as the type species of Hypsilophodon ; Owen ( 1873 or 1874 ) reassigned it to Iguanodon , but his assignment was soon overturned .

I. gracilis , named by Lydekker in 1888 as the type species of Sphenospondylus and assigned to Iguanodon in 1969 by Rodney Steel , has been tossed of as a synonym of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis , but is dubious nowadays .

I. major , a species named by Justin Delair in 1966 , based on vertebrae from the Isle of Wight and Sussex originally described by Owen in 1842 as a species of Streptospondylus , S. major , is a nomen dubium which is now thought to be a synonym of I. anglicus , although it may be its own species .

The nomen nudum " Proiguanodon " ( van den Broeck , 1900 ) also belongs here .

= = = Dubious species = = =

Two Iguanodon species are currently considered to be nomina dubia :

I. anglicus , described by Friedrich Holl in 1829 , is the original type species of Iguanodon , but , as discussed above , was replaced by I. bernissartensis . In the past , it has been spelled as I. angelicus ( Lessem and Glut , 1993 ) and I. anglicum ( Holl , 1829 emend . Bronn , 1850 ) . It is known from teeth from the middle Valanginian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Grinstead Clay Formation ) of Cuckfield , West Sussex , England . It is currently classified in the genus Therosaurus as T. anglicus .

I. ottingeri , described by Peter Galton and James A. Jensen in 1979 , is a nomen dubium based on teeth from the possibly Aptian @-@ age lower Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah .

The genera Iguanosaurus ( Ritgen , 1828 ) , Hikanodon ( Keferstein , 1834 ) , and Therosaurus ( Fitzinger , 1840 ) , are simply junior objective synonyms , later names for the material of I. anglicus .

= = In popular culture = =

Since its description in 1825 , Iguanodon has been a feature of worldwide popular culture . Two lifesize reconstructions of Mantellodon ( considered Iguanodon at the time ) built at the Crystal Palace in London in 1852 greatly contributed to the popularity of the genus . Their thumb spikes were mistaken for horns , and they were depicted as elephant @-@ like quadrupeds , yet this was the first time an attempt was made at constructing full @-@ size dinosaur models . In 1910 Heinrich Harder portrayed a group of Iguanodon in the classic German collecting cards about extinct and prehistoric animals " Tiere der Urwelt " .

Several motion pictures have featured Iguanodon . In the Disney film Dinosaur , an Iguanodon named Aladar served as the protagonist with three other iguanodonts as other main characters ; a loosely related ride of the same name at Disney 's Animal Kingdom is based around bringing an Iguanodon back to the present . Iguanodon is one of the three dinosaur genera that inspired Godzilla ; the other two were Tyrannosaurus and Stegosaurus . Iguanodon has also made appearances in some of the many Land Before Time films , as well as episodes of the television series .

Aside from appearances in movies , Iguanodon has also been featured on the television documentary miniseries Walking with Dinosaurs ( 1999 ) produced by the BBC , and played a starring role in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's book , The Lost World as well as featuring in an episode of the Discovery Channel documentary , Dinosaur Planet ( incorrectly portrayed being able to run on all fours and living in the Late Cretaceous ) . It also was present in Bob Bakker 's Raptor Red ( 1995 ) , as a Utahraptor prey item . A main belt asteroid , 1989 CB3 , has been named 9941 Iguanodon in honour of the genus .

Because it is both one of the first dinosaurs described and one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs , Iguanodon has been well @-@ placed as a barometer of changing public and scientific perceptions on dinosaurs . Its reconstructions have gone through three stages : the elephantine quadrupedal horn @-@ snouted reptile satisfied the Victorians , then a bipedal but still fundamentally reptilian animal using its tail to prop itself up dominated the early 20th century , but was slowly overturned during the 1960s by its current , more agile and dynamic representation , able to shift from two legs to all fours .

= Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) =

Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 . It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolinas . The storm turned southwestward due to a building ridge , and concurrently it intensified to become Subtropical Storm Alpha . It later moved ashore near Savannah , and it finally dissipated in the northeast Gulf of Mexico on May 29 . It produced wave action and moderate rainfall along the coast . Damage totaled over $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) , and there were two associated deaths .

= = Meteorological history = =

Throughout May 1972 , a series of weak troughs moved across the eastern United States . In the third week of the month , an upper @-@ level cutoff low developed along one of these troughs , located southeast of the United States and removed from the Westerlies . The origins of Alpha were from a surface low northeast of Florida , associated with the larger @-@ scale , cold core upper low . It organized , and late on May 23 it could be classified as a subtropical depression , east of the Georgia / South Carolina border . While southeast of Hatteras , North Carolina , a developing ridge blocked its northeast motion , and so it slowed to turn to the southeast . On May 25 , a small , intense low @-@ level center organized rapidly , and by the next day it attained gale force winds , by which time the storm turned southwestward . At 1600 UTC on May 26 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Subtropical Cyclone Alpha , when the storm was about 225 miles south of Cape Hatteras . Around that time , it reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .

On its first advisory , there was disagreement among forecast models regarding its eventual track , with projected tracks deviating from a Georgia landfall to a track northeastward out to sea . Alpha was also a climatological outlier at the time ; the NHC HURRAN model , which was based on previous storms with similar characteristics , found no analogs for the storm . Subtropical Storm Alpha was initially well @-@ defined as it moved southwestward . The very small center was located along the eastern edge of the convection , while low @-@ level cloud bands formed east of the center . At the time , the temperature structure was more typical of a winter storm , although it was expected to become more like a subtropical storm typical during the summer months . The winds decreased steadily as it turned more westward on May 27 , and the heavy rainfall persisted mostly to the north and west of the center .

The National Hurricane Center initially thought the center might not have been at the surface , and the agency indicated low forecasting confidence , as they could not determine a circulation center . The difficulty arose from the large , sprawling nature of the storm , and by later on May 27 a new center formed , as confirmed by radar imagery and the Hurricane Hunters . That night , the extremely small center made landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia , affecting a very small area with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 26 inHg ) . Around the time of landfall , Alpha developed a warm core , indicating some tropical characteristics . The storm weakened quickly over land , although it did not dissipate until two days later over the northeast Gulf of Mexico .

= = Preparations and impact = =

At the time of the first advisory on Alpha , there were small craft warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Cape May , New Jersey . Gale warnings were posted from Cape Fear , North Carolina to Chincoteague , Virginia . The interaction between Alpha and the high pressure system to its northeast caused cooler temperatures and gusty winds from Delaware southward . Wave heights reached up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) along the Virginia capes . The storm dropped rainfall along the coast of North Carolina and Virginia , with a maximum of 6 @.@ 97 inches ( 177 mm ) reported in Ocracoke , North Carolina . While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks . Damage totaled over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .

While the storm was traveling over the western Atlantic Ocean , the storm produced a large area of rough seas , which was considered the greatest threat from the storm . In northeastern Florida , police officers were stationed to ensure people did not swim in the dangerous seas . The high waves also halted work to deepen a harbor at the Mayport Naval Station . Two people drowned after the storm dissipated , when surf was still turbulent . Tides along the Georgia coast reached 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused some flooding and beach erosion . Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Saint Simons Island . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving some people without power in eastern Georgia . Damage was minor but widespread in the state , estimated at over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) . Moderate rains spread in coastal areas from South Carolina through southern Florida .

The 1972 hurricane season was the first year in which quasi @-@ tropical cyclones were named , by using the NATO phonetic alphabet . At the time , the names were applied to large subtropical cyclones and small neutercanes , both of which were later combined into one category .

= Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax =

Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax is a video game first published in 1988 for various home computers . It was also released as Axe of Rage in North America . The game is the sequel to Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior ( Death Sword in North America ) , which was published in 1987 . In Barbarian II , the player controls a princess or barbarian character , exploring the game world to locate and defeat an evil wizard . The game 's plot is an extension of its predecessor , although the gameplay is different . While the first game offers two players the opportunity for virtual head @-@ to @-@ head combat , the second is solely a single @-@ player adventure with fewer fighting moves .

Palace Software , the developer of the two Barbarian games , marketed the sequel with the same strategy they used for the first game . They hired Maria Whittaker , a model known for her topless work , to pose on the cover and posters as the princess in the game , attempting to recapture the controversy that had boosted sales . Barbarian II received a mixed critical reception . Reviewers were split in their opinions over whether the game was a refreshing and gory adventure , or a boring and lonely sojourn through a confusing digital world .

= = Gameplay = =

Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax is an action video game released in 1988 for various personal computer platforms , such as Commodore 64 and MS @-@ DOS . It is the sequel to Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior ( released in 1987 ) , which offers sword fighting action to one or two players . Unlike its predecessor , Barbarian II features only a single @-@ player mode , in which the player assumes the role of either sword @-@ wielding Princess Mariana or the titular savage , who is armed with a battleaxe . Their common quest is to pursue the evil wizard Drax , who has fled to his dungeon hideout after his defeat in the first game . The player characters battle their way through an inhospitable wasteland , a system of caves , and a dungeon before facing Drax in his inner sanctum for a showdown .

Using a joystick or keyboard , the player moves his or her character through Barbarian II 's world . Each of the four stages — wasteland , caves , dungeon , and inner sanctum — is a series of interconnected rooms , populated by monsters , traps , and items . The game displays one room at a time in a flick @-@ screen manner : as the protagonist leaves a room , the screen is updated to display the next . The connections among rooms are disjointed : the exit on the left of one room might be connected to the entrance on the same side of another . A compass at the bottom of the interface serves as a directional guide , always pointing to the north . The player directs his or her player through the rooms , seeking the exit to the next stage while avoiding traps and collecting items .

The protagonist is also challenged in his or her quest by 20 types of creatures . By moving the joystick while pressing its button or by performing the equivalent keyboard commands , the player defends the protagonist with four styles of attacks : a low slash , a high chop , a kick , and a spinning neck chop . The life of the combatants are represented by gauges at the top corners of the screen . Successful attacks on a character reduce its gauge and the character is killed when its life is reduced to zero . A well @-@ timed neck chop ( or the bites of certain monsters ) decapitates the opponent , killing it instantly . Monsters disappear in a puff of smoke when killed , reappearing with a full life gauge in the same room some time later . Although the player character likewise reappears fully rejuvenated in the room after being killed , he or she can only do so for a limited number of times . This limit ( number of lives ) is represented in the form of globes at the top centre of the screen . The protagonist increases his or her number of lives by collecting skulls that are scattered throughout the game world .

= = Development = =

Barbarian II 's predecessor , Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior , was a critical and commercial success on its release in 1987 . Reviewers enjoyed the game 's exciting sword fights , and its profile was greatly enhanced by marketing strategies employed by its developer , Palace Software , a subsidiary of media company Palace Group . The developer had engaged Maria Whittaker , a model known for topless shoots , to pose on the box covers and posters of the game . The image of bikini @-@ clad Whittaker created a hype that pushed the game beyond the attention of the video game industry , producing a controversy in which members of the public criticised the industry for promoting Barbarian in a sexist manner .

Palace Software repeated the strategy for the sequel , publishing a poster of Whittaker as Princess Mariana , this time in metal bikini armour , and Michael Van Wijk as the barbarian . Steve Brown , creator of the Barbarian games , recalled that the bikini 's chain " snapped a number of times " in comical Carry On fashion during the shoot . Brown was behind the concept of the poster , which was brought to fruition by Lee Gibbons , a commercial artist , over the course of four weeks . The image of the barbarian and princess poised over the fallen body of a large , scaly monster was a photomontage , created by superimposing three photographs — one of each subject — on one another . The creature was a small scale model made of Plasticine . After cutting out the subjects from their photos and composing the cut @-@ outs to form a new scene , Gibbons painted the background and added effects such as smoke to form the final image .

Brown had filmed sword fights and used the tracings of the combatants ' movements to produce the animations in Barbarian . For the animations in the sequel , he turned to the works of photographer Eadweard Muybridge , who made a name for himself through his series of photographs of animals and humans captured in motion . The movements of Barbarian II 's characters were based on the pictures in Muybridge 's book Human in Motion , which was published in 1901 . The resulting animation was judged very realistic and detailed by several reviewers .

First released in August 1988 for the Commodore 64 , Barbarian II was ported to various personal computers . The various versions differed in features , depending on specifications of the platforms . The Amiga version of the game was given several improvements . It has digitized speech and better graphics in the form of greater details and number of colours . The introductory and disc loading sequences were revamped , featuring animated skeletons with maniacal voices . In contrast , the ZX Spectrum version has monochromatic graphics ; the first level comprises black @-@ outlined sprites against pink backgrounds .

As with its predecessor , Barbarian II was licensed to Epyx for release in North America . The game was published there under the title Axe of Rage and included a tattoo in its packaging . The North American version featured a different cover art , showing the close @-@ up visage of " a screaming berserker with homicidal tendencies " . Dragon magazine 's reviewers found the cover ugly , and according to Computer Gaming World , a Canadian wholesaler refused to sell Axe of Rage because it considered the game 's box cover art crass enough to offend customers . Similarly , in the United Kingdom , pharmacy chain Boots banned displays of Barbarian II , featuring Whittaker , from their stores .

= = Reception = =

Barbarian II received praise for its audio , mostly for the versions on more powerful platforms . Reviewers of The Games Machine pointed out that the " most remarkable feature of the ST version is its crystal clear sampled effects " . Zzap ! 64 's staff and Computer and Video Games 's Julian Rignall were impressed with the digital thuds and whacks produced on the Commodore 64 , and particularly the rendition of a certain monster 's laughter . Mike Pattenden of CU Amiga claimed the " manic clucking of the mutant chicken would be enough to send [ the player ] running in the opposite direction " . Although rating the audio @-@ visual components of the Amiga version on par with that for the Atari ST , Pattenden and reviewers from The Game Machine felt the flashy introductory sequence on the Amiga made it stand out ; Tony Horgan of Amiga User International called it the best introduction he has seen in Amiga games .

Although reviewers were less than impressed with the graphics on lower @-@ end systems such as the ZX Spectrum , the colours and large detailed sprites on the higher @-@ end platforms won their acclaim . The animation of the characters also captured their attention . Tommy Nash of Your Sinclair hailed it as " first class " , while Paul Glancey of Zzap ! 64 called the sprites " beautifully defined " and " realistically animated " . Similar accolades were given by other reviewers . The staff of The Games Machine were " constantly [ amazed ] " at the designs of the monsters in the game .

Several reviewers had a common complaint about the game . As the difference between executing an attack and a movement was the pressing of the joystick button , they were irked to find their characters frequently switching directions instead of attacking with a low slash . Their frustration was increased when the protagonist took damage from enemy attacks as he or she executes the unintentional command to change facing . Chris Jenkins , however , praised the game for responsive joystick controls in his review for Sinclair User . Paul Lakin of Zero pointed out that the flick @-@ screen presentation could lead to confusing situations in combat as the protagonist retreats across an exit and appears at the other end of the screen . Horgan had another grouse with the combat , moaning the loss of simplicity from the Barbarian series . According to him , while players could enjoy the first Barbarian game without much effort , intense practise was needed to defeat the monsters in the second game .

The change in combat systems was not the only difference between Barbarian II and its predecessor that influenced reviewers ' opinions about the sequel . The first Barbarian game was enjoyed by reviewers for providing exciting head @-@ to @-@ head action between two players . Barbarian II abandoned this , setting up an adventuring experience for the single player . Jim Douglas , reviewing for Sinclair User , doubted that players who were looking for quick action would appreciate plotting a path through the maze to reach the final goal . Your Sinclair 's Marcus Berkmann felt the two genres — slash ' em up and arcade adventure — were " fundamentally incompatible " , agreeing with Douglas that the maze was a distraction . Crash 's reviewers , however , felt the combination of genres made the game interesting . James Price wrote in Amiga Force that the adventuring element and unending number of enemies made Barbarian II a far better game than the first , while The Games Machine 's staff said the expanded menagerie of foes adequately made up for a reduction in combat moves .

In their review for Dragon magazine , the Lessers called Axe of Rage " an engrossing slash ' n hack that 'll please most arcaders . " Zzap ! 64 's reviewers were unanimous in recommending Barbarian II to their readers ; however , two years later in a re @-@ review , the magazine 's staff said the game has aged badly , finding the gameplay " lot more crude and clichéd " and of dubious replay value . Martyn Carroll concurred in his article for Retro Gamer , 17 years after the game 's release , calling Barbarian II " hugely disappointing " for " [ messing ] up almost everything that was great about the first game . " Brown and Palace Software 's co @-@ founder Richard Leinfellner admitted as much ; they said they had mixed feelings about Barbarian II , thinking the idea of a simple fun game was lost by stuffing too many features into it .

When Barbarian II was released , Palace Software went ahead with plans for Barbarian III . For two years , the third game in the series was publicised in gaming magazines . Your Sinclair held a contest for its readers , asking them to submit concepts of gruesome monsters . The winning entry would be implemented in Barbarian III . The Barbarian series of games were , however , brought to a halt in 1991 when Palace Group sold its software subsidiary to fund its expansion into the movie industry . Titus Software bought Palace Software and after reviewing its holdings , cancelled several of its new acquisition 's projects , including Barbarian III .

= Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now =

Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now is a biography of musician Van Morrison , written by Steve Turner . It was first published in 1993 in the United States by Penguin Group , and in Great Britain by Bloomsbury Publishing . Turner first met Van Morrison in 1985 ; he interviewed approximately 40 people that knew the subject in his research for the biography . Van Morrison did not think positively of the biography , and multiple newspapers reported he attempted to purchase all of the book 's 25 @,@ 000 copies . He sent a letter to the author asserting the 40 individuals interviewed for the book were not his friends , and accused Turner of " peddling distortions and inaccuracies about me personally " .

The biography takes a pictorial format , and includes many photographs of Van Morrison and scenes relating to his life , including close @-@ up shots and contact prints . Turner discusses Van Morrison 's youth in Belfast , Northern Ireland , and how early experiences shaped his perceptions . Flautist John Payne was interviewed for the book , and comments on his work with Van Morrison on the album Astral Weeks . Turner discusses Van Morrison 's reluctance to be interviewed or engage with the public , and includes quotes from the musician about this desire for privacy . The author discusses Van Morrison 's efforts to seek out creativity , and his exploration of spirituality . The book concludes with an assessment of Van Morrison 's experiences with religion .

The book was selected as " Editor 's Choice " in the Sunday Age . Publishers Weekly 's review of the book was critical of its " adulatory " tone , but called it a " necessity for fans " , due the inclusion of the discography . A review of the book for The Boston Globe commented " The value of the book is that it has at its heart the same subjects that most of Morrison 's music has featured ... religion and spirituality . " The Palm Beach Post noted that the biography provides " insights and updates as well as a solid background on Morrison 's early life " . The Sunday Times wrote that " the really interesting story here is told by the photographs " . The Irish Times was critical of the book 's text but wrote positively of the included photographs .

= = Research and publication = =

Prior to his work on the biography , Steve Turner had previously written a book about the music group U2 , titled U2 : Rattle & Hum , and Eric Clapton , titled Conversations With Eric Clapton . Turner first met Van Morrison in 1985 , while writing a book on religion 's place in rock music . Turner characterised himself as someone who is " drawn to artists bothered by spiritual issues " . In his research for the book , the author interviewed approximately 40 people that knew Van Morrison . Turner spoke with Van Morrison , and they discussed the musician 's views on philosophy . Some of the photographs included in the book were obtained by Turner from a guitarist with Van Morrison 's band Them .

According to The Sunday People , " though critics said it was an affectionate tribute about a nice man . Van went on to urge fans not to buy it . " According to The Boston Globe , Van Morrison " disdained the book " . In an interview with The Boston Globe , Turner commented on this : " He considers anything that reveals details of family background or anything like that an invasion of his privacy . He doesn 't believe in biographies , and I do . " When the biography came out in hardcover , Van Morrison sent Turner 36 statements from the book that he called " lies , gross exaggerations and innuendo " . Van Morrison told Turner that none of the 40 individuals the author had interviewed for the biography were currently friends of his . The letter from Van Morrison to Turner concluded with : " I am very sorry that you feel you are entitled to earn a living by peddling distortions and inaccuracies about me personally . " In his reply letter to Van Morrison , Turner wrote : " You may not think you are ' difficult ' or ' introvert ' but other people do and have the right to express their opinions . " The Sunday Times reported that " Allegedly , Van 's management even considered buying up all 25 @,@ 000 copies of the book to pulp them , " and this was also reported in The Independent . The Evening Times wrote that Van Morrison " reportedly tried to buy all the copies of a biography by Steve Turner . " Representatives for Van Morrison did not confirm whether he attempted to purchase the 25 @,@ 000 copies of the biography , and confirmed that " representatives of the singer discussed various possibilities " . Van Morrison 's manager , Chris O 'Donnell , said of the musician : " He is not happy about books , period . He is an artist and stands up for himself – he doesn 't want his private life raked over . "

Steve Turner appeared on a panel of experts in the 2008 documentary Van Morrison : Under Review 1964 – 1974 . Along with Turner was Johnny Rogan , author of the biographies Van Morrison : A Portrait of the Artist ( 1984 ) and Van Morrison : No Surrender ( 2005 ) .

= = Contents = =

The introduction to the book includes an analysis by the author of Van Morrison 's skill to use " the stuff of his life " . Turner compares Van Morrison with other musicians of the time period , including Robbie Robertson , Bob Dylan , and Neil Young . The book 's 10 chapters contain a pictorial overview of the musician 's professional work . The book 's chapters are structured according to record releases of the musician . Pictures include images from locations where Van Morrison grew up in Belfast , contact prints from a photo shoot for a cover album with his wife at the time Janet Planet , and archived marketing photographs of a younger Van Morrison . The beginning of the book includes 10 close @-@ up shots of the musician . The book also contains a complete discography of Van Morrison 's work .

Turner describes Van Morrison 's early life as George Ivan Morrison on Hyndford Street in Belfast . " I 'm definitely Irish " , Van Morrison is quoted as stating in the book . He asserts that Van Morrison was affected by his mother 's religious conversion to the Jehovah 's Witnesses when he was a child . Turner states that this experience contributed to his position as an outcast : " Who else in Belfast had a father who played Jelly Roll Morton records , and a mother who indulged in doorstep evangelism ? " Turner discusses Van Morrison 's musical colleagues , his successes , the break @-@ ups of his various bands , and his efforts to seek out creative expression . The author includes commentary and images from Van Morrison 's first release with the band Them in 1964 , through to his latest album at the time of the book 's publication .

Turner interviewed flautist John Payne for the book , who had sat in on sessions with Van Morrison and later collaborated with him . Payne comments on their work together on the album Astral Weeks , which also included musicians Connie Kay , Warren Smith , Jay Berliner , and Richard Davis : " Ironically , the image you have when you listen to the album now is of these guys who are all together , and they realise they are creating a monumental work of art . The fact is that it was just another session for them . " Payne states of his observations of Van Morrison 's performance style : " When ( Van ) was on stage , he would look like a space cadet , but then he 'd open his mouth and you would realize that he had channeled everything into the sound of his voice . The rest of it was just a shell that was there for the purpose of producing this noise . "

The book notes the artist 's reluctance to be interviewed or engage with the public , and quotes him as saying : " It 's very hard for me to relate to people asking questions that are not only boring but don 't have anything to do with my life ... It 's a waste of time on my part because it drains me from doing what I really want to do , which is just to play music . " Van Morrison describes his perceived musical role : " I just feel I 'm doing the job . My job is to play music and deliver the show ... It 's more emotional for the audience ... what they sort of think you are . " He states that one of his motivations is " ideally to induce states of meditation and ecstasy , as well as to make people think " .

The author notes Van Morrison 's dislike of conformity , and quotes him as saying : " I hate organizations . " Of his period in his life of experimentation , Van Morrison comments : " I 'm not searching for anything in particular . I 'm just groping in the dark ... for a bit more light . That 's it really . " Turner notes how musical styles including rhythm and blues and Motown influenced the musician . Van Morrison 's exploration of spirituality is discussed in the book , including his experiences with mysticism , Christianity , and Dianetics . In the last chapter of the book , Turner comments on Van Morrison 's experiences in religion , writing : " His development of religion as a normal topic of discourse in popular song may turn out to be his most lasting contribution . "

= = Reception = =

The book was selected as " Editor 's Choice " in the Sunday Age , where Michael Gordon wrote : " This is not the whole story , but it is a well @-@ researched and superbly presented summary of the story so far – a kind of companion to the John Lennon book , ' Imagine ' – including the temper tantrums . Fans may , however , disagree with the closing assessment that Morrison may be running out of themes and ideas to express . " Publishers Weekly was critical of the book 's tone , commenting : " Turner is more adulatory than probing . " The review noted : " A complete discography makes this book a necessity for fans of the Irish Rover . " Writing for The Boston Globe , Thomas C. Palmer Jr. called the book " a coffee @-@ table biography that fills an extensive void , both for those hungry for gossip and for those who have wondered at the source of the creativity in this prolific producer of often stunningly original – if difficult to categorize – music " . Palmer commented on the book 's value : " The value of the book is that it has at its heart the same subjects that most of Morrison 's music has featured , subtly or otherwise ( but never as blatantly as Dylan in his " Saved " period ) : religion and spirituality . " Robert Sandall reviewed the book for The Sunday Times , and wrote : " Steve Turner has performed his task as a biographer diligently enough in Too Late To Stop Now , but the really interesting story here is told by the photographs . " Sandall commented : " Thirty years of constant rowing with anybody who has ever tried to get close to him , and a fitful and irritable hankering after religion ( any religion ) have left him looking bloated , sad and , as Turner has the courage and decency to point out , not as great a musician now as his current reputation would suggest . It 's all there in the pictures . "

Bernard Perusse of The Gazette described the book as " more superficial but more positive " than the 2006 biography Van Morrison : No Surrender by Johnny Rogan . In a review of the book for The Palm Beach Post , Lisa McDonough wrote " Steve Turner 's Van Morrison : Too Late To Stop Now is not the final answer on Morrison – only Morrison could give that – but he does provide insights and updates as well as a solid background on Morrison 's early life . " Writing for The Irish Times , John Boland was critical of the book 's text but wrote positively of its images : " Steve Turner 's Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now , has a trite , fanzine style text and isn 't very informative about the great man , but it has some splendid pictures and in its coffee table format is well worth the asking price " . A review in the Herald Sun was critical : " Too Late To Stop Now is more suited to the coffee table than a library shelf . It is browsing material , fleshed with snapshots , album covers , PR shots , posters and prints . The words are mere stitches , there to hold the pictures in place . " The Herald Sun noted that the author left out critical quotes from individuals that knew Van Morrison , and questioned Turner 's objectivity .

= Music of Chrono Cross =

The Chrono series is a video game franchise developed and published by Square Enix ( formerly Square ) . It began in 1995 with the time travel role @-@ playing video game Chrono Trigger , which spawned two continuations , Radical Dreamers and Chrono Cross . The music of Chrono Cross was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , the main composer of Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . Chrono Cross has sparked a soundtrack album , released in 1999 by DigiCube and re @-@ released in 2005 by Square Enix , and a greatest hits mini @-@ album , published in 2000 by Square along with the North American release of the game . Radical Dreamers , the music of which heavily inspired the soundtrack of Chrono Cross , has not sparked any albums , though some songs from its soundtrack were reused in Chrono Cross . An album of arrangements of Chrono Cross songs was first announced by Mitsuda in 2005 , and later intended to be released to coincide with the tenth anniversary of the game in 2009 ; its release data was pushed back several times since then . In 2015 , Mitsuda via Square Enix released an album of arranged music from Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross entitled To Far Away Times to commemorate the 20 @-@ year anniversary of Chrono Trigger .

The original soundtrack album has been hailed as an excellent video game music album , while the Chrono Cross Music Selection mini @-@ album has garnered little attention . Songs from the soundtrack have been played at various orchestral concerts , such as the personal arrangements by Mitsuda for the Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert series . Chrono Cross music has also been extensively remixed by fans , and such remixes have been included in both official and unofficial albums .

= = Creation and development = =

Mitsuda returned as the lead composer for 1999 's Chrono Cross after composing its predecessor , Chrono Trigger . After being contacted to compose the score by the game 's director Masato Kato , Mitsuda decided to center his work around old world cultural influences , including Mediterranean , Fado , Celtic , and percussive African music . To complement the theme of parallel worlds , he gave the songs for the two worlds of the game , Another and Home , respectively dark and bright moods . Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned . Once production concluded , Mitsuda played Chrono Cross to record his impressions and observe how the tracks intermingled with scenes .

Radical Dreamers was a 1996 text @-@ based Visual Novel set as a gaiden , or side story , to Chrono Trigger . It was released to complement its predecessor 's plot , and later served as inspiration for Chrono Cross . The music of Radical Dreamers was written by Yasunori Mitsuda . The soundtrack includes several ambient pieces , including the sound of water running in a fountain and wind accompanied by strings . Players can listen to the game 's 15 songs by accessing a hidden menu in one of the game 's scenarios . The soundtrack has never been released as a separate album .

Several themes and musical patterns from Radical Dreamers were later adapted for Chrono Cross on the suggestion of Masato Kato ; many appear unchanged except for new instrumentation . Appearing in Chrono Cross are " Gale " , " Frozen Flame " , " Viper Manor " , " Far Promise ~ Dream Shore " ( as part of " On the Beach of Dreams - Another World " and " The Dream that Time Dreams " ) , " The Girl who Stole the Stars " , and " Epilogue ~ Dream Shore " ( as part of " Jellyfish Sea " ) . Other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . The melody of " Far Promise ~ Dream Shore " features prominently in " The Dream That Time Dreams " and " Voyage - Another World " .

= = Albums = =

= = = Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack = = =

The Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack of the music from Chrono Cross , composed by Yasunori Mitsuda . The soundtrack spans three discs and 67 tracks , covering a duration of 3 hours . It was published by DigiCube on December 18 , 1999 , and reprinted by Square Enix on June 29 , 2005 .

Xenogears contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes . Noriko Mitose , selected for the role by Masato Kato , sang the ending song " Radical Dreamers ~ Unstolen Jewel ~ " . Ryo Yamazaki , a synthesizer programmer for Square Enix , helped Mitsuda transfer his ideas to the PlayStation 's sound capabilities . The soundtrack has been described as having " some of the most haunting melodies known to man " . The " Home World " tracks from the soundtrack have been termed " emotional " , " driving " and " striking " , while the " Another World " tracks are described as " slower " , " dreamier " , and more " serene " than their counterparts .

The soundtrack won the Gold Prize for Sony 's PlayStation Awards of 2000 . It reached # 72 on the Japan Oricon charts on its first print and # 174 when reprinted . It was praised by reviewers such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who called it his favorite video game music soundtrack of all time and especially praised the vocals in " Radical Dreamers ~ Unstolen Jewel ~ " . This high opinion was echoed by Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online , who called it " one of Mitsuda 's best , both in and out of [ the ] context " of the game and said that it " surpasses his Chrono Trigger soundtrack " . He singled out " Scars of Time " and " Radical Dreamers " as especially worthy of praise . IGN , in their review of the game , termed the soundtrack " a brilliant score " that " does wonders in stirring the emotional strings of the players as they 're playing through the game " . IGN praised the technical sound quality of the soundtrack as well , though they did comment that for them no specific tracks stood out as especially memorable . In a separate piece about Japanese RPG composers , however , IGN called " Scars of Time " and " Arni Village - Home World " as two of Mitsuda 's most memorable tracks in naming him the second best out of ten behind Nobuo Uematsu .

Track listing

= = = Chrono Cross Music Selection = = =

Chrono Cross Music Selection is a mini @-@ album of Chrono Cross music that was released in North America exclusively as a bonus for pre @-@ ordering Chrono Cross . The five @-@ track disc was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , has a length of 15 : 47 and was published by Square along with the game on August 15 , 2000 . Although the release of the album sparked rumors that it would be followed by a North American release of the full soundtrack album , Square Enix has not to date published Chrono Cross OST outside Japan .

Patrick Gann enjoyed the album , calling it a " little American gem of VG music " , but noted that there is no reason to purchase it now that the full soundtrack is just as easy to obtain , especially given its short length . The five tracks on this album were released on the " Original Soundtrack " with three of the tracks renamed .

= = = To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album = = =

In 2005 , Mitsuda announced a new arranged album of Chrono Cross music was scheduled for release in July of that year . It did not materialize , though at a Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006 , he revealed it would be out " within the year " and would feature acoustic music . Later in 2006 , Mitsuda alleged that the album would actually be released in 2007 . In 2008 , Yasunori Mitsuda posted a streaming sample of a track from the upcoming Chrono Cross arranged album . Though no official release date was announced , Mitsuda more than once stated that the album would be planned to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the game 's original release in 2009 . Mitsuda claimed that the album was " nearly done " , but that it may not be possible to release it before the year was out .

On a live performance at the Tokyo Dome in July 2015 commemorating the 20 @-@ year anniversary of Chrono Trigger , Mitsuda announced that the long requested Chrono series arrangement album , entitled To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album would be released . This was eventually released by Square Enix Music on October 14 , 2015 . The album was released on the Square Enix website . A number of the tracks had vocalists to go on top of the score . All tracks were composed by Yasunori Mitsuda .

= = Legacy = =

Mitsuda has personally arranged versions of music from Chrono Cross for Play ! A Video Game Symphony video game music concerts in 2006 . Music from the game has also been performed in other video game concert tours such as the Video Games Live concert series and in concerts by the Eminence Orchestra . Music from Chrono Trigger and Cross made up one fourth of the music in the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Leipzig in September 2009 which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . The concerts featured a suite of music from both games interspersed together with the songs from Cross comprising " Scars of Time " , " Gale " , " Brink of Death " , and " Prisoners of Fate " . A suite comprising music from Chrono Trigger and Cross was performed at the Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2008 concerts in Tokyo and Shanghai . " Scars of Time " was played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30 , 2010 . Sheet music for Chrono Cross tracks arranged for both solo guitar and guitar duets has been released by Procyon Studio .

Chrono Cross 's soundtrack has been heavily remixed by fans , sparking several albums . These include the officially licensed Time & Space - A Tribute to Yasunori Mitsuda , released by OneUp Studios on October 7 , 2001 and containing 18 remixes over a span of 1 : 00 : 58 , with a second version of the album released on June 17 , 2003 . A related popular album release was Radical Dreamers : Thieves of Fate , an unofficial download @-@ only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on January 5 , 2008 containing 15 remixes of the soundtrack to Radical Dreamers , including remixes of the tracks that later appeared in Chrono Cross . Selections of remixes also appear on dōjin remix albums , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix . " Time 's Scar " was featured by NPR in a program about classically arranged video game scores in December 2012 .

= M @-@ 47 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 47 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . It runs near Saginaw and Midland in the Tri @-@ Cities area of the Lower Peninsula . The highway runs through suburban and agricultural areas to connect the two cities with the airport in the area . The northernmost section of M @-@ 47 runs along a freeway to the terminus at US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) . M @-@ 47 runs for 14 @.@ 328 miles ( 23 @.@ 059 km ) , all of which has been listed as a part of the National Highway System .

First designated by July 1 , 1919 along a different routing , M @-@ 47 was extended several times in both directions through the 1920s and 1930s . Two of these extensions replaced sections of M @-@ 111 in the Bay City area . At the apex of its length in the 1950s , M @-@ 47 stretched from Webberville in the south to Bay City State Park in the north . Since Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) opened in the Tri @-@ Cities area , the northern section of M @-@ 47 was rerouted and truncated as a result of related changes to other highways . The southern end was moved after I @-@ 96 opened in the Lansing area . Further changes into the 1970s shortened M @-@ 47 more , producing the routing in use today .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 47 starts at M @-@ 46 ( Gratiot Road ) east of Shields next to the Oakwood Cemetery . M @-@ 47 is known as Midland Road as it runs slightly northwest to intersect with M @-@ 58 ( State Road ) in Saginaw Charter Township running parallel to the Tittabawassee River . This area is the western edge of Saginaw 's suburbs . Along the road towards Freeland , there are periodic small farms in between small residential subdivisions . In the community of Freeland , M @-@ 47 runs near the MBS International Airport off Freeland Road . North of town , M @-@ 47 leaves Midland Road and becomes a freeway near Tittabawassee Park . The freeway section of M @-@ 47 runs through rural farm land . There is a diamond interchange with Salzburg Road before the terminal interchange at US 10 .

As part of its maintenance duties , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks the volume of traffic on the highways it maintains . This number is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a calculation of the average traffic for a segment of roadway on any average day of the year . In 2009 , the department measured a peak of 19 @,@ 719 vehicles daily on the stretch north of Tittabawasee Road . The section south of the US 10 interchange had the lowest traffic level at 9 @,@ 315 vehicles AADT . Additionally , entire route of M @-@ 47 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

The original designation of M @-@ 47 was routed from the Shiawassee – Ingham county line north to St. Charles and then east along M @-@ 46 into Saginaw . A southern extension into Ingham County to end at M @-@ 16 in Williamston was transferred and completed in 1924 . A northern extension to Bay City replaced a section of M @-@ 111 in 1929 , and extended farther to Bay City State Park in 1933 . M @-@ 47 replaced the remainder of M @-@ 111 and extended southward from the park to Bay City in 1938 , creating a " U @-@ turn " in the routing . The southern terminus was moved again in late 1951 or early 1952 to Webberville , although still ending on US 16 .

At its greatest extent in the 1950s , the highway extended north from Webberville through Owosso and St. Charles to a junction with M @-@ 46 between Hemlock and Shields . M @-@ 47 turned east along M @-@ 46 , running concurrently with that highway to Saginaw Township . There M @-@ 47 turned north independently to a junction with US 10 , and then ran concurrently with US 10 into Saginaw . Once in the city , M @-@ 47 turned north along Bay Street out of town toward Bay City . M @-@ 47 joined US 23 and followed it north of town . M @-@ 47 then ran separately to the state park before turning south and back into downtown Bay City , ending at the US 23 business loop .

Major changes to the routing of M @-@ 47 started in December 1960 when the I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway opened between Saginaw and Bay City . US 10 was rerouted east of Midland to Bay City along the M @-@ 20 freeway . M @-@ 47 was rerouted along the former US 10 from Saginaw to east of Midland using a connector expressway from Freeland north to the US 10 freeway . M @-@ 81 was extended over State Street in Saginaw , and the former routing of M @-@ 47 between Saginaw and Bay City was redesignated as M @-@ 84 . M @-@ 13 also replaced the former US 23 / M @-@ 47 when US 23 was moved to freeways as well . The southern end of M @-@ 47 was changed in 1962 with the completion of I @-@ 96 in the Lansing area . US 16 was replaced by M @-@ 43 , and the southern terminus of M @-@ 47 was moved to exit 122 along I @-@ 96 . This segment of M @-@ 47 south of M @-@ 46 became an extension of M @-@ 52 in 1969 , truncating M @-@ 47 to Hemlock . The interchange at Salzburg Road north of Freeland opened in 1970 , and the expressway segment was upgraded to a full freeway . At the same time , M @-@ 47 was truncated to its current routing , resulting in the elimination of the M @-@ 46 / M @-@ 47 concurrency near Shields . In the end , only about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of roadway still bears the M @-@ 47 from before the changes made starting in 1960 , along a section of road that was not originally part of the highway in 1919 .

In June 2014 , a construction project began on the interchange with US 10 at the route 's northern terminus . This construction consisted of bridge replacement over US 10 , as well as a new ramp connecting northbound M @-@ 47 to westbound US 10 that , unlike the old ramp , does not conflict with westbound traffic exiting onto southbound M @-@ 47 .

= = = M @-@ 111 = = =

In 1928 , M @-@ 111 was assigned to a route connecting M @-@ 13 ( later signed as US 23 for a time ) north of Bay City to Bay City State Park on Saginaw Bay . The original route consisted of what is today Euclid Avenue . In the early 1930s , a return leg towards Bay City was added to the east of the original route along what is now State Park Road , giving the route an upside @-@ down @-@ U shape.In 1933 , the western leg along Euclid Avenue from Midland Road to Beaver Road was designated as M @-@ 47 . In 1938 , all of M @-@ 111 was re @-@ designated as M @-@ 47 — thus making M @-@ 47 double back to Bay City .

= = Major intersections = =

All exits are unnumbered .

= The Convict ( 1910 film ) =

The Convict is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film begins with a convict walking down the road , he is spotted and it begins a wild chase with more people becoming involved in the pursuit as it continues . The convict gets in a carriage and leaps away , successfully eluding all the pursuers except for a little girl . The convict then runs to the water and takes a boat from another accomplice and the chase continues in water and on land . The convict gets ashore and escapes , taking a car and flees to town . The police are notified and set a trap , but the convict avoids the growing crowd of pursuers until he arrives at the theater . There " the convict " takes a pose under an advertisement and the pursuers understand it was all an advertising ploy , they purchase tickets and go to see the film . The film was released on September 23 , 1910 , it was the first part of a split @-@ reel production that included A Husband 's Jealous Wife . The film was met with positive reviews though the film is presumed lost .

= = Plot = =

Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 24 , 1910 . It states : " The convict is discovered stealing along a country road , glancing about for signs of danger . His stripes are discernible on that portion of his breast and on that portion of his trousers ' leg not covered by the long coat he wears - which cannot conceal the stripes that tell all ; hence his keen watch for passersby . Still , he does not spy a nearby farmer until too late ; the cry ' prisoner loose ' is raised , and a dozen rustics make after the unfortunate . Convict meets accomplice who is waiting with carriage ; jumps in the carriage and the pair drives off . Baffled pursuers come up , sight a wagon , all pile within and resume pursuit . Convict jumps from carriage and drops behind boulder , accomplice driving straight on with the wagon hot after him ; when the wagon has passed him by , convict comes from behind boulder , crosses road and disappears on other side - but has been seen crossing the road by a small girl who kept out of sight until the convict had disappeared , but who now rushes off to tell of her discovery . Put back on the trail by the little girl , pursuers follow their quarry to the waterside , where a second accomplice awaits the convict with a rowboat , and into which he jumps and pulls for the other side . Another rowboat sets out in pursuit . One of the pursuers telephones constables on the other side of the water to catch convict when he tries to land . "

" Race of the rowboats . Nearing shore the convict finds himself hemmed in - pursuers on water and constables on land . Luckily for him , pursuers in their efforts to grab his boat overturn their own ; he gets to shore , where [ the ] accomplice is caught though [ the convict ] escapes . Constable and pursuer chase him to town road , where third accomplice awaits with auto ; they speed off . An automobile too happens along , allows pursuers to use his auto to chase convict 's , and all enter except constable who rushes off to ' phone town police of convict 's coming . Receiving the message , chief of police leaves with coppers for town end of road , across which they stretch rope and await convict 's auto . As the convict dashes down Main Street new pursuers spring up at every step . Yet when he reaches the opera house he calmly walks into the entrance and , facing his pursuers , takes a dignified stand beside the billboard on which is printed : ' Latest Moving Picture - Today 's Feature - STUNG ! or The Convict 's Escape - A Roaring Comedy Now Showing . ' "

= = Production = =

The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The plot is a clever advertising scheme employed by a theatre manager to draw patrons and using an elaborate series of events in order to accomplish that effect . Once " the convict " is identified and the chase begins , he receives assistance in prolonging the chase until arriving at the theatre where the crowd purchases tickets for the show . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only role in the cast which is known is for Marie Eline as the little girl . The other cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying two actors .

= = Release and reception = =

The split @-@ reel comedy , approximately 1000 feet long with A Husband 's Jealous Wife included , was released on September 23 , 1910 . Advertising for the film was a bit mixed as to whether or not it was a comedy or a drama , stating , " You have no idea as to how marvelously a Thanhouser can twist a story until you see this gripping dra - well , perhaps , it isn 't a drama at that - or a comedy even . We hate to tip you off as to WHAT it is . When you see the picture , with its totally unlooked @-@ for climax , you 'll know why ! " Bowers would later term this as more of the slapstick comedy that Edwin Thanhouser said the company would not produce . The film likely had a wide national release , known advertising theatres include Indiana , and Kansas . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada . One theater advertisement may have confused this film with another because it lists this film as a western film .

Reviews for the film were positive and focused on the novel methods used to attract the audience to the theater . The Moving Picture World stated , " A burlesque picture which becomes more thrilling as it proceeds . The convict is supposed to have escaped and the way he is chased and surrounded bodes no good for him . But somehow he manages to elude the steadily increasing army of pursuers until they are gathered around him , when he calmly shows a motion picture announcement , and the reason for all this melee , in which the whole countryside took part , becomes apparent . " The requirement that the fleeing " convict " be continually assisted as a part of the plot may have been lost on The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer . The reviewer writes , " Perhaps , in real life , things might not happen so luckily for the convict unless the carriage , the boat and the automobile were previously arranged for him . Even then , Fate might conceivably have some disagreeable card up her sleeve . In the film , at any rate , everybody bit nicely . They pursued the escaped convict in increasing crowds until he led them to the theatre he was advertising . There they all obligingly bought tickets to the show and , no doubt , enjoyed it hugely . They did if it was as good as the film is . The least interesting sections of the film are the telephone messages exchanged by agitated police officials ; but they set off the livelier adventures of the convict with agreeable contrast . " Walton of The Moving Picture News identified the set up and assistance to " the convict " and states , " In spite of the Thanhouser folk joining in the racket and the peculiar readiness of carriage and automobile and boat to help the gentleman in a costume , not used in this state for some two years , the audience did not ' catch on . ' When the revelation came , at the door of the New Rochelle picture show , the theatre rang with laughter . We were all ' stung ' and we enjoyed it . "

= Max Mosley =

Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of motoring organisations and car users worldwide . The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and other international motorsports .

A qualified barrister and former amateur racing driver , Mosley was a founder and co @-@ owner of March Engineering , a successful racing car constructor and Formula One racing team . He dealt with legal and commercial matters for the company between 1969 and 1977 and became its representative at the Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) , the body that represents Formula One constructors . Together with Bernie Ecclestone , he represented FOCA at the FIA and in its dealings with race organisers . In 1978 , Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA . In this role he and Marco Piccinini negotiated the first version of the Concorde Agreement , which settled a long @-@ standing dispute between FOCA and the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , a commission of the FIA and the then governing body of Formula One . Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA , FISA 's parent body , in 1993 . Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP or Encap ) . He has also promoted increased safety and the use of green technologies in motor racing . In 2008 , stories about his sex life appeared in the British press , along with unfounded allegations regarding Nazi connotations . Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president . He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor , Jean Todt .

Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley , former leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) , and Diana Mitford . He was educated in France , Germany and Britain before going on to attend university at Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a degree in physics . He then changed to law and was called to the Bar in 1964 . In his teens and early twenties Mosley was involved with his father 's post @-@ war political party , the Union Movement ( UM ) . He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further , although he briefly worked for the Conservative Party in the early 1980s .

= = Family and early life = =

His father , Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister , and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s . By the 1930s , he had left mainstream politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) . His first wife died in 1933 , and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford , in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler . Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald . In May , Sir Oswald , who had campaigned for a negotiated peace with Nazi Germany , was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation 18B , along with most other active fascists in Britain . Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later . Max and his brother Alexander were not included in this internship and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives . In December 1940 , then @-@ prime minister Winston Churchill , asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly .

Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at HMP Holloway on 16 November 1943 , provoking widespread public protests . Max ’ s elder brother was unhappy at his private school . As a result , both children were tutored at home until the age of 13 . The family moved to a succession of country houses in England . Mosley 's older half @-@ brother Nicholas describes the family , including Sir Oswald ’ s children from his first marriage , spending the summer of 1945 getting the harvest in and shooting at Crowood Farm . In 1950 , the Mosleys bought houses in Ireland , and in Orsay , near Paris . They spent the year moving around Europe , spending the spring in France and the autumn and winter in Ireland , where Mosley was keen on riding and hunting . His aunt Nancy Mitford , in letters to Evelyn Waugh , recalled Sir Oswald and his family cruising the Mediterranean Sea on the family yacht . On one such trip they visited Spain and were entertained by Sir Oswald 's friend , General Franco .

At the age of 13 Mosley was sent to Stein an der Traun in Germany for two years , where he learned to speak fluent German . On his return to England he spent a year at Millfield , an independent boarding school in Somerset after which he continued his education in London for two years . He attended Christ Church at Oxford University , graduating with a degree in physics in 1961 . During his time there he was Secretary of the Oxford Union where his father spoke on two occasions , once with Jeremy Thorpe on the other side . In 1960 Mosley introduced his father to Robert Skidelsky , one of Mosley 's contemporaries at the university , who later wrote Sir Oswald 's biography . Rejecting an early ambition to work as a physicist after " establishing that there was no money in it " , Mosley went on to study law at Gray 's Inn in London and qualified as a barrister in 1964 . After a pupillage with Maurice Drake he specialised in patent and trademark law . Northumbria University awarded Mosley an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law in 2005 . From 1961 to 1964 Mosley was a member of the Territorial Army , Parachute Regiment ( 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group ) .

Mosley , like many of Formula One 's drivers , lives in Monaco . On 9 June 1960 he was married at the Chelsea Register Office to Jean Taylor , the daughter of James Taylor , a policeman from Streatham . In 1970 their first son , Alexander , was born and in 1972 their second son , Patrick . On 5 May 2009 , Alexander , a restaurateur , was found dead at his home . He was thirty @-@ nine . At an inquest on 10 June 2009 the Westminster coroner declared that he had died due to heroin intoxication .

In addition to his full @-@ brother Alexander , Mosley has five older half @-@ siblings . On his father 's side they are Vivien Mosley ( 1921 – 2002 ) , novelist Nicholas Mosley , 3rd Baron Ravensdale ( born 1923 ) , and Michael Mosley ( 1932 – 2014 ) . On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron Moyne ( born 1930 ) , and Irish preservationist Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) . He is a third cousin of the late Winston Churchill , the grandson of the former British prime minister .

= = Politics = =

From their teens to early twenties , Mosley and his brother were involved with their father 's post @-@ war party , the Union Movement ( UM ) , which advocated a united Europe as its core issue . Trevor Grundy , a central figure in the UM 's Youth Movement , writes of the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mosley painting the flash and circle symbol on walls in London on the night of the Soviet Union 's invasion of Hungary ( 4 November 1956 ) . The flash and circle was used by both the UM and the pre @-@ war BUF . He also says Mosley organised a couple of large parties as a way " to get in with lively , ordinary , normal young people , girls as well as boys , and attract them to the Movement by showing that we were like them and didn 't go on about Hitler and Mussolini , Franco and British Fascism all the time . " Mosley met his future wife Jean at such a party . Mosley and Alexander were photographed posing as Teddy Boys in Notting Hill during the 1958 race riots between Afro @-@ Caribbeans and local white gangs of Teddy Boys . The following year , they canvassed for their father when he ran as a Union Movement candidate for the nearby Kensington North seat in the 1959 General Election .

Mosley has rarely discussed his early political involvement with his father . When his father Oswald died , the London Daily Mail described him as a " much maligned and much misunderstood political giant of his era . " Certainly , his father 's political presence affected his early years but Mosley reflected on this time , " I was born into this rather strange family and then at a certain point you get away from that . " Whilst he has distanced himself from this period of his life , the " misunderstanding has remained and today ... he carries that weight on his shoulders . "

In 1961 Mosley was an election agent for the Union Movement , supporting Walter Hesketh as parliamentary candidate for Moss Side . The motor racing journalist Alan Henry describes him as one of his father 's " right @-@ hand men " at the time of a violent incident in 1962 , in which Sir Oswald was knocked down by a mob in London and saved from serious injury by his son 's intervention . As a result of his involvement in this fracas , Mosley was arrested and charged with threatening behaviour . He was later cleared at Old Street Magistrates ' Court on the grounds that he was trying to protect his father . By 1964 , when he began work as a barrister , Mosley was no longer involved in politics .

In the early 1980s , Mosley attempted a political career , working for the UK Conservative Party and hoping to become a parliamentary candidate . Bernie Ecclestone 's biographer , Terry Lovell , writes that he gave up this aspiration after being unimpressed by " the calibre of senior party officials " . He also felt his name would be a handicap and has since said " If I had a completely open choice in my life , I would have chosen party politics , but because of my name , that 's impossible . " By the late 1990s he had become a supporter of the UK Labour Party , following a meeting with then Labour Leader John Smith .

= = Racing career = =

While Mosley was at University , his wife was given tickets to a motor race at the Silverstone Circuit . The circuit is not far from Oxford , and the couple went out of curiosity . Mosley was attracted by the sport , and when his career as a barrister was bringing in sufficient money , he started racing cars himself . The sport 's indifference to his background appealed to Mosley :

There was always a certain amount of trouble [ being the son of Sir Oswald ] until I came into motor racing . And in one of the first races I ever took part in there was a list of people when they put the practice times [ ... ] and I heard somebody say , ' Mosley , Max Mosley , he must be some relation of Alf Mos [ e ] ley , the coachbuilder . ' And I thought to myself , ' I 've found a world where they don 't know about Oswald Mosley . ' And it has always been a bit like that in motor racing : nobody gives a damn .

At national level in the UK , Mosley competed in over 40 races in 1966 and 1967 ; he won 12 and set several class lap records . In 1968 , he formed the London Racing Team in partnership with driver Chris Lambert to compete in European Formula Two , which at that time was the level of racing just below Formula One . Their cars were prepared by Frank Williams , later a Formula One team owner . It was a dangerous time to race . Mosley 's first Formula Two race was the 1968 Deutschland Trophäe , at Hockenheim in which double world champion Jim Clark was killed , and within two years both of Mosley 's 1968 team mates , Piers Courage and Chris Lambert were dead in racing accidents . Mosley 's best result that year was an eighth place at a non @-@ championship race at Monza . Engine builder Brian Hart says that as a driver , Mosley " might not have been particularly quick , but he was a thinking driver . He kept out of trouble and generally used his head . " [ a ]

= = March Engineering = =

In 1969 , after two large accidents due to breakages on his Lotus car , Mosley decided that " it was evident that I wasn 't going to be World Champion " and retired from driving . He was already working with Robin Herd , Alan Rees and Graham Coaker to establish the racing car manufacturer March Engineering where he handled legal and commercial matters . The name March is an acronym based on the initials of the founders ; the ' M ' stands for Mosley . Like the other founders , Mosley put in £ 2 @,@ 500 of capital . His father told him that the company " would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . "

Mosley played a key role in publicising the new outfit . Although March had few resources and limited experience , the firm announced ambitious plans to enter Formula One , the pinnacle of single @-@ seater racing , in 1970 . The team had initially intended to enter a single car , but by the beginning of the season ( partly due to deals made by Mosley ) , the number of March cars entered for their first Formula One race had risen to five . Two of these were run by March 's own in @-@ house works team and the rest by customer teams . Mosley also negotiated sponsorship from tyre maker Firestone and oil additive manufacturer STP .

The new operation was initially successful . In Formula One , March cars won three of their first four races . One of these was a world championship race , the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix , won by reigning world champion Jackie Stewart in a customer car run by Tyrrell Racing . As a result , March finished third in the 1970 Constructors ' Championship . The factory also sold 40 cars to customers in various lower formulae . Despite these successes , the organisation got into financial difficulty almost immediately . The Formula One operation was costing more than the customer car business was making . The March works team 's contract with its lead driver , Chris Amon , was expensive , and Mosley , in his own words , " tried at every opportunity to get rid of him " . He reasoned that Stewart 's highly competitive customer car was enough to show March in a good light . Amon stayed to the end of the year , but Mosley succeeded in " restructuring " his contract , saving the company some much @-@ needed money . At the end of the season , Mosley successfully demanded full control of the finances , including the factory run by Coaker , who left shortly afterwards . Mosley and Herd borrowed £ 20 @,@ 000 from relatives and friends to support the company into its second year . According to Lovell the money came from Mosley 's half @-@ brother , Jonathan Guinness .

Tyrrell started making its own cars towards the end of 1970 , and March 's 1971 program in Formula One was much reduced , with no recognised front @-@ running driver . The Firestone and STP sponsorship was insufficient and Mosley failed to attract a large backer for 1971 . Motorsport author Mike Lawrence has suggested that the shortfall forced him into short @-@ term deals , which maintained cashflow , but were not in the best long @-@ term interests of the company . Mosley negotiated a deal for the team to use Alfa Romeo engines in a third car , bringing much needed funding . The engines proved uncompetitive , and his hopes of an ongoing partnership with the Italian automobile manufacturer were not met . Nonetheless , March again finished third in the constructors championship , and works driver Ronnie Peterson , in a Cosworth DFV @-@ powered car , was second in the Drivers ' Championship . March 's financial woes continued : the company had lost £ 71 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 . Mosley and Rees disagreed over how to rectify the situation and Rees left March early in 1972 .

March was more successful in selling large numbers of customer cars in the lower formulae . Mosley organised extensive test sessions for the 1971 cars for journalists and drivers , and arranged a successful scheme for drivers to rent cars and engines for the season , rather than buying them outright . Losing money on a deal to supply Jochen Neerpasch , then motorsport manager at Ford , with a Formula Two car paid off when Neerpasch moved to BMW and offered March an exclusive deal in 1972 to use BMW 's Formula Two engine . March cars powered by BMW engines won five of the next 11 European Formula Two championships . However , BMW also put pressure on Herd to concentrate on the Formula Two programme . As a result , he spent less time with the Formula One team , where Mosley started to act as a race engineer .

Although March considered quitting Formula One on several occasions , money was always found to support at least one car . Motorsport historian Mike Lawrence credits Mosley with pressing for a six @-@ wheeled March to be built as a draw for sponsors , having seen the popularity with fans of Tyrrell 's six @-@ wheeled P34 . The resulting March 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 never competed in Formula One , but generated the required publicity and a Scalextric slotcar model was profitable . Mosley spent much of his time negotiating deals for drivers with sponsorship and was also successful in selling Marches to other Formula One teams , such as Williams and Penske . The cars were rarely frontrunners , although the works team won a single race in both 1975 and 1976 . By the end of 1977 , Mosley was fed up with the struggle to compete in Formula One with no resources and left to work for FOCA full @-@ time , selling his shares in the company to Herd but remaining as a director . March 's involvement in Formula One ended the same year . [ b ]

= = Formula One Constructors ' Association = =

From 1969 , Mosley was invited to represent March at the Grand Prix Constructors ' Association ( GPCA ) , which negotiated joint deals on behalf of its member teams . Although the new March organisation was not popular with the established teams , Mosley has said that " when they went along to meetings to discuss things such as prize money , they felt they ought to take me along because I was a lawyer " . He was unimpressed with the standard of negotiations : " our side all went in a group because no @-@ one trusted anyone else and all were afraid that someone would break ranks and make a private deal . " In 1971 , British businessman Bernie Ecclestone bought the Brabham team , and Mosley recalls that :

Within about 20 minutes of [ Ecclestone ] turning up at the [ GPCA ] meeting , it was apparent that here was someone who knew how many beans made five and after about half an hour he moved round the table to sit next to me , and from then on he and I started operating as a team . Within a very short time , the two of us were doing everything for the GPCA , instead of everyone moving around in a block , and from that developed FOCA .

The Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) was created in 1974 by Ecclestone , Colin Chapman , Teddy Mayer , Mosley , Ken Tyrrell and Frank Williams . FOCA would represent the commercial interests of the teams at meetings with the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , motorsport 's world governing body . After leaving March at the end of 1977 , Mosley officially became legal advisor to FOCA , which was led by Ecclestone . In his biography of Ecclestone , Terry Lovell suggests that he appointed Mosley to this role not only because of his legal ability , but also because he " saw in Mosley the necessary diplomatic and political skills that made him perfectly suited to the establishment of the FIA " . The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) was FISA 's parent body , representing car users worldwide . In the same year , Mosley was nominated for a role at the FIA Bureau Internationale de Constructeurs d 'Automobile . His nomination was blocked by French , Italian and German manufacturers .

In the early 1980s , Mosley represented FOCA in the " FISA @-@ FOCA War " , a conflict between FOCA , representing the mainly UK @-@ based independent teams , and FISA , which was supported by the " grandee " constructors owned by road car manufacturers ( primarily Alfa Romeo , Ferrari and Renault ) . In 1981 , FOCA announced its own World Federation of Motor Sport and ran the non @-@ championship 1981 South African Grand Prix . The staging of this event , with worldwide television coverage , helped persuade Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , the FISA president , that FISA would have to negotiate a settlement with FOCA . As Mosley has since commented : " We were absolutely skint . If Balestre could have held the manufacturer 's support for a little bit longer , the constructors would have been on their knees . The outcome would then have been very different . " Mosley helped draw up the Concorde Agreement , a document which resolved the dispute by essentially giving FISA control of the rules and FOCA control of promotion and television rights . The most recent version of the Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 2007 , and a new one was being discussed , as of 2008 . In 1982 , the year after the first Concorde Agreement was signed , Mosley left his role at FOCA , and Formula One , to work for the Conservative Party .

= = FISA presidency = =

Mosley returned to motorsport in 1986 , with the support of Ecclestone and Balestre , to become president of the FISA Manufacturers ' Commission , the successor to the Bureau Internationale de Constructeurs d 'Automobile . That same year , he established Simtek Research , a racing technical consultancy firm , with Nick Wirth , a former March employee . He sold his share of Simtek in 1991 , when elected president of the FISA . According to Lovell , in 1987 Mosley suggested to Balestre that he could deal with his problems with Ecclestone by " mak [ ing ] him a member of the establishment " . Later that year Ecclestone was appointed vice @-@ president of the FIA 's promotional affairs , with authority over Formula One and the other motor sports authorised by the FIA .

In 1991 , Mosley challenged Balestre for the presidency of FISA . Mosley said that his decision to challenge the Frenchman was prompted by Balestre 's reported intervention on behalf of his countryman Alain Prost to ensure that race stewards disqualified Brazilian driver Ayrton Senna from the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix . Mosley campaigned on the basis that Balestre , who was also president of the FIA and of the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile , could not effectively manage all these roles together . He also said that no @-@ one challenged Balestre because they were afraid of the consequences and suggested that the FISA President should not interfere with F1 , which could be left to run itself . Mosley won the FISA presidency by 43 votes to 29 ; Balestre remained as FIA president . Mosley resigned a year later , fulfilling a promise made during his election campaign to seek a re @-@ affirmation of his mandate . " I wanted to show people that I do what I say " , he said . " Now they can judge me in a year 's time . " FISA immediately re @-@ elected him .

= = FIA presidency = =

= = = 1993 – 1997 = = =

In 1993 , Mosley agreed with Balestre that the Frenchman would stand down as president of the FIA in Mosley 's favour , in return for the new role of President of the FIA Senate , to be created after Mosley 's election . As well as motorsport , the FIA 's remit includes the interests of motorists worldwide , an area in which Mosley wanted to involve himself : " That is what really interested me : [ in F1 ] you maybe save one life every five years , whereas [ in ] road safety you are talking about thousands of lives " . A challenge to Mosley 's election by Jeffrey Rose , chairman of the British Royal Automobile Club , was withdrawn when it became clear that the majority of voters were already committed to Mosley . The FISA was then merged into the FIA as its sporting arm .

After the deaths of drivers Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , worldwide media attention focused on the charismatic triple @-@ world champion Senna , rather than Ratzenberger , a virtual unknown driving for the minor Simtek team . Mosley did not go to Senna 's funeral , but attended that of Ratzenberger . In a press conference 10 years later Mosley said , " I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's . I thought it was important that somebody went to his . " In the aftermath of the deaths , and a number of other serious accidents , Mosley announced the formation of the Advisory Expert Group chaired by Professor Sid Watkins , to research and improve safety in motor racing . Watkins , who learned of his new role by hearing Mosley announce it on the radio , has called it a " novel and revolutionary approach " . The resulting changes have included reducing the capacity and power of engines , the use of grooved tyres to reduce cornering speeds , the introduction of the HANS device to protect drivers ' necks in accidents , circuit re @-@ design and greatly increased requirements for crash testing of chassis . Mosley was criticised for some of the very rapid changes announced in the immediate aftermath of the deaths at the San Marino race .

In 1995 , a deal was signed between Ecclestone and the FIA that passed all of the commercial rights to Formula One to him for 15 years , on the condition that they would return to the FIA at the end of that period . Ecclestone had been building up Formula One as a television package since the early 1990s , investing heavily in new digital television technology . For the duration of the deal , the FIA would receive an index @-@ linked annual fixed royalty , estimated by Lovell at around 15 % . Mosley said " My belief is that I got a better deal than anyone else could have because it was more difficult for Ecclestone to take a hard line with me as we had worked together for so long . " The following year the FIA also passed the rights to all its other directly sanctioned championships and events to Ecclestone , also for 15 years , An attempt to add a 10 @-@ year extension to the F1 contract in return for a share in Ecclestone 's proposed flotation of Formula One was later vetoed by the European Commission . Mosley 's agreement with Ecclestone on TV rights for F1 angered three of the team principals in particular : Ron Dennis ( McLaren ) , Frank Williams ( Williams ) and Ken Tyrrell ( Tyrrell ) , who felt that neither Ecclestone nor the FIA had the right to make such an agreement without the teams . They refused to sign the 1997 Concorde Agreement without increased financial returns and threatened to make a complaint under European Union competition rules . The European Commission was already investigating the FIA ’ s agreement with Ecclestone in what Lovell calls a " highly personal and bitter battle between Max Mosley and [ EU commissioner Karel ] van Miert " .

= = = 1997 – 2001 = = =

Mosley was elected to his second term as president of the FIA in October 1997 . Later that year , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition made a preliminary decision against Ecclestone and the FIA . The resulting warning letters from van Miert to the FIA and Ecclestone were leaked and ended the attempt to float F1 ; the FIA won a case against the Commission for the leakage in 1998 .

At the same time , a local court in Germany ruled that the television rights to the FIA European Truck Racing Cup ( passed to Ecclestone by the FIA the previous year , along with all other FIA authorised championships ) should be returned to the series organiser , following a complaint from German television company AE TV @-@ Cooperations . The TV Company argued that Ecclestone and Mosley were in breach of commercial clauses in the Treaty of Rome ; following the court 's decision Mosley appealed the judgement and cancelled the series until further notice . On appeal , the court ruled that the series organiser should be able to sell the television rights to whoever they felt was the best option for coverage and the FIA reinstated the European Truck Racing Cup . Between 1997 and 2000 Mosley repeatedly warned that if any EU decision went against the FIA , the marketing organisations and F1 itself would be moved out of Europe . In 1999 , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition issued a Statement of Objections , listing a number of grievances surrounding the FIA 's dealings with Ecclestone and Formula One . The FIA released the Statement to the media and held a press conference in Brussels ridiculing the Commission ’ s case . The Commission argued that a number of commercial agreements could be viewed as anti @-@ competition and invited the FIA and Ecclestone 's companies , ISC and FOA , to submit proposals to modify these arrangements . In 2001 , nine months after settlement talks had begun , the parties reached an agreement to amend existing contracts , which included Ecclestone stepping down as the FIA 's vice @-@ president of promotional affairs and the FIA ending all involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One . Mosley came up with an innovative way to dispose of the FIA 's involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One . In order to maintain Ecclestone 's investment to deliver digital television , he proposed extending Ecclestone 's rights for F1 coverage to 100 years from the initial 15 , arguing that a deal of such length could not be anti @-@ competition as it was effectively the same as an outright sale . The Commission agreed with his assessment and in the interest of impartiality , Mosley removed himself from the negotiations , which eventually returned around $ 300 million ( £ 150 million ) . The FIA planned to " put almost all of it into a charitable foundation which will then have the resources to undertake important work on improving safety in motor sport and in road safety " , and thus the FIA Foundation was created in 2001 . In addition , the FIA continued to receive an annual dividend from the deal , Mosley stated : " Over the totality of the contract , and on an annual basis , the sum we have accepted represents billions of dollars . Looked at from that point of view , it is a huge amount of money . " Lovell compares the figure to extend the rights to 100 years to the £ 600 million KirchGruppe paid for the rights to the 2002 Football World Cup and the £ 1 @.@ 1 billion British Sky Broadcasting paid for a three @-@ year package of English Premier League football . The figure was not entirely comparable however due to the dispute over who actually owned Formula One . Before the settlement with the EU Commission was reached , Mosley feared that the FIA was losing control over the sport following a heated argument with Ecclestone in Paris . Ecclestone argued that he had built Formula One into the entity that it was and the FIA only had rights to designate the event as official . Ecclestone threatened to " do a scorched earth " if another party were to gain control of the commercial side of Formula One . Mosley came up with the solution in order for the FIA to retain its sporting management role and Ecclestone to retain his commercial role .

Over the same period , Mosley was attempting to delay European legislation banning tobacco advertising . At this time all leading Formula One teams carried significant branding from tobacco brands such as Rothmans , West , Marlboro and Mild Seven . The Labour party had pledged to ban tobacco advertising in its manifesto ahead of its 1997 General Election victory , supporting a proposed European Union Directive . The Labour Party 's stance on banning tobacco advertising was reinforced following the election by forceful statements from the Health Secretary Frank Dobson and Minister for Public Health Tessa Jowell . Ecclestone appealed " over Jowell 's head " to Jonathan Powell , Tony Blair 's chief of staff , who arranged a meeting with Blair . Ecclestone and Mosley , both Labour Party donors , met Blair on 16 October 1997 . Mosley argued that the proposed legislation was illegal by EU rules , that Formula One needed more time to find alternative sources of funding and that the prompt introduction of a ban would lead to races being held outside Europe , while the coverage , including tobacco logos , would still be broadcast into the EU . He also argued that :

Motor racing was a world class industry which put Britain at the hi @-@ tech edge . Deprived of tobacco money , Formula One would move abroad at the loss of 50 @,@ 000 jobs , 150 @,@ 000 part @-@ time jobs and £ 900 million of exports .

On 4 November the " fiercely anti @-@ tobacco Jowell " argued in Brussels for an exemption for Formula One . Media attention initially focused on Labour bending its principles for a " glamour sport " and on the " false trail " of Jowell 's husband 's links to the Benetton Formula One team . On 6 November correspondents from three newspapers enquired whether Labour had received any donations from Ecclestone ; he had donated £ 1 million in January 1997 . On 11 November Labour promised to return the money on the advice of Sir Patrick Neill . On 17 November Blair apologised for his government 's mishandling of the affair and stated " the decision to exempt Formula One from tobacco sponsorship was taken two weeks later . It was in response to fears that Britain might lose the industry overseas to Asian countries who were bidding for it . "

The revised directive went into force in June 1998 , and banned sponsorship from 2003 , with a further three @-@ year extension for " global sports such as Formula One " . On 5 October 2000 , the directive was successfully overturned in the European Court of Justice on the grounds that it was unlawful . A new Tobacco Advertising Directive took effect in July 2005 ; the Financial Times described Mosley as " furious " that this was a year earlier than provided for under the 1998 directive . As of 2009 , Ferrari is the only F1 team to retain tobacco sponsorship , although the team carries no explicit branding in races because of the European legislation . Although the FIA moved its headquarters out of the EU in 1999 , it returned in 2001 ; all of the F1 teams remain in Europe , and six are in the UK , compared to seven of eleven at the end of 1997 .

Asked in a 2003 interview about his most enduring achievement as president of the FIA , Mosley replied : " I think using Formula One to push ENCAP Crash @-@ Testing . " The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) is a European car safety performance assessment programme that originated with work done by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport . The FIA became involved in the programme in 1996 , taking a lead in promoting it , and Mosley chaired the body from its launch as Euro NCAP in 1997 to 2004 . Despite what NCAP describes as a " strong negative response " from car manufacturers at first , the initiative has expanded , and NCAP says that there has been a clear increase in the safety of modern cars as a result . The EU commission in 2000 stated that " EuroNCAP had become the single most important mechanism for achieving advances in vehicle safety " and " the most cost effective road safety action available to the EU . " Mosley has continued to promote the matter through his membership of initiatives such as CARS 21 , the European Commission ’ s policy group aimed at improving the worldwide competitiveness of the European automotive industry .

In February 2001 , Mosley announced his intention to stand again for the presidency in October of that year , saying that if successful this third term would be his last .

= = = 2001 – 2005 = = =

Mosley was elected to his third term as president of the FIA in 2001 . From 2000 , Formula One saw the return of teams partly or wholly owned and operated by major motor manufacturers , who feared that under Ecclestone 's management F1 coverage would go to pay television , reducing the value of their investment . In 2001 , the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( GPMA ) announced an alternative world championship , the Grand Prix World Championship to start by 2008 . The GPMA stipulated that the championship should not be regulated by the FIA , which Lovell believes was because the organisation believed Mosley was too close to Ecclestone .

In June 2004 , Mosley announced that he would step down from his position in October of that year , one year early , saying " I no longer find it either satisfying or interesting to sit in long meetings [ ... ] I have achieved in this job everything I set out to [ ... ] " . One month later , he rescinded his decision after the FIA Senate called for him to stay on . According to a BBC Sport profile , many insiders considered that the announcement , and Mosley 's public disagreements with Ecclestone , were " just part of a well crafted plan to strengthen their control over the sport " ; Ron Dennis , the McLaren team principal , suggested that it arose because Mosley 's proposals for Formula One met opposition . In 2004 , Mosley said he felt Ferrari 's then team principal Jean Todt should succeed him as president of the FIA when he stepped down .

The 2005 United States Grand Prix was run with only six cars , after the Michelin tyres used by the other 14 cars proved unsafe for the circuit . A proposal involving the addition of a temporary chicane to slow cars through the fastest corner of the circuit was suggested but rejected by Mosley . He stated his reasons for not agreeing to the chicane : " Formula One is a dangerous activity and it would be most unwise to make fundamental changes to a circuit without following tried and tested procedures . What happened was bad but can be put right . This is not true of a fatality . " He continued , " Formula One is a sport which entertains . It is not entertainment disguised as sport . " Mosley gave three possible solutions for the Michelin runners : to use qualifying tyres but change them whenever necessary on safety grounds , to use a different tyre to be provided by Michelin or to run at reduced speed . These were all rejected by the Michelin @-@ shod teams . Paul Stoddart , the then @-@ owner of the Minardi team who ran on Bridgestone tyres , was prepared to compromise to accommodate Michelin teams — even though a reduced field would guarantee his team much needed points — and was particularly vocal in his criticism and renewed his calls for Mosley to resign .

= = = 2005 – 2009 = = =

Mosley was elected unopposed to his fourth term as president of the FIA in 2005 . In recognition of his contribution to road safety and motorsport , Mosley was made a Chevalier dans l ’ Ordre de la Légion d ’ honneur in 2006 . The Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour ) is France 's highest decoration for outstanding achievements in military or civil life ; a Chevalier ( Knight ) is the fifth class .

Continuing a theme of his presidency , in 2006 Mosley called for Formula One manufacturers to develop technology relevant to road cars . In recent years , a large proportion of the enormous budget of Formula One has been spent on the development of very powerful , very high @-@ revving engines , which some say have little applicability to road cars . Mosley has announced a 10 @-@ year freeze on the development of engines , which would allow manufacturers to spend more of their budgets on environmentally friendly technology such as the Kinetic Energy Recovery System ( KERS ) introduced in 2009 . In July 2008 , he sent a letter to the Formula One teams , in which he called for the teams to propose future sporting regulations to address specific issues including reduced fuel consumption .

The 2007 Formula One season was dominated by Ferrari 's accusations that the McLaren team had made illegal use of their intellectual property , leading to legal cases in the United Kingdom and Italy . Unlike previous cases , such as the Toyota team 's illegal use of Ferrari intellectual property in 2004 that had been handled by German police , the FIA investigated . They initially found McLaren innocent ; unable to find enough evidence to suggest that anyone other than designer Mike Coughlan had seen the information or that the team had used it . Ron Dennis , team principal of McLaren , was unaware at this point that Mosley had been sent personal e @-@ mails from Fernando Alonso , stating that the data had been used and seen by others in the team . When Italian police uncovered a series of text messages between McLaren and their spy at Ferrari , the team was hauled in front of the World Motor Sports Council ( WMSC ) once more . This time they were found guilty and eventually fined a gross $ 100M and excluded from the 2007 constructors ' championship . Later in the year , the Renault team was found guilty by the FIA of possessing McLaren 's intellectual property , but was not punished , as the " FIA 's WMSC decided there was not enough evidence to show the championship had been affected . " In relation to McLaren , triple world champion Jackie Stewart criticised Mosley and stated that other teams did not back McLaren for " fear of repercussions " . TV commentator and newspaper columnist Martin Brundle , a former driver , was among those who criticised the FIA and Mosley for inconsistency and questioned the " energetic manner " in which he felt McLaren was being pursued , suggesting that there was a " witch hunt " against the team . Brundle and The Sunday Times subsequently received a writ for libel before the paper printed a correction . Mosley went on to defend himself of the charges made by Brundle , highlighting that the WMSC originally acquitted McLaren of any wrongdoing , stating : " Concrete evidence of use by McLaren of the Ferrari information was simply not there . " It was only later in the year when " e @-@ mails emerged which showed others inside McLaren were indeed aware of the Ferrari information " , that the FIA found the team guilty .

At the start of 2008 , Mosley said that he wanted to see through reforms such as budget capping and new technologies like KERS successfully introduced into Formula One before retiring . In March of that year the News of the World released video footage of Mosley engaged in acts with five consenting women in a scenario that the paper alleged involved Nazi role @-@ playing ( an allegation that , though dismissed in court as " no genuine basis " , allegedly " ruined " Mosley 's reputation ) . The situation was made more controversial by his father 's association with the Nazis . Mosley admitted " the embarrassment the revelations caused " , but said that there was no Nazi theme involved . He was strongly criticised by former drivers , motor manufacturers and several of the national motoring bodies who form the FIA . His involvement in several high level motor sport events was cancelled . Public expressions of support were limited . Mosley says that he received much supportive correspondence , and said that he would continue to the end of his current term , which he said would be his last . Mosley 's longtime ally Ecclestone eventually appeared to support Mosley 's removal .

Mosley won a vote of confidence at an Extraordinary General Meeting of the FIA on 3 June 2008 , with 103 votes in support and 55 against , with seven abstentions and four invalid votes . Several clubs , including the ADAC , AAA and KNAF considered withdrawal from the FIA after the decision . Other formerly critical organisations have since said that they will accept the outcome of the vote and now wish to move on . In July 2008 , Mosley won a High Court legal case against the News of the World for invasion of privacy . The presiding judge , Mr Justice Eady , said : " I see no genuine basis at all for the suggestion that the participants mocked the victims of the Holocaust . "

In December 2008 , Mosley said that he still intended to stand down when his term ran out in October 2009 , but would take the final decision in June of that year . Mosley 's close relationship with Ecclestone , the sport 's promoter , was criticised in early 2009 by Sir Jackie Stewart , who suggested that Mosley should resign in favour of a CEO from outside motorsport .

In mid @-@ 2009 , the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the format of rules for the following season . When the entry list for the 2010 championship was announced on 12 June 2009 , the entries of five of the eight FOTA teams remained provisional on their acceptance of the new rules . The next day , the European Automobile Manufacturers Association announced its support for FOTA 's request for " stability , clear rules , a clear and transparent system of governance " and their threat to form a breakaway series from Formula One . The BBC Sport website reported this as an attack on Mosley 's authority and noted that Mosley was expected to stand again for the presidency in 2009 .

On 23 June , Mosley said he was considering running for a fifth term as FIA president in October " in light of the attack on my mandate " . However , the following day FOTA and the FIA reached an agreement with Mosley agreeing not to stand for re @-@ election as part of the deal : ' now there is peace ' . Luca di Montezemolo welcomed Mosley 's decision to stand down and called Mosley a ' dictator ' . Mosley responded by saying that he was still considering his ' options ' and might well stand for re @-@ election in October after all . He later said that he was " under pressure from all over the world " to stand for re @-@ election . On 15 July , Mosley confirmed that he would after all stand down , and again endorsed former Ferrari Executive Director Jean Todt as his successor . Todt went on to win the presidency .

= = Honours = =

Grande Ufficiale dell ' Ordine al Merito ( Italy ) 1994

Castrol Gold Medal from the Institute of Motor Industry in the year 2000 .

Order of Madarski Konnik , 1st degree ( Bulgaria ) , 2000

Quattroruote Premio Speciale per la Sicurezza Stradale ( Italy ) , 2001

The Goldene VdM @-@ Dieselring , 2001

Order of Merit ( Romania ) , 2004

Huespad Illustre do Quito ( Ecuador ) , 2005 .

National Road Safety Council NGO , Armenia , 2005 .

France : Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur ( 2006 )

Monaco : Commander of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( 27 May 2006 )

= = Achievements = =

Secretary , Oxford Union Society , 1961 .

1964 , Called to the Bar , Gray ’ s Inn .

Director of March Cars , 1969 @-@ 79

Member of High Level Gp , CARS ( Competitive Automotive Regulatory System for the 21st century ) 21 , 2005 @-@ 09

Patron at eSafety Aware , 2006 @-@ 2009

Member of the Board of Trustees , 2001 @-@ 2014 , Chairman of the Programmes Committee , 2001 @-@ 2012 , FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society

Chairmanship of Euro NCAP , Global NCAP , ERTICO

Honorary President of European Parliament Automobile Users ' Intergroup

= = Sex scandal = =

In 2008 , Mosley won a court case ( Mosley v News Group Newspapers ) against the News of the World newspaper which had reported his involvement in a sex act involving five consenting women on the grounds that it had breached his privacy . Justice Eady ruled that despite some of the attendees wearing German World War 2 uniforms there were no Nazi connotations to the orgy , a false statement that had been printed by the newspaper . As a result , in 2009 Mosley brought a case ( Mosley v United Kingdom ) against the UK 's privacy laws in the European Court of Human Rights , in a bid to force newspapers to warn people before exposing their private lives so they could have the opportunity to seek a court injunction . The case was rejected by the court on 10 May 2011 as they argued that a " pre @-@ notification requirement would inevitably affect political reporting and serious journalism . "

In July 2011 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Mosley was financially guaranteeing the court costs of claimants who may have been subjected to phone hacking by the News of the World . Mosley refused to comment at the time , but he later gave a TV interview to the BBC and telephone interview to Reuters where he confirmed the story .

Mosley launched legal action against Google , in an attempt to stop searches from returning web pages which use the photographs from the video used for the News of the World story . On 6 November 2013 in Mosley v SARL Google a French court sided with Mosley and ordered Google to prevent its search engine from providing links to images of Mosley engaging in sexual activities from the video . The Register suggested the ruling would lead to a Streisand effect , increasing interest in the images , which are still findable through other search engines . At the Leveson Enquiry , Mosley stated his reasons for pursuing Google :

" the fundamental point is that Google could stop this material appearing but they don 't , or they won 't as a matter of principle . My position is that if the search engines - if somebody were to stop the search engines producing the material , the actual sites don 't really matter because without a search engine , nobody will find it , it would just be a few friends of the person who posts it . The really dangerous things are the search engines . "

Mosley launched similar legal action against Google in Germany . In January 2014 , the German court also ruled against the American company . In giving its verdict , the court stated , " that the banned pictures of the plaintiff severely violate his private sphere . "

In an interview with Der Spiegel following the judgement , Mosley said : " Strictly speaking Google has got to obey German courts in Germany and French courts in France . But in the end it has to decide whether it wants to live in a democracy . Google behaves like an adolescent rebelling against the establishment . The company has to recognise that it is a part of society and it must accept the responsibility which comes with that . "

= = Ancestry = =

= 130th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =

The 130th Engineer Brigade is an engineer brigade of the United States Army based in Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . It provides engineering support to the United States Army Pacific command . The brigade specializes in bridging operations .

The brigade traces its lineage back to an engineering regiment active during World War II , but the brigade itself did not see action until the mid @-@ 1990s . As a part of the V Corps for most of the Cold War , the brigade was stationed in western Europe for decades as a deterrent to a possible Soviet invasion . It finally saw action during Operation Joint Endeavor , providing bridging assistance for the international force in the Bosnia region . Several years later , the brigade was the primary engineering component during the invasion of Iraq in 2003 . With numerous difficulties , the brigade was forced to take on several unexpected missions during its year in Iraq . It saw a second tour in 2005 and a third in 2009 in which it once again was the primary engineering component in the country . The brigade deployed to Afghanistan as the Theater Engineer Brigade in support of Operation Enduring Freedom from 2013 @-@ 2014 .

The brigade had a long history of supporting V Corps of United States Army Europe from 1969 until 2007 , during which it was based at Warner Barracks in the Bavarian town of Bamberg , Germany . That ended when the brigade was relocated to Hawaii to support United States Army Pacific as part of a major restructuring plan of the US Army . Reactivated in 2008 , the brigade is currently at home in Hawaii .

= = Organization = =

The 130th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of the 8th Theater Sustainment Command which is in turn subordinate to United States Army Pacific . It provides engineering assistance to US forces stationed throughout the Pacific Ocean region .

The Brigade 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company is stationed at Schofield Barracks and permanently commands two subordinate battalions . The 65th Engineer Battalion and the 84th Engineer Battalion are both located at Schofield Barracks . The total force of the brigade and its subordinate elements is approximately 1 @,@ 600 . As the brigade is modular in nature , it is able to take command and control of more units when deployed .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

The 130th Engineer Brigade traces its lineage to the 1303rd Engineer General Service Regiment which saw action in World War II . The regiment was activated on 15 July 1943 at Camp Ellis , Illinois . It was deployed to the European Theatre where it participated in the Battle of Normandy and subsequent invasion of Germany before being transferred to the Pacific after V @-@ E Day . The 1303rd received campaign streamers for Normandy , Northern France , Rhineland , Ardennes @-@ Alsace , Central Europe , and the Asian @-@ Pacific theatre . It was deactivated in Japan on 31 January 1946 .

The regiment was re @-@ designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade in Japan on 8 July 1955 before being activated in September of that year . Only a few months later , this brigade was inactivated on 25 June 1956 without having seen any deployment .

On 16 June 1969 , Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade was re @-@ designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Brigade and activated in Pioneer Kaserne , Hanau , Germany . The 130th Engineer Brigade was a consolidation of V Corps ' 37th and 11th Engineer Groups into a single unit that would provide more efficient command and control . It was subsequently put under the command of V Corps , as part of the US Army 's force in Europe . The brigade received its shoulder sleeve insignia on 23 September 1969 , and its distinctive unit insignia on 3 November 1969 . Brigade members specially designed these with images alluding to the 1303rd Regiment 's battle honors in World War II using scarlet and white , colors signifying US Army engineer units .

The brigade remained in Germany in support of V Corps for almost 25 years , seeing no deployments . It underwent a shuffling of units as several of its battalions were reassigned elsewhere following the end of the Cold War in 1990 , and it gained new battalions from units deactivating elsewhere . Though three of the brigade 's subordinate battalions deployed to support Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm , the brigade headquarters itself remained in Germany along with the rest of V Corps . The operations were conducted by VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps , which had significant engineer assets of their own . Throughout the early 1990s , the brigade would continue to see units come and go from its command as they were transferred from the restructuring 18th Engineer Brigade and the deactivating 7th Engineer Brigade .

= = = Operation Joint Endeavour = = =

From December 1995 to January 1996 , all units in the brigade , except the 320th Engineer Company ( Topographic ) , deployed to Croatia or Bosnia and Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Endeavor . The 320th Engineer Company deployed their topographic surveying platoon the following year . The 130th Engineer Brigade was tasked with building an assault bridge over the Sava River . Despite severe flooding conditions around the river and international pressure against such a structure , the brigade sent its units to begin work on the bridge . In December 1995 , the 502nd Engineer Company deployed to Zupanja , Croatia and placed the historic ribbon bridge over the river . This bridge , at 2 @,@ 239 feet ( 682 m ) was the longest assault floating bridge in military history . The company operated 24 @-@ hours a day for three months crossing critical traffic in support of Task Force Eagle and NATO 's Implementation Force . The company also assisted in the construction of a second bridge over the Sava River in Brčko @-@ Gunja . The 502nd Engineer Company redeployed in May 1996 , with a rafting section remaining at Slavonski Brod to support the force restructuring of Task Force Eagle . The 130th Engineer Brigade would go on to construct seven fixed bridges in support of the operation . During the deployment , the brigade was also tasked with creating and maintaining maps and overlays of the area of operations . It would produce over 300 @,@ 000 such maps . The 130th Engineer Brigade was also tasked with repairing and maintaining much of the Task Force 's infrastructure .

The brigade returned to Germany after the operation was complete . Throughout 1998 – 2002 it would train with German engineers , including German units from Lahnstein and Speyer , as well as the German Engineering School . The brigade also set up marksman competitions with German units , to give US soldiers the chance to earn the German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship , the German Sports Badge , and other badges . Over 2 @,@ 500 of these badges would be earned by soldiers of the 130th over the years that it served in Germany . It also trained extensively in bridging operations at rivers throughout Germany . In summer of 2000 , the brigade participated in a joint engineering exercise in Moldova with US Navy Seabees and the 505th Engineer Brigade of the North Carolina Army National Guard . The exercise was the first ever conducted in Moldova and featured numerous training scenarios as well as the construction of a medical clinic . Several other such exercises were conducted in nations throughout Europe including Albania , Romania , Georgia , Latvia , Bulgaria and Macedonia . They also performed annual humanitarian missions to Poland , working on community projects around the country with the assistance of Polish Armed Forces every September , as a training exercise .

= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =

The 130th Engineer Brigade mobilized in support of the Global War on Terrorism in 2003 . It was commanded by Colonel Gregg F. Martin . As preparations were being made for Operation Iraqi Freedom , the 130th Engineer Brigade was placed in charge of the largest engineering force in the theater . This included seven different engineering battalions as well as several separate group and company sized elements . Units of the brigade were then deployed to Kuwait in early 2003 , along with much of V Corps ' staff . They would provide command and assistance for the 3rd Infantry Division , 82nd Airborne Division and 101st Airborne Division as they crossed the border to Iraq and attacked to the capitol region of Baghdad from the south . Coupled with the landings of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team to the north , the operation would see the US Forces surround and destroy Iraqi forces in and around the capitol .

The first obstacle facing the brigade was " the berm " , a 10 @-@ kilometer @-@ deep defensive obstacle complex that spanned Iraq 's border with Kuwait . The berm consisted of large tank ditches , berms of dirt , electrified fencing , and razor wire . It was decided that the 3rd Infantry Division 's Brigade Combat Teams would breach this berm in eight locations and move through . The 130th Engineer brigade analyzed the berms and provided a layout of them to coalition forces . The 130th Engineer Brigade then conducted the actual breaches in late March , using armored combat earthmovers to build roads for tracked vehicles , while armored vehicle @-@ launched bridges set up for wheeled vehicles . The 130th worked with Kuwati engineers to breach the berm in 12 places , and the 3rd Infantry Division 's Brigade Combat Teams moved though , starting the Iraq War . After combat forces moved through , the brigade and the Kuwatis then sealed off ten of these breaches to prevent Iraqi forces from using then , leaving two open for US forces that followed from the 82nd and 101st .

After the breach , the 130th moved into Iraq . They provided support for the divisions as they advanced along the path to Baghdad . When a large sandstorm grounded aviation and large dust clouds became a problem , the brigade repurposed oil for use in dust abatement around airfields , allowing the 101st 's fleet of AH @-@ 64 Apaches to take off and engage Iraqi ground forces on 24 March . Retreating Iraqi units detonated many bridges to slow the 3rd Infantry Division 's advance . The 130th Engineers conducted rapid repairs to allow the brigades to continue to move through . The brigade supported combat elements moving through An Najaf , clearing roads and pathways of debris and obstacles to allow rapid movement through the city . The 565th Engineer Battalion built the " birthday bridge " – the longest float bridge constructed in a combat theatre with a span of 580 meters – over the Tigris River in Tikrit on Saddam Hussein ’ s birthday , 28 April 2003 .

After the invasion was over , the brigade was supposed to support the operation with bridging and infrastructure support . During the planning for the invasion , the engineers of the brigade were told that reconstruction in Iraq would be conducted by Department of Defense contractors and Iraqi civilians . They were not originally prepared to conduct major reconstruction efforts . When V Corps became the commanding element for the task force to rebuild Iraq , much of the invasion force , including the 130th Engineer Brigade , was sent to do jobs they had not been originally planned for , as basic utilities and sanitation conditions in Iraq were far below what was expected . Throughout the rest of 2003 and 2004 , the engineers engaged in a large number of initial reconstruction projects on basic utilities , including schools , water treatment plants , waste removal , and the nation 's power grid . It was determined that the scale of these projects was much greater than what the US had expected or what had been encountered in previous contingencies . It was also decided that reconstruction was essential to the coalition since it would help win over the Iraqi people . By May 2003 , the brigade had been completely repurposed . Though originally tasked with demolishing obstacles , building fortifications , and bridging operations , the brigade was tasked entirely with construction projects . This conversion was a difficult process , as the brigade did not have the equipment and specialist units designed to handle reconstruction on a national scale . As more US military reconstruction units arrived in Iraq , the brigade grew to eight battalions and three groups .

The 130th Engineer Brigade focused on bridging projects as was its specialty , but it ultimately found itself undertaking numerous different projects throughout the country for much of 2003 and into 2004 . Not all of its units were confined entirely to construction , though . The 502nd Engineer Company also conducted river patrol operations in Baghdad and Tikrit . This new mission for the company was essential for force protection , troop transportation , search and cordon operations , and to protect against sabotage on fixed bridges . In September 2003 , with the inactivation of the 38th Engineer Company ( Medium Girder Bridge ) , the 502nd Engineer Company became a multi @-@ role bridge company with both float and fixed bridging capabilities and the only active bridge company in USAREUR .

The 130th was headquartered at Logistical Support Area Anaconda for the majority of the deployment . Throughout Operation Iraqi Freedom , the headquarters commanded up to 15 @,@ 000 engineers at one time , conducting missions including bridging , humanitarian assistance , topographic missions , dive missions , firefighting , base construction , river patrols , mine detection , missile removal and many more . Brigade units redeployed to Hanau in late 2003 and early 2004 . Most of the brigade 's soldiers returned to Hanau on 5 February 2004 after numerous logistical delays . Most of the 130th Engineer Brigade 's subordinate units would receive Meritorious Unit Commendation for their roles in the invasion of Iraq , though the Brigade 's headquarters did not .

= = = Second tour in Iraq = = =

The 502nd Engineer Company became the first V Corps company @-@ sized unit to return for a second tour in Iraq when it deployed in September 2004 . The company returned to Hanau in September 2005 . In December 2004 , the 130th Engineer Brigade 's headquarters was informed that it would be deployed back to Iraq the next year . The brigade mobilized and began this new deployment in September 2005 ; it began operating in the country the next month . The 54th Engineer Battalion followed in October . The brigade eventually replaced the 130th , 194th , and 20th Engineer Brigades , becoming the only engineer brigade operating in the country . By December 2006 , the brigade commanded all engineering formations in Multi @-@ National Corps - Iraq , including engineers from other branches of the US Military , for a total of 3 @,@ 300 soldiers . During the tour they were supported by the 412th Engineer Command .

The 130th Engineers had a variety of reconstruction tasks during their second tour in Iraq . The top priority of the brigade was to " maintain and upgrade lines of communications " to " insure uninterrupted ground movement through the area of operations . " This duty also included detection and removal of Improvised Explosive Devices . The brigade undertook numerous construction projects , primarily in building coalition forward operating bases , but they were tasked with construction projects for the Iraqi army and civilians as well . Many of the units of the brigade were integrated with military from other branches for projects . US Navy and US Marine Corps engineers operated side @-@ by @-@ side with 130th Engineer Brigade soldiers , and though commanders reported a " culture clash " between different branches of service , the soldiers , sailors , and Marines were able to adapt to the situation quickly .

The brigade 's Headquarters Company managed the engineer battalions but it also undertook its own missions , including humanitarian missions and public affairs assignments . It was supported by the brigade 's Special Troops Battalion which provided a wide range of duties for the Headquarters . The task of detecting and removing IEDs proved particularly difficult for the brigade , as IEDs were a serious issue for coalition forces and the leading cause of casualties at the time . The 54th Engineer Battalion under the 130th was specially tasked with counter @-@ IED operations on the over 300 kilometers of roads that the brigade was responsible for . The 249th Engineer Battalion was charged with maintaining the power grid throughout Iraq . They were required to assess 200 power stations throughout the country and make repairs to each one individually . The 84th Engineer Battalion was tasked with most construction projects in the Forward Operating Bases . These projects involved expansion of many of the larger FOBs as smaller ones were shut down and consolidated . One of the main focuses of the Battalion was the expansion of living quarters at Al Asad Air Base . The 565th Engineer Battalion was responsible for maintaining the supply yards housing building materials for the rest of the Brigade 's battalions , and to ensure that the materials were dispersed and used as efficiently as possible . The brigade 's mechanical and vehicle maintenance duties were provided by civilian contractors . These contractors also handled transportation of construction vehicles and vehicle parts to the theater .

During the year of its deployment in Iraq , the brigade reported progress in numerous areas . Brigade commander Colonel Thomas Kula reported that " greater than 50 percent " of IEDs found on roads used by the Corps were recognized and disarmed before they could be used against coalition forces . The brigade also cleared 700 kilometers of road from trash and debris and filled more than 600 potholes caused by explosions . It also completed 1 @,@ 800 mapping projects in the theater . The brigade also finished numerous building projects around Iraq . Soldiers of the 130th Engineer Brigade completed 345 construction projects during the year in the country , including emplacing four bridges and maintaining eight more , well digging projects throughout western Iraq , maintaining the power grid to 25 coalition bases , repairing and expanding services at FOBs throughout the region , and construction of outposts and checkpoints throughout the country 's roadways with the assistance of Iraqi engineers . During the deployment , a total of 15 soldiers from the brigade were killed in action . The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Hanau from its second tour in Iraq in October 2006 .

= = = Reactivation in Hawaii = = =

With the US Army forces in Europe seeing drawdowns and redeployments , it was announced that V Corps would be eliminated , and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved elsewhere . The brigade formally left Hanau with a casing of the unit colors ceremony at Pioneer Kaserne on 4 May 2007 . Casing the unit 's colors was a tradition formally signifying its inactivation and , for all official purposes , the brigade had ceased to be an active Army unit . The brigade headquarters became part of U.S. Army Pacific on 16 June 2007 .

The brigade had originally been slated to relocate to Fort Lewis , Washington to replace the 555th Engineer Brigade , which was scheduled to be inactivated . But with the announcement of the Grow the Army plan in early 2007 , it was decided that no engineer brigades would be inactivated permanently , and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved to Hawaii instead . Both the 130th and 555th Engineer Brigades remained on active duty .

The brigade was inactive for a year while it was reconstructed in Hawaii . As a part of the transformation of the US Army , the brigade was reorganized into a modular force with new and updated equipment and new personnel . The Brigade stood up provisionally on 27 June 2008 as it neared ready status . On 23 October , the brigade 's colors were formally uncased at Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . This signified the end of the brigade 's relocation to Hawaii as well as its completion and readiness to take on new missions .

The brigade took command of the 6th , 65th and 84th Engineer battalions .

= = = Third tour in Iraq = = =

The brigade was alerted for another deployment to Operation Iraqi Freedom in summer 2009 . There , its missions will once again include construction , route clearance , and training of Iraqi engineers . Since being alerted for deployment , the brigade began conducting vigorous Mission Rehearsal Exercise ( MRE ) training at Schofield Barracks . Among this training has been updated strategies for detection and clearance of Improvised Explosive Devices . The brigade began its deployment on 17 July 2009 , uncasing its colors in Mosul and taking command of construction projects in the area from the 18th Engineer Brigade .

The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks Hawaii from Iraq on 4 June 2010 .

= = = Theater Security Cooperation Program Exercises = = =

Upon the 130th Engineer Brigade 's return from Iraq in 2010 , the 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Theater Engineer Brigade in the PACOM AOR . In this capacity , the brigade provided combat engineering , construction engineering and dive operations support to joint and combined partners at more than 30 Theater Security Cooperation Program ( TSCP ) exercises and multiple company sized deployments to Operations New Dawn and Enduring Freedom .

The 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Combined Joint Civil Military Operations Task Force ( CJMOTF ) for Balikatan 2011 in the Philippines . For over two months , the brigade headquarters along with platoons from the 84th Engineer Battalion built schools and all @-@ purpose facilities . Meanwhile , the brigade 's subordinate joint partners conducted veterinarian and medical events to help improve the lives of the Filipino people . This event sharpened the brigade 's skills at responding to humanitarian aid and disaster response ( HADR ) events throughout the region . Upon completion of BK11 , the brigade shifted its training focus from stability operations to major combat operations . Specifically , the brigade initiated a 9 @-@ month train @-@ up plan for its MCTP graded war @-@ fighter with the 2nd Infantry Division in Korea . Through a series of individual and collective training events the brigade honed , sharpened and in some cases re @-@ learned the skills necessary to achieve victory in a high @-@ intensity conflict . Through UFG12 , 2ID 's War @-@ Path II Exercise , and finally the Full Spectrum Exercise in November 2011 , the 130th Engineer Brigade earned some of the highest marks and accolades ever given to a brigade by the MCTP during a certification war @-@ fighter exercise . Through these series of exercises , the 130th Engineer Brigade helped USFK , 8th Army , and 2ID refine and improve their most significant OPLANs by updating TPFDDs , task organizations , engineer concepts of operations , and combined arms gap @-@ crossing plans . The 130th Engineer Brigade , along with 8th Army and 2ID remain ready to " Fight Tonight " if called upon .

= = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = =

The 130th Engineer Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) , and one of their subordinate battalions , the 65th Engineer Battalion ( Combat Effects ) , deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in September and October 2013 . This marked the brigade headquarters ' first deployment to Afghanistan . After a two @-@ week handover period , the 130th Engineer Brigade officially took over on 2 October 2013 from the 555th Engineer Brigade ( from Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , WA ) , Joint Task Force Triple Nickel , thus becoming Joint Task Force Sapper , overseeing U.S. Army , Navy , and Air Force engineer units across Afghanistan . A direct subordinate element of ISAF Joint Command and U.S. Forces @-@ Afghanistan , JTF Sapper constituted the fourth largest command in theater , behind only regional commands . The 130th Engineer Brigade became the core of a provisional multi @-@ role brigade headquarters for engineer operations in Afghanistan with seven subordinate battalions , one Naval Mobile Construction Battalion , and one Engineer Prime Beef Squadron consisting of over 4 @,@ 200 Soldiers , Sailors and Airmen operating in each Regional Command .

From September to December 2013 , Joint Task Force Sapper 's mission in theater was " The Theater Engineer Brigade trains , certifies and advises the ANA Engineers on construction , facility management , and assured mobility capabilities while supporting the retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and assured mobility across the CJOA @-@ A. "

From January to May 2014 , Joint Task Force Sapper 's mission in theater was " Joint Task Force Sapper partners with ANA engineers to enable their independent operations and support the redeployment and retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and deconstruction across the CJOA @-@ A in order to set the conditions for the resolute support mission . "

The 130th Engineer Brigade turned over responsibility as Operation Enduring Freedom 's Theater Engineer Brigade to the 2nd Engineer Brigade ( from Joint Base Elmedorf @-@ Richardson , AK ) , Joint Task Force Trailblazer , on 29 May 2014 . The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks , Hawaii from Afghanistan on 4 June 2014 .

= = Honors = =

= = = Unit Decorations = = =

= = = Campaign streamers = = =

= Corythosaurus =

Corythosaurus / ˌkɒrᵻθoʊˈsɔːrəs / is a genus of hadrosaurid " duck @-@ billed " dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous Period , about 77 – 75 @.@ 7 million years ago . It lived in what is now North America . Its name means " helmet lizard " , derived from Greek κόρυς . It was named and described in 1914 by Barnum Brown . Corythosaurus is now thought to be a lambeosaurine , related to Nipponosaurus , Velafrons , Hypacrosaurus , and Olorotitan . Corythosaurus has an estimated length of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) , and has a skull , including the crest , that is 70 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 27 @.@ 9 in ) tall .

Corythosaurus is known from many complete specimens , including the nearly complete holotype found by Brown in 1911 . The holotype skeleton is only missing the last section of the tail , and part of the forelimbs , but was preserved with impressions of polygonal scales . Corythosaurus is known from many skulls with tall crests . The crests resemble the crests of the cassowary and a Corinthian helmet . The most likely function of the crest is thought to be vocalization . As in a trombone , sound waves would travel through many chambers in the crest , and then get amplified when Corythosaurus exhaled . A Corythosaurus specimen has been preserved with its last meal in its chest cavity . Inside the cavity were remains of conifer needles , seeds , twigs , and fruits : Corythosaurus probably fed on all of these .

The two species of Corythosaurus are both present in slightly different levels of the Dinosaur Park Formation . Both still co @-@ existed with theropods and other ornithischians , like Daspletosaurus , Brachylophosaurus , Parasaurolophus , Scolosaurus , and Chasmosaurus .

= = Discovery and species = =

The first specimen , AMNH 5240 , was discovered in 1911 by Barnum Brown in Red Deer River , Alberta , Canada , and secured by him in the Fall of 1912 . As well as an almost complete skeleton , the find was notable because impressions of much of the creature 's skin had also survived . The specimen came from the Belly River Group of the province . The left or underside of the skeleton was preserved in carbonaceous clay , making it difficult to expose the skin . The skeleton was articulated , and only missing about the last 0 @.@ 61 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) of the tail and the forelimbs . Both scapulae and coracoids are preserved in position , but the rest of the forelimbs are gone , except for phalanges and pieces of humeri , ulnae and radii . Apparently the remaining forelimbs were weathered or eroded away . Impressions of the integument were preserved covering over a large part of the skeletons outlining , and shows the form of the body . Another specimen , AMNH 5338 , was found in 1914 by Brown and Peter Kaisen . Both specimens are now housed in the American Museum of Natural History in their original death poses .

The type species Corythosaurus casuarius was named by Barnum Brown in 1914 , based on the first specimen collected by him in 1912 . AMNH 5240 is thus the holotype . In 1916 , the original author , Brown , published a more detailed description which was also based on AMNH 5338 , which specimen is therefore the plesiotype . Corythosaurus is among many lambeosaurines that possess crests , and it was the crest that lends Corythosaurus its name . The generic name Corythosaurus is derived from Greek κόρυθος , korythos , " Corinthian helmet " , and means " helmeted lizard " . The specific name casuarius refers to the cassowary , a bird with a similar skull crest . The full binomial of Corythosaurus casuarius thus means " Cassowary @-@ like reptile , with a Corinthian helmet crest " .

The two best preserved specimens of Corythosaurus found , by Charles H. Sternberg in 1912 , were lost on 6 December 1916 while being carried to the United Kingdom , during World War One . They were being sent to Arthur Smith Woodward , a paleontologist of the British Museum of Natural History in England , when the ship transporting them was sunk by the German merchant raider SMS Möwe in the middle of the ocean .

There were formerly up to seven species described , including C. casuarius , C. bicristatus Parks 1935 , C. brevicristatus Parks 1935 , C. excavatus Gilmore 1923 , C. frontalis Parks 1935 , and C. intermedius Parks 1923 . In 1975 Peter Dodson studied the differences between the skulls and crests of different species of lambeosaurine dinosaurs . He found that the differences in size and shape may have actually been related to the gender and age of the animal . Now only one species is recognized for certain , C. casuarius , although C. intermedius has been recognized as valid in some studies . It is based on specimen ROM 776 , a skull found by Levi Sternberg in 1920 and was named by William Parks in 1923 , who had originally named it Stephanosaurus intermedius earlier that year . The specific name of C. intermedius is derived from its apparent intermediate position according to Parks . C. intermedius lived at a slightly later time in the Campanian than C. casuarius , and the two species are not identical , which supported the separation of them in a 2009 study .

= = Description = =

= = = Size = = =

Benson et al . ( 2012 ) estimated that Corythosaurus has an average length of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) . Richard Swann Lull 's earlier length estimate , published in 1942 , found a slightly longer total length of 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) , a size similar to Lambeosaurus lambei , another Canadian lambeosaurine . In 1962 , Edwin H. Colbert used models of specific dinosaurs , including Corythosaurus , to estimate their weight . The Corythosaurus model used , was modelled by Vincent Fusco after a mounted skeleton , and supervised by Barnum Brown . After testing , it was concluded that the average weight of Corythosaurus was 3 @.@ 82 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 76 long tons ; 4 @.@ 21 short tons ) . More recent size estimates of Corythosaurus , published in 2001 , find the genus to be among the largest hadrosaurids , only smaller than Shantungosaurus and Parasaurolophus . The total length of Corythosaurus specimen AMNH 5240 was found to be 8 @.@ 1 m ( 27 ft ) , with a weight of 3 @.@ 0785 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 0299 long tons ; 3 @.@ 3935 short tons ) .

Proportionally , the skull is much shorter and smaller than that of Edmontosaurus ( formerly Trachodon ) , Kritosaurus , or Saurolophus , but when including its crest , its superficial area is almost as large .

= = = Skull = = =

Over twenty skulls have been found from this dinosaur . As with other lambeosaurines , the animal bore a tall , elaborate bony crest atop its skull , which contained the elongate narial passages . The narial passages extended into the crest , first into separate pockets in the sides , then into a single central chamber and onward into the respiratory system . The skull of the type specimen has no dermal impressions on it . During preservation it was compressed laterally , so now the width is about two @-@ thirds what it would have been in real life . According to Brown , the compression also caused the nasals to shift where they pressed down on the premaxillaries . Because they were pressed on the premaxillaries , the nasals would have closed the nares . Apart from the compression , the skull appears to be normal . Contrary to what Brown assumed , the areas concerned were fully part of the praemaxillae .

The crests of Corythosaurus resemble that of a cassowary , or a Corinthian helmet . They are formed by a combination of the praemaxillae , nasals , prefrontals and frontals , as in Saurolophus , but instead of projecting backwards as a spine , they rise up to make the highest point above the orbit . The two halves of the crest are separated by a median suture . In front of the orbit , the crest is made of thick bone .

The nasals make up most of the crest . Brown assumed that they extended from the beaks ' tip to the highest spot along the crest and that , unlike those in other genera , the nasals meet in the centre and are not separated in front by an ascending premaxillary process . Brown however , mistook the praemaxillae for the nasals ; the snout is actually largely formed by them and they do separate the nasals . Brown also thought that on the top and back of the crest , the whole external face is covered by the frontals . Again he made a mistake : what he assumed to be the frontals are in fact the nasals . The nasals end at the back of the squamosals in a hooked , short process . The prefrontals also make up part of the crest ; however , Brown mistook the lower upper branch of the praemaxilla for the prefrontal . The actual prefrontal , triangular in shape , is located at the side of the crest base ; it was by Brown seen as a part of the frontal . The real frontals , largely internal to the crest base structure , are not visible from the side .

The mouth of the holotype of Corythosaurus is narrow . The praemaxillae each form two long folds . The folds enclose air passages extending the narial passages to the front of the snout . There they end in narrow openings , sometimes called " pseudonares " , false bony nostrils . These were mistaken by Brown for the real nares or nostrils . These are actually situated inside the crest , above the eye sockets . As in Saurolophus , the expanded portion of the premaxillary in front of the pseudonaris ' opening is elongate : by comparison , in Kritosaurus , the bill is short , and the pseudonares extend far forward . At the end of the Corythosaurus bill , the two pseudonares unite into one . Because of his incorrect identification , Brown assumed that the holotype 's inferior process of the premaxillary was shorter than in Kritosaurus and Saurolophus , and that the process does not unite with the lacrimal , another difference from those genera . The praemaxilla actually does touch the lacrimal and extends to the rear until well behind the eye socket .

The lower jaw of the holotype is 66 @.@ 9 centimetres ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) long , and 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) deep . The total length of the crest from the beak to the uppermost tip of the type specimen is 83 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 33 @.@ 0 in ) , its total length is 81 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 32 @.@ 0 in ) , and height 70 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 27 @.@ 9 in ) .

= = = Soft tissue = = =

In the holotype of C. casuarius , the sides and tail of the body are covered in scales of several types . Polygonal tuberculate scales , covered in small bumps , vary in size over the body . Conical limpet @-@ like scales are only preserved on a fold of skin preserved on the back of the tibia , but which was probably from the bottom of the belly , rather than the leg . Separating the polygonal scales of C. casuarius are shieldlike scales , arranged close together in rows . Ossified tendons are present on all the vertebrae , except for those in the cervical region . On no vertebrae do the tendons extend below the transverse processes . Each tendon is flattened at its origin , and transversely ovoid in the central rod , ending at a rounded point .

Aside from those found on Corythosaurus casuarius , extensive skin impressions have been found on Edmontosaurus annectens and notable integument has also been found on Brachylophosaurus canadensis , Gryposaurus notabilis , Parasaurolophus walkeri , Lambeosaurus magnicristatus , L. lambei , Saurolophus angustirsotris and on unidentified ornithopods . Of these , L. lambei , C. casuarius , G. notabilis , P. walkeri , and S. angustirsotris have preserved polygonal scales . The scales on L. lambei , S. angustirostris and C. casuarius are all similar . Corythosaurus is one of very few hadrosaurids which have preserved skin impressions on the hind limbs and feet . A study in 2013 showed that amongst hadrosaurids , Saurolophus angustirostris preserved the best and most complete foot and limb integument , although other species like S. osborni , Edmontosaurus annectens and Lambeosaurus lambei ( = L. clavinitialis ) share a fair amount of preserved tissue on those regions .

It was once thought that this dinosaur lived mostly in the water , due to the appearance of webbed hands and feet . However , it was later discovered that the so @-@ called " webs " were in fact deflated padding , much like that found on many modern mammals .

= = = Distinguishing characteristics = = =

A set of characters were indicated by Barnum Brown in 1914 to distinguish Corythosaurus from all other hadrosaurids from Alberta : a comparatively short skull with a high helmet @-@ like crest formed by the nasals , prefrontals and frontals ; the nasals not being separated in front by the premaxillaries ; a narrow beak , with an expansion in front of an elongated naris ; and a small narial opening .

In 1916 , Brown expanded the character set to include more features ; in the revised version : a comparatively short skull with a high helmet @-@ like crest formed by nasals , prefrontals and frontals ; the nasals not being separated in front by premaxillaries ; a narrow beak , expanded section in front of the elongated nares ; a small narial opening ; a vertebral formula of 15 cervicals , 19 dorsals , 8 sacrals , and 61 + caudals ; possession of dorsal spines of a medium height ; high anterior caudal spines ; long chevrons ; long scapulae , possessing a blade of medium width ; a radius considerably longer than humerus ; comparatively short metacarpals ; an anteriorly decurved ilium ; a long ischium with a foot @-@ like terminal expansion ; a pubis with an anterior blade that is short and broadly expanded at end ; a femur that is longer than the tibia ; the phalanges of pes are short ; that the integument over the sides and tail composed of polygonal tuberculate scales without pattern but graded in size in different parts of the body ; and a belly with longitudinal rows of large conical limpet @-@ like scales separated by uniformly large polygonal tubercles . Again , the presumed traits of the snout are incorrect because Brown confused the praemaxillae with the nasal bones and the nasal bones with the frontals . Most of the postcranial traits are today known to be shared with other lambeosaurines .

= = Classification = =

Originally , Brown referred to Corythosaurus as a member of the family Trachodontidae ( now Hadrosauridae ) . Inside Trachodontidae were the subfamilies Trachodontinae and Saurolophinae . Brown classified Hadrosaurus , Trachodon , Claosaurus , and Kritosaurus in Trachodontinae , and Corythosaurus , Stephanosaurus , and Saurolophus in Saurolophinae .

Later , Brown revised the phylogeny of Corythosaurus , and found that it was closely related , and possibly ancestral to Hypacrosaurus . The only differences he found between them were the development of the vertebrae , and the proportions of the limbs . During a study of dinosaurian ilia in the 1920s , Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed that the two orders of dinosaurs might have evolved separately , and that birds , based on the shape and proportions of their ilia might truly be specialized ornithischians . He used both Tyrannosaurus and Corythosaurus as a base model to analyze which theory is more likely true . He found that even though birds are thought of as saurischians , it is very plausible for them to have evolved their specific pelvic musculature and anatomy if they evolved from ornithschians like Corythosaurus . However , even though Corythosaurus does resemble modern birds in pelvic structure more than saurischians , birds are now thought to have descended from the latter .

Corythosaurus is currently classified as a hadrosaurid , in the subfamily Lambeosaurinae . It is related to other hadrosaurs such as Hypacrosaurus , Lambeosaurus and Olorotitan , with the exception of Olorotitan they all share similar looking skulls and crests . However , research published in 2003 has suggested that even though it possesses a unique crest , Olorotitan is Corythosaurus closest known relative . Benson et al . ( 2012 ) found that Corythosaurus was closely related to Velafrons , Nipponosaurus , and Hypacrosaurus , and said that they formed a group of fan @-@ crested lambeosaurines .

In 2014 , a study including the description of Zhanghenglong was published in the journal PLOS ONE . The study included an almost complete cladogram of hadrosauroid relationships , including Corythosaurus as the most derived lambeosaurine , as sister taxon to Hypacrosaurus . The below cladogram is a simplified version including only Lambeosaurini .

= = Paleobiology = =

Comparisons between the scleral rings of Corythosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals . The sense of hearing in hadrosaurids , specifically such as Lophorhothon , also seems to have been greatly developed because of an elongated lagena . The presence of a thin stapes ( an ear bone that is rod @-@ like in reptiles ) , combined with a large eardrum implies the existence of a sensitive middle ear . It is possible that hadrosaurid ears are sensitive enough to detect as much sound as a modern crocodilian .

= = = Crest function = = =

The internal structures of the crest of Corythosaurus are quite complex , making possible a call that could be used for warning or attracting a mate . Nasal passageways of Corythosaurus , as well as Hypacrosaurus and Lambeosaurus are S @-@ shaped , with Parasaurolophus only possessing U @-@ shaped tubes . Any vocalization would travel through these elaborate chambers , and probably get amplified . Scientists speculate that Corythosaurus could make loud , low pitched cries " like a wind or brass instrument " , such as a trombone . The sounds could serve to alert other Corythosaurus to the presence of food or a potential threat from a predator . The nasal passages emit low @-@ frequency sounds when Corythosaurus exhaled . The individual crests would produce different sounds , so it is likely that each species of lambeosaurine would have had a unique sound . However , even though the range for different lambeosaurine nasal passages vary , they all probable made low @-@ pitched sounds . This might be because low sounds ( below 400 Hz ) travel a set distance in any environment , while higher ( above 400 Hz ) sounds have a larger spread in the distance travelled .

When they were first described , crested hadrosaurs were thought to be aquatic , an assessment based incorrectly on webbing that is now known to be padding . The theory was that the animals could swim deep in the water , and use the crest to store air to breath . However , it has now been proven that the crest did not have any holes in the end , and the water pressure at even 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) would be too great for the lungs to be able to inflate .

= = = Growth = = =

Corythosaurus casuarius is one of a few lambeosaurines , along with Lambeosaurus lambei , Hypacrosaurus stebingeri and H. altispinus , to have had surviving fossilized juveniles assigned to it . Juveniles are harder to assign to species , because at a young age they lack the distinctive larger crests of adults . As they age , lambeosaurine crests tend to grow and become more prominent come maturity . In the Dinosaur Park Formation , over fifty articulated specimens have been found , coming from many different genera . Among them , juveniles are hard to identify at the species level . Earlier , four genera and thirteen species were recognized from the formation 's area , when paleontologists used differences in size and crest shape to differentiate taxa . The smallest specimens were identified as Tetragonosaurus , now seen as a synonym of Procheneosaurus , and the largest skeletons were called either Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus ; an adult was identified as Parasaurolophus . Small lambeosaurines from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation were referred to Cheneosaurus .

Corythosaurus started developing its crest when half the size of adults , but Parasaurolophus juveniles grew crests when only 25 % as long as adults . Juvenile Corythosaurus , along with adults , had a premaxilla @-@ nasal fontanelle . Young and adult Corythosaurus are similar to Lambeosaurus and Hypacrosaurus but dissimilar to Parasaurolophus in that the sutures of the skull are sinuous , and not smooth and straight . This feature helps differentiate parasaurolophins from lambeosaurins . Generally , the crests of juveniles of lambeosaurines like Corythosaurus , Lambeosaurus , Hypacrosaurus stebingeri , parasaurolophines like Parasaurolophus , and primitive lambeosaurines like Kazaklambia are quite alike , although other features can be used to distinguish them .

Work by Dodson ( 1975 ) recognized that there were many less taxa present in Alberta . Tetragonosaurus was found to be juveniles of Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus . T. erectofrons was assigned to Corythosaurus based largely on biometric information . The only non @-@ typic specimen of Tetragonosaurus , assigned to T. erectofrons , was found later to be referable to Hypacrosaurus , although the holotype of the species was still found to be assignable to Corythosaurus .

= = = Diet = = =

Corythosaurus was an ornithopod , and therefore a herbivore . Benson et al . ( 2012 ) realized that the beak of Corythosaurus was shallow and delicate , and concluded that it must have been used to feed upon soft vegetation . Based on the climate of the Late Cretaceous , they guessed that Corythosaurus would have been a selective feeder , eating only the juiciest fruits and youngest leaves . Corythosaurus specimens have been preserved with its last meal in its chest cavity . Inside the cavity were remains of conifer needles , seeds , twigs , and fruits , meaning that Corythosaurus probably fed on all of these .

= = Paleoecology = =

Fossils have been found in the upper Oldman Formation and lower Dinosaur Park Formation of Canada . The Oldman Formation dates to the Campanian , about 77 @.@ 5 to 76 @.@ 5 million years ago , and the Dinosaur Park Formation dates from 76 @.@ 6 to 74 @.@ 8 million years ago . Corythosaurus lived from ~ 77 – 75 @.@ 7 million years ago . In the Dinosaur Park Formation C. casuarius lived from 76 @.@ 6 to 75 @.@ 9 mya , with C. intermedius living from 75 @.@ 8 to 75 @.@ 7 mya . In the Oldman Formation C. casuarius , the only species of Corythosaurus from the deposits , lived about 77 to 76 @.@ 5 mya . The holotype specimen was clearly a carcass that had floated up on a beach , as Unio shells , water @-@ worn bones , and a baenid turtle were preserved all around . Corythosaurus probably lived in a woodland forest , and might have occasionally wandered into swampy areas .

A limited fauna is known from the upper section of the Oldman Formation , and Corythosaurus casuarius as well as C. intermedius are among the taxa . Also from the section of the formation are the theropods Daspletosaurus , and Saurornitholestes , the hadrosaurids Brachylophosaurus , Gryposaurus and Parasaurolophus , and the ankylosaurid Scolosaurus , and the ceratopsians Coronosaurus and Chasmosaurus . Other genera are known , but do not persist from the upper section of the formation , and therefore are not contemporaries of Corythosaurus .

Corythosaurus casuarius is widespread throughout the lower unit of the Dinosaur Park Formation . In it , Corythosaurus was found to be closely associated with the ceratopsid Centrosaurus apertus . Their associating was found in the Dinosaur Park , Judith River , and Mesaverde formations , and also in the Wind River Basin and the Wheatland County area . Corythosaurus lived alongside numerous other giant herbivores , such as the hadrosaurids Gryposaurus and Parasaurolophus , the ceratopsids Centrosaurus and Chasmosaurus , and ankylosaurids Scolosaurus , Edmontonia and Dyoplosaurus in the earliest stages of the formation , Dyoplosaurus , Panoplosaurus and Euoplocephalus in the middle age , and Euoplocephalus alone in later stages of the formation . Studies of the jaw anatomy and mechanics of these dinosaurs suggests they probably all occupied slightly different ecological niches in order to avoid direct competition for food in such a crowded eco @-@ space . The only large predators known from the same levels of the formation as Corythosaurus are the tyrannosaurids Gorgosaurus libratus and an unnamed species of Daspletosaurus .

Thomas M. Lehman has observed that Corythosaurus hasn 't been discovered outside of southern Alberta even though it is one of the most abundant Judithian dinosaurs in the region . Large herbivores like the hadrosaurs living in North America during the Late Cretaceous had " remarkably small geographic ranges " despite their large body size and high mobility . This restricted distribution strongly contrasts with modern mammalian faunas whose large herbivores ' ranges " typical [ ly ] ... span much of a continent . "

= Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society =

Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society ( Japanese : 攻殻機動隊 STAND ALONE COMPLEX Solid State Society , Hepburn : Kōkaku Kidōtai STAND ALONE COMPLEX Solid State Society ) is a 2006 made @-@ for @-@ television science fiction action spy thriller anime film and is part of the Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex series based on Masamune Shirow 's manga Ghost in the Shell . It was produced by Production I.G and directed by Kenji Kamiyama .

The film is set in 2034 , two years after the events of 2nd GIG . Togusa is now the team leader for Public Security Section 9 , which has increased considerably in size . Section 9 deals with a series of complicated incidents , including the assassination of Ka Rum , a former dictator of the Siak Republic , which leads to a terrorist plot using children as vectors for a cybernetic virus . Investigations reveal that a hacker nicknamed the " The Puppeteer " is behind the entire series of events .

The film , which had a production budget of 360 million yen , debuted in Japan on SKY PerfecTV ! on September 1 , 2006 and it was released in North America in 2007 . A stereoscopic 3D version of the film was released in 2011 . The film received generally positive reviews , but was criticized for being very dialogue heavy and lacking in action .

= = Plot = =

In 2034 , two years after the events of 2nd GIG , Public Security Section 9 is investigating a string of mysterious suicides by refugees from the Siak Republic . Chief Aramaki conducts a raid to arrest the refugee dictator only to find him already dead . In retaliation , a Siak operative plans a terrorist attack with a micromachine virus . Batou is sent to intercept the Siak operative and encounters Kusanagi , who is conducting her own investigation . Before they can apprehend the operative , he dies while attacking them . Kusanagi takes a case of virus ampules and warns Batou to stay away from the Solid State Society before leaving .

Section 9 operatives develop a theory that a hacker known as the Puppeteer is responsible for Siak agents ' forced suicides and Togusa discovers sixteen kidnapped children who were intended carriers of the virus . All the children are listed as the children of Noble Rot Senior Citizens and Section 9 begins to suspect a larger conspiracy when they are part of a larger body of 20 @,@ 000 children . Soon afterwards , the Puppeteer causes the disappearance of the sixteen children and Batou reveals to Togusa that he believes Kusanagi to be the Puppeteer . Section 9 next intercepts a Siak sniper that is targeting the supposed mastermind of Ka Rum 's assassination . After his capture it is revealed the informant and the target are one in the same . The sniper says that the Puppeteer is a mechanism in the Solid State and cannot be killed .

Togusa tracks down one of the missing children , now assigned to an elderly man in the Noble Rot program . As Togusa tries to take the child , the man awakens and demands the child be left with him as he had named the child as his sole heir . He would rather give his assets to a child off the street and to protect them from abuse than have his assets turned over to the government upon his death . The man immediately dies after warning Togusa not to interfere with the will of the Solid State . Late , Togusa receives a call from the Puppeteer who hacks his brain and forces him to drive to a cyberbrain implant hospital with his daughter . The Puppeteer and Togusa converse , and Togusa is given the option to lose his daughter to the Solid State or commit suicide . He chooses suicide but is saved by Kusanagi who then identifies the Puppeteer as a rhizome formed by the collective consciousness of the Noble Rot Senior Citizens located in a welfare center .

Kusanagi temporarily rejoins Section 9 and confirms that Ito Munei , an influential politician , was behind the assassination of General Ka Rum . She also confirms that Munei and other politicians use it as a front for a brainwashing facility to create an elite group of pure @-@ blooded Japanese to take control of the country in the next generation and lead it into Munei 's vision of a new Golden Age . The Solid State decided to eliminate Munei for interfering in its plans , but Munei was ignorant of the origin of the abduction infrastructure .

A designer named Tateaki Koshiki steps forward , claiming he developed the Solid State system before committing suicide . Kusanagi dives into his cyberbrain and into Koshiki 's trap , allowing him to hack her cyberbrain . The Puppetmaster reveals that he was spread across several egos until a collective consciousness emerged and developed into a Solid State , allowing him to move into the society beyond as the vanishing mediator . Later , Batou tells a recovering Kusanagi that the real Tateaki Koshiki used a cybernetic body and built the Solid State after he was hired by Munei . Kusanagi does not reveal that the Puppeteer was a fragment of herself , but Batou already knew from being linked to her during the dive . Batou concludes that the ultimate identity of the Puppeteer will remain unknown and that incident will be written off a scandal .

= = Cast = =

= = Production = =

The film was initially hinted as a new anime project collaboration with Bandai Visuals and Production I.G. The film was officially announced by Production I.G at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Fair . Whether the film would be released theatrically , broadcast on television , or released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD was undecided at the time . The film had a production budget of 360 million yen ( equivalent to US $ 4 @.@ 3 million ) . It was produced in Hi @-@ vision format and was made by the same staff that originally made the TV series .

The production team used a 3 @-@ D layout system to render the interior shots ahead separately and in advance . The art team was tasked to draw lighting boards to show the position of light sources in the scene to improve the overall quality of the animation . One of the themes in the series was " Motoko Kusanagi 's rebirth " . The team had a difficult time portraying Motoko Kusanagi and her return to Section 9 . Kenji Kamiyama stated that he felt the characters have obtained " ghosts " of their own and that Kusanagi needed a convincing story in order to return to Section 9 . Shotaro Shuga noted that Kusanagi was more going back to her old self rather than showing the new strength she found when she left Section 9 .

For the music , Yoko Kanno read the scripts of the film in order to compose music that would synchronize with each scene , rather than composing music ahead of time . Sound Director Kazuhiro Wakabayashi returned to provide music menus , which made up of 70 % of the scores Yoko Kanno composed .

As part of the Nissan sponsorship , the movie features two concept cars designed by Nissan . Section 9 drive a white Nissan Sport Concept sports hatchback and seater Infiniti Kuraza that premiered at the 2005 New York International Auto Show and North American International Auto Show .

= = Releases = =

The film debuted in Japan on SKY PerfecTV ! on September 1 , 2006 . It premiered in North America at the 2007 New York Comic @-@ Con screening from February 23 – 25 , and also featured in 2007 's Fantasia Festival in Canada . The English version was released on July 3 , 2007 . The Limited Edition Steelbook contained an additional DVD containing various development interviews and videos and the Solid State Society Original Soundtrack CD . In July 2008 , Solid State Society was released in Blu @-@ Ray alongside the two OVA The Laughing Man and Individual Eleven in Ghost in the Shell : S.A.C. Trilogy Box .

In November 2010 , a stereoscopic 3D version was announced adding a new opening sequence . The 3D version was released in Tokyo 's Shinjuku Wald 9 theater on March 26 , 2011 . The stereoscopic 3D version was released in both normal and deluxe edition on July 22 , 2011 . The normal version contains opening @-@ day greetings by the staff and cast , film advertisements , and audio commentaries . The deluxe edition titled Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex Solid State Society -Another Dimension- is packaged in a Dennōka Box containing the film in Stereoscopic 3D all the content the normal edition along with three Tachikomatic Days shorts in 3D and one in 2D .

A novel adaptation titled Ghost in the Shell : S.A.C. Solid State Society ( 攻殻機動隊S.A.C. Solid State Society ) was published by Kodansha and released on April 3 , 2011 . An optical camouflage camera app for iOS was released on September 2 , 2011 . A video game for the Xbox 360 Kinect was developed by Kayac to promote the 3D remake of the film .

= = Reception = =

Christopher Monfette of IGN gave Solid State Society an " Impressive " score of 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , stating that it was " A worthwhile watch " . Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network gave the film a " B " rating , calling it a " swift @-@ moving futuristic crime film with some clever science @-@ fiction twists and solid action " but criticizing it was " wordy , confusing and somewhat bloodless . " The film earned a 1 @.@ 4 % rating when it aired in NTV on October 15 , 2012 . Marcus Doidge of DVD Active gave it a 6 / 10 stating , " Solid State Society isn 't as strong as the first and second season of the anime show but being one feature length story as opposed to lots of very cool and largely great individual episodes offers a more in depth and focused story for the most part and a happy return to the world of Ghost in the Shell " . The film was awarded the Juri Prize at the 21st Digital Content Grand Prix . The film was featured in the " Late Night Manga to Anime Film Season " hosted by The British Museum . The DVD released ranked No. 1 on Oricon charts on November 23 , 2006 .

The 3D version ranked at No. 11 in the Japanese box office chart with a total of $ 285 @,@ 268 from a total of nine theaters . The 3D version won the Movie award for The Japanese Committee of the International 3D Society .

= Winston Tunnel =

The Winston Tunnel is a railroad tunnel located 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 5 kilometers ) west of Elizabeth , Illinois .

The tunnel was completed in 1888 for the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad , a predecessor to the Chicago Great Western Railway ( CGW ) . The tunnel was located on the CGW main line 152 miles ( 245 kilometers ) west of Chicago in the isolated and hilly Driftless Area of extreme north @-@ western Illinois .

In 1972 , four years after the Chicago Great Western was merged into the Chicago and North Western Railway ( C & NW ) , the CGW 's largely redundant trackage in the area , including the Winston Tunnel , was abandoned . It was the third longest railroad tunnel in Illinois at 2 @,@ 493 feet ( 760 m ) . Two longer ( still active ) tunnels are located on the Canadian National ( ex @-@ Illinois Central ) Edgewood Cutoff Line , the longest being Tunnel # 2 near Abbot , Illinois which is 6 @,@ 994 feet ( 2 @,@ 132 m ) long .

= = History = =

The newly constructed Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad across northern Illinois utilized trackage rights on the Illinois Central Railroad between Dubuque , Iowa and Stockton , Illinois in 1886 before construction on its own line through the isolated wilderness could commence . Engineers quickly realized that a tunnel would need to be constructed in order to traverse the rugged landscape . The Sheppard , Winston and Company ( for which the tunnel would be named ) and more than 350 laborers worked by hand , digging through the silty and unstable shale for nine months starting in the spring of 1887 . The work was backbreaking and dangerous , and at least one worker , a thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Finnish immigrant named John Hill , was killed . When complete , the total cost of the tunnel , $ 600 @,@ 000 , had exceeded expectations .

The tunnel proved to be a constant nuisance to the Chicago Great Western and its predecessors . Almost immediately , railroad engineers realized that the unstable nature of shale through which the tunnel was bored , ground water seepage , and the isolated location of the tunnel meant repairs would be frequent and costly . The tunnel was originally braced by wooden beams when it opened to rail traffic in January 1888 , but these eventually proved inadequate , to be replaced in 1902 by brick and reinforced concrete . Constant deterioration of the supports meant large @-@ scale reconstruction of the tunnel would be needed again in 1912 , 1918 , 1944 and 1947 .

The bore was also improperly ventilated at first . A shaft sunk into the top of the tunnel failed to provide enough fresh air , and the crews of the steam engines would often complain of the intense heat and smoke due to the poor air circulation . Piecemeal solutions failed to work , and by 1912 the railroad was forced to install a huge fan , powered by a 310 horsepower ( 230 kW ) diesel motor and staffed by operators day and night , to ventilate the tunnel . The fanhouse , constructed by 1916 , was abandoned by the CGW with the acquisition of diesel locomotives by 1947 .

When the Chicago Great Western was federalized during World War I , a contingent of Illinois National Guardsmen were assigned to protect the tunnel .

The operating nightmares of the tunnel , not to mention the millions of dollars the CGW spent to keep it open , forced the railroad 's management to consider many schemes to rid themselves of the burden . In 1909 , 1951 and again in 1964 ( the same year the North Western and Great Western announced their intentions to merge ) the CGW sought engineering proposals to reroute their trackage around the bore , to daylight the tunnel , or to completely rebuild and improve it . To the often cash @-@ strapped Great Western , however , all these plans proved far too expensive .

In the end , the 1968 merger with the Chicago and North Western ( C & NW ) sealed the Winston Tunnel 's fate . The Great Western 's main line through northern Illinois closely paralleled the North Western 's own line , but through less densely populated and less commercially active areas . The steep grades of the line and the obvious financial burden of the Winston Tunnel also played a role in the decision to completely abandon the Great Western 's trackage in the area . The C & NW operated its last train through the tunnel in 1971 . Scrappers pulled up the tracks the following year . Upon abandonment , the C & NW placed chain @-@ link fences over each bore of the tunnel to keep squatters and other trespassers out . A 1973 attempt to turn the right @-@ of @-@ way through Jo Daviess County , including the Winston Tunnel , into a rail trail , failed when ownership of the land reverted to nearby property owners .

= = Present day = =

The Winston Tunnel still exists , although in a very isolated area , and in a very deteriorated condition . Nature has reclaimed the right @-@ of @-@ way ; the fan house , unused since the 1940s and severely damaged by the elements , was demolished in early 2007 ; and the eastern bore , located on private property , has been almost completely sealed with earth .

The western half , however , was purchased by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources as a " satellite area " of Apple River Canyon State Park . The DNR installed a new steel gate to replace the chain @-@ link fence covering the western bore , and is developing the area with nature trails and other improvements . However , the tunnel is currently off @-@ limits to general public visitation , as it is a very dangerous place to visit , with the ever @-@ present danger of further collapse and rattlesnake bite .

= Wales national rugby union team =

The Wales national rugby union team ( Welsh : Tîm rygbi 'r undeb cenedlaethol Cymru ) represent Wales in international rugby union . They compete annually in the Six Nations Championship with England , France , Ireland , Italy and Scotland . Wales have won the Six Nations and its predecessors 26 times outright , one less than England . Wales ' most recent championship win came in 2013 .

The governing body , the Welsh Rugby Union ( WRU ) , was established in 1881 , the same year that Wales played their first international against England . Wales ' performances in the Home Nations Championship ( now the Six Nations ) continued to improve , experiencing their first ' golden age ' between 1900 and 1911 . They first played New Zealand , known as the All Blacks , in 1905 , when they defeated them 3 – 0 in a famous match at Cardiff Arms Park . Welsh rugby struggled between the two World Wars , but experienced a second ' golden age ' between 1969 and 1980 when they won eight Five Nations Championships .

Wales played in the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987 where they achieved their best ever result of third . Following the sport allowing professionalism in 1995 , Wales hosted the 1999 World Cup and , in 2005 , won their first @-@ ever Six Nations Grand Slam . That was the first Grand Slam won by a team playing most of the matches away from home . Wales won two more Grand Slams in 2008 and in 2012 , and in 2011 came fourth in the Rugby World Cup .

Their home ground is the Millennium Stadium , currently known for sponsorship reasons as Principality Stadium , completed in 1999 to replace the National Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park . Eight former Welsh players have been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame ; ten were inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame prior to its 2014 merger into the World Rugby Hall .

= = History = =

= = = Early years ( 1881 – 1892 ) = = =

Rugby union took root in Wales in 1850 , when Reverend Rowland Williams became Vice @-@ Principal at St David 's College , Lampeter , where he introduced the sport . Wales played their first international on 19 February 1881 ; organised by Newport 's Richard Mullock , Wales played against England , losing by seven goals , one drop goal and six tries to nil ( 8 – 0 ) . On 12 March 1881 , the Welsh Rugby Union was formed at The Castle Hotel , Neath . Two years later , the Home Nation Championship – now the Six Nations Championship – was first played and Wales did not register a win . However , rugby in Wales developed and , by the 1890s , the Welsh had developed the four three @-@ quarters formation . This formation – with seven backs and eight forwards , instead of six backs and nine forwards – revolutionised the sport and was eventually adopted almost universally at international and club level .

= = = First ' golden age ' ( 1893 – 1913 ) = = =

With the " four three @-@ quarter " formation Wales became Home International Champions for the first time in 1893 ; in the process winning the Triple Crown . Wales next won the Championship in 1900 , heralding the first " golden age " of Welsh rugby which was to last until 1911 . They won two more Triple Crowns in 1902 and 1905 , and were runners up in 1901 , 1903 and 1904 .

When Wales faced New Zealand 's All Blacks at Cardiff Arms Park in late 1905 they had not lost at home since 1899 . This New Zealand team – now referred to as the Original All Blacks – was the first of the southern hemisphere national teams to visit the British Isles , and were undefeated on their tour up until that point ; their victories included prior defeats of England , Ireland and Scotland . Before the match , the All Blacks performed a haka ( a Māori posture dance ) ; the 47 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd responded with the Welsh national anthem – Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau ( " Land of Our Fathers " ) – the first time a national anthem had been sung before a sporting fixture . Wales ' wing Teddy Morgan scored a try to give Wales a 3 – 0 lead , but later in the match All Black Bob Deans claimed to have scored a try , only to be dragged behind the try @-@ line before the referee arrived . The referee ruled a scrum to Wales and the score did not change ; Wales winning 3 – 0 . The loss was the All Blacks ' only loss on their 35 @-@ match tour .

In 1906 , Wales again won the Home Championship , and later that year played the South African national side , the Springboks for the first time . Wales were favourites to win the match , but instead South Africa dominated in the forwards and eventually won 11 – 0 . Two years later , on 12 December 1908 , Wales played the touring Australians , the Wallabies , who they defeated 9 – 6 .

In 1909 , Wales won the Home Championship and then , in 1910 – with the inclusion of France – the first @-@ ever Five Nations . In 1911 , Wales took the first Five Nations Grand Slam by winning all their matches in the Five Nations ; France were heavily defeated by Wales at St Helens in 1910 ( 49 – 14 ) and Ivor Morgan scored two tries in the match . It would be nearly forty years before they achieved a Grand Slam again . England 's defeat of Wales at Cardiff in 1913 was Wales ' first home loss to one of the Home Nations since 1899 , and their first home loss to England since 1895 . The Great War came in 1914 and rugby was suspended for the duration .

= = = Post @-@ war years ( 1920 – 1968 ) = = =

The post @-@ First World War years marked a decline in Welsh rugby . An industrial recession struck the principality , and hurt South Wales in particular . Welsh international results in the 1920s mirrored the performance of the economy : of their 42 matches they won only 17 , with three drawn . Half @-@ a @-@ million people emigrated from Wales to find work elsewhere during the depression ; this included many Welsh rugby union internationals who moved to the professional code of rugby league . Between 1923 and 1928 , Wales managed only seven victories – five of them against France . However , even France managed to defeat Wales that decade ; achieving their first victory over Wales in 1928 . Welsh selection policy reflected the upheavals of the mid @-@ 1920s . In 1924 , 35 different players were selected for Wales ' four matches , with a different captain for each ; and only Edward Watkins in the backs and Charlie Pugh in the forwards , playing in all four matches .

A resurgence of both economy and rugby union followed in the 1930s and , in 1931 , Wales won their first championship for nine years . That year , for the first time since the First World War , Wales retained the same side for two consecutive Tests when they faced England and Scotland . Then , in 1933 , captained by Watcyn Thomas , Wales defeated England at Twickenham . In 1935 , Wales beat the touring All Blacks by 13 – 12 , with Haydn Tanner making his first appearance . Although the Five Nations Championship was suspended during the Second World War Wales did play a Red Cross charity match against England at Cardiff in 1940 , which Wales lost 18 – 9 .

Following the Second World War , Wales played a New Zealand Army team ( the Kiwis ) in 1946 , which Wales lost 11 – 3 . The Five Nations ( suspended during the war ) resumed in 1947 when Wales shared the title with England . Although Wales suffered their first home defeat to France in 1948 , they won their first Five Nations Grand Slam since 1911 in 1950 . The next year , they lost to the touring South Africans 6 – 3 despite dominating in the line @-@ outs . They achieved another Grand Slam in 1952 , followed by a 13 – 8 win over the All Blacks in 1953 . In 1954 , St Helens in Swansea ( a Welsh international venue since 1882 ) hosted its last international and Cardiff Arms Park officially became the home of the Welsh team . In 1956 , Wales again won the Five Nations , but they did not regain the title until 1964 and did not win it outright until 1965 .

Wales conducted their first overseas tour in 1964 , playing several games and one Test in South Africa . They lost the Test against South Africa in Durban 24 – 3 , their biggest defeat in 40 years . At the WRU annual general meeting that year , the outgoing WRU President D. Ewart Davies declared that " it was evident from the experience of the South African Tour that a much more positive attitude to the game was required in Wales ... Players must be prepared to learn , and indeed re @-@ learn , to the absolute point of mastery , the basic principles of Rugby Union football " . This started the coaching revolution . The WRU Coaching Committee – set up in the late 1950s – was given the task of improving the quality of coaching and , in January 1967 , Ray Williams was appointed Coaching Organiser . The first national coach , David Nash , was appointed in 1967 to coach Wales for the season , but resigned when the WRU refused to allow him to accompany Wales on their 1968 tour of Argentina . Eventually , the WRU reversed their decision , appointing Clive Rowlands to tour as coach . Of the six matches , Wales won three , drew two and lost one .

= = = Second ' golden age ' ( 1969 – 1979 ) = = =

Wales enjoyed a second " golden age " in the 1970s , with world @-@ class players such as Gareth Edwards , J. P. R. Williams , Gerald Davies , Barry John , and Mervyn Davies , in their side . Wales dominated Northern Hemisphere rugby between 1969 and 1979 , and attained an incredible winning record , losing only seven times during that period . Wales toured New Zealand for the first time in 1969 , but were defeated in both Tests . As well as losing the first Test 19 – 0 , and the second 33 – 12 , they also conceded 24 points to the All Blacks ' fullback Fergie McCormick in the second Test ; a record at the time .

In 1970 , Wales shared the Five Nations with France , and recorded a 6 – 6 draw against South Africa in Cardiff . The following year Wales recorded their first Five Nations Grand Slam since 1952 . Using only 16 players in four games , the 1971 side achieved their most notable win of the tournament in their victory over Scotland ; after a last minute try by Gerald Davies that reduced Scotland 's lead to 18 – 17 , flanker John Taylor kicked a conversion from the sideline described as " the greatest conversion since St Paul " to give Wales a 19 – 18 win . Wales contributed more players than any other team to the British and Irish Lions that toured New Zealand that year . Those Lions became the only to win a series over the All Blacks .

In the 1972 Five Nations Championship , Wales and Scotland refused to travel to Ireland at the height of the Troubles after receiving threats , purportedly from the Irish Republican Army . The Championship remained unresolved with Wales and Ireland unbeaten . Although the Five Nations was a five way tie in 1973 , the Welsh did defeat Australia 24 – 0 in Cardiff .

Wales next won the Five Nations outright in 1975 , and in 1976 , Wales won their second Grand slam of the decade . Just like the first in 1971 , they only used 16 players over their four matches . They repeated the feat in 1978 and , in the process , became the first team to win three consecutive Triple Crowns . Following their final Five Nations match of 1978 , both Phil Bennett and Gareth Edwards retired from rugby .

Wales hosted the All Blacks at Cardiff Arms Park in November 1979 , losing 13 – 12 after a late penalty goal by the replacement All Black fullback , Brian McKechnie . The penalty was controversial because All Black lock Andy Haden had dived out of a line @-@ out in an attempt to earn a penalty . Haden later admitted that he and Frank Oliver had pre @-@ agreed this tactic should the All Blacks find themselves in difficulties . Referee Roger Quittenton was roasted by the press for failing to notice the dive , but he later stated he had the penalty was in for Welsh lock Geoff Wheel for jumping off the shoulder of Frank Oliver . Quittenton later said , " Haden 's perception is that his dive secured the penalty . That is a load of rubbish " . The All Blacks went on to secure their first Home Nations Grand Slam . Wales then went on to win the 1979 Five Nations with a Triple Crown .

= = = Barren years ( 1980 – 2003 ) = = =

In 1980 , the WRU 's centenary year , Wales lost to the All Blacks in Cardiff by 23 – 3 after the All Blacks scored four tries to nil . Wales won two matches in each Five Nations of 1980 and 1981 , and in 1983 were nearly upset by Japan ; winning 29 – 24 at Cardiff . In 1984 , Australia defeated Wales 28 – 9 at Cardiff Arms Park and in the process scored a push @-@ over try . Australia went on to win their first Home Nations Grand Slam .

Wales achieved only one win in 1987 's Five Nations before contesting the inaugural Rugby World Cup . Wales defeated Ireland in their crucial pool fixture , before defeating England in the quarter @-@ finals . They then faced hosts the All Blacks who won 49 – 6 , but beat Australia in the third place play @-@ off game to claim third . The next year Wales won the Triple Crown for the first time since 1979 , but heavy defeats on tour to New Zealand later that year saw the end of a number of Welsh players ' careers , as several converted to rugby league .

Welsh rugby reached a nadir when Wales suffered their first Five Nations championship whitewash ; they had upset England in 1989 to avoid losing all their Championship matches that season , but in 1990 Wales were defeated in all four Five Nations ' matches for the first time . The 1991 World Cup saw further frustration when Wales were upset by Manu Samoa in their opening match . A second group @-@ stage loss , by 38 – 3 to Australia , eliminated Wales from the tournament .

After winning two Five Nations games in 1992 , and one in 1993 , Wales won the Championship in 1994 on points difference . But without defeating one of Australia , New Zealand , or South Africa , during the inter @-@ World Cup period , Wales was not considered a major tournament contender . At the 1995 World Cup , after comprehensively beating Japan , Wales lost to New Zealand ; this meant that they needed to defeat Ireland to qualify for the quarter @-@ finals . Wales lost 24 – 23 and so failed to progress beyond the pool stage for the second time , and later that year Kevin Bowring replaced Alex Evans to become Wales ' first full @-@ time coach .

Record defeats , 51 – 0 to France , and 96 – 13 to South Africa , prompted the WRU to appoint New Zealander Graham Henry as coach in 1998 . Henry had early success as coach , leading Wales to a ten @-@ match winning streak ; this included Wales ' first ever victory over South Africa , by 29 – 19 . Henry was consequently nicknamed " the great redeemer " by the Welsh media and fans . Hosting the 1999 World Cup , Wales qualified for the quarter @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 , but lost 9 – 24 to eventual champions Australia . A lack of success in the Five and Six Nations ( Italy joined the tournament in 2000 ) , and especially a number of heavy losses to Ireland , led to Henry 's resignation in February 2002 ; his assistant Steve Hansen took over .

During Hansen 's tenure , the WRU implemented a significant change in the structure of the game domestically . Regional teams were introduced as a tier above the traditional club @-@ based structures in 2003 , and the five ( then four ) regional sides became the top level of domestic professional rugby in the principality . At the 2003 World Cup , Wales scored four tries in their 53 – 37 loss to New Zealand , and also lost to the eventual tournament winners , England , in their quarter @-@ final , despite outscoring them by three tries to one .

= = = Revival ( 2004 – present ) = = =

Coached by Mike Ruddock , Wales won their first Grand Slam since 1978 and their first ever Six Nations Grand Slam in 2005 . A late long range penalty from Gavin Henson gave them a victory over England at Cardiff for the first time in 12 years , and after victories over Italy , France , Scotland , they faced Ireland in front of a capacity crowd at the Millennium Stadium where Wales ' 32 – 20 victory gave them their first Championship since 1994 . Later that year they suffered a record home loss , 41 – 3 to New Zealand .

Mike Ruddock resigned as the head coach of Wales mid @-@ way through the 2006 Six Nations , where Wales finished fifth , and Gareth Jenkins was eventually appointed as his replacement . Jenkins led Wales through the 2007 World Cup , where they failed to advance beyond the pool stage following a loss to Fiji . Jenkins subsequently lost his job , and Warren Gatland , a New Zealander , was appointed as his successor .

Wales faced England at Twickenham for Gatland 's inaugural match as coach and their first match of the 2008 Six Nations . They had not defeated England there since 1988 , and went on to win 26 – 19 . They eventually won all their Championship matches , conceding only two tries in the process , to claim another Grand Slam . Later that year Wales defeated Australia 21 – 18 in Cardiff , but then started a six @-@ year , twenty @-@ three @-@ game win @-@ less streak against the southern hemisphere nations of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa .

At the 2011 World Cup , Wales reached the tournament semi @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 where they lost 9 – 8 to France after a red card for captain Sam Warburton . The two teams met again in March 2012 , where Wales needed a win to claim their third Six Nations Grand Slam in eight years , which they did with a 16 – 9 victory . This was followed immediately by an eight @-@ match losing streak , which was eventually broken during the 2013 Six Nations , where Wales retained the Championship for the first time since 1979 wins . Wales reached the quarter @-@ finals of the 2015 World Cup at the expense of hosts England , then lost 23 – 19 to South Africa .

= = Strip = =

Wales play in red jerseys , white shorts and red socks . For the 2015 – 16 season , the design of the Jersey incorporated gold for the first time . The jerseys are embroidered with the Prince of Wales 's feathers , which were chosen in the 19th century by the WRU over another Welsh symbol , the leek , to demonstrate the nation 's loyalty to Britain . In 1991 , to enable the device to be trademarked , the original generic motif was replaced with a more stylised version . The original motto beneath the feathers was Ich dien ( German for " I serve " ) but was replaced with " WRU " in the new version .

Wales change strip – also known as the alternative strip – is black jerseys , shorts and socks. although there have been various different coloured strips in the past Former change strips worn by Wales have included a green , navy , white or grey jersey . Wales previously wore black jerseys as part of celebrations for the WRU 's 125th anniversary in 2005 . The jersey was worn against Fiji and then Australia that year ; the Australia match was the first time Wales had not played in their red jersey against one of their traditional rivals . Since the 2008 end @-@ of @-@ year Tests , the strip is made by Under Armour . They replaced Reebok who supplied the Wales strip between late 1996 and the 2008 mid @-@ year @-@ Tests . The shirt sponsor is Cardiff based Insurance firm , Admiral .

= = Support = =

Rugby union and Wales ' national team hold an important place in Welsh culture and society . Sport historian John Bale has stated that " rugby is characteristically Welsh " , and David Andrew said that " To the popular consciousness , rugby is as Welsh as coal mining , male voice choirs , How Green Was My Valley , Dylan Thomas , and Tom Jones " . Welsh rugby 's first ' golden age ' ( 1900 – 1911 ) coincided with the country 's zenith during the 20th century , and rugby was important in building Wales ' modern identity . There is a long tradition of Welsh supporters singing before and during matches . The choral tradition developed in Wales during the nineteenth @-@ century alongside the rise of nonconformity , and has extended to singing at rugby matches . Commonly sung songs include the hymn Bread of Heaven , Tom Jones ' Delilah , and Max Boyce 's Hymns and Arias .

= = Grounds = =

Wales ' first home international was played at St Helen 's ground , Swansea in 1882 . In the 1880s and 1890s , home Welsh internationals were played at Cardiff , Swansea , Newport and Llanelli . Swansea continued to be used as an international venue until 1954 , when Cardiff Arms Park became Wales ' primary home venue . Cardiff Arms Park first had a stand erected in 1881 , and continued to expand its seating that decade . Crowds continued to grow and in 1902 in Wales ' match against Scotland a world record 40 @,@ 000 spectators paid to see the match . In 1911 , the owners of the Arms Park , the Marquess of Bute 's family , confirmed Wales ' tenure and the 1920s and 1930s , Wales gradually gained increasing control . A new stand was built at the park in the 1933 – 34 season , which increased the grounds capacity to 56 @,@ 000 .

By 1958 , the WRU had concluded that a new national ground was needed due to flooding that often plagued Arms Park . After debate and disputes between the WRU and various other parties , including Cardiff RFC , in the 1960s , it was decided that a new national stadium would be built with a new ground for the Cardiff club backing onto it . The National Stadium , as it was known , was officially opened in 1970 .

Currently , Wales play all their home matches at the 74 @,@ 500 capacity Millennium Stadium , Cardiff , which is also Wales ' national stadium . The Millennium Stadium was first conceived in 1994 , when a group redevelopment committee was set up . It was decided to replace the National Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park after a review found it was out of date ; new legislation also required stadia to be all seated . Construction began in September 1997 , and was completed by June 1999 , in time for the Rugby World Cup . The construction cost the WRU £ 126 million , which was funded by private investment , £ 46 million of public funds from the National Lottery , the sale of debentures to supporters ( which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest @-@ free loan ) , and loans . While the new ground was being built , Wales used the old Wembley Stadium for their home matches – a deal reciprocated during construction of the new Wembley , when FA Cup finals were held at the Millennium Stadium .

= = Record = =

= = = Six Nations = = =

Wales compete annually in the Six Nations Championship , which is played against five other European nations : England , France , Ireland , Italy , and Scotland . The Six Nations started as the Home Nations Championship in 1883 , as a contest between the four component nations of the United Kingdom . Wales first won it in 1893 , when they achieved a Triple Crown . Wales have won the tournament outright 26 times , and shared eleven other victories . Their longest wait between championships was 11 years ( 1994 – 2005 ) . Wales first won a Grand Slam in 1908 – although France did not officially join the Five Nations until 1910 – and their first Six Nations Grand Slam in 2005 . Their latest Grand Slam was won against France on 17 March 2012 , and they claimed their most recent Triple Crown on 25 February 2012 against England .

= = = World Cup = = =

Wales have contested every Rugby World Cup since the inaugural tournament in 1987 . The 1987 tournament was Wales ' most successful ; they won all three pool matches and their quarter @-@ final , before losing to the All Blacks in the semi @-@ finals . They then faced Australia in the third place play @-@ off match , which they won 22 – 21 . In the next two tournaments in 1991 and 1995 , Wales failed to progress beyond the pool stage , winning just one match in each tournament . Both the 1999 and 2003 tournaments were more successful , with Wales qualifying for the quarter @-@ finals both times . Wales hosted the event in 1999 and topped their pool only to lose to eventual winners Australia in the quarter @-@ finals . In 2003 , they finished second in their pool behind the All Blacks , and faced England in their quarter @-@ final . They lost to England , the eventual champions , 28 – 17 . Wales conceded 17 penalties , and their lack of discipline proved costly . In the 2007 World Cup , Wales again failed to progress from the pool stage . After a loss to Australia , and two wins against Japan and Canada , they faced Fiji for a place in the quarter @-@ finals . The game started poorly for Wales who were behind 25 – 3 at half @-@ time . They fought back to lead by three points with six minutes remaining , but Fiji then scored a try to win 38 – 34 and eliminated Wales from the tournament . At the 2011 World Cup , Wales reached the semi @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 . Playing the semi @-@ finals against France , Wales lost 9 – 8 , in a game overshadowed by the 18th @-@ minute sending off of Wales ' captain Sam Warburton for a dangerous tackle against Vincent Clerc .

= = = Overall = = =

When the World Rugby Rankings were introduced in October 2003 , Wales were ranked 8th . They rose to 7th in June 2004 , before falling back to 8th in November that year . Following a Grand Slam win in the 2005 Six Nations , they rose to a ranking position of 5th . They fell to 9th by June 2006 , and , after rising back to 8th by September , fell to 10th after the 2007 World Cup . A second Six Nations ' Grand Slam in 2008 propelled them to 6th in the rankings , but following losses to South Africa in the mid @-@ year and end @-@ of @-@ year internationals Wales slipped to 7th . Wales climbed to 4th after a win over Scotland in their first match of the 2009 Six Nations . They slumped to 9th in 2010 but rose back to 4th after their fourth place in the 2011 World Cup . Since then – notwithstanding a nine @-@ game slump in 2012 – 13 where they fell to 9th – Wales have ranked consistently in the top six teams . They reached their highest ranking of 2nd during the 2015 Rugby World Cup .

Wales have won 355 of their 690 Test matches for a 51 @.@ 45 % winning record . Their biggest Test defeat was 96 – 13 loss to South Africa in 1998 , and their largest victory a 98 – 0 defeat of Japan in 2004 . Their record for most tries in a match is 16 , scored against Portugal in 1994 – they also scored 102 points in this match , more than in any other Test . Wales ' record for consecutive Test wins is eleven , and for consecutive losses is ten .

Below is table summary of Wales Test matches up until 25 June 2016 .

= = Players = =

= = = Current squad = = =

On 10 May , Warren Gatland named a 35 @-@ man squad for their June 3 @-@ test series against New Zealand , pre @-@ tour test against England and the mid week match against the Chiefs .

On 29 May , after injury to Dan Lydiate in the England warm @-@ up match , Ellis Jenkins was called up to the squad to replace Lydiate .

On 7 June , Aaron Jarvis was called up to the squad as injury cover for Paul James . Jarvis later became a permanent replacement after James failed to recover form his injury .

On 11 June , Aled Davies joined the squad as an injury replacement for Lloyd Williams .

Following the first test , Keelan Giles and Rhys Patchell were called up to the squad as injury cover .

‡ – Denotes dual contracted players .

Caps and clubs updated 25 June 2016

= Anekantavada =

Anekāntavāda ( Sanskrit : अनेकान ् तवाद , " many @-@ sidedness " ) refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints , or vantage points , the notion that reality is perceived differently from diverse points of view , and that no single point of view is the complete truth , yet taken together they comprise the complete truth . It is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism .

Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim the sole monopoly on truth with andhagajanyāyah , which can be illustrated through the parable of the " blind men and an elephant " . In this story , each blind man felt a different part of an elephant ( trunk , leg , ear , etc . ) . All the men claimed to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant , but could only partly succeed , due to their limited perspectives . This principle is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence , so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception . ( This is the Absolute Truth . ) According to the Jains , only the Kevalis — omniscient beings — can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations ; others are only capable of partial knowledge . Consequently , no single , specific , human view can claim to represent absolute truth .

The origins of anekāntavāda can be traced back to the teachings of Mahāvīra ( 599 – 527 BCE ) , the 24th Jain Tīrthankara . The dialectical concepts of syādvāda " conditioned viewpoints " and nayavāda " partial viewpoints " arose from anekāntavāda , providing it with more detailed logical structure and expression . The Sanskrit compound an @-@ eka @-@ anta @-@ vāda literally means " doctrine of uncertainty " ( an- " not " , ekānta " certainty " or " single @-@ natured " , vāda ( " school of thought " or " thesis " ) ; it is roughly translated into English as " non @-@ absolutism " . An @-@ ekānta " uncertainty , non @-@ exclusivity " is the opposite of ekānta ( eka + anta ) " exclusiveness , absoluteness , necessity " ( or also " monotheistic doctrine " ) .

Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties . Proponents of anekāntavāda apply this principle to religion and philosophy , reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy — even Jainism — which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets , is committing an error based on its limited point of view . The principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance , ahiṃsā and satyagraha .

= = Philosophical overview = =

The etymological root of anekāntavāda lies in the compound of two Sanskrit words : anekānta ( " manifoldness " ) and vāda ( " school of thought " ) . The word anekānta is a compound of the Sanskrit negative prefix an , eka ( " one " ) , and anta ( " attribute " ) . Hence , anekānta means " not of solitary attribute " .

The Jain doctrine lays a strong emphasis on samyaktva , that is , rationality and logic . According to Jains , the ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason . Thus , the Jain texts contain deliberative exhortations on every subject , whether they are constructive or obstructive , inferential or analytical , enlightening or destructive .

= = = Jain doctrines of relativity = = =

Anekāntavāda is one of the three Jain doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning . The other two are :

syādvāda — the theory of conditioned predication and ;

nayavāda — the theory of partial standpoints .

These Jain philosophical concepts made important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy , especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity .

= = = = Syādvāda = = = =

Syādvāda ( Sanskrit : स ् याद ् वाद ) is the theory of conditioned predication , which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that every phrase or statement be expressed in the optative mood ( the equivalent of the subjunctive mood in Latin and other Indo @-@ European languages ) , i.e. generally by prefacing each sentence with the verb syāt , the third person singular optative of the Sanskrit verb as , " to be " . ( In Sanskrit , syāt becomes syān when followed by an " n " , and syād when followed by a non @-@ nasal voiced consonant or vowel . ) According to Jain texts , a thing or object of knowledge has infinite characters ( i.e. , it is anekāntātmaka ) ; each character can be analysed and grasped individually . Each individual character is called a naya . Jains asserts that a naya reveals only a part of the totality , and should not be mistaken for the whole . A synthesis of different viewpoints is said to be achieved by the doctrine of conditional predications ( syādvāda ) wherein every viewpoint is able to retain its relative importance . Highlighting the indispensability of syādvāda , Acharya Samantabhadra asserts :

Affirmation , when not in conflict with negation , yields the desired result of describing truly an object of knowledge . Only when affirmation and negation are juxtaposed in mutually non @-@ conflicting situation , one is able to decide whether to accept or reject the assertion . This is how the doctrine of conditional predications ( syādvāda ) establishes the truth . ”

Syādvāda is not only an extension of anekānta ontology , but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own . As reality is complex , no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully . Thus " syāt " should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement . Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions , syādvāda is known as saptibhaṅgīnāya or " the theory of seven conditioned predications " . These saptibhaṅgī are :

syād @-@ asti — in some ways , it is ,

syān @-@ nāsti — in some ways , it is not ,

syād @-@ asti @-@ nāsti — in some ways , it is , and it is not ,

syād @-@ asti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is , and it is indescribable ,

syān @-@ nāsti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is not , and it is indescribable ,

syād @-@ asti @-@ nāsti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is , it is not , and it is indescribable ,

syād @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is indescribable .

Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time , space , substance and mode . To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism .

The phrase ‘ in a way ’ ( syāt ) declares the standpoint of expression – affirmation with regard to own substance ( dravya ) , place ( kṣetra ) , time ( kāla ) , and being ( bhāva ) , and negation with regard to other substance ( dravya ) , place ( kṣetra ) , time ( kāla ) , and being ( bhāva ) . Thus , for a ‘ jar ’ , in regard to substance ( dravya ) – earthen , it simply is ; wooden , it simply is not . In regard to place ( kṣetra ) – room , it simply is ; terrace , it simply is not . In regard to time ( kāla ) – summer , it simply is ; winter , it simply is not . In regard to being ( bhāva ) – brown , it simply is ; white , it simply is not . And the word ‘ simply ’ has been inserted for the purpose of excluding a sense not approved by the ‘ nuance ’ ; for avoidance of a meaning not intended . The phrase ‘ in a way ’ is used to declare that the ‘ jar ’ exists in regard to its own substance etc. and not also in regard to other substance etc .

According to the Jains , Syādvāda and kevalajñāna ( omniscience ) are the foundational facts of knowledge . In this regard , Āchārya Samantabhadra writes :

Syādvāda , the doctrine of conditional predications , and kevalajñāna ( omniscience ) , are both illuminators of the substances of reality . The difference between the two is that while kevalajñāna illumines directly , syādvāda illumines indirectly . Anything which is not illuminated or expressed by the two is not a substance of reality and hence a non @-@ substance ( avastu ) .

= = = = Nayavāda = = = =

Nayavāda is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints . Nayavāda is a compound of two Sanskrit words — naya ( " reason " or " method " ) and vāda ( " school of thought or thesis " ) . It is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view . An object has infinite aspects to it , but when we describe an object in practice , we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones . This does not deny the other attributes , qualities , modes and other aspects ; they are just irrelevant from a particular perspective . Authors like Natubhai Shah explain nayavāda with the example of a car ; for instance , when we talk of a " blue BMW " we are simply considering the color and make of the car . However , our statement does not imply that the car is devoid of other attributes like engine type , cylinders , speed , price and the like . This particular viewpoint is called a naya or a partial viewpoint . As a type of critical philosophy , nayavāda holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints , and the standpoints we adopt are , although we may not realise it , " the outcome of purposes that we may pursue " . While operating within the limits of language and seeing the complex nature of reality , Mahāvīra used the language of nayas . Naya , being a partial expression of truth , enables us to comprehend reality part by part .

= = = Syncretisation of changing and unchanging reality = = =

The age of Mahāvīra and Buddha was one of intense intellectual debates , especially on the nature of reality and self . Upanishadic thought postulated the absolute unchanging reality of Brahman and Ātman and claimed that change was mere illusion . The theory advanced by Buddhists denied the reality of permanence of conditioned phenomena , asserting only interdependence and impermanence . According to the vedāntin ( Upanishadic ) conceptual scheme , the Buddhists were wrong in denying permanence and absolutism , and within the Buddhist conceptual scheme , the vedāntins were wrong in denying the reality of impermanence . The two positions were contradictory and mutually exclusive from each other 's point of view . The Jains managed a synthesis of the two uncompromising positions with anekāntavāda . From the perspective of a higher , inclusive level made possible by the ontology and epistemology of anekāntavāda and syādvāda , Jains do not see such claims as contradictory or mutually exclusive ; instead , they are seen as ekantika or only partially true . The Jain breadth of vision embraces the perspectives of both Vedānta which , according to Jainism , " recognises substances but not process " , and Buddhism , which " recognises process but not substance " . Jainism , on the other hand , pays equal attention to both substance ( dravya ) and process ( paryaya ) .

This philosophical syncretisation of paradox of change through anekānta has been acknowledged by modern scholars such as Arvind Sharma , who wrote :

Our experience of the world presents a profound paradox which we can ignore existentially , but not philosophically . This paradox is the paradox of change . Something – A changes and therefore it cannot be permanent . On the other hand , if A is not permanent , then what changes ? In this debate between the " permanence " and " change " , Hinduism seems more inclined to grasp the first horn of the dilemma and Buddhism the second . It is Jainism that has the philosophical courage to grasp both horns fearlessly and simultaneously , and the philosophical skill not to be gored by either .

However , anekāntavāda is not simply about syncretisation or compromise between competing ideas , as it is cooperatively about finding the hidden elements of shared truth between such ideas ( such as naturalism — relative to pantheism and sanctuary — although its basis in simplicity may be described with the scientific principle of Occam 's razor — whereas science is likewise paradoxical in nature — relative to nonviolence ) . Anekāntavāda is not about denying the truth ; rather truth is acknowledged as an ultimate spiritual goal . For ordinary humans , it is an elusive goal , but they are still obliged to work towards its attainment . Anekāntavāda also does not mean compromising or diluting ones own values and principles . On the contrary , it allows us to understand and be tolerant of conflicting and opposing views , while respectfully maintaining the validity of ones own view @-@ point . Hence , John Koller calls anekāntavāda as – " epistemological respect for view of others " . Anekāntavāda , thus , did not prevent the Jain thinkers from defending the truth and validity of their own doctrine while simultaneously respecting and understanding the rival doctrines . Anne Vallely notes that the epistemological respect for other viewpoints was put to practice when she was invited by Ācārya Tulsi , the head of the Terāpanthī order , to teach sadhvis the tenets of Christianity . Commenting on their adherence to ahiṃsā and anekāntavāda , she says :

The Jain samaṇīs of Ladnun uncompromisingly maintain ahiṃsā to be an eternal and unchangeable moral law . Other views and beliefs that contradict this belief would certainly be challenged , and ultimately rejected . But what is significant , is that both the rejection and retention of views is tempered by the belief that our perception conveys only a partial reality , that reality itself is manifold , and that to assume one particular viewpoint is final , is to hold a limited picture of reality .

Anekāntavāda is also different from moral relativism . It does not mean conceding that all arguments and all views are equal , but rather logic and evidence determine which views are true , in what respect and to what extent ( as truth in relativism , itself ) . While employing anekāntavāda , the 17th century philosopher monk , Yaśovijaya Gaṇi also cautions against anābhigrahika ( indiscriminate attachment to all views as being true ) , which is effectively a kind of misconceived relativism . Jains thus consider anekāntavāda as a positive concept corresponding to religious pluralism that transcends monism and dualism , implying a sophisticated conception of a complex reality . It does not merely involve rejection of partisanship , but reflects a positive spirit of reconciliation of opposite views . However , it is argued that pluralism often degenerates to some form of moral relativism or religious exclusivism . According to Anne Vallely , anekānta is a way out of this epistemological quagmire , as it makes a genuinely pluralistic view possible without lapsing into extreme moral relativism or exclusivity .

= = = Parable of the blind men and elephant = = =

The ancient Jain texts often explain the concepts of anekāntvāda and syādvāda with the parable of the blind men and an elephant ( Andhgajanyāyah ) , which addresses the manifold nature of truth .

A group of blind men heard that a strange animal , called an elephant , had been brought to the town , but none of them were aware of its shape and form . Out of curiosity , they said : " We must inspect and know it by touch , of which we are capable " . So , they sought it out , and when they found it they groped about it . In the case of the first person , whose hand landed on the trunk , said " This being is like a drain pipe " . For another one whose hand reached its ear , it seemed like a kind of fan . As for another person , whose hand was upon its leg , said , " I perceive the shape of the elephant to be like a pillar " . And in the case of the one who placed his hand upon its back said , " Indeed , this elephant is like a throne " . Now , each of these presented a true aspect when he related what he had gained from experiencing the elephant . None of them had strayed from the true description of the elephant . Yet they fell short of fathoming the true appearance of the elephant .

Two of the many references to this parable are found in Tattvarthaslokavatika of Vidyanandi ( 9th century ) and Syādvādamanjari of Ācārya Mallisena ( 13th century ) . Mallisena uses the parable to argue that immature people deny various aspects of truth ; deluded by the aspects they do understand , they deny the aspects they don 't understand . " Due to extreme delusion produced on account of a partial viewpoint , the immature deny one aspect and try to establish another . This is the maxim of the blind ( men ) and the elephant . " Mallisena also cites the parable when noting the importance of considering all viewpoints in obtaining a full picture of reality . " It is impossible to properly understand an entity consisting of infinite properties without the method of modal description consisting of all viewpoints , since it will otherwise lead to a situation of seizing mere sprouts ( i.e. , a superficial , inadequate cognition ) , on the maxim of the blind ( men ) and the elephant . "

= = History and development = =

The principle of anekāntavāda is the foundation of many Jain philosophical concepts . The development of anekāntavāda also encouraged the development of the dialectics of syādvāda ( conditioned viewpoints ) , saptibhaṅgī ( the seven conditioned predication ) , and nayavāda ( partial viewpoints ) .

= = = Origins = = =

The origins of anekāntavāda lie in the teachings of Mahāvīra , who used it effectively to show the relativity of truth and reality . Taking a relativistic viewpoint , Mahāvīra is said to have explained the nature of the soul as both permanent , from the point of view of underlying substance , and temporary , from the point of view of its modes and modification . The importance and antiquity of anekāntavāda are also demonstrated by the fact that it formed the subject matter of Astinasti Pravāda , the fourth part of the lost Purva that contained teachings of the Tīrthaṇkaras prior to Mahāvīra . German Indologist Hermann Jacobi believes Mahāvīra effectively employed the dialectics of anekāntavāda to refute the agnosticism of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta . Sutrakritanga , the second oldest canon of Jainism , contains the first references to syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī . According to Sūtrakritanga , Mahāvīra advised his disciples to use syādvāda to preach his teachings :

A monk living single should not ridicule heretical doctrines , and should avoid hard words though they be true ; he should not be vain , nor brag , but he should without embarrassment and passion preach the Law . A monk should be modest , though he be of a fearless mind ; he should expound the syādvāda , he should use the two permitted kinds of speech , living among virtuous men , impartial and wise .

= = = Early history = = =

The early Jain canons and teachings contained multitudes of references to anekāntavāda and syādvāda in rudimentary form without giving it proper structure or establishing it as a separate doctrine . Śvētāmbara text , Sutrakritanga contains references to Vibhagyavāda , which , according to Hermann Jacobi , is the same as syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī . Bhagvatisūtra mentions only three primary predications of the saptibhaṅgīnaya . After Mahāvīra , Kundakunda ( 1st century CE ) was the first author – saint to expound on the doctrine of syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī and give it a proper structure in his famous works Pravacanasāra and Pancastikayasāra . Kundakunda also used nayas to discuss the essence of the self in Samayasāra . Proper classification of the nayas was provided by the philosopher monk , Umāsvāti ( 2nd century CE ) in Tattvārthasūtra . Samantabhadra ( 2nd century CE ) and Siddhasena Divākara ( 3rd century CE ) further fine @-@ tuned Jain epistemology and logic by expounding on the concepts of anekāntavāda in proper form and structure .

Ācārya Siddhasena Divākara expounded on the nature of truth in the court of King Vikramāditya :

Vikramāditya : What is ' truth ' ? That which is said repeatedly , that which is said loudly , that which is said with authority or that which is agreed by the majority ?

Divākara : None of the above . Every one has his own definition of ' truth ' and that it is conditional .

Vikramāditya : How about traditions ? They have been established by our ancestors and have passed the test of time ?

Divākara : Would the system established by ancestors hold true on examination ? In case it does not , I am not here to justify it for the sake of saving the traditional grace of the dead , irrespective of the wrath I may have to face .

In Sanmatitarka , Divākara further adds : " All doctrines are right in their own respective spheres — but if they encroach upon the province of other doctrines and try to refute their view , they are wrong . A man who holds the view of the cumulative character of truth never says that a particular view is right or that a particular view is wrong . "

= = = Age of logic = = =

The period beginning with the start of common era , up to the modern period is often referred to as the age of logic in the history of Jain philosophy . By the time of Akalanka ( 5th century CE ) , whose works are a landmark in Jain logic , anekāntavāda was firmly entrenched in Jain texts , as is evident from the various teachings of the Jain scriptures .

Ācārya Haribhadra ( 8th century CE ) was one of the leading proponents of anekāntavāda . He was the first classical author to write a doxography , a compendium of a variety of intellectual views . This attempted to contextualise Jain thoughts within the broad framework , rather than espouse narrow partisan views . It interacted with the many possible intellectual orientations available to Indian thinkers around the 8th century .

Ācārya Amrtacandra starts his famous 10th century CE work Purusathasiddhiupaya with strong praise for anekāntavāda : " I bow down to the principle of anekānta , the source and foundation of the highest scriptures , the dispeller of wrong one @-@ sided notions , that which takes into account all aspects of truth , reconciling diverse and even contradictory traits of all objects or entity . "

Ācārya Vidyānandi ( 11th century CE ) provides the analogy of the ocean to explain the nature of truth in Tattvarthaslokavārtikka , 116 : " Water from the ocean contained in a pot can neither be called an ocean nor a non @-@ ocean , but simply a part of ocean . Similarly , a doctrine , though arising from absolute truth can neither be called a whole truth nor a non @-@ truth . "

Yaśovijaya Gaṇi , a 17th @-@ century Jain monk , went beyond anekāntavāda by advocating madhāyastha , meaning " standing in the middle " or " equidistance " . This position allowed him to praise qualities in others even though the people were non @-@ Jain and belonged to other faiths . There was a period of stagnation after Yasovijayaji , as there were no new contributions to the development of Jain philosophy .

= = = Role in ensuring the survival of Jainism = = =

Anekāntavāda played a pivotal role in the growth as well as the survival of Jainism in ancient India , especially against onslaughts from Śaivas , Vaiṣṇavas , Buddhists , Muslims , and Christians at various times . According to Hermann Jacobi , Mahāvīra used such concepts as syādvāda and saptbhangi to silence some of his opponents . The discussions of the agnostics led by Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta had probably influenced many of their contemporaries and consequently syādvāda may have seemed to them a way out of ajñānavāda . Jacobi further speculates that many of their followers would have gone over to Mahāvīra 's creed , convinced of the truth of the saptbhanginaya . According to Professor Christopher Key Chapple , anekāntavāda allowed Jains to survive during the most hostile and unfavourable moments in history . According to John Koller , professor of Asian studies , anekāntavāda allowed Jain thinkers to maintain the validity of their doctrine , while at the same time respectfully criticizing the views of their opponents .

Anekāntavāda was often used by Jain monks to obtain royal patronage from Hindu Kings . Ācārya Hemacandra used anekāntavāda to gain the confidence and respect of the Cālukya Emperor Jayasimha Siddharaja . According to the Jain text Prabandhacantamani , Emperor Siddharaja desired enlightenment and liberation and he questioned teachers from various traditions . He remained in a quandary when he discovered that they all promoted their own teachings while disparaging other teachings . Among the teachers he questioned was Hemacandra , who , rather than promote Jainism , told him a story with a different message . According to his story , a sick man was cured of his disease after eating all the herbs available , as he was not aware which herb was medicinal . The moral of the tale , according to Hemacandra , was that just as the man was restored by the herb , even though no one knew which particular herb did the trick , so in the kaliyuga ( " age of vice " ) the wise should obtain salvation by supporting all religious traditions , even though no @-@ one can say with absolute certainty which tradition it is that provides that salvation .

= = Influence = =

Jain religious tolerance fits well with the ecumenical disposition typical of Indian religions . It can be traced to the analogous Jain principles of anekāntavāda and ahiṃsā . The epistemology of anekāntavāda and syādvāda also had a profound impact on the development of ancient Indian logic and philosophy . In recent times , Jainism influenced Gandhi , who advocated ahiṃsā and satyagraha .

= = = Intellectual ahimsā and religious tolerance = = =

The concepts of anekāntavāda and syādvāda allow Jains to accept the truth in other philosophies from their own perspective and thus inculcate tolerance for other viewpoints . Anekāntavāda is non @-@ absolutist and stands firmly against all dogmatisms , including any assertion that Jainism is the only correct religious path . It is thus an intellectual ahiṃsā , or ahiṃsā of the mind . Burch writes , " Jain logic is intellectual ahiṃsā . Just as a right @-@ acting person respects the life of all beings , so a right @-@ thinking person acknowledges the validity of all judgments . This means recognizing all aspects of reality , not merely one or some aspects , as is done in non @-@ Jain philosophies . "

Mahāvīra encouraged his followers to study and understand rival traditions in his Acaranga Sutra : " Comprehend one philosophical view through the comprehensive study of another one . "

In anekāntavāda , there is no " battle of ideas " , because this is considered to be a form of intellectual himsa or violence , leading quite logically to physical violence and war . In today 's world , the limitations of the adversarial , " either with us or against us " form of argument are increasingly apparent by the fact that the argument leads to political , religious and social conflicts . Sūtrakrtānga , the second oldest canon of Jainism , provides a solution by stating : " Those who praise their own doctrines and ideology and disparage the doctrine of others distort the truth and will be confined to the cycle of birth and death . "

This ecumenical and irenical attitude , engendered by anekāntavāda , allowed modern Jain monks such as Vijayadharmasuri to declare : " I am neither a Jain nor a Buddhist , a Vaisnava nor a Saivite , a Hindu nor a Muslim , but a traveler on the path of peace shown by the supreme soul , the God who is free from passion . "

= = = = Contemporary role and influence = = = =

Some modern authors believe that Jain philosophy in general and anekāntavāda in particular can provide a solution to many problems facing the world . They claim that even the mounting ecological crisis is linked to adversarialism , because it arises from a false division between humanity and " the rest " of nature . Modern judicial systems , democracy , freedom of speech , and secularism all implicitly reflect an attitude of anekāntavāda . Many authors , such as Kamla Jain , have claimed that the Jain tradition , with its emphasis on ahimsā and anekāntavāda , is capable of solving religious intolerance , terrorism , wars , the depletion of natural resources , environmental degradation and many other problems . Referring to the September 11 attacks , John Koller believes that violence in society mainly exists due to faulty epistemology and metaphysics as well as faulty ethics . A failure to respect the life and views of others , rooted in dogmatic and mistaken knowledge and refusal to acknowledge the legitimate claims of different perspectives , leads to violent and destructive behaviour . Koller suggests that anekāntavāda has a larger role to play in the world peace . According to Koller , because anekāntavāda is designed to avoid one @-@ sided errors , reconcile contradictory viewpoints , and accept the multiplicity and relativity of truth , the Jain philosophy is in a unique position to support dialogue and negotiations amongst various nations and peoples .

Some Indologists like Professor John Cort have cautioned against giving undue importance to " intellectual ahiṃsā " as the basis of anekāntavāda . He points out that Jain monks have also used anekāntavāda and syādvāda as debating weapons to silence their critics and prove the validity of the Jain doctrine over others . According to Dundas , in Jain hands , this method of analysis became a fearsome weapon of philosophical polemic with which the doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism could be pared down to their ideological bases of simple permanence and impermanence , respectively , and thus could be shown to be one @-@ pointed and inadequate as the overall interpretations of reality they purported to be . On the other hand , the many @-@ sided approach was claimed by the Jains to be immune from criticism since it did not present itself as a philosophical or dogmatic view .

= = = Influence on Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi = = =

Since childhood , Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was exposed to the actual practice of non @-@ violence , non @-@ possession and anekāntavāda by his mother . According to biographers like Uma Majumdar , Rajmohan Gandhi , and Stephen Hay , these early childhood impressions and experiences contributed to the formation of Gandhi 's character and his further moral and spiritual development . In his writings , Mahatma Gandhi attributed his seemingly contradictory positions over a period of time to the learning process , experiments with truth and his belief in anekāntavāda . He proclaimed that the duty of every individual is to determine what is personally true and act on that relative perception of truth . According to Gandhi , a satyagrahi is duty bound to act according to his relative truth , but at the same time , he is also equally bound to learn from truth held by his opponent . In response to a friend 's query on religious tolerance , he responded in the journal " Young India – 21 Jan 1926 " :

I am an Advaitist and yet I can support Dvaitism ( dualism ) . The world is changing every moment , and is therefore unreal , it has no permanent existence . But though it is constantly changing , it has a something about it which persists and it is therefore to that extent real . I have therefore no objection to calling it real and unreal , and thus being called an Anekāntavadi or a Syādvadi . But my Syādvāda is not the Syādvāda of the learned , it is peculiarly my own . I cannot engage in a debate with them . It has been my experience that I am always true from my point of view , and am often wrong from the point of view of my honest critics . I know that we are both right from our respective points of view . And this knowledge saves me from attributing motives to my opponents or critics . The seven blind men who gave seven different descriptions of the elephant were all right from their respective points of view , and wrong from the point of view of one another , and right and wrong from the point of view of the man who knew the elephant . I very much like this doctrine of the manyness of reality . It is this doctrine that has taught me to judge a Musulman from his standpoint and a Christian from his . Formerly I used to resent the ignorance of my opponents . Today I can love them because I am gifted with the eye to see myself as others see me and vice versa . I want to take the whole world in the embrace of my love . My Anekāntavāda is the result of the twin doctrine of Satyagraha and ahiṃsā .

= = Criticism = =

The doctrines of anekāntavāda and syādavāda are often criticised on the grounds that they engender a degree of hesitancy and uncertainty , and may compound problems rather than solve them . It is also pointed out that Jain epistemology asserts its own doctrines , but at the cost of being unable to deny contradictory doctrines . Furthermore , it is also argued that this doctrine could be self @-@ defeating . It is argued that if reality is so complex that no single doctrine can describe it adequately , then anekāntavāda itself , being a single doctrine , must be inadequate . This criticism seems to have been anticipated by Ācārya Samantabhadra who said : " From the point of view of pramana ( means of knowledge ) it is anekānta ( multi @-@ sided ) , but from a point of view of naya ( partial view ) it is ekanta ( one @-@ sided ) . "

In defense of the doctrine , Jains point out that anekāntavāda seeks to reconcile apparently opposing viewpoints rather than refuting them .

Anekāntavāda received much criticism from the Vedantists , notably Adi Sankarācārya ( 9th century C.E. ) . Sankara argued against some tenets of Jainism in his bhasya on Brahmasutra ( 2 : 2 : 33 – 36 ) . His main arguments centre on anekāntavāda :

It is impossible that contradictory attributes such as being and non @-@ being should at the same time belong to one and the same thing ; just as observation teaches us that a thing cannot be hot and cold at the same moment . The third alternative expressed in the words — they either are such or not such — results in cognition of indefinite nature , which is no more a source of true knowledge than doubt is . Thus the means of knowledge , the object of knowledge , the knowing subject , and the act of knowledge become all alike indefinite . How can his followers act on a doctrine , the matter of which is altogether indeterminate ? The result of your efforts is perfect knowledge and is not perfect knowledge . Observation shows that , only when a course of action is known to have a definite result , people set about it without hesitation . Hence a man who proclaims a doctrine of altogether indefinite contents does not deserve to be listened any more than a drunken or a mad man .

However , many believe that Sankara fails to address genuine anekāntavāda . By identifying syādavāda with sansayavāda , he instead addresses " agnosticism " , which was argued by Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta . Many authors like Pandya believe that Sankara overlooked that , the affirmation of the existence of an object is in respect to the object itself , and its negation is in respect to what the object is not . Genuine anekāntavāda thus considers positive and negative attributes of an object , at the same time , and without any contradictions .

Another Buddhist logician Dharmakirti ridiculed anekāntavāda in Pramānavarttikakārika : " With the differentiation removed , all things have dual nature . Then , if somebody is implored to eat curd , then why he does not eat camel ? " The insinuation is obvious ; if curd exists from the nature of curd and does not exist from the nature of a camel , then one is justified in eating camel , as by eating camel , he is merely eating the negation of curd . Ācārya Akalanka , while agreeing that Dharmakirti may be right from one viewpoint , took it upon himself to issue a rejoinder :

The person who criticises without understanding the prima facie view is acting like a jester and not a critic . The Buddha was born a deer and the deer was born as Buddha ; but Buddha is adorable and deer is only a food . Similarly , due to the strength of an entity , with its differences and similarities specified , nobody would eat camel if implored to eat curd .

= Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery =

The Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery , more commonly known as the Airborne Cemetery , is a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in Oosterbeek , near Arnhem , the Netherlands . It was established in 1945 and is home to 1759 graves from the Second World War . Most of the men buried in the cemetery were Allied servicemen killed in the Battle of Arnhem , an Allied attempt to cross the Rhine in 1944 , or in the liberation of the city the following year . Men killed in these battles are still discovered in the surrounding area even in the 21st century , and so the number of people interred in the cemetery continues to grow .

= = Background = =

In September 1944 the Allies launched Operation Market Garden , an attempt by the British 2nd Army to bypass the Siegfried Line and advance into the Ruhr , Germany 's industrial heartland . The operation required the 1st Airborne Corps to seize several bridges over rivers and canals in the Netherlands , allowing ground forces to advance rapidly through the Netherlands and cross the River Rhine .

The British 1st Airborne Division was tasked with securing the most distant objectives ; bridges over the Lower Rhine at Arnhem . The division dropped onto the area on 17 September and a small force was able to secure the Arnhem road bridge . However the unexpected presence of SS Panzer troops of the II SS Panzerkorps meant the Allies were never able to fully secure their objectives and so after nine days without sufficient reinforcement by the advancing ground forces , the division was withdrawn on 25 September .

In the 9 days of battle almost 2000 Allied soldiers were killed ( some of whom died of their wounds or in captivity after the battle ) . These included over 1174 men of the British 1st Airborne Division , 219 men of the Glider Pilot Regiment , 92 men of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade , 368 men of the RAF , 79 re @-@ supply dispatchers of the RASC , 25 men of XXX Corps and 27 men of US IX Troop Carrier Command . The exact number of German dead is unknown , but is believed to be at least 1300 . Additionally it is believed 453 Dutch civilians were killed during the battle .

= = Cemetery = =

Owing to the Allied withdrawal , the vast majority of their dead had to be left on the battlefield . Here they were buried in simple field graves ( some little more than their own slit trenches ) or in small mass graves dug by the Germans . Kate Ter Horst , whose house was used as a first aid post during the battle , found the graves of 57 men in her garden when she returned after the war . After Arnhem was liberated in April 1945 , Grave Registration Units of the British 2nd Army moved into the area and began to locate the Allied dead . A small field north of Oosterbeek was offered on perpetual loan by the Netherlands government to the Imperial War Graves Commission ( now Commonwealth War Graves Commission ) in June 1945 and the dead were reburied there . Many of those killed during Arnhem 's liberation were also buried at the same site . The cemetery was completed in February 1946 , originally with the graves marked by metal crosses , although these were replaced by headstones in 1952 . Most of the German dead were buried in the SS Heroes Cemetery near Arnhem after the battle , but reburied in Ysselsteyn German war cemetery after the war .

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission records 1759 graves in the cemetery as of 2004 . 1432 of these are Commonwealth , including British , Canadian , Australian and New Zealanders . The cemetery is also the last resting place of 73 Polish soldiers , ( many of them exhumed and moved from Driel , to the disappointment of Driel 's residents ) and 8 Dutch civilians – some killed in the fighting and some former Commission employees . 253 of the graves are unidentified .

As of 2003 there were still 138 Allied men with no known grave in the area , and they are commemorated at the Groesbeek Memorial . However , evidence of the battle is often discovered even today , and the bodies of Allied servicemen are reinterred at the Airborne Cemetery . When found , bodies are exhumed and Dutch Graves Registration staff attempt to identify them before they are reburied . One soldier of the Border Regiment was discovered and reburied in the cemetery in 2005 and another who had previously been unidentified was reburied in 2006 .

Five men were awarded the Victoria Cross after the battle , four of them posthumously . Three of the men now rest in the cemetery ; Lieutenant John Hollington Grayburn of the 2nd Battalion , Parachute Regiment ; Flight Lieutenant David Samuel Anthony Lord of 271 Squadron , Royal Air Force and Captain Lionel Ernest Queripel of the 10th Battalion , Parachute Regiment . Lance @-@ Sergeant John Daniel Baskeyfield of the 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment has no known grave and is commemorated instead at Groesbeek Memorial . Major Robert Henry Cain , also of 2nd Battalion , South Staffordshire Regiment , survived the battle and was buried on the Isle of Man when he died in 1974 .

Opposite the Airborne Cemetery is a civilian graveyard with a small Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot containing the graves of nine airmen shot down shortly before the battle . It is also home to Lipmann Kessel , a surgeon with the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance during the battle , who wished to be buried near his men after his death in 1986 . Similarly , the Moscowa Cemetery three miles east contains the graves of thirty six aircrew killed before the battle , and one unidentified soldier . Not all of the Allied dead from the Battle of Arnhem are interred at the cemetery . Some 300 men who were killed when flying into battle , while trying to escape or who succumbed to wounds later , are buried in civilian cemeteries in the Netherlands , Belgium , the UK and the USA . Sixty men who died in prisoner of war camps after the battle are buried in Germany .

= = Airborne commemoration service = =

In the summer of 1945 several hundred veterans of the battle were detached from operations in Norway and returned to Arnhem to take part in filming for the war movie Theirs Is the Glory . While there they attended the first commemorative event at the cemetery . This event continued every year , and was attended by veterans , local residents and over 1000 school children who laid flowers on the graves of the dead . After the 25th anniversary in 1969 , the Parachute Regiment approached Dutch organisers to suggest ending the ceremony , believing the battle to have passed sufficiently into history . The Dutch were vehemently and emotionally opposed to the idea and thus the ceremony continues to be held annually .

= Ace Attorney =

Ace Attorney , known in Japan as Gyakuten Saiban ( Japanese : 逆転裁判 , " Turnabout Trial " ) , is a series of visual novel adventure video games developed by Capcom . The first entry in the series , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney , was released in 2001 ; since then , nine further games have been released . Additionally , the series has seen adaptations in the form of a live action film and an anime , and has been the base for manga series , drama CDs , musicals and stage plays .

The player takes the roles of the defense attorneys Phoenix Wright , Mia Fey , Apollo Justice and Athena Cykes , and investigates cases and defends their clients in court ; they find the truth by cross @-@ examining witnesses and finding inconsistencies between the testimonies and the evidence they have collected . The cases all last a maximum of three days , with the judge determining the outcome based on evidence presented by the defense attorney and the prosecutor . In the spin @-@ off series Ace Attorney Investigations , the player takes the role of prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , and in the spin @-@ off Dai Gyakuten Saiban , they play as Phoenix 's ancestor Ryūnosuke Naruhodō .

The series was created by the writer and director Shu Takumi , who wanted the series to end after the third game . The series still continued , with Takeshi Yamazaki taking over as writer and director starting with Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth ( 2009 ) ; Takumi has since returned to write and direct some spin @-@ off titles . While the original Japanese versions of the games are set in Japan , the series ' localizations are set in the United States , though retaining Japanese cultural influence . The series has been well received , with reviewers liking the characters and story , and the finding of contradictions ; it has also performed well commercially , with Capcom regarding it as one of their strongest intellectual properties .

= = Titles = =

The Ace Attorney series launched in Japan with the Game Boy Advance game Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney in 2001 , and has been published in the West since the release of a Nintendo DS port in 2005 . The series currently consists of six main series games and four spin @-@ offs . Additionally , two titles that collect the first three main series games have been released : Ace Attorney : Phoenix Wright Trilogy HD , which was released for iOS in 2012 in Japan and in 2013 in the West , and Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney Trilogy , which was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2014 .

= = = Main series = = =

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney is the first entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 in Japan ; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2005 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii and iOS in 2009 .

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All is the second entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan ; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2006 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii in 2010 .

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations is the third entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 in Japan ; it has also been released for Microsoft Windows in 2006 , the Nintendo DS in 2007 , and the Wii in 2010 .

Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney is the fourth entry in the series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 in Japan and in 2008 in the West .

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Dual Destinies is the fifth entry in the main series . It was originally released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2013 in Japan , North America and Europe ; outside of Japan , it was given a digital @-@ only release . An iOS version was released in 2014 in Japan and the West .

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Spirit of Justice is the sixth entry in the main series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2016 in Japan , and is planned to be released later in the year in North America and Europe ; outside of Japan , it will be a digital @-@ only release .

= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =

Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth is the first entry in the Investigations spin @-@ off series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009 in Japan and in 2010 in the West .

Ace Attorney Investigations 2 is the second entry in the Investigations series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2011 in Japan , but has not been released in the West .

Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney is a crossover between Ace Attorney and the Professor Layton series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2012 in Japan and in 2014 in the West .

Dai Gyakuten Saiban : Naruhodō Ryūnosuke no Bōken is the first entry in a planned spin @-@ off series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2015 in Japan , but is not intended to be released in the West .

= = Common elements = =

= = = Gameplay = = =

The Ace Attorney games are visual novel adventure games in which the player controls defense attorneys and defends their clients in several different episodes . The gameplay is split into two types of sections : investigations and courtroom trials . During the investigations , the player searches the environments , gathering information and evidence , and talks to characters such as their client , witnesses , and the police . Once enough evidence has been collected , the game moves on to a courtroom trial section .

In the courtroom trials , the player aims to get their client declared " not guilty " . To do so , they cross @-@ examine witnesses , and aim to find lies and inconsistencies in the testimonies . They are able to go back and forth between the different statements in the testimony , and can press the witness for more details on a statement . When the player finds an inconsistency , they can present a piece of evidence that contradicts the statement . The player is penalized if they present incorrect evidence : in the first game , a number of exclamation marks is shown , with one disappearing after each mistake the player makes ; in later games , a health bar that represents the judge 's patience is used instead . If all exclamation marks are lost , or the health bar reaches zero , the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty .

Several Ace Attorney games introduce new gameplay mechanics to the series . Justice for All introduces " psyche @-@ locks " , which are shown over a witness when the player asks them about a topic they do not want to discuss ; using a magatama , the player can start breaking the psyche @-@ locks by showing the witness evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something . The number of psyche @-@ locks depends on how deep the secret is ; when all locks are broken , the topic becomes available , giving the player access to new information . Apollo Justice introduces the " perceive " system , where the player looks for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness , similar to a tell in poker .

Dual Destinies introduces the " mood matrix " , through which the player can gauge the emotions of a witness , such as tones of anger when mentioning certain topics ; if the player notices a contradictory emotional response during testimony , they can point out the discrepancy and press the witness for more information . Dual Destinies also introduces " revisualization " , where the player reviews vital facts and forms links between evidence to reach new conclusions . Spirit of Justice introduces " divination séances " , in which the player is shown the memories of victims moments before their deaths , and must find contradictions in the victim 's five senses to determine what has happened . Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney introduces simultaneous cross @-@ examinations of multiple witnesses , with the player being able to see and hear reactions from the different witnesses to the testimony and using this to find contradictions . Dai Gyakuten Saiban introduces " joint reasoning " , where the player finds out the truth by pointing out when their investigative partner Sherlock Holmes takes his reasoning " further than the truth " .

The Ace Attorney Investigations spin @-@ off series splits the gameplay into investigation phases and rebuttal phases , the latter of which is similar to the courtroom trials of the main series . During the investigation phases , the player searches for evidence and talks to witnesses and suspects . Things the player character notices in the environment are saved as thoughts ; the player can use the " logic " system to connect two such thoughts to gain access to new information . At some points , the player can create hologram reproductions of the crime scene , through which they can discover new information that would otherwise be hidden . Ace Attorney Investigations 2 introduces " logic chess " , where the player interrogates witnesses in a timed sequence that is visualized as a game of chess , with the player aiming to destroy the other character 's chess pieces . To do this , they need to build up their advantage in the discussion by alternating between speaking and listening , and then choose to go on the offensive .

= = = Characters and setting = = =

The protagonist of the first three games is the defense attorney Phoenix Wright , who is assisted by the spirit medium Maya Fey ; in the third game , Phoenix 's mentor Mia Fey is also a playable character . In the fourth game , the protagonist is the defense attorney Apollo Justice ; in the fifth , Phoenix , Apollo and the new defense attorney Athena Cykes are all protagonists ; and in the sixth , Phoenix and Apollo are the protagonists . The spin @-@ off Dai Gyakuten Saiban is set in England near the end of the 19th century , and follows Phoenix 's ancestor Ryūnosuke Naruhodō .

Phoenix 's childhood friend Miles Edgeworth , who is the protagonist of the Ace Attorney Investigations games , is a recurring rival prosecutor character ; in addition to him , each new game in the series introduces a new rival : Franziska von Karma is introduced in the second game , Godot in the third , Klavier Gavin in the fourth , Simon Blackquill in the fifth , and Nahyuta Sahdmadhi in the sixth . The prosecutor characters are portrayed as powerful and arrogant characters of high social status , who favor convictions over finding the truth , and who care about keeping perfect @-@ win records in court . Similarly to real Japanese prosecutors , the prosecutors in the series often directly oversee investigations , issuing orders to the police . Japanese attitudes towards the police force are reflected in the series , with the police being represented by incompetent characters such as Dick Gumshoe , Maggey Byrde and Mike Meekins . In the world of Ace Attorney , trials only last three days , and usually end with a " guilty " verdict . The outcomes of cases are decided by a judge , based on evidence provided by the defense attorney and the prosecutor .

= = Development = =

The series was created by Shu Takumi , who wrote and directed the first three games . The first game was conceived in 2000 when Takumi 's boss at the time , Shinji Mikami , gave him six months to create any type of game he wanted to ; Takumi had originally joined Capcom wanting to make mystery and adventure games , and felt that this was a big chance for him to make a mark as a creator . The game was designed to be simple , as Takumi wanted it to be easy enough for even his mother to play . It was originally going to be a detective game , with Phoenix being a private investigator , but at one point Takumi realized that finding and taking apart contradictions was not related to detective work , and felt that the main setting of the game should be courtrooms .

Takumi felt that the best way to write a mystery with a good climax is to reveal various clues , and then pull them together into one conclusion , and not have multiple possible endings . He said that the biggest challenge with that was to make the gameplay and story work together ; the goal was to make the player feel like they have driven the story forward themselves , with their own choices , even though the game is linear . He only spent little time on writing a backstory for Phoenix before writing the first game 's story , and instead made up dialogue and developed Phoenix 's personality as he went along . He came up with the partner character Maya because he thought it would be more fun for players to have another character with them , giving them advice , than investigating on their own .

After the first game 's development was finished , Mikami told Takumi that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy , with a grand finale in the third game 's last case . Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes in the second game , but during the production the development team learned that the character had become popular . This led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly ; he created the new prosecutor character Franziska von Karma , to save Edgeworth for the game 's last case , and avoid a situation where he – a supposed prodigy – loses every case . As Takumi wanted the three first Ace Attorney games to be parts of a larger work , he avoided making a lot of changes between games : art from the first game for main characters such as Phoenix , Maya and Edgeworth was reused , to avoid having the previous games look outdated in comparison to newer games in the series ; and no new gameplay mechanics were added for Trials and Tribulations , as Takumi was happy with the gameplay after having added the psyche @-@ lock mechanic for Justice for All .

For the fourth game , Takumi wrote the scenario and took on a supervisory role . He had wanted the series to end with the third game , as he felt Phoenix had been fully explored and that his story had been told ; he said that it is important to know when to end a story , that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self , and that he did not see any reason to continue it . Despite this , the spin @-@ off series Ace Attorney Investigations was created , being directed by Takeshi Yamazaki and produced by Motohide Eshiro ; Takumi returned to the series to write the crossover Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney . He also directed and wrote Dai Gyakuten Saiban , which was described as being the first entry in a new Ace Attorney series . He said that he has mixed feelings about the series being developed by other Capcom staff , comparing it to a parent sending their child to their first day in school . Yamazaki and Eshiro went on to direct and produce the main series entries Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice . Due to exhaustion after working on Dual Destinies , Yamazaki split direction responsibilities with Takuro Fuse for Spirit of Justice , with Yamazaki working on the scenario , and Fuse on the art and gameplay .

= = Localization = =

The localization of the first game was outsourced to Bowne Global , and was handled by the writer Alexander O. Smith and the editor Steve Anderson . While the Japanese version takes place in Japan , the localized version is set in the United States : because one of the episodes involves time zones , they had to specify where the game takes place , and chose the United States without thinking a lot about it . The Japanese justice system of the original still remained intact in the localization , as changing it would have altered the entire game structure .

The change in the series ' setting became an issue in later games , where the Japanese setting was more apparent . Starting with the second game , the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu ; One of the first decisions she had to make was how to localize Maya 's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan . She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti @-@ Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed , anti @-@ Japanese sentiments were not powerful , and where Japanese culture flourished . This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese ; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese , as that was Maya 's heritage , while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed .

Character names were also localized to use double meanings similarly to the Japanese names ; the name puns were based on the characters ' personalities or backgrounds , or were visual gags . Several English names were based on their Japanese counterparts , but for some characters the names had to be altered heavily compared to the Japanese versions . Smith and Anderson had a lot of freedom when localizing the names of minor characters in the first game , but discussed the names of the main cast with Capcom . Phoenix 's English surname , " Wright " , was chosen as his Japanese name , " Naruhodō " – meaning " I see " or " I understand " – was frequently used as a joke in the script .

Dual Destinies was given a digital @-@ only release in the West . This was partially because of the game 's tight development schedule : by releasing it digitally , Capcom was able to release the English version close to the Japanese release date . Two of the games have not been localized : Ace Attorney Investigations 2 and Dai Gyakuten Saiban , although the former has received a full fan translation .

= = Reception = =

The Ace Attorney series has been well received by critics , and has performed well commercially : in December 2009 , it was Capcom 's 9th best selling series of all time , and in October 2010 , they called it one of their " strongest intellectual properties " , with more than 3 @.@ 9 million units sold worldwide . By December 2013 , the series had sold over 5 million units . In the United States , the first game became surprisingly successful , forcing Capcom to prepare at least three additional runs to meet the demand .

Reviewers have liked finding contradictions ; a common complaint , however , is the games ' linearity , as well as how the player sometimes has to resort to a trial @-@ and @-@ error method due to the games only accepting specific pieces of evidence , and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a specific order . Some reviewers have criticized the lack of changes to the gameplay and presentation throughout the series , while some have said that fans of the series would not have a problem with this .

Geoff Thew at Hardcore Gamer said that the " craziness " of the game world makes the cases entertaining , but also that it " resonates on a deeper level " due to its connection to the real Japanese legal system , making the setting still feel relevant in 2014 . Bob Mackey at USgamer said that the Ace Attorney games were among the best written games of all time , and that the series ' strength is how each game builds up to a " stunning and satisfying finale " . Thomas Whitehead at Nintendo Life also liked the writing , praising its balance between " light @-@ hearted nonsense " and darker , more serious scenarios . Several reviewers have appreciated the series ' characters ; Thew said that Phoenix and Maya 's banter is among the best in video games , and that Edgeworth 's character arc is one of the most compelling parts of the stories .

Several reviewers have praised the series ' music . Thew said that the greatest aspect of the series is its audio design , with the first three games using the Game Boy Advance sound chip better than any other game for that platform ; he called the music phenomenal , with the exception of that in Justice for All , but said the sound effects are what " steals the show " . Mackey commented that the games ' small amounts of animations for each character are used well for their characterization .

= = Related media and other appearances = =

The Takarazuka Revue , an all @-@ female theater troupe , has adapted the series into stage musicals : 2009 's Ace Attorney : Truth Resurrected , which is based on the last episode of the first game ; 2010 's Ace Attorney 2 : Truth Resurrected Again , whose first act is an original story , while its second act is based on the final episode of the second game ; and 2013 's Ace Attorney 3 : Prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , which is set before the events of Truth Resurrected Again . A stage play based on the series , titled Gyakuten no Spotlight , ran in 2013 , and was written by Eisaku Saito . A 2012 live @-@ action film adaptation of the first game , titled Ace Attorney , was produced at the film studio Toei and directed by Takashi Miike . A 2016 TV anime adaptation of the series , Ace Attorney , is being produced at A @-@ 1 Pictures and is directed by Ayumu Watanabe . Kodansha has published several manga based on the series : a short story anthology was published in Bessatsu Young Magazine in 2006 ; Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney and Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth were serialized in Weekly Young Magazine in 2007 and 2009 , respectively ; and another manga , which is based on the anime , will be published in V Jump in 2016 . A novel based on the series , Gyakuten Saiban : Turnabout Idol , is planned to be released in 2016 . Ace Attorney drama CDs and albums with Ace Attorney music have also been released .

Ace Attorney characters have made cross @-@ over appearances in other video games . Some Ace Attorney characters appear in SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters DS . Phoenix and Edgeworth make a cameo appearance in She @-@ Hulk 's ending in the fighting game Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds ; in the game 's update , Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , Phoenix appears as a playable character . Phoenix and Maya are playable characters in Project X Zone 2 , while Edgeworth makes a non @-@ playable appearance . Music from the Ace Attorney series is featured in Taiko Drum Master : Doko Don ! Mystery Adventure , with Phoenix making an appearance in the game 's story .

= Cambodian Campaign =

The Cambodian Campaign ( also known as the Cambodian Incursion and the Cambodian Invasion ) was a series of military operations conducted in eastern Cambodia during 1970 by the United States and the Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) ( NRA ) during the Vietnam War . These invasions were a result of the policy of President Richard Nixon . A total of 13 major operations were conducted by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) between 29 April and 22 July and by US forces between 1 May and 30 June .

The objective of the campaign was the defeat of the approximately 40 @,@ 000 troops of the People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam ( NLF , also known as Viet Cong ) who were ensconced in the eastern border regions of Cambodia . Cambodia 's official neutrality and military weakness made its territory effectively a safe zone where Vietnamese communist forces could establish bases for operations over the border . With the US shifting toward a policy of Vietnamization and withdrawal , the US sought to shore up the South Vietnamese government 's security by eliminating the cross @-@ border threat .

A change in the Cambodian government allowed a window of opportunity for the destruction of the base areas in 1970 when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed and replaced by pro @-@ US General Lon Nol . Allied military operations failed to eliminate many communist troops or to capture their elusive headquarters , known as the Central Office for South Vietnam ( COSVN ) , but the haul of captured material in Cambodia prompted claims of success .

= = Preliminaries = =

= = = Background = = =

The People 's Army of Vietnam had been utilizing large sections of relatively unpopulated eastern Cambodia as sanctuaries into which they could withdraw from the struggle in South Vietnam to rest and reorganize without being attacked . These base areas were also utilized by the Vietnamese communists to store weapons and other material that had been transported on a large scale into the region on the Sihanouk Trail . PAVN forces had begun moving through Cambodian territory as early as 1963 . In 1966 , Prince Norodom Sihanouk , ruler of Cambodia , convinced of eventual communist victory in Southeast Asia and fearful for the future of his rule , had concluded an agreement with the People 's Republic of China which allowed the establishment of permanent communist bases on Cambodian soil and the use of the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville for resupply .

During 1968 , Cambodia 's indigenous communist movement , labeled Khmer Rouge ( Red Khmers ) by Sihanouk , began an insurgency to overthrow the government . While they received very limited material help from the North Vietnamese at the time ( the Hanoi government had no incentive to overthrow Sihanouk , since it was satisfied with his continued " neutrality " ) , they were able to shelter their forces in areas controlled by PAVN / NLF troops .

The US government was aware of these activities in Cambodia , but refrained from taking overt military action within Cambodia in hopes of convincing the mercurial Sihanouk to alter his position . To accomplish this , President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized covert cross @-@ border reconnaissance operations conducted by the secret Studies and Observations Group in order to gather intelligence on PAVN / NLF activities in the border regions ( Project Vesuvius ) . This intelligence data would then be presented to the prince in an effort to change his mind .

= = = Menu , coup and North Vietnamese offensive = = =

The new commander of the US Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) , General Creighton W. Abrams , recommended to President Richard M. Nixon shortly after his inauguration that the Cambodian Base Areas be attacked by aerial bombardment utilizing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers . The president initially refused , but the breaking point came with the launching of PAVN 's " Mini @-@ Tet " Offensive of 1969 within South Vietnam . Nixon , angered at what he perceived as a violation of the " agreement " with Hanoi after the cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam , authorized the covert air campaign . The first mission of Operation Menu was dispatched on 18 March and by the time it was completed 14 months later more than 3 @,@ 000 sorties had been flown and 108 @,@ 000 tons of ordnance had been dropped on eastern Cambodia .

While Sihanouk was abroad in France for a rest cure in January 1970 , government @-@ sponsored anti @-@ Vietnamese demonstrations were held throughout Cambodia . Continued unrest spurred Prime Minister / Defense Minister Lon Nol to close the port of Sihanoukville to communist supplies and to issue an ultimatum on 12 March to the North Vietnamese to withdraw their forces from Cambodia within 72 hours . The prince , outraged that his " modus vivendi " with the communists had been disturbed , immediately arranged for a trip to Moscow and Beijing in an attempt to gain their agreement to apply pressure on Hanoi to restrain its forces in Cambodia .

On 18 March , the Cambodian National Assembly deposed Sihanouk and named Lon Nol as provisional head of state . This led Sihanouk to immediately establish a government @-@ in @-@ exile in Beijing and to ally himself with North Vietnam , the Khmer Rouge , the NLF , and the Laotian Pathet Lao . In doing so , Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control . The North Vietnamese response to the coup was swift . PAVN began directly supplying large amounts of weapons and advisors to the Khmer Rouge , and Cambodia plunged into civil war .

Lon Nol saw Cambodia 's population of 400 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese as possible hostages to prevent PAVN attacks and ordered their roundup and internment . Cambodian soldiers and civilians then unleashed a reign of terror , murdering thousands of Vietnamese civilians . On 15 April for example , 800 Vietnamese men had been rounded up at the village of Churi Changwar , tied together , executed , and their bodies dumped into the Mekong River . They then floated downstream into South Vietnam . Cambodia 's actions were denounced by both the North and South Vietnamese governments .

Even before the supply conduit through Sihanoukville was shut down , PAVN had begun expanding its logistical system from southeastern Laos ( the Ho Chi Minh trail ) into northeastern Cambodia . PAVN also launched an offensive ( Campaign X ) against the Cambodian army , quickly seizing large portions of the eastern and northeastern parts of the country , isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities including Kampong Cham . Communist forces then approached within 20 miles ( 32 km ) of the capital , Phnom Penh , spurring President Nixon into action .

On 29 March 1970 , the North Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles ( 24 km ) of Phnom Penh . After defeating those forces , the North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents . The Khmer Rouge also established " liberated " areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country , where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese .

= = = Planning = = =

In response to events in Cambodia , President Nixon believed that there were distinct possibilities for a U.S. response . With Sihanouk gone , conditions were ripe for strong measures against the Base Areas . He was also adamant that some action be taken to support " The only government in Cambodia in the last twenty @-@ five years that had the guts to take a pro @-@ Western stand . " The president then solicited proposals for actions from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and MACV , who presented him with a series of options : a naval quarantine of the Cambodian coast ; the launching of South Vietnamese and American airstrikes ; the expansion of hot pursuit across the border by ARVN forces ; or a ground invasion by ARVN , U.S. forces , or both .

During a televised address on 20 April , Nixon announced the withdrawal of 150 @,@ 000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam during the year . This planned withdrawal implied restrictions on any offensive U.S. action in Cambodia . By the spring of 1970 , MACV still maintained 330 @,@ 648 U.S. Army and 55 @,@ 039 Marine Corps troops in South Vietnam , most of whom were concentrated in 81 infantry and tank battalions . Many of them , however , were preparing to leave the country or expected to leave in the near future and would not be available for immediate combat operations .

On 22 April Nixon authorized the planning of a South Vietnamese incursion into the Parrot 's Beak ( named for its perceived shape on a map ) , believing that " Giving the South Vietnamese an operation of their own would be a major boost to their morale as well as provide a practical demonstration of the success of Vietnamization . " On the following day , Secretary of State William P. Rogers testified before the House Appropriations Subcommittee that " the administration had no intentions ... to escalate the war . We recognize that if we escalate and get involved in Cambodia with our ground troops that our whole program [ Vietnamization ] is defeated . "

South Vietnamese forces had been rehearsing for just such an operation since late March . On 27 April , an ARVN Ranger Battalion had advanced into Kandal Province to destroy a communist base . Four days later other South Vietnamese troops drove 16 kilometers into Cambodian territory . Lon Nol , who had initially attempted to follow a neutralist policy of his own , requested military aid and assistance from the U.S. government on 14 April . On that day , South Vietnamese forces then conducted the first of three brief cross @-@ border operations under the aegis of Operation Toan Thang ( Complete Victory ) 41 , sending armored cavalry units into regions of Cambodia 's Svay Rieng Province nicknamed the Angel 's Wing and the Crow 's Nest . On 20 April , 2 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops advanced into the Parrot 's Beak , killing 144 PAVN troops . On 22 April , Nixon authorized American air support for the South Vietnamese operations . All of these incursions into Cambodian territory were simply reconnaissance missions in preparation for a larger @-@ scale effort being planned by MACV and its ARVN counterparts , subject to authorization by Nixon .

President Nixon then authorized General Abrams to begin planning for a U.S. operation in the Fishhook region . A preliminary operational plan had actually been completed in March , but was kept so tightly under wraps that when Abrams handed over the task to General Michael Davison , commander of the II Field Force , he was not informed about the previous planning and started a new one from scratch . Seventy @-@ two hours later , Davison 's plan was submitted to the White House . National Security Advisor Dr. Henry Kissinger asked one of his aides to review it on 26 April , and the NSC staffer was appalled by its " sloppiness " .

The main problems were the pressure of time and the desire of the U.S. president for secrecy . The Cambodian monsoon , whose heavy rains would hamper operations , was only two months away . By the order of the president , the State Department did not notify the Cambodian desk at the US Embassy , Saigon , the Phnom Penh embassy , or Lon Nol of the planning . Operational security was as tight as General Abrams could make it . There was to be no prior U.S. logistical build @-@ up in the border regions which might serve as a signal to the communists . U.S. brigade commanders were informed only a week in advance of the offensive , while battalion commanders got only two or three days ' notice .

= = = Decisions = = =

Not all of the members of the administration agreed that an invasion of Cambodia was either militarily or politically expedient . Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird and Secretary Rogers were both opposed to any such operation due to their belief that it would engender intense domestic opposition in the U.S. and that it might possibly derail the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris ( they had both opposed the Menu bombings for the same reasons ) . Both were castigated by Henry Kissinger for their " bureaucratic foot @-@ dragging . " As a result , Laird was bypassed by the Joint Chiefs in advising the White House on planning and preparations for the Cambodian operation .

On the evening of 25 April Nixon dined with his friend Bebe Rebozo and Kissinger . Afterward , they screened one of Nixon 's favorite movies , Patton , a biographical portrayal of controversial General George S. Patton , Jr . , which he had seen five times previously . Kissinger later commented that " When he was pressed to the wall , his [ Nixon 's ] romantic streak surfaced and he would see himself as a beleaguered military commander in the tradition of Patton . "

The following evening , Nixon decided that " We would go for broke " and gave his authorization for the incursion . The joint U.S. / ARVN campaign would begin on 1 May with the stated goals of : reducing allied casualties in South Vietnam ; assuring the continued withdrawal of U.S. forces ; and enhancing the U.S. / Saigon government position at the peace negotiations in Paris .

In order to keep the campaign as low @-@ key as possible , General Abrams had suggested that the commencement of the incursion be routinely announced from Saigon . At 21 : 00 on 30 April , however , President Nixon appeared on all three U.S. television networks to announce that " It is not our power but our will and character that is being tested tonight " and that " the time has come for action . " He announced his decision to launch American forces into Cambodia with the special objective of capturing COSVN , " the headquarters of the entire communist military operation in South Vietnam . " COSVN as a single headquarters for control of PAVN operations in South Vietnam probably did not exist , or , at least , was never found .

= = Operations = =

= = = Previous ARVN attacks = = =

Coordinating with Lon Nol ARVN forces attacked the PRG headquarter complexes . Moving across the border in Cambodia on 30 March elements of the PRG and NLF were surrounded in their bunkers by South Vietnamese forces flown in by helicopter . Surrounded they awaited till nightfall and then with security provided by the NLF 7th division they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in the Cambodian Kratie province in what would come to be known as Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government . Trương Như Tảng was the Minister of Justice in the PRG and he recounts that during the march to the northern bases was day after day of forced marches broken up by B @-@ 52 bombing raids . Just before the column crossed route 7 on their way north they received word that on 3 April the 9th Division had fought and won a battle near the city of Krek , Cambodia against ARVN forces .

Years later Trương would recall just how " close [ South Vietnamese ] were to annihilating or capturing the core of the Southern resistance – elite units of our frontline fighters along with the civilian and much of the military leadership " . After many days of hard marches the PRG reached the northern bases , and relative safety , in the Kratie region . Casualties were light and the march even saw the birth of a baby to Dương Quỳnh Hoa , the deputy minister of health in the Provisional Revolutionary Government ( PRG ) . The column needed many days to recover and Trương himself would require weeks to recover from the long march .

= = = Parrot 's Beak and Fishhook = = =

South Vietnamese forces had already crossed the border on 30 April , launching Operation Toan Thang 42 . 12 ARVN battalions of approximately 8 @,@ 700 troops ( two armored cavalry squadrons from III Corps and two from the 25th Division and 5th Infantry Divisions , an infantry regiment from the 25th Infantry Division , and three Ranger battalions and an attached ARVN Armored Cavalry Regt from the 3rd Ranger Group ) crossed into the Parrot 's Beak region of Svay Rieng Province . The offensive was under the command of Lieutenant General Đỗ Cao Trí , the commander of III Corps , who had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and competent ARVN generals . During their first two days in Cambodia , ARVN units had several sharp encounters with PAVN forces . The North Vietnamese , forewarned by previous ARVN incursions , however , conducted only delaying actions in order to allow the bulk of their forces to escape to the west .

The ARVN operation soon settled down to become a search and destroy mission , with South Vietnamese troops combing the countryside in small patrols looking for PAVN supply caches . Phase II of the operation began with the arrival of elements of the 9th Infantry Division . Four tank @-@ infantry task forces attacked into the Parrot 's Beak from the south . After three days of operations , ARVN claimed 1 @,@ 010 PAVN troops had been killed and 204 prisoners taken for the loss of 66 ARVN dead and 330 wounded .

On 1 May an even larger operation , known by the ARVN as Operation Toan Thang 43 and by MACV as Operation Rockcrusher , got underway as 36 B @-@ 52s dropped 774 tons of bombs along the southern edge of the Fishhook . This was followed by an hour of massed artillery fire and another hour of strikes by tactical fighter @-@ bombers . At 10 : 00 , the 1st Air Cav Division , the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment , the 1st ARVN Armoured Cavalry Regiment , and the 3rd ARVN Airborne Brigade then entered Kampong Cham Province of Cambodia . Known as Task Force Shoemaker ( after General Robert M. Shoemaker , the Assistant Division Commander of the 1st Cavalry Division ) , the force attacked the long @-@ time communist stronghold with 10 @,@ 000 U.S. and 5 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops . The operation utilized mechanized infantry and armored units to drive deep into the province where they would then link up with ARVN airborne and U.S. airmobile units that had been lifted in by helicopter .

Opposition to the incursion was expected to be heavy , but PAVN / NLF forces had begun moving westward two days before the advance began . By 3 May , MACV reported only eight Americans killed and 32 wounded , low casualties for such a large operation . There was only scattered and sporadic contact with delaying forces such as that experienced by elements of the U.S. 11th Armoured Cavalry three kilometers inside Cambodia . PAVN troops opened fire with small arms and rockets only to be blasted by tank fire and tactical airstrikes . When the smoke had cleared , 50 dead PAVN soldiers were counted on the battlefield while only two U.S. troops were killed during the action .

1st Battalion / 7th Cavalry , 3rd Brigade 1st Cavalry Division was in the Fishhook very early May through 30 June when they crossed the river back into Vietnam . There was extremely heavy combat throughout the period . American losses were very heavy , with all units relying on heavy inflow of replacements to try to maintain at least half strength in the field . In one company , of all the men who had entered Cambodia , only nine left on 30 June , the rest having been either killed or wounded and evacuated . The unit was awarded the Valorous Unit Award , equivalent to individual Silver Stars , for their combat performance in the Fishhook .

The North Vietnamese had ample notice of the impending attack . A 17 March directive from the headquarters of the B @-@ 3 Front , captured during the incursion , ordered PAVN / NLF forces to " break away and avoid shooting back ... Our purpose is to conserve forces as much as we can " . The only surprised party amongst the participants in the incursion seemed to be Lon Nol , who had been informed by neither Washington nor Saigon concerning the impending invasion of his country . He only discovered the fact after a telephone conversation with the head of the U.S. mission , who had found out about it himself from a radio broadcast .

The only conventional battle fought by American troops occurred on 1 May at the town of Snoul , the suspected terminus of the Sihanouk Trail at the junction of Routes 7 , 13 , and 131 . Elements of the U.S. 11th Armored Cavalry and supporting helicopters came under PAVN fire while approaching the town and its airfield . When a massed American attack was met by heavy resistance , the Americans backed off , called in air support and blasted the town for two days , reducing it to rubble . During the action , Brigadier General Donn A. Starry , commander of the 11th Armored Cavalry , was wounded by grenade fragments and evacuated .

= = = Hunting supply caches = = =

On the following day , elements of the U.S. 1st Air Cavalry division entered what came to be known as " The City " , southwest of Snoul . The two @-@ square mile PAVN complex contained over 400 thatched huts , storage sheds , and bunkers , each of which was packed with food , weapons , and ammunition . There were truck repair facilities , hospitals , a lumber yard , 18 mess halls , a pig farm , and even a swimming pool . Forty kilometers to the northeast , other 1st Cavalry Division elements discovered a larger base on 6 May . Nicknamed " Rock Island East " after the U.S. Army 's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois , the area contained more than 6 @.@ 5 million rounds of anti @-@ aircraft ammunition , 500 @,@ 000 rifle rounds , thousands of rockets , several General Motors trucks , and large quantities of communications equipment .

While on patrol 20 kilometers northeast of " Rock Island East " on 23 May , a point man nicknamed Shakey ( Chris Keffalos ) from the 5th Battalion , 7th Cavalry , tripped over a metal plate buried just below the surface of the ground . The trooper was later killed by PAVN defenders , but the cache he had uncovered was the first of 59 buried storage bunkers at the site of what was thereafter known as " Shakey 's Hill " . The bunkers contained thousands of cases of weapons and ammunition , all of which were turned over to the Cambodian army . Much of the captured enemy material was turned over to the MACV Special Support Group for Cambodia where it was maintained and then issued to Lon Nol 's Forces . This group was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Will H. Horn .

The one thing that was not found was COSVN . On 1 May a tape of Nixon 's announcement of the incursion was played for General Abrams , " who must have cringed " when he heard the president state that the capture of the headquarters was one of the major objectives of the operation . MACV intelligence knew that the mobile and widely- dispersed headquarters would be difficult to locate . In response to a White House query before the fact , MACV had replied that " major COSVN elements are dispersed over approximately 110 square kilometers of jungle " and that " the feasibility of capturing major elements appears remote " .

After the first week of operations , additional battalion and brigade units were committed to the operation , so that between 6 and 24 May , a total of 90 @,@ 000 Allied troops ( including 33 U.S. maneuver battalions ) were conducting operations inside Cambodia . Due to increasing political and domestic turbulence in the U.S. , President Nixon issued a directive on 7 May limiting the distance and duration of U.S. operations to a depth of 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) and setting a deadline of 30 June for the withdrawal of all U.S. forces to South Vietnam .

South Vietnamese forces were not constrained by the time and geographic limitations placed upon U.S. units . From the provincial capital of Svay Rieng , ARVN elements pressed westward to Kampong Trabek , where on 14 May their 8th and 15th Armored Cavalry regiments defeated the 88th PAVN Infantry Regiment . On 23 May , the South Vietnamese pushed beyond the deepest U.S. penetrations and attacked the town of Krek .

= = = Binh Tay and Cuu Long = = =

In the II Corps area , Operation Binh Tay I ( Operation Tame the West ) was launched by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and the 40th ARVN Infantry Regiment against Base Area 702 ( the traditional headquarters of the communist B @-@ 2 Front ) in northeastern Cambodia from 5 – 25 May . Following airstrikes , the initial American forces , assaulting via helicopter , were driven back by intense anti @-@ aircraft fire . On the following day , the 3rd Battalion , 506th Infantry ( on loan from the U.S. 101st Airborne Division ) , landed without opposition . Its sister unit , the 1st Battalion , 14th Infantry was also unopposed . The 3rd Battalion of the 8th Infantry , however , inserted only 60 men before intense PAVN fire ( which shot down one helicopter and damaged two others ) shut down the landing zone , leaving them stranded and surrounded overnight . By the following morning , PAVN forces had left the area .

On the 7th , the division 's 2nd Brigade inserted its three battalions unopposed . After ten days ( and only one significant firefight ) the American troops returned to South Vietnam , leaving the area to the ARVN . Historian Shelby Stanton has noted that " there was a noted lack of aggressiveness " in the combat assault and that the division seemed to be " suffering from almost total combat paralysis . " During Operation Binh Tay II , the ARVN 22nd Division moved against Base Area 702 from 14 – 26 May . The second phase of the operation was carried out by ARVN forces against Base Area 701 between 20 May and 27 June when elements of the ARVN 22nd Division conducted operations against Base Area 740 .

On 10 May , Bravo Company , 3rd Battalion , 506th Regiment , 101st Airborne Division , was ambushed by a much larger North Vietnamese force in the Se San Valley . Eight U.S. soldiers were killed and 28 wounded . Among the killed was Spc . Leslie Sabo , Jr . ( posthumously promoted to sergeant ) , who was recommended for the Medal of Honor , but the paperwork went missing until 1999 . Sabo was awarded the Medal of Honor on 16 May 2012 by President Barack Obama .

In the III Corps Tactical Zone , Operation Toan Thang 44 ( Operation Bold Lancer ) , was conducted by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 25th Infantry Division between 6 May and 30 June . The targets of the operation were Base Areas 353 , 354 , and 707 located north and northeast of Tay Ninh , South Vietnam . Once again , a hunt for COSVN units was conducted , this time around the Cambodian town of Memot and , once again , the search was futile . During its operations , the 25th Infantry killed 1 @,@ 017 PAVN and NLF troops while losing 119 of its own men killed .

Simultaneous with the launching of Toan Thang 44 , the two battalions of the 3rd Brigade , U.S. 9th Infantry Division , crossed the border 48 kilometers southwest of the Fishhook into an area known as the Dog 's Face from 7 through 12 May . The only significant contact with PAVN forces took place near the hamlet of Chantrea , where 51 North Vietnamese were killed and another 21 were captured . During the operation , the brigade lost eight men killed and 22 wounded . It was already too late for thousands of ethnic Vietnamese murdered by Cambodian persecution , but there were tens of thousands of Vietnamese still within the country who could now be evacuated to safety . South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu arranged with Lon Nol to repatriate as many as were willing to leave . The new relationship did not , however , prevent the Cambodian government from stripping the Vietnamese of their homes and other personal property before they left .

Thieu then authorized Operation Cuu Long , in which ARVN ground forces , including mechanized and armoured units , drove west and northwest up the eastern side of the Mekong River from 9 May – 1 July . A combined force of 110 Vietnamese Navy and 30 U.S. vessels proceeded up the Mekong to Prey Veng , permitting IV Corps ground forces to move westward to Phnom Penh and to aid ethnic Vietnamese seeking flight to South Vietnam . Those who did not wish to be repatriated were then forcibly expelled . Surprisingly , North Vietnamese forces did not oppose the evacuation , though they could easily have done so .

Other operations conducted from IV Corps included Operation Cuu Long II ( 16 – 24 May ) , which continued actions along the western side of the Mekong . Lon Nol had requested that the ARVN help in the retaking of Kompong Speu , a town along Route 4 southwest of Phnom Penh and 90 miles ( 140 km ) inside Cambodia . A 4 @,@ 000 @-@ man ARVN armoured task force linked up with Cambodian ground troops and then retook the town . Operation Cuu Long III ( 24 May – 30 June ) was an evolution of the previous operations after U.S. forces had left Cambodia .

After rescuing the Vietnamese from the Cambodians , ARVN was tasked with saving the Cambodians from the North Vietnamese . The goal was to relieve the city of Kompong Cham , 70 kilometers northwest of the capital and the site of the headquarters of Cambodia 's Military Region I. On 23 May , General Tri led a column of 10 @,@ 000 ARVN troops along Route 7 to the 180 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 73 km2 ) Chup rubber plantation , where PAVN resistance was expected to be heavy . Surprisingly , no battle ensued and the siege of Kompong Cham was lifted at a cost of 98 PAVN troops killed .

= = = Air support and logistics = = =

Aerial operations for the incursion got off to a slow start . Reconnaissance flights over the operational area were restricted since MACV believed that they might serve as a signal of intention . The role of the Air Force in the planning for the incursion itself was minimal at best , in part to preserve the secrecy of Menu which was then considered an overture to the thrust across the border .

On 17 April , General Abrams requested that the president approve Operation Patio , covert tactical airstrikes in support of Studies and Observations Group recon elements " across the fence " in Cambodia . This authorization was given , allowing U.S. aircraft to penetrate 13 miles ( 21 km ) into northeastern Cambodia . This boundary was extended to 29 miles ( 47 km ) along the entire frontier on 25 April . Patio was terminated on 18 May after 156 sorties had been flown . The last Menu mission was flown on 26 May .

During the incursion itself , U.S. and ARVN ground units were supported by 9 @,@ 878 aerial sorties ( 6 @,@ 012 U.S. / 2 @,@ 966 Vietnamese Air Force ) , an average of 210 per day . During operations in the Fishhook , for example , the USAF flew 3 @,@ 047 sorties and the South Vietnamese Air Force 332 . These tactical airstrikes were supplemented by 653 B @-@ 52 missions in the border regions ( 71 supporting Binh Tay operations , 559 for Toan Thang operations , and 23 for Cuu Long ) . 30 May saw the inauguration of Operation Freedom Deal ( named as of 6 June ) , a continuous U.S. aerial interdiction campaign conducted in Cambodia . These missions were limited to a depth of 48 @-@ kilometers between the South Vietnamese border and the Mekong River .

Within two months , however , the limit of the operational area was extended past the Mekong , and U.S. tactical aircraft were soon directly supporting Cambodian forces in the field . These missions were officially denied by the U.S. and false coordinates were given in official reports to hide their existence . Defense Department records indicated that out of more than 8 @,@ 000 combat sorties flown in Cambodia between July 1970 and February 1971 , approximately 40 percent were flown outside the authorized Freedom Deal boundary .

The real struggle for the U.S. and ARVN forces in Cambodia was the effort at keeping their units supplied . Once again , the need for security before the operations and the rapidity with which units were transferred to the border regions precluded detailed planning and preparation . This situation was exacerbated by the poor road network in the border regions and the possibility of ambush for nighttime road convoys demanded that deliveries only take place during daylight . Aerial resupply , therefore , became the chief method of logistical replenishment for the forward units . Military engineers and aviators were kept in constant motion throughout the incursion zone .

Due to the rapid pace of operations , deployment , and redeployment , coordination of artillery units and their fires became a worrisome quandary during the operations . This was made even more problematic by the confusion generated by the lack of adequate communications systems between the rapidly advancing units . The joint nature of the operation added another level of complexity to the already overstretched communications network . Regardless , due to the ability of U.S. logisticians to innovate and improvise , supplies of food , water , ammunition , and spare parts arrived at their destinations without any shortages hampering combat operations and the communications system , although complicated , functioned well enough during the short duration of U.S. operations .

= = Aftermath = =

The North Vietnamese response to the incursion was to avoid contact with allied forces and , if possible , to fall back westward and regroup . PAVN forces were well aware of the planned attack and many COSVN / B @-@ 3 Front military units were already far to the north and west conducting operations against the Cambodians when the offensive began . During 1969 PAVN logistical units had already begun the largest expansion of the Ho Chi Minh trail conducted during the entire conflict . As a response to the loss of their Cambodian supply route , North Vietnamese forces seized the Laotian towns of Attopeu and Saravane during the year , pushing what had been a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) corridor to a width of 90 miles ( 140 km ) and opening the entire length of the Kong River system into Cambodia . A new logistical command , the 470th Transportation Group , was created to handle logistics in Cambodia and the new " Liberation Route " ran through Siem Prang and reached the Mekong at Stung Treng .

As foreseen by Secretary Laird , fallout from the incursion was quick in coming on the campuses of America 's universities , as protests erupted against what was perceived as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country . On 4 May the unrest escalated to violence when Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four unarmed students ( two of whom were not protesters ) during the Kent State shootings . Two days later , at the University at Buffalo , police wounded four more demonstrators . On 8 May 100 @,@ 000 protesters gathered in Washington and another 150 @,@ 000 in San Francisco on only ten days notice . Nationwide , 30 ROTC buildings went up in flames or were bombed while 26 schools witnessed violent clashes between students and police . National Guard units were mobilized on 21 campuses in 16 states . The student strike spread nationwide , involving more than four million students and 450 universities , colleges and high schools in mostly peaceful protests and walkouts .

Simultaneously , public opinion polls during the second week of May showed that 50 percent of the American public approved of President Nixon 's actions . Fifty @-@ eight percent blamed the students for what had occurred at Kent State . On both sides , emotions ran high . In one instance , in New York City on 8 May , pro @-@ administration construction workers rioted and attacked demonstrating students . Such violence , however , was an aberration . Most demonstrations , both pro- and anti @-@ war , were peaceful . On 20 May 100 @,@ 000 construction workers , tradesmen , and office workers marched peacefully through New York City in support of the president 's policies .

Reaction in the U.S. Congress to the incursion was also swift . Senators Frank F. Church ( Democratic Party , Idaho ) and John S. Cooper ( Republican Party , Kentucky ) , proposed an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act that would have cut off funding not only for U.S. ground operations and advisors in Cambodia , but would also have ended U.S. air support for Cambodian forces . On 30 June the United States Senate passed the act with the amendment included . The bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after U.S. forces were withdrawn from Cambodia as scheduled . The newly amended act did , however , rescind the Southeast Asia Resolution ( better known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution ) under which Presidents Johnson and Nixon had conducted military operations for seven years without a declaration of war .

The Cooper – Church Amendment was resurrected during the winter and incorporated into the Supplementary Foreign Assistance Act of 1970 . This time the measure made it through both houses of Congress and became law on 22 December . As a result , all U.S. ground troops and advisors were barred from participating in military actions in Laos or Cambodia , while the air war being conducted in both countries by the U.S. Air Force was ignored .

= = Conclusion = =

President Nixon proclaimed the incursion to be " the most successful military operation of the entire war . " General Abrams was of like mind , believing that time had been bought for the pacification of the South Vietnamese countryside and that U.S. and ARVN forces had been made safe from any attack out of Cambodia during 1971 and 1972 . A " decent interval " had been obtained for the final American withdrawal . ARVN General Tran Dinh Tho was more skeptical : " despite its spectacular results ... it must be recognized that the Cambodian incursion proved , in the long run , to pose little more than a temporary disruption of North Vietnam 's march toward domination of all of Laos , Cambodia , and South Vietnam . "

John Shaw and other historians , military and civilian , have based the conclusions of their work on the incursion on the premise that the North Vietnamese logistical system in Cambodia had been so badly damaged that it was rendered ineffective . The next large @-@ scale North Vietnamese offensive , the Nguyen Hue Offensive of 1972 ( called the Easter Offensive in the West ) would be launched out of southern North Vietnam and western Laos , not from Cambodia , was cited as proof positive that the Cambodian operations had succeeded . The fact that PAVN forces were otherwise occupied in Cambodia and had no such offensive plan ( so far as is known ) was seemingly irrelevant . The fact that logistically , a northern offensive ( especially a conventional one backed by armour and heavy artillery ) would be launched closer to its source of manpower and supply also seemed to be of little consequence .

The logistical haul discovered , removed , or destroyed in eastern Cambodia during the operations was indeed prodigious : 20 @,@ 000 individual and 2 @,@ 500 crew @-@ served weapons ; 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 tons of rice ; 1 @,@ 800 tons of ammunition ( including 143 @,@ 000 mortar shells , rockets , and recoilless rifle rounds ) ; 29 tons of communications equipment ; 431 vehicles ; and 55 tons of medical supplies . MACV intelligence estimated that PAVN / NLF forces in southern Vietnam required 1 @,@ 222 tons of all supplies each month to keep up a normal pace of operations . Due to the loss of its Cambodian supply system and continued aerial interdiction in Laos , MACV estimated that for every 2 @.@ 5 tons of materiel sent south down the Ho Chi Minh trail , only one ton reached its destination . However , the true loss rate was probably only around ten percent . General Abrams claimed 11 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers killed and 2 @,@ 500 captured , but his figures were disputed by CIA , who insisted that civilians death were figured into Abrams 's total

South Vietnamese forces had performed well during the incursion but their leadership was uneven . General Tri proved a resourceful and inspiring commander , earning the sobriquet the " Patton of the Parrot 's Beak " from the American media . General Abrams also praised the skill of General Nguyen Viet Thanh , commander of IV Corps and planner of the Parrot 's Beak operation . Unfortunately for the anti @-@ communists , both officers were killed in helicopter crashes — Thanh on 2 May in Cambodia and Tri in February 1971 . Other ARVN commanders , however , had not performed well . Even at this late date in the conflict , the appointment of ARVN general officers was prompted by political loyalty rather than professional competence . As a test of Vietnamization , the incursion was praised by American generals and politicians alike , but the Vietnamese had not really performed alone . The participation of U.S. ground and air forces had precluded any such claim . When called on to conduct solo offensive operations during the incursion into Laos ( Operation Lam Son 719 ) in 1971 , the ARVN 's continued weaknesses would become all too apparent .

The Cambodian government was not informed of the incursion until it was already under way . It has been argued by some scholars that the incursion heated up the civil war and helped the insurgent Khmer Rouge gather recruits to their cause .

= = = = Unpublished government documents = = = =

Military Assistance Command , Vietnam , Command History 1967 , Annex F. Saigon , 1968 .

= = = = Published government documents = = = =

Gilster , Herman L. The Air War in Southeast Asia : Case Studies of Selected Campaigns . Maxwell Air Force Base AL : Air University Press , 1993 .

Nalty , Bernard C. Air War Over South Vietnam : 1968 – 1975 . Washington DC : Air Force History and Museums Program , 2000 .

Nalty , Bernard C. War Against Trucks : Aerial Interdiction in Southern Laos , 1968 – 1972 . Washington DC : Air Force History and Museums Program , 2005 .

A War Too Long : The USAF in Southeast Asia , 1961 @-@ 1975

Foreign Relations Series

VIETNAM , JULY 1970 – JANUARY 1972

VIETNAM , JANUARY 1969 – JULY 1970

= = = = Secondary accounts = = = =

Chandler , David P. The Tragedy of Cambodian History . New Haven CT : Yale University Press , 1991 .

Deac , Wilfred , Road to the Killing Fields : The Cambodian Civil War of 1970 – 1975 . College Station TX : Texas A & M University , 1997 .

Fulghum , David , Terrence Maitland , et al . South Vietnam on Trial : Mid @-@ 1970 – 1972 . Boston ; Boston Publishing Company , 1984 .

Gitlin , Todd , The Sixties : Years of Hope , Days of Rage . New York : Bantam Books , 1987 .

Karnow , Stanley , Vietnam : A History . New York : Viking Books , 1983 .

Kennedy , Denis , Tracks in the Jungle in The Army at War . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1987 .

Lipsman , Samuel , Edward Doyle , et al . Fighting for Time : 1969 – 1970 . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1983 .

Morocco , John , Operation Menu in War in the Shadows . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1988 .

Morocco , John , Rain of Fire : Air War , 1969 – 1973 Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1985 .

Nolan , Keith W. Into Cambodia : Spring Campaign , Summer Offensive , 1970 . Novato CA : Presidio Press , 1990 .

Palmer , Dave Richard ( 1978 ) . Summons of the Trumpet : The History of the Vietnam War from a Military Man 's Viewpoint . New York : Ballantine .

Prados , John , The Blood Road : The Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Vietnam War . New York : John Wiley and Sons , 1998 .

Shaw , John M. The Cambodian Campaign : The 1970 Offensive and America 's Vietnam War . Lawrence KS : University of Kansas Press , 2005 .

Shawcross , William , Sideshow : Kissinger , Nixon and the Destruction of Cambodia . New York : Washington Square Books , 1979 .

Sorley , Lewis ( 1999 ) . A Better War : The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America 's Last Years in Vietnam . New York : Harvest Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 601309 @-@ 6 .

Stanton , Shelby L. ( 1985 ) . The Rise and Fall of an American Army : U.S. Ground Forces in Vietnam , 1965 – 1973 . New York : Dell . ISBN 0 @-@ 89141 @-@ 232 @-@ 8 .

Tảng , Truong Như ; David Chanoff , Van Toai Doan ( 1985 ) . A Vietcong memoir ( 1985 ed . ) . Harcourt Brace Jovanovich . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 193636 @-@ 6 . - Total pages : 350

= = = = TIME coverage = = = =

" Upsetting the Balance " . Time . 23 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Danger and Opportunity in Indochina " . Time . 30 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The Royal Jugglers of Southeast Asia " . Time . 30 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Mounting Uneasiness in Southeast Asia " . Time . 6 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The Nixon Doctrine 's Test in Indochina " . Time . 13 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The Three @-@ Theater War " . Time . 13 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Indochina 's Crumbling Frontiers " . Time . 20 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" A New Horror in Indochina " . Time . 27 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Cambodia : Communists on the Rampage " . Time . 4 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Between the Lines " . Time . 4 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The New Burdens of War " . Time . 11 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" At War with War " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" In Search of an Elusive Foe " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Ten Days — or Ten Years " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Congress v. the President " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Cambodia : Now It 's ' Operation Buy Time ' " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Exodus on the Mekong " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Nixon 's Campaign for Confidence " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Cambodia : Toward War by Proxy " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The Senate : Unloving Acts " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The Widening Cracks in Nixon 's Cabinet " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Cambodia : A Cocky New ARVN " . Time . 8 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Indochina : More and More Fighters " . Time . 15 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" No Confidence on Cambodia " . Time . 22 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Indochina : The Rising Tide of War " . Time . 22 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" New Dangers in Cambodia " . Time . 29 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The Cambodian Venture : An Assessment " . Time . 6 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Cambodia : Struggle for Survival " . Time . 13 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Winding Up the Cambodian Hard Sell " . Time . 13 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" Gloom in the Land of Smiles " . Time . 27 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

" The Discreet US Presence " . Time . 3 August 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .

= Verpa bohemica =

Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae . Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a " false morel " . The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like convolutions . The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Microscopically , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per ascus .

In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem . Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals . Poisoning symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination . V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia . It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of " true morels " ( genus Morchella ) . The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European mycologists .

= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =

The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica . The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 . Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile Boudier in his 1907 treatise on the Discomycetes of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications . Boudier believed that the large , curved ascospores and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species . Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa . The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .

The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where Krombholz originally collected the species . The mushroom is commonly known as the " early morel " , " early false morel " , or the " wrinkled thimble @-@ cap " . Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek ptyx ( genitive form ptychos ) , meaning " fold " , layer " , or " plate " .

= = Description = =

The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an apothecium ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape . It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( anastomose ) in a vein @-@ like network . The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale . The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top . Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile . The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .

Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm . They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish . The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per ascus are characteristic for this species . The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide . The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller determined that the asci are heliotropic — they bend toward light . As he noted , " I cut transverse sections though their pilei , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . " This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind . The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .

= = = Edibility = = =

The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals . Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species Gyromitra esculenta . The responsible toxin in G. esculenta is gyromitrin ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin . Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma . Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to parboil with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance . Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems . Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from " strong but not on a par with true morels " , to " pleasant " , to " not distinctive " .

= = = Similar species = = =

The closely related species Verpa conica typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known . V. conica may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci . Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica . Another similar group of species are the " half @-@ free " morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a honeycombed cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits . Additionally , a cross @-@ sectioned stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has cottony wisps in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical perforations near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them . Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .

= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =

The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season . It is often found along riverbanks , near cottonwoods , willows and aspens , often buried in plant litter . The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight . Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an optimum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter . It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle . The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast . In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine . In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .

A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees . Narrow @-@ head morels ( Morchella angusticeps ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then lastly Morchella crassipes . The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding dipterans ( flies ) , including Porricondyla media , Pegomya geniculata , and Trichocera annulata .

= Varanasi =

Varanasi ( Hindustani pronunciation : [ ʋaːˈraːɳəsi ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( Banāras [ bəˈnaːrəs ] ) , or Kashi ( Kāśī [ ˈkaːʃi ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad . The spiritual capital of India , it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities ( Sapta Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism . Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , Agra , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport .

Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi . Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Goswami Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi . Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism . In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 . The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi , who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin . Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited . Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .

Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges . Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage . The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead . The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple . The Kashi Naresh ( Maharaja of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations . An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed . One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) . The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .

= = Etymology = =

Traditional etymology links " Varanasi " to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat . The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .

In the Rigveda , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as Kāśī ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root kaś- " to shine " , making Varanasi known as " City of Light " , the " luminous city as an eminent seat of learning " . The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .

Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as Kāśikā ( Sanskrit : " the shining one " ) , Avimukta ( Sanskrit : " never forsaken " by Shiva ) , Ānandavana ( Sanskrit : the forest of bliss ) , and Rudravāsa ( Sanskrit : the place where Rudra / Śiva resides ) .

Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras . In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .

= = History = =

According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva . The Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of fratricide and Brāhmanahatya that they had committed during the climactic Kurukshetra War . It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide Moksha ; Ayodhyā , Mathurā , Gayā , Kaśī , Kañchi , Avantikā , and Dwārāvatī are the seven cities known as the givers of liberation .

= = = Archaeological evidence = = =

Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher . These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people . However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the Atharvaveda , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes . It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered . Recent excavations at Aktha and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .

= = = Ancient period = = =

Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . During the time of Gautama Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi . The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The celebrated Chinese traveller Xuanzang , also known as Hiuen Tsiang , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges . When Xuanzang , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it " Polonisse " and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .

= = = Medieval period = = =

Chandradeva , founder of the Gahadvala dynasty made Banaras a second capital in 1090 .

During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from Taxila and ending at Pataliputra .

Feroz Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in 1376 .

Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in 1389 , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .

= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = =

Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism .

Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu . The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) Akbari Bridge was also completed during this period . The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century . In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste Tavernier described the architectural beauty of the Vindu Madhava temple on the side of the Ganges . The road infrastructure was also improved during this period . It was extended from Kolkata to Peshawar by Emperor Sher Shah Suri ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road . In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback . However , after Aurangazeb 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings . Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the Maharaja of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .

The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh . In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables . Tourism in the city began to flourish in the 18th century . In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi . In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation

In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , " Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . " In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself . The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a repository of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges . The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .

In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 . Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of brotherhood in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . "

Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United Provinces in 1949 . He died in 2000 . The current king and the resident of the fort is Anant Narayan Singh , since 1971 .

= = Geography and climate = =

= = = Geography = = =

Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.@ 71 metres ( 264 @.@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river . The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district . By road , Varanasi is located 797 kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of Jaunpur . The " Varanasi Urban Agglomeration " – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) . Neighbourhoods of the city include Adampura , Anandbagh , Bachchhaon , Bangali Tola , Bhelpura , Bulanala , Chaitganj , Chaukaghat , Chowk , Dhupchandi , Dumraon , Gandhinagar , Gautam Nagar , Giri Nagar , Gopal Vihar , Guru Nanak Nagar , Jaitpura , Kail Garh , Khanna , Kotwali , Lanka Manduadih , Luxa , Maheshpur , Mahmoorganj , Maulvibagh , Nagwar , Naipokhari , Shivala , Siddhagiribagh , and Sigra .

Being located in the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil . Varanasi is located between the Ganges confluences with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream . The distance between the two confluences is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred journeying route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a Sakshi Vinayak Temple .

= = = Climate = = =

Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwa ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures . The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October . The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers . Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights . Cold waves from the Himalayan region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon . The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) . Fog is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called loo , blow in the summers . In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and dwindling glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .

= = Administration = =

= = = Politics and law = = =

Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city . Water supply and sewage system is operated by the Jal Nigam . Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin .

= = = Healthcare = = =

Sushruta , the great surgeon and author of the Sushruta Samhita , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC . Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established . There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like Sparsa Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as Panchakarma and other methods . S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a Panchakarma treatment centre , in association with Kerala Ayurveda Ltd .

Varansi has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , Marwari Hospital , Pitambari Hopspital , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , Rajkiya Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , Shiv Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay hospital ( managed by state govt . ) the largest & superspaciality hospital is Sir Sundar Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre . A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi . The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. Baijnath Prasad . The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery . Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , ultrasonography , echocardiography and a pathology lab . The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .

= = = Public maintenance = = =

Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components . Pollution of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself . The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control . Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .

Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal . Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food . One studied example is palak , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat . Some of the polluting sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use . Pesticides used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .

Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by Jal Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam . Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited . The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( 418 long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste . The solid wastes are disposed in one landfill site .

= = Demographics = =

According to provisional data from the 2011 census , the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 435 @,@ 113 , with 761 @,@ 060 men and 674 @,@ 053 women .

The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1 @,@ 371 @,@ 749 with a ratio of 879 females every 1 @,@ 000 males . However , the area under Varanasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 748 with a ratio of 883 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males . The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77 % while that in the municipal corporation area is 78 % . Approximately 138 @,@ 000 people in the municipal area live in slums .

7

= = Economy = =

According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi , approximately 29 % of Varanasi 's population is employed . Approximately 40 % are employed in manufacturing , 26 % work in trade and commerce , 19 % work in other services , 8 % work in transport and communication , 4 % work in agriculture , 2 % work in construction , and 2 % are marginal workers ( working for less than half of the year ) .

Among manufacturing workers , 51 % work in spinning and weaving , 15 % work in metal , 6 % work in printing and publishing , 5 % work in electrical machinery , and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors . Varanasi 's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small @-@ scale industries and household production .

Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi . Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as weavers , dyers , sari finishers , and salespersons . Weaving is typically done within the household , and most weavers are Momin Ansari Muslims . Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and Banarasi saris , brocades with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions . The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India . The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .

In the metal manufacturing sector , Diesel Locomotive Works is a major employer . Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited , a large power equipment manufacturer , also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant . Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand @-@ knotted Mirzapur carpets , rugs , dhurries , brassware , copperware , wooden and clay toys , handicrafts , gold jewellery , and musical instruments . Important agricultural products include betel leaves ( for paan ) , langra mangoes and khoa ( solidified milk ) .

Tourism is Varanasi 's second most important industry . Over 3 million domestic and 200 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visit annually ( in 2005 and 2010 , respectively ) , most commonly for religious purposes . Most domestic tourists are from Bihar , West Bengal , Madhya Pradesh , and Uttar Pradesh , while the majority of foreign tourists are from Sri Lanka and Japan . The peak tourist season falls between October and March . In total , there are around 12 @,@ 000 beds available in the city , of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third in dharamsalas . Overall , Varanasi 's tourist infrastructure is not well developed .

The prominent malls and multiplexes in Varanasi are JHV Mall in the Varanasi Cantonment area , IP Mall in Sigra , IP Vijaya Mall in Bhelupur , and PDR in Luxa . The city has several banks , including the Allahabad Bank , Andhra Bank , Bank of Baroda , Canara Bank , Central Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , and State Bank of India .

= = Notable landmarks = =

Apart from the 19 archaeological sites identified by the Archaeological Survey of India , some of the prominent places of interest are the Aghor Peeth , the Alamgir Mosque , the Ashoka Pillar , the Bharat Kala Bhawan ( Art Museum ) , the Bharat Mata Temple , the Central University for Tibetan Studies , the Dhanvantari Temple , the Durga Temple , the Jantar Mantar , the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith , the New Vishwanath Temple on the BHU campus , the Ramnagar Fort , the Riverfront Ghats , the Tulsi Manas Temple .

= = = Jantar Mantar = = =

The Jantar Mantar observatory , constructed in 1737 , is located above the ghats along the Ganges , and is adjacent to the Manmandir and Dasaswamedh Ghats and near the palace of Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur . While less equipped than the observatories at Jaipur and Delhi , the Jantar Mantar has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person .

= = = Ramnagar Fort = = =

The Ramnagar Fort , located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite the Tulsi Ghat , was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja Balwant Singh with cream @-@ coloured chunar sandstone . The fort is a typical example of the Mughal architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . At present , the fort is in disrepair . The fort and its museum are the repository of the history of the kings of Benares . Cited as an " eccentric " museum , it contains a rare collection of American vintage cars , bejewelled sedan chairs , an impressive weaponry hall , and a rare astrological clock . In addition , manuscripts , especially religious writings , are housed in the Saraswati Bhawan which is a part of a museum within the fort . Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style are also part of the collections . Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges , it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films .

= = = Ghats = = =

The Ghats in Varanasi are world @-@ renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical , metaphysical , and supernatural elements . Varanasi has at least 84 ghats , most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindu puja ceremony , while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites . Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges , including the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , and the Harishchandra Ghat , where Hindus cremate their dead . Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned .

Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control . Many ghats were constructed under the patronage of the Marathas , Shindes ( Scindias ) , Holkars , Bhonsles , and Peshwas . Most of the ghats are bathing ghats , while others are used as cremation sites . A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction . The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the riverfront with a multitude of shrines , temples , and palaces built " tier on tier above the water 's edge " .

The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges , close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple . It is believed that Brahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa @-@ Ashwamedha yajna performed there . Above and adjacent to this ghat , there are also temples dedicated to Sulatankesvara , Brahmesvara , Varahesvara , Abhaya Vinayaka , Ganga ( the Ganges ) , and Bandi Devi , which are all important pilgrimage sites . A group of priests perform " Agni Pooja " ( Sanskrit : " Worship of Fire " ) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva , Ganga , Surya ( Sun ) , Agni ( Fire ) , and the entire universe . Special aartis are held on Tuesdays and on religious festivals .

The Manikarnika Ghat is the Mahasmasana , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city . Adjoining the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals . According to a myth it is said that an earring of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here . Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat . However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in 1302 and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .

The Jain Ghat or Bachraj Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River . It is believed that the Jain Maharajas used to own these ghats.Bachraj Ghat has three Jain temples near the river 's banks and one them is a very ancient temple of Tirthankara Suparswanath .

= = = Temples = = =

further information at Religion in Varanasi

Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi , the temples most popular for worship are : the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva ; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple ; and the Durga Temple , known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby .

The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga Shiva temples in Varanasi . The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence . The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple . The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in 1780 by Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore . The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by Ranjit Singh , the ruler of Punjab . The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh . Numerous rituals , prayers , and aartis are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .

The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , which is situated by the Asi River , is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman . The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the educationist and Indian independence figure , Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya , the founder of Banaras Hindu University . According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman . During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack , one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress , and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths . Following the attack , a permanent police post was installed inside the temple .

There are two temples named " Durga " in Varanasi : Durga Mandir built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' kund ' meaning " pond or pool " ) built in the 18th century . A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during Navratri to worship the goddess Durga . The temple , built in the Nagara architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered spires and is stained red with ochre , representing the red colour of Durga . The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( " Kund " meaning a pond or pool ) . During annual celebrations of Nag Panchami , the act of depicting the god Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha is recreated in the Kund . While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the Sindhia Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy . The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets . Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the Kalabhairav Temple , the Mrithyunjay Mahadev Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .

Parshvanath Jain temple : The Parshvanath Jain temple , Varanasi is temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath , the 23rd Thirthankara who was born at Bhelpur in Varanasi . The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 cm in height . It is located in Bhelapur about 5 km from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 km from the Benares Hindu University . It belongs to the digambara sect of Jainism and is a holy tirtha or pilgrimage centre for Jains

= = = Mosques = = =

There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi . Of particular note are the Abdul Razzaq , Alamgir , Bibi Razia , Chaukhambha , Dhai Nim Kangore , Fatman , Ganje Shahada , Gyanavapi and Hazrat Sayyed Salar Masud Dargah . Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers . The two well known mosques are the Gyanvapi Mosque and the Alamgiri Mosque .

The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE , after destroying a Hindu temple . Gyan Vapi ( Sanskrit : " the well of knowledge " ) , the name of the mosque , is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque . The remains of an erstwhile temple can be seen in the foundation , the columns and at the rear part of the mosque The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on the Taj Mahal 's entrance . The mosque is administered by the Anjuman Inthazamiya Masajid ( AIM ) .

The Alamgiri Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple . The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and had been built by Beni Madhur Rao Scindia , a Maratha chieftain . When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras , he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there . Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as Alamagir Mosque in the name of his own honorific title " Alamgir " which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire . The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges . The mosque is architecturally a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple . The mosque has high domes and minarets . Two of its minarets had been damaged ; one minaret crashed killing a few people and the other minaret was officially brought down because of stability concerns . Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque . The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .

= = = Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan = = =

Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan , at Seer Goverdhanpur is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of the Ravidasi religion . The foundation stone of this Mandir was laid on 14 June 1965 on Ashad Sankranti day at the birthplace of Guru Ravidass . The temple was completed in 1994 .

= = Culture = =

= = = Literature = = =

Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature . Renowned Indian writers who have resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram Charit Manas here . Kulluka Bhatt wrote the best known account of Manusmṛti in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city have included Acharya Shukla , Baldev Upadhyaya , Bharatendu Harishchandra , Devaki Nandan Khatri , Hazari Prasad Dwivedi , Jaishankar Prasad , Munshi Premchand , Tegh Ali , Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar , Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya , Sudama Pandey ( Dhoomil ) , Vagish Shastri , and Vidya Niwas Mishra .

Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such as Varanasi Chandroday and its successor Kashivartaprakashika , which became a weekly journal , first published on 1 June 1851 . The main newspaper is Aj , a Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920 . The newspaper was the bulwark of the Indian National Congress and is still a major newspaper of Hindi northern India .

= = = Art = = =

Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs . It is a producer of silks and brocades with gold and silver thread work , carpet weaving , wooden toys , bangles made of glass , ivory work , perfumes , artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of handicrafts . The former cantonment graveyard during the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi 's Arts and Crafts .

Artists ( musicians and dancers ) and historians of repute who belonged to this city were : Anand Krishna , Anokhelal Mishra , Bismillah Khan , musicians Omkarnath Thakur , Ravi Shankar , Girija Devi , Gopal Shankar Misra , Gopi KrishnaKanthe Maharaj , Kishan Maharaj , Lalmani Misra , N. Rajam , Rai Krishnadasa , Siddheshwari Devi , Samta Prasad , Sitara Devi , Thakur Rajbhan Singh , and Pandit Vikash Maharaj .

= = = Music = = =

Varanasi ’ s music tradition is traced to the Pauranic days . According to ancient legend , Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms . During the medieval era , Vaishnava , a Bhakthi movement , grew in popularity , and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such as Surdas , Kabir , Raidas , Meera and Tulsidas . During the monarchic rule of Govind Chandra in the 16th century , the Dhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as Dhamar , Hori , and Chaturang . Presently the Dhrupad maestro Pandit Ritwik Sanyal from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art @-@ music .

In recent times , Girija Devi , the native famous classical singer of thumris , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings . Varanasi is also associated with many great instrumentalists such as Ustad Bismillah Khan , Pandit Vikash Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous sitar player and musicologist who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat Ratna . Varanasi has joined the global bandwagon of UNESCO " Cities of Music " under the Creative Cities Network . Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .

= = = Festivals = = =

On Mahashivaratri ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the Mahamrityunjaya Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple . Dhrupad Mela is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to dhrupad style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March . The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman Jayanti ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman . A special puja , aarti , and a public procession is organised . Since 1923 , the temple has organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .

The Ramlila of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama 's legend , as told in Ramacharitamanasa . The plays , sponsored by Kashi Naresh , are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days . On the last day , the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama vanquishes the demon king Ravana . Kashi Naresh Udit Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830 .

Nag Nathaiya is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik ( October – November ) . It commemorates the victory of Krishna over the serpent Kaliya . On this occasion , a large Kadamba tree ( Neolamarckia cadamba ) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy , playing the role of Krishna , can jump into the river on to the effigy representing Kaliya . He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute , while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats . Bharat Milap celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile . It is celebrated during October – November , a day after the festival of Vijayadashami . Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire . The festival attracts a large number of devotees .

Ganga Mahotsav is a five @-@ day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department , held in November – December . It culminates a day before Kartik Poornima , also called the Ganges festival . On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims , release lighted lamps to float in the river from the ghats .

Every year , the primary Muslim festivals celebrated in the city are the ld @-@ ul @-@ fitr ' ( Ramzan ) , Bakrid , Shab @-@ e @-@ Barat , Bara Wafat and Muharram . Additional festivals include Alvida and Chehlum . A non @-@ religious festival observed by Muslims is Ghazi @-@ miyan @-@ ka @-@ byaha ( " the marriage of Ghazi Miyan " ) .

= = Education = =

Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country . Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) . It is home to a number of colleges and universities . Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students . The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology . Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include Imania Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( IIMT ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith , Nav Sadhana Kala Kendra , Sampurnanand Sanskrit University , Sri Agrasen Kanya P.G. College , and Udai Pratap Autonomous College . Various engineering colleges have been established in the outskirts of the city .

St. Joseph 's Convent School , in Shivpur , in Varanasi was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic ( Christian ) minority institution with due approval of the Government of Uttar Pradesh . It is an autonomous organisation under the Bishop of Varanasi Diocese . It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children but also to others who abide by its rules .

Another important institution is the Central Hindu School ( CHS ) , Varanasi which was established by Annie Besant in July 1898 with the objective of imparting secular education , is located in Kamachha . It is one of the reputed schools in the country and is also one of the largest such schools . It is affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education ( CBSE ) It is open to students of all culture .

Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( ICSE ) , the CBSE , or the Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education ( U.P Board ) . The overall " state of education in Varanasi is ... not good . " Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality , with private schools outperforming government schools . In government schools , many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children . Some government schools lack basic equipment , such as blackboards and sufficient desks and chairs for all students . Private schools vary in quality , with the most expensive conducting lessons in English ( seen as a key to children 's success ) and having computers in classrooms . Pupils attending the more expensive private schools , tended to come from upper @-@ class families . Lower @-@ cost private schools attracted children from lower @-@ income families or those lower @-@ income families with higher education aspirations . Government schools tend to serve lower @-@ class children with lower education aspirations .

= = Sport = =

Basketball , cricket , and field hockey are popular sports in Varanasi . The main stadium in the city is the Sigra Stadium , also known as Dr Sampurnanda Stadium , where first @-@ class cricket matches are held . Local cricket matches are also played on the BHU Ground Dr. Bheeem Rao sports complex .

The Physical Education Faculty of Arts of BHU offers diploma courses in Sports Management , Sports Physiotherapy , Sports Psychology and Sports Journalism .

Gymnastics is also popular in Varanasi , and many Indian girls practice outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hosts akhadas , where " morning exercise , a dip in the Ganges and a visit to Lord Hanuman " forms a daily ritual . Despite concerns regarding water quality , two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges .

The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association ( VDCSA ) is based in Varanasi , affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association ( UPCSA ) . Udai Pratap Autonomous College is also known for its world class athletes like Prashanti Singh .

= = Transport = =

Varanasi is well @-@ connected by air , rail and road . One of the major factors in Varanasi 's is its access to all parts of the country . Within the city mobility is provided by taxis , rickshaws , cycle rickshaws and three wheelers but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city .

Varanasi is served by Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport , which is approximately 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the city centre in Babatpur . The airport inaugurated a new terminal in 2010 , and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012 . Air India , Buddha Air , Jet Airways , Jet Konnect , IndiGo , and SpiceJet operate flights from Varanasi to Delhi , Gaya , Kathmandu , Khajuraho , Sharjah , Lucknow , Mumbai , Hyderabad , Bangalore , and Kolkata . Over 330 @,@ 000 passengers pass through the airport each year .

Varanasi Junction , commonly known as Varanasi Cant Railway Station , is the city 's largest train station . More than 360 @,@ 000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day . Some of the important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station are : the Udhna Varanasi Express that runs between Udhna ( Surat ) junction and Varanasi , a distance of 1 @,@ 398 kilometres ( 869 mi ) ; the Kashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi and New Delhi Railway Station ; the Kanpur Varanasi InterCity express , also called Varuna express , which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres ( 221 mi ) and connects with Lucknow ( the capital city of Uttar Pradesh ) and Kanpur ; and the Sabarmati Express which runs between Varanasi and Ahmedabad . Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , Agra , and Delhi . National Highway 29 connects Varanasi to Gorakhpur via Ghazipur to the northeast . National Highway 56 connects Varanasi to Lucknow via Jaunpur and Sultanpur , to the northwest . National Highway 7 , the longest National Highway in India , is the most important road connecting Varanasi to southern India , passing through the cities of Hyderabad , Bangalore , Salem , Madurai , Tirunelveli , and Kanyakumari . Auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in old city . In the outer regions of the city , buses are common , and taxis are available .

= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =

Varanasi is twinned with :

Kyoto , Japan

= Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory =

The Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory is a historical observatory located on the grounds of the University of Toronto , in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The original building was constructed in 1840 as part of a worldwide research project run by Edward Sabine to determine the cause of fluctuations in magnetic declination . Measurements from the Toronto site demonstrated that sunspots were responsible for this effect on Earth 's magnetic field . When this project concluded in 1853 , the observatory was greatly expanded by the Canadian government and served as the country 's primary meteorological station and official timekeeper for over fifty years . The observatory is considered the birthplace of Canadian astronomy .

= = Sabine 's study = =

Compasses tended to " wander " from north when measurements were taken at different locations or even at a single location over a period of time . The astronomer Edmund Halley noted this and the problems it would cause for navigation in 1701 . It was also believed that whatever was causing this effect might be causing changes in the weather , and that studying magnetic variations might lead to better weather prediction .

In 1833 the British Association for the Advancement of Science commissioned a series of magnetic measurements across the United Kingdom . Under the direction of Major Edward Sabine of the Royal Artillery , a multi @-@ year measuring project began , with the results to be published in 1838 . As the measurements were being made a number of proposals were put forth to expand the program worldwide . In 1836 the German explorer and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt wrote to Prince Augustus Frederick , Duke of Sussex , then President of the Royal Society , stating that a formal program was important to a nation with dominions spread across the globe . At the seventh meeting of the British Association in Liverpool in 1837 , Sabine declared that " the magnetism of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most important branches of the physical history of the planet we inhabit " and mapping its variations would be " regarded by our contemporaries and by posterity as a fitting enterprise of a maritime people ; and a worthy achievement of a nation which has ever sought to rank foremost in every arduous undertaking " .

In 1837 , the British Government funded the installation of a magnetic observatory at Greenwich . The Association continued to press for the construction of similar observatories around the world , and in 1838 their suggestions were accepted by the Government and funds were provided . In 1839 the British Government and the Royal Society prepared four expeditions to build magnetic observation stations in Cape Town ; St. Helena ; Hobart , Tasmania and ( eventually ) Toronto . Teams of Royal Artillery officers were sent out to take the measurements . The team assigned to Canada originally planned to build their observatory on Saint Helen 's Island off Montreal , but the local rocks proved to have a high magnetic influence , and the decision was made to move to Toronto instead . The team arrived in 1839 , and set up camp at Fort York in a disused barracks while construction started on new buildings . The observatory was given 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) of land to the west of King 's College ; the Ontario Legislature now occupies the area on which the college was located .

The observatory , officially " Her Majesty 's Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at Toronto " , was completed the following year . It consisted of two log buildings , one for the magnetic instruments and the other a smaller semi @-@ buried building nearby for " experimental determinations " . The north end of the main building was connected to a small conical dome which contained a theodolite used to make astronomical measurements for the accurate determination of the local time . The buildings were constructed with as little metal as possible ; when metal was required , non @-@ magnetic materials such as brass or copper were used . A small barracks was built nearby to house the crew .

Using the measurements from the Toronto and Hobart sites , Sabine noticed both short @-@ term fluctuations in magnetic declination over a period of hours , and longer @-@ term variations over months . He quickly concluded that the short term variations were due to the day / night cycle , while the longer term ones were due to the number of visible sunspots . He published two introductory papers on the topic in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . The first , in 1851 , was a collection of early measurements ; the second in 1852 correlated with Heinrich Schwabe 's sunspot measurements , which had been made widely available in Alexander von Humboldt 's Cosmos , also published in 1851 . With further data collected from the Toronto site , Sabine was able to demonstrate conclusively that the eleven @-@ year sunspot cycle caused a similarly periodic variation in the Earth 's magnetic field . He presented a third and conclusive paper on the topic in 1856 , " On Periodical Laws Discoverable in the Mean Effects of the Larger Magnetic Disturbances " , in which he singled out the Toronto site for particular praise .

Sir John Henry Lefroy , a pioneer in the study of terrestrial magnetism served as director of the magnetic observatory from 1842 to 1853 ; In 1960 , the Ontario Heritage Foundation , Ministry of Citizenship and Culture erected a Provincial Military Plaque in his honour on the University of Toronto campus .

= = Meteorological service = =

In 1853 the Royal Society 's project was concluded , and the observatory was set to be abandoned . After a lengthy debate , the fledgling colonial government decided to take over its operation . Rather than disappearing like its three counterparts , the Toronto observatory was upgraded , and its mission was expanded as it became a meteorological station ( see Meteorological Service of Canada ) under the direction of the Ministry of Marine and Fisheries . During the expansion , the original buildings were replaced with a permanent structure .

The new building was designed in 1853 by local architect Frederick Cumberland , who was also working on the design of University College , which was being built just north of the Observatory to replace King 's College . The new observatory design called for a stone building , with an attached tower containing the theodolite . The new building was completed in 1855 , and stood directly opposite the entrance of today 's Convocation Hall .

During its time as a meteorological station , the observatory collected reports from 312 observation stations in Canada and another 36 in the United States . Each station was equipped with a " Mercurial Barometer , two Thermometers ( a maximum and a minimum Thermometer ) , an Anemometer to measure the velocity of the wind , a Wind Vane and a Rain Gauge " . Reports were sent in coded form to the Observatory at 8 am and 8 pm every day , Eastern Standard Time ( then known as " 75th meridian time " ) , and used to produce a chart predicting the weather for the following 36 hours . These predictions were then telegraphed across the country , and charts were distributed to newspapers and the Board of Trade , where they could be viewed by the public . With the installation of telephones , the Observatory also offered weather reports on demand , which was an important service to fruit vendors , who used the reports to plan shipping .

Among its other uses , in 1880 , measurements from the site were used as part of the effort to develop standard time . The observatory remained the official timekeeper for Canada until 1905 , when that responsibility was transferred to Ottawa 's Dominion Observatory . At exactly 11 : 55 am the clocks in Toronto fire halls were rung by an electrical signal from the Observatory .

In 1881 the observatory 's director , Charles Carpmeal , suggested adding a high @-@ quality telescope to the observatory . He felt that direct solar observations would lead to a better understanding of sunspot effects on weather ( as late as 1910 the observatory 's then @-@ director , R. F. Stupart , noted that " sun spots have more to do with our weather conditions than have the rings around the moon . " ) . Coincidentally , the Canadian government ( having formed in 1867 ) was interested in taking part in the major international effort to accurately record the December 1882 Transit of Venus .

Funds were provided for the purchase of a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) refracting telescope from T. Cooke & Sons . The dome was originally designed to mount a small transit , and the lengthy telescope , over 2 metres long , had a limited field of view though the dome 's opening . A large stone pillar was constructed inside the tower , raising the telescope to bring it closer to the dome and improve its field of view . Unfortunately , the new telescope was unable to take part in the transit measurements due to bad weather , and missed the 1895 Transit of Mercury for the same reason .

= = Relocation = =

By the 1890s , the observatory had become crowded by the rapidly growing university . Electrification of the tramways along College Street just to the south , and the large quantities of metal used in the modern buildings surrounding the site threw off the instruments . A new magnetic observatory opened in 1898 in Agincourt , at that time largely empty fields , [ 1 ] leaving the downtown campus location with its meteorological and solar observation duties .

By 1907 , new university buildings completely surrounded the observatory ; dust from the construction clogged meteorological instruments , and at night electric lighting made astronomical work impossible . The Meteorological Office decided to abandon the site and move to a new building at the north end of campus on Bloor Street , trading the original Observatory to the University in exchange for the new parcel of land . There was some discussion regarding what to do with the Cooke telescope , since the Meteorological Office had little use for this purely astronomical instrument . No other use was immediately forthcoming , and the telescope moved along with the Meteorological Office to their new Bloor Street Observatory .

The university assumed ownership of the now @-@ disused observatory building and was originally going to abandon it . Louis Beaufort Stewart , a lecturer in the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering , campaigned for it to be saved for the Department of Surveying and Geodesy . He eventually arranged for the building to be re @-@ constructed on a more suitable site . Demolition work was carried out in 1907 : the stones were simply left in place over the winter , and were used the following year to construct a re @-@ arranged building just east of the main University College building ( south of Hart House ) .

In 1930 the Meteorological Office no longer used the Cooke telescope , and agreed to donate it to the university if they would handle its removal . Both the telescope and the observatory dome were moved to the observatory building . The telescope moved once again in 1952 to the David Dunlap Observatory north of the city , and in 1984 it was donated to the Canada Science and Technology Museum . The Department of Surveying and Geodesy used the observatory until the 1950s . Since then the office areas have been used for a variety of purposes , including a police substation and a telephone switchboard . Renamed as the Louis Beaufort Stewart Observatory , the building was handed over to the Students ' Administrative Council ( now University of Toronto Students ' Union ) in 1953 , which has used the building since then . The dome , now unused , receives a yearly multi @-@ colour paint job by engineering students .

= 1973 Atlantic hurricane season =

The 1973 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season to use the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , a scale developed in 1971 by Herbert Saffir and Robert Simpson to rate the intensity of tropical cyclones . The season produced 24 tropical and subtropical cyclones , of which only 8 reached storm intensity , 4 became hurricanes , and only 1 reached major hurricane status . Although more active than the 1972 season , 1973 brought few storms of note . Nearly half of the season 's storms affected land , one of which resulted in severe damage .

The season officially began on June 1 , 1973 , and lasted until November 30 , 1973 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . However , the first system formed on April 18 , more than a month before the official start . Three more depressions formed before June 1 ; however , none attained storm intensity . The first named storm of the year was Hurricane Alice which formed on July 1 and became the first known cyclone to affect Bermuda during July . More than a month later , the second hurricane , Brenda , formed and was considered the worst storm to strike Mexico along the eastern coast of the Bay of Campeche , killing 10 people .

Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone on record when it developed formed over Guinea . The most intense storm of the season was Hurricane Ellen , a Category 3 cyclone that remained over open water . The final named storm was meteorologically significant in that it became the first recorded tropical cyclone to transition into a subtropical cyclone . No names were retired during the season ; however , due to the addition of male names into the list of Atlantic hurricane names in 1979 , several of the names were removed and have not been used since .

= = Season summary = =

The first storm of the 1973 hurricane season , forming in mid @-@ April , developed more than a month before the official start of the season . Several other short @-@ lived , weak depressions formed before and during June ; however , none reached storm intensity . The first named storm , Alice , formed on July 1 . Tracking generally to the north , Alice also became the first hurricane of the season as well as the first known cyclone to impact Bermuda during July . Shortly after Alice dissipated over Atlantic Canada , another depression formed . By the end of July , two more non @-@ developing depressions formed and the first subtropical cyclone , given the name Alfa , developed off the east coast of the United States . This storm was short @-@ lived and dissipated on August 2 just offshore southern Maine . The first half August was relatively quiet , with only one depression forming . However , later in the month , the season 's second hurricane , Brenda , formed in the northwestern Caribbean . Peaking just below Category 2 status on the newly introduced Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , Brenda made the first recorded landfall in the Mexican State of Campeche .

Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record , developing over the western African country of Guinea on August 25 . The system traveled for several thousand miles before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea in early September . At the start of the month , a new tropical storm formed in the Gulf of Mexico . This storm , named Delia , became the first known cyclone to make landfall in the same city twice . After moving inland a second time , Delia eventually dissipated on September 7 . As Delia dissipated another depression formed in the same region , eventually making landfall in the same city as Delia , Freeport , Texas . Another brief depression formed several days later . On September 13 , the strongest storm of the season , Ellen , formed over the eastern Atlantic . After tracking northwest for several days , Ellen eventually attained hurricane status as it turned westward . Several days later , the hurricane turned northeast due to an approaching frontal system . Shortly before becoming extratropical , Ellen reached major hurricane intensity at a record northerly latitude .

In late September , a brief depression affected northern Florida before dissipating . After a week of inactivity , the second subtropical storm of the year formed over the central Atlantic . This storm , named Bravo , gradually intensified , becoming fully tropical , at which time it was renamed Fran , a few days later . Upon being renamed , Fran had intensified into a hurricane and maintained this intensity for several days before dissipating east of the Azores on October 12 . A few days after Fran dissipated , the final named storm of the year formed in the central Caribbean Sea . A slow moving system , Gilda gradually intensified just below hurricane @-@ intensity before striking Cuba and moving over the Bahamas . A few days after passing through the islands , Gilda became the first storm on record to transition from a tropical cyclone into a subtropical cyclone . A large storm , Gilda eventually became extratropical near Atlantic Canada and dissipated later that month . Around the time Gilda was dissipating , a weak depression briefly existed near the Azores . The final storm of the year was a strong depression in the southern Caribbean Sea . This system was active for less than two days but may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity as it made landfall in southern Nicaragua .

= = Storms = =

= = = Hurricane Alice = = =

The first named storm formed out of the interaction between tropical wave and a mid @-@ level tropospheric trough northeast of the Bahamas in late @-@ June . A well @-@ defined circulation became apparent by June 30 and satellite images depicted cyclonic banding features . The following day , the system intensified into a tropical depression and shortly thereafter became a tropical storm as reconnaissance aircraft recorded gale @-@ force winds . An area of high pressure to the east of Alice steered the storm generally to the north . Decreasing wind shear allowed the storm to become increasingly organized and a well @-@ defined eye developed by July 3 . By this time , reconnaissance had determined that the storm had intensified into a hurricane , with maximum winds reaching 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .

On July 4 , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) , as the eastern portion of the eyewall brushed Bermuda . After passing the island , Alice began to accelerate in response to a mid @-@ level trough over the eastern United States and weakened . By July 6 , winds head decreased below hurricane intensity as the storm neared Atlantic Canada . Later that day , Alice made landfall in eastern Newfoundland with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .

During its passage of Bermuda , Alice produced sustained winds up to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and gusts to 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) . No major damage was recorded on the island , though the winds blew down a few trees and powerlines . The heavy rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 57 in ( 116 mm ) , ended a three @-@ month drought in Bermuda . Although Alice tracked through Atlantic Canada , no impact was recorded .

= = = Subtropical Storm Alfa = = =

During late July , an upper @-@ level low , with a non @-@ tropical cold core , formed near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina and tracked southward . Gradually , the circulation lowered to the surface and developed subtropical characteristics . On July 31 , the system attained gale @-@ force winds off the Mid @-@ Atlantic coast and was named Alfa , the first name from the list of subtropical storm names for the 1973 season . Tracking north @-@ northeast , the system intensified very little as it paralleled the coastline . By August 1 , the system weakened below subtropical storm intensity as it neared New England . The following day , Alfa dissipated just off the southern coast of Maine . The only effects from Alfa was light to moderate rainfall in New England , peaking at 5 @.@ 03 in ( 128 mm ) in Turners Falls , Massachusetts . Most of southern Maine recorded around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , with a maximum of 2 @.@ 59 in ( 66 mm ) in Saco .

= = = Hurricane Brenda = = =

Hurricane Brenda originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 9 ; however , the initial wave quickly weakened upon entering the Atlantic Ocean . By August 13 , the wave began to regenerate as it passed through the Lesser Antilles . Several days later , convection associated with the system consolidated into a central , organized mass and on August 18 , the system had become sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression while situated near the Yucatán Channel . Early the next day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Brenda as it made landfall in the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . After moving inland , a strong ridge of high pressure over Texas forced the storm to take an unusual track , eventually leading it to enter the Bay of Campeche on August 20 .

Once back over water , Brenda began to intensify , attaining hurricane status late on August 20 . The next day , a well @-@ defined eye had developed and the storm attained its peak intensity as a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . The storm made landfall later that day near Ciudad del Carmen , Mexico at this intensity , becoming the first hurricane on record to strike the region . After moving inland , Brenda rapidly weakened to a depression by the morning of August 22 and dissipated later that day .

Already suffering from severe flooding that killed at least 18 people and left 200 @,@ 000 homeless , Hurricane Brenda worsened the situation with torrential rainfall and additional flooding . The storm killed at least 10 people in the country . Following the damage wrought by Brenda , a large earthquake struck the region , hampering relief efforts and collapsing numerous structures . Winds on land gusted up to 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) , leading to severe wind damage . Two of the fatalities occurred in Campeche after 80 % of the city was flooded . This was considered the worst flooding in the city in over 25 years . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 people were left homeless as a direct result of Brenda throughout Mexico . Offshore , a freighter with 25 crewman became trapped in the storm after its engines failed . They were safely rescued several days later once the storm had dissipated .

= = = Tropical Storm Christine = = =

The easternmost forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record , Tropical Storm Christine , originated as a tropical wave over Africa in mid @-@ August . As it neared the Atlantic Ocean , the wave spawned a tropical depression at 14 @.@ 0 ° W , over the country of Guinea , unlike most cyclone producing waves which travel several hundred miles over water before spawning a depression . Although it was already a depression , advisories on the storm were not issued until August 30 , five days after its formation . For several days , the depression maintained its intensity as it steadily tracked west across the Atlantic . It eventually attained tropical storm intensity on August 28 . Despite the lack of aircraft reconnaissance in the region , the intensity was determined by wind readings from a German cargo ship that passed through the storm .

On August 30 , the first reconnaissance mission into the storm found tropical storm @-@ force winds and the first advisory was issued that day , immediately declaring the system as Tropical Storm Christine . Three days later , Christine attained its peak intensity just below hurricane @-@ status with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear caused the storm to weaken as it neared the Leeward Islands . As it passed over Antigua on September 3 , Christine weakened to a tropical depression and eventually dissipated near the Dominican Republic later that day .

During its passage through the Leeward Islands , Christine produced torrential rainfall , peaking at 11 @.@ 74 in ( 298 mm ) in southeastern Puerto Rico . These rains led to flooding on several islands . One person was killed during the storm after being electrocuted by a downed power line on a flooded road . Schools were closed ahead of the storm in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands as a precaution following the issuance of flood warnings . Six scientists had to be evacuated from the small island of Aves once the storm posed a threat to them . No major damage was reported on any of the affected islands in the wake of Christine .

= = = Tropical Storm Delia = = =

On August 27 , a tropical wave formed over the central Caribbean and tracked towards the west @-@ northwest . The system gradually developed organized shower and thunderstorm activity . By September 1 , a tropical depression developed from the wave . By September 3 , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm , receiving the name Delia , and began tracking more towards the west . A complex steering patter began to take place later on that day , resulting in the creation of a more hostile environment for tropical cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico . As Delia neared the Texas coastline , it managed to intensify into a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The lowest pressure was recorded at 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) at this time . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone made its first landfall in Freeport , Texas late on September 4 . After executing a counterclockwise loop , the storm made landfall in Freeport again on September 5 . After moving inland , the storm quickly weakened , becoming a depression on September 6 before dissipating early the next day over northern Mexico .

Due to the erratic track of the storm along the Texas coastline , widespread heavy rains fell in areas near the storm and in Louisiana . Tides up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , in addition to rainfall up to 13 @.@ 9 in ( 350 mm ) , caused significant flooding in the Galveston @-@ Freeport area . Up to $ 3 million was reported in damages to homes due to the flooding . Throughout Louisiana , there was substantial flooding of farmland . Damages to crops amounted to $ 3 million . In addition to the flooding rains produced by Delia , eight tornadoes also touched down due to the storm , injuring four people . Five people were killed during Delia , two drowned during floods , two died in a car accident and the other died from a heart attack while boarding up his home .

= = = Tropical Depression Eleven = = =

On September 6 , a tropical depression formed over the northwestern Caribbean Sea within a trough of low pressure extended southeastward from Delia , which was situated over southeast Texas at the time . The depression remained weak until it reached the Texas coastline on September 10 . Once onshore , it produced significant rainfall , causing significant damage that was attributed to Tropical Storm Delia . After turning northeast and tracking inland , the depression quickly increased in forward speed before dissipating over North Carolina on September 14 .

Along the coasts of Texas and Louisiana , the depression produced significant amounts of rainfall , peaking at 11 @.@ 15 in ( 283 mm ) near Freeport . Several areas in southern Louisiana recorded rainfall exceeding 5 in ( 130 mm ) with a maximum amount of 9 @.@ 2 in ( 230 mm ) falling in Kinder . Significant rainfall was also recorded in the Carolinas and Georgia , with numerous areas recording over 3 in ( 76 mm ) . A maximum of 9 @.@ 35 in ( 237 mm ) fell near Whitmire , South Carolina before the system dissipated . In all , the depression resulted in an additional $ 22 million in crop losses in southern Louisiana .

= = = Hurricane Ellen = = =

The strongest storm of the season , Hurricane Ellen , began as a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on September 13 . On the following day , the wave spawned an area of low pressure south of the Cape Verde Islands that quickly became a tropical depression . Tracking northeast , the system intensified into a tropical storm on September 15 after sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) were reported by a French naval vessel ; however , due to sparse data on the storm , the first advisory on Ellen was not issued for two more days . A slightly elongated storm , Ellen gradually intensified over the open Atlantic and was steered by two troughs of low pressure . On September 18 , the storm took a nearly due west track and the system became increasingly organized , with an ill @-@ defined eye becoming present on satellite imagery .

The next day , Ellen intensified into a hurricane before taking a sharp turn to the north @-@ northwest in response to a weak trough moving northeast from the Bahamas . Gradually , the hurricane turned more towards the northeast and began to accelerate as well as intensify . Despite being at an unusually high latitude for development , the storm underwent a brief period of rapid intensification , strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane on September 23 . At that time , Ellen attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 962 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Upon attaining this intensity at 42 @.@ 1 ° N , Ellen had become a major hurricane farther north than any other tropical cyclone on record , and is one of two storms to become a major hurricane north of 38 ° N , the other being Hurricane Alex in 2004 . Shortly after peaking , Ellen transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before merging with a frontal system several hundred miles east of Newfoundland on September 23 .

= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen = = =

On September 24 , a depression formed northeast of the Bahamas . The following day , the NHC issued their first advisory on the system , declaring it a subtropical depression . The depression was displayed an asymmetrical structure , with most winds being recorded up to 300 mi ( 480 km ) north of the center . Later that day , the subtropical depression organized into a tropical depression . Upon doing so , the NHC issued small craft advisories for coastal areas between North Carolina and St. Augustine , Florida . Tracking north @-@ northwestward in response to a break in a subtropical ridge to the north , the depression eventually made landfall near Marineland , Florida and quickly weakened , dissipating before reaching the Gulf of Mexico .

Heavy rain fell in association with the depression in parts of Florida and Georgia . A maximum of 6 @.@ 74 in ( 171 mm ) fell in Orlando while several other areas recorded over 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rain . Over land , wind gusts reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in some locations . Offshore , swells produced by the system reached 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , impacting several vessels in the region . Minor beach erosion and coastal flooding was reported in parts of South Carolina as a result of the storm . In parts of coastal Georgia , high water resulted in several road closures and flooded a few homes . Police officers in Savannah reported that wave were topping the local seawall ; however , no damage was reported .

= = = Hurricane Fran ( Bravo ) = = =

The final hurricane of the season , Fran , originated from an area of convection north of Hispaniola on October 1 . By October 4 , the system interacted with a mid @-@ tropospheric trough near the southeast United States , resulting in the formation of a surface low . Tracking eastward , showers and thunderstorms began to develop around the circulation ; however , the structure of the system was not fully tropical . Late on October 8 , the cyclone had become sufficiently organized to be classified a subtropical depression . Cold air from the remnants of a cold front became entrained within the circulation ; however , the cold air gradually warmed . The following day , winds increased to gale @-@ force and the depression was upgraded to a subtropical storm , at which time it was given the name Bravo .

By October 10 , Bravo had intensified substantially , as hurricane hunters recorded hurricane @-@ force winds roughly 15 mi ( 25 km ) from the center of the storm . Following this finding , the National Hurricane Center reclassified the system as a tropical system and renamed it Fran , dropping its previous designation of Bravo . Steered generally eastward by a deep surface low in the westerlies , Fran accelerated towards the Azores Islands . Shortly after bypassing the islands on October 12 , the central pressure of Fran decreased to 978 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) , the lowest recorded in relation to the hurricane . Shortly after reaching this intensity , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and quickly merged with a cold front off the coast of France . Although Fran passed near the Azores , no impact was recorded on any of the islands .

= = = Tropical Storm Gilda = = =

The precursor to Tropical Storm Gilda was a large convective system partially due to a tropical wave . It gradually became better organized over the northwestern Caribbean Sea , and on October 15 , a tropical depression formed off the coast of Nicaragua . As it drifted to the northeast , it strengthened to a tropical storm , peaking at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds . Before it hit the coast of Cuba , it weakened enough to cause only minor damage . By the time it struck the island , it had become very disorganized in nature .

On October 24 , cool , dry air entered the newly developed convection , and as a result it transitioned into a subtropical cyclone . Gilda became the first tropical system to pass through a subtropical stage prior to becoming extratropical . The large circulation continued northeast before becoming extratropical on October 27 . The remnants of Gilda intensified as they tracked near Atlantic Canada , attaining a central pressure of 968 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 58 inHg ) near Cape Race , Newfoundland . The system eventually dissipated near southern Greenland on October 29 .

Gilda caused heavy rain and mudslides in Jamaica , destroying six homes and killing six people . In Cuba , Gilda dropped over 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain , while 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds were reported in the northern part of the country . In the Bahamas , Gilda caused significant crop damage from heavy rainfall and high tides . The storm 's persistent strong currents and easterly winds caused moderate beach erosion on the East Coast of the United States , mostly along the Florida coast . The extratropical remnants of the storm produced hurricane @-@ force wind gusts over parts of Atlantic Canada , peaking at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; however , no damage was reported .

= = = Other storms = = =

In addition to the eight named storms of 1973 and two notable tropical depressions , there were several minor systems that were classified as depressions by the National Hurricane Center . The first four systems of the year were not classified as fully tropical , rather they were associated with the remnants of decaying cold fronts . On April 18 , the first of these depressions formed northeast of the Bahamas and tracked in a curved motion before dissipating over open water on April 21 . Several days later , on April 24 , another depression formed in the same general region ; however , this system was shorter lived and dissipated two days later without significant movement . On May 2 , another partially tropical system formed over open waters . The cyclone tracked northeast and dissipated late on May 5 east @-@ southeast of the Azores . On May 11 , a brief depression formed near Bermuda but dissipated the following day . Roughly a week into the official hurricane season , the fifth depression of the year formed just offshore southeast Florida , near Miami . The system tracked northwest across the peninsula and briefly entered the Gulf of Mexico on June 8 before making landfall along the Florida Panhandle . The depression eventually dissipate on June 10 over South Carolina .

On June 23 , another depression formed along Florida , this time just onshore near the Georgia border . The system slowly tracked northeastward before dissipating on June 26 southeast of the North – South Carolina border . As Hurricane Alice neared Bermuda on July 9 , a depression formed near the east coast of the United States ; however , the storm dissipated the following day . On July 19 , the first Cape Verde storm formed over the central Atlantic . This system did not intensify , remaining a weak depression and dissipated on July 21 without affecting land . The next day , a new depression formed over the southwestern Caribbean Sea near the coast of Nicaragua . The depression tracked over Central America , briefly moving back over water in the Gulf of Honduras before making a second landfall in Belize . The system persisted over land for a few days before entering the eastern Pacific late on July 25 .

Only one non @-@ developing depression formed during the month of August , an unusually eastward forming system . The depression was first identified just offshore eastern Africa on September 8 , near where Tropical Storm Christine formed later in the month . Tracking rapidly towards the west , the depression dissipated on September 11 over open waters . In addition to the two notable tropical depressions and two named storms in September , a slow @-@ moving depression formed south @-@ southeast of Bermuda on September 8 . Tracking generally northward , the depression dissipated early on September 10 without affecting land . Upon the declaration of Hurricane Fran on October 10 , a new depression formed southwest of the strengthening hurricane . This system rapidly tracked northeast and dissipated two days later . Later that month , a slow @-@ moving depression formed near the Azores . This system tracked southeast and dissipated on October 30 without affecting land . The final system of the year formed near the northern coast of Panama on November 17 . The depression was noted as a " ... strong depression ... " by the National Hurricane Center and may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity before making landfall in southern Nicaragua on November 18 ; the system dissipated later that day over land .

= = Storm names = =

The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1973 . Storms were named Christine , Delia , Ellen and Fran for the first time in 1973 . Due to the relatively minimal impact caused by storms during the season , no names were retired in the spring of 1974 ; however , due to the addition of male names in 1979 , the list was removed and replaced with a new set of names .

= = = Subtropical storm names = = =

The following names were used for subtropical storms in the Atlantic basin for this year . This year was the second and last year to use the phonetic alphabet . Although a storm was given the name Bravo , it was renamed Fran after acquiring tropical characteristics .

= = Season effects = =

This is a table of the storms in 1973 and their landfall ( s ) , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low .

= 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) =

The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion was an Australian Army unit raised for service with the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) during the Second World War . Formed in late 1940 as part of the 8th Division , the battalion was established to provide direct fire support to the division ’ s infantry brigades . It was the fourth , and last , such unit raised within the 2nd AIF . The unit 's personnel were largely drawn from the state of Western Australia and after formation , the battalion concentrated near Perth for basic individual training before moving to the Adelaide Hills to complete more advance manouevres .

In late 1941 , amidst concerns of war in the Pacific , the unit was deployed north to Darwin in the Northern Territory , where they undertook garrison duties in the weeks following Japan 's entry into the war . Following Japanese landings in Malaya , the 2 / 4th embarked from Darwin and were transferred to Malaya , arriving in Singapore in the final days of the fighting on the peninsula . In the wake of the withdrawal of British and Commonwealth forces to the island , the battalion was hastily deployed in support of the two Australian brigades — the 22nd and 27th Brigades — in the north @-@ western sector of the island . During the initial Japanese landing , elements of the battalion were heavily engaged around the landing beaches but they were outnumbered and over the course of the week the defenders were pushed back towards the centre of the island , towards the city of Singapore . They suffered heavy casualties during this time , before subsequently becoming prisoners of war after the fall of Singapore .

Meanwhile , a detachment of about 100 men from the battalion , who had been left behind in Australia when it deployed to Singapore , also took part in the fighting on Java . After a brief campaign , the majority of these personnel were taken into captivity when the Allied forces were overwhelmed around Buitenzorg in mid @-@ March 1942 , although some attempted to fight on as guerillas . Eventually these men were either killed or captured ; prisoners remained in Japanese captivity until the end of the war in August 1945 . During the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years they were held by the Japanese , members of the 2 / 4th were sent to prison camps around the Pacific , where they were used as slave labour and subjected to harsh conditions and extreme brutality . After the war , the surviving members of the battalion were returned to Australia but the 2 / 4th was not re @-@ raised .

= = History = =

= = = Formation and training = = =

The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion was one of four machine gun battalions raised as part of the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for service overseas during the Second World War . Motorised infantry units , equipped with wheeled motor vehicles and tracked carriers , the machine gun battalions were formed to provide a greater level of fire support than that ordinarily available within infantry battalions . Developed by the British Army , the concept had its genesis in the Australian Army during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions — initially two and then four — had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level , to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . On the Western Front , the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 and finally , in 1918 , to the establishment of machine gun battalions . Similar formations had also been established among the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . They were not re @-@ raised when the Army was reorganised in 1921 but in 1937 , as the Australian Army looked to expand owing to fears of war in Europe , four such units were formed within the part @-@ time Militia , by converting light horse units and motorising them . Several other Militia machine gun battalions were also raised as new units later after the Second World War began . These were formed by consolidating the machine gun companies assigned to a number of infantry battalions , and other light horse units were also converted into the role for use as garrison forces . Within the 2nd AIF — Australia 's overseas expeditionary force — the decision was made to raise four machine gun battalions as corps troops that were usually allocated at a rate of one per division ; several of the Militia units were also later designated Australian Imperial Force units , after the majority of their personnel volunteered for overseas service . This meant that they could be deployed outside of Australian territory even though they were not 2nd AIF units .

In mid @-@ 1940 , amid the tide of German successes in Europe , there was an influx of volunteers for the 2nd AIF . As a result , the Australian government decided to raise a third volunteer division for overseas service , named the 8th Division . Established around three infantry brigades — the 22nd , 23rd and 27th — the division was supported by corps troops including engineers , cavalry , artillery , pioneers and a machine gun battalion for direct fire support . Within this formation , the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion came into being on 25 November 1940 , when Lieutenant Colonel Michael Anketell , a First World War veteran who had commanded a Militia infantry battalion before the war , established his headquarters at Northam Camp , near Perth , Western Australia . While the rest of the 8th Division had drawn its personnel mainly from the more populous eastern states of New South Wales and Victoria , the decision was made to select personnel for the 2 / 4th only from those who were already enlisted and conducting training in the west . While potentially parochial , it was a primarily a pragmatic decision to reduce the time it would take to concentrate the unit and complete its training .

Like most 2nd AIF units , the 2 / 4th drew its cadre staff of officers and senior non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) from volunteers from local Militia units . These were augmented by partially trained Other Ranks ( ORs ) from the three local recruit training depots ; the first batch of these , numbering 394 men , arrived at Northam on 27 November and a further 262 marched in on 4 December . As the battalion was brought up to its authorised strength of around 800 men , personnel were formed into four machine gun companies , ' A ' to ' D ' , under a headquarters company consisting of several specialist platoons — including signals and anti @-@ aircraft platoons — and battalion headquarters . There were no platoon commanders until a contingent arrived from the regional Officer Training Units . Initially training was hampered by a lack of equipment — only 12 of 48 Vickers machine guns assigned to the battalion were available — so at the start the focus was on individual rather than collective training . As more stores arrived , training accelerated with the help of experienced Militia NCOs and First World War veterans , who were brought in to share their experiences with the new troops . Just before Christmas and New Year 's leave , the battalion received its distinctive Unit Colour Patch : a black and gold triangle .

Early in the New Year , the establishment of the battalion 's command formation was completed with the appointment of subalterns as platoon commanders , following their return from their first appointment courses . The training continuum evolved with the establishment of an NCO school and various specialist courses , including range finding and transport ; a bugle and drum band was also raised . In February 1941 , training focused upon skill @-@ at @-@ arms , before undertaking a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) march from Northam to Perth , which was conducted over the course of three days and was undertaken , according to the Australian War Memorial , to test the " physical fitness and endurance of the personnel and officers " and " the efficiency of the battalion 's motor transport and administration personnel " . Upon their return , training progressed to field firing , night manoeuvres , portage , defensive exercises and further specialised training , continuing until July , by which time the battalion was considered ready for deployment . That month it received orders to move to Adelaide , South Australia . Proceeding in four drafts — one each on the transports Katoomba and Duntroon and two by rail — they were established at Woodside , in the Adelaide Hills , by the end of the month . The battalion endured a bitter winter , conducting field exercises amidst the steep wooded slopes of the Mount Lofty Range ; these became more tactically complex and physically demanding as Anketell worked the battalion up to a peak of efficiency , in preparation for deployment amidst growing tensions in the Pacific .

= = = Garrison duties in northern Australia = = =

In August 1941 , the 27th Brigade was sent to Malaya to reinforce the 22nd , which had been serving there in a garrison role since February , having been dispatched while the 2 / 4th Machine Battalion had been forming . With this , the only 2nd AIF troops remaining in Australia were those of the 23rd Brigade . As a result of concerns about Japanese intentions in the region , the decision was made to move the brigade north to bolster the defences around Darwin in the Northern Territory . In the event of fighting in the Pacific , the government planned to split infantry battalions , to defend the island chain to Australia ’ s north , dispatching forces to Rabaul , Ambon and Timor . The role of the corps troops from the 2 / 4th Pioneers and 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion remained uncertain . The 8th Division ’ s commander , Major General Gordon Bennett , unhappy with the dispersal of his command , had been agitating for the dispatch of the machine gunners to Malaya to support his two infantry brigades , arguing that they would be valuable for beach defence . Bennett 's request had been rejected initially in March , due to the limited numbers of recruits enlisting but by mid @-@ September , elements at Army headquarters in Melbourne had also begun to advocate for it . In early October , following a War Cabinet decision to split the command of the 8th Division in two , removing the elements in Australia from Bennett 's command , the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received orders to move north to Darwin , where it was to serve in a home defence role in case of a Japanese attack .

On 11 October 1941 , the battalion entrained at Oakbank and began the journey north . They detrained at Alice Springs , where they camped overnight before continuing the journey by road in a 44 @-@ vehicle convoy , which took them further north to Larrimah . There they once again entrained for the final journey to Winnellie , which they reached on 19 October , after overnighting in Katherine .

At Winnellie , the battalion was allocated a large defensive zone between Nightcliff , Lee Point and Shoal Bay , which included a large beach frontage , as well as extensive swamp lands and creeks further inland . Throughout November , extensive work was undertaken improving the camp and preparing this position with fortified emplacements . They also undertook various other garrison duties such as guarding ammunition dumps , and road and railway construction . Heavy summer rains flooded the camp and surrounding area and as well as hampering construction , brought a wave of dengue fever amongst the battalion and the threat of crocodile attacks as the creeks within the battalion position swelled ; the battalion ’ s mascot , a dog named " Gunner " , fell victim . News of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and invasion of Malaya came in early December and with it a need to bolster Australian forces in the Pacific . As Bennett pressed harder for reinforcements , on 23 December the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received orders to embark for Malaya .

= = = Embarkation = = =

On 30 December 1941 , after transferring responsibility for their defensive area to a Militia Light Horse machine gun regiment from South Australia , the battalion embarked upon two troopships , Westralia and Marella , bound for Malaya via Port Moresby . Arriving on 4 January 1942 , they were transferred to the transport Aquitania , which was to take them the rest of the way . Before they had completed transferring the battalion ’ s equipment , news was received that Rabaul , about 500 miles ( 800 km ) north @-@ east , had been bombed by carrier @-@ based aircraft . Due to concerns that the aircraft may have been looking for the convoy , or US warships fleeing the Philippines , and that Port Moresby might be bombed next , the convoy ’ s departure was advanced and so they sailed immediately . Instead of proceeding to Malaya , though , they were taken to Sydney , New South Wales , as it was decided that it would be safer to proceed via the southern route .

After a brief stay in Sydney where the battalion ’ s equipment deficiencies were made good and some reinforcements were received from local recruit training depots , they embarked again on 10 January in company with HMAS Canberra , and proceeded through the Bass Strait . As they were under way , the troops were kept occupied with training on the Bren light machine gun and the Thompson sub @-@ machine gun , quantities of which were hastily added to the battalion ’ s equipment scale . They reached Fremantle , Western Australia , on 15 January and overnight , a large number of 2 / 4th men defied orders to stay aboard ship and went ashore to spend time with their families ; when the Aquitania sailed the next day , 94 men were left behind . The situation in Malaya was grave as the Japanese were steadily pushing the British and Commonwealth defenders south down the peninsula and as the gravity of the situation dawned upon the Australian government , a knee @-@ jerk reaction saw the dispatch of 150 partially trained reinforcements from Northam . They arrived just as the Aquitania departed , being ferried out to Rottnest Island where they joined the ship ’ s company late in the afternoon of 16 January . Although the reinforcements made good the men that had been left behind , they were only partially trained and ill @-@ prepared for the fighting that would follow .

After departing Fremantle , the convoy steamed towards Java and reached Ratai Bay early on 20 January . Proceeding on to the Sunda Strait , which was reached mid @-@ morning on 21 January and the men were then transferred to a number of smaller , faster Dutch ships to run the gauntlet of Japanese bombers that were attacking Allied shipping in the area . In concert with several Australian , British and Indian escorts and two Dutch Catalina flying boats , the convoy entered Keppel Harbour on 25 January 1942 . Upon arrival in Singapore , consisting of 942 personnel of all ranks , the battalion was allocated to the task of preparing machine gun positions on Singapore ’ s north coast and around the naval base . They stepped into a maelstrom , the Japanese were bombing the naval base — where the 2 / 4th were accommodated — every day and the fighting on the Malay Peninsula was all but over . Having been pushed back down the peninsula over the course of seven weeks , in the final week of January , the Allies withdrew from Johore , on the mainland , to Singapore , where they would make a final stand . Covering the withdrawal , the 22nd Brigade was the last Australian unit to cross the 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) wide Causeway before it was blown up , early on the morning of 31 January , to prevent the Japanese from capturing it and to slow their advance .

One of only two machine gun battalions available for the defending British and Commonwealth forces , as preparations were made to repulse the expected Japanese assault across the Johore Strait , the battalion was split up to provide support to troops from the 22nd and 27th Australian Infantry Brigades and the 44th Indian Infantry Brigade around the western part of the island , where the Japanese assault was expected . On 7 February , due to concerns about the lack of defending infantry , about 90 machine gun reinforcements , who had been hastily formed into a sixth company — ' E ' — were detached at this time to form part of a 400 @-@ strong Special Reserve Battalion , initially under the command of an officer from the 2 / 19th Infantry Battalion and later taken over by Major Albert Saggers , formerly of the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion .

= = = Fall of Singapore = = =

The Japanese attack came in the night of 8 / 9 February , after a heavy artillery and aerial bombardment that had lasted throughout the day . ' D ' Company , positioned in various locations in support of the Australian 22nd Brigade in the north @-@ western area , found themselves in the thick of the fighting as the Japanese concentrated their landing on the Australian 8th Division front . Understrength and stretched out across a large frontage over ground that was unsuited to defence , the Australians were almost immediately under pressure . Shortly after 8 : 00 pm , 13 Platoon , supporting the 2 / 20th Infantry Battalion around the head of the Lim Chu Kang Road , was confronted by a large number of landing barges filled with Japanese assault troops . For almost six hours , the platoon , under Lieutenant Eric Wankey , fought a desperate action to repel the invaders . With four machine guns , as well as personal small arms and grenades , the platoon inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese and sank several barges . Despite heavy casualties from Japanese mortar and machine gun fire , they kept fighting until early in the morning on 9 February when , threatened with being outflanked and low on ammunition — each gun had fired over 10 @,@ 000 rounds — and having had one gun knocked out , the platoon was forced to withdraw . Destroying their equipment as they went to prevent it from being captured , the platoon was forced to withdraw in contact , taking their wounded with them ; the action was later rewarded with a Military Cross for the platoon commander , who was badly wounded after taking over one of the machine guns after its crew had been wounded .

Near the Sungei Murai ( Murai River ) , 15 Platoon — under Lieutenant John Meiklejohn — had been stationed in support of a company from the 2 / 18th Infantry Battalion , in a thickly wooded area with low hills and many inlets . 15 Platoon established an enfilade formation near the shore , with its machine guns distributed in two sections on a north – south axis , facing a narrow peninsula , between the mouth of the Murai and a small inlet . According to the official history by Lionel Wigmore , after a Japanese landing party approached , the southern section under Meiklejohn " opened fire against six approaching barges , and kept on firing for two hours , despite retaliation by hand grenades , as the Japanese landed and crossed the neck of the peninsula " . As was the case elsewhere in the extremely wide sector assigned to the 22nd Brigade , many Japanese landing parties were able to outflank the thinly @-@ spread Australian positions . At risk of being cut off and with ammunition running low , Meiklejohn ordered the southern section to retreat . According to Wigmore : " Meiklejohn led his section along a jungle path where they came upon a party of Japanese resting . He shot some with his revolver , and another was knocked out with a swing from a [ machine gun ] tripod , but Meiklejohn lost his life in attempting to cover his section 's withdrawal . " The northern section of 15 Platoon held its ground " until it was informed that a near @-@ by infantry platoon was almost surrounded , and about to withdraw " . Forced to retreat without its machine guns , the northern section also found Japanese troops blocking its path . When Private Cliff Spackman was attacked by a Japanese officer wielding a sword , Spackman " bayoneted him " , took the sword and used it against another Japanese soldier .

As the situation worsened , early on 9 February ' A ' Company , which had been in reserve , and HQ Company were sent forward to provide further assistance to the 22nd Infantry Brigade , which was slowly being pushed back towards the tactically important Tengah airfield , via the village of Ama Keng . They took up positions at Bulim , east of the airfield ; shortly afterwards they were joined by 7 Platoon , from ‘ B ’ Company , which had been detached from the Causeway sector . The remnants of the 22nd , numbering around only 500 men from its original 2 @,@ 500 , with a further 500 or so isolated and attempting to fight their way through , was pushed further back throughout the day . Orders were passed for a counter @-@ attack around the airfield but as the size of Japanese forces in the area grew to around 20 @,@ 000 men , they were later cancelled in favour of establishing a line between Bulim and Jurong , to the east of the airfield . Established in the early afternoon , within this line , the 2 / 4th 's ' A ' Company was positioned east of Bulim with 7 Platoon , ' B ' Company , while the remnants of ' D ' Company , amounting to only 47 men , were moved south , where they joined with ' C ' Company , which was supporting the Indian 44th Brigade , which although it had not yet been engaged , had fallen back from the south @-@ west coast to avoid being cut off and had established itself west of Ulu Pandan , behind the Sungei Jurong .

Late on 9 February , the Japanese made more landings , in the Causeway sector , held by the 27th Infantry Brigade . Despite having been reduced to just two infantry battalions due to the transfer of the 2 / 29th to the hard @-@ pressed 22nd Infantry Brigade , they were able to mount a stiff defence , supported by the machine guns of ‘ B ’ Company . 8 Platoon inflicted many casualties in the Japanese landing craft coming ashore at the mouth of the Sungei Mandi . With casualties mounting and pressure being placed on the brigade 's rear due to a large gap that had developed around Kranji , by the Japanese advances in the 22nd Infantry Brigade 's area , the decision was made to withdraw from the beach and realign north – south along the Woodlands Road . Further south , the Australian 22nd and Indian 44th , 6th / 15th and 12th Infantry Brigades also established themselves along this axis between Bukit Panjang and Pasir Panjang on the south coast and by early evening on 10 February the Japanese had secured the entire west coast of the island .

For the next four days , the Allied troops were pushed south @-@ east towards the city of Singapore . Throughout this time , the battalion ’ s companies were in almost constant action , either — in the case of ' B ' , ' C ' , ' D ' and ' E ' Companies — under separate command , or ' A ' and ' HQ ' Companies with Battalion Headquarters . The reinforcements of ' E ' Company , detached to the Special Reserve Battalion , suffered heavily . In three days , they lost 43 men killed or missing , before the ad hoc formation was disbanded and the men returned to the 2 / 4th . 7 Platoon , ' B ' Company , took on a mounted role , procuring four Bren carriers , with which they began patrolling in support . On 12 February they were engaged along the Buona Vista Road , while supporting the Malayan Regiment . The following day , they were attacked by a Japanese light tank , which knocked out one of the carriers before the platoon extricated themselves .

By 14 February , the Allied troops had withdrawn into a small perimeter around the city . The 8th Division were holding a position 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of the city , centred upon the axis of the Holland Road , with its headquarters at Tanglin Barracks . With the Japanese gaining ground to their north and south through the porous lines of the Indian 44th and British 54th Brigades , the situation became critical . Threatened with being cut off , Anketell began to plan a last stand ; moving forward to survey the situation he was badly wounded by mortar and small arms fire and after being evacuated to Alexandra Hospital , died of his wounds late in the evening of 14 February . Despite his loss , the battalion kept on fighting to the very end , sending out patrols throughout the following day and severely mauling a Japanese vehicle convoy that came too close to their position . Late on 15 February , the British commander , Lieutenant General Arthur Percival gave the order to surrender . The physical process of the surrender was slow , and despite orders to surrender weapons and ammunition , the men proceeded to destroy the majority of their equipment the following morning , before the Japanese arrived . Later , they were marched to Changi prison , during which several men from the battalion attempted to escape after the Japanese began executing several prisoners ; one , the regimental sergeant major , Fred Airey , successfully made it to Sumatra but was later recaptured there , while another , Private Les McCann , remained on the run for eight days before being recaptured after collapsing from bullet wounds he had received during the attempt .

= = = Java detachment = = =

While the majority of the battalion was fighting on Singapore , a small detachment of 106 men were sent to Java . The majority of these were the 94 men that had failed to return in time from their unofficial leave in Fremantle . After missing their ship , they had been arrested by the military police and were confined to quarters in Karrakatta Camp for two weeks . On 30 January they were released and under the command of two officers and a small group of NCOs , they embarked upon Marella , which set out for Singapore via Palembang in Batavia , escorted by Canberra .

After reaching Tanjong Priok on 10 February , the detachment found itself placed under Dutch command and formed into a composite infantry company , within the reserve battalion of the ad hoc formation known as " Blackforce " , which had been formed under Brigadier Arthur Blackburn . At the end of the month , having taken Sumatra , the Japanese invaded Java with three divisions and a strong naval task force . Fierce fighting at sea ensued , during which 14 out of a force of 18 Allied ships were sunk . Several Japanese transports were also sunk but the majority of Japanese troops were landed . The detachment from the 2 / 4th found itself around Buitenzorg , where the majority of the 2 / 4th personnel formed part of an ad hoc infantry force , known as the Reserve Group , or 3rd Battalion , consisting of eight platoons , under Major John Champion de Crespigny . They fought several defensive actions before being overwhelmed and taken into captivity on 12 March 1942 . A small number continued to fight as guerrillas but were eventually all captured . Some of the men were held in camps in Java and Sumatra , although the majority were later sent to Singapore before being transported to camps elsewhere in south @-@ east Asia .

= = = Internment and disbandment = = =

During the fighting , out of a total of 976 men deployed , the battalion lost 137 men killed in action and 106 wounded , while a further 24 suffered from shell shock . A total of 808 men were taken into captivity , including most of the wounded . Four men managed to escape to Australia but of the remaining men , 263 died while prisoners of war . Following their capture , the men from the 2 / 4th in Singapore were concentrated in Changi prison , before being split up and sent to various prison camps around the Pacific , including Borneo , Burma , Thailand , Java , Sumatra , Japan and Formosa . There they were used as slave labour on the Burma – Thai Railway , in coal mines and on wharves , during which they were subjected to harsh treatment , starvation , disease and extreme brutality , which took a heavy toll . Many soldiers from the 2 / 4th were also killed while being taken to Japan , when the ships were sunk by Allied submarines .

Throughout their captivity , some soldiers continued to contribute to the Allied war effort , building a series of home @-@ made radios with which they transmitted Japanese shipping movements to British forces in India and through which they were able to gain news from home . They were liberated in August 1945 and after the war , the surviving members of the battalion were returned to Australia but the 2 / 4th was not re @-@ raised . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Military Cross , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , two British Empire Medals and nine Mentions in Despatches ; in addition one member of the battalion was appointed as a Member of the Order of the British Empire .

After the war , the Australian Army moved away from the machine gun battalion concept and no similar units were raised . The machine gun role was subsumed into the support companies of individual infantry battalions . The idea was arguably misunderstood by Australian commanders throughout the war and this may have influenced the decision to move away from the concept . When the units had been established , the intent had been for machine gun battalions to provide highly mobile fire support but this only worked where the principles of open warfare worked . Once the focus of Australian Army combat operations shifted to the Pacific , the machine gun battalions were largely misused , being employed in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets or for menial tasks , rather than as offensive weapons for long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely used in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . The difficulties of target acquisition in dense jungle also contributed .

= = Commanding officers = =

Lieutenant Colonel Michael Anketell .

= = Battle honours = =

The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during the Second World War :

Malaya 1942 , and Singapore .

= Richard Nixon presidential campaign , 1968 =

The 1968 presidential campaign of Richard Nixon , the 36th Vice President of the United States , began when Nixon , the Republican nominee of 1960 , formally announced his candidacy following a year 's preparation and five years ' political reorganization following defeats in the 1960 presidential election , and the 1962 California gubernatorial election .

En route to the Republican Party 's presidential nomination , Nixon faced challenges from Governor George Romney of Michigan , Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York , Governor Ronald Reagan of California , and Senator Charles Percy of Illinois . Nixon won nine of the thirteen state primaries held that season , although due to the population of his state , Governor Reagan won the popular vote while carrying only California . These victories , along with pledged delegate support from states not holding primaries , secured Nixon the nomination on the first ballot of the Republican National Convention , where he named Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his running mate .

In the general election , Nixon emphasized " law and order , " positioning himself as the champion of what he called the " silent majority . " Running well ahead of his opponent , incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey , his support slipped in the polls following his refusal to partake in presidential debates , and following an announcement from President Lyndon B. Johnson that a halt in bombing of Vietnam had been negotiated .

Winning a close election on November 5 , 1968 , Nixon and Agnew were inaugurated as the 37th President of the United States and 39th Vice President of the United States , respectively , on January 20 , 1969 . He was the first Vice President elected President since Martin Van Buren in 1836 , and the only one to do so while not an incumbent .

= = Background = =

Nixon was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1946 , representing California 's 12th congressional district from 1947 until his election to the Senate in 1950 . As a member of Congress , he gained a reputation as a firm anti @-@ Communist . In 1952 , he was selected by General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Republican nominee for president , as his vice presidential nominee . Elected together with Eisenhower , he served as Vice President during the height of the Cold War . In office , he traveled the world on " goodwill tours " , promoting pro @-@ American policies ; he was re @-@ elected with Eisenhower in 1956 . At the end of Eisenhower 's second term in 1960 , Nixon ran unopposed for the Republican nomination , which he received . He lost a close race to Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts , which many credited in part to his unhealthy appearance during the first televised debate .

Nixon ran for Governor of California against incumbent Pat Brown , and was defeated handily , leading the media to label him as a " loser . " This defeat was widely believed to be the end of his career ; in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election , Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent , saying , " you won 't have Nixon to kick around anymore because , gentlemen , this is my last press conference . " In September , the New York Post published an article claiming that campaign donors were buying influence with Nixon by providing him with a secret cash fund for his personal expenses . He moved to New York , joining the Mudge Rose Guthrie Alexander & Ferdon law firm , and regrouped , considering but decided against a run for president in 1964 , beginning to plan for a 1968 presidential campaign .

= = Campaign developments = =

= = = Early stages = = =

On January 7 , 1967 , Nixon held a secret meeting with his closest advisers to discuss a potential campaign , brainstorming strategies to obtain sufficient delegates to win the Republican nomination . He asked the attendees not to discuss the meeting with anyone , but to spread subtle hints that he would run for president . The next month , during an interview with the Saturday Evening Post , Nixon flatly denied he was running for president . Nevertheless , polls suggested that he was the front @-@ runner for the nomination . The Gallup poll from February 1967 showed Nixon leading Governor George Romney , his closest rival , 52 % to 40 % . At this time , he quietly began efforts to organize in Indiana , Nebraska , New Hampshire , Oregon , and Wisconsin , positioning to secure victories in those states ' primaries the following year . In March , he gained the support of the 1964 Republican nominee , Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona A " Nixon for President Committee " formed that month , and headquarters for the organization opened in Washington D.C. in late May .

During the spring and summer , Nixon traveled to Eastern Europe and Latin America to bolster his foreign policy credentials . He returned in August to conduct meetings with his advisers to formulate a solid campaign strategy . Two days later , his campaign manager , Gaylord Parkinson , left his position to care for his ailing wife . Political commentators speculated that the vacancy built " an element of instability " for the campaign . The position was soon temporarily filled by former Governor Henry Bellmon of Oklahoma . The next week , five staff members were fired after private investigators determined that information had been leaked to the campaigns of potential primary rivals Governors Rockefeller and Reagan . The news did not stall the progression of the campaign , and soon Nixon , Mudge , Rose , Guthrie & Alexander member Leonard Garment assembled an advertising team that included CBS Television president Frank Shakespeare .

= = = = Fall 1967 = = = =

By mid @-@ September 1967 , the Nixon campaign had organized headquarters in four states deemed critical to the Republican primaries . Nixon hoped the moves would increase his delegate strength and demonstrate his " ability to win . " He notified the media that his decision on whether to run for president would be formally announced anytime between early December and February . Meanwhile , Nixon and his staff discussed handling the topic of the Vietnam War . They advised him to soften his stance on the war , and encouraged him to shift his focus from foreign affairs to domestic policy to avoid the divisive war issue . Observers noted that this move potentially hurt Nixon by straying from his reputation " as a foreign policy expert . "

In October , political experts predicted that Nixon would gain delegates in the important states of New Hampshire , Wisconsin and Nebraska during the primary season , scheduled to begin in March 1968 . They noted that in the other critical state of Oregon , Ronald Reagan would have an advantage due to the proximity of his home state . Like Nixon , rival George Romney began to organize in these states . Romney officially announced his candidacy in November , prompting Nixon to step up his efforts . He spent most of this period on the campaign trail in New Hampshire . Those following Nixon noted that during this period , he seemed more relaxed and easygoing than in his past political career . One commentator examined that he was not " the drawn , tired figure who debated Jack Kennedy or the angry politician who conceded his California [ gubernatorial ] defeat with such ill grace . " Making appearances at fundraisers in his adopted home state of New York , Nixon helped to raise $ 300 @,@ 000 for the re @-@ election campaign of Senator Jacob K. Javits . At the end of December , Time labeled Nixon as the " man to beat . "

= = = = 1968 begins = = = =

Nixon entered 1968 as the front @-@ runner for the Republican nomination . However , polls suggested that in a head @-@ to @-@ head match up with incumbent President Lyndon Johnson , Nixon trailed 50 % to 41 % . Later in January , Nixon embarked on a tour of Texas , where he lampooned President Johnson 's State of the Union address , asking : " Can this nation afford to have four more years of Lyndon Johnson 's policies that have failed at home and abroad ? " At this time , reports suggested that Nixon would formally announce his bid in February .

= = = Primary campaign = = =

On February 1 in New Hampshire , Nixon announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination , commenting that problems " beyond politics " needed to be addressed . Immediately following his entrance , the media team prepared for an advertising campaign . They analyzed video of Nixon , determining that he was at his best when speaking spontaneously . The team organized a question and answer session with seven members of the New Hampshire Republican Party , taping Nixon 's responses for editing and use in advertisements . He campaigned in the state , although polls suggested that he would easily win its primary . As a result , he began campaigning in Wisconsin where the second primary would be held . During a stop , he briefly discussed Vietnam , although not in detail , stating that the United States " must prevent [ such ] confrontations , " but that the nation must also " help people in the free world fight against aggression , but not do their fighting for them . " He used those dictatorships in Latin America as an example , stating : " I am talking not about marching feet but helping hands . " As military operations increased in Vietnam in mid @-@ February , Nixon 's standing against President Johnson improved . A Harris poll showed that he trailed the president 43 % to 48 % . Near the end of the month , Nixon 's opponent George Romney exited the race , mostly due to comments he made about being " brainwashed " during a visit to Vietnam . This left Nixon nearly unopposed for the upcoming primaries , narrowing his opponents to Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald Reagan , neither of whom had announced their candidacies .

Due to Romney 's exit , Nixon declared in early March that he would " greatly expand [ his ] efforts in the non @-@ primary states , " with Time observing that Nixon could now focus his political attacks solely on President Johnson . However , the void also caused problems for Nixon ; Time argued that the prospect of soundly defeating second @-@ tier candidates such as former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota in the primaries , would not " electrify the voters . " The Nixon campaign countered this claim stating that Romney 's withdrawal was a " TKO " at the hands of Nixon . Meanwhile , Rockefeller began to be viewed more as a candidate , articulating that while not wishing to split the party , he was " willing to serve ... if called . " As talks of other candidates persisted , Nixon continued to campaigning and discussion of the issues . He pledged to end the war in Vietnam , but would not go into detail , drawing some criticism . Nixon easily won the New Hampshire primary on March 12 , pulling in 80 % of the vote with a write @-@ in campaign for Rockefeller receiving 11 % . At the end of March , Rockefeller announced that he would not campaign for the presidency , but would be open to being drafted . Nixon doubted a draft stating that it would only be likely if " I make some rather serious mistake . " Reports suggested that the decision caused " Nixon 's political stock [ to ] skyrocket . " Polling by Gallup at this time revealed that Nixon led President Johnson 41 % to 39 % in a three @-@ way race with American Independent Party candidate and former Governor George Wallace of Alabama .

As the Wisconsin primary loomed in early April , Nixon 's only obstacle seemed to be preventing his supporters from voting in the Democratic primary for Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota as a protest against President Johnson . However , Johnson withdrew from the race before the primary , meanwhile Governor Reagan 's name was on the ballot in Wisconsin , but he did not campaign in the state and was still not a declared candidate . Nixon won the primary with 80 % followed by Reagan with 11 % and Stassen with 6 % . With Johnson removed from the race , Nixon fell behind Democratic candidates Eugene McCarthy , Hubert Humphrey and Robert Kennedy in head @-@ to @-@ head match @-@ ups . At the end of April , Nixon called for a moratorium on criticism of the Johnson policy in Vietnam as negotiations were underway : " The one man who can do anything about peace is Lyndon Johnson , and I 'm not going to do anything to undercut him . " However , the Democratic candidates for president remained fair game for criticism . He argued that " A divided Democratic Party cannot unite a divided country ; a united Republican Party can . " He also began to discuss economics more frequently , announcing plans to cut spending while criticizing the Democrats ' policy of raising taxes . During a question and answer session with the American Society of Newspaper Editors , Nixon spoke out of turn , receiving numerous interruptions of applause . The largest came when he addressed the issue of crime , proclaiming that " there cannot be order in a free society without progress , and there cannot be progress without order . "

On the last day of April , Rockefeller announced that he would campaign for the presidency , despite his previous statement to the contrary . Immediately following his entrance , he defeated Nixon in the Massachusetts primary 30 % to 26 % . New Harris polls found that Rockefeller fared better against Democratic candidates than Nixon , but the outlook started to appear better for Nixon after he won the Indiana primary over Rockefeller . Off the victory , Nixon campaigned in Nebraska where he criticized the three leading Democratic candidates as " three peas in a pod , prisoners of the policies of the past . " He then proposed a plan to tackle crime that included wiretapping , legislation to reverse previous Supreme Court decisions , and the formation of a congressional committee targeting crime and reforms to the criminal justice system . He did not connect crime to racial rioting , drawing praise from Civil Rights leaders . Nixon won the primary in Nebraska , defeating the undeclared Reagan 71 % to 22 % . At the following primary in Oregon , Reagan seemed more willing to compete with Nixon , and Rockefeller sat out . But Nixon won with 72 % , fifty points ahead of Reagan .

In early June , Nixon continued to be regarded as the favorite to win the nomination , but observers noted that he had not yet locked up the nomination . He still faced challenges from Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald Reagan , and was not on the ballot in California , where Reagan won a large slate of delegates . Behind the scenes , Nixon staff lobbied for delegates from " favorite son " candidates , resulting , in the backing of Senator Howard Baker of Tennessee , and his 28 pledged delegates , as well as those 58 delegates supporting Senator Charles Percy of Illinois . After the assassination of Robert Kennedy , like the other candidates , Nixon took a break from campaigning . Reports suggested that the assassination all but assured his nomination . Upon returning to the trail , Nixon found that Rockefeller had begun attacking him . Rockefeller described Nixon as a man " of the old politics " who has " great natural capacity not to do the right thing , especially under pressure . " Nixon refused to respond to the jabs , stating that he would not participate in attacks . As he edged closer to the nomination , discussions about his running mate arose . Republicans in the Midwest pushed for Mayor John Lindsay of New York City . The endorsement of Nixon by Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon raised speculation that he might be chosen . Congressman George Bush of Texas and Senator Percy were also mentioned as possible selections . At the end of the month , Nixon had two thirds of the required 667 delegates necessary to win the nomination .

On July 1 , Nixon received the endorsement of Senator John G. Tower of Texas , handing him at least 40 delegates . With his nomination all but assured , Nixon 's ad team began preparing for the general election . A series of advertisements featuring question and answer sessions with Nixon and friends of campaign staffers were filmed in New York . The tapes were sent to the swing states of Illinois , Michigan , and Ohio , giving Nixon the advantage of advertising long before the Democratic Party settled on a candidate . At this time , Nixon decided with a group of legislators that " crime and disorder " would be presented as the number one issue in the nation . This continued to be a major theme of the Nixon campaign , and would continue to be used extensively during the general election . Nixon publicly announced his opposition to the military draft , proposing to replace the current system with a volunteer army encouraged with higher pay . President Eisenhower endorsed Nixon in mid @-@ July , breaking his tradition of waiting until after the primary , due to the election 's importance . By July 's end , reports circulated that Nixon had 691 probable delegates for the convention , placing him over the 667 delegate threshold , Rockefeller , however , disputed these numbers . Sources within Washington reported that Reagan caused greater concern for the Nixon campaign than Rockefeller . A possible scenario surfaced where Nixon 's southern delegates would drop their support to back the more conservative Reagan . Nonetheless , Nixon staffers believed that if such a scenario occurred , liberal Rockefeller delegates in the Northeast would support Nixon to prevent a Reagan nomination .

= = Republican National Convention = =

The 1968 Republican National Convention was held from August 5 to 9 at the Miami Beach Convention Center in Miami Beach , Florida . At the convention , Richard Nixon won the nomination for President on the first ballot with 692 delegates . Behind him finished Governor Rockefeller , second with 277 delegates , followed by Governor Ronald Reagan , in third place , having just entered the race , accruing 182 delegates . Nixon 's early nomination occurred partly because he held on to delegates in the South largely influenced by Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina , and delegate Charlton Lyons of Louisiana .

Following nomination , Nixon held his hands in the air with his trademark " V " sign of victory , delivering an acceptance speech written over the preceding weeks . In his speech , he remarked :

" Tonight I do not promise the millennium in the morning . I don 't promise that we can eradicate poverty and end discrimination in the space of four or even eight years . But I do promise action . And a new policy for peace abroad , a new policy for peace and progress and justice at home . " - Fmr . Vice President Richard Nixon , 1968 Republican Nominee for President

He called for a new era of negotiation with communist nations , and a strengthening of the criminal justice system to restore law and order . Marking himself as a champion of the American Dream , he stressed greater unity , invoking the silent majority . Nixon also discussed economics , articulating his opposition to social welfare , advocating programs designed to help African Americans start their own small businesses . By the end of his address , he promised that " the long dark night for America is about to end . "

Following the speech , Nixon formally selected Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his running mate , who received 1119 delegate votes , with the distant second being Governor Romney with 186 . Agnew was relatively unknown nationally , and was selected due to his purported appeal to African Americans , and work for the Nixon campaign after an embarrassing experience as the head of the Draft Rockefeller movement . It was later noted that the convention had featured Nixon as the centrist candidate with Rockefeller to his left and Reagan to his right . The same analysis applied to the general campaign , as commentators noted that Nixon would stand to the right of the still undecided Democratic nominee but would fall to the left of American Independent Party candidate George Wallace .

= = General election = =

As the general election season began , Nixon focused his efforts on the " big seven " states : California , Illinois , Michigan , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Texas . He hired Roger Ailes , whom he had first encountered during an appearance on the The Mike Douglas Show , to produce one hour television programs to advertise the campaign in strategic regions . The campaign also continued to use televised town hall segments throughout the campaign , which aired live , featuring real voters whom were instructed to ask tough questions , following the campaign 's belief that Nixon would respond well to such questions . Starting the ground campaign tour , during his first stop in Springfield , Illinois , he discussed the importance of unity , stating that " America [ now ] needs to be united more than any time since Lincoln . " He then traveled to Michigan , Ohio and Pennsylvania before returning to New York , meeting with Governor Rockefeller . In those Gallup polls following the convention , Nixon led Humphrey 45 % to 29 % and topped McCarthy 42 % to 37 % . At the end of the month , Hubert Humphrey narrowly won Democratic presidential nominee over McCarthy at the Democratic convention , which was filled with protest and riots . Analysts saw the Democrat 's split , along with lacking " law and order " at the convention , positioning Nixon well . Shortly before the convention and throughout the general election , Nixon received regular briefings from President Johnson on developments in the Vietnam War . The President made it clear to Nixon that he did not want the war to be politicized , to which Nixon agreed , although questioning Humphrey 's eventual compliance .

Following the Democratic convention , Nixon was consistently labeled the favorite , described as " relaxed [ and ] confident , " counter to his " unsure " self from 1960 . Even observers speculated as to the President 's possible favoring Nixon to Humphrey . In a visit to Chicago shortly after the Democratic convention , Nixon received a large welcome and ticker tape parade , with crowds estimated at several hundred thousand .

Before his visit , he called upon Senator Edward Brooke of Massachusetts , the highest ranking African American in U.S. government , to campaign with him on trips to Illinois and California . Referring to Brooke as " one of my top advisers , " he accompanied campaign stops in Chicago and San Francisco , a move critics described as an attempt to further gain favor within the African American community .

= = = September = = =

In mid @-@ September , Nixon 's running mate Spiro Agnew went on the offensive against Humphrey ; he referred to the Vice President as being " soft on Communism , " along with softness on inflation , and " law and order , " comparing him to former British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain . At this time , Nixon sent his adviser , former Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania , on a fact finding trip to Europe to gather intelligence on Western alliance and Soviet issues . In response to Humphrey 's calls for a face to face debate , Nixon remarked : " Before we can have a debate between Nixon and Humphrey , Humphrey 's got to settle his debate with himself . " Nixon campaigned in San Francisco , in front of 10 @,@ 000 supporters amidst an array of protests . The candidate took on the protesters first hand , and delivered his " forgotten American " speech , declaring that election day would be " a day of protest for the forgotten American , " a group which included those that " obey the law , pay their taxes , go to church , send their children to school , love their country and demand new leadership . " By month 's end , many in the Nixon campaign believed his election was guaranteed , beginning to prepare for the transition period , despite Nixon 's warning that " the one thing that can beat us now is overconfidence . " Gallup showed Nixon leading Humphrey 43 % to 28 % at the end of September .

= = = October = = =

In early October , commentators weighed Nixon 's advantage , arguing that placement of blame for the Vietnam War strictly on the Johnson administration was acceptable — avoiding discussion of war with the excuse that he did not want to disrupt the peace talks in Paris . However , anti @-@ war protesters heckled Nixon repeatedly on the campaign trail . Nixon addressed the American Conservative Union on October 9 , and argued that George Wallace 's American Independent Party candidacy could split the anti @-@ Administration vote , and help the Democrats . The Union decided to back Nixon over Wallace , labeling the third party candidate 's beliefs as " Populist . " As Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Edmund Muskie criticized Nixon for his connections to Strom Thurmond , Nixon continued to oppose a possible debate with Humphrey and Wallace , as well as between running mates , on the basis that he did not want to give Wallace more exposure . It was also argued that Nixon opposed debating due to his experience during the 1960 encounter with John F. Kennedy , which many cited as a factor in his defeat . In another lesson learned from 1960 , the campaign employed 100 @,@ 000 workers to oversee election day polling sites to prevent a recurrence of what many Republicans viewed as 1960 's stolen election . Nixon went on a whistle @-@ stop train tour of Ohio near the end of October . From the back of the " Nixon Victory Special " car , he bashed Vice President Humphrey as well as the Secretary of Agriculture and Attorney General of the Johnson cabinet , for farmers ' debt and rising crime . At this time , the campaign released two controversial television advertisements , juxtaposing a smiling Humphrey with images of the Vietnam War and the chaos at the 1968 Democratic National Convention ; the advertisements aroused protests from the Humphrey campaign . By October 's end , Nixon began to lose his edge over Humphrey ; Gallup showing he led 44 % to 36 % , down five points from a few weeks earlier , a decline observers attributed to Nixon 's refusal for a debate with Humphrey .

= = = November = = =

At the beginning of November , President Johnson announced that a bombing had been halted in Vietnam ; observers noted that the development significantly helped Humphrey although Nixon had endorsed such talks . At this time , Nixon operative Anna Chennault secretly spoke with the South Vietnamese , explaining that they could receive a better deal under Nixon . The charge that , along with remarks from Nixon supporter and future Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird , Johnson had deliberately misinformed Nixon during briefs angered the President . He spoke with Nixon supporters Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senator George Smathers of Florida , informing Nixon of the President 's frustration . On the Sunday preceding the election , Nixon appeared on Meet the Press , explaining that he would cooperate completely with Johnson , phoning the President shortly thereafter to personally reassure him . The final Harris poll before the election indicated that Nixon was trailing Humphrey 43 % to 40 % , but Gallup 's final poll showed Nixon leading 42 % to 40 % . On the eve of the election , Nixon and Humphrey bought time on rival television networks , Nixon appearing on NBC , Humphrey on ABC , where each made his final appeal to voters . Nixon used this appearance to counter Humphrey 's ' October surprise ' , a polling surge following the bombing halt , claiming that he had just received " a very disturbing report " , which detailed that tons of supplies were being moved into South Vietnam by the North . Humphrey labeled this charge as " irresponsible " , causing Nixon to counter that Humphrey " doesn 't know what 's going on . " Overall , Nixon spent $ 6 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 on television advertising , most of which was judged to have only reinforced supporters .

= = = Election Day = = =

On November 5 , it was a three way race between Nixon , Humphrey , and Wallace . The results were very close , and not until early the following morning could news organizations call the election . In the end , Nixon won 301 electoral votes , with Humphrey receiving 191 , and Wallace receiving 46 . In a margin 43 @.@ 42 % to 42 @.@ 72 % , Nixon edged Humphrey in the popular vote , with Wallace earning 13 @.@ 53 % . Nixon 's victory came with a margin of less than three percent in California , Illinois , and Ohio ; had Humphrey carried these three , Nixon would have lost his election . Nixon won most of the West and mid @-@ West but lost parts of the Northeast and Texas to Humphrey and lost the deep South to Wallace . After the election was conceded by Vice President Humphrey , Nixon said the following in his press conference :

" As you will probably have heard , I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President , congratulating me for winning the election . I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds ... I also told him that I know exactly how he felt . I know how it feels to lose a close one . " - President @-@ Elect Richard Nixon

= = Aftermath = =

Nixon and Agnew took office as President and Vice President during their inauguration on January 20 , 1969 . Following the election , the slogan " Bring Us Together " , referencing a poster held by a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl at a rally during his campaign , was used as a basis for the theme of his inauguration , although it would later be seized by Democrats to attack later Nixon policies . In his inaugural address , Nixon said that " the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker , " outlining the direction Nixon sought to take , such as his visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1972 , opening diplomatic relations between the two nations , and détente plus the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union , all in his first term .

While overseeing an initial escalation of American involvement in the Vietnam War , he subsequently ended U.S. involvement in 1973 , and eliminated the draft . Domestically , his administration generally embraced policies that transferred power from Washington to the states . Among other things , he initiated wars on cancer and drugs , imposed wage and price controls , enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency . Though he presided over Apollo 11 and the subsequent lunar landings , he later scaled back manned space exploration . In 1972 , he was reelected by a landslide , the largest to that date . The Watergate scandal , which would consume the larger part of his second term , resulted in his ultimate resignation on August 4 , 1974 .

= = Endorsements = =

= Cyclone Herbie =

Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record . The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the Cocos Islands on 17 May . The following day , the system was classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and intensified into a Category 1 cyclone later that day . Several hours after this upgrade , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified Herbie as Tropical Storm 21S .

On 19 May , the cyclone formed a new low pressure center and relocated roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south . Shortly thereafter , the storm began to accelerate towards the southeast and started to undergo an extratropical transition . Early on 21 May , Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay before losing its identity the following day over the Great Australian Bight . Although a weak storm , Herbie brought flooding rains and severe dust storms to portions of Western Australia . Additionally , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter broke in half amidst rough seas produced by the storm . Total losses from the storm reached A $ 20 million ( $ 15 @.@ 6 million USD ) . Due to the significant damage wrought by Herbie , the name was retired following its use .

= = Meteorological history = =

Tropical Cyclone Herbie originated from an area of low pressure on 17 May 1988 northwest of the Cocos Islands . Later that day , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low . Several hours after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 21S , having attained winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Following slight development , the system intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and was given the name Herbie by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology early on 18 May . Several hours after being named , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ) .

Around the same time , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , estimating the cyclone to have attained peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . On 19 May , satellite imagery of the system depicted that a new low pressure centre had developed roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south of the original low . Several hours after the relocation , the JTWC downgraded Herbie to a tropical depression as the system 's movement began to accelerate towards the southeast . As the storm moved at a rapid speed towards the coastline of Western Australia , it began to undergo an extratropical transition . During a 24 @-@ hour period ( 20 – 21 May ) Herbie tracked roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) , with the movement of the storm reaching 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) at times .

Late on 20 May , the JTWC ceased advisories on the system as it weakened below tropical depression status offshore . However , the Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor the system . Early on 21 May , the center of Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay with wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and a pressure of 980 hPa ( mbar ) . Due to the rapid movement of the storm , it reached the Great Australian Bight while retaining tropical characteristics despite its low @-@ latitude . Early on 22 May , the system lost its identity south of Australia as an extratropical cyclone .

= = Impact = =

Although a weak storm , its fast approach allowed for little preparation . According to officials in the coastal town of Denham , " .. the cyclone struck virtually without warning . " Most tourists staying in the region evacuated the day before Herbie 's arrival . Herbie caused moderate structural damage across Western Australia in coastal areas between Carnarvon and Denham . Banana plantations within this area also sustained extensive damage . In Denham , a storm surge of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) broke the town 's retaining wall and flooded low @-@ lying areas along the shore . Several fishing vessels were brought inland by the surge and left beached on streets once the water subsided . About 15 homes in Denham lost their roofs after wind gusts estimated at 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) battered the town . Due to the storms extratropical transition , areas south of Herbie received moderate to heavy rainfall while areas north of the center reported severe dust storms fueled by the cyclone 's high winds . Most areas affected by the storms rain recorded around 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) with isolated totals near 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The Irwin and Greenough Rivers overflowed their banks , inundating parts of Dongara . In all , the storm wrought approximately A $ 20 million worth of structural and agricultural damage in Western Australia .

Offshore , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter , the Korean Star , sustained extreme damage during the storm . Rough seas caused the hull of the ship to break and the vessel was separated into two pieces . Although the freighter was in two pieces , the ship did not sink and the wreckage of it came ashore near Cape Cuvier . No one on the ship sustained injury as all 19 crew members abandoned ship . The crew was rescued within a day of sustaining the damage and flown to Carnarvon .

In the wake of the storm , the town hall in Denham was converted into a temporary shelter for the homeless . Repair to damaged roofs and downed power lines began on 22 May . Within a few days of the storm 's passage , appeals were made for relief funds in regions affected by Herbie . As of January 2010 , Cyclone Herbie is the most recent tropical system to either directly or indirectly impact the town of Geraldton , a region that is struck by tropical cyclones once every six to eight years . Although the storm caused relatively little damage , the name Herbie was retired following its usage and will never be used again to name a tropical cyclone in the Australian region .

= Croatian independence referendum , 1991 =

Croatia held an independence referendum on 19 May 1991 , following the Croatian parliamentary elections of 1990 and the rise of ethnic tensions that led to the breakup of Yugoslavia . With 83 percent turnout , voters approved the referendum , with 93 percent in favor of independence . Subsequently , Croatia declared independence and the dissolution of its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 , but it introduced a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision when urged to do so by the European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe through the Brioni Agreement . The war in Croatia escalated during the moratorium , and on 8 October 1991 , the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . In 1992 , the countries of the European Economic Community granted Croatia diplomatic recognition and Croatia was admitted to the United Nations .

= = Background = =

After World War II , Croatia became a one @-@ party Socialist federal unit of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Croatia was ruled by the Communists and enjoyed a degree of autonomy within the Yugoslav federation . In 1967 , a group of Croatian authors and linguists published the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language , demanding greater autonomy for the Croatian language . The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and decentralization of the Yugoslav economy , culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971 , which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership . The 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units , essentially fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents .

In the 1980s , the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated , with national tension fanned by the 1986 Serbian SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina , Kosovo and Montenegro . In January 1990 , the Communist Party fragmented along national lines , with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation . In the same year , the first multi @-@ party elections were held in Croatia , with Franjo Tuđman 's win resulting in further nationalist tensions . The Croatian Serb politicians boycotted the Sabor , and local Serbs seized control of Serb @-@ inhabited territory , setting up road blocks and voting for those areas to become autonomous . The Serb " autonomous oblasts " would soon unite to become the internationally unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , intent on achieving independence from Croatia .

= = Referendum and declaration of independence = =

On 25 April 1991 , the Croatian Parliament decided to hold an independence referendum on 19 May . The decision was published in the official gazette of the Republic of Croatia and made official on 2 May 1991 . The referendum offered two options . In the first , Croatia would become a sovereign and independent state , guaranteeing cultural autonomy and civil rights to Serbs and other minorities in Croatia , free to form an association of sovereign states with other former Yugoslav republics . In the second , Croatia would remain in Yugoslavia as a unified federal state . Serb local authorities called for a boycott of the vote , which was largely followed by Croatian Serbs . The referendum was held at 7 @,@ 691 polling stations , where voters were given two ballots — blue and red , with a single referendum option each , allowing use of either or both of ballots . The referendum question proposing independence of Croatia , presented on the blue ballot , passed with 93 @.@ 24 % in favor , 4 @.@ 15 % against , and 1 @.@ 18 % of invalid or blank votes . The second referendum question , proposing that Croatia should remain in Yugoslavia , was declined with 5 @.@ 38 % votes in favor , 92 @.@ 18 % against and 2 @.@ 07 % of invalid votes . The turnout was 83 @.@ 56 % .

Croatia subsequently declared independence and dissolved ( Croatian : razdruženje ) its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 . The European Economic Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision . Croatia agreed to freeze its independence declaration for three months , initially easing tensions . Nonetheless , the Croatian War of Independence escalated further . On 7 October , the eve of expiration of the moratorium , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked Banski dvori , the main government building in Zagreb . On 8 October 1991 , the moratorium expired , and the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . That particular session of the parliament was held in the INA building on Pavao Šubić Avenue in Zagreb due to security concerns provoked by recent Yugoslav air raid ; Specifically , it was feared that the Yugoslav Air Force might attack the parliament building . 8 October is now celebrated as Croatia 's Independence Day .

= = Recognition = =

The Badinter Arbitration Committee was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) on 27 August 1991 to provide legal advice and criteria for diplomatic recognition to former Yugoslav republics . In late 1991 , the Commission stated , among other things , that Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution , and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics could not be altered unless freely agreed upon . Factors in the preservation of Croatia 's pre @-@ war borders , defined by demarcation commissions in 1947 , were the Yugoslav federal constitutional amendments of 1971 and 1974 , granting that sovereign rights were exercised by the federal units , and that the federation had only the authority specifically transferred to it by the constitution .

Germany advocated quick recognition of Croatia , stating that it wanted to stop ongoing violence in Serb @-@ inhabited areas . It was opposed by France , the United Kingdom , and the Netherlands , but the countries agreed to pursue a common approach and avoid unilateral actions . On 10 October , two days after the Croatian Parliament confirmed the declaration of independence , the EEC decided to postpone any decision to recognize Croatia for two months , deciding to recognize Croatian independence in two months if the war had not ended by then . As the deadline expired , Germany presented its decision to recognize Croatia as its policy and duty — a position supported by Italy and Denmark . France and the UK attempted to prevent the recognition by drafting a United Nations resolution requesting no unilateral actions which could worsen the situation , but backed down during the Security Council debate on 14 December , when Germany appeared determined to defy the UN resolution . On 17 December , the EEC formally agreed to grant Croatia diplomatic recognition on 15 January 1992 , relying on opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee . The Committee ruled that Croatia 's independence should not be recognized immediately , because the new Croatian Constitution did not provide protection of minorities required by the EEC . In response , the President Franjo Tuđman gave written assurances to Robert Badinter that the deficit would be remedied . The RSK formally declared its separation from Croatia on 19 December , but its statehood and independence were not recognized internationally . On 26 December , Yugoslav authorities announced plans for a smaller state , which could include the territory captured from Croatia , but the plan was rejected by the UN General Assembly .

Croatia was first recognized as an independent state on 26 June 1991 by Slovenia , which declared its own independence on the same day as Croatia . Lithuania followed on 30 July , and Ukraine , Latvia , Iceland , and Germany in December 1991 . The EEC countries granted Croatia recognition on 15 January 1992 , and the United Nations admitted them in May 1992 .

= = Aftermath = =

Although it is not a public holiday , 15 January is marked as the day Croatia won international recognition by Croatian media and politicians . On the day 's 10th anniversary in 2002 , the Croatian National Bank minted a 25 kuna commemorative coin . In the period following the declaration of independence , the war escalated , with the sieges of Vukovar and Dubrovnik , and fighting elsewhere , until a ceasefire of 3 January 1992 led to stabilization and a significant reduction of violence . The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory for Croatia as a result of Operation Storm . Present day borders of Croatia were established when the remaining Serb @-@ held areas of Eastern Slavonia were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995 , with the process concluded in January 1998 .

= Georgian scripts =

The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language : Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli . Although the systems differ in appearance , all three are unicase , their letters share the same names and alphabetical order , and are written horizontally following the standard left @-@ to @-@ right direction . Of the three Georgian writing systems , Mkhedruli ( literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " script ) was the civilian royal script of the Georgian Kingdom used for charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli is therefore the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages , whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only in ceremonial religious texts and iconography .

Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established ; however , in strictly structural terms , their alphabetical order largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet , with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds , which are grouped at the end . Originally consisting of 38 letters , Georgian is presently written in a 33 @-@ letter alphabet , as five letters are currently obsolete in that language . The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies . The Mingrelian language uses 36 , 33 of which are current Georgian letters , one obsolete Georgian letter , and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan . That same obsolete letter , plus a letter borrowed from Greek ( making 35 letters total ) , are used in writing the Laz language . The fourth Kartvelian language , Svan , is not commonly written , but when it is , it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian , with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels .

Georgian scripts hold the national status of cultural heritage in Georgia , and are currently nominated for inclusion in the UNESCO 's list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity .

= = Preview = =

= = Origins = =

The origins of the Georgian script are to this date poorly known , and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation , who designed the script and the main influences on that process .

The first version of the script attested is Asomtavruli which dates back to at least the 5th century ; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries . Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of Christianisation of a core Georgian @-@ speaking kingdom , that is , Kartli ( or Iberia in Classical sources ) . The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III ( 326 or 337 ) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430 , contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet . It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian , by monks in Georgia and Palestine . Professor Levan Chilashvili 's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions , discovered by him at the ruined town of Nekresi , in Georgia 's easternmost province of Kakheti , in the 1980s , to the 1st or 2nd century has not been universally accepted .

A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of Kartli ( ca . 800 ) , assigns a much earlier , pre @-@ Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet , and names King Pharnavaz I ( 3rd century BC ) as its inventor . This account is now considered legendary , and is rejected by scholarly consensus , as no archaeological confirmation has been found . Rapp considers the tradition to be an attempt by the Georgian Church to rebut the earlier tradition that the alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots , and is a Georgian application of an Iranian model in which primordial kings are credited with the creation of basic social institutions . Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition , in the pre @-@ Christian use of foreign scripts ( alloglottography in the Aramaic alphabet ) to write down Georgian texts .

A point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process . According to a number of scholars and medieval Armenian sources , Mesrop Mashtots , generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet , also created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets . This tradition originates in the works of Koryun , a fifth century historian and biographer of Mashtots , and has been quoted by Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell , but has been criticized by scholars , both Georgian and Western , who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation . Other scholars quote Koryun 's claims without taking a stance on its validity . Many agree , however , that Armenian clerics , if not Mashtots himself , must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script .

Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet , as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet , or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic . Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems , most notably the order and numeric value of letters . Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre @-@ Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers .

= = Asomtavruli = =

Asomtavruli ( Georgian : ასომთავრული ) is the oldest Georgian script . The name Asomtavruli means " capital letters " , from aso ( ასო ) " letter " and mtavari ( მთავარი ) " principal / head " . It is also known as Mrgvlovani ( Georgian : მრგვლოვანი ) " rounded " , from mrgvali ( მრგვალი ) " round " , so named because of its round letter shapes . Despite its name , this " capital " script is unicameral , just like the modern Georgian script , Mkhedruli .

The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century and are Bir el Qutt and the Bolnisi inscriptions .

From the 9th century , Nuskhuri script starting becoming dominant , and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced . However , epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script . Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative . In the majority of 9th @-@ century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script , Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters . Although , some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century .

= = = Form of Asomtavruli letters = = =

In early Asomtavruli , the letters are of equal height . Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli , like that of Greek , was initially boustrophedon , though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right .

In most Asomtavruli letters , straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles . The only letter with acute angles is Ⴟ ( ჯ jani ) . There have been various attempts to explain this exception . Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ , composed of the Ⴈ ( ი ini ) and Ⴕ ( ქ kani ) . According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze , the cross @-@ like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet , and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw ( ) , Greek chi ( Χ ) , and Latin X , though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician , Greek , or Latin .

Coins of Queen Tamar of Georgia and King George IV of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script , 1200 – 1210 AD .

From the 7th century , the forms of some letters began to change . The equal height of the letters was abandoned , with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders .

Note : Some fonts show " capitalized " ( tall ) variants of Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli letters rather than Asomtavruli .

= = = Asomtavruli illumination = = =

In Nuskhuri manuscripts , Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals . The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text . In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts , Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink . Later , from the 10th century , the letters were illuminated . The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text . For example , in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era , when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia , capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals .

Decorative Asomtavruli capital letters , მ ( m ) , ნ ( n ) and თ ( t ) , 12 – 13th century .

From the 11th @-@ century " limb @-@ flowery " , " limb @-@ arrowy " and " limb @-@ spotty " decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed . The first two are found in 11th- and 12th @-@ century monuments , whereas the third one is used until the 18th century .

Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself .

Asomtavruli letter დ ( doni ) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds .

The " Curly " decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other , or the smaller letters are written inside other letters . It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books , although there are compete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli " Curly " form only .

The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli " Curly " decorative form .

= = = Handwriting of Asomtavruli = = =

The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter :

= = Nuskhuri = =

Nuskhuri ( Georgian : ნუსხური ) is the second Georgian script . The name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ( ნუსხა ) , meaning " inventory " or " schedule " . Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts . The combination is called Khutsuri ( Georgian : ხუცური , " clerical " , from khutsesi ( ხუცესი " cleric " ) , and it was principally used in hagiography .

Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli . The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD . The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD . Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century .

= = = Form of Nuskhuri letters = = =

Nuskhuri letters vary in height , with ascenders and descenders , and are slanted to the right . Letters have an angular shape , with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli . This enabled faster writing of manuscripts .

→ → Asomtavruli letters ო ( oni ) and ჳ ( vie ) . A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri , უ uni .

Note : Without proper font support , you may see question marks , boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters .

= = = Handwriting of Nuskhuri = = =

The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Nuskhuri letter :

= = Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today = =

Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography , murals , and exterior design , especially in stone engravings . Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences , as in the Latin script , but it didn 't catch on . Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli . Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts .

= = Mkhedruli = =

Mkhedruli ( Georgian : მხედრული ) is the third and current Georgian script . Mkhedruli , literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " , derives from mkhedari ( მხედარი ) meaning " horseman " , " knight " , " warrior " and " cavalier " .

Like the two other scripts , Mkhedruli is purely unicameral . Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century . The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD . The second oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written text is found in the 11th @-@ century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia . Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli was used for non @-@ religious purposes only and represented the " civil " , " royal " and " secular " script .

Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts , though Khutsuri ( Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli ) was used until the 19th century . Since the 19th century , with the establishment and development of the printed Georgian fonts , Mkhedruli became universal writing Georgian outside the Church .

= = = Form of Mkhedruli letters = = =

Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters . Mkhedruli letters are written in the four @-@ linear system , similar to Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing . It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets , Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops .

Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia , 11th century .

" Gurgen : King : of Kings : great @-@ grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates "

Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli , 1187 AD .

= = = Modern Georgian alphabet = = =

The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters :

= = = Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet = = =

The Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians , founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879 , discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant :

ჱ ( he ) , sometimes called " ei " or " e @-@ merve " ( " eighth e " ) , was equivalent to ეჲ ey , as in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey ' Christ ' .

ჲ ( hie ) , also called iota , appeared instead of ი ( ini ) after a vowel , but came to have the same pronunciation as ი ( ini ) and was replaced by it . Thus ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey " Christ " is now written ქრისტეი krist 'ei .

ჳ ( vie ) came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence , as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi " others ' " .

ჴ ( qari , hari ) came to be pronounced the same as ხ ( khani ) , and was replaced by it. e.g. ჴლმწიფე became ხელმწიფე " sovereign " .

ჵ ( hoe ) was used for the interjection hoi ! and is now spelled ჰოი .

All but ჵ ( hoe ) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet ; ჲ ( hie ) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well , for the y @-@ sound / j / . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script .

= = = Letters added to other alphabets = = =

Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian . Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian , while others required additional letters :

ჶ ( fi " phi " ) is used in Laz and Svan , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian . It derives from the Greek letter Φ ( phi ) .

ჷ ( shva " schwa " ) , also called yn , is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian .

ჸ ( elifi " alif " ) is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian . It is a reversed 〈 ყ 〉 ( q 'ari ) .

ჹ ( turned gani ) was once used for [ ɢ ] in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages .

ჺ ( aini " ain " ) is occasionally used for [ ʕ ] in Bats . It derives from the Arabic letter 〈 ﻋ 〉 ( ‘ ain ) .

= = = Handwriting of Mkhedruli = = =

The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter :

ზ , ო , and ხ ( zeni , oni , khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end , while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line , ( sometimes with a taller ascender , or with a diagonal cross bar ) ; even when it is written at a diagonal , the cross @-@ bar is generally shorter than in print .

Only four letters are x @-@ height , with neither ascenders nor descenders : ა , თ , ი , ო .

Thirteen have ascenders , like b or d in English : ბ , ზ , მ , ნ , პ , რ , ს , შ , ჩ , ძ , წ , ხ , ჰ

An equal number have descenders , like p or q in English : გ , დ , ე , ვ , კ , ლ , ჟ , ტ , უ , ფ , ღ , ყ , ც

Three letters have both ascenders and descenders , like þ in Old English : ქ , ჭ , and ( in handwriting ) ჯ . წ has both ascender and descender in print , and sometimes in handwriting .

= = = = Variation = = = =

There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters . For example , the top circle of ზ ( zeni ) and the top stroke of რ ( rae ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart ( that is , counter @-@ clockwise starting at 3 o 'clock , and upwards – see the external @-@ link section for videos of people writing ) . Other common variants :

გ ( gani ) may be written like ვ ( vini ) with a closed loop at the bottom .

დ ( doni ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top , .

კ , ც , and ძ ( k 'ani , tsani , dzili ) are generally written with straight , vertical lines at the top , so that for example ც ( tsani ) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side .

ლ ( lasi ) is frequently written with a single arc , . Even when all three are written , they 're generally not all the same size , as they are in print , but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it .

Rarely , ო ( oni ) is written as a right angle , .

რ ( rae ) is frequently written with one arc , , like a Latin 〈 h 〉 .

ტ ( t 'ari ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl , rather than two small circles as in print , or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top . It may also be rotated a bit clockwise , with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top .

წ ( ts 'ili ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom , . Another variation features a triangular bowl .

ჭ ( ch 'ari ) may be written without the hook at the top , and often with a completely straight vertical line .

ჱ ( he ) may be written without the loop , like a conflation of ს and ჰ .

ჯ ( " jani " ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin " X "

= = = = Similar letters = = = =

Several letters are similar and may be confused at first , especially in handwriting .

For ვ ( vini ) and კ ( k 'ani ) , the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a ( more @-@ or @-@ less ) vertical line .

For ვ ( vini ) and გ ( gani ) , it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed ( a loop ) . The same is true of უ ( uni ) and შ ( shini ) ; in handwriting , the tops may look the same . Similarly ს ( sani ) and ხ ( khani ) .

For კ ( k 'ani ) and პ ( p 'ari ) , the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x @-@ height , and whether it 's written top @-@ down or bottom @-@ up .

ძ ( dzili ) is written with a vertical top .

= = Ligatures , abbreviations and calligraphy = =

Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters , and placed letters within letters .

A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of King Vakhtang I of Iberia , Ⴂ Ⴌ ( გნ , GN )

A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ ( და , da ) " and "

Nuskhuri , like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized . Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra , including diacritics called karagma , which resemble titla . Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious , abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century .

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი ( romeli ) " which "

A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე ( iesu kriste ) " Jesus Christ "

Mkhedruli , in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory , requiring adhesion to a complex system .

A Mkhedruli ligature of და ( da ) " and "

Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil of Imereti

= = Type faces = =

Georgian scripts come in only a single type face , though word processors can apply automatic ( " fake " ) oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text . Traditionally , Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles , where Latin script might use bold or italic type .

= = Punctuation = =

In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation , various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases , clauses , and paragraphs . In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries , these were written as dashes , like − ,

= and =

− . In the 10th century , clusters of one ( · ) , two ( : ) , three ( ჻ ) and six ( ჻ ჻ ) dots ( later sometimes small circles ) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text . One dot indicated a " minor stop " ( presumably a simple word break ) , two dots marked or separated " special words " , three dots for a " bigger stop " ( such as the appositive name and title " the sovereign Alexander " , below , or the title of the Gospel of Matthew , above ) , and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence . Starting in the 11th century , marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use . An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word , and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence . From the 12th century on , these were replaced with the semicolon ( the Greek question mark ) . In the 18th century , Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again , with commas , single dots , and double dots used to mark " complete " , " incomplete " , and " final " sentences , respectively . For the most part , Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script .

Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti , with the divider 〈 ჻ 〉

ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე

" The sovereign Alexander "

= = Summary = =

This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns , including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets ( shown with a blue background ) , obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets ( green background ) , or additional letters in languages other than Georgian ( pink background ) . The " national " transliteration is the system used by the Georgian government , whereas " Laz " is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey . The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters .

= = Use for other non @-@ Kartvelian languages = =

Ossetian language during the 1940s .

Abkhaz language during the 1940s .

Ingush language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .

Chechen language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .

Avar language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .

Turkish language and Tatar language . A Turkish Gospel , dictionary , poems , medical book dating from the 18th century .

Persian language . The 18th @-@ century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .

Armenian language . In the Armenian community in Tbilisi , the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries , and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .

Russian language . In the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries .

Other Northeast Caucasian languages . The Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century .

Old Avar crosses with Avar inscriptions in Asomtavruli script .

= = Computing = =

= = = Unicode = = =

The first Georgian script was added to the Unicode Standard in October , 1991 with the release of version 1 @.@ 0 . In creating the Georgian Unicode block , important roles were played by German Jost Gippert , a linguist of Kartvelian studies , and American @-@ Irish linguist and script @-@ encoder Michael Everson , who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems . Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili . ( not the former Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili )

Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia 's internationalized domain name script for ( .გე ) .

= = = = Blocks = = = =

The Unicode block for Georgian is U + 10A0 – U + 10FF . Mkhedruli ( modern Georgian ) occupies the U + 10D0 – U + 10FF range and Asomtavruli occupies the U + 10A0 – U + 10CF range . The Unicode block for Georgian Supplement is U + 2D00 – U + 2D2F and it encodes Nuskhuri .

= = = Keyboard layouts = = =

Below is the standard Georgian @-@ language keyboard layout , the traditional layout of manual typewriters .

= = Gallery = =

Gallery of Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts .

= = = Gallery of Asomtavruli = = =

= = = Gallery of Nuskhuri = = =

= = = Gallery of Mkhedruli = = =

= Banai ( goddess ) =

Banai ( Marathi : बाणाई Bāṇāi , sometimes बानाई ) , also known as Banu ( Bāṇu , बानू ) and Banu @-@ bai ( Bāṇu @-@ bāī , बानू @-@ बाई ) , is a Hindu goddess and the second wife of Khandoba , a form of the god Shiva worshipped in the Deccan – predominantly in the Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . Khandoba is portrayed as a king of Jejuri , where his chief temple stands . Some traditions do not give her the status of a legal wife and treat her as a concubine of Khandoba .

While scriptures related to Khandoba do not mention Banai , she is a central subject of folk songs . Banai is considered as a Dhangar , a sheep herding caste , and is sometimes regarded to be of celestial origin . Oral traditions chiefly discuss the tale of her marriage to Khandoba and her conflicts with his first wife Mhalsa . Banai is an antithesis of Mhalsa ; together they complete the god . Banai is generally depicted with Khandoba and often is also accompanied by Mhalsa .

Banai does not enjoy independent worship , but is worshipped as Khandoba 's consort in most of his temples . She is the patron goddess of the Dhangar community and is worshipped as a protector of their herds .

= = Development and symbolism = =

Though Khandoba is a god with five wives , his first two consorts Mhalsa and Banai are the most important . The tale of the King or god with two wives is retold with some variation across India : Murugan and his wives Devasena and Valli ; Venkateswara , Lakshmi and Padmavati being some examples . The motif of Shiva and his wives Parvati and Ganga is told in the Puranas .

The theme of the god marrying a tribal girl like Banai recurs across the Deccan region ; another example being Valli 's marriage to Murugan . Deities across the Deccan ( even extending to Kerala and Tamil Nadu ) often have two wives ; one wife from a high caste and another from the lower social strata : a lower caste or a tribal . Khandoba 's wives who come from various communities establish cultural linkages of the god to these communities , who worship them as their patron god .

While Banai is considered as a legal wife of Khandoba in Maharashtra ( especially with the Dhangars ) , the Kurubas of Karnataka regard her as a concubine . While Mhalsa is from the high @-@ caste Lingayat merchant ( Vani ) community , Banai is described as a Dhangar ( shepherd caste ) , representing the " outside " and associates Khandoba with non @-@ elite herding castes like Dhangars , Gavli and Kuruba ( Gowda ) who live in the forest . Some traditions consider Banai as a Gavli ( cowherd caste ) or Koli ( fisherman caste ) . In Karnataka , she is called Kurbattyavva and is a Kuruba .

Banai is an antithesis Mhalsa . Mhalsa has a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba . Banai , on the other hand , has a love marriage after being captured by the god . Mhalsa is described as pure , ugly , jealous and a good cook ; Banai is impure , erotic , resolute , but does not even know to cook . Mhalsa represents " culture " while Banai " nature " ; together they aid the god @-@ king Khandoba .

The oral legends and texts initiate a process of Sanskritization of the folk deity Khandoba by elevating him to the classical Hindu god Shiva ; his two principal wives Mhalsa and Banai are equated to Parvati and Ganga . Banai does not appear in the Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya , the main scripture related to Khandoba , however it mentions Ganga arriving from heaven . Banai ( Ganga ) has a quarrel with Mhalsa ( Parvati ) , ultimately ending with the message that both are the same . Some Dhangars consider Banai also to be a form of Parvati .

The chief source of legends related to Banai are ovi ( pada ) or folk songs sung by Vaghyas and Muralis , the male and female bards of Khandoba . They sing at jagrans ( a vigil ) where the bards sing in praise of Khandoba through the night . The songs talk about the relationship of Khandoba to his consorts and the mutual relationships of the wives . They are centred on Mhalsa and Banai and often narrate about their quarrels . The tale of the marriage of Khandoba and Banai is a central theme in many Dhangar folk songs . The Varkari saint Sheikh Muhammad ( 1560 @-@ 1650 ) disparages Khandoba in his Yoga @-@ samgrama and calls him the " mad " god that searches for Banai due to " sexual passion " , an allusion to the tale of Banai 's marriage , indicating that the tale was well @-@ established by this era .

According to scholar Günther @-@ Dietz Sontheimer , the legend of Banai has close parallels with the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala from the Hindu epic Mahabharata . The tale of another folk god Mhaskoba ( Bhairava ) to gain his wife Balurani or Balai despite obstacles is also similar to Khandoba 's endeavour to win over Banai .

= = Legends = =

Banai does not appear in the Malhari Mahatmya originating from the Brahmin ( high @-@ priest caste ) tradition , which glorifies Khandoba as Shiva and de @-@ emphasizes his earthly connections . In contrast , Banai occupies the central position in the Dhangar folk narrative and Mhalsa 's marriage to Khandoba is reduced to a passing mention ; Marathas and other settled castes give more importance to Mhalsa .

= = = Early life = = =

Generally , Banai 's birth is not discussed in the folk songs . Few regard her as an avatar of the apsara ( celestial nymph ) Rambha , while others consider her as one of the seven daughters of Indra , the king of the gods . She is found by a Dhangar in a golden box in the forest , hidden in a termite mound or a pit . Her Dhangar father ( sometimes named Yamu ) is the chief of shepherds , who owns nine lakh sheep and goats , nine lakh lambs and numerous barren ones . Yamu is said to have prayed for a child and finds Banai in a box . A virgin ewe is said to have fed Banai her milk , as Yamu does not have a wife and does not know how to feed the infant . In another miracle , a three @-@ storeyed house appears at the place of Yamu 's tent for the young Banai to reside , while the rest of the Dhangars live in tents . She grows up as a rich shepherdess and becomes the overseer of twelve Dhangar vadas ( pastoral settlements or camps , inhabited by different Dhangar clans ) . She cares for her sheep , grazes them and learns how to breed them .

= = = Marriage = = =

Once , Khandoba and Mhalsa play a game of saripat ( translated as game of dice or chess ) . Khandoba loses everything to Mhalsa in the wager , except his dhoti , his flag , his staff ( wand ) and his bhandari , the bag of magical bhandara ( turmeric powder ) . In a dream , he sees Banai and falls in love with her . He goes on a hunt in the forest , gets away from the army and stays with Banai for twelve years . He marries her in non @-@ ritualistic marriage and brings her back to Jejuri . A variant describes how Khandoba arrives in Chandanpur on a hunting expedition and becomes thirsty . A Dhangar directs him to Banai 's vada . Banai offers him water or sends a pot of water , in which Khandoba reads Banai 's name . In another version , the pot with nine jewels is a sign for Khandoba to recognise Banai , the girl he saw in his dream . He falls for her and loses purposefully in saripat with Mhalsa and accepts a twelve @-@ year exile . In this period , he disguises himself as an impoverished , old leper and becomes a man @-@ servant of Banai 's father . Some folk songs have erotic overtones , for example , some songs give erotic descriptions of Banai 's beauty which maddens Khandoba .

Khandoba is described as doing odd jobs under Banai 's orders . Banai first assigns him the task of sweeping the entire vada . He is responsible for cleaning the sheep pens and taking the sheep and lambs for grazing . He completes all tasks by spreading his magical bhandara . The shepherds are astonished how a single old man can handle all the animals . Their vanity is crushed . Banai assigns him the additional responsibility of taking care of five hundred children . She commands if any sheep or lamb is lost or a child cries , she will not give him his food . But Khandoba fulfils the tasks again by spraying his bhandara . She assigns him the job of washing the sheep and lambs . Instead , Khandoba kills all her sheep and lambs to humble the shepherds and Banai . He skins the sheep and separates the meat . A repentant Banai begs his forgiveness ; he agrees to revive her flock on the condition that Banai marries him . Khandoba revives the sheep by spreading his bhandara and reveals his true form .

The wedding is deemed not in accordance to Hindu rituals . Banai and Khandoba marry in a simple , un @-@ Brahmanical ceremony , where sheep droppings are showered on the couple , instead of rice as in the ritualistic weddings of classical ( Brahmanical ) Hinduism . The wedding is conducted without a Brahmin officiating priest . Shepherds read the mantras ( the responsibility of the Brahmin in a normal wedding ) and the bleating of sheep replaces the traditional wedding band . The wedding is sometimes described as a gandharva marriage . Due to the unceremonious nature of the wedding , she is sometimes considered as a rakh ( concubine ) of Khandoba .

= = = After marriage = = =

In all versions , Khandoba returns to Jejuri with his new wife and faces the wrath of Mhalsa . Many songs tell about the confrontations of Mhalsa and Banai . In some songs , Mhalsa complains about Khandoba 's infatuation with the impure Banai . The cantankerous Mhalsa grumbles how Banai has polluted the house by her uncouth ways and suggests that Banai should be returned to the wilderness again . The songs sing how the vegetarian , high @-@ caste Mhalsa is forced to catch fish and eat in the same plate as the non @-@ vegetarian low @-@ caste Banai . Mhalsa is portrayed blaming Banai for the problems in the palace and talking about her superiority to Banai . Banai retorts by saying that Khandoba came to her , mesmerized by her beauty and became her servant . A frustrated Khandoba leaves the palace on a hunting trip after Mhalsa and Banai quarrel about who will embroider a shawl for him and marries Rambhai . The songs also narrate how ultimately the wives have to remain in harmony and aid each other . For example , a song sings how Mhalsa and Banai come together and celebrate the festival of Diwali with Khandoba at Jejuri .

Rarely , Banai also appears in Khandoba 's chief legend where he slays the demons Mani and Malla . Mhalsa and Banai ( or Ganga ) futilely help Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani , every drop of which was creating a new demon . Finally , the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood . Rarely , Banai is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear , a role generally assigned to Mhalsa .

= = Worship and iconography = =

While traces of Banai / Balai 's association with the folk god Biroba as a " mother " remain , Banai rarely enjoys independent worship in modern times . She is generally worshipped as Khandoba 's consort . While in Karnataka , her temple is outside the village and Mailara ( as Khandoba is known in Karnataka ) journeys every year to visit it for ten nights from his temple in the village . In Maharashtra , Banai 's temple is inside the village , but outside the chief temple , as in Khandoba 's chief temple at Jejuri . Mhalsa - who is installed in the main temple - is said to resist the arrival of Khandoba 's new wife Banai and thus , Banai does not reside in the chief temple . Frustrated by the constant quarrels between the two wives , Khandoba is said to have divided the hill of Jejuri into two halves : the lower half belongs to Banai , where she has a separate shrine while Mhalsa rules the upper half where she stays with Khandoba in the main temple . It is customary to pay respects to Banai on the way up to the main shrine , before worshipping Khandoba and Mhalsa there . It is said that Khandoba bestowed the honour of first worship on Banai , while sending her off to a separate residence .

Banai is the patron goddess of the Dhangars and the protector goddess of flock and herds . She takes care of the well @-@ being of the community and is worshipped for increasing the herd . Stone votive images of sheep and other cattle are offered to her for plentiful animals . No animal sacrifice or non @-@ vegetarian offerings are presented to Khandoba directly , instead non @-@ vegetarian offerings intended for Khandoba are offered to Banai . Dhangars sacrifice rams in her honour and offer her a naivedya ( food offering ) of liver , meat and rice , especially on the holy days : Vijayadashami ( when warriors traditionally set off on war or on a journey ) and the full moon days in the Hindu months of Magha and Chaitra .

Khandoba is often depicted with two identical goddesses accompanying him , representing Mhalsa and Banai . In brass images , Banai is depicted holding a lamb and offering water to Khandoba , while Mhalsa rides with Khandoba on his horse . In metal plaques worshipped by the Dhangars , Banai accompanies Khandoba on his horse and is depicted with sheep .

= Europium =

Europium is a chemical element with symbol Eu and atomic number 63 . It was isolated in 1901 and is named after the continent of Europe . It is a moderately hard , silvery metal which readily oxidizes in air and water . Being a typical member of the lanthanide series , europium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3 , but the oxidation state + 2 is also common : all europium compounds with oxidation state + 2 are slightly reducing . Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non @-@ toxic compared to other heavy metals . Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds . Europium is one of the least abundant elements in the universe ; only about 5 × 10 − 8 % of all matter in the universe is europium .

= = Characteristics = =

= = = Physical properties = = =

Europium is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of lead . It crystallizes in a body @-@ centered cubic lattice . Some properties of europium are strongly influenced by its half @-@ filled electron shell . Europium has the second lowest melting point and the lowest density of all lanthanides .

Europium becomes a superconductor when it is cooled below 1 @.@ 8 K and compressed to above 80 GPa . This is because europium is divalent in the metallic state , and is converted into the trivalent state by the applied pressure . In the divalent state , the strong local magnetic moment ( J

= 7 / 2 ) suppresses the superconductivity , which is induced by eliminating this local moment ( J =

0 in Eu3 + ) .

= = = Chemical properties = = =

Europium is the most reactive rare earth element . It rapidly oxidizes in air , so that bulk oxidation of a centimeter @-@ sized sample occurs within several days . Its reactivity with water is comparable to that of calcium , and the reaction is

2 Eu + 6 H2O → 2 Eu ( OH ) 3 + 3 H2

Because of the high reactivity , samples of solid europium rarely have the shiny appearance of the fresh metal , even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil . Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 ° C to form europium ( III ) oxide :

4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3

Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of the hydrated Eu ( III ) , which exist as a nonahydrate :

2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 [ Eu ( H2O ) 9 ] 3 + + 3 SO2 −

4 + 3 H2

= = = = Eu ( II ) vs. Eu ( III ) = = = =

Although usually trivalent , europium readily forms divalent compounds . This behavior is unusual to most lanthanides , which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of + 3 . The + 2 state has an electron configuration 4f7 because the half @-@ filled f @-@ shell gives more stability . The + 2 state is highly reducing . In terms of size and coordination number , europium ( II ) and barium ( II ) are similar . For example , the sulfates of both barium and europium ( II ) are also highly insoluble in water . Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent , oxidizing in air to form Eu ( III ) compounds . In anaerobic , and particularly geothermal conditions , the divalent form is sufficiently stable that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths . This ion @-@ exchange process is the basis of the " negative europium anomaly " , the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite , relative to the chondritic abundance . Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite , and hence is the major source of europium today . The development of easy methods to separate divalent europium from the other ( trivalent ) lanthanides made europium accessible even when present in low concentration , as it usually is .

= = = Isotopes = = =

Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 isotopes , 151Eu and 153Eu , with 153Eu being the most abundant ( 52 @.@ 2 % natural abundance ) . While 153Eu is stable , 151Eu was recently found to be unstable to alpha decay with half @-@ life of 5 + 11

− 3 × 1018 years , giving about 1 alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium . This value is in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions . Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu , 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized , the most stable being 150Eu with a half @-@ life of 36 @.@ 9 years , 152Eu with a half @-@ life of 13 @.@ 516 years , and 154Eu with a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 593 years . All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives shorter than 4 @.@ 7612 years , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives shorter than 12 @.@ 2 seconds . This element also has 8 meta states , with the most stable being 150mEu ( t1 / 2 = 12 @.@ 8 hours ) , 152m1Eu ( t1 / 2 = 9 @.@ 3116 hours ) and 152m2Eu ( t1 / 2 = 96 minutes ) .

The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 153Eu is electron capture , and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta minus decay . The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium ( Sm ) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium ( Gd ) .

= = = = Europium as a nuclear fission product = = = =

Europium is produced by nuclear fission , but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products .

Like other lanthanides , many isotopes , especially isotopes with odd mass numbers and neutron @-@ poor isotopes like 152Eu , have high cross sections for neutron capture , often high enough to be neutron poisons .

151Eu is the beta decay product of samarium @-@ 151 , but since this has a long decay half @-@ life and short mean time to neutron absorption , most 151Sm instead ends up as 152Sm .

152Eu ( half @-@ life 13 @.@ 516 years ) and 154Eu ( half @-@ life 8 @.@ 593 years ) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are non @-@ radioactive , but 154Eu is the only long @-@ lived " shielded " nuclide , other than 134Cs , to have a fission yield of more than 2 @.@ 5 parts per million fissions . A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non @-@ radioactive 153Eu ; however , much of this is further converted to 155Eu .

155Eu ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 7612 years ) has a fission yield of 330 parts per million ( ppm ) for uranium @-@ 235 and thermal neutrons ; most of it is transmuted to non @-@ radioactive and nonabsorptive gadolinium @-@ 156 by the end of fuel burnup .

Overall , europium is overshadowed by caesium @-@ 137 and strontium @-@ 90 as a radiation hazard , and by samarium and others as a neutron poison .

= = = Occurrence = = =

Europium is not found in nature as a free element . Many minerals contain europium , with the most important sources being bastnäsite , monazite , xenotime and loparite .

Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare earth elements is known as the europium anomaly . Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks ( rocks that cooled from magma or lava ) . The nature of the europium anomaly found helps reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks .

Divalent europium ( Eu2 + ) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite ( CaF2 ) . The reduction from Eu3 + to Eu2 + is induced by irradiation with energetic particles . The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale and adjacent parts of northern England ; it was the fluorite found here that fluorescence was named after in 1852 , although it was not until much later that europium was determined to be the cause .

= = Production = =

Europium is associated with the other rare earth elements and is , therefore , mined together with them . Separation of the rare earth elements is a step in the later processing . Rare earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite , loparite , xenotime , and monazite in mineable quantities . The first two are orthophosphate minerals LnPO

4 ( Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium ) , and the third is a fluorocarbonate LnCO3F . Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium , which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive . For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides , several methods have been developed . The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate . Roasting the ore and subsequent acidic and basic leaching is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides . If cerium is the dominant lanthanide , then it is converted from cerium ( III ) to cerium ( IV ) and then precipitated . Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium . This fraction is reduced with zinc , zinc / amalgam , electrolysis or other methods converting the europium ( III ) to europium ( II ) . Europium ( II ) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as carbonate or is co @-@ precipitated with barium sulfate . Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl ( or CaCl2 ) in a graphite cell , which serves as cathode , using graphite as anode . The other product is chlorine gas .

A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production . The Bayan Obo iron ore deposit contains significant amounts of bastnäsite and monazite and is , with an estimated 36 million tonnes of rare earth element oxides , the largest known deposit . The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare earth elements in the 1990s . Only 0 @.@ 2 % of the rare earth element content is europium . The second large source for rare earth elements between 1965 and its closure in the late 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine . The bastnäsite mined there is especially rich in the light rare earth elements ( La @-@ Gd , Sc , and Y ) and contains only 0 @.@ 1 % of europium . Another large source for rare earth elements is the loparite found on the Kola peninsula . It contains besides niobium , tantalum and titanium up to 30 % rare earth elements and is the largest source for these elements in Russia .

= = Compounds = =

Europium compounds tend to exist trivalent oxidation state under most conditions . Commonly these compounds feature Eu ( III ) bound by 6 – 9 oxygenic ligands , typically water . These compounds , the chlorides , sulfates , nitrates , are soluble in water or polar organic solvent . Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate @-@ like ligands , e.g. , Eufod .

= = = Halides = = =

Europium metal reacts with all the halogens :

2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 ( X = F , Cl , Br , I )

This route gives white europium ( III ) fluoride ( EuF3 ) , yellow europium ( III ) chloride ( EuCl3 ) , gray europium ( III ) bromide ( EuBr3 ) , and colorless europium ( III ) iodide ( EuI3 ) . Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides : yellow @-@ green europium ( II ) fluoride ( EuF2 ) , colorless europium ( II ) chloride ( EuCl2 ) , colorless europium ( II ) bromide ( EuBr2 ) , and green europium ( II ) iodide ( EuI2 ) .

= = = Chalcogenides and pnictides = = =

Europium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogens , but the heavier chalcogens ( S , Se , and Te ) stabilize the lower oxidation state . Three oxides are known : europium ( II ) oxide ( EuO ) , europium ( III ) oxide ( Eu2O3 ) , and the mixed @-@ valence oxide Eu3O4 , consisting of both Eu ( II ) and Eu ( III ) . Otherwise , the main chalcogenides are europium ( II ) sulfide ( EuS ) , europium ( II ) selenide ( EuSe ) and europium ( II ) telluride ( EuTe ) : all three of these are black solids . EuS is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3 :

Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S

The main nitride is europium ( III ) nitride ( EuN ) .

= = History of study = =

Although europium is present in most of the minerals containing the other rare elements , due to the difficulties in separating the elements it was not until the late 1800s that the element was isolated . William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements and observed spectral lines later assigned to europium .

Europium was first found in 1890 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran , who obtained basic fractions from samarium @-@ gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium . However , the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène @-@ Anatole Demarçay , who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901 ; he then named it europium .

When the europium @-@ doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s , and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry , there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors , as the typical europium content in monazite is about 0 @.@ 05 % . However , the Molycorp bastnäsite deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine , California , whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0 @.@ 1 % , was about to come on @-@ line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry . Prior to europium , the color @-@ TV red phosphor was very weak , and the other phosphor colors had to be muted , to maintain color balance . With the brilliant red europium phosphor , it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors , and a much brighter color TV picture was the result . Europium has continued to be in use in the TV industry ever since as well as in computer monitors . Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo , China , with an even " richer " europium content of 0 @.@ 2 % .

Frank Spedding , celebrated for his development of the ion @-@ exchange technology that revolutionized the rare earth industry in the mid @-@ 1950s , once related the story of how he was lecturing on the rare earths in the 1930s when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide . This was an unheard @-@ of quantity at the time , and Spedding did not take the man seriously . However , a package duly arrived in the mail , containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide . The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry .

= = Applications = =

Relative to most other elements , commercial applications for europium are few and rather specialized . Almost invariably , they exploit its phosphorescence , either in the + 2 or + 3 oxidation state .

It is a dopant in some types of glass in lasers and other optoelectronic devices . Europium oxide ( Eu2O3 ) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps , and as an activator for yttrium @-@ based phosphors . Color TV screens contain between 0 @.@ 5 and 1 g of europium oxide . Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors , the luminescence of divalent europium depends on the host lattice , but tends to be on the blue side . The two classes of europium @-@ based phosphor ( red and blue ) , combined with the yellow / green terbium phosphors give " white " light , the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors . This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs . Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens . Europium is also used in the manufacture of fluorescent glass . One of the more common persistent after @-@ glow phosphors besides copper @-@ doped zinc sulfide is europium @-@ doped strontium aluminate . Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug @-@ discovery screens . It is also used in the anti @-@ counterfeiting phosphors in euro banknotes .

An application that has almost fallen out of use with the introduction of affordable superconducting magnets is the use of europium complexes , such as Eu ( fod ) 3 , as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy . Chiral shift reagents , such as Eu ( hfc ) 3 , are still used to determine enantiomeric purity .

A recent ( 2015 ) application of europium is in quantum memory chips which can reliably store information for days at a time ; these could allow sensitive quantum data to be stored to a hard disk @-@ like device and shipped around the country .

= = Precautions = =

There are no clear indications that europium is particularly toxic compared to other heavy metals . Europium chloride , nitrate and oxide have been tested for toxicity : europium chloride shows an acute intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 550 mg / kg and the acute oral LD50 toxicity is 5000 mg / kg . Europium nitrate shows a slightly higher intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 320 mg / kg , while the oral toxicity is above 5000 mg / kg . The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard .

= North @-@ Eastern Area Command ( RAAF ) =

North @-@ Eastern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . For most of its existence it covered central and northern Queensland , and Papua New Guinea . It was formed in January 1942 from the eastern part of the former Northern Area Command , which had covered the whole of northern Australia and Papua . Headquartered at Townsville , Queensland , North @-@ Eastern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . Aircraft under its control took part in the battles of Rabaul , Port Moresby and Milne Bay in 1942 , and the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in 1944 . The command continued to operate following the end of the war , before its responsibilities were subsumed in 1954 by the RAAF 's new functional command @-@ and @-@ control system ; the headquarters was disbanded two years later .

= = History = =

= = = World War II = = =

North @-@ Eastern Area Command was formed at Townsville , Queensland , on 15 January 1942 , taking over the eastern portion of what was previously Northern Area Command . Northern Area had been established on 8 May 1941 as one of the RAAF 's geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones , and covered northern New South Wales , Queensland , the Northern Territory , and Papua . The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each area was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of air bases and units within his boundary .

The outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 was the catalyst for Northern Area being split into North @-@ Western Area ( NWA ) and North @-@ Eastern Area ( NEA ) , to counter distinct threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea , respectively . Air Commodore Frank Lukis , formerly in charge of Northern Area , was NEA 's inaugural AOC , taking responsibility for RAAF operations against the Japanese in New Guinea , New Britain and surrounding islands . His headquarters staff numbered 284 . On 20 January 1942 , a force of over 100 Japanese aircraft attacked Rabaul , destroying or badly damaging six CAC Wirraways and killing or wounding eleven crewmen of No. 24 Squadron under Wing Commander John Lerew . The following day , NEA headquarters sent a signal to Lerew ordering him to keep his airfield open , to which Lerew , with only two Wirraways left , replied using the legendary ancient gladiatorial phrase to honour an Emperor : " Morituri vos salutamus " ( " We who are about to die salute you " ) . Ignoring a further message from headquarters to abandon his squadron and escape in a Lockheed Hudson bomber , on 22 January Lerew began evacuating staff to Port Moresby , New Guinea .

No. 33 Squadron , operating ex @-@ Qantas Short Empire flying boats and several smaller transports , was raised in NEA on 19 February 1942 . Earlier that month , Lukis warned higher command of the poor state of preparedness and low morale of Australian Army troops at Port Moresby , due to lack of air cover and apparent lack of interest from government echelons . On 25 February , Nos. 3 and 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters were established to coordinate fighter operations ; they were based at Townsville and Port Moresby respectively . Seventeen P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks of No. 75 Squadron , recently formed at Townsville , were deployed to Port Moresby in mid @-@ March . Commanded by Squadron Leader John Jackson , the squadron suffered heavy losses in the ensuing battle . At one point NEA headquarters gave Jackson permission to withdraw but he refused , and the squadron was eventually credited with destroying thirty @-@ five Japanese aircraft in the air and on the ground , securing Port Moresby until relieved by the 35th and 36th Squadrons of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , operating P @-@ 39 Airacobras .

Several USAAF bomber formations operated under NEA 's control in early 1942 , including A @-@ 24 Banshees of the 8th Squadron from Port Moresby , and B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the 435th Squadron ( initially known as the " Kangaroo Squadron " ) from Townsville . As of 20 April , operational authority over all RAAF combat infrastructure , including area commands , was invested in the newly established Allied Air Forces ( AAF ) Headquarters under South West Pacific Area Command ( SWPA ) . One result of this was the integration of USAAF and RAAF staff at area headquarters . According to the official history of the RAAF , though " more a diplomatic gesture than a practical method of war organisation " , it gave personnel from the two services the opportunity to quickly become acclimatised to each other and " in North @-@ Eastern Area , as an example , the atmosphere was happy and the staff extremely cooperative " . Following the Battle of the Coral Sea in May , USAAF units no longer operated under RAAF control in the NEA but were commanded directly by senior American officers of the AAF .

NEA 's operational headquarters , a reinforced concrete bunker known as Building 81 , was completed in May 1942 . Located on Green Street , Townsville , at the base of Castle Hill , it was topped with a suburban house to mislead enemy aircraft . The same month , Eastern Area Command was formed , taking control of units in New South Wales and southern Queensland from Southern Area and NEA . This left NEA in command of Nos. 24 , 33 and 76 Squadrons , as well as No. 3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Townsville ; No. 100 Squadron at Cairns ; No. 32 Squadron at Horn Island ; and Nos. 11 , 20 and 75 Squadrons , as well as No. 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , at Port Moresby . NEA 's boundaries were finetuned on 19 August : a portion of Queensland within the Barkly Tableland and the Haslingden and Heywood districts was assigned to the control of North @-@ Western Area . Lukis handed over command of NEA to Group Captain ( later Air Commodore ) Harry Cobby on 25 August . By the end of the month , the headquarters staff numbered 684 . No. 75 Squadron , replenished after its defence of Port Moresby , and No. 76 Squadron , deployed north from Townsville and also flying Kittyhawks , played what senior Australian Army commanders described as the " decisive " role in the Battle of Milne Bay in New Guinea during August and September 1942 . During the battle , Cobby exercised overall command of the RAAF units from NEA headquarters , while their efforts were coordinated on the ground by Group Captain Bill Garing , NEA 's senior air staff officer .

On 1 September 1942 , No. 9 ( Operational ) Group was formed at Port Moresby as a mobile strike force to move forward with Allied advances in the Pacific , in contrast to the static , defensive nature of the area commands . It took over all units in New Guinea previously operating under NEA Command . NEA initially retained administrative control of No. 9 Group but , on 1 January 1943 , the group was made independent of the area command and its administration became the responsibility of RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . September 1942 also saw the formation of RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , to oversee the majority of Australian flying units in the SWPA . Bostock exercised control of air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority over all Australian units . He personally coordinated operations when they involved more than one area command , for instance when the fighter squadrons of both NWA and NEA were required to repulse a major attack . No. 42 ( Radar ) Wing was formed at Townsville in February 1943 , and the following month took control of all radar stations in NEA . As of April 1943 , the area command directly controlled four squadrons tasked primarily with anti @-@ submarine warfare : No. 7 Squadron , flying Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance @-@ bombers out of Ross River ; No. 9 Squadron , a fleet co @-@ operation unit flying Supermarine Seagulls from Bowen ; and Nos. 11 and 20 Squadrons , flying reconnaissance and bombing missions with PBY Catalinas from Cairns .

In early 1943 , Japan was still believed to be capable of invading , or at least bombing , the Torres Strait islands , and NEA had only No. 7 Squadron , now operating from Horn Island , to counter the threat . It was reinforced in April by No. 84 Squadron , flying CAC Boomerang fighters . The same month , No. 72 Wing was formed at Townsville , before deploying to Merauke , New Guinea . Controlling No. 84 Squadron , No. 86 Squadron ( flying Kittyhawks ) , and No. 12 Squadron ( Vultee Vengeance dive bombers ) , the wing was responsible for Torres Strait 's air defence , as well as offensive operations against infrastructure and shipping in Dutch New Guinea . In October , No. 84 Squadron converted to Kittyhawks and transferred to the newly formed No. 75 Wing , which was given responsibility for units at Horn Island , Thursday Island , and Higgins Field on Cape York Peninsula . In February 1944 , No. 75 Wing headquarters moved from Horn Island to Higgins Field , where it was soon joined by other units under its control , Nos. 7 and 23 Squadrons ; the latter operated Vengeances until being declared non @-@ operational in June , prior to re @-@ equipping with B @-@ 24 Liberators for duty in North @-@ Western Area . By May , NEA 's order of battle on the Australian mainland consisted of Nos. 7 , 9 , 13 ( operating Lockheed Venturas from Cooktown ) , 20 and 23 Squadrons .

Cobby served as AOC NEA until November 1943 , handing over to Air Commodore John Summers , who held command for the remainder of the war . By the end of November , NEA headquarters staff numbered 499 , including ninety @-@ seven officers . NEA 's Catalinas joined aircraft of No. 9 Group in support of the US invasion of New Britain in December 1943 and January 1944 . The Catalinas also conducted mine @-@ laying operations around the Timor Sea in the lead @-@ up to the landings at Hollandia and Aitape in April 1944 . In August , No. 76 Wing headquarters , formed at Townsville in January and subsequently based at Cairns , was transferred to Darwin , Northern Territory . There it came under the control of NWA headquarters and oversaw operations by three Catalina squadrons , including No. 20 . The same month , No. 75 Wing was disbanded and its units became the direct responsibility of NEA headquarters . No. 42 Wing disbanded in October 1944 , following a decision to assign control of RAAF radar stations to mobile fighter control units or similar formations . By the end of February 1945 , NEA headquarters staff numbered 743 , including 127 officers . No. 72 Wing headquarters transferred to Townsville in May that year , and disbanded the following month .

= = = Post @-@ war activity and disbandment = = =

Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , SWPA was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational formations , including the area commands . By the end of the month , NEA headquarters staff numbered 526 , including ninety @-@ eight officers . The Air Force shrank dramatically as personnel were demobilised and units disbanded ; most of the RAAF 's bases and aircraft employed in operations after the war were situated within Eastern Area 's sphere of control in New South Wales and southern Queensland . In September 1946 , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , proposed reducing the five extant mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania . The Australian Government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries essentially remained in place . By 1949 , NEA headquarters was located in Sturt Street , Townsville . No. 10 Squadron was based at Townsville from March that year , operating Avro Lincolns over the Pacific and Australia 's northern approaches in the maritime reconnaissance and search @-@ and @-@ rescue roles . Air Commodore Ian McLachlan was appointed AOC NEA in September 1951 and served two years in the post before handing over to acting Air Commodore Patrick Heffernan .

Commencing in October 1953 , the RAAF was reorganised from a geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control system into one based on function . In February 1954 , the newly constituted functional organisations — Home , Training , and Maintenance Commands — assumed control of all operations , training and maintenance from North @-@ Eastern Area Command . NEA headquarters remained in existence , but only as one of Home Command 's " remote control points " . It was finally disbanded on 3 December 1956 , and was succeeded by Headquarters RAAF Townsville .

As of 2009 , the former NEA headquarters in Building 81 , Green Street , housed Townsville 's State Emergency Service group .

= = Order of battle = =

As at 30 April 1942 , NEA 's order of battle comprised :

RAAF Station Townsville

No. 24 ( General Purpose ) Squadron

No. 33 ( Transport ) Squadron

No. 76 ( Fighter ) Squadron

RAAF Station Amberley

No. 23 ( General Purpose ) Squadron

RAAF Station Port Moresby

No. 11 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron

No. 20 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron

No. 32 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron

No. 75 ( Fighter ) Squadron

No. 3 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Townsville

No. 4 Fighter Sector Headquarters , Port Moresby

= Cape lobster =

The Cape lobster , Homarinus capensis , is a species of small lobster that lives off the coast of South Africa , from Dassen Island to Haga Haga . Only a few dozen specimens are known , mostly regurgitated by reef @-@ dwelling fish . It lives in rocky reefs , and is thought to lay large eggs that have a short larval phase , or that hatch directly as a juvenile . The species grows to a total length of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and resembles a small European or American lobster ; it was previously included in the same genus , Homarus , although it is not very closely related to those species , and is now considered to form a separate , monotypic genus – Homarinus . Its closest relatives are the genera Thymops and Thymopides .

= = Distribution and ecology = =

The Cape lobster is endemic to South Africa . It occurs from Dassen Island , Western Cape in the west to Haga Haga , Eastern Cape in the east , a range of 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) . Most of the known specimens were regurgitated by fish caught on reefs at depths of 20 – 40 metres ( 66 – 131 ft ) . This suggests that the Cape lobster inhabits rocky substrates , and may explain its apparent rarity , since such areas are not amenable to dredging or trawling , and the species may be too small to be retained by lobster traps .

= = Description = =

Homarinus capensis is considerably smaller than the large northern lobsters of the Atlantic Ocean , Homarus gammarus ( the European lobster ) and Homarus americanus ( the American lobster ) , at 8 – 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) total length , or 4 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) carapace length . Accounts of the colouration of H. capensis are very variable , from tawny , red or yellow to " a rather dark olive " , similar to Homarus gammarus .

Homarinus and Homarus are considered to be the most plesiomorphic genera in the family Nephropidae . Nonetheless , the Cape lobster differs from Homarus in a number of characters . The rostrum of the Cape lobster is flattened , while that of Homarus is rounded in section , and curves upwards at the tip . The three pairs of claws are covered with hairs in Homarinus , while those of Homarus are hairless . The telson tapers along its length in Homarus , but has sides which are nearly parallel in Homarinus . Although no egg @-@ bearing females have been collected , the gonopores ( openings of the oviducts ) of female Cape lobsters are much larger than those of Homarus gammarus and Homarus americanus . This is thought to indicate that Homarinus bears fewer , larger eggs than Homarus , and that either the larvae develop quickly into juveniles after hatching , or that the eggs hatch directly into juveniles .

= = Taxonomy and evolution = =

Cape lobsters are elusive and rare , with only fourteen specimens having been collected between 1792 ( the date of its first description ) and 1992 . These include five males in the collections of the South African Museum ( Cape Town ) , two in the Natural History Museum ( London ) , one in each of the East London Museum , the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie ( Leiden ) and the Albany Museum ( Grahamstown ) , and one male and one female in the Muséum national d 'histoire naturelle ( Paris ) . In 1992 , a Cape lobster was discovered at Dassen Island , and the publicity the find generated resulted in more than 20 additional specimens being reported .

The Cape lobster was first described by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1792 as Cancer ( Astacus ) capensis . It was independently described in 1793 by Johan Christian Fabricius as Astacus flavus , possibly based on the same type specimen . When Friedrich Weber erected the genus Homarus in 1795 , he included Fabricius ' species in it , but this placement was not followed by later authors . The species reached its current classification in 1995 , when the monotypic genus Homarinus was erected by Irv Kornfield , Austin B. Williams and Robert S. Steneck .

While analyses of morphology suggest a close relationship between Homarinus and Homarus , molecular analyses using mitochondrial DNA reveal that they are not sister taxa . Both genera lack ornamentation such as spines and carinae , but are thought to have reached that state independently , through convergent evolution . The closest living relative of Homarus is Nephrops norvegicus , while the closest relatives of Homarinus are Thymops and Thymopides .

= A4232 road =

The A4232 , which is also known either as the Peripheral Distributor Road ( PDR ) ( Welsh : Ffordd Ddosbarthu Ymylol ) or the Cardiff Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Caerdydd ) , is a distributor road in Cardiff , the capital of Wales .

The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road in 1978 and the last section was the Butetown Link Road in 1995 . Construction of the first phase of the final link road , the Eastern Bay Link Road , started on 17 March 2016 and is due to be completed by April 2017 . When fully completed , the road will form part of the Cardiff ring road system . The PDR runs west , south and east of Cardiff , with the M4 between junction 30 and junction 33 completing the northern section . The PDR is dual carriageway for its entire length except for the East Moors Viaduct , which is a single carriageway .

The PDR has been constructed in separate link roads of between 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) and 5 @.@ 47 km ( 3 @.@ 40 mi ) around Cardiff and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs have been opened to traffic , with plans for a further 5 @.@ 53 km ( 3 @.@ 44 mi ) . It has 4 large viaducts ( Ely Viaduct , Grangetown Viaduct , Taff Viaduct and the East Moors Viaduct ) , 1 tunnel ( Queen 's Gate Tunnel ) and 2 spur roads ( Cogan Spur and Central Link Road ) . The road also has many smaller bridges over or under most of the interchanges on the road . The entire length of the road has clearway restrictions on it .

= = History = =

The road was conceived in the early 1970s and planning began in the late 1970s , by South Glamorgan County Council . The road at that stage was planned to be completed by 1995 and would relieve Ely , Grangetown , Butetown and East Moors of through traffic and as a fast link to the national motorway network via the M4 and A48 ( M ) . The first section of the PDR to be completed was the Southern Way Link Road between Newport Road ( A4161 road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 and the last section of the PDR , the Butetown Link Road , was opened to the public in 1995 .

The former chairman of the South Glamorgan County Council environment committee , Councillor Paddy Kitson , called the road a " necklace of opportunity " due to its shape and also the opportunities for regeneration . By 1 April 1996 the responsibility for the road was transferred from South Glamorgan County Council to the unitary authority of Cardiff Council . Much of the funding for the road had been grant aided from the European Community and the UK Government on the basis that it would improve the economic viability of the area and bring in new jobs and industry . However , since the completion of the Butetown Link Road , funding for further developments have been at a stand still , and to date 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) including spurs are open to traffic with plans for a further 5 @.@ 53 km ( 3 @.@ 44 mi ) . The " missing link " , the Eastern Bay Link Road , is still to be built .

= = Route description = =

The PDR has 3 separate sections ; the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 J33 ) to Queen 's Gate roundabout , the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( A48 ) and the Pontprennau Interchange ( A48 ) to the Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 J30 ) .

The section from the Capel Llanilltern Interchange on the M4 ( junction 33 ) to the Queen 's Gate roundabout is sometimes referred to as the Western Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Gorllewin ) , is 15 @.@ 77 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 80 mi ) in length and includes the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road , Ely Link Road , Grangetown Link Road and Butetown Link Road . For the majority of this section it is the boundary between the City of Cardiff to the east and the Vale of Glamorgan to the west .

This section partly opened in 1978 , from the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout to the Llanedeyrn Interchange on the A48 is oldest section of the PDR . It includes only the Southern Way Link Road , known locally as Southern Way , and is 2 @.@ 25 km ( 1 @.@ 40 mi ) in length .

The Pentwyn Link Road section from the Pontprennau Interchange on the A48 to the Pentwyn Interchange on the M4 ( junction 30 ) is one of the newer sections of the PDR , having been opened in 1984 , it is 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) in length . The road between the Llanedeyrn Interchange to the Pontprennau Interchange is the A48 ( Eastern Avenue ) , it too is a dual carriageway and is a concurrent road with the PDR , there are no plans to renumber this section of the A48 .

= = Link roads = =

A map of all the link roads and spur roads can be seen by clicking Map of all coordinates opposite

Each section of the road was completed in separate link roads .

= = = Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road = = =

The GB £ 14 @.@ 5 million Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Capel Llanilltern – Croes Cwrlwys ) , also known as the A4232 Trunk Road ( as it is the only section of the PDR which is a trunk road ) , between the Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( 51 @.@ 506481 ° N 3 @.@ 310425 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 506481 ; -3.310425 ﻿ ( Capel Llanilltern Interchange ( M4 J33 ) ) ) and the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.@ 466350 ° N 3 @.@ 271110 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 466350 ; -3.271110 ﻿ ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) was opened in 1985 . It was designed to provide a by @-@ pass for traffic from the M4 to the Vale of Glamorgan . It is 5 @.@ 47 km ( 3 @.@ 40 mi ) in length and includes the Ely Viaduct close to Michaelston @-@ super @-@ Ely . The trunk road is maintained by the South Wales Trunk Road Agency ( SWTRA ) on behalf of the Welsh Assembly Government ( WAG ) . The remainder of the PDR is a primary route , which is maintained by Cardiff Council . In 2006 variable message signs were installed on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road by Techspan Systems to display messages giving motorists warning of road and weather conditions , accidents , congestion and major events held in the area .

= = = = Ely Viaduct = = = =

The Ely Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Trelái ) crosses over the River Ely and also the main South Wales railway line .

The viaduct is a 538 ft ( 164 m ) twin @-@ box girder and has central span of 230 ft ( 70 m ) and 150 ft ( 46 m ) side spans , constructed by the balanced cantilever method . It was constructed in segments each weighing between 54 tons for plain segments to 93 tons for the main segments .

= = = Ely Link Road = = =

The Ely Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Trelái ) between the Culverhouse Cross Interchange ( 51 @.@ 465840 ° N 3 @.@ 269895 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 465840 ; -3.269895 ﻿ ( Culverhouse Cross Interchange ) ) and the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.@ 470641 ° N 3 @.@ 211762 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 470641 ; -3.211762 ﻿ ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) , sometimes referred to as the Leckwith Road Interchange . It is 4 @.@ 83 km ( 3 @.@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened in 1982 and built by Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd ( DMD ) . It was designed to relieve Ely of through traffic and partly cuts into Leckwith Hill .

= = = Grangetown Link Road = = =

The 2 @.@ 89 km ( 1 @.@ 80 mi ) Grangetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Trelluest ) between the Leckwith Interchange ( 51 @.@ 470159 ° N 3 @.@ 211239 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 470159 ; -3.211239 ﻿ ( Leckwith Interchange ) ) and the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453510 ° N 3 @.@ 185760 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 453510 ; -3.185760 ﻿ ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) was opened on 3 May , 1988 . It includes the Grangetown Viaduct .

= = = = Grangetown Viaduct = = = =

The Grangetown Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Trelluest ) is approximately 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in length and is said to be the longest glued segmental bridge in the United Kingdom . It has 13 spans of 71 meters ( 233 ft ) with 2 end spans of 38 m ( 125 ft ) and 46 m ( 151 ft ) .

The viaduct was designed by South Glamorgan County Council . Robert Benaim and Associates , now called Benaim UK Ltd designed the initial launching system for the glued segmental structure .

= = = Butetown Link Road = = =

The 2 @.@ 57 km ( 1 @.@ 60 mi ) Butetown Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Butetown ) between the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453585 ° N 3 @.@ 184044 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 453585 ; -3.184044 ﻿ ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) and the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 467873 ° N 3 @.@ 157455 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 467873 ; -3.157455 ﻿ ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) was opened on 27 March , 1995 by Neil Kinnock at the time the European Commissioner for Transport . Construction of the link road commenced on 15 October 1993 and it was the last link road to be built . It includes the Taff Viaduct , also known as the Butetown Link Road Bridge , and the Queen 's Gate Tunnel , which is also known simply as the Butetown Tunnel .

In 1987 South Glamorgan County Council had intended to build a viaduct cross the River Taff and then go onto an elevated section through Butetown " on stilts " . But the newly formed Cardiff Bay Development Corporation along with local residents objected to the scheme that they said would cut through Butetown and split the community , creating an unnecessary physical barrier between the two areas to the north and south of the link road . By 1988 South Glamorgan County Council had agreed to change the design of the link road , despite having already spent 6 years of design work on the link road meant that a tunnel had to be built instead . The cost of the Butetown Link Road was estimated to cost £ 35 million , but this had risen to £ 45M in 1988 , before the design change .

The contract to build the Butetown Link Road was eventually won by a local company Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd in a joint venture with an Italian contractor , Cogefar @-@ Impresit UK Ltd . The bid of £ 60 million undercut all other bids by £ 10 million , Davies Middleton & Davies Ltd have subsequently gone into administrative receivership .

= = = = Queen 's Gate Tunnel = = = =

The Queen 's Gate Tunnel ( Welsh : Twnnel Porth y Frenhines ) , also known as the Butetown Tunnel , is underneath southern Butetown and follows a line underneath the Wales Millennium Centre . The 715 m ( 2 @,@ 346 ft ) twin tunnel was constructed using the cut and cover method of construction , which involves digging a trench for the tunnel and then roofing it over . The tunnel was constructed using reinforced concrete and a central wall separates the two sets of traffic .

South Glamorgan County Council originally awarded the contract for the management , installation , testing and commissioning of all electrical and mechanical services for the tunnel , and the water pumping stations to EI · WHS Ltd . They still maintain the tunnel on behalf of Cardiff Council .

= = = = Taff Viaduct = = = =

Construction of the 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) Taff Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Tâf ) includes a dual @-@ carriageway roadway plus a foot and cycle path . South Glamorgan County Council was the local authority in charge of the project at the time and construction of the viaduct began in March , 1991 . The Taff Viaduct crosses the River Taff at Cardiff Bay .

The viaduct was constructed using precast concrete segments , which is widely used in the construction industry for medium to long span viaducts . Segments were made in a casting yard near the site and then transported for final assembly of the viaduct .

= = = Eastern Bay Link Road = = =

Construction began on 17 March 2016 on the 5 @.@ 25 km ( 3 @.@ 26 mi ) Eastern Bay Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Ddwyreiniol y Bae ) which will run from the Queen 's Gate Roundabout to the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout on the Southern Way Link Road , although at present only the first phase between Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 468090 ° N 3 @.@ 156193 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 468090 ; -3.156193 ﻿ ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and Ocean Way Interchange . ( 51 @.@ 472328 ° N 3 @.@ 144107 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 472328 ; -3.144107 ﻿ ( Ocean Way Interchange ) ) The link road will be a two lane dual carriageway with a 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) speed limit .

For many years this link road has been mothballed due to the costs involved . The link road had previously been known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 1 and 3 , but it also included the East Moors Viaduct , which was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 . Later it became known as the Cardiff Bay Link Road , then renamed the Eastern Bay Link Road .

The Eastern Bay Link Road , along with other schemes have been subject to many planning proposals since the last link road ( the Butetown Link Road ) was finished in 1995 , namely a local transport plan ( Local Transport Plan 2000 – 2016 ) in August 2000 , a green paper ( A Change of Gear ) in December 2002 and a white paper ( Keeping Cardiff Moving ) in May 2003 . The cost of the link road was estimated to cost GB £ 162 million in 2001 and this increased to GB £ 180 million by August 2002 . It could be paid for by congestion charging , although a public @-@ private partnership is also possible .

The original route of the link road had been challenged by both Friends of the Earth Cymru , and also the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ( RSPB ) , who had both lodged formal objections against the link road . However , the current proposal from Cardiff Council of 31 October 2006 is to complete the first phase of the road , approximately 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in length , from the Butetown Link Road to Ocean Way roundabout . The new route would be a different route from the earlier proposal and would avoid any encroachment into the nature conservation area , which Friends of the Earth and the RSPB had objected to . Therefore , the new route of the link road should ensure that there are no objections .

It was revealed on 14 June 2013 that Edwina Hart , Minister for Economy , Science and Transport in the WAG supported the completion the Eastern Bay Link Road . She said that the link road would ; improve access to Cardiff Bay , improve access to the Cardiff Central Enterprise Zone and enhance connections within the Cardiff City Region . The overall objectives of the road would be to :

Increase accessibility from east Cardiff to major employment sites in the East Moors area , Cardiff Bay and the Central Cardiff Enterprise Zone

Provide a more direct route between the Butetown Tunnel and Rover Way

Reduce congestion at the junctions on Tyndall Street by removing traffic currently using the Ocean Way- East Tyndall Street – Central Link route

Reduce journey times for private and commercial road users

Help economic regeneration

Enhance road safety and reduce casualties

Improve resilience on the strategic road network around Cardiff

Provide more opportunities for cycling and walking

On 2 May 2014 , Edwina Hart approved the procurement of the design – build contractor , advance service diversion works and communications arrangements for the Eastern Bay Link Road . Construction of this first phase of the Eastern Bay Link Road is due to begin in 2015 and will take 18 months to complete . In April 2015 , it was announced by the Welsh Government that the 1 @.@ 2 km £ 27.3m Eastern Bay Link Road from the incomplete flyover at the Queens Gate roundabout to the Ocean Way roundabout at Tremorfa known as the " roundabout to nowhere " , would be designed by Capita Property and Infrastructure and constructed by Dawnus Construction Holdings and Ferrovial Agroman UK in a joint venture . Construction began on the link road on 17 March 2016 .

= = = Southern Way Link Road = = =

The Southern Way Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt y Ffordd Deheuol ) , generally known simply as Southern Way , was built in two parts ; the first section of Southern Way to be completed was between Newport Road ( A4161 road ) and the Eastern Avenue ( A48 road ) in 1978 . The final section of the link road was built between Newport Road and the Rover Way – Lamby Way roundabout and was opened in 1984 at a cost of £ 9 million and includes the East Moors Viaduct , which is also known as the Southern Way Flyover . In 1987 it was envisaged that the present single @-@ carriage would be " twinned " as a dual @-@ carriageway , the same as the rest of the PDR . The 2 @.@ 25 km ( 1 @.@ 40 mi ) link road now runs from the Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 493127 ° N 3 @.@ 133759 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 493127 ; -3.133759 ﻿ ( Rover Way – Lamby Way Roundabout ) ) to the Llanedeyrn Interchange ( 51 @.@ 507202 ° N 3 @.@ 145853 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 507202 ; -3.145853 ﻿ ( Llanedeyrn Interchange ) ) on the A48 .

= = = = East Moors Viaduct = = = =

The 900 m ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) East Moors Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Rhostiroedd y Dwyrain ) , which is also known as the Southern Way Flyover , was also designed by Robert Benaim and Associates who won the ICE ( Institution of Civil Engineers ) Project Award and also a Concrete Society Commendation , both in 1985 for work on the viaduct . The viaduct was constructed by concrete box girder deck of segmental construction . The East Moors Viaduct was originally known as the East Moors Link Road – Phase 2 , but now forms part of the Southern Way Link Road .

= = = Pentwyn Link Road = = =

The Pentwyn Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Pentwyn ) , which is also known as the North Pentwyn Link Road , runs from the Pontprennau Interchange ( 51 @.@ 528660 ° N 3 @.@ 130240 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 528660 ; -3.130240 ﻿ ( Pontrennau Interchange ) ) on the A48 and the Pentwyn Interchange ( 51 @.@ 541525 ° N 3 @.@ 128749 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 541525 ; -3.128749 ﻿ ( Pentwyn Interchange ( M4 J30 ) ) ) on the M4 ( junction 30 ) . It is 1 @.@ 61 km ( 1 @.@ 00 mi ) in length and was opened by John Redwood MP , the Secretary of State for Wales on 20 June , 1994 . It provides a link between the Eastern Avenue ( A48 ) and the M4 so that westbound traffic from the east of the city can get onto the M4 without having to go through the city , via the A48 and A470 . In addition it also provides access to the community of Pontprennau to the national road network . This link was financed by private developers as part of a large scale housing development at Pontprennau .

= = Public Art & Commemorative Stones = =

= = Spur roads = =

= = = Cogan Spur ( A4055 ) = = =

The Cogan Spur , which is also known as the Cogan Link ( Welsh : Gyswllt Cogan ) , from the Ferry Road Interchange ( 51 @.@ 453519 ° N 3 @.@ 184876 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 453519 ; -3.184876 ﻿ ( Ferry Road Interchange ) ) to Barons Court Junction ( 51 @.@ 447910 ° N 3 @.@ 189787 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 447910 ; -3.189787 ﻿ ( Barons Court Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened in 1988 . It is only 0 @.@ 8 km ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) , but it is an important link to provide access to the PDR from Penarth and the southern part of the Vale of Glamorgan . It also bypasses Penarth Road ( A4160 ) for traffic going in and out of Cardiff city centre .

The most recent development , which began at the end of 2006 and into 2007 was the widening of the road between the Cogan Viaduct and the Ferry Road Interchange to a 3 @-@ lane dual @-@ carriageway . A new junction was also built for the Cardiff International Sports Village directly from Cogan Spur ; also the Barons Court roundabout was replaced by a signal controlled crossroad . The main contractor for this project was Laing O 'Rourke Civil Engineering .

= = = = Cogan Viaduct = = = =

The Cogan Viaduct ( Welsh : Traphont Cogan ) is the most important element of the Cogan Spur as it crosses the River Ely with a central span of 95 metres ( 312 ft ) . In total it has 6 spans ; 40 m ( 130 ft ) , 60 m ( 200 ft ) , 60 m , 60m , 95 m and 60 m . It is made from a multi @-@ span glued segmental structure of rectangular box sections . In all over 300 sections were used to construct the viaduct , each weighing from 43 to 117 tonnes . The Cogan Viaduct was again designed by South Glamorgan County Council , who won a Concrete Society Commendation in 1989 for the design .

= = = Central Link Road ( A4234 ) = = =

The £ 8 @.@ 5 million Central Link ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Canolog ) between the Queen 's Gate Roundabout ( 51 @.@ 468399 ° N 3 @.@ 157366 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 468399 ; -3.157366 ﻿ ( Queen 's Gate Roundabout ) ) and the junction on Adam Street ( 51 @.@ 479557 ° N 3 @.@ 167631 ° W ﻿ / 51 @.@ 479557 ; -3.167631 ﻿ ( Adam Street Junction ) ) on the A4160 was opened on 16 February 1989 . When it was first opened it only linked Cardiff city centre with Cardiff Bay . It was not until the Butetown Link was opened on 27 March 1995 that this road started to be used as a link to the motorway network , Penarth and the Vale of Glamorgan . It will not be until the Eastern Bay Link is built , when traffic from the city centre will use it to travel east , that it will be fully used . The length of the A4234 is just 1 @.@ 45 km ( 0 @.@ 90 mi ) and is entirely a two lane dual carriageway with clearway restrictions .

= = Abandoned spur roads = =

= = = Ely Spur = = =

The Ely Spur was planned to run from a new interchange on the Ely Link Road to the Ely Bridge Roundabout on the A48 . It was only 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) in length , but it would have reduced through traffic in the residential area of Ely , namely on Cowbridge Road West traveling to and from the A48 . But it has now been announced that this proposal has now been officially abandoned .

= = = Cardiff Airport Link Road = = =

The Cardiff Airport Link Road ( Welsh : Ffordd Gyswllt Maes Awyr Caerdydd ) was a proposed spur road off of the A4232 through to Cardiff Airport , when plans for the road were scrapped by the WAG in June 2009 . The current single carriageway A4050 road , from Cardiff to Cardiff Airport is also the main road from Barry to Cardiff and is the main commuter route .

One of the 4 proposed schemes involved a new major highway route linking the Ely Link Road ( PDR ) , south of the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , through to the A4226 north of Barry . The estimated cost of this scheme would have been £ 96m , including the widening of the A4232 .

= = Services = =

The PDR has two service stations for motorists , one at Cardiff West on the Capel Llanilltern Interchange and the other at Cardiff Gate on the Pentwyn Interchange . The services at Cardiff West includes Esso petrol , a Travelodge , Burger King , Costa Coffee and W H Smith , while the services at Cardiff Gate includes petrol , Burger King , W H Smith and also Coffee Primo .

Traffic Wales is the Welsh Government 's traffic information service , it is a partnership between the Welsh Government , the two Trunk Road Agents ( South Wales TRA / Norh & Mid Wales TRA ) and the WTTC consultancy Amey . In South Wales the service is managed from the South Wales Traffic Management Centre , also home to INRIX Media 's studio , providing live travel information for the media . The Traffic Wales website has five live traffic webcams on the Capel Llanilltern – Culverhouse Cross Link Road ( Trunk Road ) and the images are updated every 5 minutes . Traffic Wales also operates a Traffic Information Hotline , motorists can use this telephone service by dialling an 0845 number , which gives up to date traffic information and travel advice .

= = Traffic congestion = =

Since the western link roads were built , a number of major developments have been built , such as the Cardiff Bay Retail Park , IKEA , Celtic Gateway , Cardiff International Sports Village that includes the Cardiff International Pool , Cardiff International White Water and Cardiff Arena , which have all generated additional traffic at the Ferry Road Interchange . In addition , the Leckwith development , which includes Cardiff City Stadium , Cardiff International Sports Stadium and the Capital Retail Park with a new Asda supermarket , have also significantly increased traffic on the Leckwith Interchange . At the Culverhouse Cross Interchange , older developments such as the Brooklands Retail Park , Wenvoe Retail Park and Valegate Retail Park , including Tesco and Marks & Spencer have also significantly increased congestion along with commuter traffic from the Vale of Glamorgan . From 1989 to 1997 there had been an increase in traffic of 78 % and a further increase of 35 % by 2016 is predicted by the Assembly . The Vale of Glamorgan Council also expressed reservations about the new developments of the Cardiff International Sports Village and the Cardiff City Stadium , which includes the Capital Retail Park . On 18 October , 2006 , the council requested that the WAG assess the existing traffic conditions and future growth in traffic on the network .

= = Popular culture = =

The Queen 's Gate Tunnel was featured in the first ever episode of Torchwood , called " Everything Changes " and was first broadcast by BBC Three on 22 October 2006 . The Grangetown Link was featured in the 2006 Christmas episode of Doctor Who called " The Runaway Bride " . It was first broadcast by BBC One on 25 December 2006 .

= Development of Fez =

The high @-@ profile and protracted five @-@ year development of Fez led to its status as an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " . The 2012 puzzle platform game built around rotating between four 2D views of a 3D space was developed by indie developer Polytron Corporation and published by Polytron , Trapdoor , and Microsoft Studios . Over the course of the game 's development , Fez designer and Polytron founder Phil Fish received celebrity for his outspoken public persona and prominence in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , which followed the game 's final stages of development and Polytron 's related legal issues . The game was released to critical acclaim as an Xbox Live Arcade timed exclusive , and was later ported to other platforms . It had sold one million copies by the end of 2013 .

Fish and Shawn McGrath collaborated on a puzzle game that became Fez . When McGrath left the project due to creative differences , Fish , the game 's artist , pursued a platform game direction with Renaud Bédard , the game 's programmer , who wrote the game 's level editor and game engine from scratch . Levels were built in 3D by extruding surfaces with Photoshop @-@ created textures . Bédard and Fish were joined by three different animators and other collaborators . The game was first announced in June 2007 and won an award at the 2008 Independent Games Festival and entered the public spotlight . Fish created a studio , Polytron Corporation , and was later aided by nearby developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor when Polytron ran out of money . Fez won several more prerelease awards , including the 2012 Seumas McNally Grand Prize .

= = History = =

Fez 's development cycle developed a reputation for its protracted five @-@ year length and public exposure . Nathan Grayson of VG247 likened the game 's rocky development process to " an indie Duke Nukem Forever " . Polygon reviewer Arthur Gies wrote that the game was an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " for four years prior to its release . The game 's designer , Phil Fish , became renowned in a way unusual for game developers due to his prominence in Indie Game : The Movie , which released in 2012 . While the game was released to wide acclaim , Fish himself became known for his outspoken and acerbic public persona .

The game that became Fez began in a collaboration between Montreal @-@ based Phil Fish and Toronto @-@ based Shawn McGrath on McGrath 's idea for a puzzle game : a four @-@ sided 3D space with each side in 2D , similar to Fish 's 3D pixels ( voxels ) as incorporated into Fez . The entirety of Fez 's design , lore , and art descends from this game mechanic . Fish provided the project 's art and credited his influence to Shigeru Miyamoto and Hayao Miyazaki . Fish and McGrath 's partnership crumbled due to creative differences , as Fish wanted to create a platform game . Fish continued to work on the game in his spare time and announced his search for a programmer on DeviantArt , and the first person to reply , Renaud Bédard , became lead programmer . They were both the same age and living in Montreal . Though Bédard had some hobbyist experience in 3D graphics and was studying computer science , Fez was his first professional game development project . His first task was to write the level editor and game engine .

Fez was first announced in July 2007 on The Independent Gaming Source . A trailer released in October 2007 convinced Jason DeGroot to join the development team as a producer . DeGroot , also known as " 6955 " , first met Fish at a 2006 E3 party , and started work on the game 's soundtrack and sound effects . The soundtrack was ultimately composed by Rich " Disasterpeace " Vreeland and the sound effects by Brandon McCartin . The game was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Independent Games Festival ( IGF ) at the Game Developers Conference ( GDC ) : Excellence in Visual Art and the Design Innovation Award . As Fez was a side project , Fish was employed full @-@ time at Artificial Mind and Movement in Montreal , where he worked on a tie @-@ in game for a film . He was not permitted time off to attend the event and thus decided to quit his job in January 2008 — a moment he later marked as " when I became indie " . The game won " Excellence in Visual Art " , and created a surge of public interest in the game concurrent to a similar swell of interest in indie game developers . Fish received a Canadian government loan to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company and began full @-@ time work on Fez . In July 2009 , Polytron announced a release for Xbox Live Arcade in early 2010 . Polytron and Microsoft agreed to release Fez as an Xbox exclusive , a deal Fish later recalled as sensible . Fish designed the game as " a console game , not a PC game " , and felt that the way he intended the game to be experienced — with a controller on a couch — was " part of the medium " . Polytron ruled out a WiiWare release due to problems Fish had with their platform and developer options .

Development continued with a more experimental ethos until the company began to run out of capital . The Canadian government loan that had funded Polytron 's prototyping phase was not renewed for their production phase . They also lost funding from the organization that preceded the Indie Fund as Polytron 's producer left the company . Fish borrowed money from friends and family for three months to keep the company open . In dire straits , he considered canceling the project . In March 2011 , the nearby Québécois developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor offered to help Polytron , having just signed a deal with Electronic Arts to publish their own game , Warp . Trapdoor assisted with Polytron 's finances and operations and offered to treat them as part of their company and let them keep their intellectual property rights in exchange for a portion of Fez 's earnings . Fish felt that partnership rescued the game .

Fish is shown preparing for Fez 's March 2011 PAX East booth in the 2012 documentary film Indie Game : The Movie , which chronicles the stories of several indie developers at various stages of their games ' development cycles . As a subplot , the film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes the game 's future . The partner , believed to be Jason DeGroot , is portrayed negatively and does not participate onscreen . The film 's end credits were later corrected to reflect that Fish 's business partner was not asked for input . Game Informer called Fish the film 's " most memorable developer " , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun wrote that Fish is portrayed as melodramatic , theatrical , and neurotic , in a way that exacerbates his outspoken public perception . Eurogamer said that the part where Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is " the film 's most startling moment " .

Fez won the Audience Choice Award at the September 2011 Fantastic Arcade , Best in Show and Best Story / World Design at the October 2011 Indiecade , and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize at the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival . It was also a 2011 Penny Arcade Expo " PAX 10 " selection . Fez was displayed in its entirety in a secluded lounge room at the October 2011 GameCity festival in Nottingham , England . Fish considered the demo their most fruitful yet . Fish told a Gamasutra reporter that he had received positive feedback from Independent Games Festival Chairman Brandon Boyer and Braid designer Jonathan Blow . Near the end of development , Fish felt " burnt out " and that his personal health had suffered . The final game included almost none of the original work from the first two years of development . After several delays , Fez was submitted for certification in February 2012 .

= = = Release = = =

Fez was released on April 13 , 2012 and sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform . Several months later , Polytron became embroiled in a high @-@ profile dispute with Microsoft over the cost of patching the game . Polytron had released a fix that resolved many of the game 's technical issues but introduced another that corrupted the saved games for about one percent of users . They withdrew the patch , but found Microsoft 's fee for subsequent patch releases unviable , and chose to reinstate the withdrawn patch as their most utilitarian option . Polytron drew ire for the decision , which raised awareness for the business needs of indie developers . In July 2013 , a year later , Microsoft announced that they no longer charged for patches , and Fish tweeted that Polytron 's patch would take " a couple of months " . Speaking in retrospect of the release , Fish " fiercely criticized " Fez co @-@ publisher Microsoft Games Studios for botching the game 's release . Fish cited a lack of promotion and publicity , and poor advertising of the game on Microsoft 's digital market .

In March 2013 , Fish announced a May 1 , 2013 release for the game 's PC port , and opened preorders on GOG.com and Steam . The game 's OS X and Linux ports debuted in the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want Humble Indie Bundle 9 on September 11 , 2013 . Polytron announced ports for PlayStation 4 , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Vita in August 2013 as in development through BlitWorks , which were released on March 25 , 2014 . The PlayStation releases include cross @-@ console support for " cross @-@ buy " ( where one digital purchase allows access across multiple consoles ) and " cross @-@ save " ( game save sharing between consoles ) , as well as support for 3D televisions , the DualShock 4 controller 's decorative lightbar , and graphical upgrades due to the full port into the C + + programming language . Ports for Ouya and iOS were also announced . Fish announced eventual ports for " ' pretty much ' every platform " but the Nintendo 3DS .

Bédard planned to leave Polytron after finishing Fez to experience work with a full development team , but stayed to port the Windows release before joining Toronto 's Capybara Games . He credited the game 's long development cycle to his own inexperience in game development ( compounded by the team 's small size and difficulty in setting reasonable milestones ) , the game 's scope , and Fish 's perfectionism . Fish had hoped that players would discuss Fez 's nuances online after the game 's release . Players collaborated online for a week to solve the final " monolith " puzzle by brute force . Ars Technica described the apparent end to the game 's harder puzzles as " anticlimactic " , but Fish told Eurogamer in March 2013 that hidden in @-@ game secrets remain to be found .

More than three years after its digital launch , Fez received a physical release designed by Fish and limited to a signed edition of 500 in December 2015 . The deluxe package included the soundtrack and a stylized red notebook with gold foil inlay .

= = Design = =

When Bédard joined the project , the game focused on the 2D – 3D mechanic and did not yet have open world ambitions . He coded the game in Microsoft Visual C # Express and XNA Game Studio Express . His first task , the level editor Fezzer , was coded from scratch in XNA and inspired by SketchUp . Bédard also wrote the game engine , Trixel Technology , which turns 2D tiles ( " triles " ) into sides of a 3D cube pixel . The engine tracks player @-@ character Gomez in 3D space even though the game behaves as a 2D platformer . Bédard also built the game to resolve collisions when converting between 3D and 2D space .

Fish created pixel art in Photoshop for each tiled side ( " trile " ) of the 3D trixel that Bédard 's custom software compiled into 3D game assets , which Fish would extrude as surfaces in Fezzer to build levels . Fish found the level design process " overwhelming " , and Bédard has said he was relieved that it was not his job . Fish compared his design process to playing with Lego blocks , and planned the more involved levels in graph paper to first visualize the 2D views before building the levels in the 3D software . The levels and puzzles were not preordained in a design document , and many of the drafts levels scrapped in 2008 resurfaced to be used later in the production process . So as to fit the rotation mechanic , the levels were made tall instead of wide , and the first part of the game was designed to acclimate the player to 2D controls before introducing the 3D element . As they worked , Fish first proposed ideas that Bédard would implement . The two would then discuss and fine @-@ tune the addition — they worked well together .

Fish describes the game 's changes during development as " organic " — they tested different kinds of levels and replicated the types of in @-@ game exploration that the team appreciated most . It came to adopt Metroidvania mechanics , with " secret passages , warp gates , and cheat codes " . Fish cited Myst as another touchstone and compared its open world , nonlinear narrative , and " obtuse metapuzzles " to Fez 's own alphabet , numeric system , and an " almost unfairly hard to get " " second set of collectibles " . Fish originally fought against having an in @-@ game map because he wanted players to draft their own . After attempting to do so himself , he changed his mind . Fish later called the in @-@ game map " probably one of the weakest aspects of the game " . Fish also fought against including the navigational assistant , Dot , but later felt that the addition was successful and a positive contribution to the game 's mythology . The fez itself , Fish described as an " ancient symbol of understanding the third dimension " . Fez had three different animators through its development : Paul Robertson of Scott Pilgrim vs. the World : The Game , who did the game 's animals and some of Gomez 's animations , Adam Saltsman of Canabalt , and Graham Lackey , who did some character animations .

The game 's mechanics were inspired by the Nintendo Entertainment System games Fish played in his youth , particularly Super Mario and The Legend of Zelda . Fish cited Fumito Ueda 's Ico as the game 's third inspiration , and he sought to emulate its feeling of nostalgic and isolated loneliness . Fish also sought to emulate Ueda 's " design by subtraction " philosophy , where the Ico development team would periodically remove parts of the game so as to leave only what was essential to their vision . In this way , ideas like player health and object weight puzzles were gradually struck from Fez . Fish made a personal challenge of designing a game without relying on " established mechanics " . As such , Fez was always a peaceful game and there was never an enemy coded into the game . So as to better emulate Hayao Miyazaki 's signature " open blue sky " , " feel @-@ good " atmosphere , Fish watched all of the director 's films one weekend early in the development cycle .

= Hugh Walpole =

Sir Hugh Seymour Walpole , CBE ( 13 March 1884 – 1 June 1941 ) was an English novelist . He was the son of an Anglican clergyman , intended for a career in the church but drawn instead to writing . Among those who encouraged him were the authors Henry James and Arnold Bennett . His skill at scene @-@ setting and vivid plots , as well as his high profile as a lecturer , brought him a large readership in the United Kingdom and North America . He was a best @-@ selling author in the 1920s and 1930s but has been largely neglected since his death .

After his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 , Walpole wrote prolifically , producing at least one book every year . He was a spontaneous story @-@ teller , writing quickly to get all his ideas on paper , seldom revising . His first novel to achieve major success was his third , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , a tragicomic story of a fatal clash between two schoolmasters . During the First World War he served in the Red Cross on the Russian @-@ Austrian front , and worked in British propaganda in Petrograd and London . In the 1920s and 1930s Walpole was much in demand not only as a novelist but also as a lecturer on literature , making four exceptionally well @-@ paid tours of North America .

As a gay man at a time when homosexual practices were illegal in Britain , Walpole conducted a succession of intense but discreet relationships with other men , and was for much of his life in search of what he saw as " the perfect friend " . He eventually found one , a married policeman , with whom he settled in the English Lake District . Having as a young man eagerly sought the support of established authors , he was in his later years a generous sponsor of many younger writers . He was a patron of the visual arts and bequeathed a substantial legacy of paintings to the Tate Gallery and other British institutions .

Walpole 's output was large and varied . Between 1909 and 1941 he wrote thirty @-@ six novels , five volumes of short stories , two original plays and three volumes of memoirs . His range included disturbing studies of the macabre , children 's stories and historical fiction , most notably his Herries Chronicle series , set in the Lake District . He worked in Hollywood writing scenarios for two Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer films in the 1930s , and played a cameo in the 1935 version of David Copperfield .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early years = = =

Walpole was born in Auckland , New Zealand , the eldest of three children of the Rev Somerset Walpole and his wife , Mildred Helen , née Barham ( 1854 – 1925 ) . Somerset Walpole had been an assistant to the Bishop of Truro , Edward Benson , from 1877 until 1882 , when he was offered the incumbency of St Mary 's Pro @-@ Cathedral , Auckland ; on Benson 's advice he accepted .

Mildred Walpole found it hard to settle in New Zealand , and something of her restlessness and insecurity affected the character of her eldest child . In 1889 , two years after the birth of the couple 's daughter , Dorothea ( " Dorothy " ) , Somerset Walpole accepted a prominent and well @-@ paid academic post at the General Theological Seminary , New York . Robert ( " Robin " ) , the third of the couple 's children , was born in New York in 1892 . Hugh and Dorothy were taught by a governess until the middle of 1893 , when the parents decided that he needed an English education .

Walpole was sent to England , where according to his biographer Rupert Hart @-@ Davis the next ten years were the unhappiest time of Walpole 's life . He first attended a preparatory school in Truro . Though he missed his family and felt lonely he was reasonably happy , but he moved to Sir William Borlase 's Grammar School in Marlow in 1895 , where he was bullied , frightened and miserable . He later said , " The food was inadequate , the morality was ' twisted ' , and Terror – sheer , stark unblinking Terror – stared down every one of its passages ... The excessive desire to be loved that has always played so enormous a part in my life was bred largely , I think , from the neglect I suffered there " .

In 1896 Somerset Walpole discovered his son 's horror of the Marlow school and he moved him to the King 's School , Canterbury . For two years he was a fairly content , though undistinguished , pupil there . In 1897 Walpole senior was appointed principal of Bede College , Durham , and Hugh was moved again , to be a day boy for four years at Durham School . He found that day boys were looked down on by boarders , and that Bede College was the subject of snobbery within the university . His sense of isolation increased . He continually took refuge in the local library , where he read all the novels of Jane Austen , Henry Fielding , Scott and Dickens and many of the works of Trollope , Wilkie Collins and Henry Kingsley . Walpole wrote in 1924 :

I grew up ... discontented , ugly , abnormally sensitive , and excessively conceited . No one liked me – not masters , boys , friends of the family , nor relations who came to stay ; and I do not in the least wonder at it . I was untidy , uncleanly , excessively gauche . I believed that I was profoundly misunderstood , that people took my pale and pimpled countenance for the mirror of my soul , that I had marvellous things of interest in me that would one day be discovered .

Though Walpole was no admirer of the schools he had attended there , the cathedral cities of Truro , Canterbury and Durham made a strong impression on him . He drew on aspects of them for his fictional cathedral city of Polchester in Glebeshire , the setting of many of his later books . Walpole 's memories of his time at Canterbury grew mellower over the years ; it was the only school he mentioned in his Who 's Who entry ,

= = = Cambridge , Liverpool and teaching = = =

From 1903 to 1906 Walpole studied history at Emmanuel College , Cambridge . While there he had his first work published , the critical essay " Two Meredithian Heroes " , which was printed in the college magazine in autumn 1905 . As an undergraduate he met and fell under the spell of A C Benson , formerly a greatly loved master at Eton , and by this time a don at Magdalene College . Walpole 's religious beliefs , hitherto an unquestioned part of his life , were fading , and Benson helped him through that personal crisis . Walpole was also attempting to cope with his homosexual feelings , which for a while focused on Benson , who recorded in his diary in 1906 an unexpected outburst by his young admirer : " [ H ] e broke out rather eagerly into protestations – He cared for me more than anyone in the world . I could not believe it ... It is extraordinarily touching . ... It is quite right that he should believe all this passionately ; it is quite right that I should know that it will not last ... I tried to say this as tenderly as I could ... "

Benson gently declined Walpole 's advances . They remained friends , but Walpole , rebuffed in his " excessive desire to be loved " , turned the full force of his enthusiasms elsewhere , and the relationship with Benson became less important to him . Less than two years later Benson 's diary entry on Walpole 's subsequent social career reveals his thoughts on his protégé 's progress :

He seems to have conquered Gosse completely . He spends his Sundays in long walks with H G Wells . He dines every week with Max Beerbohm and R Ross ... and this has befallen a not very clever young man of 23 . Am I a little jealous ? – no , I don 't think so . But I am a little bewildered ... I do not see any sign of intellectual power or perception or grasp or subtlety in his work or himself . ... I should call him curiously unperceptive . He does not , for instance , see what may vex or hurt or annoy people . I think he is rather tactless – though he is himself very sensitive . The strong points about him are his curiosity , his vitality , his eagerness , and the emotional fervour of his affections . But he seems to me in no way likely to be great as an artist .

With Benson 's help , Walpole had come to terms with the loss of his faith . Somerset Walpole , himself the son of an Anglican priest , hoped that his eldest son would follow him into the ministry . Walpole was too concerned for his father 's feelings to tell him he was no longer a believer , and on graduation from Cambridge in 1906 he took a post as a lay missioner at the Mersey Mission to Seamen in Liverpool . He described that as one of the " greatest failures of my life ... The Mission to Seamen was , and is , a splendid institution ... but it needs men of a certain type to carry it through and I was not of that type . " The head of the mission reprimanded him for lack of commitment to his work , and Walpole resigned after six months .

From April to July 1907 Walpole was in Germany , tutoring the children of the popular author Elizabeth von Arnim . In 1908 he taught French at Epsom College . His brief experience of teaching is reflected in his third novel , Mr Perrin and Mr Traill . As well as the clerical forebears , Walpole had notable authors in his family tree : on his father 's side , Horace Walpole the novelist and letter writer , and on his mother 's Richard Harris Barham , author of The Ingoldsby Legends . It was as an author that Walpole felt impelled to make his career . He moved to London and found work as a book reviewer for The Standard , writing fiction in his spare time . He had by this time recognised unreservedly that he was homosexual . His encounters were necessarily discreet , as such activities were illegal in Britain , and remained so throughout his lifetime . He was constantly searching for " the perfect friend " ; an early candidate was the stage designer Percy Anderson , to whom he was intimately attached for some time from 1910 onwards .

= = = Early literary career = = =

A C Benson was a friend of Henry James , to whom Walpole wrote a fan letter late in 1908 , with Benson 's encouragement . A correspondence ensued and in February 1909 James invited Walpole to lunch at the Reform Club in London . They developed a close friendship , described by James 's biographer Leon Edel as resembling a father and son relationship in some , but not all , respects . James was greatly taken with the young Walpole , though clear @-@ eyed about the deficiencies in the artistry and craftsmanship of his protégé 's early efforts . According to Somerset Maugham , Walpole made a sexual proposition to James , who was too inhibited to respond . Nevertheless , in their correspondence the older man 's devotion was couched in extravagant terms .

Walpole published his first novel , The Wooden Horse , in 1909 . It told of a staid and snobbish English family shaken up by the return of one of its members from a less hidebound life in New Zealand . The book received good reviews but barely repaid the cost of having it typed . His first commercial success was Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , published in 1911 . The novelist and biographer Michael Sadleir writes that though some of the six novels Walpole wrote between 1909 and 1914 are of interest as examples of the author 's developing style , it is Mr Perrin and Mr Traill that deserves to be remembered for its own sake . The book , subtitled " a tragi @-@ comedy " , is a psychological study of a deadly clash between two schoolmasters , one an ageing failure and the other a young , attractive idealist . In the view of Hart @-@ Davis , Walpole only once recaptured " the fresh , clear cut realism " of this book , and Walpole himself , looking back on his work in the 1930s , felt that of all his books to date , it was the truest . The Observer gave the book a favourable review : " The slow growth of the poison within [ Perrin ] is traced with wonderful skill and sympathy ... one feels throughout these pages a sense of intolerable tension , of impending disaster " ; The Manchester Guardian was less enthusiastic , praising the scene @-@ setting but calling the story " an unconscientious melodrama " . The San Francisco Chronicle praised its " technical excellence , imagination and beauty – Walpole at his best . " Arnold Bennett , a well @-@ established novelist seventeen years Walpole 's senior , admired the book , and befriended the young author , regularly chiding , encouraging , sometimes mocking him into improving his prose , characters and narratives .

The Guardian reviewer observed that the setting of Mr Perrin and Mr Traill – a second @-@ rate public school – was clearly drawn from life , as indeed it was . The boys of Epsom College were delighted with the thinly disguised version of their school , but the college authorities were not , and Walpole was persona non grata at Epsom for many years . This was of no practical consequence , as he had no intention of returning to the teaching profession , but it was an early illustration of his capacity , noted by Benson , for unthinkingly giving offence , though being hypersensitive to criticism himself .

In early 1914 James wrote an article for The Times Literary Supplement surveying the younger generation of British novelists and comparing them with their eminent elder contemporaries . In the latter category James put Bennett , Joseph Conrad , John Galsworthy , Maurice Hewlett and H G Wells . The four new authors on whom he focused were Walpole , Gilbert Cannan , Compton Mackenzie and D H Lawrence . It was a very lengthy article , to the extent that it had to be spread across two issues of the Supplement in March and April 1914 . James said that agreeing to write it had been " an insensate step " , but from Walpole 's point of view it was highly satisfactory : one of the greatest living authors had publicly ranked him among the finest young British novelists .

= = = First World War = = =

As war approached , Walpole realised that his poor eyesight would disqualify him from serving in the armed forces . He volunteered to join the police , but was turned down ; he then accepted a journalistic appointment based in Moscow , reporting for The Saturday Review and The Daily Mail . He was allowed to visit the front in Poland , but his dispatches from Moscow ( and later from Petrograd , which he preferred ) were not enough to stop hostile comments at home that he was not doing his bit for the war effort . Henry James was so incensed at one such remark by a prominent London hostess that he stormed out of her house and wrote to Walpole suggesting that he should return to England . Walpole replied in great excitement that he had just been appointed as a Russian officer , in the Sanitar :

The " Sanitar " is the part of the Red Cross that does the rough work at the front , carrying men out of the trenches , helping at the base hospitals in every sort of way , doing every kind of rough job . They are an absolutely official body and I shall be one of the few ( half @-@ dozen ) Englishmen in the world wearing Russian uniform .

While in training for the Sanitar , Walpole devoted his leisure hours to gaining a reasonable fluency in the Russian language , and to his first full @-@ length work of non @-@ fiction , a literary biography of Joseph Conrad . In the summer of 1915 he worked on the Austrian @-@ Russian front , assisting at operations in field hospitals and retrieving the dead and wounded from the battlefield . Occasionally he found time to write brief letters home ; he told Bennett , " A battle is an amazing mixture of hell and a family picnic – not as frightening as the dentist , but absorbing , sometimes thrilling like football , sometimes dull like church , and sometimes simply physically sickening like bad fish . Burying dead afterwards is worst of all . " When disheartened he comforted himself with the thought , " This is not so bad as it was at Marlow " .

During an engagement early in June 1915 Walpole single @-@ handedly rescued a wounded soldier ; his Russian comrades refused to help and Walpole carried one end of a stretcher and dragged the man to safety . For this he was awarded the Cross of Saint George ; General Lechitsky presented him with the medal in August . After his tour of duty Walpole returned to Petrograd . Among the city 's attractions for him was the presence of Konstantin Somov , a painter with whom he had formed a close relationship . He remained there until October 1915 , when he returned to England . He visited his family , stayed with Percy Anderson in London , telephoned Henry James in Rye , and retreated to a cottage he had bought in Cornwall . In January 1916 he was asked by the Foreign Office to return to Petrograd . Russians were being subjected to highly effective German propaganda . The writer Arthur Ransome , Petrograd correspondent of The Daily News , had successfully lobbied for the establishment of a bureau to counter the German efforts , and the British ambassador , Sir George Buchanan , wanted Walpole to take charge .

Before he left for Petrograd , Walpole 's novel The Dark Forest was published . It drew on his experiences in Russia , and was more sombre than much of his earlier fiction . Reviews were highly favourable ; The Daily Telegraph commented on " a high level of imaginative vision ... reveals capacity and powers in the author which we had hardly suspected before . "

Walpole returned to Petrograd in February 1916 . He moved into Somov 's flat , and his Anglo @-@ Russian Propaganda Bureau began work . The following month he suffered a personal blow : he recorded in his diary for 13 March 1916 , " Thirty two to @-@ day ! Should have been a happy day but was completely clouded for me by reading in the papers of Henry James ' death . This was a terrible shock to me . " Walpole remained at the bureau for the rest of 1916 and most of 1917 , witnessing the February Revolution . He wrote an official report on events for the Foreign Office , and also absorbed ideas for his fiction . In addition to the first of his popular " Jeremy " novels , written in his spare time from the bureau , he began work on the second of his Russian @-@ themed books , The Secret City . Sadleir writes that this novel and The Dark Forest " take a high place among his works , on account of their intuitive understanding of an alien mentality and the vigour of their narrative power . " The book won the inaugural James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction .

By late 1917 it was clear to Walpole and to the British authorities that there was little advantage in keeping him in Russia . On 7 November he left , missing the Bolshevik Revolution , which began on that day . He was appointed to a post at the Foreign Office in its Department of Information , headed by John Buchan . Soon after returning he volunteered for the British army , but , as expected , failed the necessary medical examination because of his poor sight . He continued to work in British propaganda when the department was reconstituted under Lord Beaverbrook in April 1918 , and remained there for the rest of the war and beyond , resigning in February 1919 . Little is known about what he wrote for the department , as most of its records were destroyed after the war , but he noted in his diary that he had written the department 's official report to the War Cabinet : " a beastly job – the worst I 've ever attempted " . For his wartime work he was awarded the CBE in 1918 .

= = = Post @-@ war and 1920s = = =

Walpole remained prolific in the post @-@ war years , and began a parallel and highly remunerative career as a lecturer in literature . At the instigation of his American publisher , George Doran , he made his first lecture tour of the US in 1919 , receiving an enthusiastic welcome wherever he went . What Sadleir describes as Walpole 's " genial and attractive appearance , his complete lack of aloofness , his exciting fluency as a speaker [ and ] his obvious and genuine liking for his hosts " combined to win him a large American following . The success of his talks led to increases in his lecturing fees , greatly enhanced sales of his books , and large sums from American publishers anxious to print his latest fiction . He was a prodigiously quick writer who seldom revised , but pressed on , keen to get his ideas down on paper . His main British publishers , Macmillan , found it expedient to appoint a senior member of staff to edit his manuscripts , correcting spelling , punctuation , inconsistencies and errors of historical fact . His fluency enabled him to fulfil between tours a contract from The Pictorial Review for ten short stories at the remarkable sum of $ 1 @,@ 350 apiece .

One of Walpole 's major novels of the early post @-@ war period was The Cathedral , which unlike much of his fiction was not dashed off but worked on across four years , beginning in 1918 . The story of an arrogant 19th @-@ century archdeacon in conflict with other clergy and laity was certain to bring comparisons with Trollope 's Barchester Towers ( The Manchester Guardian 's review was headed " Polchester Towers " ) , but unlike the earlier work , The Cathedral is wholly uncomic . The hubristic Archdeacon Brandon is driven to domestic despair , professional defeat and sudden death . The reviewer Ivor Brown commented that Walpole had earlier charmed many with his cheerful tales of Mayfair , but that in this novel he showed a greater side to his art : " This is a book with little happiness about it , but its stark strength is undeniable . The Cathedral is realism , profound in its philosophy and delicate in its thread . " The Illustrated London News said , " No former novelist has seized quite so powerfully upon the cathedral fabric and made it a living character in the drama , an obsessing individuality at once benign and forbidding . ... The Cathedral is a great book . "

Walpole was a keen music lover and when in 1920 he heard a new tenor at the Proms he was much impressed and sought him out . Lauritz Melchior became one of the most important friendships of his life , and Walpole did much to foster the singer 's budding career . Wagner 's son Siegfried engaged Melchior for the Bayreuth Festival in 1924 and succeeding years . Walpole attended , and met Adolf Hitler , then recently released from prison after an attempted putsch . Hitler was a protégé of Siegfried 's wife Winifred , and was known in Bayreuth as " one of Winnie 's lame ducks . " Walpole later admitted that he had both despised and liked him – " both emotions that time has proved I was wrong to indulge " . This and future visits to Bayreuth were complicated by the fact that Winifred Wagner fell in love with Walpole , and attached herself so firmly to him that rumours began to spread .

In 1924 Walpole moved into a house near Keswick in the Lake District . His large income enabled him to maintain his London flat in Piccadilly , but Brackenburn , on the slopes of Catbells overlooking Derwentwater , was his main home for the rest of his life . He was quickly made welcome by local residents , and the scenery and atmosphere of the Lake District often found their way into his fiction . The critic James Agate commented that one might think from some of Walpole 's stories that their author had created the English Lakes , but that he was probably only consulted about them . At the end of 1924 Walpole met Harold Cheevers , who soon became his friend and companion and remained so for the rest of Walpole 's life . In Hart @-@ Davis 's words , he came nearer than any other human being to Walpole 's long @-@ sought conception of a perfect friend . Cheevers , a policeman , with a wife and two children , left the police force and entered Walpole 's service as his chauffeur . Walpole trusted him completely , and gave him extensive control over his affairs . Whether Walpole was at Brackenburn or Piccadilly , Cheevers was almost always with him , and often accompanied him on overseas trips . Walpole provided a house in Hampstead for Cheevers and his family .

During the mid @-@ twenties Walpole produced two of his best @-@ known novels in the macabre vein that he drew on from time to time , exploring the fascination of fear and cruelty . The Old Ladies ( 1924 ) is a study of a timid elderly spinster exploited and eventually frightened to death by a predatory widow . Portrait of a Man with Red Hair ( 1925 ) depicts the malign influence of a manipulative , insane father on his family and others . Walpole described it to his fellow author Frank Swinnerton as " a simple shocker which it has amused me like anything to write , and won 't bore you to read . " In contrast he continued a series of stories for children , begun in 1919 with Jeremy , taking the young hero 's story forward with Jeremy and Hamlet ( the latter being the boy 's dog ) in 1923 , and Jeremy at Crale in 1927 . Sadleir , writing in the 1950s , suggests that " the most real Walpole of all – because the most unselfconscious , kindly , and understanding friend – is the Walpole of the Jeremy trilogy . " Of his other novels of the 1920s Wintersmoon ( 1928 ) , his first attempt at a full @-@ length love story , portrays a clash between traditionalism and modernism : his own sympathies , though not spelled out , were clearly with the traditionalists .

= = = 1930 – 41 = = =

By the 1930s , though his public success remained considerable , many literary critics saw Walpole as outdated . His reputation in literary circles took a blow from a malicious caricature in Somerset Maugham 's 1930 novel Cakes and Ale : the character Alroy Kear , a superficial novelist of more pushy ambition than literary talent , was widely taken to be based on Walpole . In the same year Walpole wrote possibly his best @-@ known work , Rogue Herries , a historical novel set in the Lake District . It was well @-@ received : The Daily Mail considered it " not only a profound study of human character , but a subtle and intimate biography of a place . " He followed it with three sequels ; all four novels were published in a single volume as The Herries Chronicle .

In 1934 Walpole accepted an invitation from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer studios to go to Hollywood to write the scenario for a film adaptation of David Copperfield . He enjoyed many aspects of life in Hollywood , but as one who rarely revised any of his own work he found it tedious to produce sixth and seventh drafts at the behest of the studio . He enjoyed his brief change of role from writer to bit @-@ part player : in the film he played the Vicar of Blunderstone delivering a boring sermon that sends David to sleep . Agate was doubtful of the wisdom of this : " Does not Hugh see that to bring a well @-@ known character from real life into an imaginary sequence of events is to destroy the reality of that imaginary sequence ? " Nevertheless , Walpole 's performance was a success . He improvised the sermon ; the producer , David O Selznick , mischievously called for retake after retake to try to make him dry up , but Walpole fluently delivered a different extempore address each time .

The critical and commercial success of the film of David Copperfield led to an invitation to return to Hollywood in 1936 . When he got there he found that the studio executives had no idea which films they wanted him to work on , and he had eight weeks of highly paid leisure , during which he wrote a short story and worked on a novel . He was eventually asked to write the scenario for Little Lord Fauntleroy , which he enjoyed doing . He spent most of his fees on paintings , forgetting to keep enough money to pay US tax on his earnings . He replenished his American funds with a lecture tour – his last – in late 1936 .

In 1937 Walpole was offered a knighthood . He accepted , though confiding to his diary that he could not think of a good novelist since Walter Scott who had done so . " Kipling , Hardy , Galsworthy all refused . But I 'm not of their class , and range with Doyle , Anthony Hope and such . ... Besides I shall like being a knight . "

Walpole 's taste for adventure did not diminish in his last years . In 1939 he was commissioned to report for William Randolph Hearst 's newspapers on the funeral in Rome of Pope Pius XI , the conclave to elect his successor , and the subsequent coronation . A fellow correspondent was Tom Driberg , whose memoirs tell of a lunch à deux at which Walpole arrived flushed with excitement from a sexual encounter that morning with an attendant in the Borghese Palace . In the weeks between the funeral and Pius XII 's election Walpole , with his customary fluency , wrote much of his book Roman Fountain , a mixture of fact and fiction about the city . This was his last overseas visit .

After the outbreak of the Second World War Walpole remained in England , dividing his time between London and Keswick , and continuing to write with his usual rapidity . He completed a fifth novel in the Herries series and began work on a sixth . His health was undermined by diabetes . He overexerted himself at the opening of Keswick 's fund @-@ raising " War Weapons Week " in May 1941 , making a speech after taking part in a lengthy march , and died of a heart attack at Brackenburn , aged 57 . He is buried in St John 's churchyard in Keswick .

= = = Legacy = = =

Walpole was a keen and discerning collector of art . Sir Kenneth Clark called him " one of the three or four real patrons of art in this country , and of that small body he was perhaps the most generous and the most discriminating . " He left fourteen works to the Tate Gallery and Fitzwilliam Museum , including paintings by Cézanne , Manet , Augustus John , Tissot and Renoir .

Other artists represented in Walpole 's collection were Epstein , Picasso , Gauguin , Sickert and Utrillo . After his death the finest works in his collection , other than those bequeathed , were exhibited in London during April and May 1945 ; the exhibition also included works by Constable , Turner and Rodin .

Sadleir notes how Walpole 's considerable income enabled him to indulge not only his love of art and of old books and manuscripts , but also philanthropy , particularly towards younger writers . Although Walpole enjoyed the limelight , he was secretive about his many acts of generosity to younger writers , with both encouragement and financial help . After his death some idea of the scale of his generosity was discovered . Osbert Sitwell commented , " I don 't think there was any younger writer of any worth who has not at one time or another received kindness of an active kind , and at a crucial moment , from Hugh " . Hart @-@ Davis lists thirty @-@ eight authors from whom letters of gratitude were found among Walpole 's correspondence ; Sadleir writes of Walpole 's " generous kindness to literary aspirants and to writers fallen on evil days ... by immediate financial assistance , by prefaces freely supplied or by collaboration volunteered , by introductions and recommendations to likely publishers , Walpole relieved the distresses of authorship to a degree which will never be fully known . " Agate , though himself the recipient of Walpole 's generosity on occasion , thought it sometimes went too far : " Mr Walpole 's large @-@ heartedness gets him into all kinds of trouble . He is an inveterate patter . He pats on the back young men whom sterner critics would knock down , because even in fantastic incompetence he perceives the good intention . No art or artist is safe from Mr Walpole 's benevolence " .

In his adopted home of Keswick a section of the town museum was dedicated to Walpole 's memory in 1949 , with manuscripts , correspondence , paintings and sculpture from Brackenburn , donated by his sister and brother .

= = Works = =

Walpole 's books cover a wide range . His fiction includes short stories , bildungsromane ( Mr Perrin and Mr Traill , 1911 , and the Jeremy trilogy ) that delve into the psychology of boyhood ; gothic horror novels ( Portrait of a Man with Red Hair , 1925 , and The Killer and The Slain , 1942 ) ; a period family saga ( the Herries chronicle ) and even detective fiction ( Behind the Screen ) . He wrote literary biographies ( Conrad , 1916 ; James Branch Cabell , 1920 ; and Trollope , 1928 ) ; plays ; and screenplays including David Copperfield , 1935 .

= = = Influences = = =

Walpole 's debt to Henry James is discernible in The Duchess of Wrexe ( 1914 ) and The Green Mirror ( 1917 ) , but in the view of J B Priestley the two most potent influences on Walpole were the highly contrasting ones of Trollope and Dostoyevsky . Other critics noted the Trollopian influence ; in 1923 Arthur St John Adcock commented :

The Trenchards [ in The Green Mirror ] are a kind of family Trollope might have created had he been living now ; The Cathedral is a kind of story he might have told , with its realistic melodrama and its clerical atmosphere , but Walpole tells it with a subtler art in the writing and the construction , with a conciseness and charm of style that are outside the range of the earlier novelist .

Walpole , though he was devoted to the works of Trollope , and published a study of him , thought that there was no real comparison between the two of them : " I am far too twisted and fantastic a novelist ever to succeed in catching Trollope 's marvellous normality . " Priestley was less impressed by the supposed Trollopian side of Walpole 's work , finding some of it formulaic . He was more taken with a darker , Dostoyevskian , side that he found in the writing : " suddenly it will transform the pleasant easy scene he is giving us into transparency behind which are bright stars and red hellfire ... No matter how jolly and zestful he may appear to be , the fact remains that he possesses an unusually sharp sense of evil . "

Possibly the most pervasive influence on Walpole was Walter Scott , whose romanticism is reflected in much of the later writer 's fiction . Such was Walpole 's love of Scott that he liked to think of himself as the latter 's reincarnation . He amassed the largest collection in Britain of Scott manuscripts and early editions , and constantly reread the novels . With the Herries stories Walpole restored the popularity of the historical novel , a form for which Scott was famous but which had been out of fashion for decades . The Herries series begins in the 18th century and follows a Lakeland family through the generations up to modern times .

= = = Reputation = = =

Walpole sought critical as well as financial success , and longed to write works that equalled those of Trollope , Thomas Hardy and Henry James . In his early days , he received frequent and generally approving scrutiny from major literary figures . He was a good friend of Virginia Woolf , and rated her as an influence ; she praised his gift for seizing on telling detail : " it is no disparagement to a writer to say that his gift is for the small things rather than for the large ... If you are faithful with the details the large effects will grow inevitably out of those very details " . Joseph Conrad said of him , " We see Mr. Walpole grappling with the truth of things spiritual and material with his characteristic earnestness , and we can discern the characteristics of this acute and sympathetic explorer of human nature . "

In 1928 Priestley observed ,

When I first remember seeing Hugh Walpole 's name he had no public at all , but the ferocious young reviewers – the " highbrows " as we have since learned to call them – delighted in him . Now he has an enormous public , both in England and America , and the young " highbrows " – who are saddened by the thought of a large public – are not particularly fond of him .

Priestley contended that Walpole had fulfilled his early potential , unlike Compton Mackenzie , Gilbert Cannan and other promising young novelists of his generation . This view was not universal among critics : Walpole sometimes divided opinion . Writing of Walpole 's Russian novels the contemporary critic and novelist Douglas Goldring commented , " Russia has been the grave of many reputations ; and our Napoleon of the drawing @-@ room novel has fared no better than other would @-@ be conquerors of that disconcerting land . " Goldring 's complaint was that Walpole 's Russian ( and English ) characters were clichéd stereotypes . The reviewer in Punch , by contrast , wrote , " I consulted a Russian , who is very much alive , and received the opinion that , if Mr. Walpole has not succeeded in drawing the real average Russian , he has given us a type whose faults and virtues sound the keynote of the situation as it is to @-@ day . " The Observer rated The Dark Forest as " one of the finest novels of our generation " .

In 1924 Ernest Hemingway wrote into a short story a comparison of G K Chesterton and Walpole , concluding that the former was the better man , the latter a better writer and both were classics . Walpole could be sensitive about his literary reputation and often took adverse criticism badly . When Hilaire Belloc praised P G Wodehouse as the best English writer of their day , Walpole took it amiss , to the amusement of Wodehouse who regarded Belloc 's plaudit as " a gag , to get a rise out of serious @-@ minded authors whom he disliked " . Wodehouse was not a great admirer of Walpole ; his own scrupulous craftsmanship , with drafts polished over and over again , was the opposite of Walpole 's hastily written and seldom @-@ revised prose . He also viewed Walpole 's sensitivity to criticism as absurd . Walpole was not always as oversensitive as Wodehouse supposed . The critic James Agate was a friend despite his regular rude remarks about Walpole 's prose , and when Walpole discovered that Agate had written a spoof of the Herries " Lakeland " style , he made him promise to print it in the next published volume of his diaries .

During his career contemporaries saw both negative and positive sides to Walpole 's outgoing nature and desire to be in the public eye . Wodehouse commented , " I always think Hugh Walpole 's reputation was two thirds publicity . He was always endorsing books and speaking at lunches and so on . " On the other hand , Walpole stood out as one of the few literary figures willing to go into court and give evidence for the defence at the obscenity trial after the novel The Well of Loneliness was published .

By the time of his death The Times 's estimation of Walpole was no higher than , " he had a versatile imagination ; he could tell a workmanlike story in good workmanlike English ; and he was a man of immense industry , conscientious and painstaking " . The belittling tone of the obituary brought forth strong rebuttals from T S Eliot , Kenneth Clark and Priestley , among others . Within a few years of his death , Walpole was seen as old @-@ fashioned , and his works were largely neglected . In the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Elizabeth Steele summed up : " His psychology was not deep enough for the polemicist , his diction not free enough for those returning from war , and his zest disastrous to a public wary of personal commitment " . In 2011 , Peter Hitchens , an admirer of Walpole , though not an uncritical one , wrote :

Henry James and John Buchan praised him . Joseph Conrad , T S Eliot and Virginia Woolf were kind about him . What 's more , his books sold enormously well on both sides of the Atlantic , he was knighted , and he became very rich ... Yet now he has vanished completely , his books not even to be found on the back shelves of most second hand shops , dismissed as " unreadable " .

Walpole 's works have not been completely neglected in recent years . The Herries stories have seldom been out of print , and in 2014 WorldCat listed a dozen recent reissues of Walpole 's works , including The Wooden Horse , The Dark Forest , The Secret City , Jeremy , and The Cathedral . In 2011 the BBC broadcast a reappraisal of Walpole , The Walpole Chronicle , presented by Eric Robson . In 2013 a new stage version of Rogue Herries was presented by the Theatre by the Lake company in Walpole 's adopted home of Keswick . The BBC speculated that this could mark a revival in interest in his works .

= = = Biographies = = =

Two full @-@ length studies of Walpole were published after his death . The first , in 1952 , was written by Rupert Hart @-@ Davis , who had known Walpole personally . It was regarded at the time as " among the half dozen best biographies of the century " and has been reissued several times since its first publication . Writing when homosexuality was still outlawed in England , Hart @-@ Davis avoided direct mention of his subject 's sexuality , so respecting Walpole 's habitual discretion and the wishes of his brother and sister . He left readers to read between the lines if they wished , in , for example , references to Turkish baths " providing informal opportunities of meeting interesting strangers " . Hart @-@ Davis dedicated the book to " Dorothy , Robin and Harold " , Walpole 's sister , brother , and long @-@ term companion .

In 1972 Elizabeth Steele 's study of Walpole was published . Much shorter than Hart @-@ Davis 's biography , at 178 pages to his 503 , it dealt mainly with the novels , and aimed " to show the sources of Hugh Walpole 's success as a writer during the thirty @-@ five years and fifty books of his busy career " . Steele concentrated on half a dozen of Walpole 's best books , each illustrating aspects of his writing , under the headings " Acolyte " , " Artist " , " Witness " , " Evangelist " , " Critic " and " Romanticist " . Steele also wrote a study of Walpole 's North American lecture tours ( 2006 ) and the article on Walpole in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ( 2004 ) , which treats his private life briefly but candidly .

= Domnall mac Murchada =

Domnall mac Murchada ( died 1075 ) , also known as Domnall mac Murchada meic Diarmata , was a leading late eleventh @-@ century claimant to the Kingdom of Leinster , and a King of Dublin . As a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles , Domnall was a grandson of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó , King of Leinster , and thus a member of the Uí Chennselaig . Domnall was also the first of the Meic Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father .

In 1071 , the year before his grandfather 's death , Domnall and an Uí Chennselaig kinsman , Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair , battled for control of Leinster . Although Domnall is accorded the title King of Leinster in one mediaeval king @-@ list , Donnchad was evidently a more powerful claimant , and Domnall appears to have held the Leinster kingship in name only .

Domnall 's rise to power in the Kingdom of Dublin took place in 1075 , after the expulsion of the reigning Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill , King of Dublin by the latter 's overlord , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster . The circumstances surrounding Domnall 's accession are uncertain . He may have collaborated with Gofraid to wrench the kingdom from the grip of the Uí Briain , or he may have been installed in the kingship by Toirdelbach himself , and ruled under the latter 's overlordship . Whatever the case , Domnall died within the year , and Toirdelbach placed his own son , Muirchertach , upon the throne .

= = Background = =

Domnall was a son of Murchad mac Diarmata , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1070 ) , who was himself a son of Diarmait mac Máel na mBó , King of Leinster ( died 1072 ) . Domnall was , therefore , a member of the Uí Chennselaig ; as well as the first of the Meic Murchada , a branch of the Uí Chennselaig named after his father . Domnall had two brothers : Donnchad ( died 1115 ) , a later King of Leinster , and Énna .

In 1052 , Domnall 's aforesaid grandfather conquered the Kingdom of Dublin from Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , King of Dublin and the Isles ( died 1064 / 1065 ) , and soon after appointed Murchad as King of Dublin . About a decade later , Murchad appears to have driven Echmarcach from Mann , after which he gained the kingship of the Isles . Diarmait 's deep @-@ rooted authority in Norse @-@ Gaelic Dublin lasted for two decades , and was a remarkable achievement that no other Irish king had ever accomplished . Unfortunately for the Uí Chennselaig , two of Diarmait 's sons — Murchad and Glún Iairn — unexpectedly predeceased their father in 1070 , and Diarmait himself fell in battle two years later .

= = Kingship of Leinster = =

Even before Diarmait 's demise , the Uí Chennselaig began to fight amongst themselves in a struggle that was almost certainly an after @-@ effect of Diarmait 's sons ' untimely deaths . Specifically , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Inisfallen reveal that Domnall battled against the forces of his own first cousin once removed , Donnchad mac Domnaill Remair ( died 1089 ) , before Diarmait 's ally , Toirdelbach Ua Briain , King of Munster ( died 1086 ) , was able to intervene and restore order in the Kingdom of Leinster .

Up until about the time of his death , Diarmait had been the most powerful king in southern Ireland . In consequence of the void left by his demise , Diarmait 's erstwhile ally Toirdelbach seized the initiative , and moved to enforce his own claim to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland . He immediately imposed his overlordship on Leinster — a task almost certainly expedited by the aforesaid infighting amongst the Uí Chennselaig — and took control of Dublin . Whilst the imposition of authority upon rival provincial kingdoms was a fundamental part in gaining the high @-@ kingship , Toirdelbach 's decision to march @-@ on Dublin reveals that the acquisition of this coastal kingdom had also become an essential part of the process .

Toirdelbach 's subsequent capture of Donnchad in Dublin suggests that the latter was not only the leading Uí Chennselaig dynast , but was also in the process of using the town as the capital of Leinster . Although the list of Leinster kings in the Book of Leinster declares that Domnall had succeeded his grandfather as King of Leinster , it is apparent that Donnchad was indeed the more powerful claimant . In fact , the king @-@ list of Uí Chennselaig in the same source makes no notice of Domnall , and states that it was Donnchad who succeeded Diarmait as King of Uí Chennselaig . Domnall , therefore , may not have reigned in Leinster , and could well have been King of Leinster in name only .

If the Annals of Inisfallen is to be believed , Toirdelbach acquired possession of Dublin when the Dubliners themselves offered him its kingship . Although this record may be mere Uí Briain propaganda , it could instead reveal that the Dubliners preferred a distant overlord from Munster rather than one from neighbouring Leinster . Within the year , the kingship was held by Gofraid mac Amlaíb meic Ragnaill ( died 1075 ) . The latter appears to have been a kinsman of Echmarcach , and may well have been handed the kinship by Toirdelbach , perhaps on account of the considerable distance between the kingdoms .

= = Kingship of Dublin = =

In 1075 , Toirdelbach drove Gofraid from the kingship and Ireland itself . There is uncertainty concerning the circumstances of Gofraid 's expulsion , and of Domnall 's accession . On one hand , it is possible that Gofraid was involved in lending assistance to Anglo @-@ Danish resistance against the Norman regime in the recently conquered Kingdom of England . If correct , Gofraid would appear to have been at odds with Toirdelbach , a monarch who appears to have cultivated close links with the Norman regime . Domnall , therefore , may have had Toirdelbach 's consent to rule in Dublin as Gofraid 's replacement . In fact , Toirdelbach 's placement of Domnall in Dublin , and his allowance of the latter 's aforesaid cousin in Leinster , may have been a way in which the Uí Briain exploited the fractured Uí Chennselaig . Certainly , Domnall 's cooperation would have been a valuable asset to Toirdelbach , considering the prominence of his father amongst the Dubliners , and the likelihood that Domnall himself may have lived most of his life there . On the other hand , it is possible that Gofraid was driven from the kingship because he had aligned himself with the Leinstermen against the Uí Briain . If such a sequence of events is correct it could mean that , even though Gofraid was unable continue on with the revolt , it was his Uí Chennselaig confederates who succeeded in securing Dublin from the Uí Briain .

Whatever the circumstances of Domnall 's accession , the Uí Chennselaig regime in Dublin was short @-@ lived . The Annals of Inisfallen , the Annals of the Four Masters , and the Annals of Ulster , all reveal that , within the year , Domnall died after a brief illness , with the latter two sources specifying that he succumbed after three nights of sickness . The Annals of Inisfallen and the Annals of Ulster accord him the title King of Dublin , and make no mention of any connection with the Leinster kingship . Upon Domnall 's demise , Toirdelbach had his own son , Muirchertach ( died 1119 ) , appointed King of Dublin . In so doing , Toirdelbach reinforced his authority in Dublin , and followed a precedent started by Domnall 's grandfather , in which a claimant to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland installed his own heir to the kingship of Dublin .

= = Ancestry = =

= Irresistible ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Irresistible " is the thirteenth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by David Nutter , and featured the first of two guest appearances by Nick Chinlund as the death fetishist killer Donnie Pfaster . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 8 million people upon its first broadcast , and received positive reviews , with much praise to Chinlund 's performance as the antagonist .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a death fetishist who begins kidnapping and killing women to satisfy his obsession . Scully , still recovering from her earlier abduction , is soon overcome with posttraumatic stress disorder .

" Irresistible " is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it . Initially , the script called for Donnie Pfaster to be a necrophiliac , but the idea was soon rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being " unacceptable for broadcast standards " . Pfaster was eventually brought back in the season seven episode " Orison " .

= = Plot = =

In Minneapolis , a funeral is held for a young girl ( Megan Hilty ) . The ceremony is observed by Donnie Pfaster , the eerie assistant director for the funeral home . Later that night , as the girl 's body is being stored for burial the following day , Pfaster 's boss finds him cutting off the corpse 's hair . Pfaster is promptly fired .

Some time later , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are summoned to Minneapolis by Moe Bocks , an FBI field agent who is investigating the exhumation and desecration of a body in a local cemetery . Mulder discounts Bocks ' theory that this act is a variation of extraterrestrial cattle mutilation , and suggests they search for a human culprit . Scully is disturbed at the sight of the disheveled corpse . Two more bodies are found exhumed , with their hair cut and fingernails removed . Mulder develops a psychological profile of the criminal , believing him to be an escalating " death fetishist " who may resort to murder to satisfy his desires . Scully keeps her discomfort with the case to herself , and writes up a field report on necrophilia .

Pfaster , who was behind the exhumations , proves Mulder 's prediction correct when he brings a prostitute to his apartment . When the prostitute discovers a collection of funerary wreaths in Pfaster 's bedroom , he kills her and removes her fingers . Later , Pfaster — having been hired as a frozen food delivery man through charming the female interviewer — delivers to a low @-@ security house of a woman with teenage daughters . He requests the bathroom to wash his hands , and whilst there steals some discarded hair from a brush he found in the trashcan . Pfaster attends a night class at a community college , where a female classmate defends herself after he makes threatening advances . He is arrested and is placed in a jail cell across from a suspect being interrogated for Pfaster 's crimes by Mulder , Scully , and Bocks . Pfaster shows interest in Scully , and learns her name from the interrogated suspect . Pfaster is later released as his charges were dropped .

Scully is deeply troubled by Pfaster 's crimes , and has unsettling dreams and hallucinations about the case . In Washington , she has a counseling session with a social worker , during which she shares her anxiety about the investigation . After the session , Scully learns that someone from Minnesota had called for her . When she contacts Mulder , she learns that neither he nor Bocks made the call . Tracing a fingerprint to Pfaster from his arrest , Bocks and Mulder raid his apartment , finding one of the prostitute 's fingers in his refrigerator . Meanwhile , after Scully arrives in Minneapolis , Pfaster forces her car off the road . He kidnaps Scully and takes her to his late mother 's abandoned house . He ties and gags Scully , and keeps her in a dark closet .

Mulder and Bocks discover that Pfaster 's mother had owned a car which matches paint found on Scully 's abandoned car , tracking down her former residence . Meanwhile , Scully escapes from Pfaster as he prepares a cold bath for her , resulting in a pursuit through the house . Scully and Pfaster have a struggle that sends them falling down a staircase onto the foyer , where a task force led by Mulder and Bocks breaks in moments later and apprehends Pfaster . Scully initially insists that she is okay , but then breaks down and cries in Mulder 's arms . In a voice @-@ over narration , Mulder traces Pfaster 's pathology to his childhood , when he was raised in a family of four older sisters . Mulder also reflects on Pfaster 's nature and the nature of evil in general .

= = Production = =

The episode 's initial script where Pfaster was a necrophiliac was rejected by the Fox Broadcasting Company for being " unacceptable for broadcast standards " . As series creator Chris Carter described it , " When I handed the script in , it was really for a necrophiliac episode , and that just didn 't fly . You cannot do the combination of sex and death on network television . " Carter was forced to tone down the script by changing Pfaster from a necrophiliac to a death fetishist and diminishing Pfaster 's sexual obsession . He considered that the sexual content was " implied and understood by audiences " , and that Pfaster still resulted in a creepy character , particularly his " creepy arrogance " in using shampoo on the hair of his victims . The episode 's original title was " Fascination " .

The episode is one of the few in the series that has no paranormal elements to it . Carter said of the episode 's conception , " My first chance to work with David Nutter in a long time , and I wanted to give him something he could sink his teeth into . It 's a little bit different for us . It doesn 't really have a paranormal aspect , except for Scully 's perceptions of her deepest fears . I felt that I had to figure out what she is most afraid of , and she is most afraid of those things that most of us are afraid of . The idea of dying at the hands of someone — creature or not — and she is helpless to do anything about it . I thought it was a very good way to explore Scully 's character . " The scene where Dana Scully imagines Pfaster appearing as a devil was influenced by real @-@ life accounts , as described by Carter : " There are reports of people who had been under the spell of Jeffrey Dahmer , who actually claimed that he shape @-@ shifted during those hours when they were held hostage ; that his image actually changed . " Nutter said " In many ways , Chris wanted to sell the idea that , as established in Mulder 's closing dialogue in the show , not all terror comes from the paranormal . It could come from the person next door . "

Carter said of the casting of Nick Chinlund as Pfaster , " I thought it was a wonderfully creepy villain . The casting of that show was very difficult . We saw many actors , but there was a quality I was looking for and I couldn 't put a name on that quality . I finally figured out what it was when Nick came in and he had a kind of androgynous quality that worked . I thought he looked like Joe College , but he could scare the hell out of you . " Producer Glen Morgan said Chinlund 's performance was outstanding . Nutter stated " Nick Chinlund was wonderful to work with . The guy was like putty in my hands . He was great . If you 're looking for someone to underline the weirdness and strangeness of the character , he did that . "

Nutter said of the episode " I really worked hard to make it a special show , because I thought it was special . It was Gillian 's post @-@ traumatic stress episode , because she had not really had the opportunity to vent her feelings about the whole Duane Barry situation . This was an opportunity to sit back and let all that happen . " Carter particularly liked the scene where a clearly disturbed Scully hugs Mulder , claiming it was a " tender moment " between two characters that had not shown that much affection for each other .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Irresistible " premiered on the Fox network on January 13 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 2 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 8 million households .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Irresistible " received largely positive reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly rated " Irresistible " a B + , saying it was based on " an unsettling concept to begin with " that was reinforced by " Chinlund 's skin @-@ crawling one @-@ man show " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club rated the episode A , praising the acting , particularly of Chinlund as Pfaster , and describing it as " legitimately scary , a sign of a show that was pushing itself in new and interesting directions " . The only criticism was for the scenes where Scully hallucinates Pfaster shapeshifting as " pretty silly , almost feeling like an attempt to make sure something vaguely paranormal is in the episode so the fans don 't get bored with what is ultimately a very good episode " . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity gave the episode a B + grade . Writing for Den of Geek , Nina Sordi ranked " Irresistible " the sixth best X @-@ Files episode , saying that " excluding CSM and his cronies , Pfaster has got to be the most disturbing villain that our favorite agents have encountered " . Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named it the " finest " stand @-@ alone episode of the second season , describing it as " a genuinely creepy 45 @-@ minute horror movie " . Connie Ogle of Popmatters listed Pfaster among the best monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week characters of the series , and IGN 's Christine Seghers ranked Chinlund the seventh best guest star in the history of the show , considering that " what makes him all the more frightening is how downright passive and polite he is up until the moment he 's going to kill ; the perfect camouflage for a modern @-@ day monster . " TV Guide listed Pfaster among the scariest X @-@ Files monsters describing him as " evil incarnate " .

Chris Carter said " Irresistible " was effective for " being really scary " , and that not only it was one of his favorites but inspired him to create the television series Millennium later .

= Thunderbirds ( TV series ) =

Thunderbirds is a British science @-@ fiction television series created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , filmed by their production company AP Films ( APF ) and distributed by ITC Entertainment . It was produced between 1964 and 1966 using a form of electronic marionette puppetry ( dubbed " Supermarionation " ) combined with scale model special effects sequences . Two series were filmed , comprising a total of 32 episodes . Production ceased after Lew Grade , the Andersons ' financial backer , failed in his efforts to sell the programme to American network television .

Set in the mid @-@ 2060s , Thunderbirds is a follow @-@ up to the earlier Supermarionation productions Four Feather Falls , Supercar , Fireball XL5 and Stingray . It follows the exploits of International Rescue ( IR ) , a life @-@ saving organisation equipped with technologically @-@ advanced land , sea , air and space rescue craft ; these are headed by a fleet of five vehicles named the Thunderbirds and launched from IR 's secret base in the Pacific Ocean . The main characters are ex @-@ astronaut Jeff Tracy , the founder of IR , and his five adult sons , who pilot the Thunderbird machines .

Thunderbirds began its first run in the United Kingdom on the ITV network in 1965 and has since been broadcast in at least 66 other countries . Periodically repeated , it was adapted for radio in the early 1990s and has influenced many TV programmes and other media . As well as inspiring various merchandising campaigns , the series has been followed by two feature @-@ length film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation and a mimed stage show tribute . The second of two TV remakes , the computer @-@ animated Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered in 2015 .

Widely considered to be the Andersons ' most popular and commercially successful series , Thunderbirds has received particular praise for its effects ( directed by Derek Meddings ) and musical score ( composed by Barry Gray ) . It is also well remembered for its title sequence , which opens with an often @-@ quoted countdown by actor Peter Dyneley ( who voiced the character of Jeff ) : " 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! " A real @-@ life rescue service , the International Rescue Corps , is named after the organisation featured in the series .

= = Storyline = =

Set between 2065 and 2067 , Thunderbirds follows the exploits of the Tracy family , headed by American ex @-@ astronaut turned multi @-@ millionaire philanthropist Jeff Tracy . He is a widower with five adult sons : Scott , John , Virgil , Gordon and Alan . The Tracys form International Rescue ( IR ) , a secret organisation dedicated to saving human life . They are aided in this mission by technologically advanced land , sea , air and space vehicles , which are called into service when conventional rescue techniques prove ineffective . The most important of these are five machines named the " Thunderbirds " , each assigned to one of the five Tracy brothers :

Thunderbird 1 : a hypersonic rocket plane used for fast response and accident zone reconnaissance . Piloted by primary rescue co @-@ ordinator Scott Tracy .

Thunderbird 2 : a supersonic carrier aircraft that transports rescue vehicles and equipment to accident zones in detachable capsules known as " Pods " . Piloted by Virgil .

Thunderbird 3 : a single @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit spacecraft . Piloted alternately by Alan and John , with Scott as co @-@ pilot .

Thunderbird 4 : a utility submersible . Piloted by Gordon and normally launched from Thunderbird 2 .

Thunderbird 5 : a space station that relays distress calls from around the world . Manned alternately by " Space Monitors " John and Alan .

With the engineer Brains and Jeff 's elderly mother , as well as the Malaysian manservant Kyrano and his daughter Tin @-@ Tin , the family reside in a luxurious villa on Tracy Island , their hidden base in the South Pacific Ocean . In this location , IR is safe from criminals and spies who envy the organisation 's technology and seek to acquire the secrets of its machines .

Despite its humanitarian principles , some of IR 's operations are necessitated not by misadventure but deliberate sabotage motivated by greed for power and wealth . For missions that require criminal investigation , the organisation incorporates a network of undercover agents headed by English aristocrat Lady Penelope Creighton @-@ Ward and her butler Aloysius Parker . Based at Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion in Kent , Penelope and Parker 's primary mode of transport is FAB 1 , a specially @-@ modified Rolls @-@ Royce . The most persistent of IR 's adversaries is the criminal known only as the " Hood " . Operating from a temple in the Malaysian jungle , and possessing abilities of hypnosis and dark magic , he exerts a powerful telepathic control over Kyrano , his estranged half @-@ brother , and manipulates the Tracys into missions that unfold according to his nefarious designs . This allows him to spy on the Thunderbird machines and , by selling their secrets , make himself rich .

= = Production = =

Thunderbirds was the fourth Supermarionation puppet TV series to be produced by APF , which was founded by the husband @-@ and @-@ wife duo of Gerry and Sylvia Anderson with their business partners Reg Hill and John Read . Pitched in late 1963 , the series was commissioned by Lew Grade of ITC , APF 's parent company , on the back of the positive audience response to Stingray .

Gerry Anderson drew inspiration for the series ' underlying concept from the West German mining disaster known as the Wunder von Lengede ( " Miracle of Lengede " ) . In October 1963 , the collapse of a nearby dam flooded an iron mine in the municipality of Lengede , killing 29 miners and trapping 21 others underground . Lacking the means to drill an escape shaft , the authorities were forced to requisition a heavy @-@ duty bore from Bremen ; the considerable time necessary to ship this device by rail had significantly reduced the chances of a successful rescue . Recognising the advantages of swifter crisis response , Anderson conceived the idea of an " international rescue " organisation that could use supersonic aircraft to transport specialised rescue equipment quickly over long distances .

Seeking to distinguish his 26 @-@ episode proposal from APF 's earlier productions , Anderson attempted to pitch stories at a level that would appeal to both adults and children . Whereas previous series had been shown during the late afternoon , Anderson wanted Thunderbirds to be broadcast in a family @-@ friendly primetime slot . Sylvia remembers that " our market had grown and a ' kidult ' show ... was the next step . " The Andersons retired to their holiday villa in Portugal to expand the premise , script the pilot episode and compose a scriptwriters ' guide . According to Sylvia , the writing process depended on a " division of labour " , whereby Gerry created the action sequences while she managed characterisation . The decision to make a father and his sons the main characters was influenced by the premise of Bonanza , as well as Sylvia 's belief that the use of more than one heroic character would broaden the series ' appeal . The Tracy brothers were named after Mercury Seven astronauts : Scott Carpenter , John Glenn , Virgil " Gus " Grissom , Gordon Cooper and Alan Shepard .

The series ' title was derived from a letter written by Gerry 's brother , Lionel , while he had been serving overseas as an RAF flight sergeant during World War II . While stationed in Arizona , Lionel had made reference to Thunderbird Field , a nearby United States Army Air Forces base . Drawn to the " punchiness " of " Thunderbirds " , Anderson dropped his working title of " International Rescue " and renamed both the series and IR 's rescue vehicles , which had previously been designated Rescues 1 to 5 . His inspiration for the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 originated from contemporary United States Air Force launch procedure : Anderson had learnt how the Strategic Air Command would keep its pilots on permanent standby , seated in the cockpits of their aircraft and ready for take @-@ off at a moment 's notice .

In the DVD documentary The Thunderbirds Companion , Anderson explained how a rise in filming costs had made overseas distribution revenue even more important and essentially caused Thunderbirds to be made " as an American show " . During the character development and voice casting process , the Andersons ' main priority was to ensure that the series had transatlantic appeal , thus increasing the chances of winning an American network deal and the higher audience figures that this market had to offer . Scripts were typed in American English and printed on US @-@ style quarto @-@ size paper .

= = = Filming = = =

Thunderbirds was filmed at APF 's studios on the Slough Trading Estate between 1964 and 1966 . In preparation , the number of full @-@ time crew was expanded to 100 . Shooting began in September 1964 after five months of pre @-@ production . Due to the new series ' technical complexity , this was a period longer than for any of APF 's earlier productions . To speed up the filming , episodes were shot in pairs , at a rate of one per month , on separate soundstages and by separate crews ( designated " A " and " B " ) . By 1964 , APF was the UK 's largest commercial user of colour film , consuming more than three million feet ( 570 miles or 910 kilometres ) of stock per year .

Alan Pattillo , a veteran scriptwriter and director for APF , was appointed the company 's first official script editor in late 1964 . This move was aimed to reduce the burden on Gerry Anderson who , while reserving his producer 's right to overall creative control , had grown weary of revising scripts himself . Direction of episodes was assigned in pairs : Pattillo and David Elliott alternated with the less experienced Desmond Saunders and newcomer David Lane for each month 's filming . Due to the difficulties of setting up takes , progress was slow : even on a productive day , it was rare for the crew to complete more than two minutes of puppet footage In a contemporary interview , Hill noted that Thunderbirds contained several times as many shots as a typical live @-@ action series . He explained that rapid editing was necessary on account of the characters ' lack of facial expression , which made it difficult to sustain the viewer 's interest for more than a few seconds per shot .

After viewing the completed 25 @-@ minute pilot , " Trapped in the Sky " , Lew Grade was so impressed by APF 's work that he instructed Anderson to double the episode length and increased the series ' budget per episode from £ 25 @,@ 000 to £ 38 @,@ 000 . As a result , Thunderbirds became not only the company 's longest and highest @-@ budgeted production , but also among the most expensive TV series to have been made up to that point . The crew , who had been filming at a rate of two 25 @-@ minute episodes per fortnight , faced significant challenges during the transition to the new format : eight episodes had already been completed , scripts for up to ten more had been written , and substantial rewrites would be necessary to satisfy the longer running time . Anderson lamented : " Our time @-@ scale was far too drawn out . ITC 's New York office insisted that they should have one show a fortnight ... Everything had to move at twice the speed . " APF spent over seven months extending the existing episodes .

Tony Barwick , who had impressed Pattillo and the Andersons with an unsubmitted script that he had written for Danger Man , was recruited to assist in the writing of subplots and filler material . He found that the longer format created opportunities to strengthen the characterisation . Science @-@ fiction writer John Peel suggests that " small character touches " make the puppet cast of Thunderbirds " much more rounded " than those of earlier APF series . He compares the writing favourably to that of live @-@ action drama . The new footage proved useful during the development of the first series finale , " Security Hazard " : since the previous two episodes had overspent their budgets , Pattillo devised a flashback @-@ dominated clip show containing only 17 minutes of new material to reduce costs .

Filming of Series One was completed in December 1965 . A second series was also commissioned late that year and entered production in March 1966 . Barwick became a full @-@ time member of the writing staff and took over the role of script editor from the outgoing Pattillo . The main puppet cast and vehicles were rebuilt ; in addition , the art department expanded some of the standing sets , including the Tracy Villa lounge and the Thunderbird 5 control room . To accommodate the simultaneous filming of the TV series and Thunderbirds Are Go , APF purchased two more buildings on the Slough Trading Estate and converted them into new stages . As crew and studio space were divided between the two productions , filming of the TV series progressed at half the previous speed , as APF 's B crew produced one episode per month . Filming on Thunderbirds Are Go was completed by June , allowing A crew to resume work on the series to shoot what would prove to be its penultimate episode , " Ricochet " .

Production of Thunderbirds ended in August 1966 with the completion of the sixth episode of Series Two . In February that year , it had been reported that Grade had been unable to sell the series in the United States due to disagreements over timeslots . In July , he cancelled Thunderbirds after failing in his second attempt to secure an American buyer . The three major US networks of the time – NBC , CBS and ABC – had all bid for the series , with Grade repeatedly increasing the price . When NBC withdrew its offer , the other two immediately followed .

By the time of its cancellation , Thunderbirds had become widely popular in the UK and was being distributed extensively overseas . Grade , however , believed that without the financial boost of an American network sale , a full second series would fail to recover its production costs . He therefore asked Anderson to devise a new concept that he hoped would stand a greater chance of winning over the profitable US market . This became Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons .

= = = Casting and characters = = =

Voice @-@ recording sessions were supervised by Pattillo and the Andersons , with Sylvia Anderson in charge of casting . Dialogue was recorded once per month at a rate of two scripts per session . Supporting parts were not pre @-@ assigned , but negotiated by the cast among themselves . Two recordings would be made at each session : one to be converted into electronic pulses for the puppet filming , the other to be added to the soundtrack during post @-@ production . The tapes were edited at Gate Recording Theatre in Birmingham .

In the interest of transatlantic appeal , it was decided that the main characters would be mostly American and therefore actors capable of producing an appropriate accent were used . British , Canadian and Australian actors formed most of the voice cast ; the only American involved was stage actor David Holliday , who was noticed in London 's West End and given the part of Virgil Tracy . Following the completion of the first series , Holliday returned to the US . The character was voiced by English @-@ Canadian actor Jeremy Wilkin for Series Two .

British actor David Graham was among the first to be cast . He had previously voiced characters in Four Feather Falls , Supercar , Fireball XL5 and Stingray . Beyond the APF productions , he had supplied one of the original Dalek voices on Doctor Who . Cast alongside Graham was Australian actor Ray Barrett . Like Graham , he had worked for the Andersons before , having voiced Titan and Commander Shore in Stingray . A veteran of radio drama , Barrett was skilled at performing a range of voices and accents in quick succession . Villains of the week would typically be voiced by either Barrett or Graham . Aware of the sensitive political climate of the Cold War and not wishing to " perpetuate the idea that Russia was the enemy with a whole generation of children watching " , Gerry Anderson decided the Hood ( voiced by Barrett ) should be Oriental and placed his temple hideout in Malaysia to defy the viewer 's expectations .

Although Lady Penelope and Parker ( the latter voiced by Graham ) were among the first characters developed , neither was conceived as a major role . Parker 's Cockney manner was based on a waiter at a pub in Cookham that was sometimes visited by the crew . On Gerry Anderson 's recommendation , Graham dined there regularly to study the accent . Anderson 's first choice for the role of Penelope had been Fenella Fielding , but Sylvia insisted she take the part herself . Her Penelope voice was intended to emulate Fielding and Joan Greenwood . On Penelope and Parker 's secondary role as comic relief , Gerry explained , " We British can laugh at ourselves , so therefore we had Penelope and Parker as this comedy team . And in America they love the British aristocracy too . ' "

As well as Jeff Tracy , English @-@ Canadian actor Peter Dyneley voiced the recurring character of Commander Norman , chief of air traffic control at London International Airport . His supporting character voices were typically those of upper @-@ class Englishmen . Shane Rimmer , the voice of Scott , was cast on the strength of his performance on the BBC soap opera Compact . Meanwhile , fellow Canadian Matt Zimmerman was selected at a late stage in the process . The expatriate West End actor was given the role of Alan on the recommendation of his friend , Holliday : " They were having great difficulty casting the part of Alan as they wanted a certain sound for him , being the youngest brother . David , who [ was ] a bit older than I am , told them that he had this friend , me , who would be great . "

Christine Finn , known for her role in the TV serial Quatermass and the Pit , provided the voices of Tin @-@ Tin Kyrano and Grandma Tracy . With Sylvia Anderson , she was also responsible for voicing most of the female and child supporting characters . Other minor parts were voiced by Charles Tingwell , Paul Maxwell and John Tate ( the father of Nick Tate ) , who were not credited for their contributions .

= = = Design and effects = = =

The puppet stages used for the filming of Thunderbirds were only one @-@ fifth the size of those used for a standard live @-@ action production , typically measuring 12 by 14 by 3 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 by 45 @.@ 9 by 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in length , width and height . Bob Bell , assisted by Keith Wilson and Grenville Nott , headed the art department for Series One . During the simultaneous filming of Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go in 1966 , Bell attended mainly to the film , entrusting set design for the TV series to Wilson .

Since it was necessary for the art department 's interior sets to conform to the effects department 's exterior plans , each team closely monitored the other 's work . According to Sylvia Anderson , Bell 's challenge was to produce complex interiors on a limited budget while resisting the effects department 's push for " more extravagant " design . This task was complicated by the unnatural proportions of the puppets : Bell struggled to decide whether the sets should be built to a scale proportionate to their bodies or their oversized heads and hands . He used the example of FAB 1 to illustrate the problem : " As soon as we positioned [ the puppets ] standing alongside [ the model ] , they looked ridiculous , as the car towered over them . " He ultimately adopted a " mix @-@ and @-@ match " approach , in which smaller items , such as tableware , were scaled to their hands and furniture to their bodies .

While designing the Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion sets , Bell and his staff strove for authenticity , ordering miniature Tudor paintings , 1 ⁄ 3 @-@ scale Georgian- and Regency @-@ style furniture and carpeting in the shape of a polar bear skin . This realism was enhanced by adding scrap items acquired from household waste and electronics shops . For example , a vacuum cleaner pipe serves as Virgil Tracy 's launch chute .

= = = = Puppets = = = =

The head puppet sculptor was Christine Glanville , who also served as the lead puppeteer . Glanville 's four @-@ person team built the 13 members of the main cast in six months at a cost of between £ 250 and £ 300 per puppet ( approximately £ 4 @,@ 569 and £ 5 @,@ 483 today ) . Since pairs of episodes were being filmed simultaneously on separate stages , the characters needed to be sculpted in duplicate . Facial expressions were diversified by means of replaceable heads : as well as a head with a neutral expression , each main character was given a " smiler " , a " frowner " and a " blinker " . The finished puppets were approximately 22 inches ( 56 cm ) tall , or 1 ⁄ 3 adult human height .

The puppets were made up of more than 30 individual components , the most important of which was the solenoid that synchronised lip movements with the characters ' pre @-@ recorded dialogue . This device was positioned inside the head unit ; consequently , torsos and limbs appeared relatively small . The puppets ' likenesses and mechanics are remembered favourably by puppeteer Wanda Brown , who preferred the Thunderbirds marionettes over the accurately @-@ proportioned ones that first appeared in Captain Scarlet : " The puppets were easier to operate and more enjoyable because they had more character to them ... Even some of the more normal @-@ looking faces , such as Scott and Jeff , for me had more character than the puppets in the series that came afterwards . " Rimmer speaks positively of the puppets ' still being " very much caricatures " , since it made them " more lovable and appealing ... There was a naive quality about them and nothing too complex . "

The appearances of the main characters were inspired by those of actors and other entertainers , who were typically selected from the show business directory Spotlight . According to Glanville , as part of a trend away from the strong caricature of previous series , APF was seeking " more natural faces " for the puppets . The face of Jeff Tracy was based on that of Lorne Greene , Scott on Sean Connery , Alan on Robert Reed , John on Adam Faith and Charlton Heston , Brains on Anthony Perkins and Parker on Ben Warriss . Sylvia Anderson brought the character of Penelope to life in likeness as well as voice : after her test moulds were rejected , sculptor Mary Turner decided to use Anderson herself as a template . Terry Curtis was also an original sculpture of Supermarionation puppets .

Main character heads were initially sculpted in either Plasticine or clay . Once the general aspect had been finalised , this served as the template for a silicone rubber mould . This was coated with Bondaglass ( fibreglass mixed with resin ) and enhanced with Bondapaste , a putty @-@ like substance , to accentuate contours . The Bondaglass shell was then fitted with a solenoid , leather mouth parts and plastic eyes , as well as incisor teeth – a first for a Supermarionation production . Puppets known as " revamps " , which had plastic heads , portrayed the supporting characters . These marionettes started their working lives with only a mouth and eyes ; their faces were remoulded from one episode to the next . Particularly striking revamp moulds were retained and , as their numbers increased , photographed to compile an internal casting directory .

Wigs were made of mohair or , in the case of the Penelope puppet , human hair . Puppet bodies were built in three sizes : " large male " ( specifically for the Tracys and the Hood ) , " small male " and " small female " . Sylvia Anderson , the head costume designer , devised the main characters ' attire . To give the puppets increased mobility , the costume department generally avoided stiff synthetic materials , instead working with cotton , silk and wool . Between 1964 and 1966 , the department 's stock numbered more than 700 costumes .

Each puppet 's head was fitted with about 10 thin tungsten steel wires . During the filming , dialogue was played into the studio using modified tape recorders that converted the feed into electronic pulses . Two of the wires relayed these pulses to the internal solenoid , completing the Supermarionation process . The wires , which were sprayed black to reduce their visibility , were made even less noticeable through the application of powder paint that matched the background colours of the set . Glanville explained the time @-@ consuming nature of this process : " [ The puppeteers ] used to spend over half an hour on each shot getting rid of these wires , looking through the camera , puffing a bit more [ paint ] here , anti @-@ flare there ; and , I mean , it 's very depressing when somebody will say to us , ' Of course the wires showed . ' " Positioned on an overhead gantry with a hand @-@ held cruciform , the puppeteers co @-@ ordinated movements with the help of a viewfinder @-@ powered CCTV feedback system . As filming progressed , the crew started to dispense with wires and instead manipulate the puppets from the studio floor using rods .

Due to their low weight and the fact that they had only one control wire per leg , the puppets were unable to walk convincingly . Therefore , scenes involving movement were filmed from the waist up , with a puppeteer holding the legs below the level of the camera and using a " bobbing " action to simulate motion . Alternatively , dynamic shots were eliminated altogether : in an interview with New Scientist , director of photography John Read spoke of the advantages of circumventing the lack of agility so that the puppets " appear , for example , to walk through doors ( although the control wires make this impossible ) or pick up a coffee cup ( although their fingers are not in fact jointed ) . " Live @-@ action shots of human hands were inserted whenever scripts called for more dexterous actions to be performed .

= = = = Special effects = = = =

The effects for all the APF series from Supercar to UFO were directed by Derek Meddings , who later worked on the James Bond and Superman films . Knowing that Thunderbirds would be the " biggest project [ APF ] had worked on " , Meddings found himself struggling to manage his workload with the single filming unit that had produced all the effects for Stingray . He therefore established a second unit under technician Brian Johncock , and a third exclusively for filming airborne sequences . This expansion increased the number of APF crews and stages to five each . A typical episode contained around 100 effects shots ; Meddings ' team completed up to 18 per day .

An addition to the effects department was Mike Trim , who served as Meddings ' assistant in designing vehicles and buildings . Meddings and Trim jointly pioneered an " organic " design technique in which the exteriors of models and sets were customised with parts from model kits and children 's toys . Models and sets were also " dirtied down " with powder paint or pencil lead to create a used look . Toy cars and vans were used in long shot , while scale vehicles were equipped with basic steering and suspension for added realism . Miniature fans and Jetex pellets , which are capable of issuing air jets or chemical exhaust , were attached to the undersides to simulate dust trails . Another of Meddings ' inventions was a closed , cyclical effects stage nicknamed the " rolling road " : consisting of two or more loops of canvas running at different speeds , this device allowed shots of moving vehicles to be filmed on a static set to make more efficient use of the limited studio space . Airborne aircraft sequences were mounted against a " rolling sky " , with smoke fanned across to simulate passing clouds .

One of Meddings ' first tasks was to shoot stock footage of the Thunderbird machines and the series ' main locations , Tracy Island and Creighton @-@ Ward Mansion . The finished island model was a composite of more than a dozen smaller sets that could be detached from the whole and filmed separately . The architecture of the mansion was based on that of Stourhead House , located on the Stourhead Estate in Wiltshire . In the absence of head designer Reg Hill , who was serving as associate producer , Meddings was further tasked with designing the Thunderbird fleet and FAB 1 . Scale models for the six main vehicles were built by a contractor , Master Models of Middlesex . Models and puppet sets combined , more than 200 versions of the Thunderbird machines were created for the series .

During the designing and filming process , Meddings ' first priorities were realism and credibility . With the exception of Thunderbird 5 , each vehicle was built in three or four scales . Meddings ' swing @-@ wing concept for Thunderbird 1 was inspired by his wish to create something " more dynamic " than a fixed @-@ wing aircraft . He remained unsatisfied with the prototype of Thunderbird 2 until he inverted the wings , later commenting , " ... at the time , all aircraft had swept @-@ back wings . I only did it to be different . " This decision was made out of personal preference and was not informed by any expert knowledge on Meddings ' part . He described the Thunderbird 2 launch as " probably the most memorable " sequence that his team devised for an APF production .

The largest model of Thunderbird 3 , whose design was based on the Soviet Soyuz rocket , was six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall . Thunderbird 4 was particularly difficult to film : as the scale of the model did not correspond to the water inside the shooting tank , creative camera angles and rapid editing were used to produce a sense of realistic perspective . Thunderbird 5 , the most difficult vehicle for Meddings to visualise , was based on the Tracy Island Round House . Since most of the space station 's appearances were provided by stock footage , the model was rarely filmed . Pod Vehicles were designed on an episode @-@ by @-@ episode basis and built from balsa wood , Jelutong wood or fibreglass . To save time and costs , other minor vehicles were built in @-@ house from radio @-@ controlled model kits .

As the puppets of Lady Penelope and Parker needed to fit inside , the largest of all the models was the seven @-@ foot FAB 1 , which cost £ 2 @,@ 500 ( approximately £ 46 @,@ 000 today ) to build . The Rolls @-@ Royce 's name and colour were both chosen by Sylvia Anderson . Rolls @-@ Royce Ltd. supervised the construction of the plywood model and supplied APF with an authentic radiator grille for close @-@ up shots of the front of the car . In exchange for its cooperation , the company requested that a Spirit of Ecstasy be fixed to the chassis and that the characters avoid referring to the brand with abbreviations such as " Rolls " .

Scale explosions were created using substances such as fuller 's earth , petrol gel , magnesium strips and Cordtex explosive . Originally filmed at up to 120 frames per second ( f.p.s. ) , they were slowed down to 24 f.p.s. during post @-@ production to increase their apparent magnitude and length . Gunpowder canisters were ignited to create rocket jets . The wires that electronically fired the rockets also allowed a member of the crew , holding a cruciform and positioned on an overhead gantry , to " fly " the model over the set . By far the most unwieldy model was Thunderbird 2 , which Meddings remembered as being " awful " to fly . A combination of unreliable rockets and weak wiring frequently caused problems : should the former be slow to ignite , the current quickly caused the latter to overheat and snap , potentially damaging the model and even setting fire to the set . Conditions above the studio floor were often dangerous due to the heat and smoke . Although many of the exhaust sound effects used in the series were drawn from an audio library , some were specially recorded during a Red Arrows display at RAF Little Rissington in Gloucestershire .

By 1966 , Meddings ' commitments were split between Series Two and Thunderbirds Are Go . While Meddings worked on the film , camera operator Jimmy Elliott assumed the responsibility of directing the TV effects . By this stage , the basic frame of Thunderbird 2 had been damaged so many times that the model had needed to be rebuilt from scratch . Meddings was displeased with the result , reflecting that the replacement was " not only the wrong colour , it was a completely different shape ... I never felt our model @-@ makers managed to recapture the look of the original . "

Critic David Garland suggests that the challenge facing the Thunderbirds effects department was to strike a balance between the " conventional science @-@ fiction imperative of the ' futuristic ' " and the " seeping hyper @-@ realist concerns mandated by the Andersons ' approach to the puppets " . Thunderbirds has been praised for the quality of its effects . Jim Sangster and Paul Condon , writers of Collins Telly Guide , consider the model work " uniformly impressive " . To Paul Cornell , Martin Day and Keith Topping , writers of The Guinness Book of Classic British TV , the effects are " way beyond anything seen on TV previously " . Impressed by their work on Thunderbirds , film director Stanley Kubrick hired several members of Meddings ' staff to supervise the effects shooting for 2001 : A Space Odyssey .

= = = = Title sequence = = = =

The series ' title sequence , storyboarded by Gerry Anderson , is made up of two parts . It opens with a countdown of " 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 : Thunderbirds Are Go ! " , provided by Dyneley in character as Jeff Tracy . In a departure from the style of Stingray , the Thunderbirds title sequence varies with each episode : the first part consists of an action montage that serves as a preview of the plot . Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , biographers of Gerry Anderson , compare this device favourably to a film trailer .

The second part , accompanied by composer Barry Gray 's " The Thunderbirds March " , features portraits of the main puppet cast superimposed on various vehicles and settings . Peel describes this as " ostensibly a return to the ' series stars ' concept long known in TV " , while Garland considers such imagery demonstrative of Anderson 's commitment to " incremental realism " through a convergence of human and puppet characteristics . Essayist Jonathan Bignell suggests that the use of portraits conveys Anderson 's partiality to " visual revelation of machines and physical action " .

According to Daniel O 'Brien , writer of SF : UK : How British Science Fiction Changed the World , the Thunderbirds title sequence encapsulates the reasons for the series ' enduring popularity . Dyneley 's countdown is particularly well remembered and has been widely quoted . Dean Newman of the Syfy channel website ranks Thunderbirds eighth in a list of " Top 10 TV title sequences " , while Den of Geek 's Martin Anderson considers the sequence the best of any TV series .

= = = Music = = =

The score was composed by Gray , who served as musical director for all of the Anderson productions up to the first series of Space : 1999 . In response to Gerry Anderson 's request that the main theme have a " military feel " , Gray produced a brass @-@ dominated piece titled " The Thunderbirds March " , which was recorded in December 1964 at Olympic Studios in London . The end titles were originally to have been accompanied by " Flying High " , a lyrical track sung by Gary Miller with backing by Ken Barrie . Ultimately , a variation of the march was used instead . Incidental music was recorded over nine months between March and December 1965 . As most of the music budget was spent on the series ' earlier episodes , later instalments drew heavily on APF 's ever @-@ expanding music library .

Peel considers " The Thunderbirds March " to be " one of the best TV themes ever written – perfect for the show and catchy when heard alone " . Morag Reavley of BBC Online argues that the piece is " up there ... in the quintessential soundtrack of the Sixties " with the James Bond films and the songs of Frank Sinatra , Elvis and The Beatles . More generally , he praises the series ' " catchy , pulse @-@ quickening tunes " , as well as Gray 's aptitude for " musical nuance " and the mixing of genres . Heather Phares of Allmusic considers " Thunderbirds Are Go ! " – the track accompanying the launch sequences of Thunderbirds 1 , 2 and 3 – to be a reflection of the mod aspect of 1960s British spy fiction . She also highlights Gray 's homage to – and divergence from – musical norms , commenting that his score " sends up the spy and action / adventure conventions of the ' 60s very stylishly and subtly " .

David Huckvale identifies Wagnerian homage in both the theme music and the series ' premise . Noting that the theme 's opening string ostinato is similar in effect to a recurring motif in Ride of the Valkyries , he also likens the Thunderbird machines to Valkyries themselves : " Their function is more benevolent than those warrior maidens , but they do hover over danger , death and destruction . " Kevin J. Donnelly of the University of Southampton acknowledges the series ' " big @-@ sounding orchestral score " , which he compares to that of a live @-@ action film . He also suggests that the music serves partly to draw attention away from the physical imperfections of the puppets .

To celebrate the shows anniversary , " Thunderbirds Are Go - 50 Years On " at Colston Hall , Bristol was celebrated as the theme music is brought to life , led by Charles Hazlewood and his All Star Collective .

= = Broadcast = =

Thunderbirds premiered on British television on 30 September 1965 on the ITV franchises ATV Midlands , Westward and Channel . Other broadcasters , including ATV London and Granada , started transmissions the following month . The Christmas @-@ themed series finale , " Give or Take a Million " , was first broadcast on 25 December 1966 . Despite Grade 's decision to extend the running time , Midlands and Granada broadcast each episode in two parts . In these areas , both 25 @-@ minute instalments aired on the same day , separated by the ITN Evening News . The conclusion opened with a narration by Shane Rimmer summarising the first part 's action .

Granada transmitted Thunderbirds in its original , 50 @-@ minute format for the first time with the start of repeats in 1966 . In 1968 , the franchise briefly aired episodes in three parts due to timeslot restrictions . The availability of repeats during the 1960s and 1970s varied among regions . ATV Midlands screened the series regularly into the early 1970s ; by contrast , Thunderbirds was entirely absent from Yorkshire Television between 1968 and 1976 . The series was last transmitted on the ITV franchises in 1981 .

In 1990 , 8 of the 19 audio episodes released by APF Records were converted into radio dramas , which were transmitted on BBC Radio 5 . The success of the radio series encouraged the BBC to acquire the rights to the TV episodes , which it broadcast simultaneously in all regions from September 1991 on BBC 2 .

Since the end of the first network run , which achieved average viewing figures of more than six million , the BBC has repeated the series six times : between 1992 and 1993 ( Series One only ) , 1994 and 1995 ( nine episodes only ) , and 2000 and 2001 ( in remastered form ) , as well as in 2003 , 2005 and 2006 . Other channels that have shown repeats include UK Gold ( 1994 – 95 ) , Bravo ( 1996 – 97 ) , Cartoon Network ( 2001 – 02 ) , Boomerang ( 2001 – 03 ) and Syfy ( 2009 ) . In Scotland , the BBC screened a Gaelic dub , Tairnearan Tar As ( " Thunderbirds Are Go " ) in the early 1990s .

Before its UK debut , Thunderbirds was distributed to 30 other countries including the US , Canada , Australia and Japan . Pre @-@ sales revenue totalled £ 350 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 6 million today ) . In the year following the series ' first appearance , the number of countries increased to 66 . In Japan , where it was first broadcast by NHK , Thunderbirds attracted a sizeable fan following and influenced series such as Ultraman , Mighty Jack , Himitsu Sentai Gorenger and Super Rescue Solbrain . In the US , the two @-@ part format entered first @-@ run syndication , to modest success , in 1968 . Other overseas broadcasters have included TechTV and Family Room HD ( US ) , BBC Kids and YTV ( Canada ) , Nine Network and Foxtel ( Australia ) , TV3 ( New Zealand ) , MediaCorp TV12 Kids Central ( Singapore ) and RTÉ Two ( Republic of Ireland ) .

= = Reception = =

Thunderbirds is generally considered the Andersons ' most popular series and their greatest critical and commercial success . In 1966 , the show received a Royal Television Society Silver Medal for Outstanding Artistic Achievement and Gerry Anderson received an honorary fellowship of the British Kinematograph , Sound and Television Society . In 2007 , Thunderbirds achieved 19th place in a Radio Times magazine reader poll to determine the best science @-@ fiction TV programme of all time . It is ranked fourth by the 2013 Channel 5 list show 50 Greatest Kids ' TV Shows .

For Peel , Thunderbirds is " without a doubt the peak of the Supermarionation achievement " . Suggesting that the series is pitched at a " more adult " level than its predecessors , he adds that its sense of adventure , effective humour and " gripping and convincing " episodes ensured that " everyone in the audience found something to love about it . " Simon Heffer , a fan of Thunderbirds in childhood , commented positively on the series for The Daily Telegraph in 2011 : " All the elements we children discerned in whatever grown @-@ up television we had been allowed to watch were present in Thunderbirds : dramatic theme and incidental music ; well @-@ developed plots ; goodies and baddies ; swaggering Americans , at a time when the whole of Britain was in a cultural cringe to them ; and , of course , glamorous locations ... Then , of course , there was the nail @-@ biting tension of the rescues themselves ... " Film critic Kim Newman describes the series as a " television perennial " .

In his foreword to John Marriott 's book , Thunderbirds Are Go ! , Anderson put forward several explanations for the series ' enduring popularity : it " contains elements that appeal to most children – danger , jeopardy and destruction . But because International Rescue 's mission is to save life , there is no gratuitous violence . " According to Anderson , Thunderbirds incorporates a " strong family atmosphere , where Dad reigns supreme " . Both O 'Brien and script editor Alan Pattillo have praised the series ' positive " family values " . In addition , Heffer and others have written of its cross @-@ generational appeal . In 2000 , shortly before the series ' BBC revival , Brian Viner remarked in Radio Times that Thunderbirds was on the point of " captivating yet another generation of viewers " . Stuart Hood , writing for The Spectator in 1965 , praised Thunderbirds as a " modern fairy tale " ; adding that it " can sometimes be frightening " , he recommended that children watch it accompanied by their parents . Writing for Dreamwatch in 1994 , Andrew Thomas described Thunderbirds as only " nominally " a children 's programme : " Its themes are universal and speak as much to the adult in the child as the child in the adult . "

Jeff Evans , author of The Penguin TV Companion , argues that the series ' 50 @-@ minute format allows for stronger character development and " tension @-@ building " . O 'Brien is less positive in his appraisal of the writing , asserting that the plots are often " formulaic " and are sometimes " stretched to snapping point " by the extended running time . Cornell , Day and Topping are critical : they consider the writing at times " woefully poor " and argue that Thunderbirds as a whole is " often as clichéd as previous Anderson series " . Peel , despite praising the storylines and characterisation , suggests that the " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " humour of Stingray is less evident . Where Thunderbirds improves on its predecessor , Peel believes , is in its rejection of fantasy plot devices , child and animal characters , comical and stereotyped villains and what he terms the " standard Anderson sexism " : female characters , marginalised in earlier series , are more commonly seen to play active and sometimes heroic roles .

Noting the attention to detail of the series ' launch sequences , Jonathan Bignell argues that part of the motivation for dedicating large amounts of screen time to the Thunderbird craft is the need to compensate for the limited mobility of the puppet cast . The focus on futuristic machines has also been explored by cultural historian Nicholas J. Cull , who comments that of all the Andersons ' series , Thunderbirds is the most evocative of a recurring theme : the " necessity of the human component of the machine " , whereby the failures of new technology are overcome by " brave human beings and technology working together " . This makes the series ' vision of the 2060s " wonderfully humanistic and reassuring " . O 'Brien similarly praises this optimism , comparing the Tracy family to guardian Übermensch . Writing for Wired UK magazine , Warren Ellis asserts that the series ' scientific vision could inspire the next generation of " mad and frightening engineers " , adding that Thunderbirds " trades in vast , demented concepts ... immense and very beautiful ideas as solutions to problems . "

Thomas argues that the world of Thunderbirds is similar to the 1960s to the extent that contemporary capitalism and class structures appear to have survived mostly intact . He also observes , however , that wealth and high social status are often depicted as character flaws rather than strengths . According to Thomas , a contributing factor to the series ' lasting popularity is the realism of IR 's machines . Newman , for his part , suggests that " the point isn 't realism . The 21st century of Thunderbirds is detailed ... but also de @-@ populated , a high @-@ tech toyland " . He is more negative in his comparisons of contemporary and future values , noting the " square , almost 50s " attitudes to race , gender and class . With regard to stereotyping , Hood comments that he " would be happier if [ villains ] didn 't seem to be recognisable by their pigmentation " . Cull , by contrast , considers the series largely progressive on the subject of race , arguing that it rejects negative stereotyping through the use of " positive non @-@ white characters " such as Kyrano and Tin @-@ Tin . However , he deems many of the one @-@ off villains derivative , commenting that these characters are typically presented as " corrupt businessmen , spivs and gangsters familiar from crime films " .

Various commentators – including Bignell , Cull and O 'Brien – have also discussed Thunderbirds as a product of the Cold War era . Bignell comments that the Hood 's Oriental appearance and mysterious powers draw parallels with James Bond villains and fears of China operating as " a ' third force ' antagonistic to the West " . Cull observes that , despite the series ' focus on the dangers of nuclear technology , the Thunderbird machines contradict this particular theme : in their case , " an image of technology associated with the threat of Cold War mass destruction – the rocket emerging from the hidden silo – was appropriated and deployed to save life rather than to take it . " He argues that the series adheres more closely to cultural norms by drawing on the " Cold War cult of the secret agent whose skills defend the home from enemies unknown " , noting Lady Penelope 's role as a spy in addition to two episodes ( " 30 Minutes After Noon " and " The Man from MI.5 " ) that are heavily influenced by the James Bond novels and film adaptations .

The presentation of smoking in Thunderbirds was the subject of a study published in the medical journal Tobacco Control in 2002 . Despite identifying examples in 26 episodes , Kate Hunt of the University of Glasgow concluded that Thunderbirds does not actively promote smoking – a view opposed by the Roy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation ( RCLCF ) at the time of the series ' relaunch on BBC 2 . Rejecting the RCLCF 's proposal that the remastered episodes be edited to digitally erase all visible cigarettes and cigars , the BBC stated that the series " does not glorify or encourage smoking " and described the activity as " incidental to the plot " .

= = Merchandise = =

More than 3 @,@ 000 Thunderbirds @-@ themed products have been marketed since the series ' debut . To accommodate the high demand for tie @-@ ins , APF established three dedicated subsidiaries : AP Films Merchandising , AP Films Music and AP Films Toys . Some British commentators dubbed the 1966 end @-@ of @-@ year shopping season " Thunderbirds Christmas " due to the series ' popularity . In the early 1990s , Matchbox launched a new toy range to coincide with the BBC 2 repeats . Sales figures for Christmas 1992 exceeded those achieved by the Star Wars merchandising campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s . Demand for Matchbox 's Tracy Island Playset overwhelmed supply , resulting in shop fights and a substantial black market for the toy .

A comic strip featuring the characters of Lady Penelope and Parker debuted in the early issues of APF Publishing 's children 's title TV Century 21 in 1965 . A full @-@ length Thunderbirds strip appeared a year later , at which point the Lady Penelope adventures were given their own comic . Thunderbirds , Lady Penelope and Captain Scarlet and Thunderbirds annuals were published in the late 1960s ; during the same period , eight original novels were written . In 2008 , FTL Publications of Minnesota launched a new series of tie @-@ in novels .

Between 1965 and 1967 , APF Records released 19 audio episodes in the form of vinyl EPs . Three are original stories ; the rest are adapted from TV episode soundtracks , with additional narration provided by a member of the voice cast . The series ' first video game tie @-@ in , developed for the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum computers , was released by Firebird Software in 1985 . Other titles have since been released for the Game Boy Color , Game Boy Advance and PlayStation 2 . During the late 1980s , the series was issued on home video for the first time by PolyGram and its subsidiary Channel 5 . Following its acquisition by Carlton International Media in 1999 , Thunderbirds was digitally remastered for the release of the first DVD versions in 2000 . Blu @-@ ray Disc editions followed in 2008 .

= = Later productions = =

Thunderbirds has been followed by two film sequels , a live @-@ action film adaptation , two animated TV remakes and several re @-@ edited presentations for TV broadcast and home video . The second of the remakes , Thunderbirds Are Go , premiered on ITV in 2015 , the 50th anniversary year of the original .

= = = Film = = =

The feature @-@ length film sequels Thunderbirds Are Go and Thunderbird 6 were released in 1966 and 1968 . The first was greenlit by Lew Grade before the TV series had started its broadcast run . Written and produced by the Andersons and directed by David Lane , both films were distributed by United Artists . Neither was a critical or commercial success , and Century 21 Cinema 's plans for further sequels were abandoned .

In the early 1980s , episodes of Thunderbirds and other Supermarionation series were re @-@ edited by ITC 's New York offices to create a series of compilation films . Branded " Super Space Theater " , this format was mostly intended for family viewing on American cable and syndicated TV . Three Thunderbirds features were produced : Thunderbirds to the Rescue , Thunderbirds In Outer Space and Countdown to Disaster .

Plans for a live @-@ action film adaptation were first announced in 1993 . These eventually culminated in the 2004 film Thunderbirds , directed by Jonathan Frakes and produced by StudioCanal and Working Title Films . It was a critical and commercial failure and was poorly received by fans of the TV series .

= = = TV = = =

The Andersons sold their intellectual and profit participation rights to Thunderbirds and their other productions in the 1970s . As a result , they had no developmental control over subsequent adaptations of their works . Thunderbirds was first remade for TV in the early 1980s as Thunderbirds 2086 . In this anime re @-@ imagining , set 20 years after the original , the vastly expanded IR is based within an arcology and operates 17 Thunderbird machines . It was inspired by Thunderhawks , an updated story concept by Gerry Anderson and Reg Hill that later served as the basis for Anderson 's Supermacromation series Terrahawks .

Two re @-@ edited series , based on condensed versions of 13 of the original episodes , aired in the US in 1994 . The first , Thunderbirds USA , was broadcast as part of the Fox Kids programming block ; the second , Turbocharged Thunderbirds , was syndicated by UPN . Developed as a comedy , Turbocharged Thunderbirds moved the action to the planet " Thunder @-@ World " and combined the original puppet footage with new live @-@ action scenes featuring a pair of human teenagers .

As well as Thunderhawks , Anderson developed other ideas for a remake . A 1976 concept , Inter @-@ Galactic Rescue 4 , was to have featured a variable @-@ configuration craft capable of performing rescues on land and sea , in air and in space ; Anderson pitched the idea to NBC , who rejected it . This was followed in 1984 by another proposed updating , T @-@ Force , which at first could not be pursued owing to a lack of funding . Development resumed in 1993 , when it was decided to produce the series , now titled GFI , using cel animation . But Anderson was disappointed with the results and the production was abandoned .

In 2005 , Anderson re @-@ affirmed his wish to remake Thunderbirds but stated that he had been unable to secure the necessary rights from Granada Ventures . His negotiations with the company and its successor , ITV plc , continued for the next few years . In 2008 , he expressed his commitment to creating an " updated " version , ideally using CGI ; three years later , he announced that work on the series had commenced . Following Anderson 's death in December 2012 , it was confirmed that a deal had been struck between ITV Studios and Pukeko Pictures to remake Thunderbirds using a combination of CGI and live @-@ action model sets . The new version , Thunderbirds Are Go , has been commissioned for two series of 26 episodes each . The first 13 episodes of Series One were broadcast on ITV HD and CITV between April and June 2015 .

In July 2015 , to celebrate the series ' 50th anniversary , Filmed in Supermarionation documentary director Stephen La Rivière launched a Kickstarter campaign to raise the funds necessary to produce three new puppet episodes based on the Thunderbirds mini @-@ albums of the 1960s . The project , titled " Thunderbirds 1965 " , is supported by ITV , Sylvia Anderson and the estate of Gerry Anderson .

= = Influence = =

Thunderbirds has influenced TV programmes , films and various other media . The puppet comedy of the film Team America : World Police was directly inspired by the idiosyncrasies of Thunderbirds @-@ era Supermarionation techniques . Allusion and homage are also evident in Wallace and Gromit : A Close Shave , Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me and Spaced , as well as the character design of Star Wars : The Clone Wars . The BBC sketch comedy Not Only ... But Also included a segment titled " Superthunderstingcar " – a parody of Thunderbirds , Supercar and Stingray .

IR 's life @-@ saving mission inspired the founding of the volunteer International Rescue Corps , originally made up of a group of British firemen who contributed to the humanitarian effort following the 1980 Irpinia earthquake . Virgin Group has used the series in branding its services : Virgin Atlantic operates a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 airliner named Lady Penelope , while Virgin Trains owns a fleet of locomotives that are all named after main characters and vehicles and used specifically to " rescue " broken @-@ down trains .

A mimed stage show , Thunderbirds : F.A.B. , has toured internationally and popularised a staccato style of movement known colloquially as the " Thunderbirds walk " . The production has periodically been revived as Thunderbirds : F.A.B. – The Next Generation .

Cover versions of " The Thunderbirds March " have been released by musicians and bands such as Billy Cotton , Joe Loss , Frank Sidebottom , The Rezillos and The Shadows . Groups who have written songs inspired by the series include Fuzzbox ( with " International Rescue " ) , TISM ( with " Thunderbirds Are Coming Out " ) , Busted ( with " Thunderbirds / 3AM " ) and V6 ( with " Thunderbirds – Your Voice " ) . In 1991 , Anderson filmed the music video for the Dire Straits single " Calling Elvis " with a collection of Thunderbirds @-@ style puppets .

During the 1960s , APF produced themed TV advertisements for Lyons Maid and Kellogg 's . Aspects of Thunderbirds have since been used in advertising for Swinton Insurance , Nestlé Kit Kat , Specsavers and the UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency .

= T. Arthur Cottam =

T. Arthur Cottam is a screenwriter , actor , producer and film director . A graduate of the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University , Cottam resides in Los Angeles , California . He acted in theatre , and received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello as a cast member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group . Cottam directed short films along a topical series called " Dirty Little Shorts " .

His existential work Pornographic Apathetic deals with four people recounting pornographic film dialog in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic was featured in numerous movie festivals , and received eight film awards as well as critical acclaim . Cottam 's film Carbuncle was featured in 2006 at the Milano Film Festival in Italy , and was recognized with a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " . His 2006 film Filthy Food received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival CineKink NYC . Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the 2010 International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy , and was featured in AFI FEST in the same year .

= = Education = =

Cottam graduated from the Film and Television Production program at the Tisch School of the Arts of New York University . Cottam 's thesis work at NYU was titled Beer Goggles , the film received the Best Editing award at the First Run Film Festival and was featured at the Chicago and New York Underground Film Festivals . He received a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from NYU in 1998 .

= = Career = =

T. Arthur Cottam is an actor , and film @-@ maker , based in Los Angeles , California . Cottam was a member of Zombie Joe 's Underground Theatre Group , and performed along with actors Denise Devin and Bernadette Larsen in 2000 in a series of productions titled " Sketches 7 : Bury the Hatchet " , directed by Zombie Joe and Josh T. Ryan . He continued performing in theatre in Los Angeles in 2001 . In 2002 , Cottam received an Artistic Director Achievement Award from the Valley Theatre League for his role in the theatre production Othello put on by the Zombie Joe group . Cottam 's short films were produced along a topical series titled , " Dirty Little Shorts " . His film Pornographic Apathetic debuted in 2002 . The existential plot features four individuals ( two women and two men ) who recreate dialog from pornographic film while in a state of apathy . Pornographic Apathetic garnered eight film awards , and was featured at more than 50 film festivals .

Pornographic Apathetic received positive reception from journalist Gary Dowell of The Dallas Morning News , who described it as " Especially notable ... an experimental work that strips the mystique from porn " . Pornographic Apathetic was selected for inclusion in the Puchon International Fantastic Festival ( PiFan ) in South Korea ; the festival " aims to identify the important elements of fantastic films , such as creativity and popularity " . The movie was shown at the Paris Porn Film Fest at the Le Brady cinema , in Paris , France . The film was featured in an exhibit in Vienna , examining the nature of pornography . Writing for San Antonio Express @-@ News , Mike Greenberg observed , " T. Arthur Cottam 's Pornographic Apathetic is just about the funniest thing I 've ever seen . ( The excellent actors are mostly clothed , never touch each other and are nearly motionless , but the dialogue is not suitable for children or bluenoses . ) " The film was given a favorable review by reporter Robert W. Butler of The Kansas City Star who covered the piece during its presentation at the Kansas City Filmmakers Jubilee . Butler wrote , " Your ears will burn while watching T. Arthur Cottam 's superlative satiric essay on the desensitizing effects of pornography , but you 'll also be laughing . ... It 's lurid . It 's raunchy . It 's vile . But all this nasty lubricity is delivered deadpan , a device that deconstructs the whole intention of porn . " Marc Mohan reviewed the film during its feature at the Portland International Short Short Film Festival , and wrote that it " makes the most of its one @-@ joke premise " . In 2007 , The Orlando Sentinel characterized Cottam as a favorite film @-@ maker at the Florida Film Festival . Los Angeles Times journalist Borzou Daragahi cited the film as an example of problems with the adult film industry in an article about a sexual art exhibit ; he commented , " The piece makes you laugh while illustrating one of the paradoxes of smut : At its core , it 's rather idiotic and boring . "

In 2006 , Cottam 's film Carbuncle competed at the Milano Film Festival , alongside another U.S. film titled The Blood of my Brother by Andrei Berends . Carbuncle received a nomination in the category of " Best Feature Film " at the Milan Film Festival . Cottam 's 2006 film Filthy Food was featured in the San Francisco Underground Short Film Festival , and received the award for " Best Experimental Short Film " at the festival CineKink NYC . In 2010 , Cottam 's film 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was an entrant in the International Short Film Festival in Piombino , Italy . It was featured in a section of the International Short Film Festival which included selections of films that were considered " visionary " and contributed a " visual impact " to cinema . 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was featured in AFI FEST 2010 , where Lane Kneedler associate director of programming called it " the most outrageously ' out there ' film that we have scheduled " . In an interview with Girami , Cottam stated he had intended to direct a feature @-@ length film for some time , and wanted to combine his talents with actors who could improvise in front of the camera . Cottam said he had a great experience working with the actors on the film Carbuncle , and stated he let improvisation be the tool by which the actors could show emotions and create their characters . In September 2010 , 52 Takes of the Same Thing , Then Boobs was shown at the Black Rock City Film Festival located at the Burning Man site in the Nevada desert .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Theatre = = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= Partington =

Partington is a town and civil parish within the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester , England , about ten miles ( 16 km ) to the south @-@ west of Manchester city centre . Historically part of Cheshire , it lies on the southern bank of the Manchester Ship Canal , opposite Cadishead on the northern bank . It has a population of 7 @,@ 327 .

A paper mill built in Partington more than 250 years ago was the first factory in Trafford . The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port and attracted a range of other industries . Until 2007 Shell Chemicals UK operated a major petrochemicals manufacturing complex in Carrington , Partington 's closest neighbour , to the east . The gas storage facility in the north @-@ eastern corner of the town was once a gasworks and another significant employer .

Shortly after the Second World War , local authorities made an effort to rehouse people away from Victorian slums in inner @-@ city Manchester . An area of Partington extended as an overspill estate is now one of the most deprived parts of the Greater Manchester conurbation . The Cheshire Lines Committee opened a railway line through the town in 1873 , but it closed in 1964 .

Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership was established to provide the town 's youth with activities and the town has seen investment in a new youth centre . Broadoak School , the only secondary school in the town , is used by Trafford College to provide further education .

= = History = =

Partington , first recorded in 1260 , was in the medieval and post @-@ medieval parish of Bowdon . The name derives from Old English : the first element may be a personal name such as Pearta or Pærta , or part " land divided up into partitions " followed by inga , meaning " people of " ; the suffix tun means " farmstead " . The village consisted of dispersed farmsteads , with no nucleated centre . It was surrounded by wetlands on all sides , reducing the amount of land available for agriculture . According to the hearth tax returns of 1664 , Partington had a population of 99 .

In 1755 a paper mill on the River Mersey was opened in Partington , the first factory to be established in present @-@ day Trafford . Erlam Farmhouse dates from the late 18th century and is a Grade II listed building . Also protected as a Grade II listed building are the stocks on the village green . Its stone pillars are from the 18th century , although the wooden restraints were replaced in the 20th century .

The completion of the Manchester Ship Canal in 1894 transformed Partington into a major coal @-@ exporting port . The canal was widened to 250 feet ( 76 m ) for three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) to allow for the construction of a coaling basin , equipped with four hydraulic coal hoists . Partington was the nearest port to the Lancashire Coalfields , and brought the south Yorkshire collieries 30 miles ( 48 km ) closer to the sea . Between 1898 – 1911 , exports of coal accounted for 53 @.@ 4 per cent of the total export tonnage carried by the ship canal . The coal trade in turn resulted in Partington becoming a major railway depot , and attracted a range of other industries , including the Partington Steel & Iron Company , which was encouraged by the availability of coal to construct a steelworks . The works became a part of the Lancashire Steel Corporation in 1930 , and dominated the economy of nearby Irlam until their closure in 1976 . After the Second World War , Partington was extended as an overspill estate .

= = Governance = =

The civil parish of Partington was created in 1894 , under the Local Government Act 1894 and has its own town council . Partington became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in 1974 upon the borough 's creation , but was previously in Bucklow Rural District . The town is part of the Bucklow St Martin electoral ward ; Partington Parish Council is made up of local residents and ward councillors .

Partington also belongs to the Stretford and Urmston constituency and is part of the North West England constituency of the European Parliament . Since its creation in 1997 the constituency 's Member of Parliament has been a member of the Labour Party , Kate Green being the present incumbent .

= = Geography = =

At 53 ° 25 ′ 12 ″ N 2 ° 25 ′ 48 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 42 , − 2 @.@ 43 ) , Partington lies west of Sale , north @-@ east of the civil parish of Warburton , and is on Trafford 's northern border with the City of Salford . It is nine miles ( 14 km ) south @-@ west of Manchester city centre . Sinderland Brook runs east – west through the area , and the town is about 20 m ( 66 ft ) above sea level on generally flat ground .

Partington 's local drift geology is a mixture of alluvial deposits , fluvio @-@ glacial gravel , and peat deposited about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , during the last ice age . The bedrock is Keuper sandstone in the south and Bunter sandstone in the north . The town 's climate is generally temperate , like the rest of Greater Manchester . The mean highest and lowest temperatures ( 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) and 6 @.@ 4 ° C ( 43 @.@ 5 ° F ) ) are slightly above the national average , while the annual rainfall ( 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) ) and average hours of sunshine ( 1394 @.@ 5 hours ) are respectively above and below the national averages .

= = Demography = =

According to the Office for National Statistics , at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Partington had a population of 7 @,@ 723 . The 2001 population density was 5 @,@ 348 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @,@ 065 / km2 ) , with a 100 to 93 @.@ 1 female @-@ to @-@ male ratio . Of those over 16 years old , 34 @.@ 7 % were single ( never married ) , 34 @.@ 9 % married , and 10 @.@ 5 % divorced . Partington 's 3 @,@ 354 households included 33 @.@ 5 % one @-@ person , 28 @.@ 7 % married couples living together , 8 @.@ 8 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 16 @.@ 3 % single parents with their children . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 38 @.@ 9 % had no academic qualifications , significantly higher than the averages of Trafford ( 24 @.@ 7 % ) and England ( 28 @.@ 9 % ) . It has been described as one of the most deprived places in the Greater Manchester conurbation .

As of the 2001 UK census , 76 @.@ 8 % of Partington 's residents reported themselves as being Christian , 0 @.@ 8 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Jewish , and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . The census recorded 14 @.@ 7 % as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 7 @.@ 1 % did not state their religion .

= = Economy = =

The main shopping area of Partington is on Central Road , in the centre of town . Partington also has a traditional market on Smithy Lane .

Spanish company , SAICA , bought a lease on a disused wharfside site by the Manchester Ship Canal in 2009 to recycle paper into packaging . The plant is the most " advanced , fully integrated facility in the UK " . It uses water recycled from the ship canal and its heat and power plant supplies surplus power to the national grid . The plant cost £ 300 million and production started in January 2012 .

According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents aged 16 – 74 was 19 @.@ 3 % retail and wholesale , 15 @.@ 0 % manufacturing , 14 @.@ 7 % property and business services , 10 @.@ 8 % health and social work , 9 @.@ 1 % transport and communications , 7 @.@ 2 % construction , 5 @.@ 2 % education , 4 @.@ 8 % hotels and restaurants , 3 @.@ 8 % finance , 3 @.@ 1 % public administration , 1 @.@ 3 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 7 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 1 % mining , and 4 @.@ 9 % other . Compared with national figures , Partington had a relatively high percentage of residents working in transport and communications , and a relatively low percentage working in public administration . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 1 @.@ 8 % students were with jobs , 3 @.@ 4 % students without jobs , 7 @.@ 7 % looking after home or family , 10 @.@ 6 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 8 % economically inactive for other reasons . The proportion of those who were permanently sick or disabled in Partington was above the Trafford and England average ( 5 @.@ 4 % and 6 @.@ 5 % respectively ) .

= = Education = =

Trafford maintains a selective education system assessed by the Eleven Plus exam . There are three primary schools and one secondary school in Partington . The oldest school still standing in the town was opened in 1958 and used to be called Partington County Primary School . There is one other state primary schools at Forest Gate with Academy status . There is also a Roman Catholic school – Our Lady of Lourdes Primary School on Lock Lane . Broadoak School is a secondary school with academy status for pupils aged 11 to 16 .

= = Transport = =

Partington 's main road is the A6144 between Lymm and the Brooklands area of Sale . The Manchester Ship Canal also carries some industrial traffic . The nearest road crossing over the canal is at Warburton Bridge , one of the few remaining pre @-@ motorway toll bridges in the UK , and the only one in Greater Manchester . The Department for Transport describes Partington as " geographically isolated with road access restricted by the proximity of the Manchester Ship Canal and the nearby petrochemical works [ in Carrington ] " and notes that there are low levels of car ownership . The 255 operates every 30 minutes during the day , and hourly after 1955 into Manchester Piccadilly 7 days a week

The town was served by a railway station to the north of the town , the Cheshire Lines Committee Glazebrook to Stockport Tiviot Dale Line . The station was opened in 1873 , eight years after the line opened , and was in use until 30 November 1964 . A grant of £ 312 @,@ 000 was made by the government to set up Partington Cooperative Transport ( PACT ) with the purpose of improving public transport in the town .

= = Amenities = =

Founded in 2003 as part of a government project for 11- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds , Partington and Carrington Youth Partnership ( PCYP ) has since expanded its scope and provides facilities for youths up to the age of 25 . It runs a 5 @-@ a @-@ side football league and Screamin ' Wheels Skate Park . In 2009 it was announced that a £ 5 million youth centre would be built in the town . Based on designs by pupils from Broadoak Secondary School , the centre will provide facilities for workshops in dance , film @-@ making , and art . Headmaster of the school , Andy Griffin , said " It 's a massive thing for Partington as this will help kick @-@ start regeneration of the town . I think it will also help bring people to Partington rather than leaving " .

Providing opportunities for sport , a £ 2 million sports complex was opened next to Broadoak Secondary School in 2008 . It features a pool , a sports hall , outdoor pitches and grass courts , and facilities for other activities . The town is served by an Anglican church , St Mary 's , a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Our Lady of Lourdes , a Methodist chapel , and a Baptist church called the People 's Church . St Mary 's Church is a Grade II listed building , and Our Lady of Lourdes ' RC Church and parish was founded in 1957 . Partington is in the Catholic Dioceses of Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury and the Anglican Diocese of Chester .

= Key ( basketball ) =

The key , officially referred to as the free throw lane by the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) , the restricted area by the international governing body FIBA , and colloquially as the lane or the paint , is an area on a basketball court underneath the basket bounded by the endline , the foul line and other lines which are known as freebody lines , that are usually painted ( although unpainted on some courts with painted perimeters ) . It is a critical area on the court where much of the action takes place in a game .

The key , in all games , starting with FIBA 's amendments to its rules in 2010 ( to be first implemented after the 2010 FIBA World Championship ) , is rectangular . Prior to 2006 , the key in FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments ( mostly basketball played outside the United States , and almost all international tournaments including the World Championships and the Olympics ) was trapezoidal in shape . Both NBA and FIBA keys are 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wide , while NCAA keys are narrower at 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) .

The most @-@ commonly enforced rule on the key is the " three seconds rule " in which a player from the offensive team is prohibited from staying on the key for more than three seconds , or else the player 's team will lose possession of the ball . Another rule enforced is the lane violation in which players from both teams are prohibited to enter the lane until after the free throw shooter releases the ball from his hands ( the shooter is prohibited to enter the key until after the ball hits the rim ) . An innovation is the introduction of the restricted area arc directly underneath the basket where the defending player cannot force an offensive foul on the opposing player .

= = Dimensions = =

Each level of play has different specifications for the size and shape of the key : in American leagues , where the basketball court is measured in imperial units , the shape is rectangular , while in FIBA @-@ sanctioned events , which use the metric system , the shape was trapezoidal , before being changed to a rectangle as well . In addition to the bounding rectangle , the key includes a free @-@ throw circle at its " head " or " top " .

The width of the key in the NBA is 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , including the 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) wide foul lanes ; in U.S. college ( NCAA ) and high @-@ school play , it is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) .

Beginning after the 2010 FIBA World Championship , all FIBA @-@ administered tournaments use a rectangular key 4 @.@ 9 meters ( 16 ft ) wide . From 1956 until 2010 , FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments used a trapezoidal key . The narrower end was on the free @-@ throw line , where it was 3 @.@ 6 meters ( 12 ft ) , while the wider end , at the end line , measured 6 meters ( 20 ft ) .

The free throw circle has a six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) radius and is centered at the midpoint of the free throw line ; the half of those circle on the mid @-@ court side of the free throw line is painted in solid lines . In the NBA and ULEB , the boundaries of the half closer to the basket is traced in a broken line in order to space players properly for jump balls . NBA Rule 1 ( g ) requires the key to contain two 6 inches ( 15 cm ) long hash marks , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) from the free throw line ; the marks indicate the so @-@ called lower defensive box . The free @-@ throw line is 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) from the perpendicular projection of the face of the backboard onto the court ; this projection is 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) from the end @-@ line for NBA and NCAA . The projection of the center of the basket onto the court is a perpendicular distance of 1 @.@ 575 meters ( 5 @.@ 17 ft ) from the end line in FIBA tournaments , but 4 @.@ 75 feet ( 1 @.@ 45 m ) in NBA and NCAA tournaments .

= = History = =

Originally , the key was narrower than it is today and had the shape of a skeleton / basic lever lock keyhole , measuring six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide , hence " the key " , with the free throw circle as the head , and the shaded lane as the body . Due to the narrowness of the key , imposing centers , such as George Mikan , dominated the paint , scoring at will . To counter this , the key was widened into 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at the onset of the 1951 – 52 NBA season .

Men 's professional basketball in the United States ( notably the National Basketball Association ) widened it further to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) in the 1964 – 65 NBA season to lessen the effectiveness of centers , especially Wilt Chamberlain . The NCAA retains the 12 feet key to this day .

On April 25 , 2008 , the FIBA Central Board approved rule changes that included the changes in the shape of the key ; the key is now rectangular and has virtually the same dimensions as the key used in the NBA . In addition , the no @-@ charge semicircles formally called the restricted area arc was also created .

= = Rules = =

= = = Three @-@ second violation = = =

The lane is a restricted area in which players can stay for only a limited amount of time . On all levels , a team on the offensive ( in possession of the ball ) is prohibited to stay inside the lane for more than three seconds ; after three seconds the player will be called with a three @-@ second violation which will result in a turnover .

In American professional basketball , the defending team is also prohibited from staying in the key for more than three seconds , unless a player is directly guarding an offensive player . If a player surpasses that time , his / her team will be charged with a defensive three @-@ second violation , which will result in a technical foul where the team with the ball shoots one free throw plus ball possession and a reset of the shot clock . In FIBA @-@ sanctioned tournaments , on the other hand , the defending team is allowed to stay on the key for an unlimited amount of time . In all cases , the count resets if the shot hits the rim or if the player steps out of the lane .

= = = Lane violation = = =

When a player is shooting free throws , there are a certain number of players at the boundaries of the key , each occupying a slot traced at the boundaries of the key . In most cases , the free throw shooter is behind the free throw line , while three of his opponents are along the sides of the key , one side with two players , the other with one . Two of his opponents are situated nearest to the basket on both sides , while his two teammates are beside the two opponents closest to the basket , with the other player from the opposing team situated farthest from the basket . In the U.S. NCAA , there are as many as six players along the key , with the opposing team allowed to have as many as four players , with the same arrangement as in the NBA and FIBA but with another player facing his teammate farthest to the basket . ( See photographs to the right . )

No player along the lane may enter the key until the shot is released ; the player shooting the free throw , and anyone on top of the key , should not pass the free throw line until the ball hits the rim . If any of the offensive players violate the rule , no points are awarded for the shot and , if there are no more shots remaining , the ball is given to the defending team . If a defending player is in the lane too soon , an extra shot will be awarded regardless of whether the shot was made or missed .

Note that in FIBA play , if the shooter commits the violation , it is an automatic turnover . If the shot is successful and the shooter does not commit a violation , but other players do commit a violation , all violations are discarded . If players from the opposing teams enter the key prior to the release of the ball , a jump ball would be done to determine who gets the possession of the ball ( NBA ) or the possession arrow rule ( for all other levels ) ; in FIBA play , that only applies if the shooter misses , since a successful attempt negates all other penalties . In all situations , lane violation penalties cannot occur if there are further free throws to be awarded .

= = = Restricted area arc = = =

In the NBA , Euroleague , and starting in 2010 , in FIBA and NCAA play , the key has an additional area , measured as an arc three feet from the basket ( collegiate ) , four feet from the basket ( NBA ) , or 1 @.@ 25 meters ( approximately 4 @.@ 1 feet ) ( FIBA ) . The area is officially known as the " restricted area " ( RA ) in the NBA , the " restricted area arc " in the NCAA and the " no @-@ charge semicircles " in FIBA .

Its purpose is to stop secondary defenders from taking a position under the basket in an attempt to draw the offensive foul when a player is driving to the basket . If an offensive player drives past his primary defender on the way to the basket and a secondary defender comes over , he must establish a legal position outside the RA to draw an offensive foul . If the drive starts inside the Lower Defensive Box ( LDB – this is the area from the bottom tip of the free throw circle to the end line between the two 3 ’ posted @-@ up marks ) , the secondary defender is legally allowed to be positioned inside the RA . The restricted area also does not apply if the secondary defender jumps in attempting to block the shot , the offensive player leads with his leg or knee in an unnatural motion or uses his off arm to prevent the defender from blocking his shot . The RA does not extend from below the backboard to the baseline . Therefore , if a player drives the baseline and is not attempting to go directly to the rim , the RA does not apply .

The restricted area arc rule was implemented in NCAA men 's basketball for the 2010 – 2011 season . The NCAA approved adding a visible restricted @-@ area arc three feet from the center of the basket in Division I men ’ s and women ’ s games for 2011 – 2012 season . The panel delayed implementation of the arc until the 2012 @-@ 13 season for Divisions II and III to allow those schools time to plan and place the restricted @-@ area arc in their home arenas . Starting with the 2015 @-@ 2016 season , the NCAA raised the RA arc to four feet from the center of the basket .

= = Terms = =

Points made on the key are termed as points in the paint or inside points . Historically , the area of the key where offensive players are prohibited from remaining longer than three seconds has been painted to distinguish the area from the rest of the court ; hence the phrase " points in the paint . " The area around the free throw circle 's farthest point from the basket is called the " top of the key " , and several plays revolve around this area , such as screens and pick and rolls . In American women 's collegiate basketball ( and for men until 2008 ) , the three @-@ point arc intersects at the top of the key , which could translate plays conducted in this area into three @-@ point field goal conversions .

The intersection of the free throw line and the free throw lane is referred to as the elbow of the key .

= The General in His Labyrinth =

The General in His Labyrinth ( original Spanish title : El general en su laberinto ) is a novel by the Colombian writer and Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez . It is a fictionalized account of the last days of Simón Bolívar , liberator and leader of Gran Colombia . First published in 1989 , the book traces Bolívar 's final journey from Bogotá to the Caribbean coastline of Colombia in his attempt to leave South America for exile in Europe . In this dictator novel about a continental hero , " despair , sickness , and death inevitably win out over love , health , and life " . Breaking with the traditional heroic portrayal of Bolívar El Libertador , García Márquez depicts a pathetic protagonist , a prematurely aged man who is physically ill and mentally exhausted . The story explores the labyrinth of Bolívar 's life through the narrative of his memories .

Following the success of others of his works such as One Hundred Years of Solitude and Love in the Time of Cholera , García Márquez decided to write about the " Great Liberator " after reading an unfinished novel about Bolívar by his friend Álvaro Mutis . He borrowed the setting — Bolívar 's voyage down the Magdalena River in 1830 — from Mutis . After two years of research that encompassed the extensive memoirs of Bolívar 's Irish aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Daniel Florencio O 'Leary , as well as numerous other historical documents and consultations with academics , García Márquez published his novel about the last seven months of Bolívar 's life .

Its mixture of genres makes The General in His Labyrinth difficult to classify , and commentators disagree over where it lies on the scale between novel and historical account . García Márquez 's insertion of interpretive and fictionalized elements — some dealing with Bolívar 's most intimate moments — caused outrage in parts of Latin America when the book was released . Many prominent Latin American figures believed that the novel damaged the reputation of one of the region 's most important historic figures and portrayed a negative image to the outside world . Others saw The General in His Labyrinth as a tonic for Latin American culture and a challenge to the region to deal with its problems .

= = Background = =

The initial idea to write a book about Simón Bolívar came to García Márquez through his friend and fellow Colombian writer Álvaro Mutis , to whom the book is dedicated . Mutis had started writing a book called El Último Rostro about Bolívar 's final voyage along the Magdalena River , but never finished it . At the time , García Márquez was interested in writing about the Magdalena River because he knew the area intimately from his childhood . Two years after reading El Último Rostro , García Márquez asked Mutis for his permission to write a book on Bolívar 's last voyage .

García Márquez believed that most of the information available on Bolívar was one @-@ dimensional : " No one ever said in Bolívar 's biographies that he sang or that he was constipated ... but historians don 't say these things because they think they are not important . " In the epilogue to the novel , García Márquez writes that he researched the book for two years ; the task was difficult , both because of his lack of experience in conducting historical research , and the lack of documentary evidence for the events of the final period of Bolívar 's life .

García Márquez researched a wide variety of historical documents , including Bolívar 's letters , 19th @-@ century newspapers , and Daniel Florencio O 'Leary 's 34 volumes of memoirs . He engaged the help of various experts , among them geographer Gladstone Oliva ; historian and fellow Colombian Eugenio Gutiérrez Celys , who had co @-@ written a book called Bolívar Día a Día with historian Fabio Puyo ; and astronomer Jorge Perezdoval — García Márquez used an inventory drawn up by Perezdoval to describe which nights Bolívar spent under a full moon . García Márquez also worked closely with Antonio Bolívar Goyanes , a distant relative of Bolívar , during the extensive editing of the book .

= = = Historical context = = =

The novel is set in 1830 , at the tail end of the initial campaign to secure Latin America 's independence from Spain . Most of Spanish America had gained independence by this date ; only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule .

Within a few decades of Christopher Columbus 's landing on the coast of what is now Venezuela in 1498 , South America had been effectively conquered by Spain and Portugal . By the beginning of the 19th century , several factors affected Spain 's control over its colonies : Napoleon 's invasion of Spain in 1808 , the abdication of Charles IV , Ferdinand VII 's renouncement of his right to succeed , and the placement of Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne . The colonies were virtually cut off from Spain , and the American and French Revolutions inspired many creoles — American @-@ born descendants of Spanish settlers — to take advantage of Spanish weakness . As a result , Latin America was run by independent juntas and colonial self @-@ governments .

The early 19th century saw the first attempts at securing liberation from Spain , which were led in northern South America by Bolívar . He and the independence movements won numerous battles in Venezuela , New Granada and present @-@ day Ecuador and Peru . His dream of uniting the Spanish American nations under one central government was almost achieved . However , shortly after the South American colonies became independent of Spain , problems developed in the capitals , and civil wars were sparked in some provinces ; Bolívar lost many of his supporters and fell ill . Opposition to his presidency continued to increase , and in 1830 , after 11 years of rule , he resigned as president of Gran Colombia .

= = Plot summary = =

The novel is written in the third @-@ person with flashbacks to specific events in the life of Simón Bolívar , " the General " . It begins on May 8 , 1830 in Santa Fe de Bogotá . The General is preparing for his journey towards the port of Cartagena de Indias , intending to leave Colombia for Europe . Following his resignation as President of Gran Colombia , the people of the lands he liberated have now turned against him , scrawling anti @-@ Bolívar graffiti and throwing waste at him . The General is anxious to move on , but has to remind the Vice @-@ President @-@ elect , General Domingo Caycedo , that he has yet to receive a valid passport to leave the country . The General leaves Bogotá with the few officials still faithful to him , including his confidante and aide @-@ de @-@ camp , José Palacios . At the end of the first chapter , the General is referred to by his full title , General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , for the only time in the novel .

On the first night of the voyage , the General stays at Facatativá with his entourage , which consists of José Palacios , five aides @-@ de @-@ camp , his clerks , and his dogs . Here , as throughout the journey that follows , the General 's loss of prestige is evident ; the downturn in his fortunes surprises even the General himself . His unidentified illness has led to his physical deterioration , which makes him unrecognizable , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp is constantly mistaken for the Liberator .

After many delays , the General and his party arrive in Honda , where the Governor , Posada Gutiérrez , has arranged for three days of fiestas . On his last night in Honda , the General returns late to camp and finds one of his old friends , Miranda Lyndsay , waiting for him . The General recalls that fifteen years ago , she had learned of a plot against his life and had saved him . The following morning , the General begins the voyage down the Magdalena River . Both his physical debilitation and pride are evident as he negotiates the slope to the dock : he is in need of a sedan chair but refuses to use it . The group stays a night in Puerto Real , where the General claims he sees a woman singing during the night . His aides @-@ de @-@ camp and the watchman conduct a search , but they fail to uncover any sign of a woman having been in the vicinity .

The General and his entourage arrive at the port of Mompox . Here they are stopped by police , who fail to recognize the General . They ask for his passport , but he is unable to produce one . Eventually , the police discover his identity and escort him into the port . The people still believe him to be the President of Gran Colombia and prepare banquets in his honor ; but these festivities are wasted on him due to his lack of strength and appetite . After several days , the General and his entourage set off for Turbaco .

The group spend a sleepless night in Barranca Nueva before they arrive in Turbaco . Their original plan was to continue to Cartagena the following day , but the General is informed that there is no available ship bound for Europe from the port and that his passport still has not arrived . While staying in the town , he receives a visit from General Mariano Montilla and a few other friends . The deterioration of his health becomes increasingly evident — one of his visitors describes his face as that of a dead man . In Turbaco , the General is joined by General Daniel Florencio O 'Leary and receives news of ongoing political machinations : Joaquín Mosquera , appointed successor as President of Gran Colombia , has assumed power but his legitimacy is still contested by General Rafael Urdaneta . The General recalls that his " dream began to fall apart on the very day it was realized " .

The General finally receives his passport , and two days later he sets off with his entourage for Cartagena and the coast , where more receptions are held in his honor . Throughout this time , he is surrounded by women but is too weak to engage in sexual relations . The General is deeply affected when he hears that his good friend and preferred successor for the presidency , Field Marshal Sucre , has been ambushed and assassinated .

The General is now told by one of his aides @-@ de @-@ camp that General Rafael Urdaneta has taken over the government in Bogotá , and there are reports of demonstrations and riots in support of a return to power by Bolívar . The General 's group travel to the town of Soledad , where he stays for more than a month , his health declining further . In Soledad , the General agrees to see a physician for the first time .

The General never leaves South America . He finishes his journey in Santa Marta , too weak to continue and with only his doctor and his closest aides by his side . He dies in poverty , a shadow of the man who liberated much of the continent .

= = Characters = =

= = = The General = = =

The leading character in the novel is " the General " , also called " the Liberator " . García Márquez only once names his protagonist as Simón Bolívar , the famous historical figure , whose full title was General Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios , on whom the General 's character is based . The novel 's portrait of a national and Latin American hero , which challenges the historical record , provoked outrage in some quarters on its publication .

At the beginning of the novel , the General is 46 years old and slowly dying on his last journey to the port of Cartagena de Indias , where he plans to set sail for Europe . As Palencia @-@ Roth notes , " Bolívar is cast here not only as a victim but as an agent of Latin America 's tragic political flaws " . The fortunes of the historical Simón Bolívar began to decline in 1824 after the victory of his general Antonio José de Sucre at Ayacucho . The novel draws on the fact that the historical Bolívar never remarried after the death of his wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alayza . García Márquez uses other documented facts as starting points for his fictional portrait of Bolívar – for example , his dedication to the army above all else , his premature aging , and his bad temper . Of the latter , Bolívar 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp O 'Leary once remarked that " his imperious and impatient temperament would never tolerate the smallest delay in the execution of an order " .

In an interview with María Elvira Samper , García Márquez has admitted that his portrayal of Bolívar is partly a self @-@ portrait . He identifies with Bolívar in many ways , since their method of controlling their anger is the same and their philosophical views are similar : neither " pays much attention to death , because that distracts one from the most important thing : what one does in life " .

= = = José Palacios = = =

The novel begins with the name of José Palacios , who , here as with the historical figure of the same name , is Bolívar 's " long @-@ serving mayordomo " . As literary critic Seymour Menton observes , Palacios 's " total identification with Bolívar constitutes the novel 's frame " . Palacios constantly waits on the General , and at certain times he alone is allowed in the General 's room . He has learned to live with his master 's unpredictability and does not presume to read his thoughts . Born a slave , the character is six years younger than the General , and has spent his entire life in his service . Throughout the novel , Palacios provides the General with clarifications or reminders of dates and events during the General 's time of disillusion . According to one critic , Palacios 's ability to recall past events in Bolívar 's life is essential for García Márquez 's recreation of the character , as it allows the Bolívar of official history to be placed within the context of everyday life .

= = = Manuela Sáenz = = =

Manuela Sáenz is the General 's long @-@ time lover , his last since the death of his wife , 27 years earlier . Her character is based on Simón Bolívar 's historical mistress Doña Manuela Sáenz de Thorne , whom Bolívar dubbed " the liberator of the liberator " after she helped save him from an assassination attempt on the night of September 25 , 1828 . García Márquez 's fictional portrait stimulated a reassessment of this historical figure , who is increasingly seen , according to Venezuelan historian Denzil Romero , " not just as a mistress but as the intelligent , independent , forceful woman she was " . In the novel , she is described as " the bold Quiteña who loved him but was not going to follow him to his death " . The General leaves Manuela Sáenz behind , but throughout the novel he writes to her on his journey . She also attempts to write letters to him with news of the political situation , but the mail carriers have been instructed not to accept her letters . Like the historical figure on whom she is based , the fictional Manuela Sáenz is married to Dr. James Thorne , an English physician twice her age . The historical Manuela Sáenz left Thorne after Bolívar wrote declaring his undying love for her . In the novel she is characterized as astute and indomitable , with " irresistible grace , a sense of power , and unbounded tenacity " .

= = = General Francisco de Paula Santander = = =

As he reflects on the past , the General often thinks and dreams about his former friend Francisco de Paula Santander . The historical Francisco de Paula Santander was a friend of Simón Bolívar , but was later accused of complicity in a plot to assassinate him and sent into exile . In the novel , the General remembers that he had once appointed Santander to govern Colombia because he believed him to be an effective and brave soldier . He formerly regarded Santander as " his other self , and perhaps his better self " , but by the time of the events in The General in His Labyrinth Santander has become the General 's enemy and has been banished to Paris after his involvement in the assassination attempt . The General is depicted as tormented by the idea that Santander will return from his exile in France ; he dreams , for example , that Santander is eating the pages of a book , that he is covered in cockroaches , and that he is plucking out his own eyeballs .

= = = Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre = = =

Field Marshal Antonio José de Sucre is portrayed as an intimate friend of the General . The historical Antonio José de Sucre , the Field Marshal of Ayacucho , had been the most trusted general of Simón Bolívar . García Márquez describes him as " intelligent , methodical , shy , and superstitious " . The Field Marshal is married to and has a daughter with Doña Mariana Carcelén . In the first chapter of the novel , the General asks Sucre to succeed him as President of the Republic , but he rejects the idea . One of the reasons Sucre gives is that he wishes only to live his life for his family . Also at the beginning of the novel , Sucre 's death is foreshadowed . Sucre tells the General that he plans on celebrating the Feast of Saint Anthony in Quito with his family . When the General hears that Sucre has been assassinated in Berruecos on his way back to Quito , he vomits blood .

= = = Minor characters = = =

The novel revolves around the fictionalized figure of Bolívar and includes many minor characters who are part of the General 's travelling party , whom he meets on his journey or who come to him in his memories and dreams of his past . Sometimes they are identified by particular quirks or tied to small but significant events . They include , for instance , General José María Carreño , a member of the entourage , whose right arm was amputated after a combat wound , and who once revealed a military secret by talking in his sleep . At other times , they are prostheses for the General 's now failing powers : Fernando , for example , the General 's nephew , is " the most willing and patient of the General 's many clerks " , and the General wakes him " at any hour to have him read aloud from a dull book or take notes on urgent extemporizations " . One of the least developed of the minor characters is the General 's wife , María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alayza , who had died , readers are told , in mysterious circumstances shortly after their marriage . The General has " buried her at the bottom of a water @-@ tight oblivion as a brutal means of living without her " ; she only fleetingly enters his memories in the book 's last chapter . According to Menton , she is " upstaged " by Manuela Sáenz , whose later history García Márquez recounts as if she instead were the General 's widow . María Teresa 's death , however , marked the General 's " birth into history " , and he has never tried to replace her .

= = Major themes = =

= = = Politics = = =

In The General in His Labyrinth , García Márquez voices his political views through the character of the General . For example , Alvarez Borland points out that in the scene where the General responds to the French diplomat , his words closely reflect García Márquez 's 1982 Nobel Address . The diplomat is critical of the barbarism in Latin America and the brutal means used in attempting to achieve independence . Bolívar replies by pointing out that Europe had centuries to progress to its current state , and that South America should be left to experience its " Middle Ages in peace " . Similarly García Márquez remarks in his Nobel Speech that " venerable Europe would perhaps be more perceptive if it tried to see Latin America in its own past . If only it recalled that London took three hundred years to build its first city wall ... " .

The novel was published in 1989 , when the Soviet Union was disintegrating and the political map was being radically redrawn . Reviewing The General in His Labyrinth in 1990 , the novelist Margaret Atwood pointed to another instance of García Márquez raising political issues through the character of the General . He has him tell his aide that the United States is " omnipotent and terrible , and that its tale of liberty will end in a plague of miseries for us all " . Atwood noted the contemporary relevance of this sentiment , since " the patterns of Latin American politics , and of United States intervention in them , have not changed much in 160 years . " She suggested that García Márquez 's fictionalization of Bolívar is a lesson " for our own turbulent age ... Revolutions have a long history of eating their progenitors . " The central character is a man at the end of his life , who has seen his revolution and dream of a united Latin America fail .

= = = Figural labyrinth = = =

According to literary critic David Danow , the labyrinth of the novel 's title refers to " a series of labyrinths that are contingent upon matters of history , geography , and biography ... that consistently and conclusively result in a dead end " — in this case , the General 's own death . His final voyage along the Magdalena River involves a doubling back and forth from one location to another that leads him and his followers nowhere . The labyrinth does not lead to happiness ; instead , it results in madness from constant pondering on the past and an impossible future . At the end of his life , the General is reduced to a spectre of his former self . The labyrinth also recalls the labyrinth built to imprison the minotaur in Greek mythology , and the endless travelling and searching of ancient Greek heroes . In Danow 's view , " The Labyrinth mirrors the wanderings and travails of the hero in search for meaning and resolution to the vicissitudes of life " .

García Márquez depicts the General 's body itself as a labyrinth . His doctor observes that " everything that enters the body , adds weight , and everything that leaves it is debased . " The General 's body is described as a " labyrinth coming to a literal dead end " . The labyrinth is also expressed in geographical and architectural imagery . The country 's destiny is imagined as a break @-@ up , a folding of north into south . The seas offer the hope of a new life and a new world , but the closer the General is to Colombia , the less chance he has of moving on . García Márquez describes buildings as " daunting , reverberating ( if not exactly reiterating ) with the echoes of a bloody past " . The portrayal of the General 's world as a labyrinth is underlined by his constant return to cities and towns he has visited before : each location belongs to the past as well as to the present . The General in his Labyrinth blurs the lines between perdition in a man @-@ made world and wandering in the natural world .

= = = Fate and love = = =

Bolívar 's fate is known from the beginning , and García Márquez constantly uses images which foreshadow this ending . For instance , a clock stuck at seven minutes past one , the exact time of the General 's death , appears repeatedly in the novel . This sense of fate is introduced in the epigraph , which comes from a letter written by the historical Bolívar to General Santander on August 4 , 1823 : " It seems that the devil controls the business of my life . " As Palencia @-@ Roth points out , the word used for devil here is demonio rather than the more familiar diablo . Demonio derives from the Greek word daimon , which can equally mean divine power , fate , or destiny . Accordingly , the General succumbs to his fate and accepts his death as destiny .

The theme of love is central to the novel . Bolívar had a reputation as a womanizer , and books have been written on his philandering ; but as depicted in this novel , during the last seven months of his life , the General could no longer engage in the activities that had fueled that reputation . García Márquez mentions a woman every few pages , many of whom are his own invention , exploring love through the General 's memories . Palencia @-@ Roth notes that the presence of these women " allows a labyrinthine exploration of his life before his final journey " and suggests that García Márquez uses love as a barometer of the General 's heart and health . Although Bolívar is usually thought to have died from tuberculosis , Palencia @-@ Roth believes that for the author , the General dies from the lack of love . " Despised by many of his countrymen , abandoned by all but a few aides and associates , left — during the final seven months of his life — without even the companionship of his longtime mistress Manuela Saenz , Bolívar had no choice but to die of a broken heart . "

= = = Numbers and religious symbols = = =

Numbers are an important symbolic aspect of the novel . The book is divided into eight chapters , almost all of equal length , which represent the eight @-@ year love affair between the General and Manuela Sáenz . The General 's last hours are marked by an octagonal clock . Allusions to the number three are even more common in the novel . As García Márquez scholar Isabel Rodríguez Vergara notes , the number three — the Trinity which occupies a vital place in the symbology of the Catholic Mass — is repeated 21 times throughout the book . She quotes Mircea Eliade : " In the novel it represents a symbolic sacrifice aimed at redeeming humankind — that of Bolívar , a misunderstood redeemer sacrificed by his own people . "

Rodríguez Vergara observes that the General is like a supernatural being , simultaneously dying and being surrounded by symbolic circumstances such as rain , fiestas , and the plague . The novel begins with Bolívar immersed in purifying waters , in a state of ecstasy and meditation that suggests a priestly ritual . One of the women with whom the General sleeps , Queen Marie Louise , is described as a virgin with the profile of an idol — an allusion to the Virgin Mary . The General rides a mule into the last towns on his journey towards death , echoing Christ 's entry into Jerusalem . He dies of mysterious and unknown causes , and the people burn his belongings in fear of catching his illness . In Rodríguez Vergara 's view , " Bolívar was sacrificed as a scapegoat to purge the guilt of the community . "

René Girard has interpreted the recurrence of rain in the novel as one of the purifying rituals the community must undergo in order to wash away the contagion of violence . The fiestas may represent another ritual of purification and also symbolize war . Fiestas are held to honour the General when he arrives at a town , but at other times , political demonstrations against the General are mistaken for a fiesta . According to Rodríguez Vergara , this shows how " information is manipulated " and " depicts an atmosphere where fiesta and war are synonymous " .

= = = Melancholy and mourning = = =

Latin American cultural theorist Carlos J. Alonso , drawing on Freudian theory , argues that the novel is essentially a therapeutic device , designed to help move Latin America past its problematic experience of modernity . He compares this to the way the healing state of mourning replaces grief in the process of recovering from a death . Both activities are mechanisms for dealing with loss . Alonso believes that The General in his Labyrinth , by almost entirely centering the novel on the General 's death , forces the reader to confront the horror of this process . In Alonso 's view , the reader is meant to pass from " a melancholy relationship vis @-@ a @-@ vis the figure of Bolívar to a relationship that has the therapeutic qualities of mourning instead " .

Latin America 's history and culture , Alonso suggests , began with the loss of Bolívar 's dream of a united continent and as a result has developed under a melancholy shadow ever since . Thus , by forcing the reader to return to the origin of modernity in Latin America and confront its death in the most horrific way , García Márquez compels the reader to move from melancholy to mourning , " so that the phantom of the lost object of modernity may cease to rule the libidinal economy of Spanish American cultural discourse and historical life " .

= = = Challenging history = = =

García Márquez comments on the nature of historical fact by drawing attention to the way history is written . The novel recreates a time in Bolívar 's life that has no historical precedent , as there is no record of the last 14 days of his life . In García Márquez 's account readers observe Bolívar intimately , seeing his human qualities . In the view of critic Isabel Alvarez Borland , by choosing to fictionalize a national hero in this way , García Márquez is challenging the claim of official history to represent the truth . In the " My Thanks " section of the novel , García Márquez asserts ironically that what he is writing is more historical than fictional , and he discusses his own historical methodology in detail . By posing in the role of a historian , he challenges the reliability of written history from within the writing process . According to Alvarez Borland , this serves to " remind us that a claim to truth is not the property of any text ; rather it is the result of how a historian ( as a reader ) interprets the facts " .

The General in His Labyrinth also confronts the methods of official historians by using an oral style of narration . The narration can be considered an oral account in that it is woven from the verbal interactions of everyday people . Alvarez Borland explains that the advantage of this technique , as discussed by Walter Ong , is that " the orality of any given culture , residing in the unwritten tales of its peoples , possesses a spontaneity and liveliness which is lost once this culture commits its tales to writing . " The oral style of narration therefore provides a truthfulness which official history lacks . Alvarez Borland concludes that The General in His Labyrinth suggests new ways of writing the past ; it takes account of voices that were never written down as part of official history .

The historian Ben Hughes commented on the novel : " The Liberator 's British confidants , including Daniel O 'Leary , were amongst the closest figures to the general in this period . Nevertheless , they are ignored in the novel . Instead , Márquez uses the character of a fictional Colombian servant , José Palacios , as The Liberator 's final sounding board , thereby neatly sidestepping the more complex reality . " In Hughes 's view modern South American literature has played a role in cleansing the national memory of British soldiers ' assistance to The Liberator .

= = Comparisons with other García Márquez novels = =

In an interview published in the Colombian weekly Revista Semana on March 20 , 1989 , García Márquez told María Elvira Samper , " At bottom , I have written only one book , the same one that circles round and round , and continues on . " Palencia @-@ Roth suggests that this novel is a " labyrinthine summation ... of García Márquez 's long @-@ standing obsessions and ever @-@ present topics : love , death , solitude , power , fate " .

Like the Patriarch in García Márquez 's The Autumn of the Patriarch , Bolívar was an absolute dictator . The Patriarch is never identified by name ; Bolívar , too , is identified chiefly by his title . Bolívar also invites comparison with Colonel Aureliano Buendía in One Hundred Years of Solitude : both characters believe the wars they have waged have been fruitless and overwhelming , and both face numerous attempts on their lives , but eventually die of natural causes . In his belief that life is controlled by fate , the General resembles Buendía in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Santiago Nasar in Chronicle of a Death Foretold .

Palencia @-@ Roth notes that critics have been struck by the humorless elegiac style of The General in His Labyrinth ; its dark mood and somber message is similar to that of The Autumn of the Patriarch . Love is a theme common to both Love in the Time of Cholera and The General in His Labyrinth , but the latter is considered a tragedy . These two novels have been used to demonstrate the range of García Márquez 's work .

Isabel Alvarez Borland , in her essay " The Task of the Historian in El general en su laberinto " , claims that " ... while El general en su laberinto is in many ways a continuation of García Márquez 's criticism of Latin America 's official history seen in his earlier works , the novel contrasts sharply with his previous fictions " . In Chronicle of a Death Foretold , according to Alvarez Borland , the narrator challenges the truth of official language . However , The General in His Labyrinth " differs from these earlier works in employing narrative strategies which seek to answer in a much more overt and didactic fashion questions that the novel poses about history " .

In a summary of Edward Hood 's book La ficcion de Gabriel García Márquez : Repetición e intertextualidad , García Márquez is characterized as an author who uses repetition and autointertextualidad ( intertextuality between the works of a single author ) extensively in his fiction , including in The General in His Labyrinth . Hood points out some obvious examples of repetition in García Márquez 's works : the themes of solitude in One Hundred Years of Solitude , tyranny in Autumn of the Patriarch , and the desire for a unified continent expressed by Bolívar in The General in His Labyrinth . An example of intertextuality can be seen in the repetition of patterns between books . For example , both Jose Arcadio Buendia in One Hundred Years of Solitude and Bolívar in The General in his Labyrinth experience labyrinthian dreams .

= = Genre = =

Critics consider García Márquez 's book in terms of the historical novel , but differ over whether the label is appropriate . In his review of The General in his Labyrinth , Selden Rodman hesitated to call it a novel , since it was so heavily researched , giving Bolívar 's views " on everything from life and love to his chronic constipation and dislike of tobacco smoke " . On the other hand , reviewer Robert Adams suggested that García Márquez had " improved on history " . According to critic Donald L. Shaw , The General in His Labyrinth is a " New Historical Novel " , a genre that he argues crosses between Boom , Post @-@ Boom , and Postmodernist fiction in Latin American literature : " New Historical Novels tend either to retell historical events from an unconventional perspective , but one which preserves their intelligibility , or to question the very possibility of making sense of the past at all . " Shaw believes that this novel belongs to the first category . García Márquez is presenting both a historical account and his own interpretation of events .

David Bushnell , writing in The Hispanic American Historical Review , points out that the work is less a pure historical account than others suggest . García Márquez 's Bolívar is a man " who wanders naked through the house , suffers constipation , uses foul language , and much more besides . " He argues that documentation does not support many of these details . Bushnell suggests , however , that the fact that the novel is not entirely historically accurate does not necessarily distinguish it from the work of professional historians . The main difference , Bushnell believes , is that García Márquez 's work " is far more readable " than a pure history .

= = Reception = =

The General in His Labyrinth was relatively poorly received by the general public in the United States , despite the praise of critics . Critic Ilan Stavans , who himself praised the book as " one of the writer 's most sophisticated and accomplished " , attributes this to the novel 's time period and to its profusion of historical information , neither of which proved attractive to English @-@ speaking readers . Isabel Alvarez Borland notes that , like Stavans , " critics in the United States have largely celebrated García Márquez 's portrait of this national hero and considered it a tour de force " ; but she also observes that in Latin America the book received more mixed reviews , ranging from " outrage to unqualified praise " .

The novel generated huge controversy in Latin America : some Venezuelan and Colombian politicians described its depiction of Bolívar as " profane " . According to Stavans , they accused García Márquez of " defaming the larger @-@ than @-@ life reputation of a historical figure who , during the nineteenth century , struggled to unite the vast Hispanic world " . The novel 's publication provoked outrage from many Latin American politicians and intellectuals because its portrayal of the General is not the saintly image long cherished by many . Mexico 's ambassador to Austria , Francisco Cuevas Cancino , wrote a damning letter , which was widely publicized in Mexico City , objecting to the portrayal of Bolívar . He stated : " The novel is plagued with errors of fact , conception , fairness , understanding of the historical moment and ignorance of its consequences ... It has served the enemies of Latin America , who care only that they can now denigrate Bolívar , and with him all of us . " Even the novel 's admirers , such as the leading Venezuelan diplomat and writer Arturo Uslar Pietri , worried that some facts were stretched . García Márquez believes , however , that Latin America has to discover the General 's labyrinth to recognize and deal with its own maze of problems .

More positively , Nelson Bocaranda , a Venezuelan TV commentator , considers the novel to be a tonic for Latin American culture : " people here saw a Bolívar who is a man of flesh and bones just like themselves " . Mexican author Carlos Fuentes agrees with Bocaranda saying : " What comes across beautifully and poignantly in this book is a man dealing with the unknown world of democratic ideas " . García Márquez realistically portrays a ridiculous figure trapped in a labyrinth , magnifying the General 's defects , and presenting an image of Bolívar contrary to that instilled in classrooms . However , the novel also depicts Bolívar as an idealist and political theorist who predicted many problems that would obstruct Latin American advancement in the future . García Márquez depicts a figure who was aware of the racial and social friction in Latin American society , feared debt , and warned against economic irresponsibility . He has the General warn his aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Agustín de Iturbide , against the future interference of the United States in the internal affairs of Latin America .

Novelist and critic Barbara Mujica comments that the book 's English translator , Edith Grossman , fully captures the multiple levels of meaning of the text , as well as García Márquez 's modulations in tone . García Márquez himself has admitted that he prefers his novels in their English translations .

= = Publication history = =

The original Spanish version of The General in His Labyrinth was published simultaneously in Argentina , Colombia , Mexico , and Spain in 1989 . The first American edition was listed as a best seller in The New York Times the following year .

The novel has been translated into many languages since its first publication in Spanish , as detailed by Sfeir de González in 2003 .

= Copia ( museum ) =

Copia : The American Center for Wine , Food & the Arts was a non @-@ profit museum and educational center in downtown Napa , California , dedicated to wine , food and the arts of American culture . The center , planned and largely funded by vintners Robert and Margrit Mondavi , was open from 2001 to 2008 . The museum had galleries , two theaters , classrooms , a demonstration kitchen , a restaurant , a rare book library , and a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) vegetable and herb garden ; there it hosted wine and food tasting programs , exhibitions , films , and concerts . The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , " Forks in the Road " , explained the origins of cooking through to modern advances . The museum 's establishment benefited the city of Napa and the development and gentrification of its downtown .

Copia hosted its opening celebration on November 18 , 2001 . Among other notable people , Julia Child helped fund the venture , which established a restaurant named Julia 's Kitchen . Copia struggled to achieve its anticipated admissions , and had difficulty in repaying its debts . Proceeds from ticket sales , membership and donations attempted to support Copia 's payoff of debt , educational programs and exhibitions , but eventually were not sufficient . After numerous changes to the museum to increase revenue , Copia closed on November 21 , 2008 . Its library was donated to Napa Valley College and its Julia Child cookware was sent to the National Museum of American History . The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) property had been for sale since its closure ; the Culinary Institute of America purchased the northern portion of the property in October 2015 . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School .

= = History = =

= = = Name = = =

The museum was named after Copia , the Roman goddess of wealth and plenty . According to Joseph Spence in Polymetis ( 1755 ) , Copia is a name used to describe the goddess Abundantia in poetry , and was referred to as Bona Copia in Ovid 's Metamorphoses .

= = = Background = = =

The city of Napa has historically not received as many wine country tourists as the cities north of it . A $ 300 million flood management project around the turn of the 21st century to widen the Napa River and raise bridges prompted building developments . In the early 2000s , a large development was completed in the downtown area , as well as several hotels . Copia and the nearby Oxbow Public Market were two large developments also constructed around that time to increase tourist and media focus on the city of Napa .

The museum opened in 2001 , two months after the September 11 attacks . The museum 's visitor attendance was much lower than what was projected ; the museum partially attributed that to the depressed tourist economy stemming from the attacks .

= = = Conception and construction = = =

In 1988 , vintner Robert Mondavi , his wife Margrit Mondavi , and other members of the wine industry began to look into establishing an institution in Napa County to educate , promote , and celebrate American excellence and achievements in the culinary arts , visual arts , and winemaking . Three organizations supported the museum : the University of California at Davis , the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration , and the American Institute of Wine & Food . In 1993 , Robert Mondavi bought and donated the land for Copia for $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( $ 1 @.@ 97 million today ) , followed by a lead gift of $ 20 million ( $ 32 @.@ 8 million today ) . Mondavi chose the downtown Napa location with urging from his wife , who raised her children there . James Polshek was hired by the foundation as the architect for the building in October 1994 . Subsequently , the " Founding Seventy " , supporters from Napa Valley and the surrounding Bay Area , made substantial donations . Initial financing for Copia was $ 55 million ( $ 66 @.@ 8 million today ) , along with a $ 78 million ( $ 104 million today ) bond prior to opening in 2001 .

When the organization purchased the property , it was an empty lot next to a tire store . Steve Carlin , founder of the Oxbow Public Market , believed that Copia 's establishment helped expand Napa , its downtown area , and the Oxbow District . Construction of the facility triggered a significant growth in development of a gourmet marketplace , hotels and restaurants in downtown Napa . The museum began construction in 1999 and hosted opening celebrations on November 18 , 2001 . In 2005 , Copia sold 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) to Intrawest for construction of a Westin hotel .

= = = Decline and bankruptcy = = =

Although the facility did attract visitors , local residents ' support failed to reach the numbers expected by the founders . Original projections of 300 @,@ 000 admissions per year were never met . In October 2006 , the museum announced plans to turn galleries into conference rooms , remove most of the museum 's focus on art , and lay off 28 of its 85 employees ( most of whom were security guards for the art gallery ) . At the time , Copia had $ 68 million ( $ 74 @.@ 7 million today ) in debt . That year the museum also lowered its original adult admission fee of $ 12 @.@ 50 to $ 5 . For three months in 2006 , the museum admitted guests free of charge , and attendance and revenue increased . The museum also began hosting weddings and renting its space more frequently in order to raise revenue . In 2007 , the museum altered its theme significantly by removing its focus on food and art , and instead focusing solely on wine . It replaced some of its gardens with vineyards , changed its displays to focus more on the history and aspects of wine and viticulture , and decreased the restaurant 's and programs ' focus on food .

In September 2008 , Garry McGuire announced that 24 of 80 employees were being laid off and the days of operation would be reduced from 7 to 3 per week . Attendance figures had never reached either original or updated projections , causing the facility to operate annually in the red since its opening . In November , he announced that the property would be sold due to unsustainable debt . The museum closed on Friday , November 21 , 2008 . The closure was without warning ; visitors who had arrived for scheduled events found a paper notice at the entrance that the center was temporarily closed . The next days ' events involving chef Andrew Carmellini and singer Joni Morris were also abruptly cancelled ; the museum later stated that it would reopen on December 1 . On that day , the organization ( with $ 80 million ( $ 87 @.@ 9 million today ) in debt ) filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection . The federal bankruptcy court blocked a $ 2 million ( $ 2 @.@ 2 million today ) emergency loan with priority in security , leaving Copia with no funds to resume operations .

Writing about the failure of the project , The New York Times and other newspapers suggested that Copia had failed to clearly define its focus . Potential tourists were left feeling unsure whether they were visiting a museum , a cooking school , or a promotional center for wine .

= = = Aftermath = = =

Following the 2008 closing of Copia , a group of investors , developers , advocates , and vintners named the Coalition to Preserve Copia was formed to explore a plan to preserve the building and grounds . Part of the group 's plan included forming a Mello @-@ Roos district with participation of local hotel properties to finance bonds to purchase the property , but their effort failed . In May 2009 local developer George Altamura spoke about his interest in purchasing the property . Other developers including the Culinary Institute of America also expressed an interest in acquiring the property . Copia 's bond holder , ACA Financial Guaranty Corporation , listed the property for sale in October 2009 . Napa Valley College 's upper valley campus became the home of the center 's library of around 1 @,@ 000 cookbooks . By late 2010 , local chefs had revived the center 's garden and the parking lot had become the location of a weekly farmer 's market . In 2011 , the museum was reported to still maintain its original furnishings , with the gift store fully stocked and the restaurant still furnished . In an April 2012 auction , most of the center 's fixtures , furniture , equipment , wine collection ( around 3 @,@ 500 bottles ) , dinnerware , displays , artistic items , and antiquities were sold .

Since Copia 's closure , the building has been used for a few meetings and events , including the Napa Valley Film Festival and BottleRock Napa Valley . Triad Development arranged to buy the entire site in 2015 and planned mixed use with housing and retail . The company planned to build up to 187 housing units , 30 @,@ 000 square feet of retail space , and underground parking for 500 cars . The plan had later altered to only include purchase of the southern portion of the property . In 2015 , the Culinary Institute of America ( CIA ) put in motion plans to purchase a separate portion of Copia . The college intends to open a campus , the Culinary Institute of America at Copia , which will house the CIA 's new Food Business School . The school , which was outgrowing its St. Helena campus , purchased the northern portion of the property for $ 12 @.@ 5 million in October 2015 ( it was assessed for $ 21 @.@ 3 million around 2013 ) . Among the CIA 's first events there was 2016 's Flavor ! Napa Valley , a food and wine festival sponsored by local organizations . The campus is expected to open in late 2016 , with its Chuck Williams Culinary Arts Museum opening in 2017 . The museum will house about 4 @,@ 000 items of Chuck Williams , including cookbooks , cookware , and appliances .

= = Facilities = =

Copia is located on First Street in downtown Napa , adjacent to the Oxbow Public Market . The 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) property is surrounded by an oxbow of the Napa River . The two @-@ story building is 78 @,@ 632 square feet ( 7 @,@ 305 @.@ 2 m2 ) in size , and is primarily built from polished concrete , metal , and glass . The city 's farmers ' market has been located in Copia 's parking lot since 2004 .

It had a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m2 ) gallery for art , history , and science exhibits . It also had a 280 @-@ seat indoor theater , a 500 @-@ seat outdoor theater , classrooms , an 80 @-@ seat demonstration kitchen , a rare book library , a wine @-@ tasting area , a café ( named American Market Cafe ) , gift shop ( named Cornucopia ) , and 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) of landscaped edible gardens . The building 's architect was Polshek Partnership Architects . Julia 's Kitchen was a restaurant inside the Copia building that focused on seasonal dishes and was named for honorary trustee Julia Child , who loaned part of her kitchen to the restaurant , a wall of 49 pans , pots , fish molds , and other tools and objects . Within a year of the center 's closing , the items were sent to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History , where they are included in the Julia Child 's kitchen exhibit , which up until that point was only missing that portion . The restaurant had a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 160 m2 ) dining room ( for 180 seats ) , an outdoor seating area ( 4 @,@ 300 square feet ( 400 m2 ) ) and a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 230 m2 ) kitchen . The gardens had fruit orchards , a pavilion with a kitchen and large dining table , and a small vineyard with 60 vines and 30 different grape varieties . The restaurant and café were both operated by local caterer Seasoned Elements , and later Patina Restaurant Group .

The main and permanent exhibition of the museum , called " Forks in the Road : Food , Wine and the American Table " , had displays explaining the origins of cooking through to modern advances , and included a significant portion about the history of American winemaking . The museum 's opening art exhibition was called " Active Ingredients " , and had new works related to food by eight notable artists . Copia also had an annual exhibit and event called " Canstruction " , which began in 2005 . The event involved teams of architects , students , and designers creating sculptures from cans of food , which would later be donated to the Napa Valley Food Bank . The first year 's donation consisted of 42 @,@ 000 pounds of canned food .

= = Employees and visitor admissions = =

The founding director , Peggy Loar , left Copia in March 2005 , and was replaced by Arthur Jacobus that July ; in 2008 Jacobus was replaced by Chairman Garry McGuire Jr . , who resigned on December 5 , 2008 . The wine curator , Peter Marks , left around 2008 and was replaced with dean of wine studies Andrea Robinson . Around 2008 , McGuire hired celebrity chef Tyler Florence as dean of culinary studies . Florence oversaw the museum 's food programs and Julia 's Kitchen .

Museum attendance was initially forecast at 300 @,@ 000 ; to compare , the county had 4 @.@ 5 million tourists in 2001 . 205 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2001 , 220 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2002 , and 160 @,@ 000 attended in 2003 . 150 @,@ 000 visitors attended in 2007 .

= Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm =

Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm ( also known as Fair Laughs the Morn and Youth and Pleasure ) is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1832 and currently in Tate Britain . Etty had been planning the painting since 1818 – 19 , and an early version was exhibited in 1822 . The piece was inspired by a metaphor in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard in which the apparently bright start to the notorious misrule of Richard II of England was compared to a gilded ship whose occupants are unaware of an approaching storm . Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's lines literally , depicting a golden boat filled with and surrounded by nude and near @-@ nude figures .

Etty felt that his approach to the work illustrated a moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , but his approach was not entirely successful . The Bard was about a supposed curse on the House of Plantagenet placed by a Welsh bard following Edward I of England 's attempts to eradicate Welsh culture , and critics felt that Etty had somewhat misunderstood the point of Gray 's poem . Some reviewers greatly praised the piece , and in particular Etty 's technical abilities , but audiences of the time found it hard to understand the purpose of Etty 's painting , and his use of nude figures led some critics to consider the work tasteless and offensive .

The painting was bought in 1832 by Robert Vernon to form part of his collection of British art . Vernon donated his collection , including Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm , to the National Gallery in 1847 , which , in turn , transferred it to the Tate Gallery in 1949 . It remains one of Etty 's best @-@ known works , and formed part of major exhibitions at Tate Britain in 2001 – 02 and at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .

= = Background = =

William Etty , the seventh son of a York baker and miller , had been an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship at the age of 18 he moved to London " with a few pieces of chalk crayons " , and the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters . He enrolled in the Schools of the Royal Academy of Arts , studying under renowned portrait painter Thomas Lawrence . He submitted numerous paintings to the Royal Academy over the following decade , all of which were either rejected or received little attention when exhibited .

In 1821 Etty 's The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) was a critical success . The painting featured nude figures , and over the following years Etty painted further nudes in biblical , literary and mythological settings . All but one of the 15 paintings Etty exhibited in the 1820s included at least one nude figure .

While some nudes existed in private collections , England had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received , many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent .

= = Composition = =

Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was inspired by a passage in Thomas Gray 's poem The Bard . The theme of The Bard was the English king Edward I 's conquest of Wales , and a curse placed by a Welsh bard upon Edward 's descendants after he ordered the execution of all bards and the eradication of Welsh culture . Etty used a passage Gray intended to symbolise the seemingly bright start to the disastrous reign of Edward 's great @-@ great @-@ grandson Richard II .

Etty chose to illustrate Gray 's words literally , creating what has been described as " a poetic romance " . Youth and Pleasure depicts a small gilded boat . Above the boat , a nude figure representing Zephyr blows on the sails . Another nude representing Pleasure lies on a large bouquet of flowers , loosely holding the helm of the boat and allowing Zephyr 's breeze to guide it . A nude child blows bubbles , which another nude on the prow of the ship , representing Youth , reaches to catch . Naiads , again nude , swim around and clamber on the boat . Although the seas are calm , a " sweeping whirlwind " is forming on the horizon , with a demonic figure within the storm clouds . ( Deterioration and restoration means this demonic figure is now barely visible . ) The intertwined limbs of the participants were intended to evoke the sensation of transient and passing pleasure , and to express the themes of female sexual appetites entrapping innocent youth , and the sexual power women hold over men .

Etty said of his approach to the text that he was hoping to create " a general allegory of Human Life , its empty vain pleasures — if not founded on the laws of Him who is the Rock of Ages . " While Etty felt that the work conveyed a clear moral warning about the pursuit of pleasure , this lesson was largely lost upon its audiences .

When Etty exhibited the completed painting at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 1832 , it was shown untitled , with the relevant six lines from The Bard attached ; writers at the time sometimes referred to it by its incipit of Fair Laughs the Morn . By the time of Etty 's death in 1849 , it had acquired its present title of Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm .

= = Versions = =

The final version of Youth and Pleasure was painted between 1830 and 1832 , but Etty had been contemplating a painting on the theme since 1818 – 19 . In 1822 he had exhibited an early version at the British Institution titled A Sketch from One of Gray 's Odes ( Youth on the Prow ) ; in this version the group of figures on the prow is reversed , and the swimmers around the boat are absent . Another rough version of the painting also survives , similar to the 1832 version but again with the figures on the prow reversed . This version was exhibited at a retrospective of Etty 's work at the Society of Arts in 1849 ; it is dated 1848 but this is likely to be a misprint of 1828 , making it a preliminary study for the 1832 painting .

Although it received little notice when first exhibited , the 1822 version provoked a strong reaction from The Times :

We take this opportunity of advising Mr. Etty , who got some reputation for painting " Cleopatra 's Galley " , not to be seduced into a style which can gratify only the most vicious taste . Naked figures , when painted with the purity of Raphael , may be endured : but nakedness without purity is offensive and indecent , and on Mr. Etty 's canvass is mere dirty flesh . Mr. Howard , whose poetical subjects sometimes require naked figures , never disgusts the eye or mind . Let Mr. Etty strive to acquire a taste equally pure : he should know , that just delicate taste and pure moral sense are synonymous terms .

An oil sketch attributed to Etty , given to York Art Gallery in 1952 by Judith Hare , Countess of Listowel and entitled Three Female Nudes , is possibly a preliminary study by Etty for Youth and Pleasure , or a copy by a student of the three central figures . Art historian Sarah Burnage considers both possibilities unlikely , as neither the arrangement of figures , the subject matter or the sea serpent approaching the group appear to relate to the completed Youth and Pleasure , and considers it more likely to be a preliminary sketch for a now @-@ unknown work .

= = Reception = =

Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm met with a mixed reception on exhibition , and while critics generally praised Etty 's technical ability , there was a certain confusion as to what the painting was actually intended to represent and a general feeling that he had seriously misunderstood what The Bard was actually about . The Library of the Fine Arts felt " in classical design , anatomical drawing , elegance of attitude , fineness of form , and gracefulness of grouping , no doubt Mr. Etty has no superior " , and while " the representation of the ideas in the lines quoted [ from The Bard ] are beautifully and accurately expressed upon the canvas " they considered " the ulterior reference of the poet [ to the destruction of Welsh culture and the decline of the House of Plantagenet ] was entirely lost sight of , and that , if this be the nearest that Art can approach in conveying to the eye the happy exemplification of the subject which Gray intended , we fear we must give up the contest upon the merits of poetry and painting . " Similar concerns were raised in The Times , which observed that it was " Full of beauty , rich in colouring , boldly and accurately drawn , and composed with a most graceful fancy ; but the meaning of it , if it has any meaning , no man can tell " , pointing out that although it was intended to illustrate Gray it " would represent almost as well any other poet 's fancies . " The Examiner , meanwhile , took issue with the cramped and overladen boat , pointing out that the characters " if not exactly jammed together like figs in a basket , are sadly constrained for want of room " , and also complained that the boat would not in reality " float half the weight which is made to press upon it . "

Other reviewers were kinder ; The Gentleman 's Magazine praised Etty 's ability to capture " the beauty of the proportion of the antique " , noting that in the central figures " there is far more of classicality than is to be seen in almost any modern picture " , and considered the overall composition " a most fortunate combination of the ideality of Poetry and the reality of Nature " . The Athenæum considered it " a poetic picture from a very poetic passage " , praising Etty for " telling a story which is very difficult to tell with the pencil " .

The greatest criticism of Youth and Pleasure came from The Morning Chronicle , a newspaper which had long disliked Etty 's female nudes . It complained " no decent family can hang such sights against their wall " , and condemned the painting as an " indulgence of what we once hoped a classical , but which are now convinced , is a lascivious mind " , commenting " the course of [ Etty 's ] studies should run in a purer channel , and that he should not persist , with an unhallowed fancy , to pursue Nature to her holy recesses . He is a laborious draughtsman , and a beautiful colourist ; but he has not taste or chastity of mind enough to venture on the naked truth . " The reviewer added " we fear that Mr. E will never turn from his wicked ways , and make himself fit for decent company . "

= = Legacy = =

Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm was purchased at the time of its exhibition by Robert Vernon for his important collection of British art . ( The price Vernon paid for Youth and Pleasure is not recorded , although Etty 's cashbook records a partial payment of £ 250 — about £ 21 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms — so it is likely to have been a substantial sum . ) Vernon later purchased John Constable 's The Valley Farm , planning to hang it in the place then occupied by Youth and Pleasure . This decision caused Constable to comment " My picture is to go into the place — where Etty 's " Bumboat " is at present — his picture with its precious freight is to be brought down nearer to the nose . " Vernon presented his collection to the nation in 1847 , and his 157 paintings , including Youth and Pleasure , entered the National Gallery .

When Samuel Carter Hall was choosing works to illustrate his newly launched The Art Journal , he considered it important to promote new British artists , even if it meant illustrations which some readers considered pornographic or offensive . In 1849 Hall secured reproduction rights to the paintings Vernon had given to the nation and soon published and widely distributed an engraving of the painting under the title Youth and Pleasure , describing it as " of the very highest class " .

Needled by repeated attacks from the press on his supposed indecency , poor taste and lack of creativity , Etty changed his approach after the response to Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm . He exhibited over 80 further paintings at the Royal Academy alone , and remained a prominent painter of nudes , but from this time made conscious efforts to reflect moral lessons . He died in November 1849 and , while his work enjoyed a brief boom in popularity , interest in him declined over time , and by the end of the 19th century all of his paintings had fallen below their original prices .

In 1949 the painting was transferred from the National Gallery to the Tate Gallery , where as of 2015 it remains . Although Youth and Pleasure is one of Etty 's best @-@ known paintings , it remains controversial , and Dennis Farr 's 1958 biography of Etty describes it as " singularly inept " . It was one of four works by Etty chosen for Tate Britain 's landmark Exposed : The Victorian Nude exhibition in 2001 – 02 , and also formed part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .

= Mozambican War of Independence =

The Mozambican War of Independence was an armed conflict between the guerrilla forces of the Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( Frente de Libertação de Moçambique ) , and Portugal . The war officially started on September 25 , 1964 , and ended with a ceasefire on September 8 , 1974 , resulting in a negotiated independence in 1975 .

Portugal 's wars against independence guerrilla fighters in its 400 @-@ year @-@ old African territories began in 1961 with Angola . In Mozambique , the conflict erupted in 1964 as a result of unrest and frustration amongst many indigenous Mozambican populations , who perceived foreign rule to be a form of exploitation and mistreatment , which served only to further Portuguese economic interests in the region . Many Mozambicans also resented Portugal 's policies towards indigenous people , which resulted in discrimination , traditional lifestyle turning difficult for many Africans , and limited access to Portuguese @-@ style education and skilled employment .

As successful self @-@ determination movements spread throughout Africa after World War II , many Mozambicans became progressively nationalistic in outlook , and increasingly frustrated by the nation 's continued subservience to foreign rule . For the other side , many enculturated indigenous Africans who were fully integrated into the Portugal @-@ ruled social organization of Portuguese Mozambique , in particular those from the urban centres , reacted to the independentist claims with a mixture of discomfort and suspicion . The ethnic Portuguese of the territory , which included most of the ruling authorities , responded with increased military presence and fast @-@ paced development projects .

A mass exile of Mozambique 's political intelligentsia to neighbouring countries provided havens from which radical Mozambicans could plan actions and foment political unrest in their homeland . The formation of the Mozambican guerrilla organisation FRELIMO and the support of the Soviet Union , China , Cuba , Yugoslavia , Bulgaria , Tanzania , Zambia , Egypt , Algeria and Gaddafi regime in Libya through arms and advisers , led to the outbreak of violence that was to last over a decade .

From a military standpoint , the Portuguese regular army held the upper hand during the conflict against the independentist guerrilla forces . Nonetheless , Mozambique succeeded in achieving independence on June 25 , 1975 , after a civil resistance movement known as the Carnation Revolution backed by portions of the military in Portugal overthrow the military dictatorship sponsored by US , thus ending 470 years of Portuguese colonial rule in the East African region . According to historians of the Revolution , the military coup in Portugal was in part fuelled by protests concerning the conduct of Portuguese troops in their treatment of some local Mozambican populace . The role of the growing communist influence over the group of Portuguese military insurgents who led the Lisbon 's military coup , and , on the other hand , the pressure of the international community over the direction of the Portuguese Colonial War in general , were main causes for the final outcome .

= = Background = =

= = = Portuguese colonial rule = = =

San hunter and gatherers , ancestors of the Khoisani peoples , were the first known inhabitants of the region that is now Mozambique , followed in the 1st and 4th centuries by Bantu @-@ speaking peoples who migrated there across the Zambezi River . In 1498 , Portuguese explorers landed on the Mozambican coastline . Portugal 's influence in East Africa grew throughout the 16th century ; she established several colonies known collectively as Portuguese East Africa . Slavery and gold became profitable for the Europeans ; influence was largely exercised through individual settlers and there was no centralised administration and , in the meantime , Portugal had turned her attention to India and Brazil .

By the 19th century , European colonialism in Africa had reached its height . Having lost control of the vast territory of Brazil in South America , the Portuguese began to focus on expanding their African outposts . This brought them into direct conflict with the British . Since David Livingstone had returned to the area in 1858 in an attempt to foster trade routes , British interest in Mozambique had risen , alarming the Portuguese government . During the 19th century , much of Eastern Africa was still being brought under British control , and in order to facilitate this , Britain required several concessions from the Portuguese colony .

As a result , in an attempt to avoid a naval conflict with the superior British Royal Navy , Portugal adjusted the borders of her colony and the modern borders of Mozambique were established in May 1881 . Control of Mozambique was left to various organisations such as the Mozambique Company , the Zambezi Company and the Niassa Company which were financed and provided with cheap labour by the British Empire to work mines and construct railways . These companies penetrated inland from the coastline , setting up plantations and taxing the local populace who had until then resisted encroachment by the colonists .

The resisting Gaza Empire , a collection of indigenous tribes who inhabited the area that now constitutes Mozambique and Zimbabwe , was defeated in 1895 , and the remaining inland tribes were eventually defeated by 1902 ; in that same year , Portugal established Lourenço Marques as the capital . In 1926 , political and economic crisis in Portugal led to the establishment of the Second Republic ( later to become the Estado Novo ) , and a revival of interest in the African colonies . Calls for self determination in Mozambique arose shortly after World War II , in light of the independence granted to many other colonies worldwide in the great wave of decolonisation .

= = = Rise of FRELIMO = = =

Portugal designated Mozambique an overseas territory in 1951 in order to show to the world that the colony had a greater autonomy . It was called the Overseas Province of Mozambique ( Província Ultramarina de Moçambique ) . Nonetheless , Portugal still maintained strong control over its overseas province . The increasing number of newly independent African nations after World War II , coupled with the ongoing mistreatment of the indigenous population , encouraged the growth of nationalist sentiments within Mozambique .

Mozambique was marked by large disparities between the wealthy Portuguese and the majority of the large rural indigenous African population . Poorer whites , many of them recent immigrants , including illiterate peasants , were given preference in lower @-@ level urban jobs , where a system of job reservation existed . In the rural areas , Portuguese controlled the trading stores with which African peasants interacted . Being largely illiterate and preserving their local traditions and ways of life , skilled employment opportunities and roles in administration and government were rare for these numerous tribal populations , leaving them few or no opportunities in the urban modern life . Many indigenous peoples saw their culture and tradition being overwhelmed by the alien culture of Portugal . A small educated African class did emerge , but faced substantial discrimination .

Vocal political dissidents opposed to Portuguese rule and claiming independence were typically forced into exile . From the mid @-@ 1920s a succession of authoritarian regimes in Portugal closed unions and left @-@ wing opposition , both within Portugal and within its colonies , notably in the Estado Novo period ( 1933 @-@ 1974 ) . The Portuguese government forced black Mozambican farmers to grow rice or cotton for export , providing little return with which the farmers could support themselves . Many other workers — over 250 @,@ 000 by 1960 — were pressured to work on coal and gold mines , in neighbouring territories , mainly in South Africa , where they comprised over 30 % of black underground miners . By 1950 , only 4 @,@ 353 Mozambicans out of 5 @,@ 733 @,@ 000 had been granted the right to vote by the Portuguese colonial government . The rift between Portuguese settlers and Mozambican locals is illustrated in one way by the small number of people with mixed Portuguese and Mozambican heritage ( mestiço ) , numbering only 31 @,@ 465 in a population of 8 – 10 million in 1960 according to that year 's census .

The Mozambique Liberation Front or FRELIMO ( Frente de Libertação de Moçambique ) , formally ( Marxist @-@ Leninist as of 1977 but adherent to such positions since the late 1960s ) , was formed in Dar es Salaam , the largest city in neighbouring Tanzania , on June 25 , 1962 . It was created during a conference , by political figures who had been forced into exile , by the merging of various existing nationalist groups , including the Mozambican African National Union , National African Union of Independent Mozambique and the National Democratic Union of Mozambique which had been formed two years earlier . It was only in exile that such political movements could develop , due to the strength of Portugal 's grip on dissident activity within Mozambique itself .

A year later , in 1963 , FRELIMO set up headquarters in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , under the leadership of sociologist Eduardo Mondlane , and began to call for independence from Portugal.After two years of organisation and failing political manoeuvres in an attempt to seek a peaceful independence , Mondlane began in 1964 a campaign of guerrilla warfare in an attempt to achieve independence for Mozambique .

The United Nations also put pressure on Portugal to move for decolonisation . Portugal threatened to withdraw from NATO , which put a stop to this support and pressure , and the nationalist groups in Mozambique were forced to turn to help from the Soviet bloc .

= = = Support from the Soviet Union = = =

During the Cold War , and particularly in the late 1950s , the Soviet Union and People 's Republic of China adopted a strategy of destabilisation of Western powers by disruption of their hold on African colonies . Nikita Khrushchev , in particular , viewed the ' underdeveloped third of mankind ' as a means to weaken the West . For the Soviets , Africa represented a chance to create a rift between western powers and their colonial assets , and create pro @-@ communist states in Africa with which to foster future relations .

Prior to the formation of FRELIMO , the Soviet position regarding the nationalist movements in Mozambique was one of confusion . There were multiple independence movements , and they had no sure knowledge that any would succeed . The nationalist groups in Mozambique , like those across Africa during the period , received training and equipment from the Soviet Union .

Eduardo Mondlane 's successor , future President of Mozambique , Samora Machel , acknowledged assistance from both Moscow and Peking , describing them as " the only ones who will really help us . ... They have fought armed struggles , and whatever they have learned that is relevant to Mozambique we will use . " Guerrillas received tuition in subversion and political warfare as well as military aid , specifically shipments of 122 mm artillery rockets in 1972 , with 1600 advisors from Russia , Cuba and East Germany . FRELIMO adopted Marxism @-@ Leninism at an early stage .

The Soviet Union continued to support the new FRELIMO government against counterrevolution in the years after 1975 . By 1981 , there were 230 Soviet , close to 200 Cuban military and over 600 civilian Cuban advisers still in the country . Cuba 's involvement in Mozambique was as part of a continuing effort to export the anti @-@ imperialist ideology of the Cuban Revolution and forge desperately needed new allies . Cuba provided support to liberation movements and leftist governments in numerous African countries , including Angola , Ethiopia , Guinea @-@ Bissau and Congo @-@ Brazzaville .

= = Conflict = =

= = = Insurgency under Mondlane ( 1964 – 69 ) = = =

At the war 's outset , FRELIMO had little hope for a conventional military victory , with a mere 7000 combatants against a far larger Portuguese force . Their hopes rested on urging the local populace to support the insurgency , in order to force a negotiated independence from Lisbon . Portugal fought its own version of protracted warfare , and a large military force was sent by the Portuguese government to quell the unrest , with troop numbers rising from 8 @,@ 000 to 24 @,@ 000 between 1964 and 1967 . The number of local soldiers recruited for the Portuguese cause rose to 23 @,@ 000 in the same period . 860 Special Forces operatives were also being trained in Commando Instruction Centres by 1969 .

The military wing of FRELIMO was commanded by Filipe Samuel Magaia , whose forces received training from Algeria . The FRELIMO guerrillas were armed with a variety of weapons , many provided by the Soviet Union and China . Common weapons included the Mosin – Nagant bolt @-@ action rifle , SKS and AK @-@ 47 automatic rifles and the Soviet PPSh @-@ 41 . Machine guns such as the Degtyarev light machine gun were widely used , along with the DShK and the SG @-@ 43 Gorunov . FRELIMO were supported by mortars , recoilless rifles , RPG @-@ 2s and RPG @-@ 7s , Anti @-@ aircraft weapons such as the ZPU @-@ 4 and from 1974 the Strela 2 .

In the dying stages of the conflict , FRELIMO was provided with a few SA @-@ 7 MANPAD shoulder @-@ launched missile launchers from China ; these were never used to shoot down a Portuguese plane . Only one Portuguese aircraft was lost in combat during the conflict , when Lt. Emilio Lourenço 's G.91R @-@ 4 was destroyed by premature detonation of his own ordnance .

The Portuguese forces were under the command of General António Augusto dos Santos , a man with strong faith in new counter @-@ insurgency theories . Augusto dos Santos supported a collaboration with Rhodesia to create African Scout units and other special forces teams , with Rhodesian forces even conducting their own independent operations during the conflict . Due to Portuguese policy of retaining up @-@ to @-@ date equipment for the metropole while shipping obsolete equipment to the colonies , the Portuguese soldiers fighting in the opening stages of the conflict were equipped with World War II radios and the old Mauser rifle . As the fighting progressed , the need for more modern equipment was rapidly recognised , and the Heckler & Koch G3 and FN FAL rifles were adopted as the standard battlefield weapon , along with the AR @-@ 10 for paratroopers . The MG42 and , then in 1968 , the HK21 were the Portuguese general purpose machine guns , with 60 , 81 and 120 mm mortars , howitzers and the AML @-@ 60 , Panhard EBR , Fox and Chaimite armoured cars frequently deployed for fire support .

Although helicopters were not used in Mozambique to the same extent as they were in Vietnam , the Alouette III was the most widely used , although the Puma was also used with great success . Other aircraft were employed : for air support the T6 and the Fiat G.91 were used ; for reconnaissance , the Dornier Do 27 . In the transport role , the Portuguese Air Force used mainly the Nord Noratlas and the C @-@ 47 . The Portuguese Navy also made extensive use of patrol boats , landing crafts , and inflatable Zodiacs .

= = = = Start of FRELIMO attacks = = = =

In 1964 , weak @-@ hearted attempts at peaceful negotiation by FRELIMO were abandoned and , on September 25 , 1964 , Eduardo Mondlane began to launch guerrilla attacks on targets in northern Mozambique from his base in Tanzania . FRELIMO soldiers , with logistical assistance from the local population , attacked the administrative post at Chai Chai in the province of Cabo Delgado . FRELIMO militants were able to evade pursuit and surveillance by employing classic guerrilla tactics : ambushing patrols , sabotaging communication and railroad lines , and making hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks against colonial outposts before rapidly fading into accessible backwater areas . The insurgents were typically armed with rifles and machine pistols , and the attackers took full advantage of the monsoon season in order to evade pursuit .

During heavy rains , it was much more difficult to track insurgents by air , negating Portugal 's air superiority , and Portuguese troops and vehicles found movement during rain storms difficult . In contrast , the insurgent troops , with lighter equipment , were able to flee into the bush ( the mato ) amongst an ethnically similar populace into which they could melt away . Furthermore , the FRELIMO forces were able to forage food from the surroundings and local villages , and were thus not hampered by long supply lines .

With the initial FRELIMO attacks in Chai Chai , the fighting spread to Niassa and Tete at the centre of Mozambique . During the early stages of the conflict , FRELIMO activity was reduced to small , platoon @-@ sized engagements , harassments and raids on Portuguese installations . The FRELIMO soldiers often operated in small groups of ten to fifteen soldiers . The scattered nature of FRELIMO 's initial attacks was an attempt to disperse the Portuguese forces .

The Portuguese troops began to suffer losses in November , fighting in the northern region of Xilama . With increasing support from the populace , and the low number of Portuguese regular troops , FRELIMO was quickly able to advance south towards Meponda and Mandimba , linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the neighbouring Republic of Malawi , which had become a fully independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations on July 6 , 1964 . Despite the increasing range of FRELIMO operations , attacks were still limited to small strike teams attacking lightly defended administrative outposts , with the FRELIMO lines of communication and supply utilising canoes along the Ruvuma River and Lake Malawi .

It was not until 1965 that recruitment of fighters increased along with popular support , and the strike teams were able to increase in size . The increase in popular support was in part due to FRELIMO agencies ' offer of help to exiled Mozambicans , who had fled the conflict by travelling to nearby Tanzania . Like similar conflicts against the French and United States forces in Vietnam , the insurgents also used landmines to a great extent to injure the Portuguese forces , thus straining the armed forces ' infrastructure and demoralising soldiers .

FRELIMO attack groups had also begun to grow in size to include over 100 soldiers in certain cases , and the insurgents also began to accept women fighters into their ranks . On either October 10 or October 11 , 1966 , on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines , Filipe Samuel Magaia was shot dead by Lourenço Matola , a fellow FRELIMO guerrilla who was said to be in the employ of the Portuguese .

One seventh of the population and one fifth of the territory were in FRELIMO hands by 1967 ; at this time there were approximately 8000 guerrillas in combat . During this period , Mondlane urged further expansion of the war effort , but also sought to retain the small strike groups . With the increasing cost of supply , more and more territory liberated from the Portuguese , and the adoption of measures to win the support of the population , it was at this time that Mondlane sought assistance from abroad , specifically the Soviet Union and China ; from these benefactors , he obtained large @-@ calibre machine guns , anti @-@ aircraft rifles and 75 mm recoilless rifles and 122 mm rockets .

In 1968 , the second Congress of FRELIMO was a propaganda victory for the insurgents , despite attempts by the Portuguese , who enjoyed air superiority throughout the conflict , to bomb the location of the meeting late in the day . This gave FRELIMO further weight to wield in the United Nations .

= = = Portuguese development program = = =

Due to both the technological gap between civilisations and the centuries @-@ long colonial era , Portugal was a driving force in the development and shaping of all Portuguese Africa since the 15th century . In the 1960s and early 1970s , to counter the increasing insurgency of FRELIMO forces and show to the Portuguese people and the world that the territory was totally under control , the Portuguese government accelerated its major development program to expand and upgrade the infrastructure of Portuguese Mozambique by creating new roads , railways , bridges , dams , irrigation systems , schools and hospitals to stimulate an even higher level of economic growth and support from the populace .

As part of this redevelopment program , construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam began in 1969 . This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal 's concerns over security in the overseas colonies . The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as testimony to Portugal 's " civilising mission " and intended for the dam to reaffirm Mozambican belief in the strength and security of the Portuguese colonial government . To this end , Portugal sent three thousand new troops and over one million landmines to Mozambique to defend the building project .

Realising the symbolic significance of the dam to the Portuguese , FRELIMO proceeded to spend seven years attempting to halt its construction by force . No direct attacks were ever successful , but FRELIMO had some success in attacking convoys en route to the site . FRELIMO also lodged a protest with the United Nations about the project , and their cause was aided by negative reports of Portuguese actions in Mozambique . In spite of the subsequent withdrawal of much foreign financial support for the dam , it was finally completed in December 1974 . The dam 's intended propaganda value to the Portuguese was overshadowed by the adverse Mozambican public reaction to the extensive dispersal of the indigenous populace , who were forced to relocate from their homes to allow for the construction project . The dam also deprived farmers of the critical annual floods , which formerly re @-@ fertilised the plantations .

= = = Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane = = =

On February 3 , 1969 , Eduardo Mondlane was killed by explosives smuggled into his locale . Many sources state that , in an attempt to rectify the situation in Mozambique , the Portuguese secret police assassinated Mondlane by sending a parcel to his office in Dar es Salaam . Inside the parcel was a book containing an explosive device , which detonated upon opening . Other sources state that Eduardo was killed when an explosive device detonated underneath his chair at the FRELIMO headquarters , and that the faction responsible was never identified .

The original investigations levelled accusations at Silverio Nungo ( who was later executed ) and Lazaro Kavandame , FRELIMO leader in Cabo Delgado . The latter had made no secret of his distrust of Mondlane , seeing him as too conservative a leader , and the Tanzanian police also accused him of working with PIDE ( Portugal 's secret police ) to assassinate Mondlane . Kavandame himself surrendered to the Portuguese in April of that year .

Although the exact details of the assassination remain disputed , the involvement of the Portuguese government , particularly Aginter Press or PIDE , is generally accepted by most historians and biographers and is supported by the Portuguese stay behind Gladio @-@ esque army , known as Aginter Press , that suggested in 1990 that they were responsible for the assassination . Initially , due to the uncertainty regarding who was responsible , Mondlane 's death created great suspicion within the ranks of the FRELIMO itself and a short power struggle which resulted in a dramatic swing to the political left .

Mondlane 's immediate successor was the moderate Rev. Uria Simango , who had served under him , as FRELIMO 's vice @-@ President , from its formation until 1969 . In the post @-@ assassination power @-@ struggle , Simango was ousted by the more hardline Samora Machel and Marcelino dos Santos , expelled from FRELIMO and eventually arrested and executed , post @-@ Independence , in 1975 .

= = = Continuing war ( 1969 – 74 ) = = =

In 1969 , General António Augusto dos Santos was relieved of command , with General Kaúlza de Arriaga taking over officially in March 1970 . Kaúlza de Arriaga favoured a more direct method of fighting the insurgents , and the established policy of using African counter @-@ insurgency forces was rejected in favour of the deployment of regular Portuguese forces accompanied by a small number of African fighters . Indigenous personnel were still recruited for special operations , such as the Special Groups of Parachutists in 1973 , though their role less significant under the new commander . His tactics were partially influenced by a meeting with United States General William Westmoreland .

By 1972 there was growing pressure from other commanders , particularly Kaúlza de Arriaga 's second in command , General Francisco da Costa Gomes , for the use of African soldiers in Flechas units . Flechas units ( Arrows ) were also employed in Angola and were units under the command of the Portuguese PIDE . Composed of local tribesmen , the units specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and anti @-@ terrorist operations .

Costa Gomes argued that African soldiers were cheaper and were better able to create a relationship with the local populace , a tactic similar to the ' hearts and minds ' strategy being used by United States forces in Vietnam at the time . These Flechas units saw action in the territory at the very end stages of the conflict , following the dismissal of Kaúlza de Arriaga on the eve of the Portuguese coup in 1974 – the Carnation Revolution . The units were to continue to cause problems for the FRELIMO even after the Revolution and Portuguese withdrawal , when the country splintered into civil war .

There were several Portuguese special forces units that were unique to either the Mozambican conflict or the Portuguese Colonial War as a whole :

Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais ) : units similar to the ones used in Angola

Paratrooper Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais Pára @-@ Quedistas ) : units of volunteer black soldiers that had paratrooper training

Combat Tracking Special Groups ( Grupos Especiais de Pisteiros de Combate ) : special units trained in tracking

Flechas : Local tribesmen and rebel defectors specialised in tracking , reconnaissance and terrorist operations . They sometimes patrolled in captured uniforms and are rewarded with cash bounties for every guerrilla or guerrilla weapon they capture .

During the entire period of 1970 – 74 , FRELIMO intensified guerrilla operations , specialising in urban terrorism . The use of landmines also intensified , with sources stating that they had become responsible for two out of every three Portuguese casualties . During the conflict , FRELIMO used a variety of anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ personnel mines , including the PMN ( Black Widow ) , TM @-@ 46 , and POMZ . Even amphibious mines were used , such as the PDM . Mine psychosis , an acute fear of landmines , was rampant in the Portuguese forces . This fear , coupled with the frustration of taking casualties without ever seeing the enemy forces , damaged morale and significantly hampered progress .

= = = = Portuguese counter @-@ offensive ( June 1970 ) = = = =

On June 10 , 1970 , a major counter @-@ offensive was launched by the Portuguese army . The Gordian Knot Operation ( Portuguese : Operação Nó Górdio ) targeted permanent insurgent camps and the infiltration routes across the Tanzanian border in the north of Mozambique over a period of seven months . The operation involved some 35 @,@ 000 Portuguese troops , particularly elite units like paratroopers , commandos , marines and naval fusiliers .

The Portuguese had excellent coordination between light bombers , helicopters and reinforced ground patrols . They utilised American tactics of quick airborne ( helibourne ) assaults supported by heavy aerial bombardments of FRELIMO camps by the Portuguese Air Force ( Força Aérea Portuguesa or FAP ) to surround and eliminate the guerrillas . These bombardments were accompanied by the use of heavy artillery . The Portuguese also used cavalry units to cover the flanks of patrols and where the terrain was too difficult to motor transport , and units of captured or deserted guerrillas to penetrate their former bases .

Problems for the Portuguese arose almost immediately when the offensive coincided with the beginning of the monsoon season , creating additional logistical difficulties . Not only were the Portuguese soldiers badly equipped , but there was very poor cooperation , if any at all , between the FAP and the army . Thus , the army lacked close air support from the FAP . Mounting Portuguese casualties began to outweigh FRELIMO casualties , leading to further political intervention from Lisbon .

The Portuguese eventually reported 651 as killed ( a figure of some 440 was most likely closer to reality ) , and 1 @,@ 840 captured , for the loss of 132 Portuguese . Gen. Arriaga also claimed his troops to have destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 camps , while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first two months . Although " Gordian Knot " was the most effective Portuguese offensive of the conflict , weakening guerrillas to such a degree that they were no longer a significant threat , the operation was deemed a failure by some military officers and the government .

By 1972 , the Portuguese military had changed its strategy , adapting the British / American search and destroy operations utilising small shock troop sweeps . They also initiated a hearts and minds campaign , named the Aldeamentos Programme , which was a forced relocation program . But on November 9 , 1972 , FRELIMO – not numbering more than 8 @,@ 000 fighters – launched a large offensive in Tete Province . The response from the Portuguese military was fierce , leading to reprisal attacks in an attempt to unbalance the local population 's continuing faith in FRELIMO .

On December 16 , 1972 , the Portuguese 6th company of Commandos in Mozambique killed the inhabitants of the village of Wiriyamu , in the district of Tete . Referred to as the ' Wiriyamu Massacre ' , the soldiers killed between 150 ( according to the Red Cross ) and 300 ( according to a much later investigation by the Portuguese newspaper Expresso based in testimonies from soldiers ) villagers accused of sheltering FRELIMO guerrillas . The action , " Operation Marosca " , was planned at the instigation of PIDE / DGS agents and guided by agent Chico Kachavi , who was later assassinated while an inquiry into the events was being carried out . The soldiers were told by this agent that " the orders were to kill them all " , never mind that only civilians , women and children included , were found . All of the victims were civilians . The massacre was recounted in July 1973 by the British Catholic priest , Father Adrian Hastings , and two other Spanish missionary priests . Later counter @-@ claims have been made in a report of Archbishop of Dar es Salaam Laurean Rugambwa that alleged that the killings were carried out by FRELIMO combatants , not Portuguese forces . In addition , others claimed that the alleged massacres by Portuguese military forces were fabricated to tar the reputation of the Portuguese state abroad . Portuguese journalist Felícia Cabrita reconstructed the Wiriyamu massacre in detail by interviewing both survivors and former members of the Portuguese Army Commandos unit that carried out the massacre . Cabrita 's report was published in the Portuguese weekly newspaper Expresso and later in a book containing several of the journalist 's articles .

By 1973 , FRELIMO were also mining civilian towns and villages in an attempt to undermine the civilian confidence in the Portuguese forces . " Aldeamentos : agua para todos " ( Resettlement villages : water for everyone ) was a commonly seen message in the rural areas , as the Portuguese sought to relocate and resettle the indigenous population , in order to isolate the FRELIMO from its civilian base . Conversely , Mondlane 's policy of mercy towards civilian Portuguese settlers was abandoned in 1973 by the new commander , Machel . " Panic , demoralisation , abandonment , and a sense of futility – all were reactions among whites in Mozambique " stated conflict historian T. H. Henricksen in 1983 .

This change in tactic led to protests by Portuguese settlers against the Lisbon government , a telltale sign of the conflict 's unpopularity . Combined with the news of the Wiriyamu massacre and that of renewed FRELIMO onslaughts through 1973 and early 1974 , the worsening situation in Mozambique later contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese government in 1974 . A Portuguese journalist argued :

= = = Political instability and ceasefire ( 1974 – 75 ) = = =

Back in Lisbon , the ' Armed Revolutionary Action ' branch of the Portuguese Communist Party , which was created in the late 1960s , and the Revolutionary Brigades ( BR ) , a left @-@ wing organisation , worked to resist the colonial wars . They had carried out multiple sabotages and bombings against military targets , such as the attack on the Tancos air base that destroyed several helicopters on March 8 , 1971 , and the attack on the NATO headquarters at Oeiras in October of the same year . The attack on the Portuguese ship Niassa illustrated the role of the colonial wars in this unrest . Niassa ( named after a Mozambican province ) was preparing to leave Lisbon with troops to be deployed in Guinea . By the time of the Carnation Revolution , 100 @,@ 000 draft dodgers had been recorded .

Fighting colonial wars in Portuguese colonies had absorbed forty @-@ four percent of the overall Portuguese budget . This led to an obvious diversion of funds from necessary infrastructural developments in Portugal itself . This contributed to the growing unrest in the European nation . Portugal 's GDP growth during the colonial war period ( 1961 – 1974 ) , was strong and reached a 6 % rate ( a percentual GDP growth which were not achieved in any other comparable period after 1974 ) .

The unpopularity of the Colonial Wars among many Portuguese led to the formation of several magazines and newspapers , such as Cadernos Circunstância , Cadernos Necessários , Tempo e Modo , and Polémica , which had support from students and called for political solutions to Portugal 's colonial problems .

The growing unrest in Portugal culminated on April 25 , 1974 , when the Carnation Revolution , a peaceful leftist military coup d 'état in Lisbon , ousted the incumbent Portuguese government of Marcelo Caetano . Thousands of Portuguese citizens left Mozambique , and the new head of government , General António de Spínola , called for a ceasefire . With the change of government in Lisbon , many soldiers refused to continue fighting , often remaining in their barracks instead of going on patrol . Negotiations between the Portuguese administration culminated in the Lusaka Accord signed on September 7 , 1974 , which provided for a complete hand @-@ over of power to FRELIMO , uncontested by elections . Formal independence was set for June 25 , 1975 , the 13th anniversary of the founding of FRELIMO .

= = Aftermath = =

Many Portuguese colonials were not typical settlers in Mozambique . While most European communities in Africa at the time - with the possible exception of Afrikaners - were established from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries , some white families and institutions in those territories still administered by Portugal had been entrenched for generations . Loss of their privileged status and fears of FRELIMO reprisal resulted in an exodus of up to 200 @,@ 000 white civilians at independence ( in Europe they were popularly known as retornados ) . Cities , towns and villages saw their Portuguese names changed after independence - Lourenço Marques to Maputo , Vila Pery to Chimoio , Vila Cabral to Lichinga , or Vila Junqueiro to Gurúè .

With the departure of Portuguese professionals and tradesmen , the new country had no senior workforce to maintain its infrastructure , and economic collapse loomed . Privileged commercial links were established with several communist countries by the FRELIMO regime at the expense of NATO , which rapidly lost influence in the region .

Samora Machel became Mozambique 's first president . The Reverend Uria Simango , his wife , and other FRELIMO dissidents were arrested in 1975 and detained without trial . Within about two years , fighting resumed with the Mozambican Civil War against RENAMO insurgents plied with Rhodesian and South African military support . Industrial and social recession , Marxist @-@ style totalitarianism , corruption , poverty , inequality and failed central planning eroded the initial revolutionary fervour . Peace returned only in 1992 , when the nation achieved relative stability for the first time in several decades .

= = = Printed sources = = =

= = = Online sources = = =

= The Secret of Monkey Island =

The Secret of Monkey Island is a 1990 point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games . It takes place in a fantastic version of the Caribbean during the age of piracy . The player assumes the role of Guybrush Threepwood , a young man who dreams of becoming a pirate and explores fictional islands while solving puzzles .

The game was conceived in 1988 by Lucasfilm employee Ron Gilbert , who designed it with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman . Gilbert 's frustrations with contemporary adventure titles led him to make the player character 's death almost impossible , which meant that gameplay focused the game on exploration . The atmosphere was based on that of the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park ride . The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth game built with the SCUMM engine , which was heavily modified to include a more user @-@ friendly interface .

Critics praised The Secret of Monkey Island for its humor , audiovisuals , and gameplay . The game spawned a number of sequels , collectively known as the Monkey Island series . Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman also led the development of the sequel Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge . LucasArts released a remake of the original in 2009 , which was also well received by the gaming press .

= = Gameplay = =

The Secret of Monkey Island is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Via a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , the player guides protagonist Guybrush Threepwood through the game 's world and interacts with the environment by selecting from twelve verb commands ( nine in newer versions ) such as " talk to " for communicating with characters and " pick up " for collecting items between commands and the world 's objects in order to successfully solve puzzles and thus progress in the game . While conversing with other characters , the player may choose between topics for discussion that are listed in a dialog tree ; the game is one of the first to incorporate such a system . The in @-@ game action is frequently interrupted by cutscenes . Like other LucasArts adventure games , The Secret of Monkey Island features a design philosophy that makes the player character 's death nearly impossible ( Guybrush does drown if he stays underwater for more than ten minutes ) .

= = Plot = =

A youth named Guybrush Threepwood arrives on the fictional Mêlée IslandTM , with the desire to become a pirate . He seeks out the island 's pirate leaders , who set him three trials that must be completed to become a pirate : winning a sword duel against Carla , the island 's resident swordmaster , finding a buried treasure , and stealing a valuable idol from the governor 's mansion . These quests take Guybrush throughout the island , where he hears of stories of the Ghost Pirate LeChuck , who apparently died in an expedition to the mysterious Monkey IslandTM , an act that was meant to win the love of the governor Elaine Marley . Guybrush meets several characters of interest , including a local voodoo priestess , Stan the Used Boat Salesman , Carla the Sword Master , a prisoner named Otis , and Meathook , whose hands have been replaced by hooks .

Guybrush also encounters the governor and is instantly smitten , and she soon reciprocates . However , as he completes the tasks set for him , the island is raided by LeChuck and his undead crew , who abduct Elaine and then retreat to their secret hideout on Monkey IslandTM . Guybrush takes it upon himself to rescue her , buying a ship and hiring Carla , Otis , and Meathook as crew before setting sail for the fabled island . When Guybrush reaches Monkey Island , he discovers a village of cannibals in a dispute with Herman Toothrot , a ragged castaway marooned there . He settles their quarrel , and then recovers a magical " voodoo root " from LeChuck 's ship for the cannibals , who provide him with a seltzer bottle of " voodoo root elixir " that can destroy ghosts .

When Guybrush returns to LeChuck 's ship with the elixir , he learns that LeChuck has returned to Mêlée IslandTM to marry Elaine at the church . He promptly returns to Mêlée IslandTM and gatecrashes the wedding , only to ruin Elaine 's own plan for escape ; in the process he loses the elixir . Now confronted with a furious LeChuck , Guybrush is savagely beaten by the ghost pirate in a fight ranging across the island . The fight eventually arrives at the island 's ship emporium , where Guybrush finds a bottle of root beer . Substituting the beverage for the lost elixir , he sprays LeChuck , destroying the ghost pirate . With LeChuck defeated , Guybrush and Elaine enjoy a romantic moment , watching fireworks caused by LeChuck exploding .

= = Development = =

= = = Origin and writing = = =

Ron Gilbert conceived the idea of a pirate adventure game in 1988 , after completing Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders . He first wrote story ideas about pirates while spending the weekend at a friend 's house . Gilbert experimented with introductory paragraphs to find a satisfactory idea . His initial story featured unnamed villains that would eventually become LeChuck and Elaine ; Guybrush was absent at this point . He pitched it to Lucasfilm Games 's staff as a series of short stories . Gilbert 's idea was warmly received , but production was postponed because Lucasfilm Games assigned its designers , including Gilbert , to Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade : The Graphic Adventure . Development of The Last Crusade was finished in 1989 , which allowed Gilbert to begin production of The Secret of Monkey Island , then known internally under the working title Mutiny on Monkey Island .

Gilbert soon realised that it would be difficult to design the game by himself ; he decided to join forces with Tim Schafer and Dave Grossman , both of whom he hired for Lucasfilm . The game 's insult sword fighting mechanics were influenced by swashbuckling movies starring Errol Flynn , which Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman often watched for inspiration . They noticed that pirates in those films often taunted their opponents instead of attacking them , which gave the designers the idea to base the game 's duels on insults rather than combat . Writer Orson Scott Card helped them write the insults during a visit to Lucasfilm 's headquarters at Skywalker Ranch . Many of Gilbert 's original gameplay ideas were abandoned during the production process , although he stated that " most of that stuff was left out for a reason " .

The game 's plot , as described by Dave Grossman : “ It ’ s a story about this young man who comes to an island in search of his life ’ s dream . He ’ s pursuing his career goals and he discovers love in the process and winds up thinking that was actually more important than what he was doing to begin with . You ’ re laughing , but there ’ s actually something deeper going on as well . ” When work on the plot began , Gilbert discovered that Schafer 's and Grossman 's writing styles were too different to form a cohesive whole : Grossman 's was " very kind of a dry , sarcastic humor " and Schafer 's was " just a little more in your face " . In reaction , Gilbert assigned them to different characters and story moments depending on what type of comedy was required . Grossman believed that this benefited the game 's writing , as he and Schafer " were all funny in slightly different ways , and it worked well together " . Schafer and Grossman wrote most of the dialogue while they were programming the game ; as a result , much of it was improvised . Some of the dialogue was based on the designers ' personal experiences , such as Guybrush 's line " I had a feeling in hell there would be mushrooms " , which came from Schafer 's own hatred of fungi .

The game 's world and characters were designed primarily by Gilbert . After having read Tim Powers ' historical fantasy novel On Stranger Tides , he decided to add paranormal themes to the game 's plot . He also cited Powers ' book as an influence on the characters , particularly those of Guybrush and LeChuck . Inspiration for the game 's ambiance came from Gilbert 's favorite childhood amusement park ride , Pirates of the Caribbean . Grossman said that Gilbert always wanted " to step off the ride " and " talk to the people who lived in that world " . Near the final stages of the design work , Gilbert introduced several characters who were not directly related to the game 's story . He considered this to be an important decision , as the player would need those seemingly minor characters in later parts of the game and would receive a chance to " really interact with them " .

= = = Creative and technical design = = =

Gilbert , Schafer and Grossman 's primary goal was to create a simpler and more accessible gameplay model than those presented in previous Lucasfilm titles . Gilbert had conceived the main designs and puzzles before production began , which resulted in the bulk of the designers ' work to flesh out his ideas . He was frustrated by the adventure games that Sierra On @-@ Line was releasing at the time , and later said that " you died any time you did anything wrong " . Gilbert considered such gameplay as " a cheap way out for the designer " . He had previously applied his design ideas to the 1987 graphic adventure title Maniac Mansion , but committed a number of mistakes during development , such as dead @-@ end situations that prevented the player from completing the game and poorly implemented triggers for cutscenes . Gilbert aimed to avoid such errors in The Secret of Monkey Island . The team decided to make it impossible for the player character to die , which focused gameplay primarily on world exploration . The Sierra game @-@ over screen was parodied , when Guybrush falls off a cliff only to be bounced back up by a " rubber tree " .

The Secret of Monkey Island was the fifth Lucasfilm Games project powered by the SCUMM engine , originally developed for Maniac Mansion . The company had gradually modified the engine since its creation . For Maniac Mansion , the developers hard coded verb commands in the SCUMM scripting language . These commands become more abstract in subsequent versions of the engine . The developers carried over the practice of referring to individual segments of the gameworld as " rooms " , even though the areas in Monkey Island were outdoors . The game uses the same version of the engine used in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , with minor changes . A dialog tree was added , which facilitated conversation options and the sword @-@ fighting puzzles . The developers removed the " What is " option ( an input command that describes an on @-@ screen object to the player ) in favor of allowing the player to simply highlight the object with the mouse cursor . The game 's improved interface became the standard for the company 's later titles . The game also introduced logical verb shortcuts , which could be performed with the mouse ; for example , clicking on a character defaults to the " talk " action , the most obvious action in the situation . SCUMM 's visuals were updated for the game — the original EGA version had a 320x200 pixel resolution rendered in 16 colors . According to artist Steve Purcell , that became a major limitation for the art team ; due to a low number of " ghastly " colors , they often chose bizarre tones for backgrounds . They chose black and white for Guybrush 's outfit for the same reason . The VGA version of the game later corrected these issues by implementing 256 color support , which allowed for more advanced background and character art . The VGA ( and other platform releases ) removed the infamous " stump joke " from the game , which was a joke in the EGA version in which the player would examine a tree stump in the forest . Guybrush would exclaim that there is an opening to a system of catacombs and attempt to enter , but this would result in a message stating the player needed to insert disc 22 , then 36 , then 114 in order to continue . The joke resulted in numerous calls to the LucasArts hotline asking about missing discs . As a result , the joke was removed from later editions and is a mentioned as a conversation option for the LucasArts Hint Hotline in the sequel .

The game 's " pirate reggae " music was composed by Lucasfilm Games ' in @-@ house musician Michael Land in MIDI format . It was his first project at the company . The game was originally released for floppy disk in 1990 , but a CD @-@ ROM version with a high @-@ quality CD soundtrack followed in 1992 . The music has remained popular , and has been remixed by the musicians of OverClocked ReMix and by the game 's fans .

= = = Special edition = = =

LucasArts released a remake with updated audiovisuals titled The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition in July 2009 for iPhone , Microsoft Windows , and Xbox 360 exclusively via digital distribution . PlayStation 3 , Mac OS and iPad versions followed early in 2010 for download on their respective services . LucasArts confirmed the game 's development on June 1 , 2009 ; rumors appeared several days earlier when the Xbox 360 version of the game received an USK rating . The game was first displayed to the public at the 2009 E3 in June . The remake features hand @-@ drawn visuals with more detail , a remastered musical score , voice work for characters , and a hint system . The developers included the function to switch between 2009 and original audiovisuals at will . The voice actors included Dominic Armato as Guybrush Threepwood and Earl Boen as LeChuck ; most had provided voice work in sequels to The Secret of Monkey Island .

LucasArts 's game producer Craig Derrick and his team conceived the idea of the remake in 2008 . After researching the Monkey Island series ' history , they decided to make " something fresh and new while staying true to the original " , which resulted in the idea of The Secret of Monkey Island 's remake . The developers tried to leave much of the original design unchanged . Any changes were intended to achieve the level of immersion desired for the original . To that end , they added details like a pirate ship or pirates talking in the background of scenes . While the team considered the SCUMM interface revolutionary at the time , LucasArts community manager Brooks Brown noted that it is incompatible with an analog stick , which most consoles use . The designers made the cursor contextual to the game objects as the primary interface . Brown had considered updating the reference to advertise Star Wars : The Force Unleashed because Loom was not on the market at the time , but concluded that the game would not be the same if such changes were implemented . Prior to the Special Edition release , however , LucasArts announced that Loom , along with other games from its back catalog , would be made available on Steam . Brown stated that the decision to distribute the game online was because " digital downloads have finally gotten going " .

= = Reception = =

The Secret of Monkey Island sold well and received positive reviews from critics . Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser of Dragon praised the designers ' attention to detail , and cited the game 's humor as a high point . Although they believed that the game was too expensive , they summarized it as " a highly enjoyable graphic adventure replete with interesting puzzles , a fantastic Roland soundtrack , superb VGA graphics , smooth @-@ scrolling animation , and some of the funniest lines ever seen on your computer screen . " Duncan MacDonald of Zero praised the graphics and found the game " quite amusing " . His favorite aspect was the fine @-@ tuned difficulty level , which he believed was " just right " . He ended his review , " At last an adventure game that 's enjoyable rather than frustrating . " Paul Glancey of Computer and Video Games consider the game superior to Lucasfilm 's earlier adventure titles , and wrote that , " Usually the entertainment you get from an adventure is derived solely from solving puzzles , but the hilarious characters and situations , and the movie @-@ like presentation ... make playing this more like taking part in a comedy film , so it 's much more enjoyable . " He considered the puzzles to be " brilliantly conceived " and found the game 's controls accessible . He summarized it as " utterly enthralling " .

ACE 's Steve Cooke also found the controls convenient , and he praised the game 's atmosphere . He wrote that , " in graphics and sound terms ... Monkey Island , along with King 's Quest V , is currently at the head of the pack . " However , he disliked the designers ' running joke of placing " TM " after character and place names , which he thought detracted from the atmosphere . He singled out the game 's writing , characters and plot structure as its best elements . Amiga Power 's Mark Ramshaw wrote , " With The Secret of Monkey Island , the mouse @-@ controlled , graphic @-@ adventure comes of age . " He lauded its comedic elements , which he believed were the highlight of the game . The reviewer also praised the control scheme , noting that it allows the player to " more or less forget about the specifics of what [ they are ] physically doing ... and lose [ themselves ] in the adventure instead . " He noted that the game 's plot and visual and aural presentation fit together to create a thick atmosphere , and finished , " Forget all those other milestone adventures ( Zork , The Hobbit , Lord of the Rings et al ) — for sheer enjoyment and general all @-@ round perfection , The Secret of Monkey Island creams ' em all in style . " The game , along with its sequel , was ranked the 19th best game of all time by Amiga Power .

Writing for The One , Paul Presley stated that " Lucasfilm appears to have taken all of the elements that worked in its previous releases and , not only incorporated them into this tale of scurvy swashbuckling , but even improved on them in the process ! " Like the other reviewers , he praised its controls . He also lauded its " hilarious storyline , strong characters and ... intriguing setting " , but complained about graphical slowdowns . Nick Clarkson of Amiga Computing cited the game 's graphics as " flawless " , noting that " the characters are superbly animated and the backdrops simply ooze atmosphere . " He highly praised its sound effects and music , and believed that its controls " couldn 't be simpler " . The staff of Amiga Action wrote that the " attention to detail and the finely tuned gameplay cannot be faulted . " They called the graphics " stunning throughout " , and believed that , when they were combined with the " excellent Caribbean tunes " , the result is a game filled with " character and atmosphere . " They ended by stating that " there is absolutely no excuse for not owning this game . "

The Secret of Monkey Island has featured regularly in lists of " top " games , such as Computer Gaming World 's Hall of Fame and IGN 's Video Game Hall of Fame . In 1996 , Computer Gaming World ranked it as the 19th best game of all time , " writing " Who could ever forget the insult @-@ driven duel system or the identity of the mysterious Swordmaster ? " . In 2004 , readers of Retro Gamer voted it as the 33rd top retro game . In 2010 , IGN ranked the Xbox Live Arcade version as the 20th best title of all time for that platform . In 2009 , IGN named The Secret of Monkey Island one of the ten best LucasArts adventure games .

= = = Special edition = = =

Like the original release , The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition received positive reviews from critics . Sean Ely of GamePro praised its updated audio , and said that the new graphics " blow the old clunker visuals ... out of the water " . He cited its script , humor , plot , puzzles and balanced difficulty level as high points , and finished , " The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition is impressive , hilarious and downright worth your money . " Daemon Hatfield of IGN wrote , " Almost 20 years after its release , [ The Secret of Monkey Island ] remains a blast to play . " He called the new graphics " slick , if a little generic " , and noted that the " original graphics have a certain charm to them that the fancy pants new visuals just don 't . " However , he enjoyed the redone music , the new hint function , and the added sound effects and voice acting . He summarized it as " one of the best times you 'll ever have pointing and clicking " , and noted that " few games are this funny . " Justin Calvert of GameSpot noted that " the Special Edition looks much better and is the only way to play if you want to hear ... what characters are saying , whereas the original game 's interface is less clunky . " However , he wrote that " the voice work is such a great addition to the game that it 's difficult to go back to the original edition . " He praised its humor , writing , puzzles and characters , and he believed that it had aged well . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead wrote , " Purists like me will almost certainly find something to grumble about over the span of the game , but the overall impact of the redesign is undeniably for the better . " However , he preferred the original game 's Guybrush design , and believed that the new control system was " rather less intuitive " than the old one . He finished by stating that " few games can stand the test of time with such confidence " .

= = Legacy = =

The Secret of Monkey Island spawned four sequels . The first , Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge , was released in 1991 and focuses on LeChuck 's return . Six years later , LucasArts released The Curse of Monkey Island , which features a new visual design . In 2000 , the company released Escape from Monkey Island , which uses the GrimE engine of Grim Fandango to produce 3D graphics . The next title , Tales of Monkey Island released in 2009 , is a series of five episodic chapters .

Elements of the game have appeared elsewhere in popular culture . The original version was selected as one of five for the exhibition The Art of Video Games in the Smithsonian American Art Museum in 2011 . A fictive drink recipe in the game for grog was mistakenly reported as real in 2009 by Argentinian news channel C5N , which urged adolescents against consuming the dangerous " Grog XD " drink . In Tales of Monkey Island , Guybrush refers to this news story while pushing the Grog XD button on a Grog machine .

= Temple of Eshmun =

The Temple of Eshmun ( Arabic : معبد أشمون ) is an ancient place of worship dedicated to Eshmun , the Phoenician god of healing . It is located near the Awali river , 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon in southwestern Lebanon . The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD , suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon . Although originally constructed by Sidonian king Eshmunazar II in the Achaemenid era ( c . 529 – 333 BC ) to celebrate the city 's recovered wealth and stature , the temple complex was greatly expanded by Bodashtart , Yatan @-@ milk and later monarchs . Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign hegemony , the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences .

The sanctuary consists of an esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental podium which was once topped by Eshmun 's Graeco @-@ Persian style marble temple . The sanctuary features a series of ritual ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river ( modern Awali ) and from the sacred " Ydll " spring ; these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun . The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value , especially those inscribed with Phoenician texts , providing valuable insight into the site 's history and that of ancient Sidon .

The Eshmun Temple was improved during the early Roman Empire with a colonnade street , but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion as Christianity replaced paganism and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures . The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by local treasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars . Maurice Dunand , a French archaeologist , thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975 . After the end of the hostilities and the retreat of Israel from Southern Lebanon , the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to the World Heritage Site tentative list .

= = Eshmun = =

Eshmun was the Phoenician god of healing and renewal of life ; he was one of the most important divinities of the Phoenician pantheon and the main male divinity of Sidon . Originally a nature divinity , and a god of spring vegetation , Eshmun was equated to Babylonian deity Tammuz . His role later expanded within the Phoenician pantheon , and he gained celestial and cosmic attributes .

The myth of Eshmun was related by the sixth century Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius and ninth century Patriarch of Constantinople , Photius . They recount that Eshmun , a young man from Beirut , was hunting in the woods when Astarte saw him and was stricken by his beauty . She harassed him with her amorous pursuit until he emasculated himself with an axe and died . The grieving goddess revived Eshmun and transported him to the heavens where she made him into a god of heaven .

From a historical perspective , the first written mention of Eshmun goes back to 754 BC , the date of the signing of the treaty between Assyrian king Ashur @-@ nirari V and Mati 'el , king of Arpad ; Eshmun figures in the text as a patron of the treaty .

Eshmun was identified with Asclepius as a result of the Hellenic influence over Phoenicia ; the earliest evidence of this equation is given by coins from Amrit and Acre from the third century BC . This fact is exemplified by the Hellenized names of the Awali river which was dubbed Asclepius fluvius , and the Eshmun Temple 's surrounding groves , known as the groves of Asclepius .

= = History = =

= = = Historical background = = =

In the 9th century BC , the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II conquered the Lebanon mountain range and its coastal cities . The new sovereigns exacted tribute from Sidon , along with every other Phoenician city . These payments stimulated Sidon 's search for new means of provisioning and furthered Phoenician emigration and expansion , which peaked in the 8th century BC . When Assyrian king Sargon II died in 705 BC , the Sidonian king Luli joined with the Egyptians and Judah in an unsuccessful rebellion against Assyrian rule , but was forced to flee to Kition ( modern Larnaca in Cyprus ) with the arrival of the Assyrian army headed by Sennacherib , Sargon II 's son and successor . Sennacherib instated Ittobaal on the throne of Sidon and reimposed the annual tribute . When Abdi @-@ Milkutti ascended to Sidon 's throne in 680 BC , he also rebelled against the Assyrians . In response , the Assyrian king Esarhaddon laid siege to the city . Abdi @-@ Milkutti was captured and beheaded in 677 BC after a three @-@ year siege , while his city was destroyed and renamed Kar @-@ Ashur @-@ aha @-@ iddina ( the harbor of Esarhaddon ) . Sidon was stripped of its territory , which was awarded to Baal I , the king of rival Tyre and loyal vassal to Esarhaddon . Baal I and Esarhaddon signed a treaty in 675 in which Eshmun 's name features as one of the deities invoked as guarantors of the covenant .

= = = Construction = = =

Sidon returned to its former level of prosperity while Tyre was besieged for 13 years ( 586 – 573 BC ) by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II . Nevertheless , the Sidonian king was still held in exile at the court of Babylon . Sidon reclaimed its former standing as Phoenicia 's chief city in the Achaemenid Empire ( c.529 – 333 BC ) . During this period , Xerxes I awarded king Eshmunazar II with the Sharon plain for employing Sidon 's fleet in his service during the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .

Eshmunazar II displayed his new @-@ found wealth by constructing numerous temples to Sidonian divinities . Inscriptions found on the king 's sarcophagus reveal that he and his mother , Amashtarte , built temples to the gods of Sidon , including the Temple of Eshmun by the " Ydll source near the cistern " .

As two series of inscriptions on the foundations of the monumental podium attest , construction of the sanctuary 's podium did not begin until the reign of King Bodashtart . The first set of inscriptions bears the name of Bodashtart alone , while the second contains his name and that of the crown prince Yatan @-@ milk . A Phoenician inscription , located 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) upstream from the temple , that dates to the 14th year of Bodashtart 's reign , alludes to water adduction works from the Awali river to the " Ydll " source that was used for ritual purification at the temple .

= = = Roman era & Decline = = =

The Eshmun sanctuary was damaged by an earthquake in the fourth century BC , which demolished the marble temple atop the podium ; this structure was not rebuilt but many chapels and temples were later annexed at the base of the podium .

The temple site remained a place of pilgrimage in the classical antiquity during the early Roman Empire and until the advent of Christianity , when the cult of Eshmun was banned and a Christian church was built at the temple site across the Roman street from the podium . Remnants and mosaic floors of a Byzantine church can still be seen on the site .

A Roman colonnade was built in the third century , probably by emperor Septimius Severus , and a Roman Villa showed a period of renewed relative importance for the city during the late period of Phoenicia under Roman rule . Furthermore , within the original Phoenician temple site the Romans added the processional stairway , the basins for ablutions and a nymphaeum with pictorial mosaics , that are still largely intact . Worn statuettes of three nymphs stand in the niches of a Roman fountain .

Another earthquake hit Sidon around 570 AD ; Antoninus of Piacenza , an Italian Christian pilgrim , described the city as partly in ruins . For many years after the disappearance of the cult of Eshmun , the sanctuary site was used as a quarry : Emir Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din II , for example , used its massive blocks to build a bridge over the Awali river in the 17th century .

The site later fell into oblivion until the XIX century

= = = Modern discovery = = =

Between 1737 and 1742 , Richard Pococke , an English anthropologist , toured the Middle East and wrote of what he thought were ruins of defensive walls built with 3 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 12 ft ) stone blocks near the Awali river . When the French orientalist Ernest Renan visited the area in 1860 , he noticed that the Awali bridge abutments were built of finely rusticated blocks that originated from an earlier structure . He also noted in his report , Mission de Phénicie , that a local treasure hunter told him of a large edifice near the Awali bridge .

In 1900 , local clandestine treasure hunters digging at the Eshmun Temple site haphazardly discovered inscriptions carved onto the temple 's walls . This discovery stirred the interest of Theodore Macridy , curator of the Museum of Constantinople , who cleared the temple remains between 1901 and 1903 . Wilhelm Von Landau also excavated the site between 1903 and 1904 . In 1920 , Gaston Contenau headed a team of archaeologists who surveyed the temple complex . The first extensive archaeological excavation revealing the Eshmun Temple remains was undertaken by Maurice Dunand between 1963 and 1975 . Archaeological evidence shows that the site was occupied from the seventh century BC to the eighth century AD .

= = = After 1975 = = =

During the Lebanese Civil War and the Israeli occupation of South Lebanon ( 1985 – 2000 ) , the temple site was neglected and was invaded by vegetation overgrowth ; it was cleared and recovered its former condition after the Israeli withdrawal . Today the Eshmun sanctuary can be visited all year round and free of charge , it is accessible from an exit ramp off the main Southern Lebanon highway near Sidon 's northern entrance . The site holds a particular archaeological importance since it is the best preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon ; it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List 's Cultural category on July 1 , 1996 .

In literature , the temple of Eshmun figures in Nabil Saleh 's 2009 novel , The Curse of Ezekiel as the setting where Bomilcar falls in love and rescues princess Chiboulet from the evil design of one of the temple 's priests .

= = Location = =

A number of ancient texts mention the Eshmun Temple and its location . The Phoenician inscriptions on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II , a Sidonian king , commemorate the construction of a " house " for the " holy prince " Eshmun by the king and his mother , queen Amashtart , at the " Ydll source by the cistern " . Dionysius Periegetes , an ancient Greek travel writer , identified the Eshmun temple by the Bostrenos River , and Antonin de Plaisance , a 6th @-@ century AD Italian pilgrim recorded the shrine as near the river Asclepius fluvius.Strabo and other Sidonian sources describe the sanctuary and its surrounding " sacred forests " of Asclepius , the Hellenized name of Eshmun , in written texts .

Located about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Beirut and 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Sidon , the Eshmun Temple sits on the southern bank of the modern Awali river , previously referred to as Bostrenos or Asclepius fluvius in ancient text . Citrus groves , known as Bustan el @-@ Sheikh ( Arabic : بستان الشيخ , the grove of the Sheikh ) , occupy the ancient " sacred forests " of Asclepius and are a favorite summer picnic location for locals .

= = Architecture and description = =

Built under Babylonian rule ( 605 – 539 BC ) , the oldest monument at the site is a pyramidal building resembling a ziggurat that includes an access ramp to a water cistern . Fragments of marble column bases with Torus moldings and facetted columns found east of the podium are also attributed to the Babylonian era .

The pyramidal structure was superimposed during Persian rule by a massive ashlar podium constructed from heavily bossed limestone blocks that measured more than 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) across by 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) thick , which were laid down in courses 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high . The podium stands 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high , runs50 metres ( 160 ft ) into the hillside , and boasts a 70 @-@ metre ( 230 ft ) wide façade . The terrace atop of the podium was once covered by a Greco @-@ Persian style marble temple probably built by Ionic artisans around 500 BC . The marble temple has been reduced to a few remaining stone fragments due to theft .

During the Hellenistic period , the sanctuary was extended from the base of the podium across the valley . To the east base of the podium stands a large chapel , 10 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 34 ft × 38 ft ) , dating to the 4th century BC . The chapel was adorned with a paved pool and a large stone throne carved of a single block of granite in the Egyptian style ; it is flanked by two sphinx figures and surrounded by two lion sculptures . The throne , attributed to the Sidonian goddess Astarte , rests against the chapel wall , which is embellished by relief sculptures of hunting scenes . The once important Astarte basin lost its function during the 2nd century AD and was filled with earth and statue fragments . The west base contains another 4th century BC chapel — centered on a bull protome topped capital — that remains preserved at the National Museum of Beirut .

Widely known as the " Tribune of Eshmun " because of its shape , the altar of Eshmun is a white marble structure dating to the 4th century BC . It is 2 @.@ 15 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) long by 2 @.@ 26 metres ( 7 @.@ 4 ft ) wide and 2 @.@ 17 metres ( 7 @.@ 1 ft ) tall . Unearthed in 1963 by Maurice Dunand , it stands on a limestone socleplated with marble blocks that rest against a retaining wall . The altar is adorned with Hellenistic style relief sculptures and is framed by decorative moldings , one of which divides the altar into two distinct registers of symmetrical composition . The upper register portrays 18 Greek deities , including two charioteers surrounding the Greek god Apollo , who is depicted playing a cithara ( a type of lyre ) . The lower register honors Dionysus , who leads his thiasos ( his ecstatic revenue ) in a dance to the music of pipe and cithara players . The Tribune is displayed at the National Museum of Beirut .

Northeast of the site , another 3rd century BC temple stands adjacent to the Astarte chapel . Its 22 @-@ metre ( 72 ft ) façade is built with large limestone blocks and displays a two @-@ register relief decoration illustrating a drunken revelry in honor of Dionysus , the Greek god of wine . Among the temple reliefs , one shows a man attempting to seize a large rooster which was the common sacrificial animal for Eshmun @-@ Asclepius .

The Eshmun Temple complex comprises an elaborate hydraulic installation channeling water from " Ydll " spring that is made up of an intricate system of water canals , a series of retaining basins , sacred ablution basins and paved pools . This system demonstrates the importance of ritual ablutions in Phoenician therapeutic cults .

Later vestiges date from the Roman epoch and include a colonnaded road lined with shops . Of the large marble columns bordering the Roman street only fragments and bases remain . The Romans also built a monumental staircase adorned with mosaic patterns that leads to the top of the podium . To the right of the Roman road , near the entrance of the site stands a nymphaeum with niches where statues of the nymphs once stood . The floor of the nymphaeum is covered by a mosaic depicting the Maenads . Across the colonnaded road , facing the nymphaeum , are the ruins of a Roman villa ; only the villa 's courtyard has survived along with the remains of a mosaic depicting the four seasons . To the right of the processional Roman staircase stands a cubic altar , also of Roman construction . Other Roman period structures include two columns of a great portico leading to pools and other cultic installations .

= = Function = =

Eshmun 's cult enjoyed a particular importance at Sidon as he was the chief deity after 500 BC . Aside from the extramural sanctuary at Bustan el @-@ Sheikh , Eshmun also had a temple within the city . The extramural Eshmun Temple was associated with purification and healing ; ritual lustral ablutions were performed in the sanctuary 's sacred basins supplemented by running water from the Asclepius River and the " Ydll " spring water which was considered to have a sacred character and therapeutic quality . The healing attributions of Eshmun were combined with his divine consort Astarte 's fertilizing powers ; the latter had an annex chapel with a sacred paved pool within the Eshmun sanctuary . Pilgrims from all over the ancient world flocked to the Eshmun Temple leaving votive traces of their devotion and proof of their cure . There is evidence that from the 3rd century BC onwards there have been attempts to Hellenize the cult of Eshmun and to associate him with his Greek counterpart Asclepius , but the sanctuary retained its curative function .

= = Artifacts and finds = =

Apart from the large decorative elements , carved friezes and mosaics which were left in situ , many artifacts were recovered and moved from the Eshmun Temple to the national museum , the Louvre or are in possession of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities . Some of these smaller finds include a collection of inscribed ostraca unearthed by Dunand providing rare examples of cursive Phoenician writing in the Phoenician mainland . One of the recovered ostracon bears the theophoric Phoenician name " grtnt " which suggests that veneration of the lunar @-@ goddess Tanit occurred in Sidon .

A number of fragmented votive life @-@ size sculptures of little children lying on their side and holding a pet animal or a small object were also recovered at the temple site ; among the best known of these is a sculpture of a royal child holding a dove with his right hand ; the boy 's head is shaved , his torso is bare and his lower body is wrapped in a large cloth . The socle of this sculpture is inscribed with a dedication from Baalshillem , the son of a Sidonian king to Eshmun , which illustrates the importance of the site to the Sidonian monarchy . These votive sculptures appear to have been purposely broken after dedication to Eshmun and then ceremoniously cast into the sacred canal , probably simulating the sacrifice of the sick child . All of these sculptures represent boys . A31.5 cm × 27 cm ( 12 @.@ 4 in × 10 @.@ 6 in ) limestone bust of a Kouros dating from the 6th century BC was found at the site , but unlike the archaic Greek kouroi this figure is not bare .

Among the notable finds is a golden plaque showing a snake curling on a staff , a Hellenic symbol of Eshmun. and a granite altar bearing the name of Egyptian Pharaoh Achoris uncovered in the Eshmun sanctuary . This gift attests to the good relations between the Pharaoh and the kings of Sidon .

The repute of the sanctuary was far reaching . Cypriot pilgrims from Paphos left marks of their devotion for Astarte on a marble stele inscribed both in Greek and Cypriot syllabary at Astarte 's shrine ; this stele is now in the custody of the Lebanese directorate general of antiquities .

= = Pillaging = =

Treasure hunters have sought out the Eshmun Temple since antiquity ; around 1900 artifacts bearing Phoenician inscriptions from the temple site found their way to Beirutine antiquities markets where they stirred the interest of the Ottoman authorities and prompted a series of archeological digs . During the civil war , upon a request from then Lebanese director general of antiquities Maurice Chehab , Maurice Dunand moved more than 2000 artifacts from Sidon to a subterranean chamber at the Byblos crusader castle , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of Beirut . In 1981 , the depot was looted and around 600 sculptures and architectural elements were stolen and smuggled out of Lebanon . Rolf Stucky , ex @-@ director of the Institute of Classical Archeology of Basel affirmed during a conference in Beirut in December 2009 the successful identification and return of eight sculptures to the Lebanese national museum .

= Wilhelm Busch =

Heinrich Christian Wilhelm Busch ( 15 April 1832 – 9 January 1908 ) was a German humorist , poet , illustrator and painter . He published comic illustrated cautionary tales from 1859 , achieving his most notable works in the 1870s . Busch 's illustrations used wood engraving , and later , zincography .

Busch drew on contemporary parochial and city life , satirizing Catholicism , Philistinism , strict religious morality and bigotry . His comic text was colourful and entertaining , using onomatopoeia , neologisms and other figures of speech , and led to some work being banned by the authorities .

Busch was influential in both poetry and illustration , and became a source for future generations of comic artists . The Katzenjammer Kids was inspired by Busch 's Max and Moritz , one of a number of imitations produced in Germany and the United States . The Wilhelm Busch Prize and the Wilhelm Busch Museum help maintain his legacy . His 175th anniversary in 2007 was celebrated throughout Germany . Busch remains one of the most influential poets and artists in Western Europe .

= = Family background = =

In the late 18th century Johann Georg Kleine , Wilhelm Busch 's maternal grandfather , settled in the small village of Wiedensahl . There , in 1817 , he bought a thatched half @-@ timbered house , where Wilhelm Busch was to be born about 15 years later . Amalie Kleine , Johann 's wife and Wilhelm Busch 's grandmother , kept a shop in which Busch 's mother Henriette assisted while her two brothers attended high school . When Johann Georg Kleine died in 1820 , his widow continued to run the shop with Henriette .

At the age of 19 Henriette Kleine married surgeon Friedrich Wilhelm Stümpe . Henriette became widowed at the age of 26 , with her three children to Stümpe dying as infants . About 1830 Friedrich Wilhelm Busch , the illegitimate son of a farmer , settled in Wiedensahl after completing a business apprenticeship in the nearby village of Loccum . He took over the Kleine shop in Wiedensahl , which he completely modernised .

= = Life = =

= = = Childhood = = =

Wilhelm Busch was born on 15 April 1832 , the first of seven children to the marriage of Henriette Kleine and Friedrich Wilhelm Busch . His six siblings followed shortly after : Fanny ( 1834 ) , Gustav ( 1836 ) , Adolf ( 1838 ) , Otto ( 1841 ) , Anna ( 1843 ) and Hermann ( 1845 ) ; all survived childhood . His parents were ambitious , hard @-@ working and devout Protestants who later , despite becoming relatively prosperous , could not afford to educate all three sons . Busch 's biographer Berndt W. Wessling suggested that Friedrich Wilhelm Busch invested heavily in his sons ' education partly because his own illegitimacy held significant stigma in rural areas .

The young Wilhelm Busch was a tall child , but with a rather delicate and graceful physique . The coarse boyishness of his later protagonists " Max and Moritz " was rare in his childhood . He described himself in autobiographical sketches and letters as sensitive and timid , as someone who " carefully studied apprehension " , and who reacted with fascination , compassion and distress when animals were killed in the autumn . He described the " transformation to sausage " as " dreadfully compelling " , leaving a lasting impression ; pork nauseated him throughout his life .

In the autumn of 1841 , after the birth of his brother Otto , Busch 's education was entrusted to the 35 @-@ year @-@ old clergyman Georg Kleine , his maternal uncle at Ebergötzen , this probably through lack of space in the Busch family home , and his father 's desire for a better education than the small local school could provide , where 100 children were taught within a space of 66 m2 ( 710 sq ft ) . The nearest convenient school was located in Bückeburg , 20 km ( 12 mi ) from Wiedensahl . Kleine , with his wife Fanny Petri , lived in a rectory at Ebergötzen , while Busch was lodged with an unrelated family . Kleine and his wife were responsible and caring , exercised a substitute parental role , and provided refuge for him in future unsuccessful times .

Kleine 's private lessons for Busch were also attended by Erich Bachmann , the son of a wealthy Ebergötzen miller . Both became friends , according to Busch the strongest friendship of his childhood . This friendship was echoed in the 1865 story Max and Moritz . A small pencil portrait by the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Busch depicted Bachmann as a chubby , confident boy , and showed similarities with Max . Busch portrayed himself with a " cowlick " , in the later " Moritzian " perky style .

Kleine was a philologist , his lessons not held in contemporary language , and it is not known for certain all subjects Busch and his friend were taught . Busch did learn elementary arithmetic from his uncle , although science lessons might have been more comprehensive , as Kleine , like many other clergymen , was a beekeeper , and published essays and textbooks on the subject — Busch demonstrated his knowledge of bee @-@ keeping in his future stories . Drawing , and German and English poetry , were also taught by Kleine .

Busch had little contact with his natural parents during this period . At the time , the 165 km ( 103 mi ) journey between Wiedensahl and Ebergötzen took three days by horse . His father visited Ebergötzen two to three times a year , while his mother stayed in Wiedensahl to look after the children . The 12 @-@ year @-@ old Busch visited his family once ; his mother at first did not recognize him . Some Busch biographers think that this early separation from his parents , especially from his mother , resulted in his eccentric bachelorhood . In the autumn of 1846 , Busch moved with the Kleine 's to Lüthorst , where , on 11 April 1847 , he was confirmed .

= = = Study = = =

In September 1847 Busch began studying mechanical engineering at Hanover Polytechnic . Busch 's biographers are not in agreement as to why his Hanover education ended ; most believe that his father had little appreciation of his son 's artistic inclination . Biographer Eva Weissweiler suspects that Kleine played a major role , and that other possible causes were Busch 's friendship with an innkeeper , Brümmer , political debates in Brümmer 's tavern , and Busch 's reluctance to believe every word of the Bible and catechism .

Busch studied for nearly four years at Hanover , despite initial difficulties in understanding the subject matter . A few months before graduation he confronted his parents with his aspiration to study at the Düsseldorf Art Academy . According to Bush 's nephew Hermann Nöldeke , his mother supported this inclination . His father eventually acquiesced and Busch moved to Düsseldorf in June 1851 , where , to his disappointment at not being admitted to the advanced class , he entered preparatory classes . Busch 's parents had his tuition fees paid for one year , so in May 1852 he traveled to Antwerp to continue study at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts under Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans . He led his parents to believe that the Academy was less regimented than Düsseldorf , and had the opportunity to study old masters . At Antwerp he saw for the first time paintings by Peter Paul Rubens , Adriaen Brouwer , David Teniers and Frans Hals . The pictures aroused his interest , but made him doubt his own skills . Eventually , in 1853 , after suffering heavily from typhus , he abandoned his Antwerp studies and returned penniless to Wiedensahl .

= = = Munich = = =

Busch was ravaged by disease , and for five months spent time painting and collecting folk tales , legends , songs , ballads , rhymes and fragments of regional superstitions . Busch 's biographer Joseph Kraus saw these collections as useful additions to folklore , as Busch noted the narrative background to tales and the idiosyncrasies of storytellers . Busch tried to release the collections , but as a publisher could not be found at the time they were issued after his death . During the Nazi era Busch was known as an " ethnic seer " .

After Busch had spent six months with his uncle Kleine at Lüthorst , he expressed an aim to continue study in Munich . This request caused a rift with his father who , however , eventually funded this move ; - see for comparison Busch 's illustrated story of Painter Klecksel . Busch 's expectations of the Munich Academy of Fine Arts were not met . His life became aimless ; there were occasional return visits to Lüthorst , but contact with his parents had been broken off . In 1857 and 1858 , as his position seemed to be without prospects , he contemplated emigration to Brazil to keep bees .

Busch made contact with the artist association Jung München ( Young Munich ) , met several notable Munich artists , and wrote and provided cartoons for the Jung München newspaper . Kaspar Braun , who published the satirical newspapers Münchener Bilderbogen ( Picture Sheets from Munich ) and Fliegende Blätter ( Flying Leaves ) , proposed a collaboration with Busch . This association provided Busch with sufficient funds to live . An existing self @-@ caricature suggests that at this time he had an intense relationship with a woman from Ammerland . His courtship with a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old merchant 's daughter , Anna Richter , whom Busch met through his brother Gustav , ended in 1862 . Busch 's biographer , Diers , suggests that her father probably refused to entrust his daughter to an almost unknown artist without regular income .

In his early Munich years Busch 's attempt to write libretti , which are almost forgotten today , were unsuccessful . Up to 1863 he worked on two or three major works ; the third was composed by Georg Kremplsetzer . Busch 's Liebestreu und Grausamkeit , a romantic opera in three acts , Hansel und Gretel and Der Vetter auf Besuch , an opera buffa of sorts , were not particularly successful . There was a dispute between Busch and Kremplsetzer during the staging of Der Vetter auf Besuch , leading to the removal of Busch 's name from the production ; the piece was renamed Singspiel von Georg Kremplsetzer .

In 1873 Busch returned several times to Munich , and took part in the intense life of the Munich Art Society as an escape from provincial life . In 1877 , in a last attempt to be a serious artist , he took a studio in Munich . He left Munich abruptly in 1881 , after he disrupted a variety show and subsequently made a scene through the effects of alcohol The 1878 nine episode illustrated tale Eight Sheets in the Wind describes how humans behave like animals when drunk . Busch 's biographer Weissweiler felt the story was only superficially funny and harmless , but was a study on addiction and its induced state of delusion .

= = = Publication of Max and Moritz = = =

Between 1860 and 1863 Busch wrote over one hundred articles for the Münchener Bilderbogen and Fliegende Blätter , but he felt his dependence on publisher Kaspar Braun had become constricting . Busch appointed Dresden publisher Heinrich Richter , the son of Saxon painter Ludwig Richter , as his new publisher — Richter 's press up to that time was producing children 's books and religious Christian devotional literature . Busch could choose themes , although Richter raised some concerns regarding four suggested illustrated tales that were proposed . However , some were published in the 1864 as Bilderpossen , proving a failure . Busch then offered Richter the manuscripts of Max and Moritz , waiving any fees . Richter rejected the manuscript as sales prospects seemed poor . Busch 's former publisher , Braun , purchased the right to Max and Moritz for 1 @,@ 000 gulden , corresponding to approximately double the annual wage of a craftsman .

For Braun the manuscript was fortuitous . Initially the sales of Max and Moritz were slow , but sales figures improved after the 1868 second edition . Overall there were 56 editions and more than 430 @,@ 000 copies sold up to Busch 's death in 1908 . Despite at first being ignored by critics , teachers in the 1870s described Max and Moritz as frivolous and an undesirable influence on the moral development of young people .

= = = Frankfurt = = =

Increasing economic success allowed Busch to visit Wiedensahl more frequently . Busch had decided to leave Munich , as only few relatives lived there , and the artists ' association was temporarily disbanded . In June 1867 Busch met his brother Otto for the first time , in Frankfurt . Otto was working as a tutor to the family of a wealthy banker and industrialist , Kessler . Busch became friends with Kessler 's wife , Johanna , a mother of seven and an influential art and music patron of Frankfurt . She regularly opened salons at her villa , frequented by artists , musicians and philosophers . She believed Busch to be a great painter , a view supported by Anton Burger , a leading painter of the Kronberger Malerkolonie , the Kronberg @-@ based group of painters . While his humorous drawings did not appeal to her , she supported his painting career . At first she established an apartment and studio for Busch in her villa , later providing him with an apartment nearby . Motivated by Kessler 's support and admiration , and introduction to the cultural life of Frankfurt , the ' Frankfurter Years ' were the most artistically productive for Busch . At this time he and Otto discovered the philosophical works of Arthur Schopenhauer .

Busch did not remain in Frankfurt . Towards the end of the 1860s he alternated between Wiedensahl and Lüthorst , and Wolfenbüttel where his brother Gustav lived . The association with Johanna Kessler lasted five years , and after his return to Wiedensahl in 1872 they communicated by letter . This contact was interrupted between 1877 and 1891 , after which it was revived with the help of Kessler 's daughters .

= = = Later life = = =

Biographer Weissweiler does not dismiss the possibility that Busch 's increasing alcohol dependence hindered self @-@ criticism . He refused invitations to parties , and publisher Otto Basserman sent him to Wiedensahl to keep his alcohol problem undetected from those around him . Busch was also a heavy smoker , resulting in symptoms of severe nicotine poisoning in 1874 . He began to illustrate drunkards more often .

Dutch writer Marie Anderson corresponded with Busch . More than fifty letters were exchanged between January and October 1875 in which they discussed philosophy , religion and ethics . Although only one Anderson letter survives , Busch 's letters are in manuscripts . They met in Mainz in October 1875 , after which he returned to Basserman at Heidelback in a " horrible mood " . According to several people at the time , Busch 's failure to find a wife was responsible for his conspicuous behaviour . There is no evidence that Busch had a close relationship with any woman after that with Anderson .

Busch lived with his sister Fanny 's family after her husband Pastor Hermann Nöldeke 's death in 1879 . His nephew Adolf Nöldeke remembers that Busch wanted to move back to Wiedensahl with the family . Busch renovated the house , which Fanny looked after even though he was a rich man , and became " father " to his three young nephews . She would , however , have preferred to live in a more urban area for the education of her sons . For Fanny and her three sons , Busch could not replace their former idyllic life . The years around 1880 were psychically and emotionally exhausting for Busch , who was still reliant on alcohol . He would not invite visitors to Wiedensahl ; because of this Fanny lost contact with her friends in the village , and whenever she questioned his wishes , Busch became furious ; Even his friends Otto Friedrich Bassermann , Franz von Lenbach , Hermann Levi and Wilhelm von Kaulbach were not invited ; he would meet them in Kassel or Hanover .

Busch stopped painting in 1896 and signed @-@ over all publication rights to Bassermann Verlag for 50 @,@ 000 gold marks . Busch , now aged 64 , felt old . He needed spectacles for writing and painting , and his hands trembled slightly . In 1898 , together with his aging sister Fanny Nöldeke , he accepted Bassermann 's suggestion to move into a large parsonage in Mechtshausen . Busch read biographies , novels and stories in German , English and French . He organized his works and wrote letters and poems . Most of the poems from the collections Schein und Sein and Zu guter Letzt were written in 1899 . The following years were eventless for Busch . He developed a sore throat in early January 1908 , and his doctor detected a weak heart . During the night of 8 – 9 January 1908 Busch slept uneasily , taking camphor , and a few drops of morphine as a tranquilizer . Busch died the following morning before his physician , called by Otto Nöldeke , came to assist .

= = Work = =

During the Frankfort period Busch published three self @-@ contained illustrated satires . Their anti @-@ clerical themes proved popular during the Kulturkampf . Busch 's satires typically did not address political questions , but exaggerated churcheyness , superstition and philistine double @-@ standards . This exaggeration made at least two of the works historically erroneous . The third illustrated satire , Father Filucius ( Pater Filucius ) , described by Busch as an " allegorical mayfly " , has greater historical context .

= = = Max and Moritz = = =

In German Eine Bubengeschichte in sieben Streichen , Max and Moritz is a series of seven illustrated stories concerning the mischievous antics of two boys , who are eventually ground @-@ down and fed to ducks .

= = = Saint Antonius of Padua and Helen Who Couldn 't Help It = = =

In Saint Antonius of Padua ( Der Heilige Antonius von Padua ) Busch challenges Catholic belief . It was released by the publisher Moritz Schauenburg at the time Pope Pius IX proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility that was harshly criticized by Protestants . The publisher 's works were heavily scrutinized or censored , and the state 's attorney in Offenburg charged Schauenberg with " vilification of religion and offending public decency through indecent writings " — a decision which affected Busch . Scenes of Antonius accompanied by a pig being admitted to heaven , and the devil being shown as a half @-@ naked ballet dancer seducing Antonius , were deemed controversial . The district court of Düsseldorf subsequently banned Saint Antonius . Schauenburg was acquitted on 27 March 1871 in Offenburg , but in Austria the satire 's distribution was prohibited until 1902 . Schauenburg refused to publish further Busch satires to avoid future accusations .

Busch 's following work , Helen Who Couldn 't Help It ( Die fromme Helene ) , was published by Otto Friedrich Bassermann , a friend whom Busch met in Munich . Helen Who Couldn 't Help It , which was soon translated into other European languages , satirizes religious hypocrisy and dubious morality :

Many details from Helen Who Couldn 't Help It criticizes the way of life of the Kesslers . Johanna Kessler was married to a much older man and entrusted her children to governesses and tutors , while she played an active role in the social life of Frankfurt .

The character of Mr. Schmock — the name based on the Yiddish insult " schmuck " — shows similarities with Johanna Kessler 's husband , who was uninterested in art and culture .

In the second part of Helen Who Couldn 't Help It Busch attacks Catholic pilgrimages . The childless Helen goes on a pilgrimage , accompanied by her cousin and Catholic priest Franz . The pilgrimage is successful as later Helen gives birth to twins , who resemble Helen and Franz . Franz is later killed by a jealous valet , Jean , for his interest in female kitchen staff . The now widowed Helen is left with only a rosary , prayer book and alcohol . Drunk , she falls into a burning oil lamp . Finally , Nolte coins a moral phrase , echoing the philosophy of Schopenhauer :

Pater Filucius ( Father Filucius ) is the only illustrated satire of this period suggested by the publisher . Also aimed at anti @-@ Catholic taste and buyers , it criticizes the Jesuit Order . Kraus felt it was the weakest of all three anti @-@ clerical works . Some satires refer to contemporary events , such as Monsieur Jacques à Paris during the Siege of 1870 ( Monsieur Jacques à Paris während der Belagerung von 1870 ) . Busch biographer Manuela Diers declares the story " tasteless work , drawing on anti @-@ French emotions and mocking the misery of French people in Paris , which is occupied by Prussian troops " . It depicts an increasingly desperate French citizen who at first eats a mouse during the German siege , then amputates his dog 's tail to cook it , and finally invents an explosion pill which kills his dog and two fellow citizens . Weissweiler believes that Busch wrote with irony . In Eginhard and Emma ( 1864 ) , a fictional family story that takes place in the Charlemagne era , he criticizes the Holy Roman Empire and calls for a German empire in its place ; in The Birthday or the Particularists ( Der Geburtstag oder die Partikularisten ) he satirizes the anti @-@ Prussian sentiments of his Hanover countrymen .

= = = Critique of the Heart = = =

Busch did not write further illustrated tales for a while , and focused on the literary Kritik des Herzens ( Critique of the Heart ) , wanting to appear more serious to his readers . Contemporary reception for the collection of 81 poems was mainly poor ; it was criticized for its focus on marriage and sexuality . His long @-@ time friend Paul Lindau called it " very serious , heartfelt , charming poems " . Dutch writer Marie Anderson was one of few people who enjoyed his Kritik des Herzens , and even planned to publish it in a Dutch newspaper .

= = = Adventures of a Bachelor = = =

Notwithstanding the hiatus after moving from Frankfurt , the 1870s were one of Busch 's most productive decades . In 1874 he produced the short illustrated tale Diddle @-@ Boom ! ( Dideldum ! ) .

Following , in 1875 , was the Knopp Trilogy , about the life of Tobias Knopp : Adventures of a Bachelor ( Abenteuer eines Junggesellen ) , Mr. and Mrs. Knopp ( Herr und Frau Knopp ) ( 1876 ) , and " Julie " ( Julchen ) ( 1877 ) . The antagonists of the trilogy are not pairs of nuisances as with Max and Moritz or Jack Crook , Bird of Evil ( Hans Huckebein , der Unglücksrabe ) . Without pathos , Busch makes Knopp become aware of his mortality :

In the first part of the trilogy , Knopp is depressed and will look for a wife . He visits his old friends and their wives who he finds in unenviable relationships . Still not convinced that the life of a bachelor is one for him , he returns home , and without further ado proposes to his housekeeper . The following marriage proposal is , according to Busch biographer Joseph Kraus , one of the shortest in the history of German literature :

According to Wessling , Busch became skeptical of marriage after writing the story . To Marie Anderson he wrote : " I will never marry ( ... ) I am already in good hands with my sister " .

= = = Last works = = =

Among Busch 's last works were the stories Clement Dove , the Poet Thwarted ( Balduin Bählamm , der verhinderte Dichter ) ( 1883 ) and Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ( 1884 ) , both of which focus on artistic failure , and indirectly his own failure . Both stories begin with a preface , which , for biographer Joseph Kraus , were bravura pieces of " Komische Lyrik " — German comic poetry . Clement Dove ridicules the bourgeois amateur poet circle of Munich , " The Crocodiles " ( Die Krokodile ) , and their prominent members Emanuel Geibel , Paul von Heyse and Adolf Wilbrandt . Painter Squirtle criticizes the bourgeois art connoisseur , who believes the worth of art is gauged by its price .

The prose play Edwards Dream ( Eduards Traum ) was released in 1891 , composed of several small grouped episodes , rather than one linear storyline . The work received mixed reception . Joseph Kraus felt it was the peak of Busch 's life 's work , his nephews called it a masterwork of world literature , and the publisher of a critical collective edition spoke of a narrative style that is not found in contemporary literature . Eva Weissweiler saw in the play Busch 's attempt to prove himself in the novella genre , believing that everything that angered or insulted him , and his accompanying emotional depths , are apparent in the story . The 1895 story The Butterfly ( Der Schmetterling ) parodies themes and motifs and ridicules the religious optimism of a German romanticism which contradicted Busch 's realistic anthropology influenced by Schopenhauer and Charles Darwin . Its prose is more stringent in narrative style compared to Edwards Dream . Both were not popular amongst readers , because of their unfamiliar style .

= = = Painting = = =

Busch felt his painting skills could not compete with those of the Dutch masters . He regarded few of his paintings as finished , often stacking them one on top of the other in damp corners of his studio , where they stuck together . If the pile of paintings became too high , he burnt some in his garden . Since only a few remaining pictures are dated , categorizing them is difficult . His doubts regarding his skills are expressed in his choice of materials . His ground was usually chosen carelessly . Sometimes he used uneven cardboard or poorly @-@ prepared spruce @-@ wood boards . One exception is a portrait of Johanna Kessler , on a canvas support measuring 63 centimetres ( 25 in ) by 53 centimetres ( 21 in ) , one of his largest paintings . Most of his works , even landscapes , are small . As Busch used poor grounds and colours , most are heavily darkened and have an almost monochrome effect .

Many pictures depict the countryside at Wiedensahl and Lüthorst . They include pollarded willows , cottages in cornfields , cowherds , autumn landscapes and meadows with streams . A particular feature is the use of red jackets , found in about 280 of 1000 Busch paintings and drawings . The muted or bright red coats are worn usually by a small figure , depicted from behind . The paintings generally represent typical villages . Portraits of the Kesslers , and a series of other portraits depicting Lina Weissenborn in the mid @-@ 1870s , are exceptions . A painting of a 10 @-@ year @-@ old girl from a Jewish family at Lüthorst portrays her as serious , and having dark , oriental features .

The influence of Dutch painters is clearly visible in Busch 's work . " Hals diluted and shortened ( ... ) but still Halsian " , wrote Paul Klee after visiting a Busch memorial exhibition in 1908 . A strong influence on Busch was Adriaen Brouwer , whose themes were farming and inn life , rustic dances , card players , smokers , drunkards and rowdies . He dismissed the techniques of Impressionism with its strong preoccupation with the effect of light , and used new colours , such as Aniline Yellow , and photographs , as an aid . The landscapes from the mid @-@ 1880s show the same broad brushstrokes as seen in the paintings of the young Franz von Lenbach . Busch refused to exhibit work even though he was befriended by many artists of the Munich School , which would have allowed him to do so ; it was not until near the end of his life that he presented his paintings to the public .

= = Themes , technique and style = =

Busch biographer Joseph Kraus divided his work into three periods . He points out , however , that this classification is a simplification , as some works by their nature can be of a later or earlier period . All three periods show Busch 's obsession with German middle class life . His peasants are devoid of sensitivity and village life is marked by a vivid lack of sentiment .

From 1858 to 1865 Busch chiefly worked for the Fliegenden Blätter and the Münchener Bilderbogen . The period from 1866 to 1884 is characterized by his major illustrated stories , such as Helen Who Couldn 't Help It . These stories are different in theme from works of his earlier period . The life of his characters start well , but disintegrate , as in Painter Squirtle ( Maler Klecksel ) ; someone sensitive who becomes a pedant . Others concern recalcitrant children or animals , or make the great or significant foolish and ridiculous . The early stories follow the pattern of children 's books of orthodox education , such as those by Heinrich Hoffmann 's Struwwelpeter , that aim to teach the devastating consequences of bad behaviour . Busch did not assign value to his work , as he once explained to Heinrich Richter : " I look at my things for what they are , as Nuremberg trinkets [ toys ] , as Schnurr Pfeiferen [ worthless and useless things ] whose value is to be found not in its artistic content , but in public demand ( ... ) " .

From 1885 until his death in 1908 his work was dominated by prose and poems . The 1895 prose text Der Schmetterling contains autobiographical accounts . Peter 's enchantment by the witch Lucinde , of whom he regards himself a slave , is possibly in reference to Johanna Kessler . Peter , like Busch , returns to his birthplace . It is similar in style to the romantic travel story that Ludwig Tieck established with his 1798 Franz Sternbald 's Wanderungen . Busch plays with its traditional forms , motifs , pictures , literary topics and form of narration .

= = = Technique = = =

Publisher Kaspar Braun , who commissioned Busch 's first illustrations , had established the first workshop in Germany to use wood engraving . This letterpress printing technique was developed by English graphic artist Thomas Bewick near the end of the 18th century and became the most widely used reproduction system for illustrations over the years . Busch insisted on first making the drawings , afterwards writing the verse . Surviving preparatory drawings show line notes , ideas , and movement and physiognomy studies . The draft was then transferred by pencil on white @-@ primed panels of hardwood end grain . Not only was it hard work , but the quality of the printing block was crucial . Everything left white on the block , around Busch 's drawn lines , was cut from the plate by skilled engravers . Wood engraving allows a finer differentiation than woodcut and the potential tonal values are of almost the quality of intaglio printing , such as copper engraving . Sometimes the result was not satisfactory , leading Busch to rework or reproduce plates . The wood engraving technique did not allow for fine lines , which is why Busch 's drawing , especially in his illustrated tales up to the mid @-@ 1870s , are boldly drawn , giving his work its particular characteristic .

From the mid @-@ 1870s Busch 's illustrations were printed using zincography . With this technique there was no longer any danger that a wood engraver could change the character of his drawings . The originals were photographed and transferred onto a photosensitive zinc plate . This process allowed for the application of a clear , free pen @-@ drawn ink line , and was a much faster printing method . Busch 's use of zincography began with Mr. and Mrs. Knopp .

= = = Language = = =

The effect of Busch 's illustrations are enhanced by his forthright verse , with taunts , derision , ironic twists , exaggeration , ambiguity and startling rhymes . His language had an influence on the humorous poetry of Erich Kästner , Kurt Tucholsky , Joachim Ringelnatz and Christian Morgenstern . The contrast in his later work between comic illustration and its seemingly serious accompanying text — already demonstrated in his earlier Max and Moritz — is shown in Widow Bolte 's mawkish dignity which is disproportionate to the loss of her chickens :

Many of Brusch 's couplets , part of contemporary common usage , give the impression of weighty wisdom , but in his hands become only apparent truths , hypocrisy or platitudes . His use of onomatopoeia is a characteristic of his work : " Allez @-@ oop @-@ da " — Max and Moritz steal fried chickens with a fishing rod down a chimney — " reeker @-@ rawker " ; " at the plank from bank to bank " ; " rickle @-@ rackle " , " hear the millstones grind and crackle " ; and " tinkly @-@ clinket " as Eric the cat rips a chandelier from a ceiling in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It . Busch uses names he gives characters to describe their personality . " Studiosus Döppe " ( Young Bumbel ) has little mental ability ; " Sauerbrots " ( Sourdough ) would not be of a cheerful disposition ; and " Förster Knarrtje " ( Forester Knarrtje ) could hardly be a socialite .

Many of his picture stories use verses with trochee structure :

The overweighting of the stressed syllables strengthens the humour of the lines . Busch also uses dactyls , where one accented syllable is followed by two unaccented syllables , as in his Plisch und Plum , where they underline the pedantic and solemn words with which teacher Bokelmann educates his pupils . They create tension in the Sourdough chapter from Adventures of a Bachelor , through the alternation of trochees and dactyls . Busch often synchronizes format and content in his poems , as in Fips the Monkey , where he uses the epic hexameter in a speech about wisdom .

In both his illustrations and poems Busch uses familiar fables , occasionally appropriating their morality and stories , spinning them to illustrate a very different and comic " truth " , and bringing to bear his pessimistic view of the world and human condition . While traditional fables follow the typical philosophy of differentiating between good and evil behaviour , Busch combines both .

= = = Canings and other cruelties = = =

It is not unusual to see thrashing , tormenting and caning in Busch 's works . Sharp pencils pierced through models , housewives fall onto kitchen knives , thieves are spiked by umbrellas , tailors cut their tormentors with scissors , rascals are ground in corn mills , drunkards burn , and cats , dogs and monkeys defecate while being tormented . Busch has been frequently called a sadist by educators and psychologists . Tails that are burnt , pulled off , trapped , stretched or eaten is seen by Weissweiler as not aggression against animals , but a phallic allusion to Busch 's undeveloped sexual life . Such graphic text and imagery in cartoon form was not unusual at the time , and publishers , the public or censors found it not particularly noteworthy . Topics and motifs for his early work were derived from 18th- and 19th @-@ century popular literature , the gruesome endings of which he often softened .

Caning , a common aspect of 19th @-@ century teaching , is prevalent in many of his works , for example Meister Druff in Adventures of a Bachelor and Lehrer Bokelmann in Plish and Plum , where is shown an almost sexual pleasure in applying punishment . Beatings and humiliation are found in his later work too ; biographer Gudrun Schury described this as Busch 's life @-@ motif .

In the estate of Busch there is the note " Durch die Kinderjahre hindurchgeprügelt " ( Beaten through the childhood years ) , however there is no evidence that Busch was referring to himself . He couldn 't recall any beating from his father . His uncle Kleine beat him once , not with the conventional rattan stick , but symbolically with dried dahlia stalks , this for stuffing cow hairs into a village idiot 's pipe . Weissweiler observes that Busch probably saw canings at his village school , where he went for three years , and quite possibly also received this punishment . In Abenteuer eines Junggesellen Busch illustrates a form of nonviolent progressive education that fails in one scene , and caning in the following scene ; the canings that ensued indicate Busch 's pessimistic picture of life , which has its roots in the Protestant ethic of the 19th century , in which he believed that man is inherently evil and will never master his vices . Civilisation is the aim of education , but it can only mask man 's instincts superficially . Gentleness only leads to a continuation of man 's misdeeds , therefore punishment is required , even if he retains his unrepentant character , becomes a trained puppet , or in extreme cases , dies .

= = = Antisemitism = = =

The Panic of 1873 led to growing criticism of high finance and the spread of radical Antisemitism , which in the 1880s became a broad undercurrent . These criticisms saw a separation of capital into what was construed as " raffendes " ( speculative capital ) , and what constituted " constructive " creative production capital . The " good " , " native " and " German " manufacturer was praised by Antisemitic agitators , such as Theodor Fritsch , who opposed what he saw as " ' rapacious ' ' greedy ' , ' blood @-@ sucking ' , ' Jewish ' financial capitalism in the form of ' plutocrats ' and ' usurers ' " . Busch was thought to have embraced those stereotypes . Two passages are often underlined , one in Helen Who Couldn 't Help It :

Robert Gernhardt defended Busch by stating that Jews are satirized only in three passages , of which the oldest is an illustration of a text by another author , published in 1860 . He stated that Busch 's Jewish figures are merely stereotypical , one of a number of stereotypes , such as the " limited Bavarian farmer " and the " Prussian tourist " . Joseph Kraus shares the same view , and uses a couplet from Eight Sheets in the Wind ( Die Haarbeutel ) , in which profit @-@ seeking people are :

Although Gernhardt felt that Jews for Busch were alien , the Jewish conductor Hermann Levi befriended him , suggesting that Busch had a slight bias towards Jews .

= = Biographies = =

The first biography on Busch , Über Wilhelm Busch und seine Bedeutung ( About Wilhelm Busch and His Importance ) , was released in 1886 . The publisher Eduard Daelen , also an artist and writer , echoed Busch 's anti @-@ Catholic bias , putting him on equal footing with Leonardo da Vinci , Peter Paul Rubens and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , and uncritically quoting correspondences . Even Busch and his friends were embarrassed . Literary scholar Friedrich Theodor Vischer attacked Daelen 's biography and called him the " envious eunuch of the desiccated Philistine " . After reading this biography Johannes Proelß posted an essay in the Frankfurter Zeitung , which contained many biographical falsehoods — as a response to this , Busch wrote two articles in the same newspaper . Published in October and December 1886 , the autobiographical essay Regarding Myself ( Was Mich Betrifft ) includes basic facts , and some description of his troubles ; analysts see within the essay a deep identity crisis . Busch revised his autobiography over the following years . The last such essay was published under the title From Me About Me ( Von mir über mich ) , which includes fewer biographical details and less reflection on bitterness and amusement than Regarding Myself .

= = Legacy = =

Busch celebrated his 70th anniversary at his nephew 's house in Hattorf am Harz . Over 1 @,@ 000 congratulatory messages were sent to Mechtshausen from around the world . Wilhelm II praised the poet and artist , whose " exquisite works are full of genuine humour and are everlasting for the German people " . The Austrian Alldeutsche Vereinigung ( Pan @-@ German Association ) repealed the ban on Der heilige Antonius von Padua . Verlag Braun & Schneider , who owned the rights of Max and Moritz , gave Busch 20 @,@ 000 Reichsmark ( around € 200 @,@ 000 or $ 270 @,@ 000 ) , which was donated to two hospitals in Hanover .

Since then , on the dates of his birth and death , he has been celebrated frequently . During the 175th anniversary in 2007 , there were numerous re @-@ publications of Busch works . Deutsche Post issued stamps depicting the Busch character Hans Huckebein — itself the inspiration for the nickname of the never @-@ built Focke @-@ Wulf Ta 183 German jet fighter design of 1945 — and the German Republic minted a 10 Euro silver coin faced with his portrait . Hanover declared 2007 the " Wilhelm Busch Year " , with images featuring Busch works erected within the city centre .

The Wilhelm Busch Prize is awarded annually for satirical and humorous poetry . The Wilhelm Busch Society , active since 1930 , aims to " ( ... ) collect , scientifically revise and promote Wilhelm Busch 's works with the public " . It supports the development of caricature and satirical artwork as a recognized branch of the visual arts . It is an advocate of the Wilhelm Busch Museum . Memorials are located in places he lived , including Wiedensahl , Ebergötzen , Lüthorst , Mechtshausen and Hattorf am Harz .

= = = Influence on comics = = =

Andreas C. Knigge described Busch as the " first virtuoso " of illustrated stories . From the second half of the 20th century he was considered the " Forefather of Comics " . His early illustrations differ from those of the colleagues of Kaspar Braun . They show an increasing focus on protagonists , are less detailed in drawing and atmosphere , and develop from a dramatic understanding of the whole story . All Busch 's illustrated tales have a plot that firstly describes the circumstance , then a resulting conflict , then solution . Plots are developed through consecutive scenes , similar to film storyboards . Busch conveys an impression of movement and action , at times strengthened through a change of perspective . According to Gert Ueding , his depiction of movement is unique .

One of Busch 's notable stories is Der Virtuos ( 1865 ) , which describes the life of a pianist who plays privately for an excited listener . Satirizing the self @-@ publicizing artist 's attitude and his overblown adoration , it varies from Busch 's other stories as each scene does not contain prose , but is defined with music terminology , such as " Introduzione " , " Maestoso " and " Fortissimo vivacissimo " . As the scenes increase in tempo , each part of his body and lappet run around . The penultimate scene again depicts the pianist 's movements , with score sheets floating above the grand piano on which musical notes are dancing . Over the years graphic artists have been fascinated by Der Virtuos . August Macke , in a letter to gallery owner Herwarth Walden , described Busch as the first Futurist , stating how well he captured time and movement . Similar pioneering scenes are in Bilder zur Jobsiade ( 1872 ) . Job fails to answer rather easy questions set by twelve clergy , who shake their heads in synchronicity . Each scene is a movement study that presages Eadweard Muybridge 's photography . Muybridge began his work in 1872 , not released until 1893 .

= = = " Moritzian " influence = = =

Busch 's greatest success , both within Germany and internationally , was with Max and Moritz : Up to the time of his death it was translated into English , Danish , Hebrew , Japanese , Latin , Polish , Portuguese , Russian , Hungarian , Swedish and Walloonian . Several countries banned the story – about 1929 the Styrian school board prohibited sales of Max and Moritz to teens under eighteen . By 1997 more than 281 dialect and language translations had been produced .

Some early " Moritzian " comic strips were heavily influenced by Busch in plot and narrative style . Tootle and Bootle ( 1896 ) , borrowed so much content from Max and Moritz that it was described as a pirate edition . The true " Moritzian " recreation is The Katzenjammer Kids by German artist Rudolph Dirks , published in the New York Journal from 1897 . It was published though William Randolph Hearst 's suggestion that a pair of siblings following the pattern of " Max and Moritz " should be created . The Katzenjammer Kids is regarded as one of the oldest , continuous comic strips .

German " Moritzian " -inspired stories include Lies und Lene ; die Schwestern von Max und Moritz ( Hulda Levetzow , F. Maddalena , 1896 ) , Schlumperfritz und Schlamperfranz ( 1922 ) , Sigismund und Waldemar , des Max und Moritz Zwillingspaar ( Walther Günther , 1932 ) and Mac und Mufti ( Thomas Ahlers , Volker Dehs , 1987 ) . These are shaped by observations of the First and Second World Wars , while the original is a moral story . In 1958 the Christian Democratic Union used the Max and Moritz characters for a campaign in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , the same year that the East German satirical magazine Eulenspiegel used them to caricature black labour . In 1969 Max and Moritz " participated " in late 1960s student activism .

= = Partial list of works = =

= Crown Fountain =

Crown Fountain is an interactive work of public art and video sculpture featured in Chicago 's Millennium Park , which is located in the Loop community area . Designed by Catalan artist Jaume Plensa and executed by Krueck and Sexton Architects , it opened in July 2004 . The fountain is composed of a black granite reflecting pool placed between a pair of glass brick towers . The towers are 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) tall , and they use light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) to display digital videos on their inward faces . Construction and design of the Crown Fountain cost $ 17 million . The water operates from May to October , intermittently cascading down the two towers and spouting through a nozzle on each tower 's front face .

Residents and critics have praised the fountain for its artistic and entertainment features . It highlights Plensa 's themes of dualism , light , and water , extending the use of video technology from his prior works . Its use of water is unique among Chicago 's many fountains , in that it promotes physical interaction between the public and the water . Both the fountain and Millennium Park are highly accessible because of their universal design .

Crown Fountain has been one of the most controversial of all the Millennium Park features . Before it was even built , some were concerned that the sculpture 's height violated the aesthetic tradition of the park . After construction , surveillance cameras were installed atop the fountain , which led to a public outcry ( and their quick removal ) .

However , the fountain has survived its contentious beginnings to find its way into Chicago pop culture . It is a popular subject for photographers and a common gathering place . While some of the videos displayed are of scenery , most attention has focused on its video clips of local residents ; hundreds of Chicagoans visit the fountain hoping to see themselves appearing on one of the fountain 's two screens . The fountain is a public play area and offers people an escape from summer heat , allowing children to frolic in the fountain 's water .

= = Concept and design = =

Grant Park , which is between Lake Michigan and the central business district , is commonly called " Chicago 's Front Yard " . Its northwest corner had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Millennium Park was conceived in 1998 as the capstone of Grant Park , to celebrate the new millennium and to feature world @-@ renowned architects , artists , designers , landscape architects , and urban planners . As of 2007 , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction . The fountain is centrally located in Chicago : it is east of Michigan Avenue and its Historic Michigan Boulevard District , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute of Chicago ; and south of Madison Street . Looking north from the fountain , viewers see some of the tallest buildings in the United States ( Aon Center , Two Prudential Plaza , and One Prudential Plaza ) .

= = = Selection of artist = = =

In December 1999 , Lester Crown and his family agreed to sponsor a water feature in Millennium Park . Unlike other park feature sponsors , the Crowns acted independently of Millennium Park officials ; they conducted independent surveys of water technologies , held their own informal design contest , and stayed active in the design and engineering of the project .

The Crowns were open @-@ minded about the choice of artist ; wanting a modern work , they solicited proposals from a list of prospective artists and architects . Jaume Plensa researched the traditions and history of fountains and studied anthropomorphism in fountain imagery . Some of his early ideas for the project referenced Buckingham Fountain , but these were soon abandoned . His presentation to the Crown family started with a slide show of fountains from the Middle Ages through the 20th century . Plensa focused on the philosophical meanings associated with fountains , their history , use and art . His presentation included computer animation of facial expressions . The other finalists were Maya Lin , who presented a low @-@ height horizontal form , and Robert Venturi , who presented a fountain that would have been 150 feet ( 46 m ) tall . In January 2000 , Plensa won the commission to design the fountain over Lin and Venturi . The installation is a video sculpture , commissioned to operate thirty years .

= = = Artistic design = = =

Prior to Crown Fountain , Plensa 's dominant theme had been dualism , which he had expanded to artworks in which the viewers are outside , and the visible subjects of the art are inside containers and hollow spaces . In the 1990s , he completed several outdoor sculptures in which he explored the use of light ( The Star of David ( 1998 ) at Stockholm 's Raoul Wallenberg Square , Bridge of Light ( 1998 ) in Jerusalem ) , and LED technology , video , and computer design ( Gläserne Seele & Mr. Net in Brandenburg ( 1999 – 2000 ) ) . In his public art , Plensa challenged himself to involve the viewer with his art , which led to his conception of the Crown Fountain . His objective was to create a socially relevant , interactive fountain for the 21st century . Since water is the focus of a fountain , and since Chicago , and especially Millennium Park , is so greatly affected by the nearby waterfront , Plensa sought to create an eternal water work to complement the local natural inspirations . Because of the colder winters common to the climate of Chicago , Plensa created a fountain that would remain vibrant when the water was inactive in the wintertime , so the fountain is an experience of light themes and the use of video technology .

Plensa explores dualism with Crown Fountain , where he has two randomly selected faces " conversing " with each other . Plensa feels that by using faces , he can represent the diversity of the city both in ethnicity and in age . The artist intends to portray the sociocultural evolution of the city by updating the collection of images . His representation has become a part of the city 's pop culture ; the first few episodes of the first season of Prison Break featured shots of the fountain .

Plensa feels that the challenge in the creation of successful work of public art is to integrate the viewer into an interactive relationship with the art . The fountain is known for encouraging its visitors to splash and slide in the reflecting pool , jostle for position under the water spout and place themselves under the cascade . This interactivity was to some degree accidental . Although the city planned for some interactivity , the transformation of the fountain into a water park for kids within hours of opening surprised Plensa . Now , when the National Weather Service issues summer heat advisories and the Governor of Illinois declares state office buildings as official daytime cooling centers , the national press points to Crown Fountain as a respite for inhabitants of the Chicago metropolitan area .

= = = Video production = = =

Approximately 75 ethnic , social , and religious Chicago organizations were asked to provide candidates whose faces would be photographed for integration into the fountain . The subjects were chosen from local schools , churches and community groups , and filming began in 2001 at the downtown campus of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago ( SAIC ) . The SAIC students filmed their subjects with a $ 100 @,@ 000 high @-@ definition HDW @-@ F900 video camera , the same model used in the production of the three Star Wars prequels . About 20 SAIC students took part in what became an informal master 's course in public art for the project . Faculty from Columbia College Chicago was also involved in the production of the video . The high @-@ definition equipment was used because of the scale of the project . Because the image proportions were like a movie screen with a width far exceeding its height , the camera was turned on its side during filming .

Each face appears on the sculpture for a total of 5 minutes using various parts of individual 80 @-@ second videos . A 40 @-@ second section is played at one @-@ third speed forward and backward , running for a total of 4 minutes . Then , there is a subsequent segment , where the mouth is puckering , that is stretched to 15 seconds . This is followed by a section , in which the water appears to spout from the open mouth , that is stretched to last for 30 seconds . Finally , there is a smile after the completion of the water spouting from the mouth , that is slowed to extend for 15 seconds . Of the original 1 @,@ 051 subjects filmed , 960 videos were determined to be usable for the project . Originally , the set of images was presumed to be the beginning of a work in progress , but as of 2009 no additional videos are planned .

To achieve the effect in which water appears to be flowing from subjects ' mouths , each video has a segment where the subject 's lips are puckered , which is then timed to correspond to the spouting water , reminiscent of gargoyle fountains . Each face is cropped so that no hair and usually no ears are visible . Since there is no tripod designed for cameras turned on their sides , an adjustable barber / dentist 's chair was used to minimize the need for the movement of the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art camera during filming . Nonetheless , in some case , digital manipulation was necessary to properly simulate puckering in the exact proper location on the video . Many of the faces had to be stretched in order to get the mouths properly positioned . Additionally , each video was color @-@ corrected for brightness , contrast and color saturation . Both the playback equipment and the final videos had to be further adjusted to account for sunlight during viewing .

= = Construction and engineering = =

The Crown family , for whom the fountain is named , donated $ 10 million of the $ 17 million construction and design cost . The Goodman family , known for funding the Goodman Theatre , was also a large contributor ; the entire $ 17 million cost was provided by private donations . The initial proposed cost for the fountain had been $ 15 million .

After two architectural firms refused the contract to make Plensa 's design a reality , the firm Krueck and Sexton Architects accepted . Public art was a departure from Krueck & Sexton 's residential and corporate office @-@ dominated portfolio , which includes buildings like the Spertus Institute . Collaboration between the artist , architectural team , and consultants proved to be crucial to the success of the project . The fountain 's black granite reflecting pool measures 48 by 232 feet ( 15 by 71 m ) and has an approximate water depth of 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) . It displays videos on two LED screens , each encapsulated in a glass brick tower measuring 50 by 23 by 16 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 by 7 @.@ 0 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) . The firm designed a special stainless steel T @-@ frame both to bear the load of the walls , which are 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , and to withstand lateral wind forces . The frame holds all the glass blocks and transfers the load to the base in a zigzag pattern . Rods measuring 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) in diameter anchor to the structure and project into the frame for lateral stability , while triangular corner brackets add support .

After several dozen glass manufacturing firms were interviewed , L. E. Smith Glass Company emerged as the company to produce 22 @,@ 500 glass blocks near the upper limit of the size of press glass formed from hand @-@ poured molten glass and cast iron molds . The process used sand and soda ash heated to a temperature of 2 @,@ 600 ° F ( 1 @,@ 430 ° C ) and " gathered " with a large clay ball resembling a honey dipper . Rather than use a standard plunger to ensure the glass that sagged off the rod spread to the corners of the mold , they relied on gravity . The full mold was annealed ( reheated in an oven to 1 @,@ 100 ° F ( 593 ° C ) ) and cooled . Over the course of four months of production , about 350 blocks were produced per day .

The glass was custom @-@ made at a factory in Mount Pleasant , Pennsylvania , and shipped to the structural glass panel manufacturer in Melbourne , Florida . The panels were then shipped by truck to Chicago . The glass is white glass , rather than the usual green glass that results from iron impurities . This has the tradeoff of increased image clarity , but greater dirt visibility . Each block is 5 by 10 by 2 inches ( 127 by 254 by 51 mm ) with glass thin enough to avoid image distortion . On each block , one of the six faces is polished , and the other five surfaces are textured .

The structure for the blocks was a challenge . At first , the design team had considered switching to plastic blocks , until the team found Circle Redmont Inc . , a prefabricated glass panel company in Melbourne , Florida which specializes in structural glass panel systems . Circle Redmont came up with the plan of turning grates on their sides to be used as building elements . The individual grids are 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) tall and either 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) or 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) wide with cell capacity of an average of 250 blocks . Each tower is composed of 44 grids stacked and welded . The combination of the refraction of the glass and the thinness of the metal make the grid virtually invisible .

The fountain uses 11 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 50 @,@ 000 L ) per hour , 97 % of which is recycled back into the system . Getting the water to the spout took ingenuity . Although consideration was given to omitting a LED tile , it was determined that the images would then look as though they were each missing a tooth . Instead , one tile in each tower is recessed about 6 inches ( 150 mm ) to allow the installation of 1 inch ( 25 mm ) clear tubing for the water nozzle . The water regularly spills over the fountain and down the sides of the towers and intermittently spouts from the nozzle . Two essential custom fittings contribute to the artistic vision of the fountain : a custom glass block at the upper edge for guiding the water 's descent while remaining unobtrusive , and a plastic nozzle fitted to the stainless steel frame to control the rate of water flow and reduce liability to the city for any injuries sustained by the fountain 's interactive participants . The interactive participants are usually children playing in the stream from the water spout or under the cascade . The risk that the spouting water would knock people down made the design both a legal and a physical challenge .

The fountains use over one million LEDs . The inner surface of each tower uses 147 smaller screens with a total of 264 @,@ 480 LED points ( each with two red , one blue and two green LEDs ) . The physical demands of LED screens , in particular the red , green , and blue long @-@ life light bulbs and the requisite circuitry , created three major challenges : supporting the physical structure , combating heat buildup , and optimizing perceptibility of the display . Plensa had used LED fixtures on previous projects , and thus had some experience with these issues . The LED structure is not supported as a single wall ( which would be 50 feet ( 15 m ) high ) , but rather as several segments that are noticeable as visible horizontal bands every few feet : these show where the LED equipment is supported . The heat generated is handled by fans that cool the air at the bottom , that then works its way through the chimney @-@ like tower . Perceptibility was determined to be optimal with LED lights 2 inches ( 51 mm ) behind the glass .

LEDs were chosen because they were viewed as the lowest maintenance option of the possible color changing fixtures . LEDs fit into an electrical circuit , causing illumination by the movement of electrons in the semiconductor material and making a filament unnecessary , so the bulbs never burn out and do not get too hot . Fins were added to the screens to keep direct sunlight from hitting the LEDs . Color Kinetics ( now part of Philips Solid @-@ State Lighting Solutions , which is now called Philips Color Kinetics ) ColorBlast 12 LEDs fixtures are used to illuminate the tower structures and glass in an attempt to meet Plensa 's objective that the towers have a light and translucent appearance , with their internal structures reflecting light from behind the glass surface . The electronics were designed to be adaptable to the time of day , weather and season and to meet the desired century @-@ long longevity and dependability objectives set by the design team in response to the thirty @-@ year directive .

The 9 @,@ 423 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 875 @.@ 4 m2 ) pool used 3 by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 by 0 @.@ 91 m ) pavers that weigh 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) . The pavers were rested on screw jack pedestals in order to be leveled and shimmed . The pavers had to be perfectly leveled for the water to work correctly because the fountain incorporates numerous sensors to regulate the flow and level of the water .

During construction the underground parking garage remained open . An additional challenge was designing the structure to facilitate interior access for ongoing maintenance and repairs , while accommodating two levels of underground parking underneath . The challenge was solved by combining a T @-@ bar grid to absorb weight with about 150 " outriggers " , or " tiebacks " , inserted through the video wall to support the glass blocks and absorb wind loads . This design allows for the removal of individual glass blocks for cleaning or repair without disruption to the display . The filtered air inside the towers helps minimize the need for cleaning . Crown Fountain 's design not only included interior access for technical repairs , but also incorporated exemplary , non @-@ discriminatory , barrier @-@ free accessibility , because its interactivity is not limited to the able @-@ bodied . The force of the water accounts for the entire range of possible interactive visitors .

= = Dedication and operation = =

= = = Unveiling = = =

Construction of the video sculpture was completed for testing without the fountain 's water features on May 18 , 2004 . Originally , Plensa had planned to have each face appear for 13 minutes , and this continued to be the targeted duration when the testing of the sculpture occurred . Eventually , professors at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago convinced him to use only five @-@ minute videos .

Plensa 's design of Crown Fountain was unveiled to the public on July 16 – 18 , during the 2004 grand opening celebrations for Millennium Park , which was sponsored by J.P. Morgan Chase & Co . At the time of the unveiling , Crown Fountain , like the nearby Cloud Gate , was incomplete because only 300 of the videos had been refined for public display . It was officially dedicated on July 24 , 2004 as part of a special private fundraising party that raised $ 3 million for the Millennium Park Conservancy fund .

= = = Operation = = =

The control center for the synchronization of images , water flow , and lighting color and intensity is beneath one of the towers , in a room that covers 550 square feet ( 51 m2 ) . The room houses high @-@ definition video servers and equipment temperature sensors . Hard drives contain all the individual electronic computer files of the face videos . Generally , the computer programs automatically perform tasks such as determining when the face will pucker and , if weather conditions permit , when to turn the water on and off . Using low- rather than high @-@ resolution images was both less expensive and created a better display for the average viewer . A Barco show controller selects the sequence of faces one at a time and determines a random tower lighting selection of one of eight LED colors programmed into an Electronic Theatre Controls ( ETC ) Emphasis control system . At night , the ETC system controls spotlights that illuminate the cascading water and that are dimmed by special wet @-@ use location ground fault circuit interrupters . The control room covers an area equal to 26 parking spaces in the underground parking garage , which costs the city $ 100 @,@ 000 annually in terms of the opportunity cost of lost revenue ( in 2004 dollars ) . Maintenance issues for the fountain range from kids removing the adhesive between the bricks to pipes in need of maintenance . As of 2014 , annual upkeep costs were approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 .

= = = = Video sculpture = = = =

The front face of each tower is animated with a continuous , dynamic exhibit of lights and electronic images . Although the screens on the towers periodically display clips of landscapes such as waterfalls , most intriguing are the display of faces of Chicago residents . About 1 @,@ 000 faces of Chicagoans are shown in a random rotation , the order determined using a Barco show controller . Each face is displayed for five minutes , with a brief period between each of these videos during which the sculpture is unlit . As a result , no more than 12 faces appear per hour during the summer . However , during the winter a version without the final one minute of puckering is shown , so the video segments then are only four minutes each . The video pattern also includes a three @-@ minute water scene every half @-@ hour and a 30 @-@ second fade @-@ to @-@ black every 15 minutes . If all the faces were shown consecutively , instead of randomly , they would each appear about once every eight days . A June 2007 article in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times reported that many of the subjects who had their images digitized for the project had yet to either see their own images or hear of anyone who had seen them .

The spouting water from the faces of the towers appears to be flowing from the displayed subject 's mouth from a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) nozzle located in the center of each interior face 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above the reflecting pool . Images are shown daily year @-@ round , while the water feature only operates from May 1 to approximately October 31 , weather permitting . The park is open to the public daily from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m.

Each tower is illuminated from within on three sides by approximately 70 color @-@ changing Color Kinetics LED lighting fixtures per tower , while the fourth side features opposing Barco LED display screens . At night , some of the videos are replaced by images of nature or solid colors . Also at night , the other three sides of the fountain display changing colors . The outer Color Kinetics surfaces randomly display the translucent glow of one of eight colors along with each of the inner opposing faces . As a video sculpture with a variety of cascade and water spout fountain modes , the sculpture is a fluid , dynamic evolving artwork .

= = = = Fountain = = = =

Crown Fountain has both slits and a grate for drainage ( pictured above right ) to drain the 11 @,@ 520 US gal ( 43 @,@ 608 l ; 9 @,@ 592 imp gal ) of water per minute . When the videos are not on the front of the tower , water cascades down each of the facades . The water is filtered , pumped and recirculated through the fountain . Dual pump rooms below each tower draw water from a reservoir beneath the reflecting pool . There are 12 mechanical pumps that are regulated from a control room in the underground parking garage beneath the south tower of the fountain . The water in the reflecting pool has a depth of about 0 @.@ 33 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 013 in ) .

= = Controversies = =

Before the fountain was completed in 2004 , Art Institute of Chicago president James Wood felt the columns would be too tall and other community leaders felt that the height and scale of the project stemmed from a " pissing contest " with other park feature artists . Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by " forever open , clear and free " legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings . Aaron Montgomery Ward twice sued the city of Chicago in the 1890s to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park , and to keep it from building new ones . As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park . However , Crown Fountain and Jay Pritzker Pavilion , which stands 139 feet ( 42 m ) tall , were exempt from the height restriction because they were classified as works of art and not buildings or structures .

In November 2006 , Crown Fountain became the focus of a public controversy when the city added surveillance cameras atop each tower . Purchased through a $ 52 million Department of Homeland Security grant to the Chicago area , the cameras were part of a surveillance system augmenting eight other cameras covering all of Millennium Park . The city said the cameras , similar to those used throughout the city at high @-@ crime areas and traffic intersections , were intended to remain on the towers for several months until permanent , less intrusive replacements were secured . City officials had consulted the architects who collaborated with Plensa on the tower designs , but Plensa himself had not been notified . Public reaction was negative , as bloggers and the artistic community decried the cameras on the towers as inappropriate and a blight . The city said that the cameras were largely for security reasons , but also partly to help park officials monitor burnt @-@ out lights . The Chicago Tribune quickly published an article concerning the cameras as well as the public reaction , and the cameras were removed the next day . Plensa supported their removal .

= = Updating = =

In 2014 , the hardware and software behind the fountain 's operation were replaced . At the time there were plans to replace LED lighting with incandescent bulbs on each of the non @-@ video display surfaces and to replace the video surface LEDs . Plensa , who maintained control of the video faces for the first two years of the fountain 's operation , understands that future generations may wish to update the faces used in the rotation of videos to reflect changes in humanity going forward . In 2014 , an additional 1000 faces were anticipated for 2016 .

= = Critical reception = =

Crown Fountain , Trevi Fountain , and Buckingham Fountain , as well as natural water features such as Old Faithful , are examples of the ability of water to attract people and hold their attention . Crown Fountain has more interactivity than other Chicago fountains , such as Buckingham Fountain and Lorado Taft 's Fountain of the Great Lakes and Fountain of Time ( all but the last are in Grant Park ) . These other Chicago fountains are traditional in that they discourage viewer touching ; Buckingham Fountain is surrounded by a fence , and Taft 's fountains are surrounded by moats . In contrast , Crown Fountain provides an open invitation to play in the fountain 's water .

U.S. News & World Report describes the fountain as an exemplary feature of the city 's numerous urban parks . Chicago Tribune architecture critic Blair Kamin , who is pleased with the sculptures ' verticalness , says the fountain helps appropriately depict the modern 21st @-@ century urban park . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times describes the fountain as " eye @-@ catching , crowd @-@ friendly ... high @-@ tech [ and ] ... contemporary " . The New York Times calls the fountain an " extraordinary art object " . Frommer 's describes the fountain as public art at its best . The beauty of the fountain is , as the San Francisco Chronicle explains , that it is high @-@ concept art for all to enjoy . The Financial Times refers to the fountain as a " techno @-@ fountain " . The fountain is praised for its technical features by industry magazines and has won various awards . The project won the 2006 Bombay Sapphire prize for its design work with glass . Critical reviews were not unanimous in their praise . One Chicago Tribune critic was not impressed with JumboTron @-@ like art , although he conceded the participatory element reminded him in a positive way of the jungle gym element of the Chicago Picasso .

The fountain is featured on the cover of Philip Jodidio 's 2005 book , Architecture : Art . Although Plensa is considered to be a conceptual artist , according to Jodidio , Plensa created a work whose architectural aspects are paramount . Its location juxtaposed with the Historic Michigan Boulevard District 's skywall highlights these aspects . Jodidio considers the work to be a modernization of the gargoyle theme , and feels that the scale of the enlarged faces humanize the work and challenges the architecture . The towers are an integral part of the skyline that have achieved rare permanence for contemporary art .

= Canning Dam =

The Canning Dam and reservoir provide a major fresh water resource for the city of Perth , Western Australia . The dam is situated on the Darling Scarp and is an impoundment of the Canning River . It is noted for its innovative structural and hydraulic design that was considered to be at the forefront of concrete gravity dam design at the time of construction . The Canning Dam was Perth 's primary water supply up until the 1960s when other sources of fresh water were tapped . Currently the dam supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's fresh water . Inflow into the Canning Reservoir is estimated to be 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) and has a storage capacity of 90 @,@ 352 megalitres ( 3 @,@ 190 @.@ 8 × 10 ^ 6 cu ft ) .

Since its completion in 1940 , the Canning Dam has contributed to a wide range of environmental and ecological problems in surrounding regions , problems include more common algal blooms , habitat loss and sedimentation . Despite these issues , Canning Dam and the adjacent parks and forests provide a variety of recreational activities for the public such as bushwalking , historic walks and picnic facilities .

= = History = =

Development of the Canning River as a source of water for Perth was first proposed in a report of the first Metropolitan Water Works Board of Perth in 1896 . Investigation of the site began in 1897 when engineer Thomas Hodgson surveyed and proposed the dam 's current location as a possible site . However , despite the recommendations of further inquiries , and an extreme shortage of water in some years , government funds were not allocated for the construction of a dam until the Great Depression in the 1930s .

In 1924 a small pipehead dam was built 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) downstream from the present Canning Dam . It was only intended as a quick fix to the water supply problem and it soon became apparent that a major reservoir was needed , although it would be nine years before work on the current Canning Dam would begin . The new dam was completed in 1940 at a cost of AU £ 1 @.@ 1 million . Engineer Russell Dumas designed the dam and directed most of its construction .

A further improvement was made in 1951 when a concrete @-@ lined channel was constructed to divert stream flow from the nearby Kangaroo Gully catchment . The Canning Dam and reservoir was Perth 's primary source of water until the boom growth of the city in the 1960s and the completion of Serpentine Dam in 1961 . In 1975 the reservoir was connected to Perth 's Integrated Water Supply Scheme by the Canning Tunnel . Prior to its opening water had flowed through the Canning Contour Channel to Gosnells .

The Canning Dam and reservoir still supplies approximately 20 percent of Perth 's drinking water requirements and plays an important role in the context of the development of Perth .

The Canning reservoir is also used to store water from the newly completed Kwinana Desalination Plant . Treated water can be pumped from the plant to the reservoir through the new Forrestdale Pumping Station .

= = Hydrology = =

The Canning Dam Catchment lies within the Darling Scarp which forms part of an Archaean Shield composed largely of granite with some invaded linear belts of metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks .

The dam wall is situated in a narrow gorge running east and west , with rock sides sloping upward from the river bed . Behind the dam wall , the south branch of the Canning River joins the main stream , with the impounded water forming a lake which stretches back in three major arms to the east south @-@ east and south .

The catchment has an area of 804 square kilometres ( 310 sq mi ) . The reservoir is at 200 metres ( 660 ft ) AHD and the highest point of the catchment , Mount Cooke is at 582 metres ( 1 @,@ 909 ft ) AHD .

Climatically , the area receives about 900 millimetres ( 35 in ) of rainfall per annum with most of this falling between May and September . There is widespread variability of rainfall across the catchment however , from between 700 and 1 @,@ 300 millimetres ( 28 and 51 in ) .

Since 1975 long @-@ term average rainfalls at the dam wall have decreased by 20 percent and streamflow into the catchment by approximately 60 percent — the average annual inflow between 1948 and 1974 was 52 gigalitres ( 1 @.@ 8 × 109 cu ft ) which had reduced to 22 gigalitres ( 780 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) between 1975 and 2004 .

= = Construction = =

The construction of Canning Dam ended a long period during which Perth 's water supply was generally unsatisfactory in quality ( either due to salinity or bacterial pollution or both ) and in quantity . The project , the biggest public works program of the decade , stimulated significant growth in the local economy and provided desperately needed work for around five hundred men .

Several innovative design concepts and construction methods which were new to Australia were introduced on the project , while others which were used on the nearby Wellington Dam , were improved upon at the Canning dam site .

At the Canning Dam and indeed all dams , care had to be taken to prevent water seepage between the foundation rock and the structure of the dam . At the Canning in addition to cutting back the foundation to solid unfractured rock , a cut @-@ off trench was sited near the upstream face of the dam , down stream which a rock filled drain containing open jointed pipes was provided to intercept any seepage between the rock face and the concrete of the dam . The inclusion of an internal drainage system was considered innovative at the period . Near vertical tubular 8 in ( 200 mm ) cut @-@ off drains were provided at five @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) intervals along the dam to relieve internal seepage through the concrete .

While state of the art materials @-@ handling methods were used , in some instances labour @-@ saving machinery worked beside operations intended to maximise the labour content . Sustenance workers were employed chiefly for on @-@ site preparation , road construction , foundation excavation , clearing timber from the reservoir basin , and on some concreting operations . Skilled workers were required on the dam for fixing the formwork where the concrete was poured . These workers were probably employed at normal day labour rates , the main employment method used on the project . Bulk handling of cement was also used for the first time in Australia , this saw a significant saving as opposed to bagged cement which was the standard practice of the day .

Generally construction work proceeded smoothly and from an engineering point of view there were few setbacks . However , one did occur in the early stages of construction . In March 1934 there was a violent storm bringing 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 12 in ) of rain in less than two days . As a result , the river rose rapidly which flooded the dam foundation workings . Pumps had to be installed and work resumed three days later .

The dam was completed in September 1940 . When built it was the longest concrete gravity dam in Australia , and also the second highest after the Burrinjuck Dam in New South Wales . As of 1997 of the 90 large concrete and masonry gravity dams in Australia the Canning Dam is still the fifth highest and the sixth longest . It is the largest concrete dam in Western Australia in terms of length of crest and volume of concrete .

The final cost of the dam was significantly less than had been originally budgeted for , and the work was completed on schedule to a date that was calculated seven years previously .

= = = Remedial works = = =

Recently the Canning Dam has been subjected to considerable cracking of the upper parts of the dam and upper gallery . Investigations have shown that cracking was due to strong AAR ( alkali aggregate reactivity ) in the concrete . AAR results in swelling of the concrete , which may cause secondary compressive stresses , localised map cracks , and , ultimately structural cracks . In addition , the concrete tensile strength and elasticity significantly decreases . Many old concrete dams are known to suffer from AAR , including Fontana Dam in Tennessee and Pian Telessio dam in Italy among others .

Extensive remedial works were undertaken between 1999 & 2001 to strengthen the dam wall . This work involved removing the top 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 ft ) of the existing dam wall and drilling / blasting through the dam wall plus up to a further 70 m ( 230 ft ) into the bedrock below . The top section of the wall was then rebuilt using reinforced concrete . Finally , permanent , re @-@ stressable ground anchors were then installed through the formed and drilled holes from the crest to be stressed and grouted into the foundation rock . At time of completion , these were the largest capacity and longest permanent ground anchors ever installed in the world .

An innovative drilling and blasting technique called Penetrating Cone Fracture ( PCF ) was used in the remedial works process . PCF was chosen over conventional drilling and / or blasting techniques due to the reduced risk of damage to the existing structure from vibration , as well as lower noxious fume and dust levels .

= = Environmental issues = =

Since the construction of the Canning Dam , among other drinking water supply dams , water flow into the Canning River has been reduced by up to 96 % . A number of freshwater fish species which are endemic to the south @-@ west of Western Australia are found in the Canning River system , however studies of fish and fish habitats in the area have shown that fish numbers are low due to a loss of habitat and a loss of linkage between breeding areas due to low flows , preventing fish migrating upstream and reaching important breeding and nursery grounds . Stagnant water caused by a lack of water flow has provided a suitable habitat for successful breeding of an introduced pest , the mosquitofish .

Damming of the Canning caused dramatic flow reductions that significantly altered downstream aquatic macroinvertebrate communities . The lack of water flow has also resulted in a poor flushing effect below the dam wall . An excessive amount of nutrients from fertilizers and animal waste has caused algal blooms and eutrophication .

Many river pools which are an important summer refuge and habitat for aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna have been lost due to sedimentation and modification of the flow regime caused by impoundments in the Canning River .

Periodic flooding of the Canning River from the dam is required to disperse seed , stimulate germination and ensure seedlings survive , recharge shallow groundwater tables that are important during periods of drought and to discourage and prevent weed growth . However , during times of low rainfall periodic flooding is reduced .

= = Recreation = =

A number of recreation activities occur in and around the dam and catchment area . Canning Dam features a number of picnic areas ( with gas barbecues ) , look outs and historic walks – many with disabled access . Bushwalking occurs throughout the catchment , particularly along the Bibbulmun Track , which passes through the catchment about 10 km upstream of Canning Dam . Several mountain bike trails run either through the Canning National Park or adjacent State Forest areas .

The Canning Reservoir , Canning River and tributaries are illegally fished for marron , especially during summer . Boating , fishing and swimming are prohibited in the reservoir for health and hygiene reasons . Unauthorised camping ( including overnight stays and / or outside of designated areas ) and unauthorised trail establishment occur more and more frequently in the Canning catchment .

= = Gallery = =

= Midge ( Barbie ) =

Midge Hadley is a fictional doll character in the Barbie line of toys by Mattel that was first released in 1963 . Midge was created , along with Skipper , to counteract criticism that claimed Barbie was a sex symbol . She was marketed as Barbie 's best friend . No Midge dolls were sold for the rest of the vintage years after the 1960s .

Midge was re @-@ introduced in 1988 as part of the play line , though two vintage reproduction dolls were made specifically for collectors in 1993 and 1998 . The dolls sold in this time period usually had red hair , often with freckles , and her eye color was usually blue . Also in the period , Wedding Day Midge was sold , with the groom being Alan Sherwood , who had been marketed as Midge 's boyfriend in the vintage years . Midge and Alan had three children introduced named Ryan , Nikki , and Cassandra . They also had twins who were never introduced . This was known as the Happy Family line , and in the set , Midge was sold " pregnant " with Nikki as a newborn baby . The Happy Family product became the subject of controversy when some parents disliked the " pregnant " Midge toy because they believed that Midge was too young to have children .

In 2013 Mattel decided to revamp Midge 's history , reintroducing her as a best friend of Barbie 's , but unmarried , without children , and with no connection to Alan .

= = Vintage years = =

When Barbie first came out , she was the subject of a lot of criticism , some of which that claimed Barbie was too mature @-@ looking for children . Midge was the first same @-@ size friend of Barbie ever sold , and was created to oppose these controversies aimed at Barbie . She had a fuller , gentler face mold that was less sexually intimidating , although her body proportions were the same as Barbie and they both stood at 11 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 290 mm ) tall . This allowed the two dolls to be able to share clothes and accessories . Her head mold was stamped " 1958 " , the same as Barbie . When Midge arrived , the markings on the straight leg body mold they shared changed to include both her and Barbie . Midge had shoulder @-@ length hair that flipped at the ends . Buyers had an option of buying a doll with one of three different hair colors : red , blond , or brunette . Her face was usually brushed with freckles . The dolls that were sold without freckles had a longer hair style and are now hard to find . Depending on the doll 's hair color , the color of her two @-@ piece swimming suit varied . If Midge had red hair her swimsuit was yellow and orange , for blond hair it was in two shades of blue , and if she was brunette it was pink and red . The first vintage Midge dolls had a value of $ 175 MIB ( Mint In Box ) in 2007 .

For the first two years that Midge was sold , she had " straight legs " that could not bend at the knee . A rare Midge with teeth was sold the first year and is now sought after by collectors . One year later , in 1964 the dolls that were sold had slightly longer hair . Midge 's boyfriend Allan arrived as well . Early in 1965 , Wigs Wardrobe Midge was sold , and consisted of a Midge head with short molded hair and three wigs . This was the Midge counterpart of the Fashion Queen Barbie . Since she came with only a head , another doll had to provide for the body . In 1965 Midge with bendable legs was introduced . She had shorter " bobbed " hair , like the American Girl Barbie , with a blue headband . Her swimming suit was different as well , and was now one @-@ piece and striped .

= = Return = =

From her introduction to until 1967 , Midge was marketed as Barbie 's original best friend , but no dolls were sold for about 20 years until 1988 , when California Dream Midge was sold as part of a beach line , which used the " Steffie " mold . The same " Steffie " mold was used for Cool Times Midge in 1989 . In 1990 , she began to use the " Diva " mold for All Stars Midge and The Beat Midge . In 1991 she was married to Allan ( now spelled " Alan " ) . Before and after the Wedding Day Midge doll was sold , many Midge play line dolls were produced . Before Wedding Day Midge , Midge dolls still had freckles , but up until Hawaii Midge was sold in 1999 , the dolls lacked freckles . Most of the dolls were red @-@ haired with blue or green eyes , but some dolls were brunette . The most commonly used head mold for Midge in this period was the " Diva " mold , stamped 1985 .

A 35th anniversary Midge reproduction doll was sold in 1998 for collectors , made to look like the vintage Midge dolls . She had red hair , was dressed in her original orange and lime two @-@ piece swimming suit , and came with a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit from 1964 – 1965 as well as a reproduction of the box the Midge dolls originally came in . Earlier in 1993 , for Midge 's 30th anniversary , a Midge reproduction doll was also produced , but she did not possess a reproduction of her original swimsuit or the original box . Like the later version , she came in a reproduction of the Senior Prom outfit .

In 2013 , Midge appeared on the webseries Barbie : Life in the Dreamhouse where it is revealed that she has moved to Malibu . With this , her canon has been changed extensively , and she is a teenager who is retro at heart and still uses old @-@ fangled terms . The whole ' Happy Family ' canon has been dropped altogether due to controversy . Two Midge dolls will be released in 2013 - one is as part of a collectors set with Barbie , and the other on her own in the Life in the Dreamhouse doll line .

= = " Happy Family " line = =

The year after Midge and Alan were married , a picture of the couple with twin babies was shown in a pamphlet , but the dolls were never produced . However , in 2003 , she and Alan were re @-@ introduced with a family consisting of them and three different kids , three @-@ year @-@ old Ryan , and newborn baby Nikki . This was known as the " Happy Family " line , and was similar to the discontinued Heart Family line of the 1980s . The dolls came in both European American and African American versions . This was the first time an African American Midge was ever produced .

Midge was sold " pregnant " with Nikki , who was a tiny baby inside Midge 's magnetic removable womb . This led to some controversy with some consumers saying that the doll was inappropriate for children , or that it promoted teen pregnancy . Another cause for this controversy was that Midge did not initially have a wedding ring , but this was later fixed . She also was packaged without Alan . Customers complaining about the doll led to Wal @-@ Mart pulling the Happy Family line off their shelves . A new version of this Midge was produced for Wal @-@ Mart , this time not pregnant and with a cardboard cut @-@ out display of Alan and Ryan standing next to her inside the box . The Happy Family Line included everything from a talking house , a backyard swimming pool , neighborhood market , and playground .

Later , around Nikki 's first birthday , Midge was " pregnant " again with another child , who wasn 't named or given a specific gender , as the gender was a surprise when the owner opened the doll 's box . Midge 's new baby was later named Cassandra . Midge has two known parents who are simply called " Grandpa " and " Grandma " . At first , the grandparent dolls were sold together as part of a big set consisting of the dolls and a kitchen play set , but for Nikki 's first birthday they were sold separately . Midge , Alan , and Ryan gave Nikki a dog for her birthday . They too came in both Caucasian and African American versions . They use different body molds , to reflect their age .

= = Head Molds = =

Midge 's first appearance was made with her own headmold , Vintage Midge

Later , we have Midge using DIVA ( by Barbie and the Rockers ) headmold

Before Teresa made her debut , Midge used Steffie headmold

Midge comes and goes so many times , but with her 50th birthday , she returns with the Steffie headmold

Florida Midge uses Mackie headmold .

= The Tempest ( album ) =

The Tempest is the tenth studio album by American hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse . Released in 2007 , the album marks the return of producer Mike E. Clark , who had a falling @-@ out with the duo in 2000 . However , he did not collaborate directly with ICP , and would not do so until their 2009 album Bang ! Pow ! Boom !

The album 's concept compares a violent storm to a roller coaster ; its lyrical themes vary from horrorcore @-@ based character deconstructions and songs about the supernatural to humorous and lighter subject matter . Clark 's production was praised by critics , and the album peaked at # 20 on the Billboard 200 . It is the group 's 23rd overall release .

= = History = =

Mike E. Clark produced much of Insane Clown Posse 's discography , as well as working with other groups on Psychopathic Records , until having a falling @-@ out with ICP in 2000 , after completing ICP 's album 's Bizaar and Bizzar , and beginning production on the Dark Lotus debut album Tales from the Lotus Pod .

After becoming a full @-@ time producer for Kid Rock , Clark contracted pneumonia , but ignored the illness , and began coughing severely as he awoke , leading to a three @-@ month stay in Mount Clemens General Hospital , during which one of his lungs collapsed three times . As the result of his near @-@ death experience , Clark decided to reconcile with Bruce and Utsler . Phone conversations between Clark and Insane Clown Posse led to Clark producing Shaggy 2 Dope 's 2006 solo album F.T.F.O .. The following year , Clark produced The Tempest ; however , in both instances , he did not work with Psychopathic Records directly . Because of this , ICP felt that The Tempest was missing the collaborative element that they felt made their earlier albums enjoyable . Clark would not work directly work with Psychopathic Records until 2009 's Bang ! Pow ! Boom !

= = Music and lyrics = =

Unlike previous Insane Clown Posse albums , The Tempest is not connected to the Dark Carnival mythology , which formed the basis for ICP 's " Joker 's Cards " series , which began in 1992 with Carnival of Carnage and concluded with the albums The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La and Hell 's Pit ; however , it references themes , concepts and songs from previous albums . Joseph Bruce ( Violent J ) said that The Tempest is a concept album in its own right . Bruce describes the album 's concept as relating to both a violent storm which turns into a tornado and pulls people into a hurricane as well as a roller coaster . According to Bruce , " That 's a lot like riding on a violent roller coaster , I 'd assume . You get jerked to the left , jerked to the right , sucked way up into the sky , and then you go shooting down to the floor , and then you jerk up to the left and then you whip around to the right . Well , The Tempest is a storm in the form of a roller coaster . " As a result of this concept , the album focuses on a variety of different moods .

The Tempest maintains much of the horrorcore lyrical content ICP is known for , as well as their humorous perspective . Unlike previous albums , this album does not contain any disses aimed at other rappers or music industry figures . Bruce and Joseph Utsler ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ' s rapping on this album is described by Allmusic reviewer David Jeffries as being delivered in " a carnival barker fashion that fits with their circus motif " , and contrasted Bruce and Utsler themselves as being like " Alice Cooper with a mallrat attitude " .

The lyrics of " Growing Again " , which describes Violent J growing into a giant , were inspired by Bruce 's weight gain ; Bruce also says that the song reflects the feeling of being able to " rap about anything we want [ ... ] I feel we have the right for some songs to be softer and not about killing or Dark Carnival . " " The Tower " describes a war veteran and expert marksman climbing a college tower and shooting people with an arsenal of weapons , a reference to Charles Whitman 's 1966 murder spree .

Mike E. Clark 's production incorporates elements of rock and heavy metal , as well as live instrumentation . Reviewer Lana Cooper of PopMatters compares " Ride the Tempest " to Flock of Seagulls , and describes the instrumentation as incorporating elements of synthesizers and calliope . Cooper says that " Growing Again " incorporates power ballad chords . Jeffries describes " I Do This ! " as being influenced by psychedelia , and called " Mexico City " " Low Rider music " .

= = Release and reception = =

The album was released with a bonus poster . The Tempest debuted at # 20 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , selling about 33 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Reviews from Allmusic and PopMatters generally appraised Mike E. Clark 's production as the album 's most appealing element . Allmusic 's David Jeffries wrote , " there 's no denying that Clark 's vision does wonders for the duo . " PopMatters ' Lana Cooper said that " [ Insane Clown Posse 's ] theatrics have to be given their due . "

= = Track listing = =

= = Chart positions = =

= = Personnel = =

Joseph Bruce – vocals , composer

Shaggy 2 Dope — vocals , scratching

Mike E. Clark – composer , engineer , mixing , producer , programming

Jeffrey Campo – mastering

Brian Debler – artwork , cover design

DJ Clay — scratching , vocals

Insane Clown Posse — composer , vocals

James Mitchell — vocals

The R.O.C. — vocals , background vocals

Razor Ray — guitar , soloist , vocals , background vocals

Michael Scotta — artwork , cover design

Cindy Wulkan — artwork , cover design

= Star =

A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity . The nearest star to Earth is the Sun . Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night , appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth . Historically , the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms , the brightest of which gained proper names . Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations . However , most of the stars in the Universe , including all stars outside our galaxy , the Milky Way , are invisible to the naked eye from Earth . Indeed , most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes .

For at least a portion of its life , a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core , releasing energy that traverses the star 's interior and then radiates into outer space . Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star 's lifetime , and for some stars by supernova nucleosynthesis when it explodes . Near the end of its life , a star can also contain degenerate matter . Astronomers can determine the mass , age , metallicity ( chemical composition ) , and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space , its luminosity , and spectrum respectively . The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its evolution and eventual fate . Other characteristics of a star , including diameter and temperature , change over its life , while the star 's environment affects its rotation and movement . A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung – Russell diagram ( H – R diagram ) . Plotting a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined .

A star 's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen , along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements . When the stellar core is sufficiently dense , hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion , releasing energy in the process . The remainder of the star 's interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective heat transfer processes . The star 's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity . When the hydrogen fuel at the core is exhausted , a star of mass 0 @.@ 4 times greater than the Sun 's will expand to become a red giant . In some cases , it will fuse heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core . As the star expands it throws a part of its mass , enriched with those heavier elements , into the interstellar environment , to be recycled later as new stars . Meanwhile , the core becomes a stellar remnant : a white dwarf , a neutron star , or if it is sufficiently massive a black hole .

Binary and multi @-@ star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits . When two such stars have a relatively close orbit , their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution . Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure , such as a star cluster or a galaxy .

= = Observation history = =

Historically , stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world . They have been part of religious practices and used for celestial navigation and orientation . Many ancient astronomers believed that stars were permanently affixed to a heavenly sphere and that they were immutable . By convention , astronomers grouped stars into constellations and used them to track the motions of the planets and the inferred position of the Sun . The motion of the Sun against the background stars ( and the horizon ) was used to create calendars , which could be used to regulate agricultural practices . The Gregorian calendar , currently used nearly everywhere in the world , is a solar calendar based on the angle of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to its local star , the Sun .

The oldest accurately dated star chart was the result of ancient Egyptian astronomy in 1534 BC . The earliest known star catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonian astronomers of Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC , during the Kassite Period ( ca . 1531 – 1155 BC ) .

The first star catalogue in Greek astronomy was created by Aristillus in approximately 300 BC , with the help of Timocharis . The star catalog of Hipparchus ( 2nd century BC ) included 1020 stars , and was used to assemble Ptolemy 's star catalogue . Hipparchus is known for the discovery of the first recorded nova ( new star ) . Many of the constellations and star names in use today derive from Greek astronomy .

In spite of the apparent immutability of the heavens , Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars could appear . In 185 AD , they were the first to observe and write about a supernova , now known as the SN 185 . The brightest stellar event in recorded history was the SN 1006 supernova , which was observed in 1006 and written about by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and several Chinese astronomers . The SN 1054 supernova , which gave birth to the Crab Nebula , was also observed by Chinese and Islamic astronomers .

Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today and they invented numerous astronomical instruments that could compute the positions of the stars . They built the first large observatory research institutes , mainly for the purpose of producing Zij star catalogues . Among these , the Book of Fixed Stars ( 964 ) was written by the Persian astronomer Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Sufi , who observed a number of stars , star clusters ( including the Omicron Velorum and Brocchi 's Clusters ) and galaxies ( including the Andromeda Galaxy ) . According to A. Zahoor , in the 11th century , the Persian polymath scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Milky Way galaxy as a multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars , and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse in 1019 .

According to Josep Puig , the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material , citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH ( 1106 / 1107 AD ) as evidence . Early European astronomers such as Tycho Brahe identified new stars in the night sky ( later termed novae ) , suggesting that the heavens were not immutable . In 1584 Giordano Bruno suggested that the stars were like the Sun , and may have other planets , possibly even Earth @-@ like , in orbit around them , an idea that had been suggested earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers , Democritus and Epicurus , and by medieval Islamic cosmologists such as Fakhr al @-@ Din al @-@ Razi . By the following century , the idea of the stars being the same as the Sun was reaching a consensus among astronomers . To explain why these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the Solar System , Isaac Newton suggested that the stars were equally distributed in every direction , an idea prompted by the theologian Richard Bentley .

The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667 . Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby " fixed " stars , demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus .

William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky . During the 1780s he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight . From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky , in the direction of the Milky Way core . His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction . In addition to his other accomplishments , William Herschel is also noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight , but are also physical companions that form binary star systems .

The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi . By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun , they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines — the dark lines in a stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere 's absorption of specific frequencies . In 1865 Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types . However , the modern version of the stellar classification scheme was developed by Annie J. Cannon during the 1900s .

The first direct measurement of the distance to a star ( 61 Cygni at 11 @.@ 4 light @-@ years ) was made in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique . Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens . Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century . In 1834 , Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion . Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star Mizar in a 104 @-@ day period . Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as William Struve and S. W. Burnham , allowing the masses of stars to be determined from computation of orbital elements . The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827 . The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars . The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool . Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and , hence , its temperature , could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude . The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals . In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory .

Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century . In 1913 , the Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram was developed , propelling the astrophysical study of stars . Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution . Cecilia Payne @-@ Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 PhD thesis . The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics . This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined .

With the exception of supernovae , individual stars have primarily been observed in the Local Group , and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way ( as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our galaxy ) . But some stars have been observed in the M100 galaxy of the Virgo Cluster , about 100 million light years from the Earth . In the Local Supercluster it is possible to see star clusters , and current telescopes could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Group ( see Cepheids ) . However , outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies , neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed . The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located at a distance of one billion light years — ten times further than the most distant star cluster previously observed .

= = Designations = =

The concept of a constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period . Ancient sky watchers imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns , and they associated these with particular aspects of nature or their myths . Twelve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology . Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names , particularly with Arabic or Latin designations .

As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself , individual stars have their own myths . To the Ancient Greeks , some " stars " , known as planets ( Greek πλανήτης ( planētēs ) , meaning " wanderer " ) , represented various important deities , from which the names of the planets Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were taken . ( Uranus and Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods , but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness . Their names were assigned by later astronomers . )

Circa 1600 , the names of the constellations were used to name the stars in the corresponding regions of the sky . The German astronomer Johann Bayer created a series of star maps and applied Greek letters as designations to the stars in each constellation . Later a numbering system based on the star 's right ascension was invented and added to John Flamsteed 's star catalogue in his book " Historia coelestis Britannica " ( the 1712 edition ) , whereby this numbering system came to be called Flamsteed designation or Flamsteed numbering .

The only internationally recognized authority for naming celestial bodies is the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . A number of private companies sell names of stars , which the British Library calls an unregulated commercial enterprise . The IAU has disassociated itself from this commercial practice , and these names are neither recognized by the IAU nor used by them . One such star @-@ naming company is the International Star Registry , which , during the 1980s , was accused of deceptive practice for making it appear that the assigned name was official . This now @-@ discontinued ISR practice was informally labeled a scam and a fraud , and the New York City Department of Consumer Affairs issued a violation against ISR for engaging in a deceptive trade practice .

= = Units of measurement = =

Although stellar parameters can be expressed in SI units or CGS units , it is often most convenient to express mass , luminosity , and radii in solar units , based on the characteristics of the Sun :

Large lengths , such as the radius of a giant star or the semi @-@ major axis of a binary star system , are often expressed in terms of the astronomical unit — approximately equal to the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun ( 150 million km or 93 million miles ) .

= = Formation and evolution = =

Stars condense from regions of space of higher density , yet those regions are less dense than within a vacuum chamber . These regions - known as molecular clouds - consist mostly of hydrogen , with about 23 to 28 percent helium and a few percent heavier elements . One example of such a star @-@ forming region is the Orion Nebula . Most stars form in groups of dozens to hundreds of thousands of stars . Massive stars in these groups may powerfully illuminate those clouds , ionizing the hydrogen , and creating H II regions . Such feedback effects , from star formation , may ultimately disrupt the cloud and prevent further star formation .

All stars spend the majority of their existence as main sequence stars , fueled primarily by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within their cores . However , stars of different masses have markedly different properties at various stages of their development . The ultimate fate of more massive stars differs from that of less massive stars , as do their luminosities and the impact they have on their environment . Accordingly , astronomers often group stars by their mass :

Very low mass stars , with masses below 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ , are fully convective and distribute helium evenly throughout the whole star while on the main sequence . Therefore , they never undergo shell burning , never become red giants , which cease fusing and become helium white dwarfs and slowly cool after exhausting their hydrogen . However , as the lifetime of 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ stars is longer than the age of the universe , no such star has yet reached the white dwarf stage .

Low mass stars ( including the Sun ) , with a mass between 0 @.@ 5 M ☉ and 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ depending on composition , do become red giants as their core hydrogen is depleted and they begin to burn helium in core in a helium flash ; they develop a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core later on the asymptotic giant branch ; they finally blow off their outer shell as a planetary nebula and leave behind their core in the form of a white dwarf .

Intermediate @-@ mass stars , between 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ and 5 – 10 M ☉ , pass through evolutionary stages similar to low mass stars , but after a relatively short period on the RGB they ignite helium without a flash and spend an extended period in the red clump before forming a degenerate carbon @-@ oxygen core .

Massive stars generally have a minimum mass of 7 – 10 M ☉ ( possibly as low as 5 – 6 M ☉ ) . After exhausting the hydrogen at the core these stars become supergiants and go on to fuse elements heavier than helium . They end their lives when their cores collapse and they explode as supernovae .

= = = Star formation = = =

The formation of a star begins with gravitational instability within a molecular cloud , caused by regions of higher density - often triggered by compression of clouds by radiation from massive stars , expanding bubbles in the interstellar medium , the collision of different molecular clouds , or the collision of galaxies ( as in a starburst galaxy ) . When a region reaches a sufficient density of matter to satisfy the criteria for Jeans instability , it begins to collapse under its own gravitational force .

As the cloud collapses , individual conglomerations of dense dust and gas form " Bok globules " . As a globule collapses and the density increases , the gravitational energy converts into heat and the temperature rises . When the protostellar cloud has approximately reached the stable condition of hydrostatic equilibrium , a protostar forms at the core . These pre – main sequence stars are often surrounded by a protoplanetary disk and powered mainly by the conversion of gravitational energy . The period of gravitational contraction lasts about 10 to 15 million years .

Early stars of less than 2 M ☉ are called T Tauri stars , while those with greater mass are Herbig Ae / Be stars . These newly formed stars emit jets of gas along their axis of rotation , which may reduce the angular momentum of the collapsing star and result in small patches of nebulosity known as Herbig – Haro objects . These jets , in combination with radiation from nearby massive stars , may help to drive away the surrounding cloud from which the star was formed .

Early in their development , T Tauri stars follow the Hayashi track — they contract and decrease in luminosity while remaining at roughly the same temperature . Less massive T Tauri stars follow this track to the main sequence , while more massive stars turn onto the Henyey track .

Most stars are observed to be members of binary star systems , and the properties of those binaries are the result of the conditions in which they formed . A gas cloud must lose its angular momentum in order to collapse and form a star . The fragmentation of the cloud into multiple stars distributes some of that angular momentum . The primordial binaries transfer some angular momentum by gravitational interactions during close encounters with other stars in young stellar clusters . These interactions tend to split apart more widely separated ( soft ) binaries while causing hard binaries to become more tightly bound . This produces the separation of binaries into their two observed populations distributions .

= = = Main sequence = = =

Stars spend about 90 % of their existence fusing hydrogen into helium in high @-@ temperature and high @-@ pressure reactions near the core . Such stars are said to be on the main sequence , and are called dwarf stars . Starting at zero @-@ age main sequence , the proportion of helium in a star 's core will steadily increase , the rate of nuclear fusion at the core will slowly increase , as will the star 's temperature and luminosity . The Sun , for example , is estimated to have increased in luminosity by about 40 % since it reached the main sequence 4 @.@ 6 billion ( 4 @.@ 6 × 109 ) years ago .

Every star generates a stellar wind of particles that causes a continual outflow of gas into space . For most stars , the mass lost is negligible . The Sun loses 10 − 14 M ☉ every year , or about 0 @.@ 01 % of its total mass over its entire lifespan . However , very massive stars can lose 10 − 7 to 10 − 5 M ☉ each year , significantly affecting their evolution . Stars that begin with more than 50 M ☉ can lose over half their total mass while on the main sequence .

The time a star spends on the main sequence depends primarily on the amount of fuel it has and the rate at which it fuses it . The Sun 's is expected to live 10 billion ( 1010 ) years . Massive stars consume their fuel very rapidly and are short @-@ lived . Low mass stars consume their fuel very slowly . Stars less massive than 0 @.@ 25 M ☉ , called red dwarfs , are able to fuse nearly all of their mass while stars of about 1 M ☉ can only fuse about 10 % of their mass . The combination of their slow fuel @-@ consumption and relatively large usable fuel supply allows low mass stars to last about one trillion ( 1012 ) years ; the most extreme of 0 @.@ 08 M ☉ ) will last for about 12 trillion years . Red dwarfs become hotter and more luminous as they accumulate helium . When they eventually run out of hydrogen , they contract into a white dwarf and decline in temperature . However , since the lifespan of such stars is greater than the current age of the universe ( 13 @.@ 8 billion years ) , no stars under about 0 @.@ 85 M ☉ are expected to have moved off the main sequence .

Besides mass , the elements heavier than helium can play a significant role in the evolution of stars . Astronomers label all elements heavier than helium " metals " , and call the chemical concentration of these elements in a star , its metallicity . A star 's metallicity can influence the time the star takes to burn its fuel , and controls the formation of its magnetic fields , which affects the strength of its stellar wind . Older , population II stars have substantially less metallicity than the younger , population I stars due to the composition of the molecular clouds from which they formed . Over time , such clouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed portions of their atmospheres .

= = = Post – main sequence = = =

As stars of at least 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ exhaust their supply of hydrogen at their core , they start to fuse hydrogen in a shell outside the helium core . Their outer layers expand and cool greatly as they form a red giant . In about 5 billion years , when the Sun enters the helium burning phase , it will expand to a maximum radius of roughly 1 astronomical unit ( 150 million kilometres ) , 250 times its present size , and lose 30 % of its current mass .

As the hydrogen shell burning produces more helium , the core increases in mass and temperature . In a red giant of up to 2 @.@ 25 M ☉ , the mass of the helium core becomes degenerate prior to helium fusion . Finally , when the temperature increases sufficiently , helium fusion begins explosively in what is called a helium flash , and the star rapidly shrinks in radius , increases its surface temperature , and moves to the horizontal branch of the HR diagram . For more massive stars , helium core fusion starts before the core becomes degenerate , and the star spends some time in the red clump , slowly burning helium , before the outer convective envelope collapses and the star then moves to the horizontal branch .

After the star has fused the helium of its core , the carbon product fuses producing a hot core with an outer shell of fusing helium . The star then follows an evolutionary path called the asymptotic giant branch ( AGB ) that parallels the other described red giant phase , but with a higher luminosity . The more massive AGB stars may undergo a brief period of carbon fusion before the core becomes degenerate .

= = = = Massive stars = = = =

During their helium @-@ burning phase , stars of more than nine solar masses expand to form red supergiants . When this fuel is exhausted at the core , they continue to fuse elements heavier than helium .

The core contracts and the temperature and pressure rises enough to fuse carbon ( see Carbon burning process ) . This process continues , with the successive stages being fueled by neon ( see neon burning process ) , oxygen ( see oxygen burning process ) , and silicon ( see silicon burning process ) . Near the end of the star 's life , fusion continues along a series of onion @-@ layer shells within a massive star . Each shell fuses a different element , with the outermost shell fusing hydrogen ; the next shell fusing helium , and so forth .

The final stage occurs when a massive star begins producing iron . Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei , any fusion beyond iron does not produce a net release of energy . To a very limited degree such a process proceeds , but it consumes energy . Likewise , since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei , such energy cannot be released by fission . In relatively old , very massive stars , a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star . The heavier elements in these stars can work their way to the surface , forming evolved objects known as Wolf @-@ Rayet stars that have a dense stellar wind which sheds the outer atmosphere .

= = = = Collapse = = = =

As a star 's core shrinks , the intensity of radiation from that surface increases , creating such radiation pressure on the outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away , forming a planetary nebula . If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth , known as a white dwarf . White dwarfs lack the mass for further gravitational compression to take place . The electron @-@ degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma , even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma . Eventually , white dwarfs fade into black dwarfs over a very long period of time .

In larger stars , fusion continues until the iron core has grown so large ( more than 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ ) that it can no longer support its own mass . This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons , forming neutrons , neutrinos , and gamma rays in a burst of electron capture and inverse beta decay . The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a supernova . Supernovae become so bright that they may briefly outshine the star 's entire home galaxy . When they occur within the Milky Way , supernovae have historically been observed by naked @-@ eye observers as " new stars " where none seemingly existed before .

A supernova explosion blows away the star 's outer layers , leaving a remnant such as the Crab Nebula . The core is compressed into a neutron star , which sometimes manifests itself as a pulsar or X @-@ ray burster . In the case of the largest stars , the remnant is a black hole greater than 4 M ☉ ) s . In a neutron star the matter is in a state known as neutron @-@ degenerate matter , with a more exotic form of degenerate matter , QCD matter , possibly present in the core . Within a black hole , the matter is in a state that is not currently understood .

The blown @-@ off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements , which may be recycled during the formation of new stars . These heavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets . The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium .

= = = = Binary stars = = = =

The post – main @-@ sequence evolution of binary stars may be significantly different from the evolution of single stars of the same mass . If stars in a binary system are sufficiently close , when one of the stars expands to become a red giant it may overflow its Roche lobe , the region around a star where material is gravitationally bound to that star , leading to transfer of material to the other . When the Roche lobe is violated , a variety of phenomena can result , including contact binaries , common @-@ envelope binaries , cataclysmic variables , and type Ia supernovae .

= = Distribution = =

In addition to isolated stars , a multi @-@ star system can consist of two or more gravitationally bound stars that orbit each other . The simplest and most common multi @-@ star system is a binary star , but systems of three or more stars are also found . For reasons of orbital stability , such multi @-@ star systems are often organized into hierarchical sets of binary stars . Larger groups called star clusters also exist . These range from loose stellar associations with only a few stars , up to enormous globular clusters with hundreds of thousands of stars . Such systems orbit our Milky Way galaxy .

It has been a long @-@ held assumption that the majority of stars occur in gravitationally bound , multiple @-@ star systems . This is particularly true for very massive O and B class stars , where 80 % of the stars are believed to be part of multiple @-@ star systems . The proportion of single star systems increases with decreasing star mass , so that only 25 % of red dwarfs are known to have stellar companions . As 85 % of all stars are red dwarfs , most stars in the Milky Way are likely single from birth .

Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe , but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust . A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars , and there are more than 100 billion ( 1011 ) galaxies in the observable universe . In 2010 , one estimate of the number of stars in the observable universe was 300 sextillion ( 3 × 1023 ) . While it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies , intergalactic stars have been discovered .

The nearest star to the Earth , apart from the Sun , is Proxima Centauri , which is 39 @.@ 9 trillion kilometres , or 4 @.@ 2 light @-@ years . Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle ( 8 kilometres per second — almost 30 @,@ 000 kilometres per hour ) , it would take about 150 @,@ 000 years to arrive . This it typical of stellar separations in galactic discs . Stars can be much closer to each other in the centres of galaxies and in globular clusters , or much farther apart in galactic halos .

Due to the relatively vast distances between stars outside the galactic nucleus , collisions between stars are thought to be rare . In denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center , collisions can be more common . Such collisions can produce what are known as blue stragglers . These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature than the other main sequence stars with the same luminosity of the cluster to which it belongs .

= = Characteristics = =

Almost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass , including such characteristics as luminosity , size , evolution , lifespan , and its eventual fate .

= = = Age = = =

Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old . Some stars may even be close to 13 @.@ 8 billion years old — the observed age of the universe . The oldest star yet discovered , HD 140283 , nicknamed Methuselah star , is an estimated 14 @.@ 46 ± 0 @.@ 8 billion years old . ( Due to the uncertainty in the value , this age for the star does not conflict with the age of the Universe , determined by the Planck satellite as 13 @.@ 799 ± 0 @.@ 021 ) .

The more massive the star , the shorter its lifespan , primarily because massive stars have greater pressure on their cores , causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly . The most massive stars last an average of a few million years , while stars of minimum mass ( red dwarfs ) burn their fuel very slowly and can last tens to hundreds of billions of years .

= = = Chemical composition = = =

When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71 % hydrogen and 27 % helium , as measured by mass , with a small fraction of heavier elements . Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere , as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure . The portion of heavier elements may be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system .

The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327 @-@ 2326 , with only 1 / 200,000th the iron content of the Sun . By contrast , the super @-@ metal @-@ rich star μ Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun , while the planet @-@ bearing star 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron . There also exist chemically peculiar stars that show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum ; especially chromium and rare earth elements . Stars with cooler outer atmospheres , including the Sun , can form various diatomic and polyatomic molecules .

= = = Diameter = = =

Due to their great distance from the Earth , all stars except the Sun appear to the unaided eye as shining points in the night sky that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth 's atmosphere . The Sun is also a star , but it is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead , and to provide daylight . Other than the Sun , the star with the largest apparent size is R Doradus , with an angular diameter of only 0 @.@ 057 arcseconds .

The disks of most stars are much too small in angular size to be observed with current ground @-@ based optical telescopes , and so interferometer telescopes are required to produce images of these objects . Another technique for measuring the angular size of stars is through occultation . By precisely measuring the drop in brightness of a star as it is occulted by the Moon ( or the rise in brightness when it reappears ) , the star 's angular diameter can be computed .

Stars range in size from neutron stars , which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km ( 25 mi ) in diameter , to supergiants like Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation , which has a diameter approximately 1 @,@ 070 times that of the Sun — about 1 @,@ 490 @,@ 171 @,@ 880 km ( 925 @,@ 949 @,@ 878 mi ) . Betelgeuse , however , has a much lower density than the Sun .

= = = Kinematics = = =

The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the origin and age of a star , as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy . The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the Sun , and the traverse angular movement , which is called its proper motion .

Radial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star 's spectral lines , and is given in units of km / s . The proper motion of a star , its parallax , is determined by precise astrometric measurements in units of milli @-@ arc seconds ( mas ) per year . With knowledge of the star 's parallax and its distance , the proper motion velocity can be calculated . Together with the radial velocity , the total velocity can be calculated . Stars with high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun , making them good candidates for parallax measurements .

When both rates of movement are known , the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the galaxy can be computed . Among nearby stars , it has been found that younger population I stars have generally lower velocities than older , population II stars . The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy . A comparison of the kinematics of nearby stars has allowed astronomers to trace their origin to common points in giant molecular clouds , and are referred to as stellar associations .

= = = Magnetic field = = =

The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior where convective circulation occurs . This movement of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo , wherein the movement of elecrical charges induce magnetic fields , as does a mechanical dynamo . Those magnetic fields have a great range that extend throughout and beyond the star . The strength of the magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of the star , and the amount of magnetic surface activity depends upon the star 's rate of rotation . This surface activity produces starspots , which are regions of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal surface temperatures . Coronal loops are arching magnetic field flux lines that rise from a star 's surface into the star 's outer atmosphere , its corona . The coronal loops can be seen due to the plasma they conduct along their length . Stellar flares are bursts of high @-@ energy particles that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity .

Young , rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity because of their magnetic field . The magnetic field can act upon a star 's stellar wind , functioning as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation with time . Thus , older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of surface activity . The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical manner and can shut down altogether for periods of time . During the Maunder minimum , for example , the Sun underwent a 70 @-@ year period with almost no sunspot activity .

= = = Mass = = =

One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae , which , with 100 – 150 times as much mass as the Sun , will have a lifespan of only several million years . Studies of the most massive open clusters suggests 150 M ☉ as an upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe . This represents an empirical value for the theoretical limit on the mass of forming stars due to increasing radiation pressure on the accreting gas cloud . Several stars in the R136 cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud have been measured with larger masses , but it has been determined that they could have been created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close binary systems , sidestepping the 150 M ☉ limit on massive star formation .

The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger , up to 300 M ☉ , due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition . This generation of supermassive population III stars is likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , they are observed to have a high redshift ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life . In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z = 6 @.@ 60 .

With a mass only 80 times that of Jupiter ( MJ ) , 2MASS J0523 @-@ 1403 is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core . For stars with metallicity similar to the Sun , the theoretical minimum mass the star can have and still undergo fusion at the core , is estimated to be about 75 MJ . When the metallicity is very low , however , the minimum star size seems to be about 8 @.@ 3 % of the solar mass , or about 87 MJ . Smaller bodies called brown dwarfs , occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and gas giants .

The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines its surface gravity . Giant stars have a much lower surface gravity than do main sequence stars , while the opposite is the case for degenerate , compact stars such as white dwarfs . The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star 's spectrum , with higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines .

= = = Rotation = = =

The rotation rate of stars can be determined through spectroscopic measurement , or more exactly determined by tracking their starspots . Young stars can have a rotation greater than 100 km / s at the equator . The B @-@ class star Achernar , for example , has an equatorial velocity of about 225 km / s or greater , causing its equator to be slung outward and giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50 % greater than between the poles . This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km / s at which speed the star would break apart . By contrast , the Sun rotates once every 25 – 35 days , with an equatorial velocity of 1 @.@ 994 km / s . A main sequence star 's magnetic field and the stellar wind serve to slow its rotation by a significant amount as it evolves on the main sequence .

Degenerate stars have contracted into a compact mass , resulting in a rapid rate of rotation . However they have relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would be expected by conservation of angular momentum — the tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a contraction in size by increasing its rate of spin . A large portion of the star 's angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind . In spite of this , the rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid . The pulsar at the heart of the Crab nebula , for example , rotates 30 times per second . The rotation rate of the pulsar will gradually slow due to the emission of radiation .

= = = Temperature = = =

The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of its core and by its radius , and is often estimated from the star 's color index . The temperature is normally given in terms of an effective temperature , which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star . Note that the effective temperature is only a representative of the surface , as the temperature increases toward the core . The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins .

The stellar temperature will determine the rate of ionization of various elements , resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum . The surface temperature of a star , along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features , is used to classify a star ( see classification below ) .

Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50 @,@ 000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3 @,@ 600 K ; but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area .

= = Radiation = =

The energy produced by stars , a product of nuclear fusion , radiates to space as both electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation . The particle radiation emitted by a star is manifested as the stellar wind , which streams from the outer layers as electrically charged protons and alpha and beta particles . Although almost massless , there also exists a steady stream of neutrinos emanating from the star 's core .

The production of energy at the core is the reason stars shine so brightly : every time two or more atomic nuclei fuse together to form a single atomic nucleus of a new heavier element , gamma ray photons are released from the nuclear fusion product . This energy is converted to other forms of electromagnetic energy of lower frequency , such as visible light , by the time it reaches the star 's outer layers .

The color of a star , as determined by the most intense frequency of the visible light , depends on the temperature of the star 's outer layers , including its photosphere . Besides visible light , stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye . In fact , stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum , from the longest wavelengths of radio waves through infrared , visible light , ultraviolet , to the shortest of X @-@ rays , and gamma rays . From the standpoint of total energy emitted by a star , not all components of stellar electromagnetic radiation are significant , but all frequencies provide insight into the star 's physics .

Using the stellar spectrum , astronomers can also determine the surface temperature , surface gravity , metallicity and rotational velocity of a star . If the distance of the star is found , such as by measuring the parallax , then the luminosity of the star can be derived . The mass , radius , surface gravity , and rotation period can then be estimated based on stellar models . ( Mass can be calculated for stars in binary systems by measuring their orbital velocities and distances . Gravitational microlensing has been used to measure the mass of a single star . ) With these parameters , astronomers can also estimate the age of the star .

= = = Luminosity = = =

The luminosity of a star is the amount of light and other forms of radiant energy it radiates per unit of time . It has units of power . The luminosity of a star is determined by its radius and surface temperature . Many stars do not radiate uniformly across their entire surface . The rapidly rotating star Vega , for example , has a higher energy flux ( power per unit area ) at its poles than along its equator .

Patches of the star 's surface with a lower temperature and luminosity than average are known as starspots . Small , dwarf stars such as our Sun generally have essentially featureless disks with only small starspots . Giant stars have much larger , more obvious starspots , and they also exhibit strong stellar limb darkening . That is , the brightness decreases towards the edge of the stellar disk . Red dwarf flare stars such as UV Ceti may also possess prominent starspot features .

= = = Magnitude = = =

The apparent brightness of a star is expressed in terms of its apparent magnitude . It is a function of the star 's luminosity , its distance from Earth , and the altering of the star 's light as it passes through Earth 's atmosphere . Intrinsic or absolute magnitude is directly related to a star 's luminosity , and is what the apparent magnitude a star would be if the distance between the Earth and the star were 10 parsecs ( 32 @.@ 6 light @-@ years ) .

Both the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are logarithmic units : one whole number difference in magnitude is equal to a brightness variation of about 2 @.@ 5 times ( the 5th root of 100 or approximately 2 @.@ 512 ) . This means that a first magnitude star ( + 1 @.@ 00 ) is about 2 @.@ 5 times brighter than a second magnitude ( + 2 @.@ 00 ) star , and about 100 times brighter than a sixth magnitude star ( + 6 @.@ 00 ) . The faintest stars visible to the naked eye under good seeing conditions are about magnitude + 6 .

On both apparent and absolute magnitude scales , the smaller the magnitude number , the brighter the star ; the larger the magnitude number , the fainter the star . The brightest stars , on either scale , have negative magnitude numbers . The variation in brightness ( ΔL ) between two stars is calculated by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter star ( mb ) from the magnitude number of the fainter star ( mf ) , then using the difference as an exponent for the base number 2 @.@ 512 ; that is to say :

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Relative to both luminosity and distance from Earth , a star 's absolute magnitude ( M ) and apparent magnitude ( m ) are not equivalent ; for example , the bright star Sirius has an apparent magnitude of − 1 @.@ 44 , but it has an absolute magnitude of + 1 @.@ 41 .

The Sun has an apparent magnitude of − 26 @.@ 7 , but its absolute magnitude is only + 4 @.@ 83 . Sirius , the brightest star in the night sky as seen from Earth , is approximately 23 times more luminous than the Sun , while Canopus , the second brightest star in the night sky with an absolute magnitude of − 5 @.@ 53 , is approximately 14 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun . Despite Canopus being vastly more luminous than Sirius , however , Sirius appears brighter than Canopus . This is because Sirius is merely 8 @.@ 6 light @-@ years from the Earth , while Canopus is much farther away at a distance of 310 light @-@ years .

As of 2006 , the star with the highest known absolute magnitude is LBV 1806 @-@ 20 , with a magnitude of − 14 @.@ 2 . This star is at least 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 times more luminous than the Sun . The least luminous stars that are currently known are located in the NGC 6397 cluster . The faintest red dwarfs in the cluster were magnitude 26 , while a 28th magnitude white dwarf was also discovered . These faint stars are so dim that their light is as bright as a birthday candle on the Moon when viewed from the Earth .

= = Classification = =

The current stellar classification system originated in the early 20th century , when stars were classified from A to Q based on the strength of the hydrogen line . It thought that the hydrogen line strength was a simple linear function of temperature . Rather , it was more complicated ; it strengthened with increasing temperature , it peaked near 9000 K , and then declined at greater temperatures . When the classifications were reordered by temperature , it more closely resembled the modern scheme .

Stars are given a single @-@ letter classification according to their spectra , ranging from type O , which are very hot , to M , which are so cool that molecules may form in their atmospheres . The main classifications in order of decreasing surface temperature are : O , B , A , F , G , K , and M. A variety of rare spectral types are given special classifications . The most common of these are types L and T , which classify the coldest low @-@ mass stars and brown dwarfs . Each letter has 10 sub @-@ divisions , numbered from 0 to 9 , in order of decreasing temperature . However , this system breaks down at extreme high temperatures as classes O0 and O1 may not exist .

In addition , stars may be classified by the luminosity effects found in their spectral lines , which correspond to their spatial size and is determined by their surface gravity . These range from 0 ( hypergiants ) through III ( giants ) to V ( main sequence dwarfs ) ; some authors add VII ( white dwarfs ) . Most stars belong to the main sequence , which consists of ordinary hydrogen @-@ burning stars . These fall along a narrow , diagonal band when graphed according to their absolute magnitude and spectral type . The Sun is a main sequence G2V yellow dwarf of intermediate temperature and ordinary size .

Additional nomenclature , in the form of lower @-@ case letters added to the end of the spectral type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum . For example , an " e " can indicate the presence of emission lines ; " m " represents unusually strong levels of metals , and " var " can mean variations in the spectral type .

White dwarf stars have their own class that begins with the letter D. This is further sub @-@ divided into the classes DA , DB , DC , DO , DZ , and DQ , depending on the types of prominent lines found in the spectrum . This is followed by a numerical value that indicates the temperature .

= = Variable stars = =

Variable stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity because of intrinsic or extrinsic properties . Of the intrinsically variable stars , the primary types can be subdivided into three principal groups .

During their stellar evolution , some stars pass through phases where they can become pulsating variables . Pulsating variable stars vary in radius and luminosity over time , expanding and contracting with periods ranging from minutes to years , depending on the size of the star . This category includes Cepheid and Cepheid @-@ like stars , and long @-@ period variables such as Mira .

Eruptive variables are stars that experience sudden increases in luminosity because of flares or mass ejection events . This group includes protostars , Wolf @-@ Rayet stars , and flare stars , as well as giant and supergiant stars .

Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars are those that undergo a dramatic change in their properties . This group includes novae and supernovae . A binary star system that includes a nearby white dwarf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions , including the nova and a Type 1a supernova . The explosion is created when the white dwarf accretes hydrogen from the companion star , building up mass until the hydrogen undergoes fusion . Some novae are also recurrent , having periodic outbursts of moderate amplitude .

Stars can also vary in luminosity because of extrinsic factors , such as eclipsing binaries , as well as rotating stars that produce extreme starspots . A notable example of an eclipsing binary is Algol , which regularly varies in magnitude from 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 5 over a period of 2 @.@ 87 days .

= = Structure = =

The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium : the forces on any small volume almost exactly counterbalance each other . The balanced forces are inward gravitational force and an outward force due to the pressure gradient within the star . The pressure gradient is established by the temperature gradient of the plasma ; the outer part of the star is cooler than the core . The temperature at the core of a main sequence or giant star is at least on the order of 107 K. The resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen @-@ burning core of a main sequence star are sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further collapse of the star .

As atomic nuclei are fused in the core , they emit energy in the form of gamma rays . These photons interact with the surrounding plasma , adding to the thermal energy at the core . Stars on the main sequence convert hydrogen into helium , creating a slowly but steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core . Eventually the helium content becomes predominant , and energy production ceases at the core . Instead , for stars of more than 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ , fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell around the degenerate helium core .

In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium , the interior of a stable star will also maintain an energy balance of thermal equilibrium . There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a flux of energy flowing toward the exterior . The outgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the star will exactly match the incoming flux from below .

The radiation zone is the region of the stellar interior where the flux of energy outward is dependent on radiative heat transfer , since convective heat transfer is inefficient in that zone . In this region the plasma will not be perturbed , and any mass motions will die out . If this is not the case , however , then the plasma becomes unstable and convection will occur , forming a convection zone . This can occur , for example , in regions where very high energy fluxes occur , such as near the core or in areas with high opacity ( making radiatative heat transfer inefficient ) as in the outer envelope .

The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main sequence star depends on the star 's mass . Stars with several times the mass of the Sun have a convection zone deep within the interior and a radiative zone in the outer layers . Smaller stars such as the Sun are just the opposite , with the convective zone located in the outer layers . Red dwarf stars with less than 0 @.@ 4 M ☉ are convective throughout , which prevents the accumulation of a helium core . For most stars the convective zones will also vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is modified .

The photosphere is that portion of a star that is visible to an observer . This is the layer at which the plasma of the star becomes transparent to photons of light . From here , the energy generated at the core becomes free to propagate into space . It is within the photosphere that sun spots , regions of lower than average temperature , appear .

Above the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere . In a main sequence star such as the Sun , the lowest level of the atmosphere , just above the photosphere , is the thin chromosphere region , where spicules appear and stellar flares begin . Above this is the transition region , where the temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only 100 km ( 62 mi ) . Beyond this is the corona , a volume of super @-@ heated plasma that can extend outward to several million kilometres . The existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective zone in the outer layers of the star . Despite its high temperature , and the corona emits very little light , due to its low gas density . The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse .

From the corona , a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star , until it interacts with the interstellar medium . For the Sun , the influence of its solar wind extends throughout a bubble @-@ shaped region called the heliosphere .

= = Nuclear fusion reaction pathways = =

A variety of nuclear fusion reactions take place in the cores of stars , that depend upon their mass and composition . When nuclei fuse , the mass of the fused product is less than the mass of the original parts . This lost mass is converted to electromagnetic energy , according to the mass @-@ energy equivalence relationship E = mc2 .

The hydrogen fusion process is temperature @-@ sensitive , so a moderate increase in the core temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate . As a result , the core temperature of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million kelvin for a small M @-@ class star to 40 million kelvin for a massive O @-@ class star .

In the Sun , with a 10 @-@ million @-@ kelvin core , hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton @-@ proton chain reaction :

41H → 22H + 2e + + 2νe ( 2 x 0 @.@ 4 MeV )

2e + + 2e- → 2γ ( 2 x 1 @.@ 0 MeV )

21H + 22H → 23He + 2γ ( 2 x 5 @.@ 5 MeV )

23He → 4He + 21H ( 12 @.@ 9 MeV )

These reactions result in the overall reaction :

41H → 4He + 2e + + 2γ + 2νe ( 26 @.@ 7 MeV )

where e + is a positron , γ is a gamma ray photon , νe is a neutrino , and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium , respectively . The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts , which is actually only a tiny amount of energy . However enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly , producing all the energy necessary to sustain the star 's radiation output . In comparison , the combustion of two hydrogen gas molecules with one oxygen gas molecule releases only 5 @.@ 7 eV .

In more massive stars , helium is produced in a cycle of reactions catalyzed by carbon called the carbon @-@ nitrogen @-@ oxygen cycle .

In evolved stars with cores at 100 million kelvin and masses between 0 @.@ 5 and 10 M ☉ , helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple @-@ alpha process that uses the intermediate element beryllium :

4He + 4He + 92 keV → 8 * Be

4He + 8 * Be + 67 keV → 12 * C

12 * C → 12C + γ + 7 @.@ 4 MeV

For an overall reaction of :

34He → 12C + γ + 7 @.@ 2 MeV

In massive stars , heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon burning process and oxygen burning process . The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron @-@ 56 , an endothermic process that consumes energy , and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse .

The example below shows the amount of time required for a star of 20 M ☉ to consume all of its nuclear fuel . As an O @-@ class main sequence star , it would be 8 times the solar radius and 62 @,@ 000 times the Sun 's luminosity .

= Perry the Platypus =

Perry the Platypus , also known as Agent P or simply Perry , is an anthropomorphic platypus from the animated series Phineas and Ferb . Perry was created by the series ' co @-@ founders , Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . He first appeared along with the majority of the main cast in the pilot episode " Rollercoaster . " Perry is featured as the star of the B @-@ plot for every episode of the series , alongside his nemesis Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz . A mostly silent character , his lone vocal characteristic ( a rattling of Perry 's beak ) was provided by Dee Bradley Baker .

Perry is the pet platypus of the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , and is perceived as mindless and domesticated . In secret , however , he lives a double life as a member of an all @-@ animal espionage organization referred to as O.W.C.A. ( The Organization Without a Cool Acronym ) . Many secret entrances to his underground lair exist all around the house ; such as the side of the house , most notably the tree that his owners sit under in the backyard , and several other everyday objects that seem to elude the family 's attention . He engages in daily battles with Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , an evil scientist who desires to take over the Tri @-@ state area with obscure contraptions that work perfectly according to his intended function but fail in his application of them every time .

Perry was made a platypus because of the animal 's striking appearance and the lack of public knowledge of the animal , which allowed the writers to make things up about the species . Critical reception for the character from both professionals and fans have been considerably positive . Merchandising of the character include plush toys , t @-@ shirts , wooden toys , glasses , and coloring books , along with appearances in literature and a 2009 video game for the Nintendo DS .

= = Role in Phineas and Ferb = =

Perry is the docile pet platypus of the blended Flynn @-@ Fletcher family , who adopted him because his unfocused gaze made it seem as if he were looking at both Phineas and Ferb at the same time , as shown in the 2011 movie , Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension . Unbeknownst to them , Perry lives a double life as a crime @-@ fighting spy working for the " Organization Without a Cool Acronym " / The OWCA , going by the codename " Agent P. " He reports to his superior , Major Monogram , via telecast in his large , high @-@ tech , underground hideout . Every day , he engages in battles with the evil scientist Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , who tries using inventions to take over the tri @-@ state area . Perry is always able to foil Doofenshmirtz 's plans and in doing so accidentally leads to the destruction of whatever form of contraption his owners , Phineas Flynn and Ferb Fletcher , are building in order to make summer better . Phineas and Ferb are aware that something happens to get rid of their scheme for the day , but do not know that Perry is the cause behind it and are largely dismissive of it . Their sister , Candace , also does not know that Perry is behind the destruction and is driven to near insanity trying to figure it out . Throughout the series , Perry is aware of Phineas and Ferb 's inventions , but is largely uninterested in them , save whenever he notices that their latest invention may help him thwart Doofenshmirtz .

Perry and Doofenshmirtz at first seem to loathe each other in the beginning of the series , and have been arch @-@ nemeses since the day they met . However , they are often cordial and friendly towards one another and it is said by Doofenshmirtz that Perry is his best friend , and Perry will often act to save Doofenshmirtz 's life when his plot inevitably blows up in his face . Habitually , their daily brawls involve Doofenshmirtz devising a scheme , which Perry goes to stop after being briefed by Major Monogram . He is trapped by Doofenshmirtz while trying to do so and is told of the doctor 's scheme , usually pertaining to some backstory or pet peeve . He then escapes and the two fight , Perry coming out victorious . The two rely on this daily structure , Doofenshmirtz even specifically mentioning it in " Journey to the Center of Candace " and in episodes such as " It 's About Time ! " in which Doofenshmirtz temporarily replaces Perry with secret agent Peter The Panda and they become depressed about not having each other to fight . Perry realizes he misses Doof too . When Perry does not arrive on the scene of Doofenshmirtz 's evil plan , the doctor hesitates to execute his plans and fears for where Perry has gone , though he notes that he " hopes something terrible has happened to him . " . Sometimes , they decided not to fight and have fun , as shown in " Happy New Year ! " and " Candace Disconnected " . On other occasions , depending on whatever situation Doofenshmirtz is facing , Perry would often help Doofenshmirtz with his non @-@ evil plans , such as helping him overcome evil scientist 's block , helping him put on a birthday party for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Vanessa , impressing a square dancing girl with programmable square dancing boots that Doofenshmritz created , working together to stop a raging platypus hunter from hunting them down , or helping him convince his rich ex @-@ wife to help pay off his mortgage debt . Also , Perry tends to use Doofenshmirtz 's inventions to erase evidence of whatever contraptions Phineas and Ferb had made , leaving Candace unable to bust them . Examples include when Perry asked to borrow Doofenshmirtz 's robot Norm to pick up footage from the city surveillance cameras in order to preserve his job as an agent , as well as using Doofenshmirtz 's Pick @-@ Him @-@ Up @-@ inator to rescue a lost Candace and bring her home .

In Phineas and Ferb the Movie : Across the 2nd Dimension , an alternate reality ( yet more evil and ruthless ) version of Perry ( known as Platyborg ) appears as the secondary antagonist , with the regular Perry serving as a supporting protagonist . Platyborg would later return in the episode sequel , Tales from the Resistance : Back to the 2nd Dimension , this time , as a supporting protagonist .

= = Character = =

= = = Creation and conception = = =

While working on the animated television series Rocko 's Modern Life , Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh utilized several recurring elements in the episodes that they wrote . Among these were actions sequences and chase scenes . Povenmire and Marsh wanted to reuse these elements in their series and chose Perry to execute it . The pair gave him a consistent and continuous nemesis in the form of Doofenshmirtz as a means of allowing viewers to get to know him .

While choosing a species for Perry , Povenmire and Marsh wanted to keep in mind selecting one that was uncommon , an animal that kids could not " pick out at a pet store and beg [ their parents ] for . " They chose a platypus because of the animal 's obscure and striking appearance . The animal was scarcely used in American animated programs , so the pair opined that Perry " would not have to compete with preconceived notions that viewers might bring to a more conventional critter . " The blank storyboard they were given allowed them to " make stuff up " since " no one knows very much about [ them ] . "

Perry has a theme song tentatively entitled " Perry , " performed by Randy Crenshaw and Laura Dickinson , and written by Povenmire and Marsh , who write the majority of songs in the series . The song , along with the number " Gitchee Gitchee Goo " from the episode " Flop Starz , " was the first musical composition Povenmire and Marsh pitched to The Walt Disney Company . They were nervous doing so , because , as Povenmire explained , " Disney has a big history of music -- what if they hate it ? " Their reaction , however , was considerably positive and the pair was asked to write a song for each episode , which they vehemently agreed to . The opening lyrics for the song describe Perry as a standard textbook definition of a platypus : " He 's a semi @-@ aquatic egg @-@ laying mammal of action . "

= = = Design = = =

Like the other characters of the series , Perry was structured in a simple style to allow young viewers to easily draw him . In keeping with the show 's general design scheme , Perry is constructed of geometric shapes in a style reminiscent of deceased Looney Tunes animator Tex Avery . Povenmire uses different design styles for drawing Perry depending on how he is portrayed . When Perry is portrayed as a domesticated and mindless pet , Povenmire begins with a square shaped like a loaf of bread . He then draws his front legs and feet before drawing his bill , which is set at a certain angle . Povenmire then draws his eyeballs , which are never focused and look in opposing directions in a daze . He concludes the figure by adding his hind legs , tail , hair , and finally color .

When portrayed as a secret agent , Povenmire starts with a similar bread loaf square design , but draws it standing up vertically and places a fedora on the top of his head , which is combined with the square torso . In contrast to his mindless and wild @-@ eyed expression as a pet , the secret agent version of Perry is detailed with eyes " full of steely blue resolve . " Povenmire proceeds by drawing his arms , which bear hands that are open and prepared for fighting or any danger . His legs are bent , as well prepared for an act of danger or action needed . Povenmire finishes the design by adding his beaver tail and color .

= = = Personality = = =

Perry 's undercover identity as a pet leads to characters throughout the series to deem him as a " mindless domestic pet " that " doesn 't do much " . This definition of the character led to Phineas and Ferb spearheading production of a new toyline based on Perry called " Perry the Inaction Figure , " whose tagline revolved around it not doing anything but allowing the customer to make it whatever they desire it to be . In all actuality , Perry is a skilled fighter who is able to perform several implausible judo fighting moves and escapes . He has access to several different types of technology and inventions provided to him by The O.W.C.A. , including a hover craft dubbed the " Platypusmobile , " a jet ski , and a whistle set that allows him to summon different types of animals .

Although his appearance as a domestic pet is mostly a cover , Perry has nonetheless expressed care and devotion for the Flynn @-@ Fletcher family . In the episode " The Ballad of Bad Beard " , Perry managed to drag Candace out of the Dark Cave before it caved in because of Dr. Doofenshmirthz 's " self destruction button " that which Candace had accidentally pressed while under the orange moss hallucination , thinking it was a vending machine . He did this even though he knew that Candace saw that Perry was a secret agent talking to Agent E ( Eagle ) and to Major Monogram in a cracked egg . Candace thought she was just hallucinating because of the orange moss she accidentally touched earlier in the episode . Also , when an invention of Doofenshmirtz 's in the episode " Journey to the Center of Candace " might cause severe harm to Phineas and Ferb , Perry thoroughly beats up Doofenshmirtz and quickly handcuffs him . He then ties him to a pipe and , instead of just leaving him like he usually does in the series , calls for special forces from the O.W.C.A. to come and arrest the doctor , though they never show up . In " Oh , There You Are , Perry , " Doofenshmirtz is downgraded to a low threat level and Perry is reassigned to a new nemesis . This causes him to have to leave his home with the Flynn @-@ Fletchers , which makes him sad and he does not enjoy his new villain . Phineas and Ferb are fearful about where Perry could have gone to and put up several flyers around town for people to find him . They decide to throw a concert on the roof of a building , singing a song about how much they love Perry and want him to come home . Concurrently , Perry is reassigned to Doofenshmirtz again and returns to the brothers once more .

Though Perry is anthropomorphic , he does not speak , only communicating through an " aggravated purr " type of noise made by flapping his bill . This noise is provided by actor Dee Bradley Baker ; to this day , Povenmire and Marsh do not understand how Baker produces the noise . Thomas Sangster , who plays Ferb , is notoriously good at making the noise and is considered second only to Baker himself . When in his " Agent P " persona , Perry is almost completely silent .

= = Reception = =

As a character , Perry has been well received by both fans and critics . As Cynthia Littleton of Variety magazine wrote , " Perry the platypus is a breakout star from the Disney Channel toon ' Phineas and Ferb . ' " The New York Times writer Susan Stewart called him " intrepid . " Jean Yoo , a press member for Disney Channel , said that Perry is " suave " and " makes James Bond look like a rank amateur . " Aaron H. Bynum of Animator Insider opined that he is " indubitably confident . " Carly H. of Scholastic , Inc. declared Perry " pretty darn awesome . " Josh Jackson , editor of Paste , described Perry and Doofenshmirtz 's relationship as " pitch @-@ perfect . "

Certain reviewers have also commented negatively about Perry and his subplot , which Sherry Robinson of the St. Petersburg Times considers " pretty trippy . " Kevin McDonough of Sun Coast Today described it as " complicated " and " loosely connected " to the rest of the series , writing that he is " not sure what this accomplishes except to add the noise of explosions to the already constant din of singing and screaming . " Ed Liu of Toon Zone feels it is " truly puzzling what Perry the secret agent is doing in this show in the first place . " Liu considers his subplot to be a type of " throw everything against the wall and see what sticks " element and writes that " many of the earlier episodes of the show don 't manage to do a very good job of balancing the subplot and the main one . "

Perry was nominated for a Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Award in 2014 under the category of Favorite Animated Animal Sidekick .

= = In other media = =

In addition to the main television series , Perry has appeared in several pieces of Phineas and Ferb merchandise . To date , he has appeared in all Phineas and Ferb novelizations , published by Disney Press . The character has been adapted into a 20 inch plush toy , released by The Walt Disney Company . The plush has a button on its hand that allows it to emit Perry 's signature chattering noise . Certain t @-@ shirts based on the series released by both Disney and the online retail website Zazzle also display Perry and the phrase " Hey , where 's Perry ? " which most characters like Phineas , Isabella , Stacy , Irving , Ferb , and Lawrence utter when Perry goes to Major Monogram in his secret lair in almost every episode . There also is a T @-@ Shirt with Perry 's face . Perry appears in the Nintendo DS video game based on the series , simply titled Phineas and Ferb , where a mini @-@ game involves Perry stopping Doofenshmirtz 's latest evil scheme . As of 1 April 2014 , Perry is also a playable character in the video game Disney Infinity .

= Amylostereum =

Amylostereum is the single genus in the fungal family Amylostereaceae . The genus currently comprises four saprotrophic and parasitic species , which live off living or dead wood . The Amylostereaceae cause white rot in the wood by disintegrating the tissue component lignin . They produce crust @-@ like , partially wavy fruit bodies on the surface of infested trees , which are similar to those produced by Stereum species .

There are four described species in the Amylostereaceae : A. chailletii ( the type ) , A. areolatum , A. ferreum and A. laevigatum . The species were initially considered part of Stereum until mycologist Jacques Boidin found atypical microscopic differences between them . Forty years after his extensive researches from 1958 , Boidin reclassified Amylostereum into its own family .

Three Amylostereum species are symbionts of wood wasps in the genera Sirex , Urocerus , and Xoanon , which infest conifers . The female wood wasps deposit their eggs together with fungal spores and mucus in trees , and the fungus is eaten by the wasp 's larva as food . The fungus propagates vegetatively through the formation of asexual spores in newly emerged females that are stored in special structures adapted for the transport of symbiotic fungi . The A. areolatum – Sirex woodwasp ( S. noctilio ) symbiont complex has been studied extensively because of its potential to cause substantial economic losses in the forestry industry , particularly in non @-@ native regions .

= = Taxonomy and history of research = =

Amylostereaceae species were for a long time classified in the genus Stereum , based primary on the layered structure of the fruit body and the similar physiological activity . Mycologist Jacques Boidin separated Amylosterum from Stereum in 1958 , justifying this decision by explaining that microscopic differences such as amyloid spores and encrusted cystidia were sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as a new genus . Although the type species of the genus ( today called A. chailletii ) was initially named Trichocarpus ambiguus , the name Trichocarpus had already been used for a genus in the flowering plant family Malvaceae . Boidin thus chose the genus name Amylostereum , referring to the amyloid spores .

Based on DNA analysis , Boidin in 1998 moved Amylostereum into a new , monotypic family , the Amylostereaceae , which he attributed to the Hericiales order . Later studies , however , supported the initial classification in the Russulales .

= = = Classification = = =

The classification of the Amylostereaceae is not completely resolved . The next closest relatives might be – depending on the research – either Echinodontium tinctorium and most other species of the genus Echinodontium , or Artomyces pyxidatus . Most of the previous DNA analysis results suggest a narrow relation to Echinodontium , but several results of studies partially contradict this conclusion . Only the classification to the Russulales is regarded as correct . Some authors have suggested that Amylostereum should be placed in the family Echinodontiaceae .

The similarities between A. chailletii and A. areolatum have caused some confusion regarding their placement in the genus . As only the size of their fruit bodies differ from each other in appearance , researcher German Josef Krieglsteiner assumed that both are the same species in different age stages . Experiments with pure cultures of the fungi , however , showed that the mycelia of A. chailletii , A. laevigatum and A. ferreum were partially compatible to each other , but the mycelium of A. areolatum was incompatible to other species . Boidin believes that the common ancestor of all Amylostereum fungi used yellowwoods as a host . This genus of conifers was native in Europe until the Paleogene and Neogene Periods ( 66 million to 2 @.@ 6 million years ago ) , but became extinct there , so the Amylostereum fungi specialized on other conifers and differentiated into several species . Only A. ferreum specialized on yellowwoods in South America .

Compatibility tests as well as molecular analysis indicated that A. areolatum separated very early from other Amylostereum fungi . The other three species separated later from each other and are thus partially compatible to each other . A. ferreum and A. laevigatum produced in 59 % of all cases a common mycelium , A. ferreum and A. chailletii only in 44 % . There is an undescribed species in Amylostereum ; according to DNA analysis , it stands between A. laevigatum and A. ferreum . This is remarkable , as these fungi originated from Mycetangae ( storing organs of Platypodinae ) of a North American wood wasp , while A. laevigatum has never been seen as symbiont of wood wasps , neither in North American nor in Europe . The fungus possibly represents a separated species or a subtaxon of A. laevigatum . As A. areolatum and A. chailletii mainly reproduce asexually through the symbiosis of wood wasps , the genetic variability within these species is relatively low .

= = Description = =

= = = Macroscopic = = =

The Amylostereaceae produce crust @-@ like , dry and leathery @-@ corky fruit bodies on the bark of infested trees . The fruit bodies are 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 – 0 @.@ 06 in ) thick , irregularly shaped and are able to cover a large surface on the bark or otherwise can appear as small spots . They lie directly on the bark . The ochrous , grey or brownish fruit body ( hymenium ) has a smooth to warty surface texture and is turned outwards . It is bordered by a highly bent and wavy ( effuso @-@ reflex ) edge on all species except A. laevigatum , which has a churlish surface ( a tomentum ) and is usually dirty @-@ brown coloured . In some species , the tomentum stands clearly above and forms a kind of roof above the fruit body ; if it completely surrounds this roof , there might appear cuplike shapes .

= = = Microscopic = = =

The Amylostereaceae possess a dimitic trama , meaning that there are in its mycelia two kinds of hyphae . The first type is brownish skeletal hyphae , which provide stability to the fruit body . These hyphae run parallel to the bark and often have hairpin @-@ like turns , so that the loops form thick @-@ walled , cystidium @-@ like structures , the so @-@ called pseudocystidia . The second type is generative hyphae . They are translucent ( hyaline ) and serve to promote the growth of the fungus . Genuine cystidia arise in the hymenium and the layer directly below , the subhymenium . Both pseudocystidia and cystidia are encrusted , meaning that they feature crystal @-@ like structures on the top .

With the exception of A. laevigatum , all species have a thin separating layer , the cortex , between the hymenium and the tomentum . A cortex is also present on many Stereum fungi ( on a broader front ) and serves to bend up the fruit body . As this cortex is missing on A. laevigatum , its fruit body lies flat on the bark .

The basidia are 15 – 25 × 3 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm and have a slim , club @-@ like shape . Each basidium features four sterigmata , each of which bear one spore . The spores ' shape is slimly ellipsoidal or cylindrical . Their surface is smooth and their walls are thin . Although they are colourless and hyaline , the spores are amyloid , meaning they will turn bluish or purple when stained with Melzer 's reagent . This characteristic differs from other very similar species , and this gave the genus its name .

= = Distribution = =

The range of the Amylostereaceae originally comprised only Holarctic regions , including North America and Eurasia , and the Neotropics , with Central and South America . The introduction of A. areolatum and its symbionts , the Sirex woodwasps , saw the spread of the genus to all continents except Antarctica .

Amylostereum chailletiiz is common in the temperate regions of North America and Eurasia . A. laevigatum can be also found in temperate Eurasia , but it is unclear how broadly this species is distributed in North America . A. areolatum is originally native in North Africa and Eurasia ; it was however distributed through the 20th century in Australia , New Zealand , Southern Africa as well as in South and North America . Only A. ferreum is originally native in the tropics and is common in Brazil and the Caribbean .

= = Ecology = =

Amylostereaceae usually infest only dead or cut down conifer wood . Three species – A. areolatum , A. laevigatum and A. chailletii – may also establish a symbiosis with wood wasps ( Siricidae ) , which beside freshly logged trees also infest living trees and infect them with fungi . Symbioses have been recorded with several species : Sirex noctilio , S. juvencus , S. nitobei , S. cyaneus , S. edwarsii , S. nitidus , and , in Japan , Urocerus antennatus and Xoanon matsumurae . Wasps of the genera Sirex and Urocerus store oidia ( the hypha of fungi split up to spores ) in special abdominal organs . The wood wasps infect trees by splashing a phytotoxic secretion below the bark and at the same time injecting fungal spores into the hole . The secretion weakens the tree and temporarily diminishes its immune system , whereby the fungus can spread along the xylem . The infection with Amylostereaceae fulfill two functions for the wasps : it provides the larvae food , because the white rot softens the wood ; at the same time , the mycelia of the fungi serves as food for the larvae . After the larvae pupate , it absorbs the mycelia of the Amylostereaceae into its body to oviposit together with its eggs . The fungus benefits from the symbiosis as it spreads faster and more effectively than through airborne spores and furthermore does not need to develop fruit bodies . A. ferreum is the only Amylosterum species that has not been associated with any woodwasps .

= = = Host spectrum = = =

The host spectrum of the Amylostereaceae comprises several , partially very different genera of Coniferae . A. chailletii usually infests Pinaceae such as firs ( Abies ) and spruces ( Picea ) , but also cedars ( Cedrus ) and Douglas firs ( Pseudotsuga ) . A. areolatum has a similar host spectrum , which uses mainly firs , Japanese cedars ( Cryptomeria ) , larches ( Larix ) , spruces , pines ( Pinus ) and Douglas firs as hosts . While spruces dominate as hosts in the native habitat , this species is more common in pines on other locations . The host spectrum of A. laevigatum comprises Cupressaceae such as junipers ( Juniperus ) or cypresses ( Cupressus ) and the English yew ( Taxus baccata ) . A. ferreum is , however , only common on neotropic yellowwoods ( Podocarpus ) .

= = = Symptoms of infestation = = =

The Amylostereaceae are white rot pathogens . They disintegrate the lignin of the host wood , whereby the infested wood parts become less stable and take a fibrous structure . The wood bleaches as fungal enzymes break down and remove the brown @-@ pigmented lignin . The distribution in wood takes place mainly along the transport channels in the xylem . If the wood is crosscut , the red rot is vertically positioned , on which bleached , infested areas contrast with intact wood . Symptoms of infestion by the symbiotic partner — wood wasps — include circular exit holes in the crust and acute stress through dryness , common in hanging , falling or tanning needles .

= = Ecological and economical importance = =

In their native habitat , all Amylostereum species have a minor importance as forest pests . The infestation through wood wasps does not assume greater dimensions and is , compared with other pests , almost insignificant . The infection rates are even lower during sexual reproduction via fruit bodies , as the wasps do not play a part in the process . Furthermore , the Amylostereum fungi are alone often incapable of infesting healthy trees . They thus mostly act as saprobiontics . Pine monocultures in Australia , New Zealand , Africa and South America were shown to be susceptible to the Sirex woodwasp ( Sirex noctilio ) , which was introduced there and which is associated with A. areolatum . The wasp 's phytotoxic secretion , its larvae and the fungus combine very effectively with each other and contribute to forest decline rates of up to 80 % . This is mainly owing to the poor water and nutrient supply of the trees , which can poorly reconcile the drought stress caused by infestation . S. noctilio was detected in North America in the 2000s ( decade ) ; in Canada alone , the total economic loss to the forestry industry caused by the Sirex – Amylostereum symbiosis could be as high as $ 254 million per year for the next 20 years .

As a countermeasure , cultures of the nematode Deladenus siricidicola have been used as biological control to protect trees since the 1980s . This parasite feeds on the mycelia of A. areolatum and is therefore a food competitor of wood wasp larvae . Where S. noctilio larvae are present , the parasite infects and sterilizes the eggs of female wasps , causing them to be infertile . These infertile females lay infected eggs into new trees and thus spread the nematode . This control method has proven to be relatively successful to combat the Sirex – Amylostereum complex . In the Southern Hemisphere , where the technique has been widely employed , reductions of parasitism levels of 70 % – 100 % have been achieved .

= Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan =

Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan ( French : [ ʃaʁl valɑ ̃ tɛ ̃ alkɑ ̃ ] ; 30 November 1813 – 29 March 1888 ) was a French @-@ Jewish composer and virtuoso pianist . At the height of his fame in the 1830s and 1840s he was , alongside his friends and colleagues Frédéric Chopin and Franz Liszt , among the leading pianists in Paris , a city in which he spent virtually his entire life .

Alkan earned many awards at the Conservatoire de Paris , which he entered before he was six . His career in the salons and concert halls of Paris was marked by his occasional long withdrawals from public performance , for personal reasons . Although he had a wide circle of friends and acquaintances in the Parisian artistic world , including Eugène Delacroix and George Sand , from 1848 he began to adopt a reclusive life style , while continuing with his compositions – virtually all of which are for the keyboard . During this period he published , among other works , his collections of large @-@ scale studies in all the major keys ( Op. 35 ) and all the minor keys ( Op. 39 ) . The latter includes his Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , nos . 4 – 7 ) and Concerto for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , nos . 8 – 10 ) , which are often considered among his masterpieces and are of great musical and technical complexity . Alkan emerged from self @-@ imposed retirement in the 1870s to give a series of recitals that were attended by a new generation of French musicians .

Alkan 's attachment to his Jewish origins is displayed both in his life and his work . He was the first composer to incorporate Jewish melodies in art music . Fluent in Hebrew and Greek , he devoted much time to a complete new translation of the Bible into French . This work , like many of his musical compositions , is now lost . Alkan never married , but his presumed son Élie @-@ Miriam Delaborde was , like Alkan , a virtuoso performer on both the piano and the pedal piano , and edited a number of the elder composer 's works .

Following his death ( which according to persistent but unfounded legend was caused by a falling bookcase ) Alkan 's music became neglected , supported by only a few musicians including Ferruccio Busoni , Egon Petri and Kaikhosru Sorabji . From the late 1960s onwards , led by Raymond Lewenthal and Ronald Smith , many pianists have recorded his music and brought it back into the repertoire .

= = Life = =

= = = Family = = =

Alkan was born Charles @-@ Valentin Morhange on 30 November 1813 at 1 , Rue de Braque in Paris to Alkan Morhange ( 1780 – 1855 ) and Julie Morhange , née Abraham . Alkan Morhange was descended from a long @-@ established Jewish Ashkenazic community in the region of Metz ; the village of Morhange is located about 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the city of Metz . Charles @-@ Valentin was the second of six children – one elder sister and four younger brothers ; his birth certificate indicates that he was named after a neighbour who witnessed the birth .

Alkan Morhange supported the family as a musician and later as the proprietor of a private music school in le Marais , the Jewish quarter of Paris . At an early age , Charles @-@ Valentin and his siblings adopted their father 's first name as their last ( and were known by this during their studies at the Conservatoire de Paris and subsequent careers ) . His brother Napoléon ( 1826 – 1906 ) became professor of solfège at the Conservatoire , his brother Maxim ( 1818 – 1897 ) had a career writing light music for Parisian theatres , and his sister , Céleste ( 1812 – 1897 ) , was also a pianist . His brother Ernest ( 1816 – 1876 ) was a professional flautist , while the youngest brother Gustave ( 1827 – 1882 ) was to publish various dances for the piano .

= = = Prodigy ( 1819 – 1831 ) = = =

Alkan was a child prodigy . He entered the Conservatoire de Paris at an unusually early age , and studied both piano and organ . The records of his auditions survive in the Archives Nationales in Paris . At his solfège audition on 3 July 1819 , when he was just over 5 years 7 months , the examiners noted Alkan ( who is referred to even at this early date as " Alkan ( Valentin ) " , and whose age is given incorrectly as six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half ) as " having a pretty little voice " . The profession of Alkan Morhange is given as " music @-@ paper ruler " . At Charles @-@ Valentin 's piano audition on 6 October 1820 , when he was nearly seven ( and where he is named as " Alkan ( Morhange ) Valentin " ) , the examiners comment " This child has amazing abilities . "

Alkan became a favourite of his teacher at the Conservatoire , Joseph Zimmermann , who also taught Georges Bizet , César Franck , Charles Gounod , and Ambroise Thomas . At the age of seven , Alkan won a first prize for solfège and in later years prizes in piano ( 1824 ) , harmony ( 1827 ) , and organ ( 1834 ) . At the age of seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half he gave his first public performance , appearing as a violinist and playing an air and variations by Pierre Rode . Alkan 's Opus 1 , a set of variations for piano based on a theme by Daniel Steibelt , dates from 1828 , when he was 14 years old . At about this time he also undertook teaching duties at his father 's school . Antoine Marmontel , one of Charles @-@ Valentin 's pupils there , who was later to become his bête noire , wrote of the school :

Young children , mostly Jewish , were given elementary musical instruction and also learnt the first rudiments of French grammar ... [ There ] I received a few lessons from the young Alkan , four years my senior ... I see once more ... that really parochial environment where the talent of Valentin Alkan was formed and where his hard @-@ working youth blossomed ... It was like a preparatory school , a juvenile annexe of the Conservatoire .

From about 1826 Alkan began to appear as a piano soloist in leading Parisian salons , including those of the Princesse de la Moskova ( widow of Marshal Ney ) , and the Duchesse de Montebello . He was probably introduced to these venues by his teacher Zimmermann . At the same time , Alkan Morhange arranged concerts featuring Charles @-@ Valentin at public venues in Paris , in association with leading musicians including the sopranos Giuditta Pasta and Henriette Sontag , the cellist Auguste Franchomme and the violinist Lambert Massart , with whom Alkan gave concerts in a rare visit out of France to Brussels in 1827 . In 1829 , at the age of 15 , Alkan was appointed joint professor of solfège – among his pupils in this class a few years later was his brother Napoléon . In this manner Alkan 's musical career was launched well before the July Revolution of 1830 , which initiated a period in which " keyboard virtuosity ... completely dominated professional music making " in the capital , attracting from all over Europe pianists who , as Heinrich Heine wrote , invaded " like a plague of locusts swarming to pick Paris clean " . Alkan nonetheless continued his studies and in 1831 enrolled in the organ classes of François Benoist , from whom he may have learnt to appreciate the music of Johann Sebastian Bach , of whom Benoist was then one of the few French advocates .

= = = Early fame ( 1831 – 1837 ) = = =

Throughout the early years of the July Monarchy , Alkan continued to teach and play at public concerts and in eminent social circles . He became a friend of many who were active in the world of the arts in Paris , including Franz Liszt ( who had been based there since 1827 ) , George Sand , and Victor Hugo . It is not clear exactly when he first met Frédéric Chopin , who arrived in Paris in September 1831 . In 1832 Alkan took the solo role in his first Concerto da camera for piano and strings at the Conservatoire . In the same year , aged 19 , he was elected to the influential Société Académique des Enfants d 'Apollon ( Society of the Children of Apollo ) , whose members included Luigi Cherubini , Fromental Halévy , the conductor François Habeneck , and Liszt , who had been elected in 1824 at the age of twelve . Between 1833 and 1836 Alkan participated at many of the Society 's concerts . Alkan twice competed unsuccessfully for the Prix de Rome , in 1832 and again in 1834 ; the cantatas which he wrote for the competition , Hermann et Ketty and L 'Entrée en loge , have remained unpublished and unperformed .

In 1834 Alkan began his friendship with the Spanish musician Santiago Masarnau , which was to result in an extended and often intimate correspondence which only came to light in 2009 . Like virtually all of Alkan 's correspondence , this exchange is now one @-@ sided ; all of his papers ( including his manuscripts and his extensive library ) were either destroyed by Alkan himself , as is clear from his will , or became lost after his death . Later in 1834 Alkan made a visit to England , where he gave recitals and where the second Concerto da camera was performed in Bath by its dedicatee Henry Ibbot Field ; it was published in London together with some solo piano pieces . A letter to Masarnau and a notice in a French journal that Alkan played in London with Moscheles and Cramer , indicate that he returned to England in 1835 . Later that year , Alkan , having found a place of retreat at Piscop outside Paris , completed his first truly original works for solo piano , the Twelve Caprices , published in 1837 as Opp . 12 , 13 , 15 and 16 . Op. 16 , the Trois scherzi de bravoure , is dedicated to Masarnau . In January 1836 , Liszt recommended Alkan for the post of Professor at the Geneva Conservatoire , which Alkan declined , and in 1837 he wrote an enthusiastic review of Alkan 's Op. 15 Caprices in the Revue et gazette musicale .

= = = At the Square d 'Orléans ( 1837 – 1848 ) = = =

From 1837 , Alkan lived in the Square d 'Orléans in Paris , which was inhabited by numerous celebrities of the time including Marie Taglioni , Alexandre Dumas , George Sand , and Chopin . Chopin and Alkan were personal friends and often discussed musical topics , including a work on musical theory that Chopin proposed to write . By 1838 , at 25 years old , Alkan had reached a peak of his career . He frequently gave recitals , his more mature works had begun to be published , and he often appeared in concerts with Liszt and Chopin . On 23 April 1837 Alkan took part in Liszt 's farewell concert in Paris , together with the 14 @-@ year @-@ old César Franck and the virtuoso Johann Peter Pixis . On 3 March 1838 , at a concert at the piano @-@ maker Pape , Alkan played with Chopin , Zimmerman , and Chopin 's pupil Adolphe Gutmann in a performance of Alkan 's transcription , now lost , of two movements of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony for two pianos , eight hands .

At this point , for a period which coincided with the birth and childhood of his natural son , Élie @-@ Miriam Delaborde ( 1839 – 1913 ) , Alkan withdrew into private study and composition for six years , returning to the concert platform only in 1844 . Alkan neither asserted or denied his paternity of Delaborde , which , however , his contemporaries seemed to assume . Marmontel wrote cryptically in a biography of Delaborde that " [ his ] birth is a page from a novel in the life of a great artist " . Alkan gave early piano lessons to Delaborde , who was to follow his natural father as a keyboard virtuoso .

Alkan 's return to the concert platform in 1844 was greeted with enthusiasm by critics , who noted the " admirable perfection " of his technique , and lauded him as " a model of science and inspiration " , a " sensation " and an " explosion " . They also commented on the attending celebrities including Liszt , Chopin , Sand and Dumas . In the same year he published his piano étude Le chemin de fer , which critics , following Ronald Smith , believe to be the first representation in music of a steam engine . Between 1844 and 1848 Alkan produced a series of virtuoso pieces , the 25 Préludes Op. 31 for piano or organ , and the sonata Op. 33 Les quatre âges . Following an Alkan recital in 1848 , the composer Giacomo Meyerbeer was so impressed that he invited the pianist , whom he considered " a most remarkable artist " , to prepare the piano arrangement of the overture to his forthcoming opera , Le prophète . Meyerbeer heard and approved Alkan 's arrangement of the overture for four hands ( which Alkan played with his brother Napoléon ) in 1849 ; published in 1850 , it is the only record of the overture , which was scrapped during rehearsals at the Opéra .

= = = Retreat ( 1848 – 1872 ) = = =

In 1848 Alkan was bitterly disappointed when the head of the Conservatoire , Daniel Auber , replaced the retiring Zimmermann with the mediocre Marmontel as head of the Conservatoire piano department , a position which Alkan had eagerly anticipated , and for which he had strongly lobbied with the support of Sand , Dumas , and many other leading figures . A disgusted Alkan described the appointment in a letter to Sand as " the most incredible , the most shameful nomination " ; and Delacroix noted in his journal " By his confrontation with Auber , [ Alkan ] has been very put out and will doubtless continue to be so . " The upset arising from this incident may account for Alkan 's reluctance to perform in public in the ensuing period . His withdrawal was also influenced by the death of Chopin ; in 1850 he wrote to Masarnau " I have lost the strength to be of any economic or political use " , and lamented " the death of poor Chopin , another blow which I felt deeply . " Chopin , on his deathbed in 1849 , had indicated his respect for Alkan by bequeathing him his unfinished work on a piano method , intending him to complete it , and after Chopin 's death a number of his students transferred to Alkan . After giving two concerts in 1853 , Alkan withdrew , in spite of his fame and technical accomplishment , into virtual seclusion for some twenty years .

Little is known of this period of Alkan 's life , other than that apart from composing he was immersed in the study of the Bible and the Talmud . Throughout this period Alkan continued his correspondence with Ferdinand Hiller , whom he had probably met in Paris in the 1830s , and with Masarnau , from which some insights can be gained . It appears that Alkan completed a full translation into French , now lost , of both the Old Testament and the New Testament , from their original languages . In 1865 , he wrote to Hiller : " Having translated a good deal of the Apocrypha , I 'm now onto the second Gospel which I am translating from the Syriac ... In starting to translate the New Testament , I was suddenly struck by a singular idea – that you have to be Jewish to be able to do it . "

Despite his seclusion from society , this period saw the composition and publication of many of Alkan 's major piano works , including the Douze études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 ( 1857 ) , the Sonatine , Op. 61 ( 1861 ) , the 49 Esquisses , Op. 63 ( 1861 ) , and the five collections of Chants ( 1857 – 1872 ) , as well as the Sonate de concert for cello and piano , Op. 47 ( 1856 ) . These did not pass unremarked ; Hans von Bülow , for example , gave a laudatory review of the Op. 35 Études in the Neue Berliner Musikzeitung in 1857 , the year in which they were published in Berlin , commenting that " Alkan is unquestionably the most eminent representative of the modern piano school at Paris . The virtuoso 's disinclination to travel , and his firm reputation as a teacher , explain why , at present , so little attention has been given to his work in Germany . "

From the early 1850s Alkan began to turn his attention seriously to the pedal piano ( pédalier ) . Alkan gave his first public performances on the pédalier to great critical acclaim in 1852 . From 1859 onwards he began to publish pieces designated as " for organ or piano à pédalier " .

= = = Reappearance ( 1873 – 1888 ) = = =

It is not clear why , in 1873 , Alkan decided to emerge from his self @-@ imposed obscurity to give a series of six Petits Concerts at the Érard piano showrooms . It may have been associated with the developing career of Delaborde , who , returning to Paris in 1867 , soon became a concert fixture , including in his recitals many works by his father , and who was at the end of 1872 given the appointment that had escaped Alkan himself , Professor at the Conservatoire . The success of the Petits Concerts led to them becoming an annual event ( with occasional interruptions caused by Alkan 's health ) until 1880 or possibly beyond . The Petits Concerts featured music not only by Alkan but of his favourite composers from Bach onwards , played on both the piano and the pédalier , and occasionally with the participation of another instrumentalist or singer . He was assisted in these concerts by his siblings , and by other musicians including Delaborde , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , and Auguste Franchomme .

Those encountering Alkan at this phase included the young Vincent d 'Indy , who recalled Alkan 's " skinny , hooked fingers " playing Bach on an Érard pedal piano : " I listened , riveted to the spot by the expressive , crystal @-@ clear playing . " Alkan later played Beethoven 's Op. 110 sonata , of which d 'Indy said : " What happened to the great Beethovenian poem ... I couldn 't begin to describe – above all in the Arioso and the Fugue , where the melody , penetrating the mystery of Death itself , climbs up to a blaze of light , affected me with an excess of enthusiasm such as I have never experienced since . This was not Liszt — perhaps less perfect , technically — but it had greater intimacy and was more humanly moving ... "

The biographer of Chopin , Frederick Niecks , sought Alkan for his recollections in 1880 but was sternly denied access by Alkan 's concierge – " To my ... enquiry when he could be found at home , the reply was a ... decisive ' Never ' . " However , a few days later he found Alkan at Érard 's , and Niecks writes of their meeting that " his reception of me was not merely polite but most friendly . "

= = = Death = = =

According to his death certificate , Alkan died in Paris on 29 March 1888 at the age of 74 . Alkan was buried on 1 April ( Easter Sunday ) in the Jewish section of Montmartre Cemetery , Paris , not far from the tomb of his contemporary Fromental Halévy ; his sister Céleste was later buried in the same tomb .

For many years it was believed that Alkan met his death when a bookcase toppled over and fell on him as he reached for a volume of the Talmud from a high shelf . This tale , which was circulated by the pianist Isidor Philipp , is dismissed by Hugh Macdonald , who reports the discovery of a contemporary letter by one of his pupils explaining that Alkan had been found prostrate in his kitchen , under a porte @-@ parapluie ( a heavy coat / umbrella rack ) , after his concierge heard his moaning . He had possibly fainted , bringing it down on himself while grabbing out for support . He was reportedly carried to his bedroom and died later that evening . The story of the bookcase may have its roots in a legend told of Aryeh Leib ben Asher , rabbi of Metz , the town from which Alkan 's family originated .

= = Personality = =

Alkan was described by Marmontel ( who refers to " a regrettable misunderstanding at a moment of our careers in 1848 " ) , as follows :

" We will not give the portrait of Valentin Alkan from the rear , as in some photographs we have seen . His intelligent and original physiognomy deserves to be taken in profile or head @-@ on . The head is strong ; the deep forehead is that of a thinker ; the mouth large and smiling , the nose regular ; the years have whitened the beard and hair ... the gaze fine , a little mocking . His stooped walk , his puritan comportment , give him the look of an Anglican minister or a rabbi – for which he has the abilities . "

Alkan was not always remote or aloof . Chopin describes , in a letter to friend , visiting the theatre with Alkan in 1847 to see the comedian Arnal : " [ Arnal ] tells the audience how he was desperate to pee in a train , but couldn 't get to a toilet before they stopped at Orléans . There wasn 't a single vulgar word in what he said , but everyone understood and split their sides laughing . " Hugh Macdonald notes that Alkan " particularly enjoyed the patronage of Russian aristocratic ladies , ' des dames très parfumées et froufroutantes [ highly perfumed and frilled ladies ] ' , as Isidore Philipp described them . "

Alkan 's aversion to socialising and publicity , especially following 1850 , appeared to be self @-@ willed . Liszt is reported to have commented to the Danish pianist Frits Hartvigson that " Alkan possessed the finest technique he had ever known , but preferred the life of a recluse . " Stephanie McCallum has suggested that Alkan may have suffered from Asperger syndrome , schizophrenia or obsessive – compulsive disorder .

Alkan 's later correspondence contains many despairing comments . In a letter of about 1861 he wrote to Hiller : " I 'm becoming daily more and more misanthropic and misogynous ... nothing worthwhile , good or useful to do ... no one to devote myself to . My situation makes me horridly sad and wretched . Even musical production has lost its attraction for me for I can 't see the point or goal . " This spirit of anomie may have led him to reject requests in the 1860s to play in public , or to allow performances of his orchestral compositions . However , it should not be ignored that he was writing similarly frantic self @-@ analyses in his letters of the early 1830s to Masarnau .

Jack Gibbons writes of Alkan 's personality : " Alkan was an intelligent , lively , humorous and warm person ( all characteristics which feature strongly in his music ) whose only crime seems to have been having a vivid imagination , and whose occasional eccentricities ( mild when compared with the behaviour of other ' highly @-@ strung ' artistes ! ) stemmed mainly from his hypersensitive nature . " Macdonald , however , suggests that " Alkan was a man of profoundly conservative ideas , whose lifestyle , manner of dress , and belief in the traditions of historic music , set him apart from other musicians and the world at large . "

= = Judaism = =

Alkan grew up in a religiously observant Jewish household . His grandfather Marix Morhange had been a printer of the Talmud in Metz , and was probably a melamed ( Hebrew teacher ) in the Jewish congregation at Paris . Alkan 's widespread reputation as a student of the Old Testament and religion , and the high quality of his Hebrew handwriting testify to his knowledge of the religion , and many of his habits indicate that he practised at least some of its obligations , such as maintaining the laws of kashrut . Alkan was regarded by the Paris Consistory , the central Jewish organisation of the city , as an authority on Jewish music . In 1845 he assisted the Consistory in evaluating the musical ability of Samuel Naumbourg , who was subsequently appointed as hazzan ( cantor ) of the main Paris synagogue ; and he later contributed choral pieces in each of Naumbourg 's collections of synagogue music ( 1847 and 1856 ) . Alkan was appointed organist at the Synagogue de Nazareth in 1851 , although he resigned the post almost immediately for " artistic reasons " .

Alkan 's Op. 31 set of Préludes includes a number of pieces based on Jewish subjects , including some titled Prière ( Prayer ) , one preceded by a quote from the Song of Songs , and another titled Ancienne mélodie de la synagogue ( Old synagogue melody ) . The collection is believed to be " the first publication of art music specifically to deploy Jewish themes and ideas . " Alkan 's three settings of synagogue melodies , prepared for his former pupil Zina de Mansouroff , are further examples of his interest in Jewish music ; Kessous Dreyfuss provides a detailed analysis of these works and their origins . Other works evidencing this interest include no . 7 of his Op. 66 . 11 Grands préludes et 1 Transcription ( 1866 ) , entitled " Alla giudesca " and marked " con divozione " , a parody of excessive hazzanic practice ; and the slow movement of the cello sonata Op. 47 ( 1857 ) , which is prefaced by a quotation from the Old Testament prophet Micah and uses melodic tropes derived from the cantillation of the haftarah in the synagogue .

The inventory of Alkan 's apartment made after his death indicates over 75 volumes in Hebrew or related to Judaism , left to his brother Napoléon ( as well as 36 volumes of music manuscript ) . These are all lost . Bequests in his will to the Conservatoire to found prizes for composition of cantatas on Old Testament themes and for performance on the pedal @-@ piano , and to a Jewish charity for the training of apprentices , were refused by the beneficiaries .

= = Music = =

= = = Influences = = =

Brigitte François @-@ Sappey points out the frequency with which Alkan has been compared to Berlioz , both by his contemporaries and later . She mentions that Hans von Bülow called him " the Berlioz of the piano " , while Schumann , in criticising the Op. 15 Romances , claimed that Alkan merely " imitated Berlioz on the piano . " She further notes that Ferruccio Busoni repeated the comparison with Berlioz in a draft ( but unpublished ) monograph , while Kaikhosru Sorabji commented that Alkan 's Op. 61 Sonatine was like " a Beethoven sonata written by Berlioz " . Berlioz was ten years older than Alkan , but did not attend the Conservatoire until 1826 . The two were acquainted , and were perhaps both influenced by the unusual ideas and style of Anton Reicha who taught at the Conservatoire from 1818 to 1836 , and by the sonorities of the composers of the period of the French Revolution . They both created individual , indeed , idiosyncratic sound @-@ worlds in their music ; there are , however , major differences between them . Alkan , unlike Berlioz , remained closely dedicated to the German musical tradition ; his style and composition were heavily determined by his pianism , whereas Berlioz could hardly play at the keyboard and wrote nothing for piano solo . Alkan 's works therefore also include miniatures and ( among his early works ) salon music , genres which Berlioz avoided .

Alkan 's attachment to the music of his predecessors is demonstrated throughout his career , from his arrangements for keyboard of Beethoven 's Seventh Symphony ( 1838 ) , and of the minuet of Mozart 's 40th Symphony ( 1844 ) , through the sets Souvenirs des concerts du Conservatoire ( 1847 and 1861 ) and the set Souvenirs de musique de chambre ( 1862 ) , which include transcriptions of music by Mozart , Beethoven , J. S. Bach , Haydn , Gluck , and others . In this context should be mentioned Alkan 's extensive cadenza for Beethoven 's 3rd Piano Concerto ( 1860 ) , which includes quotes from the finale of Beethoven 's 5th Symphony . Alkan 's transcriptions , together with original music of Bach , Beethoven , Handel , Mendelssohn , Couperin and Rameau , were frequently played during the series of Petits Concerts given by Alkan at Erard .

As regards the music of his own time , Alkan was unenthusiastic , or at any rate detached . He commented to Hiller that " Wagner is not a musician , he is a disease . " While he admired Berlioz 's talent , he did not enjoy his music . At the Petits Concerts , little more recent than Mendelssohn and Chopin ( both of whom had died around 25 years before the series of concerts was initiated ) was played , except for Alkan 's own works and occasionally some by his favourites such as Saint @-@ Saëns .

= = = Style = = =

" Like ... Chopin " , writes pianist and academic Kenneth Hamilton , " Alkan 's musical output was centred almost exclusively on the piano " . Some of his music requires extreme technical virtuosity , clearly reflecting his own abilities , often calling for great velocity , enormous leaps at speed , long stretches of fast repeated notes , and the maintenance of widely spaced contrapuntal lines . The illustration ( right ) from the Grande sonate is analysed by Smith as " six parts in invertible counterpoint , plus two extra voices and three doublings – eleven parts in all . " Some typical musical devices , such as a sudden explosive final chord following a quiet passage , were established at an early stage in Alkan 's compositions . Macdonald suggests that

unlike Wagner , Alkan did not seek to refashion the world through opera ; nor , like Berlioz , to dazzle the crowds by putting orchestral music at the service of literary expression ; nor even , as with Chopin or Liszt , to extend the field of harmonic idiom . Armed with his key instrument , the piano , he sought incessantly to transcend its inherent technical limits , remaining apparently insensible to the restrictions which had withheld more restrained composers .

However , not all of Alkan 's music is either lengthy or technically difficult ; for example , many of the Op. 31 Préludes and of the set of Esquisses , Op. 63 .

Moreover , in terms of structure , Alkan in his compositions sticks to traditional musical forms , although he often took them to extremes , as he did with piano technique . The study Op. 39 , no . 8 ( the first movement of the Concerto for solo piano ) takes almost half an hour in performance . Describing this " gigantic " piece , Ronald Smith comments that it convinces for the same reasons as does the music of the classical masters ; " the underlying unity of its principal themes , and a key structure that is basically simple and sound . "

Some of Alkan 's music gives hints of the obsessiveness which some have detected in his personality . The Chant Op. 38 , no . 2 , entitled Fa , repeats the note of its title incessantly ( in total 414 times ) against shifting harmonies which make it " cut ... into the texture with the ruthless precision of a laser beam . " In modelling his five sets of Chants on the first book of Mendelssohn 's Songs Without Words , Alkan ensured that the pieces in each of his sets followed precisely the same key signatures , and even the moods , of the original . Alkan was rigorous in his enharmonic spelling , occasionally modulating to keys containing double @-@ sharps or double @-@ flats , so pianists are occasionally required to come to terms with unusual keys such as E @-@ sharp major , enharmonic equivalent to F major , and the occasional triple @-@ sharp .

= = = Works = = =

= = = = Early works = = = =

Alkan 's earliest works indicate , according to Smith , that in his early teens he " was a formidable musician but as yet ... industrious rather than ... creative " . Only with his 12 Caprices ( Opp.12 – 13 and 15 – 16 , 1837 ) did his compositions begin to attract serious critical attention . The op . 15 set , Souvenirs : Trois morceaux dans le genre pathétique , dedicated to Liszt , contains Le vent ( The Wind ) , which was at one time the only piece by the composer to figure regularly in recitals . These works , however , did not meet with the approval of Robert Schumann , who wrote : " One is startled by such false , such unnatural art ... the last [ piece , titled Morte ( Death ) , is ] a crabbed waste , overgrown with brush and weeds ... nothing is to be found but black on black " . Ronald Smith , however , finds in this latter work , which cites the Dies Irae theme also used by Berlioz , Liszt and others , foreshadowings of Maurice Ravel , Modest Mussorgsky and Charles Ives . Schumann did , however , respond positively to the pieces of Les mois ( originally part published as Op. 8 in 1838 , later published as a complete set in 1840 as Op. 74 ) : " [ Here ] we find such an excellent jest on operatic music in no . 6 [ L 'Opéra ] that a better one could scarcely be imagined ... The composer ... well understands the rarer effects of his instrument . " Alkan 's technical mastery of the keyboard was asserted by the publication in 1838 of the Trois grandes études ( originally without opus number , later republished as Op. 76 ) , the first for the left hand alone , the second for the right hand alone , the third for both hands ; and all of great difficulty , described by Smith as " a peak of pianistic transcendentalism " . This is perhaps the earliest example of writing for a single hand as " an entity in its own right , capable of covering all registers of the piano , of rendering itself as accompanied soloist or polyphonist . "

= = = = Early maturity = = = =

Alkan 's large scale Duo ( in effect a sonata ) Op. 21 for violin and piano ( dedicated to Chrétien Urhan ) and his Piano Trio Op. 30 appeared in 1841 . Apart from these , Alkan published only a few minor works between 1840 and 1844 , after which a series of virtuoso works was issued , many of which he had played at his successful recitals at Érard and elsewhere ; these included the Marche funèbre ( Op. 26 ) , the Marche triomphale ( Op. 27 ) and Le chemin de fer ( also published , separately , as Op. 27 ) . In 1847 appeared the Op. 31 Préludes and his first large @-@ scale unified piano work , the Grande sonate Les quatre âges ( Op. 33 ) . The sonata is structurally innovative in two ways ; each movement is slower than its predecessor , and the work anticipates the practice of progressive tonality , beginning in D major and ending in G @-@ sharp minor . Dedicated to Alkan Morhange , the sonata depicts in its successive movements its ' hero ' at the ages of 20 ( optimistic ) , 30 ( " Quasi @-@ Faust " , impassioned and fatalistic ) , 40 ( domesticated ) and 50 ( suffering : the movement is prefaced by a quotation from Aeschylus 's Prometheus Unbound ) . In 1848 followed Alkan 's set of 12 études dans tous les tons majeurs Op. 35 , whose substantial pieces range in mood from the hectic Allegro barbaro ( no . 5 ) and the intense Chant d 'amour @-@ Chant de mort ( Song of Love – Song of Death ) ( no . 10 ) to the descriptive and picturesque L 'incendie au village voisin ( The Fire in the Next Village ) ( no . 7 ) .

A number of Alkan 's compositions from this period were never performed and have been lost . Among the missing works are some string sextets and a full @-@ scale orchestral symphony in B minor , which was described in an article in 1846 by the critic Léon Kreutzer , to whom Alkan had shown the score . Kreutzer noted that the introductory adagio of the symphony was headed " by Hebrew characters in red ink ... This is no less than the verse from Genesis : And God said , Let there be light : and there was light . " Kreutzer opined that , set beside Alkan 's conception , Joseph Haydn 's Creation was a " mere candle ( lampion ) . "

= = = = Internal exile = = = =

During his twenty @-@ year absence from the public between 1853 and 1873 Alkan produced many of his most notable compositions , although there is a ten @-@ year gap between publication of the Op. 35 studies and that of his next group of piano works in 1856 and 1857 . Of these , undoubtedly the most significant was the enormous Opus 39 collection of twelve studies in all the minor keys , which contains the Symphony for Solo Piano ( numbers four , five , six and seven ) , and the Concerto for Solo Piano ( numbers eight , nine and ten ) . The Concerto takes nearly an hour in performance . Number twelve of Op. 39 is a set of variations , Le festin d 'Ésope ( Aesop 's Feast ) . The other components of Op. 39 are of a similar stature . Smith describes Op. 39 as a whole as " a towering achievement , gathering ... the most complete manifestation of Alkan 's many @-@ sided genius : its dark passion , its vital rhythmic drive , its pungent harmony , its occasionally outrageous humour , and , above all , its uncompromising piano writing . "

In the same year appeared the Sonate de Concert , Op. 47 , for cello and piano , " among the most difficult and ambitious in the romantic repertoire ... anticipating Mahler in its juxtaposition of the sublime and the trivial " , and with its four movements showing again an anticipation of progressive tonality , each ascending by a major third . Other anticipations of Mahler ( who was born in 1860 ) can be found in the two " military " Op. 50 piano studies of 1859 Capriccio alla soldatesca and Le tambour bat aux champs ( The drum beats the retreat ) , as well as in certain of the miniatures of the 1861 Esquisses , Op. 63 . The bizarre and unclassifiable Marcia funebre , sulla morte d 'un Pappagallo ( Funeral march on the death of a parrot , 1859 ) , for three oboes , bassoon and voices , described by Kenneth Hamilton as " Monty @-@ Pythonesque " , is also of this period .

The Esquisses of 1861 are a set of highly varied miniatures , ranging from the tiny 18 @-@ bar no . 4 , Les cloches ( The Bells ) , to the strident tone clusters of no . 45 , Les diablotins ( The Imps ) , and closing with a further evocation of church bells in no . 49 , Laus Deo ( Praise God ) . They were preceded in publication by Alkan 's deceptively titled Sonatine , Op. 61 , in ' classical ' format , but a work of " ruthless economy [ which ] although it plays for less than twenty minutes ... is in every way a major work . "

Two of Alkan 's substantial works from this period are musical paraphrases of literary works . Salut , cendre du pauvre , Op. 45 ( 1856 ) , follows a section of the poem La Mélancolie by Gabriel @-@ Marie Legouvé ; while Super flumina Babylonis , Op. 52 ( 1859 ) , is a blow @-@ by @-@ blow recreation in music of the emotions and prophecies of Psalm 137 ( " By the waters of Babylon ... " ) . This piece is prefaced by a French version of the psalm which is believed to be the sole remnant of Alkan 's Bible translation . Alkan 's lyrical side was displayed in this period by the five sets of Chants inspired by Mendelssohn , which appeared between 1857 and 1872 , as well as by a number of minor pieces .

Alkan 's publications for organ or pédalier commenced with his Benedictus , Op. 54 ( 1859 ) . In the same year he published a set of very spare and simple preludes in the eight Gregorian modes ( 1859 , without opus number ) , which , in Smith 's opinion , " seem to stand outside the barriers of time and space " , and which he believes reveal " Alkan 's essential spiritual modesty . " These were followed by pieces such as the 13 Prières ( Prayers ) , Op. 64 ( 1865 ) , and the Impromptu sur le Choral de Luther " Un fort rempart est notre Dieu " , op . 69 ( 1866 ) . Alkan also issued a book of 12 studies for the pedalboard alone ( no opus number , 1866 ) and the Bombardo @-@ carillon for pedalboard duet ( four feet ) of 1872 .

Alkan 's return to the concert platform at his Petits Concerts , however , marked the end of his publications ; his final work to be issued was the Toccatina , Op. 75 , in 1872 .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Alkan had few followers ; however , he had important admirers , including Liszt , Anton Rubinstein , Franck , and , in the early twentieth century , Busoni , Petri and Sorabji . Rubinstein dedicated his fifth piano concerto to him , and Franck dedicated to Alkan his Grand pièce symphonique op . 17 for organ . Busoni ranked Alkan with Liszt , Chopin , Schumann and Brahms as one of the five greatest composers for the piano since Beethoven . Isidor Philipp and Delaborde edited new printings of his works in the early 1900s . In the first half of the twentieth century , when Alkan 's name was still obscure , Busoni and Petri included his works in their performances . Sorabji published an article on Alkan in his 1932 book Around Music ; he promoted Alkan 's music in his reviews and criticism , and his Sixth Symphony for Piano ( Symphonia claviensis ) ( 1975 – 76 ) , includes a section entitled Quasi Alkan . The English composer and writer Bernard van Dieren praised Alkan in an essay in his 1935 book , Down Among the Dead Men , and the composer Humphrey Searle also called for a revival of his music in a 1937 essay .

For much of the 20th century , Alkan 's work remained in obscurity , but from the 1960s onwards it was steadily revived . Raymond Lewenthal gave a pioneering extended broadcast on Alkan on WBAI radio in New York in 1963 , and later included Alkan 's music in recitals and recordings . The English pianist Ronald Smith championed Alkan 's music through performances , recordings , a biography and the Alkan Society of which he was president for many years . Works by Alkan have also been recorded by Jack Gibbons , Marc @-@ André Hamelin , Mark Latimer , John Ogdon , and Hüseyin Sermet , among many others . Ronald Stevenson has composed a piano piece Festin d 'Alkan ( referring to Alkan 's Op. 39 , no . 12 ) and the composer Michael Finnissy has also written piano pieces referring to Alkan , e.g. Alkan @-@ Paganini , no . 5 of The History of Photography in Sound . Marc @-@ André Hamelin 's Étude No . IV is a moto perpetuo study combining themes from Alkan 's Symphony , Op. 39 , no . 7 , and Alkan 's own perpetual motion étude , Op. 76 , no . 3 . It is dedicated to Averil Kovacs and François Luguenot , respectively activists in the English and French Alkan Societies . As Hamelin writes in his preface to this étude , the idea to combine these came from the composer Alistair Hinton , the finale of whose Piano Sonata No. 5 ( 1994 – 95 ) includes a substantial section entitled " Alkanique " .

Alkan 's compositions for organ have been among the last of his works to be brought back to the repertoire . As to Alkan 's pedal @-@ piano works , due to a recent revival of the instrument , they are once again being performed as originally intended ( rather than on an organ ) , such as by Italian pedal @-@ pianist Roberto Prosseda , and recordings of Alkan on the pedal piano have been made by Jean Dubé and Olivier Latry .

= = Selected recordings = =

This list comprises a selection of some premiere and other recordings by musicians who have become closely associated with Alkan 's works . A comprehensive discography is available at the Alkan Society website .

Piano Trio , Op. 30 – played by Trio Alkan . Recorded 1992 . Naxos , 8555352 ( 2001 )

Grande sonate , Op. 33 – played by Marc @-@ André Hamelin ( piano ) . Recorded 1994 . Hyperion , CDA669764 ( 1995 ) .

Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 – played by Ronald Smith ( piano ) . Recorded 1977 . EMI , SLS 5100 [ 3 LPs ] ( 1978 ) , partly reissued EMI Gemini , 585 4842 ( 2003 )

Études dans tous les tons mineurs , Op. 39 and other works – played by Jack Gibbons ( piano ) . Recorded 1995 . ASV , CD DCS 227 [ 2 CDs ] ( 1995 )

Concerto , Op. 39 , nos . 8 – 10 – played by John Ogdon ( piano ) . Recorded 1969 . RCA , LSC @-@ 3192 [ LP ] ( 1972 ) . Great British Pianists , 4569132 ( 1999 )

Le festin d 'Esope ( Op. 39 , no . 12 ) and other works – played by Raymond Lewenthal . Recorded 1966 . RCA LM 2815 [ LP mono ] , LSC @-@ 2815 [ LP stereo ] ; BMG High Performance Series 633310 ( 1999 )

Sonate de concert , Op. 47 , for cello and piano – played by Steven Osborne ( piano ) and Alban Gebhart ( cello ) . Recorded 2008 . Hyperion CDA67624 ( 2008 ) .

11 Pièces dans le style religieux , et une transcription du Messie de Hændel , Op. 72 – played by Kevin Bowyer ( organ ) . Recorded 2005 . Toccata TOCC 0031 ( 2007 )

Symphony for Solo Piano ( Op. 39 , no . 4 @-@ 7 ) – played by Egon Petri ( piano ) . c . 1952 – 53 . Symposium Records , CD 1145 ( 1993 )

= = = About Alkan = = =

Alkan Society , including complete and regularly updated discography

Alkan web site of Sylvain Chosson , contains detailed listing of Alkan 's works , with some downloadable scores

" The Myths of Alkan " by Jack Gibbons

Unriddling Alkan by David Conway

Alkan @-@ Zimmerman International Music Association

Pictures of Alkan

= = = Scores and sheet @-@ music = = =

Free Alkan scores and manuscripts – site of Sylvain Chosson

Kunst der Fuge : many of Alkan 's piano works in MIDI performances

Alkan Piano Trio @-@ Discussion of work and soundbites

www.kreusch @-@ sheet @-@ music.net – Free Scores by Alkan

Free scores by Alkan at the International Music Score Library Project

= = = Performances on the Web = = =

Trois Andantes Romantiques , Op. 13 , No 2 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck

Scherzo Focoso , Op. 34 on YouTube , played by Lloyd Buck

" Allegro Barbaro " , Op. 35 , No. 5 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons

Menuet , Symphonie , Op. 39 , No. 6 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell

Last movement , Symphonie , Op. 39 , No. 7 on YouTube , played by Jonathan Powell

First movement , Concerto , Op. 39 , No. 8 on YouTube , played by Jack Gibbons

Le Festin d 'Ésope , Op. 39 , no . 12 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen

Four Esquisses from Op. 63 on YouTube , played by Edward Cohen

" Trois anciennes mélodies de la synagogue " and " Sicut cerva " on YouTube - Klára Kolonits ( soprano ) and Daniel Dinyes ( piano )

= Business School ( The Office ) =

" Business School " is the seventeenth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's forty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written by Brent Forrester , and directed by Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Firefly creator Joss Whedon , the episode aired on NBC on February 15 , 2007 .

In the episode , Michael is invited by Ryan to speak to his business school class . When many of the students question the usefulness of paper in a computerized world , Michael attempts to inform the class of how essential paper is . Meanwhile , a bat becomes trapped in the office , leading Dwight and Creed on a mission to protect the employees .

= = Plot = =

Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) invites Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) to speak at his business school class . Michael is excited , but Ryan admits in a talking head interview that he has only invited Michael because his professor promised to bump up the grade of any student who brings his boss into class . During his introduction of Michael to his classmates , Ryan predicts that Dunder Mifflin will become obsolete within five to ten years . However , Michael could not hear him and proceeds to ruin the event with his antics ( including tearing pages out of a student 's textbook to prove you " can 't learn from textbooks " ) . Michael is then taken aback when one of Ryan 's classmates asks for Michael 's opinion of Ryan 's prediction . Infuriated and hurt , Michael punishes Ryan by relocating his desk to the " annex , " where Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) works , who babbles uncontrollably in excitement .

Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) discovers a bat in the ceiling , and accidentally lets it loose into the office , sending the employees scurrying for cover . Stanley immediately goes home . As many of the employees hide , Dwight enlists the help of Creed ( Creed Bratton ) to expel the bat . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) exploits Dwight 's paranoia , and pretends that he is turning into a vampire . Dwight eventually catches the bat with a garbage bag after it lands on Meredith 's head .

Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , in the meantime , invites her co @-@ workers to her art show after work , but few show any enthusiasm , leaving her feeling alienated and sad . The art show doesn 't go as planned , and she begins to doubt her abilities . When Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) shows up with his partner Gil , they critique her art , and note that Pam 's art has been let down by her lack of courage , not realizing that she is standing right behind them . As she begins to take her work down , Michael appears and , in a moment of sincere kindness , compliments her work and asks to buy her drawing of the office building . Pam embraces him as her eyes tear up . Michael soon places Pam 's drawing on the wall next to his office .

= = Production = =

" Business School " was the second Office episode written by Brent Forrester . Forrester had previously written " The Merger " . The episode was the first to be directed by Joss Whedon . Whedon , who is a friend of both producer Greg Daniels and Jenna Fischer , and also met most of the production staff prior to the episode , stated that he chose to direct the episode " because I already know the writing staff and a bunch of the cast , and I adore the show . " When informed that the episode was about a bat entering into the office and one of the characters pretending to be a vampire , Whedon thought that it was a joke , stating " Didn 't I just leave this party ? " in reference to Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In an interview featured on the third season DVD , Whedon joked that the " Business School " episode and his former TV show were very similar because " Buffy [ ... ] was sad and depressing but ... it was funny . Especially when people died . And a lot of people do die in [ ' Business School ' ] . " But upon completing the episode , Whedon stated " That was just coincidence . But that 's how that happened . God , it was fun . " Whedon stated that he was surprised with the amount of input he was allowed with the script . " I wouldn 't say freedom to do things with it ... But way more input was asked for than I would have ever anticipated . " At Pam 's art show , the pieces which she was supposed to have painted didn 't suit Whedon . " I got to the set and saw Pam 's art , and I was like , ' This is not right . ' " Whedon said that he held up filming for over an hour until the staff was able create new pieces of art .

For the scenes which involved filming with a bat , the production team used an actual bat , an animated bat , and a mechanical bat . When around the actual bat , Kate Flannery , who portrays Meredith Palmer , stated that " we had to be extremely quiet around [ it ] , basically pretending to scream . " California State University , Northridge served as the backdrop for Ryan 's business school and the art show .

= = Reception = =

The episode received generally good reviews from critics . Brian Zoromski , of IGN , stated that " ' Business School ' was an exercise in what works best in an Office episode . " Zoromski also praised Joss Whedon 's directorial debut for the show , stating that " Whedon 's direction and sense of humor was both excellently put to use and alluded to in the scenes in which Jim hilariously pretended to become a vampire . " Zoromski went on to say that the acting of John Krasinski and Rashida Jones , who portrays Karen Filippelli , helped to make the vampire scenes the funniest parts of the episode . He gave the episode a 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 . Abby West , of Entertainment Weekly , stated that " This show has always been able to turn on a dime and take the comedy to a soul @-@ stirring dramatic climax with just the lightest of touches , and last night was no different . " West went on to praise Michael and Pam 's scene at the art show as one of these moments .

= M @-@ 81 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 81 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The trunkline travels from the city of Saginaw at the junction with M @-@ 13 to the junction with M @-@ 53 east of Cass City over the county line in Greenleaf Township in northwestern Sanilac County in The Thumb area of the state . Outside of the cities and villages along its route , M @-@ 81 passes through mostly rural farm country . Near Saginaw it intersects the freeway that carries both Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) in an industrial area .

A road bearing the M @-@ 81 designation has existed since at least July 1 , 1919 , when the state initially numbered its trunkline highways . Since that time , it has been extended , rerouted or shortened several times . These changes resulted in essentially the modern highway routing by 1926 ; the highway was fully paved in the 1940s . A change made in 1929 was reversed in 1933 , and an extension through downtown Saginaw in the 1960s was overturned in the 1970s . The last change was the construction of a pair of roundabouts at the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange in 2006 .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 81 starts at a junction with M @-@ 13 , with the two directions of each highway separated by a median . This central feature ends for M @-@ 81 immediately east of the intersection as the highway runs east out of Saginaw . The trunkline follows Washington Road easterly through residential subdivisions to an interchange with I @-@ 75 / US 23 in an industrial area of Buena Vista Township . This interchange , exit 151 along the freeway , is built with roundabouts on either side of the bridge that carries Washington Road over the freeway in a variant of the diamond interchange design called a dumbbell interchange . After leaving the industrial properties on the east side of I @-@ 75 / US 23 , M @-@ 81 follows Washington Road through a mixture of farm fields and residential subdivisions . North of the community of Arthur , the highway intersects M @-@ 15 ( Vassar Road ) . Further east , M @-@ 81 crosses out of Saginaw County ; across the border in Tuscola County , the highway follows Saginaw Road .

In the village of Reese , M @-@ 81 crosses the Huron and Eastern Railway twice . East of town , the highway follows Caro Road through more farm fields through the community of Watrousville . Near the south side of the Tuscola Area Airport , M @-@ 81 turns to the northeast running along the Cass River to Caro . In the city , the trunkline follows State Street past the fairgrounds . At the intersection with Ellington Street , M @-@ 81 crosses M @-@ 24 . The highway continues northeasterly out of town and through the community of Ellington . Northeast of Elmwood , M @-@ 81 turns due east along Cass City Road . The trunkline runs to the village of Cass City where it follows Main Street through residential neighborhoods and the central business district . East of Cass City , the highway crosses the Cass River before crossing the county line into Sanilac County . Approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into the county , M @-@ 81 ends at the intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) .

M @-@ 81 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 81 were the 17 @,@ 839 vehicles daily between Van Gelsen Road and Frank Street in Caro ; the lowest counts were the 3 @,@ 527 vehicles per day east of Cass City to the M @-@ 53 intersection . No sections of M @-@ 81 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

When originally signed around July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 81 ran from Bay City southeast and east to the Munger area ; from there it ran south concurrently with M @-@ 31 to the Reese area before running northeasterly to the east of Cass City to M @-@ 53 . By 1921 , the eastern end was extended southerly from Caro to Mayville along a highway that is now part of M @-@ 24 . In late 1926 , the western end was changed so that M @-@ 81 followed the former M @-@ 31 from Reese into Saginaw and the eastern end was rerouted from Caro northeasterly to the Cass City area . With the exception of the routing through downtown Saginaw , the highway followed the approximate routing of the current highway .

In the latter half of 1929 , the highway was rerouted between Saginaw and Reese , using a set of parallel roadways to the south of the previous routing ; this change was reversed in 1933 . M @-@ 81 was fully paved when the last section between Ellington and Elmwood in Tuscola County was finished in late 1946 or early 1947 .

Starting in 1953 , the westernmost approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of M @-@ 81 was also used for a US 23 concurrency . When the bypass of Saginaw was completed in late 1961 , M @-@ 81 was extended along M @-@ 13 southwesterly into downtown Saginaw where it turned west across the Saginaw River to Midland Road west of the city . This routing across the city was removed in 1971 when I @-@ 675 was completed ; west of that freeway the highway became M @-@ 58 , the rest was either removed from the highway system and turned back to local control , or it had the M @-@ 81 designation removed . Since this truncation , M @-@ 81 has ended at its junction with M @-@ 13 north of downtown Saginaw . In 2006 , MDOT completed the reconstruction of the interchange between M @-@ 81 and I @-@ 75 / US to incorporate a pair of roundabouts along Washington Road .

= = Major intersections = =

= Common starling =

The common starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) , also known as the European starling , or in the British Isles just the starling , is a medium @-@ sized passerine bird in the starling family , Sturnidae . It is about 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and has glossy black plumage with a metallic sheen , which is speckled with white at some times of year . The legs are pink and the bill is black in winter and yellow in summer ; young birds have browner plumage than the adults . It is a noisy bird , especially in communal roosts and other gregarious situations , with an unmusical but varied song . Its gift for mimicry has been noted in literature including the Mabinogion and the works of Pliny the Elder and William Shakespeare .

The common starling has about a dozen subspecies breeding in open habitats across its native range in temperate Europe and western Asia , and it has been introduced to Australia , New Zealand , Canada , United States , Mexico , Peru , Argentina , the Falkland Islands , Brazil , Chile , Uruguay , South Africa and Fiji . This bird is resident in southern and western Europe and southwestern Asia , while northeastern populations migrate south and west in winter within the breeding range and also further south to Iberia and North Africa . The common starling builds an untidy nest in a natural or artificial cavity in which four or five glossy , pale blue eggs are laid . These take two weeks to hatch and the young remain in the nest for another three weeks . There are normally one or two breeding attempts each year . This species is omnivorous , taking a wide range of invertebrates , as well as seeds and fruit . It is hunted by various mammals and birds of prey , and is host to a range of external and internal parasites .

Large flocks typical of this species can be beneficial to agriculture by controlling invertebrate pests ; however , starlings can also be pests themselves when they feed on fruit and sprouting crops . Common starlings may also be a nuisance through the noise and mess caused by their large urban roosts . Introduced populations in particular have been subjected to a range of controls , including culling , but these have had limited success except in preventing the colonisation of Western Australia . The species has declined in numbers in parts of northern and western Europe since the 1980s due to fewer grassland invertebrates being available as food for growing chicks . Despite this , its huge global population is not thought to be declining significantly , so the common starling is classified as being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .

= = Taxonomy and systematics = =

The common starling was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 under its current binomial name . Sturnus and vulgaris are derived from the Latin for " starling " and " common " respectively . The Old English staer , later stare , and the Latin sturnus are both derived from an unknown Indo @-@ European root dating back to the second millennium BC . " Starling " was first recorded in the 11th century , when it referred to the juvenile of the species , but by the 16th century it had already largely supplanted " stare " to refer to birds of all ages . The older name is referenced in William Butler Yeats ' poem " The Stare 's Nest by My Window " . The International Ornithological Congress ' preferred English vernacular name is common starling .

The starling family , Sturnidae , is an entirely Old World group apart from introductions elsewhere , with the greatest numbers of species in Southeast Asia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The genus Sturnus is polyphyletic and relationships between its members are not fully resolved . The closest relation of the common starling is the spotless starling . The non @-@ migratory spotless starling may be descended from a population of ancestral S. vulgaris that survived in an Iberian refugium during an ice age retreat , and mitochondrial gene studies suggest that it could be considered as a subspecies of the common starling . There is more genetic variation between common starling populations than between nominate common starling and spotless starling . Although common starling remains are known from the Middle Pleistocene , part of the problem in resolving relationships in the Sturnidae is the paucity of the fossil record for the family as a whole .

= = = Subspecies = = =

There are several subspecies of the common starling , which vary clinally in size and the colour tone of the adult plumage . The gradual variation over geographic range and extensive intergradation means that acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities .

Subspecies

Birds from Fair Isle , St Kilda and the Outer Hebrides are intermediate in size between S. v. zetlandicus and the nominate form , and their subspecies placement varies according to the authority . The dark juveniles typical of these island forms are occasionally found in mainland Scotland and elsewhere , indicating some gene flow from faroensis or zetlandicus , subspecies formerly considered to be isolated .

Several other subspecies have been named , but are generally no longer considered valid . Most are intergrades that occur where the ranges of various subspecies meet . These include : S. v. ruthenus Menzbier , 1891 and S. v. jitkowi Buturlin , 1904 , which are intergrades between vulgaris and poltaratskyi from western Russia ; S. v. graecus Tschusi , 1905 and S. v. balcanicus Buturlin and Harms , 1909 , intergrades between vulgaris and tauricus from the southern Balkans to central Ukraine and throughout Greece to the Bosporus ; and S. v. heinrichi Stresemann , 1928 , an intergrade between caucasicus and nobilior in northern Iran . S. v. persepolis Ticehurst , 1928 from southern Iran 's ( Fars Province ) is very similar to S. v. vulgaris , and it is not clear whether it is a distinct resident population or simply migrants from southeastern Europe .

= = Description = =

The common starling is 19 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) long , with a wingspan of 31 – 44 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) and a weight of 58 – 101 g ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 6 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 11 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 8 cm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail is 5 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 7 in ) , the culmen is 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 to 1 @.@ 26 in ) and the tarsus is 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The plumage is iridescent black , glossed purple or green , and spangled with white , especially in winter . The underparts of adult male common starlings are less spotted than those of adult females at a given time of year . The throat feathers of males are long and loose and are used in display while those of females are smaller and more pointed . The legs are stout and pinkish- or greyish @-@ red . The bill is narrow and conical with a sharp tip ; in the winter it is brownish @-@ black but in summer , females have lemon yellow beaks while males have yellow bills with blue @-@ grey bases . Moulting occurs once a year- in late summer after the breeding season has finished ; the fresh feathers are prominently tipped white ( breast feathers ) or buff ( wing and back feathers ) , which gives the bird a speckled appearance . The reduction in the spotting in the breeding season is achieved through the white feather tips largely wearing off . Juveniles are grey @-@ brown and by their first winter resemble adults though often retaining some brown juvenile feathering , especially on the head . They can usually be sexed by the colour of the irises , rich brown in males , mouse @-@ brown or grey in females . Estimating the contrast between an iris and the central always @-@ dark pupil is 97 % accurate in determining sex , rising to 98 % if the length of the throat feathers is also considered . The common starling is mid @-@ sized by both starling standards and passerine standards . It is readily distinguished from other mid @-@ sized passerines , such as thrushes , icterids or small corvids , by its relatively short tail , sharp , blade @-@ like bill , round @-@ bellied shape and strong , sizeable ( and rufous @-@ coloured ) legs . In flight , its strongly pointed wings and dark colouration are distinctive , while on the ground its strange , somewhat waddling gait is also characteristic . The colouring and build usually distinguish this bird from other starlings , although the closely related spotless starling may be physically distinguished by the lack of iridescent spots in adult breeding plumage .

Like most terrestrial starlings the common starling moves by walking or running , rather than hopping . Their flight is quite strong and direct ; their triangular @-@ shaped wings beat very rapidly , and periodically the birds glide for a short way without losing much height before resuming powered flight . When in a flock , the birds take off almost simultaneously , wheel and turn in unison , form a compact mass or trail off into a wispy stream , bunch up again and land in a coordinated fashion . Common starling on migration can fly at 60 – 80 km / h ( 37 – 50 mph ) and cover up to 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 km ( 620 – 930 mi ) .

Several terrestrial starlings , including those in the genus Sturnus , have adaptations of the skull and muscles that help with feeding by probing . This adaptation is most strongly developed in the common starling ( along with the spotless and white @-@ cheeked starlings ) , where the protractor muscles responsible for opening the jaw are enlarged and the skull is narrow , allowing the eye to be moved forward to peer down the length of the bill . This technique involves inserting the bill into the ground and opening it as a way of searching for hidden food items . Common starlings have the physical traits that enable them to use this feeding technique , which has undoubtedly helped the species spread far and wide .

In Iberia , the western Mediterranean and northwest Africa , the common starling may be confused with the closely related spotless starling , the plumage of which , as its name implies , has a more uniform colour . At close range it can be seen that the latter has longer throat feathers , a fact particularly noticeable when it sings .

= = = Voice = = =

The common starling is a noisy bird . Its song consists of a wide variety of both melodic and mechanical @-@ sounding noises as part of a ritual succession of sounds . The male is the main songster and engages in bouts of song lasting for a minute or more . Each of these typically includes four varieties of song type , which follow each other in a regular order without pause . The bout starts with a series of pure @-@ tone whistles and these are followed by the main part of the song , a number of variable sequences that often incorporate snatches of song mimicked from other species of bird and various naturally occurring or man @-@ made noises . The structure and simplicity of the sound mimicked is of greater importance than the frequency with which it occurs . Each sound clip is repeated several times before the bird moves on to the next . After this variable section comes a number of types of repeated clicks followed by a final burst of high @-@ frequency song , again formed of several types . Each bird has its own repertoire with more proficient birds having a range of up to 35 variable song types and as many as 14 types of clicks .

Males sing constantly as the breeding period approaches and perform less often once pairs have bonded . In the presence of a female , a male sometimes flies to his nest and sings from the entrance , apparently attempting to entice the female in . Older birds tend to have a wider repertoire than younger ones . Those males that engage in longer bouts of singing and that have wider repertoires attract mates earlier and have greater reproductive success than others . Females appear to prefer mates with more complex songs , perhaps because this indicates greater experience or longevity . Having a complex song is also useful in defending a territory and deterring less experienced males from encroaching .

Singing also occurs outside the breeding season , taking place throughout the year apart from the moulting period . The songsters are more commonly male although females also sing on occasion . The function of such out @-@ of @-@ season song is poorly understood . Eleven other types of call have been described including a flock call , threat call , attack call , snarl call and copulation call . The alarm call is a harsh scream , and while foraging together common starlings squabble incessantly . They chatter while roosting and bathing , making a great deal of noise that can cause irritation to people living nearby . When a flock of common starlings is flying together , the synchronised movements of the birds ' wings make a distinctive whooshing sound that can be heard hundreds of metres ( yards ) away .

= = Behaviour and ecology = =

The common starling is a highly gregarious species , especially in autumn and winter . Although flock size is highly variable , huge , noisy flocks - murmurations - may form near roosts . These dense concentrations of birds are thought to be a defence against attacks by birds of prey such as peregrine falcons or Eurasian sparrowhawks . Flocks form a tight sphere @-@ like formation in flight , frequently expanding and contracting and changing shape , seemingly without any sort of leader . Each common starling changes its course and speed as a result of the movement of its closest neighbours . Very large roosts , exceptionally up to 1 @.@ 5 million birds , can form in city centres , woodlands or reedbeds , causing problems with their droppings . These may accumulate up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) deep , killing trees by their concentration of chemicals . In smaller amounts , the droppings act as a fertiliser , and therefore woodland managers may try to move roosts from one area of a wood to another to benefit from the soil enhancement and avoid large toxic deposits .

Huge flocks of more than a million common starlings may be observed just before sunset in spring in southwestern Jutland , Denmark over the seaward marshlands of Tønder and Esbjerg municipalities between Tønder and Ribe . They gather in March until northern Scandinavian birds leave for their breeding ranges by mid @-@ April . Their swarm behaviour creates complex shapes silhouetted against the sky , a phenomenon known locally as sort sol ( " black sun " ) . Flocks of anything from five to fifty thousand common starlings form in areas of the UK just before sundown during mid @-@ winter . These flocks are commonly called murmurations .

= = = Feeding = = =

The common starling is largely insectivorous and feeds on both pest and other arthropods . The food range includes spiders , crane flies , moths , mayflies , dragonflies , damsel flies , grasshoppers , earwigs , lacewings , caddisflies , flies , beetles , sawflies , bees , wasps and ants . Both adults and larvae are consumed and common starlings will also feed on earthworms , snails , small amphibians and lizards . While the consumption of invertebrates is necessary for successful breeding , common starlings are omnivorous and can also eat grains , seeds , fruits , nectar and food waste if the opportunity arises . The Sturnidae differ from most birds in that they cannot easily metabolise foods containing high levels of sucrose , although they can cope with other fruits such as grapes and cherries . The isolated Azores subspecies of the common starling eats the eggs of the endangered roseate tern . Measures are being introduced to reduce common starling populations by culling before the terns return to their breeding colonies in spring .

There are several methods by which common starlings obtain their food but for the most part , they forage close to the ground , taking insects from the surface or just underneath . Generally , common starlings prefer foraging amongst short @-@ cropped grasses and are often found among grazing animals or perched on their backs , where they will also feed on the mammal 's external parasites . Large flocks may engage in a practice known as " roller @-@ feeding " , where the birds at the back of the flock continually fly to the front where the feeding opportunities are best . The larger the flock , the nearer individuals are to one another while foraging . Flocks often feed in one place for some time , and return to previous successfully foraged sites .

There are three types of foraging behaviour observed in the common starling . " Probing " involves the bird plunging its beak into the ground randomly and repetitively until an insect has been found , and is often accompanied by bill gaping where the bird opens its beak in the soil to enlarge a hole . This behaviour , first described by Konrad Lorenz and given the German term zirkeln , is also used to create and widen holes in plastic garbage bags . It takes time for young common starlings to perfect this technique , and because of this the diet of young birds will often contain fewer insects . " Hawking " is the capture of flying insects directly from the air , and " lunging " is the less common technique of striking forward to catch a moving invertebrate on the ground . Earthworms are caught by pulling from soil . Common starlings that have periods without access to food , or have a reduction in the hours of light available for feeding , compensate by increasing their body mass by the deposition of fat .

= = = Nesting = = =

Unpaired males find a suitable cavity and begin to build nests in order to attract single females , often decorating the nest with ornaments such as flowers and fresh green material , which the female later disassembles upon accepting him as a mate . The amount of green material is not important , as long as some is present , but the presence of herbs in the decorative material appears to be significant in attracting a mate . The scent of plants such as yarrow acts as an olfactory attractant to females .

The males sing throughout much of the construction and even more so when a female approaches his nest . Following copulation , the male and female continue to build the nest . Nests may be in any type of hole , common locations include inside hollowed trees , buildings , tree stumps and man @-@ made nest @-@ boxes . S. v. zetlandicus typically breeds in crevices and holes in cliffs , a habitat only rarely used by the nominate form . Nests are typically made out of straw , dry grass and twigs with an inner lining made up of feathers , wool and soft leaves . Construction usually takes four or five days and may continue through incubation .

Common starlings are both monogamous and polygamous ; although broods are generally brought up by one male and one female , occasionally the pair may have an extra helper . Pairs may be part of a colony , in which case several other nests may occupy the same or nearby trees . Males may mate with a second female while the first is still on the nest . The reproductive success of the bird is poorer in the second nest than it is in the primary nest and is better when the male remains monogamous .

= = = Breeding = = =

Breeding takes place during the spring and summer . Following copulation , the female lays eggs on a daily basis over a period of several days . If an egg is lost during this time , she will lay another to replace it . There are normally four or five eggs that are ovoid in shape and pale blue or occasionally white , and they commonly have a glossy appearance . The colour of the eggs seems to have evolved through the relatively good visibility of blue at low light levels . The egg size is 26 @.@ 5 – 34 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 04 – 1 @.@ 36 in ) in length and 20 @.@ 0 – 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 0 @.@ 89 in ) in maximum diameter .

Incubation lasts thirteen days , although the last egg laid may take 24 hours longer than the first to hatch . Both parents share the responsibility of brooding the eggs , but the female spends more time incubating them than does the male , and is the only parent to do so at night when the male returns to the communal roost . The young are born blind and naked . They develop light fluffy down within seven days of hatching and can see within nine days . Once the chicks are able to regulate their body temperature , about six days after hatching , the adults largely cease removing droppings from the nest . Prior to that , the fouling would wet both the chicks ' plumage and the nest material , thereby reducing their effectiveness as insulation and increasing the risk of chilling the hatchlings . Nestlings remain in the nest for three weeks , where they are fed continuously by both parents . Fledglings continue to be fed by their parents for another one or two weeks . A pair can raise up to three broods per year , frequently reusing and relining the same nest , although two broods is typical , or just one north of 48oN . Within two months , most juveniles will have moulted and gained their first basic plumage . They acquire their adult plumage the following year . As with other passerines , the nest is kept clean and the chicks ' faecal sacs are removed by the adults .

Intraspecific brood parasites are common in common starling nests . Female " floaters " ( unpaired females during the breeding season ) present in colonies often lay eggs in another pair 's nest . Fledglings have also been reported to invade their own or neighbouring nests and evict a new brood . Common starling nests have a 48 % to 79 % rate of successful fledging , although only 20 % of nestlings survive to breeding age ; the adult survival rate is closer to 60 % . The average life span is about 2 – 3 years , with a longevity record of 22 yr 11 m .

= = Predators and parasites = =

A majority of starling predators are avian . The typical response of starling groups is to take flight , with a common sight being undulating flocks of starling flying high in quick and agile patterns . Their abilities in flight are seldom matched by birds of prey . Adult common starlings are hunted by hawks such as the northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) and Eurasian sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus ) , and falcons including the peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) , Eurasian hobby ( Falco subbuteo ) and common kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus ) . Slower raptors like black and red kites ( Milvus migrans & milvus ) , eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila heliaca ) , common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) and Australasian harrier ( Circus approximans ) tend to take the more easily caught fledglings or juveniles . While perched in groups by night , they can be vulnerable to owls , including the little owl ( Athene noctua ) , long @-@ eared owl ( Asio otus ) , short @-@ eared owl ( Asio flammeus ) , barn owl ( Tyto alba ) , tawny owl ( Strix aluco ) and Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( Bubo bubo ) .

More than twenty species of hawk , owl and falcon are known to occasionally predate feral starlings in North America , though the most regular predators of adults are likely to be urban @-@ living peregrine falcons or merlins ( Falco columbarius ) . Common mynas ( Acridotheres tristis ) sometimes evict eggs , nestlings and adult common starlings from their nests , and the lesser honeyguide ( Indicator minor ) , a brood parasite , uses the common starling as a host . Starlings are more commonly the culprits rather than victims of nest eviction however , especially towards other starlings and woodpeckers . Nests can be raided by animals capable of climbing to them , such as stoats ( Mustela erminea ) , raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) and squirrels ( Sciurus spp . ) , and cats may catch the unwary .

Common starlings are hosts to a wide range of parasites . A survey of three hundred common starlings from six US states found that all had at least one type of parasite ; 99 % had external fleas , mites or ticks , and 95 % carried internal parasites , mostly various types of worm . Blood @-@ sucking species leave their host when it dies , but other external parasites stay on the corpse . A bird with a deformed bill was heavily infested with Mallophaga lice , presumably due to its inability to remove vermin .

The hen flea ( Ceratophyllus gallinae ) is the most common flea in their nests . The small , pale house @-@ sparrow flea C. fringillae , is also occasionally found there and probably arises from the habit of its main host of taking over the nests of other species . This flea does not occur in the US , even on house sparrows . Lice include Menacanthus eurystemus , Brueelia nebulosa and Stumidoecus sturni . Other arthropod parasites include Ixodes ticks and mites such as Analgopsis passerinus , Boydaia stumi , Dermanyssus gallinae , Ornithonyssus bursa , O. sylviarum , Proctophyllodes species , Pteronyssoides truncatus and Trouessartia rosteri . The hen mite D. gallinae is itself preyed upon by the predatory mite Androlaelaps casalis . The presence of this control on numbers of the parasitic species may explain why birds are prepared to reuse old nests .

Flying insects that parasitise common starlings include the louse @-@ fly Omithomya nigricornis and the saprophagous fly Camus hemapterus . The latter species breaks off the feathers of its host and lives on the fats produced by growing plumage . Larvae of the moth Hofmannophila pseudospretella are nest scavengers , which feed on animal material such as faeces or dead nestlings . Protozoan blood parasites of the genus Haemoproteus have been found in common starlings , but a better known pest is the brilliant scarlet nematode Syngamus trachea . This worm moves from the lungs to the trachea and may cause its host to suffocate . In Britain , the rook and the common starling are the most infested wild birds . Other recorded internal parasites include the spiny @-@ headed worm Prosthorhynchus transverses .

Common starlings may contract avian tuberculosis , avian malaria and retrovirus @-@ induced lymphomas . Captive starlings often accumulate excess iron in the liver , a condition that can be prevented by adding black tea @-@ leaves to the food .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The global population of common starlings was estimated to be 310 million individuals in 2004 , occupying a total area of 8 @,@ 870 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 420 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Widespread throughout the Northern Hemisphere , the bird is native to Eurasia and is found throughout Europe , northern Africa ( from Morocco to Egypt ) , India ( mainly in the north but regularly extending further south and extending into the Maldives ) Nepal , the Middle East including Syria , Iran , and Iraq and north @-@ western China .

Common starlings in the south and west of Europe and south of latitude 40oN are mainly resident , although other populations migrate from regions where the winter is harsh , the ground frozen and food scarce . Large numbers of birds from northern Europe , Russia and Ukraine migrate south westwards or south eastwards . In the autumn , when immigrants are arriving from eastern Europe , many of Britain 's common starlings are setting off for Iberia and North Africa . Other groups of birds are in passage across the country and the pathways of these different streams of bird may cross . Of the 15 @,@ 000 birds ringed as nestlings in Merseyside , England , individuals have been recovered at various times of year as far afield as Norway , Sweden , Finland , Russia , Ukraine , Poland , Germany and the Low Countries . Small numbers of common starling have sporadically been observed in Japan and Hong Kong but it is unclear from where these birds originated . In North America , northern populations have developed a migration pattern , vacating much of Canada in winter . Birds in the east of the country move southwards , and those from further west winter in the southwest of the US .

Common starlings prefer urban or suburban areas where artificial structures and trees provide adequate nesting and roosting sites . Reedbeds are also favoured for roosting and the birds commonly feed in grassy areas such as farmland , grazing pastures , playing fields , golf courses and airfields where short grass makes foraging easy . They occasionally inhabit open forests and woodlands and are sometimes found in shrubby areas such as Australian heathland . Common starlings rarely inhabit dense , wet forests ( i.e. rainforests or wet sclerophyll forests ) but are found in coastal areas , where they nest and roost on cliffs and forage amongst seaweed . Their ability to adapt to a large variety of habitats has allowed them to disperse and establish themselves in diverse locations around the world resulting in a habitat range from coastal wetlands to alpine forests , from sea cliffs to mountain ranges 1 @,@ 900 m ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) above sea level .

= = = Introduced populations = = =

The common starling has been introduced to and has successfully established itself in New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , North America , Fiji and several Caribbean islands . As a result , it has also been able to migrate to Thailand , Southeast Asia and New Guinea .

= = = = South America = = = =

Five individuals conveyed on a ship from England alighted near Lago de Maracaibo in Venezuela in November 1949 , but subsequently vanished . In 1987 , a small population of common starlings was observed nesting in gardens in the city of Buenos Aires . Since then , despite some initial attempts at eradication , the bird has been expanding its breeding range at an average rate of 7 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) per year , keeping within 30 km ( 19 mi ) of the Atlantic coast . In Argentina , the species makes use of a variety of natural and man @-@ made nesting sites , particularly woodpecker holes .

= = = = Australia = = = =

The common starling was introduced to Australia to consume insect pests of farm crops . Early settlers looked forward to their arrival , believing that common starlings were also important for the pollination of flax , a major agricultural product . Nest @-@ boxes for the newly released birds were placed on farms and near crops . The common starling was introduced to Melbourne in 1857 and Sydney two decades later . By the 1880s , established populations were present in the southeast of the country thanks to the work of acclimatisation committees . By the 1920s , common starlings were widespread throughout Victoria , Queensland and New South Wales , but by then they were considered to be pests . Although common starlings were first sighted in Albany , Western Australia in 1917 , they have been largely prevented from spreading to the state . The wide and arid Nullarbor Plain provides a natural barrier and control measures have been adopted that have killed 55 @,@ 000 birds over three decades . The common starling has also colonised Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island .

= = = = New Zealand = = = =

The early settlers in New Zealand cleared the bush and found their newly planted crops were invaded by hordes of caterpillars and other insects deprived of their previous food sources . Native birds were not habituated to living in close proximity to man so the common starling was introduced from Europe to control the pests . It was first brought over in 1862 by the Nelson Acclimatisation Society and other introductions followed . The birds soon became established and are now found all over the country including the subtropical Kermadec Islands to the north and the equally distant Macquarie Island far to the south .

= = = = North America = = = =

After two failed attempts , about 60 common starlings were released in 1890 into New York 's Central Park by Eugene Schieffelin . He was president of the American Acclimatization Society , which tried to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America . About the same date , the Portland Song Bird Club released 35 pairs of common starlings in Portland , Oregon . These birds became established but disappeared around 1902 . Common starlings reappeared in the Pacific Northwest in the mid @-@ 1940s and these birds were probably descendants of the 1890 Central Park introduction . The original 60 birds have since swelled in number to 150 million , occupying an area extending from southern Canada and Alaska to Central America .

= = = = Polynesia = = = =

The common starling appears to have arrived in Fiji in 1925 on Ono @-@ i @-@ lau and Vatoa islands . It may have colonised from New Zealand via Raoul in the Kermadec Islands where it is abundant , that group being roughly equidistant between New Zealand and Fiji . Its spread in Fiji has been limited , and there are doubts about the population 's viability . Tonga was colonised at about the same date and the birds there have been slowly spreading north through the group .

= = = = South Africa = = = =

In South Africa , the common starling was introduced in 1897 by Cecil Rhodes . It spread slowly and by 1954 had reached Clanwilliam and Port Elizabeth . It is now common in the southern Cape region , thinning out northwards to the Johannesburg area . It is present in the Western Cape , the Eastern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa and lowland Lesotho , with occasional sightings in KwaZulu @-@ Natal , Gauteng and around the town of Oranjemund in Namibia . In Southern Africa populations appear to be resident and the bird is very much associated with man , his habitations and pastures . It favours irrigated land and is absent from regions where the ground is baked so dry that it cannot probe for insects . It may compete with native birds for crevice nesting sites but the indigenous species are probably more disadvantaged by destruction of their natural habitat than they are by inter @-@ specific competition . It breeds from September to December and outside the breeding season may congregate in large flocks , often roosting in reedbeds . It is the most common bird species in urban and agricultural areas .

= = = = West Indies = = = =

The common starling was introduced to Jamaica in 1903 , and the Bahamas and Cuba were colonised naturally from the US . This bird is fairly common but local in Jamaica , Grand Bahama and Bimini , and is rare in the rest of the Bahamas , eastern Cuba , the Cayman Islands , Puerto Rico and St. Croix .

= = Status = =

The global population of the common starling is estimated to be more than 310 million individuals and its numbers are not thought to be declining significantly , so the bird is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern . It had shown a marked increase in numbers throughout Europe from the 19th century to around the 1950s and 60s . In about 1830 , S. v. vulgaris expanded its range in the British Isles , spreading into Ireland and areas of Scotland where it had formerly been absent , although S. v. zetlandicus was already present in Shetland and the Outer Hebrides . The common starling has bred in northern Sweden from 1850 and in Iceland from 1935 . The breeding range spread through southern France to northeastern Spain , and there were other range expansions particularly in Italy , Austria and Finland . It started breeding in Iberia in 1960 , while the spotless starling 's range had been expanding northward since the 1950s . The low rate of advance , about 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) per year for both species , is due to the suboptimal mountain and woodland terrain . Expansion has since slowed even further due to direct competition between the two similar species where they overlap in southwestern France and northwestern Spain .

Major declines in populations have been observed from 1980 onward in Sweden , Finland , northern Russia ( Karelia ) and the Baltic States , and smaller declines in much of the rest of northern and central Europe . The bird has been adversely affected in these areas by intensive agriculture , and in several countries it has been red @-@ listed due to population declines of more than 50 % . Numbers dwindled in the United Kingdom by more than 80 % between 1966 and 2004 ; although populations in some areas such as Northern Ireland were stable or even increased , those in other areas , mainly England , declined even more sharply . The overall decline seems to be due to the low survival rate of young birds , which may be caused by changes in agricultural practices . The intensive farming methods used in northern Europe mean there is less pasture and meadow habitat available , and the supply of grassland invertebrates needed for the nestlings to thrive is correspondingly reduced .

= = Relationship with humans = =

= = = Benefits and problems = = =

Since common starlings eat insect pests such as wireworms , they are considered beneficial in northern Eurasia , and this was one of the reasons given for introducing the birds elsewhere . Around 25 million nest boxes were erected for this species in the former Soviet Union , and common starlings were found to be effective in controlling the grass grub Costelytra zelandica in New Zealand . The original Australian introduction was facilitated by the provision of nest boxes to help this mainly insectivorous bird to breed successfully , and even in the US , where this is a pest species , the Department of Agriculture acknowledges that vast numbers of insects are consumed by common starlings .

Common starlings introduced to areas such as Australia or North America , where other members of the genus are absent , may affect native species through competition for nest holes . In North America , chickadees , nuthatches , woodpeckers , purple martins and other swallows may be affected . In Australia , competitors for nesting sites include the crimson and eastern rosellas . For its role in the decline of local native species and the damages to agriculture , the common starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world 's 100 worst invasive species .

Common starlings can eat and damage fruit in orchards such as grapes , peaches , olives , currants and tomatoes or dig up newly sown grain and sprouting crops . They may also eat animal feed and distribute seeds through their droppings . In eastern Australia , weeds like bridal creeper , blackberry and boneseed are thought to have been spread by common starlings . Agricultural damage in the US is estimated as costing about US $ 800 million annually . This bird is not considered to be as damaging to agriculture in South Africa as it is in the United States .

The large size of flocks can also cause problems . Common starlings may be sucked into aircraft jet engines , one of the worst instances of this being an incident in Boston in 1960 , when sixty @-@ two people died after a turboprop airliner flew into a flock and plummeted into the sea at Winthrop Harbor .

Starlings ' droppings can contain the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum , the cause of histoplasmosis in humans . At roosting sites this fungus can thrive in accumulated droppings . There are a number of other infectious diseases that can potentially be transmitted by common starlings to humans , although the potential for the birds to spread infections may have been exaggerated .

= = = Control = = =

Because of the damage they do , there have been attempts to control the numbers of both native and introduced populations of common starlings . Within the natural breeding range , this may be affected by legislation . For example , in Spain , this is a species hunted commercially as a food item , and has a close season , whereas in France , it is classed as a pest , and the season in which it may be killed covers the greater part of the year . In the UK , the common starling may be killed at any time of year . This species is migratory , so birds involved in control measures may have come from a wide area and breeding populations may not be greatly affected . In Europe , the varying legislation and mobile populations mean that control attempts may have limited long @-@ term results . Non @-@ lethal techniques such as scaring with visual or auditory devices have only a temporary effect in any case .

Huge urban roosts in cities can create problems due to the noise and mess made and the smell of the droppings . In 1949 , so many birds landed on the clock hands of London 's Big Ben that it stopped , leading to unsuccessful attempts to disrupt the roosts with netting , repellent chemical on the ledges and broadcasts of common starling alarm calls . An entire episode of The Goon Show in 1954 was a parody of the futile efforts to disrupt the large common starling roosts in central London .

Where it is introduced , the common starling is unprotected by legislation , and extensive control plans may be initiated . Common starlings can be prevented from using nest boxes by ensuring that the access holes are smaller than the 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) diameter they need , and the removal of perches discourages them from visiting bird feeders .

Western Australia banned the import of common starlings in 1895 . New flocks arriving from the east are routinely shot , while the less cautious juveniles are trapped and netted . New methods are being developed , such as tagging one bird and tracking it back to establish where other members of the flock roost . Another technique is to analyse the DNA of Australian common starling populations to track where the migration from eastern to western Australia is occurring so that better preventive strategies can be used . By 2009 , only 300 common starlings were left in Western Australia , and the state committed a further A $ 400 @,@ 000 in that year to continue the eradication programme .

In the United States , common starlings are exempt from the Migratory Bird Treaty Act , which prohibits the taking or killing of migratory birds . No permit is required to remove nests and eggs or kill juveniles or adults . Research was undertaken in 1966 to identify a suitable avicide that would both kill common starlings and would readily be eaten by them . It also needed to be of low toxicity to mammals and not likely to cause the death of pets that ate dead birds . The chemical that best fitted these criteria was DRC @-@ 1339 , now marketed as Starlicide . In 2008 , the United States government poisoned , shot or trapped 1 @.@ 7 million birds , the largest number of any nuisance species to be destroyed . In 2005 , the population in the United States was estimated at 140 million birds , around 45 % of the global total of 310 million .

= = = In science and culture = = =

Common starlings may be kept as pets or as laboratory animals . Austrian ethologist Konrad Lorenz wrote of them in his book King Solomon 's Ring as " the poor man 's dog " and " something to love " , because nestlings are easily obtained from the wild and after careful hand rearing they are straightforward to look after . They adapt well to captivity , and thrive on a diet of standard bird feed and mealworms . Several birds may be kept in the same cage , and their inquisitiveness makes them easy to train or study . The only disadvantages are their messy and indiscriminate defecation habits and the need to take precautions against diseases that may be transmitted to humans . As a laboratory bird , the common starling is second in numbers only to the domestic pigeon .

The common starling 's gift for mimicry has long been recognised . In the medieval Welsh Mabinogion , Branwen tamed a common starling , " taught it words " , and sent it across the Irish Sea with a message to her brothers , Bran and Manawydan , who then sailed from Wales to Ireland to rescue her . Pliny the Elder claimed that these birds could be taught to speak whole sentences in Latin and Greek , and in Henry IV , William Shakespeare had Hotspur declare " The king forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer . But I will find him when he is asleep , and in his ear I 'll holler ' Mortimer ! ' Nay I 'll have a starling shall be taught to speak nothing but Mortimer , and give it to him to keep his anger still in motion . "

Mozart had a pet common starling which could sing part of his Piano Concerto in G Major ( KV . 453 ) . He had bought it from a shop after hearing it sing a phrase from a work he wrote six weeks previously , which had not yet been performed in public . He became very attached to the bird and arranged an elaborate funeral for it when it died three years later . It has been suggested that his A Musical Joke ( K. 522 ) might be written in the comical , inconsequential style of a starling 's vocalisation . Other people who have owned common starlings report how adept they are at picking up phrases and expressions . The words have no meaning for the starling , so they often mix them up or use them on what to humans are inappropriate occasions in their songs . Their ability at mimicry is so great that strangers have looked in vain for the human they think they have just heard speak .

Common starlings are trapped for food in some Mediterranean countries . The meat is tough and of low quality , so it is casseroled or made into pâté . One recipe said it should be stewed " until tender , however long that may be " . Even when correctly prepared , it may still be seen as an acquired taste .

= William McGregor ( football ) =

William McGregor ( 13 April 1846 – 20 December 1911 ) was a Scottish association football administrator in the Victorian era who is regarded as the founder of the Football League , the first organised association football league in the world .

After moving from Perthshire to Birmingham to set up business as a draper , McGregor became involved with local football club Aston Villa , which he helped to establish as one of the leading teams in England . He served the club for over 20 years in various capacities , including president , director and chairman . In 1888 , frustrated by the regular cancellation of Villa 's matches , McGregor organised a meeting of representatives of England 's leading clubs , which led to the formation of the Football League , giving member clubs a guaranteed fixture list each season . This was instrumental in the transition of football from an amateur pastime to a professional business .

McGregor served as both chairman and president of the Football League and was also chairman of The Football Association ( the FA ) . He was recognised by the FA for his service to the game shortly before his death in 1911 , and was posthumously honoured by the local football authorities and Aston Villa .

= = Personal life = =

Born in Braco in Perthshire , Scotland , McGregor first became interested in football after watching a match between locals and visiting artisans at Ardoch . He served an apprenticeship as a draper in Perth , and in 1870 , following the example of his brother Peter , moved to Birmingham , and opened his own drapery business in Aston , an area just outside the city . Upon his arrival in the English Midlands he became involved with a local football club , Calthorpe , which had been formed by a fellow Scot , Campbell Orr . McGregor was enthusiastic enough about the game to arrange for his shop to close early on Saturdays to allow him to watch matches , and he later sold football kits at the shop , which became a popular meeting place for football enthusiasts .

McGregor was married to Jessie , and the couple had a daughter and a son , also named Jessie and William . A teetotaller , McGregor was a supporter of the Temperance movement , and was active in the local branch of the Liberal Party until his membership lapsed in 1882 due to the increasing amount of time he devoted to football . He was involved in the early attempts to establish a baseball league in the United Kingdom , and served as the honorary treasurer of the Baseball Association of Great Britain and Ireland . Despite his commitment to sport , he held desperately on to his drapery business throughout his life .

McGregor was a committed Christian who was widely respected for his honesty and integrity . He worshipped for forty years at the Congregational church in Wheeler Street , Aston . His pastor , the Revd . W.G. Percival said that the best thing about him " was not so much the genial , kindly , honest sportsman , but the Christian behind it all " . He described him as " a man of absolutely unblemished personal character " .

= = Association with Aston Villa = =

In 1877 , McGregor was invited to become a committee member of Aston Villa , a football club formed three years earlier . He also umpired matches for the club . At the time the club played at Aston Park , close to the premises of McGregor 's business . He became interested in joining Villa due to the strong Scottish contingent in the club 's ranks , the team 's exciting style of play , and the club 's connection to a Wesleyan Chapel . He quickly assumed the post of club administrator , helping the impecunious club to survive its financial troubles . After some of Aston Villa 's possessions were seized by bailiffs , McGregor allowed the club to use his shop as a store to prevent further seizures . Under McGregor 's leadership , Aston Villa won their first trophy , the Birmingham Senior Cup , in 1880 , shortly after which McGregor became the club 's president .

The following year McGregor became a member of the club 's board of directors . Villa 's standing within the game continued to grow , and in 1887 the club became the first from the Midlands to win the FA Cup , defeating local rivals West Bromwich Albion in the final . In 1895 , McGregor became vice @-@ chairman , and went on to become the club 's chairman in 1897 . During his time at the club he was noted for his organisational skills and ambition , and was responsible for adopting the lion rampant depicted on the Royal Standard of Scotland , as the club 's crest .

= = Founder of the Football League = =

As the 1880s progressed , the balance of power within English football began to change . The first national competition , the FA Cup , had previously been dominated by amateur clubs from privileged backgrounds , such as Wanderers and Old Etonians . However the 1883 FA Cup Final saw the first victory by a working @-@ class team , Blackburn Olympic . At this time professionalism was not permitted . Clubs from urban areas in the north were strong advocates of the practice , but the southern amateur teams and the FA authorities were firmly opposed . Though not initially an advocate of professionalism , McGregor came to favour its introduction . By 1885 the issue threatened to split the FA when a group of clubs , predominantly from Lancashire , announced their intention to leave and form a rival British Football Association if professionalism was not accepted . An emergency FA conference was called in response . Representing Aston Villa , McGregor spoke in favour of professionalism , the only delegate from the Midlands to do so , and was one of the few delegates to admit that his club had been paying players . Though not as outspoken as stronger proponents , such as Preston North End 's William Sudell , McGregor was well respected . The conference ended with the FA accepting professionalism , although each club was permitted only to pay players who had been born or lived for at least two years within six miles of its home stadium .

Professionalism brought fresh complications for club administrators . Many friendlies were cancelled due to opponents ' FA Cup or county cup matches taking precedence or clubs simply failing to honour a fixture in favour of a more lucrative match elsewhere . This made it hard for the clubs to pay players ' wages on a regular basis . McGregor took action after seeing Villa matches cancelled , to the increasing frustration of the club 's fans , on five consecutive Saturdays . On 2 March 1888 , he wrote to the committee of his own club , Aston Villa , as well as to those of Blackburn Rovers , Bolton Wanderers , Preston North End and West Bromwich Albion , suggesting the creation of a league competition that would provide a number of guaranteed fixtures for its member clubs each season . Corinthian F.C. founder N. Lane Jackson , writing in 1899 , stated that McGregor took his inspiration from the existing league set @-@ up used in American baseball , although McGregor himself cited the County Cricket Championship as his inspiration . McGregor 's letter to the clubs read :

Every year it is becoming more and more difficult for football clubs of any standing to meet their friendly engagements and even arrange friendly matches . The consequence is that at the last moment , through cup @-@ tie interference , clubs are compelled to take on teams who will not attract the public .

I beg to tender the following suggestion as a means of getting over the difficulty : that ten or twelve of the most prominent clubs in England combine to arrange home @-@ and @-@ away fixtures each season , the said fixtures to be arranged at a friendly conference about the same time as the International Conference .

This combination might be known as the Association Football Union , and could be managed by representative from each club . Of course , this is in no way to interfere with the National Association ; even the suggested matches might be played under cup @-@ tie rules . However , this is a detail .

My object in writing to you at present is merely to draw your attention to the subject , and to suggest a friendly conference to discuss the matter more fully . I would take it as a favour if you would kindly think the matter over , and make whatever suggestions you deem necessary . I am only writing to the following – Blackburn Rovers , Bolton Wanderers , Preston North End , West Bromwich Albion , and Aston Villa , and would like to hear what other clubs you would suggest .

I am , yours very truly , William McGregor ( Aston Villa F.C. )

P.S. How would Friday , 23 March 1888 , suit for the friendly conference at Anderton 's Hotel , London ?

McGregor chose 23 March as the date of his proposed meeting because it was the day before the FA Cup final and representatives of the country 's top clubs would be in London . Representatives from ten clubs attended , including the FA Cup finalists West Bromwich Albion and Preston North End , but it quickly became clear that clubs from the South of England were not interested in McGregor 's proposal and none attended . A second meeting was held in Manchester on 17 April , and details concerning the new competition were finalised . McGregor 's suggested name for the competition , " The Association Football Union " was rejected as too similar to that of the Rugby Football Union and " The Football League " was chosen , despite McGregor 's opposition on the grounds that he felt it might invoke associations with the unpopular Irish Land League . The term English League was avoided , to leave the possibility of future applications from Scottish clubs . McGregor also proposed a rule that only one club from each town should be included . The other founders agreed to this rule , which caused controversy , as it meant Birmingham team Mitchell St. George 's were denied membership in favour of McGregor 's Aston Villa . Twelve clubs kicked off the first season of League football in September 1888 .

McGregor served as the first chairman of the League 's Management Committee . One of the committee 's main jobs was handling issues of discipline , but committee members were not barred from involvement in decisions involving their own clubs . In fact , the first disciplinary meeting saw fines issued to three of the four clubs with representatives on the committee . McGregor was re @-@ elected unopposed in 1891 . Earlier he had spoken of his pleasure that " of the 132 matches in which the League clubs have taken part and in which about 300 players have taken the field , not a single fatal accident has to be recorded " . A year later he oversaw the expansion of the Football League into two divisions when the rival Football Alliance was merged into the competition , but he relinquished his post later that year due to ill health , which caused him to miss meetings .

After stepping down as chairman , he was unanimously elected to an honorary position of president , a role he kept until 1894 , and was named the first @-@ ever life member of the League in 1895 . The role was that of a figurehead with little actual authority , but he was used as a mediator to resolve league disagreements . In the second half of the decade McGregor 's failure to attend many committee meetings led to criticism from John Bentley , his successor as president . Bentley 's criticism achieved the desired effect ; from 1899 until his health deteriorated in 1910 , McGregor seldom missed a meeting . During this period McGregor was noted for his reserved nature . He was silent for large parts of committee meetings , but would contribute enthusiastically on the occasions he felt his input was necessary .

= = Other football activities = =

Between 1888 and 1894 McGregor also served as chairman of The Football Association ( the FA ) , English football 's overall governing body , which had existed since 1863 . He became known as a football celebrity , writing a weekly column for the Birmingham Gazette and endorsing products such as footballs , and a type of football boot which the manufacturer billed as the " McGregor lace @-@ to @-@ toe boot " . Though he held many different administrative posts in his lifetime , McGregor never played the sport competitively ; his only on @-@ pitch involvement was occasional goalkeeping during Aston Villa practices in the 1870s .

= = Death and legacy = =

Although McGregor envisaged the League as a friendly union , within which clubs would share ticket revenues and work together in their mutual best interests , the immediate effect of its creation was that football came to be treated as a business for the first time , as opposed to something that players and officials simply regarded as a pastime . All the clubs involved experienced significant increases in their turnover , which at Aston Villa , McGregor 's own club , increased more than sixfold between 1889 and 1899 . The wages paid to players , however , remained low due to restrictions imposed by the FA , so clubs were able to use their increased profitability to build larger stadiums and accommodate ever larger crowds of spectators . Although the League initially contained a small number of clubs , all of which were based in the northern half of the country , by the early years of the twentieth century it included clubs from all parts of England . At its peak nearly 100 clubs played in the Football League , and it remained the pre @-@ eminent competition in English football until the 1990s , when the top clubs broke away to form the Premier League . In keeping with McGregor 's views on mutual support and co @-@ operation , gate receipts were shared amongst the clubs until the 1980s , which helped to ensure that a select few wealthy clubs were not able to dominate the competition . McGregor himself had little interest in the business aspect of football , and was adamant that the Football League should not challenge the longstanding authority of the FA . The success of the Football League directly inspired the creation of similar competitions in other countries , beginning with Scotland , where the Scottish Football League was formed in 1890 .

In May 1910 , McGregor was taken ill and later confined to a nursing home . His condition worsened towards the end of 1911 . His last public appearance was a committee meeting on 4 December , and he underwent an operation on 19 December . However , after a brief improvement in his condition he relapsed and died the following day . Although a devout Congregationalist , he is buried in the grounds of a Church of England church , St. Mary 's , in the Handsworth district of Birmingham , alongside his wife , who died in 1908 . McGregor is remembered as the " father of The Football League " , an Aston Villa legend , and a legend of football in general .

Shortly before his death , the FA presented McGregor , who was at that time a vice @-@ president of the association , with a long service medal . After his death , Aston Villa dedicated a bed in the children 's ward of one of Birmingham 's hospitals in his honour , and the Birmingham County Football Association unveiled a commemorative drinking fountain , which is now preserved at Villa Park , current home of his former club . In the modern era , Aston Villa selected him as one of the twelve inaugural members of its Hall of Fame , and named a hospitality suite at Villa Park after him . In 2008 , the Aston Villa Supporters ' Trust announced plans to further honour him with a bronze statue outside the stadium . The statue , by sculptor Sam Holland , is displayed outside the Directors ' Entrance of the Trinity Road Stand , and was unveiled on 28 November 2009 . The Trust also raised £ 1 @,@ 000 to restore and rededicate McGregor 's grave in 2011 .

= Climate of Buenos Aires =

Buenos Aires , the capital of Argentina , has a temperate climate , which is classified as a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) under the Köppen climate classification with four distinct seasons . Summers are hot and humid with frequent thunderstorms while winters are cool and drier with frosts that occurs on average twice per year . Spring and fall are transition seasons characterized by changeable weather . At the central observatory , the highest recorded temperature is 43 @.@ 3 ° C ( 109 @.@ 9 ° F ) while the lowest recorded temperature is − 5 @.@ 4 ° C ( 22 @.@ 3 ° F ) .

Different climatic factors influence the climate of Buenos Aires . The semi – permanent South Atlantic High influences its climate throughout the year by bringing in moist winds from the northeast , which bring most of the precipitation to the city in the form of frontal systems during winter or storms produced by cyclogenesis in autumn and winter . The hot temperatures and high insolation in the summer months form a low pressure system called the Chaco Low over northern Argentina , generating a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the city – because of this , summer is the rainiest season . In contrast , this low pressure system weakens in the winter , which combined with strong southerly winds results in a drier season due to weaker easterly winds . Being located in the Pampas , Buenos Aires has variable weather due to the passage of contrasting air mass – the cold , dry Pampero from the south and warm , humid tropical air from the north . The coastal location results in a strong maritime influence , causing extreme temperatures ( hot or cold ) to be rare .

= = General climatology = =

Buenos Aires is located in the humid subtropical climate zone ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ) . Due to the maritime influences from the adjoining Atlantic Ocean , its climate is temperate with extreme temperatures ( both hot and cold ) being rare . Thus , cold air coming directly from the south are moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and warmer than winds from the southwest ( which are not moderated by it ) .

The climate of Buenos Aires is dominated by the semi – permanent South Atlantic High throughout the year . This brings in moist winds from the northeast , which brings most of the precipitation to the city . During winter , it brings in frontal systems responsible for precipitation in the city . In autumn and summer , it produces storms that are generally located north of the city and produces strong winds from the south or southeast that can occasionally lead to the swelling of the Río de la Plata , flooding coastal areas . The South Pacific High is the origin of polar air masses that are responsible for the coldest temperatures and result in clear and very dry conditions . These air masses originate from the South Pacific high and move in a northeastern direction during winter towards Buenos Aires by passing . Although it is polar maritime ( this is a cool , moist air mass that forms from oceans located in the subarctic and arctic regions at the southern tip of South America ) , it becomes modified as it passes over the South American continent , becoming drier as it arrives at Buenos Aires . This is because as the cold air masses from the South Pacific High move over the Pacific Ocean and the Andes and reach the land south of 35oS ( where the Andes are shorter in height ) , anticyclogenesis leads to the formation of a strong high pressure system in the center of the country ( at around 40oS ) . This high pressure system brings cold and dry , polar continental air masses to Buenos Aires . Cold fronts are more common during winter than in summer as the South Atlantic and South Pacific highs are at their southernmost positions during summer , making it difficult for cold fronts to enter .

The city is located in an area in which the Pampero and the Sudestada winds pass by . Being located in the Pampas , the weather is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms . The Pampero wind brings in cold , dry air from the south while warm humid tropical air produces sultry nortes ( a gentle wind usually from the northeast formed by trade winds and the South Atlantic High that brings cloudy , hot , and humid weather and is responsible for bringing heat waves ) . Often , the passage of the Pampero winds occurs as a cold front passes through , leading to strong gusts from the south or southeast , a decrease in humidity and temperature , and an increase in the atmospheric pressure . When the cold Pampero winds meet with warm humid air from the north , thunderstorms are produced . The Sudestada winds are formed when a high pressure system located in southern Argentina interacts with a low pressure system over Uruguay and southern Brazil . When Sudestadas form , they bring long periods of precipitation , cloudy weather and cooler temperatures . These are common during the winter months . Because the Sudestada brings the highest wind speeds ( particularly when these winds are combined with the astronomical tides ) , the Sudestada is responsible for floods that occur in low @-@ lying areas . Its geomorphology along with inadequate drainage network and infrastructure , a flat landscape , and low elevations ( much of Buenos Aires lies between 4 and 24 metres ( 13 and 79 ft ) above sea level ) makes Buenos Aires highly vulnerable to flooding , particularly during heavy rainfall . Flooding impacts the neighbourhoods La Boca and Barracas which are in the southern parts of the city , more low @-@ lying and inhabited by poor people ( of low socioeconomic status ) .

The urban heat island makes the city warmer than suburban and rural areas . On average , Buenos Aires is warmer than the surrounding areas by 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 ° C ( 2 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 3 ° F ) owing to the urban heat island . The average heat island is in summer than in winter . This varies by season ; its influence during the day is the strongest in July than in January . In contrast , the urban heat island effect during nights is the most intense in January than in July .

The El Niño – Southern Oscillation is a major factor in the variation of annual precipitation within Buenos Aires and the Pampas , particularly during spring and summer . During an El Niño year , precipitation is higher , with a significant increase in precipitation from November to January . In contrast , La Niña years are associated with lower precipitation ; precipitation is below average during October – December .

= = Seasonal weather = =

= = = Spring = = =

Springs in Buenos Aires are typically mild during the day with cool to cold nights . The average high is 22 @.@ 5 ° C ( 72 @.@ 5 ° F ) while the average low is 13 @.@ 2 ° C ( 55 @.@ 8 ° F ) . It is one of the rainiest seasons in the city , averaging 316 @.@ 5 mm ( 12 @.@ 46 in ) of precipitation and 28 days with measurable precipitation . Nonetheless , most precipitation events are short in duration .

Spring is characterized by changeable weather with temperatures that can fluctuate . Cold polar air from the south can bring cooler temperatures . An extreme example of this was in November 2007 , when cold polar air from the south brought temperatures down to 2 @.@ 5 ° C ( 36 @.@ 5 ° F ) on the morning of November 15 . The same polar air affected many parts of the country , bringing cold temperatures and snow in coastal parts of Patagonia . In contrast , hot humid air from the north produces sultry days ; the highest temperature recorded in spring is 36 @.@ 8 ° C ( 98 @.@ 2 ° F ) on 27 November 1955 . In some cases , heat waves , can occur , particularly in November .

= = = Summer = = =

Summers are hot and humid . On average , mornings and afternoons are hot whereas temperatures drop considerably at night . The average high is 29 @.@ 1 ° C ( 84 @.@ 4 ° F ) while the average low is 19 @.@ 3 ° C ( 66 @.@ 7 ° F ) . With a mean precipitation of 384 @.@ 8 mm ( 15 @.@ 15 in ) , it is the rainiest season . This is due to hot temperatures and high insolation that lead to the development of a low pressure system called the Chaco Low situated over northern Argentina that interacts with the South Atlantic High to generate a pressure gradient that brings moist easterly winds to the region , favouring precipitation , which mostly occurs in the form of convective thunderstorms . The Chaco Low also interacts with the South Atlantic high to bring warm and tropical air from the north which is the strongest in summer when the Chaco Low is at its strongest due to higher insolation .

Heat waves are a common feature of summers in the city . These heat waves place extra demand on electricity usage , leading to shortages . In extreme cases , these power shortages during heat waves can cause traffic jams and protests , such as the December 2013 heat wave ( longest heat wave ever recorded in Buenos Aires ) where increased energy demand lead to energy shortages and power cuts , protests against the government over the lack of service , and traffic jams as a result of these protests . However , most heat waves are of short duration ( usually less than a week ) , and are followed by the passage of the cold , dry Pampero wind , which brings violent and intense thunderstorms with strong gusts and hail followed by cooler temperatures and lower humidity . Occasionally , a tornado can form , which can strike the city although most tornadoes are relatively weak and rarely cause deaths . The greatest risk for tornadoes occurs in the summer season due to the favourable conditions . These severe storms can damage cars , houses and disrupt public services such as transportation and collection and disposal of urban solid waste .

= = = Autumn = = =

At the beginning of autumn , temperatures are warm to hot in the afternoon while nights and mornings are mild . Later on in the season , conditions are cooler featuring mild afternoons , and cold nights and mornings . The average high and low are 23 @.@ 0 ° C ( 73 @.@ 4 ° F ) and 14 @.@ 0 ° C ( 57 @.@ 2 ° F ) respectively while precipitation averages 351 @.@ 4 mm ( 13 @.@ 83 in ) during this season . Similar to spring , the season is characterized by changeable weather conditions with temperatures that can fluctuate ; temperatures as high as 37 @.@ 9 ° C ( 100 @.@ 2 ° F ) and as low as − 4 @.@ 0 ° C ( 24 @.@ 8 ° F ) have been recorded . Periods of rainy weather occur although these are usually of short duration . Frosts rarely occur , though they can occur as early as May .

= = = Winter = = =

June to August are the winter months in Buenos Aires . Winters are cold with mild temperatures during the day and cold nights . Highs during the season average 16 @.@ 3 ° C ( 61 @.@ 3 ° F ) while lows average 8 @.@ 1 ° C ( 46 @.@ 6 ° F ) . Lows rarely drop below 0 ° C ( 32 @.@ 0 ° F ) , averaging 2 days each year at the central observatory , and 1 day at Aeroparque . Cold waves can occur in these months in which periods of cold temperatures can persist for days . These cold waves , particularly during severe winters lead to increases in energy demand , which can cause significant energy shortages . Snowfall occasionally occurs in the surrounding areas of the city but rarely within Buenos Aires proper ; since the start of meteorological observations in 1906 at the central observatory , snowfall has only been observed thrice : on 9 July 2007 during a winter storm , June 1918 , and July 1928 . This is due to the city center having higher temperatures than the surrounding areas owing to the urban heat island effect .

Most of the precipitation comes from frontal systems associated with cyclogenesis and strong southeasterly winds ( Sudestada ) , which bring long periods of precipitation , cloudy weather and cooler temperatures . Winters are cloudy while relative humidity is very high , often 90 % or higher , making the weather dull , grey and cool . Occasionally , warm air masses from the north bring warmer temperatures . These warm air masses can bring sunny weather , particularly during the afternoon when they come from the north or northwest as a result of a trough located in central Argentina . On the other hand , warm air masses from Brazil bring humid conditions , featuring high humidity with high cloud cover that is typical of a warm front of a frontal system and typical of tropical maritime air . These warm air masses that are responsible for the high humidity and cloud cover are the warmest air masses , leading to the warmest temperatures . Nonetheless , these are short lived as the Chaco Low , which is responsible for bringing in warm and tropical air from the north is weaker in winter due to lower insolation , leading to the winds from the north being less intense and shorter lived .

Towards the end of winter in August , there are important changes in the atmospheric circulation . Warm , humid air penetrates the city , higher solar radiation and frequent synoptic weather disturbances from the west occur during the end of the winter . As such , the end of winter is usually characterized by heavy storms with lightning . This is popularly known as the Santa Rosa Storm , around August 30 . Based on 107 years of weather observations ( 1906 – 2012 ) from the central observatory , 58 years have seen stormy weather occurring on days close to August 30 , although not all of these have led to heavy precipitation .

= = Extremes = =

= = = Temperature = = =

According to the central observatory , which has one of the most reliable and oldest records in South America , the highest temperature in Buenos Aires , 43 @.@ 3 ° C ( 109 @.@ 9 ° F ) , was recorded on 29 January 1957 while the lowest temperature recorded is − 5 @.@ 4 ° C ( 22 @.@ 3 ° F ) on 9 July 1918 . The warmest year on record is 2015 , with a mean annual temperature of 18 @.@ 6 ° C ( 65 @.@ 5 ° F ) . On the other hand , 1911 was the coldest year , with a mean annual temperature of 15 @.@ 4 ° C ( 59 @.@ 7 ° F ) .

= = = Precipitation = = =

The year with the maximum precipitation was 1900 , when the city received 2 @,@ 024 mm ( 79 @.@ 7 in ) of precipitation . On the other hand , 1916 has been the driest year , with a mean annual precipitation of 504 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) . The highest precipitation for a single day was recorded on 27 February 1930 , when 194 @.@ 1 mm ( 7 @.@ 64 in ) of precipitation fell .

= = Statistics = =

= = Books = =

= Early skyscrapers =

The early skyscrapers were a range of tall , commercial buildings built between 1884 and 1939 , predominantly in the American cities of New York and Chicago . Cities in the United States were traditionally made up of low @-@ rise buildings , but significant economic growth after the Civil War and increasingly intensive use of urban land encouraged the development of taller buildings beginning in the 1870s . Technological improvements enabled the construction of fireproofed iron @-@ framed structures with deep foundations , equipped with new inventions such as the elevator and electric lighting . These made it both technically and commercially viable to build a new class of taller buildings , the first of which , Chicago 's 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) tall Home Insurance Building , opened in 1884 . Their numbers grew rapidly and by 1888 they were being labelled skyscrapers .

Chicago initially led the way in skyscraper design , with many constructed in the center of the financial district during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Sometimes termed the products of the Chicago school of architecture , these skyscrapers attempted to balance aesthetic concerns with practical commercial design , producing large , square palazzo @-@ styled buildings hosting shops and restaurants on the ground level and containing rentable offices on the upper floors . In contrast , New York 's skyscrapers were frequently narrower towers which , more eclectic in style , were often criticized for their lack of elegance . In 1892 , Chicago banned the construction of new skyscrapers taller than 150 feet ( 46 m ) , leaving the development of taller buildings to New York .

The first decade of the 20th century saw a new wave of skyscraper construction . The demand for new office space to hold America 's expanding workforce of white @-@ collar staff continued to grow . Engineering developments made it easier to build and live in yet taller buildings . Chicago built new skyscrapers in its existing style , while New York experimented further with tower design . Iconic buildings such as the Flatiron were followed by the 612 @-@ foot ( 187 m ) tall Singer Tower , the 700 @-@ foot ( 210 m ) Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower and the 792 @-@ foot ( 241 m ) Woolworth Building . Though these skyscrapers were commercial successes , criticism mounted as they broke up the ordered city skyline and plunged neighboring streets and buildings into perpetual shadow . Combined with an economic downturn , this led to the introduction of zoning restraints in New York in 1916 .

In the interwar years , skyscrapers spread to nearly all major US cities , while a handful were built in other Western countries . The economic boom of the 1920s and extensive real estate speculation encouraged a wave of new skyscraper projects in New York and Chicago . New York City 's 1916 Zoning Resolution helped shape the Art Deco or " set @-@ back " style of skyscrapers , leading to structures that focused on volume and striking silhouettes , often richly decorated . Skyscraper heights continued to grow , with the Chrysler and the Empire State Building each claiming new records , reaching 1 @,@ 046 feet ( 319 m ) and 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 380 m ) respectively . With the onset of the Great Depression , the real estate market collapsed and new builds stuttered to a halt . Popular and academic culture embraced the skyscraper through films , photography , literature and ballet , seeing the buildings as either positive symbols of modernity and science , or alternatively examples of the ills of modern life and society . Skyscraper projects after World War II typically rejected the designs of the early skyscrapers , instead embracing the international style ; many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even demolished — such as the Singer Tower , once the world 's tallest skyscraper .

= = Background : 1850 – 79 = =

= = = Commercial and social drivers = = =

Early skyscrapers emerged in the US as a result of economic growth , the financial organization of American businesses , and the intensive use of land . New York was one of the centers of early skyscraper construction , and had a history as a key seaport located on the small island of Manhattan , on the east coast of the US . As a consequence of its colonial history , New York real estate was broken up into many small parcels of land , with few large sites . During the first half of the 19th century it became the national center of American finance , and the banks in the financial district of Wall Street competed fiercely with English institutions for international dominance .

The Great Fire of 1835 destroyed most of the old financial buildings , and in their place a wide variety of new buildings were erected and demolished in quick succession during the 1840s and 1850s ; traveler Philip Hone suggested that the entire city was being rebuilt every decade . Most buildings adopted the Italian Renaissance inspired palazzo @-@ style of architecture popular amongst their rivals in England , and rose no more than five or six stories . New York did not have any restrictions on the height of buildings but in practice low @-@ rise buildings were the norm , at least until 1865 , with the tallest buildings being the city 's churches . New York 's population tripled between 1840 and 1870 , and property values soared , increasing by more than 90 percent between 1860 and 1875 .

Further west , the city of Chicago became the other major site in the development of early skyscrapers . In contrast to New York , Chicago emerged as a major metropolis only in the mid @-@ 19th century , growing from a village of around fifty inhabitants in 1830 , to a city of 30 @,@ 000 in 1850 and nearly 300 @,@ 000 by 1870 . Chicago became the railroad hub for the American West and the primary trading city for the emerging territories , famous for its commercial culture . It saw itself as different from the cities on the east coast and was immensely proud of its status as a growing , vibrant center .

By the 1870s Chicago had become the main financial center for the West , but in October 1871 the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the wooden heart of the city . The city was rebuilt on large plots of land in a new grid network , and followed new city ordinances that prohibited construction in wood . These factors encouraged the building of taller properties in new innovative designs , which , like New York , saw a range of businesses and services being packed into single buildings .

The construction of taller buildings during the 1870s was hindered by the financial Panic of 1873 and the ensuing economic depression , which lasted until around 1879 . Construction slowed and property values slumped . By 1880 , however , the recovery was well underway , with new builds in New York returning to the pace of 1871 , and the economic upturn making the construction of taller buildings an attractive financial option again , establishing many of the preconditions for the development of the skyscraper .

= = = Technological developments = = =

The emergence of skyscrapers was made possible by technological improvements during the middle of the 19th century . One of these developments was the iron framed building . Traditional buildings supported their internal floors through their walls , but the taller the building , the thicker the walls had to become , particularly at the base : buildings of any substantial height rapidly saw their lower floors eaten up by brick or masonry . In the 1860s French engineers experimented with using built @-@ up plate girders made of wrought iron to construct buildings supported by internal metal frames . These frames were stronger than traditional masonry and permitted much thinner walls . The methodology was extensively described in engineering journals and was initially used to build warehouses .

Using these metal frames for taller buildings , however , meant exposing them to the potentially devastating effects of wind pressure . As a consequence , protective wind bracing had to be introduced , enabled by the work of Augustin @-@ Jean Fresnel who produced equations for calculating the loads and moments on larger buildings . Metal @-@ framed buildings were also particularly vulnerable to fire and required special fireproofing . French engineers had made advances in this area in the early 19th century , but major breakthroughs only came with the work of architect Peter Wight in the 1860s . Spurred on by the catastrophic fires in Chicago in 1871 and Boston in 1872 , his findings were turned into a wide variety of patented fire proofing products during the 1870s .

Taller , heavier buildings such as skyscrapers also required stronger foundations than smaller buildings . Earlier buildings had typically rested their foundations on rubble , which was in turn laid down on the soft top layer of the ground called the overburden . As buildings became taller and heavier , the overburden could not support their weight and foundations increasingly needed to rest directly on the bedrock below . In both New York and Chicago this required digging down a considerable distance through soft and often @-@ waterlogged soil , risking the hole filling up with water before the foundations were complete . The deeper the foundations needed to be , the greater the challenge . Special water @-@ tight boxes called caissons were invented to deal with this problem in England in 1830 , and adopted in the US during the 1850s and 1860s .

The development of the elevator was also essential to the emergence of the early skyscrapers , as office building taller than around six stories would have been impractical without them . Powered elevators were first installed in England during the 1830s and spread to US factories and hotels by the 1840s . Elevators using hoist ropes , however , could only function effectively in low @-@ rise buildings and this limitation encouraged the introduction of the hydraulic elevator in 1870 , even though early models contained dangerous design flaws . By 1876 these problems had been resolved , providing a solution for servicing the early skyscrapers .

New environmental technologies in heating , lighting , ventilation and sanitation were also critical to creating taller buildings that were attractive to work in . Central heating could not be easily extended to serve larger buildings ; in the 1850s , a system using low @-@ pressure steam and steam @-@ operated fans became adopted in the construction of the later skyscrapers . Many US buildings were lit by gas but this carried safety risks and was difficult to install in taller buildings . As an alternative , electric lights were installed from 1878 onwards , powered by basement generators . Ventilation was also a challenge , as smoke drifting into offices from the streets and the fumes from the gas lighting made air quality a major health issue . A steam @-@ driven , forced @-@ draft ventilation system was invented in 1860 and became widely used in taller buildings by the 1870s , overcoming much of the problem . Improvements in iron piping permitted running hot and cold water and sanitation facilities to be installed throughout taller buildings for the first time .

= = Emergence of the skyscraper : 1880 – 99 = =

= = = The first skyscraper = = =

There is academic disagreement over which building should be considered the first skyscraper . The term was first used in the 1780s to describe a particularly tall horse , before later being applied to the sail at the top of a ship 's mast , tall hats and bonnets , tall men and a ball that was hit high into the air . In the 1880s it began to be applied to buildings , first in 1883 to describe large public monuments and then in 1889 as a label for tall office blocks , coming into widespread use over the next decade . Identifying the first " true skyscraper " is not straightforward , and various candidates exist depending on the criteria applied . George Post 's New York Equitable Life Building of 1870 , for example , was the first tall office building to use the elevator , while his Produce Exchange of 1884 made substantial structural advances in metal frame design . The Home Insurance Building in Chicago , opened in 1884 , is , however , most often labelled the first skyscraper because of its innovative use of structural steel in a metal frame design .

The Home Insurance Building was a 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) tall , 10 @-@ story skyscraper designed by William Le Baron Jenney , who had been trained as an engineer in France and was a leading architect in Chicago . Jenney 's design was unusual in that it incorporated steel into the building 's internal metal frame alongside the traditional wrought iron . This frame took the weight of the floors of the building and helped to support the weight of the external walls as well , proving an important step towards creating the genuine non @-@ structural curtain walls that became a feature of later skyscrapers . The design was not perfect – some of the weight was still carried by masonry walls , and the metal frame was bolted , rather than riveted , together – but it was clearly a significant advance in tall building construction .

The approach quickly caught on in Chicago . In 1889 the Tacoma Building replaced the bolted metal design with a stronger , riveted approach , and Chicago 's Chamber of Commerce Building introduced interior light courts to the structural design of skyscrapers . In the 1890 Rand McNally Building the last remaining technical issues were resolved , resulting in the first entirely self @-@ supporting , steel @-@ framed skyscraper . Some buildings , such as The Rookery and the Monadnock Building , combined elements of both the newer and older styles , but generally Chicago rapidly adopted steel structures as a flexible and effective way to produce a range of tall buildings . Specialist professional structural engineers began to establish practices in Chicago specialising in the steel frames need for the new skyscraper .

Technical challenges overcome , there was a boom in skyscraper construction in Chicago from 1888 onwards , the city leading the way in the new form . By 1893 , Chicago had built 12 skyscrapers between 16 and 20 stories tall , tightly clustered in the centre of the financial district . Chicago 's skyscrapers , however , were constrained by the contemporary limits of steel @-@ frame design and the muddy sub @-@ soil in the city , which together limited most of their skyscrapers to around 16 or 17 stories . Chicago 's skyscrapers rapidly became tourist destinations , for the views of the wider city they provided from their upper floors and as attractive sites in their own right . Tourists were advised to hire cabs for street tours of the skyscrapers – by lying back in the cab , they would be able to safely take in the tops of the tall buildings .

The Masonic Temple was the most prominent of these new skyscrapers . Built by the Freemasons of Chicago in 1892 , at a time when the Masons was a fast @-@ growing social community , the lavish 302 @-@ foot ( 92 m ) tall skyscraper had 19 stories , the bottom ten holding shops and the higher levels containing the Masons ' private suites and meeting halls , some able to hold up to 1 @,@ 300 people . At the top was a roof garden and observation gallery . The Freemasons were competing with their local rivals the Odd Fellows , who intended to build a much higher skyscraper , 556 feet ( 169 m ) tall , that they announced would be the tallest building in the world . Newspapers picked up the story , circulating facts about the size of the Temple and making comparison to historical buildings such as the Capitol or the Statue of Liberty . The Odd Fellows project failed , but the Masonic Temple capitalized on the publicity , being declared the " tallest commercial building in the world " .

In comparison , New York trailed behind Chicago , having only four buildings over 16 stories tall by 1893 . Part of the delay was caused by the slowness of the city authorities to authorize metal @-@ frame construction techniques ; it was not until 1889 that they relented and allowed Bradford Gilbert to construct the Tower Building , an 11 @-@ story iron @-@ framed skyscraper . This encouraged the building of more skyscraper towers in New York , although the city remained cautious about the technology for some years . Finally , in 1895 a breakthrough was made with the construction of the American Surety Building , a twenty @-@ story , 303 @-@ foot ( 92 m ) high @-@ steel development that broke Chicago 's height record . From then on , New York thoroughly embraced skeleton frame construction . In particular , New York newspaper companies adopted the skyscraper , building several along Park Row , sometimes termed " Newspaper Row " , in the 1880s and 1890s . A few early skyscrapers were also constructed in Baltimore , Boston , Pittsburgh , St. Louis , and Buffalo , including the Wainwright and the Guaranty Buildings . Early examples on the West Coast include the Old Chronicle Building and the Call Building in San Francisco , as well as the Luzon Building in Tacoma , Washington .

= = = Architectural challenges = = =

The architects of early skyscrapers faced a number of challenges . The most fashionable architectural style in the late 19th century was the French Beaux @-@ Arts movement , sometimes termed the Italian Renaissance style , which applied Classical aesthetic principles to modern buildings . American architects trained in the Beaux @-@ Arts style at the Parisian Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts began to return home in the 1880s , bringing these ideals and standards with them . Applying contemporary Beaux @-@ Arts standards to early skyscrapers , however , was not straightforward . The buildings that the Beaux @-@ Arts movement emulated and built were typically much shorter and broader than any skyscraper , and it was impossible to accurately reproduce the style in a tall , narrow building .

Skyscrapers were also primarily commercial buildings , and economics as well as aesthetics had to play an important part in their design . The architectural writer Barr Ferree noted in 1893 that " current American architecture is not a matter of art , but of business . A building must pay , or there will be no investor ready with the money to meet its cost . This is at once the curse and the glory of American architecture . " George Hill echoed the theme , condemning unnecessary features on the basis that " every cubic foot that is used for purely ornamental purposes beyond that needed to express its use and to make it harmonize with others of its class , is a waste " .

By the 1890s , Chicago architects were producing a solution to this problem , creating a new architectural style , often termed the " Chicago school of architecture " . The school included architects such as Louis Sullivan , William Le Baron Jenney and John Root , whose designs combined architectural aesthetic theory with practical commercial sense . They favoured placing rich , ornate designs on the outside of skyscrapers at the ground level and simpler , plainer ornamentation on the upper levels , with strong vertical lines . The roofs of their skyscrapers typically formed a comprehensible outline and structure when seen at a distance as part of the city skyline . The intent was to draw the observer 's eye upwards , celebrating what Sullivan termed the " lofty " nature of the skyscraper , but not wasting resources on intricate detailing unlikely to appeal to a busy businessman . At the same time , the more lavish ground floor designs would make the building stand out to passers @-@ by and pull in the necessary business for a successful commercial building .

This community also saw close collaboration between architects , specialist structural engineers and building contractors emerge on the new skyscraper projects . Historically the industry had been dominated by individuals and small firms who combined the roles of architect and engineer , but this broke down in Chicago during the period , being replaced by a partnership between specialist architects who focused on the appearance of the skyscraper , and specialist engineers who focused on the structures that enabled it to be built . Chicago architectural firms grew to be large , hierarchical and with numerous specialist staff ; the famous D. H. Burnham & Company , for example , felt like a small factory to visitors , and ultimately expanded to employ 180 staff .

The resulting Chicago school produced large , solid @-@ looking skyscrapers , built with a common appearance and to a common height . The result was usually a box @-@ like palazzo , illuminated with a large light court , ideally , if space allowed , in the center . The outside of the building was commonly divided into three parts : a base , middle section and the roof line . This tripartite design was intended both to emulate classical columns , and reflect the functions of the different parts of the skyscraper . The central court could form a simple courtyard , but many companies preferred to roof over the courtyard with glass to produce an atrium for shops and restaurants . Rents for these shops were up to five or six times that for office space , and made an important difference to the income from a property . Chicago skyscraper windows were also a feature of the style ; these were large , fixed windows flanked by smaller sash windows on either side , which provided access to sunlight and adequate ventilation . Sometimes these protruded from the building to form a slight bay .

Although the exterior of the Chicago skyscrapers buildings were relatively plain , the entrance ways and lobbies were fitted out in a grand style . The Unity Building , for example , was reported as including " Numidian , Alps , Green and Sienna marbles ... an artistic screen of glass and bronze ... a marble balcony " alongside " Corinthian columns with finely carved capitals , gold @-@ leaf and silver chandeliers , and silver @-@ plated latticework " on the elevators . The aim was to project a sense of prosperity and solid financial credentials , which in turn would attract tenants willing to pay high rents . For the tenants , such surroundings were good for their own business credibility , and affirmed their own social status as professionals .

New York faced similar architectural challenges , but , in comparison to Chicago , skyscraper architects there worked less closely with engineers and other specialists and instead , held strong backgrounds in the Beaux Arts movement and perceived their role to be primarily artistic rather than a partnership with the mechanical arts . Their practices tended to be smaller , resembling atelier style workshops . Structural engineers in New York took longer to build up a strong professional role there , a trend reflected in the lower engineering quality of many early skyscrapers in the city . The New York style emphasised stunning height and a somewhat eclectic use of architectural features from other periods , creating an energetic , flamboyant appearance . Towers were common , making best use of the relatively small plots of land in New York . Some New York skyscrapers emulated the tripartite style of Chicago , but others broke their exterior down into many different layers , each with its own style . Proponents argued that this reintroduced a sense of human proportion to these tall buildings ; critics felt that the results were confused and ungainly .

= = = Life in early skyscrapers = = =

Early skyscrapers were mainly made up of small office cubicles , commonly only 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) across , which were placed adjacent to one another along long corridors , following a pattern first invented in the Oriel Chambers building in England in 1864 . This allowed the average small company to rent a small amount of space using one or two offices , but held out the option for future expansion by renting additional office cubicles if required at a later date . A skyscraper office relied on natural sunlight from the windows but if necessary was dimly lit from electric desk @-@ top lamps . By the standards of the day , these offices were very modern , with radiators , air vents and the latest fixtures and fittings , and modern communication systems , including telephone and pneumatic tubes were often installed . As a result , many businesses chose to move out of their older , low @-@ rise offices in Chicago to take up tenancy in the new skyscrapers , which were felt to be more convenient and healthier .

The first skyscrapers were mainly occupied by male workers but this changed during the 1890s , with female employees becoming more common . The percentage of female clerical workers in Chicago , for example , increased from 11 percent in 1880 to 21 percent by 1890 , reaching 30 percent by 1900 . Various moral concerns were raised about men and women mixing in such offices , which were characterised as being masculine spaces , full of tobacco smoke and profanity and therefore unsuitable for women . The new female workers typically worked as typists or stenographers , using the recently invented typewriter , which grew in number in US offices from 146 in 1879 to 65 @,@ 000 by 1890 .

Skyscrapers provided a wide range of in @-@ house services for their tenants , including shops , restaurants , barbers , tobacconists , newsagents , tailors , professional specialists and libraries . Skyscrapers also employed a substantial number of service staff to maintain and support them ; a building such as the Chicago Board of Trade spent 20 percent of its rental revenue on service staff , employing 41 people , including janitors , elevator operators , engineers and an electrician . With this collection of services and facilities , skyscrapers of the period were often referred to as small cities in their own right .

= = = Criticism and reform in Chicago = = =

Opposition to Chicago 's skyscrapers began to grow during the late 1880s and early 1890s . Even before the development of the skyscraper , some criticized large buildings in Chicago for dominating churches and private houses , and this sentiment strengthened . Critics complained that the concentration of tall buildings in the center of the city was causing huge congestion , and each new skyscraper was also burning additional coal to power its facilities , together consuming a total of over one million tons each year , leaving smoke and stagnant air hanging over Chicago . Many were concerned over the risk of a major fire breaking out and spreading , uncontrolled , from building to building .

Chicago was not alone in having concerns over the growth of the skyscraper . In Boston , the Fiske and the Ames Buildings were built in the late 1880s , 183 feet ( 56 m ) and 190 feet ( 58 m ) tall respectively , but protests by local civic campaigners and the real estate industry resulted in the city passing a law to limit new buildings to a maximum of 123 feet ( 37 m ) , effectively banning the construction of skyscrapers . The cities of Philadelphia , Los Angeles and Washington D.C. similarly introduced height controls to limit skyscraper construction .

The decisive factor in favour of change in Chicago , however , was the economic slowdown in the early 1890s , which would end in the financial panic of 1893 . The recession , combined with the frantic building of the previous few years , meant that Chicago suddenly had a significant surplus of office space , threatening occupancy levels and rents . Regulation was introduced by the city council to control the problem in 1892 , with support from the real estate industry who hoped to slow the construction of additional office space and shore up their diminishing profit margins . The height of new buildings was limited to 150 feet ( 46 m ) , with lower height levels on narrower streets , effectively curtailing the construction of any taller skyscrapers .

= = The " First Great Age " : 1900 – 19 = =

= = = Pre @-@ war boom = = =

The early years of the 20th century saw a range of technically sophisticated , architecturally confident skyscrapers built in New York ; academics Sarah Landau and Carl Condit term this " the first great age " of skyscraper building . Some were relatively conservative buildings in a classical style , such as the Mutual Life , Atlantic Mutual and Broad Exchange Buildings , all designed by Clinton and Russell . Others broke new ground , including the Flatiron Building which opened in 1903 near Madison Square . The Chicago firm of Daniel Hudsdon Burnham designed the 307 feet ( 94 m ) high , 21 story structure ; the unusually shaped , narrow building needed particularly strong wind bracing , while the facade was richly textured and incorporated stylistic features more common in Chicago . A critical and popular success , the Flatiron was likened to the Parthenon of Ancient Greece and became , for a time , a New York icon .

The construction of the Singer Tower was announced by the company in 1906 , who intended to produce the tallest skyscraper in the world . The company already had several lower @-@ rise buildings in New York that the tower would be incorporated into and planned to rent out the bottom half of the tower to tenants to subsidise their use of the upper half . The skyscraper was designed by Ernest Flagg , a Beaux @-@ Arts advocate and noted critic of existing skyscrapers , who justified taking on the project as a way of generating support for skyscraper reform . The design was technically challenging , as such a tall , narrow tower needed special wind bracing , and the deep bedrock on the site required particularly deep foundations . The tower was faced in dark brick and followed the Beaux @-@ Arts style used by the rest of the complex , with a galleried lobby fitted out in Italian marble . When it opened in 1908 it had 47 stories and was 612 feet ( 187 m ) tall ; visitors paid $ 0 @.@ 50 ( $ 12 in 2010 terms ) each to use the observation area at the top of the building to see the views .

The Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower was opened in 1909 , the culmination of a long building project by N. LeBrun and Sons to hold Metropolitan Life 's growing headquarters staff , 2 @,@ 800 strong by 1909 . At 700 feet ( 210 m ) high and with 50 stories , it became the world 's new tallest building . Metropolitan Life intended the skyscraper to promote the company 's image and the build was surrounded by publicity . The tower featured on the front of prominent magazines such as Scientific American , as well as on the sides of corn flake boxes , coffee packets and cars . The tower was loosely modelled on the Venician St Mark 's Campanile , and featured extensive Early Renaissance @-@ styled detailing , with the more modern additions of huge clock faces , electric flashlights for night @-@ time illumination and an observation deck at the top . Contemporary architects Everett Waid and Harvey Corbett described how the building had " the latest ideas in ventilation , air conditioning , sound deadening , artificial lighting , intercommunicating pneumatic tubes , telephones , call bells , unit operating clock systems [ and ] special elevator and escalator installations " . The design won critical acclaim within the American architectural profession .

The construction of the Woolworth Building was announced in 1910 by Frank Woolworth , who wanted to create the largest income @-@ producing property in the US . The project grew , and Woolworth finally opted for a 55 story , 792 @-@ foot ( 241 m ) high skyscraper , the latest tallest building in the world , at a cost of $ 13 @.@ 5 million ( $ 5 @.@ 1 billion in 2010 terms ) . The architect Cass Gilbert designs included a very high proportion of usable – and thus rentable – floor space , with a great deal of light and a flexible floor plan that could be subdivided for different tenants . Up @-@ to @-@ date fittings were installed to encourage a high @-@ class of tenants , including the world 's fastest elevators , safety features and a swimming pool . Gilbert adopted the Beaux @-@ Arts style , using accented terracotta and glass to emphasis vertical lines , elegantly echoing the structural frame underneath and incorporating 15th and 16th century Flamboyant Gothic @-@ styled features . It was capped by a gilded tower that blended into the sky behind it to produce an illusion of even greater height . The building was floodlit at night , topped with red and white flashing lights . It was famously dubbed the " Cathedral of Commerce " , rather to Gilbert 's displeasure as he had attempted to avoid copying ecclesiastical architecture .

Meanwhile , Chicago 's skyscraper industry also boomed during the decade before World War I. The city 's elevated train network was operating by 1910 , allowing more workers to come into the centre . In 1910 alone 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 square feet ( 140 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new offices were opened and by the end of the decade , Chicago had the second largest number of headquarters offices in the US . Chicago architectural firms such as Daniel H. Burnham and then Graham , Anderson , Probst & White continued to design skyscrapers in the palazzo style made popular in the previous decade . Chicago had hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1895 , a massive international event which had excited interest in the themes of classical architecture and well @-@ designed city landscapes . Chicago also had extensive discussions in 1909 about the potential for designing large parts of the city , the Burnham Plan of Chicago .

The resulting skyscrapers reflected these debates : the Railway Exchange , the Peoples Gas and the Illinois Continental and Commercial Bank Buildings were each substantial , quarter of block wide palazzo cubes of common height , their facades divided into a classical tripartite design , and sporting classical columns and other features . Despite the apparent uniformity of design , individual buildings varied considerably in the detail of their designs in effort to express their particular identities , the Peoples Gas Building using texture and the Railway Exchange Building white terracotta , for example .

= = = Improvements in construction = = =

The process of building skyscrapers became more sophisticated , starting with the acquisition of the real estate needed for the site . Brokers working on commission would secretly acquire the individual bits of land required for a project , operating under a variety of names to avoid the price increasing once a planned build became known . The properties at the front of the site would typically be bought first , as if news broke of the skyscraper then those owning property at the back of the plot would have little choice but to sell anyway . The funding for skyscraper developments was normally lent by banks , insurance companies or raised through bonds sold through a specialised bond house , with the latter becoming increasingly popular after World War I.

Efforts were made to improve the processes for erecting skyscrapers , largely through the work of general contractors such as Louis Horowitz and Frank Gilbreth , who in turn drew on recent work by efficiency specialist Frederick Taylor . Time schedules were devised for all the work to be undertaken , with cost carefully monitored and reports produced each day . The results were demonstrated on the Woolworth Building construction project , where 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 153 @,@ 000 kg ) of steel were assembled in only six days , a record for the period . Improved windbracing techniques introduced . The use of pneumatic caissons in skyscraper foundations grew more advanced ; in the construction of the 1908 Manhattan Municipal Building they were successfully sunk 144 feet ( 44 m ) below the surface , with specially conditioned workers operating in shifts with constant medical support .

New technologies were also introduced within the buildings . Fast Otis elevators powered by electricity rather than steam @-@ driven hydraulics began to be installed in skyscrapers for the first time , with Ellithorpe safety air cushions protecting the passengers in the case of failure . Lighting improved with the recommended levels in 1916 being around twice the level of electric lighting than in the 1890s . Nonetheless , skyscrapers still relied primarily on natural sunlight , which required installing large windows and having tall ceilings to allow the sunlight to penetrate the back of the offices ; an office deeper than 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) was not considered a practical design .

= = = Life in the skyscrapers = = =

One of the reasons for the increase in the numbers of skyscrapers during the period was the growth in demand for office workers . In part this demand was fuelled by many US firms becoming larger and more complex , and white @-@ collar sectors such as insurance and banking grew in scale . It was also driven by changing technology . The typewriter was joined in the office by the adding machine , the telephone and filing cabinets , all adding to the demand for office space and requiring increasingly specialised workers .

Tenants and rental income were essential to the financial success of any skyscraper , as even the largest skyscrapers and those founded by prominent companies rented out much of their office space . Owners could charge significantly more for office space close to the main windows , making it most efficient to build skyscrapers with as much premium office space as possible , even if this cost slightly more to construct in the first instance . As a result , a standard pattern for office units in both New York and Chicago emerged , with either a single rectangular office adjoining an exterior wall , or a " T " shaped design , with a reception room giving way to two windowed offices , separated by glass partitions . Skyscrapers usually took on large numbers of relatively small companies as their tenants . A skyscraper such as the Woolworth Tower had around 600 different tenants in 1913 , for example , while a typical tenant might rent four or five office units in a skyscraper .

= = = Criticism = = =

Skyscrapers , particularly those in New York , attracted considerable comment , much of it negative . On his return to New York , the writer Henry James condemned the buildings in The American Scene as simply " giants of the mere market " , " mercenary monsters " doomed to be torn down in turn as other , even larger , buildings took their place . In Chicago the combination of the environmental pollution and skyscrapers meant that , as Charles Warner complained , " one can scarcely see across the streets on a damp day , and the huge buildings loom up in the black sky in ghostly dimness " .

Wider artistic sentiments varied . Many , like , Alfred Stieglitz harboured mixed feelings over New York 's skyscrapers , reflected in his famous 1903 portrait of the Gridiron building , and his 1910 work Old and New New York that contrasts the growing steel frame of the emerging Vanderbilt Hotel with the old low @-@ rise blocks of the street below . Poets also wrote about the issues , the early Modernist Sadakichi Hartmann describing how " from the city 's stir and madd 'ning roar " the Flatiron 's " monstrous shape soars in massive flight " . Artists such as Alvin Coburn and John Marin experimented with producing portraits of New York 's skyscrapers , capturing the positive and negative aspects of the modern structures . In 1908 artist Harry Pettit produced a romantic interpretation of a future New York , filled with giant skyscrapers supporting aerial bridges and receiving dirigibles from around the globe .

Amongst the architectural community , the Exposition in Chicago inspired many in America to champion designing cities that had a unified design , in which each building had unique features but elegantly complemented its neighbours , typically by being built to a common height : " horizontal visual unity " . In the aftermath of the Exposition , many of these advocates joined with the Beaux @-@ Arts movement to form the City Beautiful movement , proposing low @-@ rise cities with wide boulevards , built in a classical style . These critics condemned New York 's skyscrapers , Montgomery Schuyler describing how they had produced a " horribly jagged sierra " of a city skyline and complaining that no modern skyscraper had turned out to be an architectural success . Charles Lamb argued that the skyscraper impinged on the rights of the rest of the city by destroying the collective appearance of an urban area . Some architects , such as Charles McKim and Stanford White refused to work on such projects altogether .

= = = Reform in New York = = =

Calls were made in New York for legislation to prevent the growth of skyscrapers , citing their effect on the city skylines , but these attempts faced legal obstacles . The US constitution did not give local authorities authority to prevent the buildings on the grounds of aesthetics alone , and any such law in New York was considered likely to face judicial challenge .

Others argued that legal reform of skyscraper construction was needed for public health and safety reasons , an area in which US law was normally more supportive of state intervention . The risk of fire was one concern ; while skyscrapers might be relatively fireproof , their height made conventional fire @-@ fighting difficult . The architect Charles Bragdon considered a large scale , devastating high @-@ rise fire to be inevitable if regulation was not forthcoming . The Baltimore fire of 1904 was widely cited as an example of this risk and , although Baltimore had almost no real skyscrapers , city lawyers argued that the taller buildings had caused the flames to spread through the city during the blaze . Baltimore subsequently passed a law in 1904 , banning buildings higher than 70 feet ( 21 m ) . Other campaigners argued that skyscrapers were compromising access to light and air , noting that when tall buildings rose straight up from the sidewalk , they cast long shadows across the street , preventing healthy sunlight from ever reaching smaller buildings below .

Early attempts by Ernest Flagg to limit the height of New York 's skyscrapers in 1896 failed ; further unsuccessful attempts followed between 1906 and 1908 , and legislation was turned down again in 1909 , partially due to pressure from the real estate industry . After 1913 , however , the property market in New York entered a recession and vacancy levels in buildings began to rise . The campaign for change was helped by the construction of the Equitable Building in 1915 at the estimated cost of $ 29 million ( $ 10 @.@ 9 billion in 2010 terms ) , which rapidly became infamous as its vast height and bulk blocked views and cast neighbours into permanent shade . The real estate industry finally ceased its objections to new legislation and the 1916 Zoning Resolution was passed .

The details of the legislation itself was largely the work of architect George Ford . Ford had sympathies with the City Beautiful movement , disliked the unimaginative form of many New York skyscrapers and had concerns over urban public health , but he also found tall buildings exciting and believed that horizontal visual unity produced boring architecture . As a consequence of Ford 's influence , New York 's laws were relatively complex and divided up the city into different zones ; in each zone , a particular zoning envelope applied , controlling the height to which buildings could be built . Typically a building could only rise up from the sidewalk vertically by around 100 feet ( 30 m ) , after which the building had to be set back at a set angle to allow sunlight to reach the street below . On a quarter of the site , however , the owner could build as high as they wished , without any further restrictions .

= = Inter @-@ war period , boom and depression : 1920 – 39 = =

= = = Post @-@ war boom = = =

A real estate boom occurred in the US after the end of the First World War , with a particular surge in the construction of new skyscrapers between 1925 and 1931 . In New York , a quarter of the financial district was rebuilt between 1928 and 1931 , with 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new office @-@ space added between 1925 and 1929 alone . Chicago saw pressure grow on its existing office @-@ space during the war ; limited wartime construction created supply shortages and rent levels rose in response by around 100 percent between 1919 and 1924 . This level of potential profits encouraged an explosion of new building projects in the city . The boom inflated prices in the real estate market , leading to speculative financing and building projects , including the introduction of 100 percent mortgages for new builds . An early edition of the Fortune magazine commented wryly that " all a man needs to own a skyscraper is the money and the land . And he may be able to get along without the money . "

Skyscrapers continued to grow in height throughout the 1920s . In part this was the result of improvements in technology : steel @-@ frame structures had become increasingly efficient , while improvements in elevator design made taller buildings easier to ascend . Commercial factors were at work too , as growing commercial demand pushed up rents , enabling taller projects , while the higher offices attracted more sunlight , permitting the charging of premium rents . The tallest buildings could also acquire publicity for their owners , in turn making it easier to find and keep the best tenants . Furthermore , the higher the cost of the underlying real estate , the taller a building needed to be to generate a suitable return on the investment , and the minimum sensible commercial height for a skyscraper project grew to between 40 and 45 stories . 70 story skyscrapers became relatively common , although an influential 1930 study demonstrated that the best rate of return on a skyscraper was to build it 63 stories high , returning an annual profit of 10 @.@ 25 percent .

Skyscrapers continued to spread both across the US and internationally . New York and Chicago remained the center of skyscraper development but most major centres in the US had built skyscrapers by 1929 , frequently as a result of competition between rival cities for status and investment . Cincinnati built the Cincinnati Towers in 1914 , followed by the Carew Tower Complex in 1930 . In Detroit , the General Motors Building opened in 1920 and the Fisher Building in 1928 . Cleveland acquired the Union Trust Building in 1923 and the Terminal Tower in 1929 ; the latter , built by the Van Sweringen brothers , was , for a short period , the second tallest building in the world . Seattle had built Smith Tower as early as 1914 and the Los Angeles local government granted itself an exemption from city planning restrictions , in order to build the Los Angeles City Hall in 1928 . In 1928 , the Industrial Trust Tower was built in Providence .

Skyscrapers were also built in other developed countries , although reaching nowhere near the level of construction seen in the US . This was partially due to a lack of funding but also because of local architectural preferences . European cities including London and Paris had laws to ban tall buildings , but elsewhere skyscrapers began to appear including Toronto 's Imperial Bank of Commerce Building , Antwerp 's Boerentoren or Buenos Aires ' Kavanagh Building . Many other European skyscrapers were proposed in a frenzy of excited planning , although few materialised . Soviet Russia began the construction of the 1 @,@ 365 @-@ foot ( 416 m ) Palace of the Soviets in the late 1930s , in the Socialist Classicism style , which would have become the tallest building in the world , but war intervened and the skyscraper was never completed . In the post @-@ war years , this style would result in the monumental Seven Sisters of Moscow building .

The technology used in constructing skyscrapers continued to develop . Time was increasingly a factor in the projects , and architects and their specialist teams developed faster ways to design and construct the buildings to minimise the interest payments during the build and hasten the arrival of rental income . By 1930 skyscrapers were being erected in just 12 months by teams of workers totalling 5 @,@ 000 men , with four floors being assembled in a typical week . Building skyscraper towers involved some adaption of engineering techniques , as effectively two different buildings were being designed – the base and the tower – which needed to be efficiently linked using elevators and other service facilities . Most new offices settled around a standard size , 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) wide by 20 to 30 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) deep , depending on the height of the ceiling , with multiple small windows considered better than a few larger ones . The output of electric lighting continued to improve , although this began to give off excessive heat within the offices . Air conditioning was first installed in a few skyscrapers during the 1930s .

= = = Art Deco skyscrapers and New York 's set @-@ back style = = =

During the 1920s and 1930s many skyscrapers were designed in an Art Deco style . This architectural approach typically combined what Carol Willis terms an " aesthetic of simple , sculptural mass " with the use of rich colour and ornamentation on the surfaces of the buildings . The aim was to call attention to the increasingly complex three @-@ dimensional shape of the skyscraper , in contrast to earlier styles which could be critiqued , as historian Larry Ford suggests , as being merely " short buildings made taller with additional stories " . Windows were de @-@ emphasised in favour of creating a strong sense of shape and mass , the surrounding walls treated as textured fabric , dressing the building underneath . Skyscrapers of this period typically lost their ornamental horizontal divisions , being broken up by physical changes in their shape as one looked up the building , the whole forming a striking silhouette .

In New York , the 1916 act to allow light and air to reach the streets encouraged a stepped or ziggurat approach to skyscraper design ; this " set @-@ back " style often made unrestricted use of the 25 percent of the site allowed by law to complete with a very tall tower . This encouraged a diversity of buildings , while maintaining an element of harmony and consistency of style . The Paramount Building and 120 Wall Street , for example , were constructed in the set @-@ back style without towers , partially because the limited size of the sites would have made the towers relatively narrow and – when packed with the necessary elevators and service facilities – economically unviable . Many other skyscrapers built on larger or more expensive plots opted for the tallest towers possible , including the $ 24 million ( $ 3 @.@ 8 billion in 2010 terms ) Bank of Manhattan Trust Building and the City Bank @-@ Farmers Trust Company Building . New York continued its lead in tall skyscrapers throughout the period ; in 1920 it had ten times the number of tall buildings than its nearest rival Chicago .

Some New York skyscrapers complemented traditional , cubicle offices linked by corridors , with larger , more open @-@ plan spaces called " general offices " . These maximised the number of workers that could fitted into a given space , and provided for greater flexibility . Expensive corporate suites were also created during the 1930s , especially on Wall Street , typically on the highest levels of the buildings . These were used by the corporate executives and were usually lavishly outfitted in a range of traditional and exotic styles . The lobbies of these skyscrapers remained grand affairs , although some banks now eschewed renting out space to shops and restaurants in favour of a more exclusive atmosphere . The largest skyscrapers held up to 16 @,@ 000 workers , although between 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 was more common , and the buildings held a wide range of services to support them , including beauty salons , private luncheon clubs , chiropodists and gymnasiums . A skyscraper such as the Cities Service Building directly employed over 200 staff to manage and protect the property . The technology within the offices also grew still more sophisticated , with dictating , automatic typing and tabulating machines being used by teams of ever more specialised office workers .

= = = Chicago 's towers = = =

Chicago altered its laws in the 1920s to allow towers to be built as part of its skyscrapers . In 1920 the maximum building height in Chicago was increased to 260 feet ( 79 m ) , and unoccupied structures on a building , such as ornamental towers , were allowed to extend up to 400 feet ( 120 m ) high . Additional changes came in 1923 , with taller , occupied towers being permitted for the first time , but subject to controls on overall volumes . The main building of a skyscraper could be up to 264 feet ( 80 m ) tall , and a tower could be built on up to 25 percent of the plot , but this tower could not have a volume of more than a sixth of the main block . In practice , this meant that a tower could not be built more than around 20 stories tall in a typical Chicago skyscraper development .

Initially , Chicago still preferred palazzo @-@ styled buildings with large light courts in the centre , not least because they remained the most profitable designs . The Wrigley Building , built under the 1920 law , demonstrated the effect of two ornamental towers on top of a skyscraper . Under the revised law , the Straus Building and the Pittsfield Building took the palazzo design and added somewhat stunted towers on top in the early 1920s , producing profitable buildings .

One of the period 's most famous buildings , the Tribune Tower , emerged from a competition held by the Tribune Company in 1922 to celebrate its 75th anniversary . The newspaper was one of the largest in the world and used the competition , in which members of the public were invited to influence the design of the skyscraper , to build a loyal following amongst its readership and generate free publicity . The final design was determined by a competition panel largely made up of the company 's appointees , who chose John Howells and Raymond Hood 's tower design . The resulting tower was a conservative , Gothic design and controversy about the decision broke out almost immediately : Louis Sullivan and many others criticized Howells and Hood 's design as being derivative of the Woolworth Tower . Regardless of its critics , the Tribune received as many as 20 @,@ 000 visitors to its observation gallery when it opened in 1925 . The unbuilt second @-@ place entry in the competition , a more simplified stepped @-@ back design by Eliel Saarinen , also proved highly influential .

The popularity of the older style then began to wane in favor of a greater emphasis on towers . One common way of building these within Chicago 's laws was to build a square main block with a central service core , and then simply place a tower on the top ; the more massive the main block , the taller the tower could be . The Trustees System Service Building and the Foreman State National Bank Building form good examples of this approach . Alternatively , the front of the main block could be recessed , as at the Chicago Civic Opera Building or the LaSalle @-@ Wacker Building , sacrificing volume but producing the visual effect of two high wings flanking a very tall tower . The distinctive New York " setback " style was not adopted in Chicago , the only example of the style being the Palmolive Building on North Michigan Avenue .

= = = Great Depression = = =

The boom in skyscraper construction began to falter following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , with fast economic growth giving way to the slump years of the Great Depression : building of all sorts slowed considerably . The real estate market that lay behind new skyscraper builds collapsed and the value of many properties dropped dramatically : the American Insurance Union tower cost $ 8 million ( $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2010 terms ) to build in 1927 , but was valued at only $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( $ 900 million ) by 1933 ; the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building defaulted on its debts in 1935 and was put on sale for just $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( $ 240 m ) . The major bond house of S. W. Straus , behind many successful developments , defaulted on the $ 214 million ( $ 47 billion ) in bonds held by 60 @,@ 000 investors ; the Van Swerigan developer brothers went bankrupt . Vacancy rates began to increase as the recession bit , increasing from only one percent in central New York in early 1920 to 17 percent in 1931 and 25 percent by 1934 .

In the face of the recession , some skyscrapers projects were canceled or scaled back . Plans by the Metropolitan Life company to build a 100 @-@ story skyscraper alongside their existing tower had been put forward in 1929 , but were shelved in the face of the recession and public criticism of such expenditure in the economic climate . Instead the first phase of the project , known as the North Building ended up only 32 stories high in 1932 and the building , even at this height , was only fully completed in 1950 . In many other cases , projects which had already been commissioned continued through to completion . This resulted in 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m2 ) of new office space being added to New York between 1931 – 34 even after the start of the recession , adding to the problem of underoccupancy . Some of these buildings , however , became iconic structures , pushing the limits of skyscraper height sharply upwards .

The Chrysler Building was completed in 1930 , just after the Depression began to affect the industry . Architect William Van Alen competed with the designers of the Bank of Manhattan Trust Building to produce the tallest building in the world , and famously erected the Chrysler spire in a last @-@ minute , secret move in order to acquire the title for his own 69 story , 1 @,@ 046 @-@ foot ( 319 m ) tall building . The exterior was built of white and grey brick , but metal was used extensively to ornament it further , including gargoyles , nickel @-@ chrome eagles ' heads , and a winged helmet of Mercury . The entrance used black granite to contrast with the nickel @-@ chrome windows , and the foyer gave way to red marble and a mural ceiling . The design of each part of the building was individualist and distinct , with even each elevator different in design . A Chrysler showroom was placed on the first floor of the building , and an observation deck and the exclusive " Cloud Club " on the upper levels .

The Empire State Building originated from a 1928 project to redevelop the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel into a 50 @-@ story mixed @-@ use development ; the purchase of the site for $ 14 million ( $ 2 @.@ 1 billion ) set a record in New York for the year . John Raskob and Pierre du Pont entered into the project as financial backers , and concluded that the project would be more profitable if the site was used to build an extremely tall 80 @-@ story skyscraper instead . Although revised financial estimates suggested that the height should be cut back , the caché of having the world 's tallest building was considerable and instead an additional five stories were added to ensure the building , at 1 @,@ 050 feet ( 320 m ) , would be just taller than the Chrysler . An observation deck was built to attract tourists , which proved to be a valuable source of revenue . The limestone , granite , and aluminium skyscraper was specially designed to be easily erected , with standardized paneling and structural fittings , and was completed in only 18 months , opening in 1931 . Due to the recession , however , it was only 25 percent occupied throughout the 1930s and ran at a loss ; critics dubbed it the " Empty State Building " .

The Rockefeller Center had originally been intended by John D. Rockefeller , Jr. to be a new location for the Metropolitan Opera House but the Stock Market Crash brought an end to the scheme . Rockefeller decided to develop a large office center instead , taking advantage of the low construction costs during the recession . At the center of the development was the RCA Building , heavily influenced by architect Raymond Hood . The long , slab @-@ like RCA had two distinct axes – from one side , it appeared to be a narrow tower , from the other it rose like a sheer wall . Not only was the structure highly distinctive , but it was also economically very effective . The design maximized the available light to the offices and eliminated any darker internal rooms , as the core of the building was entirely taken up with elevators and other engineering services . Due to the recession , however , it took until 1940 before all of the building had been filled by tenants .

In Chicago , the final pre @-@ war skyscraper was built in 1934 . The Field Building was commissioned during the final boom years of the inter @-@ war economy , and the Home Insurance Building – the first skyscraper , built in 1884 – was demolished to make way for the " wing and tower " -style development .

= = = Skyscraper mania and social commentary = = =

Public interest in skyscrapers increased during the 1920s , particularly after the Tribune competition . The competition drawings were circulated on display , 25 @,@ 000 coming to see them in Chicago in just one month . In the aftermath , images of skyscrapers flourished across American culture , commencing what historian Merrill Schleier has dubbed a " skyscraper mania " . The " Titan City " exhibition in 1925 celebrated existing skyscraper and featured futuristic murals by Harvey Corbett and Hugh Ferriss , depicting the skyscraper at the heart of the " City of the Future " . Charles Sheeler and Paul Strand 's 1921 short film Manhatta explored the form , ending with a sunset shot from the top of a skyscraper . Authors such as Janet Flanner , John Dos Passos and Mary Borden wrote novels with skyscrapers as important motifs or settings . John Carpenter produced a ballet on the theme . Paul Frankl designed a range of popular " skyscraper furniture " .

Much of this commentary was positive , reflecting an optimism about technology and the direction of urban life in general . Skyscrapers were seen as an expression of rational engineering , the perfect buildings for mankind to live in , as celebrated in artist Louis Lozowick 's lithographs . Some other proponents of skyscrapers likened them to medieval cathedrals , symbols of the modern age . Poems depicted skyscrapers as objects of sublime , rational beauty , Ferris describing them as " buildings like crystals , walls of translucent glass , sheer glass blocks sheathing a steel grill " . At Chicago 's Century of Progress exposition in 1933 , skyscrapers and technology were portrayed as a solution for America 's current and future problems . The French @-@ Swiss architect Le Corbusier acclaimed New York in 1935 as being " overwhelming , amazing , exciting , violently alive " , but went on to complain that there were still too few skyscrapers , and those that had been built were not yet tall enough . Lewis Hine , employed to record the building of the Empire State Building , portrayed the skyscraper construction teams as courageous heroes , creating a genre of photography that continued up until 1941 .

Their critics expressed concerns about the effect of modern technology and urban living on the human condition , arguing that skyscrapers generated pollution , noise , and imposed a regimented and dehumanising lifestyle on the people that worked in them . The social commentator Lewis Mumford reflected the concerns of many in his critiques entitled Is the Skyscraper Tolerable ? and The Intolerable City . The political theorist Stefan Hirsch condemned the buildings as " bandages covering the sky , stifling our breath " . Inventor Thomas Edison expressed fears that an uncontrolled expansion of skyscrapers would result in overcrowding and disaster . Artist Howard Cook 's engravings critiqued the oppressive character of the new skyscrapers as they loomed over the traditional city . Berenice Abbott 's photographic studies of New York in the 1930s explored the complex theme of urban change and the effect of skyscrapers on the older ways of life in the city , echoing Steigler 's work in the first decade of the century .

Hollywood used skyscrapers extensively in popular films . The Skyscrapers of New York in 1906 became the first of many , and in the 1920s Harold Lloyd produced his five " skyscraper films " , most prominently Safety Last ! , in which the hero dangles from a clock on the side of a Los Angeles building . In these early silent movies , skyscrapers were closely associated with masculine identity ; Lloyd 's climbing of skyscrapers closely associated with his characters ' transformation from young men into mature adults , and the winning of the heroine . The 1933 film King Kong included another iconic use of the early skyscraper in its final scenes , as the giant ape scaled the Empire State Building shortly before his death ; the scene can be interpreted as contrasting natural instinct with the insensitive rationality of the modern building and wider New York .

= = Legacy = =

Skyscraper development paused during the years of the Second World War . Once development began again in the 1950s and 1960s , the skyscraper entered a different phase of development , usually called the international or modern period . Some experimental designs in this style had been built in the US using European architectural concepts in the early 1930s , most notably the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society and McGraw @-@ Hill Buildings . Post @-@ war , their modernist themes were used in a new generation of skyscrapers . These stood alone on individual plots in the fashion of the Rockefeller Centre 's RCA building , rather than as part of a row of buildings , forming huge slabs and towers featuring huge glass façades , breaking with earlier skyscraper traditions . Inside , new technologies such as fluorescent lighting and widespread air @-@ conditioning meant that many older architectural features such as light courts and operable windows were unnecessary .

The trend had substantial implications for many early skyscrapers . Some were redesigned to fit new tastes . Much of the ornate detail was removed from the Metropolitan Life Tower in the 1960s , for example , to fit contemporary , plainer fashions . Many older skyscrapers could not be adapted , however , as they lacked the physical depth to build larger modern offices or the space for new service facilities . Some were demolished to make way for new , larger structures . Amongst these was the Singer Tower , demolished in 1968 and replaced by the international style United States Steel Building . In the 21st century , buildings such as 90 West Street have been renovated as upmarket housing , partially because of their extensive windows and access to sunlight .

Critical discussion of early skyscrapers began from the 1880s onwards in the architectural community and continued across a growing cultural and academic community in the inter @-@ war period . In the 1930 the terms the Chicago " school " and " movement " began to be used for the first time , popularised by the 1940s academics Sigfried Giedion and Carl Condit as a label for the early Chicago architects . They regarded skyscrapers as the early forerunners of modernism and as marking a clear break with earlier architectural forms in the US . This interpretation of Chicago 's skyscrapers was later challenged by Robert Bruegmann and Daniel Bluestone , who argued that it underplayed the links of the movement to pre @-@ existing Chicago culture . During the 1980s and 1990s analysis of the early skyscrapers increasingly shifted away from the architects and architecture of the individual buildings to considerations of skyscrapers ' roles in the wider urban context . Histories stressing the social , economic and cultural dimension of skyscrapers began to be produced , with New York 's skyscrapers receiving greater attention than before . The Skyscraper Museum – the first to address the theme – was founded in New York in 1997 by historian Carol Willis to preserve the history of the skyscraper .

= Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruiser =

The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class cruiser was a class of two armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . They were the first British armoured cruisers designed to work with the battlefleet rather than protect merchant shipping . After commissioning , they were assigned to the Atlantic , Channel and Home Fleets until 1913 when they were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , the sister ships participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . After the German ships reached their refuge in Ottoman Turkey , the ships were ordered to the Red Sea for convoy escort duties . They captured three German merchant ships before they returned to home at the end of the year .

The sisters participated in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 where Black Prince was sunk with all hands . Duke of Edinburgh spent the next year on blockade duties in the North Sea before she was transferred to the Atlantic Ocean on convoy escort duties for the rest of the war . She was sold for scrap in 1920 .

= = Design and description = =

After the preceding Devonshire class , the Royal Navy rethought how it planned to use its armoured cruisers . It decided that they were going to form a fast wing of the battlefleet which meant that they required heavier armour and armament to fight their counterparts in opposing fleets and thus larger and more expensive . Two armoured cruisers were planned for the 1902 – 1903 Naval Programme and the newly appointed Director of Naval Construction , Philip Watts designed what naval historian Oscar Parkes called : " cruiser editions of the King Edward VII @-@ class battleships " . In these , his first design , he perpetuated the worst feature of the designs by his predecessor , Sir William White , by placing the secondary armament of six @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns in embrasures a deck below the main armament which meant that the guns were inoperable in anything more than a dead calm sea . A solution for this problem was offered after construction began when Watts learned that the ships would be lighter than expected and that weight would be available to replace the six @-@ inch guns with 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 190 mm ) guns raised to the same deck as the main armament . The change would cost a total of £ 398 @,@ 000 for the two ships , far too expensive for the Board of Admiralty , so it was rejected on 30 March 1904 .

The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class ships were designed to displace 13 @,@ 550 long tons ( 13 @,@ 770 t ) , but they proved to be significantly lighter as built , displacing 12 @,@ 590 long tons ( 12 @,@ 790 t ) at normal load and 13 @,@ 965 long tons ( 14 @,@ 189 t ) fully loaded . The ships had an overall length of 505 feet 6 inches ( 154 @.@ 1 m ) and a length between perpendiculars of 480 ft ( 146 @.@ 3 m ) . They had a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 1 m ) forward and 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) aft . The class was over 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) longer overall than the Devonshires and displaced over 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 540 t ) more .

The ships ' complement was 769 officers and enlisted men . They rolled quickly with a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load and their six @-@ inch guns were as wet as predicted .

The cruisers were powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 23 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 17 @,@ 150 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 20 Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers and six cylindrical boilers . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 long tons ( 2 @,@ 180 t ) of coal and an additional 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , they could steam for 8 @,@ 130 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 060 km ; 9 @,@ 360 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .

= = = Armament = = =

The Duke of Edinburgh 's main armament consisted of six 45 @-@ calibre BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk X guns in single @-@ gun turrets , a much more powerful gun than used in the Devonshires . The guns were distributed in two centreline turrets , one each fore and one aft of the superstructure , and four wing turrets disposed in the corners about the funnels . The centreline turrets could traverse a total of 285 ° while the wing turrets were limited to about 120 ° on the broadside due to muzzle blast . The gun had an elevation range of − 5 ° to + 15 ° . The 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) shell weighed 380 pounds ( 172 @.@ 4 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 778 ft / s ( 847 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 15 @,@ 500 yards ( 14 @,@ 200 m ) at maximum elevation . The gun 's rate of fire was about three rounds per minute and the ships carried 100 rounds for each gun .

Their secondary armament of ten 50 @-@ calibre BL 6 @-@ inch Mk XI guns was arranged in single embrasures . They were mounted amidships on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . The guns could only traverse about 120 ° on the broadside . They initially had a maximum elevation of + 13 ° , but this was later increased to + 20 ° . This gave them a range of 14 @,@ 310 yards ( 13 @,@ 090 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 @.@ 4 kg ) shell . Each gun was provided with 150 rounds .

Twenty Vickers quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 3 @-@ pounder guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats , six on turret roofs and fourteen in the superstructure , all on pivot mounts . These guns were too small to be useful against the torpedo boats before they got within torpedo range . They fired a 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) shell that weighed 3 @.@ 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) and was fired at a maximum muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 587 ft / s ( 789 m / s ) . This gave it a range of 7 @,@ 550 yards ( 6 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 20 ° . 250 rounds were carried for each gun .

The ships also mounted three submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . They carried a total of eighteen torpedoes in addition to the six 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedoes that could be used by the two 45 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) steam pinnaces .

= = = Armour = = =

The Duke of Edinburgh @-@ class ships had a 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) waterline armour belt of Krupp cemented armour that covered 260 feet ( 79 @.@ 2 m ) of the hull amidships . It covered the side of the ship up to the upper deck , a height of 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 42 m ) above the waterline and reached 4 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) below it . Between the central citadel and the bow , the belt armour was 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thick and it extended to the stern with a thickness of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . Transverse bulkheads six inches thick protected the citadel from raking fire .

The faces of the gun turrets were 7 @.@ 5 inches thick with 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) sides and a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) roof . The barbettes were protected by six inches of armour as were the ammunition hoists , although the armour for those thinned to three inches between the armour belt . Two @-@ inch armour screens separated each of the six @-@ inch guns . The thickness of the lower deck was only .75 inches ( 19 mm ) except for a patch of 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) armour over the steering gear and another 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the engine cylinders . The sides of the conning tower were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick .

= = Modifications = =

The funnels proved to be too short in service and they were raised about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) four years after completion to keep the superstructure free of smoke in a following wind . In March 1916 , both ships had all their six @-@ inch guns removed , the embrasures plated over , and six of the guns were remounted on the upper deck . In May 1917 , two more were added to Duke of Edinburgh on the forecastle . The ship 's foremast was converted to a tripod mast to support the weight of the fire @-@ control director probably added in 1917 .

= = Ships = =

= = Service = =

Duke of Edinburgh and Black Prince served in the Channel , Atlantic and Home Fleets before World War I. They were stationed in the Mediterranean when World War I began and participated in the pursuit of the Goeben and Breslau as part of the 1st Cruiser Squadron , but was ordered not to engage . After the German ships reached Ottoman waters , the ships were sent to the Red Sea in mid @-@ August to protect troop convoys arriving from India . While on escort duty they captured three German merchantmen .

The two sisters rejoined the 1st Cruiser Squadron in December 1914 , which had transferred to the Grand Fleet and participated in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . Black Prince became separated from the fleet when darkness fell and was sunk with all hands by German battleships later that night . Duke of Edinburgh was not damaged during the battle and was the only ship of her squadron to survive . After Jutland Duke of Edinburgh was ordered to reinforce the patrols north of the Shetland Islands against German blockade runners and commerce raiders . She was eventually transferred to the Atlantic in August 1917 for convoy escort duties . The ship was sold for scrap in 1920 .

= John Baldwin ( educator ) =

John Baldwin ( October 13 , 1799 – December 28 , 1884 ) was an American educator , and the founder of Baldwin Institute ( later Baldwin University ) in Berea , Ohio , which would eventually merge into Baldwin – Wallace College . He was also the founder of Baker University and Baldwin City , Kansas , and contributed money to start schools in Bangalore , India that are today called Baldwin Boys High School , Baldwin Girls High School and Baldwin Co @-@ Education Extension High School .

Born in Connecticut , Baldwin originally was a teacher in Maryland and Connecticut before moving to Ohio in the late 1820s . He became part of the lyceum movement , and situated himself in Berea , Ohio . He opened up Baldwin Institute in 1846 upon seeing the dissolution of the Norwalk Seminary . Nine years later , the Institute became Baldwin University . He moved to Kansas around 1857 , laying the foundation for Baldwin City , Kansas , as well as Baker University . In his later life , he purchased a Louisiana plantation , and made contributions to education in India late in his life .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life = = =

John Baldwin was born in Branford , Connecticut on 13 October 1799 to Joseph Baldwin and Rosanna Malley . His mother was a well @-@ educated woman , as well as intensely religious . She attempted to become a student at Yale University , but was not allowed because she was a woman . Due to this , John resolved to make no distinction between races or sexes should he ever found a school . His father enlisted in the Continental Army during the American Revolution as a private and left as a captain . When John turned eighteen , he joined the Methodist Church . As a student at a private school , he paid his way by chopping firewood , ringing the bell , and building fires . Afterwards , he became a teacher in Fishkill , New York , Maryland , and Litchfield , Connecticut . As a teacher in Maryland , his stance on slavery , as well as black people as a whole , was revealed . A mulatto boy was sent to his school daily as a servant for his master 's son . Baldwin began to teach them in common . When the student 's father found out about this , he demanded Baldwin not teach him any more , to which he replied , " I do not charge anything for teaching him " and continued to teach him .

= = = Founding Berea = = =

After marrying Mary Chappel on January 31 , 1828 , they moved to Middleburg Township in Cuyahoga County , Ohio in April of that year . It was there that Baldwin joined forces with James Gilbrith , a disciple of Josiah Holbrook who wanted to found a lyceum village . In the village , which was founded in 1837 and situated just north of his farm , Baldwin ran the Lyceum Village School for five years until June 1842 , when it went bankrupt . However , one day while walking home , he had an impulse to take a new route across the river on his farm . He noticed a grouping of exposed rocks , which would make superior grindstones . This was the beginning of the Berea grindstone industry . Baldwin shipped his grindstones to Cleveland by ox carts . After the Big Four Railroad was built from Cleveland to Cincinnati , Baldwin built a railroad which would connect his quarries to the Big Four Depot . It was then that Baldwin and the others of the Lyceum Village tried to think of a name for their new town . After Gilbrith proposed Tabor , John Baldwin suggested Berea , citing Acts 17 : 10 – 11 . After a coin flip , Berea was chosen .

= = = Baldwin Institute = = =

In 1843 , Baldwin noticed that the Norwalk Seminary , located in Norwalk , Ohio , was dissolving due to lack of funds . He approached Thomas Thompson , who was the elder of the Norwalk District ( which included Cleveland and Berea ) , and asked him to visit Berea . At Baldwin 's Old Red House , an agreement was made where Baldwin would create a campus on his farm similar to the Norwalk Seminary . Baldwin Institute officially opened on April 9 , 1846 . It was meant to open in 1845 , but the process was delayed until the completion of a building on Baldwin 's farm , which was erected by Baldwin himself , made of stone quarried on his farm and brick made of clay . The institute was open to people of all races , male or female , as Baldwin wanted . It became Baldwin University and was given a charter in 1855 . The university later became Baldwin – Wallace College in 1913 .

= = = Life in Kansas = = =

At age fifty @-@ eight , Baldwin desired to satisfy his nature of being a pioneer again by moving to Kansas , which was at that time a territory . He arrived as the brunt of the fighting in the territory was ending . Upon his arrival , he founded Baldwin City and built the first college building in the territory , which became the foundation for Baker University . He was in Kansas only for a short time when tragedy struck . On August 30 , 1858 , John 's son Milton died unexpectedly after having been sick for only three days . Within a couple years , he laid out a town , built a grist mill and a saw mill , and he turned over the town and college to the Methodist Conference and returned to Berea , although he continued to finance it .

= = = Later years & family legacy = = =

In 1867 , Baldwin purchased the Darby plantation in Louisiana , a plantation of about 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 km2 ) . At the age of eighty , Baldwin learned of the situation in India ; there were large numbers of Europeans in India who could not get a proper education . The Baldwin High School for Boys and the Baldwin High School for Girls were then built in 1880 . John Baldwin died at his home in Baldwin , Louisiana on Sunday , December 28 , 1884 , at 10 A.M. Baldwin 's family even left their legacy on the campus long after Baldwin 's death . A person of historical significance to the university 's history is Philura Gould Baldwin . Philura Gould Baldwin graduated in 1886 and was the granddaughter of John Baldwin . Philura started the school 's first library by collecting and cataloging books . Beyond this , Philura suggested the traditional colors of brown and gold for the school colors . These were also the school colors for Baldwin University , which still stand today . Philura died from consumption at age 26 ( b . November 28 , 1865 ; d . March 3 , 1892 ) . The Baldwin family donated funds for a library that was dedicated in her memory in June 1894 . The Philura Gould Baldwin Library was eventually made part of the Malicky Center in the 1900s .

= = Personal views = =

John Baldwin was a person whose views seemed to run counter to the conventional customs of the time . Despite his accomplishments , he never wrote a book , held public office , or even kept books . Although he was not an abolitionist by definition , he had no problem teaching blacks and whites as equals , as evident by his opening Baldwin Institute without regard to race or gender . His parents taught him to fear God , and he consequently devoted himself to living humbly and righteously , to being kind to the poor , and to joining the Methodist Church .

= Steve Nash =

Stephen John Nash , OC , OBC ( born February 7 , 1974 ) , is a Canadian retired professional basketball player who played in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was an eight @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star and a seven @-@ time All @-@ NBA selection . Twice , Nash was named the NBA Most Valuable Player while playing for the Phoenix Suns . He currently serves as general manager of the Canadian national team and as a player development consultant for the Golden State Warriors .

After a successful high school basketball career in British Columbia , Nash earned a scholarship to Santa Clara University in California . In his four seasons with the Broncos , the team made three NCAA Tournament appearances , and he was twice named the West Coast Conference ( WCC ) Player of the Year . Nash graduated from Santa Clara as the team 's all @-@ time leader in assists and was taken as the 15th pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns . He made minimal impact and was traded to the Dallas Mavericks in 1998 . By his third season with the Mavericks , he was voted to his first NBA All @-@ Star Game and had earned his first All @-@ NBA selection . Together with Dirk Nowitzki and Michael Finley , Nash led the Mavericks to the Western Conference Finals the following season . He became a free agent after the 2003 – 04 season and returned to the Phoenix Suns .

In the 2004 – 05 season , Nash led the Suns to the Western Conference Finals and was named the league 's MVP . He was named MVP again in the 2005 – 06 season and was runner @-@ up for a third consecutive MVP to Nowitzki in 2006 – 07 . Named by ESPN in 2006 as the ninth greatest point guard of all time , Nash led the league in assists and free @-@ throw percentage at various points in his career . He is also ranked as one of the top players in NBA league history in three @-@ point shooting , free @-@ throw shooting , total assists , and assists per game .

Nash has been honoured for his contributions to various philanthropic causes . In 2006 , he was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . He was appointed to the Order of Canada in 2007 and invested to the order in 2016 , and was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Victoria in 2008 .

Nash has been a co @-@ owner of the Vancouver Whitecaps FC of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) since the team entered the league in 2011 . In 2012 , he was named general manager of the Canadian men 's national basketball team , for whom he played from 1991 to 2003 .

= = Early life = =

Nash was born in Johannesburg , South Africa , to a Welsh mother , Jean , and English father , John , on 7 February 1974 . His family moved to Regina , Saskatchewan when he was 18 months old , before settling in Victoria , British Columbia . He therefore holds British as well as Canadian citizenship . Before the family settled in Canada , his father played professional soccer in various parts of the world . Nash often played soccer and ice hockey with his younger brother Martin , and did not start playing basketball until he was 12 or 13 years old . In grade eight , however , he told his mother that one day he would play in the NBA and would become a star . He was neighbour to future NHL stars Russ and Geoff Courtnall , who used to babysit him and played soccer coached by Nash 's father .

= = High school career = =

Nash originally attended Mount Douglas Secondary School in Saanich , British Columbia , but after his grades began to drop , his parents decided to enroll him at St. Michaels University School , a private boarding school in Victoria . There , he starred in basketball , soccer , and rugby union . While playing basketball during his senior season , Nash averaged 21 @.@ 3 points , 11 @.@ 2 assists , and 9 @.@ 1 rebounds per game . In the 1991 – 92 season , he led his team in his final year to the British Columbia AAA provincial championship title , and was named the province 's Player of the Year .

= = College career = =

Although Nash 's high school coach , Ian Hyde @-@ Lay , sent letters of inquiry and highlight reels on Nash 's behalf to over 30 American universities , Nash was not recruited by any university , until Santa Clara coach Dick Davey requested video footage of the young guard . After watching Nash in person , Davey said he " was nervous as hell just hoping that no one else would see him . It didn 't take a Nobel Prize winner to figure out this guy 's pretty good . It was just a case of hoping that none of the big names came around . " However , Davey also told Nash that he was " the worst defensive player " he had ever seen .

Nash was awarded a scholarship by Santa Clara for the 1992 – 93 season . At that time , it had been five years since the Broncos appeared in the NCAA tournament . That changed when Nash led the Broncos to a WCC Tournament title and an upset win over the No. 2 seeded Arizona in the first round of the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . In that game , Nash scored six straight free throws in the last 30 seconds of the contest . Although Santa Clara was defeated by Temple in the next round , the 1992 – 93 campaign was considered a successful one . However , the Broncos failed to sustain the momentum the following season , and only managed a 5 – 7 record in the conference . The team rebounded in the 1994 – 95 season , with Nash being named Conference Player of the Year and the Broncos topping the WCC . Featuring the league leader for scoring and assists in Nash , the Broncos returned to the NCAA tournament , but they were defeated by Mississippi State . After the season , Nash contemplated turning professional , and decided against it when he learned that he would probably not be considered as a first @-@ round pick in the 1995 NBA Draft .

In the 1995 – 96 season , Nash began attracting the attention of the national media and professional scouts . He had spent the summer before that honing his skills , playing with the Canadian national team and working out with the likes of established NBA players Jason Kidd and Gary Payton . Santa Clara again captured the WCC title , and for the second consecutive year , Nash was named Conference Player of the Year , the first Bronco to do so since Kurt Rambis . He scored 28 points in leading the No. 10 seed Broncos to a first round upset win over No. 7 seed Maryland , but then the Broncos were eliminated by Kansas . Nash 's performances ensured that he earned an honourable mention All @-@ America as a senior by The Associated Press and the USBWA . He also finished his career as Santa Clara 's all @-@ time leader in career assists ( 510 ) , free @-@ throw percentage ( .862 ) , and made and attempted three @-@ pointers ( 263 – 656 ) . He remains third on the school 's all @-@ time scoring list ( 1 @,@ 689 ) , and holds Santa Clara 's single @-@ season free @-@ throw percentage record ( .894 ) . In September 2006 , Nash had his jersey ( # 11 ) retired , becoming the first Santa Clara student @-@ athlete to receive that honour .

= = = College statistics = = =

= = Professional career = =

= = = Phoenix Suns ( 1996 – 98 ) = = =

After graduating with a degree in sociology , Nash was selected 15th overall by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 1996 NBA draft . Upon hearing the draft announcement , Suns fans booed in disapproval of the relatively unknown player . This was because despite his impressive college accomplishments , Nash had not played in one of the major college conferences . A major influence in Phoenix 's choice was assistant coach Donnie Nelson , who met Nash back in high school as he was coached by Nelson 's friend Ken Shields , and would eventually befriend the player as he played in Santa Clara . During his first two seasons in the NBA , Nash played a supporting role behind NBA star point guards Kevin Johnson , Sam Cassell , and later , Jason Kidd . Both Johnson and Cassell had NBA Finals experience , while Kidd was the second overall pick in the 1994 NBA Draft and already an All @-@ Star when he arrived at Phoenix .

In his rookie season , Nash only managed 10 @.@ 5 minutes a game , but in his second season , his playing time increased significantly and he was even ranked 13th in the league for three @-@ point field @-@ goal percentage . Nevertheless , the Canadian 's tenure with the Suns did not last . Nelson had just taken a job as assistant general manager of the Dallas Mavericks under his father , Don Nelson , and convinced him to acquire the under @-@ utilised Nash . Following the 1998 NBA Draft , Nash was traded from the Suns to the Mavericks in exchange for Martin Müürsepp , Bubba Wells , the draft rights to Pat Garrity and a first @-@ round draft pick ( who later turned out to be future Phoenix team @-@ mate Shawn Marion ) .

= = = Dallas Mavericks ( 1998 – 2004 ) = = =

It was in Dallas that Nash established himself as a formidable point guard , beginning a decade as one of the game 's top players . During his first year as a Maverick ( the lockout @-@ shortened 1998 – 99 season ) he started in all 40 games he played in , and averaged 7 @.@ 9 points , 2 @.@ 9 rebounds and 5 @.@ 5 assists per game . The 19 – 31 Mavericks failed to make the playoffs but in the 1999 – 2000 season , the team 's prospects improved considerably . Nash missed 25 mid @-@ season games due to an ankle injury , but came back to record six double @-@ doubles in the last month of play . He finished the season with averages of 8 @.@ 6 points and 4 @.@ 9 assists per game . More importantly for the team , second @-@ year teammate and friend Dirk Nowitzki was blossoming quickly into a top player , veteran Michael Finley was having an All @-@ Star @-@ calibre year , and the team 's new owner , billionaire Mark Cuban , was bringing new energy and excitement to the franchise . Nash now had a supportive environment in which he could thrive .

In the 2000 – 01 season , Nash averaged 15 @.@ 6 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game in a breakout season . With Nash directing the team 's offense , Nowitzki and Finley playing at their best , and the acquisition of All @-@ Star Juwan Howard complementing the high @-@ scoring trio , the Mavericks earned a playoff berth for the first time in more than a decade . Dallas lost in the Western Conference Semifinals four games to one to the San Antonio Spurs , but it marked the beginning of a memorable run for Nash and the Mavericks . In the 2001 – 02 season , Nash posted career @-@ highs of 17 @.@ 9 points and 7 @.@ 7 assists per game and earned a spot in the NBA All @-@ Star Game and on the All @-@ NBA Third Team . He was now an All @-@ Star , increasingly appearing in television commercials and , with Finley and Nowitzki , a part of the Dallas Mavericks " Big Three . " Dallas earned another trip to the playoffs but lost again in the Semifinals to the Sacramento Kings four games to one .

Nash closely replicated his previous season 's performance in the 2002 – 03 season , averaging 17 @.@ 7 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game , again earning All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA Third Team honours . Nowitzki and Nash led the Mavericks from a 14 @-@ game winning streak to open the season all the way to the Western Conference Finals , where they lost to the eventual NBA champions , the San Antonio Spurs four games to two . It was only the second Conference Finals appearance in the franchise 's history . The 2003 – 04 season saw an offensively boosted Mavericks roster ( with the acquisitions of Antoine Walker and Antawn Jamison ) but a dip in Nash 's scoring contributions . As a result , he was not selected for the All @-@ Star and All @-@ NBA team rosters even though he achieved new career highs in assists per game ( 8 @.@ 8 ) and free @-@ throw accuracy ( 91 @.@ 6 % ) . In the playoffs , the fifth @-@ seeded Dallas failed to make progress yet again as the Sacramento Kings saw them off four games to one .

After the 2003 – 04 season , Nash became a free agent . He attempted to negotiate a long @-@ term contract with Cuban , who was paying Walker , Finley , Nowitzki and Jamison nearly $ 50 million in combined salaries that season . Cuban wanted to build his franchise around the younger Nowitzki and did not want to risk signing the 30 @-@ year @-@ old Nash to a long @-@ term deal , and offered Nash a four @-@ year deal worth about $ 9 million annually , with a fifth year partially guaranteed . The Phoenix Suns on the other hand offered the point guard a six @-@ year , $ 63 million contract . Nash was reluctant to leave Dallas and returned to Cuban to see if he would match the deal ; Cuban did not , and Nash signed with the Suns for the 2004 – 05 season . The Canadian would go on to win two League MVP awards with Phoenix , and on a 14 June 2006 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , Cuban wondered out loud , " ... you know Steve 's a great guy and I love him to death , but why couldn 't he play like an MVP for us ? "

= = = Return to Phoenix ( 2004 – 2012 ) = = =

Nash joined a Suns team which had emerging young players in Shawn Marion , Joe Johnson and Amar 'e Stoudemire . In the season before Nash arrived , the Suns had recorded a 29 – 53 win – loss record , and they were projected to have another poor season . Head coach Mike D 'Antoni favoured an up @-@ tempo style of basketball ; this required smaller and more athletic players with the capability to outrun and outshoot their opponents . Nash 's familiarity with this style combined with the athleticism of his teammates produced an NBA @-@ best 62 – 20 record and a points @-@ per @-@ game average of 110 @.@ 4 , the highest in a decade . The catalyst of this turnaround , Nash averaged 11 @.@ 5 assists per game while making 50 @.@ 2 % of his field goals and 43 @.@ 1 % of his three @-@ pointers in the regular season . He edged Shaquille O 'Neal to win the 2004 – 05 NBA MVP award , becoming the first Canadian to earn the honour , as well as the third point guard ever to be named MVP , along with Magic Johnson and Bob Cousy . In the playoffs , Phoenix swept the Memphis Grizzlies in four games before meeting the Dallas Mavericks in the second round . Nash led the Suns to a 4 – 2 series win , and the Suns reached the Western Conference finals for the first time since 1993 , but lost to the eventual NBA Champions and arch @-@ rival , the San Antonio Spurs , in five games .

The next season , Stoudemire suffered a serious knee injury , and Johnson and Quentin Richardson were traded away . The Suns were not expected to repeat their successful 2005 season , but with Nash directing the same high @-@ tempo offence , the team compiled a respectable 54 – 28 record and won the division title . The Suns were again the highest @-@ scoring team in the league with seven players averaging double figures in points per game , and Nash was voted for the first time to start for the 2006 Western All @-@ Star team . Having recorded career highs in points ( 18 @.@ 8 ) , rebounds ( 4 @.@ 2 ) , field goal percentage ( .512 ) and free @-@ throw percentage ( a league @-@ leading .921 ) , and leading the league with 10 @.@ 5 assists per game , Nash was named the league MVP for the second year in a row . In the first round of the playoffs , Phoenix overcame a 3 – 1 deficit against the Los Angeles Lakers and won the series 4 – 3 . The Los Angeles Clippers were their Conference Semifinals opponents , and the Suns again needed seven games to clinch the series . For the second year in a row however , the Suns bowed out in the Conference Finals , this time to Nash 's former team , Dallas .

In the 2006 – 07 season , Nash had another stellar campaign , averaging 18 @.@ 6 points and a career @-@ high 11 @.@ 6 assists per game while becoming the first person since Magic Johnson in 1990 – 91 to average 18 points and 11 assists per game during the regular season . Nash received the most votes for first @-@ team All @-@ NBA and was joined by teammate Stoudemire ; the two were the first teammates to make the first team since Kobe Bryant and Shaquille O 'Neal in 2003 – 04 . Nash received 129 first @-@ place votes and 645 total points from the panel of 129 media members . He narrowly missed being MVP a third consecutive time , coming in second with 44 first place votes to 83 for Dirk Nowitzki . In the playoffs , the Suns eliminated the Lakers in five games before losing 4 – 2 to the Spurs in the Conference Semifinals .

Nash played in 81 regular @-@ season games during the 2007 – 08 season ; in this campaign , the Western Conference was especially competitive and he led the Suns to 55 wins and the sixth seed for the 2008 NBA Playoffs . Although there was a dip in his regular @-@ season output , Nash 's shooting remained sharp ; the accuracy of his shooting was on par with his 2005 – 06 MVP campaign ( shooting at least 50 % from the field , 40 % from the three @-@ point arc , and 90 % from the free throw line ) . On 31 January 2008 , he collected his All @-@ Star stripes for the sixth time in his career . However , Nash continued to experience agony in the playoffs . Despite a mid @-@ season trade that sent Shawn Marion to the Miami Heat and brought four @-@ time NBA champion Shaquille O 'Neal to the team , the Suns were defeated in the first round of the playoffs by the San Antonio Spurs for the third time in four years . In the deciding Game 5 , Nash was perceived to have suffered from " elimination @-@ game jitters " , and turned over the ball twice in the final two minutes of what was a tight contest . Nevertheless , Nash was later named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team for the 2007 – 08 season .

Before the 2008 – 09 season began , coach D 'Antoni was replaced by Terry Porter , who preferred a more defensive @-@ oriented style of basketball . The Suns had difficulties adapting to this new system , and even a December trade involving sending stalwarts Raja Bell and Boris Diaw to the Charlotte Bobcats for athletic swingman Jason Richardson saw the team continue to struggle . Porter was then replaced by Alvin Gentry in February after a 28 – 23 record , but the Suns were unable to secure the final seed for the playoffs , resulting in Nash missing the playoffs for the first time since he returned to Phoenix for his second stint .

Nash and the Suns opened the 2009 – 10 season with a series of strong performances , going 8 – 1 in their first nine games ( a franchise @-@ best since 1980 – 81 ) , with Nash producing two 20 @-@ assists games . On 21 January 2010 , Nash was named as the starting point guard for the West for the 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Game . With him operating at the point , the Suns were the highest @-@ scoring team in the league for the fifth season in a row , and were seeded third in the conference for the playoffs with 54 wins . Behind solid performances by Richardson and veteran Grant Hill , the Suns defeated the Portland Trail Blazers 4 – 2 in the first round of the playoffs , and swept the Spurs 4 – 0 in the second round . The Suns met the defending champions , Los Angeles Lakers , in the Conference Finals . After losing the first two games , Phoenix won the next two to tie the series . A Ron Artest buzzer @-@ beater in Game 5 pushed the Lakers one game closer to the Finals , and Kobe Bryant 's 37 points in Game 6 completed the defeat of the Suns .

The Suns underwent two major roster changes in the 2010 – 11 season . During the pre @-@ season , Stoudemire left for New York , while longtime teammate Leandro Barbosa was traded for Hedo Türkoğlu . Josh Childress and Hakim Warrick were also recruited to join the Suns . Not long after the season began , Türkoğlu , Richardson , and Earl Clark were traded to Orlando for Vince Carter , Marcin Gortat , and Mickaël Piétrus , while rising star Goran Dragic was traded to the Houston Rockets for Aaron Brooks . The Suns had difficulty being even a .500 team , and for the second time since Nash returned to Phoenix , the Suns failed to make the playoffs .

In February 2012 , Nash was named to his eighth All @-@ Star Game . At the time , he was leading the NBA in assists per game . On 21 April 2012 , Nash passed Oscar Robertson for career assists versus the Denver Nuggets . Despite his stellar play the Suns missed the playoffs for the second consecutive time . He finished the season averaging 12 @.@ 5 points and 10 @.@ 7 assists per game on 53 @.@ 2 % shooting from the field ( tying his career high ) .

= = = Los Angeles Lakers ( 2012 – 2015 ) = = =

On July 11 , 2012 , the Los Angeles Lakers acquired Nash in a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal with Phoenix . Nash also considered signing with New York or Toronto , but he decided that Los Angeles was the best fit for him and his family . Nash switched his jersey number , as his customary No. 13 was retired by Los Angeles in honour of Wilt Chamberlain . Nash , an avid soccer fan , chose No. 10 to pay homage to Glenn Hoddle , Zinedine Zidane and other soccer playmakers who wore the number . Entering his 17th NBA season , Nash came to the Lakers with concerns over his defense and the health of his back .

In the second game of the 2012 – 13 season , Nash suffered a non @-@ displaced fracture in his left leg after a collision with Damian Lillard of the Portland Trail Blazers . He was expected to miss at least one week , but was out of the lineup for close to seven weeks . He was reunited with D 'Antoni , who took over as Lakers coach after Mike Brown was fired after a 1 – 4 start . On 22 December , Nash returned against the Golden State Warriors , helping the Lakers win their first overtime game of the season , 118 – 115 , scoring 12 points with 9 assists in 41 minutes of play . The Lakers won three of the first four games after Nash returned . However , they lost their next four , including a 125 – 112 loss to Houston on 8 January 2013 , when Nash assisted on an Antawn Jamison jumper to become the fifth player in NBA history to reach 10 @,@ 000 career assists .

Kobe Bryant was moved to defend the opponent 's primary ball handler , freeing Nash from unfavourable matchups . Nash also struggled with Dwight Howard to run the pick and roll , a play that D 'Antoni had expected would be a staple for the Lakers . D 'Antoni moved Nash off the ball and made him more of a spot @-@ up shooter , while Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense . Nash missed the last eight games of the season with a right hip injury that also caused nerve damage in his right hamstring . The team qualified for the playoffs as the seventh seed , but were swept 4 – 0 by San Antonio in the first round . Nash missed the last two games of the series after recurring issues with his hip and hamstring . In what he called arguably " the most frustrating " season of his career , Nash missed a career @-@ high 32 games in the regular season , and averaged his fewest assists ( 6 @.@ 7 ) since 1999 – 2000 , when he was a part @-@ time starter with Dallas .

During 2013 – 14 season , Nash continued to suffer nerve problems stemming from his leg injury the prior season . In November , he was sidelined for an estimated minimum of two weeks due to nerve root irritation . Nash returned on February 4 , 2014 , shooting 3 @-@ for @-@ 6 for 7 points . On February 7 , 2014 , his 40th birthday , he scored a season @-@ high 19 points in a victory over the Philadelphia 76ers . On March 13 , Nash was ruled out for the remainder of the season by D 'Antoni . He was suffering from a recurrence of nerve problems stemming from an earlier collision to his left leg with Chicago 's Kirk Hinrich , and the Lakers wanted to give Kendall Marshall and Jordan Farmar more playing time . However , Nash returned on March 21 after a groin injury to Farmar that was expected to sideline him a minimum of two weeks .

In July 2014 , Nash announced that the 2014 – 15 season would be his last . During the preseason , he experienced back pain , and further aggravated his back while lifting luggage . On 23 October , less than a week before the start of what would have been the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Nash 's 19th year in the NBA , he was ruled out for the season due to a recurring back injury . Nash only played in three preseason games before he started to feel more pain in his back . Nash on injuring his back : " Being on the court this season has been my top priority , and it is disappointing to not be able to do that right now . I work very hard to stay healthy , and unfortunately my recent setback makes performing at full capacity difficult . I will continue to support my team during this period of rest and will focus on my long @-@ term health . "

= = Retirement and consulting duties = =

Nash announced his retirement from playing on March 21 , 2015 . Before the announcement , the Cleveland Cavaliers had said to Nash 's agent that they were interested in him as a backup for Kyrie Irving if Nash asked for a buyout . Nash refused it , due to both his health concerns and wanting to retire as a Laker in gratitude for the opportunity given by the club . Nash was later on approached by another former team of his , the Dallas Mavericks , to have one last season with them instead , but he declined due to his aforementioned health concerns .

On September 25 , 2015 , it was confirmed that Nash would take on part @-@ time consulting duties for the Golden State Warriors .

= = International career = =

In the early 1990s , Nash was cut from the Canadian junior national team by head coach Ken Olynyk , father of future NBA player Kelly Olynyk . At age 17 , he was the youngest member of Team Canada at the 1991 World University Games , where the team won a silver medal .

In 1993 , while in college , he played for the senior national team at the Tournament of the Americas and competed in the Canada Games ( for the British Columbia team ) and World University Games . He won a bronze medal at the Canada Games and won a silver medal at the World University Games , losing to Team USA in a closely contested final , which included players such as Michael Finley and Damon Stoudamire .

At the 1999 Tournament of the Americas , Nash led Canada to the silver medal , qualifying the team for the Olympics for the first time in 12 years ; he was named tournament MVP . Nash captained Canada at the 2000 Sydney Olympics . He led Canada to win their round robin group with a victory over Spain and a stunning 83 – 75 win over favoured Yugoslavia when he scored 26 points with eight rebounds and eight assists . Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinals with a five @-@ point loss to France and Nash left the court in tears . Nash expressed disappointment with the result , saying " It hurts a lot . I feel like I let everybody down . We could have been in the championship game . We were good enough . " Nevertheless , he did see a possible silver lining , saying " Hopefully kids [ in Canada ] will be inspired to play — that 's what I really hope . " A victory in its final game of the tournament , a placement game against Russia , enabled Canada to salvage seventh place . Nash 's Olympic performance propelled him to stardom in Canada and he finished fifth in voting for the 2000 Lionel Conacher Award , which is handed out to the Canadian male athlete of the year .

Nash again led Team Canada during qualifying for the 2004 Summer Olympics at the FIBA Americas Olympic Qualifying Tournament in San Juan , Puerto Rico . He led the tournament in assists and was named tournament MVP , but Canada finished fourth , missing out on the three Olympic spots available . That was the last time Nash played for Canada ; he was reportedly upset about the firing of head coach Jay Triano in 2004 . In December 2007 , he said , " In my mind right now , I 'm not going to play for Canada any more . "

On May 8 , 2012 , Nash became General Manager of the Canadian senior national team . Three months later , he rehired Triano as head coach .

= = Player profile = =

Nash is most noted for his playmaking , ball @-@ handling skills and shooting . He led the league in assists for five years , averaging 11 @.@ 5 assists per game in 2004 – 05 , 10 @.@ 5 in 2005 – 06 , 11 @.@ 6 in 2006 – 07 , 11 @.@ 0 in 2009 – 10 and 11 @.@ 4 in 2010 – 11 and won the 2005 and 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Skills Contests . As of the end of 2012 – 13 season , he had a 90 @.@ 4 % career free @-@ throw shooting average ( best in NBA history ) and a 42 @.@ 8 % career three @-@ point shooting average ( eighth @-@ best in league history ) , and ranked as one of the top 10 players in league history in total assists , assists per game , and three @-@ point field goals made . In addition , he is ranked second ( starting from 1986 – 87 ) in regular season point @-@ assist double doubles . In the 2005 – 06 season , Nash became the fourth player in NBA history to shoot 50 % or better from the field , 40 % from three @-@ point range ( 43 @.@ 9 ) , and 90 % from the line , joining Larry Bird , Reggie Miller , and Mark Price in the 50 – 40 – 90 Club . Nash would repeat this feat three more times in the 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 campaigns . Nash ( four times ) and Larry Bird ( two times ) are the only players to have accomplished this feat more than once . A two @-@ time NBA MVP , Nash is only the second point guard ( along with Magic Johnson ) to win the MVP award multiple times and the third guard in NBA history to earn back @-@ to @-@ back MVPs ( joining Johnson and Michael Jordan ) . Only ten other NBA players have won back @-@ to @-@ back MVP awards : Johnson , Jordan , Bill Russell , Wilt Chamberlain , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Moses Malone , Larry Bird , Tim Duncan , LeBron James , and Stephen Curry . On 11 May 2006 , ESPN.com rated Nash as the 9th @-@ best point guard of all time , and in a survey by nba.com in 2007 , Nash received 85 % of the votes by the league 's general managers as best point guard in the league . In a similar survey in 2009 , Nash was rated as the best passer of the ball and the player possessing the best basketball IQ . Commenting on Nash losing out to former teammate Dirk Nowitzki for the 2007 NBA MVP , Boston Celtics centre and Hall of Famer Russell stated : " I think , on the world stage , he 's one of our great athletes in all sports ... I 'm a big fan . The two MVPs he got , he deserved . Part of the reason that he 's so good and so effective is that the guys like playing with him . He creates an atmosphere where they win games . "

In terms of specific skills , Nash was particularly effective playing the pick and roll , notably with Nowitzki when he was with the Mavericks and later with the Suns ' Amar 'e Stoudemire and Shawn Marion . When Nash returned to Phoenix in 2004 , he helped the Suns improve from a 29 – 53 record in 2003 – 04 to 62 – 20 in 2004 – 05 , reaching the Conference Finals for the first time in 11 years , earning him his first MVP award . The next season , he led the Suns into the Conference Finals , despite the injuries of all three big men ( Stoudemire , Kurt Thomas and Brian Grant ) ; further , Nash was responsible for seven of his teammates attaining career @-@ highs in season scoring . With Nash operating at the point , between the 2005 – 06 and 2009 – 10 seasons , the Suns led the league in field goal percentage .

= = = NBA career statistics = = =

= = = = Regular season = = = =

= = = = Playoffs = = = =

= = = NBA career highlights = = =

2 × NBA Most Valuable Player : 2005 , 2006

8 × NBA All @-@ Star : 2002 – 03 , 2005 – 08 , 2010 , 2012

7 × All @-@ NBA selection :

First team : 2005 – 07

Second team : 2008 , 2010

Third team : 2002 , 2003

2 × NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Skills Challenge winner : 2005 , 2010

5 × NBA regular season leader for assists per game : 2005 ( 11 @.@ 5 ) , 2006 ( 10 @.@ 5 ) , 2007 ( 11 @.@ 6 ) , 2010 ( 11 @.@ 0 ) , 2011 ( 11 @.@ 4 )

6 × NBA regular season leader for total assists : 2005 ( 861 ) , 2006 ( 826 ) , 2007 ( 884 ) , 2010 ( 892 ) , 2011 ( 855 ) , 2012 ( 664 )

2 × NBA regular season leader for free @-@ throw percentage : 2006 ( .921 ) , 2010 ( .938 )

7 × NBA regular season leader for assists per 48 minutes : 2004 ( 12 @.@ 6 ) , 2005 ( 16 @.@ 1 ) , 2006 ( 14 @.@ 2 ) , 2007 ( 15 @.@ 8 ) , 2008 ( 15 @.@ 5 ) , 2010 ( 16 @.@ 1 ) , 2011 ( 16 @.@ 4 )

4 × member of 50 – 40 – 90 Club : ( 2006 , 2008 – 10 )

Has more 50 – 40 – 90 seasons than any other player in NBA history

One of only seven players to have ever shot 50 – 40 – 90

One of only two players ( the other being Larry Bird ) to have shot 50 – 40 – 90 more than once

Lou Marsh Trophy ( Canadian athlete of the year ) : 2005

3 × Lionel Conacher Award ( Canadian male athlete of the year ) : 2002 , 2005 , 2006

J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award ( NBA award for outstanding citizenship and community service ) : 2007

Highest career free throw percentage in NBA history ( minimum 1200 career attempts ) , 90 @.@ 42 percent

= = Off the court = =

= = = Personal life = = =

In 2001 , Nash met Alejandra Amarilla in Manhattan . They married in June 2005 and had twin daughters , Lola and Bella , born on 14 October 2004 , . and a son , Matteo , born 12 November 2010 . On the day of his son 's birth , Nash made a statement to Life & Style in which he announced the birth but called it a " bittersweet moment " , revealing that he and his wife had " lived separately for the past several months " and are " in the process of dissolving " their marriage .

Nash 's younger brother , Martin , played soccer for the Vancouver Whitecaps FC and made 30 appearances for the Canadian national soccer team . Their younger sister , Joann , was the captain of the University of Victoria Vikes women 's soccer team for three years and was named a Canada West Universities Athletic Association All @-@ Star . She is married to professional ice hockey player Manny Malhotra .

Nash has a medical condition called spondylolisthesis , which causes muscle tightness and back pain . Due to the condition , when he is not in the game he lies on his back rather than sitting on the bench to keep his muscles from stiffening .

= = = Charity = = =

In 2001 , Nash formed the Steve Nash Foundation . Through grants to public service and nonprofit entities , the foundation aims to foster health in kids by funding projects that provide services to children affected by poverty , illness , abuse , or neglect , and create opportunity for education , play , and empowerment . It focuses its resources on communities in Phoenix , Arizona , and British Columbia , Canada . It was given charitable status in 2004 . This foundation was awarded the Steve Patterson Award for Excellence in Sports Philanthropy in 2008 . Nash also founded the Jim Jennings Memorial Endowment Fund , established in honour of a volunteer staff member at Santa Clara University who served the basketball team for more than 20 years .

Elsewhere , Nash is the sponsor of the Steve Nash Youth Basketball League in British Columbia that has grown over 10 @,@ 000 participants . He has also become involved with GuluWalk , a Canadian @-@ operated charitable organization that raises awareness and funds for the war @-@ affected children of northern Uganda . In September 2007 , Nash and Yao Ming headlined a group of NBA players who travelled to China and played an exhibition game with the Chinese national basketball team . The charity event reportedly raised 2 @.@ 5 million dollars , earmarked for Chinese children in need .

In May 2006 , Nash was named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . In the accompanying write @-@ up by Charles Barkley , Nash was lauded for his unselfishness on the basketball court , and being " just a nice guy " who had paid for a new pediatric cardiology ward in a Paraguayan hospital . On 28 December 2007 , it was announced that Nash would receive Canada 's highest civilian honour , the Order of Canada , and on 3 June 2008 , it was announced that Nash would receive a star on Canada 's Walk of Fame . On 18 September 2009 , he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by the University of Victoria , in recognition of his athletic achievements and his philanthropic work on behalf of young people through the Steve Nash Foundation .

= = = Endorsements = = =

Nash is selective in his endorsements , preferring companies he deems socially responsible . After winning his first MVP award , he was approached to serve as spokesperson for numerous products , including MDG Computers , Raymond Weil watches , Vitamin Water , and Clearly Canadian bottled water . He also has a longstanding relationship with Nike . Nash is represented by agent Bill Duffy .

= = = Soccer = = =

Nash grew up playing soccer — he stated in a 2005 interview that he could have played professionally if he had focused on it — and continues to hold an interest in the sport . When Dirk Nowitzki arrived in the NBA from Germany , he and Nash became close friends , in part because they enjoyed watching soccer together . Nash is friends with several professional soccer players , including Alessandro Del Piero , Thierry Henry , Owen Hargreaves , Massimo Ambrosini and Steve McManaman . During his off @-@ season , when he lives in New York City , he has trained with the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer , and once tried to arrange a pick @-@ up game in the city 's Central Park with the Red Bulls and one of his local teams .

Nash , whose father was born in the Tottenham district of London , is a lifelong Tottenham Hotspur supporter , and has expressed interest in owning a minority stake in the club . " I 'd like to be an owner . It 's something I could do for the rest of my life after my little window of popularity dies , " he said in an interview with The New York Times . Nash added , " I 've been a passionate supporter all my life . My parents are from north London and so it 's not like I 'm some Yank who wants to make a profit out of football . I don 't care about making money . I just want to see Spurs succeed and , if I can help , that 's great . " However , he said any participation in Spurs would come after his basketball career is over , and he has had only " casual contact " with chairman Daniel Levy and former director of football Damien Comolli . Nash is also a fan of Spain 's FC Barcelona , and Brazilian team Sport Club Corinthians Paulista , which his former Suns teammate Leandro Barbosa supports . When Barbosa visited Corinthians in 2007 , the club gave him a shirt with Nash 's name and jersey number .

Nash had also previously made statements about his intention to bring Major League Soccer to Vancouver as early as 2011 , which he has succeeded in doing . He joined the USL @-@ 1 Vancouver Whitecaps FC team 's ownership group in July 2008 and in March 2009 , Vancouver was officially named as a future MLS expansion city , set to join the league in 2011 . Nash occasionally attends practice for his co @-@ owned team , also called Vancouver Whitecaps FC .

Nash , along with former Yahoo ! president and fellow Victoria @-@ native Jeff Mallett , are investors in Women 's Professional Soccer , a soccer league that was launched in March 2009 . Nash cited his twin daughters and wanting to have role models for them to look up to as a reason for supporting the league . Nash also co @-@ hosted Showdown in Chinatown in 2008 , an 8 @-@ on @-@ 8 charity soccer game held at Sara D. Roosevelt Park . He scored two goals in his team 's 8 – 5 victory . Participants included Thierry Henry , Jason Kidd , Baron Davis , and Suns teammates Raja Bell and Leandro Barbosa .

In July 2013 , Nash participated in a training session with the Italian soccer club Inter Milan at the New York Red Bulls ' facilities in New Jersey . He also trained with the New York Cosmos B of the American fourth @-@ division National Premier Soccer League in 2015 .

On January 5 , 2016 , it was announced that Nash was part of a group that purchased a $ 21 million stake in Spanish Segunda División club RCD Mallorca . The group also included Phoenix Suns owner Robert Sarver and Suns vice chairman Andy Kohlberg .

= = = Other interests = = =

Nash and a Montreal @-@ based partner , Leonard Schlemm , opened the first Steve Nash Sports Club in the spring of 2007 in downtown Vancouver , a high @-@ end , $ 5 @-@ million , 38 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 580 m2 ) facility that will mirror Nash 's own fitness philosophy .

In 2007 , Nash wrote and produced an 81 @-@ second commercial for Nike titled " Training Day " , directed by Julian Schnabel 's daughter Lola , which gained popularity as a viral video on YouTube . Nash also started a film production company together with his cousin , filmmaker Ezra Holland , and intends to produce independent films . The first creative effort to come from Meathawk was a 91 @-@ second commercial , titled " The Sixty Million Dollar Man " , for Nike 's eco @-@ friendly Trash Talk shoe , the first high @-@ performance shoe to be made — at the behest of the environmentally conscious Nash — from recycled materials . Nash has worn the shoe since February 2008 but Nike produced only 5 @,@ 000 pairs for sale . The ad which broke virally on Earth Day 2008 , was written by Nash and the directors of the spot , Danny Vaia and Ezra Holland . It is a spoof remake of the title sequence of the American television series The Six Million Dollar Man and plays on Nash 's numerous on @-@ court collisions . Amar 'e Stoudemire and Raja Bell have cameo appearances . Nash and Holland also co @-@ directed the documentary Into the Wind , about iconic Canadian athlete and activist Terry Fox , as part of ESPN 's 30 for 30 series . In October 2013 , Nash appeared in the music video for " City of Angels " by Thirty Seconds to Mars .

For the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver , Nash became the first NBA player in Olympic history to carry the torch and light the Olympic cauldron .

Nash is also known for his outspoken political views . He was an early , public opponent of the 2003 Iraq War , wearing a custom @-@ made T @-@ shirt to the 2003 NBA All Star Game that stated " No war – Shoot for peace " . Although Nash did get positive support from teammate Nick Van Exel among others , he also drew criticism from David Robinson , a former Naval officer and fellow NBA player as well as commentators like Skip Bayless who criticized Nash as being uninformed and advised him to " just shut up and play " . Nash has also recently been critical of Arizona 's SB1070 , legislation which seeks to aggressively address illegal immigration , as he felt " the law obviously can target opportunities for racial profiling . "

= U.S. Route 80 in California =

U.S. Route 80 ( US 80 ) was a U.S. highway in California that continued east across the country to Georgia . The western terminus was in San Diego , California , and US 80 continued east through the city on several different alignments through the years . The highway went through the Cuyamaca Mountains , encountering many switchbacks , before descending to El Centro . After passing through the sand dunes , the highway crossed the Colorado River into Yuma , Arizona .

The highway replaced a 1912 plank road across much of Imperial County . The winding two @-@ lane road through the Cuyamaca Mountains was one of the factors that led to a four @-@ hour journey from San Diego to El Centro . During the 1930s , the road was realigned through the mountains , but several curves remained . In the 1950s , work began on constructing what would become Interstate 8 ( I @-@ 8 ) to replace the old highway in San Diego to bypass the cities of San Diego , La Mesa , and El Cajon . This started with the construction of the Alvarado Canyon road as well as Mission Valley Road through the San Diego area , as well as construction a replacement for the old highway across the Viejas Grade . The construction continued across the rest of the route through the next two decades . US 80 was gradually decommissioned after 1964 as I @-@ 8 , through San Diego and Imperial counties , was completed . In 2006 , the highway was designated by the California State Legislature as Historic U.S. Route 80 .

= = Route description = =

There were multiple alignments through the downtown San Diego area . The route as of 1928 began at Broadway ( US 101 ) and ran along 4th Avenue north to University Avenue in the Hillcrest district , then went east on University Avenue . By 1933 , the routing had shifted to use Park Boulevard south of University Avenue into downtown , to end at Market Street ; the city council voted that July to use University Avenue west of Park Boulevard to connect to US 101 , to obtain federal funding for improving that road . The next year , the Point Loma highway was referred to as the western terminus of US 80 by E.E. Wallace , a district highway engineer . Nevertheless , the state @-@ produced highway maps from the next few years did not reflect the change , or this choice of the western terminus .

In the early days of World War II , some maps showed the western terminus of US 80 at the Cabrillo National Monument on Point Loma , running north on Catalina Boulevard , north then east on Cañon Street , northeast on Rosecrans Street , southeast on Lytton Street , east on Barnett Avenue , south on Pacific Highway ( US 101 ) and finally east on Market Street , before continuing north along Park Boulevard to El Cajon Boulevard . US 395 ran concurrently along the route from downtown San Diego to the intersection with Fairmount Avenue . By 1942 , the US 395 concurrency had been removed . With the completion of the Cabrillo Freeway , between 1946 and 1948 , US 80 shifted from Park Boulevard to 11th Avenue north onto the new freeway before continuing east onto El Cajon Boulevard towards La Mesa . The final San Diego alignment , with signs to be placed in 1954 , moved the western terminus to the intersection with US 101 where it traveled east on what was known as Camino del Rio and Alvarado Canyon Road , and then continuing on the Mission Valley road towards La Mesa . According to Caltrans district engineer Jacob Dekema , during the 1950s , the parts of Camino Del Rio and Rosecrans Street from Lytton Street and Rosecrans Street to Pacific Highway were considered a part of US 80 .

East of San Diego , US 80 followed the path of El Cajon Boulevard through La Mesa and then onto Main Street near downtown El Cajon before heading towards the Mountain Springs grade . The route was realigned from Arnold Way onto Alpine Boulevard as it passed through Alpine and the Viejas Indian Reservation , before entering the Laguna Mountains and the Cleveland National Forest on the alignment used by I @-@ 8 . At Laguna Junction , a cafe for travelers existed from 1916 until when the building was taken down to provide land for the interchange with I @-@ 8 . A section of old US 80 — with the first few miles signed as SR 79 — continues to serve as access to the communities of Descanso , Guatay and Pine Valley ; SR 79 intersected US 80 east of Descanso . At the time , the Ellis Wayside Rest provided a rest area for travelers ; later , the state recognized it as a historic site . Exiting the national forest , US 80 continued in a southeasterly direction towards Live Oak Springs and Boulevard , intersecting with the eastern terminus of SR 94 . US 80 then came close to the Mexican border as it curved around the Jacumba Mountains and into the hot spring town of Jacumba . East of there , US 80 passed by the Desert View Tower .

US 80 then descended rapidly into Imperial County along the In @-@ Ko @-@ Pah Gorge just west of Coyote Wells and Ocotillo before entering the city limits of El Centro . East of El Centro , US 80 again continued into Holtville . US 80 cut a southeasterly trajectory , running parallel and very close to the Mexican border , and traversing the Algodones Dunes and the Colorado Desert . It finally reached Winterhaven before crossing the Colorado River into Yuma , Arizona . Almost the entire length of the former US 80 within Imperial County has since been designated County Route S80 .

= = History = =

= = = Construction = = =

Route 12 was added to the state highway system in 1909 from San Diego to El Centro , and Route 27 was added from El Centro to Yuma in 1915 . Before a highway was constructed through the Imperial San Dunes , travelers had to pass to the north in order to reach Yuma . The first route through Imperial Valley was originally a plank road made of pieces of wood that were tied together . The road was completed by October 1912 , and portions were still visible into the 2010s . The Ocean @-@ to @-@ Ocean Bridge across the Colorado River was open in 1915 , and a new plank road was opened that year which became state @-@ maintained in 1917 , and used a foundation of wooden rails , with the planks bound together by steel , as opposed to simple planks that were fastened to rails . However , traffic congestion and dusty conditions made travel along the plank road difficult . The delay in constructing a road to San Diego caused increased development in Los Angeles and resulted in that city becoming the trade and population center of Southern California .

A stagecoach road existed into the 19th century that passed through the mountains east of San Diego . Construction was discussed as early as 1911 , with The San Diego Union and Daily Bee saying that it " will be one of the best in the system . " Well before the freeway was constructed , the automobile road through the mountains east of San Diego was narrow and wound through the mountains ; it was officially dedicated in 1912 . This trip was known to take up to four hours , and frequently resulted in the radiator boiling over , flat tires , or broken fan belts ; recent inclement weather would result in cars becoming mired in the mud . But meanwhile , Colonel Ed Fletcher declared the road a " success " , and indicated his belief that a concrete road from San Diego to Yuma would soon follow , responding to criticism that a road from Los Angeles to Brawley should have been built .

US 80 was designated on November 11 , 1926 , along with the rest of the U.S. Routes . The asphalt road was constructed through the valley as the main east – west route , and was open by 1927 . Another road was constructed in the early 1930s , to remove curves and widen the lanes . The result was a two @-@ lane road that still had many switchbacks , with one popularly known as " Dead Man 's Curve " . Planning for this new alignment was underway in 1932 , and much of the work was to be located at the Viejas Grade , and at the segment just west of Alpine . Paving continued on US 80 into 1934 , just west of the sand dunes .

Meanwhile , Imperial County businessmen hoped to promote the use of this road over the route from Phoenix to Los Angeles , to increase tourism . Eventually , US 80 did become the most used road into Southern California from the east , but by 1947 , the Highway 80 Associated was formed to increase the traffic on the road , since the war and advertising by other cities had caused it to fall again . Four years later , US 80 was reported to be the most used transcontinental highway , and there was a 40 percent increase in the out @-@ of @-@ state cars that traveled through the state inspection station at Yuma during the first three months of that year . But in 1954 , there were reports that traffic had decreased , because the road to Phoenix , Arizona from Lordsburg , New Mexico had improved .

= = = Early freeway development = = =

Starting in 1932 , county and state officials proposed rerouting US 80 away from what is now La Mesa Boulevard . Although the city raised concerns about the proposal , due to the shift in transportation design towards " free @-@ access highways " where vehicles could travel up to 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) , and the success of the Arroyo Seco Parkway in Los Angeles , the La Mesa Scout newspaper withdrew their objections to the construction . In the meantime , parts of El Cajon Boulevard through downtown El Cajon were widened in 1935 . Federal funds were allocated for rerouting US 80 in 1940 ; by then , La Mesa Boulevard had been designated as a U.S. 80 Business Route , and El Cajon Boulevard then carried the US 80 designation to San Diego . But in 1947 , the San Diego Highway Development Association criticized the proliferation of traffic signals and businesses on El Cajon Boulevard , during the discussion of how to resolve traffic issues on US 101 through Oceanside .

World War II stalled most freeway projects in the San Diego area . Plans were developed by 1946 for a freeway through Alvarado Canyon that would connect with the Cabrillo Freeway . Funding was obtained by 1949 for the 5 @.@ 4 miles ( 8 @.@ 7 km ) portion between 70th Street and Lake Murray Boulevard , and Fairmout Avenue . The first portion of the Alvarado Canyon Highway , the first freeway thorough La Mesa , was opened in early 1950 . Reports indicated that this decreased the time to travel from La Mesa to San Diego by a factor of two , with 7 @,@ 000 trips on the route each day . That same year , the San Diego city manager expressed concerns at the Highway Commission meeting about shifting US 80 away from El Cajon Boulevard to the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley Road route , due to the potential loss of commerce for businesses located near the current route .

In 1948 , the Highway 80 Chamber of Commerce president complained that funds were being prioritized for US 395 construction , instead of on US 80 . In September , the county supervisors approved the Mission Valley road as a limited access highway , but held off on processing the results from surveying . The next month , $ 1 million was allocated to the realignment of the Viejas grade , namely , increasing the radius of the curves from 300 feet ( 91 m ) to 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , as well as limiting the grade to 4 percent . By 1949 , the project was under way , with prisoners contributing to the labor force , and was projected to include a tunnel as well as several crossings of the Sweetwater River . A longer 34 miles ( 55 km ) tunnel through the Cuyamaca Mountains was also proposed that year , which would have been the longest in the world . But by 1950 , work on the Viejas grade had stalled , due to the prison labor camp being shut down ; efforts were then made to start work again . More funds were allocated by the State Highway Commission a few months later , and the work was to be put out for bid to complete the project .

Meanwhile , construction continued on the western part of the US 80 freeway . On August 27 , 1951 , the final link in the new freeway between Point Loma and La Mesa was dedicated . The next year , planning continued for the possibility of a freeway bypass of El Cajon that would connect to the existing US 80 freeway . However , many El Cajon Boulevard motel owners raised objections over the reassigning of the US 80 designation to the new freeway , as it would potentially harm business . In response , the Highway Development Association proposed designating El Cajon Boulevard as a business route . But in order to obtain funding for the construction , the new route would have to be added to the state highway system by the California State Legislature , or be designated as US 80 . Later , a Freeway 80 Association was formed to encourage public support for the construction of the bypass of El Cajon , and the conversion of the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley roads into a freeway . Following the city of San Diego council and county approval , the California State Assembly transportation committee heard complaints from citizens claiming that they had not been adequately notified about the plans for US 80 or SR 94 , or given enough time to provide input .

In Imperial County , discussion regarding rerouting US 80 south of the city of Holtville began in August 1953 . The next year , the state director of public works announced that the route would be rebuilt to the south for 7 miles ( 11 km ) as a freeway . In February 1954 , the California Highway Commission declared that both the Alvarado Canyon and Mission Valley roads , as well as the new Holtville alignment , were to be part of US 80 ; an alignment was also chosen for the part of the highway that passed through El Cajon . A $ 934 @,@ 211 contract was given out to construct the Holtville portion in April . Contrary to the recommendation of the California Senate Interim Committee on Highways to study constructing the freeway to replace US 80 on a new alignment , San Diego County officials decided to pursue upgrading the existing road to become a freeway . Another route through the Lyons Valley was considered as an alternative . The Highway Development Association proposed adding grade @-@ separated interchanges on the routing of US 80 through San Diego , as well as reconstructing the interchange with the Cabrillo Freeway , as well as finishing the work on the Viejas Grade and through the mountains . That year , according to Caltrans , the interchange with US 395 was the busiest in the county .

= = = Interstate Highway System = = =

In April 1955 , a Caltrans official announced that US 80 would be built as a freeway for its entire length in California , as it was to be included in the Interstate Highway System . In the meantime , while plans moved further along on US 101 , the mayor of San Diego asked the California Highway Commission to keep the US 80 project on track . However , the construction was put on hold because of lower traffic levels on US 80 , compared to other local highways . State Assemblyman Hegland raised the issue in the Assembly Highway subcommittee in December , stating that the construction of the freeway would help the economy and the Port of San Diego . State Senator Collier went even further and blamed the delay on San Diego County officials , in addition to linking the delay to damaging the program to develop the port . The bridge over the Colorado River was replaced in 1956 , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million , and was in use until 1978 , when the I @-@ 8 bridge was built .

Finally , in May 1957 , bids opened for the part of US 80 between Grossmont Boulevard in La Mesa and Chase Avenue in El Cajon , that would connect to the new SR 67 freeway . Groundbreaking took place on June 10 , and the project was to cost $ 3 @.@ 6 million . The rebuilding of the Cabrillo Freeway interchange became a priority due to the availability of federal funding , and due to the traffic problems encountered with having ramps entering from both the left and the right . In July , the Highway Development Association decided to formally raise the issue of the incomplete highway survey through Imperial County at the next California Highway Commission meeting . In 1958 , federal funds were allocated to construct US 80 from Taylor Street to Fairmount Avenue as an eight @-@ lane freeway , and from there to 70th Street as a divided highway . In August , the state announced that there were four proposed routes for US 80 through the mountains , including one with a tunnel . A contract was later awarded to construct the freeway from Taylor Street to the Cabrillo Freeway at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . In November , Caltrans announced that the Walker Canyon route had been chosen for US 80 , which would allow for the route to be constructed in stages , as well as being the least expensive alternative .

By the end of the year , plans were being made for construction of the freeway between Flume Drive east of El Cajon and Laguna Junction , and the portion of the freeway from Fairmount Avenue to Lake Murray Boulevard was contracted for $ 2 @.@ 6 million . In January 1960 , the Taylor Street to Cabrillo Freeway portions were under construction , including the interchange at the latter , and were scheduled to be complete by October , while the Cabrillo Freeway to Fairmout Avenue portion was up for bid ; the next month , the contract was awarded for $ 4 @.@ 6 million , with interchanges to be constructed at Texas Street and Ward Road to replace traffic signals . In July , the new I @-@ 8 designation for the road was announced , and plans to post signs were made . Another contract for the portion from Grossmont Summit near Chase Avenue to Ballantyne Avenue was awarded for $ 2 @.@ 7 million in November .

But in 1960 , Jacob Dekema , the district highway engineer , stated that due to lower traffic on US 80 , the completion of the freeway through the mountains would be delayed until at least 1971 . Construction of the section of US 80 from Magnolia Avenue to Third Street was contracted for $ 2 @.@ 7 million in April . That year , work continued on the freeway , and in August , only one traffic signal was left on the highway west of El Cajon , at Ward Road . In August , Dekema announced that bids for the portion between Lake Murray Boulevard and Third Street would be opened the following month ; once that was completed , the entire freeway west of El Cajon would be complete . Eastbound lanes between US 395 and Fairmount Avenue opened on November 23 .

The portion from the Grossmont summit to Magnolia Avenue and SR 67 was completed in April 1961 . By August , the entirety of the freeway west of El Cajon was complete , with the exception of the portions from near Lake Murray Boulevard to near La Mesa Boulevard for $ 3 @.@ 1 million , as well as between Magnolia Avenue and the El Cajon eastern city limits for $ 2 @.@ 7 million . In addition to this , the part of the freeway from near Grays Well to Ogilby Road in Imperial County was also being constructed for $ 2 @.@ 3 million . The 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) freeway portion east of Magnolia Avenue that connected with the undivided US 80 opened on September 6 . The final section in La Mesa was completed in April 1962 . Construction started on the Mountain Springs portion of US 80 in September 1962 . That year , US 80 west of the Cabrillo Freeway interchange was declared to be the busiest road in the City of San Diego , at 71 @,@ 000 daily vehicles .

US 80 was removed from the state highway system in the 1964 state highway renumbering when I @-@ 80 was designated ; I @-@ 8 assumed the routing from San Diego to El Centro and Yuma . However , US 80 signs were posted for several years afterward on the remaining portions of the original asphalt road that had not been bypassed by the freeway . The AASHO formally recognized California 's requested elimination of US 80 by 1969 . Gradually , the route was removed from Arizona , New Mexico and part of Texas between 1977 and 1991 . After the freeway was built , the population of Jacumba went from 400 to 200 , and many businesses closed or relocated . However , the population began to increase after a few years , and residents began commuting to jobs in El Centro and San Diego . Following a campaign from the local Old Highway 80 Committee and endorsement from the San Diego County Board of Supervisors , the California State Legislature passed a resolution allowing for the route to be designated and signed as a state historic route , Historic U.S. Route 80 , in 2006 .

= = Major intersections = =

This table refers to the route as it was in 1942 .

= Harmy 's Despecialized Edition =

Harmy 's Despecialized Edition is a series of fan edits of the first three films in the George Lucas @-@ created Star Wars franchise : Star Wars , The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . The edits were created by a team of Star Wars fans led by Petr " Harmy " Harmáček , an English teacher from Plzeň , Czech Republic . The original Star Wars trilogy was released theatrically by 20th Century Fox for Lucasfilm between 1977 and 1983 . Subsequent releases on home media , such as the 1997 " Special Edition " releases , introduced significant changes to the films , including additional scenes and new computer @-@ generated imagery – these changes were met with a mixed response from critics . As of 2014 , the films are no longer widely available in their original theatrical releases .

Harmáček felt that altering the films in this way constituted " an act of cultural vandalism " , and in 2010 was inspired to create his own series of fan edits that restored the theatrical releases in high @-@ definition . With no experience in professional film editing , he taught himself as he went , using programs such as Avisynth and Adobe After Effects . Taking the 1993 LaserDisc releases as a guide and a majority of source material from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases , Harmáček and a team of eight other fans constructed the edits over many thousands of hours of work . In 2011 , one year after the project had begun , the first version of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was published online . Updated versions have been created in the years that followed .

As a fan edit , Harmy 's Despecialized Edition cannot be legally bought or sold , and is " to be shared among legal owners of the officially available releases only " . Consequently , the films are only available via various BitTorrent trackers . Reaction to the project has been positive : Nathan Barry of Wired praised the films as " an absolute joy to watch " , while Gizmodo described them as " very , very good " . Sean Hutchinson of Inverse placed Harmy 's Despecialized Edition at number one on his list of the best Star Wars fan edits and called them " the perfect pre @-@ 1997 way to experience the saga " .

= = Background = =

The original Star Wars trilogy was a Lucasfilm production released theatrically by 20th Century Fox between 1977 and 1983 , and was subsequently released on home media during the 1980s and 1990s . The films were distributed by CBS / Fox Video on several formats , such as VHS , Betamax and LaserDisc . In 1997 , to coincide with the 20th anniversary of Star Wars , Lucas rereleased new cuts of the trilogy to theaters , naming them the " Special Editions " . The Special Editions made a number of changes to the original releases , including additions such as enhanced digital effects , previously unreleased scenes , and entirely new CGI sequences .

Reaction to the new cuts was mixed , with commentators criticising unnecessary additions such as a computer @-@ generated Jabba the Hutt in the first film and a new musical number in Return of the Jedi ; an alteration involving the bounty hunter Greedo shooting at Han Solo drew significant ire . Further changes to the series were added to the 2004 DVD and the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases – these changes also drew criticism . The final release of the original cuts was in 2006 , when unrestored masters used for the 1993 LaserDisc were added as a bonus feature to a limited run of DVDs under the name George 's Original Unaltered Trilogy ( GOUT ) . In 2010 , Lucas stated that bringing the original cuts to Blu @-@ ray would be a " very , very expensive " process ; as of 2014 , the films are only widely available in their altered versions .

As a result of these changes , a group of fans met on various Internet forums to construct higher quality cuts as fan edits by using the available home media and blending the Special Edition DVDs with the LaserDisc transfers . One such edit for The Empire Strikes Back was created by Star Wars fan Adywan .

= = Production = =

= = = Conception = = =

Petr Harmáček ( known online by the alias " Harmy " ) had watched a dubbed version of the original cut of Star Wars at the age of six , and had then seen the Special Editions of The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi on their 1997 release . Although initially admiring them , he became disappointed when he learnt how much the films had been changed retroactively ; he argued that replacing the original effects with re @-@ composited digital effects was " an act of cultural vandalism " . A fan of the original trilogy , he had written his undergraduate thesis on their cultural impact . After seeing a trailer for Adywan 's cut of The Empire Strikes Back , Harmáček was inspired to create a version of the film that " undid " the post @-@ 1977 changes and restored the theatrical releases in high @-@ definition . He described his motivation as : " I wanted to be able to show people who haven 't seen Star Wars yet , like my little brother or my girlfriend , the original , Oscar @-@ winning version , but I didn 't want to have to show it to them in bad quality . " Harmáček 's edits were the first to recreate the theatrical releases in HD .

= = = Editing = = =

Harmáček began creating his new cuts in 2010 . At the time , he was working as an English teacher in Plzeň , Czech Republic , and had no professional experience with film editing . Instead , he taught himself as the project progressed , beginning with Photoshop skills that he had developed in college . To remove the post @-@ 1977 changes , Harmáček was required to go through the film frame @-@ by @-@ frame , correcting colors and rotoscoping . Undoing some shots took only an hour , while others took hundreds . Lightsabers were color @-@ corrected , shots of the Millennium Falcon cockpit were cropped , Boba Fett 's voice was changed , and CGI characters and backgrounds were removed . Most of the source material used for Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was taken from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray release , while other sequences were upscaled from GOUT . To create the cuts , source material was taken from the 2011 Blu @-@ ray releases , HDTV broadcasts of the 2004 DVDs , GOUT , digital broadcasts of the 1997 Special Edition , the 1993 LaserDiscs , digital transfers of a Spanish 35 mm Kodak LPP and 70 mm film cels , a 16 mm print and still images of the original matte paintings . Harmáček edited these sources together using programs such as Avisynth and Adobe After Effects .

To help , Harmáček was assisted by a group of similarly @-@ minded fans from the website OriginalTrilogy.com , whom he knew by their online aliases Dark Jedi , YouToo , Puggo , Team Negative 1 , Belbucus , Hairy _ Hen , CatBus and Laserschwert . In total , the project took thousands of hours of work between them . In 2011 , one year after the project had begun , the first version of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition was published online ; new and updated versions have been created regularly in the five years that followed . As of August 2014 , the most recent version is v2.5. As a result of the project , Harmáček was able to quit his teaching job and in 2015 was hired by UltraFlix to prepare and restore a library of 4K @-@ encoded films for sale and rent .

= = = Legality = = =

The legal standing of Harmy 's Despecialized Edition is contentious . As fan edits , the cuts tread a line between Fair Use and copyright infringement . OriginalTrilogy.com states that the edits are " made for culturally historical and educational purposes " and that they are " to be shared among legal owners of the officially available releases only " . Consequently , the films are only available via various BitTorrent trackers . Harmáček himself remarked : " I 'm convinced that 99 % of people who download this already bought Star Wars 10 times over on DVD . " As of November 2015 , he has received no legal issues from Lucasfilm over the Despecialized Edition .

= = Reception = =

Reaction to Harmy 's Despecialized Edition has been positive . Writing for Inverse , Sean Hutchinson placed it at number one on his list of the best Star Wars fan edits , and described them as " the perfect pre @-@ 1997 way to experience the saga " . Whitson Gordon of Lifehacker called the edits " the best version of Star Wars you can watch " , and named them " the version of Star Wars we 've all been clamoring for the last 20 years " . Similarly , Nathan Barry of Wired praised the films as " an absolute joy to watch " , while Gizmodo described them as " very , very good " . In an article listing Ars Technica 's favorite Star Wars items , Sam Machkovech selected Harmy 's Despecialized Edition , calling them " a treat " .

= Sense and Sensibility ( 2008 miniseries ) =

Sense and Sensibility is a 2008 British television drama adaptation of Jane Austen 's 1811 novel Sense and Sensibility . The screenplay was written by Andrew Davies , who revealed that the aim of the series was to make viewers forget Ang Lee 's 1995 film Sense and Sensibility . The series was " more overtly sexual " than previous Austen adaptations , and Davies included scenes featuring a seduction and a duel that were absent from the feature film . Sense and Sensibility was directed by John Alexander and produced by Anne Pivcevic . Hattie Morahan and Charity Wakefield star as Elinor and Marianne Dashwood , two sisters who go on " a voyage of burgeoning sexual and romantic discovery " .

The series was shot on location in the English counties of Berkshire , Surrey , Buckinghamshire and Devon for two months from April 2007 . Sense and Sensibility was co @-@ produced by the BBC and American studio WGBH Boston . It was aired in three parts from 1 January 2008 in the United Kingdom and attracted an average of 6 million viewers per episode . The first episode also became one of the top ten most streamed programmes on the BBC iPlayer . Sense and Sensibility garnered mostly positive reviews from television critics , while the cast and crew earned several award nominations for their work . It was released on a two @-@ disc DVD in the UK on 14 January 2008 .

= = Plot = =

When Henry Dashwood ( Simon Williams ) dies , he leaves his entire fortune and his home , Norland Park , to his son John ( Mark Gatiss ) . John promises that he will provide for his stepmother , Mrs. Dashwood ( Janet McTeer ) , and half @-@ sisters Elinor ( Hattie Morahan ) , Marianne ( Charity Wakefield ) , and Margaret ( Lucy Boynton ) . However , John 's wife , Fanny ( Claire Skinner ) , convinces him to give the family a smaller inheritance than he had intended . Fanny 's brother , Edward Ferrars ( Dan Stevens ) , comes to visit , and he quickly befriends Elinor . While Mrs. Dashwood hopes they will become engaged , Fanny informs her that his mother will not approve the match . Mrs. Dashwood receives a letter from her cousin , Sir John Middleton ( Mark Williams ) , offering her a small cottage house on his estate , Barton Park in Devonshire . She and her daughters decide to leave Norland immediately .

During a welcome dinner at Barton Park , Sir John introduces the Dashwoods to his wife , Lady Middleton ( Rosanna Lavelle ) ; her mother , Mrs. Jennings ( Linda Bassett ) ; and their family friend , Colonel Brandon ( David Morrissey ) . Brandon instantly falls in love with Marianne , but she believes he is too old for her . While out walking with Margaret , Marianne falls and twists her ankle . She is rescued by a young man , who carries her back to the cottage . He introduces himself as John Willoughby ( Dominic Cooper ) , and states that he will return to check on Marianne the following day . Brandon also comes to visit , but upon seeing Willoughby , he quickly departs . Willoughby and Marianne grow close through their mutual love of poetry , and he later takes a lock of her hair . Mrs. Dashwood and Elinor begin to speculate on whether they have become secretly engaged .

Brandon invites the Dashwoods and the Middletons to a party on his estate at Delaford , but before the trip can take place , he is called away on urgent business . Willoughby requests a private audience with both Mrs. Dashwood and Marianne , leading them both to expect that he will propose . However , Willoughby reveals that his aunt is sending him on business to London , and he may not be able to return to Devonshire for at least a year . Shortly after Willoughby 's departure , Edward comes to visit , and the Dashwoods notice that he appears to be unhappy and distant . Mrs. Jennings ' nieces , Lucy ( Anna Madeley ) and Anne Steele ( Daisy Haggard ) , come to Barton Park . When Lucy learns that the Dashwoods are acquainted with the Ferrars , Lucy confides in Elinor that she and Edward have been secretly engaged for four years , news that devastates Elinor . Mrs. Jennings invites Elinor and Marianne to spend some time with her in London , and Marianne hopes she will see Willoughby . However , he does not visit or reply to her letters .

During a party , Marianne finds Willoughby , but he barely acknowledges their acquaintance . Marianne later learns that he is engaged to the wealthy Miss Grey and becomes inconsolable . Brandon calls on the Dashwoods and explains to Elinor that Willoughby seduced then abandoned his young ward , Eliza Williams , who has given birth to his child . Mrs. Ferrars ( Jean Marsh ) learns of Edward 's engagement to Lucy and threatens to disinherit him unless he calls it off , but Edward refuses . Brandon later offers him a living on his estate at Delaford , which Edward gladly accepts . While staying with Mrs. Jennings ' daughter , Marianne goes walking in a storm and collapses . Brandon finds her and brings her home , where she falls seriously ill with a fever . During Marianne 's recovery , Willoughby comes to talk with Elinor . He insists that he loved Marianne and would have married her , but he had to marry a rich woman because his aunt disowned him after learning of his behaviour toward Eliza . After Marianne recovers , the sisters return home and Marianne begins spending time at Delaford , eventually falling in love with Brandon . Elinor learns that Lucy Steele has become Mrs. Ferrars , and assumes that Lucy and Edward have married . However , Edward arrives at the cottage and explains to the Dashwoods that Lucy has wed his brother Robert ( Leo Bill ) . Edward then declares his love to Elinor and proposes . They marry , as do Marianne and Brandon .

= = Production = =

= = = Conception and adaptation = = =

On 5 October 2005 , a reporter for the BBC News revealed that writer Andrew Davies was planning to adapt Jane Austen 's Sense and Sensibility into a major television drama due to be broadcast on the BBC in two years . Davies commented , " When they are great stories , you keep on coming back to them and doing them in different ways with different people at different lengths . " Davies explained that his script was in the early stages and that no actors had yet been cast . The writer later expressed his delight at adapting the novel during an interview with Paul Carey from the Western Mail , calling Austen his " favourite novelist " . He also admitted that due to the acclaim he received for his adaptation of Pride and Prejudice , there was pressure on him to get Sense and Sensibility right . Davies later stated that the aim of the miniseries was to make viewers forget about Ang Lee 's 1995 film adaptation of the novel .

The opening episode of Sense and Sensibility features the moment Willoughby seduces Eliza , a young schoolgirl . Davies told Carey and Claire Hill from the Western Mail that he wanted " to do justice " to Willoughby 's back story , saying that it is " quite interesting and steamy stuff like a lot of underage sex that goes on and is just talked about . I want to put it on the screen . " Davies elaborated on this further in an interview with The Independent 's Peter Chapman , saying that the seduction and abandonment of a schoolgirl in the novel needed dramatising . He believed readers " hardly notice " the moment , which he felt was very important . The writer noted that the series was " more overtly sexual " than previous adaptations of Austen 's works and added , " The novel is as much about sex and money as social conventions . " Davies also included a duel between Colonel Brandon and Willoughby in his screenplay , an event that was absent from Lee 's film adaptation of the novel .

Davies believed that Lee 's film did not overcome " the problem of the guys who get the girls not seeming quite good enough " , and set out to try to find a way of making them into heroes in his script . He said that Austen should have made the reader feel that Edward was worthy of Elinor and explained how Marianne falls in love with Colonel Brandon , after having her heart broken by Willoughby . The writer increased the male roles , so they could be turned into stronger characters . Davies told Hill that the team " worked very hard " on the men . Brandon is seen rescuing people and doing a lot of fast horse riding , while Edward was given a wood @-@ chopping scene where he vents his frustrations about his engagement . Davies also made the Dashwood sisters younger and " more vulnerable " than how they were portrayed in Lee 's film . Hattie Morahan , who portrayed Elinor in the drama , stated , " We are trying to play the story as it was written . In the novel the girls are 19 and 17 , so these romantic relationships are real rites of passage for them . "

= = = Casting = = =

Davies commented that he would have liked to have been in charge of the casting . He revealed that he had initially objected to Hattie Morahan being cast in the role of the eldest Dashwood sister , Elinor . However , he was glad that his objections were ignored , because he fell in love with her performance . Morahan told The Daily Telegraph 's Jasper Rees that she deliberately chose not to watch the 1995 film adaptation of Sense and Sensibility or think about Emma Thompson 's portrayal of the character . She explained that she had not " [ b ] ecause you would go mad . It would distort your work . I thought , it 'll be original by virtue of the fact that it 's me doing it and there is only one me . "

Charity Wakefield successfully auditioned for the role of Marianne Dashwood . The actress revealed , " Marianne is the embodiment of youth and hope . I was so excited to be offered the part because I felt that it was a role which I could really attack . I understand her character and feel that we have lots in common . " Dan Stevens was chosen to play Edward Ferrars , Elinor 's love interest . The actor revealed to a BBC journalist that he had really wanted the part and was excited by the challenge of the character . Stevens became ill with tonsillitis during the shoot , and quipped that there are very few shots of him in full health still in the series .

David Morrissey portrayed Colonel Brandon . The actor was sent the script by his agent , and he initially questioned whether another Austen adaptation was needed . However , he then read the script and thought it was " just brilliant " , especially as Davies had added more scenes featuring the male characters . Dominic Cooper took on the role of John Willoughby , Brandon 's rival for Marianne 's affections . Describing his character , Cooper said " The way I tried to persuade myself he wasn 't too bad was that he 's a 25 @-@ year @-@ old young guy and he genuinely falls in love with Marianne – he 's not just doing it for one moment in time . " Cooper said that he had fun working on the project .

Janet McTeer and Lucy Boynton were cast as Mrs Dashwood and Margaret Dashwood respectively . Mark Gatiss portrayed John Dashwood ; his casting was revealed in June 2007 . Claire Skinner received the role of John 's wife , Fanny , while Mark Williams was cast as Sir John Middleton . Linda Bassett and Jean Marsh were given the roles of Mrs Jennings and Mrs Ferrars respectively . Robert Bianco from USA Today commented that both women were " wonderfully cast " . Actresses Anna Madeley and Daisy Haggard portrayed Lucy Steele and her sister Anne , a character who was omitted from the 1995 film .

= = = Filming = = =

Sense and Sensibility was shot entirely on location within England , mostly in the counties of Berkshire , Surrey , Buckinghamshire , and Devon . Filming began in April 2007 and lasted until early June . Blackpool Mill , a fifteenth @-@ century cottage in north Devon , was turned into Barton Cottage , the home of the Dashwood girls . The art director for the series , James Merifield , had walked past the cottage in 2006 and thought it would be an ideal setting for a film . He was later sent back to the cottage by the location manager for Sense and Sensibility , and he decided the place would be right for the production . The owners of Blackpool Mill , Sir Hugh and Lady Stucley , were contacted in February 2007 by the BBC who inquired about the possibility of filming there . Caroline Gammell from The Daily Telegraph reported that " camera crews , production assistants , directors and actors swarmed over Blackpool Mill , turning the rustic four @-@ bedroom home into the romantic hub of Jane Austen 's novel . Set designers took the cottage more firmly into the 19th century , adding a porch at the front as well as dormer windows , fake shutters and an extra chimney . " The interior of cottage was " a little scruffy " for Mrs Dashwood 's status , so scenes featuring the inside of the cottage were filmed in a studio . Filming took place at the cottage over eight days in May .

Wakefield revealed that it rained constantly during filming , often soaking the cast and crew . However , the bad weather led to Davies writing in a scene featuring Edward in a wet shirt chopping logs in the rain , which rivalled the famous lake scene in Pride and Prejudice . Cooper told The Birmingham Post 's Georgina Rodgers that the bad weather affected his first scene , in which Willoughby carries an injured Marianne home . He explained that the scene was shot on a vertical slope with a rain machine , as the natural rain does not show up on camera . His cloak also kept getting caught under his foot , which made picking up Wakefield even harder . Cooper added , " I couldn 't move and I just kept falling head over heels . " Wrotham Park served as the exterior to Norland , the Dashwood family 's home . Ham House in Richmond was used for Norland 's interior shots , while the grounds were used for exterior scenes . The National Trust was asked not to cut the grass for several weeks before filming began . Ham House also doubled for Cleveland . Loseley Park was chosen for the exterior shots of Sir John Middleton 's home , Barton Park . The library doubled for Colonel Brandon 's own , while the entrance was used for scenes featuring a gathering of guests for a day out . The Oak Room was also used for the scenes involving Marianne , after she falls sick . Other filming locations included Dorney Court , Hall Barn , Lincoln 's Inn and Clovelly Pier .

= = = Costumes and make @-@ up = = =

The costume designer for Sense and Sensibility was Michele Clapton . She and assistant costume designer Alex Fordham undertook a large amount of research looking for inspiration . They spent hours looking at paintings and books from the time period , while also visiting art galleries and the Victoria and Albert Museum . During an interview for the drama 's BBC Online website , Fordham revealed that they tried to find references from every area , including eighteenth @-@ century cartoons . Clapton stated that the team wanted to make a lot of the costumes , rather than re @-@ use what was already available from other productions . To get the sense of colour that they wanted , they had to dye and create a lot of the pieces . The wardrobe team worked closely with the make @-@ up department and the production designer . After their first meeting , they came up with a colour palette for the whole show . Clapton chose to give Elinor and Marianne contrasting wardrobes . The " flighty " and " artistic " Marianne wears strong colours compared to Elinor , who has a different personality and complexion . Fordham revealed that with Marianne being younger and a " wild child " , her wardrobe contains a lot of Buttercup yellows , which suited Wakefield 's complexion and her character 's freshness .

Willoughby 's wardrobe was designed to reflect his " poetic " and " fashionable " nature , while Fordham believed Edward was more suited to the eighteenth @-@ century rural colours . With Colonel Brandon being a stronger character , his costumes were half way between the two . His clothes were designed to be out of date and firm , using more heathers instead of the rural colours . The production had an emphasis on youth and passion , which Clapton incorporated into her work . The designer said , " Ten years ago , female characters in 19th @-@ century dramas would all have their hair done in very precise ringlets , all neat and perfect just like in the portraits . Now we 're trying to achieve a more believable , natural look , especially when the Dashwoods are at home . " She added that the director had wanted the characters to " feel more human . " Morrissey commented that the period costumes were " slightly uncomfortable " for modern life , but as soon as the cast were riding horses or walking across fields , they realised why they were made that way . He added , " When you 're dancing , they 're quite restrictive , but that 's quite good for posture – posture was different then , and that 's important . But they give you a feel for the character which is really an advantage to you as an actor . "

Karen Hartley @-@ Thomas was the hair and make @-@ up designer for the production . She began prepping a couple of months before filming began , and she met with the director and producer early on to discuss the whole look of the film . Like the costumers , she read books and went to art galleries during her research . The female characters in Sense and Sensibility wear a " no make @-@ up look " because in the time period in which the film is set , only the lower classes would have worn white and pink make @-@ up . The Dashwood sisters wore no mascara and only a little corrective and blush . Hartley @-@ Thomas also used very little make @-@ up on the men , as she does not like them looking made up . Discussing the hair , Hartley @-@ Thomas said " Elinor 's hair is always quite neat and done , where Marianne , being a freer character and more rebellious , she has lots of different looks and lots of wild looks with the hair loose . " She also explained that some of the male actors wore wigs because the men in those days would have had a lot more volume to their hair , whereas the modern styles tend to be shorter and clippered . John Dashwood and his son were given red hair , as Hartley @-@ Thomas wanted them to stand out amongst the more natural colours of the other male characters .

= = Broadcast = =

Sense and Sensibility was aired in three parts , with the first shown on 1 January 2008 . The other two episodes were broadcast on 6 and 13 January . The first episode of Sense and Sensibility became one of the top ten streamed programmes on the BBC iPlayer following its broadcast . In the United States , Sense and Sensibility was broadcast on PBS , as part of their Austen Masterpiece Theatre series . The drama was split into two episodes , which aired on 30 March and 6 April 2008 . Sense and Sensibility began airing from 26 June 2008 on the UKTV channel in Australia .

= = = Home media = = =

Sense and Sensibility was released on a two @-@ disc DVD in the UK on 14 January 2008 . All three episodes were given away free with a copy of the Daily Mail in 2009 . The offer was part of the newspaper 's British Classics collection . The Region 1 DVD was released a few days after its premiere on PBS . The two @-@ disc set also included the BBC 's Miss Austen Regrets , as well as commentary and interviews from the cast and crew .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

The first episode of Sense and Sensibility attracted 5 @.@ 54 million viewers upon its first broadcast in the United Kingdom , giving it twenty per cent of the audience share for its broadcast time . The second episode posted a small increase of 5 @.@ 74 million viewers , while the concluding part attracted an audience of 6 @.@ 76 million .

= = = Critical response = = =

Sense and Sensibility received mostly positive reviews from critics . However , the Jane Austen Society criticised it for being " too raunchy " and accused Davies of " degrading fine English literature " , after he included a seduction scene in the opening episode . The chairman of the society , Patrick Stokes , stated , " Sexing this story up says more about the BBC than Jane Austen . It is lowering itself by degrading fine English literature in the battle for ratings . While it is good that it draws people 's attention to her works , there is not a lot you can do if someone makes a hash of it . " A BBC spokesman believed the drama was not overtly sexual and stated that they had received no complaints about it , though they did get several calls from viewers expressing their appreciation for the series .

Melinda Houston , writing for The Age , called Sense and Sensibility " a gorgeous adaptation of her most frivolous work " and added , " It 's all beautifully made , beautifully cast , and the script snaps and crackles . Maybe Eleanor isn 't quite as flawed as originally drawn but that 's unlikely to detract from your enjoyment . " Lenny Ann Low from The Sydney Morning Herald stated , " The locations , costumes and acting are excellent , with a particularly striking use of light – cold and grey skies foretelling doom through to rich candlelight signalling new passions . " The New York Times critic Ginia Bellafante said , " There 's nothing glaringly wrong with this new Sense and Sensibility , the last in Masterpiece 's winter @-@ long homage to Austen ; it is both lush and tidy . But it alters the emotional chemistry , and the result is an adaptation that feels more arid than Mr. Lee 's effort . "

Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian called Sense and Sensibility " a charmingly domestic and spontaneous treatment of the story " , adding that it had become " a younger sister " of Lee 's 1995 film . Variety 's Brian Lowry commented , " this latest Sense & Sensibility has done a splendid job casting its various roles , despite an inevitable wattage deficit compared with the most recent theatrical version . Davies and director John Alexander have also taken some liberties by crafting scenes of the men together ( something Austen herself never did ) – having the steely Brandon , for example , pull Willoughby aside to question his intentions toward Marianne . Featuring a top @-@ drawer cast , the filmmakers create several delicate moments – from Willoughby 's elegant seduction of Marianne to the stoic Elinor 's pining for the elusive Edward who , as played by Stevens , adorably stammers in a Hugh Grant @-@ like way . "

Serena Davies from The Daily Telegraph praised the first episode , calling it " faithful to the spirit of the book " and stating that the series " deftly stepped out of the shadows of two formidable predecessors : Ang Lee 's gorgeous 1995 film version of the novel , and scriptwriter Andrew Davies 's own masterpiece , Pride and Prejudice . " Davies enjoyed Morahan 's " luminous " performance as Elinor , as well as Williams and Morrissey 's turns as Sir John and Colonel Brandon respectively , although she thought the opening scene was " misconceived " . Davies ' colleague , James Walton , proclaimed , " In the end , this Sense and Sensibility was perhaps brilliantly competent rather than surpassingly brilliant . Nevertheless , it still proved easily good enough to get the costume @-@ drama year off to a hugely enjoyable start . "

= = = Awards and nominations = = =

The crew of Sense and Sensibility garnered several award nominations for their work on the drama . At the 14th Shanghai Television Festival , the series was nominated for Magnolia Award for Best Television Film or Miniseries , Alexander won the Best Television Film Director award , while Morahan won Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Film for her turn as Elinor Dashwood . Davies was nominated in the Writer 's Award category at the 35th Broadcasting Press Guild Awards for his screenplay , and Clapton received a nomination for Outstanding Costume Design for a Television Movie or Mini @-@ Series at the Costume Designers Guild Awards . For his work on the score , Phipps earned nominations for a BAFTA Television Craft Award for Best Original Television Music and a Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries , Movie or Special . Cinematographer Sean Bobbitt was also nominated for an Emmy Award in the Cinematography for a Miniseries , Movie or Special category .

= Marble Madness =

Marble Madness is an arcade video game designed by Mark Cerny and published by Atari Games in 1984 . The player uses a trackball to guide an onscreen marble through six obstacle @-@ filled courses within a time limit . Marble Madness was Atari 's first game to use the Atari System 1 hardware and to be programmed in the C programming language . It was also one of the first games to use true stereo sound ; previous games used either monaural sound or simulated stereo .

Cerny drew inspiration from miniature golf , racing games , and artwork by M. C. Escher . He applied a minimalist approach in designing the appearance of the game 's courses and enemies .

Marble Madness was commercially successful . The game was ported to numerous platforms and inspired the development of other games . A sequel was developed and planned for release in 1991 , but canceled when location testing showed the game could not compete with other titles .

= = Gameplay = =

Marble Madness is an isometric platform game in which the player manipulates an onscreen marble from a third @-@ person perspective . The player controls the marble 's movements with a trackball , though most home versions use game controllers with directional pads . The aim of the game is for the player to complete six maze @-@ like , isometric race courses before a set amount of time expires . With the exception of the first race , any time left on the clock at the end of a race is carried over to the next one , and the player is granted a set amount of additional time as well . The game allows two players to compete against each other , awarding bonus points and extra time to the winner of each race ; both players have separate clocks .

As the game progresses , the courses become increasingly difficult and introduce more enemies and obstacles . Each course has a distinct visual theme . For example , the first race ( titled " Practice " ) is a simple course that is much shorter than the others , while the fifth race ( named " Silly " ) features polka @-@ dot patterns and is oriented in a direction opposite that of the other courses .

= = Development = =

Marble Madness was developed by Atari Games , with Mark Cerny as the lead designer and Bob Flanagan as the software engineer . Both Cerny and Flanagan handled programming the game . It uses the Atari System 1 hardware , an interchangeable system of circuit boards , control panels , and artwork . The game features pixel graphics on a 19 inch Electrohome G07 model CRT monitor , and uses a Motorola 68010 central processing unit ( CPU ) with a MOS Technology 6502 subsystem to control the audio and coin operations . Marble Madness was Atari 's first game to use an FM sound chip produced by Yamaha , which is similar to a Yamaha DX7 synthesizer and creates the music in real time so that it is in synchronization with the game 's on @-@ screen action . The game 's music was composed by Brad Fuller and Hal Canon who spent a few months becoming familiar with the capabilities of the sound chip .

Cerny and Flanagan first collaborated on a video game based on Michael Jackson 's Thriller . The project was canceled and the two began working on an idea of Cerny 's that eventually became Marble Madness . Development lasted 10 months . Following the North American video game crash of 1983 , video game development within Atari focused on providing a distinctive experience through the use of a unique control system and by emphasizing a simultaneous two @-@ player mode . Cerny designed Marble Madness in accordance with these company goals . He was first inspired by miniature golf and captivated by the idea that a play field 's contours influenced the ball 's path . Cerny began testing various ideas using Atari 's digital art system . After deciding to use an isometric grid , Cerny began developing the game 's concept . His initial idea involved hitting a ball in a way similar to miniature golf , but Atari was unenthusiastic . Cerny next thought of racing games and planned for races on long tracks against an opponent . Technology limitations at the time were unable to handle the in @-@ game physics necessary for the idea , and Cerny switched the game 's objective to a race against time .

The development toolkit for the Motorola CPU included a compiler for the C programming language , which the two programmers were familiar with . After Atari had conducted performance evaluations , it approved usage of the language . Cerny and Flanagan 's decision to program Marble Madness in the C language had positive and negative consequences . Atari games had previously been programmed in assembly language . The C language was easier to program , but was less efficient , so the game operates at the slower speed of 30 Hz instead of the normal 60 Hz frequency of arcade games at the time . Cerny decided to use a trackball system ( marketed by Atari as Trak @-@ Ball ) to give the game a unique control system , and he chose a motorized trackball for faster spinning and braking when the in @-@ game ball traveled downhill and uphill , respectively . As it was building the prototypes , Atari 's design department informed Cerny that the motorized trackball 's design had an inherent flaw — one of the four supports had poor contact with the ball — and the use of a regular trackball was more feasible . Additionally , Cerny had anticipated the use of powerful custom chips that would allow RAM @-@ based sprites to be animated by the CPU , but the available hardware was a less @-@ advanced system using ROM @-@ based , static sprites .

These technical limitations forced Cerny to simplify the overall designs . Inspired by M. C. Escher , he designed abstract landscapes for the courses . In retrospect , Cerny partly attributed the designs to his limited artistic skills . He was a fan of the 3D graphics used in Battlezone and I , Robot , but felt that the visuals lacked definition and wanted to create a game with " solid and clean " 3D graphics . Unlike most other arcade games of the time , the course images were not drawn on the pixel level . Instead , Cerny defined the elevation of every point in the course , and stored this information in a heightmap array . The course graphics were then created by a ray tracing program that traced the path of light rays , using the heightmap to determine the appearance of the course on screen . This format also allowed Cerny to create shadows and use spatial anti @-@ aliasing , a technique that provided the graphics with a smoother appearance . Cerny 's course generator allowed him more time to experiment with the level designs . When deciding what elements to include in a course , practicality was a big factor ; elements that would not work or would not appear as intended were omitted , such as an elastic barricade or a teeter @-@ totter scale . Other ideas dropped from the designs were breakable glass supports , black hole traps , and bumps and obstacles built into the course that chased the marble .

Cerny 's personal interests changed throughout the project , leading to the inclusion of new ideas absent from the original design documents . The game 's enemy characters were designed by Cerny and Sam Comstock , who also animated them . Enemies had to be small in size due to technical limitations . Cerny and Comstock purposely omitted faces to give them unique designs and create a minimalistic appearance similar to the courses . Atari 's management , however , suggested that the marble should have a smiley face to create an identified character , similar to Pac @-@ Man . As a compromise , the cabinet 's artwork depicts traces of a smiley face on the marbles . Flanagan programmed a three @-@ dimensional physics model to dictate the marble 's motions and an interpreted script for enemy behavior . As Marble Madness neared completion , the feedback from Atari 's in @-@ house focus testing was positive . In retrospect , Cerny wished he had included more courses to give the game greater longevity , but extra courses would have required more time and increased hardware costs . Atari was experiencing severe financial troubles at the time and could not extend the game 's development period as it would have left their production factory idle .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Marble Madness was commercially successful following its December 1984 release and was positively received by critics . Around 4 @,@ 000 cabinets were sold , and it soon became the highest @-@ earning game in arcades . However , the game consistently fell from this ranking during its seventh week in arcades that Atari tracked the game 's success . Cerny attributed the six @-@ week arcade life to Marble Madness 's short gameplay length . He believed that players lost interest after mastering it and moved on to other games . The arcade cabinets have since become fairly rare . Stan Szczepanski holds the official world record of 187 @,@ 880 points .

Bruce Webster of BYTE wrote that the graphics of the Amiga version of Marble Madness in December 1986 " are really amazing " . While criticizing the lack of a pause function or a top scores list , he stated that it " is definitely worth having if you own an Amiga " . Many reviewers felt that the high level of skill required to play the game was part of its appeal . In 2008 , Levi Buchanan of IGN listed Marble Madness as one of several titles in his " dream arcade " , citing the game 's difficulty and the fond memories he had playing it . Author John Sellers wrote that difficulty was a major reason that players were attracted . Other engaging factors included the graphics , visual design , and the soundtrack . Retro Gamer 's Craig Grannell , in referring to the game as one of the most distinctive arcade games ever made , praised its visuals as " pure and timeless " . In 2008 , Guinness World Records listed it as the number seventy @-@ nine arcade game in technical , creative , and cultural impact . Marble Madness was one of the first games to use true stereo sound and have a recognizable musical score . British composer Paul Weir commented that the music had character and helped give the game a unique identity . A common complaint about the arcade cabinet was that the track ball controls frequently broke from repeated use .

Marble Madness inspired other games that feature similar gameplay based on navigating a ball through progressively more difficult courses ; such games are often described in terms that relate them to Marble Madness . Melbourne House 's Gyroscope and Electric Dreams Software 's Spindizzy were the first such games ; both met with a good reception . In 1990 , Rare released Snake Rattle ' n ' Roll , which incorporated elements similar to Marble Madness . The Super Monkey Ball series uses similar gameplay based on rolling a ball , but adds other features such as minigames and monkey characters . Archer Maclean 's Mercury also contains many elements similar to Marble Madness , but with minor variations , including the ability to change color , added hazards , and that the player controls a blob of liquid mercury rather than a marble .

= = = Ports and unreleased sequel = = =

Beginning in 1986 , the game was ported to numerous platforms with different companies handling the conversions ; several home versions were published by Electronic Arts , Tiger Electronics released handheld and tabletop LCD versions of the game , and it was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System by Rare . Early versions featured simplified graphics , and the different ports were met with mixed reception . John Harris of Gamasutra thought the arcade 's popularity fueled the sales of the home versions , while Thomas Hanley of ScrewAttack commented that most versions were not as enjoyable without a track ball . Grannell echoed similar statements about the controls and added that many had poor visuals and collision detection . He listed the Amiga , Game Boy , and Sega Mega Drive ports as the better conversions , and the Sinclair ZX Spectrum , PC , and Game Boy Advance versions among the worst . Compute ! writers called the Amiga version 's graphics and gameplay " arcade @-@ quality " . Editors for Computer Gaming World stated that the Amiga version was superior to the arcade original , while the Commodore version had an extra level not present in other versions . Dragon 's three reviewers — Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser — praised the Apple IIGS port , calling it a " must have " title for arcade fans . MegaTech reviewers rated the Sega Mega Drive release a favorable 73 % . In 2003 , Marble Madness was included in the multi @-@ platform title Midway Arcade Treasures , a compilation of classic games developed by Williams Electronics , Midway Games , and Atari Games . Electronic Arts released a mobile phone port in 2010 that includes additional levels with different themes and new items that augment the gameplay . Marble Madness was also included in the 2012 multi @-@ platform compilation Midway Arcade Origins . A port of the game is also playable in Lego Dimensions via an Arcade Dock in the level " Prime Time " .

An arcade sequel titled Marble Man : Marble Madness II was planned for release in 1991 , though Cerny was uninvolved in the development . Development was led by Bob Flanagan who designed the game based on what he felt made Marble Madness a success in the home console market . Because the market 's demographic was a younger audience , Flanagan wanted to make the sequel more accessible and introduced , ball like a superhero ( a.k.a. Marble Man ) . Marble Man expanded on the gameplay of the original game by featuring new abilities for the marble such as Heli , Cloak , Knobby , and Crusher , included pinball minigames between sets of levels , and allowed up to three players to traverse isometric courses . Its final wave is called " King of the Mountain " . Flanagan intended to address the short length of the first game and , with the help of Mike Hally , developed seventeen courses .

Atari created prototypes for location testing , but the game did not fare well against more popular titles at the time such as Street Fighter II . Atari assumed the track balls accounted for the poor reception and commissioned a second model with joystick controls . Because the new models were met with the same poor reception , production was halted and the focus shifted to Guardians of the ' Hood , a beat ' em up game . The prototypes that were produced have since become collector items .

= Adolf Eichmann =

Otto Adolf Eichmann ( pronounced [ ˈɔto ˈaːdɔlf ˈaɪ ̯ çman ] ; 19 March 1906 – 1 June 1962 ) was a German Nazi SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) and one of the major organisers of the Holocaust . Eichmann was tasked by SS @-@ Obergruppenführer ( general / lieutenant general ) Reinhard Heydrich with facilitating and managing the logistics of mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps in German @-@ occupied Eastern Europe during World War II . In 1960 , he was captured in Argentina by Mossad , Israel 's intelligence service . Following a widely publicised trial in Israel , he was found guilty of war crimes and hanged in 1962 .

After an unremarkable school career , Eichmann briefly worked for his father 's mining company in Austria , where the family had moved in 1914 . He worked as a travelling oil salesman beginning in 1927 , and joined the Nazi Party and SS in 1932 . After returning to Germany in 1933 , he joined the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; Security Service ) , where he was appointed head of the department responsible for Jewish affairs — especially emigration , which the Nazis encouraged through violence and economic pressure . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Eichmann and his staff arranged for Jews to be concentrated into ghettos in major cities with the expectation they would be transported farther east or overseas . Eichmann drew up plans for a Jewish reservation , first at Nisko in south @-@ east Poland and later in Madagascar , but neither of these plans were ever carried out .

As the Nazis began the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 , their Jewish policy changed from emigration to extermination . To co @-@ ordinate planning for the genocide , Heydrich hosted the regime 's administrative leaders at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942 . Eichmann collected information for Heydrich , attended the conference , and prepared the minutes . Eichmann and his staff became responsible for Jewish deportations to extermination camps , where the victims were gassed . After Germany invaded Hungary in March 1944 , Eichmann oversaw the deportation of much of that country 's Jewish population . Most of the victims were sent to Auschwitz concentration camp , where 75 to 90 per cent were murdered upon arrival . By the time the transports were stopped in July 1944 , 437 @,@ 000 of Hungary 's 725 @,@ 000 Jews had been killed . Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that between 5 @.@ 5 and 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis . Eichmann said towards the end of the war that he would " leap laughing into the grave because the feeling that he had five million people on his conscience would be for him a source of extraordinary satisfaction . "

After Germany 's defeat in 1945 , Eichmann fled to Austria . He lived there until 1950 , when he moved to Argentina using false papers . Information collected by the Mossad , Israel 's intelligence agency , confirmed Eichmann 's location in 1960 . A team of Mossad and Shin Bet agents captured Eichmann and brought him to Israel to stand trial on 15 criminal charges , including war crimes , crimes against humanity and crimes against the Jewish people . Found guilty on many of these charges , he was sentenced to death by hanging and executed on 1 June 1962 . The trial was widely followed in the media and was later the subject of several books , including Hannah Arendt 's work Eichmann in Jerusalem , in which Arendt coined the phrase " the banality of evil " to describe Eichmann .

= = Early life and education = =

Otto Adolf Eichmann , the eldest of five children , was born in 1906 to a Calvinist Protestant family in Solingen , Germany . His parents were Adolf Karl Eichmann , a bookkeeper , and Maria ( née Schefferling ) , a housewife . The elder Adolf moved to Linz , Austria , in 1913 to take a position as commercial manager for the Linz Tramway and Electrical Company , and the rest of the family followed a year later . After the death of Maria in 1916 , Eichmann 's father married Maria Zawrzel , a devout Protestant with two sons .

Eichmann attended the Kaiser Franz Joseph Staatsoberrealschule ( state secondary school ) in Linz , the same high school Adolf Hitler had attended some 17 years before . He played the violin and participated in sports and clubs , including a Wandervogel woodcraft and scouting group that included some older boys who were members of various right @-@ wing militias . His poor school performance resulted in his father withdrawing him from the Realschule and enrolling him in the Höhere Bundeslehranstalt für Elektrotechnik , Maschinenbau und Hochbau vocational college . He left without attaining a degree and joined his father 's new enterprise , the Untersberg Mining Company , where he worked for several months . From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a sales clerk for the Oberösterreichische Elektrobau AG radio company . Next , between 1927 and early 1933 , Eichmann worked in Upper Austria and Salzburg as district agent for the Vacuum Oil Company AG .

During this time , he joined the Jungfrontkämpfervereinigung , the youth section of Hermann Hiltl 's right @-@ wing veterans movement , and began reading newspapers published by the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . The party platform included removal of the Weimar Republic in Germany , rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , radical antisemitism , and anti @-@ Bolshevism . They promised a strong central government , increased Lebensraum ( living space ) for Germanic peoples , formation of a national community based on race , and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews , who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights .

= = Early career = =

On the advice of family friend and local Schutzstaffel ( SS ; protection squadron ) leader Ernst Kaltenbrunner , Eichmann joined the Austrian branch of the NSDAP , member number 889 @,@ 895 . He joined the Nazi Party on 1 April 1932 , and his membership in the SS was confirmed seven months later ( SS member number 45 @,@ 326 ) . His regiment was SS @-@ Standarte 37 , responsible for guarding the party headquarters in Linz and protecting party speakers at rallies , which would often become violent . Eichmann pursued party activities in Linz on weekends while continuing in his position at Vacuum Oil in Salzburg .

A few months after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany in January 1933 , Eichmann lost his job due to staffing cutbacks at Vacuum Oil . The Nazi Party was banned in Austria around the same time . These events were factors in Eichmann 's decision to return to Germany .

Like many other National Socialists fleeing Austria in the spring of 1933 , Eichmann left for Passau , where he joined Andreas Bolek at his headquarters . After he attended a training programme at the SS depot in Klosterlechfeld in August , Eichmann returned to the Passau border in September , where he was assigned to lead an eight @-@ man SS liaison team to guide Austrian National Socialists into Germany and smuggle propaganda material from there into Austria . In late December , when this unit was dissolved , Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Scharführer ( squad leader , equivalent to corporal ) . Eichmann 's battalion of the Deutschland Regiment was quartered at barracks next door to Dachau concentration camp .

By 1934 , Eichmann requested transfer to the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD ; Security Service ) of the SS , to escape the " monotony " of military training and service at Dachau . Eichmann was accepted into the SD and assigned to the sub @-@ office on Freemasons , organising seized ritual objects for a proposed museum . After about six months , Eichmann was invited by Leopold von Mildenstein to join his Jewish Department , Section II / 112 of the SD , at its Berlin headquarters . Eichmann 's transfer was granted in November 1934 . He later came to consider this as his big break . He was assigned to study and prepare reports on the Zionist movement and various Jewish organisations . He even learned a smattering of Hebrew and Yiddish , gaining a reputation as a specialist in Zionist and Jewish matters . On 21 March 1935 Eichmann married Veronika ( Vera ) Liebl ( 1909 – 93 ) . The couple had four sons : Klaus ( b . 1936 in Berlin ) , Horst Adolf ( b . 1940 in Vienna ) , Dieter Helmut ( b . 1942 in Prague ) and Ricardo Francisco ( b . 1955 in Buenos Aires ) . Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Hauptscharführer ( head squad leader ) in 1936 and was commissioned as an SS @-@ Untersturmführer ( second lieutenant ) the following year .

Nazi Germany used violence and economic pressure to encourage Jews to leave Germany of their own volition ; around 250 @,@ 000 of the country 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated between 1933 and 1939 . Eichmann travelled to British Mandatory Palestine with his superior Herbert Hagen in 1937 to assess the possibility of Germany 's Jews voluntarily emigrating to that country , disembarking with forged press credentials at Haifa , whence they travelled to Cairo in Egypt . There they met Feival Polkes , an agent of the Haganah , with whom they were unable to strike a deal . Polkes suggested that more Jews should be allowed to leave under the terms of the Haavara Agreement , but Hagen refused , surmising that a strong Jewish presence in Palestine might lead to their founding an independent state , which would run contrary to Reich policy . Eichmann and Hagen attempted to return to Palestine a few days later , but were denied entry after the British authorities refused them the required visas . They prepared a report on their visit , which was published in 1982 .

In 1938 , Eichmann was posted to Vienna to help organise Jewish emigration from Austria , which had just been integrated into the Reich through the Anschluss . Jewish community organisations were placed under supervision of the SD and tasked with encouraging and facilitating Jewish emigration . Funding came from money seized from other Jewish people and organisations , as well as donations from overseas , which were placed under SD control . Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Obersturmführer ( first lieutenant ) in July 1938 , and appointed to the Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna , created in August . By the time he left Vienna in May 1939 , nearly 100 @,@ 000 Jews had left Austria legally , and many more had been smuggled out to Palestine and elsewhere .

= = Second World War = =

= = = Transition from emigration to deportation = = =

Within weeks of the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 , Nazi policy toward the Jews changed from voluntary emigration to forced deportation . After discussions with Hitler in the preceding weeks , on 21 September SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich , head of the SD , advised his staff that Jews were to be collected into cities in Poland with good rail links to facilitate their expulsion from territories controlled by Germany , starting with areas that had been incorporated into the Reich . He announced plans to create a reservation in the General Government ( the portion of Poland not incorporated into the Reich ) , where Jews and others deemed undesirable would await further deportation . On 27 September 1939 the SD and Sicherheitspolizei ( comprising the Gestapo and Kripo police agencies ) were combined into the new SS @-@ Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( RSHA ; Reich Main Security Office ) , which was placed under Heydrich 's control .

After a posting in Prague to assist in setting up an emigration office there , Eichmann was transferred to Berlin in October 1939 to command the Central Office for Jewish Emigration for the entire Reich under Heinrich Müller , head of the Gestapo . He was immediately assigned to organise the deportation of 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Jews from Ostrava district in Moravia and Katowice district in the recently annexed portion of Poland . On his own initiative , Eichmann also laid plans to deport Jews from Vienna . Under the Nisko Plan , Eichmann chose Nisko as the location for a new transit camp where Jews would be temporarily housed before being deported elsewhere . In the last week of October 1939 , 4 @,@ 700 Jews were sent to the area by train and were essentially left to fend for themselves in an open meadow with no water and little food . Barracks were planned but never completed . Many of the deportees were driven by the SS into Soviet @-@ occupied territory and others were eventually placed in a nearby labour camp . The operation soon was called off , partly because Hitler decided the required trains were better used for military purposes for the time being . Meanwhile , as part of Hitler 's long @-@ range resettlement plans , hundreds of thousands of ethnic Germans were being transported into the annexed territories , and ethnic Poles and Jews were being moved further east , particularly into the General Government .

On 19 December 1939 , Eichmann was assigned to head RSHA Referat IV B4 ( RSHA Sub @-@ Department IV @-@ B4 ) , tasked with overseeing Jewish affairs and evacuation . Heydrich announced Eichmann to be his " special expert " , in charge of arranging for all deportations into occupied Poland . The job entailed co @-@ ordinating with police agencies for the physical removal of the Jews , dealing with their confiscated property , and arranging financing and transport . Within a few days of his appointment , Eichmann formulated a plan to deport 600 @,@ 000 Jews into the General Government . The plan was stymied by Hans Frank , governor @-@ general of the occupied territories , who was disinclined to accept the deportees as to do so would have a negative impact on economic development and his ultimate goal of Germanisation of the region . In his role as minister responsible for the Four Year Plan , on 24 March 1940 Hermann Göring forbade any further transports into the General Government unless cleared first by himself or Frank . Transports continued , but at a much slower pace than originally envisioned . From the start of the war until April 1941 , around 63 @,@ 000 Jews were transported into the General Government . On many of the trains in this period , up to a third of the deportees died in transit . While Eichmann claimed at his trial to be upset by the appalling conditions on the trains and in the transit camps , his correspondence and documents of the period show that his primary concern was to achieve the deportations economically and with minimal disruption to Germany 's ongoing military operations .

Jews were concentrated into ghettos in major cities with the expectation that at some point they would be transported further east or even overseas . Horrendous conditions in the ghettos — severe overcrowding , poor sanitation , and a lack of food — resulted in a high death rate . On 15 August 1940 , Eichmann released a memorandum titled Reichssicherheitshauptamt : Madagaskar Projekt ( Reich Main Security Office : Madagascar Project ) , calling for the resettlement to Madagascar of a million Jews per year for four years . When Germany failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain , the invasion of Britain was postponed indefinitely . As Britain still controlled the Atlantic and her merchant fleet would not be at Germany 's disposal for use in evacuations , planning for the Madagascar proposal stalled . Hitler continued to mention the Plan until February 1942 , when the idea was permanently shelved .

= = = Wannsee Conference = = =

From the start of the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Einsatzgruppen ( task forces ) followed the army into conquered areas and rounded up and killed Jews , Comintern officials , and ranking members of the Communist Party . Eichmann was one of the officials who received regular detailed reports of their activities . On 31 July , Göring gave Heydrich written authorisation to prepare and submit a plan for a " total solution of the Jewish question " in all territories under German control and to co @-@ ordinate the participation of all involved government organisations . The Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , for use as slave labour or to be murdered .

Eichmann stated at his later interrogations that Heydrich told him in mid @-@ September that Hitler had ordered that all Jews in German @-@ controlled Europe were to be killed . The initial plan was to implement Generalplan Ost after the conquest of the Soviet Union . However , with the entry of the United States into the war in December and the German failure in the Battle of Moscow , Hitler decided that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately rather than after the war , which now had no end in sight . Around this time , Eichmann was promoted to SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) , the highest rank he achieved .

To co @-@ ordinate planning for the proposed genocide , Heydrich hosted the Wannsee Conference , which brought together administrative leaders of the Nazi regime on 20 January 1942 . In preparation for the conference , Eichmann drafted for Heydrich a list of the numbers of Jews in various European countries and prepared statistics on emigration . Eichmann attended the conference , oversaw the stenographer who took the minutes , and prepared the official distributed record of the meeting . In his covering letter , Heydrich specified that Eichmann would act as his liaison with the departments involved . Under Eichmann 's supervision , large @-@ scale deportations began almost immediately to extermination camps at Bełżec , Sobibor , Treblinka and elsewhere . The genocide was code @-@ named Operation Reinhard in honour of Heydrich , who died in Prague in early June from wounds suffered in an assassination attempt . Kaltenbrunner succeeded him as head of the RSHA .

Eichmann did not make policy , but acted in an operational capacity . Specific deportation orders came from Himmler . Eichmann 's office was responsible for collecting information on the Jews in each area , organising the seizure of their property , and arranging for and scheduling trains . His department was in constant contact with the Foreign Office , as Jews of conquered nations such as France could not as easily be stripped of their possessions and deported to their deaths . Eichmann held regular meetings in his Berlin offices with his department members working in the field and travelled extensively to visit concentration camps and ghettos . His wife , who disliked Berlin , resided in Prague with the children . Eichmann initially visited them weekly , but as time went on his visits tapered off to once a month .

= = = Hungary = = =

Germany invaded Hungary on 19 March 1944 . Eichmann arrived the same day , and was soon joined by top members of his staff and five or six hundred members of the SD , SS , and Sicherheitspolizei ( SiPo ; security police ) . Hitler 's appointment of a Hungarian government more amenable to the Nazis meant that the Hungarian Jews , who had remained essentially unharmed until that point , would now be deported to Auschwitz to serve as forced labour or be gassed . Eichmann toured northeastern Hungary in the last week of April and visited Auschwitz in May to assess the preparations . Round @-@ ups began on 16 April , and from 14 May , four trains of 3 @,@ 000 Jews per day left Hungary and travelled to the camp at Auschwitz II @-@ Birkenau , arriving along a newly built spur line that terminated a few hundred metres away from the gas chambers . Only between 10 and 25 per cent of the people on each train were chosen as forced labourers ; the rest were killed within hours of arrival . Under international pressure , the Hungarian government halted deportations on 6 July 1944 , by which time over 437 @,@ 000 of Hungary 's 725 @,@ 000 Jews had died . In spite of the orders to stop , Eichmann personally made arrangements for additional trains of victims to be sent to Auschwitz on 17 and 19 July .

In a series of meetings beginning on 25 April , Eichmann met with Joel Brand , a Hungarian Jew and member of the Relief and Rescue Committee ( RRC ) . Eichmann later testified that Berlin had authorised him to allow emigration of a million Jews in exchange for 10 @,@ 000 trucks equipped to handle the wintry conditions on the Eastern Front . Nothing came of the proposal , as the Western Allies refused to consider the offer . In June 1944 Eichmann was involved in negotiations with Rudolf Kasztner that resulted in the rescue of 1 @,@ 684 people , who were sent by train to safety in Switzerland in exchange for three suitcases full of diamonds , gold , cash , and securities .

Eichmann , resentful that Kurt Becher and others were becoming involved in Jewish emigration matters , and angered by Himmler 's suspension of deportations to the death camps , requested reassignment in July . At the end of August he was assigned to head a commando squad to assist in the evacuation of 10 @,@ 000 ethnic Germans trapped on the Hungarian border with Romania in the path of the advancing Red Army . The people they were sent to rescue refused to leave , so instead the soldiers helped evacuate members of a German field hospital trapped close to the front . For this Eichmann was awarded the Iron Cross , Second Class . Throughout October and November , Eichmann arranged for tens of thousands of Jewish victims to travel by forced marches in appalling conditions from Budapest to Vienna , a distance of 210 kilometres ( 130 mi ) .

On 24 December 1944 , Eichmann fled Budapest just before the Soviets completed their encirclement of the capital . He returned to Berlin , where he arranged for the incriminating records of Department IV @-@ B4 to be burned . Along with many other SS officers who fled in the closing months of the war , Eichmann and his family were living in relative safety in Austria when the war in Europe ended on 8 May 1945 . Historian Richard J. Evans estimates that 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews , representing two @-@ thirds of the Jewish population of Europe , were exterminated by the Nazi regime .

= = After the Second World War = =

At the end of the Second World War , Eichmann was captured by the Americans and spent time in several camps for SS officers using forged papers that identified him as " Otto Eckmann " . He escaped from a work detail at Cham when he realised that his actual identity had been discovered . He obtained new identity papers with the name of " Otto Heninger " and relocated frequently over the next several months . Moving to the Lüneburg Heath , he initially got work in the forestry industry and later leased a small plot of land in Altensalzkoth , where he lived until 1950 . Meanwhile , at the Nuremberg trials of major war criminals starting in 1946 , damning evidence about Eichmann 's activities was given by former commandant of Auschwitz Rudolf Höss and others .

In 1948 Eichmann obtained a landing permit for Argentina and false identification under the name of " Ricardo Klement " through an organisation directed by Bishop Alois Hudal , an Austrian cleric then residing in Italy with known Nazi sympathies . These documents enabled him in 1950 to obtain an International Committee of the Red Cross humanitarian passport and the remaining entry permits that would allow emigration to Argentina . He travelled across Europe , staying in a series of monasteries that had been set up as safe houses . Departing via ship from Genoa on 17 June 1950 , he arrived in Buenos Aires on 14 July .

Eichmann initially lived in Tucumán Province , where he worked for a government contractor . He sent for his family in 1952 , and they moved to Buenos Aires . Eichmann held a series of low @-@ paying jobs until finding employment at Mercedes @-@ Benz , where he rose to department head . The family built a house at 14 Garibaldi Street ( now 6061 Garibaldi Street ) and moved in during 1960 .

For four months beginning in late 1956 , Eichmann was extensively interviewed by Nazi expatriate journalist Willem Sassen with the intention of producing a biography . Tapes , transcripts , and handwritten notes by Eichmann were produced . The memoirs were later used as the basis for a series of articles that appeared in Life and Der Stern magazines in late 1960 .

= = Capture in Argentina = =

Several Jews and other survivors of the Holocaust dedicated themselves to finding Eichmann and other Nazis . Among them was the Jewish Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal . Wiesenthal learned from a letter shown to him in 1953 that Eichmann had been seen in Buenos Aires , and he passed along that information to the Israeli consulate in Vienna in 1954 . When Eichmann 's father died in 1960 , Wiesenthal made arrangements for private detectives to surreptitiously photograph members of the family , as Eichmann 's brother Otto was said to bear a strong family resemblance and there were no current photos of the fugitive . He provided these photographs to Mossad agents on 18 February .

Also instrumental in exposing Eichmann 's identity was Lothar Hermann , a German half @-@ Jew who had emigrated to Argentina in 1938 . When in 1956 Hermann 's daughter Sylvia began dating a man named Klaus Eichmann who boasted about his father 's Nazi exploits , Hermann alerted Fritz Bauer , prosecutor @-@ general of the state of Hesse in West Germany . Sylvia , sent on a fact @-@ finding mission , was met at the door by Eichmann himself , who said he was Klaus 's uncle . Informed that Klaus was not home , she sat down to wait . When Klaus returned , he addressed Eichmann as ' Father ' . In 1957 Bauer passed along the information in person to Mossad director Isser Harel , who assigned operatives to undertake surveillance , but no concrete evidence was initially found . On 1 March 1960 Harel dispatched to Buenos Aires the Shin Bet chief interrogator Zvi Aharoni , who over the course of weeks of investigation was able to confirm the identity of the fugitive . As Argentina had a history of turning down extradition requests for Nazi criminals , Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion made the decision that Eichmann should be captured rather than extradited , and brought to Israel for trial . Harel himself arrived in person in May 1960 to oversee the capture . Mossad operative Rafi Eitan was named leader of the eight @-@ man team , most of whom were Shin Bet agents .

The team captured Eichmann near his home on Garibaldi Street in San Fernando , Buenos Aires , an industrial community 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north of the centre of Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 . The agents had arrived in Buenos Aires in April 1960 after Eichmann 's identity was confirmed . After observing the suspect 's routine for many days , they determined that he arrived home by bus from work at around the same time every evening . They planned to seize him when he was walking beside an open field from the bus stop to his house . The plan was almost abandoned on the designated day when Eichmann was not present on the bus he usually took home . Finally , almost half an hour late , Eichmann got off a bus . Mossad agent Peter Malkin engaged him , asking him in Spanish if he had a moment . Frightened , Eichmann attempted to leave , but two more Mossad men came to Malkin 's aid ; the three wrestled Eichmann to the ground and , after a struggle , conducted him to a car where they hid him on the floor under a blanket .

Eichmann was taken to one of several Mossad safe houses that had been set up by the team . He was held there for nine days , during which time his identity was double @-@ checked and confirmed . During these days , Harel tried to locate Josef Mengele , the notorious Nazi doctor from Auschwitz concentration camp , as the Mossad had information that he was also living in Buenos Aires . He was hoping to bring Mengele back to Israel on the same flight . Mengele had already left his last known residence in the city , and Harel was unable to get any leads on where he had gone , so the plans for his capture had to be abandoned .

Near midnight on 20 May , Eichmann was sedated by an Israeli doctor on the Mossad team and dressed as a flight attendant . He was smuggled out of Argentina aboard the same El Al Bristol Britannia aircraft that had a few days earlier carried Israel 's delegation to the official 150th anniversary celebration of Argentina 's independence from Spain . After a tense delay at the airport getting the flight plan approved , the plane took off for Israel , stopping over in Dakar , Senegal , to refuel . They arrived in Israel on 22 May , and Ben @-@ Gurion announced Eichmann 's capture to the Knesset — Israel 's parliament — the following afternoon . In Argentina , the abduction was met with a violent wave of antisemitism carried out by far @-@ right sectors , including the Tacuara Nationalist Movement .

In June 1960 , after unsuccessful negotiations with Israel , Argentina requested an urgent meeting of the United Nations Security Council to protest , as they regarded the capture as a violation of their sovereign rights . In the ensuing debate , the Israeli representative Golda Meir claimed that the abductors were not Israeli agents but private individuals and so the incident was only an " isolated violation of Argentine law " . On 23 June the Council passed Resolution 138 , which agreed that Argentine sovereignty had been violated and requested that Israel should make reparations . After further negotiations , on 3 August , Israel and Argentina issued a joint statement admitting the violation of Argentinian sovereignty but agreeing to end the dispute . In Eichmann 's trial and subsequent appeal , the Israeli court determined that the circumstances of his capture had no bearing on the legality of his trial .

Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) documents declassified in 2006 show that the capture of Eichmann caused alarm at the CIA and West German Bundesnachrichtendienst ( BND ) . Both organizations had known for at least two years where Eichmann was hiding , but did not act , because it did not serve their interests in the Cold War to do so . Both were concerned about what Eichmann might say in his testimony about West German national security advisor Hans Globke , who had coauthored several antisemitic Nazi laws ( including the Nuremberg Laws ) . The documents also revealed that both agencies had used some of Eichmann 's former Nazi colleagues to spy on European communist countries .

= = Trial = =

Eichmann was taken to a fortified police station at Yagur in Israel , where he spent nine months . The Israelis were unwilling to take him to trial based solely on the evidence in documents and witness testimony , so the prisoner was subject to daily interrogations , the transcripts of which totalled over 3 @,@ 500 pages . The interrogator was Chief Inspector Avner Less of the national police . Using documents provided primarily by Yad Vashem and Nazi hunter Tuviah Friedman , Less was often able to determine when Eichmann was lying or being evasive . When additional information was brought forward that forced Eichmann into admitting what he had done , Eichmann would insist he had not had any authority in the Nazi hierarchy and had only been following orders . Inspector Less noted that Eichmann did not seem to realise the enormity of his crimes and showed no remorse . His pardon plea , released in 2016 , did not contradict this : " There is a need to draw a line between the leaders responsible and the people like me forced to serve as mere instruments in the hands of the leaders " , Eichmann wrote . " I was not a responsible leader , and as such do not feel myself guilty . "

Eichmann 's trial before the Jerusalem District Court began on 11 April 1961 . The legal basis of the charges against Eichmann was the 1950 Nazi and Nazi Collaborators ( Punishment ) Law , under which he was indicted on 15 criminal charges , including crimes against humanity , war crimes , crimes against the Jewish people , and membership in a criminal organisation . The trial was presided over by three judges : Moshe Landau , Benjamin Halevy and Yitzhak Raveh . The chief prosecutor was Israeli Attorney General Gideon Hausner , assisted by Gabriel Bach of the Department of Justice and Tel Aviv District Attorney Yaakov Bar @-@ Or . The defence team consisted of German lawyer Robert Servatius , legal assistant Dieter Wechtenbruch , and Eichmann himself .

The Israeli government arranged for the trial to have prominent media coverage . Capital Cities Broadcasting Corporation of the United States obtained exclusive rights to videotape the proceedings for television broadcast . Many major newspapers from all over the globe sent reporters and published front @-@ page coverage of the story . The trial was held at the Beit Ha 'am ( today known as the Gerard Behar Center ) , an auditorium in central Jerusalem . Eichmann sat inside a bulletproof glass booth to protect him from assassination attempts . The building was modified to allow journalists to watch the trial on closed @-@ circuit television , and 750 seats were available in the auditorium itself . Israelis had the opportunity to watch live television broadcasts of the proceedings , and videotape was flown daily to the United States for broadcast the following day .

The prosecution case was presented over the course of 56 days , involving hundreds of documents and 112 witnesses ( many of them Holocaust survivors ) . Hausner 's intention was to not only demonstrate Eichmann 's guilt but to present material about the entire Holocaust , thus producing a comprehensive record . Hausner 's opening address began , " It is not an individual that is in the dock at this historic trial and not the Nazi regime alone , but anti @-@ Semitism throughout history . " Defence attorney Servatius repeatedly tried to curb the presentation of material not directly related to Eichmann , and was mostly successful . In addition to wartime documents , material presented as evidence included tapes and transcripts from Eichmann 's interrogation and Sassen 's interviews in Argentina . In the case of the Sassen interviews , only Eichmann 's hand @-@ written notes were admitted into evidence .

Some of the evidence submitted by the prosecution took the form of depositions made by leading Nazis . The defence demanded that the men should be brought to Israel so that the defence 's right to cross @-@ examination would not be abrogated . But Hausner , in his role as Attorney General , declared that he would be obliged to arrest any war criminals who entered Israel . The prosecution proved that Eichmann had visited places where exterminations had taken place , including Chełmno extermination camp , Auschwitz , and Minsk ( where he witnessed a mass shooting of Jews ) , and therefore was aware that the deportees were being killed .

When the prosecution rested , the defence opened its case with a motion to dismiss based on the trial itself being illegal . Servatius challenged Eichmann 's kidnapping and the basis for the Israeli law under which he had been indicted . He argued that if the trial were to continue , it should transfer its jurisdiction to West Germany . The prosecution countered by stating that the United Nations had endorsed Israel 's actions , and that both West Germany and Argentina had agreed that the charges against him were legitimate . The defence motion was subsequently dismissed .

The defence next engaged in a lengthy direct examination of Eichmann . Observers such as Moshe Pearlman and Hannah Arendt have remarked on Eichmann 's ordinariness in appearance and flat affect . In his testimony throughout the trial , Eichmann insisted he had no choice but to follow orders , as he was bound by an oath of loyalty — the same superior orders defence used by some defendants in the 1945 – 1946 Nuremberg trials . Eichmann asserted that the decisions had been made not by him , but by Müller , Heydrich , Himmler , and ultimately Hitler . Servatius also proposed that decisions of the Nazi government were acts of state and therefore not subject to normal judicial proceedings . Regarding the Wannsee Conference , Eichmann stated that he felt a sense of satisfaction and relief at its conclusion . As a clear decision to exterminate had been made by his superiors , the matter was out of his hands ; he felt absolved of any guilt . On the last day of the examination , he stated that he was guilty of arranging the transports , but he did not feel guilty for the consequences .

Throughout his cross @-@ examination , prosecutor Hausner attempted to get Eichmann to admit he was personally guilty , but no such confession was forthcoming . Eichmann admitted to not liking the Jews and viewing them as adversaries , but stated that he never thought their annihilation was justified . When Hausner produced evidence that Eichmann had stated in 1945 that " I will leap into my grave laughing because the feeling that I have five million human beings on my conscience is for me a source of extraordinary satisfaction " , Eichmann said he meant " enemies of the Reich " such as the Soviets . During later examination by the judges , he admitted he meant the Jews , and said the remark was an accurate reflection of his opinion at the time .

The trial adjourned on 14 August , and the verdict was read on 12 December . The judges declared him not guilty of personally killing anyone and not guilty of overseeing and controlling the activities of the Einsatzgruppen . He was deemed responsible for the dreadful conditions on board the deportation trains and for obtaining Jews to fill those trains . He was found guilty of crimes against humanity , war crimes , and crimes against Poles , Slovenes and Gypsies . He was also found guilty of membership in three organisations that had been deemed criminal at the Nuremberg trials : the Gestapo , the SD , and the SS . When considering the sentence , the judges concluded that Eichmann had not merely been following orders , but believed in the Nazi cause wholeheartedly and had been a key perpetrator of the genocide . On 15 December 1961 , Eichmann was sentenced to death .

= = = Appeals and execution = = =

Servatius appealed the verdict , mostly relying on legal arguments about Israel 's jurisdiction and the legality of the laws under which Eichmann was charged . Appeal hearings took place between 22 and 29 March 1962 . Eichmann 's wife Vera flew to Israel and saw him for the last time at the end of April . On 29 May , the Israeli Supreme Court rejected the appeal and upheld the District Court 's judgement on all counts . Eichmann immediately petitioned Israeli President Yitzhak Ben @-@ Zvi for clemency . The content of his letter to the President pleading for pardon and other original court documents of the trial were made public on 27 January 2016 . Prominent people such as Hugo Bergmann , Pearl Buck , Martin Buber , and Ernst Simon spoke up on his behalf . Ben @-@ Gurion called a special cabinet meeting to resolve the issue . The cabinet decided not to recommend to President Ben @-@ Zvi to grant clemency to Eichmann . As a result , Ben @-@ Zvi rejected the appeal to commute Eichmann 's sentence . At 8 : 00 PM on 31 May , Eichmann was informed that his final appeal had been declined . His last meal was the usual prison fare of cheese , bread , olives , and tea , along with a half bottle of wine .

Eichmann was hanged at a prison in Ramla hours later — the hanging , scheduled for midnight at the end of 31 May , was slightly delayed and thus took place a few minutes into 1 June 1962 . The execution was attended by a small group of officials , four journalists and the Canadian clergyman William Lovell Hull , who had been his spiritual counselor while in prison . His last words were :

Long live Germany . Long live Argentina . Long live Austria . These are the three countries with which I have been most connected and which I will not forget . I greet my wife , my family and my friends . I am ready . We 'll meet again soon , as is the fate of all men . I die believing in God .

Within hours Eichmann 's body had been cremated , and his ashes scattered in the Mediterranean Sea , outside of Israeli territorial waters by an Israeli Navy patrol boat .

= = = Impact = = =

The trial and the surrounding media coverage sparked renewed interest in wartime events , and the resulting increase in publication of memoirs and scholarly works helped raise public awareness of the Holocaust . The trial received widespread coverage by the press in West Germany , and many schools added material studying the issues to their curriculum . In Israel , the testimony of witnesses at the trial led to a deeper understanding of the impact of the Holocaust on survivors , especially among younger citizens who had never suffered state @-@ sponsored oppression .

Political theorist Hannah Arendt , a Jew who fled Germany after Hitler 's rise to power , reported on Eichmann 's trial for The New Yorker . In Eichmann in Jerusalem , Arendt calls Eichmann the embodiment of the " banality of evil " , as he appeared to have an ordinary and normal personality , displaying neither guilt nor hatred . In his 1988 book Justice , Not Vengeance , Wiesenthal said : " The world now understands the concept of ' desk murderer ' . We know that one doesn 't need to be fanatical , sadistic , or mentally ill to murder millions ; that it is enough to be a loyal follower eager to do one 's duty . " In her 2011 book Eichmann Before Jerusalem , based largely on the Sassen interviews and Eichmann 's notes made while in exile , Bettina Stangneth posits that Eichmann was proud of his wartime accomplishments , remained a committed Nazi throughout his life , and intentionally built a persona as a faceless bureaucrat for presentation at the trial .

Eichmann 's youngest son Ricardo says he is not resentful toward Israel for executing his father . He does not agree that his father 's " following orders " argument excuses his actions and notes how his father 's lack of remorse caused " difficult emotions " for the Eichmann family . Ricardo is now a professor of archaeology at the German Archaeological Institute .

In 2015 the filming of the trial by producer Milton Fruchtman and blacklisted TV director Leo Hurwitz was the subject of the UK television film The Eichmann Show , featuring Martin Freeman and Anthony LaPaglia . The film intercuts dramatic scenes with historical footage from the trial .

= = Summary of SS career = =

SS number : 45 @,@ 326

Nazi Party number : 899 @,@ 895

Primary positions : Sub @-@ Department IV @-@ B4 ( Gestapo ) , RSHA

Waffen @-@ SS service : SS @-@ Untersturmführer der Reserve ( 9 November 1944 )

= = = Links related to the trial = = =

The Trial of Adolf Eichmann : Record of Proceedings

The Eichmann Trial on YouTube

" With Me Are Six Million Accusers " an online site marking the 50th anniversary of the Eichmann Trial

" The Eichmann Trial : 50 Years After " : selected documents from the Israel State Archives

" Eichmann Prosecutor Interview : A Conversation with Justice Gabriel Bach , Senior Prosecutor in the Adolf Eichmann Trial " by Frank Tuerkheimer , Professor at the University of Wisconsin Law School

" Adolf Eichmann in Israel : Portraits of a Nazi War Criminal " , life.time.com

= Maryland Route 36 =

Maryland Route 36 ( also known as MD 36 or Route 36 ) is a 29 @.@ 43 @-@ mile ( 47 @.@ 36 km ) state highway located in Allegany County , Maryland , United States . MD 36 's southern terminus is at the WV 46 bridge in Westernport and its northern terminus at U.S. Route 40 Alternate near Cumberland . Between Westernport and Frostburg , it is known as Georges Creek Road , and from Frostburg to Cumberland it is known as Mount Savage Road . Like the majority of Maryland state highways , MD 36 is maintained by the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) .

MD 36 serves as the main road through the Georges Creek Valley , a region which is historically known for coal mining , and has been designated by MDSHA as part of the Coal Heritage Scenic Byway . MD 36 is the main road connecting the towns of Westernport , Lonaconing , and Midland in southwestern Allegany County , as well as Frostburg , Mount Savage , and Corriganville in northwestern Allegany County .

= = Route description = =

MD 36 has two main sections : Georges Creek Road , which runs along the Georges Creek Valley , from Westernport to Frostburg in southwestern Allegany County , and Mount Savage Road , which runs eastward from Frostburg to Cumberland in northwestern Allegany County . MD 36 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from I @-@ 68 to US 40 Alternate in Frostburg and from MD 35 at Corriganville to US 40 Alternate in Cumberland .

= = = Georges Creek Road = = =

MD 36 begins at the West Virginia Route 46 ( WV 46 ) bridge in Westernport and runs northeast across western Allegany County as a two @-@ lane road named Georges Creek Road , named for Georges Creek , a Potomac River tributary which the road parallels . The speed limit for most of the length between Westernport and Lonaconing is 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . A short distance outside Westernport city limits , MD 36 intersects MD 937 , an old alignment of MD 36 . Near Barton , MD 36 intersects MD 935 , which is the old alignment of MD 36 through Barton . MD 36 bypasses Barton , climbing the hillside above the Georges Creek Valley before descending back into the valley as it approaches Lonaconing . MD 935 returns to MD 36 south of Lonaconing , with its northern terminus at MD 36 .

As the road enters Lonaconing , it narrows and the speed limit drops to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) , increasing to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) after it travels through Lonaconing . MD 36 passes through Lonaconing as Main Street , and it intersects MD 657 near the center of Lonaconing . Along Main Street in Lonaconing is the Lonaconing Iron Furnace , a historic blast furnace which operated in the early 19th century .

MD 36 then continues toward Midland . At Midland , there is a sharp curve in the road , and the speed limit drops to 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) . Along this curve , MD 36 intersects Church Street , which connects to MD 936 , the old alignment of MD 36 between Midland and Frostburg . The new alignment of MD 36 proceeds northeast , passing near Vale Summit , where it intersects MD 55 .

North of the MD 55 intersection , MD 36 meets Interstate 68 at a diamond interchange at exit 34 . Near this interchange is God 's Ark of Safety , a church famous for its attempt to build a replica of Noah 's Ark . Between Midland and Frostburg , the speed limit is again 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and there is a short section near the Interstate 68 interchange where MD 36 expands to four lanes . Upon entering Frostburg , MD 36 joins U.S. Route 40 Alternate as Main Street . MD 36 follows Main Street westward through Frostburg , meeting the northern terminus of MD 936 at Grant Street . At Depot Street , near the center of Frostburg , MD 36 connects to the western depot of the Western Maryland Scenic Railroad . At the intersection with Water Street , MD 36 leaves U.S. Route 40 Alternate , and upon leaving Frostburg city limits its name changes to Mount Savage Road .

= = = Mount Savage Road = = =

After leaving Frostburg , MD 36 is known as Mount Savage Road , as it travels eastward , perpendicular to its signed direction , toward Mount Savage . North of Eckhart Mines , MD 36 meets MD 638 , which connects MD 36 to U.S. Route 40 Alternate in Eckhart Mines . The road between Frostburg and Mount Savage is particularly curvy , and includes several hairpin turns near Frostburg . The speed limit on this section of the road is 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) .

As the road enters Mount Savage , it passes by the Mount Savage Castle , a Scottish @-@ style castle built in 1840 , which currently operates as a bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast . In Mount Savage , the route narrows as it follows Main Street , and the road is frequently obstructed by parked cars , making it difficult for two cars to pass by each other . East of Mount Savage , the route widens and its speed limit gradually increases to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) .

In Barrelville , MD 36 intersects MD 47 , which connects it with PA 160 in Somerset County . From its intersection with MD 47 to its terminus at Cumberland , MD 36 follows newer alignments , with the old alignments being designated MD 831 . At Corriganville , MD 36 intersects MD 35 , which connects it with PA 96 in Bedford County . MD 36 ends at U.S. Route 40 Alternate at the Narrows near Cumberland .

= = History = =

MD 36 passes through the Georges Creek Valley , which has a long history of coal mining . In recognition of this , the MDSHA has designated MD 36 as part of the Coal Heritage Scenic Byway . Coal mining was a major industry in western Maryland in the 19th century , with railroads being the major route connecting the coal mines to markets outside the Georges Creek Valley . Deep mining , which was the primary mining method used in western Maryland , declined in use after World War II , replaced primarily by surface mining . Although Maryland coal production is now only a small fraction of total U.S. coal production , coal from the Georges Creek Valley is used to power the AES Warrior Run power plant in Cumberland .

MD 36 was assigned a route number before 1927 , earlier than most of the other Maryland state highways . The original alignment of MD 36 in southern Allegany County closely paralleled the Georges Creek Railroad . Later realignments have shifted MD 36 away from the railroad in several locations , but three crossings remain : one north of Lonaconing , one south of Lonaconing near the MD 935 intersection , and a third crossing near Westernport .

Over the years , multiple new alignments of MD 36 have been built for various reasons , such as to smooth out curves in the road . Several of the old alignments have been assigned route numbers of their own . The southernmost of these is MD 937 , which consists of the old alignment through Westernport . Prior to the construction of the bridge connecting MD 36 to WV 46 , MD 937 was the alignment of MD 36 through Westernport , ending at MD 135 . In Barton , MD 935 carries the old alignment of MD 36 . The longest of the old alignment sections is MD 936 , which runs from Midland to Frostburg , and was bypassed in the 1970s with a new alignment of MD 36 following part of MD 55 and connecting to Interstate 68 . Prior to this change , MD 55 ended in Midland ; it has since been truncated to its current terminus at Vale Summit .

North of Frostburg , several old alignments are designated as MD 831 , though these segments of road are not signed . Among these segments of road are Kriegbaum Road ( designated as MD 831C ) , and Old Mount Savage Road ( designated as MD 831A ) . Kriegbaum Road splits from MD 36 west of Corriganville and runs through Corriganville , returning to MD 36 east of the town . Old Mount Savage Road intersects MD 36 west of the Cumberland Narrows , and runs southward to intersect U.S. Route 40 Alternate near its current intersection with MD 36 .

= = Junction list = =

The entire route is in Allegany County .

= Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ( U.S. game show ) =

Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ( often informally called Millionaire ) is an American television game show based on the same @-@ titled British program and developed for the United States by Michael Davies . The show features a quiz competition in which contestants attempt to win a top prize of U.S. $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 by answering a series of multiple @-@ choice questions of increasing difficulty ( although , for a time , most of the questions were of random difficulty ) . The program has endured as one of the longest @-@ running and most successful international variants in the Who Wants to Be a Millionaire ? franchise .

The original U.S. version aired on ABC from August 16 , 1999 to June 27 , 2002 , and was hosted by Regis Philbin . The daily syndicated version of the show began airing on September 16 , 2002 , and was hosted for eleven seasons by Meredith Vieira until May 31 , 2013 . Later hosts included Cedric the Entertainer in the 2013 – 14 season , Terry Crews in the following season ( 2014 – 15 ) , and Chris Harrison , who began hosting on September 14 , 2015 .

As the first U.S. network game show to offer a million @-@ dollar top prize , the show made television history by becoming one of the highest @-@ rated game shows in the history of American television . The U.S. Millionaire has won seven Daytime Emmy Awards , and TV Guide ranked it # 6 in its 2013 list of the 60 greatest game shows of all time .

= = Gameplay = =

= = = Core rules = = =

At its core , the game is a quiz competition in which the goal is to correctly answer a series of fourteen ( originally fifteen ) consecutive multiple @-@ choice questions . The questions are of increasing difficulty , except in the 2010 – 15 format overhaul , where the contestants were faced with fourteen questions of random difficulty , distributed into two rounds . Each question is worth a specified amount of money ; the amounts are cumulative in the first round , but not in the second . If the contestant gives a wrong answer to any question , their game is over and their winnings are reduced to $ 1 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ one questions , $ 5 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ two questions , and $ 50 @,@ 000 for tier @-@ three questions . However , the contestant has the option of " walking away " without giving an answer after being presented with a question , in which case the game ends and the contestant is guaranteed to walk away with all the money they have previously received . With the exception of the shuffle format , upon correctly answering questions five and ten , contestants are guaranteed at least the amount of prize money associated with that level . If the contestant gives an incorrect answer , their winnings drop down to the last milestone achieved . Since 2015 , if the contestant answers a question incorrectly before reaching question five , he or she leaves with $ 1 @,@ 000 . Prior to the shuffle format , a contestant left with nothing if he or she answered a question incorrectly before reaching the first milestone . In the shuffle format era , contestants who incorrectly answered a question had their winnings reduced to $ 1 @,@ 000 in round one and $ 25 @,@ 000 in round two .

= = = Format history = = =

On the ABC versions , ten contestants competed in a preliminary " Fastest Finger " round for the right to play the main game on each episode . The contestants were presented with a question and a list of four answers which needed to be put in a specific order . Using keys on their podiums , each of the contestants attempted to enter the correct order in the shortest amount of time , with a maximum time limit of 20 seconds . If the main game ended and there was still time available for another game , the remaining contestants played another Fastest Finger round for a chance to play the main game . In the event of a tie between two or more contestants , those contestants played an additional Fastest Finger question to break the tie . If all contestants answered the question incorrectly , the round was repeated with another question . Fastest Finger was eliminated from the gameplay when the syndicated version premiered in 2002 .

From 2008 to 2010 , time limits were used for each question . Contestants were given up to 15 seconds each for questions one through five , 30 seconds each for questions six through ten , and 45 seconds each for questions eleven through fourteen . Unused time was banked , and if the contestant reached question fifteen , he or she was given 45 seconds plus however much time that was previously banked . If the clock reached zero before a contestant could provide a final answer , the contestant was forced to walk away with the winnings they had at that point . During the clock format era , a " Millionaire Menu " was introduced , in which categories are revealed for each question at the beginning of the game , and are made visible to the contestant for their future reference . Some prize levels also changed at the start of season eight . Most of the episodes in season eight ( from the " Million Dollar Tournament of Ten " onward ) featured special " Celebrity Questions " that were mid @-@ level in monetary value , and were provided by notable individuals whose identities were not revealed until the contestant reached their special questions .

When the ninth syndicated season began on September 13 , 2010 , the format was overhauled . Ten questions were asked in round one , each assigned one of ten different money amounts which were randomized at the beginning of the game ; in this case , the difficulty of the questions was not tied to the dollar value . The dollar values for each question remained hidden until a contestant either provided a correct answer or chose to " jump " the question . The value of each question answered correctly was added to the contestant 's bank , for a maximum total of $ 68 @,@ 600 . A contestant who completed the round successfully could walk at any subsequent point with all the money in their bank , or could walk without completing the round with half that amount ( e.g. , a contestant who banked $ 30 @,@ 000 would leave with $ 15 @,@ 000 ) . After completing round one , the contestant moved on to a second round of gameplay ( the " Classic Millionaire " round ) , in which four non @-@ categorized questions were played for set non @-@ cumulative values and a correct answer augmented the contestant 's winnings to that point , as in the older formats . The shuffle format changes , including the randomization and double @-@ round distribution of questions , were reverted for the fourteenth syndicated season .

From 2011 to 2014 , certain weeks of the show were designated as " Double Your Money " weeks . In those , a certain question in round one was designated the " Double Money Question . " When a contestant answered such a question correctly , the monetary value behind the question was doubled and added to his or her bank , giving him or her the possibility of adding up to a maximum of $ 50 @,@ 000 to his or her bank on a single question ; under these special rules , it was possible for a contestant to finish round one with a maximum total of $ 93 @,@ 600 in their bank . However , when a contestant " jumped " the question , they forfeited the doubled money .

In the event that a contestant leaves and very little time remains , a randomly selected audience member is given one chance to win $ 1 @,@ 000 by answering the next question intended for the previous contestant ( or $ 2 @,@ 000 if the next question was on a Double Money episode ) . Regardless of the outcome , the audience member receives a special prize . In seasons nine and ten , the prize was a copy of the Millionaire video game ; as of season eleven , audience members now receive 20 free playings for a Facebook game based on the show 's format . In season thirteen , which gave this game the name " Thousandaire " , the question the audience player faced did not come from the previous player 's stack , but was instead a separate question . Season thirteen also introduced two additional audience games : " Team Millionaire " , where two audience members are both presented with a single question and lock in their individual answers separately for the chance to win $ 500 and a bonus question with which they can double their money ; and " Fastest Feet " , a variation of Fastest Finger which four audience members play for the chance to split $ 1 @,@ 000 .

= = = Payout structure = = =

For the first five years of the U.S. Millionaire 's existence , the payout structure was as follows : first going from $ 100 to $ 300 in increments of $ 100 , then from $ 500 to $ 64 @,@ 000 with the dollar value for each new question being double that of the one before it , and finally from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with the dollar values doubling for each new question . At the start of the third syndicated season the values for questions ten through twelve were changed from $ 32 @,@ 000 , $ 64 @,@ 000 , and $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 25 @,@ 000 , $ 50 @,@ 000 , and $ 100 @,@ 000 respectively . The 2004 payout structure endured until the eighth syndicated season , when after the ninth contestant from the 2009 primetime revival played , a new payout structure was implemented in which the dollar values first went from $ 500 to $ 2 @,@ 000 with the dollar value of each new question being double that of the previous one , then to $ 3 @,@ 000 , then from $ 5 @,@ 000 to $ 15 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 2 @,@ 500 ; the dollar values of questions ten through fifteen remained unchanged . In the shuffle format era , the ten questions in round one had random values which included $ 100 , $ 500 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , $ 2 @,@ 000 , $ 3 @,@ 000 , $ 5 @,@ 000 , $ 7 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , $ 15 @,@ 000 , and $ 25 @,@ 000 ; the final four questions , in round two , retained their 2004 values . For the 2015 – 16 season , the first five questions follow the payout structure used from 2009 to 2010 , while the dollar value of each new question for the next five questions is $ 7 @,@ 000 , $ 10 @,@ 000 , $ 20 @,@ 000 , $ 30 @,@ 000 and $ 50 @,@ 000 ; the money values for the last four questions remain unchanged . The second safe haven is $ 50 @,@ 000 at question 10 , with the first one still $ 5 @,@ 000 .

The $ 500 @,@ 000 and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 prizes were initially lump @-@ sum payments , but were changed to annuities in September 2002 when the series moved to syndication . Contestants winning either of these prizes receive $ 250 @,@ 000 thirty days after their show broadcasts and the remainder paid in equal annual payments . The $ 500 @,@ 000 prize consists of $ 25 @,@ 000 per year for 10 years , while the $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 prize consists of $ 37 @,@ 500 per year for 20 years .

= = = Lifelines = = =

Contestants are given a series of lifelines to aid them with difficult questions . They can use as many lifelines as desired per question , but each lifeline can only be used once per game . Three lifelines are available from the start of the game . Depending on the format of the show , additional lifelines may become available after the contestant correctly answers the fifth or tenth question . In the clock format , usage of lifelines temporarily paused the clock while the lifelines were played .

The show 's original three lifelines were " 50 : 50 " , in which the computer eliminates two of the incorrect answers ; " Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend " , which allowed the contestant to make a 30 @-@ second call to one of a number of friends ( who provided their phone numbers in advance ) and read them the question and answer choices , after which the friend provided input ; and " Ask the Audience " , in which audience members use touch pads to designate what they believe the correct answer to be , after which the percentage of the audience choosing each specific option is displayed to the contestant . 50 : 50 was eliminated at the end of the show 's sixth syndicated season , only to be restored in season fourteen . Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend was removed on the episode aired January 11 , 2010 , after it was determined that there was an increasing trend of contestants ' friends using search engines and other Internet resources , unfairly privileging individuals who had computer access over those who did not , and that it was contrary to the original intent of the lifeline where friends were supposed to provide assistance based on what they already knew . From 2004 to 2008 , there was a fourth lifeline called " Switch the Question " , earned upon answering question ten , in which the computer replaced , at the contestant 's request , one question with another of the same monetary value ; however , any lifelines used on the original question were not reinstated for the new question . Switch the Question returned as " Cut the Question " on a special week of shows with child contestants aired in 2014 .

During the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , two new lifelines were introduced : " Double Dip " , which allowed the contestant to make two guesses at a question , but required them to play out the question , forbidding them to walk away or use any further lifelines ; and " Three Wise Men " , in which the contestant was allowed to ask a sequestered panel of three people chosen by the producers , appearing via face @-@ to @-@ face audio and video feeds , which answer they believed was correct , within a time limit of 30 seconds . When the clock format was implemented , Double Dip replaced 50 : 50 , and the show introduced a new lifeline called " Ask the Expert " , which was like Three Wise Men but had one person ( usually a celebrity or a former Millionaire contestant ) functioning as an expert instead of a panel of three people , lacked the time limit of its predecessor , and allowed the contestant and expert to discuss the question . Ask the Expert was originally available after the fifth question , but was moved to the beginning of the game after Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend was removed .

The show 's lifelines sometimes used corporate sponsorship . The Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend lifeline was sponsored by the original AT & T throughout the run of the ABC primetime show and in the first season of the syndicated version , then by the current AT & T for the 2009 primetime episodes . From 2004 to 2006 , Ask the Audience was sponsored by AOL , which allowed users of its Instant Messenger to add the screen name MillionaireIM to their buddy list and receive an instant message with the question and the four possible answers , to which the users replied with their choices . In addition , the Ask the Expert lifeline was sponsored by Skype for its live audio and video feeds .

During the shuffle format era , the show introduced a new lifeline , " Jump the Question " , which was able to be used twice in a single game for seasons nine through twelve . At any point prior to selecting a final answer , a contestant could use Jump the Question to skip the current question and move on to the next one , thus reducing the number of questions they had to correctly answer . However , if the contestant used Jump the Question , they did not gain any money from the question they chose to skip ( for example , a contestant would not gain the typical $ 100 @,@ 000 if they jumped to the $ 250 @,@ 000 question ) . This lifeline could not be used on the $ 1 million question , since it is the final question in the game . The " Plus One " lifeline , introduced in season thirteen , allows a contestant to bring a companion with him or her to the podium for help in answering a question . The introduction of this lifeline reduced the number of Jump the Question lifelines available from two to one . On occasional specially designated weeks , starting with a Halloween @-@ themed week that aired from October 29 to November 2 , 2012 , the shuffle format used a special lifeline called " Crystal Ball " , which allows the contestant to see the money value of a round one question prior to giving an answer . Jump the Question was removed at the end of the show 's thirteenth syndicated season . For the show 's fourteenth season , during a special week of college shows , players got another lifeline called " Extra Help " , played similarly to " Plus One " and allowing for another companion to help the player ; however , it could only be used after " Plus One " was used .

= = = Top prize winners = = =

The first contestant to correctly answer all 15 questions and win the top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 was John Carpenter , on the episode aired November 19 , 1999 . In 2000 , the million dollar top prize was awarded five times : to Dan Blonsky on the episode aired January 18 , to Joe Trela on March 23 , to Bob House on June 13 , to Kim Hunt on July 6 , and to David Goodman on July 11 .

In January 2001 , when no contestant had won $ 1 million in any show that aired over a period of five months , the top prize was then changed from a flat $ 1 million to an accumulating jackpot that increased by $ 10 @,@ 000 for each episode where the top prize was not won . On April 10 , 2001 , Kevin Olmstead correctly answered the final question and won $ 2 @,@ 180 @,@ 000 , making him the biggest winner in television history at the time . The top prize for correctly answering the final question returned to $ 1 million following Olmstead 's win and has remained unchanged since ; just five days after Olmstead 's win , the standard $ 1 million prize was awarded to Bernie Cullen . The last top prize winner on the original network version was Ed Toutant , on the episode aired September 7 , 2001 ; he had previously appeared on the episode aired January 31 , 2001 , where he was ruled to have answered his $ 16 @,@ 000 question incorrectly , but when it was discovered that there was a mistake in that question , Toutant was invited back and won a $ 1 @.@ 86 million jackpot . On the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , Robert Essig won $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 after answering the twelfth question and then walked away , not reaching the final question for $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .

On the syndicated version 's first season , two contestants correctly answered all 15 questions and won the top prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 : Kevin Smith on February 18 , 2003 , and Nancy Christy on May 8 of the same year . During the Million Dollar Tournament of Ten which aired in November 2009 , Sam Murray , who had previously supplied correct responses for eleven questions , risked his winnings on a special $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question ; he was the only contestant to answer his question correctly .

= = Personnel = =

= = = Hosts = = =

The original network version of the U.S. Millionaire and the subsequent primetime specials were hosted by Regis Philbin . When the syndicated version was being developed , the production team felt that it was not feasible for Philbin to continue hosting , as the show recorded four episodes in a single day , and that the team was looking for qualities in a new host : it had to be somebody who would love the contestants and be willing to root for them . Rosie O 'Donnell was initially offered a hosting position on this new edition , but declined the opportunity almost immediately . Eventually Meredith Vieira , who had previously competed in a celebrity charity event on the original network version , was named host of the new syndicated edition .

ABC originally offered Vieira hosting duties on the syndicated Millionaire to sweeten one of her re @-@ negotiations for the network 's daytime talk show The View , which she was moderating at the time . When the show was honored by GSN on its Gameshow Hall of Fame special , Vieira herself further explained her motivation for hosting the syndicated version as follows :

I did the show because I fell in love with the show , and really , first and foremost , as a parent , [ I feel that ] there aren 't that many shows on television that you can watch as a family . And when Michael Davies approached me and said , " Would you be interested in hosting the syndicated version ? " , I said , " Just point me toward the contract ! I am so there ! "

From 2007 to 2011 , when Vieira was concurrently working as a co @-@ host of Today , guest hosts appeared in the second half of each season of the syndicated version . Guest hosts who filled in for Vieira included Philbin , Al Roker , Tom Bergeron , Tim Vincent , Dave Price , Billy Bush , Leeza Gibbons , Cat Deeley , Samantha Harris , Shaun Robinson , Steve Harvey , John Henson , Sherri Shepherd , Tim Gunn , and D. L. Hughley .

On January 10 , 2013 , Vieira announced that after eleven seasons with the syndicated Millionaire , she would be leaving the show as part of an effort to focus on other projects in her career . She finalized taping of her last episodes with the show in November 2012 . Her successor as host of the syndicated Millionaire , Cedric the Entertainer , was introduced to the show when season twelve premiered on September 2 , 2013 . On April 30 , 2014 , Deadline announced that Cedric had decided to leave the show in order to lighten his workload , resulting in him being succeeded by Terry Crews for the 2014 – 2015 season . Crews was succeeded by Chris Harrison , host of The Bachelor and its spin @-@ offs , when season 14 premiered on September 14 , 2015 .

= = = Production staff = = =

The original executive producers of the U.S. Millionaire were British television producers Michael Davies and Paul Smith , the latter of whom undertook the responsibility of licensing Millionaire to American airwaves as part of his effort to transform the UK program into a global franchise . Smith served until 2007 and Davies until 2010 ; additionally , Leigh Hampton ( previously co @-@ executive producer in the later days of the network version and in the syndicated version 's first two seasons ) served as an executive producer from 2004 to 2010 . Rich Sirop , who was previously a supervising producer , became the executive producer in 2010 and held that position until 2014 , when he left Millionaire to hold the same position with Vieira 's newly launched syndicated talk show , and was replaced by James Rowley . Vincent Rubino , who had previously been the syndicated Millionaire 's supervising producer for its first two seasons , served as that version 's co @-@ executive producer for the 2004 – 05 season , after which he was succeeded by Vieira herself , who continued to hold the title until her departure in 2013 ( sharing her position with Sirop for the 2009 – 10 season ) .

Producers of the network version included Hampton , Rubino , Leslie Fuller , Nikki Webber , and Terrence McDonnell . For its first two seasons the syndicated version had Deirdre Cossman for its managing producer , then Dennis F. McMahon became producer for the next two seasons ( joined by Dominique Bruballa as his line producer ) , after which Jennifer Weeks produced the next four seasons of syndicated Millionaire shows , initially accompanied by Amanda Zucker as her line producer , but later joined for the 2008 – 09 season by Tommy Cody ( who became sole producer in the 2009 – 10 season ) . The first 65 shuffle format episodes were produced by McPaul Smith , and as of 2011 , the title of producer is held by Bryan Lasseter . The network version had Ann Miller and Tiffany Trigg for its supervising producers ; they were joined by Wendy Roth in the first two seasons , and by Michael Binkow in the third and final season . After Rubino 's promotion to co @-@ executive producer , the syndicated version 's later supervising producers included Sirop ( 2004 – 09 ) , Geena Gintzig ( 2009 – 10 ) , Brent Burnette ( 2010 – 12 ) , Geoff Rosen ( 2012 – 14 ) , and Liz Harris ( 2014 – 16 ) .

The original network version of Millionaire was directed by Mark Gentile , who later served as the syndicated version 's consulting producer for its first two seasons , and then as the director of Duel , which ran on ABC from December 2007 to July 2008 . The syndicated version was directed by Matthew Cohen from 2002 to 2010 , by Rob George from 2010 to 2013 , and by Brian McAloon in the 2013 – 14 season . Former Price Is Right director Rich DiPirro became Millionaire 's director in 2014 .

= = Production = =

The U.S. version of Millionaire is a co @-@ production of 2waytraffic , a division of Sony Pictures Entertainment , and Valleycrest Productions , a division of The Walt Disney Company . 2waytraffic purchased Millionaire 's original production company Celador in 2008 , while Valleycrest has produced the series since its beginning , and holds the copyright on all U.S. Millionaire episodes to date . The show is distributed by Valleycrest 's corporate sibling Disney – ABC Domestic Television ( previously known as Buena Vista Television ) .

The U.S. Millionaire was taped at ABC 's Television Center East studio on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York from 1999 to 2012 . Tapings were moved to NEP Broadcasting 's Metropolis Studios in East Harlem in 2013 , and production moved to studios located in Stamford , Connecticut the following year . Episodes of the syndicated version are produced from June to December . The show originally taped four episodes in a single day , but that number has since been changed to five .

= = = Origins = = =

When the U.S. version of Millionaire was first conceived in 1998 , Michael Davies was a young television producer who was serving as the head of ABC 's little @-@ noticed reality programming division ( at a time when reality television had not yet become a phenomenon in America ) . At that time , ABC was lingering in third place in the ratings indexes among U.S. broadcast networks , and was on the verge of losing its status as one of the " Big Three " networks . Meanwhile , the popularity of game shows was at an all @-@ time nadir , as with the exception of The Price Is Right , the genre was absent from networks ' daytime lineups at that point . Having earlier created Debt for Lifetime Television and participated with Al Burton and Donnie Brainard in the creation of Win Ben Stein 's Money for Comedy Central , Davies decided to create a primetime game show that would save the network from collapse and revive interest in game shows .

Davies originally considered reviving CBS 's long @-@ lost quiz show The $ 64 @,@ 000 Question for a new era , with a new home on ABC . However , this effort 's development was limited as when the producer heard that the British Millionaire was about to make its debut , he got his friends and family members in the UK to record the show , and subsequently ended up receiving about eight FedEx packages from different family members , each containing a copy of Millionaire 's first episode . Davies was so captivated by everything that he had seen and heard , from host Chris Tarrant 's intimate involvement with the contestant to the show 's lighting system and music tracks , that he chose to abandon his work on the $ 64 @,@ 000 Question revival in favor of introducing Millionaire to American airwaves , convinced that it would become extraordinarily popular .

When Davies presented his ideas for the U.S. Millionaire to ABC , the network 's executives initially rejected them , so he resigned his position there and became an independent producer . Determined to bring his idea for the show to fruition , Davies decided that he was betting his whole career on Millionaire 's production , and the first move that he made was planning to attach a celebrity host to the show . Along with Philbin , a number of other popular television personalities were considered for hosting positions on the U.S. Millionaire during its development , including Peter Jennings , Bob Costas , Phil Donahue , and Montel Williams , but among those considered , it was Philbin who wanted the job the most , and when he saw an episode of the British Millionaire and was blown away by his content , Davies and his team ultimately settled on having him host the American show . When Davies approached ABC again after having hired Philbin , the network finally agreed to accept the U.S. Millionaire . With production now ready to begin , the team had only five months to finish developing the show and get it launched , with Davies demanding perfection in every element of Millionaire 's production .

= = = Audition process = = =

With few exceptions , any legal resident of the United States who is 18 years of age or older has the potential of becoming a contestant through Millionaire 's audition process . Those ineligible include employees , immediate family or household members , and close acquaintances of SPE , Disney , or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries ; television stations that broadcast the syndicated version ; or any advertising agency or other firm or entity engaged in the production , administration , or judging of the show . Also ineligible are current candidates for political office and individuals who have appeared on a different game show outside of cable that has been broadcast within the past year , is intended to be broadcast within the next year , or played the main game on any of the U.S. versions of Millionaire itself .

Potential contestants of the original primetime version had to compete in a telephone contest which had them dial a toll @-@ free number and answer three questions by putting objects or events in order . Callers had ten seconds to enter the order on a keypad , with any incorrect answer ending the game / call . The 10 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 candidates who answered all three questions correctly were selected into a random drawing in which approximately 300 contestants competed for ten spots on the show using the same phone quiz method . Accommodations for contestants outside the New York City area included round trip airfare ( or other transportation ) and hotel accommodations .

The syndicated version 's potential contestants , depending on tryouts , are required to pass an electronically scored test comprising a set of thirty questions which must be answered within a 10 @-@ minute time limit . Contestants who fail the test are eliminated , while those who pass are interviewed for an audition by the production staff , and those who impress the staff the most are then notified by postal mail that they have been placed into a pool for possible selection as contestants . At the producers ' discretion , contestants from said pool are selected to appear on actual episodes of the syndicated program ; these contestants are given a phone call from staff and asked to confirm the information on their initial application form and verify that they meet all eligibility requirements . Afterwards , they are given a date to travel to the show 's taping facilities to participate in a scheduled episode of the show . Unlike its ABC counterpart , the syndicated version does not offer transportation or hotel accommodations to contestants at the production company 's expense ; that version 's contestants are instead required to provide transportation and accommodations of their own .

The syndicated Millionaire also conducts open casting calls in various locations across the United States to search for potential contestants . These are held in late spring or early summer , with all dates and locations posted on the show 's official website . The producers make no guarantee on how many applicants will be tested at each particular venue ; however , the show will not test any more than 2 @,@ 500 individuals per audition day .

In cases when the show features themed episodes with two people playing as a team , auditions for these episodes ' contestants are announced on the show 's website . Both members of the team must pass the written test and the audition interview successfully in order to be considered for selection . If only one member of the team passes , he or she is placed into the contestant pool alone and must continue the audition process as an individual in order to proceed .

= = = Music = = =

Originally , the U.S. Millionaire carried over the musical score from the British version , composed by father @-@ and @-@ son duo Keith and Matthew Strachan . Unlike older game show musical scores , Millionaire 's musical score was created to feature music playing almost throughout the entire show . The Strachans ' main Millionaire theme song took some inspiration from the " Mars " movement of Gustav Holst 's The Planets , and their question cues from the $ 2 @,@ 000 to the $ 32 @,@ 000 / $ 25 @,@ 000 level , and then from the $ 64 @,@ 000 / $ 50 @,@ 000 level onwards , took the pitch up a semitone for each subsequent question , in order to increase tension as the contestant progressed through the game . On GSN 's Gameshow Hall of Fame special , the narrator described the Strachan tracks as " mimicking the sound of a beating heart , " and stated that as the contestant worked their way up the money ladder , the music was " perfectly in tune with their ever @-@ increasing pulse . "

The original Millionaire musical score holds the distinction of being the only game show soundtrack to be acknowledged by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers , as the Strachans were honored with numerous ASCAP awards for their work , the earliest of them awarded in 2000 . The original music cues were given minor rearrangements for the clock format in 2008 ; for example , the question cues were synced to the " ticking " sounds of the game clock . Even later , the Strachan score was removed from the U.S. version altogether for the introduction of the shuffle format in 2010 , in favor of a new musical score with cues written by Jeff Lippencott and Mark T. Williams , co @-@ founders of the Los Angeles @-@ based company Ah2 Music .

= = = Set = = =

The U.S. Millionaire 's basic set is a direct adaptation of the British version 's set design , which was conceived by Andy Walmsley . Paul Smith 's original licensing agreement for the U.S. Millionaire required that the show 's set design , along with all other elements of the show 's on @-@ air presentation ( musical score , lighting system , host 's wardrobe , etc . ) , adhere faithfully to the way in which they were presented in the British version ; this same licensing agreement applied to all other international versions of the show , making Walmsley 's Millionaire set design the most reproduced scenic design in television history . The original version of the U.S. Millionaire 's set cost $ 200 @,@ 000 to construct . The U.S. Millionaire 's production design is handled by George Allison , whose predecessors have included David Weller and Jim Fenhagen .

Unlike older game shows whose sets are or were designed to make the contestant ( s ) feel at ease , Millionaire 's set was designed to make the contestant feel uncomfortable , so that the program feels more like a movie thriller than a typical quiz show . The floor is made of Plexiglas beneath which lies a huge dish covered in mirror paper . Before the shuffle format was implemented in 2010 , the main game had the contestant and host sit in chairs in the center of the stage , known as " Hot Seats " ; these measured 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high , were modeled after chairs typically found in hair salons , and each seat featured a computer monitor directly facing it to display questions and other pertinent information . Shortly after the shuffle format was introduced to Millionaire , Vieira stated in an interview with her Millionaire predecessor on his morning talk show that the Hot Seat was removed because it was decided that the seat , which was originally intended to make the contestant feel nervous , actually ended up having contestants feel so comfortable in it that it did not service the production team any longer .

The lighting system is programmed to darken the set as the contestant progresses further into the game . There are also spotlights situated at the bottom of the set area that zoom down on the contestant when they answer a major question ; to increase the visibility of the light beams emitted by such spotlights , oil is vaporized , creating a haze effect . Media scholar Dr. Robert Thompson , a professor at Syracuse University , stated that the show 's lighting system made the contestant feel as though they were outside of prison when an escape was in progress .

When the shuffle format was introduced , the Hot Seats and corresponding monitors were replaced with a single podium , and as a result , the contestant and host stand throughout the game and are also able to walk around the stage . Also , two video screens were installed – one that displays the current question in play , and another that displays the contestant 's cumulative total and progress during the game . In September 2012 , the redesigned set was improved with a modernized look and feel , in order to take into account the show 's transition to high @-@ definition broadcasting , which had just come about the previous year . The two video screens were replaced with two larger ones , having twice as many projectors as the previous screens had ; the previous contestant podium was replaced with a new one ; and light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) technology was integrated into the lighting system to give the lights more vivid colors and the set and gameplay experience a more intimate feel .

= = Broadcast history = =

= = = ABC = = =

The U.S. version of Millionaire was launched by ABC as a half @-@ hour primetime program on August 16 , 1999 . When it premiered , it became the first U.S. network game show to offer a million @-@ dollar top prize to contestants . After airing thirteen episodes and reaching an audience of 15 million viewers by the end of the show 's first week on the air , the program expanded to an hour @-@ long format when it returned in November . The series , of which episodes were originally shown only a day after their initial taping , was promoted to regular status on January 18 , 2000 and , at the height of its popularity , was airing on ABC five nights a week . The show was so popular during its original primetime run that rival networks created or re @-@ incarnated game shows of their own ( e.g. , Greed , Twenty One , etc . ) , as well as importing various game shows of British and Australian origin to America ( such as Winning Lines , Weakest Link , and It 's Your Chance of a Lifetime ) .

The nighttime version initially drew in up to 30 million viewers a day three times a week , an unheard @-@ of number in modern network television . In the 1999 – 2000 season , it averaged # 1 in the ratings against all other television shows , with 28 @,@ 848 @,@ 000 viewers . In the next season ( 2000 – 01 ) , three nights out of the five weekly episodes placed in the top 10 . However , the show 's ratings began to fall during the 2000 – 01 season , so that at the start of the 2001 – 02 season , the ratings were only a fraction of what they had been one year before , and by season 's end , the show was no longer even ranked among the top 20 . ABC 's reliance on the show 's popularity led the network to fall quickly from its former spot as the nation 's most watched network .

As ABC 's overexposure of the primetime Millionaire led the public to tire of the show , there was speculation that the show would not survive beyond the 2001 – 02 season . The staff planned on switching it to a format that would emphasize comedy more than the game and feature a host other than Philbin , but in the end , the primetime show was canceled , with its final episode airing on June 27 , 2002 .

= = = Syndication = = =

In 2001 , Millionaire producers began work on a half @-@ hour daily syndicated version of the show , with the idea being that it would serve as an accompaniment to the network series which was still in production . ABC 's cancellation of the network Millionaire ended that idea ; however , the syndicated Millionaire still had enough interest to be greenlit and BVT sold the series to local stations for the 2002 – 03 season . The syndicated series nearly met the same fate as its predecessor , however , due in part to worries that stemmed from a decision made by one of its affiliates .

In the New York media market , BVT sold the syndicated Millionaire to CBS 's flagship station , WCBS @-@ TV . In the season that had passed , WCBS ' mid @-@ afternoon schedule included the syndicated edition of NBC 's Weakest Link , which aired at 4 pm from its January 2002 premiere . Joining Millionaire as a new syndicated series was a spinoff of The Oprah Winfrey Show hosted by Dr. Phil McGraw . WCBS picked up both series for 2002 – 03 , with Dr. Phil serving as lead @-@ in for the syndicated Millionaire , which was plugged into the time slot that Weakest Link had been occupying .

At mid @-@ season , WCBS announced that for the 2003 – 04 season it had acquired the broadcast rights to The People 's Court after WNBC , which had been airing the revived series since its 1997 debut , dropped it from its lineup . WCBS announced plans to move The People 's Court into the time slot that was occupied by Millionaire and the still @-@ airing 4 : 30 pm local newscast once it joined the station 's lineup in September 2003 . This led to speculation that the syndicated Millionaire would not be returning for a second season , and BVT 's concerns over losing its New York affiliate were compounded by the fact that there were not many time slots available for the show in New York outside of the undesirable late @-@ night slots that syndicators try to avoid .

In June 2003 , a shakeup at one of BVT 's corporate siblings provided the series with an opening . ABC announced that it would be returning the 12 : 30 pm network time slot to its affiliates in October of that year following the cancellation of the soap opera Port Charles . ABC 's flagship , WABC @-@ TV , was thus in need of a program to fill the slot and BVT went to them asking if the station would pick up Millionaire . WABC agreed to do this and when the new season launched that fall , the station began airing Millionaire at 12 : 30 pm . Millionaire continued to air on WABC in the afternoon until the end of the 2014 – 15 season , when it acquired the broadcast rights to FABLife for the 2015 – 16 season . To make room for FABLife , the afternoon airing of Millionaire was moved to independent station WLNY @-@ TV .

According to e @-@ mails released in the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack , Millionaire narrowly avoided cancellation after the 2014 – 15 season . The show 's declining ratings prompted DADT to demand a dramatically reduced licensing fee for renewal , which SPE was hesitant to accept . The series was nonetheless renewed for the 2015 – 16 season , with various cuts to the show 's production budget and a return to the original format ( but with only 14 questions ) . Had the show not been renewed , SPE would have placed the show on extended hiatus for three years , reclaimed full rights to the show ( without the innovations and format added in the syndicated run , to which DADT owns intellectual property rights ) , and shopped the revived show to another network or syndicator .

= = = GSN = = =

GSN acquired the rerun rights to the U.S. Millionaire in August 2003 . The network initially aired only episodes from the three seasons of the original prime @-@ time run ; however , additional episodes were later added . These included the Super Millionaire spin @-@ off , which aired on GSN from May 2005 to January 2007 , and the first two seasons of the syndicated version , which began airing on November 10 , 2008 .

= = Special editions = =

Various special editions and tournaments have been conducted which feature celebrities playing the game and donating winnings to charities of their choice . During celebrity editions on the original ABC version , contestants were allowed to receive help from their fellow contestants during the first ten questions . The most successful celebrity contestants throughout the show 's run have included Drew Carey , Rosie O 'Donnell , Norm MacDonald , and Chip Esten , all of whom won $ 500 @,@ 000 for their respective charities . The episode featuring O 'Donnell 's $ 500 @,@ 000 win averaged 36 @.@ 1 million viewers , the highest number for a single episode of the show .

There have also been special weeks featuring two or three family members or couples competing as a team , a " Champions Edition " where former big winners returned and split their winnings with their favorite charities , a " Zero Dollar Winner Edition " featuring contestants who previously missed one of the first @-@ tier questions and left with nothing , and a " Tax @-@ Free Edition " in which H & R Block calculated the taxes of winnings to allow contestants to earn stated winnings after taxes , and various theme weeks featuring college students , teachers , brides @-@ to @-@ be , etc. as contestants . Additionally , the syndicated version once featured an annual " Walk In & Win Week " with contestants who were randomly selected from the audience without having to take the audition test .

Special weeks have also included shows featuring questions concerning specific topics , such as professional football , celebrity gossip , movies , and pop culture . During a week of episodes in November 2007 , to celebrate the 1,000th episode of the syndicated Millionaire , all contestants that week started with $ 1 @,@ 000 so that they could not leave empty @-@ handed , and only had to answer ten questions to win $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . During that week , twenty home viewers per day also won $ 1 @,@ 000 each .

= = = Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire = = =

In 2004 , Philbin returned to host 12 episodes of a spin @-@ off program titled Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire in which contestants could potentially win $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . ABC aired five episodes of this spin @-@ off during the week of February 22 , 2004 , and an additional seven episodes later that year in May . As usual , the contestants were to answer a series of 15 multiple choice questions of increasing difficulty , but the dollar values were substantially increased . The payout structure of Super Millionaire was as follows : first going from $ 1 @,@ 000 to $ 5 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 1 @,@ 000 ; then from $ 10 @,@ 000 to $ 30 @,@ 000 in increments of $ 10 @,@ 000 ; then to $ 50 @,@ 000 , $ 100 @,@ 000 , $ 500 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ; and finally from $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 with the dollar value doubling for each new question .

Contestants were given the standard three lifelines in place at the time ( 50 : 50 , Ask the Audience , and Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend ) at the beginning of the game . However , after correctly answering the $ 100 @,@ 000 question , the contestant earned two additional lifelines : Three Wise Men and Double Dip . The Three Wise Men lifeline involved a panel of three experts , one of whom was always a former Millionaire contestant and at least one of whom was female . When this lifeline was used , the contestant and panel had 30 seconds to discuss the question and choices before the audio and video feeds were dropped . If the contestant decides to use Double Dip , the contestant is then forbidden from walking away from the question and is given two chances to answer the given question and if both answers are wrong , the contestant drops to $ 100 @,@ 000 .

= = = 10th Anniversary Celebration = = =

To celebrate the tenth anniversary of Millionaire 's U.S. debut , the show returned to ABC primetime for an eleven @-@ night event hosted by Philbin , which aired August 9 – 23 , 2009 . The Academy Award @-@ winning movie Slumdog Millionaire and the 2008 economic crisis helped boost interest of renewal of the game show .

The episodes featured game play based on the previous rule set of the syndicated version ( including the rule changes implemented in season seven ) but used the Fastest Finger round to select contestants . Various celebrities also made special guest appearances at the end of every episode ; each guest played one question for a chance at $ 50 @,@ 000 for a charity of their choice , being allowed to use any one of the four lifelines in place at the time ( Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend , Ask the Audience , Double Dip , and Ask the Expert ) , but still earned a minimum of $ 25 @,@ 000 for the charity if they answered the question incorrectly .

The finale of the tenth anniversary special , which aired on August 23 , 2009 , featured Ken Basin , an entertainment lawyer , Harvard Law graduate , and former Jeopardy ! contestant , who went on to become the first contestant to play a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question in the " clock format " era . With a time of 4 : 39 ( 45 seconds + 3 : 54 banked time ) , Basin was given a question involving President Lyndon Baines Johnson 's fondness for Fresca . Using his one remaining lifeline , Basin asked the audience , which supported his own hunch of Yoo @-@ hoo rather than the correct answer . He decided to answer the question and lost $ 475 @,@ 000 , becoming the first contestant in the U.S. version to answer a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question incorrectly . After Basin finished his run , Vieira appeared on @-@ camera and announced that all remaining Fastest Finger contestants would play with her on the first week of the syndicated version 's eighth season . After this , the million dollar question was not played again on a standard episode until September 25 , 2013 , when Josina Reaves became the second U.S. Millionaire contestant to incorrectly answer her $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 question .

= = = Million Dollar Tournament of Ten = = =

Although the syndicated Millionaire had produced two millionaires in its first season , Nancy Christy 's May 2003 win was still standing as the most recent when the program began its eighth season in fall of 2009 . Deciding that six @-@ plus years had been too long since someone had won the top prize , producers conducted a tournament to find a third million dollar winner . For the first nine weeks of the 2009 – 10 season , each episode saw contestants attempt to qualify for what was referred to as the " Tournament of Ten " . Contestants were seeded based on how much money they had won , with the biggest winner ranked first and the lowest ranked tenth . Ties were broken based on how much time a contestant had banked when they had walked away from the game .

The tournament began on the episode aired November 9 , 2009 , and playing in order from the lowest to the highest seed , tournament contestants played one at a time at the end of that episode and the next nine . The rules were exactly the same as they were for a normal million dollar question under the clock format introduced the season before , except here , the contestants had no lifelines at their disposal . Each contestant received a base time of 45 seconds . For each question they had answered before walking away , the contestants received any unused seconds that were left when they gave their answers . The accumulated total of those unused seconds was then added to the base time to give the contestants their final question time limit .

Each contestant had the same decision facing them as before , which was whether to attempt to answer the question or walk away with their pre @-@ tournament total intact . Attempting the question and answering incorrectly incurred the same penalty as in regular play , with a reduction of their pre @-@ tournament winnings to $ 25 @,@ 000 . If the question was answered correctly , the player that did so became the tournament leader . If another player after him / her answered correctly , that player assumed the lead and the previous leader kept their pre @-@ tournament winnings . The highest remaining seed to have attempted and correctly answered their question at the end of the tournament on November 20 , 2009 would be declared the winner and become the syndicated series ' third millionaire .

The first contestant to attempt to answer the million dollar question was Sam Murray , the tournament 's eighth @-@ seeded qualifier . On November 11 , Murray was asked approximately how many people had lived on Earth in its history and correctly guessed 100 billion . Murray was still atop the leaderboard entering the November 20 finale as he remained the only contestant to even attempt to answer his or her question . The only person who could defeat him was top seed and $ 250 @,@ 000 winner Jehan Shamsid @-@ Deen , who was asked a question regarding the Blorenge , cited as " a rare example of a word that rhymes with orange " . Shamsid @-@ Deen considered taking the risk , believing ( correctly ) that the name belonged to a mountain in Wales . However , she decided that the potential of losing $ 225 @,@ 000 did not justify the risk and elected to walk away from the question , giving Murray the win and the million dollar prize .

= = Reception = =

Since its introduction to the United States , Who Wants to Be a Millionaire has been credited with not only single @-@ handedly reviving the game show genre , but also breaking new ground for it . The series revolutionized the look and feel of game shows with its unique lighting system , dramatic music cues , and futuristic set . The show also became one of the highest @-@ rated and most popular game shows in U.S. television history , and has been credited with paving the way for the rise of the reality TV phenomenon to prominence throughout the 2000s .

The U.S. Millionaire also made catchphrases out of various lines used on the show . In particular , " Is that your final answer ? " , asked by Millionaire 's hosts whenever a contestant 's answer needs to be verified , was popularized by Philbin during his tenure as host , and was also included on TV Land 's special " 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases " , which aired in 2006 . Meanwhile , during his tenure as host , Cedric signed off shows with a catchphrase of his own , " Watch yo ' wallet ! "

The original primetime version of the U.S. Millionaire won two Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show in 2000 and 2001 . Philbin was honored with a Daytime Emmy in the category of Outstanding Game Show Host in 2001 , while Vieira received one in 2005 , and another in 2009 . TV Guide ranked the U.S. Millionaire # 7 on its 2001 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , and later ranked it # 6 on its 2013 " 60 Greatest Game Shows " list . GSN ranked Millionaire # 5 on its August 2006 list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time , and later honored the show in January 2007 on its only Gameshow Hall of Fame special .

= = Other media = =

= = = Merchandise = = =

In 2000 , Pressman released two board game adaptions of Millionaire as well as a junior edition recommended for younger players . Several video games based on the varying gameplay formats of Millionaire have also been released throughout the course of the show 's U.S. history .

Between 1999 and 2001 , Jellyvision produced five video game adaptations based upon the original primetime series for personal computers and Sony 's PlayStation console , all of them featuring Philbin 's likeness and voice . The first of these adaptations was published by Disney Interactive , while the later four were published by Buena Vista Interactive which had just been spun off from DI when it reestablished itself in attempts to diversify its portfolio . Of the five games , three featured general trivia questions , one was sports @-@ themed , and another was a " Kids Edition " featuring easier questions . In 2008 , Imagination Games released a DVD version of the show , based on the 2004 – 08 format and coming complete with Vieira 's likeness and voice , as well as a quiz book and a 2009 desktop calendar . Additionally , two Millionaire video games were released by Ludia in conjunction with Ubisoft in 2010 and 2011 ; the first of these was a game for Nintendo 's Wii console and DS handheld system based on the 2008 – 10 clock format , while the second , for Microsoft 's Xbox 360 , was based on the current shuffle format .

Ludia has also created a Facebook game based on Millionaire , which debuted on March 21 , 2011 . This game features an altered version of the shuffle format , condensing the number of questions to twelve — eight in round one , and four in round two . A contestant can compete against eight other Millionaire fans in round one , and play round two alone if they make it into the top three . There is no " final answer " rule ; the contestant 's responses are automatically locked in . Answering a question correctly earns a contestant the value of that question , multiplied by the number of people who responded incorrectly . Contestants are allowed to use two of their Facebook friends as Jump the Question lifelines in round one , and to use the Ask the Audience lifeline in round two to invite up to 50 such friends of theirs to answer a question for a portion of the prize money of the current question .

= = = Disney Parks attraction = = =

Who Wants to Be a Millionaire – Play It ! was an attraction at the Disney 's Hollywood Studios theme park ( when it was known as Disney @-@ MGM Studios ) at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando , Florida and at Disney California Adventure Park in Anaheim , California . Both the Florida and California Play It ! attractions opened in 2001 ; the California version closed in 2004 , and the Florida version closed in 2006 and was replaced by Toy Story Midway Mania !

The format in the Play It ! attraction was very similar to that of the television show that inspired it . When a show started , a " Fastest Finger " question was given , and the audience was asked to put the four answers in order ; the person with the fastest time was the first contestant in the Hot Seat for that show . However , the main game had some differences : for example , contestants competed for points rather than dollars , the questions were set to time limits , and the Phone @-@ a @-@ Friend lifeline became Phone a Complete Stranger which connected the contestant to a Disney cast member outside the attraction 's theater who would find a guest to help . After the contestant 's game was over , they were awarded anything from a collectible pin , to clothing , to a Millionaire CD game , to a 3 @-@ night Disney Cruise .

= Sir Bevil Grenville 's Monument =

Sir Bevil Grenville 's Monument is a monument erected in 1720 on Lansdown , then called " Lansdowne Hill " , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of the city of Bath , in Somerset , England . It was designated a Grade II * listed building on 1 February 1956 , and a scheduled monument on 12 December 1950 .

The monument commemorates the heroism of the Civil War Royalist commander Sir Bevil Grenville ( 1596 @-@ 1643 ) of Stowe , Kilkhampton in Cornwall and Bideford in Devon , who on 5 July 1643 fell mortally wounded at the Battle of Lansdowne , leading his regiment of Cornish pikemen . It was erected by Grenville 's grandson and has been maintained by his descendants . This has included the repair of inscriptions carved on the base of the monument , eulogising Grenville and his forces .

= = Background = =

The Battle of Lansdowne took place on 5 July 1643 during the Civil War . The Royalists under Lord Hopton attacked the Parliamentarians led by Sir William Waller who occupied a commanding position on Lansdowne Hill . Under the leadership of Sir Bevil Grenville , Hopton 's Cornish pikemen stormed Waller 's breastworks , while Royalist musketeers outflanked Waller by passing through the woods on each side of his position . Grenville was mortally wounded in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat as Parliamentarian horse counter @-@ attacked and were driven off . He received a mortal blow to the head with a pollaxe and was taken to the rectory at nearby Cold Ashton where he died . His death was a set @-@ back from which the king 's cause in the Westcountry never recovered , for he alone knew how to handle the unruly Cornishmen .

= = History = =

The monument was erected in 1720 by George Granville , 1st Baron Lansdowne ( 1666 @-@ 1735 ) , grandson of Sir Bevil and heir male to William Granville , 3rd Earl of Bath ( d.1711 ) , great @-@ grandson of Sir Bevil and the last male in the senior line of the family . In 1714 Baron Lansdowne had erected a mural monument to Sir Bevil in the Grenville Chapel in the Church of St James the Great , Kilkhampton , Cornwall , in which parish was situated the Grenville seat of Stowe .

The monument has been repaired several times . Initially in 1777 and again in 1828 and then in 1879 , each time the repairs were funded by Granville 's descendants . Note that the original spelling was Bevil Granville but today Grenville or Greville are commonly used .

= = Description = =

The monument is of ashlar stone masonry , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high , in the English Baroque style . On the south side is a slate tablet inscribed with a quotation from the account by Lord Clarendon ( 1609 @-@ 1674 ) in his History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England of the Battle of Lansdowne ( 1643 ) . On the north side are two poems . On top is a griffin ( the crest and supporters of the Grenvilles ) holding an escutcheon displaying the Grenville coat of arms : Gules , three clarions or . On another side are shown the Royal Arms of King Charles II ( 1660 @-@ 1685 ) supported by the arms of Sir Bevil 's eldest son and heir John Granville , 1st Earl of Bath ( 1628 – 1701 ) and by the arms of the latter 's half first cousin General George Monck , 1st Duke of Albemarle , KG ( 1608 @-@ 1670 ) . Monck was the principal figure behind the Restoration of the Monarchy to King Charles II in 1660 , in effecting which he was much assisted by Sir John Grenville , for which services both were elevated to the peerage .

= = Inscription = =

The Elegy on Sir Bevil Grenville by William Cartwright , a fellow Royalist , who died shortly after Sir Bevil on 29 November 1643 , is inscribed on the monument :

This was not Nature ’ s courage nor that thing ,

We valour call which Time and Reason bring ,

But a diviner fury fierce and high ,

Valour transported into Ecstasy .

= Baby Jesus theft =

Baby Jesus theft is the theft of plastic or ceramic figurines of the infant Jesus from outdoor public and private nativity displays during the Christmas season . It is an " enduring ( and illegal ) practice " according to New York Times journalist Katie Rogers , " believed to be part of a yearly tradition , often carried out by bored teenagers looking for an easy prank . " The prevalence of such thefts has caused the owners of outdoor manger scenes to protect their property with GPS devices , surveillance cameras , or by other means .

= = Incidents = =

Dozens of communities across America have suffered thefts of Baby Jesus figurines , and , in some instances , entire nativity scenes , Washington DC journalist Daniel Nasaw reports for Britain 's The Guardian . He observes that it is unclear whether such theft is on the rise , as it is not tracked by federal law enforcement .

In 2008 , a Baby Jesus was stolen from First United Methodist Church in Kittanning , Pennsylvania and replaced with a pumpkin , and , in Eureka Springs , Arkansas , a thief not only stole the Baby Jesus from a public display but absconded with the concrete block and chain that was supposed to act as a deterrent . Some communities suffer repeat Baby Jesus thefts . A Baby Jesus was stolen in December 2008 from a Stony Point town display . A town official remarked , " If someone did it as a prank , I don 't find it funny . " The nativity had been vandalized the year before , and a menorah next to it had been toppled and broken .

During some Christmases of the first decade of the 21st century , the Baby Jesus statue was often stolen from the outdoor nativity scene in Jönköping in Sweden , once thrown into the nearby lake of Vättern . This has led to the nativity scene , resembling a wooden stable , being closed by nights .

Some figurines have been defaced with profanity or Satanic symbols . In December 2008 , for example , a fiberglass Baby Jesus valued at US $ 375 was stolen from a Eureka Springs , Arkansas park and later recovered , but had been defaced by racial slurs , a swastika , and a Hitler mustache . The eyes were also blacked out and pieces had been broken off , rendering it damaged beyond repair .

In his autobiography , The Long Hard Road Out Of Hell , Marilyn Manson admitted playing a prank in which he and a few friends stole figurines of Jesus then replaced them with hams . They sent a communique to a newspaper posing as a black radical group saying that it was a protest against " the plasticisation of the black man 's wisdom with the so @-@ called ' White Christmas ' . "

= = Security measures = =

Some nativity display owners have taken measures to secure their property against would @-@ be thieves . Others are reluctant to exercise such vigilance . One Indiana man who suffered the loss of his Baby Jesus figurine rebuffed suggestions to secure the figurines on his porch because , " that would be like putting Jesus in jail " . Traditional security measures are not always foolproof . The Baby Jesus fastened to the National Christmas Creche at Independence Hall disappeared within days .

Some communities , churches , and citizens are employing electronic technology to protect their property . A Texas family , for example , positioned surveillance cameras in their yard and discovered a teenage girl stealing their Baby Jesus figurine , valued at nearly US $ 500 . In 2008 , a security device distributor offered its surveillance cameras and GPS devices to 200 non @-@ profit religious institutions for a month 's use gratis . GPS protection has met with some success . In one case , after a life @-@ size ceramic nativity figurine disappeared from the lawn of a community center in Wellington , Florida , sheriff 's deputies tracked it to an apartment where it was found lying face @-@ down on a carpet . An 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman was arrested .

= = Perspectives = =

While Baby Jesus thefts are largely regarded as pranks , they are set apart by the involvement of a religious icon . " They think it 's a prank , but it isn 't a prank to some of these people , " Pennsylvania state police Corporal Paul Romanic told The Morning Call newspaper , in regards to an incident in which ten nativity scene figures were found in a yard after being stolen from across Bucks County , Pennsylvania . " Plus , it 's just wrong to steal the baby Jesus . "

Some have wondered if an anti @-@ Christian sentiment lurks behind the thefts . Attorney Mike Johnson of the Alliance Defending Freedom ( formerly the Alliance Defense Fund ) , a Christian legal group , stated , " I suspect most of it is childish pranks . Clearly , there are adults with an agenda to remove Christ from Christmas . But they tend to occupy themselves with the courts and courtroom of public opinion . " Stephen Nissenbaum , the author of The Battle for Christmas and a retired professor , views Baby Jesus theft as neither innocent vandalism nor religious hate crimes . Nissenbaum writes that , " What it means is that it 's OK to go around violating even pretty important norms , as long as real human harm isn 't being done . It 's not exactly devaluing Christianity , but it is sort of a ritualized challenge to it . It could be Christian kids doing it — and on January 2 they become good Christians again . "

Historian Daniel Silliman has argued that , whatever the thieves ' intention , the act puts the culture of Christmas in a different light . " Baby Jesus thieves literally take the Christ out of Christmas , " Silliman writes . " When they do , it becomes apparent that the sacred object is also a piece of property , protected by the law that protects property and this whole apparatus that defends Christmas : fences and lights , tracking devices and private security companies , patrolling police and the courts . The commercialization of Christmas is visible here in a way it might not be , otherwise . That ’ s the power of the joke . "

= = In drama = =

In " The Big Little Jesus , " the December 24 , 1953 episode of the television series Dragnet , Sgts . Friday and Smith are called upon to investigate the theft of a Baby Jesus from a church nativity display on Christmas Eve . Unable to solve the crime , the officers tell the priest that Mass must be celebrated without the Baby Jesus . The figurine is restored when a boy arrives with it in a wagon . He tells the officers that he had vowed that if he got a wagon for Christmas , Baby Jesus would have the first ride . This episode was remade when Dragnet went to color ; it is not only the only episode made twice , but the only story not based on an actual police case . The episode was originally broadcast on radio on December 22 , 1953 , making it the only episode to appear on all three Jack Webb versions of the series .

= Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. =

Stocksbridge Park Steels Football Club is an English association football club based in Stocksbridge , South Yorkshire . They play in Division One South of the Northern Premier League at level eight of the English football league system . The club was formed in 1986 after a merger between two other clubs , and sports a yellow and blue home kit . They play at the Bracken Moor ground .

They initially played in the Northern Counties East League and progressed through the NCEL 's divisions before winning promotion to Division One of the Northern Premier League ( NPL ) in 1996 . They reached the Premier Division of the NPL in 2009 , but were relegated back to Division One South in 2014 .

Steels have participated in the FA Cup every year since 1992 , reaching the 4th qualifying round in 2003 , and first entered the FA Trophy in 1996 after previously participating in the FA Vase .

= = History = =

Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. was formed in 1986 as the result of the merger of Stocksbridge Works , the works team of the local British Steel Corporation plant , with another local club , Oxley Park Sports . The new club was immediately admitted to the Northern Counties East League Division Two , the works club having previously played in Division Three of the same league .

The Steels spent five seasons in Division Two before being placed in Division One when the lower division was discontinued upon league re @-@ organisation in 1991 . In the same year Mick Horne was appointed as the club 's manager , and he led the team to the championship of Division One in the 1991 – 92 season .

In Stocksbridge 's first season in the Premier Division the team finished near the bottom of the table , but in the 1993 – 94 season the Steels became Northern Counties East League champions . The club failed to gain promotion to the Northern Premier League , however , as their stadium did not meet the required standard . The club finished second in the division two seasons later , losing the championship on goal difference to Hatfield Main , and on this occasion were admitted to the Northern Premier League Division One .

Stocksbridge finished in the top half of the table in the club 's first five seasons at the higher level , with a best finish of fourth place in the 2000 – 01 season , but the following season the Steels finished only two places from the bottom of the league . Shortly before the end of this season , manager Mick Horne tendered his resignation after 11 years in charge and was replaced by his assistant , former Norwich City player Wayne Biggins .

Under Biggins ' management , the Steels had their best ever runs in both the FA Cup and FA Trophy and set a club record with a 17 – 1 defeat of Oldham Town in the FA Cup preliminary round in August 2002 , but remained near the bottom of the league table . After the Steels were defeated 6 – 0 by Shildon in the final qualifying round of the 2003 – 04 FA Cup , Biggins attempted to resign but the board of directors persuaded him to continue in his job . However , he left in November 2003 , with the club again fighting a battle against relegation .

Former assistant manager of local rivals Worksop Town Peter Rinkcavage was appointed as Stocksbridge 's new manager , and in the 2005 – 06 season he led the team to a sixth @-@ place finish , sufficient to qualify for the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Northern Premier League Premier Division . After holding Kendal Town to a 1 – 1 draw in the semi @-@ final , the Steels lost a penalty shoot @-@ out , ending their hopes of promotion .

The following season Stocksbridge again finished in sixth place , although with only two teams promoted , it was not high enough to qualify for the play @-@ offs . Stocksbridge did , however , defeat Worksop Town to win the Sheffield and Hallamshire Senior Cup . Following this win manager Rinkcavage resigned in order to return to his former club , Worksop , as manager , with Gary Marrow replacing him for the 2007 – 08 season , for which the club was placed in the Southern section of the now @-@ regionalised Division One . Stocksbridge again qualified for the play @-@ offs , but lost to Sheffield . In the 2008 – 09 season , the Steels again qualified for the play @-@ offs and defeated Belper Town in the final to gain promotion to the Northern Premier League Premier Division for the first time . During the following season , Marrow resigned as manager and was replaced by Simon Collins . The Steels spent five years in the Premier Division , never finishing out of the bottom half of the table , and were relegated at the end of the 2013 – 14 season .

= = = Season by season record = = =

= = Colours and crest = =

The Steels have generally worn a kit of yellow shirts with varying amounts of blue trim , blue shorts , and yellow stockings during their short history . The club badge is predominantly yellow and blue to reflect this , and features a representation of a clock tower located on Nanny Hill , near the club 's stadium . Two footballs displaying the year of the club 's formation were added on the occasion of the club 's twentieth anniversary in 2006 . The club is unusual in having an alternate crest for its away shirts with the colours reversed . The team 's nickname is " Steels " or " The Steels " .

= = Stadium = =

The Steels have always played their games at Bracken Moor , the former home of Stocksbridge Works . In 2006 it was announced that the stadium was to be sponsored by local newspaper Look Local for a term of five years , resulting in its official name being changed to the Look Local Stadium , a deal which was later extended to 2013 . The stadium has a maximum capacity of 3 @,@ 500 , with 450 seats .

The ground was a cricket pitch until shortly after the Second World War , when it was purchased by a local steelmaking company and converted into a football stadium . Stone @-@ built changing rooms were erected in the mid @-@ 1960s , replacing a small hut , as was a seated stand and terracing . The main stand has a distinctive angled awning which extends from the fascia and seats which came from Sheffield Wednesday 's Hillsborough Stadium . Floodlights were installed at the stadium in 1990 and the terracing partially covered four years later .

As one side of the ground directly adjoins a cricket pitch , the club was required to erect a dividing fence in order to gain entry to the Northern Premier League . The fence is temporary in nature and is removed during the cricket season . It was partially funded by money raised from friendlies against Sheffield Wednesday and Sheffield United .

= = Supporters = =

The average attendance at the Look Local Stadium was 180 in the 2008 – 09 season , the ninth highest of twenty teams in the Northern Premier League Division One South , with the largest attendance being 451 for the visit of Sheffield . The average figure was a decrease of 3 compared to the previous season . The highest attendance in the club 's history was 2 @,@ 000 , for a friendly match against Sheffield Wednesday to mark the inauguration of the ground 's floodlights in October 1991 .

The club has a Supporters ' Club which was set up in the mid @-@ 1990s . The Supporters ' Club organises events to raise funds for the football club , and operates the club shop at the Look Local Stadium .

= = = Rivalries = = =

Frickley Athletic and Worksop Town are considered to be local rivals to the Steels . Stocksbridge 's highest ever league attendance against their rivals is 610 for a match against Worksop .

= = Players = =

= = = Notable former players = = =

For details of players who have played in the Football League either before or after playing for Stocksbridge Park Steels , see Category : Stocksbridge Park Steels F.C. players .

= = Managers = =

= = Honours = =

= = Records = =

Stocksbridge 's best league finish was a fourth @-@ place finish in the Northern Premier League Division One , which at the time sat at the seventh level in the overall English football league system , in the 2000 – 01 season . The largest number of points the team has registered in a season was 76 in the 2006 – 07 season , but that was only enough to secure a sixth @-@ place finish .

The club 's best performance in the FA Cup was an appearance in the fourth and final qualifying round in the 2003 – 04 season . After winning four matches to progress from the preliminary round , the Steels lost 6 – 0 away to Shildon . In the same season the club achieved its best performance in the FA Trophy , reaching the second round proper only to lose 4 – 2 away to Blyth Spartans .

The club 's record victory was a 17 – 1 win over Oldham Town in the FA Cup in 2002 . Striker Paul Jackson scored ten of the goals , equalling the 55 @-@ year @-@ old record for the most goals scored by a single player in an FA Cup match . Ted McDougall 's nine goals for AFC Bournemouth against Margate in 1971 remains the record in the FA Cup proper , whereas Jackson 's ten is the record for the qualifying rounds . The Steels ' record defeat was a 7 – 2 loss to Witton Albion in the 2001 – 02 season .

The record for the most appearances for the club is held by Gary Hurlestone with 254 . The club 's all @-@ time record goalscorer is Trevor Jones , who scored 145 times for the Steels . The largest transfer fee paid for a Stocksbridge player is £ 15 @,@ 000 , paid by Wolverhampton Wanderers for Lee Mills in December 1992 .

= Happy Working Song =

" Happy Working Song " is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz for Walt Disney Pictures ' musical film Enchanted ( 2007 ) . Recorded by American actress Amy Adams in her starring role as Giselle , the uptempo pop song both parodies and pays homage to a variety of songs from several Disney animated feature films , particularly " Whistle While You Work " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . Produced by Menken , Schwartz and Danny Troob , the song appears on the film 's soundtrack Enchanted : Original Soundtrack .

" Happy Working Song " takes place in Robert 's untidy apartment in Manhattan , New York , in which Giselle spends her first night in the city after having been magically transported there from the fictional Andalasia . The next morning , Giselle awakens to find the apartment in a state of neglect and decides to clean it , summoning several animals to her aid . Additionally , the musical number references similar scenes from Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella ( 1950 ) . Based on 1950s music , " Happy Working Song " ' s bridge deliberately references the song " Belle " from Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) .

Musically , " Happy Working Song " shares similarities with the songs " Heigh @-@ Ho " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , " The Work Song " from Cinderella and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast . The song has garnered vastly positive reviews , with both film and music critics praising its humorous , witty lyrics , allusions and references to previous Disney films and songs , as well as Adams ' performance . " Happy Working Song " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted 's own " That 's How You Know " and " So Close " , making the film one of only four to achieve this feat . Ultimately , the song lost to " Falling Slowly " from Once ( 2007 ) , while the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences subsequently decided to limit the total number of Best Original Song nominations to only two per film .

= = Background , writing and references = =

Veteran Disney composer Alan Menken became actively creatively involved with Enchanted in 2006 , subsequently inviting his longtime collaborator , lyricist Stephen Schwartz , with whom Menken had previously worked on Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) and The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) , to co @-@ write the songs and musical numbers for Enchanted alongside him . Menken said of the general songwriting process , " the first challenge for us was finding that musical palette and lyrical palette and performance palette that really spoke to everybody and said that we are in the world of early Walt and to have that place to start . "

When it came to writing " Happy Working Song " , Menken and Schwartz were directly influenced by the song " Whistle While You Work " from Disney 's first full @-@ length animated feature film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) , with Schwartz describing " Happy Working Song " as a " spoof " and " one of the funniest sequences of the film " . According to Schwartz , " Happy Working Song " was written rather quickly , having come " [ to the songwriters ] really fast " . Schwartz elaborated , " ' Happy Working Song ' is ... pretty much out of Snow White and ' Whistle While You Work ' and that little thing where they do the dishes and Dopey with the soap bubbles and everything . " In addition to this , " Happy Working Song " features references to both the musical number " The Work Song " and " the busy little mice " from Disney 's Cinderella ( 1950 ) , but to a significantly lesser extent . Lyrically , Schwartz decided to approach the song comically as demonstrated by its phrase " Even though you are vermin . "

Conceptually , Menken explained that " As the characters become sort of three dimensional , songs become more contemporary . " Ultimately , Menken believes that , melodically , " Happy Working Song " is very much similar to the songs " Belle " and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast . Additionally , orchestrator and arranger Danny Troob revealed the bridge of " Happy Working Song " is directly based on the bridge of " Belle " , particularly serving as " a deliberate reference on [ the songwriters ' ] part . " Addressing the musical similarities between " Happy Working Song " and " Something There " , Troob explained that the former occupies a different " drive " and " attitude " , additionally sounding " a little bit more brisk ... because [ Giselle is ] working . " Troob elaborated , " Beauty and the Beast was , for its time , very forward @-@ looking , and ' Happy Working Song ' is deliberately retro . " Troob decided to alter and deliberately steer the song away from Menken and Schwartz 's original 1970s @-@ inspired musical arrangement in an attempt to " make it feel like the 1950s " by " manipulating instruments [ sic ] textures . "

American actress Amy Adams , who portrays Giselle , had previously " worked in musical theater before [ she ] moved to Los Angeles " in order to pursue a career as a film actress , and was therefore " very comfortable with the idea of singing " . Citing both actress and singer Julie Andrews and several Disney Princesses as musical inspiration , Adams decided to perform the film 's first song , " True Love 's Kiss " , in the style of an operetta before eventually replacing this with a more Broadway musical @-@ style voice for " Happy Working Song " .

= = Context , scene and analysis = =

Having just recently arrived in New York City after having been magically transported there from her fantastical world of Andalasia , a lost and hopelessly confused Giselle is discovered wandering around by Robert , a single father and divorce attorney , and his daughter Morgan . Robert decides to offer his assistance to Giselle by inviting her to spend a night 's shelter in the safety of their apartment . The following morning , Giselle awakens to find Robert 's apartment in a complete state of disarray . During the " Happy Working Song " musical sequence , described as one of the film 's " large scale production numbers " , Giselle , who is very much appalled by the untidy state of Robert 's Manhattan apartment , decides to " repay ... the favour " by taking the liberty of confronting and cleaning up the apartment 's mess herself . By performing a brief aria and " utilizing her animal @-@ charming abilities " , Giselle musically " summons the city 's animals " in order " to help her tidy it up " . This gesture and scene serves as a reference to similar scenes and musical sequences from preceding Disney animated fairy tale films such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) and Cinderella ( 1950 ) .

Demonstrating and suggesting " that Giselle really does have some magical power , even in [ the real world ] " , – according to Sean Axmaker of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , " When she breaks into song ... sewer rats and cockroaches arrive to help with the housework " – the aria is immediately responded to by several animals , creatures and " vermin " typically associated with New York City , including rats , pigeons , roaches , and flies – visually meant to represent " makeshift ' forest friends ' " – " as opposed to the woodland critters of the movie 's opening animated segment . " According to film critic Brent Simon of Shared Darkness , the comedic gag serves as one of the film 's " amusing ways to contrast the two worlds " of Giselle 's fictional Andalasia and the real @-@ life New York City .

Several professional film critics have allotted a variety of different terms and nicknames to the animals who appear during the " Happy Working Song " sequence . Neil Smith of BBC Online described the animals who appear during the scene as " a grotesque menagerie of CG vermin " , while the Orlando Sentinel 's Roger Moore jokingly referred to them as New York 's own " woodland creatures " , writing , " the rats and pigeons are merely the cuddlier ones " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times coined the creatures " urban critters . "

= = Composition and inspiration = =

" Happy Working Song " is a " vibrant " , uptempo pop song . Reminiscent of and influenced by a variety of " archetypal Disney " and " classical @-@ sounding " musical numbers , the musical theater @-@ inspired song runs a total length of two minutes and nine seconds . Incorporating into its lyrical structure a variety of " clever " words including " toilet " , " hairball " and " vermin " , while rhyming humorous terms such as " hum " and " scum " with " dum dum dum " and " vacu @-@ um " , " Happy Working Song " ' s use of " comical " , " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrics " , according to Filmtracks.com , both describe and add narration to Giselle 's " attempts to conjure an ultra happy tune while scrubbing floors and toilets in the real world " upon deciding " to clean her new home with the help of ... cockroaches and flies " . Its musical instrumentation is heavily reliant on the use of the harpsichord , with Filmtracks.com additionally describing " Happy Working Song " as a " harpsichord @-@ laced " song . Troob purposefully included the harpsichord in the song 's instrumentation and orchestration in order to provide it with a more accurate " period setting " .

According to Common Sense Media , " Happy Working Song " shares similarities with and is also inspired by " Heigh @-@ Ho " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , in addition to " Whistle While You Work " from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and " The Work Song " from Cinderella . Additionally , the song is reminiscent of " Belle " and " Something There " from Beauty and the Beast , specifically when it comes to its bridge and " staccato quality " . Written in the key of D major in alla breve cut common time , " Happy Working Song " is structured around a " lilting " , Broadway musical @-@ inspired melody . According to the song 's official sheet music , published at Musicnotes.com by Walt Disney Music Publishing , " Happy Working Song " follows an upbeat , " perky and live " tempo of 88 beats per minute . In portrayal of Giselle , Adams performs the song using an " earnest " , " tart ... soprano voice " . Her high soprano vocal range spans approximately two octaves , from the low note of G # 3 to the high note of D5 . The song 's lyrics begin , " Come , my little friends , as we all sing a happy little working song , merry little voices clear and strong . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reviews = = =

" Happy Working Song " has garnered widespread critical acclaim . Filmtracks.com hailed " Happy Working Song " as Ashman and Schwartz 's " best work together in Enchanted " Describing " Happy Working Song " as a " loving , well @-@ crafted homage ... to Disney classics " , Elisabeth Vincentelli of Amazon.com wrote , " tellingly , the lovely ' Happy Working Song ' ... sounds like it could have been lifted from any number of Disney movies — and that 's meant as a compliment . " Drawing similarities between the song and " Heigh @-@ Ho " , Jacqueline Rupp of Common Sense Media commented , " the ' Hi @-@ Ho ' [ sic ] -inspired ' Happy Working Song ' will have kids giggling and dancing . " Jeff Swindoll of Monsters and Critics wrote that " Happy Working Song " successfully " ap [ es ] ' Whistle While You Work ' most amusingly . " The New York Times ' Manohla Dargis called " Happy Working Song " " brilliantly surrealistic " .

Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly described " Happy Working Song " as a " hilarious ... production number " that successfully " encapsulates the joys of Enchanted " . The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern enthusiastically praised both the song and the sequence , hailing the latter as " magical " while describing " Happy Working Song " as a " gleeful variation on theme of ' Whistle While You Work ' " . Similarly , Todd McCarthy of Variety called " Happy Working Song " " a hilarious variation on ' Whistle While You Work ' " . Sun Media 's Kevin Williamson hailed the musical number as one of the film 's " stand @-@ outs " , elaborating , " [ ' ] Happy Working Song [ ' is ] a crowd @-@ pleaser . " The Mountain Xpress ' Ken Hanke allotted particular praise to Adams ' , writing that when the actress is " singing her ' Happy Working Song ' with her makeshift ' forest friends ' ... she is the perfect cartoon heroine made flesh " . Kerry Lengel of The Arizona Republic jokingly lauded " Happy Working Song " as " the funniest - and grossest - set piece in the film . " Calling the sequence the " film 's highlight " , Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer commented , " The song , like the movie , is cheerfully gross enough to get boys - and their fathers - into theater seats for a story every tween and her mother will love . "

Interestingly , film critics who generally disliked Enchanted tended to have mostly positive things to report about " Happy Working Song " . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian , who assigned the film a negative score of two out of five stars , in contrast gave " Happy Working Song " a positive review , describing it as " a funny opening song " . Additionally , Bradshaw drew similarities between the musical number and scenes from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Disney 's Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) .

One of the song 's few negative reviews was written by Mary F. Pols of the Contra Costa Times , who opined , " a cleaning crew of vermin and cockroaches is just real enough to be crass rather than funny " .

Empire ranked " Happy Working Song " third on its list of the " 10 Great Musical Numbers " of the decade , writing that although " Shrek set the benchmark for Disney song parodies at Everest levels ... it 's Amy Adams calling on New York 's creatures of the forest to tidy up Patrick Dempsey 's apartment that pulls it off to perfection . "

= = = Academy Award nomination and aftermath = = =

" Happy Working Song " was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 alongside Enchanted songs " That 's How You Know " and " So Close " , ultimately dominating the category . However , the song was generally not favored to win by the media in spite of the fact that it was vastly a critical success . According to a poll conducted by Billboard in anticipation of the ceremony , when the magazine asked 155 of its readers " Who gets your vote for best original song in a motion picture at the Academy Awards ? " ; only 5 % of them voted in favor of " Happy Working Song " winning the award while 10 % voted for " So Close " and 24 % voted for " That 's How You Know " . In addition to this , 6 % of readers voted for August Rush 's " Raise It Up " and 22 % voted for Glen Hansard and Marketa Irglova 's " Falling Slowly " from Once ( 2007 ) . Ultimately , " Happy Working Song " lost to " Falling Slowly " . Menken believes that his compositions did not win the Best Original Song award because of the fact that three of them had been nominated at once .

Famously , Enchanted became the fourth out of only four films in the history of the Academy Awards to receive three separate Academy Award nominations in the Best Original Song category , having been preceded by Disney 's own Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King ( 1994 ) at the 64th and 67th Academy Awards in 1992 and 1995 , respectively , and Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) at the 79th Academy Awards in 2007 . In anticipation of the 81st Academy Awards occurring the following year in 2009 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ultimately decided to prohibit and prevent this rare feat from reoccurring at upcoming ceremonies by limiting the maximum number of Best Original Song nominations from any one film to a total of only two per film .

= = Live performance and Kristin Chenoweth controversy = =

Adams ' first live performance of " Happy Working Song " was at the 80th Academy Awards ceremony in 2008 . Performing at approximately 6 : 01 pm local time , Adams was reportedly very nervous during and after her performance , revealing to The Huffington Post , " I don 't know how I did that . It 's the thing that was the most terrifying that I 've ever done , and the thing I 'm most proud of in my career . " Subsequently , Adams told Vulture.com that she would likely perform at the Academy Awards again " As long as [ she ] wasn 't doing it by [ her ] self " .

Adams ' live rendition of " Happy Working Song " was generally well @-@ received by critics . George Lang of The Oklahoman described it as a " perky " performance , additionally commenting , " [ Adams is ] great ... and she should have already racked up her first Oscar for acting by now . " The Boston Globe 's Wesley Morris wrote , " Watching Amy Adams sing ... makes you appreciated [ sic ] the magic of the movies . " However , the performance generated some mild controversy revolving around the fact that while Adams was selected to perform " Happy Working Song " , Broadway actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth was hired to sing " That 's How You Know " live at the ceremony . When questioned about this , Disney executives told the Los Angeles Times that " it 's best [ Adams ] sing ' Happy Working Song ' because it has so many parallels to Julie Andrews in Mary Poppins " .

However , some critics and journalists have argued that the decision stemmed from Disney and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ' belief that Adams , predominantly a film actress , would ultimately not be able to perform " That 's How You Know " as adequately as the more experienced Chenoweth . Additionally , critics noted that while Chenoweth 's Academy Award performance was staged and choreographed as a large , extravagant number featuring " dozens of colorfully costumed dancers " , Adams performed by herself on a mostly barren stage highlighted by a " single spotlight " . Vulture.com commented about the performance , " Adams didn 't do terribly , but she 's no Broadway star , and we felt kind of awful for her . " During an interview , Adams told the New York Post that she was not upset by the Academy 's decision , instead feeling that " That 's How You Know " was the " perfect " for Chenoweth to perform .

= John McCain =

John Sidney McCain III ( born August 29 , 1936 ) is the senior United States Senator from Arizona . He was the Republican presidential nominee in the 2008 United States presidential election .

McCain followed his father and grandfather , both four @-@ star admirals , into the United States Navy , graduating from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1958 . He became a naval aviator , flying ground @-@ attack aircraft from aircraft carriers . During the Vietnam War , he was almost killed in the 1967 USS Forrestal fire . In October 1967 , while on a bombing mission over Hanoi , he was shot down , seriously injured , and captured by the North Vietnamese . He was a prisoner of war until 1973 . McCain experienced episodes of torture , and refused an out @-@ of @-@ sequence early repatriation offer . His war wounds left him with lifelong physical limitations .

He retired from the Navy as a captain in 1981 and moved to Arizona , where he entered politics . Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1982 , he served two terms , and was then elected to the U.S. Senate in 1986 , winning re @-@ election easily four times , most recently in 2010 . While generally adhering to conservative principles , McCain at times has had a media reputation as a " maverick " for his willingness to disagree with his party on certain issues . After being investigated and largely exonerated in a political influence scandal of the 1980s as a member of the Keating Five , he made campaign finance reform one of his signature concerns , which eventually led to the passage of the McCain @-@ Feingold Act in 2002 . He is also known for his work towards restoring diplomatic relations with Vietnam in the 1990s , and for his belief that the Iraq War should be fought to a successful conclusion . McCain has chaired the Senate Commerce Committee , opposed spending that he considered to be pork barrel , and played a key role in alleviating a crisis over judicial nominations with the bi @-@ partisan group known as the Gang of 14 .

McCain ran for the Republican presidential nomination in 2000 but lost a heated primary season contest to George W. Bush . He secured the nomination in 2008 after coming back from early reversals , but fell to Democratic candidate Barack Obama in the general election , losing by a 365 – 173 electoral college margin and by 53 – 46 percent in the popular vote . He subsequently adopted more orthodox conservative stances and attitudes and largely opposed actions of the Obama administration , especially in regard to foreign policy matters . By 2013 , however , he had become a key figure in the Senate for negotiating deals on certain issues in an otherwise partisan environment . In 2015 , McCain became chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee .

= = Early life and military career , 1936 – 1981 = =

= = = Formative years and education = = =

John McCain was born on August 29 , 1936 , at Coco Solo Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone , to naval officer John S. McCain Jr . ( 1911 – 1981 ) and Roberta ( Wright ) McCain ( born 1912 ) . He has a younger brother named Joe and an elder sister named Sandy . At that time , the Panama Canal was under U.S. control .

McCain 's family tree includes Scots @-@ Irish and English ancestors . His father and his paternal grandfather , John S. McCain Sr. , both became four @-@ star United States Navy admirals . The McCain family followed his father to various naval postings in the United States and the Pacific . Altogether , he attended about 20 schools . In 1951 , the family settled in Northern Virginia , and McCain attended Episcopal High School , a private preparatory boarding school in Alexandria . He excelled at wrestling and graduated in 1954 .

Following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather , McCain entered the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . There , he was a friend and informal leader for many of his classmates , and sometimes stood up for targets of bullying . He also became a lightweight boxer . McCain did well in academic subjects that interested him , such as literature and history , but studied only enough to pass subjects he struggled with , such as mathematics . He came into conflict with higher @-@ ranking personnel and did not always obey the rules , which contributed to a low class rank ( 894 of 899 ) , despite a high IQ . McCain graduated in 1958 .

= = = Naval training , first marriage , and Vietnam assignment = = =

McCain 's early military career began when he was commissioned an ensign and started two and a half years of training at Pensacola to become a naval aviator . While there , he earned a reputation as a partying man . He completed flight school in 1960 , and became a naval pilot of ground @-@ attack aircraft , assigned to A @-@ 1 Skyraider squadrons aboard the aircraft carriers USS Intrepid and USS Enterprise in the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas . McCain began as a sub @-@ par flier who was at times careless and reckless ; during the early to mid @-@ 1960s , the planes he was flying crashed twice and once collided with power lines , but he received no major injuries . His aviation skills improved over time , and he was seen as a good pilot , albeit one who tended to " push the envelope " in his flying .

On July 3 , 1965 , McCain married Carol Shepp , a model originally from Philadelphia . McCain adopted her two young children Douglas and Andrew . He and Carol then had a daughter named Sidney .

McCain requested a combat assignment , and was assigned to the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal flying A @-@ 4 Skyhawks . His combat duty began when he was 30 years old , in mid @-@ 1967 , when Forrestal was assigned to a bombing campaign , Operation Rolling Thunder , during the Vietnam War . Stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin , McCain and his fellow pilots became frustrated by micromanagement from Washington , and he would later write that " In all candor , we thought our civilian commanders were complete idiots who didn 't have the least notion of what it took to win the war . "

On July 29 , 1967 , McCain , by then a lieutenant commander , was near the epicenter of the USS Forrestal fire . He escaped from his burning jet and was trying to help another pilot escape when a bomb exploded ; McCain was struck in the legs and chest by fragments . The ensuing fire killed 134 sailors and took 24 hours to control . With the Forrestal out of commission , McCain volunteered for assignment with the USS Oriskany , another aircraft carrier employed in Operation Rolling Thunder . Once there , he would be awarded the Navy Commendation Medal and the Bronze Star for missions flown over North Vietnam .

= = = Prisoner of war = = =

McCain 's capture and subsequent imprisonment began on October 26 , 1967 . He was flying his 23rd bombing mission over North Vietnam when his A @-@ 4E Skyhawk was shot down by a missile over Hanoi . McCain fractured both arms and a leg ejecting from the aircraft , and nearly drowned when he parachuted into Trúc Bạch Lake . Some North Vietnamese pulled him ashore , then others crushed his shoulder with a rifle butt and bayoneted him . McCain was then transported to Hanoi 's main Hỏa Lò Prison , nicknamed the " Hanoi Hilton " .

Although McCain was badly wounded , his captors refused to treat his injuries , beating and interrogating him to get information ; he was given medical care only when the North Vietnamese discovered that his father was a high @-@ ranking admiral . His status as a prisoner of war ( POW ) made the front pages of major newspapers .

McCain spent six weeks in the hospital while receiving marginal care . By then having lost 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) , in a chest cast , and with his gray hair turned white as snow , McCain was sent to a different camp on the outskirts of Hanoi in December 1967 , into a cell with two other Americans who did not expect him to live a week . In March 1968 , McCain was put into solitary confinement , where he would remain for two years .

In mid @-@ 1968 , John S. McCain Jr. was named commander of all U.S. forces in the Vietnam theater , and the North Vietnamese offered McCain early release because they wanted to appear merciful for propaganda purposes , and also to show other POWs that elite prisoners were willing to be treated preferentially . McCain turned down the offer ; he would only accept repatriation if every man taken in before him was released as well . Such early release was prohibited by the POW 's interpretation of the military Code of Conduct : To prevent the enemy from using prisoners for propaganda , officers were to agree to be released in the order in which they were captured .

In August 1968 , a program of severe torture began on McCain . He was subjected to rope bindings and repeated beatings every two hours , at the same time as he was suffering from dysentery . Further injuries led to the beginning of a suicide attempt , stopped by guards . Eventually , McCain made an anti @-@ American propaganda " confession " . He has always felt that his statement was dishonorable , but as he later wrote , " I had learned what we all learned over there : Every man has his breaking point . I had reached mine . " Many American POWs were tortured and maltreated in order to extract " confessions " and propaganda statements ; virtually all of them eventually yielded something to their captors . McCain subsequently received two to three beatings weekly because of his continued refusal to sign additional statements .

McCain refused to meet with various anti @-@ war groups seeking peace in Hanoi , wanting to give neither them nor the North Vietnamese a propaganda victory . From late 1969 onward , treatment of McCain and many of the other POWs became more tolerable , while McCain continued actively to resist the camp authorities . McCain and other prisoners cheered the U.S. " Christmas Bombing " campaign of December 1972 , viewing it as a forceful measure to push North Vietnam to terms .

Altogether , McCain was a prisoner of war in North Vietnam for five and a half years . He was released on March 14 , 1973 . His wartime injuries left him permanently incapable of raising his arms above his head .

= = = Commanding officer , liaison to Senate , and second marriage = = =

McCain 's return to the United States reunited him with his family . His wife Carol had suffered her own crippling ordeal due to an automobile accident in December 1969 . McCain became a celebrity of sorts , as a returned POW .

McCain underwent treatment for his injuries , including months of grueling physical therapy , and attended the National War College at Fort McNair in Washington , D.C. during 1973 – 1974 . Having been rehabilitated , by late 1974 , McCain had his flight status reinstated , and in 1976 he became commanding officer of a training squadron stationed in Florida . He improved the unit 's flight readiness and safety records , and won the squadron its first @-@ ever Meritorious Unit Commendation . During this period in Florida , McCain had extramarital affairs , and the McCains ' marriage began to falter , for which he later would accept blame .

McCain served as the Navy 's liaison to the U.S. Senate beginning in 1977 . In retrospect , he has said that this represented his " real entry into the world of politics and the beginning of my second career as a public servant . " His key behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role gained congressional financing for a new supercarrier against the wishes of the Carter administration .

In April 1979 , McCain met Cindy Lou Hensley , a teacher from Phoenix , Arizona , whose father had founded a large beer distributorship . They began dating , and he urged his wife Carol to grant him a divorce , which she did in February 1980 , with the uncontested divorce taking effect in April 1980 . The settlement included two houses , and financial support for her ongoing medical treatments due to her 1969 car accident ; they would remain on good terms . McCain and Hensley were married on May 17 , 1980 , with Senators William Cohen and Gary Hart attending as groomsmen . McCain 's children did not attend , and several years would pass before they reconciled . John and Cindy McCain entered into a prenuptial agreement that kept most of her family 's assets under her name ; they would always keep their finances apart and file separate income tax returns .

McCain decided to leave the Navy . It was doubtful whether he would ever be promoted to the rank of full admiral , as he had poor annual physicals and had been given no major sea command . His chances of being promoted to rear admiral were better , but McCain declined that prospect , as he had already made plans to run for Congress and said he could " do more good there . " McCain retired from the Navy on April 1 , 1981 , as a captain . He was designated as disabled and awarded a disability pension . Upon leaving the military , he moved to Arizona . His 17 military awards and decorations include the Silver Star , Legion of Merit , Distinguished Flying Cross , Bronze Star and Navy Commendation Medal , for actions before , during , and after his time as a POW .

= = House and Senate elections and career , 1982 – 2000 = =

= = = U.S. Congressman = = =

McCain set his sights on becoming a congressman because he was interested in current events , was ready for a new challenge , and had developed political ambitions during his time as Senate liaison . Living in Phoenix , he went to work for Hensley & Co . , his new father @-@ in @-@ law Jim Hensley 's large Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributorship . As vice president of public relations at the distributorship , he gained political support among the local business community , meeting powerful figures such as banker Charles Keating Jr . , real estate developer Fife Symington III and newspaper publisher Darrow " Duke " Tully . In 1982 , McCain ran as a Republican for an open seat in Arizona 's 1st congressional district , which was being vacated by 30 @-@ year incumbent Republican John Jacob Rhodes . A newcomer to the state , McCain was hit with charges of being a carpetbagger . McCain responded to a voter making that charge with what a Phoenix Gazette columnist would later describe as " the most devastating response to a potentially troublesome political issue I 've ever heard " :

Listen , pal . I spent 22 years in the Navy . My father was in the Navy . My grandfather was in the Navy . We in the military service tend to move a lot . We have to live in all parts of the country , all parts of the world . I wish I could have had the luxury , like you , of growing up and living and spending my entire life in a nice place like the First District of Arizona , but I was doing other things . As a matter of fact , when I think about it now , the place I lived longest in my life was Hanoi .

With the assistance of local political endorsements , his Washington connections , as well as money that his wife lent to his campaign , McCain won a highly contested primary election . He then easily won the general election in the heavily Republican district .

In 1983 , McCain was elected to lead the incoming group of Republican representatives , and was assigned to the House Committee on Interior Affairs . Also that year , he opposed creation of a federal Martin Luther King Jr . Day , but admitted in 2008 : " I was wrong and eventually realized that , in time to give full support [ in 1990 ] for a state holiday in Arizona . "

McCain 's politics at this point were mainly in line with President Ronald Reagan , including support for Reaganomics , and he was active on Indian Affairs bills . He supported most aspects of the foreign policy of the Reagan administration , including its hardline stance against the Soviet Union and policy towards Central American conflicts , such as backing the Contras in Nicaragua . McCain opposed keeping U.S. Marines deployed in Lebanon citing unattainable objectives , and subsequently criticized President Reagan for pulling out the troops too late ; in the interim , the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing killed hundreds . McCain won re @-@ election to the House easily in 1984 , and gained a spot on the House Foreign Affairs Committee . In 1985 , he made his first return trip to Vietnam , and also traveled to Chile where he met with its military junta ruler , General Augusto Pinochet .

= = = Growing family = = =

In 1984 , McCain and Cindy had their first child together , daughter Meghan , followed two years later by son John Sidney ( Jack ) IV , and in 1988 by son James ( Jimmy ) . In 1991 , Cindy McCain brought an abandoned three @-@ month @-@ old girl needing medical treatment to the U.S. from a Bangladeshi orphanage run by Mother Teresa . The McCains decided to adopt her and named her Bridget .

= = = First two terms in U.S. Senate = = =

McCain 's Senate career began in January 1987 , after he defeated his Democratic opponent , former state legislator Richard Kimball , by 20 percentage points in the 1986 election . McCain succeeded longtime American conservative icon and Arizona fixture Barry Goldwater upon the latter 's retirement as U.S. senator from Arizona .

Senator McCain became a member of the Armed Services Committee , with which he had formerly done his Navy liaison work ; he also joined the Commerce Committee and the Indian Affairs Committee . He continued to support the Native American agenda . As first a House member and then a senator – and as a lifelong gambler with close ties to the gambling industry – McCain was one of the main authors of the 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act , which codified rules regarding Native American gambling enterprises . McCain was also a strong supporter of the Gramm @-@ Rudman legislation that enforced automatic spending cuts in the case of budget deficits .

McCain soon gained national visibility . He delivered a well @-@ received speech at the 1988 Republican National Convention , was mentioned by the press as a short list vice @-@ presidential running mate for Republican nominee George H. W. Bush , and was named chairman of Veterans for Bush .

McCain became embroiled in a scandal during the 1980s , as one of five United States senators comprising the so @-@ called Keating Five . Between 1982 and 1987 , McCain had received $ 112 @,@ 000 in lawful political contributions from Charles Keating Jr. and his associates at Lincoln Savings and Loan Association , along with trips on Keating 's jets that McCain belatedly repaid , in 1989 . In 1987 , McCain was one of the five senators whom Keating contacted in order to prevent the government 's seizure of Lincoln , and McCain met twice with federal regulators to discuss the government 's investigation of Lincoln . In 1999 , McCain said : " The appearance of it was wrong . It 's a wrong appearance when a group of senators appear in a meeting with a group of regulators , because it conveys the impression of undue and improper influence . And it was the wrong thing to do . " In the end , McCain was cleared by the Senate Ethics Committee of acting improperly or violating any law or Senate rule , but was mildly rebuked for exercising " poor judgment " . In his 1992 re @-@ election bid , the Keating Five affair was not a major issue , and he won handily , gaining 56 percent of the vote to defeat Democratic community and civil rights activist Claire Sargent and independent former governor , Evan Mecham .

McCain developed a reputation for independence during the 1990s . He took pride in challenging party leadership and establishment forces , becoming difficult to categorize politically .

As a member of the 1991 – 1993 Senate Select Committee on POW / MIA Affairs , chaired by fellow Vietnam War veteran and Democrat , John Kerry , McCain investigated the Vietnam War POW / MIA issue , to determine the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in action during the Vietnam War . The committee 's unanimous report stated there was " no compelling evidence that proves that any American remains alive in captivity in Southeast Asia . " Helped by McCain 's efforts , in 1995 the U.S. normalized diplomatic relations with Vietnam . McCain was vilified by some POW / MIA activists who , unlike the Arizona senator , believed large numbers of Americans were still held against their will in Southeast Asia . Since January 1993 , McCain has been Chairman of the International Republican Institute , an organization partly funded by the U.S. Government that supports the emergence of political democracy worldwide .

In 1993 and 1994 , McCain voted to confirm President Clinton 's nominees Stephen Breyer and Ruth Bader Ginsburg whom he considered to be qualified for the U.S. Supreme Court . He would later explain that " under our Constitution , it is the president 's call to make . " McCain had also voted to confirm nominees of Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush , including Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas .

McCain attacked what he saw as the corrupting influence of large political contributions – from corporations , labor unions , other organizations , and wealthy individuals – and he made this his signature issue . Starting in 1994 , he worked with Democratic Wisconsin Senator Russ Feingold on campaign finance reform ; their McCain @-@ Feingold bill attempted to put limits on " soft money " . The efforts of McCain and Feingold were opposed by some of the moneyed interests targeted , by incumbents in both parties , by those who felt spending limits impinged on free political speech and might be unconstitutional as well , and by those who wanted to counterbalance the power of what they saw as media bias . Despite sympathetic coverage in the media , initial versions of the McCain @-@ Feingold Act were filibustered and never came to a vote .

The term " maverick Republican " became a label frequently applied to McCain , and he has also used it himself . In 1993 , McCain opposed military operations in Somalia . Another target of his was pork barrel spending by Congress , and he actively supported the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 , which gave the president power to veto individual spending items but was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1998 .

In the 1996 presidential election , McCain was again on the short list of possible vice @-@ presidential picks , this time for Republican nominee Bob Dole . The following year , Time magazine named McCain as one of the " 25 Most Influential People in America " .

In 1997 , McCain became chairman of the powerful Senate Commerce Committee ; he was criticized for accepting funds from corporations and businesses under the committee 's purview , but in response said the small contributions he received were not part of the big @-@ money nature of the campaign finance problem . McCain took on the tobacco industry in 1998 , proposing legislation that would increase cigarette taxes in order to fund anti @-@ smoking campaigns , discourage teenage smokers , increase money for health research studies , and help states pay for smoking @-@ related health care costs . Supported by the Clinton administration but opposed by the industry and most Republicans , the bill failed to gain cloture .

= = = Start of third term in the U.S. Senate = = =

McCain won re @-@ election to a third senate term in November 1998 , prevailing in a landslide over his Democratic opponent , environmental lawyer Ed Ranger . In the February 1999 Senate trial following the impeachment of Bill Clinton , McCain voted to convict the president on both the perjury and obstruction of justice counts , saying Clinton had violated his sworn oath of office . In March 1999 , McCain voted to approve the NATO bombing campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , saying that the ongoing genocide of the Kosovo War must be stopped and criticizing past Clinton administration inaction . Later in 1999 , McCain shared the Profile in Courage Award with Feingold for their work in trying to enact their campaign finance reform , although the bill was still failing repeated attempts to gain cloture .

In August 1999 , McCain 's memoir Faith of My Fathers , co @-@ authored with Mark Salter , was published ; a reviewer observed that its appearance " seems to have been timed to the unfolding Presidential campaign . " The most successful of his writings , it received positive reviews , became a bestseller , and was later made into a TV film . The book traces McCain 's family background and childhood , covers his time at Annapolis and his service before and during the Vietnam War , concluding with his release from captivity in 1973 . According to one reviewer , it describes " the kind of challenges that most of us can barely imagine . It 's a fascinating history of a remarkable military family . "

= = 2000 presidential campaign = =

McCain announced his candidacy for president on September 27 , 1999 , in Nashua , New Hampshire , saying he was staging " a fight to take our government back from the power brokers and special interests , and return it to the people and the noble cause of freedom it was created to serve " . The leader for the Republican nomination was Texas Governor George W. Bush , who had the political and financial support of most of the party establishment .

McCain focused on the New Hampshire primary , where his message appealed to independents . He traveled on a campaign bus called the Straight Talk Express . He held many town hall meetings , answering every question voters asked , in a successful example of " retail politics " , and he used free media to compensate for his lack of funds . One reporter later recounted that , " McCain talked all day long with reporters on his Straight Talk Express bus ; he talked so much that sometimes he said things that he shouldn 't have , and that 's why the media loved him . " On February 1 , 2000 , he won New Hampshire 's primary with 49 percent of the vote to Bush 's 30 percent . The Bush campaign and the Republican establishment feared that a McCain victory in the crucial South Carolina primary might give his campaign unstoppable momentum .

The Arizona Republic would write that the McCain – Bush primary contest in South Carolina " has entered national political lore as a low @-@ water mark in presidential campaigns " , while The New York Times called it " a painful symbol of the brutality of American politics " . A variety of interest groups that McCain had challenged in the past ran negative ads . Bush borrowed McCain 's earlier language of reform , and declined to dissociate himself from a veterans activist who accused McCain ( in Bush 's presence ) of having " abandoned the veterans " on POW / MIA and Agent Orange issues .

Incensed , McCain ran ads accusing Bush of lying and comparing the governor to Bill Clinton , which Bush said was " about as low a blow as you can give in a Republican primary " . An anonymous smear campaign began against McCain , delivered by push polls , faxes , e @-@ mails , flyers , and audience plants . The smears claimed that McCain had fathered a black child out of wedlock ( the McCains ' dark @-@ skinned daughter was adopted from Bangladesh ) , that his wife Cindy was a drug addict , that he was a homosexual , and that he was a " Manchurian Candidate " who was either a traitor or mentally unstable from his North Vietnam POW days . The Bush campaign strongly denied any involvement with the attacks .

McCain lost South Carolina on February 19 , with 42 percent of the vote to Bush 's 53 percent , in part because Bush mobilized the state 's evangelical voters and outspent McCain . The win allowed Bush to regain lost momentum . McCain would say of the rumor spreaders , " I believe that there is a special place in hell for people like those . " According to one report , the South Carolina experience left McCain in a " very dark place " .

McCain 's campaign never completely recovered from his South Carolina defeat , although he did rebound partially by winning in Arizona and Michigan a few days later . He made a speech in Virginia Beach that criticized Christian leaders , including Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell , as divisive conservatives , declaring " ... we embrace the fine members of the religious conservative community . But that does not mean that we will pander to their self @-@ appointed leaders . " McCain lost the Virginia primary on February 29 , and on March 7 lost nine of the thirteen primaries on Super Tuesday to Bush . With little hope of overcoming Bush 's delegate lead , McCain withdrew from the race on March 9 , 2000 . He endorsed Bush two months later , and made occasional appearances with the Texas governor during the general election campaign .

= = Senate career , 2000 – 2008 = =

= = = Remainder of third Senate term = = =

McCain began 2001 by breaking with the new George W. Bush administration on a number of matters , including HMO reform , climate change , and gun legislation ; McCain @-@ Feingold was opposed by Bush as well . In May 2001 , McCain was one of only two Senate Republicans to vote against the Bush tax cuts . Besides the differences with Bush on ideological grounds , there was considerable antagonism between the two remaining from the previous year 's campaign . Later , when a Republican senator , Jim Jeffords , became an Independent , thereby throwing control of the Senate to the Democrats , McCain defended Jeffords against " self @-@ appointed enforcers of party loyalty " . Indeed , there was speculation at the time , and in years since , about McCain himself leaving the Republican Party , but McCain has always adamantly denied that he ever considered doing so . Beginning in 2001 , McCain used political capital gained from his presidential run , as well as improved legislative skills and relationships with other members , to become one of the Senate 's most influential members .

After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , McCain supported Bush and the U.S.-led war in Afghanistan . He and Democratic senator Joe Lieberman wrote the legislation that created the 9 / 11 Commission , while he and Democratic senator Fritz Hollings co @-@ sponsored the Aviation and Transportation Security Act that federalized airport security .

In March 2002 , McCain @-@ Feingold passed in both Houses of Congress and was signed into law by President Bush . Seven years in the making , it was McCain 's greatest legislative achievement .

Meanwhile , in discussions over proposed U.S. action against Iraq , McCain was a strong supporter of the Bush administration 's position . He stated that Iraq was " a clear and present danger to the United States of America " , and voted accordingly for the Iraq War Resolution in October 2002 . He predicted that U.S. forces would be treated as liberators by a large number of the Iraqi people . In May 2003 , McCain voted against the second round of Bush tax cuts , saying it was unwise at a time of war . By November 2003 , after a trip to Iraq , he was publicly questioning Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , saying that more U.S. troops were needed ; the following year , McCain announced that he had lost confidence in Rumsfeld .

In October 2003 , McCain and Lieberman co @-@ sponsored the Climate Stewardship Act that would have introduced a cap and trade system aimed at returning greenhouse gas emissions to 2000 levels ; the bill was defeated with 55 votes to 43 in the Senate . They reintroduced modified versions of the Act two additional times , most recently in January 2007 with the co @-@ sponsorship of Barack Obama , among others .

In the 2004 U.S. presidential election campaign , McCain was once again frequently mentioned for the vice @-@ presidential slot , only this time as part of the Democratic ticket under nominee John Kerry . McCain said that Kerry had never formally offered him the position and that he would not have accepted it if he had . At the 2004 Republican National Convention , McCain supported Bush for re @-@ election , praising Bush 's management of the War on Terror since the September 11 attacks . At the same time , he defended Kerry 's Vietnam war record . By August 2004 , McCain had the best favorable @-@ to @-@ unfavorable rating ( 55 percent to 19 percent ) of any national politician ; he campaigned for Bush much more than he had four years previously , though the two remained situational allies rather than friends .

McCain was also up for re @-@ election as senator , in 2004 . He defeated little @-@ known Democratic schoolteacher Stuart Starky with his biggest margin of victory , garnering 77 percent of the vote .

= = = Start of fourth Senate term = = =

In May 2005 , McCain led the so @-@ called Gang of 14 in the Senate , which established a compromise that preserved the ability of senators to filibuster judicial nominees , but only in " extraordinary circumstances " . The compromise took the steam out of the filibuster movement , but some Republicans remained disappointed that the compromise did not eliminate filibusters of judicial nominees in all circumstances . McCain subsequently cast Supreme Court confirmation votes in favor of John Roberts and Samuel Alito , calling them " two of the finest justices ever appointed to the United States Supreme Court . "

Breaking from his 2001 and 2003 votes , McCain supported the Bush tax cut extension in May 2006 , saying not to do so would amount to a tax increase . Working with Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy , McCain was a strong proponent of comprehensive immigration reform , which would involve legalization , guest worker programs , and border enforcement components . The Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act was never voted on in 2005 , while the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 passed the Senate in May 2006 but failed in the House . In June 2007 , President Bush , McCain , and others made the strongest push yet for such a bill , the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , but it aroused intense grassroots opposition among talk radio listeners and others , some of whom furiously characterized the proposal as an " amnesty " program , and the bill twice failed to gain cloture in the Senate .

By the middle of the 2000s ( decade ) , the increased Indian gaming that McCain had helped bring about was a $ 23 billion industry . He was twice chairman of the Senate Indian Affairs Committee , in 1995 – 1997 and 2005 – 2007 , and his Committee helped expose the Jack Abramoff Indian lobbying scandal . By 2005 and 2006 , McCain was pushing for amendments to the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act that would limit creation of off @-@ reservation casinos , as well as limiting the movement of tribes across state lines to build casinos .

Owing to his time as a POW , McCain has been recognized for his sensitivity to the detention and interrogation of detainees in the War on Terror . In October 2005 , McCain introduced the McCain Detainee Amendment to the Defense Appropriations bill for 2005 , and the Senate voted 90 – 9 to support the amendment . It prohibits inhumane treatment of prisoners , including prisoners at Guantanamo Bay , by confining military interrogations to the techniques in the U.S. Army Field Manual on Interrogation . Although Bush had threatened to veto the bill if McCain 's amendment was included , the President announced in December 2005 that he accepted McCain 's terms and would " make it clear to the world that this government does not torture and that we adhere to the international convention of torture , whether it be here at home or abroad " . This stance , among others , led to McCain being named by Time magazine in 2006 as one of America 's 10 Best Senators . McCain voted in February 2008 against a bill containing a ban on waterboarding , which provision was later narrowly passed and vetoed by Bush . However , the bill in question contained other provisions to which McCain objected , and his spokesman stated : " This wasn 't a vote on waterboarding . This was a vote on applying the standards of the [ Army ] field manual to CIA personnel . "

Meanwhile , McCain continued questioning the progress of the war in Iraq . In September 2005 , he remarked upon Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Richard Myers ' optimistic outlook on the war 's progress : " Things have not gone as well as we had planned or expected , nor as we were told by you , General Myers . " In August 2006 , he criticized the administration for continually understating the effectiveness of the insurgency : " We [ have ] not told the American people how tough and difficult this could be . " From the beginning , McCain strongly supported the Iraq troop surge of 2007 . The strategy 's opponents labeled it " McCain 's plan " and University of Virginia political science professor Larry Sabato said , " McCain owns Iraq just as much as Bush does now . " The surge and the war were unpopular during most of the year , even within the Republican Party , as McCain 's presidential campaign was underway ; faced with the consequences , McCain frequently responded , " I would much rather lose a campaign than a war . " In March 2008 , McCain credited the surge strategy with reducing violence in Iraq , as he made his eighth trip to that country since the war began .

= = 2008 presidential campaign = =

McCain formally announced his intention to run for President of the United States on April 25 , 2007 in Portsmouth , New Hampshire . He stated that : " I 'm not running for president to be somebody , but to do something ; to do the hard but necessary things not the easy and needless things . "

McCain 's oft @-@ cited strengths as a presidential candidate for 2008 included national name recognition , sponsorship of major lobbying and campaign finance reform initiatives , his ability to reach across the aisle , his well @-@ known military service and experience as a POW , his experience from the 2000 presidential campaign , and an expectation that he would capture Bush 's top fundraisers . During the 2006 election cycle , McCain had attended 346 events and helped raise more than $ 10 @.@ 5 million on behalf of Republican candidates . McCain also became more willing to ask business and industry for campaign contributions , while maintaining that such contributions would not affect any official decisions he would make . Despite being considered the front @-@ runner for the nomination by pundits as 2007 began , McCain was in second place behind former Mayor of New York City Rudy Giuliani in national Republican polls as the year progressed .

McCain had fundraising problems in the first half of 2007 , due in part to his support for the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , which was unpopular among the Republican base electorate . Large @-@ scale campaign staff downsizing took place in early July , but McCain said that he was not considering dropping out of the race . Later that month , the candidate 's campaign manager and campaign chief strategist both departed . McCain slumped badly in national polls , often running third or fourth with 15 percent or less support .

The Arizona senator subsequently resumed his familiar position as a political underdog , riding the Straight Talk Express and taking advantage of free media such as debates and sponsored events . By December 2007 , the Republican race was unsettled , with none of the top @-@ tier candidates dominating the race and all of them possessing major vulnerabilities with different elements of the Republican base electorate . McCain was showing a resurgence , in particular with renewed strength in New Hampshire – the scene of his 2000 triumph – and was bolstered further by the endorsements of The Boston Globe , the New Hampshire Union Leader , and almost two dozen other state newspapers , as well as from Senator Lieberman ( now an Independent Democrat ) . McCain decided not to campaign significantly in the January 3 , 2008 , Iowa caucuses , which saw a win by former Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee .

McCain 's comeback plan paid off when he won the New Hampshire primary on January 8 , defeating former Governor of Massachusetts Mitt Romney in a close contest , to once again become one of the front @-@ runners in the race . In mid @-@ January , McCain placed first in the South Carolina primary , narrowly defeating Mike Huckabee . Pundits credited the third @-@ place finisher , Tennessee 's former U.S. Senator Fred Thompson , with drawing votes from Huckabee in South Carolina , thereby giving a narrow win to McCain . A week later , McCain won the Florida primary , beating Romney again in a close contest ; Giuliani then dropped out and endorsed McCain .

On February 5 , McCain won both the majority of states and delegates in the Super Tuesday Republican primaries , giving him a commanding lead toward the Republican nomination . Romney departed from the race on February 7 . McCain 's wins in the March 4 primaries clinched a majority of the delegates , and he became the presumptive Republican nominee .

McCain , having been born in the Panama Canal Zone , if elected would have become the first president who was born outside the current 50 states . This raised a potential legal issue , since the United States Constitution requires the president to be a natural @-@ born citizen of the United States . A bipartisan legal review , and a unanimous but non @-@ binding Senate resolution , both concluded that he is a natural @-@ born citizen . Also , if inaugurated in 2009 at age 72 years and 144 days , he would have been the oldest U.S. president upon ascension to the presidency , and the second @-@ oldest president to be inaugurated .

McCain addressed concerns about his age and past health concerns , stating in 2005 that his health was " excellent " . He had been treated for a type of skin cancer called melanoma , and an operation in 2000 for that condition left a noticeable mark on the left side of his face . McCain 's prognosis appeared favorable , according to independent experts , especially because he had already survived without a recurrence for more than seven years . In May 2008 , McCain 's campaign briefly let the press review his medical records , and he was described as appearing cancer @-@ free , having a strong heart , and in general being in good health .

Upon clinching enough delegates for the nomination , McCain 's focus shifted toward the general election , while Barack Obama and Hillary Rodham Clinton fought a prolonged battle for the Democratic nomination . McCain introduced various policy proposals , and sought to improve his fundraising . Cindy McCain , who accounts for most of the couple 's wealth with an estimated net worth of $ 100 million , made part of her tax returns public in May . After facing criticism about lobbyists on staff , the McCain campaign issued new rules in May 2008 to avoid conflicts of interest , causing five top aides to leave .

When Obama became the Democrats ' presumptive nominee in early June , McCain proposed joint town hall meetings , but Obama instead requested more traditional debates for the fall . In July , a staff shake @-@ up put Steve Schmidt in full operational control of the McCain campaign . Throughout these summer months , Obama typically led McCain in national polls by single @-@ digit margins , and also led in several key swing states . McCain reprised his familiar underdog role , which was due at least in part to the overall challenges Republicans faced in the election year . McCain accepted public financing for the general election campaign , and the restrictions that go with it , while criticizing his Democratic opponent for becoming the first major party candidate to opt out of such financing for the general election since the system was implemented in 1976 . The Republican 's broad campaign theme focused on his experience and ability to lead , compared to Obama 's .

Alaska Governor Sarah Palin was revealed as McCain 's surprise choice for running mate on August 29 , 2008 . McCain was only the second U.S. major @-@ party presidential nominee to select a woman for running mate and the first Republican to do so ; Palin would have become the first female Vice President of the United States if she had been elected . On September 3 , 2008 , McCain and Palin became the Republican Party 's presidential and vice presidential nominees , respectively , at the 2008 Republican National Convention in Saint Paul , Minnesota . McCain surged ahead of Obama in national polls following the convention , as the Palin pick energized core Republican voters who had previously been wary of him . However , by the campaign 's own later admission , the rollout of Palin to the national media went poorly , and voter reactions to Palin grew increasingly negative , especially among independents and other voters concerned about her qualifications .

On September 24 , McCain said he was suspending his campaign , called on Obama to join him , and proposed delaying the first of the general election debates with Obama , in order to work on the proposed U.S. financial system bailout before Congress , which was targeted at addressing the subprime mortgage crisis and liquidity crisis . McCain 's intervention helped to give dissatisfied House Republicans an opportunity to propose changes to the plan that was otherwise close to agreement . After Obama declined McCain 's suspension suggestion , McCain went ahead with the debate on September 26 . On October 1 , McCain voted in favor of a revised $ 700 billion rescue plan . Another debate was held on October 7 ; like the first one , polls afterward suggested that Obama had won it . A final presidential debate occurred on October 15 .

During and after the final debate , McCain compared Obama 's proposed policies to socialism and often invoked " Joe the Plumber " as a symbol of American small business dreams that would be thwarted by an Obama presidency . McCain barred using the Jeremiah Wright controversy in ads against Obama , but the campaign did frequently criticize Obama regarding his purported relationship with Bill Ayers . McCain 's rallies became increasingly vitriolic , with attendees denigrating Obama and displaying a growing anti @-@ Muslim and anti @-@ African @-@ American sentiment . After one female McCain supporter said she did not trust Obama because " he 's an Arab " , McCain pointedly replied to the woman , " No ma 'am . He 's a decent family man , citizen , that I just happen to have disagreements with on fundamental issues . " McCain 's response was considered one of the finer moments of the campaign and was still being viewed several years later as a marker for civility in American politics . Down the stretch , McCain was outspent by Obama by a four @-@ to @-@ one margin .

The election took place on November 4 , and Barack Obama was projected the winner at about 11 : 00 pm Eastern Standard Time ; McCain delivered his concession speech in Phoenix , Arizona about twenty minutes later . In it , he noted the historic and special significance of Obama becoming the nation 's first African American president . In the end , McCain won 173 electoral college votes to Obama 's 365 ; McCain failed to win most of the battleground states and lost some traditionally Republican ones . McCain gained 46 percent of the nationwide popular vote , compared to Obama 's 53 percent .

= = Senate career after 2008 = =

= = = Remainder of fourth Senate term = = =

Following his defeat , McCain returned to the Senate amid varying views about what role he might play there . In mid @-@ November 2008 he met with President @-@ elect Obama , and the two discussed issues they had commonality on . Around the same time , McCain indicated that he intended to run for re @-@ election to his Senate seat in 2010 . As the inauguration neared , Obama consulted with McCain on a variety of matters , to an extent rarely seen between a president @-@ elect and his defeated rival , and President Obama 's inauguration speech contained an allusion to McCain 's theme of finding a purpose greater than oneself .

Nevertheless , McCain emerged as a leader of the Republican opposition to the Obama economic stimulus package of 2009 , saying it had too much spending for too little stimulative effect . McCain also voted against Obama 's Supreme Court nomination of Sonia Sotomayor – saying that while undeniably qualified , " I do not believe that she shares my belief in judicial restraint " – and by August 2009 was siding more often with his Republican Party on closely divided votes than ever before in his senatorial career . McCain reasserted that the Afghanistan War was winnable and criticized Obama for a slow process in deciding whether to send additional U.S. troops there .

McCain also harshly criticized Obama for scrapping construction of the U.S. missile defense complex in Poland , declined to enter negotiations over climate change legislation similar to what he had proposed in the past , and strongly opposed the Obama health care plan . McCain led a successful filibuster of a measure that would allow repeal of the military 's " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy towards gays . Factors involved in McCain 's new direction included Senate staffers leaving , a renewed concern over national debt levels and the scope of federal government , a possible Republican primary challenge from conservatives in 2010 , and McCain 's campaign edge being slow to wear off . As one longtime McCain advisor said , " A lot of people , including me , thought he might be the Republican building bridges to the Obama Administration . But he 's been more like the guy blowing up the bridges . "

In early 2010 , a primary challenge from radio talk show host and former U.S. Congressman J. D. Hayworth materialized in the 2010 U.S. Senate election in Arizona and drew support from some but not all elements of the Tea Party movement . With Hayworth using the campaign slogan " The Consistent Conservative " , McCain said – despite his own past use of the term on a number of occasions – " I never considered myself a maverick . I consider myself a person who serves the people of Arizona to the best of his abilities . " The primary challenge coincided with McCain reversing or muting his stance on some issues such as the bank bailouts , closing of the Guantánamo Bay detention facility , campaign finance restrictions , and gays in the military .

When the health care plan , now called the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , passed Congress and became law in March 2010 , McCain strongly opposed the landmark legislation not only on its merits but also on the way it had been handled in Congress . As a consequence , he warned that congressional Republicans would not be working with Democrats on anything else : " There will be no cooperation for the rest of the year . They have poisoned the well in what they 've done and how they 've done it . " McCain became a vocal defender of Arizona SB 1070 , the April 2010 tough anti @-@ illegal immigration state law that aroused national controversy , saying that the state had been forced to take action given the federal government 's inability to control the border . In the August 24 primary , McCain beat Hayworth by a 56 to 32 percent margin . McCain proceeded to easily defeat Democratic city councilman Rodney Glassman in the general election .

In the lame duck session of the 111th Congress , McCain voted for the compromise Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 , but against the DREAM Act ( which he had once sponsored ) and the New START Treaty . Most prominently , he continued to lead the eventually losing fight against " Don 't ask , don 't tell " repeal . In his opposition , he sometimes fell into anger or hostility on the Senate floor , and called its passage " a very sad day " that would compromise the battle effectiveness of the military .

= = = Fifth Senate term = = =

While control of the House of Representatives went over to the Republicans in the 112th Congress , the Senate stayed Democratic and McCain continued to be the ranking member of the Senate Armed Services Committee . As the Arab Spring took center stage , McCain urged that the embattled Egyptian president , Hosni Mubarak , step down and thought the U.S. should push for democratic reforms in the region despite the associated risks of religious extremists gaining power . McCain was an especially vocal supporter of the 2011 military intervention in Libya . In April of that year he visited the Anti @-@ Gaddafi forces and National Transitional Council in Benghazi , the highest @-@ ranking American to do so , and said that the rebel forces were " my heroes " . In June , he joined with Senator Kerry in offering a resolution that would have authorized the military intervention , and said : " The administration 's disregard for the elected representatives of the American people on this matter has been troubling and counterproductive . " In August , McCain voted for the Budget Control Act of 2011 that resolved the U.S. debt ceiling crisis . In November , McCain and Senator Carl Levin were leaders in efforts to codify in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 that terrorism suspects , no matter where captured , could be detained by the U.S. military and its tribunal system ; following objections by civil libertarians , some Democrats , and the White House , McCain and Levin agreed to language making it clear that the bill would not pertain to U.S. citizens .

In the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries , McCain endorsed former 2008 rival Mitt Romney and campaigned for him , but compared the contest to a Greek tragedy due to its drawn @-@ out nature with massive Super PAC @-@ funded attack ads damaging all the contenders . He labelled the Supreme Court 's 2010 Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission decision as " uninformed , arrogant , naïve , " and , decrying its effects and the future scandals he thought it would bring , said it would become considered the court 's " worst decision ... in the 21st century " . McCain took the lead in opposing the defense spending sequestrations brought on by the Budget Control Act of 2011 and gained attention for defending State Department aide Huma Abedin against charges brought by a few House Republicans that she had ties to the Muslim Brotherhood .

McCain continued to be one of the most frequently appearing guests on the Sunday morning news talk shows . He became one of the most vocal critics of the Obama administration 's handling of the September 11 , 2012 , attack on the U.S. diplomatic mission in Benghazi , saying it was a " debacle " that featured either " a massive cover @-@ up or incompetence that is not acceptable " and that it was worse than the Watergate scandal . As part of this , he and a few other senators were successful in blocking the planned nomination of Ambassador to the UN Susan Rice to succeed Hillary Rodham Clinton as U.S. Secretary of State ; McCain 's friend and colleague John Kerry was nominated instead .

Regarding the Syrian civil war that had begun in 2011 , McCain repeatedly argued for the U.S. intervening militarily in the conflict on the side of the anti @-@ government forces . He staged a visit to rebel forces inside Syria in May 2013 , the first senator to do so , and called for arming the Free Syrian Army with heavy weapons and for the establishment of a no @-@ fly zone over the country . Following reports that two of the people he posed for pictures with had been responsible for the kidnapping of eleven Lebanese Shiite pilgrims the year before , McCain disputed one of the identifications and said he had not met directly with the other . Following the 2013 Ghouta chemical weapons attack , McCain argued again for strong American military action against the government of the Syrian president , Bashar al @-@ Assad , and in September 2013 cast a Foreign Relations committee vote in favor of Obama 's request to Congress that it authorize a military response . McCain took the lead in criticizing a growing non @-@ interventionist movement within the Republican Party , exemplified by his March 2013 comment that Senators Rand Paul and Ted Cruz and Representative Justin Amash were " wacko birds " .

During 2013 , McCain was a member of a bi @-@ partisan group of senators , the " Gang of Eight " , which announced principles for another try at comprehensive immigration reform . The resulting Border Security , Economic Opportunity , and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013 passed the Senate by a 68 – 32 margin , but faced an uncertain future in the House . In July 2013 , McCain was at the forefront of an agreement among senators to drop filibusters against Obama administration executive nominees without Democrats resorting to the " nuclear option " that would disallow such filibusters altogether . However , the option would be imposed later in the year anyway , much to the senator 's displeasure . These developments and some other negotiations showed that McCain now had improved relations with the Obama administration , including the president himself , as well as with Democratic Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid , and that he had become the leader of a power center in the Senate for cutting deals in an otherwise bitterly partisan environment . They also led some observers to conclude that the " maverick " McCain had returned .

McCain was publicly skeptical about the Republican strategy that precipitated the U.S. federal government shutdown of 2013 and U.S. debt @-@ ceiling crisis of 2013 in order to defund or delay the Affordable Care Act ; in October 2013 he voted in favor of the Continuing Appropriations Act , 2014 , which resolved them and said , " Republicans have to understand we have lost this battle , as I predicted weeks ago , that we would not be able to win because we were demanding something that was not achievable . " Similarly , he was one of nine Republican senators who voted for the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2013 at the end of the year . By early 2014 , McCain 's apostasies were enough that the Arizona Republican Party formally censured him for having what they saw as a liberal record that had been " disastrous and harmful " . McCain remained stridently opposed to many aspects of Obama 's foreign policy , however , and in June 2014 , following major gains by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant in the 2014 Northern Iraq offensive , decried what he saw as a U.S. failure to protect its past gains in Iraq and called on the president 's entire national security team to resign . McCain said , " Could all this have been avoided ? ... The answer is absolutely yes . If I sound angry it 's because I am angry . "

McCain was a supporter of the Euromaidan protests against Ukraine leader Viktor Yanukovych and his government , and appeared in Independence Square in Kiev in December 2013 . Following the 2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine , McCain became a vocal supporter of providing arms to Ukrainian military forces , saying the sanctions imposed against Russia were not enough . In 2014 , McCain led the opposition to the appointments of Colleen Bell , Noah Mamet , and George Tsunis to the ambassadorships in Hungary , Argentina , and Norway , respectively , arguing they were unqualified appointees being rewarded for their political fundraising . Unlike many Republicans , McCain supported the release and contents of the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture in December 2014 , saying " The truth is sometimes a hard pill to swallow . It sometimes causes us difficulties at home and abroad . It is sometimes used by our enemies in attempts to hurt us . But the American people are entitled to it , nonetheless . " He added that the CIA 's practices following the September 11 attacks had " stained our national honor " while doing " much harm and little practical good " and that " Our enemies act without conscience . We must not . " He opposed the Obama administration 's December 2014 decision to normalize relations with Cuba .

As the 114th United States Congress assembled in January 2015 with Republicans in control of the Senate , McCain became chair of the Armed Services Committee , a longtime goal of his . In this position , he led the writing of proposed Senate legislation that sought to modify parts of the Goldwater @-@ Nichols Act of 1986 in order to return responsibility for major weapons systems acquisition back to the individual armed services and their secretaries and away from the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition , Technology and Logistics . As chair , McCain has tried to maintain a bipartisan approach and has forged a good relationship with ranking member Jack Reed . In April 2015 , McCain announced that he would run for a sixth term in Arizona 's 2016 Senate election . While there was still conservative and Tea Party anger at him , it was unclear if they would mount an effective primary challenge against him . During 2015 , McCain strongly opposed the proposed comprehensive agreement on the Iranian nuclear program , saying that Secretary of State Kerry was " delusional " and " giv [ ing ] away the store " in negotiations with Iran . McCain supported the 2015 Saudi Arabian @-@ led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh .

In the Republican Party presidential primaries , 2016 , McCain said he would support the Republican nominee even if it was Donald Trump , but following Mitt Romney 's March 3 speech , McCain endorsed the sentiments expressed in that speech , saying he had serious concerns about Trump 's " uninformed and indeed dangerous statements on national security issues " . Relations between the two had been fraught since early in the Donald Trump presidential campaign , 2016 , when the real estate mogul had said of McCain , saying " He 's not a war hero . He was a war hero because he was captured ? I like people who weren 't captured . " Following Trump becoming the presumptive nominee of the party on May 3 , McCain said that Republican voters had spoken and he would support Trump . McCain was expected to face a potentially strong challenge from Democratic Congresswoman Ann Kirkpatrick in the general election and privately expressed worry over the effect that Trump 's unpopularity among Hispanic voters might have on his own chances .

= = = Committee assignments = = =

Committee on Armed Services ( Chair )

as chair of the full committee may serve as an ex @-@ officio member of any subcommittee

Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs

Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations

Subcommittee on Financial and Contracting Oversight

Committee on Indian Affairs

Committee on Intelligence ( ex @-@ officio )

= = = Caucus memberships = = =

International Conservation Caucus

Senate Diabetes Caucus

Senate National Security Caucus ( Co @-@ Chair )

Sportsmen 's Caucus

Senate Wilderness and Public Lands Caucus

Senate Ukraine Caucus

= = Political positions = =

Various advocacy groups have given Senator McCain scores or grades as to how well his votes align with the positions of each group . The American Conservative Union has awarded McCain a lifetime rating of 82 percent through 2014 , while McCain has an average lifetime 12 percent " Liberal Quotient " from Americans for Democratic Action through 2014 .

The non @-@ partisan National Journal rates a Senator 's votes by what percentage of the Senate voted more liberally than he or she , and what percentage more conservatively , in three policy areas : economic , social , and foreign . For 2005 – 2006 ( as reported in the 2008 Almanac of American Politics ) , McCain 's average ratings were as follows : economic policy : 59 percent conservative and 41 percent liberal ; social policy : 54 percent conservative and 38 percent liberal ; and foreign policy : 56 percent conservative and 43 percent liberal .

Columnists such as Robert Robb and Matthew Continetti have used a formulation devised by William F. Buckley Jr. to describe McCain as " conservative " but not " a conservative " , meaning that while McCain usually tends towards conservative positions , he is not " anchored by the philosophical tenets of modern American conservatism . " Following his 2008 presidential election loss , McCain began adopting more orthodox conservative views ; the magazine National Journal rated McCain along with seven of his colleagues as the " most conservative " Senators for 2010 and he achieved his first 100 percent rating from the American Conservative Union for that year .

From the late 1990s until 2008 , McCain was a board member of Project Vote Smart which was set up by Richard Kimball , his 1986 Senate opponent . The project provides non @-@ partisan information about the political positions of McCain and other candidates for political office . Additionally , McCain uses his Senate website to describe his political positions .

= = Cultural and political image = =

McCain 's personal character has been a dominant feature of his public image . This image includes the military service of both himself and his family , the circumstances and tensions surrounding the end of his first marriage and beginning of second , his maverick political persona , his temper , his admitted problem of occasional ill @-@ considered remarks , and his close ties to his children from both his marriages .

McCain 's political appeal has been more nonpartisan and less ideological compared to many other national politicians . His stature and reputation stem partly from his service in the Vietnam War . He also carries physical vestiges of his war wounds , as well as his melanoma surgery . When campaigning , he quips : " I am older than dirt and have more scars than Frankenstein . "

Writers often extolled McCain for his courage not just in war but in politics , and wrote sympathetically about him . McCain 's shift of political stances and attitudes during and especially after the 2008 presidential campaign , including his self @-@ repudiation of the maverick label , left many writers expressing sadness and wondering what had happened to the McCain they thought they had known . By 2013 , some aspects of the older McCain had returned , and his image became that of a kaleidoscope of contradictory tendencies , including , as one writer listed , " the maverick , the former maverick , the curmudgeon , the bridge builder , the war hero bent on transcending the call of self @-@ interest to serve a cause greater than himself , the sore loser , old bull , last lion , loose cannon , happy warrior , elder statesman , lion in winter .... "

In his own estimation , the Arizona senator is straightforward and direct , but impatient . Other traits include a penchant for lucky charms , a fondness for hiking , and a sense of humor that has sometimes backfired spectacularly , as when he made a joke in 1998 about the Clintons widely deemed not fit to print in newspapers : " Do you know why Chelsea Clinton is so ugly ? – Because Janet Reno is her father . " McCain subsequently apologized profusely , and the Clinton White House accepted his apology . McCain has not shied away from addressing his shortcomings , and apologizing for them . He is known for sometimes being prickly and hot @-@ tempered with Senate colleagues , but his relations with his own Senate staff have been more cordial , and have inspired loyalty towards him . He formed a strong bond with two senators , Joe Lieberman and Lindsey Graham , over hawkish foreign policy and overseas travel , and they became dubbed the " Three Amigos " .

McCain acknowledges having said intemperate things in years past , though he also says that many stories have been exaggerated . One psychoanalytic comparison suggests that McCain was not the first presidential candidate to have a temper , and cultural critic Julia Keller argues that voters want leaders who are passionate , engaged , fiery , and feisty . McCain has employed both profanity and shouting on occasion , although such incidents have become less frequent over the years . Senator Lieberman has made this observation : " It is not the kind of anger that is a loss of control . He is a very controlled person . " Senator Thad Cochran , who has known McCain for decades and has battled him over earmarks , expressed concern about a McCain presidency : " He is erratic . He is hotheaded . He loses his temper and he worries me . " Ultimately Cochran decided to support McCain for president , after it was clear he would win the nomination .

All of McCain 's family members are on good terms with him , and he has defended them against some of the negative consequences of his high @-@ profile political lifestyle . His family 's military tradition extends to the latest generation : son John Sidney IV ( " Jack " ) graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 2009 , becoming the fourth generation John S. McCain to do so , and is a helicopter pilot ; son James served two tours with the marines in the Iraq War ; and son Doug flew jets in the navy . His daughter Meghan became a blogging and Twittering presence in the debate about the future of the Republican Party following the 2008 elections , and showed some of his maverick tendencies .

= = Electoral history = =

= = Writings by McCain = =

= = Awards and honors = =

In addition to his military honors and decorations , McCain has been granted a number of civilian awards and honors .

In 1997 , Time magazine named McCain as one of the " 25 Most Influential People in America " . In 1999 , McCain shared the Profile in Courage Award with Senator Russ Feingold for their work towards campaign finance reform . The following year , the same pair shared the Paul H. Douglas Award for Ethics in Government . In 2005 , The Eisenhower Institute awarded McCain the Eisenhower Leadership Prize . The prize recognizes individuals whose lifetime accomplishments reflect Dwight D. Eisenhower 's legacy of integrity and leadership . In 2006 , the Bruce F. Vento Public Service Award was bestowed upon McCain by the National Park Trust . The same year , McCain was awarded the Henry M. Jackson Distinguished Service Award by the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs , in honor of Senator Henry M. " Scoop " Jackson . In 2007 , the World Leadership Forum presented McCain with the Policymaker of the Year Award ; it is given internationally to someone who has " created , inspired or strongly influenced important policy or legislation " . In 2010 , President Mikheil Saakashvili of Georgia awarded McCain the Order of National Hero , an award never previously given to a non @-@ Georgian . In 2015 , the Kiev Patriarchate awarded McCain its own version of the Order of St. Vladimir . In 2016 , Allegheny College awarded McCain , along with Vice President Joe Biden , its Prize for Civility in Public Life .

McCain has received honorary degrees from colleges and universities in the United States and internationally . These include ones from Colgate University ( 2000 ) , The Citadel ( 2002 ) , Wake Forest University ( 2002 ) , the University of Southern California ( 2004 ) , Northwestern University ( 2005 ) , Liberty University ( 2006 ) , The New School 2006 ) , and the Royal Military College of Canada ( 2013 ) . He was also made an Honorary Patron of the University Philosophical Society at Trinity College Dublin in 2005 .

= Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building =

The Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building was a chemistry laboratory and classroom building on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . The 42 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) postmodern building stood on the north end of a cluster of other science buildings on the site of the school 's first chemistry laboratory . It was completed in 1984 at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 2 million after the college received money from a fund bequeathed to it in the will of California cardiologist and professor Seeley G. Mudd . The structure replaced Sanders Hall of Chemistry and included elements designed to be energy efficient , notably a large wall of glass blocks that designers hoped would passively heat the building . Reviews of the structure were positive when it opened with critics praising the way its form complemented nearby older buildings . By 2015 , many aspects of the building had been evaluated as being in Fair or Poor condition and the building was demolished in spring 2016 Science Center project , to be replaced by an open green space .

= = History = =

Vassar Brothers Laboratory was the first chemistry building on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York , built in 1880 , around 500 feet ( 150 m ) from the college 's Main Building . The Laboratory , which was the first free @-@ standing chemistry structure at a women 's college , stood until 1938 , 29 years after the construction of its replacement , the Ewing & Chapelle @-@ designed Sanders Hall of Chemistry .

In 1981 , the Seeley G. Mudd Fund granted Vassar $ 1 @.@ 3 million for the construction of a new chemistry building . Mudd was a California @-@ based cardiologist , professor , and trustee with the University of Southern California 's School of Medicine as well as with a number of other West Coast schools . Over his lifetime , Mudd donated more than $ 10 million to higher education institutions and upon his death in 1968 , his will established a further $ 44 million for building construction at universities and colleges , with the stipulation that institutions requesting a grant provide at least half the funds for their projects and that his name be prominently displayed on any buildings receiving the funding . While the cost of the building was originally reported to be $ 4 @.@ 5 million , this estimate grew to $ 6 @.@ 5 million by 1984 and would ultimately come to $ 7 @.@ 2 million once the project was completed . The College planned to cover the costs not paid for by the Mudd Fund with a $ 100 million development fundraising program that spanned the entirety of the 1980s .

Ground was broken on the new building on October 8 , 1982 , in a ceremony presided over by Vassar president Virginia B. Smith . Smith had previously selected engineer Fred Dubin to aid the school in constructing a more environmentally friendly chemistry building . As design progressed , she identified the need to hire architects to design the building alongside Dubin , so Perry Dean Rogers Architects of Boston were selected . Named the Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building after its benefactor , the building was constructed on the site where Vassar Brothers Laboratory once stood . Dubin initially tried to have it placed on the south side of Sanders Physics Building , but that site was deemed unworkable in part because of its proximity to the school 's Shakespeare Gardens . The building was instead placed southwest of Sanders Hall of Chemistry , which would be renamed Sanders Classrooms , and completed a quadrangle consisting of both Sanders buildings and the New England Building . Though built across from Sanders Physics , Mudd was actually 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) out of alignment with it . Zaldastani Associates served as the project 's structural engineers and W. J. Barney Corporation served as its general contractor .

In 2007 , despite being Vassar 's youngest completed academic building , a report by Platt Byard Dovell White Architects report found that many components of Mudd 's structure were in either Fair or Poor condition . The structure was slated for demolition in spring 2016 as part of the college 's Science Center project , which also included the construction of the new Bridge for Laboratory Sciences building and the renovations of the New England Building , Sanders Physics , and Olmsted Hall . The chemistry department began its move to the Bridge for Laboratory Sciences in summer 2015 and Mudd 's demolition followed . Exterior facade elements , windows , and indoor walls were cut away before the building 's frame was dismantled , concluding on April 22 , 2016 . Once cleared , the former site of Mudd will be an open green space .

= = Features = =

The Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building was designed in the postmodern style . The structure 's exterior walls were constructed from limestone and brick that surround regular glass blocks , each about 4 inches ( 10 cm ) thick with side lengths ranging from 8 to 12 inches ( 20 to 30 cm ) . The brick and limestone walls faced the west , north , and east , while the southern face was primarily glass , a feature designed for efficient energy use ; when sunlight hit the wall , air rose into the building and was heated , then pumped throughout where it aided in the operation of the structure 's 46 fume hoods . The north wall , meanwhile , wass designed to be resistant to cold air . The building was well insulated and its plain outer walls were as uninterrupted in material as possible to keep as much warm air inside the structure as possible in winters .

Containing 42 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m2 ) , the Seeley G. Mudd Chemistry Building stood three stories tall . The second and first floors ( the latter of which lies partially below ground ) contained laboratory space while the third floor consisted of communal and teaching spaces like classrooms and offices . Other offices on the first floor were lit via skylights . The stairwells in Mudd were designed with the purpose of discouraging students from passing through lab spaces to get from one side of the building to the other . In spite of this , Michael J. Crosbie reported in Architecture in 1986 that students had taken to passing through the building as a shortcut instead of going around it . Furnishings and carpeting in the building were deep blue and rust @-@ colored .

The 2007 report by Platt Byard Dovell White Architects evaluating the condition and context for many of Vassar 's buildings found Mudd to be " by far Vassar 's most interesting and most important post @-@ Modern building . " A contemporary review in Architecture commented that Mudd " responds on a variety of levels to its context , but it does so without sacrificing its own unique and powerful identity . " Margaret Gaskie also praised the building 's placement and contextualization among its fellow structures in a 1986 issue of Architectural Record : " the scale of the structure beneath its outcroppings is sympathetic to the existing buildings in the quad , and its mass , though larger , [ is ] appropriate to its role as a gateway between them and the central campus " . She went on to positively comment on the building 's aesthetics , saying , " the eye can feast on the mingled sparkle and luminosity drawn from minimal outdoor exposures used to maximum effect . In more public areas , where crisp glass @-@ block and lucent glass ignite clear deep @-@ timbered tones and pretty pastels , the feast becomes a banquet . " Crosbie in Architecture noted " some instances of shoddy drywall work and sloppy painting " but otherwise praised the building 's " bare @-@ bones " and " nuts and bolts " interior as functional and environmentally friendly . The Platt Byard Dovell White report found that Mudd 's glass walls " seem to function particularly poorly " as a passive heat control system but otherwise noted that the structure 's expressive postmodernist ambitions marked it as " a strong , compact if busy building [ that ] makes it more than a bit of a tour de force . " Mudd was awarded first place in a 1988 competition run by Pittsburgh Corning for its design .

= Korketrekkeren =

Korketrekkeren ( direct translation : " The Corkscrew " ) is a tobogganing track and former bobsleigh and luge track in Oslo , Norway . The tobogganing track runs between Frognerseteren and Midtstuen and is operated as a public venue by the municipality . Return transport to the top of the hill is undertaken by riding the Oslo Metro 's Holmenkollen Line . Tobogganing in the area started in the 1880s , with several roads being used during winter evenings . Auto racing took place in the hill in 1921 and the following year it saw its first luge tournament . The first major tournament was the FIL European Luge Championships 1937 . Tobagganing also took place in the nearby Heftyebakken , but from 1950 Korketrekkeren became the sole tobogganing hill and Heftyebakken was used for cross @-@ country skiing .

The bobsleigh track was built for the 1952 Winter Olympics , where it hosted two bobsleigh events . Contrary to popular belief , this was not built at Korketrekkeren but as a separate run nearby also starting at Frognerseteren . It was built as a temporary , artificial track with the curves being constructed in snow and then frozen hard to ice . Trial runs were undertaken in 1951 and the bobsleigh course was not used after 1952 . Both Olympic events were won by Germany , with Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl participating in both winning teams . The tobogganing hill hosted the inaugural FIL World Luge Championships 1955 , with Norway 's Anton Salvesen winning the men 's single — the only time in history Norway has won a World Luge Championships medal .

= = History = =

Korketrekkeren was originally part of Frognerseterveien , a road which ran up to Frognerseteren . It was completed in 1867 to the orders of landlord Thomas Johannessen Heftye , who had been purchasing forest properties in the area . The section between Svendstuen and Frognerseteren gradually became known as Korktrekkeren . Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet was established in 1888 and undertook a series of public infrastructure investments in the area , including the construction of roads , skiing trails , natural tobagganing tracks and a chapel . The property was given to Kristiania Municipality ( today Oslo Municipality ) in 1894 . Tobagganing became a popular sport from the 1880s and Holmen- og Voksenkollselskapet rented out sleds which were permitted to be used on roads and designated tracks after 19 : 00 on evenings with moonlight .

Norsk Vinterturistforening was founded in 1899 to work towards encouraging English tourists to visit Oslo , specifically by building tobogganing tracks . A committee was established in 1904 to look into building a new tobogganing track in the Holmenkollen area . It proposed that two new tracks be built , one from Voksenkollveien to Peisestuen , and one from Peisestuen to Midtstuen , and that Korketrekkeren be upgraded to allow for safer tobogganing . The investments cost 7 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and the annual operating costs estimated at NOK 2 @,@ 000 . The investments were financed with NOK 2 @,@ 000 by Christiania Brænnevinssamlag and NOK 5 @,@ 000 by Akeforeningen . The latter was established in 1905 and was also responsible to operating the track .

In 1898 , the Holmenkollen Line was opened to Besserud . One of the line 's main revenue sources was transporting city @-@ dwellers to the recreational area of Nordmarka where they would go skiing . An alternative activity was tobogganing down the hill back to Majorstuen . The operator Holmenkolbanen immediately started plans to extend the line . There were two proposals : a continuation of the line past Holmenkollen and a branch from Midtstuen up Korketrekkeren to Frogneseteren . However , the latter required the use of a rack railway , as it would give a 1 : 8 gradient . The former route was selected and the line was extended to Frogneseteren in 1916 . Holmenkolbanen started renting out sleds at Frogneseteren , which could be returned at most stations . To save the return ticket , many chose to continue the tobogganing ride to Majorstuen .

The use of Korketrekkeren for tobogganing created a conflict with the local residents — especially at the guest house in Sverdrupstuen , which was often blocked on Sundays . There was also a conflict between cross @-@ country skiing and tobogganing , as both groups wanted priority on the road . Akeforeningen proposed holding a tournament in 1921 , but this was rejected by the municipal council . However , an auto race was held on the track that year . Permission for the sleighing race was given the following season , resulting in regular tournaments . Construction of Heftyebakken took place in 1930 . The track was constructed between Frogerseteren to Svendstuen , including a concrete curve which allowed it to connect to Korketrekkeren . Heftyebakken had a poor profile as it was not steep enough in the lower areas . In 1950 , Heftyebakken was converted to a skiing trail and Korketrekkeren became a pure tobogganing trail .

Unusually for winter sports , bobsleigh has never been popular in Norway . The country had not sent an Olympic team until the 1948 Winter Olympics and there were no previous bobsleigh tracks in Norway when Oslo was awarded the 1952 Winter Olympics . Two Swiss civil engineers , Heinz Cattani and Emil Ingold , were the main technical consultants for the development of the venue . The steep terrain made construction excessively expensive , resulting in the organizing committee deciding to build a temporary track , without permanent concrete and stone curves . Instead , a new track was constructed each year using snow : the overhangs were built by hand , the tracks were leveled and the structure sprayed with ice until it was hard .

The track route was built under supervision of Sigurd Lund and Carl Venderboe in 1949 and 1950 and subsequently corrected by Cattani . The only fixed installation was a water main which ran along the track , using Øvresetertjern as its water source . Engineer Luigi Angelini from Switzerland was hired to supervise the construction of the curves , which cost NOK 615 @,@ 000 . The track was first constructed for training in 1951 and then for the Olympics in 1952 .

There have been occasional proposals that Norway should build a permanent bobsleigh track , where Korketrekkeren was the leading location . The debate died out in the 1990s with the selection of Lillehammer as the host of the 1994 Winter Olympics and the subsequent construction of Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track . Also the Oslo bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics proposed using the Lillehammer track . In 2007 , there were two serious accidents in the hill and it was subsequently closed by the police . The municipality then renovated the hill , removing poles and polstering dangerous edges .

= = Olympic track = =

The Olympic track ran from Frogneseteren , with the start line located at 429 @.@ 2 meters ( 1 @,@ 408 ft ) above mean sea level . The course falls 124 @.@ 35 meters ( 408 @.@ 0 ft ) , with the finish line located at 304 @.@ 85 meters ( 1 @,@ 000 @.@ 2 ft ) elevation . The track had an average 8 @.@ 6 percent gradient , which varied between 3 @.@ 67 and 13 @.@ 86 percent . The track was 1 @,@ 507 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @,@ 946 ft ) long and had 13 curves , varying with radii between 14 and 50 meters ( 46 and 164 ft ) . Beyond the finish @-@ line the track ran steeply uphill . The track had three boxes for time @-@ keepers , one at the start , one mid @-@ way and one at the finish . In addition there was a bob garage at the top of the hill . Bobs were transport up using a four @-@ wheel @-@ drive car up Heftyebakken . The track had 50 telephone linesto keep up with the competition and track conditions during the event .

The following is a list of the turns with their names and curve radii .

= = Tobogganing = =

Korketrekkeren is a public hill owned by the municipality and can be used free of charge . Toboggans can be rented from Skiservice and Akerforeningen . The start of the hill is located next to Frognerseteren Station on the Oslo Metro 's Holmenkollen Line and the end of the course is located at Midtstuen Station . Tobogganists can take their sleds on the train using ordinary tickets . There is also a smaller beginners track at Skistua at Frognerseteren . Korketrekkeren is widely regarded as Oslo 's prime tobogganing course .

= = Events = =

= = = 1937 European championships = = =

The FIL European Luge Championships 1937 were the sixth to be contested and the only to have been held in Norway . Six nations competed — Martin Tietze from Germany won both the men 's singles and along with Kurt Weidner the men 's doubles . Norway took all the medals in the women 's singles with Titti Maartmann winning .

= = = 1952 Winter Olympics = = =

Two events in bobsleigh were held at the 1952 Winter Olympics — two @-@ man and four @-@ man . Both were contested over four heats over two days . Two @-@ man was contested on 14 and 15 February , while four @-@ man was contested on 21 and 22 February . The same teams won both events , with Germans Andreas Ostler and Lorenz Nieberl winning gold in both events and Friedrich Kuhn and Franz Kemser winning gold in the four @-@ man . The events attracted up to 15 @,@ 000 spectators .

= = = 1955 World championships = = =

FIL World Luge Championships 1955 was the inaugural world championship in luge and the only to have been held in Norway . Eight countries participated , with the top results being dominated by Austria . The men 's singles was won by Anton Salvesen , which remains the only medal ever won by Norway in the World Luge Championships . The women 's singles saw double Austrian victory with Karla Kienzl winning ahead of Maria Isser . In the doubles , Hans Krausner and Josef Thaler won ahead of their Austrian countrymen Josef Isser and Maria Isser .

= Ammiraglio di Saint Bon @-@ class battleship =

The Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class was a pair of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) during the 1890s . The class comprised two ships : Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , the lead ship , and Emanuele Filiberto . They were armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 @-@ millimetre ) guns and were capable of a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Smaller and less powerfully @-@ armed than most contemporary battleships , they marked a brief departure from Italian battleship design , which had previous emphasized large ships equipped with large guns .

Both ships served in the active duty squadron early in their careers , and participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . They took part in the Italian offensives in North Africa and the island of Rhodes , but did not see combat with the Ottoman fleet . They were reduced to harbor defense ships by the outbreak of World War I , and they spent the war in Venice . The ships were discarded shortly after the end of the war , both having been stricken in 1920 .

= = Design = =

The previous Italian capital ships , the Re Umberto and the Ruggiero di Lauria classes of ironclad battleships , marked a period of experimentation on the part of Benedetto Brin , Admiral Simone di Pacoret Saint Bon , and the strategists of the Italian navy . Since the planners had not determined what type of battleship would best suit their strategic needs , the government stepped in and mandated a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) design smaller than the earlier classes . Following the death of di Saint Bon , Brin took over the design process and proposed a small battleship armed with 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , a weaker main battery than those of contemporary foreign designs .

The ships , much smaller than their contemporaries , and slower than cruisers , were not particularly useful warships . The mistake of building a battleship of only 10 @,@ 000 tons was not repeated in the subsequent , and much more successful , Regina Margherita class .

= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =

The ships of the Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class were 105 meters ( 344 ft ) long at the waterline and 111 @.@ 8 m ( 367 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 21 @.@ 12 m ( 69 @.@ 3 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 69 m ( 25 @.@ 2 ft ) . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon displaced 10 @,@ 082 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 923 long tons ; 11 @,@ 114 short tons ) at standard loading and 10 @,@ 531 t ( 10 @,@ 365 long tons ; 11 @,@ 608 short tons ) at full combat load , while Emanuele Filiberto displaced 9 @,@ 645 t ( 9 @,@ 493 long tons ; 10 @,@ 632 short tons ) and 9 @,@ 940 t ( 9 @,@ 780 long tons ; 10 @,@ 960 short tons ) , respectively . The ships had a low freeboard of only 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon had a crew of 557 officers and enlisted men , while Emanuele Filiberto had a slightly larger complement of 565 .

The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines ; Ammiraglio di Saint Bon 's were rated at 14 @,@ 296 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 661 kW ) , while Emanuele Filiberto 's engines only reached 13 @,@ 552 ihp ( 10 @,@ 106 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twelve coal @-@ fired cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . The ships ' propulsion system provided a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

The ships were armed with four 10 in ( 254 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . The guns were placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ships were also equipped with eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in individual casemates amidships . These guns were export derivatives of the British QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 gun . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was also equipped with eight 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in shielded pivot mounts directly above the casemate battery and eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Emanuele Filiberto carried six 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns and eight 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns instead . Both ships also carried four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers .

The ships were protected with Harvey steel . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick , and the deck was 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 9 @.@ 8 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had 9 @.@ 8 in thick plating , and the casemates were 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) thick .

= = Ships of the class = =

= = Service = =

Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was built by the Venice Naval Shipyard . She was laid down on 18 July 1893 , launched on 29 April 1897 , and completed on 24 May 1901 , although she had been commissioned on 1 February 1901 . Emanuele Filiberto was named after Prince Emanuele Filiberto , Duke of Aosta . She was built by the Castellammare Naval Shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia , Naples . She was laid down on 5 October 1893 , launched on 29 September 1897 , and completed on 16 April 1902 , although she had been commissioned on 6 September 1901 . The ships spend the first several years in the active duty squadron until they were replaced by the new Regina Elena @-@ class battleships , which entered service by 1908 .

Both ships took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 1912 in the 3rd Division with the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships . Emanuele Filiberto took part in the attack on Tripoli in October 1911 , though Ammiraglio di Saint Bon did not see action in the first months of the war . Both ships participated in the seizure of the island of Rhodes , where Ammiraglio di Saint Bon provided gunfire support to the soldiers ashore .

The two ships were slated to be scrapped in 1914 – 15 due to their age , but the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 prevented their disposal . Italy initially remained neutral during the war , but by 1915 , had been convinced by the Triple Entente to enter the war against Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . Both Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and Emanuele Filiberto were used as harbor defense ships in Venice for the duration of the war , and did not see action there . Neither ship remained in service long after the end of the war . Emanuele Filiberto was stricken from the naval register on 29 March 1920 and Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was stricken on 18 June . Both ships were subsequently discarded .

= Jon Challinor =

Jon Challinor ( born 2 December 1980 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a defender or a midfielder for Northern Premier League Premier Division club Stamford .

Challinor started his career with Rushden & Diamonds , and after being released in 2000 had spells with Stamford , Cambridge City , the Kalamazoo Kingdom and St Albans City . He reached the 2004 Football Conference play @-@ off Final with Aldershot Town , and after another unsuccessful play @-@ off campaign in the 2004 – 05 season signed for Exeter City in 2005 . He played in the 2007 Conference National play @-@ off Final defeat before returning to Rushden in 2007 . He left for Cambridge United a year later , playing for them in the 2009 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final . After spells with Forest Green Rovers , Mansfield Town , Brackley Town , Newport County and Kettering Town , Challinor signed for York City in 2011 . Here , he won promotion to League Two in his fourth appearance in a Conference play @-@ off final , following victory in the 2012 Final , also winning in the 2012 FA Trophy Final . He was released by the club a year later .

= = Club career = =

= = = Early career = = =

Born in Northampton , Northamptonshire , Challinor began his career in the youth system at Rushden & Diamonds . He made his first team debut for the Football Conference club as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old in a Conference League Cup game against Farnborough Town on 22 December 1998 . He signed a contract at the end of his scholarship , but after failing to break into the first team squad was released in May 2000 . Challinor dropped two divisions to join Southern League Division One East side Stamford in search of first team football . He impressed with Stamford , moving to Southern League Premier Division side Cambridge City in February 2001 , scoring two goals in 11 league appearances before the end of the 2000 – 01 season . He made 46 appearances , scoring three goals , in the 2001 – 02 season before spending the close season with the Kalamazoo Kingdom in the American USL Premier Development League .

Challinor returned to England after joining Isthmian League Premier Division side St Albans City on a two @-@ year contract in August 2002 . His debut came in St Albans ' 4 – 0 victory away at Ware in the Herts Charity Cup first round on 3 August 2002 , before scoring his first goal in a 2 – 0 home win against Heybridge Swifts on 26 August . Challinor played in St Albans ' 4 – 1 FA Cup first round defeat to Second Division team Stockport County on 16 November 2002 . He scored six goals in 57 games in the 2002 – 03 season , before spending a second close season with the Kalamazoo Kingdom , making 17 appearances and scoring two goals in the USL Premier Development League .

= = = Aldershot Town = = =

After being released by St Albans , Challinor signed for Football Conference side Aldershot Town on 8 August 2003 , having appeared for them in pre @-@ season . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 home win over Accrington Stanley on 10 August 2003 , before scoring his first goal in a 5 – 2 win away to Telford United on 16 August . Having made an impressive start for Aldershot , scoring five goals in 12 games , Challinor signed a contract lasting until the end of the 2004 – 05 season on 14 October 2003 . After being sent off in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Margate on 20 December 2003 he was given a three @-@ match suspension , making his return in a 4 – 0 defeat away to Farnborough on 24 January 2004 . He played in the 2004 Football Conference play @-@ off Final against Shrewsbury Town at the Britannia Stadium , which Aldershot lost 3 – 0 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after a 1 – 1 draw following extra time . His 2003 – 04 season with Aldershot finished having scored 13 goals in 48 appearances .

Aldershot qualified for the play @-@ offs again in the 2004 – 05 season , and Challinor played in both semi @-@ final games against Carlisle United , which ended in a 2 – 2 draw on aggregate . Challinor missed his penalty kick in the penalty shoot @-@ out , before Danny Livesey scored the penalty that secured Carlisle 's place in the play @-@ off final . Having finished the season with nine goals in 44 appearances , Challinor was released by Aldershot on 18 May 2005 , despite being rated as one of the best attacking midfielders in the Conference National .

= = = Exeter City = = =

On 20 May 2005 , Challinor joined Conference National side Exeter City on a two @-@ year contract . Manager Alex Inglethorpe described him by saying " He 's 24 years of age and he fits the bill of the type of player that will help us next season . I liken him to Tim Cahill of Everton . He likes to get forward and score goals , and has a good grounding in both League and non @-@ League football . " Challinor made his debut in a 2 – 0 win away at Gravesend & Northfleet on 13 August 2005 , before scoring his first goal on 3 September in a 2 – 2 away to Dagenham & Redbridge . He scored in a 4 – 0 win over former club Aldershot on 26 December 2005 , during which he was targeted by opposition fans , after his former manager Terry Brown claimed he left Aldershot for financial reasons . After the match , Challinor said " I got one over on the manager and proved him wrong , he didn 't think I was good enough . Their fans were at me throughout the game but it only made me focus more . " He finished the 2005 – 06 season with 13 goals in 48 appearances for Exeter .

Challinor was targeted by fellow Conference National side Grays Athletic in December 2006 , but after remaining at Exeter he was offered a new contract at the club in February 2007 , which he did not sign . He played for Exeter in the 2007 Conference National play @-@ off Final on 20 May 2007 , the first Conference play @-@ off final to be played at the new Wembley Stadium . He assisted Lee Phillips ' ninth minute opening goal for Exeter , although the side went on to lose 2 – 1 to Morecambe . Challinor made 48 appearances and scored 10 goals for Exeter in the 2006 – 07 season .

= = = Return to Rushden & Diamonds = = =

Challinor returned to Conference Premier club Rushden & Diamonds after signing a two @-@ year contract on 28 May 2007 . He made his debut in a 1 – 1 draw away at Woking on 11 August 2007 , before scoring his first goal with Rushden 's only strike in a 1 – 1 draw away at Salisbury City on 8 September . He started the season playing in midfield , but after being played as a striker in late February 2008 he went on a run of scoring six goals in five consecutive games .

He appeared for Rushden in the 2008 Conference League Cup Final against Aldershot at the Recreation Ground on 3 April 2008 . The match finished a 3 – 3 draw after extra time , but Aldershot won 4 – 3 in a penalty shoot @-@ out . Challinor made 57 appearances and scored 10 goals for Rushden in the 2007 – 08 season , only missing out on ever @-@ present status after missing the last game of the season against Grays Athletic through injury .

= = = Cambridge United and Mansfield Town = = =

He joined Conference Premier rivals Cambridge United on a two @-@ year contract for a £ 15 @,@ 000 fee on 6 August 2008 . His debut came in a 1 – 0 win away to Northwich Victoria on 9 August 2008 , and scored his first goal with a stoppage time winner in a 1 – 0 home win over Lewes on 7 October 2008 . Soon after he was told by manager Gary Brabin to provide more support for the team 's strikers , with Challinor agreeing , saying " It will put the added responsibility on me to start shooting and take some pressure off the forwards . If the midfield can get some goals as well , then that will help the team " . He immediately followed this up with the winning goal against Weymouth in a 1 – 0 home win on 11 October 2008 , coming from a low right @-@ footed shot into the corner from 25 yards .

Challinor 's first sending off for Cambridge came after receiving a second yellow card during a 5 – 0 home defeat to Crawley Town in the FA Trophy second round on 14 January 2009 . He made his return from suspension in a 1 – 1 home draw with Oxford United on 29 January 2009 . Challinor came on as a 79th minute substitute for Paul Carden in the 2009 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley , in which Torquay United won 2 – 0 . Having struggled to make an impact for Cambridge in the 2008 – 09 season , which he finished with two goals in 39 games , he was transfer @-@ listed .

He was sent out on loan for the start of the 2009 – 10 season to divisional rivals Forest Green Rovers for one month on 7 August 2009 . Challinor made his debut the following day in a 2 – 1 home defeat against Kettering Town , going on to make seven appearances at Forest Green . Forest Green had been interested in taking Challinor on another loan , until appointing a new manager . He left Cambridge on loan again after joining Conference Premier rivals Mansfield Town on a two @-@ month loan on 20 November 2009 . Challinor made a scoring debut for Mansfield with the equalising goal from close range in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Eastbourne Borough on 21 November 2009 . After making six appearances and scoring one goal in his loan spell , Challinor signed permanently for Mansfield for the rest of the season on 6 January 2010 . He was released by Mansfield at the end of the season , having made 15 appearances and scored two goals after signing permanently .

= = = Brackley Town and Newport County = = =

Challinor signed with Southern League Premier Division side Brackley Town in July 2010 , after he had been set to sign for Corby Town of the Conference North , with whom he had been on trial . He then signed for Conference Premier club Newport County on a short @-@ term contract on 30 October 2010 , making his debut later that day as a 28th @-@ minute substitute for Martin John in a 2 – 1 home defeat to Kettering Town , but was himself substituted in the 73rd minute for Robbie Matthews . Challinor scored on his next appearance for Newport , with the winning goal after netting Sam Deering 's cross in the 29th minute of extra time in a 1 – 0 victory away at Wealdstone in an FA Trophy first round replay on 13 December 2010 . He was released by Newport on 30 December 2010 , having made four appearances and scored one goal for the club .

= = = Kettering Town = = =

He joined Conference Premier side Kettering Town on a contract until the end of the 2010 – 11 season on 18 January 2011 . Kettering were fighting against relegation , and Challinor was quoted as saying " We have to stay positive . We know it 's a transitional period for the club and there is a lot going on " . He made his debut later that day as a half @-@ time substitute for Callum Wilson in Kettering 's 2 – 1 loss away to Grimsby Town . His first goal for Kettering came in stoppage time against Southport in a 3 – 1 home victory on 30 April 2011 , having entered the match in the 89th minute . Challinor finished the season with 14 appearances and one goal for Kettering . He agreed to stay at Kettering ahead of the 2011 – 12 season on non @-@ contract terms , in the belief that a permanent contract would later be agreed , and started the season playing in defensive midfield .

= = = York City = = =

On 25 August 2011 , Challinor signed for Conference Premier rivals York City on a contract until January 2012 , having impressed manager Gary Mills when playing against York for Kettering two days earlier . He made his debut a day later , coming on as a 56th @-@ minute substitute for Patrick McLaughlin in a 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood Town . Challinor was soon converted into a right @-@ back at York , a position in which he displayed composure and an ability to start attacking moves . His first goal for York came in a 4 – 2 win away at Hayes & Yeading United on 22 October 2011 with a drilled shot into the bottom right corner of the goal from the edge of the penalty box .

He signed a new contract with York until the end of the season in January 2012 . He featured in the York side that won 2 – 0 in the 2012 FA Trophy Final at Wembley against his former club Newport on 12 May 2012 . Eight days later he again played at Wembley to win promotion to League Two through the 2012 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final with a 2 – 1 victory over Luton Town . Thus , Challinor was successful in achieving promotion to the Football League in his fourth appearance in a Conference play @-@ off final . Having made 51 appearances and scored three goals for York in the 2011 – 12 season , he signed a new one @-@ year contract with the club in July 2012 .

Ahead of Challinor 's first season as a Football League player he was quoted as saying " It 's been a long time coming so I ’ m going to embrace it and enjoy every minute . I think almost every team I have played for has gone on to reach the League so to finally achieve it is a dream come true but it doesn 't end there " . He made his first appearance as a League player in a League Cup first round game away at Doncaster Rovers on 11 August 2012 as an 87th @-@ minute substitute for McLaughlin . York lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out after a 1 – 1 extra time draw , although Challinor was successful in converting his penalty . He finished the 2012 – 13 season with 22 appearances before being released by York on 30 April 2013 .

= = = Return to Stamford and FC Halifax Town = = =

Challinor re @-@ signed for Stamford in August 2013 , after playing for the Northern Premier League Premier Division club during pre @-@ season . After impressive performances throughout December 2013 , which culminated in him being named Stamford 's player of the month , Challinor signed a dual registration deal with Conference Premier team FC Halifax Town on 7 January 2014 . He made his debut in a 0 – 0 draw away to Wrexham on 11 January 2014 . Challinor made five appearances for FC Halifax before resuming playing for Stamford in February 2014 . He played in the final of the Lincolnshire Senior Cup as Stamford beat Brigg Town 5 – 4 in a penalty shoot @-@ out following a 3 – 3 draw after extra time on 29 April 2014 . Challinor took over as caretaker manager of Stamford on 5 November 2015 , following the sacking of Andrew Wilson . He remained in charge until the appointment of Graham Drury as manager on 12 November 2015 .

= = International career = =

Challinor was capped twice by the England National Game XI , the team that represents England at non @-@ League level , making his debut against Belgium on 4 November 2003 before making his second appearance against Italy on 11 February 2004 .

= = Personal life = =

Challinor married his wife Lara during the summer of 2007 . As he is a fan of the Star Wars films , The Imperial March was played as part of the ceremony .

= = Career statistics = =

As of match played 23 April 2016 .

= = Managerial statistics = =

As of 12 November 2015 .

= = Honours = =

York City

Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 2011 – 12

FA Trophy : 2011 – 12

Stamford

Lincolnshire Senior Cup : 2013 – 14 , 2014 – 15

= HMS Glorious =

HMS Glorious was the second of the Courageous @-@ class battlecruisers built for the Royal Navy during the First World War . Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord , Lord Fisher , they were very lightly armoured and armed with only a few heavy guns . Glorious was completed in late 1916 and spent the war patrolling the North Sea . She participated in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 and was present when the German High Seas Fleet surrendered a year later .

Glorious was paid off after the end of the war , but was rebuilt as an aircraft carrier during the late 1920s . She could carry 30 % more aircraft than her half @-@ sister Furious which had approximately the same tonnage . After recommissioning she spent most of her career operating in the Mediterranean Sea . After the start of the Second World War , Glorious spent the rest of 1939 unsuccessfully hunting for the German cruiser Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean before returning to the Mediterranean . She was recalled in April 1940 to support British operations in Norway . While evacuating British aircraft from Norway in June , the ship was sunk by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in the North Sea with the loss of over 1 @,@ 200 lives .

= = Design and description = =

During the First World War , Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers . To obtain ships suitable for traditional battlecruiser roles , such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders , he settled on a design with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser . He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast , shallow @-@ draught ships for his Baltic Project , a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast .

Glorious had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 81 feet ( 24 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 25 feet 10 inches ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . She displaced 19 @,@ 180 long tons ( 19 @,@ 490 t ) at load and 22 @,@ 560 long tons ( 22 @,@ 922 t ) at deep load . Glorious and her sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . To save time the installation used in the light cruiser Champion , the first cruiser in the Royal Navy with geared turbines , was simply doubled . The Parsons turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers . They were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 113 kW ) at a working pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . During the ship 's abbreviated sea trials she reached 31 @.@ 42 knots ( 58 @.@ 19 km / h ; 36 @.@ 16 mph ) .

The ship was designed to normally carry 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of fuel oil , but could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 160 long tons ( 3 @,@ 210 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam for an estimated 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 110 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .

Glorious carried four BL 15 @-@ inch Mark I guns in two twin hydraulically powered Mark I * turrets , one each fore ( ' A ' ) and aft ( ' Y ' ) . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mark IX guns mounted in six manually powered triple T.I. Mark I mounts . These mounts had the three breeches too close together and the 23 loaders tended to interfere with one another . This rather negated the mount 's intended purpose to provide a high rate of fire against torpedo boats and other smaller craft . A pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns were fitted abreast the mainmast on Glorious . She mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes and 10 torpedoes were carried .

= = World War I = =

Her keel was laid down on 1 May 1915 by Harland and Wolff at their Belfast shipyard . Glorious was launched on 20 April 1916 and completed on 14 October 1916 . During her sea trials in November 1916 , Courageous sustained structural damage while running at full speed in a rough head sea and had the damaged areas stiffened shortly afterwards to prevent a recurrence . Glorious did not suffer any similar damage and did not receive her stiffening until 1918 . Upon commissioning , Courageous served with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet . After most of the 1st Cruiser Squadron was sunk at the Battle of Jutland , the squadron was re @-@ formed with Courageous as flagship along with her sister ship Glorious . She cost £ 1 @,@ 967 @,@ 223 to build ( costs to 23 Nov 1916 ) . Glorious received a half a dozen torpedo mounts , each with two tubes in mid @-@ 1917 : one mount on each side of the mainmast on the upper deck and two mounts on each side of the rear turret on the quarterdeck .

On 16 October 1917 the Admiralty received word of German ship movements , possibly indicating some sort of raid . Admiral Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea in an effort to locate the enemy ships . Courageous and Glorious were not initially ordered to sea , but were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day . Two German Brummer @-@ class light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps in the British patrols and destroyed a convoy bound for Norway during the morning of 17 October , but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon . The 1st Cruiser Squadron were ordered to intercept , but were unsuccessful as the German cruisers were faster than expected .

= = = Second Battle of Heligoland Bight = = =

Throughout 1917 the Admiralty was becoming more concerned about German efforts to sweep paths through the British @-@ laid minefields intended to restrict the actions of the High Seas Fleet and German submarines . A preliminary raid on German minesweeping forces on 31 October by light forces destroyed ten small ships and the Admiralty decided on a larger operation to destroy the minesweepers and their light cruiser escorts . Based on intelligence reports , the Admiralty allocated the 1st Cruiser Squadron on 17 November 1917 , with cover provided by the reinforced 1st Battlecruiser Squadron and distant cover by the battleships of the 1st Battle Squadron .

The German ships , four light cruisers of II Scouting Force , eight destroyers , three divisions of minesweepers , eight sperrbrecher ( cork @-@ filled trawlers ) and two trawlers to mark the swept route , were spotted at 7 : 30 am , silhouetted by the rising sun . Courageous and the light cruiser Cardiff opened fire with their forward guns seven minutes later . The Germans responded by laying a smoke screen and this made spotting targets very difficult . The British continued in pursuit , but lost track of most of the smaller ships in the smoke and concentrated fire on the light cruisers as opportunity permitted . One 15 @-@ inch hit was made on a gun shield of SMS Pillau , but it did not affect her speed . At 8 : 33 the left @-@ hand gun in Glorious 's forward turret was wrecked when a shell detonated inside the gun barrel . At 9 : 30 the 1st Cruiser Squadron broke off their pursuit so they would not enter a minefield marked on their maps ; the ships turned south , playing no further role in the battle .

Glorious required five days of repairs to right the damage caused from the premature detonation and from her own muzzle blast . She fired 57 15 @-@ inch and 213 4 @-@ inch shells during the engagement . The ship received flying @-@ off platforms on top of her turrets in 1918 . A Sopwith Camel was carried on the rear turret and a Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter on the forward turret . She was present at the surrender of the German fleet on 21 November 1918 . Glorious was reduced to reserve at Rosyth on 1 February 1919 and served as a turret drill ship , being also flagship of the Rear @-@ Admiral Commanding the Devonport Reserve between 1921 and 1922 .

= = Conversion = =

The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 severely limited the amount of capital ship tonnage and the Royal Navy was forced to scrap many of its older battleships and battlecruisers . However up to 66 @,@ 000 long tons ( 67 @,@ 059 t ) of existing ships could be converted into aircraft carriers , for which the Courageous @-@ class ships ' combination of a large hull and high speed made them an ideal candidate for conversion . Glorious began her conversion at Rosyth in 1924 , but was towed to Devonport for completion , and she was re @-@ commissioned on 24 February 1930 . During the ship 's post @-@ conversion sea trials she reached 29 @.@ 47 knots ( 54 @.@ 58 km / h ; 33 @.@ 91 mph ) . Her fifteen @-@ inch turrets were placed into storage and later reused during World War II for HMS Vanguard , the Royal Navy 's last battleship .

Her new design improved on her half @-@ sister HMS Furious which lacked an island and a conventional funnel . All superstructure , guns , torpedo tubes , and fittings down to the main deck were removed . A two @-@ storey hangar , each level 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high and 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long , was built on top of the remaining hull ; the upper hangar level opened on to a short flying @-@ off deck , below and forward of the main flight deck . The flying @-@ off deck improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility until new fighters requiring longer takeoff rolls made the lower deck obsolete in the 1930s . Two 46 @-@ by @-@ 48 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 0 m × 14 @.@ 6 m ) lifts were installed fore and aft in the flight deck . An island with the bridge , flying control station , and funnel was added on the starboard side as islands had been found not to contribute significantly to turbulence . By 1939 the ship could carry 34 @,@ 500 imperial gallons ( 157 @,@ 000 l ; 41 @,@ 400 US gal ) of petrol for her aircraft .

Glorious received a dual @-@ purpose armament of sixteen QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark VIII guns in single High @-@ Angle Mark XII mounts . One mount was on each side of the lower flight deck and a pair was on the quarterdeck . The remaining twelve mounts were distributed along the sides of the ship . During her 1935 refit , Glorious received three octuple 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ pom Mark VI mounts , one on each side of the flying @-@ off deck , forward of the 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , and one behind the island on the flight deck . She also received four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ calibre Mark III machine guns in a single quadruple mounting .

Glorious recommissioned on 24 February 1930 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet , but was attached to the Home Fleet from March to June 1930 . She relieved Courageous in the Mediterranean Fleet in June 1930 and remained there until October 1939 . In a fog on 1 April 1931 Glorious rammed the French ocean liner Florida amidships while steaming at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The impact crumpled 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) of the flying @-@ off deck and killed 1 seaman aboard Glorious and 24 passengers and crew aboard Florida . Glorious was forced to put into Gibraltar to temporary repairs . She had to sail to Malta for permanent repairs which lasted until September 1931 . Sometime in the early 1930s , traverse arresting gear was installed . She was refitted at Devonport from July 1934 to July 1935 where she received two hydraulic accelerators ( catapults ) on her upper flight deck , which was also extended to the rear , her quarterdeck was raised one deck and she received her multiple pom @-@ pom mounts . Glorious participated in the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI before returning to the Mediterranean .

= = = Air group = = =

Glorious could carry up to 48 aircraft ; when first recommissioned , she carried Fairey Flycatcher fighters , Blackburn Dart and Blackburn Ripon torpedo bombers , and Fairey IIIF reconnaissance planes of the Fleet Air Arm . From 1933 until Glorious returned to the United Kingdom in April 1940 , aside from a period when refitting in the mid @-@ 1930s , she carried 802 Squadron which flew a mixture of nine Hawker Nimrod and three Hawker Osprey fighters , until re @-@ equipping with a dozen Gloster Sea Gladiators in May 1939 . 812 and 823 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti @-@ ship attack missions . They flew the Blackburn Ripon , the Blackburn Baffin and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers and as well as Fairey IIIF and Fairey Seal reconnaissance aircraft . When Glorious recommissioned after her refit in 1935 825 Squadron was embarked , initially with Fairey IIIFs , but the squadron converted to Fairey Swordfish in May 1936 .

= = World War II = =

Glorious served briefly with the Mediterranean Fleet for a time after World War II broke out . In October 1939 , she moved through the Suez Canal to the Indian Ocean where she became part of Force J which was organized to hunt for the Admiral Graf Spee in the Indian Ocean . It was not successful and Glorious remained in the Indian Ocean until December when she returned to the Mediterranean .

= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =

She was recalled to the Home Fleet in April 1940 to provide air cover for British forces landing in Norway . Eighteen Gloster Gladiators of No. 263 Squadron RAF were flown aboard to be transferred to Norwegian airbases . Eleven Blackburn Skuas of 803 Squadron , plus eighteen Sea Gladiators from 802 and 804 Squadrons were also embarked . Glorious and Ark Royal arrived off central Norway on 24 April where 263 Squadron was flown off and their own aircraft attacked targets in and south of Trondheim before Glorious had to return to Scapa Flow late on 27 April to refuel and embark new aircraft . Glorious 's Sea Gladiators provided air cover for the two carriers . They damaged one Heinkel He 111 bomber on a reconnaissance mission . Before departing she transferred four serviceable Skuas to Ark Royal . She returned on 1 May , but had been unable to load many new aircraft because of poor weather . Only a dozen Swordfish of 823 Squadron , three Skuas and one Blackburn Roc managed to be flown aboard . The task force was under heavy air attack by the Luftwaffe all day and was withdrawn that evening . One Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber was shot down after it dropped its bomb by the Sea Gladiators on patrol .

Glorious returned on 18 May with six Supermarine Walrus amphibious flying boats of 701 Squadron and 18 Hawker Hurricanes of No. 46 Squadron RAF . The latter aircraft had been loaded aboard by crane . The Walruses were quickly flown off to Harstad , but the airfield at Skånland was not yet ready for the Hurricanes and they were still aboard when Glorious returned to Scapa on 21 May . Glorious came back to the Narvik area on 26 May and the Hurricanes were quickly flown off .

However , even this success proved to be ephemeral and British forces were ordered withdrawn a few days later . The evacuation ( Operation Alphabet ) began in the north on the night of 3 / 4 June and Glorious arrived off the coast on 2 June to provide support although she only carried nine Sea Gladiators of 802 and six Swordfish from 823 Squadrons for self @-@ defence as it was hoped to evacuate the RAF fighters if at all possible . Ten Gladiators of 263 Squadron were flown aboard during the afternoon of 7 June and the Hurricanes of 46 Squadron were also flown aboard without any significant problems in the early evening despite having a much higher landing speed than the biplanes . These had been flown off from land bases to keep them from being destroyed in the evacuation after the pilots discovered that a 7 @-@ kilogram ( 15 lb ) sandbag carried in the rear of the Hurricane allowed full brakes to be applied immediately on landing . This was the first time that high performance monoplanes without tailhooks had been landed on an aircraft carrier .

= = = The sinking = = =

The commanding officer of Glorious , Captain Guy D 'Oyly @-@ Hughes , was a former submariner who had been executive officer of Courageous for ten months . He was granted permission to proceed independently to Scapa Flow in the early hours of 8 June to hold a court @-@ martial of his Commander ( Air ) , J. B. Heath , who had refused an order to carry out an attack on shore targets on the grounds that the targets were at best ill @-@ defined and his aircraft were unsuited to the task , and who had been left behind in Scapa to await trial . On the way through the Norwegian Sea the funnel smoke from Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , Acasta and Ardent , was spotted by the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau at about 3 : 46 pm . The German ships were not spotted until shortly after 4 : 00 and Ardent was dispatched to investigate . Glorious did not alter course or increase speed . Five Swordfish were ordered to the flight deck but Action Stations was not ordered until 4 : 20 . No combat air patrol was being flown , no aircraft were ready on the deck for quick take @-@ off and there was no lookout in Glorious 's crow 's nest . Scharnhorst opened fire on Ardent at 4 : 27 at a range of about 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , causing the destroyer to withdraw , firing torpedoes and making a smoke screen . Ardent scored one hit with her 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) guns on Scharnhorst but was hit several times by the German ships ' secondary armament and sank at about 5 : 25 .

Scharnhorst switched her fire to Glorious at 4 : 32 and scored her first hit six minutes later on her third salvo , at an approximate range of 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , when one 28 @.@ 3 @-@ centimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) hit the forward flight deck and burst in the upper hangar , starting a large fire . This hit destroyed two Swordfish being prepared for flight and the hole in the flight deck prevented any other aircraft from taking off . Splinters penetrated a boiler casing and caused a temporary drop in steam pressure . At 4 : 58 a second shell hit the homing beacon above the bridge and killed or wounded the captain and most of the personnel stationed there . The smokescreen became effective enough to impair the visibility of the Germans from about 4 : 58 to 5 : 20 so they ceased fire on Glorious .

Glorious was hit again in the centre engine room at around 5 : 20 and this caused her to lose speed and commence a slow circle to port . She also developed a list to starboard . The German ships closed to within 16 @,@ 000 yards and continued to fire at her until about 5 : 40 . Glorious sank at about 6 : 10 , approximately at 68 ° 38 ′ N 03 ° 50 ′ E , with only 43 survivors .

As the German ships approached Glorious , the destroyer Acasta , which had been trying to maintain the smokescreen , broke through her own smoke and fired two volleys of torpedoes at Scharnhorst . One of these hit the battleship at 5 : 34 abreast her rear turret and badly damaged her . Acasta also managed one hit from her 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns on Scharnhorst , but was riddled by German gunfire and sank at around 6 : 20 .

According to Winton , survivors ' estimates were that about 900 men abandoned Glorious . The German ships did not try to save survivors . The Royal Navy knew nothing of the sinking until it was announced on German radio . The Norwegian ship Borgund , on passage to the Faroe Islands , arrived late on June 10 and picked up survivors , eventually delivering 37 alive to Thorshavn of whom two died . Another Norwegian ship , Svalbard II , also making for the Faeroes , picked up five survivors but was sighted by a German aircraft and forced to return to Norway , where the four still alive became prisoners of war for the next five years . It is also believed that one more survivor from Glorious was rescued by a German seaplane . Therefore , the total of survivors was 40 , including one each from Acasta and Ardent . The total killed or missing was 1 @,@ 207 from Glorious , 160 from Acasta and 152 from Ardent , a total of 1 @,@ 519 .

The disaster and the failure to mount an effective rescue was clearly an embarrassment for the Royal Navy . All ships encountering the enemy should routinely broadcast a sighting report , and so the lack of a sighting report from Glorious was eventually raised in the House of Commons . It later became known that the heavy cruiser HMS Devonshire had passed within 30 – 50 miles of the battle , flying the flag of Vice Admiral John Cunningham , who was carrying out orders to evacuate the Norwegian Royal Family to the UK and maintain radio silence . Some surviving eyewitnesses from Glorious and HMS Devonshire later testified that the sighting report had been correctly sent , and received by HMS Devonshire , but that it had been suppressed by Cunningham , who departed at high speed in accordance with his orders . It has also been alleged by Howland that there was some confusion over the use of wireless telegraphy frequencies on board Glorious which could have contributed to the failure of any other ship or shore @-@ station to receive a sighting report . Howland also cites the absence of normal airborne patrols over Glorious and its attendant destroyers , in conditions of maximum visibility , as a contributory factor to the sinking of Glorious and her escorts .

= = = Memorials = = =

For many years the only memorial to the seamen lost in the three ships was a stained @-@ glass window in the church of St Peter Martindale in Cumbria , on the east side of Ullswater . On 8 June 2010 , 70 years after the loss of Glorious , Acasta and Ardent , a memorial plaque inscribed in English and Norwegian was unveiled near the Trondenes Historical Centre in Harstad , Norway , the two destroyers ' last port of call .

= = Acclaimed model = =

A model of HMS Glorious by renowned marine model maker Norman A. Ough , built for the Royal United Services Museum , is now on display in the Fleet Air Arm Museum at RNAS Yeovilton .

= Morgan dollar =

The Morgan dollar was a United States dollar coin minted from 1878 to 1904 , and then again in 1921 . It was the first standard silver dollar minted since production of the previous design , the Seated Liberty dollar , ceased due to the passage of the Coinage Act of 1873 , which also ended the free coining of silver . The coin is named after its designer , United States Mint Assistant Engraver George T. Morgan . The obverse depicts a profile portrait representing Liberty , while the reverse depicts an eagle with wings outstretched .

The dollar was authorized by the Bland – Allison Act . Following the passage of the 1873 act , mining interests lobbied to restore free silver , which would require the Mint to accept all silver presented to it and return it , struck into coin . Instead , the Bland – Allison Act was passed , which required the Treasury to purchase between two and four million dollars ' worth of silver at market value to be coined into dollars each month . In 1890 , the Bland – Allison Act was repealed by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , which required the Treasury to purchase 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 troy ounces ( 140 @,@ 000 kg ) of silver each month , but only required further silver dollar production for one year . This act , once again , was repealed in 1893 .

In 1898 , Congress approved a bill that required all remaining bullion purchased under the Sherman Silver Purchase Act to be coined into silver dollars . When those silver reserves were depleted in 1904 , the Mint ceased to strike the Morgan dollar . The Pittman Act , passed in 1918 , authorized the melting and recoining of millions of silver dollars . Pursuant to the act , Morgan dollars resumed mintage for one year in 1921 . The design was replaced by the Peace dollar later the same year .

In the early 1960s , a large quantity of unissued Morgan dollars was found to be available from Treasury vaults , including issues once thought rare . Individuals began purchasing large quantities of the pieces at face value , and eventually the Treasury ceased exchanging silver certificates for silver coin . Beginning in the 1970s , the Treasury conducted a sale of silver dollars minted at the Carson City Mint through the General Services Administration . In 2006 , Morgan 's reverse design was used on a silver dollar issued to commemorate the old San Francisco Mint building .

= = Background = =

In 1873 , Congress enacted the Fourth Coinage Act , which effectively ended the bimetallic standard in the United States by demonetizing silver bullion . Prior to enactment of the Coinage Act , silver could be brought to the mints and coined into legal tender for a small fee . With such a system in place , bullion producers could have silver coined into dollars when the intrinsic value of a silver dollar was lower than the face value , thus making a profit , flooding the money supply and causing inflation . The act ended production of the standard silver dollar ( then the Seated Liberty dollar , as designed by Christian Gobrecht ) and provided for mintage of a silver trade dollar , which was intended to compete with Mexican dollars for use in the Orient . Under the act , bullion producers were allowed to bring bullion to the mints in order to be cast into bars or coined into the newly authorized trade dollars for a small fee . Trade dollars initially held legal tender status , but it was revoked in 1876 to prevent bullion producers from making a profit by coining silver into trade dollars when the value of the metal was low . The restrictions on free coinage laid out in the Coinage Act initially met little resistance from mining interests until the price of silver declined rapidly due to increased mining in the Western United States . Protests also came from bankers , manufacturers and farmers , who felt an increased money supply would have a positive impact . Groups were formed that demanded the free coinage of silver ( or " free silver " ) in order to inflate the dollar following the Panic of 1873 .

Beginning in 1876 , several bills were introduced in the House of Representatives in an effort to resume the free coinage of silver . One such bill introduced into the House by Democratic Representative Richard P. Bland of Missouri was passed in the fall of 1876 . Republican senator William B. Allison of Iowa added important amendments to the bill in the Senate . The House bill allowed Free Silver ; one of Allison 's amendments struck that provision . This same amendment allowed for the issuance of silver certificates for the first time in United States history . The bill was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes . The president 's veto was overridden on February 28 , 1878 . What came to be known as the Bland – Allison Act required that the Treasury purchase between two and four million dollars ' worth of silver per month , to be coined into silver dollars at the former gold / silver value ratio of 16 : 1 , meaning that one ounce of gold would be valued the same as sixteen ounces of silver .

= = Design history = =

In 1876 , Director of the Mint Henry Linderman began efforts to redesign the nation 's silver coins . Linderman contacted C.W. Fremantle , Deputy Master of the Royal Mint in London , requesting him to " find a first class die @-@ sinker who would be willing to take the position of Assistant Engraver at the Mint at Philadelphia . " In response to Linderman 's request , Fremantle wrote " My inquiries as to an Assistant Engraver lead me very strongly to recommend for the post Mr. George Morgan , age 30 , who has made himself a considerable name , but for whom there is not much opening at present in this country . " An agreement was reached between Linderman and Morgan for the engraver to work at the Philadelphia Mint under Chief Engraver William Barber on a six @-@ month trial basis .

Morgan arrived in Philadelphia on October 9 , 1876 . His earliest pattern coins designed during his tenure at the Philadelphia Mint were intended for the half dollar . In 1876 , Morgan enrolled as a student at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts to prepare to create a new Liberty head design . Morgan also obtained studies from nature of the bald eagle for preparation of the reverse design . For the representation of Liberty , Morgan sought to depict an American woman rather than the usual Greek – style figures . Morgan 's friend , artist Thomas Eakins , suggested he use Anna Willess Williams of Philadelphia as a model . In total , Morgan had five sittings with Williams ; he declared her profile to be the most perfect he had seen .

On October 18 , 1877 , Linderman requested Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint James Pollock to " instruct Mr. Morgan to prepare without delay , dies for a silver dollar , the designs , inscriptions , and arrangement thereof to be the same as the enclosed impression for the Half Dollar and numbered ' 2' substituting the words ' one dollar ' in place of ' half dollar ' " . Linderman also ordered Pollock to " instruct Mr. Barber to prepare a reverse die for a dollar with a representation of an eagle as well as the inscriptions required by law . He will select whichever of his Heads of Liberty he prefers for the obverse of the same . " Linderman evidently preferred the designs of Morgan over those of the Chief Engraver ; he wrote Pollock on February 21 , 1878 , " I have now to state for your information , that it is my intention , in the event of the silver bill now pending in Congress , becoming law , to request the approval by the Secretary of the Treasury , of the dies prepared by Mr. Morgan . "

= = Production = =

Production of the coins did not commence until March 11 , more than a week after the passage of the Bland – Allison Act . The first acceptable strike , after adjustments to the press , was coined at 3 : 17 p.m. at the Philadelphia Mint . This piece was given to President Hayes ; the second and third were given to Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman and to Mint Director Henry Linderman .

Linderman desired to involve the western mints of San Francisco and Carson City in production in order to help reach the monthly quota necessary under the Bland – Allison Act . Pressure was so great at the Philadelphia Mint that it halted production of all other coins and began operating overtime . Use of the western mints was delayed , however , as all dies were prepared at the Philadelphia Mint , and it was believed that the Western mints did not have the proper equipment to prepare the dies for use . During the second week of production , Linderman pointed out what he called a " slight imperfection " in the dies for the dollar . The reason for the changes was to reduce the relief of the designs and to change the number of tail feathers on the eagle from eight to seven ; this was done because all prior United States coinage depicted the bald eagle as having an odd number of tail feathers . The high relief had caused the dies to have a shorter life . Dies were eventually sent to the Western mints , arriving in both San Francisco and Carson City on April 16 , 1878 . The New Orleans Mint began striking the new silver dollars in 1879 .

The Denver Mint , established in 1906 , struck the coins for only one year , in 1921 . The mint marks appearing on the coins are none , representing Philadelphia , " CC " for Carson City , " S " for San Francisco , " O " for New Orleans and " D " for Denver . In order to conform to the Coinage Act of 1837 , the Morgan dollar contained ninety percent silver and ten percent copper , measured 38 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 50 in ) in diameter and weighed 412 @.@ 5 grains ( 26 @.@ 73 g ) .

= = Sherman Silver Purchase Act , Panic of 1893 = =

Mintage of the Morgan dollar remained relatively steady until the passage of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act on July 14 , 1890 . The act , authored by Ohio senator and former Treasury secretary John Sherman , forced the Treasury to increase the amount of silver purchased to 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 troy ounces ( 140 @,@ 000 kg ) each month . Supporters of the act believed that an increase in the amount of silver purchased would result in inflation , helping to relieve the nation 's farmers . The act also received support from mining interests because such large purchases would cause the price of silver to rise and increase their profits . Despite the Act 's requiring large purchases of silver indefinitely , it provided that the Mint must coin 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars each month only until 1891 . Since the Treasury already had a surplus of silver dollars , minting of dollars dropped sharply beginning in 1892 . The silver that remained after mintage of the dollars was used to mint dimes , quarters and half dollars .

Beginning early in 1893 , a number of industrial firms , including the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad and the National Cordage Company went bankrupt . The resulting bank runs and failures became known as the Panic of 1893 . In June of that year , President Grover Cleveland , who believed that the Panic was caused by the inflation generated by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , called a special session of Congress in order to repeal it . The act was repealed on November 1 , 1893 . On June 13 , 1898 , Congress ordered the coining of all the remaining bullion purchased under the Sherman Silver Purchase Act into silver dollars . Silver dollar production rose again , until the bullion was exhausted in 1904 , when it ceased .

= = Pittman Act = =

The German government began a propaganda campaign during World War I to discredit the United Kingdom 's currency in India . The Germans convinced Indian citizens that British banknotes in that country could not be redeemed for silver . This led to a run on the British supply of silver . In response , United States Democratic senator Key Pittman of Nevada introduced legislation in 1918 that was intended to offer financial relief to the British government . The bill , passed on April 22 , 1918 , stated that " sales of silver bullion under authority of this act may be made for the purpose of conserving the existing stock of gold in the United States , of providing silver for subsidiary coinage and for commercial use , and of assisting foreign governments at war with the enemies of the United States " . The Pittman Act authorized the U.S. to melt up to 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 silver dollars , and this commenced immediately after the Act 's passage . The U.S. eventually melted a total of 270 @,@ 232 @,@ 722 silver dollars . Of that amount , 259 @,@ 121 @,@ 554 were sold to the United Kingdom at the cost of one dollar per troy ounce .

The U.S. only minted the Morgan dollar again during 1921 , the only year in which Morgan dollars were struck at the Denver mint . Since the Treasury had destroyed the obsolete Morgan dollar dies in 1910 , Morgan had to create an entirely new master die . Another provision of the Pittman Act authorized the U.S. to mint a replacement coin for every silver dollar melted . During the same year , the Peace dollar was first issued to commemorate the end of World War I. The Peace dollar was supposedly minted to replace the Morgan dollar under the terms of the Pittman Act but without congressional authorization , despite the fact that the Act did not describe the coin design . The change in design was actually authorized under an 1890 act of Congress , which stated :

But no change in the design or die of any coin shall be made oftener than once in twenty @-@ five years from and including the year of the first adoption of the design , model , die , or hub for the same coin :

Provided , That no change be made in the diameter of any coin :

And provided further , That nothing in this section shall prevent the adoption of new designs or models for devices or emblems already authorized for the standard silver dollar and the five @-@ cent nickel piece as soon as practicable after the passage of this act .

= = Carson City Mint Morgan dollars = =

Until 1964 , U.S. citizens could redeem paper money known as silver certificates for silver dollars at a U.S. Treasury mint on demand . In 1962 , an individual redeemed a silver certificate and received a rare and valuable Morgan dollar in exchange . The coin was from a bag of silver dollars in the vault of the Philadelphia Mint . This incident triggered huge interest , and between November 1962 and March 1964 , millions of Morgan and Peace dollars were sold to the general public . The demand to exchange silver certificates for silver dollars was so great that lines formed outside of the Treasury Building in Washington , D.C. Some people in line were pushing wheelbarrows . The U.S. Treasury discovered previously unknown mint bags of Carson City dollars in its vaults containing slightly more than 2 @.@ 8 million Carson City silver dollars in the Treasury vaults . Treasury officials decided to hold them back because the total number of coins minted at the Carson City mint were generally lower than others .

On May 12 , 1969 , the Joint Commission on Coinage held a meeting in order to determine the best way to sell the Carson City @-@ minted dollars earlier held back by Treasury officials . They recommended a mail bid sale . Legislation was passed on December 31 , 1970 directing the Treasury to transfer the silver dollars to the Administrator of General Services who was given the responsibility for marketing and selling the coins . The legislation also stated that all proceeds from the sale were to be " covered into the Treasury as miscellaneous receipts . " Congress supplied the General Services Administration with $ 10 million to market the dollar coins . Advertising consisted of posters and brochures distributed to post offices , banks and various financial institutions , as well as television documentaries . The coins were sorted and mounted in small plastic display cases . The GSA conducted a total of seven mail bid sales between 1972 and 1980 . In total , the sales generated $ 107 million in revenue .

= = San Francisco commemorative dollar = =

On June 15 , 2006 , legislation was approved that provided for the minting of a silver dollar and a five dollar gold coin in " commemoration of the Old Mint at San Francisco , " with surcharges to be given to the San Francisco Museum and Historical Society in an effort to rehabilitate the Old Mint . In total , 100 @,@ 000 gold and 500 @,@ 000 silver commemorative coins were authorized . Authorization came at the behest of several hobby publications , who enlisted readers to contact their local congressmen and persuade them to pass necessary legislation . The designs approved for the silver dollar bear a left @-@ frontal view of the Old Mint building and a copy of Morgan 's eagle design on the obverse and reverse , respectively . Mint artist Joseph Menna made a new model for the reverse , employing a 1904 San Francisco @-@ minted dollar as his model .

= Keswick , Cumbria =

Keswick ( / ˈkɛzᵻk / ) is an English market town and civil parish , historically in Cumberland , and since 1974 in the Borough of Allerdale in Cumbria . The town , in the Lake District National Park , just north of Derwentwater , and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Bassenthwaite , had a population of 4 @,@ 821 at the time of the 2011 census .

There is considerable evidence of prehistoric occupation of the Keswick area , but the first recorded mention of the town dates from the 13th century , when Edward I of England granted a charter for Keswick 's market , which has maintained a continuous 700 @-@ year existence . In Tudor times the town was an important mining area , and from the 18th century onwards it has increasingly been known as a holiday centre ; tourism has been its principal industry for more than 150 years . Its features include the Moot Hall ; a modern theatre , the Theatre by the Lake ; one of Britain 's oldest surviving cinemas , the Alhambra ; and the Keswick Museum and Art Gallery in the town 's largest open space , Fitz Park . Among the town 's annual events is the Keswick Convention , an Evangelical gathering attracting visitors from many countries .

Keswick became widely known for its association with the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey . Together with their fellow Lake Poet William Wordsworth , based at Grasmere , 12 miles ( 19 km ) away , they made the scenic beauty of the area widely known to readers in Britain and beyond . In the late 19th century and into the 20th , Keswick was the focus of several important initiatives by the growing conservation movement , often led by Hardwicke Rawnsley , vicar of the nearby Crosthwaite parish and co @-@ founder of the National Trust , which has built up extensive holdings in the area .

= = Name = =

The town is first recorded in Edward I 's charter of the 13th century , as " Kesewik " . Scholars have generally considered the name to be from the Old English , meaning " farm where cheese is made " , the word deriving from " cēse " ( cheese ) with a Scandinavian initial " k " and " wīc " ( special place or dwelling ) , although not all academics agree . George Flom of the University of Illinois ( 1919 ) rejected that derivation on the grounds that a town in the heart of Viking @-@ settled areas , as Keswick was , would not have been given a Saxon name ; he proposed instead that the word is of Danish or Norse origin , and means " Kell 's place at the bend of the river " . Among the later scholars supporting the " cheese farm " toponymy are Eilert Ekwall ( 1960 ) and A D Mills ( 2011 ) ( both Oxford University Press ) , and Diana Whaley ( 2006 ) , for the English Place @-@ Name Society .

= = Prehistory = =

Evidence of prehistoric occupation in the area includes the Castlerigg stone circle on the eastern fringe of the town , which has been dated to between 3000 and 2500 BC . Neolithic @-@ era stone tools were unearthed inside the circle and in the centre of Keswick during the 19th century . The antiquary W G Collingwood , commenting in 1925 about finds in the area , wrote that they showed " Stone Age man was fairly at home in the Lake District " . There is little evidence of sustained settlement in the area during the Bronze Age , but from excavations of hill forts it is clear that there was some Iron Age occupation , circa 500 BC , although scholars are not agreed about how permanent it was .

In Roman Britain Cumbria was the territory of the Carvetii . As the site of the western part of Hadrian 's Wall , it was of strategic importance . The north of the county is rich in archaeological evidence from the period , but nothing is known that suggests any Roman habitation in the Keswick area , other than finds that point to the existence of one or more Roman highways passing the vicinity of the present @-@ day town . Such nearby settlements as can be traced from the era of the Romans and the years after their departure seem to have been predominantly Celtic . Many local place names from the period , including that of the River Derwent , are Celtic , some closely related to Welsh equivalents .

Several Christian saints preached the Gospel in the north of England in the late 6th and early 7th centuries AD ; in Keswick and the surrounding area the most important figures were St Herbert of Derwentwater and his contemporary St Kentigern . The former , the pupil and friend of St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne , lived as a hermit on an island in Derwentwater , now named after him . Kentigern , who lived and preached in the area before moving to Wales , is traditionally held to have founded Crosthwaite Church , which was the parish church of Keswick until the 19th century .

= = History = =

= = = Middle Ages = = =

Keswick 's recorded history starts in the Middle Ages . The area was conquered by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria in the seventh century , but Northumbria was destroyed by the Vikings in the late ninth . In the early tenth century the British Kingdom of Strathclyde seized the area , and it remained part of Strathclyde until about 1050 , when Siward , Earl of Northumbria , conquered Cumbria . In 1092 William II of England , son of William the Conqueror , marched north and established the great baronies of Allerdale @-@ below @-@ Derwent , Allerdale @-@ above @-@ Derwent , and Greystoke , the borders of which met at Keswick . In 1181 Jocelyn of Furness wrote of a new church at Crosthwaite , Keswick , founded by Alice de Romilly , the Lady of Allerdale , a direct descendant of William II 's original barons . In 1189 , Richard I granted the rectory of Crosthwaite to the Cistercian order of Fountains Abbey .

During the 13th century , agricultural land around the town was acquired by Fountains and Furness Abbeys . The latter , already prosperous from the wool trade , wished to expand its sheep farming , and in 1208 bought large tracts of land from Alice de Romilly . She also negotiated with Fountains Abbey , to which she sold Derwent Island in Derwentwater , land at Watendlath , the mill at Crosthwaite and other land in Borrowdale . Keswick was at the hub of the monastic farms in the area , and Fountains based a steward in the town , where tenants paid their rents . Furness also enjoyed profitable rights to the extraction of iron ore .

Keswick was granted a charter for a market in 1276 by Edward I. This market has an uninterrupted history lasting for more than 700 years . The pattern of buildings around the market square remained broadly the same from this period until at least the late 18th century , with houses – originally timber @-@ framed – fronting the square , and sturdily enclosed gardens or yards at the back . According to local tradition these stout walls and the narrow entrances to the yards were for defence against marauding Scots . In the event it appears that the town escaped such attacks , Scottish raiders finding richer and more accessible targets at Carlisle and the fertile Eden Valley , well to the north of Keswick .

= = = 16th and 17th centuries : agriculture and industry = = =

With the Dissolution of the Monasteries , between 1536 and 1541 , Furness and Fountains Abbeys were supplanted by new secular landlords for the farmers of Keswick and its neighbourhood . The buying and selling of sheep and wool were no longer centred on the great Abbeys , being handled locally by the new landowners and tenants . This enhanced Keswick 's importance as a market centre , though at first the town remained only modestly prosperous : in the 1530s John Leland wrote of it as " a lytle poore market town " . By the second half of the century copper mining had made Keswick richer : in 1586 William Camden wrote of " these copper works not only being sufficient for all England , but great quantities of the copper exported every year " with , at the centre , " Keswicke , a small market town , many years famous for the copper works as appears from a charter of king Edward IV , and at present inhabited by miners . "

Earlier copper mining had been small in scale , but Elizabeth I , concerned for the defence of her kingdom , required large quantities of copper for the manufacture of weapons and the strengthening of warships . There was the additional advantage for her that the Crown was entitled to royalties on metals extracted from English land . The experts in copper mining were German , and Elizabeth secured the services of Daniel Hechstetter of Augsburg , to whom she granted a licence to " search , dig , try , roast and melt all manner of mines and ores of gold , silver , copper and quicksilver " in the Keswick area and elsewhere .

As well as copper , a new substance was found , extracted and exploited : this was variously called wad , black lead , plumbago or black cauke , and is now known as graphite . Many uses were quickly discovered for the mineral : it reduced friction in machinery , made a heat @-@ resistant glaze for crucibles , and when used to line moulds for cannonballs , resulted in rounder , smoother balls that could be fired further by English naval cannon . Later , from the second half of the 18th century , it was used to make pencils , for which Keswick became famous .

The copper mines prospered for about seventy years , but by the early 17th century the industry was in decline . Demand for copper fell and the cost of extracting it was high . Graphite mining continued , and quarrying for slate began to grow in importance . Other small @-@ scale industries grew up , such as tannery and weaving . Although the boom of the mid @-@ 16th century had finished , the town 's economy did not slide into ruin , and the population remained generally constant at a little under 1 @,@ 000 .

= = = 18th and 19th centuries : beginnings of tourism = = =

The historian George Bott regards John Dalton ( 1709 – 63 ) and John Brown ( 1715 – 66 ) as the pioneers of tourism in the Lake District . Both wrote works praising the majesty of the scenery , and their enthusiasm prompted others to visit the area . The poet Thomas Gray published an account of a five @-@ day stay in Keswick in 1769 , in which he described the view of the town as " the vale of Elysium in all its verdure " , and was lyrical about the beauties of the fells and the lake . His journal was widely read , and was , in Bott 's phrase , " an effective public relations job for Keswick . " Painters such as Thomas Smith of Derby and William Bellers also contributed to the influx of visitors ; engravings of their paintings of Cumberland scenery sold in large numbers , further enhancing the fame of the area . In 1800 the Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote , " It is no small advantage that for two @-@ thirds of the year we are in complete retirement – the other third is alive & swarms with Tourists of all shapes & sizes . " Coleridge had moved to Keswick in that year , and together with his fellow Lake Poets ( see below ) was possibly the strongest influence on the public esteem of Keswick and the Lake District .

During the 18th century and into the 19th , turnpike trusts were established and major roads in Cumberland were greatly improved . With the Lake District now accessible by coach the area attracted well @-@ off visitors , particularly at times of war in mainland Europe , which made the aristocratic Grand Tour impossible there . Regular public coach services were established in the 1760s , but they were expensive . The ten @-@ hour journey from Whitehaven to Penrith via Keswick cost 12 shillings ( equivalent to 60 pence ) , at a time when country labourers typically earned £ 24 a year or less , and the annual income of even the most prosperous tenant farmers was rarely more than £ 200 . Nonetheless , by the 19th century the number of tourists visiting Keswick during each season was estimated at between 12 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 . Some of the Keswick inns that catered for affluent visitors remain as hotels , including the Queen 's , where Gray stayed .

The construction of the railways in the mid @-@ 19th century made the Lake District , and Keswick in particular , more accessible to visitors of modest means . The original impetus for building the Cockermouth , Keswick and Penrith Railway ( CKP ) line came from heavy industry : the new Bessemer process of steelmaking brought a great demand for the rich iron ore from west Cumberland and the coking coal from Durham on the east side of the country . The CKP was built to enable ore and coal to be brought together at steel foundries in both counties . The line opened for goods traffic in 1864 , and the following year it began to carry passengers . Fares varied , but holidaymakers could buy excursion tickets at discounted prices , such as six shillings for the 170 @-@ mile return journey from Preston to Keswick .

In addition to its growing importance as a tourist centre , Keswick developed a reputation for its manufacture of pencils during the 19th century . It had begun on a modest scale in or about 1792 , as a cottage industry , using graphite mined locally . This developed on more industrial lines in factories purpose @-@ built by several companies . Pencil making was the town 's most important manufacturing industry by the mid @-@ 19th century , textiles and leather goods having declined .

The Moot Hall was rebuilt in 1813 , and the lower floor was used as a market house on Saturdays . Coal gas was supplied by a gas works from 1846 ; the Keswick library opened in 1849 ; a water works began operation in 1856 ; and Keswick police station opened in 1857 . The local weekly newspaper , The Keswick Reminder was founded in 1896 , and in 2014 continues to be published every Friday . In an article in The Observer in 1978 , Christopher Brasher wrote that as long as the Reminder flourishes , " there will be one corner of these islands that is forever England . "

In 1883 Hardwicke Rawnsley was appointed vicar of Crosthwaite . In a study of Lake District towns in 1974 , H A L Rice commented that to write about Keswick without mentioning Rawnsley would be the equivalent of writing about Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon without mentioning Shakespeare , so great was Rawnsley 's impact on the town . He and his wife set up classes to teach metalwork and wood carving ; these grew into the Keswick School of Industrial Art , which trained local craftsmen and -women from 1894 until it closed in 1986 . He revived the ancient May Day festival in the town , and was a leading figure in the establishment of Keswick School , Blencathra Sanatorium and the County Farm School . As co @-@ founder of the National Trust , Rawnsley contributed to Keswick 's continued growth as a tourist centre , with the acquisition by the Trust of many acres of popular scenic land around Derwentwater , beginning with Brandelhow Wood in 1902 .

= = = 20th century and beyond = = =

Keswick 's history throughout the 20th century was one of increasing reliance on tourism , the pencil industry being the second largest source of employment . The Cumberland Pencil Company , formed at the turn of the century , occupied a large factory near the River Greta on the road leading out of Keswick towards Cockermouth . The conservation movement continued to develop ; Rawnsley led successful campaigns to save the medieval Greta and Portinscale bridges from replacement with ferro @-@ concrete structures ; and the National Trust continued to acquire land locally . In the First World War Keswick lost many of its young men : the war memorial near Fitz Park commemorates 117 names , from a population at the time of less than 4 @,@ 500 . By the 1930s Keswick was firmly established as the main centre of tourism in Cumberland and Westmorland . An article in The Manchester Guardian in 1934 called it " the capital of the Lake District " , and continued :

Keswick 's chief industry is to promote the contentment and happiness of its visitors . Its pleasant position provides at the outset a tonic atmosphere ... it is set in the most delightful part of a delightful district , described by Wordsworth as " the loveliest spot that ever man has found . " There are numerous places of interest and fine shops , and good accommodation is offered to visitors at reasonable prices . Keswick is the best centre from which to visit Lakeland .

During the Second World War students from St Katharine 's College , Liverpool and Roedean School , Sussex , were evacuated to Keswick when their own buildings were requisitioned for use as a hospital and a navy base respectively . Students were also brought to the safety of Keswick from Central Newcastle High School , Hunmanby Hall School , Yorkshire , and the Liverpool Orphanage .

The creation of the Lake District National Park in 1951 , with strict control over new development , prevented any expansion of the town beyond its pre @-@ war borders . Keswick 's population has remained stable at a little below 5 @,@ 000 residents . The town 's reliance on tourism increased in 2006 when Cumberland Pencils moved production from Keswick to Lillyhall , Workington , only the Cumberland Pencil Museum remaining at the old site . At the beginning of the 21st century , more than 60 per cent of the population were employed in hotels , restaurants and distribution . A survey of retail premises in 2000 found that more than ten per cent were outdoor clothes shops , a similar proportion were cafés or restaurants , and more than eight per cent were gift shops . The age profile of the Keswick population is significantly higher than the English average . In 2011 children under 10 made up 7 @.@ 6 per cent of the town 's population , compared with 11 @.@ 9 per cent for England as a whole . Between ages 10 and 20 the comparable figures are 10 @.@ 2 and 12 @.@ 1 ; and from ages 20 to 44 , 25 @.@ 9 as against 34 @.@ 3 . The percentage of Keswick 's population aged 45 and upwards is above the national average , the largest difference being within the 75- to 84 @-@ year @-@ old bracket , which contains 9 @.@ 6 per cent of Keswick 's population compared with a national average of 5 @.@ 5 . Figures from the same census show that Keswick has fewer than average " large employers and higher managerial occupations " and more small employers and self @-@ employed people . Long @-@ term unemployment is considerably below the average for England .

= = = Ownership and governance = = =

In medieval times the township was within the manor of Castlerigg and Derwentwater . The earliest surviving official record of the town is the market charter of 1276 granted to the lord of the manor , Thomas de Derwentwater . The manor was granted by Alice de Romilly to Adam de Derwentwater before 1216 , and subsequently passed to the Radclyffe family through marriage . The Derwentwater estate was forfeit to the Crown after the execution of James Radclyffe , third Earl of Derwentwater , in 1716 for his part in the Jacobite rebellion the previous year . In 1735 the Crown granted the income from the estates to support the Greenwich Hospital , London . Land to the south and west were part of Greenwich Hospital 's forestry and farming estates until the 19th century . In 1925 the then owner , Sir John Randles , gave the National Trust 90 acres of land in this estate , including the foreshore woodland .

Keswick became a Local Government District in 1853 and an urban district with three wards in 1894 , reflecting its growth in the latter part of the 19th century . The new urban district 's northern boundary was extended from the Greta to the railway , taking in Great Crosthwaite and part of Underskiddaw in 1899 . In 1974 the urban district was abolished and since then the town has been administered by Keswick Town Council and Allerdale Borough Council . Since 2010 Keswick has been in the Copeland parliamentary constituency , having previously been part of Workington and before that Penrith and The Border . The electoral ward of Keswick stretches beyond the confines of the parish boundary and at the 2011 Census had a total population of 5 @,@ 243 .

= = Geography = =

Keswick lies in north @-@ western England , in the heart of the northern Lake District . The town is 31 @.@ 4 miles ( 50 @.@ 5 km ) south @-@ west of Carlisle , 22 @.@ 1 miles ( 35 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of Windermere and 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) south @-@ east of Cockermouth . Derwentwater , the lake to the south @-@ west of the town , is approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long by 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide and is some 72 feet ( 22 m ) deep . It contains several islands , including Derwent Isle , Lord 's Island , Rampsholme Island and St Herbert 's Island , the largest . Derwent Isle is the only island on the lake that is inhabited ; it is run by the National Trust and open to visitors five days a year . The land between Keswick and the lake consists mainly of fields and areas of woodland , including Isthmus Wood , Cockshot Wood , Castlehead Wood and Horseclose and Great Wood , further to the south . The River Derwent flows from Derwentwater to Bassenthwaite , the most northerly of the major Cumbrian lakes . The Derwent and its tributary the Greta , which flows through Keswick , meet to the east of Portinscale . The source of the Greta is near Threlkeld , at the confluence of the River Glenderamackin and St John 's Beck .

Keswick is in the lee of the Skiddaw group , the oldest group of rocks in the Lake District . These fells were formed during the Ordovician period , 488 to 443 million years ago ; they form a triangle sheltering the town , reaching a maximum height of 931m on Skiddaw itself . To the west of Portinscale , to the south @-@ west of the village of Thornthwaite , is Whinlatter Forest Park and Grisedale Pike . To the east , beyond Castlerigg stone circle , is St John 's in the Vale , at the foot of the Helvellyn range , which is popular with ramblers starting from Keswick . In 2010 , Electricity North West , United Utilities , the Lake District National Park Authority and the conservation charity Friends of the Lake District invested £ 100 @,@ 000 to remove power lines and replace them with underground cables , to improve the quality of scenery in the vicinity .

Climatically , Keswick is in the North West sector of the UK , which is characterised by cool summers , mild winters , and high monthly rainfalls throughout the year . The wettest months fall at the end of the year , the peak average of 189 @.@ 3 mm falling in October . Rain , sunshine and temperature figures are shown below .

= = Demography = =

The registers of Crosthwaite Church stated that there were 238 interments in 1623 , believed to have been something between a twelfth and a tenth of the whole population of the parish at that time . In the 1640s there was a sharp fall in population , brought on by the plague epidemic which affected Keswick , Carlisle , Cockermouth and Crosthwaite and other areas in 1645 – 47 .

In the 1801 census , the township of Keswick , including the town and surrounding hamlets , had a reported population of 1 @,@ 350 people . The population grew at a steady rate , increasing to 1 @,@ 683 in 1811 , 1 @,@ 901 in 1821 , 2 @,@ 159 in 1831 , 2 @,@ 442 in 1841 , and 2 @,@ 618 in 1851 . In 1871 the township had a population of 2 @,@ 777 people . The population grew at a faster rate towards the late 19th century and by 1901 it stood at 4 @,@ 451 people . There has been little fluctuation in population since , and in the 1991 census the town had a population of 4 @,@ 836 . In the 2001 census , 4 @,@ 984 people were recorded , and 4 @,@ 821 in 2011 . At the 2011 census , 57 @.@ 9 per cent of the population identified as Christian , 31 @.@ 5 per cent as non @-@ religious , 1 @.@ 2 per cent as Muslim and 8 @.@ 3 per cent did not specify .

= = Landmarks = =

Keswick is the home of the Theatre by the Lake , opened in 1999 . The theatre serves a dual purpose as the permanent home of a professional repertory company and a venue for visiting performers and festivals . It replaced the Century Theatre or " Blue Box " , which had spent 25 years in semi @-@ retirement on a permanent lakeside site in Keswick , after a career of similar length as a mobile theatre . The Alhambra cinema in St John Street , opened in 1913 , is one of the oldest continuously functioning cinemas in the country ; it is equipped with digital technology and satellite receiving equipment to allow the live screening of plays , operas and ballet from the National Theatre , Royal Opera House and other venues .

The town is the site of the Cumberland Pencil Museum . One of the exhibits is what is claimed to be the world 's largest coloured pencil . Fitz Park , on the bank of the River Greta , is home to the Keswick Museum and Art Gallery , a Victorian museum which features the Musical Stones of Skiddaw , Southey manuscripts , and a collection of sculptures and paintings of regional and wider importance , including works by Epstein , John Opie , Richard Westall and others . After extensive restoration and enlargement the museum reopened in 2014 . In 2001 the cricket ground in Fitz Park was named the most beautiful in England by Wisden Cricket Monthly .

Greta Hall ( see Lake Poets , below ) , is a Grade I listed building . The home of Coleridge in 1800 – 04 and Southey from 1803 until 1843 , it later became part of Keswick School and is now in private ownership , partly divided into holiday flats . The three @-@ storey house dates to the late 18th century and features a flush @-@ panelled central double door with Gothic top panels and Venetian windows . A carved oak fireplace inside is dated to 1684 . The Moot Hall is a prominent Grade II * listed building situated at the southern end of Main Street . It was built in 1571 and rebuilt in 1695 , and the current building dates to 1813 . It is built of lime @-@ washed stone and slate walling , and has a square tower on the north end with a round @-@ arched doorway and a double flight of exterior steps . At the top of the tower is what the Keswick Tourist Information Board describes as an " unusual one @-@ handed clock " . Formerly an assembly building , The Moot Hall contains a tourist information centre on the ground floor , with an art gallery on the floor above .

The prominent social thinker and art critic John Ruskin , who had many associations with Keswick , once said that the town was a place almost too beautiful to live in . In October 1900 , mainly through the efforts of Rawnsley , a simple memorial of Borrowdale slate was erected to Ruskin at Friars Crag . The monument is a now a Grade II listed structure .

= = = Churches = = =

Until 1838 Keswick had no Anglican church within the town boundaries and was part of the widespread parish of Crosthwaite . The present parish church , St John 's , was designed by Anthony Salvin and consecrated in 1838 . It is geometrical in style , with pink castle @-@ head ashlar sandstone and a slate roof . The church was extended in 1862 , 1882 and 1889 by the parish 's benefactors the Marshall family ; the chancel windows , designed by Henry Holiday , installed in 1879 , were taken down and reinstalled when the chancel was extended in 1889 . St John 's became a Grade II * listed building in 1951 . Keswick 's former parish church , St Kentigern 's , at Crosthwaite , just outside the town , is also Grade II * listed . Dated to at least the 14th century , it is built mainly in the Tudor @-@ Gothic style and was expanded in 1523 and later restored in 1844 by George Gilbert Scott .

The Quakers had an early meeting house in the town , replaced in 1715 by one at Underskiddaw . Protestant dissenters met at a private house from 1705 or before , moving to a chapel in Lake Road in the latter part of the 18th century . A Congregational chapel was built in 1858 – 59 . The first Wesleyan chapel was built in 1814 in a small yard off Main Street at a cost of £ 331 10s ; the present Methodist church is in Southey Street . Since 1928 Roman Catholics in Keswick have been served by Our Lady of the Lakes and St Charles in High Hill . A new Quaker meeting house opened in the town in 1994 . An Eastern Orthodox church was inaugurated in 2007 , holding services in Keswick and the nearby village of Braithwaite .

As at 2014 no other religions maintain dedicated buildings in Keswick ; Muslim worship is accommodated on Fridays in a room at the local council building in Main Street .

= = = Public houses and hotels = = =

Keswick 's old inns and their successors include many listed buildings , mainly Grade II in designation . The George Hotel , stated to be the oldest inn in the town , dates to the 16th century , with the alterations made during the Georgian period still evident . The King 's Arms Hotel , in the main market square , dates from the early 19th century ; it is built from stuccoed stone , with Victorian shop windows on the ground floor . The Queen 's Hotel in Main Street , a pebbledashed stone building dating from the late 18th century , was renamed " The Inn on the Square " in 2015 . The Bank Tavern in Main Street and The Dog and Gun public house in Lake Road are both Grade II listed 18th @-@ century buildings .

= = Education and health = =

The Crosthwaite Free Grammar School , adjoining Crosthwaite churchyard , was an ancient institution , its date of foundation uncertain . In 1819 the parish of Crosthwaite had five or six schools in the town and the outlying areas , with a total of 332 children . By 1833 Keswick had twelve daily schools , including a new National School at High Hill . The new parish church of Keswick , St John 's , started educational work in 1840 with a Sunday school which also educated infant boys , and later girls , on weekdays . A full @-@ time boys ' school opened in 1853 . For older pupils , Keswick School , the free co @-@ educational grammar school , successor to the Crosthwaite Free Grammar School , opened at a site diagonally opposite Greta Bridge in 1898 . In 1951 a new secondary modern school was built at Lairthwaite in Underskiddaw .

Junior education is provided by St Herbert 's School , which had a roll of 263 in 2013 . At senior level , Keswick and Lairthwaite schools merged in 1980 as a single comprehensive secondary school , with the name Keswick School . It was included in The Daily Telegraph 's list of the top thirty comprehensives in England , Wales and Northern Ireland in 2014 . The Local Education Authority for Keswick is Cumbria .

The Mary Hewetson Cottage Hospital , founded in 1892 , has fifteen beds and a minor injuries unit . It underwent a major rebuilding and upgrade in 2013 .

= = Sport = =

Keswick is home to Keswick Football Club . The principal team plays in the Westmorland League Division One , and it also has a reserve team which plays in Westmorland League Division Two , a female team which plays in the Cumbria League , juniors who compete in the under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 14 , under @-@ 12 and under @-@ 10 categories in the Penrith Junior Football League ; there is a veteran team , which competes in the Cumbria League . Keswick Rugby Union Football Club , established in 1879 , plays at Davidson Park , and has teams that play in the Cumbrian League and the Cumbria Rugby Union Raging Bull Competition . The rugby club is involved in the organisation of the Keswick Half Marathon , usually held in the first week of May .

Keswick Tennis Club has grass courts in upper Fitz Park , and also runs hard courts on Keswick 's Community Sports Area in the lower park area . Keswick Cricket Club was established in the 1880s . Its principal team competes in the North Lancashire and Cumbria Cricket League , Premier Division . The second team plays in the Eden Valley Cricket League , 3rd Division , and the club also has junior under @-@ 11 , under @-@ 13 , and under @-@ 15 teams and a women 's cricket team . Keswick Fitz Park Bowls Club was founded in 1882 .

In cycling , Keswick hosted the Keswick Bikes Borrowdale Cross of the North West League , second round , in September 2010 for junior riders , an event that was supported by the British Cycling Federation . The same month , the town hosted an activity weekend for children , involving the juniors of the Brooke Steelers Wheelchair Basketball Team , whose senior players who were competing in a 135 miles ( 217 km ) race from Keswick to Penrith to raise money for children 's cancer . Keswick is also home to Keswick Croquet Club , Keswick Archers , and Greta ( Keswick ) Junior Badminton Club , for children from eight to 16 years of age . The town leisure centre , Keswick Leisure Pool and Fitness Centre , is operated and managed by Carlisle Leisure Limited ( CLL ) , and has a pool and fitness facilities , and offers lessons in canoeing .

= = Transport = =

Keswick is on the A66 road linking Workington and Penrith , as well as the A591 , linking the town to Windermere , Kendal and Carlisle ( via the A595 ) .

There are no rail links to Keswick ; the line built in the 1860s for the Cockermouth , Keswick and Penrith Railway closed in 1972 . Since the 1990s a plan to rebuild it has been under discussion . Some 90 percent of the earthworks of the railway still exist , but according to 2000 estimates , a reopening would cost £ 25 million . In 2014 the only public transport serving the towns and villages on the old railway route is a bus service operating at mostly hourly intervals . The bus journey from the main line station at Penrith to Keswick takes a scheduled 47 minutes .

The town is served by other bus routes providing direct connections with Carlisle , Cockermouth , Kendal , Lancaster , Penrith , Windermere , Workington , and other towns and villages in the north west . The flow of traffic from Penrith to Cockermouth and beyond was eased after the A66 was diverted to a new bypass in 1974 , a development that caused controversy because of a prominent new viaduct carrying the road across the Greta Gorge to the north of the town .

The majority of visitors arrive by car and are catered for by three town centre car parks , another large one next to the Theatre by the Lake , and smaller ones elsewhere in the town .

= = Culture = =

= = = Regular events = = =

Annual events in the town 's calendar include the Keswick Film Festival ( February – March ) . It features screenings of old and new films , interviews with directors , and the festival 's Osprey Awards for short films by local filmmakers . The ten @-@ day Words by the Water literary festival is held in March every year , based at the Theatre by the Lake . The festival began in 1995 , and events have been presented by Melvyn Bragg , Louis de Bernières , Germaine Greer , Steve Jones , Penelope Lively , Princess Michael of Kent , Michael Rosen and Joanna Trollope .

In May each year , Keswick is host to three contrasting events . The Keswick Half Marathon , in the early part of the month takes participants around Derwentwater with an additional loop into Newlands Valley . In the second week of May there is the four @-@ day Keswick Jazz Festival , with more than 100 jazz events at a dozen local venues . Participants include British and international exponents of mainstream and traditional jazz . After the Jazz Festival is the four @-@ day Keswick Mountain Festival in mid @-@ May . In the words of the organisers , the festival " celebrates everything we all love about the outdoors " . It includes ghyll scrambling , mountain biking , guided walks , map reading , canoeing , climbing , a triathlon and other events .

The main event of the town 's calendar in June is the Keswick Beer Festival , a two @-@ day event that attracts more than 5 @,@ 000 participants each year . July is marked by the opening of the annual Keswick Convention , an international gathering of Evangelical Christians , described in 1925 as " the last stronghold of British Puritanism " , promoting biblical teaching and pious lifestyles . Among those associated with the Convention have been Frank Buchman and Billy Graham . The event has grown from a single week to three weeks , straddling the latter part of July and early August .

In August , Keswick features the Derwentwater Regatta . It was inaugurated by the eccentric local landowner Joseph Pocklington in 1792 , and after a lapse of more than two centuries was revived in 2013 . Its organisers describe it as " A weekend of mayhem and madness afloat , with the chance to climb aboard in a variety of races on Derwentwater " . The Keswick Agricultural Show , founded in 1860 , has traditionally been held on August Bank Holiday Monday at the western edge of the town on the Crossing Fields section of the open land known as the Howrahs . The show features both commercial and charity stands , and attracts large numbers of competitors , exhibitors and spectators . From 2014 the venue has changed to Pump Field , a few hundred yards further from the town centre towards Braithwaite .

Classical music is presented throughout the year , both in conjunction with the Lake District Summer Music Festival and independently through the Keswick Choral Society and the Keswick Music Society , which was founded in 1947 . Performers in Keswick have included the Chilingirian Quartet , the Royal Northern Sinfonia , Tasmin Little , the City of London Sinfonia , Red Priest and Nicolai Demidenko .

= = = Lake Poets and other Keswick notables = = =

Coleridge and William Wordsworth were close friends and collaborators ; when Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy took up residence in the Lake District in late 1799 it was , in Bott 's word , inevitable that Coleridge would follow suit . Six months after the Wordsworths moved into Dove Cottage at Grasmere , Coleridge leased Greta Hall in Keswick , 12 miles ( 19 km ) away . In 1803 Robert Southey , Coleridge 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , agreed to share the house with Coleridge and his family . Southey remained at Greta Hall after Coleridge left in 1804 , and it remained Southey 's family home until his death in 1843 . Many famous literary figures stayed at Greta Hall in these years , including the Wordsworths , Charles and Mary Lamb , Thomas de Quincey , William Hazlitt , Percy Bysshe Shelley , and Sir Walter Scott . Lamb , a Londoner devoted to his native city , remained doubtful of the attractions of the Lake District , but most of the visitors to Greta Hall wrote eloquently of the beauty of the scenery , and further enhanced the public regard for , and desire to visit , the area . Southey was well regarded locally , but played little part in the life of the town . He is buried in Crosthwaite churchyard and there is a memorial to him inside the church , with an inscription written by Wordsworth .

Among Keswick notables before the Lake Poets was Sir John Bankes , a leading Royalist during the English Civil War . He was Charles I 's Attorney General and Chief Justice . Bankes was born at Castlerigg near Keswick in 1589 . A bust in his memory is in upper Fitz Park close to the museum . In 2014 he was further commemorated by the conversion of the former Keswick courthouse into a bar named in his honour with his full title , " The Chief Justice of the Common Pleas " .

Later residents of the area have included the classical scholar , essayist , poet and founder of the Society for Psychical Research , Frederic Myers , who was born in Keswick , and the campaigner for animal welfare Donald Watson , founder of the Vegan Society , who lived in Keswick after retiring from teaching . The pioneer mountaineers and photographers George and Ashley Abraham lived and worked in Keswick . Their photographic shop in Lake Road , built in 1887 , was later taken over by the local mountaineer and outfitter George Fisher ; the shop still contains memorabilia , including photographs , from the Abrahams ' era .

Of literary figures after the Lake Poets among those most closely associated with Keswick was the novelist Hugh Walpole . In 1924 he moved into Brackenburn , a house between Keswick and Grange at the opposite end of Derwentwater . Like the Lake Poets in the previous century , he wrote enthusiastically about the Lake District , and its scenery and atmosphere often found their way into his fiction . He wrote in 1939 , " That I love Cumberland with all my heart and soul is another reason for my pleasure in writing these Herries books . That I wasn 't born a Cumbrian isn 't my fault : that Cumbrians , in spite of my ' foreignness ' , have been so kind to me , is my good fortune . "

= Drishyam =

Drishyam ( English : Visual ) is a 2013 Indian Malayalam @-@ language drama thriller film written and directed by Jeethu Joseph . It stars Mohanlal and Meena in the lead roles and features Ansiba Hassan , Esther Anil , Kalabhavan Shajon , Asha Sarath , Siddique , Roshan Basheer and Neeraj Madhav in supporting roles . The film was produced by Antony Perumbavoor for Aashirvad Cinemas . The story follows the struggle of Georgekutty and his family , who come under suspicion when Varun Prabhakar , the son of the Inspector @-@ general of police , goes missing after an attempt to physically harass Georgekutty 's daughter .

The film 's principal photography commenced in the first week of October 2013 at Thodupuzha in Kerala and was completed in 44 days . The cinematography was done by Sujith Vaassudev and was edited by Ayoob Khan . The soundtrack of the film was composed by Anil Johnson and Vinu Thomas .

Released on 19 December 2013 in Kerala , Drishyam received positive reviews with critics praising the screenplay , the performances and direction . The film grossed over ₹ 750 million worldwide and is the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film of all time . It ran for more than 150 days in theatres and became the first Malayalam film to collect ₹ 500 million from its theatrical box office collections , remake rights , satellite and television rights . It won numerous accolades including the Kerala State Film Award for Best Popular Film and the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Malayalam and screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India and the 8th Asian Film Festival . The film was remade into four other Indian languages including Telugu , Tamil , Kannada and Hindi .

= = Plot = =

Georgekutty ( Mohanlal ) is an orphan who had dropped out of school after his 4th grade . Now he is a businessman running a cable TV service in a rural area . He is married to Rani ( Meena ) and they have two daughters , Anju ( Ansiba Hassan ) and Anu ( Esther Anil ) . His only interest apart from his family is watching films . He spends most of his time in front of the TV in his small office .

During a nature camp , Anju gets photographed in the bathroom by a hidden cell phone . The culprit , Varun ( Roshan Basheer ) , is the son of police inspector general Geetha Prabhakar ( Asha Sarath ) . Varun is accidentally killed by Rani and her daughter when he comes to blackmail them . They hide his body in a compost pit , which is witnessed by Anu . Rani tells Georgekutty about the incident and he devises a way to save his family from the law . He removes the broken cell phone and disposes of Varun 's car , which is seen by Constable Sahadevan ( Kalabhavan Shajon ) , who has a grudge against Georgekutty . Georgekutty takes them out on a trip to Thodupuzha to pray in a church , watch a movie and eat at a restaurant . Geetha , seeing that her son has gone missing , starts an investigation .

After a preliminary investigation , Geetha calls Georgekutty and family for questioning . Georgekutty , who had predicted that this would happen , had already taught his family how to change their alibi at the time of murder . When questioned individually , they give the same replies . Georgekutty also presents the bill of the restaurant , the movie ticket and the bus tickets as proof of their alibi . Geetha questions the owners of the establishments they have been to and their statements prove Georgekutty 's alibi . However , Geetha realizes later that Georgekutty had faked the evidence and established his alibi on the owners by going on a trip with his family to the same establishments later .

Geetha arrests Georgekutty and family and Sahadevan uses brute force to beat the truth out of them . Eventually , Anu gives in and reveals the place where the body is buried . After digging the compost pit , they find the carcass of a calf , indicating that Georgekutty had moved the body . Anu reports to the media and complains against Sahadevan . The constable is suspended and Geetha resigns from her post .

Later , Geetha and Prabhakar ( Siddique ) meet Georgekutty to ask forgiveness for their rude and violent behavior . Prabhakar asks Georgekutty if he can tell them about their son . Georgekutty then reveals indirectly that his family has committed a crime . Now in remand , Georgekutty signs a register at the newly constructed local police station . As he leaves , a flashback shows him leaving the incomplete police station with a shovel in hand , indicating that he has hidden Varun 's body in the foundations of the police station itself .

= = Cast = =

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

In July 2013 , it was reported that Jeethu Joseph will be directing a film titled My Family with Mohanlal in the lead . In August 2013 , Jeethu clarified that the film was titled Drishyam . A thread similar to that of Drishyam has been with the director since the early 1990s . He was inspired by a conversation he had overheard about the plight of two families involved in a legal battle . Jeethu had penned the story of Drishyam even before Memories ( 2013 ) . He says , " I started working on the subject some two years back . But I wanted to stick to the planned order and hence postponed the project till I finished Memories " . The script was initially planned to be filmed by another director but since that director could not find a producer , Jeethu took back the script and decided to direct it himself . Drishyam contrasts from the director 's previous films . He says , " Different films require different treatment . I toiled hard while filming Memories as the film was full of twists and turns and the handling of the subject mattered a lot . But Drishyam is a complete script @-@ oriented film that does not require any special effort . We shot the film sticking completely to the script , and the shooting was completed effortlessly . "

= = = Casting = = =

Jeethu had initially approached Mammootty to play the lead , but he was unable to commit and asked Jeethu to proceed with the film with another actor . According to the director , Mammootty was instrumental in casting actress Meena for the film . The director , in an interview with The New Indian Express , stated that he wrote the screenplay with Mohanlal in mind and that the character was tailor @-@ made for Mohanlal . He later added that no changes were made in the script when Mohanlal agreed .

Kalabhavan Shajon , who previously worked in the industry as a comedian and the sidekick of the lead actors , was chosen for the main antagonistic role . The director stated , " I had two @-@ three actors in mind , but at last decided to pick Shajon . I was very clear that I did not want anyone who has played negative characters so far to do the role . Shajon was a total revelation . " Roshan Basheer , who debuted through Plus Two ( 2010 ) , was chosen after conducting a screen test . Prithviraj was rumored to play a cameo role , though this was denied by Jeethu . Asha Sarath was later signed for the role of a police officer . Child actors Ansiba Hassan and Esther Anil , along with Siddique , Irshad , Kunchan and Koottickal Jayachandran were also cast to play major supporting roles .

= = = Filming = = =

Drishyam commenced principal photography in the first week of October 2013 . Mohanlal joined the sets only from 10 October as he was down with chickenpox . The film was shot at Thodupuzha in Kerala . The road @-@ side house shown in the film , which was a major location , is situated at Vazhithala , near Thodupuzha . The shooting had to be halted for a while as Meena fainted on the location . Drishyam was initially planned to be filmed in 52 days , though it was completed in 44 days .

= = Themes = =

A reviewer from The Hindu noted , " The film takes off as a typical family drama . The first half of the film is intentionally slow @-@ paced and shows to the audience the lighter moments in the family of Georgekutty . This half combines the elements of drama and comedy genres . The audience gets completely absorbed in the twist of events that begin to unfold from the end of the first half . The second half is more like a thriller and is about how the family , despite the vengeful villainy of a corrupt cop , stands its ground even as the law takes its course . " When asked whether this change in narrative style post @-@ interval was intentional , Jeethu replied : " I really don 't understand when people say the first half lacked pace . A story or a film has its own way of progression and it does travel in a zig @-@ zag away , capturing all the ups and downs of our lives . Right from the start if you accelerate the pace , sooner or later , the story @-@ telling will lose its steam . "

When asked whether he had kicked off a new genre in Malayalam — family thriller , a genre which combines the elements of a family drama and thriller , Jeethu replied , " I still believe it belongs to the genre ' drama ' , not a thriller . " He also stated in another interview , " We usually brand a film as a thriller , simply because there is some mystery in the narrative or the story unfolds through an investigation . But I don 't subscribe to this . Although there are some twists in the tale and some suspense as well , Drishyam is essentially the story of a family . "

The film has also been said to be inspired by The Devotion of Suspect X , a Japanese novel written by Keigo Higashino . Ekta Kapoor , who had purchased the Hindi movie rights of the novel , sent a legal notice to the makers of the film . However , the director clarified , " After Ekta 's legal team sent us the letter , I watched the Japanese film , Suspect X , which is an adaptation of the Japanese novel . There could be similarities between my film and that Japanese film , but my film is neither an adaptation nor a copy . The Japanese film is also about a murder cover @-@ up and hence the allegation . Similarities are quite common in the works of creators and that shouldn 't be made into an issue . " Rashomon ( 1950 ) was also cited as an inspiration for the film .

The film was criticised for the use of some " sexist dialogues " in the first half which were playing to a certain " new generation " audience . Sowmya Rajendran of Sify criticised the same and stated about one of such scenes in the film , " it is such banter , which we often dismiss with a laugh , that helps perpetuate rape culture . " When asked about this , the director replied , " I firmly believe such conversations are part of our lives . I don 't want to elaborate , but it also throws an insight into each character featured in the sequences . Yes , frankly , I was a bit worried how the family audience would react to those scenes . But then I read out that part of the script to a select group of women and they nodded their heads in approval . "

There were also allegations that Drishyam might provoke murder . Additional Director General of Police ( ADGP ) Senkumar claimed that two people accused of murdering a woman from Nilambur in February 2014 admitted that their methods for disposing of the victim 's body and mobile phone SIM card were influenced by the film . The murder of a young girl in Irinjalakkuda by her father and his mistress was also said to be influenced by Drishyam .

= = Soundtrack = =

The film features a soundtrack composed by Anil Johnson and Vinu Thomas , with lyrics penned by Santhosh Varma . The background score was composed by Anil Johnson . The songs were released on 20 June 2014 by Muzik 247 .

Veeyen of NowRunning noted in his review of the film that the songs " have a refreshingly delightful tenor to them that deserve an applause for certain . " The reviewer of IndiaGlitz called the score " refreshing " and stated that it " builds the tempo " for the film .

= = Release = =

Drishyam released on 19 December 2013 in India . It also received a theatrical release in the United States , United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates on 3 January 2014 . The film was passed with an ' U ' ( Universal ) certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification . The film was selected to be screened in the Indian Panorama at the 45th International Film Festival of India . It also screened at the 8th Asian Film Festival held in Jeddah in 2015 , representing India .

= = = Home media = = =

Drishyam was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc , DVD and VCD on 9 May 2014 . The film created a new record in the DVD and VCD sales on the first day of release itself . The film 's satellite rights were reported to be bought by Asianet for a record amount of ₹ 6 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 970 @,@ 000 ) . The record was previously held by Kadal Kadannu Oru Maathukutty ( 2013 ) which was bought for ₹ 5 @.@ 75 crore ( US $ 850 @,@ 000 ) by the same channel . It had its global television premiere on 7 September 2014 at 6 pm . IST .

= = = Plagiarism allegations = = =

In August 2014 , film director Sathish Paul filed a copyright infringement suit against the makers , saying that it had similarities to his script titled Oru Mazhakkalathu , written in 2013 . The court passed an order saying that the movie had prima facie similarities to Sathish ' script , but allowed the making of the Tamil version Papanasam to proceed , on the condition that the makers of Drishyam produce a ₹ 10 lakh bank guarantee before the court to ensure the compensation . The case was dismissed in March 2015 as it was proved that Jeethu had written the script in 2011 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

Sify 's reviewer rated the film as " Excellent " and stated , " It is not often that you sit in a theatre with bated breath , never wanting to miss a moment of the film on screen . Writer director Jeethu Joseph 's Drishyam is one such film , a gripping tale that leaves you spellbound with its skillful craft . " Veeyen of NowRunning rated the film 3 / 5 and commented , " In Drishyam Jeethu attempts a stunning mix of the real with the imaginary , and the result is an unpredictable cinematic artichoke that takes you by surprise at every turn . " Rating the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 , Paresh C Palicha of Rediff said , " Drishyam can be credited for bringing Mohanlal back to form and pushing director Jeethu Joseph into the big league as he has made a cracker of a thriller . " Jabir Mushthari of The Hindu wrote : " It takes craft , intelligence , and the superior acumen of a genuine storyteller to pull off a film in such an engaging manner . " He also noted that the film 's " thread and treatment are new to Malayalam cinema in many ways " and its " principles go against the set rules film goers here are familiar with " .

Shibu B S of The New Indian Express wrote , " For his latest outing Drishyam , Jeethu attempts a splendid mix of emotions , relationships , suspense and thrill . End result : a spectacular cinematic experience . " Dalton L of Deccan Chronicle gave the film a 3 @-@ star rating , writing , " The limelight belongs entirely to Mohanlal . Like the versatile greats of Hollywood , this actor possesses such a vast repertoire that he isn 't required to always attempt the radically new to stamp his towering persona . " Mythily Ramachandran wrote in her review for Gulf News : " Drishyam is an unforgettable picture , shorn of irrational fight sequences and mindless dance numbers . " Aswin J Kumar of The Times of India said , " Drishyam is an elegantly crafted piece of film which Lal and Joseph can proudly hold close to their hearts . "

Unni R. Nair noted in his review for Kerala9.com , " The care with which the script is done , the finesse with which the direction part is executed and the characterization and performance plus the thoughtful placing of the songs makes Drishyam worth real appreciation . That the film has almost zero- ' filmy ' humour is also worth noting . It 's the logical manner in which the story unfolds and the very convincing manner in which the characters behave makes it impressive . " The critic rated the film three in a scale of five . IndiaGlitz 's reviewer rated the film 8 / 10 and stated , " Drishyam is undoubtedly cladded with exceptional story telling combined with bravura performances . An undoubtedly exceptional film as far the content is concerned , the movie is a must watch for all the audiences of family and thriller movies . " In contrast , Gautaman Bhaskaran of Hindustan Times wrote , " Scripted more or less in a convincing manner and mounted with finesse , writer @-@ director Joseph fleshes out his characters . However , Drishyam often seems like a radio play , long dialogues mar its cinematic qualities , and like many other helmers , Joseph too does not know where to end his film . Cinema need not be so explanatory ; certainly this is not how contemporary movies are made .

= = = Box office = = =

According to Sify , the film " started on a low key " but " swept the box @-@ office " from its second day of release . The film grossed ₹ 60 million in its first eight days . In less than one month following its release , Drishyam became the highest @-@ grossing Malayalam film of all time , beating the record of Twenty : 20 ( 2008 ) . The film ran for more than 150 days in Kerala , with collections of around ₹ 401 million .

The film also grossed around ₹ 100 million from rest of India . It showed for 100 days in Tamil Nadu . It also had a 100 @-@ day theatrical run in multiplexes in Mumbai , Bengaluru , Ahmedabad and Hyderabad . The collection from the overseas markets was more than ₹ 40 million , with around ₹ 10 million from England alone . Drishyam became the second film to complete 100 days in the UAE after Titanic ( 1997 ) . The film completed 100 days in 60 theaters in Kerala and rest of India .

Drishyam was the first Malayalam film to collect ₹ 500 million from its theatrical box office collections , remake rights , satellite and television rights . The film collected more than ₹ 600 million in its theatrical run worldwide .

= = = Accolades = = =

= = Remakes = =

Drishyam was remade into several Indian languages . The remake rights of the film were sold for ₹ 155 million . It was first remade in Kannada as Drishya ( 2014 ) by P. Vasu and starring V. Ravichandran and Navya Nair . The Telugu version titled Drushyam ( 2014 ) directed by Sripriya featured Daggubati Venkatesh , along with Meena reprising her role . Jeethu himself directed the Tamil remake Papanasam ( 2015 ) which stars Kamal Haasan and Gautami . A Hindi remake was also made with the same name in 2015 , directed by Nishikant Kamat and starring Ajay Devgn and Shriya Saran in the lead roles . All these versions were commercially successful .

= Waylon Jennings =

Waylon Arnold Jennings ( pronounced / ˈweɪlən ˈdʒɛnɪŋz / ; June 15 , 1937 – February 13 , 2002 ) was an American singer , songwriter , musician , and actor . Jennings began playing guitar at eight and began performing at 12 on KVOW radio . His first band was The Texas Longhorns . Jennings worked as a DJ on KVOW , KDAV , KYTI , and KLLL . In 1958 , Buddy Holly arranged Jennings 's first recording session , of " Jole Blon " and " When Sin Stops ( Love Begins ) " . Holly hired him to play bass . In Clear Lake , Iowa , Jennings gave up his seat on the ill @-@ fated flight that crashed and killed Holly , J. P. Richardson , Ritchie Valens , and pilot Roger Peterson .

Jennings then worked as a DJ in Coolidge , Arizona , and Phoenix . He formed a rockabilly club band , The Waylors . He recorded for independent label Trend Records and A & M Records before succeeding with RCA Victor after achieving creative control .

During the 1970s , Jennings joined the Outlaw Country movement . He released critically acclaimed albums Lonesome , On 'ry and Mean and Honky Tonk Heroes followed by hit albums Dreaming My Dreams and Are You Ready for the Country . In 1976 , he released the album Wanted ! The Outlaws with Willie Nelson , Tompall Glaser , and Jessi Colter , the first platinum country music album . That success was followed by Ol ' Waylon and the hit song " Luckenbach , Texas . " Jennings was featured in the 1978 album White Mansions performed by various artists documenting the lives of white people in the Confederacy during the Civil War . The songs on the album were written by Paul Kennerley . By the early 1980s , Jennings was struggling with a cocaine addiction , which he quit in 1984 . Later , he joined the country supergroup The Highwaymen with Nelson , Kris Kristofferson , and Johnny Cash , which released three albums between 1985 and 1995 . During that period , Jennings released the successful album Will the Wolf Survive . He toured less after 1997 to spend more time with his family . Between 1999 and 2001 , his appearances were limited by health problems . On February 13 , 2002 , Jennings died from complications of diabetes .

Jennings also appeared in movies and television series . He was the balladeer for The Dukes of Hazzard , composing and singing the show 's theme song . In 2001 , he was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame , which he chose not to attend . In 2007 , he was posthumously awarded the Cliffie Stone Pioneer Award by the Academy of Country Music .

= = Early life = =

Waylon Arnold Jennings was born on June 15 , 1937 , on the J.W. Bittner farm , near Littlefield , Texas . He was the son of Lorene Beatrice ( née Shipley ) and William Albert Jennings . The Jennings family line descended from Irish and Black @-@ Dutch . Meanwhile , the Shipley family moved from Tennessee and settled in Texas . The Shipley line descended from Cherokee and Comanche families .

The name on his birth certificate was Wayland , meaning land by the highway . His name was changed after a Baptist preacher visited Jennings 's parents and congratulated his mother for naming him after the Wayland Baptist University in Plainview , Texas . Lorene Jennings , who had been unaware of the college , changed the spelling to Waylon . Jennings later expressed in his autobiography , " I didn 't like Waylon . It sounded corny and hillbilly , but it 's been good to me , and I 'm pretty well at peace with it right now . "

After working as a laborer on the Bittner farm , Jennings 's father moved the family to Littlefield and established a retail creamery . When Jennings was eight , his mother taught him to play guitar with the tune " Thirty Pieces of Silver " . Jennings used to practice with his relatives ' guitars , until his mother bought him a used Stella , and later ordered a Harmony Patrician . Early influences were Bob Wills , Floyd Tillman , Ernest Tubb , Hank Williams , Carl Smith , and Elvis Presley .

Beginning at family gatherings , Jennings advanced to perform at the Youth Center with Anthony Bonanno , followed by appearances at the local Jaycees and Lions Clubs . He won a talent show at Channel 13 , in Lubbock , singing " Hey Joe " . He later made frequent performances at the Palace Theater in Littlefield , during local talent night .

= = Music career = =

= = = Beginnings in music = = =

The 12 @-@ year @-@ old Jennings auditioned for a spot on KVOW in Littlefield , Texas . Owner J.B. McShan , along with Emil Macha , recorded Jennings 's performance . McShan liked his style and hired him for a weekly 30 @-@ minute program . Following this successful introduction , Jennings formed his own band . He asked Macha to play bass for him , and gathered other friends and acquaintances to form The Texas Longhorns . The style of the band , a mixture of Country and Western and Bluegrass music , was often not well received .

At age 16 , after several disciplinary infractions , tenth @-@ grader Jennings was convinced to drop out of high school by the superintendent . Upon leaving school , he worked for his father in the produce store , also taking temporary jobs . Jennings felt that music , his favorite activity , would turn into his career . The next year , Jennings and The Texas Longhorns recorded a demo of the songs " Stranger in My Home " and " There 'll Be a New Day " at KFYO radio in Lubbock . Meanwhile , he drove a truck for the Thomas Land Lumber Company , and a concrete truck for the Roberts Lumber Company . Tired of the owner , and after a minor driving accident , Jennings quit . Other local musicians and he often performed at Country radio station KDAV ; during this , he met Buddy Holly at a Lubbock restaurant . Holly and he became friends , often meeting during local shows . Jennings also attended Holly 's performances on KDAV 's Sunday Party .

In addition to performing on air for KVOW , Jennings started to work as a DJ in 1956 , and moved to Lubbock . His program ran for six hours , from 4 : 00 in the afternoon to 10 : 00 in the evening . Jennings played two hours of Country classics , two of current Country , and two of mixed recordings . During those final two hours , Jennings played artists such as Chuck Berry and Little Richard . The owner reprimanded him each time he aired the recordings , and when he then played two Richard records in a row , the owner fired him .

During his time at KVOW , Jennings was visited by DJ Sky Corbin , who worked at KLVT in Levelland . Corbin was impressed with his voice , and decided to visit Jennings at the station after hearing him sing a jingle to the tune of Hank Snow 's " I 'm Moving On " . Jennings expressed his economic struggle to live on a US $ 50 @-@ a @-@ week salary . Corbin invited Jennings to visit KLVT , where he eventually took Corbin 's then @-@ vacated position . The Corbin family later purchased KLLL , in Lubbock . They changed the format of the station to Country , becoming the main competition of KDAV . The Corbins hired Jennings as the station 's first DJ .

Jennings produced commercials and created jingles with the rest of the DJs . As their popularity increased , the DJs made public appearances . Jennings 's events included live performances . During one performance , Buddy 's father , L.O. Holley , approached them with his son 's latest record , and requested them to play it at the station . L.O. mentioned his son 's intention to start producing artists himself , and Corbin recommended Jennings . After returning from his England tour , Buddy Holly visited KLLL .

Holly took Jennings as his first artist . He outfitted him with new clothes , and worked with him to improve his image . He arranged a session for Jennings at Norman Petty 's recording studios in Clovis , New Mexico . On September 10 , Jennings recorded the songs " Jole Blon " and " When Sin Stops ( Love Begins ) " with Holly and Tommy Allsup on guitars with saxophonist King Curtis . Holly then hired Jennings to play electric bass for him during his " Winter Dance Party Tour " .

= = = Winter Dance Party Tour = = =

Before the tour , Holly vacationed with his wife in Lubbock , and visited Jennings ' radio station in December 1958 . Jennings and Sky Corbin performed the hand claps to Holly 's tune " You 're the One " . Jennings and Holly soon left for New York City , arriving on January 15 , 1959 . Jennings stayed at Holly 's apartment by Washington Square Park , on the days prior to a meeting scheduled on the headquarters of the General Artists Corporation , that organized the tour . They later took a train to Chicago to join the band .

The Winter Dance Party tour began in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on January 23 , 1959 . The amount of travel created logistical problems , as the distance between venues had not been considered when scheduling each performance . Adding to the problem , the unheated tour buses twice broke down in freezing weather , with dire consequences . Holly 's drummer Carl Bunch suffered frostbite to his toes ( while aboard the bus ) and was hospitalized , so Buddy Holly made the decision to find another means of transportation . Before their performance at the Surf Ballroom in Clear Lake , Iowa , Holly chartered a four @-@ seat Beechcraft Bonanza airplane at Dwyer Flying Service in Mason City , Iowa , for himself , Jennings , and Allsup , to avoid the long bus trip to their next venue in Moorhead , Minnesota . Following the Clear Lake show ( which ended around midnight ) , Tommy Allsup lost a coin toss and gave up his seat on the charter plane to Ritchie Valens , while Waylon Jennings voluntarily gave up his seat to J. P. Richardson , who was suffering from the flu and complaining about how cold and uncomfortable the tour bus was for a man of his size . When Holly learned that his band mates had given up their seats on the plane and had chosen to take the bus rather than fly , a friendly banter between Holly and Jennings ensued , and it would come back to haunt Jennings for decades to follow : Holly jokingly told Jennings , " Well , I hope your ol ' bus freezes up ! " Jennings jokingly replied , " Well , I hope your ol ' plane crashes ! " Less than an hour and a half later , shortly after 1 : 00 AM on February 3 , 1959 ( later known as The Day the Music Died ) , Holly 's charter plane crashed at full throttle into a cornfield outside Mason City , Iowa , instantly killing all on board .

Later that morning , Jennings ' family heard on the radio that " Buddy Holly and his band had been killed . " After calling his family , Jennings called Sky Corbin at KLLL from Fargo to say that he was alive . The General Artists Corporation promised to pay a first @-@ class ticket for Jennings and the band to assist Holly 's funeral in Lubbock , in exchange for them playing that night in Moorhead . After the first show , they were initially denied their payment by the venue , but after Jennings 's persistence , they were paid . The flights were never paid , and Jennings and Allsup continued the tour for two more weeks , featuring Jennings as the lead singer . They were paid less than half of the original agreed salary , and upon returning to New York , Jennings put Holly 's guitar and amplifier in a locker in Grand Central Terminal and mailed the keys to Maria Elena Holly . Then , he returned to Lubbock .

For decades afterward , Jennings repeatedly admitted that he felt responsible for the crash that killed Buddy Holly . This sense of guilt precipitated bouts of substance abuse through much of Jennings ' career . The day of the flight was later known as the Day the Music Died . Jennings sang The Stage , which is a touching tribute to the Day the Music Died . He recreates the concert performers on February 2 , 1959 , in order at the Surf Ballroom , starting with Eddie Cochran , then Ritchie Valens , the Big Bopper and , finally , Buddy Holly . This was the concert that preceded the infamous plane crash . The Stage can be found on the Surf Ballroom Winter Dance Party CD .

" Jole Blon " was released on Brunswick in March 1959 with limited success . Now unemployed , he returned to KLLL . Deeply affected by the death of Buddy Holly , Jennings ' performance at the station worsened . He left the station after he was denied a raise , and later worked briefly for the competition , KDAV .

= = = Phoenix and the Nashville Sound = = =

Due to Maxine 's father 's illness , Jennings had to shuttle between Arizona and Texas . While his family lived back in Littlefield , Jennings found a job briefly at KOYL in Odessa , Texas . He moved with his family to Coolidge , Arizona , where his wife 's sister lived . He found a job performing at the Galloping Goose bar , where he was heard by Earl Perrin , who offered him a spot on KCKY . Jennings also played during the intermission at drive @-@ in theaters and in bars . After a successful performance at the Cross Keys Club in Phoenix , Arizona , he was approached by contractors who were building a club for Jimmy D. Musiel , called JD 's . Musiel employed Jennings as his main artist and designed the club around his act .

He formed his backing band , The Waylors , with bassist Paul Foster , guitarist Jerry Gropp , and drummer Richie Albright . Jennings and his band performed at the newly opened nightspot in Scottsdale , where they soon earned a strong local fanbase . At JD 's , Jennings developed his " rock tempered " style of country music that defined him on his later career .

In 1961 , Jennings signed a recording contract with Trend Records , and experienced moderate success with his single , " Another Blue Day " . His friend , Don Bowman , took demos of Jennings to Jerry Moss , who at the time was starting A & M Records with associate Herb Alpert . On July 9 , 1963 , Jennings signed a contract with A & M that granted him 5 % of record sales . At A & M , he recorded " Love Denied " backed with " Rave On " , and " Four Strong Winds " backed with " Just to Satisfy You " . He followed up by recording demos of " The Twelfth of Never " , " Kisses Sweeter than Wine " , and " Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right " , and also produced the single " Sing the Girls a Song , Bill " , backed with " The Race Is On " . The singles were released between April and October 1964 .

His records had little success , because A & M 's main releases were folk music rather than Country . He had a few hits on local radio in Phoenix , with " Four Strong Winds " and " Just To Satisfy You " ( co @-@ written with Bowman ) . Meanwhile , he recorded an album on BAT records , called JD 's . After 500 copies were sold at the club , another 500 copies were pressed by the Sounds label . He also played lead guitar for Patsy Montana on a 1964 album .

Singer Bobby Bare heard Jennings 's " Just to Satisfy You " on his car radio while passing through Phoenix , eventually recording it and " Four Strong Winds " . After stopping in Phoenix to attend to a Jennings performance at JD 's , while driving to Las Vegas , Bare stopped and called Chet Atkins in Nashville , suggesting that he needed to sign Jennings .

When he was made aware of the new deal , Waylon was not sure if he should quit his gig at JD 's . He then went to get the advice of his friend , RCA artist Willie Nelson , who had gone to see one of Waylon 's shows . When Willie and Waylon met , after talking about the possibilities and considering Waylon 's profits at the club , Nelson suggested that Waylon should stay in Phoenix and not to move to Nashville .

Nonetheless , Jennings decided to accept the offer , and asked Herb Alpert to release him from his contract with A & M. Alpert agreed , though later A & M would compile all of Jennings 's singles and unreleased material the label had and release it as Don 't Think Twice . Atkins formally signed Jennings to RCA Victor in 1965 . On August 21 , Jennings made his first appearance on the Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart with " That 's the Chance I 'll Have to Take " .

In 1966 , Jennings released his debut album for RCA Folk @-@ Country , followed by Leavin ' Town and Nashville Rebel . Leavin ' Town resulted in significant chart success as the first two singles " Anita , You 're Dreaming " and " Time to Burn Again " both peaked at no . 17 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart . The album 's third single , a cover of Gordon Lightfoot 's " ( That 's What You Get ) For Lovin ' Me " , became Jennings 's first top 10 single , peaking at no . 9 . Nashville Rebel was the soundtrack to an independent film of the same name , starring Jennings . The single " Green River " charted on Billboard country singles at # 11 . In 1967 , Jennings released a hit single , " Just to Satisfy You " . During an interview , Jennings remarked that the song was a " pretty good example " of the influence of his work with Buddy Holly and rockabilly music . Jennings produced midchart albums that sold well , including Just to Satisfy You , that included the same @-@ named hit single of 1967 . Jennings 's singles enjoyed success . " The Chokin ' Kind " peaked at number eight on Billboard 's Hot Country Singles in 1967 , while " Only Daddy That 'll Walk the Line " hit number two the following year . In 1969 , his collaboration with The Kimberlys on the single " MacArthur Park " earned a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group . His single " Brown Eyed Handsome Man " reached number three at the Hot Country Singles chart by the end of the year .

During this time , Jennings rented an apartment in Nashville with singer Johnny Cash . Jennings and Cash were both managed by " Lucky " Moeller 's booking agency Moeller Talent , Inc . The tours organized by the agency were unproductive , with the artists being booked to venues located far from each other in close dates . After paying for the accommodation and travel expenditures , Jennings 's profits were reduced , with him frequently requesting advances from the agency or RCA Records to play the next venue . While playing 300 days on the road , Jennings 's debt increased along with his consumption of amphetamines , as he believed himself to be trapped on the circuit .

In 1972 , Jennings released Ladies Love Outlaws . The single that headlined the album became a hit for Jennings , and was his first approach to Outlaw Country . Jennings was accustomed to performing and recording with his own band , The Waylors , a practice that was not encouraged by powerful Nashville producers . Over time , however , Jennings felt limited by the Nashville sound 's lack of artistic freedom . The music style publicized as " Countrypolitan " was characterized by orchestral arrangements , and the absence of traditional Country music instruments . The producers did not let Jennings play his own guitar or select material to record .

= = = Outlaw Country = = =

In an interview , Jennings recalled the restrictions of the Nashville establishment : " They wouldn 't let you do anything . You had to dress a certain way : you had to do everything a certain way .... They kept trying to destroy me .... I just went about my business and did things my way .... You start messing with my music , I get mean . " By 1972 , after the release of Ladies Love Outlaws , his recording contract was nearing an end . Sick with hepatitis , Jennings was hospitalized . Afflicted by disease , and the music industry , he was considering retirement . Albright visited him and convinced him to continue . Albright talked to him about making Neil Reshen his new manager . Meanwhile , Jennings requested a US $ 25 @,@ 000 royalty advance from RCA Records to cover his living expenses during his recovery . The same day he met Rashen , RCA sent Jerry Bradley to offer Jennings US $ 5 @,@ 000 as a bonus for signing a new 5 % royalty deal with RCA , the same terms he had accepted in 1965 . After reviewing with Reshen , he rejected the offer and hired Reshen .

Reshen started to renegotiate Jennings 's recording and touring contracts . At a meeting in a Nashville airport , Jennings introduced Reshen to Willie Nelson . By the end of the meeting , Reshen had become Nelson 's manager , as well . Jennings 's new deal gained him a $ 75 @,@ 000 advance and artistic control . Reshen advised Jennings to keep the beard that he had grown in the hospital , to match the image of Outlaw Country .

By 1973 , Nelson had returned to music , finding success with Atlantic Records . Now based in Austin , Texas , he had made inroads into the rock and roll press by attracting rock audiences . Atlantic Records was now attempting to sign Jennings , but Nelson 's rise to popularity persuaded RCA to renegotiate with Jennings before losing another potential star .

In 1973 , Jennings released Lonesome , On 'ry and Mean and Honky Tonk Heroes , the first albums recorded and released under his creative control . The release of these albums heralded a major turning point for Jennings , kicking off his most critically and commercially successful years . More hit albums followed with This Time and The Ramblin ' Man , both released in 1974 . The title tracks of both albums topped the Billboard Country singles chart , with the self @-@ penned " This Time " becoming Jennings 's first no . 1 single . Dreaming My Dreams , released in 1975 , included the no . 1 single " Are You Sure Hank Done It This Way " and was his first album to be certified gold by the RIAA ; it was also the first of his next six consecutive , solo studio albums to be certified gold or higher . In 1976 , Jennings released Are You Ready for the Country , Jennings wanted the record to be produced by Los Angeles producer Ken Mansfield . Although RCA denied the request , Jennings and The Waylors went to Los Angeles and recorded with Mansfield at his expense . After a month , Jennings presented the master tape to Chet Atkins , who decided to release it . The album hit number one on Billboard 's country albums three times the same year , topping the charts for 10 weeks . It was named Country album of the year in 1976 by Record World magazine and it was certified gold by the RIAA .

In 1976 , Jennings released the album Wanted ! The Outlaws , recorded with Willie Nelson , Tompall Glaser , and Jessi Colter for RCA . The album was the first Country music album certified platinum . The following year , RCA issued Ol ' Waylon , an album that produced a hit duet with Nelson , " Luckenbach , Texas " . The album Waylon and Willie followed in 1978 , producing the hit single " Mammas Don 't Let Your Babies Grow Up to Be Cowboys " . Jennings released I 've Always Been Crazy , also in 1978 . The same year , at the peak of his success , Jennings began to feel limited by the outlaw movement . Jennings referred to the overexploitation of the image in the song " Don 't You Think This Outlaw Bit Has Done Got Out of Hand ? " , claiming that the movement had become a " self @-@ fulfilling prophecy " . In 1979 , he released Greatest Hits , which was certified gold the same year , and quintuple platinum in 2002 .

Also in 1979 , Jennings joined the cast of the CBS series The Dukes of Hazzard as the Balladeer , the narrator . The only episode to feature him in person was " Welcome , Waylon Jennings " , during the seventh season . Jennings played himself , presented as an old friend of the Duke family . For the show , he also wrote and sang the theme song " Good Ol ' Boys " , which became the biggest hit of his career . Released as a single in promotion with the show , it became Jennings 's 12th single to reach number one on the Billboard Country Singles chart . It was also a crossover hit , peaking at no . 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 .

= = = Later years = = =

In the mid @-@ 1980s , Johnny Cash , Kris Kristofferson , Nelson , and Jennings formed a successful group called The Highwaymen . Aside from his work with The Highwaymen , Jennings released a gold album WWII ( 1982 ) with Willie Nelson .

In 1985 , Jennings joined with USA for Africa to record " We Are the World " , but he left the studio because of a dispute over the song 's lyrics that were to be sung in Swahili . Ironically , after Jennings left the session , the idea was dropped at the prompting of Stevie Wonder , who pointed out that Ethiopians did not speak Swahili . By this time , his sales had decreased . After the release of Sweet Mother Texas , Jennings signed with Music Corporation of America . The debut release with the label Will the Wolf Survive ( 1985 ) peaked at number one in Billboard 's Country albums in 1986 . Jennings 's initial success tailed off , and in 1990 , he signed with Epic Records . His first release , The Eagle , became his final top 10 album . During the late ' 80s @-@ early ' 90s , Jennings and his contemporaries such as Faron Young , Merle Haggard , and George Jones , were gradually evicted from the airwaves in favor of a younger generation of pop @-@ influenced country artists such as Alan Jackson and Reba McEntire .

Also in 1985 , he made a cameo appearance in the live @-@ action children 's film Sesame Street Presents : Follow That Bird . In the movie , he plays a turkey farm truck driver who gives Big Bird a lift . He also sings one of the film 's songs , entitled " Ain 't No Road Too Long " .

In 1993 , in collaboration with Rincom Children 's Entertainment , Jennings recorded an album of children 's songs , Cowboys , Sisters , Rascals & Dirt , which included " Shooter 's Theme " , a tribute to his 14 @-@ year @-@ old with the theme of " a friend of mine " .

Although his record sales and radio play dwindled during the ' 90s , Jennings continued to draw large crowds at his live performances . In 1997 , after the Lollapalooza tour , he decreased his tour schedule and became centered on his family .

In 1998 , Jennings teamed up with Bare , Jerry Reed , and Mel Tillis to form the Old Dogs . The group recorded a double album of songs by Shel Silverstein . In mid @-@ 1999 , Jennings assembled what he referred to as his " hand @-@ picked dream team " and formed Waylon & The Waymore Blues Band . Consisting primarily of former Waylors , the 13 @-@ member group performed concerts from 1999 to 2001 . In January 2000 , Jennings recorded what became his final album at Nashville 's historic Ryman Auditorium , Never Say Die : Live .

= = Music style and image = =

Jennings 's music was characterized by his " powerful " singing voice , noted by his " rough @-@ edged quality , " as well as his phrasing and texture . He was also recognized for his " spanky @-@ twang " guitar style . To create his sound , he used a pronounced ' phaser ' effect ( see ' Modulation Effects ' : below ) plus a mixture of thumb and fingers during the rhythmic parts , while using picks for the lead runs . He combined hammer @-@ on and pull @-@ off riffs , with eventual upper @-@ fret double stops and modulation effects . Jennings played a 1953 Fender Telecaster , a used guitar that was a gift from The Waylors . Jennings 's bandmates adorned his guitar with a distinctive leather cover that featured a black background with a white floral work . Jennings further customized it by filing down the frets to lower the strings on the neck to obtain the slapping sound . Among his other guitars , Jennings used a 1950 Fender Broadcaster from the mid @-@ 1970s , until he gave it to guitarist Reggie Young in 1993 . The leather covers of his guitars were carved by leather artist Terry Lankford .

His signature image was characterized by his long hair and beard , as well as his black hat and the black leather vest he wore during his appearances .

= = Personal life = =

Jennings was married four times , and had six children . He was first married to Maxine Caroll Lawrence in 1956 at age 18 , with whom he had four children : Terry Vance Jennings ( born January 21 , 1957 ) , Julie Rae Jennings ( born August 12 , 1958 ) , Buddy Dean Jennings ( born March 21 , 1960 ) , and Deana Jennings . Jennings married again on December 10 , 1962 to Lynne Jones , adopting a child , Tomi Lynne . They divorced in 1967 . He next married Barbara Rood . He composed the song " This Time " about the trials and tribulations of his marriages and divorces . He married for the fourth and final time in Phoenix , Arizona , on October 26 , 1969 to Jessi Colter . Colter and Jennings had one son , Waylon Albright " Shooter " Jennings ( born May 19 , 1979 ) . Colter had one daughter , Jennifer , from her previous marriage to Duane Eddy . In the early 1980s , Colter and Jennings nearly divorced due to his addiction to drugs and other forms of substance abuse . However , they remained together until Jennings 's death in 2002 .

In 1997 , he gave up touring to be closer to his family . To set an example about the importance of education to his son Waylon Albright , Jennings earned a GED at age 52 .

= = = Addiction and recovery = = =

Jennings started to consume amphetamines while he lived with Johnny Cash during the mid @-@ 1960s . Jennings later stated , " Pills were the artificial energy on which Nashville ran around the clock . " In 1977 , Jennings was arrested by federal agents for conspiracy and possession of cocaine with intent to distribute . A private courier warned the Drug Enforcement Administration about the package sent to Jennings by a New York colleague that contained 27 grams of cocaine . The DEA and the police searched Jennings 's recording studio . They found no evidence , because while they were waiting for a search warrant , Jennings disposed of the cocaine . The charges were later dropped and Jennings was released . The episode was recounted in Jennings 's song " Don 't You Think This Outlaw Bit 's Done Got Outta Hand ? "

During the early 1980s , his cocaine addiction intensified . Jennings claimed to have spent $ 1 @,@ 500 a day on his habit , draining his personal finances and leaving him bankrupt with debt up to $ 2 @.@ 5 million . Though he insisted on repaying the debt and did additional tours to earn the funds , his work became less focused and his tours deteriorated . Jennings decided to quit his addictions , leased a home in the Phoenix area , and spent a month detoxing himself , intending to start using cocaine again in a more controlled fashion afterward . In 1984 , he quit cocaine . Jennings claimed that his son Shooter was his main inspiration to quit permanently .

= = = Illness and death = = =

Jennings 's health had been deteriorating for years before his death . After quitting cocaine , he ended his habit of smoking six packs of cigarettes daily in 1988 . In December 1988 , he underwent triple heart bypass surgery after suffering chest pains while on his tour bus . By 2000 , his diabetes worsened , and the pain reduced his mobility , forcing Jennings to end most touring . Later the same year , he underwent surgery to improve his leg circulation . In December 2001 , his left foot was amputated at a hospital in Phoenix . On February 13 , 2002 , Jennings died in his sleep of diabetic complications in Chandler , Arizona . He was buried in the Mesa City Cemetery , in Mesa , Arizona . At the funeral ceremony , on February 15 , Jessi Colter sang " Storms Never Last " for the attendees , who included Jennings 's close friends and fellow musicians .

= = Recognition = =

Between 1966 and 1995 , 54 Jennings albums charted , with 11 reaching number one . Meanwhile , between 1965 and 1991 , 96 singles charted , with 16 number ones . In October 2001 , Jennings was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame . In one final act of defiance , he did not attend the ceremony and opted instead to send son Buddy Dean Jennings .

On July 6 , 2006 , Jennings was inducted to Hollywood 's Rock Wall in Hollywood , California . On June 20 , 2007 , Jennings was posthumously awarded the Cliffie Stone Pioneer Award by the Academy of Country Music .

= = Legacy = =

Jennings 's music had a major influence on several neotraditionalist and alternative country artists , including Hank Williams , Jr . , The Marshall Tucker Band , Travis Tritt , Steve Earle , Jamey Johnson , John Anderson , his son , Shooter Jennings , and Hank Williams III .

In 2008 , his first posthumous album , Waylon Forever , was released . The album consisted of songs recorded with his son Shooter when he was 16 . In 2012 , Waylon : The Music Inside a three @-@ volume project , consisting of covers of Jennings 's songs by different artists , was released . The same year , it was announced for September the release of Goin ' Down Rockin ' : The Last Recordings , a set of 12 songs recorded by Jennings and bassist Robby Turner before his death in 2002 . Jennings 's family was reluctant to release any new material because they did not feel comfortable at the time . The songs only featured Jennings and Turner on the bass , while further accompaniment would be added later . Ten years after , Turner completed the recordings with the help of former Waylors . The Jennings family approved the release despite the launch of a new business focused on his estate . Shooter Jennings arranged deals for a clothing line , while also launching a renewed website , and started talks with different producers about the making of a biographical film .

= = Discography = =

= = Awards = =

= = = Journals = = =

Denberg , Jody ( January 1988 ) . " Chantilly Lace and Jolly Face " . Texas Monthly 16 ( 1 ) . ISSN 0148 @-@ 7736 .

Henderson , Richard ( May 12 , 2001 ) . " The RCA 100 : Ambitious Reissue Program Represents A Century of Diverse Music " . Billboard 113 ( 19 ) . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .

Jessen , Wade ; Evans Price , Deborah ; Stark , Phyllis ( February 23 , 2002 ) . " Waylon Jennings Remembered as Country Music Legend " . Billboard 114 ( 8 ) . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .

Weatherby , Gregg ( 1988 ) . " Still Waylon " . Spin ( SPIN Media LLC ) 3 ( 8 ) . ISSN 0886 @-@ 3032 .

Billboard 112 ( 12 ) . March 18 , 2000 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 .

" Patsy Montana Early Country Favorites " . Bluegrass Unlimited ( Bluegrass Unlimited ) 18 ( 1 @-@ 6 ) . 1983 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 5137 .

Country song roundup staff ( 1967 ) . " Country song roundup " ( 102 ) . Country Song Roundup : 15 .

The Journal of country music ( The Country Music Foundation ) 6 ( 3 ) . Fall 1975 .

The Southern Quarterly ( University of Southern Mississippi ) 22 . 1983 . ISSN 0038 @-@ 4496 .

= Treehouse of Horror X =

" Treehouse of Horror X " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' eleventh season , and the tenth annual Treehouse of Horror episode , consisting of three self @-@ contained segments . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on Halloween 1999 . In " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " , the Simpsons cover up a murder and are haunted by an unseen witness . In " Desperately Xeeking Xena " , Bart and Lisa gain superpowers and must rescue Xena star Lucy Lawless from the Comic Book Guy 's alter ego The Collector , and in " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " , Homer causes worldwide destruction thanks to the Y2K bug .

" Treehouse of Horror X " was directed by Pete Michels and written by Ron Hauge , Donick Cary and Tim Long . The episode contains numerous parodies and references to horror and science fiction works , including Doctor Who , I Know What You Did Last Summer and Battlestar Galactica . It also features actress Lucy Lawless and actors Tom Arnold and Dick Clark as themselves . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewers , finishing in 34th place in the ratings the week it aired . Since its airing , the episode received positive reviews from critics .

= = Plot = =

In the opening scene , the two aliens Kang and Kodos introduce a variety show , with a live audience consisting of aliens . While they tell jokes , canned laughter is played , but the audience appears unamused . The Simpson family sits on the couch , with Homer appearing as the jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ box from " Treehouse of Horror II " , Marge as the witch from " Treehouse of Horror VIII " , Bart as the half @-@ fly mutant from " Treehouse of Horror VIII " . Maggie is the alien / human mutant from " Treehouse of Horror IX " and Lisa is the victim of an axe murder . Lisa then asks what aliens have to do with Halloween , and Maggie , in Kang 's voice , says , " Silence ! " , and disintegrates her with a ray gun .

= = = I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did = = =

In a parody of I Know What You Did Last Summer , on a foggy evening with a full moon , the Simpsons are driving down a coastal road when Marge accidentally smashes into Ned Flanders , killing him . Homer manipulates the body in several escapades , which convinces Maude that Ned died of an accident and that he does not want an autopsy . Shortly after Ned 's funeral , the family finds the phrase " I Know What You Did ! " written in blood everywhere they go . They are terrorized by a cloaked figure , which drives them out of their house . Again , in the wild , they find Ned . It turns out he lived because he was bitten by a werewolf moments before the accident . Clouds uncover the full moon , Ned changes into a wolf and Marge , Bart , Maggie and Lisa run away . Ned mauls Homer to death while Homer mocks him .

= = = Desperately Xeeking Xena = = =

An X @-@ ray machine scanning Halloween candy malfunctions and gives Bart the ability to stretch his body like rubber and Lisa super strength . They become a superhero duo , calling themselves " Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl " . Later , Lucy Lawless ( dressed as Xena ) addresses fans at a science fiction convention . Comic Book Guy , who has styled himself as a villain called " The Collector " , kidnaps her using a magnet to attract her metal breast plate . Lawless tries to remove the breastplate but stops after she notices that her horny nerd fans have cameras ready . The Collector takes her to his lair , where he puts her in an aluminized PET film bag for " safekeeping " and imprisons her in a room of other similarly @-@ captured celebrities . Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl then enter the fray in an attempt to free Xena , but they are soon captured as well . The Collector suspends the duo over a vat of " Lucite " . After feigning interest in the villain , Lawless starts clobbering him . The Collector grabs his limited edition double edged lightsaber from Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace ( which was released a few months before the episode ) and ignites the blades , but when Lawless reminds him that he has removed it from its original packaging , he panics and ends up falling into the Lucite . Lawless then flies the children home ( Lisa points out that Xena cannot fly , but Lawless reminds her she 's not Xena , she 's Lucy Lawless ) .

= = = Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die = = =

On December 31 , 1999 , Dick Clark is celebrating New Year 's Rockin ' Eve in Springfield . Homer , the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's Y2K compliance officer , declares that he fixed all the possible Y2K problems at the plant , including the computers . Unfortunately , Homer forgot to fix his own computer , and in the process sends a virus across the world . Chaos ensues , and widespread looting begins . Krusty 's malfunctioning pacemaker apparently kills him in front of the family . Bart tearfully mourns his hero , but he perks up , after finding a note . The letter in Krusty 's pocket states that a rocket ( codenamed Exodus ) is being populated with humanity 's " best and brightest " , and will be launched in order to preserve human civilization on Mars . When they reach the shuttle , Homer fails to bluff his way on board by claiming to be the famous pianist from the film Shine but the armed guard recognizes Lisa as the ship 's designated proofreader . Lisa is only able to take one parent with her , and quickly chooses Marge . Homer and Bart find a second , unguarded rocket and board just before it launches . They quickly notice that the spaceliner is filled with such notoriously obnoxious and mediocre celebrities as radio psychologist Dr. Laura , film director Spike Lee , skating champion Tonya Harding , grunge rock singer Courtney Love , politician Ross Perot , actor Tom Arnold , MTV VJ Paulie Shore , and actress / talk show host Rosie O 'Donnell . Although the craft is headed directly for the sun , Homer and Bart eject themselves from the spacecraft and die of explosive decompression .

= = Production = =

" Treehouse of Horror X " was directed by Pete Michels and written by Donick Cary , Tim Long and Ron Hauge . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on Halloween , 1999 . " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " was conceived and written by former staff writer Cary . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Cary said that he came up with the segment after watching the 1997 horror film I Know What You Did Last Summer . " I had just seen the movie and I was like , ' Hey , there you go . ' " he said . While Flanders serves as the segment 's antagonist , the role would originally go to Grampa , who would chase Homer inside a roller disco . While Grampa does not appear in the segment , the Springfield Roller Disco is seen during the Simpsons escape from Flanders . Despite serving as writer for the segment , Cary left the series after finishing the first draft in order to work on the animated Austin Powers series , which never came to fruition . In his absence , the writing staff rewrote the last quarter of the segment and added the revelation that Flanders is a werewolf . In order to dispose of Ned Flanders ' corpse , Homer throws his body into Flanders ' house . After he is finished , he says " That 's the end of that chapter " , a phrase that Cary often uses in his everyday life . " That 's just something that comes up a lot in my life is when no matter if it 's a good or a bad thing , just move on " he said .

" Desperately Xeeking Xena " was written by staff writer Long . At the beginning of the segment , Milhouse is seen wearing a plastic smock with a picture of Radioactive Man on it . The scene was based on an experience in Long 's childhood ; " I asked my mom for a Batman costume . And I got a smock that had Batman on it and said ' Batman ' . It was very dispiriting " he said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " Stretch Dude & Clobber Girl " ' s theme song was written by Long and composed by Alf Clausen . During the sequence , Stretch Dude and Clobber Girl are seen assaulting Saddam Hussein , the fifth President of Iraq . According to Long , the writing staff had a " passionate " discussion about whether the duo would be attacking Hussein or Iranian religious leader and politician Ruhollah Khomeini during the sequence . Scully quipped that Hussein was chosen because " he was always asking to be on the show . " The segment features New Zealand actress Lucy Lawless as herself . According to Long , Lawless was very happy with the segment 's script . She was especially fond of the speech she gives to The Collector , in which she mentions that she was very tall as an adolescent . Lawless was directed by Scully , who commented that she was " terrific " . In an interview with the Hungarian online newspaper Origo , Lawless said that her part in the episode was the best experience she had guest @-@ starring for a show . " It was really funny when the Comic Book Guy kidnapped me " , she said .

" Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " was written and conceived by Hauge . In DVD commentary for the episode , Hauge stated that , when writing the segment , he knew it would not age well . " I was aware of it at the time , that it wouldn 't last forever " he said , " But I wanted to capture that moment . " According to director Michels , the rocket which transported the " best and brightest " of the population was drawn to resemble a popsicle . The Simpsons ' staff had a lot of trouble finding a guest star for the second rocket , and the only person who agreed to participate was American actor Tom Arnold . In the episode , Arnold is depicted as an annoying , " not @-@ so @-@ great " celebrity . Although he was mostly in on the joke , Arnold did " bust [ the staff 's ] chops " a little bit when recording his lines . " He would say a line and then they 'd yell cut and he 'd look over at me and take a shot at me " Hauge said . Still , Hauge found Arnold 's performance " fantastic " and Scully said that he was a " good sport " . The segment also features television personality Dick Clark as himself . A few months after the episode aired , Hauge discussed the segment with Clark in a Fox studio . According to Hauge , Clark said that the episode gave the " biggest response " he had ever gotten from anything he had ever done . " After the career that he had in television for so long , just to give him a highlight was a highlight for me " Hauge said in the episode 's DVD commentary .

= = Cultural references = =

The opening segment , which shows Kang and Kodos attempting to entertain an audience of aliens , was " born out of [ The Simpsons ' staff 's ] love " of comedy teams like Martin and Lewis and the Smothers Brothers . The plot of " I Know What You Diddily @-@ Iddily @-@ Did " is based on the 1997 horror film I Know What You Did Last Summer . At the beginning of the segment , the Simpsons are seen escaping from a group of vampires . Holding a package of Super Sugar Crisp cereal , Homer starts singing a jingle about the cereal . Super Sugar Crisp is a reference to the breakfast cereal Golden Crisp , while the jingle Homer sings references " Can 't get enough of that Golden Crisp " , a jingle sung by Golden Crisp 's mascot Sugar Bear during advertisements for the cereal . According to Scully , the series ' staff had a lot of trouble clearing the song for the episode . " Apparently , they didn 't want the tune [ ... ] used in this context " he said in the episode 's DVD commentary .

Although there is a fictional Marvel Comics character called Collector , Long did not base The Collector on him . While carrying Lawless with an electromagnet , The Collector says " Care for a Rolo , sweet Xena ? " The reference was included because the writing staff were given free Rolos at the time . In The Collector 's lair , several celebrities are seen stored in aluminized PET film bags . Some of these include The Simpsons ' creator Matt Groening and Tom Baker , who portrayed the fourth incarnation of the doctor in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . " There are several Doctor Who actors but Tom Baker is the one we always go with " Hauge explained in the episode 's DVD commentary . Other captives include actress Yasmine Bleeth , Gilligan from the series Gilligan 's Island and Spock and Seven of Nine from Star Trek . The segment also features the series ' first reference to Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , when The Collector uses a mint @-@ condition of Darth Maul 's double @-@ bladed lightsaber . Because the episode was written before the film 's release , the writers did not know " how bad it was gonna be " , in their view , and therefore did not include any " obligatory shot " at the film . As he dies , The Collector poses as Lorne Greene 's character Commander Adama in the science fiction series Battlestar Galactica . Coincidentally , Lawless would go on have a recurring role on the re @-@ imagined Battlestar Galactica .

Hauge based " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " on the hysteria involving Y2K , a digital problem that occurred the night into January 1 , 2000 . Humans escaping an unsavable Earth in rockets is a reference to the 1951 film When Worlds Collide . In a scene in the segment , several celebrities , including actor Mel Gibson and former Major League Baseball player Mark McGwire , can be seen waiting in line for the first rocket . They both guest starred as themselves in two earlier episodes from the season . Others in the line include businessman Bill Gates , director Ron Howard , former President Jimmy Carter , scientist Stephen Hawking , rock musician Paul McCartney , basketball player Michael Jordan and ice skater Michelle Kwan . Those on the doomed ship include actors Pauly Shore and Tom Arnold , politicians Ross Perot and Dan Quayle , singer Courtney Love , TV presenters Rosie O 'Donnell and Laura Schlessinger , film director Spike Lee , reverend Al Sharpton and figure skater Tonya Harding .

= = Release and reception = =

In its original American broadcast on October 31 , 1999 , " Treehouse of Horror X " received an 8 @.@ 6 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode finished in 34th place in the ratings for the week of October 25 @-@ 31 , 1999 . Following the episode was a rerun of " Treehouse of Horror IX " , which was originally broadcast the previous year . In 2000 , " Treehouse of Horror X " was nominated for a CINE Golden Eagle Award , which it ultimately won . It was also nominated for a Golden Reel Award in the category of " Best Sound Editing - Television Animation " , which it lost to the SpongeBob SquarePants episode " Mermaid Man & Barnacle Boy " . On October 7 , 2008 , " Treehouse of Horror X " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Eleventh Season DVD set . Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge , Donick Cary , Tim Long , Matt Selman and Pete Michels participated in the audio commentary of the episode .

Following its broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror X " received positive reviews from critics . In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Eleventh Season , Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote " Even in the series ’ crummier seasons , the staff always seems to come up with a good Halloween episode " , and that " Treehouse of Horror X " " continues that trend " . Of the three segments , Jacobson found " Life 's a Glitch , Then You Die " to be the weakest . He wrote " [ ... ] other than a good ending , it simply doesn ’ t have a lot going for it " and added that it is the most dated of the three . He continued , " ' Diddily ' offers a fun horror spoof , and ' Xena ' is a terrific superhero bit with plenty of cleverness . " DVD Talk 's Ian Jane gave the episode a positive review as well . Considering it to be one of the season 's best episodes , Jane wrote " This one , like so many that have come before and since , is a great blend of horror movie parody and Halloween themed fun in Springfield . " In 2007 , Seb Patrick of Noise to Signal included " Desperately Xeeking Xena " in a list called " The Ten Best Treehouse of Horror Vignettes " . Although he disliked Bart and Lisa 's part in the segment , Patrick wrote that it " earns its stripes by being perhaps Comic Book Guy 's finest hour " . He also praised the segment 's references , as well as Lawless ' line " A wizard did it " , a phrase used to explain continuity errors . In 2009 , The Collector 's marriage proposal to Lawless was included in " Line @-@ O @-@ Rama : Comic Book Guy " , a compilation of what IGN considers to be The Comic Book Guy 's best lines .

= Medal of Honor =

The Medal of Honor is the United States of America 's highest military honor , awarded for personal acts of valor above and beyond the call of duty . The medal is awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U.S. Congress to U.S. military personnel only . There are three versions of the medal , one for the Army , one for the Navy , and one for the Air Force . Personnel of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard receive the Navy version .

The Medal of Honor was created as a Navy version in 1861 named the " Medal of Valor " , and an Army version of the medal named the " Medal of Honor " was established in 1862 to give recognition to men who distinguished themselves " conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity " in combat with an enemy of the United States . Because the medal is presented " in the name of Congress " , it is often referred to as the " Congressional Medal of Honor " . However , the official name is the " Medal of Honor " , which began with the U.S. Army 's version . Within United States Code the medal is referred to as the " Medal of Honor " , and less frequently as " Congressional Medal of Honor " .

The Medal of Honor is usually presented by the President in a formal ceremony at the White House , intended to represent the gratitude of the American people , with posthumous presentations made to the primary next of kin . According to the Medal of Honor Historical Society of the United States , there have been 3 @,@ 515 Medals of Honor awarded to the nation 's soldiers , sailors , airmen , Marines , and Coast Guardsmen since the decoration 's creation , with just less than half of them awarded for actions during the four years of the American Civil War .

In 1990 , Congress designated March 25 annually as " National Medal of Honor Day " . Due to its prestige and status , the Medal of Honor is afforded special protection under U.S. law against any unauthorized adornment , sale , or manufacture , which includes any associated ribbon or badge .

= = History = =

1780 : The Fidelity Medallion was a small medal worn on a chain around the neck , similar to a religious medal , that was awarded only to three militiamen from New York state , for the capture of John André , a British officer and spy connected directly to General Benedict Arnold ( American and British general @-@ 1780 ) during the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) . The capture saved the fort of West Point from the British Army .

1782 : Badge of Military Merit : The first formal system for rewarding acts of individual gallantry by American soldiers was established by George Washington when he issued a field order on August 7 , 1782 , for a Badge of Military Merit to recognize those members of the Continental Army who performed " any singular meritorious action " . This decoration is America 's first combat decoration and was preceded only by the Fidelity Medallion , the Congressional medal for Henry Lee awarded in September 1779 in recognition of his attack on the British at Paulus Hook , the Congressional medal for General Horatio Gates awarded in November 1777 in recognition of his victory over the British at Saratoga , and the Congressional medal for George Washington awarded in March 1776 . Although the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse after the American Revolutionary War , the concept of a military award for individual gallantry by members of the U.S. Armed Forces had been established .

1847 : Certificate of Merit : After the outbreak of the Mexican @-@ American War ( 1846 – 1848 ) a Certificate of Merit ( Meritorious Service Citation Certificate ) was established by Act of Congress on March 3 , 1847 " to any private soldier who had distinguished himself by gallantry performed in the presence of the enemy " . 539 Certificates were approved for this period . The certificate was discontinued and reintroduced in 1876 effective from June 22 , 1874 to February 10 , 1892 when it was awarded for extraordinary gallantry by private soldiers in the presence of the enemy . From February 11 , 1892 through July 9 , 1918 ( Certificate of Merit disestablished ) it could be awarded to members of the Army for distinguished service in combat or noncombat ; from January 11 , 1905 through July 9 , 1918 the certificate was granted medal status as the Certificate of Merit Medal ( first awarded to a soldier who was awarded the Certificate of Merit for combat action on August 13 , 1898 ) . This medal was later replaced by the Army Distinguished Service Medal which was established on January 2 , 1918 ( the Navy Distinguished Service Medal was established in 1919 ) . Those Army members who held the Distinguished Service Medal in place of the Certificate of Merit could apply for the Army Distinguished Service Cross ( established 1918 ) effective March 5 , 1934 .

= = = Medal of Valor = = =

There were no military awards or medals at the beginning of the Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) except for the Certificate of Merit which was awarded for the Mexican @-@ American War . In the fall of 1861 , a proposal for a battlefield decoration for valor was submitted to Winfield Scott , the general @-@ in @-@ chief of the army , by Lt. Colonel Edward D. Townsend , an assistant adjutant at the War Department and Scott 's chief of staff . Scott however , was strictly against medals being awarded which was the European tradition . After Scott retired in October 1861 , the Secretary of the Navy , Gideon Welles , adopted the idea of a decoration to recognize and honor distinguished naval service . On December 9 , U.S. Senator ( Iowa ) James W. Grimes , Chairman on the Committee on Naval Affairs , proposed Public Resolution Number 82 ( Bill 82 : 37th Congress , Second Session , 12 Stat . 329 ) " to promote the efficiency of the Navy " which included a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor which was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on December 21 , 1861 ( Medal of Honor had been established for the Navy ) , " to be bestowed upon such petty officers , seamen , landsmen , and marines as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry and other seamen @-@ like qualities during the present war . " Secretary Wells directed the Philadelphia Mint to design the new military decoration . On May 15 , 1862 , the United States Navy Department ordered 175 medals ( $ 1 @.@ 85 each ) with the words " Personal Valor " on the back from the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia .

= = = Medal of Honor = = =

Senator Henry Wilson , the chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs , introduced a resolution on February 15 , 1862 for an Army Medal of Honor . The resolution ( 37th Congress , Second Session , 12 Stat . 623 ) was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12 , 1862 ( " Medals of Honor " were established for enlisted men of the Army ) . This measure provided for awarding a medal of honor " to such non @-@ commissioned officers and privates as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry in action and other soldier @-@ like qualities during the present insurrection . " During the war , Townsend would have some medals delivered to some recipients with a letter requesting acknowledgement of the " Medal of Honor " . The letter written and signed by Townsend on behalf of the Secretary of War , stated that the resolution was " to provide for the presentation of medals of honor to the enlisted men of the army and volunteer forces who have distinguished or may distinguish themselves in battle during the present rebellion . " By mid @-@ November the War Department contracted with Philadelphia silversmith William Wilson and Son , who had been responsible for the Navy design , to prepare 2 @,@ 000 Army medals ( $ 2 @.@ 00 each ) to be cast at the mint . The Army version had " The Congress to " written on the back of the medal . Both versions were made of copper and coated with bronze , which " gave them a reddish tint " .

1863 : Congress made the Medal of Honor a permanent decoration . On March 3 , Medals of Honor were authorized for officers of the Army ( 37th Congress , Third Session , 12 Stat . 751 ) . The Secretary of War first presented the Medal of Honor to six Union Army volunteers on March 25 , 1863 in his office .

1890 : On April 23 , the Medal of Honor Legion is established in Washington , D.C.

1896 : The ribbon of the Army version Medal of Honor was redesigned with all stripes being vertical .

1904 : The planchet of the Army version of the Medal of Honor was redesigned by General George Lewis Gillespie . The purpose of the redesign was to help distinguish the Medal of Honor from other medals , including a medal issued by the Grand Army of the Republic .

1915 : On March 3 , Navy , Marine Corps , and Coast Guard officers became eligible for the Medal of Honor .

1963 : A separate Coast Guard medal was authorized in 1963 , but not yet designed or awarded .

1965 : A separate design for a version of the medal for the U.S. Air Force was created in 1956 , authorized in 1960 , and officially adopted on April 14 , 1965 . Previously , members of the U.S. Army Air Corps , U.S. Army Air Forces , and the U.S. Air Force received the Army version of the medal .

= = Appearance = =

There are three versions of the Medal of Honor , one for each of the military departments of the Department of Defense : Army , Navy , and Air Force . Members of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard are eligible to receive the Navy version . Each is constructed differently and the components are made from gilding metals and red brass alloys with some gold plating , enamel , and bronze pieces . The United States Congress considered a bill in 2004 which would require the Medal of Honor to be made with 90 % gold , the same composition as the lesser @-@ known Congressional Gold Medal , but the measure was dropped .

= = = Army Medal of Honor = = =

The Army version is described by the Institute of Heraldry as " a gold five pointed star , each point tipped with trefoils , 1 1 ⁄ 2 inches [ 3 @.@ 8 cm ] wide , surrounded by a green laurel wreath and suspended from a gold bar inscribed VALOR , surmounted by an eagle . In the center of the star , Minerva 's head surrounded by the words UNITED STATES OF AMERICA . On each ray of the star is a green oak leaf . On the reverse is a bar engraved THE CONGRESS TO with a space for engraving the name of the recipient . " The pendant and suspension bar are made of gilding metal , with the eye , jump rings , and suspension ring made of red brass . The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled , gold plated , and rose gold plated , with polished highlights .

= = = Navy , Marine , and Coast Guard Medal of Honor = = =

The Navy version is described as " a five @-@ pointed bronze star , tipped with trefoils containing a crown of laurel and oak . In the center is Minerva , personifying the United States , standing with left hand resting on fasces and right hand holding a shield blazoned with the shield from the coat of arms of the United States . She repulses Discord , represented by snakes . The medal is suspended from the flukes of an anchor . " It is made of solid red brass , oxidized and buffed .

= = = Air Force Medal of Honor = = =

The Air Force version is described as " within a wreath of green laurel , a gold five @-@ pointed star , one point down , tipped with trefoils and each point containing a crown of laurel and oak on a green background . Centered on the star , an annulet of 34 stars is a representation of the head of the Statue of Liberty . The star is suspended from a bar inscribed with the word VALOR above an adaptation of the thunderbolt from the Air Force Coat of Arms . " The pendant is made of gilding metal . The connecting bar , hinge , and pin are made of bronze . The finish on the pendant and suspension bar is hard enameled , gold plated , and rose gold plated , with buffed relief .

= = = Neck ribbon , service ribbon , lapel button , and " V " device = = =

Since 1944 , the Medal of Honor has been attached to a light blue colored moiré silk Neck ribbon that is 1 3 ⁄ 16 in ( 30 mm ) in width and 21 3 ⁄ 4 in ( 550 mm ) in length . The center of the ribbon displays thirteen white stars in the form of three chevron . Both the top and middle chevrons are made up of 5 stars , with the bottom chevron made of 3 stars . The Medal of Honor is one of only two United States military awards suspended from a neck ribbon . The other , the Commander 's Degree of the Legion of Merit , and is usually awarded to individuals serving foreign governments .

On May 2 , 1896 , Congress authorized a " ribbon to be worn with the medal and [ a ] rosette or knot to be worn in lieu of the medal . " The service ribbon is light blue with five white stars in the form of an " M " . It is placed first in the top position in the order of precedence and is worn for situations other than full @-@ dress military uniform . The lapel button is a 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) , six @-@ sided light blue bowknot rosette with thirteen white stars and may be worn on appropriate civilian clothing on the left lapel .

In 2011 , Department of Defense instructions were amended to read " for each succeeding act that would otherwise justify award of the Medal of Honor , the individual receiving the subsequent award is authorized to wear an additional Medal of Honor ribbon and / or a ' V ' device on the Medal of Honor suspension ribbon " ( the " V " device is a 1 ⁄ 4 @-@ inch ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) high bronze miniature letter " V " with serifs that denotes valor ) . The Medal of Honor was the only decoration authorized the use of the " V " device to designate subsequent awards in such fashion . Nineteen individuals , all now deceased , were double Medal of Honor recipients . This was discontinued in July 2014 , and changed to read " A separate MOH is presented to an individual for each succeeding act that justified award . " As of 2014 , no devices are authorized for the Medal of Honor .

= = = Historical versions = = =

The Medal of Honor has evolved in appearance over time . The upside @-@ down star design of the Navy version 's pendant adopted in early 1862 has not changed since its inception . The Army 1862 version followed and was identical to the Navy version except an eagle perched atop cannons was used instead of an anchor to connect the pendant to the suspension ribbon . In 1896 , the Army version changed the ribbon 's design and colors due to misuse and imitation by nonmilitary organizations . In 1904 , the Army " Gillespie " version introduced a smaller redesigned star and the ribbon was changed to the light blue pattern with white stars seen today . In 1913 , the Navy version adopted the same ribbon pattern .

After World War I , the Navy decided to separate the Medal of Honor into two versions , one for combat and one for non @-@ combat . The original upside @-@ down star was designated as the non @-@ combat version and a new pattern of the medal pendant , in cross form , was designed by the Tiffany Company in 1919 . It was to be presented to a sailor or Marine who " in action involving actual conflict with the enemy , distinguish [ es ] himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " Despite the " actual conflict " guidelines — the Tiffany Cross was awarded to Navy CDR ( later RADM ) Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett for arctic exploration . The Tiffany Cross itself was not popular . In 1942 , the Navy returned to using only the original 1862 inverted 5 @-@ point star design , and ceased issuing the award for non @-@ combat action .

In 1944 , the suspension ribbons for both the Army and Navy version were replaced with the now familiar neck ribbon . When the Air Force version was designed in 1956 , it incorporated similar elements and design from the Army version . It used a larger star with the Statue of Liberty image in place of Minerva on the medal and changed the connecting device from an eagle to an heraldic thunderbolt flanked with wings as found on the service seal .

= = = Flag = = =

On October 23 , 2002 , Pub.L. 107 – 248 was enacted , modifying 36 U.S.C. § 903 , authorizing a Medal of Honor flag to be presented to recipients of the decoration .

The flag was based on a concept by retired Army Special Forces First Sergeant Bill Kendall of Jefferson , Iowa , who designed a flag to honor Medal of Honor recipient Captain Darrell Lindsey , a B @-@ 26 pilot from Jefferson who was killed in World War II . Kendall 's design of a light blue field emblazoned with 13 white five @-@ pointed stars was nearly identical to that of Sarah LeClerc 's of the Institute of Heraldry . LeClerc 's design , ultimately accepted as the official flag , does not include the words " Medal of Honor " and is fringed in gold . The color of the field and the 13 white stars , arranged in the form of a three bar chevron , consisting of two chevrons of five stars and one chevron of three stars , emulate the suspension ribbon of the Medal of Honor . The flag has no set proportions .

The first Medal of Honor recipient to receive the official Medal of Honor flag was Sergeant First Class Paul R. Smith . The Medal of Honor with the flag was presented by President George W. Bush to his family during a ceremony at the White House on April 4 , 2005 .

A special Medal of Honor Flag presentation ceremony was held for over 60 living Medal of Honor recipients on board the USS Constitution on September 30 , 2006 .

= = Presenting = =

There are two distinct protocols for awarding the Medal of Honor . The first and most common is nomination and approval through the chain of command of the service member . The second method is nomination by a member of the U.S. Congress , generally at the request of a constituent . In both cases , if the proposal is outside the time limits for the recommendation , approval to waive the time limit requires a special Act of Congress . The Medal of Honor is presented by the President on behalf of , and in the name of , the Congress . Since 1980 , nearly all Medal of Honor recipients or in the case of posthumous awards , the next of kin have been personally decorated by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Since 1941 , more than half of the Medals of Honor have been awarded posthumously .

= = = Evolution of criteria = = =

1800s : Several months after President Abraham Lincoln signed Public Resolution 82 into law on December 21 , 1861 for a Navy medal of honor , a similar resolution was passed in July 1862 for an Army version of the medal . Six Union Army soldiers who hijacked a Confederate locomotive named The General in 1862 , were the first Medal of Honor recipients ; James J. Andrews , a civilian , led the raid . He was caught and hanged as a Union spy , but was a civilian and not eligible to receive the medal . Many Medals of Honor awarded in the 19th century were associated with " saving the flag " ( and country ) , not just for patriotic reasons , but because the U.S. flag was a primary means of battlefield communication at the time . Because no other military decoration was authorized during the Civil War , some seemingly less exceptional and notable actions were recognized by a Medal of Honor during that conflict .

1900s : Early in the twentieth century , the Navy awarded many Medals of Honor for peacetime bravery . For instance , in 1901 , John Henry Helms aboard the USS Chicago ( CA @-@ 14 ) was awarded the medal for saving the ship 's cook from drowning . Seven sailors aboard the USS Iowa ( BB @-@ 4 ) were awarded the medal after the ship 's boiler exploded on January 25 , 1904 . Richard Byrd and Floyd Bennett were awarded the medal — combat ( " Tiffany " ) version despite the existence then of a non @-@ combat form of the Navy medal — for the 1926 flight they claim reached the North Pole . And Admiral Thomas J. Ryan was awarded the medal for saving a woman from the burning Grand Hotel in Yokohama , Japan , following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake . Between 1919 and 1942 , the Navy issued two separate versions of the Medal of Honor , one for acts related to combat and one for non @-@ combat bravery . The criteria for the award tightened during World War I for the Army version of the Medal of Honor , while the Navy version retained a non @-@ combat provision until 1963 . In an Act of Congress of July 9 , 1918 , the War Department version of the medal required that the recipient " distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " , and also required that the act of valor be performed " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " . This was in reaction to the results of the Army Medal of Honor Review Board , which struck 911 medals from the Medal of Honor Roll in February 1917 for lack of basic prerequisites . These included the members of the 27th Maine erroneously awarded the medal for reenlisting to guard the capital during the Civil War , 29 members of Abraham Lincoln 's funeral detail , and six civilians , including Buffalo Bill Cody and Mary Edwards Walker ( though the latter 's was restored posthumously in 1977 ) .

World War II : Starting in 1942 , the Medal would only be awarded for action in combat , although the Navy version of the Medal of Honor technically allowed non @-@ combat awards until 1963 . Official accounts vary , but generally , the Medal of Honor for combat was known as the " Tiffany Cross " , after the company that designed the medal . The Tiffany Cross was first awarded in 1919 , but was unpopular partly because of its design . The Tiffany Cross Medal of Honor was awarded at least three times for non @-@ combat . By a special authorized Act of Congress , the medal was presented to Byrd and Bennett ( see above ) . In 1942 , the United States Navy reverted to a single Medal of Honor , although the statute still contained a loophole allowing the award for both " action involving actual conflict with the enemy " or " in the line of his profession " . Arising from these criteria , approximately 60 percent of the medals earned during and after World War II have been awarded posthumously .

Public Law 88 @-@ 77 , July 25 , 1963 : The requirements for the Medal of Honor were standardized among all the services , requiring that a recipient had " distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty . " Thus , the act removed the loophole allowing non @-@ combat awards to Navy personnel . The act also clarified that the act of valor must occur during one of three circumstances :

While engaged in action against an enemy of the United States

While engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force .

While serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party .

Congress drew the three permutations of combat from President Kennedy 's executive order of April 25 , 1962 , which previously added the same criteria to the Purple Heart . On August 24 , Kennedy added similar criteria for the Bronze Star Medal . The amendment was necessary because Cold War armed conflicts did not qualify for consideration under previous statutes such as the 1918 Army Medal of Honor Statute that required valor " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " , since the United States has not formally declared war since World War II as a result of the provisions of the United Nations Charter . According to congressional testimony by the Army 's Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel , the services were seeking authority to award the Medal of Honor and other valor awards retroactive to July 1 , 1958 , in areas such as Berlin , Lebanon , Quemoy and Matsu Islands , Taiwan Straits , Congo , Laos , Vietnam , and Cuba .

= = Authority and privileges = =

The four specific authorizing statutes amended July 25 , 1963 :

Army : 10 U.S.C. § 3741

Navy and Marine Corps : 10 U.S.C. § 6241

Air Force : 10 U.S.C. § 8741

Coast Guard : 14 U.S.C. § 491 A version is authorized but it has never been awarded .

The President may award , and present in the name of Congress , a medal of honor of appropriate design , with ribbons and appurtenances , to a person who while a member of the Army ( naval service ; Navy and Marine Corps ) ( Air Force ) ( Coast Guard ) , distinguished himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty .

= = = Privileges and courtesies = = =

The Medal of Honor confers special privileges on its recipients . By law , recipients have several benefits :

Each Medal of Honor recipient may have his or her name entered on the Medal of Honor Roll ( 38 U.S.C. § 1560 ) .

Each person whose name is placed on the Medal of Honor Roll is certified to the United States Department of Veterans Affairs as being entitled to receive a monthly pension above and beyond any military pensions or other benefits for which they may be eligible . The pension is subject to cost @-@ of @-@ living increases ; as of December 1 , 2012 , it is $ 1 @,@ 259 a month .

Enlisted recipients of the Medal of Honor are entitled to a supplemental uniform allowance .

Recipients receive special entitlements to air transportation under the provisions of DOD Regulation 4515 @.@ 13 @-@ R. This benefit allows the recipient to travel as he or she deems fit across geographical locations , and allows the recipient 's dependents to travel either Overseas @-@ Overseas , Overseas @-@ Continental US , or Continental US @-@ Overseas when accompanied by the recipient .

Special identification cards and commissary and exchange privileges are provided for Medal of Honor recipients and their eligible dependents .

Recipients are granted eligibility for interment at Arlington National Cemetery , if not otherwise eligible .

Fully qualified children of recipients are eligible for admission to the United States military academies without regard to the nomination and quota requirements .

Recipients receive a 10 percent increase in retired pay .

Those awarded the medal after October 23 , 2002 , receive a Medal of Honor Flag . The law specified that all 103 living prior recipients as of that date would receive a flag .

Recipients receive an invitation to all future presidential inaugurations and inaugural balls .

As with all medals , retired personnel may wear the Medal of Honor on " appropriate " civilian clothing . Regulations specify that recipients of the Medal of Honor are allowed to wear the uniform " at their pleasure " with standard restrictions on political , commercial , or extremist purposes ( other former members of the armed forces may do so only at certain ceremonial occasions ) .

Most states ( 40 ) offer a special license plate for certain types of vehicles to recipients at little or no cost to the recipient . The states that do not offer Medal of Honor specific license plate offer special license plates for veterans for which recipients may be eligible .

= = = Saluting = = =

Although not required by law or military regulation , members of the uniformed services are encouraged to render salutes to recipients of the Medal of Honor as a matter of respect and courtesy regardless of rank or status , whether or not they are in uniform . This is one of the few instances where a living member of the military will receive salutes from members of a higher rank .

= = Legal protection = =

1904 : The Army redesigned its Medal of Honor . To prevent the making of copies of the medal , Brigadier General George Gillespie , Jr . , a Medal of Honor recipient from the Civil War , applied for and obtained a patent for the new design . General Gillespie received the patent on November 22 , 1904 , and he transferred it the following month to the Secretary of War at the time , William Howard Taft .

1923 : Congress enacted a statute ( the year before the 20 @-@ year term of the patent would expire ) — which would later be codified at 18 U.S.C. § 704 — prohibiting the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of military medals or decorations . In 1994 , Congress amended the statute to permit an enhanced penalty if the offense involved the Medal of Honor .

2005 : Congress enacted the Stolen Valor Act of 2005 . ( Section 1 of the Act provided that the law could be cited as the " Stolen Valor Act of 2005 " , but the bill received final passage and was signed into law in 2006 . ) The law amended 18 U.S.C. § 704 to make it a federal criminal offense for a person to deliberately state falsely that he or she had been awarded a military decoration , service medal , or badge . The law also permitted an enhanced penalty for someone who falsely claimed to have been awarded the Medal of Honor .

June 28 , 2012 : In the case of United States v. Alvarez , the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Stolen Valor Act of 2005 's criminalization of the making of false claims of having been awarded a military medal , decoration , or badge was an unconstitutional violation of the First Amendment 's guarantee of free speech . The case involved an elected official in California , Xavier Alvarez , who had falsely stated at a public meeting that he had been awarded the Medal of Honor , even though he had never served in any branch of the armed forces .

The Supreme Court 's decision did not specifically address the constitutionality of the older portion of the statute which prohibits the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of military medals or decorations . Under the law , the unauthorized wearing , manufacturing , or sale of the Medal of Honor is punishable by a fine of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 and imprisonment of up to one year .

June 3 , 2013 : President Barack Obama signs into law a revised version of the Stolen Valor Act , making it a federal offense for someone to pass themselves off as awardees of medals for valor in order to receive benefits or other privileges ( such as grants , educational benefits , housing , etc . ) that are set aside for veterans and other service members .

A number of veteran support organizations and private companies devote themselves to exposing those who falsely claim to have received the Medal of Honor .

= = = Enforcement = = =

1996 : HLI Lordship Industries Inc . , a former Medal of Honor contractor , was fined for selling 300 medals for US $ 75 each .

1996 : Fort Lauderdale , Florida , resident Jackie Stern was convicted of wearing a Medal of Honor to which he was not entitled . A federal judge sentenced him to serve one year of probation and to write a letter of apology to each of the then @-@ living 171 recipients of the medal . His letter was published in the local newspaper .

2003 : Edward Fedora and Gisela Fedora were charged with violating 18 U.S.C. § 704 ( b ) , Unlawful Sale of a Medal of Honor , for selling medals awarded to U.S. Navy Sailor Robert Blume ( for action in the Spanish – American War ) and to U.S. Army First Sergeant George Washington Roosevelt ( for action in the Civil War ) to an FBI agent . Edward Fedora pleaded guilty and was sentenced to prison .

= = Duplicate medals = =

Medal of Honor recipients may apply in writing to the headquarters of the service branch of the medal awarded for a replacement or display Medal of Honor , ribbon , and appurtenance ( Medal of Honor flag ) without charge . Primary next of kin may also do the same and have any questions answered in regard to the Medal of Honor that was awarded .

= = Recipients = =

The Medal of Honor has been awarded to 3 @,@ 496 different persons . Of the 19 men have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice , 14 received two separate medals for two separate actions , while five received both the Navy and Army Medals of Honor for the same action . As of June 2011 , since the beginning of World War II , 851 Medals of Honor have been awarded , 523 ( 61 @.@ 45 % ) posthumously . One has been awarded to a woman : Mary Edwards Walker .

The first Medals of Honor ( Army ) were awarded by and presented to six " Andrews Raiders " on March 25 , 1863 , by Secretary of War Edwin Stanton , in his office in the War Department . Private Jacob Parrott , a Union Army volunteer from Ohio , became the first recipient of the medal , awarded for his volunteering for and participation in a raid on a Confederate train in Big Shanty , Georgia on April 12 , 1862 during the American Civil War . The six decorated raiders met privately afterward with President Lincoln in his office , in the White House .

The first Medal of Honor ( Navy ) was awarded by Secretary of War Stanton to 41 sailors on April 4 , 1863 ( 17 for action during the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip ) .

The first Marine awarded the Medal of Honor ( Navy ) was John F. Mackie on July 10 , 1863 , for his rifle action aboard the USS Galena on May 15 , 1862 .

The only Coast Guardsman to be awarded the Medal of Honor ( Navy , posthumous ) was Signalman First Class Douglas Munro on May 27 , 1943 , for evacuating 500 Marines under fire on September 27 , 1942 during the Battle of Guadalcanal . Munro was a Canadian @-@ born , naturalized U.S. citizen .

The only woman awarded the Medal of Honor ( Army ) is Mary Edwards Walker , who was a civilian Union Army surgeon during the American Civil War . She received the award in 1865 for the First Battle of Bull Run ( July 21 , 1861 ) and a series of battles to the Battle of Atlanta in Sept . 1864 ... " for usual medal of honor meritorious services . "

The 1917 Medal of Honor Board deleted 911 awards , but only 910 names from the Army Medal of Honor Roll , including awards to Dr. Mary Edwards Walker , William F. " Buffalo Bill " Cody and the first of two awards issued February 10 , 1887 , to George W. Midil , who retained his award issued October 25 , 1893 . None of the 910 " deleted " recipients were ordered to return their medals , although on the question of whether the recipients could continue to wear their medals , the Judge Advocate General advised the Medal of Honor Board the Army was not obligated to police the matter . Walker continued to wear her medal until her death . President Jimmy Carter formally restored her medal posthumously in 1977 .

61 Canadians who served in the United States Armed Forces , mostly during the American Civil War . Since 1900 , four Canadians have received the medal . The only Canadian @-@ born , naturalized U.S. citizen to receive the medal for heroism during the Vietnam War was Peter C. Lemon .

While the governing statute for the Army Medal of Honor ( 10 U.S.C. § 6241 ) , beginning in 1918 , explicitly stated that a recipient must be " an officer or enlisted man of the Army " , " distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty " , and perform an act of valor " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " , exceptions have been made :

Charles Lindbergh , 1927 , civilian pilot , and U.S. Army Air Corps reserve officer . Lindbergh 's medal was authorized by a special act of Congress that directly contradicted the July 1918 act of Congress that required that all Army recipients be " in action involving actual conflict with an enemy " . The award was based on the previous acts authorizing the Navy medal to Byrd and Bennett ( see above ) . Some congressmen objected to Lindbergh 's award because it contradicted the 1918 statute , but Representative Snell reportedly quelled this dissent by explaining that " it was and it wasn 't the Congressional Medal of Honor which Lindbergh would receive under his bill ; that the Lindbergh medal would be entirely distinct from the valor award for war service . "

Major General ( Retired ) Adolphus Greely was awarded the medal in 1935 , on his 91st birthday , " for his life of splendid public service " . The result of a special act of Congress similar to Lindbergh 's , Greely 's medal citation did not reference any acts of valor .

Foreign unknown recipients include the British Unknown Warrior , the French Unknown Soldier , the Romanian Unknown Soldier , the Italian Unknown Soldier , and the Belgian Unknown Soldier .

U.S. unknown recipients include the Unknowns of World War I , World War II , Korea , and Vietnam . The Vietnam Unknown was later identified as Air Force 1st Lt. Michael J. Blassie through the use of DNA identification . Blassie 's family asked for his Medal of Honor , but the Department of Defense denied the request in 1998 . According to Undersecretary of Defense Rudy de Leon , the medal was awarded symbolically to all Vietnam unknowns , not to Blassie specifically .

= = = Double recipients = = =

Nineteen men have been awarded the Medal of Honor twice . The first two @-@ time Medal of Honor recipient was Thomas Custer ( brother of George Armstrong Custer ) for two separate actions that took place several days apart during the American Civil War .

Five " double recipients " were awarded both the Army and Navy Medal of Honor for the same action ; all five of these occurrences took place during World War I. Since February 1919 , no single individual can be awarded more than one Medal of Honor for the same action , although a member of one branch of the armed forces can receive the Medal of Honor from another branch if the actions for which it was awarded occurred under the authority of the second branch .

To date , the maximum number of Medals of Honor earned by any service member has been two . The last individual to be awarded two Medals of Honor was John J. Kelly in 1918 ; the last individual to receive two Medals of Honor for two different actions was Smedley Butler , in 1914 and 1915 .

§ Rank refers to rank held at time of Medal of Honor action .

= = = Related recipients = = =

Arthur MacArthur , Jr. and Douglas MacArthur are the first father and son to be awarded the Medal of Honor . The only other such pairing is Theodore Roosevelt ( awarded in 2001 ) and Theodore Roosevelt , Jr .

Five pairs of brothers have received the Medal of Honor :

John and William Black , in the American Civil War . The Blacks are the first brothers to be so honored .

Charles and Henry Capehart , in the American Civil War , the latter for saving a drowning man while under fire .

Antoine and Julien Gaujot . The Gaujots also have the unique distinction of receiving their medals for actions in separate conflicts , Antoine in the Philippine – American War and Julien when he crossed the border to rescue Mexicans and Americans in a Mexican Revolution skirmish .

Harry and Willard Miller , during the same naval action in the Spanish – American War .

Allen and James Thompson , in the same American Civil War action .

Another notable pair of related recipients are Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher ( rear admiral at the time of award ) and his nephew , Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher ( lieutenant at the time of award ) , both awarded for actions during the United States occupation of Veracruz .

= = = Belated recognition = = =

Since 1979 , 85 belated Medal of Honor decorations were presented to recognize actions from the Civil War to the Vietnam War . In addition , five recipients who names were not included on the Army Medal of Honor Roll in 1917 had their awards restored .

A 1993 study commissioned by the U.S. Army investigated " racial disparity " in the awarding of medals . At the time , no Medals of Honor had been awarded to American soldiers of African descent who served in World War II . After an exhaustive review , the study recommended that ten Distinguished Service Cross recipients be awarded the Medal of Honor . On January 13 , 1997 , President Bill Clinton presented the Medal of Honor to seven of these World War II veterans , six of them posthumously and one to former Second Lieutenant Vernon Baker .

In 1998 , a similar study of Asian Americans resulted in President Bill Clinton presenting 22 Medals of Honor in 2000 . Twenty of these medals went to American soldiers of Japanese descent of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team ( 442nd RCT ) that served in the European Theater of Operations during World War II . One of these Medal of Honor recipients was Senator Daniel Inouye , a former U.S. Army officer in the 442nd RCT .

In 2005 , President George W. Bush presented the Medal of Honor to Tibor Rubin , a Hungarian @-@ born American Jew who was a Holocaust survivor of World War II and enlisted U.S. infantryman and prisoner of war in the Korean War , whom many believed to have been overlooked because of his religion .

On April 11 , 2013 , President Obama presented the Medal of Honor posthumously to Army chaplain Captain Emil Kapaun for his actions as a prisoner of war during the Korean war . This follows other awards to Army Sergeant Leslie H. Sabo , Jr. for conspicuous gallantry in action on May 10 , 1970 , near Se San , Cambodia , during the Vietnam War and to Army Private First Class Henry Svehla and Army Private First Class Anthony T. Kahoʻohanohano for their heroic actions during the Korean War .

As a result of a Congressionally mandated review to ensure brave acts were not overlooked due to prejudice or discrimination , on March 18 , 2014 President Obama upgraded Distinguished Service Crosses to Medals of Honor for 24 Hispanic , Jewish , and African American individuals — the " Valor 24 " — for their actions in World War II , the Korean War and the Vietnam War . Three were still living at the time of the ceremony .

= = 27th Maine and other revoked awardings = =

During the Civil War , Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton promised a Medal of Honor to every man in the 27th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment who extended his enlistment beyond the agreed @-@ upon date . The Battle of Gettysburg was imminent , and 311 men of the regiment volunteered to serve until the battle was resolved . The remaining men returned to Maine , but with the Union victory at Gettysburg the 311 volunteers soon followed . The volunteers arrived back in Maine in time to be discharged with the men who had earlier returned . Since there seemed to be no official list of the 311 volunteers , the War Department exacerbated the situation by forwarding 864 medals to the commanding officer of the regiment . The commanding officer only issued the medals to the volunteers who stayed behind and retained the others on the grounds that , if he returned the remainder to the War Department , the War Department would try to reissue the medals .

In 1916 , a board of five Army generals on the retired list convened under act of law to review every Army Medal of Honor awarded . The board was to report on any Medals of Honor awarded or issued for any cause other than distinguished service . The commission , led by Nelson A. Miles , identified 911 awards for causes other than distinguished service . This included the 864 medals awarded to members of the 27th Maine regiment ; 29 servicemen who served as Abraham Lincoln 's funeral guard ; six civilians , including Mary Edwards Walker and Buffalo Bill Cody ; and 12 others . Walker 's medal was restored by President Jimmy Carter in 1977 . Cody and four other civilian scouts who rendered distinguished service in action , and who were therefore considered by the board to have fully earned their medals , had theirs restored in 1989 . The report was endorsed by the Judge Advocate General , who also advised that the War Department should not seek the return of the revoked medals from the recipients identified by the board . In the case of recipients who continued to wear the medal , the War Department was advised to take no action to enforce the statute .

= = Nomination under current consideration = =

David Dunnels White 's nomination is under consideration for the capture of Confederate Major General G. W. Custis Lee , eldest son of General Robert E. Lee , at the Battle of Sailors Creek , Virginia , on April 6 , 1865 .

= = Similar American decorations = =

The following decorations , in one degree or another , bear similar names to the Medal of Honor , but are entirely separate awards with different criteria for issuance :

Cardenas Medal of Honor : decoration of the United States Revenue Cutter Service , which was later merged into the United States Coast Guard

Chaplain 's Medal for Heroism : awarded posthumously for a single action to four recipients

Congressional Gold Medal : the highest civilian honor bestowed by the United States ( along with the Presidential Medal of Freedom )

Congressional Space Medal of Honor : intended for issuance to astronauts , but despite its name , it is not equal to the Medal of Honor

Presidential Medal of Freedom : the highest civilian honor bestowed by the United States ( along with the Congressional Gold Medal )

Several United States law enforcement decorations bear the name " Medal of Honor " . The Public Safety Officer Medal of Valor , established by Congress in 2001 and stated to be " the highest National award for valor by a public safety officer " , is also awarded by the President of the United States .

= Bacteria =

Bacteria ( / bækˈtɪəriə / ; singular : bacterium ) constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms . Typically a few micrometres in length , bacteria have a number of shapes , ranging from spheres to rods and spirals . Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth , and are present in most of its habitats . Bacteria inhabit soil , water , acidic hot springs , radioactive waste , and the deep portions of Earth 's crust . Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals .

There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water . There are approximately 5 × 1030 bacteria on Earth , forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals . Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients , with many of the stages in nutrient cycles dependent on these organisms , such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and putrefaction . In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps , bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds , such as hydrogen sulphide and methane , to energy . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested bacterial life forms thrive in the Mariana Trench , which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest part of the Earth 's oceans . Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2 @.@ 6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States . According to one of the researchers , " You can find microbes everywhere — they 're extremely adaptable to conditions , and survive wherever they are . "

Most bacteria have not been characterized , and only about half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory . The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology , a branch of microbiology .

There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells in the human flora as there are human cells in the body , with the largest number of the human flora being in the gut flora , and a large number on the skin . The vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system , and some are beneficial . However , several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause infectious diseases , including cholera , syphilis , anthrax , leprosy , and bubonic plague . The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections , with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year , mostly in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . In developed countries , antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are also used in farming , making antibiotic resistance a growing problem . In industry , bacteria are important in sewage treatment and the breakdown of oil spills , the production of cheese and yogurt through fermentation , and the recovery of gold , palladium , copper and other metals in the mining sector , as well as in biotechnology , and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals .

Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes , bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes . Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes , bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane @-@ bound organelles . Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes , the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms that evolved from an ancient common ancestor . These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea .

= = Etymology = =

The word bacteria is the plural of the New Latin bacterium , which is the latinisation of the Greek βακτήριον ( bakterion ) , the diminutive of βακτηρία ( bakteria ) , meaning " staff , cane " , because the first ones to be discovered were rod @-@ shaped .

= = Origin and early evolution = =

The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth , about 4 billion years ago . For about 3 billion years , most organisms were microscopic , and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life . In 2008 , fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota . Although bacterial fossils exist , such as stromatolites , their lack of distinctive morphology prevents them from being used to examine the history of bacterial evolution , or to date the time of origin of a particular bacterial species . However , gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny , and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal / eukaryotic lineage . Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence , that of the archaea and eukaryotes . Here , eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells , which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea . This involved the engulfment by proto @-@ eukaryotic cells of alphaproteobacterial symbionts to form either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes , which are still found in all known Eukarya ( sometimes in highly reduced form , e.g. in ancient " amitochondrial " protozoa ) . Later on , some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also engulfed cyanobacterial @-@ like organisms . This led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants . There are also some algae that originated from even later endosymbiotic events . Here , eukaryotes engulfed a eukaryotic algae that developed into a " second @-@ generation " plastid . This is known as secondary endosymbiosis .

= = Morphology = =

Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes , called morphologies . Bacterial cells are about one @-@ tenth the size of eukaryotic cells and are typically 0 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 0 micrometres in length . However , a few species are visible to the unaided eye — for example , Thiomargarita namibiensis is up to half a millimetre long and Epulopiscium fishelsoni reaches 0 @.@ 7 mm . Among the smallest bacteria are members of the genus Mycoplasma , which measure only 0 @.@ 3 micrometres , as small as the largest viruses . Some bacteria may be even smaller , but these ultramicrobacteria are not well @-@ studied .

Most bacterial species are either spherical , called cocci ( sing. coccus , from Greek kókkos , grain , seed ) , or rod @-@ shaped , called bacilli ( sing. bacillus , from Latin baculus , stick ) . Elongation is associated with swimming . Some bacteria , called vibrio , are shaped like slightly curved rods or comma @-@ shaped ; others can be spiral @-@ shaped , called spirilla , or tightly coiled , called spirochaetes . A small number of species even have tetrahedral or cuboidal shapes . More recently , some bacteria were discovered deep under Earth 's crust that grow as branching filamentous types with a star @-@ shaped cross @-@ section . The large surface area to volume ratio of this morphology may give these bacteria an advantage in nutrient @-@ poor environments . This wide variety of shapes is determined by the bacterial cell wall and cytoskeleton , and is important because it can influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients , attach to surfaces , swim through liquids and escape predators .

Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells , others associate in characteristic patterns : Neisseria form diploids ( pairs ) , Streptococcus form chains , and Staphylococcus group together in " bunch of grapes " clusters . Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments , for example the Actinobacteria . Filamentous bacteria are often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells . Certain types , such as species of the genus Nocardia , even form complex , branched filaments , similar in appearance to fungal mycelia .

Bacteria often attach to surfaces and form dense aggregations called biofilms or bacterial mats . These films can range from a few micrometers in thickness to up to half a meter in depth , and may contain multiple species of bacteria , protists and archaea . Bacteria living in biofilms display a complex arrangement of cells and extracellular components , forming secondary structures , such as microcolonies , through which there are networks of channels to enable better diffusion of nutrients . In natural environments , such as soil or the surfaces of plants , the majority of bacteria are bound to surfaces in biofilms . Biofilms are also important in medicine , as these structures are often present during chronic bacterial infections or in infections of implanted medical devices , and bacteria protected within biofilms are much harder to kill than individual isolated bacteria .

Even more complex morphological changes are sometimes possible . For example , when starved of amino acids , Myxobacteria detect surrounding cells in a process known as quorum sensing , migrate toward each other , and aggregate to form fruiting bodies up to 500 micrometres long and containing approximately 100 @,@ 000 bacterial cells . In these fruiting bodies , the bacteria perform separate tasks ; this type of cooperation is a simple type of multicellular organisation . For example , about one in 10 cells migrate to the top of these fruiting bodies and differentiate into a specialised dormant state called myxospores , which are more resistant to drying and other adverse environmental conditions than are ordinary cells .

= = Cellular structure = =

= = = Intracellular structures = = =

The bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell membrane ( also known as a lipid , cytoplasmic or plasma membrane ) . This membrane encloses the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients , proteins and other essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell . As they are prokaryotes , bacteria do not usually have membrane @-@ bound organelles in their cytoplasm , and thus contain few large intracellular structures . They lack a true nucleus , mitochondria , chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells . Bacteria were once seen as simple bags of cytoplasm , but structures such as the prokaryotic cytoskeleton and the localization of proteins to specific locations within the cytoplasm that give bacteria some complexity have been discovered . These subcellular levels of organization have been called " bacterial hyperstructures " .

Bacterial microcompartments , such as carboxysomes , provide a further level of organization ; they are compartments within bacteria that are surrounded by polyhedral protein shells , rather than by lipid membranes . These " polyhedral organelles " localize and compartmentalize bacterial metabolism , a function performed by the membrane @-@ bound organelles in eukaryotes .

Many important biochemical reactions , such as energy generation , use concentration gradients across membranes . The general lack of internal membranes in bacteria means reactions such as electron transport occur across the cell membrane between the cytoplasm and the periplasmic space . However , in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and fills most of the cell with layers of light @-@ gathering membrane . These light @-@ gathering complexes may even form lipid @-@ enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria . Other proteins import nutrients across the cell membrane , or expel undesired molecules from the cytoplasm .

Bacteria do not have a membrane @-@ bound nucleus , and their genetic material is typically a single circular DNA chromosome located in the cytoplasm in an irregularly shaped body called the nucleoid . The nucleoid contains the chromosome with its associated proteins and RNA . The phylum Planctomycetes and candidate phylum Poribacteria may be exceptions to the general absence of internal membranes in bacteria , because they appear to have a double membrane around their nucleoids and contain other membrane @-@ bound cellular structures . Like all living organisms , bacteria contain ribosomes , often grouped in chains called polyribosomes , for the production of proteins , but the structure of the bacterial ribosome is different from that of eukaryotes and Archaea . Bacterial ribosomes have a sedimentation rate of 70S ( measured in Svedberg units ) : their subunits have rates of 30S and 50S . Some antibiotics bind specifically to 70S ribosomes and inhibit bacterial protein synthesis . Those antibiotics kill bacteria without affecting the larger 80S ribosomes of eukaryotic cells and without harming the host .

Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules for later use , such as glycogen , polyphosphate , sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates . Certain bacterial species , such as the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria , produce internal gas vesicles , which they use to regulate their buoyancy – allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels . Intracellular membranes called chromatophores are also found in membranes of phototrophic bacteria . Used primarily for photosynthesis , they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids . An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes , but these were later shown to be artifacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy . Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes . The most common inclusions are glycogen , lipid droplets , crystals , and pigments . Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate . These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect ; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue . Gas vacuoles , which are freely permeable to gas , are membrane @-@ bound vesicles present in some species of Cyanobacteria . They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy . Microcompartments are widespread , membrane @-@ bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes . Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments that contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation . Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments , present in magnetotactic bacteria , that contain magnetic crystals .

= = = Extracellular structures = = =

In most bacteria , a cell wall is present on the outside of the cell membrane . The cell membrane and cell wall comprise the cell envelope . A common bacterial cell wall material is peptidoglycan ( called " murein " in older sources ) , which is made from polysaccharide chains cross @-@ linked by peptides containing D @-@ amino acids . Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi , which are made of cellulose and chitin , respectively . The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea , which do not contain peptidoglycan . The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria , and the antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by inhibiting a step in the synthesis of peptidoglycan .

There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria , a thick one in the gram @-@ positives and a thinner one in the gram @-@ negatives . The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain , a test long @-@ employed for the classification of bacterial species .

Gram @-@ positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids . In contrast , gram @-@ negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins . Lipopolysaccharides , also called endotoxins , are composed of polysaccharides and lipid A that is responsible for much of the toxicity of gram @-@ negative bacteria . Most bacteria have the gram @-@ negative cell wall , and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria have the alternative gram @-@ positive arrangement . These two groups were previously known as the low G + C and high G + C gram @-@ positive bacteria , respectively . These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility ; for instance , vancomycin can kill only gram @-@ positive bacteria and is ineffective against gram @-@ negative pathogens , such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa . If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed , it is called a protoplast , whereas if it is partially removed , it is called a spheroplast. β @-@ Lactam antibiotics , such as penicillin , inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross @-@ links in the bacterial cell wall . The enzyme lysozyme , found in human tears , also digests the cell wall of bacteria and is the body 's main defense against eye infections .

Acid @-@ fast bacteria , such as Mycobacteria , are resistant to decolorization by acids during staining procedures . The high mycolic acid content of Mycobacteria , is responsible for the staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention . The most common staining technique used to identify acid @-@ fast bacteria is the Ziehl @-@ Neelsen stain or acid @-@ fast stain , in which the acid @-@ fast bacilli are stained bright @-@ red and stand out clearly against a blue background . L @-@ form bacteria are strains of bacteria that lack cell walls . The main pathogenic bacteria in this class is Mycoplasma ( not to be confused with Mycobacteria ) .

In many bacteria , an S @-@ layer of rigidly arrayed protein molecules covers the outside of the cell . This layer provides chemical and physical protection for the cell surface and can act as a macromolecular diffusion barrier . S @-@ layers have diverse but mostly poorly understood functions , but are known to act as virulence factors in Campylobacter and contain surface enzymes in Bacillus stearothermophilus .

Flagella are rigid protein structures , about 20 nanometres in diameter and up to 20 micrometres in length , that are used for motility . Flagella are driven by the energy released by the transfer of ions down an electrochemical gradient across the cell membrane .

Fimbriae ( sometimes called " attachment pili " ) are fine filaments of protein , usually 2 – 10 nanometres in diameter and up to several micrometers in length . They are distributed over the surface of the cell , and resemble fine hairs when seen under the electron microscope . Fimbriae are believed to be involved in attachment to solid surfaces or to other cells , and are essential for the virulence of some bacterial pathogens . Pili ( sing. pilus ) are cellular appendages , slightly larger than fimbriae , that can transfer genetic material between bacterial cells in a process called conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or " sex pili " ( see bacterial genetics , below ) . They can also generate movement where they are called type IV pili ( see movement , below ) .

Glycocalyx are produced by many bacteria to surround their cells , and vary in structural complexity : ranging from a disorganised slime layer of extra @-@ cellular polymer to a highly structured capsule . These structures can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells such as macrophages ( part of the human immune system ) . They can also act as antigens and be involved in cell recognition , as well as aiding attachment to surfaces and the formation of biofilms .

The assembly of these extracellular structures is dependent on bacterial secretion systems . These transfer proteins from the cytoplasm into the periplasm or into the environment around the cell . Many types of secretion systems are known and these structures are often essential for the virulence of pathogens , so are intensively studied .

= = = Endospores = = =

Certain genera of gram @-@ positive bacteria , such as Bacillus , Clostridium , Sporohalobacter , Anaerobacter , and Heliobacterium , can form highly resistant , dormant structures called endospores . In almost all cases , one endospore is formed and this is not a reproductive process , although Anaerobacter can make up to seven endospores in a single cell . Endospores have a central core of cytoplasm containing DNA and ribosomes surrounded by a cortex layer and protected by an impermeable and rigid coat . Dipicolinic acid is a chemical compound that composes 5 % to 15 % of the dry weight of bacterial spores . It is implicated as responsible for the heat resistance of the endospore .

Endospores show no detectable metabolism and can survive extreme physical and chemical stresses , such as high levels of UV light , gamma radiation , detergents , disinfectants , heat , freezing , pressure , and desiccation . In this dormant state , these organisms may remain viable for millions of years , and endospores even allow bacteria to survive exposure to the vacuum and radiation in space . According to scientist Dr. Steinn Sigurdsson , " There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth — and we know they 're very hardened to radiation . " Endospore @-@ forming bacteria can also cause disease : for example , anthrax can be contracted by the inhalation of Bacillus anthracis endospores , and contamination of deep puncture wounds with Clostridium tetani endospores causes tetanus .

= = Metabolism = =

Bacteria exhibit an extremely wide variety of metabolic types . The distribution of metabolic traits within a group of bacteria has traditionally been used to define their taxonomy , but these traits often do not correspond with modern genetic classifications . Bacterial metabolism is classified into nutritional groups on the basis of three major criteria : the kind of energy used for growth , the source of carbon , and the electron donors used for growth . An additional criterion of respiratory microorganisms are the electron acceptors used for aerobic or anaerobic respiration .

Carbon metabolism in bacteria is either heterotrophic , where organic carbon compounds are used as carbon sources , or autotrophic , meaning that cellular carbon is obtained by fixing carbon dioxide . Heterotrophic bacteria include parasitic types . Typical autotrophic bacteria are phototrophic cyanobacteria , green sulfur @-@ bacteria and some purple bacteria , but also many chemolithotrophic species , such as nitrifying or sulfur @-@ oxidising bacteria . Energy metabolism of bacteria is either based on phototrophy , the use of light through photosynthesis , or based on chemotrophy , the use of chemical substances for energy , which are mostly oxidised at the expense of oxygen or alternative electron acceptors ( aerobic / anaerobic respiration ) .

Bacteria are further divided into lithotrophs that use inorganic electron donors and organotrophs that use organic compounds as electron donors . Chemotrophic organisms use the respective electron donors for energy conservation ( by aerobic / anaerobic respiration or fermentation ) and biosynthetic reactions ( e.g. , carbon dioxide fixation ) , whereas phototrophic organisms use them only for biosynthetic purposes . Respiratory organisms use chemical compounds as a source of energy by taking electrons from the reduced substrate and transferring them to a terminal electron acceptor in a redox reaction . This reaction releases energy that can be used to synthesise ATP and drive metabolism . In aerobic organisms , oxygen is used as the electron acceptor . In anaerobic organisms other inorganic compounds , such as nitrate , sulfate or carbon dioxide are used as electron acceptors . This leads to the ecologically important processes of denitrification , sulfate reduction , and acetogenesis , respectively .

Another way of life of chemotrophs in the absence of possible electron acceptors is fermentation , wherein the electrons taken from the reduced substrates are transferred to oxidised intermediates to generate reduced fermentation products ( e.g. , lactate , ethanol , hydrogen , butyric acid ) . Fermentation is possible , because the energy content of the substrates is higher than that of the products , which allows the organisms to synthesise ATP and drive their metabolism .

These processes are also important in biological responses to pollution ; for example , sulfate @-@ reducing bacteria are largely responsible for the production of the highly toxic forms of mercury ( methyl- and dimethylmercury ) in the environment . Non @-@ respiratory anaerobes use fermentation to generate energy and reducing power , secreting metabolic by @-@ products ( such as ethanol in brewing ) as waste . Facultative anaerobes can switch between fermentation and different terminal electron acceptors depending on the environmental conditions in which they find themselves .

Lithotrophic bacteria can use inorganic compounds as a source of energy . Common inorganic electron donors are hydrogen , carbon monoxide , ammonia ( leading to nitrification ) , ferrous iron and other reduced metal ions , and several reduced sulfur compounds . In unusual circumstances , the gas methane can be used by methanotrophic bacteria as both a source of electrons and a substrate for carbon anabolism . In both aerobic phototrophy and chemolithotrophy , oxygen is used as a terminal electron acceptor , whereas under anaerobic conditions inorganic compounds are used instead . Most lithotrophic organisms are autotrophic , whereas organotrophic organisms are heterotrophic .

In addition to fixing carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , some bacteria also fix nitrogen gas ( nitrogen fixation ) using the enzyme nitrogenase . This environmentally important trait can be found in bacteria of nearly all the metabolic types listed above , but is not universal .

Regardless of the type of metabolic process they employ , the majority of bacteria are able to take in raw materials only in the form of relatively small molecules , which enter the cell by diffusion or through molecular channels in cell membranes . The Planctomycetes are the exception ( as they are in possessing membranes around their nuclear material ) . It has recently been shown that Gemmata obscuriglobus is able to take in large molecules via a process that in some ways resembles endocytosis , the process used by eukaryotic cells to engulf external items .

= = Growth and reproduction = =

Unlike in multicellular organisms , increases in cell size ( cell growth ) and reproduction by cell division are tightly linked in unicellular organisms . Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through binary fission , a form of asexual reproduction . Under optimal conditions , bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly , and bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 9 @.@ 8 minutes . In cell division , two identical clone daughter cells are produced . Some bacteria , while still reproducing asexually , form more complex reproductive structures that help disperse the newly formed daughter cells . Examples include fruiting body formation by Myxobacteria and aerial hyphae formation by Streptomyces , or budding . Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell .

In the laboratory , bacteria are usually grown using solid or liquid media . Solid growth media , such as agar plates , are used to isolate pure cultures of a bacterial strain . However , liquid growth media are used when measurement of growth or large volumes of cells are required . Growth in stirred liquid media occurs as an even cell suspension , making the cultures easy to divide and transfer , although isolating single bacteria from liquid media is difficult . The use of selective media ( media with specific nutrients added or deficient , or with antibiotics added ) can help identify specific organisms .

Most laboratory techniques for growing bacteria use high levels of nutrients to produce large amounts of cells cheaply and quickly . However , in natural environments , nutrients are limited , meaning that bacteria cannot continue to reproduce indefinitely . This nutrient limitation has led the evolution of different growth strategies ( see r / K selection theory ) . Some organisms can grow extremely rapidly when nutrients become available , such as the formation of algal ( and cyanobacterial ) blooms that often occur in lakes during the summer . Other organisms have adaptations to harsh environments , such as the production of multiple antibiotics by Streptomyces that inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms . In nature , many organisms live in communities ( e.g. , biofilms ) that may allow for increased supply of nutrients and protection from environmental stresses . These relationships can be essential for growth of a particular organism or group of organisms ( syntrophy ) .

Bacterial growth follows four phases . When a population of bacteria first enter a high @-@ nutrient environment that allows growth , the cells need to adapt to their new environment . The first phase of growth is the lag phase , a period of slow growth when the cells are adapting to the high @-@ nutrient environment and preparing for fast growth . The lag phase has high biosynthesis rates , as proteins necessary for rapid growth are produced . The second phase of growth is the log phase , also known as the logarithmic or exponential phase . The log phase is marked by rapid exponential growth . The rate at which cells grow during this phase is known as the growth rate ( k ) , and the time it takes the cells to double is known as the generation time ( g ) . During log phase , nutrients are metabolised at maximum speed until one of the nutrients is depleted and starts limiting growth . The third phase of growth is the stationary phase and is caused by depleted nutrients . The cells reduce their metabolic activity and consume non @-@ essential cellular proteins . The stationary phase is a transition from rapid growth to a stress response state and there is increased expression of genes involved in DNA repair , antioxidant metabolism and nutrient transport . The final phase is the death phase where the bacteria run out of nutrients and die .

= = Genetics = =

Most bacteria have a single circular chromosome that can range in size from only 160 @,@ 000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Carsonella ruddii , to 12 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 base pairs in the soil @-@ dwelling bacteria Sorangium cellulosum . Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable exception to this arrangement , with bacteria such as Borrelia burgdorferi , the cause of Lyme disease , containing a single linear chromosome . The genes in bacterial genomes are usually a single continuous stretch of DNA and although several different types of introns do exist in bacteria , these are much rarer than in eukaryotes .

Bacteria may also contain plasmids , which are small extra @-@ chromosomal DNAs that may contain genes for antibiotic resistance or virulence factors . Plasmids replicate independently of chromosomes , so it is possible that plasmids could be lost in bacterial cell division . Against this possibility is the fact that a single bacterium can contain hundreds of copies of a single plasmid .

Bacteria , as asexual organisms , inherit identical copies of their parent 's genes ( i.e. , they are clonal ) . However , all bacteria can evolve by selection on changes to their genetic material DNA caused by genetic recombination or mutations . Mutations come from errors made during the replication of DNA or from exposure to mutagens . Mutation rates vary widely among different species of bacteria and even among different clones of a single species of bacteria . Genetic changes in bacterial genomes come from either random mutation during replication or " stress @-@ directed mutation " , where genes involved in a particular growth @-@ limiting process have an increased mutation rate .

= = = DNA transfer = = =

Some bacteria also transfer genetic material between cells . This can occur in three main ways . First , bacteria can take up exogenous DNA from their environment , in a process called transformation . Genes can also be transferred by the process of transduction , when the integration of a bacteriophage introduces foreign DNA into the chromosome . The third method of gene transfer is conjugation , whereby DNA is transferred through direct cell contact .

Transduction of bacterial genes by bacteriophage appears to be a consequence of infrequent errors during intracellular assembly of virus particles , rather than a bacterial adaptation . Conjugation , in the much @-@ studied E. coli system is determined by plasmid genes , and is an adaptation for transferring copies of the plasmid from one bacterial host to another . It is seldom that a conjugative plasmid integrates into the host bacterial chromosome , and subsequently transfers part of the host bacterial DNA to another bacterium . Plasmid @-@ mediated transfer of host bacterial DNA also appears to be an accidental process rather than a bacterial adaptation .

Transformation , unlike transduction or conjugation , depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this complex process , and thus transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer . In order for a bacterium to bind , take up and recombine donor DNA into its own chromosome , it must first enter a special physiological state termed competence ( see Natural competence ) . In Bacillus subtilis , about 40 genes are required for the development of competence . The length of DNA transferred during B. subtilis transformation can be between a third of a chromosome up to the whole chromosome . Transformation appears to be common among bacterial species , and thus far at least 60 species are known to have the natural ability to become competent for transformation . The development of competence in nature is usually associated with stressful environmental conditions , and seems to be an adaptation for facilitating repair of DNA damage in recipient cells .

In ordinary circumstances , transduction , conjugation , and transformation involve transfer of DNA between individual bacteria of the same species , but occasionally transfer may occur between individuals of different bacterial species and this may have significant consequences , such as the transfer of antibiotic resistance . In such cases , gene acquisition from other bacteria or the environment is called horizontal gene transfer and may be common under natural conditions . Gene transfer is particularly important in antibiotic resistance as it allows the rapid transfer of resistance genes between different pathogens .

= = = Bacteriophages = = =

Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria . Many types of bacteriophage exist , some simply infect and lyse their host bacteria , while others insert into the bacterial chromosome . A bacteriophage can contain genes that contribute to its host 's phenotype : for example , in the evolution of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 and Clostridium botulinum , the toxin genes in an integrated phage converted a harmless ancestral bacterium into a lethal pathogen . Bacteria resist phage infection through restriction modification systems that degrade foreign DNA , and a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past , which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference . This CRISPR system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection .

= = Behavior = =

= = = Secretion = = =

Bacteria frequently secrete chemicals into their environment in order to modify it favorably . The secretions are often proteins and may act as enzymes that digest some form of food in the environment .

= = = Bioluminescence = = =

A few bacteria have chemical systems that generate light . This bioluminescence often occurs in bacteria that live in association with fish , and the light probably serves to attract fish or other large animals .

= = = Multicellularity = = =

Bacteria often function as multicellular aggregates known as biofilms , exchanging a variety of molecular signals for inter @-@ cell communication , and engaging in coordinated multicellular behavior .

The communal benefits of multicellular cooperation include a cellular division of labor , accessing resources that cannot effectively be utilized by single cells , collectively defending against antagonists , and optimizing population survival by differentiating into distinct cell types . For example , bacteria in biofilms can have more than 500 times increased resistance to antibacterial agents than individual " planktonic " bacteria of the same species .

One type of inter @-@ cellular communication by a molecular signal is called quorum sensing , which serves the purpose of determining whether there is a local population density that is sufficiently high that it is productive to invest in processes that are only successful if large numbers of similar organisms behave similarly , as in excreting digestive enzymes or emitting light .

Quorum sensing allows bacteria to coordinate gene expression , and enables them to produce , release and detect autoinducers or pheromones which accumulate with the growth in cell population .

= = = Movement = = =

Many bacteria can move using a variety of mechanisms : flagella are used for swimming through fluids ; bacterial gliding and twitching motility move bacteria across surfaces ; and changes of buoyancy allow vertical motion .

Swimming bacteria frequently move near 10 body lengths per second and a few as fast as 100 . This makes them at least as fast as fish , on a relative scale .

In bacterial gliding and twitching motility , bacteria use their type IV pili as a grappling hook , repeatedly extending it , anchoring it and then retracting it with remarkable force ( > 80 pN ) .

" Our observations redefine twitching motility as a rapid , highly organized mechanism of bacterial translocation by which Pseudomonas aeruginosa can disperse itself over large areas to colonize new territories . It is also now clear , both morphologically and genetically , that twitching motility and social gliding motility , such as occurs in Myxococcus xanthus , are essentially the same process . "

Flagella are semi @-@ rigid cylindrical structures that are rotated and function much like the propeller on a ship . Objects as small as bacteria operate a low Reynolds number and cylindrical forms are more efficient than the flat , paddle @-@ like , forms appropriate at human @-@ size scale .

Bacterial species differ in the number and arrangement of flagella on their surface ; some have a single flagellum ( monotrichous ) , a flagellum at each end ( amphitrichous ) , clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell ( lophotrichous ) , while others have flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell ( peritrichous ) . The bacterial flagella is the best @-@ understood motility structure in any organism and is made of about 20 proteins , with approximately another 30 proteins required for its regulation and assembly . The flagellum is a rotating structure driven by a reversible motor at the base that uses the electrochemical gradient across the membrane for power . This motor drives the motion of the filament , which acts as a propeller .

Many bacteria ( such as E. coli ) have two distinct modes of movement : forward movement ( swimming ) and tumbling . The tumbling allows them to reorient and makes their movement a three @-@ dimensional random walk . ( See external links below for link to videos . ) The flagella of a unique group of bacteria , the spirochaetes , are found between two membranes in the periplasmic space . They have a distinctive helical body that twists about as it moves .

Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain stimuli in behaviors called taxes : these include chemotaxis , phototaxis , energy taxis , and magnetotaxis . In one peculiar group , the myxobacteria , individual bacteria move together to form waves of cells that then differentiate to form fruiting bodies containing spores . The myxobacteria move only when on solid surfaces , unlike E. coli , which is motile in liquid or solid media .

Several Listeria and Shigella species move inside host cells by usurping the cytoskeleton , which is normally used to move organelles inside the cell . By promoting actin polymerization at one pole of their cells , they can form a kind of tail that pushes them through the host cell 's cytoplasm .

= = Classification and identification = =

Classification seeks to describe the diversity of bacterial species by naming and grouping organisms based on similarities . Bacteria can be classified on the basis of cell structure , cellular metabolism or on differences in cell components , such as DNA , fatty acids , pigments , antigens and quinones . While these schemes allowed the identification and classification of bacterial strains , it was unclear whether these differences represented variation between distinct species or between strains of the same species . This uncertainty was due to the lack of distinctive structures in most bacteria , as well as lateral gene transfer between unrelated species . Due to lateral gene transfer , some closely related bacteria can have very different morphologies and metabolisms . To overcome this uncertainty , modern bacterial classification emphasizes molecular systematics , using genetic techniques such as guanine cytosine ratio determination , genome @-@ genome hybridization , as well as sequencing genes that have not undergone extensive lateral gene transfer , such as the rRNA gene . Classification of bacteria is determined by publication in the International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology , and Bergey 's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology . The International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology ( ICSB ) maintains international rules for the naming of bacteria and taxonomic categories and for the ranking of them in the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria .

The term " bacteria " was traditionally applied to all microscopic , single @-@ cell prokaryotes . However , molecular systematics showed prokaryotic life to consist of two separate domains , originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria , but now called Bacteria and Archaea that evolved independently from an ancient common ancestor . The archaea and eukaryotes are more closely related to each other than either is to the bacteria . These two domains , along with Eukarya , are the basis of the three @-@ domain system , which is currently the most widely used classification system in microbiolology . However , due to the relatively recent introduction of molecular systematics and a rapid increase in the number of genome sequences that are available , bacterial classification remains a changing and expanding field . For example , a few biologists argue that the Archaea and Eukaryotes evolved from gram @-@ positive bacteria .

The identification of bacteria in the laboratory is particularly relevant in medicine , where the correct treatment is determined by the bacterial species causing an infection . Consequently , the need to identify human pathogens was a major impetus for the development of techniques to identify bacteria .

The Gram stain , developed in 1884 by Hans Christian Gram , characterises bacteria based on the structural characteristics of their cell walls . The thick layers of peptidoglycan in the " gram @-@ positive " cell wall stain purple , while the thin " gram @-@ negative " cell wall appears pink . By combining morphology and Gram @-@ staining , most bacteria can be classified as belonging to one of four groups ( gram @-@ positive cocci , gram @-@ positive bacilli , gram @-@ negative cocci and gram @-@ negative bacilli ) . Some organisms are best identified by stains other than the Gram stain , particularly mycobacteria or Nocardia , which show acid @-@ fastness on Ziehl – Neelsen or similar stains . Other organisms may need to be identified by their growth in special media , or by other techniques , such as serology .

Culture techniques are designed to promote the growth and identify particular bacteria , while restricting the growth of the other bacteria in the sample . Often these techniques are designed for specific specimens ; for example , a sputum sample will be treated to identify organisms that cause pneumonia , while stool specimens are cultured on selective media to identify organisms that cause diarrhoea , while preventing growth of non @-@ pathogenic bacteria . Specimens that are normally sterile , such as blood , urine or spinal fluid , are cultured under conditions designed to grow all possible organisms . Once a pathogenic organism has been isolated , it can be further characterised by its morphology , growth patterns ( such as aerobic or anaerobic growth ) , patterns of hemolysis , and staining .

As with bacterial classification , identification of bacteria is increasingly using molecular methods . Diagnostics using DNA @-@ based tools , such as polymerase chain reaction , are increasingly popular due to their specificity and speed , compared to culture @-@ based methods . These methods also allow the detection and identification of " viable but nonculturable " cells that are metabolically active but non @-@ dividing . However , even using these improved methods , the total number of bacterial species is not known and cannot even be estimated with any certainty . Following present classification , there are a little less than 9 @,@ 300 known species of prokaryotes , which includes bacteria and archaea ; but attempts to estimate the true number of bacterial diversity have ranged from 107 to 109 total species – and even these diverse estimates may be off by many orders of magnitude .

= = Interactions with other organisms = =

Despite their apparent simplicity , bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms . These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism , mutualism and commensalism . Due to their small size , commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface . However , their growth can be increased by warmth and sweat , and large populations of these organisms in humans are the cause of body odor .

= = = Predators = = =

Some species of bacteria kill and then consume other microorganisms , these species are called predatory bacteria . These include organisms such as Myxococcus xanthus , which forms swarms of cells that kill and digest any bacteria they encounter . Other bacterial predators either attach to their prey in order to digest them and absorb nutrients , such as Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus , or invade another cell and multiply inside the cytosol , such as Daptobacter . These predatory bacteria are thought to have evolved from saprophages that consumed dead microorganisms , through adaptations that allowed them to entrap and kill other organisms .

= = = Mutualists = = =

Certain bacteria form close spatial associations that are essential for their survival . One such mutualistic association , called interspecies hydrogen transfer , occurs between clusters of anaerobic bacteria that consume organic acids , such as butyric acid or propionic acid , and produce hydrogen , and methanogenic Archaea that consume hydrogen . The bacteria in this association are unable to consume the organic acids as this reaction produces hydrogen that accumulates in their surroundings . Only the intimate association with the hydrogen @-@ consuming Archaea keeps the hydrogen concentration low enough to allow the bacteria to grow .

In soil , microorganisms that reside in the rhizosphere ( a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking ) carry out nitrogen fixation , converting nitrogen gas to nitrogenous compounds . This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants , which cannot fix nitrogen themselves . Many other bacteria are found as symbionts in humans and other organisms . For example , the presence of over 1 @,@ 000 bacterial species in the normal human gut flora of the intestines can contribute to gut immunity , synthesise vitamins , such as folic acid , vitamin K and biotin , convert sugars to lactic acid ( see Lactobacillus ) , as well as fermenting complex undigestible carbohydrates . The presence of this gut flora also inhibits the growth of potentially pathogenic bacteria ( usually through competitive exclusion ) and these beneficial bacteria are consequently sold as probiotic dietary supplements .

= = = Pathogens = = =

If bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms , they are classed as pathogens . Pathogenic bacteria are a major cause of human death and disease and cause infections such as tetanus , typhoid fever , diphtheria , syphilis , cholera , foodborne illness , leprosy and tuberculosis . A pathogenic cause for a known medical disease may only be discovered many years after , as was the case with Helicobacter pylori and peptic ulcer disease . Bacterial diseases are also important in agriculture , with bacteria causing leaf spot , fire blight and wilts in plants , as well as Johne 's disease , mastitis , salmonella and anthrax in farm animals .

Each species of pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions with its human hosts . Some organisms , such as Staphylococcus or Streptococcus , can cause skin infections , pneumonia , meningitis and even overwhelming sepsis , a systemic inflammatory response producing shock , massive vasodilation and death . Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease at all . Other organisms invariably cause disease in humans , such as the Rickettsia , which are obligate intracellular parasites able to grow and reproduce only within the cells of other organisms . One species of Rickettsia causes typhus , while another causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever . Chlamydia , another phylum of obligate intracellular parasites , contains species that can cause pneumonia , or urinary tract infection and may be involved in coronary heart disease . Finally , some species , such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Burkholderia cenocepacia , and Mycobacterium avium , are opportunistic pathogens and cause disease mainly in people suffering from immunosuppression or cystic fibrosis .

Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics , which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria , or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth . There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host . An example of how antibiotics produce selective toxicity are chloramphenicol and puromycin , which inhibit the bacterial ribosome , but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome . Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth , where they may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations . Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilizing the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe , and by proper care of indwelling catheters . Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilized to prevent contamination by bacteria . Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection .

= = Significance in technology and industry = =

Bacteria , often lactic acid bacteria , such as Lactobacillus and Lactococcus , in combination with yeasts and molds , have been used for thousands of years in the preparation of fermented foods , such as cheese , pickles , soy sauce , sauerkraut , vinegar , wine and yogurt .

The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation . Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills . Fertilizer was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill . These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil . Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes . In the chemical industry , bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals .

Bacteria can also be used in the place of pesticides in the biological pest control . This commonly involves Bacillus thuringiensis ( also called BT ) , a gram @-@ positive , soil dwelling bacterium . Subspecies of this bacteria are used as a Lepidopteran @-@ specific insecticides under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide . Because of their specificity , these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly , with little or no effect on humans , wildlife , pollinators and most other beneficial insects .

Because of their ability to quickly grow and the relative ease with which they can be manipulated , bacteria are the workhorses for the fields of molecular biology , genetics and biochemistry . By making mutations in bacterial DNA and examining the resulting phenotypes , scientists can determine the function of genes , enzymes and metabolic pathways in bacteria , then apply this knowledge to more complex organisms . This aim of understanding the biochemistry of a cell reaches its most complex expression in the synthesis of huge amounts of enzyme kinetic and gene expression data into mathematical models of entire organisms . This is achievable in some well @-@ studied bacteria , with models of Escherichia coli metabolism now being produced and tested . This understanding of bacterial metabolism and genetics allows the use of biotechnology to bioengineer bacteria for the production of therapeutic proteins , such as insulin , growth factors , or antibodies .

Because of their importance for research in general , samples of bacterial strains are isolated and preserved in Biological Resource Centers . This ensures the availability of the strain to scientists worldwide .

= = History of bacteriology = =

Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 , using a single @-@ lens microscope of his own design . He then published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society of London . Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek 's most remarkable microscopic discovery . They were just at the limit of what his simple lenses could make out and , in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science , no one else would see them again for over a century . Only then were his by @-@ then @-@ largely @-@ forgotten observations of bacteria — as opposed to his famous " animalcules " ( spermatozoa ) — taken seriously .

Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg introduced the word " bacterium " in 1828 . In fact , his Bacterium was a genus that contained non @-@ spore @-@ forming rod @-@ shaped bacteria , as opposed to Bacillus , a genus of spore @-@ forming rod @-@ shaped bacteria defined by Ehrenberg in 1835 .

Louis Pasteur demonstrated in 1859 that the growth of microorganisms causes the fermentation process , and that this growth is not due to spontaneous generation . ( Yeasts and molds , commonly associated with fermentation , are not bacteria , but rather fungi . ) Along with his contemporary Robert Koch , Pasteur was an early advocate of the germ theory of disease .

Robert Koch , a pioneer in medical microbiology , worked on cholera , anthrax and tuberculosis . In his research into tuberculosis Koch finally proved the germ theory , for which he received a Nobel Prize in 1905 . In Koch 's postulates , he set out criteria to test if an organism is the cause of a disease , and these postulates are still used today .

Though it was known in the nineteenth century that bacteria are the cause of many diseases , no effective antibacterial treatments were available . In 1910 , Paul Ehrlich developed the first antibiotic , by changing dyes that selectively stained Treponema pallidum — the spirochaete that causes syphilis — into compounds that selectively killed the pathogen . Ehrlich had been awarded a 1908 Nobel Prize for his work on immunology , and pioneered the use of stains to detect and identify bacteria , with his work being the basis of the Gram stain and the Ziehl – Neelsen stain .

A major step forward in the study of bacteria came in 1977 when Carl Woese recognized that archaea have a separate line of evolutionary descent from bacteria . This new phylogenetic taxonomy depended on the sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA , and divided prokaryotes into two evolutionary domains , as part of the three @-@ domain system .

= Janet Jackson ( album ) =

Janet Jackson is the self @-@ titled debut album by American recording artist Janet Jackson . It was released on September 21 , 1982 , by A & M Records . Jackson 's career as a recording artist was established by her father and manager Joseph Jackson , who arranged her recording contract with her recording company . Prior to her rise to fame , the singer had no interest in pursuing a musical career . Despite this , she was motivated to pursue a career in entertainment , and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio . After acting in the variety show The Jacksons , she began starring in several TV series and commenced recording her debut album . Its artwork depicts Jackson submerged in a swimming pool .

Janet Jackson is described as a post @-@ disco and R & B record . Songwriters Angela Winbush and René Moore contributed to much of the album 's lyrics . Moore and Winbush share production credits with Foster Sylvers , Jerry Weaver , and Bobby Watson . Janet Jackson received mixed reviews from music critics who found its content bland , although highlighted some tracks . It also managed to chart on the Billboard 200 and in New Zealand . Three singles from the album had little impact on Billboard charts , among them " Young Love " , " Come Give Your Love to Me " and " Say You Do " . In order to promote Janet Jackson , she performed the song on American TV shows American Bandstand and Soul Train in 1982 .

= = Background and artwork = =

Jackson had initially desired to become a horse racing jockey or entertainment lawyer , with plans to support herself through acting . Despite this , she was anticipated to pursue a career in entertainment , and considered the idea after recording herself in the studio . At age seven , Jackson performed at the Las Vegas Strip at the MGM Casino and began acting in the variety show The Jacksons in 1976 . The year after , she was selected to have a starring role as Penny Gordon Woods in the sitcom Good Times . She later starred in A New Kind of Family before joining the cast of Diff 'rent Strokes , portraying Charlene Duprey for two years . Jackson also played the recurring role of Cleo Hewitt during the fourth season of Fame , but expressed indifference towards the series . When Jackson was sixteen , she was arranged a contract with A & M Records and began recording her debut album with the assistance of her father , working with a number of songwriters and producers such as René Moore , Angela Winbush and Bobby Watson .

The album 's artwork was photographed by Harry Langdon in the swimming pool of the Jackson family 's home . Jackson described Langdon as " the sweetest man imaginable " . She took inspiration from a photograph of actress Elizabeth Taylor submerged in a swimming pool which was taken early in her career . In the photograph , nothing could be seen apart from Taylor 's face above the water ; her body was hidden beneath the surface . Jackson thought the pose was dramatic and loved the fact that she could do the same thing , and not to have to reveal anything except for her face . With the photographer , his assistant and other people around the pool , she was still reluctant to take off her robe , and stand there in her bathing suit . She waited until everybody got distracted to slip into the pool . After they took the photos , she waited until everybody was gone to get out of the pool .

= = Promotion = =

Five singles were released from the album . " Young Love " was the first . It received little notoriety on the principal singles chart , the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was able to reach a peak of number 64 . However , on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , the single managed to reach number six . In New Zealand , " Young Love " reached a peak of number 16 . The second single from Janet Jackson was " Come Give Your Love to Me " and peaked at number 58 on the Hot 100 . It became her last single to appear on that chart until 1986 , when she released Control . The follow @-@ up single , " Say You Do " , only managed to appear on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and the Hot Dance Club Songs charts , peaking at numbers 15 and 11 , respectively . The last singles from the album , " Love and My Best Friend " and " Don 't Mess Up A Good Thing " did not appear on any chart worldwide . In order to further promote Janet Jackson , she performed " Young Love " and " Say You Do " on American TV shows American Bandstand and Soul Train in 1982 .

= = Reception = =

Janet Jackson received mixed reviews from music critics . The Baltimore Afro @-@ American gave it a favorable review , commenting that " the eight songs simply feature the poised voice of a dynamic individual . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave it two out of five stars , providing a mixed review saying " On her eponymous debut album , Janet Jackson demonstrates no distinctive musical personality of her own . If her producers had concocted a sharper set of songs and more interesting beats , Janet Jackson might have been a pleasant set of sunny dance @-@ pop " , highlighting " Young Love " as the only song which " stands out among the undistinguished , sub @-@ disco thumpers and drippy ballads " . Bil Carpenter from the same website called Janet Jackson a " debut album of youth @-@ oriented pop " .

Similarly , Wilson & Alroy 's Record Reviews commented that " Listening to Jackson 's childlike , personality @-@ challenged voice on this disc , you 'd never dream what a commercial juggernaut she would become " . On its first side , they deemed " You 'll Never Find ( A Love Like Mine ) " and " Young Love " as the standouts , but criticized the ballad " Love And My Best Friend " , saying it is nearly unendurable . He considered the second side 's sound " up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ minute " , but said " Unfortunately , [ the producer 's ] taste in tunes is abysmal " . The The Rolling Stone Album Guide book stated that the album and its follow @-@ up Dream Street ( 1984 ) sound like bland dance @-@ music ready @-@ mades .

On the US Billboard 200 , Janet Jackson had its peak at number 63 . In New Zealand , the album peaked at number 44 on the New Zealand Albums Chart , during its only @-@ week chart on April 17 , 1983 . As of 2003 , Janet Jackson sold 82 @,@ 000 copies through BMG Music Club in the United States . And sold additional 62 @,@ 000 copies according to Soundscan . Worldwide , the album has sold 300 @,@ 000 copies , considered a failure at the time .

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= = Personnel = =

Credits adapted from AllMusic .

= Fanny Bullock Workman =

Fanny Bullock Workman ( January 8 , 1859 – January 22 , 1925 ) was an American geographer , cartographer , explorer , travel writer , and mountaineer , notably in the Himalayas . She was one of the first female professional mountaineers ; she not only explored but also wrote about her adventures . She set several women 's altitude records , published eight travel books with her husband , and championed women 's rights and women 's suffrage .

Born to a wealthy family , Workman was educated in the finest schools available to women and traveled in Europe . Her marriage to William Hunter Workman cemented these advantages , and , after being introduced to climbing in New Hampshire , Fanny Workman traveled the world with him . They were able to capitalize on their wealth and connections to voyage around Europe , North Africa , and Asia . The couple had two children , but Fanny Workman was not a motherly type ; they left their children in schools and with nurses , and Workman saw herself as a New Woman who could equal any man . The Workmans began their travels with bicycle tours of Switzerland , France , Italy , Spain , Algeria and India . They cycled thousands of miles , sleeping wherever they could find shelter . They wrote books about each trip and Fanny frequently commented on the state of the lives of women that she saw . Their early bicycle tour narratives were better received than their mountaineering books .

At the end of their cycling trip through India , the couple escaped to the Western Himalaya and the Karakoram for the summer months , where they were introduced to high @-@ altitude climbing . They returned to this then @-@ unexplored region eight times over the next 14 years . Despite not having modern climbing equipment , the Workmans explored several glaciers and reached the summit of several mountains , eventually reaching 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) on Pinnacle Peak , a women 's altitude record at the time . They organized multiyear expeditions but struggled to remain on good terms with the local labor force . Coming from a position of American privilege and wealth , they failed to understand the position of the native workers and had difficulty finding and negotiating for reliable porters .

After their trips to the Himalaya , the Workmans gave lectures about their travels . They were invited to learned societies ; Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne and the second to speak at the Royal Geographical Society . She received many medals of honor from European climbing and geographical societies and was recognized as one of the foremost climbers of her day . She demonstrated that a woman could climb in high altitudes just as well as a man and helped break down the gender barrier in mountaineering .

= = Early life = =

Workman was born January 8 , 1859 , in Worcester , Massachusetts , to a wealthy and elite family descended from the Pilgrims ; she was the youngest of three children . Her mother was Elvira Hazard , and her father was Alexander H. Bullock , businessman and Republican Massachusetts governor . Fanny was educated by governesses before attending Miss Graham 's Finishing School in New York City , after which she spent time in Paris and then Dresden . Thomas Pauly writes in his short biography of Workman that " early on Fanny chafed at the constraints of her privilege " . A small number of her stories from this time survive , describing her interest in adventure . In one , " A Vacation Episode " , she describes a beautiful and aristocratic English girl who is contemptuous of society . She runs away to Grindelwald , becoming an excellent alpinist and marrying an American . The story encapsulates much of Fanny 's own life : wanderlust , a love of the mountains , and a commitment to women 's rights . In 1886 , she published a short story , set during the First Indian War , in New York Magazine about " the capture and rescue of a white girl " ; a reviewer of the story stated that it was " told in a very pleasant and infatuating style " .

In 1879 , Fanny returned to the United States and on June 16 , 1882 married William Hunter Workman , a man 12 years her senior . He was also from a wealthy and educated family , having attended Yale and having received his medical training at Harvard . In 1884 they had a daughter , Rachel .

William introduced Fanny to climbing after their marriage , and together they spent many summers in the White Mountains in New Hampshire ; here she summited Mount Washington ( 6 @,@ 293 feet or 1 @,@ 918 metres ) several times . Climbing in the Northeastern United States allowed Fanny to develop her abilities together with other women . Unlike European clubs , American climbing clubs in the White Mountains allowed women to be members and encouraged women to climb . They promoted a new vision of the American woman , one who was both domestic and athletic , and Workman took to this image with enthusiasm . By 1886 , women sometimes outnumbered men on hiking expeditions in New England . In her paper on the gender dynamics of climbing in the region , Jenny Ernie @-@ Steighner states that this formative experience shaped Workman 's commitment to women 's rights , pointing out that " no other well @-@ known international mountaineers of the time , male or female , spoke as openly and fervently about women 's rights " . However , both of the Workmans disliked the provincial nature of life in Worcester , where they resided , and yearned to live in Europe . After both Fanny 's and William 's fathers died , leaving them enormous estates , the couple embarked on their first major European trip , a tour of Scandinavia and Germany .

= = Move to Europe and cycling tours = =

In 1889 the Workman family relocated to Germany citing William 's health , although Pauly speculates that this may have been merely a pretext , for he recovered surprisingly quickly . The couple 's second child , Siegfried , was born shortly after they arrived in Dresden . Although Fanny and William now had two children , Fanny refused to conform to the socially accepted role of a wife and mother , and instead became an author and adventurer . She lived a vigorous life that diverged from idealized femininity in the 1800s . As a feminist , Fanny considered herself an example of the idea that women could equal and excel over men in the arduous life , and embodied the New Woman ethos of the day . Moreover , as Miller points out in her book about women explorers , since the ideal family of the time was a large one and information about birth control was not easily available , William 's medical knowledge must have been invaluable . The Workmans left their children with nurses while they took long trips . In 1893 , Siegfried died from a combination of influenza and pneumonia . After his death , according to Pauly , Workman , through her bicycle tours , " aggressively pursued an alternative identity , one that liberated her from the conventional responsibilities of wife and mother and allowed for her interests and ambitions " . They missed their daughter 's wedding to Sir Alexander MacRobert in 1911 while exploring in the Karakoram .

Together , the Workmans explored the world and co @-@ wrote eight travel books , which describe the people , art , and architecture of the areas in which they journeyed . The Workmans were aware of their contribution to the genre of travel writing as they commented on other writers in their own works . Their mountaineering narratives said little about the culture of those remote and sparsely inhabited regions ; they included both lyrical descriptions of the sunset , for example , for their popular audience and detailed explanations of geographical features , such as glaciers , for their scientific readership . Fanny and William added scientific elements to their writings to appeal to authoritative organizations such as the Royal Geographical Society ; Fanny also believed the science would make her more legitimate in the eyes of the climbing community , but it cost her readers . In general , their bicycling tour narratives were better received than those about their mountaineering exploits . Fanny wrote the majority of these travel books herself , and in them she commented extensively on the plight of women wherever she traveled .

Stephanie Tingley writes , in her encyclopedia entry on Workman 's travel writing , that there is an implied feminist criticism of the hardships women experienced and the inferior status of the women in the societies she encountered . As a strong @-@ willed , outspoken supporter of women 's rights , Workman used their travels to demonstrate her own abilities and to highlight the inequities other women lived under . However , their travel books are written in the first @-@ person plural or third @-@ person singular , so it is difficult to decisively attribute views or voices to either William or Fanny . The Workmans ' works are colonialist in that they describe the people they meet and observe as " exotic or unusual , at worst as primitive or even subhuman " . However , at times they make it clear that the people they encounter see them in a similar light , demonstrating that they were sometimes aware of their own biases .

Between 1888 and 1893 , the Workmans took bicycling tours of Switzerland , France , and Italy . In 1891 , Fanny became one of the first women to climb Mont Blanc . She also was one of the first women to climb the Jungfrau and the Matterhorn ; her guide was Peter Taugwalder , who had made the first ascent with Edward Whymper . In 1893 , the couple decided to explore areas beyond Europe and headed for Algeria , Indochina , and India . These longer trips were Fanny 's idea . The couple 's first extended tour was a 2 @,@ 800 @-@ mile ( 4 @,@ 500 km ) bicycle trip across Spain in 1895 ; each of them carried 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of luggage and they averaged 45 miles ( 72 km ) a day , sometimes riding up to 80 miles ( 130 km ) . Afterwards , they co @-@ wrote Sketches Awheel in Modern Iberia about their trip . In it , they described Spain as " rustic , quaint , and charming " , a common travel writing motif that did not make their book fresh or original . In Algerian Memories Fanny focused on the beauty and romance of the countryside , avoiding any commentary on the appalling urban conditions . However , she did highlight the abuse and neglect of women in Algerian society .

= = India = =

The Workmans ' trip to India , Burma , Ceylon , and Java lasted two and a half years , beginning in November 1897 , and covered 14 @,@ 000 miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) . At the time , Fanny was 38 and William 50 . They bicycled about 4 @,@ 000 miles ( 6 @,@ 400 km ) from the southernmost tip of India to the Himalaya in the north . In order to ensure that they had access to supplies , they rode along major thoroughfares near railways , and were sometimes forced to sleep in railway waiting rooms if no other accommodation was available . They carried minimal supplies , including tea , sugar , biscuits , cheese , tinned meats , water , pillows , a blanket for each of them , writing materials , and medical and repair kits . They dispensed with their bicycles at the northern end of their trip and hiked over passes between 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) and 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . The trip was grueling . They often had little food or water , dealt with swarms of mosquitoes , fixed as many as 40 bicycle tire punctures per day , and slept in rat @-@ infested quarters . Fanny Workman 's book , written after the trip , highlighted the ancient architecture that they had seen rather than the contemporary local cultures . Mrs Workmans mentions in " My Asiatic Wanderings " about India " I have wheeled through much enchanting scenery , in the palm and banyan grooves of Orissa , Over the green and scarlet slopes of the Terai ... But I have never cycled 1200 miles in a country so continuously beautiful . " The Workmans possessed an unusual amount of historical knowledge about India for Westerners of the time and had read the Jakata , Mahabharata , and Ramayana before their trip . They were eager to learn about the culture that had produced these epics and spent more time learning about ancient history than interacting with living people .

= = = Labor issues = = =

During the summer of 1898 , the couple decided to escape the heat and explore the western Himalaya and Karakoram . After that , they intended to explore the area around Kanchenjunga in Sikkim , and then finally travel to the mountains bordering Bhutan on the east . Bureaucratic difficulties and weather problems abounded and impeded their plans . The most serious problems concerned labor . They hired 45 porters , outfitted them for basic mountain travel , and bought provisions , but costs skyrocketed as news of wealthy Americans circulated in the villages . They could not leave until October 3 and by then cold weather was approaching . The Workmans complain in their writings about the porters they hired , who were difficult to work with and refused to trek more than five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) per day . Three days into their journey the Workmans reached snow and the porters rebelled ; they refused to work in such cold conditions and forced the entire party to return to Darjeeling .

The Workmans struggled with labor problems continually , needing local porters to carry gear for them because they could not carry a sufficient amount for themselves for a multi @-@ month expedition . They had to transport Mummery tents , eider sleeping bags , camera equipment , scientific instruments , and a large supply of food . The porters were skeptical of the entire venture . The locals rarely climbed mountains and were not used to taking orders from a woman , which made Fanny 's position difficult . The Workmans tried to solve these problems with condescension and high @-@ handedness . Kenneth Mason maintains in his history of Himalayan mountaineering , written in 1955 , that " The Workmans were , on their journeys , the victims of their own faults . They were too impatient and rarely tried to understand the mentality of the porters and so did not get the best out of them . " Labor problems beset all of their expeditions because , as Miller puts it , " Almost alone of Victorian travellers , the Workmans had absolutely no sympathy or even common @-@ sense understanding of the local people , into whose poor and remote villages they burst with trains of followers demanding service and supplies . " In her chapter on Workman , Miller argues that the couple , being American , did not have the same sense of caste or class that British explorers had : " the Workmans , like most of their countrymen , plunged in their enterprises headlong , expecting their enormous energy to overcome all obstacles . They were justifiably criticized by the British for their callous , incompetent behavior toward the Indians . "

= = Mountaineering in the Himalayas = =

After travelling to the Himalaya the first time , the Workmans became entranced with climbing and mountaineering . Over a span of 14 years , they traveled eight times to the area , which at the time was almost completely unexplored and unmapped . Their trips were made without the benefit of modern lightweight equipment , freeze @-@ dried foods , sunblock , or radios . On each expedition , they explored , surveyed , and photographed , ultimately reporting on their findings and creating maps . The couple shared and alternated responsibilities ; one year Fanny would organize the logistics of their journey and William would work on the scientific projects and the next year they would reverse roles .

After their first trip to the Himalaya and subsequent labor problems , the Workmans hired Matthias Zurbriggen , the best and most experienced mountain climbing guide of the time . Thus , in 1899 , with 50 local porters and Zurbriggen , the Workmans began to explore the Biafo Glacier in the Karakoram , but dangerous crevasses and poor weather forced them instead to shift to the Skoro La Glacier and the unclimbed peaks around it . They reached Siegfriedhorn , an 18 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) summit that she named after her son , giving Fanny an altitude record for women at the time . They next camped at 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) and climbed a higher peak of 19 @,@ 450 feet ( 5 @,@ 930 m ) , naming it Mount Bullock Workman . Admiring the view of a far @-@ off mountain , they commented on the grand view : they were looking at K2 , the second @-@ highest mountain in the world . Fanny Workman may have been the first woman recorded to have seen it . Finally , they climbed Koser Gunge ( 20 @,@ 997 feet or 6 @,@ 400 metres ) , giving Fanny her third successive altitude record . It was very challenging : they had to hire new porters , establish a new base camp , and remain overnight at around 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . In the morning , they climbed a wall that measured 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) , and were buffeted by winds . During the summit push , Fanny 's fingers were so numb that she could no longer hold her ice ax and one of the porters abandoned them . Pauly writes , " propelled to the summit by adrenalin and desperation , the foursome lingered only long enough for their instruments to assess that the temperature was ten degrees Fahrenheit [ − 12 ° C ] and their elevation was 21 @,@ 000 feet . " Fanny was a " slow , relentless , and intrepid " climber ; " bearlike , she solidly planted one foot and then groped for another secure grip with the other " . Climbing at the beginning of the 20th century , she did not have specialized equipment like pitons or carabiners . She was able to climb to such heights , Pauly argues , because of " her dauntless persistence and her immunity to altitude sickness " .

As soon as she was able , Fanny Workman published accounts of her feats , such as an article in the Scottish Geographical Magazine . Writing about this trip at length in In the Ice World of the Himalayas , Fanny made efforts to include scientific information and experiments , touting her own modified barometer as superior , but scholarly critics were unimpressed and pointed out her lack of scientific knowledge . Popular reviewers , on the other hand , enjoyed the book , with one concluding , " We have no hesitation in saying that Dr. and Mrs. Workman have written one of the most remarkable books of travel of recent years . "

In 1902 , the Workmans returned to the Himalaya and became the first Westerners to explore the Chogo Lungma Glacier , starting in Arandu . They hired 80 porters and took four tons of supplies , but their explorations were limited by near @-@ constant snow and a 60 @-@ hour storm . In 1903 , they trekked to the Hoh Lumba Glacier with guide Cyprien Savoye . They also attempted to climb the nearby mountain they called Pyramid Peak ( later renamed Spantik , as part of the Spantik @-@ Sosbun Mountains ) . They camped the first night at 16 @,@ 200 feet ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) and the second at 18 @,@ 600 feet ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) . An ailing porter forced them to camp the third night at 19 @,@ 355 feet ( 5 @,@ 899 m ) rather than 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) and they eventually left him behind . They ascended a 22 @,@ 567 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 878 m ) peak , giving Fanny a new altitude record . William and a porter climbed toward the needle @-@ like spire that was the expedition 's goal . However , he abandoned the summit attempt a few hundred feet from the top because he realized they could not have descended to a safe altitude before altitude sickness set in .

After returning from their travels , the Workmans lectured all over Europe . Fanny lectured in English , German , or French , as the occasion required . At one talk in Lyon , France , 1000 people crowded into the auditorium and 700 were turned away . In 1905 Fanny became the second woman to address the Royal Geographical Society . ( Isabella Bird Bishop had been the first in May 1897 . ) Her talk was mentioned in The Times .

The Workmans returned to Kashmir in 1906 , and were the first Westerners to explore the Nun Kun massif . For this trip , the couple hired six Italian porters from the Alps , 200 local porters , and Savoye returned as guide . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar explain in their history of Himalayan mountaineering , the Workmans despised the local porters but were forced to recruit them ; " their otherwise invaluable books read like one long , anguished harangue against the lazy , lying , thieving , mutinous cheats on whom they unhappily depended for local support " . They planned a sequence of four camps from 17 @,@ 657 feet ( 5 @,@ 382 m ) to 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) . Despite labor problems , the Workmans spent the night higher than any previous mountaineers — 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) on top of Z1 on Nun Kun — at what they called " Camp America " . William wrote of Fanny :

She concentrated her attention on the end in view , often disregarding the difficulties and even the dangers that might lie in the way of accomplishment . She went forward with a determination to succeed and a courage that won success where a less determined effort would have failed . She believed in taking advantage of every opportunity . She was no quitter , and was never the first to suggest turning back in the face of discouraging circumstances .

The map the Workmans made during this trip was of low quality . According to Mason , the couple did not have a good sense of topographical direction , which meant that their measurements were inaccurate and unusable by the Survey of India .

= = = Pinnacle Peak and altitude record = = =

From 20 @,@ 278 feet ( 6 @,@ 181 m ) , at the age of 47 in 1906 , Workman climbed up to Pinnacle Peak ( 22 @,@ 735 feet or 6 @,@ 930 metres ) ( which she believed to be 23 @,@ 263 feet or 7 @,@ 091 metres ) , a subsidiary peak in the Nun Kun massif of the western Himalaya . It was her greatest mountaineering achievement . As Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar point out , the fact that she " climbed the mountain at all , without benefit of modern equipment and encumbered by her voluminous skirts , speaks to both her ability and resolve " . She set an altitude record for women that would stand until Hetti Dhyrenfurth 's 1934 ascent of Sia Kangri C ( 23 @,@ 861 feet or 7 @,@ 273 metres ) . Believing that they had both climbed above the 23 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) mark , Fanny and William now considered themselves the leading experts on climbing at altitude .

Workman vigorously defended her Pinnacle Peak altitude record against all other claimants , especially Annie Smith Peck . In 1908 , Peck claimed a new record with her climb of Peru 's Huascarán , which she believed to be 23 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) . However , she was misinformed as to the peak 's height and exaggerated distances she could not measure . Workman was so competitive that she paid a team of French surveyors from the Service Géographique de l 'Armée US $ 13 @,@ 000 to measure the elevation of the mountain , which was actually 22 @,@ 205 feet ( 6 @,@ 768 m ) , confirming her record . Pauly explains , " Ironically , her determination to prove herself the equal of any man at lofty elevations culminated with a withering attack on an American woman who tried to surpass her " . Determined to be the best woman , Workman was also a meticulous record @-@ keeper so that she could prove her accomplishments . Pauly concludes , " If Fanny Workman ever receives the recognition she deserves for her feminist determination to excel at this then @-@ male sport , she will surely be remembered as much for her insistence upon accurate record @-@ keeping as for the elevations she achieved . "

= = = Hispar and Siachen Glaciers = = =

In 1908 , the Workmans returned to the Karakoram and explored the 38 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 61 km ) Hispar Glacier in the Hunza Nagar region ; they went from Gilgit to Nagir over the Hispar pass ( 17 @,@ 500 feet or 5 @,@ 300 metres ) and onto the 37 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 60 km ) Biafo Glacier to Askole . Their total traverse of the glaciers was another record , and Fanny became the first woman to travel across any Himalayan glacier of this size . They were the first to explore its many side glaciers and the maps created by their Italian porters helped map the region for the first time . They recorded the physiological effects of high altitude , studied glaciers and ice pinnacles , and took meteorological measurements , including altitude data recorded with both aneroid barometers and boiling point thermometers .

The Workmans ' exploration of the Rose Glacier and the 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 72 km ) Siachen Glacier in Baltistan around Masherbrum in 1911 and 1912 was the most important achievement of their careers because it was the widest and longest subpolar glacier in the world and at the time , the least explored and accessible glacier as well . For two months , the Workmans explored the 45 @-@ mile glacier , climbed several mountains , and mapped the area . They spent the entire time over 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , the high point being Indira Col which they summitted and named . On this expedition , one of their Italian guides fell into a crevasse and died ; Fanny was lucky to escape . The others were badly shaken but decided to carry on . Fanny led them across the Sia La pass ( 18 @,@ 700 feet or 5 @,@ 700 metres ) near the head of the Siachen Glacier and through a previously unexplored region to the Kaberi Glacier . This exploration and the resulting book were among her greatest accomplishments . As she wrote in her book about the trip , Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram , she organized and led this expedition : " Dr. Hunter Workman accompanied me , this time , in charge with me of commissariat and as photographer and glacialist , but I was the responsible leader of this expedition , and on my efforts , in a large measure , must depend the success or failure of it " . At one 21 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) plateau , Fanny unfurled a " Votes for Women " newspaper and her husband snapped an iconic picture . They took trained Alpine guides and surveyors including Grant Peterkin and Surjan Singh , whose contributions ensured that , unlike numerous other maps the Workmans helped create , their map of the Siachen Glacier remained unchallenged for many years .

= = Later life and death = =

After their 1908 – 12 trip , the couple stopped exploring and turned to writing and lecturing , primarily because of the onset of World War I in 1914 . Fanny Workman became the first American woman to lecture at the Sorbonne in Paris . She was also one of the first women to be admitted as a member of the Royal Geographical Society , a distinction she earned because her publications included scientific reflections on glaciation and other phenomena . She also earned medals of honor from 10 European geographical societies and was eventually elected a member of the American Alpine Club , Royal Asiatic Society , Club Alpino Italiano , Deutscher und Österreichischer Alpenverein , and Club alpin français . She was very proud of these achievements , listing them on the title pages of her books .

Fanny Workman fell ill in 1917 and died after a long illness in 1925 in Cannes , France . Her ashes were buried in Massachusetts , and are now reinterred along with her husband 's , under a monument in Worcester Massachusetts ' Rural Cemetery that reads " Pioneer Himalayan Explorers " . In her will , she left $ 125 @,@ 000 to four colleges , Radcliffe , Wellesley , Smith , and Bryn Mawr ; the bequests were demonstrative of her long @-@ lasting interest in the advancement of women 's rights , and her belief that women were the equals of men .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Women in climbing = = =

Along with Annie Smith Peck , Workman was recognized during the early 20th century as one of the most famous female climbers in the world . Their rivalry demonstrated that women could climb the most remote and difficult terrain on the planet , and achieve the same accomplishments as male mountaineers . It was not until Peck and Workman 's feats that women had been involved in mountaineering , though they had climbed regularly in the Alps since the 1850s . In the Himalaya , in particular , mountaineering had been dominated by wealthy Englishmen . No other women , however , climbed in the Himalaya until well after World War I , by which time improvements in equipment and organization had reduced the risk and the difficulty of the expeditions .

Workman , herself an ardent feminist and a supporter of women 's suffrage , wanted her readers to understand how her contributions and achievements reflected all women 's potential . In her writings , Workman described herself as " questioning or violating the norms of Victorian female propriety " . She demonstrated that women were strong enough to thrive outside the home by showing how easy it was for her to endure strenuous physical activities like bicycling long distances in hot , humid places or mountaineering in cold temperatures and high altitudes . Workman challenged a masculine realm ; her obituary in the Alpine Journal alluded to the challenges she faced , saying that she " felt that she suffered from ' sex antagonism ' " . The author of the piece added : " it is possible that some unconscious feeling let us say of the novelty of a woman 's intrusion into the domain of exploration so long reserved to man , may in some quarters have existed ... there tended to arise ... an atmosphere shall we say of aloofness ? " However , in her study of Victorian mountaineering , Ann Colley suggests that gender discrimination was more overt at lower elevations and in regular life than at higher elevations , such as in the Himalaya . Colley states , " Away from such petty opinion emanating from society pressures , up high , above the snow line or in distant regions , women climbers could more fully experience equality and power ... If they chose , they could be just as sportsmanlike or competitive as the men . " In her entry about Workman in the Dictionary of Literary Biography , Tingley sums Workman up as " an aggressive , determined , and uncompromising turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century American woman traveler " and " one of the first women to work as a professional mountaineer and surveyor and to write about the expeditions she and her husband took to the most remote reaches of the Himalaya . She was an outspoken advocate of woman 's suffrage and made it clear that she considered herself to be a role model for other women travelers and mountaineers . "

As a result of the money Workman left in her will , Wellesley College offers a $ 16 @,@ 000 fellowship named after Fanny Workman for graduate study in any discipline to a Wellesley graduate each year . Bryn Mawr established a Fanny Bullock Workman Traveling Fellowship , which is awarded to Ph.D candidates in Archaeology or Art History when funds permit .

= = = Exploration of the Himalaya = = =

The many books and articles produced by the Workmans are " still useful " according to Mason , especially for their photographs and illustrations , but their maps are " deceptive and not always reliable " . One assessment states that although the Workmans excelled at describing meteorological conditions , glaciology , and how high altitudes affected human health and fitness , they were poor topographers . The Workmans were some of the first mountaineers to grasp that the Himalaya were the place for the ultimate climbing challenge and their explorations helped evolve mountaineering from strenuous recreation into a serious , regulated competitive sport . According to Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar , " that the Workmans were intrepid explorers and climbers none could possibly doubt , but they were also aggressive self @-@ promoters who in their eagerness for recognition and honors sometimes exaggerated the originality and significance of what they had done . " In their final assessment , Isserman , Weaver and Molenaar say " they had logged more miles and climbed more peaks than anyone to date ; they had produced five sumptuously illustrated and widely read expedition volumes ; and by simple virtue of her sex Fanny of course had set an invaluable Himalayan precedent . But the Workmans were not great mountaineers . At their best they were vigorous and competent patrons who followed capably in the hard @-@ won steps of their Italian guides . " However , in his chapter on Workman , Pauly writes that " the few recent accounts of Fanny Workman have tended to slight or belittle her achievements , but contemporaries , unaware of the far greater accomplishments to come , held the Workmans in high regard . " They were the first Americans to explore the Himalaya in depth and break the British monopoly over Himalayan mountaineering .

= = = Books = = =

Algerian memories : a bicycle tour over the Atlas to the Sahara . London : T.F. Unwin . 1895 @.@  p . 216 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .

Sketches awheel in modern Iberia . London : Unwin . 1897 @.@  p . 280 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .

In the ice world of Himálaya , among the peaks and passes of Ladakh , Nubra , Suru , and Baltistan . New York : Cassell & Company , Limited . 1900 @.@  p . 204 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .

Ice @-@ Bound Heights of the Mustagh : An Account of Two seasons of Pioneer Exploration and High Climbing in the Baltistan Himalaya . London : A. Constable & Co . 1908 @.@  p . 444 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .

Peaks and Glaciers of Nun Kun : A Record of Pioneer @-@ Exploration and Mountaineering in the Punjab Himalaya . London : Constable and Company Ltd . 1909 @.@  p . 411 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .

The Call of the Snowy Hispar : A Narrative of Exploration and Mountaineering on the Northern Frontier of India . New York : Scribner . 1911 @.@  p . 520 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .

Two Summers in the Ice @-@ Wilds of Eastern Karakoram : The Exploration of Nineteen Hundred Square Miles of Mountain and Glacier . New York : E. P. Dutton & Company . 1916 @.@  p . 578 . Retrieved 28 August 2015 .

= = = Articles = = =

" Among the Great Himalayan Glaciers . " National Geographic 13 ( Nov. 1920 ) : 405 – 406 .

" First Ascents of the Hoh Lumba and the Sosbon Glaciers in the Northwest Himalayas . " Independent 55 ( December 31 , 1903 ) : 3108 – 12 .

Through Town and Jungle : Fourteen Thousand Miles A @-@ Wheel Among the Temples and People of the Indian Plain . London : Unwin , 1904 .

" Miss Peck and Mrs. Workman . " Scientific American 102 ( Feb 12 and April 16 , 1910 ) ; 143 , 319 .

" Recent First Ascents in the Himalaya . " Independent 68 ( June 2 , 1910 ) : 1202 – 10 .

" Conquering the Great Rose . " Harper 129 ( June 1914 ) : 44 – 45 .

" Exploring the Rose . " Independent 85 ( January 10 , 1916 ) : 54 – 56 .

" Four Miles High . " Independent 86 ( June 5 , 1916 ) : 377 – 378 .

= = = Cited sources = = =

Colley , Ann C. ( 2010 ) . Victorians in the Mountains : Sinking the Sublime . Farnham : Ashgate . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4094 @-@ 0634 @-@ 1 .

Ellis , Reuben ( 2001 ) . Vertical Margins : Mountaineering and the Landscapes of Neoimperialism . Madison : University of Wisconsin Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 17000 @-@ 4 .

Ernie @-@ Steighner , Jenny ( 2009 ) . " Delightful Escapes : U.S. Female Mountaineers Travel Abroad , 1890 – 1915 " . Thinking Gender Papers ( Los Angeles : UCLA Center for the Study of Women ) . Retrieved 22 October 2013 .

Isserman , Maurice ; Weaver , Stewart ; Molenaar , Dee ( 2008 ) . Fallen Giants : A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes . New Haven : Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 11501 @-@ 7 .

Jordan , Jennifer ( 2009 ) . Savage Summit : The Life and Death of the First Women of K2 . New York : HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 175352 @-@ 7 .

Kraig , Beth ( 1999 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Garraty , John A. ; Carnes , Mark C. American National Biography 23 . New York and Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp. 877 – 879 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 512802 @-@ 8 .

Mason , Kenneth ( 1955 ) . Abode of Snow : A History of Himalayan Exploration and Mountaineering . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .

Middleton , Dorothy ( 1965 ) . Victorian Lady Travellers . New York : E.P. Dutton & Co . , Inc .

Miller , Luree ( 1976 ) . On Top of the World : Five Women Explorers in Tibet . Frome : Padding Press Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 8467 @-@ 0138 @-@ 3 .

Pauly , Thomas H. ( 2012 ) . Game Faces : Five Early American Champions and the Sports They Changed . Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 3817 @-@ 6 .

Plint , Michael ( 1992 – 1993 ) . " The Workmans : Travellers Extraordinary " ( PDF ) . Alpine Journal 97 : 231 – 237 . Retrieved 15 October 2013 .

Tingley , Stephanie A. ( 1998 ) . " Fanny Bullock Workman " . In Ross , Donald ; Schramer , James J. Dictionary of Literary Biography : American Travel Writers , 1850 – 1915 189 . Detroit : Gale. pp. 360 – 365 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7876 @-@ 1844 @-@ 6 .

Tinling , Marion ( 1989 ) . Women into the Unknown : A Sourcebook on Women Explorers and Travelers . New York : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 25328 @-@ 5 .

= Grammy Award for Video of the Year =

The Grammy Award for Video of the Year was an honor presented to recording artists at the 24th Grammy Awards in 1982 and the 25th Grammy Awards in 1983 for music videos . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .

First presented in 1982 to Michael Nesmith for Elephant Parts , the award was reserved for quality " video cassettes or discs in any format created specifically for the home video market " . In 1983 , Olivia Newton @-@ John was presented the award for Olivia Physical . Beginning with the 1984 Grammy Awards , the Video of the Year award category was replaced with the categories Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album ( now known as Best Music Video and Best Music Film , respectively ) .

= = Recipients = =

Nominees for the 24th Grammy Awards ( 1982 ) , Video of the Year included : Eubie Blake for One Night Stand : A Keyboard Event , the band Blondie for Eat to the Beat , Bruce Seth Green for the participative video collection of puzzles and games known as The First National Kidisc , and Michael Nesmith , former member of The Monkees , for the hour @-@ long video Elephant Parts ( also known as Michael Nesmith in Elephant Parts ) . One Night Stand was a recording of a jazz program billed as " an evening of all @-@ stars " at Carnegie Hall , with appearances by Kenny Barron , Arthur Blythe , George Duke , Herbie Hancock , Roland Hanna , Bobby Hutcherson and ten other musicians . Blondie 's video cassette Eat to the Beat accompanied their 1979 album of the same title . The First National Kidisc , one of the first interactive and educational videodiscs , contained activities designed for children . Without " fancy digital effects " , Green 's Kidisc provided five to ten hours of interactive capability within a 30 @-@ minute video through the use of dual audio tracks , freeze framing , slow motion , and other techniques . Features included plane flying , jokes , paper plane construction , music performance , and other games .

The award went to Nesmith , who is known for creating one of the first companies to distribute television programs and films on home video , and for establishing the television music video format that eventually became MTV . In 1976 , Nesmith produced a video for his song " Rio " , and later incorporated it into the " montage of music and gags " called Elephant Parts after starting the company Pacific Arts Video Records . In 1985 , Elephant Parts was adapted into a seven @-@ episode summer series on NBC titled Michael Nesmith in Television Parts .

Nominees for the 25th Grammy Awards included : Elton John for Visions : Elton John , Olivia Newton @-@ John for Olivia Physical , the rock band The Tubes for The Tubes Video , a recording of Jacques Offenbach 's opera The Tales of Hoffman by the Royal Opera conducted by Georges Prêtre with Plácido Domingo , and the interactive disc for children Fun and Games by various artists ( produced by Margaret Murphy ) . Both Visions and The Tubes Video were directed by Russell Mulcahy . Visions consisted of " artistic " videos for all of the songs on John 's 1981 album The Fox . According to The Tubes ' official site , the now out of print video collection contained music videos primarily for tracks that appeared on their 1981 album The Completion Backward Principle . The award was presented to Newton @-@ John ( then her fourth Grammy Award ) in February 1983 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles . Released a few years following her role in the 1978 film Grease , the aerobics video contained songs from her 1981 album Physical as well as enough sexual innuendo and provocation to generate controversy .

= = Category retirement = =

The Video of the Year category was discontinued with the establishment of the MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 , whose top award is also presented for Video of the Year . The Academy replaced the category with awards for Best Video , Short Form and Best Video Album beginning with the 26th Grammy Awards . For the awards held in 1988 and 1989 , the criteria changed and honors were presented for the categories Best Concept Music Video and Best Performance Music Video . The Academy returned to the previous format in 1990 , though the two categories were renamed Best Long Form Music Video ( changed to Best Music Film in 2014 ) and Best Short Form Music Video ( shortened to Best Music Video in 2014 ) respectively .

= All of Creation ( song ) =

" All of Creation " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . The song , written by MercyMe , Brown Bannister , and Dan Muckala , lyrically revolves around the themes of love , life , and belief , as well as the foundation of Christian faith . The song was intended to refer to the birth , death , and resurrection of Jesus in each verse and has been described as ' pop ' and ' worship ' .

Released to radio on January 29 , 2010 as the lead single from MercyMe 's 2010 album The Generous Mr. Lovewell , " All of Creation " attained considerable success on Christian radio . The single spent ten weeks atop Billboard magazine 's Hot Christian Songs chart and eleven weeks atop the Christian AC Monitored chart , and peaked at No. 1 on the Soft AC / Inspo chart . The song also peaked inside the top ten on the Christian CHR chart , No. 2 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , and at No. 14 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . The song was ranked at the top spot on Billboard magazine 's 2010 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , as well as at No. 16 on the year @-@ end Christian Digital Songs chart and No. 23 on the year @-@ end Christian CHR chart . " All of Creation " was nominated for " Song of the Year " and " Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year " at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards , and was nominated for " Christian Song of the Year " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards .

= = Background = =

In an interview with Kevin Davis of New Release Tuesday , lead singer Bart Millard said the idea behind the song was related to the theme of the album The Generous Mr. Lovewell . Millard stated , " The entire album deals with three main aspects of love . The theme of the record is to ' love well ' as Jesus commands us in the greatest commandment . There are songs about inward love such as in our song ' Beautiful . ' There are songs based on ' we love because He first loved us , ' which is the basis of this first single , ' All of Creation ' . " Millard also said , " I set out to write a song that was confessional and refers to the birth , death and resurrection of Jesus in each verse . It was my intent to mention every stage of Christ ’ s condescension and atoning sacrifice throughout the song . "

= = Composition = =

" All of Creation " is a Christian rock song with a length of 3 minutes and 56 seconds . It is set in common time and the key of B ♭ major with a steady rock tempo of 104 beats per minute . The song has also been described as ' pop ' and ' worship ' .

Lyrical themes in the song include love , life , and belief . Lead singer Bart Millard intended the song to refer to the birth , death , and resurrection of Jesus in each verse . Guitarist Mike Scheuchzer said the song is " a picture of the change we want to see in our own lives . Without love like this , everything we do , everything we are , is in vain . "

Millard also noted , " Not a lot of songs mention the foundation of what we believe in . The whole idea that Christ was born of a virgin , he died on the cross , he rose again . Just the basic principles of Christianity " . He also commented that " the song kind of takes us there , I say ' kind of ' because the first line used to be talking about until a child was born , but it was instantly a Christmas song ... but it does , the first verse goes through talking about how we were completely separated until the cross , basically . " Regarding the chorus of the song , Millard said " the whole idea of the chorus and the sense that it brings in , with the tons of voices singing , is the fact that there 's a day thats going to come when we are going to worship and be as one . "

= = Release and promotion = =

" All of Creation " was officially released to radio on January 29 , 2010 and as a digital single on March 2 , 2010 . The song also had a limited CD single release at select Walmart locations .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

Critical reception to " All of Creation " was mixed to positive . While Kevin Davis of Christianmusicreview called the song " ( a ) worship chorus written for the church in the style of ' You Reign ' or ' God With Us ' " and Kevin McNeese of New Release Tuesday called the song " amazing " , Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout , while noting that " it 's not a bad song by any means " , stated that " ( it ) sounds precisely like the successful singles that have made MercyMe famous ... there 's nothing new that 's offered that hasn 't been heard before from the band " .

= = = Chart performance = = =

" All of Creation " debuted at No. 31 for the chart week of February 13 , 2010 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart . It advanced to No. 21 in its second chart week , and to No. 10 in its third week . The song advanced to No. 3 in its seventh chart week , and to No. 2 in its ninth chart week . In its tenth chart week , " All of Creation " advanced to No. 1 , a position it held for ten consecutive weeks . The song dropped to No. 2 in its nineteenth chart week , and held that spot for an additional week before dropping to No. 3 . " All of Creation " held the No. 3 spot for seven consecutive weeks before dropping to No. 6 and spent an additional ten weeks on the chart before dropping out . " All of Creation " spent a total of thirty @-@ eight weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart . On the Heatseekers Songs chart , " All of Creation " debuted at No. 16 for the chart week of March 20 , 2010 . The song dropped to No. 22 the following week but advanced to No. 15 in its fourth chart week . It reached its peak of No. 14 for the chart week of April 24 , 2010 , and spent another nine weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , the song spent fifteen weeks on the Heatseekers Songs chart . " All of Creation " spent eleven weeks atop the Billboard Christian AC Monitored chart , the longest run MercyMe has spent at No. 1 in their career . The song also topped the Hot Christian AC and Soft AC / Inspo charts and peaked inside the top 10 on the Christian CHR chart , as well as at No. 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .

" All of Creation " was listed on several year @-@ end charts in 2010 . It ranked at No. 1 on the Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , No. 16 on the Christian Digital Songs chart , and No. 23 on the Christian CHR chart .

= = = Awards and accolades = = =

" All of Creation " was nominated for two awards at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards : " Song of the Year " and " Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year " . It was also nominated for " Christian Song of the Year " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards .

= = Track listing = =

Digital download

" All of Creation " – 3 : 56

= = Charts = =

= = = Weekly charts = = =

= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =

= Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy =

The assassination of Robert Francis " Bobby " Kennedy , a United States Senator and brother of assassinated President John Fitzgerald " Jack " Kennedy , took place shortly after midnight on June 5 , 1968 , in Los Angeles , California , during the campaign season for the 1968 presidential election .

After winning the California and South Dakota primary elections for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States , Kennedy was fatally shot as he walked through the kitchen of the Ambassador Hotel and died in the Good Samaritan Hospital twenty @-@ six hours later . Sirhan Sirhan , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Palestinian / Jordanian immigrant , was convicted of Kennedy 's murder and is serving a life sentence for the crime . The shooting was recorded on audio tape by a freelance newspaper reporter , and the aftermath was captured on film .

Kennedy 's body lay in repose at St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York for two days before a funeral Mass was held on June 8 . His body was interred near his brother John at Arlington National Cemetery . His death prompted the protection of presidential candidates by the United States Secret Service . Hubert Humphrey later went on to win the Democratic nomination for the presidency , but ultimately lost the election to Republican Richard Nixon .

As with his brother John 's death , Kennedy 's assassination and the circumstances surrounding it have spawned a variety of conspiracy theories . Kennedy remains one of only two sitting United States Senators to be assassinated , the other being Huey Long .

= = Background = =

Kennedy visited the British Mandate of Palestine in 1948 and wrote dispatches at the time for the Boston Post about his trip and the effect it had on him when he was twenty @-@ two years old . During his stay , he wrote that he grew to admire the Jewish inhabitants of the area . As a Senator , he later became a strong supporter and advocate for Israel .

Kennedy was United States Attorney General from January 1961 until September 3 , 1964 , when he resigned to run for election to the United States Senate . He took office as Senator from New York on January 3 , 1965 .

The run up to the 1968 presidential election saw the incumbent president , Lyndon B. Johnson , serving during a period of social unrest . There were riots in the major cities despite Johnson 's attempts to introduce anti @-@ poverty and anti @-@ discrimination legislation , and there was significant opposition to the ongoing military action in Vietnam .

The assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr. on April 4 , 1968 led to further riots across the US . Kennedy entered the race for the Democratic Party 's nomination for president on March 16 , 1968 — four days after Senator Eugene McCarthy received a large percentage of the vote in the New Hampshire primary against the incumbent President ( 42 % to Johnson 's 49 % ) . Two weeks later , a demoralized Johnson announced he was no longer seeking re @-@ election . One month later , Vice President Hubert Humphrey announced he would seek the presidency . Humphrey did not participate in any primaries but he did obtain the support of many Democratic Party delegates . Following the California primary , Kennedy was in second place with 393 delegates compared to Humphrey 's 561 and McCarthy ’ s 258 .

= = Assassination = =

The 1968 presidential primary elections in California were held on Tuesday , June 4 . The statewide results gave Kennedy 46 % and McCarthy 42 % . Four hours after the polls closed in California , Kennedy claimed victory in the state 's Democratic presidential primary . He spoke by phone with South Dakota Senator George McGovern . At approximately 12 : 10 a.m. PDT on June 5 , he addressed his campaign supporters in the Ambassador Hotel 's Embassy Room ballroom , in the Mid @-@ Wilshire district of Los Angeles . At the time , the government provided Secret Service protection for incumbent presidents but not for presidential candidates . Kennedy 's only security was provided by former FBI agent William Barry and two unofficial bodyguards , former professional athletes . During the campaign , Kennedy had welcomed contact with the public , and people had often tried to touch him in their excitement .

Kennedy had planned to walk through the ballroom when he had finished speaking , on his way to another gathering of supporters elsewhere in the hotel . However , with deadlines fast approaching , reporters wanted a press conference . Campaign aide Fred Dutton decided that Kennedy would forgo the second gathering and instead go through the hotel 's kitchen and pantry area behind the ballroom to the press area . Kennedy finished speaking and started to exit when William Barry stopped him and said , " No , it 's been changed . We 're going this way . " Barry and Dutton began clearing a way for Kennedy to go left through swinging doors to the kitchen corridor , but Kennedy , hemmed in by the crowd , followed maître d 'hôtel Karl Uecker through a back exit .

Uecker led Kennedy through the kitchen area , holding Kennedy 's right wrist but frequently releasing it as Kennedy shook hands with those he encountered . Uecker and Kennedy started down a passageway narrowed by an ice machine against the right wall and a steam table to the left . Kennedy turned to his left and shook hands with busboy Juan Romero just as Sirhan Sirhan stepped down from a low tray @-@ stacker beside the ice machine , rushed past Uecker , and repeatedly fired what was later identified as a .22 caliber Iver @-@ Johnson Cadet revolver .

After Kennedy had fallen to the floor , Agent Barry saw Sirhan holding a gun and hit him twice in the face while others , including maîtres d ' Uecker and Edward Minasian , writer George Plimpton , Olympic gold medal decathlete Rafer Johnson and former professional football player Rosey Grier of the Los Angeles Rams , forced Sirhan against the steam table and disarmed him as he continued firing his gun in random directions . Five other people were also wounded : William Weisel of ABC News , Paul Schrade of the United Auto Workers union , Democratic Party activist Elizabeth Evans , Ira Goldstein of the Continental News Service and Kennedy campaign volunteer Irwin Stroll .

After a minute , Sirhan wrestled free and grabbed the revolver again , but he had already fired all the bullets and was subdued . Barry went to Kennedy and laid his jacket under the candidate 's head , later recalling : " I knew immediately it was a .22 , a small caliber , so I hoped it wouldn 't be so bad , but then I saw the hole in the Senator 's head , and I knew " . Reporters and photographers rushed into the area from both directions , contributing to the confusion and chaos . As Kennedy lay wounded , Juan Romero cradled the senator 's head and placed a rosary in his hand . Kennedy asked Romero , " Is everybody OK ? " and Romero responded , " Yes , everybody 's OK . " Kennedy then turned away from Romero and said , " Everything 's going to be OK . " Captured by Life photographer Bill Eppridge and Boris Yaro of the Los Angeles Times , this moment became the iconic image of the assassination . There was some initial confusion in who was shot , one witness believing that the primary victim was Kennedy 's campaign manager , Stephen Edward Smith . This was quickly realized to be untrue .

Kennedy 's wife Ethel stood outside the crush of people at the scene , seeking help . She was soon led to her husband and knelt beside him . He turned his head and seemed to recognize her . Smith promptly appeared on television and calmly asked for a doctor . After several minutes , medical attendants arrived and lifted Kennedy onto a stretcher , prompting him to whisper , " Don 't lift me ... " which were to become his last words . He lost consciousness shortly thereafter . Kennedy was taken a mile away to Central Receiving Hospital , where he arrived near death . One doctor slapped his face , calling , " Bob , Bob " , while another doctor manually massaged Kennedy 's heart . After obtaining a good heartbeat , doctors handed a stethoscope to Ethel so she could hear her husband 's heart beating , much to her relief .

After about 30 minutes , Kennedy was transferred several blocks to the Hospital of the Good Samaritan for surgery . A gymnasium near the hospital was set up as temporary headquarters for the press and news media to receive updates on the senator 's condition . Surgery began at 3 : 12 a.m. PDT and lasted three hours and 40 minutes . Ten and a half hours later , at 5 : 30 p.m. PDT on Wednesday , spokesman Frank Mankiewicz announced that Kennedy 's doctors were " concerned over his continuing failure to show improvement " ; his condition remained " extremely critical as to life " .

Kennedy had been shot three times . One bullet , fired at a range of about 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) , entered behind his right ear , dispersing fragments throughout his brain . The other two entered at the rear of his right armpit ; one exited from his chest and the other lodged in the back of his neck . Despite extensive neurosurgery at the Good Samaritan Hospital to remove the bullet and bone fragments from his brain , Kennedy died at 1 : 44 A.M. PDT on June 6 , nearly 26 hours after the shooting .

After receiving word of Senator Kennedy 's death , his spokesman Frank Mankiewicz left the hospital and walked to the gymnasium where the press and news media were set up for continuous updates on the situation . At 2 : 00 AM PDT on June 6 , Mankiewicz approached the podium , took a few moments to compose himself and made the official announcement :

I have , uh , a short ..... I have a short announcement to read , which I will read , uh ..... at this time . Senator Robert Francis Kennedy died at 1 : 44 AM today , June 6 , 1968 . With Senator Kennedy at the time of his death were his wife Ethel , his sisters Mrs. Stephen Smith , Mrs. Patricia Lawford , his brother @-@ in @-@ law Mr. Stephen Smith , and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Mrs. John F. Kennedy . He was 42 years old . Thank you .

= = Perpetrator = =

Sirhan Sirhan was a Palestinian Arab with Jordanian citizenship , born in Jerusalem , who held strongly anti @-@ Zionist beliefs . A diary found during a search of Sirhan 's home stated for the entry on May 19 : " My determination to eliminate RFK is becoming more and more of an unshakable obsession . RFK must die . RFK must be killed . Robert F. Kennedy must be assassinated ..... Robert F. Kennedy must be assassinated before 5 June 68 . " It has been suggested that the date of the assassination is significant , because it was the first anniversary of the start of the Six Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbors . When Sirhan was booked by police , they found in his pocket a newspaper article that discussed Kennedy 's support for Israel , and at his trial , Sirhan testified that he began to hate Kennedy after learning of this support . In 1989 , he told David Frost : " My only connection with Robert Kennedy was his sole support of Israel and his deliberate attempt to send those 50 bombers to Israel to obviously do harm to the Palestinians " . Some scholars believe the assassination was one of the first major incidents of political violence in the United States stemming from the Arab – Israeli conflict in the Middle East .

The interpretation that he was mostly motivated by Middle Eastern politics has been criticized as an oversimplification that ignores Sirhan 's deeper psychological problems . During his trial , Sirhan 's lawyers attempted to use a defense of diminished responsibility , while their client tried to confess to the crime and change his plea to guilty on several occasions . Sirhan testified that he had killed Kennedy " with 20 years of malice aforethought " . The judge did not accept this confession and it was later withdrawn .

Sirhan pleaded guilty on April 17 , 1969 , and six days later , he was sentenced to death . The sentence was commuted to life in prison in 1972 after the California Supreme Court , in its decision in California v. Anderson , invalidated all pending death sentences imposed in California prior to 1972 . Since that time , Sirhan has been denied parole fifteen times and is currently confined at the Richard J. Donovan Correctional Facility in southern San Diego County . Sirhan 's lawyers have claimed that he was framed , and Sirhan claims to have no memory of his crime .

= = Media coverage = =

As the shooting took place , ABC News was signing off from its electoral broadcast , while the CBS broadcast was already over . It was not until 21 minutes after the shots that CBS 's coverage of the shooting would begin . The reporters who had been present to report on Kennedy 's win in the primary ended up crowding into the kitchen where he had been shot and the immediate aftermath was captured only by audio recording and cameras that had no live transmission capability . ABC was able to show scant live footage from the kitchen after Kennedy had been transported but unlike CBS and NBC , all of ABC 's coverage from the Ambassador was in black and white . CBS and NBC shot footage in the kitchen of the shooting 's aftermath on color film , which could not be broadcast until it was developed two hours after the incident .

Reporter Andrew West of KRKD , a Mutual Broadcasting System radio affiliate in Los Angeles , captured on audio tape the sounds of the immediate aftermath of the shooting but not the actual shooting itself . Using his reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recorder and attached microphone , West had just recorded the senator 's victory speech . With the audio still rolling , West asked the Senator the following question :

Andrew West : " Senator , how are you going to counter Mr. Humphrey and his backgrounding you as far as the delegate votes go ? "

Senator Kennedy : " It just goes back to the struggle for it . "

After this brief exchange , West turned off his tape recorder and followed Kennedy and his entourage to the kitchen pantry . Just a few minutes later , seconds after Kennedy was shot , West turned his recorder on again and started reporting the sudden developments .....

Andrew West : " Senator Kennedy has been shot ! Senator Kennedy has been shot ; is that possible ? Is that possible ? It 's ..... is it possible , ladies and gentlemen ? It is possible , he has ..... not only Senator Kennedy , oh my God . Senator Kennedy has been shot , and another man , a Kennedy campaign manager , and possibly shot in the head . "

Several seconds later , West gave an on @-@ the @-@ spot account of the struggle with Sirhan in the hotel kitchen pantry , shouting at Rafer Johnson to " Get the gun , Rafer , get the gun ! " and telling others to " get a hold of [ Sirhan 's ] thumb and break it , if you have to ! Get his thumb ! Hold him , hold him ! We don 't want another Oswald ! "

Over the following week , NBC devoted 55 hours to the shooting and aftermath , ABC 43 , and CBS 42 , with all three networks preempting their regular coverage and advertisements to cover the story .

= = Conspiracy theories = =

As with the 1963 assassination of his brother , President John F. Kennedy , Robert Kennedy 's death has been the subject of widespread analysis . Some individuals involved in the original investigation and some researchers have suggested alternative scenarios for the crime , or have argued that there are serious problems with the official case .

= = = CIA involvement theory = = =

In November 2006 , the BBC 's Newsnight program presented research by filmmaker Shane O 'Sullivan alleging that several CIA officers were present on the night of the assassination . Three men who appear in films and photographs from the night of the assassination were positively identified by former colleagues and associates as former senior CIA officers who had worked together in 1963 at JMWAVE , the CIA 's main anti @-@ Castro station based in Miami . They were JMWAVE Chief of Operations David Morales , Chief of Maritime Operations Gordon Campbell and Chief of Psychological Warfare Operations George Joannides .

The program featured an interview with Morales 's former attorney Robert Walton , who quoted him as having said , " I was in Dallas when we got the son of a bitch and I was in Los Angeles when we got the little bastard . " O 'Sullivan reported that the CIA declined to comment on the officers in question . It was also alleged that Morales was known for his deep anger toward the Kennedys for what he saw as their betrayal during the Bay of Pigs Invasion .

= = = Second gunman theory = = =

The location of Kennedy 's wounds suggested that his assailant had stood behind him , but some witnesses said that Sirhan faced west as Kennedy moved through the pantry facing east . This has led to the suggestion that a second gunman actually fired the fatal shot , a possibility supported by coroner Thomas Noguchi who stated that the fatal shot was behind Kennedy 's right ear and had been fired at a distance of approximately one inch . Other witnesses , though , said that as Sirhan approached , Kennedy was turning to his left shaking hands , facing north and so exposing his right side . During a re @-@ examination of the case in 1975 , the Los Angeles Superior Court ordered expert examination of the possibility of a second gun having been used , and the conclusion of the experts was that there was little or no evidence to support this theory . As recently as 2008 , eyewitness John Pilger asserted his belief that there must have been a second gunman .

In 2007 , analysis of an audio tape recording of the shooting made by freelance reporter Stanislaw Pruszynski appeared to indicate , according to forensic expert Philip Van Praag , that thirteen shots were fired , even though Sirhan 's gun held only eight rounds . Van Praag states that the recording also reveals at least two cases where the timing between shots was shorter than physically possible . The presence of more than eight shots on the tape was corroborated by forensic audio specialists Wes Dooley and Paul Pegas of Audio Engineering Associates in Pasadena , California , forensic audio and ballistics expert Eddy B. Brixen in Copenhagen , Denmark , and audio specialist Phil Spencer Whitehead of the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta , Georgia . Some other acoustic experts , however , have stated that no more than eight shots were recorded on the audio tape .

On February 22 , 2012 , Sirhan 's lawyers , William Pepper and Laurie Dusek , filed a court brief in U.S. District Court in Los Angeles claiming that a second gunman fired the shots that killed Kennedy . It was the fourth and final in a series of federal briefs filed under the writ of habeas corpus by Pepper and Dusek beginning in October 2010 . A ruling is now pending in the Sirhan federal case .

= = Aftermath and legacy = =

= = = Memorial = = =

Following the autopsy on June 6 , Kennedy 's body was returned to New York City , where he lay in repose at St. Patrick 's Cathedral , viewed by thousands , until a funeral mass on the morning of June 8 .

Kennedy 's younger brother , Edward Moore " Ted " Kennedy , eulogized him with the words :

My brother need not be idealized , or enlarged in death beyond what he was in life ; to be remembered simply as a good and decent man , who saw wrong and tried to right it , saw suffering and tried to heal it , saw war and tried to stop it . Those of us who loved him and who take him to his rest today , pray that what he was to us and what he wished for others will some day come to pass for all the world . As he said many times , in many parts of this nation , to those he touched and who sought to touch him : " Some men see things as they are and say why . I dream things that never were and say why not . "

Immediately following the mass , Kennedy 's body was transported by a slow @-@ moving train to Washington , D.C. , and thousands of mourners lined the tracks and stations , paying their respects as the train passed by .

On the way to the cemetery , the funeral procession passed through Resurrection City , a shantytown protest set up as part of the Poor People 's Campaign . The procession stopped in front of the Lincoln Memorial , where residents of Resurrection City joined the group and sang " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " .

Kennedy was buried near his older brother John , in Arlington National Cemetery , in the first burial ever to take place there at night ; the second was the burial of his younger brother Ted .

After Kennedy 's assassination , Congress altered the Secret Service 's mandate to include protection for presidential candidates . The remaining candidates were immediately protected under an executive order issued by Lyndon Johnson , putting a strain on the poorly resourced Secret Service .

= = = 1968 election = = =

At the time of his death , Kennedy was substantially behind Humphrey in convention delegate support , but many believe that Kennedy would have ultimately secured the nomination following his victory in the California primary . Only thirteen states held primaries that year , meaning that most delegates at the Democratic convention could choose a candidate based on their personal preference . Historian Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr . , and others have argued that Kennedy 's broad appeal and charisma would have been sufficiently convincing at the 1968 Democratic National Convention to give him the nomination . Historian Michael Beschloss believed , however , that Kennedy would not have secured the nomination . Humphrey , after a National Convention in Chicago marred by violence in the streets , was far behind in opinion polls but gained ground . He ultimately lost the general election to Republican Richard Nixon by the narrow popular vote margin of 43 @.@ 4 % to 42 @.@ 7 % . Nixon won by a more decisive 301 @-@ 191 margin in the electoral vote .

= = = Cultural and societal impact = = =

Kennedy 's assassination was a blow to the optimism for a brighter future that his campaign brought for many Americans who lived through the turbulent 1960s . Juan Romero , the busboy who shook hands with Kennedy right before he was shot , later said , " It made me realize that no matter how much hope you have it can be taken away in a second . "

Jack Newfield , a reporter that had been traveling with the campaign , expressed his feelings on the effect of the assassination , closing his memoir on Kennedy with :

Now I realized what makes our generation unique , what defines us apart from those who came before the hopeful winter of 1961 , and those who came after the murderous spring of 1968 . We are the first generation that learned from experience , in our innocent twenties , that things were not really getting better , that we shall not overcome . We felt , by the time we reached thirty , that we had already glimpsed the most compassionate leaders our nation could produce , and they had all been assassinated . And from this time forward , things would get worse : our best political leaders were part of memory now , not hope .

The stone was at the bottom of the hill and we were all alone .

= = Artifacts , museums and locations today = =

After the failed campaign of preservationists to preserve the Ambassador Hotel where Kennedy was shot , the hotel was demolished in 2005 – 2006 , with the last section of the Ambassador falling in January 2006 , leaving only the annex that housed the hotel entrance , a shopping arcade , the coffee shop , and the historic Cocoanut Grove , all of which were promised to be preserved in some manner . From 2006 to 2010 , six new schools were built on the site and named the Robert F. Kennedy Community Schools . Plans to re @-@ create the pantry in the area of the school complex and create a museum , dedicated to Kennedy 's assassination , fell through after commission chairman Cruz Reynoso , a former state Supreme Court justice , said in court , " We didn 't want to celebrate the death . We wanted to celebrate his life , particularly his ideals . "

The handcuffs that were used by now @-@ retired police officer Arturo Placecia to arrest Sirhan Sirhan are now part of the collection of the upcoming National Law Enforcement Museum in Washington , D.C ..

The blood @-@ stained suit coat , shorts , shirt , belt , tie and socks which Kennedy wore when he was shot are now in the possession of the Los Angeles County District Attorney . Controversy arose in 2010 when Kennedy 's clothing was transported to the California Homicide Investigators Association conference in Las Vegas , where they were included in a temporary public display of never @-@ before @-@ seen artifacts from famous crime scenes , related to prolific serial killers and infamous murders , such as the Black Dahlia murder and the murder of Hollywood actress Sharon Tate . The items and Kennedy 's clothing were subsequently removed from the exhibit and returned to the LAPD vault , with the LAPD apologizing to the Kennedy family .

Until 1987 , the LAPD retained the original files , reports , transcripts , fragments of the bullets that struck Kennedy and the four other bystanders in the kitchen pantry , the .22 caliber Iver @-@ Johnson handgun used by Sirhan , Kennedy 's blood @-@ stained clothes , and numerous other artifacts related to the assassination . In 1987 , the LAPD donated the entire evidence collection ( except for Kennedy 's clothes which remain in possession of the LAPD ) to the California State Archives in Sacramento for permanent preservation . The collection remains in the California State Archives .

The Robert F. Kennedy Assassination Archives at Southeastern Massachusetts University also contain a large collection of materials on the Robert Kennedy assassination . Included among these records are files donated by several writers and researchers and materials purchased from the National Archives and Records Administration @-@ Pacific Southwest Region , the Los Angeles County District Attorney 's office , and the FBI . Another source of information on the case is the Assassination Archives and Research Center . The Center maintains an extensive collection of government documents , interviews , unpublished manuscripts , photographs , audio tapes , and secondary works .

Some items - such as the bullet @-@ pocked ceiling tiles - were removed long ago and intentionally destroyed by the LAPD and not used in Sirhan 's trial . A large number of the photographs of the pantry area and the tapes of the recorded interviews with individuals who were present during the assassination suffered a similar fate . Conspiracy theorists today believe that the destroyed evidence was vital as it proved that Sirhan Sirhan may have had an accomplice and there has been a cover @-@ up , similar to the assassination of John Kennedy , Robert Kennedy 's brother . Furnishings from the defunct Ambassador Hotel , ranging from bedroom furniture to silver champagne buckets , were auctioned off over the years until the hotel 's demolition .

= Watchmen =

Watchmen is an American comic @-@ book limited series published by DC Comics in 1986 and 1987 , and collected in 1987 . The series was created by a British collaboration consisting of writer Alan Moore , artist Dave Gibbons , and colorist John Higgins . Watchmen originated from a story proposal Moore submitted to DC featuring superhero characters that the company had acquired from Charlton Comics . As Moore 's proposed story would have left many of the characters unusable for future stories , managing editor Dick Giordano convinced Moore to create original characters instead .

Moore used the story as a means to reflect contemporary anxieties and to deconstruct and parody the superhero concept . Watchmen depicts an alternate history where superheroes emerged in the 1940s and 1960s , helping the United States to win the Vietnam War . In 1985 , the country is edging toward nuclear war with the Soviet Union , freelance costumed vigilantes have been outlawed and most former superheroes are in retirement or working for the government . The story focuses on the personal development and moral struggles of the protagonists as an investigation into the murder of a government sponsored superhero pulls them out of retirement .

Creatively , the focus of Watchmen is on its structure . Gibbons used a nine @-@ panel grid layout throughout the series and added recurring symbols such as a blood @-@ stained smiley face . All but the last issue feature supplemental fictional documents that add to the series ' backstory , and the narrative is intertwined with that of another story , an in @-@ story pirate comic titled Tales of the Black Freighter , which one of the characters reads . Structured , at times , as a nonlinear narrative , the story skips through space , time and plot . In the same manner , entire scenes and dialogue have parallels with others through synchronicity , coincidence and repeated imagery .

A commercial success , Watchmen has received critical acclaim both in the comics and mainstream press , and is considered by several critics and reviewers to be one of the most significant works of 20th @-@ century literature . Watchmen was recognized in Time 's List of the 100 Best Novels as one of the best English language novels published since 1923 , and placed # 91 on The Comics Journal 's list of the top 100 comics of the 20th century .

After a number of attempts to adapt the series into a feature film , director Zack Snyder 's Watchmen was released in 2009 . A video game series , Watchmen : The End Is Nigh , was released in the same year to coincide with the film 's release . In 2012 , DC Comics published Before Watchmen , a comic @-@ book series acting as a prequel to the original Watchmen series , without Moore and Gibbons ' involvement .

= = Publication history = =

Watchmen , created by writer Alan Moore and artist Dave Gibbons , was first published as a 12 @-@ issue miniseries from DC Comics , cover @-@ dated September 1986 to October 1987 . It was subsequently collected in 1987 as a DC Comics trade paperback that has had at least 22 printings as of September 2008 ; as well , a trade paperback was published by Warner Books , a DC sister company , in 1987 .

In February 1988 , DC published a limited @-@ edition , slipcased hardcover volume , produced by Graphitti Design , that contained 48 pages of bonus material , including the original proposal and concept art . In 2005 , DC released Absolute Watchmen , an oversized slipcased hardcover edition of the series in DC 's Absolute Edition format . Assembled under the supervision of Dave Gibbons , Absolute Watchmen included the Graphitti materials , as well as restored and recolored art by John Higgins . That December DC published a new printing of Watchmen issue # 1 at the original 1986 cover price of $ 1 @.@ 50 as part of its " Millennium Edition " line .

In 2012 , DC launched a prequel line , with various creative teams producing the characters ' early adventures before the events of the graphic novel .

In 2016 DC Universe : Rebirth one @-@ shot , numerous symbols of Watchmen , such as the blood @-@ splattered smiley face , and the dialogue between Doctor Manhattan and Ozymandias in the last issue of Watchmen is shown . Further Watchmen imagery was added in the DC Universe : Rebirth Special # 1 second printing , which featured an update to Gary Frank 's cover , better revealing the outstretched hand of Doctor Manhattan in the top right corner .

= = Background and creation = =

In 1985 , DC Comics acquired a line of characters from Charlton Comics . During that period , writer Alan Moore contemplated writing a story that featured an unused line of superheroes that he could revamp , as he had done in his Miracleman series in the early 1980s . Moore reasoned that MLJ Comics ' Mighty Crusaders might be available for such a project , so he devised a murder mystery plot which would begin with the discovery of the body of the Shield in a harbour . The writer felt it did not matter which set of characters he ultimately used , as long as readers recognized them " so it would have the shock and surprise value when you saw what the reality of these characters was " . Moore used this premise and crafted a proposal featuring the Charlton characters titled Who Killed the Peacemaker , and submitted the unsolicited proposal to DC managing editor Dick Giordano . Giordano was receptive to the proposal , but opposed the idea of using the Charlton characters for the story . Moore said , " DC realized their expensive characters would end up either dead or dysfunctional . " Instead , Giordano persuaded Moore to continue with new characters . Moore had initially believed that original characters would not provide emotional resonance for the readers , but later changed his mind . He said , " Eventually , I realized that if I wrote the substitute characters well enough , so that they seemed familiar in certain ways , certain aspects of them brought back a kind of generic super @-@ hero resonance or familiarity to the reader , then it might work . "

Artist Dave Gibbons , who had collaborated with Moore on previous projects , recalled he " must have heard on the grapevine that he was doing a treatment for a new miniseries . I rang Alan up , saying I ’ d like to be involved with what he was doing . " and Moore sent him the story outline . Gibbons told Giordano he wanted to draw the series Moore proposed and Moore approved . Gibbons brought colorist John Higgins onto the project because he liked his " unusual " style ; Higgins lived near the artist , which allowed the two to " discuss [ the art ] and have some kind of human contact rather than just sending it across the ocean " . Len Wein joined the project as its editor , while Giordano stayed on to oversee it . Both Wein and Giordano stood back and " got out of their way " ; Giordano remarked later , " Who copy @-@ edits Alan Moore , for God 's sake ? "

After receiving the go @-@ ahead to work on the project , Moore and Gibbons spent a day at the latter 's house creating characters , crafting details for the story 's milieu and discussing influences . The pair was particularly influenced by a Mad parody of Superman named " Superduperman " ; Moore said , " We wanted to take Superduperman 180 degrees — dramatic , instead of comedic " . Moore and Gibbons conceived of a story that would take " familiar old @-@ fashioned superheroes into a completely new realm " ; the writer said his intention was to create " a superhero Moby Dick ; something that had that sort of weight , that sort of density " . The writer came up with the character names and descriptions , but left the specifics of how they looked to Gibbons . Gibbons did not sit down and design the characters deliberately , but rather " did it at odd times ... spend [ ing ] maybe two or three weeks just doing sketches . " Gibbons designed his characters to make them easy to draw ; Rorschach was his favorite to draw because " you just have to draw a hat . If you can draw a hat , then you 've drawn Rorschach , you just draw kind of a shape for his face and put some black blobs on it and you 're done . "

Moore began writing the series very early on , hoping to avoid publication delays such as those faced by the DC limited series Camelot 3000 . When writing the script for the first issue , Moore said he realized , " I only had enough plot for six issues . We were contracted for 12 ! " His solution was to alternate issues that dealt with the overall plot of the series with origin issues for the characters . Moore wrote very detailed scripts for Gibbons to work from . Gibbons recalled that " [ t ] he script for the first issue of Watchmen was , I think , 101 pages of typescript — single @-@ spaced — with no gaps between the individual panel descriptions or , indeed , even between the pages . " Upon receiving the scripts , the artist had to number each page " in case I drop them on the floor , because it would take me two days to put them back in the right order " , and used a highlighter pen to single out lettering and shot descriptions ; he remarked , " It takes quite a bit of organizing before you can actually put pen to paper . " Despite Moore 's detailed scripts , his panel descriptions would often end with the note " If that doesn 't work for you , do what works best " ; Gibbons nevertheless worked to Moore 's instructions . In fact , Gibbons only suggested a single change to the script : a compression of Ozymandias ' narration while he was preventing a sneak attack by Rorschach , as he felt that the dialog was too long to fit with the amount of action expressed ; Moore agreed and re @-@ wrote the scene . Gibbons had a great deal of autonomy in developing the visual look of Watchmen , and frequently inserted background details that Moore admitted he did not notice until later . Moore occasionally contacted fellow comics writer Neil Gaiman for answers to research questions and for quotes to include in issues .

Despite his intentions , Moore admitted in November 1986 that there were likely to be delays , stating that he was , with issue five on the stands , still writing issue nine . Gibbons mentioned that a major factor in the delays was the " piecemeal way " in which he received Moore 's scripts . Gibbons said the team 's pace slowed around the fourth issue ; from that point onward the two undertook their work " just several pages at a time . I 'll get three pages of script from Alan and draw it and then toward the end , call him up and say , ' Feed me ! ' And he 'll send another two or three pages or maybe one page or sometimes six pages . " As the creators began to hit deadlines , Moore would hire a taxi driver to drive 50 miles and deliver scripts to Gibbons . On later issues the artist even had his wife and son draw panel grids on pages to help save time .

Near the end of the project , Moore realized that the story bore some similarity to " The Architects of Fear " , an episode of The Outer Limits television series . The writer and Wein argued over changing the ending , and when Moore refused to give in , Wein quit the book . Wein explained , " I kept telling him , ' Be more original , Alan , you 've got the capability , do something different , not something that 's already been done ! ' And he didn 't seem to care enough to do that . " Moore acknowledged the Outer Limits episode by referencing it in the series ' last issue .

= = Story = =

Watchmen is set in an alternate reality that closely mirrors the contemporary world of the 1980s . The primary difference is the presence of superheroes . The point of divergence occurs in the year 1938 . Their existence in this version of America is shown to have dramatically affected and altered the outcomes of real @-@ world events such as the Vietnam War and the presidency of Richard Nixon . In keeping with the realism of the series , although the costumed crimefighters of Watchmen are commonly called " superheroes " , only one ( Doctor Manhattan ) possesses any superhuman powers . The war in Vietnam ends with a U.S. victory in 1971 and Nixon is still president as of October 1985 . The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan occurs approximately six years later than in real life . When the story begins , the existence of Doctor Manhattan has given the U.S. a strategic advantage over the Soviet Union , which has increased tensions between the two nations . Eventually , superheroes grow unpopular among the police and the public , leading to the passage of legislation ( the Keene Act ) in 1977 to outlaw them . While many of the heroes retired , Doctor Manhattan and a veteran superhero known as The Comedian operate as government @-@ sanctioned agents . Another , Rorschach , continues to operate outside the law .

= = = Plot = = =

In October 1985 , New York City police are investigating the murder of Edward Blake . With the police having no leads , costumed vigilante Rorschach decides to probe further . Discovering Blake to be the face behind The Comedian , a costumed hero employed by the United States government , Rorschach believes he has discovered a plot to terminate costumed adventurers and sets about warning four of his retired comrades : Dan Dreiberg ( formerly the second Nite Owl ) , the superpowered and emotionally detached Doctor Manhattan and his lover Laurie Juspeczyk ( the second Silk Spectre ) , and Adrian Veidt ( once the hero Ozymandias , and now a successful businessman ) .

After Blake 's funeral , Manhattan is accused on national television of being the cause of cancer in friends and former colleagues . When the U.S. government takes the accusations seriously , Manhattan exiles himself to Mars . As Manhattan is one of the United States ' greatest military powers , his departure throws humanity into political turmoil , with the Soviet Union invading Afghanistan to capitalize on the perceived American weakness . Rorschach 's concerns appear vindicated when Adrian Veidt narrowly survives an assassination attempt , and Rorschach himself is framed for murdering Moloch , a former supervillain .

Neglected in her relationship with the once @-@ human Manhattan , whose now @-@ godlike powers and transformation have removed him completely from the everyday concerns of living beings and no longer kept on retainer by the government , Juspeczyk stays with Dreiberg ; they begin a romance , don their costumes , and resume vigilante work as they grow closer together . With Dreiberg starting to believe some aspects of Rorschach 's conspiracy theory , the pair take it upon themselves to break him out of prison . Manhattan , after looking back on his own personal history , places the fate of his involvement with human affairs in Juspeczyk 's hands . He teleports her to Mars to make the case for emotional investment . During the course of the argument , Juspeczyk is forced to come to terms with the fact that Blake , who once attempted to rape her mother , was in fact her biological father following a second , consensual relationship . This discovery , reflecting the complexity of human emotions and relationships , re @-@ sparks Manhattan 's interest in humanity .

On Earth , Nite Owl and Rorschach continue to uncover the conspiracy surrounding the death of The Comedian and the accusations that drove Manhattan into exile . They discover evidence that Veidt may be behind the plan . Rorschach writes his suspicions about Veidt in his journal , in which he has been recording his entire investigation , and mails it to New Frontiersman , a local right @-@ wing newspaper . The pair then leave New York and confront Veidt at his Antarctic retreat . Veidt explains his underlying plan is to save humanity from impending nuclear war between the United States and Soviet Union by faking an alien invasion in New York City , which will annihilate half the city 's population . He hopes this will unite the nations against a perceived common enemy . He also reveals that he had murdered The Comedian , arranged for Dr. Manhattan 's past associates to contract cancer , staged the attempt on his own life in order to place himself above suspicion , and killed Moloch in order to frame Rorschach . This was all done in an attempt to prevent his plan from being exposed . Nite Owl and Rorschach find Veidt 's logic callous and abhorrent , but Veidt has already enacted his plan .

When Manhattan and Juspeczyk arrive back on Earth , they are confronted by mass destruction and wide scale death in New York City , with a gigantic Cthulhu @-@ like creature , created by Veidt 's laboratories , dead in the middle of the city . Manhattan notices his abilities are limited by tachyons emanating from the Antarctic , and the pair teleport there . They discover Veidt 's involvement and confront him . Veidt shows everyone news broadcasts confirming the cessation of global hostilities and cooperation against a new threat ; this leads almost all present to agree that concealing Veidt 's truth from the public is in the best interests of the world to keep it united . Rorschach refuses to compromise and leaves , intent on revealing the truth . As he is making his way back , he is confronted by Manhattan . Rorschach tells Manhattan that he will have to kill him to stop him from exposing Veidt and his actions , and Manhattan responds by vaporizing him . Manhattan then wanders through the base and finds Veidt , who asks him if he did the right thing in the end . In response , Manhattan states that " Nothing ever ends " before leaving the Earth to create life elsewhere . Dreiberg and Juspeczyk go into hiding under new identities and continue their romance . Back in New York , the editor at New Frontiersman complains about having to pull a two @-@ page column about Russia due to the new political climate . He asks his assistant to find some filler material from the " crank file " , a collection of rejected submissions to the paper , many of which have not been reviewed yet . The series ends with the young man reaching toward the pile of discarded submissions , near the top of which is Rorschach 's journal .

= = Characters = =

With Watchmen , Alan Moore 's intention was to create four or five " radically opposing ways " to perceive the world and to give readers of the story the privilege of determining which one was most morally comprehensible . Moore did not believe in the notion of " [ cramming ] regurgitated morals " down the readers ' throats and instead sought to show heroes in an ambivalent light . Moore said , " What we wanted to do was show all of these people , warts and all . Show that even the worst of them had something going for them , and even the best of them had their flaws . "

Walter Joseph Kovacs / Rorschach

A vigilante who wears a white mask that contains a symmetrical but constantly shifting ink blot pattern , he continues to fight crime in spite of his outlaw status . Moore said he was trying to " come up with this quintessential Steve Ditko character — someone who 's got a funny name , whose surname begins with a ' K , ' who 's got an oddly designed mask " . Moore based Rorschach on Ditko 's creation Mr. A ; Ditko 's Charlton character The Question also served as a template for creating Rorschach . Comics historian Bradford W. Wright described the character 's world view " a set of black @-@ and @-@ white values that take many shapes but never mix into shades of gray , similar to the ink blot tests of his namesake " . Rorschach sees existence as random and , according to Wright , this viewpoint leaves the character " free to ' scrawl [ his ] own design ' on a ' morally blank world ' " . Moore said he did not foresee the death of Rorschach until the fourth issue when he realized that his refusal to compromise would result in him not surviving the story .

Edward Blake / The Comedian

One of two government @-@ sanctioned heroes ( along with Doctor Manhattan ) who remain active after the Keene Act is passed in 1977 to ban superheroes . His murder , which occurs shortly before the first chapter begins , sets the plot of Watchmen in motion . The character appears throughout the story in flashbacks and aspects of his personality are revealed by other characters . The Comedian was based on the Charlton Comics character Peacemaker , with elements of the Marvel Comics spy character Nick Fury added . Moore and Gibbons saw The Comedian as " a kind of Gordon Liddy character , only a much bigger , tougher guy " . Richard Reynolds described The Comedian as " ruthless , cynical , and nihilistic , and yet capable of deeper insights than the others into the role of the costumed hero . " He attempts to rape the first Silk Spectre in the 1940s . Issue nine reveals that years later he fathered her daughter Laurie as part of a consensual sexual relationship .

Dr. Jon Osterman / Doctor Manhattan

A superpowered being who is contracted by the United States government . Scientist Jon Osterman gained power over matter when he was caught in an " Intrinsic Field Subtractor " in 1959 . Doctor Manhattan was based upon Charlton 's Captain Atom , who in Moore 's original proposal was surrounded by the shadow of nuclear threat . However , the writer found he could do more with Manhattan as a " kind of a quantum super @-@ hero " than he could have with Captain Atom . In contrast to other superheroes who lacked scientific exploration of their origins , Moore sought to delve into nuclear physics and quantum physics in constructing the character of Dr. Manhattan . The writer believed that a character living in a quantum universe would not perceive time with a linear perspective , which would influence the character 's perception of human affairs . Moore also wanted to avoid creating an emotionless character like Spock from Star Trek , so he sought for Dr. Manhattan to retain " human habits " and to grow away from them and humanity in general . Gibbons had created the blue character Rogue Trooper , and explained he reused the blue skin motif for Doctor Manhattan as it resembles white skin tonally , but has a different hue . Moore incorporated the color into the story , and Gibbons noted the rest of the comic 's color scheme made Manhattan unique . Moore recalled that he was unsure if DC would allow the creators to depict the character as fully nude , which partially influenced how they portrayed the character . Gibbons wanted to be tasteful in depicting Manhattan 's nudity , selecting carefully when full frontal shots would occur and giving him " understated " genitals — like a classical sculpture — so the reader would not initially notice it .

Daniel Dreiberg / Nite Owl

A retired superhero who utilizes owl @-@ themed gadgets . Nite Owl was based on the Ted Kord version of the Blue Beetle . Paralleling the way Ted Kord had a predecessor , Moore also incorporated an earlier adventurer who used the name " Nite Owl " , the retired crime fighter Hollis Mason , into Watchmen . While Moore devised character notes for Gibbons to work from , the artist provided a name and a costume design for Hollis Mason he had created when he was twelve . Richard Reynolds noted in Super Heroes : A Modern Mythology that despite the character 's Charlton roots , Nite Owl 's modus operandi has more in common with the DC Comics character Batman . According to Klock , his civilian form " visually suggests an impotent , middle @-@ aged Clark Kent . "

Adrian Veidt / Ozymandias

Drawing inspiration from Alexander the Great , Veidt was once the superhero Ozymandias , but has since retired to devote his attention to the running of his own enterprises . Veidt is believed to be the smartest man on the planet . Ozymandias was based on Peter Cannon , Thunderbolt ; Moore liked the idea of a character who " us [ ed ] the full 100 % of his brain " and " [ had ] complete physical and mental control " . Richard Reynolds noted that by taking initiative to " help the world " , Veidt displays a trait normally attributed to villains in superhero stories , and in a sense he is the " villain " of the series . Gibbons noted , " One of the worst of his sins [ is ] kind of looking down on the rest of humanity , scorning the rest of humanity . "

Laurie Juspeczyk / Silk Spectre

The daughter of Sally Jupiter ( the first Silk Spectre , with whom she has a strained relationship ) and The Comedian . Of Polish heritage , she had been the lover of Doctor Manhattan for years . While Silk Spectre was based partially on the Charlton character Nightshade , Moore was not impressed by the character and drew more from heroines such as Black Canary and Phantom Lady .

= = Art and composition = =

Moore and Gibbons designed Watchmen to showcase the unique qualities of the comics medium and to highlight its particular strengths . In a 1986 interview , Moore said , " What I 'd like to explore is the areas that comics succeed in where no other media is capable of operating " , and emphasized this by stressing the differences between comics and film . Moore said that Watchmen was designed to be read " four or five times " , with some links and allusions only becoming apparent to the reader after several readings . Dave Gibbons notes that , " [ a ] s it progressed , Watchmen became much more about the telling than the tale itself . The main thrust of the story essentially hinges on what is called a macguffin , a gimmick ... So really the plot itself is of no great consequence ... it just really isn 't the most interesting thing about Watchmen . As we actually came to tell the tale , that 's where the real creativity came in . "

Gibbons said he deliberately constructed the visual look of Watchmen so that each page would be identifiable as part of that particular series and " not some other comic book " . He made a concerted effort to draw the characters in a manner different than that commonly seen in comics . The artist tried to draw the series with " a particular weight of line , using a hard , stiff pen that didn 't have much modulation in terms of thick and thin " which he hoped " would differentiate it from the usual lush , fluid kind of comic book line " . In a 2009 interview , Moore recalled that he took advantage of Gibbons ' training as a former surveyor for " including incredible amounts of detail in every tiny panel , so we could choreograph every little thing " . Gibbons described the series as " a comic about comics " . Gibbons felt that " Alan is more concerned with the social implications of [ the presence of super @-@ heroes ] and I 've gotten involved in the technical implications . " The story 's alternate world setting allowed Gibbons to change details of the American landscape , such as adding electric cars , slightly different buildings , and spark hydrants instead of fire hydrants , which Moore said , " perhaps gives the American readership a chance in some ways to see their own culture as an outsider would " . Gibbons noted that the setting was liberating for him because he did not have to rely primarily on reference books .

Colorist John Higgins used a template that was " moodier " and favored secondary colors . Moore stated that he had also " always loved John 's coloring , but always associated him with being an airbrush colorist " , which Moore was not fond of ; Higgins subsequently decided to color Watchmen in European @-@ style flat color . Moore noted that the artist paid particular attention to lighting and subtle color changes ; in issue six , Higgins began with " warm and cheerful " colors and throughout the issue gradually made it darker to give the story a dark and bleak feeling .

= = = Structure = = =

Structurally , certain aspects of Watchmen deviated from the norm in comic books at the time , particularly the panel layout and the coloring . Instead of panels of various sizes , the creators divided each page into a nine @-@ panel grid . Gibbons favored the nine @-@ panel grid system due to its " authority " . Moore accepted the use of the nine @-@ panel grid format , which " gave him a level of control over the storytelling he hadn 't had previously " , according to Gibbons . " There was this element of the pacing and visual impact that he could now predict and use to dramatic effect . " Bhob Stewart of The Comics Journal mentioned to Gibbons in 1987 , that the page layouts recalled those of EC Comics , in addition to the art itself , which Stewart felt particularly echoed that of John Severin . Gibbons agreed that the echoing of the EC @-@ style layouts " was a very deliberate thing " , although his inspiration was rather Harvey Kurtzman , but it was altered enough to give the series a unique look . The artist also cited Steve Ditko 's work on early issues of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man as an influence , as well as Doctor Strange , where " even at his most psychedelic [ he ] would still keep a pretty straight page layout " .

The cover of each issue serves as the first panel to the story . Gibbons said , " The cover of the Watchmen is in the real world and looks quite real , but it 's starting to turn into a comic book , a portal to another dimension . " The covers were designed as close @-@ ups that focused on a single detail with no human elements present . The creators on occasion experimented with the layout of the issue contents . Gibbons drew issue five , titled " Fearful Symmetry " , so the first page mirrors the last ( in terms of frame disposition ) , with the following pages mirroring each other before the center @-@ spread is ( broadly ) symmetrical in layout .

The end of each issue , with the exception of issue twelve , contains supplemental prose pieces written by Moore . Among the contents are fictional book chapters , letters , reports , and articles written by various Watchmen characters . DC had trouble selling ad space in issues of Watchmen , which left an extra eight to nine pages per issue . DC planned to insert house ads and a longer letters column to fill the space , but editor Len Wein felt this would be unfair to anyone who wrote in during the last four issues of the series . He decided to use the extra pages to fill out the series ' backstory . Moore said , " By the time we got around to issue # 3 , # 4 , and so on , we thought that the book looked nice without a letters page . It looks less like a comic book , so we stuck with it . "

= = = Tales of the Black Freighter = = =

Watchmen features a story within a story in the form of Tales of the Black Freighter , a fictional comic book from which scenes appear in issues three , five , eight , ten , and eleven . The fictional comic 's story , " Marooned " , is read by a youth in New York City . Moore and Gibbons conceived a pirate comic because they reasoned that since the characters of Watchmen experience superheroes in real life , " they probably wouldn 't be at all interested in superhero comics . " Gibbons suggested a pirate theme , and Moore agreed in part because he is " a big Bertolt Brecht fan " : the Black Freighter alludes to the song " Seeräuberjenny " ( " Pirate Jenny " ) from Brecht 's Threepenny Opera . Moore theorized that since superheroes existed , and existed as " objects of fear , loathing , and scorn , the main superheroes quickly fell out of popularity in comic books , as we suggest . Mainly , genres like horror , science fiction , and piracy , particularly piracy , became prominent — with EC riding the crest of the wave . " Moore felt " the imagery of the whole pirate genre is so rich and dark that it provided a perfect counterpoint to the contemporary world of Watchmen " . The writer expanded upon the premise so that its presentation in the story would add subtext and allegory . The supplemental article detailing the fictional history of Tales of the Black Freighter at the end of issue five credits real @-@ life artist Joe Orlando as a major contributor to the series . Moore chose Orlando because he felt that if pirate stories were popular in the Watchmen universe that DC editor Julius Schwartz might have tried to lure the artist over to the company to draw a pirate comic book . Orlando contributed a drawing designed as if it were a page from the fake title to the supplemental piece .

In " Marooned " , a young mariner ( called " The Sea Captain " ) journeys to warn his home town of the coming of the Black Freighter , after he survives the destruction of his own ship . He uses the bodies of his dead shipmates as a makeshift raft . When he finally returns home , believing it to be already under the occupation of the Black Freighter 's crew , he kills an innocent couple and then attacks his own wife in their darkened home , mistaking her for a pirate . After realizing what he has done , he returns to the sea shore , where he finds that the Black Freighter has not come to claim the town ; it has come to claim him . He swims out to sea and climbs aboard the ship . According to Richard Reynold , the mariner is " forced by the urgency of his mission to shed one inhibition after another . " Just like Adrian Veidt , he " hopes to stave off disaster by using the dead bodies of his former comrades as a means of reaching his goal " . Moore stated that the story of The Black Freighter ends up specifically describing " the story of Adrian Veidt " and that it can also be used as a counterpoint to other parts of the story , such as Rorschach 's capture and Dr. Manhattan 's self @-@ exile on Mars .

= = = Symbols and imagery = = =

Moore named William S. Burroughs as one of his main influences during the conception of Watchmen . He admired Burroughs ' use of " repeated symbols that would become laden with meaning " in Burroughs ' only comic strip , " The Unspeakable Mr. Hart " , which appeared in the British underground magazine Cyclops . Not every intertextual link in the series was planned by Moore , who remarked that " there 's stuff in there Dave had put in that even I only noticed on the sixth or seventh read " , while other " things ... turned up in there by accident . "

A stained smiley face is a recurring image in the story , appearing in many forms . In The System of Comics , Thierry Groensteen described the symbol as a recurring motif that produces " rhyme and remarkable configurations " by appearing in key segments of Watchmen , notably the first and last pages of the series - spattered with blood on the first , and sauce from a hamburger on the last . Groensteen cites it as one form of the circle shape that appears throughout the story , as a " recurrent geometric motif " and due to its symbolic connotations . Gibbons created a smiley face badge as an element of The Comedian 's costume in order to " lighten " the overall design , later adding a splash of blood to the badge to imply his murder . Gibbons said the creators came to regard the blood @-@ stained smiley face as " a symbol for the whole series " , noting its resemblance to the Doomsday Clock ticking up to midnight . Moore drew inspiration from psychological tests of behaviorism , explaining that the tests had presented the face as " a symbol of complete innocence " . With the addition of a blood splash over the eye , the face 's meaning was altered to become simultaneously radical and simple enough for the first issue 's cover to avoid human detail . Although most evocations of the central image were created on purpose , others were coincidental . Moore mentioned in particular that " the little plugs on the spark hydrants , if you turn them upside down , you discover a little smiley face " .

Other symbols , images and allusion that appeared throughout the series often emerged unexpectedly . Moore mentioned that " [ t ] he whole thing with Watchmen has just been loads of these little bits of synchronicity popping up all over the place " . Gibbons noted an unintended theme was contrasting the mundane and the romantic , citing the separate sex scenes between Nite Owl and Silk Spectre on his couch and then high in the sky on Nite Owl 's airship . In a book of the craters and boulders of Mars , Gibbons discovered a photograph of the Galle crater , which resembles a happy face , which they worked into an issue . Moore said , " We found a lot of these things started to generate themselves as if by magic " , in particular citing an occasion where they decided to name a lock company the " Gordian Knot Lock Company " .

= = Themes = =

The initial premise for the series was to examine what superheroes would be like " in a credible , real world " . As the story became more complex , Moore said Watchmen became about " power and about the idea of the superman manifest within society . " The title of the series refers to the question " Who watches the watchmen ? " , famously posed by the Roman satirist Juvenal ( as " Quis custodiet ipsos custodes ? " ) , although Moore was not aware of the phrase 's classical origins until Harlan Ellison informed him about them . Moore commented in 1987 , " In the context of Watchmen , that fits . ' They 're watching out for us , who 's watching out for them ? ' " The writer stated in the introduction to the Graphitti hardcover of Watchmen that while writing the series he was able to purge himself of his nostalgia for superheroes , and instead he found an interest in real human beings .

Bradford Wright described Watchmen as " Moore 's obituary for the concept of heroes in general and superheroes in particular . " Putting the story in a contemporary sociological context , Wright wrote that the characters of Watchmen were Moore 's " admonition to those who trusted in ' heroes ' and leaders to guard the world 's fate . " He added that to place faith in such icons was to give up personal responsibility to " the Reagans , Thatchers , and other ' Watchmen ' of the world who supposed to ' rescue ' us and perhaps lay waste to the planet in the process " . Moore specifically stated in 1986 that he was writing Watchmen to be " not anti @-@ Americanism , [ but ] anti @-@ Reaganism " , specifically believing that " at the moment a certain part of Reagan 's America isn 't scared . They think they 're invulnerable . " Before the series premiered , Gibbons stated " There 's no overt political message at all . It 's a fantasy extrapolation of what might happen and if people can see things in it that apply to the real America , then they 're reading it into the comic .... " While Moore wanted to write about " power politics " and the " worrying " times he lived in , he stated the reason that the story was set in an alternate reality was because he was worried that readers would " switch off " if he attacked a leader they admired . Moore stated in 1986 that he " was consciously trying to do something that would make people feel uneasy . "

Citing Watchmen as the point where the comic book medium " came of age " , Iain Thomson wrote in his essay " Deconstructing the Hero " that the story accomplished this by " developing its heroes precisely in order to deconstruct the very idea of the hero and so encouraging us to reflect upon its significance from the many different angles of the shards left lying on the ground " . Thomson stated that the heroes in Watchmen almost all share a nihilistic outlook , and that Moore presents this outlook " as the simple , unvarnished truth " to " deconstruct the would @-@ be hero 's ultimate motivation , namely , to provide a secular salvation and so attain a mortal immortality " . He wrote that the story " develops its heroes precisely in order to ask us if we would not in fact be better off without heroes " . Thomson added that the story 's deconstruction of the hero concept " suggests that perhaps the time for heroes has passed " , which he feels distinguishes " this postmodern work " from the deconstructions of the hero in the existentialism movement . Richard Reynolds states that without any supervillains in the story , the superheroes of Watchmen are forced to confront " more intangible social and moral concerns " , adding that this removes the superhero concept from the normal narrative expectations of the genre . Reynolds concludes that the series ' ironic self @-@ awareness of the genre " all mark out Watchmen either as the last key superhero text , or the first in a new maturity of the genre " .

Geoff Klock eschewed the term " deconstruction " in favor of describing Watchmen as a " revisionary superhero narrative . " He considers Watchmen and Frank Miller 's Batman : The Dark Knight Returns to be " the first instances ... of [ a ] new kind of comic book ... a first phase of development , the transition of the superhero from fantasy to literature . " He elaborates by noting that " Alan Moore 's realism ... performs a kenosis towards comic book history ... [ which ] does not ennoble and empower his characters ... Rather , it sends a wave of disruption back through superhero history ... devalue [ ing ] one of the basic superhero conventions by placing his masked crime fighters in a realistic world " . First and foremost , " Moore 's exploration of the [ often sexual ] motives for costumed crimefighting sheds a disturbing light on past superhero stories , and forces the reader to reevaluate — to revision — every superhero in terms of Moore 's kenosis — his emptying out of the tradition . " Klock relates the title to the quote by Juvenal to highlight the problem of controlling those who hold power and quoted repeatedly within the work itself . The deconstructive nature of Watchmen is , Klock notes , played out on the page also as , " [ l ] ike Alan Moore 's kenosis , [ Veidt ] must destroy , then reconstruct , in order to build ' a unity which would survive him . ' "

Moore has expressed dismay that " [ t ] he gritty , deconstructivist postmodern superhero comic , as exemplified by Watchmen ... became a genre " . He said in 2003 that " to some degree there has been , in the 15 years since Watchmen , an awful lot of the comics field devoted to these grim , pessimistic , nasty , violent stories which kind of use Watchmen to validate what are , in effect , often just some very nasty stories that don 't have a lot to recommend them . " Gibbons said that while readers " were left with the idea that it was a grim and gritty kind of thing " , he said in his view the series was " a wonderful celebration of superheroes as much as anything else . "

= = Publication and reception = =

Watchmen was first mentioned publicly in the 1985 Amazing Heroes Preview . When Moore and Gibbons turned in the first issue of their series to DC , Gibbons recalled , " What really clinched it ... was [ writer / artist ] Howard Chaykin , who doesn 't give praise lightly , and who came up and said , ' Dave what you 've done on Watchmen is fuckin ' A. ' " Speaking in 1986 , Moore said , " DC backed us all the way ... and have been really supportive about even the most graphic excesses . " To promote the series , DC Comics released a limited @-@ edition badge ( " button " ) display card set , featuring characters and images from the series . Ten thousand sets of the four badges , including a replica of the blood @-@ stained smiley face badge worn by the Comedian in the story , were released and sold . Mayfair Games introduced a Watchmen module for its DC Heroes Role @-@ playing Game series that was released before the series concluded . The module , which was endorsed by Moore , adds details to the series ' backstory by portraying events that occurred in 1966 .

Watchmen was published in single @-@ issue form over the course of 1986 and 1987 . The limited series was a commercial success , and its sales helped DC Comics briefly overtake its competitor Marvel Comics in the comic book direct market . The series ' publishing schedule ran into delays because it was scheduled with three issues completed instead of the six editor Len Wein believed were necessary . Further delays were caused when later issues each took more than a month to complete . One contemporaneous report noted that although DC solicited issue # 12 for publication in April 1987 , it became apparent " it won 't debut until July or August " .

After the series concluded , the individual issues were collected and sold in trade paperback form . Along with Frank Miller 's 1986 Batman : The Dark Knight Returns miniseries , Watchmen was marketed as a " graphic novel " , a term that allowed DC and other publishers to sell similar comic book collections in a way that associated them with novels and dissociated them from comics . As a result of the publicity given to the books like the Watchmen trade in 1987 , bookstore and public libraries began to devote special shelves to them . Subsequently , new comics series were commissioned on the basis of reprinting them in a collected form for these markets .

Watchmen received critical praise , both inside and outside of the comics industry . Time magazine , which noted that the series was " by common assent the best of breed " of the new wave of comics published at the time , praised Watchmen as " a superlative feat of imagination , combining sci @-@ fi , political satire , knowing evocations of comics past and bold reworkings of current graphic formats into a dysutopian [ sic ] mystery story . " In 1988 , Watchmen received a Hugo Award in the Other Forms category .

= = = Ownership disputes = = =

Disagreements about the ownership of the story ultimately led Moore to sever ties with DC Comics . Not wanting to work under a work for hire arrangement , Moore and Gibbons had a reversion clause in their contract for Watchmen . Speaking at the 1985 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , Moore said , " The way it works , if I understand it , is that DC owns it for the time they 're publishing it , and then it reverts to Dave and me , so we can make all the money from the Slurpee cups . " For Watchmen , Moore and Gibbons received eight percent of the series ' earnings . Moore explained in 1986 that his understanding was that when " DC have not used the characters for a year , they 're ours . " Both Moore and Gibbons said DC paid them " a substantial amount of money " to retain the rights . Moore added , " So basically they 're not ours , but if DC is working with the characters in our interests then they might as well be . On the other hand , if the characters have outlived their natural life span and DC doesn 't want to do anything with them , then after a year we 've got them and we can do what we want with them , which I 'm perfectly happy with . "

Moore said he left DC in 1989 due to the language in his contracts for Watchmen and his V for Vendetta series with artist David Lloyd . Moore felt the reversion clauses were ultimately meaningless , because DC did not intend to let the publications go out of print . He told The New York Times in 2006 , " I said , ' Fair enough , ' [ ... ] ' You have managed to successfully swindle me , and so I will never work for you again . ' " In 2000 , Moore publicly distanced himself from DC 's plans for a 15th anniversary Watchmen hardcover release as well as a proposed line of action figures from DC Direct . While DC wanted to mend its relationship with the writer , Moore felt the company was not treating him fairly in regards to his America 's Best Comics imprint ( launched under the WildStorm comic imprint , which was bought by DC in 1998 ; Moore was promised no direct interference by DC as part of the arrangement ) . Moore added , " As far as I 'm concerned , the 15th anniversary of Watchmen is purely a 15th Anniversary of when DC managed to take the Watchmen property from me and Dave [ Gibbons ] . " Soon afterward , DC Direct cancelled the Watchmen action @-@ figure line , despite the company having displayed prototypes at the 2000 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .

= = Prequel projects = =

Moore stated in 1985 that if the limited series was well @-@ received , he and Gibbons would possibly create a 12 @-@ issue prequel series called Minutemen featuring the 1940s superhero group from the story . DC offered Moore and Gibbons chances to publish prequels to the series , such as Rorschach 's Journal or The Comedian 's Vietnam War Diary , as well as hinting at the possibility of other authors using the same universe . Tales of the Comedian 's Vietnam War experiences were floated because The ' Nam was popular at the time , while another suggestion was , according to Gibbons , for a " Nite Owl / Rorschach team " ( in the manner of Randall and Hopkirk ( Deceased ) ) . Neither man felt the stories would have gone anywhere , with Moore particularly adamant that DC not go forward with stories by other individuals . Gibbons was more attracted to the idea of a Minutemen series , because it would have " [ paid ] homage to the simplicity and unsophisticated nature of Golden Age comic books — with the added dramatic interest that it would be a story whose conclusion is already known . It would be , perhaps , interesting to see how we got to the conclusion . "

In 2010 , Moore told Wired that DC offered him the rights to Watchmen back , if he would agree to prequel and sequel projects . Moore said that " if they said that 10 years ago , when I asked them for that , then yeah it might have worked ... But these days I don 't want Watchmen back . Certainly , I don 't want it back under those kinds of terms . " DC Comics co @-@ publishers Dan DiDio and Jim Lee responded , " DC Comics would only revisit these iconic characters if the creative vision of any proposed new stories matched the quality set by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons nearly 25 years ago , and our first discussion on any of this would naturally be with the creators themselves . " Following months of rumors about a potential Watchmen follow @-@ up project , in February 2012 DC announced it was publishing seven prequel series under the " Before Watchmen " banner . Among the creators involved are writers J. Michael Straczynski , Brian Azzarello , Darwyn Cooke , and Len Wein , and artists Lee Bermejo , J. G. Jones , Adam Hughes , Andy Kubert , Joe Kubert , and Amanda Conner . Though Moore has no involvement , Gibbons gave the project his blessing .

= = Adaptations = =

= = = Film adaptation = = =

There have been numerous attempts to make a film version of Watchmen since 1986 , when producers Lawrence Gordon and Joel Silver acquired film rights to the series for 20th Century Fox . Fox asked Alan Moore to write a screenplay based on his story , but he declined , so the studio enlisted screenwriter Sam Hamm . Hamm took the liberty of re @-@ writing Watchmen 's complicated ending into a " more manageable " conclusion involving an assassination and a time paradox . Fox put the project into turnaround in 1991 , and the project was moved to Warner Bros. , where Terry Gilliam was attached to direct and Charles McKeown to rewrite it . They used the character Rorschach 's diary as a voice @-@ over and restored scenes from the comic book that Hamm had removed . Gilliam and Silver were only able to raise $ 25 million for the film ( a quarter of the necessary budget ) because their previous films had gone over budget . Gilliam abandoned the project because he decided that Watchmen would have been unfilmable . " Reducing [ the story ] to a two or two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hour film [ ... ] seemed to me to take away the essence of what Watchmen is about . " he said . After Warner Bros. dropped the project , Gordon invited Gilliam back to helm the film independently . The director again declined , believing that the comic book would be better directed as a five @-@ hour miniseries .

In October 2001 , Gordon partnered with Lloyd Levin and Universal Studios , hiring David Hayter to write and direct . Hayter and the producers left Universal due to creative differences , and Gordon and Levin expressed interest in setting up Watchmen at Revolution Studios . The project did not hold together at Revolution Studios and subsequently fell apart . In July 2004 , it was announced Paramount Pictures would produce Watchmen , and they attached Darren Aronofsky to direct Hayter 's script . Producers Gordon and Levin remained attached , collaborating with Aronofsky 's producing partner , Eric Watson . Aronofsky left to focus on The Fountain and was replaced by Paul Greengrass . Ultimately , Paramount placed Watchmen in turnaround .

In October 2005 , Gordon and Levin met with Warner Bros. to develop the film there again . Impressed with Zack Snyder 's work on 300 , Warner Bros. approached him to direct an adaptation of Watchmen . Screenwriter Alex Tse drew from his favorite elements of Hayter 's script , but also returned it to the original Cold War setting of the Watchmen comic . Similar to his approach to 300 , Snyder used the comic book panel @-@ grid as a storyboard and opted to shoot the entire film using live @-@ action sets instead of green screens . He extended the fight scenes , and added a subplot about energy resources to make the film more topical . Although he intended to stay faithful to the look of the characters in the comic , Snyder intended Nite Owl to look scarier , and made Ozymandias ' armor into a parody of the rubber muscle suits from the 1997 superhero film Batman & Robin . After the trailer to the film premiered in July 2008 , DC Comics president Paul Levitz said that the company had to print more than 900 @,@ 000 copies of Watchmen trade collection to meet the additional demand for the book that the advertising campaign had generated , with the total annual print run expected to be over one million copies . While 20th Century Fox filed a lawsuit to block the film 's release , the studios eventually settled , with Warner agreeing to give Fox 8 @.@ 5 percent of the film 's worldwide gross , including from sequels and spin @-@ offs in return . The film was released to theaters in March 2009 .

The Tales of the Black Freighter segments was adapted as a direct @-@ to @-@ video animated feature to be released that same month . Gerard Butler , who starred in 300 , voices the Captain in the film . The film itself was released on DVD four months after Tales of the Black Freighter , and in November 2009 , a four @-@ disc set was released as the " Ultimate Cut " with the animated film edited back into the main picture . Len Wein , the comic 's editor , wrote a video game prequel entitled Watchmen : The End Is Nigh .

Dave Gibbons became an adviser on Snyder 's film , but Moore has refused to have his name attached to any film adaptations of his work . Moore has stated he has no interest in seeing Snyder 's adaptation ; he told Entertainment Weekly in 2008 , " There are things that we did with Watchmen that could only work in a comic , and were indeed designed to show off things that other media can 't " . While Moore believes that David Hayter 's screenplay was " as close as I could imagine anyone getting to Watchmen " , he asserted he did not intend to see the film if it were made .

= = = Motion comic = = =

In 2008 , Warner Bros. Entertainment released Watchmen Motion Comics , a series of narrated animations of the original comic book . The first chapter was released for purchase in the summer of 2008 on digital video stores , such as iTunes Store . A DVD compiling the full motion comic series was released in March 2009 .

= = = TV series = = =

According to Collider.com , HBO is meeting with Snyder to discuss a potential Watchmen TV series .

= = Legacy = =

A critical and commercial success , Watchmen is highly regarded in the comics industry and is frequently considered by several critics and reviewers as comics ' greatest series and graphic novel . In time , the series has also become one of the best @-@ selling graphic novels ever published . Watchmen was the only graphic novel to appear on Time 's 2005 " All @-@ Time 100 Greatest Novels " list , where Time critic Lev Grossman described the story as " a heart @-@ pounding , heartbreaking read and a watershed in the evolution of a young medium . " It later appeared on Time 's 2009 " Top 10 Graphic Novels " list , where Grossman further praised Watchmen , proclaiming " It ’ s way beyond cliché at this point to call Watchmen the greatest superhero comic ever written @-@ slash @-@ drawn . But it ’ s true . " In 2008 , Entertainment Weekly placed Watchmen at number 13 on its list of the best 50 novels printed in the last 25 years , describing it as " The greatest superhero story ever told and proof that comics are capable of smart , emotionally resonant narratives worthy of the label ' literature ' . " The Comics Journal , however , ranked Watchmen at number 91 on its list of the Top 100 English @-@ language comics of the 20th century .

In Art of the Comic Book : An Aesthetic History , Robert Harvey wrote that , with Watchmen , Moore and Gibbons " had demonstrated as never before the capacity of the [ comic book ] medium to tell a sophisticated story that could be engineered only in comics " . In his review of the Absolute Edition of the collection , Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times wrote that the dark legacy of Watchmen , " one that Moore almost certainly never intended , whose DNA is encoded in the increasingly black inks and bleak storylines that have become the essential elements of the contemporary superhero comic book , " is " a domain he has largely ceded to writers and artists who share his fascination with brutality but not his interest in its consequences , his eagerness to tear down old boundaries but not his drive to find new ones . " Alan Moore himself said his intentions with works like Marvelman and Watchmen were to liberate comics and open them up to new and fresh ideas , thus creating more diversity in the comics world by showing the industry what could be done with already existing concepts . Instead it had the opposite effect , causing the superhero comic to end up stuck in a " depressive ghetto of grimness and psychosis " . In 2009 , Lydia Millet of The Wall Street Journal contested that Watchmen was worthy of such acclaim , and wrote that while the series ' " vividly drawn panels , moody colors and lush imagery make its popularity well @-@ deserved , if disproportionate " , that " it 's simply bizarre to assert that , as an illustrated literary narrative , it rivals in artistic merit , say , masterpieces like Chris Ware 's ' Acme Novelty Library ' or almost any part of the witty and brilliant work of Edward Gorey " .

Watchmen was one of the two comic books , alongside Batman : The Dark Knight Returns , that inspired designer Vincent Connare when he created the Comic Sans font .

In 2009 , Brain Scan Studios released the parody Watchmensch , a comic in which writer Rich Johnston chronicled " the debate surrounding Watchmen , the original contracts , the current legal suits over the Fox contract " .

= Ro Laren =

Ro Laren is a fictional character who appears on a recurring basis in the fifth , sixth and seventh series of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . Portrayed by Michelle Forbes , she is a member of the Bajoran race who joins the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ D at the invitation of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . The character was intended to both be at odds with the series regulars , as well as to replace Wesley Crusher at the conn officer post on the bridge . Forbes was cast to portray Ro , after previously appearing in the series as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " .

The character first appears in the fifth season episode " Ensign Ro " , which reveals elements of Ro 's backstory . She continued to appear throughout that season , and made a further appearance in each of the sixth and seventh seasons . Starfleet sought her aid to help the Cardassians apprehend a Bajoran terrorist . After joining the Enterprise crew , she wants to abandon the engineering section of the vessel following a series of power failures in " Disaster " . Alongside Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) , she is affected by a Romulan experiment in " The Next Phase " and must help prevent the aliens from destroying the Enterprise . In " Rascals " , she is one of the crew who are transformed into children and helps prevent a Ferengi plot . When making her final appearance in " Preemptive Strike " , she is tasked by Starfleet to infiltrate the Maquis , eventually defecting and joining them permanently .

Ro was also planned to be a main character in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . However , Forbes turned down the role , so Kira Nerys was created to replace her . In the non @-@ canonical novels , Ro eventually joins the Bajoran militia and is posted onto Deep Space Nine . She re @-@ joins Starfleet when Bajor joins the Federation , and eventually becomes captain of the station . Reviewers discussed the religious views of Ro , comparing her views to those of Kira . Ro has been received positively by both critics and fans alike . Critics have praised the performances of Forbes , and the interaction of Ro with the existing characters . She has been placed in several polls listing the most popular characters , with Jordan Hoffman calling her the second strongest female character in the franchise .

= = Concept and development = =

During the course of planning out the fifth season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , the producers were looking to add a recurring character who could conflict with the regular cast at times as well as a new conn officer to replace Wesley Crusher . With that in mind , the episode " Ensign Ro " was written by Michael Piller , from a story idea created in conjunction with Rick Berman , to specifically introduce the character of Ensign Ro Laren . The episode was designed to show a backstory for the character , who would be at odds with series creator Gene Roddenberry 's ideal that Starfleet officers should all work together seamlessly . One of her major character traits was that she would be a member of an oppressed people , whose homeworld had been conquered by another . Supervising producer Jeri Taylor explained that they had sought to add some " fresh life " using a darker character .

Michelle Forbes was asked to return to the series , after impressing the producers with her performance as Dara in the episode " Half a Life " . The character was the daughter of Timicin , played by David Ogden Stiers , and supported the tradition that her father should commit ritual suicide upon reaching a certain age . The Bajoran make @-@ up was created on her , with Michael Westmore seeking to make her look different from the rest of the crew but in a way that would not detract from her appearance . Westmore created an appliance over Forbes ' nose , before adding a row of ridges while it was on her face . It was designed to be as thin and weightless as possible , as he wanted the piece to move with Forbes ' facial expressions . Her version of the make @-@ up had seven ridges , while other actors in " Ensign Ro " had different numbers , between five and nine , with the male actors wearing larger pieces .

Piller described the addition of Ro to the cast as one of that season 's biggest accomplishments , and was pleased that it was well received . He added that in " Ensign Ro " , they made a deliberate decision to have Ro embraced by Guinan in order to ensure that the fans warmed to the new addition . Piller felt that when Guinan took Ro to meet Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard in that episode , the character was effectively presenting Ro to the fans of the series and endorsing her . During the writing process , he felt that once he came across the friendship between Guinan and Ro that he believed " we had really done something magnificent " . Forbes , meanwhile , praised the writing and the cast of the series , saying that she had " become very attached to Star Trek " .

Piller was disappointed with the following Ro episode , " Disaster " , as it put her in the position of disbelieving Councillor Deanna Troi without having had the weight of " victories " in the past to convince the viewer of the power of her convictions . But he enjoyed her sudden relationship with Commander William Riker in " Conundrum " . Forbes shared the view of that episode , later saying " When you have amnesia , you wonder if that brings out a side of you that 's always wanted to come out . Would you really be comfortable with that ? It 's an interesting thing . I had a really good time with that episode . " Later in the season , " The Next Phase " was written with the idea of being a vehicle for Geordi La Forge and Troi , but it was decided to include Ro instead as one of the lead characters . Ro had been included as one of three lead characters in Morgan Gendel 's original pitch for the episode " The Inner Light " . This would have seen her in a love triangle with Picard and Riker . Instead , the concept was redeveloped to focus solely on Picard .

Forbes made a single appearance in the sixth season , in the episode " Rascals " . In the plot of the episode , a transporter accidentally turns Ro , among others , in a child . There was some consideration after the episode about whether or not to keep Ro as a child , as her return to adulthood was never shown on screen . Taylor said that the change would have been " too drastic for us " , and the idea was abandoned . Her final appearance , in the penultimate episode of the series , " Preemptive Strike " , had been considered a long shot by the producers . After the failure to agree her appearances on Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , Forbes ' agent had warned them to stay away from her . A week prior to filming , there was no story created for the episode other than the idea it would follow on from the Deep Space Nine episode " The Maquis " , and no agreement had been reached with Forbes to appear . Her agent indicated that Forbes wanted to talk directly to the producers , so she made the phone call , making up a story for the episode as the conversation went on . Forbes agreed , making her final appearance in the franchise . The character was promoted to Lieutenant , and Forbes wore updated Bajoran makeup developed by Westmore for Deep Space Nine .

= = = Star Trek : Deep Space Nine = = =

" Ensign Ro " proved influential on the creation of Deep Space Nine , with the Bajorans and Cardassians taken directly from the episode . The character was included in the original series description , stationed on the Bajor @-@ based Starfleet station and the producers had planned for her to be promoted to Lieutenant in an episode of The Next Generation prior to the start of Deep Space Nine . Taylor had expected Ro to be written out of The Next Generation , and so had taken some steps to see that the character was replaced . She said that " We all just love Michelle Forbes " , but the plans to replace Ro would not seek to add someone with the type of fire shown by the character in such episodes as " The Next Phase " . She also said that if Ro to remain on The Next Generation , then the character would have naturally evolved away from that conflicted position anyway .

The intention was that Ro would be one of a handful of The Next Generation characters moving over to the new series , alongside Miles and Keiko O 'Brien . At this stage , the other characters were only described as a wheelchair @-@ bound science officer , a brash doctor , a civilian law enforcer , a bar owner and the station commander and his son . Ro 's position on the station would have been to act as the liaison between the station and the Bajoran government . As described in the series bible , the producers had planned for Ro to be a point of conflict with " by @-@ the @-@ book Starfleet officers " . Regarding the other main characters , she was planned to have a friendship with Odo and be mentored by Jadzia Dax .

Both Berman and Piller sought to have Forbes sign on to portray Ro as a main character in the series , but she turned them down . She liked making occasional appearances on The Next Generation , but did not want to tie herself down to a five to six year main cast contract at that point in her career . She was also apprehensive about the types of demands fan appearances made on the stars of that series , and did not want to undertake the level of appearances that would be expected of a main cast member in Deep Space Nine . The producers of Deep Space Nine decided create a new character to fit a similar mould , which resulted in the creation of Kira Nerys , who was played by Nana Visitor . This was designed to require as minimal a change as possible in the premise of the pilot at that time , which was already under production . During the course of the series , Forbes told interviewers that she was interested in making one @-@ off appearances in the series if she liked the story and role .

= = Appearances = =

= = = Background = = =

In accordance with Bajoran tradition , her family name precedes her personal name . When she first joins the crew of the Enterprise @-@ D during the course of " Ensign Ro " , Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) addresses her as " Ensign Laren " . She corrects him , saying that Laren is her given name and Ro is her family name . She is then referred to as " Ensign Ro " . Over the course of her several appearances in The Next Generation , information is revealed about her backstory . Bajor had been under the occupation of the Cardassians during her early life , and at the age of seven she watched as one of the occupiers tortured her father to death . This led to a life @-@ long hatred of Cardassians .

Ro joined Starfleet , and after being posted to the USS Wellington , she formed part of an away team . During that mission , she disobeyed orders , resulting in the death of eight crewmen . She was subsequently court @-@ martialled , and was imprisoned on Jaros II . Admiral Kennelly ( Cliff Potts ) later gave her a pardon and allowed her to return to Starfleet service , in return for convincing the Bajoran terrorist Orta ( Jeffrey Hayenga ) to call off his attacks after a raid on a Federation colony . He brings her to the USS Enterprise for the purpose of completing this mission .

= = = Star Trek : The Next Generation = = =

As shown in " Ensign Ro " , during an away team mission to capture Orta , Ro manages to get the team taken hostage . As a result , Picard confines her to her quarters . But Picard discovers that the Bajorans were not responsible for the attack on the Federation colony , and Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) convinces Ro to tell Picard of Kennelly 's plan . Ro was under orders to offer arms to Orta , to trick him to revealing his presence so the Cardassians can destroy his vessel . At that point , Kennelly would intervene and order Picard not to intervene to keep the peace treaty with the Cardassians . Picard allows the plan to proceed , but the Cardassians destroy an empty ship before revealing that the Cardassians had staged the attack in order to enlist aid against the Bajorans . At the conclusion of the episode , Picard offers Ro a position on the crew of the Enterprise , which she accepts .

In " Disaster " , Ro is one of the crew trapped on the bridge of the Enterprise when it undergoes a series of power failures . The ship is placed at risk of destruction because of the potential failure of the containment fields on the antimatter pods . Ro argues that they need to separate the saucer section to save those on @-@ board it as they have no way knowing if anyone is still alive on the engineering part of the vessel . When the crew undergo group amnesia in " Conundrum " , Ro and Riker act on a mutual attraction until their memories are restored . In " The Next Phase " , Ro and La Forge apparently die after a transporter accident after returning from a Romulan Warbird . But they have suffered the side effects of a Romulan cloaking experiment . Ro initial questions whether or not she has died and is now in the afterlife . But together with La Forge they discover a Romulan plot and defeating a similarly cloaked Romulan operative , Ro and La Forge alert the crew and return to normal , warning Picard and averting disaster .

In the episode " Rascals " , Ro , Picard , Guinan and Keiko O 'Brien ( Rosalind Chao ) are transformed into adolescent versions of themselves while retaining their adult intelligence . As children , they foil a Ferengi plot to steal the Enterprise and sell the crew as slave labor . In her final episode , " Preemptive Strike " , Ro returns to the Enterprise as a Lieutenant after spending a year at Starfleet Advanced Tactical Training . During the course of the training , her commanding officer , Lieutenant Commander Chakotay , resigned from Starfleet to join the Marquis when his father is killed by the Cardassians . She is asked by Starfleet to infiltrate the rebel Maquis , who are undermining the Federation treaty with Cardassia . During the mission , she finds her loyalties in conflict with her duties as she becomes increasingly sympathetic to the plight of the Maquis . Despite Picard 's effort to force her to do her duty , she joins the rebel group . Riker says she seemed pretty sure she was doing the right thing , though she regretted disappointing Picard .

= = = Non @-@ canonical appearances = = =

Ro makes a series of appearances in the non @-@ canonical novel series based on The Next Generation . These include an expansion on her background and early life in the book Night of the Wolves by S. D. Perry and Britta Dennison . The events of the away mission while she was serving on the USS Wellington were shown in the second special issue of DC Comics ' The Next Generation series . Ro 's career with the Maquis is also chronicled in the novels . In Rogue Saucer , she is responsible for planning out the attack on the Enterprise in which the Maquis steal a prototype saucer section . Ro appears in the novel Tunnel Through the Stars , set during the events of the Dominion War , Ro and the remaining Maquis join forces with Picard and the USS Enterprise @-@ E to defeat the Dominion forces that are attempting to build an artificial wormhole to bypass the one near Deep Space Nine .

She began to appear in the Deep Space Nine relaunch novels beginning with the two @-@ part Avatar by Perry . The relaunch novels show the events that occur after the final episode of the television series . In Avatar , Ro enlists in the Bajoran Militia with the rank of Lieutenant , and is assigned to Deep Space Nine as the new Security Chief under the command of Colonel Kira . This move for Ro is also chronicled in the background to the massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game Star Trek Online .

In Twilight by David R. George III , the first part of the Mission : Gamma mini @-@ series , Quark and Ro start to develop romantic feelings for each other . In Perry 's Unity , Ro re @-@ joins Starfleet after Bajor joins the Federation and it 's military forces are merged . She is initially apprehensive about the prospect , but is convinced to accept a pardon for her time with the Maquis by Picard . Over time , Ro was promoted to Captain and as of the Star Trek : The Fall series of books , is in command of the new Deep Space Nine following the destruction of the original at the hands of a rogue element of the Typhon Pact . Ro was also one of the characters included at launch in the strategy video game Star Trek Timelines by Disruptor Beam .

= = Themes = =

The Bajorans have been described as analogues for a variety of displaced peoples , with Star Trek novelist Keith DeCandido comparing them to " Palestinians , Jews , Kurds , Haitians ; the sad reality is that you can pretty much pick and choose . History is full of people who have had their homes taken from them , forced to become refugees . " The Cardassian occupation of Bajor ( the Bajoran homeworld ) has been compared to the Holocaust , with Ro singled out as a Holocaust survivor . In his chapter " Speakers for the Dead : Star Trek , the Holocaust , and the Representation of Atrocity " within the book Star Trek as Myth , writer Matthew Wilheim Kapell compared the experiences and reactions of Ro Laren and Kira Nerys following the Cardassian occupation of Bajor . He said that the impact on Ro represented the " non @-@ american view of the holocaust " in that she does not fully recover from the trauma and continues to affect in , for example preventing her from connecting with her religious beliefs in " The Next Phase " . He explains that Kira is a far more " Americanize [ d ] " character , acting as a " resister and even liberator " during the occupation . As a result , unlike Ro , Kira retains her religious beliefs and does not typically show any ongoing emotional trauma . Further commentary of Ro 's relationship to religion have been made . In The Literary Galaxy of Star Trek , James F. Broderick compared the situation in which Ro and La Forge are trapped out of phase in " The Next Phase " to that of the purgatory dweller in Dante Alighieri 's Inferno .

= = Reception = =

When reviewing " Ensign Ro " for Tor.com , DeCandido described Michelle Forbes as " stellar " and called Ro " one of TNG 's best recurring characters " . He also added the the character was " a bit of piss and vinegar to add to the syrupy mix of homogeneity that the TNG cast tends to be " . In his review of " Preemptive Strike " , he said that the Ro character arc " comes full circle : once again making a decision that puts her on the outs with Starfleet . " He praised Forbes again , saying that she " inhabits the character so completely , from her awkwardness at the reception in her honor to her playing the role of rebel , to her pain at thinking about her father ... to her decision to betray Starfleet and the Enterprise . " He did criticise the episode for not wrapping up the Riker @-@ Ro relationship in the same way that closure had been given to her friendship with Picard . Zack Handlen reviewed " Ensign Ro " for The A.V. Club , and described Ro as " terrific " and said that the role represented " one of the rare times that TNG has managed to have a frustrated character who doesn 't immediately seem overly hateful or falsely confrontational " . But he criticized the manner in which her opinion changed to be more favourable of Picard and the Enterprise , as he felt that Guinan 's intervention was detrimental to the plot .

Ro Laren has placed in several polls featuring the characters of the franchise over the course of several years . In a list of the strongest female characters on the official Star Trek website by Jordan Hoffman in 2012 , Ro Laren was placed second behind Edith Keeler from the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " . He said that Ro was one of the " richest figures in Trek " , and wished to be able to see an alternative timeline where Forbes had accepted the main cast position on Deep Space Nine . A poll at the Creation Entertainment official Star Trek convention in 2013 , conducted by Hoffman , placed Ro Laren as the fifth most popular recurring character among fans , behind Elim Garak , Q , Gul Dukat and General Martok . Hoffman expressed a view that he had expected her to place higher in the rankings , due to the number of her vocal supporters , however she also had many booing her . On a poll run on the official Star Trek website in 2014 regarding the fans ' favourite supporting character , Ro came eighth out of ten . In 2015 , she was included in a list of the 21 " most interesting " supporting characters in the franchise by Lisa Granshaw at Blastr . Granshaw called Ro " a complicated , strong character " , and said her " different layers and motivations made her a great character to watch interact with the loyal crew of the Enterprise . "

= = Annotations = =

= Rock Steady Live =

Rock Steady Live is a video album by American ska punk band No Doubt , released on DVD on November 25 , 2003 under the Interscope records label . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller . It is a recording of two of No Doubt 's concerts during their Rock Steady Tour in 2002 to promote their fifth studio album , Rock Steady , which was released in December 2001 . The material was recorded in November 2002 in Long Beach Arena , California . The concert features performances of seventeen songs from the band 's previous three albums : Tragic Kingdom , Return of Saturn and Rock Steady ; extras include performances of four extra songs , interviews with each band member and backstage footage of the tour .

Rock Steady Live was released alongside The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , a greatest hits album , and Boom Box , a box set containing two CDs and two DVDs . No Doubt then went into hiatus , allowing singer Gwen Stefani to pursue solo projects . The DVD received mixed reviews , with critics praising the band 's variety of musical styles . The DVD was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers .

= = Background = =

After spending January to August 2001 writing and recording , No Doubt released their fifth studio album Rock Steady on December 11 , 2001 . They released four singles from it between October 2001 and July 2003 : " Hey Baby " , " Hella Good " , " Underneath It All " and " Running " . The album sold over three million copies . It was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , indicating sales of over two million units , gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 35 @,@ 000 units , platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association , indicating sales of over 100 @,@ 000 units , and silver by the British Phonographic Industry , indicating sales of over 60 @,@ 000 units .

In 2002 , No Doubt embarked on their Rock Steady Tour , beginning with two dates outside the mainland United States on March 14 and 16 in Puerto Rico and Venezuela , before starting their main tour in Sacramento , California on March 18 , travelling across the U.S. and ending in Anaheim , California in November . Some performances featured burlesque group , the Pussycat Dolls . The concerts received positive reviews , with reviewers complimenting the variety of musical styles , elaborate stage and costume design and crowd interaction .

In April 2003 , No Doubt went into hiatus , before coming together in September 2003 to compile various retrospective works and record a new single : " It 's My Life " . Singer Gwen Stefani went on to record two solo albums : Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , released in November 2004 , and The Sweet Escape , released in December 2006 .

= = Content and release = =

Rock Steady Live was released on DVD on the Interscope Records label on November 23 , 2003 . On the same day , both The Singles 1992 – 2003 and Boom Box were also released by the band . The Singles 1992 – 2003 is a greatest hits album , featuring thirteen of No Doubt 's previous singles , " Trapped in a Box " from their first album No Doubt and new single , " It 's My Life " . Boom Box is a box set , containing Live in the Tragic Kingdom , a recording of a concert as part of the band 's Tragic Kingdom Tour , The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , The Videos 1992 @-@ 2003 , compilation of the band 's music videos , and Everything in Time , a collection of B @-@ sides and rare songs . The DVD was directed by Sophie Muller , who also produced the band 's previous video release , Live in the Tragic Kingdom .

The DVD contains a recording the two concerts performed in Long Beach Arena , California during No Doubt 's Rock Steady Tour . The concert features performances of 17 songs : " Just a Girl " , " Spiderwebs " , " Don 't Speak " and " Sunday Morning " from No Doubt 's third album Tragic Kingdom ; " New " , Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " , " Bathwater " and " Magic 's in the Makeup " from their fourth album Return of Saturn ; and " Hey Baby " , " Underneath It All " , " Hella Good " , " Running " , " Don 't Let Me Down " , " In My Head " , " Platinum Blonde Life " and " Rock Steady " from their fifth album Rock Steady .

The DVD also includes over an hour and a half of extra features . There are live performances of an extra four songs : " Excuse Me Mr. " and " Different People " from Tragic Kingdom , " Trapped in a Box " from their first album No Doubt and " Total Hate " from their second album , The Beacon Street Collection . Also included are an interview with Liam Lynch , a friend of the band ; documentary pieces featuring interviews with each band member : Tom Dumont , Tony Kanal , Gwen Stefani , Adrian Young and two touring members Stephen Bradley and Gabrial McNair ; backstage footage of the tour ; and footage of the band receiving the " Key to the City " of Anaheim , California from Mayor Tom Daly on November 22 , 2002 on KROQ @-@ FM radio .

= = Reception = =

= = = Certifications = = =

" Rock Steady Live " was certified platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers in 2004 , indicating sales of over 40 @,@ 000 units . The DVD was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in December 2004 , indicating sales of over 50 @,@ 000 units .

= = = Critical reception = = =

The video received mixed reviews from critics . Allmovie reviewer Michael Hastings commented that the band " has managed to stay fresh and inventive after more than a decade together " , praising their " skills as a touring act " . He stated that the DVD encompassed a " virtual career retrospective of the band and its hits " , from its " ska @-@ punk roots into the pop realm " . In particular , he complimented the performances of " Don 't Speak " , " Hey Baby " and " Just a Girl " , giving the DVD 3 out of 5 stars . Allmusic reviewer Hal Horowitz , however , described the music as so " radically doctored " that " it is nothing like what the crowd at the venue heard " . He criticised the DVD for being " heavily edited " , the vocals for being " heavily and consistently overdubbed " and the editing for being " breathlessly nervous " . However , he complimented the band 's " high @-@ energy " performance , calling Gwen Stefani " a whirlwind of activity , strutting , preening , pouting , and prancing " . He gave the DVD 2 stars out of 5 . The Age reviewer Andrew Murfett gave a positive review , calling the sound quality " excellent " and praising the " glossy close @-@ ups to grainy back shots " of the camerawork . He described No Doubt as " endurable " and commented that the set list " stands out [ as the band 's greatest hits ] " .

MusicOMH reviewer Mark Fielding gave the DVD a positive review , calling the DVD a " very desirable package " and " must for any No Doubt fan out there " . He described the band as " one of the most versatile bands on the planet " , performing a " mish @-@ mash of rock , ska , reggae [ and ] punk " and calling Stefani 's performance " her gorgeous hyperactive best " . He complimented the camera work as providing " superb " pictures and sound , stating that they " [ captured ] the concert in all its fast and furious glory " . In particular , he praised the performances of " Hella Good " , " Hey Baby " , " Don 't Speak " , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and " Spiderwebs " and the inclusion of so many extra features . Rockfeedback.com reviewer Samantha Hall gave the DVD a positive review , calling the music " fun " and the DVD more representative of No Doubt 's greatest hits album , The Singles 1992 @-@ 2003 , than their fifth studio album Rock Steady . She complimented the focus of the footage covering all four band members plus two touring members , instead of just singer Stefani , and the dancing : " the wind n ' grind dancehall moments " , " the No Doubt signature @-@ stamp " and " a seemingly inexhaustible torrent of jumps and high kicks " . Hall singled out the performance of " Magic 's In The Make @-@ up " , an album track from Return of Saturn , as the highlight of the DVD . She praised the live footage as " resplendent in near @-@ perfection " , describing the " wide range of dishy , fancy close @-@ ups and pausing effects " and calling the sound " precision @-@ balanced , distinct and clear " . She gave the DVD 4 stars out of 5 .

= = Track listing = =

= = = Concert = = =

Bonus tracks

= = = Extra Features = = =

Liam Lynch interview

Merkley Footage : Individual documentary pieces for each band member

Backstage Footage

Anaheim Key to the City

Hidden Footage

= Kellen Dunham =

Kellen Dunham ( born June 18 , 1993 ) is an American basketball player who recently completed his college career for the Butler Bulldogs . He is currently playing his senior season on the 2015 – 16 team . At Pendleton Heights High School in Pendleton , Indiana , Dunham led the state of Indiana in scoring as a senior with 29 @.@ 5 points per game and was named Herald Bulletin Player of the Year . Dunham committed to Butler on July 7 , 2010 and was highly regarded by recruiting services . As a freshman , he was a 2012 – 13 Atlantic 10 All @-@ Rookie Team selection . He scored 16 @.@ 4 points per game as a sophomore and was named to the 2013 – 14 All @-@ Big East Second @-@ team . He was a 2014 – 15 All @-@ Big East First @-@ team selection as a junior .

= = Early life = =

Dunham was born on June 18 , 1993 , the son of Christy and Jim Dunham . He has three younger brothers : Kenton , Cole , and Jamison . Both his parents are basketball fans and raised their sons in a Christian household . Young Kellen learned to shoot on a " Little Tikes " hoop in the Dunham living room . He improved his game through constant practice in elementary school and middle school , to the consternation of some of his friends . When he was in eight grade , he worked on his jump shot with shooting coach Mark Baker , where Dunham learned how to shoot over his head .

Dunham attended Pendleton Heights High School , where he measured 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) as a freshman . Pendleton Heights head coach Brian Hahn described him as " gangly , skinny , and slow . " In practices , he would shoot for 45 minutes after his teammates were finished . He shot up to 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) as a sophomore and averaged 17 @.@ 0 points per game . He improved those numbers to 23 @.@ 5 points per game as a junior , leading Pendleton Heights to a 20 – 6 record . As a junior , he scored 41 points against Fort Wayne Northrop High School .

In his senior season , Dunham averaged 29 @.@ 5 points per game and shot 92 @.@ 1 % from the free throw line , leading the state of Indiana in both categories . He scored 45 points against Alexandria High School . Dunham was named Madison County Player of the Year as a senior after leading Pendleton Heights to a 23 – 3 record . His season came to an end after a 46 – 43 overtime loss against Terre Haute North High School in the Indiana High School Athletic Association Class 4A Regional at Hinkle Fieldhouse . Dunham was twice named All @-@ State . Dunham finished third in Indiana Mr. Basketball voting , behind Gary Harris and Yogi Ferrell . He was named Herald Bulletin Player of the Year as a senior . He holds the record for the all @-@ time leading scorer at Pendleton Heights with 1 @,@ 899 points and led the Arabians to back @-@ to @-@ back sectional titles .

He signed a letter of intent with Butler on July 7 , 2010 . Rivals.com ranked him the 21st best shooting guard and 93rd best overall player . ESPN included Butler 's 2012 recruiting class among its top recruiting classes from teams in non @-@ BCS conferences , noting Dunham was listed as an ESPN Top 100 recruit and is " a sniper to run off screens and create movement in the halfcourt sets for the next four years . " In ESPN 's scouting report , Dunham was listed as the 78th best overall player , due in large part to the fact that what he " does really well is shoot the basketball . How he goes about his business is akin to a master craftsman applying his trade . Dunham is in constant motion , working to get himself in position to score and he 's typically shot @-@ ready . " Rivals listed him as the best shooter among all recruits of non @-@ BCS teams . Butler head coach Brad Stevens said , " the thing he brings is an incredible ability to put the ball through the net . "

= = College career = =

= = = Freshman = = =

Coming into his freshman year on the 2012 – 13 team , Dunham was named to the Preseason All @-@ Atlantic 10 Rookie Team . Dunham began practicing basketball drills late at night thanks to senior Rotnei Clarke , and the two became fast friends . In his first college basketball game , a win against Elon , Dunham came off the bench to score 18 points . He was named Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week on November 12 , 2012 . During the 2012 Maui Invitational Tournament in 2012 , Dunham had one his best games as a freshman as Butler routed the then # 9 team in the country , North Carolina , shooting 56 % ( 5 of 9 ) from 3 @-@ point range and scoring 17 points . Dunham earned Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week honors on December 10 . On December 31 , he again was named Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week . In a game against # 8 Gonzaga on January 19 , 2013 that was featured on ESPN 's College GameDay , he was the second leading scorer , shooting 4 of 8 from three @-@ point range , behind 20 points and a buzzer @-@ beating floater from Roosevelt Jones . Dunham earned his fourth Atlantic 10 Rookie of the Week honors on January 28 . Butler went 27 – 9 on the season and reached the NCAA Tournament as a six seed . He finished the season averaging 9 @.@ 5 points per game , fifth best on the team . Following the season , Dunham was named to the Atlantic 10 All @-@ Rookie Team .

= = = Sophomore = = =

" Most guys are relaxed , but I look up and I see Kellen , and he 's ... going 110 miles an hour , " said 2013 – 14 Butler Bulldogs first year head coach Brandon Miller during an August overseas basketball tour . " Sprinting up and down the court . Shooting pull @-@ ups . Going as hard and as fast as he possible can . He goes at a pace , whether its shootaround in Australia , 17 minutes into practice or two hours into practice , that never changes . "

Dunham scored a career @-@ high 32 points against Washington State in the Old Spice Classic , a tournament record . As a result , Dunham was named to the Old Spice Classic All @-@ Tournament Team . Through the first nine games , Dunham averaged 18 @.@ 7 points per game and shot 46 percent from 3 @-@ point range . He was named Big East Player of the Week on December 16 after contributing 25 points to lead Butler past the Purdue Boilermakers , 76 – 70 in the Crossroads Classic . Dunham had 30 points in a 99 – 94 double overtime loss to DePaul on January 9 and tied his career @-@ best with six three @-@ pointers , all of which came in the second half .

At the conclusion of the 2013 – 14 Big East season , Dunham was named to the All @-@ Big East Second Team . Despite his improvements , Butler had a lackluster season , finishing with a 14 – 17 overall record and bowing out to Seton Hall in the Big East Tournament . Dunham finished the season seventh in the Big East in scoring with a 16 @.@ 4 points per game average to go along with 4 rebounds per game . Dunham shot 39 percent from the field and 35 @.@ 5 from 3 @-@ point range . He hit a 3 @-@ pointer in 29 of the team 's 31 games . After the season , he teamed up with several college players to participate in Athletes in Action 's summer trip to the Philippines . Athletes in Action is a Christian group that helps athletes use sports for spiritual growth .

= = = Junior = = =

Coming into his junior year on the 2014 – 15 team , Dunham was named to the Preseason All @-@ Big East First Team . Dunham stopped drinking Mountain Dew prior to the season to improve his conditioning . Coach Brandon Miller took a medical leave of absence before the season and did not return ; he was replaced by Chris Holtmann . Dunham was on the Battle 4 Atlantis All @-@ tournament Team . Dunham scored a season @-@ high 28 points on January 3 , 2015 in a 73 – 69 win over St. John 's . Dunham received Big East Player of the Week honors for the week of February 9 , after scoring 21 points and pulling down seven rebounds in an 85 – 62 victory versus St. John 's and recording 24 points in an 83 – 73 win over DePaul .

Dunham averaged 16 @.@ 5 points per game , third best in the Big East , to go along with 2 @.@ 6 rebounds per game . He led Butler to a 23 – 11 record and six seed in the NCAA Tournament . In the Round of 64 of the NCAA Tournament , Dunham scored 20 points , including an important 3 @-@ pointer with 1 : 18 remaining , to propel Butler to a 56 – 48 victory over the Texas Longhorns . The Bulldogs fell to Notre Dame in the Round of 32 , 67 – 64 . At the conclusion of the season , Dunham was selected to the All @-@ Big East First Team . Dunham was a 2014 – 15 Men 's All @-@ District V Team selection by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association . He was named to the Second Team All @-@ District V by the National Association of Basketball Coaches .

= = = Senior = = =

Coming into his senior year on the 2015 – 16 team at Butler , Dunham was named to the Preseason First Team All @-@ Big East . He was listed on the Oscar Robertson Award preseason watchlist . Dunham earned Big East player of the week honors for the week of December 7 , 2015 after contributing 24 points in a 78 @-@ 76 road victory over Cincinnati and 19 points in an 85 @-@ 71 win over Indiana State . He suffered a shooting slump in December , shooting 2 @-@ for @-@ 32 on three @-@ point shots and missing 21 three @-@ pointers in a row . His two point shooting fell from 58 @.@ 7 percent in the first eight games of the season to 26 @.@ 2 percent in the next five .

At the conclusion of the regular season , he was an Honorable Mention All @-@ Big East selection .

= Pumpkin bomb =

Pumpkin bombs were conventional aerial bombs developed by the Manhattan Project and used by the United States Army Air Forces against Japan during World War II . The pumpkin bomb was a close replication of the Fat Man plutonium bomb with the same ballistic and handling characteristics , but used non @-@ nuclear conventional high @-@ explosive . It was mainly used for testing and training purposes , which included combat missions flown with pumpkin bombs by the 509th Composite Group . The name " pumpkin bomb " resulted from the large , fat ellipsoidal shape of the munition instead of the more usual cylindrical shape of other bombs and was the actual reference term used in official documents .

= = Development = =

Pumpkin bombs were a means of providing realistic training for the 509th Composite Group 's Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress crews assigned to drop the atomic bomb . The pumpkin bomb was a close , but non @-@ nuclear replication of the Fat Man plutonium bomb with the same ballistic and handling characteristics . Specifications for the bomb required that it be carried in the forward bomb bay of a Silverplate B @-@ 29 bomber and be fuzed to be effective against actual targets .

Pumpkin bombs were produced in both inert and high explosive variants . The inert versions were filled with a cement @-@ plaster @-@ sand mixture that was combined with water to 1 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 68 grams per cubic centimetre ( 0 @.@ 060 to 0 @.@ 061 lb / cu in ) , the density of the Composition B high explosive versions . The filler of both variants had the same weight and weight distribution as the inner sphere of the plutonium bomb . The concept for the high explosive pumpkin bomb was originated in December 1944 by U.S. Navy Captain William S. Parsons , the head of the Ordnance Division at Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , and United States Army Air Forces Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , commander of the 509th Composite Group . Prior testing was carried out with an inert version .

The name " pumpkin bomb " was given to the training bombs by Parsons and Dr. Charles C. Lauritsen of the California Institute of Technology , who managed the development team . The name was used in official meetings and documents , and probably referred to its large ellipsoidal shape . Although anecdotal sources attribute the naming of the bombs to painting them a pumpkin color , the bombs were actually painted olive drab or khaki . Photographs indicate that the units delivered to Tinian were painted in the same zinc chromate primer color ( i.e. , yellow ) worn by Fat Man .

While many Manhattan scientists expected that the development of the means of delivery of the atomic bomb would be straightforward , Parsons , with his experience of the proximity fuze program , expected that it would involve considerable effort . The test program was initiated on 13 August 1943 at the Naval Proving Ground in Dahlgren , Virginia , where a scale model of the Fat Man plutonium bomb was developed . On 3 March 1944 , testing moved to Muroc Army Air Field , California . The initial tests demonstrated that the Fat Man assembly was unstable in flight , and that its fuzes did not work properly .

= = Production = =

The shells of the pumpkin bomb were manufactured by two Los Angeles firms , Consolidated Steel Corporation and Western Pipe and Steel Company , while the tail assembly was produced by Centerline Company of Detroit . After initial development , management of the program was turned over to the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance in May 1945 . A total of 486 live and inert training bombs were eventually delivered , at a cost of between $ 1 @,@ 000 and $ 2 @,@ 000 apiece .

All of the inert versions went from the manufacturers directly to Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , by rail , where they were used by the 216th Base Unit in flight testing of the bomb . Some test drop missions were flown by the 509th Composite Group 's 393d Bombardment Squadron as training exercises . The bombs intended as live ordnance were shipped to the Naval Ammunition Depot , McAlester , Oklahoma , for filling with explosives . The Composition B was poured as a slurry , solidified in a drying facility for 36 hours , sealed , and shipped by railroad to the Port Chicago Naval Magazine , California , for shipment by sea to Tinian .

= = Description = =

The pumpkin bombs were externally similar to the Fat Man bomb in size and shape , and both had the same 52 @-@ inch ( 130 cm ) California Parachute square tail assembly and single @-@ point attachment lug . The pumpkin bomb had three contact fuzes arranged in an equilateral triangle around the nose of the bomb while the atomic bomb had four fuse housings . The atomic bomb had its shell sections bolted together , but most if not all of the pumpkin bombs were welded with a 4 inches ( 100 mm ) hole used for filling the shell . The Fat Man also had four external mounting points for radar antennae which the pumpkin bombs did not have .

The pumpkin bombs were 10 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 25 m ) in length and 60 inches ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) in maximum diameter . They weighed 5 @.@ 26 long tons ( 5 @,@ 340 kg ) , consisting of 3 @,@ 800 pounds ( 1 @,@ 700 kg ) for the shell , 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) for the tail assembly , and 6 @,@ 300 pounds ( 2 @,@ 900 kg ) of Composition B filler . The shells were made of .375 @-@ inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) steel plate and the tail assemblies from .200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 mm ) aluminum plate .

= = Combat missions = =

Combat missions were flown by the 509th Composite Group on 20 , 23 , 26 and 29 July and 8 and 14 August 1945 , using the bombs against individual targets in Japanese cities . A total of 49 bombs were dropped on 14 targets , one bomb was jettisoned into the ocean , and two were aboard aircraft that aborted their missions .

Mission parameters and protocols were similar to those of the actual atomic bomb missions , and all targets were located in the vicinity of the cities designated for atomic attack . The bombs were released at an altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) and the aircraft then went into the sharp turn required on a nuclear mission . After the war , the Strategic Bombing Survey concluded that the pumpkin bombs were " a reasonably effective weapon against Japanese plants when direct hits were scored on vital areas , or when the near miss was sufficiently close to important buildings to cause severe structural damage . "

= Barton Aqueduct =

The Barton Aqueduct , opened on 17 July 1761 , carried the Bridgewater Canal over the River Irwell at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell in Greater Manchester , England . Designed largely by James Brindley under the direction of John Gilbert , it was the first navigable aqueduct to be built in England , " one of the seven wonders of the canal age " according to industrial archaeologist Mike Nevell .

Construction proceeded quickly , but disaster almost struck when the aqueduct was first filled with water and one of its three arches began to buckle under the weight . Remedial work took several months , but the aqueduct was still opened to traffic only 15 months after the enabling Act of Parliament had been passed , on 17 July 1761 . It remained in use for more than 100 years , until the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal necessitated its demolition in 1893 , replaced by the Barton Swing Aqueduct .

= = Background = =

The original intention was for the Bridgewater Canal to reach Salford from the Duke of Bridgewater 's coal mines in Worsley , by remaining on the north bank of the Irwell . Work began in 1759 , but it was quickly decided to alter the route by building a masonry aqueduct to carry the waterway over the Irwell at Barton , and terminate instead in Manchester , to the south of the river . A Bill to authorise the new route was presented to parliament on 13 November 1759 , and in January the following year Brindley travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee in support of the proposal .

Although a gifted engineer Brindley had no formal education and rarely , if ever , committed his designs to paper . When questioned by the parliamentary committee about the composition of the puddle he frequently referred to in his evidence , he had a mass of clay brought into the committee room . He then formed the clay into a trough and showed how it would only form a watertight seal if it had been worked with water to form puddle . " Thus it is " said Brindley " that I form a watertight @-@ trunk to carry water over rivers and valleys wherever they cross the path of the canal . " Later , when asked to produce a drawing of the bridge or aqueduct he proposed to build , he replied that he had no representation of it on paper but would demonstrate his intention by use of a model . He then went out and bought a large round of Cheshire cheese , which he divided into two equal halves saying " Here is my model " . Then , to the amusement of the committee , he used the two halves of cheese to represent the semicircular arches and laid a long , rectangular object over the top to demonstrate the position of the river flowing under the aqueduct and the canal flowing over it .

Although the duke had seen navigable aqueducts in use on canals when travelling abroad on his Grand Tour , the idea of an such a structure carrying a canal over a river was new to England and was ridiculed by contemporary engineers . One brought in to review the plans , at Brindley 's request , commented in a report to the Duke of Bridgewater that " I have often heard of castles in the air , but never before saw where one was to be erected . " The necessary Act of Parliament was passed in March 1760 , and was quite specific about the form the aqueduct had to take , to protect the viability of the Mersey & Irwell Navigation below . There was already a three @-@ arch road bridge , Barton Bridge , passing over the Irwell , and the aqueduct was required not to restrict traffic on the river any more than the road bridge already did . It had to have the same number of arches , the foundations for which had to be fixed in the river bed , and the arches had to be at least as wide and high as those of the road bridge .

= = Construction = =

At about 200 yards ( 180 m ) long , 12 yards ( 11 m ) wide and 39 feet ( 12 m ) above the river at its highest point , the aqueduct was , for its time , an enormous construction . Early illustrations show the aqueduct 's piers to have been flat @-@ faced , but an engraving of 1864 shows them to have pointed cutwaters extending beyond the spring of the arch ; it is likely that the piers were refaced in the early 1820s . The arches were composed of several rings of brickwork , with masonry used for decorative keystones . All the masonry used in the structure was coursed ashlar .

On the day it was first tested the water was allowed to flow in , but one of the arches began to buckle under the weight . Brindley , overcome with anxiety , retired to his bed at the Bishop Blaize tavern in nearby Stretford . Gilbert , realising that Brindley had placed too much weight on the sides of the arch , removed the clay and laid layers of straw and freshly puddled clay ; when the water was allowed to flow in again the masonry held firm . According to a statement by Francis Egerton , 8th Earl of Bridgewater printed in 1820 , his uncle , the duke , had told him that there was a distortion of one of the arches , and that Gilbert had addressed the problem by placing more weight on the crown of the arch and less on the haunches . The arch was then covered with straw and allowed to stand until the following spring , when the mortar was set and the arch had become stable , but its curve remained irregular .

= = Operation and legacy = =

The aqueduct was opened to traffic on 17 July 1761 , only 15 months after the enabling Act had been passed , and it was soon being used by the duke 's barges to carry coal to Manchester from his mines at Worsley . The construction of the aqueduct excited great admiration , and writers of the day often remarked on the strange and novel sight afforded by the canal where it crossed the Irwell . The structure became one of the wonders of the age and crowds came from all over the country to view it , along with the drilling of the sough for the duke 's Worsley navigable levels . Those who saw it were often struck by the advantages of still @-@ water navigation when they saw ten or twelve men slowly hauling a single barge against the flow of the Irwell , while 40 feet ( 12 m ) above a horse , mule , or perhaps two men , could be seen hauling several linked barges across the still waters of the aqueduct .

Although the aqueduct was 12 yards ( 11 m ) wide overall , the waterway it carried was only half that width . The Bridgewater Canal had been built to accommodate the Mersey flat boats then in common use , which had a beam of about 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) , making two @-@ way traffic impossible . A signalling system was therefore installed to control access to the aqueduct . A pole 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high in the centre of the arch at the Stretford bank supported a semaphore system with two arms on each side , operated by levers at ground level .

Although Gilbert later had to resurface the aqueduct , the structure remained in use for more than 100 years . In the first volume of his Lives of the Engineers ( 1862 ) Scottish author Samuel Smiles said of the construction that " Humble though it now appears , it was parent of the magnificent aqueducts of Rennie and Telford , and the viaducts of Stephenson and Brunel " .

= = Replacement = =

Barton Aqueduct 's fate was sealed with the passage of the Manchester Ship Canal Act 1885 , which allowed for the construction of a navigable waterway large enough to accommodate ocean @-@ going vessels from the estuary of the River Mersey the 36 miles ( 58 km ) into Manchester , partly along the Irwell . As the arches of the aqueduct were too small to allow large ships to pass through it was demolished in 1893 , and replaced by the Barton Swing Aqueduct still in use today . So solidly built was the old aqueduct that dynamite had to be used to expedite its demolition .

Some of the stonework of Brindley 's aqueduct has been preserved in the nearby Barton Memorial Arch , a monument to his " castle in the air " .

= Worlebury Camp =

Worlebury Camp is the name of the place where an Iron Age hill fort once stood atop Worlebury Hill , which is north of the town of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in Somerset , England . This fort was designed for defence , as is evidenced the number of walls and ditches around the site . Archaeologists have found several large triangular platforms around the sides of the fort , lower down on the hillside . They have found nearly one hundred storage pits of various sizes cut into the bedrock , and many of these had human remains , coins , and other artefacts in them . However , in more recent times , the fort has suffered damage and been threatened with complete destruction on multiple occasions . This location has been designated an Scheduled Ancient Monument , and it falls within the Weston Woods Local Nature Reserve which was declared to Natural England by North Somerset Council in 2005 .

= = History = =

In The Ancient Entrenchments and Camps of Gloucestershire , Edward J. Burrow mentions that probably either the Goidel or Brython people initially built Worlebury Camp . The Belgae people subsequently overthrew the initial inhabitants and occupied the camp for a time , but they were finally destroyed at the hands of the Romans .

Worlebury Camp has been explored at various times over a period of 150 years . From 1851 to 1852 , Charles Dymond , Edwin Martin Atkins , and Francis Warre excavated and surveyed Worlebury Camp . Dymond returned in 1880 to continue the excavation , which lasted until 1881 . Another century passed before the Woodspring Museum from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare excavated more of Worlebury camp in 1987 to 1988 . Finally , in 1998 , the Avon Extensive Urban Study team performed the latest ( as of 2008 ) assessment of the site .

= = Hill fort = =

= = = Background = = =

Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age , roughly the start of the first millennium BC . The reason for their emergence in Britain , and their purpose , has been a subject of debate . It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe , sites built by invaders , or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture . The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain . Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze , and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status . Power passed into the hands of a new group of people . Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated " [ the forts ] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [ of an increasing population ] burst out into open warfare . But I wouldn 't see them as having been built because there was a state of war . They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed , but this was not the only , or even the most significant , factor in their construction " .

= = = Location = = =

The fort is located on the summit of Worlebury Hill , 109 metres ( 358 ft ) above sea level . It is in the present @-@ day North Somerset , above the seaside resort of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and close to the village of Worle .

Its occupants would have had a view of the countryside as well as any potential invaders . They would have been able to see out over to Sugar Loaf Mountain , the Black Mountains , the Mendip Hills , Dunkery Beacon , Sand Point , and Wales . This view is no longer as unobstructed as it once was because there are so many trees spread over the hill .

= = = Triangular stone platforms = = =

There are a number of triangular platforms on the slopes around the hill fort . The apexes of these triangles are flush with the hillside , with the base projecting in the downhill direction . However , the upper surface is approximately level . The front faces of these platforms are about 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) above the hillside , and they have ditches in front of them to improve their defence . In a letter to Warre , Atkins theorised that the structures were slingers ' platforms or archers ' stations . Several sling stones have been found around them , offering some credence to the theory that slingers stood upon these platforms . Dymond mentions the stones in his book :

Several of them were broken , as though they had been used in the attack [ on the fort ] , as , indeed , many of them probably were .

= = = Walls and ditches = = =

Worlebury Hill is bordered on its north and west sides by steep cliffs dropping down into the Bristol Channel between Weston Bay and Sand Bay . These would have rendered the fort nearly invulnerable to attack from those directions . Nevertheless , the fort still has one wall on its north side and one on its west side , both very near the edge of the cliffs . On the south side , a single rampart and a ditch guarded the fort . The level east side was protected by two stone ramparts and five ditches . Parts of these ramparts were over 11 metres ( 35 ft ) high measuring from the bottom of the ditch as of 1875 .

The walls themselves are around 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) thick . However , because they are dry @-@ laid stone , the removal of a few stones would be sufficient to bring the entire wall collapsing down . To prevent access to the walls themselves , the inhabitants of the fort raised large breastworks around the base of the walls by piling up rock rubble against the bases . These rubble barriers are over 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 @.@ 0 ft ) high , and in places they are over 1 @.@ 22 metres ( 4 @.@ 0 ft ) thick . Attackers would have had to clear away the rubble before being able to attack the wall , and all the while they would be under direct fire from defenders on the top of the wall .

= = Archaeological findings = =

= = = Storage pits = = =

The area inside the outer wall has a series of hut circles and 93 storage pits cut directly into the bedrock , which is only around 60 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) beneath the surface of the soil in most places . Eighteen of the Storage pits are in what Dymond calls the " keep " , one is in the transverse fosse ( a fosse is a ditch usually dug for protection ) , and seventy @-@ four of the pits are outside the " keep " but still enclosed within the exterior walls . The average size of the pits is around 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long by 2 metres wide and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) deep . The largest pit is roughly triangular , with sides measuring 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) , and 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The smallest pit is 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long by .7 metres ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) wide . The inhabitants used them to store grain , as is evidenced by the kernels of barley and wheat and the shards of pots that were found in the pits . Several of the pits contained the remnants of peas and the remains of burned woven baskets . In addition , researchers also found sling stones and spindle whorls dated to the 1st or 2nd century BC in them .

Eighteen of these pits were found to contain the remains of human skeletons , which are now stored in the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare Museum in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Eighteen full skeletons were found , of which ten show evidence of a violent death ( including sword cuts in the skulls ) . It is possible that the Romans or the Belgic raiders attacked the fort and killed the inhabitants .

= = = Artefacts = = =

A cast copper alloy penannular collar of special interest to archaeologists has been found at the campsite . It may indicate that this hilltop site was used even before the Iron Age , since related artefacts tend to be found with Bronze Age items , and it was the first of its type found in Britain . In 2006 , a related copper penannular brooch dating to the 5th or 6th century AD was found in a spring between Brecon Beacons and the Black Mountains in Wales . A gold penannular bracelet was found in the Perry River .

Roman coins have been found at Worlebury Camp since the Romans had established a presence by the end of the 1st century AD . Many of the Roman coins bear the image of the Western Roman Emperor Honorius . This was inside the fort proper . Another coin was located by Trinity Path which leads towards the fort .

Other findings at the Worlebury campsite include animal remains , including the bones of pigs , oxen , horses , deer , goats , and even small birds . Limpet shells have also been found near the bones . Archaeologists found iron objects , adding further credibility to the idea that this fort is from the Iron Age . These objects include a chisel or borer , several spearheads and javelin heads , and an iron cone with charred wood inside and a rivet hole through the cone . Dymond assumes that this cone was once a plowshare . Stone artefacts , mainly slingstones and scrapers , have been discovered at the site . Just less than 36 flint chips have been found , of which some may be arrowheads . One good @-@ quality arrowhead has been found . In addition to these , Dymond recorded finding a lead lump about the size of a walnut that he decided was probably a sling bullet . Glastonbury type bead @-@ rim pottery was also found at this site . A socketed bronze axe from the late Bronze Age , which was found at Worlebury Hill in 1883 , is in the Ashmolean Museum .

= = Damage to the site = =

= = = 19th century = = =

Development of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare since the 19th century has resulted in three episodes of potentially irreversible damage to the site . A quarry started operation in the southern side of Worlebury Hill in 1815 to mine for galena , calamine , and stone . The Bristol and Exeter Railway arrived in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in 1841 , making it profitable to expand the village into a town . In 1842 , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare became a town with the granting of the Improvement and Market Act of May 1842 . This act also proposed developing houses right over the brow of the hill . This would have gone straight through Worlebury Camp ; however , the actual expansion never reached the site . By 1853 , some development had occurred according to the proposed expansion , but it had skirted the hillfort and continued to the east .

= = = 20th century = = =

In the early 20th century , the Worlebury fort itself was damaged by boys rolling stones , including some from the walls of the fort , down the hill on which it stands . The Axbridge District of the Somerset Archaeological Society was taking steps to prevent such damage from happening again .

Some of the trees planted in the early 19th century had become very large , and their roots were growing into the archaeological structures . In 2005 , the Forestry Commission gave permission for North Somerset Council to fell 300 trees to reduce the subsequent risks . A member of the North Somerset Council , Christopher Richards , said : " If we had a storm up here and these trees came down , then the entire hillfort could be destroyed . "

= Daniel Day @-@ Lewis =

Sir Daniel Michael Blake Day @-@ Lewis ( born 29 April 1957 ) is an English actor . He holds both British and Irish citizenship . Born and raised in London , he excelled on stage at the National Youth Theatre , before being accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , which he attended for three years . Despite his traditional actor training at the Bristol Old Vic , he is considered to be a method actor , known for his constant devotion to and research of his roles . He often remains completely in character for the duration of the shooting schedules of his films , even to the point of adversely affecting his health . He is one of the most selective actors in the film industry , having starred in only five films since 1998 , with as many as five years between roles . Protective of his private life , he rarely gives interviews and makes very few public appearances .

Day @-@ Lewis shifted between theatre and film for most of the early 1980s , joining the Royal Shakespeare Company and playing Romeo in Romeo and Juliet and Flute in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , before appearing in the 1984 film The Bounty . He starred in My Beautiful Laundrette ( 1985 ) , his first critically acclaimed role , and gained further public notice with A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . He then assumed leading man status with The Unbearable Lightness of Being ( 1988 ) .

One of the most acclaimed actors of his generation , Day @-@ Lewis has earned numerous awards , including three Academy Awards for Best Actor for his performances in My Left Foot ( 1989 ) , There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) and Lincoln ( 2012 ) , making him the only male actor in history to have three wins in the lead actor category and one of only three male actors to win three Oscars . He was also nominated in this category for In the Name of the Father ( 1993 ) and Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) . He has also won four BAFTA Awards for Best Actor , three Screen Actors Guild Awards and two Golden Globe Awards . In November 2012 , Time named Day @-@ Lewis the " World 's Greatest Actor . " In June 2014 , he received a knighthood at Buckingham Palace for services to drama .

= = Early life = =

Day @-@ Lewis was born in Kensington , London , the son of poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis and English actress Jill Balcon . His father , who was born in Ballintubbert , County Laois , Ireland , was of Protestant Anglo @-@ Irish and English background , lived in England from the age of two , and later became the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom . Daniel 's mother was Jewish , and his maternal grandparents ' families had emigrated to England from Latvia and Poland . His maternal grandfather , Michael Balcon , an important figure in the history of British cinema , was the head of Ealing Studios . Two years after his birth , the family moved to Croom 's Hill , Greenwich , south @-@ east London , where Day @-@ Lewis grew up along with his older sister , Tamasin , who became a documentary filmmaker and television chef .

Living in Greenwich , Day @-@ Lewis found himself among tough South London children , and , being partially Jewish and " posh " , he was often bullied . He mastered the local accent and mannerisms and credits that as being his first convincing performance . Later in life , he has been known to speak of himself as very much a disorderly character in his younger years , often in trouble for shoplifting and other petty crimes .

In 1968 , Day @-@ Lewis ' parents , finding his behaviour to be too wild , sent him to the independent Sevenoaks School in Kent as a boarder . At the school , he was introduced to his three most prominent interests : woodworking , acting , and fishing . His disdain for the school grew , and after two years at Sevenoaks , he was transferred to another independent school , Bedales in Petersfield , Hampshire , which his sister attended , and which had a more relaxed and creative ethos . The transfer led to his film debut at the age of 14 in Sunday Bloody Sunday in which he played a vandal in an uncredited role . He described the experience as " heaven " , for getting paid £ 2 to vandalise expensive cars parked outside his local church .

For a few weeks in 1972 , he and his parents and sister lived at Lemmons , the north London home of Kingsley Amis and Elizabeth Jane Howard . Cecil Day @-@ Lewis had cancer and Howard invited the family to Lemmons as a place they could use to rest and recuperate . Cecil died there in May that year .

Leaving Bedales in 1975 , Day @-@ Lewis 's unruly attitude had diminished and he needed to make a career choice . Although he had excelled on stage at the National Youth Theatre in London , he applied for a five @-@ year apprenticeship as a cabinet @-@ maker , but was rejected due to lack of experience . He was then accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School , which he attended for three years , eventually performing at the Bristol Old Vic itself . At one point he played understudy to Pete Postlethwaite , with whom he would later co @-@ star in the film In the Name of the Father . John Hartoch , Day @-@ Lewis 's acting teacher at Bristol Old Vic , recalls , " There was something about him even then . He was quiet and polite , but he was clearly focused on his acting – he had a burning quality . He seemed to have something burning beneath the surface . There was a lot going on beneath that quiet appearance . There was one performance in particular , when the students put on a play called Class Energy , when he really seemed to shine – and it became obvious to us , the staff , that we had someone rather special on our hands . "

= = Career = =

= = = 1980s = = =

During the early 1980s , Day @-@ Lewis worked in theatre and television including Frost in May ( where he played an impotent man @-@ child ) and How Many Miles to Babylon ? ( as a World War I officer torn between allegiances to Britain and Ireland ) for the BBC . Eleven years after his film debut , Day @-@ Lewis continued his film career with a small part in Gandhi ( 1982 ) as Colin , a South African street thug who racially bullies the title character , only to be immediately chastised by his high @-@ strung mother . In late 1982 he had his big theatre break when he took over the lead in Another Country . The following year , he had a supporting role as the conflicted , but ultimately loyal first mate in The Bounty , after which he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company , playing Romeo in Romeo and Juliet and Flute in A Midsummer Night 's Dream .

In 1985 , Day @-@ Lewis gave his first critically acclaimed performance playing a gay man in an interracial relationship in the film My Beautiful Laundrette , set in 1980s London during the period when Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister . Day @-@ Lewis gained further public notice with A Room with a View ( 1985 ) . Set in the Edwardian period of turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ twentieth @-@ century England , he portrayed an entirely different character : Cecil Vyse , the proper upper class fiancé of the main character . In 1987 , Day @-@ Lewis assumed leading man status by starring in Philip Kaufman 's adaptation of Milan Kundera 's The Unbearable Lightness of Being , where he portrayed a Czech surgeon whose hyperactive sex life is thrown into disarray when he allows himself to become emotionally involved with a woman . During the eight @-@ month shoot he learned Czech and first began to refuse to break character on or off the set for the entire shooting schedule . During this period , Day @-@ Lewis and other young British actors of the time such as Gary Oldman , Colin Firth , Tim Roth , and Bruce Payne , were dubbed the " Brit Pack " .

Day @-@ Lewis threw his personal version of method acting into full throttle in 1989 with his performance as Christy Brown in Jim Sheridan 's My Left Foot , which garnered him numerous awards , including the Academy Award for Best Actor and BAFTA Award for Best Actor . Brown , a writer and painter , was born with cerebral palsy and was only able to control his left foot . Day @-@ Lewis prepared for the role by making frequent visits to Sandymount School Clinic in Dublin , where he formed friendships with several people with disabilities , some of whom had no speech . During filming , he refused to break character . Playing a severely paralysed character on screen , off screen Day @-@ Lewis had to be moved around the set in his wheelchair , and crew members would curse at having to lift him over camera and lighting wires , all so that he might gain insight into all aspects of Brown 's life , including the embarrassments . Crew members were also required to spoon @-@ feed him . It was rumoured that he had broken two ribs during filming from assuming a hunched @-@ over position in his wheelchair for so many weeks , something he denied years later at the 2013 Santa Barbara International Film Festival .

Day @-@ Lewis returned to the stage in 1989 to work with Richard Eyre , in Hamlet at the National Theatre , London , but collapsed during the scene where the ghost of Hamlet 's father appears before him . He began sobbing uncontrollably and refused to go back on stage ; he was replaced by Jeremy Northam who finished the performance word @-@ and @-@ action @-@ perfect and received a standing ovation . Ian Charleson then formally replaced Day @-@ Lewis for the rest of the run , except that ill @-@ health forced Northam to stand in again many times . Although the incident was officially attributed to exhaustion , Day @-@ Lewis later claimed to have seen the ghost of his own father . He has not appeared on stage since . The media attention following his breakdown on @-@ stage contributed to his decision to eventually move from England to Ireland in the mid @-@ 1990s to regain a sense of privacy amidst his increasing fame .

= = = 1990s = = =

In 1992 , three years after his Oscar win , The Last of the Mohicans was released . Day @-@ Lewis 's character research for this film was well @-@ publicized ; he reportedly underwent rigorous weight training and learned to live off the land and forest where his character lived , camping , hunting and fishing . Day @-@ Lewis also added to his wood @-@ working skills and learned how to make canoes . He carried a long rifle at all times during filming to remain in character and learned how to skin animals .

He returned to work with Jim Sheridan on In the Name of the Father , in which he played Gerry Conlon , one of the Guildford Four who were wrongfully convicted of a bombing carried out by the Provisional IRA . He lost 30lbs for the part , kept his Northern Irish accent on and off the set for the entire shooting schedule , and spent stretches of time in a prison cell . He also insisted that crew members throw cold water at him and verbally abuse him . The film earned him his second Academy Award nomination , third BAFTA nomination , and second Golden Globe nomination .

Day @-@ Lewis returned in 1993 , playing Newland Archer in Martin Scorsese 's adaptation of the Edith Wharton novel The Age of Innocence . To prepare for the film , set in America 's Gilded Age , he wore 1870s @-@ period aristocratic clothing around New York City for two months , including top hat , cane and cape .

In 1996 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in The Crucible , a film version of the play by Arthur Miller . During the shoot he met his future wife , Rebecca Miller , the author 's daughter . He followed that with Jim Sheridan 's The Boxer as a former boxer and IRA member recently released from prison . His preparation included training with former boxing world champion Barry McGuigan , and attending professional boxing matches such as the Nigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan world title fight at London Arena .

Following The Boxer , Day @-@ Lewis took a leave of absence from acting by going into " semi @-@ retirement " and returning to his old passion of woodworking . He moved to Florence , Italy , where he became intrigued by the craft of shoemaking , eventually apprenticing as a shoemaker with Stefano Bemer . For a time his exact whereabouts and actions were not made publicly known .

= = = 2000s = = =

After a five @-@ year absence from filming , Day @-@ Lewis returned to act in Gangs of New York ( 2002 ) , directed by Scorsese and produced by Harvey Weinstein . In his role as the villainous gang leader William " Bill the Butcher " Cutting , he starred alongside Leonardo DiCaprio , who played Bill 's young protégé . He began his lengthy , self @-@ disciplined process by taking lessons as an apprentice butcher , hiring a butcher from Peckham , south London to instruct him in carving up carcasses . He also hired circus performers to teach him to throw knives . While filming , he was never out of character between takes ( including keeping his character 's New York accent ) . At one point during filming , having been diagnosed with pneumonia , he refused to wear a warmer coat or to take treatment because it was not in keeping with the period ; however , he was eventually persuaded to seek medical treatment . His performance in Gangs of New York earned him his third Academy Award nomination and won him his second BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role .

After Gangs of New York , Day @-@ Lewis 's wife , director Rebecca Miller offered him the lead role in her film The Ballad of Jack and Rose , in which he played a dying man with regrets over how his life had evolved and over how he had brought up his teenage daughter . During filming he arranged to live separately from his wife to achieve the " isolation " needed to focus on his own character 's reality . The film received mixed reviews .

In 2007 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in director Paul Thomas Anderson 's loose adaptation of the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! , titled There Will Be Blood . Day @-@ Lewis received the Academy Award for Best Actor , BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role , Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama , Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role ( which he dedicated to Heath Ledger , saying that he was inspired by Ledger 's acting and calling the actor 's performance in Brokeback Mountain " unique , perfect " ) , and a variety of film critics ' circle awards for the role . In winning the Best Actor Oscar , Day @-@ Lewis joined Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson as the only Best Actor winners awarded an Oscar in two non @-@ consecutive decades .

In 2009 , Day @-@ Lewis starred in Rob Marshall 's musical adaptation Nine as film director Guido Contini . Day @-@ Lewis was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and the Satellite Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his role , as well as sharing nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture and the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Cast and the Satellite Award for Best Cast – Motion Picture with the rest of the cast members .

= = = 2010s = = =

Day @-@ Lewis played Abraham Lincoln in Steven Spielberg 's film Lincoln ( 2012 ) . Based on the book Team of Rivals : The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln , the film began shooting in Richmond , Virginia in October 2011 . Day @-@ Lewis spent a year in preparation for the role , a time he had requested from Spielberg . He read over 100 books on Lincoln , and long worked with the makeup artist to achieve a physical likeness to Lincoln . Lincoln received widespread critical acclaim , much of it directed to Day @-@ Lewis ' performance . It also became a commercial success , grossing over $ 275 million worldwide . In November 2012 , Day @-@ Lewis received the BAFTA Britannia Award for Excellence in Film .

At the 70th Golden Globe Awards on 14 January 2013 , Day @-@ Lewis won his second Golden Globe Award for Best Actor , and at the 66th British Academy Film Awards on 10 February , he won his fourth BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role . At the 85th Academy Awards , Day @-@ Lewis became the first three @-@ time recipient of the Best Actor Oscar for his role in Lincoln .

John Hartoch , Day @-@ Lewis 's acting teacher at Bristol Old Vic theatre school , lauded his achievement , " Although we have quite an impressive alumni – everyone from Jeremy Irons to Patrick Stewart – I suppose he is now probably the best known , and we 're very proud of all he 's achieved . I certainly hold him up to current students of an example , particularly as an example of how to manage your career with great integrity . He 's never courted fame , and as a result he 's never had his private life impeached upon by the press . He 's clearly not interested in celebrity as such – he 's just interested in his acting . He is still a great craftsman . " Shortly after winning the Oscar for Lincoln , Day @-@ Lewis announced he would be taking a break from acting , retreating back to his Georgian farmhouse in County Wicklow for the next five years , before making another movie .

= = Personal life = =

Day @-@ Lewis rarely discusses his personal life . He had a relationship with French actress Isabelle Adjani , which lasted six years and eventually ended after a split and reconciliation . Their son Gabriel @-@ Kane Day @-@ Lewis was born in 1995 in New York City , several months after the relationship ended .

In 1996 , while working on the film version of the stage play The Crucible , he visited the home of playwright Arthur Miller where he was introduced to the writer 's daughter , Rebecca Miller . They married later that year . The couple have two sons , Ronan Cal Day @-@ Lewis ( born 1998 ) and Cashel Blake Day @-@ Lewis ( born 2002 ) and divide their time between their homes in New York City and Ireland .

Day @-@ Lewis became an Irish citizen in 1993 and currently holds British and Irish dual citizenship . He has lived in Annamoe , County Wicklow since 1997 . He stated " I do have dual citizenship , but I think of England as my country . I miss London very much but I couldn 't live there because there came a time when I needed to be private and was forced to be public by the press . I couldn 't deal with it " . He is a supporter of South @-@ East London football club Millwall .

On 15 July 2010 , Day @-@ Lewis received an honorary doctorate in letters from the University of Bristol , in part because of his attendance of the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School in his youth . Day @-@ Lewis has stated that he had " no real religious education " and that he " suppose [ s ] " he is " a die @-@ hard agnostic " . In October 2012 , he donated to Oxford University papers belonging to his father , the poet Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , including early drafts of the poet 's work and letters from actor John Gielgud and literary figures such as W. H. Auden , Robert Graves , and Philip Larkin . In July 2015 , he became the Honorary President of the Poetry Archive . A registered UK charity , the Poetry Archive is a free website containing a growing collection of recordings of English @-@ language poets reading their work . Upon accepting , Day @-@ Lewis commented " I so admire what you ’ re doing with the Poetry Archive and I ’ m very happy that you ’ ve invited me to be involved with it . "

In June 2014 , Day @-@ Lewis was made a Knight Bachelor in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to drama . When , in 2008 , he received the Academy Award for Best Actor from Helen Mirren ( who was on presenting duty having won the previous year 's Best Actress Oscar for playing Queen Elizabeth II in The Queen ) Day @-@ Lewis knelt before her and she tapped him on each shoulder with the Oscar statuette , to which he quipped ; " That 's the closest I 'll come to ever getting a knighthood " . In November 2014 , Day @-@ Lewis was formally knighted by Prince William , Duke of Cambridge at Buckingham Palace .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= = = Music = = =

= = = Theatre = = =

= LW11 =

LW11 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit skiing sport class , a classification defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC for people with paralysis in the lower extremities and people with cerebral palsy that affects the lower half of the body . Outside of skiing , the competitor in this class is unable to walk . For international competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . For sub @-@ international competitions , classification is done by a national federation such as Alpine Canada .

In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , while para @-@ Nordic skiers use a two ski sit @-@ ski . Skiers in this class use outriggers , and are required to wear special helmets for some para @-@ Alpine disciplines . In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up .

A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring for LW11 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 785 for Slalom , 0 @.@ 8508 for Giant Slalom , 0 @.@ 8324 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8333 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic season was 94 % and for LWXI.5 was 98 % . This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions including the Paralympics , IPC Alpine World Championships and the IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships . Skiers in this class include Austrian Robert Frohle .

= = Definition = =

This is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ skiing classification , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . This classification is for people with paralysis in the lower extremities and includes people with cerebral palsy that affects the lower half of the body . Outside of skiing , the competitor in this class is unable to walk , the skier " may have loss of buttock sensibility S1 @-@ 25 " . For the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the classification was described as " Disability of lower limbs with a fair sitting balance @-@ paraplegia and standing classes with impairment in the lower limbs together with functional impairment of trunk / hip . " Adapted Physical Education and Sport described this class as " Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs and fair sitting balance ( e.g. , para classes lower 3 and 4 ) , standing I. classes with impairment of the lower limbs together with significant functional impairment of the trunk and hips , any function in the lower limbs may not be used outside of the equipment at any time during the race ; point score 9 to 15 points . " This classification is comparable to para classes lower 3 and 4 .

Generally to be eligible for a sit @-@ skiing classification , a skier needs to meet a minimum of one of several conditions including a single below knee but above ankle amputation , monoplegia that exhibits similar to below knee amputation , legs of different length where there is at least a 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) difference , combined muscle strength in the lower extremities less than 71 .

The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defines this para @-@ Alpine classification as " a . Athletes with disabilities in the lower limbs and a fair sitting balance b . CP with disabilities in lower extremities " In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as a sit skiing classification for " athletes with disabilities in their lower limbs and fair sitting balance . " The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " those with impairments in the lower limbs and trunk . The athlete retains the use of abdominal muscles and trunk extensor muscles , especially those muscle attaching to the pelvis . " Cross Country Canada described this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairment in the lower limbs and trunk with fair upper abdominal and trunk muscle activity with some functional sitting balance . Athlete is unable to stand . "

For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing . During the assessment process , a testing board is used for this classification with six different tests being conducted that look for balance on different planes and to test for upper body strength and levels of mobility . The guideline scores for people to be assessed in this classification are 9 - 15 .

= = = LW11.5 = = =

The IPC defines this class for para @-@ Nordic skiing as for " with impairments in the lower limb ( s ) and the trunk . Athletes have near normal trunk muscles activation . " Cross Country Canada defined this para @-@ Nordic classification as " Impairement in the lower limbs and trunk . With good upper abdominal and trunk muscle activity and good sitting balance . Athlete may be able to stand " in 2012 . Skiers in this class may be able to " stand or walk with or without aid of orthosis " . They may also have Grade 2 or less hip extension .

= = Equipment = =

In para @-@ Alpine skiing , the skier uses a mono @-@ ski , which are required to have breaks on both sides of the ski . The chair can detach from a ski . Helmets are required for this class in para @-@ Alpine competition , with slalom helmets required for slalom and crash helmets required for the giant slalom . The para @-@ Nordic sit @-@ ski configuration has two skis . Skiers in this classification can use a sit @-@ ski and outriggers , which are forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .

= = Technique = =

In learning to ski , one of the first skills learned is getting into and out of the ski , and how to position the body in the ski in order to maintain balance . The skier then learns how to fall and to get up . The skier then works with the instructor on learning to ski on flat terrain , with the purpose of this exercise being to learn how to use the outriggers . The skier next learns how to get into and out of a chairlift . After this , the skier learns how to make basic turns , edging , medium radius turns and advance skiing techniques .

Skiers use outriggers for balance and as leverage when they fall to right themselves . Outriggers are also used for turning , with the skier using the outrigger and their upper body by leaning into the direction they want to turn . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , outriggers or ski poles are used top propel the skier forward . If a skier falls , they may require assistance in righting themselves to get back to the fall line . Doing this on their own , the skier needs to position their mono @-@ ski facing uphill relative to the fall line .

In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .

= = Sport = =

A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used . During the 1997 / 1998 ski season , the percentage for this para @-@ Nordic classification was 93 % . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for was 93 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 94 % and 98 % for LW11.5. The factoring for LW11 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 785 for slalom , 0 @.@ 8508 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 8324 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 8333 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 para @-@ Nordic season was 94 % and for LWXI.5 was 98 % .

In para @-@ Alpine events , this classification is grouped with sitting classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and before standing classes . A skier is allowed one push from the starting position at the start of a para @-@ Alpine race : no one is allowed to run while pushing them . In cross @-@ country and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other sitting classes . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's sit @-@ ski group first , and the women 's sit @-@ ski group section , with the visually impaired and standing skiers following . If the competitor skis off the course during a para @-@ Nordic race , they may be assisted back onto the course where they left it by a race official . Skiers cannot use their legs to break or steer during the race .

Skiers in this class may injure themselves while skiing . Between 1994 and 2006 , the German national para @-@ Alpine skiing team had three skiers in the LW11 class that had injuries while skiing . It occurred at the 1998 Winter Paralympics when the fell and extended their arm in abduction , which resulted in an Acromio @-@ clavicular separation type Rockwood II . Another 1998 Paralympic skier had a Clavicula @-@ Fracture . In 2003 , a skier dislocated their shoulder . This class has a higher rate of " plexus brachialis distorsion and a higher rate of shoulder injuries " compared to able bodied skiers .

= = Events = =

This classification has been able to compete at different skiing competitions . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , this classification was not grouped with others for the men 's downhill , Giant Slalom , slalom and Super @-@ G events while the women were grouped with LW10 and LW12 for their events with the exception of the Giant Slalom where they were only grouped with LW10 . At the 2004 Alpine World Championships , LW10 , LW11 and LW12 women competed against each other in a competition with factored results during the downhill event . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other sit @-@ skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race , with women eligible to compete in the 2 @.@ 5 km , 5 km and 10 km individual races . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with sit @-@ ski classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 IPC Alpine World Championships , there were no women and thirteen men from this class the sitting downhill event .

= = Competitors = =

Skiers in this class include Austrian Robert Frohle .

= Bates method =

The Bates method is an alternative therapy aimed at improving eyesight . Eye @-@ care physician William Horatio Bates , M.D. ( 1860 – 1931 ) attributed nearly all sight problems to habitual strain of the eyes , and felt that glasses were harmful and never necessary . Bates self @-@ published a book , Perfect Sight Without Glasses , as well as a magazine , Better Eyesight Magazine , ( and earlier collaborated with Bernarr MacFadden on a correspondence course ) detailing his approach to helping people relax such " strain " , and thus , he claimed , improve their sight . His techniques centered on visualization and movement . He placed particular emphasis on imagining black letters and marks , and the movement of such . He also felt that exposing the eyes to sunlight would help alleviate the " strain " .

Despite continued anecdotal reports of successful results , including well @-@ publicised support by Aldous Huxley , Bates ' techniques have not been objectively shown to improve eyesight . His main physiological proposition — that the eyeball changes shape to maintain focus — has consistently been contradicted by observation . In 1952 , optometry professor Elwin Marg wrote of Bates , " Most of his claims and almost all of his theories have been considered false by practically all visual scientists . " Marg concluded that the Bates method owed its popularity largely to " flashes of clear vision " experienced by many who followed it . Such occurrences have since been explained as a contact lens @-@ like effect of moisture on the eye , or a flattening of the lens by the ciliary muscles .

The Bates method has been criticized not only because there is no good evidence it works , but also because it can have negative consequences for those who attempt to follow it : they might damage their eyes through overexposure of their eyes to sunlight , put themselves and others at risk by not wearing their corrective lenses while driving , or neglect conventional eye care , possibly allowing serious conditions to develop .

= = Underlying concepts = =

= = = Accommodation = = =

Accommodation is the process by which the eye increases optical power to maintain focus on the retina while shifting its gaze to a closer point . The long @-@ standing medical consensus is that this is accomplished by action of the ciliary muscle , a muscle within the eye , which adjusts the curvature of the eye 's crystalline lens . This explanation is based in the observed effect of atropine temporarily preventing accommodation when applied to the ciliary muscle , as well as images reflected on the crystalline lens becoming smaller as the eye shifts focus to a closer point , indicating a change in the lens ' shape . Bates rejected this explanation , and in his 1920 book presented photographs that he said showed that the image remained the same size even as the eye shifted focus , concluding from this that the lens was not a factor in accommodation . However , optometrist Philip Pollack in a 1956 work characterized these photographs as " so blurred that it is impossible to tell whether one image is larger than the other " , in contrast to later photographs that clearly showed a change in the size of the reflected images , just as had been observed since the late nineteenth century .

Bates adhered to a different explanation of accommodation that had already been generally disregarded by the medical community of his time . Bates ' model had the muscles surrounding the eyeball controlling its focus . In addition to their known function of turning the eye , Bates maintained , they also affect its shape , elongating the eyeball to focus at the near @-@ point or shortening it to focus at a distance . Commenting on this hypothesis in an interview with WebMD , ophthalmologist Richard E. Bensinger stated " When we put drops in the eye to dilate the pupil , they paralyze the focusing muscles . The evidence of the anatomical fallacy is that you can 't focus , but your eye can move up and down , left and right . The notion that external muscles affect focusing is totally wrong . " Science author John Grant writes that many animals , such as fishes , accommodate by elongation of the eyeball , " it 's just that humans aren 't one of those animals . "

Laboratory tests have shown that the human eyeball is far too rigid to spontaneously change shape to a degree that would be necessary to accomplish what Bates described . Exceedingly small changes in axial length of the eyeball ( 18 @.@ 6 – 19 @.@ 2 micrometres ) are caused by the action of the ciliary muscle during accommodation . However , these changes are far too small to account for the necessary changes in focus , producing changes of only − 0 @.@ 036 dioptres .

= = = Causes of sight problems = = =

Medical professionals characterize refractive errors such as nearsightedness , farsightedness , astigmatism , and presbyopia ( the age @-@ related blurring of near @-@ point vision ) as consequences of the eye 's shape and other basic anatomy , which there is no evidence that any exercise can alter . Bates , however , believed that these conditions are caused by tension of the muscles surrounding the eyeball , which he believed prevents the eyeball from sufficiently changing shape ( per his explanation of accommodation ) when gaze is shifted nearer or farther . Bates characterized this supposed muscular tension as the consequence of a " mental strain " to see , the relief of which he claimed would instantly improve sight . He also linked disturbances in the circulation of blood , which he said is " very largely influenced by thought " , not only to refractive errors but also to double vision , crossed @-@ eye , lazy eye , and to more serious eye conditions such as cataracts and glaucoma . His therapies were based on these assumptions .

Bates felt that corrective lenses , which he characterized as " eye crutches " , are an impediment to curing poor vision . In his view , " strain " would increase as the eyes adjust to the correction in front of them . He thus recommended that glasses be discarded by anyone applying his method .

= = Treatments = =

In his writings , Bates discussed several techniques that he claimed helped patients to improve their sight . He wrote " The ways in which people strain to see are infinite , and the methods used to relieve the strain must be almost equally varied , " emphasizing that no single approach would work for everyone . His techniques were all designed to help disassociate this " strain " from seeing and thereby achieve " central fixation " , or seeing what is in the central point of vision without staring . He asserted that " all errors of refraction and all functional disturbances of the eye disappear when it sees by central fixation " and that other conditions were often relieved as well .

= = = Palming = = =

Bates suggested closing the eyes for minutes at a time to help bring about relaxation . He asserted that the relaxation could be deepened in most cases by " palming " , or covering the closed eyes with the palms of the hands , without putting pressure on the eyeballs . If the covered eyes did not strain , he said , they would see " a field so black that it is impossible to remember , imagine , or see anything blacker " , since light was excluded by the palms . However , he reported that some of his patients experienced " illusions of lights and colors " sometimes amounting to " kaleidoscopic appearances " as they " palmed " , occurrences he attributed to his ubiquitous " strain " and that he claimed disappeared when one truly relaxed . This phenomenon , however , was almost certainly caused by Eigengrau or " dark light " . In fact , even in conditions of perfect darkness , as inside a cave , neurons at every level of the visual system produce random background activity that is interpreted by the brain as patterns of light and color .

= = = Visualization = = =

Bates placed importance on mental images , as he felt relaxation was the key to clarity of imagination as well as of actual sight . He claimed that one 's poise could be gauged by the visual memory of black ; that the darker it appeared in the mind , and the smaller the area of black that could be imagined , the more relaxed one was at the moment . He recommended that patients think of the top letter from an eye chart and then visualize progressively smaller black letters , and eventually a period or comma . But he emphasized his view that the clear visual memory of black " cannot be attained by any sort of effort " , stating that " the memory is not the cause of the relaxation , but must be preceded by it , " and cautioned against " concentrating " on black , as he regarded an attempt to " think of one thing only " as a strain .

While Bates preferred to have patients imagine something black , he also reported that some found objects of other colors easiest to visualize , and thus were benefited most by remembering those , because , he asserted , " the memory can never be perfect unless it is easy . " Skeptics reason that the only benefit to eyesight gained from such techniques is itself imagined , and point out that familiar objects , including letters on an eye chart , can be recognized even when they appear less than clear .

= = = Movement = = =

He thought that the manner of eye movement affected the sight . He suggested " shifting " , or moving the eyes back and forth to get an illusion of objects " swinging " in the opposite direction . He believed that the smaller the area over which the " swing " was experienced , the greater was the benefit to sight . He also indicated that it was usually helpful to close the eyes and imagine something " swinging " . By alternating actual and mental shifting over an image , Bates wrote , many patients were quickly able to shorten the " shift " to a point where they could " conceive and swing a letter the size of a period in a newspaper " . One who mastered this would attain the " universal swing " , Bates believed .

Perhaps finding Bates ' concepts of " shifting " and " swinging " too complicated , some proponents of vision improvement , such as Bernarr Macfadden , suggested simply moving the eyes up and down , from side to side , and shifting one 's gaze between a near @-@ point and a far @-@ point .

= = = Sunning = = =

Bates believed that the eyes were benefited by exposure to sunlight . He stated that " persons with normal sight can look directly at the sun , or at the strongest artificial light , without injury or discomfort , " and gave several examples of patients ' vision purportedly improving after sungazing – this is at variance with the well @-@ known risk of eye damage that can result from direct sunlight observation .

Bates cautioned that , just as one should not attempt to run a marathon without training , one should not immediately look directly at the sun , but he suggested that it could be worked up to . He acknowledged that looking at the sun could have ill effects , but characterized them as being " always temporary " and in fact the effects of strain in response to sunlight . He wrote that he had cured people who believed that the sun had caused them permanent eye damage . In his magazine , Bates later suggested exposing only the white part of the eyeball to direct sunlight , and only for seconds at a time , after allowing the sun to shine on closed eyelids for a longer period .

Posthumous publications of Bates ' book omitted mention of the supposed benefits from direct sunlight shining on open eyes .

= = Results and criticism = =

Bates ' techniques have never been scientifically established to improve eyesight . Several of Bates ' techniques , including " sunning " , " swinging " , and " palming " , were combined with healthy changes to diet and exercise in a 1983 randomized controlled trial of myopic children in India . After 6 months , the experimental groups " did not show any statistically significant difference in refractive status " , though the children in the treatment group " subjectively … felt relieved of eye strain and other symptoms " .

In 1967 the British Medical Journal observed that " Bates [ … ] advocated prolonged sun @-@ gazing as the treatment of myopia , with disastrous results . "

The philosopher Frank J. Leavitt has argued that the method Bates described would be difficult to test scientifically due to his emphasis on relaxation and visualization . Leavitt asked " How can we tell whether someone has relaxed or imagined something , or just thinks that he or she has imagined it ? " In regards to the possibility of a placebo trial , Leavitt commented " I cannot conceive of how we could put someone in a situation where he thinks he has imagined something while we know that he has not . "

= = After Bates = =

After Bates died in 1931 , his methods of treatment were continued by his widow Emily and other associates , some of whom incorporated exercises and dietary recommendations . Most subsequent proponents did not stand by Bates ' explanation of how the eye focuses mechanically , but nonetheless maintained that relieving a habitual " strain " was the key to improving sight .

= = = Margaret Darst Corbett = = =

Margaret Darst Corbett first met Bates when she consulted him about her husband 's eyesight . She became his pupil , and eventually taught his method at her School of Eye Education in Los Angeles . She was of the stated belief that " the optic nerve is really part of the brain , and vision is nine @-@ tenths mental and one @-@ tenth only physical . "

In late 1940 , Corbett and her assistant were charged with violations of the Medical Practice Act of California for treating eyes without a licence . At the trial , many of her students testified on her behalf , describing in detail how she had enabled them to discard their glasses . One witness testified that he had been almost blind from cataracts , but that , after working with Corbett , his vision had improved to such an extent that for the first time he could read for eight hours at a stretch without glasses . Corbett explained in court that she was practicing neither optometry nor ophthalmology and represented herself not as a doctor but only as an " instructor of eye training " . Describing her method she said " We turn vision on by teaching the eyes to shift . We want the sense of motion to relieve staring , to end the fixed look . We use light to relax the eyes and to accustom them to the sun . "

The trial attracted widespread interest , as did the " not guilty " verdict . The case spurred a bill in the Californian State Legislature that would have then made such vision education illegal without an optometric or medical licence . After a lively campaign in the media , the bill was rejected .

= = = Aldous Huxley = = =

Perhaps the most famous proponent of the Bates method was the British writer Aldous Huxley . At the age of sixteen Huxley had an attack of keratitis , which , after an 18 @-@ month period of near @-@ blindness , left him with one eye just capable of light perception and the other with an unaided Snellen fraction of 10 / 200 . This was mainly due to opacities in both corneas , complicated by hyperopia and astigmatism . He was able to read only if he wore thick glasses and dilated his better pupil with atropine , to allow that eye to see around an opacity in the center of the cornea .

In 1939 , at the age of 45 and with eyesight that continued to deteriorate , he happened to hear of the Bates method and sought the help of Margaret Corbett , who gave him regular lessons . Three years later he wrote The Art of Seeing , in which he related : " Within a couple of months I was reading without spectacles and , what was better still , without strain and fatigue .... At the present time , my vision , though very far from normal , is about twice as good as it used to be when I wore spectacles . " Describing the process , Huxley wrote that " Vision is not won by making an effort to get it : it comes to those who have learned to put their minds and eyes into a state of alert passivity , of dynamic relaxation . " He expressed indifference regarding the veracity of Bates ' explanation of how the eye focuses , stating that " my concern is not with the anatomical mechanism of accommodation , but with the art of seeing . "

His case generated wide publicity as well as scrutiny . Ophthalmologist Walter B. Lancaster , for example , suggested in 1944 that Huxley had " learned how to use what he has to better advantage " by training the " cerebral part of seeing " , rather than actually improving the quality of the image on the retina .

In 1952 , ten years after writing The Art of Seeing , Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet , wearing no glasses and , according to Bennett Cerf , apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty . In Cerf 's words :

Then suddenly he faltered — and the disturbing truth became obvious . He wasn 't reading his address at all . He had learned it by heart . To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes . When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn 't read it , and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him . It was an agonizing moment .

In response to this , Huxley wrote " I often do use magnifying glasses where conditions of light are bad , and have never claimed to be able to read except under very good conditions . " This underscored that he had not regained anything close to normal vision , and in fact never claimed that he had .

= = = Modern variants = = =

" Natural vision correction " or " natural vision improvement " continues to be marketed by practitioners offering individual instruction , many of who have no medical or optometric credentials . Most base their approach in the Bates method , though some also integrate vision therapy techniques . There are also many self @-@ help books and programs , which have not been subjected to randomized controlled trials , aimed at improving eyesight naturally . Purveyors of such approaches argue that they lack the funds to formally test them .

The heavily advertised " See Clearly Method " ( of which sales were halted by a court order in November 2006 , in response to what were found to be dishonest marketing practices ) included " palming " and " light therapy " , both adapted from Bates . The creators of the program , however , emphasized that they did not endorse Bates ' approach overall .

In his 1992 book The Bates Method , A Complete Guide to Improving Eyesight — Naturally , " Bates method teacher " Peter Mansfield was very critical of eye care professionals for prescribing corrective lenses , recommending most of Bates ' techniques to improve vision . The book included accounts of twelve " real cases " , but did not report any information about refractive error .

Czech native John Slavicek claims to have created an " eye cure " that improves eyesight in three days , borrowing from ancient yogic eye exercises , visualizations from the Seth Material , and the Bates method . Although he has testimonials from his neighbor and others , several of his students indicate that he has greatly exaggerated their cases . Slavicek 's self @-@ published manual , Yoga for the Eyes , was rejected by an ophthalmologist who evaluated it , and evinced no interest from the World Health Organization and St. Erik 's Eye Foundation in Sweden as he had not conducted double @-@ blind tests .

= = Anecdotal support = =

In support of the effectiveness of the Bates method , proponents point to the many accounts of people allegedly having improved their eyesight by applying it . While these anecdotes may be told and passed on in good faith , several potential explanations exist for the phenomena reported other than a genuine reversal of a refractive error due to the techniques practiced :

Some cases of nearsightedness are recognized as due to a transient spasm of the ciliary muscle , rather than a misshapen eyeball . These are classed as pseudomyopia , of which spontaneous reversal may account for some reports of improvement .

Research has confirmed that when nearsighted subjects remove their corrective lenses , over time there is a limited improvement ( termed " blur adaptation " ) in their unaided visual resolution , even though refraction indicates no corresponding change in refractive error . This is believed to occur due to adjustments made in the visual system . One who has been practicing Bates ' techniques and notices such improvement may not realize that simply leaving the glasses off would have had the same effect , which may be especially pronounced if the prescription was too strong to begin with .

Visual acuity is affected by the size of the pupil . When it constricts ( such as in response to an increase in light ) , the quality of focus will improve significantly , at the cost of a reduced ability to see in dim light . This is known as the " pinhole effect " . This concept is also used in photography when changing the aperture size .

Some eye defects may naturally change for the better with age or in cycles ( ophthalmologist Stewart Duke @-@ Elder suggested that this is what happened with Aldous Huxley ) . A cataract when first setting in sometimes results in much improved eyesight for a short time . One who happens to have been practicing the Bates method will likely credit it for any improvement experienced regardless of the actual cause .

Some studies have suggested that a learned ability to interpret blurred images may account for perceived improvements in eyesight . Ophthalmologist Walter B. Lancaster had this to say : " Since seeing is only partly a matter of the image on the retina and the sensation it produces , but is in still larger part a matter of the cerebral processes of synthesis , in which memories play a principal role , it follows that by repetition , by practice , by exercises , one builds up a substratum of memories useful for the interpretation of sensations and facilitates the syntheses which are the major part of seeing . " Lancaster faulted ophthalmologists in general for neglecting the role of the brain in the process of seeing , " leaving to irregular , half @-@ trained workers the cultivation of that field " .

A 1952 study involving 100 subjects claiming to experience " flashes " of clear vision , in which eyesight momentarily becomes much sharper , found only one subject who " demonstrated unusually good transient acuity ( a flash ) but she was unable to maintain it or repeat it for measurement of refraction " and concluded that " ' flashers ' ( those who can obtain remarkably large transient increases in visual acuity ) are uncommon " . A 2004 study proposed that such flashes may be caused by " negative accommodation " ( i.e. an active flattening of the lens by the ciliary muscles ) .

A 1982 study of subjects who underwent computer @-@ based visual training concluded that any perceived resulting improvement in visual acuity is best explained as a contact lens @-@ like effect of moisture on the eye , based on increased tear action exhibited by 15 out of 17 subjects who experienced such improvement .

A 2003 study of claims that " positive suggestion ( e.g. , using hypnosis ) can significantly improve visual acuity " found that " neither suggestion nor hypnotic phenomena are likely to significantly improve myopic vision " .

= = General research = =

In 2004 the American Academy of Ophthalmology ( AAO ) published a review of various research regarding " visual training " , which consisted of " eye exercises , muscle relaxation techniques , biofeedback , eye patches , or eye massages " , " alone or in combinations " . No evidence was found that such techniques could objectively benefit eyesight , though some studies noted changes , both positive and negative , in the visual acuity of nearsighted subjects as measured by a Snellen chart . In some cases noted improvements were maintained at subsequent follow @-@ ups . However , these results were not seen as actual reversals of nearsightedness , and were attributed instead to factors such as " improvements in interpreting blurred images , changes in mood or motivation , creation of an artificial contact lens by tear film changes , or a pinhole effect from miosis of the pupil . "

In 2005 the Ophthalmology Department of New Zealand 's Christchurch Hospital published a review of forty @-@ three studies regarding the use of eye exercises . They found that " As yet there is no clear scientific evidence published in the mainstream literature supporting the use of eye exercises " to improve visual acuity , and concluded that " their use therefore remains controversial . "

= = General criticisms = =

= = = Dead @-@ end = = =

A frequent criticism of the Bates method is that it has remained relatively obscure , which is seen as proof that it is not truly effective . Writer Alan M. MacRobert concluded in a 1979 article that the " most telling argument against the Bates system " and other alternative therapies was that they " bore no fruit " . In regards to the Bates method , he reasoned that " If palming , shifting , and swinging could really cure poor eyesight , glasses would be as obsolete by now as horse @-@ drawn carriages . "

= = = Corrective lenses and safety = = =

Discarding one 's corrective lenses , as Bates recommended , or wearing lenses weaker than one 's prescribed correction , as some Bates method advocates suggest , poses a potential safety hazard in certain situations , especially when one is operating a motor vehicle . James Randi related that his father , shortly after discarding glasses on the advice of Bates ' book , wrecked his car . Bates method teachers often caution that when driving , one should wear the correction legally required .

= = = Avoidance of conventional treatment = = =

One of the greatest potential dangers of faith in the Bates method is that a believer may be disinclined to seek medical advice regarding what could be a sight @-@ threatening condition requiring prompt treatment , such as glaucoma . Also , children with vision problems may require early attention by a professional in order to successfully prevent lazy eye . Such treatment may include exercises , but which are different from those associated with the Bates method , and parents who subscribe to Bates ' ideas may delay seeking conventional care until it is too late . It may further be necessary for a child at risk of developing lazy eye to wear the proper correction .

= Maneater ( 2007 film ) =

Maneater is a 2007 American television natural horror film directed by Gary Yates and produced by RHI Entertainment , starring Gary Busey , Ty Wood , and Ian D. Clark . The film aired on various video on demand channels , before officially premiering in the United States on the Syfy Channel on September 8 , 2007 . This film lends its name to the film series to which it belongs and is the third film in the series . Filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada , the film is produced under an agreement with Syfy . Based on Jack Warner 's novel Shikar , the film details the killing spree of an escaped Bengal tiger after it gets loose in a small town along the Appalachian Trail . Trying to stop it are Sheriff Barnes ( Busey ) and big game hunter Colonel Graham ( Clark ) , while a young boy named Roy ( Wood ) who has a strange connection to the tiger , tries to save it . It is the 4th film in the Maneater Series .

Maneater is one of the few films in the series to break the standard formula of Syfy natural horror films with its use of a normal , living tiger rather than a CG animal or excusing its behavior by having it be a mutant or genetically altered . Critics heavily panned the film citing substandard acting , heavy use of stereotypical characters , a hole @-@ filled plot , unused subplots , and the use of a live tiger resulting in almost all attacks being implied rather than seen .

= = Plot = =

Two people disappear along the Appalachian Trail : a young man jogging with his girlfriend and a hermit who rarely leaves his home . Sheriff Grady Barnes ( Gary Busey ) finds a trail in the woods which leads him to parts of the hermit 's body . That night , young Roy Satterly ( Ty Wood ) is reading by flashlight when a Bengal tiger briefly appears in front of his bedroom window . In the morning , his mother , Rose ( Marina Stephenson Kerr ) , finds him sleepwalking in the woods in front of their house . A cast taken at the next victim 's scene points to a tiger as the hermit 's killer , so Sheriff Barnes holds a press conference to warn the public . The Bengal Tiger visits Roy 's home again that night .

A tabloid paper offers a $ 10 @,@ 000 reward for the tiger causing the town to be inundated with hunters and reporters . The sheriff forbids anyone from going in the woods and hunting the tiger , but while out with Deputy Sharon Weinman ( Sarah Constible ) , he sees Roy in the woods . They give chase , but instead find a dead tabloid reporter . The National Guard is called in to help . The sheriff later sees Roy in the woods again and warns him to stay out before taking him home and giving Rose the same warning . After he leaves , she mistakenly believes Roy told the sheriff lies about there being a tiger and chastises him .

Six National Guardsmen arrive , led by Sergeant Winshiser ( Aleks Paunovic ) , as does Colonel James Livingston @-@ Graham ( Ian D. Clark ) , an experienced big game hunter and tracker from England who specializes in hunting man @-@ eating tigers . Sergeant Winshiser and his men arrogantly refuse to use the sheriff 's advice and help . Graham tells the sheriff the soldiers will fail due to their arrogance and that he will start his hunt for the tiger when they finish . When the guardsmen search for the tiger , it kills one silently . Graham appears and explains how the tiger did it and helps them find the body . Later , Deputy Weinman and Deputy Ezra Hundt ( Karl Thordarson ) , the mayor 's son , find one of the National Guard trucks sitting empty on the road . They investigate and Weinman tells Hundt to call their position in to headquarters . She finds that the two guardsmen were attacked by the tiger , one being killed and the other shot by his partner . Hearing Hundt blowing the patrol car horn , she runs back to the car , but the Tiger has already killed him . Meanwhile , Roy encounters Graham in the woods and they discuss the tiger . When Roy asks if Graham is going to kill the Tiger , Graham tells him that he must because it can 't chose not to hunt whatever is around it , including people . They shake hands and part ways with Graham continuing to the scene of the National Guard attack . When he arrives , he explains how the tiger attacked the guardsmen and deputy .

Later , at another press conference , a reporter reveals that Graham was exiled from India , his former home , after he failed to kill a tiger that slaughtered over 200 people . The sheriff visits Graham that night and he explains that the situation had been beyond his control . Later that night , Roy dreams the tiger killed Graham and runs to his tent to check on him . Graham offers to walk him home , but they end up going to the store where Rose works when Roy says she is working late .

When they arrive , the Tiger attacks and kills her . They run into the store , but are separated . Graham calls for Roy , but the Tiger gets into the building and attacks him , Graham barely failing to kill the tiger with both shots he fires . Sheriff Barnes arrives after being alerted about a break @-@ in alarm and is chased into the store by the tiger . He finds Graham 's hat and a blood trail and tries to find him before hearing Roy calling out from under a truck outside . The sheriff dives under the truck and shields the boy as the Tiger tries to attack . When the Tiger jumps into the bed of the truck , they run to the sheriff 's truck . The sheriff shoots at the tiger , but hits a gasoline tank causing it to explode and kill the Tiger . Graham appears beside the building , bloody but alive . Deciding his hunting days are over , Graham returns home . Sheriff Barnes and his wife adopt the orphaned Roy .

= = Cast = =

Gary Busey as Grady Barnes

Ian D. Clark as Colonel Graham

Ty Wood as Roy Satterly

Diana Reis as Mary Barnes

Jessica Burleson as Eleanor

Sarah Constible as Deputy Sharon Weinman

Marc Devigne as Lambert

Kristen Harris as Kathy Kurick

Aaron Hughes as Sergeant Howe

Adriana O 'Neil as Mayor 's mistress

Aleks Paunovic as Sergeant Winshiser

Brittany Scobie as Sarah

Dan Skene as Cpl. Timmons

Marina Stephenson Kerr as Rose Satterly

Blake Taylor as Mayor Earl Hunt

Ryland Thiessen as Georgie Willet

Will Woytowich as Guardsman Vance

Jon Ted Wynne as Wolf the Paparazzi

Arne MacPherson as Deer Hunter

Dave Mahr as Restaurant patron

Rick Skene as Tiger truck driver ( uncredited )

= = Production = =

In October 2006 , RHI Entertainment made a deal with the Sci Fi Channel to produce a series of ten made @-@ for @-@ television natural horror films to air on the network the following year . Though the film series was dubbed " Maneater " by RHI Entertainment , the actual Maneater film is the third in the series . Although the agreement called for the films to premiere on Sci Fi , the first six films in the series actually premiered on various video on demand channels months ahead of their Sci Fi airings .

Based on Jack Warner 's 2003 debut novel Shikar , Maneater was filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . The film uses no CGI special effects at all , with the " killer tiger " portrayed by actual trained tigers . In scenes where the tiger is chasing various characters , the tiger is actually on a leash with his trainer behind him . The leash and trainer were edited out of the scenes during post @-@ production . While Gary Busey said the tigers were a " joy " to work with , Clark joked that he was hoping they would not think he was lunch , noting that it was his first time working with tigers .

= = Distribution = =

Maneater premiered in Canada on the subscription @-@ based video on demand channel Movie Central on Demand earlier in 2007 before it aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel on September 8 , 2007 as its Saturday night " Movie of the Week " premiere . On January 8 , 2008 , Genius Entertainment released the film on DVD . It included no extras , an anamorphic widescreen transfer , and a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 audio track . The film was re @-@ released on July 22 , 2008 as part of the first volume of the " Maneater Series Collection " sets . The volume also included Blood Monkey and In the Spider 's Web , the first and second films in the series , respectively .

= = Reception = =

As with many other films in the series , Maneater was heavily panned by critics . Felix Gonzalez , Jr. of DVDReview.com referred to the film as " another Z @-@ grade extravaganza of gore and mayhem " and felt that it was typical of most Sci Fi original movies in that it contained " horrendous writing and nonsensical characters . " He considered Busey 's being the headliner was the first sign of trouble , stating that " with his ill @-@ fitting suit and incomprehensible facial expressions , ( Busey ) is actually more frightening than the tiger . " Matt Paprocki from Blogcritics felt the original novel was superior to its film adaptation , and felt the movie was " an appallingly bad creature feature that barely qualifies as such " with multiple plot holes , unexplored subplots , and stereotypical characters plagued by bad acting .

Staci Layne Wilson of Horror.com also felt the film was full of stereotypes , including a " stupid circus trainer ; bible @-@ thumping naysayer ; the great white hunter ; small @-@ minded mayor ; pinheaded press ; wise Indian sage ; [ and ] military sorts " but felt they were depicted in such an extreme manner that they were simply boring . She found the films conclusion to be predictable and " corny " . She did praise the film 's cinematography and visual appeal despite the limited number of filming locations actually used . In reviewing the film for DVD Talk , film instructor and critic Justin Felix found the use of a real tiger one of the only original elements of the film , while feeling the plot , setting , and characters followed the set Sci Fi Channel movie of the week formula . At the same time , he notes that the use of a live tiger results in most attacks occurring off screen and the tiger being rarely seen at all , taking away the " usual " fun of laughing at badly done " CG terrors . " Monsters and Critics.com 's Jeff Swindoll felt the film was a poor attempt at replicating Jaws with the tiger taking on the role of a " land shark . " While he felt the character of Colonel Graham was contrived and seemed to come from another era , Swindoll did think Ian D. Clark did portray the character decently . Like other critics , Swindoll praised the use of a live tiger , but also notes that it was obvious the tiger was playing with the actors like a " sweet pussycat " and that the post @-@ production editing did a bad job of trying to make it look like the tiger was a vicious killer .

Several reviewers praised the film for being more subdued than most of Sci @-@ Fi 's gore @-@ filled creature films and for its use of a live tiger rather than poor CGI effects . However , David Johnson of DVD Verdict , heavily criticized the film for " its significant dearth of righteous tiger @-@ attack action " . He found the implied violence resulted in a boring film that will not satisfy more horror film buff : " the gore @-@ hounds that might be attracted to the promise of a big @-@ ass tiger sinking his teeth into some hapless rednecks will be almost certainly disappointed . The big bummer is that we don 't even get any tiger on human direct action until the very end , and that 's boilerplate Lassie stuff with a stuntman fending off a laid @-@ back stunt tiger " . Conversely , unlike other reviewers , he praised the characters , feeling they were interesting and ended up being ones he " somewhat cared about . "

= SM U @-@ 41 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =

SM U @-@ 41 or U @-@ XLI was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 41 , built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard , was launched in November 1917 . When she was commissioned in February 1918 , she became the last boat of her class to enter service . She was also the last domestically constructed Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat to enter service .

She had a single hull just over 122 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced 280 metric tons ( 276 long tons ) when surfaced and over 325 metric tons ( 320 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .

During a short service career marred by repeated engine breakdowns , U @-@ 41 sank one ship , the French steamer Amiral Charner of 4 @,@ 604 gross register tons ( GRT ) . U @-@ 41 was at Cattaro at war 's end , and was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . She was towed to Bizerta and broken up within a year .

= = Design and construction = =

Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .

Once these steps had alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen , one of the two German shipyards building UB II submarines .

U @-@ 41 displaced 280 metric tons ( 276 long tons ) surfaced and 326 metric tons ( 321 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was planned to be 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 41 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .

U @-@ 41 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .

U @-@ 41 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) as a replacement for U @-@ 6 ( which had been sunk in May 1916 ) . She was laid down on 23 February 1917 at the Pola Navy Yard . During construction , U @-@ 41 was lengthened by nearly 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) to accommodate diesel engines that had been ordered for U @-@ 6 before her loss . U @-@ 41 was launched on 11 November .

= = Service career = =

On 19 February 1918 , SM U @-@ 41 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Edgar Wolf . Previously in command of U @-@ 4 for a week in April 1915 , the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Wolf was a native of Fiume ( present @-@ day Rijeka , Croatia ) . When she entered service , U @-@ 41 was the last boat of her class to do so . She was also the last domestically constructed U @-@ boat completed and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Wolf and U @-@ 41 departed Pola on 17 March for a patrol in the Mediterranean . On 30 March , Wolf attempted to torpedo a steamer off the coast of Africa , but missed his target . Three days later , the left diesel engine failed and Wolf steered his boat back to port , arriving at Cattaro on 5 April . U @-@ 41 sailed for Pola on 9 April and , completing the journey two days later , underwent repairs over the next six weeks . While conducting a diving trial out of Pola on 25 May , the boat sprang a leak at the depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . She returned to Pola and underwent more extensive repairs , remaining there until August .

After making way to the submarine base at Brioni , U @-@ 41 set out on another patrol into the Mediterranean on 29 August , but put into Sebenico the next day for engine repairs . Resuming her patrol after a day 's delay , U @-@ 41 reached her patrol area east of Malta . Wolf and U @-@ 41 scored their first success on 13 September , when they torpedoed and sank the steamer Amiral Charner west of Pantellaria . The 4 @,@ 604 @-@ ton French ship was carrying horses and a general cargo from Marseilles for Salonika when she was attacked . Six were killed in the attack on the French ship . On 26 September , U @-@ 41 attacked another steamer west of Kefalonia , but was apparently unsuccessful . U @-@ 41 ended her patrol at Cattaro on 28 September .

On October 6 , Wolf and U @-@ 41 set out from Cattaro to patrol off Durazzo and the Albanian coast . After nine days without success , the boat returned to Cattaro , and remained there through the end of the war . On 1 November , U @-@ 41 was taken over by a British commission , who controlled the vessel until she was ceded to France as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 41 and sister boats U @-@ 29 and U @-@ 31 were towed to Bizerta . U @-@ 29 foundered en route , but U @-@ 31 and U @-@ 41 reached their destination and were scrapped within the next year .

= Hurricane Carla =

Hurricane Carla ranks as the most intense U.S. tropical cyclone landfall on the Hurricane Severity Index . The third named storm and first Category 5 hurricane of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season , Carla developed from an area of squally weather in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 3 . Initially a tropical depression , it strengthened slowly while heading northwestward , and by September 5 , the system was upgraded to Tropical Storm Carla . About 24 hours later , Carla was upgraded to a hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the storm curved northward while approaching the Yucatán Channel . Late on September 7 , Carla entered the Gulf of Mexico while passing just northeast of the Yucatán Peninsula . By early on the following day , the storm became a major hurricane after reaching Category 3 intensity . Resuming its northwestward course , Carla continued intensification and on September 11 , it was upgraded to a Category 5 hurricane . Later that day , Carla weakened slightly , but was still a large and intense hurricane when the storm made landfall near Port O 'Connor , Texas . It weakened quickly inland and was reduced to a tropical storm on September 12 . Heading generally northward , Carla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 13 , while centered over southern Oklahoma . Rapidly moving northeastward , Carla 's remnants reached the Labrador Sea , Canada and dissipated on September 17 , 1961 .

While crossing the Yucatán Channel , the outer bands of Carla brought gusty winds and severe local flooding in western Cuba and the Yucatán Peninsula , though no damage or fatalities were reported . Although initially considered a significant threat to Florida , the storm brought only light winds and small amounts of precipitation , reaching no more than 3 @.@ 15 in ( 80 mm ) . In Texas , wind gusts as high as 170 mph ( 280 km / h ) were observed in Port Lavaca . Additionally , several tornadoes spawned in the state caused notable impacts , with the most destructive twister resulting in 200 buildings severely damaged , of which at least 60 were destroyed , and 8 deaths and 55 injuries . Throughout the state , Carla destroyed 1 @,@ 915 homes , 568 farm buildings , and 415 other buildings . Additionally , 50 @,@ 723 homes , 5 @,@ 620 farm buildings , and 10 @,@ 487 other buildings suffered damage . There were 34 fatalities and at least $ 300 million ( 1961 USD ) in losses in Texas alone . Several tornadoes also touched down in Louisiana , causing the destruction of 140 homes and 11 farms and other buildings , and major damage to 231 additional homes and 11 farm and other buildings . Minor to moderate damage was also reported to 748 homes and 75 farm and other buildings . Six deaths and $ 25 million in losses in Louisiana were attributed to Carla . Heavy rainfall occurred in several other states , especially in Kansas , where flash flooding severely damaged crops and drowned 5 people . Overall , Carla resulted in $ 325 @.@ 74 million in losses and 43 fatalities .

= = Meteorological history = =

As early as September 1 , a tropical disturbance – an area of convective activity – was observed tracking westward across the Caribbean Sea within the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) . Around that time , an anticyclone was situated over the western Caribbean Sea at the upper @-@ tropospheric levels . Surface charts indicate that a low @-@ level circulation was developing early on September 3 . Thus , it is estimated that a tropical depression – a tropical cyclone with sustained winds with winds of less than 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) – developed about 175 miles ( 282 km ) northwest of Barranquilla , Colombia at 1200 UTC . Initially , the center of circulation remained difficult to locate on surface charts due to lack of data . At San Andrés , winds shifted west at about 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) , while barometric pressures dropped to 1 @,@ 007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The Weather Bureau Office in Miami , Florida issued its first bulletin at 1600 UTC on September 4 , while the depression was centered about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios , Nicaragua .

It is estimated that sustained winds reached 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) at 1200 UTC on September 5 , thus the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Carla , while located just northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios . A reconnaissance aircraft flight reported that Carla was continuing to intensify , with surface winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Radars reported an unusually large tropical cyclone , with convective bands extending about 520 miles ( 840 km ) outward from the center . Around 0000 UTC on September 6 , Carla passed near Swan Island , which reported a barometric pressure of about 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) and wind gusts of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) from the southwest . Based on observations obtained by a reconnaissance aircraft at 1100 UTC on September 6 – namely a barometric pressure of 982 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) – a bulletin issued by the Weather Bureau an hour later indicated that the storm had " probably reached hurricane intensity " . According to post @-@ season analysis , Carla reached hurricane status at that time .

Shortly after becoming a hurricane on September 6 , Carla curved northward in the northwestern Caribbean Sea . At 1200 UTC on September 7 , the storm intensified into a Category 2 hurricane while located east @-@ northeast of Cozumel , Quintana Roo , Mexico ( actual use of the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale , which was developed in 1971 , was not in effect ) . Shortly thereafter , Carla crossed the Yucatán Channel and entered the Gulf of Mexico . A strong high pressure area forced Carla to resume its original northwesterly course . Early on September 8 , the storm strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane while located just north of the Yucatán Peninsula . Thus , Carla was the third major hurricane of the season . Carla was upgraded to a Category 4 hurricane early on September 10 , while approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States . At 0000 UTC on September 11 , Carla strengthened into a Category 5 while located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico . Six hours later , the storm reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) .

Although it weakened back to a Category 4 hurricane late on September 11 , Carla reached its minimum barometric pressure of 931 mbar ( 27 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Later that day , the storm struck Matagorda Island , Texas ( seven miles south of Port O 'Connor ) with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Carla rapidly weakened inland , and degenerated to a Category 2 hurricane on September 12 , while passing just east of Port Lavaca . Six hours later , the storm was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane near Shiner , shortly before being downgraded to a tropical storm between Taylor and Coupland . Beginning late on September 12 , the storm curved just east of due north . After reaching Oklahoma early on September 13 , Carla transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located over rural Johnston County . The extratropical remnants of Carla moved rapidly northeastward and brought heavy rainfall to some areas of the Great Plains and Midwestern United States . By September 14 , it entered Canada near Sault Ste . Marie , Ontario . Continuing swiftly northeastward across Ontario , Quebec , and Labrador , before the remnants dissipated over the Labrador Sea on September 17 .

= = Preparations = =

Occurring a year after Hurricane Donna , officials in the Florida Keys took precautions to brace for potential impact from the storm . The United States Navy flew their planes out of Key West , while Coast Guardsmen evacuated Alligator Reef Light , American Shoal Light , and Sombrero Key Light . Ships docked at Key West sailed out to sea to ride out the squalls . On the morning of September 7 , a hurricane watch was issued from the entire coast of Louisiana eastward to Apalachicola , Florida . On September 8 , a hurricane watch was issued along the southwest coast of the state from Vermilion Bay westward . It was later extended westward to include the entire coast of Texas , and eastward to Apalachicola , Florida . A portion of the hurricane watch from Aransas Pass , Texas to Grand Isle , Louisiana was upgraded to a hurricane warning at 1600 UTC on September 9 . An estimated 500 @,@ 000 people fled the coasts of Texas and Louisiana , making it the largest evacuation in the history of the United States , at the time . Further , at least half of those people were from Texas . In small towns along the coast of Texas , 90 – 100 % of their populations evacuated , while 20 % of people left the larger cities . Many in Galveston stayed due to protection from the Galveston Seawall .

= = Impact = =

Carla spawned the largest hurricane @-@ related tornado outbreak on record at the time , when 26 tornadoes touched down within its circulation . However , it was overwhelmingly surpassed by Hurricane Beulah in 1967 , which spawned at least 115 tornadoes . Throughout its path , 43 fatalities and about $ 325 @.@ 74 million in damage were attributed to Carla . Most of the impact occurred in Texas , where the storm made landfall as a large and strong Category 4 hurricane .

= = = United States = = =

= = = = Texas = = = =

Abnormally high tides and storm surge was reported along the coast of Texas , reaching at least 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above mean sea level at many coastal areas between Sabine Pass and Port Aransas . The highest tide reported was 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) at Port Lavaca , with large wave heights including 12 @.@ 6 feet ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) in Matagorda , 10 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) in Port Aransas , 10 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) in Freeport , 10 @.@ 1 feet ( 3 @.@ 1 m ) in Texas City , and 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in Galveston and Sabine . Because the storm was a Category 4 hurricane at landfall , Carla produced strong winds , especially near its path . The strongest sustained winds include 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) in Matagorda , 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) in Victoria , and 88 mph ( 142 km / h ) . Additionally , the highest wind gust observations include 175 mph ( 282 km / h ) in Port Lavaca , 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) in Matagorda , and 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) in Aransas Pass , Austwell , Edna , Port Aransas , and Victoria . Carla produced heavy rainfall in Texas , peaking at 17 @.@ 48 inches ( 444 mm ) in Bay City . Other significant precipitation totals include 16 @.@ 49 inches ( 419 mm ) at Scholes International Airport at Galveston , 14 @.@ 94 inches ( 379 mm ) in Downtown Galveston , 13 @.@ 05 inches ( 331 mm ) in Wharton , 12 @.@ 55 inches ( 319 mm ) in Liberty , 12 @.@ 47 inches ( 317 mm ) in Dickinson , 11 @.@ 81 inches ( 300 mm ) in Flantonia , 10 @.@ 59 inches ( 269 mm ) in Columbus , 8 @.@ 75 inches ( 222 mm ) in Halletsville , and 8 @.@ 9 inches ( 230 mm ) in Smithville .

The most significant damage to property occurred between Port Arthur and Corpus Christi . Port O 'Connor , lying nearest to the location of Carla 's landfall , was virtually destroyed . In Victoria , the highest sustained wind speed was 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , while gusts reached 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . About 4 @,@ 260 homes were damaged , with around 500 severely damaged or destroyed . 43 businesses and 26 public buildings were also significantly impacted . Damage in the city of Victoria reached $ 10 million . Of the 26 tornadoes spawned by Carla , eight of them in Texas caused significant impact . A tornado near Bay City destroyed two radio towers and damaged several buildings . Near Jacksonville , a tornado injured three people , caused the destruction of one house and impacted 3 others , resulting in $ 25 @,@ 000 in damage . Twenty @-@ two people were injured , 18 homes and 6 commercial buildings were destroyed , and 40 additional homes were damaged in a tornado in Channelview , located near Houston ; losses reached $ 200 @,@ 000 . In the early morning hours of September 13 , an F4 tornado moved across Galveston Island along a 15 @-@ mile ( 24 @-@ kilometer ) long , 230 @-@ yard @-@ wide path ( it crossed into Galveston Bay as well ) , severely damaging 200 buildings , of which at least 60 were destroyed , and causing eight deaths and 55 injuries . A few hours later , another twister in the area resulted in the destruction of six houses and extensive lesser damage . In Hardin , a tornado damaged six homes . Several structures sustained impact during a tornado in Fulbright . The final twister occurred during the late afternoon hours in Latex . It caused two injuries , and resulted in $ 5 @,@ 000 in losses , after damaging two houses and three garages .

Then little @-@ known newsman Dan Rather reported live from the Galveston Seawall during the storm , an act that would be imitated by later reporters . This marked the first live television broadcast of a hurricane . Rather also alerted the public of the size of Carla in a way that " literally changed the way the world sees hurricanes " , according to a fellow reporter . Broadcasting live at the Weather Bureau Office in Galveston , Rather asked a meteorologist to draw an outline of the Gulf of Mexico on a transparent sheet of plastic . He then held the map over the black and white radar screen , which put the size of Carla into perspective . CBS was so impressed with Rather 's work that he was offered the position of correspondent . Throughout Texas , Carla destroyed 1 @,@ 915 homes , 568 farm buildings , and 415 other buildings . Additionally , 50 @,@ 723 homes , 5 @,@ 620 farm buildings , and 10 @,@ 487 other buildings suffered damage . There were 460 injuries according to the American Red Cross , though the Monthly Weather Review listed a slightly higher number , 465 . The storm caused 34 fatalities in Texas . Causes of death include 20 people drowning , eight from tornadoes , four electrocutions , and one heart attack . Overall , damage in the state was " conservatively " estimated at $ 300 million . A breakdown of damage indicates $ 200 million incurred to property and $ 100 million to crops , mostly from unharvested rice and lesser impact to cotton and citrus .

= = = = Louisiana = = = =

In southeastern Louisiana , abnormally high tides lashed the coast , though no beach erosion was reported . Rainfall was heavy , peaking at 13 @.@ 9 inches ( 350 mm ) in Many . Other observed precipitation totals include 5 @.@ 6 inches ( 140 mm ) in Baton Rouge , 5 @.@ 57 inches ( 141 mm ) in Morgan City , 4 @.@ 25 inches ( 108 mm ) in Shreveport , 3 @.@ 16 inches ( 80 mm ) in New Orleans , 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) in Lafayette , 2 @.@ 19 inches ( 56 mm ) in Alexandria , 2 @.@ 1 inches ( 53 mm ) in Jonesville and West Monroe , and 1 @.@ 37 inches ( 35 mm ) in Lake Charles . In the western portions of Louisiana , sustained winds peaked at 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) and gusts reached 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . Only minor damage occurred , limited to roofs , glass , and downed tree limbs . Winds caused a local river to reach 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) above flood stage . The 11 tornadoes spawned by Carla in Louisiana destroyed 140 homes and 11 farm and other buildings , while causing major damage to 231 additional homes and 11 farm and other buildings . Additionally , 748 homes and 75 farm and other buildings suffered minor to moderate damage . Six fatalities and 199 injuries occurred , mostly related to the tornadoes . Damage in Louisiana totaled to about $ 25 million . A breakdown of losses include $ 6 million to agriculture , $ 5 million to buildings , $ 4 million to boats and beach property , $ 3 million to roads and bridges , $ 5 million to oil platforms just offshore , and $ 2 million in miscellaneous damage .

= = = = Oklahoma = = = =

Carla and its remnants brought heavy rainfall and strong winds to portions of Oklahoma . About 2 – 8 inches ( 51 – 203 mm ) of rain fell in Grant , Tillman , Washita Counties . Heavier amounts of at least 5 inches ( 130 mm ) fell in Atoka and Pushmataha County . Precipitation in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 68 inches ( 195 mm ) in Kingfisher . More than 140 city blocks were flooded with up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in residential areas of Kingfisher and up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in business areas . 225 homes and buildings in the city suffered water damaged . Throughout the state , damage in other areas included 90 homes and buildings in Tulsa , 50 homes each in El Reno and Oklahoma City , and 10 homes in Pawnee . Additionally , water inundation washed out several bridges and highways in northeastern parts of the state , leaving roads impassable . Sustained winds between 30 and 55 mph ( 48 and 89 km / h ) and gusts up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) were recorded in Oklahoma . Winds injured two people due to airborne debris . Winds and rain combined severely disrupted electrical and telephone services and caused $ 670 @,@ 000 in damage , with $ 600 @,@ 000 to property and $ 70 @,@ 000 to crops .

= = = = Illinois = = = =

The storm dropped precipitation amounts of 7 inches ( 180 mm ) throughout northwestern Illinois , with a peak of 8 @.@ 18 inches ( 208 mm ) in Mount Carroll . Thus , Carla is the second wettest tropical cyclone in Illinois , behind only Hurricane Audrey in 1957 . Additionally , up to 6 @.@ 29 inches ( 160 mm ) fell in 24 hours . Severe local flooding occurred , especially in the northern portions of the state . Heavy property and agricultural damage occurred . Streets and basements were reported to have flooded , while bridge approaches and a few small bridges were washed out . Precipitation of 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 – 89 mm ) in Chicago flooded about 60 viaducts and 1 @,@ 000 basements . After the Chicago River rose 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , the lock gate to Lake Michigan was opened to release excess water . However , the abrupt onrush of water resulted in about $ 75 @,@ 000 in damage to boats at Wilmette Harbor .

= = = = Elsewhere in the United States = = = =

Winds in Key West reached 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , while much of Florida reported rainfall from the outer bands of Carla . In Kansas , 4 to 7 inches ( 100 to 180 mm ) of rain in only 6 hours caused flash flooding . With a peak amount of 8 @.@ 52 inches ( 216 mm ) in Haddam , Carla was the rainiest tropical cyclone in Kansas , until being surpassed by Hurricane Paine in 1986 and Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 . Severe crop damage occurred , especially in areas of Chautauqua and Shawnee Counties and to the south of the Kansas River . Many highways were left impassable due to water inundation . A family of 4 drowned after their car was swept off a road near Waverly . A fifth fatality occurred after a car with one occupant was swept into a tributary of the Marmaton River near Fort Scott . The storm persistently produced winds of 35 to 50 mph ( 56 to 80 km / h ) , causing further agricultural damage .

In Nebraska , rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 68 inches ( 144 mm ) in Hubbrell , making Carla the rainiest tropical cyclone in the state . Heavy precipitation also fell in Missouri , especially in Brookfield , Lee 's Summit , and Pleasant Hill . The maximum rainfall total in Missouri was 9 @.@ 34 inches ( 237 mm ) in Concordia . One fatality was reported in Missouri , though the cause of death is unknown . Rainfall in Iowa peaked at 9 @.@ 03 inches ( 229 mm ) near Chariton , making Carla the rainiest tropical cyclone in the state . Up to 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain fell in a 12 @-@ hour period in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan , mostly between Cheboygan and Grand Rapids . However , the Weather Prediction Center indicated precipitation amounts of 6 @.@ 07 inches ( 154 mm ) in Boyne Falls . Regardless , Carla is the wettest tropical cyclone in the history of Michigan . Despite , the rainfall , flooding in Michigan was relatively minimal , limited to an washed out dam in Traverse City . Precipitation in Wisconsin reached 7 @.@ 58 inches ( 193 mm ) in Brodhead , causing Carla to rank as the wettest tropical cyclone in the state . Precipitation peaks in other states include 4 @.@ 44 inches ( 113 mm ) in Alabama , 5 @.@ 48 inches ( 139 mm ) in Arkansas , 6 @.@ 37 inches ( 162 mm ) in Mississippi , and 3 @.@ 6 inches ( 91 mm ) in Indiana .

= = = Elsewhere = = =

In Cuba , broadcasts reported severe flooding near Pinar del Río , and in Los Colomas and Punta de Cartas . Offshore Honduras on Swan Island , a rainfall amount of 3 @.@ 89 inches ( 99 mm ) was reported along with wind gusts up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The remnants of Carla brought tropical storm force winds to some areas of Canada . In Ontario , gusty winds caused power outages in the Clarkson – Port Credit area . Electrical services were are disrupted in New Brunswick , due to winds up to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Saint John . Winds of 57 mph ( 92 km / h ) lashed Halifax in Nova Scotia , thus the Halifax Public Gardens closed for threat of falling trees and branches .

= = Aftermath = =

Shortly after the storm , Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson , a lifelong resident of Texas , toured the devastation in the state and met with officials from 18 different counties , remarking that " as always , Texans are arising to a challenge ... We have suffered hurricane , tornado , and floods , but we in Texas are a bold and brave people . " After his report to President John F. Kennedy and Congress , $ 55 million was approved in aid for Texas , though Kennedy later requested an additional $ 65 million . President Kennedy issued a disaster declaration for Texas , allowing all jurisdictions in the state to apply for public assistance . The president also declared 6 parishes in Louisiana a disaster area . Helicopters deployed 88 United States Marines to Galveston to patrol devastated areas . A United States Navy task force composed of medical and construction work teams was also sent to the area . Members of the United States National Guard assisted refugees in returning to their homes and worked to prevent looting . Owing the hurricane 's intensity and destruction , the name Carla was retired and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced by Carol in the 1965 season .

= Wail al @-@ Shehri =

Wail Mohammed al @-@ Shehri ( Arabic : وائل الشهري , Wāīl ash @-@ Shehrī ; also transliterated as Alshehri ) ( July 31 , 1973 – September 11 , 2001 ) was one of five hijackers of American Airlines Flight 11 , which was hijacked and flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center as part of the September 11 attacks .

Shehri was an elementary school teacher from Khamis Mushait in the Asir region of Saudi Arabia . In early 2000 he traveled to Medina to seek treatment for mental problems . He and his younger brother Waleed traveled to Afghanistan in March 2000 and joined an Al @-@ Qaeda training camp . The brothers were chosen , along with others from the same region of Saudi Arabia , to participate in the September 11 attacks . Once selected , Shehri returned to Saudi Arabia in October 2000 to obtain a clean passport , then returned to Afghanistan . In March 2001 , he recorded his last will and testament on video .

Shehri arrived in the United States in early June 2001 , staying in budget motels in the Boynton Beach area of south Florida . On September 5 , 2001 , Shehri traveled to Boston and checked into a motel with his brother . Six days later , Shehri arrived early in the morning at Boston 's Logan International Airport and boarded American Airlines Flight 11 . Fifteen minutes after take off , the flight was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center at 8 : 46 a.m.

In the aftermath of the attacks , some news reports mistakenly reported Shehri as a trained pilot and son of a Saudi diplomat , who was still alive and well . The Shehri family in Khamis Mushait spoke to the media , denying those early reports , saying that the Shehri brothers had disappeared and have not been heard from since .

= = Background = =

Wail al @-@ Shehri and his younger brother Waleed were from Khamis Mushait in the Asir province , which is an impoverished area in southwestern Saudi Arabia , along the Yemeni border . Shehri was born in Annams , and grew up in the Um Saraar neighborhood in Khamis Mushait . He had ten brothers and one sister . Several of Shehri 's brothers joined the Saudi military , while his uncle may have been a major in the army and director of logistics . Shehri 's father , Mohammed Ali Asgley Al Shehri , worked as a car dealer . On weekends , the family often spent time together at the Red Sea . The family strictly adhered to the Wahabi school of Islam , which forbids many elements of modernity . As such , the Shehri family did not have satellite television or Internet , nor did his parents permit music or contact with girls . Some of Wail al @-@ Shehri 's elder brothers had visited the United States and could speak English ; however , Wail knew little English .

During high school and college , Shehri was deeply religious and attended Al @-@ Seqley Mosque , which his family had built as the local mosque . Shehri also frequented government @-@ supported religious camps in Saudi Arabia . At this time , there were strong religious feelings in Saudi Arabia , especially in the Asir region . Many young people in the region idolized Osama bin Laden , who had family ties to the area . Wail 's father was a friend of Bin Laden 's father , Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden . Ahmed al @-@ Nami and Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi , who were both hijackers on United Airlines Flight 93 , came from the same area in Saudi Arabia as the Shehri family .

After graduating from Abha teachers college in 1999 , Wail al @-@ Shehri took a job as an elementary school physical education teacher at the Khamis Mushait airbase . Five months into the job , Shehri took leave due to mental illness and depression . Rather than conventional therapy , Wail sought consultation with Muslim clerics , and hoped that a visit to Medina would help . His treatment involved verses from the Qur 'an read to him by a sheikh . He traveled to Medina together with Waleed . After the September 11 attacks , others recalled seeing the Shehri brothers in Medina .

= = Afghanistan = =

Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri disappeared after going to Medina , calling their father just once ; in the conversation , the brothers were vague about when they would return . Both had expressed interest in joining the jihad in Chechnya , though may have been diverted to Afghanistan . Before disappearing , the Shehri brothers went to Al @-@ Seqley Mosque to swear an oath and commitment to jihad , as did Ahmed al @-@ Nami and Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi . Wail presided over the ceremony , dubbing himself Abu Mossaeb al @-@ Janubi after one of Muhammad 's companions .

In March 2000 , he left for Pakistan with Waleed and Ahmed al @-@ Nami ; later , they went on to Afghanistan . Wail al @-@ Shehri followed the standard path for new al @-@ Qaeda recruits in Afghanistan , spending time in the Khalden training camp and then Al Farouq training camp near Kandahar . Details on how the non @-@ pilot ( " muscle " ) hijackers were chosen for the September 11 attacks are vague , though the hijackers appear to have been selected by senior al @-@ Qaeda leaders in 2000 from the thousands of recruits at training camps in Afghanistan . The most capable and motivated volunteers were at al @-@ Farouq , and Saudi citizens were good candidates , since it would be easy for them to obtain visas to travel to the United States . Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) director George Tenet later said that the muscle hijackers were probably told little about their mission in the United States .

Once Wail and the other muscle hijackers completed their training in Afghanistan , they received $ 2 @,@ 000 so they could return to Saudi Arabia to obtain new passports and visas . The Shehri brothers may have been assisted by a relative who worked in the Saudi passport office . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri received passports on October 3 , 2000 , and then obtained United States visas on October 24 . On his visa application , Wail al @-@ Shehri provided vague information , stating his employer / school as " South City " , and his destination as " Wasantwn " . Wail indicated his occupation as " teacher " , and that he would be traveling with his brother on a four @-@ to @-@ six month vacation , which would be paid for with Wail 's teacher salary . Although he would not be working while on vacation , consular officials nonetheless did not question if the Shehri brothers had the financial means to support themselves while in the United States .

In late 2000 , Wail traveled to the United Arab Emirates , where he purchased traveler 's checks , presumed to have been paid for by Mustafa Ahmed al @-@ Hawsawi . Five other hijackers passed through the United Arab Emirates and purchased traveler 's checks , including Majed Moqed , Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi , Ahmed al @-@ Haznawi and Ahmed al @-@ Nami . The 9 / 11 Commission believes that three of the future muscle hijackers , including Wail and Waleed , traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to Beirut and then onward to Iran where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped . An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight , although this may have been a coincidence .

Wail al @-@ Shehri appeared together with hijackers Ahmed al @-@ Nami , Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi , and Ahmed al @-@ Ghamdi on a video recorded in March 2001 , and aired on Al Jazeera in September 2002 . Shehri was seen studying maps and flight manuals , but he did not speak in the video ; it also included a segment of Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari reading his last will and testament . While in Afghanistan , another video was recorded that showed Shehri reading his last will and testament . This video was released on September 7 , 2006 .

= = United States = =

On June 5 , 2001 , Wail obtained an International Driving Permit , which was issued in Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates . Wail al @-@ Shehri arrived together with fellow al @-@ Qaeda member Ahmed al @-@ Haznawi at Miami International Airport , via London , from Dubai on June 8 . Both were admitted as tourists for six months . Shehri opened a bank account at SunTrust Bank in Florida on June 18 , with a deposit of $ 8 @,@ 000 that came from American Express traveler 's cheques purchased on June 7 in the United Arab Emirates .

Shehri moved into the Homing Inn , a budget motel in Boynton Beach , on June 21 , 2001 , sharing a room with his brother Waleed , and Satam al @-@ Suqami . Wail and Suqami both used this hotel as their address when they received Florida state non @-@ driver identifications on July 3 . Shehri checked into the Panther Motel & Apartments , in Deerfield Beach , with his brother and Suqami on August 2 , staying there until August 10 . While in Florida , Wail was a member of the World Gym in Boynton Beach , where he trained with Waleed and Suqami . During the summer of 2001 , Wail regularly used computers at the Delray Beach Public Library .

On August 28 , 2001 , Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri made reservations on American Airlines Flight 11 , using the Mail Boxes Etc. in Hollywood , Florida as their address . The Shehri brothers contacted American Airlines on September 3 by telephone to change their first @-@ class seat assignments for American Airlines Flight 11 , selecting seats on the side of the aircraft that offered a direct view of the cockpit . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri left Florida for Boston on September 5 , traveling together on Delta Air Lines Flight 2462 .

Wail checked in together with Waleed at the Park Inn Hotel in Chestnut Hill , Massachusetts on September 5 , 2001 , staying in room 432 . While staying at the Park Inn , Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri may have called a prostitute . Wail al @-@ Shehri accompanied his brother on September 9 to the Travelex at Logan International Airport , where Waleed attempted to wire $ 5 @,@ 000 to the United Arab Emirates . Waleed had insufficient documentation , so Wail and Waleed returned the next day to complete the transaction . Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad received the funds on September 11 at Al @-@ Ansari Exchange in Sharjah . Hijacker Abdulaziz al @-@ Omari possibly spent a night at the Park Inn before leaving with Mohamed Atta for Portland , Maine on September 10 . When Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri checked out on September 11 , they left a sheet of instructions for flying a jet behind in their hotel room .

= = Attacks = =

Wail al @-@ Shehri , his brother Waleed , and Satam al @-@ Suqami arrived together at Logan Airport at 06 : 45 on the morning of September 11 , 2001 . Upon check @-@ in , all three men were selected by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System ( CAPPS ) for further screening of their checked baggage . As the CAPPS was only for luggage , the three hijackers did not undergo any extra scrutiny at the passenger security checkpoint . One of the five Globe Aviation security screeners on @-@ duty later reported that either Wail or Waleed had been using a crutch when they passed through security , and that the crutch had been X @-@ rayed as per regulations .

By 07 : 40 , all five hijackers were aboard the flight , which was scheduled to depart at 07 : 45 . Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri sat together in first class in seats 2A and 2B respectively . The aircraft taxied away from Gate 26 , and departed Logan International Airport at 07 : 59 , following a 14 @-@ minute delay . Flight 11 was hijacked at approximately 08 : 14 , which is when the pilot stopped responding to air traffic control . Once the hijacking began , the brothers are suspected of having stabbed two flight attendants . At 08 : 46 : 40 , Mohamed Atta deliberately crashed Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower ( Tower 1 ) of the World Trade Center . The immediate damage destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone , trapping 1 @,@ 344 people . The North Tower collapsed at 10 : 28 , after burning for 102 minutes .

= = Aftermath = =

Waleed al @-@ Shehri was reported to have been found alive by a BBC News article on September 23 , 2001 , and other news reports in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks . Reports said that the Shehri brothers were the sons of a Saudi diplomat stationed in New Delhi , Ahmed al @-@ Shehri . The diplomat 's son was trained as a pilot at Embry @-@ Riddle Aeronautical University in Daytona Beach , Florida , and was working as a pilot for Saudi Arabian Airlines . At the time of the attacks , he was in Morocco for a training program . There were also reports that Wail al @-@ Shehri was a trained pilot . In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks , Saudi officials suggested that Wail and Waleed al @-@ Shehri were victims of identity theft , but the diplomat 's son was the victim of mistaken identity .

Jamal Khashoggi , of Al @-@ Watan and ArabNews in Saudi Arabia , spoke with Muhammad Ali al @-@ Shehri in Khamis Mushait , who said his sons Wail and Waleed had been missing for months . Wail al @-@ Shehri 's father denied reports that Wail had an aeronautics degree , as some news reports said , " My son Wail was 25 years old and had a BA in physical education from the Abha Teacher ’ s College . He was mentally ill and had gone to numerous clerics for assistance in overcoming this instability . He had asked the school , where he taught , for a 6 @-@ month leave to go to Madinah . " His father also told reporters that he dreaded having to believe that Wail and Waleed were involved in the September 11 attacks , " If that turns out to be the truth , then I 'll never , never accept it from them . I 'll never forgive them for that . " Family members said that Wail and Waleed became very religious in the months before they disappeared , had expressed interest in going to Chechnya , and hoped for martyrdom . In a report entitled " A Saudi Apology " for Dateline NBC aired on August 25 , 2002 , John Hockenberry traveled to Asir , where he interviewed Shehri 's brother , Salah , who agreed that Wail and Waleed were deceased . Salah described them as not very religious , and suggested they had been brainwashed .

Saudi officials later stated that the names of the hijackers were in fact correct , and that 15 of the 19 hijackers were Saudi . In response to 9 / 11 conspiracy theories surrounding its original news story suggesting hijackers were still alive , the BBC issued a response in 2006 , saying that later reports on the hijackers superseded the original story . The BBC also explained that confusion arose with the Arabic names that were common .

= Red Headed Stranger =

Red Headed Stranger is a 1975 album by American outlaw country singer Willie Nelson . After the wide success of his recordings with Atlantic Records , coupled with the negotiating skills of his manager , Neil Reshen , Nelson signed a contract with Columbia Records , a label that gave him total creative control over his works . The concept for the album was inspired by the " Tale of the Red Headed Stranger " , a song that Nelson used to play as a disk jockey on his program in Fort Worth , Texas . After signing with Columbia he decided to record the song , and arranged the details during his return to Austin , Texas , from a trip to Colorado . It was recorded at low cost at Autumn Sound Studios in Garland , Texas . The songs featured sparse arrangements , largely limited to Nelson 's guitar , piano and drums . Nelson presented the finished material to Columbia executives , who were dubious about releasing an album that they at first thought was a demo . However , Nelson had creative control , so no further production was added .

A concept album , Red Headed Stranger is about a fugitive on the run from the law after killing his wife and her lover . The content consists of songs with brief poetic lyrics and arrangements of older material such as Fred Rose 's " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , Wolfe Gilbert 's " Down Yonder " and Juventino Rosas ' " O 'er the Waves " . Despite Columbia 's doubts and the limited instrumentation , Red Headed Stranger was a blockbuster among country music and mainstream audiences . It was certified multi @-@ platinum , and made Nelson one of the most recognized artists in country music . The cover of " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , released as a single previous to the album full release became Nelson 's first number one hit . The title of the album would become a lasting nickname for Nelson . It was ranked # 183 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and number one on CMT 's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music . In 2010 it was inducted to the National Recording Registry .

In 1986 Nelson starred as the Red Headed Stranger in a movie of the same name , based on the story of the album . The album has had a strong cultural impact ; the song " Time of the Preacher " has been used often in the series Edge of Darkness , and its lyrics were used as well in the first issue of the comic Preacher .

= = Background and recording = =

In 1973 Nelson signed a contract for US $ 25 @,@ 000 per year with Atlantic Records , the first country artist signed by the label . His first album with Atlantic was the critically acclaimed Shotgun Willie , which was followed by one of the first concept albums in country music , Phases and Stages . Due to the success of these recordings , Nelson signed with Columbia Records , and was given complete creative control .

During his return to Austin after a ski trip in Colorado , Nelson was inspired by his then @-@ wife , Connie Koepke , to write a western concept album . Koepke suggested the inclusion of Arthur " Guitar Boogie " Smith 's " Tale of the Red Headed Stranger " , which Nelson sang during his radio shows on KCNC in Fort Worth and previously , to his children at bedtime . Nelson decided to write a complete story that included details of events prior to the ones described in the song . As he spontaneously composed the songs , Koepke wrote down the lyrics . With his original writings , Nelson included on the story , Fred Rose 's " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , Wolfe Gilbert 's " Down Yonder " , Juventino Rosas ' " O 'er the Waves " , Hank Cochran 's " Can I Sleep in Your Arms ? " , Eddy Arnold 's " I Couldn 't Believe it Was True " , and Billy Callery 's " Hands on the Wheel " . When he arrived in Austin , Nelson recorded a demo of the songs on a tape recorder accompanied with his guitar at his ranch in Fitzhugh Road .

Nelson started to look for a studio in Texas to record his new material , to avoid the modifications that they did to his recordings in his previous sessions . Engineer Phil York , who was hired free @-@ lance by the recently opened Autumn Sound Studios in Garland , Texas , heard about his need . York , an acquaintance of Nelson 's harmonicist Mickey Raphael , offered Nelson a day of free recording to boost the popularity of the studio . Nelson and his band went to the trial session during January , and recorded five songs . Later , Rapahel called back York , announcing that Nelson would record the entire album there . After hearing the tapes by Nelson , the band started to improvise to the song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " . Disliking the result , Nelson decided to strip down the instrumentation . Nelson also instructed York to undo the equalization he performed on the tracks , remarking that it was the method his producers used in Nashville . The recording took five days , with an additional day for the mixing , that summed up to US $ 4 @,@ 000 in studio costs.The addtitional costs took the total to US $ 20 @,@ 000 .

Nelson featured arrangements of acoustic guitar , accompanied by piano , played by his sister , Bobbie , as well complementary arrangements of drums , harmonica and mandolin . The sparsely instrumented acoustic arrangements caused Columbia directors to doubt the wisdom of releasing the album as presented , feeling it was under @-@ produced and no more than a demo . However , Nelson had complete creative control , and it was released without any further modifications .

= = Concept = =

The story begins with " Time of the Preacher " , where the character evokes his love for his wife , whom he suspects is unfaithful . In the following song , " I Couldn 't Believe It Was True " , the infidelity is revealed . This leads to a short version of " Time of the Preacher , " wherein the singer ends with the line " Now the lesson is over , and the killing 's begun " . The reaction of the husband is depicted by Nelson in a medley of " Blue Rock , Montana " and " Red Headed Stranger " . The first song describes the double murder of the unfaithful woman and her lover by the Stranger , who states " And they died with a smile on their faces . " This leads to the second song of the medley , which describes the grief of the Stranger . This section is followed by Nelson 's cover of the 1947 Fred Rose , song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , where the fugitive laments the loss of his wife . In " Red Headed Stranger , " the protagonist commits a subsequent murder — he kills a woman he believes is stealing his horse . The horse , to which he undoubtedly holds a sentimental attachment , had belonged to the Stranger 's wife .

The story continues with the Stranger traveling south . In the song " Denver , " the character falls in love with a woman he meets in a bar in town . One of the lines from " Blue Rock Montana " is repeated , with a variation : " And they danced with a smile on their faces " . The following song , " Can I Sleep in Your Arms ? " , shows the desire of the Stranger for redemption and love . Next is " Remember Me " , where he announces that his vows to his deceased wife are broken and he is free to love . The story ends with " Hands on the Wheel " , which depicts the Stranger as an old man who is accompanied by a child , presumably his grandson , and his new love . The song marks the end of the sorrow of the Stranger , and his redemption years later . The album ends with the instrumental song " Bandera " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Chart performance and critical reception = = =

Red Headed Stranger reached number one on the Billboard chart for Top Country Albums , and number 28 during a 43 @-@ week stay in the Top LPs & Tapes chart . On March 11 , 1976 , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , and on November 21 , 1986 , it was certified double @-@ platinum .

Rolling Stone writer Paul Nelson wrote : " Red Headed Stranger is extraordinarily ambitious , cool , tightly controlled .... Hemingway , who perfected an art of sharp outlines and clipped phrases , used to say that the full power of his composition was accessible only between the lines ; and Nelson , on this LP , ties precise , evocative lyrics to not quite remembered , never really forgotten folk melodies to create a similar effect , haunting yet utterly unsentimental . That he did not write much of the material makes his accomplishment no less singular . " Meanwhile , critic Robert Christgau wrote , " Some of the individual pieces are quite nice , but the gestalt is the concept album at its most counterproductive — the lyrics render the nostalgic instrumental parts unnecessarily ironic and lose additional charm in narrative context . "

Music critic Chet Flippo wrote in a Texas Monthly article entitled " Mathew , Mark , Luke and Willie : Willie Nelson 's latest album is more than a good country music ; it 's almost Gospel " : " The difference between Nelson 's Red Headed Stranger and any current C & W album , and especially what passes for a soundtrack for Nashville , is astounding . What Nelson has done is simply unclassifiable ; it is the only record I have heard that strikes me as otherworldly . Red Headed Stranger conjures up such strange emotions and works on so many levels that listening to it becomes totally obsessing " .

Billboard described the album as " lots of instrumental work , with particularly fine piano by Bobbie Nelson , and the usual highly stylized Willie Nelson vocals " . Mother Jones wrote : " Texans have known for 15 years what Red Headed Stranger finally revealed to the world – that Nelson is simply too brilliant a songwriter , interpreter , and singer – just too damn universal – to be defined as merely a country artist " .

In 1996 CMJ New Music Monthly wrote : " His Red Headed Stranger was the Sgt. Pepper 's of country music , the first record to follow a coherent theme instead of merely compiling radio singles " . AllMusic described Red Headed Stranger as " really elusive , as the themes get a little muddled and the tunes themselves are a bit bare . It 's undoubtedly distinctive – and it sounds more distinctive with each passing year – but it 's strictly an intellectual triumph and , after a pair of albums that were musically and intellectually sound , it 's a bit of a letdown , no matter how successful it was " . In 2003 it was included among the top 1 @,@ 000 albums of Zagat Survey magazine , and was rated five stars out of five . The magazine wrote , " Supporters ( of the album ) spread the gospel that it 's just a quintessential outlaw recording , but perhaps the greatest country album ever with a spare style that changed the way C & W was played " .

Sputnikmusic wrote : " The Red Headed Stranger is simple and bare . Following the story of a preacher man that kills his cheating wife and her lover , ol ' Willie spins the tale with a laid back nonchalance that just seems to ooze out of him , his aching chords and somber melodies encapsulating the futility and pain of his character 's situation [ ... ] The Red Headed Stranger is timeless . Willie Nelson 's captivating story telling , and the minimalist majesty of his music fills a well worn grove in the hearts of those that enjoy the folk roots of the United States . "

Red Headed Stranger 's critical success cemented Nelson 's outlaw image , and made him one of the most recognized artists in country music . The title of the album became a long lasting nickname for him . The cover of Fred Rose 's 1945 song " Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain " , that had been released as a single previous to the album , became his first number one hit as a singer . In 2004 the album was ranked at number 184 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , and number one in CMT 's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music in 2006 . In 2009 it was adopted into the National Recording Registry because Red Headed Stranger is " culturally , historically , or aesthetically important , and / or informs or reflects life in the United States . "

= = = Movie = = =

At an appearance at the Armadillo World Headquarters , a music venue in Austin , Texas , Nelson met publisher and screenwriter William D. Wittliff . Because of the success of the album , Wittliff decided to write a script for Nelson based on the story of the Red Headed Stranger . In 1979 Wittliff finished a draft of the project , which was turned over to Universal Studios . The studio budgeted the film at $ 14 million and sent the script to Robert Redford , who turned it down . The movie project was tabled , and Wittliff and Nelson had to buy the script back from Universal . The script then went to HBO , who assigned the project a budget of $ 5 million , but this project was not completed either . Finally , Nelson and Wittliff decided to finance the film themselves . Nelson portrayed the role of the stranger , and the movie was released in 1986 .

= = = In popular culture = = =

The first track , " Time of the Preacher " , was used in Bob Dylan 's 1978 film Renaldo and Clara and episodes of the 1985 television drama Edge of Darkness . The lyrics to " Time of the Preacher " were used in the opening pages of the first issue of the Vertigo comic book Preacher , with the song being used in the opening of the premiere of the TV series based on the comic .

The complete album was performed and recorded by Carla Bozulich in 2003 . The Red Headed Stranger included a guest appearance by Nelson . A first season episode of the dramedy series Monk is entitled " Mr. Monk and the Red @-@ Headed Stranger , " and guest @-@ stars Willie Nelson .

= = Track listing = =

= = = Original release = = =

= = = Reissue ( 2000 ) = = =

The album was reissued by Columbia / Legacy in 2000 . The new issue features remastered sound , as well as the inclusion of previously unreleased songs .

= = Credits = =

= = Chart positions = =

= = = Album = = =

= = = Singles = = =

= Flag of West Virginia =

The flag of West Virginia is the official flag of the U.S. state of West Virginia and was officially adopted by the West Virginia Legislature on March 7 , 1863 . The present flag consists of a pure white field bordered by a blue stripe with the coat of arms of West Virginia in the center , wreathed by Rhododendron maximum and topped by an unfurled red ribbon reading " State of West Virginia . "

The first flags to represent West Virginia following statehood were battle flags utilized by West Virginia regiments during the American Civil War . West Virginia 's first official state flag was adopted in 1905 , based upon the flag designed and used by the West Virginia State Commission at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904 . This flag was altered in 1907 for the Jamestown Exposition and featured the coat of arms on the obverse and a sprig of Rhododendron maximum on the reverse . In order to reproduce the flag more inexpensively , the West Virginia Legislature ratified the current flag with the state 's coat of arms integrated with the rhododendron , which appears on both the obverse and the reverse . The " Pledge of Allegiance to the West Virginia State Flag " was unanimously adopted by the office of the Secretary of State of West Virginia in 1977 .

= = Design = =

The current state flag of West Virginia consists of a pure white field bordered on four sides by a stripe of blue . The white of the field symbolizes purity , while the blue border represents the Union . The center of the state flag is emblazoned with the state 's Coat of Arms , a stylized version of the Great Seal of West Virginia . The lower half of the state flag is wreathed by two tethered swags of Rhododendron maximum , the state flower of West Virginia . Across the top of the state flag is an unfurled red ribbon with the constitutional designation " State of West Virginia " , and across the bottom of the state flag is a tied red ribbon with the state 's Latin motto Montani Semper Liberi ( English : " mountaineers are always free " ) .

The state 's coat of arms in the center of the flag symbolizes the principal pursuits and resources of West Virginia . In the center is an ivy @-@ draped boulder that has been inscribed " June 20 , 1863 , " the date of West Virginia 's admission to the Union as a state . In front of the boulder lie two crossed hunting rifles and a Phrygian cap ( or " Cap of Liberty " ) to illustrate the importance of the state 's fight for liberty . Two men , a farmer and a miner , stand on either side of the boulder and represent agriculture and industry . The farmer stands on the left with an ax and plow before a cornstalk . The miner stands on the right with a pickax and , behind him , an anvil and sledge hammer .

The state flag 's proportions are identical to those of the flag of the United States . When utilized for parade purposes , all but the staff side of the state flag are to be trimmed with gold fringe . When used concurrently with the flag of the United States during ceremonial occasions , the state flag is trimmed and mounted like the United States flag with regard to fringe , cord , tassels , and mounting .

= = History = =

Prior to the adoption of the current state flag of West Virginia , the state had been represented by a number of flags since attaining statehood in 1863 , all of which proved impractical . The first West Virginia Legislature commissioned Joseph H. Diss Debar of Doddridge County to design the Great Seal of West Virginia in 1863 . On September 26 , 1863 , the West Virginia Legislature officially adopted the seal designed by Diss Debar , a stylized version of which was also designated the state 's coat of arms . Despite the adoption of an official seal , the state did not decide upon an official state flag until 1905 .

= = = American Civil War = = =

Prior to West Virginia 's separation from Virginia on June 20 , 1863 , pro @-@ Union supporters in western Virginia created unique flags to show their support for the Union cause . In January 1861 , the residents of Kingwood erected a flagpole measuring about 105 feet ( 32 m ) in height , and on it they hoisted a handmade streamer with the word " UNION " prior to Virginia 's secession . During the war , western Virginia regiments in the Union Army carried flags handmade by supportive women , as was the case with the Fifth Regiment Virginia Volunteer Infantry who carried a flag bearing the legend " 5th Va . Regiment " in 1861 .

In January 1864 , the West Virginia Legislature approved a flag for the Fourth Regiment West Virginia Volunteer Infantry to acknowledge the regiment 's battles at Charleston , Vicksburg , Jackson , and Missionary Ridge , all four of which were listed on the flag . This was the first among many battle flags to represent West Virginia after statehood which were utilized by soldiers of West Virginia regiments throughout the war . State battle flags were presented to each of West Virginia 's Union regiments during the course of the war . These early state flags were squares of silk cloth measuring 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , and were dark blue and trimmed with golden fringe . The obverse side of these flags were painted with the state 's newly minted seal within an oval , along with the name of the respective West Virginia regiment and the names and dates of the battles in which they had participated . On the reverse side , the United States national emblem was painted and consisted of a bald eagle with its wings outstretched , clutching a bundle of 13 arrows in its right talon and an olive branch in its left , and a tricolor shield placed across its breast . In its beak , the eagle clutched a scroll with the national Latin motto E pluribus unum ( English : " Out of Many , One " ) . Following the conclusion of the American Civil War , the state of West Virginia had no official flag , and the matter was not taken up until the early 20th century .

= = = 1905 flag = = =

The need for an official state flag arose in 1904 when the West Virginia State Commission to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis reported that the state required a flag or ensign to represent and distinguish itself among the other U.S. states at the exposition . In lieu of an official state flag , the commission adopted and used a state flag of its own design at the West Virginia building at the exposition , which was a " sprig of mountain laurel upon an immaculate white field with a pale blue border " .

In its report to the West Virginia Legislature , the West Virginia State Commission recommended the adoption of their flag design as the official state flag . On February 24 , 1905 , the West Virginia Legislature ratified the commission 's flag design following its passage of Joint Resolution Number 16 during the gubernatorial administration of Albert B. White . The legislature adopted the commission 's flag design , with the addition of a fringe or border of carmine red . The state flag was approved by the legislature to be employed on occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality was necessary or regarded as appropriate . According to the 1905 joint resolution :

Said state flag shall be in length and breadth in the proportion of nine to thirteen , this being the same as the flag of the great American Republic of which West Virginia forms a part ; the field thereof shall be pure white , upon the center of which shall be a sprig of the rhododendron maximum or " big laurel , " having flowers and leaves ; and on the reverse side shall be the state coat @-@ of @-@ arms and the motto ; the field of pure white shall be bordered by a band or strip of blue , and this in turn shall be bordered by a strip of fringe of carmine red ; and said flag shall be regarded and used as the West Virginia state flag on all occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality shall become necessary , or be regarded as appropriate .

Following its formal adoption by the legislature , schools and other institutions throughout West Virginia began flying the new state flag . The teachers and students at the schools in Ronceverte purchased the new state flag in June 1906 , which measured 5 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) in length , and used it along with the United States flag for salutes and patriotic exercises .

= = = 1907 flag = = =

By 1907 , the West Virginia Legislature found the 1905 state flag design to be completely unfeasible due to the lettering on one side reading toward the staff , and the differing colors on each respective side showing through the opposite side of the flag 's white field of cloth . The state legislature found that this destroyed " the distinctive features of the banner and leaving the state without a prescribed official flag " . The West Virginia Legislature sought to remedy the state flag 's design flaws in 1907 so that the state could be properly represented at the Jamestown Exposition in Norfolk . On February 25 , 1907 , during the administration of Governor William M. O. Dawson , the West Virginia Legislature passed Joint Resolution 2 , which amended the flag by removing the seal and motto from the reverse side and changing the color of the bordering fringe from carmine red to old gold . Instead of the seal and motto , the reverse of the flag was changed to consist of " a spring or sprig of the rhododendron maximum " . According to the 1907 joint resolution :

Said state flag shall be in length and breadth in proportion the same as the flag of the great American Republic of which West Virginia forms a part ; the field thereof shall be pure white , upon the center of which on the observe side shall be the great seal or coat of arms of the state , beneath which shall appear the legend " State of West Virginia , " in a scroll ; on the reverse side shall appear a sprig or sprigs of the rhododendron maximum , or big laurel , our state flower , having blossoms and leaves ; the field of pure white shall be bordered by a band or strip of blue , and this in turn shall be bordered by a strip or fringe of old gold ; and said flag shall be regarded and used as the West Virginia state flag on all occasions where a special display of the state 's individuality shall become necessary , or be regarded as appropriate .

= = = 1929 flag = = =

The flag design ratified in 1907 remained the state 's official flag until 1929 . The state of West Virginia sought a flag design that could be produced inexpensively so that the state flag could be mass @-@ produced for the state 's public schools . The 1907 flag proved to be more costly to reproduce due to the two different symbols on each side of the banner , the state 's coat of arms on the obverse and the state 's flower on the reverse . The West Virginia Legislature decided the state flag should be stamped with a design that would integrate both the coat of arms and the state flower on both sides . The design of the present state flag was officially adopted by the West Virginia Legislature on March 7 , 1929 , by West Virginia Senate Joint Resolution Number 18 . According to the joint resolution :

The proportions of the flag of the State of West Virginia shall be the same as those of the United States ensign ; the field shall be pure white , upon the center of which shall be emblazoned in proper colors , the coat @-@ of arms of the State of West Virginia upon which appears the date of the admission of the State into the Union , also with the motto , ' Montani Semper Liberi ' ( Mountaineers Are Always Free ) . Above the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of the State of West Virginia there shall be a ribbon lettered , ' State of West Virginia , ' and arranged appropriately around the lower part of the coat @-@ of @-@ arms of the State of West Virginia a wreath of Rhododendron maximum in proper colors . The field of pure white shall be bordered by a strip of blue on four sides . The flag of the State of West Virginia when used for parade purposes shall be trimmed with gold colored fringe on three sides and when used on ceremonial occasions with the United States ensign , shall be trimmed and mounted in similar fashion to the United States flag as regards fringe , cord , tassels , and mounting .

In 2001 , the North American Vexillological Association surveyed its members and other flag enthusiasts on the designs of the 72 U.S. state , U.S. territorial , and Canadian provincial flags . Members ranked the West Virginia state flag at 51 out of the 72 flags surveyed . U.S. state flags with state seals on solid @-@ color fields , like the West Virginia state flag , proved unpopular in the survey .

= = Usage and protocol = =

The West Virginia Legislature has passed a series of laws in the West Virginia Code governing the usage of the West Virginia state flag . The state flag is not permitted to be placed above , or if on the same level , to the right of the United States flag . Both the United States and West Virginia state flags are to be flown over the West Virginia State Capitol building year @-@ round . Any United States or West Virginia state flag purchased with state funds must be manufactured in the United States ; and West Virginia county boards of education must only purchase state flags manufactured in the United States if board building funds are used . To honor the death of law @-@ enforcement officers within the state , the West Virginia Code permits the draping of the state flag over the coffin at no cost , upon the request of the next @-@ of @-@ kin .

= = = Half @-@ mast protocol = = =

Effective July 18 , 2013 , the office of West Virginia Governor Earl Ray Tomblin established guidelines in accordance with the United States Code and West Virginia precedent and customs regarding the half @-@ mast display of United States and West Virginia state flags on West Virginia state properties . Both the United States and West Virginia state flags are to be hoisted to full @-@ mast , before being lowered to the half @-@ mast position ; likewise both flags are to be hoisted full @-@ mast prior to being lowered for the day . Both flags are only to be displayed in the half @-@ mast position in accordance with Federal law on the following occasions :

Memorial Day ( the last Monday in May ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast from sunrise until noon , then raised to full @-@ mast .

Peace Officers Memorial Day ( May 15 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day , unless that day is also Armed Forces Day ( the third Saturday in May ) .

Patriot Day ( September 11 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day .

National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day ( December 7 ) : flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for the entire day .

Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for 30 days following the day of death of either a current or former President of the United States .

Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast for ten days following the day of death of the Vice President of the United States , the Chief Justice or retired Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States , or the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives .

Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast from the day of death until the day of interment of a former Vice President , an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court , a Secretary of an executive or military department of the United States , or a Governor of a U.S. state , territory , or possession .

Flags are displayed at half @-@ mast on the day of death and the following day for a member of the United States Congress .

Flags displayed at half @-@ mast on state properties following a proclamation by the Governor of West Virginia during other unique instances outlined in the 2013 guidelines .

= = = Desecration = = =

According to West Virginia state law , the desecration of either the flag of the United States or the West Virginia state flag is an offense punishable as a misdemeanor and upon conviction , a guilty verdict can result in a fine " not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars , " or confinement in jail " for a period not exceeding thirty days " at " the discretion of the court or justice trying the case . "

However , such laws are unenforceable as the United States Supreme Court in Texas v. Johnson , 491 U.S. 397 ( 1989 ) , and reaffirmed in U.S. v. Eichman , 496 U.S. 310 ( 1990 ) , has ruled that due to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , it is unconstitutional for a government ( whether federal , state , or municipality ) to prohibit the desecration of a flag , due to its status as " symbolic speech . "

= = Pledge of allegiance = =

On February 8 , 1977 , the office of the Secretary of State of West Virginia unanimously adopted the " Pledge of Allegiance to the West Virginia State Flag . " The motion to adopt the pledge was made by Charles S. Smith and seconded by Carol J. Calvert . The pledge reads as follows :

I pledge allegiance to the flag of West Virginia , which serves as a constant reminder that " Mountaineers Are Always Free , " which stands as a symbol of her majestic mountains , fertile forests , rich veins of coal , and the pride of her people .

= Battle of Goliad =

The Battle of Goliad was the second skirmish of the Texas Revolution . In the early @-@ morning hours of October 9 , 1835 , Texas settlers attacked the Mexican Army soldiers garrisoned at Presidio La Bahía , a fort near the Mexican Texas settlement of Goliad . La Bahía lay halfway between the only other large garrison of Mexican soldiers ( at Presidio San Antonio de Bexar ) and the then @-@ important Texas port of Copano .

In September , Texians began plotting to kidnap Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos , who was en route to Goliad to attempt to quell the unrest in Texas . The plan was initially dismissed by the central committee coordinating the rebellion . However , within days of the Texian victory at the Battle of Gonzales , Captain George Collinsworth and members of the Texian militia in Matagorda began marching towards Goliad . The Texians soon learned that Cos and his men had already departed for San Antonio de Béxar but continued their march .

The garrison at La Bahía was understaffed and could not mount an effective defense of the fort 's perimeter . Using axes borrowed from townspeople , Texians were able to chop through a door and enter the complex before the bulk of the soldiers were aware of their presence . After a 30 @-@ minute battle , the Mexican garrison , under Colonel Juan López Sandoval , surrendered . One Mexican soldier had been killed and three others wounded , while only one Texian had been injured . The majority of the Mexican soldiers were instructed to leave Texas , and the Texians confiscated $ 10 @,@ 000 worth of provisions and several cannons , which they soon transported to the Texian Army for use in the Siege of Béxar . The victory isolated Cos 's men in Béxar from the coast , forcing them to rely on a long overland march to request or receive reinforcements or supplies .

= = Background = =

In 1835 , Mexico operated two major garrisons within its Texas territory , the Alamo at San Antonio de Béxar and Presidio La Bahía near Goliad . Béxar was the political center of Texas , and Goliad laid halfway between it and the major Texas port of Copano . Military and civilian supplies and military personnel were usually sent by sea from the Mexican interior to Copano Bay and then could be transported overland to the Texas settlements .

In early 1835 , as the Mexican government transitioned from a federalist model to centralism , wary colonists in Texas began forming Committees of Correspondence and Safety . A central committee in San Felipe de Austin coordinated their activities . The Texians staged a minor revolt against customs duties in June ; these Anahuac Disturbances prompted Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna to send additional troops to Texas . In July , Colonel Nicolas Condelle , led 200 men to reinforce Presidio La Bahía . The following month , a contingent of soldiers arrived in Béxar with Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea . Fearing that stronger measures were needed to quell the unrest , Santa Anna ordered his brother @-@ in @-@ law , General Martín Perfecto de Cos to " repress with strong arm all those who , forgetting their duties to the nation which has adopted them as her children , are pushing forward with a desire to live at their own option without subjection to the laws " . Cos landed at Copano Bay on September 20 with approximately 500 soldiers . Cos briefly toured the port at Copano Bay and the small garrison at nearby Refugio and left small groups of soldiers to reinforce each of these locations . The main body of soldiers arrived in Goliad on October 2 .

Unbeknownst to Cos , as early as September 18 , several Texians , including James Fannin , Philip Dimmitt , and John Linn , had independently begun advocating a plan to seize Cos at either Copano or Goliad . As soon as Cos 's warships were spotted approaching Copano Bay , Refugio colonists sent messengers to San Felipe de Austin and Matagorda to inform the other settlements of Cos 's imminent arrival . Concerned that a lack of artillery would make the presidio at Goliad impossible to capture , the central committee chose not to order an assault .

Although Fannin , Dimmitt , and Linn continued to push for an attack on Goliad , Texian attention soon shifted towards Gonzales , where a small group of Texians were refusing to obey orders from Ugartechea . Colonists eagerly rushed to assist , and on October 2 the Battle of Gonzales officially opened the Texas Revolution . After learning of the Texian victory , Cos made haste for Béxar . He left with the bulk of his soldiers on October 5 , but because he was unable to find adequate transportation most of his supplies remained at La Bahía .

= = Prelude = =

On October 6 , members of the Texian militia in Matagorda convened at the home of Sylvanus Hatch . As their first order of business they elected George Collinsworth as their captain ; Dr. William Carleton was then named first lieutenant and D.C. Collinsworth became the unit 's second lieutenant . After appointing their leaders , the men decided to march on La Bahía . They intended to kidnap Cos and , if possible , steal the estimated $ 50 @,@ 000 that was rumored to accompany him . The Texians sent messengers to alert nearby settlements of their quest . By afternoon , 50 Texians were ready to march from Matagorda . During the march , for unknown reasons the men fired Carleton and appointed James W. Moore as the new first lieutenant .

The following day the expedition stopped at Victoria , where they were soon joined by English @-@ speaking settlers from other settlements and 30 Tejanos led by Plácido Benavides . Although no accurate muster rolls were kept , historian Stephen Hardin estimated that the Texian ranks swelled to 125 men . Forty @-@ nine of them signed a " Compact of Volunteers under Collinsworth " on October 9 . These men pledged that they were loyal to the Mexican federal government and would harm no one who remained loyal to the federalist cause .

One of the new arrivals , merchant Philip Dimmitt , received a missive from the Goliad customs agent with news that Cos and his war chest had already departed La Bahía to travel to San Antonio de Béxar . Undeterred , the group marched out on October 9 . Ira Ingram led the vanguard , which halted 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) outside Goliad . The events that follow are not very clear . According to the memoirs of Mexican General Vicente Filisola , who was not in Texas in 1835 , the Texians plotted to draw the presidio commander , Colonel Juan López Sandoval , and his officers from the fort . The Texians allegedly planned a dance in Goliad on October 9 and invited the Mexican officers . Although Sandoval , Captain Manuel Sabriego , and Lieutenant Jesus de la Garza briefly attended the dance , they suspected mischief and returned to the fort . No Texian source mentions such a plot . Several of the Texians , including Dimmitt , did enter the town that evening to try to find guides and support for the effort . Dimmitt 's efforts were successful , and several of the Tejanos who lived near Goliad joined the Texian force . They reported that Sandoval commanded only 50 men — far fewer than the number necessary to defend the entire perimeter of the fort — and provided directions to the fort .

The main body of Texian soldiers , under Collinsworth , became disoriented in the dark and wandered from the road . They were soon tangled in a mesquite thicket . While working their way back towards the road , the Texians met Ben Milam , a Texas colonist who had recently escaped from prison in Monterrey . Milam joined the militia as a private , and the group soon rejoined the vanguard .

= = Battle = =

As the combined Texian force prepared for battle , they sent a messenger to instruct the alcalde of the city to surrender . At 11 pm , the alcade responded that the town would remain neutral , neither surrendering nor fighting . Several of the locals did , however , supply axes to the Texian militia . The Texians divided themselves into four groups , each assigned a different approach to the presidio . In the pre @-@ dawn hours of October 10 , the Texians attacked . The lone sentinel managed to give the alarm but was immediately shot dead . The Texians quickly hacked through a door on the north wall of the fortress and ran to the interior courtyard . Hearing the commotion , the Mexican soldiers had lined the walls to defend the fort .

The Mexican soldiers opened fire , hitting Samuel McCulloch , a former slave whom George Collinsworth had freed , in the shoulder . Texians returned fire for approximately 30 minutes . During a pause in the fighting , a Texian spokesman yelled out that they would " massacre everyone of you , unless you come out immediately and surrender " . The Mexican garrison immediately surrendered .

= = Aftermath = =

McCulloch was the only Texian soldier to be wounded , and he later claimed to be the " first whose blood was shed in the Texas War for Independence " . This distinction earned him a permanent home ; a later law prohibited any freed slave from residing in the Republic of Texas , but in 1840 the Texas legislature specifically excluded McCulloch , his family , and his descendants from its enforcement . The exclusion was reward for McCulloch 's service and his injury .

Estimates of Mexican casualties range from one to three soldiers killed and from three to seven wounded . Approximately 20 soldiers escaped . They warned the garrisons at Copano and Refugio of the advancing Texians ; those garrisons abandoned their posts and joined the soldiers at Fort Lipantitlán . Milam escorted the remaining Mexican soldiers to Gonzales , where the newly formed Texian Army was located . The Texian Army commander , Stephen F. Austin , later released all of the men , on the condition that they leave Texas and vow to stop fighting Texas residents . One wounded Mexican soldier was allowed to remain in Goliad , as was Captain Manuel Sabriego , who was married to a local woman . In secret , Sabriego began organizing a group of settlers in the Goliad area who sympathized with Mexico .

Texian troops confiscated the provisions they found at the fort . Although they found 300 muskets , most of them were broken and unable to be repaired . Dimmitt hired two gunsmiths who were able to bring the remaining weapons into service . The food , clothing , blankets , and other provisions were valued at US $ 10 @,@ 000 . The new quartermaster at the fort , John J. Linn , reported that 175 barrels of flour were confiscated , along with a large supply of sugar , coffee , whiskey , and rum . For the next three months , the provisions were parceled out among companies in the Texian Army . The Texians also gained control of several cannons .

Over the next several days , more Texian settlers joined the group at La Bahía . Many of them were from Refugio , a sprawling settlement that was furthest from Matagorda . Historian Hobart Huson speculates that these men were the last to receive word of the planned attack . Austin ordered that 100 men remain at Goliad , under the command of Dimmitt , while the rest should join the Texian Army in marching on Cos 's troops in Béxar . Collinsworth returned to Matagorda to recruit additional soldiers , but on October 14 the remaining Texians at Goliad began the march towards Béxar .

The loss of Goliad meant that Cos lost his means of communicating with Copano Bay , the closest port to Béxar . The Mexican troops garrisoned at Béxar would now need to get supplies and reinforcements overland .

= Noise in music =

In music , noise is variously described as unpitched , indeterminate , uncontrolled , loud , unmusical , or unwanted sound . Noise is an important component of the sound of the human voice and all musical instruments , particularly in unpitched percussion instruments and electric guitars ( using distortion ) . Electronic instruments create various colours of noise . Traditional uses of noise are unrestricted , using all the frequencies associated with pitch and timbre , such as the white noise component of a drum roll on a snare drum , or the transients present in the prefix of the sounds of some organ pipes .

The influence of modernism in the early 20th century lead composers such as Edgar Varese to explore the use of noise @-@ based sonorities in an orchestral setting . In the same period the Italian Futurist Luigi Russolo created a " noise orchestra " using instruments he called intonarumori . Later in the 20th century the term noise music came to refer to works consisting primarily of noise @-@ based sound .

In more general usage , noise is any unwanted sound or signal . In this sense , even sounds that would be perceived as musically ordinary in another context become noise if they interfere with the reception of a message desired by the receiver . Prevention and reduction of unwanted sound , from tape hiss to squeaking bass drum pedals , is important in many musical pursuits , but noise is also used creatively in many ways , and in some way in nearly all genres .

= = Definition of noise = =

In conventional musical practices sounds that are considered unmusical tend to be treated as noise . Oscillations and Waves defines noise as irregular vibrations of an object , in contrast to the periodical , patterned structure of music . More broadly , electrical engineering professor Bart Kosko in the introductory chapter of his book Noise defines noise as a " signal we don 't like . " Paul Hegarty , a lecturer and noise musician , likewise assigns a subjective value to noise , writing that " noise is a judgment , a social one , based on unacceptability , the breaking of norms and a fear of violence . " Composer and music educator R. Murray Schafer divided noise into four categories : Unwanted noise , unmusical sound , any loud system , and a disturbance in any signaling system .

In regard to what is noise as opposed to music , Robert Fink in The Origin of Music : A Theory of the Universal Development of Music claims that while cultural theories view the difference between noise and music as purely the result of social forces , habit , and custom , " everywhere in history we see man making some selections of some sounds as noise , certain other sounds as music , and in the overall development of all cultures , this distinction is made around the same sounds . " However , musicologist Jean @-@ Jacques Nattiez considers the difference between noise and music nebulous , explaining that " The border between music and noise is always culturally defined — which implies that , even within a single society , this border does not always pass through the same place ; in short , there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be . "

= = Noise as a feature of music = =

Musical tones produced by the human voice and all acoustical musical instruments incorporate noises in varying degrees . Most consonants in human speech ( e.g. , the sounds of f , v , s , z , both voiced and unvoiced th , Scottish and German ch ) are characterised by distinctive noises , and even vowels are not entirely noise free . Wind instruments include the whizzing or hissing sounds of air breaking against the edges of the mouthpiece , while bowed instruments produce audible rubbing noises that contribute , when the instrument is poor or the player unskilful , to what is perceived as a poor tone . When they are not excessive , listeners " make themselves deaf " to these noises by ignoring them .

= = = Unpitched percussion = = =

Many unpitched percussion instruments , such as the snare drum or maracas , make use of the presence of random sounds or noise to produce a sound without any perceived pitch . See timbre . Unpitched percussion is typically used to maintain a rhythm or to provide accents , and its sounds are unrelated to the melody and harmony of the music . Within the orchestra unpitched percussion is termed auxiliary percussion , and this subsection of the percussion section includes all unpitched instruments of the orchestra no matter how they are played , for example the pea whistle and siren .

= = = Traditional music = = =

= = = = Antiquity = = = =

Although percussion instruments were generally rather unimportant in ancient Greek music , two exceptions were in dance music and ritual music of orgiastic cults . The former required instruments providing a sharply defined rhythm , particularly krotala ( clappers with a dry , nonresonant sound ) and kymbala ( similar to finger @-@ cymbals ) . The cult rituals required more exciting noises , such as those produced by drums , cymbals , jingles , and the rhombos ( bull @-@ roarer ) , which produced a demonic roaring noise particularly important to the ceremonies of the priests of Cybele . Athenaeus ( The Deipnosophists xiv.38 ) quotes a passage from a now @-@ lost play , Semele , by Diogenes the Tragedian , describing an all @-@ percussion accompaniment to some of these rites :

And now I hear the turban @-@ wearing women ,

Votaries of th ' Asiatic Cybele ,

The wealthy Phrygians ' daughters , loudly sounding

With drums , and rhombs , and brazen @-@ clashing cymbals ,

Their hands in concert striking on each other ,

Pour forth a wise and healing hymn to the gods .

An altogether darker picture of the function of this noise music is painted by Livy in Ab urbe condita xxxix.8 – 10 , written in the late first century BC . He describes " a Greek of mean condition ... a low operator in sacrifices , and a soothsayer ... a teacher of secret mysteries " who imported to Etruria and then to Rome a Dionysian cult which attracted a large following . All manner of debaucheries were practised by this cult , including rape and

secret murders ... [ where ] the bodies could not even be found for burial . Many of their audacious deeds were brought about by treachery , but most of them by force , and this force was concealed by loud shouting , and the noise of drums and cymbals , so that none of the cries uttered by the persons suffering violation or murder could be heard abroad .

= = = = Polynesia = = = =

A Tahitian traditional dance genre dating back to before the first contact with European explorers is ʻōteʻa , danced by a group of men accompanied solely by a drum ensemble . The drums consist of a slit @-@ log drum called tō ‘ ere ( which provides the main rhythmic pattern ) , a single @-@ headed upright drum called fa ‘ atete , a single @-@ headed hand drum called pahu tupa ‘ i rima , and a double @-@ headed bass drum called tariparau .

= = = = Asia = = = =

In Shaanxi in the north of China , drum ensembles accompany yangge dance , and in the Tianjin area there are ritual percussion ensembles such as the Fagu hui Dharma @-@ drumming associations , often consisting of dozens of musicians . In Korea , a style of folk music called Nongak ( farmers ' music ) or pungmul has been performed for many hundred years , both by local players and by professional touring bands at concerts and festivals . It is loud music meant for outdoor performance , played on percussion instruments such as the drums called janggu and puk , and the gongs ching and kkwaenggwari . It originated in simple work rhythms to assist repetitive tasks carried out by field workers .

South Asian music places a special emphasis on drumming , which is freed from the primary time @-@ keeping function of drumming found in other part of the world . In North India , secular processional bands play an important role in civic festival parades and the bārāt processions leading a groom 's wedding party to the bride 's home or the hall where a wedding is held . These bands vary in makeup , depending on the means of the families employing them and according to changing fashions over time , but the core instrumentation is a small group of percussionists , usually playing a frame drum ( ḍaphalā ) , a gong , and a pair of kettledrums ( nagāṛā ) . Better @-@ off families will add shawms ( shehnai ) to the percussion , while the most affluent who also prefer a more modern or fashionable image may replace the traditional ensemble with a brass band . The Karnatic music of southern India includes a tradition of instrumental temple music in the state of Kerala , called kṣētram vādyam . It includes three main genres , all focussed on rhythm and featuring unpitched percussion . Thayambaka in particular is a virtuoso genre for unpitched percussion only : a solo double @-@ headed cylindrical drum called chenda , played with a pair of sticks , and accompanied by other chenda and elathalam ( pairs of cymbals ) . The other two genres , panchavadyam and pandi melam add wind instruments to the ensemble , but only as accompaniment to the primary drums and cymbals . A panchavadyam piece typically lasts about an hour , while a pandi melam performance may be as long as four hours .

= = = = Turkey = = = =

The Turkish janissaries military corps had included since the 14th century bands called mehter or mehterân which , like many other earlier military bands in Asia featured a high proportion of drums , cymbals , and gongs , along with trumpets and shawms . The high level of noise was pertinent to their function of playing on the battlefield to inspire the soldiers . The focus in these bands was on percussion . A full mehterân could include several bass drums , multiple pairs of cymbals , small kettledrums , triangles , tambourines , and one or more Turkish crescents .

= = = = Europe = = = =

Through Turkish ambassadorial visits and other contacts , Europeans gained a fascination with the " barbarous " , noisy sound of these bands , and a number of European courts established " Turkish " military ensembles in the late @-@ 17th and early 18th centuries . The music played by these ensembles , however , were not authentically Turkish music , but rather compositions in the prevalent European manner . The general enthusiasm quickly spread to opera and concert orchestras , where the combination of bass drum , cymbals , tambourines , and triangles were collectively referred to as " Turkish music " . The best @-@ known examples include Haydn 's Symphony No. 100 , which acquired its nickname , " The Military " , from its use of these instruments , and three of Beethoven 's works : the " alla marcia " section from the finale of his Symphony No. 9 ( an early sketch reads : " end of the Symphony with Turkish music " ) , his " Wellington 's Victory " — or Battle Symphony — with picturesque sound effects ( the bass drums are designated as " cannons " , side drums represent opposing troops of soldiers , and ratchets the sound of rifle fire ) , and the " Turkish March " ( with the expected bass drum , cymbals , and triangle ) and the " Chorus of Dervishes " from his incidental music to The Ruins of Athens , where he calls for the use of every available noisy instrument : castanets , cymbals , and so forth . By the end of the 18th century , the batterie turque had become so fashionable that keyboard instruments were fitted with devices to simulate the bass drum ( a mallet with a padded head hitting the back of the sounding board ) , cymbals ( strips of brass striking the lower strings ) , and the triangle and bells ( small metal objects struck by rods ) . Even when percussion instruments were not actually employed , certain alla turca " tricks " were used to imitate these percussive effects . Examples include the " Rondo alla turca " from Mozart 's Piano Sonata , K. 331 , and part of the finale of his Violin Concerto , K. 219 .

= = = = = Harpsichord , piano , and organ = = = = =

At about the same time that " Turkish music " was coming into vogue in Europe , a fashion for programmatic keyboard music opened the way for the introduction of another kind of noise in the form of the keyboard cluster , played with the fist , flat of the hand , forearm , or even an auxiliary object placed on the keyboard . On the harpsichord and piano , this device was found mainly in " battle " pieces , where it was used to represent cannon fire . The earliest instance was by Jean @-@ François Dandrieu , in Les Caractères de la guerre ( 1724 ) , and for the next hundred years it remained predominantly a French feature , with examples by Michel Corrette ( La Victoire d 'un combat naval , remportée par une frégate contre plusieurs corsaires réunis , 1780 ) , Claude @-@ Bénigne Balbastre ( March des Marseillois , 1793 ) , Pierre Antoine César ( La Battaille de Gemmap , ou la prise de Mons , ca . 1794 ) , and Jacques @-@ Marie Beauvarlet @-@ Charpentier ( Battaille d 'Austerlitz , 1805 ) . In 1800 , Bernard Viguerie introduced the sound to chamber music , in the keyboard part of a piano trio titled La Bataille de Maringo , pièce militaire et historique . The last time this pianistic " cannon " effect was used before the 20th century was in 1861 , in a depiction of the then @-@ recent The Battle of Manassas in a piece by the black American piano virtuoso " Blind Tom " Bethune , a piece that also feature vocalised sound @-@ effect noises .

Clusters were also used on the organ , where they proved more versatile ( or their composers more imaginative ) . Their most frequent use on this instrument was to evoke the sound of thunder , but also to portray sounds of battle , storms at sea , earthquakes , and Biblical scenes such as the fall of the walls of Jericho and visions of the apocalypse . The noisy sound nevertheless remained a special sound effect , and was not integrated into the general texture of the music . The earliest examples of " organ thunder " are from descriptions of improvisations by Abbé Vogler in the last quarter of the 18th century . His example was soon imitated by Justin Heinrich Knecht ( Die durch ein Donerwetter [ sic ] unterbrochne Hirtenwonne , 1794 ) , Michel Corrette ( who employed a length of wood on the pedal board and his elbow on the lowest notes of the keyboard during some improvisations ) , and also in composed works by Guillaume Lasceux ( Te Deum : " Judex crederis " , 1786 ) , Sigismond Neukomm ( A Concert on a Lake , Interrupted by a Thunderstorm ) , Louis James Alfred Lefébure @-@ Wély ( Scène pastorale , 1867 ) , Jacques Vogt ( Fantaisie pastorale et orage dans les Alpes , ca . 1830 ) , and Jules Blanc ( La procession , 1859 ) . The most notable 19th @-@ composer to use such organ clusters was Giuseppe Verdi . The storm music which opens his opera Otello ( 1887 ) includes an organ cluster ( C , C ♯ , D ) that is also the longest notated duration of any scored musical texture .

= = = = = Bowed strings = = = = =

Percussive effects in imitation of drumming had been introduced to bowed @-@ string instruments by early in the 17th century . The earliest known use of col legno ( tapping on the strings with the back of the bow ) is found in Tobias Hume 's First Part of Ayres for unaccompanied viola da gamba ( 1605 ) , in a piece titled Harke , Harke . Carlo Farina , an Italian violinist active in Germany , also used col legno to mimic the sound of a drum in his Capriccio stravagante for four stringed instruments ( 1627 ) , where he also used devices such as glissando , tremolo , pizzicato , and sul ponticello to imitate the noises of barnyard animals ( cat , dog , chicken ) . Later in the century , Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber , in certain movements of Battalia ( 1673 ) , added to these effects the device of placing a sheet of paper under the A string of the double bass , in order to imitate the dry rattle of a snare drum , and in " Die liederliche Gesellschaft von allerley Humor " from the same programmatic battle piece , superimposed eight different melodies in different keys , producing in places dense orchestral clusters . He also uses the percussive snap of fortissimo pizzicato to represent gunshots .

An important aspect of all of these examples of noise in European keyboard and string music before the 19th century is that they are used as sound effects in programme music . Sounds that would likely cause offense in other musical contexts are made acceptable by their illustrative function . Over time , their evocative effect was weakened as at the same time they became incorporated more generally into abstract musical contexts .

= = = = = Orchestras = = = = =

Orchestras continued to use noise in the form of a percussion section , which expanded though the 19th century : Berlioz was perhaps the first composer to thoroughly investigate the effects of different mallets on the tone color of timpani . However , before the 20th century , percussion instruments played a very small role in orchestral music and mostly served for punctuation , to highlight passages , or for novelty . But by the 1940s , some composers were influenced by non @-@ Western music as well as jazz and popular music , and began incorporating marimbas , vibraphones , xylophones , bells , gongs , cymbals , and drums .

= = = = = Vocal music = = = = =

In vocal music , noisy nonsense syllables were used to imitate battle drums and cannon fire long before Clément Janequin made these devices famous in his programmatic chanson La bataille ( The Battle ) in 1528 . Unpitched or semi @-@ pitched performance was introduced to formal composition in 1897 by Engelbert Humperdinck , in the first version of his melodrama , Königskinder . This style of performance is believed to have been used previously by singers of lieder and popular songs . The technique is best known , however , from somewhat later compositions by Arnold Schoenberg , who introduced it for solo voices in his Gurrelieder ( 1900 – 11 ) , Pierrot Lunaire ( 1913 ) , and the opera Moses und Aron ( 1930 – 32 ) , and for chorus in Die Glückliche Hand ( 1910 – 13 ) . Later composers who have made prominent use of the device include Pierre Boulez , Luciano Berio , Benjamin Britten ( in Death in Venice , 1973 ) , Mauricio Kagel , and Wolfgang Rihm ( in his opera Jakob Lenz , 1977 – 78 , amongst other works ) . A well @-@ known example of this style of performance in popular music was Rex Harrison 's portrayal of Professor Henry Higgins in My Fair Lady . Another form of unpitched vocal music is the speaking chorus , prominently represented by Ernst Toch 's 1930 Geographical Fugue , an example of the Gebrauchsmusik fashionable in Germany at that time .

= = = = = Machine music = = = = =

In the 1920s a fashion emerged for composing what was called " machine music " — the depiction in music of the sounds of factories , locomotives , steamships , dynamos , and other aspects of recent technology that both reflected modern , urban life and appealed to the then @-@ prevalent spirit of objectivity , detachment , and directness . Representative works in this style , which features motoric and insistent rhythms , a high level of dissonance , and often large percussion batteries , are George Antheil 's Ballet mécanique ( 1923 – 25 ) , Arthur Honegger 's Pacific 231 ( 1923 ) , Sergei Prokofiev 's ballet Le pas d 'acier ( The Steel Leap , 1925 – 26 ) , Alexander Mosolov 's Iron Foundry ( an orchestral episode from his ballet Steel , 1926 – 27 ) , and Carlos Chávez 's ballet Caballos de vapor , also titled HP ( Horsepower , 1926 – 32 ) . This trend reached its apex in the music of Edgard Varèse , who composed Ionisation in 1931 , a " study in pure sonority and rhythm " for an ensemble of thirty @-@ five unpitched percussion instruments .

= = = = = Percussion ensembles = = = = =

Following Varèse 's example , a number of other important works for percussion ensemble were composed in the 1930s and 40s : Henry Cowell 's Ostinato Pianissimo ( 1934 ) combines Latin American , European , and Asian percussion instruments ; John Cage 's First Construction ( in Metal ) ( 1939 ) employs differently pitched thunder sheets , brake drums , gongs , and a water gong ; Carlos Chávez 's Toccata for Percussion ( 1943 ) requires six performers to play a large number of European and Latin @-@ American drums and other unpitched percussion together with a few tuned instruments such as xylophone , tubular chimes , and glockenspiel ; Lou Harrison , in works such as the Canticles nos . 1 and 3 ( 1940 and 1942 ) , Song of Queztalcoatl ( 1941 ) , Suite for Percussion ( 1942 ) , and — in collaboration with John Cage — Double Music ( 1941 ) explored the use of " found " instruments , such as brake drums , flowerpots , and metal pipes . In all of these works , elements such as timbre , texture , and rhythm take precedence over the usual Western concepts of harmony and melody .

= = = Experimental and avant @-@ garde music = = =

Use of noise was central to the development of experimental music and avant @-@ garde music in the mid 20th century . Noise was used in important , new ways .

Edgard Varèse challenged traditional conceptions of musical and non @-@ musical sound and instead incorporated noise based sonorities into his compositional work , what he referred to as " organised sound . " Varèse stated that " to stubbornly conditioned ears , anything new in music has always been called noise " , and he posed the question , " what is music but organized noises ? " .

In the years immediately following the First World War , Henry Cowell composed a number of piano pieces featuring tone clusters and direct manipulation of the piano 's strings . One of these , titled The Banshee ( 1925 ) , features sliding and shrieking sounds suggesting the terrifying cry of the banshee from Irish folklore .

In 1938 for a dance composition titled Bacchanale , John Cage invented the prepared piano , producing both transformed pitches and colorful unpitched sounds from the piano . Many variations , such as prepared guitar , have followed . In 1952 , Cage wrote 4 ′ 33 ″ , in which there is no deliberate sound at all , but only whatever background noise occurs during the performance .

Karlheinz Stockhausen employed noise in vocal compositions , such as Momente ( 1962 – 64 / 69 ) , in which the four choirs clap their hands , talk , and shuffle their feet , in order to mediate between instrumental and vocal sounds as well as to incorporate sounds normally made by audiences into those produced by the performers .

Robert Ashley used audio feedback in his avant @-@ garde piece The Wolfman ( 1964 ) by setting up a howl between the microphone and loudspeaker and then singing into the microphone in way that modulated the feedback with his voice .

= = = Electronic music = = =

Noise is used as basic tonal material in electronic music .

When pure @-@ frequency sine tones were first synthesised into complex timbres , starting in 1953 , combinations using inharmonic relationships ( noises ) were used far more often than harmonic ones ( tones ) . Tones were seen as analogous to vowels , and noises to consonants in human speech , and because traditional music had emphasised tones almost exclusively , composers of electronic music saw scope for exploration along the continuum stretching from single , pure ( sine ) tones to white noise ( the densest superimposition of all audible frequencies ) — that is , from entirely periodic to entirely aperiodic sound phenomena . In a process opposite to the building up of sine tones into complexes , white noise could be filtered to produce sounds with different bandwidths , called " coloured noises " , such as the speech sounds represented in English by sh , f , s , or ch . An early example of an electronic composition composed entirely by filtering white noise in this way is Henri Pousseur 's Scambi ( Exchanges ) , realised at the Studio di Fonologia in Milan in 1957 .

In the 1980s , electronic white noise machines became commercially available . These are used alone to provide a pleasant background noise and to mask unpleasant noise , a similar role to conventional background music . This usage can have health applications in the case of individuals struggling with over @-@ stimulation or sensory processing disorder . Also , white noise is sometimes used to mask sudden noise in facilities with research animals .

= = = Rock music = = =

While the electric guitar was originally designed to be simply amplified in order to reproduce its sound at a higher volume , guitarists quickly discovered the creative possibilities of using the amplifier to modify the sound , particularly by extreme settings of tone and volume controls .

Distortion was at first produced by simply overloading the amplifier to induce clipping , resulting in a tone rich in harmonics and also in noise , and also producing dynamic range compression and therefore sustain ( and sometimes destroying the amplifier ) . Dave Davies of The Kinks took this technique to its logical conclusion by feeding the output from a 60 watt guitar amplifier directly into the guitar input of a second amplifier . The popularity of these techniques quickly resulted in the development of electronic devices such as the fuzz box to produce similar but more controlled effects and in greater variety . Distortion devices also developed into vocal enhancers , effects units that electronically enhance a vocal performance , including adding air ( noise or distortion , or both ) . Guitar distortion is often accomplished through use of feedback , overdrive , fuzz , and distortion pedals . Distortion pedals produce a crunchier and grittier tone than an overdrive pedal .

As well as distortion , rock musicians have used audio feedback , which is normally undesirable . The use of feedback was pioneered by musicians such as John Lennon of The Beatles , Jeff Beck of The Yardbirds , Pete Townshend of The Who , and Jimi Hendrix . Hendrix was able to control feedback and turn it into a musical quality , and his use of noise has been described as " sculpted - liquid and fire expertly shaped in mid @-@ air as if by a glass blower . " Other techniques used by Hendrix include distortion , wah , fuzz , dissonance , and loud volume .

= = = Jazz = = =

In the mid @-@ 1960s , jazz began incorporating elements of rock music , and began using distortion and feedback , partially due to the efforts of Jimi Hendrix , who had strong links with jazz . The proto @-@ punk band MC5 also used feedback and loudness and was inspired by the avant @-@ garde jazz movement . Jazz musicians who have incorporated noise elements , feedback and distortion include Bill Frisell , David Krakauer Cecil Taylor , Gábor Szabó , Garnett Brown , Grachan Moncur III , Jackie McLean , John Abercrombie , John McLaughlin , Joseph Bowie , Larry Coryell , McCo Tyner , Ornette Coleman , Pat Metheny , Phil Minton , Roswell Rudd , and Scott Henderson .

= = = Hip hop = = =

Since its origins in the Bronx during the 1970s , hip hop music has been associated with noise . Author Mark Katz explains that " for the pioneering hip @-@ hop DJs , merely to exist in the Bronx was to experience near @-@ constant noise . But DJs did more than experience noise , they created it , and through their massive sound systems , they indelibly shaped the Bronx soundscape . " According to Katz , the use of loud , extravagant sound systems communicated power and territorial control . Furthermore , techniques such as scratching are an expression of transgression . As scratching a record damages it , scratching , like the visual art of graffiti , is a form of vandalism . " It is a celebration of noise , " writes Katz , " and no doubt part of the pleasure it brought to DJs came from the knowledge that it annoyed the older generation . " Scholar William Jelani Cobb states that " though the genre will always be dismissed by many as brash , monotonous noise , the truth is that hip hop has undergone an astounding array of lyrical and musical transformations . " Scholar Ronald Radano writes that " no term in the modern lexicon conveys more vividly African @-@ American music 's powers of authenticity and resistance than the figure of ' noise ' . In hip @-@ hop parlance , ' noise , ' specifically ' black noise ' , is that special insight from the inside , the anti @-@ philosophy that emerges front and center through the sound attack of rap . " Radano finds the appearance of " black noise " nearly everywhere in the " transnational repetitions of rap opposition , " but stresses that despite its global nature , black noise still conforms to American racial structures . Radano states that " rather than radicalizing the stable binaries of race , noise inverts them ; it transforms prior signs of European musical mastery — harmony , melody , song — into all that is bitchin ' , kickin ' , and black . "

The hip hop group Public Enemy in particular has been noted for its use of noise in its music . The group 's second album , It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back , was backed by the production team The Bomb Squad , who helped craft the album 's layered , anti @-@ harmonic , anarchic noise . Michael Eric Dyson describes the album as a " powerful mix of music , beats , screams , noise , and rhythms from the streets " , and considers it an example of the revival of black radical and nationalist thought . Public Enemy member Chuck D acknowledges that the group 's use of noise was an intentional attempt to blur the boundaries between popular music and the noise of everyday life , a decision which writer Jason W. Buel says " ran directly counter to the values of mainstream music of the time . " He explains that " without a doubt " this intentional use of noise influenced not only the next decade of hip @-@ hop , but of rock as well . Furthermore , notes Buel , the incorporation of noise served a political function , elevating the ordinary and thus suggesting that common , ordinary people should consider themselves on the same footing as their political and cultural leaders .

= = Noise as a type of music = =

Noise music ( also referred to simply as noise ) has been represented by many genres during the 20th century and subsequently . Some of its proponents reject the attempt to classify it as a single overall genre , preferring to call noise music a non @-@ genre , an aesthetic , or a collection of genres . Even among those who regard it as a genre , its scope is unclear . Some commentators use the phrase " noise music " ( or " noise " ) to refer specifically to Japanese noise music , while others instead use the term Japanoise .

While noise music is often nowadays associated with extreme volume and distortion and produced by electronic amplification , the tradition dates back at least to the Futurist Luigi Russolo , who rejected melody , constructed original instruments known as intonarumori and assembled a " noise orchestra " in 1917 . It was not well received . In his 1913 manifesto The Art of Noises he observes :

At first the art of music sought purity , limpidity and sweetness of sound . Then different sounds were amalgamated , care being taken , however , to caress the ear with gentle harmonies . Today music , as it becomes continually more complicated , strives to amalgamate the most dissonant , strange and harsh sounds . In this way we come ever closer to noise @-@ sound .

= = = Some types of noise music = = =

Noise music , abandoning melody , harmony , and sometimes even pulse and rhythm

Industrial music ( 1970s )

Noise rock and noise pop ( 1980s )

Japanoise ( late 1970s - current )

Glitch ( 1990s )

= = Noise reduction = =

Most often , musicians are concerned not to produce noise , but to minimise it . Noise reduction is of particular concern in sound recording . This is accomplished by many techniques , including use of low noise components and proprietary noise reducing technologies such as Dolby .

In both recording and in live musical sound reinforcement , the key to noise minimisation is headroom . Headroom can be used either to reduce distortion and audio feedback by keeping signal levels low , or to reduce interference , both from outside sources and from the Johnson @-@ Nyquist noise produced in the equipment , by keeping signal levels high . Most proprietary noise reducing technologies also introduce low levels of distortion . Noise minimisation therefore becomes a compromise between interference and distortion , both in recording and in live music , and between interference and feedback in live amplification . The work of Bart Kosko and Sanya Mitaim has also demonstrated that stochastic resonance can be used as a technique in noise minimisation and signal improvement in non @-@ linear dynamical systems , as the addition of noise to a signal can improve the signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio .

Noise created by mobile phones has become a particular concern in live performances , particularly those being recorded . In one notable incident , maestro Alan Gilbert halted the New York Philharmonic in a performance of Gustav Mahler 's Symphony No. 9 until an audience member 's iPhone was silenced .

= = Noise as excessive volume = =

Music played at excessive volumes is often considered a form of noise pollution . Governments such as that of the United Kingdom have local procedures for dealing with noise pollution , including loud music .

Noise as high volume is common for musicians from classical orchestras to rock groups as they are exposed to high decibel ranges . Although some rock musicians experience noise @-@ induced hearing loss from their music , it is still debated as to whether classical musicians are exposed to enough high @-@ intensity sound to cause hearing impairments . Nevertheless , in 2008 Trygve Nordwall , the manager of the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra , invoked new EU rules forbidding more than 85 decibels in the workplace , as a reason for dropping the planned world premiere of Dror Feiler 's composition Halat Hisar ( State of Siege ) because it was " adverse to the health " of the musicians . The twenty @-@ minute piece begins with a burst of machine @-@ gun fire , and gets louder . Readings taken during rehearsals measured at least 130 decibels , and some members of the orchestra reported suffering headaches and permanent tinnitis after sustained exposure for three hours during rehearsals . Earplugs for the musicians were suggested , but they objected they could not hear each other and the composer also rejected the idea , adding that his composition was " no louder than anything by Shostakovich or Wagner " .

Music @-@ induced hearing loss is still a controversial topic for hearing researchers . While some studies have shown that the risk for hearing loss increases as music exposure increases , other studies found little to no correlation between the two .

Many bands , primarily in the rock genre , use excessive volumes intentionally . Several bands have set records as the loudest band in the world , with Deep Purple , The Who , and Manowar having received entries in the Guinness Book of World Records . Other claimants to the title include Motörhead , Led Zeppelin , Blue Cheer , Gallows , Bob Dylan 's 1965 backing electric band , Grand Funk Railroad , Canned Heat , and the largely fictional parody group Spinal Tap . My Bloody Valentine are known for their " legendarily high " volume concerts , and Sunn O ) ) ) are described as surpassing them . The sound levels at Sunn O ) ) ) concerts are intentionally loud enough that they are noted for having physical effects on their audience .

= = = Noise in general = = =

Noise ( disambiguation ) for a list of other articles related to noise

Noise ( electronics )

= = = Relating noise to music = = =

The definition of music , detailed discussions

Phonaesthetics for the aesthetics of sound , and particularly what is meant by cacophony

Aesthetics of music

Inharmonicity , one of the factors causing a sound to be perceived as unpitched

Consonance and dissonance # Dissonance for discussion of the nature and usage of discords in melody and harmony and similar devices in rhythm and metre

Timbral listening

= = = Related types = = =

Free jazz

Percussion ensemble

= = = Related types of music = = =

Category : Noise music for an automated list of articles related to noise as a type of music

= = = Perception and use of noise in music = = =

Beament , James . 2001 . How We Hear Music : The Relationship Between Music and the Hearing Mechanism . Suffolk : Boydell & Brewer . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8511 @-@ 5940 @-@ 9 .

Demers , Joanna . 2010 . Listening through the Noise : The Aesthetics of Experimental Electronic Music . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 1997 @-@ 7448 @-@ 7 .

Kahn , Douglas . 1999 . Noise , Water , Meat : A History of Sound in the Arts . Cambridge , Massachusetts : MIT Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 2621 @-@ 1243 @-@ 7 .

Moravcsik , Michael J. 2001 . Musical Sound : An Introduction to the Physics of Music . New York : Springer Science + Business Media . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 3064 @-@ 6710 @-@ 3 .

Priest , Gail . 2009 . Experimental Music : Audio Explorations in Australia . Kensington , New South Wales : University of New South Wales Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 9214 @-@ 1007 @-@ 9 .

Rodgers , Tara , editor . 2010 . Pink Noises : Women on Electronic Music and Sound . Durham , North Carolina : Duke University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8223 @-@ 9415 @-@ 0 .

Voegelin , Salome . 2010 . Listening to Noise and Silence : Towards a Philosophy of Sound Art . London : Bloomsbury Publishing . 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4411 @-@ 6207 @-@ 6 .

Waksman , Steve . 1999 . Instruments of Desire : The Electric Guitar and the Shaping of Musical Experience . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 6740 @-@ 0547 @-@ 1 .

Washburne , Christopher , Maiken Derno . 2004 . Bad Music : The Music We Love to Hate . New York : Routledge . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 4159 @-@ 4365 @-@ 9 .

= = = Noise reduction = = =

Collins , Mike . 2004 . Pro Tools for Music Production : Recording , Editing and Mixing . Waltham , Massachusetts : Focal Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 2405 @-@ 1943 @-@ 2 .

Hurtig , Brent . 1988 . Multi @-@ Track Recording for Musicians . Van Nuys : Alfred Music . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4574 @-@ 2484 @-@ 7 .

Ingard , Uno . 2010 . Noise Reduction Analysis . Burlington , Massachusetts : Jones & Bartlett Learning . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 9340 @-@ 1531 @-@ 5 .

Snoman , Rick . 2012 . The Dance Music Manual : Tools , Toys and Techniques . Waltham , Massachusetts : Focal Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 1361 @-@ 1557 @-@ 8 .

Vaseghi , Saeed . 2008 . Advanced Digital Signal Processing and Noise Reduction . Hoboken : John Wiley & Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 4707 @-@ 4016 @-@ 3 .

= 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team =

The 2012 – 13 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team represented the University of Michigan during the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . For the 46th consecutive year , the Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team played its home games in Ann Arbor , Michigan , at the Crisler Center . This season marked the team 's 96th consecutive year as a member of the Big Ten Conference , and it is occasionally referred to as " Team 96 " . The team was led by sixth @-@ year head coach John Beilein . As the defending 2011 – 12 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season regular season co @-@ champions , the Wolverines finished fourth in the conference in 2012 – 13 and as National Runner @-@ up in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament after losing in the championship game to Louisville . The team achieved a 31 – 8 record , the most wins by the program in 20 seasons .

Following the 2011 @-@ 12 season , the team lost graduating senior captains Zack Novak and Stu Douglass , who moved on to professional basketball careers in Europe . The incoming class of Mitch McGary , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas was ranked among the best classes in the nation by the media . With its new lineup , the team matched the greatest starts in school history . Starting the season with 11 consecutive wins matched the best start since the last Michigan national champions , the 1988 – 89 team . At 16 – 0 , Michigan matched its best start since the last repeat Big Ten Regular season championship , the 1985 – 86 team , tying a school record . Reaching 19 – 1 set a record for the best start in school history . The team also reached the number one position in the AP Poll for the first time since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team . The team entered February with a 20 – 1 record ( 7 – 1 Big Ten ) , but with an injury to eventual B1G All @-@ Defensive selection Jordan Morgan and a stretch of games against its strongest conference opponents , Michigan lost three out of four games . The team closed the season with a 5 – 5 run to finish tied for fourth in the conference and won one game in the Big Ten Tournament before being eliminated .

The team was led by 2013 national player of the year , Big Ten Player of the Year and 2013 Consensus All @-@ American Trey Burke and three additional All @-@ Conference honorees . Tim Hardaway , Jr. was named to the 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten first team by the coaches and to the second team by the media ; Robinson was named an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten by the media , and Morgan was an All @-@ Big Ten Defensive team selection . Stauskas and McGary earned multiple Big Ten Freshman of the Week recognitions during the season . Burke was the second National Player of the Year and eighth first @-@ team consensus All @-@ American in Michigan basketball history .

Michigan entered the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament as the youngest team in the field . The team made its first Sweet Sixteen appearance since the 1993 – 94 team did so . The Wolverines appeared in the national championship game for the first time since 1989 – appearances in 1992 and 1993 were vacated due to a scandal . Following the season , at the 2013 NBA Draft , Burke and Hardaway were selected ninth and twenty @-@ fourth , respectively , becoming the first pair of first @-@ round NBA draft choices from Michigan since the 1994 NBA Draft .

= = Preseason roster changes = =

= = = Departures = = =

The team lost both of its captains from the prior season to graduation after they completed their eligibility . Senior two @-@ time captain Douglass turned pro , joining Basket Navarra Club of the Liga Española de Baloncesto . Senior three @-@ time captain Novak graduated to play for Landstede Basketbal in the Dutch Basketball League . In addition to the loss of senior co @-@ captains , the team lost three players who decided to transfer : Evan Smotrycz , Carlton Brundidge and Colton Christian . Smotrycz , who transferred to Maryland , had started in 42 of the 69 games he played during his first two years . He left the program as the fifth @-@ best all @-@ time three @-@ point shooter with a percentage of 40 @.@ 5 . Brundidge transferred to Detroit and Christian transferred to Florida International . The program also announced the departure of walk @-@ on Sai Tummala and the return of walk @-@ on Corey Person for a fifth year .

= = = 2012 – 13 team recruits = = =

Glenn Robinson III , son of former first overall NBA draft pick Glenn Robinson , verbally committed on September 14 , 2010 as the first commitment in Michigan ’ s class of 2012 . On March 26 , 2011 , Michigan received its second verbal commitment of the class of 2012 from Canadian wing guard Nik Stauskas . On November 3 , Mitch McGary , who was ranked as the number two prospect in the nation at the time , announced his verbal commitment to Michigan . Within hours of the commitment , ESPN announced that Michigan ranked as the fifth best class in the nation . Each of the three signed a National Letter of Intent with the team on November 9 . After several other schools announced their commitments , the signing of McGary moved Michigan from outside the top 25 at the end of October to the number 7 class in the nation by mid @-@ November , according to ESPN . That November , McGary , Robinson and Stauskas ranked 3 , 34 , and 79 , respectively , in the Rivals.com Class of 2012 Top 150 .

All three recruits had playoff success : McGary was a member of Brewster Academy 's National Prep Championship team . Stauskas earned the championship game MVP of the NEPSAC Class AA Championship after leading St. Mark 's to victory . Robinson led Lake Central to its first Indiana High School Athletic Association sectional title in 15 years . He earned the Post @-@ Tribune 's Boys basketball player of the year award for Northwest Indiana and the state MVP from the Indiana Basketball News .

McGary was invited to participate in the four @-@ team April 1 , 2012 All @-@ American Championship , along with future teammate Robinson in New Orleans . Robinson was awarded the ESPNHS All @-@ American Championship Player of the Game for his 16 @-@ point , 4 @-@ rebound performance , which included 5 dunks among his 6 @-@ for @-@ 7 shooting night . McGary was also selected to represent USA Basketball at the fifteenth annual Nike Hoops Summit on April 7 as part of the 2012 USA Junior National Select Team .

Michael " Spike " Albrecht committed to Michigan on April 6 , 2012 . Albrecht led Northfield Mount Hermon School to the 2012 NEPSAC Class AAA Boys ' Basketball Tournament , defeating McGary 's Brewster Academy in the semifinals . Albrecht was MVP of the tournament . Albrecht was a former AAU teammate of McGary and Robinson . Albrecht 's and outgoing captain Novak 's fathers were collegiate teammates . Albrecht was a 2011 graduate of Crown Point High School . After most of the big signings announced their decisions on the April 11 signing day , Michigan was ranked as the early number 5 preseason selection as a team by ESPN .

= = 2013 – 14 team recruits = =

Zak Irvin was named 2013 Indiana Mr. Basketball , giving Hamilton Southeastern High School the state 's first back @-@ to @-@ back winners ( Gary Harris ) from the same high school . Derrick Walton was runner up in the 2013 Mr. Basketball of Michigan by a 2130 – 2086 margin to Iowa State signee Monte Morris despite having one more first place vote . Both Walton and Irvin were 2013 Parade All @-@ American honorees and were named state Boys Basketball Gatorade Player of the Year .

= = Roster = =

= = Preseason = =

Michigan basketball hosted its on campus media day press conference on October 10 , 2012 at Crisler Center . The team was represented by Burke , Hardaway , Morgan and Beilein at the Big Ten Conference Basketball Media Day press conference on October 24 in Rosemont , Illinois . When the 24 @-@ person Big Ten Media poll was announced , Michigan was predicted to finish second to Indiana . Burke was a preseason All @-@ Conference selection by the same media .

Michigan enjoyed high expectations from the national media as well during the preseason . Sporting News named them to the number 5 position in its preseason poll , while conference foes Indiana and Ohio State were ranked number 1 and 3 , respectively . Michigan also earned the number 5 ranking in both the preseason Coaches ' Poll and preseason Associated Press poll , but behind Indiana ( # 1 ) and Ohio State ( # 4 ) in both . This was Michigan 's highest preseason ranking since the 1992 – 93 team . Sports Illustrated ranked Michigan number 9 in its October preseason power rankings , again behind Indiana ( # 1 ) and Ohio State ( # 6 ) , but when it printed its November preseason poll listed Michigan at number 6 ahead of Ohio State ( # 7 ) , but behind Indiana ( # 1 ) . Prior to the first exhibition game on November 1 , senior Josh Bartelstein was named team captain .

ESPN 's Eamonn Brennan noted that Michigan was a perimeter oriented team with possibly the best one @-@ two guard combination in the country . Burke and Hardaway were both preseason John R. Wooden Award top 50 selections . Burke was a preseason All @-@ American ( Associated Press first team , CBS Sports second team , Sports Illustrated second team , ESPN second team , Sporting News third team ) as well as a preseason Naismith Award top 50 selection .

= = Slogans , nicknames and emblems = =

= = = WE ON = = =

The acronym " WE ON " was the slogan for the whole team for the 2012 – 13 season . The team and coaching staff selected it at the beginning of the season as another way for Michigan to say Bo Schembechler 's famous quote , " the Team , the Team , the Team . " The acronym " WE ON " stands for " When Everyone Operates N 'sync . " Michigan assistant coach Bacari Alexander even tweeted that the acronym summarizes this team @-@ focused mindset . According to David Brandon , assistant coach LaVall Jordan and director of basketball operations Travis Conlan guided the team to develop the slogan .

Adidas warm up shirts were created and were first worn on November 21 , 2012 , before Michigan 's NIT Season Tip @-@ Off game against the Pittsburgh Panthers . The shirts use the school colors with blue with maize lettering . On February 12 , 2013 , when Michigan played the first of two regularly scheduled rivalry games against Michigan State , students in the Izzone at the Breslin Center wore T @-@ shirts with " YOU OFF " printed in Spartan colors ( green and white ) . Michigan State went on to win the game by 23 points .

" WE " – WE is also an acronym for " Wolverine Excellence " , which is chiefly used by the team . Wolverine Excellence calls for players and managers to focus on its five core values : integrity , unity , passion , diligence and appreciation .

" ON " – ON represented each player 's individual commitment to season @-@ long improvement . There was a " U @-@ M Fuse Box " ( mock @-@ University of Michigan set of switches ) in the Men 's Basketball locker room in Crisler Center . Each player had selected one word on which to focus during the season and before every practice and game , each player flipped their switch " on . " This represented each player 's commitment to improvement every day .

= = = Fresh Five = = =

Prior to the season , the five freshman were dubbed the " Fresh Five " , a moniker hearkening remembrance of the incoming freshman class of 1991 , known as the Fab Five , that led Michigan to back @-@ to @-@ back Championship games while starting the majority of games . However , the nickname and its expectations were downplayed most of the season by the team . Nonetheless , during the final two weeks of the regular season The New York Times ran a feature story on the team that reinvigorated the nickname while noting that the current five were the supporting cast rather than the stars of the team like the original five .

= = = Canadian flag = = =

ESPN 's Chantel Jennings tweeted a picture of a Flag of Canada redone in Michigan 's team colors of maize and blue at Crisler Arena on December 4 . One of her followers noted that the big version on the wall was a general Stauskas fan flag and that a little version of the flag was added next to it for each three @-@ pointer Canadian Stauskas made in the game . By mid @-@ December of his freshman season , the students in the Maize Rage ( Michigan student section at Crisler Arena ) had begun cheering Stauskas on with such a flag . The Michigan Public & Media Relations office started mentioning the flag before Christmas . The flag was mentioned widely in the press as he continued his hot shooting into January . Through the first week of January , Stauskas was shooting 53 @.@ 7 % on three @-@ point shots as the team held a 15 – 0 record .

= = = 96 = = =

The team , which represented Michigan Basketball for the ninety @-@ sixth season in the Big Ten Conference , is sometimes referred to as Team 96 or Squad 96 . Although this team represented Michigan for the ninety @-@ sixth consecutive year , there was controversy as to whether the team should in fact be marketed as Team 96 because the 1908 – 09 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team was not properly accounted for among the prior teams . The subsequent team was marketed as Team 98 .

= = Schedule = =

= = = Regular season = = =

= = = = November = = = =

Hardaway began the season with his fourth career double @-@ double by scoring 25 points ( including 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 three @-@ point shooting ) and adding 10 rebounds in a 100 – 62 win over Slippery Rock ; this earned him his second career Big Ten Player of the Week award . The 100 @-@ point November 9 performance was Michigan 's first since the 2007 – 08 team posted 103 points against Oakland on December 12 , 2007 .

Michigan hosted games for the first two rounds of the 2012 NIT Season Tip @-@ Off . The team 's first game of the tournament , a November 12 contest against the IUPUI Jaguars , resulted in a 91 – 54 Michigan victory . The win also gave Michigan its first consecutive 90 @-@ point performances since the 2000 – 01 team recorded three consecutive 90 @-@ point games . The following night , Michigan defeated Cleveland State by a 77 – 47 margin , marking the first time the school opened the season with three consecutive 30 @-@ point victories . The win also marked the first time Michigan had posted three consecutive 30 @-@ point wins since the 1988 – 89 Wolverines team ( the 1989 national champion ) won five consecutive 30 @-@ point games .

In the championship rounds of the NIT Season Tip @-@ Off tournament at Madison Square Garden on November 21 and November 23 , Michigan defeated Pittsburgh and Kansas State , respectively , to win the tournament . Hardaway , who totaled 39 points at the Garden , was the tournament MVP and was joined on the all @-@ tournament team by Burke , who contributed 27 points and 10 assists . Stauskas earned Big Ten Freshman of the Week honors for his NIT tournament performance in which he averaged 12 @.@ 5 points and 4 @.@ 5 rebounds . On November 27 , Michigan raised its Big Ten championship banner from the season before . Then , the team defeated its first ranked opponent of the season – NC State ( # 18 AP / # 18 Coaches ) – in the ACC – Big Ten Challenge . The win was supported by Burke 's first career double @-@ double which included a career @-@ high 11 assists , no turnovers and 18 points as well as a career @-@ high 20 points from Stauskas in a 79 – 72 victory .

= = = = December = = = =

Ranked third in both polls , Michigan established a record as the highest ranked visiting team in the history of Carver Arena on December 1 . Giving Stauskas his first career start , Michigan emerged victorious over Bradley . It was the third game of the season that Michigan never trailed in . Stauskas repeated as Big Ten Freshman of the Week on December 3 for his back @-@ to @-@ back 20 @-@ point performances .

On December 4 , Michigan defeated Western Michigan 73 – 41 , giving the team its first 8 – 0 start since the 1996 – 97 team ; the team never trailed in the game . Michigan defeated Arkansas 80 – 67 in its December 8 matchup . It marked the fourth 9 – 0 start in school history ( 1988 – 89 , 1985 – 86 and 1926 – 27 ) and the third consecutive game that Michigan never trailed . Michigan went to 10 – 0 on December 11 by defeating Binghamton 67 – 39 .

Michigan traveled to play in the December 15 Brooklyn Hoops Winter Festival at the Barclays Center , where they defeated West Virginia ( coach Beilein 's previous employer ) 81 – 66 to move to 11 – 0 for the third time in school history ( 1985 – 86 and 1988 – 89 ) . The team never trailed in the contest . For averaging 23 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 5 assists , 4 @.@ 5 rebounds and 2 @.@ 0 steals with only 1 @.@ 0 turnover in the games against Binghamton and West Virginia , Burke earned Player of the Week on December 17 .

On December 20 , the team became the second in school in history ( 1985 – 86 went 16 – 0 ) to reach 12 – 0 when it beat Eastern Michigan . After recording his first career double @-@ double in the game with only 18 minutes of play , McGary was recognized as Big Ten Freshman of the Week . Hardaway suffered an ankle injury that caused him to miss the December 29 game against Central Michigan and that broke his 81 consecutive games played streak that went back to the beginning of his Michigan career . The game also marked the team 's second game without Jon Horford , who dislocated his knee during the West Virginia game . In Hardaway 's absence , Burke posted his second career double @-@ double with 22 points and a career @-@ high tying 11 assists and Robinson posted his second career 20 @-@ point game . Stauskas added career highs with 5 three @-@ pointers and 7 rebounds and earned his third Big Ten Freshman of the Week award on December 31 . The thirteenth win clinched Michigan 's ninth perfect non @-@ conference regular season record . The team never trailed in the contest .

= = = = January = = = =

On January 3 , Michigan opened the 2012 – 13 Big Ten conference schedule with a 94 – 66 win over Northwestern to move to 14 – 0 . Burke had 23 points , 5 assists and a career high 4 steals , while Hardaway added 21 points , Morgan posted a double @-@ double with 12 points and 13 rebounds , while Stauskas and Robinson added 10 points each . Burke and Robinson both posted their third and first career double @-@ doubles , respectively , in a 95 – 67 victory against Iowa on January 6 . It marked the first time that the team scored 90 points in back @-@ to @-@ back conference games since the 1999 – 2000 team and tied for the most points in a conference game since the 1997 – 98 team . On January 7 , Burke was recognized as Big Ten Conference Player of the Week and Robinson was recognized as Conference Freshman of the Week .

The team tied the school record for best start by defeating Nebraska for its 16th straight victory to start the season on January 9 . The victory also marked Beilein 's 400th Division I coaching victory . On January 13 , the team lost to Ohio State ( # 15 AP / # 14 Coaches ) snapping their winning streak . Horford returned to the lineup after missing 5 games . Michigan had been the only remaining unbeaten team and was expected to be ranked # 1 if they had won . The loss was Michigan 's 9th straight in Columbus .

Michigan defeated Minnesota ( # 9 AP / # 12 Coaches ) at Williams Arena on January 17 , marking the first time Michigan defeated a top @-@ 10 team on the road since a December 6 , 1996 , victory by the 1996 – 97 team over Duke . After his performance , in which he scored 21 points while making 7 of 8 shots and 4 of 5 three @-@ point shots , in addition to recording 5 rebounds , 3 assists , 3 steals and 2 blocks , Hardaway earned a second Big Ten Player of the Week Award .

Michigan defeated Purdue 68 – 53 on January 24 and Illinois 74 – 60 on January 27 . This gave Michigan the first 19 – 1 start in school history . Robinson earned his second Big Ten Freshman of the Week award on January 28 for a pair of 12 @-@ point performances during a week in which he averaged 8 rebounds while maintaining 71 @.@ 4 % field goal percentage . Later that day , Michigan was ranked number one in the AP Poll with 51 of the 65 first place votes . It marked the first time Michigan ranked atop the AP Poll since the Fab Five 1992 – 93 team did so on December 5 , 1992 .

Michigan concluded January by beating Northwestern a second time on January 30 , becoming the first team in the country to reach 20 wins . After enduring an injured ankle against Illinois , starting center Jordan Morgan missed his first game since redshirting a full season for the 2009 – 10 Wolverines when he sat out the Northwestern game . Horford started in his place .

= = = = February = = = =

On February 2 , 2013 , Michigan ( # 1 AP / # 2 Coaches ) appeared on ESPN 's College GameDay against Indiana ( # 3 AP / # 3 Coaches ) who hosted the game at Assembly Hall . Michigan lost 81 – 73 , but the television broadcast of the game on ESPN set a Big Ten record for viewership with 4 @.@ 035 million viewers . Morgan only played two minutes behind replacement starter Horford . Michigan then defeated Ohio State ( # 10 AP / # 10 Coaches ) in overtime in the rematch at home on February 5 . Starting center Morgan only played 4 minutes . Coach Beilein noted that Morgan 's absence affected the team 's ability to match up defensively and substitute as it desired .

Michigan lost to Wisconsin on February 9 in overtime following a half @-@ court buzzer beater by Wisconsin that tied the game in regulation It marked Michigan 's eleventh consecutive loss against Wisconsin on the road . Morgan did not play , but McGary played 32 minutes , totaling 12 points , 3 steals and 8 rebounds . However , dramatically increased play in Morgan 's absence enabled McGary to earn his second Big Ten Freshman of the Week honor on February 11 .

On February 12 , Michigan lost 75 – 52 in its rivalry game against ( # 8 AP / # 8 Coaches ) Michigan State . Among those in attendance were Rick Snyder , Matthew Stafford , Mark Dantonio , Brady Hoke , and Lloyd Carr . It marked the first time both teams were ranked in the top ten of the AP Poll , and resulted in Michigan losing back @-@ to @-@ back games and three consecutive road games for the first time since the 2010 – 11 team did so . Burke 's 18 points , 4 assists and 3 steals were one of Michigan 's few bright spots in their February 12 contest .

On February 17 against Penn State , Burke posted a season @-@ high 29 points along with 5 assists , 3 rebounds and two steals . As a result of his efforts , Burke won his third player of the week award of the season and fourth of his career on February 18 . Morgan returned to the starting lineup in the Penn State contest , but he only played 7 minutes .

After playing only 22 total minutes since January 27 , Morgan played more minutes ( 17 ) than the other low post players ( McGary , Horford , and Max Bielfeldt ) for the first time on February 24 against Illinois . Michigan defeated Illinois 71 – 58 behind 26 points and 8 assists from Burke . In the game , Burke became the seventh Wolverine sophomore to reach 1000 career points . On February 27 , Michigan surrendered a 15 @-@ point second @-@ half lead to give Penn State its only conference win of the season . Following the game , the team called a rare players @-@ only meeting at the Pizza House , with fifth @-@ year reserve Corey Person doing most of the talking .

= = = = March = = = =

On March 3 , Michigan defeated Michigan State ( # 9 AP / # 10 Coaches ) in the Ann Arbor rematch of their rivalry series as Trey Burke made 2 steals in the final 30 seconds to secure the 58 – 57 victory . Michigan snapped a 453 @-@ game streak with at least one made three @-@ point shot and became the first team since February 2009 to defeat a top ten opponent without making one . On March 6 , with its Big 10 Conference Championship destiny in its own hands , Michigan defeated Purdue to set up a championship showdown with Indiana on March 10 . Michigan concluded its road schedule with a 5 – 5 record .

Michigan closed out the season by losing to Indiana ( # 2 AP / # 2 Coaches ) on March 10 , failing its pursuit of defense of its conference co @-@ championship . Michigan led by 5 with 52 seconds to go , but then missed 3 free throws , including the first attempt during 2 one @-@ and @-@ one situations . Burke and Morgan also missed last @-@ second shots at the rim . Michigan wound down its regular season with its fifteenth sellout and five seniors on the roster : Eso Akunne , Josh Bartelstein , Blake McLimans , Corey Person , and Matt Vogrich . The loss kept Michigan from its first undefeated home season since the 1976 – 77 team .

= = = Postseason = = =

Michigan participated in the 2013 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament at the United Center in Chicago . As the # 5 seed , they defeated Penn State in the opening round on March 14 by an 83 – 66 margin . In the second round , the team lost to Wisconsin , 68 – 59 . Prior to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , Jeff Goodman of CBSSports.com named Michigan first among tournament teams in terms of having the most future NBA talent on its roster ( in the absence of Kentucky , which was left to accept an invitation to the 2013 National Invitation Tournament ) . Among Michigan 's starting lineup , Burke , Robinson , Hardaway , and McGary were all expected to be likely NBA Draft choices , while Stauskas had the potential to be one .

Despite its highly touted lineup , Michigan entered the tournament as the sixth youngest team in the country and the youngest team in the field of 68 teams according to Sports Illustrated , based on weighted minutes played . The game marked Michigan 's first NCAA Championship Monday appearance since 1989 . Some sources claim 1993 as the school 's last appearance , but those results have been vacated by the NCAA due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal .

Michigan was entered in the tournament 's South region where it would play its first two games at The Palace of Auburn Hills in nearby Auburn Hills , Michigan . As a number four seed , Michigan opened the tournament by defeating South Dakota State 71 – 56 , giving the team its most wins in 20 years and matching Beilein 's career high as it raised its record to 27 – 7 . Michigan then ousted 5th @-@ seeded VCU by a 78 – 53 margin . That gave Michigan its first Sweet Sixteen appearance since the 1993 – 94 team went to the 1994 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .

= = = = Sweet Sixteen = = = =

The regional championship rounds for Michigan were at AT & T Stadium in Arlington , Texas . On March 29 against Kansas , Michigan overcame a 14 @-@ point deficit with 6 : 50 remaining and a 10 @-@ point deficit with 2 : 52 remaining to force overtime before an eventual victory . Burke scored eight points in the final 1 : 15 of regulation time , including a game @-@ tying long three @-@ pointer with 4 @.@ 2 seconds remaining . McGary ( 25 points and 14 rebounds ) and Burke ( 23 points and 10 assists ) both posted double @-@ doubles .

In the regional finals on March 31 against Florida , Michigan built a 13 – 0 lead and never led by less than 10 the rest of the game . Several players had career @-@ highs in the game : Stauskas with 6 three @-@ point shots , Burke 8 rebounds , McGary 5 steals and off the bench Albrecht 7 points and 3 steals . Eight of McGary 's 11 points came as Michigan built the initial 13 – 0 lead and 5 of Stauskas ' 6 three @-@ pointers came as Michigan built a 41 – 17 lead and closed the half with a 47 – 30 lead . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . McGary and Stauskas joined Burke on the five @-@ man South All @-@ Regional team . Following the regional championship postgame prayer and with Mrs. Beilein 's consent , McGary and Hardaway gave Beilein a Gatorade shower .

= = = = Final four = = = =

The national championship rounds were held at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta , Georgia . In the April 6 national semifinal against Syracuse , Michigan emerged with its thirty @-@ first victory , the most since the 1992 – 93 team went 31 – 5 . McGary posted 10 points , 12 rebounds and 6 assists , while the bench contributed 22 points , including 6 from Albrecht , who raised his NCAA tournament total to 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 on three @-@ point shots .

Michigan lost the April 8 national championship game against Midwest number one seed Louisville by an 82 – 76 score . Albrecht scored 17 first @-@ half points on 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 three @-@ point shooting . Burke scored 24 points in the championship game and made the seven @-@ man All @-@ Tournament team ( which was revised multiple times ) along with teammates McGary and Albrecht . The turning point of the game was described as a missed call by the referees when , as Michigan trailed 67 – 64 with 5 minutes left , Burke pinned Peyton Siva 's dunk attempt with a clean , all @-@ ball block , but was called for a foul , resulting in two made free throws by Silva . Michigan never got closer than 4 points the rest of the game .

= = = Results = = =

= = Statistics = =

Statistics come from the team 's website :

Burke 's 260 assists set a school single @-@ season record . He also finished his sophomore season with 1 @,@ 231 career points , surpassing the former school record for sophomore season career point total of 1 @,@ 218 by Chris Webber . Stauskas reached a total of 80 made three @-@ point shots , which surpassed Hardaway 's 2 @-@ year @-@ old school freshman season record of 76 .

= = Rankings = =

= = Watchlists and awards = =

= = = Preseason = = =

= = = In @-@ season = = =

Stauskas also earned recognition from Sports Illustrated 's Seth Davis as National Freshman of the Week on December 3 . On January 9 , Burke earned the Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week from the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . Burke also earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition on April 1 .

The Wooden Award midseason top 25 list , which included Burke , was announced on January 10 . On January 31 , Burke was named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy ( USBWA National Player of the Year ) midseason top 12 list , while Stuaskas and Robinson were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award ( USBWA National Freshman of the Year ) top 12 midseason list . Burke was one of six Big Ten players named among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award when the list was announced on February 26 . Burke was among four Big Ten Players on the March 4 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist . On March 9 , Burke was named among the top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . Burke was named one of four finalists for the Naismith Award on March 24 .

Burke was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News on March 11 , the USBWA on March 18 , Sports Illustrated on March 19 , CBSSports.com on March 20 , the National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) on March 28 , and the Associated Press on April 1 . Burke was one of four Big Ten players named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award on April 1 . On April 1 , Robinson was one of two Big Ten players ( Harris ) named to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Kyle Macy Freshman All @-@ America team . Burke became the fifth Consensus All @-@ American ( Cazzie Russell , Rickey Green , Gary Grant and Webber ) in school history .

SI also named Burke National Player of the Year , making him the second ( Russell , 1966 ) National Player of the Year in school history . On April 4 , Burke won the Bob Cousy Award and was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . Burke won both the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award on April 5 . On April 7 , he won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards , giving him a sweep of the four major player of the year awards .

Burke earned Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2013 and was a unanimous 2012 – 13 All @-@ Big Ten 1st team selection . Hardaway was a 1st team selection by the coaches and second team by the media . Robinson was an honorable mention All @-@ Conference selection and All @-@ freshman honoree by the coaches . Morgan was a coaches All @-@ defensive team selection . On March 12 , the USBWA named Burke and Hardaway to its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . Burke was recognized as District V Player of the Year . Burke and Hardaway were selected to the NABC Division I All ‐ District 7 first team on March 26 , as selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , making them eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America team . On that same day , Burke was selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team .

John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . Seniors Josh Bartelstein and Matt Vogrich were among the 38 Big Ten men 's basketball players recognized as Winter Academic All @-@ Big Ten for maintaining 3 @.@ 0 averages . Trey Burke was named team MVP .

= = 2013 NBA Draft = =

Prior to the final four , McGary stated that he would not enter the 2013 NBA Draft , but a few days later said he had been caught off guard and would prefer to respond after he had time to reflect on his season .

At 12 : 30 PM ET on April 4 , Forbes sports business reporter Darren Heitner tweeted that Burke and teammate Hardaway would declare for the 2013 NBA Draft . According to Heiter , one of Burke 's potential sports agents was Alonzo Shavers , who had known Burke since his birth . Burke 's mother responded at 2 : 15 PM that same day that " He has not made any decision " about going pro , according to Yahoo ! Sports reporter Eric Adelson . At 2 : 23 PM , Heitner tweeted that Hardaway , Sr. said his son was undecided .

On April 9 before boarding the airplane to return from the NCAA Final Four , Beilein met with Burke , Hardaway , Robinson and McGary to direct them to seek the advice of the NBA advisory committee . The draft board had until April 15 to develop each individual report and the players had until April 28 to enter the draft . On that same date , ESPN 's Jason King predicted that if all four players had left for the NBA draft , the 2013 – 14 team would have begun the season unranked . USA Today projected on April 9 that if one of the four possible 2013 NBA draft entrants returned , Michigan could have been ranked number twenty @-@ four , and that if they all returned , Michigan would have been preseason number one . ESPN journalist Myron Medcalf predicted on April 12 that Burke and Hardaway would enter the draft and that McGary and Robinson were on the borderline of doing so .

On April 13 , reports surfaced that Burke would announce that he would enter the NBA Draft at a press conference the following day . He entered the 2013 NBA Draft on April 14 . On April 17 , Hardaway declared for the NBA Draft . McGary and Robinson announced on April 18 that they had decided not to enter their names in the NBA Draft .

On June 27 , 2013 Burke was selected ninth in the 2013 NBA Draft by the Milwaukee Bucks and then traded to the Utah Jazz for the fourteenth and twenty @-@ first picks , which were used to select Shabazz Muhammad and Gorgui Dieng . Hardaway was drafted twenty @-@ fourth by the New York Knicks . Burke and Hardaway became the first Michigan duo selected in the first round since Juwan Howard and Jalen Rose in the 1994 NBA Draft . Burke became the first top @-@ 10 Wolverine selection since Jamal Crawford in the 2000 NBA Draft , and joined Victor Oladipo and Cody Zeller , who were selected second and fourth , respectively , to give the Big Ten its first top ten trio since the 1990 NBA Draft . Hardaway joined his father , who was picked fourteenth in 1989 NBA Draft , as a first round selection .

= = = Team players drafted into the NBA = = =

Every player that started in the 2013 national championship game was drafted either in the 2013 or 2014 NBA draft .

Sources :

= = Postseason roster changes = =

Following the season the team lost five seniors from the roster : guard Eso Akunne , guard Josh Bartelstein ( captain ) , forward Blake McLimans , guard Corey Person and guard Matt Vogrich . The team 's required 10 @-@ year dissociation with players implicated in the University of Michigan basketball scandal ended on May 8 , 2013 . Bartelstein blogged for the team from October 15 , 2010 , until April 11 , 2013 . His blogs from this season were turned into an ebook about the season entitled We On : Behind the Scenes of Michigan 's Final Four Run .

= Prosperity theology =

Prosperity theology ( sometimes referred to as the prosperity gospel , the health and wealth gospel , or the gospel of success ) is a religious belief among some Christians that financial blessing is the will of God for them , and that faith , positive speech , and donations ( possibly to Christian ministries ) will increase one 's material wealth . They are based on interpretations of the Bible traditional in Judaism ( with respect to the Hebrew Bible ) , though less so in Christianity . Prosperity theology views the Bible as a contract between God and humans : if humans have faith in God , he will deliver his promises of security and prosperity . Confessing these promises to be true is perceived as an act of faith , which God will honor .

The doctrine emphasizes the importance of personal empowerment , proposing that it is God 's will for his people to be happy . The atonement ( reconciliation with God ) is interpreted to include the alleviation of sickness and poverty , which are viewed as curses to be broken by faith . This is believed to be achieved through donations of money , visualization , and positive confession , and is often taught in mechanical and contractual terms .

It was during the Healing Revivals of the 1950s that prosperity theology first came to prominence in the United States , although commentators have linked the origins of its theology to the New Thought movement which began in the 19th century . The prosperity teaching later figured prominently in the Word of Faith movement and 1980s televangelism . In the 1990s and 2000s , it was adopted by influential leaders in the Charismatic Movement and promoted by Christian missionaries throughout the world , sometimes leading to the establishment of mega @-@ churches . Prominent leaders in the development of prosperity theology include E. W. Kenyon , Oral Roberts , TD Jakes , A. A. Allen , Robert Tilton , T. L. Osborn , Joel Osteen , Creflo Dollar , Kenneth Copeland , Reverend Ike and Kenneth Hagin .

Prosperity theology has been criticized by leaders in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements , as well as other Christian denominations . These leaders maintain that it is irresponsible , promotes idolatry , and is contrary to scripture . Some critics have proposed that prosperity theology cultivates authoritarian organizations , with the leaders controlling the lives of the adherents . The doctrine has also become popular in South Korea ; academics have attributed some of its success to its parallels with the traditional shamanistic culture . Prosperity theology has drawn followers from the American middle class and poor , and has been likened to the cargo cult phenomenon , traditional African religion , and black liberation theology .

= = History = =

= = = Late 19th and early 20th @-@ century background = = =

According to historian Kate Bowler , the prosperity gospel was formed from the intersection of three different ideologies : Pentecostalism , New Thought , and " an American gospel of pragmatism , individualism , and upward mobility . " This " American gospel " was best exemplified by Andrew Carnegie 's Gospel of Wealth and Russell Conwell 's famous sermon " Acres of Diamonds " , in which Conwell equated poverty with sin and asserted that anyone could become rich through hard work . This gospel of wealth , however , was an expression of Muscular Christianity and understood success to be the result of personal effort rather than divine intervention .

The New Thought movement , which emerged in the 1880s , was responsible for popularizing belief in the power of the mind to achieve prosperity . While initially focused on achieving mental and physical health , New Thought teachers such as Charles Fillmore made material success a major emphasis of the movement . By the 20th century , New Thought concepts had saturated American popular culture , being common features of both self @-@ help literature and popular psychology .

E. W. Kenyon , a Baptist minister and adherent of the Higher Life movement , is credited with introducing mind @-@ power teachings into early Pentecostalism . In the 1890s , Kenyon attended Emerson College of Oratory where he was exposed to the New Thought movement . Kenyon later became connected with well @-@ known Pentecostal leaders and wrote about supernatural revelation and positive declarations . His writing influenced leaders of the nascent prosperity movement during the post @-@ war American healing revival . Kenyon and later leaders in the prosperity movement have denied that he was influenced by the New Thought movement . Anthropologist Simon Coleman argues that there are " obvious parallels " between Kenyon 's teachings and New Thought .

Kenyon taught that Christ 's substitutionary atonement secured for believers a right to divine healing . This was attained through positive , faith @-@ filled speech ; the spoken word of God allowed believers to appropriate the same spiritual power that God used to create the world and attain the provisions promised in Christ 's death and resurrection . Prayer was understood to be a binding , legal act . Rather than asking , Kenyon taught believers to demand healing since they were already legally entitled to receive it .

Kenyon 's blend of evangelical religion and mind @-@ power beliefs — what he termed " overcoming faith " — resonated with a small but influential segment of the Pentecostal movement . Pentecostals had always been committed to faith healing , and the movement also possessed a strong belief in the power of speech ( in particular speaking in tongues and the use of the names of God , especially the name of Jesus ) . Kenyon 's ideas would be reflected in the teachings of Pentecostal evangelists F. F. Bosworth and John G. Lake ( who co @-@ led a congregation with New Thought author Albert C. Grier prior to 1915 ) .

= = = Postwar Healing Revivals = = =

While Kenyon 's teachings on overcoming faith laid the groundwork for the prosperity gospel , the first generation of Pentecostals influenced by him and other figures , such as Bosworth , did not view faith as a means to attain material prosperity . In fact , early Pentecostals tended to view prosperity as a threat to a person 's spiritual well @-@ being . By the 1940s and 1950s , however , a recognizable form of the doctrine began to take shape within the Pentecostal movement through the teachings of deliverance and healing evangelists . Combining prosperity teaching with revivalism and faith healing , these evangelists taught " the laws of faith ( ' ask and ye shall receive ' ) and the laws of divine reciprocity ( ' give and it will be given back unto you ' ) " .

Oral Roberts began teaching prosperity theology in 1947 . He explained the laws of faith as a " blessing pact " in which God would return donations " seven fold " , promising that donors would receive back from unexpected sources the money they donated to him . Roberts offered to return any donation that did not lead to an equivalent unexpected payment . In the 1970s , Roberts characterized his blessing pact teaching as the " seed faith " doctrine : donations were a form of " seed " which would grow in value and be returned to the donor . Roberts began recruiting " partners " , wealthy donors who received exclusive conference invitations and ministry access in exchange for support .

In 1953 , faith healer A. A. Allen published The Secret to Scriptural Financial Success and promoted merchandise such as " miracle tent shavings " and prayer cloths anointed with " miracle oil " . In the late 1950s , Allen increasingly focused on prosperity . He taught that faith could miraculously solve financial problems and claimed to have had a miraculous experience in which God supernaturally changed one @-@ dollar bills into twenty @-@ dollar bills to allow him to pay his debts . Allen taught the " word of faith " or the power to speak something into being .

In the 1960s , prosperity became a primary focus in healing revivals . T. L. Osborn began emphasizing prosperity in the 1960s and became known for his often ostentatious displays of personal wealth . During that decade , Roberts and William Branham criticized other prosperity ministries , arguing that their fund @-@ raising tactics unfairly pressured attendees . These tactics were prompted in part by the expense of developing nationwide radio networks and campaign schedules . At the same time , leaders of the Pentecostal Assemblies of God denomination often criticized the focus on prosperity taken by independent healing evangelists .

= = = Televangelism = = =

During the 1960s , prosperity gospel teachers embraced televangelism and came to dominate religious programming in the United States . Oral Roberts led the way , developing a syndicated weekly program that became the most watched religious show in the United States . By 1968 , television had supplanted the tent meeting in his ministry .

Reverend Ike , a pastor from New York City , began preaching about prosperity in the late 1960s . He soon had widely aired radio and television programs and became distinguished for his flashy style . His openness about love for material possessions and teachings about the " Science of the Mind " led many evangelists to distance themselves from him .

In the 1980s , public attention in the United States was drawn to prosperity theology through the influence of prominent televangelists such as Jim Bakker . Bakker 's influence waned , however , after he was implicated in a high @-@ profile scandal . In the aftermath , Trinity Broadcasting Network ( TBN ) emerged as the dominant force in prosperity televangelism , having brought Robert Tilton and Benny Hinn to prominence .

= = = Word of Faith = = =

Although nearly all of the healing evangelists of the 1940s and ' 50s taught that faith could bring financial rewards , a new prosperity @-@ oriented teaching developed in the 1970s that differed from the one taught by Pentecostal evangelists of the 1950s . This " Positive Confession " or " Word of Faith " movement taught that a Christian with faith can speak into existence anything consistent with the will of God .

Kenneth Hagin was credited with a key role in the expansion of prosperity theology . He founded the RHEMA Bible Training Center in 1974 , and over the next 20 years , the school trained more than 10 @,@ 000 students in his theology . As is true of other prosperity movements , there is no theological governing body for the Word of Faith movement , and well @-@ known ministries differ on some theological issues . The teachings of Kenneth Hagin have been described by Candy Gunther Brown of Indiana University as the most " orthodox " form of Word of Faith prosperity teaching .

= = = Recent U.S. history = = =

The Neo @-@ Pentecostal movement has been characterized in part by an emphasis on prosperity theology , which gained greater acceptance within charismatic Christianity during the late 1990s . By 2006 , three of the four largest congregations in the United States were teaching prosperity theology , and Joel Osteen has been credited with spreading it outside of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movement through his books , which have sold over 4 million copies . Bruce Wilkinson 's The Prayer of Jabez also sold millions of copies and invited readers to seek prosperity .

By the 2000s , adherents of prosperity theology in the United States were most common in the Sun Belt . In the late 2000s , proponents claimed that tens of millions of Christians had accepted prosperity theology . A 2006 poll by Time reported that 17 percent of Christians in America said they identified with the movement . There is no official governing body for the movement , though many ministries are unofficially linked .

In 2007 , U.S. Senator Chuck Grassley opened a probe into the finances of six televangelism ministries that promoted prosperity theology : Kenneth Copeland Ministries , Creflo Dollar Ministries , Benny Hinn Ministries , Bishop Eddie Long Ministries , Joyce Meyer Ministries , and Paula White Ministries . In January 2011 , Grassley concluded his investigation stating that he believed self @-@ regulation by religious organizations was preferable to government action . Only the ministries led by Meyer and Hinn cooperated fully with Grassley 's investigation .

= = Theology = =

Prosperity theology teaches that Christians are entitled to well @-@ being and , because physical and spiritual realities are seen as one inseparable reality , this is interpreted as physical health and economic prosperity . Teachers of the doctrine focus on personal empowerment , promoting a positive view of the spirit and body . They maintain that Christians have been given power over creation because they are made in the image of God and teach that positive confession allows Christians to exercise dominion over their souls and material objects around them . Leaders of the movement view the atonement as providing for the alleviation of sickness , poverty , and spiritual corruption ; poverty and illness are cast as curses which can be broken by faith and righteous actions . There are , however , some prosperity churches which seek a more moderate or reformed paradigm of prosperity . Kirbyjon Caldwell , pastor of a Methodist mega @-@ church , supports a theology of abundant life , teaching prosperity for the whole human being , which he sees as a path to combating poverty .

Wealth is interpreted in prosperity theology as a blessing from God , obtained through a spiritual law of positive confession , visualization , and donations . This process is often taught in almost mechanical terms ; Kenneth Copeland , an American author and televangelist , argues that prosperity is governed by laws , while other teachers portray the process formulaically . Journalists David van Biema and Jeff Chu of Time have described Word of Faith pastor Creflo Dollar 's teachings about prosperity as an inviolable contract between God and humanity .

The prosperity theology teaching of positive confession stems from its proponents ' view of scripture . The Bible is seen as a faith contract between God and believers ; God is understood to be faithful and just , so believers must fulfill their end of the contract to receive God 's promises . This leads to a belief in positive confession , the doctrine that believers may claim whatever they desire from God , simply by speaking it . Prosperity theology teaches that the Bible has promised prosperity for believers , so positive confession means that believers are speaking in faith what God has already spoken about them . Positive confession is practiced to bring about what is already believed in ; faith itself is a confession , and speaking it brings it into reality .

The teaching is often based on non @-@ traditional interpretations of Bible verses , the Book of Malachi often being given special attention . While Malachi has generally been celebrated by Christians for its passages about the messiah , teachers of prosperity theology usually draw attention to its descriptions of physical wealth . Frequently quoted verses include :

Malachi 3 : 10 : " Bring to the storehouse a full tenth of what you earn so there will be food in my house . Test me in this , " says the Lord All @-@ Powerful . " I will open the windows of heaven for you and pour out all the blessings you need " ( NCV ) .

Matthew 25 : 14 – 30 : the Parable of the talents

John 10 : 10 : " I am come that they might have life , and that they might have it more abundantly " ( KJV ) .

Philippians 4 : 19 : " My God shall supply all your need according to his riches in glory by Christ Jesus " ( KJV ) .

3 John 1 : 2 : " Beloved , I wish above all things that thou mayest prosper and be in health , even as thy soul prospereth " ( KJV ) .

Prosperity theology casts itself as the reclamation of true doctrine and thus part of a path to Christian dominion over secular society . It contends that God 's promises of prosperity and victory to Israel in the Old Testament apply to New @-@ Covenant Christians today , and that faith and holy actions release this prosperity . C. Peter Wagner , a leader of the New Apostolic Reformation , has argued that if Christians take dominion over aspects of society , the Earth will experience " peace and prosperity " . Some Latin Americans who have embraced prosperity theology argue that Christianity has historically placed an unnecessary focus on suffering . They often view this as a Roman Catholic doctrine that should be discarded and replaced with an emphasis on prosperity . Prosperity theology advocates also argue that biblical promises of blessings awaiting the poor have been unnecessarily spiritualized , and should be understood literally .

= = = Practices = = =

Prosperity churches place a strong emphasis on the importance of giving . Some services include a teaching time focused on giving and prosperity , including Biblical references to tithing ; and then a sermon on another topic which follows the offering . Prosperity church leaders often claim a specific blessing can be exchanged for the money being donated to their ministry ; some have been reported to instruct worshipers to hold their donations above their heads during the prayer .

Congregants in prosperity churches are encouraged to speak positive statements about aspects of their lives that they wish to see improved . These statements , known as positive confessions , ( distinct from confessions of sin ) are said to miraculously change aspects of people 's lives if spoken with faith . Prosperity churches also encourage people to " live without limits " and cultivate optimism about their lives . T. D. Jakes , pastor of The Potter 's House non @-@ denominational mega @-@ church , has argued in favor of prosperity , rejecting what he sees as the demonization of success . He views poverty as a barrier to living a Christian life , suggesting that it is easier to make a positive impact on society when one is affluent .

While some prosperity churches have a reputation for manipulating and alienating the poor , many are involved in social programs . Underlying these programs is a theology of empowerment and human flourishing with the goal of releasing people from a " welfare " or " victim " mentality . Many prosperity churches hold seminars on financial responsibility . Kate Bowler , an academic who studies prosperity theology , has criticized such seminars , arguing that though they contain some sound advice the seminars often emphasize the purchase of expensive possessions . Hanna Rosin of The Atlantic argues that prosperity theology contributed to the housing bubble that caused the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis . She maintains that home ownership was heavily emphasized in prosperity churches , based on reliance on divine financial intervention that led to unwise choices based on actual financial ability .

= = = International growth = = =

In the 2000s , churches teaching prosperity theology saw significant growth in the Third World . According to Philip Jenkins of Pennsylvania State University , poor citizens of impoverished countries often find the doctrine appealing because of their economic powerlessness and the doctrine 's emphasis on miracles . One region seeing explosive growth is Western Africa , particularly Nigeria . In the Philippines , the El Shaddai movement , part of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal , has spread prosperity theology outside Protestant Christianity . One South Korean prosperity church , Yoido Full Gospel Church , gained attention in the 1990s by claiming to be the world 's largest congregation .

= = Reception = =

= = = Socioeconomic analysis = = =

Most churches in the prosperity movement are non @-@ denominational and independent , though some groups have formed networks . Prosperity churches typically reject Presbyterian polity ( or governance ) and the idea that a pastor should be accountable to elders ; it is common for pastors of prosperity churches to be the highest organizational authority figure . Critics , including Sarah Posner and Joe Conason , maintain that prosperity teachers cultivate authoritarian organizations . They argue that leaders attempt to control the lives of adherents by claiming divinely bestowed authority . Jenkins contends that prosperity theology is used as a tool to justify the high salaries of pastors .

In the United States , the movement has drawn many followers from the middle class and is most popular in commuter towns and urban areas . In Exporting the American Gospel : Global Christian Fundamentalism Steve Brouwer , Paul Gifford , and Susan Rose speculate that the movement was fueled by a prevailing disdain for social liberalism in the United States that began in the 1970s . Rosin argues that prosperity theology emerged because of broader trends , particularly American economic optimism in the 1950s and 1990s . Tony Lin of the University of Virginia has also compared the teaching to manifest destiny , the 19th @-@ century belief that the United States was entitled to the West . Marvin Harris argues that the doctrine 's focus on the material world is a symptom of the secularization of American religion . He sees it as an attempt to fulfill the American Dream by using supernatural power .

Prosperity theology has become popular among poor Americans , particularly those who seek personal and social advancement . It has seen significant growth in black and Hispanic churches and is particularly popular among immigrants . Apologists for the movement note its ethnic diversity and argue that it encompasses a variety of views . Joel Robbins of Cambridge University notes that most anthropologists attribute the theology 's appeal to the poor — especially in the Global South — to the fact that it promises security and helps explain capitalism . Simon Coleman developed a theory based on the doctrine 's rhetoric and the feeling of belonging it gave parishioners . In a study of the Swedish Word of Life Church , he noted that members felt part of a complex gift @-@ exchange system , giving to God and then awaiting a gift in return ( either from God directly or through another church member ) . Hillsong Church , the largest congregation in Australia , teaches a form of prosperity theology that emphasizes personal success . Marion Maddox has argued that this message has drawn a significant number of upwardly mobile Australians .

In a 1998 interview in Christianity Today , Bong Rin Ro of the Asia Graduate School of Theology suggested that the growth in popularity of prosperity theology in South Korea reflects a strong " shamanistic influence " . Bong pointed to parallels between the tradition of paying shamans for healing and the prosperity theology 's contractual doctrine about giving and blessings . Asia 's economic problems , he argued , encouraged the growth of the doctrine in South Korea , though he claims it ignores the poor and needy . During the interview , he stated that he saw the problem beginning to be reversed , citing calls for renewed faith and other practices . Cho Yong @-@ gi , pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church in Seoul , has been criticized for shamanising Christianity . This criticism has focused on his healing and exorcism ministries and his promise of material blessings . Malaysian Christian writer Hwa Yung has defended Cho 's healing and exorcism ministries , arguing that he successfully contextualized the gospel in a culture where shamanism was still prevalent . However , Hwa criticizes Cho 's teaching of earthly blessings for not reflecting a trust in God 's daily provision and for their heavy focus on earthly wealth .

= = = Comparisons with other movements = = =

Historian Carter Lindberg of Boston University has drawn parallels between contemporary prosperity theology and the medieval indulgence trade . Coleman notes that several pre @-@ 20th century Christian movements in the United States taught that a holy lifestyle was a path to prosperity and that God @-@ ordained hard work would bring blessing .

Coleman has speculated that modern @-@ day prosperity theology borrows heavily from the New Thought movement , though he admits that the connection is sometimes unclear . Jenkins notes that critics draw a parallel between prosperity theology and the cargo cult phenomenon . While citing the popularity of prosperity theology in agrarian African communities , he argues that it can also bear similarities to traditional African religious rituals . J. Matthew Wilson of Southern Methodist University compares the movement to Black liberation theology owing to its focus on uplifting oppressed groups , though he notes that it differs in its concentration on individual success rather than corporate political change .

= = = Criticism = = =

Mainstream evangelicalism has consistently opposed prosperity theology as heresy and prosperity ministries have frequently come into conflict with other Christian groups , including those within the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements . Critics , such as Evangelical pastor Michael Catt , have argued that prosperity theology has little in common with traditional Christian theology . Prominent evangelical leaders , such as Rick Warren , Ben Witherington III , and Jerry Falwell , have harshly criticized the movement , sometimes denouncing it as heretical . Warren proposes that prosperity theology promotes the idolatry of money , and others argue that Jesus ' teachings indicate a disdain for material wealth . In Mark : Jesus , Servant and Savior , R. Kent Hughes notes that some 1st @-@ century rabbis portrayed material blessings as a sign of God 's favor . He cites Jesus ' statement in Mark 10 : 25 that " It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle , than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God " ( KJV ) as evidence to oppose such thinking .

Other critics of the movement assail promises made by its leaders , arguing that the broad freedom from problems they promise is irresponsible . Televangelists are often criticized for abusing the faith of their listeners by enriching themselves through large donations . Prosperity theology has been opposed for not adequately explaining the poverty of the Apostles . For instance , some theologians believe that the life and writings of Paul the Apostle , who is believed to have experienced significant suffering during his ministry , are particularly in conflict with prosperity theology . Cathleen Falsani , religion writer in an opinion piece in the Washington Post , points to the conflict with basic Christian teachings " Jesus was born poor , and he died poor . During his earthly tenure , he spoke time and again about the importance of spiritual wealth and health . When he talked about material wealth , it was usually part of a cautionary tale . "

In their book Health , Wealth and Happiness , theologians David Jones and Russell Woodbridge characterize the doctrine as poor theology . They suggest that righteousness cannot be earned and that the Bible does not promise an easy life . They argue that it is inconsistent with the gospel of Jesus and propose that the central message of the gospel should be Jesus ' life , death , and resurrection . Jones and Woodbridge see Jesus ' importance as vital , criticizing the prosperity gospel for marginalizing him in favor of a focus on human need . In another article , Jones criticizes the prosperity theology interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant , God 's promise to bless Abraham 's descendants , arguing that this blessing is spiritual and should already apply to all Christians . He also argues that the proponents of the doctrine misconstrue the atonement , criticizing their teaching that Jesus ' death took away poverty as well as sin . He believes that this teaching is drawn from a misunderstanding of Jesus ' life and criticizes John Avanzini 's teaching that Jesus was wealthy as a misrepresentation , noting that Paul often taught Christians to give up their material possessions . Although he accepts giving as " praiseworthy " , he questions the motives of prosperity theology and criticizes the " Law of Compensation " , which teaches that when Christians give generously , God will give back more in return . Rather , Jones cites Jesus ' teaching to " give , hoping for nothing in return . " Jones and Woodbridge also note that Jesus instructed followers to focus on spiritual rewards , citing his command in Matthew 6 : 19 – 20 " Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth ... But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven " ( KJV ) . Jones criticizes the doctrine 's view of faith : he does not believe that it should be used as a spiritual force for material gain but seen as selfless acceptance of God .

In 1980 , the General Council of the Assemblies of God criticized the doctrine of positive confession , noting examples of negative confessions in the Bible ( where Biblical figures express fears and doubts ) that had positive results and contrasting these examples with the focus on positive confessions taught by prosperity theology . The Council argues that the biblical Greek word often translated as " confess " literally translates as " to speak the same thing " , and refers to both positive and negative confessions . The statement also criticizes the doctrine for failing to recognize the will of God : God 's will should have precedence over the will of man , including their desires for wealth , and Christians should " recognize the sovereignty of God " . The statement further criticizes prosperity theology for overlooking the importance of prayer , arguing that prayer should be used for all requests , not simply positive confession . The Council noted that Christians should expect suffering in this life . They urge readers to apply practical tests to positive confession , arguing that the doctrine appeals to those who are already in affluent societies but that many Christians in other societies are impoverished or imprisoned . Finally , the paper criticizes the distinction made by advocates of prosperity theology in the two Greek words that mean " speaking " , arguing that the distinction is false and that they are used interchangeably in the Greek text . The Council accused prosperity theology of taking passages out of context to fulfill its own needs , with the result that doctrine of positive confession is contradictory to the holistic message of the Bible .

On the August 16 , 2015 episode of his HBO weekly series Last Week Tonight , John Oliver satirized prosperity theology by announcing that he had established his own tax @-@ exempt church , called Our Lady of Perpetual Exemption . In a lengthy segment , Oliver focused on what he characterized as the predatory conduct of televangelists who appeal for repeated gifts from people in financial distress or personal crises , and he criticized the very loose requirements for entities to obtain tax exempt status as churches under U.S. tax law . Oliver said that he would ultimately donate any money collected by the church to Doctors Without Borders .

= = Notable works advocating prosperity theology = =

Notable works that advocate prosperity theology include :

Oral Roberts ; Montgomery , G. H. ( 1966 ) . God 's Formula for Success and Prosperity . Abundant Life Publication . OCLC 4654539 .

Gordon Lindsay ( 1960 ) . God 's Master Key to Prosperity . Christ For The Nations . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89985 @-@ 001 @-@ 6 .

Bruce Wilkinson ; Kopp , David ( 2000 ) . The Prayer of Jabez : Breaking Through to the Blessed Life . Multnomah Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57673 @-@ 733 @-@ 0 .

Joel Osteen ( 2004 ) . Your Best Life Now : 7 Steps to Living at Your Full Potential . FaithWords . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 53275 @-@ 4 .

Zig Ziglar ( 1975 ) . See You at the Top . Gretna : Pelican Pub . Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 88289 @-@ 126 @-@ X.

Zig Ziglar ( 2006 ) . Better Than Good : Creating a Life You Can 't Wait to Live . Nashville : Thomas Nelson Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7852 @-@ 8919 @-@ 7 .

Zig Ziglar ; Tom Ziglar ( 2012 ) . Born to Win : Find Your Success Code . Dallas : SUCCESS Media . ISBN 9780983156512 .

= Newton House , Llandeilo =

Newton House is a Grade II * listed country house situated just to the west of the market town of Llandeilo in Carmarthenshire , Wales . It is owned and maintained by the National Trust and lies within Dinefwr Park ( sometimes anglicised as " Dynevor " ) and the grounds of Dinefwr Castle . The original house was built during the Medieval period on a site which has been occupied for at least two millennia . The current house was built by Edward Rice in the Jacobean style in 1660 , though extensive changes were made in the 1850s in the Venetian Gothic style . The house played a role in the Rebecca Riots of 1843 , when the occupant of the house at the time , Colonel George Rice , received a death threat with an empty grave dug in the ground . After 1956 the property fell into turbulent times when two owners died within the space of a few years . It was sold in 1974 , and later fell into disrepair ; it was occupied by squatters and thieves who removed beams and furniture .

The house , along with Dinefwr Castle , have since been restored by the National Trust and Cadw respectively . It is a three @-@ storey castellated structure , built from grey stone , with four tall towers in each corner , with sloping slate roofs . The front features a grand central porch . Two rooms are open to the public , including a tearoom and exhibition in the basement and ground floor which contain numerous displays related to the history of the estate and occupants . The deer park which surrounds the property was landscaped by Capability Brown in 1775 . The surrounding woodland consists mainly of oak and wych elm . Newton House is cited as one of the most haunted houses in Wales , noted in particular for its ghost of Walter the Butler , a former employee whose tobacco smoke purportedly wafts through the air .

= = History = =

Dinefwr Park has a history of occupation spanning at least two millennia . A polished stone axe dated to the Neolithic period was unearthed on the site in 1976 , and during the Iron Age , a farm existed on the property . The Romans later built a pair of forts here , with one partly overlying the other . There are traces of Roman roads and tracks , some of which may have been part of the Carmarthen @-@ Llandovery Roman road . A Roman milestone and a coin hoard were unearthed near Dinefwr Castle , and pieces of amphorae and Samian items have been excavated near Dinefwr Farm .

During the 12th century , Dinefwr Castle was built by Lord Rhys . The castle and grounds were seized by Henry VIII in 1531 , and the estate owners , who changed their family surname to Rice , subsequently had to buy back their property from the Crown . The family were elevated to the peerage of Great Britain as Baron Dynevor . Mary I is documented to have restored some of the land back to the Rhys family , but it was not until the reign of Charles I that the family fully regained their properties .

Newton House was originally built during the medieval period at some distance from the castle . It is documented to have been later modified in 1595 and 1603 . The current Newton House was completed in 1660 under the command of Edward Rice . In the late 1700s , George Rice and his wife Cecil began the construction of a landscape garden , and hired eminent architect Capability Brown in 1775 to assume responsibility for the development . Turrets and battlements were added between 1760 and 1780 , giving the property a more romanticised appearance . During the Rebecca Riots of 1843 , Colonel George Rice was awoken one night in September and found an empty grave dug in the grounds , warning him that he would be buried in it by October 10 .

Newton House fell into a turbulent period after the death of the 7th Baron Dynevor in 1956 . His son Charles Arthur Uryan , the 8th Baron , died just six years later , and most of the estate and a number of family 's assets had to be sold off to pay duties . In 1974 , the property was sold by the current Baron Dynevor , and later fell into disrepair : it was occupied by squatters and thieves who removed beams and furniture . The house , along with Dinefwr Castle , have since been restored by Cadw and the National Trust respectively . The National Trust acquired the deer park in 1987 and Newton House three years later .

= = Architecture = =

Edward Rice ordered the construction of a Jacobean house on the site of an earlier medieval mansion in 1659 , and it was completed the following year . Turrets and battlements were added between 1760 and 1780 . Though the property remains Jacobean , around 1856 , there were significant changes made in the Venetian Gothic style , which today emanate the ambiance of the Victorian period . The tower was added , and alterations were made by R.K. Penson of Oswestry . The National Trust writes of it : " Most of what you see of the grand building today dates back to the 1850s , when it was given a fashionable Gothic facelift , with stone cladding and four impressive turrets " . A limestone refacing occurred at the same time . Newton House is a Grade II * listed property , as are its summer house and the inner and outer courtyard ranges . The nearby dairy cottage , ha @-@ ha , dovecote , fountain , deer abattoir , icehouse , home farmhouse , corn barn and byre / stable range are Grade II listed in their own right .

Newton House is a three @-@ storey castellated structure , built from grey stone , with four tall towers in each corner , with sloping slate roofs . The front features a grand central porch . The authors of Carmarthenshire and Ceredigion consider the heavily decorated late 17th @-@ century ceilings of the house to be " the finest single architectural legacy among the country houses of the region " . As in Plas Taliaris and several other country houses in the county , the ceilings are panelled , with " thick moulded beams and wreaths in the panels and winged cherubs ' heads in the corners " . The entrance hall contains a columned Doric screen with a 19th @-@ century ribbed and bossed ceiling . The old dining room to the right of this features a coffered ceiling dated to the 17th century , containing " low plaster relief mouldings including guilloché , acanthus and egg and dart " . The chimney piece has been removed . The drawing room to rear of the property also features a richly adorned coffered ceiling with " frieze bearing rosette bands " and a " centre oval with bay leaf design " . The 17th @-@ century staircase features thick balusters and prominent finials , with foliage patterns ingrained in the plasterwork of the handrail . A billiard room was added to the house in 1896 . A strongroom with 18 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 46 cm ) walls and heavy steel fire @-@ proof doors was added in 1914 , for the Dynevors to keep their important documents and valuables . On the upper floors are rooms with 18th @-@ century fittings , including " panelled dados , lugged architraves , low relief plaster ceilings and closets within angled turrets " . The bedroom on the northeast of the house features a particularly detailed coffered ceiling with floral patterns .

The house contains several paintings of note , including William Powell Frith 's Mary , Queen of Scots Bidding Farewell to France ( 1561 ) and Godfrey Kneller 's portrait of the Bishop of Salisbury , William Talbot , dated to 1718 . Two showrooms at the house are open to the public . Aside from the tearoom , the exhibition in the basement and ground floor contains numerous displays related to the Rhys family , the history of the estate and World War II , and is designed as if the year is 1912 .

= = Park and garden = =

The house is surrounded by a deer park which was landscaped by Capability Brown from 1775 . He established a winding path , known as Capability Brown path , through the park and planted deciduous trees in key places to frame the house and castle . The deer park contains notable herds of rare White Park cattle and fallow deer . A small garden behind the house , overlooking the deer park , Moorish in style with a central fountain , has been restored to its former glory . Brown 's beech clumps survive in the present day .

Writing in 1862 , Benjamin Clarje considered the park to exhibit " perhaps a richer display of varied landscape than any spot of similar size in the kingdom " . He notes that the surface in the upper area of the park is " diversified by gentle undulations and has been planted with great judgment and taste " and that the River Towy flows in the vicinity . The Wildlife Trust West Wales acquired the nearby woodland in 1979 . The BBC 's Peter Crawford wrote of it in his book , The Living Isles : " The woodland is primarily oak and wych elm , " he writes . " The shrubs and ground cover are outstanding with cherry , holly , spindle , dog violet and the parasitic toothwort . Lichen communities are of importance and include the rare lungwort . Overlooked by the romantic Castle of Dinefwr the fine old parkland has a herd of fallow deer . The mature trees attract woodpecker , redstarts and pied flycatchers . In winter , the water meadows draw large numbers of ducks " .

= = Haunting = =

The National Trust states that Newton House is " thought to be one of the most haunted houses in Britain " , and Wales Online cites it as one of the most notable ghostly houses of Wales . Over the years , many ghost sightings or paranormal activity have been allegedly witnessed at the house . The servants ' basement is one of the purported centres of activity , with numerous sightings , particularly of a ghost known as Walter the Butler who worked at the house . People have reported smelling his tobacco smoke in the room , muffled voices and lights eerily turning on and off on their own accord . Visitors have reported feeling as if they are being choked when walking up and down the cantilever staircase ; this is believed to be related to the strangling of Lady Elinor Cavendish , the cousin of the lady of Newton House in the 1720s , by a lover whom she had rejected . The alleged hauntings at the property began to be investigated by television journalists in the 1980s , and on one occasion crewmen mysteriously fell ill one after the other while shooting there . During one investigation , the spectre of a young , beautiful girl was said to have glided across the room and disappeared through the cupboard door . The house was later the subject of an investigation in the 11th and 15th series of the Most Haunted programme .

= Codex Zacynthius =

Codex Zacynthius ( designated by siglum Ξ or 040 in the Gregory @-@ Aland numbering ; A1 in von Soden ) is a Greek New Testament codex , dated paleographically to the 6th century . First thought to have been written in the 8th century , it is a palimpsest — the original ( lower ) text was washed off its vellum pages and overwritten in the 12th or 13th century . The upper text of the palimpsest contains weekday Gospel lessons ; the lower text contains portions of the Gospel of Luke , deciphered by biblical scholar and palaeographer Tregelles in 1861 . The lower text is of most interest to scholars .

The manuscript came from Zakynthos , a Greek island , and has survived in a fragmentary condition . It was brought to England in 1821 and transferred to Cambridge University in 1985 . It is often cited in critical editions of the Greek New Testament .

= = Description = =

The lower text of the manuscript contains fragments of the chapters 1 : 1 @-@ 11 : 33 of the Gospel of Luke . The codex comprises 86 thick , coarse parchment leaves and three partial leaves ; it measures 36 x 29 cm . The text was written in a single column with well @-@ formed uncial script . The letters are large , round and narrow , without spiritus asper , spiritus lenis , or accents . The manuscript was written by two scribes .

Abbreviations are rarely used in the codex . The handwriting is very close to that of the Rossano Gospels . The errors of itacism occur , but not so often as in Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus . It uses grammatical forms typical of the ancient manuscripts ( e.g. ειπαν , ηλθαν , ευραν ) , which are not used in later medieval manuscripts .

The codex uses a peculiar system of chapter divisions , which it shares with Codex Vaticanus and Minuscule 579 . A more common system divides chapters according to their titles . The capital letters at the beginnings of sections stand out in the margin as in the Codices Alexandrinus and Ephraemi .

The text is surrounded by a marginal commentary ; it is the only codex that has both text and commentary in uncial script . The commentary is a catena of quotations of nine church fathers : Origen , Eusebius , Titus of Bostra , Basil , Isidore of Pelusium , Cyril of Alexandria , Sever from Antioch , Victor from Antioch , and Chrysostom . The commentary surrounds the single @-@ column text of Luke on three sides . Patristic text is written in small uncial letters . Most of the quotations are those of Ciril of Alexandria ( 93 scholia ) ; next comes Titus of Bostra ( 45 scholia ) . The commentary was written in a different kind of uncial script than the biblical text .

= = = Contents = = =

The book contains the following chapters and verses of the Gospel of Luke : 1 : 1 @-@ 9 @,@ 19 @-@ 23 @,@ 27 @-@ 28 @,@ 30 @-@ 32 @,@ 36 @-@ 60 @,@ 77 ; 2 : 19 @,@ 21 @-@ 22 @,@ 33 @-@ 3 ; 3 : 5 @-@ 8 @,@ 11 @-@ 20 ; 4 : 1 @-@ 2 @,@ 6 @-@ 20 @,@ 32 @-@ 43 ; 5 : 17 @-@ 36 ; 6 : 21 ; 7 : 6 @,@ 11 @-@ 37 @,@ 39 @-@ 47 ; 8 : 4 @-@ 21 @,@ 25 @-@ 35 @,@ 43 @-@ 50 ; 9 : 1 @-@ 28 @,@ 32 @-@ 33 @,@ 35 ; 9 : 41 ; 10 : 18 @,@ 21 @-@ 40 ; 11 : 1 @-@ 4 @,@ 24 @-@ 33 .

= = = = Variations and omissions = = = =

Luke 9 : 55b @-@ 56a — καὶ εἶπεν , Οὑκ οἴδατε οἵου πνεύματος ἑστε ὐμεῖς ; ὀ γὰρ υἰὸς τοῦ ἁνθρώπου οὑκ ἦλθεν ψυχὰς ἁνθρώπων ἁπολέσαι ἁλλὰ σῶσαι ( and He said : " You do not know what manner of spirit you are of ; for the Son of man came not to destroy men 's lives but to save them ) is omitted , typical of Alexandrian text @-@ type , as in codices Sinaiticus B C Θ L 33 700 892 1241 syr , and copbo .

Luke 4 : 17 it has the textual variant καὶ ἀνοίξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and opened the book ) together with the manuscripts A , B , L , W , 33 , 892 , 1195 , 1241 , ℓ 547 , syrs , h , pal , and copsa , bo , against variant καὶ ἀναπτύξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and unrolled the book ) supported by א , Dc , K , Δ , Θ , Π , Ψ , f1 , f13 , 28 , 565 , 700 , 1009 , and 1010 .

Luke 9 : 10 it has the textual variant εις πολιν καλουμενην Βηθσαιδα ( to a city called Bethsaida ) , as do codices B , L , and 33 ; but later hand @-@ written in the margin εις τοπον ερημον πολεως καλουμενην Βηδσαιδα ( into a deserted place belonging to the city called Bethsaida ) .

= = Text @-@ type = =

The textual character of the codex is representative of the late Alexandrian text @-@ type , and is similar to the Codex Regius . Kurt and Barbara Aland gave the following textual profile of it : 21 , 82 , 21 / 2 , 3s . This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 2 times , it agrees 8 times with the original text against the Byzantine and it agrees both with the Byzantine and original text 2 times . There are 3 independent or distinctive readings . On the basis of this profile Alands considered the quality of the text to suit his Category III . According to the Claremont Profile Method , it represents the Alexandrian text in Luke 10 and mixed Byzantine text @-@ type in Luke 1 , which probably indicates sporadic Byzantine corrections .

= = Palimpsest = =

The codex is a palimpsest , meaning that the original text was scraped off and overwritten and the parchment leaves folded in half . The upper text was written by a minuscule hand and contains lectionary 299 ( ℓ 299 ) from the 12th or 13th century , though the lectionary text is not complete ; it is written on 176 leaves ( 28 @.@ 7 cm by 18 @.@ 2 cm ) , in one column per page , 33 @-@ 36 lines per page . Three folios are only the lower halves of leaves , one folio was supplied with paper ( folio LXVIII ) . The manuscript contains weekday Gospel lessons ( Evangelistarium ) , but is lacunose . Tregelles did not collate its text because of its secondary value . Scrivener designated it by siglum 200 , Gregory by 299 .

Lectionary 299 in Mark 6 : 33 has textual reading ἐκεῖ καὶ προῆλθον αὐτούς along with Codex Sinaiticus , Codex Vaticanus , 0187 ( omit εκει ) , 892 , ℓ 49 , ℓ 69 , ℓ 70 , ℓ 303 , ℓ 333 , ℓ 1579 , ( ℓ 950 αυτους ) , itaur , vg , ( copsa , bo ) .

The text of the lectionary is cited in some critical editions of the Greek New Testament ( UBS3 ) in the following places : Matthew 10 : 4 ; 11 : 17 ; 12 : 47 ; 13 : 13 ; 14 : 22 ; 18 : 10 ; 22 : 30 ; 26 : 27 ; 28 : 9 ; Mark 1 : 27 ; 2 : 10 @.@ 26 ; 4 : 16 @.@ 20 ; 6 : 2 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 . It is not cited in UBS4 .

= = History = =

= = = Dating = = =

Tregelles dated the manuscript to the 8th century . Tregelles was aware that the handwriting is typical for the 6th century , but the handwriting of the commentary is much older . The letters ΕΘΟΣ are round , high , and narrow , and could not have been written before the 8th century . C. R. Gregory supported Tregelles 's point of view . According to Nicholas Pocock , the manuscript could not have been written before the 6th century nor after the 8th century .

William Hatch in 1937 , on the basis of palaeographical data , suggested that the codex should be dated to the 6th century . It does not use breathings and accents and the text of the commentary is written in uncial script . Aland supported Hatch 's point of view . This date is accepted by the majority of scholars .

David C. Parker in 2004 argued that manuscript was written later the 6th century , because it has a small number of square letters , and the handwriting is not typical for the 6th century . Some letters were compressed ( Μ , Δ , Ε ) , the bar over the letter Τ is short and the letter Υ is written in several ways . According to Parker the manuscript should be dated to the 7th century .

Currently it is dated by the INTF to the 6th century .

= = = Discovery and further research = = =

The early history of the manuscript is unknown . In 1821 it was brought by general Colin Macaulay to England from the Greek island Zakynthos in the Ionian Sea . The manuscript was placed in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society ( Mss 24 ) in London .

Scholz saw the manuscript in 1845 , and Paul de Lagarde in 1853 , but they did not decipher it . The lower text of the codex was deciphered , transcribed , and edited by Tregelles in 1861 . Tregelles used types originally cast for printing the Codex Alexandrinus , which only approximately represented the shape of the letters of the codex . The hand @-@ written letters are smaller than the type . Tregelles included one page of typographical facsimile in this edition . He did not decipher the small Patristic writing and doubted that it could be read without chemical restoration .

Nicholas Pocock found errors in Tregelles ' edition , but William Hatch thought it satisfactory . J. Harold Greenlee corrected Tregelles ' errors and edited the list of corrections in 1957 , which was examined by William Hatch . In 1959 Greenlee published a commentary . The codex probably needs another examination with modern technology .

Tischendorf cited the codex in his Editio Octava Critica Maior in 564 places . It is often cited in the critical editions of the Greek New Testament ( UBS3 , UBS4 , NA26 , NA27 ) .

In 1985 it was moved to the Cambridge University Library ( BFBS Ms 213 ) . In December 2013 , the Bible Society announced plans to sell some manuscripts , among them the Codex Zacynthius , to raise funds for a Visitors Centre in Wales . The University was given right of first refusal and has until February 2014 to raise the money to acquire the codex .

= Ernest Deane =

Ernest Cotton Deane MC ( 4 May 1887 – 25 September 1915 ) was a medical officer of the British Indian Army and an Irish international rugby player . Born in the city of Limerick , Ireland , he went to school in Kingstown ( present day Dún Laoghaire ) in County Dublin and then studied medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland ( RCSI ) , graduating in 1909 . He was selected to play rugby for Ireland in one match , against England in February 1909 . His rugby career was cut short when he broke his leg in a match against Oxford University .

Deane was commissioned into the Royal Army Medical Corps in 1911 , after a period as house surgeon at the Adelaide Hospital , Dublin . In 1913 , he was posted to India and served in Burma . He was stationed in Meerut at the start of the First World War . From there , he travelled to France with the Garhwal Brigade of the Indian Expeditionary Force , landing in Marseille in September 1914 . He was deployed immediately to the Western Front , where he served first with the 20th Field Ambulance and then as medical officer of the 2nd Battalion , The Royal Leicestershire Regiment . His unit saw much active service . On 22 August 1915 , he was awarded the Military Cross after running out under machine gun fire to rescue four men who had been wounded by artillery fire . A month later , his regiment participated in the Battle of Loos , and was almost entirely obliterated . He was shot dead after going to help some injured soldiers : his action earned him a mention in despatches . Deane was one of 60 RCSI doctors to receive the Military Cross in the First World War , and one of 17 to be killed in action .

= = Early life = =

Ernest Deane , born in the city of Limerick , Ireland on 4 May 1887 , was the third of the four sons of Thomas and Aileen Deane of Kingstown ( present day Dún Laoghaire ) , County Dublin . He went to Corrig School , Kingstown , from 1901 to 1904 then went on to study medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland from 1904 to 1909 . He became house surgeon at the Adelaide Hospital , Dublin .

= = = Rugby = = =

Deane was an all @-@ round sportsman , skilled in golf , lawn tennis , horse @-@ riding and shooting . Furthermore , at Corrig , Deane was captain of the school 's rugby XV , and later he captained the Adelaide Hospital XV , and the Monkstown XV . He was selected to play wing for Ireland in the match against England at Lansdowne Road , Dublin , on 13 February 1909 , which Ireland lost 5 – 11 . It was England 's first victory on Irish soil since 1895 . Deane 's opposite number that day was the New Zealand @-@ born Alexander Palmer of London Hospital FC , whose speed allowed him to get around Deane , and to score two of England 's three tries , and a conversion .

At the start of the next season , on 29 November 1909 , Deane was part of the Monkstown team to play Oxford University . During the game , he collided with Robert Bourne , breaking his own leg and bringing his rugby career to an end .

International appearance

= = Military service = =

At the start of the 20th century , many Irish doctors joined the British armed forces . Deane himself was commissioned temporary lieutenant in the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) on 28 July 1911 , confirmed 9 February 1912 . In October 1913 , he went to India and served in Burma . He was stationed at Meerut when the First World War broke out . He went to France with the Garhwal Brigade of the 7th ( Meerut ) Division of the Indian Expeditionary Force , arriving in Marseilles on 26 September 1914 . He was attached to the 20th Field Ambulance , and later served as medical officer of the 2nd Battalion , The Royal Leicestershire Regiment , in active service on the Western Front .

A few days before he died , Deane was awarded the Military Cross , one of 60 awarded to RCSI doctors in the war . Frederick Conway Dwyer , president of the RCSI , proudly read out Deane 's citation in an address to students of the college , and commended recent licentiates to enter the RAMC . The citation in the Gazette said :

For conspicuous gallantry on 22nd August 1915 , near Fauquissart . A standing patrol 120 yards in front of our line was bombed by the enemy at about 10 p.m. , the only notification being two loud bomb explosions . Captain Deane , without any knowledge of the enemy 's strength , at once got over the parapet and ran by himself to the spot under rifle and machine gun fire . Finding four wounded men he returned for stretchers and got them back into safety . This is not the first time that Captain Deane 's gallantry under fire has been brought to notice .

On 25 September , Deane 's battalion , the 2nd Leicesters , took part in the Battle of Loos , in a diversionary attack by the Indian Corps to draw away German reserves from the main attack . According to the personal account of George Wilfred Grossmith , after the battle , the battalion ceased to exist , and most of the other regiments of the Meerut Division were decimated . The artillery bombardment prior to the infantry assault had failed to destroy all of the German barbed wire defences , and some men got caught up in them . Deane went to help . Returning across the open , he was killed instantly by a bullet to the head . His Colonel , who was himself badly wounded , wrote to his family saying :

He was the most gallant fellow I ever met , and we all loved him in the regiment , both officers and men . He was just a part of us , and the few of us left mourn his loss very deeply . We had a big battle on the 25th , and your son went out to try and help some wounded in and got killed . I believe his death was instantaneous , but I am not sure , as I was wounded myself , and had to be taken back . His body was recovered and was buried by our Padre , and I will give you exact location of cemetery afterwards . Everyone knew Deane as one of the bravest of the brave , and it was only the other day that he got one of the best deserved and gallantly won honours , when he was awarded the Military Cross .

Following this action , he was mentioned in despatches .

Captain Ernest Deane was one of 17 RCSI doctors killed in action during the war . He is buried at the Rue @-@ du @-@ Bacquerot No 1 Military Cemetery ( Grave II.D.14 ) , Laventie , France .

= Kechewaishke =

Chief Buffalo ( Ojibwe : Ke @-@ che @-@ waish @-@ ke / Gichi @-@ weshkiinh – " Great @-@ renewer " or Peezhickee / Bizhiki – " Buffalo " ; also French , Le Boeuf ) ( 1759 ? – September 7 , 1855 ) was a major Ojibwa leader born at La Pointe in the Apostle Islands group of Lake Superior , in what is now northern Wisconsin , USA .

Recognized as the principal chief of the Lake Superior Chippewa ( Ojibwa ) for nearly a half @-@ century until his death in 1855 , he led his nation into a treaty relationship with the United States Government . He signed treaties in 1825 , 1826 , 1837 , 1842 , 1847 , and 1854 . He was instrumental in resisting the efforts of the United States to remove the Chippewa to western areas and secured permanent Indian reservations for his people near Lake Superior .

= = Background = =

= = = Political structure of the Lake Superior Ojibwa = = =

Kechewaishke was born around the year 1759 at La Pointe on Madeline Island ( Mooningwanekaaning ) in the Shagawamikong region . Now part of Wisconsin , La Pointe was a key Ojibwa village and trading center for the empire of New France , which was engaged in the Seven Years ' War with Great Britain at the time of Kechewaishke 's birth . Throughout the 18th century , the Ojibwa spread out from La Pointe into lands conquered from the Dakota people , and settled several village sites . These bands in the western Lake Superior and Mississippi River regions regarded La Pointe as their " ancient capital " and center for spirituality . It had also become a center of trade .

Traditional Ojibwa government and society centers around kinship clans , each of which was symbolized by animal doodem . Each doodem had a traditional responsibility within the tribe . Kechewaishke , or Buffalo as he was known to Europeans , belonged to the Loon clan .

The Loon Clan were said to have been rising in prominence in the middle of the 18th @-@ century due to the efforts of his grandfather Andaigweos ( Ojibwe : Aandegwiiyaas , " Crow 's Meat " ) . Andaigweos was born in the Shagawamikong region , son to a man described as " a Canadian Indian " ( i.e. a Saulteaux from Sault Ste . Marie , a key Ojibwa village at the eastern end of Lake Superior ) . At the time of first French contact in the mid @-@ 17th century , men of the Crane doodem held the positions of hereditary peace chiefs of Chippewa communities at both Sault Ste . Marie and La Pointe . Andaigweos was a skilled orator and favorite of the French officials and voyageurs . In that period , leaders of the Cranes were concerned more with internal matters . By the 19th century , it was Buffalo 's clan the Loons , rather than the Cranes , who were recognized as principal chiefs at La Pointe .

Although the Loons were afforded respect as principal peace chiefs , this status was not permanent . The Cranes , led in Buffalo 's time by his sub @-@ chief Tagwagane , maintained that they were the hereditary chiefs . They said the Loons ' status as spokesmen hinged upon recognition by the Cranes . A chief 's power in Ojibwa society was based on persuasion and consensus ; it was contingent , holding only as long as the community of elders , including the women , chose to respect and follow the chief 's lead .

= = = Personal life = = =

Sources conflict as to the identity of Buffalo 's father , who may also have been named Andaigweos . He appears to have been a descendant or relative of the famous war chief Waubojeeg . When he was about 10 , Buffalo and his parents moved from La Pointe to the vicinity of what now is Buffalo , New York , and lived there until about he was about 12 . The family then relocated to the Mackinac Island area for a while before returning to La Pointe . In his youth , he was admired as a skilled hunter and athlete .

Like many Anishinaabe people , Buffalo was known by more than one Ojibwe name : Peshickee ( Bizhiki : " the Buffalo " ) , and Kechewaishke ( Gichi @-@ weshkiinh : " the Great @-@ renewer " ) . This has caused confusion in records of his life not only because he carried two names , but also because both names were very similar to those of other prominent contemporaries . Bizhiki was the name of a chief from the St. Croix Band , and also of a warrior of the Pillager Chippewa Band ( see Beshekee ) . Additionally , a leading individual of the Caribou doodem , and a son of Waubojeeg , in the Sault Ste . Marie area was known by the name of Waishikey ( Weshki ) . Scholars have mistakenly attributed aspects of the lives of all three of these individuals to Buffalo of La Pointe .

In his long life , Buffalo had five wives and numerous children , many of whom became prominent Ojibwa leaders in the reservation era . He practiced the Midewiwin religion . He converted to Roman Catholicism on his death bed .

= = = Views on international relations = = =

Details on Buffalo 's early life are sparse . Although he appears to have been favored by British traders and decorated by British authorities , few Ojibwa from Lake Superior fought in either the American Revolution or the War of 1812 . There is no record of Buffalo participating .

When Tecumseh 's War broke out , Buffalo and a number of other young warriors from the La Pointe area abandoned the Midewiwin for a time to follow the teachings of the Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa . While en route to Prophetstown to join the attack on the Americans , they were stopped by Michel Cadotte , the respected Métis fur trader from La Pointe . Cadotte convinced Buffalo and the others that it would be fruitless to fight the Americans .

After that incident , Buffalo is recorded as using only peaceful tactics in his relations with the United States , though he often opposed US Indian policy . He also drew a contrast between himself and his contemporaries Aysh @-@ ke @-@ bah @-@ ke @-@ ko @-@ zhay and Hole in the Day , two Ojibwa chiefs from present @-@ day Minnesota , who carried out a long war against the Dakota Sioux people . Although Armstrong records Buffalo winning a large victory over the Dakota in the 1842 Battle of the Brule , 20th @-@ century historians have cast doubt on his account . That year Buffalo was recorded as saying he " never took a scalp in his life , though he had taken prisoners whom he fed and well @-@ treated . " Overall , he seems to have supported efforts at peace between the Ojibwa and Dakota .

Buffalo inherited not only the status afforded his family , but also had skills praised in his grandfather Andaigweos . Noted for his abilities in hunting and battle , it was through his speaking abilities that Buffalo was recognized as chief by his people . By the time the Ojibwa of Wisconsin and Minnesota started treaty negotiations with the US Government , Buffalo was recognized as one of the primary spokesmen for all the bands , not just for the Ojibwa from La Pointe .

= = Treaties of 1825 and 1826 = =

In 1825 , Buffalo was one of forty @-@ one Ojibwa leaders to sign the Treaty of Prairie du Chien , his name recorded as " Gitspee Waishkee " or La Boeuf . He is listed third after Shingabawossin , who was recognized as head of the Crane doodem at Sault Ste . Marie , and therefore of the whole Ojibwa nation ; and chief " Gitspee Jiuaba " . The treaty , which the US Government advanced as a pretext to end hostilities between the Dakota and their neighbors , required all American Indian tribes and bands in and around Wisconsin and Iowa to delineate where their territories began and ended . Although the treaty did not state this goal , the US used information acquired to negotiate to gain Indian lands and remove the nations westward .

A year later , the Treaty of Fond du Lac was signed at a meeting at the western edge of Lake Superior . The signatories were listed by band , and Buffalo , recorded as Peezhickee , signed as the first chief from La Pointe . The treaty , mainly dealing with mineral rights for Ojibwa lands in what is now Michigan , had little immediate effect but foreshadowed future treaties . Buffalo did not speak on the copper issue . He praised the US officials for their ability to keep their young people under their control ; he asked for whiskey to accomplish the same ends among the younger members of his band . When the agent presented him with a silver medal as a symbol of his chieftainship , he explained that his power stemmed from his clan and reputation , and not from anything received from the U.S. Government .

Shortly after the treaties , Henry Rowe Schoolcraft , acting in his capacity as US Indian agent , visited La Pointe . He reprimanded Buffalo for not stopping the continuing sporadic warfare between the Ojibwa and Dakota . Buffalo replied that he was unable to stop the young men of Lac Courte Oreilles , St. Croix , Lac du Flambeau or other bands beyond La Pointe from going against the Dakota . Historians take this to mean that while he was regarded as the head spokesman of the Ojibwa in Wisconsin , he could not control the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of all the bands , which were highly decentralized , particularly about warfare . Buffalo also said that , unlike the British before the War of 1812 , the U.S. Government had not done enough to help maintain the peace among the tribes .

= = Treaties of 1837 and 1842 = =

In the next decades , there was pressure from Americans who wanted to exploit the mineral and timber resources of Ojibwa country , and the US government sought to acquire control of the territory through treaties . The Treaties of 1837 and 1842 covered La Pointe and territories held by other bands over which Buffalo held considerable influence . In both treaties , Americans recognized Buffalo 's position as the principal chief of all the Lake Superior Chippewa .

= = = " Pine Tree " Treaty = = =

In the Treaty of St. Peters ( 1837 ) , the government sought the pine timber resources on Ojibwa lands . They intended to float the harvested timber southwest into the Mississippi River . The negotiations took place at Fort Snelling , near present @-@ day Minneapolis . The delegations from Minnesota and the St. Croix area arrived first and began discussions on July 20 . The assembled chiefs awaited the judgment of Buffalo before deciding to approve the treaty . Despite the impatience of the territorial governor , Henry Dodge , the negotiations were delayed for five days as the assembled bands waited for Buffalo to arrive . While other chiefs spoke about the terms of mineral rights and annuity amounts , Buffalo discussed treatment of the mixed @-@ blood traders , stating :

I am an Indian and do not know the value of money , but the half @-@ breeds do , for which reason we wish you pay them their share in money . You have good judgment in what you do , and if you do not act yourself , you will appoint someone else to divide it between the half breeds . ... I have good reasons for saying to you what I have just said ; for at a certain Treaty held heretofore , there were some who got rich while others received nothing .

Once the terms were agreed to , Buffalo marked and was recorded as Pe @-@ zhe @-@ ke , head of the La Pointe delegation . Although Buffalo and the other Lake Superior chiefs signed , they were said to be relatively silent compared with the Mississippi Chippewa chiefs during the negotiations . Historian Satz says this symbolized disagreement rather than acceptance of the terms of the treaty . Lyman Warren , a trader and interpreter from La Pointe , later complained that the Pillagers ( bands from present @-@ day Minnesota ) had been bribed into selling the lands rightfully belonging to the Wisconsin bands .

Buffalo expressed his misgivings over the treaty negotiations in a letter to Dodge stating ,

" The Indians acted like children ; they tried to cheat each other and got cheated themselves . When it comes my turn to sell my land , I do not think I shall give it up as they did . " Regarding possible future land cessions , he said : " Father I speak for my people , not for myself . I am an old man . My fire is almost out — there is but little smoke . When I sit in my wigwam & smoke my pipe , I think of what has past and what is to come , and it makes my heart shake . When business comes before us , we will try and act like Chiefs . If any thing is to be done , it had better be done straight . "

= = = " Copper " Treaty = = =

Five years later , Buffalo was presented with the Treaty of La Pointe covering his lands . Acting Superintendent of Indian Affairs Henry Stuart , who was promoting development of the Lake Superior copper industry , led the negotiations for the US government . No record of the negotiations was made . But materials written by missionaries , traders , and the Ojibwa through their agent indicated that Stuart used bullying and outright deception to force the Ojibwa to accept the terms .

Buffalo signed and was recorded as Gichi waishkey , 1st chief of La Pointe . Writing in 1855 , Morse describes Buffalo 's " voice so potent at the treaty of ' 42 . " However , three months after the treaty , Buffalo dictated a letter to the government in Washington D.C. , saying he was " ashamed " of the way the treaty was conducted . He said that Stuart had refused to listen to any objections by the Ojibwa , and that Buffalo wanted to add a provision to ensure permanent reservations for the Ojibwe in Wisconsin .

The interpretation of the 1837 and 1842 treaties remains ambiguous , as the US government claimed the Ojibwa ceded title to the lands , and the Ojibwa claiming they ceded only resource rights . The government had stated that the lands of the Ojibwa were unsuitable for farming and white settlement . The Ojibwa did obtain annuity payments to be paid each year at La Pointe , and reserved the right to hunt , fish , gather , and move across any lands outlined in the treaties . They obtained the promise that the nation would not be removed across the Mississippi River , unless they somehow " misbehaved . "

= = Threats of removal = =

In 1830 , President Andrew Jackson had signed the Indian Removal Act , which authorized the government to remove any Indian nations east of the Mississippi River across to the western side and offer land in exchange . As northern Wisconsin was not then under pressure for development by white settlers , as occurred in the Southeast , the Ojibwa were not among the first targets of the act . They watched closely as the government used the territorial claims defined by tribes in 1825 to force numerous tribes in Indiana , southern Michigan and southern Wisconsin to move west to Kansas , Iowa , Minnesota , and Indian Territory , present @-@ day Oklahoma . These included the Odawa and Potawatomi , two Anishinaabe tribes closely related to and allied with the Ojibwa .

In 1848 , Wisconsin achieved statehood ; Indian nations were under increased pressure for removal and marginalization . Corrupt US Indian agents controlled annuity payments , sometimes underpaying tribes , and took authority not granted them by the bands . They allowed white settlers to move onto Ojibwa lands and refused the Ojibwe the rights reserved by treaties . The Ojibwa complained to the President about the mistreatment and broken promises , but politicians were more apt to listen to western land speculators , who saw possibilities for profit in removing the Ojibwa to Minnesota .

Even with the treaties of 1837 and 1842 , leaders worried about Ojibwa removal . Buffalo kept in constant contact with the other bands to ensure the Ojibwa upheld their obligations . He sent runners to all the bands to report back on any conduct by the Ojibwa that could construed as grounds for removal . Nothing was reported . But , President Zachary Taylor signed the removal order on February 6 , 1850 , under corrupt circumstances , claiming to be protecting the Ojibwa from " injurious " whites . The Wisconsin legislature resisted the order and put aside plans for removal . Alexander Ramsey , the territorial governor of Minnesota , and Indian sub @-@ agent John Watrous conspired on a plan to force the Ojibwa to Minnesota anyway , as the two men stood to gain personal economic and political benefits from removal .

= = Sandy Lake Tragedy = =

To force the Ojibwa to comply , the subagent Watrous announced he would pay future annuities only at Sandy Lake , Minnesota instead of La Pointe , where they had been paid previously . This change resulted in the Sandy Lake Tragedy , when hundreds of Ojibwas starved or died of exposure in Minnesota and on the journey home because the promised annuity supplies were late , contaminated or inadequate .

In a later letter , Buffalo described the conditions :

And when a message was sent to me by our Indian agent to come and get our pay , I lost no time in arising & complying with my Agents voice and when I reached my point of destination , verily my Agent fed me with very bad flour it resembled green clay . Soon I became sick and many of my fellow chippewas also were taken sick , and soon the results were manifested by the death of over two hundred persons of my tribe , for this calamity , I laid blame to the provisions issued to us ...

Back in La Pointe , Buffalo took several actions to forestall and prevent removal . He and other leaders petitioned the US government for the next two years to no avail . They did win considerable sympathy from whites who learned of the debacle in Sandy Lake . Newspapers throughout the Lake Superior region ran editorials condemning the removal effort . Buffalo sent two of his sons to St. Paul , the state capital , where they obtained a portion of the annuities still owed .

Ramsey and Watrous continued to work to remove the Ojibwa to Sandy Lake . Watrous said they considered Sandy Lake a " graveyard , " but he still tried to move all the bands to Fond du Lac . Young Ojibwa men in Wisconsin were outraged at these developments and the threat of violent revolt grew . Buffalo called on the services of his well @-@ spoken sub @-@ chief Oshoga , and son @-@ in @-@ law Benjamin Armstrong , a literate white interpreter married to Buffalo 's daughter . He drew up a petition that the 92 @-@ year @-@ old Buffalo would personally deliver to the president in Washington .

= = Trip to Washington = =

After spring thaw in 1852 , the elderly Buffalo , Oshaga , Armstrong , and four others set out from La Pointe for Washington , D.C. by birch bark canoe . Along the way , they stopped in towns and mining camps along the Michigan shore of Lake Superior , securing hundreds of signatures in support of their cause . At Sault Ste . Marie , they were held by the US Indian agent , who told them that no unauthorized Ojibwa delegations could go to Washington and they had to turn back . The men pleaded the urgency of their case and traveled to Detroit by steamship . There another Indian agent tried to stop them . Once allowed to proceed , they sailed to Buffalo , New York and then on to Albany and New York City .

In New York City , the Ojibwe attracted attention , gaining publicity and money for their cause . In Washington , however , they were turned away by Indian Affairs , and told they should never have come in the first place . Luckily , they drew the attention of the Whig Congressman Briggs from New York , who was scheduled a meeting with President Millard Fillmore the next day . At the meeting , Buffalo rose first . He performed the pipe ceremony with a pipe made especially for the occasion . He had the younger chief Oshaga speak for more than an hour about the broken treaty promises and the disastrous attempt at removal . Fillmore agreed to consider the issues . The next day , he announced that the removal order would be canceled , annuity payments would be made at La Pointe , and another treaty would set up permanent reservations for the Ojibwe in Wisconsin .

The delegation traveled back to Wisconsin by rail , spreading the good news to the various Ojibwa bands as they went . Buffalo also announced that all the tribal representatives should gather at La Pointe for payments the next summer ( 1853 ) , and he would reveal the specifics of the agreement .

= = 1854 Treaty and Buffalo estate = =

As promised by Fillmore , treaty commissioners arrived in La Pointe in 1854 to conclude a final treaty . Recalling the experiences of 1837 and 1842 , the Ojibwa leaders sought to control the negotiations in 1854 . Ambiguity in those treaties had been partially to blame for ensuing problems , so Buffalo insisted he would accept no interpreter other than Armstrong , whom he referred to as his adopted son . The Ojibwa insisted on a guarantee of the right to hunt , fish , and gather on all the ceded territory , and on the establishment on several reservations across western Upper Michigan , northern Wisconsin , and northeastern Minnesota. in his mid @-@ nineties and in failing health , Buffalo directed the negotiations but left most of the speaking to other chiefs . He entrusted Armstrong with taking care of the details in the written version .

The reservations in Wisconsin were named the Lac Courte Oreilles Indian Reservation , Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation . The La Pointe Band was given a reservation at Bad River around the Band 's traditional wild ricing grounds , and some reserved land for fishing grounds at the eastern tip of Madeline Island . In Minnesota , the reservations for the Fond du Lac and the Grand Portage bands were established , with pending negotiations promised for the Bois Forte Band . In Michigan , reservations for the Lac Vieux Desert , Ontonagon and L 'Anse bands were established . The St. Croix and Sokaogon bands left the negotiations in protest and were excluded from the agreement .

A small tract of land was also set aside for Chief Buffalo and his family at Buffalo Bay on the mainland across from Madeline Island at a place called Miskwaabikong ( red rocks or cliffs ) . Many of the Catholic and mixed @-@ blooded members of the La Pointe Band elected to settle there around their chief rather than at Bad River . In 1855 , this settlement at the " Buffalo Estate " was acknowledged ; it was extended by executive order into what is now called the Red Cliff Indian Reservation .

= = Death and legacy = =

Chief Buffalo was too ill to participate in the speeches at the time of the annuity payments in summer 1855 . Tensions continued , as the Ojibwe accused US officials of corruption , threats of violence were made by members of the American Fur Company , and infighting erupted among the Ojibwa bands . Morse records that these conflicts worsened Buffalo 's condition . He died of heart disease on September 7 , 1855 , at La Pointe . Members of his band blamed his death on the conduct of the government officials .

He was described as " head and the chief of the Chippewa Nation " and a man respected " for his rare integrity , wisdom in council , power as an orator , and magnanimity as a warrior . " In his final hours he requested that his tobacco pouch and pipe be carried to Washington , D.C. and given to the government . His funeral was conducted in military fashion , with volleys fired at intervals in his honor .

Great Chief Buffalo is regarded a hero of the Lake Superior Ojibwe . Those at Red Cliff also remember him as a founding figure of the community . His life is celebrated during commemorations of the treaty signings and the Sandy Lake Tragedy . Missionary Edmund Ely identified Ojibwe chief John Little Wolf , or Maiingans , as one of Buffalo 's sons . He is buried in the La Pointe Indian Cemetery , near the deep , cold waters of Ojibwe Gichigami ( Lake Superior ) , the " great freshwater @-@ sea of the Ojibwa " . His descendants , many going by the surname " Buffalo , " are widespread in Red Cliff and Bad River . During the series of late 20th @-@ century treaty conflicts that have been called the Wisconsin Walleye War , beginning in 1983 , his name was frequently invoked as one who refused to give up his homeland and tribal sovereignty .

= Captive Heart ( song ) =

" Captive Heart " is a song by American Tejano pop singer Selena . It was the second promotional single released from Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) , behind " God 's Child ( Baila Conmigo ) " . It was written by Mark Goldenberg and Kit Hain , and was produced by Guy Roche . Recording sessions took place at Selena 's father , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . ' s recording studio Q @-@ Productions and at several other locations . The song was given mixed reviews by music critics . " Captive Heart " is an electropop song performed in a rhythmical pop groove .

= = Production and composition = =

" Captive Heart " was recorded at Bananaboat Studios in Burbank , California in January 1995 , Q @-@ Productions in Corpus Christi , Texas and at Conway Studios in North Hollywood . It was written by Mark Goldenberg and Kit Hain , and was produced by Guy Roche . It was mixed by Nathaniel " Mick " Guzuaski , engineered by Mario Lucy , Brian " Red " Moore and Mona Suchard who also was credited at the assistant engineer . American singer Donna De Lory was the backing vocalist for " Captive Heart " . Recording sessions had taken nearly less than a week to complete the song .

" Captive Heart " is an Electropop song performed in a rhythmical R & B pop groove . It draws influences from synthpop , fast rock , dance @-@ pop and electronic dance music . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is composed in the key of D major with a time signature in common time , and with a moderate groove of 91 beats per minute .

= = Critical reception = =

Vibe editor Ed Morales compared both Evelyn " Champagne " King and " Wherever You Are " ( duet with the Barrio Boyzz ) with the song " Captive Heart " . While , according to the Chicago Tribune , " Captive Heart " was destined for urban @-@ contemporary radio . Leonard Charles of Miami Today , commented on " Captive Heart " ' s lack of impact on the Hot 100 , stating that the song would have been stronger if EMI Records had promoted the single extensively . Charles also commented that he believes that the record company didn 't put in much effort on the song but believed that EMI had only put in effort on singles " Dreaming of You " and " I Could Fall in Love " . Benson Ramos of The Gaston Gazette believed " Captive Heart " wasn 't " crossover potential " . Steven Washington of Aurora Sentinel praised the song 's " electronic feels " and " Latin flavors " that it brings to the song . Sabrina Moore of Corsicana Daily Sun , disliked the song because it felt " unoriginal " but commented that Selena could have done better in another Latin flavored ballad .

The Daily Vault believed Selena made a mistake with " Captive Heart " , stating that " the song was a surprising and painful flaw , because it showcases a mistake of exerting too much throat , which many popular singers currently do " . The Daily Vault instated that it was a one @-@ way ticket to voice destruction . Mario Tarradell of The Dallas Morning News stated while reviewing " I 'm Getting Used To You " that the songs " are a bit more uptempo , bordering on that New Jill Swing sound popularized by Mary J. Blige and Jade " .

= = Track listing = =

U.S. Promo Single ( 1995 )

" Captive Heart " – 4 : 23 @-@ 4 ; 18

U.S. Cassette Single ( 1995 )

" Captive Heart " – 4 : 23

= = Credits and personnel = =

= Clive Mantle =

Clive Andrew Mantle ( born 3 June 1957 ) is an English actor . He is best known for playing general surgeon Dr Mike Barrett in the BBC hospital drama series Casualty and Holby City in the 1990s , and is also noted for his role as Little John in the cult 1980s fantasy series Robin of Sherwood .

Mantle was educated at Kimbolton School , Cambridgeshire between 1970 and 1975 and at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) between 1978 and 1980 . He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978 , and began carving a successful career as a stage actor in the 1980s , alongside various television roles . In 1984 he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men . In 1984 he was also cast as Little John in the cult 1980s fantasy series Robin of Sherwood , a role which he considers the most enjoyable of his career and which has remained one of his best @-@ known roles . He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV : The Quest for Peace in 1987 , but his scenes were cut from the film ; they were later included with other deleted scenes when the film was released on DVD .

After playing several minor roles in other Hollywood films such as White Hunter Black Heart ( 1990 ) and Alien 3 ( 1992 ) , Mantle was cast as consultant Dr Mike Barrett in the BBC television hospital drama series Casualty . He became one of its most popular characters , renowned for his convincing and authoritative portrayal and " dishy doc " persona . He left Casualty in 1996 after appearing in 85 episodes between October 1992 and November 1996 , but after struggling with his acting career , he returned to the role in 1999 in Holby City , and appeared in another 32 episodes until 2001 .

On stage , Mantle has appeared in plays such as Coming Clean , A Streetcar Named Desire , and Educating Rita , and has continued his successful stage career since departing from Holby City . In 2003 he appeared in Rattle of a Simple Man ; in 2006 he played the part of The Narrator in The Rocky Horror Show ; and over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007 – 2008 , he portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath . In 2010 he portrayed comedian Tommy Cooper in the stage entertainment show Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out with Tommy Cooper ; it was one of his most challenging roles , due to the various skills the performance required . More recently , Mantle has become known for his roles on television as Lord Greatjon Umber in HBO 's Game of Thrones and as Tony Curry , Ollie 's ( Will Mellor 's ) father , in the BBC 's White Van Man .

= = Early life = =

Mantle was born in Barnet , then in Hertfordshire , in 1957 . He was the cousin of John Hallam and was a keen supporter of Chelsea Football Club from a young age . Mantle studied at the boarding school Kimbolton School in Kimbolton , Huntingdonshire between 1970 and 1975 , and was a chorister in the Choir of St John 's College , Cambridge for four years . He first worked on a farm in Cambridgeshire during his studies and soon became interested in theatre . He appeared in 11 productions of the National Youth Theatre in five seasons between 1974 and 1978 .

As a student , Mantle lived in a basement flat in Islington . He trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) between 1978 and 1980 , where he initially found his towering height of 6 ' 5 ½ " ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) to be a hindrance to the sort of roles he could convincingly perform in his acting . He said that he was discouraged early on by people who said , " You 'll never work , you 're too tall to be an actor . "

He later said about his height :

Height is a very strange thing . If you 're literally playing the milkman or the butler or something like that , they 'll all think , " Now why is the butler so big ? There must be a reason – ah , he 's gonna come back later and kill somebody . " Then , you don 't . It worries an audience in a strange way if someone my height is playing a small part . I was an actor who needed drama school . I used to be so excited about being on stage that I would just run down to the front and shout ; they had to knock that out of me . Physically , just being six @-@ foot @-@ five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , I 'm not one of life 's gazelles . But having said that , I was made aware that I can be gazelle @-@ like if I so choose . If I hadn 't been to drama school , I would have just slouched around and bent over double and apologized for my height .

= = Career = =

= = = 1980s = = =

In 1980 , Mantle debuted on the screen with a small role as Ewen in Christian Marnham 's short thriller feature The Orchard End Murder . In 1981 , he appeared in the National Tours of The Ideal Gnome Expedition for David Wood 's Whirligig Theatre and Deborah Warner 's play , Woyzeck , which showed at the University Theatre during the Edinburgh Festival . In 1982 , he appeared in an episode of the TV series Minder , before taking on the voice of Private Smith in the animated military comedy series Jane . From 3 November 1982 , Mantle portrayed Jurgen opposite Eamon Boland , C. J. Allen , Philip Donaghy and Ian McCurrach in David Hayman 's award winning stage production of Coming Clean at the Bush Theatre in London .

In 1983 , Mantle was cast most notably in the cult fantasy series Robin of Sherwood as " Little John " , a legendary fellow outlaw of Robin Hood , who was said to be Robin 's chief lieutenant and second @-@ in @-@ command of the Merry Men , in a cast which included Michael Praed as " Robin Hood " , Peter Llewellyn Williams as " Much " , Ray Winstone as " Will Scarlet " , and Judi Trott as " Maid Marian " . Footage for the series was shot in rural Somerset and Wiltshire , with the Saxon Tithe Barn in Bradford @-@ on Avon functioning as the great hall of Nottingham Castle , Great Chalfield Manor in Melksham doubling as Maid Marion 's family home , and numerous battles were shot at Leaford Grange and Nettleton Mill near Castle Combe , locations which Mantle considered to be " wonderfully realised and breathtaking " . The waterfall scene for the quarterstaff battle between Robin and Little John in the first episode

" Robin Hood and the Sorcerer " was shot at Bowood House . Helen Phillips said of his performance as Little John , " excellently played by Clive Mantle , the series ' John at first appears to conform to a , by then , well- established stereotype . " Mantle has said of his role :

It is the job I 've enjoyed doing more than anything else on TV . I have the greatest memories of beautiful , halcyon days @-@ out filming on location and we had such a great , fun crew working on the show . We still get together once a year . Not just the cast but also the directors , producer , props guys , it 's like a family ! I think the key to part of the series ' success was that this great camaraderie came across on screen .

In 1984 he was nominated for an Olivier Award and was joint Best Newcomer in the Plays and Players Awards for his performance as Lennie in Of Mice and Men . Following the success of the play , it was transferred from the Nuffield Theatre in Southampton to the Mermaid Theatre in London . He went on to tour extensively as Lennie in Of Mice and Men , and has appeared in 6 different productions of the play . He also played Little John in the theatrical production of Robin Hood at the Young Vic Theatre ; and Mitch in Tim Albery 's production of A Streetcar Named Desire at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield . Other theatrical credits include The Relapse ; The Red Devil Battery Sign ; King John ; Johnny Johnson ; The Ideal Gnome Expedition ; East ; Blood on the Neck of the Cat and Bedroom Farce . He has also appeared as the guest star at the Wyndham 's Theatre and Theatre Royal Bath , in the award winning production of The Play What I Wrote . In 1984 , Mantle was one of four in the live BBC radio comedy show In One Ear. with Nick Wilton , Helen Lederer and Steve Brown . He transferred to TV with a version of it in 1987 called Hello Mum which was also live . In 1986 , Mantle replaced Alan Rickman as Achilles in Howard Davies 's Royal Shakespeare Company production of Troilus and Cressida at the Barbican Theatre in London . London Theatre Record said that Mantle " gives a curious performance : virtually a mirror @-@ image of Ajax in his nasal , bovine stolidity . " He continued with minor screen roles as a ruffian on a bus in Ronald Neame 's film Foreign Body and as " Big Ben " Davis in Dempsey and Makepeace in 1986 . He was to appear as the first Nuclear Man in Superman IV : The Quest for Peace ( 1987 ) , but the role was left on the cutting room floor . Some of his deleted footage from Superman IV was released on DVD in a Special Edition as part of Superman Ultimate Collector 's Edition in November 2006 . The footage was included as " Additional Scenes " but was not reincorporated into the main feature . In 1987 – 1998 he appeared in two episodes of Smith & Jones , and in 1989 played a policeman in the TV series The Return of Shelley and had a small role as Johnny Ladder in the Menahem Golan @-@ directed film Mack the Knife , a 19th @-@ century set crime comedy which starred Raúl Juliá , Richard Harris , and Julia Migenes in the leading roles . He also appeared in the radio plays Farewell , My Lovely ; Frozen Assets ; and The Rise and Fall of the Romanov Autocracy .

= = = 1990s = = =

In 1990 , Mantle had a small role as an electric meter reader in the One Foot in the Grave episode " The Return of the Speckled Band " , and played Harry , a man who " gave Clint Eastwood a pounding " in White Hunter Black Heart . In 1991 , Mantle played an irate husband whose wife is chatted up by Richie ( Rik Mayall ) in the first episode of Bottom , " Smells " , and also had a role as a police inspector in an episode of Drop the Dead Donkey . In 1991 – 92 he played Dave in Sandi Toksvig 's The Pocket Dream at the Nottingham Playhouse and Albery Theatre in London . In 1992 he played a minor character as a bald monk in the film Alien 3 , in which he had to shave his head for the role . In applying for the film , Mantle sent off photographs of himself from a RADA play he had once starred in , sporting a similar shaven look . In an interview at the time , he spoke of his role in Alien 3 :

I 'm playing a heinous criminal . In fact , there are about 12 or 15 of us , the last remaining prisoners on a prison asteroid , which is hurtling through space . It was a hard labour prison , which is about the best place to send all your hardened , nastiest pieces of work . We 're not nice people .

Also in 1992 , he starred in the CITV series WYSIWYG .

Mantle is best known for his long stint as general surgeon Dr Mike Barrett in 85 episodes of the TV series Casualty from October 1992 to November 1996 , and 32 episodes of Holby City between 1999 and 2001 . He previously appeared in Casualty as the brother of a patient in 1988 . Mantle received much acclaim for his role and was one of the show 's most popular characters . He was praised for being entirely convincing as a hospital consultant and very dominant and authoritative in his role , " shouting orders in incomprehensible hospital @-@ speak . " Daily Mirror described him as a " heart @-@ throb consultant " and said that the role brought him " an army of female fans " . A 2001 poll by the Scottish Sunday Mail voted him 7th on a list of Top " 10 heart @-@ throb docs on the box " in a list which included the likes of George Clooney and Goran Višnjić . Mantle has said that during his role as the doctor he received a lot of fan mail , some of which were medically related and asking for his advice , believing him to be a real doctor , but professed that he couldn 't even stand the sight of real blood . He has said , " It 's funny because people always treat me like a doctor . Not a day goes by without someone coming up to me and asking me for advice . " In 1996 , he turned down an offer of £ 250 @,@ 000 to continue playing the character , and last appeared in Casualty in November 1996 . He said of his departure :

I 've had a great time , but I 'm frightened that , if I stick around too long , I 'll end up unable to do anything else . It 's not about money , it 's about doing other things and not wanting Mike to pale into insignificance .

In 1995 , Mantle was honoured with a surprise This Is Your Life edition , presented by Michael Aspel ; the title theme drew upon the " Robin of Sherwood " , after his role as Little John . During the life tribute , Mantle met his heroes from Worcestershire County Cricket Club , and the Chelsea FA Cup winners from 1970 .

In 1994 he played a prophet in Jo Brand Through the Cakehole , and in 1995 he performed on stage as Frank in Educating Rita , a No.1 National Tour . In 1996 he visited Ghana on an eight @-@ day tour for the charity Save The Children . Mantle was a friend of Jill Dando , and played the prosecuting barrister in a TV dramatisation of the trial of Barry George in a Tonight With Trevor McDonald special , Nothing But The Truth .

In 1997 , Mantle was cast opposite Sarah Lancashire as Jack Deakin in the comedy series Bloomin ' Marvellous , written by playwright John Godber , described as " a comedy about a couple who decide to start a family . " The series was panned by most critics , and Mantle sarcastically remarked that " I 've seen murderers and rapists get a better press than we did . " However , several critics , such as Brian Viner of The Mail on Sunday , said that Bloomin ' Marvellous had " charm , top @-@ notch acting and a reasonable sprinkling of laughs , none of which are certainties in television comedy – especially the laughs . "

In 1998 , he appeared in Stephen Daldry 's production of The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists at the Liverpool Playhouse and the Theatre Royal Stratford East theatres . In 1998 @-@ 9 he portrayed Simon Horton , younger brother of David Horton in the British sitcom The Vicar of Dibley for two episodes ; Stevyn Colgan said that his imposing height was " used to great comic effect " in this role when he became the love interest of 5 ' 0 " ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) tall Reverend Geraldine Granger ( Dawn French ) . From March 1999 , Mantle played Victor in Jan Sargent 's production of The Price at the Bristol Old Vic . Ian Shuttleworth of the Financial Times describes Mantle 's Victor as a character who " sacrificed a promising academic career in science to become a cop on the beat simply in order to keep his shattered father " and said that " Clive Mantle expresses his obstinacy through gritted teeth and cold , civil smiles rather than letting it loose " , also remarking that both he and his wife Esther ( played by Susan Wooldridge ) seemed several years too young for their roles . In May 1999 , Mantle , a cricket fan , agreed to participate in a celebrity international cricket tournament with the likes of Caprice Bourret , Rory Bremner , Ainsley Harriott , Lawrence Dallaglio , Lesley Garrett , Barry Norman , and Robbie Earle , and played Sri Lanka on 14 May 1999 .

= = = 2000s = = =

After experiencing mixed fortunes in his acting career after leaving Casualty , Mantle agreed to return to the role as Dr Mike Barrett in Holby City in 1999 . His abilities as a dramatic actor were praised by Christopher Matthew of the Daily Mail who said in 2000 , " Even the great Mike Barratt ( Clive Mantle ) , a dynamo in his Casualty days , manages to make eating a yoghurt seem like high drama . " Claire Stoker of Liverpool Echo said that " Clive will always be the best consultant Holby had ever had . " Mantle finally left his role in Holby City after 32 episodes in 2001 . That year , Mantle participated in a charity trek of the Annapurna circuit in the Himalayas and to Everest Base Camp , reaching 18 @,@ 420 ft in aid of Hope and Homes for Children . In 2002 , Mantle appeared in an episode of Heartbeat .

In 2003 , Mantle played Maynard in Ben Bolt 's TV movie , Second Nature , which starred Alec Baldwin in the leading role , and appeared in the first episode of the series Fortysomething . He portrayed Percy , described as a " big , bashful Northern mill @-@ worker who lives with his mum " , in Patrick Sanford 's stage production of Rattle of a Simple Man at the Clwyd Theatr Cymru in Mold , Flintshire . Gail Cooper of the Western Mail praised his performance and said :

Mantle , better known as dishy and confident consultant Mike Barrett in Casualty , is cast completely against type as Percy , the 42 @-@ year @-@ old virgin who admits to being only 35 . His body language is superb : awkward , self @-@ effacing , obsessively tidy – Coronation Street fans should think Roy Cropper if they want to imagine the sort of man Percy is .

In 2003 , Mantle began filming The Bingo Club , one of five specially commissioned one @-@ hour plays which were screened in January 2004 on BBC1 . Co @-@ starring Paula Wilcox and John McArdle , The Bingo Tales relates the story of three women facing romantic hardship and growing old . During production , Mantle fell on his face while shooting a fencing scene and was rushed to Selly Oak Hospital with a ruptured ligament in his leg .

In 2004 , Mantle appeared in an episode of The Afternoon Play , and in 2005 appeared in John Putch 's two @-@ part TV movie The Poseidon Adventure , opposite Adam Baldwin , Steve Guttenberg and Rutger Hauer . The film was dismissed by one critic as " criminally unimaginative " . He also appeared in an episode of Doctors . In 2006 , he guest @-@ starred in the Doctor Who audio drama The Settling by Big Finish Productions , and had a role in Simon Shore 's TV movie about a boy with autism , After Thomas , He toured as " The Narrator " in The Rocky Horror Show , and also played Brauner opposite Robin Hood 's Michael Praed in Haymarket Productions 's National Tour of Brian Stewart 's Killing Castro . The play was performed at the Festival Theatre in Malvern in June 2006 , and was described by the Birmingham Mail as an " acclaimed comedy " which " chronicles the more bizarre of America 's attempts to kill the Cuban leader Fidel Castro – including filling his shoes with poison and inventing an exploding cigar . " Over the Christmas and New Year period of 2007 and 2008 , Mantle portrayed the villain Abanazer in a pantomime production of Aladdin at the Theatre Royal in Bath , described as an attempt by a theatre spokesman for Mantle to " throw off his gentle giant persona and transform himself into a classic panto baddie for the audience to boo and hiss wildly . " He performed in 64 shows over the duration of five and a half weeks . In 2008 , he appeared in an episode of The Invisibles , opposite Anthony Head , Warren Clarke and Jenny Agutter . In 2009 , Mantle had minor roles in Lucy Akhurst 's Morris dancing comedy Morris : A Life with Bells On and in the Thaddeus O 'Sullivan historical biopic of Sir Winston Churchill , Into the Storm , co @-@ starring Iain Glen , Brendan Gleeson , and James D 'Arcy .

= = = 2010s = = =

In 2010 , Mantle portrayed Tommy Cooper in the successful stage entertainment show Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper , which appeared at the Edinburgh Festival . To train for the role , Mantle mastered many of Cooper 's magic tricks , studying under Geoffrey Durham for several months . Mantle was thrilled to take on the role as Cooper is his ultimate comic hero , saying " It 's such a big privilege playing Tommy – I genuinely love the man . He is one of the funniest comedians this country has ever produced . So this whole tour for me is just an immense thrill . " Mantle considered the role highly challenging , given that he had to combine several aspects of skill , from the magic tricks to the joke @-@ telling , the physical comedy , and emulating the distinctive voice . Some people initially questioned the suitability of Mantle for the character , given that he was well known for playing a solemn doctor in Casualty , but he and the play were warmly received by critics . South Wales Echo called it a " compelling , funny and moving play " and said " Clive , best known for his role as Dr Mike Barratt in Casualty , has had to get used to wearing a fez and conjuring up some magic for his title role of Jus ' Like That ! A Night Out With Tommy Cooper . "

In 2011 he took a supporting role in the TV series White Van Man as Tony Curry , father of the central character , Ollie " Rogan " Josh Curry , played by Will Mellor . He also has an ongoing role in HBO 's Game of Thrones as Lord Greatjon Umber , a close ally of Robb Stark , and has provided the voice to the audio editions of Andy McNab 's Nick Stone thrillers . In 2012 , Mantle appeared in the Sherlock episode " The Hounds of Baskerville " as Dr Frankland .

In 2013 , Mantle performed in the black comedy The Ladykillers , playing the part of Major Courtney . He was forced to withdraw from the touring production in March 2013 after he was attacked at the Travelodge hotel in Newcastle . On the night of Saturday 23 March , he became involved in a brawl after asking a group of fellow guests to keep the noise down , during which part of his right ear was bitten off . He had to have emergency surgery at the Royal Victoria Infirmary hospital to have it sewn back on . A 32 @-@ year @-@ old man from Hamilton , South Lanarkshire was charged over the incident and appeared before a magistrate in April 2013 , and another man was released on bail in connection to the incident ; a third man has been released without charge . In June 2014 the two accused were found not guilty of all charges .

In 2014 Mantle supplied the voice of Gator in the eighteenth season of the British children 's television series Thomas & Friends as well as its sixth CGI animated film Tale of the Brave . He voiced Gator in both British and American dubbed versions .

= = Filmography = =

= Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru =

Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru ( 処女はお姉さまに恋してる , lit . The Maidens Are Falling in Love with Me ) , commonly known as Otoboku ( おとボク ) , is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Caramel Box and released on January 28 , 2005 playable on Windows PCs . The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) with the adult content removed . The Windows version was released in English by MangaGamer in 2012 . The story follows the life of Mizuho Miyanokouji , an androgynous male high school student , who transfers into an all @-@ girls school due to his grandfather 's will .

The gameplay in Otoboku follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the six female main characters by the player character . The game ranked as the second best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Caramel Box went on to produce two fan discs released in 2005 and 2007 in Caramel Box Yarukibako and Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 , respectively . Caramel Box later produced a sequel to Otoboku titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder released on June 30 , 2010 playable on Windows PCs . Futari no Elder was ported to the PSP with the adult content removed . The story follows Chihaya Kisakinomiya , an androgynous male , who transfers into the all @-@ girls school that was the setting of Otoboku .

A manga adaptation of Otoboku was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Daioh , and a manga adaptation of Futari no Elder was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace . Comic anthologies , light novels and art books were also published , as were audio dramas and several music albums . A 12 @-@ episode Otoboku anime produced by Feel aired in Japanese between October and December 2006 , and an extra original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released in April 2007 . Media Blasters licensed the anime and released the series in three DVD volumes . The Otoboku anime was generally panned in reviews at Anime News Network where the series was described as " cruelly unimaginative " with " obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings . " In a review of the anime by Mania Entertainment , the series is thought to be " very predictable and bland . " A three @-@ episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder produced by Silver Link was released between August and October 2012 .

= = Gameplay = =

Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji . Its gameplay requires little player interaction as much of the game 's duration is spent on reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents the story 's narrative and dialogue . Otoboku follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .

There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . Every so often , the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options . Text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . Each scenario is divided into eight episodes , one interlude episode and an epilogue . At the end of an episode , an announcement of the next episode appears showing a preview of what is to consist in the next episode . Each episode takes place within the span of one month between June and March from episode one through the epilogue . The interlude episode is placed between the second and third episodes .

In the adult versions of the game , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Mizuho and a given heroine having sex . When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) console , the gameplay was somewhat altered . The PS2 version , and later the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version , both had the sexual content removed , and in these versions there is no evidence that physical relationships actually take place between any of the students .

There are ten additional sub episodes and a special sub episode . The CD and DVD Windows editions contain four sub episodes , the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako contains four sub episodes and a special episode , Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 contains two sub episodes , and the PS2 version contains six sub episodes , though the order in which they appeared was altered .

In Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder , the player assumes the roles of the main protagonist Chihaya Kisakinomiya and the secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara . There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . In the adult versions of Futari no Elder , there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Chihaya and a given heroine having sex . The gameplay is somewhat altered in the PSP version . The PSP version has the sexual content removed , the scenarios of Utano Sasou and Kaori Kamichika that appeared in the Windows version are removed , and it contains newly added scenarios of You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase . There are three additional sub episodes in the Windows version of Futari no Elder .

= = Plot = =

= = = Setting = = =

The primary setting is at a private all @-@ girls school named Seio Girls ' Academy , also called Seio Jogakuin Christian Education , which was founded in 1886 by Mizuho 's ancestor . Seio was originally named Keisen Girls ' Academy ( 恵泉女学院 , Keisen Jogakuin ) , which was used in original Windows version , the drama CD of the visual novel , and for the Caramel Box Yarukibako fan disc . This name was later ascertained to be similar to a name of an actual school , and the school 's name was changed to Seio Girls ' Academy ( 聖應女学院 , Seiō Jogakuin , 聖応女学院 as written in PlayStation 2 version ) . Seio is used in the PlayStation 2 version , DVD Windows edition , Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku @-@ ban and anime series . The secondary setting is at a dormitory building named Sakura @-@ yakata ( 櫻館 ) , which Mizuho , Mariya , Yukari and Kana are boarding at . There are four other former dormitories named Tsubaki @-@ yakata , Enoki @-@ yakata , Hisagi @-@ yakata and Hiiragi @-@ yakata .

= = = Main characters = = =

The player assumes the role of Mizuho Miyanokouji , the protagonist of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru . He is a kind high school student who impersonates a girl at an all @-@ girls school , which he transfers into per his grandfather 's will . He spends his time with many fellow attendees , some of which live in the nearby dormitory , and enjoys helping them with any problems they may have . His childhood friend Mariya Mikado attends the school with him , and helps in his female transition . She has a spirited personality with a bit of a temper , and has been a support for Mizuho in the past . Mizuho meets a classmate named Shion Jujo who has a silent voice and demeanor ; she quickly figures out that Mizuho is actually a boy , but tells no one . The previous year , she had to be hospitalized soon after she was elected as the Elder due to an illness .

At the dormitory lives an energetic first @-@ year student named Yukari Kamioka . She is on the track and field team along with Mariya , who is her Oneesama ( お姉さま , meaning " Older sister " ) , and has low confidence in her ability to run . Another first @-@ year at the dormitory named Kana Suoin meets Mizuho on the day he moves in , and soon after Mizuho becomes her Oneesama . Kana is more than happy to serve Mizuho any way she can , since she admires him immensely . A hyperactive ghost resides in Mizuho 's room named Ichiko Takashima and is shown to speak very fast when excited . She says that Mizuho looks very much like her previous Elder love interest , who turns out to be Mizuho 's deceased mother . The student council president at Seio is Takako Itsukushima who tends to have a serious personality .

= = = Story = = =

Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru revolves around the main protagonist Mizuho Miyanokouji , a male high school student . After Mizuho 's grandfather dies , his will is reviewed , which explains his desire to have his grandson transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy , the same one his own mother attended and his ancestors founded . Abiding by the will , Mizuho cross @-@ dresses to attend the school . The headmistress , the deputy head teacher ( visual novel only ) , Mizuho 's homeroom teacher Hisako Kajiura and Mariya Mikado initially know his secret ; Shion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima also eventually find this out . Mizuho is very popular among the other students , who often talk about how pretty , nice , and athletic Mizuho is . This rampant popularity escalates to him even being nominated against his will to join in on the Elder election . By these terms , the current student council president , Takako Itsukushima , runs against Mizuho .

The Elder election is an old tradition at Seio Girls ' Academy where every June one of the students is elected by her peers to be the " Elder " , who is seen as the number one " Elder Sister " in the school . Until her graduation , she is referred to by her peers as Onee @-@ sama ( お姉さま ) . To become an Elder , a candidate must gain at least 75 % of the votes . If none of the candidates get at least 75 % in the first round of voting , one of the candidates hands over her votes to another candidate , and the candidate who finally obtains at least 75 % of the votes becomes the Elder . If there is no one else in the election , the current year 's student council president becomes the Elder . In Otoboku , Mizuho gains 82 % of the votes in the first round , effectively becoming the 72nd Elder in the school 's history . After becoming Elder , Mizuho progressively gets more popular among the student body since he is now a symbol of the school 's excellence . In the following months , Mizuho starts to get to know some of the girls better and helps them with their problems .

= = = = Futari no Elder = = = =

Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder is written from the viewpoints of main character Chihaya Kisakinomiya and secondary character Kaoruko Nanahara . Futari no Elder begins about two years after Mizuho 's graduation . The main protagonist Chihaya Mikado was truant at his school because of harassment in the school and of a distrust in men . His mother cannot bear to watch him be in trouble , so she makes him transfer to Seio Girls ' Academy , her old school . He dresses as a girl and introduces himself as Chihaya Kisakinomiya . Chihaya meets another protagonist Kaoruko Nanahara , who once rescued him from a playboy , and he begins to live in the dormitory building . He becomes the focus of public attention due to his attractive face and figure , and due to high grades at studies .

In the 75th Elder election , there are four finalists ; Hatsune Minase hands over her votes to Kaoruko and Makiyo Shingyouji hands over her votes to Chihaya . Then Chihaya and Kaoruko gain the same votes of 368 together . Though a candidate which gains 75 % or more of the votes becomes the Elder , Hatsune , as the student council president , proposes that both Chihaya and Kaoruko become the Elders ; the motion is adopted unanimously . This is the first time there have been two Elders in the history of Seio Girls ' Academy .

= = Development = =

Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru is the fourth visual novel developed by Caramel Box . The scenario is written by Aya Takaya , and this was the first time Takaya was staffed on a Caramel Box game . Art direction and character design is done by Norita , who was staffed on Caramel Box 's debut release Blue as an artist . The super deformed illustrations featured in Otoboku were drawn by the game illustrator Yoda . The music was composed by the music team Zizz Studio .

The original title uses the kanji 処女 ( shojo ) , which means " virgin " , but is very close to the word for " young lady " , shōjo . The creators added furigana subscript to indicate they wanted it read " otome " meaning " young maiden " . Additionally , furigana was added above お姉さま ( onee @-@ sama ) to indicate that they wanted it read " boku " . Despite the different kanji , the official reading is " Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru " . When the game was ported to the PlayStation 2 , it was rewritten as 乙女はお姉さまに恋してる with the same pronunciation of " Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru " , which uses the actual " otome " ( 乙女 ) kanji . The latter name was kept for the manga and anime releases .

= = = Release history = = =

A free game demo of Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru can be downloaded at the game 's official website . The game was released as an adult game on January 28 , 2005 as a limited edition , playable on a Windows PC as a 2 @-@ disc CD @-@ ROM set . The limited edition came bundled with a special story book entitled Tsunderera . The regular edition was released on February 18 , 2005 , and one select lot of this version contained a limited edition sticker . An updated version with full voice acting was released on April 28 , 2006 as a DVD . Another updated version compatible for Windows Vista / 7 was released on May 27 , 2011 . The Windows version of Otoboku was released in English by MangaGamer on November 23 , 2012 .

Caramel Box released a fan disc of Otoboku on June 24 , 2005 in a collection called Caramel Box Yarukibako , which contained additional scenarios that furthered the story from the original visual novel ; the fan disc came with a small figurine . The collection was re @-@ released under the title Caramel Box Yarukibako Fukkoku @-@ ban on January 26 , 2007 . A second fan disc was released on October 19 , 2007 in the collection Caramel Box Yarukibako 2 , which again contained additional scenarios . Alchemist released a PlayStation 2 port on December 29 , 2005 , which removed the adult elements of the game . Additional scenarios were included in the PS2 version written by Kiichi Kanō . A version of the adult game featuring only Sion 's scenario playable on iOS devices was released in six volumes between March 29 and June 4 , 2010 . A PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable was released on April 29 , 2010 by Alchemist .

= = = Sequel = = =

A sequel to the visual novel titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder ( 処女はお姉さまに恋してる ～ 2人のエルダー ～ ) was released as an adult game on June 30 , 2010 as a limited edition , playable on a Windows PC as a DVD . The same staff that worked on Otoboku returned for the sequel . The limited edition came bundled with a 96 @-@ page guide book , an original card from the Lycèe Trading Card Game , and an original pouch . A free game demo of Futari no Elder can be downloaded at the game 's official website . The regular edition was released on July 30 , 2010 . Settings and characters from Sakura no Sono no Étoile , a novel written by the scriptwriter of Otoboku as a sequel to Takako 's story , appear in Futari no Elder . Also , the release date of June 30 coincides in @-@ story with the day of the election day of the 75th Elder sister . A PSP version titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Portable : Futari no Elder was released on April 28 , 2011 by Alchemist . A downloadable version of the PSP release via the PlayStation Store was released by Alchemist on December 1 , 2011 .

= = Related media = =

= = = Novels = = =

Two novels written based on the original game written by Saki Murakami and published by Paradigm were released in Japan in June and August 2005 . The first released was Toraware no Himegimi : Sion @-@ hen ( 囚われの姫君 ～ 紫苑編 ～ , Imprisoned Princess : Sion Chapter ) centering on Sion , with the second entitled Tomadou Juliet : Takako @-@ hen ( とまどうジュリエット ～ 貴子編 ～ , Perplexed Juliet : Takako Chapter ) centering on Takako . These novels contain erotic content . A single volume titled Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru written by Chihiro Minagawa with accompanying illustrations by Ume Aoi was published by Jive in August 2005 , and centers on Takako 's scenario . Sion 's scenario was ported to the iPhone as an e @-@ book between March 29 and June 4 , 2010 by DML . A semi official dōjin novel was written by the original scenario writer for the game , Aya Takaya , called Sakura no Sono no Étoile ( 櫻の園のエトワール , lit . Étoile in the Cherry Orchard ) , with illustrations by the original game artist Norita . The novel contains a two short stories that is a sequel of Takako 's scenario , and Kana and Yukari have little sisters . The revised and completed edition of the dōjin novel was published as an official novel by Enterbrain on December 25 , 2007 .

Three volumes based on Futari no Elder were written by Tasuku Saiga and published by Paradigm between September 30 , 2010 and January 19 , 2011 . The first volume centers on Kaoruko Nanahara , the second is around Kaori Kamichika , and the third centers on Utano Sasou . A single volume written by Reiji Mai titled Knight no Kimi no Love Romance ( 騎士の君のラブロマンス , Love Affair of You , the Knight ) was published by Kill Time Communication on December 3 , 2010 . These four novels contain erotic content . Three volumes written by Aya Takaya were released by SoftBank Creative between December 15 , 2010 and January 15 , 2012 . The first volume titled Futari no Elder ( 二人のエルダー ) is the story until Chihaya Kisakinomiya and Kaoruko Nanahara are elected as Elders ; the second titled Madogoshi no Ihōjin ( 窓越しの異邦人 , The Stranger Through the Window ) is the story until the end of first term and it mainly focuses Kaoruko Nanahara , You Kashiwagi and Hatsune Minase ; and the third titled Kin no Ori , Ibara no Torikago ( 黄金の檻 荊の鳥籠 , lit . The Golden Cage , The Birdcage of Thorns ) is the story between summer vacation and September and it mainly focuses Awayuki Reizei and Utano Sasou . There were five novels published by Multi Bunko between June 30 , 2011 and March 29 , 2012 : three volumes written by Tasuku Saiga are around Utano Sasou , Fumi Watarai and Awayuki Reizei ; one volume written by Ricotta is around Kaoruko Nanahara ; and a volume written by Mitsuru Iiyama is not dependent on any heroine 's scenario . These eight novels are not erotic .

= = = Manga = = =

A manga adaptation is illustrated by Kanao Araki and was serialized in ASCII Media Works ' magazine Dengeki Daioh between the November 2006 and August 2008 issues in Japan . Two tankōbon volumes were released under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint , the first on August 27 , 2007 and the second on September 27 , 2008 . A four panel comic strip manga was published by Enterbrain in 12 comics anthologies released between March 26 , 2007 and March 25 , 2009 .

A manga adaptation of Futari no Elder illustrated by Akuru Uira was serialized between the July 2010 and February 2012 issues of Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace . Three volumes were published between November 26 , 2010 and January 26 , 2012 . Three volumes of a four panel , comic strip manga of Futari no Elder were published by Enterbrain between September 26 , 2010 and January 29 , 2011 . Two comic anthologies were released by Ichijinsha between October 25 and November 25 , 2010 .

= = = Internet radio show = = =

An Internet radio show to promote the anime series was broadcast between October 5 , 2006 and March 27 , 2008 called the Seio Girls ' Academy Broadcasting Station ( 聖應女学院放送局 , Seiō Jogakuin Hōsōkyoku ) . It aired every Thursday hosted by Miyu Matsuki and Yuko Goto who played Sion Jujo and Ichiko Takashima in the anime , respectively ; it was produced by Animate TV . There are thirteen corners , or parts , to the program which correspond to the general life of the characters in the story , and 74 episodes were produced . There were several guests to the show such as Chiaki Takahashi in episodes six and seven as Takako Itsukushima , Akemi Kanda in episodes eleven and twelve as Kana Suoin , Ayano Matsumoto in episodes fifteen and sixteen as Yukari Kamioka , and Madoka Kimura in episodes nineteen and twenty as Kimie Sugawara . The radio show episodes were released on four CDs released between May 9 , 2007 and February 6 , 2008 .

= = = Anime = = =

An anime adaptation is produced by the animation studio Feel , directed by Munenori Nawa , written by Katsumi Hasegawa , and features character design by Noriko Shimazawa who based the designs on Norita 's original concept . The anime contained twelve episodes which aired between October 6 and December 24 , 2006 on several UHF networks including TV Kanagawa and Chiba TV . The episodes were released on four DVD compilations released in Japan as limited and regular editions . A single original video animation ( OVA ) episode was released on the final limited edition DVD on April 4 , 2007 . Media Blasters released the series , including the OVA , as English @-@ subtitled DVDs between June 24 and October 7 , 2008 under the title Otoboku : Maidens Are Falling For Me ! .

A three @-@ episode OVA adaptation of Futari no Elder is produced by the animation studio Silver Link , directed by Shin 'ya Kawatsura , written by Michiko Yokote , and features character design by Keiichi Sano who based the designs on Norita 's original concept . The episodes were released on three Blu @-@ ray Disc / DVD volumes between August 29 and October 24 , 2012 .

= = = Music and audio CDs = = =

The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru visual novel has three theme songs : the opening theme " You Make My Day ! " by Yuria , the ending theme " Itoshii Kimochi " ( いとしいきもち ) by Yui Sakakibara , and " Sayonara no Sasayaki " ( さよならの囁き ) by Sakakibara as an insert song . The original soundtrack for the visual novel titled Maiden 's Rest was released in Japan on February 25 , 2005 by Digiturbo . The Futari no Elder visual novel has four theme songs : an opening theme , an ending theme , and two insert songs . For the Windows version of Futari no Elder , the opening theme is " Underhanded Girl " ( アンダーハンデッド ・ ガール ) by Yuria , and the ending theme is " Hidamari no Naka e " ( 陽だまりの中へ ) by Aki Misato . For the PSP version of Futari no Elder , the opening theme is " Crystal Wish " by Miyuki Hashimoto , and the ending theme is " Tamerai , Fuwari " ( ためらい 、 ふわり 。 ) by Shiori . The insert songs , both sung by Sakakibara , are " Utsuriyuku Hana no Yōni " ( 移りゆく花のように ) and " Kimi no Mama de " ( 君のままで ) . An album was released containing the theme songs for the Windows version of Futari no Elder on May 26 , 2010 by Lantis . A single was released containing the theme songs for the PSP version of Futari no Elder on April 27 , 2011 by Lantis .

Two singles were released for the opening and ending themes for the anime adaptation . The first called " Love Power " by Aice5 contained the opening theme of the same name . The other single entitled " Again " by Yui Sakakibara contained the ending theme entitled " Beautiful Day " . The A @-@ side track from that single entitled " Again " was used as an insert song in episode eleven . Both singles were released on October 25 , 2006 by King Records . The soundtrack for the anime was released on November 22 , 2006 by King Records . Three character image song albums were released sung by voice actors from the anime adaptation . The first album was by Yui Horie as Mizuho Miyanokouji , Miyu Matsuki as Sion Jujo and Masumi Asano as Mariya Mikado . The second album featured Ayano Matsumoto as Yukari Kamioka , Akemi Kanda as Kana Suoin and Yuko Goto as Ichiko Takashima . The third album was recorded by Chiaki Takahashi as Takako Itsukushima , Madoka Kimura as Kimie Sugawara and Yui Sakakibara as Hisako Kajiura . These CDs were released between July 26 and September 21 , 2006 .

Seven drama CDs based on Otoboku have also been produced . The first was based on the visual novel and was released on September 22 , 2005 . Four more based on the Otoboku anime adaptation were released between October 25 , 2006 and April 11 , 2007 . A drama CD based on the novel Sakura no Sono no Étoile was released on January 29 , 2010 . The last one was based on a special episode contained in the fan disc Caramel Box Yarukibako with voice actors from anime adaptation released on January 29 , 2010 .

= = Reception = =

According to a national ranking of how well bishōjo games sold nationally in Japan , the Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru limited edition Windows release premiered at number two in the rankings . The limited edition achieved a ranking of four out of 50 in the ranking for the next two weeks . The regular edition Windows release premiered at number six in the rankings , and stayed in the top 50 for a month and a half until mid @-@ April 2005 . The regular edition was again in the rankings for May 2005 , managing to rank in at 38 and 49 . The Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru Windows edition playable as a DVD premiered at number 13 in the rankings and stayed at that rank for the next listing . The DVD edition ranked twice more over the next month : the first at 43 and the last at 33 . From May to June 2010 , Otome wa Boku ni Koishiteru : Futari no Elder ranked third in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . Futari no Elder ranked second in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in June 2010 .

The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were reviewed by Anime News Network . In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer Carl Kimlinger generally panned the volume , commenting how the three episodes were " cruelly unimaginative " where " afterwards it 's one long slide into a torturous hell of girls ' school tripe where not even humor or romance can pierce the veil of pain . " The Catholic girl 's school premise is likened to Maria @-@ sama ga Miteru and Strawberry Panic ! , and is considered to be used " merely as visual spice . " For the second DVD volume , Kimlinger wrote that " while the onslaught of squealing , caffeinated moe @-@ bait has abated somewhat in its ferocity , a sagging of the already listlessly undirected plot ensures that the series ' sophomore outing is only marginally more tolerable than the first . " Further , the series is described as having " obnoxious quirks and technical shortcomings . "

The first two anime DVD volumes released by Media Blasters were also reviewed by Mania Entertainment . In the review of the first DVD , the reviewer Chris Beveridge felt the anime reminded him of " parts of Princess Princess , especially when it came to the Elder status piece . It 's even reminiscent of Strawberry Panic in this way . " The series is described as " all about the " moe " factor , bringing about an atmosphere that makes you like the characters , care about them and feel good about seeing them interact . It does it well even if it doesn ’ t have an amazing hook . " For the second DVD volume , Beveridge commented that the series continues to be " very predictable and bland " which is " at this point fun but entirely forgettable . " Beveridge also wrote how " the characters are all pleasant , nicely designed and with mildly interesting personalities that could lead to something more but never does . "

= Atlantis : The Lost Empire =

Atlantis : The Lost Empire is a 2001 American animated action @-@ adventure film created by Walt Disney Feature Animation — the first science fiction film in Disney 's animated features canon and the 41st overall . Written by Tab Murphy , directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise , and produced by Don Hahn , the film features an ensemble cast with the voices of Michael J. Fox , Cree Summer , James Garner , Leonard Nimoy , Don Novello , Phil Morris , Claudia Christian , Jacqueline Obradors , and Jim Varney in his final role before his death . Set in 1914 , the film tells the story of a young man who gains possession of a sacred book , which he believes will guide him and a crew of mercenaries to the lost city of Atlantis .

Development of the film began after production had finished on The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) . Instead of another musical , the production team decided to do an action @-@ adventure film inspired by the works of Jules Verne . Atlantis was notable for adopting the distinctive visual style of comic book creator Mike Mignola . At the time of its release , the film had made greater use of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) than any of Disney 's previous animated features ; it remains one of the few to have been shot in anamorphic format . Linguist Marc Okrand created a language specifically for use in Atlantis , while James Newton Howard provided the score . The film was released at a time when audience interest in animated films was shifting away from hand @-@ drawn animation toward films with full CGI .

Atlantis : The Lost Empire premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California on June 3 , 2001 , and went into general release on June 15 . Released by Walt Disney Pictures , Atlantis performed modestly at the box office . Budgeted at $ 100 million , the film grossed over $ 186 million worldwide , $ 84 million of which was earned in North America . Due to the film 's lackluster box office performance , Disney quietly canceled both a spin @-@ off television series and an underwater attraction at its Disneyland theme park . Some critics praised it as a unique departure from typical Disney animated features , while others disliked it due to the unclear target audience and absence of songs . Atlantis was nominated for a number of awards , including seven Annie Awards , and won Best Sound Editing at the 2002 Golden Reel Awards . The film was released on VHS and DVD on January 29 , 2002 ; the Blu @-@ ray released on June 11 , 2013 . Atlantis is considered to be a cult favorite , due in part to Mignola 's unique artistic influence . A direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel , Atlantis : Milo 's Return , was released in 2003 .

= = Plot = =

A large tidal wave triggered by a distant explosion threatens to drown the island of Atlantis . In the midst of an evacuation from the capital city , the Queen of Atlantis is caught by a strange , hypnotic blue light and lifted up into the " Heart of Atlantis " , a powerful crystal protecting the city . The crystal consumes her and creates a dome barrier that protects the city 's innermost district . She leaves behind a young daughter , Princess Kida , as the island sinks beneath the ocean .

Thousands of years later in 1914 , Milo Thatch , a cartographer and linguist at the Smithsonian Institution who is marginalized for his research on Atlantis , believes that he has found The Shepherd 's Journal , an ancient manuscript that contains directions to the lost island . After the museum board declines his proposal to search for the journal , a mysterious woman , Helga Sinclair , introduces Milo to Preston B. Whitmore , an eccentric millionaire . Whitmore has already funded a successful effort to retrieve the journal as repayment of a debt to Milo 's grandfather , and recruits Milo to lead an expedition to Atlantis as soon as he receives it .

The expedition departs with a team of specialists led by Commander Lyle Rourke , who also led the journal recovery expedition . The crew includes Vinny Santorini , a demolitions expert ; Mole Molière , a geologist ; Dr. Joshua Sweet , a medical officer ; Audrey Ramirez , a mechanic ; Mrs. Wilhelmina Packard , a radio operator ; and Cookie Farnsworth , a mess cook . They set out in the " Ulysses " , a massive submarine . During the journey , they are attacked by the monstrous Leviathan , a robotic lobster @-@ like creature that guards Atlantis ' entrance . The " Ulysses " is subsequently destroyed , but Milo , Rourke , and part of the crew escape by making their way to an underground cavern , described in the journal as the entrance to Atlantis .

After traveling through a network of caves and a dormant volcano , the team reaches the outskirts of Atlantis . They are greeted by Kida who resembles a young woman and discover that the Atlantean language is the basis of many existing languages . Kida enlists Milo 's aid in deciphering the Atlantean written language , long forgotten by the natives . By swimming deep within the city 's submerged ruins and translating underwater murals , Milo helps Kida uncover the nature of the Heart of Atlantis : it supplies the Atlanteans with power and longevity through the crystals worn around their necks . He is surprised this is not mentioned in the journal , but upon examination realizes a page is missing .

Returning to the surface with Kida , Milo discovers Rourke has the missing page . Rourke and the crew betray Milo , intending to bring the crystal to the surface and sell it . Rourke mortally wounds the King of Atlantis while trying to extract information about the crystal 's location , but finds its location for himself hidden beneath the King 's throne room . The crystal detects a threat before merging with Kida . Rourke and the mercenaries lock Kida in a crate and prepare to leave the city . Knowing that when the crystal is gone the Atlanteans will die , Milo berates his friends for betraying their consciences and ultimately convinces them to leave Rourke and remain in Atlantis . The King explains to Milo that the crystal has developed a consciousness – it thrives on the collective emotions of the Atlanteans and provides power , protection and longevity in return . It will find a royal host when Atlantis is in danger . He then reveals that the sinking of Atlantis was caused when he attempted to use it as a weapon of war . As he dies he gives his crystal to Milo , telling him to save Atlantis and Kida . Encouraged by Sweet , Milo rallies the crew and the Atlanteans to stop Rourke .

In the ensuing battle inside the volcano , Helga and the other mercenaries including Rourke are all killed . Milo and the others successfully fly the crystal back to the city , as the volcano erupts . With lava flowing towards the city , Kida ( in her crystal form ) rises into the air and creates a protective shield . The lava breaks away harmlessly , showing a restored Atlantis , and the crystal returns Kida to Milo . The surviving crew members return to the surface and promise to keep the discovery of Atlantis a secret . Having fallen in love with Kida , Milo stays behind to help her rebuild the lost empire .

= = Cast = =

Michael J. Fox as Milo James Thatch , a linguist and cartographer at the Smithsonian who was recruited to decipher The Shepherd 's Journal while directing an expedition to Atlantis . Kirk Wise , one of the directors , said that they chose Fox for the role because they felt he gave his character his own personality and made them more believable on screen . Fox said that voice acting was much easier than his past experience with live action because he did not have to worry about what he looked like in front of a camera while delivering his lines . The directors mentioned that Fox was also offered a role for Titan A.E. ; he allowed his son to choose which film he would work on , and he chose Atlantis . Viewers have noted similarities between Milo and the film 's language consultant , Marc Okrand , who developed the Atlantean language used in the film . Okrand stated that Milo 's supervising animator , John Pomeroy , sketched him , claiming not to know how a linguist looked or acted .

James Garner as Commander Lyle Tiberius Rourke , the leader of the band of mercenaries , for the Atlantean expedition . Wise chose Garner because of his previous experience with action films , especially war and Western films , and said the role " fits him like a glove " . When asked if he would be interested in the role , Garner replied " I 'd do it in a heartbeat . "

Cree Summer as Kidagakash " Kida " Nedakh , the Princess of Atlantis . Kida 's supervising animator , Randy Haycock , stated that Summer was very " intimidating " when he first met her ; this influenced how he wanted Kida to look and act on screen when she meets Milo . Natalie Strom provided dialogue for Kida as a young child .

Don Novello as Vincenzo " Vinny " Santorini , an Italian demolitions expert . Kirk Wise and Russ Edmonds , Vinny 's supervising animator , noted Novello 's unique ability to improvise dialogue . Edmonds recalled , " [ Novello ] would look at the sheet , and he would read the line that was written once , and he would never read it again ! And we never used a written line , it was improvs , the whole movie . "

Phil Morris as Doctor Joshua Strongbear Sweet , a medic of African American and Native American descent . Sweet 's supervising animator , Ron Husband , indicated that one of the challenges was animating Sweet in sync with Morris ' rapid line delivery while keeping him believable . Morris stated that this character was extreme , with " no middle ground " ; he mentioned , " When he was happy , he was really happy , and when he 's solemn , he 's real solemn . "

Claudia Christian as Lieutenant Helga Katrina Sinclair , Rourke 's German second @-@ in @-@ command . Christian described her character as " sensual " and " striking " . She was relieved when she finally saw what her character looked like , joking , " I 'd hate to , you know , go through all this and find out my character is a toad . "

Jacqueline Obradors as Audrey Rocio Ramirez , a teenage Puerto Rican mechanic and the youngest member of the expedition . Obradors said her character made her " feel like a little kid again " and she always hoped her sessions would last longer .

Florence Stanley as Wilhelmina Bertha Packard : an elderly , sarcastic , chain @-@ smoking radio operator . Stanley felt that Packard was very " cynical " and " secure " : " She does her job and when she is not busy she does anything she wants . "

David Ogden Stiers as Fenton Q. Harcourt , a board member of the Smithsonian Institution who dismisses Milo 's belief in the existence of Atlantis . Stiers previously worked with Michael J. Fox in Doc Hollywood . He earlier voice @-@ acted for Disney in Beauty and the Beast , Pocahontas , and The Hunchback of Notre Dame and would do so again in Lilo & Stitch .

John Mahoney as Preston B. Whitmore , an eccentric millionaire who funds the expedition to Atlantis . Lloyd Bridges was originally cast and recorded as Whitmore , but he died before completing the film . Mahoney 's zest and vigor led to Whitmore 's personality being reworked for the film . Mahoney stated that doing voice work was " freeing " and allowed him to be " big " and " outrageous " with his character .

Jim Varney as Jebidiah Allardyce " Cookie " Farnsworth , a Western @-@ style chuckwagon chef . Varney died of lung cancer in February 2000 , before the production ended , and the film was dedicated to his memory . Producer Don Hahn was saddened that Varney never saw the finished film , but mentioned that he was shown clips of his character 's performance during his site sessions and said , " He loved it . " Shawn Keller , supervising animator for Cookie , stated , " It was kind of a sad fact that [ Varney ] knew that he was not going to be able to see this film before he passed away . He did a bang @-@ up job doing the voice work , knowing the fact that he was never gonna see his last performance . "

Corey Burton as Gaëtan " Mole " Molière , a French geologist who acts like a mole . Burton mentioned that finding his performance as Mole was by allowing the character to " leap out " of him while making funny voices . To get into character during his recording sessions , he stated that he would " throw myself into the scene and feel like I 'm in this make @-@ believe world " .

Leonard Nimoy as Kashekim Nedakh , the King of Atlantis and Kida 's father . Michael Cedeno , supervising animator for King Nedakh , was astounded at Nimoy 's voice talent , stating that he had " so much rich character " in his performance . As he spoke his lines , Cadeno said the crew would sit there and watch Nimoy in astonishment .

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

The idea for Atlantis : The Lost Empire was conceived in October 1996 when Don Hahn , Gary Trousdale , Kirk Wise , and Tab Murphy lunched at a Mexican restaurant in Burbank , California . Having recently completed The Hunchback of Notre Dame the producer and directors wanted to keep the Hunchback crew together for another film with an Adventureland setting . Drawing inspiration from Jules Verne 's A Journey to the Center of the Earth ( 1864 ) , they set out to make a film which would fully explore Atlantis ( compared to the brief visit depicted in Verne 's novel ) . While primarily utilizing the Internet to research the mythology of Atlantis , the filmmakers became interested in the clairvoyant readings of Edgar Cayce and decided to incorporate some of his ideas — notably that of a mother @-@ crystal which provides power , healing , and longevity to the Atlanteans — into the story . They also visited museums and old army installations to study the technology of the early 20th century ( the film 's time period ) , and traveled 800 feet underground in New Mexico 's Carlsbad Caverns to view the subterranean trails which would serve as a model for the approach to Atlantis in the film .

The filmmakers wanted to avoid the common depiction of Atlantis as " crumbled Greek columns underwater " , said Wise . " From the get @-@ go , we were committed to designing it top to bottom . Let 's get the architectural style , clothing , heritage , customs , how they would sleep , and how they would speak . So we brought people on board who would help us develop those ideas . " Art director David Goetz stated , " We looked at Mayan architecture , styles of ancient , unusual architecture from around the world , and the directors really liked the look of Southeast Asian architecture . " The team later took ideas from other architectural forms , including Cambodian , Indian , and Tibetan works . Hahn added , " If you take and deconstruct architecture from around the world into one architectural vocabulary , that 's what our Atlantis looks like . " The overall design and circular layout of Atlantis were also based on the writings of Plato , and his quote " in a single day and night of misfortune , the island of Atlantis disappeared into the depths of the sea " was influential from the beginning of production . The crew wore T @-@ shirts which read " ATLANTIS — Fewer songs , more explosions " due the film 's plan as an action @-@ adventure ( unlike previous Disney animated features , which were musicals ) .

= = = = Language = = = =

Marc Okrand , who developed the Klingon language for the Star Trek films , was hired to devise the Atlantean language for Atlantis : The Lost Empire . Guided by the directors ' initial concept for it to be a " mother @-@ language " , Okrand employed an Indo @-@ European word stock with its own grammatical structure . He would change the words if they began to sound too much like an actual , spoken language . John Emerson designed the written component , making hundreds of random sketches of individual letters from among which the directors chose the best to represent the Atlantean alphabet . The written language was boustrophedon : designed to be read left @-@ to @-@ right on the first line , then right @-@ to @-@ left on the second , continuing in a zigzag pattern to simulate the flow of water .

The Atlantean [ A ] is a shape developed by John Emerson . It is a miniature map of the city of Atlantis ( i.e. , the outside of the swirl is the cave , the inside shape is the silhouette of the city , and the dot is the location of the crystal ) . It 's a treasure map .

= = = Writing = = =

Joss Whedon was the first writer to be involved with the film , but soon left to work on other Disney projects . According to him , he " had not a shred " in a movie . Tab Murphy completed the screenplay , stating that the time from initially discussing the story to producing a script that satisfied the film crew was " about three to four months " . The initial draft was 155 pages , much longer than a typical Disney film script ( which usually runs 90 pages ) . When the first two acts were timed at 120 minutes , the directors cut characters and sequences and focused more on Milo . Murphy said that he created the centuries @-@ old Shepherd 's Journal because he needed a map for the characters to follow throughout their journey . A revised version of the script eliminated the trials encountered by the explorers as they navigated the underground caves to Atlantis . This gave the film a faster pace , because Atlantis is discovered earlier in the story .

The character of Milo J. Thatch was originally supposed to be a descendant of Edward Teach , otherwise known as Blackbeard the pirate . The directors later related him to an explorer so he would discover his inner talent for exploration . The character of Molière was originally intended to be " professorial " but Chris Ure , a story artist , changed the concept to that of a " horrible little burrowing creature with a wacky coat and strange headgear with extending eyeballs " , said Wise . Don Hahn pointed out that the absence of songs presented a challenge for a team accustomed to animating musicals , as solely action scenes would have to carry the film . Kirk Wise said it gave the team an opportunity for more on @-@ screen character development : " We had more screen time available to do a scene like where Milo and the explorers are camping out and learning about one another 's histories . An entire sequence is devoted to having dinner and going to bed . That is not typically something we would have the luxury of doing . "

Hahn stated that the first animated sequence completed during production was the film 's prologue . The original version featured a Viking war party using The Shepherd 's Journal to find Atlantis and being swiftly dispatched by the Leviathan . Near the end of production , story supervisor Jon Sanford told the directors that he felt this prologue did not give viewers enough emotional involvement with the Atlanteans . Despite knowing that the Viking prologue was finished and it would cost additional time and money to alter the scene , the directors agreed with Sanford . Trousdale went home and completed the storyboards later that evening . The opening was replaced by a sequence depicting the destruction of Atlantis , which introduced the film from the perspective of the Atlanteans and Princess Kida . The Viking prologue is included as an extra feature on the DVD release .

= = = Animation = = =

At the peak of its production , 350 animators , artists and technicians were working on Atlantis at all three Disney animation studios : Walt Disney Feature Animation ( Burbank , California ) , Disney Feature Animation Florida ( Orlando ) , and Disney Animation France ( Paris ) . The film was one of the few Disney animated features produced and shot in 70mm anamorphic format . The directors felt that a widescreen image was crucial , as a nostalgic reference to old action @-@ adventure films presented in the CinemaScope format ( 2 @.@ 35 : 1 ) , noting Raiders of the Lost Ark as an inspiration . Because switching to the format would require animation desks and equipment designed for widescreen to be purchased , Disney executives were at first reluctant about the idea . The production team found a simple solution by drawing within a smaller frame on the same paper and equipment used for standard aspect ratio ( 1 @.@ 66 : 1 ) Disney @-@ animated films . Layout supervisor Ed Ghertner wrote a guide to the widescreen format for use by the layout artists and mentioned that one advantage of widescreen was that he could keep characters in scenes longer because of additional space to walk within the frame . Wise drew further inspiration for the format from filmmakers David Lean and Akira Kurosawa .

The film 's visual style was strongly based upon that of Mike Mignola , the comic book artist behind Hellboy . Mignola was one of four production designers ( along with Matt Codd , Jim Martin , and Ricardo Delgado ) hired by the Disney studio for the film . Accordingly , he provided style guides , preliminary character and background designs , and story ideas . " Mignola 's graphic , angular style was a key influence on the ' look ' of the characters , " stated Wise . Mignola was surprised when first contacted by the studio to work on Atlantis . His artistic influence on the film would later contribute to a cult following .

I remember watching a rough cut of the film and these characters have these big , square , weird hands . I said to the guy next to me , " Those are cool hands . " And he says to me , " Yeah , they 're your hands . We had a whole meeting about how to do your hands . " It was so weird I couldn 't wrap my brain around it .

The final pull @-@ out scene of the movie , immediately before the end @-@ title card , was described by the directors as the most difficult scene in the history of Disney animation . They said that the pullout attempt on their prior film , The Hunchback of Notre Dame , " struggled " and " lacked depth " ; however , after making advances in the process of multiplaning , they tried the technique again in Atlantis . The scene begins with one 16 @-@ inch piece of paper showing a close @-@ up of Milo and Kida . As the camera pulls away from them to reveal the newly restored Atlantis , it reaches the equivalent of an 18 @,@ 000 @-@ inch piece of paper composed of many individual pieces of paper ( 24 inches or smaller ) . Each piece was carefully drawn and combined with animated vehicles simultaneously flying across the scene to make the viewer see a complete , integrated image .

At the time of its release , Atlantis : The Lost Empire was notable for using more computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) than any other Disney @-@ animated feature . To increase productivity , the directors had the digital artists work with the traditional animators throughout the production . Several important scenes required heavy use of digital animation : the Leviathan , the Ulysses submarine and sub @-@ pods , the Heart of Atlantis , and the Stone Giants . During production , after Matt Codd and Jim Martin designed the Ulysses on paper , Greg Aronowitz was hired to build a scale model of the submarine , to be used as a reference for drawing the 3D Ulysses . The final film included 362 digital @-@ effects shots , and computer programs were used to seamlessly join the 2D and 3D artwork . One scene that took advantage of this was the " sub @-@ drop " scene , where the 3D Ulysses was dropped from its docking bay into the water . As the camera floated toward it , a 2D Milo was drawn to appear inside , tracking the camera . The crew noted that it was challenging to keep the audience from noticing the difference between the 2D and 3D drawings when they were merged . The digital production also gave the directors a unique " virtual camera " for complicated shots within the film . With the ability to operate in the z @-@ plane , this camera moved through a digital wire @-@ frame set ; the background and details were later hand @-@ drawn over the wire frames . This was used in the opening flight scene through Atlantis and the submarine chase through the undersea cavern with the Leviathan in pursuit .

= = = Music and sound = = =

Since the film would not feature any songs , the directors hired James Newton Howard to compose the score . Approaching it as a live @-@ action film , Howard decided to have different musical themes for the cultures of the surface world and Atlantis . In the case of Atlantis , Howard chose an Indonesian orchestral sound incorporating chimes , bells , and gongs . The directors told Howard that the film would have a number of key scenes without dialogue ; the score would need to convey emotionally what the viewer was seeing on screen .

Gary Rydstrom and his team at Skywalker Sound were hired for the film 's sound production . Like Howard , Rydstrom employed different sounds for the two cultures . Focusing on the machine and mechanical sounds of the early industrial era for the explorers , he felt that the Atlanteans should have a " more organic " sound utilizing ceramics and pottery . The sound made by the Atlantean flying @-@ fish vehicles posed a particular challenge . Rydstrom revealed that he was sitting at the side of a highway recording one day when a semi @-@ truck drove by at high speed . When the recording was sped up on his computer he felt it sounded very organic , and that is what is heard within the film . Rydstrom created the harmonic chiming of the Heart of Atlantis by rubbing his finger along the edge of a champagne flute , and the sound of sub @-@ pods moving through water with a water pick .

= = Release = =

= = = Promotion = = =

Atlantis was among Disney 's first major attempts to utilize internet marketing . The film was promoted through Kellogg 's , which created a website with mini @-@ games and a movie @-@ based video game give @-@ away for UPC labels from specially marked packages of Atlantis breakfast cereal . The film was one of Disney 's first marketing attempts through mobile network operators , and allowed users to download games based on the film . McDonald 's ( which had an exclusive licensing agreement on all Disney releases ) promoted the film with Happy Meal toys , food packaging and in @-@ store decor . The McDonald 's advertising campaign involved television , radio , and print advertisements beginning on the film 's release date . Frito @-@ Lay offered free admission tickets for the film on specially marked snack packages .

= = = Box office = = =

Before the film 's release , reporters speculated that it would have a difficult run due to competition from DreamWorks ' Shrek ( a wholly CGI feature ) and Lara Croft : Tomb Raider ( an action @-@ adventure film from Paramount Pictures ) . Regarding the market 's shift from traditional animation and competition with CGI films , Kirk Wise said , " Any traditional animator , including myself , can 't help but feel a twinge . I think it always comes down to story and character , and one form won 't replace the other . Just like photography didn 't replace painting . But maybe I 'm blind to it . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly noted that CGI films ( such as Shrek ) were more likely to attract the teenage demographic typically not interested in animation , and called Atlantis a " marketing and creative gamble " .

Atlantis : The Lost Empire had its world premiere at Disney 's El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California on June 3 , 2001 and a limited release in New York City and Los Angeles on June 8 ; a wider release followed on June 15 . At the premiere , Destination : Atlantis was on display , featuring behind @-@ the @-@ scenes props from the film and information on the legend of Atlantis with video games , displays , laser tag , and other attractions . The Aquarium of the Pacific also loaned a variety of fish for display within the attraction . With a budget of $ 100 million , the film opened at # 2 on its debut weekend , earning $ 20 @.@ 3 million in 3 @,@ 011 theaters . The film 's international release began September 20 in Australia and other markets followed suit . During its 25 @-@ week theatrical run , Atlantis : The Lost Empire grossed over $ 186 million worldwide ( $ 84 million from the United States and Canada ) . Responding to its disappointing box @-@ office performance , Thomas Schumacher , then @-@ president of Walt Disney Feature Animation , said , " It seemed like a good idea at the time to not do a sweet fairy tale , but we missed . "

= = = Home media = = =

Atlantis : The Lost Empire was released on VHS and DVD January 29 , 2002 . During the first month of its home release , the film led in VHS sales and was third in VHS and DVD sales combined . Sales and rentals of the VHS and DVD combined would eventually accumulate $ 157 million in revenue by mid @-@ 2003 . Both a single @-@ disc DVD edition and a two @-@ disc collector 's edition ( with bonus features ) were released . The single @-@ disc DVD gave the viewer the option of viewing the film either in its original theatrical 2 @.@ 35 : 1 aspect ratio or a modified 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ratio ( utilizing pan and scan ) . Bonus features available on the DVD version included audio and visual commentary from the film team , a virtual tour of the CGI models , an Atlantean @-@ language tutorial , an encyclopedia on the myth of Atlantis , and the deleted Viking prologue scene . The two @-@ disc collector 's edition DVD contained all the single @-@ disc features and a disc with supplemental material detailing all aspects of the film 's production . The collector 's @-@ edition film could only be viewed in its original theatrical ratio , and also featured an optional DTS 5 @.@ 1 track . Both DVD versions , however , contained a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 track and were THX certified . Disney digitally remastered and released Atlantis on Blu @-@ ray on June 11 , 2013 , bundled with its sequel Atlantis : Milo 's Return .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 49 % of 140 professional critics have given Atlantis : The Lost Empire a positive review , with a rating average of 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The site 's consensus is that " Atlantis provides a fast @-@ paced spectacle , but stints on such things as character development and a coherent plot " . Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on 29 reviews from mainstream critics ; this was considered " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinema @-@ goers gave Atlantis : The Lost Empire was an " A " on an A + -to @-@ F scale .

While critics had mixed reactions to the film in general , some praised it for its visuals , action @-@ adventure elements , and its attempt to appeal to an older audience . Roger Ebert gave Atlantis three @-@ and @-@ half stars out of four . He praised the animation 's " clean bright visual look " and the " classic energy of the comic book style " , crediting this to the work of Mike Mignola . Ebert gave particular praise to the story and the final battle scene and wrote , " The story of Atlantis is rousing in an old pulp science fiction sort of way , but the climactic scene transcends the rest , and stands by itself as one of the great animated action sequences . " In The New York Times , Elvis Mitchell gave high praise to the film , calling it " a monumental treat " , and stated , " Atlantis is also one of the most eye @-@ catching Disney cartoons since Uncle Walt institutionalized the four @-@ fingered glove . " James Berardinelli , film critic for ReelViews , wrote a positive review of the film , giving it three out of four stars . He wrote , " On the whole , Atlantis offers 90 minutes of solid entertainment , once again proving that while Disney may be clueless when it comes to producing good live @-@ action movies , they are exactly the opposite when it comes to their animated division . " Wesley Morris of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote positively of the film 's approach for an older audience : " But just beneath the surface , Atlantis brims with adult possibility . "

Other critics felt that the film was mediocre in regards to its story and characters , and that it failed to deliver as a non @-@ musical to Disney 's traditional audience . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C + rating , writing that the movie had " gee @-@ whiz formulaic character " and was " the essence of craft without dream " . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times noted the storyline and characterizations were " old @-@ fashioned " and the film had the retrograde look of a Saturday @-@ morning cartoon , but these deficiencies were offset by its " brisk action " and frantic pace . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote , " Disney pushes into all @-@ talking , no @-@ singing , no @-@ dancing and , in the end , no @-@ fun animated territory . " Stephanie Zacharek of Salon loathed the film , specifically Disney 's attempt to make the film for an adult audience , of which she wrote , " The big problem with Disney 's latest animated feature , Atlantis : The Lost Empire , is that it doesn 't seem geared to kids at all : It 's so adult that it 's massively boring . " Rita Kempley of The Washington Post panned the film , calling it a " new @-@ fashioned but old @-@ fangled hash " and wrote , " Ironically Disney had hoped to update its image with this mildly diverting adventure , yet the picture hasn 't really broken away from the tried @-@ and @-@ true format spoofed in the far superior Shrek . "

= = = Themes and interpretations = = =

Several critics and scholars have noted that Atlantis plays strongly on themes of anti @-@ capitalism and anti @-@ imperialism . M. Keith Booker , academic and author of studies about the implicit messages conveyed by media , views the character of Rourke as being motivated by " capitalist greed " when he pursues " his own financial gain " in spite of the knowledge that " his theft [ of the crystal ] will lead to the destruction of [ Atlantis ] " . Religion journalist Mark Pinsky , in his exploration of moral and spiritual themes in popular Disney films , asserts that " it is impossible to read the movie ... any other way " than as " a devastating , unrelenting attack on capitalism and American imperialism " . Max Messier of FilmCritic.com observes , " Disney even manages to lambast the capitalist lifestyle of the adventurers intent on uncovering the lost city . Damn the imperialists ! " According to Booker , the film also " delivers a rather segregationist moral " by concluding with the discovery of the Atlanteans kept secret from other surface @-@ dwellers in order to maintain a separation between the two highly divergent cultures . Others saw Atlantis as an interesting look at utopian philosophy of the sort found in classic works of science fiction by H. G. Wells and Jules Verne .

When the film was released , some viewers noticed that Atlantis : The Lost Empire bore a number of similarities to the 1990 – 1991 Japanese anime television program Nadia : The Secret of Blue Water and the 1986 film Castle in the Sky from Studio Ghibli , particularly in its character design , setting , and story . Although Disney never responded formally to claims of plagiarism , co @-@ director Kirk Wise posted on a Disney animation news group in May 2001 , " Never heard of Nadia till it was mentioned in this [ news group ] . Long after we 'd finished production , I might add . " Both Atlantis and Nadia were inspired , in part , by the 1870 Jules Verne novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , of which Lee Zion ( reporting for Anime News Network ) wrote , " There are too many similarities not connected with 20 @,@ 000 Leagues for the whole thing to be coincidence . " Critics also saw parallels with the 1994 film Stargate . Milo 's characteristics were said to resemble those of Daniel Jackson , the protagonist of Stargate and its spinoff television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 — which coincidentally launched its own spinoff , titled Stargate Atlantis .

= = = Accolades = = =

= = Related works = =

Atlantis : the Lost Empire was meant to provide a springboard for an animated television series entitled Team Atlantis , which would have presented the further adventures of its characters . However , because of the film 's under @-@ performance at the box office the series was not produced . On May 20 , 2003 , Disney released a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel called Atlantis : Milo 's Return , consisting of three episodes planned for the aborted series . In addition , Disneyland planned to revive its Submarine Voyage ride with an Atlantis theme with elements from the movie and the ride was promoted with a meet @-@ and @-@ greet by the movie 's characters . These plans were canceled and the attraction was re @-@ opened in 2007 as the Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage , its theme based on the 2003 Disney · Pixar animated film Finding Nemo .

= = = Soundtrack = = =

The soundtrack to Atlantis : The Lost Empire was released on May 22 , 2001 . It consists primarily of James Newton Howard 's score and includes " Where the Dream Takes You " , written by Howard and Diane Warren and performed by Mýa . It was also available in a limited edition of 20 @,@ 000 numbered copies with a unique 3D album cover insert depicting the Leviathan from the film . A rare promotional edition ( featuring 73 minutes of material , compared to the 53 minutes on standard commercial editions ) was intended only for Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences voters , but was bootlegged and distributed with fan @-@ created artwork . Concerning the promotional edition , Filmtracks said , " Outside of about five minutes of superior additional material ( including the massive opening , " Atlantis Destroyed " ) , the complete presentation is mostly redundant . Still , Atlantis is an accomplished work for its genre . "

= = = Video games = = =

There are several video games based on the film . Atlantis The Lost Empire : Search for the Journal ( commonly known as Atlantis : Search for the Journal ) was developed by Zombie Studios and published by Buena Vista Games , a subsidiary of Disney Interactive . It was released on May 1 , 2001 , for the Microsoft Windows platform and was a first @-@ person shooter game , the first of two games based on the film developed by Zombie Studios and released for UPC labels from Kellogg 's products for promotion . Atlantis : The Lost Empire — Trial by Fire ( commonly known as Atlantis : Trial by Fire ) was the second game developed by Zombie Studios and published by Disney Interactive , and was released May 18 , 2001 , for the Microsoft Windows platform .

Atlantis : The Lost Empire is an action game developed by Eurocom for the PlayStation console which was released June 14 , 2001 . The player controls Milo , Audrey , Molière , and Vinny as they traverse Atlantis , unlocking its secrets . Some features in the game unlock others ( such as a movie ) by finding items hidden throughout the game . THQ released Disney 's Atlantis : The Lost Empire for the Game Boy Advance and Game Boy Color . It is a platform game in which the player controls Milo and three other characters from the film across 14 levels on a quest to discover Atlantis . The game was met with average to mixed reviews upon release . GameRankings and Metacritic gave it a score of 73 @.@ 83 % and 73 out of 100 for the PlayStation version ; 64 @.@ 50 % for the Game Boy Color version ; and 55 @.@ 86 % and 51 out of 100 for the Game Boy Advance version .

= = = Books = = =

= = = DVD media = = =

= = = Periodicals = = =

= Pam 's Replacement =

" Pam 's Replacement " is the seventh episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 159th episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 10 , 2011 . It was written by Allison Silverman and was directed by Matt Sohn . The episode guest stars Lindsey Broad and Steve Moore .

The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) trains an attractive temporary worker to take her place while she is on maternity leave , and enlists Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) support when she tries to show that Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) finds her replacement attractive . Meanwhile , Robert California ( James Spader ) surprises Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) , and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) when he requests to join their band .

" Pam 's Replacement " relates to Pam 's pregnancy ; Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby . The episode received mixed reviews from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode received 5 @.@ 96 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 marking a slight drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " Doomsday " .

= = Plot = =

Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) trains a temporary worker Cathy Simms ( Lindsey Broad ) so that she can take her place when she goes on maternity leave . In the break room , the other workers discuss how attractive Cathy is and how excited they are to have her in the office . Pam , being well into her pregnancy , is sensitive about her looks and so becomes offended by their discussion . Most of them respond by assuring Pam that she is , if anything , more sexually attractive than before she was pregnant . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , however , argues that sexual attractiveness is a mostly objective quality and pregnant women cannot be sexually attractive , and accuses the others of lying to spare Pam 's feelings . Troubled by Dwight 's comments , Pam asks her husband Jim ( John Krasinski ) if he finds the new temp attractive . Not wanting to upset his wife , Jim tells her that he does not find her replacement attractive , even objectively . Though Jim gives no sign of unease , Pam is convinced that he is lying to her , and enlists the help of the harshly honest Dwight to prove it . After a number of unsuccessful attempts to trick Jim into revealing he finds Pam 's replacement attractive , Dwight and Pam convince Jim to submit to a lie detection test in the form of a retail store 's blood pressure tester . At the conclusion of the interview , Dwight triumphantly announces that he recorded hypertension when Jim said he does not find the new temp attractive , but as Jim continues to insist he is telling the truth Dwight admits that he recorded equal hypertension on every question , including Jim 's name . Pam realizes that Jim has unusually high blood pressure , which his father also suffers from , and forgets about the issue in order to focus on her husband 's health .

Meanwhile , CEO Robert California ( James Spader ) surprises Andy ( Ed Helms ) , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) , and Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) when he asks to join their band after he finds them having a jam session in the warehouse . Soon thereafter , California 's friends , skilled musicians themselves , arrive to join in . Not having brought their own instruments , two of them take over Kevin 's drums and Darryl 's synthesizer , while Andy 's acoustic guitar is drowned out by the newcomer 's electric guitar . The three of them are thus relegated to playing percussion . Andy , Kevin and Darryl , with the help of warehouse worker Val , realize that they were ousted , and after a failed attempt to try getting their original band roles back , they instead satisfyingly jam outside by themselves .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by consulting producer Allison Silverman , her first writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the eighth season . It was directed by Matt Sohn , one of the series ' cinematographers and camera operators , his third directing credit for the series . The episode features a guest appearance from Lindsey Broad , and her character was described as " Pam ’ s competent and likable pal , " Cathy . She appeared in a recurring role in the eighth season . The episode also relates to Pam 's pregnancy . Jenna Fischer was actually pregnant and her pregnancy was written into the series with Pam and Jim having their second baby . The man who played Robert 's skilled drummer friend is Steve Moore , better known as " The Mad Drummer " for a viral video he was featured in .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original American broadcast , " Pam 's Replacement " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 96 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a two @-@ tenths decrease in the ratings from the previous episode , " Doomsday " . Despite this , however , the episode ranked second in its timeslot , beating Bones which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic and Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 2 % share , although both the latter two shows had more viewers . " Pam 's Replacement " was defeated by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 10 % share . Added with DVR viewers , who viewed the episode within seven days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 4 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 4 rating to the original viewership . A repeat of the episode on January 5 , 2012 drew 1 @.@ 85 million and received a 0 @.@ 7 rating / 2 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third and last in its time slot .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Pam 's Replacement " received generally mixed reviews from critics . HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall complimented the episode for staying true to the characters compared to the rest of the season , which he had criticized in an earlier review . He called the episode a " significant step up " albeit just " decent " in absolute terms . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized the Andy – Kevin – Darryl subplot for its lack of continuity or any sort of punchlines . He was also critical of the Pam – Dwight plot for not staying true to the characters , and suggested that the writers needed to write the show as less of " a bland copy of itself " . He called it one of the laziest half @-@ hours of the show and gave it a C − . Cindy White of IGN said that the episode needed a stronger A @-@ plot writing that the plots " felt like a meal made up of two tasty side dishes " . She gave it a 7 out of 10 . Hanna Lawrence of Hollywood.com praised the episode for being believable and for showing things that happen in real life . She also praised the Jim – Pam plot for showcasing the couple as not completely " perfect " . She called the band subplot " weak " .

= WASP @-@ 43b =

WASP @-@ 43b is a transiting planet in orbit around the young , active , and low @-@ mass star WASP @-@ 43 in the constellation Sextans . The planet is a Hot Jupiter with a mass twice that of Jupiter , and a radius equal to Jupiter 's . WASP @-@ 43b was flagged as a candidate by the SuperWASP program before they conducted follow @-@ ups using instruments at La Silla Observatory in Chile , which confirmed the planet 's existence and provided orbital and physical characteristics . The planet 's discovery was published on April 14 , 2011 .

At the time of its discovery , WASP @-@ 43b had an orbital period of approximately 0 @.@ 8 days ( 19 @.@ 2 hours ) , the second shortest orbit ever detected , surpassed only by WASP @-@ 19b . In addition , at the time of discovery , WASP @-@ 43b was the most closely orbiting Hot Jupiter known , a phenomenon that can most likely be explained by its host star 's low mass .

= = Observational history = =

WASP @-@ 43 was first flagged as host to a potential transiting event ( when a body crosses in front of and dims its host star ) by data collected by SuperWASP , a British organization working to discover transiting planets across the entirety of the sky . In particular , WASP @-@ 43 was observed first by the leg of WASP @-@ South at the South African Astronomical Observatory between January and May 2009 .

Later observation by both SuperWASPs in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres led to the collection of 13 @,@ 768 data points between January and May 2010 and to the use of the CORALIE spectrograph at La Silla Observatory in Chile . Fourteen measurements using the radial velocity method confirmed WASP @-@ 43b as a planet , revealing its mass in the process . The use of La Silla 's TRAPPIST telescope helped the science team working on the planet to create a light curve of the planet 's transit in December 2010 .

The planet 's discovery was published in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics on April 14 , 2011 .

In 2014 , secondary transit of the planet was reported . Full observation of phases of the planet was reported in the September of 2014 .

= = Host star = =

WASP @-@ 43 is a K @-@ type star in the Sextans constellation that is about 80 parsecs ( 261 light years ) away . The star has a mass of 0 @.@ 58 times that of the Sun , but is more diffuse with a radius of 0 @.@ 93 times that of the Sun . The star 's effective temperature is 4400 K , making the star cooler than the Sun , and is metal @-@ poor with regards to the Sun because it has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = − 0 @.@ 05 ( 89 % the amount of iron in the Sun ) . The star is young , and is estimated to be 598 million years old ( as compared to the Sun 's 4 @.@ 6 billion years ) . Analysis of emission lines have indicated that WASP @-@ 43 is an active star .

WASP @-@ 43 has one detected planet in its orbit , WASP @-@ 43b . The star has an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 4 , and thus is too faint to be seen with the unaided eye from Earth .

= = Characteristics = =

WASP @-@ 43b is a dense Hot Jupiter with a mass of 1 @.@ 78 times the mass of Jupiter , but a radius of 0 @.@ 93 times that of Jupiter 's . The planet orbits its host star at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 0142 AU every 0 @.@ 813475 days ( 19 @.@ 5234 hours ) ; this orbital period , at the time of WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery , was the second @-@ shortest orbit yet detected , surpassed only by WASP @-@ 19b . In addition , WASP @-@ 43b had the closest orbit to its host star ( among Hot Jupiters ) at the time of its discovery , comparable only to the Super @-@ Earth planet GJ 1214b and to the planetary candidate orbiting KOI @-@ 961 . While Hot Jupiters are known to have small orbital periods , planets with exceptionally small periods below three or four days are extremely rare ; however , in the case of WASP @-@ 43b , the planet 's proximity can be explained because its host star has a very low mass . The rarity of systems like that of WASP @-@ 43 and its planet suggest that Hot Jupiters do not usually occur around low @-@ mass stars , or that such planets cannot maintain stable orbits around such stars .

WASP @-@ 43b , along with the planets WASP @-@ 19b and WASP @-@ 18b , conflicted with currently accepted models of tidal movements derived from observations of the orbits of binary star systems . Revisions to the model with regard to planets were proposed to help the models conform to the orbital parameters of these planets .

In comparison , planet Mercury has an orbital period of 87 @.@ 97 days and lies at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 387 AU from the Sun .

= Flag of Poland =

The flag of Poland consists of two horizontal stripes of equal width , the upper one white and the lower one red . The two colors are defined in the Polish constitution as the national colors . A variant of the flag with the national coat of arms in the middle of the white stripe is legally reserved for official use abroad and at sea . A similar flag with the addition of a swallow @-@ tail is used as the naval ensign of Poland .

White and red were officially adopted as national colors in 1831 . They are of heraldic origin and derive from the tinctures ( colors ) of the coats of arms of the two constituent nations of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , i.e. the White Eagle of Poland and the Pursuer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , a white knight riding a white horse , both on a red shield . Prior to that , Polish soldiers wore cockades of various color combinations . The national flag was officially adopted in 1919 . Since 2004 , Polish Flag Day is celebrated on May 2 .

The flag is flown continuously on the buildings of the highest national authorities , such as the parliament and the presidential palace . Other institutions and many Polish people fly the national flag on national holidays and other special occasions of national significance . Current Polish law does not restrict the use of the national flag without the coat of arms as long as the flag is not disrespected .

Horizontal bicolors of white and red being a relatively widespread design , there are several flags that are similar but unrelated to the Polish one . There are two national flags with the red stripe above the white one : those of Indonesia and Monaco . In Poland , many flags based on the national design also feature the national colors .

= = Design = =

= = = Legal sources = = =

The colors and flags of the Republic of Poland are described in two legal documents : the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997 , and the Coat of Arms , Colors and Anthem of the Republic of Poland , and State Seals Act ( Ustawa o godle , barwach i hymnie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz o pieczęciach państwowych ) of 1980 with subsequent amendments ( henceforth referred to as " the Coat of Arms Act " ) .

Legislation concerning the national symbols is far from perfect . The Coat of Arms Act has been amended several times and refers extensively to executive ordinances , some of which have never been issued . Moreover , the Act contains errors , omissions and inconsistencies which make the law confusing , open to various interpretations and often not followed in practice .

= = = National colors = = =

According to Chapter I , Article 28 , paragraph 2 of the Constitution , the national colors of Poland are white and red . The Coat of Arms Act , Article 4 , further specifies that the colors are white and red in two horizontal , parallel stripes of equal width , of which the top one is white and the bottom one is red . If the colors are displayed vertically , the white stripe is placed on the left from the onlooker 's viewpoint . Attachment no . 2 to the Act shows the national colors in both horizontal and vertical alignment , as well as the official shades of both colors expressed as coördinates in the CIE xyY ( CIE 1931 ) color space with the tolerated color differences ( ΔE ) specified in the CIE 1976 ( L * , u * , v * ) color space ( CIELUV ) .

= = = Variants of the national flag = = =

The Constitution contains no mention of a national flag . Instead , the flag is defined by the Coat of Arms Act which specifies two variants of the national flag : the national flag of the Republic of Poland ( flaga państwowa Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) and the national flag with coat of arms of the Republic of Poland ( flaga państwowa z godłem Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) . Both flags are defined in Article 6 of the act as follows :

The state flag of the Republic of Poland is a rectangular piece of cloth in the colors of the Republic of Poland hoisted on a flagpole .

The state flag of the Republic of Poland is also the flag specified in paragraph 1 , with the coat of arms of the Republic of Poland placed in the middle of the white stripe .

The hoist to fly ratio for both flags is 5 : 8 . For the latter flag , the proportion between the inescutcheon of the coat of arms and the hoist is 2 : 5 . Images of both variations of the flag can be found in attachment no . 3 to the Coat of Arms Act .

= = Usage = =

= = = Respect for the flag = = =

Polish law says that treating the national symbols , including the flag , " with reverence and respect " is the " right and obligation " of every Polish citizen and all state organs , institutions and organizations . Public disrespect , destruction or intentional removal of the flag is considered a crime punishable by a fine , penal servitude or up to one year of imprisonment . Official statistics show that crimes against national symbols are rare : 43 such crimes in 2003 and 96 in 2004 were less than 0 @.@ 001 % of all crimes registered in Poland in those years . Other , unspecified violation of regulations on the Polish flag is an infraction , punishable by a fine or up to one month imprisonment .

= = = Right and obligation to fly the flag = = =

According to the Coat of Arms Act , everyone can use the Polish flag , especially during national and cultural events , as long as it is done in a respectful manner . This liberty in the use of national colors is a relative novelty . Until 2004 , Polish citizens were only allowed to fly the Polish flag on national holidays . The use of both variants was restricted , but only flying the flag with coat of arms was , from 1955 until 1985 , punishable by a fine or arrest for up to one year . After 1985 , unauthorized use of any national symbols was an infraction . A possible explanation to such harsh measures was the fact that the officially @-@ promoted holiday of May 1st was separated by only one day from the pre @-@ war ( and current ) national holiday of Poland , the anniversary of signing of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . While hoisting a flag on May 1 was acceptable , no later than the following day it must have been hidden .

This restriction and kind of state monopoly on the use of national symbols during the Communist regime made flying the Polish flag a symbol of resistance against the government . It became customary – and still is – for workers to hoist Polish flags on plant buildings when going on strike . This is why the Polish flag , as a symbol of patriotism and resistance against the Communist rule , is part of the Solidarity trade union logo .

= = = = Flag without coat of arms = = = =

Organs that are required by law to fly the national flag without coat of arms either on top or in front of their official buildings are :

the Sejm ( lower house of parliament ) ;

the Senate ( upper house of parliament ) ;

the President of the Republic ;

the Council of Ministers ( cabinet ) and the President of the Council of Ministers ( Prime Minister ) ;

Voivodeship sejmiks ( provincial legislatures ) – only during their sessions ;

other state and local government organs – only on national holidays .

Additionally , the national flag without coat of arms is used as an ensign for inland navigation .

= = = = Flag with coat of arms = = = =

While the ban on using the flag without coat of arms has been lifted , the use of the national flag with coat of arms is still legally restricted . This flag should be only flown :

on or in front of Polish embassies , consulates and other representative offices and missions abroad , as well as by Polish ambassadors and consuls on their residences and vehicles ;

at civilian airports and heliports ( civil air ensign ) ;

on civilian airplanes – only during international flights ;

on buildings of seaport authorities ;

as a merchant ( civil ) ensign .

In practice , however , this restriction is often ignored and the two flags – with and without coat of arms – are treated as interchangeable . The variant with the coat of arms is particularly often used by the Polonia , or Polish diaspora outside Poland , especially in the United States .

= = = Flag flying days = = =

State and local government organs are legally required , and other institutions and organizations as well as all citizens are encouraged to fly the Polish flag on the following days :

May 1 – State Holiday ( May Day , formerly Labor Day ) ;

May 2 – Polish Flag Day ;

May 3 – Constitution Day ;

November 11 – Independence Day .

Polish Flag Day ( formally : Flag of the Republic of Poland Day , Dzień Flagi Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ) was first observed on May 2 , 2004 . It was established in order to educate the Polish people about the history and significance of national symbols . The date was chosen to coincide with the Polonia Day traditionally observed by the Polish diaspora outside Poland and the Polish Senate on May 2 . There was also a historical reason : under the Communist regime , May 2 was a day when national flags , hoisted for Labor Day on May 1 were being quickly removed before Polish Constitution Day ( May 3 ) , which was banned by the authorities . Since the re @-@ introduction of the Constitution Day in 1990 and establishment of the Polish Flag Day , the flag is flown continuously during the first three days of May . Unlike May Day and Constitution Day , the Flag Day is not a public holiday , although making a bridge , i.e. taking a day off on that day is common practice ( see Holidays in Poland ) .

Other days when the Polish flag is often flown on official buildings include :

May 5 and May 9 – Europe Days ( together with the European flag ) ;

August 15 – Polish Armed Forces Day ( mostly on military premises and at tombs of the Unknown Soldier )

September 27 – Polish Underground State Day .

The flag is also popularly flown during important sporting events , such as the FIFA World Cup , if Polish athletes are participating ; and during an official visit of a particularly important person , especially a pope , in Poland . During a pope 's visit , the national flag is usually flown together with yellow and white Church flags , and white and blue Marian flags . It is uncommon to fly the national flag on personal occasions , such as birthdays or weddings .

According to polls , about one out of three Poles say they own a Polish flag , and about one out of four fly it on national holidays . Such public display of patriotism is much more common in western Poland , especially in Greater Poland , than in other parts of the country .

= = Flag protocol = =

Flags in Poland are used according to a customary , rather than legal , flag protocol . Apart from the obligation to treat the flag with due respect , Polish law does not offer a detailed code of correct usage of the Polish flag . Some organizations and public institutions , such as the Heraldic and Vexillological Institute and the Supreme Chamber of Control have proposed written flag protocols for the Polish flag , based on custom , flag protocols of other countries such as India and the United States , and common sense . These guidelines , however , are not legally binding .

Traditionally , the national flag is reserved to serve either informative of festive purposes . A single specimen of the flag on or in front of a public office building indicates its official role . Multiple flags , on the other hand , are normally used to decorate both public and private buildings to mark special occasions , such as national holidays .

In Polish heraldry , the tincture of the charge has priority in relation to the tincture of the field . In the case of Polish national colors , white , the color of the White Eagle , should always be placed in a more honorable position than red , the color of the field of the Polish coat of arms . In the most usual , horizontal alignment , this means that the white stripe is placed above the red one . If the alignment is vertical , the white stripe should be on the left from the onlooker 's point of view . If the flag is hung vertically above a street , the white stripe should be placed on the left when looking in the direction of increasing house numbers . If it drapes a coffin , the white stripe should be placed over the heart .

The flag should be raised before 8 a.m. and lowered at sunset , and if flown at night , it should be illuminated . During a ceremonial raising of the flag , the national anthem is played so that the timing of the raising matches the duration of the anthem . Civilians pay respect by standing in a dignified manner ; additionally , men uncover their heads . Members of uniformed services stand at attention ; if their uniform includes headgear and they are not standing in an organized group , they also perform the two @-@ finger salute . Color guards dip their banners to the flag . ( See video )

According to generally accepted standards of respect , the national flag should never be dipped to any person or thing . Care should be taken to prevent the flag from touching the ground , floor or water beneath it . It should be also secured from being torn off or falling to the ground and it should not be flown outdoors during a heavy rain , blizzard or very strong wind . The flag should never be flown dirty , torn or faded . When no longer in a fit condition to be used , it should be disposed of in a dignified manner , preferably by cutting it in half so as to separate the colors and then , burning .

When displayed with other flags , the Polish flag should be raised first and lowered last . Each flag must be flown from a separate pole of the same height , but the flag of Poland should be always placed in the most honorable position . It means that if the total number of flags is even , the Polish flag should be placed to its right of the other flags . If the total number of flags is odd , it should be placed in the middle . Alternatively , two Polish flags may be placed , one at each end of the row of flags . The order of precedence for flags is as follows :

flag of Poland ,

national flags of other countries ( in alphabetical order ) ,

voivodeship flags ,

county flags ,

commune flags ,

European flag ,

flags of domestic organizations ,

flags of international organizations ,

public services flags ,

corporate flags ,

other flags .

The President of the Republic may announce a period of national mourning . During that time Polish flags are flown at half @-@ staff . If a flag is flown from a wooden pole rather than a staff or mast , a black ribbon is attached to the pole as a sign of mourning or a black flag is flown to its left from the national flag .

= = History = =

= = = Royal banner = = =

The earliest vexilloids ( flag @-@ like objects ) used in Poland were known as stanice and probably resembled the Roman vexillum , that is a cloth draped vertically from a horizontal crosspiece attached to a wooden pole or spear . They served as both religious and military symbols as early as 10th century CE . With Poland 's conversion to Christianity in 966 , the stanice were probably Christianized by replacing pagan symbols with Christian ones . The royal banner of arms dates back to the reign of King Boleslaus the Generous ( r . 1076 – 1079 ) , but it was during the reign of King Vladislaus the Elbow @-@ High ( r . 1320 – 1333 ) that a red cloth emblazoned with the White Eagle of the arms of Poland was finally established as the Banner of the Kingdom of Poland , a symbol of royal authority used at coronations and in battles .

In the times of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( 1569 – 1795 ) , a banner of the Commonwealth was also used , combining the heraldic symbols of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The Commonwealth banner was initially plain white emblazoned with the arms of the Commonwealth which consisted of the heraldic charges of Poland ( White Eagle ) and Lithuania ( Pursuer ) . Since both Polish and Lithuanian coats of arms consisted of white ( Argent ) charges in a red ( Gules ) field , these two colors started to be used for the entire banner . During the 17th century , the banner was usually divided into two , three or four horizontal , often swallow @-@ tailed , stripes of red and white .

= = = National cockade = = =

In the 18th and 19th centuries , European nations used cockades , or knots of colored ribbons pinned to the hat , to denote the nationality of their military . In Poland , until 1831 , there was no consensus as to what the colors of the national cockade should be . Polish soldiers wore white , white @-@ and @-@ red , blue @-@ and @-@ red or blue @-@ white @-@ red cockades .

The custom came to Poland from Saxony during the reign of Augustus II ( r . 1697 – 1733 ) , King of Poland and Elector of Saxony . During that time , the cockade worn by the Polish military had , like in Saxony , the form of a white silk ribbon with a knot in the middle . It was later replaced with a circular white cockade wrinkled toward the center , patterned after the cockade of the Kingdom of France . During the reign of King Stanislaus Augustus ( r . 1764 – 1795 ) , a white @-@ and @-@ red cockade came into use alongside the plain white one . In 1791 , the Military Commission introduced a metal cross pattée as a more durable alternative to the cockade . However , many soldiers continued to either pin the cross to the cockade or wear the cockade without the cross . Polish military leaders and national heroes of the time , such as General Tadeusz Kościuszko and Prince Józef Poniatowski pinned plain white " national " cockades to their hats .

The patriotic and staunchly Catholic members of the Bar Confederation of 1768 – 1772 adopted crimson – the symbol of Polish szlachta , or nobility – and blue – symbolizing Virgin Mary – as their colors . These , as well as white @-@ and @-@ red , were considered national colors during the Great Sejm of 1788 – 1792 . White and red were first publicly used as national colors by civilians on May 3 , 1792 in Warsaw , during a celebration of the first anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of 1791 . Meanwhile , the political left wore the blue @-@ white @-@ red cockades of the French Revolution . Polish Legions created in 1797 in French @-@ controlled republics in Italy , used either national cockades of the particular Italian republics in which they served or the French tricolor cockade . In the latter case , the red and blue colors were replaced with crimson and navy blue respectively , hues considered to be traditionally Polish . The General Confederation of the Kingdom of Poland , which sought to revive the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth during the French invasion of Russia in 1812 , adopted red @-@ and @-@ blue cockades , symbolizing the unity of Poland ( red ) and Lithuania ( blue ) . The military of the French @-@ controlled Duchy of Warsaw ( 1807 – 1815 ) and the Russian @-@ controlled Congress Kingdom of Poland ( 1815 – 1831 ) used the white cockade , which was also worn by the cadets who started the November Uprising against Russian rule on November 29 , 1830 .

During the uprising , the Sejm realized the need for unified national insignia that could be used by the Polish military . On February 7 , 1831 it adopted white and red , the tinctures ( colors ) of the Polish and Lithuanian coats of arms , as the national cockade of Poland . The white @-@ and @-@ red cockade was henceforth worn by Polish soldiers in the November Uprising , as well as by participants of the Kraków Uprising of 1846 , Polish freedom fighters in the Grand Duchy of Posen and the Austrian Empire during the Spring of Nations of 1848 , and Polish insurgents during the January Uprising of 1863 – 1864 . White and red colors were also used by civilians to show their protest against the Russian rule , as well as by people in France , Britain , Germany , Belgium and other countries as a sign of their sympathy with the Polish cause . The Sejm 's decision was not , however , immediately accepted by all . Left @-@ wing politicians of the time , such as Joachim Lelewel , continued to regard the revolutionary blue , white and red as true national colors . Tricolor standards were used by some Polish guerrilla units during the January Uprising .

= = = Twentieth century = = =

White @-@ and @-@ red flags were first waved during a patriotic demonstration on May 3 , 1916 in Warsaw . The organizing committee advised participants about the correct alignment of the colors , that is with the white stripe above the red one . Still , many demonstrators brought flags with the red stripe on top . On August 1 , 1919 , almost a year after Poland regained independence in November 1918 , the Sejm officially introduced a white @-@ and @-@ red bicolor as the Polish national flag . In order to avoid confusion with the white @-@ and @-@ red maritime signal flag used internationally by harbor pilots and tugboats , the same act of Sejm introduced a variant of the flag with the coat of arms in the white stripe for use as a civil ensign and by Polish diplomats and consuls abroad .

Apart from changes in the legal specifications of the shades of the national colors ( see the section below ) , the basic design of the Polish flag , including the 5 : 8 ratio , has remained unchanged to this day . The flag with coat of arms was only modified to adjust to the changes in the coat of arms itself . Major modifications included a change in the stylization of the eagle from Classicist to Baroque in 1927 and the removal of the crown from the eagle 's head during the Communist rule from 1944 to 1990 .

20th @-@ century Polish insurgents wore white @-@ and @-@ red brassards ( armbands ) which played a role similar to the cockade of previous centuries . Such armbands were worn by Polish freedom fighters during the Greater Poland Uprising ( 1918 – 1919 ) and Silesian Uprisings ( 1919 – 1921 ) , as well as during the Second World War ( 1939 – 1945 ) by the soldiers of the Home Army ( AK ) and Peasants ' Battalions ( BCh ) – usually emblazoned with the acronyms of their formations . During the Second World War , Polish soldiers raised the Polish flag on several sites of their victories . On May 18 , 1944 , after an Allied victory over the German forces in the Battle of Monte Cassino , a patrol of the 12th Podolian Uhlan Regiment ( part of the Polish 3rd Carpathian Rifle Division ) raised a Polish flag on ruins of the Monte Cassino abbey in Italy . On August 1 , 1944 , the first day of the Warsaw Uprising , a white @-@ and @-@ red flag was hoisted on the Prudential building , Warsaw 's tallest skyscraper of the time . During the liberation of Warsaw by Soviet forces and Polish People 's Army on January 17 , 1945 , Polish flags were raised on the Belvedere palace and ruins of the Main Railway Station . On May 2 , 1945 , after the capture of Berlin , soldiers of the 7th Battery , 3rd Division , 1st Light Artillery Regiment planted Polish flags on the Berlin Victory Column .

Polish flags were also used by anti @-@ government demonstrators under the Communist rule . During the bloody riots of 1956 in Poznań and 1970 in Gdynia , protesters carried flags that were blood @-@ stained on the white stripe .

= = = Shades of red = = =

Until 1927 , the exact shades of the national colors were not legally specified . In practice , the actual hue , particularly of red , depended on what kind of red dye was available . In pre @-@ partition Poland , crimson , due to its high price , was a color associated with the rich and the privileged . It could be obtained from the domestically harvested Polish cochineal , although imported alternatives were also available : kermes from the Mediterranean Basin ( hence karmazyn , the Polish name of the color ) and Mexican cochineal after the discovery of the New World . Crimson was reserved for the nobility and considered a symbol of the aristocracy , so that karmazyn became synonymous with a magnate . A royal ban on wearing this color could be a form of punishment ; in the 14th century , the Nałęcz clan of Greater Poland were forbidden to dress in crimson for their ancestors ' complicity in the assassination of King Premislaus in 1296 . In the first half of the 19th century , due to the influence of French fashion , crimson was largely replaced with the cheaper amaranth .

The National Cockade Act of 1831 did not specify the shade of red , for which it was criticized by Joachim Lelewel , nor did the Coat of Arms and National Colors Act of 1919 . In 1921 , the Ministry of Military Affairs issued a pamphlet with illustrations of the Polish flag and other national symbols which used the crimson shade of red . The pamphlet was not , however , an official source of law and was published for informative purpose only . The shade of red was first legally specified by a presidential decree of December 13 , 1927 which stipulated that the official shade was vermilion . This specification was upheld by a decree of December 7 , 1955 . The Coat of Arms Act of January 31 , 1980 replaced the verbal prescription with trichromatic coordinates in the CIE color space as proposed by Nikodem Sobczak , an expert in colorimetry , bringing the resulting hue closer to crimson again .

= = Related and similar flags = =

The flag of the Grand Duchy of Posen , a Polish @-@ populated autonomous province of the Kingdom of Prussia created in 1815 , was a red @-@ and @-@ white horizontal bicolor . Its colors were taken from the duchy 's coat of arms which consisted of the Prussian Black Eagle with an inescutcheon of the Polish White Eagle . With Germany 's increasingly anti @-@ Polish policy and a rising identification of white and red as Polish national colors , the red @-@ and @-@ white flag of Posen was replaced in 1886 with a white @-@ black @-@ white horizontal triband . No other part of Poland during the time of Partitions used a flag that would incorporate Polish national colors .

Today , many flags used in Poland are based on the design of the national flag . This applies especially to flags defined by Polish law and used by the Polish military and other uniformed services , such as the naval ensign – a swallow @-@ tailed horizontal bicolor of white and red defaced with the arms of Poland in the white stripe . Flags of some administrative subdivisions also resemble the national flag . Examples include the former flag of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship – a horizontal bicolor of white and red defaced with the arms of the voivodeship – or the flag of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship – a horizontal tricolor of white , yellow and red with the yellow stripe half as wide as any of the other two .

Due to the horizontal bicolor being a relatively simple and widespread flag design , and white and red being the most popular colors used on flags , there are many flags worldwide that are similar or near identical to the flag of Poland despite being unrelated to it . For example , the historical flag of Bohemia , the major historical region of Poland 's southern neighbor , the Czech Republic , consists of two horizontal stripes , white on top and red on bottom . Similarly to the flag of Poland , it is of heraldic origin , the coat of arms of Bohemia being Gules , a lion rampant , queue fourchée Argent , crowned , langued and armed Or , that is a silver double @-@ tailed lion in a red field . The white @-@ and @-@ red Bohemian flag came into use when Bohemia was a province of Austria @-@ Hungary and , after the end of the First World War in 1918 , it was shortly used as a flag of the newly formed Czecho @-@ Slovak Republic . In 1920 , in order to avoid confusion with the Polish flag , a blue triangle was added to create a flag used by Czechoslovakia until its dissolution in 1993 and currently used as the flag of the Czech Republic .

Other examples of flags that could be confused with the Polish one include the civil flags of the following regions : Cantabria , Spain ; Kranj , Slovenia ; Thuringia , Germany ; Upper Austria and Tyrol , Austria ; as well the city of Honda , Colombia . Furthermore , the Dutch city of Maastricht used a similar design between 1938 @-@ 1994 but reinstitated its old flag to avoid confusion . There are currently two independent states – Indonesia and Monaco – whose national flags are horizontal bicolors of red and white , reversing the Polish flag . The Monaco and Indonesia flags differ in proportions and shades of the colors ( see Flag of Indonesia and Flag of Monaco ) .

= Archimyrmex =

Archimyrmex is an extinct genus of ant in the formicid subfamily Myrmeciinae , described by palaeoentomologist Theodore Cockerell in 1923 . The genus contains four described species , Archimyrmex rostratus , Archimyrmex piatnitzkyi , Archimyrmex smekali and Archimyrmex wedmannae . Archimyrmex is known from a group of Middle Eocene fossils which were found in North America , South America , and Europe . The genus was initially placed in the subfamily Ponerinae , but it was later placed in Myrmeciinae ; it is now believed to be the ancestor of the extant primitive genus Myrmecia from Australia . Despite this , Archimyrmex is not a member to any tribe and is regarded as incertae sedis within Myrmeciinae . However , some authors believe Archimyrmex should be assigned as incertae sedis within Formicidae . These ants can be characterised by their large mandibles and body length , ranging from 13 @.@ 2 to 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 to 1 @.@ 18 in ) . They also have long , thin legs and an elongated mesosoma ( thorax ) and petiole .

= = History and classification = =

When described the genus Archimyrmex was known from a solitary fossil preserved as an impression in fine shale of the Green River formation in Colorado . The fossil was recovered in July 1922 from the " station 1 " fossil site near the top of the Ute trail by entomologist Wilmatte Porter Cockerell . One side of the A. rostratus holotype is currently deposited in the University of Colorado paleontology collections while the counterpart is in the US National Museum , and an additional eleven fossils were known as of 2002 . The holotype was first studied by palaeoentomologist Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell of the University of Colorado and his 1923 type description of the new genus and species was published in The Entomologist . The specific epithet " rostratus " is a reference to the beak @-@ like outline of the mandibles seen in the type specimen .

Cockerell placed the genus into the subfamily Ponerinae . He noted similarities between Archimyrmex and Myrmecia and Prionomyrmex , suggesting Archimyrmex to be an intermediate between the two other genera . The genus was re @-@ described in 1928 by palaeoentomologist William Wheeler who moved the genus from Ponerinae to Myrmicinae . This placement was not challenged until a 2003 paper by Russian palaeoentomologists G.M. Dlussky and K.S. Perfilieva , who moved the genus again , this time to the primitive Subfamily Myrmeciinae based on the close similarity between Archimyrmex and Prionomyrmex . In 1957 , an additional species of fossil ant was described from the Middle Eocene Ventana Formation in the Rio Pichileufu region of Argentina by M.J. Viana and J.A. Haedo Rossi . They placed the species into a new genus , Ameghinoia as Ameghinoia " piatnitzkyi . As with Archimyrmex , the genus was first placed in Ponerinae . It was subsequently moved to Myrmeciinae by R.R. Snelling in 1981 . A second Ventana Formation ant species was described in 1981 by E. Rossi de Garcia and placed into another new genus Polanskiella as P. smekali . Recovered from an outcrop of the Ventana Formation in the Rio Limay area , Rossi de Garcia distinguished the new species from " A. " piatnitzkyi based on characteristics of the wing venation and because of the difference in size of the two type specimens . A series of fossils from the three genera were examined by Dlussky and Perfilieva and based on the very notable similarities between the three species , they synonymized the three genera under Archimyrmex , treating both Ameghinoia and " Polanskiella " as junior synonyms . A fourth species , A. wedmannae was described by Dlussky in 2012 based on fossils found in the Middle Eocene Messel Pit site of Germany . The specific epithet was chosen by Dlussky to honour paleoentomologist Sonja Wedmann .

Before Archimyrmex was placed into the subfamily Myrmeciinae , Wheeler classified the genus as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmicinae , as it could not be confidently placed into any ant tribe . Even after its placement within Myrmeciinae it was still classified as incertae sedis . However , Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland classified the genus as incertae sedis within the family Formicidae . Baroni Urbani justifies his decision by stating the characters of the ant are similar to those of Cariridris , an insect from the Lower Cretaceous that was once placed in Myrmeciinae , but is now incertae sedis within the subclade Aculeata . Archimyrmex also shares a similar structure to other ants and insects within the order Hymenoptera . The key diagnostic traits ( synapomorphies ) of Myrmeciinae ants cannot be observed although the described species have elongated scapes ( the first segment of the antenna ) , a key diagnostic trait for Formicidae . A 2012 report describing new myrmecine fossils accepted the classification of Archibald and colleagues while disregarding Baroni Urbani 's comments .

The following cladogram generated by Archibald and colleagues show the possible phylogenetic position of Archimyrmex among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; it is possible that Archimyrmex may be the ancestor of Myrmecia .

= = Description = =

In general Archimyrmex individuals have a head capsule that bears a set of enlarged | mandibles with either a rectangular or triangular outline . The mandibles have a mixed arrangement of teeth and denticles ( smaller teeth ) on the inside margin . The gynes have long legs and long mesosomas , an elongated petiole ( a narrow waist between the mesosoma and gaster ) which is usually smooth in profile on the upper surface . The petiole structure in combination with little to no constriction between abdominal segments III and IV is unique to the genus and separates it from the other Myrmeciinae genera .

= = = A. piatnitzkyi = = =

A. piatnitzkyi is reported from three specimens , giving a body length between 16 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 63 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) . The holotype is currently preserved at the Bernardino Rivadavia Natural Sciences Museum palaeoentomological collection . The head capsule is slightly ovoid , being a little longer than it is wide and having elongated mandibles that are notably shorter than the head . As with A. smekali , the mesosoma is massive , being between 1 @.@ 7 @-@ 1 @.@ 8 times as long as it is tall . The legs are like those of the other species , being long and thin . Unlike the other species , the petiole of A. piatnitzkyi does not have a constricted post @-@ petiole .

= = = A. rostratus = = =

The type specimen numbers are UC no . 15174 and USNM no . 69617 for the part and counterpart ; females of the type species A. rostratus have a body length estimated to be between 13 @.@ 2 – 15 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 – 0 @.@ 62 in ) , with a small gaster that is shorter than the mesosoma and sporting a short thick sting . The length of the head when excluding the mandibles is 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) , the mesosoma is 5 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 21 in ) and the middle femur is around 3 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 15 in ) . The preserved specimens are brown and the upper area of the head and gaster is black , which is similar to Myrmecia nigriceps . The head capsules have antennae borne on a scape which is long and passes the edge of the occipital margin of the head . The short , thickened mandibles have several larger teeth interspersed with small denticles , and are about 50 % of the length of the head capsule . The scape is believed to be long and thin , and its mesosoma is narrow and long . The width of the scutum is greater than its length , the legs are noticeably elongated and thin , and the podeum ( a narrow stalk that connects the mesosoma with the abdomen ) is slightly convex .

= = = A. smekali = = =

The A. smekali lectotype numbered NMW. no . 1972 / 1574 / 9 is housed in the Museum of Natural History . The lectotype female has an estimated body length of 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) with an mesosoma that is described as " relatively massive " ( being only 1 @.@ 7 @-@ 1 @.@ 9 times as long as tall ) and an oval shaped gaster . There is a notable constriction in the post @-@ petiole abdominal segment not seen in the other species . The head capsule has mandibles which are about 70 % as long as the head capsule , and have four to five large teeth each . The antennal scape is longer than the occipital margin and the antenna is composed of an estimated twelve segments . The legs are elongated and narrow , the propodeum is weakly convex and the petiole does not have a node ( a segment between the mesosoma and gaster ) . A. smekali can be distinguished from other species by its massive size , the constriction in the post @-@ petiole and the absence of the node . It was previously thought the ant had an eight @-@ segmented antennae , but the lectotype has seven segments ; Dlussky also mentions that the original description provided by Elsa Rossi de Garcia does not match the description he provided .

= = = A. wedmannae = = =

A. wedmannae from Germany is described from a single gyne that is approximately 23 mm ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) , found in the Messel pit . The fossil is believed to be 47 million years old . The mesosoma measures 7 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 29 in ) , the length of the head is 2 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) , the scape is 3 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 13 in ) , the diameter of the eyes are 1 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 047 in ) and the forewings are 10 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 42 in ) . The species has a head which is shorter than it is wide , but has mandibles about as long as the head which are triangular in outline . The eyes are oval shaped . As with the three other species the antennal scape is long , one @-@ third of the scape length protrudes past the occipital margin of the head . The pronotum in profile is either straight or weakly concave , and the petiole is weakly rounded with no node present . The propodeum has small denticles and is weakly convex , and the legs are long . The gaster has a well developed and long sting . This species can be distinguished from other Archimyrmex ants by its long mandibles ; the shape of the petiole is almost the same as A. smekali , but their mandibles are much shorter and the mesosoma is more compact . The propodeum 's dorsal surface is also more convex .

= Kīlauea =

Kīlauea ( English / ˌkiːlaʊˈeɪə / KEE @-@ low @-@ AY @-@ ə , also US / ˌkɪləˈweɪə / KIL @-@ ə @-@ WAY @-@ ə ; Hawaiian : [ tiːlɐwˈwɛjə ] ) is a currently active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands , and the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island of Hawaiʻi . Located along the southern shore of the island , the volcano is between 300 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100 @,@ 000 years ago . It is the second youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa , Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor . Structurally , Kīlauea has a large , fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones , one extending 125 km ( 78 mi ) east and the other 35 km ( 22 mi ) west , as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year .

Kīlauea 's eruptive history has been a long and active one ; its name means " spewing " or " much spreading " in the Hawaiian language , referring to its frequent outpouring of lava . The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage , samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes ; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples . Lavas younger than 1 @,@ 000 years cover 90 percent of the volcano 's surface . The oldest exposed lavas date back 2 @,@ 800 years . The first well @-@ documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 ( Western contact and written history began in 1778 ) , and since that time the volcano has erupted repeatedly . Most historical eruptions have occurred at the volcano 's summit or its eastern rift zone , and are prolonged and effusive in character . The geological record shows , however , that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common , and in 1790 one such eruption killed over 80 warriors ; should explosive activity start anew the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans . Kīlauea 's current eruption dates back to January 3 , 1983 , and is by far its longest @-@ duration historical period of activity , as well as one of the longest @-@ duration eruptions in the world ; as of January 2011 , the eruption has produced 3 @.@ 5 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava and resurfaced 123 @.@ 2 km2 ( 48 sq mi ) of land .

Kīlauea 's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless , wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea 's ( and the island of Hawaiʻi 's ) isolation from the nearest landmass . Historically , the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea 's Halemaumau Crater served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . William Ellis , a missionary from England , gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano ; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera , has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general . In 1916 a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson ; since then the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination , attracting roughly 2 @.@ 6 million people annually .

= = Geology = =

= = = Setting = = =

Like all Hawaiian volcanoes , Kīlauea was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth 's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that , over 70 million years , has created the 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) -long Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing , though not completely settled , view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet 's mantle for much , if not all of the Cenozoic Era . However , while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well @-@ understood and extensively studied , the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic .

Kīlauea is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi , created by the Hawaii hotspot . The oldest volcano on the island , Kohala , is more than a million years old , and Kīlauea , the youngest , is believed to be between 300 @,@ 000 and 600 @,@ 000 years of age ; Lōʻihi Seamount on the island 's flank is even younger , but has yet to breach the surface . Thus it is the second youngest volcano in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain , a chain of shield volcanoes and seamounts extending from Hawaii to the Kuril – Kamchatka Trench in Russia .

Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation , Kīlauea started as a submarine volcano , gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt lava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions about 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ago . Since then , the volcano 's activity has likely been as it is now , a continual stream of effusive and explosive eruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity in the last 200 or 300 years .

At most 600 @,@ 000 years old , Kīlauea is still quite young for a Hawaiian volcano ; the oldest volcano on the island , the northwestern Kohala , experienced almost 900 @,@ 000 years of activity before going extinct . The volcano 's foreseeable future activity will likely be much like it has been for the past 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ; Hawaiian and explosive activity will continue to heighten Kīlauea 's summit , build up its rift zones , and fill and refill its summit caldera .

= = = Structure = = =

Kīlauea has been active throughout its history . Since 1918 , Kīlauea 's only prolonged period of rest was an 18 @-@ year pause between 1934 and 1952 . The bulk of Kīlauea consists of solidified lava flows , intermittent with scattered volcanic ash and tephra sourced from relatively lower @-@ volume explosive eruptions . Much of the volcano is covered in historical flows , and 90 percent of its surface dates from the last 1 @,@ 100 years . Kīlauea built itself up from the seafloor over time , and thus much of its bulk remains underwater ; its subaerial surface is in the form of a gently sloping , elongate , decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1 @,@ 500 km2 ( 579 sq mi ) , making up 13 @.@ 7 percent of the island 's total surface area .

Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence , appearing only as a bulge on the southeastern flank of the nearby Mauna Loa ; because of this , both native Hawaiians and early geologists considered it an active satellite of its more massive neighbor . However , analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes shows that they have separate magma chambers , and are thus distinct . Nonetheless , their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other . When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952 , Mauna Loa became active , and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974 , the reverse was true . This is not always the case ; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea , but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption , and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loa 's summit , indicative of a future eruption , began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlauea 's Puʻu ʻŌʻō crater . Geologists have suggested that " pulses " of magma entering Mauna Loa 's deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions .

Kīlauea has a large summit caldera , measuring 4 by 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 by 2 mi ) with walls up to 120 m ( 400 ft ) high , breached by lava flows on the southwestern side . It is unknown if the caldera was always there or if it is a relatively recent feature , and it is possible that it has come and gone throughout Kīlauea 's eruptive history ; what is known is that it likely formed over several centuries , with its construction estimated to have begun about 500 years ago , and that its present form was finalized by a particularly powerful eruption in 1790 . A major feature within the caldera is Halemaʻumaʻu Crater , a large pit crater and one of Kīlauea 's most historically active eruption centers . The crater is approximately 920 m ( 3 @,@ 018 ft ) in diameter and 85 m ( 279 ft ) deep , but its form has varied widely through its eruptive history ; the floor of the Halemaʻumaʻu Crater is now mostly covered by flows from its most recent eruption , in 1974 .

Kīlauea has two rift zones radiating from its summit , one leading 125 km ( 78 mi ) out to the east , the other 35 km ( 22 mi ) long and trending towards the southwest . Tectonic extension along both rift zones is causing Kīlauea 's bulk to slowly slide seaward off its southern flank at a rate of about 6 to 10 cm ( 2 to 4 in ) per year , centered on a basal décollement fault 7 to 9 km ( 4 to 6 mi ) beneath the volcano 's surface . The eastern rift zone in particular is a dominant feature on the volcano ; it is almost entirely covered in lava erupted in the last 400 years , and at its crest near the summit is 2 to 4 km ( 1 to 2 mi ) wide . Non @-@ localized eruptions , typical of rift zone activity , have produced a series of low @-@ lying ridges down the majority of the east rift zone 's length . Its upper segment is the most presently active section of the volcano , and is additionally the site of a number of large pit craters ; its lower extremity reaches down Kīlauea 's submerged flank to a depth of more than 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) . By contrast , the much smaller southwestern rift has been quiet since a rifting episode in 1974 , and to date has not been involved in the current eruptive cycle at all . The southwestern rift zone 's extremity is also underwater , although its submarine length is more limited . The southwestern rift zone also lacks a well @-@ defined ridge line or a large number of pit craters , evidence that it is also geologically less active than the eastern rift zone .

A prominent structure on Kīlauea 's southern flank is the Hilina fault system , a highly active fault moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) per year along the system . Its physiographic province is 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) deep , but it is unknown if it is a shallow listric fault or if it penetrates to the very base of the volcano . A number of cinder cones , satellite shields , lava tubes , and other eruptive structures also dot the volcano , evidence of its recent activity . Kīlauea has some interactions with Mauna Loa , its larger neighbor and only other recently active volcano on the island ; interspersed lava flows and ash deposits belonging to its neighbor have been found on its flanks , and some of Mauna Loa 's flows are , in turn , blanketed in Kīlauea tephra . In particular , the saddle between the two volcanoes is currently depressed , and is likely to fill over in the future .

All historical eruptions at Kīlauea have occurred at one of three places : its summit caldera , its eastern rift zone , or its southwestern rift zone . Half of Kīlauea 's historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kīlauea 's summit caldera . Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century , capped by a massive explosive eruption in 1924 before petering out by 1934 . Recent activity has mostly shifted to Kīlauea 's eastern rift zone , the site of 24 historical eruptions , located mostly on its upper section ; by contrast , the volcano 's southwestern rift zone has been relatively quiet , and has only been the site of five events to date .

= = Eruptive history = =

= = = Prehistoric eruptions = = =

Geologists have dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcano 's long history , bridging the long gap between Kīlauea 's oldest known rock and only extremely recent written records and historical observation . Historical lava flows from the volcano are generally recovered by scientists in one of three ways . The oldest flows , dating back 275 @,@ 000 to 225 @,@ 000 years , have been recovered from Kīlauea 's submerged southern slope by ship @-@ towed remotely operated vehicles . These lavas exhibit forms characteristic of early , submerged preshield @-@ stage eruptive episodes , from when the volcano was still a rising seamount that had not yet breached the ocean surface , and their surface exposure is unusual , as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by more recent flows .

The second method of recovering older rock is through the drilling of deep core samples ; however , the cores have proved difficult to date , and several samples from depths of around 1 @,@ 700 m ( 5 @,@ 600 ft ) that suggested dates as old as 450 @,@ 000 years have since been found erroneous . More reliable paleomagnetic dating , limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea 's emergence from the sea , has suggested ages of around 50 @,@ 000 years . Exposed flows above sea level have proved far younger . Some of the oldest reliably dated rock , 43 @,@ 000 years old , comes from charcoal sandwiched beneath an ash layer on a fault scarp known as Hilina Pali ; however , sampled dated from higher up the scarp indicate ash deposition at an average rate of 6 m ( 20 ft ) per thousand years , indicating the oldest exposed flows , from the base of the feature , could date back as far as 70 @,@ 000 years . This date is similar to that of the oldest dated extant lava flow , a southwestern rift zone flow with an uncorrected radiocarbon dating of approximately 4650 BC .

The oldest well @-@ studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member , the product of explosive eruptions between 2 @,@ 800 and 2 @,@ 100 years ago . Although it has since been largely buried by younger flows , it remains exposed in some places , and has been traced more than 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the volcano 's caldera , evidence of very powerful eruptions . Evidence suggests the existence of an active eruptive center at this time , termed the Powers Caldera , 2 km ( 1 mi ) away from the modern one . At least 1 @,@ 200 years ago , lava from the Powers Caldera overtopped its rim and solidified the structure ; this was followed by a period of very voluminous tube @-@ fed pāhoehoe flows from the summit . Following cessation of activity around 400 years ago , eruptions re @-@ centered on the eastern part of Kīlauea 's summit , and concurrently activity increased at the northern end of the eastern rift zone .

= = = 1790 to 1934 = = =

The earliest reliable written records of historical activity date back to about 1820 , and the first well @-@ documented eruption occurred in 1823 , when the volcano was first put under observation ; although Native Hawaiians are thought to have first settled on the island around 1 @,@ 500 years ago , oral records predating European arrival on the island are few and difficult to interpret . One pre @-@ contact eruption in particular , a phreatomagmatic event in 1790 , was responsible for the death of a party of warriors , part of the army of Keōua Kuahuʻula , the last island chief to resist Kamehameha I 's rule ; their death is evidenced by a set of footprints preserved within the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Kilauea has been the site of 61 separate eruptions since 1823 , easily making it one of the most active volcanoes on Earth .

During its observed history , the volume of lava erupted by Kīlauea has varied widely . In 1823 Kīlauea 's summit caldera was far deeper than it is today , but was in the process of filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption , with 3 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava erupted there alone by 1840 . The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in eruptive volume , and in the thirty years between then and about 1950 , the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited very little activity ; Kīlauea 's eruptive volume has increased steadily since then , with present activity comparable to that of the early 1800s .

The length and origin these eruptions has also varied . Events last anywhere between days and years , and occur at a number of different sites . Half of all eruptions occur at or near Kīlauea 's summit caldera . Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century , and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907 , continued onwards until 1924 . There have been five historical eruptions at the volcano 's relatively southwestern rift zone , and 24 along its more active eastern rift zone , mostly along its upper section .

The volcano 's observed history has mostly been one of effusive eruptions ; however , this is a relatively recent occurrence . Prior to the arrival of the first Europeans on the island , Kīlauea was the site of regular explosive activity , evidenced then by tribal chants referencing the volcano 's fickle nature , and today by geological records of an explosively active mode of past activity . Although explosive activity still occurs at the volcano , it is not as intense as it once was , and the volcano would become much more dangerous to the general public if it returned to its old phase of activity once more .

Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832 , but the first major eruption since the 1790 event occurred in 1840 , when its eastern rift zone became the site a large , effusive Hawaiian eruption over 35 km ( 22 mi ) of its length , unusually long even for a rift eruption . The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava ; the light created by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper in Hilo at night , 30 km ( 19 mi ) away .

The volcano was active again in 1868 , 1877 , 1884 , 1885 , 1894 , and 1918 , before its next major eruption in 1918 – 1919 . Halemaʻumaʻu , then a small upwelling in the caldera floor , was topped by a lava lake that then drained , before refilling again , forming an enormous lava lake and nearly reaching the top edge of the caldera before draining once more . This activity eventually gave way to the construction of Mauna Iki , building up the large lava shield within the caldera over a period of eight months . The eruption also featured concurrent rift activity and a large amount of lava fountaining .

Activity in 1921 – 1923 followed . The next major eruption occurred in 1924 . Halemaʻumaʻu Crater , a fully formed pit crater after the 1919 event and the site of a sizable lava lake , first drained , then quickly began sinking into the ground , deepening to nearly 210 m ( 689 ft ) beneath a thick cloud of volcanic ash . Explosive activity began on May 10 of that year , blowing rock chunks weighing as much as 45 kg ( 99 lb ) 60 m ( 197 ft ) out , and smaller fragments weighing about 9 kg ( 20 lb ) out as far as 270 m ( 886 ft ) , and , after a brief reprieve , intensified through a major blast on May 18 , when an enormous explosive event caused the eruption 's only fatality . The eruption continued and formed numerous eruption columns up to and beyond 9 km ( 6 mi ) in height , before slowly petering down and ending by May 28 . Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit , and ceased completely after 1934 .

= = = 1952 to 1982 = = =

After the Halemaʻumaʻu event , Kīlauea remained relatively quiet , and , for a time , completely silent , with all activity confined to the summit . It came alive again in 1952 with an enormous lava fountain 245 m ( 804 ft ) high at the Halemaʻumaʻu Crater . Multiple continuous lava fountains between 15 and 30 m ( 49 and 98 ft ) persisted , and the eruption lasted 136 days . Eruptions occurred soon after in 1954 , 1955 , and 1959 , capped by a large event in 1960 , when fissure @-@ based phreatic eruption and earthquake activity gave way to a massive a 'a flow that overran multiple evacuated communities and resorts ; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused the ever @-@ active Halemaʻumaʻu to collapse even further .

Following the event , eruptive events yearly and nearly continuous , a state of activity that remains today . 1967 – 1968 saw a particularly large , 80 @-@ million @-@ cubic @-@ meter , 251 @-@ day event from Halemaʻumaʻu Crater . This event was superseded the very next year by the marathon Mauna Ulu eruption , a large effusive eruption which lasted from May 24 , 1969 to July 24 , 1974 and added 230 acres ( 93 ha ) of new land to the island . After eruptive activity had died down , there was a magnitude 7 @.@ 2 earthquake that caused a partial summit collapse , after which activity did not resume at Kīlauea until 1977 .

The Mauna Ulu eruption of Kīlauea began on May 24 , 1969 , and ended on July 22 , 1974 . At the time , Mauna Ulu was the longest flank eruption of any Hawaiian volcano in recorded history . The eruption created a new vent , covered a large area of land with lava , and added new land to the island . The eruption started as a fissure between two pit craters , ʻĀloʻi and ʻAlae , where the Mauna Ulu shield would eventually form . Both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā lava erupted from the volcano . Early on , fountains of lava burst out as much as 540 meters ( 1772 ft ) high . In early 1973 , an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near the original Mauna Ulu site and instead erupt near the craters Pauahi and Hiʻiaka .

= = = 1983 - present = = =

The most recent major eruption at Kīlauea has also proved to be by far its eruption of longest @-@ known duration . The current Kīlauea eruption began on January 3 , 1983 , along the eastern rift zone . The vent produced vigorous lava fountains that quickly built up into Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone , sending lava flows down the volcano 's slope . In 1986 , activity shifted down the rift to a new vent , named Kūpaʻianahā , where it took on a more effusive character . Kūpaʻianahā built up a low , broad volcanic shield , and lava tubes fed flows extending 11 to 12 km ( about 7 mi ) to the sea . Between 1986 and 1991 , Chain of Craters Road was cut , and the community of Kapa ’ ahu , the village of Kalapana , and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava . A black sand beach at Kaimu was also engulfed . In 1992 , the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō , but continued in the same manner , covering nearly all of the 1983 – 86 lava flows and large areas of coastline . As of December 2012 , the eruption had produced 4 km3 ( 1 cu mi ) of lava , covered 125 km2 ( 48 sq mi ) of land , added 202 ha ( 499 acres ) of land to the island , destroyed 214 structures , and buried 14 @.@ 3 km ( 9 mi ) of highway under lava as thick as 35 m ( 115 ft ) .

In December 2014 , the June 27 flow from the ongoing eruption threatened to enter the town of Pahoa , and to cut Highway 130 , the only route into and out of Lower Puna . As a result , work was begun to reopen Chain of Craters Road , initially as a one @-@ lane gravelled surface , and to make Railroad Avenue and Government Beach Road usable as emergency routes . However the flow stopped just short of entering Pahoa , and by March 2015 the threat to the town was much reduced .

= = = Volcanic Explosivity Index = = =

The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) to all except five of Kīlauea 's ninety @-@ five known eruptions of the last 11 @,@ 700 years . The eruption of 1790 has a VEI of 4 . The eruptions of 1820 , 1924 , 1959 and 1960 have a VEI of 2 . The eruptions of 680 , 1050 , 1490 , 1500 , 1610 , 1868 , four eruptions in 1961 and the current eruption since 1983 have a VEI of 1 . The other seventy @-@ four eruptions have a VEI of 0 .

= = Ecology = =

= = = Background = = =

Because of its position more than 2 @,@ 000 miles from the nearest continental landmass , the island of Hawaiʻi is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses on Earth ; this in turn has strongly influenced its ecology . The majority of the species present on the island are endemic to it and can be found nowhere else on Earth , the result of an isolated evolutionary linage sheltered from external biotic influence ; this makes its ecosystem vulnerable both to invasive species and human development , and an estimated third of the island 's natural flora and fauna has already gone extinct .

Kīlauea 's ecological community is additionally threatened by the activity of the volcano itself ; lava flows often overrun sections of the volcano 's forests and burns them down , and volcanic ash distributed by explosive eruptions often smothers local plant life . Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of Kīlauea ash deposits are evidence of the many times the volcano has wrought destruction on its own ecosystem and that of its neighbor Mauna Loa , and parts of the volcano present a dichotomy between pristine montane forest and recently buried volcanic " deserts " yet to be recolonized .

Kīlauea 's bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominately from the northeast , which , when squeezed upwards by the volcano 's height , results in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank . The volcano 's ecology is further complicated by height , though not nearly as much as with its other , far taller neighbors , and by the local distribution of volcanic products , which make for varied soil conditions . The northern part of Kīlauea is mostly below 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) and receives more than 75 in ( 191 cm ) mean annual rainfall , and can mostly be classified as a lowland wet community ; further south , the volcano has squeezed out much of the precipitation and receives less than 50 in ( 127 cm ) mean annual rainfall , and is considered mostly a lowland dry environment .

= = = Ecosystems = = =

Much of Kīlauea 's southern ecosystem lies within the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park , where a ’ e ferns , ʻōhiʻa trees ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) , and hapu ’ u of the genus Cibotium are common . The park hosts a large variety of bird species , including the ' apapane ( Himatione sanguinea ) , the ' amakihi ( Hemignathus virens ) , the ' i 'iwi ( Vestiaria coccinea ) , the ‘ ōma ’ o ( Myadestes obscurus ) , the ʻelepaio ( Chasiempis sp . ) , and the endangered ' akepa ( Loxops coccineus ) , ' akiapola 'au ( Hemignathus munroi ) , nēnē ( Branta sandvicensis ) , ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) , and ʻio ( Buteo solitarius ) species . The Kīlauea coast also hosts three of the nine known critically endangered hawksbill sea turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata ) nesting sites on the island .

Some of the area alongside Kīlauea 's southwestern rift zone takes the form of the unusual Kaʻū Desert . Although not a " true " desert ( rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) a year ) , precipitation mixing with drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide forms acid rain with a pH as low as 3 @.@ 4 , greatly hampering regional plant growth . The deposited tephra particulates make the local soil very permeable . Plant life in the region is practically nonexistent .

Kīlauea 's northern lowland wet forest ecosystem is partially protected by the Puna Forest Reserve and the Kahauale`a Natural Area Reserve . At 27 @,@ 785 acres ( 11 @,@ 244 ha ) , Wao Kele in particular is Hawaiʻi 's largest lowland wet forest reserve , and is home to rare plant species including hāpuʻu ferns ( Cibotium spp . ) , ʻieʻi.e. vines ( Freycinetia arborea ) , and kōpiko ( Psychotria mariniana ) , some of which play a role in limiting invasive species ' spread . ʻOpeʻapeʻa ( Lasiurus cinereus semotus ) ʻio ( Buteo solitarius ) , common ʻamakihi ( Hemignathus virens ) , and nananana makakiʻi ( Theridion grallator ) live in the trees . There are thought to be many more as @-@ yet @-@ undocumented species within the forest . Wao Kele 's primary forest tree is ʻōhiʻa lehua ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) .

= = Human history = =

= = = Ancient Hawaiian = = =

The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores , where food and water were plentiful . Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source . Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem , and caused many extinctions , particularly amongst bird species , as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates . The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland ; some of this change was caused by the use of fire , but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian rat ( Rattus exulans ) .

The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains . Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities . In Hawaiian mythology , the sky father Wākea marries the earth mother Papa , giving birth to the Hawaiian Islands . Kīlauea itself means " spewing " or " much spreading " in Hawaiian , referencing its high state of activity , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea is the body of the deity Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . It is here that the conflict between Pele and the rain god Kamapuaʻa was centered ; Halemaʻumaʻu , " House of the ʻamaʻumaʻu fern " , derives its name from the struggle between the two gods . Kamapuaʻa , hard @-@ pressed by Pele 's ability to make lava spout from the ground at will , covered the feature , a favorite residence of the goddess , with fern fronds . Choked by trapped smoke , Pele emerged . Realizing that each could threaten the other with destruction , the others gods called a draw and divided the island between them , with Kamapuaʻa getting the moist windward northeastern side , and Pele directing the drier Kona ( or leeward ) side . The rusty singed appearance of the young fronds of the ʻamaʻumaʻu is said to be a product of the legendary struggle .

This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century . Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long @-@ term welfare of the environment . These ahupuaʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast .

= = = Modern era = = =

The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii was James Cook in 1778 . The first non @-@ native to observe Kīlauea in detail was William Ellis , an English missionary who in 1823 spent more than two weeks trekking across the volcano . He collated the first written account of the volcano and observed many of its features , establishing the premise for future explorations of the volcano .

One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea was James Dwight Dana , who , staying with the missionary Titus Coan , studied the island 's volcanoes in detail for decades first @-@ hand . Dana visited Kīlauea 's summit and described it in detail in 1840 . After publishing a summary paper in 1852 , he directed a detailed geological study of the island in 1880 and 1881 but did not consider Kīlauea a separate volcano , instead referring to it as a flank vent of Mauna Loa ; it was not until another geologist , C. E. Dutton , had elaborated on Dana 's research during an 1884 expedition that Kīlauea came to be generally accepted as a separate entity .

The next era of Kīlauea 's history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory on the volcano 's rim in 1912 . The first permanent such installation in the United States , the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar , head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; after witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy , he declared that something must be done to support systematic volcanic and seismic study , and chose Kīlauea as the site of the first such establishment . After securing initial funding from MIT and the University of Hawaii , Jaggar took directorship of the observatory and , whilst its head between 1912 and 1940 , pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of active volcanoes . After initial funding ran out , the Observatory was successively funded by the National Weather Service , the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , and the National Park Service , before settling on the USGS , under whose banner the observatory has been operating since 1947 . The main building has been moved twice since establishment , and today is positioned on the northwest rim of Kīlauea 's caldera .

= = Tourism = =

The volcano became a tourist attraction from the 1840s onwards , and local businessmen such as Benjamin Pitman and George Lycurgus ran a series of hotels at the rim , including Volcano House which is still the only hotel or restaurant located within the borders of the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park . In 1891 , Lorrin A. Thurston , grandson of the American missionary Asa Thurston and investor in hotels along the volcano 's rim , began campaigning for a park on the volcano 's slopes , an idea first proposed by William Richards Castle , Jr. in 1903 . Thurston , who owned the Honolulu Advertiser newspaper , printed editorials in favor of the idea ; by 1911 Governor Walter F. Frear had proposed a draft bill to create " Kilauea National Park " . Following endorsements from John Muir , Henry Cabot Lodge , and former President Theodore Roosevelt ( in opposition to local ranchers ) and several legislative attempts introduced by delegate Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana 'ole , House Resolution 9525 was signed into law by Woodrow Wilson on August 1 , 1916 . It was the 11th National Park in the United States , and the first in a Territory ; a few weeks later , the National Park Service Organic Act was signed into law , creating the National Park Service and tasking it with running the expanding system . Originally called " Hawaii National Park " , it was split from the Haleakala National Park on 22 September 1960 . Today the park , renamed the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park , is a major conservatory agency and tourist attraction , and , since 1987 , a World Heritage Site .

In its early days tourism was a relatively new concept , but grew slowly before exploding with the advent of air travel around 1959 , the year Hawaiʻi became a state . Today tourism is driven by the island 's exotic tropical locations , and Kīlauea , being one of the few volcanoes in the world in a more or less constant state of moderate eruption , is a major part of the island 's tourist draw . Today , Kīlauea is visited by roughly 2 @.@ 6 million people annually , most of whom proceed up the volcano from the recently revamped Kilauea Visitor Center near the park entrance . The Thomas A. Jaggar Museum is also a popular tourist stop ; located at the edge of Kīlauea caldera , the museum 's observation deck offers the best sheltered view on the volcano of the activity at Halemaumau Crater . The Volcano House still provides the nearest lodging , and the nearby Volcano Village the most numerous ; visitors associated with the military can find lodging at the Kilauea Military Camp . A number of hiking trails , points of interest , and guided ranger programs exist , and the Chain of Craters Road , Hilina Pali Road , and Crater Rim Drive provide access .

= Gray wolf =

The gray wolf or grey wolf ( Canis lupus ) , also known as the timber wolf or western wolf , is a canid native to the wilderness and remote areas of Eurasia and North America . It is the largest extant member of its family , with males averaging 43 – 45 kg ( 95 – 99 lb ) , and females 36 – 38 @.@ 5 kg ( 79 – 85 lb ) . Like the red wolf , it is distinguished from other Canis species by its larger size and less pointed features , particularly on the ears and muzzle . Its winter fur is long and bushy , and predominantly a mottled gray in color , although nearly pure white , red , or brown to black also occur . As of 2005 , 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 .

The gray wolf is the second most specialised member of the genus Canis , after the Ethiopian wolf , as demonstrated by its morphological adaptations to hunting large prey , its more gregarious nature , and its highly advanced expressive behavior . It is nonetheless closely related enough to smaller Canis species , such as the eastern wolf , coyote , and golden jackal to produce fertile hybrids . It is the only species of Canis to have a range encompassing both the Old and New Worlds , and originated in Eurasia during the Pleistocene , colonizing North America on at least three separate occasions during the Rancholabrean . It is a social animal , travelling in nuclear families consisting of a mated pair , accompanied by the pair 's adult offspring . The gray wolf is typically an apex predator throughout its range , with only humans and tigers posing a serious threat to it . It feeds primarily on large ungulates , though it also eats smaller animals , livestock , carrion , and garbage .

The gray wolf is one of the world 's best known and well researched animals , with probably more books written about it than any other wildlife species . It has a long history of association with humans , having been despised and hunted in most pastoral communities because of its attacks on livestock , while conversely being respected in some agrarian and hunter @-@ gatherer societies . Although the fear of wolves is pervasive in many human societies , the majority of recorded attacks on people have been attributed to animals suffering from rabies . Non @-@ rabid wolves have attacked and killed people , mainly children , but this is rare , as wolves are relatively few , live away from people , and have developed a fear of humans from hunters and shepherds .

= = Etymology = =

The English ' wolf ' stems from the Old English wulf , which is itself thought to be derived from the Proto @-@ Germanic * wulfaz . The Latin lupus is a Sabine loanword . Both derive from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root * wlqwos / * lukwos .

= = Taxonomy and evolution = =

= = = Taxonomy = = =

Canis lupus was recorded by Carl Linnaeus in his publication Systema Naturae in 1758 . The Latin classification translates into English as " dog wolf " . The subspecies of Canis lupus are listed in Mammal Species of the World . The nominate subspecies is the Eurasian wolf ( Canis lupus lupus ) , also known as the common wolf . As of 2005 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 , however the classification of several as either species or subspecies has recently been challenged .

= = = Evolution and relationship with the dog = = =

The evolution of the wolf occurred over a geologic time scale of 800 thousand years , transforming the first Middle Pleistocene wolf specimen that is recognized as being morphologically similar to Canis lupus into today 's dog , dingo and gray wolf . Ecological factors including habitat type , climate , prey specialization and predatory competition will greatly influence the wolf 's genetic population structure and cranio @-@ dental plasticity . Wolves went through a population bottleneck 20 @,@ 000 years before present ( YBP ) , which indicates that many wolf populations had gone extinct at a time that coincided with the Last Glacial Maximum and the expansion of modern humans worldwide with their technology for capturing large game . The domestic dog is the most widely abundant large carnivore and a descendant from one of those now @-@ extinct wolf populations . Today , the wolf is represented by the many extant subspecies of Canis lupus , which includes the dog and dingo .

= = = Subspecies = = =

Globally , C. lupus taxonomy has been subject to numerous revisions , particularly in North America . As of 2005 , 37 subspecies of C. lupus are recognised by MSW3 . Its list includes the domestic dog , dingo , eastern wolf and red wolf , but lists C. l. italicus and C. l. communis as synonyms of C. l. lupus .

= = = Hybridization with other Canis = = =

Dogs and gray wolves do not voluntarily interbreed in the wild , though they can produce fertile wolf @-@ dog offspring . In North America , black colored wolves acquired their coloration from wolf @-@ dog hybridization , which occurred 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 years ago . Like pure wolves , hybrids breed once annually , though their mating season occurs three months earlier , with pups mostly being born in the winter period , thus lessening their chances of survival . However , one genetic study undertaken in the Caucasus Mountains showed that as many as 10 % of dogs in the area , including livestock guardian dogs , are first generation hybrids . The captive breeding of wolf @-@ dog hybrids has proliferated in the USA , with 300 @,@ 000 such animals being present there .

The gray wolf has interbred extensively with the eastern wolf producing a hybrid population termed Great Lakes boreal wolves . Unlike the red and eastern wolf , the gray wolf does not readily interbreed with coyotes . Nevertheless , coyote genetic markers have been found in some wild isolated gray wolf populations in the southern United States . Gray wolf Y @-@ chromosomes have also been found in Texan coyote haplotypes . In tests performed on a putative chupacabra carcass , mtDNA analysis showed that it was a coyote , though subsequent tests revealed that it was a coyote – gray wolf hybrid sired by a male Mexican gray wolf . In 2013 , a captive breeding experiment in Utah between gray wolves and western coyotes produced six hybrids through artificial insemination , making this the very first hybridization case between pure coyotes and northwestern gray wolves . At six months of age , the hybrids were closely monitored and were shown to display both physical and behavioral characteristics from both species . Although hybridization between wolves and golden jackals has never been observed , evidence of such occurrences was discovered through mtDNA analysis on jackals in Bulgaria . Although there is no genetic evidence of gray wolf @-@ jackal hybridization in the Caucasus Mountains , there have been cases where otherwise genetically pure golden jackals have displayed remarkably gray wolf @-@ like phenotypes , to the point of being mistaken for wolves by trained biologists .

= = Physical description = =

= = = Anatomy and dimensions = = =

Compared to its closest wild cousins ( the coyote and golden jackal ) , the gray wolf is larger and heavier , with a broader snout , shorter ears , a shorter torso and longer tail . It is a slender , powerfully built animal with a large , deeply descending ribcage , a sloping back and a heavily muscled neck . The wolf 's legs are moderately longer than those of other canids , which enables the animal to move swiftly , and allows it to overcome the deep snow that covers most of its geographical range . Females tend to have narrower muzzles and foreheads , thinner necks , slightly shorter legs and less massive shoulders than males .

The gray wolf 's head is large and heavy , with a wide forehead , strong jaws and a long , blunt muzzle . The ears are relatively small and triangular . The teeth are heavy and large , being better suited to crushing bone than those of other extant canids , though not as specialised as those found in hyenas . Its molars have a flat chewing surface , but not to the same extent as the coyote , whose diet contains more vegetable matter . The gray wolf 's jaws can exert a crushing pressure of perhaps 10 @,@ 340 kPa ( 1 @,@ 500 psi ) compared to 5 @,@ 200 kPa ( 750 psi ) for a German shepherd . This force is sufficient to break open most bones . A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators when adjusted for the body mass found that for placental mammals , the bite force at the canines ( in Newtons / kilogram of body weight ) was greatest in the extinct dire wolf ( 163 ) , then followed among the extant canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves : the African hunting dog ( 142 ) , the gray wolf ( 136 ) , the dhole ( 112 ) , and the dingo ( 108 ) .

The gray wolf usually carries its head at the same level as the back , raising it only when alert . It usually travels at a loping pace , placing its paws one directly in front of the other . This gait can be maintained for hours at a rate of 8 – 9 km / h , and allows the wolf to cover great distances . On bare paths , a wolf can quickly achieve speeds of 50 – 60 km / h . The gray wolf has a running gait of 55 to 70 km / h , can leap 5 metres horizontally in a single bound , and can maintain rapid pursuit for at least 20 minutes .

The gray wolf is the largest extant member of the Canidae , excepting certain large breeds of domestic dog . Gray wolf weight and size can vary greatly worldwide , tending to increase proportionally with latitude as predicted by Bergmann 's Rule , with the large wolves of Alaska and Canada sometimes weighing 3 – 6 times more than their Middle Eastern and South Asian cousins . On average , adult wolves measure 105 – 160 cm ( 41 – 63 in ) in length and 80 – 85 cm ( 32 – 34 in ) in shoulder height . The tail measures 29 – 50 cm ( 11 – 20 in ) in length . The ears are 90 – 110 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) in height , and the hind feet are 220 – 250 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) . The skull averages 9 – 11 inches in length , and 5 – 6 inches wide . The mean body mass of the extant gray wolf is 40 kg ( 88 lb ) , with the smallest specimen recorded at 12 kg ( 26 lb ) and the largest at 80 kg ( 176 lb ) . Gray wolf weight varies geographically ; on average , European wolves may weigh 38 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 85 lb ) , North American wolves 36 kilograms ( 79 lb ) and Indian and Arabian wolves 25 kilograms ( 55 lb ) . Females in any given wolf population typically weigh 5 – 10 lbs less than males . Wolves weighing over 54 kg ( 120 lbs ) are uncommon , though exceptionally large individuals have been recorded in Alaska , Canada , and the forests of western Russia . The heaviest recorded gray wolf in North America was killed on 70 Mile River in east @-@ central Alaska on July 12 , 1939 and weighed 79 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 175 lb ) .

= = = Fur = = =

The gray wolf has very dense and fluffy winter fur , with short underfur and long , coarse guard hairs . Most of the underfur and some of the guard hairs are shed in the spring and grow back in the autumn period . The longest hairs occur on the back , particularly on the front quarters and neck . Especially long hairs are on the shoulders , and almost form a crest on the upper part of the neck . The hairs on the cheeks are elongated and form tufts . The ears are covered in short hairs , which strongly project from the fur . Short , elastic and closely adjacent hairs are present on the limbs from the elbows down to the calcaneal tendons . The winter fur is highly resistant to cold ; wolves in northern climates can rest comfortably in open areas at − 40 ° by placing their muzzles between the rear legs and covering their faces with their tail . Wolf fur provides better insulation than dog fur , and does not collect ice when warm breath is condensed against it . In warm climates , the fur is coarser and scarcer than in northern wolves . Female wolves tend to have smoother furred limbs than males , and generally develop the smoothest overall coats as they age . Older wolves generally have more white hairs in the tip of the tail , along the nose and on the forehead . The winter fur is retained longest in lactating females , though with some hair loss around their nipples . Hair length on the middle of the back is 60 – 70 mm . Hair length of the guard hairs on the shoulders generally does not exceed 90 mm , but can reach 110 – 130 mm .

Coat color ranges from almost pure white through various shades of blond , cream , and ochre to grays , browns , and blacks , with variation in fur color tending to increase in higher latitudes . Differences in coat color between sexes are largely absent , though females may have redder tones . Black colored wolves in North America inherited the Kb allele responsible for melanism from past interbreeding with dogs , while the mutation was found to be naturally occurring in wolves from Iran . Black specimens are more common in North America than in Eurasia , with about half the wolves in Yellowstone National Park being black .

= = Behavior = =

= = = Social and territorial behaviors = = =

The gray wolf is a social animal , whose basic social unit consists of a mated pair , accompanied by the pair 's adult offspring . The average pack consists of a family of 5 – 11 animals ( 1 – 2 adults , 3 – 6 juveniles and 1 – 3 yearlings ) , or sometimes two or three such families , with exceptionally large packs consisting of 42 wolves being known . In ideal conditions , the mated pair produces pups every year , with such offspring typically staying in the pack for 10 – 54 months before dispersing . Triggers for dispersal include the onset of sexual maturity and competition within the pack for food . The distance travelled by dispersing wolves varies widely ; some stay in the vicinity of the parental group , while other individuals may travel great distances of 390 km , 206 km , and 670 km from their natal packs . A new pack is usually founded by an unrelated dispersing male and female , travelling together in search of an area devoid of other hostile packs . Wolf packs rarely adopt other wolves into their fold , and typically kill them . In the rare cases where other wolves are adopted , the adoptee is almost invariably an immature animal ( 1 – 3 years of age ) unlikely to compete for breeding rights with the mated pair . In some cases , a lone wolf is adopted into a pack to replace a deceased breeder . During times of ungulate abundance ( migration , calving etc . ) , different wolf packs may temporarily join forces .

Wolves are highly territorial animals , and generally establish territories far larger than they require to survive in order to assure a steady supply of prey . Territory size depends largely on the amount of prey available and the age of the pack 's pups , tending to increase in size in areas with low prey populations or when the pups reach the age of 6 months , thus having the same nutritional needs as adults . Wolf packs travel constantly in search of prey , covering roughly 9 % of their territory per day ( average 25 km / d or 15 mi / d ) . The core of their territory is on average 35 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) , in which they spend 50 % of their time . Prey density tends to be much higher in the territory 's surrounding areas , though wolves tend to avoid hunting in the fringes of their range unless desperate , because of the possibility of fatal encounters with neighboring packs . The smallest territory on record was held by a pack of six wolves in northeastern Minnesota , which occupied an estimated 33 km2 ( 13 sq mi ) , while the largest was held by an Alaskan pack of ten wolves encompassing a 6 @,@ 272 km2 ( 2 @,@ 422 sq mi ) area . Wolf packs are typically settled , and usually only leave their accustomed ranges during severe food shortages .

Wolves defend their territories from other packs through a combination of scent marking , direct attacks and howling ( see Communication ) . Scent marking is used for territorial advertisement , and involves urination , defecation and ground scratching . Scent marks are generally left every 240 metres throughout the territory on regular travelways and junctions . Such markers can last for 2 – 3 weeks , and are typically placed near rocks , boulders , trees or the skeletons of large animals . Territorial fights are among the principal causes of wolf mortality , with one study concluding that 14 – 65 % of wolf deaths in Minnesota and the Denali National Park and Preserve were due to predation by other wolves .

= = = Reproduction and development = = =

The gray wolf is generally monogamous , with mated pairs usually remaining together for life , unless one of the pair dies . Upon the death of one mated wolf , pairs are quickly re @-@ established . Since males often predominate in any given wolf population , unpaired females are a rarity . If a dispersing male gray wolf is unable to establish a territory or find a mate , he mates with the daughters of already established breeding pairs from other packs . Such gray wolves are termed " Casanova wolves " and , unlike males from established packs , they do not form pair bonds with the females they mate with . Some gray wolf packs may have multiple breeding females this way , as is the case in Yellowstone National Park . Gray wolves also practice alloparental care , in which a wolf pair may adopt the pup or pups of another . This might take place if the original parents die or are for some reason separated from them . In addition to heterosexual behavior , homosexual behavior has been observed in gray wolves . Male gray wolves often mount each other when the highest ranking female in the pack comes into heat .

The age of first breeding in gray wolves depends largely on environmental factors : when food is plentiful , or when wolf populations are heavily managed , wolves can rear pups at younger ages in order to better exploit abundant resources . This is further demonstrated by the fact that captive wolves have been known to breed as soon as they reach 9 – 10 months , while the youngest recorded breeding wolves in the wild were 2 years old . Females are capable of producing pups every year , with one litter annually being the average . Unlike the coyote , the gray wolf never reaches reproductive senescence . Estrus typically occurs in late winter , with older , multiparous females entering estrus 2 – 3 weeks earlier than younger females . During pregnancy , female wolves remain in a den located away from the peripheral zone of their territories , where violent encounters with other packs are more likely . Old females usually whelp in the den of their previous litter , while younger females typically den near their birthplace . The gestation period lasts 62 – 75 days , with pups usually being born in the summer period .

Wolves bear relatively large pups in small litters compared to other canid species . The average litter consists of 5 – 6 pups , with litter sizes tending to increase in areas where prey is abundant , though exceptionally large litters of 14 – 17 pups occur only 1 % of the time . Pups are usually born in spring , coinciding with a corresponding increase in prey populations . Pups are born blind and deaf , and are covered in short soft grayish @-@ brown fur . They weigh 300 – 500 grams at birth , and begin to see after 9 – 12 days . The milk canines erupt after one month . Pups first leave the den after 3 weeks . At 1 @.@ 5 months of age , they are agile enough to flee from danger . Mother wolves do not leave the den for the first few weeks , relying on the fathers to provide food for them and their young . Pups begin to eat solid food at the age of 3 – 4 weeks . Pups have a fast growth rate during their first four months of life : during this period , a pup 's weight can increase nearly 30 times . Wolf pups begin play fighting at the age of 3 weeks , though unlike young foxes and coyotes , their bites are inhibited . Actual fights to establish hierarchy usually occur at 5 – 8 weeks of age . This is in contrast to young foxes and coyotes , which may begin fighting even before the onset of play behavior . By autumn , the pups are mature enough to accompany adults on hunts for large prey .

= = = Hunting and feeding behaviors = = =

Although social animals , single wolves or mated pairs typically have higher success rates in hunting than do large packs , with single wolves having occasionally been observed to kill large prey such as moose , bison and muskoxen unaided . The gray wolf 's sense of smell is relatively weakly developed when compared to that of some hunting dog breeds , being able to detect carrion upwind no farther than 2 – 3 km . Because of this , it rarely manages to capture hidden hares or birds , though it can easily follow fresh tracks . Its auditory perception is acute enough to be able to hear up to a frequency of 26 kHz , which is sufficient to register the fall of leaves in the autumn period . A gray wolf hunt can be divided into five stages :

Locating prey : The wolves travel in search of prey through their power of scent , chance encounter , and tracking . Wolves typically locate their prey by scent , though they must usually be directly downwind of it . When a breeze carrying the prey 's scent is located , the wolves stand alert , and point their eyes , ears and nose towards their target . In open areas , wolves may precede the hunt with group ceremonies involving standing nose @-@ to @-@ nose and wagging their tails . Once concluded , the wolves head towards their prey .

The stalk : The wolves attempt to conceal themselves as they approach . As the gap between the wolves and their prey closes , the wolves quicken their pace , wag their tails , and peer intently , getting as close to their quarry as possible without making it flee .

The encounter : Once the prey detects the wolves , it can either approach the wolves , stand its ground , or flee . Large prey , such as moose , elk , and muskoxen , usually stand their ground . Should this occur , the wolves hold back , as they require the stimulus of a running animal to proceed with an attack . If the targeted animal stands its ground , the wolves either ignore it , or try to intimidate it into running .

The rush : If the prey attempts to flee , the wolves immediately pursue it . This is the most critical stage of the hunt , as wolves may never catch up with prey running at top speed . If their prey is travelling in a group , the wolves either attempt to break up the herd , or isolate one or two animals from it .

The chase : A continuation of the rush , the wolves attempt to catch up with their prey and kill it . When chasing small prey , wolves attempt to catch up with their prey as soon as possible , while with larger animals , the chase is prolonged , in order to wear the selected prey out . Wolves usually give up chases after 1 – 2 km ( 0 @.@ 62 – 1 @.@ 3 mi ) , though one wolf was recorded to chase a deer for 21 km ( 13 mi ) . Both Russian and North American wolves have been observed to drive prey onto crusted ice , precipices , ravines , slopes and steep banks to slow them down .

The actual killing method varies according to prey species . With large prey , mature wolves usually avoid attacking frontally , instead focusing on the rear and sides of the animal . Large prey , such as moose , is killed by biting large chunks of flesh from the soft perineum area , causing massive blood loss . Such bites can cause wounds 10 – 15 cm in length , with three such bites to the perineum usually being sufficient to bring down a large deer in optimum health . With medium @-@ sized prey such as roe deer or sheep , wolves kill by biting the throat , severing nerve tracks and the carotid artery , thus causing the animal to die within a few seconds to a minute . With small , mouse @-@ like prey , wolves leap in a high arc and immobilize it with their forepaws . When prey is vulnerable and abundant , wolves may occasionally surplus kill . Such instances are common in domestic animals , but rare in the wild . In the wild , surplus killing primarily occurs during late winter or spring , when snow is unusually deep ( thus impeding the movements of prey ) or during the denning period , when wolves require a ready supply of meat when denbound . Medium @-@ sized prey are especially vulnerable to surplus killing , as the swift throat @-@ biting method by which they are killed allows wolves to quickly kill one animal and move on to another .

Once prey is brought down , wolves begin to feed excitedly , ripping and tugging at the carcass in all directions , and bolting down large chunks of it . The breeding pair typically monopolizes food in order to continue producing pups . When food is scarce , this is done at the expense of other family members , especially non @-@ pups . The breeding pair typically eats first , though as it is they who usually work the hardest in killing prey , they may rest after a long hunt and allow the rest of the family to eat unmolested . Once the breeding pair has finished eating , the rest of the family tears off pieces of the carcass and transport them to secluded areas where they can eat in peace . Wolves typically commence feeding by consuming the larger internal organs of their prey , such as the heart , liver , lungs and stomach lining . The kidneys and spleen are eaten once they are exposed , followed by the muscles . A single wolf can eat 15 – 19 % of its body weight in a single feeding .

= = Communication = =

= = = Visual = = =

The gray wolf 's expressive behavior is more complex than that of the coyote and golden jackal , as necessitated by its group living and hunting habits . While less gregarious canids generally possess simple repertoires of visual signals , wolves have more varied signals that subtly inter grade in intensity . When neutral , the legs are not stiffened , the tail hangs down loosely , the face is smooth , the lips untensed , and the ears point in no particular direction . Postural communication in wolves consists of a variety of facial expressions , tail positions and piloerection . Aggressive , or self @-@ assertive wolves are characterized by their slow and deliberate movements , high body posture and raised hackles , while submissive ones carry their bodies low , sleeken their fur and lower their ears and tail . When a breeding male encounters a subordinate family member , it may stare at it , standing erect and still with the tails horizontal to its spine . Two forms of submissive behavior are recognized : passive and active . Passive submission usually occurs as a reaction to the approach of a dominant animal , and consists of the submissive wolf lying partly on its back and allowing the dominant wolf to sniff its anogenital area . Active submission occurs often as a form of greeting , and involves the submissive wolf approaching another in a low posture , and licking the other wolf 's face . When wolves are together , they commonly indulge in behaviors such as nose pushing , jaw wrestling , cheek rubbing and facial licking . The mouthing of each other 's muzzles is a friendly gesture , while clamping on the muzzle with bared teeth is a dominance display .

Similar to humans , gray wolves have facial color patterns in which the gaze direction can be easily identified , although this is often not the case in other canid species . In 2014 , a study compared the facial color pattern across 25 canid species . The results suggested that that the facial color pattern of canid species is related to their gaze communication , and that especially gray wolves use the gaze signal in conspecific communication .

= = = Auditory = = =

Gray wolves howl to assemble the pack ( usually before and after hunts ) , to pass on an alarm ( particularly at a den site ) , to locate each other during a storm or unfamiliar territory and to communicate across great distances . Wolf howls can under certain conditions be heard over areas of up to 130 km2 ( 50 sq mi ) . Wolf howls are generally indistinguishable from those of large dogs . Male wolves give voice through an octave , passing to a deep bass with a stress on " O " , while females produce a modulated nasal baritone with stress on " U " . Pups almost never howl , while yearling wolves produce howls ending in a series of dog @-@ like yelps . Howling consists of a fundamental frequency that may lie between 150 and 780 Hz , and consists of up to 12 harmonically related overtones . The pitch usually remains constant or varies smoothly , and may change direction as many as four or five times . Howls used for calling pack mates to a kill are long , smooth sounds similar to the beginning of the cry of a horned owl . When pursuing prey , they emit a higher pitched howl , vibrating on two notes . When closing in on their prey , they emit a combination of a short bark and a howl . When howling together , wolves harmonize rather than chorus on the same note , thus creating the illusion of there being more wolves than there actually are . Lone wolves typically avoid howling in areas where other packs are present . Wolves from different geographic locations may howl in different fashions : the howls of European wolves are much more protracted and melodious than those of North American wolves , whose howls are louder and have a stronger emphasis on the first syllable . The two are however mutually intelligible , as North American wolves have been recorded to respond to European @-@ style howls made by biologists .

Other vocalisations of wolves are usually divided into three categories : growls , barks and whines . Barking has a fundamental frequency between 320 – 904 Hz , and is usually emitted by startled wolves . Wolves do not bark as loudly or continuously as dogs do , but bark a few times and retreat from perceived danger . Growling has a fundamental frequency of 380 – 450 Hz , and is usually emitted during food challenges . Pups commonly growl when playing . One variation of the howl is accompanied by a high pitched whine , which precedes a lunging attack . Whining is associated with situations of anxiety , curiosity , inquiry and intimacy such as greeting , feeding pups and playing .

= = = Olfactory = = =

Olfaction is probably the wolf 's most acute sense , and plays a fundamental role in communication . The wolf has a large number of apocrine sweat glands on the face , lips , back , and between the toes . The odor produced by these glands varies according to the individual wolf 's microflora and diet , giving each a distinct " odor fingerprint " . A combination of apocrine and eccrine sweat glands on the feet allows the wolf to deposit its scent whilst scratching the ground , which usually occurs after urine marking and defecation during the breeding season . The follicles present on the guard hairs from the wolf 's back have clusters of apocrine and sebaceous glands at their bases . As the skin on the back is usually folded , this provides a microclimate for bacterial propagation around the glands . During piloerection , the guard hairs on the back are raised and the skin folds spread , thus releasing scent . The pre @-@ caudal scent glands may play a role in expressing aggression , as combative wolves raise the base of their tails whilst drooping the tip , thus positioning the scent glands at the highest point . The wolf possesses a pair of anal sacs beneath the rectum , which contain both apocrine and sebaceous glands . The components of anal sac secretions vary according to season and gender , thus indicating that the secretions provide information related to gender and reproductive state . The secretions of the preputial glands may advertise hormonal condition or social position , as dominant wolves have been observed to stand over subordinates , apparently presenting the genital area for investigation , which may include genital licking . During the breeding season , female wolves secrete substances from the vagina , which communicate the females ' reproductive state , and can be detected by males from long distances . Urine marking is the best @-@ studied means of olfactory communication in wolves . Its exact function is debated , though most researchers agree that its primary purpose is to establish boundaries . Wolves urine mark more frequently and vigorously in unfamiliar areas , or areas of intrusion , where the scent of other wolves or canids is present . So @-@ called raised leg urination ( RLU ) is more common in male wolves than in females , and may serve the purpose of maximizing the possibility of detection by conspecifics , as well as reflect the height of the marking wolf . Only dominant wolves typically use RLU , with subordinate males continuing to use the juvenile standing posture throughout adulthood . RLU is considered to be one of the most important forms of scent communication in the wolf , making up 60 – 80 % of all scent marks observed .

= = Ecology = =

= = = Habitat = = =

The gray wolf is a habitat generalist , and can occur in deserts , grasslands , forests and arctic tundras . Habitat use by gray wolves is strongly correlated with the abundance of prey , snow conditions , absence or low livestock densities , road densities , human presence and topography . In cold climates , the gray wolf can reduce the flow of blood near its skin to conserve body heat . The warmth of the footpads is regulated independently of the rest of the body , and is maintained at just above tissue @-@ freezing point where the pads come in contact with ice and snow . Gray wolves use different places for their diurnal rest : places with cover are preferred during cold , damp and windy weather , while wolves in dry , calm and warm weather readily rest in the open . During the autumn @-@ spring period , when wolves are more active , they willingly lie out in the open , whatever their location . Actual dens are usually constructed for pups during the summer period . When building dens , females make use of natural shelters such as fissures in rocks , cliffs overhanging riverbanks and holes thickly covered by vegetation . Sometimes , the den is the appropriated burrow of smaller animals such as foxes , badgers or marmots . An appropriated den is often widened and partly remade . On rare occasions , female wolves dig burrows themselves , which are usually small and short with 1 – 3 openings . The den is usually constructed not more than 500 metres away from a water source , and typically faces southwards , thus ensuring enough sunlight exposure , keeping the denning area relatively snow free . Resting places , play areas for the pups and food remains are commonly found around wolf dens . The odour of urine and rotting food emanating from the denning area often attracts scavenging birds such as magpies and ravens . As there are few convenient places for burrows , wolf dens are usually occupied by animals of the same family . Though they mostly avoid areas within human sight , wolves have been known to nest near domiciles , paved roads and railways .

= = = Diet = = =

All social terrestrial mammalian predators feed mostly on terrestrial herbivorous mammals with a body mass similar to the combined mass of the social group members attacking the prey animal , and a pack of timber wolves can bring down a 500 kg moose as their preferred prey . The gray wolf generally specializes in vulnerable individuals of large prey . In Eurasia , many gray wolf populations are forced to subsist largely on livestock and garbage in areas with dense human activity , though wild ungulates such as moose , red deer , roe deer and wild boar are still the most important food sources in Russia and the more mountainous regions of Eastern Europe . Other prey species include reindeer , argali , mouflon , wisent , saiga , ibex , chamois , wild goats , fallow deer and musk deer . The prey animals of North American wolves have largely continued to occupy suitable habitats with low human density , and cases of wolves subsisting largely on garbage or livestock are exceptional . Animals preferred as prey by North American wolves include moose , white @-@ tailed deer , elk , mule deer , bighorn sheep , Dall 's sheep , American bison , muskox and caribou .

Although wolves primarily feed on medium to large sized ungulates , they are not fussy eaters . Smaller sized animals that may supplement the diet of wolves include marmots , hares , badgers , foxes , weasels , ground squirrels , mice , hamsters , voles and other rodents , as well as insectivores . They frequently eat waterfowl and their eggs . When such foods are insufficient , they prey on lizards , snakes , frogs , rarely toads and large insects as available . In times of scarcity , wolves readily eat carrion , visiting cattle burial grounds and slaughter houses . Cannibalism is not uncommon in wolves : during harsh winters , packs often attack weak or injured wolves , and may eat the bodies of dead pack members . Wolf packs in Astrakhan hunt Caspian seals on the Caspian Sea coastline and some wolf packs in Alaska and Western Canada have been observed to feed on salmon . Humans are rarely , but occasionally preyed upon . Other primates occasionally taken by wolves include grey langurs in Nepal and hamadryas baboons in Saudi Arabia .

Wolves supplement their diet with fruit and vegetable matter . They willingly eat the berries of mountain ash , lily of the valley , bilberries , blueberries and cowberry . Other fruits include nightshade , apples and pears . They readily visit melon fields during the summer months . A well @-@ fed wolf stores fat under the skin , around the heart , intestines , kidneys , and bone marrow , particularly during the autumn and winter . Digestion only takes a few hours , thus wolves can feed several times in one day , making quick use of large quantities of meat .

= = = Enemies and competitors = = =

Gray wolves typically dominate other canid species in areas where they both occur . In North America , incidents of gray wolves killing coyotes are common , particularly in winter , when coyotes feed on wolf kills . Wolves may attack coyote den sites , digging out and killing their pups , though rarely eating them . There are no records of coyotes killing wolves , though coyotes may chase wolves if they outnumber them . Near identical interactions have been observed in Eurasia between gray wolves and golden jackals , with the latter 's numbers being comparatively small in areas with high wolf densities . Gray wolves are the most important predator of raccoon dogs , killing large numbers of them in the spring and summer periods . Wolves also kill red , arctic and corsac foxes , usually in disputes over carcasses , sometimes eating them . In Asia , they may compete with dholes , though there is at least one record of a lone wolf associating with a pair of dholes in Debrigarh Wildlife Sanctuary .

Brown bears typically dominate wolf packs in disputes over carcasses , while wolf packs mostly prevail against bears when defending their den sites . Both species kill each other 's young . Wolves eat the brown bears they kill , while brown bears seem to only eat young wolves . Wolf interactions with American black bears are much rarer than with brown bears , because of differences in habitat preferences . The majority of black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species ' northern range , with no interactions being recorded in Mexico . Wolves have been recorded on numerous occasions to actively seek out black bears in their dens and kill them without eating them . Unlike brown bears , black bears frequently lose against wolves in disputes over kills . While encounters with brown and black bears appear to be common , polar bears are rarely encountered by wolves , though there are two records of wolf packs killing polar bear cubs . Wolves also kill the cubs of Asian black bears .

Wolves may encounter striped hyenas in Israel , Central Asia and India , usually in disputes over carcasses . Striped hyenas feed extensively on wolf @-@ killed carcasses in areas where the two species interact . One @-@ to @-@ one , hyenas dominate wolves , but wolf packs can drive off single or outnumbered hyenas . However , there was a case of a female striped hyena dominating 12 Arabian wolves . Two cases are known however from southern Israel , where wolves and striped hyenas associated closely with each other in an apparently amicable way .

Large wolf populations limit the numbers of small to medium @-@ sized felines . Wolves encounter cougars along portions of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent mountain ranges . Wolves and cougars typically avoid encountering each other by hunting on different elevations . In winter , however , when snow accumulation forces their prey into valleys , interactions between the two species become more likely . Wolves in packs usually dominate cougars and can steal kills . They have been reported killing mothers and their kittens . Wolves hunt steppe cats , and may scavenge from snow leopard kills . Wolves may also reduce Eurasian lynx populations . Wolves may kill lynxes by running them down , or killing them before they can escape into trees . Similar reports of encounters between wolves and bobcats have been documented .

Leftovers of wolf kills are sometimes scavenged by wolverines . Wolverines usually wait until the wolves are done feeding , but have been known to drive away wolves from kills . However , there have been confirmed reports of wolf packs killing wolverines .

Other than humans , tigers appear to be the only serious predators of wolves . Wolf and tiger interactions are well documented in Sikhote @-@ Alin , where tigers depress wolf numbers , either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem . Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human persecution decreases tiger numbers . Proven cases of tigers killing wolves are rare and attacks appear to be competitive rather than predatory in nature , with at least four proven records of tigers killing wolves without consuming them .

= = Range and conservation = =

The gray wolf was once one of the world 's most widely distributed mammals , living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15 ° N latitude in North America and 12 ° N in India . However , deliberate human persecution has reduced the species ' range to about one third , because of livestock predation and fear over attacks on humans . The species is now extinct in much of Western Europe , in Mexico and much of the United States . In modern times , the gray wolf occurs mostly in wilderness and remote areas , particularly in Canada , Alaska and northern USA , Europe , and Asia from about 75 ° N to 12 ° N. Wolf population declines have been arrested since the 1970s , and have fostered recolonization and reintroduction in parts of its former range , due to legal protection , changes in land @-@ use and rural human population shifts to cities . Competition with humans for livestock and game species , concerns over the danger posed by wolves to people , and habitat fragmentation pose a continued threat to the species . Despite these threats , because of the gray wolf 's relatively widespread range and stable population , it is classified as least concern by the IUCN .

= = = Europe = = =

= = = = Decline = = = =

Although wolf @-@ dog hybridization in Europe has raised concern among conservation groups fearing for the gray wolf 's purity , genetic tests show that introgression of dog genes into European gray wolf populations does not pose a significant threat . Also , as wolf and dog mating seasons do not fully coincide , the likelihood of wild wolves and dogs mating and producing surviving offspring is small .

The extermination of Northern Europe 's wolves first became an organized effort during the Middle Ages , and continued until the late 1800s . In England , wolf persecution was enforced by legislation , and the last wolf was killed in the early sixteenth century during the reign of Henry VII . Wolves lasted longer in Scotland , where they sheltered in vast tracts of forest , which were subsequently burned down . Wolves managed to survive in the forests of Braemar and Sutherland until 1684 . The extirpation of wolves in Ireland followed a similar course , with the last wolf believed to have been killed in 1786 . A wolf bounty was introduced in Sweden in 1647 , after the extermination of moose and reindeer forced wolves to feed on livestock . The Sami extirpated wolves in northern Sweden in organized drives . By 1960 , few wolves remained in Sweden , because of the use of snowmobiles in hunting them , with the last specimen being killed in 1966 . The gray wolf was exterminated in Denmark in 1772 and Norway 's last wolf was killed in 1973 . The species was decimated in 20th century Finland , despite regular dispersals from Russia . The gray wolf was only present in the eastern and northern parts of Finland by 1900 , though its numbers increased after World War II .

In Central Europe , wolves were dramatically reduced in number during the early nineteenth century , because of organized hunts and reductions in ungulate populations . In Bavaria , the last wolf was killed in 1847 , and had disappeared from the Rhine regions by 1899 and largely disappeared in Switzerland before the end of the nineteenth century . In 1934 , Nazi Germany became the first state in modern history to place the wolf under protection , though the species was already extirpated in Germany at this point . The last free @-@ living wolf to be killed on the soil of present @-@ day Germany before 1945 was the so @-@ called " Tiger of Sabrodt " , which was shot near Hoyerswerda , Lusatia ( then Lower Silesia ) in 1904 . Today , wolves have returned to the area . Wolf hunting in France was first institutionalized by Charlemagne between 800 – 813 , when he established the louveterie , a special corps of wolf hunters . The louveterie was abolished after the French Revolution in 1789 , but was re @-@ established in 1814 . In 1883 , up to 1 @,@ 386 wolves were killed , with many more by poison .

In Eastern Europe , wolves were never fully exterminated , because of the area 's contiguity with Asia and its large forested areas . However , Eastern European wolf populations were reduced to very low numbers by the late nineteenth century . Wolves were extirpated in Slovakia during the first decade of the twentieth century and , by the mid @-@ twentieth century , could only be found in a few forested areas in eastern Poland . Wolves in the eastern Balkans benefitted from the region 's contiguity with the former Soviet Union and large areas of plains , mountains and farmlands . Wolves in Hungary occurred in only half the country around the start of the 20th century , and were largely restricted to the Carpathian Basin . Wolf populations in Romania remained largely substantial , with an average of 2 @,@ 800 wolves being killed annually out of a population of 4 @,@ 600 from 1955 – 1965 . An all @-@ time low was reached in 1967 , when the population was reduced to 1 @,@ 550 animals . The extermination of wolves in Bulgaria was relatively recent , as a previous population of about 1 @,@ 000 animals in 1955 was reduced to about 100 – 200 in 1964 . In Greece , the species disappeared from the southern Peloponnese in 1930 . Despite periods of intense hunting during the eighteenth century , wolves never disappeared in the western Balkans , from Albania to the former Yugoslavia . Organized persecution of wolves began in Yugoslavia in 1923 , with the setting up of the Wolf Extermination Committee ( WEC ) in Kocevje , Slovenia . The WEC was successful in reducing wolf numbers in the Dinaric Alps .

In Southern Europe , wolf extermination was not as complete as in Northern Europe , because of greater cultural tolerance of the species . Wolf populations only began declining in the Iberian Peninsula in the early 19th @-@ century , and was reduced by a half of its original size by 1900 . Wolf bounties were regularly paid in Italy as late as 1950 . Wolves were exterminated in the alps by 1800 , and numbered only 100 by 1973 , inhabiting only 3 – 5 % of their former Italian range .

= = = = Recovery = = = =

The recovery of European wolf populations began after the 1950s , when traditional pastoral and rural economies declined and thus removed the need to heavily persecute wolves . By the 1980s , small and isolated wolf populations expanded in the wake of decreased human density in rural areas and the recovery of wild prey populations .

The gray wolf has been fully protected in Italy since 1976 , and now holds a population of over 1 @,@ 269 @-@ 1 @,@ 800 . Italian wolves entered France 's Mercantour National Park in 1993 , and at least fifty wolves were discovered in the western Alps in 2000 . By 2013 the 250 wolves in the Western Alps imposed a significant burden on traditional sheep and goat husbandry with a loss of over 5 @,@ 000 animals in 2012 . There are approximately 2 @,@ 000 wolves inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula , of which 150 reside in northeastern Portugal . In Spain , the species occurs in Galicia , Leon , and Asturias . Although hundreds of Iberian wolves are illegally killed annually , the population has expanded south across the river Duero and east to the Asturias and Pyrenees Mountains .

In 1978 , wolves began recolonising central Sweden after a twelve @-@ year absence , and have since expanded into southern Norway . As of 2005 , the total number of Swedish and Norwegian wolves is estimated to be at least one hundred , including eleven breeding pairs . The gray wolf is fully protected in Sweden and partially controlled in Norway . The Scandinavian wolf populations owe their continued existence to neighbouring Finland 's contiguity with the Republic of Karelia , which houses a large population of wolves . Wolves in Finland are protected only in the southern third of the country , and can be hunted in other areas during specific seasons , though poaching remains common , with 90 % of young wolf deaths being due to human predation , and the number of wolves killed exceeds the number of hunting licenses , in some areas by a factor of two . Furthermore , the decline in the moose populations has reduced the wolf 's food supply . Since 2011 , Netherlands , Belgium and Denmark have also reported wolf sightings presumably by natural migration from adjacent countries .

Wolf populations in Poland have increased to about 800 – 900 individuals since being classified as a game species in 1976 . Poland plays a fundamental role in providing routes of expansion into neighbouring Central European countries . In the east , its range overlaps with populations in Lithuania , Belorussia , Ukraine , and Slovakia . A population in western Poland expanded into eastern Germany and in 2000 the first pups were born on German territory . In 2012 , an estimated 14 wolf packs were living in Germany ( mostly in the east ) and a pack with pups has been sighted within 15 miles of Berlin . The gray wolf is protected in Slovakia , though an exception is made for wolves killing livestock . A few Slovakian wolves disperse into the Czech Republic , where they are afforded full protection . Wolves in Slovakia , Ukraine and Croatia may disperse into Hungary , where the lack of cover hinders the buildup of an autonomous population . Although wolves have special status in Hungary , they may be hunted with a year @-@ round permit if they cause problems .

Romania has a large population of wolves , numbering 2 @,@ 500 animals . The wolf has been a protected animal in Romania since 1996 , although the law is not enforced . The number of wolves in Albania and Macedonia is largely unknown , despite the importance the two countries have in linking wolf populations from Greece to those of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia . Although protected , sometimes wolves are still illegally killed in Greece , and their future is uncertain . Wolf numbers have declined in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 1986 , while the species is fully protected in neighbouring Croatia and Slovenia .

= = = Asia = = =

= = = = Historical range and decline = = = =

During the 19th century , gray wolves were widespread in many parts of the Holy Land east and west of the Jordan River . However , they decreased considerably in number between 1964 and 1980 , largely because of persecution by farmers . The species was not considered common in northern and central Saudi Arabia during the 19th century , with most early publications involving animals either from southwestern Asir , northern rocky areas bordering Jordan , or areas surrounding Riyadh .

The gray wolf 's range in the Soviet Union encompassed nearly the entire territory of the country , being absent only on the Solovetsky Islands , Franz @-@ Josef Land , Severnaya Zemlya , and the Karagin , Commander and Shantar Islands . The species was exterminated twice in Crimea , once after the Russian Civil War , and again after World War II . Following the two world wars , Soviet wolf populations peaked twice . 30 @,@ 000 wolves were harvested annually out of a population of 200 @,@ 000 during the 1940s , with 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 harvested during peak years . Soviet wolf populations reached a low around 1970 , disappearing over much of European Russia . The population increased again by 1980 to about 75 @,@ 000 , with 32 @,@ 000 being killed in 1979 . Wolf populations in northern inner Mongolia declined during the 1940s , primarily because of poaching of gazelles , the wolf 's main prey . In British @-@ ruled India , wolves were heavily persecuted because of their attacks on sheep , goats and children . In 1876 , 2 @,@ 825 wolves were bountied in the North @-@ Western Provinces ( NWP ) and Bihar . By the 1920s , wolf extermination remained a priority in the NWP and Awadh . Overall , over 100 @,@ 000 wolves were killed for bounties in British India between 1871 and 1916 .

Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period , an extermination known as ōkami no kujo . The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching , which the Meiji government promoted at the time , and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similar contemporary American campaign . The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on January 23 , 1905 near Washikaguchi ( now called Higashi Yoshiro ) . The now extinct Japanese wolves were descended from large Siberian wolves , which colonized the Korean Peninsula and Japan , before it separated from mainland Asia , 20 @,@ 000 years ago during the Pleistocene . During the Holocene , the Tsugaru Strait widened and isolated Honshu from Hokkaidō , thus causing climatic changes leading to the extinction of most large bodied ungulates inhabiting the archipelago . Japanese wolves likely underwent a process of island dwarfism 7 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 years ago in response to these climatological and ecological pressures . C. l. hattai ( formerly native to Hokkaidō ) was significantly larger than its southern cousin C. l. hodophilax , as it inhabited higher elevations and had access to larger prey , as well as a continuing genetic interaction with dispersing wolves from Siberia .

= = = = Modern range = = = =

There is little reliable data on the status of wolves in the Middle East , save for those in Israel and Saudi Arabia , though their numbers appear to be stable , and are likely to remain so . Israel 's conservation policies and effective law enforcement maintain a moderately sized wolf population , which radiates into neighbouring countries , while Saudi Arabia has vast tracts of desert , where about 300 – 600 wolves live undisturbed . The wolf survives throughout most of its historical range in Saudi Arabia , probably because of a lack of pastoralism and abundant human waste . Turkey may play an important role in maintaining wolves in the region , because of its contiguity with Central Asia . The mountains of Turkey have served as a refuge for the few wolves remaining in Syria . A small wolf population occurs in the Golan Heights , and is well protected by the military activities there . Wolves living in the southern Negev desert are contiguous with populations living in the Egyptian Sinai and Jordan . Throughout the Middle East , the species is only protected in Israel . Elsewhere , it can be hunted year @-@ round by Bedouins .

Little is known of current wolf populations in Iran , which once occurred throughout the country in low densities during the mid @-@ 1970s . The northern regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan are important strongholds for the wolf . It has been estimated that there are about 300 wolves in approximately 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of Jammu and Kashmir in northern India , and 50 more in Himachal Pradesh . Overall , India supports about 800 @-@ 3 @,@ 000 wolves , scattered among several remnant populations . Although protected since 1972 , Indian wolves are classed as endangered , with many populations lingering in low numbers or living in areas increasingly used by humans . Although present in Nepal and Bhutan , there is no information of wolves occurring there .

Wolf populations throughout Northern and Central Asia are largely unknown , but are estimated in the hundreds of thousands based on annual harvests . Since the fall of the Soviet Union , continent @-@ wide extermination of wolves has ceased , and wolf populations have increased to about 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 animals throughout the former Soviet Union . In China and Mongolia , wolves are only protected in reserves . Mongolian populations have been estimated at 10 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 , while the status of wolves in China is more fragmentary . The north has a declining population of an estimated 400 wolves , while Xinjiang and Tibet hold about 10 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 respectively .

= = = North America = = =

= = = = Historical range and decline = = = =

Originally , the gray wolf occupied all of North America north of about 20 ° N. It occurred all over the mainland , save for the southeastern United States , California west of the Sierra Nevada , and the tropical and subtropical areas of Mexico . Large continental islands occupied by wolves included Newfoundland , Vancouver Island , southeastern Alaskan islands , and throughout the Arctic Archipelago and Greenland . While Lohr and Ballard postulated that the gray wolf had never been present on Prince Edward Island , analysis of references to the Island ’ s native fauna in unpublished and published historical records has found that gray wolves were resident there at the time of the first French settlement in 1720 . In his 6 November 1721 letter to the French Minister of the Marine , Louis Denys de La Ronde reported that the Island was home to wolves “ of a prodigious size ” , and sent a wolf pelt back to France to substantiate his claim . As the Island was cleared for settlement , the gray wolf population may have been extirpated , or relocated to the mainland across the winter ice : the few subsequent wolf reports date from the mid @-@ nineteenth century and describe the creatures as transient visitors from across the Northumberland Strait .

The decline of North American wolf populations coincided with increasing human populations and the expansion of agriculture . By the start of the 20th century , the species had almost disappeared from the eastern USA , excepting some areas of the Appalachians and the northwestern Great Lakes Region . In Canada , the gray wolf was extirpated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia between 1870 and 1921 , and in Newfoundland around 1911 . It vanished from the southern regions of Quebec and Ontario between 1850 and 1900 . The gray wolf 's decline in the prairies began with the extermination of the American bison and other ungulates in the 1860s – 70s . From 1900 – 1930 , the gray wolf was virtually eliminated from the western USA and adjoining parts of Canada , because of intensive predator control programs aimed at eradicating the species . The gray wolf was exterminated by federal and state governments from all of the USA by 1960 , except in Alaska and northern Minnesota . The decline in North American wolf populations was reversed from the 1930s to the early 1950s , particularly in southwestern Canada , because of expanding ungulate populations resulting from improved regulation of big game hunting . This increase triggered a resumption of wolf control in western and northern Canada . Thousands of wolves were killed from the early 1950s to the early 1960s , mostly because of poisoning . This campaign was halted and wolf populations increased again by the mid @-@ 1970s .

= = = = Modern range = = = =

The species ' modern range in North America is mostly confined to Alaska and Canada , with populations also occurring in northern Minnesota , northern Wisconsin and Michigan 's Upper Peninsula , and portions of Washington , Idaho , northern Oregon , and Montana . A functional wolf population should exist in California by 2024 according to estimates by state wildlife officials . Canadian wolves began to naturally re @-@ colonize northern Montana around Glacier National Park in 1979 , and the first wolf den in the western U.S. in over half a century was documented there in 1986 . The wolf population in northwest Montana initially grew as a result of natural reproduction and dispersal to about 48 wolves by the end of 1994 . From 1995 @-@ 1996 , wolves from Alberta and British Columbia were relocated to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho . In addition , the Mexican wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi ) was reintroduced to Arizona and New Mexico in 1998 . The gray wolf is found in approximately 80 % of its historical range in Canada , thus making it an important stronghold for the species .

Canada is home to about 52 @,@ 000 – 60 @,@ 000 wolves , whose legal status varies according to province and territory . First Nations residents may hunt wolves without restriction , and some provinces require licenses for residents to hunt wolves while others do not . In Alberta , wolves on private land may be baited and hunted by the landowner without requiring a license , and in some areas , wolf hunting bounty programs exist . Large @-@ scale wolf population control through poisoning , trapping and aerial hunting is also presently conducted by government @-@ mandated programs in order to support populations of endangered prey species such as woodland caribou .

In Alaska , the gray wolf population is estimated at 6 @,@ 000 – 7 @,@ 000 , and can be legally harvested during hunting and trapping seasons , with bag limits and other restrictions . As of 2002 , there are 250 wolves in 28 packs in Yellowstone , and 260 wolves in 25 packs in Idaho . The gray wolf received Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) protection in Minnesota , Wisconsin , and Michigan in 1974 , and was re @-@ classed from endangered to threatened in 2003 . Reintroduced Mexican wolves in Arizona and New Mexico are protected under the ESA and , as of late 2002 , number 28 individuals in eight packs . A female wolf shot in 2013 in Hart County , Kentucky by a hunter was the first gray wolf seen in Kentucky in modern times . DNA analysis by Fish and Wildlife laboratories showed genetic characteristics similar to those of wolves in the Great Lakes Region .

= = Diseases and parasites = =

= = = Viral and bacterial infections = = =

Viral diseases carried by wolves include rabies , canine distemper , canine parvovirus , infectious canine hepatitis , papillomatosis , and canine coronavirus . Wolves are a major host for rabies in Russia , Iran , Afghanistan , Iraq and India . In wolves , the incubation period is 8 – 21 days , and results in the host becoming agitated , deserting its pack , and travelling up to 80 km a day , thus increasing the risk of infecting other wolves . Infected wolves do not show any fear of humans , with most documented wolf attacks on people being attributed to rabid animals . Although canine distemper is lethal in dogs , it has not been recorded to kill wolves , except in Canada and Alaska . The canine parvovirus , which causes death by dehydration , electrolyte imbalance , and endotoxic shock or sepsis , is largely survivable in wolves , but can be lethal to pups . Wolves may catch infectious canine hepatitis from dogs , though there are no records of wolves dying from it . Papillomatosis has been recorded only once in wolves , and likely doesn 't cause serious illness or death , though it may alter feeding behaviors . The canine coronavirus has been recorded in Alaskan wolves , with infections being most prevalent in winter months .

Bacterial diseases carried by wolves include brucellosis , lyme disease , leptospirosis , tularemia , bovine tuberculosis , listeriosis , anthrax and foot and mouth disease . Wolves can catch Brucella suis from wild and domestic reindeer . While adult wolves tend not to show any clinical signs , it can severely weaken the pups of infected females . Although lyme disease can debilitate individual wolves , it does not appear to have any significant effect on wolf populations . Leptospirosis can be contracted through contact with infected prey or urine , and can cause fever , anorexia , vomiting , anemia , hematuria , icterus , and death . Wolves living near farms are more vulnerable to the disease than those living in the wilderness , probably because of prolonged contact with infected domestic animal waste . Wolves may catch tularemia from lagomorph prey , though its effect on wolves is unknown . Although bovine tuberculosis is not considered a major threat to wolves , it has been recorded to have once killed two wolf pups in Canada .

= = = Parasitic infections = = =

Wolves carry ectoparasites and endoparasites , with wolves in the former Soviet Union having been recorded to carry at least 50 species . Most of these parasites infect wolves without adverse effects , though the effects may become more serious in sick or malnourished specimens . Parasitic infection in wolves is of particular concern to people , as wolves can spread them to dogs , which in turn can carry the parasites to humans . In areas where wolves inhabit pastoral areas , the parasites can be spread to livestock .

Wolves are often infested with a variety of arthropod exoparasites , including fleas , ticks , lice , and mites . The most harmful to wolves , particularly pups , is Sarcoptes scabiei ( or mange mite ) , though they rarely develop full blown mange , unlike foxes . Lice , such as Trichodectes canis , may cause sickness in wolves , but rarely death . Ticks of the genus Ixodes can infect wolves with Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever . The tick Dermacentor pictus also infests wolves . Other ectoparasites include biting lice , sucking lice and the fleas Pulex irritans and Ctenocephalides canis .

Endoparasites known to infect wolves include protozoans and helminths ( flukes , tapeworms , roundworms and thorny @-@ headed worms ) . Of 30 @,@ 000 protozoan species , only a few have been recorded to infect wolves : Isospora , Toxoplasma , Sarcocystis , Babesia , and Giardia . Wolves may carry Neospora caninum , which is of particular concern to farmers , as the disease can be spread to livestock , with infected animals being 3 – 13 times more likely to miscarry than those not infected . Among flukes , the most common in North American wolves is Alaria , which infects small rodents and amphibians that are eaten by wolves . Upon reaching maturity , Alaria migrates to the wolf 's intestine , but harms it little . Metorchis conjunctus , which enters wolves through eating fish , infects the wolf 's liver or gall bladder , causing liver disease , inflammation of the pancreas , and emaciation . Most other fluke species reside in the wolf 's intestine , though Paragonimus westermani lives in the lungs . Tapeworms are commonly found in wolves , as their primary hosts are ungulates , small mammals , and fish , which wolves feed upon . Tapeworms generally cause little harm in wolves , though this depends on the number and size of the parasites , and the sensitivity of the host . Symptoms often include constipation , toxic and allergic reactions , irritation of the intestinal mucosa , and malnutrition . Infections by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus in ungulate populations tend to increase in areas with high wolf densities , as wolves can shed Echinoccocus eggs in their feces onto grazing areas . Wolves can carry over 30 roundworm species , though most roundworm infections appear benign , depending on the number of worms and the age of the host . Ancylostoma caninum attaches itself on the intestinal wall to feed on the host 's blood , and can cause hyperchromic anemia , emaciation , diarrhea , and possibly death . Toxocara canis , a hookworm known to infect wolf pups in utero , can cause intestinal irritation , bloating , vomiting , and diarrhea . Wolves may catch Dioctophyma renale from minks , which infects the kidneys , and can grow to lengths of 100 cm . D. renale causes the complete destruction of the kidney 's functional tissue , and can be fatal if both kidneys are infected . Wolves can tolerate low levels of Dirofilaria immitis for many years without showing any ill effects , though high levels can kill wolves through cardiac enlargement and congestive hepatopathy . Wolves probably become infected with Trichinella spiralis by eating infected ungulates . Although T. spiralis isn 't known to produce clinical signs in wolves , it can cause emaciation , salivation , and crippling muscle pains in dogs . Thorny @-@ headed worms rarely infect wolves , though three species have been identified in Russian wolves : Nicolla skrjabini , Macrocantorhynchus catulinus , and Moniliformis moniliformis .

= = Relationships with humans = =

= = = In culture = = =

= = = = In personal names = = = =

Old English literature contains several instances of Anglo @-@ Saxon kings and warriors taking on wulf as a prefix or suffix in their names . Examples include Wulfhere , Cynewulf , Ceonwulf , Wulfheard , Earnwulf , Wulfmǣr , Wulfstān and Æthelwulf . Wolf @-@ related names were also common among pre @-@ Christian Germanic warriors : Wolfhroc ( Wolf @-@ Frock ) , Wolfhetan ( Wolf Hide ) , Isangrim ( Grey Mask ) , Scrutolf ( Garb Wolf ) , Wolfgang ( Wolf Gait ) and Wolfdregil ( Wolf Runner ) .

Ancient Greek literature is similar : Autolycus ( " the wolf itself " ) , Lycurgus ( " wolf @-@ work " ) .

The Latin for " female prostitute " is lupa , and the most famous brothel in Pompeii was the Lupanar .

= = = = In folklore , religion and mythology = = = =

The wolf is a common motif in the foundational mythologies and cosmologies of peoples throughout Eurasia and North America ( corresponding to the historical extent of the habitat of the gray wolf ) . The obvious attribute of the wolf is its nature of a predator , and correspondingly it is strongly associated with danger and destruction , making it the symbol of the warrior on one hand , and that of the devil on the other . The modern trope of the Big Bad Wolf is a development of this . The wolf holds great importance in the cultures and religions of the nomadic peoples , both of the Eurasian steppe and of the North American Plains . In many cultures , the identification of the warrior with the wolf ( totemism ) gave rise to the notion of Lycanthropy , the mythical or ritual identification of man and wolf .

= = = = In fable and literature = = = =

Aesop featured wolves in several of his fables , playing on the concerns of Ancient Greece 's settled , sheep @-@ herding world . His most famous is the fable of The Boy Who Cried Wolf , which is directed at those who knowingly raise false alarms , and from which the idiomatic phrase " to cry wolf " is derived . Some of his other fables concentrate on maintaining the trust between shepherds and guard dogs in their vigilance against wolves , as well as anxieties over the close relationship between wolves and dogs . Although Aesop used wolves to warn , criticize and moralize about human behavior , his portrayals added to the wolf 's image as a deceitful and dangerous animal . Isengrim the wolf , a character first appearing in the 12th @-@ century Latin poem Ysengrimus , is a major character in the Reynard Cycle , where he stands for the low nobility , whilst his adversary , Reynard the fox , represents the peasant hero . Although portrayed as loyal , honest and moral , Isengrim is forever the victim of Reynard 's wit and cruelty , often dying at the end of each story . The tale of Little Red Riding Hood , first written in 1697 by Charles Perrault , is largely considered to have had more influence than any other source of literature in forging the wolf 's negative reputation in the western world . The wolf in this story is portrayed as a potential rapist , capable of imitating human speech . The hunting of wolves , and their attacks on humans and livestock feature prominently in Russian literature , and are included in the works of Tolstoy , Chekhov , Nekrasov , Bunin , Sabaneyev , and others . Tolstoy 's War and Peace and Chekhov 's Peasants both feature scenes in which wolves are hunted with hounds and borzois . Farley Mowat 's largely fictional 1963 memoir Never Cry Wolf was the first positive portrayal of wolves in popular literature , and is largely considered to be the most popular book on wolves , having been adapted into a Hollywood film and taught in several schools decades after its publication . Although credited with having changed popular perceptions on wolves by portraying them as loving , cooperative and noble , it has been criticized for its idealization of wolves and its factual inaccuracies .

= = = = In heraldry and symbolism = = = =

The wolf is a frequent charge in English armory . It is illustrated as a supporter on the shields of Lord Welby , Rendel , and Viscount Wolseley , and can be found on the coat of arms of Lovett and the vast majority of the Wilsons and Lows . The demi @-@ wolf is a common crest , appearing in the arms and crests of members of many families , including that of the Wolfes , whose crest depicts a demi @-@ wolf holding a crown in its paws , in reference to the assistance the family gave to Charles II during the battle of Worcester . Wolf heads are common in Scottish heraldry , particularly in the coats of Clan Robertson and Skene . The wolf is the most common animal in Spanish heraldry , and is often depicted as carrying a lamb in its mouth , or across its back . The wolf is featured on the flags of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation , the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin and the Pawnee . In modern times , the wolf is widely used as an emblem for military and paramilitary groups . It is the unofficial symbol of the spetsnaz , and serves as the logo of the Turkish Grey Wolves . During the Yugoslav Wars , several Serb paramilitary units adopted the wolf as their symbol , including the White Wolves and the Wolves of Vučjak .

= = = Conflicts = = =

= = = = Wolf predation on livestock = = = =

Livestock depredation has been one of the primary reasons for hunting wolves , and can pose a severe problem for wolf conservation : as well as causing economic losses , the threat of wolf predation causes great stress on livestock producers , and no foolproof solution of preventing such attacks short of exterminating wolves has been found . Some nations help offset economic losses to wolves through compensation programmes or state insurance . Domesticated animals are easy prey for wolves , as they have evolved under constant human protection , and are thus unable to defend themselves very well . Wolves typically resort to attacking livestock when wild prey is depleted : in Eurasia , a large part of the diet of some wolf populations consists of livestock , while such incidences are rare in North America , where healthy populations of wild prey have been largely restored . The majority of losses occur during the summer grazing period , with untended livestock in remote pastures being the most vulnerable to wolf predation . The most frequently targeted livestock species are sheep ( Europe ) , domestic reindeer ( northern Scandinavia ) , goats ( India ) , horses ( Mongolia ) , cattle and turkeys ( North America ) . The number of animals killed in single attacks varies according to species : most attacks on cattle and horses result in one death , while turkeys , sheep and domestic reindeer may be killed in surplus . Wolves mainly attack livestock when the animals are grazing , though they occasionally break into fenced enclosures . In some cases , wolves do not need to physically attack livestock to negatively affect it : the stress livestock experiences in being vigilant for wolves may result in miscarriages , weight loss and a decrease in meat quality .

= = = = Conflicts with dogs = = = =

Being the most abundant carnivores , feral and free @-@ ranging dogs have the greatest potential to compete with wolves . A review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves . Competition would favor the wolf , which is known to kill dogs , however wolves tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted , giving them a disadvantage facing large groups of dogs .

Wolves kill dogs on occasion , with some wolf populations relying on dogs as an important food source . In Croatia , wolves kill more dogs than sheep , and wolves in Russia appear to limit stray dog populations . Wolves may display unusually bold behavior when attacking dogs accompanied by people , sometimes ignoring nearby humans . Wolf attacks on dogs may occur both in house yards and in forests . Wolf attacks on hunting dogs are considered a major problem in Scandinavia and Wisconsin . The most frequently killed hunting breeds in Scandinavia are harriers , with older animals being most at risk , likely because they are less timid than younger animals , and react to the presence of wolves differently . Large hunting dogs such as Swedish elkhounds are more likely to survive wolf attacks because of their better ability to defend themselves .

Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low , it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs . In many cultures , there are strong social and emotional bonds between humans and their dogs that can be seen as family members or working team members . The loss of a dog can lead to strong emotional responses with demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations .

Dogs that are employed to guard sheep help to mitigate human – wolf conflicts , and are often proposed as one of the non @-@ lethal tools in the conservation of wolves . Shepherd dogs are not particularly aggressive , but they can disrupt potential wolf predation by displaying what is to the wolf ambiguous behaviors , such as barking , social greeting , invitation to play or aggression . The historical use of shepherd dogs across Eurasia has been effective against wolf predation , especially when confining sheep in the presence of several livestock @-@ guarding dogs . However , shepherd dogs are sometimes killed by wolves .

= = = = Wolf predation on humans = = = =

The fear of wolves has been pervasive in many societies , though humans are not part of the wolf 's natural prey . How wolves react to humans depends largely on their prior experience with people : wolves lacking any negative experience of humans , or which are food conditioned , may show little fear of people . Although wolves may react aggressively under provocation , such attacks are mostly limited to quick bites on extremities , and the attacks are not pressed . Predatory attacks ( attacks by wolves treating humans as food ) may be preceded by a long period of habituation , in which wolves gradually lose their fear of humans . The victims are repeatedly bitten on the head and face , and are then dragged off and consumed , unless the wolves are driven off . Such attacks typically occur only locally , and do not stop until the wolves involved are eliminated . Predatory attacks can occur at any time of the year , with a peak in the June – August period , when the chances of people entering forested areas ( for livestock grazing or berry and mushroom picking ) increase , though cases of non @-@ rabid wolf attacks in winter have been recorded in Belarus , Kirov and Irkutsk oblasts , Karelia and Ukraine . Also , wolves with pups experience greater food stresses during this period . The majority of victims of predatory wolf attacks are children under the age of 18 and , in the rare cases where adults are killed , the victims are almost always women . Cases of rabid wolves are low when compared to other species , as wolves do not serve as primary reservoirs of the disease , but can be infected by animals such as dogs , jackals and foxes . Incidents of rabies in wolves are very rare in North America , though numerous in the eastern Mediterranean , Middle East and Central Asia . Wolves apparently develop the " furious " phase of rabies to a very high degree which , coupled with their size and strength , makes rabid wolves perhaps the most dangerous of rabid animals , with bites from rabid wolves being 15 times more dangerous than those of rabid dogs . Rabid wolves usually act alone , travelling large distances and often biting large numbers of people and domestic animals . Most rabid wolf attacks occur in the spring and autumn periods . Unlike with predatory attacks , the victims of rabid wolves are not eaten , and the attacks generally only occur on a single day . Also , the victims are chosen at random , though the majority of cases involve adult men . In the half @-@ century up to 2002 , there were eight fatal attacks in Europe and Russia , and more than 200 in south Asia . Between 2005 @-@ 2010 , two people were killed in North America .

= = = = Human predation on wolves = = = =

Wolves are notoriously difficult to hunt because of their elusiveness , their sharp senses , their high endurance in the chase and ability to quickly incapacitate and kill hunting dogs . Historically , many methods have been devised to hunt wolves , including the killing of spring @-@ born litters in their dens , coursing with dogs ( usually combinations of sighthounds , bloodhounds and fox terriers ) , poisoning with strychnine , and foothold and deadfall traps . A popular method of wolf hunting in Russia involves trapping a pack within a small area by encircling it with fladry poles carrying a human scent . This method relies heavily on the wolf 's fear of human scents , though it can lose its effectiveness when wolves become accustomed to the smell . Some hunters are able to lure wolves by imitating their calls . In Kazakhstan and Mongolia , wolves are traditionally hunted with eagles and falcons , though this practise is declining , as experienced falconers are becoming few in number . Shooting wolves from aircraft is highly effective , as it allows greater visibility of wolves than hunting on the ground , though this method is controversial , as it allows wolves little chance to escape or defend themselves . Some dog breeds like the Borzoi wolfhound , the Irish wolfhound , or the Kyrgyz Tajgan have been specifically selected for wolf hunting .

= = = As pets and working animals = = =

Wild wolves are sometimes kept as exotic pets , and in some rarer occasions , as working animals . Although closely related to domesticated dogs , wolves do not show the same tractability as dogs in living alongside humans , and generally , much more work is required in order to obtain the same amount of reliability . Wolves also need much more space than dogs , about 10 to 15 square miles so they can exercise .

= Irataba =

Irataba ( Mohave : eecheeyara tav [ eːt ͡ ʃeːjara tav ] , also known as Yara tav , Yarate : va , Arateve ; c . 1814 – 1874 ) was a leader of the Mohave Nation , known for his role as a mediator between his people and the United States . He was born near the Colorado River in present @-@ day Arizona . Irataba was a renowned orator and one of the first Mohave to speak English , a skill he used to develop relations with the United States . Early records mention his large physical size and gentle demeanor . Irataba first encountered European Americans in 1851 , when he assisted the Sitgreaves Expedition . In 1854 , he met Amiel Whipple , then leading an expedition crossing the Colorado . Several Mohave aided the group , and Irataba agreed to escort them through the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail , which would take them to southern California . He later helped and protected other expeditions , earning him a reputation among whites as the most important native leader in the region .

Against Irataba 's advice , in 1858 Mohave warriors attacked the first emigrant wagon train to use Beale 's Wagon Road through Mohave country . As a result , the U.S. War Department sent a detachment under Colonel William Hoffman to pacify the tribe . Following a series of confrontations known as the Mohave War , Hoffman succeeded in dominating the natives , and demanded that they allow the passage of settlers through their territory . To ensure compliance , Fort Mohave was constructed near the site of the battle in April 1859 . Hoffman also imprisoned several Mohave leaders . Having been an advocate for friendly relations with the whites , Irataba became the nation 's Aha macave yaltanack , an elected , as opposed to hereditary , leader .

As a result of his many interactions with U.S. officials and settlers , Irataba was invited to Washington , D.C. , in 1864 , for an official meeting with members of the U.S. military and its government , including President Abraham Lincoln . In doing so , he became the first Native American from the Southwest to meet an American president . He received considerable attention during his tours of the U.S. capital , and of New York City and Philadelphia , where he was given gifts , including a silver @-@ headed cane from Lincoln . Upon his return he negotiated the creation of the Colorado River Indian Reservation , which caused a split in the Mohave Nation when he led several hundred of his supporters to the Colorado River valley . The majority of the Mohave preferred to remain in their ancestral homelands near Fort Mohave and under the leadership of their hereditary leader , Homoseh quahote , who was less enthusiastic about direct collaboration with whites . As leader of the Colorado River band of Mohave , Irataba encouraged peaceful relations with whites , served as a mediator between the warring tribes in the area , and during his later years continued to lead the Mohave in their ongoing conflicts with the Paiute and Chemehuevi .

Some consider Irataba a great leader who championed peace , but others feel he should have done more to defend the Mohave way of life . The Irataba Society , a non @-@ profit charity run by the Colorado River Indian Tribes , was established in 1970 in Parker , Arizona , where a sports venue , Irataba Hall , is also named after him . In 2002 , the US Bureau of Land Management designated 32 @,@ 745 acres ( 132 @.@ 51 km2 ) in the Eldorado Mountains as Ireteba Peaks Wilderness . In March 2015 , Mohave Tribal chairman Dennis Patch credited Irataba with ensuring that " the Mohaves stayed on land they had lived on since time immemorial . "

= = Background = =

Irataba 's name , also rendered as Ireteba , Yara tav , Arateve , Yarate : va , and Yiratewa , derives from the Mohave language phrase eecheeyara tav , which means " beautiful bird " . He was born into the Neolge , or Sun Fire clan of the Mohave Nation c . 1814 . He lived near a rock formation that gave its name to Needles , south of where the Grand Canyon empties into the Mohave Canyon in present @-@ day Arizona , near the Nevada and California border . The Mohave lived in houses along the riverbank in the Mohave Valley , during winter in half @-@ buried dwellings built with cottonwood logs and arrowweed covered in earth , and in the summer in open @-@ air flat @-@ roofed houses called ramadas .

In the mid @-@ 19th century , the Mohave were composed of three geographical groups ; Irataba was the hereditary leader of the Huttoh Pah group , who lived near the east bank of the Colorado River and occupied the central portion of the Mohave Valley . Mohave government consisted of a loose system of hereditary clan leaders with a head of the entire nation . They were often involved in conflicts with the Chemehuevi , Paiute , and Maricopa peoples . Irataba was a member of the Mohave warrior society called kwanami , who led groups of warriors in battle and were dedicated to defending their lands and people .

Little is known of Irataba 's family relations , except for the name of his son Tekse thume , and his nephews Qolho qorau ( Irataba 's sister 's son who succeeded him as leader ) and Aspamekelyeho . Olive Oatman , who lived with the Mohave for five years , later stated that Irataba was the brother of the former chief , presumably Cairook , with whom Irataba clearly had a close relation . One anecdotal description states that Irataba had several wives , among them a Hualapai woman who had been taken as a captive and who is also described as having a young son . He also had at least one daughter , the mother of his granddaughter Tcatc who was interviewed in the 1950s . She stated that Irataba had wanted to leave his land deeds and medals to his brother 's sons , but that they were eventually lost .

In contemporary accounts Irataba was described as an eloquent speaker , and linguist Leanne Hinton suggests that he was among the first Mohave people to become fluent in English , which he learned through his many interactions with Anglo @-@ Americans . Like many Mohave men , Irataba was very tall , particularly by 19th @-@ century standards ; the United States Army estimated his height at 6 feet 4 inches ( 193 cm ) in 1861 . American author Albert S. Evans , writing in The Overland Monthly , referred to him as " the old desert giant " . Edward Carlson , a soldier based at Fort Mohave who knew Irataba well in the 1860s , described him as having a powerful frame , but also a " very gentle " and " kind ... demeanor " .

Irataba lived through a tumultuous period of Mohave history where the people went from being a politically independent nation to coming under the political control of the United States , and the events surrounding his role in these encounters are well documented . Most historical sources for the life of Irataba come from descriptions by white explorers or government agents with whom he interacted , or from contemporary newspapers that reported on his visits to the East Coast and California , and on the conflicts in Arizona territory . Some Mohave versions of the events also exist : in the early 20th century anthropologist A. L. Kroeber interviewed Jo Nelson ( Mohave : Chooksa homar ) , a Mohave man who participated in many of the events and knew Irataba personally ; another version was told to ethnographer George Devereux by Irataba 's granddaughter Tcatc , and versions recounted by members of the Fort Mohave band of Mohave , the descendants of Homoseh quahote , were recorded by ethnographer Lorraine Sherer during the 1950s and 1960s .

= = Contact with emigrants and explorers = =

Irataba assisted Captain Lorenzo Sitgreaves during his 1851 exploration of the Colorado . On March 19 , 1851 , most of the Oatman family , traveling by wagon train in what is now Arizona , were killed by what are believed to have been members of the Tolkepaya band of Western Yavapai . The Yavapai killed seven members of the family , but spared the lives of 14 @-@ year @-@ old Olive Oatman and her 7 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Mary Ann . After a year with the Yavapai , the girls were sold to the Mohave , and adopted into the Oach clan where they lived with the family of a Mohave man called Tokwatha ( Musk Melon ) . Mary Ann died two years later , and Olive remained with the Mohave until February 22 , 1856 , when Tokwatha , having been warned that having a white girl among them might be seen as an offense by whites , brought her to Fort Yuma carpenter Henry Grinnell , releasing her in return for two horses and some blankets and beads .

= = = Whipple Expedition = = =

On February 23 , 1854 , Irataba , Cairook , and other Mohave people encountered an expedition led by military officers Amiel Whipple and J.C. Ives , as the group approached the Colorado en route to California . Whipple and his men counted six hundred Mohave gathered near their camp , trading corn , beans , squash , and wheat for beads and calico . By the end of their commerce , the party had purchased six bushels of corn and two hundred pounds of flour . The Mohave played a traditional game played with a hoop and pole , and the two groups entertained themselves with target practice , the Mohave using bows and arrows and the whites firing pistols and rifles . When the expedition had difficulty crossing the Colorado on February 27 , several Mohave jumped into the water and helped salvage the supplies .

Irataba and Cairook agreed to escort the group across the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail that would take them to southern California . German artist Balduin Möllhausen accompanied the Whipple expedition , and made drawings of several Mohave , including Irataba . Möllhausen 's drawings were featured in Ives ' 1861 congressional report , making Irataba " among the first named likenesses of California Indians ever published " .

= = = Ives Expedition = = =

In February 1858 , Ives returned to the area in a paddle steamer named Explorer . He was leading an expedition up the Colorado from the south , and he wanted Irataba to guide them . The Mohave gave permission to navigate the river , and Cairook , Irataba , and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mohave boy named Nahvahroopa joined them . Möllhausen again accompanied the expedition , and was impressed with the Mohave guides , later noting Irataba 's enthusiastic handshake and lamenting that their only form of communication was sign language . He also noted that Irataba and the Mohave readily began wearing European clothes given to them by members of the expedition , and showed great interest in smoking tobacco . Aside from the friendship shown to him by Irataba and Cairook , Ives noted that the Mohave appeared less friendly than on earlier occasions , a change that he attributed to their contact with Mormons , who were in conflict with the US and had succeeded in converting some Mohave .

Irataba guided the party into the Mohave Canyon , indicating the location of rapids and advising the Explorer 's pilot of convenient places to anchor while camping for the night . When they reached the entrance to the Black Canyon of the Colorado , the ship crashed against a submerged rock , throwing several men overboard , dislodging the boiler , and damaging the wheelhouse . Using their skiff , the crew towed the Explorer to the shore , where they camped for three days while repairing the vessel . The expedition had relied on beans and corn provided by the Mohave during the previous weeks ; as their supplies dwindled they grew increasingly anxious about the arrival of a resupply pack train from Fort Yuma . Irataba volunteered to hike towards the Mohave Valley to try to locate the supplies that had been requested several days earlier . He also warned that the expedition was being watched by Paiutes .

When Irataba returned he informed Ives that he would not venture any deeper into the territory of the Hualapais , but agreed to help them locate friendly guides in the region before parting company . Irataba was reluctant to venture into the canyon because he feared the party would be ambushed by Paiutes aligned with Mormons . After enlisting three Hualapai guides , Irataba prepared to take his leave from the expedition and return to the Mohave community . On April 4 , the Mohave received payment for their services ; Möllhausen described the exchange : " Lieutenant Ives informed Irataba that he had been authorized by the ' Great Grandfather in Washington ' to give him two mules ... for his loyalty and his trustworthiness so that he could take his possessions and those of his companions more conveniently to his home valley . " The next morning , as they were preparing to leave : " Irataba was visibly moved ... and in his sincere eyes expressed so much honesty and loyalty as can only be found in an unspoiled nature ... I maintain that there was not one in our expedition who did not feel a certain sadness to see this huge man with ... a harmless soul leave . "

= = Mohave War and aftermath = =

Following their experiences with the Sitgreaves and Whipple expeditions , and encounters with Mormons and the soldiers at Fort Yuma , the Mohave were aware that whites were immigrating to the region in increasing numbers . It was difficult for the Mohave to predict the behavior of the arriving whites , some of whom , like Whipple , were amiably disposed towards them , whereas others such as the Mormons were hostile . The kwanami were divided on how the situation should be approached ; some advocated an aggressive posture , denying whites all passage through their territory , but others , including Irataba , preferred a peaceful approach , or even an alliance with them that could put the Mohave in a stronger position relative to their traditional enemies the Paiute , Chemehuevi , and Walapai .

On September 1 , 1857 , a joint force of Mohave and Quechan warriors launched a major attack with hundreds of warriors on a Maricopa village close to Maricopa Wells , Arizona , on the Gila river . The Battle of Pima Butte was described by a group of white mail carriers who witnessed it . They stated that the battle was fought mostly with clubs , as well as bows and arrows , and that probably more than 100 warriors died , most of them from the attacking party . It is unknown whether Irataba participated in the attack , but given his status as kwanami , it is likely that he did . The battle has been described as the last major battle involving only Native American nations . This defeat put the Mohave on the defensive , wary of the possibility that whites would take this moment of weakness as an opportunity to begin settling on tribal lands .

= = = Rose – Baley Party attack = = =

In October 1857 , an expedition led by Edward Fitzgerald Beale was tasked with establishing a trade route along the 35th parallel from Fort Smith , Arkansas , to Los Angeles , California . From Fort Smith , his journey continued through Fort Defiance , Arizona , before crossing the Colorado near Needles , California . This route became known as Beale 's Wagon Road , and the location where Beale crossed the river as Beale 's Crossing . Beale 's journal and subsequent report to the United States Secretary of War did not mention any problems with Irataba and the Mohave , but an assistant named Humphrey Stacy recorded that the Mohave had prevented Beale from traveling downriver .

In 1858 , the Rose – Baley Party comprising at least a hundred settlers with wagons and a large herd of cattle , was the first emigrant train to venture onto Beale 's Wagon Road . Upon entering Mohave territory the settlers started cutting down cottonwood trees , which were an important resource for the Mohave . The most warlike of the kwanamis organized an attack on the party , and drove away and slaughtered many of the party 's cattle . On August 30 , three hundred Mohave warriors attacked the emigrants but were repelled , with one member of the party killed in battle and eleven wounded . Another family who were not with the main party during the attack were killed in an event that has often been blamed on the Mohave , but which in Colonel William Hoffman 's opinion was more likely carried out by a band of Walapai , along with seven renegade Mohave . The emigrants killed seventeen Mohave warriors . The incident was widely publicized in the media and labeled " a massacre " , scaring many white Californians who feared being cut off from the eastern US by hostile natives , and it motivated the War Department to quickly subjugate the tribe .

Irataba was away at Fort Yuma during the attack on the settlers , and upon hearing of it he scolded the Mohave . Chooksa homar participated in the events and reported that Irataba told the warriors , " I hear you fought , though I told you not to . And you will have war again : I know it . You used to fight the Maricopa . I want to go [ to Phoenix ] to see the Maricopa and tell them : ' The Mohave will not come any more to attack you ' . " Irataba , weary of the constant fighting and worried that further conflicts with neighboring tribes would draw more attention from the US soldiers , organized a peace expedition to the Maricopa , settling the ancient disputes between the two peoples .

= = = Conflict with the US army = = =

When news of the attack reached California , the US War Department decided to establish a military fort at Beale 's Crossing to keep the Mohave under control and secure white travelers safe passage through Mohave lands . On December 26 , 1858 , Hoffman and fifty dragoons from Fort Tejon were dispatched to cross the desert and confront the Mohave . Irataba attempted to arrange a peaceful meeting , but Hoffman ordered his troops to fire on the warriors , who counterattacked and repelled the force . He returned in April 1859 , by way of Fort Yuma , with four companies of the 6th Infantry Regiment . When they arrived at Beale 's Crossing , the Mohave decided against attacking the army of five hundred soldiers . On April 23 , at Hoffman 's request , he and his officers met with several hundred Mohave warriors and their leaders . The indigenous leaders included Cairook , Irataba , Homoseh quahote ( also called Seck @-@ a @-@ hoot and Asika hota ) , and Pascual , leader of the Quechan . During the meeting the Mohave were surrounded by armed soldiers who prevented them from leaving .

Hoffman gave the Mohave a choice between war and peace , and he demanded that they agree to never again harm white settlers along the wagon trail . He also declared that , as punishment , the Mohave were required to surrender as hostages a member of each clan and three warriors who had taken part in the attack . Hoffman demanded that the chief who had ordered the attack on the settlers offer himself up as a hostage . According to Chooksa homar , the chief who had ordered the attack was Homoseh quahote , who was reluctant to give himself up . Cairook offered himself in his place , along with eight others , including Tokwatha , Irataba 's son Tekse thume , and Irataba 's nephews Qolho qorau , and Aspamekelyeho . Other hostages were named Itsere- ' itse , Ilyhanapau , and Tinyam @-@ isalye . They were transported in the river steamer General Jessup to Fort Yuma . Many soldiers remained to begin construction on the Beale 's Crossing fort , which was named Fort Mohave . Although Irataba visited the garrison several times and argued for their release , the hostages were held for more than a year . On June 21 , 1859 , Cairook and one other captive were killed by soldiers while attempting to escape their incarceration . Most of the other Mohave captives escaped .

In July 1861 , the commander of Fort Mohave , Major Lewis Armistead , ordered soldiers to fire into a group of Mohave who he suspected of having attacked a mail carrier and slaughtered his mule . The Mohave did not respond violently to the attack , but Armistead decided to punish them for harassing the mail party . He arrived at Irataba 's ranch where a group of Mohave boys were planting beans , and from a hidden position he shot one of the planters , killing him . This attack prompted an assault on Armistead 's detachment , who from an advantageous position on the high ground were able to repel the Mohave , killing many of them in a battle that lasted most of the day . Armistead 's report of the assault of Irataba 's ranch reported 23 dead Mohave warriors , but the Mohave remember a much higher number of casualties , including women and children killed by the soldiers . Sherer speculated that , given that 50 soldiers fired around 10 shots each , the casualty count could have been much higher than reported . The attack on Irataba 's ranch is remembered by the Mohave as " the first and last battle with the Federal Troops . "

= = As Aha macave yaltanack = =

After Cairook 's death , whites living near the Colorado River began to view Irataba as the main leader of the Mohave . He had become Aha macave yaltanack ( leader of the Mohave Nation ) or hochoch ( leader elected by the people ) ; " yaltanack " is Mohave for " leader " , and " hochach " means " head of a group " . Homoseh quahote was a hereditary leader of the Malika clan ( " the understanding people " ) , and the position of head of the Mohave was traditionally inherited only by someone from that clan . Because Irataba was of the Huttoh pah , in order for him to become the leader of the Mohave Nation , Homoseh quahote had to step down so Irataba , as an elected leader , could take his place .

Despite the accepted English translations , the words yaltanack and huchach do not mean a " ruler " or " boss " . Devereux describes Mohave government as " one of the least understood segments of Mohave culture " , and notes that while white officials " tended to act on the assumption that Indian chiefs exercised absolute authority " , as an elected leader Irataba was " primarily a servant of the tribe " .

By the mid @-@ 1860s a deep rift had developed between Irataba , who was proactive in cooperating with white settlers , and Homoseh quahote , who passively tolerated but did not approve of white encroachment on Mohave lands . Irataba was Aha macave yaltanack of the Mohave from 1861 to 1866 , but from 1867 to 1869 opinions differ , and by 1870 US government correspondence suggests that Homoseh quahote had succeeded him as leader of the Fort Mohave group .

= = Mining ventures = =

In 1862 , Irataba acted as a guide for the Walker Party Exploration , gold prospectors led by Joseph R. Walker and including Jack Swilling , who later founded Phoenix , Arizona . Irataba brought them to a river that he called Hasyamp , later named the Hassayampa River , where they found plentiful gold . Arizona 's first mining district was established there the following year , which led to the founding of Prescott , Arizona soon afterward . Relations between settlers and the Mohave were positive during this period , but as emigration increased , gold seekers founded a town nearby named La Paz , stirring fear among settlers of a native uprising against further encroachment on Mohave land . The following year a group of soldiers from Fort Mohave discovered an area between Needles , Fort Mohave , and the Colorado River that was abundant in copper ore . The parcel was named Irataba Mining District , and within the year a mining company had been formed to work it . A small mining town named Irataba City was established on a bluff two miles below Fort Mohave .

= = Travels = =

In the early 1860s , Irataba worked with prospectors as a guide . One of them was John Moss , an experienced prospector whom Irataba had shown the location of a gold mine in the Mojave desert , which Moss later sold . Moss suggested Irataba be invited to Washington so that he could see firsthand the United States ' military might . In November 1863 , Irataba traveled with Moss to San Pedro , Los Angeles , where they boarded the steamship Senator , bound for San Francisco . In San Francisco , he stayed at the Occidental Hotel and created a storm as he walked down Jackson Street , dressed in clothing typical of European Americans , which Irataba soon preferred to traditional Mohave clothing . The press documented his every movement and wrote extensively about his physical size and strong features . On December 2 , 1863 , the Daily Evening Bulletin described Irataba as a large man , " granitic in appearance as one of the Lower Coast mountains , with ... a lower jaw massive enough to crush nuts or crush quartz . "

In January 1864 they sailed for the Isthmus of Panama on board the Orizaba , then traveled onwards to New York City . Upon Irataba 's arrival in New York , Harper 's Weekly described him as " the finest specimen of unadulterated aboriginal on this continent " . Here Irataba exchanged his suit and sombrero for the uniform and regalia of a major general , including a bright yellow sash , a gold badge encrusted with precious stones , and a medal with the inscription , " Irataba , Chief of the Mohaves , Arizona Territory " . In February , when The New York Times asked him to explain the nature of his visit , he replied : " to see where so many pale faces come from " . In New York he met with the former Mohave captive Olive Oatman , and the two conversed in Mohave . Irataba told Oatman that her Mohave adoptive sister Topeka , to whom she had grown very close , still missed her and hoped she would return . Oatman described the encounter as a meeting between friends .

Irataba moved on to Philadelphia and Washington , D.C. , where he earned great acclaim ; government officials and military officers lavished him with gifts of medals , swords , and photographs . In Washington he met with President Abraham Lincoln , who gave him a silver @-@ headed cane . He was the first Native American from the Southwest to meet an American president . The tour ended in April , when he and Moss sailed to California , again by way of Panama , and made their way back to Beale 's Crossing from Los Angeles by wagon .

Upon Irataba 's return from Washington D.C. , he met with the Mohave while dressed in his major general 's uniform , with medals . He wore a European @-@ style hat and carried a long Japanese sword , and he told the Mohave about all the things he had seen . He tried to convince them that peace with the United States was in their best interests , and that war against them was futile , stressing their dominant military capabilities . Many Mohave were skeptical of his reports , and reacted with disbelief .

= = Colorado River Indian Reservation = =

The completion of Fort Mohave began the process of military subjugation of the Mohave , and the next step was the establishment of reservations . In 1863 , Charles Debrille Poston , the first Superintendent of Indian Affairs of the Arizona Territory , called a conference between the Chemehuevi and Irataba 's faction of the Mohave , in which he convinced them to form an alliance with the US against the Apache . The treaty was never ratified by the US Congress but formed an important step in establishing friendly relations between the Mohave and the US government following the military campaigns and the establishment of Fort Mohave .

Poston promoted the idea of establishing a reservation in the southern portion of Mohave country . Many Mohave opposed the proposed location and instead argued for a smaller parcel further north in the Mohave Valley , which had more fertile land . With Irataba and an engineer , Poston traveled down the Colorado River to survey a location . In August 1864 the post commander at Fort Mohave , Captain Charles Atchisson , stated that Irataba was against the proposed location . In September 1864 , Poston gave the impression that Irataba was in favor of it . In a letter to General Richard C. Drum , Atchisson reported that Irataba and four Mohave leaders were unhappy with how Poston was handling the situation :

Mr. Poston had marked out a reservation for the Mojave Indians in the upper part of the La Paz valley on the East side of the Colorado River ... Iratabu says this reservation is covered with sand and unfit for cultivation and the Indians are opposed to giving up their good lands in the Mojave Valley and moving to it ... Iratabu says if he can have the valley below the Fort Mojave reserved for the home of the Indians , he is willing to give up all claims to lands on other parts of the river , and bring his Indians from La Paz and other points to this valley ... I have full confidence in the friendship of Iratabu towards white men , but not in his tribe , if troubles with any other Indians should occur , while he has more influence over them than any other chief , his control over them is not complete , and they are as likely to lead him ( as he is them ) .

Faced with Irataba 's disagreement , Poston promised that the US government would assist the Mohave with installing an irrigation system at the Colorado that would make most of the reservation arable . This apparently convinced Irataba , who traveled to the Colorado River Valley with about 800 people , almost a fifth of the entire Mohave Nation . General James Henry Carleton thought a reservation was unnecessary , and engineer Herman Ehrenberg disagreed with Poston 's proposed location on the basis that the soil was too alkaline for farming , the need for irrigation too great , and the task of raising the river too insurmountable . Nonetheless , on March 3 , 1865 , Congress established the Colorado River Indian Reservation at Poston 's proposed location . Ehrenberg 's concerns proved valid , and neither Poston nor any subsequent US authority was willing to dedicate the considerable resources required to make the location suitable for farming . The reservation was established without a treaty having been established between the Mohave and the US government . The boundaries were expanded and clarified by executive orders issued by President Grant in 1873 , 1874 and 1867 .

Most of the Mohave refused to leave their ancestral homelands for the reservation , but Irataba 's conviction that the reservation was their best option marked the beginning of a rift between his group and those who stayed behind to follow Homoseh quahote , the nation 's hereditary leader . According to an eyewitness account by Chooksa homar , Irataba explained his decision to move :

" You get angry sometimes ; I know you are brave men and think you can beat anybody . You thought you could beat the whites : you said so . I told you you could not ; the whites have beaten all tribes ; all are friends to them now . You did not listen to what I said when I told you that . You did what you thought , and many have got killed . If the soldiers come , you cannot resist them . You did not know that , but now you know it . The country down river from here , which we took away from another tribe [ the Halchidhoma ] , I will live there . Those of you who want to go on fighting can stay here . I do not want to and will leave you . "

As the promised irrigation assistance was not immediately forthcoming , the first year at the reservation brought a drought that made it necessary for the Mohave to request food assistance . In 1867 , Irataba and the Mohave began to build an irrigation canal , digging by hand a ditch that ran for 9 miles ( 14 km ) . A report by a US official visiting the reservation in 1870 recorded that attempts by the Mohave at agricultural cultivation on the site were restricted to an area of not more than 40 acres ( 16 ha ) .

= = Later years = =

Irataba continued to lead the Colorado River band of Mohave during the 1860s . He pursued peaceful relations with the surrounding tribes and cooperated actively with US authorities . He also helped the Yavapai and Walapai in ongoing conflicts with Paiutes and Chemehuevi .

In March 1865 , Irataba and the Mohave defeated the Chemehuevi after their allies , the Paiutes , killed two Mohave women . The Mohave pushed the Chemehuevi off their traditional territory and into the California desert , but they soon returned . To avoid fighting a two @-@ front war , Irataba attacked the Chemehuevi first , then turned his attention to the Paiutes , who were planning an attack on the Mohave farm and granary on the Colorado 's Cottonwood Island . During a subsequent battle with the Chemehuevi in October 1865 , Irataba was taken prisoner while wearing his major general 's uniform . According to a contemporary news report based on second hand accounts from white travelers , the captors feared that killing him would invite repercussions from the soldiers stationed at Fort Mohave , so they instead stripped him naked and sent him home badly beaten . In the Mohave account of the events as told by Chooksa homar , Irataba surrendered in an effort to make peace with the Chemehuevi , and offered his uniform to their chief as a gesture of peace . In 1867 , a treaty signed by Irataba and the Chemehuevi leader Pan Coyer restored peaceful relations between the two nations .

Irataba also welcomed bands of Yavapai onto the reservation after they had been subject to massacres by US troops , or suffered starvation due to having been driven from their lands . The meager resources of the reservation proved unable to sustain the additional population and eventually the Yavapai had to leave . Irataba frequently served as a mediator between Yavapai and Walapai who had become embroiled in conflicts with the US army , and participated in peace parlays . In 1871 – 72 , General George Crook came to the Mohave reservation looking for a group of Yavapai thought to be responsible for the Wickenburg Massacre , and Irataba had no choice but to turn the war party over to the army . He traveled to the trial proceedings at Fort Date Creek , where he was instructed to hand tobacco to the Yavapai he believed to be responsible , as a way for him to testify against them without their realizing it . As soldiers attempted to arrest the men that Irataba identified , fighting broke out and one of the Yavapai leaders , Ohatchecama , and his brother were shot . Despite having been shot twice and stabbed with a bayonet , Ohatchecama survived and escaped to organize the Tolkepaya Yavapai in resistance against the US army . The Yavapai felt betrayed by Irataba , and plotted to kill him in revenge , but were eventually persuaded that he was not the one who had turned them over to Crook .

The Colorado River band of Mohave never replaced Irataba ; he was their leader when he died at their reservation on May 3 or 4 , 1874 . His cause of death is unknown , but smallpox and natural causes are both cited . The Mohave grieved deeply ; Irataba 's cremation and the rituals of mourning were reported in newspapers as far away as Omaha , Nebraska . Irataba was succeeded as leader on the Colorado Reservation by his nephew , Qolho qorau of the Vemacka clan , who upheld his uncle 's policies .

= = Legacy and influence = =

In 1966 , Sherer commented regarding Irataba 's legacy amongst the Mohave : " Estimation of his position in Mojave history from the Mojave viewpoint differs . To some he is an heroic figure , to others he was a white collaborator who did not stand up for Mojave rights . From the standpoint of white men who were conquering a wilderness , he was indeed the Mojave who worked unswervingly for peace . "

Irataba 's influence as a leader may even have left its mark on the Mohave language . A list of Mohave words that he dictated to an anthropologist during his visit in Washington shows that he was among the first Mohave speakers to shift the sounds [ s ] and [ ʂ ] ( similar to sh as in " shack " ) to [ θ ] ( th as in " thick " ) and [ s ] , respectively . By the late 19th century all Mohave speakers had adopted this change . Linguist Leanne Hinton has suggested that this may be due in part to Irataba 's influence , both because he was a prestigious leader whose ways of speaking may have been emulated by other Mohave , and also because when he led the Mohave onto the reservation the old distinctions between dialect groups were erased through dialect leveling , making new changes spread quickly through the community .

The Irataba Society , a non @-@ profit charity run by the Colorado River Indian Tribes , was established in Parker , Arizona , in 1970 . The charity holds an annual pow wow or National Indian Days celebration . Irataba Hall , a sports venue in Parker , is also named after him . In 2002 , the US Bureau of Land Management designated 32 @,@ 745 acres ( 13 @,@ 251 ha ) of the Eldorado Mountains , contained largely within the Lake Mead National Recreation Area , as Ireteba Peaks Wilderness .

In March 2015 , the Colorado River Indian Tribes celebrated the sesquicentennial history of their reservation with a weekend @-@ long event that included cultural activities and a parade . Speakers at the event stressed the important role that Irataba 's strong leadership played in establishing and preserving the reservation , and the continuing need for Native leaders to protect native language and culture . Tribal chairman Dennis Patch commented : " Some people would think we 're lucky , as we have this river and 220 @,@ 000 acre feet of water ... But we have had great leaders , like Chief Irataba . He made sure the Mohaves stayed on land they had lived on since time immemorial . " Former CRIT Museum Director Dr. Michael Tsosie stated , " Irataba understood the Mohave people would need to keep fighting to keep what they had . " He noted that the Colorado River Indian Reservation " is unique in American history in that they have not lost any land " .

= Christopher Smart 's asylum confinement =

The English poet Christopher Smart ( 1722 – 1771 ) was confined to mental asylums from May 1757 until January 1763 . Smart was admitted into St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics , Bethnal Green , London , on 6 May 1757 . He was taken there by his father @-@ in @-@ law , John Newbery , although he may have been confined in a private madhouse before then . While in St Luke 's he wrote Jubilate Agno and A Song to David , the poems considered to be his greatest works . Although many of his contemporaries agreed that Smart was " mad " , accounts of his condition and its ramifications varied , and some felt that he had been committed unfairly .

Smart was diagnosed as " incurable " while at St Luke 's , and when they ran out of funds for his care he was moved to Mr. Potter 's asylum . All that is known of his years of confinement is that he wrote poetry . Smart 's isolation led him to abandon the poetic genres of the 18th century that had marked his earlier work and to write religious poetry such as Jubilate Agno ( " Rejoice in the Lamb " ) . His asylum poetry reveals a desire for " unmediated revelation " , and it is possible that the self @-@ evaluation found in his poetry represents an expression of evangelical Christianity .

Late 18th @-@ century critics felt that Smart 's madness justified them in ignoring his A Song to David , but during the following century Robert Browning and his contemporaries considered his condition to be the source of his genius . It was not until the 20th century , with the rediscovery of Jubilate Agno ( not published until 1939 ) , that critics reconsidered Smart 's case and began to see him as a revolutionary poet , the possible target of a plot by his father @-@ in @-@ law , a publisher , to silence him .

= = Background = =

Christopher Smart was an English poet who was confined to asylums during a time of debate about the nature of madness and its treatment . During the 18th century , madness was " both held to reveal inner truth and condemned to silence and exclusion as something unintelligible by reason , and therefore threatening to society and to humanity " . It was commonly held to be an incurable affliction whose sufferers should be isolated from society . Physician William Battie — who later treated Smart — wrote :

[ we ] find that Madness is , contrary to the opinion of some unthinking persons , as manageable as many other distempers , which are equally dreadful and obstinate , and yet are not looked upon as incurable , and that such unhappy objects ought by no means to be abandoned , much less shut up in loathsome prisons as criminals or nuisances to the society .

In particular , Battie defined madness as " deluded imagination " . However , he was attacked by other physicians , such as John Monro , who worked at Bethlem Hospital . In his Remarks on Dr. Battie 's Treatise on Madness , Monro explained that those who were mad had the correct perceptions , but that they lacked the ability to judge properly . Although Monro promoted ideas of reform , his suggested treatment — beating patients — was as harsh on patients as Battie 's preferred option , of completely isolating patients from society .

In 1758 , Battie and others argued that those deemed " mad " were abused under the British asylum system , and they pushed for parliamentary action . Battie 's Treatise on Madness emphasised the problems of treating the hospitals as tourist attractions and the punitive measures taken against patients . The arguments of Battie and others resulted in the passage of the Act for Regulating Private Madhouses ( 1774 ) , but were too late to help Smart .

Modern critics , however , have a more cynical view of the 18th @-@ century use of the term " madness " when diagnosing patients ; psychiatrist Thomas Szasz viewed the idea of madness as arbitrary and unnatural . Agreeing with Szasz 's position , philosopher Michel Foucault emphasised that asylums were used in the 18th century to attack dissenting views and that the idea of madness was a cultural fear held by the British public , rather than a legitimate medical condition . In particular , Foucault considered the 18th century a time of " great confinement " . This description is consistent with Smart 's 1760s writings on the subject in which , according to Thomas Keymer , " the category of madness is insistently relativized , and made to seem little more than the invention of a society strategically concerned to discredit all utterances or conduct that threatens its interests and norms . "

18th century treatment of inpatients was simple : they were to be fed daily a light diet of bread , oatmeal , some meat or cheese , and a little amount of beer , which were inadequate in meeting daily nutritional needs ; they were denied contact with outsiders , including family members ; and they would be denied access to that which was deemed to be the cause of their madness ( these causes ranged from alcohol and food to working outside ) . If their actions appeared " afresh and without assignable cause " , then their condition would be labelled as " original " madness and deemed incurable . An institution like St Luke 's , run by Battie , held both " curable " and " incurable " patients . There were few spots available for patients to receive free treatment , and many were released after a year to make room for new admittances .

= = Asylum = =

During the 1740s , Smart published many poems while a student at Pembroke College , Cambridge . He eventually left the university in 1749 to devote his time to poetry . In 1750 , Smart started to familiarise himself with Grub Street , London 's writing district , and met John Newbery , a publisher . Soon after , Newbery began publishing Smart 's works in various magazines and in collections , including Poems on Several Occasions ( 1752 ) . Of these works , Smart was known for his Seatonian Prize @-@ winning poems , his pastoral poem The Hop @-@ Garden , and his mock epic The Hilliad . In 1752 , Smart married Newbery 's daughter , Anna Maria Carnan , and had two daughters with her by 1754 . Although many of Smart 's works were published between 1753 and 1755 , he had little money to provide for his family . At the end of 1755 , he finished a translation of the works of Horace , but even that provided little income . Having no other choices , Smart signed a 99 @-@ year @-@ long contract in November 1755 to produce a weekly paper entitled The Universal Visiter or Monthly Memorialist , and the strain of writing caused Smart 's health to deteriorate .

On 5 June 1756 , Smart 's father @-@ in @-@ law Newbery published , without permission , Smart 's Hymn to the Supreme Being , a poem which thanked God for recovery from an illness of some kind , possibly a " disturbed mental state " . During the illness , Smart was possibly confined to Newbery 's home and unable to write or be socially active . Out of sympathy for Smart , many of his friends , including writer and critic Samuel Johnson , began to write in the Universal Visiter to fulfill Smart 's contractual obligation to produce content for the magazine . The publication of Hymn to the Supreme Being marked the beginning of Smart 's obsession with religion and eventual confinement for madness because he began praying " without ceasing " .

Smart 's behaviour was probably influenced by St Paul 's command in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians to " Pray without ceasing " and William Law 's The Spirit of Prayer , which argues that a constant state of prayer will establish a connection with God . Smart began by praying at regular intervals but this slowly deteriorated into irregular praying in which he would interrupt his friends ' activities and call them into the street to pray with him . These calls for public prayer continued until an incident that Smart later described in Jubilate Agno : " For I blessed God in St James 's Park till I routed all the company ... For the officers of the peace are at variance with me , and the watchman smites me with his staff " ( Jubilate Agno B 90 – 91 ) .

Christopher Hunter , Smart 's biographer and nephew , described the situation :

Though the fortune as well as the constitution of Mr. Smart required the utmost care , he was equally negligent in the management of both , and his various and repeated embarrassments acting upon an imagination uncommonly fervid , produced temporary alienations of mind ; which at last were attended with paroxysms so violent and continued as to render confinement necessary .

Hunter reports that Samuel Johnson visited Smart during the latter 's confinement , and it was Johnson that , " on the first approaches of Mr Smart 's malady , wrote several papers for a periodical publication in which that gentleman was concerned . " However , at no time did Smart ever believe himself to be insane ; these meetings began before Smart was ever put into asylum because he still contributed , although not as significantly , to the Universal Visiter . In joking about writing for the Universal Visiter , Johnson claimed : " for poor Smart , while he was mad , not then knowing the terms on which he was engaged to write ... I hoped his wits would return to him . Mine returned to me , and I wrote in ' the Universal Visitor ' no longer . "

There are other possibilities beyond madness or religious fervor that may have led to Smart 's confinement : Newbery may have used the imprisonment of his son @-@ in @-@ law as leverage to control the publication of Smart 's work and as a warning to others who worked for him not to cross him . Another theory suggests Smart 's actions were a result of alcohol , and had nothing to do with a mental imbalance . However , Smart may have been imprisoned for embarrassing his father @-@ in @-@ law in some way , which could have resulted from an incident in which Smart drank . Hester Thrale reinforced this latter possibility when she claimed that Smart 's " religious fervor " tended to coincide with times that Smart was intoxicated . Smart 's own testimony that he " blessed God in St. James 's Park till I routed all the company " ( Jubilate Agno B 90 – 91 ) as representing his religious madness is equally dismissed as resulting from drinking , as he was known for pulling pranks and the Board of Green Cloth , the government body that controlled St James 's Park , would treat most disturbances in the park as resulting from madness . If Smart was placed into the asylum as a result of actions at St James 's , he would not have been the only one , since records show that the Board of Green Cloth was responsible for admitting sixteen people to Bethlem Hospital for " frenzy " at St James 's Park during the century prior to Smart being placed in St Luke 's .

The specific events of Smart 's confinement are unknown . He may have been in a private madhouse before St Luke 's and later moved from St Luke 's to Mr Potter 's asylum until his release . At St Luke 's , he transitioned from being " curable " to " incurable " , and was moved to Mr Potter 's asylum for monetary reasons . During Smart 's confinement time , his wife Anna left and took the children with her to Ireland . There is no record that he ever saw her again . His isolation led him into writing religious poetry , and he abandoned the traditional genres of the 18th century that marked his earlier poetry when he wrote Jubilate Agno .

During his time in asylum , Smart busied himself with a daily ritual of writing poetry ; these lyric fragments eventually formed his Jubilate Agno and A Song to David . Smart might have turned to writing poetry as a way to focus the mind or as self @-@ therapy . Although 20th @-@ century critics debate whether his new poetic self @-@ examination represents an expression of evangelical Christianity , his poetry during his isolation does show a desire for " unmediated revelation " from God . There is an " inner light " that serves as a focal point for Smart and his poems written during his confinement , and that inner light connects him to the Christian God .

= = = St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics = = =

Few details are known about Smart 's time at St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics . He was admitted to St Luke 's on 6 May 1757 as a " Curable Patient " . It is possible that Smart was confined at Newbery 's behest over old debts and a poor relationship that existed between the two ; Newbery had previously mocked Smart 's immorality in A Collection of Pretty Poems for the Amusement of Children six Foot High . Regardless of Newbery 's exact reasons , there is evidence suggesting that Newbery 's admittance of Smart into the mental asylum was not based on madness . To have Smart admitted , Newbery probably provided a small bribe , although bribes were against St Luke 's policy .

There is little information about Smart 's condition during his stay at St Luke 's , possibly because Battie 's denied his patients from being visited , including by their own family members . One of the few records that survive of Smart 's time at St Luke 's was an entry in St Luke 's Minute Book , which read :

12 May 1758

Dr. Battie having acquainted this Committee that Christopher Smart ( who was admitted on the 6th day of May 1757 ) continues disordered in his Senses notwithstanding he has been admitted into this Hospital above 12 Calendar Months and from the present Circumstances of his Case there is not Suffit. reason to expect his speedy Recovery And he being brought up and examined . Ordered . That he be discharged and that Notice be sent to his Securities to take him away .

During Smart 's confinement at St Luke 's , not even other doctors were allowed to see Smart unless they had received personal permission from Battie . It was improbable that Smart could have left the asylum without being released by Battie . Even if Smart would have attempted to obtain release via legal means , the rules for subpoenaing release would have been almost impossible to follow based on the system that Battie had in place , which isolated the individual from all contact . Eventually , Smart was deemed " incurable " and would not have been released by the hospital but for its lack of funds .

= = = Mr Potter 's madhouse = = =

After being released from St Luke 's , Smart was taken to a private madhouse . Elizabeth LeNoir , Smart 's daughter , was brought to see her father and stated that he was " committed by Mr Newbery to the care of a Mr Potter who kept a private house at Bethnal Green " . She described her experience as being held in a " small neat parlour " . However , Mr Potter 's private madhouse was not " homely " , and Smart 's treatments were far worse , as he describes : " For they work on me with their harping @-@ irons , which is a barbarous instrument , because I am more unguarded than others " ( Jubilate Agno B 129 ) . Smart was left alone for four years , except for his cat Jeoffry and the occasional gawker who would come to see those deemed mad . Piozzi described Smart 's general situation : " He was both a wit and a scholar , and visited as such while under confinement for MADNESS . " It is very possible that he felt " homeless " during his confinement and surely felt that he was in a " limbo ... between public and private space " from being watched by outsiders .

In London , only a few of his works were still being published , but the proceeds were taken by Newbery . However , Smart did get to see published a collection of his work under the pseudonym " Mrs Midnight " titled Mrs. Midnight 's Orations ; and other Select Pieces : as they were spoken at the Oratory in the Hay @-@ Market , London . Smart did not profit from the work , but he was able to see at least some of his previous work being printed again . Smart , according to his 20th @-@ century biographer Arthur Sherbo , had only " his God and his poetry " . A few of his loyal friends eventually grew tired of the treatment Smart received and freed him from Mr Potter 's .

= = = Release = = =

There is little information about how and why Smart was released from asylum , but his daughter claimed : " He grew better , and some misjudging friends who misconstrued Mr Newbery 's great kindness in placing him under necessary & salutary restriction which might possibly have eventually wrought a cure , invited him to dinner and he returned to his confinement no more . " What is known about the actual events is that John Sherratt , Christopher Smart 's friend , believed that Smart 's confinement was unfair and wanted to negotiate Smart 's release . In January 1763 , he met with a parliamentary committee to discuss the issue of individuals falsely imprisoned and abuses that they would receive in asylums . In particular , Sherratt argued that many were admitted for habitual intoxication , which undermined Battie 's and other asylum keeper 's reputations . A finding by the parliamentary committee released 27 January 1763 bolstered Sherratt 's chances to release Smart . To those around him , Smart appeared perfectly sane , and he was most likely released because of legislation concurrently being passed in parliament advocating for a reform to patient care . Smart left the asylum on 30 January 1763 with Sherratt .

Upon leaving asylum , Smart took the manuscripts of A Song to David , many translations of Psalms , and Jubilate Agno . A Song to David was published on 6 April 1763 . Harsh reviews followed which mocked Smart 's time in the asylum instead of dealing with the poems . Jubilate Agno stayed in manuscript form and passed into the hands of the friends of William Cowper , a poet also placed into asylum and Smart 's contemporary , when they investigated the concept of " madness " . The work stayed in private holdings until it was rediscovered in the 20th century by William Stead . It was not published until 1939 when it was printed with the title Rejoice in the Lamb : A Song from Bedlam .

= = Analysis = =

Samuel Johnson 's biographer James Boswell described a moment when Charles Burney inquired of his friend Johnson of Smart 's state . Johnson used the term " madness " to comment on the state of society before explaining to Burney that Smart 's actions that were deemed symptoms of madness were actually reasonable :

Madness frequently discovers itself merely by unnecessary deviation from the usual mode of the world . My poor friend Smart shewed the disturbance of his mind , by falling upon his knees , and saying his prayers in the street , or in any other unusual place . Now although , rationally speaking , it is greater madness not to pray at all , than to pray as Smart did , I am afraid there are so many who do not pray , that their understanding is not called in question .

Concerning this unfortunate poet , Christopher Smart , who was confined in a mad @-@ house , he had , at another time , the following conversation with Dr [ Charles ] Burney : – Burney . ' How does poor Smart do , Sir ; is he likely to recover ? ' Johnson . ' It seems as if his mind had ceased to struggle with the disease ; for he grows fat upon it . ' Burney . ' Perhaps , Sir , that may be from want of exercise . ' Johnson . ' No , Sir ; he has partly as much exercise as he used to have , for he digs in the garden . Indeed , before his confinement , he used for exercise to walk to the ale @-@ house ; but he was carried back again . I did not think he ought to be shut up . His infirmities are not noxious to society . He insisted on people praying with him ; and I 'd as lief pray with Kit [ = Christopher ] Smart as any one else . Another charge was that he did not love clean linen ; and I have no passion for it . ' – Johnson continued . ' Mankind have a great aversion to intellectual labour ; but even supposing knowledge to be easily attainable , more people would be content to be ignorant than would take even a little trouble to acquire it.'

In an article printed in the Gentleman 's Magazine , Hester Piozzi , Smart 's acquaintance and Johnson 's close friend , argued that in many aspects Smart appears sane :

In every other transaction of life no man 's wits could be more regular than those of Smart , for this prevalence of one idea pertinaciously keeping the first place in his head had in no sense , except in what immediately related to itself , perverted his judgement at all ; his opinions were unchanged as before , nor did he seem more likely to fall into a state of distraction than any other man ; less so , perhaps , as he calmed every violent start of passion by prayer .

Beyond Smart 's circle of friends , few were willing to dismiss claims that Smart was affected by madness . Most contemporary literary critics knew of Smart 's time in asylum and , upon publication of his A Song to David , called attention to aspects of the poem which they could use to claim that Smart was still " mad " . The view was widely held , and the poet William Mason wrote to Thomas Gray , " I have seen his Song to David & from thence conclude him as mad as ever . "

= = = 19th century = = =

It was a century before a positive twist was put on Christopher Smart 's time in asylum ; the Victorian poet Robert Browning argued that A Song to David was great because Smart was mad at the time . In his poem Parleyings ( 1887 ) , Browning claimed :

Armed with this instance , have I diagnosed

Your case , my Christopher ? The man was sound

And sane at starting : all at once the ground

Gave way beneath his step

* * * * *

Then — as heaven were loth

To linger ; — let earth understand too well

How heaven at need can operate — off fell

The flame @-@ robe , and the untransfigured man

Resumed sobriety , — as he began ,

So did he end nor alter pace , not he !

To Browning , Smart 's temporary madness was what allowed him to compose in A Song to David poetry similar to that of John Milton and John Keats . Christopher Smart , as Browning 's poem continued ,

pierced the screen

'Twixt thing and word , lit language straight from soul , —

Left no fine film @-@ flake on the naked coal

Live from the censer

Browning 's remarks brought about a later appreciation of A Song to David and Smart 's madness . A review of Browning 's Parleying claimed that Christopher Smart was " possessed by his subject ... and where there is true possession – where the fires of the poet 's imagination are not choked by self @-@ consciousness or by too much fuel from the intellect – idiosyncracy , mannerism , and even conventional formulae are for the time ' burnt and purged away ' . "

The 19th @-@ century poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti emphasised the benefits of Smart 's madness and claimed that A Song to David was " the only great accomplished poem of the last century . " Two years later , Francis Palgrave continued the theme when he wrote that the Song exhibited " noble wildness and transitions from grandeur to tenderness , from Earth to Heaven " and that it was " unique in our Poetry . " Seven years after Palgrave , critic John Churton Collins agreed with Rossetti and Palgrave , but to a lesser extent , when he wrote , " This poem stands alone , the most extraordinary phenomenon , perhaps , in our literature , the one rapt strain in the poetry of the eighteenth century , the work of a poet who , though he produced much , has not produced elsewhere a single line which indicates the power here displayed . "

= = = 20th century and contemporary = = =

Twentieth @-@ century critics favoured the view that Smart suffered from some kind of mental distress when writing his poems . A review by " Mathews " titled " Thin Partitions " , in 30 March 1901 The Academy , claimed that :

Now Christopher Smart was a very beggarly poet of the eighteenth century [ ... ] but had not the smallest claim to rank with those great men beyond their common trade of poem . Kit Smart , in fact , though he wrote a pestilent deal of verse , could not write poetry — nor anything else [ ... ] Legally mad , that is ; for he appears to have been very mad in his senses , and a decent citizen out of them . He went mad — legally and medically — once , and nothing came out of it , perhaps because he was not mad enough . Then he went mad again and being duly shut up in Bedlam wrote one of the finest outbursts of lyric genius in the eighteenth century — perhaps the finest @-@ before the advent of Blake [ ... ] Smart regained his senses , and therewith his hopeless inability to write poetry . And he never did anything after .

In 1933 , A. E. Housman sided with Browning 's and Mathew 's interpretation and connected Smart 's madness with poetic genius in his lecture The Name and Nature of Poetry : " As matters actually stand , who are the English poets of that age in whom pre @-@ eminently one can hear and recognize the true poetic accent emerging clearly from the contemporary dialect ? These four : Collins , Christopher Smart , Cowper , and Blake . And what other characteristic had these four in common ? They were mad . " In 1994 , Branimir Rieger differed from Housman 's view by distancing Smart from the others when he argued that " Collins and Cowper pine as isolated individuals , guiltily aware of a vitality that is not finally human but divine . Smart soars beyond individuality to embrace that vitality , but at a cost of all human relationship . "

However , there are many that disagreed that Smart suffered from madness ; Edward Ainsworth and Charles Noyes , when discussing Smart 's Hymn to the Supreme Being , said , " The mind that composed this hymn was not deranged . Yet in the poem one sees the morbidly religious mind which , in disorder , was to produce the Jubilate Agno , and , with order restored , the Song to David . Additionally , they claimed that Smart 's

preternatural excitement to prayer seems to have been poor Smart 's only real mental aberration , unless his drunkenness be considered pathological . When his mind was removed entirely from the field of prayer , he was but little changed from his sane state . His powers of reason , though thus warped , were not taken from him , and he neither raved nor sank into mental lethargy .

Nevertheless , Ainsworth and Noyes were not completely sceptical about Smart 's diagnosis when they continued : " But when the desire to pray struck him , Smart abandoned what the world chose to call rationality . "

In 1960 , psychiatrist Russel Brain diagnosed Smart as suffering from cyclothymia or manic depression . Brain based his diagnosis on Smart 's own claims about how he felt , and he concluded that " in Smart 's case the mental illness was not the result of his drunkenness , but he drank because he was mentally unstable . " Arthur Sherbo , in 1967 , argued that " The nature of Smart 's madness is impossible to diagnose at this distance in time " and then argued that :

since Battie himself pronounced him uncured , he must have been subject to hallucinations . Strong drink , taken often enough and in sufficient quantity , will have that effect , of course , but Battie , distinguishing between ' original ' and ' consequential ' madness [ ... ] would allow only that excessive drinking could ' become a very common , tho ' remoter cause of Madness . ' Others differed : John Ball in his Modern Practice of Physic , 1760 , lists ' anxiety of mind ' and too much ' strong vinous or spirituous liquors ' as ' antecedent causes ' of madness . Smart 's mania , however it manifested itself , and it usually manifested itself in loud public prayer , did not stem from drunkenness ; it was aggravated , however , by frequent recourse to the bottle . Ironically enough , as Mrs. Piozzi recognised , if Smart had prayed in the privacy of his home , all might have been well for him .

The possible religious component of Smart 's condition was taken up by 20th @-@ century critics as an explanation for why the 18th century saw Smart as mad . Laurence Binyon , in 1934 , believed that religion played a major role in how society viewed Smart : " Smart 's madness seems to have taken the form of a literal interpretation of the injunction Pray without ceasing . He embarrassed visitors by insisting on their joining him in his supplications [ ... ] Obsession with a fixed idea is a common form of insanity . But such obsessions are a mental imprisonment ; whereas the Song is unmistakably the expression of a great release . " Binyon 's idea was picked up by Sophia Blaydes , in 1966 , who pointed out that society was prejudiced against those who experienced enthusiasm , a strong spiritual connection to God . It was against religious prejudice that she argued ,

The cause of Smart 's eclipse may be traced in part to a prejudice of the age , one which was founded in reason but developed in fear . There was one inescapable fact which hampered any clear perception of Smart 's work — he had been confined for madness . It was easier to use a difficult allusion or unusual image as evidence of madness than to interpret it . What could cause a fundamentally rational group of people to react so irrationally ? To some degree , it was the fear of ' enthusiasm ' .

In the 18th century , as Blaydes continued , the word changed from possessed by god to inspired to falsely inspired . The result of this change was that British society viewed enthusiasm as the enemy to both reason and social order . Thus , " Smart , the hack @-@ writer , would not have been greeted by a hostile audience , but Smart , the enthusiast , would have been condemned immediately . The result would be obvious : his past work , previously lauded , would be ignored , and his future work would receive immediate condemnation. such was the history of Smart 's contemporary reputation . " In determining if Smart was really mad or not , Blaydes concluded , " in Smart 's day , any sign of enthusiasm would have been cause for the judgment of madness [ ... ] Two accounts of Smart and the nature of his madness have been preserved for us . Each permits some doubt that the poet was mad and could be regarded so in any age . "

Frances Anderson , in 1974 characterised Smart 's " illness " as insanity and obsession , but believed that " Smart 's madness consisted of his efforts to obey literally St Paul 's injunction to the Thessalonians : ' Pray without ceasing . ' " During his episodes of illness , as Anderson continued , Smart " probably suffered some periods of delirium " but also " appeared to know what he was doing " . Smart 's actions were similar to 18th @-@ century Methodists that were " addicted to public prayer with what was thought to be overly charged high spirits . Such displayers of religious emotionalism were often confined not only to private madhouses , but also to Bedlam " . Later , in 1998 , Charles Rosen pointed out that " The Enlightenment condemned religious enthusiasm as appropriate for the uneducated and the great unwashed " and " it is understandable that the only original and vital religious poetry between 1760 and 1840 should have been written by poets considered genuinely mad by their contemporaries : Smart , Blake , and Hölderlin . "

Accounts at the end of the 20th century focused on the effects of Smart 's confinement . Clement Hawes , following Michel Foucault 's interpretation of the 18th century that there was an " ' animality ' of madness " , believed that Smart emotionally connected with animals because of the " medical stigmatization " he felt at the hands of his fellow man . Chris Mounsey , agreeing with Hawes 's interpretation , believed that Smart 's treatment was " a bestializing process and had taught him to hold his tongue and sit out his time as quietly as possible . " Contrary to the bestialisation , Allan Ingram argued that Jubilate Agno was " a poetic phenomenon that would have demolished contemporary poetic orthodoxies had it been publishable . The mad individual presented a gross distortion of the human form that nevertheless insisted on remaining human , but mad language could be even more disturbing . "

= My Mother , the Fiend =

" My Mother , the Fiend " is the ninth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the thirty @-@ first episode overall . Directed by Nick Marck , the episode was co @-@ written by Phil Klemmer and Dayna Lynne North . The episode was first shown on November 30 , 2005 , on UPN .

The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica finds her mother 's old high school records and starts digging into her mother 's past , discovering information about the Kane family in the process . Meanwhile , Beaver ( Kyle Gallner ) proposes a business plan to help Kendall ( Charisma Carpenter ) .

" My Mother , the Fiend " features the third and final appearance by Alyson Hannigan on the show . The show 's crew found it difficult to work an episode into Hannigan 's schedule because of other projects . The episode was accompanied by an alternate ending , a publicity move made by executive producer Joel Silver and the UPN promotions department . The episode was initially viewed by 2 @.@ 82 million viewers and received mostly positive reviews . For example , Rowan Kaiser , of The A.V. Club , wrote " I am intrigued by the decisions to make Veronica less than pure , but this time , I 'm not as disappointed by the followthrough . "

= = Synopsis = =

In health class , the whole class starts taking care of fake babies . Vice Principal Clemmons ( Duane Daniels ) calls Veronica into his office and gives her detention for having keys to his file cabinet . Beaver walks up to Mac ( Tina Majorino ) and asks her for a few favors . For Veronica ’ s detention , she has to alphabetize files and put them in cabinets . Veronica finds her mother ’ s permanent file and figures out that she was troubled in high school . Logan ( Jason Dohring ) punches Weevil ( Francis Capra ) and Logan 's cronies beat up on him . Veronica talks to a teacher and finds out that Lianne and that teacher spread false rumors around the school and got suspended because of it . Weevil gets duct @-@ taped to the flagpole . Veronica asks Vice Principal Clemmons about who might have known her mom in high school . Veronica talks to Principal Moorhead , who tells her that her mom was “ vicious . ” Trina ( Alyson Hannigan ) is coming back to perform in a play at Neptune High . Kendall tries to seduce Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) again . Trina meets Kendall , and the interaction is rife with sarcasm . Veronica looks through her mom ’ s yearbook and eventually tracks down one of her mother ’ s old friends , who provides more information on the love triangle between Celeste ( Lisa Thornhill ) , Jake ( Kyle Secor ) , and Lianne .

Veronica asks Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) about Lianne ’ s suspension , which she thinks was about spreading a rumor that Celeste was pregnant . Keith says that he doesn ’ t know anything about it . Trina slips and falls during a play rehearsal . Beaver meets with Kendall and confronts her about selling his father ’ s possessions for little money . Beaver gives her his plan , which involves her being the face of his business idea . Keith checks the birth records and finds that no baby was born to either “ Kane ” or “ Carnathan ” ( Celeste ’ s maiden name ) at that time . However , he finds a mysterious baby found in the girl ’ s bathroom at the Neptune high prom . Veronica bad @-@ mouths Celeste in Duncan ’ s room before Celeste comes in and Veronica learns that Duncan never told his parents about their relationship . Celeste insults Veronica ’ s mother , and Veronica deduces that Celeste ’ s cleaning lady , Astrid , is probably her daughter . Weevil confronts Logan angrily , and they fight , despite agreeing that they need to team up to find out who actually killed Felix .

Mac shows her work to Beaver , which involves his new business project . Veronica , under a disguise , meets with the prom baby ’ s temporary foster mom . Veronica learns that the baby ’ s foster mother committed suicide and her father was in jail , hinting that the baby is Trina Echolls . Veronica talks to Trina and tells her the news of her parentage . Trina actually wants her story to go to the tabloids . However , a deaf lunch lady storms in and says that she ’ s actually Trina ’ s mother . The lunch lady says that Lianne was a friend who covered up her pregnancy to protect her . Trina ’ s father is Principal Moorehead , and Trina confronts him about leaving her at the prom in front of many faculty . Veronica finds the dead rat that Keith picked up at the bus . Veronica finds out that Principal Clemmons deliberately gave Veronica her detention task so that she would find her mother ’ s permanent file and frame Principal Moorehead . Veronica picks up Abel Koontz ’ s ( Christian Clemenson ) belongings and walks into Meg ’ s ( Alona Tal ) room and discovers that Meg is pregnant .

= = Production = =

Directed by Nick Marck , " My Mother , the Fiend " was written by Phil Klemmer and Dayna Lynne North . The episode marks Klemmer 's eighth writing credit , the fifth and penultimate writing credit for North , and Marck 's seventh directing credit . Despite being credited , Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) , and Jackie ( Tessa Thompson ) do not appear in the episode . Among the episode 's guest stars are Alyson Hannigan and Charisma Carpenter , who portray Trina Echolls and Kendall Casablancas , respectively . The two previously starred together in Buffy the Vampire Slayer , with Hannigan playing Willow Rosenberg and Carpenter portraying Cordelia Chase . Although the two characters had appeared previously , they had never shared a scene together . Jason Dohring , who portrays Logan , stated that he had a special connection with Hannigan on @-@ set : " We get together and just tease each other , she sucker @-@ punches me . There ’ s just a total , I don ’ t know , we really have a sister @-@ brother thing going on . I ’ ve never had that kind of connection with an actress before . It totally works . " Dohring also noted that Hannigan responded strongly to any spoilers that she was given during filming of the episode .

" My Mother , the Fiend " also marks Hannigan 's third and final guest appearance on the show . Hannigan was open to appearing in another episode , but she was unsure whether or not her busy schedule would allow it . She also felt that the character 's arc had come to a natural close in this episode . In an interview , Rob Thomas said that due to her busy schedule , it was difficult to write an episode featuring Hannigan . On Hannigan 's role in the episode and her future availability , Thomas commented :

Well , to work around Alyson ’ s schedule is really difficult for us . It ’ s hard to plan to write an episode with Alyson in it because we don ’ t know exactly what her free days are . Even the episode that we did with her , there was a huge kerfuffle , we actually had to slide that story line one episode down from when we originally wrote that . We ’ ve loved having Alyson in the show , and I ’ m sure we will again , some day , if she ’ s willing , because we ’ ve had a lot of fun with her . But we have nothing booked with her right now .

The episode also features a reappearance by Celeste Kane ( Lisa Thornhill ) , a recurring character during the first season . The second season DVD includes an alternate ending to this episode , which was released around the airing of the episode as a promotional tool . The alternate ending starts the same way as the regular ending , with Veronica discovering that Meg is pregnant . But instead of the episode ending there , Meg 's mom comes into the room while Veronica hides in the bathroom . When the mom leaves , Meg is dead with a pillow over her face , indicating smothering . However , Veronica takes the pillow off before a nurse comes in . Thomas commented that the alternate ending was never going to be the actual conclusion to the episode . He said : " We never seriously considered having that be the ending . There were various other endings that we did have , but they were so subtly different , it was like , ' When does Veronica enter the room ? ' " The idea to promote the alternate ending was a joint venture from the UPN promotions department and executive producer Joel Silver . After Thomas learned that others wanted an alternate ending , he decided to make it very different from the episode 's actual conclusion . " But once we could have a [ very different ] alternate ending , we thought , ' Let 's make it rock . ' The beauty of having that alternate ending is that we don 't have to play it out in the next episode . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original broadcast , " My Mother , the Fiend " received 2 @.@ 82 million viewers , marking an increase from " Ahoy , Mateys ! " and ranking 101st ( out of 112 ) in the weekly rankings .

= = = Reviews = = =

The episode received mostly positive reviews . Price Peterson , of TV.com , gave the episode a positive review , writing that he " [ l ] oved this episode . That reveal was simultaneously shocking and heartbreaking . Plus it took one of the show 's most annoying characters ( Trina ) and made her both sympathetic and heartbreaking . " He also praised the information found on Veronica 's mother : " It was nice that Veronica got to see a better side of her mother than we usually do … Heartwarming ! " Maureen Ryan , of the Chicago Tribune , called the episode " engrossing " and that it is a better use of a viewer 's time than Lost , which aired at the same time as Veronica Mars .

Rowan Kaiser , of The A.V. Club , lauded Veronica 's characterization as an antiheroine in the episode . " I 've discussed times when [ Veronica has ] behaved in ways that I 'm not certain are ethical , but this might be the most blatant case . [ … ] Once again , I am intrigued by the decisions to make Veronica less than pure , but this time , I 'm not as disappointed by the followthrough . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B " . Alan Sepinwall singled out the scene between Carpenter and Hannigan and the Weevil and Logan subplot as particular points of praise . Sepinwall also called the alternate ending " an interesting little feature " while going on to state that he was " glad the real show didn 't go in that direction . "

BuzzFeed ranked the episode 48th on its ranking of Veronica Mars episodes , writing that it made the viewer " bored . " On a similar list , TV Line ranked the episode 19th .

= Rochdale Town Hall =

Rochdale Town Hall is a Victorian @-@ era municipal building in Rochdale , Greater Manchester , England . It is " widely recognised as being one of the finest municipal buildings in the country " , and is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . The Town Hall functions as the ceremonial headquarters of Rochdale Metropolitan Borough Council and houses local government departments , including the borough 's civil registration office .

Built in the Gothic Revival style at a cost of £ 160 @,@ 000 ( £ 13 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) , it was inaugurated for the governance of the Municipal Borough of Rochdale on 27 September 1871 . The architect , William Henry Crossland , was the winner of a competition held in 1864 to design a new Town Hall . It had a 240 @-@ foot ( 73 m ) clock tower topped by a wooden spire with a gilded statue of Saint George and the Dragon , both of which were destroyed by fire on 10 April 1883 , leaving the building without a spire for four years . A new 190 @-@ foot ( 58 m ) stone clock tower and spire in the style of Manchester Town Hall was designed by Alfred Waterhouse , and erected in 1888 .

Art critic Nikolaus Pevsner described the building as possessing a " rare picturesque beauty " . Its stained glass windows are credited as " the finest modern examples of their kind " . The building came to the attention of Adolf Hitler , who was said to have admired it so much that he wished to ship the building , brick @-@ by @-@ brick , to Nazi Germany had the United Kingdom been defeated in the Second World War .

= = History = =

Rochdale had developed into an increasingly large , populous , and prosperous urban mill town since the Industrial Revolution . Its newly built rail and canal network , and numerous factories , resulted in the town being " remarkable for many wealthy merchants " . In January 1856 the electorate of the Rochdale constituency petitioned the Privy Council for the grant of a charter of incorporation under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , to constitute the town as a municipal borough . This would give it limited political autonomy via an elected town council , comprising a mayor , aldermen , and councillors , to oversee local affairs . The petition was successful and the charter was granted in September 1856 . The newly formed Rochdale Corporation — the local authority for the Municipal Borough of Rochdale — suggested plans to build a town hall in which to conduct its business in May 1858 . The site of an abandoned 17th @-@ century house known as The Wood was proposed . Six months later , in April 1860 , Rochdale Corporation arranged to buy the site on the outskirts of the town centre for £ 4 @,@ 730 ( £ 427 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . However , plans were shelved due to lengthy negotiations and increasing land prices . In January 1864 the scheme resumed with a new budget of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 690 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .

The wood and surrounding area were cleared , but it is unknown what became of the dispossessed ; there was no legal requirement for the authorities to rehouse the former inhabitants . A design competition to find a " neat and elegant building " was held by the Rochdale Corporation , who offered the winning architect a prize of £ 100 ( £ 8 @,@ 900 in 2016 ) , and a Maltese cross souvenir . From the 27 entries received , William Henry Crossland 's was chosen . The Rochdale @-@ born Radical and Liberal statesman John Bright laid the foundation stone on 31 March 1866 . Construction was complete by 1871 although the cost had , by then , increased beyond expectations from the projected £ 40 @,@ 000 to £ 160 @,@ 000 ( £ 13 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .

The Town Hall was one of several built in the textile towns of North West England following the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , but is one of only two in Greater Manchester built in the Gothic style . Between the setting of the foundation stone and the building 's completion , revisions and additions were made to the original design . Money was " lavished " upon the decor and inventory , and the extra expenditure did not escape the ire of its critics . The cost of the building increased year @-@ on @-@ year through a combination of mismanagement , overspending and " unauthorised work " . Public criticism of the high cost was aimed at Crossland and the Mayor of Rochdale , George Leach Ashworth , who oversaw the work . Nevertheless , Rochdale Town Hall was ultimately celebrated as " a source of pride " , and its completion prompted celebration and rejoicing ; it transformed a " derelict and marshy riverbank in to a huge romantic Gothic plaza " . The opening ceremony on 27 September 1871 was performed by Mayor Ashworth , who had been instrumental in the changes made to the building 's design .

In 1882 or 1883 dry rot was found in the 240 @-@ foot ( 73 m ) high spire . On the recommendation of Rochdale 's Borough Surveyor , contractors were engaged to rebuild it . The spire was to be demolished to clear the way for a replacement . It was rumoured that the workmen who were dismantling the top section of the wooden spire may have tried to speed up the dismantling process with matches and , at 9 : 20 am on 10 April 1883 , a blaze was discovered . Despite the efforts of volunteers and the local fire brigade , 100 minutes after the discovery of the fire the entire spire , including a statue of Saint George and the Dragon , had been destroyed . The cause of the fire was never established , but Rochdale 's fire service was criticised for taking longer to respond to the blaze than Oldham 's , ( based 5 miles ( 8 km ) south ) , despite the Rochdale Fire Brigade being based in the Town Hall . Alfred Waterhouse was given the task of designing a 190 @-@ foot ( 58 m ) stone replacement . His work on the clock tower , which was built between 1885 and 1887 about 15 yards ( 14 m ) further to the east than the original , shows many similarities to Manchester Town Hall , which he also designed . The tower was opened in 1888 ; an inscribed plaque commemorates the fire of 1883 .

On 15 January 1931 , at the height of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom , the Territorial Army was called to guard the Town Hall during a protest against unemployment and hunger .

In May 1938 , Rochdale @-@ born actress , singer and comedian Gracie Fields was granted Honorary Freedom of the Borough for her contribution to entertainment . " When the ceremony was over , Gracie went onto the town hall balcony to receive the cheers and good wishes of the thousands of people who were packing the streets below . "

Although it is not fully understood how it came to his attention , Rochdale Town Hall was admired by Adolf Hitler . It has been suggested a visit by Hitler in 1912 – 13 while staying with his half @-@ brother Alois Hitler , Jr. in Liverpool , or military intelligence on Rochdale , or information from Nazi sympathiser William Joyce ( who had lived in Oldham ) , brought the building to his attention . Hitler admired the architecture so much that it is believed he wished to ship the building , brick @-@ by @-@ brick , to Nazi Germany had German @-@ occupied Europe encompassed the United Kingdom . Rochdale was broadly avoided by German bombers during the Second World War .

= = Features = =

= = = Location = = =

At OS Grid Reference SD895132 ( 53 @.@ 6156 ° , − 2 @.@ 1594 ° ) , Rochdale Town Hall is the centerpiece of Rochdale , located in Town Hall Square to the south of The Esplanade and the River Roch . The Parish Church of St Chad is situated by the wooded hillside behind the Town Hall . In Town Hall Square , opposite the Town Hall , is a statue of John Bright , dated 1891 , and the Rochdale War Memorial . Bright was a Rochdale @-@ born orator , pacifist and Member of Parliament for Birmingham known for his campaigns to repeal the Corn Laws as well as his opposition to slavery in the United States and the Crimean War . Touchstones Rochdale art gallery and local studies centre is across The Esplanade .

= = = Exterior and layout = = =

The frontage and principal entrance of the Town Hall face the River Roch , and comprises a portico of three arches intersected by buttresses . Decorating the main entrance are stone crockets , gargoyles , and finials . Four gilded lions above a parapet around three sides of the portico bear shields carrying the coats of arms of Rochdale Council and the hundred of Salford .

Rochdale Town Hall is 264 feet ( 80 m ) wide , 123 feet ( 37 m ) deep , and is faced with millstone grit quarried from Blackstone Edge and Todmorden . Although now blackened by industrial pollution , the building has been described as a " rich example of domestic Gothic architecture " . Naturalistic carved foliage on the exterior recalls the style of Southwell Minster , and the architecture is influenced by Perpendicular Period and medieval town halls of continental Europe . The building has been likened to Manchester Town Hall , Manchester Assize Courts , the Royal Courts of Justice , and St Pancras railway station , all products of the Gothic Revival architectural movement . The stained glass windows , some of which were designed by William Morris , have been described as " the finest modern examples of their kind " . At each end of the frontage is an octagonal staircase .

In the words of Nikolaus Pevsner , Rochdale Town Hall has " a splendidly craggy exterior of blackened stone " . The building has a roughly symmetrical E @-@ shaped plan , and is broken down into three self @-@ contained segments : a central Great Hall and transverse wings at each end , which have variously been used as debating chambers , corporation @-@ rooms , trade and a public hall . The south @-@ east wing used to house the magistrates ' courts , and the north @-@ west wing the mayor 's rooms . In the north @-@ east is a tower . Access to the main entrance is through a central porte cochere . The façade extends across 14 bays , of which the Great Hall accounts for seven . On both sides , the outermost bays rise to three storeys . They flank asymmetric round @-@ headed arcades — two to the left and three to the right , all of single @-@ storey height — which sit below plain mullioned windows , balconies and ornately decorated gables .

= = = Clock tower = = =

The present clock tower , which has a stone spire , was built to replace the one destroyed in the 1883 fire . It was designed by Alfred Waterhouse in a similar style to one of his earlier works , the clock tower of Manchester Town Hall . The first stone was laid by Thomas Schofield JP , Alderman and Rochdale Borough Councillor , on 19 October 1885 and the tower was declared complete on 20 June 1887 , the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria . It contains five bells which ring on the hour and at 15 @-@ minute intervals . The design of the original tower was more elaborate and 50 feet ( 15 m ) higher than its successor , which is 190 feet ( 58 m ) tall .

The tower rises from a plinth and has four stages including the gable @-@ headed clock stage , which is also decorated with pinnacles . A small stone spire completes the composition .

= = = Interior = = =

Murals in the former council chamber depict the inventions that drove the Industrial Revolution , and the Great Hall is adorned with a large fresco of the signing of Magna Carta by artist Henry Holiday , although the painting is dirty . Responsibility for the decoration of the interior was given to Heaton , Butler and Bayne , who incorporated floor tiles that were manufactured by Mintons and decorated with the local insignia and the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom . The stone Grand Staircase , which leads from the vestibule to the Great Hall , is decorated with stained glass ; such glass windows decorate most of the Town Hall and are considered to be the finest example of the work of Heaton , Butler and Bayne . The medieval style Great Hall , described by Pevsner as a room of " great splendour and simplicity " , has a hammerbeam roof flanked by statues of angels , in a design that resembles Westminster Hall .

= = Heritage status and function = =

The Town Hall was listed at Grade I on 25 October 1951 . Such buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " . In February 2001 , it was one of 39 Grade I listed buildings , and 3 @,@ 701 listed buildings of all grades , in Greater Manchester . Within the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale , it is one of only three Grade I listed buildings , and 312 listed buildings of all grades .

Although the majority of local government functions take place in Rochdale 's Municipal Offices building , Rochdale Town Hall continues to be used for cultural and ceremonial functions . For instance it is used for the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale 's mayoralty , civil registry , and for formal naturalisation in British Citizenship ceremonies .

= Colin McCool =

Colin Leslie McCool ( 9 December 1916 – 5 April 1986 ) was an Australian cricketer who played in 14 Tests from 1946 to 1950 . McCool , born in Paddington , New South Wales , was an all @-@ rounder who bowled leg spin and googlies with a round arm action and as a lower order batsman was regarded as effective square of the wicket and against spin bowling . He made his Test début against New Zealand in 1946 , taking a wicket with his second delivery . He was part of Donald Bradman 's Invincibles team that toured England in 1948 but injury saw him miss selection in any of the Test matches .

A good tour of South Africa in 1949 – 50 was followed by a lack of opportunity in the next two seasons , leading McCool to sign a contract to play professional cricket in the Lancashire League in 1953 . Three years later , Somerset County Cricket Club recruited McCool where he was a success , especially as a middle @-@ order batsman ; he played five seasons and saw the club achieve its highest place in the County Championship since 1892 . He retired from cricket in 1960 and returned to Australia to work as a market gardener . He died in Concord , New South Wales on 5 April 1986 .

= = Early career = =

As a child growing up in Paddington , McCool attended Crown Street State School — earlier students included Victor Trumper and Monty Noble . He played his childhood cricket on concrete wickets in Moore Park and learnt to bowl from reading Clarrie Grimmett 's instructional book , Getting Wickets . McCool played his early grade cricket with Paddington Cricket Club before coming to the notice of the New South Wales selectors . He made his first @-@ class début for New South Wales against " Rest of Australia " in March 1940 , making 19 and 15 and taking one wicket . While the Australian Cricket Board suspended the Sheffield Shield competition at the end of the 1939 – 40 season , at the request of the Australian government , a series of matches were arranged to raise money for wartime charities in the following 1940 – 41 season . McCool played in six of these matches for New South Wales , scoring 416 runs at average of 52 @.@ 00 and taking 24 wickets at an average of 23 @.@ 50 .

McCool enlisted on 12 September 1941 and served as a Pilot Officer with the No. 33 Squadron of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Stationed in New Guinea , McCool had reached the rank of Flight Lieutenant when he was discharged from the RAAF on 18 September 1945 .

After the war , he moved to Brisbane and was selected in the Queensland cricket team . Playing for Queensland , he formed a formidable partnership with wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon . He was selected in the Australian team to tour New Zealand in 1945 – 46 , making his Test début at the Basin Reserve in Wellington . He made seven runs in Australia 's only innings and took a wicket with his second ball in Test cricket ; the last man dismissed in the Test , Don McRae .

= = Test player = =

The following season , Wally Hammond 's England cricket team travelled to Australia for the 1946 – 47 Ashes series . In a warm @-@ up match before the series , McCool performed well for Queensland against the English tourists at the Brisbane Cricket Ground ( the ' Gabba ) , taking nine wickets and " the English batsmen seemed like rabbits fascinated in the presence of a snake " . He was selected for the First Test at the same ground the following week . He just missed out on a century on his Ashes debut , scoring 95 and only bowling one over as Australia won the Test by an innings and 332 runs . In the Second Test at Sydney , McCool took eight wickets , including the prize wicket of Hammond twice . Australia won by an innings and 33 runs . The Third Test at Melbourne saw McCool make his maiden Test century , 104 not out in a drawn match . The Melbourne businessman and underworld figure , John Wren had promised McCool one pound for every run he made that innings ; this was at a time when ten pounds was the average weekly wage in Australia . The cheque — given to McCool the next day — allowed him to place a deposit on a house .

He played in the remaining two Tests , making 272 runs at an average of 54 and taking 18 wickets at just over 27 apiece . He took 5 / 44 in the Fifth Test . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack wrote that his batting featured " wristy cuts " and " vigorous hooks " , opining that there were " few better players of spin bowling on a difficult pitch " . Wisden said that his slow and loopy leg spin was " a clever mixture of leg @-@ breaks and googlies " .

India toured Australia for the first time in 1947 – 48 . McCool played in three Tests without much success , scoring only 46 runs and taking only four wickets . Nevertheless , he was selected as part of Australian team to tour England in 1948 that would be known as the Invincibles . He took 57 wickets on the tour but bowling for long periods caused him to continually tear a callus on his third finger , used to impart spin on the ball . As a result , his captain , Don Bradman , felt compelled to leave him out of the Test matches , feeling that his finger would not be able to handle the necessarily long bowling spells . This decision was aided by the then existing rule allowing a new ball to be used every 55 overs , allowing Bradman to use his fast bowlers more often . For the rest of his career , McCool was troubled by the skin rubbing off his spinning finger . McCool and his fellow fringe members of the squad , Ron Hamence and Doug Ring , would refer themselves as the " ground @-@ staff " as it was unlikely that the tour selectors would include them in the Test team that tour . The cricket writer Alan Gibson , who knew McCool well in his later cricket career at Somerset , wrote that the omission " distressed him greatly at the time , though he could be philosophical enough about it later " .

He played in all five Tests on tour against South Africa . He took 51 wickets in all matches , including 5 / 41 in the Second Test at Newlands . In 1950 – 51 , McCool was the leading wicket taker in the Sheffield Shield competition , however he was not selected in the Test team against the touring English ; nor against the West Indies the following season .

= = English cricket = =

Prior to the 1953 Australian team to tour England , McCool signed a professional contract with Lancashire League team East Lancashire , replacing fellow Australian leg spinner Bruce Dooland . In his first season in the league , he was the leading wicket @-@ taker with 93 wickets at the low average of 10 @.@ 2 runs per wicket , and he also made 678 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 9 . The following year , he played less often : his 547 runs came at the better average of 42 @.@ 1 but his 52 wickets cost 13 @.@ 1 apiece , and East Lancashire , who had finished either first or second in the Championship ten times in the previous twelve seasons , finished 10th out of 14 . He did not return to East Lancashire for the 1955 season due to being contracted to play county cricket for Somerset . The cricket writer Alan Gibson , who knew McCool well , wrote that " after he had made the decision to come , an extension of the qualifying period for overseas cricketers kept him waiting even longer " .

Delayed by the change to the rules , McCool had a five @-@ year stint from 1956 in English county cricket . Somerset , having finished on the bottom of the County Championship table for the four years between 1952 – 1955 , had embarked on a renewal programme . Part of the programme involved a vigorous recruiting campaign , including an offer to McCool that saw him return to first @-@ class cricket at the age of 39 .

At Somerset , McCool was an instant success as a batsman , scoring 1 @,@ 967 runs in his first season , including three centuries and a highest score of 141 . After four seasons , Somerset came off the bottom of the County Championship ( to 15th out of 17 ) , and Wisden was in no doubt of McCool 's influence : " Much of the credit for the all @-@ round improvement went to one man – McCool , " it wrote . " At the start of the season it was hoped that the former Australian Test leg @-@ break bowler would lend power and variety to the attack . From that viewpoint his 45 wickets at over thirty runs apiece might be counted disappointing . But with the bat McCool exceeded all expectations . He was one of the most consistent scorers in the country and he failed by only 34 to reach 2 @,@ 000 runs in his first season of county cricket . McCool was the backbone of a mediocre batting side , and he never departed from his natural attacking style . " Against the touring Australians that season he made 90 and 116 , the first innings 90 coming out of 139 in two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours and including 15 fours , the second innings century out of 167 in just 95 minutes , with four sixes and 14 fours . Wisden reported that he was " very severe on [ Ian Johnson ] and [ Jack Wilson ] " .

Over the 1956 / 57 new year , McCool was one of a party of 12 cricketers , all but one of them Test players , who made a brief trip to India to play two first @-@ class matches in celebration of the silver jubilee of the Bengal Cricket Association in a side raised by the Lancashire secretary Geoffrey Howard . McCool did not play in the first match and in the second , he replaced Jock Livingston , the team 's only wicketkeeper , who had been taken ill during the first game . McCool made only 23 and 1 with the bat , but he stumped Vinoo Mankad off the bowling of Dooland , one of only two stumpings in his career as a very occasional wicketkeeper .

Back in England in 1957 he was joined at Taunton by another Australian , Bill Alley , but still finished as the leading scorer for the county with 1 @,@ 678 runs in all matches , to go with 44 wickets . In the wet summer of 1958 Somerset finished third in the Championship , their highest position since 1892 . McCool 's contribution was 1 @,@ 590 runs and 46 wickets at , for him , the low average of 23 runs each . In this season , McCool made his highest score for Somerset – 169 out of a total of 314 against Worcestershire at Stourbridge – and in the last match of the season he produced his best bowling figures of his career , taking eight second @-@ innings Nottinghamshire wickets for 74 runs on what Wisden described as " a sporting pitch " .

In contrast to 1958 , the 1959 season was hot and dry and McCool 's figures improved : he made 1769 runs at an average of more than 40 runs per innings and took 64 first @-@ class wickets , more than in any other Somerset season . McCool 's final season with Somerset before his retirement was 1960 , and he signed off with 1 @,@ 222 runs and 29 wickets .

In 138 matches across the five seasons for Somerset , McCool made 7 @,@ 913 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 82 . He also took 219 wickets at 28 @.@ 05 but in his five years with the county he was never the first @-@ choice spin bowler : in his first two seasons , Somerset used Australian @-@ born slow left @-@ arm orthodox bowler John McMahon as the main spin bowler , with young off @-@ spin bowler Brian Langford also bowling more than McCool . When McMahon left , Langford took over as the top spin bowler , and by 1960 was bowling four times the number of overs that McCool took . But McCool had also lost some of his control at this stage : " He could do beguiling things with the ball , though length and line seemed to become a decreasing consideration , " says the history of Somerset cricket . He also made 146 catches , many of them at first slip , where he stood " rather deeper than usual " . His influence on Somerset 's recovery from the trough of the early 1950s was considerable . A later Somerset history says : " Occasionally some of the younger pros didn 't relish the way he treated them . Maybe they also resented that his salary was well in excess of their own . But their respect for his competitive approach and sheer experience was undeniable . "

= = Playing style = =

McCool had a round @-@ arm bowling action , releasing the ball with his arm almost parallel to the ground . Before he developed problems with the skin on his spinning finger , he was , in spite of his unorthodox action , able to generate sharp spin . The cricket writer , Jack Pollard said of McCool , " [ McCool ] was almost unplayable on badly prepared pitches , so wide and sharp was the turn of his leg @-@ breaks . " and that he " made even State [ i.e. first @-@ class ] batsmen look inept " . On the advice of coaches and ex @-@ players , McCool attempted to alter his action to a more orthodox style on several occasions but always returned to his natural style .

A short man but with a strong build , as a batsman he was a vigorous hooker and a wristy cutter , scoring mostly square of the wicket . He was particularly good against spin bowling , even on difficult pitches .

During his time at Somerset , he was known for " [ turning ] a match with his cracking strokes in an hour . " Alan Gibson wrote : " We hardly think of him as a stylist , and he was mostly a back @-@ foot player , getting the greater number of his runs in the segments fanning out from point and square @-@ leg . But he was enjoyable to watch , compact , tidy , combining powerful hitting with delicate placing . In the best Somerset tradition , he was always after the bowling , and in the best Australian tradition , he always relished a fight . " But he also adapted his style to suit English pitches : in an early innings for Somerset , he was out trying to hook a ball from Trevor Bailey . " The hook , he decided , was a stroke to be used sparingly on English pitches ... McCool was constantly amending his technique that season [ 1956 ] , whenever he spotted a flaw in his method . Again and again he held the Somerset batting together . Nothing in his previous experience had equipped him for the task of holding up a losing side in a damp English summer . "

He was renowned for his catching , often spending an hour at a time practising catching a ball thrown into the side of a roller normally used to prepare the cricket pitch . Journalist and former team @-@ mate Bill O 'Reilly said after McCool 's death in 1986 : " If Colin had played in the last 10 years , he would have been regarded as one of the greatest all @-@ rounders ever in Australian cricket . He was a great batsman , [ ... ] a wonderful bowler and one of the best slips fieldsmen I have ever seen . "

= = Personality and personal life = =

Accounts of McCool in his Somerset period portray him as a thoughtful but slightly aloof character . " Off the field he was a quiet man , " wrote David Foot . He was " a contemplative pipe @-@ smoker in the corner of the dressing room , " says another account , and somewhat intolerant of others who appeared less committed than he was . " Occasionally some of the younger pros didn 't relish the way he treated them . Maybe they also resented that his salary was well in excess of their own . "

Alan Gibson wrote about him more volubly : " He thought about the game a lot . Many Australian cricketers do , more than English cricketers probably , but McCool was in some ways an untypical Australian . He had a diffidence and gentleness , which do not always spring to mind as familiar Australian qualities : but he had plenty of Australian determination . "

Gibson wrote that McCool " did not quite come to terms with the West Country " . He went on : " He missed the sunshine . ' There 's no winter , ' he said , ' and the beer 's better . And the f------ off @-@ spinners don 't turn . ' I think an additional reason was that he found some difficulty in accepting the conventions of English cricket as it was then . There was a Somerset committee member , who liked and admired him , and would greet him with , ' Morning , McCool ' . That committee member was seeking to be courteous . He would have thought it pompous to say ' Mr McCool ' , and impertinent to say ' Colin ' . But it infuriated Colin . He thought it a reflection on his status . He would have preferred something like ' Hi , Col , you old bastard . ' The worlds were too far apart . "

McCool was given a testimonial season by Somerset in 1959 after just three years with county and the circumstances were unusual enough for it to be remarked on in the county 's Year Book , published in the winter before the season . " Although Colin McCool has played for the County for three seasons only , this Testimonial is a fitting reward for his valuable services as an all @-@ rounder and off the field , where his influence is most marked . "

After retirement from first @-@ class cricket at the end of the 1960 season in England , McCool returned to Australia , taking up market gardening with a specialty in rare blooms at Umina Beach on the Central Coast of New South Wales . He continued playing club cricket in the Newcastle competition for Belmont until rheumatism forced him to retire from all forms of cricket aged 55 : " Rheumatism in my right hand made it embarrassing for me to continue . It was alarming to an old pro like me who prided himself on length and directions to have the ball slip out of my fingers out of control . "

McCool was the author of two books on cricket : Cricket is a Game , which was an autobiography , and The Best Way to Play Cricket , both published in 1961 . John Arlott , reviewing them in Wisden 1962 , said the first was " full of trenchant good sense , humour , anecdote and shrewd observation " . The second book , Arlott wrote , was " to the best of this reviewer 's knowledge , the first cricket book to be initially published in the modern paper @-@ back format " . It was , he added , " full of good instruction and ... sets down some genuine cricket wisdom with freshness and vitality " .

He married Dorothy Everlyn Yabsley in 1943 in Sydney . His son , Russ McCool , who was born in Taunton , played one first @-@ class match for Somerset in 1982 , in addition to playing for New South Wales Colts and New South Wales Country .

= = Test match performance = =

= Yoshi 's Island =

Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island , known in Japan as Yossy 's Island ( ヨッシーアイランド , Yosshī Airando ) , is a 1995 platform video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Acting as a prequel to Super Mario World , the game casts players as Yoshi as he escorts Baby Mario through 48 levels in order to reunite him with his brother Luigi , who had been kidnapped by Baby Bowser 's minions . As a Super Mario series platformer , Yoshi runs and jumps to reach the end of the level while solving puzzles and collecting items . In a style new to the series , the game has a hand @-@ drawn aesthetic and is the first to have Yoshi as its main character . The game introduces his signature abilities to flutter jump , produce eggs from swallowed enemies , and transform into vehicles . It also features 2D graphics with Linear transformations ( similar to Super Mario World ) .

The game 's hand @-@ drawn aesthetic — a style new to the series — descends from producer and Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto 's distaste for the computer pre @-@ rendered graphics of the game 's contemporary Donkey Kong Country . Yoshi 's Island was released in Japan in August 1995 , and worldwide two months later . Some of its special effects were powered by a new Super FX2 microchip . The game was rereleased for the Game Boy Advance with few changes in 2002 under the title Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 . Nintendo later released this version via the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U Virtual Console .

Yoshi 's Island received " instant " and " universal acclaim " , according to IGN and review aggregator Metacritic , and sold over four million copies . Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers offered lavish praise for the game 's aesthetics , sound , level design , and gameplay , and posited Yoshi 's Island as a masterpiece and the best platformer of all time . The game brought newfound renown to both Yoshi as a character and Miyamoto 's artistic and directorial career . The distinct art style and Yoshi 's signature characteristics established in Yoshi 's Island would carry throughout a series of cameos , spin @-@ offs , and sequels , including the 1998 Yoshi 's Story , 2006 Yoshi 's Island DS , 2014 Yoshi 's New Island , and 2015 Yoshi 's Woolly World . The next Mario 2D platform game for home consoles was New Super Mario Bros. Wii , released 14 years later .

= = Gameplay = =

Yoshi 's Island is a two @-@ dimensional side @-@ scrolling platformer in which players help friendly dinosaurs known as Yoshis escort Baby Mario safely through 48 levels across six worlds in order to rescue his brother Luigi , who had been kidnapped by an evil Magikoopa named Kamek .

Each level casts players as a different colored Yoshi , who must escort Baby Mario on his back and reach the end of the level , where he is passed on to the next Yoshi . Similar to Super Mario World , Yoshi can use his tongue to ensnare enemies and put them into his mouth . When something is in his mouth , Yoshi can either spit it out as an attack , or swallow it to turn it into an egg . These eggs can then be thrown at an angle , even bouncing off walls , to attack enemies or reach far away or hard to reach items . Yoshi can carry up to six eggs at a time , with some colored eggs spawning items once they hit something . Yoshi can also eat watermelons that let him spit out seeds , or flaming enemies that let him spit out fire . Yoshi is also able to perform a flutter jump , in which he can kick his legs in mid @-@ air to gain extra height or hover over long distances , and a ground pound , a downward attack that can hammer down on enemies and stumps .

The goal of each level is to protect Baby Mario , who rides on Yoshi 's back . If Yoshi is hit by an enemy or obstacle , Baby Mario will float off into a bubble and a timer will start counting down . If the player fails to recover Baby Mario before the counter reaches zero , Baby Mario will be taken away by Koopas and Yoshi will lose a life . The timer can recover up to ten seconds , and Yoshi can collect stars to increase the amount of time on the counter . However , if Yoshi falls into a bottomless pit , gets crushed , or comes into contact with spikes or lava , he will automatically lose a life . In some areas , players can collect a Starman that transforms Baby Mario into Super Baby Mario . During these areas , players take control of Baby Mario who , for a short period , is invincible , can run on walls and ceilings , and can float using his cape . Additionally , some areas transform Yoshi into various vehicles , such as a helicopter or digger , allowing him to reach otherwise inaccessible areas for a short amount of time .

Each of the game 's worlds feature eight main levels , with a boss appearing at the end of every fourth and eighth level . Hidden throughout each of these levels are five Flowers and twenty Red Coins , the latter of which are hidden behind specific coins in each level . Collecting Flowers adds flowers to the gate at the end of each level ( not including boss levels ) . If the player manages to land on an open flower after jumping through the end gate , they can play a bonus game during which they can earn extra lives or bonus items that can be activated from the pause menu , such as additional stars or maginifying glasses that reveal the location of hidden Red Coins . At the end of each level , players receive a score based on how many Flowers and Red Coins they found , as well as how many stars they have remaining , with a maximum score of 100 awarded for finding all Flowers and Red Coins and ending the level with 30 stars . Completing all levels in a world with a score of 100 unlocks two additional levels for that world .

= = Development and re @-@ release = =

While Mario creator Shigeru Miyamoto worked on Super Mario World , he thought to make Yoshi the series ' " next hero " since the game designer did not like the other Yoshi games , including Yoshi 's Safari and Yoshi 's Cookie , and thought he could make something more authentic . When he first brought the game to Nintendo marketing , they declined the game for having Mario @-@ style graphics rather than the vogue , computer pre @-@ rendered graphics of Donkey Kong Country . In comparison , they felt that his game lacked the power to impress . Incensed and opposed to the style , Miyamoto instead further escalated his cartoonish visuals into a hand @-@ drawn , crayon style . Nintendo 's marketing department accepted this revision . Miyamoto later recalled feeling that the marketing department wanted " better hardware and more beautiful graphics instead of ... art " . Around the time of his rejection , Miyamoto allegedly said that " Donkey Kong Country proves that players will put up with mediocre gameplay as long as the art is good " . However , he later clarified his remarks , stating that " recently some rumour got out that I didn 't really like that game ? I just want to clarify that that 's not the case , because I was very involved in that . And even emailing almost daily with Tim Stamper right up until the end . "

Yoshi 's Island was developed by Nintendo EAD and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . According to Miyamoto , who served as a producer , Yoshi 's Island was in development for four years , which let the team add " lots of magic tricks " . The game cartridge used an extra microchip to support the game 's rotation , scaling and other sprite @-@ changing special effects . Yoshi 's Island was designed to use the Super FX chip , but when Nintendo stopped supporting the chip , the game became the first to use Argonaut Games 's Super FX2 microchip . The chip powered scenes including a drawbridge falling into the foreground , rotation effects like rolling and enlarged rather than reanimated enemies , and a psychedelic effect in a level when Yoshi touches a floating fungus .

Yoshi 's Island was released first in Japan in August 1995 , and two months later in North America and Europe . At the time of release , the Super NES was in its twilight as a console in anticipation of Nintendo 's upcoming console to be released the following year , 1996 . Yoshi 's Island was rereleased for the Game Boy Advance as Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 in North America on September 23 , 2002 . In the game 's preview at E3 2002 , IGN named Yoshi 's Island " Best Platformer " on a handheld console . The Game Boy Advance version is a direct port of the original , apart from few changes . The developers used the Yoshi voice from a subsequent series game , cropped the original display to fit the handheld 's smaller screen , and added exclusive bonus levels . Like the other Super Mario Advance rereleases , the handheld version includes the 1983 game Mario Bros. with support for up to four players via link cable . The new cartridge did not need an extra microchip to support the original 's special effects .

The Game Boy Advance version of the game was released on the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U via Nintendo 's digital Virtual Console platform . The port retains the handheld version 's cropped screen and pack @-@ in Mario Bros. game , though its multiplayer mode is disabled . The 3DS version was released on December 16 , 2011 , as an exclusive reward for early adopters of the Nintendo 3DS . It did not receive a wider release . The Wii U version was released worldwide on April 24 , 2014 . At E3 2010 , Nintendo demoed " classic " 2D titles such as Yoshi 's Island as remastered 3D games with a " pop @-@ up book feel " .

= = Reception = =

Yoshi 's Island received " instant " and " universal acclaim " , according to an IGN retrospective and video game review aggregator Metacritic , respectively . At the time of its 1995 release , Matt Taylor of Diehard GameFan thought Yoshi 's Island could be " possibly the best platform game of all time " . Nintendo Power too said that the game was " one of the biggest , most beautiful games ever made " . Next Generation was also most impressed by the game 's " size and playability " . Diehard GameFan 's three reviewers gave the game a near perfect score . To wit , Nicholas Dean Des Barres said it was " one of the handful of truly perfect games ever produced " , and lamented that the magazine had given Donkey Kong Country , which he felt was a lackluster game in comparison , the extra single point for a perfect score . Casey Loe removed that one point for Baby Mario 's " annoying screech " . Nintendo Power and Nintendo Life too found Baby Mario 's crying sounds annoying . Major Mike of GamePro called it " a work of art . " He lauded the " almost perfect " control , the variety of techniques , the graphical variety , and the " abundance of hidden items and concealed rooms " , and unlike other reviewers , he found Baby Mario 's cries for help to be very affecting . He concluded that Yoshi 's Island " is one of the last of a dying breed : a 16 @-@ bit game that shows real heart and creativity . " Reviewing the Super NES release over a decade later , Kaes Delgrego of Nintendo Life said the crying and some easy boss battles , while both minor , were the game 's only shortcomings . Delgrego charged Yoshi 's Island with perfecting the genre , calling it " perhaps the greatest platformer of all time " . The game has sold over four million copies .

Both contemporaneous and retrospective reviewers offered lavish praise for the game 's aesthetics , level design , and gameplay , which became legacies of the game . Some called it " charm " . Delgrego of Nintendo Life would stop mid @-@ game just to watch what enemies would do . Martin Watts of the same publication called it " an absolute pleasure on the eyes and unlike any other SNES game " . Others praised the control scheme , technical effects , and sound design . Nintendo Life 's Delgrego felt " goosebumps and tingles " during the ending theme , and marked the soundtrack 's range from the lighthearted intro to the " epic grandeur of the final boss battle " .

Edge praised the game 's balance of challenge and accessibility . The magazine thought that the new power @-@ ups of Yoshi 's Island gave its gameplay and level design great range , and that the powers were significant additions to the series on par with the suits of Super Mario Bros. 3 or Yoshi 's own debut in Super Mario World . Diehard GameFan 's Taylor wrote that there was enough gameplay innovation to make him cry and listed his favorites as the Baby Mario cape invincibility power @-@ up , the machine gun @-@ style seed spitting , and the snowball hill level . Nintendo Life 's Watts called the egg stockpiling mechanic as " clever " for the way it encourages experimentation with the environment as well as tempered wastefulness . Edge thought of Yoshi 's Island as a " fusion of technology and creativity , each enhancing the other " . The magazine considered the game 's special effects expertly integrated into the gameplay , and described the developer 's handicraft as having an " attention to detail that few games can match " .

Reviewing the Game Boy Advance release in 2002 , Craig Harris of IGN wrote that Yoshi 's Island was both the console 's best platformer as well as " the best damn platformer ever developed " . While acknowledging the game 's roots in the Super Mario series , he said the game created enough gameplay ideas to constitute its own franchise . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote that the game 's story was also interesting as the origin story for the Mario brothers . Harris felt that the FX2 sprite @-@ changing effects gave the game " life " and that the Game Boy Advance cartridge could handle the effects just as well . He added that Yoshi 's morphing abilities and sound effects were designed well . Levi Buchanan of IGN said the game struck the right balance of tutorial by trial and error . IGN 's Harris also noted a few Game Boy Advance @-@ specific issues : framerate drop in areas where a lot is happening onscreen , camera panning problems due to the screen 's lower resolution , and a " poor " implementation of the " dizzy " special effect on the handheld release . Critics wrote that the " coloring book " -style graphics held up well . IGN 's Harris felt it was the best of the Super Mario Advance games . Of the similar version for the Wii U , Watts of Nintendo Life also noticed the framerate issues and problems resulting from the screen 's closer crop , which were " not enough to ruin the game , but ... noticeable " . Edge felt that game 's only disappointment was the linearity of its overworld following the exploratory Super Mario World and that the sequel would " inevitably ... have less impact " in comparison .

= = Legacy = =

Multiple retrospective critics declared Yoshi 's Island a " masterpiece " . IGN recalled it as " one of the most loved SNES adventures of all time " . Yoshi 's Island brought newfound renown to both Yoshi as a character and Shigeru Miyamoto 's artistic and directorial career . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote that game marked where Yoshi " came into his own " and developed many of his definitive characteristics : the " signature " flutter jump , and ability to throw eggs and transform shape . Baby Mario , who debuted in the game , went on to have his own career in a number of sports @-@ related titles . Series producer Takashi Tezuka said he consciously continued " the handicraft feel " of the original throughout the series , which later included yarn and similar variations . Official Nintendo Magazine called the art style " a bold step ... that paid off handsomely " . Delgrego of Nintendo Life wrote that the game marked a new era of art in video games that prioritized creativity over graphics technology .

Delgrego continued that the game 's countdown @-@ based life was a " revolutionary " mechanic that would later become ubiquitous in games like the Halo series . Martin Watts also of Nintendo Life considered Super Mario 64 to be a more momentous event in gaming history , but felt that Yoshi 's Island was the " most significant " event in the " Mario Bros. timeline " . In a retrospective , IGN wrote that Super NES owners widely embraced the game alongside Donkey Kong Country .

IGN 's Jared Petty wrote that Yoshi 's Island bested " the test of time far better than many of its contemporaries " . Levi Buchanan of IGN thought Nintendo took a risk with Yoshi 's Island by making Mario passive and giving Yoshi new abilities . Christian Donlan of 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die wrote that the game was a testament to the Mario team 's " staggering confidence " in its development ability . He said the game was " perhaps the most imaginative platformer " of its time . Yoshi 's Island ranked 22nd on Official Nintendo Magazine 's 2009 top 100 Nintendo games as a " bone fide classic " , 15th on IGN 's 2014 top 125 Nintendo games of all time , and 2nd on USgamer 's 2015 best Mario platformers list .

= = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = =

Yoshi 's Island led to a strong year for Yoshi as a character . IGN 's Thomas added that the hand @-@ drawn style of Yoshi 's Island made the computer @-@ generated Donkey Kong Country appear outdated , though both games sold well , and Rareware included a Yoshi cameo in their sequel , Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest , released that same year . Yoshi 's Island graphics and characters were also incorporated into the 1996 Super NES tile puzzle game Tetris Attack .

Following Yoshi 's Island 's success , Nintendo developed Yoshi 's Story , a 1998 platformer for the Nintendo 64 , which " disappointed " audiences and deflated " massive ... anticipation " with fetch quests and the 3D style Miyamoto eschewed in its predecessor . The Nintendo 64 game expanded on Yoshi 's character voice as introduced in Yoshi 's Island , but also " dumbed down Yoshi 's character " . Nintendo created two Yoshi 's Island spin @-@ off games : the tilt sensor @-@ controlled Yoshi Topsy Turvy ( 2004 , Game Boy Advance ) , which was developed by Artoon and critically panned , and the Nintendo @-@ developed minigame Yoshi Touch & Go ( 2005 , Nintendo DS ) . The 1995 original release received a direct sequel in 2006 : Yoshi 's Island DS , also developed by Artoon . Titled Yoshi 's Island 2 until just before it shipped , the game retained the core concept of transporting baby Nintendo characters , and added babies Princess Peach , Bowser , Donkey Kong , and Wario , each with an individual special ability . Yoshi had a similar move set to Yoshi 's Island and added dash and float abilities , but was more passive a character compared to the babies on his back .

About seven years later , series producer Takashi Tezuka decided enough time had passed to make another direct sequel , Yoshi 's New Island ( 2013 , Nintendo 3DS ) . It was developed by former Artoon employees at their new company , Arzest . As in the original , Yoshi carries Baby Mario and throws eggs . The game adds the ability to swallow big foes , which become big eggs that can destroy big obstacles . Yoshi 's Island DS developer Arzest assisted in its development . In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die ( 2010 ) , Christian Donlan wrote that despite the " streamlined " Yoshi 's Story and " brilliant " Yoshi 's Touch and Go , " the original was never bettered and never truly advanced upon " . In Eurogamer 's 2015 preview of Yoshi 's Woolly World , Tom Phillips wrote that it had " been 20 years since the last truly great Yoshi 's Island " . The next console release of a Mario 2D side @-@ scroller , New Super Mario Bros. Wii , was released 14 years later .

= Pierce Brosnan =

Pierce Brendan Brosnan OBE Hon ( born 16 May 1953 ) is an Irish actor and film producer who after leaving comprehensive school at age 16 , began training in commercial illustration . He then went on to train at the Drama Centre in London for three years . Following a stage acting career he rose to popularity in the television series Remington Steele ( 1982 – 87 ) , which blended the genres of romantic comedy , drama , and detective procedural . After the conclusion of Remington Steele , Brosnan appeared in films such as the Cold War spy film The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) and the comedy Mrs. Doubtfire ( 1993 ) .

In 1994 , Brosnan became the fifth actor to portray secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions film series , starring in four films from 1995 to 2002 ( GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , The World Is Not Enough and Die Another Day ) . He lent his likeness for Bond in the video games James Bond 007 : Nightfire and James Bond 007 : Everything or Nothing , providing his voice too for the latter . During this period , he also took the lead in other films such as the epic disaster adventure film Dante 's Peak ( 1997 ) and the remake of the heist film The Thomas Crown Affair ( 1999 ) . Since leaving the role of Bond , he has starred in such films as the musical / romantic comedy Mamma Mia ! ( 2008 ) , the Roman Polanski @-@ directed political thriller The Ghost Writer ( 2010 ) and the action spy thriller The November Man ( 2014 ) .

In 1996 , along with Beau St. Clair , Brosnan formed Irish DreamTime , a Los Angeles @-@ based production company . In later years , he has become known for his charitable work and environmental activism . He was married to Australian actress Cassandra Harris from 1980 until her death in 1991 . He married American journalist and author Keely Shaye Smith in 2001 , and became an American citizen in 2004 . He has earned two Golden Globe Award nominations , first for the television miniseries Nancy Astor ( 1982 ) and next for the dark comedy film The Matador ( 2005 ) .

= = Early life = =

Brosnan was born in Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital in Drogheda , County Louth , Ireland , the only child of Thomas Brosnan , a carpenter , and May ( née Smith , born circa 1934 ) . He lived in Navan , County Meath for 12 years and considers it his home town . Brosnan 's father abandoned the family when Pierce was an infant . When he was four years old , his mother moved to London to work as a nurse . From that point on , he was largely brought up by his grandparents , Philip and Kathleen Smith . After their deaths , he lived with an aunt and then an uncle , but was subsequently sent to live in a boarding house run by a woman named Eileen . He was educated at Elliott School , now known as Ark Putney Academy , a coeducational secondary school with academy status in South West London .

According to Brosnan ,

Childhood was fairly solitary . I grew up in a very small town called Navan in County Meath . I never knew my father . He left when I was an infant and I was left in the care of my mother and my grandparents . To be Catholic in the ' 50s , and to be Irish Catholic in the ' 50s , and have a marriage which was not there , a father who was not there , consequently , the mother , the wife suffered greatly . My mother was very courageous . She took the bold steps to go away and be a nurse in England . Basically wanting a better life for her and myself . My mother came home once a year , twice a year .

Brosnan was brought up in a Roman Catholic family and educated in a local school run by the de la Salle Brothers while serving as an altar boy .

Brosnan left Ireland on 12 August 1964 and was reunited with his mother and her new husband , William Carmichael , now living in the Scottish village of Longniddry , East Lothian . Carmichael took Brosnan to see a James Bond film for the first time ( Goldfinger ) , at the age of 11 . Later moving back to London , Brosnan was educated at Elliott School , a state comprehensive school in Putney , south west London . Brosnan has spoken about the transition from Ireland to England and his education in London ; " When you go to a very large city , a metropolis like London , as an Irish boy of 10 , life suddenly moves pretty fast . From a little school of , say , seven classrooms in Ireland , to this very large comprehensive school , with over 2 @,@ 000 children . And you 're Irish . And they make you feel it ; the British have a wonderful way of doing that , and I had a certain deep sense of being an outsider . " When he attended school , his nickname was " Irish " .

After leaving school at 16 , he decided to be a painter and began training in commercial illustration at Saint Martin 's School of Art . While attending a rehearsal for a workshop at the Oval House , a fire eater was teaching people how to eat fire and he decided to join . A circus agent saw him busking and hired him for three years . He later trained for three years as an actor at the Drama Centre London . Brosnan has described the feeling of becoming an actor and the impact it had on his life : " When I found acting , or when acting found me , it was a liberation . It was a stepping stone into another life , away from a life that I had , and acting was something I was good at , something which was appreciated . That was a great satisfaction in my life . "

= = Career = =

= = = Early career = = =

After graduating from the Drama Centre in 1975 , Brosnan began working as an acting assistant stage manager at the York Theatre Royal , making his acting debut in Wait Until Dark . Within six months , he was selected by playwright Tennessee Williams to play the role of McCabe in the British première of The Red Devil Battery Sign . His performance caused a stir in London and Brosnan still has the telegram sent by Williams , stating only " Thank God for you , my dear boy " . In 1977 he was picked by Franco Zeffirelli to appear in the play Filumena by Eduardo De Filippo opposite Joan Plowright and Frank Finlay .

He continued his career making brief appearances in films such as The Long Good Friday ( 1980 ) and The Mirror Crack 'd ( 1980 ) , as well as early television performances in The Professionals , Murphy 's Stroke , and Play for Today . He became a television star in the United States with his leading role in the popular miniseries Manions of America . He followed this with his 1982 Masterpiece Theatre documentary that chronicled the life of Lady Nancy Astor , the first woman to sit in British Parliament . His portrayal of Robert Gould Shaw II garnered him a 1985 Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor .

In 1982 , Brosnan moved to Southern California and rose to popularity in the United States playing the title role in the NBC romantic detective series Remington Steele . The Washington Post noted that same year that Brosnan " could make it as a young James Bond . " After Remington Steele ended in 1987 , Brosnan went on to appear in several films , including The Fourth Protocol ( 1987 ) , a Cold War thriller in which he starred alongside Michael Caine , The Deceivers and James Clavell 's Noble House both in ( 1988 ) , and The Lawnmower Man ( 1992 ) . In 1992 , he shot a pilot for NBC called Running Wilde , playing a reporter for Auto World magazine . Jennifer Love Hewitt played his daughter . The pilot never aired , however . In 1993 he played a supporting role in the comedy film Mrs. Doubtfire . He also appeared in several television films , including Victim of Love ( 1991 ) , Death Train ( 1993 ) and Night Watch ( 1995 ) , a spy thriller set in Hong Kong .

= = = James Bond ( 1994 – 2005 ) = = =

Brosnan first met James Bond films producer Albert R. Broccoli on the sets of For Your Eyes Only because his first wife , Cassandra Harris , starred as Countess Lisl von Schlaf , mistress to Milos Columbo . Broccoli said , " if he can act ... he 's my guy " to inherit the role of Bond from Roger Moore . It was reported by both Entertainment Tonight and the National Enquirer , that Brosnan was going to inherit another role of Moore 's , that of Simon Templar in The Saint . Brosnan denied the rumours in July 1993 but added , " it 's still languishing there on someone 's desk in Hollywood . "

In 1987 , NBC cancelled Remington Steele and Brosnan was offered the role as James Bond , but the publicity revived Remington Steele . His contract with the Remington Steele producers required him to resume his role and he regretfully declined the Bond role . The producers instead hired Timothy Dalton for The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) , and Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) . Legal squabbles between the Bond producers and the studio over distribution rights resulted in the cancellation of a proposed third Dalton film in 1991 and put the Bond series on a hiatus for several years . After the legal issues had been resolved , Dalton decided not to return for a third film . On 7 June 1994 , Brosnan was announced as the fifth actor to play Bond .

Brosnan was signed for a three @-@ film Bond deal with the option of a fourth . The first , 1995 's GoldenEye , grossed US $ 350 million worldwide , the fourth highest worldwide gross of any film in 1995 , making it the most successful Bond film since Moonraker , adjusted for inflation . It holds an 80 % Rotten tomato rating , while Metacritic holds it at 65 % . In the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , saying that Brosnan 's Bond was " somehow more sensitive , more vulnerable , more psychologically complete " than the previous ones , also commenting on Bond 's " loss of innocence " since previous films . James Berardinelli described Brosnan as " a decided improvement over his immediate predecessor " with a " flair for wit to go along with his natural charm " , but added that " fully one @-@ quarter of Goldeneye is momentum @-@ killing padding . "

In 1996 , Brosnan formed a film production company entitled " Irish DreamTime " along with producing partner and longtime friend Beau St. Clair . Brosnan and St. Clair released Irish DreamTime 's first production , The Nephew , in 1998 . One year later , the company 's second studio project , The Thomas Crown Affair , was released and met both critical and box office success .

Brosnan returned in 1997 's Tomorrow Never Dies and 1999 's The World Is Not Enough , which were also successful . In 2002 , Brosnan appeared for his fourth time as Bond in Die Another Day , receiving mixed reviews but was a success at the box office . Brosnan himself subsequently criticised many aspects of his fourth Bond movie . During the promotion , he mentioned that he would like to continue his role as James Bond : " I 'd like to do another , sure . Connery did six . Six would be a number , then never come back . " Brosnan asked Eon Productions , when accepting the role , to be allowed to work on other projects between Bond films . The request was granted , and for every Bond film , Brosnan appeared in at least two other mainstream films , including several he produced , playing a wide range of roles , ranging from a scientist in Tim Burton 's Mars Attacks ! , to the title role in Grey Owl which documents the life of Englishman Archibald Stansfeld Belaney , one of Canada 's first conservationists .

Shortly after the release of Die Another Day , the media began questioning whether or not Brosnan would reprise the role for a fifth time . At that time , Brosnan was approaching his 50th birthday . Brosnan kept in mind that both fans and critics were very unhappy with Roger Moore playing the role until he ( Moore ) was 58 , but he was receiving popular support from both critics and the franchise fanbase for a fifth instalment . For this reason , he remained enthusiastic about reprising his role . In October 2004 , Brosnan said he considered himself dismissed from the role . Although Brosnan had been rumoured frequently as still in the running to play 007 , he had denied it several times , and in February 2005 he posted on his website that he was finished with the role . Daniel Craig took over the role on 14 October 2005 . In an interview with The Globe and Mail , Brosnan was asked what he thought of Daniel Craig as the new James Bond . He replied , " I 'm looking forward to it like we 're all looking forward to it . Daniel Craig is a great actor and he 's going to do a fantastic job " . He reaffirmed this support in an interview to the International Herald Tribune , stating that " [ Craig 's ] on his way to becoming a memorable Bond . "

During his tenure on the James Bond films , Brosnan also took part in James Bond video games . In 2002 , Brosnan 's likeness was used as the face of Bond in the James Bond video game Nightfire ( voiced by Maxwell Caulfield ) . In 2004 , Brosnan starred in the Bond game Everything or Nothing , contracting for his likeness to be used as well as doing the voice @-@ work for the character . He also starred along with Jamie Lee Curtis and Geoffrey Rush in The Tailor of Panama in 2001 , and lent his voice to The Simpsons episode " Treehouse of Horror XII " , as a machine with Pierce Brosnan 's voice .

= = = Post @-@ James Bond = = =

Since 2004 , Brosnan has talked of backing a film about Caitlin Macnamara , wife of poet Dylan Thomas , the title role to be played by Miranda Richardson . Brosnan 's first post @-@ Bond role was that of Daniel Rafferty in 2004 's Laws of Attraction . Garreth Murphy , of entertainment.ie , described Brosnan 's performance as " surprisingly effective , gently riffing off his James Bond persona and supplementing it with a raffish energy " . In the same year , Brosnan starred in After the Sunset alongside Salma Hayek and Woody Harrelson . The film elicited generally negative reviews and a 17 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes . Brosnan 's next film was 2005 's The Matador . He starred as Julian Noble , a jaded , neurotic assassin who meets a travelling salesman ( Greg Kinnear ) in a Mexican bar . The film garnered generally positive reviews . Roger Ebert for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called Brosnan 's performance the best of his career . Brosnan was nominated for a Golden Globe award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy , but lost to Joaquin Phoenix for Walk the Line . In December 2005 , Brosnan was reported to be starring in The November Man , an adaptation of Bill Granger 's novel , There Are No Spies. but the project was cancelled in 2007 . In 2006 , Brosnan narrated The Official Film of the 2006 FIFA World Cup , directed by Michael Apted .

In 2007 , Brosnan appeared in the film Seraphim Falls alongside fellow Irishman Liam Neeson . The film was released for limited screenings on 26 January 2007 to average reviews . Kevin Crust of the Los Angeles Times noted that Brosnan and Neeson made " fine adversaries ; " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter thought that they were " hard @-@ pressed to inject some much @-@ needed vitality into their sparse lines . " During the same year , Brosnan spoke of making a western with fellow Irishmen Gabriel Byrne and Colm Meaney . In that same year Brosnan starred as Tom Ryan in Butterfly on a Wheel . The film was released in the United States under the name of Shattered , and in Europe as Desperate Hours .

In 2008 , Brosnan joined Meryl Streep in the film adaption of the ABBA musical Mamma Mia ! . He played Sam Carmichael , one of three men rumoured to be the father of lead Amanda Seyfried , while Streep played her mother . Judy Craymer , producer to the film , said " Pierce brings a certain smooch factor , and we think he 'll have great chemistry with Meryl in a romantic comedy . " Brosnan 's preparation in singing for the role included walking up and down the coast and singing karaoke to his own voice for about six weeks , followed by rehearsals in New York in which he noted he " sounded dreadful . " Brosnan 's singing in the film was generally disparaged by critics , with his singing compared in separate reviews to the sound of a water buffalo , a donkey , and a wounded raccoon . In September 2008 , Brosnan provided the narration for the Thomas & Friends special The Great Discovery . He was originally set to narrate for both US and UK from Season 12 and onward , but withdraw from it for unknown reasons .

In 2009 , Brosnan starred in The Big Biazarro , ( alternative title The Ace ) , an adaptation of the Leonard Wise novel , directed by Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall . Brosnan portrayed a card player who mentors a headstrong protégé . Also in 2009 , Brosnan finished the well @-@ received The Ghost Writer , playing a disgraced British Prime Minister , directed and produced by Roman Polanski . The film won a Silver Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival . He starred as Charles Hawkins in the film Remember Me and as Chiron in Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief , both released in 2010 .

In 2012 , Brosnan played the role of Philip in the Danish romantic comedy Love Is All You Need .

His latest announced project is a role in the Danny DeVito @-@ helmed feature Charlotte Doyle , an adaptation of the novel The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle , in which he will appear alongside Morgan Freeman . His production company Irish DreamTime is developing The Topkapi Affair , a follow @-@ up to The Thomas Crown Affair for MGM . In February 2013 Brosnan was awarded honorary patronage of the Dublin University Players society at Trinity College , Dublin . Brosnan is also said to be playing a " heroic government agent " in an action thriller called The Coup ( later renamed to No Escape ) alongside Owen Wilson . Brosnan will also be headlining Last Man Out , which is an adaptation of Stuart Neville 's crime novel titled The Twelve ( released as Ghosts of Belfast in the US ) , scripted by Craig Ferguson and Ted Mulkerin , with Terry Loan will be helming the project .

In 2013 , Brosnan appeared in television commercials as a tongue in cheek version of himself to promote the launch of Sky Broadband in Ireland . After its cancellation in 2007 , Brosnan 's production company , " Irish DreamTime " resurrected The November Man film project in 2012 with an announcement made on his part that he was jumping back to the spy arena . Filming took place in Serbia a year later , with Brosnan in action as a retired CIA operative called Devereaux , alongside co @-@ star Olga Kurylenko in a supporting role . The film received negative reception with a 34 % on Rotten Tomatoes and a 38 / 100 on Metacritic . In 2015 , he appeared alongside Milla Jovovich in suspense thriller movie written by Phil Shelby , called Survivor , which began filming in January 2014 , with Charles and Irwin Winkler producing , and James McTeigue directing . Brosnan later starred in a revenge thriller called I.T. , which is still yet to be released .

In January 2016 Pierce Brosnan was seen filming The Foreigner in London , co @-@ starring with Jackie Chan , taking on a role of a former IRA man turned government official Liam Hennessy . The film is directed by Martin Campbell , who previously worked with Brosnan on his debut James Bond film , GoldenEye . It was noted that Brosnan bore a strong resemblance to Sinn Féin leader Gerry Adams . An announcement was made that Brosnan and Campbell will team up once again in a film adaptation of an Ernest Hemingway novel , Across the River and into the Trees , in which Brosnan will play the role of the protagonist , Colonel Cantwell .

Brosnan replaced actor Sam Neill in the role of Eli McCullough in a television miniseries adaptation of Philipp Meyer 's novel The Son , with Kevin Murphy serving as both executive producer and showrunner of a ten @-@ episode miniseries , which begins production in June 2016 , aiming for a 2017 release .

= = Personal life = =

Brosnan married twice , was widowed once and has five children and three grandchildren as of 2015 .

Brosnan met Australian actress Cassandra Harris through her stepson David Harris , one of Richard Harris ' nephews , in 1977 , shortly after he left drama school . On meeting her , he has described his feelings , saying , " What a beautiful looking woman . I never for an instant thought she was someone I 'd spend 17 years of my life with . I didn 't think of wooing her , or attempting to woo her ; I just wanted to enjoy her beauty and who she was . " They began dating , and eventually bought a house in Wimbledon . They married on 27 December 1980 and had one son together , Sean , who was born on 13 September 1983 . They lived with her children , Charlotte ( 1971 @-@ 2013 ) and Christopher , and after their father Dermot Harris died in 1986 , he adopted them and they took the surname Brosnan .

Brosnan supplemented his income by working in West End productions and in a television film about Irish horse racing . After Harris appeared in the James Bond film For Your Eyes Only in 1981 , they secured a bank loan and moved to southern California where Brosnan secured a role in the TV series Remington Steele , easing their financial worries .

An episode of Remington Steele that was filmed in Ireland generated significant publicity . One outcome was that Brosnan met his father , who had left when Brosnan was an infant , in a brief get @-@ together at his hotel . Brosnan said he expected to see a very tall man , but described his father as " a man of medium stature , pushed @-@ back silver hair , flinty eyes and a twizzled jaw . He had a very strong Kerry accent . " Brosnan was regretful that they met under such public circumstances . He said he would have preferred more private arrangements that would have given him the opportunity to speak privately with his father .

While filming The Deceivers in Rajasthan , India , in 1987 , Brosnan 's wife Harris became seriously ill . She was later diagnosed with ovarian cancer and died on 28 December 1991 at age 43 . Brosnan struggled to cope with her cancer and death . " When your partner gets cancer , then life changes . Your timetable and reference for your normal routines and the way you view life , all this changes . Because you 're dealing with death . You 're dealing with the possibility of death and dying . And it was that way through the chemotherapy , through the first @-@ look operation , the second look , the third look , the fourth look , the fifth look . Cassie was very positive about life . I mean , she had the most amazing energy and outlook on life . It was and is a terrible loss , and I see it reflected , from time to time , in my children . " Harris had always wanted Brosnan to play the role of James Bond , and in 1995 , four years after her death , Brosnan was given the role in GoldenEye .

In 1994 , Brosnan met American journalist Keely Shaye Smith in Mexico . They were married in 2001 at Ballintubber Abbey in County Mayo , Ireland . They have two sons together , Dylan Thomas Brosnan ( born 13 January 1997 ) and Paris Beckett Brosnan ( born 27 February 2001 ) .

In July 2003 , the Queen made Brosnan an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his " outstanding contribution to the British film industry " . As an Irish citizen , he is ineligible to receive the full OBE honour , which is awarded only to a citizen of the Commonwealth realms , but he is still allowed the letters " OBE " after his name . In 2002 , Brosnan was also awarded an honorary degree from the Dublin Institute of Technology and , a year later , the University College Cork .

On 23 September 2004 , Brosnan became a citizen of the United States , but retained his Irish citizenship . Brosnan said that " my Irishness is in everything I do . It 's the spirit of who I am , as a man , an actor , a father . It 's where I come from . " Brosnan was asked by a fan if it annoyed him when people get his nationality confused . He said : " It amuses me in some respects that they should confuse me with an Englishman when I 'm dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool , born and bred Irishman ... I don 't necessarily fly under any flag . But no , it doesn 't bother me . "

Brosnan has expressed contempt for his education by the Christian Brothers . However , in 2013 he commented , " It always helps to have a bit of prayer in your back pocket . At the end of the day , you have to have something and for me that is God , Jesus , my Catholic upbringing , my faith ... God has been good to me . My faith has been good to me in the moments of deepest suffering , doubt and fear . It is a constant , the language of prayer ... I might not have got my sums right from the Christian Brothers or might not have got the greatest learning of literature from them but I certainly got a strapping amount of faith . " Brosnan attends Mass , but adheres to other spiritual beliefs . In 2008 he said " I also love the teachings of Buddhist philosophy . It 's my own private faith . I don 't preach it , but it 's a faith that is a comfort to me when the night is long . "

Brosnan and wife Keely Shaye Smith were involved in a riparian water rights legal case ( 1999 – 2010 ) . The dispute centred on a parcel of land in Wainiha , Hawaii .

Brosnan 's daughter Charlotte died on 28 June 2013 of ovarian cancer , the same illness that claimed her mother 's life .

= = = Environmental and charitable work = = =

Pierce Brosnan has been an Ambassador for UNICEF Ireland since 2001 and recorded a special announcement to mark the launch of UNICEF 's " Unite for Children , Unite against AIDS " Campaign with Liam Neeson . Brosnan supported John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election and is a vocal supporter of same @-@ sex marriage .

Brosnan first became aware of nuclear disarmament at the age of nine when worldwide condemnation of the 1962 U.S. nuclear tests in Nevada headlined international news . During the 1990s , he participated in news conferences in Washington , D.C. to help Greenpeace draw attention to the issue . Brosnan boycotted the French GoldenEye premiere to support Greenpeace 's protest against the French nuclear testing program . From 1997 to 2000 , Brosnan and wife Smith worked with the Natural Resources Defense Council ( NRDC ) and International Fund for Animal Welfare ( IFAW ) to stop a proposed salt factory from being built at Laguna San Ignacio . The couple with Halle Berry , Cindy Crawford and Daryl Hannah successfully fought the Cabrillo Port Liquefied Natural Gas facility that was proposed off the coast of Malibu ; the State Lands Commission eventually denied the lease to build the terminal . In May 2007 , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger vetoed the facility . Brosnan is also listed as a member of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society 's Board of Advisors . Brosnan was named ' Best @-@ dressed Environmentalist ' by the Sustainable Style Foundation in 2004 .

Brosnan also raises money for charitable causes through sales of his paintings . He trained early on as an artist , but later shifted to theatre ; during his first wife 's terminal illness , he withdrew from acting to be with her and took up painting again for therapeutic reasons , producing colourful landscapes and family portraits . He has continued painting since then , using spare time on set and at home . Profits from sales of giclée prints of his works are given to a trust to benefit " environmental , children 's and women 's health charities . " Since Harris ' death , Brosnan has been an advocate for cancer awareness and , in 2006 , he served as spokesperson for Lee National Denim Day , a breast cancer fundraiser which raises millions of dollars and raises more money in a single day than any other breast cancer fundraiser .

In May 2007 , Brosnan and Smith donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to help replace a playground on the Hawaiian island of Kauai , where they own a house . On 7 July 2007 , Brosnan presented a film at Live Earth in London . He also recorded a television advertisement for the cause . Brosnan lives with his family in Malibu , California and on the island of Kauai .

In April 2016 , a fire ripped through his $ 18 @.@ 5 million Malibu mansion causing $ 1 million in damages to the garage and a nearby guest bedroom .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= = = Video games = = =

= Charles Kanaʻina =

Charles Kanaʻina , officially referred to as His Honour and his Highness , ( Kanaʻina II ) ( c . 1801 – March 13 , 1877 ) was an aliʻi ( hereditary noble ) of the Kingdom of Hawaii and father of William Charles Lunalilo , the 6th monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii . Kanaʻina was a descendant of notable figures from ancient Hawaiian history , including Liloa , Hakau and Umi @-@ a @-@ Liloa of Hawaiʻi Island as well as Piilani of Maui . He served on both the Privy Counsel and in the House of Nobles . He was named after his uncle Kanaʻina , a name that means " The conquering " in the Hawaiian Language . This uncle greeted Captain James Cook in 1778 and confronted the navigator before he was killed .

His wife Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi was a widow and niece of Kamehameha I. She was also Married to Kamehameha II before he converted to Christianity and gave up all but one wife . Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi lived in a traditional aliʻi style home in a sacred neighborhood in Honolulu , Oahu , Hawaii called Pohukaina near Kekūanāoa , Kaʻahumanu and their offspring . The compound would eventually become the official Royal Residence of the Hawaiian Royal Family when Kekūanāoa would build Hale Aliʻi in the center of the families estates as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu . The site would become the Iolani Palace and Palace Walk . Kanaʻina kept his property at the palace until his death and would be the only original owner to do so while the Palace was in use , living there from Kamehameha II up to Kalakaua .

Kanaʻina 's son , William Charles Lunalilo , was named by Kamehameha III as an heir to the throne of the kingdom and ascended in 1873 while his father still lived . Lunalilo died only a year later , three years before his father 's death . Kanaʻina died on March 13 , 1877 . He had not re @-@ written his will and when produced still left everything to his son Lunalilo . Having died intestate , probate hearings proceeded for 5 years . Final adjudication went to several of Kanaʻina 's cousins including Ruth Keelikōlani and Bernice Pauahi Bishop .

= = Birth , early life and marriage = =

Charles Kanaʻina was born Charles Kanaʻina Eia , circa 1801 at Napoʻopoʻo , Hawaii to [ Eia ] Ka @-@ makakaualii ( father ) and Kauwa Palila ( mother ) . His maternal great grandmother was High Chiefess ʻIliki @-@ a @-@ Moana , the granddaughter of King Keakealanikane and Kaleiheana . His great grandfather , Kauhiahaki ( Kauhiapiiao ) and ʻIliki @-@ a @-@ Moana were cousins , both being descendants of King Piʻilani of Maui . From Keakealanikane , Kanaʻina is descended from Liloa through the ancient rulers son Umi @-@ a @-@ Liloa . He is also descended from Liloa 's son Hakau through his great , great , great grandmother Kaleiheana . His paternal grandparents were Makakaualii and Kapulaoa .

He was named Kanaʻina , after the nickname of his uncle Kalaimanokahoowaha , the chief who was drawn by artist John Webber and who later is reputed to have first struck Captain James Cook before he was killed at Kealakekua Bay . In the Hawaiian language , ka naʻina means " the conquering " .

Kanaʻina married Miriam Auhea Kekāuluohi in 1821 when Kamehameha II converted to Christianity and gave up all but one wife . Kekāuluohi was free to marry the monarch 's friend Kanaʻina on Kauaʻi . Kekāuluohi had been one of several wives of both Kamehameha I and Kamehameha II . However , under the influence of Christian missionaries , Kamehameha II renounced all his other wives except one . Kekāuluohi was then free to marry Kanaʻina after they both took Christian first names .

= = = Residence = = =

The couple lived near their family members . Kekūanāoa had his home just west of Kanaʻina 's called Haliimaile . Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻina had their home in the area called Pohukaina . This area was a sacred burial site for aliʻi nobles . The aliʻi style home was similar to that of the other estates in the neighborhood consisting of small buildings used for different purposes . The sitting and sleeping area had a folding door entrance of green painted wood under glass upper panels . The house had two rooms separated by a festooned tent door of chintz fabric and was carpeted with hand crafted makaloa mats . In the front was a lounge area opposite a sideboard and mirror . In the middle they placed a semi circle of armchairs with a center table where the couple would write . Four matching cabinet @-@ bookshelves with glass doors were set in each corner of the room with silk scarves hanging from each . In his book , A visit to the South Seas , in the U.S. Ship Vincennes : during the years 1829 and 1830 , Charles Samuel Stewart states :

They both write with great readiness ; and the husband with a freedom and command of hand that would class him among good penman anywhere . Both are among the most studious and improving of their compeers .

Next to their home was an old estate that had been demolished called Hanailoia . This was the spot of an ancient heiau called Kaahaimauli . In July 1844 Kekūanāoa began building a large home here as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu . Instead , Kamehameha III would buy the estate and use as his Royal Residence after moving the capitol of the kingdom to Honolulu . It would become the Iolani Palace . As older aliʻi died , the lands were passed down and concentrated into fewer hands . Kekāuluohi 's lands were passed down to her from the Kamehameha family . When she died , she left her accumulated lands and wealth to her son , not her husband Kanaʻina . In 1865 Kamehameha V moved the bodies of the royal family to a new royal mausoleum however , he refused to allow the remains of Kekāuluohi to be moved with the rest of the Kamehamehas . When Lunalilo made out his will he made provisions for a royal tomb to be built across the street from the palace at Kawaiahao Church where he , his mother and Kanaʻina would be buried .

Kanaʻina served as a member of the House of Nobles of Kamehameha III from 1841 to 1876 , on the Privy Council from July 29 , 1845 , to 1855 , and on the Supreme Court from when it was first founded on May 10 , 1842 . In the tradition of European royalty , he was granted the style ( manner of address ) of " His Highness " .

= = Children = =

Kanaʻina and Kekāuluohi had two sons . Their first son Davida , died young . They had two hānai ( informal adoption to other family members ) children , Kalama , the wife of Kamehameha III and later Kalama 's second son Keaweaweulaokalani II . Their surviving natural son , William Charles Lunalilo was born on January 31 , 1835 , at Pohukaina . He was considered the grandnephew of Kamehameha I , and second cousin to King Kamehameha V , King Kamehameha IV , and Princess Victoria Kamāmalu , through his mother , Kekāuluohi , who was the cousin of Elizabeth Kīnaʻu ( later called Kaʻahumanu II ) . He was declared eligible to succeed by the royal decree of King Kamehameha III and sent to the Chief 's Children 's School ( later called the Royal School ) when it was founded by missionaries Amos Starr Cooke and Juliette Montague Cooke .

= = = Lunalilo Trust = = =

Kanaʻina acted as trustee of the royal lands that had been inherited by his wife while his son was a minor , and after his son 's death . When Kanaʻina died , the court appointed nine trustees , six of which would take part in the militia that overthrew the monarchy and also take part in the new provisional government . Dole himself had been on the record as supporting the break up of crown lands to promote American style farming in his newspaper in 1872 . Various lawsuits ensued over the property including a suit questioning the validity of the will due to Lunalilo being under the guardianship of his father when he made it out . Lunalilo had requested in his will to use the estate to fund a charity . The trustees favored splitting up the estate by selling it off , while others claimed the value of land was underestimated , and an endowment to run the charity could have been funded by lease income . For example , Kanaʻina leased ( and later his heirs would sell ) thousands of acres of land on the island of Hawaii to businessman ( and son of missionaries ) William Herbert Shipman .

= = Death and legacy = =

Kanaʻina died on March 13 , 1877 , in Honolulu , Oahu , and was buried at Kawaiahaʻo Church in the Lunalilo Mausoleum , next to his son who had died before him . While Kanaʻina had made out a will , he had left everything to his son , and so had died intestate . Petitions to administer the estate began the following day . Probate proceedings were litigated for four years , between 1877 and 1881 , and re @-@ affirmed in 1886 .

Attorney General Alfred S. Hartwell applied for the appointment of trustees shortly after Kanaʻina 's death under the articles of Lunalilo 's will . Article three of that will bequeathed the entirety of his estate to three trustees appointed by the Justices of the Supreme Court of the Hawaiian Kingdom . The property was to be sold and invested until the sum of $ 25 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 was raised to fund a home for the poor and destitute . Chief Justice Charles Coffin Harris ordered a hearing for April 5 , 1877 , to hear the petition pertaining to the estate of the late Charles Kanaʻina and anyone who could show reason not to grant it .

= = = Estate probate = = =

A petition was filed by King David Kalakaua and his sisters and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lydia K. Dominis , Miriam K. Cleghorn and Archibald Scott Cleghorn , with a hearing set by Justice Lawrence McCully . In July 1878 , Justices Harris , Judd and McCully heard Kalakaua 's appeal . While the Justices felt that the claim of Kalakaua and his sisters had not been proven , they were impressed with that of Kilinahe ( Kanaʻina 's first cousin ) and other claimants based on testimony and witnesses . The court decreed that the estate be split into four equal shares : one quarter to go to Haalilio ( k ) , Haalelea ( k ) and Kahukaiola ( k ) ; one quarter each to Pahua ( w ) and Kaahua ( k ) ; and one quarter to the widow and children of Kilinahe , who had died before the adjudication of his claim .

Claimants from the line of Moana Wahine made petitions to the court under the act of 1874 to quite land titles . The act was later deemed unconstitutional and a new decree of heirship was made . By December 1879 disbursement of land in trust with William Cooper Parke , ( Marshal of Hawaii from 1853 to 1884 ) and owned by heirs , could not be agreed upon for settlement . Most supported the sale of the lands , so an order was made and all land sold at auction .

= = = Heirs and legacy = = =

Final adjudication of probate found a total of eight parties or groups of relatives , most of whom were descended from Moana and her four husbands , as heirs to the Kanaʻina estate splitting a total of 9 shares , with 2 shares going to one party . The probate records include a great deal of information from the four years of litigation . A great number of people petitioned the courts to claim title as heirs after the initial 1878 judgement . In the final adjudication , Bernice Pauahi Bishop received two of the nine shares . The remaining seven of the nine shares were divided equally in 1 / 9th and distributed to Ruth Keelikōlani , Haalilio and Haalelea ( namesakes of the historic figures ) , Kilinahe ( Who 's grandmother was the older sister of Kanaʻina 's mother ) and 5 other parties . The first three trustees included John Mott @-@ Smith and Sanford B. Dole .

The Hawaii public archives building , built in 1906 on the ʻIolani Palace grounds , in a section that was formerly the Kanaʻina 's estate , was dedicated as the Kanaʻina building . It held state offices in the 1950s , added as a contributing property of the Hawaii Capital Historic District and then restored for the Friends of ʻIolani Palace in 1990 .

= = Family tree = =

= 2 / 3rd Battalion ( Australia ) =

The 2 / 3rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Raised for service during the Second World War as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , it was formed in October 1939 in Sydney and was attached to the 16th Brigade , 6th Division , the first formation raised as part of the 2nd AIF during the war . Deploying to the Middle East in early 1940 , it saw action in North Africa , Greece , Crete , and Syria in 1941 – 42 before returning to Australia following Japan 's entry into the war , and was one of only two Australian infantry battalions to fight against all the major Axis powers of the war : the Germans , Italians , Japanese and Vichy French .

In 1942 – 43 , the battalion took part in fighting along the Kokoda Track before returning to Australia where it spent over a year training and being rebuilt . In December 1944 , the 2 / 3rd returned to New Guinea to take part in the Aitape – Wewak campaign and remained there until the war ended . Following the end of hostilities , the battalion was disbanded on 8 February 1946 in Brisbane . The battalion 's battle honours are perpetuated by the Royal New South Wales Regiment .

= = History = =

= = = Formation = = =

Upon the outbreak of the Second World War the Australian government decided to raise an all @-@ volunteer force for service overseas , due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which restricted the deployment of the part @-@ time Militia to only those areas considered to be Australian territory . This force was known as the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , and the 6th Division was the first to be raised . As a unit of this formation , the 2 / 3rd Battalion was formed at Victoria Barracks , Sydney , on 24 October 1939 . Along with the 2 / 1st , 2 / 2nd and 2 / 4th Battalions , the 2 / 3rd was assigned to the 16th Brigade .

Although initially the infantry battalions of the 6th Division adopted the Australian battalion structure of two rifle companies , a support company , a light machine gun platoon and an administrative headquarters , they soon switched to the British structure with four rifle companies – each consisting of three platoons with three sections – and a headquarters company consisting of signals , carrier , pioneer , anti @-@ aircraft , transport , administrative and mortar platoons .

The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England , an officer who had fought in the First World War and had continued to serve in the Militia after the war , commanding the 55th Battalion . Personnel for the battalion were raised from an area around New South Wales that is known by the Aboriginal name of " The Werriwa " . This area is bounded by a line from Sydney to Bega in the south , and from Bega , west to the Snowy Mountains , Cooma , Canberra , Yass , then north to Sydney through the Goulburn and Liverpool areas . The men were enlisted from 20 October onwards , and by 3 November 1939 the battalion was formed . The colours chosen for the Unit Colour Patch ( UCP ) were the same as those of the 3rd Battalion , a unit which had served during the First World War before being raised as a Militia formation in 1921 . These colours were chocolate over green , in a horizontal rectangle , although a 3 mm border of gray was added to the UCP to distinguish the battalion from its Militia counterpart , which would also go on to serve with distinction during the war .

Following a brief period of training at Liverpool and Ingleburn , the battalion took part in a farewell march through Sydney . The Sydney Morning Herald of 4 January 1940 gave an account of their farewell march : " The long khaki columns thrilled the hearts of Sydney as it had not been so moved for a quarter of a century since that still , spring day in 1914 when the first A.I.F. marched through the same streets on its way to Anzac and imperishable glory ; the marching was magnificent . " Afterwards , the battalion sailed in the first troop convoy to leave Australia on 10 January 1940 , embarking upon the transport Orcades . They disembarked at El Kantara on the Suez Canal on 14 February 1940 , and from there they were trucked to their camp at Julis in Palestine , where they undertook further training .

= = = First actions : North Africa 1941 = = =

The first engagement that Australian troops were involved in during the Second World War came at Bardia , a major Italian military outpost in the north of Libya . The 16th Brigade broke through Bardia 's western defensive perimeter at dawn on 3 January 1941 , when the 2 / 1st Battalion breached the wire defences and swung left before advancing . The 2 / 2nd Battalion followed suit , swinging to the right , and the 2 / 3rd then moved straight through the breach . Meanwhile , the 17th Brigade led a diversion to the south . Although the 16th Brigade was able to capture Bardia in the late afternoon of 4 January , resistance continued , and fighting did not cease until the next morning . Over 40 @,@ 000 Italians were captured along with significant amounts of equipment and material – including food and ammunition – which was in short supply . A significant amount of alcohol was also captured by the Australians in Italian dugouts inside the 2 / 3rd 's position around Wadi @-@ el @-@ Ghereida . During this period , the 2 / 3rd lost five officers and 56 men killed or wounded .

After this , the Allied forces advanced to the fortified naval outpost of Tobruk . The 6th Division attacked the perimeter defences early on 21 January , following a week of continuous bombardment from both land and sea . The 2 / 3rd Battalion was tasked with breaching the outer Italian defences for the 2 / 1st Battalion to pass through . Following the initial breakthrough , the 2 / 3rd then advanced west along the inner ring of defences , attacking a number of Italian posts as they went . Tobruk fell the next day , with the Italians surrendering to Brigadier Horace Robertson , the commander of the 19th Brigade . The Italian flag was taken down and in the absence of an Australian flag , a signaler from the 2 / 4th Battalion tied his slouch hat to the flag staff and hauled it up to the top . The battalion 's losses during the fighting for Tobruk were seven officers and 50 men killed or wounded .

Following the capture of the town , the 2 / 3rd garrisoned Tobruk , although B Company was detached to the 19th Brigade for its assault on Derna , and remained there after its capture on 30 January . Prime Minister Robert Menzies interrupted his journey from Australia to England to address the troops after the capture of Tobruk . On 7 March 1941 , the battalion left Tobruk , along with the rest of the 6th Division , to bolster the Allied defences in Greece .

= = = Reverses in Greece and Crete 1941 = = =

On 18 March 1941 , the 2 / 3rd Battalion sailed from Alexandria aboard HMS Gloucester , arriving in Greece and landing in the port of Piraeus on the following day , after a 22 @-@ hour voyage during which their convoy had been attacked numerous times by Axis aircraft . After the invasion of the country on 6 April , they were moved north to attempt to turn back the German forces . The following day they occupied Veria , and on 12 April the 6th Division was grouped together with the 2nd New Zealand Division and a lone British brigade to form an Anzac Corps . This formation did not last long , however , as the Greek government requested Allied forces withdraw from Greece on 16 April before ceasing organised resistance on 18 April . Due to a series of withdrawals elsewhere , the battalion was forced to pull back from its positions at Veria and did not come into contact with the Germans until 18 April when they attempted to block passage of the Tempe Gorge . Fighting alongside the 2 / 2nd Battalion and New Zealanders , the rearguard action was successful and enabled the Allies to withdraw to the south . Brigadier Arthur Allen , commander of the 16th Brigade , later wrote of this encounter : " it was a fantastic battle . Everyone was on top , with no time to dig in , and all in the front line , including artillery , Bren carriers and infantry , as well as headquarters , with transport only yards in the rear . Some confusion could be expected in the circumstances , with every weapon firing and aircraft almost continually strafing from above . If you saw it in the cinema you would say the author had never seen battle . "

With the Germans enjoying numerical superiority on the ground , and with the Luftwaffe in total control of the skies , they then captured the township of Tempe . Although fierce rearguard fighting continued while the Australian and New Zealand forces withdrew to a new defensive line at Thermopylae , the situation deteriorated . An official evacuation plan was issued on 21 April , and on 25 April – Anzac Day – parties of evacuating Allied troops marched through Athens on their way to the coast . The 2 / 3rd Battalion embarked from Kalamata on 27 April . The 2 / 3rd 's casualties during the campaign amounted to 14 killed , 31 wounded and 62 captured .

While the majority of the 2 / 3rd Battalion was successfully evacuated to Egypt , a small force of 141 men were evacuated to the island of Crete instead , after the transport ship they were on was sunk . Having formed the rearguard during the withdrawal from Greece , they had embarked separately from the main body , being taken aboard the Costa Rica . During the voyage to Alexandria , the transport had been attacked by German aircraft , and as it sank , they were ordered to abandon ship . After being rescued by Royal Navy destroyers , the troops were transported to Crete , where they were formed into a composite battalion with men from other units of the 16th Brigade , and together the unit became known as the 16th Brigade Composite Battalion .

With only limited small arms and ammunition they moved to positions above Kalives on the shores of Suda Bay to undertake garrison duties in anticipation of a German attack on the island . Following the German invasion on 20 May 1941 , some of these troops saw direct action against German paratroopers . After the Allied evacuation from the island a week later , they undertook active patrols around the island before being evacuated on 31 May 1941 aboard HMS Phoebe . They arrived in Alexandria on 1 June 1941 . Two 2 / 3rd Battalion men were killed during the fighting on Crete , and one was wounded . Fifty became prisoners of war . Meanwhile , the rest of the battalion had concentrated in Palestine , where it was rebuilt in advance of its next campaign .

= = = Securing Syria and Lebanon , 1941 – 42 = = =

Australian troops from the 7th Division were already fighting in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign when the re @-@ formed 2 / 3rd Battalion , along with the 2 / 5th Battalion and the 6th Division Cavalry Regiment , were committed as reinforcements , to help bring the 7th Division up to strength . In a bitter campaign that lasted 28 days , Vichy French forces attempted to resist the Allied invasion , which had been launched in order to deny the Germans the use of Vichy territory to launch attacks against Egypt . Against a modest Allied force with only limited armour and artillery , the well @-@ equipped French force outnumbered the attackers and had the advantage of holding the mountainous terrain . Having contributed a company to garrison duties around Sidon in Lebanon , and provided 100 men to help re @-@ form the shattered 2 / 1st Battalion , the 2 / 3rd was understrength – consisting of only 21 officers and 385 other ranks – when it entrained at Majdal in Palestine on 18 June 1941 to join the campaign .

Initially , after arriving from Palestine , the battalion was committed to forming a block on the road between Damascus and Deraa ; they were later committed to an attack to sever the Beirut road around Mezze , as part of wider fighting around Damascus on 20 – 22 June . Operating with British and Indian forces on the right flank , they then launched an unsuccessful action at Jebel Mazar on 24 – 28 June , where they were tasked with capturing the high ground overlooking the main road , along which the Australians were advancing . The battalion came under command of the re @-@ formed 17th Brigade , which was reconstituted to bring the 7th Division up to full strength as it operated along the coast . Despite being well below strength – consisting of just two companies with a total of 300 men – it joined the fighting at Damour on 6 – 10 July , advancing along the Darmour River and leading the 17th Brigade 's advance . Despite heavy fighting the Allied forces slowly advanced simultaneously along the coast and inland , finally overcoming the Vichy French defences . Following the armistice on 14 July , the troops remained in Syria until January 1942 preparing defences and undertaking other garrison duties . The battalion 's casualties during the short campaign amounted to 16 killed and 77 wounded .

= = = Garrison duties in Ceylon 1942 = = =

Following Japan 's entry into the war in December 1941 the decision was made to bring the 6th Division back to bolster the Allied defences in the Pacific , and the 2 / 3rd Battalion left the Middle East on 10 March 1942 , aboard the steamer Orontes . The original intention was that they would be sent to reinforce Java ; however , while they were at sea concerns about a Japanese attack on Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) prompted the diversion of the 16th and 17th Brigades to Colombo , and they arrived there on 21 March . The freighter Ben Rennies , carrying the battalion 's vehicles , arrived shortly afterwards and the 2 / 3rd took up defensive positions in the southeast part of the island , which was considered to be the most likely location for a Japanese invasion force to land .

On 5 April , a Japanese naval force sortied from the recently captured Andaman Islands and launched a series of attacks by carrier @-@ based aircraft on Colombo and Trincomalee . Another attack occurred on 9 April . Little damage was done on land , but both the British and Australian navies suffered losses . Regardless , the Japanese failed to sustain their initial momentum and the expected invasion did not occur . Nevertheless , men from the 2 / 3rd Battalion were kept busy for the remainder of their time preparing defences , manning anti @-@ aircraft positions and undertaking jungle training , while receiving instruction in lessons learned from operations in Malaya and Singapore . The men were taught how to use the jungle according to author Paul Ham " ... to ' melt ' into the foliage ; to retrace their steps at night ; to use camouflage properly ; to detect human presence by crushed twigs and disturbed leaf mould ; to move silently over undergrowth . To build shelters ; and to discern human from animal sounds . "

In July , British forces were sent from India to relieve the Australian troops in Ceylon . Preparations were made for the 2 / 3rd Battalion to return to Australia , and after embarking upon the SS Westernland , they arrived in Melbourne on 8 August 1942 , having returned via the southern route away from the Japanese submarines patrolling the east coast . After this , the troops all received two weeks home leave , staggered from the time of their arrival . The final group had their leave cut short after only three days , however , when they were recalled by urgent telegram . The 16th Brigade was again on the move , this time to Port Moresby in New Guinea , where the fighting against the Japanese along the Kokoda Track was reaching a critical stage . After a short voyage , the brigade arrived at Port Moresby on 21 September 1942 .

= = = Fighting in New Guinea , 1942 – 43 = = =

Following their arrival at Port Moresby , the 16th Brigade along with the 25th Brigade , prepared to relieve the forces on the Kokoda Track . With the Australians having finally halted the Japanese advance , the fresh troops would be tasked with launching a counterattack to drive the Japanese back to Buna in the north . Consequently , throughout October , November and into December , the 2 / 3rd Battalion took part in three major actions : Eora Creek ( 22 – 28 October ) , Oivi ( 5 – 12 November ) , and an action on the Sanananda Track ( 21 November – 19 December ) .

On 3 October , General Douglas MacArthur spoke to the 16th Brigade 's commander , Brigadier John Lloyd , at Ower 's Corner , at the foot of the Kokoda Track : " Lloyd , by some act of God your Brigade has been chosen for this job . The eyes of the Western world are upon you . I have every confidence in you and your men . Good luck and don 't stop . " The 16th Brigade arrived at Templeton 's Crossing on 19 October , just three days behind the 2 / 25th and 2 / 33rd Battalions , whom they relieved . The following day the 16th Brigade continued the advance but found that the Japanese had withdrawn to Eora Creek , where they had established a strong defensive position .

Here the Japanese held the high ground in well @-@ concealed positions that had clear fields of fire into the narrow gorge below . With no other options , the 16th Brigade was forced to assault the Japanese defences frontally , advancing straight up the gorge . Amidst torrential rain and stiff defence , progress was slow as each defensive position had to be dealt with individually . As the water level in the creek rose steadily , the troops came under heavy mortar fire and were attacked with grenades lobbed from the heights above . The supply situation grew desperate too , but by 28 October the 2 / 3rd Battalion had managed to work its way around the Japanese right flank in preparation for an attack . In the afternoon , the battalion launched its attack , breaking through the Japanese outposts and into the main position . The defenders were overwhelmed and many of them abandoned their weapons as they fled . That night , the remaining Japanese withdrew from the position . The 16th Brigade lost 72 killed and 154 wounded in this action .

Despite the successful action , the superiors of the 7th Division 's commander , Major @-@ General Arthur Allen , were dissatisfied by the counter @-@ offensive 's rate of progress , and he was relieved of his command the day before the Australian forces won through at Eora Creek . Japanese resistance decreased after that battle , and by 31 September the 16th Brigade was advancing along the eastern fork of the Track through Missima without opposition . On 2 November they passed through the recently abandoned village of Kokoda . Three days later , as the Australians advanced towards the Kumusi River , the 2 / 3rd Battalion went into battle at Oivi , after coming up against an entrenched force holding the high ground from Oivi to Gorari . The Japanese counter @-@ attacked the next day , and as fighting continued through to 6 November , Major General George Vasey , the new divisional commander , sent the 25th Brigade and the 2 / 1st Battalion on a successful attack against the Japanese rear at Gorari . The Japanese at Oivi , their supply and withdrawal route cut , were then forced to retreat .

The 2 / 3rd Battalion 's final involvement in the campaign came as the 16th Brigade advanced towards Sanananda in November . They left the Wairopi area on 16 November , with the battalion second in order of march . Tired and drained from the exertions of the last two months , the advance across the swamps of the coastal plain proved heavy work . On the first day they made 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , but after heavy rains the following day and failures in the resupply effort , a large number of men fell behind due to exhaustion . On 19 November , the 2 / 3rd spearheaded the brigade 's advance to the coast . Several Japanese stragglers were taken prisoner and a number of minor contacts followed , but the Japanese defenders withdrew before the Australians could shake out to conduct an assault .

The following morning , the brigade reached the junction of the Sananada and Cape Killerton trails , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the coast . After the 2 / 1st Battalion was attacked , the 2 / 3rd Battalion took part in a brigade flanking attack around the Japanese position to the right , forcing the Japanese to fall back . The action , however , had severely depleted the brigade to the point where , with less than 1 @,@ 000 fit men , it was unable to continue offensive operations . Thereafter activity was limited to patrolling and maintaining a defensive perimeter . In early December the 16th Brigade was relieved by the 30th Brigade . The 2 / 3rd Battalion itself was relieved on 6 December , returning to Poppondetta with a strength of just six officers and 67 other ranks , before being evacuated back to Port Moresby by plane on 23 December 1942 . They were returned to Australia shortly afterwards for leave and to reorganise . During the fighting along the Kokoda Track and the advance north to the sea , the 2 / 3rd lost 69 men killed and 103 wounded .

= = = Final campaign : Aitape – Wewak 1944 – 45 = = =

After a short period of leave the 6th Division came together again in late January 1943 on the Atherton Tablelands to begin training , and to convert to the more austere jungle establishment . Under this structure , the size of the battalion was reduced by one officer and 106 other ranks , giving the 2 / 3rd Battalion a total of 803 men of all ranks . At this time , a camp was built from scratch at Wondecla , but it was 12 months before the battalion 's ranks were brought to full strength by the return of sick and wounded soldiers . As the battalion began to reform , some who had performed well in the preceding campaigns were recommended for commissioning and were sent to an Officer Training Unit at Woodside , in South Australia . Along with training there was time for recreation including swimming carnivals , boxing tournaments and a 6th Division rugby league championship in which the 2 / 3rd Battalion was victorious , beating the 2 / 3rd Machine Gun Battalion in the final . The team captain , Col Windon , later went on to play for and captain the Wallabies .

During this time the battalion received a number of reinforcements from its associated Militia unit , the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) . This unit had been fighting in New Guinea as part of the 30th Brigade , with whom it had served on the Kokoda Track alongside the 2 / 3rd as well as the 39th and 49th Battalions , before being returned to Australia , where it had been disbanded . Other reinforcements also arrived from the 16th Battalion .

Due to a combination of political and strategic decisions , it was almost two years before the battalion went into combat again . In late 1944 , in order to free up American troops for operations in the Philippines , Australian forces were directed to take over responsibility for operations around Aitape in New Guinea . The 6th Division returned to New Guinea in November 1944 , with the final brigade arriving on 31 December 1944 . Although basically cut off from resupply , there were around 35 @,@ 000 Japanese troops in the area , holding the coast past Wewak and into the interior . Supported by food supplies from native gardens in the Torricelli Mountains , the Japanese put up heavy resistance to the Australians ' primary tactic of aggressive patrolling .

Tasked with reducing the Japanese , while remaining available to support operations elsewhere , the 6th Division began a limited offensive in the Wewak area . The 16th Brigade was initially held in divisional reserve , occupying a defensive position west of the Raihu River , until in February 1945 it was tasked with securing a forward supply base near Dogreto Bay and clearing up to the Anumb River , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east of the river . They came up against only minor opposition and by 23 February they had crossed the Anumb ; less than a month later they had progressed 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east , occupying the coastal town of But and removing the Japanese from the Dagua area .

During this time , contact with the Japanese was limited to small @-@ scale actions rather than a large general action ; nevertheless , these actions caused heavy casualties as the Japanese defended stubbornly . Casualties amongst the Australians were , according to author Eustace Keogh , " heavy in relation to the size of ... the numerous small actions the Japanese forced them to fight " . In addition , the strenuous nature of the campaign reduced the troops ' resistance and ability to undertake proper medical precautions and as a result there were large numbers of sickness casualties . Malaria took a particularly heavy toll , with troops being affected by a particularly strong strain that proved resistant to the normal doses of atebrine . Accidents also resulted in losses . In one incident , seven men from the 2 / 3rd drowned when the Danmap River flooded amidst a torrential downpour .

Wewak was captured on 10 May 1945 , and the 16th Brigade began pursuing the Japanese defenders that had withdrawn inland . They continued until 11 August , when offensive operations ceased after word was received that the Japanese had entered into ceasefire talks . The battalion was in the Mount Shiburangu area on 15 August when news came that the Japanese had surrendered following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The battalion 's losses during its final campaign were 51 killed and 76 wounded .

= = = Disbandment = = =

After the cessation of hostilities , the battalion remained in the Aitape – Wewak area undertaking occupation duties . Its strength was slowly reduced as personnel were repatriated to Australia for demobilisation or transferred to other units for further service . Eventually , the remaining cadre of personnel returned to Australia , and on 8 February 1946 the 2 / 3rd Battalion disbanded in Brisbane , as one of the most decorated battalions of the 2nd AIF . They had fought all the major Axis powers : the Italians , Germans , Vichy French and Japanese . Alongside the Australian 2 / 5th Battalion , they were the only Allied troops able to make this claim . During its service a total of 3 @,@ 303 men served with the 2 / 3rd Battalion of whom 203 were killed and 432 wounded . Members of the 2 / 3rd received four Distinguished Service Orders , 16 Military Crosses , 12 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 30 Military Medals , two British Empire Medals and 73 Mentions in Despatches .

In 1948 , the Militia units that had fought during the war were re @-@ raised as part of the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , and it was decided to entrust the battle honours of the 2nd AIF units to their associated CMF units . As a result , the 2 / 3rd Battalion 's battle honours were passed to the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) , which was reformed around Canberra . In 1960 , with the introduction of the Pentropic division into the Australian Army , the CMF was reorganised and the 3rd Battalion ( The Werriwa Regiment ) was reduced to company strength , forming ' C ' Company , 3rd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment ( 3 RNSWR ) . In 1965 , following the abandonment of the Pentropic divisional structure , the 3rd Battalion was reformed in its own right as the individual companies were split up to form new battalions with the old regionally based numerical designations . In 1987 , however , following another reorganisation of the Army Reserve which saw a reduction in the number of the infantry battalions across Australia , 3 RNSWR was linked with 4 RNSWR to become 4th / 3rd Battalion , Royal New South Wales Regiment ( 4 / 3 RNSWR ) .

= = Battle honours = =

The 2 / 3rd Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during the war :

North Africa , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Syria 1941 , Damascus 1941 , Dimas , Damour , Greece 1941 , Mount Olympus , Tempe Gorge , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 1945 , Kokoda Trail , Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing II , Oivi – Gorari , Buna – Gona and Sanananda Road .

These battle honours are now carried by the Royal New South Wales Regiment .

= = Commanding officers = =

The following officers commanded the 2 / 3rd Battalion :

Lieutenant Colonel Vivian England ( 1939 – 41 ) ;

Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb ( 1941 ) ;

Lieutenant Colonel John Stevenson ( 1941 – 43 ) ; and

Lieutenant Colonel Ian Hutchison ( 1943 – 46 ) .

= Cyclone Mala =

Cyclone Mala was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2006 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . In mid @-@ April , an area of disturbed weather formed over the southern Bay of Bengal and nearby Andaman Sea . Over a period of several days , the system became increasingly organized and was classified as a depression on April 24 . Situated within a region of weak steering currents , the storm slowly intensified as it drifted in a general northward direction . It attained gale @-@ force winds and was named Mala the next day . Conditions for strengthening improved markedly on April 27 and Mala subsequently underwent rapid intensification which culminated in the cyclone attaining its peak . Early on April 28 , the cyclone had estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center considered Mala to have been slightly stronger , classifying it as a Category 4 @-@ equivalent cyclone . Steady weakening ensued thereafter and the storm made landfall in Myanmar 's Rakhine State on April 29 . Rapid dissipation took place once onshore and Mala was last noted early the next morning .

In contrast to Mala 's intensity , damage was relatively minimal across Myanmar due to adequate early warnings , while timely and effective evacuations minimized loss of life along the coast . The greatest damage resulted from a thunderstorm near Yangon on April 28 that spawned a possible tornado in an industrial zone . A total of 586 homes were damaged there . Just outside the city in the Hinthada District , a flash flood killed at least 18 people . Overall , the storm claimed 37 lives in the country and left US $ 6 @.@ 7 million in damage . In the wake of Mala , the Red Cross distributed relief aid to affected residents while local officials set up shelters to house those left homeless . Government and social organizations donated 5 @.@ 4 million kyat ( US $ 4 @,@ 320 ) in cash to survivors in the Ayeyarwady Region .

= = Meteorological history = =

In mid- to late @-@ April , a pulse in the Madden – Julian oscillation , coupled with a Kelvin wave , ( which later contributed to the formation of Typhoon Chanchu in the western Pacific ) enhanced convective activity over the Bay of Bengal . By April 22 , a trough developed along an axis from the southern Bay of Bengal eastward to the Andaman Sea . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring the system for potential tropical cyclogenesis the following day . By 0600 UTC on April 24 , an area of low pressure formed southeast of the Andaman Islands and the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) began monitoring the disturbance . Quickly organizing , the low developed into a tropical depression later on April 24 and the JTWC began writing full advisories on the cyclone without issuing a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Organization slowed thereafter due to moderate wind shear , but continued at a near @-@ climatological rate as upper @-@ level outflow allowed for continued convective development . Early on April 25 , the JTWC estimated the system to have attained gale @-@ force winds . The IMD followed suit later that day and subsequently assigned it the name Mala . Weak steering currents prompted slow and erratic movement with an overall northward trajectory .

Forecasters at this time anticipated little intensification as the system was expected to move into a region of higher shear . However , on April 27 , the system moved under a subtropical ridge and conditions quickly became favorable for intensification . The presence of the ridge greatly enhanced the outflow over the cyclone and an eye developed by 1200 UTC . By this time , both the JTWC and IMD estimated Mala to have attained hurricane @-@ force winds with the latter classifying it as a very severe cyclonic storm . The previously weak steering currents became more established as well , with the storm now tracking northeast toward Myanmar through a weakness in a ridge over Southeast Asia . Situated in an area with sea surface temperatures of 28 to 29 ° C ( 82 to 84 ° F ) , the cyclone was able to undergo rapid intensification as wind shear abruptly diminished . The IMD estimated Mala to have reached its peak intensity at 0900 UTC on April 28 with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 954 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 17 inHg ) . Using the Dvorak technique , a method of determining a tropical cyclone 's strength via satellite imagery , the agency gave Mala a rating of T # 5 @.@ 5 which yields an intensity of 189 km / h ( 117 mph ) .

The JTWC estimated Mala to have been a stronger system , with peak winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) and a pressure of 922 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 23 inHg ) — equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Their Dvorak values peaked at T # 6 @.@ 5 or 235 km / h ( 146 mph ) . As the powerful storm approached Myanmar , the combined effects of increasing wind shear and land interaction soon took their toll on Mala . At 0700 UTC on April 29 , Mala made landfall just south of Thandwe in Myanmar 's Rakhine State as a very severe cyclonic storm . The JTWC estimated winds at this time to have been 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Rapid weakening ensued once the cyclone moved onshore . Within 12 hours of landfall , Mala weakened to a deep depression and was last noted as a dissipating system earl on April 30 .

Sea surface temperatures in the wake of Cyclone Mala decreased up to 4 – 5 ° C ( 7 – 9 ° F ) due to upwelling . From April 28 – 29 , the low @-@ level inflow associated affected much of the northern Bay of Bengal and resulted in northwesterly winds as far away as Hyderabad , India . These winds brought dry , dust filled air over the bay with mean particulate @-@ matter doubling over the region .

= = Preparations = =

On April 26 , the local Department of Meteorology and Hydrology in Myanmar stated that the Ayeyarwady , Bago Region , and Yangon regions were likely to be affected within two days and Rakhine State within three days . Officials began broadcasting storm warning to the public over radio the following day . Evacuations of at @-@ risk coastal areas were conducted , though specifics are unknown . Once the storm moved inland , residents across the country were advised of the likelihood of widespread heavy rain from the remnant system .

Despite never being forecast to strike Bangladesh , officials there warned residents that the storm could strike the nation and cause loss of life . Cautionary signals were raised at ports in Chittagong , Cox 's Bazar , and Mongla , advising seafaring vessels to remain docked until the storm 's passage . Roughly 34 @,@ 000 members of the Bangladesh Red Crescent Society were placed on standby for possible relief efforts .

Flash flood warnings were issued across northern Thailand on April 29 under the threat of heavy rains from Mala 's remnants .

= = Impact = =

Throughout almost the entire existence of Mala , it produced rainfall in the Andaman and Nicobar islands . Daily totals peaked on April 27 at 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in Car Nicobar .

After moving through Myanmar , Mala brought heavy rains to northern Thailand . According to local meteorologists the storm also accelerated the onset of the seasonal monsoon which would contribute to a wetter @-@ than @-@ average year for the region .

= = = Myanmar = = =

Though Mala struck Myanmar as a powerful cyclone , early warnings and proper evacuations minimized loss of life along coastal areas . Additionally , no major storm surge was reported , limiting the potential for major damage . The most significant effects were caused inland from torrential rains rather than at the coast . Overall , the storm claimed 37 lives and left 1 @.@ 24 billion kyat ( US $ 6 @.@ 7 million ) in damage . Approximately 12 @,@ 000 families were significantly affected by the cyclone .

Rakhine State suffered a direct hit from the cyclone , with Gwa Township reporting the worst damage . There , 88 homes were destroyed and 1 @,@ 246 more were damaged . One person was killed and at least four others were injured in the township . Ra Haing Ku Toe village suffered significant losses as well , with 132 homes destroyed and 531 more damaged . A storm surge of 4 @.@ 57 m ( 15 @.@ 0 ft ) struck the region , but did not impact populated areas .

Across the Irrawaddy Delta , hurricane @-@ force winds caused extensive damage to housing and infrastructure . Haigyi Island was the first area struck by the storm . Several homes were destroyed and many more lost their roof there . Thunderstorms from the storm 's outer bands on April 28 damaged 586 homes in Hlaingthaya Township . Residents described what appeared to be a tornado as the cause of the damage . The Hlaingthaya industrial zone was hardest hit , with five factories destroyed and dozens of homes having their roof torn off . Locals , however , claimed that the damage was more severe than reported by the government . Cars were reportedly tossed into the air during the storm . Two people were killed and fourteen others were injured in Hlaingthaya . The winds also downed numerous power lines , leaving many without electricity . In Labutta Township , near the southern tip of the Delta , 88 homes were destroyed . In the Hinthada District , torrential rains caused flash flooding that killed 18 people and left 14 others missing .

= = = = Aftermath = = = =

By May 1 , the local branch of the Red Cross distributed essential supplies to residents in Labutta Township . In coordination with the Disaster Assistance Response Team , the areas in greatest need for aid were identified and requests for tarpaulin were made . Members of the Cabinet of Burma donated 3 @.@ 7 million kyat ( US $ 2 @,@ 960 ) in cash and 140 bags of rice to victims in the Ayeyarwady Region . On May 3 , another 1 @.@ 7 million kyat ( US $ 1 @,@ 360 ) was donated by social organizations to residents in rural areas outside Yangon . Temporary shelters were set up across Gwa Township . Local donations provided residents in the town with 200 @,@ 000 kyat ( US $ 160 ) worth of blankets , clothes , and cash . A local newspaper , The New Light of Myanmar , claimed that government officials immediately provided assistance to affected residents across the country . Red Cross operations continued through November 30 , by which time 3 @,@ 485 families were provided with aid . Additionally , though the agency planned to assist 4 @,@ 000 families with rebuilding their homes , a lack of necessary funds prevented the operation . Instead , a cash donation was provided to the 1 @,@ 000 most affected families .

= George W. Johnson ( governor ) =

George Washington Johnson ( May 27 , 1811 – April 8 , 1862 ) was the first Confederate governor of Kentucky . A lawyer @-@ turned @-@ farmer from Scott County , Kentucky , Johnson favored secession as a means of preventing the Civil War , believing the Union and Confederacy would be forces of equal strength , each too wary to attack the other . As political sentiment in the Commonwealth took a decidedly Union turn following the elections of 1861 , Johnson was instrumental in organizing a sovereignty convention in Russellville , Kentucky with the intent of " severing forever our connection with the Federal Government . " The convention created a Confederate shadow government for the Commonwealth , and Johnson was elected its governor .

Despite his meager political experience — having previously served only three years in the Kentucky House of Representatives — Johnson labored vehemently to ensure the success of the shadow government . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 , but the shadow government 's influence in the Commonwealth extended only as far as the Confederate Army advanced . When Albert Sidney Johnston abandoned the Confederate capital of Bowling Green , Governor Johnson and the other government officials accompanied him . Despite his advanced age and a crippled arm , Johnson volunteered for military service in General Johnston 's army . Johnson was killed at the Battle of Shiloh , making him the only state governor , Union or Confederate , to fall in battle during the Civil War . He was succeeded by Richard Hawes , the second and last governor of Confederate Kentucky .

= = Early life and career = =

George Washington Johnson was born on May 27 , 1811 near Georgetown in Scott County , Kentucky , the son of major William and Betsy Payne Johnson . Major Johnson died soon after the close of the War of 1812 , in which he was a participant , and George Johnson was reared in the home of his stepfather , John Allen . Johnson received three degrees from Transylvania University : an A.B. in 1829 , an LL.B. in 1832 , and an M.A. in 1833 . On August 20 , 1833 , he married Ann Eliza Viley , daughter of Captain Willa and Lydia Smith Viley . The couple had ten children , seven of whom lived to adulthood .

Johnson briefly practiced law in Georgetown , but decided he preferred farming . He owned a 300 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) farm near Georgetown , as well as a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) plantation in Arkansas . In 1838 , Johnson was elected as a Democrat to the Kentucky House of Representatives . He was offered the nominations for lieutenant governor and U.S. Congressman , but declined them both . In August 1845 , Johnson headed the Committee of Sixty that seized abolitionist Cassius M. Clay 's printing press and shipped it to Cincinnati , Ohio .

= = Civil War = =

Although he supported John C. Breckinridge for president in 1860 , he did not feel that Abraham Lincoln 's election justified secession , since Republicans controlled neither Congress nor the Supreme Court . As the Confederate States of America were formed , however , Johnson began to lose hope for Kentucky as a part of the Union . Instead , he began to advocate that Kentucky join the Confederacy , believing that the Union and Confederate nations would be too evenly matched to consider war and would negotiate a free trade agreement that would benefit both .

In 1861 , Johnson traveled to Richmond , Virginia to ask Jefferson Davis to respect Kentucky 's neutrality in the Civil War . Following a near sweep of Kentucky 's state and federal elections by Union sympathizers , William " Bull " Nelson established Camp Dick Robinson , a Union recruiting camp , in Garrard County . Southern sympathizers saw this as a breach of the Commonwealth 's neutrality , and called a State Rights Convention on September 10 , 1861 . Johnson was among the delegates from seventy Kentucky counties who attended the convention . The delegates elected Richard Hawes as chair , called for a restoration of Kentucky 's neutrality in the war , and condemned the Federal government for its " invasion . " This last @-@ minute effort to prevent Kentucky from aiding the Union was unsuccessful , and Johnson , a known Southern sympathizer , fled to Virginia with Breckinridge and others to avoid potential arrest by Union forces . From Virginia , Johnson traveled through Tennessee to Bowling Green where , despite his age ( 49 ) and a crippled arm , he volunteered as an aid to General Simon B. Buckner .

= = = Russellville Convention = = =

On October 29 , 1861 , a group of Kentuckians — Johnson among them — met at Russellville , Kentucky to discuss the formation of a Confederate government for the Commonwealth , believing the Unionist government in Frankfort did not represent the will of the majority of Kentucky 's citizens . Johnson chaired the committee that authored the convention 's final report , and personally introduced some of its key resolutions . The report called for a sovereignty convention to sever ties with the Federal government . Johnson , Breckinridge , and Humphrey Marshall were among the notable members of the Committee of Ten that made arrangements for the convention .

On November 18 , 1861 , 116 delegates representing 68 Kentucky counties convened at the Clark House in Russellville . Over the next three days , a shadow government was established with Bowling Green as its temporary capital . Johnson was unanimously chosen as governor of the new Confederate state .

= = = Confederate governor = = =

On November 21 , 1861 , Johnson wrote Confederate president Jefferson Davis to request Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . Though Davis had some reservation about the circumvention of the elected General Assembly in forming the Confederate government , he concluded that Johnson 's request had merit . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 .

During the winter of 1861 , Johnson tried mightily to assert the legitimacy of the fledgling government , but to no avail . Its jurisdiction extended only as far as the area controlled by the Confederate Army . Johnson came woefully short of raising the 46 @,@ 000 troops requested by the Confederate Congress in Richmond . Efforts to levy taxes and to compel citizens to turn over their guns to the government were similarly unsuccessful . On January 3 , 1862 , Johnson requested a sum of $ 3 million from the Confederate Congress to meet the provisional government 's operating expenses . The Congress instead approved a sum of $ 2 million , the expenditure of which required approval of Secretary of War Judah P. Benjamin and President Davis .

During his labors to sustain the provisional government , Johnson 's lack of hearing from his family weighed heavily upon him . The only family member with whom he had contact was his son Madison ( " Matty " ) , who had joined John Hunt Morgan 's cavalry . Johnson admired and respected Morgan , and was pleased that his son had chosen to serve under him . In 1862 , he requested by letter that his wife send their fifteen @-@ year @-@ old son Junius to serve in the Confederate Army . Despite Johnson 's protestations that he would ensure his son 's safety , his wife refused this request .

It was Johnson 's practice to avoid interference with military decisions , however he supported Morgan 's request for two light artillery pieces that became hallmarks of his command . By contrast , he consistently opposed the command of General Lloyd Tilghman , trying repeatedly but unsuccessfully to have him removed . It is unclear how much military influence Johnson wielded in his position as governor , though he enjoyed a cordial relationship with most of the Confederate generals .

= = = Death at the Battle of Shiloh = = =

When General Albert Sydney Johnston was forced to withdraw his troops from Bowling Green in February 1862 , the Confederate state government moved with his army to Tennessee . On April 6 , 1862 , General Johnston attacked the Union army at Shiloh , Tennessee . During this battle , Governor Johnson served as a volunteer aide to General Breckinridge and Colonel Robert P. Trabue . After his horse was killed out from under him , Johnson fought on foot with Company E of the Fourth Kentucky Infantry Regiment , and insisted on being sworn in as a private . He declared " I will take a good night 's rest and be ready for the fight tomorrow . "

The next day , Governor Johnson was seriously wounded in the right thigh and abdomen . He lay wounded on the battlefield until the next morning , when he was recognized by Union General Alexander McDowell McCook . Johnson and McCook had both attended the 1860 Democratic National Convention and were both Freemasons . Johnson was taken aboard the Union hospital ship Hannibal , where despite the ministrations of several physicians , he died on April 8 . Friends in the Union army , including General John M. Harlan , packed Johnson 's body in salt and shipped it to Louisville , then on to Georgetown for burial .

= Edwin of Northumbria =

Edwin ( Old English : Ēadwine ; c . 586 – 12 October 632 / 633 ) , also known as Eadwine or Æduinus , was the King of Deira and Bernicia – which later became known as Northumbria – from about 616 until his death . He converted to Christianity and was baptised in 627 ; after he fell at the Battle of Hatfield Chase , he was venerated as a saint .

Edwin was the son of Ælle king of Deira and seems to have had ( at least ) two siblings . His sister Acha was married to Æthelfrith , king of neighbouring Bernicia . An otherwise unknown sibling fathered Hereric , who in turn fathered Abbess Hilda of Whitby and Hereswith , wife to Æthelric , the brother of king Anna of East Anglia .

= = Early life and exile = =

The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle reported that on Ælle 's death a certain " Æthelric " assumed power . The exact identity of Æthelric is uncertain . He may have been a brother of Ælle , an elder brother of Edwin , an otherwise unknown Deiran noble , or the father of Æthelfrith . Æthelfrith himself appears to have been king of " Northumbria " — both Deira and Bernicia — by no later than 604 . During the reign of Æthelfrith , Edwin was an exile . The location of his early exile as a child is not known , but late traditions , reported by Reginald of Durham and Geoffrey of Monmouth , place Edwin in the kingdom of Gwynedd , fostered by king Cadfan ap Iago , so allowing biblical parallels to be drawn from the struggle between Edwin and his supposed foster @-@ brother Cadwallon . By the 610s he was certainly in Mercia under the protection of king Cearl , whose daughter Cwenburg he married .

By around 616 , Edwin was in East Anglia under the protection of king Raedwald . Bede reports that Æthelfrith tried to have Raedwald murder his unwanted rival , and that Raedwald intended to do so until his wife persuaded him otherwise with Divine prompting . Æthelfrith faced Raedwald in battle by the River Idle in 616 , and Æthelfrith was defeated ; Raedwald installed Edwin as king of Northumbria . Raedwald 's son Raegenhere may have been killed at this battle , but the exact date or manner of Raedwald 's death are not known . He likely died between the years 616 – 627 , and the efficacy of Edwin ’ s kingship ostensibly depended greatly on his fealty to Raedwald .

Edwin was installed as king of Northumbria , effectively confirming Raedwald as bretwalda : Æthelfrith 's sons went into exile in Irish Dál Riata and Pictland . That Edwin was able to take power not only in his native Deira but also in Bernicia may have been due to his support from Raedwald , to whom he may have remained subject during the early part of his reign . Edwin 's reign marks an interruption of the otherwise consistent domination of Northumbria by the Bernicians and has been seen as " contrary to the prevailing tendency " .

= = Edwin as king = =

With the death of Æthelfrith , and of the powerful Æthelberht of Kent the same year , Raedwald and his client Edwin were well placed to dominate England , and indeed Raedwald did so until his death a decade later . Edwin expelled Ceretic from the minor British kingdom of Elmet in either 616 or 626 . Elmet had probably been subject to Mercia and then to Edwin . The larger kingdom of Lindsey appears to have been taken over c . 625 , after the death of king Raedwald .

Edwin and Eadbald of Kent were allies at this time , and Edwin arranged to marry Eadbald 's sister Æthelburg . Bede notes that Eadbald would agree to marry his sister to Edwin only if he converted to Christianity . The marriage of Eadbald 's Merovingian mother Bertha had resulted in the conversion of Kent and Æthelburg 's would do the same in Northumbria .

Edwin 's expansion to the west may have begun early in his reign . There is firm evidence of a war waged in the early 620s between Edwin and Fiachnae mac Báetáin of the Dál nAraidi , king of the Ulaid in Ireland . A lost poem is known to have existed recounting Fiachnae 's campaigns against the Saxons , and the Irish annals report the siege , or the storming , of Bamburgh in Bernicia in 623 – 624 . This should presumably be placed in the context of Edwin 's designs on the Isle of Man , a target of Ulaid ambitions . Fiachnae 's death in 626 , at the hands of his namesake , Fiachnae mac Demmáin of the Dál Fiatach , and the second Fiachnae 's death a year later in battle against the Dál Riata probably eased the way for Edwin 's conquests in the Irish sea province .

The routine of kingship in Edwin 's time involved regular , probably annual , wars with neighbours to obtain tribute , submission , and slaves . By Edwin 's death , it is likely that these annual wars , unreported in the main , had extended the Northumbrian kingdoms from the Humber and the Mersey north to the Southern Uplands and the Cheviots .

The royal household moved regularly from one royal vill to the next , consuming the food renders given in tribute and the produce of the royal estates , dispensing justice , and ensuring that royal authority remained visible throughout the land . The royal sites in Edwin 's time included Yeavering in Bernicia , where traces of a timber amphitheatre have been found . This " Roman " feature makes Bede 's claim that Edwin was preceded by a standard @-@ bearer carrying a " tufa " ( OE thuuf , this may have been a winged globe ) appear to be more than antiquarian curiosity , although whether the model for this practice was Roman or Frankish is unknown . Other royal sites included Campodunum in Elmet ( perhaps Barwick ) , Sancton in Deira , and Goodmanham , the site where the pagan high priest Coifi destroyed the idols according to Bede . Edwin 's realm included the former Roman cities of York and Carlisle , and both appear to have been of some importance in the 7th century , although it is not clear whether urban life continued in this period .

= = Edwin 's conversion to Christianity = =

The account of Edwin 's conversion offered by Bede turns on two events . The first , during Edwin 's exile , tells how Edwin 's life was saved by Paulinus of York . The second , following his marriage to Æthelburg , was the attempted assassination at York , at Easter 626 , by an agent of Cwichelm of Wessex . Edwin 's decision to allow the baptism of his daughter Eanfled and his subsequent promise to adopt Christianity if his campaign against Cwichelm proved successful . Apart from these events , the general character of Bede 's account is one of an indecisive king , unwilling to take risks , unable to decide whether to convert or not .

Along with these events , the influence of Edwin 's half @-@ Merovingian Queen cannot be ignored , and the letters which Bede reproduces , sent by Pope Boniface V to Edwin and Athelburg , are unlikely to have been unique . Given that Kent was under Frankish influence , while Bede sees the mission as being " Roman " in origin , the Franks were equally interested in converting their fellow Germans and in extending their power and influence . Bede recounts Edwin 's baptism , and that of his chief men , on 12 April 627 . Edwin 's zeal , so Bede says , led to Raedwald 's son Eorpwald also converting .

Bede 's account of the conversion is oft @-@ cited . After Paulinus explains the tenets of Christianity , the king asks his counselors what they think of the new doctrine . Edwin 's priest Coifi responds that they may be worthwhile ; after all , he says , no one has been more respectful of and devoted to their gods than he , and he has seen no benefits from his dedication to them . Then , an unnamed counselor stands up and addresses the king , also seeing the benefit of the new faith . Coifi speaks again and announces that they should destroy the idols and temples they had hitherto worshiped . King Edwin agrees and embraces Christianity ; Coifi himself will set fire to the idols. declaring " I will do this myself , for now that the true God has granted me knowledge , who more suitably than I can set a public example , and destroy the idols that I worshipped in ignorance ? ” Bede goes on to describe the scene as Cofi " formally renounces his superstitions , and asked the king to give him arms and a stallion . " Armed with both a sword and spear , Cofi rides Edwin ’ s horse towards the idols , all within view of the crowd gathered to witness Edwin ’ s conversion . Upon reaching the temple , Cofi " cast a spear into it and profaned it . "

In an article titled " How Cofi Pierced Christ ’ s Side " , Julia Barrow examines Bede ’ s Latinate text and pays particular attention to the passage concerning Cofi ’ s attack upon the temple . Barrow notes that Bede 's use of lancea was " not the word medieval writers normally used for spear " , while “ hasta was the usual choice . " Barrow goes on to claim that lancea was likely used by Bede as a reference to the details of the crucifixion of Christ provided in the vulgate book of John , thus Cofi ’ s desecration of the shrine is to be understood " as an inversion of the piercing of the temple of Christ ’ s body . " All of these details support an understanding that Bede had great " warmth and admiration " for Edwin .

The brief speech by the unnamed counselor , a nobleman , has attracted much attention ; suggesting the " wisdom and hopefulness of the Christian message " , it has inspired poets such as William Wordsworth and was called " the most poetic simile in Bede " :

The present life man , O king , seems to me , in comparison with that time which is unknown to us , like to the swift flight of a sparrow through the room wherein you sit at supper in winter amid your officers and ministers , with a good fire in the midst whilst the storms of rain and snow prevail abroad ; the sparrow , I say , flying in at one door and immediately out another , whilst he is within is safe from the wintry but after a short space of fair weather he immediately vanishes out of your sight into the dark winter from which he has emerged . So this life of man appears for a short space but of what went before or what is to follow we are ignorant . If , therefore , this new doctrine contains something more certain , it seems justly to deserve to be followed .

Noteworthy is Bede ’ s summation of the nature of Edwin ’ s reign as King of Northumbria :

“ It is told that at the time there was so much peace in Britannia , that whenever King Edwin ’ s power extended , as is said proverbially right up to today , even if a woman with a recently born child wanted to walk across the whole island , from sea to sea , she could do so without anyone harming her . ”

Kershaw indicates that “ Bede ’ s decision to couch Edwin ’ s peace in proverbial terms offers ... a chilling insight into the levels of lawlessness accepted in eighth @-@ century England ” . Furthermore , a definition of “ peace ” is to be understood as “ freedom from robbery , rape , or violence ; security to travel at will and to literally ‘ go in peace . ’ ”

Edwin 's conversion and Eorpwald 's were reversed by their successors , and in the case of Northumbria the Roman Paulinus appears to have had very little impact . Indeed , by expelling British clergy from Elmet and elsewhere in Edwin 's realm , Paulinus may have weakened the Church rather than strengthening it . Very few Roman clergy were present in Paulinus 's time , only James the Deacon being known , so that the " conversion " can have been only superficial , extending little beyond the royal court . Paulinus 's decision to flee Northumbria at Edwin 's death , unlike his acolyte James who remained in Northumbria for many years afterwards until his death , suggests that the conversion was not popular , and the senior Italian cleric unloved .

= = Edwin as overlord = =

The first challenge to Edwin came soon after his marriage @-@ alliance with Kent , concluded at Canterbury in the summer of 625 . By offering his protection to lesser kings , such as the king of Wight , Edwin thwarted the ambitions of Cwichelm of Wessex . Cwichelm 's response was to send an assassin , as noted already . Edwin did not immediately respond to this insult , suggesting either that he felt unable to do so , or that Bede 's portrayal of him as a rather indecisive ruler is accurate . Following the failed assassination , as noted , Edwin committed himself to Christianity provided only that he was victorious against Cwichelm .

From about 627 onwards , Edwin was the most powerful king among the Anglo @-@ Saxons , ruling Bernicia , Deira and much of eastern Mercia , the Isle of Man , and Anglesey . His alliance with Kent , the subjection of Wessex , and his recent successes added to his power and authority . The imperium , as Bede calls it , that Edwin possessed was later equated with the idea of a Bretwalda , a later concept invented by West Saxon kings in the 9th century . Put simply , success confirmed Edwin 's overlordship , and failure would diminish it .

Edwin 's supposed foster @-@ brother Cadwallon ap Cadfan enters the record circa 629 , but Cadwallon was defeated and either submitted to Edwin 's authority or went into exile . With the defeat of Cadwallon , Edwin 's authority appears to have been unchallenged for a number of years , until Penda of Mercia and Cadwallon rose against him in 632 – 633 .

Edwin faced Penda and Cadwallon at the Battle of Hatfield in the autumn of 632 or 633 and was defeated and killed . For a time his body was ( allegedly ) hidden in Sherwood Forest at a location that became the village of Edwinstowe ( trans . Edwin 's resting place ) , his head being eventually buried at York and the rest of his body at Whitby . Of his two grown sons by Cwenburh of Mercia , Osfrith died at Hatfield , and Eadfrith was captured by Penda and killed some time afterwards .

After his death , Edwin 's Queen Æthelburg , along with Paulinus , returned to Kent , taking her son Uscfrea , daughter Eanfled , and Osfrith 's son Yffi into exile with her . Uscfrea and Yffi were sent to the court of Æthelburg 's kinsman Dagobert I , king of the Franks , but died soon afterwards . Eanfled , however , lived to marry her first cousin king Oswiu , son of Acha and Æthelfrith .

= = Death and legacy = =

Edwin 's realm was divided at his death . He was succeeded by Osric , son of Edwin 's paternal uncle Ælfric , in Deira , and by Eanfrith , son of Æthelfrith and Edwin 's sister Acha , in Bernicia . Both reverted to paganism , and both were killed by Cadwallon ; eventually Eanfrith 's brother Oswald defeated and killed Cadwallon and united Northumbria once more . Thereafter , with the exception of Oswine son of Osric , power in Northumbria was in the hands of the Idings , the descendants of Ida of Bernicia , until the middle of the 8th century .

After his death , Edwin came to be venerated as a saint by some , although his cult was eventually overshadowed by the ultimately more successful cult of Oswald , who was killed in 642 . They met their deaths in battle against similar foes , the pagan Mercians and the British , thus allowing both of them to be perceived as martyrs ; however , Bede 's treatment of Oswald clearly demonstrates that he regarded him as an unambiguously saintly figure , a status that he did not accord to Edwin .

Edwin 's renown comes largely from his treatment at some length by Bede , writing from an uncompromisingly English and Christian perspective , and rests on his belated conversion to Christianity . His united kingdom in the north did not outlast him , and his conversion to Christianity was renounced by his successors . When his kingship is compared with his pagan brother @-@ in @-@ law Æthelfrith , or to Æthelfrith 's sons Oswald and Oswiu , or to the resolutely pagan Penda of Mercia , Edwin appears to be something less than a key figure in Britain during the first half of the 7th century . Perhaps the most significant legacies of Edwin 's reign lay in his failures : the rise of Penda and of Mercia , and the return from Irish exile of the sons of Æthelfrith , which tied the kingdom of Northumbria into the Irish sea world for generations .

= Oubliette ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Oubliette " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and originally aired on the Fox network on November 17 , 1995 . Written by Charles Grant Craig and directed by Kim Manners , " Oubliette " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 and was watched by 15 @.@ 90 million people on its initial broadcast . The episode received positive reviews . Both the emotional nature of the story and David Duchovny 's performance received positive critical attention .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the installment , a little girl named Amy is kidnapped and imprisoned by a mentally unstable photographer . Mulder discovers a psychic connection between the recently kidnapped victim and Lucy , another girl kidnapped by the same man years ago . He attempts to use the connection to help solve the investigation , but discovers that the event may be too traumatic for Lucy to handle .

" Oubliette " is the only X @-@ Files screenplay written by Craig , who exited the writing staff before the entry was produced . The extensive outdoor filming lead to several difficulties for the production crew . Amy was 12 years old in the original screenplay . The Fox network was concerned her situation was an uncomfortable parallel to the recent Polly Klaas case , resulting in her age being increased before filming could begin . Critics have complimented the thematic resonance of the kidnapping and its effect on Mulder .

= = Plot = =

In Seattle , photography assistant Carl Wade ( Michael Chieffo ) photographs 15 @-@ year @-@ old Amy Jacobs ( Jewel Staite ) for school picture day . He becomes obsessed with her following the event , eventually kidnapping her . Her younger sister is the only witness to the incident , which takes place in their bedroom in the middle of the night . At exactly the same time , fast food worker Lucy Householder ( Tracey Ellis ) collapses with a nosebleed . Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) investigates Amy 's disappearance , drawn to the case because his younger sister was kidnapped in a similar situation . The investigation leads Mulder to Lucy , who was taken from her bedroom at age eight , twenty two years before , and held in a dark basement for five years before she escaped .

Mulder 's partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) suspects that Lucy may be connected to Amy 's disappearance , based on her long criminal record and the fact that her nosebleed contained not only her blood type , but Amy 's as well . In her room at a halfway house , scratches appear on Lucy 's face and she experiences temporary blindness — injuries identical to Amy 's , who is being tortured in the basement of Wade 's cabin . The two develop an unexplainable psychic connection ; everything that happens to Amy physically also happens to Lucy . Mulder tries to convince Lucy that she can help them find Amy , but she is too afraid to assist . Scully informs Mulder of their new lead in the case , the school photography assistant Wade , who was recently fired under strange circumstances . Mulder is adamant that Lucy , who admits that Wade was the man who abducted her , is not part of the kidnapping , and snaps at Scully when she suggests that Samantha 's disappearance is causing him to become too involved with the case .

The investigation team receives a tip from a tow truck driver concerning Wade 's location , which corresponds to the area where Lucy was found years ago . They find Wade 's cabin in the woods near Easton , Washington , discovering Lucy in the basement with no clear indication of how or why she came there . Lucy begins to feel cold and wet ; Mulder deduces that because of Lucy 's connection to Amy , she must be at the local river . Mulder and Scully rush there to find Wade attempting to drown Amy . Back with the police , Lucy begins to drown despite not even being near water . Mulder shoots Wade while Scully attempts to perform CPR on Amy , but because of the connection it resuscitates Lucy instead . Amy lies on the riverbank , dead . Mulder continues to attempt CPR , despite Scully 's protests .

Suddenly , the process is reversed ; Amy recovers and Lucy dies . Overwhelmed by Lucy 's sacrifice and his inability to save her , Mulder breaks down sobbing over her body . He later tells Scully he suspects that she died not only to save Amy , but to forget what Wade did to her all those years ago .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

The screenplay for " Oubliette " was authored by Charles Grant Craig , a writer who at the time had little background or experience within television . Before joining the writing staff of The X @-@ Files during the third season , his most significant writing credits included episodes for Renegade and Booker . His most notable television screenplay was The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents entry " Final Escape " . Though Craig left the staff shortly before " Oubliette " entered production for unknown reasons , he was credited as a supervising producer on several installments for the third season . The title was derived from the French word " oubliette " , which refers to a pit @-@ like dungeon consisting of " total darkness " with a hole that opens from the top .

The narrative centers on Mulder 's identification with Lucy which is based on the abduction of his sister , Samantha . It was decided that time would not be spent on Scully 's sympathy with the victim , despite her own abduction experience in the second season episode " Ascension " . Despite this , Scully is gentle towards Mulder and " wanted to believe " him until the evidence pointed overwhelmingly to Lucy . After that point , Scully takes on an antagonistic role , going against the wishes of her partner . Though not originally included the script , David Duchovny added the line about how his connection to the case was not just because of Samantha .

Series creator Chris Carter stated that in Craig 's original draft Lucy was more " hard @-@ boiled " , but actress Tracey Ellis played her as a more wounded person . Fox 's standards and practices department was uncomfortable with the screenplay , because it featured a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl being kidnapped . The network requested that she be in her late teens and that the plot would not heavily feature Amy 's ordeal or suffering . Jewel Staite had just turned 13 when she was cast , but the producers felt she looked older and even applied make @-@ up to add to that effect .

The reason for the concern was because the original screenplay featured similarities to the Polly Klaas case , which had received large public attention around the time of production . Polly Klaas was a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl who was kidnapped during a slumber party , and eventually strangled to death . The antagonist of the episode was compared to Richard Allen Davis , the culprit of the case , who was convicted and sentenced to death for his crimes . Ngaire Genge in his novel The Unofficial X @-@ Files Companion commented that " tragically , unlike Amy , Klaas didn 't survive her abduction " .

= = = Filming = = =

" Oubliette " was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia , as were the rest of the episodes of the third season . The location of the antagonist 's house was an important factor during production . Craig 's screenplay called for a remote house in the " middle of nowhere " , but the producers required a site closer to the studio . With a production crew consisting of 60 members , it was decided to use somewhere that could appear " rustic while being next to a parking lot . " A suitable area was found near the peak of Mount Seymour , a location that had previously been used in " Ascension " . The mountain featured both a parking lot and a log cabin that met the needs of the filming crew . An issue arose because the mountain had a ski lift , which needed to be avoided while composing shots . Over 1000 prop trees had to be brought to the filming site to camouflage surroundings , to give the atmosphere a " remote " feel .

The crew encountered a larger issue with the contract with the Provincial Park committee . The park required a seven @-@ day notice before filming of any kind was approved . The production manager had to contact the park Representative directly , who assured him that their needs would be met . For the final sequence , both the Capilano River and Lynn Headwaters were considered ; however , the Seymour River was ultimately chosen because it was the safest filming location . The filming of the episode was plagued by rain and heavy weather conditions . In one example , while directing the climax , the river had risen by four or five inches , causing the crew to move to another position to shoot at a week later . This cost the crew several days worth of production and a large sum of money . Shooting conditions were further complicated because shoots involving water are notably difficult , requiring a new set of costumes for each take .

Because of the extensive outdoor shooting , director Kim Manners hated directing the episode , commenting that " it couldn 't be fucking worse . " Despite a negative experience with shooting on the mountain , the episode " Gethsemane " from the fourth season was filmed there with similar issues . Gillian Anderson 's stand @-@ in Bonnie Hay , who appears in a cameo , previously played a doctor in both " Colony " and " End Game " and a nurse in " D.P.O. " .

= = Themes = =

The kidnapping of Amy shares several similarities with the abduction of Mulder 's sister . Mulder 's sister Samantha was abducted by aliens when Mulder was a child , before the timeline of The X @-@ Files . Both Amy and Lucy are kidnapped and victimized by the same pedophile , who represents the " logic of duplication " . Wade treats both girls in virtually identical ways , kidnapping them and photographing them obsessively in the same manner . David Lavery in Deny All Knowledge asserts that Mulder is capable of seeing beyond " simple equivalents " , caring about each individual girl separately . Lavery argues that this grants Mulder the ability to separate the case from his own personal experience with his sister . The scene that best exemplifies this trait is when Mulder attempts to comfort Amy 's mother following her daughter 's kidnapping . Mulder comments that he " knows how she feels " , not because of what happened to his sister , but because he can identify with her general sense of loss . Thematic elements concerning the concept of " remote viewing " — the paranormal ability to perceive feelings from a distance — are later explored in greater detail in the fifth season installment " Mind 's Eye " .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Oubliette " was first broadcast on the Fox network on November 17 , 1995 . It earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 2 , with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was watched by a total of 15 @.@ 90 million viewers . In the UK it premiered the following year on BBC1 on October 17 , 1996 .

" Oubliette " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club assessed it as a " B + " , commenting that it " belongs to a subcategory of X @-@ Files episodes that can often be more satisfying than the usual categories " due to the villain being a human being . He described it as " impressively dark and occasionally moving " , and praised the cinematography , editing , and storytelling . However , he was critical of Ellis 's performance as Lucy , finding that her characterization did not fit the character , and he noted that the installment fell into the trope of using women as victims . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the program three and a half stars out of four . She felt that Mulder and Lucy 's relationship was " believable " and , in contrast to VanDerWerff , thought that Ellis 's performance was " perfect " .

Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Oubliette " five stars out of five , noting that it was difficult and uncomfortable to watch with its parallels to the real world which made it " nevertheless one of the series ' boldest and greatest achievements " . The two praised the depth of Mulder 's characterization as well as Duchovny 's performance . Entertainment Weekly gave " Oubliette " a grade of " B- " , stating that the plot wasn 't as scary as it could have been considering the subject matter , positively critiquing that the episode was " worth it for Lucy 's channeling sequences " . The review also criticized Scully 's " aggressive I 'm @-@ not @-@ buying @-@ it mode " .

Writer Sarah Stegall awarded the entry five out of five , commenting that the subject matter made it hard for her to watch , as a mother herself . She praised the characterization of Mulder , and the performance by Duchovny , commenting that he brought warmth to the plot . Stegall positively described Mulder as " a truly gentle man who can show compassion without being maudlin about it " , but wrote negatively about Scully , who seemed " antagonistic " towards the well @-@ meaning Mulder , and the scene in which Scully " makes a half @-@ hearted attempt to resuscitate [ Amy ] before giving up " . Duchovny was particularly pleased with his work in the episode , feeling that it was amongst his best acting performance during the entire run of The X @-@ Files . He later cited the episode as one of his favorites .

= 2000 Spanish Grand Prix =

The 2000 Spanish Grand Prix ( formally the XLII Gran Premio Marlboro de España ) was a Formula One motor race held on 7 May 2000 at the Circuit de Catalunya , Montmeló , Barcelona , Catalonia , Spain . It was the fifth round of the 2000 Formula One season and the 42nd Spanish Grand Prix . The 65 @-@ lap race was won by McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen who started from the second position . His team @-@ mate David Coulthard finished second and Rubens Barrichello finished third in a Ferrari .

Michael Schumacher started from the pole position and held off a challenge from Häkkinen on the first lap . He maintained the lead until his first pit stop on lap 24 when a refuller was struck by his rear tyre , allowing Häkkinen to take over the lead until his pit stop two laps later . Michael Schumacher kept the lead for a further twenty @-@ one laps as he and Häkkinen made their second pit stops together , with Häkkinen emerging in front because Schumacher experienced a slow pit stop . Häkkinen kept the lead for the remaining twenty @-@ three laps to win the race .

The victory was Häkkinen 's first of the season , and put him into second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , fourteen points behind Michael Schumacher . Coulthard 's second @-@ place finish meant that he dropped to third , and Barrichello third place moved him ahead of Ralf Schumacher . In the World Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one @-@ two finish allowed them to move within seven points from leaders Ferrari . Williams remained in third on 15 points , with twelve races remaining in the season .

= = Report = =

= = = Background = = =

The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams with two drivers each . The teams ( also known as constructors ) were McLaren , Ferrari , Jordan , Jaguar , Williams , Benetton , Prost , Sauber , Arrows , Minardi and British American Racing ( BAR ) . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre types to the race ; two dry compounds ( soft and medium ) .

Before the race Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers ' Championship with 34 points , ahead of David Coulthard ( 14 points ) and Mika Häkkinen ( twelve ) . Rubens Barrichello and Ralf Schumacher were tied in fourth place with nine points each . In the Constructors ' Championship Ferrari led with 43 points , seventeen points ahead of rival McLaren in second . Williams were third with twelve points , while Benetton and Jordan with eight points each contended for fourth place . Ferrari had dominated the championship , winning three out of the previous four races , with Coulthard winning the British Grand Prix . Barrichello , Häkkinen and Giancarlo Fisichella had second @-@ place finishes , and Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen had finished third .

After the British Grand Prix on 23 April , all teams conducted in @-@ season testing at the Circuit de Catalunya on April 25 – 28 to prepare for the upcoming Spanish Grand Prix . Jos Verstappen was fastest on the first day of testing despite spinning into the gravel early in the session , ahead of McLaren test driver Olivier Panis . Michael Schumacher was quickest on the second day . Michael Schumacher remained the fastest driver on the third day of testing . The session was disrupted because several drivers stopped on the circuit with problems with their cars . On the final day , ( which was held in wet weather conditions in the morning and during the end of the session ) Michael Schumacher stayed the quickest driver on the final day .

In the week leading up to the race , Coulthard was leasing the Learjet of friend David Murray when the aeroplane developed engine trouble en route to Côte d 'Azur International Airport in Nice , and crashed while attempting an emergency landing at Lyon @-@ Satolas Airport , France . Coulthard , his then @-@ girlfriend the American model Heidi Wichlinski and personal trainer / bodyguard Andy Matthews survived ; Murray 's personal pilot David Saunders and co @-@ pilot Dan Worley died . Coulthard suffered from bruises to his right rib cage and severe grazed elbows in the crash . FIA Formula One Safety and Medical Delegate Sid Watkins declared that Coulthard was passed fit to compete in the race .

BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve was passed fit in the days leading up to the race . At the Brazilian Grand Prix , Villeneuve suffered back injury after his seat became loose during the race and the effects became worse and it caused him to withdraw from testing in Barcelona . He was also required to undergo physiotherapy . BAR had their official test driver Darren Manning available to replace Villeneuve should the need arise .

Some teams made modifications to their cars in preparation for the event . Minardi débuted a new gearbox which was constructed out of titanium , the first for a Formula One team . Prost made modifications to their cars oil system to improve the reliability of their engines and made minor aerodynamic changes to the front wing and the floor . The team also used an updated version of their engine the Peugeot A20 EV2 during the Friday practice sessions and reverted to the EV3 for the remainder of the weekend . BAR fitted their cars with a revised aerodynamic package which included new bargeboards and rear wings .

= = = Practice and qualifying = = =

Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race , two each on Friday and Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour ; the third and fourth sessions , on Saturday morning , lasted 45 minutes each . Conditions were dry and overcast for the Friday practice sessions and was held on a dirty track which was caused by rainfall in the run up to the event . Michael Schumacher set the first session 's fastest time with an early lap of 1 : 21 @.@ 982 , half a second quicker than team @-@ mate Barrichello . Häkkinen had the third fastest time , ahead of Ralf Schumacher and Jean Alesi . The two Benetton drivers were sixth and eighth ( with Fisichella ahead of Alexander Wurz ) ; the two were separated by Johnny Herbert . Eddie Irvine and Verstappen completed the top ten . In the second practice session , Michael Schumacher was unable to improve his time but remained fastest ; Ralf Schumacher had the second fastest time after putting on a new set of tyres towards the end of the session . Barrichello was third @-@ fastest , ahead of Jarno Trulli , Coulthard and Jenson Button . Häkkinen , Pedro Diniz , Frentzen and Alesi followed in the top ten .

The weather remained dry for the Saturday morning practice sessions . Coulthard set the fastest lap of the third session at 1 : 21 @.@ 370 , ahead of team @-@ mate Häkkinen who was two @-@ tenths of a second slower . Ralf Schumacher ( with a time of 1 : 21 @.@ 604 ) was third quickest , ahead of Michael Schumacher and Villeneuve . Fisichella and Frentzen followed in sixth and seventh . The two Arrows drivers were eighth and ninth ( with Verstappen ahead of Pedro de la Rosa ) . Mika Salo rounded out the top ten . During the final practice session , Michael Schumacher used a new set of tyres and set the fastest time of 1 : 21 @.@ 088 ; Coulthard finished with the second quickest lap . Barrichello was third fastest , in front of Häkkinen who struggled with a lack of grip and a loose rear end . Ralf Schumacher recorded the fifth fastest time . The Jordan drivers were sixth and seventh ( with Trulli in front of Frentzen ) . de la Rosa , Villeneuve and Button completed the top ten ahead of qualifying .

Saturday afternoon 's qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session the 107 % rule was in effect , requiring each driver to remain within 107 % of the fastest lap time to qualify for the race . The session was held in sunny and hot conditions , with the ambient temperature 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) and the track temperature between 22 to 26 ° C ( 72 to 79 ° F ) . Michael Schumacher clinched the first pole position of the season and the 24th of his career , with a time of 1 : 20 @.@ 974 on his second run . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Häkkinen who set a lap 0 @.@ 076 seconds slower in the closing seconds of qualifying . Barrichello qualified third , and felt that his car did not feel good having not made any changes . Coulthard secured fourth position , despite losing time early in qualifying because of a fuel pressure problem . He decided against taking his team 's spare car set up for Häkkinen because he believed it would take up time and had to run more fuel throughout the remainder of the session . Ralf Schumacher qualified fifth and he was suffering from excessive oversteer which prevented him from setting a quicker lap time but was delighted with his starting position . Villeneuve secured sixth position and said he achieved the best from his car . Both Jordan drivers lined up the fourth row of the grid ( with Trulli ahead of Frentzen ) and believed they could have a better starting position because of windy conditions. de la Rosa and Irvine rounded out the top ten fastest drivers , with de la Rosa confident of finishing in a higher position in his home country . Later on Saturday afternoon , a fuel sample from de la Rosa 's car was analysed and declared illegal by the FIA and Arrows announced that it would appeal the decision , allowing de la Rosa to retain his starting position . Button , eleventh , reported his car felt unstable due to the windy conditions . He was ahead of Verstappen in the slower of the two Arrows , Salo in the faster Sauber , and Fisichella . Herbert , fifteenth , lost his front wing mounted camera after hitting a kerb in the early part of qualifying and made a minor mistake which prevented him from starting higher up the field . Diniz had excessive oversteer and managed sixteenth place . Ricardo Zonta managed seventeenth after he was unable to find a set @-@ up which suited him and his fastest time was nine @-@ tenths of a second slower than team @-@ mate Villeneuve . Alesi qualified eighteenth , ahead of Wurz in nineteenth . Heidfeld had engine problems and had to use the spare Prost monocoque and took 20th position . The two Minardi drivers Marc Gené and Gastón Mazzacane qualified at the rear of the field in positions 21 and 22 .

= = = Race = = =

The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up in cool and dry weather . Michael Schumacher maintained his good performance , setting a time of 1 : 22 @.@ 855 despite going into the gravel after braking too deep and also drove the spare Ferrari . Häkkinen was the second @-@ fastest driver ; Barrichello was third and Coulthard rounded out the top four . After the session ended , Arrows withdrew their appeal after they accepted the FIA 's findings and de la Rosa was required to start at the back of the field .

The conditions on the grid were dry before the race ; the air temperature ranged between 21 to 30 ° C ( 70 to 86 ° F ) and the track temperature was between 22 to 23 ° C ( 72 to 73 ° F ) .The race started at 14 : 00 local time . A total of approximately 79 @,@ 000 people attended the race . Ralf Schumacher started the race in the spare Williams monocoque because his race car developed a sensor issue with his engine the previous day . When the race started , Häkkinen got a better start than Michael Schumacher but the Ferrari driver moved across the circuit to block Häkkinen . Ralf Schumacher also got a good start and passed Coulthard and Barrichello . At the exit of the first corner , Ralf Schumacher made contact with the rear of Häkkinen 's car , sending him slightly sideways and both drivers were able to continue . Button also made a good start , moving from eleventh to ninth by the end of the first lap , while Irvine dropped three places over the same distance . Diniz spun off into the gravel on the first lap and retired . At the end of the first lap , the top ten were Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Ralf Schumacher , Coulthard , Barrichello , Villeneuve , Frentzen , Trulli , Button and Salo .

Michael Schumacher began to pull away from Häkkinen. de la Rosa ran into the rear of Alesi at Wurth corner on lap two causing Alesi to retire , with de la Rosa sustaining a broken front wing and retired after going off at Campsa corner . Further back , Irvine passed Verstappen for twelfth position . The positions at the front were the same for the next sixteen laps with the gap between Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen fluctated from 1 @.@ 6 seconds to 3 @.@ 4 seconds while Coulthard and Barrichello battled Ralf Schumacher for third position . Button became the first driver to make a pit stop on lap 18 and rejoined in front of Mazzacane . Villeneuve made his pit stop on the 21st lap , which promoted Frentzen into the points @-@ scoring positions . After rejoining the circuit , his car caught fire and he pulled off to the side of the track at the exit of Seat corner . Trulli 's pit stop , which dropped him to 17th , proved problematic : he stalled his engine which required his mechanics to restart it . Ralf Schumacher made a pit stop one lap later and re @-@ emerged in fifth . On lap 24 , Michael Schumacher made his pit stop . As he accelerated from his pit box , his rear wheel hit the Ferrari refuller Nigel Stepney who was dragged before being knocked over . Stepney was taken to the circuit 's medical center for observation and he was replaced by reserve refuller Andrea Vacari . Coulthard made a pit stop on the same lap and experienced problems with leaving his pit box because he selected second gear and re @-@ emerged behind Ralf Schumacher .

Häkkinen made his pit stop on the 26th lap and emerged behind Michael Schumacher , while Verstappen retired from the race with an mechanical problem . All of the leaders had taken their stops by the start of lap 28 , the top ten were Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Ralf Schumacher , Barrichello , Coulthard , Button , Frentzen , Salo , Zonta and Wurz . Häkkinen set the fastest lap of the race on the same lap , a 1 : 24 @.@ 470 as he started to close the gap to Michael Schumacher , as Ralf Schumacher again became under pressure by Coulthard in fourth . Eleven laps later , Coulthard entered the pit lane , triggering the second round of pit stops . Ralf Schumacher and Barrichello made a pit stop on the following lap and rejoined behind Coulthard . Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen both made their pit stops on the 41st lap , with Häkkinen emerging in front because Michael Schumacher 's pit stop was problematic . Michael Schumacher 's mechanics had started refulling after putting his tyres on causing him to be stationary for ten seconds longer than usual . Salo and Zonta went into the pit lane on lap 45 , allowing Button into sixth .

Coulthard had caught Michael Schumacher ( who had air leaking from his left rear tyre ) by lap 46 . Coulthard attempted to pass the Ferrari driver on the following lap around the outside going into the first corner , but Schumacher drove into Coulthard 's line as a blocking manoevure . Coulthard replicated his move on lap 48 and passed Michael Schumacher around the outside under braking going into turn one . Ralf Schumacher had caught up to Michael Schumacher on lap 50 . Ralf Schumacher tried to overtake Michael Schumacher on the same lap , but the Ferrari driver blocked him . Ralf Schumacher was forced wide and lost momentum , allowing Barrichello to pass both drivers . Ralf Schumacher attempted to reclaim the position and got alongside Barrichello with Michael Schumacher taking the inside line to emerge in front . Michael Schumacher entered the pit lane on the same lap for new tyres and rejoined in front of Button . He immediately set new personal fastest laps in an effort to catch Ralf Schumacher . However , the order was stable at the front of the field as Häkkinen had a comfortable lead over Coulthard , while Ralf Schumacher had dropped back from Barrichello . Button pulled over to the side of the track on lap 62 , with smoke billowing from his engine , and retired . Häkkinen continued to maintain his lead and crossed the finish line on lap 65 to secure his first victory of the season in a time of 1 : 33 @.@ 550 @.@ 390 at an average speed of 122 @.@ 040 miles per hour ( 196 @.@ 404 km / h ) . Coulthard finished second 16 seconds behind , ahead of Barrichello who clinched third , Ralf Schumacher in fourth , Michael Schumacher in fifth and Frentzen rounded out the points @-@ scoring positions in sixth . Salo , Zonta , Fisichella , Wurz and Irvine filled the next five finishers , while Trulli , Herbert , Gené , Mazzacane , Heidfeld and Button ( despite his retirement ) completed the final classified finishers .

= = = Post @-@ race = = =

The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in a later press conference . Häkkinen said that he was " pleased " to win the race and admitted that he waited until the pit stop phase to have any chance of overtaking Michael Schumacher . The driver said that his team had more work to do on his car and was looking forward to the next race . Coulthard believed he made the right decision to compete in the Grand Prix despite his injuries and that the result was " the best thing that could have happened for the team and myself . " He also said he was looking forward to resting over the coming days to allow his injuries to heal . Barrichello admitted that the race had not been good for him until his overtake on Michael Schumacher and Ralf Schumacher and said the absence of Stepney caused his second pit stop to be slower than usual .

Attention focused on the battle between Ralf Schumacher and Michael Schumacher during the race . Michael Schumacher blamed his brother for instigating the move and did not understand why he was upset over the incident . Ralf Schumacher did not comment and stated that he would watch a video of the incident before he would say anything . Their father , Rolf talked to the pair in an effort to get them reconciled . One week after the race , Ralf Schumacher said that tensions between him and his brother had eased and that there were no hard feelings for each other , saying , " It 's a lot of fun when we are out there on the track duelling against each other . " There was similar ill @-@ feeling between de la Rosa and Alesi after their collision on lap two. de la Rosa accused Alesi of blocking him , and of causing the crash by not looking in his mirrors , while Alesi said de la Rosa attempted to overtake him in a corner where overtaking is difficult .

After the race , Häkkinen reduced the lead of Michael Schumacher in the Drivers ' Championship to be seven points behind . Coulthard fell to third , two points behind Michael Schumacher . Barrichello moved up into fourth place on 13 points , and Ralf Schumacher fell to fifth overall . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari maintained their lead but McLaren 's one @-@ two finish moved to within seven points clear of the Italian team . Williams maintained third position with nine points . Frentzen 's sixth @-@ place finish allowed Jordan to move point clear of Benetton in the battle for fourth , with twelve races remaining in the season .

= = Classification = =

= = = Qualifying = = =

= = = Race = = =

= = Championship standings after the race = =

Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .

= Liberty Arming the Patriot =

Liberty Arming the Patriot , sometimes called Freedom Arming the Patriot , is a bronze sculpture at Park Place in Pawtucket , Rhode Island , commemorating the participation of the city 's citizens in the American Civil War . It was designed by William Granville Hastings and cast by the Gorham Manufacturing Company in 1897 . Unlike many Civil War memorials , Liberty Arming the Patriot is a dynamic composition , depicting a young farmer setting his plow aside , and reaching to take a sword from a classical female figure clad in breastplate and wielding a pike . The statue is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in height , and is mounted on a granite base 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide . The sculpture was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .

= = History and design = =

The sculpture was commissioned by the Ladies ' Soldiers ' Memorial Association of Pawtucket , Rhode Island to honor those who served in the American Civil War . The funding for the sculpture came as the result of an 11 @-@ year fundraising campaign that was provided for by donations and entertainment events . The cost of the monument was stated to be $ 13 @,@ 000 by The New York Times , but report stated it to be $ 12 @,@ 000 . William Granville Hastings was chosen as the sculptor to execute the construction of the monument after winning a competition . The sculpture was cast by the Gorham Manufacturing Company .

The central feature of the monument depicts the theme of a young man called from civil life to serve his nation in a time of need and it transforms the theme into a contemporary allegory . It captures the decisive moment as farmer is caught mid @-@ transition , with his left hand still on the plow handle , and taking the sword with his right hand from Liberty . The details of the farmer includes realistic work clothes , a yoked shirt with rolled sleeves and work trousers tucked into his boots . Liberty , identified by her Phrygian cap , stands just above the farmer in classical robes with a breastplate , sandals and cloak . Her face is impassive as she bestows the sword upon the farmer with her left hand while her right hand holds her pike .

Beneath the farmer and Liberty is a bronze plaque depicting a Union artillery battery under the command of General Ambrose Burnside capturing a bridge in the Battle of Antietam . Flanked on the sides are two smaller triangular plaques which depict the female figures of History and Eternity . The Scribe of History , alternatively known as Epic Poetry , is writing on a tablet and Eternity both contemplates and is identified by a fern . The monument was dedicated on May 31 , 1897 , in ceremony conducted by the Grand Army of the Republic and an oration given by the Governor of Rhode Island , Elisha Dyer , Jr .. The statue is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in height , and is mounted on a granite base 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide .

According to the National Register of Historic Places , Liberty Arming the Patriot is historically significant as a " good representative of the character of early twentieth century figurative sculpture " and the quality of its design . It is also historically significant for its association with the Gorham Manufacturing Company , a prominent Rhode Island producer of high quality silverware and bronze statuary . Though it is commemorative in intention , the statue is important " because it documents the principal effort of Pawtucket to honor those who served in the Civil War . " The sculpture was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .

= = Inscription = =

In Grateful Recognition

Of The Valiant And Self @-@ Sacrificing Service To Their Country

Of All Persons

Who Went From Pawtucket And It Vicinity To Join

The Forces Of The United States

During The Civil War .

And Especially To The Memory Of Those Who Suffered

And Died In That Service .

This Monument Is Erected By

The Ladies Soldiers Memorial Association

Of Pawtucket , Rhode Island

And By Then Is Consecrated As An Everlasting

Memorial

Anno Domini 1897

= Triaenops menamena =

Triaenops menamena is a bat in the genus Triaenops found on Madagascar , mainly in the drier regions . It was known as Triaenops rufus until 2009 , when it was discovered that that name had been incorrectly applied to the species . Triaenops rufus is a synonym of Triaenops persicus , a Middle Eastern species closely related to T. menamena — the Malagasy species had previously been placed as a subspecies of T. persicus by some authors . Triaenops menamena is mostly found in forests , but also occurs in other habitats . It often roosts in large colonies and eats insects such as butterflies and moths . Because of its wide range , common occurrence , and tolerance of habitat degradation , it is not considered to be threatened .

With a forearm length of 50 to 56 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 2 in ) in males and 46 to 53 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 1 in ) in females , this is a medium @-@ sized bat . Its fur color is variable , ranging from reddish @-@ brown to gray , but it is generally darker than the species in the closely related genus Paratriaenops which also occur on Madagascar . The skull contains a pronounced swelling around the nose and the second upper premolar is displaced outside the toothrow . The maximum frequency of the echolocation call averages 94 @.@ 2 kHz and the species can easily be recognized on the basis of its call .

= = Taxonomy = =

In 1881 , Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards described two new species in the genus Triaenops on the basis of specimens supposedly collected by Léon Humblot on Madagascar : the reddish Triaenops rufus and the larger , gray T. humbloti . Jean Dorst , who reviewed Madagascan Triaenops in 1947 , retained both as separate species ; in another review , published in 1982 , John Edwards Hill considered the two to represent the same species . In 1994 , Karl Koopman considered rufus itself to be part of the Middle Eastern and mainland African species Triaenops persicus , a possibility Hill had discussed , but most authors regarded the two as distinct species . In 2006 , Julie Ranivo and Steven Goodman revised Madagascan Triaenops and found little variation among specimens of T. rufus from throughout the dry parts of the island . Three years later , they published another paper which showed that the original material of T. rufus and T. humbloti was distinct from Madagascan specimens identified as " Triaenops rufus " and more similar to T. persicus . On his journey to Madagascar , Humblot had stayed in Somalia and Yemen , and Goodman and Ranivo concluded that he had probably collected the Triaenops there , after which their provenance was incorrectly recorded . Thus , rufus and humbloti cannot be used for the Madagascan species , and Goodman and Ranivo proposed the new name Triaenops menamena for the species formerly known as T. rufus . The specific name menamena is Malagasy for " reddish " , referring to the animal 's coloration . " Rufous trident bat " has been used as a common name for Triaenops rufus .

Triaenops menamena is currently one of four living species in the genus Triaenops ; a 2009 revision by Petr Benda and Peter Vallo split off the African T. afer and the Yemeni T. parvus from T. persicus and removed three other species , including two from Madagascar , to the separate genus Paratriaenops . An extinct species , Triaenops goodmani , is known from northwestern Madagascar . In 2007 and 2008 , Amy Russell and colleagues used phylogenetic and coalescent methodologies to investigate the history of the Triaenops group . They found that T. menamena ( as T. rufus ) was closest to mainland African Triaenops ( but did not study Middle Eastern bats ) and concluded that T. menamena and the species of Paratriaenops ( then still placed in Triaenops ) independently reached Madagascar from Africa ; the colonization of the island by T. menamena was dated to about 660 @,@ 000 years ago . Benda and Vallo also studied phylogenetic relationships in Triaenops and included Middle Eastern T. persicus and T. parvus in their analysis . They found little resolution of relationships within Triaenops , but some evidence suggested that T. menamena is more closely related to the Middle Eastern species than to T. afer in mainland Africa ; therefore , T. menamena may have reached Madagascar from the Middle East or northeastern Africa . They also placed the split between T. menamena and the other species much further back , at around 4 million years ago .

= = Description = =

Triaenops menamena is a medium @-@ sized species with variable fur coloration , ranging from reddish @-@ brown to gray . It is larger and darker than Paratriaenops auritus and P. furculus . Among living Triaenops species , it is smaller than T. persicus and T. afer , but somewhat larger than T. parvus . The extinct Triaenops goodmani , which is known only from three mandibles ( lower jaws ) , is also larger . In the complexly shaped noseleaf ( a group of fleshy structures around the nose and mouth ) , T. menamena has the trident structure characteristic of Triaenops and Paratriaenops : three adjacent lancets ( projecting structures ) on the posterior leaf . In T. menamena , the two outer lancets are shorter than the middle one and curved , whereas the three lancets are more equal in Paratriaenops . The anterior leaf contains a broad , flat , horizontal process and the intermediate leaf contains a pointed process . The ears are small and broad and contain notches on the inner side . The fur is silky and the hairs on the body are about 5 to 6 mm long . The wing membrane is dark and translucent and the end of the tail usually projects from the uropatagium ( tail membrane ) . Males average slightly larger than females . Wingspan is 270 to 305 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) .

The skull is similar to that of Madagascan Paratriaenops , but the premaxilla is longer . The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is well @-@ developed and contains a pronounced nasal swelling , which is less pronounced than in Paratriaenops ; the depression behind the swelling is relatively shallow . Compared to other species of Triaenops , the rostrum is relatively narrow and short , similar to T. parvus ; T. afer and T. persicus have a broader rostrum . The front margin of the rostrum is cast back between the left and right corners . A transverse line passes over the roof of the rostrum . The infraorbital foramen , an opening in the skull , is oblong in shape . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are not broadened towards the sides , are connected to the maxillaries by broad bones , and contain clear crests on their upper sides . In T. menamena , these crests are rectangular in form and larger than in Paratriaenops . The braincase is lower than in other species of Triaenops . The sagittal crest , which is on the roof of the braincase , is poorly developed . In the mandible , the coronoid process is blunt and rounded , but the angular process ( both processes at the back of the bone ) is small .

The upper incisors have two cusps and the upper canine has three — a large central one , a small but well @-@ developed one at the back , and a small cuspule at the front . The front upper premolar is projected outside the toothrow , so that the canine before it and back premolar behind it touch . The first lower incisor has two cusps and the second has three . On the second lower molar , the protoconid cusp is notably taller than the hypoconid ; these cusps are about as high in T. goodmani .

The species can easily be identified from recordings of its echolocation call . The call consists of a component with constant frequency followed by a short one with changing frequency . The call takes 6 @.@ 5 to 13 @.@ 5 ms , averaging 10 @.@ 1 ms , and the period between two calls is 22 @.@ 7 to 86 @.@ 3 ms , averaging 42 @.@ 7 ms . The maximum frequency averages 94 @.@ 2 kHz , the minimum frequency averages 82 @.@ 0 kHz , and the call emits the most energy at a frequency of 93 @.@ 2 kHz .

= = Distribution and ecology = =

Triaenops menamena mainly occurs in the dry regions of western Madagascar , but has also been recorded in humid areas in the far southeast and northeast , and is found up to 1300 m ( 4300 ft ) above sea level . It mainly occurs in forests , but has also been recorded outside forest and is not dependent on it . An obligate cave dweller , it is known to roost in large colonies , with one cave colony estimated to contain over 40 @,@ 000 bats ; this cave also contained an estimated 10 @,@ 000 Paratriaenops furculus . The effective population size of the species is estimated to be about 121 @,@ 000 . Lepidoptera ( butterflies and moths ) form the main component of its diet , but it also eats Coleoptera ( beetles ) and Hemiptera ( bugs ) and fewer members of some other insect orders . It is unclear how the ecological niches of Triaenops and the less frequently captured Paratriaenops furculus are separated , as both eat lepidopterans and occur in the same regions .

= = Conservation status = =

Under Triaenops rufus , the IUCN Red List lists this species as being of " Least Concern " , citing its common occurrence over a wide distribution and tolerance of human modifications of its habitat , even though its forest habitat is being destroyed in places . It has been recorded in numerous protected areas . Bats , mainly the large Hipposideros commersoni , are sometimes hunted for food in southwestern Madagascar , and T. menamena is also taken incidentally .

= Henry le Despenser =

Henry le Despenser ( c . 1341 – 1406 ) was a 14th @-@ century English nobleman and Bishop of Norwich whose reputation as the ' Fighting Bishop ' was gained for his part in suppressing the Peasants ' Revolt in East Anglia and in defeating the peasants at the Battle of North Walsham in the summer of 1381 .

As a young man he studied at Oxford University and held numerous positions in the English Church . He fought in Italy before being consecrated as a bishop in 1370 . Parliament agreed to allow Despenser to lead a crusade to Flanders in 1383 , which was directed against Louis II of Flanders , a supporter of the antipope Clement VII . The crusade was in defence of English economic and political interests . Although well funded , the expedition was poorly equipped and lacked proper military leadership . After initial successes , a disastrous attempt to besiege the city of Ypres forced Despenser to return to England . Upon his return he was impeached in parliament . His temporalities were confiscated by Richard II of England , but were returned in 1385 , the year he accompanied the king northward to repel a potential French invasion of Scotland .

Despenser was an energetic and able administrator who staunchly defended his diocese against Lollardy . In 1399 , he was among those who stood by Richard , following the landing of Henry Bolingbroke in Yorkshire towards the end of June . He was arrested for refusing to come to terms with Bolingbroke . The following year , he was implicated in the Epiphany Rising , but was pardoned .

= = Birth and ancestry = =

Henry le Despenser was the youngest son of Edward le Despenser ( 1310 – 1342 ) , who married Anne ( died 1367 ) , daughter of Sir Ralph Ferrers of Groby . Henry was born around 1342 , the year that his father was killed at the siege of Vannes . He and his three brothers all grew up to become soldiers . His eldest brother Edward le Despencer , 1st Baron le Despencer ( around 1335 – 1375 ) was reputed to be one of the greatest knights of his age : he and Henry fought together for Pope Urban V in his war against Milan in 1369 . Comparatively little is known of his other siblings : Hugh le Despenser fought abroad and died in Padua in March 1374 , Thomas fought in France and died unmarried in 1381 and Gilbert le Despenser died in 1382 . Their sister Joan was a nun at Shaftesbury Abbey until her death in 1384 .

The le Despenser family originated from the lords of Gomiécourt in north @-@ eastern France . Henry 's grandmother Eleanor de Clare was a granddaughter of Edward I of England .

Henry 's great @-@ grandfather Hugh le Despenser , 1st Earl of Winchester ( 1262 – 1326 ) and grandfather Hugh Despenser the Younger ( 1286 – 1326 ) , who was a favourite of Edward II , were both exiled and later executed after the rebellion of Queen Isabella and her lover Mortimer against Edward II of England . Hugh le Despenser had become Edward II 's adviser , holding power until the king 's defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn , but he was later restored to favour . His son was appointed the king 's chamberlain and enjoyed a still larger share of royal favour . The barons were hostile to the Despensers , due to their acquired wealth and perceived arrogance , and in 1321 they were banished . Their sentences were soon afterwards annulled and from 1322 they played an important role in the governing of the country , but in 1326 Isabella acted against them and both men were tried and executed .

In 1375 , Despenser 's nephew Thomas le Despenser , 1st Earl of Gloucester succeeded his father Edward . Thomas was captured and killed following the attempt to restore Richard II in the Epiphany Rising .

= = Early career = =

In 1353 ( as an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy ) Henry ' de Exon ' became the canon of Llandaff and a year later he was secured a canonry of Salisbury Cathedral . By the age of nineteen he had become the rector of Bosworth and by February 1361 he was a master at Oxford University , studying civil law . He was ordained on 17 December 1362 . By 20 April 1364 he was archdeacon of Llandaff . Of his early life Capgrave tells us that he spent some time in Italy fighting for Pope Urban V in his war against Milan in 1369 :

'In this same tyme was Ser Herry Spenser a grete werrioure in Ytaile , or the tyme that he was promoted.'

= = Bishop of Norwich = =

In 1370 Despenser , then the canon of Salisbury , was appointed as Bishop of Norwich by a papal bull dated 3 April 1370 . He was consecrated at Rome on 20 April and returned to England . He received the spiritualities of his see from the Archbishop of Canterbury on 12 July 1370 and the temporalities from the king on 14 August .

= = = Involvement in the suppression of the Peasants ' Revolt = = =

During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , rebels from Kent and Essex marched to London and , once admitted to the city , managed to capture the Tower of London . King Richard , who had promised to agree to all the demands of the peasants , met the rebels outside the city , where the leader of the peasants Wat Tyler was killed and the rebellion was ended . The king 's promises were retracted .

The rebellion quickly spread to other parts of England , including the diocese of Norwich , where it lasted for less than a fortnight . On 14 June a group of rebels reached Thetford and from there the insurrection spread over south @-@ western Norfolk towards the Fens . At the same time the rebels , led by a local dyer , Geoffrey Litster , moved across the north @-@ eastern part of the county , urging insurrection throughout the local area . Over the next few days , the rebels converged on Norwich , Lynn and Swaffham . Norwich , then one of the largest and most important cities in the realm , was taken and occupied by Litster and his followers , who caused considerable damage to the property and possessions of their enemies once they managed to enter the city . The Norwich rebels then travelled to Yarmouth , destroying legal records and landowners ' possessions ; other insurgents moving across north @-@ east Norfolk destroyed court rolls and taxation documents ; there were numerous incidents of pillage and extortion across the whole county .

Despenser first heard news of the rising in his own diocese at a time when he was absent at his manor of Burley in Rutland , 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Norwich . Armed , he hastened back to Norfolk via Peterborough , Cambridge and Newmarket , with a company of only eight lances and a small body of bowmen . His followers increased on the way , and by the time he reached North Walsham , near the Norfolk coast , he had a considerable force under his command . There he found the rebels entrenched and defended by makeshift fortifications . According to Thomas Walsingham , in the Battle of North Walsham the bishop himself led the assault and overpowered his enemies in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Many were slain or captured , including the rebels ' leader , who was hanged , drawn and quartered soon afterwards . Despenser personally superintended Litster 's execution . In the following months he proceeded to deal with other rebels in his diocese . But the rigour with which he put down the rebellion made him highly unpopular in Norfolk and in the following year a plot was organised to murder him . The scheme was betrayed in time by one of the conspirators , and the plotters were dealt with by the authorities .

= = = Norwich Crusade of 1383 = = =

Soon after Urban VI had been elected pope in 1378 , Robert of Geneva was elected as a rival pope , taking the name Pope Clement VII and removing himself to Avignon . The so @-@ called Western Schism subsequently caused a great crisis in the Church and created rivalry and conflict throughout Christian Europe . It was eventually resolved as a result of the Council of Constance ( 1414 – 1418 ) .

In the autumn and winter of 1382 , Flanders had been invaded by Charles VI of France . Philip Van Artevelde had fallen at the Battle of Roosebeke and the country had been compelled to submit to the French king , who obliged all the conquered towns to recognise Clement VII . In response to events in Flanders , Pope Urban issued bulls for the proclamation of a crusade , choosing Bishop Despenser to lead a campaign against the followers of Clement VII in Flanders . He granted Despenser extraordinary powers for the fulfillment of his mission and plenary indulgence to those who should take part in or contribute support to it .

Both the commons and King Richard II were enthusiastic about the launch of a crusade to Flanders , for political and economic reasons : revenues from the English wool staple ( that had ceased following the advance of the French ) could be resumed ; sending the bishop and not the king or his uncles to Flanders would enable John of Gaunt 's unpopular plans for a royal crusade to Castille to be abandoned ; French forces would be drawn away from the Iberian peninsula ; and Anglo @-@ Flemish relations would be strengthened . Another advantage in approving a crusade was that its cost would be borne by the Church and not by means of government levies : ever since the Peasants ' Revolt , the government was fearful of the consequences of imposing a tax to pay for a new war against the French .

On 6 December 1382 , Richard ordered the crusade to be published throughout England . Later that month the bishop and his men took the cross at St. Paul 's Cathedral . In February 1383 Parliament , after hesitating in entrusting the mission to a churchman , ultimately assigned to him the subsidy which it had granted the king in the previous October for carrying on the war in Flanders . The king 's only stipulation was that the crusaders should await the arrival of William Beauchamp before launching offensive operations against the French and their allies .

The bishop issued mandates for the publication of the bulls and the archbishop did the same . The enterprise was ardently seconded by the friars and contributions of immense value were made from all quarters , but especially , according to Henry Knighton , from " the rich ladies of England " . The English landed at Calais in May 1383 and proceeded to attack Gravelines , which was in the hands of the French . Gravelines , Dunkirk and the neighbouring country ( including the towns of Bourbourg , Bergues , Poperinghe , and Nieuport ) soon fell . On 25 May the crusaders put to flight a Franco @-@ Flemish army , under the command of the Count of Flanders , in a pitched battle fought near Dunkirk . Despenser was then persuaded by his followers to attempt to besiege Ypres , which was to prove to be the turning point of the crusade . He was unwilling to attack the city but his Gantois allies and some of his officers insisted that Ypres should be taken .

The inhabitants of Ypres were well prepared for a siege by the time the English and their allies arrived and attacked the city on 8 June 1383 . Dwellings in the outlying suburbs had been abandoned ; the timber from them was used to strengthen the earth ramparts and the stone gates of the city . A mission had been dispatched to Paris to replace artillery powder stocks . The city was well organised under the command of the Castellan of Ypres , John d 'Oultre , and had been divided into different defensive sectors . Although the ramparts were low , they were well protected with a double wet ditch , a high thorny hedge reinforced with stakes and a wooden stockade and fire @-@ step .

The English attacked the Temple Gate on the first day but were beaten off . Over the next three days the city gates were attacked simultaneously , without success . Before the end of the first week of the siege , reinforcements arrived to completely encircle the city walls and the outer ditch was breached using soil . On the eighth day ( 15 June ) Despenser attacked the defences with artillery , firing on the Messines Gate and damaging it , but not enough to cause the city defences to be breached . Over the following days of the siege , sustained artillery attacks had little overall effect and the assaults of Despenser 's troops were all beaten off . An attempt to drain the ditches seriously threatened the Yprois , but the attempt was unsuccessful and the besieged managed to communicate with the Duke of Burgundy through Louis le Mâle , who was able to raise a large French army to come to the aid of the city . On 8 August , after eight weeks of effort , Despenser abruptly decided to abandon the siege , leaving his allies to continue on their own .

After the débâcle at Ypres , the bishop 's forces divided , some going back to England , some remaining with the bishop and others under Sir Thomas Trivet and Sir Hugh Calveley retiring to Bourbourg and Bergues . The bishop and Calveley had wished to advance into France , but Sir William Elmham , Trivet and some of the other commanders refused to go . The bishop , after entering Picardy for some distance , was obliged to fall back upon Gravelines . It turned out that the French had little stomach for a showdown with the English and their allies , preferring instead to negotiate : part of the French army was unwilling to fight when Despenser and Calveley encountered it when moving towards Picardy . It is possible that had King Richard crossed the Channel with a large English army , the campaign would have ended in a famous victory . However , for the demoralised and disease @-@ ridden English forces , the arrival of the French headed by the boy @-@ king Charles VI was decisive . Charles had taken the oriflamme on 2 August and his army was mustered in Arras on 15 August . They advanced into Flanders , reaching Thérouanne by the end of August , Drincham on 5 September , Bergues on 7 September ( forcing Trivet 's and Elmham 's retreat to Bourbourg and Gravelines ) and Dunkirk on 9 September . Bourbourg was besieged on 12 September : two days later the Duke of Brittany persuaded the French to negotiate a surrender and the English garrison was given safe conduct from the town . The French army then proceeded along the coast and besieged Gravelines . There , without Despenser 's authority , the defenders accepted bribes and the bishop 's treasurer pocketed 5000 francs . Despenser at first refused the surrender terms , but a few days later Gravelines was evacuated and Despenser ordered it to be sacked . By the end of October the remaining crusaders had returned across the English Channel .

= = = Career after 1383 = = =

Soon after returning from Flanders , the bishop was impeached in parliament , on 26 October 1383 , in the presence of the king . The chancellor Michael de la Pole accused him of not mustering his troops at Calais , as had been agreed ; not recruiting a high enough number of armed men ; refusing to certify properly who his military leaders were ; deceiving the king by not allowing a secular lord to command the expedition to Flanders ; and disbanding his forces prematurely . Despenser denied all the charges , insisting that enough men had assembled at Ypres , that he had chosen his commanders well and that he had not refused to obey the king 's orders . After de la Pole declared the bishop 's replies to be insufficient , Despenser requested another hearing to defend himself still further , which was granted . In this hearing Despencer proceeded to blame his own commanders for forcing him to retreat from Ypres and then evacuate the garrisons . All his arguments were refuted and he was blamed for the failure of the expedition . His temporalities were confiscated and he was ordered to repay any costs taken from money gained from the French .

Despenser 's fall from grace did not last long . Following Scottish incursions into England , it was decided that the 18 @-@ year @-@ old King Richard should lead an army into Scotland , marking the start of his military career . In 1385 every magnate of consequence , including Despenser , joined the immense host that advanced north with the king ,

" finding a country totally waste , where there was nothing to plunder , and little that could even be destroyed , excepting here and there a tower , whose massive walls defied all means of destruction then known , or a cluster of miserable huts .... " ' ( Sir Walter Scott , Scotland , vol . 1 ) .

The English army reached Edinburgh , which was sacked , but then retreated back to England , despite John of Gaunt 's wish to go on to Fife . The Scottish campaign was one of the last times that Despenser marched with an army .

Henry le Despenser continued to be controversial after his fighting career was over , mainly because of the vigorous methods he used to maintain control over the laity in his diocese and his own cathedral church . He defended the orthodoxy of the church against Lollardy as passionately as he defended his episcopal rights and privileges .

For over a decade Despenser was involved in disputes with the chapter of Norwich Cathedral and with other religious communities in his diocese , mainly concerning the bishop 's right to intervene in their internal affairs . In 1384 the monks appealed successfully to Pope Boniface IX against Despenser , but in 1385 matters were still not resolved , for that year the pope ordered William Courtenay the Archbishop of Canterbury to assist in mediating between the parties . On Richard II 's instruction , the bishop and the convent instead appeared before Archbishop Courtenay and a royal council , but Courtenay 's death in July 1386 prevented a resolution of the dispute from being finalised until 1398 , when a royal commission decided in favour of Despenser . Pope Boniface annulled the decisions of the commission in 1401 , after the convent appealed to him , but the papal sentences were ignored by Despenser . Eventually the monks came to terms with the bishop and accepted a loss of their autonomy .

= = = = Fighting Lollardy = = = =

Since 1381 , there had been a growing fear of Lollardy among the English political elite . The Lollards had first appeared in the 1370s and had briefly found favour with the upper classes , but in 1382 power was given for the authorities to detain heretics and examine them in a Church court . During the second half of his reign Richard II became steadily more determined to maintain religious orthodoxy and acted increasingly harshly to suppress the Lollards . His successor Henry IV went even further , introducing the death penalty for heresy and for possession of a bible .

Despenser took active steps to maintain orthodoxy in his own diocese . The chronicler Thomas Walsingham praised Henry 's actions against the Lollards and contrasted him with his fellow bishops :

" He swore , moreover , and did not repent of what he said , that if anyone belonging to that perverse sect should presume to preach in his diocese , they should be taken to the fire or beheaded . Consequently , having understood this , no one belonging to that tendency had any desire to embrace martyrdom , with the result that , up to now , the faith and true religion have remained unaffected within the bounds of his episcopal authority . " ( Walsingham , Historia Anglicana ) .

Henry however appears not to have dealt too savagely in dealing with heretics . On 1 May 1399 , William Sawtrey , a Norfolk curate and a Lollard , was examined before him . Sawtrey recanted his heresies in public and apparently received no serious punishment , but after moving to London , Sawtrey 's heretical preaching attracted the attention of Archbishop Thomas Arundel and he was summoned to appear before a convocation at St. Paul 's . Despenser did not attend but sent a written memorandum on 23 February . Following his trial Sawtrey was condemned as a relapsed heretic and was burned in chains at Smithfield in 1401 .

= = = = Final years = = = =

Upon the death of John of Gaunt on 3 February 1399 , his son Henry Bolingbroke became the Duke of Lancaster , but Richard II moved quickly to strip him of his patrimony . Bolingbroke resolved to return to England from Paris to claim the restoration of his family estates and in July 1399 he disembarked at Ravenspur . Henry le Despenser reacted to these events by standing loyally by Richard . On 2 July he commissioned three vicars @-@ general to deputise for him whilst he was absent from the diocese and by 10 July he had reached St. Albans with reinforcements for the Duke of York 's army . There he joined up with York and they travelled to join the king as he returned from Ireland , whilst Bolingbroke moved south towards Bristol to intercept Richard 's supporters . Despenser was with York at Berkeley Castle when he came to terms with Bolingbroke at the end of July , but the bishop refused to submit and was arrested and briefly imprisoned . On 30 September Bolingbroke was proclaimed king in London , an event that Despenser may have witnessed . The bishop attended the first parliament of the new reign on 6 October 1399 , in which it was agreed that King Richard should be imprisoned . After this time Despenser 's influence in his diocese seems to have diminished , power having shifted to Sir Thomas Erpingham .

Henry was implicated in the abortive ‘ Epiphany Rising ' of January 1400 , during which his nephew Thomas , Earl of Gloucester played a key part and was subsequently executed . Thomas had been created Earl of Gloucester by Richard II , but in 1399 was accused of being involved in the death of the son of the Duke of Gloucester and as a result lost his earldom . He joined in the conspiracy of the earls of Rutland , Kent and Huntingdon and was with their army at Cirencester , when they were attacked by the townsmen , who burnt Thomas le Despenser 's lodgings . Thomas fled , boarding a ship , but the captain forced him to Bristol , where on 13 January he was released to the mob and beheaded at the high cross .

In the aftermath of the rebellion Henry le Despenser appointed John Derlington , the archdeacon of Norwich , as his vicar @-@ general on 5 February 1400 and then submitted himself to the custody of Archbishop Arundel who accompanied him to Parliament on 20 January 1401 . There his enemy Sir Thomas Erpingham falsely accused him of being involved in the plot . He was finally reconciled to Henry IV when the king granted him a pardon in 1401 .

Despenser died on 23 August 1406 and was buried in Norwich Cathedral before the high altar . A brass inscription dedicated to him was placed there , but has since been destroyed .

= = Ancestry = =

= Pluteus nevadensis =

Pluteus nevadensis is a species of fungus in the agaric family Pluteaceae . Described as new to science in 2010 , the species is known only from subtropical and pine forests in Mexico , where it grows on rotting pine and oak wood . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have red @-@ orange caps up to 3 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter with a shape ranging from conic , convex , or flattened , depending on their age . The silky yellow stems are up to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) long . It is similar in appearance to Pluteus aurantiorugosus , with which it shares an orange- or scarlet @-@ colored cap and a yellow stem . P. nevadensis can be distinguished from this and other superficially similar Pluteus species by differences in microscopic characteristics .

= = Taxonomy = =

The species was described by Olivia Rodríguez in 2010 in the journal Mycotaxon , based on collections made in 1991 . The holotype material was collected on the Colima volcano , in the Municipality of Zapotlán el Grande , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 100 m ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) . The species was formerly referred to Pluteus aurantiorugosus , with which it bears a close resemblance . After close examination and comparison of the two species , the authors concluded that the differences in morphology and DNA sequence were sufficient to warrant describing a new species .

According to Rolf Singer 's infrageneric classification of the genus Pluteus , the fungus belongs in the section Celluloderma . Species in this section have pleurocystidia that are either absent or non @-@ metuloid . Furthermore , the majority have a cap cuticle comprising short club @-@ shaped or spheropedunculate ( somewhat spherical with a stem ) cells , that may or may not be mixed with elongated cystidia @-@ like cells . Other species in Celluloderma include P. romellii , P. aurantiorugosus , P. pulverulentus , P. thompsonii , and P. horakianus . Molecular analyses of internal transcribed spacer DNA sequences supports the placement of P. nevadensis in Celluloderma , and further suggest that it has a sister relationship with P. horakianas . The specific epithet nevadensis refers to the mountain , Nevado de Colima , where the type material was collected .

= = Description = =

The cap is 15 – 38 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , conic when young , bell @-@ shaped to convex or plano @-@ convex when mature , and umbonate . The cap margin is curved downward , even or slightly eroded . The red @-@ orange cap surface is dry to moist , and wrinkled towards the margin but smooths out as it approaches the center . Sometimes there is white @-@ yellowish flesh underneath the cap cuticle . The gills are free from attachment to the stem , crowded closely together , broad to swollen in the middle , and white or whitish when young to salmon @-@ pinkish in age . The edge of the gill is floccose ( with wool @-@ like tufts ) or fringed , and whitish . The stem , which is centrally attached to the cap , measures 6 – 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 1 @.@ 77 in ) by 2 – 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) , and is roughly equal in width throughout . It is smooth to slightly fibrillose ( covered in small slender fibers or filaments ) , silky , and hollow . The color is yellow or yellowish near the top , and deep orange or with orange tinges towards the base . The base of the stem is covered with cottony whitish mycelia . The flesh of the cap is 1 mm thick or more at the center and whitish . The stem tissue is yellowish or yellow gold . Fruit bodies of Pluteus nevadensis have no distinctive taste or odor .

The color of the spore print is pinkish @-@ brown . The smooth spores measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm , roughly spherical to broadly ellipsoid in shape . Their walls are thin to slightly thickened , and almost translucent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are 22 – 29 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm ( including sterigmata ) , club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . They have refringent contents and are hyaline ( translucent ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are 41 @.@ 8 – 75 by 11 @.@ 8 – 24 µm , frequent , scattered , and flask @-@ shaped with short or elongated necks . Some pleurocystidia are somewhat fusiform ( tapered on each end ) or somewhat utriform ( shaped like a leather bottle or flask ) , thin @-@ walled , and hyaline . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are 32 – 55 by 10 – 18 @.@ 5 µm , crowded , and club @-@ shaped . Some are utriform , roughly cylindrical or egg @-@ shaped , thin walled , and hyaline . The gill tissue is convergent , meaning that the hyphae appear to converge toward the center of the tissue . The cap cuticle comprises club @-@ shaped or sphaeropedunculate cells that measure 25 @.@ 6 – 60 by 13 @.@ 6 – 31 @.@ 2 µm . These cells typically have a long pedicel ( stalk ) with a thin or slightly thickened wall , and are hyaline . The species lacks oleiferous hyphae ( filled with oil @-@ like contents ) and clamp connections .

= = = Similar species = = =

Pluteus aurantiorugosus is very similar to P. nevadensis in external appearance , and the two can only be reliably distinguished by microscopic characteristics or DNA sequence . In contrast to the latter species , the former has oblong spores , and cystidia that are shorter and less slender . P. aurantiorugosus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , but rare .

The species Pluteus horakianus shares with P. nevadensis a fragile fruit body , a red cap , and similar cystidial morphology . It differs in its orange @-@ red gill edges , red stem , and cap cuticle cells that contain pigment . Other species with a roughly similar appearance , including P. aurantiopustulatus , P. aurantipes , P. flammipes , P. laetifrons , and P. laetus , can be distinguished by differences in microscopic characteristics .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Pluteus nevadensis is known only from subtropical and pine forests in the states of Guerrero and Jalisco , Mexico , where it grows on the rotting wood of pine and oak . It is one of 34 Pluteus species known in Mexico .

= Madge Syers =

Florence Madeline " Madge " Syers ( née Cave , 16 September 1881 – 9 September 1917 ) was a British figure skater . She became the first woman to compete at the World Figure Skating Championships in 1902 by entering what was previously an all @-@ male event and won the silver medal , which prompted the International Skating Union ( ISU ) to create a separate ladies ' championship . Syers was the winner of the first two ladies ' events in 1906 and 1907 , and went on to become the Olympic champion at the 1908 Summer Olympics , the first Olympic Games to include figure skating . She also competed as a pairs skater with her husband Edgar Syers , winning the bronze medal at the 1908 Olympics .

= = Personal life = =

Florence Madeline Cave was born on 16 September 1881 in Kensington , London , one of 15 children of Edward Jarvis Cave , a builder , and his wife Elizabeth Ann . She was a proficient figure skater , as well as a gifted swimmer and equestrienne . Madge became a regular at the Prince 's Skating Club in Knightsbridge , which had been formed in 1896 and was popular with aristocratic society in London .

In 1899 Madge met her future husband Edgar Syers , a figure skater and coach who was 18 years her senior . Edgar was an exponent of the international skating style , which was freer and less rigid than the traditional English style , and encouraged Madge to adopt this style . Madge and Edgar completed together in pairs skating events , and in 1900 finished second in one of the first international pairs events , staged in Berlin . They married in June of that year . The Syers co @-@ authored The Book of Winter Sports in 1908 .

= = Career = =

= = = 1902 World championships = = =

The World Figure Skating Championships , first contested in 1896 , was regarded as an all @-@ male event since competitive skating was generally viewed as a male activity , but there was no regulation barring women , enabling Syers to enter and compete at the 1902 Championships in London . She won the silver medal behind Ulrich Salchow , who was reputedly so impressed with her challenge that he offered her his gold medal . T. D. Richardson later wrote : " Rumour , nay more than rumour – a good deal of expert opinion – thought she should have won . "

Syers ' entry into the World Championships prompted the ISU to discuss the subject of women competing against men at their next Congress in 1903 . The concerns raised were that " ( 1 ) the dress prevents the judges from seeing the feet ; ( 2 ) a judge might judge a girl to whom he was attached ; and ( 3 ) it is difficult to compare women with men . " The Congress voted six to three in favour of barring women from the championships .

= = = 1903 – 1907 = = =

Syers continued to compete elsewhere , and in 1903 won the inaugural British Figure Skating Championships , which began as a mixed competition . She won again the following year , beating her husband , who won the silver medal . She also entered the 1904 European Championships but withdrew due to injury after the first stage of the competition , the compulsory figures .

The 1905 ISU Congress established a separate ladies ' event , which was supported by strong lobbying from the National Ice Skating Association . The event was known at the time as the Ladies ' Championship of the ISU rather than a World Championship , and was staged at a different date and location from the men 's event . Syers won the inaugural event held in Davos , Switzerland in 1906 , finishing first in a field of five competitors . She won her second title in Vienna at the 1907 Championships .

= = = 1908 Olympics = = =

The 1908 Summer Olympics in London were the first Games to include figure skating events in the programme , which were staged in October at the Prince 's Club . Syers entered both the ladies ' event and the pairs with Edgar . In the ladies ' event , Syers comfortably won the compulsory figures section , with all five judges placing her first . The official report of the Games described her as " in a class by herself " and stated that " the wonderful accuracy of her figures , combined with perfect carriage and movement , was the chief feature of the morning 's skating . " In the free skating , the report described her as having " excelled in rhythm and time @-@ keeping , and her dance steps , pirouettes , & c . , were skated without a fault . " She was again placed first by all five judges and won the title . In the pairs event Syers and Edgar finished third ( of three couples ) and won the bronze medal .

= = Later life = =

Syers retired from competitive skating after the Olympics due to fading health . She and Edgar co @-@ authored a second book together , The Art of Skating ( International Style ) , published in 1913 . She died of heart failure caused by acute endocarditis on 9 September 1917 at her home in Weybridge , Surrey , aged 35 .

Syers was elected to the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 1981 .

= = Results = =

= Senate of the Roman Republic =

The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic . It was not an elected body , but one whose members were appointed by the consuls , and later by the censors . After a Roman magistrate served his term in office , it usually was followed with automatic appointment to the Senate . According to the Greek historian Polybius , our principal source on the Constitution of the Roman Republic , the Roman Senate was the predominant branch of government . Polybius noted that it was the consuls ( the highest @-@ ranking of the regular magistrates ) who led the armies and the civil government in Rome , and it was the Roman assemblies which had the ultimate authority over elections , legislation , and criminal trials . However , since the Senate controlled money , administration , and the details of foreign policy , it had the most control over day @-@ to @-@ day life . The power and authority of the Senate derived from precedent , the high caliber and prestige of the senators , and the Senate 's unbroken lineage , which dated back to the founding of the Republic in 509 BC .

Originally the chief @-@ magistrates , the consuls , appointed all new senators . They also had the power to remove individuals from the Senate . Around the year 318 BC , the " Ovinian Plebiscite " ( plebiscitum Ovinium ) gave this power to another Roman magistrate , the censor , who retained this power until the end of the Roman Republic . This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate . Thus , after this point in time , election to magisterial office resulted in automatic Senate membership . The appointment was for life , although the censor could impeach any senator .

The Senate directed the magistrates , especially the consuls , in their prosecution of military conflicts . The Senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome . This was especially the case with regards to its management of state finances , as only it could authorize the disbursal of public monies from the treasury . In addition , the Senate passed decrees called senatus consultum , which was officially " advice " from the Senate to a magistrate . While technically these decrees did not have to be obeyed , in practice , they usually were . During an emergency , the Senate ( and only the Senate ) could authorize the appointment of a dictator . The last ordinary dictator , however , was appointed in 202 BC . After 202 BC , the Senate responded to emergencies by passing the senatus consultum ultimum ( " Ultimate Decree of the Senate " ) , which suspended civil government and declared something analogous to martial law .

= = Venue and ethical standards = =

The rules and procedures of the Roman Senate were both complex and ancient . Many of these rules and procedures originated in the early years of the Republic , and were upheld over the centuries under the principle of mos maiorum ( " customs of the ancestors " ) . While Senate meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city ( the pomerium ) , no meeting could take place more than a mile outside of the pomerium . Senate meetings might take place outside of the formal boundary of the city for several reasons . For example , the Senate might wish to meet with an individual , such as a foreign ambassador , whom they did not wish to allow inside the city .

At the beginning of the year , the first Senate meeting always took place at the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus . Other venues could include the Temple of Fides or the Temple of Concord , or , if the meeting was outside of the formal boundary of the city , at the Temple of Apollo or ( if a war meeting ) at the Temple of Bellona . In addition , the Senate operated while under various religious restrictions . For example , before any meeting could begin , a sacrifice to the gods was made , and a search for divine omens ( the auspices ) was taken . The auspices were taken in order to determine whether that particular Senate meeting held favor with the gods . The Senate was only allowed to meet in a building of religious significance , such as the Curia Hostilia .

The ethical requirements of senators were significant . Senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract . They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce , and they could not leave Italy without permission from the Senate . In addition , since they were not paid , individuals usually sought to become a senator only if they were independently wealthy .

The censors were the magistrates who enforced the ethical standards of the Senate . Whenever a censor punished a senator , they had to allege some specific failing . Possible reasons for punishing a member included corruption , abuse of capital punishment , or the disregard of a colleague 's veto , constitutional precedent , or the auspices . Senators who failed to obey various laws could also be punished . While punishment could include impeachment ( expulsion ) from the Senate , often a punishment was less severe than outright expulsion . While the standard was high for expelling a member from the Senate , it was easier to deny a citizen the right to join the Senate . Various moral failings could result in one not being allowed to join the Senate , including bankruptcy , prostitution , or a prior history of having been a gladiator . One law ( the Lex repetundarum of 123 BC ) made it illegal for a citizen to become a senator if they had been convicted of a criminal offense . Many of these laws were enacted in the last century of the Republic , as public corruption began reaching unprecedented levels .

= = Debates = =

Meetings usually began at dawn , although occasionally certain events ( such as festivals ) might delay the beginning of a meeting . A magistrate who wished to summon the Senate had to issue a compulsory order ( a cogere ) , and senators could be punished if they failed to appear without reasonable cause . In 44 BC for example , consul Mark Antony threatened to demolish the house of the former consul Cicero for this very reason . The Senate meetings were technically public because the doors were usually left open , which allowed people to look in , but only senators could speak . The Senate was directed by a presiding magistrate , who was usually either a consul ( the highest @-@ ranking magistrate ) or , if the consul was unavailable , a Praetor ( the second @-@ highest ranking magistrate ) . By the late Republic , another type of magistrate , a plebeian tribune , would sometimes preside .

While in session , the Senate had the power to act on its own , and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished . The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech ( the verba fecit ) , which was usually brief , but was sometimes a lengthy oration . The presiding magistrate would then begin a discussion by referring an issue to the senators , who would discuss the issue , one at a time , by order of seniority , with the first to speak , the most senior senator , known as the princeps senatus ( leader of the Senate ) , who was then followed by ex @-@ consuls ( consulares ) , and then the praetors and ex @-@ praetors ( praetorii ) . This continued , until the most junior senators had spoken . Senators who had held magisterial office always spoke before those who had not , and if a patrician was of equal seniority as a plebeian , the patrician would always speak first .

A senator could make a brief statement , discuss the matter in detail , or talk about an unrelated topic . All senators had to speak before a vote could be held , and since all meetings had to end by nightfall , a senator could talk a proposal to death ( a filibuster or diem consumere ) if they could keep the debate going until nightfall . It is known , for example , that the senator Cato the Younger once filibustered in an attempt to prevent the Senate from granting Julius Caesar a law that would have given land to the veterans of Pompey .

= = Delaying and obstructive tactics = =

Senators had several ways in which they could influence ( or frustrate ) a presiding magistrate . When a presiding magistrate was proposing a motion , for example , the senators could call " consult " ( consule ) , which required the magistrate to ask for the opinions of the senators . Any senator could demand a quorum call ( with the cry of numera ) , which required a count of the senators present . Like modern quorum calls , this was usually a delaying tactic . Senators could also demand that a motion be divided into smaller motions . Acts such as applause , booing , or heckling often played a major role in a debate , and , in part because all senators had an absolute right to free speech , any senator could respond at any point if he was attacked personally . Once debates were underway , they were usually difficult for the presiding magistrate to control . The presiding magistrate typically only regained some control once the debating had ended , and a vote was about to be taken .

In the later years of the Republic , attempts were made by the aristocracy to limit the increasing level of chaos associated with the obstructive tendencies and democratic impulses of some of the senators . Laws were enacted to prevent the inclusion of extraneous material in bills before the Senate . Other laws were enacted to outlaw the so @-@ called omnibus bills , which are bills , usually enacted by a single vote , that contain a large volume of often unrelated material .

Laws were also enacted to strengthen the requirement that three days pass between the proposal of a bill , and the vote on that bill . During his term as dictator , Julius Caesar enacted laws that required the publication of Senate resolutions . This publication , called the acta diurna , or " daily proceedings " , was meant to increase transparency and minimize the potential for abuse . This publication was posted in the Roman Forum , and then sent by messengers throughout the provinces .

= = Votes and the Tribune 's veto = =

When it was time to call a vote , the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals ( in whatever order ) he wished , and every vote was between a proposal and its negative . Quorums were required for votes to be held , and it is known that in 67 BC the size of a quorum was set at 200 senators ( by the lex Cornelia de privilegiis ) . At any point before a motion passed , the proposed motion could be vetoed . Usually , vetoes were handed down by plebeian tribunes . If the Senate proposed a bill that the plebeian tribune ( the magistrate who was the chief representative of the people ) did not agree with , he issued a veto , which was backed by the promise to literally " ' interpose the sacrosanctity of his person ' " ( or intercessio ) if the Senate did not comply . If the Senate did not comply , he could physically prevent the Senate from acting , and any resistance could be criminally prosecuted as constituting a violation of his sacrosanctity . If the vetoed motion was proposed the next day , and the plebeian tribune who had vetoed it the day before was not present to interpose himself , the motion could be passed . In general , the plebeian tribune had to physically be present at the Senate meeting , otherwise his physical threat of interposing his person had no meaning . Ultimately , the plebeian tribune 's veto was based in a promise of physical force .

Once a vote occurred , and a measure passed , he could do nothing , since his promise to physically interpose his person against the senators was now meaningless . In addition , during a couple of instances between the end of the Second Punic War in 201 BC and the beginning of the Social War in 91 BC , although they had no legal power to do so , several Consuls were known to have vetoed acts of the Senate . Ultimately , if there was no veto , and the matter was of minor importance , it could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands . If there was no veto , and the matter was of a significant nature , there was usually a physical division of the house , where senators voted by taking a place on either side of the chamber .

Any motion that had the support of the Senate but was vetoed was recorded in the annals as a senatus auctoritas , while any motion that was passed and not vetoed was recorded as a senatus consultum . After the vote , each senatus consultum and each senatus auctoritas was transcribed into a final document by the presiding magistrate . This document included the name of the presiding magistrate , the place of the assembly , the dates involved , the number of senators who were present at time the motion was passed , the names of witnesses to the drafting of the motion , and the substance of the act . In addition , if the motion was a senatus consultum , a capital letter " C " was stamped on the document , to verify that the motion had been approved by the Senate .

The document was then deposited in the temple that housed the Treasury ( the aerarium ) . While a senatus auctoritas ( vetoed Senate motion ) had no legal value , it did serve to show the opinion of the Senate . If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law ( lex ) that was passed by a Roman Assembly , the law overrode the senatus consultum , because the senatus consultum had its authority based in precedent , and not in law . A senatus consultum , however , could serve to interpret a law .

= Spokane , Washington =

Spokane ( pronunciation : / spoʊˈkæn / spoh @-@ KAN ) is a city in the state of Washington , in the northwestern United States . Spokane is the seat of Spokane County . It is located on the Spokane River , west of the Rocky Mountain foothills in eastern Washington , 92 miles ( 148 km ) south of the Canadian border , approximately 20 miles ( 30 km ) from the Washington – Idaho border , and 280 miles ( 450 km ) east of Seattle along Interstate 90 . The city and wider Inland Northwest region is served by Spokane International Airport , 5 miles ( 8 km ) west of downtown Spokane . According to the 2010 Census , Spokane had a population of 208 @,@ 916 , making it the second largest city in Washington and the 102nd largest city in the United States .

The first humans to live in the area , the Spokane people ( their name meaning " children of the sun " in Salishan ) , arrived between 13 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago , living off plentiful game . Known as the birthplace of Father 's Day , Spokane is officially nicknamed the " Lilac City " . David Thompson explored the area with the westward expansion and establishment of the North West Company 's Spokane House in 1810 . This trading post was the first long @-@ term European settlement in Washington . Completion of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1881 brought settlers to the Spokane area , and that same year it was officially incorporated as a city with the name " Spokan Falls " . The " e " was added to Spokane in 1883 , and " Falls " was dropped in 1891 . In the late 19th century , gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Northwest . The local economy depended on mining , timber , and agriculture until the 1980s . Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed World 's Fair at Expo ' 74 .

Many of the older Romanesque Revival @-@ style buildings in the downtown area were designed by architect Kirtland Kelsey Cutter after the Great Fire of 1889 . The city also features Riverfront and Manito parks , the Smithsonian @-@ affiliated Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture , the Davenport Hotel , and the Fox and Bing Crosby theaters . The Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane with Thomas Daly as the newly appointed Bishop as of 2015 . The Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist ( Spokane , Washington ) represents the Anglican community . The city is also the center of the Mormon Spokane Washington Temple District . Gonzaga University was established in 1887 by the Society of Jesus , and the private Presbyterian Whitworth University moved to north Spokane in 1914 from Tacoma , WA . In sports , the Gonzaga Bulldogs collegiate basketball team competes at the Division I level . Professional and semi @-@ professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball , Spokane Empire in arena football , and Spokane Chiefs in junior ice hockey . As of 2010 , Spokane 's only major daily newspaper , The Spokesman @-@ Review , had a daily circulation of over 75 @,@ 000 .

= = History = =

The first humans to live in the Spokane area arrived between 13 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 years ago and were hunter @-@ gatherer societies that lived off plentiful game . The Spokane tribe , after which the city is named ( the name meaning " children of the sun " Salishan ) , [ a ] are believed to be either their direct descendants , or descendants of people from the Great Plains . When asked by early white explorers , the Spokanes said their ancestors came from " up North " .

Early in the 19th century , the Northwest Fur Company sent two white fur trappers west of the Rocky Mountains to search for fur . These were the first white men met by the Spokanes , who believed they were sacred , and set the trappers up in the Colville River valley for the winter .

= = = Trading post = = =

The explorer @-@ geographer David Thompson , working as head of the North West Company 's Columbia Department , became the first European to explore the Inland Empire ( now called the Inland Northwest ) . Crossing what is now the U.S. – Canadian border from British Columbia , Thompson wanted to expand the North West Company further south in search of furs . After establishing the Kullyspell House and Saleesh House trading posts in what are now Idaho and Montana , Thompson then attempted to expand further west . He sent out two trappers , Jacques Raphael Finlay and Finan McDonald , to construct a fur trading post on the Spokane River in Washington and trade with the local Indians . This post was established in 1810 , at the confluence of the Little Spokane and Spokane rivers , becoming the first enduring European settlement of significance in Washington state . Known as the Spokane House , or simply " Spokane " , it was in operation from 1810 to 1826 . Operations were run by the British North West Company and later the Hudson 's Bay Company , and the post was the headquarters of the fur trade between the Rocky and Cascade mountains for 16 years . After the latter business absorbed the North West Company in 1821 , the major operations at the Spokane House were eventually shifted north to Fort Colville , reducing the post 's significance .

In 1836 , Reverend Samuel Parker visited the area and reported that around 800 Native Americans were living in Spokane Falls . A medical mission was established by Marcus and Narcissa Whitman to cater for Cayuse Indians and hikers of the Oregon Trail at Walla Walla in the south . After the Whitmans were killed by Indians in 1847 , Reverend Cushing Eells established Whitman College in the city of Walla Walla , WA in their memory . Rev. Eells built the first church in Spokane in 1881 Between 1881 and 1882 the first Baptist and Episcopal churches were started , and the first Presbyterian church in 1883 .

In 1853 , two years after the establishment of the Washington Territory , the first governor , Isaac Stevens , made an initial effort to make a treaty with Chief Garry and the Spokanes at Antoine Plantes ' Ferry , not far from Millwood .

After the last campaign of the Yakima Indian War , the Coeur d 'Alene War of 1858 was brought to a close by the actions of Col. George Wright , who won decisive victories against a confederation of tribes in engagements at the battles of Four Lakes and Spokane Plains . The cessation of hostilities opened the inter @-@ mountain valley of the Pacific Northwest to safe habitation by settlers .

= = = American settlement = = =

Joint American – British occupation of Oregon Country , in effect since the Treaty of 1818 , eventually led to the Oregon Boundary Dispute after a large influx of American settlers along the Oregon Trail . The first American settlers in what is now Spokane were J.J. Downing and S.R. Scranton , cattle ranchers who squatted and established a claim at Spokane Falls in 1871 . Together they built a small sawmill on a claim near the south bank of the falls . James N. Glover and Jasper Matheney , Oregonians passing through the region in 1873 , recognized the value of the Spokane River and its falls for the purpose of water power . They realized the investment potential and bought the claims of 160 acres ( 65 ha ) and the sawmill from Downing and Scranton for a total of $ 4 @,@ 000 . Glover and Matheney knew that the Northern Pacific Railroad Company had received a government charter to build a main line across this northern route . Amid many delays in construction and uncertainty over the completion of the railroad and its exact course , Matheney sold his interest in the claim to Glover . [ b ] Glover confidently held on to his claim and became a successful Spokane business owner and was the second mayor of Spokane in 1883 . He later came to be known as the " Father of Spokane " . When Spokane was officially incorporated in 1881 Robert W. Forrest was elected as the first mayor of the city , with a Council of seven @-@ S.G. Havermale , A.M. Cannon , Dr. L.H.Whitehouse , L.W. Rima , F.R. Moore , George A. Davis , and W.C. Gray . The Mayor and Councilmen served without pay .

In 1880 , Fort Spokane was established by U.S. Army troops under Lt. Col. Henry Clay Merriam 56 miles ( 90 km ) northwest of Spokane , at the junction of the Columbia and Spokane Rivers , to protect the construction of the Northern Pacific Railway and secure a place for U.S. settlement . By June 30 , 1881 , the railway reached the city , bringing major European settlement to the area . The city of Spokan Falls ( the " e " was added in 1883 and " Falls " dropped in 1891 ) was officially incorporated as a city of about 1 @,@ 000 residents on November 29 , 1881 . [ c ] The marketing campaigns of transportation companies with affordable fertile land to sell along their trade routes lured many settlers into the region they dubbed " Spokane Country " .

The 1883 discovery of gold , silver , and lead in the Coeur d 'Alene region of northern Idaho lured prospectors . The Inland Empire erupted with numerous mining rushes from 1883 to 1892 . Mining and smelting emerged as a major stimulus to Spokane . At the onset of the initial 1883 gold rush in the nearby Coeur d 'Alene mining district , Spokane became popular with prospectors , offering low prices on everything " from a horse to a frying pan " . It would keep this status for subsequent rushes in the region due to its trade center status and accessibility to railroad infrastructure . [ d ]

Spokane 's growth continued unabated until August 4 , 1889 , when a fire , now known as The Great Fire ( not to be confused with the Great Fire of 1910 , which happened nearby ) , began just after 6 : 00 p.m. and destroyed the city 's downtown commercial district . Due to technical problems with a pump station , there was no water pressure in the city when the fire started . In a desperate bid to starve the fire , firefighters began razing buildings with dynamite . Eventually the winds and the fire died down ; 32 blocks of Spokane 's downtown core had been destroyed and one person killed .

Despite this catastrophe , and in part because of it , Spokane experienced a building boom . [ e ] The downtown was rebuilt , and the city was reincorporated under the present name of " Spokane " in 1891 . According to historian David H. Stratton , " From the late 1890s to about 1912 , a great flurry of construction created a modern urban profile of office buildings , banks , department stores , hotels and other commercial institutions , " which stretched from the Spokane River to the site of the Northern Pacific railroad tracks below the South Hill . Yet the rebuilding and development of the city was far from smooth : between 1889 and 1896 alone , all six bridges over the Spokane River were destroyed by floods before their completion . In the 1890s the city was subject to intrastate migration by African @-@ Americans from Roslyn , looking for work after the closure of the area 's mines . Two African @-@ American churches , Calvary Baptist and Bethel African Methodist Episcopal , were founded in 1890 . Just three years after the fire , in 1892 , James J. Hill 's Great Northern Railway arrived in the chosen site for Hill 's rail yards , the newly created township of Hillyard ( annexed by Spokane in 1924 ) . Spokane became an important rail shipping and transportation hub for the Inland Empire , connecting mines in the Silver Valley with agricultural areas around the Palouse region . The city 's population ballooned to 19 @,@ 922 in 1890 , and to 36 @,@ 848 in 1900 with the arrival of additional railroads . By 1910 the population had hit 104 @,@ 000 , and Spokane eclipsed Walla Walla as the commercial center of the Inland Empire . In time the city came to be known as the " capital " of the Inland Empire and the heart of a vast tributary region . After the arrival of the Northern Pacific , Union Pacific , Great Northern , and Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul and Pacific railroads , Spokane became one of the most important rail centers in the western U.S.

= = = Early 20th century = = =

Expansion abruptly stopped in the 1910s and was followed by a period of population decline , due in large part to Spokane 's slowing economy . Control of regional mines and resources became increasingly dominated by national corporations rather than local people and organizations , diverting capital outside of Spokane and decreasing growth and investment opportunities in the city . During this time of stagnation , unrest was prevalent among the area 's unemployed , who became victimized by " job sharks " , who charged a fee for signing up workers in the logging camps . Job sharks and employment agencies were known to cheat itinerant workers , sometimes paying bribes to periodically fire entire work crews , thus generating repetitive fees for themselves . Crime spiked in the 1890s and 1900s , with eruptions of violent activity involving unions such as the Industrial Workers of the World ( IWW ) , or " Wobblies " as they were often known , whose free speech fights had begun to garner national attention . Now , with grievances concerning the unethical practices of the employment agencies , they initiated a free speech fight in September 1908 by purposely breaking a city ordinance on soapboxing . With IWW encouragement , union members from many western states came to Spokane to take part in what had become a publicity stunt . Many Wobblies were incarcerated , including feminist labor leader Elizabeth Gurley Flynn , who published her account in the local Industrial Worker .

After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century , agriculture and logging became the primary influences in the Spokane economy . The population explosion and the building of homes , railroads , and mines in northern Idaho and southern British Columbia fueled the industry . Although overshadowed in importance by the vast timbered areas on the coastal regions west of the Cascades , and burdened with monopolistic rail freight rates and stiff competition , Spokane became a noted leader in the manufacture of doors , window sashes , blinds , and other planing mill products . Rail freight rates were much higher in Spokane than the rates in coastal seaport cities such as Seattle and Portland , so much so that Minneapolis merchants could ship goods first to Seattle and then back to Spokane for less than shipping directly to Spokane , even though the rail line ran through Spokane on the way to the coast . [ f ] Local morale was affected for years by the collapse of the Division Street Bridge early in the morning on December 15 , 1915 , which killed five people and injured over 20 , but a new bridge was built ( eventually replaced in 1994 ) . The 1920 census showed a net increase of just 35 individuals , which actually indicates that thousands left the city when considering the natural growth rate of a population . Growth in the 1920s and 1930s remained slow but less drastically so , forcing city boosters to market the city as a quiet , comfortable place suitable for raising a family rather than a dynamic community full of opportunity . The Inland Empire was heavily dependent on natural resources and extractive goods produced from mines , forests , and farms , which experienced a fall in demand . The situation improved slightly with the start of World War II as aluminum production commenced in Spokane due to the area 's cheap electricity ( produced from regional dams ) and the increased demand for airplanes .

= = = Second half of the 20th century = = =

After decades of stagnation and slow growth , Spokane businessmen formed Spokane Unlimited in the early 1960s , an organization that sought to revitalize downtown Spokane . A recreation park showcasing the Spokane Falls was the preferred option , and after successful negotiation to relocate the railroad facilities on Havermale Island , Spokane hosted the first environmentally themed World 's Fair in Expo ' 74 on May 4 , becoming the smallest city at the time to host a World 's Fair . This event transformed Spokane 's downtown , removing a century of railroad infrastructure and reinventing the urban core . After Expo ' 74 , the fairgrounds became the 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) Riverfront Park .

The growth witnessed in the late 1970s and early 1980s was interrupted by another U.S. recession in 1981 , in which silver , timber , and farm prices dropped . The period of decline for the city lasted into the 1990s and was also marked by a loss of many steady family @-@ wage jobs in the manufacturing sector . Although this was a tough period , Spokane 's economy had started to benefit from some measure of economic diversification ; growing companies such as Key Tronic and other research , marketing , and assembly plants for technology companies helped lessen Spokane 's dependence on natural resources .

= = = 21st century = = =

As of 2014 , Spokane is still trying to make the transition to a more service @-@ oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector . Developing the city 's strength in the medical and health sciences fields has seen some success , resulting in the expansion of the University District with a medical school branch . The city faces challenges such as a scarcity of high @-@ paying jobs , pockets of poverty , and areas of high crime .

The opening of the River Park Square Mall in 1999 sparked a downtown rebirth that included the building of the Spokane Arena and expansion of the Spokane Convention Center . Other major projects include the building of the Big Easy concert house ( now the Knitting Factory ) and renovation of the historic Montvale Hotel , the Kirtland Cutter @-@ designed Davenport Hotel ( after being vacant for over 20 years ) , and the Fox Theater ( now home to the Spokane Symphony ) . The Kendall Yards development on the west side of downtown Spokane is one of the largest construction projects in the city 's history . Directly across the Spokane River from downtown , it will blend residential and retail space with plazas and walking trails .

In August 2015 , the city entered a legal battle with international agricultural giant Monsanto , alleging that the company has pumped harmful products into the Spokane River for decades , and insist the company be responsible for cleanup costs . The city also announced it will spend hundreds of millions of dollars to keep harmful products out of the river in the coming years .

= = Geography = =

= = = Topography = = =

Spokane is located on the Spokane River in eastern Washington at an elevation of 1 @,@ 843 feet ( 562 m ) above sea level , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Idaho , 110 miles ( 180 km ) south of the Canadian border , 232 miles ( 373 km ) east of Seattle , and 277 miles ( 446 km ) southwest of Calgary . The lowest elevation in the city of Spokane is the northernmost point of the Spokane River within city limits ( in Riverside State Park ) at 1 @,@ 608 feet ( 490 m ) ; the highest elevation is on the northeast side , near the community of Hillyard ( though closer to Beacon Hill and the North Hill Reservoir ) at 2 @,@ 591 feet ( 790 m ) . Spokane is part of the Inland Northwest region , consisting of eastern Washington , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana , and northeastern Oregon . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 60 @.@ 02 square miles ( 155 @.@ 45 km2 ) , of which 59 @.@ 25 square miles ( 153 @.@ 46 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 77 square miles ( 1 @.@ 99 km2 ) is water .

Spokane lies in the Columbia Plateau ecoregion on the eastern edge of the basaltic Channeled Scablands steppe , a plain that then eventually rises sharply to the east towards the rugged , timbered Rocky Mountain foothills , the Selkirk Mountains . It is in a transition area between the barren landscape of the Columbia Basin and the coniferous forests to the east ; to the south are the lush prairies and rolling hills of the Palouse . The highest peak in Spokane County is Mount Spokane , at an elevation of 5 @,@ 883 feet ( 1 @,@ 793 m ) , located on the eastern side of the Selkirk Mountains . The most prominent water feature in the area is the Spokane River , a 111 @-@ mile ( 179 km ) tributary of the Columbia River , originating from Lake Coeur d 'Alene in northern Idaho . The river flows west across the Washington state line through downtown Spokane , meeting Latah Creek , then turns to the northwest , where it is joined by the Little Spokane River on its way to the Columbia River , north of Davenport . The Channeled Scablands and many of the area 's numerous large lakes , such as Lake Coeur d 'Alene and Lake Pend Oreille , were formed by the Missoula Floods after the ice @-@ dammed Glacial Lake Missoula ruptured at the end of the last ice age . The Turnbull National Wildlife Refuge south of Cheney is the closest natural reserve , and the closest national park is Glacier National Park , approximately a four @-@ hour drive away from Spokane .

= = = Climate = = =

Spokane has a dry @-@ summer continental climate ( Dsb under the Köppen classification ) , a rare climate due to its elevation and significant winter precipitation ; Spokane , however , is adjacent to and sometimes even classified as a cool @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ) because the average temperature for the coldest month is just over 27 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) .

The area typically has a hot , arid climate during the summer months , bracketed by short spring and fall seasons . On average , July and August are equally warm , and the coolest month is December ; July averages 69 @.@ 5 ° F ( 20 @.@ 8 ° C ) while December averages 27 @.@ 5 ° F ( − 2 @.@ 5 ° C ) . Daily temperature ranges are large during the summer , often exceeding 30 ° F ( 17 ° C ) , and small during the winter , with a range just above 10 ° F ( 5 @.@ 6 ° C ) . The reason is the very opposite weather existing between the extremely sunny summers and the extremely overcast winters . The record high and low are 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) and − 30 ° F ( − 34 ° C ) , but temperatures of more than 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) or less than − 10 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) are rare . Temperatures above 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) occur an average of 19 days annually , Temperatures above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) occur an average of only 1 day annually , and those below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) average 3 @.@ 5 days a year .

Spokane 's location , between the Cascades Range to the west and the Rocky Mountains to the east and north , protects it from weather patterns experienced in other parts of the Pacific Northwest . The Cascade Mountains form a barrier to the eastward flow of moist and relatively mild air from the Pacific Ocean in winter and cool air in summer . As a result of the rain shadow effect of the Cascades , the Spokane area has 16 @.@ 5 inches ( 420 mm ) average annual precipitation , less than half of Seattle 's 37 inches ( 940 mm ) . The most precipitation occurs in December , and summer is the driest time of the year . The Rockies shield Spokane from some of the winter season 's coldest air masses traveling southward across Canada .

= = Administration and politics = =

The City of Spokane operates under a mayor – council form of government , with executive and legislative branches . In 2011 , David Condon was elected mayor as a non @-@ partisan candidate , taking office on the last business day of the year . The previous mayor was Mary Verner , who succeeded the recalled James " Jim " West . Spokane voters have not reelected a mayor since 1973 , when incumbent David H. Rodgers was granted a second term . The city elected James Everett Chase as its first African @-@ American mayor in 1981 , and after his retirement , elected the city 's first woman mayor , Vicki McNeil . Spokane is the county seat of Spokane County , a position it wrested from Cheney in 1886 .

Democrat Jay Inslee was elected governor of Washington in 2012 . Federally , Spokane is part of Washington 's 5th congressional district , and has been represented by Republican Cathy McMorris Rodgers since 2004 . Washington State is represented nationally in the Senate by Democrat Patty Murray and Democrat Maria Cantwell . In the 2012 general election , Spokane County favored Mitt Romney for President over Barack Obama by 51 @.@ 5 to 45 @.@ 7 percent ; on the state ballot , the county supported the legalization of recreational marijuana ballot measure by 52 @.@ 2 to 47 @.@ 9 percent and opposed the legalization of same @-@ sex marriage by 44 @.@ 1 to 55 @.@ 9 percent . Spokane native Tom Foley was a Democratic Speaker of the House and served as a representative of Washington 's 5th district for 30 years , enjoying large support from Spokane , until his narrow defeat in the " Republican Revolution " of 1994 , the only time U.S. voters have turned out a sitting Speaker of the House since 1860 . Today , Spokane has a slight Democratic tilt , although the county and surrounding metropolitan area as a whole is staunchly conservative , and as a result , Spokane is governed by a strong amount of Republicans .

= = = Crime = = =

The crime rate per 1 @,@ 000 people in the Spokane metropolitan area ( Spokane County ) was 64 @.@ 8 in 2012 , higher than the Washington state average of 38 @.@ 3 ; the violent crime rate of 3 @.@ 8 and property crime rate of 61 also exceed the statewide averages of 2 @.@ 5 and 35 @.@ 8 , respectively . Spokane 's crime rate is also higher for both violent and property crime than in 98 % of communities in the U.S.

Data shows that most crimes reported in the city tend to be focused around the downtown city center and its environs . Half of all property crimes are localized in about 6 @.@ 5 percent of the city . An individual in Spokane has a 1 in 140 chance of becoming a victim of burglary , larceny , motor vehicle theft , or arson . Spokane had the fourth highest rate of auto theft in the U.S. in 2010 and 2011 according to the National Insurance Crime Bureau . Drive @-@ by shootings and drug use , particularly crack cocaine use , became worse in the early 1990s , and four drive @-@ by shootings were recorded in December 1993 alone . In the 1990s , a special gang unit within the Spokane Police Department was established , with an officer " collecting intelligence on gang activity and disseminating it to street officers " . The 1990s also saw Spokane 's most prolific serial killer , Robert Lee Yates , who killed thirteen prostitutes in Spokane 's East Sprague red light district and confessed to two others in Tacoma , Washington . The transition of the Spokane Police Department to a community @-@ policing precinct model has been successful in curbing crime rates since its introduction downtown , and has been expanded citywide .

Spokane and the Spokane Police Department ( SPD ) have received national publicity and scrutiny in the 2000s and 2010s due to many officer @-@ involved shootings and the use of excessive force . The most high @-@ profile of these incidents was the 2006 death of Otto Zehm , a mentally challenged man who was initially suspected of theft at a convenience store . Zehm was later found to have committed no crime , but was struck with batons by several officers and tasered . The increased pressure on the SPD prompted an independent review by a commission of the organization 's use @-@ of @-@ force policies , an internal culture audit , and the purchase of body cameras .

Spokane 's high crime rate is related to its being a major dumping ground for Washington state 's prison system .

= = = Utilities = = =

The City of Spokane provides municipal water , wastewater management , and solid waste management . Spokane operates Washington 's only waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant as well as two solid waste transfer stations as part of the Spokane Regional Solid Waste System , a collaboration between the City of Spokane and Spokane County . Electricity generated by the waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant is used to operate the facility , with excess energy being sold to Puget Sound Energy . Spokane draws its water from the Spokane Valley – Rathdrum Prairie Aquifer ; this 370 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 958 km2 ) " sole source aquifer " is the only water supply for Spokane County in Washington , and for Kootenai and Bonner counties in Idaho .

Natural gas and electricity are provided by the local utility , Avista Utilities , while CenturyLink and Comcast provide television , internet , and telephone service . Spokane hosts three hydroelectric generation facilities on the Spokane River : the Upriver Dam , the Upper Falls Dam , and the Monroe Street Dam . The Upriver Dam is owned and operated by the City of Spokane , and generates the electricity needed to operate the municipal water supply 's pressure pumps . The power generated in excess of that is sold to Avista Utilities . The Upper Falls and Monroe Street dams are owned and operated by Avista Utilities , and have respective generation capacities of 10 and 15 MW .

= = Demographics = =

According to the American Community Survey , the median income for a household in Spokane in 2012 was $ 42 @,@ 274 , and the median income for a family was $ 50 @,@ 268 . Males had a median income of $ 42 @,@ 693 and females had a median income of $ 34 @,@ 795 . The per capita income for the city was $ 24 @,@ 034 . About 13 @.@ 3 % of families and 18 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 23 @.@ 8 % of those under the age of 18 and 10 @.@ 8 % of those aged 65 and older .

At the 2010 census , there were 208 @,@ 916 people , 87 @,@ 271 households , and 49 @,@ 204 families residing in the city . The population density was 3 @,@ 526 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 361 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 94 @,@ 291 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 591 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 614 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 86 @.@ 7 % White , 2 @.@ 29 % African American , 2 @.@ 0 % Native American , 2 @.@ 6 % Asian , and 0 @.@ 6 % Pacific Islander , along with 1 @.@ 3 % from other races and 4 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . Hispanics and Latinos of any race were 5 @.@ 0 % of the population .

There were 87 @,@ 271 households , of which 28 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 38 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 12 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , 5 @.@ 0 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 43 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . In 2010 , 34 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 11 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 31 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 97 .

The median age in the city was 35 years . In Spokane , 22 @.@ 4 % of residents were under the age of 18 , 12 @.@ 3 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 , 27 @.@ 6 % were from 25 to 44 , 25 @.@ 1 % were from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 8 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 8 % male and 51 @.@ 2 % female .

According to the Association of Religion Data Archives ' 2010 Metro Area Membership Report , the denominational affiliations of the Spokane MSA are 64 @,@ 277 Evangelical Protestant , 682 Black Protestant , 24 @,@ 826 Mainline Protestant , 754 Orthodox , 66 @,@ 202 Catholic , 31 @,@ 674 Other , and 339 @,@ 338 Unclaimed . As of 2014 , there are also at least three Jewish congregations . The Emanu @-@ El congregation erected the first synagogue in Spokane and the state of Washington on September 14 , 1892 . The city 's first mosque opened in 2009 as the Spokane Islamic Center .

Spokane , like Washington and the Pacific Northwest region as a whole , is part of the Unchurched Belt , a region characterized by low church membership rates and religious participation . The city serves as the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane , which was established in 1913 , and the Mormon Spokane Washington Temple District .

Spokane has been criticized and sometimes derided for its lack of diversity and multicultural offerings , but the city has become more diverse in recent decades . People from countries in the former Soviet Union ( especially Russians and Ukrainians ) form a comparatively large demographic in Spokane and Spokane County , the result of a large influx of immigrants and their families after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 . According to the 2000 Census , the number of people of Russian or Ukrainian ancestry in Spokane County was reported to be 7 @,@ 700 ( 4 @,@ 900 residing in the city of Spokane ) , amounting to two percent of the county . Among the fastest @-@ growing demographics in Spokane is the Pacific Islander ethnic group , which is estimated to be the third largest minority group in the county , after the Russian and Ukrainian community and Latinos . Spokane was once home to a sizable Asian community , mostly Japanese , centered in a district called Chinatown from the early days of the city until 1974 . As in many western railway towns , the Asian community started off as an encampment for migrant laborers working on the railroads . The Chinatown Asian community thrived until the 1940s , after which its population decreased and became integrated and dispersed , losing its Asian character ; urban blight and the preparations leading up to Expo ' 74 led to Chinatown 's eventual demolition .

= = = Metropolitan area = = =

The Spokane metropolitan area consists of Spokane , Stevens , and Pend Oreille counties . As of the 2013 census estimates , the Spokane metropolitan area had a population of 535 @,@ 724 . Directly east of Spokane County is the Coeur d 'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Area , which consists of Kootenai County , Idaho , anchored by the city of Coeur d 'Alene . The urban areas of the two MSAs largely follow the path of Interstate 90 between Spokane and Coeur d 'Alene . The Spokane area has suffered from suburbanization and urban sprawl in past decades , despite Washington 's use of urban growth boundaries ; the city ranks low among major Northwest cities in population density and smart growth . The Spokane and Coeur d 'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Areas ( MSA ) are now included in a single Combined Statistical Area ( CSA ) by the Office of Management and Budget . The Spokane – Coeur d 'Alene CSA had around 679 @,@ 989 residents in 2013 .

= = Economy = =

Spokane became an important rail and shipping center because of its location between mining and farming areas . In the early 1880s , gold and silver were discovered in the Inland Empire ; as a regional shipping center , the city furnished supplies to the miners who passed through on their way to the mineral @-@ rich Coeur d 'Alene , Colville and Kootenay districts . The mining districts are still considered among the most productive in North America .

Natural resources have historically been the foundation of Spokane 's economy , with the mining , logging , and agriculture industries providing much of the region 's economic activity . After mining declined at the turn of the 20th century , agriculture and logging replaced mining as the primary influences in the economy . Lumberjacks and millmen working in the hundreds of mills along the railroads , rivers , and lakes of northern Washington and Idaho were provisioning themselves in Spokane . Agriculture has always been an important sector in the local economy ; the surrounding area , especially to the south , is the Palouse , a productive agricultural region that supports many vineyards and microbreweries as well . By the early 20th century Spokane was primarily a commercial center rather than an industrial center .

In Spokane , wood and food processing , printing and publishing , primary metal refining and fabrication , electrical and computer equipment , and transportation equipment are leaders in the manufacturing sector . Gold mining company Gold Reserve , and Fortune 1000 company Potlatch Corporation – a forest products company that operates as a real estate investment trust – are headquartered in the city proper . Mining , forestry , and agribusiness remain important to the local and regional economy , but Spokane 's economy has diversified to include other industries , including the high @-@ tech and biotech sectors . Spokane is becoming a more service @-@ oriented economy in the face of a less prominent manufacturing sector , particularly as a medical and biotechnology center ; Fortune 1000 technology company Itron , for instance , is headquartered in the area . Avista Corporation , the holding company of Avista Utilities , is the only company in Spokane that has been listed in the Fortune 500 , ranked 299 on the list in 2002 . Other companies with head offices in the Spokane area include technology company Key Tronic , hotelier Red Lion Hotels Corporation , and microcar maker Commuter Cars .

As of 2013 , the top five employers in Spokane are the State of Washington , Spokane Public Schools , Providence Sacred Heart Medical Center and Children 's Hospital , the 92d Air Refueling Wing , and Spokane County . The largest military facility and employer , the 92d Air Refueling Wing , is stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base near Airway Heights . The leading industries in Spokane for the employed population 16 years and older were educational services , health care , and social assistance ( 26 @.@ 5 percent ) , retail trade ( 12 @.@ 7 percent ) , and arts , entertainment , recreation , and accommodation food services ( 10 @.@ 4 percent ) . As the metropolitan center of the Inland Northwest , as well as parts of southern British Columbia and Alberta , Spokane serves as a commercial , manufacturing , transportation , medical , shopping , and entertainment hub . In 2010 , the Spokane – Spokane Valley MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $ 19 @.@ 48 billion .

As of 2014 , economic development in the Spokane area primarily focuses on promoting the following industries : manufacturing ( especially aerospace manufacturing ) , health sciences , professional services , information science and technology , finance and insurance as well as clean technology , and digital media . To aid economic development , the eastern branch of Innovate Washington , a state @-@ supported business incubator was placed in the city .

Despite diversification to new industries , Spokane 's economy has struggled in recent decades . Spokane was ranked the # 1 " Worst City For Jobs " in America in both 2012 and 2015 , while also ranking # 4 in 2014 . Additionally , Forbes named Spokane the " Scam Capital of America " in 2009 due to widespread business fraud . Trends of fraud were noted as far back as 1988 , again in 2002 , and continuing through 2011 .

= = Cityscape = =

= = = Neighborhoods = = =

Spokane 's neighborhoods range from the Victorian @-@ style South Hill and Browne 's Addition , to the Davenport District of Downtown , to the more contemporary neighborhoods of North Spokane . Spokane 's neighborhoods are gaining attention for their history , as illustrated by the city being home to 18 recognized National Register Historical Districts .

Some of Spokane 's most prominent neighborhoods are Riverside , Browne 's Addition , and Hillyard . The Riverside neighborhood consists primarily of downtown Spokane and is the central business district of Spokane . The neighborhoods south of downtown Spokane are generally known as the South Hill . Downtown Spokane contains many of the city 's public facilities , including City Hall , Riverfront Park ( site of Expo ' 74 ) , and the Spokane Convention Center and INB Performing Arts Center , as well as the Spokane Arena and Spokane County Courthouse across the river in the historic West Central neighborhood . The Monroe Street Bridge , a city icon , connects the two areas . To the east of downtown is East Central and the adjacent University District and International District . To the west of downtown is one of Spokane 's oldest and densest neighborhoods , Browne 's Addition .

A National Historic District west of Downtown , Browne 's Addition was Spokane 's first prestigious address , notable for its array of old mansions built by Spokane 's early elite in the Queen Anne and early American Craftsman styles . The area houses the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture . In northeast Spokane , the Hillyard neighborhood began in 1892 as the chosen site for James J. Hill 's Great Northern Railway yard , placed outside Spokane city limits to avoid " burdensome taxes . " The downtown Hillyard Business District , located on Market Street , was the Spokane neighborhood listed in the National Register of Historic Places . Many of the former town 's houses were built to house railroad workers , mainly immigrant laborers working in the local yard , who gave Hillyard an independent , blue @-@ collar character . Hillyard has become a home for much of Spokane 's growing Russian , Ukrainian , and Southeast Asian communities .

= = = Architecture = = =

= = = = Commercial and public buildings = = = =

Spokane neighborhoods contain a patchwork of architectural styles that give them a distinct identity and illustrate the changes throughout the city 's history . Most of Spokane 's notable buildings and landmarks are in the Riverside neighborhood and the downtown commercial district , where many of the buildings were rebuilt following the Great Fire of 1889 in the Romanesque Revival style . Examples include the Great Northern clock tower , Review Building , Cathedral of Our Lady of Lourdes , First Congregational Church , Washington Water Power Post Street substation , Peyton Building , and The Carlyle . The principal architect of many buildings of this period was Kirtland Kelsey Cutter . Self @-@ taught , he came to Spokane in 1886 and began by designing " Chalet Hohenstein " for himself and other residences for his family while also working as a bank teller . Other structures designed by Cutter include the Spokane Club , Washington Water Power Substation , Monroe Street Bridge ( featured in the city seal ) , Central Steam Plant , and the Davenport Hotel . Built in renaissance and Spanish revival style , the Davenport Hotel cost two million dollars to complete , and included new technologies at the time of its opening in September 1914 , such as chilled water , elevators , and air cooling .

Other well @-@ represented architectural styles downtown include art deco ( Spokane City Hall , Paulsen Center , Fox Theater , City Ramp Garage ) , renaissance revival ( Steam Plant Square , Thomas S. Foley Courthouse , San Marco ) , neoclassical ( Masonic Center , Hutton Building , Bing Crosby Theater ) , and Chicago school ( U.S. Bank Building , Liberty Building ) . The tallest building in the city , at 288 feet ( 88 m ) , is the modernist Bank of America Financial Center . Also of note is the Spokane County Courthouse in West Central ( the building on the seal of Spokane County ) , the Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist in Rockwood , the Benewah Milk Bottles in Riverside and Garland , Mount Saint Michael in Hillyard , and the Cambern Dutch Shop Windmill in South Perry .

= = = = Residential = = = =

As an early affluent Spokane neighborhood , the Browne 's Addition neighborhood and residences contain the largest variety of residential architecture in the city . These residences are lavish and personalized , featuring many architecture styles that were popular and trendy in the Pacific Northwest from the late 19th century to 1930 , such as the Victorian and Queen Anne styles . In high demand following his firms ' design of the Idaho Building at the Chicago World 's Fair in 1893 , Cutter found work constructing many mansions for mining and railroad tycoons such as Patrick " Patsy " Clark and Daniel and Austin Corbin .

The older neighborhoods of the early 20th century , such as West Central , East Central , Logan , Hillyard , and much of the lower South Hill , feature a large concentration of American Craftsman style bungalows . In Hillyard , the most architecturally intact neighborhood in Spokane , 85 percent of these buildings are historic . As the city expanded mainly to the north in the middle of the 20th century , the bungalows in the " minimal traditional " style commonplace from the 1930s to the 1950s tend to predominate in the Northwest , North Hill , and Bemiss neighborhoods . This architectural style occupies the neighborhoods where the integrity of Spokane 's street grid pattern is largely intact ( especially the areas north of downtown and south of Francis Ave . ) , and the houses have backyard alleys for carports , deliveries , and refuse collection . Contemporary suburbs and architecture are prevalent at the north and south edges of Spokane as well as in the new Kendall Yards neighborhood north of downtown .

= = = Parks and recreation = = =

In 1907 , Spokane 's board of park commissioners retained the services of the Olmsted Brothers to draw up a plan for Spokane 's parks . Much of Spokane 's park land was acquired by the city prior to World War I , establishing it early on as a leader among Western cities in the development of a city @-@ wide park system . Spokane has a system of over 87 parks totaling 4 @,@ 100 acres ( 17 km2 ) and includes six neighborhood aquatic centers . Some of the most notable parks in Spokane 's system are Riverfront Park , Manito Park and Botanical Gardens , Riverside State Park , Mount Spokane State Park , Saint Michael 's Mission State Park , John A. Finch Arboretum , and the Dishman Hills Conservation Area .

Riverfront Park , created after Expo ' 74 and occupying the same site , is 100 acres ( 40 ha ) in downtown Spokane and the site of some of Spokane 's largest events . The park has views of the Spokane Falls and holds a number of civic attractions , including a skyride , a rebuilt gondola lift that carries visitors across the falls from high above the river gorge . The park also includes the historic hand @-@ carved Riverfront Park Looff carousel created in 1909 by Charles I. D. Looff . Manito Park and Botanical Gardens on Spokane 's South Hill features the Duncan Gardens , a classical European Renaissance @-@ style garden and the Nishinomiya Japanese Garden designed by Nagao Sakurai . Riverside State Park , close to downtown , is a site for outdoor activities such as hiking , mountain biking , and horseriding .

The Spokane area has many trails and rail trails , the most notable of which is the Spokane River Centennial Trail , which features over 37 @.@ 5 miles ( 60 @.@ 4 km ) of paved trails running along the Spokane River from Spokane to the Idaho border . This trail continues on towards Coeur d 'Alene for 24 miles ( 39 km ) as the North Idaho Centennial Trail and is often used for alternative transportation and recreational use . In the summer , it has long been popular to visit North Idaho 's " Lake Country " , such as Lake Coeur d 'Alene , Lake Pend Oreille , Priest Lake , or one of the other nearby bodies of water and beaches . In the winter , the public has access to five ski resorts within a couple hours of the city . The closest of these is the Mt . Spokane Ski and Snowboard Park , which has trails for cross @-@ country skiing , snowshoeing , snowmobiling , and dog sledding .

= = Culture = =

= = = Arts and theater = = =

Spokane 's main art districts are located in the Davenport Arts District , the Garland Business District , and East Sprague . The First Friday Artwalk , which occurs the first Friday of every month , is dedicated to local vendors and performers displaying art around downtown . The two most important Artwalk dates ( the first Friday of February and October ) attract large crowds to the art districts . The Davenport Arts District has the largest concentration of art galleries and is home to many of Spokane 's main performing arts venues , including the Knitting Factory , Fox Theater , and Bing Crosby Theater . The Knitting Factory is a concert house that serves as a setting for many mainstream touring musicians and acts . The Martin Woldson Theater at the Fox , restored to its original 1931 Art Deco state after years of being derelict , is home to the Spokane Symphony Orchestra . The Metropolitan Performing Arts Center was restored in 1988 and renamed the Bing Crosby Theater in 2006 to honor the former Spokanite . Theater is provided by Spokane 's only resident professional company , The Modern Theater , though there are also the Spokane Civic Theatre and several other amateur community theaters and smaller groups . The INB Performing Arts Center is often host to large traveling exhibitions , shows , and tours . Spokane was awarded the All @-@ America City Award by the National Civic League in 1974 , 2004 and 2015 .

Spokane offers an array of musical performances catering to a variety of interests . Spokane 's local music scene , however , is considered somewhat lacking by the Spokane All @-@ Ages Music Initiative and other critics , who have identified a need for a legitimate all @-@ ages venue for music performances . The Spokane Symphony presents a full season of classical music , and the Spokane Jazz Orchestra , a full season of jazz music . The Spokane Jazz Orchestra , formed in 1962 , is a 70 @-@ piece orchestra and non @-@ profit organization .

= = = Museums = = =

There are several museums in the city , most notably the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture , located a few blocks from the center of downtown in Browne 's Addition , amid the mansions of Spokane 's late 19th @-@ century " Age of Elegance " . A Smithsonian affiliate museum , it houses a large collection of Native American artifacts as well as regional and national traveling art exhibits .

The Mobius Science Center and the related Mobius Kid 's Museum in downtown Spokane seek to generate interest in science , technology , engineering , and math among the youth in a hands @-@ on experience . The Jundt Art Museum at Gonzaga University features 2 @,@ 800 square feet ( 260 m2 ) of exhibition space and contains sizable collections of prints from the Bolker , Baruch , Jacobs , and Corita Kent collections . The museum houses glass art by Dale Chihuly , bronze sculptures by Auguste Rodin , tapestries , paintings , ceramics , photographs , and a wide range of gifts , including from the Iris and B. Gerald Cantor Foundation and Collections . On the campus of Gonzaga University , the Crosby House , Bing Crosby 's childhood home houses , the Bing Crosby Memorabilia Room , the world 's largest Crosby collection with around 200 pieces .

= = = Events and activities = = =

Spokane is known as the birthplace of the national movement started by Sonora Smart Dodd that led to the proposal and eventual establishment of Father 's Day as a national holiday in the U.S. The first observation of Father 's Day in Spokane was on June 19 , 1910 . Sonora conceived the idea in Spokane 's Central Methodist Episcopal Church while listening to a Mother 's Day sermon .

The Lilac Bloomsday Run , held in summer on the first Sunday of May , is a 7 @.@ 46 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 01 km ) race for competitive runners as well as walkers that attracts international competition . Also in May is the Lilac Festival , which honors the military , celebrates youth , and showcases the region . Spokane 's nickname , the " Lilac City " , refers to a flowering shrub that has flourished since its introduction to the area in the early 20th century . In June the city hosts Spokane Hoopfest , a 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 basketball tournament , among the largest of its kind . One of Spokane 's most popular local events is Pig Out in the Park , an annual six @-@ day food and entertainment festival where attendees may eat a variety of foods and listen to free live music concerts featuring local , regional , and national recording artists in Riverfront Park .

Other notable events in Spokane include the Spokane Interstate Fair , Spokane Comic @-@ Con , and Japan Week . The Spokane Interstate Fair is held annually in September at the Spokane Fair and Expo Center . Japan Week is held in April and celebrates the sister @-@ city relationship with Nishinomiya , Hyogo , demonstrating the many commonalities shared between the two cities . Students from the Spokane campus of Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute , Gonzaga , Whitworth , and other area schools organize an array of Japanese cultural events . The gay and lesbian Spokane Pride Parade is held each June .

= = Education = =

Serving the general educational needs of the local population are two public library districts , the Spokane Public Library ( within city limits ) and the Spokane County Library District . Founded in 1904 with funding from philanthropist Andrew Carnegie , the Spokane Public Library system comprises a downtown library overlooking the Spokane Falls and five branch libraries . Special collections focus on Inland Pacific Northwest history and include reference books , periodicals , maps , photographs , and other archival materials and government documents .

Spokane Public Schools ( District 81 ) is the largest public school system in Spokane and the second largest in the state as of 2014 , serving roughly 30 @,@ 000 students in six high schools , six middle schools , and thirty @-@ four elementary schools . Other public school districts in the Spokane area include the Mead School District in north Spokane County , outside city limits . A variety of state @-@ approved , independent charter schools and private and parochial elementary and secondary schools augment the public school system . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Spokane manages 11 such schools in Spokane .

Spokane is home to many higher education institutions . They include the private universities Gonzaga and Whitworth University , and the public Community Colleges of Spokane system ( Spokane Community College and Spokane Falls Community College ) as well as a variety of technical institutes . Gonzaga University and Law School were founded by the Italian @-@ born priest Joseph Cataldo and the Jesuits in 1887 . Whitworth , founded in 1890 , is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church , and had 2 @,@ 500 students studying in 53 different undergraduate and degree programs as of 2011 . While Spokane is one of the larger cities in the U.S. to lack a main campus of a state @-@ supported university within its city limits , Eastern Washington University ( EWU ) and Washington State University ( WSU ) have operations at the Riverpoint Campus in the University District , just adjacent to downtown and across the Spokane River from the Gonzaga campus . Washington State University Spokane is WSU 's health sciences campus and houses the school 's College of Medical Sciences , College of Nursing , and College of Pharmacy . The main EWU campus is located 15 miles ( 24 km ) southwest of Spokane in nearby Cheney , and WSU is located 65 miles ( 105 km ) to the south in Pullman . In addition to WSU 's health science presence in Spokane , there is also a four @-@ year medical school branch affiliated with the University of Washington 's WWAMI program . An international branch campus of the Mukogawa Women 's University , the Mukogawa Fort Wright Institute , is located in Spokane .

= = Sports = =

Spokane is close to dozens of lakes and rivers . People use these for swimming , boating , rafting , and fishing . Nearby mountains provide skiing , hiking , biking and sightseeing . Spokane 's professional and semi @-@ professional sports teams include the Spokane Indians in Minor League Baseball , Spokane Empire in indoor football , the Spokane Chiefs in junior ice hockey and Spokane Anarchy Wrestling . Collegiate sports in Spokane focus on the local teams such as the Gonzaga Bulldogs that compete in the NCAA 's Division I West Coast Conference and the Whitworth Pirates playing in the Division III Northwest Conference as well as other regional teams , including the Washington State Cougars , Eastern Washington Eagles , and the Idaho Vandals .

The Spokane Indians are a Class @-@ A @-@ Short @-@ Season baseball team in the Northwest League ( NWL ) and have been a farm team of the Texas Rangers since 2003 . The Indians play their home games at the 6 @,@ 803 @-@ seat Avista Stadium and have won seven NWL titles since their Short @-@ Season @-@ A debut in 1982 . Prior to 1982 , the Indians played at the Triple @-@ A level . The team achieved considerable success in the early 1970s , winning the Pacific Coast League championship in 1970 , and having a 94 – 52 record . In the 1920s and 1930s the Spokane City League , a semiprofessional baseball league of teams of the Inland Empire , reached its peak .

The Spokane Shock was an indoor football franchise awarded to the city in August 2005 in the AF2 league . The team was quickly placed into the Arena Football League ( AFL ) after winning championships in two of their four seasons in the Arenafootball2 league , all while setting league records for attendance . The Shock were crowned AFL champions in their inaugural season after defeating the Tampa Bay Storm 69 – 57 in ArenaBowl XXIII . After the 2015 season , the owner of the Shock , Nader Naini , decided to have the team leave the AFL to join the Indoor Football League in order to have a geographic rival in the Tri @-@ Cities Fever . The AFL decided to retain the rights the Shock 's franchise , so Naini was forced to rename the team and it became the Spokane Empire beginning with the 2016 season .

The Spokane Chiefs are a major junior ice hockey team that play in the Canadian Hockey League 's Western Hockey League . They play their home games in the Spokane Arena and have a regional rivalry with the Tri @-@ City Americans . They have won the CHL 's top prize , the Memorial Cup , two times in club history , first in 1991 and again in 2008 .

The Spokane Veterans Memorial Arena is the city 's premier sports venue . In the years since the Spokane Arena opened , it has played host to several major sporting events . The first major event was the 1998 Memorial Cup , the championship game of the Canadian Hockey League . Four years later in 2002 , the city hosted the 2002 Skate America figure skating competition and then the 2007 U.S. Figure Skating Championships in the Spokane Arena . The latter event set an attendance record , selling nearly 155 @,@ 000 tickets . Spokane later hosted the 2010 U.S. Figure Skating Championships – ending eighteen days before the start of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , British Columbia .

= = Transportation = =

= = = City streets = = =

Spokane 's streets use a street grid that is oriented to the four cardinal directions ; generally , the east – west roads are designated as avenues , and the north – south roads are referred to as streets . Major east – west thoroughfares in the city include Francis , Wellesley , Mission , Sprague , and 29th Avenues . Major north – south thoroughfares include Maple – Ash , Monroe , Division , Hamilton , Greene – Market ( north of I @-@ 90 ) , and Ray – Freya ( south of I @-@ 90 ) Streets . Division Street divides the city into East and West , while Sprague Avenue splits the city into North and South . Division Street is Spokane 's major retail corridor ; Sprague Avenue serves the same purpose in Spokane Valley . With over 40 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in average daily traffic from Interstate 90 north to the US 2 – US 395 junction , North Division is Spokane 's busiest corridor .

= = = Walkability = = =

Spokane has an average Walk Score of 45 , indicating most errands require a car , and an average Transit Score of 36 . The extensive skywalk system covers thirteen blocks in the downtown area and is among the largest in the United States ; it is used for pedestrian travel in cold and inclement weather and retail space as well .

= = = Freeways and highways = = =

Spokane is primarily served by interstate freeway I @-@ 90 and highways US 195 , US 395 , and US 2 .

Interstate 90 runs east – west from Seattle , through Spokane and suburban areas to the east , onward to Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho and Montana .

US 195 , also known as the Inland Empire Highway , connects Spokane with the Palouse region to the south and intersects Interstate 90 just west of Spokane near Latah Creek

US 395 enters Spokane from the west concurrently with I @-@ 90 , splitting off at Division St. , and continues northward to Deer Park , Colville and Canada . Its route designation will move from Division St. to the limited @-@ access North Spokane Corridor upon completion of that project .

US 2 , also enters Spokane from the west and runs concurrently US 395 until they reach " The Y " in north Spokane , where US 2 branches off to the northeast , continuing to Mead , Newport , and Sandpoint .

The Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) is tasked with improving local highways to keep up with the region 's growth and to try to prevent congestion problems that plague many larger cities . The WSDOT is constructing the North Spokane Corridor . When completed , the corridor will be a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) limited @-@ access highway that will run from I @-@ 90 , in the vicinity of the Thor / Freya interchange , northward through Spokane , meeting the existing US 395 just south of the Wandermere Golf Course .

= = = Mass transportation = = =

Before the influx of automobiles , Spokane 's electric streetcar and interurban lines played a dominant role in moving people and goods around Spokane . Streetcars were installed as early as 1888 , when they were pulled by horses . Many older side streets in Spokane still have visible streetcar rails embedded in them . Streetcar service was reduced due to declining ridership beginning in 1922 , and by August 1936 , all lines had been abandoned or converted to motor buses . Mass transportation throughout the Spokane area is provided by the Spokane Transit Authority ( STA ) , which operates a fleet of 156 buses . Its service area covers roughly 248 square miles ( 640 km2 ) and reaches 85 percent of the county 's population . A large percentage of STA bus routes originate from the central hub , the STA Plaza in downtown Spokane . Spokane has rail and bus service provided by Amtrak and Greyhound via the Spokane Intermodal Center . The city is a stop for Amtrak 's Empire Builder on its way to and from Chicago 's Union Station en route to Seattle and Portland . Amtrak 's through service to Seattle and Portland is a legacy of BNSF Railway 's old Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway trackage . Spokane is a major railway junction for the BNSF Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad and is the western terminus for the Montana Rail Link .

= = = Airports = = =

Spokane International Airport ( IATA : GEG , ICAO : KGEG ) serves as the primary commercial airport for Spokane , Eastern Washington , and Northern Idaho . It is the second largest airport in the state of Washington and is recognized by the Federal Aviation Administration as a small hub , with service from six airlines and two air cargo carriers . The 4 @,@ 800 @-@ acre ( 19 @.@ 42 km2 ) airport is located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of downtown Spokane and is approximately a 10 @-@ minute drive away . The international airport 's three @-@ letter designation is " GEG " , a result and legacy of the Geiger Field days prior to 1960 , when the airport was named after Army aviator Major Harold Geiger in 1941 .

Felts Field is a general aviation airport serving the Spokane area and is located in east Spokane along the south bank of the Spokane River . Aviation at Felts Field dates back to 1913 and the strip served as Spokane 's primary airport until commercial air traffic was redirected to Geiger Field after World War II . In 1927 , the strip was one of the first in the western U.S. to receive official recognition as an airport by the U.S. Department of Commerce and is now named in honor of James Buell Felts , a Washington Air National Guard pilot .

= = Healthcare = =

The Spokane area has six major hospitals , four of which are full @-@ service facilities . The healthcare industry is a large and increasingly important industry in Spokane ; the city provides specialized care to many patients from the surrounding Inland Northwest and as far north as the Canadian border . The city 's healthcare needs are served primarily by non @-@ profit Seattle @-@ based Providence Health & Services and for @-@ profit Tennessee @-@ based Community Health Systems , which run the two biggest hospitals , Sacred Heart Medical Center , and Deaconess Medical Center , respectively . These two hospitals , along with most of Spokane 's major health care facilities , are located on Spokane 's Lower @-@ South Hill , just south of downtown , in what is known as the " Medical District " of Spokane . The Sacred Heart Hospital , opened originally , with just 31 beds , on Spokane Falls Boulevard on January 27 , 1887 , but later moved to its present location at 101 West Eighth Avenue . As of 2014 it had 642 beds , with 28 @,@ 319 admissions , 71 @,@ 543 emergency room visits , and 2 @,@ 982 births annually , and a full @-@ time staff of 29 doctors and dentists and 583 registered nurses . Deaconess Medical Center , the smaller of the two main hospitals , had 388 beds as of 2014 . Other hospitals in the area include the Spokane Veterans Affairs Medical Center in the northwest part of town , Holy Family Hospital on the north side , and Valley Hospital and Medical Center in the Spokane Valley . One of 20 specialty orthopedic Shriners Hospitals in the U.S. is also located in Spokane . One of Washington 's two state psychiatric hospitals , Eastern State Hospital , is located 15 miles ( 24 km ) away in Medical Lake .

= = Media = =

Newspaper service in Spokane is provided by its only major daily newspaper , The Spokesman @-@ Review , which has a daily circulation of 76 @,@ 291 and Sunday circulation of 95 @,@ 939 . The Spokesman @-@ Review was formed from the merger of the Spokane Falls Review ( 1883 – 1894 ) and the Spokesman ( 1890 – 1893 ) in 1893 and was first published under the present name on June 29 , 1894 . It later absorbed the competing afternoon paper The Spokane Daily Chronicle , a significant newspaper historically that existed from 1890 until the merger in 1982 . More specialized publications include the weekly alternative newspaper The Pacific Northwest Inlander , the bi @-@ weekly business journal The Spokane Journal of Business , the student @-@ run The Gonzaga Bulletin , the monthly GLBT newsmagazine Q View Northwest , and a monthly newspaper for parents , Kids newspaper . The city also has several community magazines , such as the monthly paper covering the Garland neighborhood , The Garland Times , and Spokane Coeur d 'Alene Living , a monthly home and lifestyle magazine .

According to Arbitron , Spokane is the 94th largest radio market in the U.S. , with 532 @,@ 100 listeners aged 12 and over . There are 28 AM and FM radio stations broadcast in the city . The five most listened @-@ to stations are KKZX @-@ FM ( classic rock ) , KQNT @-@ AM ( news / talk ) , KXLY @-@ FM ( country ) , KISC @-@ FM ( adult contemporary ) , and KZZU @-@ FM ( Hot AC ) . Spokane 's primary sources of non @-@ commercial and community radio include Spokane 's NPR @-@ affiliate station KPBX @-@ FM and KYRS , a full @-@ power community radio station .

Spokane is the 73rd largest television market in the U.S. , accounting for 0 @.@ 366 % of the total TV households in the U.S. The city has six television stations , representing the major commercial networks and public television . Spokane is the television broadcast center for much of eastern Washington ( except the Yakima and Tri @-@ Cities area ) , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana , northeastern Oregon , and parts of southern Canada ( by cable television ) . Spokane receives broadcasts in the Pacific Time Zone , with weekday prime time beginning at 8 pm . Montana and Alberta , Canada are in the Mountain Time Zone and receive Spokane broadcasts one hour later by their local time . The major network television affiliates include KREM ( TV ) 2 ( CBS ) , KXLY @-@ TV 4 ( ABC ) , KHQ @-@ TV 6 ( NBC ; Spokane 's first television station , on air on December 20 , 1952 ) , KAYU 28 ( FOX ) , KSKN 22 ( The CW ) , KSPS @-@ TV 7 ( PBS ) and KCDT @-@ TV 26 ( PBS ; operating out of Coeur d 'Alene , Idaho ) .

= = Notable people = =

= = Sister cities = =

Spokane has five current sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :

Nishinomiya , Hyōgo Prefecture , Japan – since September 1961 ( Spokane 's first sister city )

Jecheon , South Korea

Jilin City , China

Limerick , Ireland

= Fortifications of Xi 'an =

The fortifications of Xi 'an ( Chinese : 西安城墙 ) , also known as Xi 'an City Wall , in Xi 'an , an ancient capital of China , represent one of the oldest , largest and best preserved Chinese city walls . It was built under the rule of the Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang as a military defense system . It exhibits the " complete features of the rampart architecture of feudal society " . It has been refurbished many times since it was built in the 14th century , thrice at intervals of about 200 years in the later half of 1500s and 1700s , and in recent years in 1983 . The wall encloses an area of about 36 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi )

The Xi 'an City Wall is on the tentative list of UNESCO 's World Heritage Site under the title " City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties " . Since 2008 , it is also on the list of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People 's Republic of China . Since March 1961 , the Xi 'an City Wall is a heritage National Historical and Cultural Town .

= = Location = =

Xi 'an City Wall is located in the urban district of Xi 'an City , which at one time was an imperial city during the periods of the Sui and Tang dynasties . It is situated at the end of the ancient Silk Road .

= = History = =

Zhu Yuanzhang , the first Emperor of the Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) , was advised by Zhu Sheng , a sage , to build a fortified high wall around the city , create storage facilities for food and then establish his empire by unifying all the other states . Following the hermit 's advice , Zhu established the Ming dynasty , and then built a highly fortified wall over a previously existing wall of the Tang dynasty ( 618 -907 ) . He started building the Xian City Wall , as the capital of northwestern Shaanxi Province in 1370 . He incorporated the ancient fortified embankments built by the Sui and Tang Dynasties by including them in the wall 's western and southern parts , enlarging the eastern and northern parts . The edifice was built over an eight @-@ year period and was well maintained during both the Ming Dynasty , and the Qing Dynasty , which followed .

The wall was initially built solely from tamped earth . During the Longqing Emperor 's period ( 1568 ) the wall was strengthened by laying blue bricks on the top and exterior faces of the earthen walls . During the reign of Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty ( 1781 ) , the wall was enlarged ; drainage features , crenels and other modifications were made ; and the structure as it is now seen came into existence . By the end of the Qing dynasty rule , the structure had begun to deteriorate . In a limited degree the Republican Authorities carried out maintenance of the wall , which was in a poor state . In the first decade of the 20th century , the wall 's defense system was considered to be of strategic importance , even though demolishing of similar walls in other regions of the country was undertaken following the 1911 Revolution . In 1926 , the wall was attacked with bombs by enemy forces resulting in serious structural damage , but the city within the wall was not affected . During the Second World War , when the Japanese carried out air bombings from 1937 to 1940 , the residents built around 1 @,@ 000 bunkers , as anti @-@ aircraft shelters within the wide base ( thickness of more than 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ) of the wall . A few escape openings were also made through the wall as passageways . Even later , new gates to allow traffic through the Xian Wall were constructed during the Republican rule .

According to the Shenboo Atlas of 1933 , in the 1930s most people lived within the perimeter of the Xi 'an Wall but still there were a lot of unoccupied open areas . Among the visitors who came to see the Xian Wall were American captain ( later general ) Stilwell in 1922 and the Czech sinologist Jaroslav Průšek ( 1906 – 1980 ) in 1933 . In 1983 , the administration of the Xi 'an municipality carried out more renovations and additions to the wall . At that time , the Yangmacheng tower , the Zhalou sluice tower , the Kuixinglou dipper tower , the Jiaolou corner tower and the Dilou defense tower were all refurbished ; the crumbling parts of the rampart were changed into gates ; and the moat was restored . In May 2005 , all of Xi 'an 's ramparts were inter @-@ connected .

The Xi 'an City Wall was proposed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site by the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of the People 's Republic of China in 2008 . UNESCO included the site in the tentative List of World Heritage Sites under the title " City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties " as a cultural heritage designee under Criterion iii & iv . In March 1961 , the Xi 'an City Wall was fully approved as a heritage site as a National Historical and Cultural Town .

Michelle Obama , the first lady of the United States , visited the Xi 'an City Wall on 24 March 2014 , describing it as " a wall that has withstood war and famine and the rise and fall of dynasties " .

= = Features = =

The Xi 'an Wall is rectangular in shape and has a total length of 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) , with almost all stretches subjected to some kind of restoration or rebuilding . Along the top of the wall is a walkway , which would typically take four hours to cover . It is built in the Chinese architecture style . As a defense fortification , it was constructed with a moat , drawbridges , watch towers , corner towers , parapet walls and gate towers . The wall is 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in height with a width of 12 – 14 metres ( 39 – 46 ft ) at the top and base width of 15 – 18 metres ( 49 – 59 ft ) . Ramparts are built at intervals of 120 metres ( 390 ft ) , projecting from the main wall . There are parapets on the outer side of the wall , built with 5 @,@ 984 crenels , which form " altogether protruding ramparts " . There are four watch towers , located at the corners and the moat that surrounds the wall has a width of 18 metres ( 59 ft ) and depth of 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . The area within the wall is about 36 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi ) , enclosing the small area of 14 square kilometres ( 5 @.@ 4 sq mi ) occupied by the city .

The southern embrasured watchtower constructed in 1378 , was destroyed by fire in 1926 during the civil war of 1926 , and was restored in September 2014 . This was done after a careful historical review of documents related to the historical features that existed before it was damaged . The other three watchtowers forming the northern , eastern and western gates of the wall were also examined during the planning phase of the modifications done for the South Tower . They were modified , without affecting the integrity of the wall , by an encompassing hall offering protection to the structures by using steel , wood work and the ancient @-@ type tiles and bricks structure . Major gates have ramp access except the South Gate which has entry outside the walls .

There is an " Archery Tower " , which provides security to one of the four gates of the Xi 'an wall . Created as a large trap @-@ like chamber , capped by a tower filled with windows , it gave an advantageous position for archers to shoot arrows ( in the initial years of building the wall ) and later cannon balls at the opposing revolutionary forces . In the event that the enemy was able to breach the walls through the main gate they would become trapped in the small chamber that faced yet another gate and thus be easy targets for the defending troops .

= Radio ( LL Cool J album ) =

Radio is the debut studio album by American rapper LL Cool J , released November 18 , 1985 on Def Jam Recordings in the United States . It serves as the label 's first full @-@ length album release . Recording sessions for the album took place during 1984 to 1985 at Chung King House of Metal in New York City . The album was primarily produced by Rick Rubin , who provided a sparse and minimal production style . Radio also features a sound that is punctuated by DJ scratching , mostly brief samples , and emphasis of the downbeat . LL Cool J 's b @-@ boy lyricism conveys themes of inner city culture , teenage promiscuity , and braggadocio raps .

The album experienced a significant amount of commercial success and sales for a hip hop record at the time , earning U.S. Billboard chart success and selling over 500 @,@ 000 copies within its first five months of release . On April 19 , 1989 , Radio was certified platinum in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , following sales in excess of one million copies in the United States . Initial criticism of the album was generally positive , as LL Cool J 's lyricism and Rick Rubin 's production were praised by several music critics . It has since been recognized by critics as LL Cool J 's greatest work .

Reflecting the new school and ghettoblaster subculture in the U.S. during the mid @-@ 1980s , Radio belongs to a pivotal moment in the history and culture of hip hop . Its success contributed to the displacement of the old school with the new school form and to the genre 's mainstream success during the period . Its success also served as a career breakthrough for LL Cool J and Rick Rubin . Radio has been recognized by music writers as one of the first cohesive and commercially successful hip hop albums .

= = Background = =

In March 1984 , when NYU student Rick Rubin and promoter @-@ manager Russell Simmons founded the then @-@ independent Def Jam label , 16 year – old St. Albans , Queens native James Todd Smith was creating demo tapes in his grandparents ' home . His grandfather , a jazz saxophonist , purchased him $ 2 @,@ 000 worth of stereo equipment , including two turntables , an audio mixer and an amplifier . Smith later discussed his childhood background and rapping , stating that " By the time I got that equipment , I was already a rapper . In this neighborhood , the kids grow up in rap . It 's like speaking Spanish if you grow up in an all @-@ Spanish house . I got into it when I was about 9 , and since then all I wanted was to make a record and hear it on the radio . " By using the mixing table he had received from his grandfather , Smith produced and mixed his own demos and sent them to various record companies throughout New York City , including Simmons ' and Rubin 's own Def Jam Recordings .

Under his new stage name , LL Cool J ( an acronym for Ladies Love Cool James ) , Smith was signed by Def Jam , which led to the release of his first official record , the 12 @-@ inch single " I Need a Beat " ( 1984 ) . The single was a hard @-@ hitting , streetwise b @-@ boy song with spare beats and ballistic rhymes . Smith later discussed his search for a label , stating " I sent my demo to many different companies , but it was Def Jam where I found my home . " That same year , Smith made his professional debut concert performance at Manhattan Center High School . In a later interview , LL Cool J recalled the experience , stating " They pushed the lunch room tables together and me and my DJ , Cut Creator , started playing . ... As soon as it was over there were girls screaming and asking for autographs . Right then and there I said ' This is what I want to do ' . " LL 's debut single sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies and helped establish both Def Jam as a label and Smith as a rapper . The commercial success of " I Need a Beat " , along with the Beastie Boys ' single " Rock Hard " ( 1984 ) , helped lead Def Jam to a distribution deal with Columbia Records the following year .

LL Cool J dropped out of Andrew Jackson High School in Queens to record his first studio album , also the first LP to be issued by Def Jam . Recording sessions for the album took place at Chung King Studios in Manhattan 's Chinatown under Rubin 's direction throughout 1984 and 1985 . Notable from the personnel line @-@ up was LL 's DJ Jay Philpot , better known as " Cut Creator " . A Queens native and former trombonist , Philpot met LL at a block party and they began performing together . The audio mastering was handled by engineer Herb Powers at 130 West 42nd Street in the Frankford Wayne Mastering Labs and the album was set for release as Radio in November 1985 , containing a dedication in the liner notes from LL Cool J to his mother and his grandparents . The album 's release had been anticipated by many rap fans following LL Cool J 's appearance in the hip hop movie Krush Groove , which was based on the beginnings of the Def Jam label and featured the single " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " from Radio .

= = Music and lyrics = =

The album 's production , handled entirely by Rick Rubin with a remix by DJ Jazzy Jay , has been noted by critics and music writers for Rubin 's minimalist style and stripped @-@ down aggressiveness . Steve Huey of AllMusic described the production for Radio as " bare @-@ bones " and " skeletal " , while calling the instrumentation " basically just a cranked @-@ up beatbox . " The sound of Radio is mostly punctuated by DJ scratching and features occasional brief samples , which emphasize a downbeat . In summing up the musical style of Radio , Huey stated " The result is rap at its most skeletal , with a hard @-@ hitting , street @-@ level aggression that perfectly matches LL 's cocksure teenage energy . "

The lyrical themes regarding the culture and the way of life of inner city youth that surface in Radio , including the growing and popular b @-@ boy attitude ( " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " , " Rock the Bells " ) and teenage promiscuity ( " Dear Yvette " ) , along with LL 's " teenage energy " , as described by writer Nelson George , helped appeal to a younger music audience and were essential in the album 's commercial success . LL Cool J 's lyricism on Radio is highlighted by clever disses , playful boasts and braggadocio raps . Columnist Stephen Holden of The New York Times described LL Cool J as " a brawny young giant with the animal magnetism and amiable self @-@ assurance of the young Muhammad Ali . " " I Want You " and " I Can Give You More " have been recognized by listeners of hip hop as the first hip @-@ hop ballads , and have been cited likewise by several music writers and critics .

Author of the 1985 book Fresh : Hip Hop Don 't Stop , writer Nelson George further elaborated on the appeal of Radio to listeners at the time , describing LL Cool J as a " minimalist homeboy who knows his beats " , and stating " You can call it rap , hip hop or street , but it really is a way of hearing music — and partying hard — that expresses the experiences and attitudes of a great many inner city kids . L.L. Cool J is one of the best young talkologists around , because he speaks directly to and about his generation over large beats that recall Run @-@ D.M.C. , Trouble Funk , James Brown , and funky little bits of AC / DC and Yes ... This teenage music is built around beats , but not just any old beats . It is all about a beat with style , with personality , and L.L. Cool J has plenty of both . "

= = Release and reception = =

Released November 18 , 1985 , on Def Jam Recordings in the United States , Radio earned a significant amount of commercial success and sales for a hip hop record at the time . Shortly after its release , the album sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first five months , eventually selling over 1 million copies by 1988 , according to the Recording Industry Association of America . Radio peaked at number 6 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart and at number 46 on the Billboard 200 albums chart . It entered the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart on December 28 , 1985 , and remained there for forty @-@ seven weeks , while also entering the Pop Albums chart on January 11 , 1986 . Radio remained on the chart for thirty @-@ eight weeks . By 1989 , the album had earned platinum status from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , after earning a gold certification in the United States on April 14 , 1986 , with sales exceeding one million copies .

Radio received positive reviews from both " street and dance music " aficionados and mainstream music critics , including Robert Christgau from The Village Voice , who described it in a January 1986 article as " the most engaging and original rap album of the year " . LL Cool J 's aggressive rapping and Rick Rubin 's stripped @-@ down production were praised by critics who also agreed that LL 's lyrics set a new standard for MC 's at the time . The songs ' lyrics were favored by critics who described LL 's song @-@ writing as clever and fun . Connie Johnson of the Los Angeles Times said that he is an integral artist of hip hop 's " second generation " because of his " razor @-@ sharp wit " . Rolling Stone magazine 's Debby Bull was impressed by his songwriting and how its originality lies in the ballads , even though " it 's the sassier , dance @-@ worthy songs that make this record such an irresistible party . " The critical success of the album would later result in its comparison to other LL Cool J albums , which were not as critically successful as Radio . In his review for the Trouser Press , Ira Robbins called the album a " primary classic of hip @-@ hop 's original commercial surge " and went on to write :

Since its initial reception , Radio has been viewed by fans and critics as LL Cool J 's greatest work , as well as one of hip hop 's best albums . In retrospect , some critics and music writers have given more praise to producer Rick Rubin 's contributions to Radio , as well as note the importance of his production on the album . Yahoo ! Music 's Frank Meyer said that the album was " one of the earliest records , along with Run @-@ DMC , to combine the vocal approach of rap with the musical arrangements and riffing of rock ' n ' roll . ' I Can 't Live Without My Radio ' is a hip @-@ hop classic and this album set the standard for East Coast rap for a long time . "

Radio was later ranked at number 2 on ego trip magazine 's " Hip Hop 's 25 Greatest Albums ( 1980 @-@ 98 ) " , number 69 on Rolling Stone 's " 100 Best LPs of the 80s " , and number 71 on Blender 's " 100 Greatest American Albums of All Time " list . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 478 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ; it was ranked number 470 in a revised list in 2012 . The album was also included in Rolling Stone magazine 's 1997 issue of " The Essential 200 Rock Records " . In 1998 , Radio was selected as one of The Source magazine 's " 100 Best Rap Albums " .

= = Legacy and influence = =

With the breakthrough success of his hit single " I Need a Beat " and the Radio LP , LL Cool J became one of the first hip @-@ hop acts to achieve mainstream success along with Kurtis Blow and Run @-@ D.M.C. Gigs at larger venues were offered to LL as he would join the 1986- ' 87 Raising Hell tour , opening for Run @-@ D.M.C. and the Beastie Boys . Another milestone of LL 's popularity was his appearance on American Bandstand as the first hip hop act on the show .

The album 's success also helped in contributing to Rick Rubin 's credibility and repertoire as a record producer . Radio , along with Raising Hell ( 1986 ) and Licensed to Ill ( 1986 ) , would form a trilogy of New York City @-@ based , Rubin @-@ helmed albums that helped to diversify hip @-@ hop . Rubin 's production credit on the back cover reads " REDUCED BY RICK RUBIN " , referring to his minimalist production style , which gave the album its stripped @-@ down and gritty sound . This style would serve as one of Rubin 's production trademarks and would have a great impact on future hip @-@ hop productions . Rubin 's early hip hop production work , before his exit from Def Jam to Los Angeles , helped solidify his legacy as a hip hop pioneer and establish his reputation in the music industry .

Radio 's release coincided with the growing new school scene and subculture , which also marked the beginning of hip @-@ hop 's " golden age " and the replacement of old school hip hop . This period of hip hop was marked by the end of the disco rap stylings of old school , which had flourished prior to the mid @-@ 80s , and the rise of a new style featuring " ghetto blasters " . Radio served as one of the earliest records , along with Run @-@ D.M.C. ' s debut album , to combine the vocal approach of hip hop and rapping with the musical arrangements and riffing sound of rock music , pioneering the rap rock hybrid sound .

The emerging new school scene was initially characterized by drum machine @-@ led minimalism , often tinged with elements of rock , as well as boasts about rapping delivered in an aggressive , self @-@ assertive style . In image as in song , the artists projected a tough , cool , street b @-@ boy attitude . These elements contrasted sharply with the 1970s P @-@ Funk and disco @-@ influenced outfits , live bands , synthesizers and party rhymes of acts prevalent in 1984 , rendering them old school . In contrast to the lengthy , jam @-@ like form predominant throughout early hip hop ( " King Tim III " , " Rapper 's Delight " , " The Breaks " ) , new school artists tended to compose shorter songs that would be more accessible and had potential for radio play , and conceive more cohesive LPs than their old school counterparts ; the style typified by LL Cool J 's Radio . A leading example of the new school sound is the song " I Can 't Live Without My Radio " , a loud , defiant declaration of public loyalty to his boom box , which The New York Times described as " quintessential rap in its directness , immediacy and assertion of self " . It was featured in the film Krush Groove ( 1985 ) , which was based on the rise of Def Jam and new school acts such as Run @-@ D.M.C. and the Fat Boys .

The energy and hardcore delivery and musical style of rapping featured on Radio , as well as other new school recordings by artists such as Run @-@ D.M.C. , Schooly D , T La Rock and Steady B , proved to be influential to hip hop acts of the " golden age " such as Boogie Down Productions and Public Enemy . The decline of the old school form of hip hop also led to the closing of Sugar Hill Records , one of the labels that helped contribute to early hip @-@ hop and that , coincidently , rejected LL 's demo tape . As the album served as an example of an expansion of hip hop music 's artistic possibilities , its commercial success and distinct sound soon led to an increase in multi @-@ racial audiences and listeners , adding to the legacy of the album and hip hop as well .

= = Track listing = =

= = Personnel = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Isaac Newton =

Sir Isaac Newton PRS ( / ˈnjuːtən / ; 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726 / 27 ) was an English physicist and mathematician ( described in his own day as a " natural philosopher " ) who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution . His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( " Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy " ) , first published in 1687 , laid the foundations for classical mechanics . Newton made seminal contributions to optics , and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for the development of calculus .

Newton 's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation , which dominated scientists ' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries . By deriving Kepler 's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity , and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets , the tides , the precession of the equinoxes , and other phenomena , Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the Solar System . This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles . His prediction that Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis , La Condamine , and others , which helped convince most Continental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes .

Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours of the visible spectrum . He formulated an empirical law of cooling , studied the speed of sound , and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid . In addition to his work on calculus , as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series , generalised the binomial theorem to non @-@ integer exponents , developed a method for approximating the roots of a function , and classified most of the cubic plane curves .

Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge . He was a devout but unorthodox Christian , and , unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty of the day , he refused to take holy orders in the Church of England , perhaps because he privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity . Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences , Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of biblical chronology and alchemy , but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death . In his later life , Newton became president of the Royal Society . Newton served the British government as Warden and Master of the Royal Mint .

= = Life = =

= = = Early life = = =

Isaac Newton was born according to the Julian calendar ( in use in England at the time ) on Christmas Day , 25 December 1642 ( NS 4 January 1643 ) , at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe @-@ by @-@ Colsterworth , a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire . His father , also named Isaac Newton , had died three months before . Born prematurely , he was a small child ; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug . When Newton was three , his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband , the Reverend Barnabas Smith , leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother , Margery Ayscough . The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him , as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19 : " Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them . " Newton 's mother had three children from her second marriage .

From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen , Newton was educated at The King 's School , Grantham which taught Latin and Greek but no mathematics . He was removed from school , and by October 1659 , he was to be found at Woolsthorpe @-@ by @-@ Colsterworth , where his mother , widowed for a second time , attempted to make a farmer of him . Newton hated farming . Henry Stokes , master at the King 's School , persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education . Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully , he became the top @-@ ranked student , distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills .

In June 1661 , he was admitted to Trinity College , Cambridge , on the recommendation of his uncle Rev William Ayscough . He started as a subsizar — paying his way by performing valet 's duties — until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664 , which guaranteed him four more years until he would get his M.A. At that time , the college 's teachings were based on those of Aristotle , whom Newton supplemented with modern philosophers such as Descartes , and astronomers such as Galileo and Thomas Street , through whom he learned of Kepler 's work . He set down in his notebook a series of ' Quaestiones ' about mechanical philosophy as he found it . In 1665 , he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus . Soon after Newton had obtained his B.A. degree in August 1665 , the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague . Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student , Newton 's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the subsequent two years saw the development of his theories on calculus , optics , and the law of gravitation .

In April 1667 , he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected as a fellow of Trinity . Fellows were required to become ordained priests , although this was not enforced in the restoration years and an assertion of conformity to the Church of England was sufficient . However , by 1675 the issue could not be avoided and by then his unconventional views stood in the way . Nevertheless , Newton managed to avoid it by means of a special permission from Charles II ( see " Middle years " section below ) .

His studies had impressed the Lucasian professor , Isaac Barrow , who was more anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential ( he became master of Trinity two years later ) , and in 1669 , Newton succeeded him , only one year after he received his M.A. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1672 .

= = = Middle years = = =

= = = = Mathematics = = = =

Newton 's work has been said " to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied " . His work on the subject usually referred to as fluxions or calculus , seen in a manuscript of October 1666 , is now published among Newton 's mathematical papers . The author of the manuscript De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas , sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669 , was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in August of that year as :

Mr Newton , a fellow of our College , and very young ... but of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things .

Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus ( the Leibniz – Newton calculus controversy ) . Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently , although with very different notations . Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing about it until 1693 , and did not give a full account until 1704 , while Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684 . ( Leibniz 's notation and " differential Method " , nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations , were adopted by continental European mathematicians , and after 1820 or so , also by British mathematicians . ) Such a suggestion , however , fails to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton 's time and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton 's Principia itself ( published 1687 ) and in its forerunner manuscripts , such as De motu corporum in gyrum ( " On the motion of bodies in orbit " ) , of 1684 . The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as Newton 's ( later ) ' dot ' notation would write it . His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishing small quantities : in the Principia itself , Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of ' the method of first and last ratios ' and explained why he put his expositions in this form , remarking also that ' hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles ' .

Because of this , the Principia has been called " a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus " in modern times and " lequel est presque tout de ce calcul " ( ' nearly all of it is of this calculus ' ) in Newton 's time . His use of methods involving " one or more orders of the infinitesimally small " is present in his De motu corporum in gyrum of 1684 and in his papers on motion " during the two decades preceding 1684 " .

Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism . He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier . In 1691 , Duillier started to write a new version of Newton 's Principia , and corresponded with Leibniz . In 1693 , the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed .

Starting in 1699 , other members of the Royal Society ( of which Newton was a member ) accused Leibniz of plagiarism . The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud . This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study 's concluding remarks on Leibniz . Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter 's death in 1716 .

Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem , valid for any exponent . He discovered Newton 's identities , Newton 's method , classified cubic plane curves ( polynomials of degree three in two variables ) , made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences , and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations . He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms ( a precursor to Euler 's summation formula ) and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series . Newton 's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin 's decimals . A very useful modern account of Newton 's mathematics was written by the foremost scholar on Newton 's mathematics , D.T. Whiteside or Tom Whiteside . Tom Whiteside translated and edited all of Newton 's mathematical writings and at the end of his life wrote a summing up of Newton 's work and its impact . This was published in 2013 as a chapter in a book edited by Bechler .

When Newton received his MA and became a Fellow of the " College of the Holy and Undivided Trinity " in 1667 , he made the commitment that " I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes [ 7 years ] arrives , or I will resign from the college . " Up till this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the thirty @-@ nine articles , the basis of Church of England doctrine .

He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669 on Barrow 's recommendation . During that time , any Fellow of a college at Cambridge or Oxford was required to take holy orders and become an ordained Anglican priest . However , the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church ( presumably so as to have more time for science ) . Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement , and Charles II , whose permission was needed , accepted this argument . Thus a conflict between Newton 's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted .

= = = = Optics = = = =

In 1666 , Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong , even when the light ray entering the prism is circular , which is to say , the prism refracts different colours by different angles . This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light — a point which had been debated in prior years .

From 1670 to 1672 , Newton lectured on optics . During this period he investigated the refraction of light , demonstrating that the multicoloured spectrum produced by a prism could be recomposed into white light by a lens and a second prism . Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton 's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy .

He also showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects . Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected , scattered , or transmitted , it remained the same colour . Thus , he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already @-@ coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves . This is known as Newton 's theory of colour .

From this work , he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours ( chromatic aberration ) . As a proof of the concept , he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem . Building the design , the first known functional reflecting telescope , today known as a Newtonian telescope , involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique . Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal , using Newton 's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes . In late 1668 he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope . It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image . In 1671 , the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope . Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes , Of Colours , which he later expanded into the work Opticks . When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton 's ideas , Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate . Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679 – 80 , when Hooke , appointed to manage the Royal Society 's correspondence , opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions , which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector ( see Newton 's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum ) . But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke 's death .

Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles , which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium . He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films ( Opticks Bk.II , Props . 12 ) , but still retained his theory of ' fits ' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted ( Props.13 ) . However , later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction . Today 's quantum mechanics , photons , and the idea of wave – particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton 's understanding of light .

In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 , Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles . The contact with the theosophist Henry More , revived his interest in alchemy . He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles . John Maynard Keynes , who acquired many of Newton 's writings on alchemy , stated that " Newton was not the first of the age of reason : He was the last of the magicians . " Newton 's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science . This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science . Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance , across a vacuum , he might not have developed his theory of gravity . ( See also Isaac Newton 's occult studies . )

In 1704 , Newton published Opticks , in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light . He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles , that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation " Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another , ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition ? " Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator , using a glass globe .

In an article entitled " Newton , prisms , and the ' opticks ' of tunable lasers " it is indicated that Newton in his book Opticks was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander . In the same book he describes , via diagrams , the use of multiple @-@ prism arrays . Some 278 years after Newton 's discussion , multiple @-@ prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow @-@ linewidth tunable lasers . Also , the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple @-@ prism dispersion theory .

Subsequent to Newton , much has been amended . Young and Fresnel combined Newton 's particle theory with Huygens ' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light 's wavelength . Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics . The German poet and scientist , Goethe , could not shake the Newtonian foundation but " one hole Goethe did find in Newton 's armour , ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible . He therefore thought that the object @-@ glasses of telescopes must for ever remain imperfect , achromatism and refraction being incompatible . This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong . "

= = = = Mechanics and gravitation = = = =

In 1679 , Newton returned to his work on ( celestial ) mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler 's laws of planetary motion . This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679 – 80 with Hooke , who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society 's correspondence , and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions . Newton 's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680 – 1681 , on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed . After the exchanges with Hooke , Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector ( see Newton 's law of universal gravitation – History and De motu corporum in gyrum ) . Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum , a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society 's Register Book in December 1684 . This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the Principia .

The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley . In this work , Newton stated the three universal laws of motion . Together , these laws describe the relationship between any object , the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion , laying the foundation for classical mechanics . They contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years . Many of these advancements continue to be the underpinnings of non @-@ relativistic technologies in the modern world . He used the Latin word gravitas ( weight ) for the effect that would become known as gravity , and defined the law of universal gravitation .

In the same work , Newton presented a calculus @-@ like method of geometrical analysis using ' first and last ratios ' , gave the first analytical determination ( based on Boyle 's law ) of the speed of sound in air , inferred the oblateness of Earth 's spheroidal figure , accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon 's gravitational attraction on the Earth 's oblateness , initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the moon , provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets , and much more .

Newton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System — developed in a somewhat modern way , because already in the mid @-@ 1680s he recognised the " deviation of the Sun " from the centre of gravity of the Solar System . For Newton , it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest , but rather " the common centre of gravity of the Earth , the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem 'd the Centre of the World " , and this centre of gravity " either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line " ( Newton adopted the " at rest " alternative in view of common consent that the centre , wherever it was , was at rest ) .

Newton 's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing " occult agencies " into science . Later , in the second edition of the Principia ( 1713 ) , Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium , writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction , as they did ; but they did not so far indicate its cause , and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena . ( Here Newton used what became his famous expression " hypotheses non @-@ fingo " ) .

With the Principia , Newton became internationally recognised . He acquired a circle of admirers , including the Swiss @-@ born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier .

= = = Classification of cubics and beyond = = =

Descartes was the most important early influence on Newton the mathematician . Descartes freed plane curves from the Greek and Macedonian limitation to conic sections , and Newton followed his lead by classifying the cubic curves in the plane . He found 72 of the 78 species of cubics . He also divided them into four types , satisfying different equations , and in 1717 Stirling , probably with Newton 's help , proved that every cubic was one of these four types . Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them , and this was proved in 1731 .

According to Tom Whiteside ( 1932 – 2008 ) , who published 8 volumes of Newton 's mathematical papers , it is no exaggeration to say that Newton mapped out the development of mathematics for the next 200 years , and that Euler and others largely carried out his plan .

= = = Later life = = =

In the 1690s , Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible . A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5 : 7 and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament , remained unpublished until 1785 .

Even though a number of authors have claimed that the work might have been an indication that Newton disputed the belief in Trinity , others assure that Newton did question the passage but never denied Trinity as such . His biographer , scientist Sir David Brewster , who compiled his manuscripts for over 20 years , wrote about the controversy in well @-@ known book Memoirs of the Life , Writings , and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton , where he explains that Newton questioned the veracity of those passages , but he never denied the doctrine of Trinity as such . Brewster states that Newton was never known as an Arian during his lifetime , it was first William Whiston ( an Arian ) who argued that " Sir Isaac Newton was so hearty for the Baptists , as well as for the Eusebians or Arians , that he sometimes suspected these two were the two witnesses in the Revelations , " while other like Hopton Haynes ( a Mint employee and Humanitarian ) , " mentioned to Richard Baron , that Newton held the same doctrine as himself " .

Later works — The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended ( 1728 ) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John ( 1733 ) — were published after his death . He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy ( see above ) .

Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 – 90 and 1701 – 2 , but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed .

Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696 , a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu , 1st Earl of Halifax , then Chancellor of the Exchequer . He took charge of England 's great recoining , somewhat treading on the toes of Lord Lucas , Governor of the Tower ( and securing the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley ) . Newton became perhaps the best @-@ known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699 , a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life . These appointments were intended as sinecures , but Newton took them seriously , retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701 , and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters .

As Warden , and afterwards Master , of the Royal Mint , Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit . Counterfeiting was high treason , punishable by the felon 's being hanged , drawn and quartered . Despite this , convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult . However , Newton proved equal to the task .

Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns , he gathered much of that evidence himself . For all the barriers placed to prosecution , and separating the branches of government , English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority . Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties — there is a draft of a letter regarding this matter stuck into Newton 's personal first edition of his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica which he must have been amending at the time . Then he conducted more than 100 cross @-@ examinations of witnesses , informers , and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699 . Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners .

As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty 's Treasury the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717 , forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings . This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports , while exports were paid for in gold , effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard . It is a matter of debate as whether he intended to do this or not . It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work .

Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences . In his position at the Royal Society , Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed , the Astronomer Royal , by prematurely publishing Flamsteed 's Historia Coelestis Britannica , which Newton had used in his studies .

In April 1705 , Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College , Cambridge . The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the Parliamentary election in May 1705 , rather than any recognition of Newton 's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint . Newton was the second scientist to be knighted , after Sir Francis Bacon .

Newton was one of many people who lost heavily when the South Sea Company collapsed . Their most significant trade was slaves , and according to his niece , he lost around £ 20 @,@ 000 .

Towards the end of his life , Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park , near Winchester with his niece and her husband , until his death in 1727 . His half @-@ niece , Catherine Barton Conduitt , served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London ; he was her " very loving Uncle , " according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox .

Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 ( OS 20 March 1726 ; NS 31 March 1727 ) and was buried in Westminster Abbey . Voltaire may have been present at his funeral . A bachelor , he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years , and died intestate . His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton . After his death , Newton 's hair was examined and found to contain mercury , probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits . Mercury poisoning could explain Newton 's eccentricity in late life .

= = = Personal relations = = =

Although it was claimed that he was once engaged , Newton never married . The French writer and philosopher Voltaire , who was in London at the time of Newton 's funeral , said that he " was never sensible to any passion , was not subject to the common frailties of mankind , nor had any commerce with women — a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments " . The widespread belief that he died a virgin has been commented on by writers such as mathematician Charles Hutton , economist John Maynard Keynes , and physicist Carl Sagan .

Newton did have a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier , whom he met in London around 1690 . Their intense relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693 , and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown . Some of their correspondence has survived .

In September of that year , Newton had a breakdown which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke . His note to the latter included the charge that Locke " endeavoured to embroil me with woemen " .

= = After death = =

= = = Fame = = =

The mathematician Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived , and once added that Newton was also " the most fortunate , for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish . " English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton 's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph :

Nature and nature 's laws lay hid in night ;

God said " Let Newton be " and all was light .

Newton himself had been rather more modest of his own achievements , famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676 :

If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants .

Two writers think that the above quotation , written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries , was an oblique attack on Hooke ( said to have been short and hunchbacked ) , rather than — or in addition to — a statement of modesty . On the other hand , the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants , published among others by seventeenth @-@ century poet George Herbert ( a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College ) in his Jacula Prudentum ( 1651 ) , had as its main point that " a dwarf on a giant 's shoulders sees farther of the two " , and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the ' dwarf ' .

In a later memoir , Newton wrote :

I do not know what I may appear to the world , but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea @-@ shore , and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary , whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me .

In 1816 , a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £ 730 ( us $ 3 @,@ 633 ) in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring . The Guinness World Records 2002 classified it as the most valuable tooth , which would value approximately £ 25 @,@ 000 ( us $ 35 @,@ 700 ) in late 2001 . Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed .

Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell . Newton remains influential to today 's scientists , as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of Britain 's Royal Society ( formerly headed by Newton ) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science , Newton or Einstein . Royal Society scientists deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution . In 1999 , an opinion poll of 100 of today 's leading physicists voted Einstein the " greatest physicist ever ; " with Newton the runner @-@ up , while a parallel survey of rank @-@ and @-@ file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton .

= = = Commemorations = = =

Newton 's monument ( 1731 ) can be seen in Westminster Abbey , at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen , near his tomb . It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack ( 1694 – 1770 ) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent . The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus , his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design . Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680 . A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism . The Latin inscription on the base translates as :

Here is buried Isaac Newton , Knight , who by a strength of mind almost divine , and mathematical principles peculiarly his own , explored the course and figures of the planets , the paths of comets , the tides of the sea , the dissimilarities in rays of light , and , what no other scholar has previously imagined , the properties of the colours thus produced . Diligent , sagacious and faithful , in his expositions of nature , antiquity and the holy Scriptures , he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good , and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners . Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race ! He was born on 25 December 1642 , and died on 20 March 1726 / 7 . — Translation from G.L. Smyth , The Monuments and Genii of St. Paul 's Cathedral , and of Westminster Abbey ( 1826 ) , ii , 703 – 4 .

From 1978 until 1988 , an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £ 1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England ( the last £ 1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England ) . Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope , a prism and a map of the Solar System .

A statue of Isaac Newton , looking at an apple at his feet , can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History . A large bronze statue , Newton , after William Blake , by Eduardo Paolozzi , dated 1995 and inspired by Blake 's etching , dominates the piazza of the British Library in London .

= = Religious views = =

Although born into an Anglican family , by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that , had it been made public , would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity ; in recent times he has been described as a heretic .

By 1672 he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only recently been examined . They demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed , he took the side of Arius , the loser , who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity . Newton " recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man , who was subordinate to the Father who created him . " He was especially interested in prophecy , but for him , " the great apostasy was trinitarianism . "

Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement . At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair .

In Newton 's eyes , worshipping Christ as God was idolatry , to him the fundamental sin . Historian Stephen D. Snobelen says of Newton , " Isaac Newton was a heretic . But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith — which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical . He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unravelling his personal beliefs . " Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser ( he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books ) , possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti @-@ trinitarian .

In a minority view , T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton held the Eastern Orthodox view on the Trinity . However , this type of view ' has lost support of late with the availability of Newton 's theological papers ' , and now most scholars identify Newton as an Antitrinitarian monotheist .

Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton 's best @-@ known discoveries , he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine , as if akin to a great clock . He said , " Gravity explains the motions of the planets , but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion . God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done . "

Along with his scientific fame , Newton 's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy . Newton wrote works on textual criticism , most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture . He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April , AD 33 , which agrees with one traditionally accepted date .

He believed in a rationally immanent world , but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza . The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood , and must be understood , by an active reason . In his correspondence , Newton claimed that in writing the Principia " I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity " . He saw evidence of design in the system of the world : " Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice " . But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system , due to the slow growth of instabilities . For this , Leibniz lampooned him : " God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time : otherwise it would cease to move . He had not , it seems , sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion . "

Newton 's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence . A century later , Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace 's work " Celestial Mechanics " had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits don 't require periodic divine intervention .

= = = Effect on religious thought = = =

Newton and Robert Boyle 's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts , and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians . The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism , and at the same time , the second wave of English deists used Newton 's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a " Natural Religion " .

The attacks made against pre @-@ Enlightenment " magical thinking " , and the mystical elements of Christianity , were given their foundation with Boyle 's mechanical conception of the Universe . Newton gave Boyle 's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and , perhaps more importantly , was very successful in popularising them .

Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation .

= = = Occult = = =

In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible , he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060 . In predicting this he said , " This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be , but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end , and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail . "

= = = Alchemy = = =

In the character of Morton Opperly in " Poor Superman " ( 1951 ) , speculative fiction author Fritz Leiber says of Newton , " Everyone knows Newton as the great scientist . Few remember that he spent half his life muddling with alchemy , looking for the philosopher 's stone . That was the pebble by the seashore he really wanted to find . "

Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton 's papers , about one million deal with alchemy . Many of Newton 's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts , with his own annotations . Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation , often hidden behind layers of wordplay , allegory , and imagery to protect craft secrets . Some of the content contained in Newton 's papers could have been considered heretical by the church .

In 1888 , after spending sixteen years cataloging Newton 's papers , Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth . In 1936 , a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby ’ s . The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £ 9 @,@ 000 . John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction . Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton 's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946 .

All of Newton 's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University : " The Chymistry of Isaac Newton " . The project is headed by William R. Newman . Here is a quote from the project web site .

Newton 's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational attraction , the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of immutable spectral colors , and the formulation of the calculus . Yet there is another , more mysterious side to Newton that is imperfectly known , a realm of activity that spanned some thirty years of his life , although he kept it largely hidden from his contemporaries and colleagues . We refer to Newton 's involvement in the discipline of alchemy , or as it was often called in seventeenth @-@ century England , " chymistry . "

= = Enlightenment philosophers = =

Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo , Boyle , and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural law to every physical and social field of the day . In this respect , the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded .

It was Newton 's conception of the Universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology . Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights ; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self @-@ interest to economic systems ; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress . Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton 's work , but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature .

= = Apple incident = =

Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree . Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity in any single moment , acquaintances of Newton ( such as William Stukeley , whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society ) do in fact confirm the incident , though not the cartoon version that the apple actually hit Newton 's head . Stukeley recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton 's Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726 :

we went into the garden , & drank thea under the shade of some appletrees ; only he , & my self. amidst other discourse , he told me , he was just in the same situation , as when formerly , the notion of gravitation came into his mind . " why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground , " thought he to himself ; occasion 'd by the fall of an apple , as he sat in a contemplative mood . " why should it not go sideways , or upwards ? but constantly to the earths center ? assuredly , the reason is , that the earth draws it. there must be a drawing power in matter . & the sum of the drawing power in the matter of the earth must be in the earths center , not in any side of the earth. therefore dos this apple fall perpendicularly , or toward the center. if matter thus draws matter ; it must be in proportion of its quantity. therefore the apple draws the earth , as well as the earth draws the apple .

John Conduitt , Newton 's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton 's niece , also described the event when he wrote about Newton 's life :

In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire . Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity ( which brought an apple from a tree to the ground ) was not limited to a certain distance from earth , but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought . Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so , that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit , whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition .

In similar terms , Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry ( 1727 ) , " Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens , had the first thought of his system of gravitation , upon seeing an apple falling from a tree . "

It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends , in an inverse @-@ square proportion , to the Moon ; however it took him two decades to develop the full @-@ fledged theory . The question was not whether gravity existed , but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit . Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance , one could indeed calculate the Moon 's orbital period , and get good agreement . He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions , and hence named it " universal gravitation " .

Various trees are claimed to be " the " apple tree which Newton describes . The King 's School , Grantham , claims that the tree was purchased by the school , uprooted and transported to the headmaster 's garden some years later . The staff of the [ now ] National Trust @-@ owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this , and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton . A descendant of the original tree can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College , Cambridge , below the room Newton lived in when he studied there . The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale can supply grafts from their tree , which appears identical to Flower of Kent , a coarse @-@ fleshed cooking variety .

= = Works = =

= = = Published in his lifetime = = =

De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas ( 1669 , published 1711 )

Method of Fluxions ( 1671 )

Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation ( unpublished , c . 1671 – 75 )

De motu corporum in gyrum ( 1684 )

Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( 1687 )

Opticks ( 1704 )

Reports as Master of the Mint ( 1701 – 25 )

Arithmetica Universalis ( 1707 )

= = = Published posthumously = = =

The System of the World ( 1728 )

Optical Lectures ( 1728 )

The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended ( 1728 )

De mundi systemate ( 1728 )

Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John ( 1733 )

Newton , Isaac ( 1991 ) . Robinson , Arthur B. , ed . Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel , and the Apocalypse of St. John . Cave Junction , Oregon : Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine . ISBN 0 @-@ 942487 @-@ 02 @-@ 8 . ( A facsimile edition of the 1733 work . )

An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture ( 1754 )

= HMS Furious ( 47 ) =

HMS Furious was a modified Courageous @-@ class battlecruiser built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) during the First World War . Designed to support the Baltic Project championed by the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty , Lord John Fisher , the ship was very lightly armoured and designed to be armed with only two heavy guns ( 18 @-@ inch ) , one forward and one aft , plus a number of lesser guns . Furious was modified and became an aircraft carrier while under construction . Her forward turret was removed and a flight deck was added in its place , so that aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure to land . Later in the war , the ship had her rear turret removed and a second flight deck installed aft of the superstructure , but this was less than satisfactory due to air turbulence . Furious was briefly laid up after the war before she was reconstructed with a full @-@ length flight deck in the early 1920s .

After her conversion , Furious was used extensively for trials of naval aircraft and later as a training carrier once the new armoured carriers like Ark Royal entered service in the late 1930s . During the early months of the Second World War the carrier spent her time hunting for German raiders in the North Atlantic and escorting convoys . This changed dramatically during the Norwegian Campaign in early 1940 when her aircraft provided air support to British troops ashore in addition to attacking German shipping . The first of what would be a large number of aircraft ferry missions was made by the carrier during the campaign . After the withdrawal of British troops in May , Furious made several anti @-@ shipping strikes in Norway with little result before beginning a steady routine of ferrying aircraft for the Royal Air Force .

At first Furious made several trips to West Africa , but she began to ferry aircraft to Gibraltar in 1941 . An unsuccessful attack on German @-@ occupied ports on the Arctic Ocean interrupted the ferry missions in mid @-@ 1941 . Furious was given a lengthy refit in the United States and spent a few months training after her return in April 1942 . She made several more ferry trips in mid @-@ 1942 before her aircraft attacked airfields in Vichy French Algeria as part of the opening stages of Operation Torch in November 1942 . The ship remained in the Mediterranean until February 1943 when she was transferred to the Home Fleet .

Furious spent most of 1943 training , but made a number of attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz and other targets in Norway during the first half of 1944 . By September 1944 , the ship was showing her age and she was placed in reserve . Furious was decommissioned in April 1945 , but was not sold for scrap until 1948 .

= = Design and description = =

During the First World War , Admiral Fisher was prevented from ordering an improved version of the preceding Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by a wartime restriction that banned construction of ships larger than light cruisers . To obtain ships suitable for traditional battlecruiser roles , such as scouting for fleets and hunting enemy raiders , he settled on ships with the minimal armour of a light cruiser and the armament of a battlecruiser . He justified their existence by claiming he needed fast , shallow @-@ draught ships for his Baltic Project , a plan to invade Germany via its Baltic coast .

Furious had an overall length of 786 feet 9 inches ( 239 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 88 feet ( 26 @.@ 8 m ) , and a draught of 24 feet 11 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) at deep load . She displaced 19 @,@ 513 long tons ( 19 @,@ 826 t ) normally and 22 @,@ 890 long tons ( 23 @,@ 257 t ) at deep load . She had a metacentric height of 5 @.@ 33 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) at deep load . Furious and her half @-@ sisters were the first large warships in the Royal Navy to have geared steam turbines . To save design time the installation used in the light cruiser Champion , the first cruiser in the RN with geared turbines , was copied and simply duplicated to provide two sets of turbines . The four Brown @-@ Curtis turbines were powered by eighteen Yarrow small @-@ tube boilers that were designed to produce a total of 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship 's speed was an estimated 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) , but she never ran her sea trials .

Furious was designed to normally carry 750 long tons ( 762 t ) of fuel oil , but could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 160 long tons ( 3 @,@ 211 t ) . At full capacity , she could steam for an estimated 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 110 km ; 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship was designed to carry two BL 18 @-@ inch Mark I guns in two single turrets , one each fore ( ' A ' ) and aft ( ' Y ' ) . Her secondary armament consisted of 11 BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns . A pair of QF 3 inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns were mounted before the funnel . Furious also mounted two submerged tubes for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes and 10 torpedoes were carried .

Even as she was being built , Furious was modified with a large hangar capable of housing ten aircraft on her forecastle that replaced the forward turret . A 160 @-@ foot ( 49 m ) flight deck was built along its roof . Aircraft were flown off and , rather less successfully , landed on this deck . Floatplanes like the Short Type 184 used a four @-@ wheel trolley that ran down a track along the centre of the flight deck for take @-@ off . Aircraft were lifted by crane from the hangar to the flight deck . Although the aft turret was fitted and the gun tested , it was not long before Furious returned to her builders for further modifications . In November 1917 , the rear turret was replaced by a 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) deck for landing aircraft over another hangar . Her funnel and superstructure remained intact , with a narrow strip of decking around them to connect the fore and aft flight decks . Turbulence from the funnel and superstructure was severe enough that only three landing attempts were successful before further attempts were forbidden . Her 18 @-@ inch guns were reused on Lord Clive @-@ class monitors General Wolfe and Lord Clive during the war .

Furious was laid down on 8 June 1915 at Armstrong Whitworth 's Low Walker shipyard in Newcastle upon Tyne . The ship was launched on 18 August 1916 and commissioned on 26 June 1917 . As completed , her complement numbered 737 officers and enlisted men .

= = Aircraft landing and the First World War = =

On 2 August 1917 , while performing trials , Squadron Commander Edwin Dunning landed a Sopwith Pup , believed to have been N6453 , successfully on board Furious , becoming the first person to land an aircraft on a moving ship . On 7 August , he made one more successful landing in the same manner , but on his third attempt , in Pup N6452 , the engine choked and the aircraft crashed off the starboard bow , killing him . The deck arrangement was unsatisfactory because aircraft had to manoeuvre around the superstructure in order to land .

In the meantime , all three Courageous @-@ class ships were assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron ( CS ) in October 1917 when the Admiralty received word of German ship movements on 16 October , possibly indicating a raid . Admiral Beatty , commander of the Grand Fleet , ordered most of his light cruisers and destroyers to sea in an effort to locate the enemy ships . Furious was detached from the 1st CS and ordered to sweep along the 56th parallel as far as 4 ° East and to return before dark . Her half @-@ sisters Courageous and Glorious were not initially ordered to sea , but were sent to reinforce the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron patrolling the central part of the North Sea later that day . Two German Brummer @-@ class light cruisers managed to slip through the gaps in the British patrols and destroyed the Scandinavia convoy during the morning of 17 October , but no word was received of the engagement until that afternoon . The 1st CS was ordered to attempt to intercept the German ships , but they proved to be faster than hoped and the British ships were unsuccessful .

Furious returned to the dockyard in November to have the aft turret removed and replaced by another deck for landing , giving her both a launching and a recovery deck . Two lifts ( elevators ) serving the hangars were also installed . Furious was recommissioned on 15 March 1918 , and her embarked aircraft were used on anti @-@ Zeppelin patrols in the North Sea after May . In July 1918 , she flew off seven Sopwith Camels which participated in the Tondern raid , attacking the Zeppelin sheds there with moderate success .

= = Conversion = =

= = = Overview = = =

Furious was laid up after the war , but was converted to an aircraft carrier with a continuous flight deck between June 1921 and September 1925 . Her design was based on experience gained with the first two British carriers , Argus and Eagle , although this was very limited as Argus was less than three years old and Eagle had only carried out 143 deck landings during her preliminary sea trials in 1920 .

The ship 's superstructure , masts , funnel and landing deck were removed and she was given a 576 @-@ by @-@ 92 @-@ foot ( 175 @.@ 6 by 28 @.@ 0 m ) flight deck that extended over three @-@ quarters of her length . This flight deck was not level ; it sloped upwards about three @-@ quarters of the way from the stern to help slow down landing aircraft , which had no brakes at that time . The fore @-@ and @-@ aft 320 @-@ foot ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) arresting gear was not intended to stop landing aircraft — the landing speeds of the time were low enough that this was unnecessary given a good headwind — but rather to prevent aircraft from veering off to one side and potentially falling off the flight deck . Various designs for the flight deck were tested in a wind tunnel by the National Physical Laboratory which showed that the distinctive elliptical shape and rounded edges used minimised turbulence .

Furious was not lengthened , but her beam was increased 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) to 89 feet .75 inches ( 27 @.@ 1 m ) and her average draught was now 27 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load , 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) deeper than before the conversion . She displaced 22 @,@ 500 long tons ( 22 @,@ 900 t ) at normal load and 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) at deep load , over 3000 long tons more than her previous displacement . Her metacentric height was 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load , a reduction of 1 @.@ 48 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) after her conversion . During the ship 's post @-@ conversion sea trials she reached 30 @.@ 03 knots ( 55 @.@ 62 km / h ; 34 @.@ 56 mph ) . Her fuel capacity was increased by 700 long tons ( 710 t ) during her reconstruction , which increased her range to 5 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 800 km ; 6 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) or 7 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 850 km ; 8 @,@ 610 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .

A two @-@ level hangar was built under the flight deck , 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height per level . The lower hangar was 550 feet ( 167 @.@ 6 m ) long by 35 – 50 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 – 15 @.@ 2 m ) wide and the upper was 520 by 50 feet ( 158 @.@ 5 by 15 @.@ 2 m ) . Each hangar could be sectioned off by electrically operated steel shutters on rollers . Her boilers were ducted down the side of the ship to exhaust either out of gratings at the rear of the flight deck or , when landing operations were in progress , out of the side of the lower hangar at the rear of the ship . This solution proved to be very unsatisfactory as it consumed valuable space , made parts of the lower hangar unbearable and interfered with landing operations to a greater or lesser degree . Her original flying @-@ off deck remained in place for use by small aircraft like fighters which improved launch and recovery cycle flexibility allowing the ship to simultaneously land aircraft on the main flight deck while fighters were taking off on the lower deck or to speedily fly off her aircraft from both decks . Doors at the forward end of the upper hangar opened onto the lower flying deck . Like Argus , Furious was flush @-@ decked and lacked an island superstructure to minimise any turbulence over the flight deck ; instead she had a navigating position at the leading edge of the flight deck , starboard , and was provided with a retractable charthouse forward , on the flight deck centreline . The ship could normally only carry about 36 aircraft .

Two 47 @-@ by @-@ 46 @-@ foot ( 14 @.@ 3 by 14 @.@ 0 m ) lifts ( elevators ) were installed to transfer aircraft between the flight deck and hangars . No arresting gear was fitted and two 600 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 700 l ; 720 US gal ) ready @-@ use petrol tanks were provided for aircraft and the ship 's boats on the upper deck . An additional 20 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 91 @,@ 000 l ; 24 @,@ 000 US gal ) of petrol were in bulk storage . In 1939 , her complement consisted of 41 officers and 754 crewmen .

= = = Armament = = =

Furious retained ten of her original eleven breech @-@ loading 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) guns , five on each side , for self @-@ defence from enemy warships . Six QF 4 @-@ inch Mark V guns replaced her original anti @-@ aircraft guns . Four were mounted on the sides of the flying @-@ off deck and two on the quarterdeck . The four guns on the flying @-@ off deck were removed in 1926 – 27 for trials of the lower flight deck , but only two were replaced when the trials were concluded . Four single QF 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " were installed in 1927 . During Furious 's September 1930 – February 1932 refit , her anti @-@ aircraft outfit was reinforced by the addition of two eight @-@ barrel QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark V pom @-@ pom mounts where the forward 4 @-@ inch guns on the flying @-@ off deck had been removed earlier .

The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch and 4 @-@ inch guns were replaced during her refit in early 1939 by a dozen QF 4 @-@ inch Mk XVI guns in twin dual @-@ purpose Mark XIX mounts . One mount each was on the former flying @-@ off deck and the quarterdeck while the other four were mounted two per side . Two more Mark V 2 @-@ pounder mounts were added fore and aft of the newly added island superstructure at the same time . While later refitting in the United States , the ship was fitted with a maximum of 22 manually operated automatic 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon light anti @-@ aircraft guns , which replaced the single quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mount .

A single High Angle Control System director was fitted on the island and another on an elevated mount on the former flying @-@ off deck . Two pom @-@ pom directors were also mounted on the island for the weapons mounted fore and aft of the island .

= = Inter @-@ war service = =

Furious was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet after commissioning in 1925 although she spent much of the next several years conducting trials for practically every aircraft in the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) inventory . These included landing and flying @-@ off tests of Fairey IIID and Fairey Flycatcher floatplanes , with and without wheels , to compare various designs of wooden and metal floats . The lower flight deck was greased to allow them to take off with a minimum of difficulty . A Flycatcher fitted with wooden skids was also tested and behaved perfectly satisfactorily . The arresting gear was barely used during these trials and it was removed shortly afterwards . Deck @-@ edge palisades were installed in 1927 to keep aircraft from blowing over the side in rough weather . The first carrier night @-@ landing was made by a Blackburn Dart on 6 May 1926 aboard Furious . In the 1920s , the ship commonly carried one flight of fighters ( Fairey Flycatcher ) , two of spotters ( Blackburn Blackburn or Avro Bison ) , one spotter reconnaissance ( Fairey IIID ) and two flights of torpedo bombers ( Blackburn Dart ) , each usually of six aircraft .

Furious was reduced to reserve on 1 July 1930 in preparation for a lengthy overhaul at Devonport . It lasted from September 1930 to February 1932 and was focused on refitting her machinery and re @-@ tubing her boilers . In addition her quarterdeck was raised by one deck , the AA armament was revised and spraying facilities were fitted in the hangars . Upon completion , she ran a full @-@ power trial on 16 February 1932 where her maximum speed was 28 @.@ 8 knots ( 53 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 1 mph ) from a total of 89 @,@ 745 shaft horsepower ( 66 @,@ 923 kW ) .

Furious recommissioned in May 1932 as part of the Home Fleet with a reduced crew before being brought up to full complement in November . Transverse arresting gear was fitted sometime during the mid @-@ 1930s . She was detached to the Mediterranean Fleet from May to October 1934 . Furious was present at the Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 20 May 1937 for George VI . She became a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1937 , although she was refitted in Devonport between December 1937 and May 1938 where the forward end of her lower flight deck was raised to make her less wet forward . During the Munich Crisis in September 1938 , the ship embarked 801 , 821 and 822 Squadrons and joined the fleet at Scapa Flow , before resuming her training duties after the peaceful conclusion of the affair . She was struck a glancing blow by the destroyer Encounter during this time , but suffered only minor damage .

From 1933 to the end of 1938 Furious carried 801 Squadron which initially flew a mixture of six Hawker Nimrod and three Flycatcher fighters . Hawker Osprey fighters replaced the Flycatchers in early 1934 and the Nimrods were withdrawn in October 1936 . 811 and 822 Squadrons were embarked for reconnaissance and anti @-@ shipping missions . They flew the Blackburn Ripon , the Blackburn Baffin and the Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers and as well as the Fairey IIIF , the Fairey Seal and the Blackburn Shark reconnaissance aircraft .

The ship was given a more extensive refit from January to May 1939 that removed her 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and palisades , mounted anti @-@ aircraft guns on her lower flying @-@ off deck , plated in the doors at the forward end of the upper hangar , and gave her a small island on the starboard side . Furious resumed her training duties after the completion of the refit and continued them until October 1939 . As a deck @-@ landing training carrier in 1939 Furious embarked 767 Squadron , flying Shark , Swordfish and Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers and reconnaissance aircraft , and 769 Squadron , flying Blackburn Skua , Blackburn Roc , and Gloster Sea Gladiator fighters .

= = Second World War = =

Furious remained on training duties , combined with anti @-@ submarine sweeps off the east coast of Scotland until 2 October 1939 . She was then assigned to the Home Fleet to replace the sunken Courageous and embarked nine Swordfish aircraft from 816 Squadron and a detachment of three more Swordfish from 818 Squadron . The ship sortied on 8 October with the fleet to unsuccessfully hunt for the German battleship Gneisenau and escorting ships which had been spotted off southern Norway . After returning from this search , Furious departed her berth adjacent to the battleship Royal Oak in Scapa Flow for more futile searches for German ships on 13 October , the day before Royal Oak was sunk by U @-@ 47 . Afterwards she was transferred to Halifax , Nova Scotia , where she and the battlecruiser HMS Repulse formed a hunting group for German raiders . Furious served as the flagship for the convoy bringing most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division to Britain in mid @-@ December 1939 . In the darkness on 17 December , the west @-@ bound ocean liner SS Samaria passed through the convoy unseen . She ripped off the horizontal wireless masts on Furious 's starboard side , carried away five overhanging lifeboats from the port side of RMS Aquitania , and just missed the third and fourth ships in line .

= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =

Furious joined the Home Fleet off the coast of Norway on 10 April 1940 with only eighteen Swordfish from 816 and 818 Squadrons embarked ; no fighters were able to join the ship in time . Sixteen Swordfish made unsuccessful torpedo attacks on German ships in Trondheim harbour the following morning . On 12 April , both squadrons attempted to attack German ships in Narvik in bad weather . Disappointed with the failure of the torpedo attacks the previous day , bombs were carried instead . 818 Squadron , making the first attack , damaged several captured Norwegian ships , but lost two aircraft to flak , although the crews were rescued by the British cruiser Penelope and the destroyer Punjabi . Following 40 minutes behind , 816 Squadron was forced to turn back by heavy weather . One aircraft was lost while landing , but the crew was recovered . Another attack was launched the next day in support of the British ships entering Narvik , but they contributed little and another pair of Swordfish were shot down .

Furious , ordered to remain behind after the bulk of the Home Fleet departed on 15 April , departed the Narvik area on 14 April , escorted by three destroyers , to refuel at Tromsø . En route , her Swordfish attacked Junkers Ju 52 transports that had landed on frozen Lake Hartvikvatnet approximately 10 miles ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) north @-@ east of Narvik . Two of the Ju 52s were destroyed and several others damaged . She reached the port on 16 April with only 27 % of her fuel remaining . She stayed there until 18 April when she headed south to scout the Narvik area . She was attacked en route by a single Heinkel He 111 bomber of the II . / KG 26 wing from very high altitude . Two large bombs narrowly missed the ship , the closest only 11 yards ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) off the port side aft . The shock shook her propeller shafts out of alignment and jarred the port inner high @-@ pressure turbine so that she was limited to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Furious remained off the coast of Norway despite the damage and attempted to fly off aircraft on 22 April , despite severe weather , to discourage German aircraft from delivering supplies to the German forces in Narvik . One aircraft was shot down by the Germans and the others returned reporting heavy snowstorms between the ship and Narvik . The weather worsened the next day and Captain Troubridge decided to head to Harstad to check the damage from the near miss . It proved worse than anticipated and he was ordered back to the United Kingdom . Only six of the nine remaining Swordfish were serviceable .

After quick repairs , which included the removal of several rows of turbine blades , Furious returned to Norway on 18 May carrying the Gladiators of a reformed Royal Air Force 263 Squadron ; they were flown off on 21 April once their base at Bardufoss was ready . One Gladiator and the guiding Swordfish crashed en route , killing all crewmen . The ship returned to Scapa Flow once all the Gladiators had been flown off , carrying only six Sea Gladiators of 804 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 816 Squadron for self @-@ protection while ferrying 263 Squadron .

On 14 June , carrying only half of 816 Squadron for her own protection , Furious sailed unescorted for Halifax carrying £ 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in gold bullion . On 1 July she escorted a convoy of Canadian troops bound for Iceland from Halifax and ferried over almost 50 aircraft with spare parts and munitions . On his own initiative , Captain Troubridge ordered all available space should be used to transport sugar to Britain . Upon her arrival , she embarked the rest of 816 Squadron , as well as nine Skuas of 801 Squadron and nine Swordfish of 825 , and made a number of largely unsuccessful air strikes on shipping in Norwegian waters and on the seaplane base at Tromsø in September and October 1940 , at a cost of several aircraft . Both Swordfish squadrons disembarked afterwards to make room as she prepared to resume her role as an aircraft transport .

= = = Ferry duties = = =

Furious loaded 55 aircraft , mostly crated Hawker Hurricane fighters of No. 73 Squadron RAF , in Liverpool on 7 November and sailed for Takoradi , Gold Coast on 15 November where they were flown off or off @-@ loaded on 27 November with the ultimate destination of Egypt . During this time she retained only six Skuas of 801 Squadron for her own protection . Furious was back in Liverpool by 15 December where she embarked 40 more Hurricanes for Takoradi . She sailed on 21 December and joined up with Convoy WS5A and the small carrier Argus . The German cruiser Admiral Hipper encountered the convoy on 25 December , but little damage was inflicted by Admiral Hipper before she was driven off by the escorts . No air strike could be flown against the German cruiser because the Swordfish were embarked in Argus with bombs that they could not carry and their torpedoes were aboard Furious . After Furious 's Skuas had flown off to search for Hipper , space was made to land the Swordfish to load the torpedoes , but the Skuas could not locate Admiral Hipper because of the poor visibility . Furious reached Takoradi on 10 January 1941 and arrived back in Britain on 5 February where she was given a brief refit . She made another ferry trip to Takoradi on 4 March , carrying 12 Fairey Fulmars of 807 Squadron and six Swordfish of 825 Squadron for self @-@ defence .

Furious now had a new destination for her ferry trips and she transported 24 Hurricanes to Gibraltar on 25 April where they were transferred to Ark Royal to be flown off for Malta . She sailed for a brief refit at Belfast immediately afterwards . While in Belfast she was hit by one small bomb and near @-@ missed by two others during a German air raid in early May , but was only lightly damaged . The ship loaded another batch of 40 Hurricane IIs , plus nine Fulmars from ' X ' Flight of 800 Squadron in Liverpool , and arrived back in Gibraltar on 18 May . Some of these fighters were moved to Ark Royal via planks between the flight decks of the carriers berthed stern to stern . This time she accompanied Ark Royal and the two carriers flew off their fighters from a position south of Sardinia . Furious loaded 48 more Hurricane IIs and arrived back in Gibraltar on 1 June where some of the fighters were transferred to Ark Royal . The two carriers departed Gibraltar on 4 June and flew off 44 of the 48 fighters . Furious returned to the Clyde for her biggest load of aircraft yet , 64 Hurricanes , leaving room for only nine Swordfish from 816 Squadron on this voyage . Upon her arrival on 25 June she transferred 22 Hurricanes to Ark Royal and that carrier flew them off to Malta the next day . Of the 42 Hurricanes left on Furious , 26 were moved to Ark Royal when she returned on 28 June . This time , however , both carriers sailed to deliver the fighters to their usual take @-@ off point west of Sicily . The tenth of Furious 's aircraft to take off crashed into her island , killing 14 men and starting a serious fire on the flight deck . The blocked flight deck forced the remaining six Hurricanes to remain on board and they were returned to Gibraltar . Furious exchanged 816 Squadron for 818 from Ark Royal , then departed for home .

In July , Furious embarked nine Fulmars of 800 Squadron , ' A ' Flight of 880 Squadron with four Sea Hurricane IBs , nine Swordfish from 812 Squadron and nine Albacores of 817 Squadron to attack the German @-@ occupied ports of Kirkenes , Norway , and Petsamo , Finland , departing Scapa Flow on the 23rd in company with the carrier Victorious , two cruisers and six destroyers . The two carriers and their escorts gathered in Seidisfjord , Iceland , under the command of Rear Admiral Wake @-@ Walker where they refuelled in late July . Furious attacked ships in Petsamo on 30 July with all of her Swordfish and Albacores , escorted by six Fulmars and all four Sea Hurricanes , but there was very little shipping present . One small ship , MV Trotter , was sunk , several oil storage tanks were set afire , and several wooden jetties were torpedoed . The British ships had been spotted before the attack and two Fulmars and an Albacore were shot down by the alerted defences . Furious was short of fuel and had to leave shortly afterwards , but she transferred her Albacores to Victorious to fill up that carrier 's decimated squadrons before she left . Sea Hurricanes of 880 Squadron shot down a shadowing Dornier Do 18 flying boat on 31 July as the ship was leaving .

On 30 August , Furious left Belfast with a load of 49 Hurricanes , carrying three Fulmars of 800 Squadron and four Sea Hurricane IBs of 880A Squadron for self @-@ defence , and nine Swordfish of 812 Squadron for Ark Royal . She arrived in Gibraltar on 6 September and transferred 40 Hurricanes to the other carrier the next day . Ark Royal sailed for the departure point the following day , but could only fly off 14 Hurricanes because some of the Bristol Blenheim bombers used to guide the fighters to Malta failed to make their rendezvous . When Ark Royal returned , she transferred the six Swordfish of 810 Squadron to Furious and both carriers departed that same day to deliver the Hurricanes . This was Furious 's last ferry mission as she was sent to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , for a lengthy refit . She arrived on 7 October and did not return to the United Kingdom until April 1942 .

Furious spent the next three months after her return working up . In August , she was detailed to accompany the convoy bound for Malta in Operation Pedestal , but she was only to sail far enough with them to allow her 38 Supermarine Spitfires to reach Malta . This she did , just as Eagle was torpedoed , but Furious turned around after flying off her fighters and reached Gibraltar successfully . She loaded another batch of 32 Spitfires on 16 August and they were flown off the following day south @-@ east of the Balearic Islands . After this mission , Furious was sent back to the Home Fleet for training . One last mission was necessary to reinforce the defences of Malta before Operation Torch and the ship arrived at Gibraltar on 27 October . She loaded 32 Spitfires and launched them on 29 August before returning to Gibraltar and being assigned to Force H.

As part of Operation Torch , Furious embarked 12 Supermarine Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron , another 12 Seafire IICs of 807 Squadron and nine Albacores of 822 Squadron to provide air cover for the amphibious landings by the Central Task Force . On the morning of 8 November , Furious 's Seafires strafed the Vichy French airfield at Tafraoui , destroying three aircraft on the ground and shooting down one Dewoitine D.520 fighter , the first air @-@ to @-@ air kill by a Seafire . Eight Albacores , escorted by Sea Hurricanes from two escort carriers , attacked the field at La Senia . They were attacked by D.520s as they began their attack dive , but they destroyed 47 aircraft on the ground despite the loss of an Albacore from anti @-@ aircraft fire and the loss of three and damage to two more against the French fighters . Seafires of 807 Squadron from Furious covered the landings at Oran , engaging a flight of D.520s , shooting down three and destroying about twenty aircraft on the ground .

= = = Home Waters = = =

Furious remained with Force H until February 1943 before transferring to the Home Fleet where she remained for the rest of the war . In July , the fleet demonstrated off the coast of Norway in strength to distract attention from the Allied invasion of Sicily ; Furious 's role was to allow a German reconnaissance aircraft to spot the British ships and make a report , then shoot it down . She was refitted in August and spent the rest of the year training . During the passage of Convoy JW @-@ 57 from the U.K. to Russia in February 1944 , Furious , escorted by the British battleship Anson and the French battleship Richelieu , attacked German shipping off the Norwegian coast on 24 February . The carrier had the Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron aboard , plus the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 827 Squadron and 830 Squadrons . No aircraft were lost and a beached freighter was destroyed .

In preparation for Operation Tungsten , an attack on the German battleship Tirpitz , Furious and Victorious exchanged Barracuda squadrons , 827 for 831 Squadron , so that the squadrons that trained together could fly together . Furious also embarked 880 Squadron with eight Seafire L.IIC fighters to reinforce the six Seafire IBs of 801 Squadron . On the morning of 3 April , 21 Barracudas of 827 and 830 Squadrons made the first attack just as the Tirpitz was getting under way for sea trials . The Germans were caught entirely by surprise and the Tirpitz 's smokescreen was only just beginning to form . The British aircraft enjoyed a clear view of their target and hit the German battleship six times . An hour later the second wave of 19 Barracudas from 829 and 831 Squadrons arrived and scored eight more hits . Only one Barracuda was shot down from each wave and another crashed on take @-@ off . 801 and 880 Squadrons were retained for fleet air defence during the operation . Tirpitz 's superstructure and upper hull was moderately damaged by the bombs , but her machinery was intact because the Barracuda pilots pressed home their attack below the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) altitude necessary to give their 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bombs enough velocity to penetrate Tirpitz 's main armoured deck . Nonetheless Tirpitz was under repair for three months .

The Home Fleet tried another attack on Tirpitz later on 23 April , but bad weather prevented any attack from being made that day and for the next several days . Instead , the aircraft attempted to attack installations at Bodø on 26 April , but found a German convoy instead and sank three ships . Furious and the escort carrier Searcher attacked shipping in the vicinity of Kristiansund and sank the ore carrier Almora and the tanker Saarburg for the loss of two aircraft on 6 May . Another attack on Tirpitz by the Home Fleet had to be abandoned on 15 May because of poor weather . Yet another attempt on 28 May was foiled by bad weather , but a German convoy was successfully attacked on 1 June . One ammunition ship was sunk and two others were set on fire .

Furious and the fleet carriers Formidable and Indefatigable made another attempt to sink the Tirpitz on 17 July , in Operation Mascot . For this attack the carrier embarked 880 Squadron with three Seafire L.IICs , 20 Grumman Hellcats of 1840 Squadron , Barracudas of 830 Squadron and three Swordfish of 842 Flight . The Barracudas , heavily loaded with bombs of up to 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) , launched using a wooden ramp : an early example of what was to be later named the ski @-@ jump . The attack was unsuccessful against the fully alerted German defences as a smokescreen covered the German battleship so that the Barracudas had to drop their bombs blindly through the smoke . Four more attacks on Tirpitz were made in August under the name of Operation Goodwood in a concerted effort to sink her . Furious carried twelve Seafire F.IIIs of 801 Squadron , another twelve Seafire L.IICs of 880 Squadron and nine Barracudas of 827 Squadron for this operation . The first attack on 20 August was recalled because of bad weather , but the attack on 22 August was spotted by the Germans and 11 aircraft were lost . Another attack was made two days later ; one armour @-@ piercing bomb penetrated Tirpitz 's armoured deck but failed to detonate , and another 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb did only superficial damage . A fourth attack was made on 29 August , but inflicted no damage .

By this time the ship 's age and limitations became increasingly apparent and she was placed in reserve on 15 September 1944 . The ship was paid off in April 1945 and , berthed at Loch Striven , was used to evaluate the effects of aircraft explosives on the ship 's structure . Furious was sold in 1948 for scrap , and had been completely broken up in Troon by 1954 .

= Warning from Space =

Warning from Space ( 宇宙人東京に現わる , Uchūjin Tokyo ni arawaru , Spacemen Appear in Tokyo ) is a Japanese science fiction tokusatsu film released in January 1956 by Daiei , and was the first Japanese science fiction film to be produced in color . In the film 's plot , starfish @-@ like aliens disguised as humans travel to Earth to warn of the imminent collision of a rogue planet and Earth . As the planet rapidly accelerates toward Earth , a nuclear device is created at the last minute and destroys the approaching world .

The film , directed by Koji Shima , was one of many early Japanese monster films quickly produced after the success of Toho 's Godzilla in 1954 . The film was loosely based on a novel by Gentaro Nakajima . After release , the film was met with negative reviews , with critics calling it " bizarre " and accusing it of using science fiction clichés . Warning from Space influenced many other Japanese science fiction films , such as Gorath . The film , along with other 1950s science fiction films , influenced director Stanley Kubrick , who would later direct 2001 : A Space Odyssey .

= = Plot = =

A small ship travels to a rotating space station . Aboard the station , a group of starfish @-@ like beings discuss how to warn humans of an impending disaster , deciding on contacting Japanese scientist Dr. Kumara . Meanwhile , flying saucers are spotted over the skies of Tokyo , baffling scientists . A journalist tries to get a statement from Dr. Kumara about the sightings , but Kumara replies that there is not enough evidence to formulate a hypothesis . At an observatory , Professor Isobe spots an object in his telescope apparently releasing smaller objects .

Isobe discusses his findings with Kumara and a physician , Dr. Matsuda , who believes they should get photographs via a rocket . The photographs they retrieve , however , turn out to be unclear , though they deduce the object has a high energy output . In the meantime , the extraterrestrials have been unsuccessfully attempting to contact humans . They begin appearing in lakes and rivers , frightening local fishermen and sailors . One of the aliens manages to secure a photo of Hikari Aozora , a famous Japanese entertainer . Their plan is for one of the aliens to mutate into the form of Aozora . Back aboard the space station , one of the Pairan leaders , Ginko , volunteers herself . Her starfish form is slowly mutated into a human form .

On Earth , Toru , Isobe 's son , discovers the disguised alien floating in the water . After her rescue , she exhibits superhuman characteristics such as jumping ten feet and materializing in different places without walking . Soon , she disrupts Dr. Matsuda 's work on a nuclear device , explaining she understands the complex equations he was writing and warning against the effects of a device , leading him to believe she is not human . Shortly afterwards , as the team of scientists discuss her abnormal traits , the camouflaged Ginko appears and reveals her true identity , explaining she is from Paira , a world on the same orbit as Earth but on the opposite side of the Sun . She then continues to reveal her mission , to warn Earth of an imminent collision of a rogue planet , which is dubbed " Planet R " by the media . They appeal to the World Congress about the situation , but are swiftly rejected . Only after they show Planet R and its rapid acceleration in the telescope does the World Congress launch its nuclear weapons , which ineffectively explode on its surface .

In the meantime , a group of spies have abducted Matsuda and are attempting to steal his formula to the nuclear device the disguised Pairan warned him about . Matsuda does not comply and is eventually tied to a chair in a remote building . As the Earth 's atmosphere heats up due to the approaching world , Ginko again arrives to learn why Planet R is not yet destroyed . They locate Matsuda through Pairan technology and gather the formula for the device . The scientists then all watch as the nuclear device is shot from the space station and destroys Planet R , cooling the atmosphere and removing the threat . Ginko then changes back to her original form aboard the space station .

= = Production = =

After the success of Toho 's 1954 film Godzilla , which depicted a giant dinosaur attacking Tokyo , many Japanese film studios began to produce similar monster films , including Warning from Space . Along with other films such as Shintōhō 's Terrifying Attack of the Flying Saucers and the American Forbidden Planet , Warning from Space became part of a fledgling subgenre of films based around science fiction creatures . The film also used the theme of atomic bombs that was present in many films at the time , but showed how the weapons , which devastated the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki a decade earlier , could be put to good use . Still others noted the film used another common theme of cosmic collisions in the style of earlier films such as the 1931 film End of the World , which depicted a comet on a collision course with the Earth .

The Pairan aliens were designed by the prominent avant @-@ garde artist Tarō Okamoto , which used a single eye that is common among science fiction aliens . Although official film posters showed the Pairan aliens towering over buildings , the actual cinematic version of the aliens were on the scale of humans , at about two meters . Walt Lee reports that Gentaro Nakajima 's novel , on which this film was based , was in turn based on the Japanese folktale Kaguya @-@ hime . The film was one of fourteen Japanese color pictures produced in early 1956 , but the first color Japanese science @-@ fiction film .

= = Release = =

Warning From Space was released in Japan in 1956 . Daiei also hoped to find a foreign market for Warning from Space , though the company found difficulty in selling it . Nevertheless , the film played at both King Cinema in Rangoon , Burma and Tai Khoon Theatre in Sandakan , Malaysia , in 1958 . The film did help Daiei achieve some success in the genre . It was passed for release , anglicized as Warning from Space , by the BBFC in the United Kingdom in 1957 , and later in the United States in 1963 . It was picked up by American International Television later in the 1960s . The film was released in Spain as Asalto a la Tierra , and in France as Le Satellite Mystérieux . Warning from Space has since fallen into the public domain , allowing companies to distribute the free film on DVD .

= = Reception = =

From retrospective reviews , a review included in the book A Guide to Apocalyptic Cinema , author Charles P. Mitchell called the film " bizarre " and gave it two stars . Similarly , in a 1978 issue of the magazine Cue , viewers were warned " don 't watch it . " In the 1986 Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies by Phil Hardy and Denis Gifford , the film is accused of using the science fiction clichés of flying saucers and atomic bombs . Gyan Prakash , in his book Noir Urbanisms : Dystopic Images of the Modern City , called the film " charming . " The film was noted for its misleading characterization of astronomers , with one author observing that it advanced the cinematic portrayal of astronomers as scientists in lab coats peering through an enormous telescope .

In his biography of Stanley Kubrick , author John Baxter traces Kubrick 's interest in science fiction films , which led to his 2001 : A Space Odyssey , to the Japanese kaiju eiga films of the 1950s , including Warning from Space , with its " nameless two @-@ metre @-@ tall black starfish with a single central eye , who walk en pointe like ballet dancers . " Baxter notes that despite their " clumsy model sequences , the films were often well @-@ photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well @-@ designed and well @-@ lit sets . "

= = Legacy = =

Warning from Space influenced Toho 's Gorath , a 1963 film which depicts a rogue planet on a collision course with Earth . The planet Paira in Warning from Space may have been an influence in the Daiei films Gamera vs. Guiron and Gamera : Super Monster , which feature the planet Tera , another planet on the opposite of Earth 's orbit . Critics have also noted plot similarities to the later Toho film Monster Zero , in that a friendly planet warns Japan of the atom bomb and subsequently assists in celestial defense . The Pairans ' asteroidean appearance is similar to that of a later pentagrammic creation , Starro , a villain from DC Comics ' Justice League .

= Fatbeard =

" Fatbeard " is the seventh episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 188th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 22 , 2009 and in the United Kingdom on April 24 , 2009 . It was the mid @-@ season finale , marking the final South Park episode for six months . In the episode , Cartman misinterprets news reports about piracy in the Indian Ocean to mean the return of the classic era of swashbuckling pirates , and misleads a handful of South Park boys to voyage to Mogadishu to start a pirate crew .

The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States for strong to extreme language . " Fatbeard " was a reference to increasing international media attention to piracy in the Indian Ocean , and the script depicted the pirates in a sympathetic light . The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke @-@ class guided missile destroyer which participated in the rescue of the hijacked MV Maersk Alabama , contacted the South Park creators to praise them for the episode . " Fatbeard " received generally positive reviews and was seen by 2 @.@ 59 million households in its original broadcast , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production the week it aired .

= = Plot = =

Having misunderstood the news about an upsurge of piracy in the Indian Ocean , Cartman excitedly tells his friends the classic era of piracy has returned , and asks the boys to join him in becoming a pirate in what he describes as a responsibility @-@ free life in a warm tropical paradise . Sensing an opportunity to get rid of Cartman once and for all , Kyle encourages him to go , even offering to help pay for his ticket . Although Butters , Ike , Clyde and Kevin are the only students who agree to join his crew , an undaunted Cartman uses his mother 's credit card to book a trip to Somalia . After a long flight and a 49 @-@ hour bus ride , the boys arrive in Mogadishu dressed as stereotypical pirates . Once there , however , they are shocked to find themselves in a desolate land , the complete opposite of their expectations .

They quickly find the pirates , who are shocked that anyone would knowingly venture into their base . The pirates decide to ransom the boys to the first European vessel they find . The boys confidently go with them , believing they are being taken to a pirate ship , but are once again disappointed when they are taken to a small motorboat . Eventually , the pirates find a French schooner and demand a ransom of five thousand euros in exchange for the boys ' lives . Meanwhile in South Park , Kyle happily claims partial credit for sending Cartman to Somalia and expects things will be better without Cartman around . But when his parents discover a farewell letter from Ike , Kyle realizes his brother has run off with Cartman to Somalia , and he sets off for Mogadishu to bring his brother home . Back in Somalia , the ransom is paid and the boys are surrendered . Once on board , however , Cartman assumes control of the schooner and orders the crew to get onto the lifeboat . Although the captain initially refuses , Kevin brandishes a toy lightsaber , frightening the French crew into abandoning ship . Cartman and the boys return to Mogadishu with the captured vessel , giving several bundles of Euros to the pirates . The pirates are initially shocked , but begin to respect Cartman . Unimpressed by their lack of " pirate " traits , he in turn leads them in raiding ships via a traditional sea shanty called " Somalian Pirates , We " , and starts fashioning them into a stereotypical pirate crew .

Meanwhile , the French crew is rescued by a cargo ship , and the U.S. Navy is deployed by NATO after getting word from the cargo ship captain that the pirates now have " advanced weaponry " ( which was really just Kevin 's toy lightsaber , that the French crew thought was real ) . Kyle arrives in Mogadishu , but is immediately taken captive by the pirates and held hostage . He pleads with Cartman to let him and his brother leave , but Cartman refuses , believing that Kyle is simply jealous of his new pirate life . Meanwhile , an English @-@ speaking pirate named Guleed asks Butters and Ike why they decided to become pirates . When they say that they left because they were tired of things like school , chores , homework , and being yelled at by adults , Guleed responds by telling them that he dreamed of a simple life going to school , and that his mother is suffering with AIDS but cannot be treated , and his father was killed in an attempt to find food for his family . He never set out to be a pirate , but was forced into piracy to support his family . Realizing how close @-@ minded they 've been , Butters and Ike admit that a life of piracy is one of hardship and suffering , not fun and adventure like normal life can be . They then tell Cartman that they want to return home , but he refuses to give up his romantic delusions of grandeur and threatens the boys with death by calling the real pirates to hold them at gunpoint . However , Cartman 's vision is quickly disrupted when a U.S Navy ship hired by NATO appears off the coast carrying snipers , who shoots all of Cartman 's pirate colleagues with a single gunshot to each of their heads . This leaves Cartman dumbfounded and annoyed .

= = Production = =

" Fatbeard " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 22 , 2009 and was the mid @-@ season finale , marking the final South Park episode until October 2009 . " Fatbeard " is based on real @-@ life piracy in the Indian Ocean , which began receiving increasing international media attention in 2008 until its demise in 2012 / 2013 .

The episode began production two weeks before its airdate , with the intention to broadcast it on April 15 , 2009 . The writing team had developed the idea for Cartman mistaking Somalian piracy for classic piracy amid the pirate hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama at the time . Captain Richard Phillips was taken hostage in the event , and Parker and Stone decided to hold the episode indefinitely , although animation had begun . Realizing the severity of the situation — if Phillips were killed and the South Park episode seemed to mock the situation — they decided to resume work on the episode " Pinewood Derby " , which had been in production for a while , as the creators had no idea to where to go with its story . When Phillips was rescued over the weekend , they wanted to resume work on " Fatbeard " , but as animation work on the episode proved difficult , including new sets depicting Somalia , it was decided it would be unfeasible .

The episode 's ending was unusual , as many episodes of South Park tend to resolve the episode 's events ; in " Fatbeard " , the main characters don 't return home and are shown at the end still in Somalia . An alternate ending made it to the animatic stage , in which Cartman , in a self @-@ referential manner , congratulates the show on the conclusion of the season and invites the season 's celebrity parodies ( among those the Jonas Brothers and Kanye West ) . The ending , which Parker likened to that of a variety show , was something he felt was funny in writing but didn 't succeed visually .

While most South Park episodes feature Parker and Stone providing almost all the voice acting , " Fatbeard " included several French @-@ speaking actors providing the lines of the schooner crew . Outside voice actors were also brought in for the role of the Somalian pirates , including Abdi Fatah Adawe , Dahir Ali , Abdullahi Prime , and Julien Zeitouni . The week after its original broadcast , in response to requests by fans , the full 90 @-@ second version of episode 's sea shanty song , " Somalian Pirates , We " was made available for download on South Park Studios , the official South Park website . Shortly after " Fatbeard " was originally broadcast , the site also featured six different types of T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode .

= = Themes = =

The ending , in which the pirates are each shot to death by American snipers , reflects the resolution of the pirate hijacking of the MV Maersk Alabama in April 2009 , where U.S. Navy SEALs rescued the captain after three snipers simultaneously killed three pirates with one shot each . They are portrayed in a particularly sympathetic light when they are killed during the ending . Travis Fickett of IGN said , " It 's one of those moments where South Park feels the need to give voice to a side the media is ignoring — and points out that things aren 't quite as cut and dry [ sic ] as we might like . " The episode has also been described as a commentary on the way in which Americans tend to take their relative wealth and comfort for granted . A U.S. Navy SEAL ordering another to " not hit the white ones " has also been described as an indictment of the American approach to foreign policy .

= = Cultural references = =

Ike indicates he will " vomit my balls out through my mouth " if he has to hear anything more about Susan Boyle , the Scottish amateur singer who gained worldwide attention around the time of the episode 's airing for her performance of the song " I Dreamed a Dream " from Les Misérables on the show Britain 's Got Talent . The Boyle reference in particular received a great deal of media attention the week " Fatbeard " first aired . Cartman says that Jewish people , Mexicans , and ginger @-@ haired people are not allowed to be pirates . The French schooner crew members are portrayed as pretentious cowards , a stereotype of the French based on the government 's surrender during World War II . The schooner itself strongly resembles the French luxury yacht Le Ponant , which was seized by Somali pirates in April 2008 . Cartman refers to Blackbeard , the famous English pirate from the 17th and 18th centuries , from whom the episode derives its name . Much of the décor and music in the episode is influenced by the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park ride and associated film franchise . Kevin wields a toy lightsaber , the Jedi weapon from the Star Wars films ; this is also a reference to the sixth season episode " The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers " , in which he dresses as an Imperial stormtrooper while the rest of the boys are in Lord of the Rings attire .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " Fatbeard " was watched by 2 @.@ 59 million overall households , according to the Nielsen ratings , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received generally positive reviews . Carlos Delgado of If magazine , who gave the episode an A- grade , particularly praised the Cartman and Ike characters and called the ending " perfect " . Delgado said of the show 's creators , " These guys see episode potential in nearly everything that passes through the news desk . And because South Park can be made in like a week — and I ’ m talking start to finish , from concept to finished product — they end up being the most socially conscious and timely show on television today . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the episode and the Somalian pirate song , and complimented the show for presenting the pirates as sympathetic human beings . Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club said the portrayal of Somalian pirates was a predictable storyline , but said he enjoyed the episode because of the pacing : " Rather than a cobbled @-@ together collection of gags , everything progressed very organically . " IGN writer Travis Fickett said the episode was amusing but not exceptional . Fickett enjoyed the takeover of the French vessel and the extent to which Cartman 's delusion about pirates takes him , but he said the pirate plot " isn 't entirely in good taste ( and ) it never really gathers a full head of steam " .

The crew of the USS Bainbridge , the Arleigh Burke @-@ class guided missile destroyer which participated in the rescue of Richard Phillips from the hijacked MV Maersk Alabama , contacted the creators of South Park to commend them on the episode . Ensign Jonathan Sieg , the Bainbridge public relations officer , wrote : " Pretty much everyone onboard our ship — from Captain to seaman — is a huge fan of South Park , and when we heard about the episode Fatbeard , as you can imagine , we were thrilled and very interested to watch . " Sieg requested copies of the episode because the streaming online video was difficult to watch on the ship , and the South Park staff in return sent them a care package including several copies of the episode . On the official South Park Studios FAQ , they wrote back , " No , sir , thank you . We were honored to read that , and making an episode about you kicking pirate booty was our pleasure . "

= = Home release = =

" Fatbeard " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .

= Ain 't It Fun ( Paramore song ) =

" Ain 't It Fun " is a song by American rock band Paramore , released as the fourth single from their self @-@ titled fourth studio album Paramore ( 2013 ) . Produced by musician Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen , the song was recorded in Los Angeles . Development for it began with a keyboard loop recorded by its guitarist , Taylor York . Instruments including xylophone and bass guitar were later brought , along with a six @-@ member gospel choir . York and the band 's vocalist , Hayley Williams , wrote the song based on her experience of relocating and the latter 's subsequent attitude .

The song received critical acclaim from music critics , who hailed its musical diversity . It was serviced to mainstream radio in the United States and Italy ; a 12 @-@ inch vinyl of the single was released for Record Store Day 2014 . The song became Paramore 's highest peaking single on the US Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 10 and received ' double platinum ' certification from the RIAA having sold over two million singles . Internationally , the song garnered moderate commercial outcomes , reaching the top 40 of Australian , Canadian and Venezuelan charts . On February 8 , 2015 , the song won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Song at the 57th ceremony , becoming Paramore 's first Grammy win , and making Williams the first woman to score that honor since Alanis Morissette in 1999 .

" Ain 't It Fun " was performed on television several times , including on The Voice , Late Night with Seth Meyers and American Idol . It was also included in the band 's The Self @-@ Titled Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . After the original music video directed by Jonathan Desbiens was cancelled , a second visual was directed by Sophia Peer . The latter , released in January 2014 , documents the band attempting to break a series of world records .

= = Recording and development = =

The first song completed in Los Angeles for Paramore , " Ain 't It Fun " was produced by musician Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen . Development for the song started in a hotel room , where Taylor York created an audio loop with his keyboard , which Williams likened to works by Siouxsie and the Banshees and Paula Abdul . Upon hearing it , Hayley Williams proposed that they should write lyrics to it . Later , Williams and York started layering their voices to imitate those of gospel choir members . Six months later , they recorded with a gospel choir composed of six individuals : Brandon Hampton , Joslyn James , Katherine and Sean Dancy , Talitha Manor and Yolanda Harris @-@ Dancy . Williams , who was familiarized with gospel music , linked the inclusion of a gospel choir in the song to her upbringing , in which she frequently went to churches . Williams stated that the song was inspired by the band 's " roots " , explaining that she had grown up with " pop , funk and soul " .

Jeremy Davis — the band 's bassist — expounded on what they felt before releasing the song , " After we started writing weird stuff like ' Ain 't It Fun ' , we got nervous . But that was a comfort . We 've grown and we don 't like the same music we liked , so why would [ our fans ] not ? That idea kept us pushing ourselves . " York considered that the decision to bring a gospel choir would have been difficult to approve if the original lineup of the band had remained . The track was mixed by Ken Andrews , and mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound Studios .

= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =

Written in the key of E major , " Ain 't It Fun " paces at a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . The song features instrumentation from a " happy " xylophone and a " rubbery " bass guitar . An editor of the Corvallis Gazette @-@ Times described its melody as " cheery " and " propulsive " , while Sean Adams from Drowned in Sound called it " infectious " . Although its main genre is pop rock , Adams and Rebecca Nicholson of The Guardian denoted the song as delving into pop , more than the band 's previous material . The former also compared it to the works of Incubus , while Nicholson stated , " [ it ] sounds as if Alexander O 'Neal has just discovered Refused 's back catalogue " . Theon Weber of Spin labeled it as " bouncy " while denoting it as a new wave song . Writing for The A.V. Club , Annie Zaleski described the song as a mixture of rhythm and blues and pop ; Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone characterized it as " soul @-@ powered " . Cameron Adams from News.com.au described it as a funk rock song , while Scott Heisel from Alternative Press classified it as a " blast of new jack swing " . Barbara Schultz at Common Sense Media categorized it as a " funky alt @-@ rock arrangement " .

The gospel choir first appears in the song during its bridge . Referencing the choir 's feature , David Renshaw of NME commented that the song " pull [ s ] a Sister Act 2 . " The vocal ranges of Williams and the gospel choir spans from B3 to C ♯ 5 . The former 's vocal performance was described by Stereogum 's Chris DeVille as having influences of Michael Jackson , whereas Zaleski compared Williams ' vocal style in " Ain 't It Fun " to that of Mariah Carey . Heisel considered that the participation of the choir helped Williams sing " some of her most soulful vocals ever . " Joseph R. Atilano of the Philippine Daily Inquirer further analyzed Williams ' vocal performance in the song :

[ ... ] lead vocalist Hayley Williams is starting to show more of her musical chops – from her crooning to the soulful “ touches ” in her singing style , particularly in this single . These nuances in her voice signify to me that , vocally , she has entered her prime already . You can hear these changes specifically in the chorus and refrain sections of this single wherein she sings with greater confidence . Here , the versatility of her voice takes shape and we begin to take serious notice of what she can do more behind the mic .

The track 's lyrics , structured in verse – chorus form and written in second person narrative , predominantly feature a sarcastic tone . They were inspired by Williams ' decision to move from Nashville to Los Angeles . She considered this idea after feeling overwhelmed by the repercussion , in Nashville , of Josh and Zac Farro 's departure from Paramore . Williams said , " I took off for L.A. as if it was going to be some kind of paradise or saving grace . I got there and realized that my problems were following me . Okay , so I was having a bad six months ? Get over it . [ sic ] " The song was penned as a message regarding her behavior , in order for her to cope with her decision . She stated , " No one else was saying that to me , so I had to say it to myself . " musicOMH 's Thomas Ingham interpreted its lyrics as focusing on a " serious ' all alone in the world ' " theme , while Corvallis Gazette @-@ Times 's journalist called them " blunt " and wrote that they discuss " growing up " . The writer also believed that its theme would make the song a prominent track at graduation ceremonies . Atilano viewed a contrast between the song 's melody and lyrical content . However , he noted that its " sunny " sonority made it " pleasant " to hear .

= = Release and live performances = =

" Ain 't It Fun " was issued as a promotional CD single in the United Kingdom on August 26 , 2013 . The track was serviced to American mainstream stations on February 4 , 2014 , serving as Paramore 's fourth single . In the following month , it was announced that Paramore would participate in the 2014 Record Store Day with the release of a 12 @-@ inch single for " Ain 't It Fun " . The single , designed by Williams to look like a broken vinyl , was released on April 19 . It contains the original version of the song , along with a Dutch Uncles @-@ produced remix of it . In Italy , the song was serviced to contemporary hit radio on March 30 , 2014 by Atlantic . On June 24 , 2014 , Atlantic released an extended play ( EP ) featuring the song 's radio edit as well as three remixes of the song .

The song was included in the setlist of the band 's third worldwide tour , The Self @-@ Titled Tour . For each performance of the song , the band was accompanied by a gospel choir , who sang alongside Williams . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented , " Williams kept conjuring the refrain [ of " Ain 't It Fun " ] , appearing as if she never wanted the moment to end . Could you really blame her ? " The New Zealand Herald 's Rachel Bache stated that the track " had everyone dancing " .

The inaugural televised performance of the song was done on the 2013 iHeartRadio Jingle Ball , wherein it was selected as second song on the band 's setlist . [ a ] The band played the track on the season finale of The Voice 's fifth season , which aired on December 17 of that year . On April 23 , 2014 , they sang it on the Late Night with Seth Meyers program . On May 21 , 2014 , the band performed the song on the American Idol season 13 finale . During the performance , Williams was dressed in a white crop tank , floral @-@ printed pants and platform shoes . Finalist Jena Irene , who preceded Paramore with a live cover of the band 's single " Decode " , sang the second verse of " Ain 't It Fun " alone . She also sang the chorus and bridge of the song with Paramore . The band hosted a concert on Good Morning America , on June 13 , 2014 , in which they performed " Ain 't It Fun " as well .

= = Critical reception = =

" Ain 't It Fun " garnered critical acclaim from music critics . Writing for Alternative Press , Scott Heisel felt the song was one of the " moments of diversity that really make Paramore shine " . Billboard 's Brad Wete remarked that the song 's instrumentation helped it pass an " average rock song " status . Matt Collar of AllMusic billed the song as an " immediate classic " . For Stereogum , Chris DeVille opined that the song was " crack " . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone commented that , on " Ain 't It Fun " , Williams transitions to a new musical genre on Paramore with an " I @-@ will @-@ survive warrior priestess " attitude . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly , Brian Mansfield from the USA Today newspaper and Consequence of Sound 's Amanda Koellner selected " Ain 't It Fun " as a standout from the album . Koellner commented that " when the band allows each track a little more breathing room , they show some growth and have a good time doing it . " On behalf of The Arts Desk , Lisa @-@ Marie Ferla classified it as Paramore 's " strongest moment " .

Melissa Locker of Time described it as having potential for the " perfect summer anthem " . Writing for Drowned in Sound , Sean Adams joked that he would eat his modem if the song did not top " all the major charts worldwide " , receive a Grammy Award and amount a high number of views on YouTube . In contrast , Thomas Ingham of musicOMH criticized its lyrics , deeming it inferior to the track 's composition ; The Observer 's Phil Mongredien wrote that the song 's gospel influences did it " no favours " . Sputnikmusic 's Channing Freeman quipped that previous band members Josh and Zac Farro had left the band upon hearing a demo of " Ain 't It Fun " . Freeman also described the song 's lyrics as " ridiculous " and denounced the inclusion of the gospel choir . The Irish Times ' Tony Clayton @-@ Lea dubbed the song " woefully generic " .

= = Chart performance = =

" Ain 't It Fun " debuted at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated March 15 , 2014 . On its fifth week of charting , the song entered the top 40 of the Hot 100 , at number 34 . In doing so , Paramore became the band 's first album to yield two top 40 hits , after " Still Into You " peaked at number 24 . The song reached its peak of number 10 on the issue of May 24 , 2014 , becoming Paramore 's highest @-@ peaking song on the chart . According to Billboard , it is Williams ' sixth biggest US commercial success . On the magazine 's component charts , " Ain 't It Fun " reached higher positions — except for its peak of number 23 on the Adult Contemporary chart . For the week ending May 15 , the song topped the Hot Rock Songs chart , displacing " Pompeii " by Bastille — which had remained at the top for 12 weeks . The track also topped the Adult Top 40 , while peaking at number two on the Mainstream Top 40 , only behind " Fancy " by Iggy Azalea and Charli XCX . The song has sold over a million copies in the US as of June 2014 .

Internationally , the song attained moderate success . The song entered the ARIA Singles Chart at number 41 , on the week of September 8 , 2013 . Two weeks later , the track reached its peak of number 32 , having left the chart three weeks later . " Ain 't It Fun " spent nine weeks on the Canadian chart , where it reached a peak of number 15 . Not having been released as a single in the United Kingdom , the song became Paramore 's second lowest @-@ peaking track there — reaching number 147 . The song reached the top five on the country 's Rock Chart . In Ireland , the song peaked at number 61 .

= = Music video = =

= = = Development and release = = =

Pre @-@ production for the first version of the " Ain 't It Fun " music video started in early July 2013 . Alternative Press reported that Jonathan Desbiens , also known as Jodeb , was commissioned to direct the video . The video shoot continued into August , when Williams posted a picture of the band in the set . Two months later , however , the band posted a statement where they revealed that the video had been cancelled . Williams cited " unhappiness with the direction the video was headed " as an explanatory factor ; in replacement , a video for " Daydreaming " was filmed .

A new visual for the song , directed by Sophia Peer , was shot on December 2 of that year in Franklin , Tennessee . Peer stated that she wanted the video to " reflect " the message she retained from the song — " you had to push yourself out of your comfort zone and challenge yourself " . She began by brainstorming ideas for the visual , and she talked to Alexandra Young and the video 's editor Winston Case , who suggested her the concept of breaking world records . Peer selected 30 records for the band to break , nonetheless , they reduced the number due to the short length of the video shoot . The records selected were picked to match " different sections of the song " and were based on other already @-@ existent records .

To promote the video , Paramore associated with RecordSetter , convincing fans to create their own world records . No partnerships were established with Guinness World Records ; Peer commented , " RecordSetter is much more inclusive than Guinness , therefore cooler . [ The former 's CEO ] , Dan Rollman , is an inspired individual who has dedicated himself to helping people legitimize their talents and specialties . It is definitely the right place for Paramore fans to play along . " The video was released on January 29 , 2014 ; a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clip was released on March 3 of that year .

= = = Synopsis = = =

The video starts with Paramore holding electric guitars , heading towards the side of a bridge . They begin smashing clock guitars on a roadside , and a title screen appears , announcing that the band broke the record of smashing 30 clocks with guitars — [ b ] at a time of 31 @.@ 33 seconds . The camera shifts to a room where the group attempts to catch flying feathers ; Davis breaks the record of catching the most ( 18 ) feathers in 30 s . The next scene shows the group wearing eye goggles , in a room with white walls , destroying vinyl records in several ways — such as ripping them , stepping on them or punching them . The band breaks another record , after smashing 58 vinyl records in a minute , the highest number of broken records for that time . While the band is destroying more records , York makes a record as an individual by spinning a record on his finger for 32 @.@ 81 s — the least time ever for that accomplishment .

As the second rendition of the chorus begins , they go to an open field where they run through 10 banners in the quickest time ever of 9 @.@ 19 s . Quickly after breaking their sixth world record , Williams breaks her only individual record , of doing the " most cartwheels while wearing boots for 20 seconds " by doing 7 . The band members reunite and start walking backwards for 30 feet , while blindfolded and holding stuffed animals . This achievement is done by York in the fastest time ever of 6 @.@ 14 seconds . For the penultimate record , Davis and York break the record of unwrapping a " mummy " in the least time ; they unwrap Williams , who is covered in toilet paper , in 9 @.@ 75 s . During the closing scene , Williams , York and Davis stand on a moving convertible , with Williams breaking the last record of screaming for the maximum time while in a convertible — for 8 @.@ 48 s . The video concludes as it is revealed that " Ain 't It Fun " itself holds the world record of depicting the most world records — 10 — broken in a music video .

= = = Response = = =

MTV 's James Montgomery compared the video to the visual of " Still Into You " — the second single of Paramore . He wrote , " That clip was a revelation , the beginning of a bold new chapter for the band , and [ the video for " Ain 't It Fun " ] keeps that winning streak alive . Montgomery went on to call it " blissed out and buzzy , born of a brilliant concept , and an absolute blast to watch " . Fuse 's Nicole James surmised that the world records were " adorable " , while Steff Yotka of Nylon deemed them " crazy , funny , weird " and concluded that they " make for a truly excellent viewing experience " On the critical side , Mish Way — writing for Vice — opined that the video 's concept did not relate to the song 's theme . Way dubbed the clip a " major fuck @-@ up " but called Williams an " irresistible charm " .

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = = Additional information = = =

^ a The iHeart Radio Jingle Ball 2013 occurred on December 14 , 2013 . However , it was not broadcast live — it was recorded and " highlights " of the performances were aired on a special program aired by The CW ( on December 18 ) .

^ b Once Paramore — being one of its members or the entire group — breaks a world record in the " Ain 't It Fun " video , a title screen appears stating the record they have established , as well as displaying the time it took .

= Fishsticks ( South Park ) =

" Fishsticks " is the fifth episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 186th overall episode of the series , it was originally broadcast on Comedy Central in the United States on April 8 , 2009 . In the episode , Jimmy writes a joke that becomes a national sensation , and Cartman tries to steal the credit while Rapper Kanye West is the only person in the country who fails to get the joke , but cannot admit that he does not get it because he believes himself to be a genius .

The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . The episode was conceived from a joke among Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone about a fish dressed as motorcycle daredevil Evel Knievel , which eventually turned into a joke about Kanye West not understanding a joke about why liking fishsticks made him a gay fish . The way Cartman tries to steal credit for the joke was inspired by real people Parker and Stone have worked with in the television business .

Parker provided the voice of West in the episode and during the song " Gay Fish " , a parody of West 's song " Heartless " . " Fishsticks " received largely positive reviews , and generated a great deal of media attention when West wrote in a blog that the episode hurt his feelings , although he said it was funny and admitted that he needed to work on his ego problem . The episode also spoofed comedian Carlos Mencia , who praised the episode after it was broadcast .

According to Nielsen Media Research , " Fishsticks " was seen by more than 3 @.@ 1 million households in its original broadcast , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received even further attention after West famously interrupted Taylor Swift during her acceptance speech at the September 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , after which Comedy Central replayed the episode four times back @-@ to @-@ back . " Fishsticks " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16 , 2010 .

= = Plot = =

Jimmy works on writing jokes for his comedy routine while Cartman sits on his couch , eating potato chips . Jimmy comes up with a joke with almost no assistance from Cartman ( he only helped Jimmy originate the joke by telling Jimmy he was hungry for something more substantial than fruit , and Jimmy suggested there might be some fishsticks in the freezer ) :

Jimmy : Do you like fishsticks ? Cartman : Yeah.Jimmy : Do you like putting fishsticks in your mouth ? Cartman : Yeah.Jimmy : What are you , a gay fish ?

The joke , which plays on the similarity of the phrases " fishsticks " and " fish dicks " when spoken , becomes a hit throughout South Park . When Cartman begins taking half credit for the joke , Kyle tells Jimmy he should stand up to Cartman . When Jimmy tells Cartman he feels he wrote most of the joke , Cartman fears Jimmy will try to take full credit and asks Kyle for advice on how to deal with Jimmy . Kyle instead says he believes Jimmy wrote the entire joke , and suggests that Cartman 's ego is so big that he subconsciously remembers things incorrectly to make himself feel more important . This is supplemented by Cartman 's flashbacks to the creation of the joke , which become more overblown and ridiculous as the episode goes on , showing him to truly believe that he deserves credit .

Meanwhile , the joke becomes a national sensation . Comedian Carlos Mencia goes on Conan O 'Brien 's show claiming credit for the joke . The joke is played on rapper Kanye West , who does not understand it . West grows angry when others say he does not get it , and will not allow anyone to explain it to him , because he claims to be a genius and " the voice of a generation " . Kanye abducts Carlos Mencia , who admits he stole the joke to compensate for not being funny and claiming that his " dick don 't work " in a parody of Viggo Mortensen 's character Lalin in Carlito 's Way , but Kanye doesn 't believe him and beats him to death with the help of his hired thugs . Cartman and Jimmy go on The Ellen DeGeneres Show and claim they invented the joke , prompting Kanye to go after them . Jimmy confronts Cartman , asking how he can live with himself for taking credit for a joke he did not write . They are interrupted by Kanye , who threatens to kill them . By now , Cartman has not only convinced himself he wrote the whole joke without Jimmy 's help , but believes he also saved his life from a black widow , slew a dragon , defeated an army of Jew robots , and has powers similar to the Human Torch . Cartman thinks he realizes what Kyle was trying to tell him , but he gets it completely backwards : Cartman believes that Jimmy 's ego is the one that is twisted and Jimmy 's ego trying to convince itself that he wrote the joke , while not accepting that Cartman wrote the whole thing , and Jimmy believes him . Kanye has an epiphany about his own massive ego and believes he finally understands the joke . However , he incorrectly thinks it means he is , in fact , a gay fish . The episode ends with Kanye donning a wetsuit and diving off the Santa Monica Pier into the ocean to embrace his new identity as a gay fish in the form of a music video , in which he happily swims around the sea , kissing and humping random fish .

However , in a deleted scene , West drowns and his body is picked up and discovered by the US coast guards .

= = Production = =

" Fishsticks " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The concept for " Fishsticks " began when Parker , fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone , and actor Bill Hader attended a writers ' retreat in Seattle , Washington and they visited a body of water where they could watch salmon jump . They started joking about a salmon wearing an outfit like the motorcycle daredevil Evel Knievel , which eventually reminded them of the music video for rapper Kanye West 's song " Touch the Sky " , in which West himself dresses like Knievel . This led to them picturing a scene with West on a news program , angrily denying reports that he is a fish , shouting " No , I am not a salmon ! " During a four @-@ hour ride in a car , Stone and Parker discussed the joke further , and eventually thought of the " fishsticks " joke that featured prominently in the final episode . The duo said they found it hilarious and told variations of the joke back and forth to each other for the rest of the ride . Stone said , " The van driver we hired was just so bummed because we just kept talking about fishsticks , ' You 're a gay fish ' , over and over . We thought it was so funny , and just the fact that he didn 't get it . "

Although the joke originally stemmed from Evel Knievel and not Kanye West , Parker and Stone said they realized West would probably be extremely humorless about the joke and not understand it , so they decided the episode should revolve mostly around him . After coming up with the idea , Parker and Stone waited a long time before they finally wrote the script because , Stone said , " It just seemed too dumb . Are we really going to do a whole episode about this ? " Stone said the jokes about Carlos Mencia were " just a complete afterthought " that came about during the writing process . During one scene in " Fishsticks " , Cartman steals credit from Jimmy for a joke he did not write . This was inspired by people Parker and Stone have worked with in the television business who were present for discussions the duo had , then later claimed credit for the idea even though they had nothing to do with it . Stone said , " They truly believe they did it . That 's the really sinister part . It 's not where they 're trying to steal part of the glory . ... They actually fully believe that they came up with it . "

Parker provided the voice of Kanye , both in the episode and in " Gay Fish " , a full @-@ length song featured at the end of the episode about West 's realization that he actually is a gay fish . Parker used a large amount of Auto @-@ Tune pitch audio processing , which he had never used before . Parker said he eventually discovered he had to sing off @-@ key on purpose in order to get the desired effect . Parker said , " You had to be a bad singer in order for that thing to actually sound the way it does . " The day after " Fishsticks " was broadcast , the full two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute version of the Kanye West spoof , " Gay Fish " , was made available for download on South Park Studios , the official South Park website . The site also featured T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on the episode . One featured Jimmy asking , " Do you like fishsticks ? " The other features text from Kanye West 's whiteboard in the episode : " Fishsticks + Me = Gayfish " .

= = Cultural references = =

A Kanye West song in the episode about the fact that he is indeed a " gay fish " is a parody of the West song " Heartless " , from his 2008 recording 808s & Heartbreak and satirizes the rapper 's usage of Auto @-@ Tune pitch audio processing . When West first confronts Cartman and Jimmy , Cartman mistakes him for Puff Daddy , another rapper and record producer .

Carlos Mencia , host of the former Comedy Central show Mind of Mencia , is portrayed in " Fishsticks " as knowingly stealing credit for a joke he did not write ; this is a reference to accusations other comedians have made that Mencia plagiarizes jokes from other people . Mencia 's death scene in the episode , as well as his claims that he uses a catheter to relieve himself , are a reference to Lalin , a character who uses a wheelchair in the 1993 crime film Carlito 's Way .

Talk show hosts Jimmy Kimmel , David Letterman , Conan O 'Brien , Jay Leno and Ellen DeGeneres were featured in the episode . Kimmel is voiced by his real @-@ life brother Jonathan Kimmel , who previously served as a writer and voice actor on South Park .

During a fantasy sequence , Cartman says " flame on " and turns into a fiery , flying superhero ; this is a reference to the Human Torch , a superhero and member of the Fantastic Four .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " Fishsticks " was watched by 3 @.@ 1 million overall households , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . It had over 1 @.@ 2 million more household viewers than the second most @-@ watched Comedy Central show that week , the April 8 episode of The Daily Show . In June 2009 , " Fishsticks " was announced to be the most watched South Park episode on South Park Studios , the official South Park website , which has all but 3 episodes of South Park to date available for viewing .

Both Kanye West and Carlos Mencia responded within one day of the episode 's original broadcast and said they enjoyed the parodies of themselves , although Kanye West said on his blog that his feelings were hurt . After the episode was broadcast , Mencia wrote on his Twitter feed , " They just made fun of me on South Park . I thought it was hysterical . Catch the rerun . " Dave Itzkoff , arts reporter for The New York Times , complimented Mencia for his response . West wrote on his blog , " South Park murdered me last night and it 's pretty damn funny . It hurts my feelings but what can you expect from South Park ! " West thanked the South Park writers in his blog entry and acknowledged he has a problem with his ego , but said he was trying to change . Parker and Stone said they were extremely surprised by West 's reaction , and felt Mencia was treated far more harshly in the episode than West . Parker said , " It was like , dude , we just said you were a gay fish . What are you talking about ? It was so dumb . "

Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly said the post was " a fascinating look at where Kanye 's head is at these days " , and complimented West for his " humility and honesty " . Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone said : " Many have tried , all have failed , but in the end it only took four animated children from Colorado to topple Kanye West 's ego . ... One day , we 'll all look back on this day and thank South Park for ushering in this historic moment in the life of Kanye . " Kerrie Mitchell of Entertainment Weekly suggested West 's modest response was actually a marketing stunt to help sell his upcoming personal fragrance and energy drink . Mitchell wrote , " Did he just get the last laugh on South Park ? Conspiracy ! " In response to the media coverage , West wrote another blog entry on April 10 claiming he had only seen part of the episode and found it funny , but he had been working on his arrogance problem for some time and that South Park did not lead to his " ego epiphany " . The next day , he said in another blog entry that while visiting The Cheesecake Factory restaurant , the manager brought him a plate of fishsticks as a joke .

The episode received positive , if slightly mixed reviews . Ramsey Isler of IGN declared it the best episode of the season , calling it a " beautiful Kanye West spoof that was so well @-@ timed , so hilarious and so spot @-@ on " that it became a " phenomenon " . Ryan Brockington of the New York Post said of the episode , " Best . ' South Park . ' Ever . " He particularly praised the West song parody and the fact that " a simple running joke can hold a full episode ; brilliant " . Carlos Delgado of If Magazine said the episode was " another South Park classic " which " takes full advantage of Cartman 's monumental ego " . Delgado , who gave the episode a B + grade , described the West parody as " awesome " and the final scene with the " gay fish " West song as " spell binding " . TV Guide listed the episode at number five on the top ten television moments of the week .

Travis Fickett of IGN said the episode included some good laughs but " never kicks into high gear " and said the themes might have worked better as subplots than a full episode : " ' Fishsticks ' is one of those episodes that typically occur around now in the South Park season . It 's not great , not bad – hovering somewhere around amusing towards forgettable . " Sean O 'Neal of The A.V. Club said he was disappointed by the episode and thought the message about celebrity self @-@ delusion might have been better if it focused on only West or Mencia , rather than both . Although O 'Neal liked the West song in the episode 's final scene , O 'Neal said " cramming ( West and Mencia ) together — even mixed in with Cartman 's very funny fantasy sequences — felt too cobbled to me , and the time limits imposed by cutting back and forth between it all made the respective digs start to feel a little too one @-@ note . "

= = Legacy = =

On September 13 , 2009 during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , Kanye West interrupted an acceptance speech from Taylor Swift by walking onto stage , grabbing the microphone and praising her fellow nominee , Beyoncé Knowles . The incident received considerable press attention and drew further attention to " Fishsticks " , which Comedy Central re @-@ broadcast for two straight hours on September 15 , 2009 .

Kanye West referenced this episode in his song " Gorgeous " from the 2010 album My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy where he says " choke a South Park writer with a fishstick " . He similarly referenced the episode on his album Watch the Throne in the song " Made in America " when he says " South Park had them all laughin ' / Now all my niggas designing and we all swaggin ' . "

Following a controversial 2008 performance at music festival Bonnaroo , many concertgoers have since sprayed graffiti around the festival grounds , as well as making signs , deriding the rapper as a " gay fish . "

= = = Coinye = = =

A cryptocurrency called Coinye was created in January 2014 . Under legal pressure , the developers had to change the logo from resembling West to resembling " a half @-@ man @-@ half @-@ fish hybrid " instead .

= = Home release = =

" Fishsticks " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .

= Beatriz Michelena =

Beatriz Michelena ( February 22 , 1890 – October 10 , 1942 ) was a Venezuelan American actress during the silent film era , known at the time for her operatic soprano voice and appearances in musical theatre . She was one of the few Latina stars visible on the silver screen in the United States in the 1910s . She was the leading lady in each film project she was involved in , and co @-@ founded a production company with her husband , producing four of her own movies .

She wrote popular articles for newspapers , including an advice column for girls , describing what it was like to be an actress , and answering questions from readers . For adult readers , Michelena wrote other pieces such as a history of the moving picture industry . In 1920 when she stopped making films , she returned to her career as a singer .

Michelena faded from historiography for many years , but her place in history has recently been re @-@ examined ; she was mentioned in 2002 in a presidential proclamation and her 1914 film Salomy Jane is enjoying a limited re @-@ release .

= = Early life = =

Beatriz Michelena was reportedly born in New York City in 1890 , six years after her sister Vera Michelena , and around the same time that her father , Fernando Michelena ( 1858 @-@ 1921 ) , a noted Venezuelan @-@ born tenor , was singing the title role of the opera Ernani with a traveling theatre company that performed famous operas translated to English for American audiences . ( She listed her birthplace as New York in the 1920 US Census , but in the 1930 census she said California . ) Over much of her childhood , Michelena ’ s parents toured with the Emma Abbott Grand Opera Company . Beatriz 's father in later life taught music and worked as a vocal coach and , at the time of his death , was serving as president of Arrillaga Musical College , San Francisco . Beatriz and her sister Vera were trained by their father in classical voice and drama studies , and they followed in his footsteps by beginning singing careers of their own . Vera first appeared onstage in the Princess Chic Opera company ( 1901 ) at 17 , taking a leading role in The Man from China ( 1904 ) . Beatriz , too , performed with Princess Chic in 1901 , taking chorus roles suitable for a child of 11 . By mid @-@ 1904 , with Vera busy pursuing her career in New York , Fernando Michelena settled in San Francisco , California to teach voice . There , he raised Beatriz and continued to train her , a soprano , in operatic vocal techniques . He passed his stage experience to his daughter : the way to move as another person , the way to make simple but authoritative gestures , and the way to build intensity over the span of a performance . Maria Antonia Field , a Californian writer , would later chronicle her time as a student of Michelena ’ s father in her book , Five Years of Vocal Study under Fernando Michelena .

= = Marriage and stage career = =

On Sunday , March 3 , 1907 , Michelena married George E. Middleton , a prominent San Francisco automobile dealer , the " happy culmination " of a romance that had begun in their school days . The private wedding took place at 232 Divisadero Street , the home of the parents of bridesmaid Margaret McGovern , " a lifelong friend of the bride " . Judge Thomas F. Graham performed the ceremony . The couple spent a few weeks in Los Angeles for their honeymoon .

Middleton was the manager of the local Middleton Motor Car Company and the son of a California timber baron . He introduced Michelena to his society friends and business partners , including the trustees of Charles Crocker 's estate who had rebuilt the St. Francis Hotel after the 1906 earthquake and fire .

After two years spent absent from the stage , in October 1910 , " Beatriz Michelena Middleton " received a " full ovation " at the Garrick Theater for her role in The White Hen , a musical comedy set in Austria . Rotund comedian Max Dill , leader of the acting company , was the star of the show , given 14 minutes of applause upon entering the stage . For her performance , Michelena was sent flowers worth " a small fortune " , according to the San Francisco Call 's theater writer , Walter Anthony . Starring actress Lora Lieb , native to San Francisco but unknown as a performer , took less applause .

Middleton and Michelena gave an interview to Anthony after The White Hen was an established hit . Middleton said that he had kept his wife off the stage , that he " didn 't like the idea of musical comedy " , but would not have objected to her appearance in " grand opera " . Nonetheless , he agreed to an offer from Max Dill . Michelena said that she had so far spent her married life studying to perform three operatic roles : Carmen and Micaëla in Carmen , and Violetta Valéry in La traviata . She said that prior to appearing at the Garrick Theater , she had been afraid that her stage training had been lost . Michelena said she had to overcome her own fears as well as her husband 's objections .

At the end of November , Michelena quit Dill 's company , reporting that she had been billed underneath Lora Lieb in theater publicity , against the arrangement she had made with company manager Nat A. Magner . She said she refused to put her famous family name in second place .

On December 6 , 1910 , a story in the Call talked about Michelena and her sister having been " discovered " seven years previously by John Slocum , the manager who worked with the girls in the Princess Chic company . According to the story , Slocum had been trying to get Michelena to sign a long @-@ term contract , but was beaten out in that regard by Middleton , " the athlete and clubman about town " , whom she had married . A week earlier , Michelena had " caused a sensation " by resigning from the Max Dill company , but subsequently agreed to appear for four performances in Slocum 's traveling production of The Kissing Girl , normally featuring Michelena 's good friend , the actress Texas Guinan , who was willing to step down for a few days while Michelena covered the starring role of Christina . Michelena was quoted as saying ,

" Leo Cooper , seven years ago , insisted that Mr. Slocum should hear two youngsters sing . The youngsters were Vera and myself . He was good enough to have confidence in us and gave us positions in his ' Princess Chic ' company , where we rose afterward , through his encouragement and help , to prima donna posts . In memory of these kindnesses of the past and because I love the work , I have been happy to say ' yes ' to his request that I appear with his company a few times for auld lang syne before ' The Kissing Girl ' goes on her osculatory way . "

Following the three performances in San Francisco and one in Oakland , Michelena and her husband took seats in the audience to watch Guinan perform the play 's title role in San Jose 's Victory Theater on December 15 .

Michelena excelled in a singing role in The Tik @-@ Tok Man of Oz in 1913 . That year , during the autumn season , Michelena was a featured star of the Mechanics ' Fair , an engineering and auto show in San Francisco . Following that , she sang at the inauguration of the Lincoln Highway , the nation 's first transcontinental road . The western terminus celebration at the Valencia Theatre in San Francisco was organized by the Motor Car Dealers ' Association , October 31 , 1913 .

= = California Motion Picture Company = =

Middleton set up the California Motion Picture Company ( CMPC ) in San Rafael in 1912 for the purpose of shooting promotional footage of the automobiles he was selling . He determined that his pretty wife could star in movies made by his company . By 1914 , Middleton and Michelena were making three major films at the same time .

The first feature completed by CMPC was Salomy Jane , screened initially at the St. Francis Hotel by invitation only . Michelena 's role was Bret Harte 's Salomy Jane Clay , an energetic daughter of an emigrant miner . She is wooed by four men but prefers a fifth played by British heartthrob House Peters . The movie saw limited nationwide distribution and was judged a hit by viewers who were impressed by the wild California scenery : giant redwood trees , winding roads hugging rocky bluffs and the Russian River Michelena 's dominant portrayal of the title role was also an appeal . Journalist Josephine Clifford McCracken wrote of her in the June 1915 issue of Overland Monthly :

" Daughter of a renowned tenor of San Francisco 's pioneer days , herself a prima donna with an assured place on the modern operatic stage , a girl with a wealth of artistic tradition behind her , Miss Michelena 's gifts do not stop there . She has rare beauty , vivacity , wit , intellectual attainments and athletic grace . "

One CMPC shooting location was on family property near Boulder Creek , California where Middleton 's father had established a timber holding now known as the Middleton Tract . Other filming locations included undeveloped portions of Sonoma , Santa Cruz and Marin counties . In San Rafael , the studio boasted a large glass @-@ walled and -roofed building that let in light but not wind so that shooting for indoor scenes could take place in full light without the telltale flapping of tablecloths and clothing blown by gusts . Considered expensive at the time , the company used a US $ 1 @,@ 250 Bell & Howell movie camera , worth about $ 29 @,@ 200 in current value . The camera held two reels of film so that two negatives were made of each scene . A second $ 700 camera provided a third reel of the same scene , from another perspective .

Even though Salomy Jane didn 't return a profit ( likely due to second @-@ string distribution channels ) , its favorable reception convinced Middleton that his wife could challenge the world 's top movie star , Mary Pickford . Every CMPC movie was from that time forward intended to be a star vehicle for Michelena . Unfortunately , Michelena 's ego expanded with the glowing reviews of her skill , and her demands for star treatment brought heavier expenses to productions that continued to lose money . Mignon , The Lily of Poverty Flat , A Phyllis of the Sierras , Salvation Nell and The Rose of the Misty Pool all failed to turn a profit , and a lavish production of Faust which was in production in 1915 was given until the end of the year to be completed . Faust wasn 't done by January 1916 , and CMPC president Herbert Payne shut the film company down and filed for bankruptcy . Faust was never released .

= = Writer = =

In 1915 and 1916 , Michelena wrote the regular newspaper column " Talks with Screen @-@ struck Girls " , carried at first by the San Rafael Independent on Tuesdays but then appeared on Sundays in other newspapers : San Francisco Examiner and the Prescott Journal @-@ Miner ( Arizona ) . She wrote about the ideal qualities found in an actress , and what girls might do to develop them . She received a torrent of letters from readers — many were from girls asking " Must I be able to ride " and " Must I be able to swim " . In response , Michelena described in the column how those skills were helpful to a movie actress , but not absolutely necessary ; she said they " are accessories to , rather than the substance of the thing ... I would advise every girl entering motion pictures to learn to ride and swim and do all the rest of it , but I would have her realize their subordination to the really artistic side of the profession . " '

On May 7 , 1916 , Michelena wrote to caution girls wishing for fame on the silver screen that many like themselves ended up " broken in spirit " , with shattered expectations . She advised them to stay home and avoid " bitter disappointment " in movie making . In July , she discussed some of the specifics of the mental challenges of acting :

" There are a hundred little peculiarities that index the character of practically every type of person , and it is the effectiveness with which one grasps , understands and utilizes these peculiarities that makes him or her a great dramatic artist ... The truly great actress ... must not only recognize the traits as she sees them outwardly manifested , but she must also get beneath the skin and recognize the conditions of thought or emotion that give rise to them . Then , and this is the really great test of her talents , she must so lose herself in those conditions of thought and emotion , and feel through them , that her mimicry of their outward manifestations comes naturally and without conscious endeavor . "

In addition to her column , Michelena wrote occasional articles intended for a wider readership . She wrote in October 1916 about the history of the moving picture industry in a multiple @-@ article series , beginning her account with a retelling of Eadweard Muybridge 's action photograph of Governor Leland Stanford 's racehorse named Occident . She defined this high @-@ speed image as essential to the development of moving pictures .

= = Michelena Studios = =

Middleton and Michelena bought their bankrupt film company for " a few thousand dollars " in 1917 and renamed it Michelena Studios . Their new company was called Beatriz Michelena Features , and shooting began on their next feature @-@ length film , Just Squaw . Michelena 's lead character was a white woman raised by American Indians , a woman who does not realize her racial heritage until after she falls into forbidden love with a white man . The movie played for only a week in San Francisco in 1919 , and did not return a profit .

The moviemakers ' new distributor , Robertson @-@ Cole , was unable to find the right market for Heart of Juanita and The Flame of Hellgate in 1920 . American audiences had grown more sophisticated , yet Michelena Studios was still employing their earlier production techniques . After shooting The Flame of Hellgate , Middleton and Michelena stopped making movies altogether . She returned to her singing performances and he returned to his car sales . They reportedly divorced in the mid @-@ 1920s , though Middleton told the 1930 US Census that they were married . The union produced no children .

= = Retirement = =

After leaving film work , Michelena continued with her singing career , and toured Latin America ( 1927 ) where she was warmly received as part of a 30 @-@ person troupe of singers and dancers performing the operas Carmen and Madama Butterfly . The San Francisco Chronicle reported that this was " the first invasion of those countries by an American operatic star in repertoire performances " . Afterward , she retired from singing , and returned to San Rafael to live near her old film studio . Between 1937 and 1941 , she sold 10 of the 26 real estate parcels that together had formed her studio lot . On October 10 , 1942 , after a surgical operation in San Francisco , she died at the age of 52 . Her sister Vera Michelena and her ex @-@ husband George Middleton survived her .

= = Legacy = =

The Michelena Features studio facility in San Rafael sat empty through the 1920s with its solitary metal @-@ clad brick vault housing all the company 's nitrate films , including the earlier ones shot by CMPC . In 1931 , boys playing with a firecracker at the deserted lot set the vault and all of its flammable contents spectacularly on fire . Every known copy of Michelena 's movies was destroyed , a loss that Middleton estimated at $ 200 @,@ 000 ; worth about $ 3 @.@ 1 million today . In 1996 , an 82 @-@ year @-@ old nitrate copy of Salomy Jane was found in Australia ; it was sent to the Library of Congress for preservation . Awareness of Michelena 's contribution to early film , and her role as a groundbreaking Hispanic star , rose in 2002 with a proclamation made by President George W. Bush upon the occasion of National Hispanic Heritage Month in which he listed her as one of America 's influential Latino actors . In 2008 , a new print of Salomy Jane was released for limited distribution .

= = Filmography = =

= Lou Groza =

Louis Roy Groza ( January 25 , 1924 – November 29 , 2000 ) , nicknamed " The Toe " , was an American football placekicker and offensive tackle who played his entire career for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . Groza was professional football 's career kicking and points leader when he retired after the 1967 season . He played in 21 seasons for the Browns , helping the team to win eight league championships in that span . Groza 's accuracy and strength as a kicker influenced the development of place @-@ kicking as a specialty ; he could kick field goals from beyond 50 yards ( 46 m ) at a time when attempts from that distance were a rarity . He set numerous records for distance and number of field goals kicked during his career .

Groza grew up in an athletic family in Martins Ferry , Ohio . He enrolled at Ohio State University on a scholarship in 1942 , but enlisted in the U.S. Army and was sent to serve in World War II after just one year in college . Groza deployed as an army surgical technician in the Pacific theater , where he stayed until returning in 1946 to play for the Browns . Helped by Groza 's kicking and play at offensive tackle , the Browns won the AAFC championship every year between 1946 and 1949 , when the league disbanded and the Browns were absorbed by the more established NFL . Cleveland won the NFL championship in its first year in the league on a last @-@ minute field goal by Groza . Groza set NFL records for field goals made in 1950 , 1952 and 1953 . Sporting News named him the league 's Most Valuable Player in 1954 , when the Browns won another championship . The team repeated as NFL champions in 1955 .

Groza retired briefly after the 1959 season due to a back injury , but returned in 1961 . He was part of a 1964 team that won another NFL championship . Groza retired for good after the 1967 season . Later in life , he ran an insurance business and served as a team ambassador for the Browns . He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1974 . In 1992 , the Palm Beach County Sports Commission named the Lou Groza Award after him . The award is given annually to the country 's best college placekicker . Groza died in 2000 of a heart attack .

= = Early life = =

Born in eastern Ohio in Martins Ferry , just north and across the Ohio River from Wheeling , West Virginia , Groza 's parents were immigrants from Transylvania , part of modern @-@ day Romania . His Hungarian mother Mary and Romanian father John ( Ioan ) Groza owned and ran Groza 's Tavern on Main Street . Lou was the smallest in stature of four boys in an athletic family ; his brother Alex became a star basketball player at the University of Kentucky , a member of two national championship teams .

Groza lettered in football , basketball , and baseball at Martins Ferry High School . The Purple Riders won the state basketball championship in 1941 , when Groza was its captain . He was also captain of the baseball team . Groza learned placekicking from his older brother Frank , and practiced by trying to kick balls over telephone wires when he and his friends played touch football in the street .

= = College career and military service = =

Groza graduated from high school in 1942 and enrolled on an athletic scholarship at Ohio State University in Columbus , where he played as a tackle and placekicker on the Buckeyes ' freshman team . Groza played in three games and kicked five field goals , including one from 45 yards ( 41 m ) away . In 1943 , he enlisted in the U.S. Army as World War II intensified . He first went for basic training to Abilene , Texas , and then to Brooks General Hospital in San Antonio .

After a stint with the short @-@ lived Army Service Training Program , Groza was sent with the 96th Infantry Division to serve as a surgical technician in Leyte , Okinawa , and other places in the Pacific theater in 1945 . The day he landed in the Philippines , Groza saw a soldier shot in the face . He was stationed in a bank of tents about five miles from the front lines and helped doctors tend to the wounded . " I saw a lot of men wounded with severe injuries , " he later said . " Lose legs , guts hanging out , stuff like that . It 's a tough thing , but you get hardened to it , and you accept it as part of your being there . "

While he was in the Army , he received a package from Paul Brown , the Ohio State football coach . It contained footballs and a contract for him to sign to play on a team Brown was coaching in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . He signed the contract in May 1945 and agreed to join the team , called the Cleveland Browns , after the war ended in 1946 . Groza got $ 500 a month stipend until the end of the war and a $ 7 @,@ 500 annual salary .

= = Professional career = =

Following his discharge from military service , Groza reported to the Browns ' training camp in Bowling Green , Ohio . He showed up in army fatigues carrying all his clothes in a duffel bag . There , he joined quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie to form the core of the new team 's offense . Groza was mainly a placekicker in his first two years with the Browns , but he played a big part in the team 's early success . In his first season , he set a professional football record for both field goals and extra points . The Browns , meanwhile , advanced to the AAFC championship against the New York Yankees . Groza sprained his ankle in the game and missed three field goals , but Cleveland won 14 – 9 . Behind a powerful offense led by Graham , Motley and Lavelli , the Browns finished the 1947 season with a 12 – 1 – 1 record and made it back to the championship game . Groza , however , was injured and could only watch as the team won its second championship in a row .

Further success followed for the Browns and Groza , who was nicknamed " The Toe " by a sportswriter for his kicking abilities . Groza led the league in field goals and the team won all of its games in 1948 , recording professional football 's first perfect season . As he grew into a star placekicker , Groza began playing regularly at offensive tackle beginning in 1948 . One highlight of that year for Groza was a 53 @-@ yard field goal against the AAFC 's Brooklyn Dodgers that was then the longest kick in pro football history . With Groza , the Browns could attempt field goals at a range many other teams could not . " Anywhere from 40 to 50 yards ( 37 to 46 m ) , he was a weapon , " Tommy James , Groza 's holder for eight years , later said . Another championship win followed in 1949 , but the AAFC dissolved after the season , and the Browns were among three teams absorbed by the more established National Football League ( NFL ) .

The war had shortened Groza 's college career , so he continued to study at Ohio State in the offseason in his early years with the Browns . He graduated with a degree in business in 1949 . Groza married that year , to Jackie Lou Robbins , a girl from Martins Ferry who was working as a model in New York City when they first dated .

The Browns ' debut in the NFL in the 1950 season was closely watched ; while the team dominated the AAFC in its short existence , some sportswriters , NFL owners and coaches considered the league inferior . Cleveland put all doubts to rest in its first game against the two @-@ time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles , winning 35 – 10 . In a game against the Washington Redskins later in the season , Groza broke a 24 @-@ year @-@ old NFL record by kicking his 13th field goal of the season . He also scored the only touchdown of his career in that game on a reception from Graham . The Browns ended the regular season with a 10 – 2 record in the American Conference , tied with the New York Giants . That forced a playoff against the Giants in which Groza kicked the winning field goal for the Browns with under a minute to play .

The Browns next faced the Los Angeles Rams in the championship game . Groza came into the game as the NFL 's leading kicker , both in terms of points scored and accuracy . He had a success rate of 68 @.@ 4 % in an era when most teams made fewer than half of their attempts . The Rams went ahead early in the game on a touchdown pass from star quarterback Bob Waterfield and a scoring run by Dick Hoerner . But Graham and the Browns came back with four touchdowns , two to receiver Dante Lavelli . As time wound down in the fourth quarter , however , the Rams were ahead 28 – 27 , and Cleveland had a final chance to win the game . Graham drove the offense to the Rams ' nine @-@ yard line and set up a Groza field goal attempt . The 16 @-@ yard try sailed through the uprights with 28 seconds left , giving the Browns a 30 – 28 victory . It was the biggest kick of Groza 's career . " I never thought I would miss , " he said later . After the season , Groza was named to the first @-@ ever Pro Bowl , the NFL 's all @-@ star game .

Cleveland again reached the championship game in 1951 , but lost this time in a rematch against the Rams . Groza had a 52 @-@ yard field goal in the game , a record for a championship or Super Bowl that stood for 42 years . He was again named to the Pro Bowl after the season . The same scenario was repeated in 1952 and 1953 : the Browns reached the championship both years , but lost both times to the Detroit Lions . Groza was playing with cracked ribs in the 1952 championship loss , and he missed three field goals . Groza set a record in 1953 when he made 23 field goals and had an 88 @.@ 5 % success rate , a single @-@ season mark that stood for 28 years . He made the Pro Bowl again in 1952 and 1953 , and was a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection both years .

The Browns came back in 1954 to win another championship . That year , Groza was named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player by Sporting News . Cleveland won the championship again in 1955 , beating the Rams 38 – 14 . Groza was named to the Pro Bowl and sportswriters ' All @-@ Pro teams in 1954 and 1955 .

Hurt by Graham 's retirement before the season , Cleveland had its first @-@ ever losing season in 1956 . Groza 's kicking continued to be a strength through the ensuing three years : he reached the Pro Bowl in 1957 , 1958 and 1959 , and tied Sam Baker for league leader in points scored in 1957 . Cleveland reached the championship game in 1957 but lost to the Lions . The Browns lost to the New York Giants in a single @-@ elimination playoff in 1958 , and failed to reach the postseason in 1959 . Groza sat out after the 1959 season due to a back injury and was presumed to be retired . While his kicking was his most visible contribution to the team , Groza was also an offensive tackle up until his injury , when Brown replaced him with Dick Schafrath . " Lou never got all the credit he deserved for his tackle play , probably because his great kicking skills got him more notoriety , " Andy Robustelli , a defensive end who played against Groza , later said .

Groza took 1960 off and did some scouting for the team . He also focused on an insurance business he started . " I was 36 and I thought I had retired , " he said . The following year , however , he came back to the team at the urging of Art Modell , who bought the Browns that year . Not wanting to use a roster spot on a kicking specialist ( Groza 's back injury prevented him from playing on the line ) , Brown had signed Sam Baker to kick and play halfback . But Groza was eager to return and Modell insisted . Groza stayed with the team as a placekicker until 1967 , and was on a Browns team that won the 1964 championship . Groza scored the first points in that game on a third @-@ quarter field goal . He also kicked four kickoffs more than 70 yards ( 64 m ) and out of the Baltimore Colts end zone , preventing a return . Cleveland won 27 – 0 .

When Groza retired for good in 1968 after 21 seasons in professional football , he held NFL career records for points scored , field goals made and extra points made . He had 234 field goals , 641 extra points and 1 @,@ 349 total points in the NFL . Counting his AAFC years , his career point total was 1 @,@ 603 . He was the last of the original Browns still on the team . Groza , who was 44 years old when he quit the game , said in his memoir that retiring was " the saddest day of my football life . " His top salary was $ 50 @,@ 000 in his final year .

= = Later life and death = =

After Groza retired , he entertained an offer to play for the San Francisco 49ers , but was reluctant to do so because he did not want to move his family and insurance business to the West Coast . He was offered a spot with the Browns as a kicking coach , helping mentor the young Don Cockroft , but he declined . Later in life , he became an ambassador and father figure for the Browns , inviting rookies over for dinner and helping them find apartments . He continued to run a successful insurance business and lived in Berea , Ohio near the Browns ' headquarters and training facility . He and his wife Jackie were known as the team 's First Family .

Modell relocated the Browns to Baltimore in 1995 and renamed the team the Ravens , provoking a wave of anger and disbelief from fans and former players . Groza was a leading critic of the move , saying it was " like some man walking off with your wife . " In 1996 , Groza wrote a memoir titled The Toe : The Lou Groza Story . The Browns restarted as an expansion team in 1999 .

Groza was hobbled in the late 1990s by back and hip surgeries and Parkinson 's disease . He suffered a heart attack in 2000 after dinner with his wife at Columbia Hills Country Club in Columbia Station , Ohio . He was taken to a hospital in Middleburg Heights , Ohio , where he died . He was buried in Sunset Memorial Park in North Olmsted , Ohio . Groza and his wife had three sons and a daughter . Following Groza 's death , the Browns wore his number 76 on their helmets for the 2001 season .

= = Legacy and kicking style = =

While field goals had long been viewed as an important part of football strategy , kicking specialists were a rarity before Groza 's time . Groza 's success from distances of 40 yards ( 37 m ) and beyond raised the bar for kickers across the league . He set single @-@ season NFL records for accuracy , distance and number of field goals in his first three years in the league , marks that went unbeaten until kicking specialists became a common feature of the game in the early 1970s . Groza 's kicking was the difference in 15 % of the Browns ' games during the AAFC years , and teams began to take notice when his field goals made the difference in both the NFL playoffs and the championship game in 1950 . " Everybody started to pay attention to field goals when the Browns started to win games with them , " Pat Summerall said . Groza led the NFL in field goals made five times in his career .

Groza was a straight @-@ ahead kicker . He approached the football in a straight line and booted it with the top of his foot , aiming for the middle of the ball . Early in his career , Groza scraped the ground with his cleats in a straight line to help guide his kicks . Later he put down a piece of one @-@ inch adhesive tape rolled up inside his helmet . The " Lou Groza Rule " in 1950 banned the use of artificial kicking aids , including the tape . The straight @-@ ahead style used by Groza and other kickers of his era has since been supplanted by soccer @-@ style kicking with the side of the foot . " I don 't know why all the kids kick soccer @-@ style , " he said in 1997 . " They kick the ball with the side of their foot , which is supposed to give them better control . I don 't know , I never tried it . "

Groza was named to the National Football League 1950s All @-@ Decade Team in 1969 and inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1974 . The Browns retired his number 76 ; he is also in the team 's Ring of Honor , a grouping of the best players in the club 's history whose names are displayed below upper @-@ deck seats at FirstEnergy Stadium . In 1992 , the Palm Beach County Sports Commission established the Lou Groza Award , given to the best National Collegiate Athletic Association Football Bowl Subdivision ( formerly Division I @-@ A ) kicker . The Browns ' training facility in Berea , Ohio is located at 76 Lou Groza Boulevard . One of his kicking shoes is part of the collection of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , D.C ..

= O 'Brien Schofield =

O 'Brien Schofield ( born April 3 , 1987 ) is an American football outside linebacker who is currently a free agent . He was drafted by the Arizona Cardinals in the fourth round of the 2010 NFL Draft and played for them for three seasons . He was also a member of the Seattle Seahawks during their Super Bowl XLVIII championship season and the Atlanta Falcons . He played college football at Wisconsin .

As a fifth year redshirt senior defensive end for the 2009 Wisconsin Badgers he ranked second in the nation in tackles for a loss ( TFLs ) and second in the Big Ten Conference in quarterback sacks . For the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season , he earned several second team and honorable mention All @-@ American recognitions by various publications . He was a first @-@ team 2009 All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection . He earned the defensive MVP award at the 2010 East – West Shrine Game , but was injured during practice for the 2010 Senior Bowl the subsequent week .

= = High School = =

Schofield attended North Chicago Community High School . In high school Schofield was a Lake County , Illinois 2003 All @-@ county second team selection and 2004 first team selection in football . He was also a special mention All @-@ state selection in 2004 . In basketball , he was an All @-@ county honorable mention for 2004 – 05 . In high school he played wide receiver as a sophomore , defensive end as a junior and end , linebacker , receiver , fullback , placekicker , kick returner and punt returner as a senior . He also ran track . Scout.com rated him as the 55th best high school football linebacker in the country . Rivals.com ranked him as the 24th best defensive end in the country and the 24th best football prosepect in Illinois .

= = College career = =

Schofield did not appear in any games for the 2005 Badgers and recorded no statistics although he appeared in five games for the 2006 Badgers . He recorded his first tackle on September 15 for the 2007 Badgers against The Citadel Bulldogs and his first sack and TFL on August 30 for the 2008 team against the Akron Zips . He concluded his career with a total of 17 sacks and 33 TFLs . He also accumulated 4 forced fumbles . On June 7 , 2007 , 20 @-@ year @-@ old Schofield lost his 19 @-@ year @-@ old brother , Joshua , who drowned on a beach in Zion , IL .

He was the 2009 Big Ten Conference runner @-@ up in sacks with 12 to Ryan Kerrigan and runner @-@ up in TFLs with 24 @.@ 5 to Brandon Graham . He ranked second in the nation in TFLs / game . At the conclusion of the 2009 Big Ten Conference football season he was a 2009 First @-@ team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and media .

He concluded his career for Wisconsin Badgers football with the 2009 team in the December 29 , 2009 Champs Sports Bowl . For the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season , he was a second team All @-@ American selection by Scout.com and an honorable mention by College Football News , Sports Illustrated , and Pro Football Weekly . During the season he was the October 4 , 2009 Big Ten Defensive Player of the Week for his October 3 performance against the Minnesota Golden Gophers . He was selected as a midseason semifinalists for the Bednarik Award .

The January 23 , 2010 East – West Shrine Game , in which he earned defensive MVP , was his last game . He recorded an interception on a Max Hall pass and made three solo tackles in the game . Schofield was projected to play linebacker in the NFL . During the week of practice at the Shrine Game , he performed with the linebackers in order to demonstrate his NFL potential for scouts . However , in the subsequent week of practice for the January 30 , 2010 Senior Bowl , Schofield tore his anterior cruciate ligament .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Arizona Cardinals = = =

Schofield was drafted in the 4th round of the 2010 NFL Draft , 130th overall , by the Arizona Cardinals . Since Schofield was injured , he was considered a good value because his talent level was near first round draft choice level . He was expected to begin the 2010 NFL season on the physically unable to perform list but return late in the year as an outside linebacker . Although he played on the defensive line in college , he was projected to play outside linebacker for the Cardinals who had Joey Porter and Will Davis on their roster . Schofield signed a 4 @-@ year contract on July 27 , 2010 . On August 31 , he was placed on the reserve / non @-@ football injury list .

He made his NFL debut on October 31 , 2010 in Week 8 , against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Schofield forced a fumble against the Minnesota Vikings on November 7 on kick coverage that was recovered for a touchdown . Schofield recorded his first NFL sack on December 25 , 2010 , when he sacked QB Stephen McGee for an 11 @-@ yard loss in a 27 @-@ 26 Arizona win over the Dallas Cowboys . In the Cardinals January 2 , 2011 regular season finale against the San Francisco 49ers , Schofield sacked QB Alex Smith for a 5 @-@ yard loss .

He had his first two @-@ sack game on December 18 , 2011 , against Seneca Wallace on back @-@ to @-@ back fourth quarter plays of an overtime victory over the Cleveland Browns . He became a starter during the 2012 NFL season .

On July 25 , 2013 , he was released by the Arizona Cardinals .

= = = Seattle Seahawks = = =

On July 27 , 2013 , Schofield was claimed off waivers by the Seattle Seahawks . He posted a sack of Cam Newton in his debut with the 2013 Seahawks against the Carolina Panthers . After helping the Seahawks win Super Bowl XLVIII , he became a free agent . On March 11 , 2014 , Schofield and the New York Giants agreed on a two @-@ year , $ 8 million contract . However the deal was called off due to a problem with his physical . He re @-@ signed with the Seahawks on May 2 , 2014 .

= = = Atlanta Falcons = = =

On March 12 , 2015 , Schofield signed with the Atlanta Falcons .

= = Personal = =

Schofield is the eldest of five children of Anthony and Dawn Schofield . Younger brother Admiral Schofield plays basketball at the University of Tennessee . His uncle Andre Carter played safety at Clemson . Schofield is a cousin of both Vonnie Holliday and Bobby Engram who both have had long National Football League careers .

= Paralympic Games =

The Paralympic Games is a major international multi @-@ sport event , involving athletes with a range of physical disabilities , including impaired muscle power ( e.g. paraplegia and quadriplegia , muscular dystrophy , post @-@ polio syndrome , spina bifida ) , impaired passive range of movement , limb deficiency ( e.g. amputation or dysmelia ) , leg length difference , short stature , hypertonia , ataxia , athetosis , vision impairment and intellectual impairment . There are Winter and Summer Paralympic Games , which since the 1988 Summer Games in Seoul , South Korea , are held almost immediately following the respective Olympic Games . All Paralympic Games are governed by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) .

The Paralympics has grown from a small gathering of British World War II veterans in 1948 to become one of the largest international sporting events by the early 21st century . Paralympians strive for equal treatment with non @-@ disabled Olympic athletes , but there is a large funding gap between Olympic and Paralympic athletes .

The Paralympic Games are organized in parallel with the Olympic Games , while the IOC @-@ recognized Special Olympics World Games include athletes with intellectual disabilities , and the Deaflympics include deaf athletes .

Given the wide variety of disabilities that Paralympic athletes have , there are several categories in which the athletes compete . The allowable disabilities are broken down into ten eligible impairment types . The categories are impaired muscle power , impaired passive range of movement , limb deficiency , leg length difference , short stature , hypertonia , ataxia , athetosis , vision impairment and intellectual impairment . These categories are further broken down into classifications , which vary from sport to sport . The classification system has led to cheating controversies revolving around athletes who over @-@ stated their disabilities , in addition to the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs seen in other events .

= = History = =

= = = Forerunners = = =

Athletes with disabilities did compete in the Olympic Games prior to the advent of the Paralympics . The first athlete to do so was German American gymnast George Eyser in 1904 , who had one artificial leg . Hungarian Karoly Takacs competed in shooting events in both the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics . He was a right @-@ arm amputee and could shoot left @-@ handed . Another disabled athlete to appear in the Olympics prior to the Paralympic Games was Lis Hartel , a Danish equestrian athlete who had contracted polio in 1943 and won a silver medal in the dressage event .

The first organized athletic day for disabled athletes that coincided with the Olympic Games took place on the day of the opening of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London , United Kingdom . German born Dr. Ludwig Guttmann of Stoke Mandeville Hospital , who had been helped to flee Nazi Germany by the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics ( CARA ) in 1939 , hosted a sports competition for British World War II veteran patients with spinal cord injuries . The first games were called the 1948 International Wheelchair Games , and were intended to coincide with the 1948 Olympics . Dr. Guttman 's aim was to create an elite sports competition for people with disabilities that would be equivalent to the Olympic Games . The games were held again at the same location in 1952 , and Dutch veterans took part alongside the British , making it the first international competition of its kind . These early competitions , also known as the Stoke Mandeville Games , have been described as the precursors of the Paralympic Games .

= = = Milestones = = =

There have been several milestones in the Paralympic movement . The first official Paralympic Games , no longer open solely to war veterans , was held in Rome in 1960 . 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games . Since 1960 , the Paralympic Games have taken place in the same year as the Olympic Games . The Games were initially open only to athletes in wheelchairs ; at the 1976 Summer Games , athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a Summer Paralympics . With the inclusion of more disability classifications the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1 @,@ 600 athletes from 40 countries . The 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , South Korea , was another milestone for the Paralympic movement . It was in Seoul that the Paralympic Summer Games were held directly after the Olympic Summer Games , in the same host city , and using the same facilities . This set a precedent that was followed in 1992 , 1996 and 2000 . It was eventually formalized in an agreement between the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) and the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) in 2001 , and was recently extended through 2020 . The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics .

= = = Winter Games = = =

The first Winter Paralympic Games were held in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden . This was the first Paralympics in which multiple categories of athletes with disabilities could compete . The Winter Games were celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart , just as the Olympics were . This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville , France ; after that , beginning with the 1994 Games , the Winter Paralympics and the Winter Olympics have been held in those even numbered years separate from the Summer Games .

= = = Recent games = = =

The Paralympic games were designed to emphasize the participants ' athletic achievements and not their disability . Recent games have emphasized that these games are about ability and not disability . The movement has grown dramatically since its early days – for example , the number of athletes participating in the Summer Paralympic games has increased from 400 athletes in Rome in 1960 to over 3 @,@ 900 athletes from 146 countries in Beijing in 2008 . Both the Paralympic Summer and Winter Games are recognized on the world stage . The Paralympics is no longer held solely for British war veterans or just for athletes in wheelchairs , but for elite athletes with a wide variety of disabilities from all over the world . The paralympics allow people with special needs a chance to heal their injuries and take part in the games .

= = International Paralympic Committee = =

= = = Forerunners ( 1964 – 1989 ) = = =

The first organization dedicated to advancement of athletic opportunities for people with a disability was the International Sports Organization for the Disabled ( ISOD ) , founded in 1964 . The founders of this organization intended it to be a governing body to disability sports what the IOC was to the Olympic Games . This committee eventually became the International Coordinating Committee of World Sports Organizations for the Disabled ( ICC ) , which was established in 1982 . The ICC was tasked with advocating for the rights of athletes with a disability in front of the IOC . After the success of the cooperative effort between the ICC and the IOC , which resulted in the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , the ICC determined the need to expand and include representatives from all nations that had disability sports programs . They also deemed it necessary to include athletes in the decisions of the Paralympic governing body . Consequently , this body was reorganized as the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) in 1989 .

= = = IPC ( since 1989 ) = = =

The IPC is the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement . It comprises 176 National Paralympic Committees ( NPC ) and four disability @-@ specific international sports federations . The president of the IPC is Philip Craven , a former Paralympian from Great Britain . In his capacity as head of the IPC , Craven is also a member of the International Olympic Committee . The IPC 's international headquarters are in Bonn , Germany . The IPC is responsible for organizing the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games . It also serves as the International Federation for nine sports ( Paralympic athletics , Paralympic swimming , Paralympic shooting , Paralympic powerlifting , Para @-@ alpine skiing , Paralympic biathlon , Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing , ice sledge hockey and Wheelchair DanceSport ) . This requires the IPC to supervise and coordinate the World Championships and other competitions for each of the nine sports it regulates . IPC membership also includes National Paralympic Committees and international sporting federations . International Federations are independent sport federations recognized by the IPC as the sole representative of a Paralympic Sport . International Federations responsibilities include technical jurisdiction and guidance over the competition and training venues of their respective sports during the Paralympic Games . The IPC also recognizes media partners , certifies officials , judges , and is responsible for enforcing the bylaws of the Paralympic Charter .

The IPC has a cooperative relationship with the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) . Delegates of the IPC are also members of the IOC and participate on IOC committees and commissions . The two governing bodies remain distinct , with separate Games , despite the close working relationship .

= = Name and symbols = =

Although the name was originally coined as a portmanteau combining " paraplegic " ( due to its origins as games for people with spinal injuries ) and " Olympic , " the inclusion of other disability groups meant that this was no longer considered very accurate . The present formal explanation for the name is that it derives from the Greek preposition παρά , pará ( " beside " or " alongside " ) and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games . The Summer Games of 1988 held in Seoul was the first time the term " Paralympic " came into official use .

“ Spirit in Motion ” is the motto for the Paralympic movement . The symbol for the Paralympics contains three colours , red , blue , and green , which are the colours most widely represented in the flags of nations . The colours are each in the shape of an Agito ( which is Latin for " I move " ) , which is the name given to an asymmetrical crescent specially designed for the Paralympic movement . The three Agitos circle a central point , which is a symbol for the athletes congregating from all points of the globe . The motto and symbol of the IPC were changed in 2003 to their current versions . The change was intended to convey the idea that Paralympians have a spirit of competition and that the IPC as an organization realizes its potential and is moving forward to achieve it . The vision of the IPC is , " To enable Paralympic athletes to achieve sporting excellence and to inspire and excite the world . " The Paralympic anthem is " Hymn de l 'Avenir " or " Anthem of the Future " . It was composed by Thierry Darnis and adopted as the official anthem in March 1996 .

= = Ceremonies = =

= = = Opening = = =

As mandated by the Paralympic Charter , various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Paralympic Games . Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp . The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country 's flag and a performance of its national anthem . Unlike the Olympic Games , after the national anthem , the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation.Since the 1994 Winter Paralympics.The nations enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country 's chosen language , though with the host country 's athletes being the last to enter . Since the 1988 Summer Paralympics , the host nation presents artistic displays of music , singing , dance , and theatre representative of its culture .

Speeches are given , formally opening the games . Finally , the Paralympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier — often a Paralympic athlete from the host nation — who lights the Paralympic flame in the stadium 's cauldron .

= = = Closing = = =

The closing ceremony of the Paralympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded . Flag @-@ bearers from each participating country enter , followed by the athletes who enter together , without any national distinction . The Paralympic flag is taken down . Since the 2002 Winter Paralympics the national flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Paralympic Games is hoisted while the corresponding national anthem is played . The games are officially closed , and the Paralympic flame is extinguished . After these compulsory elements , the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture .

= = = Medal presentation = = =

A medal ceremony is held after each Paralympic event is concluded . The winner , second and third @-@ place competitors or teams stand on top of a three @-@ tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals . After the medals are given out by an IPC member , the national flags of the three medallists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallists country plays . Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies , as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag @-@ bearers . For every Paralympic event , the respective medal ceremony is held , at most , one day after the event 's final .

= = Equality = =

= = = Relationship with the Olympics = = =

In 2001 the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) signed an agreement which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games . This agreement was to remain in effect until the 2012 Summer Olympics , but was extended , encompassing all Summer and Winter games up until the 2020 Summer Olympics .

The IOC has written its commitment to equal access to athletics for all people into its charter , which states ,

While the charter is silent on discrimination specifically related to disability ; given the language in the charter regarding discrimination it is reasonable to infer that discrimination on the basis of disability would be against the ideals of the Olympic Charter and the IOC . This is also consistent with the Paralympic Charter , which forbids discrimination on the basis of political , religious , economic , disability , gender , sexual orientation or racial reasons .

Chairman of the London organising committee , Sebastian Coe , said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and 2012 Summer Olympics in London , England , that

The 2014 Winter Paralympic Games is the first such Paralympics hosted by Russia . Russia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities during that period . Notably at 2010 Vancouver their Paralympic team topped the medal table at the Winter Paralympics , while their Olympic team performed well below expectations at the Winter Olympics . This led the media to highlight the contrast between the achievements of the country 's Olympic and Paralympic delegations , despite the greater attention and funding awarded to the Olympic athletes . The Russian Federation organizers of the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games have , since 2007 , made efforts to make the host city Sochi more accessible .

= = = = Paralympians at the Olympics = = = =

Paralympic athletes have sought equal opportunities to compete at the Olympic Games . The precedent was set by Neroli Fairhall , a Paralympic archer from New Zealand , who competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles .

In 2008 Oscar Pistorius , a South African sprinter , attempted to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics . Pistorius had both his legs amputated below the knee and races with two carbon fibre blades manufactured by Ossur . He holds Paralympic world record in the 400 meter event . Pistorius missed qualifying for the 2008 Summer Olympics in the 400 meter race , by 0 @.@ 70 seconds . He qualified for the 2008 Summer Paralympics where he won gold medals in the 100 , 200 , and 400 meter sprints . In 2011 , Pistorius qualified for the 2012 Summer Olympics and competed in two events : he made the semi @-@ final in the 400 metres race ; and his team came 8th in the final of the 4 × 400 metres relay race .

Some athletes without a disability also compete at the Paralympics ; The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team , and both athletes are medal candidates .

= = = = Funding = = = =

There has been criticism for not providing equal funding to Paralympic athletes as compared to Olympic athletes . An example of this criticism was a lawsuit filed by Paralympic athletes Tony Iniguez , Scot Hollonbeck and Jacob Heilveil of the United States , in 2003 . They alleged that the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) , which also include the USOC Paralympic Division ( the National Paralympic Committee ) , was underfunding American Paralympic athletes . Iniguez cited the fact that the USOC made healthcare benefits available to a smaller percentage of Paralympians , the USOC provided smaller quarterly training stipends and paid smaller financial awards for medals won at a Paralympics . US Paralympians saw this as a disadvantage for the US Paralympic athletes , as nations such as Canada and Britain supported Paralympians and Olympians virtually equally . The USOC did not deny the discrepancy in funding and contended that this was due to the fact that it did not receive any government financial support . As a result , it had to rely on revenue generated by the media exposure of its athletes . Olympic athletic success resulted in greater exposure for the USOC than Paralympic athletic achievements . The case was heard by lower courts , who ruled that the USOC has the right to allocate its finances to athletes at different rates . The case was appealed to the Supreme Court , where on September 6 , 2008 it announced that it would not hear the appeal . However , during the time the lawsuit lasted ( from 2003 to 2008 ) , the funding from the USOC had nearly tripled . In 2008 $ 11 @.@ 4 million was earmarked for Paralympic athletes , up from $ 3 million in 2004 .

As with the Olympics , recent Paralympics have also been supported by contributions from major sponsors . Unlike the Olympics , where the IOC mandates that arenas be clean of sponsor logos , the Paralympics do allow the logos of official sponsors to be displayed inside arenas and on uniforms .

= = = Media coverage = = =

While the Olympic Games have experienced tremendous growth in global media coverage since the 1984 Summer Olympics , the Paralympics have been unable to maintain a consistent international media presence .

Television broadcasts of Paralympic Games began in 1976 , but this early coverage was confined to taped @-@ delay releases to one nation or region . At the 1992 Summer Paralympics there were 45 hours of live coverage but it was available only in Europe . Other countries broadcast highlight packages during the Games . No meaningful improvements in coverage occurred until the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney .

The 2000 Paralympics represented a significant increase in global media exposure for the Paralympic Games . A deal was reached between the Sydney Paralympic Organizing Committee ( SPOC ) and All Media Sports ( AMS ) to broadcast the Games internationally . Deals were reached with Asian , South American , and European broadcast companies to distribute coverage to as many markets as possible . The Games were also webcast for the first time . Because of these efforts the Sydney Paralympics reached a global audience estimated at 300 million people . Also significant was the fact that the organizers did not have to pay networks to televise the Games as had been done at the 1992 and 1996 Games . Despite these advances consistent media attention has been a challenge , which was evidenced in the coverage in Great Britain of the 2010 Winter Paralympics .

The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) was criticized for its minimal coverage of the 2010 Winter Paralympics as compared to its coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics . The BBC announced it would stream some content on its website and show a one @-@ hour highlight program after the Games ended . For the Winter Olympics the BBC aired 160 hours of coverage . The response from the BBC was that budget constraints and the " time zone factor " necessitated a limited broadcast schedule . The reduction in coverage was done in spite of increased ratings for the 2008 Summer Paralympics , which was watched by 23 % of the population of Great Britain . In Norway , the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ( NRK ) broadcast 30 hours of the 2010 Winter Games live . NRK @-@ sport were critical of parts of the TV production from Vancouver , and notified the EBU of issues such as the biathlon coverage excluding the shooting , and cross @-@ country skiing with skiers in the distance , making it hard to follow the progress of the competition . NRK were far more pleased with the production of the ice sledge hockey and wheelchair curling events , which they felt reached the same level as the Olympic Games .

Commercial broadcaster Channel 4 acquired the rights to the Paralympics in the United Kingdom for the 2012 Summer Paralympics , and planned to air extensive coverage of the games ; Channel 4 aired 150 hours of coverage , and also offered mobile apps , and three dedicated streaming channels of additional coverage on Sky , Freesat , Virgin Media and Channel 4 's website . " Channel 4 also made a push to heighten the profile of the Paralympics in the country by producing a 2 minute trailer for its coverage , " Meet the Superhumans " ; which premièred simultaneously on over 70 commercial channels in the UK on 17 July 2012 . Channel 4 have also acquired the rights to the 2014 Winter Paralympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics .

American broadcaster NBC Sports , who also owns the broadcast rights to the Olympics , has been criticised by athletes and IPC officials for airing only a bare minimum of coverage from the Paralympics ; the lack of coverage from NBC in Athens was a cause for concern from senior IPC officials , especially given that the United States was bidding for the 2012 Games . In 2012 NBC only produced around 5 hours of tape delayed highlights from the Games , airing on the pay TV channel NBC Sports Network , and did not cover the ceremonies at all .

IPC president Philip Craven was vocal about NBC 's reluctance to air coverage in 2012 , expressing his disappointment for American athletes and viewers who would miss the " amazing images " the games would bring , and remarking that " some people think that North America always lead [ s ] on everything , and on this they don 't . It 's about time they caught up . " Following the closing ceremonies , Craven hinted that the IPC might put greater scrutiny on broadcasters at future editions of the Paralympics ( or may strip NBC of its broadcast rights ) , by stating that " if we find our values don ’ t fit , we ’ ll have to go somewhere else . " NBC would pick up broadcast rights to the 2014 and 2016 Paralympics , promising a significantly larger amount of coverage than before .

= = = Outside the games = = =

A 2010 study by the University of British Columbia ( UBC ) on the Olympic Games Impact ( OGI ) , showed that of roughly 1 @,@ 600 Canadian respondents , 41 – 50 percent believed the 2010 Paralympic and Olympic Games in Vancouver , Canada triggered additional accessibility of buildings , sidewalks and public spaces . 23 percent of employers said the Games had increased their willingness to hire people with disabilities .

Chief Executive Officer for the International Paralympic Committee , Xavier Gonzalez , said about the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , China , that

= = Classification = =

The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) has established ten disability categories . Athletes are divided within each category according to their level of impairment , in a functional classification system which differs from sport to sport .

= = = Categories = = =

The IPC has established ten disability categories , including physical , visual , and intellectual impairment . Athletes with one of these disabilities can compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category . These categories apply to both Summer and Winter Paralympics .

Physical Impairment - There are eight different types of physical impairment :

Impaired muscle power - With impairments in this category , the force generated by muscles , such as the muscles of one limb , one side of the body or the lower half of the body is reduced , e.g. due to spinal @-@ cord injury , spina bifida or polio .

Impaired passive range of movement - Range of movement in one or more joints is reduced in a systematic way . Acute conditions such as arthritis are not included .

Loss of limb or limb deficiency - A total or partial absence of bones or joints from partial or total loss due to illness , trauma , or congenital limb deficiency ( e.g. dysmelia ) .

Leg @-@ length difference - Significant bone shortening occurs in one leg due to congenital deficiency or trauma .

Short stature - Standing height is reduced due to shortened legs , arms and trunk , which are due to a musculoskeletal deficit of bone or cartilage structures .

Hypertonia - Hypertonia is marked by an abnormal increase in muscle tension and reduced ability of a muscle to stretch . Hypertonia may result from injury , disease , or conditions which involve damage to the central nervous system ( e.g. cerebral palsy ) .

Ataxia - Ataxia is an impairment that consists of a lack of coordination of muscle movements ( e.g. cerebral palsy , Friedreich ’ s ataxia ) .

Athetosis - Athetosis is generally characterized by unbalanced , involuntary movements and a difficulty maintaining a symmetrical posture ( e.g. cerebral palsy , choreoathetosis ) .

Visual Impairment - Athletes with visual impairment ranging from partial vision , sufficient to be judged legally blind , to total blindness . This includes impairment of one or more component of the visual system ( eye structure , receptors , optic nerve pathway , and visual cortex ) . The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team . Beginning in 2012 , these guides ( along with sighted goalkeepers in 5 @-@ a @-@ side football became eligible to receive medals of their own .

Intellectual Disability - Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behaviour . The IPC primarily serves athletes with physical disabilities , but the disability group Intellectual Disability has been added to some Paralympic Games . This includes only elite athletes with intellectual disabilities diagnosed before the age of 18 . However , the IOC @-@ recognized Special Olympics World Games are open to all people with intellectual disabilities .

= = = Classification system = = =

Within the disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to level of impairment . The classification systems differ from sport to sport and are intended to open up sports to as many athletes as possible who can participate in fair competitions against athletes with similar levels of ability . The biggest challenge in the classification system is how to account for the wide variety and severity of disabilities . Consequently , there is a range of impairment within most classifications .

= = = = Medical classification ( until 1980s ) = = = =

From its inception until the 1980s , the Paralympic system for classifying athletes consisted of a medical evaluation and diagnosis of impairment . An athlete 's medical condition was the only factor used to determine what class they competed in . For example , an athlete who had a spinal cord injury that resulted in lower limb paresis , would not compete in the same wheelchair race as an athlete with a double above @-@ knee amputation . The fact that their disability caused the same impairment did not factor into classification determination , the only consideration was their medical diagnosis . It was not until views on disabled athletics shifted from just a form of rehabilitation to an end in itself , that the classification system changed from medical diagnosis to a focus on the functional abilities of the athlete .

= = = = Functional classification ( since 1980s ) = = = =

While there is no clear date when the shift occurred , a functional classification system became the norm for disabled athletic classification in the 1980s . In a functional system the focus is on what effect the athlete 's impairment has on his or her athletic performance . Under this system , athletes with total loss of function in their legs will compete together in most sports , because their functional loss is the same and the reason for the loss is immaterial . The only exception to the functional system is the classification format used by International Blind Sport Federation ( IBSF0 ) , which still uses a medically based system .

Some sports are only held for certain disability types . For example , goalball is only for visually impaired athletes . The Paralympics recognizes three different grades of visual impairment , consequently all competitors in goalball must wear a visor or " black out mask " so that athletes with less visual impairment will not have an advantage . Other sports , like athletics , are open to athletes with a wide variety of impairments . In athletics participants are broken down into a range of classes based on the disability they have and then they are placed in a classification within that range based on their level of impairment . For example : classes 11 – 13 are for visually impaired athletes , which class they are in depends on their level of visual impairment . There are also team competitions such as wheelchair rugby . Members of the team are each given a point value based on their activity limitation . A lower score indicates a more severe activity limitation than a higher score . A team cannot have more than a certain maximum total of points on the field of play at the same time to ensure equal competition . For example , in wheelchair rugby the five players ' combined disability number must total no more than eight points .

= = Sports = =

There are twenty @-@ two sports on the Summer Paralympic program and five sports on the Winter Paralympics program . Within some of the sports are several events . For example , alpine skiing has downhill , super combined , super @-@ G , slalom , giant slalom . The IPC has governance over several of the sports but not all of them . Other international organizations , known as International Sports Federations ( IF ) , notably the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( IWAS ) , the International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) , and the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) , govern some sports that are specific to certain disability groups . There are national chapters for these International Sport Federations including National Paralympic Committees , which are responsible for recruitment of athletes and governance of sports at the national level .

= = Controversy = =

= = = Cheating = = =

After the 2000 Sydney Games , a Spanish basketball player alleged that several members of the gold @-@ medal winning Spanish basketball intellectually disabled ( ID ) team were not disabled . He claimed that only two athletes out of the twelve @-@ member team met the qualifications of an intellectually disabled athlete . A controversy ensued and the IPC called on the Spanish National Paralympic Committee to launch an investigation . The investigation uncovered several Spanish athletes who had flouted the ID rules . In an interview with the president of the federation that oversees ID competition , Fernando Martin Vicente admitted that athletes around the world were breaking the ID eligibility rules . The IPC responded by starting an investigation of its own . The results of the IPC 's investigation confirmed the Spanish athlete 's allegations and also determined that the incident was not isolated to the basketball ID event or to Spanish athletes . As a result , all ID competitions were suspended indefinitely . The ban was lifted after the 2008 Games after work had been done to tighten the criteria and controls governing admission of athletes with intellectual disabilities . Four sports , swimming , athletics , table tennis and rowing , were anticipated to hold competitions for ID athletes at the 2012 Summer Paralympics .

The Paralympics have also been tainted by steroid use . At the 2008 Games in Beijing , three powerlifters and a German basketball player were banned after having tested positive for banned substances . This was a decrease in comparison to the ten powerlifters and one track athlete who were banned from the 2000 Games . German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids . He had won two gold medals at the 2002 Winter Paralympics , but his medals were stripped after his positive drug test . At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Swedish curler Glenn Ikonen tested positive for a banned substance and was suspended for six months by the IPC . He was removed from the rest of the curling competition but his team was allowed to continue . The 54 @-@ year @-@ old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list .

Another concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of " boosting " . Athletes can artificially increase their blood pressure , often by self @-@ harming , which has been shown to improve performance by up to 15 % . This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross @-@ country skiing . To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury . This trauma can include breaking bones , strapping extremities in too tightly , and using high @-@ pressured compression stockings . The injury is painless but it does affect the athlete 's blood pressure .

Another potential concern is the use of gene therapy among Paralympic athletes . All Paralympic athletes are banned from enhancing their abilities through gene doping , but it is extremely difficult to differentiate these concepts . The World Anti @-@ Doping Agency is currently researching both gene doping and gene therapy , in part to discern the boundary between the two closely related concepts .

The IPC have been working with the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency since 2003 , to ensure compliance with WADA 's anti @-@ doping code among its Paralympic athletes . The IPC has also promised to continue increasing the number of athletes tested at each of its Games , in order to further minimize the possible effect of doping in Paralympic sports . Mandatory in- and out @-@ of competition testing has also been implemented by the IPC to further ensure all of its athletes are performing in compliance with WADA regulations .

= = Notable champions and achievements = =

Trischa Zorn of the United States is the most decorated Paralympian in history . She competed in the blind swimming events and won a total of 55 medals , 41 of which are gold . Her Paralympic career spanned 24 years from 1980 to 2004 . She was also an alternate on the 1980 American Olympic swim team , but did not go to the Olympics due to a boycott by the United States and several of its allies . Ragnhild Myklebust of Norway holds the record for the most medals ever won at the Winter Paralympic Games . Competing in a variety of events in 1988 , 1992 , 1994 and 2002 , she won a total of 22 medals , of which 17 were gold . After winning five gold medals at the 2002 Games she retired at the age of 58 . Neroli Fairhall , a paraplegic archer from New Zealand , was the first paraplegic competitor , and the first Paralympian , to participate in the Olympic Games , when she competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . She placed thirty @-@ fourth in the Olympic archery competition , and won a Paralympic gold medal in the same event .

= = Host cities = =

= Maya Lindholm =

Maya Lindholm ( born 20 December 1990 ) is a 2 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player , who played with the German national team that won a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . It also won a European title in 2011 and was runner @-@ up in 2013 . President Joachim Gauck awarded the team Germany 's highest sporting honour , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) .

= = Biography = =

Maya Lindholm was born in Hamburg on 20 December 1990 . In 2004 , she awoke one morning with severe back pain , and within hours she could no longer move her legs . Doctors diagnosed spinal cord inflammation . She is studying to be an occupational therapist at the BG Trauma Hospital in Hamburg Boberg . She began playing wheelchair basketball for fun at the hospital in 2005 . In 2009 , she was selected as part of the national team .

Classified as a 2 @.@ 5 point player , Lindholm plays power forward . She was part of the team that won the European Championships in Nazareth , Israel , in 2011 , thereby qualifying for the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . As part of the team 's preparation , they toured the United States and Australia . The German team went through the group stage undefeated , but started off slow in its games against the United States and China , winning these games by six @-@ point margins , and seemed to play its best basketball only in the final minutes of a game .

In the Gold Medal match in London , the team faced the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , which had defeated them 48 – 46 in Sydney just a few months before . In front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 985 at the North Greenwich Arena , they defeated the Australians 58 – 44 to win the gold medal , the first that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball since 1984 . They were awarded the Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , They were also named Team of the Year in Disability Sports for 2012 , an annual award voted for by 3 @,@ 000 members of the Association of German Sports Journalists .

Lindholm 's local team , Hamburger SV , which also included national teammates Mareike Adermann and Edina Müller ( and Australia 's Bridie Kean ) won the women 's national championship for the eighth time in 2013 . Lindholm was also part of the Hamburger SV team that had previously won it in 2010 .

The German national team was not so fortunate , losing the final of the European Championship to the Netherlands before a home town crowd in Frankfurt .

= = Achievements = =

2010 : German Women 's National League champion ( Hamburg SV )

2010 : Silver at the IWBF World Championships ( Birmingham , Great Britain )

2011 : Gold at the European Wheelchair Basketball Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )

2012 : Gold at the Paralympic Games ( London , England )

2013 : German Women 's National League champion ( Hamburg SV )

2013 : Silver at the European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )

2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )

2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )

= = Awards = =

2012 : Team of the Year

2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf

= Speechless ( Michael Jackson song ) =

" Speechless " is a song by the American recording artist Michael Jackson , included on his tenth studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . It was only released as a promotional single in South Korea . The singer was inspired to write the ballad after a water balloon fight with children in Germany . Jackson collaborated on the production with musicians such as Jeremy Lubbock , Brad Buxer , Novi Novoq , Stuart Bradley and Bruce Swedien . Andraé Crouch and his gospel choir provided backing vocals .

Executives at Jackson 's record label , Epic Records , responded positively to the track when given a preview several months before Invincible 's release . " Speechless " was issued as a promotional single , receiving mixed reviews from music critics . Commentary focused on the track 's a cappellas , lyrics and music . A clip of Jackson singing " Speechless " was included in the 2009 documentary @-@ concert film Michael Jackson 's This Is It .

= = Writing and recording = =

Michael Jackson wrote " Speechless " after a water balloon fight with children in Germany . It took him 45 minutes . In an interview with Vibe magazine , the musician commented , " I was so happy after the fight that I ran upstairs in their house and wrote ' Speechless ' . Fun inspires me . I hate to say that , because it 's such a romantic song . " He added , " But it was the fight that did it . I was happy , and I wrote it in its entirety right there . I felt it would be good enough for the album . Out of the bliss comes magic , wonderment , and creativity . " Jackson would consider " Speechless " to be one of his favorite songs on Invincible .

" Speechless " was one of only two songs from Invincible to be written solely by Jackson ( the second song being " The Lost Children " ) . Jeremy Lubbock worked with the musician in arranging and conducting an orchestra . Instrumentalists on the track included Brad Buxer on keyboards , and Novi Novog and Thomas Tally on violas . The violinists consisted of Peter Kent , Gina Kronstadt , Robin Lorentz , Kirstin Fife and John Wittenberg . The track featured backing vocals from Andraé Crouch and his gospel choir , The Andraé Crouch Singers . " Speechless " was digitally edited by Buxer and Stuart Brawley , and was mixed by Bruce Swedien , who later said , " Everything with Michael is a stand @-@ out moment but an absolutely gorgeous piece of music called ' Speechless ' was really an event . Michael sings the first eight bars a cappella . At the end , he closes it off a cappella – it was Michael 's idea to add the a cappella parts . "

= = Composition = =

The lyrics to " Speechless " deal with being lost for words because of love . The song opens with Jackson 's singing a cappella : " Your love is magical , that 's how I feel , but I have not the words here to explain " , which Rick de Yampert of The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal felt the singer " [ crooned ] sweetly " . The chorus includes the lines , " Speechless , speechless , that 's how you make me feel . Though I 'm with you , I am far away and nothing is for real . " A second a cappella verse bookends the track .

" Speechless " is a ballad , and labeled it as " neo @-@ gospel " . According to Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing . It adds that the track was performed in common time , with a tempo of 80 beats per minute . The song starts in the key of B ♭ major and transitions to C major . After the bridge the song transitions to D Major as a choir starts singing , the last two choruses in E Major , ending with a solo a cappella ending by Jackson . The song 's vocal range is from F4 to B5 .

= = Post @-@ production and release = =

In June 2001 , several months before the release of Invincible , " Speechless " was among several songs showcased from the album exclusively to executives of Jackson 's music label , Epic Records ( a subsidiary of Sony Music Entertainment ) . Other songs previewed included " Unbreakable " , " The Lost Children " , " Whatever Happens " , " Break of Dawn " , " Heaven Can Wait " and " Privacy " , all of which featured on Invincible 's track listing . Roger Friedman of Fox News reported that the executives who listened to the previews liked what they heard . Epic Records ' president , Dave Glew , said of the tracks , " It 's wonderful and amazing . Michael is singing better than ever . " He added , " The ballads ! The ballads are beautiful , and they 're all there . " " Speechless " was later released as a promotional single in 2001 . A remixed version of " You Rock My World " , featuring rapper Jay @-@ Z , served as the single 's B @-@ side . After Jackson 's death , a clip of the entertainer singing " Speechless " was included in Michael Jackson 's This Is It , a commercially successful documentary @-@ concert film of the singer 's rehearsals for his London concert series .

= = Critical reception = =

" Speechless " received a mixed reaction from music journalists . Craig Seymour of The Buffalo News felt that the song was the only one from the album in which Jackson successfully revisited his past . The journalist said the song was reminiscent of the 1995 chart @-@ topper " You Are Not Alone " , as it sounded to him like a track that could have been written by R. Kelly , who penned the number one hit . Writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Jim DeRogatis described " Speechless " as a " beautifully minimal , heartfelt romantic ballad " . Music journalist Roger Catlin stated that the song leaned toward " neo @-@ gospel " . The New York Post said that " Speechless " was " lullaby @-@ like " and the best song on Invincible , and Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised Jackson 's " long lines and creamy overdubbed choruses [ sailing ] weightlessly " in the ballad , that the journalist felt it was a love song to God .

Pop music critic Robert Hilburn described " Speechless " , and another song from Invincible ( " Butterflies " ) , as being " as woefully generic as their titles " . Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star contested that the a cappellas in " Speechless " were enough to make a person wish that Jackson actually was unable to make a sound . Michigan Daily writer Dustin J. Seibert wrote that the song was a " shining [ example ] of what happens when The Gloved One gets beside himself and writes smarmy crap that should be reserved for a CD changer somewhere in a preschool " . The Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram said that " Speechless " was one of the weaker tracks from Invincible . Elliot Sylvester of The Independent felt that the song was " pure Jackson – almost to a formulaic fault " . The Dallas Morning News ' Thor Christensen said that " Speechless " was " produced by Mr. Jackson in bombastic style à la Celine Dion " . He added that as the track ended with an emotional Jackson , it drew a parallel with the singer 's 1972 ode to a rat , " Ben " .

Vaughn Watson of The Providence Journal hailed " Speechless " as Invincible 's " best song , and one of Jackson 's finest of any album " . He added that with the song , the musician acknowledged the pain that accompanies isolation . In a review of Invincible , The Wichita Eagle stated that " Speechless " , " Don 't Walk Away " and " Cry " were among the " sincere ballads " in which Jackson was exemplary . Ada Anderson of The Ball State Daily News expressed the view that " Speechless " would become a popular song , and writers for the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel stated that the ballad would take time to get used to . The Dayton Daily News ' Ron Rollins described the track as a " pretty love song " . Music critic Kevin C. Johnson thought that " Speechless " was " one of [ Jackson 's ] typical , whispery ballads that swells as it moves along " . A journalist for The Olympian stated that the song was " gorgeous " .

= = Track listing = =

Promotional CD single :

" Speechless " – 3 : 18

" You Rock My World " ( Track Masters Mix ) ( featuring Jay @-@ Z ) – 3 : 28

= = Personnel = =

Written , composed , produced and lead vocal by Michael Jackson

Orchestra arranged and conducted by Michael Jackson and Jeremy Lubbock

Keyboards performed by Brad Buxer

Viola performed by Novi Novog and Thomas Tally

Violin performed by Peter Kent , Gina Kronstadt , Robin Lorentz , Kirstin Fife and John Wittenberg

= = Thriller – Live cast version = =

On June 21 , 2010 , six performers in the West End of London show Thriller – Live released " Speechless " as a single with the official name " Speechless – The Tribute to Michael Jackson " to commemorate the one @-@ year anniversary of Jackson 's death . All proceeds from the recording were donated to the charity War Child .

= = = Personnel = = =

Written and originally produced by Michael Jackson

Produced , edited and mixed by Dave Loughran

Executive producer : Adrian Grant for Key Concerts & Entertainment

Vocal arrangement by John Maher

Music arranged and performed by Dave Loughran

Hammond organ performed by John Maher

Lead vocals : James Anderson , Jean @-@ Mikhael Baque , Kieran Alleyne , Kuan Frye , Mitchell Zhangazha , MJ Mytton @-@ Sanneh

Choir : Britt Quentin , Hope Lyndsey Plumb , J Rome , Jenessa Qua , Linda John @-@ Pierre , Olamide Oshinowo , Paul Clancy , Terrence Ryan , Wayne Anthony @-@ Cole

Mastered by Steve Kitch

= = = Track listing = = =

Digital download :

" Speechless ( A Tribute to Michael Jackson ) " – single version – 4 : 25

= North American XB @-@ 21 =

The North American XB @-@ 21 , also known by the manufacturer 's model designation NA @-@ 21 , and sometimes referred to by the name " Dragon " , was a prototype bomber aircraft developed by North American Aviation in the late 1930s , for evaluation by the United States Army Air Corps . Evaluated against the Douglas B @-@ 18 Bolo , it was found to be considerably more expensive than the rival aircraft , and despite the ordering of a small number of evaluation aircraft , only the prototype was ever built .

= = Design and development = =

North American Aviation 's first twin @-@ engined military aircraft , the NA @-@ 21 prototype was constructed at North American 's factory in Inglewood , California , where work on the aircraft began in early 1936 . The NA @-@ 21 was a mid @-@ wing monoplane of all @-@ metal construction , powered by two Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2180 @-@ A Twin Hornet radial engines , which were fitted with turbosuperchargers for increased high @-@ altitude performance .

Flown by a crew of six to eight men , the XB @-@ 21 featured a remarkably strong defensive armament for the time , including as many as five .30 @-@ calibre M1919 machine guns . These were planned to be fitted in hydraulically powered nose and dorsal turrets , in addition to manually operated weapons installed in waist and ventral positions . Up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) of bombs could be carried in an internal bomb bay , with 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs being able to be carried over a range of 1 @,@ 900 miles ( 3 @,@ 100 km ) .

= = Testing and evaluation = =

Undertaking its maiden flight on 22 December 1936 at Mines Field , company test flying indicated a number of minor problems . Modifications resolving these resulted in the aircraft being re @-@ designated NA @-@ 39 , and , accepted by the U.S. Army Air Corps as the XB @-@ 21 . The aircraft , which had been assigned the serial number 38 @-@ 485 , was evaluated early the following year in competition against a similar design by Douglas Aircraft , an improved version of the company 's successful B @-@ 18 Bolo .

During the course of the fly @-@ off , the gun turrets proved troublesome , their drive motors proving to be underpowered , and issues with wind blast through the gun slots were also encountered . As a result of these problems , the XB @-@ 21 's nose turret was faired over , while the dorsal turret was removed .

The XB @-@ 21 proved to have superior performance over its competitor , but price became the primary factor distinguishing the Bolo and the XB @-@ 21 . On this account , the modified B @-@ 18 was declared the winner of the competition , Douglas quoting a price per aircraft of $ 64 @,@ 000 USD , while North American 's estimate was $ 122 @,@ 000 USD per aircraft , and an order was placed for 177 of the Douglas aircraft , to be designated B @-@ 18A .

Despite this , the Army Air Corps found the performance of the XB @-@ 21 to have been favorable enough to order five pre @-@ production aircraft , to be designated YB @-@ 21 . However , soon after this contract was awarded , it was cancelled , and none of the YB @-@ 21s were ever built , leaving the XB @-@ 21 as the sole example of the type ever constructed . Operated by North American Aviation , the XB @-@ 21 served as a research aircraft until its retirement .

Although the XB @-@ 21 failed to win a production contract , it was the first of a long line of North American Aviation medium bomber aircraft , and provided experience and knowledge that assisted in the development of the North American NA @-@ 40 , which , developed into the B @-@ 25 Mitchell , would become one of the Army 's standard medium bombers of World War II .

= = Specifications ( XB @-@ 21 ) = =

Data from

General characteristics

Crew : Six to eight

Length : 61 ft 9 in ( 18 @.@ 82 m )

Wingspan : 95 ft 0 in ( 28 @.@ 96 m )

Height : 14 ft 9 in ( 4 @.@ 50 m )

Wing area : 1 @,@ 120 sq ft ( 104 m2 )

Empty weight : 19 @,@ 082 lb ( 8 @,@ 655 kg )

Gross weight : 27 @,@ 253 lb ( 12 @,@ 362 kg )

Max takeoff weight : 40 @,@ 000 lb ( 18 @,@ 144 kg )

Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney R @-@ 2180 @-@ A Twin Hornet turbosupercharged radial engines , 1 @,@ 200 hp ( 890 kW ) each

Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed

Performance

Maximum speed : 220 mph ( 354 km / h ; 191 kn ) at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m )

Cruise speed : 190 mph ( 165 kn ; 306 km / h )

Range : 1 @,@ 960 mi ( 1 @,@ 703 nmi ; 3 @,@ 154 km ) with 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs

Combat range : 600 mi ( 521 nmi ; 966 km ) with 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) of bombs

Service ceiling : 25 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 620 m )

Time to altitude : 10 minutes to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m )

Armament

Guns : Five .30 @-@ calibre machine guns , mounted in single turrets in the nose and dorsal positions , and single manually operated mounts in the waist and ventral positions .

Bombs : Up to 10 @,@ 000 pounds ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) in an internal bay .

= Janee Michelle =

Janee Michelle ( born Geneva Leona Mercadel ; 1946 ) , also known as Gee Tucker , is an American actor , model , dancer , and businessperson , best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain .

= = Career = =

Her acting and modeling career has included appearances in a variety of media , including films , television programs and advertisements , theatrical productions , and print advertisements . Meradel made her first film appearance in the 1964 short film The Legend of Jimmy Blue Eyes . She adopted the stage name Janee Michelle because her talent agent and the film studio both believed her birth name would be poorly received . Michelle 's acting in the television series The Outcasts in 1968 was critically acclaimed , which led to several offers of film roles . Both in a 1969 episode of The Governor & J.J. and in the 1970 film Soul Soldier , Michelle acted alongside her then @-@ husband Robert DoQui .

In 1977 , Michelle was the queen in the New Orleans Mardi Gras Zulu parade . She was the first Zulu queen to wear two different gowns , both of which were designed by Bob Mackie , who had designed outfits for Cher . She divorced DoQui in 1978 and married New Orleans politician Robert H. Tucker , Jr. the following year ; she changed her name to Gee Tucker and became a businessperson .

In 1980 , the couple founded Tucker and Associates , a management consulting company that , in 1990 , received a US $ 26 million contract with the Strategic Petroleum Reserve , representing the largest contract that had ever been received by a minority @-@ owned company in Louisiana . While working on this contract , Michelle and Tucker started a second company called Integrated Logistical Support . The couple divorced and Michelle retained ownership of Tucker and Associates while Tucker retained ownership of Integrated Logistical Support . When Tucker retired in 2008 , the couple 's daughter Iam Tucker replaced him as president of Integrated Logistical Support . After Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans , Michelle purchased Sophie 's Gelato , an ice cream parlor on Magazine Street where she makes gelato in @-@ house .

= = Early life = =

Janee Michelle was born Geneva Leona Mercadel in New Orleans , Louisiana . Her paternal great @-@ grandfather was a shoemaker who immigrated to New York from Champagne , France before moving to New Orleans in pursuit of a warmer climate . Michelle 's extended family was large and had lived in the 7th Ward of New Orleans for many years . Michelle is related to Sidney Barthelemy , former Mayor of New Orleans .

Traditionally , the Mercadels had worked in construction , and some of Michelle 's cousins continued this tradition . Michelle 's mother 's surname was Mathieu and her family background included people from Africa , France , Germany , and Italy , as well as Choctaw people . Michelle grew up in a religious home in which her father , Walter F. Mercadel , was a barber and her mother was a beautician . She had three siblings : an older brother named Walbert and two younger sisters named Zernell and Zona .

At age 13 , Michelle created , produced , designed , and directed a dance show at the YWCA in New Orleans . She was named Miss New Orleans in 1960 . She attended Rivers Frederick Junior High School where her principal , Leah McKenna , encouraged her to pursue a career in entertainment . While in high school , Michelle won fifteen certificates and medals for language proficiency . She started high school in New Orleans and then transferred to Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles , California , when her family moved there as a result of her mother 's illness , which was aggravated by the high humidity of New Orleans . Her father was unemployed at the time and her brother 's wife was pregnant , so she started working as a cook to support the family . She graduated from Manual Arts ranked 25th scholastically in her 500 @-@ student class , and then attended Los Angeles City College and Woodbury College , receiving her best grades in English studies . She took drama courses from Actors Studio West and the Columbia Film Workshop .

= = Career = =

= = = Entertainment = = =

Michelle 's acting , modeling , and dancing career has included appearances in a variety of media , including films , television programs and advertisements , theatrical productions , and print advertisements . She commuted to a job as a dancer in Las Vegas while she was still in high school . She has learned to perform both ballet and Cuban dance styles and has danced at the Hollywood Palladium and Tropicana Las Vegas . As a stage actor , she appeared in productions of MacBird ! , The Death of Daddy Hugs and Kisses , Ride a Wild Horse , The Vagina Monologues , In the Blink of an Eye , and other plays . One of her early television advertisement appearances was for Ultra Sheen hair products . In 1964 , Michelle — still known by her birth name Geneva Mercadel — received her first film role in the short film The Legend of Jimmy Blue Eyes , which was nominated for an Academy Award . Her contract did not allow her to receive residuals when the film later aired on television . Her talent agent and the film studio both believed her birth name would be received poorly , so she adopted the stage name Janee Michelle . She chose the name Janee ( pronounced Ja @-@ Nay , and sometimes spelled Janée ) to keep the first two syllables of her birth name . She chose the surname Michelle because she " thought it would be unique to have a name with two first names " . When she found people had difficulty pronouncing the name Janee , she considered changing it again , but decided against it because she believed this pronunciation difficulty caused people to remember her .

In 1967 , an article in The Chicago Defender predicted that Michelle 's career in American cinema would be successful . Also that year , she appeared on the cover of an issue of the magazine Jet alongside Ronnie Eckstine in recognition of their appearance together in Eckstine 's debut film The Love @-@ Ins ; it was Michelle 's most prominent film role until that point . A Variety reviewer wrote that Michelle was cast well in the role . Michelle 's acting in the television series The Outcasts was critically acclaimed , leading to several offers of film roles . The Outcasts reviews also led to her appearance in an episode of Love , American Style alongside Greg Morris , known for his role in the Mission : Impossible television series .

Michelle was included in the magazine Ebony 's list of Fifty Eligible Girls for 1969 . Also in 1969 , Michelle again appeared on the cover of Jet , which called her " one of Hollywood 's most attractive actresses " . The article declares Michelle to be one of several up @-@ and @-@ coming African @-@ American actresses , along with Gloria Foster , Gail Fisher , and Denise Nicholas . In the corresponding interview with Jet , Michelle said although racial inequality in the United States may have been a career obstacle for African @-@ American women in the past , " that 's not it today — and that 's for sure " . Michelle argued that her success as an actor proved the falsehood of the idea that African @-@ American women need to have sexual intercourse with certain people to become successful in the cinema of the United States .

Michelle starred alongside her husband Robert DoQui in a 1969 episode of The Governor & J.J. The couple acted together again the following year in Soul Soldier , a film in which Michelle is the leading lady ; she appears with DoQui in nude sex scenes . Michelle 's and DoQui 's characters form a love triangle with Lincoln Kilpatrick 's character . In a New York Times review of the film , Howard Thompson called all three actors ' performances " plain painful " .

In 1973 , Michelle collaborated with actors Judy Pace and Lillian Lehman to found Kwanza , a Hollywood , California @-@ based nonprofit organization named after the African diaspora celebration Kwanzaa . Run entirely by African American actresses on a volunteer basis , Kwanza initially provided food to people in need at Christmas . Michelle and the other two co @-@ founders each enlisted five other African American actresses to volunteer with the organization and , together , they raised enough funds to provide food to 75 families that first Christmas . By 1976 , the organization had fed more than 2000 individuals and had expanded to function year @-@ round .

Michelle is best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain , which was once an obscure film but became better known when it was released on DVD . She portrays Lorena Christophe , who is summoned to the house of a recently @-@ dead distant relative who was a voodoo queen . Christophe is the love interest of the main character , who is portrayed by Victor French . In the Encyclopedia of African American Actresses in Film and Television , Bob McCann writes that Michelle " is quite pretty and gives a charming performance in her undemanding role " . A Variety reviewer provided a similar appraisal of Michelle 's appearance , calling her attractive and her role chic . In 2014 , she appeared in a health insurance television advertisement for AARP .

= = = New Orleans Mardi Gras = = =

In 1977 , Michelle 's cousin , Anthony " Chuck " Mercadel , was chosen to be that year 's king of the Zulu parade , part of New Orleans Mardi Gras . He and Michelle had not seen each other since before her film and television career when she was living in New Orleans . Michelle was volunteering with Kwanza in Shreveport , Louisiana with 25 other actresses , including Isabel Sanford , when Chuck and New Orleans politician Robert H. Tucker , Jr. visited Michelle at her hotel . Chuck said he was looking for Sanford so he could ask her to be his queen . Michelle asked him , " Why don 't you ask me to be your queen ? " , and he did so . Michelle refused the offer because she did not wish to be his second choice . Sanford was unable to appear in the parade due to a prior engagement and Chuck asked Michelle again . This time , she accepted , despite having to rearrange her schedule .

Until the time of the parade , Michelle was working in Hollywood . She flew to New Orleans to be ceremoniously greeted at the airport by a band and some Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club members . Michelle was the first Zulu queen to wear two different gowns : one for the parade and the other for the ball . Bob Mackie designed both of these gowns . Mackie had designed outfits for Cher , from whom Michelle borrowed a beige turkey feather boa and headdress for the parade . Michelle 's parade gown was sleeveless , had a turtleneck , and was composed of a gold @-@ and @-@ cinnamon brocade decorated with topaz gemstones . The ball gown was a white , form @-@ fitting garment with a see @-@ through front , and was decorated with crystals and white bugle beads . She rejected the traditional tiara and instead wore a headpiece covered in pearls . Of her promenade around the ballroom , during which she swayed her shoulders and hips , Michelle later said " high @-@ school girls were imitating it for a year after that : the ' Zulu queen ' walk " .

= = = Business = = =

After divorcing DoQui in 1978 , Michelle married Robert H. Tucker , Jr. the following year , changed her name to Gee Tucker , moved back to New Orleans , and became a businessperson . After Tucker had repeatedly been unsuccessful in being elected to public office , he convinced Michelle to go into business with him and stop working for Copeland . In 1980 , Tucker and Michelle founded Tucker and Associates , a management consulting company . The company did not generate much revenue at first , and Michelle worked elsewhere in management and marketing . For the first few years , Michelle and Tucker did not apply for assistance from the Small Business Administration ( SBA ) 8 ( a ) Business Development Program , which offers support to businesses run by members of minority groups . Michelle said they made this decision because " we had seen other businesses start out strongly , graduate from the SBA 8 @-@ A program and fail [ and ] we wanted to be able to know that we could compete without it " . Michelle had no formal business education , which made her feel inadequate as an entrepreneur . Of these early years in business , she later said , " I learned the hard way , on the job , things I could never have learned in school . But I think the formal training in school would have made it easier . "

Eventually , Tucker and Associates began receiving contracts requiring a variety of services , including personnel , data processing , finance , and marketing . By 1990 , the company employed 225 people and had a revenue of approximately $ 11 million . That year , the company received a $ 26 million contract with the Strategic Petroleum Reserve , representing the largest contract that had ever been received by a minority @-@ owned company in Louisiana . This contract was awarded through the SBA 8 ( a ) program and lasted seven years . While working on this contract , Michelle and Tucker started a second company called Integrated Logistical Support , of which Michelle became the vice president . The couple divorced before the Strategic Petroleum Reserve contract ended , and Michelle went back to using her maiden name . Michelle retained ownership of Tucker and Associates , remaining its president and chief executive officer , while Tucker retained ownership of Integrated Logistical Support .

Michelle was a director of Hibernia National Bank while it was a Forbes 500 company , and as of 2002 , she is the chief operating officer of Tucker and Associates . In 2003 , Ray Nagin , Mayor of New Orleans , ended contracts with eleven companies that had ties to the previous mayor , Marc Morial ; both Tucker and Associates and Integrated Logistical Support were among these companies . Michelle has sat on the board of the Louisiana Children 's Museum and has volunteered with the Drugs Off the Street program .

Michelle purchased Sophie 's Gelato in New Orleans , which she operates .

= = Awards = =

In 1991 , Michelle was recognized as a YWCA Role Model . The National Council of Negro Women named her one of five community leaders of the year in 1995 . Michelle has been named New Orleans Woman Business Owner of the Year and has received the Best of Black Business Award . The Business and Professional Women 's Foundation has named her Employer of the Year . The American Council for Career Women has granted her their Achiever 's Award .

= = Personal life = =

On July 22 , 1966 , at the age of twenty , Michelle married 33 @-@ year @-@ old Albert S. Hubbard in Marin County , California . They divorced in January 1968 . On April 25 of the following year , she married 35 @-@ year @-@ old Robert DoQui in San Francisco . DoQui , whose term of endearment for Michelle was " crazy Creole chick " , already had four children from a previous marriage to a woman who had died , and Michelle developed a relationship with these children , who were aged five , six , eight , and eleven . In a 1969 interview with the magazine Tan , Michelle indicated that DoQui 's fashion preferences were an important factor in her clothing purchase decisions , saying , " I think a girl should dress for her husband " . She also expressed her support for the breadwinner model in which men are expected to make the most income for their families and women are expected to be housewives , although Michelle argued that women should work outside the home if they want to . She went on to say that women no longer worked hard enough to retain the respect and love of their husbands , and the interviewer describes Michelle as following her own advice : " She dotes so much on her man , invests so much of herself in him , his well @-@ being " . Michelle gave birth to a son , Robert Diago DoQui , in 1971 , and he later became an actor and writer . Michelle and DoQui divorced in June 1978 .

Having met Robert Tucker when her cousin Chuck asked her to appear in the 1977 Zulu parade , Michelle eventually started dating Tucker and they married in 1979 . Their daughter , Iam Christian Tucker , in 1983 . Michelle and Tucker divorced after nineteen years of marriage .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= Interstate 95 in Delaware =

Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) is an Interstate highway running along the East Coast of the United States from Miami , Florida north to the Canadian border in Houlton , Maine . In the state of Delaware , the route runs for 23 @.@ 43 mi ( 37 @.@ 71 km ) across the Wilmington area in northern New Castle County from the Maryland state line near Newark northeast to the Pennsylvania state line in Claymont . I @-@ 95 is the only primary ( 2 @-@ digit ) Interstate highway that enters Delaware , although it also has two auxiliary routes within the state ( I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 ) . Between the Maryland border and Newport , I @-@ 95 follows the Delaware Turnpike or John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway , a toll road with a toll plaza near the state line . In Newport , the interstate has a large interchange with Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) and the southern termini of I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 , the latter interstate providing a bypass of Wilmington . I @-@ 95 heads north through the heart of Wilmington concurrent with U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) on the Wilmington Expressway . Past Wilmington , I @-@ 95 continues northeast to Claymont , where I @-@ 495 rejoins the route right before the Pennsylvania state line .

Plans for a road along the I @-@ 95 corridor through Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border predate the Interstate Highway System . After the Delaware Memorial Bridge was built in 1951 , the Delaware Turnpike was proposed between the bridge approach in Farnhurst and the Maryland border near Newark in order to alleviate traffic congestion on parallel US 40 . With the creation of the Interstate Highway System in 1956 , both these roads were incorporated into I @-@ 95 . Construction on the Delaware Turnpike began in 1957 and ended in 1963 . Construction on building I @-@ 95 through Wilmington began in the early 1960s . I @-@ 95 was completed north from Newport to downtown Wilmington in 1966 and north to the Pennsylvania border in 1968 . Between 1978 and 1980 , I @-@ 95 was temporarily rerouted along the I @-@ 495 bypass route while the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed ; during this time the route through Wilmington was designated as I @-@ 895 . Improvements continue to be made to the highway including widening projects and reconstruction of sections of the road and interchanges .

= = Route description = =

= = = Delaware Turnpike = = =

I @-@ 95 enters Delaware from Maryland southwest of Newark in New Castle County . From the state line , the highway heads east as the six @-@ lane Delaware Turnpike ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) through wooded areas . Not far from the Maryland border , the road comes to a toll plaza . I @-@ 95 widens to eight lanes and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with DE 896 , which heads north to Newark and the University of Delaware and south to US 301 . Following this interchange , the interstate highway runs between industrial areas to the north and farm fields to the south , coming to bridges over Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and DE 72 . The road heads through more woodland with nearby suburban development as it curves northeast , with the median widening for the Delaware Welcome Center service plaza accessible from both directions . A short distance later , I @-@ 95 reaches the DE 273 interchange west of Christiana . The freeway continues northeast and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with the DE 1 / DE 7 freeway to the northwest of the Christiana Mall . This interchange has flyover ramps between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound DE 1 / DE 7 and northbound I @-@ 95 ; the northbound ramp splits onto both sides of the northbound lanes of I @-@ 95 .

Past this interchange , I @-@ 95 widens to ten lanes and passes under DE 58 , with a ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to westbound DE 58 that provides the missing connection between southbound I @-@ 95 and northbound DE 7 . The highway continues through woods before passing through Churchman 's Marsh , where it crosses the Christina River . After this bridge , I @-@ 95 has a northbound ramp to Airport Road that serves to provide access to southbound US 202 / DE 141 . At this point , the lanes of the interstate split further apart and the northbound ramp for I @-@ 295 and northbound DE 141 splits off to parallel the northbound lanes of I @-@ 95 . The ramp to northbound I @-@ 295 has two lanes while northbound I @-@ 95 carries four lanes . After this , I @-@ 95 crosses US 202 / DE 141 , at which point US 202 becomes concurrent with the interstate . Upon crossing DE 141 , the ramp to northbound DE 141 from the northbound I @-@ 295 ramp splits off while the ramp from DE 141 to northbound I @-@ 95 merges in from the left . Southbound , a collector / distributor ramp serves to provide access between I @-@ 95 and DE 141 . Not far after encountering DE 141 , I @-@ 295 splits off to the southeast , with the northbound entrance from I @-@ 295 and the southbound exit to I @-@ 295 and southbound entrance from I @-@ 295 on the left side of the road . At this point , the Delaware Turnpike splits from I @-@ 95 and follows I @-@ 295 southeast to an interchange with US 13 / US 40 in Farnhurst , where the turnpike ends and I @-@ 295 continues east as the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach . After I @-@ 295 , I @-@ 95 / US 202 turns north and comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with the southern terminus of I @-@ 495 , which bypasses Wilmington to the east .

= = = Wilmington Expressway = = =

Following the I @-@ 495 interchange , the median narrows and I @-@ 95 / US 202 heads northeast through marshland as the six @-@ lane Wilmington Expressway , crossing the Christina River . The freeway comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch and continues through more wetlands , with Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor running a short distance to the northwest . The road heads into Wilmington and curves to the north , passing to the west of Frawley Stadium , home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks baseball team . I @-@ 95 / US 202 heads towards downtown Wilmington and crosses onto a viaduct , passing over the Northeast Corridor and coming to an interchange that provides access to the downtown area by way of DE 4 and DE 48 . At this point , the four @-@ lane freeway continues northeast , with one @-@ way northbound North Adams Street to the east and one @-@ way southbound North Jackson Street to the west serving as frontage roads . I @-@ 95 / US 202 continues through residential areas to the west of downtown Wilmington , passing over DE 9 , with a southbound exit . Farther northeast , the freeway heads into an alignment below street level and comes to an interchange with DE 52 . Past this interchange , the road heads to the north and crosses Brandywine Creek , heading through Brandywine Park , which is a part of the Wilmington State Parks complex . The freeway curves northeast again and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision before reaching an interchange with the northern terminus of DE 202 at the northern edge of Wilmington , at which point US 202 splits from I @-@ 95 .

Past US 202 , I @-@ 95 leaves Wilmington for the suburban Brandywine Hundred area and heads northeast as a four @-@ lane road , passing southeast of the Rock Manor Golf Club and running along the northwest side of the CSX line . The freeway curves east to pass over the railroad tracks and continues through wooded areas to the south of the CSX tracks , coming to a diamond interchange with DE 3 near Bellefonte . After this exit , I @-@ 95 and the rail line curve to the northeast and continue through woodland with nearby residential areas , passing northwest of Bellevue State Park . The highway comes to a northbound exit and southbound entrance with Harvey Road near the villages of Arden , Ardentown , and Ardencroft . Past this interchange , the freeway curves east away from the CSX tracks and winds northeast near suburban neighborhoods in Claymont . In Claymont , the interstate comes to a diamond interchange with DE 92 , at which point I @-@ 495 also merges onto the northbound direction of the interstate . Following the interchange , I @-@ 95 passes to the west of the Tri @-@ State Mall before it crosses the state line into Pennsylvania . The southbound exit from I @-@ 95 to I @-@ 495 is located in Pennsylvania 132 feet ( 40 m ) before the Delaware state line .

I @-@ 95 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 169 @,@ 865 vehicles at the DE 1 / DE 7 interchange in Christiana to a low of 48 @,@ 906 vehicles at the DE 92 interchange in Claymont . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire length of I @-@ 95 in Delaware is a part of the National Highway System .

= = Tolls = =

I @-@ 95 has a toll plaza along the Delaware Turnpike near the Maryland border in Newark that charges $ 4 @.@ 00 for cars . Cash or E @-@ ZPass is accepted for payment of tolls .

When the highway first opened in 1963 , the toll at the state line was 30 cents . Prior to 1976 , ramp tolls were collected at the DE 896 , DE 273 , and DE 7 interchanges . The ramp tolls required exact change , and many motorists were caught by police evading the tolls because they did not have the proper change . In 1970 , an attempt was made to use the honor system for motorists without the proper change at the tollbooth to pay the tolls by mailing them . However , it was discontinued after a month because most motorists did not mail in their tolls . In 1976 , Governor Sherman W. Tribbitt signed House Bill 1278 , which was sponsored by Representative Gerard A. Cain . This bill called for the elimination of the three ramp tolls while keeping the mainline toll plaza near the Maryland border . The ramp tolls stopped being collected on October 1 , 1976 .

In 1981 , plans were announced to demolish the former toll booths at the DE 273 and DE 7 interchanges ; however , the DE 896 interchange toll booths were to remain to collect tolls from trucks . The mainline toll plaza was planned to be closed on July 1 , 1981 after the bonds to construct the road were paid off , but was kept by " Operation Overhaul " , a $ 93 million project by Governor Pierre S. du Pont IV that would use the tolls collected at the toll plaza to fund improvements to the turnpike along with other roads in the state of Delaware . In the summer of 2011 , reconstruction of the Delaware Turnpike toll plaza was completed in a $ 32 @.@ 6 million project , adding high @-@ speed E @-@ ZPass lanes . As of 2011 , the Delaware Turnpike was the third most expensive toll road in the United States based on a cost @-@ per @-@ mile average , at a rate of 23 cents per mile ( 14 ¢ / km ) .

= = Services = =

The Delaware Welcome Center service plaza is located in the median of I @-@ 95 between the DE 896 and DE 273 interchanges east of Newark . The service plaza offers a Sunoco gas station , a convenience store , multiple fast @-@ food restaurants , a Delaware Visitor Center offering tourist information , and retail options including a store called Postcards from Delaware that sells Delaware @-@ related merchandise . The Delaware Welcome Center is run by HMSHost .

When the Delaware Turnpike opened in 1963 , a Hot Shoppes restaurant and an Esso service station was located along the road in the median . In 1964 , a proposal was made to build a truck stop and motel next to the existing facilities . The truck stop proposal was off and on for several years until a truck stop was built just over the border in Maryland in 1975 . In 1983 , Hot Shoppes was replaced by Roy Rogers and Bob 's Big Boy in order to offer both sit @-@ down dining and fast food . This was the largest Roy Rogers and Bob 's Big Boy location at the time and restaurant namesake Roy Rogers and Lieutenant Governor Michael Castle were in attendance for the opening . In September 2009 , the Delaware Welcome Center was closed for a reconstruction project that would construct a new service plaza building , new gas pumps , new truck parking , and an improved visitor center . The renovated service plaza opened in June 2010 at a cost of $ 35 million .

= = History = =

= = = Planning and construction = = =

In 1948 , the Wilmington Transportation Study proposed two new roads running between the southern end of Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border to improve traffic flow in the Wilmington area . Route A followed the current alignment of I @-@ 95 while Route B bypassed the city to the east along the current alignment of I @-@ 495 . Plans for building Route A were made in 1950 but were deferred a year later due to opposition .

Following the completion of the Delaware Memorial Bridge and the connecting New Jersey Turnpike in 1951 , through traffic coming from the bridge led to significant congestion on US 13 and US 40 . As a result of this , suggestions were made in 1954 for a limited @-@ access road to be constructed leading to the bridge that would alleviate congestion on US 40 . In 1956 , the Interstate Highway System was created , with two routes proposed along the current alignment of I @-@ 95 . FAI @-@ 1 was proposed to run from the Maryland state line east to an interchange west of Farnhurst while FAI @-@ 2 was proposed between this interchange and the Pennsylvania border through the western part of Wilmington . The corridor following FAI @-@ 1 and FAI @-@ 2 would become designated as part of I @-@ 95 , an Interstate Highway running along the East Coast of the United States . FAI @-@ 1 was originally planned as a free Interstate Highway using federal funds ; however , the road would not have been completed until 1967 under this plan . As a result , the state of Delaware financed the road with bond issues and would build it as a toll road called the Delaware Turnpike .

The first construction contracts for the Delaware Turnpike were awarded in 1957 , with construction soon following that year . Construction began on building a new bridge over US 13 / US 40 at the Farnhurst interchange in 1958 that would connect the Delaware Turnpike to the I @-@ 295 / US 40 approach to the Delaware Memorial Bridge . The same year , plans were made for several bridges along I @-@ 95 . In 1959 , work began on rebuilding the Farnhurst interchange to Interstate Highway standards . The same year , recommendations were made for the design and right @-@ of @-@ way acquisition along the planned route of I @-@ 95 as well as the construction of several contracts between the Maryland border and Farnhurst along the Delaware Turnpike , including the interchange with DE 41 / DE 141 and between I @-@ 95 , I @-@ 295 , and I @-@ 495 near the Christina River . The proposed routing for I @-@ 95 through Wilmington would take it through the central core between Adams and Jackson streets . Locals tried to fight routing I @-@ 95 through the central core and instead suggested routing it along Bancroft Parkway to the west or the present @-@ day route of I @-@ 495 to the east . However , the lame @-@ duck Republican @-@ controlled city council approved routing I @-@ 95 along Adams and Jackson streets in 1957 . The demolition of homes began in January 1959 .

A year later , construction began on overpasses and ramps at the Farnhurst interchange . The same year , suggestions were made to build I @-@ 95 across the Christina Marsh as well as construct the bridges over the Christina River and the Pennsylvania Railroad in Wilmington . A contract was awarded for the Christina River interchange in 1961 . By 1961 , all construction contracts along the Delaware Turnpike had been completed except for the DE 41 / DE 141 interchange and the Christina River interchange . In 1962 , the I @-@ 95 bridges over the Christina River , the Pennsylvania Railroad , and Little Mill Creek were finished while plans were made for the South Wilmington Viaduct that would cross over several railroad tracks belonging to the Pennsylvania Railroad , Baltimore and Ohio Railroad , and the Reading Railroad . The same year , the roadway was built between the Christina River interchange and the South Wilmington Viaduct . The new northbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 through the I @-@ 95 interchange opened in November 1962 . The southbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 opened in June 1964 , enabling directional flow of DE 41 / DE 141 through the interchange . In September 1963 , construction work on the turnpike was halted by picketing workers .

The Delaware Turnpike , along with the connecting Northeast Expressway in Maryland , was dedicated by President John F. Kennedy , Delaware Governor Elbert N. Carvel , and Maryland Governor J. Millard Tawes in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony at the state line on November 14 , 1963 . The Delaware Turnpike was opened to traffic at midnight on November 15 , 1963 . The first motorist to pay a toll on the turnpike was Omero C. Catan , also known as " Mr. First " , of Teaneck , New Jersey , who marked this occasion as the 517th first moment he achieved . The completion of the Delaware Turnpike allowed motorists to travel from Washington , D.C. to Boston without having to stop at a traffic light . Construction of the Delaware Turnpike cost $ 30 million . Following the opening of the turnpike , traffic levels on US 40 and US 301 fell by 40 to 50 percent . The rerouting of traffic to the Delaware Turnpike led to the reduction in profits for businesses along US 13 and US 40 , with several businesses forced to close . Meanwhile , the Delaware Turnpike saw more traffic volume than originally projected . Eight days after dedicating the toll road , President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas . As a result , both the Delaware Turnpike and the Northeast Expressway were renamed the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway in his honor in December 1963 . On the one year anniversary of the dedication of the Delaware Turnpike on November 14 , 1964 , a memorial service and wreath laying in honor of Kennedy was held at the state line , with Governor Carvel in attendance .

The remainder of I @-@ 95 between the Christina River interchange and the Pennsylvania border would be built as a non @-@ tolled freeway . In April 1964 , construction contracts were awarded for bridges at the Christina River interchange that would carry I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 traffic over I @-@ 295 . In late spring of 1964 , construction on the South Wilmington Viaduct began . In June of that year , the substructure of the I @-@ 95 bridge over the Brandywine Creek was completed . In August 1964 , construction began on the I @-@ 95 interchange with Naamans Road and the northern terminus of I @-@ 495 in Claymont . In 1965 , construction was underway to build the below @-@ surface alignment of I @-@ 95 between Fourth Street and the Brandywine Creek in Wilmington . The construction of I @-@ 95 through Wilmington led to demolition of 360 to 370 homes in the West Side neighborhood between Adams and Jackson streets . The construction of the highway led to the decline of the residential and commercial base in Wilmington . Work was also underway on the portion of I @-@ 95 northeast of Wilmington , which would parallel the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . In 1966 , I @-@ 95 was completed and opened to traffic between the Christina River interchange with I @-@ 295 and I @-@ 495 and downtown Wilmington , where ramps connected the highway to Maryland Avenue and Lancaster Avenue . The completion of this section of I @-@ 95 provided an uninterrupted freeway connection between Wilmington and Baltimore . The ramps to downtown Wilmington were added as a compromise of building the freeway through the city and would bring economic development to the Wilmington Riverfront . In August 1968 , I @-@ 95 between the South Wilmington Viaduct and US 202 was completed and opened to traffic . On November 1 , 1968 , the freeway was opened between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border . With this , the entire length of I @-@ 95 in Delaware was constructed , making Delaware the third state to complete its section of I @-@ 95 .

= = = Improvements = = =

In November 1968 , work began to widen the Delaware Turnpike from four to six lanes to handle increasing traffic volumes . The widening project was completed in December 1969 , one year ahead of schedule . In 1969 , a plan was made to widen the turnpike between DE 896 and DE 273 to ten lanes and between DE 273 and DE 141 to 12 lanes in a 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 local @-@ express lane configuration . This was later scaled down to a proposal to widen the road to eight lanes total . The widening of the Delaware Turnpike to eight lanes occurred in the 1980s . From 1971 to 1978 , a north @-@ south extension of the Delaware Turnpike running south to Dover was studied . This extension of the turnpike evolved into a " Relief Route " for US 13 and was built as DE 1 between 1987 and 2003 .

On June 28 , 1978 , the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) approved rerouting I @-@ 95 along the I @-@ 495 alignment . However , AASHTO disapproved renumbering the alignment of I @-@ 95 through Wilmington as I @-@ 595 . On October 27 of that year , AASHTO gave conditional approval for I @-@ 95 through Wilmington to be designated as I @-@ 195 from I @-@ 95 near Newport north to US 202 while the route from US 202 to I @-@ 95 in Claymont would become I @-@ 395 . I @-@ 895 was designated along the conditionally approved route of I @-@ 195 and I @-@ 395 on June 25 , 1979 . In 1980 , the South Wilmington Viaduct was reconstructed . On November 14 , 1980 , I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 were returned to their original alignments , with I @-@ 895 decommissioned . US 202 was designated concurrent with I @-@ 95 through Wilmington in 1984 .

In 2000 , I @-@ 95 was completely rebuilt between US 202 and the Pennsylvania border . The reconstruction completely tore apart the concrete pavement and replaced it with asphalt and also improved drainage and rebuilt bridges . In April 2000 , the southbound lanes were closed , with the lanes between DE 3 and US 202 reopening in May and the remainder reopening in mid @-@ summer . In July , the northbound lanes were closed , with the lanes reopening between US 202 and DE 3 in September and the remainder reopening in October . During the closure , through traffic was detoured to I @-@ 495 .

In 2003 , work began on rebuilding the bridge carrying DE 58 over the highway to allow for future improvements to I @-@ 95 , with completion in fall 2006 , a year behind schedule . In May 2007 , construction began to widen I @-@ 95 between the DE 1 / DE 7 and DE 141 interchanges from eight to ten lanes due to rising traffic levels and increased development . The widening project was completed in November 2008 . Traffic congestion at the cloverleaf interchange with DE 1 / DE 7 in Christiana led to DelDOT to improve the interchange . The project included adding flyover connecting ramps from northbound DE 1 to northbound I @-@ 95 and from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 which allowed for easier merging patterns and the elimination of lengthy backups on the former ramp design . Construction of a new " ring access road " around Christiana Mall began in February 2011 and was completed in March 2012 , with a newly built bridge over DE 1 , just south of the I @-@ 95 interchange . The ramp from southbound I @-@ 95 to southbound DE 1 / DE 7 opened on August 27 , 2013 and the ramp from northbound DE 1 / DE 7 to northbound I @-@ 95 opened on October 17 , 2013 , with a ribbon cutting ceremony attended by Governor Jack Markell and DelDOT secretary Shailen Bhatt .

In December 2011 , a project began to improve the interchange between I @-@ 95 and US 202 / DE 202 in order to reduce congestion . The project widened the ramp between northbound I @-@ 95 and northbound US 202 to two lanes , the ramp between southbound US 202 and southbound I @-@ 95 was extended to modern standards , and the ramp between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 202 was relocated from a cloverleaf loop to a directional ramp that intersects DE 202 at a signalized intersection . In addition , the interchange ramps were repaved and bridges were rehabilitated . The project was finished in July 2015 , months behind schedule due to the closure of I @-@ 495 in 2014 . On August 7 , 2015 , a dedication ceremony to mark the completion of the project was held , with Governor Markell , Senator Tom Carper , and DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan in attendance . The project , which cost over $ 33 million , was 80 @-@ percent funded by the federal government .

On June 2 , 2014 , the I @-@ 495 bridge over the Christina River was closed after it was discovered that four support columns were tilting . During this closure , traffic from I @-@ 495 was detoured onto I @-@ 95 , and several major roads in the Wilmington area experienced increased traffic congestion . The southbound lanes of I @-@ 495 reopened on July 31 , a month earlier than expected , and the northbound lanes of I @-@ 495 reopened on August 23 .

= = Exit list = =

The entire route is in New Castle County .

= = Auxiliary routes = =

I @-@ 95 has two auxiliary routes that are located within the state of Delaware . I @-@ 295 runs from I @-@ 95 near Newport east to the Delaware Memorial Bridge , where it crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey . Once in New Jersey , I @-@ 295 intersects the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and continues northeast a bypass route of Philadelphia . I @-@ 295 reaches its northern terminus at I @-@ 95 near Trenton , New Jersey . I @-@ 495 is a bypass of Wilmington to the east . I @-@ 495 runs from I @-@ 95 south of Wilmington near Newport , passing through the Port of Wilmington and running along the Delaware River , before merging back in with I @-@ 95 at the Pennsylvania state border in Claymont .

= Vengeance ( 2005 ) =

Vengeance ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) and presented by THQ 's Juiced , which took place on June 26 , 2005 , at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas , Nevada . It was the fifth annual Vengeance event . Professional wrestling is a type of sports entertainment in which theatrical events are combined with a competitive sport . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the Raw brand : storyline expansions of the promotion where employees are assigned to wrestling brands under the WWE banner .

The main event was a Hell in a Cell match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Batista and Triple H , which Batista won by pinfall after executing a Batista Bomb . One of the predominant matches on the card was John Cena versus Chris Jericho versus Christian in a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship . Cena won the match and retained the title after pinning Christian . Another primary match on the undercard was Kurt Angle versus Shawn Michaels in a rematch of their bout at WrestleMania 21 . Michaels won the match by pinfall after executing Sweet Chin Music .

Many of the existing feuds were settled following the event . Notably , Batista was drafted to the SmackDown ! brand , thus ending his feud with Triple H. The feud between Kane and Edge also concluded after the event , as Edge entered an angle with Matt Hardy . The feud between Cena and Jericho , however , continued and led to a match at SummerSlam , which Cena won .

= = Background = =

The event featured six professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match . The name of a wrestler 's character was not always the person 's birth name , as wrestlers often use a stage name to portray their character . All wrestlers were from the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being SmackDown ! .

The main feud heading into Vengeance was between Batista and Triple H , with the two battling over the World Heavyweight Championship . After Batista defeated Triple H at WrestleMania 21 , they continued to fight over the World title at the next Raw pay @-@ per @-@ view , Backlash , which saw Batista retain the title . Following Backlash , a series of Gold Rush Tournament matches to determine a number one contender to face Batista for the World title took place with Kane , Shawn Michaels , Edge , and Chris Benoit winning in the first round of the tournament . In this round , Benoit forced Triple H to submit to the Crippler Crossface , Benoit 's submission finisher . On the May 23 , 2005 episode of Raw , Batista faced Edge , who had beat out Michaels and Kane for an opportunity at the World title . Batista retained the title after he pinned Edge following a Batista Bomb . Following the match , Triple H attacked Batista with a sledgehammer and challenged him to a Hell in a Cell match . After making the challenge , Triple H performed a Pedigree to Batista on the World title . Batista accepted Triple H 's challenge , which led to a contract signing for their scheduled match at Vengeance , which would be for the World Heavyweight title in a Hell in a Cell match at Vengeance .

The other main feud heading into the event was between John Cena , Chris Jericho and Christian , with the three battling over the WWE Championship . On the June 6 episode of Raw , John Cena 's SmackDown ! tenure came to an end when he became the first wrestler selected by the Raw brand General Manager , Eric Bischoff , in the draft lottery . Cena was introduced as Raw 's newest member in Chris Jericho 's segment , the Highlight Reel , but Christian interrupted and called Cena a poser . This built on their existing rivalry , as Cena and Christian had an encounter at the Royal Rumble , in which Christian claimed that he was a better rapper than Cena . At the time , Cena was a member of the SmackDown ! brand and Christian was part of the Raw brand . Over the next months , Christian began cutting promos denouncing Cena as a ' poser ' . Cena rebutted Christian 's comments by performing a freestyle rap about Christian , which quickly led to the two brawling in the ring . The same evening , Cena entered a feud with Bischoff by refusing to participate in Bischoff 's " war " against the upcoming Extreme Championship Wrestling reunion show . On the June 13 episode of Raw , Bischoff booked a WWE title match between Christian and Cena at Vengeance , although Jericho protested the idea of Christian being the contender to face Cena for the title . Later that night , Cena and Jericho were placed in a tag team match and faced off against Christian and Tyson Tomko . Cena and Jericho won the match after Cena got the pinfall . After the match , Jericho turned on Cena and attacked him . Bischoff then changed the original match between Cena and Christan to a Triple Threat match at Vengeance that also included Jericho .

One of the main matches on the undercard was between Kurt Angle and Shawn Michaels . At the start of the year , Angle and Michaels both participated in the Royal Rumble match at the 2005 Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view event . During the match , Michaels eliminated Angle . In retaliation , Angle returned to the match and eliminated Michaels and then attacked him outside the ring . The two engaged in a feud , which led to an Interpromotional match at WrestleMania 21 , as Angle was part of the SmackDown ! roster and Michaels belonged to the Raw roster . At WrestleMania 21 , Angle got the win over Michaels by forcing him to submit to the Ankle Lock . On the June 13 episode of Raw , Angle was revealed to be the second draft pick for the Raw brand . That same evening , Michaels challenged Angle to a rematch at Vengeance , which Angle accepted .

The Divas match set for Vengeance was between Victoria and Christy Hemme . On the May 30 edition of Raw , Christy Hemme won a bikini contest ; defeating Victoria , Candice Michelle , Maria , and Lilian Garcia . After the contest ended , Victoria turned into a villainess by attacking all of the participants , saving Hemme for last . In a backstage interview following her heel turn , the evil Victoria expressed jealousy of Hemme , stating that she was tired of Hemme getting all of the attention . On the June 20 episode of Raw , it was announced in a backstage interview that Hemme and Victoria would face each other at Vengeance . Hemme stated that she couldn 't wait to get her hands on Victoria , but during the segment , Victoria interrupted the interview by smashing a glass jar on the back of Hemme 's head .

= = Event = =

Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Rosey and The Hurricane ( with Super Stacy ) defeated The Heart Throbs ( Antonio and Romeo ) in a match taped for Sunday Night Heat . The first match that aired was between Carlito and Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship . After back and forth action , Carlito removed the padding from one of the turnbuckles . Benjamin then hit his head on the exposed metal while performing a Stinger splash . Carlito pinned Benjamin with a roll @-@ up , allowing Carlito to retain the Intercontinental Championship .

Next was a match between Victoria and Christy Hemme . The match saw Victoria lift Hemme in the air and drop her down with force . Control of the match went back and forth , but the bout came to an end when Victoria countered Hemme 's sunset flip . Victoria got the pinfall by using the ring ropes for leverage .

The third match of the night saw Kane in a match with Edge , during which both men took the upper hand . Snitsky interfered in the match , hitting Kane with a big boot . Moments later , Snitsky was quickly taken out by Edge after he hit him with his Money in the Bank briefcase . Following the events in the match , Kane performed a chokeslam and pinned Edge .

This bout was followed by a WrestleMania 21 rematch that involved Shawn Michaels and Kurt Angle . In a brawling match , Angle had an Ankle Lock hold applied on Michaels . Moments later , however , Michaels recuperated and performed Sweet Chin Music on Angle before pinning Angle for the win . After the match , both men were given a standing ovation . An in @-@ ring segment took place next between Raw 's ring announcer , Lilian Garcia and Viscera . During the segment , Garcia proposed to Viscera . Before Viscera could have given an answer , he was interrupted by The Godfather . The Godfather gave Viscera advice about the life he would miss out on if he got married . This led to Viscera rejecting Garcia 's marriage proposal and leaving the ring with the Godfather 's hos and abandoning a crying Garcia in the ring .

The fifth match was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between champion John Cena , Christian , and Chris Jericho . The match saw all three wrestlers take the advantage over one another . A spot in the match included Jericho applying the Walls of Jericho on Cena , but he released the move and performed a springboard dropkick on Christian , after Christian got up on the ring apron . Late in the match , Jericho reversed an Unprettier attempt by Christian by tossing Christian directly to Cena . Cena hoisted Christian onto his shoulders , performed an FU , and pinned Christian to retain the WWE title .

The final match of the event was a Hell in a Cell bout between Batista and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship . During the match , Triple H choked Batista with a chain and hit him in the back with a steel chair wrapped with barbed wire . Batista regained the momentum by grabbing Triple H 's sledgehammer and hitting him in the mouth . Batista retained the World title after he performed a spinebuster on Triple H onto the steel steps , which was followed with a Batista Bomb and a cover for the win . After the Hell in a Cell match , Triple H stood to his feet and was given a standing ovation by the audience .

= = Aftermath = =

Immediately after their Hell in a Cell match as an exclusive to WWE Home Video , Triple H ( with Ric Flair ) and Batista encountered backstage to put their differences aside and embraced with Triple H quipping " This is Evolution , baby " , referring to their past as a stable , which had disbanded until 2014 .

In June 2005 , the 2005 WWE Draft Lottery took place , in which wrestlers were drafted and traded between the Raw and SmackDown ! brands . On the June 30 episode of SmackDown ! , Batista 's tenure on the Raw brand ended , when he was SmackDown ! ' s final pick in the draft lottery . SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long scheduled a six @-@ man elimination match between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) , The Undertaker , Muhammad Hassan , Chris Benoit , Booker T and Christian , in which the winner would receive the SmackDown ! Championship , as the WWE Championship had been moved to the Raw brand . JBL won the match , but Teddy Long informed JBL that he did not win the SmackDown ! championship . As the winner of the match , however , he would face Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 7 episode of SmackDown ! , it was revealed that the match between JBL and Batista would take place at The Great American Bash . At The Great American Bash , Batista was disqualified for attacking JBL with a chair . JBL won the match , but did not win the title because a title never changes hands by countout or disqualification .

Following Vengeance , Eric Bischoff vowed to make John Cena 's stint on Raw difficult , he " hand picked " Chris Jericho to take the WWE title off Cena by booking a match between Cena and Jericho at SummerSlam . During their feud , even though Cena was portrayed as the face and Jericho as the heel , a vocal section of live crowds nonetheless chose to boo Cena during their matches , including at SummerSlam where Cena retained the title after executing an FU .

After a successful tag team win at Backlash , in which Shawn Michaels and Hulk Hogan defeated Muhammad Hassan and Daivari . Michaels and Hogan were placed in tag team match against Kurt Angle and Carlito on an episode of Raw . The match saw Hogan and Michaels get the victory . During the post @-@ match pose , Michaels superkicked Hogan , which knocked Hogan to the ground and turning Michaels heel for the first time since returning to the company in 2002 . The following week , Michaels challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam , which Hogan accepted . In this match , Hogan maintained his perfect record at SummerSlam by defeating Michaels .

The feud between Edge and Kane came to an end when Edge was put in an angle with Matt Hardy . On the July 11 episode of Raw , Hardy , who at the time was unemployed by WWE , made a surprise appearance , interfering in a match between Edge and Kane . The following week , as both Edge and Lita were walking towards the ring before a scheduled Steel cage match against Kane , Hardy attacked Edge from behind . On the August 1 episode of Raw , Vince McMahon officially announced Hardy 's return to WWE , adding that Hardy would face Edge at SummerSlam . The following week , Hardy made his in @-@ ring return , defeating Snitsky . After the victory , Hardy was attacked by Edge , and was carried backstage . In retaliation , Hardy counterattacked Edge in the locker room . At SummerSlam , Edge was given the win in the match after Hardy hit the ring post and began to bleed profusely , which caused the referee to stop the match .

After a four @-@ month hiatus , Triple H returned on the WWE Homecoming episode of Raw on October 3 . He took part in a match , teaming up with Ric Flair , who was wrestling as a face , to take on Chris Masters and Carlito . The duo defeated Masters and Carlito ; after the match , Triple H turned on Flair and hit him with a sledgehammer . This led to an angle between Triple H and Flair . At Taboo Tuesday , Triple H and Flair met in a Steel cage match , a stipulation chosen by the fans , for the Intercontinental Championship . The match saw Flair retain the Intercontinental Championship , after escaping through the cage door .

= = Results = =

= Elizabeth Rona =

Elizabeth Rona ( 20 March 1890 – 27 July 1981 ) was a Hungarian nuclear chemist , known for her work with radioactive isotopes . After developing an enhanced method of preparing polonium samples , she was internationally recognized as the leading expert in isotope separation and polonium preparation . Between 1914 and 1918 , during her postdoctoral study with George de Hevesy , she developed a theory that the velocity of diffusion depended on the mass of the nuclides . As only a few atomic elements had been identified , her confirmation of the existence of Uranium @-@ Y was a major contribution to nuclear chemistry . She was awarded the Haitinger Prize by the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1933 .

After emigrating to the United States in 1941 , she was granted a Carnegie Fellowship to continue her research and provided technical information on her polonium extraction methods to the Manhattan Project . Later in her career , she became a nuclear chemistry professor at the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies and after 15 years there transferred to the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of Miami . At both Oak Ridge and Miami , she continued her work on the geochronology of seabed elements and radiometric dating . She was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Women 's Hall of Fame in 2015 .

= = Early life and education = =

Elizabeth Rona was born on 20 March 1890 in Budapest , Hungary , to Ida , ( née Mahler ) and Samuel Róna . Her father was a prosperous Jewish physician who worked with Louis Wickham and Henri @-@ August Dominici , founders of radium therapy , to introduce the techniques to Budapest , and installed one of the first x @-@ ray machines there . Elizabeth wanted to become a physician like her father , but Samuel believed that it would be too difficult for a woman to attain . Though he died when she was in her second year of university , Rona 's father had encouraged her and spurred her interest in science from a young age . She enrolled in the Philosophy Faculty at the University of Budapest , studying chemistry , geochemistry , and physics , receiving her PhD in 1912 .

= = Early career = =

Rona began her postdoctoral training in 1912 at the Animal Physiology Institute in Berlin and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute , studying yeast as a reagent . In 1913 she transferred to Karlsruhe University , working under the direction of Kasimir Fajans , the discoverer of isotopes , for the next eight months . During the summer of 1914 , she studied at University College London , but returned to Budapest at the outbreak of World War I. Taking a position at Budapest 's Chemical Institute , she completed a scientific paper on the " diffusion constant of radon in water " . Working with George de Hevesy , she was asked to verify a new element — at the time was termed Uranium @-@ Y , now known as Th @-@ 231 . Though others had failed to confirm the element , Rona was able to separate the Uranium @-@ Y from interfering elements , proving it was a beta emitter ( β @-@ emission ) with a half @-@ life of 25 hours . The Hungarian Academy of Sciences published her findings . Rona first coined the terms " isotope labels " and " tracers " during this study , noting that the velocity of diffusion depended on the mass of the nuclides . Though contained in a footnote , this was the basis for the development of the mass spectrographic and heavy water studies later performed by other scientists . In addition to her scientific proficiency , Rona spoke English , French , German , and Hungarian .

When Hevesy left Budapest , in 1918 Franz Tangl , a noted biochemist and physiologist of the University of Budapest , offered Rona a teaching position . She taught chemistry to selected students whom Tangl felt had insufficient knowledge to complete the course work , becoming the first woman to teach chemistry at university level in Hungary .

The apartment in which Rona and her mother were living was seized when the communists invaded Hungary in 1919 . Owing to political instability and the persecution of those with communist sympathies during the countering White Terror , an increasing amount of work at the Institute fell to Rona . When offered a position in 1921 to return to Dahlem and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute , by Otto Hahn , Rona resigned . She joined Hahn 's staff in Berlin to separate ionium ( now known as Th @-@ 230 ) from uranium . Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic forced her transfer to the Textile Fiber Institute of Kaiser Wilhelm , as practical research was the only work permitted at the time . Theoretical research with no essential application was not a priority . Her training allowed her to return to a more stable Hungary and accept a position in a textile factory there in 1923 . She did not care for the work and soon left , joining the staff of the Institute for Radium Research of Vienna in 1924 at the request of Stefan Meyer . Her research there focused on measuring the absorption and range of hydrogen rays , as well as on developing polonium as an alternative radioactive material to radium .

= = Austria = =

As early as 1926 , Meyer had written to Irène Joliot @-@ Curie suggesting that Rona work with her to learn how his laboratory could make their own polonium samples . Once Hans Pettersson was able to secure funds to pay Rona 's expenses , Joliot @-@ Curie allowed her to come and study polonium separation at the Curie Institute in Paris . Rona developed an enhanced method of preparing polonium sources and producing alpha @-@ emissions . ( α @-@ emission ) . Gaining recognition as an expert in the field , she took those skills back to the Radium Institute along with a small disc of polonium . This disc allowed Rona to create lab specimens of polonium , which were used in much of the Institute 's subsequent research .

Her skills were in high demand and she formed many collaborations in Vienna , working with Ewald Schmidt on the modification of Paul Bonét @-@ Maury 's method of vaporizing polonium ; with Marietta Blau on photographic emulsions of hydrogen rays ; and with Hans Pettersson . In 1928 , Pettersson asked her to analyze a sample of sea bottom sediment to determine its radium content . Because the lab she was working in was contaminated , she took the samples to the oceanographic laboratory at Bornö Marine Research Station on Stora Bornö in Gullmarsfjorden , Sweden , which would become her summer research destination for the next 12 years . Her analyses with Berta Karlik on the half @-@ lives of uranium , thorium , and actinium decay identified radiometric dating and elemental alpha particle ranges . In 1933 , Rona and Karlik won the Austrian Academy of Sciences Haitinger Prize .

In 1934 , Rona was back in Paris studying with Joliot @-@ Curie , who had discovered artificial radioactivity . Soon after , Curie died and Rona became ill , but she was able to return to Vienna late the following year to share what had been learned with a group of researchers made up of Pettersson , Elizabeth Kara @-@ Michailova , and Ernst Føyn , who was serving as an assistant to Ellen Gleditsch at that time . Their studies centered on research of the effect caused by bombarding radionuclides with neutrons . In 1935 Rona consolidated some of these relationships , working on Stora Bornö , then visiting Gleditsch in Oslo , then traveling to Copenhagen to see Hevesy , and later to Kålhuvudet , Sweden to meet with Karlik and Pettersson . One of the projects the group had been working on for several years was to determine if there was any correlation between water depth and radium content , and their seawater research evaluated the concentration of elements in seawater collected from different locations .

After the 1938 Anschluss , Rona and Marietta Blau left the Radium Institute because of their Jewish heritage and the antisemitic persecution they experienced in the laboratory . Rona first returned to Budapest and worked in an industrial laboratory , but within a few months , the position was eliminated . She worked from October to December 1938 in Sweden , and then accepted a temporary position for one year at the University of Oslo , which had been offered by Gleditsch . Reluctant to leave her home , at the end of her year in Oslo , Rona returned to Hungary . She was appointed to a position at the Radium @-@ Cancer Hospital in Budapest , preparing radium for medicinal purposes .

= = Emigration = =

Faced with encroaching Russians on one side and the Nazi involvement in Hungary during World War II on the other , in early 1941 Rona obtained a visitor 's visa and fled to the United States . For three months she was unemployed and suspected of being a spy , though she sought help from scientists she had worked with in Europe to find employment . At a meeting of the American Physical Society , she met Austrian physicist Karl Herzfeld , who helped her secure a teaching post at Trinity College in Washington , D.C. During this period , she was awarded a Carnegie Fellowship to research at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute , working on analysis of seawater and sediments . Between 1941 and 1942 , she conducted work at Carnegie in conjunction with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , measuring the amount of radium in seawater and river water . Her study , completed in 1942 , showed that the ratio of radium to uranium was lower in seawater and higher in river water .

After returning from a summer visit to Los Altos , California , Rona received a vague telegram from the Institute of Optics at the University of Rochester referencing war work and polonium , but no details of an assignment . When Rona responded that she would be interested in helping with the war effort but had immigration issues , a man identifying himself as Brian O 'Bryen appeared in her office and explained the nature of the confidential work for the Manhattan Project . They proposed buying her method of polonium extraction and gave specific instructions for the type of assistants she might use — someone unfamiliar with chemistry or physics . Her non @-@ citizen status did not preclude her from working for the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , to which she gave her methods without compensation . Before the Manhattan Project , polonium had been used only in small samples , but the project proposed to use both polonium and beryllium to create a reaction forcing neutrons to be ejected and ignite the fission reaction required for the atom bomb . Plutonium plants , based on her specifications for what was needed to process element , were built in the New Mexico desert at Los Alamos National Laboratory , but Rona was given no details .

Rona 's methods were also used as part of the experiments conducted by the Office of Human Radiation Experiments to determine the effects of human exposure to radiation . Early in her career , she had been exposed to the dangers of radium . Rona 's requests for protective gas masks were denied , as Stefan Meyer downplayed the hazards of exposure . She purchased protective gear with her own money , not believing there was no danger . When vials of radioactive material exploded and the laboratory became contaminated , Rona was convinced her mask had saved her . Gleditsch had also warned her of the dangers the year Rona was sick and living in Paris , when Joliot @-@ Curie died , emphasizing the risk of radium @-@ related anemia . In her 1978 book about her experiences , Rona wrote about the damage to bones , hands , and lungs of the scientists studying radioactivity . Since they wore no gloves and frequently poured substances between vials without protection , she noted that their thumbs , forefingers , and ring fingers were often damaged . The secrecy surrounding the project makes it difficult to know if any of the scientists not directly working on any project knew specifically what their contributions were being used for .

= = Later career = =

Rona continued teaching until 1946 at Trinity . In 1947 , she began working at the Argonne National Laboratory . Her work there focused on ion exchange reactions and she published several works for the United States Atomic Energy Commission . In 1948 , she became a naturalized U.S. citizen . In 1950 , she began research work at the Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies as a chemist and senior scientist in nuclear studies . During this period , she collaborated with Texas A & M University on the geochronology of seabed sediments , dating core samples by estimating their radioactive decay . She retired from Oak Ridge in 1965 and then went to work at the University of Miami , teaching at the Institute of Marine Sciences where she worked for a decade . Rona retired for a second time in 1976 and returned to Tennessee in the late 1970s , publishing a book in 1978 on her radioactive tracer methods .

Rona died on 27 July 1981 in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . She was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Women 's Hall of Fame in 2015 .

= = Selected works = =

Róna , Erzsébet ( 1912 ) . A bróm és az egyértékű aliphás alkoholok ( PhD ) ( in Hungarian ) . Budapest , Hungary : Budapesti Tudományegyetem .

Róna , E. ( 1914 ) . " Az urán átalakulásairól " . Mathematikai és Természettudományi Értesítő ( in Hungarian ) ( Budapest , Hungary ) 35 : 350 .

Róna , E. ( 1914 ) . " I. Über die Reduktion des Zimtaldehyds durch Hefe . II . Vergärung von Benzylbrenztraubensäure " . Biochemische Zeirschrift ( in German ) 67 : 137 – 142 .

Róna , E. ( 1917 ) . " A rádium @-@ emanáczió diffúzióállandója és atomátmérője " . Magyar Chemiai Folyóirat ( in Hungarian ) ( Budapest , Hungary ) 23 : 156 .

Róna , Elisabeth ( 11 February 1922 ) . " Über den Ionium @-@ Gehalt in Radium @-@ Rückständen " . Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft ( A and B Series ) ( in German ) 55 ( 2 ) : 294 – 301 .

Róna , Elisabeth ( 1926 ) . Absorptions- und Reichweitenbestimmungen an " natürlichen " H @-@ Strahlen ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698422 .

Róna , Elisabeth ; Schmidt , Ewald A W ( 1927 ) . Untersuchungen über das Eindringen des Poloniums in Metalle ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698433 .

Róna , Elisabeth ; Schmidt , Ewald A. W. ( 1928 ) . " Eine Methode zur Herstellung von hochkonzentrierten Poloniumpräparaten " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 137 ) : 103 – 115 .

Róna , Elisabeth ( 1928 ) . " Zur Herstellung von Polonium aus Radiumverbindungen und aktiven Bleisalzen ( Mitteilungen des Institutes für Radiumforschung 217 " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 137 ) : 227 – 234 .

Blau , Marietta ; Róna , Elisabeth ( 1930 ) . " Anwendung der Chamié ’ schen photographischen Methode zur Prüfung des chemischen Verhaltens von Polonium " . Sitzungsberichte Akademie der Wissenschaften ( in German ) ( Vienna , Austria : Math @-@ naturwissenschaften ) 2A ( 139 ) : 276 – 279 .

Rona , Elizabeth ; Rieder , Fritz ( 1932 ) . Untersuchungen über Reichweiten von Alpha @-@ Strahlen der Actinium @-@ Folgeprodukte ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky . OCLC 457925762 .

Róna , Elisabeth ; Hoffer , Margarete ( 1935 ) . Verdampfungsversuche an Polonium in Sauerstoff und Stickstoff ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698437 .

Róna , Elisabeth ; Neuninger , Elisabeth ( 1936 ) . Beiträge zur Frage der künstlichen Aktivität des Thoriums ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698423 .

Róna , Elisabeth ; Scheichenberger , Herta ; Stangl , Robert ( 1938 ) . Weitere Beiträge zur Frage der künstlichen Aktivität des Thoriums ( in German ) . Vienna , Austria : Hölder @-@ Pichler @-@ Tempsky A.G. OCLC 72698425 .

Rona , Elizabeth ; Föyn , Ernst ; Karlik , Berta ; Pettersson , Hans ( 1939 ) . The Radioactivity of seawater . Göteborg , Sweden : Elanders boktryck . OCLC 459915451 .

Rona , Elizabeth ( 1948 ) . Argonne National Laboratory , ed . Exchange reactions of uranium ions in solution . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . OCLC 702211487 .

Rona , Elizabeth ( 1949 ) . Argonne National Laboratory , ed . Some aspects of isotopic exchange reactions . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . OCLC 794877518 .

Rona , Elizabeth ; Gilpatrick , L O ; Jeffrey , Lela M , et. al . ( December 1956 ) . " Uranium determination in sea water " . Eos : Transactions American Geophysical Union ( Washington , D.C. : American Geophysical Union ) 37 ( 6 ) : 697 – 701 . ISSN 0002 @-@ 8606 .

Rona , Elizabeth ( October 1957 ) . " A method to determine the isotopic ratio of Thorium @-@ 232 to Thorium @-@ 230 in minerals " . Eos : Transactions American Geophysical Union ( Washington , D.C. : American Geophysical Union ) 38 ( 5 ) : 754 – 759 . ISSN 0002 @-@ 8606 .

Rona , Elizabeth ; Hood , Donald W ; Muse , Lowell ; Buglio , Benjamin ( April 1962 ) . " Activation Analysis of Manganese and Zinc in Sea Water " . Limnology and Oceanography ( Washington , D.C. : Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography , Inc . ) 7 ( 2 ) : 201 – 206 . ISSN 1939 @-@ 5590 .

Rona , Elizabeth ; Akers , L K ; Noakes , John E ; Supernaw , Irwin ( 1963 ) . " Geochronology in the Gulf of Mexico . Part I " . Progress in Oceanography ( Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : Elsevier ) 3 : 289 – 295 . ISSN 0079 @-@ 6611 .

Rona , Elizabeth ( 26 June 1964 ) . " Geochronology of Marine and Fluvial Sediments " . Science ( Washington , D.C. : American Association for the Advancement of Science ) 144 ( 3626 ) : 1595 – 1597 . ISSN 0036 @-@ 8075 .

Rona , Elizabeth ( July 1967 ) . Natural radioactive elements in marine environment ( Report ) . Miami , Florida : Atomic Energy Commission .

Rona , Elizabeth ( 1978 ) . How it came about : radioactivity , nuclear physics , atomic energy . Oak Ridge , Tennessee : Oak Ridge Associated Universities . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 930 @-@ 78003 @-@ 6 .

= Interstate 94 in Michigan =

Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Billings , Montana , to the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . In Michigan , it is a state trunkline highway that enters the state south of New Buffalo and runs eastward through several metropolitan areas in the southern section of the state . The highway serves Benton Harbor , Kalamazoo , Battle Creek on the west side of the peninsula . From there it also runs through Jackson and Ann Arbor , and portions of Metro Detroit , before angling northeasterly to Port Huron , where it terminates on the Blue Water Bridge at the Canadian border .

The first segment of what later became I @-@ 94 within the state , the Willow Run Expressway , was built near Ypsilanti and Belleville in 1941 , with an easterly extension to Detroit in 1945 . This expressway was initially numbered M @-@ 112 . By 1960 , the length of I @-@ 94 was completed from Detroit to New Buffalo . Subsequent extensions in the 1960s completed most of the rest of the route . The last segment opened to the public in 1972 when Indiana completed their connection across the state line . The routing of I @-@ 94 is notable for containing the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange in the United States , connecting to the Lodge Freeway ( M @-@ 10 ) , and for comprising the first complete border @-@ to @-@ border toll @-@ free freeway in a state in the United States . The highway has one auxiliary route , Interstate 194 , which serves downtown Battle Creek , and eight business routes .

= = Route description = =

The entire length of I @-@ 94 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The freeway carries 154 @,@ 800 vehicles on average between I @-@ 75 and Chene Street in Detroit and 15 @,@ 370 vehicles immediately east of the Blue Water Bridge in Port Huron ; the highest and lowest traffic counts in 2013 , respectively . As the state trunkline highway closest to the lake shore in these areas , I @-@ 94 carries the Lake Michigan Circle Tour south of Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and the Lake Huron Circle Tour in the Port Huron area . Sections through the Detroit area are named the Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford freeways . I @-@ 94 in the state is either a four- or six @-@ lane freeway for most of its length ; one segment in the Detroit area has up to ten lanes total near the airport .

= = = Southwestern Michigan = = =

I @-@ 94 crosses into Michigan south of New Buffalo and parallels the Lake Michigan shoreline about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) inland . The freeway runs northeasterly through rural Michiana farmland in the southwestern corner of the Lower Peninsula . I @-@ 94 traverses an area just east of the Warren Dunes State Park as the freeway runs parallel to the Red Arrow Highway . I @-@ 94 crosses its companion highway south of St. Joseph ; Red Arrow turns northward carrying the business loop for Benton Harbor and St. Joseph . The freeway curves further inland to cross the St. Joseph River near Riverview Park . East of Benton Harbor , I @-@ 94 meets the Napier Avenue where US 31 merges onto the freeway . East of the Southwest Michigan Regional Airport , I @-@ 94 / US 31 meets the southern end of I @-@ 196 ; US 31 departs the I @-@ 94 freeway to follow I @-@ 196 , and I @-@ 94 continues its course away from Lake Michigan .

South of Coloma , I @-@ 94 turns eastward and roughly follows the Paw Paw River on a course that takes it south of Watervliet and Hartford . Between the latter two cities , the freeway crosses from northeastern Berrien County into western Van Buren County . It curves around and between Lake Cora and Threemile Lake near the junction with the northern end of M @-@ 51 . About four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) further east , I @-@ 94 crosses M @-@ 40 south of Paw Paw . Continuing eastward , I @-@ 94 runs south of Mattawan before crossing into western Kalamazoo County .

In Texas Township , the freeway enters the western edges of the Kalamazoo suburbs . South of the campus for Western Michigan University 's College of Engineering & Applied Sciences in Portage , I @-@ 94 intersects US 131 . That freeway also carries Kalamazoo 's business loop northward . Near the Kalamazoo / Battle Creek International Airport , I @-@ 94 crosses into the southeastern corner of Kalamazoo before entering Comstock Township . The freeway intersects the eastern end of the business loop at a partial interchange near Morrow Lake in the township . I @-@ 94 continues eastward out of the eastern Kalamazoo suburbs . It parallels the Kalamazoo River through the Galesburg area . Before crossing into Calhoun County on the east side of Battle Creek , I @-@ 94 has the only driveway on any of Michigan 's Interstate Highways for a gate providing access for military vehicles into the Fort Custer Training Center .

I @-@ 94 crosses into Calhoun County southwest of the W. K. Kellogg Airport and enters the city of Battle Creek . Immediately east of the county line , the freeway has an interchange with the western end of Battle Creek 's business loop . Next to the Lakeview Square Mall , I @-@ 94 meets its own auxiliary Interstate in Michigan : I @-@ 194 . I @-@ 94 turns to the northwest to round Beadle Lake , intersecting M @-@ 294 before crossing the Kalamazoo River . East of the river crossing , the freeway meets an interchange for M @-@ 96 , M @-@ 311 and the eastern end of the Battle Creek business loop near the FireKeepers Casino in Emmett Township . Turning back eastward , I @-@ 94 exits the eastern Battle Creek suburbs and continues to an interchange with I @-@ 69 near Marshall ; the business loop for Marshall follows I @-@ 69 southward .

= = = Into Metro Detroit = = =

Continuing eastward I @-@ 94 traverses rural land on the north side of Marshall . The freeway runs north of , and parallel to , the Kalamazoo River through eastern Calhoun County . It angles southeasterly toward Albion before returning to an easterly course on the north side of town . I @-@ 94 crosses into western Jackson County before intersecting M @-@ 99 . From there , it runs generally due east with a jog around Parma on a course to Jackson . West of the Jackson County Airport , the Jackson business loop follows M @-@ 60 southward and I @-@ 94 travels through the north side of Jackson . North of downtown , US 127 merges in from the north and runs concurrently with I @-@ 94 around the city . Southeast of the Michigan State Prison , US 127 departs to the south , and I @-@ 94 continues eastward through eastern Jackson County .

The freeway runs north of a racetrack complex in Chelsea next to the M @-@ 52 interchange . As I @-@ 94 continues easterly , it passes into the western edge of the Ann Arbor area . West of downtown , the M @-@ 14 freeway splits off to the northeast , and I @-@ 94 turns to the south and southeast to curve around the south side of the city . The freeway passes between the Briarwood Mall and the Ann Arbor Municipal Airport . On the southeastern corner of Ann Arbor , I @-@ 94 intersects US 23 and continues around the south side of Ypsilanti . South of that city , the freeway also carries US 12 and crosses the Huron River north of its entry into Ford Lake . I @-@ 94 jogs southeasterly around the south side of the Willow Run Airport complex and crosses into Wayne County .

South of Willow Run , I @-@ 94 parallels Belleville Lake . East of the lake , it intersects I @-@ 275 near the northwest corner of Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport and angles northeasterly through the southwestern Detroit suburbs along the Detroit Industrial Freeway . I @-@ 94 used the Gateway Bridge over the single @-@ point interchange at US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) in Taylor ; these bridges were inspired by Super Bowl XL and provide a western gateway to the city . Further east , the freeway intersects M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) and passes the Uniroyal Giant Tire in Allen Park . I @-@ 94 then turns to the northeast through the Ford River Rouge Complex in Dearborn before turning back easterly on the Edsel Ford Freeway into Detroit .

I @-@ 94 crosses Detroit in an east – west direction well inland of , and parallel to , the Detroit River . The freeway intersects I @-@ 96 ( Jeffries Freeway ) and M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) on the West Side , passing the main campus of Wayne State University before crossing onto the East Side at M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . Immediately east of the interchange with I @-@ 75 ( Chrysler Freeway ) , I @-@ 94 forms the southern border of the Milwaukee Junction district . The Edsel Ford Freeway continues through residential neighborhoods of Detroit 's East Side . I @-@ 94 turns more northerly , mimicking the shoreline of Lake St. Clair , and exits Detroit for Harper Woods . Just north of the interchange for M @-@ 102 ( Vernier Road ) , the freeway crosses 8 Mile Road and enters Macomb County .

= = = North to Canada = = =

Running northward through Macomb County , I @-@ 94 meets the eastern end of I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of the county line in St. Clair Shores . The freeway continues to parallel the lakeshore , and travels to the west of Selfridge Air National Guard Base in Harrison Township . I @-@ 94 turns back to the northwest at 23 Mile Road at the interchange with M @-@ 3 and M @-@ 29 . North of 26 Mile Road , the freeway exits the northern suburbs and crosses into farmland in The Thumb region .

South of Michigan Meadows Golf Course , I @-@ 94 crosses County Line Road and enters St. Clair County . The freeway continues northeasterly as far as Marysville before turning northward near the St. Clair County International Airport . From there , it runs roughly parallel to the St. Clair River . I @-@ 94 runs along the western edge of residential areas for Marysville and Port Huron as it continues northward . Immediately west of downtown Port Huron , I @-@ 94 intersects with I @-@ 69 ; the two freeways merge and turn first east and then north through an interchange that also features connections to BL I @-@ 69 .

I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 turns back to the east about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of their confluence to cross the Black River north of downtown . On the eastern bank of the river , there is one final interchange for M @-@ 25 and BL I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 before the freeway reaches the toll and customs plazas for the twin @-@ span Blue Water Bridge . Past these plazas , I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 ascends the approach to the bridge which cross the St. Clair River to Point Edward ( Sarnia ) , Ontario . At the international boundary at the center of the river , the I @-@ 94 designation jointly terminates with I @-@ 69 .

= = History = =

= = = Predecessor highways = = =

The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . One of these , the St. Joseph Trail , followed the path of the modern I @-@ 94 . The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , Division 6 corresponded to the rough path of today 's I @-@ 94 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and three different highways followed sections of the modern I @-@ 69 corridor . The original M @-@ 11 ran from the Indiana state line north to Coloma where M @-@ 17 connected easterly to Detroit . The third highway was M @-@ 19 from Detroit northeast to Port Huron .

On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and the original route of US 12 replaced the highways from the state line northeasterly to Detroit ; US 31 overlapped the highway between St. Joseph and Watervliet . The remainder of the future I @-@ 94 corridor was served by US 25 between Detroit and Port Huron . The first span of the Blue Water Bridge opened between Port Huron and Point Edward , Ontario , in 1938 .

= = = Early conversions to freeways = = =

The first segments of upgraded highways along the future route of I @-@ 94 were added during World War II . Construction on the Willow Run Expressway started in 1941 before the US entered the war . It was opened on September 12 , 1942 , to provide improved access to Ford 's Willow Run bomber plants . The highway was given the M @-@ 112 designation at the time . The expressway was extended eastward as the Detroit Industrial Expressway into Detroit ; the first section opened in 1943 and the remainder was completed in March 1945 . Land acquisition for the Edsel Ford Freeway started in 1945 . Originally referred to as the Crosstown Freeway , the freeway became known as the Edsel Ford Freeway following an April 1946 petition . The interchange between the Lodge Freeway and the Edsel Ford Freeway was built in 1953 as the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange in the United States . In mid @-@ 1956 , the M @-@ 112 designation was decommissioned and replaced by a rerouted US 12 . During the mid @-@ 1950s , the Detroit Streets and Rails campaign proposed a high @-@ speed rail line in the median of the Willow Run , Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford freeways ; instead of building the rail line , special boarding stations adjacent to dedicated bus lanes in the interchanges along the highway were used .

In other parts of the state , other segments of highway were built to bypass the cities along the future I @-@ 94 corridor . In 1940 , a southern bypass of Battle Creek opened along Columbia Avenue , and the former routing through downtown on Michigan Avenue became a Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . In late 1951 or early 1952 , a northerly bypass of Jackson opened , and the former route through downtown on Michigan Avenue became another Bus . US 12 . By the next year , the western half of the Jackson bypass opened , including a bypass of Parma . In 1954 , a new bypass of Kalamazoo and Galesburg opened ; US 12 was rerouted to follow the new highway while M @-@ 96 replaced part of the old route and US 12A in the area .

The first planning maps from 1947 for what later became the Interstate Highway System included a highway along I @-@ 94 's route in Michigan . This highway was included on the 1955 plan for the " National System of Interstate and Defense Highways " with a proposed spur in the Battle Creek area . The modern I @-@ 94 was numbered I @-@ 92 between Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and Detroit with I @-@ 77 from Detroit to Port Huron in the August 1957 plans .

In April 1958 , the MSHD wanted to provide a single number for a more direct routing of a Detroit @-@ to – Chicago freeway ; the state proposed rerouting I @-@ 94 to replace I @-@ 92 in the state , but retained the I @-@ 77 designation . On June 27 , 1958 , AASHO adopted their original numbering plan for Michigan , minus the state 's proposed changes . Around the same time , a section of M @-@ 146 near Port Huron was converted into an approach freeway for the Blue Water Bridge .

= = = Interstate Highway era = = =

In January 1959 , officials announced that sections of US 12 , the Willow Run , Detroit Industrial and Edsel Ford expressways were to be given the I @-@ 94 designation , temporarily co @-@ designated with US 12 . These sections connected Ann Arbor to Detroit , along with a bypass of Kalamazoo to Galesburg and a bypass of Jackson . Later that year , additional segments of I @-@ 94 were opened , starting with a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) section from Hartford to Coloma , then another from Paw Paw to Kalamazoo which connected with a segment between Galesburg to Battle Creek . The overall 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) section from Paw Paw to Battle Creek was dedicated on December 7 , 1959 . In addition , a new northwest – southeast section of freeway was built east of Ypsilanti to create a more gradual curve in the routing between present @-@ day exits 185 and 186 , the original routing of the Willow Run Expressway having followed present @-@ day Wiard Road . Signage for the state 's Interstate Highways was placed on hold pending finalization of the numbering scheme , and by late 1959 that signage was being added starting with I @-@ 75 and followed by the other open segments of freeway in the state .

Sections of freeway opened in southwestern Michigan in 1960 between the Benton Harbor – St Joseph area and between Jackson and Ann Arbor ; the latter was built over existing portions of US 12 . In this year Michigan became the first state to complete a border @-@ to @-@ border toll @-@ free Interstate within their state , running for 205 miles ( 330 km ) from Detroit toward New Buffalo , the longest toll @-@ free freeway in the country at the time .

In January 1962 , the US 12 designation was removed from the I @-@ 94 freeway . In the process , the designation was transferred to replace the US 112 designation in its entirety . After this transfer , I @-@ 94 was no longer concurrent with US 12 , except for the Ypsilanti bypass . In 1963 the freeway was extended south of New Buffalo to end at M @-@ 239 . Traffic was diverted down M @-@ 239 into Indiana where State Road 39 carried traffic the rest of the way to the Indiana Toll Road . By the end of the year , a section of highway opened between Mount Clemens and Marysville , and US 25 was rerouted to run concurrently along the freeway from the New Baltimore area northward .

The eastern terminus of I @-@ 94 in the Port Huron area was dedicated on October 14 , 1964 , signaling the completion of the highway between Marysville and the Blue Water Bridge . Two years later , the gap between the Wayne – Macomb county line and the end of the freeway near Mount Clemens was filled in when another section of freeway opened . North of Albion , the route of the freeway previously crossed a branch of the New York Central Railroad at @-@ grade ; the crossing was eliminated when the tracks were removed in 1968 .

The sections originally designated as the Willow Run Expressway were rebuilt from Rawsonville Road in Belleville to Ozga Road in Romulus starting in 1972 . As part of this reconstruction , the segment between Haggerty Road and Ozga Road was widened from four to six lanes , and the eastbound lanes were realigned to facilitate construction of an interchange with I @-@ 275 , a western bypass of Detroit which was under construction at the time . The Willow Run segment was also resurfaced at this point , as the old road bed did not contain steel mesh . Construction of this interchange also obliterated a partial interchange with Huron River Drive .

The final section of I @-@ 94 in Michigan opened to traffic on November 2 , 1972 , when the connection across the state line into Indiana was dedicated . This last segment in Michigan between M @-@ 239 and the state line opened when Indiana completed an 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) segment of freeway in their state .

= = = Since completion = = =

On August 16 , 1987 , Northwest Airlines Flight 255 crashed after attempting to take off from Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport , killing all but one passenger , Cecilia Cichan , upon exploding at an overpass at Middlebelt Road . A decade later , in July 1997 , the second span of the Blue Water Bridge opened between Port Huron and Point Edward , Ontario .

The original interchange with US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) had only two bridges and left hand exits were used throughout . This interchange was reconfigured in 2005 to a single @-@ point urban interchange ( SPUI ) design that was completed in December of that year . A pair of bridges called the Gateway Arch Bridges ( alternately " Gateway to Detroit " ) was incorporated in the new interchange .

In 2011 , construction was started to widen I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 approaching the Blue Water Bridge allowing for dedicated lanes for local traffic and for Blue Water Bridge traffic . The lane configuration changes have confused drivers in the area , especially motorists with outdated GPS devices ; because of this , MDOT installed updated signs complete with American and Canadian flags to help prevent drivers from heading to Canada by mistake .

Additional construction in the Port Huron area started in late 2013 to rebuild and reconfigure the I @-@ 94 / I @-@ 69 interchange outside the city . The project improved 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) of freeway , replaced several bridges and ramps and cost $ 76 million . In June 2014 , MDOT closed the ramps from I @-@ 69 eastbound to BL I @-@ 69 through the interchange until later in the year . The project is slated to be completed in 2015 .

= = Memorial highway names = =

As the original expressway through the center of Detroit was being planned in the 1940s , it was unofficially named the Harper – McGraw Expressway after the streets along which it was to run . Some initial support surfaced to name it after Roy Chapin , the late president of the Hudson Motor Car Company and a former United States Secretary of Commerce under President Herbert Hoover . On April 23 , 1946 , the Detroit Common Council voted instead to name the highway after Edsel Ford , the son of Henry Ford and president of the Ford Motor Company from 1918 until his death in 1943 .

Two other original sections of I @-@ 94 's predecessor highways in the Detroit area were given early names . The westernmost of these is the Willow Run Expressway , named for the Willow Run complex . The plants at Willow Run produced B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers by Ford Motor Company during World War II . The second , the Detroit Industrial Expressway , continued the route of the Willow Run Expressway eastward into Detroit . Both highways were built to move workers from Detroit to the industrial plants at Willow Run during the war and were later incorporated into I @-@ 94 in the 1950s as part of a Detroit – Chicago highway .

The section of I @-@ 94 northeast of Detroit was named after former Congressman James G. O 'Hara by the Michigan Legislature . O 'Hara was a World War II veteran who served in the United States House from 1959 until 1977 . During his tenure in Congress , he procured federal funds for the construction of I @-@ 94 through his district . The first attempt to name the highway after him failed in 1991 , but the honor was included in a budget bill passed in 1997 . The section of I @-@ 94 was dedicated on October 16 , 1998 , after donors privately raised nearly $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 16 @,@ 945 in 2015 ) to pay for the highway signs .

A segment of I @-@ 94 in Battle Creek between the exits for Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 194 was named the 94th Combat Infantry Division Memorial Highway by the Michigan Legislature in 2002 . The name honors a unit of the US Army which was activated at the nearby Fort Custer in 1942 and served with distinction in the European theatre of World War II . Because the unit originated in Battle Creek , and its number matched that of the freeway , the Legislature thought it only fitting to name the section of highway for the unit . The name was dedicated in ceremonies at a rest stop along the section of I @-@ 94 on September 28 , 2002 .

Another piece of I @-@ 94 in Calhoun County was designated in 2004 as part of the Underground Railroad Memorial Highway . Starting in 1990 , the National Park Service started working to identify routes of the Underground Railroad . The Battle Creek area was active in the railroad during the Civil War , and the section of I @-@ 94 between exits 98 and 110 east of Battle Creek was included in the memorial designation .

In June 2012 , after a resolution passed by the Michigan Legislature was signed by Gov. Rick Snyder , a portion of I @-@ 94 in Taylor between Inkster and Pelham roads was named the " Auxiliary Lt. Dan Kromer Memorial Highway " after a 20 @-@ year veteran of the Taylor Police Department , who was killed in 2010 while helping motorists who had car trouble .

= = Exit list = =

= = Related trunklines = =

There are nine highways related to I @-@ 94 in Michigan . The first is the spur into downtown Battle Creek numbered I @-@ 194 and nicknamed " The Penetrator " and officially called the " Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway " . This auxiliary Interstate Highway runs for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to connect I @-@ 94 northward into downtown . The other eight highways are business loops of I @-@ 94 that connect various cities ' downtowns with the main freeway . Unlike I @-@ 194 , these loops are not freeways . Located from west to east along I @-@ 94 's routing in Michigan , they serve Benton Harbor – St. Joseph , Kalamazoo , Battle Creek , Marshall , Albion , Jackson , Ann Arbor , and Port Huron .

= SMS Karlsruhe =

SMS Karlsruhe was a light cruiser of the Karlsruhe class built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . She had one sister ship , SMS Rostock ; the ships were very similar to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers . The ship was laid down in 1911 , launched in November 1912 , and completed by January 1914 . Armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns , Karlsruhe had a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) , which allowed her to escape from British cruisers during her career .

After her commissioning , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duties in the Caribbean . She arrived in the area in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm , but while the ships were transferring equipment , British ships located them and pursued Karlsruhe . Her superior speed allowed her to escape , after which she operated off the northeastern coast of Brazil . Here , she captured or sank sixteen ships . While en route to attack the shipping lanes to Barbados on 4 November 1914 , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship and killed the majority of the crew . The survivors used one of Karlsruhe 's colliers to return to Germany in December 1914 .

= = Construction = =

Karlsruhe was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Seeadler " and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel on 21 September 1911 . She was christened by Karl Siegrist , the mayor of Karlsruhe , and launched on 11 November 1912 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 15 January 1914 . The ship was 142 @.@ 2 meters ( 467 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 38 m ( 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 37 @,@ 885 shp ( 28 @,@ 251 kW ) in service . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) . Karlsruhe carried 1 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 300 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 200 tonnes ( 200 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Karlsruhe had a crew of 18 officers and 355 enlisted men .

The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .

= = Service history = =

Karlsruhe 's first commanding officer was Fregattenkapitän Fritz Lüdecke . Following her commissioning in January 1914 , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas service , under the command of Fregattenkapitän Erich Köhler . At the outbreak of World War I the following August , the ship was based in the Caribbean , along with the cruiser Dresden . She had anchored in Cay Sal Bank in the Florida Strait when she received warnings that war in Europe was imminent . Karlsruhe 's standing orders in the event of war saw the ship conducting a commerce raiding campaign against British merchant traffic . To hunt down Karlsruhe and any merchant ships she might arm as auxiliary cruisers , the Royal Navy deployed five cruiser squadrons , the most powerful were those commanded by Rear Admiral Christopher Craddock and Rear Admiral Archibald Stoddart . The British were forced to disperse their ships to cover the areas in which the two German cruisers , and any auxiliary cruisers they might arm , could operate .

On 6 August , Karlsruhe rendezvoused with the passenger ship SS Kronprinz Wilhelm about 120 nmi ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) north of Watling Island . Karlsruhe was in the process of transferring guns and equipment to the liner when Craddock , in his flagship HMS Suffolk , appeared to the south . The Germans had only managed to transfer two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , a machine gun , and some sailors by the time Suffolk arrived . The two ships quickly departed in different directions ; Suffolk followed Karlsruhe and other cruisers were ordered to intercept her . Karlsruhe 's faster speed allowed her to quickly outpace Craddock , but at 20 : 15 , Bristol joined the pursuit and briefly fired on the German cruiser . The German gunners scored two hits on Bristol during the short engagement . Karlsruhe turned east and again used her high speed to evade the British ships . The British failed to relocate her , and by 9 August , Karlsruhe reached Puerto Rico with only 12 tons of coal in her bunkers .

With limited options for coal in the Caribbean , Köhler took his ship down to the northeast coast of Brazil , off Pernambuco . The area was not as heavily patrolled by the British . Here , Karlsruhe had easy access to coal supplies , either from chartered colliers or captured vessels . Köhler frequently kept one or two prizes to assist in the search for targets . In the course of her patrols off the Brazilian coast , Karlsruhe sank or captured sixteen merchant ships . These merchantmen , fifteen British ships and one Dutch vessel , totaled 72 @,@ 805 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Köhler then decided to move to another area , as remaining in one area would increase his chances of being tracked down by the British . He turned his ship toward the West Indies to attack Barbados and Fort @-@ de @-@ France and the shipping lanes between Barbados and Trinidad .

As Karlsruhe steamed to Barbados on the night of 4 November , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship . The hull was split in half ; the bow section quickly sank and took with it Köhler and most of the crew . The stern remained afloat long enough for 140 of the ship 's crew to escape onto the attending colliers . Commander Studt , the senior surviving officer , took charge and placed all of his men aboard the liner Rio Negro . He scuttled the second collier and steamed north for Iceland . The ship used the cover of a major storm to slip through the British blockade of the North Sea , and put in at Ålesund , Norway . Rio Negro then returned to Germany by early December . The Admiralstab , unaware of the loss of Karlsruhe , coincidentally radioed the ship to order her to return to Germany . Germany kept the loss of the ship a secret , and the British continued searching for her until they learned of her fate in March 1915 . Köhler 's widow christened the cruiser Karlsruhe , the third to bear the name , at her launching in August 1927 .

= Hurricane Guillermo ( 1997 ) =

Hurricane Guillermo was the ninth most intense Pacific hurricane on record , attaining peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 919 hPa ( 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) . Forming out of a tropical wave on July 30 , 1997 , roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Salina Cruz , Mexico , Guillermo tracked in a steady west @-@ northwestward direction while intensifying . The system reached hurricane status by August 1 before undergoing rapid intensification the following day . At the end of this phase , the storm attained its peak intensity as a powerful Category 5 hurricane . The storm began to weaken during the afternoon of August 5 and was downgraded to a tropical storm on August 8 . Once entering the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , Guillermo briefly weakened to a tropical depression before re @-@ attaining tropical storm status . On August 15 , the storm reached an unusually high latitude of 41 @.@ 8 ° N before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants persisted for more than a week as they tracked towards the northeast and later south and east before being absorbed by a larger extratropical system off the coast of California on August 24 .

Throughout Guillermo 's track , the storm never threatened any major landmass , resulting in little impact on land . However , because of its extreme intensity , it produced large swells across the Pacific Ocean , affecting areas from Hawaii to coastal Mexico . Along the American Pacific coast , three people drowned amid high waves , two in Baja California and one in California . At its peak , Guillermo was the second strongest known Pacific hurricane on record ; however , it has since been surpassed by five other storms , including Linda later that year . The effects of Guillermo were not deemed severe enough to justify retirement of its name .

= = Meteorological history = =

Hurricane Guillermo began its extensive track as a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 16 , 1997 . Initially disorganized and weak , the system tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean for several weeks . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) stated that they had issues monitoring the system as it moved through the Caribbean ; however , they interpreted through satellite data that the wave crossed Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean between July 27 and 28 . Once in the Pacific , convection , areas of thunderstorm activity , and banding features began to form . Additionally , a low pressure system developed within the disturbance by July 29 . The following day , the system became sufficiently organized for the NHC to classify it as Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E ; at this time the depression was situated roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) south of Salina Cruz , Mexico . In response to a deep @-@ layer ridge to the north , the depression tracked at a steady pace towards the west @-@ northwest , and this motion persisted through the first week of August . Within a day of being classified , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Guillermo , the seventh named storm of the 1997 season .

By the afternoon of August 1 , a strong central dense overcast , an area of high , thick clouds , developed over the center of circulation , prompting the NHC to upgrade it to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Throughout the next day , the system gradually developed an eye within the central dense overcast , leading to further strengthening . Operationally , Guillermo was thought to have briefly leveled out in intensity on August 2 ; however , in post @-@ storm analysis , the NHC discovered that a steady period of rapid intensification took place . Unlike most hurricanes in the eastern Pacific , Guillermo was investigated by Hurricane Hunters reconnaissance aircraft during its rapid intensification stage . The aircraft released several dropsondes into the storm to gather meteorological data . This mission marked the first time the Hurricane Hunters recorded high @-@ resolution wind data from flight level to within several meters of the ocean surface inside the eyewall of a major hurricane .

Radar was also employed to determine the size of the hurricane 's eye , stated to be roughly 13 mi ( 20 km ) in diameter , following a 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) decrease due to the strengthening . Light wind shear surrounding the hurricane allowed further strengthening to take place . Late on August 2 , the system attained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , making it a Category 4 storm . During the afternoon of August 3 , Guillermo nearly attained Category 5 intensity as it reached its initial peak intensity with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) along with a barometric pressure estimated at 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) . A brief period of weakening took place later that day before further strengthening ensued . Late on August 4 , Guillermo intensified into a Category 5 hurricane , attaining peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . Operational analysis of satellite information indicated a minimum pressure of 921 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 2 inHg ) ; however , post @-@ storm studies stated that the pressure was more likely around 919 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) .

At its peak , cloud temperatures within the eyewall were estimated to be as low as − 79 ° C ( − 110 ° F ) . Using the Dvorak technique , a method used to estimate the intensity of tropical cyclones , a value of 7 @.@ 6 was obtained . This indicated that maximum winds at the surface could have been as high as 181 mph ( 291 km / h ) ; however , this was not used as the reported intensity as six- to twelve @-@ hour averages indicated sustained winds around 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . After maintaining this intensity for roughly 18 hours , the system began to weaken as it moved into a less favorable environment with moderate wind shear . Cloud temperatures within the eyewall also began to increase , indicating that the hurricane was losing intensity .

Steady weakening took place over the following several days , and the storm dropped below major hurricane status on August 6 . By August 8 , Guillermo moved over colder waters and was downgraded to a tropical storm as sustained winds dropped below 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Around this time , the storm started to move along the western edge of the ridge that previously steered it towards the west @-@ northwest , causing Guillermo to turn northwest . On August 9 , the storm crossed longitude 140 ° W , denoting a shift in warning responsibility from the NHC to the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . Not long after crossing into the CPHC 's area of responsibility , the storm further weakened to a tropical depression as it moved over 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) waters .

Although most tropical cyclones generally weaken as they increase in latitude , warm waters of 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) allowed Guillermo to re @-@ intensify into a tropical storm on August 11 . Gradually , the storm attained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) before succumbing to cooler waters further north . The storm weakened to a tropical depression once more on August 15 , situated well to the north of the Hawaiian islands . Later that day , Guillermo transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at an unusually high latitude of 41 @.@ 8 ° N , roughly 850 mi ( 1 @,@ 370 km ) south @-@ southeast of Unalaska , Alaska . Over the following days , the remnants of the hurricane turned northeastward towards the Pacific coast of North America . On August 19 , the system moved within 575 mi ( 925 km ) of Vancouver Island , British Columbia before Guillermo tracked southward . Over the following few days , the system slowed significantly and turned towards the east . By August 20 , moisture from the remnants of Tropical Storm Ignacio were entrained into the eastern portion of Guillermo 's circulation . On August 24 , the low was finally absorbed by a larger extratropical system while situated roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) off of the northern California coastline .

= = Impact and records = =

Along the Pacific coast of Mexico , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) surf produced by Hurricane Guillermo affected numerous beaches . From Cabo San Lucas to San José del Cabo , the storm sent waves from the Gulf of California over the grounds of beachside resorts . Tourists were driven off some of Cabo 's most popular beaches by the rough ocean conditions which flooded homes situated along the coast . Two sightseers were killed after being swept out to sea .

Due to accurate forecasts , emergency officials across California were able to close off swimming zones and warn the public about dangerous rip currents prior to their arrival . Guillermo generated heavy surf across the beaches of Southern California . Heights from the surf averaged 6 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) with local areas reaching above 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , favorable to around 500 surfers at an annual competition at Huntington Beach . According to the Los Angeles Times , some waves reached heights of 15 to 18 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) . Over 100 rescues were reported by local lifeguards . Waves ranging from 6 to 12 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) also affected Orange County . Hundreds of people were rescued , but rip currents were blamed for three injuries and one death . On August 5 , about a mile north of Huntington Beach pier , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old man was swept away . His body was recovered several days later . On August 6 , a teenage boy and girl were injured on a beach in Corona Del Mar , while an 18 @-@ year @-@ old was pulled ashore and sent to the hospital with neck injuries . In Newport Beach , lifeguards made nearly 300 rescues on August 5 and 6 alone .

In addition to coastal impacts , the system brought a surge of warm , moist air into southern California , bringing temperatures in some areas as high as 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) . Between August 15 and 17 , large waves generated while it was at peak intensity came ashore in Hawaii . The swells caused no damage and reached heights of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in eastern @-@ facing shores of the state .

Hurricane Guillermo 's central pressure of 919 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) established it as the second most intense Pacific hurricane on record behind Hurricane Ava of 1973 . However , later in the 1997 season , Hurricane Linda set a new intensity record , and in subsequent years hurricanes Kenna , Ioke , Rick , Marie , Odile and Patricia all achieved lower pressures , leaving Guillermo in ninth place . Guillermo persisted for 16 @.@ 5 days from its classification as a tropical depression to its transition into an extratropical storm , making it the sixth longest @-@ lasting storm in the basin .

= 1st Army Group ( Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) =

The 1st Army Group was a Royal Yugoslav Army formation commanded by Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović during the German @-@ led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 during World War II . It consisted of the 4th Army , 7th Army , and the 1st Cavalry Division , which was the army group reserve . It was responsible for the defence of northwestern Yugoslavia , with the 4th Army defending the western sector along the Yugoslav @-@ Hungarian border , and the 7th Army defending the eastern sector along the Reich and Italian borders .

The 1st Army Group was weakened by fifth column activities within its major units , and the chief @-@ of @-@ staff and chief of operations of the headquarters of 1st Army Group aided both Croat Ustaše and Slovene separatists in the 4th and 7th Army sectors respectively . The Germans seized bridges over the Drava river in both sectors and several mountain passes in the 7th Army sector on the first day . In the 4th Army sector , the formation and expansion of German bridgeheads across the Drava were facilitated by fifth column elements of the Ustaše and sympathetic units of the paramilitary Civic and Peasant Guards of the Croatian Peasant Party . Revolts of Croat soldiers broke out in all three divisions of the 4th Army in the first few days , causing significant disruption to mobilisation and deployment . The revolts within the 4th Army were of great concern to the commander of the 7th Army , but Petrović did not permit him to withdraw from border areas until the night of 7 / 8 April , which was followed by the German capture of Maribor as they continued to expand their bridgeheads .

The 4th Army also began to withdraw southwards on 9 April , and on 10 April it quickly ceased to exist as an operational formation in the face of two determined armoured thrusts by the XLVI Motorised Corps , one of which captured Zagreb that evening . Italian offensive operations also began , with thrusts towards Ljubljana and down the Adriatic coast , capturing over 30 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops near Delnice . On 12 April , a German armoured column linked up with the Italians near the Adriatic coast , encircling the remnants of the withdrawing 7th Army . When fifth column elements arrested the staffs of 1st Army Group , 4th Army and 7th Army at Petrinja , the 1st Army Group effectively ceased to exist . Remnants of the 4th Army attempted to establish defensive positions in northeastern Bosnia , but were quickly brushed aside by German armour as it drove towards Sarajevo . The Yugoslav High Command unconditionally surrendered on 18 April .

= = Background = =

The Royal Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije , VKJ ) was formed after World War I as the army of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( Kingdom of SCS ) , when that country was created on 1 December 1918 . To defend the new kingdom , an army was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army combined with armed formations raised in the former parts of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire that joined with the Kingdom of Serbia to form the new state . Many former Austro @-@ Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army . From its beginning , the army , like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom , was dominated by ethnic Serbs , who saw the army as a means by which to secure Serb hegemony in the new kingdom .

The development of the army was hampered by the poor economy of the kingdom , and this continued through the 1920s . In 1929 , King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , at which time the army became the VKJ . The army budget remained tight , and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s , it became hard to secure weapons and munitions from other countries . Consequently , at the time World War II broke out in September 1939 , the VKJ had several serious weaknesses , which included reliance on draught animals for transport , and the large size of its formations . For example , infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26 @,@ 000 – 27 @,@ 000 men , as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength . These characteristics resulted in slow , unwieldy formations , and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower . Older generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I , were combined with an army that was not equipped or trained to resist the fast @-@ moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in Poland and France .

The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy , structure , equipment , mobility and supply were exacerbated to a significant degree by the lack of unity across Yugoslavia which had resulted from two decades of Serb hegemony , and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government . Attempts to address the lack of unity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force . Fifth column activity was also a serious concern , not only from the Croatian nationalist Ustaše , but from the Slovene and ethnic German minorities in the country .

= = Structure = =

The 1st Army Group was commanded by Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović , and consisted of the 4th Army , commanded by Armijski đeneral Petar Nedeljković , the 7th Army , commanded by Diviziski General Dušan Trifunović , and the 1st Cavalry Division . The 4th Army consisted of three divisions , a brigade @-@ strength infantry detachment , one horsed cavalry regiment and one infantry regiment , and was supported by artillery , anti @-@ aircraft artillery , border guards , and air reconnaissance elements of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force . The troops of the 4th Army included a high percentage of Croats . The 7th Army consisted of two divisions , one divisional @-@ strength mountain detachment , one brigade @-@ strength mountain detachment and a brigade @-@ strength infantry detachment , which was supported by artillery and anti @-@ aircraft artillery , and also had air reconnaissance support . The 1st Army Group did not control any additional support units .

= = Planned deployment = =

The deployment plan for 1st Army Group saw the 4th Army deployed in a cordon behind the Drava between Varaždin and Slatina , with formations centred around the towns of Ivanec , Varaždin , Koprivnica and Virovitica . The 7th Army deployment plan saw its formations placed in a cordon along the border region from the Adriatic coast near Senj north into the Julian Alps and along the Reich border to Maribor . Of the formations of the 1st Army Group , the mountain detachments and infantry detachment of the 7th Army were largely mobilised , one infantry division of the 4th Army was partly mobilised , and the remaining four infantry divisions and the 1st Cavalry Division had only commenced mobilisation . To the right of the 4th Army was the 2nd Army Group . On the right flank of the 1st Army Group was the 2nd Army of the 2nd Army Group , with the army group boundary running from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka . On the left flank , the Adriatic coast was defended by Coastal Defence Command .

= = Operations = =

= = = 6 – 9 April = = =

= = = = 4th Army sector = = = =

German Army headquarters wanted to capture the bridges over the Drava intact , and from 1 April had issued orders to the German 2nd Army to conduct preliminary operations aimed at seizing the bridge at Barcs and the railway bridge northeast of Koprivnica by coup de main . As a result , limited objective attacks were launched along the line of the Drava by the XLVI Motorised Corps , despite the fact that they were not expected to launch offensive operations until 10 April . Similar operations occurred on the extreme left flank of the 4th Army , where raiding parties and patrols from LI Infantry Corps seized the high ground on the south side of the Drava .

In the early hours of 6 April 1941 , units of the 4th Army were located in their mobilisation region or were marching toward the Hungarian border . LI Infantry Corps seized the intact bridge over the Drava at Gornja Radgona , and a bicycle @-@ mounted detachment of the 183rd Infantry Division captured Murska Sobota without encountering resistance . By the evening it had become clear to the Germans that the Yugoslavs would not be resisting stubbornly at the border . XLVI Motorised Corps was then ordered to begin seizing bridges over the Drava at Mursko Središće , Letenye , Zákány and Barcs . These local attacks were sufficient to inflame dissent within the largely Croat 4th Army , who refused to resist Germans they considered their liberators from Serbian oppression during the interwar period . On 7 April , reconnaissance units of XLVI Motorised Corps crossed the Drava and attacked towards Koprivnica . In the afternoon , German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters caught the Breguet 19s of the 4th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Velika Gorica , destroying most of them . Elements of the 27th Infantry Division Savska unsuccessfully attacked the bridgehead throughout the day , and by nightfall had resolved to counter @-@ attack on the morning of 8 April . Also on 7 April , the few remaining Breguet 19s of 4th Air Reconnaissance Group mounted attacks on a bridge over the Drava at Gyékényes .

On the afternoon of 7 April , further German units began to cross the Drava near Barcs and established a second bridgehead there . Fifth column activities within units of the 4th Army were fomented by the Croatian fascist organisation , the Ustaše , which facilitated German establishment of the bridgehead at Barcs , and resulted in a number of significant revolts within units . Of two regiments of the 42nd Infantry Division Murska , all but two battalions revolted and refused to deploy into their allocated positions . Similarly , the 108th Infantry Regiment of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska , which had mobilised in Bjelovar , was marching towards Virovitica to take up positions . On the night of 7 / 8 April , the Croats of the 108th Regiment revolted , arrested their Serb officers , non @-@ commissioned officers and soldiers . The regiment then marched back to Bjelovar , where it joined up with other rebellious units about noon on 8 April .

On 8 April , Josip Broz Tito and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia , then located in Zagreb , along with the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Croatia , sent a delegation to the headquarters of the 4th Army urging them to issue arms to workers to help defend Zagreb . Pavle Gregorić , who was a member of both Central Committees , went to 4th Army headquarters twice , and was able to speak briefly with Nedeljković , but could not convince him to do so . On that same day , the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party , Vladko Maček who had returned to Zagreb after briefly joining the post @-@ Yugoslav coup d 'état government of Dušan Simović , agreed to send an emissary to the 108th Infantry Regiment of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska urging them to obey their officers , but they did not respond to his appeal .

When the Germans began to expand their bridgehead at Barcs , the rebel Croat troops at Bjelovar made contact with them , and the 4th Army began to withdraw southwards on 9 April . On the night of 9 / 10 April , those Croats that had remained with their units began to desert or turn on their commanders . The 27th Infantry Division Savska suffered from similar revolts , which eased the German capture of Koprivnica .

= = = = 7th Army sector = = = =

The border between the Reich and Yugoslavia was unsuitable for motorised operations . Due to the short notice of the invasion , the elements of the invading 2nd Army that would make up LI Infantry Corps and XLIX Mountain Corps had to be assembled from France , Germany and the Slovak Republic , and nearly all encountered difficulties in reaching their assembly areas . In the interim , the Germans formed a special force under the code name Feuerzauber ( Magic Fire ) . This force was initially intended to merely reinforce the 538th Frontier Guard Division , who were manning the border . On the evening of 5 April , one of the aggressive Feuerzauber detachment commanders , Hauptmann Palten led his Kampfgruppe Palten across the Mura from Spielfeld and , having secured the bridge , began attacking bunkers and other Yugoslav positions on the high ground , and sent patrols deep into the Yugoslav border fortification system . Due to a lack of Yugoslav counter @-@ attacks , many of these positions remained in German hands into 6 April .

LI Infantry Corps were tasked with attacking towards Maribor then driving towards Zagreb , while the XLIX Mountain Corps was to capture Dravograd then force a crossing on the Sava . On the first day of the invasion , LI Infantry Corps captured the Drava bridges at Mureck and Radkersburg ( opposite Radgon ) undamaged , and the 183rd Infantry Division captured 300 prisoners . A bicycle @-@ mounted detachment of the 183rd Infantry Division reached the extreme left flank of the Yugoslav 4th Army at Murska Sobota without striking any resistance . The 132nd Infantry Division also pushed south along the Sejanski valley towards Savci .

Late that day , mountain pioneers destroyed some isolated Yugoslav bunkers in the area penetrated by Kampfgruppe Palten . On that day , the governor of the Drava Banovina , Marko Natlačen met with representatives of the major Slovene political parties , and created the National Council of Slovenia , whose aim was to establish a Slovenia independent of Yugoslavia . When he heard the news of fifth column @-@ led revolts within the 4th Army , Trifunović was alarmed , and proposed withdrawal from the border areas , but this was rejected by Petrović . The front along the border with Italy was relatively quiet , with only patrol clashes occurring . The Yugoslav High Command ordered that the 7th Army capture Fiume , across the Rječina river from Sušak , but the order was soon rescinded .

Over the next three days , LI Corps held the lead elements of its two divisions back while the rest of each division detrained in Graz and made their way to the border . All elements of both divisions had unloaded by 9 April . On the afternoon of 7 April , German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 escorted by Messerschmitt Bf 109E fighters also caught the Breguet 19s of the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group on the ground at Cerklje , destroying most of them . As a result of the revolts in the 4th Army , on the night of 7 / 8 April , Petrović ordered the 7th Army to begin to withdraw , first to a line through the Dravinja river , Zidani Most bridge and the right bank of the Krka river . This was subsequently moved back to the line of the Kupa river . On 8 April , disregarding orders from above , Palten led his Kampfgruppe south towards Maribor , and crossed the Pesnica river in pneumatic boats , leaving his unit vehicles behind . In the evening , Palten and his force entered Maribor unopposed , taking 100 prisoners . Kampfgruppe Palten was ordered to return to Spielfeld , and spent the rest of the invasion guarding the border . In the meantime , the forward elements of the two divisions consolidated their bridgeheads , with the 132nd Infantry Division securing Maribor , and the 183rd Infantry Division pushing past Murska Sobota .

The activities of Natlačen and his council continued from the day the invasion commenced , and the Yugoslav High Command soon ordered their arrest . However , the chief of staff of the headquarters of the 1st Army Group , Armiski General Leon Rupnik and the head of the operations staff , Pukovnik Franjo Nikolić did not carry out the orders . On 9 April , the 6th Air Reconnaissance Group airfield at Cerklje was again attacked by German aircraft .

= = = 10 – 11 April = = =

= = = = 4th Army sector = = = =

Early on 10 April , Nikolić left his post and visited the senior Ustaše leader Slavko Kvaternik in Zagreb . He then returned to the headquarters and redirected 4th Army units around Zagreb to either cease operations or to deploy to innocuous positions . These actions reduced or eliminated armed resistance to the German advance .

On the same day , the Germans broke out of the bridgeheads they had established , with the 14th Panzer Division , supported by dive bombers , crossing the Drava and driving southwest towards Zagreb on snow @-@ covered roads in extremely cold conditions . Initial air reconnaissance indicated large concentrations of Yugoslav troops on the divisional axis of advance , but these troops proved to be withdrawing towards Zagreb . Ustaše and their sympathisers in the paramilitary Civic and Peasant Guards of the Croatian Peasant Party disarmed and captured the staff of several 4th Army units , including the 1st Army Group , and 4th and 7th Armies at Petrinja , and the 4th Army effectively ceased to exist as a formation . Soon after the 14th Panzer Division commenced its attack , the main thrust of the XLVI Motorised Corps , consisting of the 8th Panzer Division leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division crossed the Drava at Barcs . The 8th Panzer Division turned southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers , and meeting almost no resistance , had reached Slatina by evening .

About 17 : 45 on 10 April , Kvaternik and SS @-@ Standartenführer ( Colonel ) Edmund Veesenmayer went to the radio station in Zagreb and Kvaternik proclaimed the creation of the Independent State of Croatia . By 19 : 30 on 10 April , despite initial resistance , lead elements of the 14th Panzer Division had reached the outskirts of Zagreb , having covered nearly 160 kilometres ( 99 miles ) in a single day . By the time it entered Zagreb , the 14th Panzer Division was met by cheering crowds , and had captured 15 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops , and 22 generals , including both Petrović and Trifunović . Held up by freezing weather and snow storms , on 10 April , on the following day LI Corps was approaching Zagreb from the north , and bicycle @-@ mounted troops of the 183rd Infantry Division had turned east to capture Varaždin , along with an entire Yugoslav brigade including its commanding general . On the same day , the German @-@ installed interim Croatian government called on all Croats to stop fighting , and in the evening , LI Infantry Corps entered Zagreb and relieved the 14th Panzer Division . In the face of the assault by the 14th Panzer Division , the 4th Army quickly ceased to exist as an operational formation . The disintegration of the 4th Army was caused largely by fifth column activity , as it was involved in little fighting .

= = = = 7th Army sector = = = =

During the night of 9 / 10 April , lead elements of the XLIX Mountain Corps , consisting of the 1st Mountain Division de @-@ trained and crossed the border near Bleiburg and advanced southeast towards Celje , reaching a point about 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the town by evening . Luftwaffe reconnaissance sorties revealed that the main body of the 7th Army was withdrawing towards Zagreb , leaving behind light forces to maintain contact with the German bridgeheads . When it received this information , 2nd Army headquarters ordered LI Corps to form motorised columns to pursue the 7th Army south , but extreme weather conditions and flooding of the Drava at Maribor on 10 April slowed the German pursuit .

About 06 : 00 on 11 April , LI Corps recommenced its push south towards Zagreb , with lead elements exiting the mountains northwest of the city in the evening of the same day , while the 1st Mountain Division captured Celje after some hard marching and difficult fighting . Emissaries from the newly formed National Council of Slovenia approached the commander of XLIX Mountain Corps , General der Infanterie Ludwig Kübler to ask for a ceasefire . Also on 11 April , the Italian 2nd Army commenced offensive operations around 12 : 00 , with the XI Corps pushing through Logatec towards Ljubljana , VI Corps advancing in the direction of Prezid , while strong formations attacked south through Fiume towards Kraljevica and towards Lokve . By this stage , the 7th Army was withdrawing , although some units took advantage of existing fortifications to resist . To assist the Italian advance , the Luftwaffe attacked Yugoslav troops in the Ljubljana region , and the 14th Panzer Division , which had captured Zagreb on 10 April , drove west to encircle the withdrawing 7th Army . The Italians faced little resistance , and captured about 30 @,@ 000 Yugoslav troops waiting to surrender near Delnice .

= = = Fate = = =

On 10 April , as the situation had become increasingly desperate throughout the country , Dušan Simović , who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff , had broadcast the following message :

All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal . Don 't wait for direct orders from above , but act on your own and be guided by your judgement , initiative , and conscience .

On 12 April , the 14th Panzer Division linked up with the Italians at Vrbovsko , closing the ring around the remnants of the 7th Army , before thrusting southeast towards Sarajevo . The remaining elements of the 4th Army had organised defences around the towns of Kostajnica , Bosanski Novi , Bihać and Prijedor , but the 14th Panzer Division quickly broke through at Bosanski Novi and captured Banja Luka , and by 14 April it had captured Jajce . In the wake of the panzers , the 183rd Infantry Division pushed through Zagreb and Sisak to capture Kostajnica and Bosanska Gradiška . On 15 April , the 14th Panzer Division was closing on Sarajevo . The Ustaše arrested the staffs of the 1st Army Group , and 4th and 7th Armies at Petrinja , and the 1st Army Group effectively ceased to exist as a formation . After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document , the Yugoslav High Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12 : 00 on 18 April .

= = = Books = = =

= = = Journals and papers = = =

= = = Web = = =

= Open Your Heart ( Madonna song ) =

" Open Your Heart " is a song by American singer Madonna from her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . It was released as the album 's fourth single in November 12 , 1986 by Sire Records . It has since appeared remixed on the compilation albums The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . Originally a rock ' n roll song with the title " Follow Your Heart " , it was written for singer Cyndi Lauper by songwriters Gardner Cole and Peter Rafelson , although it was never played to her . Since Madonna 's management was looking for new songs for True Blue , she accepted it . Madonna altered some of the lyrics and changed the composition to suit the dance @-@ pop genre , giving her a co @-@ writer credit for the song . Lyrically " Open Your Heart " is a love song , talking about innocent feelings of boy @-@ meets @-@ girl romance and Madonna expressing her sexual desire .

The song was well received by critics who commended it for being a simple love song . It was also successful commercially , reaching the top @-@ ten of the charts in Belgium , Canada , Ireland , Italy , Netherlands , and the United Kingdom , also reaching the top of Billboard Hot 100 in the United States , thus making it Madonna 's fifth US number @-@ one single . The music video , however , portrayed a different concept of the song . Madonna played an exotic dancer in a peep @-@ show club , who befriends a little boy and subsequently escapes . It was critically acclaimed for portraying a completely opposite perspective of " voyeuristic male gaze and object " , and depicting innocence rather than sexual overtones , although the entry of a child in a strip club was negatively criticized . The video was an homage to actresses Liza Minnelli and Marlene Dietrich .

" Open Your Heart " has been performed by Madonna in three of her world tours – 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour , 1990 's Blond Ambition World Tour , where Madonna wore her infamous conical bra during the song , and 2012 's The MDNA Tour . The performances were included in the respective video release of the tours . " Open Your Heart " has been covered a number of times by different artists , and appeared in the Britney Spears film , Crossroads ( 2002 ) .

= = Writing and recording = =

" Open Your Heart " was originally a rock ' n roll song with the title " Follow Your Heart " and had been written for singer Cyndi Lauper by songwriters Gardner Cole and Peter Rafelson , although it was never played to her . The Temptations were also considered for the song . Their manager Benny Medina decided that they wanted to record the song after all , but upon hearing that Madonna had already recorded it , changed their mind . The original title according to Cole , was from a local health food restaurant called Follow Your Heart in Canoga Park , California , where he was in love with a waitress named Lisa and she was the original inspiration for the lyrics . In Fred Bronson 's book The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits , Cole explained ,

" Peter and I usually write very quickly . It 's usually a day or two a song , but for some reason this didn 't really hit us as a hit song . We didn 't give up on it . We just kept working on it over the course of a year . Thank God we did . [ ... ] It was the first song that was cut on the True Blue album . It made me nervous as a writer , because a lot of times the very first song that gets cut doesn 't make it in the long run . But the song ended up making the album , which really opened up a lot of doors for me . "

Cole 's manager Bennett Freed was working with Madonna 's management and they were looking for new material for her album . Three of Cole 's songs were chosen for reviewing , including " Open Your Heart " . Madonna 's manager Freddy DeMann overheard the song and thought it would be a hit for Madonna and he asked Cole to re @-@ demo a female demo version . Her female backup singer , Donna De Lory was Cole 's girlfriend and he immediately asked her to sing the demo . Despite the fact that it did not fit exactly with the choice and genre of songs Madonna was singing at that time , she nevertheless accepted it . Madonna recorded " Open Your Heart " , altered the lyrics thus earning a co @-@ writing credit , and along with Patrick Leonard added a bassline underneath the song which turned it into a rock @-@ dance track rather than the original rock ' n roll genre . The song was the first recorded cut for the True Blue album in late 1985 and ultimately made it to the final released tracklist .

= = Composition = =

" Open Your Heart " has a continuous percussion filled structure and a chorus sounding like Belinda Carlisle , according to author Rikky Rooksby in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna . Lyrically , " Open Your Heart " is a simple love song . The song speaks of earnest innocent notions of boy meets girl kind of feelings . According to Professor Mavis Tsai , the phrase " Open Your Heart " is a metaphor for the act of being vulnerable that corresponds to the behavior involved in developing an intimate or close relationship . The following lines in the song , " Open Your Heart , I 'll make you love me ; It 's not that hard , if you just turn the key " illustrate this metaphor vividly . The concept of the song places Madonna as a victim of love .

The lyrics puts Madonna in a more direct position expressing her sexual desires for her man according to author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández in the line " If you gave me half a chance you 'd see ; My desire burning inside of me . " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , " Open Your Heart " is written in the time signature of common time with a medium funk tempo of 112 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F major with Madonna 's voice spanning from A3 to B ♭ 4 . The song follows a basic sequence of F – E ♭ 9 – E ♭ / G – Gm7 – F as its chord progression .

= = Critical response = =

Author Susan McClary in Culture / power / history reviewed the song saying that , it was more upbeat than previous single " Live to Tell " and " the play with closure in ' Open Your Heart ' creates the image of open ended jouissance — an erotic energy that continually escapes containment " . Author Taraborrelli called it as one of her most " earnest " songs and compared it with Aretha Franklin 's song " Respect " as well as Barbra Streisand 's " A House is Not a Home " . According to him " it was a tune people could understand and latch on to , which is what makes a pop song memorable " . The New York Times writer Stephen Holden compared the song with sweeter post @-@ Motown valentine songs . Houston Chronicle writer Joey Guerra called the song " perfect " for dancefloor strut . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called it a perfect dance song with deepened dance grooves . Slant Magazine named the song as one of Madonna 's most " robust " songs . Robert Christgau said of the song , " I 'm not saying her flair is pleasureless — the generosity she demands in the inexhaustible ' Open Your Heart ' is a two @-@ way street and then some . "

= = Chart performance = =

" Open Your Heart " debuted at number 51 the week ending December 6 , 1986 , on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It had a gradual rise and subsequently topped the chart on February 7 , 1987 , becoming Madonna 's fifth number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single also had success on Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , reaching number @-@ one on February 14 , 1987 . It also became Madonna 's sixth entry on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart where it reached a peak of number 12 . In Canada , the song debuted at number 83 on the RPM chart on December 13 , 1986 , and reached a peak position of number eight for the chart dated February 21 , 1987 . It placed at number 68 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1987 .

Internationally , it became a top ten hit in several European countries including the United Kingdom , Italy , Ireland , Netherlands , and Belgium . In the United Kingdom , the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number eight and subsequently reached a peak of number four on December 13 , 1986 . The single was on the chart for nine weeks in total , and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on December 1 , 1986 . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 195 @,@ 000 copies there . It also peaked at number four in Europe , thus becoming the only single from True Blue not to top the Eurochart Hot 100 . In Australia , it only reached a peak of number 16 , breaking a run of nine consecutive top ten singles for Madonna in that country . Elsewhere like in Switzerland , Austria , Germany and France , it reached within the top 40 of the singles chart .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

The music video was shot at Echo Park in Los Angeles , California . Madonna portrays an exotic dancer who befriends a young boy , played by child actor Felix Howard . This video was originally set to be directed by Madonna 's then @-@ husband Sean Penn , but in the end the final honors went to Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , who went on to work with Madonna on her videos for " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) , " Human Nature " ( 1995 ) , " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " ( 1996 ) , " Don 't Tell Me " ( 2000 ) and " Hollywood " ( 2003 ) . The video was shot in July 1986 and was released in December 1986 . It was produced by David Naylor . The video was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards in 1987 . In the Best Female Video category , " Open Your Heart " lost to another Madonna video , when the music video for " Papa Don 't Preach " won the award . The video has been ranked at number 35 on VH1 's " 50 Sexiest Video Moments " of all time .

The video is structured as a cinematic peep show and voyeurism that portrays Madonna as a stripper . According to Mondino , the peep show was his idea since at that time , " we were into a period where we were experimenting [ with ] some kind of freedom about the body , about sexuality and stuff " . He wanted to have a " naive and sweet " feel with the portrayal of a boy waiting outside for Madonna . They built the set from scratch , including the frontal part with the ticket booth . Although it looked fake , Mondino liked it saying " I like the fakeness of it . I haven 't seen it for a long time , but when I saw it once again , I said , ' It 's so naïve ' . It 's kind of badly done , which I like , compared to today . We didn 't have the same equipment , people are more skillful today , but there 's something sweet about it . " Madonna was initially asked by him to wear a black wig , and the initial reaction to the whole wardrobe was positive . But Madonna wanted Mondino 's opinion on the whole ensemble , who replied that she would look better as a blonde . So the wig was kept for the initial scenes of the video only .

= = = Synopsis and analysis = = =

The " Open Your Heart " music video presents an early version of Madonna 's musings about her Italian @-@ American heritage and focus on her feminocentric street theology , which was also explicitly brought out by 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour . It starts with the little boy trying to go inside a peep show , where Madonna is the star performer , but gets rebuffed by an old man at the ticket booth . Inside Madonna starts singing the song from the center of a carousel that revolves to display her to the gaze of the customers who are sitting safely in their cubicles . Madonna is dressed in a black bustier , spike heels , fishnets , revealing her new slimmed down body at that time . She begins the video wearing a black wig which she subsequently removes , revealing her short bleached hair . The bluish and dark lighting reveals her look as a mix of actresses Marlene Dietrich in the movie The Blue Angel as well as Liza Minnelli as the character Sally Bowles in the Bob Fosse @-@ directed musical film , Cabaret .

The dancing is restrained with a single prop : that of a solitary chair . At one point in the first segment of the video , she is filmed dancing but the camera is almost still and the motions of the dance are confined within the small range of the camera . As the screens inside the viewing booths open and close , the camera slices the shots of Madonna each with its own angle and duration . The same imagery is exhibited by the little boy outside who tries to frame Madonna 's playbill image into different angles . There are four other men in the booths who are made of wood with paintings of artist Tamara de Lempicka on them . Madonna at one point takes off her gloves like Rita Hayworth in Gilda and points towards one of the wooden paintings . It collapses and she blows on her finger .

The video is similar in thematic content to Mötley Crüe 's video for the single " Girls , Girls , Girls " . But in contrast , this video tells the story from Madonna 's point of view . She looks down into the cubicles to make eye contact with the men but they are unable to return it . She also looks assertively into the camera , making eye contact with the viewer . With these scenes Madonna portrays her holding power over the men and the ability to pursue them . Madonna represents an assertive woman searching for a lover who can accept her as a human being . Author Bruce Forbes notes that the men in the cubicles are proved unworthy of her and there is an undertone of mockery when Madonna addresses them as ' baby ' while shaking her body .

By the end of the video the isolated and sad men depart with the doors closing on them . As the final chorus breaks into dance grooves , Madonna comes out of the theater and gives the boy a quick kiss on his lips . Both are clad in loose @-@ fitting gray suits , which gives Madonna an androgynous look . They stroll away playfully in the sunrise , reminiscent of Charlie Chaplin and Jack Coogan in The Kid with the old boss pursuing them and shouting " Come back , come back , we still need you " in Italian . The tension between the visual and the musical dimensions of the video is extremely unsettling according to author Nicholas B. Dirks . Only when she disappears from the carousel and reappears to run away from her patriarchal boss with the young boy , then the music and visuals become comparable .

= = = Reception = = =

Feminist writer Susan Bordo gave a negative review of the video , saying that the leering and pathetic men in the cubicles and Madonna 's escape with the boy is " cynically and mechanically tacked on [ as ] a way of claiming trendy status for what is just cheesecake – or , perhaps , pornography " . MTV also had some reservations initially before airing the video , which was later resolved after a meeting with Warner Officials . However socio @-@ critic Mary Harron in her book McRock : Pop as Commodity said that the underlying message in the video is that though Madonna sells sexuality , she is free . There is no overt representation of anything besides friendship with the boy . Their escape together avoids Madonna the sexual overtones that would have been stronger if she would have escaped with an adult male . This , according to author Richard Dienst , seems to suggest a repudiation of the adult labor of the stage in favor of childhood , androgyny , authenticity and nomadic play . The video is also acclaimed for reviving and re @-@ creating the hard glamor of the studio @-@ era of Hollywood stars and also for representing women as the dominant sex . Author Donn Welton pointed out that the usual power relationship between the " voyeuristic male gaze and object " is destabilized by the portrayal of the male patrons of the peep show as leering and pathetic . At the same time , the portrayal of Madonna as " porno queen object " is deconstructed by the escape at the end of the video . Maura Johnston from Rolling Stone found influences of the work of Italian film director Federico Fellini and American musical theater chroeographer Bob Fosse . Johnston added , " ' Open Your Heart ' was gorgeous , from the paintings of art deco artist Tamara de Lempicka on the club exterior , to the colorfully cold cast of characters . " She noticed that at one point in the video , Madonna titled her head to re @-@ create the Herb Ritts shot album cover for True Blue .

= = Live performances = =

" Open Your Heart " has been featured as a full song in the set lists of three Madonna tours – 1987 's Who 's That Girl World Tour , 1990 's Blond Ambition World Tour , and 2012 's The MDNA Tour . It served as the opening song on 1987 Who 's That Girl Tour . It started off with then young dancer Chris Finch , imitating Felix Howard from the video . Howard did not receive a working license for the tour hence Finch was taken for his part . He went on to become an integral part of most of the songs performed on the tour . After Finch , two other dancers are introduced , before Madonna herself appears on stage . She wore the same black pointy corset and fishnets as in the music video . She first sings the song alone , then Finch joins her again and they dance together till the song ends . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 .

On the Blond Ambition World Tour , " Open Your Heart " follows the opening number " Express Yourself " . This time , it included a hunky dancer watching from a distance as Madonna entered the stage with her hair stretched into a topknot and fake blond ponytail , which was replaced by short peroxide tangles in the European leg of the tour . She wore a double breasted suit with the outer jacket cut in slits so that the conical bra underneath could point through . Showing off the satin pink bodysuit and her monocle chain , Madonna performed the song on a chair . Playing a dominatrix role , Madonna got on top of one of the dancers before carrying off an exhibitionist dance routine with the chair as a prop . Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .

The opening musical introduction of the song served as a brief twenty @-@ six seconds musical interlude on the Drowned World Tour in 2001 . As Madonna finished a performance of " Frozen " in the Geisha inspired segment of the show , she sat in a cross @-@ legged position in front of the stage . The musical intro for " Open Your Heart " would start with a dancer in a Japanese costume dancing behind her on a raised podium . As the music ends , Madonna starts singing " Nobody 's Perfect " from her 2000 album Music . In 2008 , Madonna sang the first verse and chorus at two dates — Las Vegas and East Rutherford — of her Sticky & Sweet Tour . Madonna forgot the lyrics at the Vegas show and refused to sing the song in Boston ; she performed " Express Yourself " instead .

Madonna also performed an excerpt of the song at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show in 2012 , where she was joined by Cee Lo Green and by a large marching band . The same year , the song was included on The MDNA Tour . Following an 8 @-@ minute monologue against intolerance , the song was reinvented and performed in a Basque , folk acoustic version , relying only on drums , which were played by the Basque band Kalakan , and Madonna 's vocal harmony . Madonna 's outfit during the performance consisted of an all @-@ leather look , a custom design by Hervé Léger and Max Azria , with knee @-@ high boots and a mini fur bolero , while her dancers were dressed as soldiers . Towards the end of the performance Madonna proceeded to dance and engage in a sing @-@ along with the members of the audience . On certain shows , her son Rocco Ritchie joined her onstage . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that the performances of " Open Your Heart " and " Like a Prayer " were a reminder that " ... for both Madonna and her fans , it always comes back to the music " . The performance of the song at the November 19 – 20 , 2012 shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena , were recorded and released in Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour . On January 26 , 2014 , Madonna performed " Open Your Heart " and " Same Love " at the 56th Grammy Awards along with Macklemore , Ryan Lewis and Mary Lambert , in support of gay and lesbian rights . During the Rebel Heart Tour in Manchester , in December 2015 , Madonna performed an a cappella version of " Open Your Heart " .

= = Cover versions = =

Despite being originally written in English , a Spanish version of the song titled " Abre Tu Corazón " was recorded by Venezuelan rock singer Melissa , who released it in March 1986 on her " Melissa III " album . Considering Madonna first released the song on the " True Blue " album three months afterwards , Melissa 's " Abre Tu Corazón " can be considered the first released version of the song , although it is possible that Madonna 's version ( for which she received a co @-@ writer 's credit ) was recorded first . The Madonna tribute compilation Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 2 contained a cover by the late Israeli singer Ofra Haza . A eurodance version was recorded by the group Mad 'House for the album " Absolutely Mad " . A hi @-@ NRG dance version was recorded by Who 's That Girl for the album Exposed , released through Almighty Records . In 2004 Platinum Blonde NRG , Vol . 2 : Nrgised Madonna Classics , a hi @-@ NRG cover is performed by In @-@ Deep . The song appears in the opening of the 2002 film Crossroads . Britney Spears ' character lip syncs to the song in her room with a brush in her hand , pretending its a microphone . A Madonna poster is visible during the scene . In 2010 , the TV show Glee covered it in the episode " The Power of Madonna " as a mash @-@ up with the song " Borderline " , performed by Cory Monteith and Lea Michele .

= = Formats and track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Madonna – lead vocals , background vocals , songwriter

Jonathan Moffett – drums

Paulinho da Costa – percussion

David Williams – guitar

Patrick Leonard – keyboards

Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Red Rackham 's Treasure =

Red Rackham 's Treasure ( French : Le Trésor de Rackham le Rouge ) is the twelfth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from February to September 1943 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . Completing an arc begun in The Secret of the Unicorn , the story tells of young reporter Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock as they launch an expedition to the Caribbean to locate the treasure of the pirate Red Rackham .

Red Rackham 's Treasure was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman the year following its conclusion . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Seven Crystal Balls , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Red Rackham 's Treasure has been cited as one of the most important installments in the series for marking the first appearance of eccentric scientist Cuthbert Calculus , who subsequently became a core character . The story has been variously adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana , as well as for the feature film The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn ( 2011 ) .

= = Synopsis = =

The synopsis continues a plot begun in The Secret of the Unicorn .

Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock plan an expedition to the West Indies aboard a fishing trawler , the Sirius , to search for the treasure of the pirate Red Rackham . Having previously read three parchments authored by Haddock 's ancestor , Sir Francis Haddock , the duo had discovered the coordinates to what they believe is the treasure aboard the sunken 17th century vessel , the Unicorn . An eccentric , hard @-@ of @-@ hearing inventor named Professor Cuthbert Calculus offers to aid them with the use of his shark @-@ shaped one @-@ man submarine , but they decline his assistance . Setting sail , they are joined by the police detectives Thomson and Thompson and soon discover that Calculus has stowed away on board , bringing his submarine with him .

When they reach the coordinates shown on the parchments , there is no wreckage in sight . Frustrated , Haddock ponders turning back , but Tintin soon realizes the problem : If Sir Francis had used a French instead of an English chart to calculate the position , the coordinates would have been measured on the Paris Meridian rather than the Greenwich Meridian . As they have been using the Greenwich Meridian , they realise that they are too far west .

After traveling to the correct position , they discover an unknown island . There , they find a statue of Sir Francis Haddock and other evidence ; Tintin deduces that Francis Haddock had taken refuge on the island and that the wreck of the Unicorn must be nearby . They locate the wreck using Calculus ' submarine and recover various artefacts from it , but do not find the treasure . Among the artefacts is a strongbox containing old documents revealing that Sir Francis Haddock had been the owner of the country estate Marlinspike Hall . Back in Belgium , Calculus purchases the Hall using funds from the sale of his submarine design , and gives it to Haddock . Tintin and Haddock search the house 's cellars , where Tintin spots a statue of Saint John the Evangelist holding a cross with a globe and eagle at its feet . Tintin suddenly remembers that Francis Haddock 's original three parchments said , " For ' tis from the light that light will dawn , and then shines forth the Eagle 's cross " and realises that this message referred , not to the location of the Unicorn , but to Saint John " the eagle " : his traditional symbol . Tintin locates the island on the globe , presses a secret button he finds there , and discovers Red Rackham 's treasure hidden inside .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had accepted a position working for Le Soir , Belgian 's largest French @-@ language daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , Le Soir was permitted by the German authorities to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October 1940 , Hergé became editor of its new children 's supplement Le Soir Jeunesse , with the help of an old friend , Paul Jamin , and the cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke , before paper shortages forced Tintin to be serialised daily in the main pages of Le Soir . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , although he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which numbered some 600 @,@ 000 . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson observed that , without the need to satirise political types , " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "

Red Rackham 's Treasure was to be the second half of a series of connected events in two parts which had begun with the previous adventure , The Secret of the Unicorn . This two @-@ part series was the first that Hergé had produced since Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus ( 1934 – 36 ) . However , as Tintin expert Michael Farr related , whereas Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus had been largely " self @-@ sufficient and self @-@ contained " , the connection between The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure was to be far closer .

= = = Influences = = =

Red Rackham 's Treasure introduced Professor Cuthbert Calculus to The Adventures of Tintin , who became a recurring character . Hergé had made use of various eccentric professors in earlier volumes of the series , such as Sophocles Sarcophagus in Cigars of the Pharaoh , Hector Alembick in King Ottokar 's Sceptre , and Decimus Phostle in The Shooting Star , all of whom prefigure the arrival of Calculus . The character 's deafness had been inspired by a colleague whom Hergé had worked with years earlier at Le Vingtième Siècle . Visually , Calculus was based on a real scientist , the Swiss inventor Auguste Piccard , who had been the first man to explore the stratosphere in a hot air balloon in 1931 . Hergé had observed Piccard walking about Brussels on a number of occasions , however the character of Calculus would be notably much shorter than Piccard . Hergé named this character Tryphon Tournesol ; while the surname meant " sunflower " , the forename was adopted from a carpenter named Tryphon Beckaert whom Hergé had encountered in Boitsfort . Tryphon Tournesol was later renamed Cuthbert Calculus in the English translation and Balduin Bienlein ( meaning " Little Bee " ) for the German translation .

Calculus ' shark @-@ shaped submarine was visually based on a real American submarine ; Hergé had seen a picture of this in a German newspaper . The diving suit worn in the story was also based on clippings that Hergé had accumulated . Similarly , the dockside bar depicted by the cartoonist was based on an illustration that he had collected . The shop where Haddock and Tintin buy the diving equipment , including the suit , was inspired from a picture of a bar which was featured in the German magazine , Berliner Illustrirte Zeitung . The tribal effigy found on a Caribbean island by Sir Francis Haddock was based on a Bamileke tribal statue from Cameroon that Hergé saw in a museum . The Sirius , which had appeared before in The Shooting Star , was named after the SS Sirius , the first ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean solely under steam power , but was visually based upon the design of a trawler , the John @-@ O.88. Hergé had sketched this ship in Ostend docks before obtaining both detailed plans of the trawler from the builders , Jos Boel & Son , and a small @-@ scale model of it from a collector . The undersea wreck of the Unicorn was loosely inspired by images of the wreck of a 17th @-@ century Swedish vessel , the Vasa , which Hergé had collected . The instance in the story in which a shark swallows a large box ( that the characters hope contains the treasure ) is based on a real account of a shark that swallowed a camera from the American underwater photographer Otis Barton , which Hergé had encountered in a French illustrated magazine .

The brief appearance of Dr. Daumière , who warns Haddock to cease drinking alcohol , was an allusion to Hergé 's own physician , Dr. Daumerie . Hergé made a comical reference to the French comedian Sacha Guitry in the story by advertising a play by Guitry titled Me in which Guitry himself plays every role . The adventure was the first to depict Tintin wearing a white shirt under a blue sweater ; this would go on to become the character 's iconic costume .

= = = Publication = = =

Le Trésor De Rackham Le Rouge began serialisation as a daily strip in Le Soir from 19 February 1943 . The title of the new adventure had been announced in an advertisement in the newspaper two days previously . In Belgium , it was then published in a 62 @-@ page book format by Editions Casterman in 1944 . Red Rackham 's Treasure contained one of Hergé 's two favourite illustrations from The Adventures of Tintin . It combines three actions encapsulating a sequence of events into one drawing : Haddock striding up the beach in the foreground , the rowboat being brought ashore in the middle ground , and the Sirius weighing anchor in the background .

Rather than immediately embark on the creation of a new Tintin adventure , Hergé agreed to a proposal that Le Soir 's crime writer , Paul Kinnet , would author a detective story featuring Thomson and Thompson . The story was titled Dupont et Dupond , détectives ( Thomson and Thompson , Detectives ) , and was illustrated by Hergé .

The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure were the first two Adventures of Tintin to be published in English @-@ language translations for the British market . Published by Casterman , these two editions did not sell well , and have since become rare collector 's items . They would be republished for the British market seven years later , this time by Methuen with translations provided by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper . Farr reported that Red Rackham 's Treasure is the best @-@ selling story in The Adventures of Tintin , while Harry Thompson referred to The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as " the most successful of all Tintin 's adventures " .

= = Critical analysis = =

Harry Thompson stated that the Secrets of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc marked the beginning of the third and central stage of " Tintin 's career " . He furthermore stated that in these two stories , Tintin has been converted from a reporter into an explorer to cope with the new political climate . He stated that in this story , Hergé " abandons the complex plotting of The Secret of the Unicorn in favour of an episodic style of adventure not seen since the early books " . Thompson further draws attention to the arrival of Calculus in the story , describing him as the " third and final member " of Tintin 's " family " . Thompson was critical of the use of colour in the story , stating that much of it looks better in black @-@ and @-@ white , as it was originally printed in Le Soir .

Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters observed that both The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure " hold a crucial position " in The Adventures of Tintin as it establishes the " Tintin universe " with its core set of characters . He felt that while religious elements had been present in previous stories , they were even stronger in The Secret of the Unicorn and its sequel , something which he attributed to Van Melkebeke 's influence . Peeters believed that Red Rackham 's Treasure was " an unforgettable book " because it is the volume in which the " family " — meaning Tintin , Snowy , Haddock , and Calculus — all come together . Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline echoed this idea , noting that Hergé had " settled " the three characters in their new home . Focusing on the character of Calculus , he noted that the idea of the eccentric professor was " so universal that it would be inaccurate to point to any one source " , suggesting possible influences from Charlie Chaplin and Hergé 's own father . For Assouline , the professor embodies " the gentle madness and subtle humour in comic strips " . He added that both Red Rackham 's Treasure and its predecessor " reveal Hergé at a new level in his art " , and suggested that the reason for their popularity lay in the fact that they were " the visual continuation of a literary universe that stretches from Jules Verne to Pierre Benoit " .

Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier opined that The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc represents " a turning point " for the series as it shifts the reader 's attention from Tintin to Haddock , who has become " by far , the most interesting character " . They claim that the introduction of Calculus " completes the indispensable triangle that imbues Tintin with its mythic quality . " Asserting that here , Hergé 's " art has reached a degree of near @-@ perfection " , they awarded it five stars out of five .

Michael Farr said that the scene introducing Calculus was " a comic tour de force " marking the start of the " rich vein of humour " that the character brought to the series . Noting that unlike The Shooting Star , this two @-@ book story arc contains " scarcely an allusion to occupation and war " , he praised the arc 's narrative as " perfectly paced , without that feeling of haste " present in some of Hergé 's earlier work .

In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the academic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès characterised the Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure arc as being about the characters going on a " treasure hunt that turns out to be at the same time a search for their roots . " He stated that the arc revolves around Haddock 's ancestry , and in doing so " deals with the meanings of symbolic relations within personal life " . Highlighting that Calculus was one of many eccentric scientists to have appeared in the series , he nonetheless emphasises his difference by noting that Calculus approaches Tintin , rather than Tintin approaching him , as the young reporter had done with previous scientists . Commenting on the introduction of Calculus ' shark submarine , he states that it " allows them to cross a boundary previously restricting human beings and to penetrate into another universe , the one beneath the seas that holds secrets hitherto unknown . " Ultimately , he believes that by the end of the story , " the family structure is in place " , with Calculus representing a father figure with financial control , and Haddock and Tintin , who have become brothers through their joint adventure , adding that with the aid of Francis Haddock , " the ancestor " , they are given a home at Marlinspike Hall .

Literary critic Tom McCarthy highlighted what he perceived as scenes in Red Rackham 's Treasure which reflected common themes in The Adventures of Tintin . He pointed out that in being a stowaway aboard the ship , Calculus was one of many stowaways in the series , and that the treasure represented the theme of jewels and precious stones which also cropped up in The Broken Ear , Tintin in the Congo , and The Castafiore Emerald . He noted Tintin 's misreading of the parchments and stated this was one of a number of calculation mistakes that the character makes in the series . He suggested that a scene in which the shark submarine pushes between Haddock 's buttocks was a form of sexual innuendo referencing anal sex , highlighting similar innuendo in The Broken Ear and The Crab with the Golden Claws .

= = Adaptations = =

In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , a series of daily five @-@ minute colour adaptations based upon Hergé 's original comics . Red Rackham 's Treasure was the fifth story to be adapted in the second series ( and the eighth to be adapted overall ) , being directed by Ray Goossens and written by the cartoonist Greg . In later years , Greg would become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .

In 1991 , a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes , each 42 minutes long . Red Rackham 's Treasure was the tenth episode of The Adventures of Tintin to be produced , although it ran half as long as most of the others . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " , with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book .

The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn , a motion capture feature film directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson , was released in most of the world October – November 2011 , and in the US on 21 December 2011 . The film is based partly upon The Secret of the Unicorn and partly on both Red Rackham 's Treasure and The Crab with the Golden Claws . A video @-@ game tie @-@ in to the movie was released October 2011 .

= God Put a Smile upon Your Face =

" God Put a Smile upon Your Face " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was written by all members of the band for their second studio album , A Rush of Blood to the Head ( 2002 ) . The song is built around prominent acoustic and electric guitar riffs with accompanying up @-@ tempo drumming . The song was released on 14 July 2003 as the fourth and final single from the album .

Regional singles were released for Canada , Europe , Australia , and an enhanced version for Taiwan . Promo singles were released for the United Kingdom and United States . Since only promo copies were released , the single reached only number 100 in the UK Singles Chart .

= = Background = =

Coldplay vocalist Chris Martin said , about the writing of the song , " That came out of playing live and wanting to have something with a bit more bounce . We were really getting into things like PJ Harvey and Muse – things with a bit more energy . "

When asked about the development of the song , during a track @-@ by @-@ track reveal , bassist Guy Berryman said :

When we came to record it in the studio we struggled because there was something just not quite right about it and I wasn 't happy about where we 'd left it and where we were happy to leave it and we couldn 't put our finger on what it was and so it was a really nice day one day , me and Chris were just trying , I was actually just trying to record bass at the time and me and Chris were just sitting down trying to brainstorm it and work out what was wrong and so I started trying to just do a few different bass lines and stuff . Between the two of us we came up with just this kind of groove , which stays on the same note as opposed to change , it 's quite technical but it kind of added a bit of bounce to the song and it made it roll along in a much more fluid way . It was a bit mechanical before and it 's just interesting how something small like that can really change the whole vibe of a song . It was just nice because from there on it was one of our favourite tracks and it almost didn 't get on the record but it 's now one of our favourite tracks .

= = Composition = =

The song features an acoustic and electric guitar sound . The song starts with a hushed acoustic ballad , the song then builds into a roar of an electric guitar and soaring with vocals . The song also includes an uptempo metronomic drumming rhythm .

The first line of the third verse allude to a definitive moment with the cryptic reference to God : " Now when you work it out , I 'm worse than you / Yeah , when you work it out I wanted to / Now , when you work out where to draw the line / Your guess is as good as mine . " Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune commented that the lyric " God gave you style and gave you grace , " Martin sings as if " cataloguing the attributes he only wishes he had " . When the song is performed live , guitarist Jonny Buckland begins a long ripping off guitar riff while Chris Martin plays an acoustic guitar .

= = Release = =

Coldplay released " God Put a Smile upon Your Face " in the UK on 7 July 2003 . This was followed with releases in the US and Canada on 14 July 2003 . The song was later released on 21 July 2003 in Australia and Taiwan . When the song was released , it featured the B @-@ side " Murder " . The single cover features bassist Guy Berryman , art @-@ directed by Sølve Sundsbø . Regional singles were released for Canada , Europe , Australia , and an enhanced version for Taiwan . Promotional singles were released in the UK and US .

= = Reception = =

Critics were positive towards the song . In the Rolling Stone review of the album , critic Rob Sheffield wrote : " ' God Put a Smile Upon Your Face ' is the slinkiest and best thing Coldplay have ever done . " Adrien Begrand of PopMatters wrote : " Buckland 's lead fills highlight the wondrous ' God Put a Smile on Your Face ' , as the song 's chorus reaches heights that rival those of their fellow countrymen Doves . " Ted Kessler of NME wrote : " Over a pounding garage tattoo Martin poses a deep , mortality @-@ based teaser ( ' where do we go from here ? ' ) , asserts some self @-@ belief ( ' God gave me style , God gave me grace ' ) and then hits upon the bottom line as the song 's mood suddenly improves with another fat and glorious chorus : ' Yeah , when you work it out I 'm the same as you .... your guess is as good as mine . ' "

" God Put a Smile upon Your Face " was featured in the band 's live album , Live 2003 . The song is available on Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock video game as a downloadable song . The game also includes other Coldplay songs such as " Yellow " and " Violet Hill " . Plan B sampled the track on his 2007 mixtape Paint it Blacker . The song was also covered by Mark Ronson on his album Version , which he performed live with Adele at the 2008 Brit Awards .

The song was also covered by Matt Jorgensen + 451 on their album Hope release on Origin Records .

= = Music video = =

The music video , released in October 2003 , is shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and has a narrative theme . The video is directed by Jamie Thraves , who had previously directed the band 's third video for " The Scientist " .

The video intercuts footage of the band performing the song with the story of a businessman , who is humiliated and horrified to find that he is gradually disappearing , after bumping into a mysterious stranger with no shoes . The businessman is played by actor Paddy Considine .

= = Personnel = =

Chris Martin – vocals , acoustic guitar

Jonny Buckland – electric lead and rhythm guitar

Guy Berryman – bass guitar

Will Champion – drums

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= M @-@ 66 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 66 is a north – south state trunkline highway on the Lower Peninsula ( LP ) of the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Indiana state line in the south to Charlevoix in the north . M @-@ 66 is the only state highway to traverse almost the entire north – south distance of the LP . It starts as a continuation of State Road 9 ( SR 9 ) which provides access to the Indiana Toll Road . The total length is 272 @.@ 898 miles ( 439 @.@ 187 km ) , which includes 3 @.@ 374 miles ( 5 @.@ 430 km ) of freeway between Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and downtown Battle Creek designated as I @-@ 194 . One section of the highway is an expressway , a type of divided limited access highway , while the section along I @-@ 194 is a full freeway , otherwise M @-@ 66 is a two @-@ lane rural highway . Two sections are listed on the National Highway System .

The first usage of the M @-@ 66 designation dates back to around July 1 , 1919 with the rest of the original state highway system . At the time , the highway only extended between Lowell and Lakeview , a route now covered by M @-@ 91 . The highway has been lengthened in a series of extensions north and south starting in 1925 . A rerouting in 1944 – 45 removed M @-@ 66 from its original 1919 routing to replace another highway south of Six Lakes , the change that spawned M @-@ 91 . The last big extension in 1965 resulted in the modern trans @-@ peninsular highway route . The last modifications were shorter reroutings in the 1970s .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 66 runs for 266 @.@ 399 miles ( 428 @.@ 728 km ) as an almost entirely a north – south undivided surface highway in western Michigan from the Indiana state line north to Lake Michigan at Charlevoix . Most of the highway is two @-@ lane undivided rural highway . There is a section south of Battle Creek that is a four @-@ lane expressway . Running north into the Cereal City , M @-@ 66 is concurrent with I @-@ 194 , which is a full freeway . This section along I @-@ 194 is listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . Another section of M @-@ 66 is included on the NHS where it is concurrent with either M @-@ 72 or U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) in Kalkaska or Antrim counties .

= = = Indiana to Ionia = = =

M @-@ 66 is a four @-@ lane highway that connects with State Road 9 ( SR 9 ) at the Indiana state line in southern St. Joseph County . The highway runs north to Sturgis through farm land where it turns east through town running concurrently with US 12 on Chicago Road . As it leaves Sturgis to the north it crosses a branch of the Michigan Southern Railroad , and it becomes a two @-@ lane surface highway along Nottawa Street . The highway runs near several small lakes and crosses the Nottawa Creek before meeting M @-@ 86 . The two highways run north – south concurrently for about 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) along the Nottawa – Colon township line . Farther north , M @-@ 66 crosses the St. Joseph River and meets M @-@ 60 . M @-@ 60 / M @-@ 66 run together to the east , turning northeasterly in Leonidas running parallel to Nottawa Creek and crossing into the northwest corner of Branch County . M @-@ 60 and M @-@ 66 separate west of Union City , and M @-@ 66 turns north into Calhoun County .

Running through woodland terrain in southern Calhoun County , M @-@ 66 passes through Athens , along Graham Lake and continues to the outskirts of Battle Creek . The highway widens first to a four @-@ lane , limited access expressway south of the Lakeview Square Mall before becoming a full freeway at the interchange with I @-@ 94 . It is at the transition to freeway that M @-@ 66 starts its concurrency with I @-@ 194 . I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 is known as the Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway , but the locals still use the former semi @-@ official nickname , " The Penetrator " . The southern section of the freeway has the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 66 as measured by average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) in the survey conducted in 2009 . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculates the AADT value as a tally of the average number of vehicles using a given stretch of roadway . I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 carried 25 @,@ 200 vehicles on the average day during the year ; 980 trucks were included in that traffic . The freeway continues 3 @.@ 374 miles ( 5 @.@ 430 km ) north into downtown Battle Creek along part of the Kalamazoo River and crossing a branch of the Canadian National Railway and Norfolk Southern Railway before ending at the at @-@ grade intersection with Hamblin Avenue . I @-@ 194 ends , and M @-@ 66 continues northeast out of the Cereal City on Division Street and then northeast on Capital Avenue along the Battle Creek River .

M @-@ 66 continues northward through Barry County on Capital Avenue which becomes 9 Mile Road north of Baseline Road . The highway passes through Assyria before meeting M @-@ 79 , with which it has a short concurrency , in Nashville . On the north side of the village , M @-@ 66 crosses the Thornapple River and continues north through mixed rural forest land and farm fields . Near Woodland , M @-@ 66 joins M @-@ 43 and the two run to the northeast and along the Barry – Eaton county line . M @-@ 43 / M @-@ 66 meets M @-@ 50 at a four @-@ way intersection southwest of Lake Odessa near Woodbury , and M @-@ 43 turns east leaving M @-@ 66 in favor of a concurrency with M @-@ 50 . M @-@ 66 crosses a rail line of CSX Transportation and the county line on State Road . It meets I @-@ 96 in a rural southern part of the Ionia County south of Ionia . On the south edge of town , the highway passes the county airport and curves to the northeast becoming Dexter Street . While entering downtown Ionia , the trunkline crosses the Grand River and the mainline of the Grand Rapids Eastern Railroad near the county fairgrounds . M @-@ 66 turns west along M @-@ 21 ( Lincoln Avenue ) for two blocks before turning back to the north along State Street . The trunkline runs through the northern part of the county and meets M @-@ 44 's eastern terminus near Woodard Lake .

= = = Montcalm County and northward = = =

In Montcalm County , M @-@ 66 intersects M @-@ 57 in a rural area south of Sheridan before running north on Sheridan Road through Stanton . The highway jogs west along Main Street in Stanton before returning to a northerly course on a discontinuous section of Sheridan Road . The roadway curves around the west end of Hemmingway Lake near Cannonsville Road . West of Edmore , M @-@ 66 turns northwesterly along M @-@ 46 on Edmore – Howard City Road to Six Lakes . M @-@ 66 separates there and returns to its northerly journey along Six Lakes Road between Little Bass Lake and First Lake . The road crosses into Mecosta County as 30th Avenue north of Six Lakes . The highway intersects M @-@ 20 at the intersection with 9 Mile Road in Remus . This area of rural Mecosta County is more heavily forested with rolling hills and sporadic farms . In Barryton , the roadway crosses the Chippewa River . M @-@ 66 continues north passing Merrill Lake before crossing into rural eastern Osceola County at Mesceola Road .

The highway meets US 10 near Sears after crossing the Pere Marquette State Trail . M @-@ 66 crosses the Muskegon River near a separate 9 Mile Road in Osceola County . It meets both M @-@ 115 and M @-@ 61 ( 16 Mile Road ) south of Marion . The highway continues north and crosses the Great Lakes Central Railroad for the first time in Marion , before entering Missaukee County . The trunkline then turns westward on Stoney Corners Road toward McBain through farm land . In town it runs along Maple Street and then runs north toward Lake City on Morey Road . South of the Lake City , M @-@ 55 runs concurrently with M @-@ 66 by Missaukee Golf Course and into town along the eastern shore of Lake Missaukee . North of town , M @-@ 55 splits off to the east on Houghton Lake Road , and M @-@ 66 continues north to an intersection with the eastern terminus of M @-@ 42 in a rural forest . M @-@ 66 leaves Morey Road and follows Pioneer Road to the county line .

As the highway crosses into Kalkaska County it crosses the Manistee River . M @-@ 66 runs through rolling hills in woodlands through the unincorporated farming community of Lodi north to an intersection with M @-@ 72 . The two highways travel west together over the Great Lakes Central Railroad before turning north and merging with US 131 on a route parallel to the rail line . US 131 / M @-@ 66 / M @-@ 72 follows and crosses a branch of the Boardman River along Cedar Street through downtown Kalkaska . North of the central business district , M @-@ 72 separates to the west and US 131 / M @-@ 66 crosses through the Pere Marquette State Forest on the way to Antrim and Mancelona in Antrim County . The highway follows Williams Street through the twin towns , meeting the southern terminus of M @-@ 88 and western terminus of C @-@ 38 at the intersection with State Street in Mancelona . M @-@ 66 separates from US 131 and follows Mancelona – East Jordan Road out of town .

The section of M @-@ 66 north of the US 131 split had the highway 's lowest AADT levels in the 2009 survey . MDOT reported that only 1 @,@ 500 vehicles use this stretch of road in 2009 . Of these vehicles , only were 140 trucks that used the segment of highway in 2009 . The highway meanders through more forest lands through the community of Green River to East Jordan . M @-@ 66 follows Lake Street and turns to follow the western shore of the South Arm of Lake Charlevoix . The roadway turns inland through Ironton before returning to the lakeshore the rest of the way to Charlevoix . M @-@ 66 ends at an intersection with US 31 south of downtown next to Lake Michigan .

= = = Services = = =

MDOT provides a number of different services to motorists traveling along the state trunkline highway system . Along M @-@ 66 , there are six different carpool lots located near Nashville , Woodland , Belding , Sheridan , Sears and Marion . There are additional services provided to travelers in the form of roadside parks and rest areas . There are two roadside parks along the highway , one is between Woodland and Woodbury , and the second is in Sheridan . The roadway also provides access to the Ionia State Recreation Area and a state harbor on Lake Charlevoix .

= = History = =

M @-@ 66 was first signed along a roadway by July 1 , 1919 between M @-@ 16 ( now M @-@ 21 ) at Lowell and M @-@ 46 near Lakeview . The designation was extended in 1925 along M @-@ 46 to Six Lakes and then north to M @-@ 13 ( now US 131 ) in Lodi . A further extension north from Lodi in 1929 or 1930 along M @-@ 131 to Mancelona , a short segment of M @-@ 88 and north to US 31 in Charlevoix . The southern end was extended to US 16 south of Lowell by 1931 . A section of the northern extension was marked on maps through 1933 as " under construction " . That section was cancelled in favor of another routing near Mancelona . A short bypass of Six Lakes added about a mile to the length of the roadway in 1936 . The M @-@ 131 concurrency was switched to a US 131 concurrency when the latter was extended in 1939 . This concurrency was shortened just before World War II when the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) rerouted US 131 along a new road between South Boardman and Kalkaska .

The MSHD completed a major rerouting of M @-@ 66 around 1944 – 45 . The M @-@ 14 designation of the time was decommissioned and replaced with M @-@ 66 . Starting at Six Lakes , M @-@ 66 turned west along M @-@ 46 instead of east and then turned south through Stanton and Ionia ending north of Battle Creek . The highway between Lowell and Lakeview was redesignated as M @-@ 91 . A minor realignment in late 1950 removed two 90 ° curves near the Osceola – Missaukee county line and replaced them with a pair of sweeping curves .

The MSHD rerouted M @-@ 66 between Maple Grove and Nashville in mid @-@ 1953 . In the changes , M @-@ 79 was extended along the new route of M @-@ 66 and then over M @-@ 214 to Hastings . M @-@ 66 was shifted off Assyria Road which was turned back to local control . Another realignment in 1954 shifted M @-@ 66 to the modern routing between the M @-@ 43 concurrency termini , removing M @-@ 43 / M @-@ 66 from a section of M @-@ 50 in the process . The final section gravel section of M @-@ 66 , approximately 11 miles ( 18 km ) in length , was paved near Nashville in 1957 . M @-@ 32 was extended along the northernmost section of M @-@ 66 in 1963 .

M @-@ 66 was extended southerly from Assyria through Battle Creek to the Indiana state line replacing sections of M @-@ 78 in 1965 . M @-@ 66 turned south and west along M @-@ 60 and new highway to Colon . The segment of former M @-@ 78 not used by M @-@ 66 was transferred to local control . The final section of M @-@ 78 's roadway given to M @-@ 66 extended it all the way to the state line , resulting in a north – south trans @-@ peninsular highway from Lake Michigan near Charlevoix to Indiana . M @-@ 66 is the only such highway to run the length of the Lower Peninsula . The extension allowed the Green Arrow Association to promote the whole length of the Green Arrow Route with a single highway number . The next year , M @-@ 66 was rerouted through Battle Creek to use the completed I @-@ 194 freeway .

A 90 ° turn in Missaukee County was removed north of Lake City in 1972 . In late 1973 or early 1974 , M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 72 were shifted around the south side of Kalkaska . Later in 1974 , the M @-@ 32 concurrency was removed when M @-@ 32 was scaled back to its former terminus . A project in 1981 furthered the 1972 realignment in Missaukee County . About 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) were shortened from the routing when the new alignment was built between Smithville and Phelps Road .

= = Memorial designations = =

To capitalize on the opening of the Mackinac Bridge in 1957 , local leaders in Battle Creek wanted to promote M @-@ 66 as a route north from Indiana to the bridge . They named the highway the Green Arrow Route as part of this marketing strategy . The color was to evoke the forests in the area , and arrow was meant to play on several historical connections . One of these was the Pennsylvania Railroad 's Northern Arrow passenger train that once operated in the area . The official explanation was to tie into the history of Native Americans in the area , but the route was also " straight as an arrow " . The backers also promoted the highway as a direct and scenic route to vacation country in the northern Lower Peninsula , avoiding most of the larger cities in the area . M @-@ 66 was given the Green Arrow Route name in Public Act 170 of 1959 between the Indiana state line and Kalkaska . Despite these efforts , M @-@ 66 failed to attract much traffic . When the Michigan Legislature recodified the memorial highway names in Public Act 142 of 2001 , the Green Arrow Route was truncated to the northern border of Calhoun County , a change confirmed by Public Act 138 of 2004 .

Born Isabella Baumfree in 1797 , Sojourner Truth settled in the Battle Creek area in the 1840s . She travelled through the Midwest and New England speaking against slavery and for women 's rights . She lived in the area until her death in 1883 . Her connection to the state of Michigan was honored by the state American Revolution Bicentennial Commission in 1976 which urged the Michigan Legislature to name a highway in her honor . Public Act 93 of 1976 named all of M @-@ 66 in Calhoun County , including the segment that runs concurrently with I @-@ 194 , as the Sojourner Truth Memorial Highway . The highway was dedicated to her on May 21 , 1976 .

The Cereal City Development Corporation ( CCDC ) asked the Legislature to amend the memorial designation in 1993 . They felt that I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 was better known to locals as The Penetrator , and they wished to restore emphasis to Truth . They asked for the " Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway " name to be applied to " M @-@ 66 between Interstate 94 and Hamblin " . The Legislature passed Public Act 208 of 1993 to affect the change , restoring " the link between Sojourner Truth and the City of Battle Creek , which was once the center of abolitionist sentiment in the state . "

= = Major intersections = =

= 15th Sustainment Brigade =

The 15th Sustainment Brigade was a sustainment brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Bliss , Texas . It provided logistics support to other units of the United States Army , and was subordinate to the 13th Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) . It previously had provided support to the 1st Cavalry Division , but now did so for the 1st Armored Division until 12 May 2015 when the 15th Sustainment Brigade became part of the 1st Armored Division and was renamed 1st Armored Division Sustainment Brigade .

The brigade 's lineage dates back to 1919 , and it had a long and decorated history when designated as the supply command of the 1st Cavalry Division . Having seen service in every major conflict of the 20th century in support of its parent division , the unit was not designated as the 15th Sustainment Brigade permanently until 2005 . In February 2008 , the brigade was reassigned to the 13th Sustainment Command , ending almost a century of association with the 1st Cavalry Division .

The 15th Sustainment Brigade 's extensive lineage also carries many honors for the unit . What is now the 15th Sustainment Brigade , and its previous incarnations , have earned 17 campaign streamers , as well as numerous awards , mostly for service during the Vietnam War . These decorations include the Presidential Unit Citation , the Valorous Unit Award , and five Meritorious Unit Commendations .

= = Organization = =

The 15th Sustainment Brigade was permanently attached to the 1st Cavalry Division , though it could operate independently when needed . Currently , it falls under the organization of the 1st Armored Division , having relocated as part of the Base Realignment and Closure 2005 . This assignment allows the unit maximum flexibility when deployed , as it can provide any support function needed , without being permanently attached to any particular unit or area of operations .

The unit has two permanently assigned battalions along with its Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) . They consist of the 15th Special Troops Battalion , and the 142nd Combat Sustainment Support Battalion which are also headquartered at Fort Bliss , Texas . 72nd Brigade Support Battalion inactivated in November 2014 , in conjunction with inactivation of 212th Fires Brigade ( United States ) in July 2014 . In addition , Company A , 125th Brigade Support Battalion ( formerly with 3rd BCT ) , in conjunction with the inactivation of 3rd BCT , completed a high @-@ visibility project : Company A produced the first Redistribution Property Accountability Team ( RPAT ) yard in the continental US , which gives commanders a clear picture of property redistribution , especially during a unit 's closure . The brigade command is modular in design , allowing it to assume command of additional units when deployed . The command is preparing for deployment to Southwest Asia in 2015 .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

The 15th Sustainment Brigade was originally constituted on 4 May 1966 in the Regular Army as a Headquarters and Headquarters Company . It was first activated on 1 July 1966 .

On 20 October 1967 , the Brigade was inactivated after providing support to units in Vietnam , only to be reactivated on 21 September 1968 at Fort Lewis , Washington . The Brigade later inactivated at Fort Lewis on 21 March 1973 having received campaign credits for its support for Counteroffensive Operations ( Phase II and III ) in Vietnam .

As mentioned above , the 15th Sustainment Brigade replaced the “ Division Support Command ” of the 1st Cavalry Division . The history of the organization can be traced back to 1919 when one of its present units , the 15th Forward Support Battalion , existed as the 615th Motor Transport Company . The Division Support Command ( DISCOM ) thus predated the 1st Cavalry Division itself , which was not established until 1921 .

In the years before World War II , most of the units of the 1st Cavalry Division that were not assigned to larger unit commands were under the control of the Headquarters , Division Special Troops of the division ; an independent unit for various supporting units for a division . These included the service and support elements of the division . After World War II , however , the Special Troops Headquarters was reorganized into Headquarters , Division Trains . This designation immediately predates the " Division Support Command " ( DISCOM ) designation . The division trains were activated 1 November 1957 in Korea . Although a new organization , 1st Cavalry Division 's Division Trains employed concepts and tactics similar to those of U.S. armored division trains that were originated in World War I.

= = = Vietnam War = = =

On 1 September 1963 , Headquarters , Division Trains was reorganized under the " R.O.A.D. " ( Reorganization of the Army Divisions ) plan and redesignated as Headquarters , Headquarters Company and Band , 1st Cavalry Division , 1st Cavalry Division Support Command . Accompanying the division to Vietnam in August 1965 , the Support Command participated in all of the same campaigns that the division did , providing logistics support for the 1st Cavalry Division throughout the entire conflict .

The unit 's first major operation was the Pleiku Campaign . During this action , the command supported the division during 35 days of continuous airmobile operations . The opening battle of the campaign , the Battle of Ia Drang Valley , was described in the book We Were Soldiers Once ... And Young which was also the basis of the subsequent Mel Gibson film We Were Soldiers .

For most of 1967 and early 1968 , the formation supported the 1st Cavalry Division through Operation Pershing . This was a large scale search of areas under the jurisdiction of the US II Corps which , according to the US Army , saw 5 @,@ 400 enemy killed and 2 @,@ 000 captured . The division re @-@ deployed to Camp Evans , north of Hue in the I Corps Tactical Zone , during the 1968 Tet Offensive It was involved in recapturing Quang Tri and Hue regions . After intense fighting in Hue , the division then moved to relieve US Marine Corps units besieged at the Khe Sanh combat base in Operation Pegasus through March 1968 . The 1st Cavalry Division next conducted major clearing operations in the Ashau Valley from mid @-@ April through mid @-@ May 1968 . From May until September 1968 , the division participated in local pacification missions , as well as Medical outreach programs intended to offer medical support to the Vietnamese local population . During this time , the division and support command were assigned to I Corps .

In the autumn of 1968 , the 1st Cavalry Division relocated south to the III Corps Tactical Zone northwest of Saigon , adjacent to a Cambodian region commonly referred to as the " Parrots Beak " , due to its shape . In May 1970 , the division was among U.S. units participating in the Cambodian Incursion , withdrawing from Cambodia on 29 June . The division thereafter took a defensive posture while the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam continued . The bulk of the division was withdrawn on 29 April 1971 .

The Division Support Command received all of the same honors as the division headquarters throughout the conflict . These awards included the Presidential Unit Citation for the actions in Pleiku Province and the Valorous Unit Award for action in the “ Parrots Beak ” area of Cambodia ( referred to as the " Fish Hook " area in the unit 's award streamer ) . In addition , Support Command received three Meritorious Unit Commendations and four Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry awards throughout the deployments .

On 15 May 1971 , the DISCOM was reorganized and designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 1st Cavalry Division Support Command . Most major subordinate units of the DISCOM had returned from Vietnam in 1971 and were stationed at Fort Hood . By the end of June 1971 , the DISCOM was a large command composed of HHC , Support Command , 15th Adjutant General Company / Band , 15th Medical Battalion , 15th Supply and Transport Battalion , 27th Maintenance Battalion , 8th Engineer Battalion , 315th Composite Support Battalion , 15th Finance Company ( the latter two units had been transferred from the 1st Armored Division ) , and the 15th Data Processing Unit .

= = = Reorganizations & The Gulf War = = =

During the early 1980s , the DISCOM consisted of a Headquarters Company , a Division Materiel Management Center , a Division Data Center , the 15th Medical Battalion , 15th Adjutant General Battalion , 15th Finance Company , 15th Supply and Transport Battalion , 27th Maintenance Battalion and the 68th Chemical Company . In October 1984 , the 1st and 2nd Forward Support Battalions were activated from elements of the three functional battalions attached to the unit . The following year saw the Army of Excellence Reorganization ( AOE ) transform the remaining elements of the three functional battalions ( maintenance , medical , and supply and transport ) into the 4th Main Support Battalion . The AOE reorganization also added the 493rd Transportation Company ( Aircraft Maintenance ) to the Division Support Command . The forward and main support battalions , along with the Aviation Maintenance Company , were redesignated in 1987 , becoming the 15th and 115th Forward Support Battalions , 27th Main Support Battalion , and 227th Transportation Company ( Aviation Maintenance ) .

On 28 September 1990 , the Division Support Command deployed to the Middle East in support of Operation Desert Shield . In January 1991 , Division Support Command provided support to the 1st Cavalry Division throughout Operation Desert Storm , leading to a quick liberation of Kuwait . On 16 December 1991 , the 215th Forward Support Battalion was activated at Fort Hood bringing the number of active duty forward support battalions to three . On 8 July 1996 , the 615th Support Battalion ( Aviation ) was provisionally organized . The battalion was formally activated on 17 September 1996 .

= = = Activation & Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =

On 6 July 2005 , the Division Support Command ( DISCOM ) of the 1st Cavalry Division was inactivated and redesignated the 15th Sustainment Brigade . DISCOM ’ s previously subordinate Forward Support Battalions were redesignated Brigade Support Battalions and task organized under their supported maneuver brigade .

The 15th Sustainment Brigade was the first element of the 1st Cavalry Division to return to Iraq and assumed control for logistics in the Baghdad area of operations in July 2006 . The Brigade provided command and control for numerous units not normally associated with the 1st Cavalry Division . It had sustained several casualties during its tour in the country , including a mortar attack that killed two soldiers and injured five more in October 2007 . Tasks the unit completed during its 2006 – 2007 tour in Iraq included construction and maintenance of sustainment facilities , and maintaining vehicles , including adding additional armor to Humvee vehicles for other US units operating in the country .

The Brigade changed its higher command for the first time in its history on 15 February 2008 . It was reassigned from the 1st Cavalry Division to the 13th Sustainment Command ( Expeditionary ) , holding a mock cavalry charge to celebrate the occasion . This would also mark the first time that the brigade served independently from the 1st Cavalry Division . Since returning from Iraq , the brigade has undertaken a number of duties around Fort Hood . These activities include testing new systems for use during deployments , remodeling infrastructure around the fort , and training on personal safety .

= = Honors = =

= = = Unit Decorations = = =

= = = Campaign Streamers = = =

= = Legacy = =

The Sustainment Brigade and its soldiers have been the subject of numerous army publications during its tours in Iraq , most of which having to do with the culture and lifestyle of soldiers serving the unit . Among these have been feature stories by the Multi @-@ National Force : Iraq public affairs office , on married soldiers who deploy together . The Army Logistician , an Army publication for soldiers serving in support units , published a feature story on the stories of soldiers serving in Iraq for their September – October 2007 issue . This story was intended to display the versatility of sustainment brigades overall . Another story was written for defenselink.mil , the press service for the United States Armed Forces in March 2007 about soldiers of the brigade and how they react to the desert climate of the country , having to cope with sandstorms and other issues .

= Codex Carolinus =

Codex Carolinus is a Gothic @-@ Latin diglot uncial manuscript of the New Testament on parchment , dated to the 6th or 7th century . The Gothic text is designated by siglum Car , the Latin text is designated by siglum gue ( traditional system ) or by 79 ( on the list of Beuron ) , it represents the Old Latin translation of the New Testament . It is housed in the Herzog August Bibliothek .

It is one of very few manuscripts of Wulfilas Gothic Bible . The manuscript is fragmentary . The four leaves of the codex were used as raw material for the production of another manuscript – Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis . It is a palimpsest , and its text was reconstructed several times . Franz Anton Knittel was the first to examine it and decipher its text .

= = Description = =

The codex has survived to the present day in a very fragmentary condition . It contains only the text of the Epistle to the Romans 11 @-@ 15 on four parchment leaves ( size 26 @.@ 5 cm by 21 @.@ 5 cm ) . The text is written in two parallel columns , 27 lines per column . The left column is in Gothic , the right in Latin .

Contents

Romans 11 : 33 @-@ 12 : 5 ; 12 : 17 @-@ 13 : 5 ; 14 : 9 @-@ 20 ; 15 : 3 @-@ 13 .

The text of the codex is not divided into chapters . The nomina sacra are used both in Gothic and Latin texts ( ihm and ihu for " Iesum " and " Iesu " ) . All the abbreviations are marked with the superscript bar . Its text has some value in Romans 14 : 14 for Textual Criticism .

It is a palimpsest , the whole book is known as Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis . The upper text is in Latin , it contains Isidore of Seville 's Origines and his six letters . The lower text of the codex belongs to several much earlier manuscripts , such as Codex Guelferbytanus A , Codex Guelferbytanus B , and Codex Carolinus .

= = History = =

The manuscript is dated palaeographically to the 6th century or 7th century . According to Tischendorf it was written in the 6th century . Probably it was written in Italy . Nothing is known about its early history . In the 12th or 13th century four of its leaves were used as material for another book and they were overwritten by Latin text . Its later story is linked with the codices Guelferbytanus A and B.

Formerly the manuscript was held in Bobbio , Weissenburg , Mainz , and Prague . The Duke of Brunswick bought it in 1689 .

The manuscript became known to the scholars in the half of the 18th century , where it was found in the Ducal Library of Wolfenbüttel . The first description of the codex was made by Heusinger . Franz Anton Knittel ( 1721 – 1792 ) recognized two lower Greek texts of the New Testament in this palimpsest codex , and designated them by A and B , he recognized also the Gothic @-@ Latin text ( known later as Codex Carolinus ) . F. A. Knittel deciphered Gothic @-@ Latin text of the Codex Carolinus and published it in 1762 at Brunswick . In his edition all abbreviated forms , Gothic and Latin , are written in full . It was published in Uppsala in 1763 . It was published again by Theodor Zahn .

Knittel made many errors , especially in Latin text , he also did not decipher every word and left several lacunae in the reconstructed text ( e.g. Romans 11 : 35 ; 12 : 2 ; 15 : 8 ) . Tischendorf made a new and more accurate collation for the Latin text and edited in 1855 . Tischendorf used abbreviations for the nomina sacra , he did not leave any lacunae . The new collation of the Gothic text was given by Carla Falluomini in 1999 .

The codex is located at the Herzog August Bibliothek ( no . 4148 ) in Wolfenbüttel .

= = Samples of reconstructed text ( Romans 11 : 33 @-@ 12 : 2 ) = =

= = = Gothic text ( folio 277 recto , 1 col . ) = = =

= = = Latin text ( folio 277 recto , 2 col . ) = = =

= Mont Aiguille =

Mont Aiguille ( 2 @,@ 085 m ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) ) is a mountain in the Vercors Plateau of the French Prealps , located 58 km ( 36 mi ) south of Grenoble , in the commune of Chichilianne , and the département of Isère . The mountain , known as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné , is a relatively flat limestone mesa surrounded by steep cliffs . The mountain lies within an area designated in 1985 as the Vercors Regional Natural Park . Mont Aiguille 's limestone cliffs , especially on the northwest side , are popular with climbers . Its first climb in 1492 was said to mark the birth of mountaineering .

= = Topography and geography = =

Mont Aiguille is a mesa eroded from the Vercors Plateau in the drainage basin of the Rhône . It is surrounded by steep cliffs and has a height of 2 @,@ 085 metres ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) and a clean prominence of 465 m ( 1 @,@ 526 ft ) . The surrounding terrain is difficult enough to warrant a technical climb as the easiest method of ascent . The mountain is capped with meadows botanically similar to those on the Vercors High Plateau , but beneath the cliffs there are extensive forests . The mountain lies within the Vercors Regional Natural Park and is in the département of Isère . The nearest access by rail is in the village of Saint @-@ Martin @-@ de @-@ Clelles and by road is from the north via the Col de La Bâtie .

= = Geomorphology and geology = =

Geomorphologically , the mountain is a mesa @-@ like outlier , that is to say , the remains of a plateau that has been otherwise eroded to leave only a single pillar of rock - weaker or fractured rocks ( the so @-@ called Jasneuf fault ) between the current summit and the Vercors high plateau were eroded over time by over 400 metres , leaving the peak standing on its own . This has resulted in several unique features of Mont Aiguille , including the cliffs , which are almost identical to those on the eastern edge of the Vercors Plateau such as those on the edge of the Grand Veymont , which is the highest point of the range . Another feature resulting from this is the presence of meadows on the summit plateau , which are similar to those to the west on the rest of the Vercors plateau .

Mont Aiguille is a limestone mesa , previously connected to the main body of the high plateau of the Vercors Massif . The summit is made up of lower Barremian strata , deposited during the Cretaceous period . This is the same as the plateau to the west , but not as the immediate environs : the lower slopes are composed of older Hauterivian strata . As easily observed , the bedding planes are all roughly level , although there is some inclination down to the north @-@ east .

= = History = =

According to Roman legend , the mountain was torn from the rest of the Vercors when a hunter named Ibicus saw naked goddesses on the mountain and was changed into an ibex as punishment . In the medieval period , Mont Aiguille was traditionally called " Mount Inaccessible " , and typically depicted as an " inverted pyramid " or " mushroom " . Since at least the thirteenth century , the mountain has been regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of Dauphiné . The mountain is most noted for its first ascent in 1492 . Charles VIII ordered that the peak be climbed , so one of his servants , Antoine de Ville , made the ascent using a combination of ladders , ropes and other artificial aids . He was visited in the following days by many local members of the nobility and aristocracy . The team bivouacked on the summit for eight days , erecting small crosses and a stone shelter . The ascent is described by François Rabelais in his Quart Livre . This was the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty , and has been said to mark the beginning of mountaineering . The mountain was not climbed again until 1834 , nearly 350 years later , when it was ascended barefoot by Jean Liotard , accompanied for one @-@ quarter of the way by local explorers . Less than a month later , it was climbed by seven people at the same time , who reportedly danced and sang La Marseillaise on the summit . In 1940 , the top 11 m ( 36 ft ) of the mountain collapsed , reducing the height to 2 @,@ 085 m ( 6 @,@ 841 ft ) . Seventeen years later , on 27 August 1957 , the stunt pilot Henri Giraud landed a Piper J @-@ 3 Cub on the summit , utilising an 80 m ( 260 ft ) -long , 20 m ( 66 ft ) -wide runway which had been built earlier that day using materials and men lifted to the summit by helicopters . In the following 18 years , he staged a further 51 landings on the summit before his final landing in 1975 , many carrying paying passengers , and often made using skis . The mountain was in 1970 designated as part of the Parc naturel régional du Vercors .

= = Gallery = =

= German submarine U @-@ 111 ( 1940 ) =

German submarine U @-@ 111 was a Type IXB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II .

She had a short career , sinking four enemy vessels and damaging one other . These victories took place over a period of two war patrols . During her first sortie , the boat sank two enemy vessels and damaged a further one . On her second patrol , U @-@ 111 sank two more enemy ships before she herself was sunk on 4 October 1941 southwest of Tenerife , by depth charges from a British warship . Out of a crew of 52 officers and men , eight died in the attack ; 44 survived .

= = Construction and design = =

= = = Construction = = =

U @-@ 111 was ordered to be built by the Kriegsmarine on 8 August 1939 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . Her keel was laid down on 20 February 1940 by DeSchiMAG AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 976 . Following about seven months of construction , she was launched on 15 September and commissioned on 19 December under the command of Kapitänleutnant Wilhelm Kleinschmidt .

= = = Design = = =

German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA . U @-@ 111 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 051 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 034 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 178 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 159 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 76 m ( 22 ft 2 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .

The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles ( 119 km ; 74 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 111 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .

= = Service history = =

= = = First patrol = = =

U @-@ 111 went to sea on a war patrol for the first time on 5 May 1941 . For a period of 64 days , she roamed the North Sea and eventually the North Atlantic as far west as Nova Scotia in search of any Allied convoys heading to Great Britain . During that time she encountered three enemy vessels . The first confrontation took place on the 13th , just eight days after leaving port , when she came across the British merchant vessel SS Somersby and sank her just south of Iceland . On 20 May , the submarine came across the tanker San Felix and fired a torpedo at her , causing damage to her hull but failing to sink her . Two days later , U @-@ 111 sank the second and last enemy vessel of her patrol , the Barnby , south of Greenland . After these victories , the boat returned to port . However , instead of returning to Wilhelmshaven , she entered the port of Lorient in occupied France on 7 July .

= = = Second patrol and loss = = =

U @-@ 111 left Lorient on 14 August 1941 and travelled south off the west coast of Africa and into the South Atlantic . She then turned west towards the eastern coast of Brazil . It was in these waters that the boat sank her last two enemy merchant ships . The first was the Dutch Motor merchant vessel Marken . She was torpedoed on 10 September just north of Ceará in Brazil . All of her crew survived the attack and boarded life boats . They were questioned by the crew of the U @-@ boat , given food and released . Marken 's crew were later safely picked up by a Spanish merchant vessel . Ten days later , U @-@ 111 sank her fourth and last enemy vessel , the British motor merchant ship Cingalese Prince also off Brazil . On 28 September she was involved in an action in Tarafal Bay , in the Cape Verde islands ; having been ordered to rendezvous there with two other U @-@ boats , U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 68 . She was struck by the British submarine HMS Clyde which had accidentally dived onto her after unsuccessfully attacking U – 67 . U @-@ 111 was so badly damaged she was left unable to dive , and was obliged to head for home . On 4 October 1941 , she was hunted down and sunk by depth charges from the British anti @-@ submarine trawler HMS Lady Shirley southwest of Tenerife . Of a crew of 52 men , eight died ; including Meki Smith 44 survived . They were subsequently interrogated ; it was the first time prisoners of war were captured from a U @-@ boat operating in the South Atlantic .

= = = Wolfpacks = = =

U @-@ 111 took part in one wolfpack , namely .

West ( 13 May - 5 June 1941 )

= = Summary of raiding history = =

= Waxy ( horse ) =

Waxy ( 1790 – 18 April 1818 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse that won the 1793 Epsom Derby and was an influential sire in the late eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century . Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole and was foaled at Lewes in 1790 . He was sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , a son of the foundation stallion Eclipse , whose genetic lineage traced to the Darley Arabian . Waxy 's dam , Maria , was sired by the influential stallion Herod and produced one full @-@ brother to Waxy , who was named Worthy . Waxy derived his name from a variety of potato , a choice that was inspired by his sire 's name . Trained by Robert Robson , Waxy won nine races out of 15 starts during his four @-@ year racing career , retiring from racing at the age of seven in 1797 after sustaining an injury during his last start .

Beginning in 1798 , Waxy stood at stud at Sir Poole 's estate in Lewes and remained there until Poole 's death in 1804 . After Poole 's death , Waxy was acquired by the 3rd Duke of Grafton and stood at his Euston Hall stud . Waxy remained at Euston Hall for the remainder of his life and was used as a breeding stallion until his death on 18 April 1818 . His most notable offspring were produced under the ownership of the 3rd Duke of Grafton and his son . Waxy produced 190 winners of races during his stud career , siring four Epsom Derby and three Epsom Oaks winners , becoming a leading sire in 1810 . His most notable sons that achieved success in the stud were Whalebone and Whisker . Through the produce of these two sons , Waxy became the paternal ancestor of most of the world 's male Thoroughbreds by the mid @-@ twentieth century .

= = Background = =

Waxy was bred by Sir Ferdinando Poole , a baronet whose family seat was in Poole , Cheshire . Sir Ferdinando leased an extensive estate in Lewes that was built on land once owned by the Grey Friars and was called " The Friary . " Waxy was foaled in 1790 at Poole 's stable at The Friary .

The colt was named " Waxy " to distinguish him from Poole 's other colt sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os out of the mare Macaria , which was subsequently named " Mealy . " Waxy and mealy were two types of potatoes available at the time and are a play on the name of the colts ' sire Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , which is itself a pun on the name " Potatoes . " A variant spelling , " Waxey , " is mentioned in some publications .

= = = Ancestry = = =

Waxy 's sire , Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , was a successful sire of racehorses that had won 34 races during his seven @-@ year racing career . In addition to Waxy , Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os produced the mare Parasol ( the dam of Partisan ) and the colt Lottery . Waxy was Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os most successful son in the breeding shed , with Waxy 's sons carrying on the direct @-@ male line well into the 20th century .

Waxy 's dam , Maria , was bred by Lord Bolingbroke and was sired by the Thoroughbred foundation sire Herod . She produced ten foals between 1784 and 1797 , with Waxy being her sixth foal and one of two by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . Waxy 's full @-@ brother , Worthy ( foaled in 1795 ) , was a moderately successful racer and was later a breeding stallion for the East India Company . Maria died in 1797 , about two weeks after foaling the filly Wowski , later the dam of Derby winner Smolensko , Sir Charles and Thunderbolt .

= = = Description = = =

In the words of jockey Sam Chifney , Waxy was a " handsome , rich bay , with a white stocking on the off @-@ hind [ right ] leg , good length , and especially beautiful quarters . " In the words of his exercise rider ( who wrote an anonymous letter to The Sporting Magazine in 1828 ) , Waxy was " one of the finest formed horses , perfect in symmetry , beautiful in colour , admirable in all his paces , and of the finest temper when in work . " However , when Waxy was confined to a stall during the winter months , his temperament became unruly and unpredictable leading the anonymous writer to remark that , " Oft has he kicked the lappets of my coat over my head . " One of the few , possibly only , surviving portraits of Waxy was painted by Francis Sartorius in 1794 or 1795 , and the depiction was praised in commentary for Sporting Magazine for its " neatness " and for " the truth of representation it so evidently display [ ed ] . " While most breeding stallions and racehorses of the era had stable companions , Waxy reportedly was fond of rabbits in his later years and " was never happy without a rabbit in his paddock " with one female rabbit making her nest in the middle of his stall and raising generations of rabbits at the site that were never harmed by Waxy .

= = Racing career = =

Waxy did not race at the age of two years , and his first turf appearance was at the spring meeting at Newmarket . Waxy was trained by Robert Robson , who worked for Sir Ferdinando Poole in Lewes for several years from about 1792 . Waxy 's main and most celebrated racing rival was Lord Egremont 's colt Gohanna ( first described as " Brother to Precipitate " ) who was called the " Pride of Petworth . " Waxy raced Gohanna five times in his career , beating him in all but one race , a match race at Newmarket in 1794 where Waxy carried two more pounds than Gohanna and lost by half a head . Waxy was perceived as an excellent racehorse during his racing career . So much so that in one alleged incident , Waxy was mistakenly seized as a heriot after the proprietor of a Godstone inn where he was staying suddenly died . Being the finest horse in the stable , and assuming he was owned by the stablemaster he was briefly taken by the landowner . Waxy raced until he was seven years old and retired from racing after he was injured in his last start . He was then used as a breeding stallion by Poole at Lewes .

= = = 1793 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

The Epsom Derby occurred on 18 May and was attended by " as numerous a company as ever appeared on the course . " Eleven horses lined up for the start , seven of them sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os . The starting odds for Waxy to win the Derby were 100 to 7 and 100 to 10 ( depending on the bookmaking operation ) and at the Tattersalls betting room he " was so little thought of , that he had never been mentioned " in the betting . The race favorite was Lord Egremont 's colt " Brother to Precipitate " ( later named Gohanna in 1795 ) with this horse taking the lead in the initial strides of the race . Waxy pushed Brother to Precipitate ( a " bump " in modern racing terms ) at the track 's first turn , taking and maintaining the lead to become an " easy winner " of the Derby . Three of the top four finishers were sired by Pot @-@ 8 @-@ Os , with second place finisher Brother to Precipitate being the exception . The meeting was also notable for a " dreadful accident , " a collision between a servant on horseback with the colt Exiseman , the winner of the race after the Derby , and for the antics of John Lade dressed in a " loose undress of blue and white striped trowsers " asking the crowd to determine whether he was " the captain of a privateer or an ambassador from the Great Mogul . "

At Lewes on 1 August , Waxy won an 80 @-@ guinea sweepstakes race against Lord Egremont 's colt Mercury while carrying seven pounds more than the other horses in the race as a handicap for his win in the Derby . At Abingdon on 11 September , Waxy won a two @-@ mile 40 @-@ guinea sweepstakes race against the colt Rockingham .

= = = 1794 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

Waxy won the Jockey Club Plate at the Second Spring meeting at Newmarket in May . At the same meeting a few days later , Waxy was beaten by Lord Egremont 's colt Brother to Precipitate in a match race . On At Ipswich on 1 July , Waxy won a match race against Charles Bunbury 's colt Robin Gray . At Lewes in July , Waxy ran against his previous rival , Brother to Precipitate , and won both heats in the four @-@ mile Duke of Richmond 's Plate for horses bred in Suffolk . On the same day , Waxy was the only horse that presented for the 60 @-@ guinea Ladies ' Plate and won by default ( termed as a " walk over " ) .

= = = 1795 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

At Oxford on 18 August , Waxy was second in a 100 @-@ guinea cup race to Mr. Durand 's filly Hermione . At Lewes on 6 August , Waxy was third in the four @-@ mile Ladies ' Plate to the colt Guildford and Lord Egremont 's horse Gohanna . On 19 September at Salisbury , Waxy won two heats to win the 100 @-@ guinea His Majesty 's Plate against the five @-@ year @-@ old horse Guatimozin .

= = = 1796 : six @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

At the First Spring meeting , Waxy was second in the 100 @-@ guinea King 's Plate to the colt Gabriel . In March at Newmarket , Waxy was third in the first class of the Oatland Stakes to the colts Viret and Pecker . In May , Waxy won His Majesty 's Plate at Guildford against Gohanna and Guildford . On 31 August at Salisbury , Waxy won two four @-@ mile heats against Gohanna for the 100 @-@ guinea His Majesty 's Plate .

= = = 1797 : seven @-@ year @-@ old season = = =

On 18 July at Oxford in the running for the Gold Cup , Waxy did not place and was noted to have " broke down " during the running . This was his last appearance on the turf and he was retired to stud the following season in 1798 .

= = Stud career = =

Waxy first stood at Lewes for a fee of 10 guineas per mare and a groom fee of 10 shillings . In September 1803 , Sir Ferdinando Poole offered to sell Waxy for 700 guineas to William Lightfoot , an agent sent to buy horses for Virginian turfman John Tayloe . Lightfoot refused to buy Waxy , writing to Tayloe , " he has lost an eye , and is thirteen years old , and I think his health bad . " Instead Lightfoot purchased Waxy 's half @-@ sister Keren Happuch who was covered by Waxy that year . It is unclear how Waxy lost his eye , its loss occurring sometime between 1797 and 1803 . Sir Ferdinando Poole died on 8 June 1804 , and Waxy was then acquired by the Duke of Grafton and relocated to the Euston Hall stud near Newmarket . Under the Duke 's ownership , his fee increased to 25 guineas per mare and he covered 40 mares per season .

Waxy died on 18 April 1818 at the advanced age ( for a Thoroughbred ) of 28 , having gone completely blind a few years before his death . He was buried at Newmarket , close to All Saints Church .

= = = Legacy = = =

Waxy produced 190 winners in his stud career , including four winners of the Epsom Derby and three winners of the Epsom Oaks . His first Derby winner , Waxy Pope , was foaled when Waxy was 16 years old and most of his notable offspring were produced in the last nine years of his life under the ownership of the Duke of Grafton and his son . Waxy was the leading sire in 1810 , mostly due to the racing success of Pope and Whalebone . His importance to Thoroughbred genetics and prevalence in the General Stud Book led him to be likened to " the ace of trumps , " the most powerful card in bridge , due in part to the success of his sons Whisker and Whalebone . In the mid @-@ 20th century , the paternal line of most of the world 's male Thoroughbreds traced to the Darley Arabian through Waxy , and Waxy 's line was one of only three male lines tracing to Eclipse that persisted into the 20th century ( the others tracing through Hambletonian and Joe Andrews ) . In the words of 20th @-@ century Thoroughbred pedigree analyst John Furman Wall , " with his advent , superb quality was a reality . "

= = = Notable offspring = = =

Waxy produced four Epsom Derby winners : Waxy Pope ( 1809 ) , Whalebone ( 1810 ) , Blucher ( 1814 ) and Whisker ( 1815 ) . He also sired three fillies that won the Epsom Oaks : Music ( 1813 ) , Minuet ( 1815 ) and Corinne ( 1818 ) . Corinne also won the 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes in 1818 . His most productive offspring were produced by the mare Penelope ( by Trumpator ) and include Whalebone , Whisker , Web , Woful , Wire and Wilful . Penelope was bred and owned by the Duke of Grafton , and all of her foals were foaled at Euston Hall . Whisker was more notable for siring broodmares , and Whalebone was a good producer of colts . Waxy Pope was a leading sire in Ireland and Blucher was a marginally successful sire .

= = = = Colts = = = =

Pope ( also called Waxy Pope and Lord Sligo 's Waxy ) was foaled in 1806 out of the mare Prunella by Highflyer . Pope won the 1809 Derby in a close finish from the colt Wizard and won seven races in his career on the turf . He was later exported to Ireland and was a leading sire nine times .

Whalebone was foaled in 1807 out of the mare Penelope , who was a daughter of Prunella . He raced for six years and won the Derby in 1810 . He later sired two Derby winners , Lap @-@ dog and Spaniel and Caroline , winner of the Oaks . He might have been the sire of Derby winner Moses , but Moses ' parentage is uncertain due to his dam being covered by two stallions .

Woful was full @-@ brother to Whalebone and Whisker and was foaled in 1809 . He won 12 races in his turf career and was a successful sire , especially of broodmares , for the Euston Hall stud , producing winners of the Epsom Oaks , 1 @,@ 000 Guineas and St. Leger Stakes .

Blucher was foaled in 1811 from the mare Pantina by Buzzard . Blucher won the Derby in 1814 and was a marginally successful sire , producing the third dam of Pretender .

Whisker was foaled in 1812 and was a full @-@ brother to Woful and Whalebone . Whisker won the Derby in 1815 and 11 other races in his career . He sired Economist ( the grandsire of King Tom ) and the filly Poetess ( the dam of Monarque ) .

= = = = Fillies = = = =

Web was foaled in 1808 out of Penelope and was the grandam of the influential stallion Glencoe through her daughter Trampoline .

Music was a full @-@ sister to Minuet out of the mare Woodbine and was foaled in 1810 . She won the Oaks in 1813 and was second in the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes , but did not produce any offspring of note .

Minuet was a full @-@ sister of Music and was foaled in 1812 . She won the 1815 Oaks , July Stakes and several sweepstakes and produced several winners at stud , but her line did not endure .

Corinne was foaled in 1815 out of the Oaks winner Briseis . She won the 1818 Epsom Oaks and 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes but was an unsuccessful broodmare .

= = Tabulated pedigree = =

= Battle of Antioch ( 218 ) =

The Battle of Antioch ( 8 June 218 ) was fought between the Roman armies of the Emperor Macrinus and his contender Elagabalus , whose troops were commanded by General Gannys . Gannys ' victory over Macrinus led to the downfall of the emperor and his replacement by Elagabalus . After a short reign of four years , Elagabalus was also killed , after which a short period of stability followed .

The battle itself is not particularity notable , and even the ancient scholars , Dio and Herodian , only briefly consider the battle itself . However , it is historically notable as the ultimate action in a series of events that led the Army to select the emperor over the objections of the Senate . This further eroded one of the few official powers remaining in the Senate .

= = Background = =

= = = Death of Caracalla and rise of Macrinus = = =

Macrinus ' predecessor Caracalla was murdered while traveling to visit a temple by Justin Martialus , a soldier who was incensed at being declined the rank of centurion , during a period of war with the Parthians . Macrinus , a Praetorian prefect at the time , was involved in the assassination . Macrinus may have plotted against Caracalla because of fear for his own life , based on a story mentioned by Herodian and supported by Gibbons : Macrinus would often read dispatches sent to Caracalla , and one such dispatch delivered from Materianus , a friend of Caracalla , detailed a prophecy , perhaps fabricated , from the oracle at Delphi , suggesting that Macrinus was plotting against Caracalla and that Macrinus was destined to become the next emperor .

In the immediate aftermath of Caracalla 's death , Adventus was selected to serve as emperor , but he declined the position due to his old age . The army then chose Macrinus ; they had no feelings of ' love or esteem ' towards him , but there was no one else competing for the position . The army proclaimed Macrinus as emperor three days after the death of Caracalla , and named him Augustus .

The results were applauded by the Senate at first , who were glad to be rid of the former emperor . But tradition held that the emperor could only be selected from among the Senate , causing some concern . Macrinus was a member of the equestrian class , the lower of the two aristocratic classes , which led to further concern . This led the Senate to severely scrutinize his every action . The Senate , however , was powerless to do anything about it , the military was at the time so concentrated at Edessa that there was no force anywhere else in the Empire that could contest the action .

As the new emperor , Macrinus had to deal with the major threat of the Parthians , with whom Rome were currently at war . An indecisive battle at Nisibis is cited as a reason for the opening of peace negotiations . Negotiations may have been favourable for both sides ; Rome was being threatened by Armenia and Dacia , and the Parthians were far from home and low on supplies . The settlement , however , was viewed by many people as being unfavourable to Rome ; Dio quotes that a payout of 200 million Sesterces was paid to the Parthians in exchange for peace . The sum was called into question by Scott due to its sheer enormity and because Dio is known for being unreliable when discussing finances . Regardless , the general opinion on the negotiations was one of contempt , with Macrinus being accused of being cowardly and weak .

With the peace treaty concluded , Macrinus took measures to control the expenditures of Rome , reinstating the fiscal policies of Septimius Severus . This included a reduction in pay and benefits for Legionnaires , which was not popular with the Army who had placed him in command . These policies would only apply to new recruits , but the enlisted soldiers saw this as setting precedent for further changes to the fiscal policies brought in by Caracalla . The sullen behaviour of new recruits , who entered service committing to greater labour for less payment , only furthered discontent among the soldiers . Gibbon suggests that from here only a small spark would be required to ignite a rebellion .

= = = Rise of Elagabalus = = =

Following the death of Caracalla , Macrinus allowed Caracalla 's mother , Julia Domna , and his aunt Julia Maesa , to settle in their home town of Emesa . Julia Domna , who was at Antioch at the time of Caracalla 's death , attempted suicide and eventually succeeded by starving herself . Julia Maesa , however , returned to Emesa with her finances intact .

Julia 's suspicions regarding Macrinus ' involvement in the death of Caracalla led to her championing the case of her grandson , Elagabalus , as the rightful emperor . At the time Elagabalus was the chief priest of the Phoenician god Elagabal in Emesa . The soldiers stationed there frequently visited the temple where Elagabalus was chief priest , and enjoyed watching him perform rituals and ceremonies there . On one such occasion , Julia Maesa took the opportunity to inform the soldiers , either truthfully or not , that Elagabalus was Caracalla 's son . Simultaneously , she may have seen the opportunity to use her family 's wealth and prestige to set in motion her plot .

On the night of 15 May 218 , Elagabalus was taken , by either Julia Maesa or Gannys , to the camp of the Legio III Gallica at Raphanaea and presented to the soldiers stationed there . Some accounts claim that upon being presented to them , Elagabalus was immediately hailed Antoninus after Caracalla . Enhanced by Julia 's monetary contributions , the legion proclaimed Elagabalus emperor on 16 May 218 .

Macrinus might have been able to stop the rebellion in this early stage , but could not decide on a course of action and remained at Antioch .

= = = Rebellion = = =

Now that Elagabalus had the support of an entire legion , other legionnaires , prompted by discontent over pay , moved to join Elagabalus ' ranks as well . In response , Macrinus sent a cavalry force led under the command of Ulpinus Julianus to regain control of the rebels . Instead , the cavalry killed Ulpinus and joined Elagabalus .

Following these events , Macrinus traveled to Apamea to ensure the loyalty of Legio II Parthica before setting off to march against Emesa . Macrinus appointed his son Diadumenian the position of Imperator , and promised the soldiers 20 @,@ 000 Sesterces each , with 4 @,@ 000 of these to be paid on the spot . Macrinus also hosted a dinner for the residents of Apamea in honour of Diadumenian . At the dinner , Macrinus was presented with the head of Ulpinus Julianus who had been killed by his defecting soldiers . This forced Macrinus to leave , according to Dio in retreat , while Downey asserts that Macrinus left in order to launch an attack .

Macrinus ' and Elagabalus ' troops met somewhere near the border of Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice , Macrinus ' efforts here , however , were in vain and the whole legion defected to the challenger , forcing him to retire to Antioch . This allowed Elagabus to take the offensive and march on Antioch .

= = = Senatorial response = = =

During and after Caracalla 's reign the position of the Senate had been considerably weakened . The balance of power had been transferred from the Senate to the army ; as such the emperor of Rome was decided by the soldier while the Senate existed solely to officiate state affairs without any real authority . Thus , both Macrinus and later Elagabalus would attempt to secure the favour of the military while generally disregarding the opinion of the Senate . Macrinus , now in dire circumstances , would have no choice but to turn to the Senate . Thus , while at Antioch , Macrinus would make one more attempt at securing support , this time from Rome . However , a combination of distrust from the Senate , the impeding approach of Elagabalus 's legions and insufficient funds meant that Macrinus would have to face the approaching Elagabalus with only his Praetorian Guard . Had time been available , Marius Maximus , prefect of Rome , would have been able to muster troops and send reinforcements to Macrinus . Despite all of this , the Senate would still declare war against the usurper and his family , regardless of their relative powerlessness .

= = Battle = =

The battle took place on 8 June 218 at a defile outside of a village , believed to be Immae , approximately twenty @-@ four miles or so by road between Antioch and Beroea . Herodian challenges this assertion , suggesting that the battle took place closer to the border at Syria Coele and Syria Phoenice , possibly near Emesa . Other sources either agree with Dio that the battle took place near Antioch , with one source , Downey , suggesting that both battles occurred separately or make no claim as to where the battle occurred .

The armies of Elagabalus , led by Gannys , a novice but determined commander , met with the Praetorian Guard of Macrinus in a narrowly fought pitched battle . Prior to battle Macrinus had the Praetorian Guard set aside their scaled armour breastplates and grooved shields in favour of lighter oval shields , thus making them lighter and more manoeuvrable and also negating the advantage of light Parthian lancers ( lanciarii ) . Despite the numerical superiority of Gannys ' army of at least two full legions , faced with what levies Macrinus was able to accrue , the engagement had begun in Macrinus ' favour with the soldiers led by Gannys turning to flee after the Praetorian Guards had managed to break through the enemy line . At some point during the retreat , Julia Maesa and Soaemias Bassiana ( Elagabalus ' mother ) joined the fray , rallying the forces while Gannys , who was on horseback , charged headlong at the enemy thus ending the retreat and renewing the assault . At this point Macrinus , fearing defeat , fled back to the city of Antioch . Had Macrinus remained in battle it is plausible that he might have won the battle and thus secured his position as emperor .

= = Aftermath = =

Having been defeated in battle , Macrinus sent his son along with attendants to Artabanus V of Parthia , while he himself returned to Antioch , proclaiming victory over Elagabalus in battle . News of Macrinus ' defeat broke out and many civilians in the city and on the roads were slain because they had favoured Macrinus . Macrinus shaved off his beard and hair to disguise himself as a member of the military police and fled the city at night on horseback . He reached Cilicia along with a few companions ; while masquerading as a military courier he successfully secured a carriage , which he subsequently drove to Eribolon , near Nicomedia , before setting sail for Chalcedon .

In Chalcedon , Macrinus was arrested after revealing his whereabouts by making a request for money to a Procurator . While being transported back to Antioch , " like the commonest criminal " according to Dio , he injured himself in an escape attempt . He was beheaded in Cappadocia by the centurion Marcianus Taurus . His body remained unburied until Elagabalus had the chance to inspect it . Macrinus ' son Diadumenian faced a similar fate after being captured at Zeugma by the centurion Cladius Pollio . Dio concludes that Macrinus might have been praised for his deeds , rather than ridiculed and later slain , had he shown temperance and passed the title of emperor onto somebody else . He further concludes that Macrinus was the master of his own demise , which he felt was truly deserved .

In the interim period between the battle and the capture of Macrinus , Elagabalus declared himself emperor with the support of the military , though he would not return to Rome for several months . This news , upon reaching Rome , was met with dismay by both the Senate and the Roman people , though both submitted through necessity . Elagabalus ' reputation would not improve during his reign ; his worship of Elagabal and the sacrilegious performance of religious rituals would generate anger among the Romans . In an attempt to prevent disaster , his cousin would be elevated to the position of caesar , co @-@ ruler . This appeased the Romans for a time , however envy caused further problems culminating in the death of Elagabalus at the hands of the Praetorian Guard . This was followed by a short period of stability for Rome .

= Asmara Moerni =

Asmara Moerni ( [ asˈmara mʊrˈni ] ; Perfected Spelling : Asmara Murni ; Indonesian for True Love ) is a 1941 romance film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Rd Ariffien and produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films . Written by Saeroen , the film followed a doctor who falls in love with his maid , as well as her failed romance with a fellow villager . Starring Adnan Kapau Gani , Djoewariah , and S. Joesoef , the black @-@ and @-@ white film was cast and advertised to cater to the growing native intelligentsia . Despite mixed reviews , it was a commercial success . As with most films of the Indies , Asmara Moerni may be lost .

= = Plot = =

After four years of doing his residency in Singkawang , Borneo , Dr. Pardi ( Adnan Kapau Gani ) returns to Java to open a practice . Before then , he goes to Cigading to visit his family and give them souvenirs . Upon arrival he is stunned to find that his family 's maid Tati ( Djoewariah ) , who had been his childhood playmate , is now a grown and beautiful woman . He secretly begins to fawn over Tati , although he does not tell her the reason . When Pardi 's mother tells him he should marry quickly , he refuses all of her suggested brides . He says only that he already has someone in mind , aware that his mother would never approve an inter @-@ class marriage with the maid .

Tati 's fiancé , Amir ( S. Joesoef ) , is jealous of all the attention that Tati is receiving , which leaves her no time for him . He plans to leave Cigading for the capital , Batavia ( today Jakarta ) , where he will find work . Tati , upon learning this , joins him . She lives at her aunt 's home in the city , making a living by washing clothes , while he finds lodging with a local man and learns to drive a becak ( pedicab ) . Together they begin saving for their wedding . Unknown to them , Pardi has cut short his time in Cigading to move to Batavia , both to begin his new job and to find Tati .

Days before the wedding , Amir is playing his flute when he is approached by a singer known as Miss Omi , who asks him to join her troupe on an international tour . Amir refuses , even after Omi hires him to drive her around the city in an attempt to convince him . After dropping Omi off , Amir is approached by a man who asks him to deliver a package ; however , before he can deliver the package Amir is arrested and charged with smuggling opium .

When Amir does not return , Tati and her aunt are worried : as Tati saw Amir with Omi , she fears that the two have run away together . Heartbroken , she intends to return to Cigading . When she and her aunt visit their boss , Abdul Sidik , they unknowingly pass Pardi – Abdul Sidik 's doctor . Upon returning home , Pardi calls Abdul Sidik and asks him to take Tati in as if she were his daughter and educate her . Tati is a fast learner , and is soon comparable to any woman from a wealthy family .

After being held eighteen months without trial , Amir is released and returned to Batavia . He is unable to find Tati , leaving him to wander the streets . Omi spots him , and again she asks him to play with her troupe . Amir agrees , and soon newspapers are filled with advertisements touting his name . Spotting one , Tati and Abdul Sidik go to a performance , only to learn that Amir was the victim of a car accident . At the hospital , where Amir is being treated by Pardi , Tati learns the truth behind Amir 's absence . On his deathbed , Amir asks Pardi to take care of Tati ; the two are later married .

= = Production = =

Asmara Moerni was directed by Rd Ariffien , a former journalist who had been active in the nationalist and labour movements before turning to theatre . He had joined Union Films – the company behind Asmara Moerni – in 1940 , making his debut with Harta Berdarah ( Bloody Treasure ) . Union 's head Ang Hock Liem produced , while the story was written by journalist Saeroen , who had joined Union after commercial success on Albert Balink 's Terang Boelan ( Full Moon , 1937 ) and with the production house Tan 's Film .

The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Adnan Kapau Gani , Djoewariah , and S. Joesoef . It was the feature film debut of Gani and Joesoef , while Djoewariah had been on Union 's payroll since Bajar dengan Djiwa ( Pay with Your Soul ) the preceding year .

At the time there was a growing movement to attract native intelligentsia , educated at schools run by the Dutch colonial government , and convince them to view domestic films , which were generally considered to be of much lower quality than imported Hollywood productions . This was blamed , in part , on the dominance of theatrically trained actors and crew . As such , Ariffien invited Gani , at the time a medical doctor and a prominent member of the nationalist movement , to join the cast . Although some nationalists considered Gani 's involvement in Asmara Moerni as besmirching the independence movement , Gani considered it necessary : he believed audiences needed to have higher opinions of domestic film productions .

= = Release and reception = =

Asmara Moerni was premiered on 29 April 1941 at Orion Theatre in Batavia ; the crowds were mostly natives and ethnic Chinese . Rated for all ages , advertising for the film emphasised Gani 's education and Joesoef 's upper @-@ class background . It was also advertised as breaking away from the conventional standards of stage theatre , such as music , which were omnipresent in the contemporary film industry . By August 1941 it was screened in Singapore , then part of the Straits Settlements , and billed as a " modern Malay drama " . A novelisation was published later in 1941 by the Yogyakarta @-@ based Kolff @-@ Buning .

The film was a commercial success , though reviews were mixed . An anonymous review for the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad found the film " fascinating " , with good acting , though another review for the same paper found that , though the film was better than contemporary works such as Pantjawarna and Sorga Ka Toedjoe , its claim to abandon stage standards was to be taken " with a pinch of salt " . A review from the Surabaya @-@ based Soerabaijasch Handelsblad found the film full of drama , describing it as " Western motifs , played in the native environment , with a specifically Sundanese situation " .

= = Legacy = =

After Asmara Moerni , Union produced a further three films ; only one , Wanita dan Satria , was by Rd Ariffien , who left the company soon after , as did Saeroen . Gani did not act in any further films , but instead returned to the nationalist movement . During the Indonesian National Revolution ( 1945 – 49 ) he became known as a smuggler , and after independence became a government minister . In November 2007 Gani was made a National Hero of Indonesia . Djoewariah continued to act until the 1950s , when she migrated to theatre after receiving a series of increasingly minor roles .

Asmara Moerni was screened as late as November 1945 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .

= = Explanatory notes = =

= London Country North East =

London Country North East was a bus operator in South East England and London . It was formed from the split of London Country Bus Services in 1986 and operated a fleet of around 350 buses from six garages , with its headquarters located in Hatfield .

The company was the last subsidiary of National Bus Company to be privatised , being sold to the AJS Group on 22 April 1988 . Later in the same year it was split into County Bus & Coach and Sovereign Bus & Coach .

= = Formation and early history = =

In the run @-@ up to deregulation , London Country Bus Services ( LCBS ) was broken into four smaller companies on 7 September 1986 . Three hundred and fifty buses , the garages at Hatfield , Hertford , Stevenage , Harlow , St Albans and the isolated base at Grays formed the new London Country North East ( LCNE ) company .

Early difficulties with staff conditions and wages , which the company was attempting to simplify from the complex contracts arranged by LCBS , led to strike action by staff in February 1988 . Performance levels on contracted routes were already below those expected by the local councils who had awarded LCNE the contracts , and by London Regional Transport . Following the strike three of the company 's London contracts ( routes 292 , 298 and 313 ) were terminated and awarded to independents .

On 22 April 1988 , London Country North East was sold by the National Bus Company , the last of 72 subsidiaries to be privatised . The buyer was Alan Stephenson 's AJS Group , which had been formed by the management buyout of West Yorkshire Road Car Company . As part of the sale LCNE 's property was bought by Parkdale Holdings and leased back to the company ; some was sold for redevelopment , while the remainder was later sold back to LCNE . Parkdale Holdings later went out of business having changed their name to Pavilion Leisure .

A month later LCNE was banned from registering new services for six months by the Traffic Commissioner for failing to operate service in accordance with registrations made . Following poor financial results , AJS decided to split the company in two .

= = Division = =

In 20 months of existence London Country North East had lost £ 5 @.@ 5 million , on a turnover of £ 14 million . Two operating subsidiaries were created to help improve the situation , under the control of a single holding company , initially called the London Country Travel Group and later renamed to South of England Travel Group . Its chief executive , Bob Howells , had previously been West Yorkshire Road Car Company 's traffic manager . A third company , Cambridge based Premier Travel Services , was added to the group in 1989 but was sold to Cambus in 1991 . Both subsidiaries continued to be owned by AJS until 1991 , when they were sold to new owners .

= = County Bus & Coach = =

County Bus & Coach took over the former London Country North East garages at Harlow , Grays and Hertford . Under AJS 's ownership it was managed by Graham Willet , previously London Country Bus Services ' chief engineer . The company enjoyed some expansion : small independent Sampson Coaches and its garage at Hoddesdon were bought in February 1989 ; however , as a result of this , Hertford garage was vacated and sold for redevelopment by its owners Parkdale Holdings . The Debden and Wyatts Green depots and some local routes of the former East Midland owned Frontrunner operation were acquired in July 1989 . County Bus & Coach 's fleet policy was to use Mercedes @-@ Benz minibuses on most routes , including in Grays when Lakeside Shopping Centre opened and when two London contracted routes were run ; there is some evidence that passengers did not like these vehicles , and their use is thought to have reduced patronage in the area .

AJS group was wound up in 1991 , and the company 's director Bob Howells bought County Bus & Coach through a new holding company , Lynton Travel Group . County Bus & Coach was relaunched with three new local identities : Grays garage became ThameSide , Harlow became TownLink , and Hoddesdon became Lea Valley . One small operator , Davian Coaches of Upper Edmonton , was acquired a few months after and merged with County Bus & Coach .

The company was one of the beneficiaries of the collapse of London Forest , gaining three routes in Walthamstow . The services of Golden Boy were also taken over , in September 1992 , although this deal involved no vehicles and no garage . In July 1993 , Lynton Travel purchased 41 @-@ vehicle independent Citibus Tours , based in Chadderton near Oldham . Other changes made in 1993 included the opening of a new garage in Grays to replace the previous building , and a totally new garage at Ware which replaced that at Hoddesdon . Two more operators were taken over in 1994 , namely coach operators Airport Coaches of Stansted Airport and Biss Bros of Bishops Stortford .

However , on 7 October 1994 County Bus & Coach was sold to West Midlands Travel , who had also acquired the former London Buses subsidiary Westlink . In November 1994 County Bus & Coach became only the tenth operator in the UK to introduce low @-@ floor vehicles into service , when four Dennis Lance SLFs with Wright Pathfinder bodywork were introduced to route 502 Harlow to Romford . West Midlands Travel was taken over by National Express in 1995 , and the new owners decided not to keep their London companies . Westlink was the first to be sold , to London United in September 1995 . One year later , County Bus & Coach was sold to the rapidly expanding Cowie Group .

After also taking over British Bus on 1 August 1996 , who owned most of the other former London Country Bus Services company , in November 1997 the Cowie Group was rebranded as Arriva .

County Bus & Coach 's garage at Grays was transferred to Arriva Southend in 2000 , with that company becoming part of the Arriva Southern Counties operation in 2002 . The rest of County Bus & Coach 's routes , garages and vehicles became Arriva East Herts & Essex . This was later combined with the former Luton & District and London Country North West operations to form Arriva Shires & Essex , in which form County Bus & Coach continues to trade .

= = Sovereign Bus & Coach = =

Sovereign Bus & Coach took over three former London Country North East depots in the 1989 split , namely Hatfield , Stevenage and St Albans . These were quickly joined by the operations and Stevenage depot of Jubilee Coaches , an independent which had previously taken several contracted routes from LCNE , but found it had bid too low for the routes and could no longer fulfil its operations . Hatfield garage was closed in 1989 , and a new site established at Welwyn Garden City . Another operator , competitor Welwyn Hatfield Line , was taken over in January 1990 and retained as a separate subsidiary for several years . Most of Sovereign 's Stevenage operation was sold to Luton & District ( successors to London Country North West ) in 1990 . In 1991 the owning AJS Group was wound up . Two directors formed the Blazefield Group , and purchased Sovereign Bus & Coach and most of AJS Group 's other operations . At the time Sovereign operated 76 vehicles .

Some expansion followed . In October 1991 a new offshoot , Sovereign Buses ( Harrow ) , was formed to operate a number of London Regional Transport contracts won by the company . In August 1994 , the company 's position in London strengthened with the acquisition of the 43 @-@ vehicle Borehamwood Travel Services , which brought tendered route 13 run with AEC Routemasters , under Sovereign operation . BTS was renamed Sovereign London and merged with the Harrow operation .

The company 's fleet and operations remained largely static until 3 November 2002 , when Blazefield sold Sovereign London to Transdev .

Sovereign contracted further in 2002 with the sale of the St Albans operation to Centrebus . Centrebus sold the depot to Uno in March 2008 .

By 2002 , Sovereign 's fleet amounted to just 45 vehicles . Stevenage depot was closed and a smaller garage in the same town acquired , with Arriva Shires & Essex taking over the old site . Finally , in January 2005 , the remainder of Sovereign was sold to Arriva Shires & Essex . Having previously acquired the successors to the former London Country North West , London Country South West and London Country South East companies as well as County Bus & Coach , Arriva now owned all of the former London Country Bus Services apart from the St Albans operation .

= Badlaa =

" Badlaa " is the tenth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 21 , 2001 . The episode was written by John Shiban and directed by Tony Wharmby . " Badlaa " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 11 @.@ 8 million viewers . Overall , the episode received mostly negative reviews from critics .

The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When a mystic smuggles himself out of India , Scully and Doggett give chase as his murderous spree starts terrorising two families in suburban Washington , D.C. But Scully soon comes upon a crisis of faith when she realises how dissimilar her techniques are from those of Mulder , even as she tries to be the believer .

" Badlaa " was inspired by stories of Indian fakirs as well as the idea of someone asking for money actually being " a bad guy . " Gurdeep Roy , a noted stuntman better known as Deep Roy , was chosen to play the part of the antagonistic beggar . The episode 's title means " retort " or " revenge " in Hindi .

= = Plot = =

At the Sahar International Airport in Mumbai , India , an American businessman dismissively makes his way past a paraplegic beggar . Later , while using the airport 's toilet , the businessman is pulled out of the stall violently by the beggar that he passed earlier . Later , the man checks into a Washington , D.C. hotel and sits down on his bed . Soon , blood streams out of his bodily orifices .

Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrives late to the crime scene and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) tells her that the man 's blood all drained abruptly in the hotel . A child ’ s bloody print is found , but Scully doesn ’ t believe that a child did this . Meanwhile , the beggar , somehow disguised as an ordinary looking Caucasian man , applies for a janitorial job at a Cheverly , Maryland elementary school . In the morgue , Scully describes the massive stomach damage done to the body which leads Doggett to the idea of drugs being forcibly cut out of him . However , the man showed no sign of drugs in the blood tests and Scully tells Doggett that his time of death was 24 to 36 hours prior , long before he left India . Due to a discrepancy in weight , she begins to believe that there was a passenger in the corpse .

Quinton , a student at the school mentioned before , calls his father after he sees the legless beggar man in his room at night . His father tells him that it was his imagination , goes back downstairs , but then screams . Quinton rushes down to find his father dead and his eyes turned red with blood . Doggett and Scully investigate this latest death after the police told them about the strange man the boy saw . While discussing the lack of any damage to the body except the broken blood vessels in the eyes , Scully comes to the conclusion that the man is still inside the latest victim . She rushes to the morgue and finds the boy ’ s father with a distended belly . She cuts into him and then sees a hand emerge from the scalpel incision . After being temporarily knocked over , she follows a bloody trail , opens a door at the end of the trail , and finds no one there . Unbeknownst to her , however , the beggar is watching her , unnoticed .

At the school , the principal tells the legless man ’ s janitor guise that she was very worried when he did not show up that morning . Trevor , a bully who had earlier tormented Quinton , sees partially through the beggar 's forms for a moment . Trevor later shows up at Quinton ’ s home to say he is sorry and says he thinks he knows who killed his father .

Scully and Doggett consult Chuck Burks , an old friend of Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) , who tells the two that Siddhi mystics could do the things Scully described ; the mystics have powers of the mind and can alter people ’ s perceptions of reality . Scully theorizes that a mystic is acting out of revenge since an American plant inadvertently released a gas cloud that killed 118 people in Vishi , outside of Mumbai . One of the victims was the 11 @-@ year @-@ old son of a holy man of the beggar caste .

Trevor runs home after hearing the squeaking wheels and goes outside after encountering his mother . She follows him outside to find him face @-@ down in the middle of a pool . She dives down to get him but his form turns into the legless man . At the scene of the crime , the real Trevor tells Scully that it was the " little man " who killed his mother . Later , Quinton and Trevor , after realizing that the janitor is actually the beggar , hunt the legless man in the school . Eventually , the beggar takes the form of Trevor . At that moment , Scully enters the school and opens fire , wounding the beggar and reverting him back to his true form . Two weeks later in Sahar International Airport , the beggar , unharmed , watches another obese American man pass by .

= = Production = =

" Badlaa " was written by John Shiban and inspired by stories of Indian fakirs . In fact , the episode 's title means " to retort " or " to revenge " in Urdu . Further inspiration came " from a little bit of desperation " according to Shiban . He later recalled that he was walking through the Vancouver airport and suddenly had the thought , " What if someone who came up to me and asked me for money was actually a bad guy . " Shiban later noted that his early drafts of the episode featured the antagonist with a different power . He explained , " My original idea was a beggar with no legs who can actually shrink himself and climb inside your ear , and Chris Carter – and this is why he 's Chris Carter – said ' No , no , no ! I know what 's even better . ' " Shiban later said that " ... one thing about this episode that I 'm sort of proud is that people often have told me that it is the most disgusting thought that they ever had , that this little man would actually enter your body and travel around inside you . "

The scenes featuring the Indian airport were filmed at a cruise line terminal in Long Beach , California . Ilt Jones , the location manager for the series , felt that the " dated feel " of the terminal added to the scene . He noted , " if you look at newsreel footage of India , they always have old English cars from the sixties , the cruise line terminal in Long Beach was perfect . "

Casting director Rick Millikan was tasked with finding a suitable actor to play the part of the beggar . Millikan 's only instructions were to look for " a small all @-@ Indian man with no legs . " Eventually , Gurdeep Roy , better known as Deep Roy was chosen to play the part . Deep Roy was a noted stunt man who had notably played Droopy McCool of the Max Rebo Band in Return of the Jedi . Deep Roy , however , is not an amputee and so a cart with a false bottom was created . Anytime there was a scene where the beggar had to move , blue screen technology was used to add the background in during post @-@ production . The cart featured a distinct " squeak " that Paul Rabwin described as " creepy " . He noted , " There was a squeak that had to let us know that it was him . It had to scare us [ ... ] Finally we came up with what we thought was just the right squeak and John [ Shiban ] said ' Okay , that 's the one . ' "

Producer Paul Rabwin was displeased with the final episode , noting , " ' Badlaa ' was the one episode I did not like the most [ ... ] I think if I had done it different , I would have had John Shiban change the method of transportation . I don 't think it ever worked on any level for me . It was just weird and creepy , but I think the whole idea was distasteful to me . " He later bluntly concluded that " it 's the only episode that I kind of wish we hadn 't done . "

= = Reception = =

" Badlaa " first aired on Fox on 21 January 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 3 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 3 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 46 million households and 11 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 50th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending January 21 . The episode subsequently debuted in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on May 12 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Imagine a man who can squeeze into a shoebox ... a suitcase ... or a victim . "

Critical reception to the episode was mostly negative . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a " C " and criticized the episode 's plot holes , such as how the beggar escaped back to India after being shot by Scully . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two noted that the episode was " best " when " it 's at its most tasteless " , citing the beggar " crawling up the bottom of an obese man " as " pretty tasteless " . Shearman and Pearson , however , noted that it suffered from the fact that " it doesn 't have the courage of its convictions " .

Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " , calling it " a messy episode " . He argued that it is an example of " magnificently bad television " . This in turn , makes it somewhat entertaining ; VanDerWerff argued that he would " rather watch this episode several times than I would some of those season seven outings where everybody seemed like they would rather be just about anywhere else . " However , he did compliment the episode 's gross @-@ out scares , noting that the beginning was " a pretty great cold open " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , was extremely critical of the episode . Referring to it as the series ' " nadir " , he ridiculed the plot and sarcastically labeled the main villain " Butt Munch " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one star out of four . Vitaris , sardonically referring to the episode as " The X ( enophobic ) -Files " , noted that while " the butt @-@ crawler is new , the plot is pure " X @-@ Files generic Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week . " Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles noted in their book The Complete X @-@ Files that the episode soon became known as the " ' Butt Genie ' episode " among fans .

Despite the negativity , several reviews wrote positively of the episode 's antagonistic beggar . Both TV Guide and UGO Networks listed him amongst the greatest monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week characters in The X @-@ Files . The UGO review , in particular , noted that the character was " One of the series ' more blatant allegories [ ... ] , as a legless Indian Mystic [ ... ] literally climbs into his victims to travel where he will . [ ... ] Scully and Doggett investigate the bloody goings @-@ on [ ... ] and a gut @-@ wrenching climax , though not entirely successful , still opens up some thorny issues over how we view weakness , deformity , race , and ' otherness.'

= Jonathan Jennings =

Jonathan Jennings ( March 27 , 1784 – July 26 , 1834 ) was the first governor of Indiana and a nine @-@ term congressman from Indiana . Born in either Hunterdon County , New Jersey , or Rockbridge County , Virginia , he studied law before immigrating to the Indiana Territory in 1806 . Jennings initially intended to practice law , but took jobs as an assistant at the federal land office at Vincennes and assistant to the clerk of the territorial legislature to support himself , and pursued interests in land speculation and politics . Jennings became involved in a dispute with the territorial governor , William Henry Harrison , that soon led him to enter politics and set the tone for his early political career . In 1808 Jennings moved to the eastern part of the Indiana Territory and settled near Charlestown , in Clark County . He was elected as the Indiana Territory 's delegate to the U.S. Congress by dividing the pro @-@ Harrison supporters and running as an anti @-@ Harrison candidate . By 1812 he was the leader of the anti @-@ slavery and pro @-@ statehood faction of the territorial government . Jennings and his political allies took control of the territorial assembly and dominated governmental affairs after the resignation of Governor Harrison in 1812 . As a congressional delegate Jennings aided passage of the Enabling Act in 1816 , which authorized the organization of Indiana 's state government and state constitution . He was elected president of the Indiana constitutional convention , held in Corydon in June 1816 , where he helped draft the state 's first constitution . Jennings supported the effort to ban slavery in the state and favored a strong legislative branch of government .

In August 1816 Jennings was elected to serve as the first governor of Indiana at age 32 , and re @-@ elected for an additional term . He pressed for the construction of roads and schools , and negotiated the Treaty of St. Mary 's to open up central Indiana to American settlement . His opponents attacked his participation in the treaty negotiations as unconstitutional and brought impeachment proceedings against him , a measure that was narrowly defeated by a vote of 15 to 13 after a month @-@ long investigation and the resignation of the lieutenant governor . During his second term and following the panic of 1819 , Jennings encountered financial problems , a situation exacerbated by his inability to keep up with his business interests and run the state government simultaneously . Ineligible for another term as Indiana governor under the state constitution , Jennings looked for other means of financial support . Shortly before completion of his second term as governor in 1822 , Jennings was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives , before retiring from public service in 1831 . In Congress Jennings promoted federal spending on internal improvements .

Jennings had been a heavy drinker of alcohol for much of his life . His addiction worsened after the death of his first wife , Ann , and his development of rheumatism . Jennings 's alcoholism led to defeat in his reelection campaign in 1830 . In retirement his condition worsened and he was unable to work his farm . When his finances collapsed , his creditors sought to take his land holdings and Charlestown farm . To protect his friend , U.S. Senator John Tipton purchased Jennings 's farm and permitted him to continue living there . After Jennings 's death , his estate was sold , but it left no funds to purchase a headstone for his grave , which remained unmarked for fifty @-@ seven years .

Historians have offered varied interpretations of Jennings 's life and impact on the development of Indiana . Early state historians , Jacob Piatt Dunn Jr. and William Wesley Woollen , gave Jennings high praise and credited him with the defeat of the pro @-@ slavery forces in Indiana and with laying the foundation of the state . More critical historians during the prohibition era , such as Logan Eseray , described Jennings as a crafty and self @-@ promoting politician and focused on his alcoholism . Among the modern historians , Randy Mills places Jennings 's importance between the two extremes , but agreed with Woolen 's assessment that the state " owes him more than she can compute . "

= = Early life = =

= = = Family background = = =

Jonathan Jennings , the son of Jacob and Mary Kennedy Jennings , was born in either Readington Township , Hunterdon County , New Jersey , or Rockbridge County , Virginia , on March 27 , 1784 . He was the sixth of the Jennings 's eight children . His father was a doctor , Presbyterian missionary , and an ordained minister in the Dutch Reformed Church . His mother , who was well educated and practiced medicine , was the daughter of Samuel Kennedy , a Presbyterian minister at Basking Ridge , New Jersey . Mary , who may have had a medical degree , assisted her husband in his practice . Around 1790 Jennings 's father moved the family to Dunlap Creek in Fayette County , Pennsylvania , where Jennings remained until his adulthood . After his mother 's death in 1792 , Jennings was raised by his older sister , Sarah , and his brother , Ebenezer . Jennings was particularly close to Ebenezer and his younger sister , Ann , and her husband , David G. Mitchell , who was a physician . Jennings was schooled at home , then attended the nearby grammar school in Canonsburg , Pennsylvania , where he received a basic education . Two of his classmates , William Hendricks and William W. Wick , would later become his political allies . Jennings studied law in Washington , Pennsylvania . By 1806 Jennings had left Pennsylvania and moved to Steubenville , Ohio , where his brother , Obadiah , had a law office . Jennings helped Obadiah in cases before the Ohio Supreme Court .

In 1806 Jennings headed west to Jeffersonville in the Indiana Territory , but stayed only briefly . He moved to Vincennes , the capital of the Indiana Territory , in early 1807 to open his own law practice and was admitted to the bar in April . Jennings had difficulty earning an income as a lawyer , finding there were too few clients in the territory to keep him busy . In July 1807 Nathaniel Ewing , the federal land receiver at Vincennes and a friend from Pennsylvania , invited Jennings to take a job as assistant to John Badollet , the registrar at the federal land office in Vincennes . Along with Badollet , Jennings engaged in land speculation . He obtained significant land holdings and made substantial profits . In 1807 Jennings became an assistant to the clerk of the territorial legislature and continued to speculate on the sale of public lands .

= = = Confrontation with Harrison = = =

In August 1807 Jennings was appointed clerk of the Vincennes University board of trustees and began to be drawn into ongoing political disputes going on territory . The territorial governor , William Henry Harrison , was a member and president of the board . As governor of the Indiana Territory , Harrison wielded considerable influence through his political appointments and veto powers . Jennings received the university appointment after General Washington Johnston resigned as clerk of the board following a dispute over Harrison 's proposal to ban the French residents of Vincennes from using the university 's commons . The board defeated Harrison 's proposal , but Johnston resigned as its clerk and Jennings was selected as his replacement over Henry Hurst , one of Harrison 's loyal supporters . Harrison was outraged and promptly resigned from the board , but later reconsidered his decision . In September 1807 Harrison was easily reelected to the board and selected as its president . In the meantime , Johnston wrote a pamphlet describing the board 's proceedings , which Jennings certified without the board 's knowledge or approval . Jennings further angered Harrison when he attempted to secure a clerkship in the territorial legislature . Jennings 's opponent for the clerkship was the anti @-@ slavery candidate Davis Floyd , an enemy of Harrison . After Jennings dropped out of the race , Floyd was selected for the position and became an important political ally to Jennings . In April 1808 , with Harrison reelected as president of the Vincennes University board , a commission was appointed to investigate Jennings 's conduct . The committee 's inquiry concerned Jennings 's certification of Johnston 's pamphlet dealing with board proceedings without their knowledge . The incident led to Jennings 's resignation in 1808 and created a considerable amount of animosity between the two that prevailed for many years .

By March 1808 , Jennings believed that his future in the Harrison @-@ dominated western part of the territory was bleak . By November he had left Vincennes and moved to Jeffersonville , in Clark County , Indiana Territory , before settling in nearby Charlestown . Jennings may have believed his political future would have more success in the eastern part of the territory . Settlements in the southeast and eastern portion of the territory opposed slavery and Harrison 's aristocratic manner , which were similar to Jennings 's beliefs , while the western portion of the territory and Vincennes area remained proslavery . Although petitions to allow slavery were received before the formation of the Indiana Territory , the issue attracted widespread attention in 1807 when Harrison and his supporters in the territorial legislature revived efforts to allow slavery in the territory . Jennings and his supporters who opposed slavery wrote writing articles appearing in the Vincennes Western Sun newspaper attacking Harrison 's administration , its pro @-@ slavery sentiments , and aristocratic policies .

In 1808 , when Congressman Benjamin Parke resigned from office , Harrison ordered a special election to fill the vacancy . Jennings entered the race against Harrison 's candidate , Thomas Randolph , the attorney general for the territory , and John Johnson , a Vincennes native who had the support of the antislavery group . Randolph promised not to introduce slavery into the territory unless the majority of his constituents agreed , while Johnson remained silent on the issue . Jennings , an antislavery candidate from the eastern portion of the territory , rode from settlement to settlement to give speeches against slavery . Jennings spoke against what he believed to be Randolph 's aristocratic tendencies , ties to Harrison 's territorial government , and the issue of slavery in the territory . Jennings found his greatest support among the growing Quaker community in the eastern part of the territory .

On November 27 , 1809 , Jennings was elected as a delegate to the Eleventh Congress . The election was close . Jennings beat Randolph , 428 votes to 402 , with Johnson taking 81 votes . Randolph challenged the election results and traveled to Washington D.C. to take his case to the U.S. House of Representatives . Randolph claimed that election officials in Dearborn County did not follow proper procedures for certifying ninety @-@ one votes in the county 's seventh district and argued that the votes should be deducted from the vote totals . Once discarded , the revised totals would make Randolph the winner . A House committee took up the case , issued a resolution in Randolph 's favor , and recommended that a new election be held . Randolph immediately left for the Indiana Territory to launch a new campaign for the seat , but the House defeated the committee 's recommendation by an 83 to 30 vote margin and Jennings was permitted to take his seat . As a territorial delegate in Congress , Jennings learned the legislative process , served on House committees , introduced legislation , debated issues , and continued his ongoing crusade against Governor Harrison . Jennings did not play a major role in congressional discussions , but he did make an effort to represent the interests of his constituents . He was reelected in 1811 , 1812 , and 1814 .

= = = Courtship and marriage = = =

During his first session in Congress , Jennings had a small portrait of himself made , which he later gave to Ann Gilmore Hay , the daughter of a prominent Charlestown politician , whom he had recently begun courting . Hay was born in Harrodsburg , Kentucky , in 1792 . Her family moved to Clark County in Indiana Territory , and settled in Charlestown . Jennings first met her when he was campaigning for Congress in 1809 . After his first session in Congress ended , Jennings returned to Indiana Territory and married eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Ann on August 8 , 1811 . Ann 's father had just died leaving her with no family or means of support . Following his reelection to Congress in 1811 , the couple returned to Washington , where she remained briefly , before traveling to Pennsylvania to live with Jennings 's sister , Ann Mitchell , for the remainder of the session . Jennings 's wife suffered from ill health , which deteriorated after he became governor of Indiana in 1816 , and she died after a protected illness in 1826 . Later that year Jennings married Clarissa Barbee , who had come from Kentucky to teach at the Charlestown seminary . Jennings had no children from either marriage .

= = Congressman = =

= = = Battle with Harrison = = =

Angered over his electoral loss , Randolph harangued anti @-@ Harrison supporters , even challenging one to a duel . He was stabbed three times , but recovered and challenged Jennings in his bid for reelection in 1810 . Harrison came out to personally stump on Randolph 's behalf . Jennings focused on the slavery issue and tied Randolph to Harrison 's continued attempts to legalize the institution . The congressional election coincided with the first popular election of delegates to the territorial legislature . In 1809 , a year prior to the election , the territory 's pro @-@ slavery faction suffered a significant setback when Illinois was separated from the Indiana Territory , cutting Harrison off from his supporters in the western portion of the territory . Harrison suggested that Jennings further expanded his political base by stumping among the disaffected French residents of the territory . Jennings 's defeat of Randolph in 1810 repudiated Harrison 's pro @-@ slavery policies . Following his triumph in the election , Jennings 's and his anti @-@ slavery allies were successful in enacting a legislative agenda that limited the territorial governor 's authority and repealed an 1805 act regarding indentured service .

In his first full term in Congress , Jennings stepped up his attacks on Harrison , accusing him of using his office for personal gain , of taking part in questionable land speculation deals , and needlessly raising tensions with the Native American tribes on the frontier . Jennings presented a congressional resolution that intended to reduce Harrison 's authority to make political appointments and opposed his policy of purchasing lands from the Indians . When Harrison was up for reappointment as territorial governor in 1810 , Jennings sent a scathing letter to President James Madison that argued against his reappointment . Harrison 's allies in Washington argued on his behalf and aided in securing his reappointment .

After hostilities broke out on the frontier between the Americans and the native tribes , culminating in the Battle of Tippecanoe in November 1811 , Jennings successfully promoted passage of a bill to grant compensation to veterans of the battle and to give pensions for five years to the widows and orphans of those who were killed . Privately , Jennings lamented the battle , while his friends in the territory faulted Harrison for agitating the situation and causing the needless loss of life . As calls for war with Great Britain increased , Jennings was not among the war hawks , but ultimately accepted the arrival of the War of 1812 . Early in the war , Harrison was commissioned as a military general and dispatched to defend the frontier and invade Canada , which caused him to resign from his post as territorial governor in 1812 . Prior to Harrison 's resignation , Jennings and his allies moved quickly to take advantage of the situation and initiated efforts to weaken the governor 's authority . In 1811 the territorial legislature voted to move the capital away from Vincennes , a pro @-@ Harrison stronghold , and began a shift in political power from the territorial governor to the delegates in the territorial legislature and its elected officials . John Gibson , the elderly , acting governor , whose territorial duties largely dealt with military affairs , did not challenge the territorial legislature . When Harrison 's successor , Thomas Posey , was confirmed on March 3 , 1813 , Jennings 's party in the territorial legislature had become entrenched and began to advance their request for statehood .

Jennings ran for reelection to Congress in 1811 against another pro @-@ slavery candidate , Waller Taylor . The campaign was the most divisive in Jennings 's career . Taylor derided Jennings as a " pitiful coward " and went so far as to challenge Jennings to a duel , but he refused . Jennings ran on the slavery issue again , fielding his new motto , " No slavery in Indiana " . Jennings 's supporters tied Taylor , a territorial judge , to the pro @-@ slavery movement . Jennings easily won reelection , thanks to an expanding base of support that included the growing community of Harmonists . Following his reelection , Jennings developed jaundice , an illness often caused by alcoholism , but he recovered . During his third term in Congress , Jennings began advocating that statehood be granted to Indiana , but held off formally introducing legislation until the end of the War of 1812 . Jennings ran against Elijah Sparks in his 1814 reelection campaign and easily won .

= = = Push for statehood = = =

By 1815 Jennings and the territorial legislature were ready to embark on a course for statehood . In December 1815 Jennings 's introduced a petition from the territorial legislature to Congress that requested statehood for Indiana . The 1815 census showed the territory had a population exceeding 63 @,@ 000 , more than the minimum requirement for statehood under the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 . The House began a debate on the measure and passed the Enabling Act on April 11 , 1816 . The act granted Indiana the right to form a government and elect delegates to a constitutional convention that would create a state constitution . The territorial governor , Thomas Posey , expressed concern that the territory was too under @-@ populated to provide sufficient tax revenue to fund a state government . In a letter to President Madison , he recommended that the president veto the bill and delay statehood for another three years , which would allow him to finish his term as governor . Madison signed the bill , ignoring Posey 's plea .

Dennis Pennington , a leading member of the territorial legislature , was able to secure the election of many anti @-@ slavery delegates to the constitutional convention . Jennings was a delegate from Clark County . At the convention , held in June 1816 in the new territorial capital of Corydon , Jennings was elected president of the assembly , which permitted him to appoint the convention 's committee chairmen . Although the delegates drafted a new constitution for Indiana , the majority of the content was copied from other state constitutions , most notably Ohio and Kentucky . A few items were new and unique to Indiana . Slavery , which was already prohibited in territorial legislation , was banned in the Indiana constitution ; however , contracts for indentured servants , if they were already in existence , were preserved . The new state government , divided into legislative , executive , and judicial branches , gave the governor limited powers and concentrated authority in the hands of the Indiana General Assembly and county officials . Shortly after the convention , Jennings publicly announced his candidacy for governor .

= = Governor = =

= = = Campaign and election = = =

At the state convention in June 1816 Jennings may have informed some of the delegates that he intended to run for governor and by early July 1816 he had publicly announced his candidacy . Thomas Posey , Indiana 's last territorial governor , was Jennings 's opponent . Posey announced his own candidacy for governor prior to the convention 's adjournment on June 29 , 1816 . With just five weeks before the August 5 election , there was little active campaigning . Posey , who thought Indiana statehood was premature , was not a popular candidate and suffered from health issues . Jennings won by a large majority , 5 @,@ 211 votes to 3 @,@ 934 . Most of Jennings 's votes probably came from the eastern portion of the state , where his support was particularly strong , while Posey 's probably came from the western portion . Jennings moved to the new state capital at Corydon , where he served the duration of his term as governor .

Jennings 's salary as governor , which was the highest for an elected official in the state , was $ 1 @,@ 000 . Under the constitution , the governor served a three @-@ year term and was prohibited from serving more that six years in a nine @-@ year period . Jennings 's agenda called for establishing court proceedings to secure justice , organizing a state @-@ funded educational systems , creating a state banking system , preventing unlawful seizure and enslavement of free blacks , organizing a state library , and planning internal improvements . His efforts had limited success , due , in part , to the state 's limited financial resources and Jennings 's limited powers as governor .

Jennings strongly condemned slavery in his inauguration speech and as governor , he refined his stance on the institution . On November 7 , 1816 , Jennings encouraged the state legislature to enact laws to prevent " unlawful attempts to seize and carry into bondage persons of color legally entitled to their freedom " while preventing " those who rightfully owe service to the citizens of any other State or Territory , from seeking , within the limits of this state , a refuge from the possession of their lawful owners . " In 1817 Jennings acknowledged a moderation of his earlier position regarding fugitive slaves by claiming it was needed to " preserve harmony " among the states . Jennings agreed to allow citizens " the means of reclaiming any slave escaping to this State that may rightfully belong to them … with as little delay as possible " after citizens of Kentucky had difficulty reclaiming their slaves who had escaped to Indiana .

= = = Internal improvements = = =

In 1818 , Jennings began promoting a large @-@ scale plan for internal improvements in the state . Most of the projects were directed toward construction of roads , canals , and other projects to enhance the commercial appeal and economic viability of the state . During Jennings 's second term the state government continued to support public improvements , with new road construction and expanded settlement into central Indiana . After Indianapolis became the site for the state 's permanent capital in 1821 and new settlers arrived in the area , the Indiana General Assembly appropriated $ 100 @,@ 000 for new road construction and improvements to some of the more important routes , but it was considerably short of the amount needed .

The state experienced budget shortages because of low tax revenues , which forced Jennings to pursue other means of financing the projects . The main sources of funds came from issuing government bonds to the state bank and sales of public lands . The state 's spending and borrowing led to short @-@ term budget problems , but despite early setbacks ( poor access to capital eventually halted improvement programs and caused the Indiana Canal Company to fold because of lack of funds ) , the infrastructure improvements initiated by Jennings attracted new settlers to the state . By 1810 the Indiana Territory 's population within the boundaries of the new state was 24 , 520 . In the decades following his governorship , Indiana 's population grew from sixty @-@ five thousand in 1816 to 147 @,@ 178 in 1820 and surpassed one million by 1850 .

In his first inaugural speech in August 1816 , Jennings called attention to the need for an educational plan . In his 1817 annual message to the state legislature , he encouraged the establishment of a free , state @-@ funded education system , as called for in the state constitution , but few of the state 's citizens were willing to impose taxes to fund public schools . The state legislature believed priority should be given to creating government infrastructure . Lack of public funds postponed creation of a state library system until Governor James B. Ray 's administration in 1826 .

From the beginning the state 's banking institutions were closely tied to the state government 's fiscal affairs , made even more challenging due to the state 's " extremely limited economic and population base " , the economic depression of the late teens and early twenties , a lack of experience in banking on the part of state politicians and citizens , and other factors . " Indiana banking rested on shaky foundation even in the prosperous years preceding the Panic of 1819 . " To remedy the problem , Jennings signed legislation in 1817 to create the First State Bank of Indiana by converting the Bank of Vincennes , established under a territorial charter in 1814 , into the new bank 's main headquarters and established three new branches at Corydon , Brookville , and Vevay . The First State Bank soon became a depository of federal funds and was involved in land speculation . The Farmers and Mechanics Bank of Madison , established in 1814 , chose to remain separate from the state bank under a territorial charter that was valid until 1835 .

When state expenditures exceeded its revenues , Jennings preferred to secure the state 's debts with bank loans to cover the shortfall rather than issuing treasury notes . Although taxes were levied and the state borrowed from the First State Bank of Indiana , the state 's fiscal status remained bleak , worsened by the economic depression of 1819 . Around 1820 federal deposits at the First State Bank were suspended and the bank 's notes were no longer accepted for purchases from federal land offices . Numerous reports of corruption at the Bank of Vincennes and the collapse of land values , brought on by the panic of 1819 , put the bank in further financial distress . By 1821 the bank was insolvent . In June 1822 the Knox County circuit court declared the First State Bank had forfeited its charter . In November 1823 the Indiana Supreme Court upheld the termination of the bank 's charter and concluded that the First State Bank had " embezzled " $ 250 @,@ 000 of federal deposits , issued more paper than it could redeem , had debt exceeding the limited allowed under its charter , established more branches than its capital and specie could support , paid shareholders large dividends , and took steps to dissolve without paying debts owed . For several years after the First State Bank 's failure , Indiana citizens depended on the Bank of the United States , with a branch in Louisville , and the Farmers and Mechanics Bank of Madison for financial services . Farmers and Mechanics Banks fared better than the First State Bank of Indiana , but its charter expired on January 1 , 1835 , and its paper passed at depreciated rates for several years . Jennings was criticized for not monitoring the state 's banks more carefully and investigating bank officials for potential wrongdoing .

Most of Jennings second term was spent grappling with the state 's continuing financial difficulties . When tax revenues and land sales remained low , the state 's revenue was not sufficient to repay the bonds it used to finance internal improvements . The Indiana General Assembly was forced to significantly depreciate the value of its bonds , harming the state 's credit and making it difficult to secure new loans .

During his tenure as governor Jennings nominated three candidates to the Indiana Supreme Court : John Johnson , James Scott , and Jesse Lynch Holman . All three were quickly confirmed by the state legislature .

= = = Treaty of St. Mary 's = = =

In late 1818 , Jennings was appointed as a federal commissioner , along with Lewis Cass and Benjamin Parke , to negotiate a treaty with the Native Americans ( Potawatomi , Wea , Miami , and Delaware ) , who lived in the northern and central parts of Indiana . The Treaty of St. Mary 's allowed the State of Indiana to purchase millions of acres of land north of an 1809 treaty line and extending west to the Wabash River and two more parcels of land , which opened most of central Indiana to American settlement . The appointment created a crisis in Jennings 's political career . Because the state constitution prohibited a person from holding a federal government position while exercising duties as the state 's governor , Jennings 's political enemies seized the opportunity to force him from office by arguing that he had vacated the governor 's office when he accepted the federal appointment .

Lieutenant Governor Christopher Harrison claimed that Jennings had " abandoned " his elected office and took over as the state 's acting governor in Jennings 's absence . In the meantime the Indiana House of Representatives launched an investigation . When Jennings learned of the situation , he was " mortified " that his actions were being questioned and burned the documents he received from the federal government that related to his assignment . The legislature called Jennings and Harrison to appear for questioning ; however , Jennings declined , stating the assembly did not have the authority to interrogate him , and Harrison refused to appear unless the assembly recognized him as the acting governor . Because neither of the two men would meet with the legislature , the assembly demanded copies of the documents that Jennings received from the federal government to prove he was not acting as its agent . Jennings responded :

If I were in possession of any public documents calculated to advance the public interest , it would give me pleasure to furnish them , and I shall at all times be prepared to afford you any information which the constitution or laws of the State may require .... If the difficulty , real or supposed , has grown out of the circumstances of my having been connected with the negotiation at St Mary 's , I feel it my duty to state to the committee that I acted from an entire conviction of its propriety and an anxious desire , on my part , to promote the welfare and accomplish the wishes of the whole people of the State in assisting to add a large and fertile tract of country to that which we already possess .

The legislature summoned everyone in the surrounding area who had any knowledge of the events at Saint Mary 's , but found that no one was certain of Jennings 's role in the commission . After a short debate , the House passed a resolution , voting 15 to 13 , to recognize Jennings as governor and dropped it proceedings against him . The House votes opposing Jennings came largely from the state 's western counties . Harrison was outraged by the decision and resigned as lieutenant governor .

In 1820 Harrison ran against Jennings in his reelection bid . Jennings won the election by a large majority , 11 @,@ 256 votes to Harrison 's 2 @,@ 008 . Jennings 's win by a three @-@ to @-@ one margin suggests he remained a popular politician and the state 's voters were not overly concerned by attacks on the governor 's character .

= = = Personal financial problems = = =

Jennings 's personal finances suffered from the panic of 1819 , while the Indiana governorship continued to increase his financial burden . Jennings was never able to recover from his debts . One historian suggests that Jennings 's financial situation may arisen from the expenses incurred during his political campaigns , his long @-@ time service in state government , and being too busy to adequately manage his farm . Jennings and his wife frequently entertained visitors , legislators , and other dignitaries at their Corydon home . At a high @-@ profile dinner in 1819 , he hosted President James Monroe and General Andrew Jackson at a dinner held in their honor in Jeffersonville , when the two leaders were making a tour of the frontier states . In 1822 Jennings solicited a $ 1 @,@ 000 personal loan from the Harmonists in a letter to his political ally , George Rapp , but his request was denied . Jennings was able to secure personal loans from friends by granting mortgages on his land . Earlier in his career as a land speculator at Vincennes , when land prices decreased significantly , he was forced to sell several tracts of land at a loss .

By the late 1820s Jennings was critically short of cash . He depended on income from political office to pay his expenses . His farm was not likely to provide sufficient financial support . Because the thirty @-@ eight @-@ year @-@ old Jennings was prohibited by law from running for reelection to a third term as Indiana governor in 1823 , he was forced to consider other political options . Jennings decided to return to Congress .

= = = Return to Congress = = =

In September 1822 , shortly before his second term as governor expired , Jennings became a candidate for Congress after William Hendricks resigned his seat to run for Indiana governor . A special election was held on August 5 , 1822 , to fill Hendricks 's vacant seat in Congress . At the same time , the state 's increased population gave Indiana three congressional seats . A regular congressional election was held on the same day to elect three Indiana congressmen . Jennings and Davis Floyd were the principal candidates in the special election , which Jennings won . In the regular election to fill the seat for Indiana 's Second Congressional District , Jennings easily won , defeating James Scott by a wide margin . Jennings became a Democratic @-@ Republican to the 17th Congress and Lieutenant Governor Ratliff Boon succeeded him as governor . Hendricks ran unopposed and was subsequently elected as governor to succeed Boon . Jennings won reelection to Congress and represented Indiana 's Second District until in 1830 . He became a Jacksonian Republican in the 18th Congress , but switched his allegiance , becoming an Adams Republican in the 19th and 20th Congresses , and then aligned with the Anti @-@ Jacksonians in the 21st Congress .

Jennings continued to promote internal infrastructure improvements throughout his term in Congress . He introduced legislation to build more forts in the northwest , to grant federal funding for improvement projects in Indiana and Ohio , and led the debate in support of using federal funds to build the nations longest canal , Wabash and Erie Canal , through Indiana . He introduced a legislative amendment that made a provision to locate and survey the National Road to the west , toward the Mississippi River , so the people living in Indiana and Illinois would have some assurance that the road 's large federal appropriation would benefit them directly . Jennings helped secure appropriation of funds to survey the Wabash River and make it more accessible to year @-@ round steamboat travel .

In his reelection as the Second District congressman , Jennings supported tariff protection and internal improvements and vowed to support the presidential candidate that his constituents preferred if the election went to the House to decide the winner . Jennings won reelection to Congress in a close race , beating Jeremiah Sullivan of Madison . In the presidential election of 1824 American political parties organized around three candidates : Andrew Jackson running against John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay . Jennings favored Adams , and later , Clay ; however , when the contested presidential election passed to the House in 1825 , Jennings voted with the majority and gave his political support to Jackson , but he was defeated in the House and Adams became president . Indiana voters who supported Jackson hoped for a victory in the next election .

Jennings , seeking to advance his political career , ran for the Senate twice , but was defeated in both attempts . In 1825 he was a senate candidate at a time when the Indiana General Assembly elected the state 's senators to Congress . On the first ballot Isaac Blackford came in first , the incumbent governor , William Hendricks , came in second , and Jennings was third . On the fourth ballot Hendricks won the senate seat . In his second attempt Jennings lost to James Noble .

Jennings 's wife died in 1826 after a protected illness ; the couple had no children . Jennings was deeply saddened by her loss and began to drink liquor more heavily . Later that year he married Clarissa Barbee , but his drinking condition only worsened and he was frequently inebriated .

While serving in Congress , Jennings 's health continued to decline as he struggled with alcohol addiction and suffered from severe rheumatism . In 1827 ceiling plaster from Jennings 's Washington D.C. boarding room fell on his head , severely injuring him , and ill health limited his ability to visit his constituents , but he continued to remain a popular politician in Indiana . In the congressional election of 1826 , Jennings ran unopposed . He won reelection in 1828 , soundly defeating his opponent , Indiana 's lieutenant governor , John H. Thompson . Jennings did not publicly favor a presidential candidate and won the Second District seat with support from voters who favored Jackson and Adams . During Jennings 's final term in office House journals show that he introduced no legislation , was frequently not present to vote on matters , and only once delivered a speech . Jennings 's friends , led by Senator John Tipton , took note of his situation and took action to block Jennings 's reelection bid when his drinking became a political liability . John Carr , anti @-@ Jackson man , opposed Jennings in a six @-@ way race for the congressional seat and won the election . Tipton had arranged for others to enter the race and divide Jennings 's supporters . Jennings left office on March 3 , 1831 .

= = Later years = =

Jennings was twice @-@ elected Grand Master of the Indiana Grand Lodge of Freemasons , serving in 1824 and 1825 . He declined reelection in 1825 .

= = = Retirement = = =

Jennings retired with his wife , Clarissa , to his home in Charlestown . Tipton may have felt it had been mistake to force Jennings out of public service and hoped that work would force him to give up alcohol . In 1831 Tipton secured Jennings an appointment to negotiate a treaty with native tribes in northern Indiana . Jennings attended the negotiations of the Treaty of Tippecanoe , but the delegation failed in their attempt . Afterwards , Jennings returned to his farm , where his health steadily declined . He continued drinking alcohol , spending considerable time a local tavern , and was frequently discovered sleeping in streets or in roadside ditches . Jenning 's alcoholism worsened to the point where he was no longer able to tend his farm . Without a steady income Jennings 's creditors began moving to seize his estate . In 1832 Tipton acquired the mortgage on Jennings 's farm and enlisted the help of a local financier , James Lanier , to acquire the debts on Jennings 's other holdings . Tipton allowed Jennings to remain on his mortgaged farm for the remainder of Jennings 's life and encouraged Lanier to grant the same permission .

Jennings died of a heart attack , most likely brought on by another bout with jaundice , on July 26 , 1834 , at his farm near Charlestown . He was fifty years old . Jennings was buried after a brief ceremony in an unmarked grave . His estate lacked the funds to purchase a headstone . Jennings 's creditors , many of whom were his neighbors , were left unpaid and disgruntled . Following Jennings 's death , Tipton sold the Jennings farm to Joseph Carr and gave Jennings 's widow a $ 100 gift from the proceeds .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Memorials = = =

In the late nineteenth century several attempts were made to erect a monument honoring Jennings 's public service . On three separate occasions , in 1861 , 1869 and 1889 , petitions were brought before the Indiana General Assembly to erect a marker for Jennings 's grave , but each attempt failed . In 1892 the state legislature finally granted the petition to erect a monument in his honor . Around the same time , after Jennings 's unmarked gravesite was independently verified by three witnesses to his burial , his body was exhumed and reinterred at a new site at the Charlestown cemetery .

Jonathan Jennings Elementary School in Charlestown and Jennings County are both named in his honor .

= = = Political impact = = =

Historians have offered varied interpretations of Jennings 's life and his impact on the development of Indiana . The state 's early historians , William Wesley Woollen and Jacob Piatt Dunn Jr . , wrote of Jennings in an almost mythical manner , focusing on the strong positive leadership he provided Indiana in its formative years . Dunn referred to Jennings as the " young Hercules " , praising his crusade against Harrison and slavery . Woolen 's assessment was also positive : " Indiana owes him a debt more than she can compute . " During the prohibition era in the early twentieth century , historians Logan Esarey and Arthur Blythe were more critical of Jennings . Esarey , who wrote about Jennings during the height of Prohibition , when attitudes towards alcohol consumption was particularly harsh , was highly critical of Jennings 's alcoholism and destitution . Blythe described Jennings 's abilities as " mediocre . " Esarey argued that Jennings " took no decisive stand " on the important issues and dismissed his importance and impact on Indiana , saying the legislature and its leading men set the tone of the era . In 1954 John Barnhart and Donald Carmony described Jennings as a " shrewd politician rather than a statesman " , whose leadership was " not evident " at the 1816 convention . Carmony argued that Jennings 's " intemperance and poverty , should not obscure his significant contributions as territorial delegate to Congress , president of the Corydon Constitutional Convention , first state governor , and congressman . "

Modern historians , Howard Peckham , Randy Mills , Andrew R. L. Cayton , and Dorothy Riker , argue that Jennings 's legacy may lie " somewhere between the two extremes " of Dunn 's and Esarey 's assessments . Mills agrees with Woollen that Indiana owes Jennings a debt of gratitude . Although Jennings 's accomplishments were not extensive , he did a " commendable " job for his stewardship of a state in " transition to a more democratic form of government " . Cayton describes Jennings as " ambitious " , " passionate " , " hot @-@ tempered " , and " moody " . He argues that Jennings was a successful campaigner , but an " indifferent " statesman and governor who was " not very good at laying out an agenda and achieving its implementation " .

Jennings believed in popular democracy , opposed slavery , and despised aristocrats , especially William Henry Harrison , for " trampling on the rights of his fellow Americans . " His service as Indiana 's governor and representative to Congress came at the end of one political era and the beginning of another , when governmental power and authority shifted from the governor and his patronage appointments to the state legislature and elected officials .

= = Electoral history = =

= = = Territorial delegate = = =

= = = Gubernatorial elections = = =

= = = Indiana 's 2nd Congressional district = = =

= A More Perfect Union : Advancing New American Rights =

A More Perfect Union : Advancing New American Rights or simply A More Perfect Union is non @-@ fiction political analysis written by United States Congressman Jesse Jackson , Jr. in collaboration with Frank E.Watkins. Watkins is a political theorist , activist and was the press secretary to Jackson at the time . It was released in hardcover format on October 15 , 2001 and in paperback format on April 25 , 2008 . The material for Jackson 's book , his third , came from three trips he took in 1997 – 98 to American Civil War battlefields . Although Watkins is credited , the biographical content of the book is written as a first person narrative as if written solely by Jackson .

The National Park Service has twenty @-@ eight national Civil War historic sites . Jackson and White visited approximately twenty battlefields in August 1997 , December 1997 and the spring of 1998 . Jackson 's wife , Sandi Jackson , participated in the third trip . The trips heightened a belief of Jackson 's that race as it relates to African Americans has been the focal point of social and political existence in American history . Since Jackson is not the first to present such a realization , he presents a North @-@ South schism lens through which to view the congressional politics of race .

The book contains about 75 pages of biographical / autobiographical content which provide context for the subsequent political analysis . Critical reviews do not analyze the biographical content . Instead , the reviews focus on the political analysis of race , economic issues , geographical divide , and states ' rights as well as the constitutional amendments proposed in this book .

= = Summary = =

The title of the book comes from the Preamble to the United States Constitution . The preamble includes the phrase " in Order to form a more perfect Union " as the first specifically mentioned purpose of the United States Constitution .

The book has several sections . The first four chapters relate autobiographical details to his experience in touring the Civil War battle sites . In the subsequent section , he discusses federalism . In the third section he describes his economic plan . Then , Jackson outlines eight constitutional amendments . In the final section , he discusses achieving these policy goals set forth in the third and fourth sections . On March 4 , 2003 , Jackson proposed these eight amendments . The book includes full chapters for each amendment . The eight amendments are as follows :

the right to public education of equal high quality ;

the right to health care of equal high quality ;

equal rights for women ;

the right to decent , safe , sanitary and affordable housing ;

the right to a clean , safe and sustainable environment ;

the right . . . to full employment and balanced economic growth ;

the explicit fundamental right of citizens to vote ; and

an amendment regarding taxing the people of the United States progressively .

The Education Amendment which reads " ( 1 ) All persons shall enjoy the right to a public education of equal high quality ; and ( 2 ) The Congress shall have the power to enforce and implement this article by appropriate legislation , " has received public attention for several years . Jackson feels that his amendment is a natural response to San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez , 411 U.S. 1 ( 1973 ) , which determined that an education is not a constitutionally protected fundamental right .

An important theme of the book is the North @-@ South relationship as it influences the extent of federalism in the United States . The book describes how from before the Civil War to well after the Civil Rights Movement the balance of power between protectors of state 's rights and defenders of the federal government have battled over resources and power along North @-@ South alliances . Jackson is a detractor of state 's rights and feels that the extensive power given to states has slowed our broad distribution of social goods by perpetuating inequality and thus unrest . Dyson also notes that Jackson attempts to bring class to the forefront of the discourse in an effort to offer a political vision toward social equity and equality . He says Jackson views race as the lens to optimally view American history and views economic issues as the hearing aid through which the politics of today can best be heard .

= = Reviews = =

In a review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Michael Eric Dyson described the book as " intellectually accomplished and remarkably insightful " . He views Jackson 's eight new amendments as " the political backbone and intellectual infrastructure for the expression of a new politics of race and class that strengthen the status of all suffering Americans . " He encourages understanding the book because it provides a fresh social perspective to addresses current fundamental American political and racial problems .

Writing for the Chicago Tribune , Playboy editor John Thomas described the amendments as sensible , but pointed out that some view them as an attempt to legislate policy decisions . Thomas perceived the benefit of the plan to be the fact that the force of the constitution would uphold the amendments , and that this would compel actions to support both political promises and the constitutional tenets .

At one stop on the book tour associated with the publication and release of the book at the David A. Clarke School of Law of the University of the District of Columbia , Jackson 's message was perceived as saying that American history can be studied as an analysis of race , but that economics and the tension between states ’ rights and federal rights are the true basis of a domestic history revolving around pursuit of economic development , political power , and personal freedom . He then advanced the theory that these pursuits would most be most readily attained by adopting a set of new constitutional amendments , guaranteeing rights primarily grounded in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , which the U.S. has ratified . Each is discussed in a separate chapter : the rights to quality health care , housing , education , a clean environment , fair taxes , full employment , equality for women , and the right to vote .

= = Related issues = =

During the promotion of the book there was a controversy when a book @-@ signing party in Dolton , Illinois morphed into a fundraiser without Jackson 's knowledge . When Jackson realized what happened he wrote to the Federal Election Commission and the House Ethics Committee to explain what happened and seek their advice . Jackson decided to return the entire $ 1300 that was raised .

An outgrowth of Jackson 's trip was the realization that the National Park Service does not represent the underlying issue of slavery contextually in its battlefield displays and presentations . Instead of presenting the battles as political and moral issues , Jackson felt racial context and relevance needed to be presented in a more forward way . As a result , in 2000 , he recrafted the United States Department of the Interior 's appropriation to include a directive to have United States Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt use his influence over the superintendents of the national parks to encourage greater inclusion of slavery and social issues in Civil War presentations .

= Typhoon Nangka ( 2015 ) =

Typhoon Nangka was a large and strong tropical cyclone that impacted central Japan in July 2015 . Nangka started its long @-@ living journey as a tropical disturbance over the Marshall Islands and west of the International Dateline , becoming the eleventh named storm of the annual typhoon season on July 3 . It quickly intensified while moving to the west @-@ northwest , attaining typhoon status on July 6 . Nangka moved through the Northern Marianas Islands , passing directly over the uninhabited island of Alamagan . Shortly thereafter , the typhoon attained peak winds ; the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , while the unofficial Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . Nangka later weakened as it curved to the north , moving across central Japan on July 16 as a minimal typhoon . The storm weakened soon after , dissipating in the Sea of Japan on July 18 .

The storm first affected the Marshall Islands , bringing strong winds to the capital Majuro . Half of the city lost power , and several boats were sunk . Minimal effects were reported in the Northern Marianas Islands , and later the storm 's flow enhanced the monsoon over the Philippines . Effects were worst in Japan , where rainfall reached 740 mm ( 29 in ) in Kamikitayama , Nara Prefecture . Total damage across the Kansai region reached ¥ 18 billion ( US $ 150 million ) . Nangka killed two people in Japan , injured 55 , and damaged or flooded 220 houses .

= = Meteorological history = =

A westerly wind burst spawned Typhoon Chan @-@ hom and Tropical Storm Linfa across the western Pacific Ocean , as well as the system that would become Typhoon Nangka . On July 1 , an area of pulsing convection persisted east of the Marshall Islands , associated with a poorly @-@ defined circulation . Low wind shear , water sea surface temperatures , and good outflow favored further development . The circulation gradually became more defined as the convection organized more . At 18 : 00 UTC on July 2 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression , about 80 km ( 50 mi ) east of Aur Atoll . Based on the increasing organization , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 11W at 12 : 00 UTC on July 3 . About six hours later , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Nangka .

When Nangka was upgraded to a tropical storm by the JTWC early on July 4 , convective bands were wrapping into the center , but limited by dry air to the west . By that time , the storm was moving to the west @-@ northwest , steered by the subtropical ridge to the north . On July 5 , the JMA upgraded the storm to a severe tropical storm . By that time , the circulation had become exposed due to moderate wind shear , although the outflow had improved . On July 6 after shear diminished , Nangka began to quickly intensify as it developed an eye in the center of the blossoming convection . As a result , the JTWC upgraded the storm to typhoon status at 06 : 00 UTC , followed by the JMA at 12 : 00 UTC . Nangka reached its first peak intensity at 12 : 00 UTC on July 7 , when JMA estimated 10 minute sustained winds 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The typhoon was aided by excellent radial outflow enhanced by a TUTT cell to the northwest , and it developed a well @-@ defined eye 48 km ( 30 mi ) in diameter .

After its first peak in intensity , Nangka slightly weakened as convection along the west side of the system was restricted due to the TUTT cell , and the eye became cloud @-@ filled . Decreasing wind shear and increasing sea surface temperatures allowed the intensification trend to resume , and the structure became more symmetric late on July 8 as it moved toward the Northern Marianas Islands . A well @-@ defined inner eye re @-@ developed inside of an outer eyewall . On July 9 , the JTWC upgraded Nangka to a super typhoon , estimating peak 1 minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) . The JMA also assessed a 10 minute peak of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on July 9 , the eye of Nangka passed over the uninhabited island of Alamagan . The typhoon later weakened while turning more to the west due to increased wind shear . The eye became cloud @-@ filled and was no longer visible by July 11 , although the organization was sustained by good outflow to the south . However , the convection reorganized the next day and the eye reformed . By that time , Nangka was slowing and nearly stationary as the subtropical ridge receded to the east .

On July 13 , Typhoon Nangka began moving northward toward Japan through a break in the ridge . The typhoon completed an eyewall replacement cycle , and according to the JTWC attained a secondary peak of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . The re @-@ intensification was also aided by a decrease in wind shear , but was short @-@ lived due to drier air from the north and west . As the eye became more ragged , the winds continued to decrease . At 14 : 00 UTC on July 16 , Nangka made landfall along the Japanese island of Shikoku near Muroto , Kōchi , still at typhoon status . Four hours later , the typhoon weakened into a severe tropical storm , and after crossing the Seto Inland Sea , Nangka made a second landfall on Honshu near Kurashiki , Okayama at 21 : 00 UTC . The convection greatly weakened as it crossed Honshu into the Sea of Japan , and the storm deteriorated further due to lower water temperatures . At 12 : 00 UTC on July 17 , the JMA downgraded Nangka to a tropical depression , and early the next day the JTWC discontinued advisories . On July 18 , Nangka dissipated in the central Sea of Japan .

= = Preparations and impact = =

On Majuro atoll in the Marshall Islands , the developing Nangka produced strong westerly winds near gale force , producing high waves and flooding along the lagoon . At least 25 vessels in the island 's lagoon broke loose from or were dragged by their moorings . High winds from Nangka tore roofs from homes and downed trees and power lines . Nearly half of the nation 's capital , Majuro , was left without power . Tony deBrum , the Marshall Island 's foreign minister , stated " Majuro [ is ] like a war zone . " Some coastal flooding was also noted , which resulted in crop damage .

Ahead of the storm , the Guam National Weather Service issued a typhoon watch for Agrihan , Pagan , and Alamagan , as well as a high surf advisory for Guam . The watch was later upgraded to a warning , and was canceled after the typhoon exited the region . Flights were delayed or canceled to the region due to the storm and problems with the local aircraft communication system . During the storm , there were minor power outages on Saipan in two villages that were quickly restored . On Alamagan where the storm struck , six people rode out the storm in a concrete bunker .

In the Philippines , the flow from the storm increased the southwest monsoon , causing flash floods and landslides in some areas . The outskirts of the storm later brushed the east coast of South Korea , producing 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in rainfall , and wind gusts of 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) .

= = = Japan = = =

Due to the threat of the storm , nine airlines canceled 214 flights across Japan . Meanwhile , rail service and highways were disrupted , with a portion of the Chūō Expressway closed , and ferry rides were canceled . The Shikoku Railway Company canceled service during the storm and limited rides along the West Japan Railway Company . About 860 @,@ 000 people were advised or ordered to evacuate their homes , including 88 @,@ 100 people from 15 @,@ 400 homes who were forced to leave . After the storm passed , residents were allowed to return home .

While moving through Japan , Nangka produced peak wind gusts of 153 km / h ( 95 mph ) in Muroto , Kōchi . Heavy rains impacted much of central Japan , peaking at 740 mm ( 29 in ) in Kamikitayama , Nara Prefecture . Owase , Mie recorded 357 @.@ 5 mm ( 14 @.@ 07 in ) over 24 hours . The highest hourly rainfall was 84 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) in Saijō , Ehime . Kawauchi , Fukushima recorded 77 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 05 in ) over one hour , setting a record for the month of July .

The rains from Nangka caused rivers to exceed their banks . In Tokushima Prefecture , the Naka River flooded to the second story of nearby school buildings . Flooding stranded 1 @,@ 600 passengers on a train for four hours , which had been traveling from Tsuruga , Fukui to Himeji , Hyōgo . Across Japan , strong waves and high winds killed over 11 @,@ 000 bluefin tuna on a fish farm in Kushimoto , accounting for ¥ 1 @.@ 29 billion ( $ 10 @.@ 4 million ) in losses . About 15 @,@ 000 people lost power across the country . The storm damaged 30 homes and flooded another 190 , and also damaged farming equipment . There were 55 injuries and two deaths related to the typhoon , including an elderly man who drowned after falling into a ditch . Total damage in the Kansai region reached ¥ 18 billion ( US $ 150 million ) , including ¥ 7 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 58 @.@ 9 million ) in Wakayama Prefecture and ¥ 4 @.@ 9 billion ( US $ 40 @.@ 7 million ) in Hyogo Prefecture . Total economic losses are estimated to be in excess of ¥ 24 billion ( US $ 200 million ) .

= River Rother , West Sussex =

The River Rother flows from Empshott in Hampshire , England , to Stopham in West Sussex , where it joins the River Arun . The upper river , from its source to Midhurst , has been used to power watermills , with the earliest recorded use being in 1086 , when the Domesday survey was conducted . Although none are still operational , many of the buildings which housed the mills still exist , and in some cases , still retain their milling machinery . This upper section is also noted for a number of early bridges , which have survived since their construction in the fifteenth , sixteenth and seventeenth centuries .

The lower river , from Midhurst to its junction with the River Arun , has been used for navigation . Boats used the section from the Arun to Fittleworth following improvements made to the Arun in 1615 , and after the Arun Navigation was completed in 1790 , the Earl of Egremont made the river navigable up to Midhurst by constructing eight locks and some small cuts . The work was completed in 1794 , and many of the bridges built at that time still survive . With the opening of the Mid @-@ Sussex Railway branch to Midhurst in 1859 , traffic declined , and commercial use of the river had ceased by the 1880s . Pleasure boats continued to be used on the river for many years , and published accounts of journeys along the decaying navigation appeared in 1914 and 1920 . The navigation was officially abandoned in 1936 , after an undergraduate pointed out that it was still a public right of way .

The river flows through the South Downs National Park , and is a designated Site of Nature Conservation Importance , in recognition of its value for wildlife . It supports a wide range of fish , and its upper reaches are the only location in Sussex where native white clawed crayfish can be found . The quality of the water is generally good , and the river is measured at four gauging stations , three on the main channel , and one of the River Lod , just before its junction with the Rother . Water from the underlying Lower Greensand aquifer and the adjacent chalk aquifer helps to maintain the flows during the summer months , despite the fact that large volumes are abstracted from both the aquifers and the river for the public water supply .

= = History = =

Following improvements to the River Arun in 1615 , which allowed boats to reach Pallingham , they could also navigate part of the Rother , as far upstream as Fittleworth . The canal engineer William Jessop was asked to survey the river below Petworth Mills in 1783 , and was recalled in 1790 , when he surveyed it below Midhurst . In the same year , the construction of the Arun Navigation was finished , and in 1791 , George Wyndham , 3rd Earl of Egremont , who was based at Petworth House , obtained an Act of Parliament which would enable him to improve the Rother . The Act also authorised a branch canal to Petworth . Since he owned most of the land adjacent to the river , the precise route of the navigation was not specified , and he was free to improve the channel or make cuts as he saw fit . The only restriction was that cuts could not be made through gardens or enclosed grounds . Compared to most other canals at the time , the charges for using the navigation were low , as the Earl wanted to develop the region rather than make a profit .

The river 's lower section , below Midhurst , was made navigable by the construction of the Western Rother Navigation in 1794 . The length of the navigation was 11 @.@ 25 miles ( 18 @.@ 11 km ) of which less than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) consisted of new cuts , with the rest following the existing channel . It rose through 54 feet ( 16 m ) from Stopham to Midhurst by a series of eight locks , and cost £ 13 @,@ 300 to build . Traffic consisted of coal transported up @-@ river , with cargoes of timber , corn and Petworth marble in the other direction . A branch connected it to Petworth by the short Petworth Canal , which was 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) long with two locks , and terminated at Haslingbourne to the south of the town . It was opened in 1793 , having cost the Earl £ 5 @,@ 000 to build , but only lasted for a few years , until a turnpike road was diverted . This made access to Petworth easier , and the canal ceased to be used .

Unlike many canals , where navvies were brought into the neighbourhood to carry out the work , the Earl employed local men on the project , most of them already employed by him , and a clergyman praised him for this when writing in 1808 , as it led to much less disruption , but provided increased income for those who worked on the scheme . Wages rose from 8 or 9 shillings ( 40 @-@ 45p ) per week to 14 or 15 shillings ( 70 @-@ 75p ) . During his life , the Earl invested some £ 100 @,@ 000 in waterways , some in his native county of Sussex , but also in attempts to build a canal from London to Portsmouth . Between 1802 and 1831 , the average income from the canal was around £ 550 per year . Competition arrived in 1859 , when the Mid @-@ Sussex Railway opened a line from Horsham through Pulborough to Petworth . Traffic declined , and by the 1880s , the navigation was no longer used by commercial boats , although it was not officially abandoned until 1936 .

= = = Closure = = =

Despite the navigation being closed , a guide to Midhurst published in 1895 advertised that skiffs could be hired , and fishing could be enjoyed . The boats were hired out by a plumber called William Port , and his business continued to prosper until 1912 , when his boathouse burned down . Rowing boats were also available for hire at Coultershaw and Fittleworth . Another book called A New Oarsman 's Guide , published in 1896 , suggested that the river could be canoed from Iping to the Arun , a distance of 19 miles ( 31 km ) , when there was sufficient water . By that time , none of the locks were workable , and boats had to be carried around them .

In 1887 , part of the river bank near Todham Lock , which bordered the Cowdray estate of the Earl of Egmont , had collapsed , and the Earl suggested that Lord Leconfield of Petworth , a successor to the Earl of Egremont , should pay for its repair . After some disagreement , a compromise was reached , under which the bank was repaired and a floodgate was fitted at the upper end of the lock , with both men paying half of the cost . Lord Leconfield assumed that when the Arun Navigation finally obtained an Act of Abandonment in 1896 , his responsibilities for the maintenance of the River Rother had ended . However , in 1903 heavy rain and floods destroyed the floodgate and part of the adjacent weir , resulting in river levels though the 8th Earl of Egmont 's estate dropping by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) . The Earl , Augustus Arthur Perceval , issued a writ against Lord Leconfield for damages . The case was heard in the High Court , at which it was agreed that the navigation was now useless , but that the two men would share the costs of rebuilding the floodgate , after which responsibility for its maintenance would pass to the Earl , who could also dredge the river above the lock .

P Bonthron , who published a book entitled My Holidays on Inland Waterways in 1916 , described a journey down the river that he had made with friends in 1908 , in a boat hired from William Port at Midhurst . They reached Arundel on the River Arun after two days , from where the boat was sent back to Midhurst by train . Another account of a similar journey made in 1914 by Eleanor Barnes and a friend appeared in As the Water Flows , first published in 1920 , which described canoe journeys on the rivers of southern England made by her over a period of seven or eight years . The warrant of abandonment was obtained jointly by the estates at Petworth and Cowdray after an Oxford undergraduate called Roger Sellman pointed out that the river was still officially a right of way , and that anyone could therefore offer to pay the appropriate tolls to use a boat on it , and expect the owners to rebuild the locks . The powers of the Railway & Canal Traffic Act 1888 were invoked to declare that the navigation was no longer necessary , and despite objections from the River Arun Catchment Board and a canoe club , the warrant was granted on 15 April 1936 . However , the Environment Agency noted in 2003 that although there used to be navigation rights on the river , " the existing status of the navigation is unknown . "

= = Hydrology = =

The river flows through the South Downs , an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and since 2011 , a designated national park . There are two large aquifers in the area , one consisting of chalk , to the south of the river valley , and the other the Lower Greensand Group , underlying the whole of the river . The aquifers are separated by a Gault Formation , which consists of clay . At the western edge of the region , both the chalk and the gault turn to the north , creating a scarp slope . The base flow of the river consists of water from the Lower Greensand aquifer , and from springs along the bottom of the chalk scarp slope . These help to maintain the flows in the river during the summer months , although there have been significant periods where flows have been low , notably in the drought of the early 1990s , and again in 1995 / 96 . These led to declines in the populations of the macro @-@ invertebrates which are used to measure the health of a river , but these have subsequently recovered . In order to monitor the hydrology , the Environment Agency has a series of observation boreholes along the valley , and maintains gauging stations at Princes Marsh , close to the source , at Iping Mill , at Halfway Bridge on the River Lod just above its junction with the Rother , and at Hardham , just before the river joins the Arun .

Flows in the river are swelled by discharges from several sewage treatment works . The three largest are at Princes Marsh , Petersfield and Ambersham , all of which have outflows between 0 @.@ 22 and 1 @.@ 10 million imperial gallons ( 1 and 5 Ml ) per day , with another three discharging between 0 @.@ 022 and 0 @.@ 220 million imperial gallons ( 0 @.@ 1 and 1 Ml ) per day at Rogate , Coultershaw and Fittleworth . The entire river , including parts of some of its tributaries , is designated as a Site of Nature Conservation Importance by the local authorities through which it flows , in recognition of its value for wildlife . The upper reaches of the Rother are important for their fish populations of brown trout , grayling , juvenile sea trout , and the spawning and early development of salmonids . There are also populations of bullhead , eel , lamprey , minnow and stone loach . There has been some concern about declining fish stocks , thought to be partly caused by soil erosion , leading to silt and sediments being deposited on the river bed , which has been exacerbated by low flows in the river . Parts of the lower river support the same types of fish , but there are areas , particularly immediately upstream of weirs , where the major species are bream , pike and roach , with chubb , dace and perch on the lowest reaches . In order to assist the movement of fish along the river , particularly those that migrate to the headwaters to spawn , fish passes have been constructed around the gauging stations . The only known population of native white clawed crayfish in Sussex is located in the upper reaches of the Rother .

The quality of the water is generally good , helped by the fact that the groundwater in the chalk aquifer is of very high quality . However , some of the small streams in the upper reaches are polluted by discharges of effluent which are not licensed , and there are areas where the water in the aquifer , and hence the river , has raised levels of nitrates , largely caused by agricultural fertilisers . The Environment Agency has produced improvement plans to address a number of sources of both agricultural and urban pollution . Natural flows in the river are affected by the abstraction of water for the public water supply . There are many locations at which water is abstracted along the course of the river , including a site in the upper reaches where more than 1 @.@ 1 million imperial gallons ( 5 Ml ) per day is abstacted from the aquifer , and another where the volume exceeds 2 @.@ 2 million imperial gallons ( 10 Ml ) . Just above the junction with the River Arun , the Hardham Water Treatment Works removes more than 2 @.@ 2 million imperial gallons ( 10 Ml ) per day from the river .

= = Etymology = =

The river takes its name from Rotherbridge , not the other way round . Rotherbridge is derived from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Redrebruge , meaning cattle bridge , which was also the name of the Saxon Hundred or administrative group of parishes . Before this the river was known as the Scir .

= = Route = =

The route description has been split into two sections . From its source to Midhurst , the river has powered several mills , but has never been navigable . Below Midhurst , it was navigable until the navigation closed in the 1880s . There were eight locks on this section , some of which bypassed additional water mills .

= = = Source to Midhurst = = =

The River Rother rises from several springs near Empshott in Hampshire . The main one supplies watercress beds , before passing under Mill Lane , to the south of the village . It continues eastwards , to reach Greatham Mill . The mill , together with the mill house and an attached barn , date from the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries , and are built of brick . Now Grade II listed . All of the original machinery of the mill is still in situ , but is not operational , as the water supply has been diverted . The stream turns to the south @-@ east , and passes under the A3 West Liss bypass , and Greatham Bridge , on the old route . It is joined by other streams , and turns south to reach Liss railway station . The railway and the river follow the same general route , and the river crosses under the railway five times before reaching Sheet . At the northern edge of the village , the river is joined by the Ashford Stream , and there is another mill . After passing under the A272 road , to the east of the village , it reaches Sheet Mill .

Tillmore Brook joins from the west , and the course turns to the east . At Durleighmarsh , a hamlet which forms part of the civil parish of Rogate , it passes the ruins of Durford Abbey , a Premonstratensian monastery situated on the north bank . It is a scheduled ancient monument , and the site includes a threshing barn with a water wheel and associated drive shafts . On the south bank is Durford Mill . This mill house is a grade II listed structure , and was built of clunch in 1770 . The mill itself has been modernised and enlarged , and is not listed . A little further downstream , Harting Road crosses the river at Durford Bridge , build in the early 1600s with four semi @-@ circular arches . It was restored in 1924 . To the north of Habin , another hamlet in Rogate , North Lane crosses the river on Habin Bridge , which has four round @-@ headed arches , and was probably built in the seventeenth century , but might be earlier . It is built of stone , and was restored in the eighteenth century .

To the north of Dumpford , a hamlet in the civil parish of Trotton with Chithurst , is Terwick Mill . It is a grade II * listed structure , and consists of two mills , side by side . They were operational until 1966 . The north mill is a timber @-@ framed building , clad with weatherboarding , dating from the sixteenth century . The south mill was built of coursed stone rubble around 1750 . Although it has been converted into a house , it still contains two iron waterwheels , one for each mill , and its machinery . The earliest documentary evidence for the mill dates from 1635 . The adjacent mill house , parts of which date from the eighteenth century , is also a listed building . The river turns to the north to pass to the east of Trotton , and is crossed by Trotton Bridge , dating from the early 1600s , which has five ribbed arches . The river then turns to the east again at Chithurst , where Abbey House , an L @-@ shaped timber @-@ framed building dating from the fifteenth century , and the parish church , much of which dates from the eleventh century , are located on the north bank . An eighteenth century stone and brick bridge with two arches carries Chithurst Lane over the river .

Continuing eastwards , the river is crossed by Iping Bridge at Iping , a narrow stone bridge with five arches dating from the seventeenth century . To the west of the bridge is the site of Iping watermill . A mill was recorded there in the Domesday survey , completed in 1086 . By 1665 , there were the remains of a fulling mill at the site , and a wheat @-@ mill and malt @-@ mill , both part of the same building . It became a paper mill in the eighteenth century , and continued to operate until it was destroyed by fire in 1930 . At Stedham , part of the civil parish of Stedham with Iping , Stedham Lane crosses the river on a stone bridge with six segmental arches . Five of them date from the seventeenth century , with one later addition . The river then makes a large loop to the north , where Stedham Mill was situated . The mill building has been demolished , but the mill house is a listed structure . After the loop , Woolbeding Bridge , on the northern Edge of Midhurst , dates from the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries . It has four segmental arches , was restored in 1919 , and is a grade II * listed structure .

After another loop to the north , the river passes between Easebourne to the north east and Midhurst to the south west . The bridge which carries the A272 road has two wide arches , and was of ashlar construction . Although this structure is still in situ , it is difficult to see , as a pedestrian bridge has been built on the north west side , attached to the original bridge by cantilevers , and one of the two arches was widened in 1912 by the addition of another arch outside it . Below the bridge is the mill house and adjoining water mill of North Mill . The mill carries the date 1840 , and the house is of a similar age , although built in two stages . The river flows briefly to the south , passing Cowdray on the east bank , which is a scheduled ancient monument . It consists of a medieval fortified house , which is partly ruined , although some of it has been reused . It is situated within Cowdray Park , a grade II * listed landscaped park , which forms the grounds for Cowdray House , a nineteenth @-@ century mansion some 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) further east . On the opposite bank is a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle , dating from the twelfth century . Below this point , the river was navigable .

= = = Midhurst to mouth = = =

The terminus of the Rother Navigation was on a side stream , at the southern edge of Midhurst . There was a wharf and basin , close to a road which is still called The Wharf , and an ashlar bridge crosses the navigation between the wharf and the junction with the main river . It was built in 1794 , and was restored in 1977 to commemorate the silver jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II . The first lock was near Little Topham farm . There was a lock cut across a loop to the north . Costers Brook , which flows north from springs near Cocking , and then alongside the river for a short distance , joins below the site of the lock . The bridge at South Ambersham was built of stone rubble in 1791 , with a main arch across the navigation and a smaller arch to the north , which has been repaired with brick . Moorland Lock was on a straight cut across a large meander to the south , close to Moorlands Farm . Lodsbridge Lock also bypasses a meander to the south , which fed Lodsbridge Mill . The mill building dates from the eighteenth century , and has been converted into a house . The seventeenth @-@ century timber @-@ framed mill house is also a listed building . There was a motte castle immediately to the south of the mill . A modern timber yard and saw mill is located to the north of the lock site , and Lods Bridge , which carries a minor road over the river , dates from the construction of the navigation . The River Lod joins on the north bank just below the bridge .

A widening in the modern river , close to the dismantled Midhurst branch of the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway , marks the site of Ladymead Lock , with a weir to the south and the lock structure to the north . The fourth lock was Coultershaw Lock . The river at this point runs to the south , and there was a large meander to the west with a weir at its head . The mill stream ran to the east , and the lock was built just to the west of the mill . Coultershaw Bridge now carries the A285 road over the mill stream , near which is Coultershaw Beam Pump ; it was built in 1782 to provide a better water supply to Petworth House . The pump is powered by a water wheel , cast at Cocking Foundry , which is 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) in diameter . There were two corn mills and a malt mill recorded on the site in 1534 . The mill was modernised in 1910 , when turbines replaced the wheels , and standby engines were installed in 1919 . It was destroyed by fire in 1923 , and a steel @-@ framed concrete building replaced it . When it ceased to operate in 1972 , the building was demolished , but the beam pump , which was located beneath the building , was rescued and has been restored . The pump no longer performs its original function , but supplies a fountain near the visitor centre .

Shopham Lock was another where the lock cut was built across a large meander to the north . The bridge at the tail of the lock is built from red and grey brick , and has a single , round @-@ headed arch . It dates from the construction of the navigation , and is virtually unaltered . Nearby , the Petworth Canal headed northwards to Haslingbourne Bridge . Below the end of the cut , the river is joined by the stream from Burton Mill Pond , which supplied an iron forge built in 1789 . It is crossed by Shopham Bridge , built in the nineteenth century from red brick with grey headers and a parapet in stone , with three segmental arches . At Lower Fittleworth , there is another mill building , although it is unused and in poor condition . It was built in 1628 and enlarged in 1742 . It stands in the grounds of the mill house , which was rebuilt in 1913 . The lock cut ran along the south @-@ western edge of the site . Fittleworth Bridge consists of a southern section , originally built in the sixteenth century , which was rebuilt between 1717 and 1739 , and modified when the navigation was built , to enable boats to pass through the centre arch . A north section , adjacent to the millpond , dates from 1811 @-@ 12 .

Near its junction with the River Arun , the river loops to the south in a large meander . A cut ran from the start of the meander to join the Arun above the original junction , with a lock towards the downstream end . The meander fed Hardham Corn Mill . A lock bypassed the mill and the millstream , to enable boats to reach the Hardham Tunnel cut , which headed south from a junction above the mill . The Tunnel Branch was destroyed by the construction of a water treatment works , and the modern weir near the mouth is much closer to the junction than the lock was .

= = Conservation = =

The Arun & Rother Rivers Trust ( ARRT ) was set up in 2011 with the objective of enhancing and protecting the river and other connected waterways . It is a charity with further objectives concerning education , fisheries , biodiversity , access and pollution . The organisation is registered as a limited company , and has been asked to produce a Catchment Management plan by the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs . It is working with the Arun and Rother Connections ( ARC ) Partnership and the South Downs National Park Authority to ensure that local opinion is adequately represented in the document .

= = Points of interest = =

= I Hear You , I See You =

" I Hear You , I See You " is the second season premiere of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Parenthood , and the fourteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 14 , 2010 . In the episode , Sarah feels Adam has stolen one of her ideas , Julia and Joel try to talk to their daughter about sex , and Crosby tries to cope with missing Jasmine and Jabbar .

The episode was written by Jason Katims and directed by Lawrence Trilling , and featured the first of several appearances by William Baldwin as Adam 's boss , Gordon Flint . Minka Kelly , who previously appeared in the first season , also returned to her recurring role as Gaby , Max 's therapist . " I Hear You , I See You " received generally positive reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was seen by an average 7 @.@ 69 million viewers , a decline from the first season premiere in March 2010 .

= = Plot = =

Adam ( Peter Krause ) is stressed about work because his boss Gordon ( William Baldwin ) feels he is too distracted by family issues . Sarah ( Lauren Graham ) , frustrated with her children for losing their shoes , off @-@ handedly remarks to Adam about her desire for a LoJack to help locate missing shoes . Put on the spot for new ideas at work , Adam pitches the LoJack idea and Gordon loves it , insisting Adam start developing it . When Sarah learns this later she is excited , but feels upset she is not given credit . When Zeek ( Craig T. Nelson ) encouraged her to stand up for herself , Sarah confronts Adam , but claims he has made many sacrifices for Sarah in the past and never asked for anything in return . Later , however , Adam tells Gordon it was Sarah 's idea . That night , Adam apologizes to Sarah and offers her an internship at the company 's design department , which she happily accepts .

Kristina ( Monica Potter ) is teaching Haddie ( Sarah Ramos ) how to drive , but is so over @-@ worried she stresses her daughter out . Haddies tries to convince Adam to teach her instead , but he refuses . Later , during another lesson , Kristina distresses Haddie so much she crashes into a garbage can , damaging a side mirror . The two later argue , but they eventually reconcile , and Kristina explains she dreads the idea of her daughter dying in an accident . Meanwhile , Crosby ( Dax Shepard ) meets and seems attracted to Gaby ( Minka Kelly ) , the therapist helping Max ( Max Burkholder ) . Crosby is trying to cope with missing his son Jabbar ( Tyree Brown ) and girlfriend Jasmine ( Joy Bryant ) , who is in New York City pursuing her dancing career . Jabbar plans to visit Crosby , who promises Max the two boys can have a sleepover , much to Max 's excitement . However , Jasmine later tells Crosby she cannot visit after all due to an audition . When Crosby tells Max , he grows hysterical due to his Asperger syndrome . He is calmed by Gaby while Crosby watches , realizing the extent of Max 's problems . Haddie later has a sleepover with a now @-@ happy Max .

Zeek is in therapy with his wife Camille ( Bonnie Bedelia ) , and whenever he starts to speak disrespectfully , he stops himself and tells her , " I hear you and I see you . " The roof in Zeek 's barn is leaking and he tries to fix it , but only makes it worse due to his poor handyman skills . Sarah recruits Joel ( Sam Jaeger ) , a licensed contractor , to help Zeek , but tells him he must let Zeek believe he is doing all the work . Joel tries to help , but Zeek constantly interferes and declares himself in charge . Eventually , Joel loses his temper and yells at Zeek , who is impressed with the usually timid Joel . Meanwhile , Sydney ( Savannah Paige Rae ) asks her parents if she came " out of a vagina " . Joel is uncomfortable discussing sex with her child , but Julia ( Erika Christensen ) insists on telling her the truth . The topic eventually leads Julia to conclude she wants another child and , in her excitement , she does not notice Joel seems conflicted about the idea .

= = Production = =

" I Hear You , I See You " was directed by Lawrence Trilling and written by Jason Katims , one of the executive directors of Parenthood . It marked the first appearance of William Baldwin , who is set to appear in at least eight episodes in the first half of the second season in his recurring role as Gordon Flint . Trilling said the characters will serve not only as Adam 's boss , but also an eventual love interest for Sarah , so they wanted an actor with both stature and comedic talent . Baldwin previously starred in the drama television series Dirty Sexy Money along with Parenthood co @-@ star Peter Krause , and Trilling felt their past experience working together helped Krause and Baldwin develop a quick rapport on Parenthood . " I Hear You , I See You " also included the return of Minka Kelly , who previously appeared in first season episodes as Gaby , Max 's therapist .

= = Cultural references = =

Crosby and Jasmine communicate long distance via Skype , a software application that allows users to make voice calls and video chat over the Internet . At one point , they attempt to have cybersex using Skype , but are interrupted when the software freezes . In preparing for his sleepover , Max talks excitedly about his Sun Chips , a brand of potato chips by Frito @-@ Lay , and goes so far as to count each chip out individually . Several songs were featured in " I Hear You , I See You " , including " Smile " by Evil Twins , " Well Runs Dry " by Peter Case , " Quick Canal " by Atlas Sound , " Older Guys " by The Flying Burrito Brothers , " It Takes a Muscle " by M.I.A. and " Take a Bow " by Greg Laswell .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " I Hear You , I See You " was seen by an estimated average 7 @.@ 69 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with 8 @.@ 45 million viewers during the first half hour . The second half hour 's viewership was 6 @.@ 93 million , which was considered a major mid @-@ episode drop . It received a 2 @.@ 7 rating among adults between age 18 and 49 , an eight percent viewership drop compared to the first season premiere on March 2 , 2010 . This was despite a boost Parenthood was expected as a result of debuting after the season finale of NBC 's America 's Got Talent . The episode received generally positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly television writer Ken Tucker praised Jason Katims ' script and felt the episode gave all the actors adequate screen @-@ time while contributing to the overall shape of the series . Tucker particularly praised the new link formed between Sarah and Adam , the infusion of comic relief into Julia and Joel , and Sarah Ramos , who he said gave " the best acting of the night " as Haddie .

Mandi Bierly , also of Entertainment Weekly , also praised the premiere and drew particular attention to the scene with Sarah confronting Adam about stealing her idea . She said the scene shows the writers and actors " are not people afraid of letting an awkward , tension @-@ filled scene breathe " , and that kind of realism illustrates the strength of the show 's writing and acting . Camille Wright Felton of CNN said she loved the show , and particularly praised the subplot about Haddie learning to drive , as well as Adam 's response when Haddie asked if whether he and his wife had an agreement to ignore each other 's flaws : " Yeah , it 's called marriage . " However , Felton criticized Baldwin 's character , which she described as a " single @-@ minded boss who apparently exists as an island and doesn 't get that people have families and need to tend to family crises " . HitFix television columnist Alan Sepinwall felt the first half of the episode was too uneven in its mix of comedy and drama , but that it was later redeemed mainly by the scenes featuring Max , who he said " is the one character on the show who never feels inauthentic , and he kind of pulls everyone toward him " . Sepinwall praised the performance of Max Burkholder as Max , but described William Baldwin 's character as a " caricatured playboy boss " .

Tood VanDerWerff , of The A.V. Club , also felt the first half was " a little too giggly and chaotic [ with ] every plotline devolving into the most obvious comedy possible " , and felt Baldwin 's boss character was too stereotypical . But he praised several later scenes , like the fight between Joel and Zeek , Crosby 's reaction to max 's tantrum , and Joel 's ambivalence about having another child . Not all reviews of " I Hear You , I See You " were positive . Movieline writer Julie Miller felt most of the episode 's subplots were unoriginal and uninteresting , including Sydney 's inquiries about where babies come from and Zeek making the roof worse by trying to repair it . Miller sarcastically wrote , " The show proved that it is not screwing around in its sophomore year by immediately tackling completely original family issues . "

= William Blake 's illustrations of On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity =

William Blake drew and painted illustrations for John Milton 's nativity ode On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity between 1803 and 1815 . A total of 16 illustrations are extant : two sets of six watercolours each , and an additional four drawings in pencil .

The dating of the sets is unknown , as is Blake 's intended sequence for the illustrations . The two sets of watercolours are known as the " Butts set " and the " Thomas set " , after their respective patrons , or as the " Huntington set " and the " Whitworth set " after the Huntington Library and the Whitworth Art Gallery , which now hold the sets in their collections .

= = Provenance = =

There is little record of the provenance of the Thomas set or the Butts set before 1852 and 1872 , which has led to disputes about the dating . What is known is that the " Thomas set " was commissioned by the Reverend Joseph Thomas , who had also commissioned illustrations to Milton 's Comus and Paradise Lost from Blake . No contract for the commission is extant , but the commissioning probably took place in 1809 , which is the year in which the illustrations were completed . Blake was eager to accept the commission , according to G. E. Bentley , because " Milton illustrations were a kind of work which Blake could not resist . " They presumably stayed in the Revd Thomas 's family until they were bought at Sotheby 's from an anonymous seller in 1872 . By 1876 they were in the collection of J.E. Taylor , who gave them to the Whitworth in 1892 .

Even less is known about the dates of composition for the " Butts set " - between 1811 and 1820 , Blake created at least thirty three designs for Thomas Butts , which included the illustrations of " On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity " . Later , they passed from Butts to his son , who sold them at Sotheby 's in 1852 , passed through several more hands , were sold at Christie 's in 1912 , and in 1916 were sold to Henry Huntington .

= = Dating and sequence = =

The illustrations themselves do not make the dating any easier- the edges of the " Thomas set " were trimmed before sale at Sotheby 's , leaving " 18 " or " 180 " on most of the sheets . Only The Night of Peace bears the full date of 1809 . The Butts set is entirely undated- dates from 1803 to 1817 have been proposed for it . Behrendt argues that the Butts set predates the Thomas set by six years , and Collins Baker and R.R. Wark place it in 1809 , but earlier than the Thomas set .

The sequence of the illustrations is also a topic of scholarly dispute : the mountings of the Thomas set were inscribed on their backs with numbers 1 @-@ 6 , but these were added during or after the 1872 Sotheby 's sale , and so are unlikely to follow Blake 's intended order . This " original " order ran thus :

The Descent of Peace

The Annunciation to the Shepherds

The Flight of Moloch

The Old Dragon

The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods

The Night of Peace

Geoffrey Keynes placed them in 1 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 order , so that The Night of Peace followed The Descent of Peace , because of their similar subjects . Butlin , and nearly all subsequent scholars , have rejected this , as much commentary has centered upon Blake 's use of similar images to frame the sequence . Butlin instead rearranges the " original " sequence as 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 6 , moving The Flight of Moloch to second to last , so that it matches the order of corresponding verses in Milton 's poem . Dunbar also follows Butlin 's order . Behrendt adopts a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 6 order , seeing a thematic progression from the destruction of classical aesthetics , to the old testament cruelty of Moloch ( who resembles Blake 's Urizen ) , to Satan himself . This order is followed by Werner in her Blake 's Vision of the Poetry of Milton .

= = Analysis = =

Blake 's literary debt to Milton is key to understanding his illustrations of the earlier poet 's writings . In general , Milton : a Poem is a guide to Blake 's idea of Milton : that he possessed true spiritual vision , but fell by his adherence to the moralistic and repressive tenets of puritanism and by his preference for the cruel and distant Jehovah of the Old testament over the redemptive figure of Christ . In that regard the Nativity Ode is to Blake the rebirth of Milton 's poetry into the creative imagination of Christ . Blake also sees a return to prophetic , Christian ideals of poetry , rather than the " pagan " classical aesthetic represented in The Overthrow of Apollo and the Pagan Gods by the figure of Apollo , who is modeled on the Apollo Belvedere .

Blake 's prophetic book Europe : a Prophecy was especially influenced by On the Morning of Christ 's Nativity . In that poem , the messianic Orc , a symbol of pure creative energy , rises against the repressive institutions of Church and state . Orc is part of a doomed cycle- his rebellion is inevitably countered by the increased institutional repression of Urizen . Europe in that light is seen as a pessimistic parody of Milton 's poem . Orc is often associated with fire , and the closest parallel with him is found in The Flight of Moloch , where a child is about to be given to the god of sacrifice . The similarity of the orifice that frames the child to the shape of the stable in the other illustrations underscores the purpose of Christ 's birth , and foreshadows the harrowing of hell .

The illustrations emphasize the simultaneous occurrence of the events they depict by the presence of the stable in almost every image , and by framing the set with two very similar images that focus on the peaceful victory of Christ over darkness . The Descent of Peace also has neo @-@ platonic implications- it represents the descent of the soul into the body , which is symbolized by the cramped stable .

= = Table of Illustrations = =

The order followed here is that given by Butlin .

= L 'Hermite 's expedition =

L 'Hermite 's expedition was a French naval operation launched in 1805 during the Napoleonic Wars . The operation was intended as both a commerce raiding operation against the British trading posts of West Africa and as a diversion to the Trafalgar campaign . Sailing from Lorient in October 1805 with one ship of the line , two frigates and a corvette , Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite was under orders to intercept and destroy British traders and slave ships off the West African coast and await reinforcements under Jérôme Bonaparte which were to be used in the invasion and capture of one of the British trading forts for use as a permanent French naval base from which further raiding operations could be conducted . It was also hoped by the French naval command that L 'Hermite might draw some of the large British fleet maintained off Cadiz away from the blockade to allow the French and Spanish allied fleet trapped in the harbour to escape .

Although L 'Hermite achieved minor successes against individual British shipping , his force was too small to have a serious impact on British trade in the region and the promised reinforcements failed to materialise in the aftermath of the destruction of the Cadiz fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805 , ten days before L 'Hermite sailed although before news of the battle had reached Lorient . In early January 1806 , L 'Hermite managed to capture a small British naval brig but was still unable to make any significant impact on British trade operations . In the spring of 1806 L 'Hermite withdrew across the Atlantic , taking on supplies and effecting repairs in neutral Brazil . During the return journey to France in August 1806 , the squadron was caught in a major hurricane and one frigate was severely damaged , limping to a port in the United States for repairs . The rest of the squadron continued on to France , L 'Hermite reaching Brest in his flagship Régulus . The other frigate was intercepted by a British blockade squadron on 27 September 1806 and captured in the Bay of Biscay .

= = Background = =

By the summer of 1806 , the Napoleonic Wars were two years old and the first major campaign at sea , the Trafalgar campaign , was nearing its climax . A French fleet had departed Toulon in March 1805 under Vice @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve , gathered Spanish ships from the Spanish Mediterranean ports and then crossed the Atlantic , under orders to disrupt British trade in the region and seize British colonies . Closely pursuing the Allied fleet was an equivalent British Royal Navy force under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson , which reached the Caribbean on 11 June and found that Villeneuve had already begun the return journey to Europe . On 22 July 1805 the Allied fleet had fought the Battle of Cape Finisterre against a British force under Sir Robert Calder and been forced to divert south , seeking shelter in the Spanish fleet anchorage of Cadiz . Appearing off Cadiz a few days after Villeneuve 's arrival , Nelson began a blockade of the Allied fleet , awaiting their emergence and preparing for battle .

Although the French Atlantic Fleet , principally based at the major seaport of Brest , had played no significant part in the campaign , it was decided that in order to relieve some of the pressure on the fleet in Cadiz , minor squadrons would be sent to prey on British trade in the Atlantic , hopefully drawing off some of Nelson 's ships in pursuit . One such squadron was a force under Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , consisting of five ships of the line , two frigates and two corvettes , which sailed from Brest for operations in the North Atlantic on 12 July . A second squadron was placed under Commodore Jean @-@ Marthe @-@ Adrien L 'Hermite , with the ship of the line Régulus , frigates Président and Cybèle and corvette Surveillant . L 'Hermite was ordered to sail to West Africa , raiding merchant vessels and slave ships that operated among the numerous British trading posts along the coastline . At an undetermined point in the cruise , L 'Hermite would be joined by a larger squadron under Captain Jérôme Bonaparte , Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother . The reinforced squadron would include over 1 @,@ 000 French soldiers who would be used in an attack on one of the British West African trading posts . If the post could be successfully captured , it could be turned into a naval base for use by French commerce raiders and would force the British to deploy a full squadron from the Channel Fleet in response , at a time when every ship of the line was needed for the Trafalgar campaign .

= = Expedition = =

L 'Hermite 's squadron sailed from Lorient on 31 October , avoiding contact with the British blockading squadron and heading for the West African coast . Although the news had not yet reached Brittany , Villeneuve 's fleet had already been destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar ten days earlier and L 'Hermite 's role as a diversion to the main campaign was no longer required . Cruising in the Gulf of Guinea during November and December , L 'Hermite succeeded in capturing and burning a number of small merchant vessels and slave ships . The intended reinforcements never appeared however — in the aftermath of Trafalgar Napoleon diverted resources to the Atlantic campaign of 1806 , a major raiding operation to the Caribbean and South Atlantic launched in December 1805 . Among the vessels detailed for this operation was Jérôme Bonaparte 's ship Vétéran , which cruised as part of the squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez .

Without reinforcements , L 'Hermite could not make any significant impact on British trade off West Africa or make any attempt to capture a British trading fort . On 6 January , he achieved a minor success when he seized the 18 @-@ gun British sloop HMS Favourite under Commander John Davie . The prize was fitted out as part of the squadron and Surveillant was sent back to France with despatches . In the spring of 1806 , with supplies running low , L 'Hermite left the African coast and crossed the Atlantic , seeking fresh supplies in Brazil , a colony of neutral Portugal . After several months refitting and taking on stores , L 'Hermite crossed the Caribbean Sea in July 1806 , unknowingly passing though the same area that Willaumez was operating in but meeting only a handful of small merchant ships before passing into the Atlantic in early August . Favourite was left behind in the West Indies , and on 27 January 1807 was recaptured by the British frigate HMS Jason off Surinam . On 20 August , L 'Hermite was caught in a hurricane at 22 ° 26 ′ N 55 ° 00 ′ W , the same storm that had dispersed and badly damaged Willaumez 's squadron two days earlier . The damage was severe , with Cybèle suffering the most with the loss of her topmasts , rendering her slower than the rest of the squadron . Concerned by the frigate 's weakness , L 'Hermite ordered her to separate and sail for a harbour in the neutral United States , arriving at Hampton Roads on 1 September . Cybèle was later repaired and returned to France in 1807 , joining the squadron based at Rochefort .

= = Capture of Président = =

L 'Hermite 's three other ships all survived the hurricane relatively intact and were able to continue their journey to Europe unimpeded , the British squadrons in the area also dispersed by the summer storms . In late September the squadron broke up , Régulus sailing for Brest and arriving on 5 October , the only French ship of the line to enter or leave the port all year . Président was less successful : at 03 : 30 on 27 September , while sailing in the Bay of Biscay at 47 ° 17 ′ N 06 ° 52 ′ W , Captain Labrosse sighted six ships of the line . This overwhelming force was a squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Thomas Louis , which had been sent to the Bay of Biscay to await the return of Willaumez from the Caribbean . Immediately giving chase , Louis found that his ships of the line were not fast enough to catch the French frigate , which began to outdistance the main body of the squadron . However one of the small 18 @-@ gun sloops attached to the squadron , HMS Despatch under Captain Edward Hawkins was able to keep pace with the frigate , coming within firing range at 18 : 45 .

Although Hawkins only had two small guns that would bear on the frigate he kept up a steady rate of fire during the next hour , avoiding fire from the frigate 's bow guns during the chase . By 19 : 45 it was obvious that Despatch 's fire was successfully delaying the frigate and Labrosse turned towards the approaching squadron , moving as if to attack the nearest British frigate HMS Blanche under Sir Thomas Lavie . Seeing the French ship change direction , Louis ordered his flagship HMS Canopus to fire a gun at extreme range . This alerted Labrosse to the rapidly approaching squadron and he decided to surrender rather than be destroyed by the combined firepower of the British ships . No man had been hurt in the exchange of fire but Despatch had suffered severe damage to her rigging and one shot through her hull . The French ship had suffered minor damage in the engagement and was subsequently taken into the Royal Navy as HMS Presidente , renamed in 1815 to HMS Piemontaise . The frigate was much admired in the Royal Navy and a number of later frigates were built to a similar design .

= = Order of battle = =

= Biblical Hebrew =

Biblical Hebrew ( Hebrew : עִבְרִית מִקְרָאִית Ivrit Miqra 'it or לְשׁוֹן הַמִּקְרָא Leshon ha @-@ Miqra ) , also called Classical Hebrew , is an archaic form of Hebrew , a Canaanite Semitic language spoken by the Israelites in the area known as Israel , roughly west of the Jordan River and east of the Mediterranean Sea . The term " Hebrew " was not used for the language in the Bible , which referred to Canaanite or Judahite , but the name was used in Greek and Mishnaic Hebrew texts . Biblical Hebrew is attested from about the 10th century BCE , and persisted through and beyond the Second Temple period ( which ended in the siege of Jerusalem ( AD 70 ) ) .

Biblical Hebrew eventually developed into Mishnaic Hebrew , which was spoken until the second century CE .

Biblical Hebrew is best @-@ attested in the Hebrew Bible , the collection of Judaic religious and historical texts which reflect various stages of the Hebrew language in its consonantal skeleton , as well as a vocalic system which was added in the Middle Ages by the Masoretes . There is also some evidence of regional dialectal variation , including differences between Biblical Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel and in the southern Kingdom of Judah .

Biblical Hebrew has been written with a number of different writing systems . The Hebrews adopted the Phoenician alphabet around the 12th century BCE , which developed into the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet . This was retained by the Samaritans , who use the descendent Samaritan alphabet to this day . However , the Aramaic alphabet gradually displaced the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet for the Jews , and it became the source for the modern Hebrew alphabet . All of these scripts were lacking letters to represent all of the sounds of Biblical Hebrew , though these sounds are reflected in Greek and Latin transcriptions / translations of the time . These scripts originally only indicated consonants , but certain letters , known by the Latin term matres lectionis , became increasingly used to mark vowels . In the Middle Ages , various systems of diacritics were developed to mark the vowels in Hebrew manuscripts ; of these , only the Tiberian vocalization is still in wide use .

Biblical Hebrew possessed a series of " emphatic " consonants whose precise articulation is disputed , likely ejective or pharyngealized . Earlier Biblical Hebrew possessed three consonants which did not have their own letters in the writing system , but over time they merged with other consonants . The stop consonants developed fricative allophones under the influence of Aramaic , and these sounds eventually became marginally phonemic . The pharyngeal and glottal consonants underwent weakening in some regional dialects , as reflected in the modern Samaritan Hebrew reading tradition . The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew changed dramatically over time and is reflected differently in the ancient Greek and Latin transcriptions , medieval vocalization systems , and modern reading traditions .

Biblical Hebrew had a typical Semitic morphology with nonconcatenative morphology , arranging Semitic roots into patterns to form words . Biblical Hebrew distinguished two genders ( masculine , feminine ) , three numbers ( singular , plural , and uncommonly , dual ) . Verbs were marked for voice and mood , and had two conjugations which may have indicated aspect and / or tense ( a matter of debate ) . The tense or aspect of verbs was also influenced by the conjugation ו , in the so @-@ called waw @-@ consecutive construction . Default word order was verb – subject – object , and verbs inflected for the number , gender , and person of their subject . Pronominal suffixes could be appended to verbs ( to indicate object ) or nouns ( to indicate possession ) , and nouns had special construct states for use in possessive constructions .

= = Nomenclature = =

The earliest written sources refer to Biblical Hebrew by the name of the land in which it was spoken : שפת כנען ' the language of Canaan ' ( see Isaiah 19 : 18 ) . The Hebrew Bible also shows that the language was called יהודית ' Judaean , Judahite ' ( see , for example , 2 Kings 18 : 26 @,@ 28 ) . In the Hellenistic period Greek writings use the names Hebraios , Hebraïsti ( Josephus , Antiquities I , 1 : 2 , etc . ) , and in Mishnaic Hebrew we find עברית ' Hebrew ' and לשון עברית ' Hebrew language ' ( Mishnah Gittin 9 : 8 , etc . ) . The origin of this term is obscure ; suggested origins include the biblical Eber , the ethnonyms Ḫabiru , Ḫapiru , and ˁApiru found in sources from Egypt and the near east , and a derivation from the root עבר " to pass " alluding to crossing over the Jordan River . Jews also began referring to Hebrew as לשון הקדש " the Holy Tongue " in Mishnaic Hebrew .

The term Classical Hebrew may include all pre @-@ medieval dialects of Hebrew , including Mishnaic Hebrew , or it may be limited to Hebrew contemporaneous with the Hebrew Bible . The term Biblical Hebrew refers to pre @-@ Mishnaic dialects ( sometimes excluding Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew ) . The term ' Biblical Hebrew ' may or may not include extra @-@ biblical texts , such as inscriptions ( e.g. the Siloam inscription ) , and generally also includes later vocalization traditions for the Hebrew Bible 's consonantal text , most commonly the early medieval Tiberian vocalization .

= = History = =

The archeological record for the prehistory of Biblical Hebrew is far more complete than the record of Biblical Hebrew itself . Early Northwest Semitic ( ENWS ) materials are attested from 2350 BCE to 1200 BCE , the end of the Bronze Age . The Northwest Semitic languages , including Hebrew , differentiated noticeably during the Iron Age ( 1200 – 540 BCE ) , although in its earliest stages Biblical Hebrew was not highly differentiated from Ugaritic and the Canaanite of the Amarna letters .

Hebrew developed during the latter half of the second millennium BCE between the Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea , an area known as Canaan . The Israelite tribes established a kingdom in Canaan at the beginning of the first millennium BCE , which later split into the kingdom of Israel in the north and the kingdom of Judah in the south after a dispute of succession . The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered was found at Khirbet Qeiyafa and dates to the 10th century BCE .

The kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 BCE . The kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE , its higher classes were exiled into the Babylonian captivity and Solomon 's Temple was destroyed . Later the Persians made Judah a province and permitted Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple . According to the Gemara , Hebrew of this period was similar to Imperial Aramaic ; in Pesahim , Tractate 87b , Hanina bar Hama said that God sent the exiled Jews to Babylon because " [ the Babylonian ] language is akin to the Leshon Hakodesh " .

Aramaic became the common language in the north , in Galilee and Samaria . Hebrew remained in use in Judah ; however the returning exiles brought back Aramaic influence , and Aramaic was used for communicating with other ethnic groups during the Persian period . Alexander conquered Judah in 332 BCE , beginning the period of Hellenistic ( Greek ) domination . During the Hellenistic period Judea became independent under the Hasmonean dynasty , but later the Romans ended their independence , making Herod the Great their governor . One Jewish revolt against the Romans led to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE , and the second Bar Kokhba revolt in 132 – 135 led to a large departure of the Jewish population of Judea .

Biblical Hebrew after the Second Temple period evolved into Mishnaic Hebrew , which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE . Hebrew continued to be used as a literary and liturgical language in the form of Medieval Hebrew , and Hebrew began a revival process in the 19th century , culminating in Modern Hebrew becoming the official language of Israel . Currently , Classical Hebrew is generally taught in public schools in Israel , and Biblical Hebrew forms are sometimes used in Modern Hebrew literature , much as archaic and biblical constructions are used in Modern English literature . Since Modern Hebrew contains many biblical elements , Biblical Hebrew is fairly intelligible to Modern Hebrew speakers .

The primary source of Biblical Hebrew material is the Hebrew Bible. epigraphic materials from the area of Israelite territory are written a form of Hebrew called Inscriptional Hebrew , although this is meagerly attested . According to Waltke & O 'Connor , Inscriptional Hebrew " is not strikingly different from the Hebrew preserved in the Masoretic text . " The damp climate of Israel caused the rapid deterioration of papyrus and parchment documents , in contrast to the dry environment of Egypt , and the survival of the Hebrew Bible may be attributed to scribal determination in preserving the text through copying . No manuscript of the Hebrew Bible dates to before 400 BCE , although two silver rolls ( the Ketef Hinnom scrolls ) from the seventh or sixth century BCE show a version of the Priestly Blessing . Vowel and cantillation marks were added to the older consonantal layer of the Bible between 600 CE and the beginning of the 10th century . The scholars who preserved the pronunciation of the Bibles were known as the Masoretes . The most well @-@ preserved system that was developed , and the only one still in religious use , is the Tiberian vocalization , but both Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations are also attested . The Palestinian system was preserved mainly in piyyutim , which contain biblical quotations .

= = Classification = =

Biblical Hebrew is a Northwest Semitic language from the Canaanite subgroup .

As Biblical Hebrew evolved from the Proto @-@ Semitic language it underwent a number of consonantal mergers parallel with those in other Canaanite languages . There is no evidence that these mergers occurred after the adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet .

As a Northwest Semitic language , Hebrew shows the shift of initial * / w / to / j / , a similar independent pronoun system to the other Northwest Semitic languages ( with third person pronouns never containing / ʃ / ) , some archaic forms , such as / naħnu / ' we ' , first person singular pronominal suffix -i or -ya , and / n / commonly preceding pronominal suffixes . Case endings are found in Northwest Semitic languages in the second millennium BCE , but disappear almost totally afterwards . Mimation is absent in singular nouns , but is often retained in the plural , as in Hebrew .

The Northwest Semitic languages formed a dialect continuum in the Iron Age ( 1200 – 540 BCE ) , with Phoenician and Aramaic on each extreme . Hebrew is classed with Phoenician in the Canaanite subgroup , which also includes Ammonite , Edomite , and Moabite . Moabite might be considered a Hebrew dialect , though it possessed distinctive Aramaic features . Although Ugaritic shows a large degree of affinity to Hebrew in poetic structure , vocabulary , and some grammar , it lacks some Canaanite features ( like the Canaanite shift and the shift * / ð / > / z / ) , and its similarities are more likely a result of either contact or preserved archaism .

Hebrew underwent the Canaanite shift , where Proto @-@ Semitic / aː / tended to shift to / oː / , perhaps when stressed . Hebrew also shares with the Canaanite languages the shifts * / ð / > / z / , * / θʼ / and * / ɬʼ / > / sʼ / , widespread reduction of diphthongs , and full assimilation of non @-@ final / n / to the following consonant if word final , i.e. בת / bat / from * bant . There is also evidence of an rule of assimilation of / y / to the following coronal consonant in pre @-@ tonic position , shared by Hebrew , Phoenician and Aramic .

Typical Canaanite words in Hebrew include : גג " roof " שלחן " table " חלון " window " ישן " old ( thing ) " זקן " old ( person ) " and גרש " expel " . Morphological Canaanite features in Hebrew include the masculine plural marker -ם , first person singular pronoun אנכי , interrogative pronoun מי , definite article ה- ( appearing in the first millennium BCE ) , and third person plural feminine verbal marker ת- .

= = Eras = =

Biblical Hebrew as preserved in the Hebrew Bible is composed of multiple linguistic layers . The consonantal skeleton of the text is the most ancient , while the vocalization and cantillation are later additions reflecting a later stage of the language . These additions were added after 600 CE ; Hebrew had already ceased being used as a spoken language around 200 CE . Biblical Hebrew as reflected in the consonantal text of the Bible and in extra @-@ biblical inscriptions may be subdivided by era .

The oldest form of Biblical Hebrew , Archaic Hebrew , is found in poetic sections of the Bible and inscriptions dating to around 1000 BCE , the early Monarchic Period . This stage is also known as Old Hebrew or Paleo @-@ Hebrew , and is the oldest stratum of Biblical Hebrew . The oldest known artifacts of Archaic Biblical Hebrew are various sections of the Tanakh , including the Song of Moses ( Exodus 15 ) and the Song of Deborah ( Judges 5 ) . Biblical poetry uses a number of distinct lexical items , for example חזה for prose ראה ' see ' , כביר for גדול ' great ' . Some have cognates in other Northwest Semitic languages , for example פעל ' do ' and חָרוּץ ' gold ' which are common in Canaanite and Ugaritic . Grammatical differences include the use of זה , זוֹ , and זוּ as relative particles , negative בל , and various differences in verbal and pronominal morphology and syntax .

Later pre @-@ exilic Biblical Hebrew ( such as is found in prose sections of the Pentateuch , Nevi 'im , and some Ketuvim ) is known as ' Biblical Hebrew proper ' or ' Standard Biblical Hebrew ' . This is dated to the period from the 8th to the 6th century BCE . In contrast to Archaic Hebrew , Standard Biblical Hebrew is more consistent in using the definite article ה- , the accusative marker את , distinguishing between simple and waw @-@ consecutive verb forms , and in using particles like אשר and כי rather than asyndeton .

Biblical Hebrew from after the Babylonian exile in 587 BCE is known as ' Late Biblical Hebrew ' . Late Biblical Hebrew shows Aramaic influence in phonology , morphology , and lexicon , and this trend is also evident in the later @-@ developed Tiberian vocalization system .

Qumran Hebrew , attested in the Dead Sea Scrolls from ca . 200 BCE to 70 CE , is a continuation of Late Biblical Hebrew . Qumran Hebrew may be considered an intermediate stage between Biblical Hebrew and Mishnaic Hebrew , though Qumran Hebrew shows its own idiosyncratic dialectal features .

= = Dialects = =

Dialect variation in Biblical Hebrew is attested to by the well @-@ known shibboleth incident of Judges 12 : 6 , where Jephthah 's forces from Gilead caught Ephraimites trying to cross the Jordan river by making them say שִׁבֹּ ֤ לֶת ( ' ear of corn ' ) The Ephraimites ' identity was given away by their pronunciation : סִבֹּ ֤ לֶת . The apparent conclusion is that the Ephraimite dialect had / s / for standard / ʃ / . As an alternative explanation , it has been suggested that the proto @-@ Semitic phoneme * / θ / , which shifted to / ʃ / in most dialects of Hebrew , may have been retained in the Hebrew of the trans @-@ Jordan . However , there is evidence that the word שִׁבֹּ ֤ לֶת had initial consonant * / ʃ / in proto @-@ Semitic , contradicting this theory .

Hebrew as spoken in the northern Kingdom of Israel , known also as Israelian Hebrew , shows phonological , lexical , and grammatical differences from southern dialects . The Northern dialect spoken around Samaria shows more frequent simplification of / aj / into / eː / as attested by the Samaria ostraca ( 8th century BCE ) , e.g. ין (

= / jeːn / < * / jajn / ' wine ' ) , while the Southern ( Judean ) dialect instead adds in an epenthetic vowel / i / , added halfway through the first millennium BCE ( יין =

/ ˈjajin / ) . The word play in Amos 8 : 1 – 2 כְּלוּב קַ ֫ יִץ ... בָּא הַקֵּץ may reflect this : given that Amos was addressing the population of the Northern Kingdom , the vocalization * קֵיץ would be more forceful . Other possible Northern features include use of שֶ- ' who , that ' , forms like דֵעָה ' to know ' rather than דַעַת and infinitives of certain verbs of the form עֲשוֹ ' to do ' rather than עֲשוֹת . The Samaria ostraca also show שת for standard שנה ' year ' , as in Aramaic .

The guttural phonemes / ħ ʕ h ʔ / merged over time in some dialects . This was found in Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew , but Jerome attested to the existence of contemporaneous Hebrew speakers who still distinguished pharyngeals . Samaritan Hebrew also shows a general attrition of these phonemes , though / ʕ ħ / are occasionally preserved as [ ʕ ] .

= = Orthography = =

The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered , found at Khirbet Qeiyafa , dates to the 10th century BCE . The 15 cm x 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in x 6 @.@ 5 in ) trapezoid pottery sherd ( ostracon ) has five lines of text written in ink written in the Proto @-@ Canaanite alphabet ( the old form of the Phoenician alphabet ) . The tablet is written from left to right , indicating that Hebrew writing was still in the formative stage .

The Israelite tribes who settled in the land of Israel adopted the Phoenician script around the 12th century BCE , as found in the Gezer calendar ( c . 10th century BCE ) . This script developed into the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script in the 10th or 9th centuries BCE . The Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet 's main differences from the Phoenician script were " a curving to the left of the downstrokes in the " long @-@ legged " letter @-@ signs ... the consistent use of a Waw with a concave top , [ and an ] x @-@ shaped Taw . " The oldest inscriptions in Paleo @-@ Hebrew script are dated to around the middle of the 9th century BCE , the most famous being the Mesha Stele in the Moabite language ( which might be considered a dialect of Hebrew ) . The ancient Hebrew script was in continuous use until the early 6th century BCE , the end of the First Temple period . In the Second Temple Period the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script gradually fell into disuse , and was completely abandoned among the Jews after the failed Bar Kochba revolt . The Samaritans retained the ancient Hebrew alphabet , which evolved into the modern Samaritan alphabet .

By the end of the First Temple period the Aramaic script , a separate descendant of the Phoenician script , became widespread throughout the region , gradually displacing Paleo @-@ Hebrew . The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus , Samuel , and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls , dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE . It seems that the earlier biblical books were originally written in the Paleo @-@ Hebrew script , while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script . Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the tetragrammaton and some other divine names in Paleo @-@ Hebrew , and this practice is also found in several Jewish @-@ Greek biblical translations . While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into Mishnaic Hebrew , the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed . A number of regional " book @-@ hand " styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works , distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes . The Mizrahi and Ashkenazi book @-@ hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press . The modern Hebrew alphabet , also known as the Assyrian or Square script , is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet .

The Phoenician script had dropped five characters by the 12th century BCE , reflecting the language 's twenty @-@ two consonantal phonemes . As a result , the 22 letters of the Paleo @-@ Hebrew alphabet numbered less than the consonant phonemes of ancient Biblical Hebrew ; in particular , the letters 〈 ח , ע , ש 〉 could each mark two different phonemes . After a sound shift the letters ח , ע could only mark one phoneme , but ( except in Samaritan Hebrew ) ש still marked two . The old Babylonian vocalization system wrote a superscript ס above the ש to indicate it took the value / s / , while the Masoretes added the shin dot to distinguish between the two varieties of the letter .

The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants , but gradually the letters א , ה , ו , י , also became used to indicate vowels , known as matres lectionis when used in this function . It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development : for instance , * bayt ( ' house ' ) shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling . While no examples of early Hebrew orthography have been found , older Phoenician and Moabite texts show how First Temple period Hebrew would have been written . Phoenician inscriptions from the 10th century BCE do not indicate matres lectiones in the middle or the end of a word , for example לפנ and ז for later לפני and זה , similarly to the Hebrew Gezer Calendar , which has for instance שערמ for שעורים and possibly ירח for ירחו . Matres lectionis were later added word @-@ finally , for instance the Mesha inscription has בללה , בנתי for later בלילה , בניתי ; however at this stage they were not yet used word @-@ medially , compare Siloam inscription זדה versus אש ( for later איש ) . The relative terms defective and full / plene are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis , respectively .

The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today . Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible , the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis , with the Samaritan Pentateuch and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters . The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels , showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word @-@ internal / aː / . In the Qumran tradition , back vowels are usually represented by 〈 ו 〉 whether short or long . 〈 י 〉 is generally used for both long [ iː ] and [ eː ] ( אבילים , מית ) , and final [ iː ] is often written as יא- in analogy to words like היא , הביא , e.g. כיא , sometimes מיא . 〈 ה 〉 is found finally in forms like חוטה ( Tiberian חוטא ) , קורה ( Tiberian קורא ) while 〈 א 〉 may be used for an a @-@ quality vowel in final position ( e.g. עליהא ) and in medial position ( e.g. יאתום ) . Pre @-@ Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories ( e.g. כוחי vs. Masoretic כחי in Genesis 49 : 3 ) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type .

In general the vowels of Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text , but various sources attest them at various stages of development . Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels . In particular , there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the Koine Greek Septuagint ( 3rd – 2nd centuries BCE ) and the Greek alphabet transcription of the Hebrew biblical text contained in the Secunda ( 3rd century CE , likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE ) . In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the biblical text . The most prominent , best preserved , and the only system still in use , is the Tiberian vocalization system , created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE . There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems ( Babylonian and Palestinian ) , known as superlinear vocalizations because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters . In addition , the Samaritan reading tradition is independent of these systems , and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system . These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development ; for example , the name of the Judge Samson is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών Sampsōn with the first vowel as / a / , while Tiberian שִמְשוֹן / ʃimʃon / with / i / shows the effect of the law of attenuation whereby / a / in closed unstressed syllables became / i / . All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew .

At an early stage , in documents written in the paleo @-@ Hebrew script , words were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots , as reflected by the Mesha Stone , the Siloam inscription , the Ophel inscription , and paleo @-@ Hebrew script documents from Qumran . Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions ; however , there is not direct evidence for biblical texts being written without word division , as suggested by Nahmanides in his introduction to the Torah . Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script . In addition to marking vowels , the Tiberian system also uses cantillation marks , which serve to mark word stress , semantic structure , and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text .

While the Tiberian , Babylonian , and Palestinian reading traditions are extinct , various other systems of pronunciation have evolved over time , notably the Yemenite , Sephardi , Ashkenazi , and Samaritan traditions . Modern Hebrew pronunciation is also used by some to read biblical texts . The modern reading traditions do not stem solely from the Tiberian system ; for instance , the Sephardic tradition 's distinction between qamatz gadol and qatan is pre @-@ Tiberian . However , the only orthographic system used to mark vowels is the Tiberian vocalization .

= = Phonology = =

The phonology as reconstructed for Biblical Hebrew is as follows :

= = = Consonants = = =

Consonants lost and gained during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew are color @-@ coded respectively .

The phonetic nature of some Biblical Hebrew consonants is disputed . The so @-@ called " emphatics " were likely ejective , but possibly pharyngealized or velarized . Some argue that / s , z , sʼ / were affricated ( / ts , dz , tsʼ / ) .

Originally , the Hebrew letters 〈 ח 〉 and 〈 ע 〉 each represented two possible phonemes , uvular and pharyngeal , with the distinction unmarked in Hebrew orthography . However the uvular phonemes / χ / ח and / ʁ / ע merged with their pharyngeal ones / ħ / ח and / ʕ / ע respectively c . 200 BCE .

This is observed by noting that these phonemes are distinguished consistently in the Septuagint of the Pentateuch ( e.g. Isaac יצחק

= Ἰσαάκ versus Rachel רחל =

Ῥαχήλ ) , but this becomes more sporadic in later books and is generally absent in Ezra and Nehemiah .

The phoneme / ɬ / , is also not directly indicated by Hebrew orthography but is clearly attested by later developments : It is written with 〈 ש 〉 ( also used for / ʃ / ) but later merged with / s / ( normally indicated with 〈 ס 〉 ) . As a result , three etymologically distinct phonemes can be distinguished through a combination of spelling and pronunciation : / s / written 〈 ס 〉 , / ʃ / written 〈 ש 〉 , and / ś / ( pronounced / s / but written 〈 ש 〉 ) . The specific pronunciation of / ś / as [ ɬ ] is based on comparative evidence ( / ɬ / is the corresponding Proto @-@ Semitic phoneme and still attested in Modern South Arabian dialects ) as well as early borrowings ( e.g. balsam < Greek balsamon < Hebrew baśam ) . / ɬ / began merging with / s / in Late Biblical Hebrew , as indicated by interchange of orthographic 〈 ש 〉 and 〈 ס 〉 , possibly under the influence of Aramaic , and this became the rule in Mishnaic Hebrew . In all Jewish reading traditions / ɬ / and / s / have merged completely ; however in Samaritan Hebrew / ɬ / has instead merged with / ʃ / .

Allophonic spirantization of / b ɡ d k p t / to [ v ɣ ð x f θ ] ( known as begadkefat spirantization ) developed sometime during the lifetime of Biblical Hebrew under the influence of Aramaic . This probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes / θ , ð / disappeared in the 7th century BCE , and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew / χ , ʁ / c . 200 BCE . It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE . After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word @-@ medial and final position ( though bearing low functional load ) , but in word @-@ initial position they remained allophonic . This is evidenced both by the Tiberian vocalization 's consistent use of word @-@ initial spirants after a vowel in sandhi , as well as Rabbi Saadia Gaon 's attestation to the use of this alternation in Tiberian Aramaic at the beginning of the 10th century CE .

The Dead Sea scrolls show evidence of confusion of the phonemes / ħ ʕ h ʔ / , e.g. חמר ħmr for Masoretic אָמַר / ʔɔˈmar / ' he said ' . However the testimony of Jerome indicates that this was a regionalism and not universal . Confusion of gutturals was also attested in later Mishnaic Hebrew and Aramaic ( see Eruvin 53b ) . In Samaritan Hebrew , / ʔ ħ h ʕ / have generally all merged , either into / ʔ / , a glide / w / or / j / , or by vanishing completely ( often creating a long vowel ) , except that original / ʕ ħ / sometimes have reflex / ʕ / before / a ɒ / .

Geminate consonants are phonemically contrastive in Biblical Hebrew . In the Secunda / w j z / are never geminate . In the Tiberian tradition / ħ ʕ h ʔ r / cannot be geminate ; historically first / r ʔ / degeminated , followed by / ʕ / , / h / , and finally / ħ / , as evidenced by changes in the quality of the preceding vowel .

= = = Vowels = = =

The vowel system of Biblical Hebrew has changed considerably over time . The following vowels are those reconstructed for the earliest stage of Hebrew , those attested by the Secunda , those of the various vocalization traditions ( Tiberian and varieties of Babylonian and Palestinian ) , and those of the Samaritan tradition , with vowels absent in some traditions color @-@ coded .

= = = = Sound changes = = = =

The following sections present the vowel changes that Biblical Hebrew underwent , in approximate chronological order .

= = = = = Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic = = = = =

Proto @-@ Semitic is the ancestral language of all the Semitic languages , and in traditional reconstructions possessed 29 consonants ; 6 monophthong vowels , consisting of three qualities and two lengths , * / a aː i iː u uː / , in which the long vowels occurred only in open syllables ; and two diphthongs * / aj aw / . The stress system of Proto @-@ Semitic is unknown but it is commonly described as being much like the system of Classical Latin or the modern pronunciation of Classical Arabic : If the penultimate ( second last ) syllable is light ( has a short vowel followed by a single consonant ) , stress goes on the antepenultimate ( third last ) ; otherwise , it goes on the penultimate .

Various changes , mostly in morphology , took place between Proto @-@ Semitic and Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic , the language at the root of the Central Semitic languages . The phonemic system was inherited essentially unchanged , but the emphatic consonants may have changed their realization in Central Semitic from ejectives to pharyngealized consonants .

The morphology of Proto @-@ Central @-@ Semitic shows significant changes compared with Proto @-@ Semitic , especially in its verbs , and is much like in Classical Arabic . Nouns in the singular were usually declined in three cases : / -u / ( nominative ) , / -a / ( accusative ) or / -i / ( genitive ) . In some circumstances ( but never in the construct state ) , nouns also took a final nasal after the case ending : nunation ( final / -n / ) occurred in some languages , mimation ( final / -m / ) in others . The original meaning of this marker is uncertain . In Classical Arabic , final / -n / on nouns indicates indefiniteness and disappears when the noun is preceded by a definite article or otherwise becomes definite in meaning . In other languages , final / -n / may be present whenever a noun is not in the construct state . Very Early Biblical Hebrew ( pre @-@ 1500 BCE ) had mimation , of uncertain meaning , in an occurrence of the word urušalemim ( Jerusalem ) .

Broken plural forms in Arabic are declined like singulars , and often take singular agreement as well . Dual and " strong plural " forms use endings with a long vowel or diphthong , declined in only two cases : nominative and objective ( combination accusative / genitive ) , with the objective form often becoming the default one after the loss of case endings . Both Hebrew and Arabic had a special form of nunation / mimation that co @-@ occurred with the dual and masculine sound plural endings whenever the noun was not in the construct state . The endings were evidently felt as an inherent part of the ending and , as a result , are still used . Examples are Arabic strong masculine plural -ūna ( nominative ) , -īna ( objective ) , and dual endings -āni ( nominative ) , -ayni ( objective ) ; corresponding construct @-@ state endings are -ū , -ī ( strong masculine plural ) , -ā , -ay ( dual ) . ( The strong feminine endings in Classical Arabic are -ātu nominative , -āti objective , marked with a singular @-@ style -n nunation in the indefinite state only . )

Hebrew has almost lost the broken plural ( if it ever had it ) , and any vestigial forms that may remain have been extended with the strong plural endings . The dual and strong plural endings were likely much like the Arabic forms given above at one point , with only the objective @-@ case forms ultimately surviving . Dor example , dual -ayim is probably from * -aymi with an extended mimation ending ( cf . Arabic -ayni above ) , while dual construct -ē is from * -ay without mimation . Similarly , -īm < * -īma , -ōt < * -āti . ( Note that expected plural construct state * -ī was replaced by dual -ē . )

Feminine nouns at this point ended in a suffix / -at- / or / -t- / and took normal case endings . ( When the ending / -at- / became final because of loss or non @-@ presence of the case ending , both Hebrew and Arabic show a later shift to / -ah / and then / -aː / . )

= = = = = Canaanite shift = = = = =

Hebrew shows the Canaanite shift whereby * / aː / often shifted to / oː / ; the conditions of this shift are disputed . This shift had occurred by the 14th century BCE , as demonstrated by its presence in the Amarna letters ( c . 1365 BCE ) .

= = = = = Proto @-@ Hebrew = = = = =

As a result of the Canaanite shift , the Proto @-@ Hebrew vowel system is reconstructed as * / a aː oː i iː u uː / ( and possibly rare * / eː / ) . Furthermore , stress at this point appears to have shifted so that it was consistently on the penultimate ( next to last ) syllable , and was still non @-@ phonemic . The predominant final stress of Biblical Hebrew was a result of loss of final unstressed vowels and a shift away from remaining open syllables ( see below ) .

= = = = = Loss of final unstressed vowels = = = = =

Final unstressed short vowels dropped out in most words , making it possible for long vowels to occur in closed syllables . This appears to have proceeded in two steps :

Final short mood , etc. markers dropped in verbal forms .

Final short case markers dropped in nominal forms .

Vowel lengthening in stressed , open syllables occurred between the two steps , with the result that short vowels at the beginning of a -VCV ending lengthened in nouns but not verbs . This is most noticeable with short / a / : e.g. * kataba ( ' he wrote ' ) > / kɔˈθav / but * dabara ( ' word ' acc . ' ) > / dɔˈvɔr / .

The dropping of final short vowels in verb forms tended to erase mood distinctions , but also some gender distinctions ; however , unexpected vowel lengthening occurred in many situations to preserve the distinctions . For example , in the suffix conjugation , first @-@ singular * -tu appears to have been remade into * -tī already by Proto @-@ Hebrew on the basis of possessive -ī ( likewise first singular personal pronoun * ʔana became * ʔanī ) .

Similarly , in the second @-@ singular , inherited * -ta -ti competed with lengthened * -tā -tī for masculine and feminine forms . The expected result would be -t or -tā for masculine , -t or -tī for feminine , and in fact both variants of both forms are found in the Bible ( with -h marking the long -ā and -y marking the long -ī ) . The situation appears to have been quite fluid for several centuries , with -t and -tā / tī forms found in competition both in writing and in speech ( cf. the Secunda ( Hexapla ) of Origen , which records both pronunciations , although quite often in disagreement with the written form as passed down to us ) . Ultimately , writing stabilized on the shorter -t for both genders , while speech choose feminine -t but masculine tā . This is the reason for the unexpected qamatz vowel written under the final letter of such words .

The exact same process affected possessive * -ka ( ' your ' masc. sing . ) and * -ki ( ' your ' fem. sing . ) , and personal pronouns * ʔanta , * ʔanti , with the same split into shorter and longer forms and the same ultimate resolution .

= = = = = Short vowel lengthening ( esp. pretonic ) , lowering = = = = =

The short vowels * / a i u / tended to lengthen in various positions .

First , short vowels lengthened in an open syllable in pretonic position ( i.e. directly before the stressed syllable ) .

Later , short vowels lengthened in stressed open syllables .

In the process of lengthening , the high vowels were lowered . In the Secunda , the lengthened reflexes of / a i u / are / aː eː oː / ; when kept short they generally have reflexes / a e o / .

= = = = = Reduction of short open stressed syllables = = = = =

Stressed open syllables with a short vowel ( i.e. syllables consisting of a short vowel followed by a consonant and another vowel ) had the vowel reduced to / ǝ / and the stressed moved one syllable later in the word ( usually to the last syllable of the word ) . Stress was originally penultimate and loss of final short vowels made many words have final stress . However , words whose final syllable had a long vowel or ended with a consonant were unaffected and still had penultimate stress at this point . This change did not happen in pausal position , where the penultimate stress is preserved , and vowel lengthening rather than reduction occurs .

The previous three changes occurred in a complex , interlocking fashion :

Shift of stress to be universally penultimate .

Loss of final short vowels in verbs , pre @-@ stress lengthening in open syllables . Pre @-@ stress lengthening / lowering becomes a surface filter that remains as a rule in the language , automatically affected any new short vowels in open syllables as they appear ( but ultra @-@ short vowels are unaffected ) .

Stress movement from light syllable to following heavy syllable when not in pausa , with newly unstressed light syllable reducing the schwa .

Tonic lengthening / lowering in open syllables .

Loss of final short vowels in nouns .

Examples :

Note that many , perhaps most , Hebrew words with a schwa directly before a final stress are due to this stress shift .

This sound change shifted many more originally penultimate @-@ stressed words to have final stress . The above changes can be seen to divide words into a number of main classes based on stress and syllable properties :

Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open penult and short @-@ vowel ending : Become final @-@ stressed ( e.g. / qɔˈṭal / ( ' he killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭala / ) .

Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an closed penult and short @-@ vowel ending : Become penultimate due to segholate rule ( e.g. / ˈmɛlɛx / ( ' king ' ) < * / malku / ) .

Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open short penult and longer ending : Become final @-@ stressed due to sress shift ( e.g. / qɔṭǝˈlu / ( ' they killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭaluː / ) .

Proto @-@ Hebrew words with a closed penult and longer ending : Remain penultimate ( e.g. / qɔˈṭalti / ( ' I killed ' ) < PHeb . / qaˈṭaltiː / ) .

Proto @-@ Hebrew words with an open long penult and longer ending : ? ? ?

= = = = = Pre @-@ stress reduction of short vowel = = = = =

* / a i u / were reduced to / ə / in the second syllable before the stress , and occasionally reduced rather than lengthened in pretonic position , especially when initial ( e.g. σεμω = שמו / ʃəˈmo / ' his name ' ) . Thus the vowel system of the Secunda was / a e eː iː o oː uː ə / .

= = = = = Later developments = = = = =

The later Jewish traditions ( Tiberian , Babylonian , Palestinian ) show similar vowel developments . By the Tiberian time , all short vowels in stressed syllables and open pretonic lengthened , making vowel length allophonic . Vowels in open or stressed syllables had allophonic length ( e.g. / a / in יְרַחֵם / jǝraˈħem / [ jǝraːˈħeːm ] ( ' he will have mercy ' ) < previously short [ jǝraˈħeːm ] < [ jǝraħˈħeːm ] by Tiberian degemination of / ħ / < PSem * / juraħˈħimu / ) . The Babylonian and Palestinian vocalizations systems also do not mark vowel length . In the Tiberian and Babylonian systems , * / aː / and lengthened * / a / become the back vowel / ɔ / . In unaccented closed syllables , * / i u / become / ɛ ~ i ɔ ~ u / ( Tiberian ) , / a ~ i u / ( Babylonian ) , or / e ~ i o ~ u / ( Palestinian ) – generally becoming the second vowel before geminates ( e.g. לִבִּי ) and the first otherwise . In the Tiberian tradition pretonic vowels are reduced more commonly than in the Secunda . It does not occur for / * a / , but is occasional for / * i / ( e.g. מסמְרים / masmǝˈrim / ' nails ' < * / masmiriːm / ) , and is common for / * u / ( e.g. רְחוֹב / rǝˈħoβ ' open place ' < * / ruħaːb / ) . In Tiberian Hebrew pretonic / * u / is most commonly preserved by geminating the following consonant , e.g. אדֻמּים / ăðumˈmim / ( ' red ' pl . ) ( cf . / ăˈðom / ' red ' sg . ) ; this pretonic gemination is also found in some forms with other vowels like אַסִּיר ~ אָסִיר / ɔˈsir / ~ / asˈsir / ( ' prisoner ' ) .

The Babylonian and Palestinian systems have only one reduced vowel phoneme / ə / like the Secunda , though in Palestinian Hebrew it developed the pronunciation [ ɛ ] . However the Tiberian tradition possesses three reduced vowels / ă ɔ ̆ ɛ ̆ / of which / ɛ ̆ / has questionable phonemicity . / ă / under a non @-@ guttural letter was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel before a guttural , e.g. וּבָקְעָה [ uvɔqɔ ̆ ˈʕɔ ] , and as [ ĭ ] preceding / j / , e.g. תְדֵמְּיוּ ֫ נִי [ θăðamːĭˈjuni ] , but was always pronounced as [ ă ] under gutturals , e.g. שָחֲחו , חֲיִי . When reduced , etymological * / a i u / become / ă ɛ ̆ ~ ă ɔ ̆ / under gutturals ( e.g. אֲמרתם ' you [ mp . ] said ' cf . אָמר ' he said ' ) , and generally / ă / under non @-@ gutturals , but * / u / > / ɔ ̆ / ( and rarely * / i / > / ɛ ̆ / ) may still occur , especially after stops ( or their spirantized counterparts ) and / sʼ ʃ / ( e.g. דֳּמִי / dɔ ̆ ˈmi / ) . Samaritan and Qumran Hebrew have full vowels in place of the reduced vowels of Tiberian Hebrew .

Samaritan Hebrew also does not reflect etymological vowel length ; however the elision of guttural consonants has created new phonemic vowel length , e.g. / rɒb / רב ( ' great ' ) vs. / rɒːb / רחב ( ' wide ' ) . Samaritan Hebrew vowels are allophonically lengthened ( to a lesser degree ) in open syllables , e.g. המצרי [ ammisˤriˑ ] , היא [ iˑ ] , though this is less strong in post @-@ tonic vowels . Pretonic gemination is also found in Samaritan Hebrew , but not always in the same locations as in Tiberian Hebrew , e.g. גמלים TH / ɡămalːim / SH / ɡɒmɒləm / ; שלמים TH / ʃălɔmim / SH / ʃelamːəm / . While Proto @-@ Hebrew long vowels usually retain their vowel quality in the later traditions of Hebrew , in Samaritan Hebrew * / iː / may have reflex / e / in closed stressed syllables , e.g. דין / den / , * / aː / may become either / a / or / ɒ / , and * / oː / > / u / . The reduced vowels of the other traditions appear as full vowels , though there may be evidence that Samaritan Hebrew once had similar vowel reduction . Samaritan / ə / results from the neutralization of the distinction between / i / and / e / in closed post @-@ tonic syllables , e.g. / bit / בית ( ' house ' ) / abbət / הבית ( ' the house ' ) / ɡer / גר / aɡɡər / הגר .

Various more specific conditioned shifts of vowel quality have also occurred . Diphthongs were frequently monopthongized , but the scope and results of this shift varied among dialects . In particular , the Samaria ostraca show / jeːn / < * / jajn / < * / wajn / for Southern / jajin / ( ' wine ' ) , and Samaritan Hebrew shows instead the shift * / aj / > / iː / . Original * / u / tended to shift to / i / ( e.g. אֹמֶר and אִמְרָה ' word ' ; חוץ ' outside ' and חיצון ' outer ' ) beginning in the second half of the second millennium BC . This was carried through completely in Samaritan Hebrew but met more resistance in other traditions such as the Babylonian and Qumran traditions . Philippi 's law is the process by which original * / i / in closed stressed syllables shifts to / a / ( e , g , / * bint / > בַּת / bat / ' daughter ' ) , or sometimes in the Tiberian tradition / ɛ / ( e.g. / * ʔamint / > אֱמֶת / ɛ ̆ mɛt / ' truth ' ) . This is absent in the transcriptions of the Secunda , but there is evidence that the law 's onset predates the Secunda . In the Samaritan tradition Philippi 's law is applied consistently , e.g. * / libː @-@ u / > / lab / ( ' heart ' ) . In some traditions the short vowel / * a / tended to shift to / i / in unstressed closed syllables : this is known as the law of attenuation . It is common in the Tiberian tradition , e.g. * / ʃabʕat / > Tiberian שִבְעָה / ʃivˈʕɔ / ( ' seven ' ) , but exceptions are frequent . It is less common in the Babylonian vocalization , e.g. / ʃabʕɔ / ( ' seven ' ) , and differences in Greek and Latin transcriptions demonstrate that it began quite late . Attenuation generally did not occur before / i ~ e / , e.g. Tiberian מַפְתֵּחַ / mafˈteaħ / ( ' key ' ) versus מִפְתַּח / mifˈtaħ / ( ' opening [ construct ] ' ) , and often was blocked before a geminate , e.g. מתנה ( ' gift ' ) . Attenuation is rarely present in Samaritan Hebrew , e.g. מקדש / maqdaʃ / . In the Tiberian tradition / e i o u / take offglide / a / before / h ħ ʕ / . This is absent in the Secunda and in Samaritan Hebrew but present in the transcriptions of Jerome . In the Tiberian tradition an ultrashort echo vowel is sometimes added to clusters where the first element is a guttural , e.g. יַאֲזִין / jaʔăzin / ( ' he will listen ' ) פָּעֳלוֹ / pɔʕɔ ̆ lo / ( ' his work ' ) but יַאְדִּיר / jaʔdið / ( ' he will make glorious ' ) רָחְבּוֹ / ʀɔħbo / ' its breadth ' .

The following charts summarize the most common reflexes of the Proto @-@ Semitic vowels in the various stages of Hebrew :

= = = Stress = = =

Proto @-@ Hebrew generally had penultimate stress . The ultimate stress of later traditions of Hebrew usually resulted from the loss of final vowels in many words , preserving the location of proto @-@ Semitic stress . Tiberian Hebrew has phonemic stress , e.g. בָּנוּ ֫ / bɔˈnu / ( ' they built ' ) vs. בָּ ֫ נוּ / ˈbɔnu / ( ' in us ' ) ; stress is most commonly ultimate , less commonly penultimate , and antipenultimate stress exists marginally , e.g. הָאֹ ֫ הֱלָה / hɔˈʔohɛ ̆ lɔ / ( ' into the tent ' ) . There does not seem to be evidence for stress in the Secunda varying from that of the Tiberian tradition . Despite sharing the loss of final vowels with Tiberian Hebrew , Samaritan Hebrew has generally not preserved Proto @-@ Semitic stress , and has predominantly penultimate stress , with occasional ultimate stress . There is evidence that Qumran Hebrew had a similar stress pattern to Samaritan Hebrew .

= = Grammar = =

Medieval grammarians of Arabic and Hebrew classified words as belonging to three parts of speech : Arabic ism ( ' noun ' ) , fiʻl ( ' verb ' ) , and ḥarf ( ' particle ' ) ; other grammarians have included more categories . In particular , adjectives and nouns show more affinity to each other than in most European languages . Biblical Hebrew has a typical Semitic morphology , characterized by the use of roots . Most words in Biblical Hebrew are formed from a root , a sequence of consonants with a general associated meaning . Roots are usually triconsonantal , with biconsonantal roots less common ( depending on how some words are analyzed ) and rare cases of quadri- and quinquiconsonantal roots . Roots are modified by affixation to form words . Verbal patterns are more productive and consistent , while noun patterns are less predictable .

= = = Nouns and adjectives = = =

The most common nominal prefix used is / m / , used for substantives of location ( מושב ' assembly ' ) , instruments ( מפתח ' key ' ) , and abstractions ( משפט ' judgement ' ) . The vowel after / m / is normally / a / , but appears sometimes as / i / , or in the case of מושב as / o / ( contracted from * / aw / ) . The prefix / t / is used to denote the action of the verb it is derived from , more common for initial- / w / verbs , e.g. תודה ( ' thanksgiving ' ; < ydy ) . Prefixed / ʔ / is used in adjectives , e.g. אכזב ( ' deceptive ' ) , and also occurs in nouns with initial sibilants , e.g. אצבע ( ' finger ' ) . In the latter case this prefix was added for phonetic reasons , and the א prefix is called either " prothetic " or " prosthetic " . Prefixed ע often occurs in quadriliteral animal names , perhaps as a prefix , e.g. עֳטלף ( ' bat ' ) , עכבר ( ' mouse ' ) , עקרב ( ' scorpion ' ) .

In proto @-@ Semitic nouns were marked for case : in the singular the markers were * / -u / in the nominative , * / -a / in the accusative ( used also for adverbials ) , and * / -i / in the genitive , as evidenced in Akkadian , Ugaritic , and Arabic . The Amarna letters show that this was probably still present in Hebrew c . 1350 BCE . In the development of Hebrew , final * / -u , -i / were dropped first , and later * / -a / was elided as well . Mimation , a nominal suffix * / -m / of unclear meaning , was found in early Canaanite , as shown by early Egyptian transcriptions ( c . 1800 BCE ) of Jerusalem as Urušalimim , but there is no indication of its presence after 1800 BCE . Final * / -a / is preserved in לַ ֫ יְלָה / ˈlajlɔ / , originally meaning ' at night ' but in prose replacing לַ ֫ יִל / ˈlajil / ( ' night ' ) , and in the " connective vowels " of some prepositions ( originally adverbials ) , e.g. עִמָּ ֫ נוּ ( ' with us ' ) ; nouns preserve * / -i / in forms like יָדֵ ֫ נוּ . Construct state nouns lost case vowels at an early period ( similar to Akkadian ) , as shown by the reflexes of * / ɬadaju / ( שָֹדֶה in absolute but שְׂדֵה in construct ) and the reflexes of * / jadu / ( יָד and יַד ) However forms like יָדֵ ֫ נוּ show that this was not yet a feature of Proto @-@ Hebrew .

Biblical Hebrew has two genders , masculine and feminine , which are reflected in nouns , adjectives , pronouns , and verbs . Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural numbers , and plural forms may also be used for collectives and honorifics . Hebrew has a morphological dual form for nouns that naturally occur in pairs , and for units of measurement and time this contrasts with the plural ( יום ' day ' יומים ' two days ' ימים ' days ' ) . A widespread misconception is that Hebrew plural denotes three or more objects . In truth , Hebrew plural denotes two or more objects . However adjectives , pronouns , and verbs do not have dual forms , and most nominal dual forms can function as plurals ( שש כנפַים ' six wings ' from Isaiah 6 : 2 ) . Finite verbs are marked for subject person , number , and gender . Nouns also have a construct form which is used in genitive constructions .

Nouns are marked as definite with the prefix / ha- / followed by gemination of the initial consonant of the noun . In Tiberian Hebrew the vowel of the article may become / ɛ / or / ɔ / in certain phonetic environments , for example החכם / hɛħɔˈxɔm / ( ' the wise man ' ) , האיש / hɔˈʔiʃ / ( ' the man ' ) .

The traditions differ on the form of segolate nouns , nouns stemming from roots with two final consonants . The anaptyctic / ɛ / of the Tiberian tradition in segolates appears in the Septuagint ( 3rd century BCE ) but not the Hexapla ( 2nd century CE ) , e.g. גֶּתֶר / ˈɡɛθɛr /

= Γαθερ versus כֵּסֶל / ˈkesɛl / =

Χεσλ ( Psalms 49 : 14 ) . This may reflect dialectal variation or phonetic versus phonemic transcriptions . Both the Palestinian and Babylonian traditions have an anaptyctic vowel in segolates , / e / in the Palestinian tradition ( e.g. / ʔeresʼ / ' land'

= Tiberian אֶרֶץ Deuteronomy 26 : 15 ) and / a / in Babylonian ( e.g. / ħepasʼ / ' item ' =

Tiberian חֵפֶץ Jeremiah 22 : 28 ) . The Qumran tradition sometimes shows some type of back epenthetic vowel when the first vowel is back , e.g. 〈 אוהול 〉 for Tiberian 〈 אֹהֶל 〉 / ˈʔohɛl / ( ' tent ' ) .

Biblical Hebrew has two sets of personal pronouns : the free @-@ standing independent pronouns have a nominative function , while the pronominal suffixes are genitive or accusative . Only the first person suffix has different possessive and objective forms ( -י and -ני ) .

= = = Verbs = = =

Verbal consonantal roots are placed into verbal conjugations patterns , known as בנינים binyanim in Hebrew ; the binyanim mainly serve to indicate grammatical voice . This includes various distinctions of reflexivity , passivity , and causativity . Verbs of all binyanim have three non @-@ finite forms ( one participle , two infinitives ) , three modal forms ( cohortative , imperative , jussive ) , and two major conjugations ( prefixing , suffixing ) . The meaning of the prefixing and suffixing conjugations are also affected by the conjugation ו , and their meaning with respect to tense and aspect is a matter of debate .

= = = Word order = = =

The default word order in Biblical Hebrew is commonly thought to be VSO , though one scholar has argued that this is due to the prevalence of clauses with a wayyiqtol verb form compared to other less marked forms that use SVO either more often or at least to a comparable degree . Attributive adjectives normally follow the noun they modify . In Biblical Hebrew , possession is normally expressed with status constructus , a construction in which the possessed noun occurs in a phonologically reduced , " construct " form and is followed by the possessor noun in its normal , " absolute " form . Pronominal direct objects are either suffixed to the verb or alternatively expressed on the object @-@ marking pronoun את .

= = Sample text = =

The following is a sample from Psalm 18 as appears in the Masoretic text with medieval Tiberian niqqud and cantillation and the Greek transcription of the Secunda of the Hexapla along with its reconstructed pronunciation .

= Carl Tanzler =

Carl Tanzler , or sometimes Count Carl von Cosel ( February 8 , 1877 – July 3 , 1952 ) , was a German @-@ born radiologic technologist at the United States Marine Hospital in Key West , Florida who developed a morbid obsession for a young Cuban @-@ American tuberculosis patient , Elena Milagro " Helen " de Hoyos ( July 31 , 1909 – October 25 , 1931 ) , that carried on well after the disease had caused her death . In 1933 , almost two years after her death , Tanzler removed Hoyos 's body from its tomb , and lived with the corpse at his home for seven years until its discovery by Hoyos 's relatives and authorities in 1940 .

= = Name = =

Tanzler went by many names ; he was listed as Georg Karl Tänzler on his German marriage certificate . He was listed as Carl Tanzler von Cosel on his United States citizenship papers , and he was listed as Carl Tanzler on his Florida death certificate . Some of his hospital records were signed Count Carl Tanzler von Cosel .

= = Early life = =

He was born as Karl Tänzler or Georg Karl Tänzler on February 8 , 1877 in Dresden , Germany . Around 1920 he married Doris Anna Shafer ( 1889 – 1977 ) and he was listed as " Georg Karl Tänzler " on the marriage certificate . Together they had two children : Ayesha Tanzler ( 1922 – 1998 ) , and Crystal Tanzler ( 1924 – 1934 ) , who died of diphtheria .

Tanzler grew up in Germany . The following “ Editorial Note “ accompanying the autobiographical account “ The Trial Bay Organ : A Product of Wit and Ingenuity ” by “ Carl von Cosel , “ in the Rosicrucian Digest of March and April 1939 , gives details about his stay in Australia before and during World War I and his return to Germany after the war :

Many years ago , Carl von Cosel travelled from India to Australia with the intention of proceeding to the South Seas Islands . He paused in Australia to collect equipment and suitable boats , and to become acquainted with prevailing weather and sea conditions . However , he became interested in engineering and electrical work there , bought property , boats , an organ , an island in the Pacific — so that he was still in Australia at the end of ten years . He had just begun to build a trans @-@ ocean flyer when the war broke out and the British military authorities placed him in a concentration camp for ' safe @-@ keeping ' along with many officers India and China who were prisoners of war . Later he was removed to Trial Bay to a castle @-@ like prison on the cliffs , and there the work in this narrative was accomplished . At the end of the war no prisoner was permitted to return to his former residence , but all were shipped to the prisoner 's exchange in Holland . When Carl von Cosel was released he set out to find his mother from whom he had not heard since the beginning of the war . Finding her safe , he remained with her for three years , witnessing the chaos that followed in the wake of the war . ... Finally , she suggested that her son return to his sister in the United States ...

Tanzler 's account of Trial Bay Gaol , his secret building of a sailing boat , etc . , is confirmed by Nyanatiloka Thera , who mentions that he planned to escape from the Gaol with ” Count Carl von Cosel ” in a sailing boat , and provides other information about the interment of Germans in Australia during WWI .

Tanzler emigrated to the United States in 1926 , sailing from Rotterdam on February 6 , 1926 to Havana , Cuba . From Cuba he settled in Zephyrhills , Florida , to where his sister had already emigrated , and was later joined by his wife and two daughters . Leaving his family behind in Zephyrhills in 1927 , he took a job as a radiologic technologist at the U.S. Marine Hospital in Key West , Florida under the name Carl von Cosel .

During his childhood in Germany , and later while traveling briefly in Genoa , Italy , Tanzler claimed to have been visited by visions of a dead ancestor , Countess Anna Constantia von Cosel , who revealed the face of his true love , an exotic dark @-@ haired woman , to him .

= = Maria Elena Milagro de Hoyos = =

On April 22 , 1930 , while working at the Marine Hospital in Key West , Tanzler met Maria Elena " Helen " Milagro de Hoyos ( 1909 – 1931 ) , a local Cuban @-@ American woman who had been brought to the hospital by her mother for an examination . Tanzler immediately recognized her as the beautiful dark @-@ haired woman that had been revealed to him in his earlier " visions . " By all accounts , Hoyos was viewed as a local beauty in Key West .

Elena was the daughter of local cigar maker Francisco " Pancho " Hoyos ( 1883 – 1934 ) and Aurora Milagro ( 1881 – 1940 ) . She had two sisters , Florinda " Nana " Milagro Hoyos ( 1906 – 1944 ) , who married Mario Medina ( c.1905 – 1944 ) and also succumbed to tuberculosis ; and Celia Milagro Hoyos ( 1913 – ? ) . Medina , Nana 's husband , was electrocuted trying to rescue a coworker who hit a powerline with his crane at a construction site .

On February 18 , 1926 , Hoyos married Luis Mesa ( 1908 – ? ) , the son of Caridad and Isaac Mesa . Luis left Hoyos shortly after Hoyos miscarried the couple 's child , and moved to Miami . Hoyos was legally married to Mesa at the time of her death .

Hoyos was eventually diagnosed with tuberculosis , a typically fatal disease at the time , that eventually claimed the lives of almost all of her entire immediate family . Tanzler , with his self @-@ professed medical knowledge , attempted to treat and cure Hoyos with a variety of medicines , as well as x @-@ ray and electrical equipment , that were brought to the Hoyoses ' home . Tanzler showered Hoyos with gifts of jewelry and clothing , and allegedly professed his love to her , but no evidence has surfaced to show that any of his affection was reciprocated by Hoyos .

= = Morbid obsession = =

Despite Tanzler 's best efforts , Hoyos died of terminal tuberculosis at her parents ' home in Key West on October 25 , 1931 . Tanzler paid for her funeral , and with the permission of her family he then commissioned the construction of an above ground mausoleum in the Key West Cemetery , which he visited almost every night .

One evening in April , 1933 , Tanzler crept through the cemetery where Hoyos was buried and removed her body from the mausoleum , carting it through the cemetery after dark on a toy wagon , and transporting it to his home . He reportedly said that Elena 's spirit would come to him when he would sit by her grave and serenade her corpse with a favorite Spanish song . He also said that she would often tell him to take her from the grave . Tanzler attached the corpse 's bones together with wire and coat hangers , and fitted the face with glass eyes . As the skin of the corpse decomposed , Tanzler replaced it with silk cloth soaked in wax and plaster of paris . As the hair fell out of the decomposing scalp , Tanzler fashioned a wig from Hoyos 's hair that had been collected by her mother and given to Tanzler not long after her burial in 1931 . Tanzler filled the corpse 's abdominal and chest cavity with rags to keep the original form , dressed Hoyos 's remains in stockings , jewelry , and gloves , and kept the body in his bed . Tanzler also used copious amounts of perfume , disinfectants , and preserving agents , to mask the odor and forestall the effects of the corpse 's decomposition .

In October , 1940 , Elena 's sister Florinda heard rumors of Tanzler sleeping with the disinterred body of her sister , and confronted Tanzler at his home , where Hoyos 's body was eventually discovered . Florinda notified the authorities , and Tanzler was arrested and detained . Tanzler was psychiatrically examined , and found mentally competent to stand trial on the charge of " wantonly and maliciously destroying a grave and removing a body without authorization . " After a preliminary hearing on October 9 , 1940 at the Monroe County Courthouse in Key West , Tanzler was held to answer on the charge , but the case was eventually dropped and he was released , as the statute of limitations for the crime had expired .

Shortly after the corpse 's discovery by authorities , Hoyos 's body was examined by physicians and pathologists , and put on public display at the Dean @-@ Lopez Funeral Home , where it was viewed by as many as 6 @,@ 800 people . Hoyos 's body was eventually returned to the Key West Cemetery where the remains were buried in an unmarked grave , in a secret location , to prevent further tampering .

The facts underlying the case and the preliminary hearing drew much interest from the media at the time ( most notably , from the Key West Citizen and Miami Herald ) , and created a sensation among the public , both regionally and nationwide . The public mood was generally sympathetic to Tanzler , whom many viewed as an eccentric " romantic " .

Though not reported contemporaneously , research ( most notably by authors Harrison and Swicegood ) has revealed evidence of Tanzler 's necrophilia with Hoyos 's corpse . Two physicians ( Dr. DePoo and Dr. Foraker ) who attended the 1940 autopsy of Hoyos 's remains recalled in 1972 that a paper tube had been inserted in the vaginal area of the corpse that allowed for intercourse . Others contend that since no evidence of necrophilia was presented at the 1940 preliminary hearing , and because the physicians ' " proof " surfaced in 1972 , over 30 years after the case had been dismissed , the necrophilia allegation is questionable . While no existing contemporary photographs of the autopsy or photographs taken at the public display show a tube , the necrophilia claim was repeated by the HBO Autopsy program in 2005 .

= = Later life and death = =

In 1944 , Tanzler moved to Pasco County , Florida close to Zephyrhills , Florida , where he wrote an autobiography that appeared in the Pulp publication , Fantastic Adventures , in 1947 . His home was near his wife Doris , who apparently helped to support Tanzler in his later years . Tanzler received United States citizenship in 1950 in Tampa .

Separated from his obsession , Tanzler used a death mask to create a life @-@ sized effigy of Hoyos , and lived with it until his death on July 3 , 1952 . His body was discovered on the floor of his home three weeks after his death . He died under the name " Carl Tanzler " .

It has been recounted that Tanzler was found in the arms of the Hoyos effigy upon discovery of his corpse , but his obituary reported that he died on the floor behind one of his organs . The obituary recounted : " a metal cylinder on a shelf above a table in it wrapped in silken cloth and a robe was a waxen image " .

It has been written ( most notably by Swicegood ) that Tanzler had the bodies switched ( or that Hoyos 's remains were secretly returned to him ) , and that he died with the real body of Elena .

= = In popular culture = =

Several bands have released musical interpretations of the Tanzler story , such as And You Will Know Us By the Trail of Dead 's The Secret of Elena 's Tomb album , and Sleep Station 's Von Cosel album , both released in 2003 .

In 2010 , the electroindie band Fiordmoss released a song titled Cold Night which is sung from Tanzler 's perspective .

The band " Through The Strip " released a song called " One Moment In Time ( Carl Von Cosels Requiem ) " Which featured sound clips from documentaries in the intro . The song is told from the points of view of both Elena and Carl Tanzler .

The band The Black Dahlia Murder released a song titled Deathmask Divine which tells the story .

The band Loch Lomond 's song Wax & Wires tells the story of Tanzler 's love for Elena .

In 2008 , ChansoNoir released the single Count Von Cosels Obsession , with the b @-@ side A Cemetery Serenade presenting an instrumental piece reenacting Carl Tanzler 's organ playing in the tomb .

The Ripley 's Believe It or Not museum In Key West , Florida , has an exhibit recreating Elena 's body being cared for by Tanzler .

Portions of the original memorial plaque that was commissioned by Tanzler and affixed to Elena Hoyos 's mausoleum have been reassembled and are on display at the Martello Gallery @-@ Key West Art and Historical Museum in Key West .

Sharon Needles wrote " Dead Girls Never Say No " inspired by Tanzler on her album PG @-@ 13

The novel Buried by Tom Baker , is a fictionalized horror novel based on Carl Tanzler .

The story of Dr. Von Cosel and Elena Hoyos was featured in an episode Investigation Discovery series " True Nightmares " entitled " Overstay Your Welcome " .

" It Happened in Key West " , the musical , co @-@ written by Jill Santoriello , Jason Huza and Jeremiah James , is currently in production for 2017 . < http : / / www.keywestmusical.com / # ! story / cfvg >

= = Timeline = =

= You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home =

" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " is a country pop song written for the 2009 film Hannah Montana : The Movie . The song is performed by Hannah Montana , a character Miley Cyrus portrays in the film . A karaoke version of the song is available in the soundtrack 's karaoke series . The song is musically country pop and pop rock . Lyrically , the track is about staying grounded and going back to one 's roots .

The song received critical success for its use in the film . " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " was met with average @-@ to @-@ low commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana . It reached its highest international peak in the Canadian Hot 100 , at number thirty @-@ six . The song received a music video to coincide with the home release of Hannah Montana : The Movie .

= = Development = =

Singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift became involved with Hannah Montana : The Movie when filmmakers emailed her specifically to request the use of her music in the film . Swift agreed to make a cameo appearance in the film to sing " Crazier " as well as to co @-@ write a song with Boys Like Girls lead singer Martin Johnson . In an interview with MTV , Johnson described working with Swift :

" She 's awesome . She 's one of the most talented songwriters to work with , if not , the best . For such a young girl , she 's so creative and spot @-@ on . She knows the audience , she truly understands the kind of pop music that is from the heart and done in a tasteful way . She knows ways to make things pop and also make you feel it at the same time . We wrote a bunch of songs together and it was a lot of fun . "

" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " is used as the closing number of Hannah Montana : The Movie . In the film , Cyrus performs as popstar Hannah Montana onstage at an outdoor fundraiser to save her hometown 's treasured park from developers . More than 2 @,@ 000 extras were used to film the scene .

= = Composition = =

" You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " , according to Allmusic , embodies the album 's theme of merging country and pop music . It is set in common time with a fast rock tempo of 160 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of E ♭ major . Cyrus ' vocals span one octave , from B ♭ 3 to B4 . The song has the following chord progression , E ♭ 5 — D5 — E ♭ 5 . Like the film , the lyrics discuss importance of one 's roots . Warren Truitt of About.com believed it conveyed " the sentiment that even pop stars find safe haven in their home town " . The first few lyrics of the song 's chorus are almost identical to the opening verse in Hilary Duff 's song So Yesterday , which was released in 2003 .

= = Critical reception = =

The song received positive reviews from critics . Simon Weaving of Screenwize.com said the film 's conflicts are " mostly expressed in the simple , sugared lyrics of a series of pop hits that seamlessly find their way into the story – including ' The Best of Both Worlds ' and ' You ’ ll Always Find a Way Back Home ' . " James Plath of Dvdtown.com described the song as being " integrated pretty well into the narrative " . Peter Canavese of Grouncho Reviews said " the story makes way for [ ... ] ' You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home ' " , which would attract " the film 's target audience of pre @-@ teen girls " . Warren of Truitt of About.com listed the song as the third best song by Hannah Montana . The song was included on the short list for Best Original Song at the 82nd Academy Awards .

= = Chart performance = =

The song made its debut on the Billboard Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ seven on the week ending April 11 , 2009 . " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " fell one spot to number eighty @-@ eight in the following week , but on the week ending May 2 , 2009 it reached its peak on the Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ one due to digital downloads that placed it at number fifty @-@ two on Hot Digital Songs . In the Canadian Hot 100 , " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " debuted at eighty @-@ eight on the week ending April 11 , 2009 and reached its peak at number seventy @-@ six on the week ending May 2 , 2009 .

= = Music video = =

A promotional music video for " You 'll Always Find Your Way Back Home " was filmed in correlation to the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack . The video , part of a series of promotional videos titled The Miley Sessions , was released in March 2009 on Disney.com and features Cyrus singing in a vacant recording studio .

An excerpt from Hannah Montana : The Movie premiered as the song 's music video in August 2009 on Disney Channel to promote the home release of the film . The video begins with Cyrus and her backup dancers atop a stage in a crowded outdoor concert . Cyrus is dressed as Hannah Montana and is wearing a business suit . As Cyrus begins singing , she and the dancers engage in intricate choreography . The video then transitions to a clip from Hannah Montana : The Movie in which Cyrus ' character is getting down from a private airplane . The video continues to alternate between Cyrus performing and more film clips ; scenes include Stewart taking off her Hannah Montana wig and interacting with Travis Body , her love interest in the film , portrayed by actor Lucas Till . Midway through the video , Cyrus and her dancers exit the stage through a back door and instantly enter sporting western clothing with Cyrus in a western teal button up shirt , a checkered red and white table cloth with purple ruffles pettiskirt or a petticoat , and cowboy boots .

= = Charts = =

= Marjory Stoneman Douglas =

Marjory Stoneman Douglas ( April 7 , 1890 – May 14 , 1998 ) was an American journalist , writer , feminist , and environmentalist known for her staunch defense of the Everglades against efforts to drain it and reclaim land for development . Moving to Miami as a young woman to work for The Miami Herald , Douglas became a freelance writer , producing over a hundred short stories that were published in popular magazines . Her most influential work was the book The Everglades : River of Grass ( 1947 ) , which redefined the popular conception of the Everglades as a treasured river instead of a worthless swamp ; its impact has been compared to that of Rachel Carson 's influential book Silent Spring ( 1962 ) . Her books , stories , and journalism career brought her influence in Miami , which she used to advance her causes .

Even as a young woman Douglas was outspoken and politically conscious of many issues that included women 's suffrage and civil rights . She was called upon to take a central role in the protection of the Everglades when she was 79 years old . For the remaining 29 years of her life she was " a relentless reporter and fearless crusader " for the natural preservation and restoration of the nature of South Florida . Her tireless efforts earned her several variations of the nickname " Grande Dame of the Everglades " as well as the hostility of agricultural and business interests looking to benefit from land development in Florida . Numerous awards were given to her , including the Presidential Medal of Freedom , and she was inducted into several halls of fame .

Douglas lived until age 108 , working until nearly the end of her life for Everglades restoration . Upon her death , an obituary in The Independent in London stated , " In the history of the American environmental movement , there have been few more remarkable figures than Marjory Stoneman Douglas . "

= = Early life = =

Marjory Stoneman was born on April 7 , 1890 , in Minneapolis , Minnesota , the only child of Frank Bryant Stoneman ( 1857 – 1941 ) and Lillian Trefethen ( 1859 – 1912 ) , a concert violinist . One of her earliest memories was her father reading to her The Song of Hiawatha , at which she burst into sobs upon hearing that the tree had to give its life in order to provide Hiawatha the wood for a canoe . She was an early and voracious reader . Her first book was Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , which she kept well into adulthood until " some fiend in human form must have borrowed it and not brought it back " . She visited Florida when she was four years old , and her most vivid memory of the trip was picking an orange from a tree at the Tampa Bay Hotel . From there she and her parents embarked on a cruise from Tampa to Havana .

When she was six years old , Marjory 's parents separated . Her father endured a series of failed entrepreneurial ventures and the instability caused her mother to move them abruptly to the Trefethen family house in Taunton , Massachusetts . She lived there with her mother , aunt , and grandparents who did not get along well and consistently spoke ill of her father , to her dismay . Her mother , whom Marjory characterized as " high strung " , was committed to a mental sanitarium in Providence several times . Her parents ' separation and the contentious life with her mother 's family caused her to suffer from night terrors . She credited her tenuous upbringing with making her " a skeptic and a dissenter " for the rest of her life .

As a youth , Marjory found solace in reading , and eventually she began to write . At sixteen years old she contributed to the most popular children 's publication of the day , St. Nicholas Magazine — also the first publisher of 20th century writers F. Scott Fitzgerald , Rachel Carson , and William Faulkner — with a puzzle titled " Double Headings and Curtailings " . In 1907 , she was awarded a prize from the Boston Herald for a story titled " An Early Morning Paddle " , about a boy who watches a sunrise from a canoe . However , as her mother 's mental health deteriorated , Marjory took on more responsibilities , eventually managing some of the family finances and gaining a maturity imposed upon her by circumstance .

= = = Education and marriage = = =

Marjory left for college in 1908 , despite having grave misgivings about her mother 's mental state . Her aunt and grandmother shared her concerns , but recognized that she needed to leave in order to begin her own life . She was a good student without having to study too much . She attended Wellesley College , graduating with a BA in English in 1912 . She found particular gifts in a class on elocution , and joined the first suffrage club with six of her classmates . She was elected as " Class Orator " at Wellesley , but was unable to fulfill the office since she was already involved in other activities . During her senior year while visiting home , her mother showed her a lump on her breast . Marjory arranged the surgery to have it removed . After the graduation ceremony , her aunt informed her it had metastasized , and within months her mother was dead . The family left making the funeral arrangements up to Marjory .

After drifting with college friends through a few jobs for which she did not feel she was well @-@ suited , Marjory Stoneman met Kenneth Douglas in 1914 . She was so impressed with his manners and surprised at the attention he showed her that she married him within three months . He portrayed himself as a newspaper editor , and was 30 years her senior , but the marriage quickly failed when it became apparent he was a con artist . The true extent of his duplicity Marjory did not entirely reveal , despite her honesty in all other manners . Marjory may have unwittingly married Douglas while he was already married to another woman . While he spent six months in jail for passing a bad check , she remained faithful to him . However , his scheme to scam her absent father out of money worked in Marjory 's favor when it attracted Frank Stoneman 's attention . Marjory 's uncle persuaded her to move to Miami and for the marriage to end . In the fall of 1915 , Marjory Stoneman Douglas left New England to be reunited with her father , whom she had not seen since her parents ' separation when she was six years old . Shortly before that time , her father had remarried Lillius ( " Lilla " ) Eleanor Shine , whose great @-@ great grandfather was Thomas Jefferson . ( Her grandfather was Francis W. Eppes . ) Marjory later wrote that Lilla Shine " remained my first and best friend all my life in Florida . "

= = Writing career = =

= = = The Miami Herald = = =

Douglas arrived in South Florida when fewer than 5 @,@ 000 people were recorded on the census in Miami and it was " no more than a glorified railroad terminal " . Her father , Frank Stoneman , was the first publisher of the paper that later became The Miami Herald . Stoneman passionately opposed the governor of Florida , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , and his attempts to drain the Everglades . He infuriated Broward so much that when Stoneman won an election for circuit judge , Governor Broward refused to validate the election , so Stoneman was referred to as " Judge " for the rest of his life without performing the duties of one .

She joined the staff of the newspaper in 1915 , originally as a society columnist writing about tea parties and society events , but news was so slow she later admitted to making up some of her stories : " Somebody would say , ' Who 's that Mrs. T.Y. Washrag you 've got in your column ? ' And I would say , ' Oh , you know , I don 't think she 's been here very long ' " . When her father went on vacation less than a year after her appearance in Miami , he left her the responsibility of the editorial page . She developed a rivalry with an editor at The Miami Metropolis whose greater familiarity with the history of Miami gave her cause to make fun of Douglas in writing . Her father scolded her to check her facts better .

Douglas was given an assignment in 1916 to write a story on the first woman to join the US Naval Reserve from Miami . When the woman did not show up for the interview , Douglas found herself joining the Navy as a Yeoman ( F ) first class . It did not suit her ; she disliked rising early and her superiors did not appreciate her correcting their grammar as a typist , so she requested a discharge and joined the American Red Cross , where she was stationed in Paris . She witnessed the tumultuous celebrations on the Rue de Rivoli when the Armistice was signed , and she cared for war refugees ; seeing them displaced and in a state of shock , she wrote , " helped me understand the plight of refugees in Miami sixty years later " .

Following the war , Douglas took on duties as assistant editor at The Miami Herald . She gained some renown through her daily column entitled " The Galley " , and had enough influence through the newspaper that she became somewhat of a local celebrity . She amassed a devoted readership and attempted to begin each column with a poem . " The Galley " was topical and went in any direction Douglas chose . She promoted responsible urban planning when Miami saw a population boom of 100 @,@ 000 people in a decade . She wrote supporting women 's suffrage , civil rights , and better sanitation while opposing Prohibition and foreign trade tariffs .

Some of the stories she wrote spoke of the wealth of the region being in its " inevitable development " , and she supplemented her income with $ 100 a week from writing copy advertisements that praised the development of South Florida , something she would reconsider later in her life . She wrote a ballad in the 1920s lamenting the death of a 22 @-@ year @-@ old vagrant who was beaten to death in a labor camp , titled " Martin Tabert of North Dakota is Walking Florida Now " . It was printed in The Miami Herald , and read aloud during a session of the Florida Legislature , which passed a law banning convict leasing , in large part due to her writing . " I think that 's the single most important thing I was ever able to accomplish as a result of something I 've written " , she wrote in her autobiography .

= = = Freelance writer = = =

After quitting the newspaper in 1923 , Douglas worked as a freelance writer . From 1920 to 1990 , Douglas published 109 fiction articles and stories . One of her first stories was sold to the pulp fiction magazine Black Mask for $ 600 ( equivalent to $ 8 @,@ 330 in 2015 ) . Forty of her stories were published in The Saturday Evening Post ; one titled " Story of a Homely Woman " was reprinted in 1937 in the Post 's best short stories compilation . Recurring motifs in her fiction were their settings in South Florida , the Caribbean , or Europe during World War I. Her protagonists were often independent , quirky women or youthful underdogs who encountered social or natural injustices . The people and animals of the Everglades served as subjects for some of her earliest writings . " Plumes " , originally published in the Saturday Evening Post in 1930 , was based on the murder of Guy Bradley , an Audubon Society game warden , by poachers . " Wings " was a nonfiction story , also first appearing in the Post in 1931 , that addressed the slaughter of Everglades wading birds for their feathers . Her story " Peculiar Treasure of a King " was a second @-@ place finalist in the O. Henry Award competition in 1928 .

During the 1930s , Douglas was commissioned to write a pamphlet supporting a botanical garden called " An argument for the establishment of a tropical botanical garden in South Florida . " Its success caused her to be in demand at garden clubs where she delivered speeches throughout the area , then to serve on the board to support the Fairchild Garden . She called the garden " one of the greatest achievements for the entire area " .

Douglas became involved with the Miami Theater , and wrote some one @-@ act plays that were fashionable in the 1930s . One , entitled " The Gallows Gate " , was about an argument between a mother and father regarding the character of their son who is sentenced to hang . She got the idea from her father , who had witnessed hangings when he lived in the West and was unnerved by the creaking sound of the rope bearing the weight of the hanging body . The play won a state competition , and eventually $ 500 in a national competition after it was written into three acts . With William W. Muir , husband of reporter Helen Muir , she authored a play called " Storm Warnings " loosely based on the life of mobster Al Capone . Some of Capone ’ s henchmen showed up at the theater , “ add [ ing ] an extra tingle for the audience that night ” , though no actual problems arose . Douglas wrote the foreword to the Work Projects Administration 's guide to Miami and environs , published in 1941 as part of the Federal Writers ' Project 's American Guide Series .

Douglas served as the book review editor of The Miami Herald from 1942 to 1949 , and as editor for the University of Miami Press from 1960 to 1963 . She released her first novel , entitled Road to the Sun , in 1952 . She wrote four novels , and several non @-@ fiction books on regional topics including Florida birdwatching and David Fairchild , the entomologist turned biologist who imagined a botanical park in Miami . Her autobiography entitled Marjory Stoneman Douglas : Voice of the River was written with John Rothchild in 1987 . She had been working on a book about W. H. Hudson for years , traveling to Argentina and England several times . It was incomplete when she died in 1998 .

= = = The Everglades : River of Grass = = =

Early in the 1940s Douglas was approached by a publisher to contribute to the Rivers of America Series by writing about the Miami River . Unimpressed with it , she called the Miami River about " an inch long " , but in researching it became more interested in the Everglades and persuaded the publisher instead to allow her to write about them . She spent five years researching what little scientific knowledge was recorded about the ecology and history of the Everglades and South Florida . Douglas spent time with geologist Garald Parker , who discovered that all of South Florida 's fresh water source was the Biscayne Aquifer , and it was filled by the Everglades . Parker confirmed the name of the book that has since become the nickname for the Everglades when Douglas , trying to capture the essence of the Everglades , asked if she could safely call the fresh water flowing from Lake Okeechobee a river of grass .

The Everglades : River of Grass was published in 1947 and sold out of its first printing a month after being released . The first line of the book , " There are no other Everglades in the world " , has been called the " most famous passage ever written about the Everglades " , and the statement welcomes visitors to the Everglades National Park website . Douglas characterized the Everglades as ecosystems surrounding a river worthy of protecting , that was inescapably connected to the people and cultures of South Florida . She outlined its imminent disappearance in the last chapter titled " The Eleventh Hour " :

Cattlemen 's grass fires roared uncontrolled . Cane @-@ field fires spread crackling and hissing in the saw grass in vast waves and pillars and billowing mountains of heavy , cream @-@ colored , purple @-@ shadowed smoke . Training planes flying over the Glades dropped bombs or cigarette butts , and the fires exploded in the hearts of the drying hammocks and raced on before every wind leaving only blackness ... There was no water in the canals with which to fight [ the fires ] ... The sweet water the rock had held was gone or had shrunk far down into its strange holes and cleavages .

The Everglades : River of Grass galvanized people to protect the Everglades and is compared to Rachel Carson 's 1962 exposé of the harmful effects of DDT , Silent Spring , as both books are " groundbreaking calls to action that made citizens and politicians take notice " . Its impact is still relevant as it is claimed to be a major reason Florida receives so many tourists , and " remains the definitive reference on the plight of the Florida Everglades " . It has gone through numerous editions , selling 500 @,@ 000 copies since its original publication . The Christian Science Monitor wrote of it in 1997 , " Today her book is not only a classic of environmental literature , it also reads like a blueprint for what conservationists are hailing as the most extensive environmental restoration project ever undertaken anywhere in the world " . The downside to the book 's impact , according to one writer addressing restoration of the Everglades , is that her metaphor is so prevailingly dominant that it is inaccurate in describing the complex web of ecosystems within the Everglades : " River of Grass " describes one . David McCally wrote that despite Douglas ' " appreciation of the complexity of the environmental system " she described , popular conception of the Everglades shared by people who have not read the book overshadows her detailed explanations .

= = Activism = =

Women 's suffrage was an early interest of Douglas , and although she tended to shy away from polemics in her early work at The Miami Herald , on her third day as a society columnist , she chose suffrage and began to focus on writing about women in leadership positions . In 1917 , she traveled with Mary Baird Bryan , William Jennings Bryan 's wife , and two other women to Tallahassee to speak in support of women 's right to vote . Douglas was not impressed with the reception the group got from the Florida Legislature . She wrote about her experience later : " All four of us spoke to a joint committee wearing our best hats . Talking to them was like talking to graven images . They never paid attention to us at all . " Douglas was able to vote for the first time after she returned from Europe in 1920 .

Using her influence at The Miami Herald , Douglas wrote columns about poverty :

You can have the most beautiful city in the world as appearance goes , the streets may be clean and shining , the avenues broad and tree lined , the public buildings dignified , adequate and well kept ... but if you have a weak or inadequate health department , or a public opinion lax on the subject , all the splendors of your city will have not value .

In 1948 Douglas served on the Coconut Grove Slum Clearance Committee , with a friend of hers named Elizabeth Virrick , who was horrified to learn that no running water or sewers were connected to the racially segregated part of Coconut Grove . They helped pass a law requiring all homes in Miami to have toilets and bathtubs . In the two years it took them to get the referendum passed , they worked to set up a loan operation for the black residents of Coconut Grove , who borrowed the money interest @-@ free to pay for the plumbing work . Douglas noted that all of the money loaned was repaid .

= = = Everglades work = = =

Douglas became involved in the Everglades in the 1920s , when she joined the board of the Everglades Tropical National Park Committee , a group led by Ernest F. Coe and dedicated to the idea of making a national park in the Everglades . By the 1960s , the Everglades were in imminent danger of disappearing forever because of gross mismanagement in the name of progress and real estate and agricultural development . Encouraged to get involved by the leaders of environmental groups , in 1969 — at the age of 79 — Douglas founded Friends of the Everglades to protest the construction of a jetport in the Big Cypress portion of the Everglades . She justified her involvement saying , " It is a woman 's business to be interested in the environment . It 's an extended form of housekeeping . "

She toured the state giving " hundreds of ringing denunciations " of the airport project , and increased membership of Friends of the Everglades to 3 @,@ 000 within three years . She ran the public information operation full @-@ time from her home and encountered hostility from the jetport 's developers and backers , who called her a " damn butterfly chaser " . President Richard Nixon , however , scrapped funding for the project due to the efforts of many Everglades watchdog groups .

Douglas continued her activism and focused her efforts on restoring the Everglades after declaring that " Conservation is now a dead word ... You can 't conserve what you haven 't got . " Her criticism was directed at two entities she considered were doing the most damage to the Everglades . A coalition of sugarcane growers , named Big Sugar , she accused of polluting Lake Okeechobee by pumping water tainted with chemicals , human waste , and garbage back into the lake , which served as the fresh water source for the Miami metropolitan area . She compared Florida sugarcane agriculture to sugarcane grown in the West Indies , which , she claimed , was more environmentally sound , had a longer harvest cycle less harmful to soil nutrients , and was less expensive for consumers due to the higher sugar content .

Besides Big Sugar , Douglas spoke about the damage the Army Corps of Engineers was doing to the Everglades by diverting the natural flow of water . The Corps was responsible for constructing more than 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) of canals to divert water away from the Everglades after 1947 . When the Central & South Florida Project ( C & SF ) , run by former members of the Corps of Engineers , was proposed to assist the Everglades , Douglas initially gave it her approval , as it promised to deliver much @-@ needed water to the shrinking Everglades . However , in application , the project instead diverted more water away from the Everglades , changed water schedules to meet sugarcane farmers ' irrigation needs , and flat @-@ out refused to release water to Everglades National Park , until much of the land was unrecognizable . " What a liar I turned out to be ! " remarked Douglas , then suggested the motivation behind all the digging and diversion in saying , " Their mommies obviously never let them play with mud pies , so now they take it out on us by playing with cement " .

Douglas was giving a speech addressing the harmful practices of the Army Corps of Engineers when the colonel in attendance dropped his pen on the floor . As he was stooping to pick it up , Douglas stopped her speech and said to him , " Colonel ! You can crawl under that table and hide , but you can 't get away from me ! "

In 1973 , Douglas attended a meeting addressing conservation of the Everglades in Everglades City , and was observed by John Rothchild :

Mrs. Douglas was half the size of her fellow speakers and she wore huge dark glasses , which along with the huge floppy hat made her look like Scarlett O 'Hara as played by Igor Stravinsky . When she spoke , everybody stopped slapping mosquitoes and more or less came to order . She reminded us all of our responsibility to nature and I don 't remember what else . Her voice had the sobering effect of a one @-@ room schoolmarm 's . The tone itself seemed to tame the rowdiest of the local stone crabbers , plus the developers , and the lawyers on both sides . I wonder if it didn 't also intimidate the mosquitoes ... The request for a Corps of Engineers permit was eventually turned down . This was no surprise to those of us who 'd heard her speak .

Douglas was not well received by some audiences . She opposed the drainage of a suburb in Dade County named East Everglades . After the county approved building permits in the Everglades , the land flooded as it had for centuries . When homeowners demanded the Army Corps of Engineers drain their neighborhoods , she was the only opposing voice . At the hearing in 1983 , she was booed , jeered , and shouted at by the audience of residents . " Can 't you boo any louder than that ? " she chided , eventually making them laugh . " Look . I 'm an old lady . I 've been here since eight o 'clock . It 's now eleven . I 've got all night , and I 'm used to the heat , " she told them . Later , she wrote , " They 're all good souls — they just shouldn 't be out there . " Dade County commissioners eventually decided not to drain .

Florida Governor Lawton Chiles explained her impact , saying , " Marjory was the first voice to really wake a lot of us up to what we were doing to our quality of life . She was not just a pioneer of the environmental movement , she was a prophet , calling out to us to save the environment for our children and our grandchildren . "

= = = Other causes = = =

Douglas also served as a charter member of the first American Civil Liberties Union chapter organized in the South in the 1950s . She lent her support to the Equal Rights Amendment , speaking to the legislature in Tallahassee urging them to ratify it . In the 1980s Douglas lent her support to the Florida Rural Legal Services , a group that worked to protect migrant farm workers who were centered on Belle Glade , and who were primarily employed by the sugarcane industry . She wrote to Governor Bob Graham in 1985 to encourage him to assess the conditions the migrant workers endured . The same year , Douglas approached the Dade County School Board and insisted that the Biscayne Nature Center , which had been housed in hot dog stands , needed a building of its own . The center received a portable building until 1991 when the Florida Department of Education endowed $ 1 @.@ 8 million for the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature Center in Crandon Park . Douglas co @-@ founded the Friends of the Miami @-@ Dade Public Libraries with her longtime friend Helen Muir , and served as its first president .

= = Personal life = =

= = = Religious views = = =

Although Douglas grew up in an Episcopalian household , she described herself as agnostic throughout her life , and forbade any religious ceremony at her memorial . Douglas tied her agnosticism to her unanswered prayers when her mother was dying . However , she credited the motivation for her support of women 's suffrage to her Quaker paternal grandparents whose dedication to the abolition of slavery she admired , and proudly claimed Levi Coffin , an organizer of the Underground Railroad , was her great @-@ great @-@ uncle . She wrote that his wife was a friend of Harriet Beecher Stowe , and had provided Stowe with the story of Eliza in Uncle Tom 's Cabin fleeing slavery because Douglas ' great @-@ great @-@ aunt took care of Eliza and her infant after their escape . Frank Stoneman grew up in a Quaker colony , and Douglas maintained he kept touches of his upbringing throughout his life , even after converting to Episcopalianism . Writer Jack Davis and neighbor Helen Muir suggest this Quaker influence was behind Douglas ' use of " Friends " in naming the organizations Friends of the Everglades and Friends of the Miami @-@ Dade Public Libraries .

= = = Mental health = = =

As a child , Douglas was very close with her mother after her parents ' separation . She witnessed her mother 's emotional unraveling that caused her to be institutionalized , and even long after her mother returned to live with her , she exhibited bizarre , childlike behaviors . Following her mother 's death , her relocation to Miami , and her displeasure in working as the assistant editor at The Miami Herald , in the 1920s , she suffered the first of three nervous breakdowns .

Douglas suggested she had had " blank periods " before starting during her marriage , but they were brief . She connected these lapses to her mother 's insanity . She eventually quit the newspaper , but after her father 's death in 1941 she suffered a third and final breakdown , when her neighbors found her roaming the neighborhood one night screaming . She admitted she had a " father complex " , explaining it by saying , " Having been brought up without him and then coming back and finding him so sympathetic had a powerful effect " .

= = = Personal habits = = =

Regardless of her dedication to the preservation of the Everglades , Douglas admitted the time she spent actually there was sporadic , driving there for occasional picnics . " To be a friend of the Everglades is not necessarily to spend time wandering around out there ... It 's too buggy , too wet , too generally inhospitable " , she wrote . Instead , she understood that the health of the environment indicated the general well @-@ being of humanity .

Despite Douglas ' demure appearance — she stood at 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) and weighed 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) , and was always immaculately dressed in pearls , a floppy straw hat and gloves — she had an uncanny ability to get her point across . She was known for speaking in perfect , precise paragraphs , and was respected for her dedication and knowledge of her subjects ; even her critics admitted her authority on the Everglades . Jeff Klinkenberg , a reporter for the St. Petersburg Times who interviewed and wrote several stories about Douglas , wrote of her , " She had a tongue like a switchblade and the moral authority to embarrass bureaucrats and politicians and make things happen . " Douglas was known for haughtily dismissing reporters who had not read her books and asked uninformed questions .

She enjoyed drinking Scotch and sherry ; as friend and neighbor Helen Muir remembered her , " She would come up and have a sherry , and then I would walk her home , and then she 'd walk me back , and we would have another sherry . What fun she was . " Novelist Hervey Allen called Marjory Stoneman Douglas and Muir , " the Stewart Avenue Gang " . The two were fond of having sherry together and gossiping , but those moments were followed by serious talk of the future of libraries , and the role of women in South Florida . They were confidants , and often shared their work with one another . Douglas never learned to drive and never owned a car . Her house also had no air conditioning , electric stove , or dishwasher .

She was attached to several men after her divorce , counting one of them as the reason she enlisted in the Red Cross , as he had already gone to France as a soldier . However , she said she did not believe in extramarital sex and would not have dishonored her father by being promiscuous . She told Klinkenberg in 1992 , frankly , that she had not had sex since her divorce , saying " I wasn 't a wild woman " . However , she was fond of saying she used the emotion and energy instead on her work . " People don 't seem to realize that the energy that goes into sex , all the emotion that surrounds it , can be well employed in other ways " , she wrote in her autobiography .

= = Awards , death , and legacy = =

= = = Honors = = =

Douglas began accruing honors since her early days writing for The Miami Herald . In the 1980s , however , the awards became more prestigious , and her reactions to them mixed . The Florida Department of Natural Resources ( now the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ) named its headquarters in Tallahassee after her in 1980 , which she considered a dubious honor . She told a friend she would have rather seen the Everglades restored than her name on a building . During her polite acceptance speech , she railed against Ronald Reagan and the then @-@ Secretary of the Interior James Watt for their lackluster approach to environmental conservation . The National Parks Conservation Association established the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Award in 1986 , that " honor ( s ) individuals who often must go to great lengths to advocate and fight for the protection of the National Park System " . Despite blindness and diminished hearing , Douglas continued to be active into her second century , and was honored with a visit from Queen Elizabeth II , to whom Douglas gave a signed copy of The Everglades : River of Grass in 1991 . Instead of gifts and celebrations , Douglas asked that trees be planted on her birthday , resulting in over 100 @,@ 000 planted trees across the state and a bald cypress on the lawn of the governor 's mansion . The South Florida Water Management District began removing exotic plants that had taken hold in the Everglades when Douglas turned 102 .

In 1993 , President Bill Clinton awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest honor given to a civilian . The citation for the medal read , " Marjory Stoneman Douglas personifies passionate commitment . Her crusade to preserve and restore the Everglades has enhanced our Nation 's respect for our precious environment , reminding all of us of nature 's delicate balance . Grateful Americans honor the ' Grandmother of the Glades ' by following her splendid example in safeguarding America 's beauty and splendor for generations to come . " Douglas donated her medal to Wellesley College . Most of the others she received she stored on the floor of her home .

Douglas was inducted into the National Wildlife Federation Hall of Fame in 1999 , and the National Women 's Hall of Fame in 2000 . John Rothchild declared her a feminist before the word existed , but not entirely . Upon hearing that she was to be inducted , she questioned , " Why should they have a Women 's Hall of Fame , as I heard they wanted to put me in the other day ? Why not a Citizen 's Hall of Fame ? " Douglas was included in a tribute to pioneering women when television character Lisa Simpson made a papier @-@ mâché bust of her with Georgia O 'Keeffe and Susan B. Anthony in an early episode of The Simpsons .

Some of Douglas ' stories were collected by University of Florida professor Kevin McCarthy in two edited collections : Nine Florida Stories in 1990 and A River In Flood in 1998 . McCarthy wrote that he collected Douglas ' short stories because most people in the 1990s were well aware of her fame as an environmentalist , but many did not know about her career as a freelance writer . " Probably no other person has been as important to the environmental well @-@ being of Florida than this little lady from Coconut Grove " , McCarthy wrote in the introduction of A River in Flood .

= = = Remembrances = = =

Marjory Stoneman Douglas died at the age of 108 on May 14 , 1998 . John Rothchild , who helped write her autobiography , said that her death was the only thing that could " shut her up " but added , " The silence is terrible . " Carl Hiaasen eulogized her in The Miami Herald , writing that The Everglades : River of Grass was " monumental " , and praised her passion and her resolve ; even when politicians finally found value in the Everglades and visited her for a photo opportunity , she still provoked them to do more and do it faster .

The National Wildlife Federation described her as " a passionate , articulate , and tireless voice for the environment " . Chairman of the Florida Audubon Society Ed Davison remembered her , saying , " She kept a clear vision of the way things ought to be , and she didn 't give a lot of credibility to excuses about why they 're not like that . She would give these wonderful , curmudgeonly speeches to which there was no response . You can 't holler back to grandmotherly scolding . All you can do is shuffle your feet and say , ' Yes , Ma 'am . ' " She was aware of it ; she was reported saying , " People can 't be rude to me , this poor little old woman . But I can be rude to them , poor darlings , and nobody can stop me . " Her ashes were scattered over the 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 km2 ) of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area in Everglades National Park .

In 2000 , a Naples , Florida @-@ based composer named Steve Heitzeg wrote a 15 @-@ minute orchestra piece to be performed by the Naples Philharmonic entitled Voice of the Everglades ( Epitaph for Marjory Stoneman Douglas ) . Heitzeg explained his motivation for the piece , saying , " She was outspoken , she was direct , she had the energy and belief to make the world a better place . " Two South Florida public schools are named in her honor : Broward County Public Schools ' Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School and Miami @-@ Dade County Public Schools ' Marjory Stoneman Douglas Elementary School .

= = = Douglas home = = =

Douglas ' cottage , located in Coconut Grove at 3744 – 3754 Stewart Avenue , was built in 1924 . She wrote all of her major books and stories in the cottage , and the City of Miami designated it an historic site in 1995 , not only for its famous owner but also for its unique Masonry Vernacular architecture . After Douglas ' death , Friends of the Everglades proposed making the house part of an education center about Douglas and her life , but neighbors protested , citing issues with parking , traffic , and an influx of visitors to the quiet neighborhood . The house , which had an exterior floodwater line from the 1926 Miami Hurricane and some damage from an infestation of bees , had fallen further into disrepair . For a while , the idea of moving the house to Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral Gables , which Douglas helped to develop and where there is a life size bronze statue to commemorate her efforts , was considered . The State of Florida owns Douglas ' house and in April 2007 placed it in the care of the Florida Park Service , a division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection . Restoration of the floors and counters took place in the following months . Water service was reconnected to the house and the electrical system was updated for safety purposes . All work was approved by the Department of Historic Resources . A park ranger was placed as a resident in the Douglas house to help maintain the structure and property .

On April 22 , 2015 , while giving an Earth Day speech in the Everglades , President Barack Obama announced that Interior Secretary Sally Jewell had designated the house a National Historic Landmark .

= = Notable works = =

= = = Books = = =

The Everglades : River of Grass . Rinehart , 1947 .

Road to the Sun . Rinehart , 1952 .

Freedom River Florida 1845 . Charles Scribner 's Sons , 1953 .

Hurricane . Rinehart , 1958 .

Alligator crossing . John Day , 1959 .

The Key to Paris . Keys to the Cities Series . Lippincott , 1961 .

Florida the Long Frontier . Harper & Row , 1967 .

The Joys of Bird Watching in Florida . Hurricane House , 1969 .

Adventures in a Green World – the Story of David Fairchild and Barbour Lathrop . Field Research Projects . 1973 .

Marjory Stoneman Douglas : Voice of the River. with John Rothchild . Pineapple Press , Inc . 1987 .

= = = Short story collections = = =

Nine Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas . Ed . Kevin M. McCarthy . University of North Florida , 1990 .

" Pineland "

" A Bird Dog in the Hand "

" He Man "

" Twenty Minutes Late for Dinner "

" Plumes "

" By Violence "

" Bees in the Mango Bloom "

" September @-@ Remember "

" The Road to the Horizon "

A River in Flood and Other Florida Stories by Marjory Stoneman Douglas . Ed . Kevin M. McCarthy . University Press of Florida , 1998 .

" At Home on the Marcel Waves "

" Solid Mahogany "

" Goodness Gracious , Agnes "

" A River in Flood "

" The Mayor of Flamingo "

" Stepmother "

" You Got to Go , But You Don 't Have to Come Back "

" High @-@ Goal Man "

" Wind Before Morning "

= Icelanders =

Icelanders are a Germanic ethnic group and nation , native to Iceland .

On 17 June 1944 , when the Icelandic republic was founded , the Icelanders became independent from the Danish monarchy . The language spoken is Icelandic , a North Germanic language , and Lutheranism is the predominant religion . Historical and DNA records indicate that around 60 to 80 percent of the settlers were of Norse origin ( primarily from Western Norway ) and the rest were of Celtic stock from Ireland and peripheral Scotland .

= = Iceland = =

Icelanders have had a tumultuous history . Development of the island was slow due to a lack of interest from the countries controlling it for most of its history : Norway , Denmark – Norway , and ultimately Denmark . Through this time , Iceland had relatively little contact with the outside world . The island became independent in union with Denmark in 1918 . Since 1944 , Iceland has been a republic , and Icelandic society has undergone a rapid modernisation process in the post @-@ independence era .

= = History = =

Iceland is a geologically young land mass , having formed an estimated 20 million years ago due to volcanic eruptions on the Mid @-@ Atlantic ridge . One of the last larger islands to remain uninhabited , the first human settlement date is generally accepted to be 874 , although there is some evidence to suggest human activity prior to the Norse arrival .

= = = Initial migration and settlement = = =

The first Viking to sight Iceland was Gardar Svavarsson , who went off course due to harsh conditions when sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands . His reports led to the first efforts to settle the island . Flóki Vilgerðarson ( b . 9th century ) was the first Norseman to sail to Iceland intentionally . His story is documented in the Landnámabók manuscript , and he is said to have named the island Ísland ( Iceland ) . The first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfur Arnarson . He settled with his family in around 874 , at a place he named " Bay of Smokes " , or Reykjavík in Icelandic .

Following Ingólfur , and also in 874 , another group of Norwegians set sail across the North Atlantic Ocean with their families , livestock , slaves and possessions , escaping the domination of the first King of Norway , Haraldur Harfagri . They traveled 1 @,@ 000 km ( 600 mi ) in their Viking longships to the island of Iceland . These people were primarily of Norwegian , Irish or Gaelic Scottish origin . The Irish and the Scottish Gaels were either slaves or servants of the Norse chiefs , according to the Icelandic sagas , or descendants of a " group of Norsemen who had settled in Scotland and Ireland and intermarried with Gaelic @-@ speaking people " . Genetic evidence suggests that approximately 62 % of the Icelandic maternal gene pool is derived from Ireland and Scotland , which is much higher than other Scandinavian countries , although comparable to the Faroese , while 37 % is of Nordic origin . About 20 @-@ 25 % of the Icelandic paternal gene pool is of Gaelic origin , with the rest being Nordic .

The Icelandic Age of Settlement ( Icelandic : Landnámsöld ) is considered to have lasted from 874 to 930 , at which point most of the island had been claimed and the Alþingi ( English : Althing ) , the assembly of the Icelandic Commonwealth , was founded at Þingvellir .

= = = Hardship and conflict = = =

In 930 , on the Þingvellir ( English : Thingvellir ) plain near Reykjavík , the chieftains and their families met and established the Alþingi , Iceland 's first national assembly . However , the Alþingi lacked the power to enforce the laws it made . In 1262 , struggles between rival chieftains left Iceland so divided that King Haakon IV of Norway was asked to step in as a final arbitrator for all disputes , as part of the Old Covenant . This is known as the Age of the Sturlungs .

Iceland was under Norwegian leadership until 1380 , when the Royal House of Norway died out . At this point , both Iceland and Norway came under the control of the Danish Crown . With the introduction of absolute monarchy in Denmark , the Icelanders relinquished their autonomy to the crown , including the right to initiate and consent to legislation . This meant a loss of independence for Iceland , which led to nearly 300 years of decline : perhaps largely because Denmark and its Crown did not consider Iceland to be a colony to be supported and assisted . In particular , the lack of help in defense led to constant raids by marauding pirates along the Icelandic coasts .

Unlike Norway , Denmark did not need Iceland 's fish and homespun wool . This created a dramatic deficit in Iceland 's trade , and no new ships were built as a result . In 1602 Iceland was forbidden to trade with other countries by order of the Danish Government , and in the 18th century climatic conditions had reached an all @-@ time low since Settlement .

In 1783 – 84 Laki , a volcanic fissure in the south of the island , erupted . The eruption produced about 15 km ³ ( 3 @.@ 6 mi ³ ) of basalt lava , and the total volume of tephra emitted was 0 @.@ 91 km ³ . The aerosols built up caused a cooling effect in the Northern Hemisphere . The consequences for Iceland were catastrophic , with approximately 25 @-@ 33 % of the population dying in the famine of 1783 and 1784 . Around 80 % of sheep , 50 % of cattle , and 50 % of horses died of fluorosis from the 8 million tons of fluorine that were released . This disaster is known as the Mist Hardship ( Icelandic : Móðuharðindin ) .

In 1798 – 99 the Alþingi was discontinued for several decades , eventually being restored in 1844 . It was moved to Reykjavík , the capital , after being held at Þingvellir for over nine centuries .

= = = Independence and prosperity = = =

The 19th century brought significant improvement in the Icelanders ' situation . A protest movement was led by Jón Sigurðsson , a statesman , historian , and authority on Icelandic literature . Inspired by the romantic and nationalist currents from mainland Europe , Jón protested strongly , through political journals and self @-@ publications , for ' a return to national consciousness ' and for political and social changes to be made to help speed up Iceland 's development .

In 1854 , the Danish government relaxed the trade ban that had been imposed in 1602 , and Iceland gradually began to rejoin Western Europe economically and socially . With this return of contact with other peoples came a reawakening of Iceland 's arts , especially its literature . Twenty years later in 1874 , Iceland was granted a constitution . Icelanders today recognize Jón 's efforts as largely responsible for their economic and social resurgence .

Iceland gained near @-@ full independence in 1918 after World War I , and retained only formal ties with the Danish Crown . This move to independence was completed on 17 June 1944 on what would have been Jón Sigurðsson 's 133rd birthday . After a national referendum , Iceland broke all ties with Denmark , after nearly six centuries of Danish rule , and declared itself independent .

= = Demographics and society = =

= = = Genetics = = =

Most mitochondrial DNA lineages found today in contemporary Icelanders can be traced to the native populations in Ireland and Scotland and Scandinavia . Another study shows that a tiny proportion of samples of contemporary Icelanders carry a more distant lineage , which belongs to the haplogroup C1 , which can possibly be traced to the settlement of the Americas around 14 @,@ 000 years ago . The same study used preliminary genealogical analyses which revealed that C1 lineage was present in the Icelandic mtDNA pool at least 300 years ago . Due to their small founding population and considerable history of relative isolation , Icelanders have often been considered highly genetically homogeneous as compared to other European populations . For this reason , along with the extensive genealogical records for much of the population that reach back to the settlement of Iceland , Icelanders have been the focus of considerable genomics research by both biotechnology companies and academic and medical researchers . However , one study of mitochondrial DNA , blood groups , and isozymes revealed a more variable population than expected from these genetic standpoints , comparable to the diversity of some other Europeans . Another study shows that quite a big group of Scandinavian males , in particular Norwegians and Icelanders ( up to 31 % of samples ) , carry Haplogroup R1a1a ( Y @-@ DNA ) .

Results of the mitochondrial DNA studies have been consistent with the genealogical records that trace the ancestry of most Icelanders to Scandinavia , Ireland and Scotland , though there may have been a minor contribution from other European groups . Founder effects and the effects of genetic drift are more pronounced for the Icelandic gene pool than other nearby populations , supporting the assumed genetic isolation of the population .

= = = Emigration = = =

= = = = Greenland = = = =

Greenland was first settled by some 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red in the late 10th century , CE . Isolated fjords in this harsh land offered sufficient grazing to support cattle and sheep , though the climate was too cold for cereal crops . Royal trade ships from Norway occasionally went to Greenland to trade for walrus tusks and falcons . The population eventually reached a high point of perhaps 3 @,@ 000 in two communities and developed independent institutions before fading away during the 15th century . A papal legation was sent there as late as 1492 , the year Columbus attempted to find a shorter spice route but instead found the Americas .

= = = = North America = = = =

According to the Saga of Eric the Red , Icelandic immigration to North America dates back to 1006 , when Icelandic Snorri was born in Vinland . This colony was short @-@ lived though and by the 1020s the Icelanders abandoned it . Icelandic immigration to North America would not resume for some 800 years .

One of the first new instances of Icelandic immigration to North America occurred in 1855 , when a small group settled in Spanish Fork , Utah . Another Icelandic colony is Washington Island , Wisconsin . Immigration to the United States and Canada began in earnest in the 1870s , with most migrants initially settling in the Great Lakes area . These settlers were fleeing famine and overcrowding on Iceland . Today , there are sizable communities of Icelandic descent in both the United States and Canada . Gimli , in Manitoba , Canada , is home to the largest population of Icelanders outside of the main island of Iceland .

= = Culture = =

= = = Language and literature = = =

Icelandic , a North Germanic language , is the official language of Iceland ( de facto ; the laws are silent about the issue ) . Icelandic has inflectional grammar comparable to Latin , Ancient Greek , more closely to Old English and practically identical to Old Norse .

Old Icelandic literature can be divided into several categories , of which three are best known to foreigners : Eddic poetry , skaldic poetry , and saga literature , if saga literature is understood broadly . Eddic poetry is made up of heroic and mythological poems . Poetry that praises someone is considered skaldic poetry or court poetry . Finally Saga literature is prose , ranging from pure fiction to fairly factual history .

Written Icelandic has changed little since the 13th century . Because of this , modern readers can understand the Icelanders ' sagas . The sagas tell of events in Iceland in the 10th and early 11th centuries . They are considered to be the best @-@ known pieces of Icelandic literature .

The elder or Poetic Edda , the younger or Prose Edda , and the sagas are the major pieces of Icelandic literature . The Poetic Edda is a collection of poems and stories from the late 10th century , whereas the younger or Prose Edda is a manual of poetry that contains many stories of Norse mythology .

= = = Religion = = =

Iceland embraced Christianity in c . AD 1000 , in what is called the kristnitaka , and the country , while mostly secular in observance , is still predominantly Christian culturally . The Lutheran church claims some 84 % of the total population . While early Icelandic Christianity was more lax in its observances than traditional Catholicism , Pietism , a religious movement imported from Denmark in the 18th century , had a marked effect on the island . By discouraging all but religious leisure activities , it fostered a certain dourness , which was for a long time considered an Icelandic stereotype . At the same time , it also led to a boom in printing , and Iceland today is one of the most literate societies in the world .

While Catholicism was supplanted by Protestantism during the Reformation , most other world religions are now represented on the island : there are small Protestant Free Churches and Catholic communities , and even a nascent Muslim community , composed of both immigrants and local converts . Perhaps unique to Iceland is the fast @-@ growing Ásatrúarfélag , a legally recognized revival of the pre @-@ Christian Nordic religion of the original settlers . According to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Reykjavík , there were only approximately 30 Jews in Iceland as of 2001 . The First Lady of Iceland Dorrit Moussaieff is an Israeli @-@ born Bukharian Jew .

= = = Cuisine = = =

Icelandic cuisine consists mainly of fish , lamb , and dairy . Fish was once the main part of an Icelander 's diet but has recently given way to meats such as beef , pork , and poultry .

Iceland has many traditional foods called Þorramatur . These foods include smoked and salted lamb , singed sheep heads , dried fish , smoked and pickled salmon , and cured shark . Andrew Zimmern , a chef who has traveled the world on his show Bizarre Foods with Andrew Zimmern , responded to the question " What 's the most disgusting thing you 've ever eaten ? " with the response " That would have to be the fermented shark fin I had in Iceland . " Fermented shark fin is a form of Þorramatur .

= = = Performance art = = =

The earliest indigenous Icelandic music was the rímur , epic tales from the Viking era that were often performed a cappella . Christianity played a major role in the development of Icelandic music , with many hymns being written in the local idiom . Hallgrímur Pétursson , a poet and priest , is noted for writing many of these hymns in the 17th century . The island 's relative isolation ensured that the music maintained its regional flavor . It was only in the 19th century that the first pipe organs , prevalent in European religious music , first appeared on the island .

Many singers , groups , and forms of music have come from Iceland . Most Icelandic music contains vibrant folk and pop traditions . Some more recent groups and singers are Voces Thules , The Sugarcubes , Björk , Sigur Rós , and Of Monsters and Men .

The national anthem is " Ó Guð vors lands " ( English : " Our Country 's God " ) , written by Matthías Jochumsson , with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson . The song was written in 1874 , when Iceland celebrated its one thousandth anniversary of settlement on the island . It was originally published with the title A Hymn in Commemoration of Iceland 's Thousand Years .

= = = Sports = = =

Iceland 's national football team has yet to participate in the FIFA World Cup . However they have qualified for the finals of the 2016 European Championship . Their first Olympic participation was in the 1912 Summer Olympics ; however , they did not participate again until the 1936 Summer Olympics . Their first appearance at the winter games was at the 1948 Winter Olympics . In 1956 , Vilhjálmur Einarsson won the Olympic silver medal for the triple jump . The Icelandic national handball team has enjoyed relative success . The team received a silver medal at the 2008 Olympic Games and a 3rd place at the 2010 European Men 's Handball Championship .

= Canadian federal election , 1957 =

The Canadian federal election of 1957 was held June 10 , 1957 , to select the 265 members of the House of Commons of Canada . In one of the great upsets in Canadian political history , the Progressive Conservative Party ( also known as " PCs " or " Tories " ) , led by John Diefenbaker , brought an end to 22 years of Liberal rule , as the Tories were able to form a minority government .

The Liberal Party had governed Canada since 1935 , winning five consecutive elections . Under Prime Ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent , the government gradually built a welfare state . During the Liberals 's fifth term in office , the opposition parties depicted them as arrogant and unresponsive to Canadians ' needs . Controversial events , such as the 1956 " Pipeline Debate " over the construction of the Trans @-@ Canada Pipeline , had hurt the government . St. Laurent , nicknamed ' Uncle Louis ' , remained popular , but exercised little supervision over his cabinet ministers .

In 1956 , Tory leader George A. Drew unexpectedly resigned due to ill health . In his place , the PC party elected the fiery and charismatic Diefenbaker . The Tories ran a campaign centred on their new leader , who attracted large crowds to rallies and made a strong impression on television . The Liberals ran a lacklustre campaign , and St. Laurent made few television appearances . Uncomfortable with the medium , the Prime Minister read his speeches from a script and refused to wear makeup .

Abandoning their usual strategy of trying to make major inroads in Liberal @-@ dominated Quebec , the Tories focused on winning seats in the other provinces . They were successful ; though they gained few seats in Quebec , they won 112 seats overall to the Liberals ' 105 . With the remaining seats won by other parties , the PC party only had a plurality in the House of Commons , but the margin was sufficient to make John Diefenbaker Canada 's first Tory Prime Minister since 1935 .

= = Background = =

= = = Liberal domination = = =

The Tories had last governed Canada under R.B. Bennett , who had been elected in 1930 . Bennett 's government had limited success in dealing with the Depression , and was defeated in 1935 , as Liberal William Lyon Mackenzie King , who had previously served two times as Prime Minister , was restored to power . The Liberals won five consecutive majorities between 1935 and 1953 . The Liberals worked closely with the civil service ( drawing several of their ministers from those ranks ) and their years of dominance saw prosperity .

When Mackenzie King retired in 1948 , he was succeeded by his Minister of Justice , Louis St. Laurent , a bilingual Quebecer who took office at the age of 66 . An adept politician , St. Laurent projected a gentle persona and was affectionately known to many Canadians as Uncle Louis ( or , among francophones , Oncle Louis ) . In actuality , St. Laurent was uncomfortable away from Ottawa , was subject to fits of depression ( especially after 1953 ) , and on political trips was carefully managed by advertising men from the firm of Cockfield Brown . St. Laurent led the Liberals to an overwhelming triumph in the 1949 election , campaigning under the slogan " You never had it so good " . The Liberals won a fifth successive mandate in 1953 , with St. Laurent content to exercise a highly relaxed leadership style .

With over twenty years of parliamentary majorities , Liberal ministers did as they wished with little regard for the opposition parties . The Mackenzie King and St. Laurent governments laid the groundwork for the welfare state , a development initially opposed by many Tories . C.D. Howe , considered one of the leading forces of the St. Laurent government , told his Tory opponents when they alleged that the Liberals would abolish tariffs if the people would let them , " Who would stop us ? ... Don 't take yourselves too seriously . If we wanted to get away with it , who would stop us ? "

= = = Tory struggles = = =

At the start of 1956 , the Tories were led by former Ontario premier George A. Drew , who had been elected PC leader in 1948 over Saskatchewan MP John Diefenbaker . Drew was the fifth man to lead the Tories in their 21 years out of power . None had come close to defeating the Liberals ; the best performance was in 1945 , when John Bracken secured 67 seats for the Tories . The Liberals , though , had won 125 seats , and maintained their majority . In the 1953 election , the PC party won 51 seats out of the 265 in the House of Commons . Subsequently the Tories picked up two seats from the Liberals in by @-@ elections , and the Liberals ( who had won 169 seats in 1953 ) lost an additional seat to the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF , the predecessor of the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) ) .

After over two decades in opposition , the Tories were closely associated with that role in the public eye . The Tories were seen as the party of the wealthy and of English @-@ speaking Canada and drew about 30 % of the vote in federal elections . The Tories had enjoyed little success in Quebec in the past forty years . By 1956 , the Social Credit Party was becoming a potential rival to the Tories as Canada 's main right @-@ wing party . Canadian journalist and author Bruce Hutchison discussed the state of the Tories in 1956 :

When a party calling itself Conservative can think of nothing better than to outbid the Government 's election promises ; when it demands economy in one breath and increased spending in the next ; when it proposes an immediate tax cut regardless of inflationary results ... when in short , the Conservative party no longer gives us a conservative alternative after twenty @-@ one years ... then our political system desperately requires an opposition prepared to stand for something more than the improbable chance of quick victory .

= = = Run @-@ up to the campaign = = =

In 1955 , the Tories , through a determined filibuster , were able to defeat amendments to the Defence Procurement Act , which would have made temporary , extraordinary powers granted to the government permanent . Drew led the Tories in a second battle with the government the following year : in the so @-@ called " Pipeline Debate " , the government invoked closure repeatedly in a weeks @-@ long debate which ended with the Speaker ignoring points of order as he had the division bells rung . Both measures were closely associated with Howe , which , in combination with his earlier comments , led to Tory claims that Howe was indifferent to the democratic process .

Tory preparations for an upcoming election campaign were thrown into disarray in August 1956 when Drew fell ill . Tory leaders felt that the party needed vigorous leadership with a federal election likely to be called within a year . In September , Drew resigned . Diefenbaker , who had failed in two prior bids for the leadership , announced his candidacy , as did Tory frontbenchers Davie Fulton and Donald Fleming . Diefenbaker , a criminal defence lawyer from Prince Albert , Saskatchewan , was on the populist left of the PC party . Those Tory leaders who disliked Diefenbaker and his views , and hoped to find a candidate from Drew 's conservative wing of the party , wooed University of Toronto president Sidney Smith as a candidate . However , Smith refused to run .

Tory leaders scheduled a leadership convention for December . In early November , the Suez crisis erupted . Minister of External Affairs Lester Pearson played a major part in the settlement of that dispute , and was later awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role . Diefenbaker , as the Tories ' foreign policy critic and as the favourite in the leadership race , gained considerable attention for his speeches on Suez . The Tories attacked Pearson for , as they said , being an errand boy for the United States government ; he responded that it was better to be such a lackey than to be an obedient colonial doing Britain 's will unquestioningly . While Suez would come to be regarded by many as one of the finest moments in Canadian foreign policy , at the time it cost the Liberals support outside of Quebec .

Diefenbaker was the favourite throughout the leadership campaign . At the convention in Ottawa in December , he refused to abide by the custom of having a Quebecer be either the proposer or seconder of his candidacy , and instead selected an Easterner ( from New Brunswick ) and a Westerner to put his name in nomination . With most Quebec delegates backing his opponents , Diefenbaker felt that having a Quebecer as a nominator would not increase his support . Diefenbaker was elected on the first ballot , and a number of Quebec delegates walked out of the convention after his victory . Other Diefenbaker opponents , such as those who had urged Smith to run , believed that the 61 @-@ year @-@ old Diefenbaker would be merely a caretaker , who would serve a few years and then step down in favour of a younger man , and that the upcoming election would be lost to the Liberals regardless of who led the Tories .

When Parliament convened in January , the Liberals introduced no major proposals , and proposed nothing controversial . Diefenbaker turned over his parliamentary duties to British Columbia MP Howard Green and spent much of his time on the road making speeches across the country . Diefenbaker toured a nation in which Liberal support at the provincial level had slowly been eroding . When the Liberals gained Federal power in 1935 , they controlled eight of the nine provincial governments , all except Alberta . By early 1957 , the Liberals controlled the legislatures only in the tenth province , Newfoundland , and in Prince Edward Island and Manitoba .

In March , Finance Minister Walter Harris , who was believed to be St. Laurent 's heir apparent , introduced his budget . The budget anticipated a surplus of $ 258 million , of which $ 100 million was to be returned in the form of increased welfare payments , with an increase of $ 6 per month ( to a total of $ 46 ) for old age pensioners — effective after the election . Harris indicated that no more could be returned for fear of increasing inflation . Diefenbaker attacked the budget , calling for higher old age pensions and welfare payments , more aid to the poorer provinces , and aid to farmers .

St. Laurent had informed Diefenbaker that Parliament would be dissolved in April , for an election on June 10 . A final parliamentary conflict was sparked by the suicide of Canadian Ambassador to Egypt E.H. Norman in the midst of allegations made by a United States Senate subcommittee that Norman had communist links . Pearson had defended Norman when the allegations became public , and defended him again after his death , suggesting to the Commons that the allegations were false . It quickly became apparent that the information released by the Americans might have come from Canadian intelligence sources , and after severe questioning of Pearson by Diefenbaker and the other parties ' foreign policy critics , Pearson made a statement announcing that Norman had had communist associations in his youth , but had passed a security review . The minister evaded further questions regarding what information had been provided , and the discussion was cut short when Parliament was dissolved on April 12 .

Peter Regenstreif , who studied the four elections between 1957 and 1963 , wrote of the situation at the start of the election campaign , " In 1957 , there was no tangible indication that the Liberals would be beaten or , even in the opposition 's darkest moment of reflection , could be . All the hindsight and post hoc gazing at entrails cannot change that objective fact . "

= = Issues = =

The Liberals and PC party differed considerably on fiscal and tax policies . In his opening campaign speech at Massey Hall in Toronto , Diefenbaker contended that Canadians were overtaxed in the amount of $ 120 per family of four . Diefenbaker pledged to reduce taxes and castigated the Liberals for not reducing taxes despite the government surplus . St. Laurent also addressed tax policy in his opening speech , in Winnipeg . St. Laurent noted that since 1953 , tax rates had declined , as had the national debt , and that Canada had a reputation as a good place for investments . The Prime Minister argued that the cost of campaign promises made by the Progressive Conservatives would inevitably drive up the tax rate . Diefenbaker also assailed tight @-@ money monetary policies which kept interest rates high , complaining that they were hitting Atlantic and Western Canada hard .

The Tories promised changes in agricultural policies . Many Canadian farmers were unable to find buyers for their wheat ; the PC party promised generous cash advances on unsold wheat and promised a protectionist policy regarding foreign agricultural products . The Liberals argued that such tariffs were not worth the loss of bargaining position in efforts to seek foreign markets for Canadian agricultural products .

The institution of the welfare state was by 1957 accepted by both major parties . Diefenbaker promised to expand the national health insurance scheme to cover tubercular and mental health patients . He characterized the old age pension increase which the Liberal government was instituting as a mere pittance , not even enough to keep up with the cost of living . Diefenbaker noted that the increase only amounted to twenty cents a day , using that figure to ridicule Liberal contentions that an increase would add to the rate of inflation . All three opposition parties promised to increase the pension , with the Social Crediters and CCF even stating the specific amounts it would be raised by .

The Liberals were content to rest on their record in foreign affairs , and doubted that the Tories could better them . In a radio address on May 30 , Minister of Transport George Marler commented , " You will wonder as I do who in the Conservative Party would take the place of the Honourable Lester Pearson , whose knowledge and experience of world affairs has been put to such good use in recent years . " Diefenbaker , however , refused to concede the point and in a televised address stated that Canadians were " asking Pearson to explain his bumbling of External Affairs " . Though they were reluctant to discuss the Norman affair , the Tories suggested that the government had irresponsibly allowed gossip to be transmitted to United States congressional committees . They also attacked the government over Pearson 's role in the Suez settlement , suggesting that Canada had let Britain down .

Some members of the Tories ' campaign committee had urged Diefenbaker not to build his campaign around the Pipeline Debate , contending that the episode was now a year in the past and forgotten by the voters , who did not particularly care what went on in Parliament anyway . Diefenbaker replied , " That 's the issue , and I 'm making it . " Diefenbaker referred to the conduct of the government in the Pipeline Debate more frequently than he did any other issue during the campaign . St. Laurent initially dealt with the question flippantly , suggesting in his opening campaign address that the debate had been " nearly as long as the pipeline itself and quite as full of another kind of natural gas " . As the issue gained resonance with the voters , the Liberals devoted more time to it , and St. Laurent devoted a major part of his final English television address to the question . The Liberals defended their conduct , and contended that a minority should not be allowed to impose its will on an elected majority . St. Laurent suggested that the Tories had performed badly as an opposition in the debate , and suggested that the public give them more practice at being an opposition .

Finally , the Tories contended that the Liberals had been in power too long , and that it was time for a change . The PC party stated that the Liberals were arrogant , inflexible , and not capable of looking at problems from a new point of view . Liberals responded that with the country prosperous , there was no point to a change .

= = Campaign = =

= = = Progressive Conservative = = =

In 1953 , almost half of the Tories ' campaign funds were spent in Quebec , a province in which the party won only four of seventy @-@ five seats . After the 1953 election , Tory MP Gordon Churchill studied the Canadian federal elections since Confederation . He concluded that the Progressive Conservatives were ill @-@ advised to continue pouring money into Quebec in an effort to win seats in the province ; the Tories could win at least a minority government by maximizing their opportunities in English @-@ speaking Canada , and if the party could also manage to win twenty seats in Quebec , it could attain a majority . Churchill 's conclusions were ignored by most leading Tories — except Diefenbaker .

Diefenbaker 's successful leadership race had been run by Allister Grosart , an executive for McKim Advertising Ltd . Soon after taking the leadership , Diefenbaker got Grosart to help out at Tory headquarters , and soon appointed him national director of the party and national campaign manager . Grosart appointed a national campaign committee , something which had not been done previously by the Tories , but which , according to Grosart , provided the organizational key to success in 1957 . The party was ill @-@ financed , having only $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to wage the campaign — half what it had in 1953 . Grosart divided most of that money equally by constituency , to the disgruntlement of Quebec Tories , who were used to receiving a disproportionate share of the national party 's financing .

The Tory campaign opened at Massey Hall in Toronto on April 25 , where Diefenbaker addressed a crowd of 2 @,@ 600 , about 200 short of capacity . At the Massey Hall rally , a large banner hung behind Diefenbaker , which did not mention the name of his party , but which instead stated , " It 's Time for a Diefenbaker Government . " The slogan , coined by Grosart , sought to blur Canadian memories of the old Tory party of Bennett and Drew and instead focus attention on the party 's new leader . Posters for election rallies contained Diefenbaker 's name in large type ; only the small print contained the name of the party . When St. Laurent complained that the Tories were not campaigning under their own name , Grosart sent copies of the Prime Minister 's remarks in a plain envelope to every Liberal candidate , and was gratified when they began inserting the allegation into their own speeches . According to Professor J. Murray Beck in his history of Canadian general elections , " His political enemies were led to make the very point he was striving to drive home : Diefenbaker was , in effect , leading a new party , not an old one with a repellent image . " Grosart later stated that he structured the entire campaign around the personality of John Diefenbaker , and threw away the Tory party and its policies .

Diefenbaker began his campaign with a week of local campaigning in his riding , after which he went to Toronto for the Massey Hall speech . After two days in Ontario , he spoke at a rally in Quebec City , before spending the remainder of the first week in the Maritimes . The next week saw Diefenbaker spend two days in Quebec , after which he campaigned in Ontario . The next two weeks included a Western tour , with brief returns to Ontario , the most populous province . The final two weeks saw Diefenbaker spend much of the time in Ontario , though with brief journeys east to the Maritimes and Quebec and twice west to Saskatchewan . He returned to his riding for the final weekend before the Monday election . He spent 39 days on the campaign trail , eleven more than the Prime Minister .

According to Professor John Meisel , who wrote a book about the 1957 campaign , Diefenbaker 's speaking style was " reminiscent of the fiery orators so popular in the nineteenth century . Indeed , Mr. Diefenbaker 's oratory has been likened to that of the revivalist preacher . " As a new face on the national scene given to outspoken attacks on the government , he began to attract unexpectedly large crowds early in the campaign . When reduced to the written word , however , Diefenbaker 's rhetoric sometimes proved to be without much meaning . According to journalist and author Peter C. Newman , " On the printed page , it makes little sense . But from the platform , its effect was far different . " Both Newman and Meisel cite as an example of this the conclusion to the leader 's Massey Hall speech :

If we are dedicated to this — and to this we are — you , my fellow Canadians , will require all the wisdom , all the power that comes from those spiritual springs that make freedom possible — all the wisdom , all the faith and all the vision which the Conservative Party gave but yesterday under Macdonald , change to meet changing conditions , today having the responsibility of this party to lay the foundations of this nation for a great and glorious future .

Diefenbaker 's speeches contained words which evoked powerful emotions in his listeners . His theme was that Canada was on the edge of greatness — if it could only get rid of its incompetent and arrogant government . He stressed that the only alternative to the Liberals was a " Diefenbaker government " . According to Newman , Diefenbaker successfully drew on the discontent both of those who had prospered in the 1950s , and sought some deeper personal and national purpose , as well as those who had been left out of the prosperity . However , Diefenbaker spoke French badly and the excitement generated by his campaign had little effect in francophone Quebec , where apathy prevailed and Le Devoir spoke of " une campaigne électorale au chloroforme " .

The Tories had performed badly in British Columbia in 1953 , finishing a weak fourth . However , the province responded to Diefenbaker , and 3 @,@ 800 turned out for his Victoria speech on May 21 , his largest crowd yet . This was bettered two days later in Vancouver with a crowd of 6 @,@ 000 , with even the street outside the Georgia Street Auditorium packed with Tory partisans . Diefenbaker responded to this by delivering what Dick Spencer ( who wrote a book on Diefenbaker 's campaigns ) considered his greatest speech of the 1957 race , and which Newman considered the turning point of Diefenbaker 's campaign . Diefenbaker stated , " I give this assurance to Canadians — that the government shall be the servant and not the master of the people ... The road of the Liberal party , unless it is stopped — and Howe has said , " Who 's going to stop us ? " — will lead to the virtual extinction of parliamentary government . You will have the form , but the substance will be gone . "

The Liberal @-@ leaning Winnipeg Free Press , writing shortly after Diefenbaker 's speeches in British Columbia , commented on them :

Facts were overwhelmed with sound , passion substituted for arithmetic , moral indignation pumped up to the bursting point . But Mr. Diefenbaker provided the liveliest show of the election ... and many listeners undoubtedly failed to notice that he was saying even less than the Prime Minister , though saying it more shrilly and with evangelistic fervour ... Mr. Diefenbaker has chosen instead to cast himself as the humble man in a mood of protest , the common Canadian outraged by Liberal prosperity , the little guy fighting for his rights .

So far as the crowds mean anything , that posture is a brilliant success at one @-@ night stands .

On June 6 , the two major party campaigns crossed paths in Woodstock , Ontario . Speaking in the afternoon , St. Laurent drew a crowd of 200 . To the shock of St. Laurent staffers , who remained for the Diefenbaker appearance , the PC leader drew an overflow crowd of over a thousand that evening , even though he was an hour late , with announcements made to the excited crowd that he was slowed by voters who wanted only to see him or shake his hand .

Diefenbaker 's intensive campaign exhausted the handful of national reporters who followed him . Clark Davey of The Globe and Mail stated , " We did not know how he did it . " Reporters thought the Progressive Conservatives might , at best , gain 30 or 35 seats over the 53 they had at dissolution , and when Diefenbaker , off the record , told the reporters that the Tories would win 97 seats ( which would still allow the Liberals to form the government ) , they concluded he was guilty of wishful thinking . Diefenbaker was even more confident in public ; after he concluded his national tour and returned to his constituency , he addressed his final rally in Nipawin , Saskatchewan : " On Monday , I 'll be Prime Minister . "

= = = Liberal = = =

St. Laurent was utterly confident of an election victory , so much so that he did not even bother to fill the sixteen vacancies in the Senate . He had been confident of re @-@ election when Drew led the Tories , and , according to Liberal minister Lionel Chevrier , Diefenbaker 's victory in the party leadership race increased his confidence by a factor of ten . At his press conference detailing his election tour , St. Laurent stated , " I have no doubt about the election outcome . " He indicated that his campaign would open April 29 in Winnipeg , and that the Prime Minister would spend ten days in Western Canada before moving east . However , he indicated he would first go home to Quebec City for several days around Easter ( April 21 in 1957 ) . This break kept him out of the limelight for ten days at a time when Diefenbaker was already actively campaigning and making daily headlines . At a campaign stop in Jarvis , Ontario , St. Laurent told an aide that he was afraid the right @-@ wing , anti @-@ Catholic Social Credit Party would be the next Opposition . St. Laurent denied Opposition claims that he would resign after an election victory , and the 75 @-@ year @-@ old indicated that he planned to run again in 1961 , if he was still around .

The Liberals made no new , radical proposals during their campaign , but instead ran a quiet campaign with occasional attacks on the opposition parties . They were convinced that the public still supported their party , and that no expensive promises need be made to voters . St. Laurent was made the image of the nation 's prosperity , and the Liberals refused to admit any reason for discontent existed . When Minister of Finance Harris proposed raising the upcoming increase in old age pension by an additional four dollars a month , St. Laurent refused to consider it , feeling that the increase had been calculated on the basis of the available facts , and those facts had not changed .

During the Prime Minister 's Western swing , St. Laurent made formal speeches only in major cities . In contrast to Diefenbaker 's whistle @-@ stop train touring , with a hasty speech in each town as the train passed through , the Liberals allowed ample time for " Uncle Louis " to shake hands with voters , pat their children on the head , and kiss their babies . In British Columbia , St. Laurent took the position that there were hardly any national issues worth discussing — the Liberals had brought Canada prosperity and all that was needed for more of the same was to return the party to office . After touring Western Canada , St. Laurent spent the remainder of the second week of the campaign returning to , and in , Ottawa . The third week opened with a major speech in Quebec City , followed by intensive campaigning in Ontario . The fifth week was devoted to the Maritime provinces and Eastern Quebec . The sixth week opened with a major rally in Ottawa , before St. Laurent returned to the Maritimes and Quebec , and the final week was spent in Ontario before St. Laurent returned to his hometown of Quebec City for the election .

St. Laurent tried to project an image as a family man , and to that end often addressed schoolchildren . As he had in previous elections , he spoke to small groups of children regarding Canadian history or civics . The strategy backfired while addressing children in Port Hope , Ontario . With the children inattentive , some playing tag or sticking cameras in his face , St. Laurent angrily told them that it was their loss if they did not pay attention , as the country would be theirs to worry about far longer than it would be his .

St. Laurent and the Liberals suffered other problems during the campaign . According to Newman , St. Laurent sometimes seemed unaware of what was happening around him , and at one campaign stop , shook hands with the reporters who were following him , under the apparent impression they were local voters . On the evening of Diefenbaker 's Vancouver speech , St. Laurent drew 400 voters to a rally in Sherbrooke , Quebec , where he had once lived . C.D. Howe , under heavy pressure from the campaign of CCF candidate Doug Fisher in his Ontario riding , intimated that Fisher had communist links . At a rally in Manitoba , Howe offended a voter who told him the farmers were starving to death , poking the voter in the stomach and saying " Looks like you 've been eating pretty well under a Liberal government . " At another rally , Howe dismissed a persistent Liberal questioner , saying " Look here , my good man , when the election comes , why don 't you just go away and vote for the party you support ? In fact , why don 't you just go away ? "

The Liberals concluded their campaign with a large rally at Toronto 's Maple Leaf Gardens on June 7 . Entertainment at the event was provided by the Leslie Bell singers , and according to Grosart , many in the audience were Tory supporters who had turned out to hear them . St. Laurent 's speech at the rally was interrupted when William Hatton , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy from Malton , Ontario , climbed onto the platform . Hatton carried a banner reading , " This Can 't Be Canada " with a Liberal placard bearing St. Laurent 's photograph , and moved to face the Prime Minister . Meisel describes Hatton as an " otherwise politically apathetic boy who ... slowly and deliberately tore up a photograph of the Prime Minister as the latter was speaking " and states that Hatton engaged in " intensely provocative behavior " . Liberal partisans interceded , and in the ensuing fracas , Hatton fell from the platform , audibly hitting his head on the concrete floor . St. Laurent watched in apparent shock , according to his biographer Dale Tompson , as officials aided the boy and took him from the hall . According to Tompson , the crowd " turned its indignation on the men on the platform " and spent the remainder of the evening wondering about the boy 's possible injuries rather than listening to the Prime Minister 's speech . Hatton was not seriously injured , but , according to Newman , " the accident added to the image of the Liberal Party as an unrepentant arrogant group of old men , willing to ride roughshod over voters " . Grosart later described the incident as " the turning point " of the campaign . Professor Meisel speculated that the Hatton incident might have been part of an organized campaign to annoy St. Laurent out of his pleasant " Uncle Louis " persona , and Grosart later related that Liberal frontbencher Jack Pickersgill always accused him of being behind the boy 's actions , but that the incident was " a sheer accident " . Hatton 's mother described his actions as " [ j ] ust a schoolboy prank , " and a reaction to reading an article about how the art of heckling was dying . According to public relations executive J.G. Johnston in a letter to Diefenbaker on June 10 , Hatton had come to the rally with several other boys , including Johnston 's son , but had gone off on his own while the other boys paraded with Diefenbaker posters which had been smuggled inside . According to Johnston , Hatton was caught on CBC tape saying to St. Laurent , " I can no longer stand your hypocrisy , Sir " before tearing the St. Laurent poster . Attempts by Johnston to have the Liberal activist who pushed Hatton off the platform arrested failed , according to Johnston , on the ground that the police could find no witnesses .

= = = CCF = = =

The CCF was a socialist party , which had much of its strength in Saskatchewan , though it ran candidates in several other provinces . At Parliament 's dissolution in April 1957 , it had 23 MPs , from five different provinces . Aside from the Liberals and the Tories , it was the only party to nominate a candidate in a majority of the ridings . In 1957 , the party was led by Saskatchewan MP M.J. Coldwell .

In 1956 , the party adopted the Winnipeg Declaration , a far more moderate proposal than its previous governing document , the 1933 Regina Manifesto . For example , the Regina Manifesto pledged the CCF to the eradication of capitalism ; the Winnipeg Declaration recognized the utility of private ownership of business , and stated that the government should own business only when it was in the public interest . In its election campaign , the CCF did not promise to nationalize any industries . It promised changes in the tax code in order to increase the redistribution of wealth in Canada . It pledged to increase exemptions from income tax , to allow medical expenses to be considered deductions from income for tax purposes , and to eliminate sales tax on food , clothing , and other necessities of life . It also promised to raise taxes on the higher income brackets and to eliminate the favourable tax treatment of corporate dividends .

The CCF represented many agricultural areas in the Commons , and it proposed several measures to assure financial security for farmers . It proposed national growers ' cooperatives for agricultural products which were exported . It proposed cash advances for farm @-@ stored wheat , short and long term loans for farmers at low interest rates , and government support of prices , to assure the farmer a full income even in bad years . For the Atlantic fisherman , the CCF proposed cash advances at the start of the fishing season and government @-@ owned depots which would sell fishing equipment and supplies to fishermen at much lower than market prices .

Coldwell suffered from a heart condition , and undertook a much less ambitious schedule than the major party leaders . The party leader left Ottawa for his riding , Rosetown — Biggar in Saskatchewan , on April 26 , and remained there until May 10 . He spent three days campaigning in Ontario , then moved west to the major cities of the prairie provinces and British Columbia , before returning to his riding for the final days before the June 10 election . Other CCF leaders took charge of campaigning in Quebec and the Maritimes .

= = = Social Credit = = =

By 1957 , the Social Credit Party of Canada had moved far afield from the theories of social credit economics , which its candidates rarely mentioned . Canada 's far @-@ right party , the Socreds were led by Solon Low , though its Alberta leader , Premier Ernest Manning , was highly influential in the party . The Socreds ' election programme was based on the demand " that Government get out of business and make way for private enterprise " and on their hatred of " all government @-@ inspired schemes to degrade man and make him subservient to the state or any monopoly " .

The Socreds proposed an increase in the old age pension to $ 100 per month . They called for the reversal of the government 's tight money policies , and for low income loans for small business and farmers . It asked for income tax exemptions to be increased to meet the cost of living , and a national housing programme to make home ownership possible for every Canadian family . The party called for a national security policy based on the need for defence , rather than " aggression " , and for a foreign policy which would include food aid to the less @-@ developed nations .

The Socreds also objected to the CBC and other spending in the arts and broadcasting . The party felt that the government should solve economic problems before spending money on the arts .

Low challenged the Prime Minister over the Suez issue , accusing him of sending a threatening telegram that caused British Prime Minister Anthony Eden to back off the invasion and so gave the Soviets the opportunity for a military buildup in Egypt . St. Laurent angrily denied the charge and offered to open his correspondence to any of the fifty privy councillors who could then announce whether St. Laurent was telling the truth . Low took St. Laurent up on his challenge , and selected the only living former Prime Minister , Tory Arthur Meighen , but the matter was not resolved before the election , and Meighen was not called upon to examine the correspondence in the election 's aftermath .

The Social Credit Party was weakened by considerable conflict between its organizations in the two provinces it controlled , Alberta and British Columbia . It failed to establish a strong national office to run the campaign due to infighting between the two groups . However , it was better financed than the CCF , due to its popularity among business groups in the West .

The Socreds hoped to establish themselves in Ontario , and scheduled their opening rally for Massey Hall in Toronto . The rally was a failure , and even though it ran 40 candidates in Ontario ( up from 9 in 1953 ) , the party won no seats in the province .

= = = Use of television = = =

In 1957 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation gave the four recognized parties free air time for political statements . The television broadcasts 's audio tracks served also for use on radio . The three opposition parties gave their party leader all of the broadcast time , though Diefenbaker , who did not speak French well , played only a limited role in the Tories ' French @-@ language broadcasts . In one , he introduced party president Léon Balcer , a Quebecer , who gave the speech . Diefenbaker had no objection to makeup and , according to Meisel , was prepared to adopt any technique which would make his presentation more effective . A survey in populous southwestern Ontario showed that Diefenbaker made the strongest impression of the four leaders .

According to Liberal minister Paul Martin Sr. ( the father of the future Prime Minister ) , St. Laurent had the potential to be quite good on television , but disliked the medium . He was prejudiced against television appearances , considering such speeches the equivalent of carefully planned performances , such as stage shows . He refused to be made up for the telecasts , and insisted on reading his speech from a script . His advisers switched him to a teleprompter , but this failed to make his performances more relaxed . When reading , he would rarely look at the camera . However , St. Laurent made only occasional television appearances ( three in each language ) , letting his ministers make the remainder . Only one cabinet member , Minister of National Defence Ralph Campney took advantage of the course in television techniques offered by the Liberal Party in a dummy studio in its Ottawa headquarters . This lack of preparation , according to Meisel , led to " a fiasco " during a television address by Minister of Justice Stuart Garson in early June when the teleprompter stopped working during the speech and Garson " was unable to cope effectively with the failure " .

= = Election = =

Most predictions had the Tories picking up seats , but the Liberals maintaining a majority . The New York Times reported that Liberals expected to lose a majority of Ontario 's seats , but retain a narrow majority in the House of Commons . Time magazine predicted a Tory gain of 20 to 40 seats and stated that any result which denied the Liberals 133 seats and a majority " would rank as a major upset " . Beck indicates that many journalists , including those sympathetic to the Tories , saw signs of the coming upset , but disregarded them , convinced that the government was invulnerable . Maclean 's , which printed its postelection issue before the election to go on sale the morning after , ran an editorial noting that Canadians had freely chosen to reelect the Liberal Party .

On Election Night , the first returns came in from Sable Island , Nova Scotia . Usually a Liberal stronghold , the handful of residents there favoured the Tories by two votes . St. Laurent listened to the election returns on a radio in the living room of his home on Grande Allée in Quebec City , and when the radio broke , moved to an upstairs television set . Diefenbaker began the evening at his house in Prince Albert , and once his re @-@ election to the Commons was certain , moved to his local campaign headquarters .

The Conservatives did well in Atlantic Canada , gaining two seats in Newfoundland and nine in Nova Scotia , and sweeping Prince Edward Island 's four seats . However , in Quebec , they gained only five seats as the province returned 62 Liberals . The Tories gained 29 seats in Ontario . Howe was defeated by Fisher , and told the media that some strange disease was sweeping the country , but as for him , he was going to bed . The Liberals still led by a narrow margin as the returns began to come in from Manitoba , and St. Laurent told Liberal minister Pickersgill that he hoped that the Tories would get at least one more seat than the Liberals so they could get out of an appalling situation . As the Tories forged ahead in Western Canada , Diefenbaker flew from Prince Albert to Regina to deliver a television address and shouted to Grosart as yet another cabinet minister was defeated , " Allister , how does the architect feel ? " Late that evening , St. Laurent went to the Château Frontenac hotel for a televised speech , delivered before fifty supporters .

The Tories finished with 112 seats to the Liberals ' 105 , while both the CCF and Social Credit gained seats in Western Canada and finished with 25 and 19 seats respectively . Nine cabinet ministers , including Howe , Marler , Garson , Campney and Harris were defeated . Though the Liberals outpolled the Tories by over 100 @,@ 000 votes , most of those votes were wasted running up huge margins in Quebec . St. Laurent could have constitutionally hung onto power until defeated in the House , but he chose not to , and John Diefenbaker took office as Prime Minister of Canada on June 21 , 1957 .

= = = Irregularities = = =

After the election , the Chief Electoral Officer reported to the Speaker of the House of Commons that " the general election appears to have been satisfactorily conducted in accordance with the procedure in the Canada Elections Act " .

There were , however , a number of irregularities . In the Toronto riding of St. Paul 's , four Liberal workers were convicted of various offences for adding almost five hundred names to the electoral register . One of the four was also convicted for two counts of perjury . While the unsuccessful Liberal candidate , former MP James Rooney , was not charged , Ontario Chief Justice James Chalmers McRuer , who investigated the matter , doubted that this could have been done without the candidate 's knowledge .

Various violations of law , including illicitly opening ballot boxes , illegal possession of ballots , and adding names to the electoral register , took place in twelve Quebec ridings . The RCMP felt it had enough evidence to prosecute in five ridings , and a total of twelve people were convicted . The offences did not affect the outcome of any races .

The election of the Liberal candidate in Yukon was contested by the losing Tory candidate . After a trial before the Yukon Territorial Court , that court voided the election , holding that enough ineligible people had been permitted to vote to affect the outcome , though the court noted that it was not the fault of the Liberal candidate that these irregularities had occurred . The Tory , Erik Nielsen , won the new election in December 1957 .

The election in one Ontario riding , Wellington South was postponed pursuant to statute after the death of the Liberal candidate and MP , Henry Alfred Hosking during the campaign . The Tory candidate , Alfred Hales , defeated Liberal David Tolton and CCF candidate Thomas Withers on July 15 , 1957 .

= = Impact = =

The unexpected defeat of the Liberals was ascribed to various causes . The Ottawa Citizen stated that the defeat could be attributed to " the uneasy talk ... that the Liberals have been in too long . " Tom Kent of the Winnipeg Free Press , a future Liberal deputy minister , wrote that though the Liberal record had been the best in the democratic world , the party had failed miserably to explain it . Author and political scientist H.S. Ferns disagreed with Kent , stating that Kent 's view reflected the Liberal " assumption that ' Nobody 's going to shoot Santa Claus ' " and that Canadians in the 1957 election were motivated by things other than material interests . Peter Regenstreif cited the Progressive Conservative strategy in the 1957 and 1958 elections " as classics of ingenuity unequalled in Canadian political history . Much of the credit belongs to Diefenbaker himself ; at least some must go to Allister Grosart " . A survey taken of those who abandoned the Liberals in 1957 showed that 5 @.@ 1 % did so because of Suez , 38 @.@ 2 % because of the Pipeline Debate , 26 @.@ 7 % because of what they considered an inadequate increase in the old age pension , and 30 % because it was time for a change .

The results of the election surprised the civil service as much as it did the rest of the public . Civil servant and future Liberal minister Mitchell Sharp asked C.D. Howe 's replacement as Minister of Trade and Commerce , Gordon Churchill , not to come to the Ministry 's offices for several days as they were redecorating . Churchill later learned that the staff were moving files out . When Churchill finally came to the Ministry 's offices , he was met with what he termed " the coldest reception that I have ever received in my life " . The new Minister of Labour , Michael Starr , was ticketed three days in a row for parking in the minister 's spot .

St. Laurent resigned as leader of the Liberal Party on September 5 , 1957 , but agreed to stay on until a successor was elected . With a lame @-@ duck leader , the Liberals were ineffective in opposition . Paul Martin stated that " I 'm sure I never thought the day would come when [ Diefenbaker ] would ever be a member of a government , let alone head of it . When that happened , the world had come to an end as far as I was concerned . " In January 1958 , St. Laurent was succeeded by Lester Pearson .

Even in reporting the election result , newspapers suggested that Diefenbaker would soon call another election and seek a majority . Quebec Tory MP William Hamilton ( who would soon become Postmaster General under Diefenbaker ) predicted on the evening of June 10 that there would soon be another election , in which the Tories would do much better in Quebec . The Tory government initially proved popular among the Canadian people , and Diefenbaker called a snap election . On March 31 , 1958 , the Tories won the greatest landslide in Canadian federal electoral history in terms of the percentage of seats , taking 208 seats ( including fifty in Quebec ) to the Liberals ' 48 , with the CCF winning eight and none for Social Credit .

Michael Bliss , who wrote a survey of the Canadian Prime Ministers , alluded to Howe 's dismissive comments regarding the Tories as he summed up the 1957 election :

The pipeline debate of 1956 sparked a dramatic opposition stand on the importance of free parliamentary debate . Their arrogance did the Grits [ Liberals ] enormous damage , contributing heavily to the government 's problems in the 1957 general election . Under the glare of television cameras in that campaign , St. Laurent , Howe , and company now appeared to be a lot of wooden , tired old men who had lost touch with Canada . The voters decided to stop them .

= = National results = =

Turnout : 74 @.@ 1 % of eligible voters voted .

The Other 4 seats were ( 2 ) Independent , ( 1 ) Independent Liberal , ( 1 ) Independent PC . One Liberal @-@ Labour candidate was elected and sat with the Liberal caucus , as happened after the 1953 election .

= = Vote and seat summaries = =

= = Results by province = =

= The X @-@ Files : The Album =

The X @-@ Files : The Album is a 1998 soundtrack album released to accompany the film The X @-@ Files . Released on June 2 , 1998 , the album features songs by various artists , including several who had contributed to the earlier album Songs in the Key of X : Music from and Inspired by the X @-@ Files , and consists mostly of cover versions or reworkings of earlier material .

The X @-@ Files : The Album received mostly positive criticism upon its release , and charted in several countries worldwide , recording a peak position of number 5 in New Zealand .

= = Production = =

Although The X @-@ Files : The Album is the soundtrack to the 1998 film The X @-@ Files , only one of the album 's songs — " Crystal Ship " by X — is actually heard during the film , briefly playing on a jukebox during a brief scene . The album 's producer , David Was , intended to match the film 's tone rather than using the songs as content , leading to several of the artists involved contributing material which would seem " uncharacteristically eerie " compared to their usual work .

Many of the songs on The X @-@ Files : The Album are cover versions or reworkings of earlier material — singer Sting collaborated with the group Aswad to perform a reggae cover of " Invisible Sun " , which he had earlier recorded with The Police ; Filter 's " One " is a rearrangement of a song made famous by Three Dog Night ; while Foo Fighters contributed a new version of their song " Walking After You " . All but one of the album 's tracks are exclusive to the soundtrack , with Björk 's " Hunter " having been previously released on the 1997 album Homogenic . Several of the artists on the album 's roster — Foo Fighters , Filter and Soul Coughing — had previously contributed material to Songs in the Key of X : Music from and Inspired by the X @-@ Files , the soundtrack album which accompanied the television series ; however , Chris Carter , creator of The X @-@ Files , stated before the album 's release that although " there are some similarities " between the records , " there are different artists and a different flavor " .

The inclusion of a track by the group Ween was spurred by fact that The X @-@ Files star David Duchovny had first met then @-@ wife Téa Leoni through their mutual appreciation for the group ; while The Cranberries were approached about contributing material after Carter saw them performing on a tour of the United States . The Filter cover of " One " was deliberately constructed by Was once he realized that Duchovny had ad @-@ libbed the song 's opening line during one of the film 's scenes . The album 's final track — a cover by Dust Brothers of Mark Snow 's opening theme for the television series — features a hidden track which plays after a period of silence . The track features a spoken word segment by Carter which explains the series ' overarching mythology up to the film 's release .

The European and Japanese releases include an extra track , " Tubular X " by Mike Oldfield . This is a variation of Mark Snow 's " The X @-@ Files Theme " incorporating elements of Oldfield 's Tubular Bells .

= = Track listing = =

= = Release = =

The X @-@ Files : The Album was first released on June 2 , 1998 , with international releases occurring between July and October that same year . The soundtrack appeared in several charts upon its release , reaching a peak position of 26 in the United States ' Billboard 200 albums chart , 21 in Austria 's Ö3 Austria Top 40 , 27 in Australia 's ARIA Charts , and 5 — its highest chart position — in the Official New Zealand Music Chart .

= = Reception = =

The X @-@ Files : The Album has received generally positive reviews . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine awarded the soundtrack four stars out of five , calling it " the best alt @-@ rock soundtrack of the summer of 1998 " . Erlewine felt that the album was more polished and well @-@ produced than Songs in the Key of X ; however , he noted that this came at the expense of the earlier record 's " quirky " and " off @-@ kilter " aesthetic . Erlewine singled out " Beacon Light " and " Hunter " as particular highlights of the album . Jim Rogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times rated the album one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , finding the album to be predictable and " phone [ d ] in " ; he highlighted the songs by Filter , Foo Fighters , Björk and Ween to be particular low points for him .

Writing for Entertainment Weekly , David Brown rated the album a B − , finding that it " isn ’ t eccentric enough " compared to the film or series . Browne found that the contributions by Noel Gallagher and Ween matched the tone of The X @-@ Files , but felt that Tonic , Filter , Sting and Aswad had been included out of commercial rather than artistic interest . Keith Phipps of the The A.V. Club considered the soundtrack to be less interesting than the accompanying film score , finding the album 's roster to be formulaic and several of its tracks to not be particularly " revelatory " or " radical " .

= Planets beyond Neptune =

Following the discovery of the planet Neptune in 1846 , there was considerable speculation that another planet might exist beyond its orbit . The search began in the mid @-@ 19th century and culminated at the start of the 20th with Percival Lowell 's quest for Planet X. Lowell proposed the Planet X hypothesis to explain apparent discrepancies in the orbits of the giant planets , particularly Uranus and Neptune , speculating that the gravity of a large unseen ninth planet could have perturbed Uranus enough to account for the irregularities .

Clyde Tombaugh 's discovery of Pluto in 1930 appeared to validate Lowell 's hypothesis , and Pluto was officially named the ninth planet . In 1978 , Pluto was conclusively determined to be too small for its gravity to affect the giant planets , resulting in a brief search for a tenth planet . The search was largely abandoned in the early 1990s , when a study of measurements made by the Voyager 2 spacecraft found that the irregularities observed in Uranus 's orbit were due to a slight overestimation of Neptune 's mass . After 1992 , the discovery of numerous small icy objects with similar or even wider orbits than Pluto led to a debate over whether Pluto should remain a planet , or whether it and its neighbours should , like the asteroids , be given their own separate classification . Although a number of the larger members of this group were initially described as planets , in 2006 the International Astronomical Union reclassified Pluto and its largest neighbours as dwarf planets , leaving Neptune the farthest known planet in the Solar System .

While today the astronomical community widely agrees that Planet X , as originally envisioned , does not exist , the concept of an as @-@ yet @-@ unobserved planet has been revived by a number of astronomers to explain other anomalies observed in the outer Solar System . As of March 2014 , observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn @-@ sized object ( 95 Earth mass ) out to 10 @,@ 000 AU , and a Jupiter @-@ sized or larger object out to 26 @,@ 000 AU .

In 2014 , based on similarities of the orbits of a group of recently discovered extreme trans @-@ Neptunian objects , astronomers hypothesized the existence of a super @-@ Earth planet , 2 to 15 times the mass of the Earth and beyond 200 AU with possibly a high inclined orbit at some 1500 AU . In 2016 further work showed this unknown distant planet is likely on an inclined , eccentric orbit that goes no closer than about 200 AU and no further than about 1600 AU from the Sun . The orbit is predicted to be anti @-@ aligned to the clustered extreme trans @-@ Neptunian objects . Because Pluto is no longer considered a planet by the International Astronomical Union , this new hypothetical object has become known as Planet Nine .

= = Early speculation = =

In the 1840s , the French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to analyse perturbations in the orbit of Uranus , and hypothesised that they were caused by the gravitational pull of a yet @-@ undiscovered planet . Le Verrier predicted the position of this new planet and sent his calculations to German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle . On 23 September 1846 , the night following his receipt of the letter , Galle and his student Heinrich d 'Arrest discovered Neptune , exactly where Le Verrier had predicted . There remained some slight discrepancies in the giant planets ' orbits . These were taken to indicate the existence of yet another planet orbiting beyond Neptune .

Even before Neptune 's discovery , some speculated that one planet alone was not enough to explain the discrepancy . On 17 November 1834 , the British amateur astronomer the Reverend Thomas John Hussey reported a conversation he had had with French astronomer Alexis Bouvard to George Biddell Airy , the British Astronomer Royal . Hussey reported that when he suggested to Bouvard that the unusual motion of Uranus might be due to the gravitational influence of an undiscovered planet , Bouvard replied that the idea had occurred to him , and that he had corresponded with Peter Andreas Hansen , director of the Seeberg Observatory in Gotha , about the subject . Hansen 's opinion was that a single body could not adequately explain the motion of Uranus , and postulated that two planets lay beyond Uranus .

In 1848 , Jacques Babinet raised an objection to Le Verrier 's calculations , claiming that Neptune 's observed mass was smaller and its orbit larger than Le Verrier had initially predicted . He postulated , based largely on simple subtraction from Le Verrier 's calculations , that another planet of roughly 12 Earth masses , which he named " Hyperion " , must exist beyond Neptune . Le Verrier denounced Babinet 's hypothesis , saying , " [ There is ] absolutely nothing by which one could determine the position of another planet , barring hypotheses in which imagination played too large a part . "

In 1850 James Ferguson , Assistant Astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory , noted that he had " lost " a star he had observed , GR1719k , which Lt. Matthew Maury , the superintendent of the Observatory , claimed was evidence that it must be a new planet . Subsequent searches failed to recover the " planet " in a different position , and in 1878 , CHF Peters , director of the Hamilton College Observatory in New York , showed that the star had not in fact vanished , and that the previous results had been due to human error .

In 1879 , Camille Flammarion noted that the comets 1862 III and 1889 III had aphelia of 47 and 49 AU , respectively , suggesting that they might mark the orbital radius of an unknown planet that had dragged them into an elliptical orbit . Astronomer Georges Forbes concluded on the basis of this evidence that two planets must exist beyond Neptune . He calculated , based on the fact that four comets possessed aphelia at around 100 AU and a further six with aphelia clustered at around 300 AU , the orbital elements of a pair of hypothetical trans @-@ Neptunian planets . These elements concorded suggestively with those made independently by another astronomer named David Peck Todd , suggesting to many that they might be valid . However , sceptics argued that the orbits of the comets involved were still too uncertain to produce meaningful results .

In 1900 and 1901 , Harvard College Observatory director William Henry Pickering led two searches for trans @-@ Neptunian planets . The first was begun by Danish astronomer Hans Emil Lau who , after studying the data on the orbit of Uranus from 1690 to 1895 , concluded that one trans @-@ Neptunian planet alone could not account for the discrepancies in its orbit , and postulated the position of two planets he believed were responsible . The second was launched when Gabriel Dallet suggested that a single trans @-@ Neptunian planet lying at 47 AU could account for the motion of Uranus . Pickering agreed to examine plates for any suspected planets . In neither case were any found .

In 1909 , Thomas Jefferson Jackson See , an astronomer with a reputation as an egocentric contrarian , opined " that there is certainly one , most likely two and possibly three planets beyond Neptune " . Tentatively naming the first planet " Oceanus " , he placed their respective distances at 42 , 56 and 72 AU from the Sun . He gave no indication as to how he determined their existence , and no known searches were mounted to locate them .

In 1911 , Indian astronomer Venkatesh P. Ketakar suggested the existence of two trans @-@ Neptunian planets , which he named Brahma and Vishnu , by reworking the patterns observed by Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace in the planetary satellites of Jupiter and applying them to the outer planets . The three inner Galilean moons of Jupiter , Io , Europa and Ganymede , are locked in a complicated 1 : 2 : 4 resonance called a Laplace resonance . Ketakar suggested that Uranus , Neptune and his hypothetical trans @-@ Neptunian planets were locked in Laplace @-@ like resonances . His calculations predicted a mean distance for Brahma of 38 @.@ 95 AU and an orbital period of 242 @.@ 28 Earth years ( 3 : 4 resonance with Neptune ) . When Pluto was discovered 19 years later , its mean distance of 39 @.@ 48 AU and orbital period of 248 Earth years were close to Ketakar 's prediction ( Pluto in fact has a 2 : 3 resonance with Neptune ) . Ketakar made no predictions for the orbital elements other than mean distance and period . It is not clear how Ketakar arrived at these figures , and his second planet , Vishnu , was never located .

= = Planet X = =

In 1894 , with the help of William Pickering , Percival Lowell , a wealthy Bostonian , founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff , Arizona . In 1906 , convinced he could resolve the conundrum of Uranus 's orbit , he began an extensive project to search for a trans @-@ Neptunian planet , which he named Planet X. The X in the name represents an unknown and is pronounced as the letter , as opposed to the Roman numeral for 10 ( at the time , Planet X would have been the ninth planet ) . Lowell 's hope in tracking down Planet X was to establish his scientific credibility , which had eluded him thanks to his widely derided belief that channel @-@ like features visible on the surface of Mars were canals constructed by an intelligent civilization .

Lowell 's first search focused on the ecliptic , the plane encompassed by the zodiac where the other planets in the Solar System lie . Using a 5 @-@ inch photographic camera , he manually examined over 200 three @-@ hour exposures with a magnifying glass , and found no planets . At that time Pluto was too far above the ecliptic to be imaged by the survey . After revising his predicted possible locations , Lowell conducted a second search from 1914 to 1916 . In 1915 , he published his Memoir of a Trans @-@ Neptunian Planet , in which he concluded that Planet X had a mass roughly seven times that of Earth — about half that of Neptune — and a mean distance from the Sun of 43 AU . He assumed Planet X would be a large , low @-@ density object with a high albedo , like the giant planets . As a result , it would show a disc with diameter of about one arcsecond and an apparent magnitude of between 12 and 13 — bright enough to be spotted .

Separately , in 1908 , Pickering announced that , by analysing irregularities in Uranus 's orbit , he had found evidence for a ninth planet . His hypothetical planet , which he termed " Planet O " ( because it came after " N " , i.e. Neptune ) , possessed a mean orbital radius of 51 @.@ 9 AU and an orbital period of 373 @.@ 5 years . Plates taken at his observatory in Arequipa , Peru , showed no evidence for the predicted planet , and British astronomer P. H. Cowell showed that the irregularities observed in Uranus 's orbit virtually disappeared once the planet 's displacement of longitude was taken into account . Lowell himself , despite his close association with Pickering , dismissed Planet O out of hand , saying , " This planet is very properly designated " O " , [ for it ] is nothing at all . " Unbeknownst to Pickering , four of the photographic plates taken in the search for " Planet O " by astronomers at the Mount Wilson Observatory in 1919 captured images of Pluto , though this was only recognised years later . Pickering went on to suggest many other possible trans @-@ Neptunian planets up to the year 1932 , which he named P , Q , R , S , T and U ; none were ever detected .

= = = Discovery of Pluto = = =

Lowell 's sudden death in 1916 temporarily halted the search for Planet X. Failing to find the planet , according to one friend , " virtually killed him " . Lowell 's widow , Constance , engaged in a legal battle with the observatory over Lowell 's legacy which halted the search for Planet X for several years . In 1925 , the observatory obtained glass discs for a new 13 in ( 33 cm ) wide @-@ field telescope to continue the search , constructed with funds from Abbott Lawrence Lowell , Percival 's brother . In 1929 the observatory 's director , Vesto Melvin Slipher , summarily handed the job of locating the planet to Clyde Tombaugh , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Kansas farm boy who had only just arrived at the Lowell Observatory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his astronomical drawings .

Tombaugh 's task was to systematically capture sections of the night sky in pairs of images . Each image in a pair was taken two weeks apart . He then placed both images of each section in a machine called a blink comparator , which by exchanging images quickly created a time lapse illusion of the movement of any planetary body . To reduce the chances that a faster @-@ moving ( and thus closer ) object be mistaken for the new planet , Tombaugh imaged each region near its opposition point , 180 degrees from the Sun , where the apparent retrograde motion for objects beyond Earth 's orbit is at its strongest . He also took a third image as a control to eliminate any false results caused by defects in an individual plate . Tombaugh decided to image the entire zodiac , rather than focus on those regions suggested by Lowell .

By the beginning of 1930 , Tombaugh 's search had reached the constellation of Gemini . On 18 February 1930 , after searching for nearly a year and examining nearly 2 million stars , Tombaugh discovered a moving object on photographic plates taken on 23 January and 29 January of that year . A lesser @-@ quality photograph taken on January 21 confirmed the movement . Upon confirmation , Tombaugh walked into Slipher 's office and declared , " Doctor Slipher , I have found your Planet X. " The object lay just six degrees from one of two locations for Planet X Lowell had suggested ; thus it seemed he had at last been vindicated . After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs , news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13 , 1930 . The new object was later precovered on photographs dating back to 19 March 1915 . The decision to name the object Pluto was intended in part to honour Percival Lowell , as his initials made up the word 's first two letters . After discovering Pluto , Tombaugh continued to search the ecliptic for other distant objects . He found hundreds of variable stars and asteroids , as well as two comets , but no further planets .

= = = Pluto loses Planet X title = = =

To the observatory 's disappointment and surprise , Pluto showed no visible disc ; it appeared as a point , no different from a star , and , at only 15th magnitude , was six times dimmer than Lowell had predicted , which meant it was either very small , or very dark . Because Lowell astronomers thought Pluto was massive enough to perturb planets , they assumed that it should have an albedo of 0 @.@ 07 ( meaning that it reflected only 7 % of the light that hit it ) ; about as dark as asphalt and similar to that of Mercury , the least reflective planet known . This would give Pluto an assumed diameter of about 8 @,@ 000 km , or about 60 % that of Earth . Observations also revealed that Pluto 's orbit was very elliptical , far more than that of any other planet .

Almost immediately , some astronomers questioned Pluto 's status as a planet . Barely a month after its discovery was announced , on 14 April 1930 , in an article in the New York Times , Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto 's dimness and high orbital eccentricity made it more similar to an asteroid or comet : " The Lowell result confirms the possible high eccentricity announced by us on April 5 . Among the possibilities are a large asteroid greatly disturbed in its orbit by close approach to a major planet such as Jupiter , or it may be one of many long @-@ period planetary objects yet to be discovered , or a bright cometary object . " In that same article , Harvard Observatory director Harlow Shapley wrote that Pluto was a " member of the Solar System not comparable with known asteroids and comets , and perhaps of greater importance to cosmogony than would be another major planet beyond Neptune . " In 1931 , using a mathematical formula , Ernest W. Brown asserted ( in agreement with E. C. Bower ) , that the presumed irregularities in the orbit of Uranus could not be due to the gravitational effect of a more distant planet , and thus that Lowell 's supposed prediction was " purely accidental " .

Throughout the mid @-@ 20th century , estimates of Pluto 's mass were revised downward . In 1931 , Nicholson and Mayall calculated its mass , based on its supposed effect on the giant planets , as roughly that of Earth ; a value somewhat in accord with the 0 @.@ 91 Earth mass calculated in 1942 by Lloyd R. Wylie at the US Naval Observatory , using the same assumptions . In 1949 , Gerard Kuiper 's measurements of Pluto 's diameter with the 200 inch telescope at Mount Palomar Observatory led him to the conclusion that it was midway in size between Mercury and Mars and that its mass was most probably about 0 @.@ 1 Earth mass .

In 1973 , Dennis Rawlins conjectured , based on the similarities in the periodicity and amplitude of brightness variation between Pluto and Neptune 's moon Triton , that Pluto 's mass must be similar to Triton 's . This is , in fact , true , and had been argued by astronomers Walter Baade and E. C. Bower as early as 1934 . However , because Triton 's mass was then believed to be roughly 2 @.@ 5 % that of the Earth – Moon system ( more than ten times its actual value ) , Rawlins 's determination for Pluto 's mass was similarly incorrect . It was nonetheless a meagre enough value for him to conclude that Pluto was not Planet X. In 1976 , Dale Cruikshank , Carl Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii analysed spectra from Pluto 's surface and determined that it must contain methane ice , which is highly reflective . This meant that Pluto , far from being dark , was in fact exceptionally bright , and thus was probably no more than 0 @.@ 01 Earth mass .

Pluto 's size was finally determined conclusively in 1978 , when American astronomer James W. Christy discovered its moon Charon . This enabled him , together with Robert Sutton Harrington of the U.S. Naval Observatory , to measure the mass of the Pluto – Charon system directly by observing the moon 's orbital motion around Pluto . They determined Pluto 's mass to be 1 @.@ 31 × 1022 kg ; roughly one five @-@ hundredth that of Earth or one @-@ sixth that of the Moon , and far too small to account for the observed discrepancies in the orbits of the outer planets . Lowell 's " prediction " had been a coincidence : If there was a Planet X , it was not Pluto .

= = = Further searches for Planet X = = =

After 1978 , a number of astronomers kept up the search for Lowell 's Planet X , convinced that , because Pluto was no longer a viable candidate , an unseen tenth planet must have been perturbing the outer planets .

In the 1980s and 1990s , Robert Harrington led a search to determine the real cause of the apparent irregularities . He calculated that any Planet X would be at roughly three times the distance of Neptune from the Sun ; its orbit would be highly eccentric , and strongly inclined to the ecliptic — the planet 's orbit would be at roughly a 32 @-@ degree angle from the orbital plane of the other known planets . This hypothesis was met with a mixed reception . Noted Planet X sceptic Brian G. Marsden of the Minor Planet Center pointed out that these discrepancies were a hundredth the size of those noticed by Le Verrier , and could easily be due to observational error .

In 1972 , Joseph Brady of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory studied irregularities in the motion of Halley 's Comet . Brady claimed that they could have been caused by a Jupiter @-@ sized planet beyond Neptune at 59 AU that is in a retrograde orbit around the Sun . However , both Marsden and Planet X proponent P. Kenneth Seidelmann attacked the hypothesis , showing that Halley 's Comet randomly and irregularly ejects jets of material , causing changes to its own orbital trajectory , and that such a massive object as Brady 's Planet X would have severely affected the orbits of known outer planets .

Although its mission did not involve a search for Planet X , the IRAS space observatory made headlines briefly in 1983 due to an " unknown object " that was at first described as " possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this Solar System " . Further analysis revealed that of several unidentified objects , nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was " interstellar cirrus " ; none were found to be Solar System bodies .

In 1988 , A. A. Jackson and R. M. Killen studied the stability of Pluto 's resonance with Neptune by placing test " Planet X @-@ es " with various masses and at various distances from Pluto . Pluto and Neptune 's orbits are in a 3 : 2 resonance , which prevents their collision or even any close approaches , regardless of their separation in the z axis . It was found that the hypothetical object 's mass had to exceed 5 Earth masses to break the resonance , and the parameter space is quite large and a large variety of objects could have existed beyond Pluto without disturbing the resonance . Four test orbits of a trans @-@ Plutonian planet have been integrated forward for four million years in order to determine the effects of such a body on the stability of the Neptune – Pluto 3 : 2 resonance . Planets beyond Pluto with masses of 0 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 0 Earth masses in orbits at 48 @.@ 3 and 75 @.@ 5 AU , respectively , do not disturb the 3 : 2 resonance . Test planets of 5 Earth masses with semi @-@ major axes of 52 @.@ 5 and 62 @.@ 5 AU disrupt the four @-@ million @-@ year libration of Pluto 's argument of perihelion .

= = = Planet X disproved = = =

Harrington died in January 1993 , without having found Planet X. Six months before , E. Myles Standish had used data from Voyager 2 's 1989 flyby of Neptune , which had revised the planet 's total mass downward by 0 @.@ 5 % — an amount comparable to the mass of Mars — to recalculate its gravitational effect on Uranus . When Neptune 's newly determined mass was used in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Developmental Ephemeris ( JPL DE ) , the supposed discrepancies in the Uranian orbit , and with them the need for a Planet X , vanished . There are no discrepancies in the trajectories of any space probes such as Pioneer 10 , Pioneer 11 , Voyager 1 , and Voyager 2 that can be attributed to the gravitational pull of a large undiscovered object in the outer Solar System . Today , most astronomers agree that Planet X , as Lowell defined it , does not exist .

= = Discovery of further trans @-@ Neptunian objects = =

After the discovery of Pluto and Charon , no more trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) were found until ( 15760 ) 1992 QB1 in 1992 . Since then , thousands of such objects have been discovered . Most are now recognized as part of the Kuiper belt , a swarm of icy bodies left over from the Solar System 's formation that orbit near the ecliptic plane just beyond Neptune . Though none were as large as Pluto , some of these distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects , such as Sedna , were initially described in the media as " new planets " .

In 2005 , astronomer Mike Brown and his team announced the discovery of 2003 UB313 ( later named Eris after the Greek goddess of discord and strife ) , a trans @-@ Neptunian object then thought to be just barely larger than Pluto . Soon afterwards , a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory press release described the object as the " tenth planet " .

Eris was never officially classified as a planet , and the 2006 definition of planet defined both Eris and Pluto not as planets but as dwarf planets because they have not cleared their neighbourhoods . They do not orbit the Sun alone , but as part of a population of similarly sized objects . Pluto itself is now recognized as being a member of the Kuiper belt and the largest dwarf planet , larger than the more @-@ massive Eris .

A number of astronomers , most notably Alan Stern , the head of NASA 's New Horizons mission to Pluto , contend that the IAU 's definition is flawed , and that Pluto and Eris , and all large trans @-@ Neptunian objects , such as Makemake , Sedna , Quaoar , Varuna and Haumea , should be considered planets in their own right . However , the discovery of Eris did not rehabilitate the Planet X theory because it is far too small to have significant effects on the outer planets ' orbits .

= = Subsequently proposed trans @-@ Neptunian planets = =

Although most astronomers accept that Lowell 's Planet X does not exist , a number have revived the idea that a large unseen planet could create observable gravitational effects in the outer Solar System . These hypothetical objects are often referred to as " Planet X " , although the conception of these objects may differ considerably from that proposed by Lowell .

= = = Orbits of distant objects = = =

Sedna 's orbit

When Sedna was discovered , its extreme orbit raised questions about its origin . Its perihelion is so distant ( approximately 75 AU ) that no currently observed mechanism can explain Sedna 's eccentric distant orbit . It is too far from the planets to have been affected by the gravity of Neptune or the other giant planets and too bound to the Sun to be affected by outside forces such as the galactic tides . Hypotheses to explain its orbit include that it was affected by a passing star , that it was captured from another planetary system , or that it was tugged into its current position by a trans @-@ Neptunian planet . The most obvious solution to determining Sedna 's peculiar orbit would be to locate a number of objects in a similar region , whose various orbital configurations would provide an indication as to their past history . If Sedna had been pulled into its orbit by a trans @-@ Neptunian planet , any other objects found in its region would have a similar perihelion to Sedna ( around 80 AU ) .

Elongated orbits of group of Kuiper belt objects

In 2012 , Rodney Gomes modelled the orbits of 92 Kuiper belt objects and found that six of those orbits were far more elongated than the model predicted . He concluded that the simplest explanation was the gravitational pull of a distant planetary companion , such as a Neptune @-@ sized object at 1500 AU or a Mars @-@ sized object at around 53 AU .

Discovery of 2012 VP113 and the orbital clustering of Kuiper belt objects

In 2014 , astronomers announced the discovery of 2012 VP113 , a large object with a Sedna @-@ like 4200 @-@ year orbit and a perihelion of roughly 80 AU , which led them to suggest that it offered evidence of a potential trans @-@ Neptunian planet . Trujillo and Sheppard argued that the orbital clustering of arguments of perihelia for VP113 and other extremely distant TNOs suggests the existence of a " super @-@ Earth " of between 2 and 15 Earth masses beyond 200 AU and possibly on an inclined orbit at 1500 AU .

In 2014 astronomers at the Universidad Complutense in Madrid suggested that the available data actually indicate more than one trans @-@ Neptunian planet .

Further analysis & Planet Nine hypothesis

On January 20 , 2016 , Brown and Konstantin Batygin published an article corroborating Trujillo and Sheppard 's initial findings ; proposing a super @-@ Earth ( dubbed Planet Nine ) based on a statistical clustering of the arguments of perihelia ( noted before ) near zero and also ascending nodes near 113 ° of six distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects . They estimated it to be ten times the mass of Earth ( about 60 % the mass of Neptune ) with a semimajor axis of approximately 400 – 1500 AU .

= = = Probability = = =

Even without gravitational evidence , Mike Brown , the discoverer of Sedna , has argued that Sedna 's 12 @,@ 000 @-@ year orbit means that probability alone suggests that an Earth @-@ sized object exists beyond Neptune . Sedna 's orbit is so eccentric that it spends only a small fraction of its orbital period near the Sun , where it can be easily observed . This means that unless its discovery was a freak accident , there is probably a substantial population of objects roughly Sedna 's diameter yet to be observed in its orbital region . Mike Brown noted that " Sedna is about three @-@ quarters the size of Pluto . If there are sixty objects three @-@ quarters the size of Pluto [ out there ] then there are probably forty objects the size of Pluto ... If there are forty objects the size of Pluto , then there are probably ten that are twice the size of Pluto . There are probably three or four that are three times the size of Pluto , and the biggest of these objects ... is probably the size of Mars or the size of the Earth . " However , he notes that , should such an object be found , even though it might approach Earth in size , it would still be a dwarf planet by the current definition , because it would not have cleared its neighbourhood sufficiently .

= = = Kuiper cliff = = =

Additionally , speculation of a possible trans @-@ Neptunian planet has revolved around the so @-@ called " Kuiper cliff " . The Kuiper belt terminates suddenly at a distance of 48 AU from the Sun . Brunini and Melita have speculated that this sudden drop @-@ off may be attributed to the presence of an object with a mass between that of Mars and Earth located beyond 48 AU . The presence of an object with a mass similar to that of Mars in a circular orbit at 60 AU leads to a trans @-@ Neptunian object population incompatible with observations . For instance , it would severely deplete the plutino population . Astronomers have not excluded the possibility of an object with a mass similar to that of Earth located further than 100 AU with an eccentric and inclined orbit . Computer simulations by Patryk Lykawka of Kobe University have suggested that an object with a mass between 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 7 Earth masses , ejected outward by Neptune early in the Solar System 's formation and currently in an elongated orbit between 101 and 200 AU from the Sun , could explain the Kuiper cliff and the peculiar detached objects such as Sedna and 2012 VP113 . Although some astronomers , such as Renu Malhotra and David Jewitt , have cautiously supported these claims , others , such as Alessandro Morbidelli , have dismissed them as " contrived " .

= = = Other proposed planets = = =

Tyche was a proposed gas giant to be located in the Solar System 's Oort cloud . It was first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese , Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette . They argued that evidence of Tyche 's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for long @-@ period comets . In 2013 , Matese and Whitmire re @-@ evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche , if it existed , would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by NASA 's Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) telescope . In 2014 , NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object with Tyche 's characteristics , indicating that Tyche as hypothesized by Matese , Whitman , and Whitmire does not exist .

The oligarch theory of planet formation states that there were hundreds of planet @-@ sized objects , known as oligarchs , in the early stages of the Solar System 's evolution . In 2005 , astronomer Eugene Chiang speculated that although some of these oligarchs became the planets we know today , most would have been flung outward by gravitational interactions . Some may have escaped the Solar System altogether to become free @-@ floating planets , whereas others would be orbiting in a halo around the Solar System , with orbital periods of millions of years . This halo would lie at between 1 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 AU from the Sun , or between a third and a thirtieth the distance to the Oort cloud .

In December 2015 , astronomers at the Atacama Large Millimeter Array ( ALMA ) detected a brief series of 350 GHz pulses that they concluded must either be a series of independent sources , or a single , fast moving source . Deciding that the latter was the most likely , they calculated based on its speed that , were it bound to the Sun , the object , which they named " Gna " after a fast @-@ moving messenger goddess in Norse mythology , would be about 12 – 25 AU distant and have a dwarf planet @-@ sized diameter of 220 to 880 km . However , if it were a rogue planet not gravitationally bound to the Sun , and as far away as 4000 AU , it could be much larger . The paper was never formally accepted , and has been withdrawn until the detection is confirmed . Scientists ' reactions to the notice were largely sceptical ; Mike Brown commented that , " If it is true that ALMA accidentally discovered a massive outer solar system object in its tiny , tiny , tiny , field of view , that would suggest that there are something like 200 @,@ 000 Earth @-@ sized planets in the outer solar system . Which , um , no ... Even better , I just realized that this many Earth @-@ sized planets existing would destabilize the entire solar system and we would all die . "

= = Constraints on additional planets = =

As of 2016 the following observations severely constrain the mass and distance of any possible additional Solar System planet :

An analysis of mid @-@ infrared observations with the WISE telescope have ruled out the possibility of a Saturn @-@ sized object ( 95 Earth masses ) out to 10 @,@ 000 AU , and a Jupiter @-@ sized or larger object out to 26 @,@ 000 AU .

Using modern data on the anomalous precession of the perihelia of Saturn , Earth , and Mars , Lorenzo Iorio concluded that any unknown planet with a mass of 0 @.@ 7 times that of Earth must be further than 350 – 400 AU ; one with a mass of 2 times that of Earth , further than 496 – 570 AU ; and finally one with a mass of 15 times that of Earth , further than 970 – 1111 AU . Moreover , Iorio stated that the modern ephemerides of the Solar System outer planets has provided even tighter constraints : no celestial body with a mass of 15 times that of Earth can exist closer than 1100 – 1300 AU . However , work by another group of astronomers using a more comprehensive model of the Solar System found that Iorio 's conclusion was only partially correct . Their analysis of Cassini data on Saturn 's orbital residuals found that observations were inconsistent with a planetary body with the orbit and mass similar to those of Batygin and Brown 's Planet Nine having a true anomaly of − 130 ° to − 110 ° or − 65 ° to 85 ° . Furthermore , the analysis found that Saturn 's orbit is slightly better explained if such a body is located at a true anomaly of 117 @.@ 8 ° + 11 °

− 10 ° . At this location , it would be approximately 630 AU from the Sun .

= = = Survey telescopes = = =

Large Synoptic Survey Telescope ( LSST )

Pan @-@ STARRS

Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE )

= Redshift =

In physics , redshift happens when light or other electromagnetic radiation from an object is increased in wavelength , or shifted to the red end of the spectrum . In general , whether or not the radiation is within the visible spectrum , " redder " means an increase in wavelength – equivalent to a lower frequency and a lower photon energy , in accordance with , respectively , the wave and quantum theories of light .

Some redshifts are an example of the Doppler effect , familiar in the change of apparent pitches of sirens and frequency of the sound waves emitted by speeding vehicles . A redshift occurs whenever a light source moves away from an observer . Another kind of redshift is cosmological redshift , which is due to the expansion of the universe , and sufficiently distant light sources ( generally more than a few million light years away ) show redshift corresponding to the rate of increase in their distance from Earth . Finally , gravitational redshift is a relativistic effect observed in electromagnetic radiation moving out of gravitational fields . Conversely , a decrease in wavelength is called blueshift and is generally seen when a light @-@ emitting object moves toward an observer or when electromagnetic radiation moves into a gravitational field . However , redshift is a more common term and sometimes blueshift is referred to as negative redshift .

Knowledge of redshifts and blueshifts has been applied to develop several terrestrial technologies such as Doppler radar and radar guns . Redshifts are also seen in the spectroscopic observations of astronomical objects . Its value is represented by the letter z .

A special relativistic redshift formula ( and its classical approximation ) can be used to calculate the redshift of a nearby object when spacetime is flat . However , in many contexts , such as black holes and Big Bang cosmology , redshifts must be calculated using general relativity . Special relativistic , gravitational , and cosmological redshifts can be understood under the umbrella of frame transformation laws . There exist other physical processes that can lead to a shift in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation , including scattering and optical effects ; however , the resulting changes are distinguishable from true redshift and are not generally referred to as such ( see section on physical optics and radiative transfer ) .

= = History = =

The history of the subject began with the development in the 19th century of wave mechanics and the exploration of phenomena associated with the Doppler effect . The effect is named after Christian Doppler , who offered the first known physical explanation for the phenomenon in 1842 . The hypothesis was tested and confirmed for sound waves by the Dutch scientist Christophorus Buys Ballot in 1845 . Doppler correctly predicted that the phenomenon should apply to all waves , and in particular suggested that the varying colors of stars could be attributed to their motion with respect to the Earth . Before this was verified , however , it was found that stellar colors were primarily due to a star 's temperature , not motion . Only later was Doppler vindicated by verified redshift observations .

The first Doppler redshift was described by French physicist Hippolyte Fizeau in 1848 , who pointed to the shift in spectral lines seen in stars as being due to the Doppler effect . The effect is sometimes called the " Doppler – Fizeau effect " . In 1868 , British astronomer William Huggins was the first to determine the velocity of a star moving away from the Earth by this method . In 1871 , optical redshift was confirmed when the phenomenon was observed in Fraunhofer lines using solar rotation , about 0 @.@ 1 Å in the red . In 1887 , Vogel and Scheiner discovered the annual Doppler effect , the yearly change in the Doppler shift of stars located near the ecliptic due to the orbital velocity of the Earth . In 1901 , Aristarkh Belopolsky verified optical redshift in the laboratory using a system of rotating mirrors .

The earliest occurrence of the term " red @-@ shift " in print ( in this hyphenated form ) appears to be by American astronomer Walter S. Adams in 1908 , in which he mentions " Two methods of investigating that nature of the nebular red @-@ shift " . The word does not appear unhyphenated until about 1934 by Willem de Sitter , perhaps indicating that up to that point its German equivalent , Rotverschiebung , was more commonly used .

Beginning with observations in 1912 , Vesto Slipher discovered that most spiral galaxies , then mostly thought to be spiral nebulae , had considerable redshifts . Slipher first reports on his measurement in the inaugural volume of the Lowell Observatory Bulletin . Three years later , he wrote a review in the journal Popular Astronomy . In it he states , " [ ... ] the early discovery that the great Andromeda spiral had the quite exceptional velocity of – 300 km ( / s ) showed the means then available , capable of investigating not only the spectra of the spirals but their velocities as well . " Slipher reported the velocities for 15 spiral nebulae spread across the entire celestial sphere , all but three having observable " positive " ( that is recessional ) velocities . Subsequently , Edwin Hubble discovered an approximate relationship between the redshifts of such " nebulae " and the distances to them with the formulation of his eponymous Hubble 's law . These observations corroborated Alexander Friedmann 's 1922 work , in which he derived the famous Friedmann @-@ Lemaître equations . They are today considered strong evidence for an expanding universe and the Big Bang theory .

= = Measurement , characterization , and interpretation = =

The spectrum of light that comes from a single source ( see idealized spectrum illustration top @-@ right ) can be measured . To determine the redshift , one searches for features in the spectrum such as absorption lines , emission lines , or other variations in light intensity . If found , these features can be compared with known features in the spectrum of various chemical compounds found in experiments where that compound is located on Earth . A very common atomic element in space is hydrogen . The spectrum of originally featureless light shone through hydrogen will show a signature spectrum specific to hydrogen that has features at regular intervals . If restricted to absorption lines it would look similar to the illustration ( top right ) . If the same pattern of intervals is seen in an observed spectrum from a distant source but occurring at shifted wavelengths , it can be identified as hydrogen too . If the same spectral line is identified in both spectra — but at different wavelengths — then the redshift can be calculated using the table below . Determining the redshift of an object in this way requires a frequency- or wavelength @-@ range . In order to calculate the redshift one has to know the wavelength of the emitted light in the rest frame of the source , in other words , the wavelength that would be measured by an observer located adjacent to and comoving with the source . Since in astronomical applications this measurement cannot be done directly , because that would require travelling to the distant star of interest , the method using spectral lines described here is used instead . Redshifts cannot be calculated by looking at unidentified features whose rest @-@ frame frequency is unknown , or with a spectrum that is featureless or white noise ( random fluctuations in a spectrum ) .

Redshift ( and blueshift ) may be characterized by the relative difference between the observed and emitted wavelengths ( or frequency ) of an object . In astronomy , it is customary to refer to this change using a dimensionless quantity called z . If λ represents wavelength and f represents frequency ( note , λf = c where c is the speed of light ) , then z is defined by the equations :

After z is measured , the distinction between redshift and blueshift is simply a matter of whether z is positive or negative . See the formula section below for some basic interpretations that follow when either a redshift or blueshift is observed . For example , Doppler effect blueshifts ( z < 0 ) are associated with objects approaching ( moving closer to ) the observer with the light shifting to greater energies . Conversely , Doppler effect redshifts ( z > 0 ) are associated with objects receding ( moving away ) from the observer with the light shifting to lower energies . Likewise , gravitational blueshifts are associated with light emitted from a source residing within a weaker gravitational field as observed from within a stronger gravitational field , while gravitational redshifting implies the opposite conditions .

= = Redshift formulae = =

In general relativity one can derive several important special @-@ case formulae for redshift in certain special spacetime geometries , as summarized in the following table . In all cases the magnitude of the shift ( the value of z ) is independent of the wavelength .

= = = Doppler effect = = =

If a source of the light is moving away from an observer , then redshift ( z > 0 ) occurs ; if the source moves towards the observer , then blueshift ( z < 0 ) occurs . This is true for all electromagnetic waves and is explained by the Doppler effect . Consequently , this type of redshift is called the Doppler redshift . If the source moves away from the observer with velocity v , which is much less than the speed of light ( v ≪ c ) , the redshift is given by

<formula> ( since <formula> )

where c is the speed of light . In the classical Doppler effect , the frequency of the source is not modified , but the recessional motion causes the illusion of a lower frequency .

A more complete treatment of the Doppler redshift requires considering relativistic effects associated with motion of sources close to the speed of light . A complete derivation of the effect can be found in the article on the relativistic Doppler effect . In brief , objects moving close to the speed of light will experience deviations from the above formula due to the time dilation of special relativity which can be corrected for by introducing the Lorentz factor γ into the classical Doppler formula as follows ( for motion solely in the line of sight ) :

<formula>

This phenomenon was first observed in a 1938 experiment performed by Herbert E. Ives and G.R. Stilwell , called the Ives – Stilwell experiment .

Since the Lorentz factor is dependent only on the magnitude of the velocity , this causes the redshift associated with the relativistic correction to be independent of the orientation of the source movement . In contrast , the classical part of the formula is dependent on the projection of the movement of the source into the line @-@ of @-@ sight which yields different results for different orientations . If θ is the angle between the direction of relative motion and the direction of emission in the observer 's frame ( zero angle is directly away from the observer ) , the full form for the relativistic Doppler effect becomes :

<formula>

and for motion solely in the line of sight ( θ

= 0 ° ) , this equation reduces to :

<formula>

For the special case that the light is approaching at right angles ( θ =

90 ° ) to the direction of relative motion in the observer 's frame , the relativistic redshift is known as the transverse redshift , and a redshift :

<formula>

is measured , even though the object is not moving away from the observer . Even when the source is moving towards the observer , if there is a transverse component to the motion then there is some speed at which the dilation just cancels the expected blueshift and at higher speed the approaching source will be redshifted .

= = = Expansion of space = = =

In the early part of the twentieth century , Slipher , Hubble and others made the first measurements of the redshifts and blueshifts of galaxies beyond the Milky Way . They initially interpreted these redshifts and blueshifts as due solely to the Doppler effect , but later Hubble discovered a rough correlation between the increasing redshifts and the increasing distance of galaxies . Theorists almost immediately realized that these observations could be explained by a different mechanism for producing redshifts . Hubble 's law of the correlation between redshifts and distances is required by models of cosmology derived from general relativity that have a metric expansion of space . As a result , photons propagating through the expanding space are stretched , creating the cosmological redshift .

There is a distinction between a redshift in cosmological context as compared to that witnessed when nearby objects exhibit a local Doppler @-@ effect redshift . Rather than cosmological redshifts being a consequence of relative velocities , the photons instead increase in wavelength and redshift because of a feature of the spacetime through which they are traveling that causes space to expand . Due to the expansion increasing as distances increase , the distance between two remote galaxies can increase at more than 3 × 108 m / s , but this does not imply that the galaxies move faster than the speed of light at their present location ( which is forbidden by Lorentz covariance ) .

= = = = Mathematical derivation = = = =

The observational consequences of this effect can be derived using the equations from general relativity that describe a homogeneous and isotropic universe .

To derive the redshift effect , use the geodesic equation for a light wave , which is

<formula>

where

ds is the spacetime interval

dt is the time interval

dr is the spatial interval

c is the speed of light

a is the time @-@ dependent cosmic scale factor

k is the curvature per unit area .

For an observer observing the crest of a light wave at a position r

= 0 and time t =

tnow , the crest of the light wave was emitted at a time t

= tthen in the past and a distant position r =

R. Integrating over the path in both space and time that the light wave travels yields :

<formula>

In general , the wavelength of light is not the same for the two positions and times considered due to the changing properties of the metric . When the wave was emitted , it had a wavelength λthen . The next crest of the light wave was emitted at a time

<formula>

The observer sees the next crest of the observed light wave with a wavelength λnow to arrive at a time

<formula>

Since the subsequent crest is again emitted from r

= R and is observed at r =

0 , the following equation can be written :

<formula>

The right @-@ hand side of the two integral equations above are identical which means

<formula>

Using the following manipulation :

<formula>

we find that :

<formula>

For very small variations in time ( over the period of one cycle of a light wave ) the scale factor is essentially a constant ( a

= anow today and a =

athen previously ) . This yields

<formula>

which can be rewritten as

<formula>

Using the definition of redshift provided above , the equation

<formula>

is obtained . In an expanding universe such as the one we inhabit , the scale factor is monotonically increasing as time passes , thus , z is positive and distant galaxies appear redshifted .

Using a model of the expansion of the Universe , redshift can be related to the age of an observed object , the so @-@ called cosmic time – redshift relation . Denote a density ratio as Ω0 :

<formula>

with ρcrit the critical density demarcating a universe that eventually crunches from one that simply expands . This density is about three hydrogen atoms per thousand liters of space . At large redshifts one finds :

<formula>

where H0 is the present @-@ day Hubble constant , and z is the redshift .

= = = = Distinguishing between cosmological and local effects = = = =

For cosmological redshifts of z < 0 @.@ 01 additional Doppler redshifts and blueshifts due to the peculiar motions of the galaxies relative to one another cause a wide scatter from the standard Hubble Law . The resulting situation can be illustrated by the Expanding Rubber Sheet Universe , a common cosmological analogy used to describe the expansion of space . If two objects are represented by ball bearings and spacetime by a stretching rubber sheet , the Doppler effect is caused by rolling the balls across the sheet to create peculiar motion . The cosmological redshift occurs when the ball bearings are stuck to the sheet and the sheet is stretched .

The redshifts of galaxies include both a component related to recessional velocity from expansion of the Universe , and a component related to peculiar motion ( Doppler shift ) . The redshift due to expansion of the Universe depends upon the recessional velocity in a fashion determined by the cosmological model chosen to describe the expansion of the Universe , which is very different from how Doppler redshift depends upon local velocity . Describing the cosmological expansion origin of redshift , cosmologist Edward Robert Harrison said , " Light leaves a galaxy , which is stationary in its local region of space , and is eventually received by observers who are stationary in their own local region of space . Between the galaxy and the observer , light travels through vast regions of expanding space . As a result , all wavelengths of the light are stretched by the expansion of space . It is as simple as that ... " Steven Weinberg clarified , " The increase of wavelength from emission to absorption of light does not depend on the rate of change of a ( t ) [ here a ( t ) is the Robertson @-@ Walker scale factor ] at the times of emission or absorption , but on the increase of a ( t ) in the whole period from emission to absorption . "

Popular literature often uses the expression " Doppler redshift " instead of " cosmological redshift " to describe the redshift of galaxies dominated by the expansion of spacetime , but the cosmological redshift is not found using the relativistic Doppler equation which is instead characterized by special relativity ; thus v > c is impossible while , in contrast , v > c is possible for cosmological redshifts because the space which separates the objects ( for example , a quasar from the Earth ) can expand faster than the speed of light . More mathematically , the viewpoint that " distant galaxies are receding " and the viewpoint that " the space between galaxies is expanding " are related by changing coordinate systems . Expressing this precisely requires working with the mathematics of the Friedmann @-@ Robertson @-@ Walker metric .

If the Universe were contracting instead of expanding , we would see distant galaxies blueshifted by an amount proportional to their distance instead of redshifted .

= = = Gravitational redshift = = =

In the theory of general relativity , there is time dilation within a gravitational well . This is known as the gravitational redshift or Einstein Shift . The theoretical derivation of this effect follows from the Schwarzschild solution of the Einstein equations which yields the following formula for redshift associated with a photon traveling in the gravitational field of an uncharged , nonrotating , spherically symmetric mass :

<formula>

where

G is the gravitational constant ,

M is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field ,

r is the radial coordinate of the source ( which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object , but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate ) , and

c is the speed of light .

This gravitational redshift result can be derived from the assumptions of special relativity and the equivalence principle ; the full theory of general relativity is not required .

The effect is very small but measurable on Earth using the Mössbauer effect and was first observed in the Pound – Rebka experiment . However , it is significant near a black hole , and as an object approaches the event horizon the red shift becomes infinite . It is also the dominant cause of large angular @-@ scale temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation ( see Sachs @-@ Wolfe effect ) .

= = Observations in astronomy = =

The redshift observed in astronomy can be measured because the emission and absorption spectra for atoms are distinctive and well known , calibrated from spectroscopic experiments in laboratories on Earth . When the redshift of various absorption and emission lines from a single astronomical object is measured , z is found to be remarkably constant . Although distant objects may be slightly blurred and lines broadened , it is by no more than can be explained by thermal or mechanical motion of the source . For these reasons and others , the consensus among astronomers is that the redshifts they observe are due to some combination of the three established forms of Doppler @-@ like redshifts . Alternative hypotheses and explanations for redshift such as tired light are not generally considered plausible .

Spectroscopy , as a measurement , is considerably more difficult than simple photometry , which measures the brightness of astronomical objects through certain filters . When photometric data is all that is available ( for example , the Hubble Deep Field and the Hubble Ultra Deep Field ) , astronomers rely on a technique for measuring photometric redshifts . Due to the broad wavelength ranges in photometric filters and the necessary assumptions about the nature of the spectrum at the light @-@ source , errors for these sorts of measurements can range up to δz

= 0 @.@ 5 , and are much less reliable than spectroscopic determinations . However , photometry does at least allow a qualitative characterization of a redshift . For example , if a Sun @-@ like spectrum had a redshift of z =

1 , it would be brightest in the infrared rather than at the yellow @-@ green color associated with the peak of its blackbody spectrum , and the light intensity will be reduced in the filter by a factor of four , ( 1 + z ) 2 . Both the photon count rate and the photon energy are redshifted . ( See K correction for more details on the photometric consequences of redshift . )

= = = Local observations = = =

In nearby objects ( within our Milky Way galaxy ) observed redshifts are almost always related to the line @-@ of @-@ sight velocities associated with the objects being observed . Observations of such redshifts and blueshifts have enabled astronomers to measure velocities and parametrize the masses of the orbiting stars in spectroscopic binaries , a method first employed in 1868 by British astronomer William Huggins . Similarly , small redshifts and blueshifts detected in the spectroscopic measurements of individual stars are one way astronomers have been able to diagnose and measure the presence and characteristics of planetary systems around other stars and have even made very detailed differential measurements of redshifts during planetary transits to determine precise orbital parameters . Finely detailed measurements of redshifts are used in helioseismology to determine the precise movements of the photosphere of the Sun . Redshifts have also been used to make the first measurements of the rotation rates of planets , velocities of interstellar clouds , the rotation of galaxies , and the dynamics of accretion onto neutron stars and black holes which exhibit both Doppler and gravitational redshifts . Additionally , the temperatures of various emitting and absorbing objects can be obtained by measuring Doppler broadening – effectively redshifts and blueshifts over a single emission or absorption line . By measuring the broadening and shifts of the 21 @-@ centimeter hydrogen line in different directions , astronomers have been able to measure the recessional velocities of interstellar gas , which in turn reveals the rotation curve of our Milky Way . Similar measurements have been performed on other galaxies , such as Andromeda . As a diagnostic tool , redshift measurements are one of the most important spectroscopic measurements made in astronomy .

= = = Extragalactic observations = = =

The most distant objects exhibit larger redshifts corresponding to the Hubble flow of the Universe . The largest observed redshift , corresponding to the greatest distance and furthest back in time , is that of the cosmic microwave background radiation ; the numerical value of its redshift is about z

= 1089 ( z =

0 corresponds to present time ) , and it shows the state of the Universe about 13 @.@ 8 billion years ago , and 379 @,@ 000 years after the initial moments of the Big Bang .

The luminous point @-@ like cores of quasars were the first " high @-@ redshift " ( z > 0 @.@ 1 ) objects discovered before the improvement of telescopes allowed for the discovery of other high @-@ redshift galaxies .

For galaxies more distant than the Local Group and the nearby Virgo Cluster , but within a thousand megaparsecs or so , the redshift is approximately proportional to the galaxy 's distance . This correlation was first observed by Edwin Hubble and has come to be known as Hubble 's law . Vesto Slipher was the first to discover galactic redshifts , in about the year 1912 , while Hubble correlated Slipher 's measurements with distances he measured by other means to formulate his Law . In the widely accepted cosmological model based on general relativity , redshift is mainly a result of the expansion of space : this means that the farther away a galaxy is from us , the more the space has expanded in the time since the light left that galaxy , so the more the light has been stretched , the more redshifted the light is , and so the faster it appears to be moving away from us . Hubble 's law follows in part from the Copernican principle . Because it is usually not known how luminous objects are , measuring the redshift is easier than more direct distance measurements , so redshift is sometimes in practice converted to a crude distance measurement using Hubble 's law .

Gravitational interactions of galaxies with each other and clusters cause a significant scatter in the normal plot of the Hubble diagram . The peculiar velocities associated with galaxies superimpose a rough trace of the mass of virialized objects in the Universe . This effect leads to such phenomena as nearby galaxies ( such as the Andromeda Galaxy ) exhibiting blueshifts as we fall towards a common barycenter , and redshift maps of clusters showing a Fingers of God effect due to the scatter of peculiar velocities in a roughly spherical distribution . This added component gives cosmologists a chance to measure the masses of objects independent of the mass to light ratio ( the ratio of a galaxy 's mass in solar masses to its brightness in solar luminosities ) , an important tool for measuring dark matter .

The Hubble law 's linear relationship between distance and redshift assumes that the rate of expansion of the Universe is constant . However , when the Universe was much younger , the expansion rate , and thus the Hubble " constant " , was larger than it is today . For more distant galaxies , then , whose light has been travelling to us for much longer times , the approximation of constant expansion rate fails , and the Hubble law becomes a non @-@ linear integral relationship and dependent on the history of the expansion rate since the emission of the light from the galaxy in question . Observations of the redshift @-@ distance relationship can be used , then , to determine the expansion history of the Universe and thus the matter and energy content .

While it was long believed that the expansion rate has been continuously decreasing since the Big Bang , recent observations of the redshift @-@ distance relationship using Type Ia supernovae have suggested that in comparatively recent times the expansion rate of the Universe has begun to accelerate .

= = = Highest redshifts = = =

Currently , the objects with the highest known redshifts are galaxies and the objects producing gamma ray bursts . The most reliable redshifts are from spectroscopic data , and the highest confirmed spectroscopic redshift of a galaxy is that of GN @-@ z11 , with a redshift of z

= 11 @.@ 1 , corresponding to 400 million years after the Big Bang . The previous record was held by UDFy @-@ 38135539 at a redshift of z =

8 @.@ 6 , corresponding to 600 million years after the Big Bang . Slightly less reliable are Lyman @-@ break redshifts , the highest of which is the lensed galaxy A1689 @-@ zD1 at a redshift z

= 7 @.@ 5 and the next highest being z =

7 @.@ 0 . The most distant observed gamma ray burst with a spectroscopic redshift measurement was GRB 090423 , which had a redshift of z

= 8 @.@ 2 . The most distant known quasar , ULAS J1120 + 0641 , is at z =

7 @.@ 1 . The highest known redshift radio galaxy ( TN J0924 @-@ 2201 ) is at a redshift z

= 5 @.@ 2 and the highest known redshift molecular material is the detection of emission from the CO molecule from the quasar SDSS J1148 + 5251 at z =

6 @.@ 42

Extremely red objects ( EROs ) are astronomical sources of radiation that radiate energy in the red and near infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . These may be starburst galaxies that have a high redshift accompanied by reddening from intervening dust , or they could be highly redshifted elliptical galaxies with an older ( and therefore redder ) stellar population . Objects that are even redder than EROs are termed hyper extremely red objects ( HEROs ) .

The cosmic microwave background has a redshift of z

= 1089 , corresponding to an age of approximately 379 @,@ 000 years after the Big Bang and a comoving distance of more than 46 billion light years . The yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ observed first light from the oldest Population III stars , not long after atoms first formed and the CMB ceased to be absorbed almost completely , may have redshifts in the range of 20 < z < 100 . Other high @-@ redshift events predicted by physics but not presently observable are the cosmic neutrino background from about two seconds after the Big Bang ( and a redshift in excess of z > 1010 ) and the cosmic gravitational wave background emitted directly from inflation at a redshift in excess of z > 1025 .

In June 2015 , astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at z =

6 @.@ 60 . Such stars are likely to have existed in the very early universe ( i.e. , at high redshift ) , and may have started the production of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it .

= = = Redshift surveys = = =

With advent of automated telescopes and improvements in spectroscopes , a number of collaborations have been made to map the Universe in redshift space . By combining redshift with angular position data , a redshift survey maps the 3D distribution of matter within a field of the sky . These observations are used to measure properties of the large @-@ scale structure of the Universe . The Great Wall , a vast supercluster of galaxies over 500 million light @-@ years wide , provides a dramatic example of a large @-@ scale structure that redshift surveys can detect .

The first redshift survey was the CfA Redshift Survey , started in 1977 with the initial data collection completed in 1982 . More recently , the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey determined the large @-@ scale structure of one section of the Universe , measuring redshifts for over 220 @,@ 000 galaxies ; data collection was completed in 2002 , and the final data set was released 30 June 2003 . The Sloan Digital Sky Survey ( SDSS ) , is ongoing as of 2013 and aims to measure the redshifts of around 3 million objects . SDSS has recorded redshifts for galaxies as high as 0 @.@ 8 , and has been involved in the detection of quasars beyond z = 6 . The DEEP2 Redshift Survey uses the Keck telescopes with the new " DEIMOS " spectrograph ; a follow @-@ up to the pilot program DEEP1 , DEEP2 is designed to measure faint galaxies with redshifts 0 @.@ 7 and above , and it is therefore planned to provide a high redshift complement to SDSS and 2dF .

= = Effects due to physical optics or radiative transfer = =

The interactions and phenomena summarized in the subjects of radiative transfer and physical optics can result in shifts in the wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic radiation . In such cases the shifts correspond to a physical energy transfer to matter or other photons rather than being due to a transformation between reference frames . These shifts can be due to such physical phenomena as coherence effects or the scattering of electromagnetic radiation whether from charged elementary particles , from particulates , or from fluctuations of the index of refraction in a dielectric medium as occurs in the radio phenomenon of radio whistlers . While such phenomena are sometimes referred to as " redshifts " and " blueshifts " , in astrophysics light @-@ matter interactions that result in energy shifts in the radiation field are generally referred to as " reddening " rather than " redshifting " which , as a term , is normally reserved for the effects discussed above .

In many circumstances scattering causes radiation to redden because entropy results in the predominance of many low @-@ energy photons over few high @-@ energy ones ( while conserving total energy ) . Except possibly under carefully controlled conditions , scattering does not produce the same relative change in wavelength across the whole spectrum ; that is , any calculated z is generally a function of wavelength . Furthermore , scattering from random media generally occurs at many angles , and z is a function of the scattering angle . If multiple scattering occurs , or the scattering particles have relative motion , then there is generally distortion of spectral lines as well .

In interstellar astronomy , visible spectra can appear redder due to scattering processes in a phenomenon referred to as interstellar reddening – similarly Rayleigh scattering causes the atmospheric reddening of the Sun seen in the sunrise or sunset and causes the rest of the sky to have a blue color . This phenomenon is distinct from redshifting because the spectroscopic lines are not shifted to other wavelengths in reddened objects and there is an additional dimming and distortion associated with the phenomenon due to photons being scattered in and out of the line @-@ of @-@ sight .

For a list of scattering processes , see Scattering .

= = = Articles = = =

Odenwald , S. & Fienberg , RT . 1993 ; " Galaxy Redshifts Reconsidered " in Sky & Telescope Feb. 2003 ; pp31 – 35 ( This article is useful further reading in distinguishing between the 3 types of redshift and their causes . )

Lineweaver , Charles H. and Tamara M. Davis , " Misconceptions about the Big Bang " , Scientific American , March 2005 . ( This article is useful for explaining the cosmological redshift mechanism as well as clearing up misconceptions regarding the physics of the expansion of space . )

= = = Book references = = =

Nussbaumer , Harry ; Lydia Bieri ( 2009 ) . Discovering the Expanding Universe . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 51484 @-@ 2 .

Binney , James ; Michael Merrifeld ( 1998 ) . Galactic Astronomy . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 02565 @-@ 7 .

Carroll , Bradley W. & Dale A. Ostlie ( 1996 ) . An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics . Addison @-@ Wesley Publishing Company , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 54730 @-@ 9 .

Feynman , Richard ; Leighton , Robert ; Sands , Matthew ( 1989 ) . Feynman Lectures on Physics . Vol . 1 . Addison @-@ Wesley . ISBN 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 51003 @-@ 0 .

Grøn , Øyvind ; Hervik , Sigbjørn ( 2007 ) . Einstein 's General Theory of Relativity . New York : Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 69199 @-@ 2 .

Kutner , Marc ( 2003 ) . Astronomy : A Physical Perspective . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 52927 @-@ 1 .

Misner , Charles ; Thorne , Kip S. ; Wheeler , John Archibald ( 1973 ) . Gravitation . San Francisco : W. H. Freeman . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 0344 @-@ 0 .

Peebles , P. J. E. ( 1993 ) . Principles of Physical Cosmology . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 01933 @-@ 9 .

Taylor , Edwin F. ; Wheeler , John Archibald ( 1992 ) . Spacetime Physics : Introduction to Special Relativity ( 2nd ed . ) . W.H. Freeman . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 2327 @-@ 1 .

Weinberg , Steven ( 1971 ) . Gravitation and Cosmology . John Wiley . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 92567 @-@ 5 .

See also physical cosmology textbooks for applications of the cosmological and gravitational redshifts .

= Trans @-@ Europe Express ( album ) =

Trans @-@ Europe Express ( German : Trans Europa Express ) is the sixth studio album by German electronic music band Kraftwerk . Recorded in mid @-@ 1976 in Düsseldorf , Germany , the album was released in March 1977 on Kling Klang Records . The album 's themes were influenced by friends who suggested writing songs about the Trans Europ Express to reflect Kraftwerk 's electronic music style . Critics have described the album as having two specific themes : celebration of Europe and the disparities between reality and image . Musically , the songs on this album differ from the group 's earlier Krautrock style with a focus on electronic mechanized rhythms , minimalism , and occasional manipulated vocals .

Trans @-@ Europe Express charted at 119 on the American charts and was placed number 30 on the Village Voice 's 1977 Pazz & Jop critics poll . Two singles were released from Trans @-@ Europe Express : " Trans @-@ Europe Express " and " Showroom Dummies " . The album has been re @-@ released in several formats and continued to receive acclaim from modern critics .

= = Background = =

After the release and tour for the album Radio @-@ Activity , Kraftwerk continued to move further away from their earlier Krautrock style of improvised instrumental music , refining their work more into the format of melodic electronic songs . During the tour for Radio @-@ Activity the band began to make performance rules such as not to be drunk on stage or at parties . Karl Bartos wrote that about these rules , stating that " it 's not easy to turn knobs on a synthesizer if you are drunk or full of drugs . ... We always tried to keep very aware of what we were doing while acting in public . " During this tour , early melodies that would later evolve into the song " Showroom Dummies " were being performed .

In mid @-@ 1976 , Kraftwerk began to work on the album which was then called Europe Endless . Paul Alessandrini suggested that Kraftwerk write a song about the Trans @-@ Europ Express to reflect their electronic music style . Hütter and Schneider met with musicians David Bowie and Iggy Pop prior to recording which influenced song lyrics . Maxime Schmitt encouraged the group to record a French language version of the song " Showroom Dummies " which led the group to later record several songs in French . The album was recorded at Kling Klang Studio in Düsseldorf . Artistic control over the songs was strictly in the hands of members Ralf Hütter and Florian Schneider with Bartos and Wolfgang Flür contributing sequenced electronic percussion . Kraftwerk went to railway bridges to listen to the sounds the train would actually produce . The group found the sound the train made was not danceable and changed it slightly .

= = Recording = =

An important piece of new equipment used on the album was the Synthanorma Sequenzer , a customized 32 @-@ step 16 @-@ channel analogue sequencer made for the band by Matten & Wiechers . This allowed the construction of more elaborate sequenced synthesizer lines , which are featured prominently in the tracks " Europe Endless " , " Franz Schubert " and " Endless Endless " , and liberated the player from the chore of playing repetitive keyboard patterns .

Whereas Radio @-@ Activity had featured a mixture of German and English lyrics throughout the album , Trans @-@ Europe Express went further and was mixed as two entirely separate versions , one sung in English , the other in German . At the recommendation of Maxime Schmitt , a French version of the song " Showroom Dummies " , titled " Les Mannequins " , was also recorded . " Les Mannequins " was the group 's first song in French and would influence decisions to record songs in French on later albums . After recording the album in Düsseldorf , Hütter and Schneider visited Los Angeles to mix the tracks at the Record Plant Studio . Elements of the mixing sessions that were done in Los Angeles were dropped from the album , including the use of more upfront vocals in order to do more mixing in Düsseldorf and Hamburg later .

The artwork for the album cover of Trans @-@ Europe Express was originally going to be a monochrome picture of the group reflected in a series of mirrors . This idea was dropped for a photo by New York @-@ based celebrity photographer Maurice Seymour , with the group dressed in suits to resemble mannequins . J. Stara 's image of the group was taken in Paris and is a highly retouched photo @-@ montage of Kraftwerk from their shoulders up again posed as mannequins which is shown on the cover of the English version of the album . On the inside sleeve , a color collage of the group sitting at a small cafe table designed by Emil Schult was used . The photo for this scene was from the session by Maurice Seymour , taken on the group 's American tour . Other photos were taken by Schult that show the group laughing and smiling . These were not used for the album 's release .

= = Composition = =

Wolfgang Flür has stated Kraftwerk were influenced by music of the Weimar Germany era : " we were children who were born straight after World War Two ... we had no musical or pop culture of our own ... there was the war , and before the war we had only the German folk music . In the 1920s or 1930s melodies were developed and these became culture that we worked from " . Karl Bartos also spoke of post @-@ war influence as the group thought that they " had this development in the 1920s which was very , very strong and was audio visual . We had the Bauhaus school before the war and then after the war we had tremendous people like Karlheinz Stockhausen and the development of the classical and the electronic classical . This was very strong and it all happened very close to Düsseldorf in Cologne and all the great composers at that time came there . " Paul Alessandrini is credited for helping contribute to the album 's concept . Alessandrini told Hütter and Schneider that " with the kind of music you do , which is kind of like an electronic blues , railway stations and trains are very important in your universe , you should do a song about the Trans Europe Express " . Kraftwerk believed critics in the United Kingdom and United States associated them with Nazi Germany , with tracks such as " Autobahn " inextricably linked with the Nazis who built the high @-@ speed roads in the 1930s and 1940s . At the same time the band were keen to move away from their German heritage towards a new sense of European identity and felt that the Trans Europ Express could be used to symbolize this . Allmusic referred to Trans @-@ Europe Express as a concept album with two different themes . The first being the disparities between reality and image , represented by the songs " Hall of Mirrors " and " Showroom Dummies " , and the others about the glorification of Europe . Slant Magazine described the album as " a sonic poem to Europe " .

The musical style of Trans @-@ Europe Express was described by AllMusic as melodic themes which are " repeated often and occasionally interwoven over deliberate , chugging beats , sometimes with manipulated vocals " and " minimalism , mechanized rhythms , and crafted , catchy melodies " . Hütter has commented on the minimalist nature of the album , stating that " If we can convey an idea with one or two notes , it is better than to play a hundred or so notes " . The first side of Trans @-@ Europe Express has three songs . The song " Hall of Mirrors " has been described as containing deadpan vocals with lyrics that speculate how stars look at themselves in a looking glass . Hütter and Schneider have described the song as auto @-@ biographical . The third track " Showroom Dummies " was described by Allmusic as " bouncily melodic in a way that most of Trans @-@ Europe Express isn 't " and with lyrics which are " slightly paranoid " . The idea for the song came from Flür and Bartos being compared to showroom dummies in a British concert review . Some versions of the song contain a spoken introduction starting with a count @-@ in of " eins zwei drei vier " as a parody of the band Ramones who started some songs with a quick count @-@ in of " one two three four " . The second side of Trans @-@ Europe Express is a suite with " Trans @-@ Europe Express " continuing through to " Metal on Metal " and " Franz Schubert " before closing with a brief reiteration of the main theme from " Europe Endless " . Allmusic described the musical elements of the suite as having a haunting theme with " deadpan chanting of the title phrase " which is " slowly layered over that rhythmic base in much the same way that the earlier " Autobahn " was constructed " . The song 's lyrics reference the album Station to Station and meeting with musicians Iggy Pop and David Bowie . Hütter and Schneider had previously met up with Bowie in Germany and were flattered with the attention they received from him . Ralf Hütter was interested in Bowie 's work as he had been working with Iggy Pop , who was the former lead singer of The Stooges ; one of Hütter 's favorite groups .

= = Release = =

Trans @-@ Europe Express was originally released in March 1977 . With the help of Günther Fröhling , Kraftwerk made a promotional music video for the song " Trans @-@ Europe Express " . The video features the group wearing long coats on a train trip from Düsseldorf to nearby Duisburg . Photo stills from this video were later used on the single sleeve for " Showroom Dummies " . Fröhling would work with Kraftwerk again on their album The Man @-@ Machine doing the photography for the album cover . To promote the album to the press in France , EMI Records hired a train with old fashioned carriages from the 1930s to travel from Paris to Rheims while the songs from the album were played over the train 's announcement system for the critics .

In October 2009 , a remastered edition of the album was released by EMI Records in Germany , Mute Records in the European Union and Astralwerks Records in the United States . This re @-@ release was available on compact disc , digital download and vinyl and features a different album cover from previous versions of the album . This new version features a black background with white Trans Europ Express train in the center . The track listing on the 2009 re @-@ release amends the titles of the songs to match the original German release . This change has " Metal on Metal " being credited for two minutes of the music with the remainder being a track titled " Abzug " ( English : " Departure " ) .

= = Commercial performance = =

Trans @-@ Europe Express charted higher in the United States than Kraftwerk 's previous album Radio @-@ Activity by peaking at number 117 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart . " Trans @-@ Europe Express " and " Showroom Dummies " were released as singles from the album . " Trans @-@ Europe Express " charted in the Billboard Hot 100 in 1977 where it peaked at number 67 . Trans @-@ Europe Express began charting in the United Kingdom in the 1980s . The album entered the charts on February 6 , 1982 , staying in the charts for seven weeks and peaking at number 49 . The single for " Showroom Dummies " entered the charts on February 20 , 1982 , staying in the charts for five weeks and peaking at number 25 .

= = Critical reception = =

Initial reviews for the Trans @-@ Europe Express were positive . Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A- rating , stating that the album 's " textural effects sound like parodies by some cosmic schoolboy of every lush synthesizer surge that 's ever stuck in your gullet — yet also work the way those surges are supposed to work " . Trans @-@ Europe Express charted in the Village Voice 's 1977 Pazz & Jop critics poll , placing at number 30 .

Modern reception has been very favorable . Trans @-@ Europe Express has the highest possible ratings from publications including AllMusic , Mojo , Rolling Stone and Slant Magazine . Steve Huey of Allmusic wrote that the album " is often cited as perhaps the archetypal ( and most accessible ) Kraftwerk album ... Overall , Trans @-@ Europe Express offers the best blend of minimalism , mechanized rhythms , and crafted , catchy melodies in the group 's catalog " . The British press also looked favorably on the album . Q gave the album four stars out of five , stating that the album " changed the face of American dance music " and that it was one of the most compelling beats of this or any other era " . In 2009 Drowned in Sound gave the album a perfect rating of 10 out of 10 , stating that " Trans @-@ Europe Express is all at once antique , timeless , retro and contemporary . Its status as modern electronic music 's birth certificate is well @-@ earned , but its hallowed reputation should never be allowed to disguise its true value and power as a work of art . Nor should it obscure a longevity that , 32 years on , we might as well start calling by its real name : immortality " .

Trans @-@ Europe Express has also appeared on top album lists from a variety of sources . In 2001 , TV network VH1 placed Trans @-@ Europe Express at number 56 on their list of " 100 Greatest Albums ( of Rock & Roll ) of All Time " . In 2002 , Slant Magazine placed the album at number one on their list of the greatest electronic albums of the 20th century . In 2003 , Rolling Stone placed the album at number 253 on their list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Channel 4 placed the album at number 71 on their list of top 100 Greatest albums . In 2004 , the online music website Pitchfork Media listed Trans @-@ Europe Express as 6th best album of the 1970s , stating that " the day will soon come , if it hasn 't already , that Trans @-@ Europe Express joins the ranks of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Exile on Main Street as a record that simply cannot be written about " .

= = = Legacy = = =

Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described the album 's influence as " unprecedented , reaching as wide as rock ( Radiohead 's Kid A ) , hip @-@ hop ( Afrika Bambaataa 's classic " Planet Rock " , Jay Dee 's recent " Big Booty Express " ) and pop ( Madonna 's Drowned World Tour , which incorporated samples of " Metal on Metal " ) " .

In the late 1970s , the album had an impact on post @-@ punk band Joy Division as bassist Peter Hook related it : " We were introduced to Kraftwerk by [ singer ] Ian Curtis , who insisted we play Trans Europe Express before we went on stage every time . The tape was played in the venue over the PA system , to be heard by everyone . The first time was Pips [ a Manchester club well known for its ‘ Bowie Room ’ ] . Ian got thrown out for kicking glass around the dance floor in time to the track . It took us ages of pleading to get him back in . " Drummer Stephen Morris also confirmed that Joy Division " used to play Trans @-@ Europe Express before we went on stage , to get us into the zone . It worked because it gets up a lot of momentum . Trans @-@ Europe Express just seemed to express an optimism - even if people see it as machine music " . Morris also said : " It reminds me of Cabaret , the film , with all of the 1920s singing . [ ... ] When you get that marriage between humans and machines , and you get it right , it 's fantastic . I have to say it 's my favourite Kraftwerk album . "

= = = Accolades = = =

The information regarding accolades attributed to Trans @-@ Europe Express is adapted from Acclaimed Music , except where otherwise noted .

= = Track listing = =

Notes

^ [ a ] While " Abzug " ( English meaning " trigger " or " departure " ) appeared originally as a separate track on all pressings of Trans Europa Express , later releases of Trans @-@ Europe Express combined " Abzug " and " Metal on Metal " together under the latter track 's title , at a running time of 6 : 52 . On both 2009 reissues of Trans Europa Express and Trans @-@ Europe Express , however , " Abzug " is presented as a separate track .

= = Personnel = =

Adapted from Trans @-@ Europe Express liner notes .

= = Charts positions = =

= Gabriel García Márquez =

Gabriel José de la Concordia García Márquez ( / ɡɑːrˈsiːə ˈmɑːrkɛs / ; American Spanish : [ ɡaˈβɾjel ɣarˈsi.a ˈmarkes ] ; 6 March 1927 – 17 April 2014 ) was a Colombian novelist , short @-@ story writer , screenwriter and journalist , known affectionately as Gabo or Gabito throughout Latin America . Considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century and one of the best in the Spanish language , he was awarded the 1972 Neustadt International Prize for Literature and the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . He pursued a self @-@ directed education that resulted in his leaving law school for a career in journalism . From early on , he showed no inhibitions in his criticism of Colombian and foreign politics . In 1958 , he married Mercedes Barcha ; they had two sons , Rodrigo and Gonzalo .

García Márquez started as a journalist , and wrote many acclaimed non @-@ fiction works and short stories , but is best known for his novels , such as One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 ) , The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 ) , and Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 ) . His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success , most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as magic realism , which uses magical elements and events in otherwise ordinary and realistic situations . Some of his works are set in a fictional village called Macondo ( the town mainly inspired by his birthplace Aracataca ) , and most of them explore the theme of solitude .

On his death in April 2014 , Juan Manuel Santos , the President of Colombia , described him as " the greatest Colombian who ever lived . "

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life = = =

Gabriel García Márquez was born on 6 March 1927 in Aracataca , Colombia , to Gabriel Eligio García and Luisa Santiaga Márquez Iguarán . Soon after García Márquez was born , his father became a pharmacist and moved , with his wife , to Barranquilla , leaving young Gabito in Aracataca . He was raised by his maternal grandparents , Doña Tranquilina Iguarán and Colonel Nicolás Ricardo Márquez Mejía . In December 1936 , his father took him and his brother to Sincé , while in March 1937 , his grandfather died ; the family then moved first ( back ) to Barranquilla and then on to Sucre , where his father started up a pharmacy .

When his parents fell in love , their relationship met with resistance from Luisa Santiaga Márquez 's father , the Colonel . Gabriel Eligio García was not the man the Colonel had envisioned winning the heart of his daughter : he ( Gabriel Eligio ) was a Conservative , and had the reputation of being a womanizer . Gabriel Eligio wooed Luisa with violin serenades , love poems , countless letters , and even telephone messages after her father sent her away with the intention of separating the young couple . Her parents tried everything to get rid of the man , but he kept coming back , and it was obvious their daughter was committed to him . Her family finally capitulated and gave her permission to marry him ( The tragicomic story of their courtship would later be adapted and recast as Love in the Time of Cholera . )

Since García Márquez 's parents were more or less strangers to him for the first few years of his life , his grandparents influenced his early development very strongly . His grandfather , whom he called " Papalelo " , was a Liberal veteran of the Thousand Days War . The Colonel was considered a hero by Colombian Liberals and was highly respected . He was well known for his refusal to remain silent about the banana massacres that took place the year after García Márquez was born . The Colonel , whom García Márquez described as his " umbilical cord with history and reality , " was also an excellent storyteller . He taught García Márquez lessons from the dictionary , took him to the circus each year , and was the first to introduce his grandson to ice — a " miracle " found at the United Fruit Company store . He would also occasionally tell his young grandson " You can 't imagine how much a dead man weighs " , reminding him that there was no greater burden than to have killed a man , a lesson that García Márquez would later integrate into his novels .

García Márquez 's political and ideological views were shaped by his grandfather 's stories . In an interview , García Márquez told his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza , " my grandfather the Colonel was a Liberal . My political ideas probably came from him to begin with because , instead of telling me fairy tales when I was young , he would regale me with horrifying accounts of the last civil war that free @-@ thinkers and anti @-@ clerics waged against the Conservative government . " This influenced his political views and his literary technique so that " in the same way that his writing career initially took shape in conscious opposition to the Colombian literary status quo , García Márquez 's socialist and anti @-@ imperialist views are in principled opposition to the global status quo dominated by the United States . "

García Márquez 's grandmother , Doña Tranquilina Iguarán Cotes , played an equally influential role in his upbringing . He was inspired by the way she " treated the extraordinary as something perfectly natural . " The house was filled with stories of ghosts and premonitions , omens and portents , all of which were studiously ignored by her husband . According to García Márquez she was " the source of the magical , superstitious and supernatural view of reality " . He enjoyed his grandmother 's unique way of telling stories . No matter how fantastic or improbable her statements , she always delivered them as if they were the irrefutable truth . It was a deadpan style that , some thirty years later , heavily influenced her grandson 's most popular novel , One Hundred Years of Solitude .

= = = Journalism = = =

García Márquez began his career as a journalist while studying law at the National University of Colombia . In 1948 and 1949 he wrote for El Universal in Cartagena . Later , from 1950 until 1952 , he wrote a " whimsical " column under the name of " Septimus " for the local paper El Heraldo in Barranquilla . García Márquez noted of his time at El Heraldo , " I 'd write a piece and they 'd pay me three pesos for it , and maybe an editorial for another three . " During this time he became an active member of the informal group of writers and journalists known as the Barranquilla Group , an association that provided great motivation and inspiration for his literary career . He worked with inspirational figures such as Ramon Vinyes , whom García Márquez depicted as an Old Catalan who owns a bookstore in One Hundred Years of Solitude . At this time , García Márquez was also introduced to the works of writers such as Virginia Woolf and William Faulkner . Faulkner 's narrative techniques , historical themes and use of rural locations influenced many Latin American authors . The environment of Barranquilla gave García Márquez a world @-@ class literary education and provided him with a unique perspective on Caribbean culture . From 1954 to 1955 , García Márquez spent time in Bogotá and regularly wrote for Bogotá 's El Espectador . He was a regular film critic which drove his interest in film .

In December 1957 García Márquez accepted a position in Caracas in the newspaper El Momento . He arrived to the Venezuelan capital on 23 December 1957 , and began working right away at El Momento . García Márquez also assisted in the 1958 Venezuelan coup d 'état , leading to the exile of the president Marcos Pérez Jiménez . Following this event , García Márquez wrote an article , " The participation of the clergy in the struggle " , describing the Church of Venezuela opposition against Jiménez 's regime . In March 1958 he made a trip to Colombia , where he married Mercedes Barcha and together they came back to Caracas . In May 1958 , disagreeing with the owner of Momento , he resigned and became shortly afterwards editor of the newspaper Venezuela Gráfica .

= = = = The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor = = = =

Ending in controversy , his last domestically written editorial for El Espectador was a series of fourteen news articles in which he revealed the hidden story of how a Colombian Navy vessel 's shipwreck " occurred because the boat contained a badly stowed cargo of contraband goods that broke loose on the deck . " García Márquez compiled this story through interviews with a young sailor who survived the shipwreck . The publication of the articles resulted in public controversy , as they discredited the official account of the events , which had blamed a storm for the shipwreck , and glorified the surviving sailor .

In response to this controversy El Espectador sent García Márquez away to Europe to be a foreign correspondent . He wrote about his experiences for El Independiente , a newspaper which had briefly replaced El Espectador during the military government of General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla and was later shut down by Colombian authorities . García Márquez 's background in journalism provided a foundational base for his writing career . Literary critic Bell @-@ Villada noted , " Owing to his hands on experiences in journalism , García Márquez is , of all the great living authors , the one who is closest to everyday reality . "

= = = QAP = = =

García Márquez was one of the original founders of QAP , a newscast that aired between 1992 and 1997 . He was attracted to the project by the promise of editorial and journalistic independence .

= = = Marriage and family = = =

García Márquez met Mercedes Barcha while she was at school ; they decided to wait for her to finish before getting married . When he was sent to Europe as a foreign correspondent , Mercedes waited for him to return to Barranquilla . Finally they married in 1958 . The following year , their first son , Rodrigo García , now a television and film director , was born . In 1961 , the family traveled by Greyhound bus throughout the southern United States and eventually settled in Mexico City . García Márquez had always wanted to see the Southern United States because it inspired the writings of William Faulkner . Three years later the couple 's second son , Gonzalo , was born in Mexico . Gonzalo is currently a graphic designer in Mexico City .

= = = Leaf Storm = = =

Leaf Storm ( La Hojarasca ) is García Márquez 's first novella and took seven years to find a publisher , finally being published in 1955 . García Márquez notes that " of all that he had written ( as of 1973 ) , Leaf Storm was his favorite because he felt that it was the most sincere and spontaneous . " All the events of the novella take place in one room , during a half @-@ hour period on Wednesday 12 September 1928 . It is the story of an old colonel ( similar to García Márquez 's own grandfather ) who tries to give a proper Christian burial to an unpopular French doctor . The colonel is supported only by his daughter and grandson . The novella explores the child 's first experience with death by following his stream of consciousness . The book also reveals the perspective of Isabel , the Colonel 's daughter , which provides a feminine point of view .

= = = One Hundred Years of Solitude = = =

Since García Márquez was eighteen , he had wanted to write a novel based on his grandparents ' house where he grew up . However , he struggled with finding an appropriate tone and put off the idea until one day the answer hit him while driving his family to Acapulco . He turned the car around and the family returned home so he could begin writing . He sold his car so his family would have money to live on while he wrote , but writing the novel took far longer than he expected , and he wrote every day for eighteen months . His wife had to ask for food on credit from their butcher and their baker as well as nine months of rent on credit from their landlord . During the eighteen months of writing , García Márquez met with two couples , Eran Carmen and Álvaro Mutis , and María Luisa Elío and Jomí García Ascot , every night and discussed the progress of the novel , trying out different versions . Fortunately , when the book was finally published in 1967 it became his most commercially successful novel , One Hundred Years of Solitude , which sold more than 30 million copies ( Cien años de soledad ) ( 1967 ; English translation by Gregory Rabassa 1970 ) and was dedicated “ Para ( to ) Jomí García Ascot y María Luisa Elío ” . The story chronicles several generations of the Buendía family from the time they founded the fictional South American village of Macondo , through their trials and tribulations , instances of incest , births and deaths . The history of Macondo is often generalized by critics to represent rural towns throughout Latin America or at least near García Márquez 's native Aracataca .

This novel was widely popular and led to García Márquez 's Nobel Prize as well as the Rómulo Gallegos Prize in 1972 . William Kennedy has called it " the first piece of literature since the Book of Genesis that should be required reading for the entire human race , " and hundreds of articles and books of literary critique have been published in response to it . Despite the many accolades the book received , García Márquez tended to downplay its success . He once remarked : " Most critics don 't realize that a novel like One Hundred Years of Solitude is a bit of a joke , full of signals to close friends ; and so , with some pre @-@ ordained right to pontificate they take on the responsibility of decoding the book and risk making terrible fools of themselves . "

= = = Fame = = =

After writing One Hundred Years of Solitude García Márquez returned to Europe , this time bringing along his family , to live in Barcelona , Spain , for seven years . The international recognition García Márquez earned with the publication of the novel led to his ability to act as a facilitator in several negotiations between the Colombian government and the guerrillas , including the former 19th of April Movement ( M @-@ 19 ) , and the current FARC and ELN organizations . The popularity of his writing also led to friendships with powerful leaders , including one with former Cuban president Fidel Castro , which has been analyzed in Gabo and Fidel : Portrait of a Friendship . It was during this time that he was punched in the face by Mario Vargas Llosa in what became one of the largest feuds in modern literature . In an interview with Claudia Dreifus in 1982 García Márquez notes his relationship with Castro is mostly based on literature : “ Ours is an intellectual friendship . It may not be widely known that Fidel is a very cultured man . When we ’ re together , we talk a great deal about literature . ” This relationship was criticized by Cuban exile writer Reinaldo Arenas , in his 1992 memoir Antes de que Anochezca ( Before Night Falls ) .

Due to his newfound fame and his outspoken views on U.S. imperialism Garcia Márquez was labeled as a subversive and for many years was denied visas by U.S. immigration authorities . After Bill Clinton was elected U.S. president , he lifted the travel ban and cited One Hundred Years of Solitude as his favorite novel .

= = = Autumn of the Patriarch = = =

García Márquez was inspired to write a dictator novel when he witnessed the flight of Venezuelan dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez . He shares , " it was the first time we had seen a dictator fall in Latin America . " García Márquez began writing Autumn of the Patriarch ( El otoño del patriarca ) in 1968 and said it was finished in 1971 ; however , he continued to embellish the dictator novel until 1975 when it was published in Spain . According to García Márquez , the novel is a " poem on the solitude of power " as it follows the life of an eternal dictator known as the General . The novel is developed through a series of anecdotes related to the life of the General , which do not appear in chronological order . Although the exact location of the story is not pin @-@ pointed in the novel , the imaginary country is situated somewhere in the Caribbean .

García Márquez gave his own explanation of the plot :

My intention was always to make a synthesis of all the Latin American dictators , but especially those from the Caribbean . Nevertheless , the personality of Juan Vicente Gomez [ of Venezuela ] was so strong , in addition to the fact that he exercised a special fascination over me , that undoubtedly the Patriarch has much more of him than anyone else .

After Autumn of the Patriarch was published García Márquez and his family moved from Barcelona to Mexico City and García Márquez pledged not to publish again until the Chilean Dictator Augusto Pinochet was deposed . However , he ultimately published Chronicle of a Death Foretold while Pinochet was still in power as he " could not remain silent in the face of injustice and repression . "

= = = Chronicle of a Death Foretold = = =

Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( Crónica de una muerte anunciada ) recreates a murder that took place in Sucre , Colombia in 1951 . The character named Santiago Nasar is based on a good friend from García Márquez 's childhood , Cayetano Gentile Chimento . Pelayo classifies this novel as a combination of journalism , realism and detective story .

The plot of the novel revolves around Santiago Nasar 's murder . The narrator acts as a detective , uncovering the events of the murder second by second . Literary critic Ruben Pelayo notes that the story " unfolds in an inverted fashion . Instead of moving forward ... the plot moves backwards . " In the first chapter , the narrator tells the reader exactly who killed Santiago Nasar and the rest of the book is left to unfold why .

Chronicle of a Death Foretold was published in 1981 , the year before García Márquez was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature . The novel was also adapted into a film by Italian director Francesco Rosi in 1987 .

= = = Love in the Time of Cholera = = =

Love in the Time of Cholera ( El amor en los tiempos del cólera ) was first published in 1985 . It is considered a non @-@ traditional love story as " lovers find love in their ' golden years ' — in their seventies , when death is all around them " .

Love in the Time of Cholera is based on the stories of two couples . The young love of Fermina Daza and Florentino Ariza is based on the love affair of García Márquez 's parents . However , as García Márquez explains in an interview : “ The only difference is [ my parents ] married . And as soon as they were married , they were no longer interesting as literary figures . " The love of old people is based on a newspaper story about the death of two Americans , who were almost 80 years old , who met every year in Acapulco . They were out in a boat one day and were murdered by the boatman with his oars . García Márquez notes , " Through their death , the story of their secret romance became known . I was fascinated by them . They were each married to other people . "

= = = News of a Kidnapping = = =

News of a Kidnapping ( Noticia de un secuestro ) was first published in 1996 . It is a non @-@ fiction book that examines a series of related kidnappings and Narco @-@ terrorist actions committed in the early 1990s in Colombia by the Medellín Cartel , a drug cartel founded and operated by Pablo Escobar . The text recounts the kidnapping , imprisonment , and eventual release of prominent figures in Colombia , including politicians and members of the press . The original idea of the book was proposed to García Márquez by the former minister for education Maruja Pachón Castro and Colombian diplomat Luis Alberto Villamizar Cárdenas , both of whom were among the many victims of a Pablo Escobar 's attempt to pressure the government to stop his extradition by committing a series of kidnappings , murders and terrorist actions .

= = = Living to Tell the Tale and Memories of My Melancholy Whores = = =

In 2002 , García Márquez published the memoir Vivir para contarla , the first of a projected three @-@ volume autobiography . Edith Grossman 's English translation , Living to Tell the Tale , was published in November 2003 . October 2004 brought the publication of a novel , Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( Memoria de mis putas tristes ) , a love story that follows the romance of a 90 @-@ year @-@ old man and a pubescent concubine . Memories of My Melancholy Whores caused controversy in Iran , where it was banned after an initial 5 @,@ 000 copies were printed and sold .

= = = Film and opera = = =

Critics often describe the language that García Márquez 's imagination produces as visual or graphic , and he himself explains each of his stories is inspired by " a visual image , " so it comes as no surprise that he had a long and involved history with film . He was a film critic , he founded and served as executive director of the Film Institute in Havana , was the head of the Latin American Film Foundation , and wrote several screenplays . For his first script he worked with Carlos Fuentes on Juan Rulfo 's El gallo de oro . His other screenplays include the films Tiempo de morir ( 1966 ) , ( 1985 ) and Un señor muy viejo con unas alas enormes ( 1988 ) , as well as the television series Amores difíciles ( 1991 ) .

García Márquez also originally wrote his Eréndira as a third screenplay . However , this version was lost and replaced by the novella . Nonetheless , he worked on rewriting the script in collaboration with Ruy Guerra and the film was released in Mexico in 1983 .

Several of his stories have inspired other writers and directors . In 1987 , the Italian director Francesco Rosi directed the movie Cronaca di una morte annunciata based on Chronicle of a Death Foretold . Several film adaptations have been made in Mexico , including Miguel Littin 's La Viuda de Montiel ( 1979 ) , Jaime Humberto Hermosillo 's Maria de mi corazón ( 1979 ) , and Arturo Ripstein 's El coronel no tiene quien le escriba ( 1998 ) .

British director Mike Newell ( Four Weddings and a Funeral ) filmed Love in the Time of Cholera in Cartagena , Colombia , with the screenplay written by Ronald Harwood ( The Pianist ) . The film was released in the U.S. on 16 November 2007 .

His novel Of Love and Other Demons was adapted and directed by a Costa Rican filmmaker , Hilda Hidalgo , who is a graduate of the Film Institute at Havana where García Márquez would frequently impart screenplay workshops . Hidalgo 's film was released in April 2010 . The same novel was adapted by Hungarian composer Péter Eötvös to form the opera Love and Other Demons , premiered in 2008 at Glyndebourne Festival .

= = = Later life and death = = =

= = = = Declining health = = = =

In 1999 , García Márquez was diagnosed with lymphatic cancer . Chemotherapy provided by a hospital in Los Angeles proved to be successful , and the illness went into remission . This event prompted García Márquez to begin writing his memoirs : " I reduced relations with my friends to a minimum , disconnected the telephone , canceled the trips and all sorts of current and future plans " , he told El Tiempo , the Colombian newspaper , " ... and locked myself in to write every day without interruption . " In 2002 , three years later , he published Living to Tell the Tale ( Vivir para Contarla ) , the first volume in a projected trilogy of memoirs .

In 2000 , his impending death was incorrectly reported by Peruvian daily newspaper La República . The next day other newspapers republished his alleged farewell poem , " La Marioneta , " but shortly afterwards García Márquez denied being the author of the poem , which was determined to be the work of a Mexican ventriloquist .

He stated that 2005 " was the first [ year ] in my life in which I haven 't written even a line . With my experience , I could write a new novel without any problems , but people would realise my heart wasn 't in it . "

In May 2008 , it was announced that García Márquez was finishing a new " novel of love " that had yet to be given a title , to be published by the end of the year . However , in April 2009 his agent , Carmen Balcells , told the Chilean newspaper La Tercera that García Márquez was unlikely to write again . This was disputed by Random House Mondadori editor Cristobal Pera , who stated that García Márquez was completing a new novel called We 'll Meet in August ( En agosto nos vemos ) .

In December 2008 , García Márquez told fans at the Guadalajara book fair that writing had worn him out . In 2009 , responding to claims by both his literary agent and his biographer that his writing career was over , he told Colombian newspaper El Tiempo : " Not only is it not true , but the only thing I do is write " .

In 2012 , his brother Jaime announced that García Márquez was suffering from dementia .

In April 2014 , García Márquez was hospitalized in Mexico . He had infections in his lungs and his urinary tract , and was suffering from dehydration . He was responding well to antibiotics . Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto wrote on Twitter , " I wish him a speedy recovery " . Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos said his country was thinking of the author and said in a tweet " All of Colombia wishes a speedy recovery to the greatest of all time : Gabriel García Márquez " .

= = = = Death and funeral = = = =

García Márquez died of pneumonia at the age of 87 on 17 April 2014 in Mexico City . His death was confirmed by his relative Fernanda Familiar on Twitter , and by his former editor Cristóbal Pera .

The Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos mentioned : " One Hundred Years of Solitude and sadness for the death of the greatest Colombian of all time " . The former Colombian president Álvaro Uribe Vélez said : " Master García Márquez , thanks forever , millions of people in the planet fell in love with our nation fascinated with your lines " . At the time of his death , he had a wife and two sons .

Garcia Marquez was cremated at a private family ceremony in Mexico City . On 22 April , the presidents of Colombia and Mexico attended a formal ceremony in Mexico City , where Garcia Marquez had lived for more than three decades . A funeral cortege took the urn containing his ashes from his house to the Palacio de Bellas Artes , where the memorial ceremony was held . Earlier , residents in his home town of Aracataca in Colombia 's Caribbean region held a symbolic funeral .

= = Style = =

While there are certain aspects readers can almost always expect in García Márquez 's writing , like instances of humour , he did not stick to any clear and predetermined style template . In an interview with Marlise Simons , García Márquez noted :

In every book I try to make a different path [ ... ] . One doesn 't choose the style . You can investigate and try to discover what the best style would be for a theme . But the style is determined by the subject , by the mood of the times . If you try to use something that is not suitable , it just won 't work . Then the critics build theories around that and they see things I hadn 't seen . I only respond to our way of life , the life of the Caribbean .

García Márquez was also noted for leaving out seemingly important details and events so the reader is forced into a more participatory role in the story development . For example , in No One Writes to the Colonel , the main characters are not given names . This practice is influenced by Greek tragedies , such as Antigone and Oedipus Rex , in which important events occur off @-@ stage and are left to the audience 's imagination .

= = = Realism and magical realism = = =

Reality is an important theme in all of García Márquez 's works . He said of his early works ( with the exception of Leaf Storm ) , " Nobody Writes to the Colonel , In Evil Hour , and Big Mama 's Funeral all reflect the reality of life in Colombia and this theme determines the rational structure of the books . I don 't regret having written them , but they belong to a kind of premeditated literature that offers too static and exclusive a vision of reality . "

In his other works he experimented more with less traditional approaches to reality , so that " the most frightful , the most unusual things are told with the deadpan expression " . A commonly cited example is the physical and spiritual ascending into heaven of a character while she is hanging the laundry out to dry in One Hundred Years of Solitude . The style of these works fits in the " marvellous realm " described by the Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier and was labeled as magical realism . Literary critic Michael Bell proposes an alternative understanding for García Márquez 's style , as the category magic realism is criticized for being dichotomizing and exoticizing , " what is really at stake is a psychological suppleness which is able to inhabit unsentimentally the daytime world while remaining open to the promptings of those domains which modern culture has , by its own inner logic , necessarily marginalised or repressed . " García Márquez and his friend Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza discuss his work in a similar way ,

" The way you treat reality in your books ... has been called magical realism . I have the feeling your European readers are usually aware of the magic of your stories but fail to see the reality behind it ... . " " This is surely because their rationalism prevents them seeing that reality isn 't limited to the price of tomatoes and eggs . "

= = Motifs = =

= = = Solitude = = =

The theme of solitude runs through much of García Márquez 's works . As Pelayo notes , " Love in the Time of Cholera , like all of Gabriel García Márquez 's work , explores the solitude of the individual and of humankind ... portrayed through the solitude of love and of being in love " .

In response to Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza 's question , " If solitude is the theme of all your books , where should we look for the roots of this over @-@ riding emotion ? In your childhood perhaps ? " García Márquez replied , " I think it 's a problem everybody has . Everyone has his own way and means of expressing it . The feeling pervades the work of so many writers , although some of them may express it unconsciously . "

In his Nobel Prize acceptance speech , Solitude of Latin America , he relates this theme of solitude to the Latin American experience , " The interpretation of our reality through patterns not our own , serves only to make us ever more unknown , ever less free , ever more solitary . "

= = = Macondo = = =

Another important theme in many of García Márquez 's work is the setting of the village he calls Macondo . He uses his home town of Aracataca , Colombia as a cultural , historical and geographical reference to create this imaginary town , but the representation of the village is not limited to this specific area . García Márquez shares , " Macondo is not so much a place as a state of mind , which allows you to see what you want , and how you want to see it . " Even when his stories do not take place in Macondo , there is often still a consistent lack of specificity to the location . So while they are often set with " a Caribbean coastline and an Andean hinterland ... [ the settings are ] otherwise unspecified , in accordance with García Márquez 's evident attempt to capture a more general regional myth rather than give a specific political analysis . " This fictional town has become well known in the literary world . As Stavans notes of Macondo , " its geography and inhabitants constantly invoked by teachers , politicians , and tourist agents ... " makes it " ... hard to believe it is a sheer fabrication . " In Leaf Storm García Márquez depicts the realities of the Banana Boom in Macondo , which include a period of great wealth during the presence of the US companies and a period of depression upon the departure of the American banana companies . As well , One Hundred Years of Solitude takes place in Macondo and tells the complete history of the fictional town from its founding to its doom .

In his autobiography , García Márquez explains his fascination with the word and concept Macondo . He describes a trip he made with his mother back to Aracataca as a young man :

The train stopped at a station that had no town , and a short while later it passed the only banana plantation along the route that had its name written over the gate : Macondo . This word had attracted my attention ever since the first trips I had made with my grandfather , but I discovered only as an adult that I liked its poetic resonance . I never heard anyone say it and did not even ask myself what it meant ... I happened to read in an encyclopedia that it is a tropical tree resembling the Ceiba .

= = = Violence = = =

In several of García Márquez 's works , including No One Writes to the Colonel , In Evil Hour , and Leaf Storm , he referenced La Violencia ( the violence ) , " a brutal civil war between conservatives and liberals that lasted into the 1960s , causing the deaths of several hundred thousand Colombians " . Throughout all of his novels there are subtle references to la violencia . For example , characters live under various unjust situations like curfew , press censorship , and underground newspapers . In Evil Hour , while not one of García Márquez 's most famous novels , is notable for its portrayal of la violencia with its " fragmented portrayal of social disintegration provoked by la violencia " . Although García Márquez did portray the corrupt nature and the injustices of times like la violencia , he refused to use his work as a platform for political propaganda . " For him , the duty of the revolutionary writer is to write well , and the ideal novel is one that moves its reader by its political and social content , and , at the same time , by its power to penetrate reality and expose its other side .

= = Legacy = =

Whether in fiction or nonfiction , in the epic novel or the concentrated story , Márquez is now recognized in the words of Carlos Fuentes as " the most popular and perhaps the best writer in Spanish since Cervantes " . He is one of those very rare artists who succeed in chronicling not only a nation 's life , culture and history , but also those of an entire continent , and a master storyteller who , as The New York Review of Books once said , " forces upon us at every page the wonder and extravagance of life . "

García Márquez 's work is an important part of the Latin American Boom of literature . His work has challenged critics of Colombian literature to step out of the conservative criticism that had been dominant before the success of One Hundred Years of Solitude . In a review of literary criticism Robert Sims notes ,

García Márquez continues to cast a lengthy shadow in Colombia , Latin America , and the United States . Critical works on the 1982 Nobel laureate have reached industrial proportion and show no signs of abating . Moreover , García Márquez has galvanized Colombian literature in an unprecedented way by giving a tremendous impetus to Colombian literature . Indeed , he has become a touchstone for literature and criticism throughout the Americas as his work has created a certain attraction @-@ repulsion among critics and writers while readers continue to devour new publications . No one can deny that García Márquez has helped rejuvenate , reformulate , and recontextualize literature and criticism in Colombia and the rest of Latin America .

= = = Nobel Prize = = =

García Márquez received the Nobel Prize in Literature on 8 December 1982 " for his novels and short stories , in which the fantastic and the realistic are combined in a richly composed world of imagination , reflecting a continent 's life and conflicts " . His acceptance speech was entitled " The Solitude of Latin America " . García Márquez was the first Colombian and fourth Latin American to win a Nobel Prize for Literature . After becoming a Nobel laureate , García Márquez stated to a correspondent : " I have the impression that in giving me the prize , they have taken into account the literature of the sub @-@ continent and have awarded me as a way of awarding all of this literature " .

= = List of works = =

= = = Novels = = =

In Evil Hour ( 1962 )

One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1967 )

The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 )

Love in the Time of Cholera ( 1985 )

The General in His Labyrinth ( 1989 )

Of Love and Other Demons ( 1994 )

= = = Novellas = = =

Leaf Storm ( 1955 )

No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1961 )

Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( 1981 )

Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( 2004 )

= = = Short story collections = = =

Eyes of a Blue Dog ( 1947 )

Big Mama 's Funeral ( 1962 )

One of These Days ( 1962 )

The Incredible and Sad Tale of Innocent Eréndira and Her Heartless Grandmother ( 1978 )

Collected Stories ( 1984 )

Strange Pilgrims ( 1993 )

= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =

The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor ( 1970 )

The Solitude of Latin America ( 1982 )

The Fragrance of Guava ( 1982 , with Plinio Apuleyo Mendoza )

Clandestine in Chile ( 1986 )

News of a Kidnapping ( 1996 )

A Country for Children ( 1998 )

Living to Tell the Tale ( 2002 )

= = = Films = = =

= = = Adaptations based on his works = = =

There Are No Thieves in This Village ( 1965 , Alberto Isaac )

Patsy , My Love ( 1969 , Manuel Michel , based on a non @-@ published story )

The Widow of Montiel ( 1979 , Miguel Littín )

The Sea of Lost Time ( 1980 , Solveig Hoogesteijn )

One Hundred Years of Solitude ( 1981 , Shūji Terayama )

Farewell to the Ark ( 1984 , Shūji Terayama )

Time to Die ( 1984 , Jorge Alí Triana )

Chronicle of a Death Foretold ( 1987 , Francesco Rosi )

The Summer of Miss Forbes ( 1989 , Jaime Humberto Hermosillo )

I 'm the One You 're Looking For ( 1989 , Jaime Chávarri )

Only Death Is Bound to Come ( 1992 , Marina Tsurtsumia )

Bloody Morning ( 1993 , Shaohong Li )

No One Writes to the Colonel ( 1999 , Arturo Ripstein )

In Evil Hour ( 2005 , Ruy Guerra )

Love in the Time of Cholera ( 2007 , Mike Newell )

Of Love and Other Demons ( 2009 , Hilda Hidalgo )

Memories of My Melancholy Whores ( 2011 , Henning Carlsen )

= = García Márquez in fiction = =

A year after his death , García Márquez appears as a notable character in Claudia Amengual 's novel Cartagena , set in Uruguay and Colombia

In Dexter ( season 3 ) , episode 10 ( " Go Your Own Way " ) , the title character gains access to Miguel Prado 's personal study by telling Prado 's housekeeper , Norma , he wants to give Prado a best man gift of a García Márquez limited edition book Prado doesn 't already have , that Dexter needs to see which books are already in Prado 's library , and Norma should keep the gift and visit a secret .

In John Green 's famous novel " Looking for Alaska " , Gabriel García Márquez is mentioned several times .

= = = Movies = = =

Interview with Gabriel García Márquez in 1998 .

Gabo – The Creation of Gabriel García Márquez . Documentary , Germany , 2015 , 90 min .

= Lola ( song ) =

" Lola " is a song written by Ray Davies and performed by English rock band the Kinks on their album Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One . The song details a romantic encounter between a young man and a possible transvestite , whom he meets in a club in Soho , London . In the song , the narrator describes his confusion towards a person named Lola who " walked like a woman and talked like a man " . Although Ray Davies claims that the incident was inspired by a true encounter experienced by the band 's manager , alternate explanations for the song have been given by drummer Mick Avory .

The song was released in the United Kingdom on 12 June 1970 , while in the United States it was released on 28 June 1970 . Commercially , the single reached number two on the UK Singles Chart and number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . Due to its controversial subject matter and use of the brand name Coca @-@ Cola , the single received backlash and even bans in Britain and Australia . The British version of the song uses the phrase " cherry cola " while the US version uses the name " Coca @-@ Cola . " The track has since become one of The Kinks ' most iconic and popular songs , later being ranked number 422 on " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " as well as number 473 on the " NME 's 500 Greatest Songs Of All Time " list .

Since its release , " Lola " has appeared on multiple compilation and live albums . In 1980 , a live version of the song from the album One for the Road was released as a single in America and some European countries , becoming a minor hit . Other versions include live renditions from 1972 's Everybody 's in Show @-@ Biz and 1996 's To the Bone . The " Lola " character also made an appearance in the lyrics of the band 's 1981 song , " Destroyer " .

= = Background = =

Ray Davies has claimed that he was inspired to write " Lola " after Kinks manager Robert Wace spent a night in Paris dancing with a transgender woman . Davies said of the incident , " In his apartment , Robert had been dancing with this black woman , and he said , ' I 'm really onto a thing here . ' And it was okay until we left at six in the morning and then I said , ' Have you seen the stubble ? ' He said ' Yeah , ' but he was too pissed [ intoxicated ] to care , I think . "

Drummer Mick Avory has offered an alternate explanation for the song 's lyrics , claiming that " Lola " was partially inspired by Avory 's frequenting of transgender bars in west London . Avory said , " We used to know this character called Michael McGrath . He used to hound the group a bit , because being called The Kinks did attract these sorts of people . He used to come down to Top of the Pops , and he was publicist for John Stephen 's shop in Carnaby Street . He used to have this place in Earl 's Court , and he used to invite me to all these drag queen acts and transsexual pubs . They were like secret clubs . And that 's where Ray [ Davies ] got the idea for ' Lola . ' When he was invited too , he wrote it while I was getting drunk . "

Despite claims that the song was written about a supposed date between Ray Davies and trans woman actress Candy Darling , Davies has since claimed this rumour to be false , saying that the two only went out to dinner together and that he had known the whole time of Darling 's gender identity .

In his autobiography , Dave Davies said that he came up with the music for what would become " Lola " , noting that brother Ray added the lyrics after hearing it . In a 1990 interview , Dave Davies claimed that " Lola " was written in a similar fashion to ' You Really Got Me ' in that the two worked on Ray 's basic skeleton of the song , saying that the song was more of a collaborative effort than many believed .

= = Writing and recording = =

Written in April 1970 , " Lola " was cited by Ray Davies as the first song he wrote following a break he took to act in the 1970 Play for Today film The Long Distance Piano Player . Davies said that he had initially struggled with writing an opening that would sell the song , but the rest of the song " came naturally . "

Initial recordings of the song began in April 1970 , but , as the band 's bassist John Dalton remembered , recording for " Lola " took particularly long , stretching into the next month . During April , four to five versions were attempted , utilizing different keys as well as varying beginnings and styles . In May , new piano parts were added to the backing track by John Gosling , the band 's new piano player that had just been auditioned . Vocals were also added at this time . The song was then mixed during that month . Mick Avory remembered the recording sessions for the song positively , saying that it " was fun , as it was the Baptist 's [ John Gosling 's ] first recording with us . "

The guitar opening on the song was produced as a result of combining the sound of a Martin guitar and a vintage Dobro resonating guitar . Ray Davies cited this blend of guitar sounds for the song 's unique guitar sound .

= = Release and controversy = =

Despite the chart success " Lola " would achieve , its fellow Lola vs. Powerman track " Powerman " was initially considered to be the first single from the album . However , " Lola " , which Ray Davies later claimed was an attempt to write a hit , was eventually decided on as the debut single release .

" Lola " was released as a single in 1970 . In the UK , the B @-@ side to the single was the Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society outtake " Berkeley Mews " while the Dave Davies @-@ penned " Mindless Child of Motherhood " was used in the US . It became an unexpected chart smash for the Kinks , reaching number two in Britain and number nine in the United States . The single also saw success worldwide , reaching the top of the charts in Ireland , New Zealand , and South Africa , as well as the top 5 in Germany , Austria , Belgium , and Switzerland . The success of the single had important ramifications for the band 's career at a critical time , allowing them to negotiate a new contract with RCA Records , construct their own London Studio , and assume more creative and managerial control . In a 1970 interview , Dave Davies claimed that , if " Lola " had been a failure , the band would have " gone on making records for another year or so and then drifted apart . "

Although the track was a major hit for the band , Dave Davies did not enjoy the success of " Lola " , saying , " In fact , when ' Lola ' was a hit , it made me feel a bit uncomfortable . Because it was taking us out of a different sort of comfort zone , where we 'd been getting into the work , and the writing and the musicality was more thought about . It did have that smell of : ' Oh blimey , not that again . ' I found it a bit odd , that period . And then it got odder and weirder . " Mick Avory said that he " enjoyed the success " the band had with " Lola " and its follow @-@ up , " Apeman . "

= = = Censorship = = =

Originally , " Lola " received backlash for its controversial lyrics . Talks of censorship began to arise , with some radio stations fading the track out before Lola 's biological sex was revealed . On 18 November 1970 , the song was even banned in Australia because of " controversial subject matter . " In a then @-@ current Record Mirror article entitled " Sex Change Record : Kink Speaks " , Ray Davies refused to tell Lola 's biological sex , saying , " It really doesn 't matter what sex Lola is , I think she 's alright . "

Despite its subject matter , the BBC banned the track for a different reason . The original song recorded in stereo had the word " Coca @-@ Cola " in the lyrics , but because of BBC Radio 's policy against product placement , Ray Davies was forced to make a round @-@ trip flight from New York to London and back — interrupting the band 's American tour — to change those words to the generic " cherry cola " for the single release .

= = Reception and legacy = =

" Lola " received positive reviews from critics . Upon the single 's release , the NME praised the song as " an engaging and sparkling piece with a gay Latin flavour and a catchy hook chorus . " Billboard said of the song at the time of its US release , " Currently a top ten British chart winner , this infectious rhythm item has all the ingredients to put the Kinks right back up the Hot 100 here with solid impact . " Rolling Stone critic Paul Gambaccini called the song as " brilliant and a smash . " Music critic Robert Christgau , despite his mixed opinion on the Lola vs. Powerman album , praised the single as " astounding . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic lauded the song for " its crisp , muscular sound , pitched halfway between acoustic folk and hard rock . " Ultimate Classic Rock ranked " Lola " as The Kinks ' third best song , saying " the great guitar riff that feeds the song is one of Dave 's all @-@ time greatest . " Paste Magazine listed the track as the band 's fourth best song .

The song was also well @-@ liked by the band . Mick Avory , who noted the song as one of the songs he was most proud to be associated with , said " I always liked ' Lola ' , I liked the subject . It 's not like anything else . I liked it for that . We 'd always take a different path . " In a 1983 interview , Ray Davies said , " I 'm just very pleased I recorded it and more pleased I wrote it . " The band revisited the " Lola " character in the lyrics of their 1981 song , " Destroyer " , a minor chart hit in America .

Satirical artist " Weird Al " Yankovic created a parody of the song called " Yoda " , featuring lyrics about the Star Wars character of the same name , on his 1985 album Dare to Be Stupid .

= = Live versions = =

Since its release , " Lola " became a mainstay in The Kinks ' live repertoire , appearing in the majority of the band 's subsequent set @-@ lists until the group 's break @-@ up . In 1972 , a live performance of the song recorded at Carnegie Hall in New York City appeared on the live half of the band 's 1972 album , Everybody 's in Show @-@ Biz , a double @-@ LP which contained half new studio compositions and half live versions of previously released songs .

A live version of " Lola " , recorded on 23 September 1979 in Providence , Rhode Island , was released as a single in the US in July 1980 to promote the live album One for the Road . The B @-@ side was the live version of " Celluloid Heroes " . The single was a moderate success , reaching number 81 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was also released in some countries in Europe ( although not the UK ) in April 1981 . It topped the charts in both the Netherlands , matching the number one peak of the original version , and in Belgium , where it exceeded the original 's peak of three . It also charted in Australia , peaking at number 69 and spending 22 weeks on the charts . Although not released as a stand @-@ alone single in the UK , it was included on a bonus single ( backed with a live version of " David Watts " from the same album ) with initial copies of " Better Things " in June 1981 . This live rendition , along with the live versions of " Celluloid Heroes " and " You Really Got Me " from the same album , also appeared on the 1986 compilation album Come Dancing with The Kinks : The Best of the Kinks 1977 – 1986 .

Although it did not appear on the original 1994 version , another live version of " Lola " was included on the 1996 US double @-@ album release of To the Bone , the band 's final release of new material before their dissolution .

= = Personnel = =

1970 studio version

Ray Davies – vocals , acoustic guitar

Dave Davies – electric guitar , backing vocals

Mick Avory – drums

John Dalton – bass

John Gosling – piano

Ken Jones – maracas

1980 live version

Ray Davies – vocals , acoustic guitar

Dave Davies – electric guitar , backing vocals

Mick Avory – drums

Jim Rodford – bass , backing vocals

Ian Gibbons – keyboards

= = Chart performance = =

= South Forty @-@ Foot Drain =

The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , also known as the Black Sluice Navigation , is the main channel for the land @-@ drainage of the Black Sluice Level in the Lincolnshire Fens . It lies in eastern England between Guthram Gowt and the Black Sluice pumping station on The Haven , at Boston . The Drain has its origins in the 1630s , when the first scheme to make the Fen land available for agriculture was carried out by the Earl of Lindsey , and has been steadily improved since then . Water drained from the land entered The Haven by gravity at certain states of the tide until 1946 , when the Black Sluice pumping station was commissioned .

The Drain was navigable until 1971 , when improvements to the pumping station led to the entrance lock being removed . It is currently being upgraded to navigable status by the Environment Agency , as part of the Fens Waterways Link , with a new entrance lock being completed in December 2008 , giving access to the first 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the drain , and the upgrading of the southern section , including a link to the River Glen to allow navigation to Spalding forming phase 2 of the project .

= = History = =

The Lincolnshire Fens are an area of low @-@ lying land which have been subject to flooding and attempts to prevent it for centuries . In medieval times , the Midfen Dyke was built to drain the area , but by 1500 , this was regarded less as a drain for the land than as a boundary marker between the Parts of Holland and the Parts of Kesteven , two of the three medieval subdivisions of Lincolnshire which functioned as county councils until their abolition in 1974 . The first serious attempt to drain the area to the south west of Boston , now known as the Black Sluice Area but formerly known as the Lindsey Level , was from 1635 to 1638 , when the Earl of Lindsey agreed with the Commissioners of Sewers for Lincolnshire to carry out drainage works which would make 36 @,@ 000 acres ( 150 km2 ) of land available for agricultural use . The Earl and a group of Adventurers paid for the works , in return for land grants .

The cost of the work was £ 45 @,@ 000 , and involved the construction of a sluice near Boston , called Skirbeck Sluice , the construction of the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , from Boston to Great Hale , the construction of two drains from there to Guthram , which were called the Double Twelves , and the construction of the Clay Dyke Drain .. The scheme was not popular with the local fenmen , who made a living from fishing and wildfowling , or with the Commoners , who had a right to graze animals on the common land when it was not flooded . They attempted to get Parliament to rule in their favour , but after three years of trying , they abandoned the idea of legal redress , and took direct action . They destroyed much of the work , as well as buildings and crops , and burnt Skirbeck Sluice . The Earl of Lindsey 's contract with the Commissioners of Sewers was revoked by parliament , and it was another hundred years before the next attempt to drain the area .

In an attempt to drain Holland Fen , and prevent flooding from the River Witham , an adventurer called Earl Fitzwilliam constructed a drain in 1720 , which runs broadly parallel to the River Witham , and terminated at Lodewick 's Gowt , a sluice which he constructed on the Witham close to the location of the present Grand Sluice . The drain was for many years called Earl Fitzwilliam 's drain , but is now called the North Forty @-@ Foot Drain . The scheme was not entirely successful .

= = = Second Sluice = = =

In 1762 , the Witham Drainage Act was passed by Parliament , and among other things constituted the Commissioners of Sewers for the Second and Sixth District , which covered the area including Asgarby , Ewerby , Great Hale , Heckington , Holland Fen , Howell , Little Hale and South Kyme . Much of the area to the south and west of Boston , some 91 square miles ( 240 km2 ) , was inundated by the Great Flood of 1763 , and against this background , the Black Sluice Drainage and Navigation Act 1765 was obtained which created the Black Sluice Commissioners , giving them power to raise taxes and authority to carry out drainage works . The scheme largely revived the Earl of Lindsey 's original scheme . The initial design work was carried out by the civil engineer Langley Edwards , on loan from the Witham Commissioners . Some of the surveying was performed by John Landen , who was the steward of the estate of Earl Fitzwilliam at Peterborough , and a proficient amateur mathematician . The two men were jointly appointed Surveyors of the Works , acting as engineers for the scheme , while John Chapman and Richard Strattard were assistants . A new sluice , called the Black Sluice , was built at Boston as a direct replacement for the Skirbeck Sluice , having three openings with a total width of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . The 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the drain were scoured from Boston to Great Hale , beyond which the Main Drain was upgraded by cutting a new 14 @-@ mile ( 23 km ) channel , effectively extending the South Forth @-@ Foot Drain to Guthram , on the banks of the River Glen . A total of 65 miles ( 105 km ) of highland streams were improved by scouring and raising of the banks . The estimated cost of £ 16 @,@ 000 was raised by issuing bonds , but the project overran , and another Act of Parliament was obtained in 1770 to authorise the raising of the drainage taxes , to cover the difference . By mid @-@ 1769 , when Landen and Edwards left the project , because the work was largely complete , the scheme had cost £ 24 @,@ 000 . They were replaced by Edward Hare as Surveyor of Works , with Chapman and Strattard continuing as assistants . A historian called W. H. Wheeler , who chronicled the Lincolnshire fens , wrote that " the works were efficiently carried out and , being well @-@ designed , entirely answered expectation . "

On the River Witham , the Grand Sluice was constructed and opened on 15 October 1766 , and this prevented tidal water from entering the river , and hence flooding the Holland Fen . The Boston Harbour Commissioners were created by the Boston Port Act 1766 , and they carried out improvement works to The Haven , which resulted in lower water levels at the Black Sluice , and hence more efficient draining from the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . Water was pumped into the drain by a series of windmills driving scoop wheels . Maps of the area produced in 1783 by Edward Hare show 46 such mills , which provided drainage for 32 @,@ 000 acres ( 130 km2 ) of agricultural land . Extreme high tides in 1810 and again in 1820 resulted in widespread flooding , and further thought was given to improving the flood defences .

With the improvements to the River Witham , the final section of Earl Fitzwilliam 's drain to Lodewick Gowt was filled in , and the channel was diverted to join the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . Renamed the North Forty @-@ Foot Drain , it now supplies Cook 's Lock and Holland Fen pumping stations .

= = = Third Sluice = = =

Reports on improvements to the system were produced in 1843 by the surveyor Mr W Lewin and in 1845 by Sir John Rennie . Rennie 's scheme involved the provision of a catchwater drain to collect water draining from the higher ground to the west before it entered the fenlands , but an Act of Parliament to authorise its construction was defeated , and so in 1846 a report by Mr W Cubit which proposed improvements to the existing infrastructure was accepted by the Commissioners . A new Black Sluice , including a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide navigation lock , was constructed to the south of the original one , with the cill level 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) lower , which enabled the gradient of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain to be increased to 3 inches per mile ( 5 cm / km ) . Many of the tributary drains were also improved . 1846 also marked the beginning of the use of steam engines for pumping . Ten years later , a map covering 18 @,@ 000 acres ( 73 km2 ) of the Black Sluice area showed nine steam @-@ powered and eight wind @-@ powered drainage engines in use .

The River Witham Outfall Improvement Act 1880 authorised further improvements to the mouth of the Witham , to which the Black Sluice Commissioners contributed £ 65 @,@ 000 . This work led to a further drop of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in the low water level at the Black Sluice . Oil and paraffin engines began to replace steam and wind engines from 1910 , and by 1935 there were 15 such engines pumping water into the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . The passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 resulted in the Commissioners being replaced by the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board , while responsibility for the rivers in the area passed to the Witham and Steeping Rivers Catchment Board . With war imminent , the Rivers Board took over the Black Sluice and the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain in 1939 , and although progress was interrupted by the Second World War , a £ 374 @,@ 000 scheme to construct the Black Sluice pumping station and to widen 11 miles ( 18 km ) of the drain from Boston to Donington Bridge was completed in 1946 . The pumping station contained three 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) pumps , each powered by a 900 @-@ horsepower ( 670 kW ) 5 @-@ cylinder vertical diesel engine manufactured by Ruston .

= = = Modern era = = =

Paraffin and oil engines gave way to electrically powered pumping stations in the 1950s , with the Board constructing six electric and one diesel pumping station to improve drainage to an extra 11 @,@ 000 acres ( 45 km2 ) of land . In 1960 , the decision was taken to further improve drainage of an area of 70 @,@ 000 acres ( 280 km2 ) , as part of a £ 1 @.@ 4 million scheme which included the addition of two extra pumps at the Black Sluice , replacement of existing pumps elsewhere , and the widening of 7 miles ( 11 km ) of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington Bridge to Rippingale Running Dyke . Jurisdiction for the Drain and the sluice passed to the Lincolnshire River Board at this time . The work , which began in 1962 and was completed in 1968 , proved successful in preventing flooding during severe wet weather in the winter of 1968 / 9 . With three 900 @-@ horsepower ( 670 kW ) and two 925 @-@ horsepower ( 690 kW ) diesel engines , the upgraded pumping station can pump 800 thousand gallons per minute ( 60 m3 / s ) . Responsibility for the drain and the sluice passed to the National Rivers Authority in 1990 , and to the Environment Agency in 1995 .

Despite all the improvements , serious flooding occurred in 1999 when the bank of the drain was breached near Pinchbeck . Staff from the Environment Agency and the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board successfully repaired the breach before properties were flooded , and a review of the flood defences was then carried out . The report recommended improvements to some of the banks , but funding for the work was not available , and so no work was done at the time .

= = Functions = =

The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain serves as a district boundary over the length where it runs roughly south to north . South of Donington High Bridge , the Drain separates South Kesteven to the west from South Holland to the east . The boundary then continues southwards along the River Glen . North of Donington , the boundary between the borough of Boston to the east and North Kesteven to the west follows the line of the Drain . As the Drain crosses the line of the Midfen Dyke , just before the Nottingham to Boston railway joins it at Great Hale pumping station , the boundary turns northwards , following its medieval course .

The main job of the Drain is to gather the waters pumped from the Kesteven Fens , the Holland Fens and the Weir Dyke , a soak dike in Bourne North Fen , alongside the Bourne Eau and River Glen , northwards and eastwards to the Black Sluice at Boston , where they are discharged to the tidal waters of The Haven . The Weir Dyke takes its name from a weir in the bank of the Bourne Eau at Tongue End , which was constructed by the Black Sluice Commissioners , to allow water from the Bourne Eau to overflow the bank when excess water could not flow into the River Glen in times of flood . The overfall weir became redundant when the Tongue End pumping station was constructed in 1966 .

The South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and the Black Sluice pumping station , together with most of the side channels which run into the drain are the responsibility of the Environment Agency . Management of the drainage ditches which drain the Fens are the responsibility of the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board , who maintain 34 pumping stations and three gravity stations in the region . Of these , 21 are situated on the banks of the Drain , and pump directly into it , while one , the Black Hole Drove pumping station , is constructed over the channel , and acts as a boundary between the part of the Drain managed by the Environment Agency , and that managed by the Drainage Board .

= = Navigation = =

Prior to 1971 , the Drain had been navigable , but this privilege was removed at that time . It is unclear whether there was ever a right of navigation , or whether the Black Sluice Commissioners simply allowed it . The entrance lock was 72 by 20 feet ( 21 @.@ 9 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and most trade was between Boston and Donnington Bridge , with pleasure boating not being allowed prior to 1962 . The lock was closed and removed in 1971 , with little protest being made . More recently , the East Anglian Waterways Association promoted the idea that the Drain could again be made navigable as part of a larger scheme to improve leisure facilities . The local authorities which were part of the Fens Tourism consortium conducted a feasibility study , and this report was formally adopted as the Fens Waterways Link by the Environment Agency in 2004 , with the support of the local authorities , the East Anglian Waterways Association and the Inland Waterways Association .

The scheme involved a total of 150 miles ( 240 km ) of waterway , of which 50 miles ( 80 km ) would be new cruiseway , while the rest would be existing waterways which could be upgraded or have their access improved . When completed , it would connect the Rivers Witham , Glen , Welland , Nene and Great Ouse , and was heralded as the biggest waterway enhancement project in Europe by the Environment Agency . In 2007 they obtained funding for the link between Boston and Spalding . Work on a new lock beside the Black Sluice pumping station at Boston - to connect The Haven and the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain - was formally started on 8 February 2008 , and was completed in December 2008 , with the official opening ceremony being held on 20 March 2009 . The lock project formed phase 1 of the scheme , and the cost of £ 8 @.@ 5 million was jointly funded by the European Regional Development Fund , the East Midlands Development Agency , and Lincolnshire County Council . The lock is designed to be used for a period either side of high tide , and so there is a rise from the Drain to the Haven . It has conventional mitre gates at one end , but uses rotating sector gates at the tidal end , each one weighing 12 @.@ 1 tonnes .

The lock opened up nearly 12 miles ( 19 km ) of waterway . As part of the upgrade , new 48 @-@ hour moorings were constructed on The Haven , for boats about to enter the Drain , and on the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain near the Black Sluice pumping station at Boston , at Swineshead Bridge and at Hubbert 's Bridge . The upper limit of navigation was initially Donington High Bridge , where the Swaton Eau joins the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and provides a wider section where boats can be turned . Beyond the bridge , the drain was officially only suitable for canoes and kayaks . However , eight narrow boats cruised on the waterway at Easter 2009 , and although the channel was narrower and not as deep after Donington Bridge , all of them successfully reached Kingston 's Bridge , some 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) further on , where the outlets from Dowsby Fen and Gosberton pumping stations provided enough width to turn a 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) boat . Further progress was blocked by scaffolding erected so that the bridge could be re @-@ decked , rather than by lack of water .

The drain has been renamed as the Black Sluice Navigation by the Environment Agency . In order to use the navigation , an Environment Agency licence is required , and as there are no permanent moorings available on the drain , these are available for one day or seven days . Water levels are maintained at a lower level during the winter months , when flows are high , and the Drain needs to be able to cope with higher volumes of rainfall , than during the summer months , when navigable levels are maintained . As on the neighbouring River Witham , the switch between winter and summer levels is normally made at the beginning of April .

= = = Development = = =

Phase 2 of the Fens Waterway project involves the link between Donington Bridge and Crowland and Cowbit Washes , which are located on the River Welland near Spalding . In order to make the financing of the phase more viable , it was split into two halves , with phase 2a covering the section from Donington to Surfleet Seas End on the River Glen , and phase 2b covering from there onwards . The initial technical assessment and obtaining of planning permission for phase 2 , which involved widening of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington to a new road crossing under the A151 , a new lock and a junction with the River Glen at Guthram Gowt was funded by the East Midlands Development Agency . This section would involve changes at Black Hole Drove pumping station , which has been built across the drain and hence would prevent navigation . Major contracts for this phase were expected to be awarded in April 2009 , but appraisal of the technical assessment revealed that more than one route needed to be considered before the best solution could be selected . While the obvious solution would be to connect the Glen and the drain where they are only a short distance apart , the Lincolnshire Waterways Partnership also considered the creation of new channels up to 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) long to form the link . In the meantime , the economic situation changed , so that sources of funding were not so freely available , and by the end of 2010 , no clear dates had been set for the next construction phase .

By late 2011 , there were ten different routes under consideration , and an assessment of them was expected to be delivered in spring 2012 . Halcrow Group , the engineering consultancy , were responsible for carrying out the assessment , which looked at the benefits that each route might provide , not only for navigation but also for water quality , water resources and habitat for wildlife . The study was expected to provide a short @-@ list of routes , which would then be the subject of further consultation . By mid @-@ 2012 , the merits of the ten routes had been considered , including the economic , environmental and technical issues involved , and a broad outline of the corridor for the link was scheduled to be published in September . After that , consultation with landowners and stakeholders took place , to establish the final route , for which design of the channel and the associated locks , bridges , moorings and pumping stations could then begin . By the end of the assessment process for the ten routes , two remained . One was route 1 , the original suggestion which used the existing course of the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain for most of its length , while the second was a new route , designated as route 11 . Route 11 had become the preferred route by the summer of 2014 . It involves widening the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain from Donington to Surfleet , to a point near to the Black Hole Drove pumping station . A new lock would be needed at this location , but would connect to a new channel , rather than to the rest of the drain . It would pass under a new bridge on the A151 , and the connection to the River Glen would involve another new lock . An environmental survey of other watercourses near to the route revealed that several provide habitat for nationally important plants and invertebrates .

= = = Precursors = = =

The idea of a link between the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain and the River Nene is not new , as the first plans for such a connection were proposed in 1809 . In that year , proposals for a new canal between the Oakham Canal at Oakham and the Stamford Canal at Stamford , which had been discussed in 1785 , were revived , as part of a larger plan for a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) link from Stamford to the River Nene at Peterborough , and a connection from near Market Deeping , where the Stamford Canal rejoined the River Welland , northwards to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain . A bill for this , together with one for a rival scheme to link Stamford to the Grand Junction Canal , which also included a connection to the South Forty @-@ Foot Drain , were put before Parliament in 1811 , but neither met with any success . The idea was raised again in 1815 and 1828 , but no further action was taken .

= = Route = =

= American Tragedy ( album ) =

American Tragedy is the second studio album by American rap rock band Hollywood Undead . Production for the album began following the induction of Daniel Murillo into the band in early 2010 and lasted until December . Don Gilmore and Ben Grosse , who helped produce the band 's debut album , Swan Songs ( 2008 ) , also returned to produce the album along with several other producers including Kevin Rudolf , Sam Hollander , Dave Katz , Griffin Boice , Jeff Halavacs , and Jacob Kasher . The album is musically heavier and features darker lyrical content than the band 's previous effort . Originally set to release in March , American Tragedy was released on April 5 , 2011 in the United States and was released on various other dates that month in other countries . A remix of the album , American Tragedy Redux , was released on November 21 , 2011 .

The album debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , selling approximately 67 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States , and ended up becoming the 142nd best selling album of 2011 in the US . It also charted in a few other countries , including Canada and the UK , a first for the band . The album also had five singles : " Hear Me Now " , " Been to Hell " , " Coming Back Down " , " Comin ' in Hot " , and " My Town " , with music videos being made for all of them except " Coming Back Down " as it was released on the same day as " Been to Hell " . The band participated in three headlining tours : the Revolt Tour , the Endless Summer Tour , and the World War III Tour , as well as other supporting tours throughout 2011 to promote the album . Upon release , American Tragedy received mixed reviews . Critics consistently noted the darker and more serious tone of the album , but to mixed reception . Lyrics were widely criticized while the energy and instruments were praised in most reviews .

= = Singles and promotion = =

To promote the album , the band participated in three headlining tours and several other supporting tours . The first headlining tour , the Revolt Tour , began on April 6 and spanned across the spring until May 27 , playing with Drive @-@ A , New Medicine , 10 Years , and others at various House of Blues venues across North America . The second headlining tour for the album was the Endless Summer Tour with All That Remains and Hyro Da Hero which began in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , and ended in Knoxville , Tennessee . The third tour was the World War III Tour , which the band called the biggest tour they had done yet . The tour was co @-@ headlined with Asking Alexandria with support acts We Came As Romans , D.R.U.G.S. , and Borgore , with different local openers for each location . For supporting tours , the band began with the Nightmare After Christmas Tour with headliners Avenged Sevenfold and supporters Stone Sour and New Medicine on January 20 , 2011 , which was the first supporting tour for the album . Outside of official tours , the band played several festivals throughout 2011 including UFEST in Mesa , Arizona , Rockfest , and Summerfest in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The band also played various holiday shows , such as a Cinco De Mayo show in Salt Lake City , Utah , with Flogging Molly and others .

The album spawned five singles in total . On December 8 , 2010 , the band released the artwork for the album 's first single , titled " Hear Me Now " . The track was released on December 13 for radio and was made available online a week later on December 21 . " Hear Me Now " was the album 's most successful single , charting variously on the Billboard Heatseeker charts , Alternative charts , and the Rock charts . On March 22 , the band appeared live on the late night talk show Lopez Tonight as a musical guest where they performed the single " Hear Me Now " to promote the album . The band reportedly almost drank the entire bar behind the Turner Broadcasting System set , with George Lopez saying to J @-@ Dog , " Drink all of it . Go ahead , I don ’ t care . But I 've never seen anyone drink that much . " The album 's second and third official singles , " Been to Hell " and " Coming Back Down " , were both released on March 15 , 2011 . " Been to Hell " was previously released as a promotional single with a lyric video on February 6 , but was then released as a single with a music video , leading to it chart on Billboard 's Heatseeker and Bubbling Under Hot 100 charts . Because " Coming Back Down " was released on the same day as " Been to Hell " , the track did not get a music video . " Coming Back Down " previously surfaced due to a leak on February 18 and was later confirmed to be on the album and was produced by Kevin Rudolf . Brian Voerding noted that the song showed the band 's strength in both singing and rapping while comparing the sound to Linkin Park . The album 's fourth single , " Comin ' in Hot " , was released on April 9 with a music video to celebrate the album 's release . Similar to " Been to Hell " , " Comin ' in Hot " was originally a free promotional single released on January 21 , but was later released as an album single following the release of American Tragedy . The track was reviewed by Evigshed along with " Hear Me Now " after it was released as a promotional single , who gave both " Comin ' in Hot " and " Hear Me Now " a perfect ten out of ten score , noting that " Comin ' in Hot " was much more upbeat and was extremely catchy . On July 8 , it was announced the fifth single for the album would be " My Town " . The band began shooting the music video in early July and announced that fans would be featured in the video if they recorded themselves performing the song in front of a famous landmark . The video has no release date yet .

= = Music and lyrical themes = =

American Tragedy opens with the single " Been to Hell " . J @-@ Dog said that the song is , " the truth about what really happens to people when they move to L.A. , to be actors or models or God knows what other delusions people have ... failure . It 's all too true , but most people aren 't there to see it first @-@ hand . But we are , so it 's our interpretation of it all . " The track is followed by " Apologize " , a track that directly addresses critics and states the band 's defiance in the face of negative opinions , as evident by the chorus , " We don 't apologize and that 's just the way it is , but we can harmonize even if we sound like shit . " Third is " Comin ’ in Hot " , a party song and the album 's fourth single that uses humor to describe what happens in night clubs . " My Town " is the fifth single and a mid @-@ tempo song talking about Los Angeles and Hollywood . Next is " I Don 't Wanna Die " , a song about the fear of death fueling the need to kill another person . " Hear Me Now " was the lead single from the album and is about the troubles each band member was going through at the time the song was written . The song 's lyrics tell the story of a person who is depressed and hopeless , taking a very somber tone to the track . Despite this , the instruments and melodies contrast to make an uptempo track . Next is " Gangsta Sexy " , a party anthem song about heading to nightclubs and pursuing women . The following track , " Glory " , is a metal @-@ inspired song which drew influence from war and fighting . " Lights Out " , the ninth song on the album , is about Deuce , ex @-@ vocalist of Hollywood Undead . It is a response to " Story of a Snitch " . " Coming Back Down " , the third single released from the album , is a rock ballad song with acoustic guitars on the track . The lyrics describes about a story of an unknown loved one who has recently died , with the narrator having difficulty trying to live without them . " Bullet " , the eleventh track from the album , is an uptempo pop song about suicide . It is played in an upbeat tempo with energetic vocals , which gives contrast to the dark lyrical content . Rick Florino called the track , " heart @-@ wrenching genius " . " Levitate " is an uptempo discothèque song about sex , while the verses of the song talk about suicide and alcoholism . It was also featured in the Need For Speed : Shift 2 Unleashed trailer , " Autolog Drift Challenge " , as well as on the game 's soundtrack , where it was ranked eighth on ProGamist 's list of " Top ten songs featured in racing games " .

" Pour Me " , the last soft song on the album , is a dark ballad that has been often compared to Eminem 's " Stan " . Johnny 3 Tears stated that , " We were messing around with chord progressions and that came out like a more major chord style than we were used to it . It 's melodic and poppy sounding . We 're talking about drinking obviously because all of us sometimes drink too much . It 's one of those basic every day things that people go through but they don 't know how to voice it or others around them don 't know to voice it . It 's almost like you 're looked down upon , but no one actually talks about it . " " Tendencies " , which is the closing track for the standard edition of the album , is a high tempo alternative metal song about murder . Johnny 3 Tears said , " When we wrote Tendencies , I wanted to make a song that kids would just go nuts to when we played it . Kids start moshpits at our shows . Not every song we have is the best mosh song , so I wanted to make a song kids could go crazy for . "

While the band was touring with Avenged Sevenfold , the guitarist Synyster Gates spoke about " S.C.A.V.A. " stating " Holy shit , that 's the craziest verse I 've ever heard ! The lyrics are insane . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Commercial performance = = =

Prior to release , American Tragedy was projected by several publications to sell about 65 @,@ 000 copies in the first week of release in the United States , and was expected to reach number three on the Billboard 200 . When the official sales week ended , the album exceeded expectations and sold about 67 @,@ 000 copies , but was outsold by Radiohead 's The King of Limbs and so debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 . Weekly sales topped albums such as Wiz Khalifa 's Rolling Papers and Chris Brown 's F.A.M.E. , and was right behind Adele 's 21 , Britney Spears 's Femme Fatale , and Radiohead 's The King of Limbs .

Upon learning of the album 's first @-@ week sales , Jordan Terrel , also known to fans of the band as " Charlie Scene . " jokingly remarked , " I gotta be honest with everyone : I was really looking forward to the opportunity to be on top of Britney this week , but being right behind her and Adele is a memory we ’ ll relish forever . " The album also debuted at number one on the US Hard Rock charts , number two on the US Rock , Digital , and Alternative charts , and number 11 on the Tastemaker Albums charts . Outside of the US , American Tragedy charted number five in Canadian albums charts and number 43 in the UK albums charts .

= = = Critical response = = =

At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 59 , based on 6 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " .

Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave American Tragedy 5 out of 5 , particularly praising the band 's choice to avoid duplicating their debut album , Swan Songs , and instead choosing to create a , " darker , deeper , and far deadlier ride this time around . " Florino compared various elements of the album to the Wu Tang Clan and Nine Inch Nails , particularly comparing the album 's production ( which was done by various producers with executive producer Don Gilmore ) to Nine Inch Nails ' second album The Downward Spiral ( 1994 ) . He also lauded the irony of the quality singing on , " Apologize " , combined with the lyrics , " But we can harmonize , even if we sound like shit . " Florino concluded that , " Hollywood Undead 's genius lies — in that dangerous space between unforgettable and unsettling , " pointing this out in the track , " Bullet " , for it being the , " sunniest and catchiest tune on American Tragedy , " while still telling , " a potent and poignant tale of longing for suicide . " The other track Florino pointed out for being unforgettable is , " Pour Me " , calling it , " an evil power ballad that everyone who hears it will feel . "

Revolver magazine reviewer Jeremy Borjon gave the album four out of five in his review , calling American Tragedy , " one hell of an album that will leave fans ’ heads buzzing long after the clubs have let out and the hangover sets in . " Borjon complimented the shift in moods throughout the album and the lyrical quality compared to Swan Songs . He praised several tracks including " Been to Hell " , " Apologize " , " Comin ' in Hot " , " Bullet " , " Levitate " , and " Tendencies " as numerous outstanding points in the album . Borjon did criticize the slower songs , " Coming Back Down " and " Pour Me " but dismissed that that were , " easily forgotten among the album 's many undeniably addictive future hits . " Richard Solomon of The Minaret proclaimed that , " If you ’ re a Hollywood Undead fan , you 'll love American Tragedy . As for people who didn ’ t care for Swan Songs , you 'll probably still love American Tragedy . " Instrumentally , Solomon noted one of his only complaints of the album , being that , " At times , the synthesizer seems a little too heavy handed , but it succeeds more often than not . " Solomon complimented the album being different and further encouraged the Deluxe Edition tracks in addition to the album itself .

Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times was more critical in his review . He praised the energy of the album , pointing out the , " Booming groove , " of " Apologize " , and the " disco @-@ metal urgency , " of " Levitate " . Wood 's biggest complaint of the album was that the band has , " filtered out any sense of humor from its music , which makes American Tragedy virtually impossible to listen to for longer than a few songs at a time . " Alistair Lawrence of BBC Music said that the album is , " The result is that they ’ ve ditched some of the early , growling quirkiness that at least gave them an initial , oddball appeal . " Lawrence finishes his review noting , " Hollywood Undead are content to deliver clichés – more out of a lack of imagination than cynical opportunism , but it still smacks of both . That 's why to seasoned ears or any genre fan requiring more than more of the same , they ’ re very , very boring . "

= = = Accolades = = =

= = Track listing = =

All tracks are written and performed by Hollywood Undead , with specific writers detailed for each track .

= = = Production = = =

= = Release history = =

= Karlsruhe @-@ class cruiser =

The Karlsruhe class of light cruisers was a pair of two ships built for the German Imperial Navy before the start of World War I. The ships — SMS Karlsruhe and Rostock — were very similar to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers , mounting the same armament and similar armor protection , though they were larger and faster than the earlier ships . Both vessels were laid down in 1911 , and launched one day apart , on 11 and 12 November 1912 . Karlsruhe joined the fleet in January 1914 , but fitting out work lasted slightly longer on her sister ; Rostock was commissioned the following month .

Both of the ships had short service careers . Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duty in the Caribbean , arriving on station in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm so it could raid British shipping . After a moderately successful commerce raiding career , during which Karlsruhe sank sixteen merchant ships and successfully evaded British cruisers , she sank after an accidental internal explosion on 4 November 1914 . Most of her crew were killed in the sinking , but the survivors returned to Germany on one of Karlsruhe 's attendant colliers by December .

Rostock served as a torpedo boat flotilla leader with the High Seas Fleet following her commissioning ; her flotilla frequently screened for the battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group , including during the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 and operations off the British coast in early 1916 . She saw heavy action during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 as part of the screen for the main battle fleet . In the ferocious night fighting that occurred as the German fleet punched through the British rear @-@ guard , Rostock was torpedoed by a British destroyer , which immobilized the ship . She was taken under tow by several torpedo boats , but early on the morning of 1 June , the cruiser HMS Dublin located the cruiser . To prevent her capture by the British , the Germans scuttled the ship after taking off her crew .

= = Design = =

The design for the Karlsruhe class was prepared in 1910 , and was an incremental improvement over the previous Magdeburg class . Karlsruhe and Rostock were faster and had a larger , more raked hull and greater displacement , but had the same armament and armor protection . Karlsruhe was ordered as Ersatz Seeadler and laid down in 1911 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , under construction number 181 . She was launched on 11 November 1912 and commissioned into the fleet on 15 January 1914 . Rostock was ordered as Ersatz Geier and laid down in 1911 at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel , under construction number 560 . Launching ceremonies took place on 12 November 1912 , a day after her sister . She was completed on 5 February 1914 , the date she joined the fleet .

= = = Dimensions and machinery = = =

The Karlsruhe class ships were 139 meters ( 456 ft ) long at the waterline and 142 @.@ 2 m ( 467 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 7 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 38 m ( 17 @.@ 7 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 2 m ( 20 ft ) aft . They displaced 4 @,@ 900 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 800 long tons ; 5 @,@ 400 short tons ) at designed load and 6 @,@ 191 t ( 6 @,@ 093 long tons ; 6 @,@ 824 short tons ) at full combat loading . The hull was constructed with longitudinal steel frames and incorporated fifteen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 45 percent of the length of the hull . The ships had a crew of eighteen officers and 355 enlisted men . Karlsruhe and Rostock carried a number of smaller vessels , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . After 1915 , Rostock had spotting tops installed on her masts . The German Navy regarded the two ships as good sea boats . They suffered from slight weather helm in a swell and made severe leeway . They were maneuverable but were slow steering into a turn . With the rudder hard over , they lost up to 60 percent speed . Their transverse metacentric height was .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .

Karlsruhe and Rostock were powered by two sets of Marine @-@ type steam turbines , each of which drove a three @-@ bladed screw 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) in diameter . Each turbine was divided into its own engine room ; steam was supplied by twelve coal @-@ fired water tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended water tube boilers split into five boiler rooms . The propulsion system was rated at 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) and a top speed of 27 @.@ 8 knots ( 51 @.@ 5 km / h ; 32 @.@ 0 mph ) , but both ships significantly exceeded these figures on speed trials . Karlsruhe made 37 @,@ 885 shp ( 28 @,@ 251 kW ) at 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) and Rostock reached 43 @,@ 628 shp ( 32 @,@ 533 kW ) and 29 @.@ 3 knots ( 54 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 7 mph ) . Designed coal and oil storage was 400 t ( 394 long tons ; 441 short tons ) and 70 t ( 69 long tons ; 77 short tons ) , respectively , though internal voids could accommodate up to 1 @,@ 300 t ( 1 @,@ 279 long tons ; 1 @,@ 433 short tons ) and 200 t ( 197 long tons ; 220 short tons ) , respectively . Electrical power was supplied by two turbo generators rated at 240 and 200 kilowatts , respectively , at 220 volts .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

Karlsruhe and Rostock were armed identically to the previous Magdeburg @-@ class cruisers . They carried twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . The ships were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . They could also carry 120 mines .

The ships ' armor was also identical to the preceding class . They were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships ; the belt was reduced to 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) forward . The stern was not armored . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof . The deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) amidships , and 20 mm aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck to the belt armor .

= = Service history = =

= = = SMS Karlsruhe = = =

After her commissioning , Karlsruhe was assigned to overseas duties in the Caribbean , where she was to relieve the cruiser Dresden . She arrived in the area in July 1914 , days before the outbreak of World War I. Once the war began , she armed the passenger liner SS Kronprinz Wilhelm so it could operate as a commerce raider , but while the ships were transferring equipment , British cruisers located them and pursued Karlsruhe . Her superior speed allowed her to escape , after which she operated off the northeastern coast of Brazil .

Karlsruhe refueled at Puerto Rico , a possession of the then neutral United States before steaming to Brazil . Off the Brazilian coast , she captured or sank sixteen ships totaling 72 @,@ 805 gross register tons ( GRT ) while eluding her pursuers . The ship 's captain then decided to operate against the shipping lanes to Barbados . While en route on 4 November 1914 , a spontaneous internal explosion destroyed the ship and killed the majority of the crew , including her captain . The survivors used one of Karlruhe 's colliers to return to Germany in December 1914 .

= = = SMS Rostock = = =

Rostock served with the High Seas Fleet as a leader of torpedo boat flotillas for the duration of her career . She served with the screens for both Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group on operations against the British coast and the Battle of Dogger Bank . During the battle , British battlecruisers ambushed the German squadron and sank the armored cruiser Blücher . In April 1916 , she again screened the battlecruisers during the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft , during which Rostock and five other cruisers briefly engaged the British Harwich Force .

She was assigned to the screen for the battle fleet during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She saw major action at Jutland and frequently engaged British light forces , including assisting in the destruction of the destroyers HMS Nomad and Nestor . Rostock 's participation in the battle culminated in her torpedoing by destroyers shortly after midnight . She was taken under tow by German torpedo boats , but the following morning the cruiser HMS Dublin came upon the retreating ships . To prevent Rostock 's capture , the Germans set scuttling charges aboard her and took off the crew before firing torpedoes into the disabled cruiser to ensure she sank .

= Chakotay =

Chakotay / tʃəˈkoʊteɪ / is a fictional character who appears in each of the seven seasons of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Voyager . Portrayed by Robert Beltran , he is First Officer aboard the Starfleet starship USS Voyager . The character was suggested at an early stage of the development of the series . He is the first Native American main character in the Star Trek franchise . This was an intended move by the producers of the series , who sought to provide an inspiration as with Uhura in Star Trek : The Original Series for African Americans . To develop the character , the producers sought the assistance of Jamake Highwater . Despite first being named as a Sioux , and later a Hopi , Chakotay was given no tribal affiliation at the start of the series , something that was later resolved in the episode " Tattoo " .

The character first appeared in the pilot episode of the series , " Caretaker " . The character continued to appear throughout the series in a main cast role , with his final appearance in the finale , " Endgame " . He was featured in an ongoing storyline throughout the first and second seasons which featured the betrayal of his lover Seska ( Martha Hackett ) until her death in " Basics " . Following his experience with disconnected Borg in " Unity " , Chakotay was against an alliance with the Borg in " Scorpion " , nearly leading to the death of Seven of Nine ( Jeri Ryan ) . Despite this , by the end of the series , the two characters were in a romantic relationship together . In the Voyager relaunch novels set after the vessel 's return to the Alpha Quadrant , Chakotay is promoted to Captain of the ship but the relationship with Seven is ended .

Reviewers of Chakotay were critical of the stereotypical nature of Chakotay 's Native American heritage . This led to comparisons with Tonto from The Lone Ranger , and that the inclusion of " Hollywood " versions of vision quests and meditation techniques were contrary to the character 's in @-@ universe tribal background . However , he was praised as a role model for Native American science fiction and called " ground @-@ breaking " , as well as the most prominent example of a Native American character within this genre .

= = Concept and development = =

The inclusion of a Native American character in Star Trek : Voyager was suggested at an early stage in the development of the series . The producers were looking for an ethnic background which had not been seen before as a main character in the franchise . It was hoped that a Native American character would prove to be an inspiration in the same way that the appearance of Uhura in Star Trek : The Original Series later inspired Whoopi Goldberg and other African Americans . Executive producer Jeri Taylor said , " It seemed to us that Native Americans needed that same kind of role model and that same kind of boost ... the future looks good , you have purpose , you have worth , you have value , you will be leaders , you will be powerful . That was one character choice we had early on . " Taylor 's notes from the early production in July 1993 describe the character as " First Officer – a human native American male , a ' Queequeg ' person who has renounced Earth and lives as an expatriate on another planet . A mystical , mysterious man with whom the Captain has some prior connection , not explained . " A month later , this description was expanded with the line , " This man has made another choice – to re @-@ enter the world of Starfleet . " Chakotay was not the first Native American character to appear in the franchise , with " The Paradise Syndrome " in the third season of Star Trek : The Original Series showing a group of displaced humans following a Native @-@ American @-@ like culture .

The producers aimed to develop some conflict between the members of the crew to produce a scenario similar to the Bajoran / Starfleet relationship seen in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , but wanted the characters to share the same ideals . To do this , the Maquis were created – a group of Federation colonists from the Cardassian border in a disputed territory who were joined by some Starfleet officers who joined them to fight for their rights . The producers had the Maquis introduced in other Star Trek series before Voyager in four episodes ; two in Star Trek : The Next Generation and two in Deep Space Nine . It was a deliberate reference to the political situation in the West Bank .

In developing Chakotay , the producers sought the assistance of Jamake Highwater , a writer of more than 25 books of both fiction and nonfiction related to Native American myths and traditions . Highwater was a controversial choice of advisor , having been exposed by Hank Adams and Vine Deloria , Jr. as taking a fake Native American ancestry to sell books . Around September 21 , 1993 , Highwater gave seven pages of notes to producers regarding Chakotay 's backstory , but his tribal ancestry was unresolved . By the end of that month , Michael Piller drafted the first version of the writer 's bible for the series in which the character was named " Chakotoy " . By the time Piller wrote the first draft of the story that eventually became the Voyager pilot " Caretaker " , the character was known as " Chakotay " and been made a Sioux . By the third draft of the story , submitted at the start of November , he had become a Hopi , but by the following February , he once again had no tribal affiliation .

Winrich Kolbe , the director of " Caretaker " , was involved in casting the main cast for the series . He described the casting process for the part of Chakotay as difficult due to the lower numbers of Native Americans who were in the Screen Actors Guild . The casting process came down to two actors , and the producers decided on Robert Beltran , who until then was best known for appearing in the soap opera Models Inc. and was of Mexican heritage . Beltran was not familiar with Star Trek before auditioning , and went along on the strength of the " Caretaker " script which showed the character becoming the second in command of Voyager after both their vessels are stranded in the Delta quadrant . Beltran explained the audition experience , " I felt neutral about the audition , didn 't much care one way or the other . I went in the first time and wasn 't really trying to get the part . They asked to see me again , and they wanted to see more of an edge to the character . "

Chakotay was originally written as a " calm , stoic " character , but Beltran expanded on the character during the audition process , something that Kolbe credited him for . The writer 's bible described Chakotay as a very traditional Native American with an altar and traditional art in his quarters . It also mentioned his spirit guide , something which was picked up in the media report in TV Guide . Beltran wore a facial tattoo whilst playing Chakotay , which was applied with make @-@ up . This earned him comparisons to boxer Mike Tyson after the latter gained a facial tattoo . The design was created by Michael Westmore , who deliberately created it so it did not represent any particular tribal culture . The in @-@ universe story of the tattoo and Chakotay 's tribal origins were explained in the episode " Tattoo " .

Beltran gained the reputation on @-@ set as a comedian . Following the first season and during a group interview with The Washington Times , Beltran joked that he was asked to perform in Hamlet during the summer in Albuquerque , but had been asked to wear Chakotay 's facial tattoo . During that time he worked on the Oliver Stone film Nixon ( 1995 ) . During the period when Voyager was run by Taylor and Piller as the executive producers , Beltran gave feedback on the character which was taken into account . He later explained that this ended following the introduction of Jeri Ryan as Seven of Nine onto the cast and Brannon Braga taking over from Taylor and Piller . Beltran felt that Chakotay was one of the characters alongside Harry Kim , Tuvok , and Neelix who were left behind by the new writers , who tended to concentrate on Janeway , Seven , and The Doctor .

Beltran said that he was not aware of the effects of the interactions this was having with the crew , and described the situation , saying , " for me it was like , ' OK , you can fire me if you want to . Go ahead , and I 'll leave . ' " He compared his experience on Voyager to working in a car factory , and said that the repetitive scenes meant that it limited his creativity . Beltran explained that it did not affect his relationship with the other actors , and in the end , he felt the producers decided to keep him on the cast as it did not make " very much difference , except to a very , very small percentage of fans who maybe didn 't like what I said . "

In an interview to publicise the final episode of Voyager , " Endgame " , Beltran said , " We all had a great relationship with each other and we 've all said how much we enjoy our crew . We have a terrific crew . But at the same time , I 'm looking forward to what 's next . It 's exciting to know that something unknown is next . " The final episode introduced a romance between Seven of Nine and Chakotay . Ryan found this confusing for the characters , as although it had been suggested in the episode " Human Error " , the producers told the pair to forget about the relationship in the in @-@ between episodes until the finale .

= = Appearances = =

= = = Background = = =

Chakotay 's backstory was explained during the course of Star Trek : Voyager . He was born in 2329 on a Federation colony near Cardassian space in the demilitarized zone . While young , he was looked after by his grandfather . At the age of 15 , Chakotay visited Earth with his father , who sought to find his tribe 's ancestral home in Central America and the descendants of the Rubber Tree People . He was resistant to this , and instead dreamed of going into space and had heroes such as John Kelly , a pioneering astronaut in the early 21st century . He chose to enter Starfleet Academy against his father 's wishes , and his entry was sponsored by Captain Sulu . [ A ] He attended Starfleet Academy from 2344 to 2348 , where he engaged in the sport of boxing . After graduating , he was assigned to a starship . One of his earliest away missions resulted in a diplomatic incident on Ktaria VII , and he was also on the team that made first contact with the Tarkannans .

He was assigned as an instructor in Starfleet 's Advanced Tactical Training and achieved the rank of lieutenant commander . Following the death of his father in 2368 while defending his colony from the Cardassians , Chakotay resigned his Starfleet commission and joined the Maquis . At the time of his resignation , one of his students was Ro Laren . After he joined the Maquis , he became captain of a vessel named the Val Jean , with a crew which among others included his lover Seska ( Martha Hackett ) , B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) , and Tuvok ( Tim Russ ) .

= = = Star Trek : Voyager = = =

= = = = The Kazon and Seska = = = =

In the pilot episode of Voyager , while the crew on the Val Jean seek to evade a Cardassian vessel captained by Gul Evek ( Richard Poe ) in the Badlands , the vessel is transported some 70 @,@ 000 light years across the galaxy into the Delta Quadrant by the creature known as the Caretaker . After the Federation starship USS Voyager is also trapped in the Delta Quadrant and Tuvok was revealed to be a Starfleet agent , Chakotay agrees with Captain Kathryn Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) to work together to find two of their missing crew . Following an attack by the Kazon , Chakotay destroyed the Val Jean to save Voyager and the Maquis crew joined the Federation ship . Chakotay was given a provisional rank of commander and named executive officer , the second @-@ in @-@ command of the vessel and the crew seeks to return home to the Alpha Quadrant .

The Kazon continue to be a hindrance during Voyager 's initial period in the Delta Quadrant , with Chakotay dismayed in " State of Flux " when Seska is revealed as a Cardassian spy who has been providing technology to the Kazon to seek an alliance . She escapes Voyager and sides with the Kazon @-@ Nistrim , one of the factions within that species . Chakotay is rendered brain dead , but is made into a disembodied spirit able to possess other crewmembers in " Cathexis " . The incident occurs while Tuvok and he were investigating a dark matter nebula , and he sought to prevent the ship from returning there , as an alien species wants to feed on the crew 's neural energy . After Voyager enters the nebula , Chakotay possesses Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) and guides the ship out using a medicine wheel as a map . Shortly afterwards , The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) is able to restore Chakotay 's mind into his body . At the end of the first season , Chakotay supported Tuvok 's aim of helping the former Maquis crew adapt better to life on Voyager in " Learning Curve " , by showing them the enforcement techniques of the Maquis .

In the second season episode " Tattoo " , Chakotay meets with an alien race who influenced the ancestors of his tribe . They perceived Voyager as a threat because they had thought his people had been wiped out . He was able to resolve the problem using the teachings of his father . The Kazon returned and attacked Voyager in " Maneuvers " , where they stole a transporter control module . Chakotay took it upon himself to retrieve the device , recognising that Seska was behind it . He managed to destroy it , but was captured and tortured by the Kazon in the process . He was rescued by Voyager , and shortly afterwards , he was contacted by Seska , who informed him that she had impregnated herself with his DNA . In " Resolutions " , Chakotay and Janeway are infected with a virus which requires them to quarantine themselves on a nearby planet . The two began to show signs of affection for each other , but their stay is short @-@ lived after Voyager under the captaincy of Tuvok agrees a deal with the Vidiians for a cure . The pair agree to return to the status quo on Voyager , but remain good friends .

Chakotay was contacted by Seska in " Basics " to say that his son had been born , and the Kazon were threatening to condemn her to the life of a slave . Voyager attempted to extract Seska and the child , but it was a trap and resulted in the Kazon boarding the vessel and stranding the Federation / Maquis crew on a nearby planet . While Tom Paris ( Robert Duncan McNeil ) , The Doctor , and Lon Suder ( Brad Dourif ) , along with allied Talaxian forces , sought to retake Voyager , Chakotay was instrumental in the crew 's survival on the planet . He saved Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) from a local tribe , and built an alliance with them . The crew retook Voyager , and in the process Seska was killed . The child was discovered not to be Chakotay 's , but instead a Cardassian / Kazon hybrid and the son of the Kazon @-@ Nistrim leader First Maje Culluh ( Anthony De Longis ) .

= = = = Entering Borg space = = = =

The first indication that Voyager was approaching Borg space was shown in the episode " Unity " . While investigating a Federation distress call in a shuttlecraft , Chakotay was injured by the natives of a planet . Another group saves him , and Chakotay discovers that the colonists are former Borg whose access to the main hive @-@ mind was disrupted . He is linked to a local hive @-@ mind to help him to heal , and after being returned to Voyager , he is forced against his will to reactivate the colonists ' former Borg Cube . Chakotay is released from the new " cooperative " after the Cube self @-@ destructs , leaving the planet with a hive @-@ mind separate from the main collective . Chakotay is captured by the Voth scientist Gegen ( Henry Woronicz ) in " Distant Origin " , who is seeking to prove his hypothesis that the Voth came from Earth . When Gegen is placed on trial by his people , Chakotay seeks to argue in his defense . Ultimately , Gegen is forced to back down to save Voyager after the Voth threaten to destroy the vessel . Before they depart , Chakotay gives a model globe of the Earth to Gegen as a present .

His experience with the disconnected Borg resulted in Chakotay being against a plan to ally with the Borg against Species 8472 in " Scorpion " , causing conflict between Captain Janeway and him . The alliance results in Seven of Nine and a number of other Borg drones being placed on Voyager and Janeway injured . Although he was ordered to continue with the alliance , Chakotay seeks to renegotiate the alliance , but Seven refuses any changes . When she opens a rift to Fluidic Space , Chakotay decompresses the cargo bay , sending all the Borg drones out into space with the exception of Seven . Later , when the Borg attempt to double @-@ cross Voyager , Chakotay activates his localised neural link , confusing Seven and allowing Torres to disable her link to the Collective permanently .

During the " Year of Hell " , Chakotay is captured by the Krenim scientist Annorax ( Kurtwood Smith ) on a Time Ship . The two first attempt to work together as Annorax agrees to restore the now damaged Voyager if Chakotay complies with his demands . After Annorax wipes out a species , though , he helps to disable the ship , allowing Captain Janeway to destroy it by ramming Voyager into it . This results in the timeline being reset , and the events of the episode were undone . In " Unforgettable " , he falls in love with Kellin ( Virginia Madsen ) , a member of a xenophobic race who have developed a technology to prevent others from forming long @-@ term memories of them . As such , he is informed that they were previously in love when she was on Voyager a month earlier , and rekindle their relationship despite Chakotay not remembering the earlier encounter . Another member of her race removes Kellin 's memories of Chakotay and installs a virus to remove all records of their race . Chakotay takes to writing out his memories of Kellin on paper so that he will not forget them .

He was placed in command of Voyager after Seven was captured by the Borg in " Dark Frontier " and destroyed a transwarp conduit . Chakotay is later one of the members of the crew who were captured by Borg children in " Collective " and was saved after Seven 's intervention . Initially , Chakotay and Seven did not get along , but he would come to realise that he was mistaken in that opinion . Towards the end of the seventh season in " Human Error " , Seven simulates a relationship with Chakotay on the holodeck . A Borg implant was preventing her from feeling strong emotions without any physical ill effects , which prevented her from seeking a romantic relationship with the real Chakotay . By the time of the series finale , " Endgame " , The Doctor had managed to remove the implant , allowing Seven to pursue a relationship with Chakotay . The alternative future seen at the start of the episode showed that Seven and Chakotay were eventually married , but she died while Voyager was still travelling home . Chakotay died following Voyager 's return , and Admiral Janeway visits his grave marker in that episode . This future was undone by the future Janeway travelling back in time to Voyager to return it to Earth sooner .

= = = Voyager relaunch novels = = =

In the noncanonical Voyager relaunch novels , written by Christie Golden , Chakotay is promoted after the ship returns to Federation space , and becomes Captain of Voyager . He and Seven of Nine break off their relationship . In Old Wounds , the first of the Spirit Walk two @-@ book series , the crew goes on their maiden cruise under Captain Chakotay and is joined by his sister , Sekaya , who 's become a spiritual leader in their tribe . In the second book , Enemy of my Enemy , Chakotay is replaced by a Founder who was previously pretending to be his first officer . Meanwhile , the real Chakotay and his sister are being held by a deranged Cardassian doctor , forcing Chakotay to undergo a spirit walk to save them both .

Janeway and Chakotay became romantically involved after their return from the Delta Quadrant , and following her death after her assimilation by the Borg in the Star Trek : The Next Generation novel Before Dishonor , Chakotay resigns his commission and Afsarah Eden becomes the new Captain of Voyager . However , in the very next novel by Kirsten Beyer , Unworthy , Eden is promoted to fleet commander and Chakotay is restored as captain of Voyager .

= = Reception = =

Some criticism was directed at Chakotay 's character development during the series . James Lileks for the Star Tribune said that " Chakotay , the rock @-@ solid First Officer , remained rock @-@ solid " , but also suggested that " [ a ] ll of the characters ended the series as they began . "

Critics commented on the relationship between Janeway and Chakotay , with psychologist Richard Borofsky 's views published in The Boston Herald . He suggesting that by several seasons into Voyager , Chakotay had come to terms with his feelings for his Captain , but she was hesitant about entering into a relationship with a member of her crew . For the relationship to work in the future , it was said that Chakotay should not try to lead the relationship and Janeway needed to be more vulnerable . Following the end of Star Trek : Enterprise , the romance between Chakotay and Janeway was described in The Chicago Tribune as the one most wanted to be seen on screen in any of the Star Trek series , but that " it never panned out . Dang ! " Chakotay 's relationship with Seven was also commented on , and both UGO and io9 complained that the relationship appeared at random .

= = = Themes = = =

Chakotay 's inclusion in the main cast of Voyager was seen by critics as one of several who was used to highlight the diversity within the series . This was highlighted during the episode " Faces " in which one scene showed Janeway , Tuvok , Harry Kim , and Chakotay in a single camera pan . Chakotay 's individual position was that he was " continually positioned as an exotic native other in relation to the white female Captain Janeway " , and was used to " help the white protagonist and progress the internal narrative . "

The placement of a character of indigenous peoples descent in science fiction was highlighted in the media . Drew Hayden Taylor said that Chakotay was " [ p ] erhaps the most well @-@ known " . Of Chakotay 's origin , he said , " They never actually say what nation he is , but I do believe it 's some Central American tribe . " Hayden Taylor wrote in a later article in 2012 describing the rise of Native American characters in the Twilight film series that Chakotay was still the sole popular example of a Native American character in science fiction . Chakotay was also described as " the only First Nations role model around in a futuristic setting " in the 2005 book , " Indian " Stereotypes in TV Science Fiction : First Nations ' Voices Speak Out , but was also referred to as the " quintessential Tonto in outer space " . A similar criticism was highlighted of the character in Medicine Bags and Dog Tags : American Indian Veterans from Colonial Times to the Second Iraq War ( 2008 ) , which called Chakotay " a creature of white fantasies " and suggested that he was " far more stereotypical than Tonto " as " at least Tonto was heroic and saved the Lone Ranger once in awhile " .

Although religion was referenced during the Star Trek franchise , such as in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Who Mourns for Adonais ? " , it did not take a more prominent role until later in the series , with Star Trek : Deep Space Nine exploring the Bajorans ' beliefs and Voyager concentrating on those of Chakotay . These included vision quests , and other interpretation of Native American culture which were described by critics as showing a " very Hollywood version of Plains @-@ culture religion " .

The appearance of a medicine wheel in the episode " Cathexis " was described by Sierra S. Adare as showing Chakotay in the " ' good Indian ' in the classic Pocahontas sense " . Chakotay is seen attempting to introduce rituals and meditation techniques to other crew members , something they failed to understand . These were said to be contrary to the tribal history described in " Tattoo " , which was said to say that Chakotay 's tribe descended from a pre @-@ Mayan culture in Central America . Adare attributed this to Euro @-@ American / European writers writing inaccurate information into scripts . However , the appearance of the character was described as " groundbreaking " .

= Arthur Bell ( footballer ) =

Arthur A. Bell ( November 1882 – 22 April 1923 ) was an English footballer who played as an inside forward . He started his career with Burnley Belvedere before joining Football League side Burnley in 1902 . Over the next seven years , Bell made 101 league appearances and scored 28 goals for the Lancashire club . During his career , he won three caps for the England national amateur football team . An architect by trade , Bell also played as an amateur cricketer for Burnley Cricket Club for 20 years , during which time he won five Lancashire League championships . He was selected to represent the Lancashire Second XI on three occasions .

= = Biography = =

Bell was born in Burnley , Lancashire , in November 1882 , one of three children born to Thomas and Elizabeth Bell . He was educated at the Burnley Grammar School . An amateur throughout his sporting career , he worked professionally as an architect and would often miss matches due to work commitments . In 1911 , he was involved in the building of the new Brunshaw Road stand at the Turf Moor stadium in Burnley . He died on 22 April 1923 , at the age of 40 .

= = Football = =

As a youth , Bell played amateur football with Burnley Belvedere before joining Football League Second Division side Burnley in February 1902 . He made his debut for the club on 10 January 1903 in the 1 – 0 win against Lincoln City at Turf Moor ; the winning goal was scored by Cuthbert Storey , who was also playing in his first senior match after transferring from Burnley Belvedere . Bell was selected once more in the 1902 – 03 campaign , playing at left inside forward in the 1 – 3 defeat to Leicester Fosse on 24 January 1903 . He was unable to break into the team for the first five months of the following season due to the form of fellow inside forward William Jackson , a new signing from Barrow . He made his first appearance of the campaign in the goalless draw away at Grimsby Town on 30 January 1904 . Bell scored his first competitive goal for Burnley in the 2 – 0 win over Gainsborough Trinity three weeks later , and on 12 March he scored a late goal in the 1 – 3 loss away to Manchester United . In total , Bell played eleven league matches during the 1903 – 04 season and scored four goals .

Bell was selected to play in the opening match of the 1904 – 05 season , a 1 – 4 home defeat to West Bromwich Albion . Bell kept his place in the side for the following match against Chesterfield , but was dropped for the trip to Bolton Wanderers in favour of youngster William Hutchinson , a summer signing from non @-@ League club Alston . He was recalled for the visit of Liverpool on 22 October 1904 , deputising for the unavailable Doug MacFarlane , but then spent more than two months out of the team . Bell made two further appearances for Burnley that season , playing in consecutive defeats to Bolton Wanderers and Blackpool in January 1905 . He found himself more involved in the first @-@ team during the 1905 – 06 campaign , making 19 league appearances . On 13 January 1906 , he played in the first FA Cup game of his career as Burnley were eliminated by Southern League side Tottenham Hotspur in the first round . Bell scored his first goal of the season on 10 February 1906 , netting the opening goal in the 2 – 2 draw against Burslem Port Vale . During March 1906 , he scored in the home wins over Leeds City and Chelsea .

After missing the first three matches of the 1906 – 07 season due to cricketing commitments , Bell was chosen to replace McFarlane for the visit of Nottingham Forest on 15 September 1906 . Two weeks later he scored twice in the 4 – 0 home win over Burton United , and went on to score three more goals in his next four appearances , including a late winner away at Leeds City . However , the victory was overshadowed by the news that Leeds forward Soldier Wilson had died after collapsing during the match . Bell went on to score a total of 12 goals in 1906 – 07 , his highest return in a single season . His performances for Burnley led to a call @-@ up from the England amateur team in April 1907 , and he won his first cap in the 8 – 1 defeat of the Netherlands in The Hague . In the match , he played alongside full England internationals Harold Hardman and Vivian Woodward , who , like Bell , was a professional architect .

Although he again missed the opening month of the following season , Bell quickly reclaimed his status as one of Burnley 's first @-@ choice players , starting 26 league matches during the campaign . He scored on his first appearance of the season in the 2 – 2 draw away at Derby County , and scored twice in the 5 – 1 win against Grimsby Town on 2 November 1907 . Bell scored the only FA Cup goal of his career in the home tie against Southampton on 11 January 1908 , but could not prevent the Southern League side securing a 2 – 1 victory . He continued to play for Burnley when work and cricket allowed in the 1908 – 09 campaign , making 15 league appearances . He scored twice during the season ; he scored in the 1 – 4 defeat away at Oldham Athletic on 14 November , and scored the winning goal in the 3 – 2 defeat of Barnsley on 5 December . Bell played in 101st and final league game for Burnley in the 0 – 1 loss at Derby County on 26 December 1908 . He retired from football shortly afterwards , stating that playing football in winter in addition to cricket during the summer , combined with managing an architecture practice , was too demanding .

= = = Career statistics = = =

= = Cricket = =

Aside from football , Bell was also an accomplished amateur cricketer ; he assisted Burnley Cricket Club between 1899 and 1919 , and would often choose to play cricket rather than football when the seasons overlapped . He was a member of the side that won the Lancashire League in 1901 and went on to captain the team that won three consecutive titles in 1906 , 1907 and 1908 . Bell won a fifth Lancashire League title with Burnley in the 1913 season . A left @-@ handed batsman , he also bowled slow left arm . Bell represented the Lancashire Second XI on three occasions in 1905 and 1906 . He was selected for two matches against the Surrey and Yorkshire second teams during the 1905 season and on 9 July 1906 he played in the Minor Counties Championship draw with Staffordshire at Turf Moor , entering play as a substitute after Herbert Rhodes was injured while fielding .

= Domestic sheep reproduction =

As with other mammals , domestic sheep reproduction occurs sexually . Their reproductive strategy is very similar to other domestic herd animals . A flock of sheep is generally mated by a single ram , which has either been chosen by a farmer or has established dominance through physical contest with other rams ( in feral populations ) . Most sheep have a breeding season ( tupping ) in the autumn , though some are able to breed year @-@ round .

Largely as a result of the influence of humans in sheep breeding , ewes often produce multiple lambs . This increase in the lamb births , both in number and birth weight , may cause problems in delivery and lamb survival , requiring the intervention of shepherds .

= = Sexual behavior = =

Ewes generally reach sexual maturity at six to eight months of age , and rams generally at four to six ( ram lambs have occasionally been known to impregnate their mothers at two months ) . Ewes enter into estrus cycles about every 17 days , which last for approximately 30 hours . In addition to emitting a scent , they indicate readiness through physical displays towards rams . Sheep may display homosexuality , which occurs in about eight percent of rams . Its occurrence does not seem to be related to flock hierarchy ( as some homosexual behavior is in mammals ) , rather the ram 's typical motor pattern for intercourse is directed at rams instead of ewes . The phenomenon of the freemartin , a female bovine that is behaviorally masculine and lacks functioning ovaries , is commonly associated with cattle , but does occur to some extent in sheep . The instance of freemartins in sheep may be increasing in concert with the rise in twinning ( freemartins are the result of male @-@ female twin combinations ) .

= = = Rutting = = =

Without human intervention , rams may fight during the rut to determine which individuals may mate with ewes . Rams , especially unfamiliar ones , will also fight outside the breeding period to establish dominance ; rams can kill one another if allowed to mix freely . During the rut , even normally friendly rams may become aggressive towards humans due to increases in their hormone levels .

Historically , especially aggressive rams were sometimes blindfolded or hobbled . Today , those who keep rams typically prefer softer preventative measures , such as moving within a clear line to an exit , never turning their back on a ram , and possibly dousing with water or a diluted solution of bleach or vinegar to dissuade charges .

= = Pregnancy = =

Without ultrasound or other special tools , determining if a sheep is pregnant is difficult . Ewes only begin to visibly show a pregnancy about six weeks before giving birth , so shepherds often rely on the assumption that a ram will impregnate all the ewes in a flock . However , by fitting a ram with a chest harness called a marking harness that holds a special crayon ( or raddle , sometimes spelled reddle ) , ewes that have been mounted are marked with a color . Dye may also be directly applied to the ram 's brisket . This measure is not used in flocks where wool is important , since the color of a raddle contaminates it .

After mating , sheep have a gestation period of around five months . Within a few days of the impending birth , ewes begin to behave differently . They may lie down and stand erratically , paw the ground , or otherwise act out of sync with normal flock patterns . A ewe 's udder will quickly fill out , and her vulva will swell . Vaginal , uterine or anal prolapse may also occur , in which case either stitching or a physical retainer can be used to hold the orifice in if the problem persists .

= = = Artificial insemination and embryo transfer = = =

In addition to natural insemination by rams , artificial insemination and embryo transfers have been used in sheep breeding programs for many years in Australia and New Zealand . These programs have become more commonplace in the United States during the 2000s as the number of veterinarians qualified to perform these types of procedures with proficiency have grown . However , ovine AI is a relatively complicated procedure compared to other livestock . Unlike cattle or goats , which have straight cervices that can be vaginally inseminated , ewes have a curved cervix which is more difficult to access . Additionally , breeders were until recently unable to control their ewe 's estrus cycles . The ability to control the estrus cycle is much easier today because of products that safely assist in aligning heat cycles . Some examples of products are PG600 , CIDRs , Estrumate and Folltropin V. These products contain progesterone which will bring on the induction of estrus in ewes ( sheep ) during seasonal anestrus . Seasonal anestrus is when ewes do not have regular estrous cycles outside the natural breeding season .

Historically , vaginal insemination of sheep only produced 40 @-@ 60 % success rates , and was thus called a " shot in the dark " ( SID ) . In the 1980s , Australian researchers developed a laparoscopic insemination procedure which , combined with the use of progestogen and pregnant mare 's serum gonadotropin ( PMSG ) , yielded much higher success rates ( 50 @-@ 80 % or more ) , and has become the standard for artificial insemination of sheep in the 21st century .

Semen collection is naturally an integral component of this entire process . Once semen has been collected it can be used immediately for insemination or slowly frozen for use at a later date . Fresh semen is recognized as the method of choice as it lives longer and yields higher conception rates . Frozen semen will work but it must be the highest quality of semen and the ewes must be inseminated twice in the same day . The marketing of ram semen is a major part of this industry . Producers owning prize winning rams have found this to be a good avenue to leverage the accolades of their most famous animals .

During embryo transfer ( ET ) a minor surgical procedure with almost no risk of injury or infection when performed properly , sheep laparoscopy allows the importation of improved genetics , even of breeds which may otherwise be non @-@ existent in certain countries due to the regulation of live animal imports . Embryo transfer procedures are used to allow producers to maximize those females that produce the best lambs / kids either for retention into the flock or for sale to other producers . ET also allows producers to continue to utilize a ewe / doe that may not physically be able to carry or feed a set of lambs . ET can allow a producer to grow his flock quickly with above average individuals of similar bloodlines . The primary industry to utilize this technology in the United States is the club lamb breeders and exhibitors . It is a common practice in the commercial sheep industries of Australia , New Zealand , and South America .

Average success rates in Embryo Transfer in terms of embryos recovered can vary widely . Each breed will respond differently to the ET process . Typically white faced ewes and does are more fertile than black faced ewes . A range of zero to the mid 20 ’ s in terms of viable embryos recovered from a flush procedure can be expected . Over the course of a year the average is 6 @.@ 8 transferrable eggs per donor with a 75 % conception rate for those eggs .

A big part of modern sheep reproduction is overall breeding animal health . In an effort to help improve animal health and ultimately performance many progressive breeders rely on PROGEN . Evidence based research substantiated by reliable field trials have shown improved performance in sheep . The name comes from the progenitor cells of the body . The progenitor cells are differentiated stem cells with specific direction and purpose to become the future building blocks of the body . The goal for PROGEN is to support the body at the most fundamental levels encouraging efficient development of the progenitor cells . This approach is to impact the entire animal starting with immune function , gastrointestinal health , vascular system , and importantly reproduction efficiency .

= = Lambing = =

When birth is imminent , contractions begin to take place , and the fitful behavior of the ewe may increase . A normal labor may take one to several hours , depending on how many lambs are present , the age of the ewe , and her physical and nutritional condition prior to the birth . Though some breeds may regularly produce larger litters of lambs ( records stand around nine lambs at once ) , most produce either single or twin lambs . At some point , usually at the beginning of labor or soon after the births have occurred , ewes and lambs may be confined to small lambing jugs . These pens , which are generally two to eight feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) in length and width , are designed to aid both careful observation of ewes and to cement the bond between them and their lambs .

Ovine obstetrics can be problematic . By selectively breeding ewes that produce multiple offspring with higher birth weights for generations , sheep producers have inadvertently caused some domestic sheep to have difficulty lambing . However , it is a myth that sheep cannot lamb without human assistance ; many ewes give birth directly in pasture without aid. this can be proven by the fact that they give birth in the wild . Balancing ease of lambing with high productivity is one of the dilemmas of sheep breeding . While the majority of births are relatively normal and do not require intervention , many complications may arise . A lamb may present in the normal fashion ( with both legs and head forward ) , but may simply be too large to slide out of the birth canal . This often happens when large rams are crossed with diminutive ewes ( this is related to breed , rams are naturally larger than ewes by comparison ) . Lambs may also present themselves with one shoulder to the side , completely backward , or with only some of their limbs protruding . Lambs may also be spontaneously aborted or stillborn . Reproductive failure is a common consequence of infections such as toxoplasmosis and foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease . Some types of abortion in sheep are preventable by vaccinations against these infections .

In the case of any such problems , those present at lambing ( who may or may not include a veterinarian , most shepherds become accomplished at lambing to some degree ) may assist the ewe in extracting or repositioning lambs . After the birth , ewes ideally break the amniotic sac ( if it is not broken during labor ) , and begin licking clean the lamb . The licking clears the nose and mouth , dries the lamb , and stimulates it . Lambs that are breathing and healthy at this point begin trying to stand , and ideally do so between a half and full hour , with help from the mother . Generally after lambs stand , the umbilical cord is trimmed to about an inch ( 2 @.@ 5 centimeters ) . Once trimmed , a small container ( such as a film canister ) of iodine is held against the lamb 's belly over the remainder of the cord to prevent infection .

= = Postnatal care = =

In normal situations , lambs nurse after standing , receiving vital colostrum milk . Lambs that either fail to nurse or are prevented from doing so by the ewe require aid in order to live . If coaxing the pair to accept nursing does not work , one of several steps may then be taken . Ewes may be held or tied to force them to accept a nursing lamb . If a lamb is not eating , a stomach tube may also be used to force feed the lamb in order to save its life . In the case of a permanently rejected lamb , a shepherd may then attempt to foster an orphaned lamb onto another ewe . Lambs are also sometimes fostered after the death of their mother , either from the birth or other event .

Scent plays a large factor in ewes recognizing their lambs , so disrupting the scent of a newborn lamb with washing or over @-@ handling may cause a ewe to reject it . Conversely , various methods of imparting the scent of a ewe 's own lamb to an orphaned one may be useful in fostering . If an orphaned lamb cannot be fostered , then it usually becomes what is known as a bottle lamb — a lamb raised by people and fed via bottle .

After lambs are stabilized , lamb marking is carried out – this includes ear tagging , docking , castration and usually vaccination . Ear tags with numbers are the primary mode of identification when sheep are not named ; it is also the legal manner of animal identification in the European Union : the number may identify the individual sheep or only its flock . When performed at an early age , ear tagging seems to cause little or no discomfort to lambs . However , using tags improperly or using tags not designed for sheep may cause discomfort , largely due to excess weight of tags for other animals .

Ram lambs not intended for breeding are castrated , though some shepherds choose to avoid the procedure for ethical , economic or practical reasons . Ram lambs that will be slaughtered or separated from ewes before sexual maturity are not usually castrated . In most breeds , lambs ' tails are docked for health reasons . The tail may be removed just below the lamb 's caudal tail flaps ( docking shorter than this may cause health problems such as rectal prolapse ) , but in some breeds the tail is left longer , or is not docked at all . Docking is not necessary in short @-@ tailed breeds , and it is not usually done in breeds in which a long tail is valued , such as Zwartbles . Though docking is often considered cruel and unnatural by animal rights activists , it is considered by sheep producers large and small alike to be a critical step in maintaining the health of sheep . Long , wooly tails make shearing more difficult , interfere with mating , and make sheep extremely susceptible to parasites , especially those that cause flystrike . Both castration and docking can be performed with several instruments . An elastrator places a tight band of rubber around an area , causing it to atrophy and fall off in a number of weeks . This process is bloodless and does not seem to cause extended suffering to lambs , who tend to ignore it after several hours . In addition to the elastrator , a Burdizzo , emasculator , heated chisel or knife are sometimes used . After one to three days in the lambing jugs , ewes and lambs are usually sufficiently stabilized to allow reintroduction to the rest of the flock .

= = Commercial sheep breeding = =

In the large sheep producing nations of South America , Australia and New Zealand sheep are usually bred on large tracts of land with much less intervention from the graziers or breeders . Merinos , and much of the land in these countries does not lend itself to the mob intervention that is found in smaller flock breeding countries . In these countries there is little need , and no option but for ewes to lamb outdoors as there are insufficient structures to handle the large flocks of ewes there . New Zealand ewes produce 36 million lambs each spring time , which is an average of 2 @,@ 250 lambs per farm . Australian graziers , too , do not receive the financial support that governments in other countries provide to sheep breeders . Low @-@ cost sheep breeding is based on large numbers of sheep per labour unit and having ewes that are capable of unsupervised lambing to produce hardy , active lambs .

= = Managerial aspects = =

For breeders intent on strict improvements to their flocks , ewes are classed and inferior sheep are removed prior to mating in order to maintain or improve the quality of the flock . Muffled ( wooly ) faces have long been associated with lower fertility rates . Stud or specially selected rams are chosen with aid of objective measurements , genetic information and evaluation services that are now available in Australia and New Zealand . The choice of mating time is governed by many factors including climate , market requirements and feed availability . Rams are typically mated at about 2 @.@ 5 % depending on the age of the sheep , plus consideration as to the size and type of mating paddocks . The mating period ranges from about 6 to 8 weeks in commercial flocks . Longer mating times result in management problems with lamb marking and shearing etc .

Good nutrition is vital to ewes during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy in order to prevent pregnancy toxaemia , especially in twin bearing ewes . Overfeeding , however , may result in over large single lambs and dystocia . Shearing ewes before lambing reduces the number of ewes that are cast ( i.e. unable to rise unassisted ) , and the number of lambs and ewes that are lost . Lambs , too , are aided in finding the udder and suckling a shorn ewe .

After shearing ewes are typically placed in well sheltered paddocks that have good feed and water . Attention to ewes that are lambing varies according to the breed , size and locations of properties . Unless they are stud ewes it unlikely that they will receive intensive care . On stations with large paddocks there is a policy of non @-@ interference . On other properties the mobs are inspected by stockmen at varying intervals to stand cast ewes and deal with dystocia . Producers also sometimes quietly drift pregnant ewes away from ewes that have already lambed , in order to prevent mis @-@ mothering .

Lambs are usually marked at three to six weeks of age , but a protracted lambing season may necessitate two markings .

= = = Inbreeding depression = = =

Inbreeding tends to occur in flocks of limited size and where only a single or a few rams are used . Associated with inbreeding is a decline in progeny performance usually referred to as inbreeding depression . Inbreeding depression has been found for lamb birthweight , average daily weight gain from birth until two months , and litter size .

= = Other countries = =

In the major sheep countries of Argentina , Uruguay , Brazil , Peru and Chile , breeders are also utilizing fleece testing and performance recording schemes as a means of improving their flocks .

= = New research = =

In 2008 , for the first time in history , researchers at Chiswick CSIRO research station , between Uralla and Armidale , New South Wales have used stem cells to develop surrogate rams and bulls . These males then produce the viable semen of another male .

The approach in these sheep experiments involves irradiating a ram ’ s testes while placing stem cells from a second ram into the testes of the first , ram A. In the following weeks ram A produces semen the usual way , but is using the stem cells of ram B and therefore producing semen carrying the genetics of ram B rather than those of his own . Ram A therefore has effectively become a surrogate ram .

The viable semen is then implanted in the ewe and the many lambs born through this process are proving to be normal and healthy . DNA tests have proved that up to 10 % of the lambs are sired by the surrogate ram and carry the genetics of the donor ram .

= Mortal Folly / Mortal Recoil =

" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " are the twenty @-@ fourth and twenty @-@ fifth episodes of the second season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . " Mortal Folly " was written and storyboarded by Adam Muto and Rebecca Sugar , whereas " Mortal Recoil " was written and storyboarded by Jesse Moynihan and Cole Sanchez . Both were based on a story by Mark Banker , Kent Osborne , Patrick McHale , and series creator Pendleton Ward . The two episodes originally aired on Cartoon Network on May 2 , 2011 , and guest starred Ron Perlman as the Lich , and Isabella Acres as young Princess Bubblegum . Perlman 's character would become the series ' chief antagonist , and would reappear in several fourth and fifth season episodes .

The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In " Mortal Folly " , Finn and Jake must go on a quest to find the Lich ( voiced by Perlman ) , while the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) pesters them for their blessing to marry Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) . After seemingly defeating the Lich , however , the Ice King accidentally drops Bubblegum into the Lich 's well of power . In " Mortal Recoil " , Princess Bubblegum possessed by the spirit of the Lich , and Finn and Jake team up with the Ice King to stop him . After Bubblegum is seriously wounded and there is not enough candy bio @-@ mass to save her , she reverts to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old .

" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " marked the first time that one Adventure Time episode carried the plot into another episode . The plot was concluded with " Mortal Recoil " which aired on the same day . The episode introduced the Lich , who had first been proposed in the series ' pitch bible . Both episodes were supposed to air as the second season finale , but due to a studio mix @-@ up , they were aired as the penultimate episode , before " Heat Signature " . Despite this , they are still considered by Ward to function as the season two finale . Both episodes were watched by 1 @.@ 92 million people and received largely positive critical attention ; many critics enjoyed the way the episode began to set up the series ' mythology .

= = Plot = =

= = = " Mortal Folly " = = =

While meditating with Finn and Jake , Princess Bubblegum has a premonition involving the Lich , an evil undead sorcerer who was long ago trapped in a block of amber by the legendary hero Billy . Bubblegum tells Finn and Jake about the dream , and the three of them journey to the tree at the top of Bubblegum 's palace where the block of amber is hidden ; Bubblegum also places magical jewels on Finn and Jake 's heads that will prevent the Lich from exerting mind @-@ control on them . While examining the amber , a snail is placed under the Lich 's spell and helps break him out while Finn and Jake are not paying attention . The Lich then blasts out of the kingdom , leaving a wave of destruction in his path .

Finn and Jake , after acquiring the legendary gauntlet of Billy as well as a special pink sweater made by Bubblegum , give chase , but they are consistently interrupted by the Ice King , who keeps trying to get Finn and Jake 's blessings to marry Bubblegum . Fed up with their dismissive attitude , the Ice King kidnaps Bubblegum and follows Finn and Jake as the two heroes pursue the Lich . The Lich eventually reaches his lair , an abandoned subway station , and creates a pool of green liquid which he plans to use to regain his strength and destroy the world .

Finn , Jake , the Ice King , and Bubblegum follow the Lich into his lair . In the entanglement that follows , Billy 's gauntlet is destroyed by the Lich and Finn breaks his jewel . The Lich attempts to exert mind @-@ control on Finn , but Finn is able to resist . It is then revealed that the sweater Bubblegum gave to Finn has the power to repel the Lich due to it being imbued with " liking someone a lot " . Finn then takes the sweater and pushes it into the Lich 's eye sockets and rips his face apart , seemingly killing him . However , the Ice King accidentally drops Bubblegum into the Lich 's evil vat , to the horror of Finn and Jake .

= = = " Mortal Recoil " = = =

After Princess Bubblegum falls into the Lich 's well of power , she is rushed to the Candy Kingdom hospital and saved . However , the Ice King feels that something is awry and tries to warn Finn , but Finn angrily scolds him and tells him to leave the kingdom . Finn and Jake then focus their energy on taking care of Princess Bubblegum , whose behavior seems off . At first , she claims that she needs some rest , but soon she begins acting strangely , such as convulsing in her bed . Finn leaves to acquire items that Bubblegum requests — which includes weapons @-@ grade plutonium , ammonium , and gasoline among other items — and Jake tries to cheer Bubblegum up with a song .

This , however , back @-@ fires and Bubblegum ignites her bedroom with some sort of dark magic . It is apparent that Bubblegum has been possessed by the spirit of the Lich . Finn returns , and the two discover Bubblegum mixing the ingredients that Finn retrieved in her bathtub and then drinking it . She soon deforms and turns into a grotesque monster ; she hurls Finn and Jake through a wall and the two discover the Ice King . He finally tells them that he saw with his " wizard eyes " the spirit of the Lich descend into Bubblegum after she fell into the well of power . The three make an unlikely alliance , teaming up to beat the Lich @-@ possessed Bubblegum .

While Finn distracts her , the Ice King uses his ice powers to freeze Bubblegum . Their moment of success , however , is cut short when the still @-@ frozen Bubblegum tips over and shatters everywhere . Her body parts are again rushed to the hospital where she is reassembled . However , there are not enough pieces to complete her , and so she ends up reverting to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Finn , who is also 13 , is excited , but the Ice King temporarily gives up his pursuit of Bubblegum due to her age . As the episode ends , it is revealed that the Lich has once again possessed the body of the snail , who angrily waves goodbye to the camera .

= = Production = =

Both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " were directed by Larry Leichliter . The first half was written and storyboarded by Rebecca Sugar and Adam Muto , whereas the second half was written and storyboarded by Jesse Moynihan and Cole Sanchez . Both were based on a story by Mark Banker , Kent Osborne , Patrick McHale , and series creator Pendleton Ward . In the original outline for " Mortal Folly " , the Lich had several lines that played him off as a stereotypical villain . Sugar and Muto decided to make him into a more " scary and dangerous " character , and purposely played up the darker elements of the episode . In addition , Princess Bubblegum 's sweater was supposed to be " magic " and " shoot lasers " . However , Sugar felt that it would be more emotionally poignant if the sweater was just a regular sweater imbued with positive emotions . The scene featuring Finn stuffing the sweater into the Lich 's eye sockets and then ripping his skull apart was inspired by an artistic design idea Sugar had had when she was in high school ; she had wanted to draw a comic featuring a small person getting into a fight and being pushed up to the ceiling .

" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " feature the first substantial appearance of the Lich , the series ' primary antagonist . The Lich had appeared in concept drawings in the series ' pitch bible , which Ward himself had created in 2007 . Ward 's original drawing was re @-@ designed by former creative director McHale ; he purposely gave the Lich a desiccated and dried @-@ up look , and was instrumental in crafting the Lich 's rotting appearance . In both this episode and other episodes where the character appears , the Lich was voiced by Ron Perlman . The snail , an easter egg that appears in every episode , appears in the episodes and plays a prominent part . Originally , the snail was inspired by the in @-@ jokes in episodes of The Simpsons , and was Ward 's attempt to " make a game out of every episode of Adventure Time , where you could freeze @-@ frame and find things in the background " , such as the snail . However , in " Mortal Folly " , the snail serves as the catalyst for the Lich 's escape . The snail would also play an important part in other mythology @-@ heavy episodes like " In Your Footsteps " , and " The Lich " . Osborne later noted that the snail 's appearance was pleasing to fans who knew that the snail had been appearing in all the episodes and had actively searched for it before .

In the original storyboard , the Lich 's lair was not specifically designed to be a subway . This was added later by the background designers . The undead skeletons that attack Finn and Jake were originally supposed to be " specific undead from [ Dungeons & Dragons ] " . However , Ward changed his mind and tasked Andy Ristaino , a character designer for the series , with designing the corpses . Ristaino sough to make them look as if they were " east coast commuters [ all ] bundled up for winter . " He strove to make them look " specific " so that they would appear as people you might see on a subway , such as a bike messenger , a couple , man in a " goofy hat " , and a man wearing a suit . Originally , when the Lich set off his bomb , the storyboard featured a simple mushroom cloud . Ian Jones @-@ Quartey , one of the series ' storyboard revisionists , however , added a face to the blast . Ristaino then added skulls to the smoke . The series staff liked this version so much that they later included it on the title card .

Because a large amount of the action in " Mortal Recoil " takes place in Bubblegum 's bedroom , Moynihan was worried that the scenes would not carry interest and " people would get bored " . As such , Moynihan and Sanchez created the scenes " trying to be simultaneously funny and terrifying " . Ward noted that he liked to be " laughing and freaked out " , and that the scenes work in this manner . Former storyboard artist Adam Muto commented that the possession scenes turned out " nice and off @-@ putting " . Jones @-@ Quartey called the shot of a possessed Princess Bubblegum melting " terrifying " . Although the series tries to avoid " cartoon physics " , Sanchez and Moynihan were forced to work around this during the scene when Bubblegum throws Finn and Jake through a wall without harming them . Moynihan later rationalized that the wall was made of candy , and thus was harmless .

The end of " Mortal Recoil " introduced the plot thread of Bubblegum de @-@ aging to a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl . This would be expanded upon and eventually resolved in the third season episode " Too Young " . The younger version of Bubblegum was voiced by Isabella Acres , who would reprise her role in " Too Young " . According to Moynihan , there were initially " rumors " to keep Bubblegum young for several episodes , but eventually her 13 @-@ year @-@ old version was relegated to only two appearances before she reverted to normal .

= = Reception = =

" Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " first aired on Cartoon Network on May 2 , 2011 . Both episodes were viewed by 1 @.@ 92 million viewers and scored a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 3 / 2 percent . This means it was seen by 1 @.@ 3 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . The episodes first saw physical release as part of the 2012 Adventure Time : Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow DVD , which included 16 episodes from the series ' first three seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete second season DVD in June 2013 . The season was originally supposed to end with " Mortal Folly " / " Mortal Recoil " , but due to a scheduling conflict , " Heat Signature " was the last episode of the second season aired . Despite this , Ward still considers the two @-@ parter to be the real season finale , and the two entries are the last episodes featured on the second season DVD release .

Tyler Foster of DVD Talk praised both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " , noting that , despite the fact that the episodes represented only " the beginning of the show 's journey into direct serialization " , the story @-@ arc was nonetheless " a tantalizing taste of what 's to come . " Wired magazine noted it as one of the stand @-@ outs from the Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow DVD , calling it a " three @-@ part suite " , which concluded with the third season episode " Too Young " . The review enjoyed the way the episode set the stage for the apparent death , resurrection , and de @-@ aging for Princess Bubblegum , which became a major plot point in the next season . Matt Fowler of IGN praised both " Mortal Folly " and " Mortal Recoil " , specifically giving applause to the introduction of the Lich , noting that he is " a real , grotesque villain inserted into the merely semi @-@ dark world of Adventure Time " . Fowler ended up being very happy with the two episodes , writing that they end the season " strong " .

= Mathematics and architecture =

Mathematics and architecture are related , since , as with other arts , architects use mathematics for several reasons . Apart from the mathematics needed when engineering buildings , architects use geometry : to define the spatial form of a building ; from the Pythagoreans of the sixth century BC onwards , to create forms considered harmonious , and thus to lay out buildings and their surroundings according to mathematical , aesthetic and sometimes religious principles ; to decorate buildings with mathematical objects such as tessellations ; and to meet environmental goals , such as to minimise wind speeds around the bases of tall buildings .

In Ancient Egypt , Ancient Greece , India , and the Islamic world , buildings including pyramids , temples , mosques , palaces and mausoleums were laid out with specific proportions for religious reasons . In Islamic architecture , geometric shapes and geometric tiling patterns are used to decorate buildings , both inside and outside . Some Hindu temples have a fractal @-@ like structure where parts resemble the whole , conveying a message about the infinite in Hindu cosmology . In the twenty @-@ first century , mathematical ornamentation is again being used to cover public buildings .

In Renaissance architecture , symmetry and proportion were deliberately emphasized by architects such as Leon Battista Alberti , Sebastiano Serlio and Andrea Palladio , influenced by Vitruvius 's De architectura from Ancient Rome and the arithmetic of the Pythagoreans from Ancient Greece . At the end of the nineteenth century , Vladimir Shukhov in Russia and Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona pioneered the use of hyperboloid structures ; in the Sagrada Família , Gaudí also incorporated hyperbolic paraboloids , tessellations , catenary arches , catenoids , helicoids , and ruled surfaces . In the twentieth century , styles such as modern architecture and Deconstructivism explored different geometries to achieve desired effects . Minimal surfaces have been exploited in tent @-@ like roof coverings as at Denver International Airport , while Richard Buckminster Fuller pioneered the use of the strong thin @-@ shell structures known as geodesic domes .

= = Connected fields = =

The architects Michael Ostwald and Kim Williams , considering the relationships between architecture and mathematics , note that the fields as commonly understood might seem to be only weakly connected , since architecture is a profession concerned with the practical matter of making buildings , while mathematics is the pure study of number and other abstract objects . But , they argue , the two are strongly connected , and have been since antiquity . In Ancient Rome , Vitruvius described an architect as a man who knew enough of a range of other disciplines , primarily geometry , to enable him to oversee skilled artisans in all the other necessary areas , such as masons and carpenters . The same applied in the Middle Ages , where graduates learnt arithmetic , geometry and aesthetics alongside the basic syllabus of grammar , logic , and rhetoric ( the trivium ) in elegant halls made by master builders who had guided many craftsmen . A master builder at the top of his profession was given the title of architect or engineer . In the Renaissance , the quadrivium of arithmetic , geometry , music and astronomy became an extra syllabus expected of the Renaissance man such as Leon Battista Alberti . Similarly in England , Sir Christopher Wren , known today as an architect , was firstly a noted astronomer .

Williams and Ostwald , further overviewing the interaction of mathematics and architecture since 1500 according to the approach of the German sociologist Theodor Adorno , identify three tendencies among architects , namely : to be revolutionary , introducing wholly new ideas ; reactionary , failing to introduce change ; or revivalist , actually going backwards . They argue that architects have avoided looking to mathematics for inspiration in revivalist times . This would explain why in revivalist periods , such as the Gothic Revival in 19th century England , architecture had little connection to mathematics . Equally , they note that in reactionary times such as the Italian Mannerism of about 1520 to 1580 , or the 17th century Baroque and Palladian movements , mathematics was barely consulted . In contrast , the revolutionary early 20th century movements such as Futurism and Constructivism actively rejected old ideas , embracing mathematics and leading to Modernist architecture . Towards the end of the 20th century , too , fractal geometry was quickly seized upon by architects , as was aperiodic tiling , to provide interesting and attractive coverings for buildings .

Architects use mathematics for several reasons , leaving aside the necessary use of mathematics in the engineering of buildings . Firstly , they use geometry because it defines the spatial form of a building . Secondly , they use mathematics to design forms that are considered beautiful or harmonious . From the time of the Pythagoreans with their religious philosophy of number , architects in Ancient Greece , Ancient Rome , the Islamic world and the Italian Renaissance have chosen the proportions of the built environment – buildings and their designed surroundings – according to mathematical as well as aesthetic and sometimes religious principles . Thirdly , they may use mathematical objects such as tessellations to decorate buildings . Fourthly , they may use mathematics in the form of computer modelling to meet environmental goals , such as to minimise whirling air currents at the base of tall buildings .

= = Harmonious spatial forms = =

= = = Secular aesthetics = = =

= = = = Ancient Rome = = = =

= = = = = Vitruvius = = = = =

The influential Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius argued that the design of a building such as a temple depends on two qualities , proportion and symmetria . Proportion ensures that each part of a building relates harmoniously to every other part . Symmetria in Vitruvius 's usage means something closer to the English term modularity than mirror symmetry , as again it relates to the assembling of ( modular ) parts into the whole building . In his Basilica at Fano , he uses ratios of small integers , especially the triangular numbers ( 1 , 3 , 6 , 10 , ... ) to proportion the structure into ( Vitruvian ) modules . Thus the Basilica 's width to length is 1 : 2 ; the aisle around it is as high as it is wide , 1 : 1 ; the columns are five feet thick and fifty feet high , 1 : 10 .

Vitruvius named three qualities required of architecture in his De architectura , c . 15 B.C. : firmness , usefulness ( or " Commodity " in Henry Wotton 's 16th century English ) , and delight . These can be used as categories for classifying the ways in which mathematics is used in architecture . Firmness encompasses the use of mathematics to ensure a building stands up , hence the mathematical tools used in design and to support construction , for instance to ensure stability and to model performance . Usefulness derives in part from the effective application of mathematics , reasoning about and analysing the spatial and other relationships in a design . Delight is an attribute of the resulting building , resulting from the embodying of mathematical relationships in the building ; it includes aesthetic , sensual and intellectual qualities .

= = = = = The Pantheon = = = = =

The Pantheon in Rome has survived intact , illustrating classical Roman structure , proportion , and decoration . The main structure is a dome , the apex left open as a circular oculus to let in light ; it is fronted by a short colonnade with a triangular pediment . The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same , 43 @.@ 3 metres ( 142 ft ) , so the whole interior would fit exactly within a cube , and the interior could house a sphere of the same diameter . These dimensions make more sense when expressed in ancient Roman units of measurement : The dome spans 150 Roman feet ) ; the oculus is 30 Roman feet in diameter ; the doorway is 40 Roman feet high . The Pantheon remains the world 's largest unreinforced concrete dome .

= = = = Renaissance = = = =

The first Renaissance treatise on architecture was Leon Battista Alberti 's 1450 De re aedificatoria ( On the Art of Building ) ; it became the first printed book on architecture in 1485 . It was partly based on Vitruvius 's De architectura and , via Nicomachus , Pythagorean arithmetic . Alberti starts with a cube , and derives ratios from it . Thus the diagonal of a face gives the ratio 1 : √ 2 , while the diameter of the sphere which circumscribes the cube gives 1 : √ 3 . Alberti also documented Filippo Brunelleschi 's discovery of linear perspective , developed to enable the design of buildings which would look beautifully proportioned when viewed from a convenient distance .

The next major text was Sebastiano Serlio 's Regole generali d 'architettura ( General Rules of Architecture ) ; the first volume appeared in Venice in 1537 ; the 1545 volume ( books 1 and 2 ) covered geometry and perspective . Two of Serlio 's methods for constructing perspectives were wrong , but this did not stop his work being widely used .

In 1570 , Andrea Palladio published the influential I quattro libri dell 'architettura ( The Four Books of Architecture ) in Venice . This widely printed book was largely responsible for spreading the ideas of the Italian Renaissance throughout Europe , assisted by proponents like the English diplomat Henry Wotton with his 1624 The Elements of Architecture . The proportions of each room within the villa were calculated on simple mathematical ratios like 3 : 4 and 4 : 5 , and the different rooms within the house were interrelated by these ratios . Earlier architects had used these formulas for balancing a single symmetrical facade ; however , Palladio 's designs related to the whole , usually square , villa . Palladio permitted a range of ratios in the Quattro libri , stating :

There are seven types of room that are the most beautiful and well proportioned and turn out better : they can be made circular , though these are rare ; or square ; or their length will equal the diagonal of the square of the breadth ; or a square and a third ; or a square and a half ; or a square and two @-@ thirds ; or two squares .

In 1615 , Vincenzo Scamozzi published the late Renaissance treatise L 'Idea dell 'Architettura Universale ( The Idea of a Universal Architecture ) . He attempted to relate the design of cities and buildings to the ideas of Vitruvius and the Pythagoreans , and to the more recent ideas of Palladio .

= = = = Nineteenth century = = = =

Hyperboloid structures were used starting towards the end of the nineteenth century by Vladimir Shukhov for masts , lighthouses and cooling towers . Their striking shape is both aesthetically interesting and strong , using structural materials economically . Shukhov 's first hyperboloidal tower was exhibited in Nizhny Novgorod in 1896 .

= = = = Twentieth century = = = =

The early twentieth century movement Modern Architecture , pioneered by Russian Constructivism , used rectilinear Euclidean ( also called Cartesian ) geometry . In the De Stijl movement , the horizontal and the vertical were seen as constituting the universal . The architectural form consists of putting these two directional tendencies together , using roof planes , wall planes and balconies , which either slide past or intersect each other , as in the 1924 Rietveld Schröder House by Gerrit Rietveld .

Modernist architects were free to make use of curves as well as planes . Charles Holden 's 1933 Arnos station has a circular ticket hall in brick with a flat concrete roof . In 1938 , the Bauhaus painter Laszlo Moholy @-@ Nagy adopted Raoul Heinrich Francé 's seven biotechnical elements , namely the crystal , the sphere , the cone , the plane , the ( cuboidal ) strip , the ( cylindrical ) rod , and the spiral , as the supposed basic building blocks of architecture inspired by nature .

Le Corbusier proposed an anthropometric scale of proportions in architecture , the Modulor , based on the supposed height of a man . Le Corbusier 's 1955 Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut uses free @-@ form curves not describable in mathematical formulae . The shapes are said to be evocative of natural forms such as the prow of a ship or praying hands . The design is only at the largest scale : there is no hierarchy of detail at smaller scales , and thus no fractal dimension ; the same applies to other famous twentieth @-@ century buildings such as the Sydney Opera House , Denver International Airport , and the Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao .

Contemporary architecture , in the opinion of the 90 leading architects who responded to a 2010 World Architecture Survey , is extremely diverse ; the best was judged to be Frank Gehry 's Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao .

Denver International Airport 's terminal building , completed in 1995 , has a fabric roof supported as a minimal surface ( i.e. , its mean curvature is zero ) by steel cables . It evokes Colorado 's snow @-@ capped mountains and the teepee tents of Native Americans .

The architect Richard Buckminster Fuller is famous for designing strong thin @-@ shell structures known as geodesic domes . The Montréal Biosphère dome is 61 metres ( 200 ft ) high ; its diameter is 76 metres ( 249 ft ) .

Sydney Opera House has a dramatic roof consisting of soaring white vaults , reminiscent of ship 's sails ; to make them possible to construct using standardized components , the vaults are all composed of triangular sections of spherical shells with the same radius . These have the required uniform curvature in every direction .

The late twentieth century movement Deconstructivism creates deliberate disorder with what Nikos Salingaros in A Theory of Architecture calls random forms of high complexity by using non @-@ parallel walls , superimposed grids and complex 2 @-@ D surfaces , as in Frank Gehry 's Disney Concert Hall and Guggenheim Museum , Bilbao . Until the twentieth century , architecture students were obliged to have a grounding in mathematics . Salingaros argues that first " overly simplistic , politically @-@ driven " Modernism and then " anti @-@ scientific " Deconstructivism have effectively separated architecture from mathematics . He believes that this " reversal of mathematical values " is harmful , as the " pervasive aesthetic " of non @-@ mathematical architecture trains people " to reject mathematical information in the built environment " ; he argues that this has negative effects on society .

= = = Religious principles = = =

= = = = Ancient Egypt = = = =

The pyramids of Ancient Egypt are tombs constructed with deliberately chosen proportions , but which these were has been debated . The face angle is about 51 ° 85 ’ , and the ratio of the slant height to half the base length is 1 @.@ 619 , less than 1 % from the golden ratio . If this was the design method , it would imply the use of Kepler 's triangle ( face angle 51 ° 49 ’ ) . However it is more likely that the pyramids ' slope was chosen from the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle ( face angle 53 ° 8 ’ ) , known from the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) ; or from the triangle with base to hypotenuse ratio 1 : 4 / π ( face angle 51 ° 50 ’ ) .

The possible use of the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle to lay out right angles , such as for the ground plan of a pyramid , and the knowledge of Pythagoras theorem which that would imply , has been much asserted . It was first conjectured by the historian Moritz Cantor in 1882 . It is known that right angles were laid out accurately in Ancient Egypt ; that their surveyors did use ropes for measurement ; that Plutarch recorded in Isis and Osiris ( around 100 AD ) that the Egyptians admired the 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 triangle ; and that the Berlin Papyrus 6619 from the Middle Kingdom ( before 1700 BC ) stated that " the area of a square of 100 is equal to that of two smaller squares . The side of one is ½ + ¼ the side of the other . " The historian of mathematics Roger L. Cooke observes that " It is hard to imagine anyone being interested in such conditions without knowing the Pythagorean theorem . " Against this , Cooke notes that no Egyptian text before 300 BC actually mentions the use of the theorem to find the length of a triangle 's sides , and that there are simpler ways to construct a right angle . Cooke concludes that Cantor 's conjecture remains uncertain : he guesses that the Ancient Egyptians probably did know the Pythagorean theorem , but that " there is no evidence that they used it to construct right angles " .

= = = = Ancient India = = = =

Vaastu Shastra , the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning , employs symmetrical drawings called mandalas . Complex calculations are used to arrive at the dimensions of a building and its components . The designs are intended to integrate architecture with nature , the relative functions of various parts of the structure , and ancient beliefs utilizing geometric patterns ( yantra ) , symmetry and directional alignments . However , early builders may have come upon mathematical proportions by accident . The mathematician Georges Ifrah notes that simple " tricks " with string and stakes can be used to lay out geometric shapes , such as ellipses and right angles .

The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings have universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a sense of scale at different viewing distances . For example , in Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century , and others such as the Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho , the parts and the whole have the same character , with fractal dimension in the range 1 @.@ 7 to 1 @.@ 8 . The cluster of smaller towers ( shikhara , lit . ' mountain ' ) about the tallest , central , tower which represents the holy Mount Kailash , abode of Lord Shiva , depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu cosmology . The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of towers grouped among smaller towers , themselves grouped among still smaller towers , that :

The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and consciousness , expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above , and at the same time housing the sacred deep within .

The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines , with the streets of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras . The four gateways are tall towers ( gopurams ) with fractal @-@ like repetitive structure as at Hampi . The enclosures around each shrine are rectangular and surrounded by high stone walls .

= = = = Ancient Greece = = = =

Pythagoras ( c . 569 – c . 475 B.C. ) and his followers , the Pythagoreans , held that " all things are numbers " . They observed the harmonies produced by notes with specific small @-@ integer ratios of frequency , and argued that buildings too should be designed with such ratios . The Greek word symmetria originally denoted the harmony of architectural shapes in precise ratios from a building 's smallest details right up to its entire design .

The Parthenon is 69 @.@ 5 metres ( 228 ft ) long , 30 @.@ 9 metres ( 101 ft ) wide and 13 @.@ 7 metres ( 45 ft ) high to the cornice . This gives a ratio of width to length of 4 : 9 , and the same for height to width . Putting these together gives height : width : length of 16 : 36 : 81 , or to the delight of the Pythagoreans 42 : 62 : 92 . This sets the module as 0 @.@ 858 m . A 4 : 9 rectangle can be constructed as three contiguous rectangles with sides in the ratio 3 : 4 . Each half @-@ rectangle is then a convenient 3 : 4 : 5 right triangle , enabling the angles and sides to be checked with a suitably knotted rope . The inner area ( naos ) similarly has 4 : 9 proportions ( 21 @.@ 44 metres ( 70 @.@ 3 ft ) wide by 48 @.@ 3 m long ) ; the ratio between the diameter of the outer columns , 1 @.@ 905 metres ( 6 @.@ 25 ft ) , and the spacing of their centres , 4 @.@ 293 metres ( 14 @.@ 08 ft ) , is also 4 : 9 .

The Parthenon is considered by authors such as John Julius Norwich " the most perfect Doric temple ever built " . Its elaborate architectural refinements include " a subtle correspondence between the curvature of the stylobate , the taper of the naos walls and the entasis of the columns " . Entasis refers to the subtle diminution in diameter of the columns as they rise . The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand . As in other classical Greek temples , the platform has a slight parabolic upward curvature to shed rainwater and reinforce the building against earthquakes . The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards , but they actually lean slightly inwards so that if they carried on , they would meet about a mile above the centre of the building ; since they are all the same height , the curvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the architrave and roof above : " all follow the rule of being built to delicate curves " .

The golden ratio was known in 300 B.C. , when Euclid described the method of geometric construction . It has been argued that the golden ratio was used in the design of the Parthenon and other ancient Greek buildings , as well as sculptures , paintings , and vases . More recent authors such as Nikos Salingaros , however , doubt all these claims . Experiments by the computer scientist George Markowsky failed to find any preference for the golden rectangle .

= = = = Islamic architecture = = = =

The historian of Islamic art Antonio Fernandez @-@ Puertas suggests that the Alhambra , like the Great Mosque of Cordoba , was designed using the Hispano @-@ Muslim foot or codo of about 0 @.@ 62 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) . In the palace 's Court of the Lions , the proportions follow a series of surds . A rectangle with sides 1 and √ 2 has ( by Pythagoras 's theorem ) a diagonal of √ 3 , which describes the right triangle made by the sides of the court ; the series continues with √ 4 ( giving a 1 : 2 ratio ) , √ 5 and so on . The decorative patterns are similarly proportioned , √ 2 generating squares inside circles and eight @-@ pointed stars , √ 3 generating six @-@ pointed stars . There is no evidence to support earlier claims that the golden ratio was used in the Alhambra . The Court of the Lions is bracketed by the Hall of Two Sisters and the Hall of the Abencerrajes ; a regular hexagon can be drawn from the centres of these two halls and the four inside corners of the Court of the Lions .

The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne , Turkey , was built by Mimar Sinan to provide a space where the mihrab could be see from anywhere inside the building . The very large central space is accordingly arranged as an octagon , formed by 8 enormous pillars , and capped by a circular dome of 31 @.@ 25 metres ( 102 @.@ 5 ft ) diameter and 43 metres ( 141 ft ) high . The octagon is formed into a square with four semidomes , and externally by four exceptionally tall minarets , 83 metres ( 272 ft ) tall . The building 's plan is thus a circle inside an octagon inside a square .

= = = = Mughal architecture = = = =

Mughal architecture , as seen in the abandoned imperial city of Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal complex , has a distinctive mathematical order and a strong aesthetic based on symmetry and harmony .

The Taj Mahal exemplifies Mughal architecture , both representing paradise and displaying the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan 's power through its scale , symmetry and costly decoration . The white marble mausoleum , decorated with pietra dura , the great gate ( Darwaza @-@ i rauza ) , other buildings , the gardens and paths together form a unified hierarchical design . The buildings include a mosque in red sandstone on the west , and an almost identical building , the Jawab or ' answer ' on the east to maintain the bilateral symmetry of the complex . The formal charbagh ( ' fourfold garden ' ) is in four parts , symbolising the four rivers of paradise , and offering views and reflections of the mausoleum . These are divided in turn into 16 parterres .

The Taj Mahal complex was laid out on a grid , subdivided into smaller grids . The historians of architecture Koch and Barraud agree with the traditional accounts that give the width of the complex as 374 Mughal yards or gaz , the main area being three 374 @-@ gaz squares . These were divided in areas like the bazaar and caravanserai into 17 @-@ gaz modules ; the garden and terraces are in modules of 23 gaz , and are 368 gaz wide ( 16 x 23 ) . The mausoleum , mosque and guest house are laid out on a grid of 7 gaz . Koch and Barraud observe that if an octagon , used repeatedly in the complex , is given sides of 7 units , then it has a width of 17 units , which may help to explain the choice of ratios in the complex .

= = = = Christian architecture = = = =

The Christian patriarchal basilica of Haghia Sophia in Byzantium ( now Istanbul ) , first constructed in 537 ( and twice rebuilt ) , was for a thousand years the largest cathedral ever built . It inspired many later buildings including Sultan Ahmed and other mosques in the city . The Byzantine architecture includes a nave crowned by a circular dome and two half @-@ domes , all of the same diameter ( 31 metres ( 102 ft ) ) , with a further five smaller half @-@ domes forming an apse and four rounded corners of a vast rectangular interior . This was interpreted by mediaeval architects as representing the mundane below ( the square base ) and the divine heavens above ( the soaring spherical dome ) . The emperor Justinian used two geometers , Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles as architects ; Isidore compiled the works of Archimedes on solid geometry , and was influenced by him .

The importance of water baptism in Christianity was reflected in the scale of baptistry architecture . The oldest , the Lateran Baptistry in Rome , built in 440 , set a trend for octagonal baptistries ; the baptismal font inside these buildings was often octagonal , though Italy 's largest baptistry , at Pisa , built between 1152 and 1363 , is circular , with an octagonal font . It is 54 @.@ 86 metres ( 180 @.@ 0 ft ) high , with a diameter of 34 @.@ 13 metres ( 112 @.@ 0 ft ) ( a ratio of 8 : 5 ) . Saint Ambrose wrote that fonts and baptistries were octagonal " because on the eighth day , by rising , Christ loosens the bondage of death and receives the dead from their graves . " Saint Augustine similarly described the eighth day as " everlasting ... hallowed by the resurrection of Christ " . The octagonal Baptistry of Saint John , Florence , built between 1059 and 1128 , is one of the oldest buildings in that city , and one of the last in the direct tradition of classical antiquity ; it was extremely influential in the subsequent Florentine Renaissance , as major architects including Francesco Talenti , Alberti and Brunelleschi used it as the model of classical architecture .

The number five is used " exuberantly " in the 1721 Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená hora , near Žďár nad Sázavou in the Czech republic , designed by Jan Blažej Santini Aichel . The nave is circular , surrounded by five pairs of columns and five oval domes alternating with ogival apses . The church further has five gates , five chapels , five altars and five stars ; a legend claims that when Saint John of Nepomuk was martyred , five stars appeared over his head . The fivefold architecture may also symbolise the five wounds of Christ and the five letters of " Tacui " ( Latin : " I kept silence " [ about secrets of the confessional ] ) .

Antoni Gaudí used a wide variety of geometric structures , some being minimal surfaces , in the Sagrada Família , Barcelona , started in 1882 ( and not completed as of 2015 ) . These include hyperbolic paraboloids and hyperboloids of revolution , tessellations , catenary arches , catenoids , helicoids , and ruled surfaces . This varied mix of geometries is creatively combined in different ways around the church . For example , in the Passion Façade of Sagrada Família , Gaudí assembled stone " branches " in the form of hyperbolic paraboloids , which overlap at their tops ( directrices ) without , therefore , meeting at a point . In contrast , in the colonnade there are hyperbolic paraboloidal surfaces that smoothly join other structures to form unbounded surfaces . Further , Gaudí exploits natural patterns , themselves mathematical , with columns derived from the shapes of trees , and lintels made from unmodified basalt naturally cracked ( by cooling from molten rock ) into hexagonal columns .

The 1971 Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption , San Francisco has a saddle roof composed of eight segments of hyperbolic paraboloids , arranged so that the bottom horizontal cross section of the roof is a square and the top cross section is a Christian cross . The building is a square 77 @.@ 7 metres ( 255 ft ) on a side , and 57 @.@ 9 metres ( 190 ft ) high . The 1970 Cathedral of Brasília by Oscar Niemeyer makes a different use of a hyperboloid structure ; it is constructed from 16 identical concrete beams , each weighing 90 tonnes , arranged in a circle to form a hyperboloid of revolution , the white beams creating a shape like hands praying to heaven . Only the dome is visible from outside : most of the building is below ground .

= = Mathematical decoration = =

= = = Islamic architectural decoration = = =

Islamic buildings are often decorated with geometric patterns which typically make use of several mathematical tessellations , formed of ceramic tiles ( girih , zellige ) that may themselves be plain or decorated with stripes . Symmetries such as stars with six , eight , or multiples of eight points are used in Islamic patterns . Some of these are based on the ' Khatem Sulemani ' or Solomon 's seal motif , which is an eight @-@ pointed star made of two squares , one rotated 45 degrees from the other on the same centre . Islamic patterns exploit many of the 17 possible wallpaper groups ; as early as 1944 , Edith Müller showed that the Alhambra made use of 11 wallpaper groups in its decorations , while in 1986 Branko Grünbaum claimed to have found 13 wallpaper groups in the Alhambra , asserting controversially that the remaining 4 groups are not found anywhere in Islamic ornament .

= = = Modern architectural decoration = = =

Towards the end of the 20th century , novel mathematical constructs such as fractal geometry and aperiodic tiling were seized upon by architects to provide interesting and attractive coverings for buildings . In 1913 , the Modernist architect Adolf Loos had declared that " Ornament is a crime " , influencing architectural thinking for the rest of the 20th century . In the 21st century , architects are again starting to explore the use of ornament . 21st century ornamentation is extremely diverse . Henning Larsen 's 2011 Harpa Concert and Conference Centre , Reykjavik has what looks like a crystal wall of rock made of large blocks of glass . Foreign Office Architects ' 2010 Ravensbourne College , London is tessellated decoratively with 28 @,@ 000 anodised aluminium tiles in red , white and brown , interlinking circular windows of differing sizes . The tessellation uses three types of tile , an equilateral triangle and two irregular pentagons . Kazumi Kudo 's Kanazawa Umimirai Library creates a decorative grid made of small circular blocks of glass set into plain concrete walls .

= = Defence = =

The architecture of fortifications evolved from medieval fortresses , which had high masonry walls , to low , symmetrical star forts able to resist artillery bombardment between the mid @-@ fifteenth and nineteenth centuries . The geometry of the star shapes was dictated by the need to avoid dead zones where attacking infantry could shelter from defensive fire ; the sides of the projecting points were angled to permit such fire to sweep the ground , and to provide crossfire ( from both sides ) beyond each projecting point . Well @-@ known architects who designed such defences include Michelangelo , Baldassare Peruzzi , Vincenzo Scamozzi and Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban .

The architectural historian Siegfried Giedion argued that the star @-@ shaped fortification had a formative influence on the patterning of the Renaissance ideal city : " The Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half — from Filarete to Scamozzi — was impressed upon all utopian schemes : this is the star @-@ shaped city . "

= = Environmental goals = =

Architects may also select the form of a building to meet environmental goals . For example , Foster and Partners ' 30 St Mary Axe , London , known as " The Gherkin " for its cucumber @-@ like shape , is a solid of revolution designed using parametric modelling . Its geometry was chosen not purely for aesthetic reasons , but to minimise whirling air currents at its base . Despite the building 's apparently curved surface , all the panels of glass forming its skin are flat , except for the lens at the top . Most of the panels are quadrilaterals , as they can be cut from rectangular glass with less wastage than triangular panels .

The traditional yakhchal ( ice pit ) of Persia functioned as an evaporative cooler . Above ground , the structure had a domed shape , but had a subterranean storage space for ice and sometimes food as well . The subterranean space and the thick heat @-@ resistant construction insulated the storage space year round . The internal space was often further cooled with windcatchers . The ice was available in the summer to make the frozen dessert faloodeh .

= Tom Hooper =

Thomas George " Tom " Hooper ( born 5 October 1972 ) is a British film and television director of English and Australian background . Hooper began making short films as a teenager , and had his first professional short , Painted Faces , broadcast on Channel 4 in 1992 . At Oxford University Hooper directed plays and television commercials . After graduating , he directed episodes of Quayside , Byker Grove , EastEnders and Cold Feet .

In the 2000s , Hooper directed the major BBC costume dramas Love in a Cold Climate ( 2001 ) and Daniel Deronda ( 2002 ) , and was selected to helm the 2003 revival of ITV 's Prime Suspect series , starring Helen Mirren . Hooper made his feature film debut with Red Dust ( 2004 ) , a British drama starring Hilary Swank and Chiwetel Ejiofor , before directing Helen Mirren again in the Company Pictures / HBO Films historical drama Elizabeth I ( 2005 ) . He continued working for HBO on the television film Longford ( 2006 ) and in John Adams ( 2008 ) , a seven @-@ part serial on the life of the American president . Hooper returned to features with The Damned United ( 2009 ) , a fact @-@ based film about the English football manager Brian Clough ( played by Michael Sheen ) . The following year saw the release of the historical drama The King 's Speech ( 2010 ) , starring Colin Firth and Geoffrey Rush , which was met with critical acclaim . Hooper 's next film was Les Misérables ( 2012 ) , which featured an all @-@ star cast led by Hugh Jackman and Russell Crowe .

Hooper 's work was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for Prime Suspect and John Adams , won one for Elizabeth I , and was nominated for the British Academy ( BAFTA ) TV Craft Award for Best Director for Longford . The King 's Speech won multiple awards , including Best Director wins for Hooper from the Directors Guild of America and the Academy Awards , and a Best Director nomination from BAFTA .

= = Early life = =

Tom Hooper was born in 1972 in London , England , the son of Meredith Jean ( Rooney ) and Richard Hooper . Meredith was an Australian author and academic and Richard was an English media businessman . Hooper was educated at Highgate School and Westminster School . His initial interest in drama was triggered by his English and drama teacher at Highgate , former Royal Shakespeare Company actor Roger Mortimer , who produced an annual school play .

At the age of 12 , Hooper read a book entitled How to Make Film and Television and decided he wanted to become a director . For the next year Hooper researched filmmaking from publications such as On Camera by Harris Watts . Aged 13 , he made his first film , entitled Runaway Dog , using a clockwork 16mm Bolex camera his uncle had given to him . Hooper said : " The clockwork would run out after thirty seconds , so the maximum shot length was thirty seconds . I could only afford a hundred feet of Kodachrome reversal film , which cost about twenty @-@ five [ pounds ] , and you had to send off for two weeks to be processed . I could only make silent movies , because sound was too expensive and complicated . " He slowed down the frame rate of the camera so he could maximise what little film stock he had . Hooper classified the short , about a dog which kept running away from its owner , as a comedy , and filmed it on location in Oxfordshire .

When Hooper was 14 , his film Bomber Jacket came runner @-@ up in a BBC younger filmmakers ' competition . The short starred Hooper 's brother as a boy who discovers a bomber jacket and a photograph hidden in a cupboard and learns his grandfather died in World War II . Another of Hooper 's short films , entitled Countryside , depicts a nuclear holocaust .

Hooper finished school aged 16 , then wrote the script for his first professional short film , entitled Painted Faces . He spent the next two years raising capital for the short by courting advertisement directors , whose financial dominance during the late 1980s was noticed by Hooper . Director Paul Weiland invested in the short , which provided Hooper with the equipment he needed . After two years of financing and production , Painted Faces was completed . Hooper wrote , produced , directed and edited it . It was sold to Channel 4 and broadcast on the channel 's First Frame strand in 1992 , had a screening at the 35th London Film Festival and had a limited theatrical release .

After taking a gap year to finance Painted Faces , Hooper read English at University College , Oxford . He joined the Oxford University Dramatic Society , where he directed Kate Beckinsale in A View From the Bridge and Emily Mortimer in The Trial . Hooper also had his first paid directing work , earning £ 200 for a corporate Christmas video , and he directed his first television advertisements , including one for Sega featuring Right Said Fred . He continues to direct advertisements alongside television and film projects . In 1996 he joined the commercial production company John S. Clarke Productions and in 2001 he signed with Infinity Productions .

= = Career = =

= = = BBC and ITV productions = = =

After graduating from Oxford , Hooper directed further television commercials , intending to break into the film industry the same way Ridley Scott , Tony Scott and Hugh Hudson did . He was introduced by his father to the television producer Matthew Robinson , who mentored Hooper and gave him his first television directing work . For Robinson , Hooper directed episodes of the short @-@ lived Tyne Tees Television soap opera Quayside in 1997 , four episodes of the Children 's BBC television series Byker Grove in the same year , and his first episodes of the BBC One soap opera EastEnders in 1998 .

Hooper directed several EastEnders episodes between 1998 and 2000 , two of which were hour @-@ long specials that represented the soap when it won the British Academy Television Award for Best Soap Opera in 2000 and 2001 ; the first was the episode in which Carol Jackson ( Lindsey Coulson ) learns her daughter Bianca ( Patsy Palmer ) had an affair with her fiancé Dan Sullivan ( Craig Fairbrass ) . The Jackson episode marked the beginning of a week of episodes that lead to Palmer 's departure from the soap , and Robinson had hired Hooper to direct the key episodes of that storyline . Hooper worked 10 @-@ hour days on EastEnders , and learned to direct with speed . He was influenced in his early career by the cinematic style of American TV series such as ER , NYPD Blue and Homicide : Life on the Street and tried to work that style into his EastEnders episodes ; one scene featuring Grant Mitchell ( Ross Kemp ) involved a crane shot , which Hooper believes made him infamous among the EastEnders production crew .

In 1999 , Hooper directed two episodes of Granada Television 's comedy @-@ drama television series Cold Feet , which marked his move to bigger @-@ budget productions . There was initially concern at Granada that Hooper might be an unsuitable director for the series given his background in drama .

In 2000 , Hooper directed his first of two costume dramas for the BBC ; Love in a Cold Climate was based on Nancy Mitford 's novels The Pursuit of Love and Love in a Cold Climate . Hooper , the writer Deborah Moggach , and the producer Kate Harwood researched the period details of the production by interviewing Nancy 's sister Deborah . In 2002 , Hooper directed Daniel Deronda , adapted from George Eliot 's novel . Filming ran for 11 weeks from May to August on locations in England , Scotland and Malta . Hooper said of the production , " The thing I like about this tale is that it 's not at all your conventional costume drama ; it 's far more complex and looks at aspects of love , loss and religion . " The Guardian 's Mark Lawson said of Hooper 's two costume dramas , " he brought verve and intelligence to television 's most conservative form " .

Hooper returned to Granada the next year to direct the revival of Prime Suspect , entitled The Last Witness . The two @-@ part serial was the first Prime Suspect instalment to be made since 1995 , when star Helen Mirren quit . Hooper initially declined to direct the production because he believed the series was tired . Granada 's head of drama Andy Harries introduced Hooper to Mirren , who persuaded him to take the job by promising that he could make the serial his own way . The two @-@ part serial was broadcast on the ITV network in November 2003 . Hooper 's direction received praise from Andrew Billen in the New Statesman : " Tom Hooper proved an outstanding director , imposing a bleak , overlit hyper @-@ realism on the search for a killer in a hospital , isolating Mirren in rows of empty chairs and playing on the eyewitness / optical visual metaphors . " The serial was also broadcast on PBS in the United States . Hooper received nominations for the British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Serial and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries , Movie or Dramatic Special for his work on Prime Suspect .

= = = Film debut and HBO works = = =

Hooper made his debut as a feature film director with the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission drama Red Dust ( 2004 ) , which stars Hilary Swank , Chiwetel Ejiofor and Jamie Bartlett . The film was not widely seen , which Hooper attributed to media coverage of torture during the Iraq War : " When I started making it you could watch the movie with a wonderful sense of ' we 'd never do it in our own country … they 're the horrible people but it 's not us . ' By the time the film came out ( there were ) these revelations that the Americans were torturing , the British were torturing . The film became a lot more uncomfortable for the very audiences it was designed to target . I have learned that sadly the theatrical audience does not run to see films that are openly issue led . " The premiere of the film in the United Kingdom came on BBC Two in 2005 , making it eligible for the BAFTA Television Awards ; it was nominated in the Best Single Drama category at the 2006 ceremony .

In 2005 , Hooper was asked by Helen Mirren to direct the Company Pictures / HBO Films two @-@ part serial Elizabeth I , in which she was starring . The serial won Hooper his first Emmy Award , for Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries , Movie or Dramatic Special . In January 2006 , Hooper commenced filming the Granada / HBO television film Longford . The film dramatises the failed efforts of Lord Longford ( played by Jim Broadbent ) to secure the release from prison of Moors murderer Myra Hindley ( played by Samantha Morton ) . Hooper first met with the writer Peter Morgan about the production in 2005 and the film was broadcast on Channel 4 in October 2006 . Seb Morton @-@ Clark for the Financial Times called Longford one of the most accomplished television dramas of 2006 , and praised the writer and director : " Morgan and director Tom Hooper wove a seamless narrative about obsession – and not just that of the misguided philanthropist for the incarcerated Hindley or even that that existed between the sadistic lovers themselves . More significantly , by using chunks of original television footage , they painted a stark picture of the zealotry of a vengeful nation and its press over the supposed embodiment of evil . " Hooper 's continued successes led him to be ranked at number four in the Directors category of Broadcast magazine 's annual Hot 100 . The following year he was nominated for the British Academy Television Craft Award for Best Director for Longford .

Elizabeth I and Longford led directly to Hooper being selected by Tom Hanks to direct the epic miniseries John Adams for Playtone and HBO . Hooper had been working on a biographical film with Joan Didion about Katharine Graham , publisher of The Washington Post , since 2006 when he was asked by Hanks to helm the programme . The miniseries , starring Paul Giamatti as John Adams , was based on David McCullough 's Adams biography and was Hooper 's first wholly American production . He was surprised to learn that the American Revolutionary War was not a well @-@ documented period in film and television ; Abigail Adams actress Laura Linney told him that , for her generation , the musical 1776 was the most well @-@ known depiction of the era . He worked on the miniseries for a total of 16 months ; principal photography lasted 110 days on locations in the United States , France , England and Hungary and he controlled a $ 100 million budget . The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert complimented Hooper 's style of direction in the first two episodes " Join or Die " and " Independence " :

Director Tom Hooper lets his actors shine , as he did so marvelously in Helen Mirren 's Elizabeth I and the child @-@ killer drama Longford , but he complements them , too , with this kind of immediate point of view . And when he does give us panoramic shots from afar – of the Adams farm in Braintree , for example – they 're askew , to keep us out of the classroom mode . At the end of episode 2 [ ... ] Hooper showcases all his directorial strength with one bold choice . When the long @-@ fretting Congress finally decides to break with Britain , he refrains from using any visual or aural tweaks . Upon the announcement , " The resolution carries , " the scene remains perfectly silent for one long moment . The terror of responsibility hangs heavily in the room , while a victorious soundtrack surely would have chased it away .

John Adams received 23 Emmy Award nominations , including another Outstanding Direction nomination for Hooper , and won 13 , the highest number for any nominee in a single year . He was also nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement . At the beginning of 2009 , he was profiled for The Observer 's film Hotlist .

= = = Independent feature films = = =

The wake of John Adams ' Emmy wins brought offers to Hooper from studios to direct spy and comic book films , which he declined . In November 2007 , he signed on to direct The Damned United , reuniting him with Peter Morgan and Andy Harries . The film was an adaptation of David Peace 's novel The Damned Utd , a fictional version of the 44 turbulent days English football manager Brian Clough spent as manager of Leeds United . It was originally developed by Stephen Frears for Michael Sheen to play Clough . Frears quit the project after he was unable to translate the book to film . Hooper received a copy of the script while shooting John Adams in Hungary and noticed a similarity between the " egotistical , flawed , brilliant " Adams and the " egotistical , flawed , brilliant " Clough . He was not put off by joining the project later , as Morgan 's script was in only its first draft . During pre @-@ production , Hooper engaged in meticulous research , particularly on the locations and the football grounds of the era . He cast Timothy Spall as Clough 's assistant Peter Taylor , Colm Meaney as Don Revie and Jim Broadbent as Derby County chairman Sam Longson . During editing , it was decided to make the tone of the film lighter in order to attract audiences and to appease the real people depicted in the film . The Damned United was released in 2009 .

Work on Hooper 's next film , The King 's Speech , began in the same year . Hooper explained : " It was a stage play , and my mother who 's Australian was invited to a fringe [ theatre ] reading in London because she 's part of the Australian community . The play 's about the relationship between King George the Sixth and his Australian speech therapist . She came back and said ' you 've got to read this play , ' and I read it and it was brilliant ... " . Hooper cast Colin Firth as George VI and Geoffrey Rush as Lionel Logue and spent three weeks with the actors reading the script and rehearsing . Principal photography took place on location around the UK from November 2009 to January 2010 . During editing , Hooper continued to consult with Firth and Rush by sending them cuts of the film and listening to their feedback .

Hooper completed the final cut of the film at the end of August 2010 and presented it a few days later at the Telluride Film Festival . The film won the People 's Choice Award at the Toronto International Film Festival and Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures . In February 2011 , he was presented with the Academy Award for Best Director , though lost the BAFTA Award for Best Direction to David Fincher . In comparing the two films , Variety 's Adam Dawtrey wrote , " Hooper 's 2009 film The Damned United didn 't register among awards selectors , but King 's Speech is a much more personal project . His Anglo @-@ Australian parentage reflects the culture clash at the heart of the movie , and it pays off with beautifully crafted , crowd @-@ pleasing drama . "

= = = Studio films = = =

Following the success of The King 's Speech during the awards season , Hooper joined the 15 @-@ person board of governors at the British Film Institute , was invited to join the directors branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , and was ranked at number 19 in The Times ' British Film Power 100 . In March 2009 , Hooper met with Nelson Mandela in preparation for directing a film adaptation of Mandela 's autobiography Long Walk to Freedom . By 2012 , however , he had left the project .

He was offered the chance to direct Iron Man 3 for Marvel Studios but declined and instead signed on to direct Les Misérables for Working Title Films , which he had first heard about while discussing a different project with screenwriter William Nicholson in 2010 . Hooper had not seen the musical , so watched a performance of it in London 's West End . Adapted from the musical , the film starred Hugh Jackman , Russell Crowe , Anne Hathaway , Amanda Seyfried , Helena Bonham Carter , Sacha Baron Cohen , and Eddie Redmayne . As the film required the actors to sing and dance , they were auditioned in front of Hooper , producers and composers . The role of Fantine was hugely contested ; Hooper said , " It was like half a dozen of the biggest female movie stars on the planet wanted to play the role " .

Filming started in February 2012 . Hooper investigated filming the feature in 3D , and performed some camera tests before deciding to film it with traditional 2D methods . He stated " [ ... ] I slightly worry with 3D that some people will physically struggle with it . If you have a certain type of eyesight it can be more demanding than watching a normal movie . " Unlike other musical films , Les Misérables features the actors singing live on camera , rather than miming to backing vocals . Hooper told Los Angeles Times that he thought there was a " slightly strange falseness " when he saw musical films where the actors sang to recordings . The actors wore wireless earpieces on set so they could sing to accompanying piano music . Hooper believed this method allowed the actors to have emotional control over their songs : " When Annie [ Hathaway , who plays Fantine ] is singing ' I Dreamed a Dream ' , if she needs to take a tenth of a second to have a thought before she sings it , or to have an emotion before she sings a line , she can take it . " The actors also performed their songs in recitative style , which Hooper likened to being immersed in a 3D film . Les Miserables was released in North America on 25 December 2012 , and received eight Academy Award nominations including Best Picture .

Hooper 's fifth feature film , The Danish Girl , was released in late 2015 . It loosely tells the story of Lili Elbe , one of the first people to undergo sex reassignment surgery , and wife Gerda Wegener . It stars Eddie Redmayne and Alicia Vikander , both of whom received Academy Award nominations . Critics were generally positive about the film .

= = Directing style = =

Hooper uses camera styles " that encode the DNA of the storytelling in some way " and will reuse and develop filming styles in successive productions . Hooper identifies research as being key to his process of directing period dramas such as John Adams in order to make the scenes authentic . For The Damned United , Hooper and director of photography Ben Smithard researched the look of the late 1960s and early 1970s through football photography books . Hooper has also been influenced by cinematographer Larry Smith , who worked with Stanley Kubrick and advised Hooper of techniques used by Kubrick . Hooper and Smith have worked together on Cold Feet , Love in a Cold Climate , Prime Suspect , Red Dust and Elizabeth I.

Hooper also uses uncommon framing techniques to emphasise story ; in John Adams , he wanted to imply American independence seemed unlikely during the Revolutionary War , so he used " a very rough camera style — almost all hand held , wide lenses close to the actors , lots of movement , many cameras shooting at once so there was often not a settled master " point of view " , and lots of unmatching dutch tilts so the horizon lines of the frame were often being thrown off . " The America @-@ set scenes were contrasted by the scenes set in France , in which more traditional filming techniques were employed to evoke a feel of entrenched values . Similarly , in The Damned United , Hooper began to experiment with using wide @-@ angle lenses and putting actors in the extreme edges of the frame . He was influenced by the unusual framing from social photography of the 1970s , and he and Ben Smithard decided to adopt the framing style while scouting locations . Hooper used the same style in The King 's Speech , particularly in the scene where Bertie and Logue meet in Logue 's consulting room ; Colin Firth is framed to the extreme left of the picture , leaving most of the shot dominated by the rough wall behind Firth .

Another frequently used technique is Hooper 's tendency to use a variety of focal length camera lenses to distort the resulting picture . In The Damned United he used a 10mm lens , notably in the scene where Clough stays inside during the Derby – Leeds match . Hooper operated the camera in this scene himself . In The King 's Speech , Hooper used " typically 14mm , 18mm , 21mm , 25mm and 27mm " lenses and put the camera close to the actors ' faces . Hooper said the use of this method in the first consulting room scene served to " suggest the awkardness and tension of Logue and Bertie 's first meeting " .

= = Filmography = =

= = Filmography by awards = =

= = = Feature films = = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= Ernest II , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha =

Ernest II ( German : Ernst August Karl Johann Leopold Alexander Eduard ; 21 June 1818 – 22 August 1893 ) was the sovereign duke of the Duchy of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , reigning from 1844 to his death . Ernest was born in Coburg as the eldest child of Ernest III , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld , and his duchess , Princess Louise of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg . Fourteen months later , his younger brother Prince Albert was born , who later became consort of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom . Ernest 's father became Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha in 1826 through an exchange of territories .

In 1842 , Ernest married Princess Alexandrine of Baden in what was to be a childless marriage . Soon after , he succeeded as duke upon the death of his father on 29 January 1844 . As reigning Duke Ernest II , he supported the German Confederation in the Schleswig @-@ Holstein Wars against Denmark , sending thousands of troops and becoming the commander of a German corps ; as such , he was instrumental in the 1849 victory at the battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces . After King Otto of Greece was deposed in 1862 , the British government put Ernest 's name forward as a possible successor . Negotiations fell through however for various reasons , not in the least of which was that he would not give up his beloved duchies in favor of the Greek throne .

A supporter of a unified Germany , Ernest watched the various political movements with great interest . While he initially was a great and outspoken proponent of the liberal movement , he surprised many by switching sides and supporting the more conservative ( and eventually victorious ) Prussians during the Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian wars and subsequent unification of Germany . His support of the conservatives came at a price however , and he was no longer viewed as the possible leader of a political movement . According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat , Ernest became " increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside " .

Ernest 's position was often linked to his brother Prince Albert , husband of Queen Victoria . The two boys were raised as though twins , and became closer upon the separation and divorce of their parents , as well as the eventual death of their mother . The princes ' relationship experienced phases of closeness as well as minor arguments as they grew older ; after Albert 's death in 1861 , Ernest became gradually more antagonistic to Victoria and her children , as well as increasingly bitter toward the United Kingdom , publishing anonymous pamphlets against various members of the British royal family . Despite their increasingly differing political views and opinions however , Ernest accepted his second eldest nephew Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh as his heir @-@ presumptive , who upon Ernest 's death on 22 August 1893 at Reinhardsbrunn , succeeded to the ducal throne .

= = Early life = =

Ernest , Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld , was born at Ehrenburg Palace in Coburg on 21 June 1818 . He was the elder son of Ernest III , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld and his first wife Princess Louise of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg . He was soon joined by a brother , Prince Albert , who would later become the husband of Queen Victoria . Though Duke Ernest fathered numerous children in various affairs , the two boys would have no other legitimate siblings . In 1826 , their father succeeded as Ernest I , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha through an exchange of territories after the death of the duke 's uncle , Frederick IV , Duke of Saxe @-@ Gotha @-@ Altenburg .

There are various accounts of Ernest 's childhood . When he was fourteen months old , a servant commented that Ernest " runs around like a weasel . He is teething and as cross as a little badger from impatience and liveliness . He is not pretty now , except his beautiful black eyes " . In May 1820 , his mother described Ernest as " very big for his age , as well as intelligent . His big black eyes are full of spirit and vivacity " . Biographer Richard Hough writes that " even from their infancy , it was plainly evident that the elder son took after his father , in character and appearance , while Albert strongly resembled his mother in most respects " . Ernest and his brother often lived with their grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld until her death in 1831 .

He and Albert were brought up and educated together as if they were twins . Though Albert was fourteen months younger , he surpassed Ernest intellectually . According to their tutor , " they went hand @-@ in @-@ hand in all things , whether at work or at play . Engaging in the same pursuits , sharing the same joys and the same sorrows , they were bound to each other by no common feelings of mutual love " . Perhaps the " sorrows " aforementioned related to their parents ' marriage . It was not a happy one and Duke Ernest I was continually unfaithful . In 1824 , Ernest I and Louise divorced ; she subsequently left Coburg and was disallowed from seeing her sons again . She soon remarried to Alexander von Hanstein , Count of Pölzig and Beiersdorf , dying in 1831 at the age of thirty . The year after her death , their father remarried his niece Duchess Marie of Württemberg , who was his sister Antoinette 's daughter . Their stepmother was thus also their first cousin . The duke and his new duchess were not close , and would produce no children ; while the boys formed a happy relationship with their stepmother , Marie had little to no input in her stepsons ' lives . The separation and divorce of their parents , as well as the later death of their mother left the boys scarred and in close companionship with each other .

In 1836 , Ernest and Albert visited their matrimonially eligible cousin Princess Victoria of Kent , spending a few weeks at Windsor . Both boys , and especially Albert were considered by his family to be a potential husband for the young princess , and they were both taught to speak competent English . Their father first thought that Ernest would make a better husband to Victoria than Albert , possibly because his sporting interests would be better received by the British public . Most others favored Albert over Ernest as a possible husband however . Temperamentally , Victoria was much more like Ernest , as both were lively and sociable with a love for dancing , gossip , and late nights ; conversely , this fast pace made Albert physically ill . Victoria believed Ernest had a " most kind , honest , and intelligent expression in his countenance " , while Albert " seemed full of goodness and sweetness , and very clever and intelligent " . No offer of marriage was forthcoming for either brother however , and they returned home .

Ernest entered military training later that year . In April 1837 , Ernest and Albert and their household moved to the University of Bonn . Six weeks into their academic term , Victoria succeeded as Queen of the United Kingdom . As rumors of an impending marriage between her and Albert interfered with their studies , the two brothers left on 28 August 1837 at the close of the term to travel around Europe . They returned to Bonn in early November to continue their studies . In 1839 , the brothers traveled to England again , where Victoria found her cousin Albert agreeable and soon proposed . This connection would have many implications upon Ernest in the future ; for instance , he was selected as godfather for Albert 's second daughter Princess Alice , and would eventually come to give her away at her wedding , only months after Albert 's death .

= = Marriage = =

Various candidates were put forward as a possible wife for Ernest . His own father wanted him to look high @-@ up for a wife , such as a Russian grand duchess . One possibility was Princess Clémentine of Orléans , a daughter of Louis Philippe I , whom he met while visiting the court at the Tuileries . Such a marriage would have required his conversion from Lutheranism to Roman Catholicism however , and consequently nothing came of it . She later married his cousin Prince August of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . Ernest was also considered by Dowager Queen Maria Christina as a possible husband for her young daughter Isabella II of Spain , and by Queen Victoria for her cousin Princess Augusta of Cambridge .

In Karlsruhe on 3 May 1842 , Ernest married 21 @-@ year @-@ old Princess Alexandrine of Baden . She was the eldest daughter of Leopold , Grand Duke of Baden and Princess Sophie of Sweden , daughter of the deposed King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden . Though he gave his consent , his father was disappointed that his second son did not do more to advance the concerns of Coburg . The marriage did not produce any issue , though Ernest apparently fathered at least three illegitimate children in later years .

Ernest had suffered from a venereal disease in his late teens and early twenties , most likely as the consequence of living a wild , promiscuous lifestyle . These qualities he had inherited under the tutelage of his father , who took his sons to " sample the pleasures " of Paris and Berlin , to Albert 's " horror and shame " . Ernest had been so visibly deteriorating in appearance as a result that Sarah Lyttelton , a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting of Queen Victoria , observed at Windsor in 1839 that he was " very thin and hollow @-@ cheeked and pale , and no likeness to his brother , nor much beauty . But he has fine dark eyes and black hair , and light figure , and a great look of spirit and eagerness " . Later that year , Albert counseled his brother against finding a wife until his ' condition ' was fully recovered . He further warned that continued promiscuity could leave Ernest incapable of fathering children . Some historians believe that while he himself was able to father other children , the disease rendered his young wife infertile .

As the years went by with further childlessness , Ernest became more distant to his wife , and was continually unfaithful . Though Alexandrine continued to be devoted , choosing to ignore those relationships she was aware of , her loyalty became increasingly baffling to those outside her immediate family . By 1859 , after seventeen years of childlessness , Ernest took no further interest in his wife .

= = Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha = =

On 29 January 1844 , Ernest 's father died in Gotha , one of the territories their family had recently acquired . Ernest consequently succeeded to the duchies of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha as Ernest II .

= = = Development of a constitution = = =

Extravagant to a great degree , Ernest had many money troubles throughout his reign . In January 1848 , Ernest visited his brother in the midst of political unrest in Germany . Upon his return , he also discovered unrest in Coburg . One of the many concerns related to finances . Although Ernest had a large inheritance , he also had frequent debts . There were increasing calls to nationalize most of his property . Indeed , Albert had to intervene at one point and spare his brother the embarrassment of losing one of his Coburg properties .

During the 1848 turmoil in Germany , Albert had been constructing his own liberal reform plan , under which a single monarch , chancellor , and parliament would unite the German states ; in addition , each state would retain its own current ruling dynasty . As this plan pertained to his brother , Ernest was given a copy in the hope that he would develop his own liberal constitution . Ernest subsequently made a few concessions , but his position remained sound , not counting the increasing problem of his debts . A constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1849 in Gotha , though one had existed in Coburg since 1821 . In 1852 , both constitutions were converged into one , which converted the personal union of the two duchies into a real union ; the duchies were now inseparable , with a common set of institutions . During the political turmoil , timely concessions and Ernest 's popular habit of mingling with " the people in their pleasures " were instrumental in keeping him from losing his throne . Furthermore , various contemporary sources state that Ernest was an able , just and very popular ruler , which may have also helped keep him in power .

= = = Schleswig @-@ Holstein wars = = =

From 1848 to 1864 , Denmark and the German Confederation fought over control of the two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . Historically , the duchies had been ruled by Denmark since medieval times , but there remained a large German majority . This majority was sparked to rebellion after Frederick VII of Denmark announced on 27 March 1848 the duchies would become an integral part of Denmark under his new liberal constitution . Prussia soon became involved , supporting the uprising and beginning the First Schleswig War . Ernest sent 8 @,@ 000 men initially , adding to the army sent by the German Confederation . He also desired to be given a military job during the war , but was refused , as it was " extremely difficult to offer me a position in the army of Schleswig @-@ Holstein corresponding to my rank " , according to his memoirs . He agreed to a smaller command , coming to lead a Thuringian contingent ; he commented in a letter to his brother that " I should have declined any other command of the kind , but I could not refuse this one , as , in the present condition of our States , it is important to keep the executive power in our hands " . As commander of a German corps , Ernest was instrumental in winning the 5 April 1849 battle of Eckernförde against Danish forces .

The first war ended in 1851 , but would resume in 1864 . During this interlude , Ernest fervently opposed the marriage of his nephew Albert Edward , Prince of Wales ( ' Bertie ' ) to Princess Alexandra of Denmark , a daughter of the future Christian IX of Denmark ( and therefore an enemy of the German states ) . He believed that such a match flew in the face of German interests . Albert replied angrily " What has that got to do with you ? ... Vicky has racked her brains to help us to find someone , but in vain ... We have no [ other reasonable ] choice " . Albert agreed there were going to be problems with the match , but as he could find no alternative bride , he wrote to Ernest that keeping the affair a private matter ( and outside the realm of government ) was " the only way to prevent a break with Prussia and the only way to keep the game in our own hands , impose the conditions that we think necessary , and as far as we can , take off its political edge " . Albert also warned his son of Ernest 's endeavors to interfere with the match , commenting , " Your uncle ... will try his hand at this work . Your best defence will be not to enter on the subject , should he broach it " .

Soon after writing these letters , Prince Albert died on 14 December 1861 . His death helped Ernest repair his relationship with his sister @-@ in @-@ law , as Victoria had been becoming increasingly angrier over Ernest 's objections to the Danish match . The two brothers had always been close , whatever their disagreements , and Albert 's death left Ernest " wretched " , noted Victoria in a letter to her eldest daughter . The death did not solve their argument however ; seeing that his direct involvement had failed to persuade Victoria , Ernest tried a new tactic . He began to spread gossip about Alexandra and her family , in which her mother Princess Louise " had had illegitimate children and Alexandra had had flirtations with young officers " ; he also wrote to Louise herself , warning that Bertie would be an unfortunate choice for a husband . Additionally , Ernest met with his nephew at Thebes , most likely attempting to discourage him from the match in person . In an 11 April letter , Victoria unhappily noted to her eldest daughter " You did not tell me that Bertie had met Uncle Ernest at Thebes ... I am always alarmed when I think of Uncle Ernest and Bertie being together as I know the former will do all he can to set Bertie against the marriage with Princess Alix " . Despite Ernest 's disprovable , Bertie was duly married to Alexandra on 10 March 1863 .

The Duke had a reputation for being a strong friend of the United States , as did his brother Albert . He was , however , the only European sovereign to appoint a consul , Ernst Raven , to the Confederate States of America , on 30 July 1861 . The Texas government , where Raven resided , made it clear , however , that his request for an exequatur did not imply or extend diplomatic recognition to the Confederate regime .

= = = Nomination for the Greek throne = = =

On 23 October 1862 , Otto of Bavaria , King of Greece was deposed in a bloodless coup . The Greeks were eager to have someone close to Britain and Queen Victoria replace Otto ; some desired to allow Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh ( her second son ) succeed as King of Greece . He was elected with 95 % of the vote in the Greek head of state referendum of 1862 . After his ineligibility was confirmed however , the Greeks began looking for other possible candidates , which included Duke Ernest at the British government 's suggestion . To their and Victoria 's reasoning , if Ernest were to take the Greek throne , Alfred could immediately take up his inheritance and succeed Ernest as duke ( the Prince of Wales having passed his claim to the duchy of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha onto his younger brother ) . Many were in favor of his nomination , including Prime Minister Lord Palmerston and Ernest 's sister @-@ in @-@ law . In a letter written to her uncle Leopold I of Belgium , Victoria stated her support for a new royal branch of the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha ( as Leopold had been chosen as King of the Belgians in 1831 ) as well as her desire for her second son Alfred to succeed his uncle in the duchy . As negotiations continued however , she began to lose enthusiasm for the idea .

There were problems to the nomination ; Ernest had no children , and thus would have had to adopt one of the princes of his house to succeed him as King of Greece . To solve this problem , Ernest suggested to Palmerston that he simply take the title regent of Greece and hold the kingdom in trust for his chosen heir . He also stipulated that if he accepted the throne , it should be subject to certain guarantees by the other powers . The apparent deal @-@ breaker however was the fact that Ernest wanted to acquire the Greek throne and still maintain control of his " safer " duchies . In the end , the British cabinet thought the proposed conditions unacceptable . His proposals turned down , Ernest in turn refused . In 1863 , the Greek throne was accepted by another member of a royal family : the Princess of Wales ' younger brother Prince William of Denmark . Ernest would later comment , " That this cup was spared me , I always regarded as a piece of good fortune " .

= = = Austro @-@ Prussian and Franco @-@ Prussian Wars = = =

Ernest , like his brother , was in favor of a German unified , federal state . To best realize this goal , Ernest liked to dabble in whatever political system promised the most success . He subsequently watched the growth of liberalism in Germany with much interest and tried to build links with the movement 's leaders . During Albert 's lifetime , Ernest took a close interest in the movement for reform , and was perceived as a progressive within Germany . His favorable view of liberalism caused his duchy to become an asylum for political refugees from other German states . In 1863 , he attended the liberal Frankfurt Conference , which was openly avoided by more conservative Prussia . Though his attendance made him no friends in Prussia , he developed such strong contacts in Austria that many looked to him as a potential leader in the mounting conflict between the northern and southern powers . He grew tired of the advice he received from Albert on the subject however ; as Ernest " was by no means inclined to consent to an energetic rule such as I adopted immediately afterwards for the perfection of the constitutional system " , according to Albert 's letters .

The Austro @-@ Prussian War was triggered by the desire of German conservative leaders to unify , albeit on different terms than their liberal counterparts . Ernest urged Prussian leaders against the impending war , and was an active advocate of the Austrian cause . Though Ernest normally followed more liberal politics than many of his counterparts , he began switching his views to align more closely with Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck by the mid @-@ 1860s . Despite this change in his private political views , he still had strong publicly known Austrian ties , and no one foresaw that Ernest would immediately side with the better @-@ equipped Prussians upon breakout of the war . His reasoning is usually understood as acting in the best interests of his duchies , and by extension , of himself . Regardless , it was seen as a betrayal of former friends ; Queen Victoria commented that Ernest " might have agreed to neutrality - for that might be necessary , but to change colours I cannot think right " .

Ernest was fortunate in his support of victorious Prussia ; many other petty German dukes , princes , and kings who had supported Austria suffered immensely at Hohenzollern hands . Hanover , Hesse @-@ Kassel , and Nassau for instance were all annexed to Prussia at the expense of their respective rulers . Though he had only recently changed his political views , Ernest was allowed to ride at the head of his battalion during the victory parade . His eldest niece Prussian Crown Princess Victoria ( " Vicky " ) was for one pleased with his Prussian support and commented " I am not accustomed to hearing so much praise of Coburg here . [ Ernest ] was not among the crushed and beaten foe , it is sad enough as it is to see so many of one 's friends suffering from the effects of their miscalculations " . Victoria 's husband Crown Prince Frederick was also pleased with Ernest 's decision , writing in his journal 28 September 1871 , that the duke 's " society always affords me peculiar pleasure , especially ... when his heart beats so warmly for Germany " .

Ernest 's support of the Prussians in the Austro @-@ Prussian War and later Franco Prussian War meant he was no longer the potential leader of a political movement ; although it was true that he had been able to retain his duchies , it had come at a price . According to historian Charlotte Zeepvat , Ernest " was increasingly lost in a whirl of private amusements which earned only contempt from outside " . Ernest funneled his political thoughts into the private sphere , preferring to write covertly sponsored articles in the Coburg press that became increasingly embittered against England . In 1886 , Ernest published Co @-@ Regents and Foreign Influence in Germany , a pamphlet that greatly angered his family ; though produced anonymously , no one doubted that it was written by Ernest . It attacked Vicky as a disloyal German that was too dependent on her mother , and declared that she had been too indiscreet in passing along confidential information during both war and peacetime . Queen Victoria was furious , writing to Vicky , " What you told me of Uncle E and that pamphlet is simply monstrous . I assure you that I felt great difficulty in writing to him for his birthday , but I wrote it as short and cool as I could consistently with civility " . " Dear Uncle Ernest does us all a great deal of harm by his odd ways and uncontrollable tongue with his very lively imagination " .

= = = Later years = = =

Later in his reign , Ernest 's actions managed to continually anger his sister @-@ in @-@ law . Though Victoria loved Ernest because he was Albert 's brother , she was displeased that Ernest was writing his memoirs , worrying about their contents mainly in regard to her dead husband . Despite their disputes , Ernest still met with Victoria and her family occasionally . In 1891 , they met in France ; Victoria 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting commented " the old Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha has been here today with his wife . He is the Prince Consort 's only brother and an awful looking man , the Queen dislikes him particularly . He is always writing anonymous pamphlets against the Queen and the Empress Frederick , which naturally creates a great deal of annoyance in the family " .

Throughout his reign , Ernest had been known for his extravagance and womanizing ; as he grew older , Ernest enjoyed gossip and was " now a thoroughly disreputable old roué who enjoyed the outrage provoked by his actions " , leading Vicky to declare that her uncle " was his own enemy " . His behavior and manner of dress increasingly became a joke for younger generations . His great @-@ niece Marie of Edinburgh would later describe Ernest as " an old beau , squeezed into a frock @-@ coat too tight for his bulk and uncomfortably pinched in at the waist ' , sporting a top hat , lemon coloured gloves , and a rosebud in his lapel " . He put on weight and though on paper his wealth was large , he was still constantly in debt .

An excellent musician and amateur composer all his life , Ernest was a great patron of the arts and sciences in Coburg , often giving awards and titles to members of the artistic and scientific world , such as Paul Kalisch , a German opera singer and chemist William Ernest Bush . Ernest composed songs , hymns , and cantatas , as well as musical pieces for opera and the stage , including Die Gräberinsel ( 1842 ) , Tony , oder die Vergeltung ( 1849 ) , Casilda ( 1851 ) , Santa Chiara ( 1854 ) , and Zaïre , which met with success in Germany . He could also draw and play the piano . One of his operas , Diana von Solange ( 1858 ) , prompted Franz Liszt the following year to write an orchestral Festmarsch nach Motiven von E. H. z . S.-C.-G. , S.116 ( E. H. z . S.-C.-G. was short for Ernst Herzog zu Sachsen @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha ) . However , its production at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in 1890 inspired dismal reviews , with one spectator commenting that its " music was simply rubbish " . Ernest was also an avid hunter and sportsman ; one contemporary remarked that he was " one of the foremost and keenest sportsman produced by the present century " . In addition , Ernest was an enthusiastic patron of everything connected with natural history , for instance traveling to Abyssinia with the German zoologist Alfred Brehm in 1862 .

Ernest II died at Reinhardsbrunn on 22 August 1893 after a short illness . A lifelong sportsman , his last words were apparently " Let the drive commence ! " His funeral was held in the Morizkirche in Coburg ; thousands of spectators came to the funeral , including Emperor Wilhelm and the Prince of Wales . He is buried in the ducal mausoleum in the Friedhof am Glockenberg which he himself had built in 1853 @-@ 8 .

Ernest was succeeded by his nephew Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh .

= = Inheritance to Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha = =

For much of Ernest 's reign , the heir presumptive to Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha was his only sibling Prince Albert , consort of Queen Victoria . When it became increasingly more clear that Ernest would be childless , the possibility of a personal union between his duchies and the United Kingdom became real , a reality that was deemed undesirable . Special arrangements were made by a combination of constitutional clauses and renunciations to pass Ernest 's throne to a son of Albert while preventing a personal union . Consequently , Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , his brother 's second eldest son , was designated the childless Ernest 's heir presumptive on 14 December 1861 , when his older brother the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII of the United Kingdom ) renounced his succession rights .

Issues arose over authority to control the upbringing of his heir @-@ presumptive . As head of the Coburg family , Ernest would normally have been able to arrange Alfred 's education and general upbringing unchallenged . This however was not the case . Alfred was torn between his British birth and his German inheritance . This was partly because Alfred was second @-@ in @-@ line to the United Kingdom until the birth of his nephew Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , in 1864 . One example of the many problems of his education concerned the language he would speak . Although he grew up learning German , his native language was decided to be English . In addition , a naval career was chosen for Alfred , a common profession for a British prince but almost unheard of for a prince of Germany . Ernest also wanted Alfred to be educated in Coburg , but his brother refused . Albert 's refusal most likely stemmed from the negative British reaction that would have inevitably occurred and the fact that Albert was fearful of Alfred 's moral development . Thus despite Ernest 's protests , he went unheeded in Albert 's lifetime . In 1863 , Ernest told Victoria that it was time for Alfred to leave the navy and enter a German university . By March of the following year , it was decided that Alfred would attend Bonn University but be left to consider his future , as he was having reservations over permanently residing outside England . The matter was eventually resolved ; Alfred came to accept his inheritance , and Victoria understood and accepted that Ernest needed to be involved in the upbringing of his heir @-@ presumptive , with a strong German element added to his education and ( carefully chaperoned ) visits to Coburg .

= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =

= = = Titles and styles = = =

21 June 1818 – 12 November 1826 : His Serene Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld

12 November 1826 – 29 January 1844 : His Highness The Hereditary Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha

29 January 1844 – 22 August 1893 : His Highness The Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha

= = = Honours = = =

Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha

KJ : Knight of St. Joachim

Grand Master of the Order of the Ernestine House of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha

Master Mason , 1857

= = = = Foreign = = = =

United Kingdom

KG : Knight of the Garter , 1844

German Empire

Recipient of the Iron Cross of 1870 , 1st and 2nd class

= = Ancestry = =

= = = Primary = = =

Baillie @-@ Grohman , William Adolph ( 1896 ) . Sport in the Alps in the Past and Present : An Account of the Chase of the Chamois , Red @-@ deer , Bouquetin , Roe @-@ deer , Capercaillie , and Black @-@ cock , with Personal References and Historical Notes and Some Sporting Reminisces of H.R.H. the Late Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Scribner .

Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , Duke Ernest II of ( 1888 ) . Memoirs of Ernest II : Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Remington & Co . Publishers . , four volumes .

= = = Secondary = = =

Alden , Raymond ; George Berry ; Ernest I. Bogart ; et al . ( 1918 ) . The Encyclopedia Americana : A Library of Universal Knowledge , Volume 10 . New York : The Encyclopedia Americana Corporation .

Allinson , A.R. ( 2006 ) . The War Diary of the Emperor Frederick III - 1870 - 1871 . Home Farm Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 4067 @-@ 9995 @-@ 5 .

Berwanger , Eugene H. ( 1994 ) . The British Foreign Service and the American Civil War . Lexington , KY : University Press of Kentucky . ISBN 0 @-@ 8131 @-@ 1876 @-@ X.

Coit Gilman , Daniel ; Harry Thurston Peck ; Frank Moore Colby ( 1903 ) . The New International Encyclopædia , Volume 6 . New York : Dodd , Mead , and Company .

D 'Auvergne , Edmund Basil ( 1911 ) . The Coburgs : The Story of the Rise of a Great Royal House . New York : James Pott & Company . ISBN 1 @-@ 120 @-@ 85860 @-@ 7 .

Feuchtwanger , E.J. ( 2006 ) . Albert and Victoria : The Rise and Fall of the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Gotha . London : Hambledon Continuum . ISBN 1 @-@ 85285 @-@ 461 @-@ 8 .

Gill , Gillian ( 2009 ) . We Two : Victoria and Albert : Rulers , Partners , Rivals . New York : Ballatine Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 52001 @-@ 7 .

Grey , Hon. Charles ( 1868 ) . The Early Years of His Royal Highness The Prince Consort . New York : Harper & Brothers Publishers .

Hibbert , Christopher ( 2007 ) . Edward VII : The Last Victorian King . New York : Palgrave Macmillan .

Hough , Richard ( 1996 ) . Victoria and Albert . New York : St. Martin 's Griffin . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 30385 @-@ 8 .

Kenning , George ( 1878 ) . Kenning 's Masonic Encyclopedia and Handbook of Masonic Archeology , History and Biography . London : Kessinger Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 7661 @-@ 6526 @-@ 4 .

Packard , Jerome M. ( 1998 ) . Victoria 's Daughters . New York : St. Martin 's Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 24496 @-@ 7 .

Pakula , Hannah ( 1997 ) . An Uncommon Woman : The Empress Frederick , Daughter of Queen Victoria , Wife of the Crown Prince of Prussia , Mother of Kaiser Wilhelm . New York : Simon and Schuster Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 84216 @-@ 5 .

Weintraub , Stanley ( 1997 ) . Uncrowned King : The Life of Prince Albert . London : John Murray Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 7195 @-@ 5756 @-@ 9 .

Zeepvat , Charlotte ( July 2000 ) . " The Queen and Uncle E " . Royalty Digest X ( 109 ) : 1 – 7 . Retrieved 16 February 2010 .

= Kersal Moor =

Kersal Moor is a recreation area in Kersal , Greater Manchester , England which consists of eight hectares of moorland bounded by Moor Lane , Heathlands Road , St. Paul 's Churchyard and Singleton Brook .

Kersal Moor , first called Karsey or Carsall Moor , originally covered a much larger area , running down to the River Irwell . Evidence of activity during the Neolithic period has been discovered and the area was used by the Romans . It was the site of the first Manchester Racecourse and the second golf course to be built outside Scotland . It has been extensively used for other sporting pursuits , military manoeuvres and public gatherings such as the Great Chartist Meeting of 1838 , prompting the political theorist Friedrich Engels to dub it " the Mons Sacer of Manchester " .

With the increasing industrialisation and urbanisation of Manchester and Salford during the 18th and 19th centuries , the moor became one of the remaining areas of natural landscape of interest to amateur naturalists , one of whom collected the only known specimens of the now extinct moth species Euclemensia woodiella . It is now a Site of Biological Importance and in 2007 was designated as a Local Nature Reserve by English Nature .

= = Geography = =

Kersal Moor is one of the many fluvioglacial ridges that formed along the Irwell Valley during the melting of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age . Typically for this type of landform , the subsoil is composed of sand mixed with coarse gravel . The 19th century botanist Richard Buxton described this as " Mr. E.W. Binney 's drift deposit no.2 ... a deposit of sharp forest sand , parted with layers of gravel composed of Azoic , Palaeozoic and Triassic rocks , well rounded , parted with layers of fine sand , and having every appearance of a regular deposit by water . " This deposit is overlaid with a thin topsoil supporting a range of mosses , heathers , grasses , ferns , common broom , gorse and some trees , which are predominantly oak with some rowan , cherry and other broadleaved species . The land to the south is elevated , rising to a high point towards the south west . From this elevated position there are views across Manchester to the Derbyshire hills in the south , to the Pennines in the north east and across the Irwell Valley and Salford in the west . The land falls away to the north , ending with two drumlin @-@ shaped hills on the northern edge , which were probably formed by sediment from the meltwater of the receding glaciers , in a process known as sedimentary fluting . The moor is criss @-@ crossed with footpaths , many of which cut through to the sand and gravel below . Singleton Brook , to the north of the moor , denotes the boundary between Salford and Prestwich .

= = History = =

Flint scrapers , knives and other materials associated with neolithic humans were discovered on the moor in the late 19th and early 20th century by local antiquarians such as Charles Roeder . The Roman road from Manchester ( Mamucium ) to Ribchester ( Bremetennacum ) roughly followed the line of the A56 road ( Bury New Road ) which is just to the east of Kersal Moor . There was a Roman camp at Rainsough just to the west , and some have speculated that there may have been a second camp to the east , in the area known as Castle Hill , making a defensive line across the moor to protect the north of Mamucium .

The 18th century historian John Whitaker said of the moor :

" The moor of Kersal was in the time of the Romans , perhaps in that of the Britons before them , and for many ages after both , a thicket of oaks and a pasture for hogs ; and the little knolls , that so remarkably diversify the plain , and are annually covered with mingled crowds rising in ranks over ranks to the top , were once the occasional seats of the herdsmen that superintended these droves into the woods . "

However , the last of these trees were burnt around 1880 .

= = = Sport on the moor = = =

The first Manchester racecourse was sited on the moor . The earliest record of horse @-@ racing is contained in the following notice in the London Gazette of 2 – 5 May 1687 :

On Carsall Moore near Manchester in Lancashire on the 18th instant , a 20 £ . plate will be run for to carry ten stone and ride three heats , four miles each heat . And the next day another plate of 40 £ . will be run for at the same moore , riding the same heats and carrying the same weight . The horses marks are to be given in four days before to Mr. William Swarbrick at the King 's Arms in Manchester .

The racecourse is shown on the map of 1848 as a roughly oval @-@ shaped course extending around the west , north and east of the moor , crossing Moor Lane and carrying on around the ground that is now the home of Salford City F.C. , roughly following the line of what is now Nevile Road . John Byrom ( 1692 – 1763 ) , the owner of Kersal Cell , was greatly opposed to the racing and wrote a pamphlet against it , but the racing continued for fifteen years until , probably through Dr Byrom 's influence , they were stopped in 1746 , the year of the Jacobite rising . After this there is known to have been at least one race in 1750 ; regular fixtures recommenced in 1759 , and were then held every year until 1846 , when they were transferred to the New Barns racecourse . Racing carried on there until the new Castle Irwell Racecourse was built , just across the river from the moor , in Lower Broughton in 1847 . Today part of the course can still be seen as a wide , well @-@ worn path stretching from east to west along the northern side of the moor .

During the 18th century the moor was also used for nude male races , allowing females to study the form before choosing their mates . Indeed , in 1796 Roger Aytoun , known as " Spanking Roger " ( who was later a hero of the siege of Gibraltar ) acquired Hough Hall in Moston through marriage to the widowed Barbara Minshull , after such a race .

The moor has also been used for a number of other sporting activities . In the 18th and early 19th century archery was still practised as a village sport , and the archers of Broughton , Cheetham and Prestwich were renowned countrywide . The Broughton archers practised their sport on Kersal Moor and in 1793 the Manchester writer , James Ogden , composed a poem in praise of them , which begins :

The Broughton Archers , and the bowmen good

Of Lancashire , keep up the former name

Their sires acquir 'd , for skill in archery ...

and ends with :

... Near Kersal Moor the Broughton archers fix

Their targets pierced with many a well aimed shot .

By 1830 , however , archery had become the sport of gentlemen and an exclusive club called the " Broughton Archers " was formed , the membership of which included some of the most influential men in the town . They originally met at a public house nicknamed " Hard Backed Nan 's " on the site of Bishopscourt where the Bishop of Manchester now resides , but after Bury New Road was built and the site became too public , they moved to the Turf Tavern on Kersal Moor . In 1818 a golf course was founded on the moor for the Manchester Golf Club , a group of Manchester businessmen , some of whom had emigrated from Scotland . This was only the second course to be built outside Scotland . The course at that time consisted of only five holes and had no fairways or greens as the players had to share the ground with other users . The club was very exclusive and by 1825 a club house had been built on Singleton Road . By 1869 the course had increased to nine holes and the club continued playing on the moor until 1862 when a new course was built a few hundred yards away at Kersal Vale .

The archery ground became Kersal Cricket Ground in 1847 and in 1881 the Northern Tennis Tournament was staged there . In 1919 the ground became the home of Manchester 's oldest rugby club , Manchester Football Club . When Manchester F.C. moved in 1968 they were replaced briefly by Langworthy Juniors and then Salford City F.C. , who still lease the ground today .

= = = Public gatherings and military use = = =

As one of the largest open spaces close to Manchester , the moor has a history of use for army manoeuvres and large public gatherings . In his book The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 , Friedrich Engels referred to it as the Mons Sacer of Manchester . This was a reference to the hill to which the plebs ( common citizens ) of Rome withdrew en masse in 494 BC as an act of civil protest .

In 1789 and 1790 there had been a spate of highway and house robberies . Gangs of armed men had entered houses in the middle of the night and taken away all they could carry . Armed patrols were placed around the neighbourhood to little effect until , at last , a man named James Macnamara was arrested with three others for burglary at the Dog and Partridge Inn on Stretford Road . Macnamara was tried at Lancaster Assizes and sentenced to be hanged on Kersal Moor as a warning to other criminals . A large number of people came to watch the execution but , as Joseph Aston said in his Metrical Records of Manchester " no one could suppose that the example had any use ... as several persons had their pockets picked within sight of the gallows and the following night a house was broken into and robbed in Manchester " .

The Stockport , Bolton and Rochdale Volunteers were reviewed on Kersal Moor on 25 August 1797 and in June 1812 , 30 @,@ 000 troops from the Wiltshire , Buckinghamshire , Louth and Stirling regiments were camped there ready for action to suppress the Luddites . In 1818 a protest meeting was held on the moor by coal miners to publicise their case for better pay , because of the dangers they faced at work .

A duel was fought on the moor in July 1804 between Mr. Jones and Mr. Shakspere Philips . Mr. Jones fired at Mr. Philips without effect and Mr. Philips then fired his pistol in the air , upon which the seconds interfered , the two man shook hands and honour was satisfied . Two weeks later , two other men who had been quarrelling in the newspapers met on the moor to gain satisfaction . However , the magistrates had been informed and the men were arrested before the duel could take place .

On 12 April 1831 the 60th Rifle Corps had carried out an exercise on the moor under the command of Lieutenant P.S. Fitzgerald , and a detachment of 74 men were returning to their barracks in Salford by way of Lower Broughton and Pendleton . As the men were crossing the Broughton Suspension Bridge , built four years earlier by Fitzgeralds 's father , they felt it begin to vibrate in time with their footsteps , and before they had reached the other side the bridge collapsed . Although no one was killed twenty men were injured , six of them seriously . It was this incident that caused the British Military to issue the order for soldiers to " break step " when crossing a bridge .

The largest of a series of Chartist meetings was held on the moor on 24 September 1838 . The meeting , which was planned as a show of strength and to elect delegates for the Chartist national convention , attracted speakers from all over the country and a massive crowd , which was estimated at 30 @,@ 000 by the Manchester Guardian and 300 @,@ 000 by the Morning Advertiser .

The Chartists were active for the next eight months but the poor attendance at a second meeting , held on the moor at the same time as a racing fixture on 25 May 1839 , signalled the end of the movement . Although the movement was not successful initially , most of the Chartists ' demands were eventually met by Parliament .

In 1848 , the moor was used as an encampment for the East Norfolk Regiment as part of an increased military presence in Lancashire brought about by the unrest caused by Chartist agitation .

= = = Other pursuits = = =

As a relatively rural environment in an increasingly urbanised area , Kersal Moor was also used for more peaceful pursuits . During the 18th and 19th centuries it was much frequented by amateur naturalists and botanists . One of the botanists was Richard Buxton who went on to write A Botanical Guide to Manchester . In 1829 an amateur insect collector named Robert Cribb collected a series of about fifty small yellow and brown moths from a rotting alder on the moor . These turned out to be a previously unknown species of moth , but they were mistakenly attributed to a friend of Cribb 's , the collector R. Wood , who had asked an expert to identify them . The moths were classified as Pancalia woodiella ( today Euclemensia woodiella ) in Wood 's honour .

The only specimen I have seen of this beautiful Moth , which is larger than the others , is a female ; it was taken on Kersall @-@ moor the middle of last June by Mr. R. Wood , of Manchester , to whom I have the pleasure of dedicating it ; — a most zealous and successful naturalist , to whose liberality I am indebted for many valuable insects . - John Curtis writing in British Entomology 1830

Enraged by this , and by accusations of fraudulently passing off foreign moths as British , Cribb gave up collecting and left the rest of the specimens with his landlady as security for a debt . Here the stories from Manchester University and The Australian Museum , Victoria differ as to whether it was Cribb 's pub landlady or the landlady of his lodgings , but either way the result was the same . The debt was not paid on time and when Cribb went back for the moths , which he had already sold to another collector , his landlady had burnt them . Subsequent efforts by other collectors to find more of the moths were unsuccessful , and the three specimens left in existence are thought to be the only representatives of an extinct species .

Towards the end of the 19th century a Mr. Cosmo Melvill contributed an article to the Journal of Botany in which he gave a list of more than 240 plants and flowers , not including mosses , that he had found on the moor .

Shortly after 6.00pm on 10 September 1848 the " celebrated aeronaut " George Gale ascended in a hot air balloon from Pomona Gardens in Hulme . After discharging a number of fireworks from a height of over 1 @,@ 000 feet , Lieutenant Gale drifted in various directions and made abortive attempts to land in a number of locations . Eventually , at about 10.00pm , the balloon descended safely in the farmyard of Mr Josiah Taylor on Kersal Moor .

In 1852 , Queen Victoria commissioned a painting by the artist William Wyld which became A view of Manchester from Kersal Moor ( pictured ) . The painting , which depicts the moor as a beautiful pastoral scene overlooking Castle Irwell racecourse and the industrial landscape of Manchester , is now in the Royal Collection where it is listed as Manchester from Higher Broughton . A steel line engraving of the painting by the engraver Edward Goodall was also commissioned .

= = Literary references = =

The English radical and writer Samuel Bamford mentions Kersal Moor in his book Passages in the Life of a Radical ( 1840 – 1844 ) when he advises one of his friends to make his way from Middleton to Bolton via Kersal Moor to avoid the authorities :

Healey I advised to go to his brother at Bolton , and get some money , and keep out of sight entirely , until something further was known . His best way would be to avoid Manchester , and go over Kersal moor and Agecroft bridge ; and as I had a relation in that quarter who wished to see me , I would keep him company as far as Agecroft .

The races on the moor were mentioned in the 19th @-@ century novel The Manchester Man by Mrs. G Linnaeus Banks ( 1874 ) . The hero of the story , Jabez Clegg , meets a street boy named Kit Townley , of whom Mrs. Banks says :

He knew him to be not over @-@ scrupulous . He had seen him at Knott Mill Fair and Dirt Fair ( so called from its being held in muddy November ) , or at Kersal Moor Races , with more money to spend in pop , nuts , and gingerbread , shows and merry @-@ go @-@ rounds , flying boats and flying boxes , fighting cocks and fighting men , than he could possibly have saved out of the sum his father allowed him for pocket @-@ money , even if he had been of the saving kind ; and , coupling all these things together , Jabez was far from satisfied .

It is also mentioned in a collection of poems by Philip Connell called " Poaching on Parnassus " published in 1865 .

Lines to Mr. Isaac Holden by Philip Connell on his Drawing of the Prestwich Lunatic Asylum :

And Southward at due distance the huge hive ,

Of busy Manchester is all alive ,

Its towering chimnies , domes and steeples rise ,

In strange confusion thro ' the hazy skies ;

There Broughton glimmers in the evening sun ;

Here Cheetham Hill o 'ertops the vapours dun ;

There Kersal Moor the same bleak front doth shew ,

That met the view Eight hundred years ago ,

Where Clunian Monks there with their God did dwell ,

Within the precincts of its holy cell .

In 1876 the Lancashire dialect poet and songwriter Edwin Waugh moved from his Manchester home to Kersal Moor for the " fresher air " . Waugh 's early life was spent in Rochdale and although he worked in Manchester he yearned for the moors he remembered from his youth . He wrote the following poem about Kersal Moor

Kersal Moor

Sweet falls the blackbird 's evening song ,

in Kersal 's poised dell ;

But the skylarks trill makes the dewdrops thrill ,

In the bonny heather ;

Wild and free

Wild and free

Where the moorland breezes blow .

Oft have I roved you craggy steeps ,

Where the tinkling moorland rills ,

Sing all day long their low sweet song ,

To the lonely listening hills ;

And croon at night

In the pale moonlight

While mountain breezes blow .

As his health declined , Waugh moved to the seaside town of New Brighton . On his death in 1890 , his body was brought back to be buried in the graveyard of St. Paul 's Church , on the edge of the moorland he loved so well .

... Oh lay me down in moorland ground ,

And make it my last bed ,

With the heathery wilderness around ,

And the bonny lark o 'erhead :

Let fern and ling around me cling ,

And green moss o 'er me creep ;

And the sweet wild mountain breezes sing ,

Above my slumbers deep . - from The Moorland Breeze , Edwin Waugh ( 1889 )

= Shamanism in the Qing dynasty =

Shamanism was the dominant religion of the Jurchen people of northeast Asia and of their descendants , the Manchu people . As early as the Jin dynasty ( 1111 – 1234 ) , the Jurchens conducted shamanic ceremonies at shrines called tangse . There were two kinds of shamans : those who entered in a trance and let themselves be possessed by the spirits , and those who conducted regular sacrifices to heaven , to a clan 's ancestors , or to the clan 's protective spirits .

When Nurhaci ( 1559 – 1626 ) , the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens , unified the other Jurchen tribes under his own rule in the early seventeenth century , he imposed the protective spirits of his clan , the Aisin Gioro , upon other clans , and often destroyed their shrines . As early as the 1590s , he placed shamanism at the center of his state 's ritual , sacrificing to heaven before engaging in military campaigns . His son and successor Hong Taiji ( 1592 – 1643 ) , who renamed the Jurchens " Manchu " and officially founded the Qing dynasty ( 1636 – 1912 ) , further put shamanistic practices in the service of the state , notably by forbidding others to erect new tangse for ritual purposes . In the 1620s and 1630s , the Qing ruler conducted shamanic sacrifices at the tangse of Mukden , the Qing capital . In 1644 , as soon as the Qing seized Beijing to begin their conquest of China , they named it their new capital and erected an official shamanic shrine there . In the Beijing tangse and in the women 's quarters of the Forbidden City , Qing emperors and professional shamans ( usually women ) conducted shamanic ceremonies until the abdication of the dynasty in 1912 .

Until at least the eighteenth century , shamanism was at the core of Manchu spiritual life and differentiated Manchus from Han Chinese even as Manchu Bannermen garrisoned in various Chinese cities were adopting many aspects of the Chinese lifestyle . In 1747 the Qianlong Emperor ( r . 1735 – 1796 ) commissioned the publication of a " Shamanic Code " to revive and regulate shamanic practices , which he feared were becoming lost . He had it distributed to Bannermen to guide their practice , but we know very little about the effect of this policy . Mongols and Han Chinese were forbidden to attend shamanic ceremonies . Partly because of their secret aspect , these rituals attracted the curiosity of Beijing dwellers and visitors to the Qing capital . Even after the " Shamanic Code " was translated into Chinese and published in the 1780s , outsiders had little understanding of these practices .

During his fieldwork among the Tungusic populations of " Manchuria " in the 1910s , Russian anthropologist S. M. Shirokogoroff found enough surviving practices to build a theory of shamanism that shaped later theoretical debates about shamanism . Since the late 1980s , however , these theories have been criticized for neglecting the relation between shamanism and the state . Historians are now arguing that shamanistic practices in northeast Asia were intimately tied to the establishment of states , an analysis that fits the Qing case very well .

= = Background = =

Shamanism is the religion most typical of Tungusic peoples of Northeast Asia . The word " shaman " itself ( saman in the Manchu language ) appears in every Tunguso @-@ Manchurian language and seems to be of Tungusic origins . The most common religion among the Manchus was shamanism , which they and their ancestors the Jurchens practiced long before their leaders conquered China as emperors of the Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 ) .

= = Historical origins to 1644 = =

= = = Early Jurchen shamanism = = =

The Manchu name for a shamanic shrine or altar to the spirits is tangse . Because its Chinese equivalent tangzi ( 堂子 ) means " hall , " it may seem that tangse was derived from Chinese , but only around 1660 did tangse start to be translated as tangzi . Before that , it was rendered into Chinese as yemiao ( 謁廟 ) , or " visitation temple . " The term tangse may have originated in the portable " god boxes " ( also " tangse " ) in which the Jurchens placed god figurines when they were still mobile hunters . Once Jurchen bands started to settle into palisaded villages ( their typical kind of settlement ) , their tangse became permanent fixtures of the village .

Each clan — mukūn , a village or association of villages who claimed to share common ancestors — had its sacred protective spirits ( enduri ) . The shaman ( often a woman ) was in charge of placating spirits and dead ancestors and of contacting them to seek a good hunt or harvest , quick healing , success in battle , and other such favors . The point of contact between the community and the spirits was the " spirit pole " ( Manchu : šomo ; Chinese : 神柱 ; pinyin : shénzhù ) . Shamans played a crucial role in these early Jurchen communities , as the authority of the clan headman often depended on the assent of the shaman .

There were two kinds of Jurchen shamanistic rituals , corresponding to two kinds of shamans . The most common was " domestic ritual " : ritual @-@ based sacrifices to Heaven and to the clan 's ancestors conducted by hereditary shamans from that clan . " Primitive ritual , " on the other hand , was performed by people who had undergone a " shamanic illness , " which was seen as a sign that they had been chosen by the spirits . Entering into a trance , these " transformational " shamans let themselves be possessed by various animal spirits and sought the help of these spirits for purposes like healing or exorcism . These shamans set up an altar in their own houses and received a different kind of training from hereditary shamans .

Manchu shamans typically wore an apron , a feathered cap denoting their ability to fly to the spirit world , and a belt with dangling bells , and carried a knife , two wooden sticks with bells affixed to the top , and a drum they used during ceremonies . These attributes could still be observed among shamans from Manchuria and Mongolia in the early twentieth century .

= = = Shamanism after the rise of Nurhaci = = =

Jurchen shamanic practices were transformed by the rise of Qing founder Nurhaci ( 1559 – 1626 ) . As he started to unify the Jurchen tribes , Nurhaci destroyed the tangse of the defeated tribes and replaced their protective deities with the magpie , the totemic animal of his own clan , the Aisin Gioro . Tribes that voluntarily joined Nurhaci were allowed to keep their own gods . This absorption of other clans ' shamanic rituals into those of Nurhaci 's clan started a process of " state codification of religion " that continued into the eighteenth century .

In another transformation that " mirrored the process of political centralization " in Nurhaci 's state , the traditional Jurchen belief in multiple heavens was replaced by one Heaven called " Abka ama " or " Abka han . " This new shamanic Heaven became the object of a state cult similar to that of the Jurchen rulers ' cult of Heaven in the Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and to Chinggis Khan 's worship of Tengri in the thirteenth century . This state sacrifice became an early counterpart to the Chinese worship of Heaven . From as early as the 1590s , Nurhaci appealed to Heaven as , " the arbiter of right and wrong . " He worshipped Heaven at a shamanic shrine in 1593 before leaving for a campaign against the Yehe , a Jurchen tribe that belonged to the rival Hūlun confederacy . Qing annals also report that when Nurhaci announced his Seven Great Grievances against the Ming dynasty in April 1618 , he conducted a shamanic ceremony during which he burned an oath to Heaven written on a piece of yellow paper . This ceremony was deliberately omitted from the later Chinese translation of this event by the Qing court .

Nurhaci 's son Hong Taiji ( r . 1626 – 1643 ) , who renamed the Jurchens " Manchus " in 1635 , forbade commoners and officials from erecting shamanic shrines for ritual purposes , making the tangse " the monopoly of the ruler . " He also banned shamans from treating illness , albeit with little success . The Old Manchu Archives , a chronicle documenting Manchu history from 1607 to 1636 , show that state rituals were held at the tangse of the Qing capital Mukden in the 1620s and 1630s . Just before commanding Banner troops into China in early 1644 , Prince Dorgon ( 1612 – 1650 ) , who was then regent to the newly enthroned Shunzhi Emperor ( r . 1643 – 1661 ) , led the other Manchu princes in worshipping Heaven at the Mukden tangse .

Shamans could also be used for personal purposes , as when Nurhaci 's eldest son Cuyen supposedly tried to bewitch the entire Aisin Gioro lineage with the help of shamans in 1612 .

= = State shamanism after 1644 = =

= = = The Beijing tangse = = =

In 1644 , just a few months after the Qing seized the city of Beijing from the peasant rebels who had pushed the last emperor of the Ming dynasty to suicide , the Manchus constructed a new tangse in the city , modeled on the tangse of the former Qing capital Mukden . This " Manchu shamanist sanctuary , " an octagonal building whose shape was specific to the Aisin Gioro clan , was located outside the Imperial City to the southeast , but still within the Inner City occupied by Bannermen , making it convenient for imperial visits . There , the emperor made offerings to Heaven and various other deities , including the horse spirit and the Manchu progenitor . Chinese and Mongols were strictly forbidden from entering this ritual area .

The Qing state 's main shamanistic ritual was performed at the tangse by the emperor on the first day of the New Year . In the Shunzhi ( 1644 – 1661 ) , Kangxi ( 1662 – 1722 ) , and Yongzheng ( 1723 – 1735 ) eras , this ceremony was the emperor 's first activity on the first day of the New Year , but sometime during the Qianlong era ( 1736 – 1796 ) it fell to the second rank after private sacrifices to the Aisin Gioro ancestors . Even with this somewhat diminished importance , these shamanic rites continued to the end of the dynasty .

The tangse was destroyed in 1900 by foreign powers in the aftermath of the Boxer Uprising as part of reprisals for the two @-@ month siege of the international Legation Quarter . A new shrine was rebuilt inside the palace in December 1901 . Its former site became part of the expanded Italian legation . Historian Mark Elliott notes that in today 's Beijing , the old tangse would have been located on East Chang 'an Avenue , " directly opposite the ' modern ' wing of the Beijing Hotel . "

= = = Kunning Palace = = =

Daily shamanistic rites were also conducted in the women 's quarters , in the Palace of Earthly Tranquility ( Chinese : 坤寧宮 ; pinyin : Kunning gong ) , a building located near the north gate of the Forbidden City , on the central axis of the palace complex . This palace had served as the Empress 's residence under the Ming dynasty , but the Qing converted it for ritual use , installing a " spirit pole " to present sacrifices to heaven , changing the style of the windows , and setting up large cauldrons to cook sacrificial food .

The shamans in the Kunning Palace were all women . In the Shunzhi era ( 1644 – 1661 ) , the sacrifices were performed by the wives of Aisin Gioro men and by the emperor 's consorts . After that , the shamanesses were selected from the wives of " imperial guards " ( Chinese : 侍衛 ; pinyin : shìwèi ) , high officials belonging to Gioro households registered in the " Upper Three Banners , " which belonged directly to the emperor . These shamanesses ( Chinese : 薩滿太太 ; pinyin : sāmǎn tàitài ) , who were assisted by eunuchs , were managed by the " Office of Shamanism " ( Chinese : 神房 ; pinyin : shénfáng ) , a bureau under the authority of the Imperial Household Department . Only members of the imperial clan could attend such ceremonies .

= = = Role in Qing rulership = = =

The Qing emperor used shamanism to promote the dynasty 's legitimacy among the Tungusic peoples — such as the Evenks , Daurs , and Oroqens — who lived near the northeastern borders of the empire . They were taught the Manchu language and Manchu fashion , as well as legends recounting how Qing founder Nurhaci had been assisted by the spirits in his many exploits . Qing emperors adopted different images to address the different subjects of their multi @-@ ethnic empire . As khan of the Manchus and Mongols , he presented himself as an incarnation of the bodhisattva ( " enlightened being " ) Manjusri and as a universal Buddhist ruler protector of Tibetan Buddhism . As emperor of China ( huangdi ) , he sponsored civil examinations based on the Confucian Classics and worshipped at the Altar of Heaven . Shamanism was thus only one aspect of the Qing 's " extraordinarily flexible view of community and rulership " .

= = = Healing rituals = = =

Besides state ritual , the Manchus often resorted to shamans to treat illness . In 1649 Dorgon 's brother Dodo , who had helped the Qing conquer southern China in 1645 , fell ill with smallpox , a highly contagious disease that the Manchus particularly dreaded . He called a shaman named Jingguda to his bedside , but the shaman 's ritual therapies failed and Dodo died in April 1649 at the age of 35 . After variolation began in 1681 , shamanic sacrifices were performed for imperial sons who survived inoculation . The Kangxi Emperor ( r . 1661 – 1722 ) attempted to cure his sixth son Yinzuo ( 胤祚 ) with shamanic rites in June 1685 , but that son died a few days later .

= = The " Shamanic Code " of 1747 = =

In the 1740s , the Qianlong Emperor worried that shamanic traditions were becoming lost , especially among the Manchu Bannermen who lived in garrisons throughout the empire . To fight this trend , in 1741 he commissioned a " Shamanic Code " , based on the rites of the imperial clan , that would explain the use of shamanic instruments and the meaning of Manchu ritual incantations , many of which had been transmitted by officiants who were not fluent in Manchu , to the point of becoming nonsensical . It was completed in 1747 . Its full title in Manchu was ᡥᡝᠰᡝᡳ

ᡨᠣᡴᡨᠣᠪᡠᡥᠠ

ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᠰᠠᡳ

ᠸᡝᠴᡝᡵᡝ

ᠮᡝᡨᡝᡵᡝ

ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ

ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ Wylie : Ghesei toktopuha Manchusai wetchere metere kauli pitghe , Möllendorff : Hesei toktobuha Manjusai wecere metere kooli bithe , which scholars have translated variously as " Imperially commissioned Manchu rituals for sacrificing to deities and to Heaven , " " Rites for the Manchu worship of Heaven and the spirits , " and " Imperially commissioned code of rituals and sacrifices of the Manchus . " The Code attempted to formalize Manchu shamanistic practices . Historian Pamela Crossley sees it as part of the Qianlong Emperor 's attempts to " standardize the cultural and spiritual life of the Manchus , " taking the practices of the imperial clan as a model .

Though the Shamanic Code was first kept in manuscript form , French Jesuit Joseph @-@ Marie Amiot had a study on it , " Rituels des Tartares Mandchous déterminés et fixés par l 'empereur comme chef de sa religion " , published in Amsterdam in 1773 . In 1777 the Qianlong Emperor ordered the code translated into Chinese for inclusion in the Siku quanshu . The Manchu version was printed in 1778 , whereas the Chinese @-@ language edition , titled Qinding Manzhou jishen jitian dianli ( 欽定滿洲祭神祭天典禮 ) , was completed in 1780 or 1782 .

The compilation of this Code " opened Qing shamanism to bureaucratic review " and modified the practices of ordinary Manchus . The Code was distributed to Bannermen to guide their practices . Commercial editions were even produced for sale to the common public . One of these editions , the Manzhou tiaoshen huanyuan dianli ( 滿洲跳神還願典例 ) , dated 1828 , has survived . Even though this " Shamanic Code " did not fully unify shamanic practice among the Banners , it " helped systematize and reshape what had been a very fluid and diverse belief system . "

= = Diversity of practices = =

There is little evidence concerning the shamanic practices of common Bannermen in the garrisons . We know that after the publication of the " Shamanic Code " some clans ( like the Šušu ) and tribes ( like the Xibe ) also wrote down their rituals and incantations , showing that the court model was not always followed . Shamanic sacrifices among ordinary households were simpler than those of the imperial clan . Noble Manchus in Beijing often erected spirit poles in their private homes , but because Manchu households were forbidden from having private tangse shrines , they made offerings to the spirit at a small altar called a weceku , where they installed portraits of their ancestors as well as a clan genealogy .

The worship of heaven in the Chinese imperial tradition paralleled shamanistic sacrifices , but only the emperor made offerings to the Chinese heaven , whereas ordinary Manchus could also worship shamanistic heaven . Both Chinese and Manchu heaven were an " all @-@ encompassing principle of cosmic order and human destiny " that could be used to give the state legitimacy .

In their shamanic ceremonies , Manchus worshipped a number of gods , including non @-@ Tungusic deities . Guandi and the bodhisattva ( Buddhist " enlightened being " ) Guanyin were two of a " handful of Chinese gods " who were integrated into the rituals of the state tangse and Kunning Palace . One of the four ritual sites in the tangse was a large hall where the Buddha , Guanyin , and Guandi received offerings several times a year , including at the New Year . Ordinary Manchu households rarely sacrificed to Buddhist deities , but almost all of them worshipped Guandi because of his association with war .

= = Shamanism and Manchu identity = =

At least into the eighteenth century , shamanism served to strengthen Manchu ethnic identity by forming " the spiritual core of Manchu life . " The Qing emperors also used shamanism to shape Manchu identity . In an edict dated 17 April 1727 in which he opposed Jesuit attempts to convert Chinese and Manchus to Catholicism , the Yongzheng Emperor ( r . 1722 – 1735 ) singled out Manchu converts for criticism . To the emperor , the " Lord of Heaven " — the Jesuit name for God in Chinese — was none other than the Heaven the Chinese and Manchus already worshipped . To convince Manchu nobles that they should use existing Manchu rituals for worshipping Heaven , he explained that , " In the empire we have a temple for honoring Heaven and sacrificing to Him . We Manchus have Tiao Tchin . The first day of every year we burn incense and paper to honor Heaven . We Manchus have our own particular rites for honoring Heaven . " In this edict , which we know through a French translation by court Jesuit Antoine Gaubil , Tiao Tchin refers to Tiao Shen ( 跳神 , literally " spirit @-@ jumping " ) , the Chinese name of the Manchu shamanic ceremony .

According to historian Pamela Crossley , proficiency with shamanism was among the qualities that the Qianlong Emperor ( r . 1735 – 1796 ) promoted as being part of the " Old Way " ( fe doro ) of the Manchus when he attempted to formalize the Manchu heritage late in his reign . Mark Elliott has countered that he has never seen shamanism listed among " the qualities the court expected of Manchus " in any Qing documents , and that shamanism was therefore " never formally enunciated as part of the Manchu Way " ( Manjusai doro ) . Nicola di Cosmo of the Institute for Advanced Studies comments that once Manchu rituals were codified into formal regulations , they became " mere simulacra of the ancestral cults " and lost their place at the center of the spiritual life of Manchu clans . Nonetheless the persistence of shamanistic practices at the Qing court into the twentieth century suggests that the Manchus were not automatically " sinicized " by the sole fact that they ruled over China .

Elliott argues that " shamanism contributed to Manchu identity ... by constructing a very obvious boundary between Manchu and Han . " Chinese residents and visitors , who were forbidden to observe the rituals performed at the shamanic shrine , saw these rites as " different and mysterious " or " secret and alien . " A visitor to Beijing in the early Qing remarked that the Tangzi was one of the three things one didn 't ask about in the capital . The difference between shamanic rites and Chinese rituals still " aroused significant interest . " Korean visitors from Joseon , for instance , often " asked questions about the secret Manchu rites in the Tangzi . " Writers who wanted to satisfy their readers ' curiosity about these exotic practices could only speculate or rely on the late eighteenth @-@ century Shamanic Code . This is why nineteenth @-@ century Chinese accounts about Manchu rituals are " fragmentary and often error @-@ prone , " while their explanations of ritual language are " positively confusing . "

= = Scholarly interpretations = =

During his fieldwork among the Tungusic peoples of " Manchuria " from 1912 to 1918 , Russian anthropologist S. M. Shirokogoroff ( 1887 – 1939 ) found enough surviving practices to develop an influential theory of shamanism . He noted that the northern Tungus had been heavily influenced by Manchu language and culture : they wore Manchu clothing and hairstyle , read Manchu books , and conducted weddings and funerals according to Manchu customs . As he also discovered , the Manchus venerated many Buddhist deities , so much that he hypothesized that northeast Asian shamanism was an outgrowth of Buddhism . This thesis has not been widely accepted . His definition of shamanism , however , has been widely discussed . Equipped with specific ritual implements , the shaman enters into a trance to gain control of harmful spirits who cause illness or misfortune to a clan or a tribe . His role is recognized by his society , and there is an explicit explanation of how he masters the spirits .

Shirokogoroff claimed that true shamanism only existed among the Tungus and the Manchus , but despite his warnings that Tungus shamanism could only be understood in relation to all other elements of Tungus culture , and that his findings should therefore not serve to develop a general interpretation of shamanism , Shirokogoroff 's ideas have shaped theoretical debates about shamanism . Social anthropologists Raymond Firth ( 1901 – 2002 ) and Ioan Myrddin Lewis ( b . 1930 ) — the latter a student of E. E. Evans @-@ Pritchard — drew from Shirokogoroff 's work to emphasize the social roles of shamans . Lewis 's influential analysis of spirit possession was also directly inspired by Shirokogoroff . Historian of religion Mircea Eliade ( 1907 – 1986 ) borrowed from the Russian ethnologist and many others to build his seminal theory of shamanism , which he presented in Shamanism : Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy ( 1964 , based on a French original dated 1951 ) . Eliade 's notion of " classic shamanism " or " shamanism in the strict and proper sense " was based on Siberian models . But whereas Shirokogoroff emphasized that control over the spirits was the chief function of shamanic rituals , Eliade stated that the ecstatic and visionary spirit @-@ journey induced by trance was the most central aspect of shamanism .

Shirokogoroff 's and Eliade 's views of shamanism were both centered on individuals and on the role of shamans in small groups . Shirokogoroff , for instance , considered eighteenth @-@ century Qing shamanism too formalized to be authentic . Historians of northeast Asia have criticized Eliade 's and Shirokogoroff 's interpretations because they neglect the political roles of shamans and shamanism 's relation with the state . Eliade 's claim that shamanism is by essence archaic , individualistic , and socially transgressive led him and his followers to neglect historical contexts in which shamanism fulfilled political functions or served the needs of the state , as it did under the Qing .

= Exponentiation =

Exponentiation is a mathematical operation , written as bn , involving two numbers , the base b and the exponent n . When n is a positive integer , exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base : that is , bn is the product of multiplying n bases :

<formula>

In that case , bn is called the n @-@ th power of b , or b raised to the power n .

The exponent is usually shown as a superscript to the right of the base . Some common exponents have their own names : the exponent 2 ( or 2nd power ) is called the square of b ( b2 ) or b squared ; the exponent 3 ( or 3rd power ) is called the cube of b ( b3 ) or b cubed . The exponent − 1 of b , or 1 / b , is called the reciprocal of b .

When n is a negative integer and b is not zero , bn is naturally defined as 1 / b − n , preserving the property bn × bm = bn + m .

The definition of exponentiation can be extended to allow any real or complex exponent . Exponentiation by integer exponents can also be defined for a wide variety of algebraic structures , including matrices .

Exponentiation is used extensively in many fields , including economics , biology , chemistry , physics , and computer science , with applications such as compound interest , population growth , chemical reaction kinetics , wave behavior , and public @-@ key cryptography .

= = History of the notation = =

The term power was used by the Greek mathematician Euclid for the square of a line . Archimedes discovered and proved the law of exponents , 10a 10b

= 10a + b , necessary to manipulate powers of 10 . In the 9th century , the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al @-@ Khwārizmī used the terms mal for a square and kahb for a cube , which later Islamic mathematicians represented in mathematical notation as m and k , respectively , by the 15th century , as seen in the work of Abū al @-@ Hasan ibn Alī al @-@ Qalasādī .

In the late 16th century , Jost Bürgi used Roman numerals for exponents .

Early in the 17th century , the first form of our modern exponential notation was introduced by Rene Descartes in his text titled La Géométrie ; there , the notation is introduced in Book I.

Nicolas Chuquet used a form of exponential notation in the 15th century , which was later used by Henricus Grammateus and Michael Stifel in the 16th century . The word " exponent " was coined in 1544 by Michael Stifel . Samuel Jeake introduced the term indices in 1696 . In the 16th century Robert Recorde used the terms square , cube , zenzizenzic ( fourth power ) , sursolid ( fifth ) , zenzicube ( sixth ) , second sursolid ( seventh ) , and zenzizenzizenzic ( eighth ) . Biquadrate has been used to refer to the fourth power as well .

Some mathematicians ( e.g. , Isaac Newton ) used exponents only for powers greater than two , preferring to represent squares as repeated multiplication . Thus they would write polynomials , for example , as ax + bxx + cx3 + d .

Another historical synonym , involution , is now rare and should not be confused with its more common meaning .

In 1748 Leonhard Euler wrote " consider exponentials or powers in which the exponent itself is a variable . It is clear that quantities of this kind are not algebraic functions , since in those the exponents must be constant . " With this introduction of transcendental functions , Euler laid the foundation for the modern introduction of natural logarithm as the inverse function for y =

ex .

= = Terminology = =

The expression b2

= b ⋅ b is called the square of b because the area of a square with side @-@ length b is b2 . It is pronounced " b squared " .

The expression b3 =

b ⋅ b ⋅ b is called the cube of b because the volume of a cube with side @-@ length b is b3 . It is pronounced " b cubed " .

The exponent indicates how many copies of the base are multiplied together . For example , 35

= 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 =

243 . The base 3 appears 5 times in the repeated multiplication , because the exponent is 5 . Here , 3 is the base , 5 is the exponent , and 243 is the power or , more specifically , the fifth power of 3 , 3 raised to the fifth power , or 3 to the power of 5 .

The word " raised " is usually omitted , and very often " power " as well , so 35 is typically pronounced " three to the fifth " or " three to the five " . The exponentiation bn can be read as b raised to the n @-@ th power , or b raised to the power of n , or b raised by the exponent of n , or most briefly as b to the n .

Exponentiation may be generalized from integer exponents to more general types of numbers .

= = Integer exponents = =

The exponentiation operation with integer exponents requires only elementary algebra .

= = = Positive integer exponents = = =

Formally , powers with positive integer exponents may be defined by the initial condition

<formula>

and the recurrence relation

<formula>

From the associativity of multiplication , it follows that for any positive integers m and n ,

<formula>

= = = Zero exponent = = =

Any nonzero number raised by the exponent 0 is 1 ; one interpretation of such a power is as an empty product . The case of 00 is discussed below .

= = = Negative exponents = = =

The following identity holds for an arbitrary integer n and nonzero b :

<formula>

Raising 0 by a negative exponent is left undefined .

The identity above may be derived through a definition aimed at extending the range of exponents to negative integers .

For non @-@ zero b and positive n , the recurrence relation from the previous subsection can be rewritten as

<formula>

By defining this relation as valid for all integer n and nonzero b , it follows that

<formula>

and more generally for any nonzero b and any nonnegative integer n ,

<formula>

This is then readily shown to be true for every integer n .

= = = Combinatorial interpretation = = =

For nonnegative integers n and m , the power nm is the number of functions from a set of m elements to a set of n elements ( see cardinal exponentiation ) . Such functions can be represented as m @-@ tuples from an n @-@ element set ( or as m @-@ letter words from an n @-@ letter alphabet ) .

= = = Identities and properties = = =

The following identities hold for all integer exponents , provided that the base is non @-@ zero :

<formula>

Exponentiation is not commutative . This contrasts with addition and multiplication , which are . For example , 2 + 3

= 3 + 2 =

5 and 2 ⋅ 3

= 3 ⋅ 2 =

6 , but 23

= 8 , whereas 32 =

9 .

Exponentiation is not associative either . Addition and multiplication are . For example , ( 2 + 3 ) + 4

= 2 + ( 3 + 4 ) =

9 and ( 2 ⋅ 3 ) ⋅ 4

= 2 ⋅ ( 3 ⋅ 4 ) =

24 , but 23 to the 4 is 84 or 4096 , whereas 2 to the 34 is 281 or 2417851639229258349412352 . Without parentheses to modify the order of calculation , by convention the order is top @-@ down , not bottom @-@ up :

<formula>

While Google and WolframAlpha follow the above convention , note that some computer programs such as Microsoft Office Excel or Matlab associate to the left instead , i.e. a ^ b ^ c is evaluated as ( a ^ b ) ^ c .

= = = Particular bases = = =

= = = = Powers of ten = = = =

In the base ten ( decimal ) number system , integer powers of 10 are written as the digit 1 followed or preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent . For example , 103

= 1000 and 10 − 4 =

0 @.@ 0001 .

Exponentiation with base 10 is used in scientific notation to denote large or small numbers . For instance , 299792458 m / s ( the speed of light in vacuum , in metres per second ) can be written as 2 @.@ 99792458 × 108 m / s and then approximated as 2 @.@ 998 × 108 m / s .

SI prefixes based on powers of 10 are also used to describe small or large quantities . For example , the prefix kilo means 103 = 1000 , so a kilometre is 1000 m .

= = = = Powers of two = = = =

The positive powers of 2 are important in computer science because there are 2n possible values for an n @-@ bit binary register .

Powers of 2 are important in set theory since a set with n members has a power set , or set of all subsets of the original set , with 2n members .

The negative powers of 2 are commonly used , and the first two have special names : half , and quarter .

In the base 2 ( binary ) number system , integer powers of 2 are written as 1 followed or preceded by a number of zeroes determined by the sign and magnitude of the exponent . For example , two to the power of three is written as 1000 in binary .

= = = = Powers of one = = = =

The powers of one are all one : 1n = 1 .

= = = = Powers of zero = = = =

If the exponent is positive , the power of zero is zero : 0n

= 0 , where n > 0 .

If the exponent is negative , the power of zero ( 0n , where n < 0 ) is undefined , because division by zero is implied .

If the exponent is zero , some authors define 00 =

1 , whereas others leave it undefined , as discussed below under § Zero to the power of zero .

= = = = Powers of minus one = = = =

If n is an even integer , then ( − 1 ) n

= 1 .

If n is an odd integer , then ( − 1 ) n =

− 1 .

Because of this , powers of − 1 are useful for expressing alternating sequences . For a similar discussion of powers of the complex number i , see § Powers of complex numbers .

= = = Large exponents = = =

The limit of a sequence of powers of a number greater than one diverges ; in other words , the sequence grows without bound :

bn → ∞ as n → ∞ when b > 1

This can be read as " b to the power of n tends to + ∞ as n tends to infinity when b is greater than one " .

Powers of a number with absolute value less than one tend to zero :

bn → 0 as n → ∞ when | b | < 1

Any power of one is always one :

bn

= 1 for all n if b =

1

If the number b varies tending to 1 as the exponent tends to infinity then the limit is not necessarily one of those above . A particularly important case is

( 1 + 1 / n ) n → e as n → ∞

See § The exponential function below .

Other limits , in particular of those that take on an indeterminate form , are described in § Limits of powers below .

= = Rational exponents = =

An nth root of a number b is a number x such that xn

= b .

If b is a positive real number and n is a positive integer , then there is exactly one positive real solution to xn =

b . This solution is called the principal nth root of b . It is denoted n √ b , where √ is the radical symbol ; alternatively , the principal root may be written b1 / n . For example : 41 / 2

= 2 , 81 / 3 =

2 .

The fact that <formula> solves <formula> follows from noting that

<formula>

If n is even , then xn

= b has two real solutions if b is positive , which are the positive and negative nth roots ( the positive one being denoted <formula> ) . If b is negative , the equation has no solution in real numbers for even n .

If n is odd , then xn =

b has one real solution . The solution is positive if b is positive and negative if b is negative .

The principal root of a positive real number b with a rational exponent u / v in lowest terms satisfies

<formula>

where u is an integer and v is a positive integer .

Rational powers u / v , where u / v is in lowest terms , are positive if u is even ( and hence v is odd ) ( because then bu is positive ) , and negative for negative b if u and v are odd ( because then bu is negative ) . There are two roots , one of each sign , if b is positive and v is even ( as exemplified by the case in which u

= 1 and v =

2 , whereby a positive b has two square roots ) ; in this case the principal root is defined to be the positive one .

Thus we have ( − 27 ) 1 / 3

= − 3 and ( − 27 ) 2 / 3 =

9 . The number 4 has two 3 / 2th roots , namely 8 and − 8 ; however , by convention 43 / 2 denotes the principal root , which is 8 . Since there is no real number x such that x2

= − 1 , the definition of bu / v when b is negative and v is even must use the imaginary unit i , as described more fully in the section § Powers of complex numbers .

Care needs to be taken when applying the power identities with negative nth roots . For instance , − 27 =

( − 27 ) ( ( 2 / 3 ) ⋅ ( 3 / 2 ) )

= ( ( − 27 ) 2 / 3 ) 3 / 2 =

93 / 2 = 27 is clearly wrong . The problem here occurs in taking the positive square root rather than the negative one at the last step , but in general the same sorts of problems occur as described for complex numbers in the section § Failure of power and logarithm identities .

= = Real exponents = =

The identities and properties shown above for integer exponents are true for positive real numbers with non @-@ integer exponents as well . However the identity

<formula>

cannot be extended consistently to cases where b is a negative real number ( see § Real exponents with negative bases ) . The failure of this identity is the basis for the problems with complex number powers detailed under § Failure of power and logarithm identities .

Exponentiation to real powers of positive real numbers can be defined either by extending the rational powers to reals by continuity , or more usually as given in § Powers via logarithms below .

= = = Limits of rational exponents = = =

Since any irrational number can be expressed as the limit of a sequence of rational numbers , exponentiation of a positive real number b with an arbitrary real exponent x can be defined by continuity with the rule

<formula>

where the limit as r gets close to x is taken only over rational values of r . This limit only exists for positive b . The ( ε , δ ) -definition of limit is used , this involves showing that for any desired accuracy of the result bx one can choose a sufficiently small interval around x so all the rational powers in the interval are within the desired accuracy .

For example , if x

= π , the nonterminating decimal representation π =

3 @.@ 14159 ... can be used ( based on strict monotonicity of the rational power ) to obtain the intervals bounded by rational powers

<formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , <formula> , ...

The bounded intervals converge to a unique real number , denoted by <formula> . This technique can be used to obtain the power of a positive real number b for any irrational exponent . The function fb ( x ) = bx is thus defined for any real number x .

= = = The exponential function = = =

The important mathematical constant e , sometimes called Euler 's number , is approximately equal to 2 @.@ 718 and is the base of the natural logarithm . Although exponentiation of e could , in principle , be treated the same as exponentiation of any other real number , such exponentials turn out to have particularly elegant and useful properties . Among other things , these properties allow exponentials of e to be generalized in a natural way to other types of exponents , such as complex numbers or even matrices , while coinciding with the familiar meaning of exponentiation with rational exponents .

As a consequence , the notation ex usually denotes a generalized exponentiation definition called the exponential function , exp ( x ) , which can be defined in many equivalent ways , for example by :

<formula>

Among other properties , exp satisfies the exponential identity

<formula>

The exponential function is defined for all integer , fractional , real , and complex values of x . In fact , the matrix exponential is well @-@ defined for square matrices ( in which case this exponential identity only holds when x and y commute ) , and is useful for solving systems of linear differential equations .

Since exp ( 1 ) is equal to e and exp ( x ) satisfies this exponential identity , it immediately follows that exp ( x ) coincides with the repeated @-@ multiplication definition of ex for integer x , and it also follows that rational powers denote ( positive ) roots as usual , so exp ( x ) coincides with the ex definitions in the previous section for all real x by continuity .

= = = Powers via logarithms = = =

The natural logarithm ln ( x ) is the inverse of the exponential function ex . It is defined for b > 0 , and satisfies

<formula>

If bx is to preserve the logarithm and exponent rules , then one must have

<formula>

for each real number x .

This can be used as an alternative definition of the real number power bx and agrees with the definition given above using rational exponents and continuity . The definition of exponentiation using logarithms is more common in the context of complex numbers , as discussed below .

= = = Real exponents with negative bases = = =

Powers of a positive real number are always positive real numbers . The solution of x2

= 4 , however , can be either 2 or − 2 . The principal value of 41 / 2 is 2 , but − 2 is also a valid square root . If the definition of exponentiation of real numbers is extended to allow negative results then the result is no longer well @-@ behaved .

Neither the logarithm method nor the rational exponent method can be used to define br as a real number for a negative real number b and an arbitrary real number r . Indeed , er is positive for every real number r , so ln ( b ) is not defined as a real number for b ≤ 0 .

The rational exponent method cannot be used for negative values of b because it relies on continuity . The function f ( r ) =

br has a unique continuous extension from the rational numbers to the real numbers for each b > 0 . But when b < 0 , the function f is not even continuous on the set of rational numbers r for which it is defined .

For example , consider b

= − 1 . The nth root of − 1 is − 1 for every odd natural number n . So if n is an odd positive integer , ( − 1 ) ( m / n ) =

− 1 if m is odd , and ( − 1 ) ( m / n )

= 1 if m is even . Thus the set of rational numbers q for which ( − 1 ) q =

1 is dense in the rational numbers , as is the set of q for which ( − 1 ) q = − 1 . This means that the function ( − 1 ) q is not continuous at any rational number q where it is defined .

On the other hand , arbitrary complex powers of negative numbers b can be defined by choosing a complex logarithm of b .

= = = Irrational exponents = = =

If a is a positive algebraic number , and b is a rational number , it has been shown above that ab is algebraic . This remains true even if one accepts any algebraic number for a , with the only difference that ab may take several values ( see below ) , all algebraic . Gelfond – Schneider theorem provides some information on the nature of ab when b is irrational ( that is not rational ) . It states :

If a is an algebraic number different from 0 and 1 , and b an irrational algebraic number , then all the values of ab are transcendental numbers ( that is , not algebraic ) .

= = Complex exponents with positive real bases = =

= = = Imaginary exponents with base e = = =

A complex number is an expression of the form <formula> , where x and y are real numbers , and i is the so @-@ called imaginary unit , a number that satisfies the rule <formula> . A complex number can be visualized as a point in the ( x , y ) plane . The polar coordinates of a point in the ( x , y ) plane consist of a non @-@ negative real number r and angle θ such that x

= r cos θ and y =

r sin θ . So

<formula>

The product of two complex numbers z1

= x1 + iy1 , z2 =

x2 + iy2 is obtained by expanding out the product of the binomials and simplifying using the rule <formula> :

<formula>

As a consequence of the angle sum formulas of trigonometry , if z1 and z2 have polar coordinates ( r1 , θ1 ) , ( r2 , θ2 ) , then their product z1z2 has polar coordinates equal to ( r1r2 , θ1 + θ2 ) .

Consider the right triangle in the complex plane which has 0 , 1 , 1 + ix / n as vertices . For large values of n , the triangle is almost a circular sector with a radius of 1 and a small central angle equal to x / n radians . 1 + ix / n may then be approximated by the number with polar coordinates ( 1 , x / n ) . So , in the limit as n approaches infinity , ( 1 + ix / n ) n approaches ( 1 , x / n ) n

= ( 1n , nx / n ) =

( 1 , x ) , the point on the unit circle whose angle from the positive real axis is x radians . The cartesian coordinates of this point are ( cos x , sin x ) . So e ix

= cos x + isin x ; this is Euler 's formula , connecting algebra to trigonometry by means of complex numbers .

The solutions to the equation ez =

1 are the integer multiples of 2πi :

<formula>

More generally , if ev

= w , then every solution to ez =

w can be obtained by adding an integer multiple of 2πi to v :

<formula>

Thus the complex exponential function is a periodic function with period 2πi .

More simply : eiπ

= − 1 ; ex + iy =

ex ( cos y + i sin y ) .

= = = Trigonometric functions = = =

It follows from Euler 's formula stated above that the trigonometric functions cosine and sine are

<formula>

Before the invention of complex numbers , cosine and sine were defined geometrically . The above formula reduces the complicated formulas for trigonometric functions of a sum into the simple exponentiation formula

<formula>

Using exponentiation with complex exponents may reduce problems in trigonometry to algebra .

= = = Complex exponents with base e = = =

The power z = ex + iy can be computed as ex ⋅ eiy . The real factor ex is the absolute value of z and the complex factor eiy identifies the direction of z .

= = = Complex exponents with positive real bases = = =

If b is a positive real number , and z is any complex number , the power bz is defined as ez ⋅ ln ( b ) , where x

= ln ( b ) is the unique real solution to the equation ex =

b . So the same method working for real exponents also works for complex exponents .

For example :

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

The identity ( bz ) u = bzu is not generally valid for complex powers . The power bz is a complex number and any power of it has to follow the rules for powers of complex numbers below . A simple counterexample is given by :

<formula>

The identity is , however , valid for arbitrary complex <formula> when <formula> is an integer .

= = Powers of complex numbers = =

Integer powers of nonzero complex numbers are defined by repeated multiplication or division as above . If i is the imaginary unit and n is an integer , then in equals 1 , i , − 1 , or − i , according to whether the integer n is congruent to 0 , 1 , 2 , or 3 modulo 4 . Because of this , the powers of i are useful for expressing sequences of period 4 .

Complex powers of positive reals are defined via ex as in section Complex exponents with positive real bases above . These are continuous functions .

Trying to extend these functions to the general case of noninteger powers of complex numbers that are not positive reals leads to difficulties . Either we define discontinuous functions or multivalued functions . Neither of these options is entirely satisfactory .

The rational power of a complex number must be the solution to an algebraic equation . Therefore , it always has a finite number of possible values . For example , w

= z1 / 2 must be a solution to the equation w2 =

z . But if w is a solution , then so is − w , because ( − 1 ) 2 = 1 . A unique but somewhat arbitrary solution called the principal value can be chosen using a general rule which also applies for nonrational powers .

Complex powers and logarithms are more naturally handled as single valued functions on a Riemann surface . Single valued versions are defined by choosing a sheet . The value has a discontinuity along a branch cut . Choosing one out of many solutions as the principal value leaves us with functions that are not continuous , and the usual rules for manipulating powers can lead us astray .

Any nonrational power of a complex number has an infinite number of possible values because of the multi @-@ valued nature of the complex logarithm . The principal value is a single value chosen from these by a rule which , amongst its other properties , ensures powers of complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part give the same value as does the rule defined above for the corresponding real base .

Exponentiating a real number to a complex power is formally a different operation from that for the corresponding complex number . However , in the common case of a positive real number the principal value is the same .

The powers of negative real numbers are not always defined and are discontinuous even where defined . In fact , they are only defined when the exponent is a rational number with the denominator being an odd integer . When dealing with complex numbers the complex number operation is normally used instead .

= = = Complex exponents with complex bases = = =

For complex numbers w and z with w ≠ 0 , the notation wz is ambiguous in the same sense that log w is .

To obtain a value of wz , first choose a logarithm of w ; call it log w . Such a choice may be the principal value Log w ( the default , if no other specification is given ) , or perhaps a value given by some other branch of log w fixed in advance . Then , using the complex exponential function one defines

<formula>

because this agrees with the earlier definition in the case where w is a positive real number and the ( real ) principal value of log w is used .

If z is an integer , then the value of wz is independent of the choice of log w , and it agrees with the earlier definition of exponentiation with an integer exponent .

If z is a rational number m / n in lowest terms with z > 0 , then the countably infinitely many choices of log w yield only n different values for wz ; these values are the n complex solutions s to the equation sn = wm .

If z is an irrational number , then the countably infinitely many choices of log w lead to infinitely many distinct values for wz .

The computation of complex powers is facilitated by converting the base w to polar form , as described in detail below .

A similar construction is employed in quaternions .

= = = Complex roots of unity = = =

A complex number w such that wn

= 1 for a positive integer n is an nth root of unity . Geometrically , the nth roots of unity lie on the unit circle of the complex plane at the vertices of a regular n @-@ gon with one vertex on the real number 1 .

If wn =

1 but wk ≠ 1 for all natural numbers k such that 0 < k < n , then w is called a primitive nth root of unity . The negative unit − 1 is the only primitive square root of unity . The imaginary unit i is one of the two primitive 4th roots of unity ; the other one is − i .

The number e2πi / n is the primitive nth root of unity with the smallest positive argument . ( It is sometimes called the principal nth root of unity , although this terminology is not universal and should not be confused with the principal value of n √ 1 , which is 1 . )

The other nth roots of unity are given by

<formula>

for 2 ≤ k ≤ n .

= = = Roots of arbitrary complex numbers = = =

Although there are infinitely many possible values for a general complex logarithm , there are only a finite number of values for the power wq in the important special case where q

= 1 / n and n is a positive integer . These are the nth roots of w ; they are solutions of the equation zn =

w . As with real roots , a second root is also called a square root and a third root is also called a cube root .

It is conventional in mathematics to define w1 / n as the principal value of the root . If w is a positive real number , it is also conventional to select a positive real number as the principal value of the root w1 / n . For general complex numbers , the nth root with the smallest argument is often selected as the principal value of the nth root operation , as with principal values of roots of unity .

The set of nth roots of a complex number w is obtained by multiplying the principal value w1 / n by each of the nth roots of unity . For example , the fourth roots of 16 are 2 , − 2 , 2i , and − 2i , because the principal value of the fourth root of 16 is 2 and the fourth roots of unity are 1 , − 1 , i , and − i .

= = = Computing complex powers = = =

It is often easier to compute complex powers by writing the number to be exponentiated in polar form . Every complex number z can be written in the polar form

<formula>

where r is a nonnegative real number and θ is the ( real ) argument of z . The polar form has a simple geometric interpretation : if a complex number u + iv is thought of as representing a point ( u , v ) in the complex plane using Cartesian coordinates , then ( r , θ ) is the same point in polar coordinates . That is , r is the " radius " r2

= u2 + v2 and θ is the " angle " θ =

atan2 ( v , u ) . The polar angle θ is ambiguous since any integer multiple of 2π could be added to θ without changing the location of the point . Each choice of θ gives in general a different possible value of the power . A branch cut can be used to choose a specific value . The principal value ( the most common branch cut ) , corresponds to θ chosen in the interval ( − π , π ] . For complex numbers with a positive real part and zero imaginary part using the principal value gives the same result as using the corresponding real number .

In order to compute the complex power wz , write w in polar form :

<formula>

Then

<formula>

and thus

<formula>

If z is decomposed as c + di , then the formula for wz can be written more explicitly as

<formula>

This final formula allows complex powers to be computed easily from decompositions of the base into polar form and the exponent into Cartesian form . It is shown here both in polar form and in Cartesian form ( via Euler 's identity ) .

The following examples use the principal value , the branch cut which causes θ to be in the interval ( − π , π ] . To compute ii , write i in polar and Cartesian forms :

<formula>

Then the formula above , with r

= 1 , θ =

π / 2 , c

= 0 , and d =

1 , yields :

<formula>

Similarly , to find ( − 2 ) 3 + 4i , compute the polar form of − 2 @,@

<formula>

and use the formula above to compute

<formula>

The value of a complex power depends on the branch used . For example , if the polar form i = 1e5πi / 2 is used to compute ii , the power is found to be e − 5π / 2 ; the principal value of ii , computed above , is e − π / 2 . The set of all possible values for ii is given by :

<formula>

So there is an infinity of values which are possible candidates for the value of ii , one for each integer k . All of them have a zero imaginary part so one can say ii has an infinity of valid real values .

= = = Failure of power and logarithm identities = = =

Some identities for powers and logarithms for positive real numbers will fail for complex numbers , no matter how complex powers and complex logarithms are defined as single @-@ valued functions . For example :

The identity log ( bx )

= x ⋅ log b holds whenever b is a positive real number and x is a real number . But for the principal branch of the complex logarithm one has

<formula>

Regardless of which branch of the logarithm is used , a similar failure of the identity will exist . The best that can be said ( if only using this result ) is that :

<formula>

This identity does not hold even when considering log as a multivalued function . The possible values of log ( wz ) contain those of z ⋅ log w as a subset . Using Log ( w ) for the principal value of log ( w ) and m , n as any integers the possible values of both sides are :

<formula>

The identities ( bc ) x =

bxcx and ( b / c ) x

= bx / cx are valid when b and c are positive real numbers and x is a real number . But a calculation using principal branches shows that

<formula>

and

<formula>

On the other hand , when x is an integer , the identities are valid for all nonzero complex numbers .

If exponentiation is considered as a multivalued function then the possible values of ( − 1 × − 1 ) 1 / 2 are { 1 , − 1 } . The identity holds but saying { 1 } =

{ ( − 1 × − 1 ) 1 / 2 } is wrong .

The identity ( ex ) y = exy holds for real numbers x and y , but assuming its truth for complex numbers leads to the following paradox , discovered in 1827 by Clausen : For any integer n , we have :

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

but this is false when the integer n is nonzero .

There are a number of problems in the reasoning :

The major error is that changing the order of exponentiation in going from line two to three changes what the principal value chosen will be .

From the multi @-@ valued point of view , the first error occurs even sooner . Implicit in the first line is that e is a real number , whereas the result of e1 + 2πin is a complex number better represented as e + 0i . Substituting the complex number for the real on the second line makes the power have multiple possible values . Changing the order of exponentiation from lines two to three also affects how many possible values the result can have . <formula> , but rather <formula> multivalued over integers n .

= = Generalizations = =

= = = Monoids = = =

Exponentiation can be defined in any monoid . A monoid is an algebraic structure consisting of a set X together with a rule for composition ( " multiplication " ) satisfying an associative law and a multiplicative identity , denoted by 1 . Exponentiation is defined inductively by :

<formula> for all <formula>

<formula> for all <formula> and non @-@ negative integers n

Monoids include many structures of importance in mathematics , including groups and rings ( under multiplication ) , with more specific examples of the latter being matrix rings and fields .

= = = Matrices and linear operators = = =

If A is a square matrix , then the product of A with itself n times is called the matrix power . Also <formula> is defined to be the identity matrix , and if A is invertible , then <formula> .

Matrix powers appear often in the context of discrete dynamical systems , where the matrix A expresses a transition from a state vector x of some system to the next state Ax of the system . This is the standard interpretation of a Markov chain , for example . Then <formula> is the state of the system after two time steps , and so forth : <formula> is the state of the system after n time steps . The matrix power <formula> is the transition matrix between the state now and the state at a time n steps in the future . So computing matrix powers is equivalent to solving the evolution of the dynamical system . In many cases , matrix powers can be expediently computed by using eigenvalues and eigenvectors .

Apart from matrices , more general linear operators can also be exponentiated . An example is the derivative operator of calculus , <formula> , which is a linear operator acting on functions <formula> to give a new function <formula> . The n @-@ th power of the differentiation operator is the n @-@ th derivative :

<formula>

These examples are for discrete exponents of linear operators , but in many circumstances it is also desirable to define powers of such operators with continuous exponents . This is the starting point of the mathematical theory of semigroups . Just as computing matrix powers with discrete exponents solves discrete dynamical systems , so does computing matrix powers with continuous exponents solve systems with continuous dynamics . Examples include approaches to solving the heat equation , Schrödinger equation , wave equation , and other partial differential equations including a time evolution . The special case of exponentiating the derivative operator to a non @-@ integer power is called the fractional derivative which , together with the fractional integral , is one of the basic operations of the fractional calculus .

= = = Finite fields = = =

A field is an algebraic structure in which multiplication , addition , subtraction , and division are all well @-@ defined and satisfy their familiar properties . The real numbers , for example , form a field , as do the complex numbers and rational numbers . Unlike these familiar examples of fields , which are all infinite sets , some fields have only finitely many elements . The simplest example is the field with two elements <formula> with addition defined by <formula> and <formula> , and multiplication <formula> and <formula> .

Exponentiation in finite fields has applications in public key cryptography . For example , the Diffie – Hellman key exchange uses the fact that exponentiation is computationally inexpensive in finite fields , whereas the discrete logarithm ( the inverse of exponentiation ) is computationally expensive .

Any finite field F has the property that there is a unique prime number p such that <formula> for all x in F ; that is , x added to itself p times is zero . For example , in <formula> , the prime number p = 2 has this property . This prime number is called the characteristic of the field . Suppose that F is a field of characteristic p , and consider the function <formula> that raises each element of F to the power p . This is called the Frobenius automorphism of F. It is an automorphism of the field because of the Freshman 's dream identity <formula> . The Frobenius automorphism is important in number theory because it generates the Galois group of F over its prime subfield .

= = = In abstract algebra = = =

Exponentiation for integer exponents can be defined for quite general structures in abstract algebra .

Let X be a set with a power @-@ associative binary operation which is written multiplicatively . Then xn is defined for any element x of X and any nonzero natural number n as the product of n copies of x , which is recursively defined by

<formula>

One has the following properties

<formula>

If the operation has a two @-@ sided identity element 1 , then x0 is defined to be equal to 1 for any x .

<formula>

If the operation also has two @-@ sided inverses and is associative , then the magma is a group . The inverse of x can be denoted by x − 1 and follows all the usual rules for exponents .

<formula>

If the multiplication operation is commutative ( as for instance in abelian groups ) , then the following holds :

<formula>

If the binary operation is written additively , as it often is for abelian groups , then " exponentiation is repeated multiplication " can be reinterpreted as " multiplication is repeated addition " . Thus , each of the laws of exponentiation above has an analogue among laws of multiplication .

When there are several power @-@ associative binary operations defined on a set , any of which might be iterated , it is common to indicate which operation is being repeated by placing its symbol in the superscript . Thus , x ∗ n is x ∗ ... ∗ x , while x # n is x # ... # x , whatever the operations ∗ and # might be .

Superscript notation is also used , especially in group theory , to indicate conjugation . That is , gh = h − 1gh , where g and h are elements of some group . Although conjugation obeys some of the same laws as exponentiation , it is not an example of repeated multiplication in any sense . A quandle is an algebraic structure in which these laws of conjugation play a central role .

= = = Over sets = = =

If n is a natural number and A is an arbitrary set , the expression An is often used to denote the set of ordered n @-@ tuples of elements of A. This is equivalent to letting An denote the set of functions from the set { 0 , 1 , 2 , ... , n − 1 } to the set A ; the n @-@ tuple ( a0 , a1 , a2 , ... , an − 1 ) represents the function that sends i to ai .

For an infinite cardinal number κ and a set A , the notation Aκ is also used to denote the set of all functions from a set of size κ to A. This is sometimes written κA to distinguish it from cardinal exponentiation , defined below .

This generalized exponential can also be defined for operations on sets or for sets with extra structure . For example , in linear algebra , it makes sense to index direct sums of vector spaces over arbitrary index sets . That is , we can speak of

<formula>

where each Vi is a vector space .

Then if Vi

= V for each i , the resulting direct sum can be written in exponential notation as V ⊕ N , or simply VN with the understanding that the direct sum is the default . We can again replace the set N with a cardinal number n to get Vn , although without choosing a specific standard set with cardinality n , this is defined only up to isomorphism . Taking V to be the field R of real numbers ( thought of as a vector space over itself ) and n to be some natural number , we get the vector space that is most commonly studied in linear algebra , the real vector space Rn .

If the base of the exponentiation operation is a set , the exponentiation operation is the Cartesian product unless otherwise stated . Since multiple Cartesian products produce an n @-@ tuple , which can be represented by a function on a set of appropriate cardinality , SN becomes simply the set of all functions from N to S in this case :

<formula>

This fits in with the exponentiation of cardinal numbers , in the sense that | SN | =

| S | | N | , where | X | is the cardinality of X. When " 2 " is defined as { 0 , 1 } , we have | 2X | = 2 | X | , where 2X , usually denoted by P ( X ) , is the power set of X ; each subset Y of X corresponds uniquely to a function on X taking the value 1 for x ∈ Y and 0 for x ∉ Y.

= = = In category theory = = =

In a Cartesian closed category , the exponential operation can be used to raise an arbitrary object to the power of another object . This generalizes the Cartesian product in the category of sets . If 0 is an initial object in a Cartesian closed category , then the exponential object 00 is isomorphic to any terminal object 1 .

= = = Of cardinal and ordinal numbers = = =

In set theory , there are exponential operations for cardinal and ordinal numbers .

If κ and λ are cardinal numbers , the expression κλ represents the cardinality of the set of functions from any set of cardinality λ to any set of cardinality κ . If κ and λ are finite , then this agrees with the ordinary arithmetic exponential operation . For example , the set of 3 @-@ tuples of elements from a 2 @-@ element set has cardinality 8 = 23 . In cardinal arithmetic , κ0 is always 1 ( even if κ is an infinite cardinal or zero ) .

Exponentiation of cardinal numbers is distinct from exponentiation of ordinal numbers , which is defined by a limit process involving transfinite induction .

= = Repeated exponentiation = =

Just as exponentiation of natural numbers is motivated by repeated multiplication , it is possible to define an operation based on repeated exponentiation ; this operation is sometimes called hyper @-@ 4 or tetration . Iterating tetration leads to another operation , and so on , a concept named hyperoperation . This sequence of operations is expressed by the Ackermann function and Knuth 's up @-@ arrow notation . Just as exponentiation grows faster than multiplication , which is faster @-@ growing than addition , tetration is faster @-@ growing than exponentiation . Evaluated at ( 3 , 3 ) , the functions addition , multiplication , exponentiation , and tetration yield 6 , 9 , 27 , and 7625597484987 (

= 327 =

333 = 33 ) respectively .

= = Zero to the power of zero = =

= = = Discrete exponents = = =

There are many widely used formulas having terms involving natural @-@ number exponents that require 00 to be evaluated to 1 . For example , regarding b0 as an empty product assigns it the value 1 , even when b

= 0 . Alternatively , the combinatorial interpretation of b0 is the number of empty tuples of elements from a set with b elements ; there is exactly one empty tuple , even if b =

0 . Equivalently , the set @-@ theoretic interpretation of 00 is the number of functions from the empty set to the empty set ; there is exactly one such function , the empty function .

= = = Polynomials and power series = = =

Likewise , when working with polynomials , it is often necessary to assign <formula> the value 1 . A polynomial is an expression of the form <formula> where x is an indeterminate , and the coefficients <formula> are real numbers ( or , more generally , elements of some ring ) . The set of all real polynomials in x is denoted by <formula> . Polynomials are added termwise , and multiplied by the applying the usual rules for exponents in the indeterminate x ( see Cauchy product ) . With these algebraic rules for manipulation , polynomials form a polynomial ring . The polynomial <formula> is the identity element of the polynomial ring , meaning that it is the ( unique ) element such that the product of <formula> with any polynomial <formula> is just <formula> . Polynomials can be evaluated by specializing the indeterminate x to be a real number . More precisely , for any given real number <formula> there is a unique unital ring homomorphism <formula> such that <formula> . This is called the evaluation homomorphism . Because it is a unital homomorphism , we have <formula> That is , <formula> for all specializations of x to a real number ( including zero ) .

This perspective is significant for many polynomial identities appearing in combinatorics . For example , the binomial theorem <formula> is not valid for x

= 0 unless 00 =

1 . Similarly , rings of power series require <formula> to be true for all specializations of x . Thus identities like <formula> and <formula> are only true as functional identities ( including at x

= 0 ) if 00 =

1 .

In differential calculus , the power rule <formula> is not valid for n

= 1 at x =

0 unless 00 = 1 .

= = = Continuous exponents = = =

Limits involving algebraic operations can often be evaluated by replacing subexpressions by their limits ; if the resulting expression does not determine the original limit , the expression is known as an indeterminate form . In fact , when f ( t ) and g ( t ) are real @-@ valued functions both approaching 0 ( as t approaches a real number or ± ∞ ) , with f ( t ) > 0 , the function f ( t ) g ( t ) need not approach 1 ; depending on f and g , the limit of f ( t ) g ( t ) can be any nonnegative real number or + ∞ , or it can diverge . For example , the functions below are of the form f ( t ) g ( t ) with f ( t ) , g ( t ) → 0 as t → 0 + , but the limits are different :

<formula> .

Thus , the two @-@ variable function xy , though continuous on the set { ( x , y ) : x > 0 } , cannot be extended to a continuous function on any set containing ( 0 , 0 ) , no matter how one chooses to define 00 . However , under certain conditions , such as when f and g are both analytic functions and f is positive on the open interval ( 0 , b ) for some positive b , the limit approaching from the right is always 1 .

= = = Complex exponents = = =

In the complex domain , the function zw may be defined for nonzero z by choosing a branch of log z and defining zw as ew log z . This does not define 0w since there is no branch of log z defined at z = 0 , let alone in a neighborhood of 0 .

= = = History of differing points of view = = =

The debate over the definition of <formula> has been going on at least since the early 19th century . At that time , most mathematicians agreed that <formula> , until in 1821 Cauchy listed <formula> along with expressions like <formula> in a table of indeterminate forms . In the 1830s Libri published an unconvincing argument for <formula> , and Möbius sided with him , erroneously claiming that <formula> whenever <formula> . A commentator who signed his name simply as " S " provided the counterexample of <formula> , and this quieted the debate for some time . More historical details can be found in Knuth ( 1992 ) .

More recent authors interpret the situation above in different ways :

Some argue that the best value for <formula> depends on context , and hence that defining it once and for all is problematic . According to Benson ( 1999 ) , " The choice whether to define <formula> is based on convenience , not on correctness . If we refrain from defining <formula> then certain assertions become unnecessarily awkward . The consensus is to use the definition <formula> , although there are textbooks that refrain from defining <formula> . "

Others argue that <formula> should be defined as 1 . Knuth ( 1992 ) contends strongly that <formula> " has to be 1 " , drawing a distinction between the value <formula> , which should equal 1 as advocated by Libri , and the limiting form <formula> ( an abbreviation for a limit of <formula> where <formula> ) , which is necessarily an indeterminate form as listed by Cauchy : " Both Cauchy and Libri were right , but Libri and his defenders did not understand why truth was on their side . "

= = = Treatment on computers = = =

= = = = IEEE floating point standard = = = =

The IEEE 754 @-@ 2008 floating point standard is used in the design of most floating point libraries . It recommends a number of functions for computing a power :

pow treats 00 as 1 . This is the oldest defined version . If the power is an exact integer the result is the same as for pown , otherwise the result is as for powr ( except for some exceptional cases ) .

pown treats 00 as 1 . The power must be an exact integer . The value is defined for negative bases ; e.g. , pown ( − 3 @,@ 5 ) is − 243 .

powr treats 00 as NaN ( Not @-@ a @-@ Number – undefined ) . The value is also NaN for cases like powr ( − 3 @,@ 2 ) where the base is less than zero . The value is defined by epower × log ( base ) .

= = = = Programming languages = = = =

Most programming language with a power function are implemented using the IEEE pow function and therefore evaluate 00 as 1 . The later C and C + + standards describe this as the normative behaviour . The Java standard mandates this behavior . The .NET Framework method System.Math.Pow also treats 00 as 1 .

= = = = Mathematics software = = = =

Sage simplifies b0 to 1 , even if no constraints are placed on b . It takes 00 to be 1 , but does not simplify 0x for other x .

Maple distinguishes between integers 0 , 1 , ... and the corresponding floats 0 @.@ 0 , 1 @.@ 0 , ... ( usually denoted 0 . , 1 . , ... ) . If x does not evaluates to a number , then x0 and x0.0 are respectively evaluated to 1 ( integer ) and 1 @.@ 0 ( float ) ; on the other hand , 0x is evaluated to the integer 0 , while 0.0x is evaluated as 0.x. If both the base and the exponent are zero ( or are evaluated to zero ) , the result is Float ( undefined ) if the exponent is the float 0 @.@ 0 ; with an integer as exponent , the evaluation of 00 results in the integer 1 , while that of 0 @.@ 0 results in the float 1 @.@ 0 .

Macsyma also simplifies b0 to 1 even if no constraints are placed on b , but issues an error for 00 . For x > 0 , it simplifies 0x to 0 .

Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha simplify b0 into 1 , even if no constraints are placed on b . While Mathematica does not simplify 0x , Wolfram Alpha returns two results , 0 for x > 0 , and " indeterminate " for real x . Both Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha take 00 to be " ( indeterminate ) " .

Matlab , Python , Magma , GAP , singular , PARI / GP and the Google and iPhone calculators evaluate 00 as 1 .

= = Limits of powers = =

The section § Zero to the power of zero gives a number of examples of limits that are of the indeterminate form 00 . The limits in these examples exist , but have different values , showing that the two @-@ variable function xy has no limit at the point ( 0 , 0 ) . One may consider at what points this function does have a limit .

More precisely , consider the function f ( x , y )

= xy defined on D =

{ ( x , y ) ∈ R2 : x > 0 } . Then D can be viewed as a subset of R2 ( that is , the set of all pairs ( x , y ) with x , y belonging to the extended real number line R

= [ − ∞ , + ∞ ] , endowed with the product topology ) , which will contain the points at which the function f has a limit .

In fact , f has a limit at all accumulation points of D , except for ( 0 , 0 ) , ( + ∞ , 0 ) , ( 1 , + ∞ ) and ( 1 , − ∞ ) . Accordingly , this allows one to define the powers xy by continuity whenever 0 ≤ x ≤ + ∞ , − ∞ ≤ y ≤ + ∞ , except for 00 , ( + ∞ ) 0 , 1 + ∞ and 1 − ∞ , which remain indeterminate forms .

Under this definition by continuity , we obtain :

x + ∞ =

+ ∞ and x − ∞

= 0 , when 1 < x ≤ + ∞ .

x + ∞ =

0 and x − ∞

= + ∞ , when 0 ≤ x < 1 .

0y =

0 and ( + ∞ ) y

= + ∞ , when 0 < y ≤ + ∞ .

0y =

+ ∞ and ( + ∞ ) y

= 0 , when − ∞ ≤ y < 0 .

These powers are obtained by taking limits of xy for positive values of x . This method does not permit a definition of xy when x < 0 , since pairs ( x , y ) with x < 0 are not accumulation points of D.

On the other hand , when n is an integer , the power xn is already meaningful for all values of x , including negative ones . This may make the definition 0n =

+ ∞ obtained above for negative n problematic when n is odd , since in this case xn → + ∞ as x tends to 0 through positive values , but not negative ones .

= = Efficient computation with integer exponents = =

Computing bn using iterated multiplication requires n − 1 multiplication operations , but it can be computed more efficiently than that , as illustrated by the following example . To compute 2100 , note that 100

= 64 + 32 + 4 . Compute the following in order :

22 =

4

( 22 ) 2

= 24 =

16

( 24 ) 2

= 28 =

256

( 28 ) 2

= 216 =

65 @,@ 536

( 216 ) 2

= 232 =

4 @,@ 294 @,@ 967 @,@ 296

( 232 ) 2

= 264 =

18 @,@ 446 @,@ 744 @,@ 073 @,@ 709 @,@ 551 @,@ 616

264 232 24

= 2100 =

1 @,@ 267 @,@ 650 @,@ 600 @,@ 228 @,@ 229 @,@ 401 @,@ 496 @,@ 703 @,@ 205 @,@ 376

This series of steps only requires 8 multiplication operations instead of 99 ( since the last product above takes 2 multiplications ) .

In general , the number of multiplication operations required to compute bn can be reduced to Θ ( log n ) by using exponentiation by squaring or ( more generally ) addition @-@ chain exponentiation . Finding the minimal sequence of multiplications ( the minimal @-@ length addition chain for the exponent ) for bn is a difficult problem for which no efficient algorithms are currently known ( see Subset sum problem ) , but many reasonably efficient heuristic algorithms are available .

= = Exponential notation for function names = =

Placing an integer superscript after the name or symbol of a function , as if the function were being raised to a power , commonly refers to repeated function composition rather than repeated multiplication . Thus , f 3 ( x ) may mean f ( f ( f ( x ) ) ) ; in particular , f − 1 ( x ) usually denotes the inverse function of f . Iterated functions are of interest in the study of fractals and dynamical systems . Babbage was the first to study the problem of finding a functional square root f 1 / 2 ( x ) .

For historical reasons , this notation applied to the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions has a specific and diverse interpretation : a positive exponent applied to the function 's abbreviation means that the result is raised to that power , while an exponent of − 1 denotes the inverse function . That is , sin2 x is just a shorthand way to write ( sin x ) 2 without using parentheses , whereas sin − 1 x refers to the inverse function of the sine , also called arcsin x . Each trigonometric and hyperbolic has its own name and abbreviation both for the reciprocal ; for example , 1 / ( sin x )

= ( sin x ) − 1 =

csc x , as well as for its inverse , for example cosh − 1 x = arcosh x . A similar convention applies to logarithms , where log2 x usually means ( log x ) 2 , not log log x .

= = In programming languages = =

The superscript notation xy is convenient in handwriting but inconvenient for typewriters and computer terminals that align the baselines of all characters on each line . Many programming languages have alternate ways of expressing exponentiation that do not use superscripts :

x ↑ y : Algol , Commodore BASIC

x ^ y : BASIC , J , MATLAB , R , Microsoft Excel , Analytica , TeX ( and its derivatives ) , TI @-@ BASIC , bc ( for integer exponents ) , Haskell ( for nonnegative integer exponents ) , Lua and most computer algebra systems

x ^ ^ y : Haskell ( for fractional base , integer exponents ) , D

x * * y : Ada , Bash , COBOL , CoffeeScript , Fortran , FoxPro , Gnuplot , OCaml , F # , Perl , PHP , PL / I , Python , Rexx , Ruby , SAS , Seed7 , Tcl , ABAP , Mercury , Haskell ( for floating @-@ point exponents ) , Turing , VHDL

pown x y : F # ( for integer base , integer exponent )

x ⋆ y : APL

Many programming languages lack syntactic support for exponentiation , but provide library functions .

In Bash , C , C + + , C # , D , Go , Java , JavaScript , Perl , PHP , Python and Ruby , the symbol ^ represents bitwise XOR . In Pascal , it represents indirection . In OCaml and Standard ML , it represents string concatenation .

= = List of whole @-@ number powers = =

= Fellows v. Blacksmith =

Fellows v. Blacksmith , 60 U.S. ( 19 How . ) 366 ( 1857 ) , is a United States Supreme Court decision involving Native American law . John Blacksmith , a Tonawanda Seneca , sued agents of the Ogden Land Company for common law claims of trespass , assault , and battery after he was forcibly evicted from his sawmill by the Company 's agents . The Court affirmed a judgement in Blacksmith 's favor , notwithstanding the fact that the Seneca had executed an Indian removal treaty and the Company held the exclusive right to purchase to the land by virtue of an interstate compact ratified by Congress .

Citing the trust relationship between the federal government and the tribes , the Court held that removal treaties could only be enforced against the tribes by the federal government , not private parties ( whether through self @-@ help or through the courts ) . In other words , the federal government retained the discretion not to enforce such treaties . At the same time , the Court held that enrolled treaties are conclusively valid , and refused to consider the plaintiffs claim that the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) was fraudulent .

Fellows was one of several encounters of the Taney Court with the aboriginal title . It was the first litigation of aboriginal title in the United States in the Court by an indigenous plaintiff since Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) . According to a contemporary New York Times article : " The questions involved are of great magnitude , and affect more or less the title to a large portion of the State of New York . " In Fellows , the court found " its first opportunity to consider the power of the federal government over Indian lands in New York . " Following the precedents of the Marshall Court , Fellows was " decided at a time when the government was still dealing with Indian tribes as if they were semi @-@ sovereign nations . "

The plaintiffs ' lawyer John H. Martindale ( future New York Attorney General ) also represented the interests of the Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians in three companion cases in the New York state courts . The third such case , New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( 1858 ) , also reached the Supreme Court , which held that state nonintercourse acts ( U.S. state laws prohibiting non @-@ Indians from acquiring Indian lands ) are not preempted by the Commerce Clause , the federal Nonintercourse Act , or federal treaties . Ely S. Parker , one of the administrators of the Blacksmith estate , went on to draft the surrender at Appomattox and to become the first indigenous Commissioner of Indian Affairs .

= = Background = =

= = = Precedent = = =

The Marshall Court ( 1801 — 1835 ) had repeatedly taken up the issue of aboriginal title in the United States . However , with the exception of Cherokee Nation v. Georgia ( 1831 ) , which was dismissed for lack of original jurisdiction , all the disputes had been between non @-@ Indians — typically between those who derived their title from the government and those who derived their title from private purchases from Indians . The uniform rule of these cases , enunciated most clearly in Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) , was that non @-@ Indians could not acquire valid land title from such private purchases . However , the purchase at issue in Fellows , the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) , had been ratified by the federal government .

The Court had not yet encountered a party claiming to actually possess aboriginal title in a case in which it had jurisdiction , so it had not yet definitively resolved the question of whether the holders of aboriginal title could avail themselves of the common law causes of action of trespass or ejectment . At the end of his opinion in Fletcher v. Peck ( 1810 ) , Marshall had stated that ejectment could not be obtained against the holder of aboriginal title . The Taney Court ( 1836 — 1864 ) , in Marsh v. Brooks ( 1850 ) , went further in declaring that the holder of aboriginal title could obtain ejectment , stating : " That an action of ejectment could be maintained on an Indian right to occupancy and use , is not open to question . " In the oral arguments of that case , Cherokee Nation had been cited as authority for the argument that " Indians cannot sue on their aboriginal title in court of the United States . " The plaintiffs in Fellows had sued under the related cause of action of trespass .

An 1821 opinion of U.S. Attorney General William Wirt , interpreting Fletcher and Johnson , argued that : " The Seneca Indians must be protected in the enjoyment of exclusive possession of their lands , as defined and bounded in the Treaty of Canandaigua , until they have voluntarily relinquished it . "

= = = Dispute = = =

Both the sovereignty over and land title to modern @-@ day western New York was disputed between the colonies , and then states , of New York and Massachusetts , both claiming the lands by virtue of their colonial charters . This dispute was resolved on December 16 , 1786 by the Treaty of Hartford , an interstate compact providing that the lands would be part of the territory of New York , but Massachusetts would retain the pre @-@ emption rights , the exclusive right to purchase the Indian lands . The compact was approved by the Congress of the Confederation on October 8 , 1787 .

Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham acquired the right of pre @-@ emption to the lands at issue in Fellows v. Blacksmith from Massachusetts in 1788 as part of the Phelps and Gorham Purchase . However , Phelps and Gorham only consummated the right of pre @-@ emption for a tract east of the Genesee River in 1788 . Phelps and Gorham defaulted on their payments to Massachusetts in 1790 , causing the pre @-@ emption rights to return to the state . Massachusetts then conveyed the pre @-@ emption rights to Samuel Ogden on behalf of Robert Morris on May 12 , 1791 . Morris retained the pre @-@ emptive right to the Morris Reserve for himself , but sold the pre @-@ emptive right to the lands in question to the Holland Land Company on July 20 , 1793 ( the Holland Purchase ) .

The Holland Land Company consummated much of its pre @-@ emptive right in the Treaty of Big Tree ( 1797 ) , extinguishing all Seneca aboriginal title west of the Genesee River except in ten reservations . The dispute concerned one of those reservations . The Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) had provided for the relocation of the Seneca people from New York to present @-@ day Kansas , with the exception of four reservations : the Buffalo Creek Reservation , the Cattaraugus Reservation , the Allegany Reservation , and the Tonawanda Reservation . However , the Seneca refused to be relocated . Another treaty with the Senecas from 1842 modified the prior treaty : the Senecas were to keep Cattaraugus and Allegany , but still cede Buffalo Creek and Tonawanda . The Seneca Nation of New York was established in 1848 . The Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians seceded from the Seneca Nation and achieved independent federal recognition ( after the decision ) in 1857 .

= = = Prior history = = =

Facts

John Blacksmith was a member of the Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians and the sachem of the Wolf Clan . Blacksmith had constructed a " Indian sawmill and yard " on his enclosed tract within the Tonawanda Reservation in Pembroke , Genesee County , New York circa 1826 . Blacksmith had not received compensation for the value of his improvements ( the sawmill and yard ) , as provided for by the 1838 and 1842 treaties , because he forcibly refused to let the treaty arbitrators onto his property for the survey . The Ogden Land Company claimed title to the Tonawanda Reservation by virtue of its right of pre @-@ emption , consummated by the treaties . Agents of the company " expelled and dispossessed " Blacksmith " with force of arms . "

Supreme Court ( trial court )

The suit was originally brought by John Blacksmith in 1846 . Represented by lawyer John H. Martindale , Blacksmith sued Joseph Fellows and Robert Kendle , agents of the Land Company , for the torts of assault and battery and trespass , quare clausum fregit , with the sawmill as the locus in quo . Blacksmith 's wife and Ely S. Parker ( Blacksmith 's successor as sachem of the Wolf Clan ) , together the administrators of Blacksmith 's estate , succeeded Blacksmith as plaintiffs .

After a jury trial , the New York Supreme Court held for Blacksmith .

Supreme Court , General Term

The New York Supreme Court General Term ( " circuit court " ) denied a new trial , holding that the payment of the appraisal value of the improvements determined by the arbitrator was a condition precedent to the conveyance in the treaty .

Court of Appeals

Before the New York Court of Appeals , Fellows was represented by J. C. Spencer , who made three arguments . First , he argued that the right to bring an action for trespass based on aboriginal title accrued only to an Indian nation , not an individual Indian . As Spencer noted , the Seneca Nation itself was prohibited by law from bringing an action " by a private attorney . " Second , he argued that Fellows ' title was valid . Third , he argued that the Seneca 's rights under the treaty were only enforceable against the federal government , and did not affect the defendant 's title as a condition precedent . The court reporter did not publish Martindale 's responses .

The Court of Appeals , 6 @-@ 1 , sided with Blacksmith . Judge John Worth Edmonds delivered the majority opinion , joined by Chief Judge Charles H. Ruggles and Judges Addison Gardiner , Freeborn G. Jewett , Alexander S. Johnson , and Watson . Judge Welles dissented and Judge Gridley was absent .

The Court of Appeals held that Blacksmith could independently bring the claim for trespass , for which he need only show a right to possession . The Court of Appeals also held that Fellows ' title was invalid , because the payment of compensation was a condition precedent . Welles , in dissent , agreed that Blacksmith could individually sue for trespass , but disagreed that the appraisal was a condition precedent ; he would have reversed and granted a new trial , with costs . The Court of Appeals remanded back to the Supreme Court , after which a writ of error was granted by the U.S. Supreme Court .

U.S. Supreme Court oral argument

John H. Martindale argued the case for the Tonawanda Senecas before the Court . Commissioner R.H. Gillet and J.L. Brown of the Ogden Land Company argued for the defendants . Arguments started on January 15 , 1857 and were adjourned until January 17 .

One of the plaintiffs , Ely S. Parker personally attended the oral arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court in Washington , D.C. According to the New York Times :

All who heard their cases argued before the Supreme Court of the United States , a few months since , will recollect seeing this same Indian , and that he was well posted on the points he desired his counsel to press upon the attention of the Court .

A letter to the editor of the New York Times — which criticizes a previous article for creating the " impression that the Indians at Tonawanda are very nearly the equal in agriculture , general intelligence , and in the customs of civilized life , of their white neighbors " — concurs with this assessment of Parker 's role :

I have not a word to say in the disparagement of the intellectual ability of Ely S. Parker , their head chief , and cheerfully unite with " W.H.P. " in awarding him the credit for making valuable suggestions to his counsel on the argument of the case in the Supreme Court of the United States [ . ] Indeed , I am inclined to the belief , that to him is due the credit of originating and suggesting to his counsel the only available point in the case , and the one on which it was there decided , for the case had been ten years in the Courts of this State , and this point was never before made , nor was it made in the Supreme Court of the United States , in the original brief of counsel for the Indians , filed pursuant to the rules of the Court . It was first made in a supplementary brief printed after the opening argument of counsel on the other side had been commenced , and not handed in until the second day , just previous to its conclusion .

Opinion announcement

Chief Justice Roger Taney was not present at the opinion announcement for Fellows because he was at home working on the opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford , which was announced the next day . The Taney court had inherited from the preceding Marshall Court voluminous decisions on the status of aboriginal title in the United States . None of those decisions was cited in either opinion . Dred Scott , in dicta , opined the following on aboriginal title :

The situation of [ blacks ] was altogether unlike that of the Indian race . The latter . . . were situated in territories to which the white race claimed the ultimate right of dominion . But that claim was acknowledged to be subject to the right of the Indians to occupy it as long as they thought proper , and neither the English nor colonial Governments claimed or exercised any dominion over the tribe or nation by whom it was occupied , nor claimed the right to the possession of the territory , until the tribe or nation consented to cede it .

Justice John Catron , concurring in Dred Scott , also noted in dicta that :

[ B ] ecause Congress has express power to regulate commerce among the Indian tribes and to prohibit intercourse with the Indians , that therefore Dr. Emerson 's title might be defeated within the country ceded by the Indians to the United States as early as 1805 . . . .

= = Opinion of the Court = =

Justice Samuel Nelson delivered the unanimous opinion of the Court , affirming the judgment of the New York Court of Appeals .

Effect of the Treaty

The Court observed :

Neither treaty made any provision as to the mode or manner in which the removal of the Indians or surrender of the reservations was to take place . The grantees have assumed that they were authorized to take forcible possession of the two reservations , or of the four , as the case would have been under the first treaty . The plaintiff in this case was expelled by force ; and unless this mode of removal can be sustained , the recovery against the defendants for the trespass was right , and must be affirmed .

The Court noted that previous removals of Indians had been undertaken by the federal government " according to the usage and practice of the Government , by its authority and under its care and superintendence . " " [ A ] ny other mode of a forcible removal , " the Court argued , would not " be consistent with the peace of the country , or with the duty of the Government to these dependent people , who have been influenced by its counsel and authority to change their habitations . "

Because the treaty had been negotiated " with them as a quasi nation , possessing some of the attributes of an independent people , and to be dealt with accordingly , " the Court held that " unless otherwise expressly stipulated " only the federal government had the " authority or power " to execute the agreement . The Court remarked that the Senecas were " in a state of pupilage , and hold the relation to the Government as a ward to his guardian . " The nature of that relationship between the Seneca and the federal government was incompatible with the Seneca being expelled by " irregular force and violence , " or even " through the intervention of the courts of justice . " Thus , the court held that the private beneficiaries of Native American treaties could neither expel tribes by force or by a cause of action for ejectment . The court observed that " this interpretation is in accordance with the usages and practice of the Government in providing for the removal of Indian tribes from their ancient possessions , with the fitness and propriety of the thing itself , " and with the text of the treaty .

The Court concluded : " We hold that the performance was not a duty that belonged to the grantees , but for the Government under the treaty . "

Validity of the Treaty

The Court did not accept the plaintiffs ' arguments that the treaty was invalid because it was not signed by tribal leaders with the authority to cede the relevant lands or because the signatories were fraudulently induced to sign . Analogizing to the enrolled bill rule ( the only citation of case law in the opinion ) , the Court held that " the treaty , after executed and ratified by the proper authorities of the Government , becomes the supreme law of the land , and the courts can no more go behind it for the purpose of annulling its effect and operation . "

Conditions Precedent

Because its aforementioned holdings required affirmance , the Court did not reach the alternate ground for decision of the trial court that the appraisal and the payments were conditions precedent .

= = Companion cases = =

Lawyer John H. Martindale , of Verplank & Martindale , also represented Tonawanda Seneca plaintiffs in three other contemporary suits against the Land Company and its grantees : People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy ( N.Y. Sup . 1845 ) ; People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper ( N.Y. 1852 ) ; and New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( U.S. 1858 ) . At the time , Martindale ( the future New York Attorney General ) was well known for litigating personal injury torts against railroads , especially New York Central Railroad .

Whereas Fellows was brought in the New York Supreme Court under the common law cause of action of trespass , these three suits were brought ( as required by statute ) in the Genesee County Court under a state statute prohibiting non @-@ Indians from residing on Indian lands . That statute provided :

[ I ] t shall be unlawful for any person or persons , other than Indians , to settle or reside upon any lands belonging to or occupied by any nation or tribe of Indians within this state ; and that all leases , contracts and agreements made by any Indians , whereby any person or persons , other than Indians , shall be permitted to reside upon such lands , shall be absolutely void ; and if any person or persons shall settle or reside on any such lands , contrary to this act , it shall be the duty of any judge of any court of Common Pleas of the county within which such lands shall be situated , on complaint made to him , and on due proof of the fact of such settlement or residence , to issue his warrant , under his hand and seal , directed to the sheriff of such county , commanding him , within ten days after the receipt thereof , to remove such person or persons so settling or residing , with his , her or their families , from such lands .

The statute further provided :

that it shall be the duty of the district attorneys respectively of the several counties in this state in which any lands belonging to any Indian tribe shall be situated , ( among other things ) to make complaint of all intrusions upon Indian lands , forbidden by the act ; and from time to time to make inquiries whether any persons other than Indians are settled upon such lands , and to cause them to be removed in the manner therein prescribed .

From 1821 – 1846 , the district attorney would have been appointed ; thereafter , the office was elected . Martindale was the district attorney of Genesee County from 1842 – 1844 and again from 1847 – 1849 . Thus , Martindale himself filed the complaints in People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy and People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper , and his successor , Seth Wakeman ( 1850 – 1855 ) filed the complaint in New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble . Although Martindale was district attorney when the complaint in Tracy was filed , he lost the election and attempted to litigate the mandamus issue as a private attorney .

The results of the three suits were mixed . Martindale was defeated in the New York Supreme Court and New York Court of Appeals , respectively , in the first two , but had prevailed in the Court of Appeals and , ultimately , the U.S. Supreme Court in the third .

= = = People ex rel . Blacksmith v. Tracy = = =

Martindale ( in his final days as district attorney ) filed the complaint on January 8 , 1845 . Evidence , including the testimony of Ely S. Parker , was presented on January 11 . Judge Phineas L. Tracy , of the Genesee County Court ( 1841 – 1845 ) , declined to issue a warrant to the Genesee County Sheriff to remove the Ogden grantees .

Still in January , Martindale applied to the Supreme Court for mandamus , and the court issued an alternative mandamus ( essentially , an order to show cause why peremptory mandamus should not issue ) on March 6 , 1845 , which was served March 25 . On April 19 , the deadline was extended to the first Tuesday in June . Before the Supreme Court , Martindale was joined by New York Attorney General John Van Buren and opposed by A. Taber and J. L. Brown .

That June , Judge Jewett granted Tracy 's motion to quash , without costs . The court held that only the district attorney could bring such an action to enforce the statute :

I am of opinion that by the terms and spirit of the statute under which this proceeding has been had , no other than the district attorney of the county of Genesee ( in which the lands intruded upon are situated ) could regularly be a relator . The remedy for the act complained of is provided by the statute , as well as the officers to carry it into execution . It is made the duty of the district attorney to make complaint of all intrusions upon Indian lands forbidden by the act , and from time to time to make inquiries whether any persons other than Indians are settled upon such lands , and to cause them to be removed in the manner therein prescribed . Without the act , John Blacksmith or any other person could not claim such summary proceedings to remove intruders upon Indian lands ; and with the act , no other person is authorized by its provisions to make complaint of such intrusions , or to cause the intruders to be removed , but the district attorney of the county in which the lands are situated .

The court also found the affidavit of Parker to be insufficient as a factual matter to comply with the terms of the statute . However , even if the district attorney had brought the action and the affidavit had been sufficient , the Supreme Court still would have denied mandamus as a matter of law .

= = = People ex rel . Waldron v. Soper = = =

In the second suit , Martindale — in a second term , this time as an elected district attorney — filed the complaint under the same statute on January 3 , 1849 . Judge Horace U. Soper , of the Genesee County Court ( 1847 – 1850 ) , granted the writ of removal on January 9 , 1849 . The New York Supreme Court General Term ( Judges Mullet , Sill , and Marvin ) , sitting in Buffalo , New York , granted a writ of certiorari , and affirmed in March 1849 . " Waldron " is the only party subject to the writ of removal named in the Court of Appeals opinion ( the only reported opinion ) and only by last name .

The Court of Appeals reversed and annulled the writ in October 1852 . Judge John Worth Edmonds , for a unanimous court , gave two reasons . First , it held that the court had no power to proceed against the majority of the defendants because they were not properly summoned and caused to appear . Second , with respect to defendant Waldron ( who had voluntarily appeared ) , the court held that " it does not appear that these lands were owned by the Indians . "

= = = New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble = = =

In a third suit , Martindale 's successor as district attorney , Seth Wakeman ( 1845 – 1850 ) , filed a complaint against Asa Cutler , John Underhill , and Arza Underhill ( grantees of the Land Company ) under the same statute , on February 19 , 1853 . Thomas Black , a Seneca who had made some improvements and apparently been compensated for the same , allegedly consented to the Underhills presence . Judge Edgar C. Dibble , of the Genesee County Court ( 1846 , 1851 – 1854 ) and a one @-@ time partner of Martindale , granted the writ of removal . The Supreme Court granted certiorari and affirmed on September 4 , 1854 , holding that " the Seneca nation had not duly granted and conveyed the reserve in question to Ogden and Fellows . " The judgement of the Supreme Court was delivered by Judge Marvin , joined by judges Bowen and Green . Judge Mullet dissented without opinion .

The Court of Appeals — after the second argument — also affirmed in September 1857 . The majority opinion was authored by Judge Brown , joined by Judges Comstock , Paige , Shankland , and Bowen . The Court of Appeals held that the state statute did not violate the New York Constitution and that a jury trial was not required because the defendants had no property right . In closing , the Court of Appeals cited the U.S. Supreme Court 's recent decision in Fellows . Chief Judge Hiram Denio , joined by Judge Alexander S. Johnson , concurred on the constitutionality of the 1821 state statute , but dissented on the grounds that the treaties extinguished the aboriginal title , and thus the state statute either did not apply or violated the treaty . Judge Selden recused .

By the time Fellows was decided , Dibble had reached the U.S. Supreme Court but had not yet been argued . The Court eventually affirmed in 1858 , holding that the state statute did not violate the Indian Commerce Clause , the federal Nonintercourse Act , or the treaty .

= = Subsequent developments = =

= = = Enrolled treaty doctrine = = =

The key claim advanced by lawyer John H. Martindale in all four cases had been that the Treaty of Buffalo Creek ( 1838 ) was invalid because it was not signed by the Seneca leaders with the authority to cede the Tonawanda Reservation , and the signatures it did contain were obtained by coercion or fraud . This argument had not prevailed before the New York Courts or the Supreme Court . As Brown notes :

The principal point , however , on which the counsel relied , and which he hoped to establish , was that the Tonawandas were not bound by the Treaties , because the chiefs there protested against and refused to sign them . To this point his main argument has always , in all stages of the litigation been addressed , and he has pressed it upon the consideration of the Courts , with the utmost pertinacity . It was , however , decided against him in the Blacksmith case , argued last Winter at Washington and has never been decided in his favor by any Court .

Fellows is among the earliest cases where the Supreme Court applied treaties , including treaties between the United States and Native American tribes , as binding law . Fellows has been cited as authority for the enrolled treaty doctrine ; analogous to the enrolled bill rule for statutes , the enrolled treaty doctrine prevents inquiry into the legitimacy of the formation of treaties once ratified by the Senate . This doctrine was later used to deny relief ( or , to deny more relief ) to Native American tribes who claimed that treaties were entered into fraudulently or signed by persons without authority to bind the tribe . Fellows was also decided before the Supreme Court began distinguishing between self @-@ executing and non @-@ self executing treaties . Regardless , treaties between the United States and Native Americans continued to be regarded as self @-@ executing .

= = = Seneca land claims = = =

A contemporary New York Times article opined that : " The questions involved are of great magnitude , and affect more or less the title to a large portion of the State of New York . " Although the Seneca prevailed in the lawsuit , title to a large portion of the state was not called into question due to the court 's refusal to entertain the Seneca 's claims regarding the invalidity of the treaty . According to Armstrong , the result of the decision was mixed :

The decision was not all that the Indians had hoped for — it was a victory on narrow legal grounds rather than a vindication of their cause — but it was a victory . The Court 's ruling meant that as long as the federal government was determined to take no action to remove them from Tonawanda , the Ogden Company was powerless to do so .

Fellows was " decided at a time when the government was still dealing with Indian tribes as if they were semi @-@ sovereign nations . " The Tonawanda Seneca were never relocated to Kansas , and a new 1857 treaty confirmed their title to a 7 @,@ 549 @-@ acre reservation . This treaty ended 15 years of litigation between the Tonawanda Band and the Ogden Land Company .

The Seneca , again represented by Martindale , prevailed in New York ex rel . Cutler v. Dibble ( 1858 ) . Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy ( 1896 ) also involved a Seneca plaintiff represented by a Civil War general . There , the plaintiffs challenged the Phelps and Gorham Purchase under the Nonintercourse Act . Fellows was not cited . In 1899 , the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a $ 1 @,@ 967 @,@ 056 judgment of the Court of Claims ( pursuant to an enabling statute ) against the federal government based on the 1838 treaty . Fellows was cited by Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 1974 ) for the proposition that " the possessory right claimed is a federal right to the lands at issue in this case . "

= = = Litigants = = =

Plaintiff Ely S. Parker went on to become a member of General Ulysses S. Grant 's staff during the American Civil War , drawing up the terms of the surrender at Appomattox Court House . After the war , President Grant appointed Parker as Commissioner of Indian Affairs , the first indigenous head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs . According to his New York Times obituary , Parker " negotiated the removal of his tribe from this State to the fertile and pleasant lands on Green Bay , Wisconsin . "

The Seneca 's lawyer , John H. Martindale , later appeared before the U.S. Supreme Court , as New York Attorney General , in In re New York Indians ( 1866 ) , arguing that the state had the right to tax the Senecas . The Court disagreed . In the case below , plaintiffs Joseph Fellows ( the defendant in Fellows ) , Louisa Troup , and George R. Babcock sought to recover a plot of land from Robert Denniston ( in his official capacity as New York State Comptroller ) and Thomas W. Olcott , the purchaser at the tax foreclosure sale . Fellows , Troup , and Babcock argued that the state had no power to tax the Seneca . In re New York Indians , agreeing , cited Fellows :

Until the Indians have sold their lands , and removed from them in pursuance of the treaty stipulations , they are to be regarded as still in their ancient possession , and are in under their original rights , and entitled to the undisturbed enjoyment of them . This was the effect of the decision in the case of Fellows v. Blacksmith . The time for the surrender of the possession , according to their consent given in the treaty , had not expired when these taxes were levied . The period within which the removal was to take place , under the treaty of 1838 , was five years from the time it went into effect . It was not proclaimed till 1840 , and under that of 1842 the time did not expire till 1846 . The taxation of the lands was premature and illegal .

= Guitar Hero ( video game ) =

Guitar Hero is a music rhythm video game developed by Harmonix and published by RedOctane for the PlayStation 2 video game console . It is the first entry in the Guitar Hero series . Guitar Hero was released on November 8 , 2005 in North America , April 7 , 2006 in Europe and June 15 , 2006 in Australia . The game 's development was a result of collaboration between RedOctane and Harmonix to bring a Guitar Freaks @-@ like game to America .

The game features a guitar @-@ shaped controller ( resembling a miniature Gibson SG ) that the player uses to simulate playing rock music . The gameplay is similar to GuitarFreaks , in that the player presses buttons on the guitar controller in time with musical notes that scroll on the game screen . The game features covers of 30 popular rock songs spanning five decades of rock , from the 1960s up through 2005 , in addition to bonus tracks . Guitar Hero became a surprise hit , earning critical acclaim and winning many awards from major video game publications , and was considered one of the most influential games of the first decade of the 21st century . The game 's success launched the Guitar Hero franchise , which has earned more than $ 2 billion in sales , spawning several sequels , expansions , and other game @-@ related products .

= = Gameplay = =

The gameplay is similar to other music and rhythm video games , in that the player must press buttons on a game controller in time with scrolling notes on the game screen to complete a song . The basic mechanics are based on Konami 's Guitar Freaks . In the case of Guitar Hero , the player may use either the guitar peripheral ( a 3 / 4 @-@ scale reproduction of the Gibson SG guitar as bundled with the game , or a third @-@ party version ) or a standard controller to play the scrolling notes . The guitar peripheral has five different @-@ colored fret buttons near the nut of the guitar neck , and a strum bar and a whammy bar on the body of the guitar . The peripheral also has other buttons in order to navigate the game 's menus . Music is displayed on screen through a series of notes , matching in color and position to the fret buttons , that scroll down the screen on a fret board . To hit or play a note , the player must hold down the fret button corresponding to the note shown and toggle the strum bar at the same time as that note passes a marked area on the screen . Faster series of notes may be played on the guitar controller using hammer @-@ on and pull @-@ off techniques where the player does not need to strum each note . The game supports toggling the handedness of the guitar , allowing both left @-@ handed and right @-@ handed players to utilize the guitar controller . A player using the standard controller simply presses the buttons that correspond with the displayed notes as outlined in the game 's manual .

The player is awarded points for correctly hitting notes , chords and sustains . The player can also increase a score multiplier by playing a series of consecutive notes successfully . A " Rock Meter " tracks the player 's performance based on success or failure of hitting notes , and if the meter drops too low the song will prematurely end in failure for the player . The player can also earn " Star Power " by playing a series of glowing notes perfectly and using the whammy bar during sustains . Once the Star Power meter is filled at least halfway , Star Power can then be activated by briefly tilting the guitar controller vertically , or by pressing a specific button on a standard controller . Activating Star Power will double the scoring multiplier and makes it easier to increase the Rock Meter by playing correct notes . Thus , players can strategically use Star Power to play through difficult sections of a song they might have otherwise failed .

= = = Modes and other features = = =

Guitar Hero 's main mode of play is Career Mode , where the player and in @-@ game band travel between various fictional performance arenas and perform sets of four or five songs . Completing songs in this mode unlocks the songs for play within the other game modes . Players can choose their on @-@ stage character and their guitar ; these elements have no effect on gameplay but affect the visuals during the performance . In Career Mode , players can earn money from their performances that is redeemable at the in @-@ game store , where bonus content , such as additional songs , guitars and finishes , can be unlocked . Quick Play mode allows the player to play any unlocked track , selecting the difficulty , the character , venue and guitar . After successfully completing a song in either Career or Quick Play mode , the player is given a score and a rating between three @-@ five stars , depending on his or her overall performance .

Multiplayer mode offers two players the chance to compete against each other on the same song . Two fret boards will appear on screen , one for each player , as they alternate playing sections of the song in a dueling manner . The player with the highest score at the end of the song wins .

The four difficulty levels for each song afford the player a learning curve in order to help him or her progress in skill . The first difficulty level , Easy , only focuses on the first three fret buttons while displaying a significantly reduced amount of notes for the player to play . Medium introduces a fourth fret button while adding more notes , and Hard includes the final fret button while adding additional notes . Expert does not introduce any other frets to learn , but adds more notes in a manner designed to challenge the player .

= = Development = =

According to Rob Kay , the game 's Lead Designer , the idea of Guitar Hero was directly inspired by Konami 's Guitar Freaks arcade game , where the player used a guitar @-@ shaped controller to interact with the game . At the time , GuitarFreaks had not seen much exposure in North America . RedOctane was making dance pads for games like Dance Dance Revolution for home consoles and also operated an online video rental service similar to Netflix . RedOctane 's Kai and Charles Huang recognized the popularity of GuitarFreaks in Japan through their rental service , and planned to create guitar controllers to bring the game to North America . The Huangs raised $ 1 @.@ 75 million for the effort , despite being turned down by some investors who " thought [ the idea ] was too weird " . Greg Fischbach , one of the founders of Acclaim Entertainment , noted , regretfully several years later , they had passed on Guitar Hero , questioning " Who 's going to buy a peripheral like that ? " The Huangs approached Harmonix , who had previously made music video games such as Frequency , Amplitude and Karaoke Revolution about making a guitar @-@ based video game for those controllers . With a budget of about one million dollars ( which Kay noted was " pretty tiny for a video game " ) , the two companies worked together to develop Guitar Hero . Kay noted that " No one had any notions about it being a massive success ; we all just thought it would be fun to do . " Harmonix 's president Alex Rigopulos also claims that former Microsoft vice @-@ president of game publishing Ed Fries indirectly influenced the game 's creation , who had previously told Harmonix when they were pitching Frequency to Microsoft that no music @-@ rhythm game would succeed without custom hardware for it , prompting Rigopulos to investigate the Guitar Hero opportunity when it arose .

The team quickly recognized that " the controller really was the kind of magic sauce for what we wanted to do " . They identified three aspects of gameplay that they felt made the game stand out . These aspects included the note @-@ matching aspect and the showmanship created by the use of the whammy bar and tilting of the guitar within the game . The third key aspect was the use of Star Power " to provide a little more depth to the game — some replay value , some interest for people as they were playing beyond just hitting the notes " . Harmonix used third party controllers made for GuitarFreaks that were already on the market for development of the game until RedOctane had prepared prototypes for the Guitar Hero controller . The controller initially had pressure @-@ sensitive fret buttons to mimic the playing of a real guitar , but the idea was dropped as it made the gameplay too complex . The idea of using the whammy bar to boost Star Power , in addition to altering the pitch of sustained notes was only realized about a month before the completion of the game . The team had spent " precious development time and resources " into creating a free @-@ style model that would have allowed players to improvise during songs but ultimately cut it as they could not work the feature into the existing gameplay .

" Gem tracks " , the pattern of notes for a song , were developed by a team in Harmonix , taking usually a day to develop the tracks for one song . Tracks were designed to include key notes to " make [ the player ] feel as if [ he is ] a brilliant musician " . Software algorithms were used to assess the difficulty of the tracks , and the quality assurance team helped to rebalance the tracks for accuracy and difficulty . The software also allowed Harmonix to quickly make changes to the set list or to recreate the tracks for a song to make sure the overall difficulty of the game was appropriate .

At the onset of development , the team did not have any idea of what songs would be present in the final game . Kay noted that " We wanted 30 or 40 songs for the game and put a hundred on our wish list . " The game was to focus mostly on hard rock songs , but the team was limited by what could be licensed . The team also felt " morally obligated " to include older , classic rock songs like The Ramones ' " I Wanna Be Sedated " to the younger target audience of the game . Harmonix had to modify the track list throughout development as certain songs were introduced or removed based on licensing issues , requiring the team to repeatedly balance difficulty and popularity of the track list . WaveGroup Sound were used to create the covers of the licensed songs provided in the game . Marcus Henderson of the band Drist provided many of the lead guitar tracks for the covers . WaveGroup Sound also went to efforts to try to recreate effects for some songs . In the case of Black Sabbath 's " Iron Man " , the team learned that the vocal effects were created by having Ozzy Osbourne sing from behind a metal fan . The team sought out the same model of fan through Craigslist to generate the same effect in the game 's cover . Many of the bonus songs were from groups that Harmonix employees were part of or knew . Additionally , a " Be a Guitar Hero " contest was held allowing bands to submit their own song to be included in the game . The winning song was " Cheat on the Church " by Graveyard BBQ . Black Label Society 's song , " Fire it Up " , was included two weeks before the game was completed at the request of Zakk Wylde . The final song list was set very near to the shipping date .

Guitar Hero started with " super @-@ basic Pong @-@ style graphics " for the game display . The final game art was led by Ryan Lesser , using the art team 's involvement in the music scene . Based on the experience from Frequency and Amplitude , the team realized that " people don 't necessarily relate to really abstract visuals " , and included the depictions of live performances as previously used in Karaoke Revolution . House of Moves were used to assist in creation motion capture for the on @-@ screen animations . The appearance of Star Power was made to resemble electricity , both to reflect the use of the electric guitar as well to conceptually demonstrate the excitement of the performance and the virtual audience .

Guitar Hero was initially released to retail stores in a bundle that packaged the game disc and a Gibson SG guitar controller , priced at $ 69 @.@ 99 . Since its release , stand @-@ alone copies of the games and the guitar controller have been released , including both RedOctane and third @-@ party controllers from TAC and Nyko . MadCatz , another controller company that has produced guitar controllers , was set to initially be part of the game 's development , creating a version of the game for the Xbox , but had to pull out due to a lawsuit by Komani ; MadCatz 's Darrel Richardson stated they had to pay $ 300 @,@ 000 to get out of their contract with RedOctane .

= = Soundtrack = =

Guitar Hero features 47 playable songs , 30 of which are " main setlist " tracks that are covers of popular songs . Featured tracks include " Iron Man " by Black Sabbath , " Take Me Out " by Franz Ferdinand , " Spanish Castle Magic " by Jimi Hendrix , " Bark at the Moon " by Ozzy Osbourne , " Smoke on the Water " by Deep Purple , " Crossroads " by Cream , and " Fat Lip " by Sum 41 . All cover tracks are credited on screen with the phrase " as made famous by " ( e.g. , " ' I Wanna Be Sedated ' , as made famous by The Ramones " ) . The other 17 songs are master recordings selected from indie groups .

= = Reception = =

Guitar Hero received critical acclaim upon release . It received a score of 91 @.@ 96 % on GameRankings and 91 / 100 on Metacritic . IGN praised the " fantastic soundtrack " and " great peripheral " , further commenting that mini @-@ Gibson SG controller " is what makes Guitar Hero , rather than what breaks it " . GameSpot echoed these sentiments , stating Guitar Hero had a " great guitar controller " and " killer soundtrack " and was possibly the " best rhythm game ever made " . Many reviews praised the game 's gradual learning curve and difficulty approach through the song tier progression and the difficulty setting for each song . Play said the game " gives bedroom air guitarists a chance to live out their rock ' n ' roll fantasies " . GameSpy 's review commented on the length of the songs , in that " once you hit the three minute mark or so , things start to feel ' too long ' " . Eurogamer said , " the lack of international star quality about the roster of songs and the absence of the original artists is perhaps the only thing that may detract from the package from an importer 's perspective " and " it would have been truly amazing with a better track list " .

Shortly after release , Guitar Hero became an unexpected hit ; it was the second @-@ highest @-@ selling PlayStation 2 title in February 2006 according to the NPD Group . Game sales amounted to $ 45 million in 2005 . Since then , the game has sold about 1 @.@ 53 million copies through December 2007 . The success of the game has spawned a one billion dollar Guitar Hero franchise , including four sequels on several seventh generation consoles , seven expansions , a mobile phone @-@ based version , and a portable version for the Nintendo DS . Harmonix no longer is involved in development of the series , due to its acquisition by MTV . Harmonix has since developed Rock Band using designs similar to those that based Guitar Hero 's success .

The game and its sequels have created interest in young adults and children in learning how to play a real guitar , and has been considered as a " cultural phenomenon " that has created a significant cultural impact . At the end of 2009 , several journalists , including Wired , G4TV , CNN , the San Jose Mercury News , the Toronto Star , Inc . , The Guardian , and Advertising Age , considered Guitar Hero to be one of the most influential products of the first decade of the 21st century , attributing it as the spark leading to the growth of the rhythm game market , for boosting music sales for both new and old artists , for introducing more social gaming concepts to the video game market , and , in conjunction with the Wii , for improving interactivity with gaming consoles .

= = = Awards = = =

Guitar Hero has won several awards . In IGN 's " Best of 2005 " , the game was recognized for " Best Music Game " , " Best PlayStation 2 Music Game " , " Best Licensed Soundtrack " , " Best Licensed Soundtrack for PlayStation 2 " , " Best Offline Multiplayer Game " , " Best PlayStation 2 Offline Multiplayer Game " , and " Best Gaming Peripheral " ( for the Mini Gibson SG controller ) . GameSpot also recognized the game in its " Best and Worst of 2005 " , awarding it honors for " Best Puzzle / Rhythm Game " , " Most Metal " , and " Reader 's Choice – Best Puzzle / Rhythm Game " . The Game Developers Choice Awards honored Guitar Hero for " Excellence in Audio " and " Excellence in Game Innovation " . The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ' 2005 Interactive Achievement Awards honored the game with awards for " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Design " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering " ( tie ) , and " Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack " . Guitar Hero also won " Best Soundtrack " at the 2005 Spike TV Video Game Awards .

= Steffen Peters =

Steffen Peters ( born September 18 , 1964 ) is a German @-@ born equestrian who competes for the United States in dressage . He has participated in three Olympic Games , winning a bronze medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics . Peters has been successful in numerous other international competitions , including winning team bronze at the 2006 World Equestrian Games , two individual bronze medals at the 2010 World Equestrian Games and individual and team gold at the 2011 Pan Am Games . The horse upon which he won many of his titles , Ravel , was retired in 2012 , and Peters is currently working with a new international competition horse , Legolas .

= = Personal life = =

Peters was born in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany . He began riding at age seven , and competing in weekend dressage shows . By 15 , he was competing outside of Germany , at international competitions in Belgium and Denmark . He received his first horse , Udon , at age 16 as a gift from his father ; this horse would carry him to a bronze medal in the 1996 Summer Olympics . In 1984 , he spent the summer training in San Diego , California , before returning to Germany to perform his army service . In 1985 , he returned to the United States with Udon . In 1991 , he opened his own barn and acquired his first sponsor , Lila Kommerstad , who purchased Udon and as of 2012 owned a portion of Peters ' Arroyo Del Mar training barn . Peters gained his US citizenship in 1992 , saying , " The whole idea of being so patriotic , of feeling so close to one 's country makes a difference . There are not too many other countries where the people are so patriotic . I really enjoy this about America . " Peters continues to live in the San Diego area with his wife , Shannon . Their large dressage barn is home to approximately 65 horses as of 2012 , around half of which the couple trains and the other half of which are in training under other riders . Outside of his competition and training schedule , he teaches in around 30 training seminars each year . His staff call him " a machine " with regard to his training and competition schedule , and in addition to riding , he participates in swimming , cycling and tennis .

= = Competitive career = =

Peters ' show record before the 1992 Summer Olympics made him a hopeful to compete for the US team . However , his citizenship papers were not processed in time to compete in the Olympic trials , and so he did not compete in Barcelona . Peters won his first Olympic medal when he rode with the US dressage team to a bronze medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , together with Robert Dover , Michelle Gibson and Guenter Seidel . Peters , riding Floriano , was an alternate for the US team at the 2004 Summer Olympics , and did not compete . In 2006 , with an aging Floriano , Peters and the US team won bronze at the 2006 World Equestrian Games . Soon after , he began riding TC Ravel , who would become his most successful horse . Despite being gelded while in quarantine after his shipment from the Netherlands and suffering an injury in 2007 that prevented training , Ravel carried Peters to a qualification for the 2008 Summer Olympics . In individual dressage competition at the Games , Peters placed fourth , riding Ravel . The US team finished fourth at the 2008 Games , but was disqualified after team member Courtney King 's horse tested positive for felbinac , a banned substance . In 2009 , Peters and Ravel had the highest scores in all three portions of the prestigious German Aachen World Equestrian Festival Grand Prix competition , leading them to be the first American pair to be named the Aachen Grand Prix Champions .

Ravel and Peters went on to win the 2009 World Cup Final , two bronze medals in individual competition at the 2010 World Equestrian Games , and be twice named the US Grand Prix Dressage Champions . In 2009 , The Chronicle of the Horse named Peters and Ravel Horse and Horseman of the Year , and the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) named Ravel as Horse of the Year . At the time , the Chronicle called him a " natural athlete with a balanced seat and an inherent understanding of the horse . He 's calm under pressure and has a reputation for having ice water in his veins . " In 2011 , riding Weltino 's Magic , he took gold in both the team and individual dressage events at the 2011 Pan Am Games . At the 2012 Summer Olympics he came 17th in the individual dressage and was part of the US team which came 6th , again riding Ravel . Peters retired Ravel from competition after the 2012 Olympic Games , after over 40 Grand Prix wins , and the same year the horse was inducted into the United States Dressage Federation Hall of Fame . Peters ' new international competition horse is Legolas , currently the world 's top dressage horse , and a prospect for the 2014 FEI World Equestrian Games , to be held in Normandy , France .

Peters is the first person to be awarded the USEF 's Equestrian of the Year Award three times , having won the honor in 2008 , 2009 and 2011 .

= Gardner Lake =

Gardner Lake is a small lake which borders the towns of Salem , Montville and Bozrah in Connecticut . Named after the Gardner family which owned a large portion of the surrounding land , the 528 @-@ acre ( 214 ha ) lake has been expanded in size with the construction of an earthen dam . Three state parks are located around Gardner Lake . Minnie Island State Park , the smallest state park , is a pine knoll . Hopemead State Park is a former campground that abuts the lake 's eastern shore . Gardner Lake State Park primarily serves as a boat launch and swimming area , but has been beset by problems with trash and vandalism since the area was improved in 2008 . Four campgrounds , a marina and dozens of private residences surround the lake . The lake is used for fishing and boating .

= = History = =

Gardner Lake is a natural lake and is named for the Gardner family which owned a large portion of the surrounding area , but the history of the lake itself is more identified as the site of " an extremely public miscalculation " . Thomas LeCount , a grocer from Niantic , Connecticut wanted to move his two @-@ story summer house from the south side of the lake to the east side of the lake , but believed that moving the house conventionally would be inefficient . LeCount raised up his fully furnished house and placed it on sleds and waited until February 1895 when the lake was frozen . After moving the house about 300 feet ( 91 m ) off the south shore , the house slid sideways into a snowbank . The ice cracked as LeCount attempted to pull the house back , before abandoning the work at nightfall . That night , the mill operators utilized some of the lake 's water for power and made a gap between the ice and surface of the water , causing the house to crack through the ice and pitch over . LeCount 's summer home remained in this position until the spring thaw where it came to rest in 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of water with the second story and attic positioned above the water like a small lighthouse . For years , the house was the subject of children who fished off it in summer and ice skated through the house in the winter , but an enduring tale told by fishermen is that the house 's piano could be heard playing on quiet nights . By 2005 , the house was mostly rotted away .

Though Gardner Lake is a 528 @-@ acre ( 214 ha ) natural lake that has been increased in size by the construction of a 168 feet ( 51 m ) earthen dam . The dam raises the water level up 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) to an average depth of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The area surrounding Gardner Lake has dozens of private homes , four campgrounds and a marina .

= = Gardner Lake State Park = =

Gardner Lake State Park is a small 9 @.@ 75 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 95 ha ) Connecticut state park located on the south portion of the lake and provides access for fishing , swimming , and boating on the lake . Added to the state park list in 2001 , it expected to be open around 2002 and serves as one of the few public inland swimming areas ighyt dog poopn the New London County area .

In 2001 , the State of Connecticut paid $ 550 @,@ 000 to acquire the parcel of land which became Lake Gardner State Park . The land was acquired from the estate of Carmine Belardo and returned a beach to public service that had been a private resort for 60 years . The Town of Salem had sought to acquire the land , but the citizens rejected the plan three times and a state funded grant was rejected in 1994 after the DEP announced the interest in acquiring the property for the state . In 2008 , the state spent about $ 1 million to pave the boat launch area and improve parking for 54 vehicles . In 2012 , the State of Connecticut was looking to institute parking fees for the park after it experienced several years of increased attendance and incidents in the park limits . Concerns included littering , unkempt toilets , swimmers going outside the designated zone and police arresting almost three times as many visitors from 2011 . In response to the issues , patrols were increased and additional signage was added to inform swimmers . The problems with trash problems and portable toilets ending up in the lake caused concerns for a local advocacy group , Friends of Gardner Lake , and the Gardner Lake Authority which has staff to attend the lake during peak hours .

Gardner Lake State Park is located off Connecticut Route 354 and features accessible parking , chemical toilets and a paved boat launch area . This state park designated area is primarily to provide boating and recreational access to the lake , though there is also a small beach for visitors to use . As of 2014 , the park does not have a parking fee .

= = Minnie Island State Park = =

Minnie Island State Park is a pine grown @-@ knoll that is located in the deepest portion of the lake . It is unmarked and undeveloped island that also is Connecticut 's smallest state park at 0 @.@ 88 acres . The island acquired its name when a local man declared it to be Minnie Island , because he took his wife , Minnie , to it for picnics . Joseph Leary , author of A Shared Landscape writes , " [ a ] s far back as anyone can remember , the island was a frequent landing place for boating parties and a great place for local children to explore . " The island was claimed by both the towns of Salem , Connecticut and Montville , Connecticut though it was not in the land records of either town . This went unnoticed until a man attempted to purchase the island , and then made attempted to establish claim to the island . The man introduced a bill to authorize the sale by the state to establish title to the island , but instead the Connecticut General Assembly drafted and passed a bill to turn the island into a park .

Minnie Island State Park offers opportunities for picnicking and fishing to visitors who reach it by boat . Though the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection lists boating as an activity , which is redundant because the island is accessible by boat . The Oh Ranger website advises visitors of the tiny island to use a kayak to access the island because the island is heavily wooded and it is difficult to find a spot to dock .

= = Hopemead State Park = =

Hopemead State Park is currently undeveloped 70 acre park on the eastern shore of the lake . The land was originally Solomon Gardner 's farm until it was purchased as a summer getaway by the Fuller family . The property was named Camp Charmarlou , an acronym from Fuller 's three daughters , and contained a house and an artist 's studio . Camp Charmarlou was used a boys camp for a number of years with permission by the Fuller family . It was later renamed Hopemead , literally " Hope Meadow " , by the Fuller daughters who believed it to be a sanctuary with spiritual overtones . In 1954 , the land was donated to the State of Connecticut to become a state park . The state found the land is unsuitable for development and demolished the dilapidated buildings , with the intention of letting Hopemead return to a natural state . Joseph Leary notes that the wildlife has thrived in the area , but notes that the cacophony of noises and calls is simply " divine " . The park offers opportunities for hiking and fishing .

= = Activities = =

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection , now the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection has been stocking the lake with walleye since 1993 . The walleye populations have been reported to be growing and they join the lake 's " excellent populations of bull head and catfish " . Smallmouth bass , largemouth bass , yellow perch are also found in the pond , but have been reported as " fair " reports and also good reports for trout . Local fishing tournaments also occur at Gardner Lake . As a result of the improvements to the boat launch area , boating and kayaking have increased greatly and police had to up the patrols at the lake . The area is patrolled by the Montville police and it costs the majority of annual budget , but the service was seen as beneficial to ensure the safety of boaters and enforcing the rules .

= German submarine U @-@ 44 ( 1939 ) =

German submarine U @-@ 44 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II . She was ordered in November 1936 and laid down in September 1938 in Bremen . She was launched in August 1939 and commissioned in November .

During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 44 conducted only two war patrols and sank a total of eight enemy vessels for a loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT . On 13 March 1940 , she struck a mine that was located in field Number 7 off the north coast of the Netherlands . All 47 of her ' s crew members went down with the submarine .

= = Construction = =

U @-@ 44 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 21 November 1936 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . She was laid down on 15 September 1938 by AG Weser , in Bremen as yard number 949 . U @-@ 44 was launched on 5 August 1939 and commissioned on 4 November of that same year under the command of Kapitänleutnant Ludwig Mathes .

= = Design = =

As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 44 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .

The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 44 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .

= = Service history = =

U @-@ 44 had a very short operational life . During her service with the Kriegsmarine , she took part in only two combat patrols . After training exercises with the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla from 4 November to 31 December 1939 , U @-@ 44 was assigned as the front boat for the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla on 1 January 1940 . She was to remain a part of this flotilla until her loss .

= = = First patrol = = =

The first of U @-@ 44 's two patrols began on 6 January 1940 when she left Wilhelmshaven for the North Sea , eventually circumnavigating the British Isles , travelling as far south as the Bay of Biscay and Portugal . It was in these two locations that U @-@ 44 sank her first ( and last ) merchant ships . Following these victories , she headed north again , travelling just north of the coast of Scotland and back into the North Sea . She then returned to Wilhelmshaven , arriving there on 9 February 1940 . Over a period of thirty @-@ five days , U @-@ 44 sank eight merchant ships , for a total loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT .

= = = Second patrol = = =

Unlike her first outing , U @-@ 44 's second patrol was a disaster , not even lasting through the first day . After spending more than a month in Wilhelmshaven , she began her second patrol on 13 March 1940 . A few hours after leaving port , U @-@ 44 entered minefield Number 7 , just off of the northern coast of the Netherlands . This particular minefield was laid by the British destroyers HMS Esk , Express , Icarus , Faulknor and Impulsive . Upon entering the minefield , U @-@ 44 struck one of the devices and sank at 54 ° 14 ′ N 5 ° 07 ′ E. All forty @-@ seven of her crew were lost .

= = Previously recorded fate = =

Sunk by HMS Fortune on 20 March 1940 .

= = Summary of raiding history = =

During her service , U @-@ 44 sank eight commercial ships for a loss of 30 @,@ 885 GRT . All of these ships were sunk during her first patrol .

= Group 3 element =

Group 3 is a group of elements in the periodic table . This group , like other d @-@ block groups , should contain four elements , but it is not agreed what elements belong in the group . Scandium ( Sc ) and yttrium ( Y ) are always included , but the other two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum ( La ) and actinium ( Ac ) , or by lutetium ( Lu ) and lawrencium ( Lr ) ; less frequently , it is considered the group should be expanded to 32 elements ( with all the lanthanides and actinides included ) or contracted to contain only scandium and yttrium . The group itself has not acquired a trivial name ; however , scandium , yttrium and the lanthanides are sometimes called rare earth metals .

Three group 3 elements occur naturally , scandium , yttrium , and either lanthanum or lutetium . Lanthanum continues the trend started by two lighter members in general chemical behavior , while lutetium behaves more similarly to yttrium . This is in accordance with the trend for period 6 transition metals to behave more similarly to their upper periodic table neighbors . This trend is seen from hafnium , which is almost identical chemically to zirconium , to mercury , which is quite distant chemically from cadmium , but still shares with it almost equal atomic size and other similar properties . They all are silvery @-@ white metals under standard conditions . The fourth element , either actinium or lawrencium , has only radioactive isotopes . Actinium , which occurs only in trace amounts , continues the trend in chemical behavior for metals that form tripositive ions with a noble gas configuration ; synthetic lawrencium is calculated and partially shown to be more similar to lutetium and yttrium . So far , no experiments have been conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element . Unbiunium ( Ubu ) , which could be considered a group 3 element if preceded by lanthanum and actinium , might be synthesized in the near future , it being only three spaces away from the current heaviest element known , ununoctium .

= = History = =

In 1787 , Swedish part @-@ time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock near the Swedish village of Ytterby , Sweden ( part of the Stockholm Archipelago ) . Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten , he named it ytterbite . Finnish scientist Johan Gadolin identified a new oxide or " earth " in Arrhenius ' sample in 1789 , and published his completed analysis in 1794 ; in 1797 , the new oxide was named yttria . In the decades after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements , it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements , meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within , which in this case would have been yttrium . Until the early 1920s , the chemical symbol " Yt " was used for the element , after which " Y " came into common use . Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium ( III ) chloride with potassium to form metallic yttrium and potassium chloride .

In 1869 , Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table , which had empty spaces for elements directly above and under yttrium . Mendeleev made several predictions on the upper neighbor of yttrium , which he called eka @-@ boron . Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team discovered the missing element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite and prepared 2 grams of scandium ( III ) oxide of high purity . He named it scandium , from the Latin Scandia meaning " Scandinavia " . Chemical experiments on the element proved that Mendeleev 's suggestions were correct ; along with discovery and characterization of gallium and germanium this proved the correctness of the whole periodic table and periodic law . Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev 's prediction , but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev . Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture , at 700 – 800 ° C , of potassium , lithium , and scandium chlorides .

Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia , which was thought by most chemists to consist entirely of ytterbium . Welsbach proposed the names cassiopeium for element 71 ( after the constellation Cassiopeia ) and aldebaranium ( after the star Aldebaran ) for the new name of ytterbium but these naming proposals were rejected , although many German scientists in the 1950s called the element 71 cassiopeium . Urbain chose the names neoytterbium ( Latin for " new ytterbium " ) for ytterbium and lutecium ( from Latin Lutetia , for Paris ) for the new element . The dispute on the priority of the discovery is documented in two articles in which Urbain and von Welsbach accuse each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other . The Commission on Atomic Mass , which was responsible for the attribution of the names for the new elements , settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones . An obvious problem with this decision was that Urbain was one of the four members of the commission . The separation of lutetium from ytterbium was first described by Urbain and the naming honor therefore went to him , but neoytterbium was eventually reverted to ytterbium and in 1949 , the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . Ironically , Charles James , who had modestly stayed out of the argument as to priority , worked on a much larger scale than the others , and undoubtedly possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time .

Lawrencium was first synthesized by the Albert Ghiorso and his team on February 14 , 1961 , at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory ( now called the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ) at the University of California in Berkeley , California , United States . The first atoms of lawrencium were produced by bombarding a three @-@ milligram target consisting of three isotopes of the element californium with boron @-@ 10 and boron @-@ 11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator ( HILAC ) . The nuclide 257103 was originally reported , but then this was reassigned to 258103 . The team at the University of California suggested the name lawrencium ( after Ernest O. Lawrence , the inventor of cyclotron particle accelerator ) and the symbol " Lw " , for the new element , but " Lw " was not adopted , and " Lr " was officially accepted instead . Nuclear @-@ physics researchers in Dubna , Soviet Union ( now Russia ) , reported in 1967 that they were not able to confirm American scientists ' data on 257103 . Two years earlier , the Dubna team reported 256103 . In 1992 , the IUPAC Trans @-@ fermium Working Group officially recognized element 103 , confirmed its naming as lawrencium , with symbol " Lr " , and named the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co @-@ discoverers of lawrencium .

So far , no experiments were conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element ; if lutetium and lawrencium are considered to be group 3 elements , then the next element in the group should be element 153 , unpenttrium ( Upt ) . However , after element 120 , filling electronic configurations stops obeying Aufbau principle . According to the principle , unpenttrium should have an electronic configuration of [ Uuo ] 8s25g186f147d1 and filling the 5g @-@ subshell should be stopped at element 138 . However , the 7d @-@ orbitals are calculated to start being filled on element 137 , while the 5g @-@ subshell closes only at element 144 , after filling of 7d @-@ subshell begins . Therefore , it is hard to calculate which element should be the next group 3 element . Calculations suggest that unpentpentium ( Upp , element 155 ) could also be the next group 3 element . If lanthanum and actinium are considered group 3 elements , then element 121 , unbiunium ( Ubu ) , should be the fifth group 3 element . The element is calculated have electronic configuration of [ Uuo ] 8s28p1 / 21 , which is not associated with transition metals , without having a partially filled d @-@ subshell . No experiments have been performed to create unpenttrium , unbiunium or any element that could be considered the next group 3 element ; however , unbiunium is the element with the lowest atomic number that has not been tried to be created and thus has chances to be , while unpenttrium , unpentpentium or any other element considered if preceded by lawrencium is very unlikely to be created due to drip instabilities that imply that the periodic table ends soon after the island of stability at unbihexium .

= = Characteristics = =

= = = Chemical = = =

Like other groups , the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations , especially the outermost shells , resulting in trends in chemical behavior . However , lawrencium is an exception , since its last electron is transferred to the 7p1 / 2 subshell due to relativistic effects .

Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group ; chemical properties of both actinium and especially lawrencium are not well @-@ characterized . The remaining elements of the group ( scandium , yttrium , lutetium ) are reactive metals with high melting points ( 1541 ° C , 1526 ° C , 1652 ° C respectively ) . They are usually oxidized to the + 3 oxidation state , even through scandium , yttrium and lanthanum can form lower oxidation states . The reactivity of the elements , especially yttrium , is not always obvious due to the formation of a stable oxide layer , which prevents further reactions . Scandium ( III ) oxide , yttrium ( III ) oxide , lanthanum ( III ) oxide and lutetium ( III ) oxide are white high @-@ temperature @-@ melting solids . Yttrium ( III ) oxide and lutetium ( III ) oxide exhibit weak basic character , but scandium ( III ) oxide is amphoteric . Lanthanum ( III ) oxide is strongly basic .

= = = Physical = = =

Elements that show tripositive ions with electronic configuration of a noble gas ( scandium , yttrium , lanthanum , actinium ) show a clear trend in their physical properties , such as hardness . At the same time , if group 3 is continued with lutetium and lawrencium , several trends are broken . For example , scandium and yttrium are both soft metals . Lanthanum is soft as well ; all these elements have their outermost electrons quite far from the nucleus compared to the nuclei charges . Due to the lanthanide contraction , lutetium , the last in the lanthanide series , has a significantly smaller atomic radius and a higher nucleus charge , thus making the extraction of the electrons from the atom to form metallic bonding more difficult , and thus making the metal harder . However , lutetium suits the previous elements better in several other properties , such as melting and boiling points . Very little is known about lawrencium , and none of its physical properties have been confirmed .

= = Group borders = =

It is disputed whether lutetium and lawrencium should be included in group 3 , rather than lanthanum and actinium . Other d @-@ block groups are composed of four transition metals , and group 3 is sometimes considered to follow suit . Scandium and yttrium are always classified as group 3 elements , but it is controversial which elements should follow them in group 3 , lanthanum and actinium or lutetium and lawrencium . Scerri has proposed a resolution to this debate on the basis of moving to a 32 @-@ column table and consideration of which option results in a continuous sequence of atomic number increase . He thereby finds that group 3 should consist of Sc , Y , Lu , Lr . The current IUPAC definition of the term " lanthanoid " includes fifteen elements including both lanthanum and lutetium , and that of " transition element " applies to lanthanum and actinium , as well as lutetium but not lawrencium , since it does not correctly follow the Aufbau principle . Normally , the 103rd electron would enter the d @-@ subshell , but quantum mechanical research has found that the configuration is actually [ Rn ] 7s25f147p1 due to relativistic effects . IUPAC thus has not recommended a specific format for the in @-@ line @-@ f @-@ block periodic table , leaving the dispute open .

Lanthanum and actinium are sometimes considered the remaining members of group 3 . In their most commonly encountered tripositive ion forms , these elements do not possess any partially filled f @-@ orbitals , thus continuing the scandium — yttrium — lanthanum — actinium trend , in which all the elements have relationship similar to that of elements of the calcium — strontium — barium — radium series , the elements ' left neighbors in s @-@ block . However , different behavior is observed in other d @-@ block groups , especially in group 4 , in which zirconium , hafnium and rutherfordium share similar chemical properties lacking a clear trend .

In other tables , lutetium and lawrencium are classified as the remaining members of group 3 . In these tables , lutetium and lawrencium end ( or sometimes succeed ) the lanthanide and actinide series , respectively . Since the f @-@ shell is nominally full in the ground state electron configuration for both of these metals , they behave most similarly to other period 6 and period 7 transition metals compared to the other lanthanides and actinides , and thus logically exhibit properties similar to those of scandium and yttrium .

Some tables , including the official IUPAC table refer to all lanthanides and actinides by a marker in group 3 . This sometimes is believed to be the inclusion of all 30 lanthanide and actinide elements as included in group 3 . Lanthanides , as electropositive trivalent metals , all have a closely related chemistry , and all show many similarities to scandium and yttrium , but they also show additional properties characteristic of their partially filled f @-@ orbitals which are not common to scandium and yttrium .

Exclusion of all elements is based on properties of earlier actinides , which show a much wider variety of chemistry ( for instance , in range of oxidation states ) within their series than the lanthanides , and comparisons to scandium and yttrium are even less useful . However , these elements are destabilized , and if they were stabilized to more closely match chemistry laws , they would be similar to lanthanides as well . Also , the later actinides from californium onwards behave more like the corresponding lanthanides , with only the valence + 3 ( and sometimes + 2 ) shown .

= = Occurrence = =

Scandium , yttrium , and lutetium tend to occur together with other lanthanides ( except promethium ) tend to occur together in the Earth 's crust , and are often harder to extract from their ores . The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust for group 3 is quite low — all the elements in the group are uncommon , the most abundant being yttrium with abundance of approximately 30 parts per million ( ppm ) ; the abundance of scandium is 16 ppm , while that of lutetium is about 0 @.@ 5 ppm . For comparison , the abundance of copper is 50 ppm , that of chromium is 160 ppm , and that of molybdenum is 1 @.@ 5 ppm .

Scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals . Rare minerals from Scandinavia and Madagascar such as gadolinite , euxenite , and thortveitite are the only known concentrated sources of this element , the latter containing up to 45 % of scandium in the form of scandium ( III ) oxide . Yttrium has the same trend in occurrence places ; it is found in lunar rock samples collected during the American Apollo Project in a relatively high content as well .

The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite , ( Ce , La , etc . ) PO4 , which contains 0 @.@ 003 % of the element . The main mining areas are China , United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia . Pure lutetium metal is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US $ 10 @,@ 000 / kg , or about one @-@ fourth that of gold .

= = Production = =

The most available element in group 3 is yttrium , with annual production of 8 @,@ 900 tonnes in 2010 . Yttrium is mostly produced as oxide , by a single country , China ( 99 % ) . Lutetium and scandium are also mostly obtained as oxides , and their annual production by 2001 was about 10 and 2 tonnes , respectively .

Group 3 elements are mined only as a byproduct from the extraction of other elements . The metallic elements are extremely rare ; the production of metallic yttrium is about a few tonnes , and that of scandium is in the order of 10 kg per year ; production of lutetium is not calculated , but it is certainly small . The elements , after purification from other rare earth metals , are isolated as oxides ; the oxides are converted to fluorides during reactions with hydrofluoric acid . The resulting fluorides are reduced with alkaline earth metals or alloys of the metals ; metallic calcium is used most frequently . For example :

Sc2O3 + 3 HF → 2 ScF3 + 3 H2O

2 ScF3 + 3 Ca → 3 CaF2 + 2 Sc

= = Applications = =

= = Biological chemistry = =

Group 3 elements are generally hard metals with low aqueous solubility , and have low availability to the biosphere . No group 3 element has any documented biological role in living organisms . The radioactivity of the actinides generally makes them highly toxic to living cells , causing radiation poisoning .

Scandium has no biological role , but it is found in living organisms . Once reached a human , scandium concentrates in the liver and is a threat to it ; some its compounds are possibly carcinogenic , even through in general scandium is not toxic . Scandium is known to have reached the food chain , but in trace amounts only ; a typical human takes in less than 0 @.@ 1 micrograms per day . Once released into the environment , scandium gradually accumulates in soils , which leads to increased concentrations in soil particles , animals and humans . Scandium is mostly dangerous in the working environment , due to the fact that damps and gases can be inhaled with air . This can cause lung embolisms , especially during long @-@ term exposure . The element is known to damage cell membranes of water animals , causing several negative influences on reproduction and on the functions of the nervous system .

Yttrium has no known biological role , though it is found in most , if not all , organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver , kidney , spleen , lungs , and bones of humans . There is normally as little as 0 @.@ 5 milligrams found within the entire human body ; human breast milk contains 4 ppm . Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm ( fresh weight ) , with cabbage having the largest amount . With up to 700 ppm , the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations .

Lutetium has no biological role as well , but it is found even in the highest known organism , the humans , concentrating in bones , and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys . Lutetium salts are known to cause metabolism and they occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature ; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides . Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content , so it is not known how much the average human takes in , but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year , all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants . Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic , but insoluble ones are not .

The high radioactivity of lawrencium would make it highly toxic to living cells , causing radiation poisoning .

= = Links to related articles = =

= Pike @-@ Pawnee Village Site =

The Pike @-@ Pawnee Village Site , or Hill Farm Site , designated 25WT1 by archaeologists , is a site near the village of Guide Rock in Webster County , in the south central portion of the state of Nebraska , in the Great Plains region of the United States . It was the location of a village of the Kitkehahki band of the Pawnee people , in a region of the Republican River valley that they occupied intermittently from the 1770s to the 1820s .

In 1806 , the village was visited by a Spanish expedition led by Lieutenant Facundo Melgares and , soon after , by an American expedition led by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike . At the village , Pike persuaded the Pawnee leaders to haul down a Spanish flag that they had received from Melgares , and to raise the flag of the United States in its stead .

The location of the village visited by Pike was not known for many years . In the early 20th century , two sites were proposed : this one in Nebraska , and one in Republic County in northern Kansas . A dispute between the historical societies of the two states ensued , titled " The War Between Nebraska and Kansas " . The dispute was eventually resolved in favor of the Nebraska site .

Investigations conducted at the site by William Duncan Strong , Waldo Wedel , and A. T. Hill were instrumental in the development of Great Plains archaeology , and of Pawnee archaeology in particular .

The site is a National Historic Landmark , and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places .

= = Description = =

The site lies on a terrace on the Republican River 's south side , near the village of Guide Rock . At the terrace 's north edge is a near @-@ vertical 25 – 30 @-@ foot ( 8 – 9 m ) bank ; the floodplain of the river extends about one @-@ fourth mile ( about one @-@ half kilometer ) from the bank 's base to the present channel . The remains of over 100 earth lodges lie on the terrace between the bank and hills to the south , which rise 125 feet ( 38 m ) above the site . On the hills are five cemeteries . The village complex also includes a council site and two open courts where a hoop game was played .

The village extended for at least 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) from east to west . On its east and west sides were creeks , now dry , that ran northward into the Republican . At the time of the village 's occupation , springs in the western creek flowed year @-@ round ; these would have provided a more convenient source of water than the river , since access to the latter was hampered by the steep bank . The springs ceased to flow at some time after the land came under cultivation in the 1870s .

Not far downstream from the site is a hill known to the Pawnees as Pa @-@ hur , or " hill that points the way " . In the traditional Pawnee religion , this was one of five lodges of the nahurac , spirit animals with supernatural healing powers .

= = History 1770 – 1806 = =

= = = The Southern Pawnees move north = = =

The ancestors of the modern Pawnee people were not a single unified tribe . At the middle of the 18th century , they consisted of two major groups . The Skidis , or Wolf Pawnees , had migrated northward with the Arikaras , and had probably been in Nebraska since 1600 or earlier . By the beginning of the 18th century , they were established on the Loup River , which flows through central Nebraska into the Platte River from the north .

The second major division of the ancestral Pawnees was the Southern , or Black Pawnees . Their migration history is not well documented ; but by 1750 they , with the related and allied Wichitas , had established what seemed to be a secure territory on the Arkansas River .

The security of the southern bands depended on French trade in arms , and this was disrupted by the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 63 ) . In 1763 , France surrendered the Louisiana Territory under the terms of the Treaty of Fontainebleau . Great Britain obtained the portion of the territory east of the Mississippi River . Spain received the territory west of the Mississippi , including New Orleans , although they did not make their claim to that city effective until Governor Alejandro O 'Reilly suppressed the Rebellion of 1768 . Once in control of New Orleans , the Spanish imposed severe restrictions on trade up the Mississippi , cutting off the supply of arms to the Southern Pawnees and Wichitas .

The neighboring Osages were not so affected , as they had access to arms smuggled by French traders from British territory in present @-@ day Illinois . With superior weaponry , they drove between the Southern Pawnees and the Wichitas , pushing the latter group southward to the Red River . The Pawnees moved northward into Nebraska , possibly because of news that modern weapons were available from traders on the Platte .

The dates of the moves are not known exactly . The Wichita move from the Arkansas to the Red occurred at some time between 1768 and 1772 . The Osages occupied the former Pawnee @-@ Wichita hunting grounds on the Arkansas in 1774 , indicating that the Pawnees had left by then ; in 1777 , a Spanish report indicated that they were in Nebraska .

The Southern Pawnees were divided into three bands : the Chauis , or Grand Pawnees ; the Pitahawiratas , or Tappage Pawnees ; and the Kitkehahkis , or Republican Pawnees . The Chauis were regarded as the nominal leaders , and in the traditional account they led the migration to Nebraska , followed by the Pitahawiratas . However , the Kitkehahkis declined to follow the Chaui chiefs to their new settlements on the Platte ; instead , they established themselves on the Republican River , near what is now the Nebraska @-@ Kansas border .

= = = Occupation history = = =

There is much debate among historians and archaeologists concerning the dates of occupation of the Webster County village . Four Kitkehahki village sites on the Republican are known , two of them quite large : this one , and the Pawnee Indian Village Site near Republic , Kansas , 49 kilometres ( 30 mi ) downstream . The band inhabited the Republican valley intermittently from the 1770s to the 1820s . Unfortunately , there is little information on which villages were occupied at what times , although there is a strong consensus that this village is the one visited by Pike in 1806 . The following account , therefore , can only describe what is known about Kitkehahki occupation and abandonment of the Republican valley , and not the history of this particular village .

The Pawnees did not live in their villages year @-@ round . In the spring , they planted and hoed crops near their villages . In mid @-@ June , they left on their summer buffalo hunt . In September , they returned to harvest the crops and to hold their harvest festival ; they then cached a portion of their food in their villages and left on the winter buffalo hunt , from which they did not return until planting time in the spring . Thus the villages were deserted for at least eight months of the year .

The Kitkehahkis also moved , both in small groups and en masse , between the Republican and the Platte . The Pitahawiratas and the Chauis seem to have lived together amicably from the time of their arrival in Nebraska . However , the Kitkehahkis were divided between those who wanted to live independently on the Republican , and those who wanted to live near the Chauis on the Platte . The three bands frequently moved together on the summer and winter buffalo hunts , so there was regular contact between them . It was common for people to move from one household to another , especially upon returning from a buffalo hunt ; this would have facilitated moves from village to village .

At times , the entire Kitkehahki band abandoned the Republican and moved to the Platte . Generally , this took place in times of war , when the bands sought protection in numbers . Movement between the Republican and the Platte probably occurred continually until about 1825 .

= = = War with the Skidis = = =

When the Southern Pawnees arrived in Nebraska , the Skidis were not pleased to see them on lands that they regarded as their own . Nevertheless , they were willing to accept them as neighbors , so long as they kept to the south side of the Platte . However , the Chaui leaders demanded that they be recognized as the heads of the entire Pawnee people , above the Skidi chiefs . They defied the Skidis by sending a large hunting party to Prairie Creek , on the north side of the Platte within sight of the Skidi villages on the Loup . The Skidis responded by attacking the Chaui hunters and driving them back across the Platte . The Chauis and Pitahawiratas resolved on war , and summoned the Kitkehahki fighters to join them against the Skidis ; the Kitkehahkis , unwilling to leave their people unprotected against Skidi raids , left the Republican and moved to the Platte near the other bands .

The conflict with the Skidis probably took place sometime between 1770 and 1775 . It concluded with the defeat of the Skidis , who , although nominally conquered , remained on the Loup and continued to hunt separately from the other three bands . By 1777 , the Kitkehahkis had moved back to the Republican .

At some time between 1777 and 1785 , the Kitkehahkis again abandoned and then re @-@ occupied the Republican valley . A Spanish account of 1785 describes a village on the south side of the Platte in Butler County , not far from the modern town of Linwood , Nebraska ; this village was occupied by the Kitkehahkis until about 1785 , when they returned to the Republican .

= = = War with the Omahas = = =

War came to the Kitkehahkis on the Republican in 1798 . The Omahas , under the leadership of Chief Blackbird , had become perhaps the most powerful group in Nebraska . They were located at the junction of the French trade route up the Missouri River and an overland route across northern Iowa whereby the Sac and Fox brought British arms and goods westward . This allowed them to levy tribute and exercise control over trade on the Missouri .

During the height of their power in the late 1790s , bands of Omaha warriors frequently visited the Kitkehahkis to perform the calumet ceremony . This traditional peacemaking ritual had degenerated into what the Omahas called " smoking for horses " : the Kitkehahkis were obliged to give feasts and presents of horses to their uninvited guests . In 1798 , a group of Omahas under Little Grizzly Bear went for this purpose to the Republican . The Kitkehahkis , feeling imposed upon by the frequency of these visits , stripped and beat the Omahas and drove them out of the village .

When Blackbird learned of this , he ordered an attack on the Kitkehahkis . The Omahas descended upon the band 's village , burned and plundered many of the lodges , and killed about one hundred Pawnees at the cost of about fifteen of their own men . The remaining Kitkehahkis had withdrawn into four lodges , occupying a position too strong for the Omahas to reach them and massacre them without unacceptable losses .

Whether the Republican valley was abandoned after the Omaha attack is not recorded . The invading Omahas had camped on the Platte , undisturbed by the Chauis , on their way to the Kitkehahkis ; this might indicate that the two Pawnee bands were on bad terms at the time . The power of the Omahas was broken soon thereafter : in about 1801 , a smallpox epidemic spread from the Skidis to the Omahas , killing half of the tribe , Blackbird among them .

When the Lewis and Clark Expedition reached the Platte in 1804 , they found the Kitkehahkis ( whom they mistakenly called Arapahos ) living there . They were told that the band had returned to the Republican about ten years before ( that is , before the conflict with the Omahas ) , but had recently moved to the Platte under pressure from the Kanzas . By 1806 , however , the Kitkehahkis were at peace with the Kanzas , and were once again living on the Republican .

= = 1806 : Melgares and Pike = =

Under the 1800 Treaty of San Ildefonso , Spain returned the Louisiana Territory to France . In connection with this transfer , France agreed not to sell the territory to a third party ; French foreign minister Talleyrand had indicated that a strong French Louisiana would halt the expansion of Britain and the United States in the New World .

Napoleon quickly reneged on this agreement . In the 1803 Louisiana Purchase , France sold the territory to the United States . This led to conflict between the latter nation and Spain . The Spanish contended that the sale of Louisiana to the United States was invalid , and that the territory had reverted to them . Although they were unable to prevent American occupation of New Orleans , they sought to check American activity west of the Mississippi River .

Spain and the United States both sought allies among the Native Americans of the disputed territory . In June 1806 , Lieutenant Facundo Melgares and 600 men were dispatched from the Spanish provincial capital of Santa Fe down the Red River and then northward into present @-@ day Nebraska . Although no Spanish records of the Melgares expedition are known to exist , it is believed that its purpose was to find and arrest the Lewis and Clark party , and to establish alliances with the Native Americans of the region , including the Pawnees .

About a month later , Lieutenant Zebulon Pike left St. Louis with an American party of 23 men , and orders to negotiate peace between the Kanzas and Osages , to contact the Comanches of the high plains , and to explore the headwaters of the Red and Arkansas Rivers . For guides and interpreters to the Comanches , Pike turned to the Pawnees ; his Osage and Pawnee guides led him northwest through present @-@ day Kansas toward the Kitkehahki village on the Republican .

Melgares was the first to arrive at the village . His journey north had not been easy . Mutiny had broken out and been suppressed among his New Mexican militia ; and many of his horses had gone lame , or had been stolen by Pawnee raiders . He had left 240 of his men on the Arkansas in southern Kansas before turning northward with the other half of his force . In the Republican village , he met with Kitkehahki and Chaui leaders , to whom he presented gifts , including Spanish flags . The Pawnees agreed to expel Americans from their territory , but also opposed the Melgares expedition 's continuing to the Missouri River . In the face of this opposition , and with no supply lines and a force too large to live off the country , Melgares returned to the Arkansas and thence to Santa Fe .

= = = Pike at the village = = =

Pike 's party reached the Kitkehahki village on September 25 , 1806 , shortly after Melgares 's departure . Upon his arrival , he was greeted by the ranking chief , Sharitarish , who invited him to eat in his lodge and told him of Melgares 's recent visit . The Pawnees presented eight horses to the Osages accompanying Pike , and members of the two tribes smoked pipes together . Pike 's party established a camp fortified with rifle pits on a hill on the north bank of the Republican opposite the village .

On the following day , a delegation of 12 Kanzas arrived at the village ; on September 28 , they held a council with the Osages . Pipes were smoked in token of peace between the tribes .

On September 29 , Pike held a " grand council " with the Pawnees . At this council , one of Melgares 's Spanish flags was displayed at the chief 's lodge . Pike urged the Pawnees to haul it down and replace it with that of the United States . When the Pawnee chiefs demurred ,

... I again reiterated the demand for the flag , adding " that it was impossible for the nation to have two fathers ; that they must either be the children of the Spaniards , or acknowledge their American father " . After a silence of some time an old man rose , went to the door , took down the Spanish flag , brought it and laid it at my feet ; he then received the American flag , and elevated it on the staff which had lately borne the standard of his Catholic Majesty .

This was favorably received by the Osages and Kanzas , but apparently caused distress to the Pawnees . Perceiving this , Pike returned the Spanish flag to them , asking only that they not fly it during his party 's stay in the village . " At this , there was a general shout of applause ... "

Pike had planned for the Pawnees to guide him to the Comanches . However , upon his arrival at the village , he was informed that the two tribes were at war . When Pike expressed his intention of continuing inland toward the headwaters of the Arkansas , Sharitarish urged him to turn back : he had prevented the Spanish from going further into American territory , and would likewise resist an American movement toward Spanish land .

Pike refused to be intimidated . He told the chief

... that the young warriors of his great American father were not women , to be turned back by words ; that I should therefore proceed , and if he thought proper to stop me , he could attempt it ; but that we were men , well armed , and would sell our lives at a dear rate to his nation ; that we knew our great father would send his young warriors there to gather our bones and revenge our deaths on his people ...

The Pawnees relented , though unwillingly and with much dissent . Pike obtained horses from them , and set out on October 7 . He ordered his party to stay in a compact body , with guns and bayonets and sabers at the ready ; he estimated that " it would have cost them at least 100 men to have exterminated us " . With no guides to the Comanches , he was forced to abandon that part of the mission ; instead , he returned south into Kansas , where he attempted to follow Melgares 's trail toward the Arkansas .

= = 1806 – 1833 = =

Sharitarish was a Chaui who , at some time before 1805 , had been involved in a struggle over the leadership of that band . In the course of this struggle , he had brought his clan to the Kitkehahki village on the Republican , where he had deposed Iskatappe , the hereditary chief of the Kitkehahki . Although the exact situation is not known , it is thought that Sharitarish was trying to bring the Kitkehahkis back to the Platte , to support his faction in the Chaui village .

After 1806 , the Spanish continued their efforts to win the friendship of the Pawnees . Messages were dispatched to the Pawnee chiefs , urging them to come to Santa Fe ; and most of these messages went to Sharitarish . The fact that he received them while Long Hair , the Chaui head chief , was ignored , fed his self @-@ importance . In 1809 , in an ill @-@ judged attempt to impress the Pawnees , he led the Kitkehahki to war with the Kanzas . By 1811 he had been defeated , and the Kitkehahkis had been forced to abandon the Republican and move to the Platte .

There is no firm documentary evidence of occupation of the Webster County village after 1809 . However , analysis of pottery and glass beads suggests that the site was re @-@ occupied during the second decade of the 19th century ; and three letters from 1823 and 1825 suggest that the Kitkehahki were living on the Republican . By 1833 , however , the village had been abandoned and the band was living on the Loup River . In that year , the four Pawnee bands , treated as a single tribe by the U.S. government , signed a treaty in which they gave up their lands south of the Platte .

= = Rediscovering the village = =

Webster County was opened to homesteaders in 1870 . In 1872 , the village site was homesteaded and placed under cultivation .

In 1875 , Elizabeth Johnson discovered the remains of a Pawnee village in Republic County , Kansas . She thought that it might be the site of Pike 's flag incident ; but hearing of another village in Webster County , Nebraska , she dispatched her husband and another man to investigate this site . Because the surface had been altered by cultivation , they found little evidence of habitation , and Johnson was persuaded that the Republic County site was Pike 's village . She prevented its being plowed on several occasions , and eventually purchased the land .

Johnson 's claim was supported by Elliott Coues , who had edited Pike 's journal ; with his endorsement , it was accepted by the Kansas State Historical Society . In 1901 , Johnson donated the land to the state of Kansas , which built a 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) granite monument commemorating Pike 's symbolic triumph over Spain . At the dedication of the monument , several of the speakers drew parallels between the Pike episode and the recent American victory in the Spanish – American War . In 1906 , a four @-@ day festival was held to celebrate the centennial of the flag incident .

= = = A. T. Hill = = =

One of those attending the 1906 ceremonies at the Kansas monument was A. T. Hill , a resident of Logan , Kansas . Hill had no formal training as an archaeologist — indeed , his formal education had ended in the fourth grade . However , he had developed a strong interest in the history and archaeology of the Great Plains .

Upon reading Pike 's journal , Hill became convinced that the Kansas site could not be the correct one . To him , the local topography did not appear to match that described by Pike ; and when he attempted to retrace Pike 's route , he concluded that the actual village site must be some distance northwest of the Kansas monument .

In 1912 , Hill moved to Hastings , Nebraska , where he went to work for an automobile dealership . In his job , he traveled throughout central Nebraska ; in the course of this , he spoke with many collectors and investigated possible Pike sites . When he reached a managerial position at the dealership , he recruited his salesmen to bring him reports on archaeological sites and collections .

In 1923 , Hill learned of the remains of a Spanish saddle obtained from the George DeWitt farm in Webster County . He visited the farm , and learned from DeWitt , the son of the original homesteader , that when the land was first plowed , it was covered with Native American relics . Hill opened a grave and found a Spanish bridle bit and spur ; across the river , on land that had never been plowed , he found traces of a camp , including rifle pits . The topography of the site closely matched Pike 's description ; and when Hill attempted to follow Pike 's route from the site to the Arkansas River , he recognized a number of landmarks from Pike 's account .

Hill called the attention of the Nebraska State Historical Society ( NSHS ) to the site and , in 1924 , joined representatives of the Society in conducting further excavations , showing that a village of considerable size had existed there . In 1925 , to ensure archaeological access to the site and to protect it from relic @-@ hunting , he bought the two farms on whose land it lay . Between 1924 and 1930 , he excavated two lodges and over fifty graves .

= = = Nebraska versus Kansas = = =

By 1927 , Hill and the NSHS were persuaded that the Webster County site was the scene of the Pike flag incident . In that year , they challenged Kansas 's claim . A full issue of the Society 's journal , Nebraska History , was devoted to the matter . The issue , provocatively titled " The War Between Nebraska and Kansas " , included articles by representatives of the Nebraska society and of the Kansas Historical Society , each claiming the Pike site for his own state .

More than historical accuracy was at stake . In a 1901 address delivered at the Republic County site , Katherine S. Lewis of the Kansas Daughters of the American Revolution had declared that " we have been seeking out antiquity for Kansas ; we felt that our state was too new to be interesting " . In 1927 , Kansans still regarded their Pike site as a focus of state pride , and were unwilling to give it up : in the Nebraska History issue , George Morehouse of the KHS wrote , " It is now very strange that ... our Nebraska friends should become so enthusiastic in trying to take from our Pike 's Pawnee Republic Village its halo of glory . "

In their articles , the champions of each state argued that Pike 's account of his route supported their site , and entirely ruled out the other . Both sides also argued that Pike 's description of the local topography matched their site and differed significantly from the other .

The proponents of the Nebraska site cited the artifacts that had been recovered from their village . These included a Spanish peace medal dated 1797 and bearing the image of Charles IV , an American peace medal of the type issued after 1801 , and soldier 's buttons and brass medallions bearing 15 stars , one of which bore the number " 1 " , that of Pike 's infantry regiment .

The Kansans had no such artifacts to show . However , they argued that the Nebraska village postdated the Pike episode . The Kansas village , they stated , had been the one visited by Pike , and was occupied by the Pawnees until they were driven north by the Delawares in the early 1830s ; the fleeing Pawnees had then established the village on the Republican , where they had been devastated by smallpox . In this account the epidemic , and not long habitation , explained the number of graves found by Hill ; the medals had not been buried with their original owners , but had been treasured by the band for decades , until the time that the pestilence was blamed on " evil gifts from the whites " and they were cast away .

Further work at both sites strengthened the case for Nebraska . Kansas supporters gave ground reluctantly : a major celebration was held at the Republic County site in 1933 , and as late as 1947 , an article in the Kansas Historical Quarterly spoke of the issue as " debatable ground " . Today , however , the Webster County site is generally acknowledged as the true one : an exhibit at the Republic County site states as much , and a Kansas historical marker near the 1901 monument states that " the village was long believed ... to be that visited by Zebulon M. Pike " .

Although Elizabeth Johnson was mistaken about the Pike village site , her mistake is held to be a fortunate one . The Webster County site had been subjected to decades of cultivation and relic hunting . The Republic County site was not entirely pristine , due to surface collecting and possibly to amateur excavation ; but it was far better preserved . Today , the Kansas Historical Society operates a museum on the site , built in 1967 over one of the excavated earth lodges .

= = Investigation history = =

Hill continued work at the site through 1930 . In that year , he was joined by William Duncan Strong , who the previous year had been named a professor of anthropology at the University of Nebraska , and by Strong 's research assistant Waldo Wedel . The collaboration of these three was crucial to the new science of Central Plains archaeology , and to Pawnee studies in particular : up to this time , the conventional wisdom among anthropologists was that there was no useful archaeological work to be done on the Plains . In 1936 , Wedel published his 1930 master 's thesis as the seminal An Introduction to Pawnee Archaeology .

In the summer of 1941 , a WPA crew excavated a number of lodges , cache pits , and graves at the site . Some testing and surface collecting were conducted in 1943 . More recently , a magnetic survey was conducted over a portion of the village in 1982 , and some testing was carried out in 1987 .

Hill plotted the remains of 102 lodges . Pike reported finding 44 lodges at the village ; the difference is probably due to the abandonment or destruction of lodges and the building of new ones on different sites . At least 90 graves have been investigated by archaeologists ; an estimated 75 – 100 additional graves are thought to have been opened by relic hunters .

= = Preservation = =

In 1964 , the site was listed as a National Historic Landmark . In 1966 , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places . The boundaries of the historic site were expanded to nearly 300 acres ( 120 ha ) at some time in 1977 or later .

The site is owned and preserved by the Nebraska State Historical Society Foundation . There is no museum or visitor center there , and the site is not open to the public .

= Australia national baseball team =

The Australian national baseball team represents Australia in international baseball tournaments and competitions . They are ranked as the top team in Oceania , and are the Oceanian Champions , having been awarded the title in 2007 when New Zealand withdrew from the Oceania Baseball Championship . After achieving a last ( 16th ) place in the 2013 World Baseball Classic , their ranked dropped to 13 , which is the lowest rank Australia ever got . The highest rank they have achieved was 9th .

The Australian team participated in the Summer Olympic Games in 1996 , 2000 and 2004 , but failed to qualify for 2008 . The team has also participated in both of the other major international baseball tournaments recognised by the International Baseball Federation ( IBAF ) : the Baseball World Cup and most recently the World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) .

The team is controlled by the Australian Baseball Federation , which is represented in the Baseball Confederation of Oceania ( BCO ) . Prior to the BCO 's formation , Australia competed in the Asian Baseball Championship under the Baseball Federation of Asia ( BFA ) . Australia continues to have a relationship with the BFA ; the 2011 resumption of the Asia Series includes the Australian Baseball League 's champion team .

= = Current roster = =

On 17 January 2013 , the Australian Baseball Federation announced the 28 players that made up the provisional roster for Australia at the 2013 World Baseball Classic in March . The final roster was announced on 20 February , and included only one change from the provisional roster : Shane Lindsay was added after Peter Moylan withdrew himself from the team as a result of signing with a new team , the Los Angeles Dodgers .

Of the players named in the roster , eight have previous Major League experience , four pitchers and four position players : Brad Harman , Justin Huber , Luke Hughes , Shane Lindsay , Chris Oxspring , Ryan Rowland @-@ Smith , Chris Snelling and Brad Thomas . Assistant Coach Graeme Lloyd has also had 10 seasons as a Major League pitcher , including two World Series championships with the New York Yankees . Coaches Greg Jelks and Glenn Williams have also had Major League experience as players . Peter Moylan ,

* – Player has not played for Australia in international competition prior to 2013 WBC

† – Player did not play for Australia in WBC prior to 2013

= = World ranking = =

In January 2009 the International Baseball Federation created a ranking system so that the nations involved in international competition could be compared independently . Teams receive points based on the position they finish at the end of tournaments . The system takes into account results not only of the senior men 's teams but also of junior teams . Weightings that emphasise the importance of certain tournaments are based on the number of teams competing , the number of continents represented ( or eligible to be represented ) , and in the case of continental tournaments such as the Oceania Baseball Championship the relative strength of teams eligible . Only results within the previous four years are used , so points are added and removed over time . Since the system began , the rankings have been adjusted after the completion of tournaments qualifying for the ranking process ; the most recent was the 2009 Baseball World Cup .

When the rankings were first introduced , Australia was listed at 10th position . The high @-@ water mark was after the 2009 World Baseball Classic when they were in 9th . The lowest position they have been in the ranking since its inception is 11th . At the end of 2010 , Australia had returned to their original position of 10th .

* – The tournaments that Australia participated in since the previous release of the rankings .

* * – Multiple tournaments were held since the previous release of the rankings .

† – Denotes a rankings release that had no tournaments Australia participated in .

= = International competition = =

In January 2009 the IBAF , in releasing the first edition of the world rankings , announced the classifications of various tournaments that contributed to the rankings themselves . In doing so , they identified that of the " world " tournaments , there were different levels with differing levels of weighting towards the ranks : major world championships , minor world championships , world qualifying tournaments and continental championships / qualifying tournaments .

= = = Major world championships = = =

There are currently three recognised tournaments that are considered " major " by the IBAF : the World Baseball Classic , the Summer Olympic Games and the Baseball World Cup . Of those , the Summer Olympics will be phased out of the rankings structure , as baseball will no longer be contested as an Olympic event .

= = = = World Baseball Classic = = = =

Australia has competed in all three editions of the World Baseball Classic . All sixteen teams that played in the 2006 edition were invited to compete in the second in 2009 . By virtue of their third @-@ place finish in their first @-@ round pool , Australia qualified compete at the 2013 edition of the WBC . ; however , they were eliminated with an 0 – 3 record and finished in last place overall .

Australia , which has not progressed beyond the first round of competition , achieved its highest finish , 12th , in the 2009 tournament . Unusual for international competition in baseball , the squads selected in the World Baseball Classic tournaments featured players active in Major League Baseball in addition to Minor League , Nippon Professional Baseball and local players . Generally players in the Major Leagues are unavailable for international representative teams due to their contracts with the respective clubs .

= = = = = United States , 2006 = = = = =

Prior to formally starting their campaign , Australia played an exhibition game , which they lost , against a Boston Red Sox squad at City of Palms Park in Fort Myers , Florida . This was also the site of their training camp .

Australia competed in Pool D — along with Dominican Republic , Italy and Venezuela — in the first round at Cracker Jack Stadium in Orlando , Florida . The other three teams were able to field a large number of Major League players . Of players born outside the United States on 2006 Major League Opening Day rosters , the Dominican Republic ( 85 ) and Venezuela ( 43 ) had more than all other countries and between them accounted for more than 57 % of foreign @-@ born players in the leagues . Italy is among the top nations in Europe and had access to Italian @-@ American players under the eligibility rules for the tournament . Thus , Australia was considered the underdog in the pool .

Having failed to win any of their round @-@ robin pool games , they finished last in their pool , and were eliminated with Canada , China , Chinese Taipei , Italy , Netherlands , Panama and South Africa . The eventual champions were Japan .

= = = = = Mexico , 2009 = = = = =

Australia was based in Peoria , Arizona — the site of the Seattle Mariners spring training camp — for their preparation for the formal start of their 2009 campaign . Unlike 2006 , in which they had one exhibition game , they competed against three different Major League clubs : the Seattle Mariners , the Milwaukee Brewers and the Chicago White Sox . Their game against Seattle was Ken Griffey , Jr . ' s first game playing for the Mariners since October 1999 , and was also their first victory as part of a World Baseball Classic tour .

Australia was drawn in Pool B for the 2009 tournament , along with Cuba , Mexico and South Africa , competing at Foro Sol Stadium in Mexico City . After beating Mexico in their opening game , they lost their next two games to Cuba and Mexico , and were eliminated from the tournament . The Australians set a WBC record against Mexico : 22 hits in a single game is more than any other team has achieved in either tournament .

= = = = = Taiwan , 2013 = = = = =

In June 2011 , it was announced that the field for the 2013 WBC would be expanded to include an additional 12 teams and that a qualifying round would be several months prior to the main tournament . The qualifying tournament involved the 12 newly invited teams , as well as the four lowest @-@ placed teams from the 2009 tournament ; all teams who did not win a game . The qualifying tournament broke the teams into four pools of four teams each , which competed in a six @-@ game , modified double @-@ elimination format , similar to the first round of the 2009 tournament , with the winners of the sixth game in each pool proceeding to the main tournament . Australia , having finished 12th after beating Mexico in their first game in 2009 , automatically qualified for the main tournament .

The main tournament combined elements of both previous WBC editions . The first round was split all teams into four pools , where the teams competed in a round @-@ robin , as was the case in the 2006 tournament . The second round used the same modified double @-@ elimination format as used in the 2009 tournament and the 2013 qualifying tournament . The final round was contested in the same manner as both previous tournaments : the top two teams from each group in the second round qualifying for the two semi @-@ final matches , the winners of which played in the championship game .

Australia was drawn into Pool B , which was held at the Taichung Intercontinental Baseball Stadium in Taiwan . In their opener , they fell to host and qualifiers Chinese Taipei , 4 – 1 . They followed up with a 6 – 0 loss to South Korea before finishing with a 4 – 1 defeat to the Netherlands .

= = = = Olympic Games = = = =

Australia was the third nation , after the United States and Sweden , to participate in baseball at the Summer Olympics , making their first appearance at the 1956 Games in Melbourne , and again as part of its demonstration at the 1988 Games in Seoul . Though the sport has applied for re @-@ admission for 2016 , baseball is no longer contested as a medal event at the Olympics .

Since baseball was first included as a medal sport at the 1992 Games in Barcelona , Australia has participated in three of the five tournaments . The best result achieved was in the 2004 Games in Athens , where Australia lost the gold medal match to Cuba to receive silver . Their medal tally puts them at 5th , equal to Chinese Taipei .

= = = = World Cup = = = =

Australia has participated in ten of the IBAF World Cup tournaments . To date its best result has been 5th , which Australia has achieved twice in both of the most recent tournaments held — 2009 and 2011 . At the 2007 tournament , Trent Oeltjen became the first Australian player to be named in a World Cup All Star team , in recognition of his tournament @-@ leading hitting and base @-@ running statistics . Australia is currently participating in the 2011 tournament in Panama .

Until 1986 , the World Cup was actually referred to as the " Amateur World Series " . The Amateur World Series only made use of round @-@ robin fixtures , with teams ranked at the end of the tournament . Australia 's first appearance was in Italy in 1978 . Out of the ten teams to compete , Australia finished 9th ahead of the other debuting team , Belgium .

Since the 1988 tournament , it has held the " World Cup " name , with the IBAF recognising the past Amateur World Series winners as World Cup winners . With the change of name came a change in format for the tournament : a round @-@ robin phase , followed by a knockout phase for the top four teams . ( Later tournaments would see two pools used in the first phase , and an expanded knockout phase including the top four teams from each pool . ) In the " World Cup Era " , Australia has reached the final phase four times , finishing 7th in 1998 , 6th in 2007 and most recently 5th in 2009 and 2011 .

= = = Minor world championships = = =

There are six separate tournaments that the IBAF currently recognises as " minor world championships " . Of those , Australia has only participated in one senior tournament : the Intercontinental Cup . ( Australia has also participated in the World Junior Baseball Championship and the World Youth Baseball Championship , both of which are also included in the same category for the IBAF rankings . )

= = = = Intercontinental Cup = = = =

Australia is one of five nations to have won the Intercontinental Cup , winning the 1999 tournament by beating Cuba 4 – 3 in extra innings in front of a home crowd in Sydney . It was the first time Australia had won an international baseball tournament , and through 2009 the only win outside of the Oceania Baseball Championship . The team enjoyed several individual successes as well :

Dave Nilsson named tournament MVP , to go along with leading the tournament for runs batted in ( 12 ) and being named in the tournament all @-@ star team ( as catcher )

Shayne Bennett led the tournament pitching with the best win – loss record ( 3 – 0 )

Adam Burton led the tournament batting with the most runs scored ( 9 )

Michael Moyle shared the lead in the tournament with Oscar Macias ( Cuba ) , with the most home runs ( 3 )

two other Australians were selected along with Dave Nilsson in the all @-@ star team : Adrian Meagher ( right @-@ handed pitcher ) and Michael Moyle ( designated hitter )

It was only the third time Cuba had been beaten in the gold medal match in the tournament 's history , having reached the tournament decider every time they have participated . Australia also shares another honour with Cuba : of the nine nations to have hosted the tournament , only Australia and Cuba have won as hosts , combining for five tournament wins from five times hosted . ( Cuba in 1979 , 1987 , 1995 and 2002 , Australia in 1999 . )

Australia first participated in the tournament at the 1981 Intercontinental Cup , managing only one win out of their seven games , finishing 8th . Missing the 1983 Intercontinental Cup , they returned in 1985 to repeat their previous performance : 1 win , 8th @-@ place finish . They would not reappear at the tournament until 1993 where they improved to a 5 – 4 record to finish in 6th position . Australia 's first medal performance at the Intercontinental Cup ( and their first medal at a world tournament ) was at the 1997 tournament . In their best performance through the preliminary round , they put together a 6 – 1 record losing only to eventual silver @-@ medalists Cuba , and beating eventual gold @-@ medalists Japan . They lost to Japan in the semi @-@ final , but beat the United States for the second time in the tournament to secure the bronze .

Australia also competed in the most recent tournament in 2006 . There they finished in 5th position , compiling a 3 – 4 record . This is likely to be the last edition of the tournament for the foreseeable future .

= = = Continental tournaments = = =

Australia is the second of only two nations to have participated in IBAF @-@ sanctioned continental tournaments for more than one continent : the Asian Baseball Championship between 1971 – 1993 , and the Oceania Baseball Championship since 2003 . The first nation to achieve this was Guam , who competed in the Asian tournament within the same timeframe as Australia , though they were involved in the first Oceania tournament in 1999 .

= = = = Asian Baseball Championship = = = =

Australia is one of thirteen nations to have participated in the Asian Baseball Championship since the tournament was first held in 1954 . The last time they contested the championship was in 1993 , as a result of joining the newly formed Baseball Confederation of Oceania . Though their best result was a bronze medal in the 1975 , the only teams to consistently finish ahead of Australia were Japan , South Korea and Chinese Taipei — the top three teams in Asia , and all in the top five in the world .

= = = = Oceania Baseball Championship = = = =

Though scheduled to participate on three separate occasions , Australia has only contested the Oceania Baseball Championship once in 2003 . The two other times , Australia 's scheduled opponents — Guam in 2004 and New Zealand in 2007 — withdrew from competition in the lead up to each series , both times scheduled to be held in Sydney . Australia was awarded the championship both times , and as a result represented Oceania at the 2004 Summer Olympics and at the 2007 Baseball World Cup respectively .

Held during late April 2003 , Australia won its first continental championship , beating hosts Guam 12 – 1 , 12 – 1 and 5 – 1 to win the best of five series three games to one . ( Guam won the third game 8 – 2 . )

= Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! =

Donkey Kong Country 3 : Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! is an adventure platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . It was first released on 22 November 1996 in North America , 23 November in Japan and on 18 December 1996 in Europe and Australia . It is the third instalment of the Donkey Kong Country series , and serves as a direct sequel to Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest . It was also re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance in 2005 . The game was made available to download on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2007 , as well as for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2014 .

The plot revolves around Dixie Kong and her cousin , Kiddy Kong , in their attempts to rescue the kidnapped Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong from series antagonist King K. Rool . The game is set in the " Northern Kremisphere " , a fictionalised version of northern Europe and Canada . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! utilises the same Silicon Graphics technology from its predecessors , which feature the use of pre @-@ rendered 3D imagery . The game received positive reviews upon release . Critics praised the visuals and various aspects of gameplay , however most were divided over the game 's soundtrack .

= = Gameplay = =

Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! is a platform game where players control Dixie Kong and her cousin , Kiddy Kong , through eight worlds which comprise a total of 48 levels . Many of the gameplay elements from previous games in the series mark a return in this game , such as barrels , bonus levels which reward the player with special " bonus coins " , DK coins , animal helpers and a multiplayer mode . Both of the two playable Kongs have unique abilities , such as Dixie 's ability to slow her descent by spinning her ponytail , and Kiddy 's ability to bounce across open water . The Kongs may also pick each other up to throw each other around levels ; the impact of the other player @-@ character can reveal cracked floors , hidden switches or secret areas . At any time , the player can switch Kongs during a level .

Levels in the game include a mixture of platforming , swimming and on @-@ rails levels . They are based around several returning themes including forests , cliff @-@ sides , factories and mountain tops . The level design is more diverse compared to its predecessors , which includes more complex puzzles and obstacles . Every level has an enemy called a Koin ; each of these enemies bears the DK Coin of their respective level , holding it as a shield . As these enemies always face towards the player , they must be defeated by throwing a steel barrel over them so it bounces off a wall behind them in order to strike them from behind . The game overworld is also more complex , allowing players to explore between each area instead of forcing them along a linear path . To achieve this , the game includes several vehicles such as a speedboat and hovercraft which can be used to traverse the overworld and access different worlds .

The game features " Animal Friends " , which return from its predecessors . Returning animals include Enguarde the swordfish , Squitter the spider and Squawks the parrot . New animals include Ellie the elephant , who can suck up water in her trunk to spray enemies with , and Parry the " parallel bird " , who flies directly above the player @-@ characters and can be used to collect out @-@ of @-@ reach items . As in the previous game , players can directly control animals instead of just riding them . Scattered around the Northern Kremisphere overworld are the Brothers Bear , a family of bears who provide the players with hints , key items or other services . Players can collect items in levels to trade with the bears for other items or to help progress to later levels ; one such item is the Bear Coin , which acts as the game 's currency . Other members from the Kong family , such as Cranky Kong , Wrinkly Kong , Swanky Kong and Funky Kong can also be found around the overworld , each of whom offer their own services .

= = Plot = =

= = = Characters = = =

The player @-@ characters in this game are Dixie Kong , who is Diddy Kong 's girlfriend , and her younger cousin , Kiddy Kong . Scattered around the overworld are various other characters : Wrinkly Kong appears in " save caves , " which when entered allow the player to save their game ; Funky Kong plays a key role in the game , as he supplies the player with vehicles to traverse the overworld ; Swanky Kong , reappearing from the previous game , allows players to challenge Cranky Kong in a contest involving throwing balls at targets in exchange for Bear Coins . New to the series are the Brothers Bear , thirteen bears providing the player with services in exchange for Bear Coins , some of whom are instrumental for advancing through the game . The main antagonist of the previous games , King K. Rool , reappears under the moniker of " Baron K. Roolenstein " .

= = = Story = = =

Shortly after the events of Donkey Kong Country 2 , Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong suddenly disappear in the Northern Kremisphere , which bears a geographical resemblance to Canada and northern Europe . Dixie Kong sets off to find the pair and is joined by her cousin Kiddy Kong , aided by Funky Kong 's vehicles to traverse the land . They reach Kastle KAOS , the lair of a robot named KAOS , who was thought to be the new leader of the Kremlings . After they destroy KAOS , the curtain in the background rolls up to reveal the robot was being controlled by Baron K. Roolenstein , the new moniker of King K. Rool . After the duo fights him , Donkey and Diddy pop out of the destroyed KAOS , implying they were being used to power the robot .

Dixie and Kiddy uncover the extinct volcanic island of Krematoa . They meet Boomer , an exiled member of the Brothers Bear , inside his Anderson shelter . He agrees to destroy the rocks hindering the path in exchange for bonus coins . After Dixie and Kiddy find all bonus coins and five cogwheels hidden in Krematoa , the duo give the cogs to Boomer , who puts them into a machine which reactivates Krematoa , revealing the Knautilus , K. Roolenstein 's personal submarine . The Kongs board the submarine and battle against him in there , however he escapes once again .

Once the Kongs collect all DK coins , they give the coins to Funky , who in exchange gives them a gyrocopter . The duo then finds an enigmatic creature called the Banana Bird Queen , who is bound to a barrier cast by K. Roolenstein . She tells the Kongs that she can only be freed if her separated children are returned to her , and that she will rid the land of K. Rool if she is freed . The Kongs find each of her children in a cave , where one of the birds is trapped in an egg which hatches when the Kongs complete a Simon @-@ like memory game . After rescuing them and completing a large trade sequence between the Brothers Bear , the Kongs return the children to the Queen . The Queen and her children all sing , annihilating the barrier . The Queen proceeds to chase K. Rool , who is fleeing in a hovercraft . When she catches up to him , she drops a giant eggshell on top of him , which Dixie and Kiddy land on . The Kongs repeatedly knock on the shell , annoying K. Rool .

= = Development and release = =

Similar to its predecessors , Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! utilises the same Silicon Graphics ( SGI ) and Advanced Computer Modelling ( ACM ) rendering technology , in which pre @-@ rendered 3D animations are turned into 2D sprites . Rare founder Tim Stamper re @-@ took the role as the game 's director , whereas Rare staffers Andrew Collard and Paul Weaver designed the game . Development of Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! began shortly after the release of Diddy 's Kong Quest . Rare took significant financial risks in purchasing the expensive SGI equipment used to render the graphics . David Wise , Rare 's composer from 1985 to 1994 , admitted that the workstations Rare purchased were worth £ 80 @,@ 000 each . A new compression technique they developed allowed them to incorporate more detail and animation for each sprite for a given memory footprint than previously achieved on the SNES , which better captured the pre @-@ rendered graphics . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! ' s soundtrack was composed by Eveline Fischer and David Wise , with Fischer producing most of the game 's music .

Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! was first released in North America on 22 November 1996 and Europe and Australia on 18 December 1996 . It was also made available to download on the Wii 's Virtual Console service in 2007 , as well as for the Wii U 's Virtual Console in 2014 . While the game sold over 3 @.@ 5 million units worldwide , it has been believed that its sales were hurt by its November 1996 release , which was when the Nintendo 64 console had the majority of industry 's attention . 1 @.@ 7 million copies were sold in Japan and 1 @.@ 12 million copies sold in the United States . Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! has sold the least amount of copies in the Donkey Kong Country series , with the exception of Donkey Kong Country : Tropical Freeze for the Wii U.

= = Reception = =

The game received positive reviews upon release . The SNES version holds an aggregate score of 86 % from GameRankings , whereas the Game Boy Advance version holds a score of 76 % .

The graphics and gameplay were the most praised aspects of the game . Frank Provo of GameSpot stated that the graphics were colourful , vibrant and " top @-@ notch " . Lucas Thomas of IGN opined that Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! ' s visuals were not as awe @-@ inspiring as the pre @-@ rendered CGI of Donkey Kong Country , however he admitted that they " still looked great " for the third instalment . In a retrospective review , Marcel van Duyn of NintendoLife praised the game 's visuals and detailed backgrounds , stating that they were " fantastic " for the SNES . Reviewing the Game Boy Advance version , a reviewer from GamePro thought that the graphics appeared " washed out " on the system 's backlit screen ; stating that the pre @-@ rendered sprites did not " show up very well " . A reviewer from Nintendo Master thought that the game 's main strengths were its " beautiful graphics and script " . A reviewer from Jeuxvideo asserted that the various aspects of gameplay made Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! a hallmark of the series .

The music received mixed opinions from critics . Although Provo stated that the game 's music was " catchy " , he noted that devotees to the original Donkey Kong Country may not like it . Thomas thought compared to the other Donkey Kong Country games , the music in Dixie Kong 's Double Trouble ! stands out the least , although he stated that it was an " impressive effort " . Van Duyn similarly stated that the soundtrack was not as " legendary " as it was in its previous instalment , however he still admitted that it had some " great " tracks . In addition , Van Duyn criticised the Game Boy Advance 's port for replacing all of the original music with remixed versions . However , Provo stated that the music was " just as good " as the original , regarding the soundtrack on the Game Boy Advance port .

= Herb Pennock =

Herbert Jefferis Pennock ( February 10 , 1894 – January 30 , 1948 ) was an American professional baseball pitcher . He played in Major League Baseball from 1912 through 1933 . He is best known for his time spent with the star @-@ studded New York Yankee teams of the mid to late 1920s and early 1930s .

Connie Mack signed Pennock to his Philadelphia Athletics in 1912 . After using Pennock sparingly , and questioning his competitive drive , Mack sold Pennock to the Boston Red Sox in 1915 . After returning from military service in 1919 , Pennock became a regular contributor for the Red Sox . The Yankees acquired Pennock from the Red Sox after the 1922 season , and he served as a key member of the pitching staff as the Yankees won four World Series championships during his tenure with the team . After retiring as a player , Pennock served as a coach and farm system director for the Red Sox , and as general manager of the Philadelphia Phillies .

Pennock was regarded as one of the greatest left @-@ handed pitchers in baseball history . Mack later called his sale of Pennock to the Red Sox his greatest mistake . Pennock died of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1948 ; later that year , he was posthumously inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame .

= = Early life = =

Pennock was born on February 10 , 1894 in Kennett Square , Pennsylvania . His father , Theodore Pennock , and mother Mary Louise Pennock ( née Sharp ) were of Scotch @-@ Irish and Quaker descent . His ancestors came to the United States with William Penn . Herb was the youngest of four children .

Pennock attended Westtown School and Cedarcroft Boarding School , where he played for the baseball team . After struggling as a first baseman , with a weak offensive output and throwing arm that resulted in curved throws , his Cedarcroft coach converted Pennock into a pitcher .

= = Playing career = =

= = = Philadelphia Athletics = = =

While pitching at Cedarcroft , Pennock threw a no @-@ hitter to catcher Earle Mack , the son of Connie Mack , manager of the Philadelphia Athletics , in 1910 . Pennock agreed to sign with the Athletics at a later date . Mack signed Pennock in 1912 to play for his collegiate team based in Atlantic City . Pennock 's father insisted that he sign under an alias in order to protect his collegiate eligibility . Pennock threw a no @-@ hitter against a traveling Negro league baseball team , and Mack promoted him to the Athletics . Mack intended for Pennock to be one of the prospects who would replace star pitchers Eddie Plank , Chief Bender , and Jack Coombs .

Pennock made his major league debut with the Athletics during the 1912 season on May 14 , allowing one hit in four innings pitched . He was the youngest person to play in the American League ( AL ) that season . Former major leaguer Mike Grady , a neighbor of Pennock 's in Kennett Square , took Pennock under his wing , while Bender taught Pennock to throw a screwball .

Pennock missed most of the 1913 season with an illness . In the 1914 season , Pennock posted an 11 – 4 win – loss record with a 2 @.@ 79 earned run average ( ERA ) in 151 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched for the Athletics , and pitched three scoreless innings in the 1914 World Series , which the Athletics lost to the Boston Braves . Mack let Bender go after the season , naming Pennock his Opening Day starting pitcher in 1915 . On Opening Day , Pennock threw a one @-@ hit complete game shutout against the Boston Red Sox . However , as the Athletics struggled , Pennock 's nonchalant playing style drew Mack 's ire . Concluding that Pennock " lacked ambition " , Mack sold Pennock to the Red Sox for the waiver price of $ 2 @,@ 500 ( $ 58 @,@ 479 in current dollar terms ) . Mack later regarded this sale as his greatest mistake .

= = = Boston Red Sox = = =

With a deep pitching staff in place , the Red Sox loaned Pennock to the Providence Grays of the International League in August for the remainder of the 1915 season . He split the 1916 season between the Red Sox and the Buffalo Bisons , also in the International League . With Buffalo , Pennock pitched to a 1 @.@ 67 ERA , as Buffalo won the league pennant . Though the Red Sox won the 1915 and 1916 World Series , Pennock did not appear in either series .

Pitching in minor league baseball , Pennock began to regain confidence . However , Boston manager Jack Barry used Pennock sparingly in the 1917 season , and Pennock enlisted in the United States Navy in 1918 . Pennock pitched for a team fielded by the Navy , defeating a team composed of members of the United States Army in an exhibition for George VI , the King of England , in Stamford Bridge . After the game , Ed Barrow , the new manager of the Red Sox , signed Pennock to a new contract after promising to use him regularly during the 1919 season .

Pennock received only one start apiece in the months of April and May , as the 1919 Red Sox relied on George Dumont , Bill James , and Bullet Joe Bush , leading Pennock to threaten to quit in late @-@ May unless Barrow fulfilled his earlier promise to Pennock . Barrow continued to use Pennock regularly after Memorial Day , and Pennock finished the season with a 16 – 8 win @-@ loss record and a 2 @.@ 71 ERA in 219 innings pitched . He served as the team 's ace pitcher in the 1920 season , but subsequently settled in as the Red Sox ' third starter . After the 1922 Red Sox campaign , in which he went 10 – 17 , and had seven wild pitches , leading the AL , the New York Yankees began to negotiate with the Red Sox to acquire Pennock . The Yankees traded Norm McMillan , George Murray , and Camp Skinner to the Red Sox for Pennock that offseason .

= = = New York Yankees = = =

Pennock pitched to a 19 – 6 win @-@ loss record in the 1923 season , his first with the Yankees , leading the American League ( AL ) in winning percentage ( .760 ) and finishing sixth in wins . Pitching in the 1923 World Series , Pennock defeated the New York Giants in game two , on October 11 , to end their eight @-@ game World Series winning streak . He recorded a save in securing the Yankees ' win in game four , and pitched to the win in game six on one day of rest , clinching the Yankees ' first World Series championship . Umpire Billy Evans called it " the greatest pitching performance I have ever seen " , as Pennock " had nothing . "

In the 1924 season , he pitched to a 21 – 9 win @-@ loss record with a 2 @.@ 83 ERA while striking out a career @-@ high 101 batters . His win total was second in the AL , behind Walter Johnson , while his ERA was third behind Johnson and Tom Zachary , and he finished fourth in strikeouts behind Johnson , Howard Ehmke , and teammate Bob Shawkey . Pennock 's 277 innings pitched and 1 @.@ 220 walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) ratio led the AL in the 1925 season , while his 2 @.@ 96 ERA was second @-@ best , behind Stan Coveleski . In the 1926 season , he posted a career @-@ high 23 wins , finishing second in the AL to George Uhle . He again led the AL in WHIP ( 1 @.@ 265 ) , and issued the fewest walks per nine innings pitched ( 1 @.@ 453 ) . During the pennant race , The Sporting News called Pennock the " best left @-@ hander in the majors " . Pennock earned the wins in game one and game five of the 1926 World Series . He finished game seven of the series , which the Yankees lost to the St. Louis Cardinals .

The Yankees reached the World Series , facing the Pittsburgh Pirates . Pennock pitched a complete game against the Pirates in game three of the 1927 World Series , not allowing a hit until the eighth inning . Pennock 's performance drew praise from teammate Babe Ruth . The Yankees swept the series from Pittsburgh . After pitching a three @-@ hit shutout against the Red Sox on August 12 , 1928 , he missed the remainder of the season , including the 1928 World Series , with an arm injury . His five shutouts and 0 @.@ 085 home runs per nine innings pitched led the AL . His 2 @.@ 56 ERA trailed only Garland Braxton , while his 17 wins tied for eighth place . Though the Yankees defeated the Cardinals in the 1928 World Series , the Yankees ' starting rotation without Pennock was likened to " a three @-@ stringed ukulele . "

In the 1929 season , Pennock saw his pitching time and pitching quality diminish . Over the rest of his career , he never posted more than 189 innings pitched in a season and his ERA rose to over 4 @.@ 00 . He suffered from bouts of neuritis in 1929 and 1930 . Pennock won his 200th career game during the 1929 season , becoming the third left @-@ handed pitcher to reach that mark . He led the AL in walks per nine innings pitched in 1930 ( 1 @.@ 151 ) and 1931 ( 1 @.@ 426 ) . Pennock pitched four innings of relief against the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series , recording two saves . The New York chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America named him their player of the year .

In 1933 , serving exclusively as a relief pitcher , Pennock had a 7 – 4 win @-@ loss record in 23 appearances . After the 1933 season , the Yankees honored Pennock with a testimonial dinner on January 6 , 1934 , and then gave him his release .

= = = Return to Boston = = =

Eddie Collins , a former teammate with the Athletics now serving as the general manager of the Red Sox , signed Pennock to their 1934 roster . In his last season pitching in the major leagues , Pennock served as a relief pitcher for the Red Sox .

Pennock retired with a career record of 240 wins , 162 losses , and a 3 @.@ 60 ERA . Pennock pitched in five World Series , one with Philadelphia and four with New York . He was a member of four World Series championship teams . In World Series play , Pennock amassed a 5 – 0 career win @-@ loss record with three saves , becoming the second pitcher to win five World Series games , after Coombs . Pennock was a part of seven World Series championship teams ( 1913 , 1915 , 1916 , 1923 , 1927 , 1928 , and 1932 ) , though he played in four World Series ' as a member of the winning team . Many , including Mack , consider Pennock among the greatest left @-@ handed pitchers of all time .

= = Post @-@ playing career = =

Pennock became the general manager of the Charlotte Hornets , a Red Sox ' farm team of the Piedmont League , prior to the 1935 season . He returned to the Red Sox in 1936 , serving as the first base and pitching coach under manager Joe Cronin . He served in this role through the 1938 season . In 1939 , Pennock served as the Assistant Supervisor of Boston 's minor league system , reporting to Evans . Pennock succeeded Evans as Director of Minor League Operations late in the 1940 season .

In December 1943 , R. R. M. Carpenter , Jr . , the new owner of the Philadelphia Phillies , hired Pennock as his general manager , after receiving a recommendation from Mack . Carpenter gave Pennock a lifetime contract . Pennock filled Carpenter 's duties when the team 's owner was drafted into service during World War II in 1944 . As general manager , Pennock changed the team 's name to the " Blue Jays " , and invested $ 1 million ( $ 13 @,@ 442 @,@ 344 in current dollar terms ) into players who would become known as the " Whiz Kids " , who won the National League pennant in 1950 , including Curt Simmons and Willie Jones . He also created a " Grandstand Managers Club " , the first in baseball history , allowing fans to give feedback to the team , and advocated for the repeal of the Bonus Rule .

Pennock opposed racial integration in baseball . In 1947 , when Jackie Robinson was signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers , Pennock called Dodgers team president Branch Rickey before the Dodgers ' series in Philadelphia and told him not to " bring that nigger here with the rest of the team . " He further threatened to boycott a 1947 game between the Phillies and Dodgers if Robinson played .

In 1948 , at the age of 53 , one week and four days before his 54th birthday , Pennock collapsed in the lobby of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel as a result of a cerebral hemorrhage . He was pronounced dead upon his arrival at Midtown Hospital . Pennock had been healthy , even inviting friends to join him at Madison Square Garden to attend a boxing match .

= = Honors = =

Pennock was honored with " Herb Pennock Day " on April 30 , 1944 in Kennett Square . Weeks after his death , Pennock was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame . An attempt to erect a statue in Kennett Square in his honor was blocked due to his support of segregation in baseball .

Fred Heimach , a teammate of Pennock , once called him the smartest ball player he knew . In 1981 , Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig included Pennock in their book The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time . He was inducted in the International League Hall of Fame in 1948 . Noted baseball photographer Charles M. Conlon considered Pennock one of his favorite subjects to photograph .

= = Personal = =

Pennock was nicknamed " the Squire of Kennett Square . " He married Esther M. Freck , his high school sweetheart and the younger sister of a childhood friend , on October 28 , 1915 . Esther often attended spring training and traveled with her husband 's team during the season . Together , the couple had a daughter , Jane ( born 1920 ) , and a son , Joe ( born 1925 ) . Jane later married Eddie Collins , Jr .. While a member of the Yankees , Pennock rented an apartment on Grand Concourse in The Bronx , where his wife and children stayed while the Yankees played their home games .

Pennock was a proficient horse rider . He also raised hounds and silver foxes for their pelts . He also grew flowers and vegetables on his farm .

= 4th Armoured Brigade ( Australia ) =

The 4th Armoured Brigade was an armoured formation of the Australian Army established during the Second World War . It was formed in February 1943 to provide armoured support for infantry units operating in the South West Pacific Area . Its composition varied over time , but usually comprised several armoured regiments equipped with Matilda II or M3 Grant tanks as well as some support units .

The brigade 's main role throughout its existence was to provide a pool of armoured units and sub @-@ units that could be deployed to augment infantry forces . It was also responsible for developing specialised variants of armoured vehicles . Elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade were detached to support most of the Australian Army 's major operations from 1943 until the end of the war , and from September 1944 it was the Army 's only armoured brigade . The formation was disbanded , after the war , in February 1946 .

= = History = =

= = = Establishment = = =

The 4th Armoured Brigade was established in February 1943 as part of a reorganisation of the Australian Army 's armoured units . As there was no longer any threat of Japanese forces invading Australia , the 2nd Armoured Division was disbanded to free up manpower for other purposes . However , it was decided to retain the headquarters of that division 's 6th Armoured Brigade to command armoured units that were intended to take part in offensive operations in New Guinea and other locations in the South West Pacific . This specialised formation was designated the 4th Armoured Brigade . The need for armoured support of infantry forces had been demonstrated by the Army 's experiences in the New Guinea Campaign during 1942 and early 1943 .

The main role of the 4th Armoured Brigade was to provide detachments of tanks to support infantry units . As it was not practical or necessary to deploy large armoured units in the jungle terrain common across the South West Pacific , the brigade was organised into several self @-@ supporting regimental groups . These regimental groups could in turn provide sub @-@ units with the necessary logistics support to form the armoured component of other units during combat operations . This held in practice ; during combat deployments regiments from the 4th Armoured Brigade were attached to infantry divisions or brigades , and their squadrons and troops generally operated independently as part of combined arms forces .

Upon formation , the main units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were the 1st Army Tank Battalion , 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment and 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment . The 1st Army Tank Battalion was equipped with Matilda II infantry tanks and had previously formed part of the 3rd Army Tank Brigade . The 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment had formed part of the 1st Armoured Division until August 1942 when it and its M3 Stuart light tanks were transferred to New Guinea . Elements of the regiment saw combat in the Battle of Buna – Gona , where the Stuart tanks were too lightly armoured to be effective . The 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment was transferred from the 3rd Armoured Division and equipped with M3 Grant medium tanks . The brigade also had several supporting engineer , medical , signals and services units . As the brigade was not intended to operate as a single unit , it lacked the armoured reconnaissance , artillery , combat engineer and infantry units which were standard elements of other Australian Army armoured brigades . The 4th Armoured Brigade 's commander from its establishment until its disbandment was Brigadier Denzil Macarthur @-@ Onslow .

= = = Combat operations = = =

The units of the 4th Armoured Brigade were concentrated at Singleton , New South Wales , on 10 March 1943 . As of April that year , the brigade formed part of the Land Headquarters Reserve . The 1st Army Tank Battalion was subsequently transferred to Caboolture in southern Queensland and reorganised as a self @-@ supporting battalion group while remaining part of the 4th Armoured Brigade . The unit was redesignated the 1st Tank Battalion on 10 June 1943 , and in August that year was shipped to Milne Bay in New Guinea . It subsequently supported the 9th Division during the Landing at Lae and Huon Peninsula campaign . The 1st Tank Battalion returned to Australia in June 1944 and was redesignated again to become the 1st Armoured Regiment . In the meantime the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was added to the 4th Armoured Brigade in October 1943 ; this unit had previously formed part of the 3rd Armoured Division and was re @-@ equipped with Matilda II tanks . Also in October 1943 , a party from the 4th Armoured Brigade armed with pistols was sent to Grovely Camp near Brisbane to put down a riot by soldiers being held under detention there , but did not need to use force . During March 1944 the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the 1st Armoured Brigade Group , and the 2 / 5th Armoured Regiment was transferred from that formation to the 4th Armoured Brigade .

By mid @-@ 1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade was located in Southport , Queensland . As of 1 June , the brigade had a strength of 4 @,@ 719 men and was scheduled to be ready for offensive operations by October that year . During June it also established a training area at Nerang in Queensland , where armoured units could practice operating in tropical conditions . In September 1944 the brigade gained the 2 / 1st Armoured Brigade Reconnaissance Squadron when the 1st Armoured Brigade Group was disbanded ; this unit was reorganised to become the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) in January 1945 . The 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was also re @-@ assigned to the 4th Armoured Brigade , but was stationed in the Sydney area . Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Brigade Group the 4th Armoured Brigade was the last remaining armoured brigade in the Australian Army .

The 4th Armoured Brigade 's structure continued to change during late 1944 and 1945 . The 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was authorised to be raised as part of the brigade in October 1944 , but not established until May the next year . This squadron was to operate troop @-@ carrying Landing Vehicles Tracked , but they did not arrive in time for the unit to see action before the end of the war . In January 1945 the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment was transferred to the direct control of Land Headquarters , and moved to Puckapunyal in Victoria the next month . This change proved short @-@ lived though , as the 2 / 6th Armoured Regiment rejoined the 4th Armoured Brigade at Southport during July ; B Squadron of this regiment had been transferred to the brigade in April ahead of the remainder of the regiment moving from Victoria to Queensland .

One of the 4th Armoured Brigade 's regimental groups supported Australian Army offensive operations in New Guinea and Bougainville during 1944 and 1945 . The 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was transferred to New Guinea in August 1944 , and came under the command of the First Australian Army . From January 1945 until the end of the war , C Squadron of the 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment supported the 6th Division during the Aitape – Wewak campaign . The regimental headquarters and two other squadrons took part in the Bougainville Campaign from October 1944 until the end of the war as part of II Corps .

During 1945 two 4th Armoured Brigade regimental groups saw action in the Borneo campaign . C Squadron of the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment was attached to the 26th Brigade Group during the invasion of Tarakan in May 1945 . The remainder of this regiment subsequently supported the 9th Division during the early stages of the Battle of North Borneo from 10 June . The 1st Armoured Regiment and Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) were attached to the 7th Division , and took part in the Battle of Balikpapan from 1 July .

= = = Trials and development work = = =

Along with its combat role , the 4th Armoured Brigade was responsible for developing and deploying specialised types of tanks . Macarthur @-@ Onslow played an important role in guiding these processes , including by helping his subordinates to overcome institutional barriers . Variants of the Matilda II trialled or developed by the brigade included the " Frog " flame throwing tank , Matilda dozer and the bomb @-@ throwing Matilda Hedgehog . The 2 / 5th Armoured Regiment also trialled a bulldozer variant of the Grant in 1945 . The Frog and Matilda dozer were used in combat by the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) during the Borneo Campaign . The 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment was issued six Matilda Hedgehogs , but they did not arrive in Bougainville until after the end of the war . The 4th Armoured Brigade also trialled modifications to the Matilda II and Grant that sought to waterproof the tanks so they could travel through rivers and coastal waters . As well as trialling new tank variants , the Brigade developed an ammunition and fuel trailer , which could be towed by Matilda II tanks ; these trailers were used in combat zones by the 2 / 4th and 2 / 9th Armoured Regiments .

During 1944 the 4th Armoured Brigade provided crews for comparative trials of the American M4 Sherman and British Churchill tank in New Guinea conditions that were conducted by the Australian Army in response to a request from the British War Office . Before the tanks were sent to New Guinea , the 4th Armoured Brigade trialled two Sherman tanks alongside Grants and Matilda IIs in Queensland during mid @-@ 1944 . The Churchills and Shermans were subsequently trialled in the Madang region of New Guinea ; the Churchill proved better suited to jungle conditions . The Australian Army later ordered 510 Churchills , but none were delivered before the end of the war .

= = = Disbandment = = =

By July 1945 the only elements of the 4th Armoured Brigade in Australia were the unit 's headquarters , the 2 / 5th and 2 / 6th Armoured Regiments and the 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron . The two regiments were preparing for offensive operations , including a planned but later cancelled invasion of Java , but did not leave Australia .

Most of the 4th Armoured Brigade 's units were rapidly disbanded following the war . The 2 / 1st Armoured Amphibious Squadron was dissolved in August 1945 , and the Armoured Squadron ( Special Equipment ) followed in October that year . The 4th Armoured Brigade headquarters and 2 / 5th and 2 / 6th Armoured Regiments were disbanded in February 1946 , and the 2 / 9th Armoured Regiment during the early part of the year . Only the 1st Armoured Regiment remained an active unit , and returned to its pre @-@ war designation of the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers in 1949 . Volunteers from the 4th Armoured Brigade manned the 1st Armoured Car Squadron , which was established in 1946 for service with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan ; in 1949 this squadron was expanded to form the 1st Armoured Regiment , which remains an active part of the Australian Army . A memorial to the 4th Armoured Brigade was dedicated at Caboolture in 1993 .

= = Works consulted = =

Beale , Peter ( 2011 ) . Fallen Sentinel : Australian Tanks in World War II . Newport , NSW : Big Sky Publishing . ISBN 9781921941023 .

Dexter , David ( 1961 ) . The New Guinea Offensives . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VI . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 2028994 .

Handel , Paul ( 2003 ) . Dust , Sand and Jungle : A History of Australian Armour During Training and Operations , 1927 – 1948 . Puckapunyal , Victoria : RAAC Memorial and Army Tank Museum . ISBN 9781876439750 .

Handel , Paul ( 2004 ) . The Vital Factor : A History of 2 / 6th Australian Armoured Regiment 1941 – 1946 . Loftus , NSW : Australian Military History Publications . ISBN 1876439610 .

Hopkins , R.N.L. ( 1978 ) . Australian Armour : A History of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps 1927 – 1972 . Canberra : Australian Government Publishing Service . ISBN 0642994072 .

Long , Gavin ( 1963 ) . The Final Campaigns . Australia in the War of 1939 – 1945 . Series 1 – Army . Volume VII . Canberra : Australian War Memorial . OCLC 1297619 .

Threlfall , Adrian ( 2014 ) . Jungle Warriors : From Tobruk to Kokoda and beyond , how the Australian Army became the world 's most deadly jungle fighting force . Sydney : Allen & Unwin . ISBN 9781742372204 .

= Crawl ( Chris Brown song ) =

" Crawl " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown . It is the second single from his third studio album Graffiti , released as a digital download on November 24 , 2009 . The song was produced by The Messengers and was written by Nasri Atweh , Adam Messinger , Luke Boyd , and Brown . The song is about yearning to rebuild a failed relationship and was interpreted by critics as being about Brown 's former relationship with Barbadian singer Rihanna . However , Brown has stated the song is not about any of his previous relationships .

The song received positive to mixed reviews . It charted in the top twenty in Japan and New Zealand , and the top forty in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It peaked in the United States at number fifty @-@ three . The accompanying music video features Brown and American R & B singer Cassie as his love interest . In the video , he yearns for their relationship on a winter night in a city and in a desert scene . Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour , and on BET 's SOS : Help for Haiti Telethon , which benefited victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake .

= = Background = =

The song was leaked to internet on October 21 , 2009 , one day after ex @-@ girlfriend Rihanna 's ballad " Russian Roulette " was also leaked . The song , which has been described as " melancholy " , sees Brown singing about a relationship that has slipped out of his hands with its chorus calling for an " incremental reconciliation " of the unspecified relationship . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News noted that both " Crawl " and Rihanna 's " Russian Roulette " would inevitably be interpreted as being about Brown and Rihanna 's relationship .

In an interview with MTV News , Brown stated that the song is not about Rihanna or any of his previous relationships . He called the message of the song " universal " , and not just about love but " any type of heartache . " About the track he said , " When I heard the whole concept and everything I was like , ' Yo , this is crazy . So being able to express the feelings , it was like , probably one of the best [ records I 've done . ] But it was more than me trying to do a record that meant crawl to love , crawl back to love . Meaning whether it 's from your negative situations , whether it 's from any problems you 've dealt with , like anybody 's situation . " Although he stated his concept for the song was about love , he said for anybody , the song could be " inspired as far it being the war or a death in the family , whether it 's anything , anybody just crawl back to love . "

= = Critical reception = =

The song received mixed to positive reviews . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the song was one of several on parent album Graffiti that " flirt with a public apology . " Kot went on to state that a " funeral organ " hovers over the song , and " the narrator longs for a second chance : " ' So where do we go from here / With all of this fear in your eyes ? ' " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that both " Crawl " and another song from Graffiti , " So Cold " , come off as " thoughtful , even if they 're not quite mea culpas " and further suggested that " In these moments Mr. Brown is pining , mildly apologetic . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called the song a " genuinely affecting second single " , and stated that " Less forgiving listeners " looking for " signs of contrition " may find them on the track . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said that , of the six tracks on the album 's deluxe edition that could be interpreted as dealing with Brown 's relationship with Rihanna directly , " Crawl " is " by far the most catchily contrite . " Rap @-@ Up said that the song shows Brown " taking baby steps back to love and into the spotlight , " and said that it found Brown " longing to mend a broken relationship " as in his 2008 Jordin Sparks collaboration , “ No Air ” .

= = Chart performance = =

After the song 's premiere on Brown 's MechanicalDummy.com website , " Crawl " made its official debut on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number ninety @-@ nine . After its release for digital download on November 23 , 2009 , it later peaked at fifty @-@ nine . On the week ending December 12 , 2009 , " Crawl " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at sixty @-@ eight and peaked at fifty @-@ three .

On December 19 , 2009 , " Crawl " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at seventy @-@ six . In February , the song re @-@ entered the chart at eighty @-@ five , and debuted on the UK R & B chart at twenty @-@ five . On the week of February 27 , 2010 , the song reached its peak of number thirty @-@ five on the singles chart , and eventually peaked at number eight on the R & B chart . The song debuted and peaked on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number sixteen on the week beginning February 1 , 2010 . The song debuted and peaked at number thirty @-@ nine on the Irish Singles Chart , and reached number eight on the Dutch singles chart . It peaked at number twenty on the Japan Hot 100 , and ninety @-@ seven on the European Hot 100 .

= = Music video = =

The music video was edited by David Blackburn and directed by Joseph Kahn , who also worked with Brown on the " I Can Transform Ya " and " Forever " videos . The video features American R & B singer Cassie as Brown 's love interest . Kahn had previously directed the video for Britney Spears 's 2008 ' comeback ' song , " Womanizer " , after her public breakdown . In an interview with MTV News , Kahn said , " I seem to be the guy that record companies go to when they need help , " he joked . " I truly feel [ Brown ] is remorseful . You don 't drop people just because they made a mistake ( even if it was a big mistake ) . "

Kahn said that the entire idea for the video was Brown 's : " It 's an interesting video for me , because it 's so rare that music videos ever try to achieve anything emotional . Chris just basically told me a story of what he felt this video was going to be , with his heart glowing and how he 's , like , cold . It is a very personal story . But it 's told in such a graphic manner that I fell in love with the idea . It 's Chris ' story . Period . I am the pencil that put it down on the paper . " When comparing the song 's video to that of " I Can Transform Ya " , the director said , " ' Crawl ' is my favorite one , because — gosh , I 'm going to let you in on this — ' cause it 's probably his most personal thing he 's ever done . " He went on to say , " I mean , everything that 's happened to him in the year , I think this is going to be his big statement , in terms of what he 's feeling and what he 's living through right now . " When talking about the ideas and concepts of the video , Kahn said that the video , his first ballad with Brown , should speak for itself through the ideas that he had and the " genesis " of what that idea was .

On November 2 , 2009 , several stills from the video were released onto the internet . The photos focused on two sets of the video , a desert location , and a snow and puddle @-@ spotted alleyway . In both settings , Brown wears the same thick black glasses , brown leather trench coat , white t @-@ shirt , and fingerless gloves , among other attire . Cassie appears in a photo from the alleyway scenes , as the desert scenes show Brown in " deep contemplation " . The video first aired on The Wendy Williams Show on Friday , November 13 , 2009 , when Brown was a guest on the show . The video opens with Brown sitting on an edge of a bed wearing a plain white t @-@ shirt . As the music begins and he starts singing , his heart is shown lit up red and beating in his chest . The singer then walks into an alleyway on a winter 's night , revealed in the air as he breathes . Brown walks past several storefronts , seeing images of Cassie broadcast on television . He then sees paparazzi taking photos of her , but she does not notice him . Brown is shown in a desert scene , and then returns to the winter night scene as Cassie sees him and they walk towards each other meeting face @-@ to @-@ face . They gather close , but Brown does not reel her in as the video ends . The music video ranked at forty @-@ eight on the BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .

= = Live performances = =

Brown performed the song on his 2009 Fan Appreciation Tour , and on Black Entertainment Television 's SOS Saving Ourselves : Hope for Haiti Telethon , to raise money for the country after the 2010 earthquake that devastated the area . Eric Ditzian of MTV News noted that although the song was rumored to be about Rihanna , " the lyrics also at times seemed to fit the evening 's focus , like when Brown sang , " If we crawl till we can walk again / Then we 'll run until we 're strong enough to jump . "

= = Track listing = =

Digital download

" Crawl " – 3 : 57

Germany Digital download

Crawl - 3 : 56

Graffiti - 5 : 12

= = Credits and personnel = =

Songwriting - Chris Brown , Nasri Atweh , Adam Messinger , Luke Boyd

Production - Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh

Background vocals - Adam Messinger , Nasri Atweh

Vocal recording - Brian Springer

Mixing - Manny Marroquin , assisted by Christian Plata & Erik Madrid

Source

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = = Weekly charts = = =

= = Release history = =

= Missoula , Montana =

Missoula / mᵻˈzuːlə / is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County . It is located along the Clark Fork River near its confluences with the Bitterroot and Blackfoot Rivers in western Montana and at the convergence of five mountain ranges , thus is often described as the " hub of five valleys " . In 2015 , the United States Census Bureau estimated the city 's population at 71 @,@ 022 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 114 @,@ 181 . In the 1990s , Missoula overtook Great Falls as Montana ’ s second ‑ largest city , behind Billings . Missoula is home to the University of Montana , a public research university .

Missoula was founded in 1860 as Hellgate Trading Post while still part of Washington Territory . By 1866 , the settlement had moved east , 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream , and renamed Missoula Mills , later shortened to Missoula . The mills provided supplies to western settlers traveling along the Mullan Road . The establishment of Fort Missoula in 1877 to protect settlers further stabilized the economy . The arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 brought rapid growth and the maturation of the local lumber industry . In 1893 , the Montana Legislature chose the city as the site for the state 's first university . Along with the U.S. Forest Service headquarters founded in 1908 , lumber and the university remained staples of the local economy for the next hundred years .

By the 1990s , Missoula 's lumber industry had gradually disappeared , and as of 2009 , the city 's largest employers were the University of Montana , Missoula County Public Schools , and Missoula 's two hospitals . The city is governed by a mayor – council government with twelve city council members , two from each of the six wards . In and around Missoula are 400 acres ( 160 ha ) of parkland , 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , and nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of open @-@ space conservation land with adjacent Mount Jumbo home to grazing elk and mule deer during the winter . The city is also home to both Montana 's largest and its oldest active breweries as well as the Montana Grizzlies , one of the strongest college football programs in the Division I Football Championship Subdivision of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . Notable residents include the first woman in the U.S. Congress , Jeannette Rankin , and the United States ' longest @-@ serving Senate Majority Leader , Mike Mansfield .

= = History = =

Archaeological artifacts date the Missoula Valley 's earliest inhabitants to the end of the last ice age 12 @,@ 000 years ago with settlements as early as 3500 BCE . From the 1700s until European settlements began a hundred years later , it was primarily the Salish , Kootenai , Pend d 'Oreille , Blackfeet , and Shoshone who used the land . Located at the confluence of five mountain valleys , the Missoula Valley was heavily traversed by local and distant native tribes that periodically went to the Eastern Montana plains in search of bison , leading to conflict . The narrow valley at Missoula 's eastern entrance was so strewn with human bones from repeated ambushes that French fur trappers would later refer to this area as Porte de l 'Enfer , translated as " Gate of Hell " . Hell Gate would remain the name of the area until it was renamed " Missoula " in 1866 .

The Lewis and Clark Expedition brought the first U.S. citizens to the area . They twice stopped just south of Missoula at Traveler 's Rest . They camped there the first time on their westbound trip in September 1805 . When they stayed there again on their return in June – July 1806 , Clark left heading south along the Bitterroot River and Lewis traveled north , then east , through Hellgate Canyon . In 1860 , Hell Gate Village was established 5 miles ( 8 km ) west of present @-@ day downtown by Christopher P. Higgins and Frank Worden as a trading post to serve travelers on the recently completed Mullan Road , the first wagon road to cross the Rocky Mountains to the inland of the Pacific Northwest . The desire for a more convenient water supply to power a lumber and flour mill led to the movement of the settlement to its modern location in 1864 .

The Missoula Mills replaced Hell Gate Village as the economic power of the valley and replaced it as the county seat in 1866 . The name " Missoula " came from the Salish name for the Clark Fork River , " nmesuletkw " , which roughly translates as " place of frozen water " . Fort Missoula was established in 1877 to help protect further arriving settlers . Growth accelerated with the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 , and the Town of Missoula was chartered the same year . In 1893 , Missoula was chosen as the location of the state 's first university , the University of Montana . The need for lumber for the railway and its bridges spurred the opening of multiple saw mills in the area and , in turn , the beginning of Missoula 's lumber industry , which remained the mainstay of the area 's economy for the next hundred years . The continued economic windfall from railroad construction and lumber mills led to a further boom in Missoula 's population . A. B. Hammond and Copper Kings Marcus Daly and William A. Clark competed fiercely in the region over lumber share and Missoula investments . The United States Forest Service work in Missoula began in 1905 . Missoula is also home of the smokejumpers ' headquarters and will be the site of the National Museum of Forest Service History . Nationally , there are nine Forest Service regions ; Region 1 is headquartered in Missoula .

Logging remained a mainstay of industry in Missoula with the groundbreaking of the Hoerner @-@ Waldorf pulp mill in 1956 , which resulted in protests over the resultant air pollution . An article in Life magazine thirteen years later speaks of Missoulians sometimes needing to drive with headlights on during the day to navigate through the smog . In 1979 , still almost 40 % of the county 's labor income came from the wood and paper products sector . The lumber industry was hit hard by the recession of the early 1980s , and Missoula 's economy began to diversify . By the early 1990s , the disappearance of many of the region 's log yards , along with legislation , had helped clean the skies dramatically .

As of 2009 , education and healthcare were Missoula 's leading industries ; the University of Montana , Missoula County Public Schools , and the city 's two hospitals were the largest employers . St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center , founded in 1873 , is the region 's only Level II trauma center and has undergone three major expansions since the 1980s . Likewise , the University of Montana grew 50 % and built or renovated 20 buildings from 1990 – 2010 . It is expected that these industries as well as expansions in business and professional services , and retail will be the main engines of future growth .

= = Geography = =

Missoula is located at the western edge of Montana approximately 45 miles ( 70 km ) from the Idaho border . The city is at an elevation of 3 @,@ 209 feet ( 978 m ) above sea level , with nearby Mount Sentinel and Mount Jumbo steeply rising to 5 @,@ 158 feet ( 1 @,@ 572 m ) and 4 @,@ 768 feet ( 1 @,@ 453 m ) respectively . According to the Census Bureau 's 2015 figures , the city had a total area of 29 @.@ 08 square miles ( 75 @.@ 3 km2 ) , of which , 28 @.@ 90 square miles ( 74 @.@ 9 km2 ) was land and 0 @.@ 184 square miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km2 ) was water .

Approximately 13 @,@ 000 years ago , the entire valley was at the bottom of Glacial Lake Missoula and as could be expected for a former lake bottom , the layout of Missoula is relatively flat and surrounded by steep hills . Evidence of the city of Missoula 's lake @-@ bottom past can be seen in the form of ancient horizontal wave @-@ cut shorelines on nearby Mount Sentinel and Mount Jumbo . At the location of present @-@ day University of Montana , the lake once had a depth of 950 feet ( 290 m ) . The Clark Fork River enters the Missoula Valley from the east through Hellgate Canyon after joining the nearby Blackfoot River at the site of the former Milltown Dam . The Bitterroot River and multiple smaller tributaries join the Clark Fork on the western edge of Missoula . The city also sits at the convergence of five mountain ranges : the Bitterroot Mountains , Sapphire Range , Garnet Range , Rattlesnake Mountains , and the Reservation Divide , thus is often described as being the " hub of five valleys " .

= = = Flora and fauna = = =

Located in the Northern Rockies , Missoula has a typical Rocky Mountain ecology . Local wildlife includes populations of white @-@ tailed deer , black bears , osprey , and bald eagles . During the winter , rapid snowmelt on Mount Jumbo due to its steep slope leaves grass available for grazing elk and mule deer . The rivers around Missoula provide nesting habitats for bank swallows , northern rough @-@ winged swallows and belted kingfishers . Killdeer and spotted sandpipers can be seen foraging for insects along the gravel bars . Other species include song sparrows , catbirds , several species of warblers , and the pileated woodpecker . The rivers also provide cold , clean water for native fish such as westslope cutthroat trout and bull trout . The meandering streams also attract beaver and wood ducks . The parks also host a variety of snakes such as racers , garter snakes , and rubber boa .

Native riparian plant life includes sandbar willows and cottonwoods with Montana 's state tree , the ponderosa pine , also being prevalent . Other native plants include wetland species such as cattails and beaked @-@ sedge as well as shrubs and berry plants like Douglas hawthorn , chokecherry , and western snowberries . To the chagrin of local farmers , Missoula is also home to several noxious weeds , which multiple programs have set out to eliminate . Notable ones include Dalmatian toadflax , spotted knapweed , leafy spurge , St. John 's wort , and sulfur cinquefoil . Controversially , the Norway maples that line many of Missoula 's older streets have also been declared an invasive species .

= = = Climate = = =

Missoula has a semi @-@ arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ) , with cold and moderately snowy winters , hot and dry summers , and short , crisp springs and autumns . Winters are usually milder than much of the rest of the state due to its location west of the Rockies , allowing it to be influenced more by mild , moist Pacific air and avoiding the worst of cold snaps ; however , this means precipitation is not at a strong minimum during winter . Winter snowfall averages 39 @.@ 5 inches ( 100 cm ) , on average occurring between October 30 and April 20 . As with the rest of the state , summers are very sunny , and the average diurnal temperature variation is more than 30 ° F ( 17 ° C ) from late June through late September , due to the relative aridity . The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 23 @.@ 9 ° F ( − 4 @.@ 5 ° C ) in December to 68 @.@ 6 ° F ( 20 @.@ 3 ° C ) in July . There is an average of 24 days with temperatures above 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , 45 days where the temperature does not rise above freezing , and 7 @.@ 8 days with temperatures below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) .

= = Demographics = =

The median income for a household in the city was $ 30 @,@ 366 , and the median income for a family was $ 42 @,@ 103 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 686 versus $ 21 @,@ 559 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 17 @,@ 166 . About 11 @.@ 7 % of families and 19 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 20 @.@ 5 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 3 % of those age 65 or over . 40 @.@ 3 % of Missoula residents age 25 and older have a bachelor 's or advanced college degree .

= = = 2010 census = = =

As of 2010 's census , there were 66 @,@ 788 people , 29 @,@ 081 households , and 13 @,@ 990 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 427 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 937 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ 682 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 115 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 430 @.@ 6 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 92 @.@ 1 % White , 0 @.@ 5 % African American , 2 @.@ 8 % Native American , 1 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 5 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 8 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 @.@ 9 % of the population .

There were 29 @,@ 081 households of which 23 @.@ 6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 34 @.@ 4 % were married couples living together , 9 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4 @.@ 1 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 51 @.@ 9 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 18 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 82 .

The median age in the city was 30 @.@ 9 years . 17 @.@ 9 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 19 @.@ 7 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 29 @.@ 6 % were from 25 to 44 ; 22 @.@ 1 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 10 @.@ 7 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 49 @.@ 9 % male and 50 @.@ 1 % female .

= = Economy = =

Missoula began as a trading post in the 1860s situated along the Mullan Military Road to take advantage of the first route across the Bitterroot Mountains to the plains of Eastern Washington . Its designation as county seat in 1866 and location of the hastily built Fort Missoula in 1877 ensured Missoula 's status as a regional commercial center ; a status further consolidated in 1883 with the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway . The railroad expanded Missoula 's trade area to cover a 150 @-@ mile radius , and Missoula 's location as the railway 's division point and repair shops provided hundreds of jobs . When the railway began expanding again in 1898 , increased freight shipments came through the city , and with the arrival of the Milwaukee Road and regional office for the U.S. Forest Service as well as the opening of the Flathead Indian Reservation to settlement all within a couple years of each other beginning in 1908 , the economy began to rapidly expand .

Lumber mills , originally built to provide construction @-@ grade materials for homes and business but then expanded to entice and then meet the demands of the railroad , profited from an increase in demand from railroad expansion and the nation at large . The Bonner mill , owned the Northern Pacific and Copper King Marcus Daly , became the largest producer of lumber in the northwest . In 1908 , Missoula 's location as both a major lumber producer and a regional commercial center helped land the city the regional office for the newly establish U.S. Forest Service created to help manage the nation 's timber supply . Over the next century , Missoula 's various lumber industries was consolidated under various entities such as the Anaconda Company in the 1970s and Champion International Paper through the 1980s until most were under control of Plum Creek Timber , all the while demand in timber dropped . In 2007 , a downward spiral of Missoula 's lumber industry began with the closure of a plywood plant in Bonner , the closure of Bonner 's sawmill in 2008 , and the closing of the Smurfit @-@ Stone Container pulp mill in 2010 .

Since opening in 1895 , the University of Montana has had a major impact on the development of Missoula 's economy . In addition to the economic advantage from accommodating the student body , it gave the city an educated workforce not available in most of the state . The university has a close relationship with the city as Missoula 's largest employer and with the millions of dollars the school brings into the city through visitors of school @-@ sponsored sporting and cultural events . The university also houses Missoula 's only business incubator , the Montana Technology Enterprise Center ( MonTEC ) , and several start @-@ up businesses .

Beyond timber and education , Missoula 's economic mainstay has been of one as a regional trade center . Missoula has an immediate trade area of approximately 180 @,@ 000 residents . The Missoula is the hub of its Bureau of Economic Analysis ( BEA ) Economic Area , which includes the Montana Counties of Flathead , Lake , Lincoln , Mineral , Missoula , Ravalli , and Sanders . As of 2011 , the BEA listed the economic area population at 306 @,@ 050 . Key businesses sectors serving the area include health care , retail shopping , transportation , financial services , government and social services , education , events , arts and culture . Health care in particular is one of Missoula 's fastest growing industries with St. Patrick Hospital ( western Montana 's only Level II Trauma center ) and the Community Medical Center already the city 's second and third largest employers behind the university . 55 % of employment in Missoula is made up of the service and retail sectors . Export industries are concentrated in heavy and civil engineering , construction , beverage production , technical services , truck transportation , and forestry- , logging- , and wood @-@ related industries . In addition to nearly 4 million out @-@ of @-@ state visitors annually , which makes tourism a significant aspect of the Missoula economy , Missoula also is home to a vibrant sector of alternative healthcare .

As of 2013 , Missoula ranked 299 nationally in gross metropolitan product with an output of $ 5 billion , while the city 's total personal income ranked 333 at $ 4 @.@ 18 billion , an increase of more than 47 % since 2003 . As of 2013 , per capita personal income ranked 239 at $ 37 @,@ 397 a year , 84 % of the national average . The Missoula metropolitan area 's unemployment rate was 3 @.@ 7 % As of June 2015 , dropping nearly 0 @.@ 8 % in the twelve months prior .

= = Culture = =

Missoula , often considered the cultural center of Montana , is the location of the state 's first university , and an eclectic mix of loggers , hippies , college students , sports fans , and retirees . Community events generally take place downtown either outdoors or in one of the several downtown buildings listed on the National Historic Registry .

Since 2006 , the River City Roots Festival has been an event each August with music , beer , food , and art , and generally attracts crowds of 15 @,@ 000 . The longest @-@ standing event downtown has been the Missoula Farmers Market that was founded in 1972 , which provides an outlet for Western Montana produce on Saturday mornings from May to October as well as Tuesday evenings from July to early September . An arts and crafts People 's Market and a Clark Fork Market run concurrently . Downtown hosts " First Friday Missoula " , a gallery walk on the first Friday of the month to feature local art from museums and galleries , such as that of Monte Dolack . Missoula celebrates " First Night Missoula " on New Year 's Eve , which includes food and live entertainment . The " Festival of the Book " to celebrate the literature of the American West was rebranded the " Montana Book Festival " in 2015 . Missoula 's two historic theatres both hold annual film festivals : the Roxy hosting the International Wildlife Film Festival , established in 1977 as the first juried wildlife film festival in the world ; and since 2003 , the Wilma accommodating the largest film event in Montana , the Big Sky Documentary Film Festival . In performance arts , the Missoula Community Theatre has held performances of musical and non @-@ musical plays since 1977 , with its affiliated Missoula Children 's Theatre also acting as an international touring program that visits nearly 1 @,@ 000 communities per year around the world .

The Montana Museum of Art & Culture , which became a state museum in 2001 , is one Montana 's oldest cultural reserves , having begun in 1894 ; its permanent collection of more than 10 @,@ 000 original works . The Missoula Museum of Art is housed in a former Carnegie library ; it features contemporary art and annually features 20 – 25 group and solo exhibits . Fort Missoula is home to the Historic Museum , dedicated to preserving the history of Western Montana , and to the Rocky Mountain Museum of Military History and the Northern Rockies Heritage Center . The National Museum of Forest Service History is constructing the National Conservation Legacy and Education Center in Missoula as well .

Opened in 1987 , Missoula 's Bayern Brewing is the oldest active brewery in Montana . Big Sky Brewing opened in 1995 and with a production of over 38 @,@ 000 barrels in 2008 , it is by far Montana 's largest brewery , and produces the best @-@ selling beer brewed in Montana , Moose Drool Brown Ale . Missoula has also been home to Kettle House Brewing since 1995 and Draught Works opened in 2011 . Big Sky , Bayern , and Kettlehouse represent the first , second , and third largest breweries respectively in the state of Montana . Also in 2011 , Tamarack Brewing and Flathead Lake Brewing Company from nearby Lake County opened pub houses at downtown Missoula locations . The city also holds annual the Garden City Brewfest and Winterfest , and also periodically hosts the Montana Brewers Festival .

Missoula 's celebration of the outdoors can also be seen in notable non @-@ profits based in the city such as the Adventure Cycling Association , the conservationist @-@ hunting organizations Boone and Crockett Club and Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation , and the Outdoor Writers Association of America . In an attempt to reduce harmful emissions , the non @-@ profit Missoula in Motion promotes environmentally sustainable transportation options for commuters , such as walking , biking , carpooling , public transportation , and telecommuting . Other non @-@ profits headquartered in Missoula illustrate the city 's liberal reputation in Montana . Promoter of marijuana law reform NORML has its state headquarters in Missoula , as does the Montana Hemp Council . Forward Montana is a " left @-@ leaning though officially nonpartisan group that seeks to engage young people in politics " . The Montana Justice Foundation , founded in 1979 , is a charitable organization that helps underprivileged and underserved Montanans to access to civil legal aid . The Western Montana Community Center supports the LGBTIQ community and the Jeannette Rankin Peace Center focuses on " nonviolence , social justice and environmental sustainability " . The largest emergency homeless shelter and soup kitchen in Montana , the Poverello Center , is also located in Missoula .

= = Sports = =

Missoula plays host to a variety of intercollegiate , youth , and amateur sports organizations in addition to a Minor league baseball team . The Montana Grizzlies ' football and basketball teams of the University of Montana have the highest attendance . The Montana Grizzlies football team has a successful program within the NCAA D @-@ 1 FCS level . Their home games at Washington – Grizzly Stadium have a near 90 % winning percentage and average over 25 @,@ 000 spectators in attendance . All games are televised throughout Montana . The Grizzlies men 's and Lady Griz basketball teams have also been successful at the conference level where they both rank at or near the top in attendance , about 4 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 respectively , and play their home games at Dahlberg Arena .

Missoula is also home to the Missoula Osprey , a rookie affiliate of the Arizona Diamondbacks that plays in the Rocky Mountain @-@ based Pioneer Baseball League . They play their home games at Ogren Park at Allegiance Field . Also competing regionally are the Hellgate Rollergirls , a roller derby team that competes at the Adam 's Center . Since 1977 , Missoula has also held " Maggotfest " , a festival @-@ style rugby tournament hosted by the Missoula Maggots Rugby Club the first weekend in May . The non @-@ elimination tournament focuses on the fun aspect of the game , attracting 36 teams ( male and female ) from around the United States and Canada . In regular season play , the Missoula Maggots compete as part of the Montana Rugby Union alongside another local rugby team , the University of Montana Jesters .

= = Parks and recreation = =

The city has over 400 acres ( 160 ha ) of parkland , 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , and nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of conserved open @-@ space . Located at the confluence of three rivers ( the Clark Fork , Bitterroot , and Blackfoot ) , the area is also popular for white water rafting and , thanks largely to the novel and subsequent film A River Runs Through It by Missoula native Norman Maclean , is well known for its fly fishing . Additionally , Missoula has two aquatic parks , multiple golf courses , is home to the Adventure Cycling Association , and hosts what Runner 's World called the " best overall " marathon in the U.S. There are also three ski areas within 100 miles ( 160 km ) : Montana Snowbowl , Discovery Ski Area , and Lost Trail Powder Mountain . Slightly farther away are Lookout Pass , Blacktail Mountain , and Big Mountain .

A system of public parks was developed in Missoula in 1902 with the donation by lumber baron Thomas Greenough and his wife Tessie . They gave a 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) tract of land along Rattlesnake Creek for Greenough Park , on the condition that " the land forever be used as a park and for park purposes to which the people of Missoula may . . . find a comfortable , romantic and poetic retreat " . In a follow @-@ up nine years later in a letter to the Missoulian , he stressed his interest in having the park remain in as close to a native state as possible . That request , along with the discovery that non @-@ native Norway maples were inhibiting the growth of native trees and shrubs such as cottonwoods , ponderosa pines and Rocky Mountain maples , led to the controversial decision to remove Norway maples from the park with the hope of returning it to its natural state .

In 1924 , Bonner Park was created out of John L. Bonner 's estate near the university . The park today has multiple athletic fields and courts in addition a band shell used by the Missoula City band through the summer . The Kiwanis club set up a park downtown in 1934 , making Kiwanis Park the first of a string of parks which line both sides of the Clark Fork River . One of those parks on the southern bank of the river is McCormick Park , which was created with WPA funds out of surplus highway land , a parcel from the American Hide and Fur Company , and land donated from the Kate McCormick estate . The 26 @-@ acre ( 11 ha ) park , named for Washington J. McCormick and his wife is home to a skate park , aquatics center , a free bike check @-@ out and a children 's fishing pond . Other popular parks include the Jacobs Island Bark Park , a designated area for dogs to play off @-@ leash ; the Montana State veterans ' memorial rose garden ; Waterwise Garden , a " living laboratory " garden utilizing water conservation techniques ; and Splash Montana Waterpark at Playfair Park .

= = = Caras Park = = =

Caras Park is located just south of the historic Wilma Theatre downtown . It is located on land reclaimed when the Higgins Avenue Bridge was widened from two lanes to four in 1962 . Before the reclamation , the Clark Fork River divided to create an island with the north channel 's bank extending to nearby buildings such as the Wilma Theatre . The south channel was deepened for the increased water flow and the infilled land later became Caras Park . Events in the park were not common until the early 1980s and permanent fixtures like " Out to Lunch " , which began in 1986 . The Missoula Downtown Association took over from Parks and Recreation for management of the park and made improvements to make Caras Park more event @-@ friendly . Seating , event circles , brick plazas , restrooms , and storage structures were added . Large temporary tents were used for events until 1997 when a permanent pavilion was constructed . The park is a hub of city festivities including include " Out to Lunch " , the International Wildlife Film Festival , First Night Missoula , Garden City BrewFest and offered intimate concert settings for artists such as Jewel , Chris Isaak , Santana , Ziggy Marley , and B.B. King . Located next to Caras Park is A Carousel for Missoula , a wooden , hand @-@ carved and volunteer @-@ built carousel ; and Dragon Hollow , a children 's recreational area adjacent to the carousel .

= = Government and politics = =

Missoula 's system of government has changed four times since 1883 when an aldermanic form of government was approved with the town charter . The city adopted a commission @-@ council form of government in 1911 with the opening of new City Hall and a council – manager government in 1954 before returning to an aldermanic form of government in 1959 . Since January 1 , 1997 , Missoula has been governed in accordance with the Missoula City Charter , which calls for a mayor @-@ council system of government .

The current system comprises a mayor and city treasurer elected in a citywide vote and twelve city council members who must reside in and are elected from one of six wards with each ward having two council members . All positions are nominally nonpartisan . Council members and the mayor are elected to four @-@ year terms with council @-@ member elections being staggered to allow only one member from each ward to up for re @-@ election . There are no term limits for either position .

Missoula 's state legislative delegation is the second largest in the Montana Legislature and is represented by districts 91 – 100 in the Montana House of Representatives and districts 46 – 50 in the Montana Senate . Having thirteen Democrats and two Republicans in its state legislative delegation , Missoula is known as a more liberal area than the rest of the state .

Though Missoula 's political leanings may not be unique for a college town , its initiative to make marijuana possession the lowest priority of law enforcement in 2006 , and symbolic resolutions calling on Congress to withdraw from Iraq in 2007 , and to amend the U.S. Constitution to declare that " corporations are not human beings " in 2011 , often put it at odds with the rest of the state . In 2011 , the Montana legislature , with a Republican House majority , attempted to overturn Missoula 's marijuana law and revoke its ability to have an anti @-@ discrimination ordinance that included the LGBT community . The marijuana repeal was vetoed by then – Governor Brian Schweitzer and the attempt to repeal the other died in the Senate .

= = Education = =

Missoula 's first school was opened in late 1869 with sixteen students from around the region and their teacher Emma C. Slack who had come to Missoula via a two @-@ month trip by horseback , railroad , and boat from Baltimore at the invitation of her brother . She resigned two years later upon marrying William H. H. Dickinson ( the first couple married in Missoula ) and was replaced by Elizabeth Countryman who later married Missoula 's first mayor , Frank H. Woody . The first public high school was opened in 1904 but was converted back to a grade school after the A. J. Gibson @-@ designed Missoula County High School ( now Hellgate High School ) was opened in 1908 . After several expansions , Stanford University was commissioned in 1951 to create a master building plan to manage future growth . It suggested purchasing land and building an additional campus at the Garden City Airport 's Hale Field , which was gradually being replaced by the Missoula County Airport , which was then southwest of town . The new school ( now Sentinel High School ) was opened in 1957 . Initially the two campuses were separated between upper and lower classmen with upper classmen in the new school , but in 1965 , the two campuses became separate high schools . In 1974 , the private Loyola Sacred Heart Catholic High School was created from a merger of the all @-@ girls Sacred Heart Academy ( est . 1873 ) and the all @-@ boys Loyola High School ( est . 1912 ) . In 1980 , Missoula 's third public high school , Big Sky , was established .

Missoula 's public schools are part of the Missoula County Public School districts 1 , 4 , 20 , and 23 . In Missoula , there are nine public elementary schools ( kindergarten to 5th grade ) , three public middle schools ( 6th to 8th grades ) , four public high schools ( 9th to 12th grades ) , and three public schools serving kindergarten to 8th grade . Missoula also has several private schools including an international school , religious @-@ affiliated schools , as well as Next Step Prep , a theater academy high school operated by the Missoula Children 's Theatre .

The University of Montana dominates higher education in Missoula . The university , established in 1893 , was Montana 's first , and has the state 's second @-@ largest enrollment , with 12 @,@ 922 students as of 2015 ) . The campus houses six colleges and three schools including Montana 's first and only law school , the Alexander Blewett III School of Law at the University of Montana . The university is also the location of the state 's Regional Federal Depository Library , and houses the state Arboretum . The University of Montana College of Technology , established in 1956 and formerly known as the Missoula Vocational Technical Center , offers fast @-@ track learning programs . Multiple vocational programs not affiliated with the university ranging from photography and massage to truck driving also have a presence in Missoula .

= = Media = =

= = = Broadcast = = =

Missoula 's single – broadcast over – air television media market is the largest in Montana and ranked 165 nationally in as of 2015 . Though Missoula itself is second in population to Billings , Montana , Missoula 's single @-@ broadcast over @-@ air television media market includes all of Missoula , Ravalli , Granite , Mineral , Lake , Flathead , and Sanders Counties in the more densely populated western region of Montana and serves over 112 @,@ 600 television homes as of 2015 . Missoula is home to three local affiliate channels : KPAX @-@ TV ( CBS / MTN , The CW ; founded 1970 ; channel 8 ) , KECI @-@ TV ( NBC ; founded 1954 as KGVO @-@ TV ; channel 13 , and KTMF @-@ TV ( ABC , FOX ; founded 1991 ; channel 23 ) . Also based in Missoula at the University of Montana is Montana PBS ( founded 1984 ; channel 11 ) . There are seventeen FM radio stations and four AM radio stations licensed in the city .

= = = Print = = =

Missoula has four main sources of print media : the Missoulian ( primary daily ) , Missoula Independent ( alternative weekly ) , Montana Kaimin ( college ) , and New West ( digital , progressive ) . The Missoulian was founded as a weekly publication in 1870 as The Missoula and Cedar Creek Pioneer . As of 2015 , the Missoulian remains Missoula 's most popular newspaper with a circulation of over 26 @,@ 000 , making it the third most read daily newspaper in Montana behind the Billings Gazette and the Great Falls Tribune . The Missoula Independent ( founded 1991 ) is the largest weekly newspaper in Montana and the states only member of the Association of Alternative Newsweeklies . With over 21 @,@ 000 readers it has twice the circulation of second place Billings Outpost . The newspaper is distributed free to more than 600 locations across Western Montana from Hamilton in the south to Whitefish in the north . The Montana Kaimin ( founded 1891 ) is likewise distributed free throughout parts of Missoula with heavy student traffic from the University of Montana where the newspaper is printed Monday through Friday during the school year . New West was founded in 2005 as a left @-@ leaning " next @-@ generation media company " that focused on culture , environment , economy , and politics in the Rocky Mountain West .

= = Infrastructure = =

= = = Health care = = =

Missoula has two primary health care facilities : St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center and Community Medical Center . St. Patrick 's was founded in 1873 under the sponsorship of the Sisters of Providence . It is the only Level II trauma center in the region , the largest medical facility in Western Montana , and has undergone three major expansions since the 1980s . The hospital has 195 acute @-@ care beds , and admitted over 9 @,@ 700 patients in 2003 . The name was changed from " St. Patrick Hospital " to " St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center " in 2000 to reflect an increasing involvement with national medical research and education . The Community Medical Center and its adjacent medical facilities are located near Fort Missoula and is part of a modern complex that includes a nursing home , the Missoula Crippled Children 's Center , and private offices . It was founded in 1922 as Thornton Hospital by doctors Will Thornton and Charles Thornton and has been at its current location since 1972 . It is the only facility providing obstetrical and newborn care in Missoula County and the only hospital in Western Montana with a separate Pediatric Intensive Care Unit . The center is partnered with Seattle Children 's Hospital . The nearest Level I trauma center to Missoula is Harborview Medical Center in Seattle , Washington .

= = = Utilities = = =

The earliest Missoulians drew their water directly from the Clark Fork River or nearby Rattlesnake Creek . The first water system consisted of a Native American known as One @-@ Eyed Riley and his friend filling buckets of water from the Rattlesnake Creek and hauling them door to door on a donkey cart . In 1871 city co @-@ founder Frank Worden began construction of a log pipe and wooden main system that flowed from the Rattlesnake Creek 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) north of the city . With the addition of two small covered reservoirs , the first municipal water system was begun in 1880 . With an intake dam built in 1901 with a settling basin capacity of 3 million US gallons ( 11 @,@ 000 m3 ) , the Rattlesnake Creek continued to meet demands of the city until 1935 when five wells were added to respond to increased summer and fall demand . This system is still maintained as an emergency backup , but was discontinued as a primary source after Giardia outbreak in 1983 . Since then , Missoula has relied on the Missoula Valley Aquifer as the sole source of water . In 1889 , the first electrical plant was built by A. B. Hammond to power his major downtown properties such as the Missoula Mercantile and the Florence Hotel . In 1905 , the Missoula Mercantile ( by then owned by Copper King William A. Clark purchased the water system and consolidated it with its vast electrical holdings to create the Missoula Light and Water Company ( ML & W ) a year later . Electricity and water remained bundled after ML & W 's sale to the Montana Power Company ( MPC ) in 1929 . In 1979 , MPC sold its water utility holdings as Mountain Water Company to Park Water Company in Downey , California , which since 2011 has been a subsidiary of The Carlyle Group . In 2015 , the City of Missoula was legally granted its " ' right to acquire ' the water system by exercising its power of eminent domain " , but as of June 2015 , that decision is under appeal .

Following the deregulation of Montana 's electricity market in 1997 , Montana Power Company began to divest its energy business . MPC sold substantially all its electrical generating assets to the PPL Corporation in December 1997 and its energy transmission and distribution business to NorthWestern Corporation in February 2002 . Despite filing for bankruptcy in 2002 , NorthWestern Corporation 's subsidiary NorthWestern Energy is the primary provider of electric and natural gas service to Missoula in addition to the Rural Utilities Service 's Missoula Electric Cooperative .

Local telephone service in the area is provided by CenturyLink and Blackfoot Telecommunications . Major cell phone providers include AT & T , Sprint , Verizon , and T @-@ Mobile . Trash collection in Missoula is handled by Allied Waste Industries and Grant Creek Water Systems . Allied Waste also handles recycling through a program where customers can purchase special blue bags to designate recyclables . Recycling has also been offered by Missoula Valley Recycling since 1992 , by Garden City Recycling since 2010 which offers curbside pickup , and by Pacific Steel & Recycling which offers drop @-@ off recycling . Sewer service is handled by the City of Missoula Wastewater Division .

= = = City layout and development = = =

In the mid @-@ 1860s , C. P. Higgins and Frank Worden began plotting what would become the town of Missoula along the Mullan Military Road , which ran parallel to the Clark Fork River . Through downtown Missoula , the route of the road is now Front Street . It is intersected by Higgins Avenue , to which a bridge across the Clark Fork was added in 1873 . The intersection of these two streets became the default center of the city , and remains the numerical center regarding city street addresses . The arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 led to a housing boom along the tracks , particularly on the northern side where many of the railway workers would reside . When the Higgins Avenue Bridge was replaced in 1893 , they debated whether the bridge should continue southwest toward the Bitterroot Valley as it had earlier , or due south . Attorneys W. M. Bickford and W. J. Stephens had already laid out plots of land five years earlier for what they hoped would be a new town of " South Missoula " . The streets there were perpendicular to the Bitterroot Wagon Road while Judge Hiram Knowles who owned the land just south of the river preferred the north @-@ south plan and did not want to become part of South Missoula . The result was a 7 × 14 – block area along the west side of Higgins Avenue commonly referred to as the Slant Streets centered along what is now Stephens Avenue . Stephens Avenue and Brooks Street are the only arterials to traverse the city diagonally along with the Bitterroot Branch of Montana Rail Link . The rest of the city , with the exception of Downtown , where streets follow the angle of the river , and newer expansions into the hills , strictly follow the grid plan . With the establishment of the University of Montana in 1893 and the announcement that the now @-@ defunct Milwaukee Road would be located south of the river , houses began to spread quickly throughout the university and south side districts . The area near the university was promoted as high @-@ end and luxurious homes appeared on Hammond Avenue ( then nicknamed " Millionaires Row " and known today as Gerald Avenue ) . The arrival of Interstate 90 in the mid @-@ 1960s forced the removal of 60 homes , including the Greenough Mansion . The north side of Missoula became isolated between the Interstate and the tracks while the Greenough Mansion was moved to a South Hills golf course and converted to a restaurant . This dichotomy has prevailed with the North Side feeling neglected by the city while the South Hills became an upscale neighborhood . With the release of the latest Missoula Downtown Master Plan in 2009 , increased emphasis was directed toward redeveloping the North Side 's former rail yard and the area just south of the tracks .

The city is divided into 18 neighborhood councils of which all Missoula residents are a member . The city further contains 10 historical districts : Downtown Missoula , East Pine Street , Fort Missoula , Lower Rattlesnake , McCormick , Northside , Southside , University Area and , the campus of the University of Montana .

= = = = Trail system = = = =

Missoula has an extensive trail system for both commuting and recreation that extends over 22 miles ( 35 km ) . The city is actively trying to connect its various sections within the city to each other and to recreational trails extending beyond the city . The heart of the Missoula Commuter Bike Network are the trails along either side of the Clark Fork River that link Downtown with surrounding neighborhoods , the university , city parks , and outlying open space with smooth surfaces and three bicycle / pedestrian bridges . The most southern of these is Milwaukee Trail which follows the path of the former Milwaukee Railroad and continues east out of town as the Kim Williams Nature Trail beside Mount Sentinel . The Bitterroot Branch Trail connects to the Riverfront trails west of Downtown and , when completed , will provide a trail from Downtown to Southgate Mall . Near the Bitterroot Branch Trail , but not connected , is the South Avenue Trail on the west side of Reserve Street that connects the Community Medical Center with Fort Missoula , nearby athletic fields , and the Bitterroot River . The South Hills neighborhood has its own system of trails that is also approaching , but not quite meeting , the larger network .

= = = Transportation = = =

Due to its rural location , highway access is especially important to Missoula . Interstate 90 runs east – west along the northern edge of Missoula at the base of the North Hills , with all but a small portion of the city located south of the highway . Completed in 1965 at the expense of 60 homes , the Garden City Brewery , and the Greenough Mansion , I ‑ 90 has four city exits and makes connections with U.S. Route 93 , U.S. Route 12 , and Montana Highway 200 . The original U.S. 12 , approved by the AASHO in 1939 to extend west into Montana did not include Missoula until the highway was rerouted along State Route 6 in October 1959 and was not extended west from Missoula until 1962 . The road now crosses Missoula southwest – northeast . U.S. 93 serves as a major economic corridor for western Montana connecting Missoula with the Bitterroot Valley communities to the south and Flathead Lake , Kalispell , and Glacier National Park to the north . Montana Highway 200 , the longest state highway in the United States enters Missoula from the east and provides access along the Blackfoot River and a direct route to Great Falls .

Public transportation in Missoula began as early as 1890 with a horse @-@ drawn streetcar system ( electrified in 1910 ) operated by the Missoula Street Railway Company that connected Downtown Missoula with the University , Bonner , the fairgrounds , and Fort Missoula . These streetcars were then replaced by buses in 1932 due to cost . Bus service today is provided by Mountain Line , a public transit agency created by public vote in 1976 as part of the Missoula Urban Transportation District ( MUTD ) that began operation in December 1977 . Mountain Line operates twelve bus routes within a 36 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 93 km2 ) area , serving Missoula , East Missoula , Bonner , Target Range , Rattlesnake , and the airport . Additionally the line has offered paratransit services since 1991 to assist the disabled , senior van since 2008 , and has four park ‑ and ‑ ride lots throughout Missoula . Special bus service is offered to the University of Montana through three of the city 's park ‑ and ‑ ride lots in addition to a late @-@ night UDASH shuttle that offers service between the University and Downtown . As of January 2015 a three @-@ year pilot program of zero fare transportation on all Mountain Line busses began , with the goal of increasing use by 45 percent .

Direct intercity ground travel needs are provided by bus carriers Greyhound Lines and Rimrock Trailways . Intercity rail travel was available from 1883 , when the Northern Pacific Railway began service through Missoula , until 1979 when Amtrak discontinued its North Coast Hiawatha route across southern Montana . In 1901 , Northern Pacific built their station at the terminus of Higgins Avenue ; since 1985 , it has been on the National Register of Historic Places . A feasibility study was commissioned by Congress in 2008 to examine the merits of reopening the North Coast Hiawatha , but as of 2008 , the nearest rail station to Missoula is the Whitefish station of Amtrak 's Empire Builder , 136 miles ( 219 km ) to the north .

= = = = Air = = = =

Air travel to Missoula began in 1927 , which is served by Missoula International Airport at Johnson @-@ Bell Field , a public airport run by the Missoula County Airport Authority . It is the largest airport in western Montana , serving 582 @,@ 821 passengers in 2011 . The current building contains three jet bridges and three ground ‑ level boarding gates . There are direct flights year ‑ round to Billings , Denver , Las Vegas , Minneapolis , Phoenix , Portland , Salt Lake City , Seattle , and seasonally to Atlanta , Chicago , Los Angeles , Oakland , and San Francisco . Four airlines operate out of Missoula ( Allegiant Air , Delta Air Lines , Horizon / Alaska Airlines , and United Airlines ) in addition to cargo carriers FedEx Express , and UPS Airlines . The airport is also home to Homestead Helicopters and fixed ‑ base operators Minuteman Jet Center ( an Avfuel fuel provider ) , and Northstar Jet ( a Phillips 66 fuel provider ) .

= = Notable people = =

Missoula has produced and been home to a number of notable individuals in varying fields . Its natives and residents are referred to as " Missoulians " . In politics , Jeannette Rankin , the first woman in congress , was born and raised in Missoula while Senators Mike Mansfield , the U.S. ' s longest serving Senate Majority Leader , and Max Baucus , Montana 's longest serving U.S. Senator both established careers and joined politics while living in the city . Noted athletes who were born or resided in Missoula include five Olympic medalists , Pro Football Hall of Fame Quarterback John Elway , and former Milwaukee Bucks coach Larry Krystowiak . Actor Dana Carvey , filmmaker David Lynch , and award ‑ winning biologist Leroy Hood were born in Missoula while Carroll O 'Connor and J. K. Simmons both attended the University of Montana . Composer David Maslanka , musician Jeff Ament , and musician and vlogger Hank Green reside in Missoula . Academically , Missoula has been home to Nobel Prize winners Harold C. Urey and Steve Running as well as 20th century Montana historian K. Ross Toole Noted names in literature include Native @-@ American poet James Welch , crime novelist James Crumley , former head of the University of Montana 's Creative Writing Program Richard Hugo , and Norman Maclean , whose A River Runs Through It chronicles his life in early 20th @-@ century Missoula .

= = Sister cities = =

Missoula has two sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :

Neckargemünd , Germany

Palmerston North , New Zealand

Missoula 's Sister City relationship with Palmerston North , New Zealand , began after Missoula resident and later University of Montana professor Harold Bockemuehl returned from obtaining his PhD from Massey University . The relationship was made official in 1983 after a meeting between then UM President Neil Bucklew and officials from Massey University . Each May , Missoula celebrates " New Zealand Day " in honor of the relationship with rugby , food , and entertainment . Missoula 's second Sister City relationship began in 1991 after a Neckargemünd delegation , led by Mayor Oskar Schuster , visited Missoula following a Fulbright @-@ sponsored faculty exchange between Heidelberg University and the University of Montana . Every September the Missoula Cultural Council holds an annual " Germanfest " to celebrate German culture and this relationship .

= = Portrayal in media = =

Author Norman Maclean grew up in Missoula and wrote about it in his 1976 autobiographical novella A River Runs Through It . The work was adapted into a 1992 motion picture of the same name , directed by Robert Redford , starring Brad Pitt and Craig Sheffer .

Missoula : Rape and the Justice System in a College Town is the title of a 2015 book by Jon Krakauer that looked at the Justice Department 's investigation into a " pattern of disrespect and indifference toward alleged victims " by Missoula law enforcement in sexual assault cases between 2010 and 2012 , some involving football players from the Montana Grizzlies . While being interviewed on NPR about the book , John Krakauer stated " I don 't mean to single out Missoula : Its rape rate is a little less than the national average ; I think its problems with dealing with rape are pretty depressingly typical " .

There is a lengthy study of Missoula in the title essay of Jonathan Raban 's Driving Home : An American Journey : despite writing that on his arrival , " I had the powerful impression that I had driven deep into the Rocky Mountains and somehow arrived in Rotherham or Barnsley , " and that " the overall effect [ of the city ] was oddly unsettling ; the streets too open for comfort , the town too closed in , inducing mild claustrophobia and agoraphobia at the same time " , he notes the literary heritage of the city and its reputation as a " kindly town " ( evidenced by its being a place where " odds and ends naturally collected and cohered " ) .

Missoula was portrayed in an episode of the CBS show Criminal Minds . The episode aired on November 5 , 2014 .

Missoula ( as well as Jermone , MT ) was also portrayed in the movie Chill Factor released in 1999 starring Skeet Ulrich and Cuba Gooding , Jr .

= Gene =

A gene is a locus ( or region ) of DNA which is made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit of heredity . The transmission of genes to an organism 's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits . Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes ( many different genes ) as well as the gene – environment interactions . Some genetic traits are instantly visible , such as eye colour or number of limbs , and some are not , such as blood type , risk for specific diseases , or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth .

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence , leading to different variants , known as alleles , in the population . These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein , which cause different phenotype traits . Colloquial usage of the term " having a gene " ( e.g. , " good genes , " " hair colour gene " ) typically refers to having a different allele of the gene . Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles .

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered . For example , regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions , and coding regions can be split into several exons . Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non @-@ coding RNAs . Therefore , a broad , modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable , genomic sequence which affect an organism 's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression .

= = History = =

= = = Discovery of discrete inherited units = = =

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 ) . From 1857 to 1864 , he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants , tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring . He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas . Although he did not use the term gene , he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics . This description prefigured the distinction between genotype ( the genetic material of an organism ) and phenotype ( the visible traits of that organism ) . Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment , the distinction between dominant and recessive traits , the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote , and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance .

Prior to Mendel 's work , the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance , which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring . Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis , from Greek pan ( " all , whole " ) and genesis ( " birth " ) / genos ( " origin " ) . Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction .

Mendel 's work went largely unnoticed after its first publication in 1866 , but was rediscovered in the late 19th @-@ century by Hugo de Vries , Carl Correns , and Erich von Tschermak , who ( claimed to have ) reached similar conclusions in their own research . Specifically , in 1889 , Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis , in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles . De Vries called these units " pangenes " ( Pangens in German ) , after Darwin 's 1868 pangenesis theory .

Sixteen years later , in 1905 , the word genetics was first used by William Bateson , while Eduard Strasburger , amongst others , still used the term pangene for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity . In 1909 the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen shortened the name to " gene " .

= = = Discovery of DNA = = =

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century . Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s . The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X @-@ ray crystallography , which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double @-@ stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication . Collectively , this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology , which states that proteins are translated from RNA , which is transcribed from DNA . This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions , such as reverse transcription in retroviruses . The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics .

In 1972 , Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene : the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein . The subsequent development of chain @-@ termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool . An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project .

= = = Modern evolutionary synthesis = = =

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis , a term introduced by Julian Huxley . Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept , such as George C. Williams ' gene @-@ centric view of evolution . He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition : " that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency . " In this view , the molecular gene transcribes as a unit , and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit . Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins .

= = Molecular basis = =

= = = DNA = = =

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) . DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits , each composed of : a five @-@ carbon sugar ( 2 ' -deoxyribose ) , a phosphate group , and one of the four bases adenine , cytosine , guanine , and thymine .

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate @-@ sugar backbone spiralling around the outside , and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine . The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds , whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds . The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary , with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand , and so on .

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases , DNA strands have directionality . One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose ; this is known as the 3 ' end of the molecule . The other end contains an exposed phosphate group ; this is the 5 ' end . The two strands of a double @-@ helix run in opposite directions . Nucleic acid synthesis , including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5 ' → 3 ' direction , because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3 ' hydroxyl as a nucleophile .

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA , a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA , but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose . RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine . RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single @-@ stranded . Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three @-@ nucleotide sequences called codons , which serve as the " words " in the genetic " language " . The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids . The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms .

= = = Chromosomes = = =

The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome , which may be stored on one or more chromosomes . A chromosome consists of a single , very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded . The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus . Each locus contains one allele of a gene ; however , members of a population may have different alleles at the locus , each with a slightly different gene sequence .

The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large , linear chromosomes . The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome . DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin . The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones , as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself , regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression . In addition to genes , eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division : replication origins , telomeres and the centromere . Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome . Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication . The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process . The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division .

Prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) typically store their genomes on a single large , circular chromosome . Similarly , some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes . Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids , which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals . For example , the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells , even those of different species , via horizontal gene transfer .

Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene @-@ dense , those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function . Simple single @-@ celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA , whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms , including humans , contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function . This DNA has often been referred to as " junk DNA " . However , more recent analyses suggest that , although protein @-@ coding DNA makes up barely 2 % of the human genome , about 80 % of the bases in the genome may be expressed , so the term " junk DNA " may be a misnomer .

= = Structure and function = =

The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part . These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA .

Firstly , flanking the open reading frame , all genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression . In order to be expressed , genes require a promoter sequence . The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription . A gene can have more than one promoter , resulting in messenger RNAs ( mRNA ) that differ in how far they extend in the 5 ' end . Promoter regions have a consensus sequence , however highly transcribed genes have " strong " promoter sequences that bind the transcription machinery well , whereas others have " weak " promoters that bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently . Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters .

Additionally , genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame . These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence ( and bound transcription factor ) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site . For example , enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter ; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase .

The transcribed pre @-@ mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site , terminator and start and stop codons . In addition , most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated . The sequences at the ends of the introns , dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product .

Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons , with multiple protein @-@ coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit . The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network .

= = = Functional definitions = = =

Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult . Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity . Similarly , a gene 's introns can be much larger than its exons . Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome .

Early work in molecular genetics suggested the model that one gene makes one protein . This model has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans @-@ splicing .

A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena , where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products . This definition categorizes genes by their functional products ( proteins or RNA ) rather than their specific DNA loci , with regulatory elements classified as gene @-@ associated regions .

= = Gene expression = =

In all organisms , two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene 's DNA and produce the protein it specifies . First , the gene 's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA ( mRNA ) . Second , that mRNA is translated to protein . RNA @-@ coding genes must still go through the first step , but are not translated into protein . The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression , and the resulting molecule is called a gene product .

= = = Genetic code = = =

The nucleotide sequence of a gene 's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code . Sets of three nucleotides , known as codons , each correspond to a specific amino acid . Additionally , a " start codon " , and three " stop codons " indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region . There are 64 possible codons ( four possible nucleotides at each of three positions , hence 43 possible codons ) and only 20 standard amino acids ; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid . The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms .

= = = Transcription = = =

Transcription produces a single @-@ stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA , whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed . The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product . The gene 's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA . The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene 's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand . Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase , which reads the template strand in the 3 ' to 5 ' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5 ' to 3 ' . To initiate transcription , the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene . Thus , a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region , either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase , or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible .

In prokaryotes , transcription occurs in the cytoplasm ; for very long transcripts , translation may begin at the 5 ' end of the RNA while the 3 ' end is still being transcribed . In eukaryotes , transcription occurs in the nucleus , where the cell 's DNA is stored . The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post @-@ transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation . One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein . Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins . This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes .

= = = Translation = = =

Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein . Translation is carried out by ribosomes , large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds . The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time , in units called codons , via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA ( tRNA ) . Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA . The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon . When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand , the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain , which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus . During and after synthesis , most new proteins must folds to their active three @-@ dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions .

= = = Regulation = = =

Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed , since expression draws on limited resources . A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment ( e.g. available nutrients , temperature and other stresses ) , its internal environment ( e.g. cell division cycle , metabolism , infection status ) , and its specific role if in a multicellular organism . Gene expression can be regulated at any step : from transcriptional initiation , to RNA processing , to post @-@ translational modification of the protein . The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli ( lac operon ) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961 .

= = = RNA genes = = =

A typical protein @-@ coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product . In other cases , the RNA molecules are the actual functional products , as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA . Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function , and microRNA has a regulatory role . The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non @-@ coding RNA genes .

Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA , and contain no DNA at all . Because they use RNA to store genes , their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription . On the other hand , RNA retroviruses , such as HIV , require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized . RNA @-@ mediated epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in plants and very rarely in animals .

= = Inheritance = =

Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent .

= = = Mendelian inheritance = = =

According to Mendelian inheritance , variations in an organism 's phenotype ( observable physical and behavioral characteristics ) are due in part to variations in its genotype ( particular set of genes ) . Each gene specifies a particular trait with different sequence of a gene ( alleles ) giving rise to different phenotypes . Most eukaryotic organisms ( such as the pea plants Mendel worked on ) have two alleles for each trait , one inherited from each parent .

Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive ; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait , whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele . For example , if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems , then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems . Mendel 's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes , or germ cells , ensuring variation in the next generation . Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes ( including a number of well @-@ known genetic disorders ) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division .

= = = DNA replication and cell division = = =

The growth , development , and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division , or the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells . This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication . The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases , which " read " one strand of the double @-@ helical DNA , known as the template strand , and synthesize a new complementary strand . Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing , the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement ; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy . The process of DNA replication is semiconservative ; that is , the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA .

After DNA replication is complete , the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane @-@ bound cells . In prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission , in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane @-@ bound portions . Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes . Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle ; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase , whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase .

= = = Molecular inheritance = = =

The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance , and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes . Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents ' cells . In asexually reproducing organisms , the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism . In sexually reproducing organisms , a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid , or contain only one copy of each gene . The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova , and those produced by males are called sperm . Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg , a single cell that has two sets of genes , with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father .

During the process of meiotic cell division , an event called genetic recombination or crossing @-@ over can sometimes occur , in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding sister chromatid . This has no effect if the alleles on the chromatids are the same , but results in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles if they are different . The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent 's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes ; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait . This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome , or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome . The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome , the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together ; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them . This is known as genetic linkage .

= = Molecular evolution = =

= = = Mutation = = =

DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate , however errors ( mutations ) do occur . The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10 − 8 per nucleotide per replication , whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10 − 3 . This means that each generation , each human genome accumulates 1 – 2 new mutations . Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted . Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense ( change a codon to encode a different amino acid ) or nonsense ( a premature stop codon ) . Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication , deletion , rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome . Additionally , the DNA repair mechanisms that normally revert mutations can introduce errors when repairing the physical damage to the molecule is more important than restoring an exact copy , for example when repairing double @-@ strand breaks .

When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species 's population it is called polymorphic . Most different alleles are functionally equivalent , however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits . A gene 's most common allele is called the wild type , and rare alleles are called mutants . The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift . The wild @-@ type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles , nor is it necessarily fitter .

Most mutations within genes are neutral , having no effect on the organism 's phenotype ( silent mutations ) . Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid ( synonymous mutations ) . Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes , but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid ( e.g. conservative mutations ) . Many mutations , however , are deleterious or even lethal , and are removed from populations by natural selection . Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual , or can be inherited . Finally , a small fraction of mutations are beneficial , improving the organism 's fitness and are extremely important for evolution , since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution .

= = = Sequence homology = = =

Genes with a most recent common ancestor , and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry , are known as homologs . These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism 's genome , where they are known as paralogous genes , or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event , where they are known as orthologous genes , and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms . It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes , although the difference is minimal .

The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA . The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence . Most changes to a gene 's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution . Additionally , any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate . Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly . The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related .

= = = Origins of new genes = = =

The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication , which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome . The resulting genes ( paralogs ) may then diverge in sequence and in function . Sets of genes formed in this way comprise a gene family . Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity . Sometimes , gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene , or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function ; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes .

De novo or " orphan " genes , whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes , are extremely rare . Estimates of the number of de novo genes in the human genome range from 18 to 60 . Such genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes , with few if any introns . Two primary sources of orphan protein @-@ coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change , such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons , and formation through mutation of " cryptic " transcription start sites that introduce a new open reading frame in a region of the genome that did not previously code for a protein .

Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction . This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes , sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication . It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance , virulence , and adaptive metabolic functions . Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes , likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin .

= = Genome = =

The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non @-@ coding sequences .

= = = Number of genes = = =

The genome size , and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms . The smallest genomes occur in viruses ( which can have as few as 2 protein @-@ coding genes ) , and viroids ( which act as a single non @-@ coding RNA gene ) . Conversely , plants can have extremely large genomes , with rice containing > 46 @,@ 000 protein @-@ coding genes . The total number of protein @-@ coding genes ( the Earth 's proteome ) is estimated to be 5 million sequences .

Although the number of base @-@ pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s , the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes , and methods of detecting them have been refined . Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 transcribed genes ( expressed sequence tags ) . Subsequently , the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes , and the total number of protein @-@ coding genes was revised down to ~ 20 @,@ 000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome . Of the human genome , only 1 – 2 % consists of protein @-@ coding genes , with the remainder being ' noncoding ' DNA such as introns , retrotransposons , and noncoding RNAs.Every organism has all his genes in all cells of his body but it is not important that every gene must function in every cell .

= = = Essential genes = = =

Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism 's survival . This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress . Only a small portion of an organism 's genes are essential . In bacteria , an estimated 250 – 400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis , which is less than 10 % of their genes . Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis . In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher , at 1000 genes ( ~ 20 % of their genes ) . Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes , mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes ( ~ 10 % of their genes ) . The synthetic organism , Syn 3 , has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi @-@ essential genes ( necessary for fast growth ) , although 149 have unknown function .

Essential genes include Housekeeping genes ( critical for basic cell functions ) as well as genes that are expressed at different times in the organisms development or life cycle . Housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression , since they are constitutively expressed at a relatively constant level .

= = = Genetic and genomic nomenclature = = =

Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee ( HGNC ) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol ( short @-@ form abbreviation ) , which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC . Symbols are chosen to be unique , and each gene has only one symbol ( although approved symbols sometimes change ) . Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species , particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism .

= = Genetic engineering = =

Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism 's genome through biotechnology . Since the 1970s , a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add , remove and edit genes in an organism . Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired . The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism .

Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms . For example , genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene 's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene 's function . Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture , industrial biotechnology , and medicine .

For multicellular organisms , typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism . However , the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases .

= Dynamics of the celestial spheres =

Ancient , medieval and Renaissance astronomers and philosophers developed many different theories about the dynamics of the celestial spheres . They explained the motions of the various nested spheres in terms of the materials of which they were made , external movers such as celestial intelligences , and internal movers such as motive souls or impressed forces . Most of these models were qualitative , although a few of them incorporated quantitative analyses that related speed , motive force and resistance .

= = The celestial material and its natural motions = =

In considering the physics of the celestial spheres , scholars followed two different views about the material composition of the celestial spheres . For Plato , the celestial regions were made " mostly out of fire " on account of fire 's mobility . Later Platonists , such as Plotinus , maintained that although fire moves naturally upward in a straight line toward its natural place at the periphery of the universe , when it arrived there , it would either rest or move naturally in a circle . This account was compatible with Aristotle 's meteorology of a fiery region in the upper air , dragged along underneath the circular motion of the lunar sphere . For Aristotle , however , the spheres themselves were made entirely of a special fifth element , Aether ( Αἰθήρ ) , the bright , untainted upper atmosphere in which the gods dwell , as distinct from the dense lower atmosphere , Aer ( Ἀήρ ) . While the four terrestrial elements ( earth , water , air and fire ) gave rise to the generation and corruption of natural substances by their mutual transformations , aether was unchanging , moving always with a uniform circular motion that was uniquely suited to the celestial spheres , which were eternal . Earth and water had a natural heaviness ( gravitas ) , which they expressed by moving downward toward the center of the universe . Fire and air had a natural lightness ( levitas ) , such that they moved upward , away from the center . Aether , being neither heavy nor light , moved naturally around the center .

= = The causes of celestial motion = =

As early as Plato , philosophers considered the heavens to be moved by immaterial agents . Plato believed the cause to be a world @-@ soul , created according to mathematical principles , which governed the daily motion of the heavens ( the motion of the Same ) and the opposed motions of the planets along the zodiac ( the motion of the Different ) . Aristotle proposed the existence of divine unmoved movers which act as final causes ; the celestial spheres mimic the movers , as best they could , by moving with uniform circular motion . In his Metaphysics , Aristotle maintained that an individual unmoved mover would be required to insure each individual motion in the heavens . While stipulating that the number of spheres , and thus gods , is subject to revision by astronomers , he estimated the total as 47 or 55 , depending on whether one followed the model of Eudoxus or Callippus . In On the Heavens , Aristotle presented an alternate view of eternal circular motion as moving itself , in the manner of Plato 's world @-@ soul , which lent support to three principles of celestial motion : an internal soul , an external unmoved mover , and the celestial material ( aether ) .

= = = Later Greek interpreters = = =

In his Planetary Hypotheses , Ptolemy ( c.90 – 168 ) rejected the Aristotelian concept of an external prime mover , maintaining instead that the planets have souls and move themselves with a voluntary motion . Each planet sends out motive emissions that direct its own motion and the motions of the epicycle and deferent that make up its system , just as a bird sends out emissions to its nerves that direct the motions of its feet and wings .

John Philoponus ( 490 – 570 ) considered that the heavens were made of fire , not of aether , yet maintained that circular motion is one of the two natural motions of fire . In a theological work , On the Creation of the World ( De opificio mundi ) , he denied that the heavens are moved by either a soul or by angels , proposing that " it is not impossible that God , who created all these things , imparted a motive force to the Moon , the Sun , and other stars – just as the inclination to heavy and light bodies , and the movements due to the internal soul to all living beings – in order that the angels do not move them by force . " This is interpreted as an application of the concept of impetus to the motion of the celestial spheres . In an earlier commentary on Aristotle 's Physics , Philoponus compared the innate power or nature that accounts for the rotation of the heavens to the innate power or nature that accounts for the fall of rocks .

= = = Islamic interpreters = = =

The Persian philosophers al @-@ Farabi ( c.872 – c.950 ) and Avicenna ( c.980 – 1037 ) , following Plotinus , maintained that Aristotle 's movers , called intelligences , came into being through a series of emanations beginning with God . A first intelligence emanated from God , and from the first intelligence emanated a sphere , its soul , and a second intelligence . The process continued down through the celestial spheres until the sphere of the Moon , its soul , and a final intelligence . They considered that each sphere was moved continually by its soul , seeking to emulate the perfection of its intelligence . Avicenna maintained that besides an intelligence and its soul , each sphere was also moved by a natural inclination ( mayl ) .

An interpreter of Aristotle from Muslim Spain , al @-@ Bitruji ( d. c.1024 ) , proposed a radical transformation of astronomy that did away with epicycles and eccentrics , in which the celestial spheres were driven by a single unmoved mover at the periphery of the universe . The spheres thus moved with a " natural nonviolent motion " . The mover 's power diminished with increasing distance from the periphery so that the lower spheres lagged behind in their daily motion around the Earth ; this power reached even as far as the sphere of water , producing the tides .

More influential for later Christian thinkers were the teachings of Averroes ( 1126 – 1198 ) , who agreed with Avicenna that the intelligences and souls combine to move the spheres but rejected his concept of emanation . Considering how the soul acts , he maintained that the soul moves its sphere without effort , for the celestial material has no tendency to a contrary motion .

Later in the century , a commentator on the Islamic theologian Adud al @-@ Din al @-@ Iji ( 1281 – 1355 ) rejected non @-@ religious science and astronomy , following the Ash 'ari doctrine of occasionalism , which maintained that all physical effects were caused directly by God 's will rather than by natural causes . He maintained that the celestial spheres were " imaginary things " and " more tenuous than a spider 's web " .

= = = Medieval Western Europe = = =

In the Early Middle Ages , Plato 's picture of the heavens was dominant among European philosophers , which led Christian thinkers to question the role and nature of the world @-@ soul . With the recovery of Aristotle 's works in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries , Aristotle 's views supplanted the earlier Platonism , and a new set of questions regarding the relationships of the unmoved movers to the spheres and to God emerged .

In the early phases of the Western recovery of Aristotle , Robert Grosseteste ( c.1175 – 1253 ) , influenced by medieval Platonism and by the astronomy of al @-@ Bitruji , rejected the idea that the heavens are moved by either souls or intelligences . Adam Marsh 's ( c.1200 – 1259 ) treatise On the Ebb and Flow of the Sea , which was formerly attributed to Grosseteste , maintained al @-@ Bitruji 's opinion that the celestial spheres and the seas are moved by a peripheral mover whose motion weakens with distance .

Thomas Aquinas ( c.1225 – 1274 ) , following Avicenna , interpreted Aristotle to mean that there were two immaterial substances responsible for the motion of each celestial sphere , a soul that was an integral part of its sphere , and an intelligence that was separate from its sphere . The soul shares the motion of its sphere and causes the sphere to move through its love and desire for the unmoved separate intelligence . Avicenna , al @-@ Ghazali , Moses Maimonides , and most Christian scholastic philosophers identified Aristotle 's intelligences with the angels of revelation , thereby associating an angel with each of the spheres . Moreover , Aquinas rejected the idea that celestial bodies are moved by an internal nature , similar to the heaviness and lightness that moves terrestrial bodies . Attributing souls to the spheres was theologically controversial , as that could make them animals . After the Condemnations of 1277 , most philosophers came to reject the idea that the celestial spheres had souls .

Robert Kilwardby ( c . 1215 – 1279 ) discussed three alternative explanations of the motions of the celestial spheres , rejecting the views that celestial bodies are animated and are moved by their own spirits or souls , or that the celestial bodies are moved by angelic spirits , which govern and move them . He maintained , instead , that " celestial bodies are moved by their own natural inclinations similar to weight " . Just as heavy bodies are naturally moved by their own weight , which is an intrinsic active principle , so the celestial bodies are naturally moved by a similar intrinsic principle . Since the heavens are spherical , the only motion that could be natural to them is rotation . Kilwardby 's idea had been earlier held by another Oxford scholar , John Blund ( c . 1175 – 1248 ) .

In two slightly different discussions , John Buridan ( c.1295 – 1358 ) suggested that when God created the celestial spheres , he began to move them , impressing in them a circular impetus that would be neither corrupted nor diminished , since there was neither an inclination to other movements nor any resistance in the celestial region . He noted that this would allow God to rest on the seventh day , but he left the matter to be resolved by the theologians .

Nicole Oresme ( c.1323 @-@ 1382 ) explained the motion of the spheres in traditional terms of the action of intelligences but noted that , contrary to Aristotle , some intelligences are moved ; for example , the intelligence that moves the Moon 's epicycle shares the motion of the lunar orb in which the epicycle is embedded . He related the spheres ' motions to the proportion of motive power to resistance that was impressed in each sphere when God created the heavens . In discussing the relation of the moving power of the intelligence , the resistance of the sphere , and the circular velocity , he said " this ratio ought not to be called a ratio of force to resistance except by analogy , because an intelligence moves by will alone ... and the heavens do not resist it . "

According to Grant , except for Oresme , scholastic thinkers did not consider the force @-@ resistance model to be properly applicable to the motion of celestial bodies , although some , such as Bartholomeus Amicus , thought analogically in terms of force and resistance . By the end of the Middle Ages it was the common opinion among philosophers that the celestial bodies were moved by external intelligences , or angels , and not by some kind of an internal mover .

= = = The movers and Copernicanism = = =

Although Nicolaus Copernicus ( 1473 – 1543 ) transformed Ptolemaic astronomy and Aristotelian cosmology by moving the Earth from the center of the universe , he retained both the traditional model of the celestial spheres and the medieval Aristotelian views of the causes of its motion . Copernicus follows Aristotle to maintain that circular motion is natural to the form of a sphere . However , he also appears to have accepted the traditional philosophical belief that the spheres are moved by an external mover .

Johannes Kepler 's ( 1571 – 1630 ) cosmology eliminated the celestial spheres , but he held that the planets were moved both by an external motive power , which he located in the Sun , and a motive soul associated with each planet . In an early manuscript discussing the motion of Mars , Kepler considered the Sun to cause the circular motion of the planet . He then attributed the inward and outward motion of the planet , which transforms its overall motion from circular to oval , to a moving soul in the planet since the motion is " not a natural motion , but more of an animate one " . In various writings , Kepler often attributed a kind of intelligence to the inborn motive faculties associated with the stars .

In the aftermath of Copernicanism the planets came to be seen as bodies moving freely through a very subtle aethereal medium . Although many scholastics continued to maintain that intelligences were the celestial movers , they now associated the intelligences with the planets themselves , rather than with the celestial spheres .

= Greg Wohlwend =

Greg Wohlwend is an American independent video game developer and artist whose games include Threes ! , Ridiculous Fishing , Hundreds , Gasketball , Puzzlejuice , and Solipskier . He originally formed Intuition Games with Iowa State University classmate Mike Boxleiter in 2007 where they worked on Dinowaurs and other small Adobe Flash games . Trained as an artist , Wohlwend worked mainly on the visual assets . As Mikengreg , they released Solipskier ( 2010 , iOS ) , whose success let the two take a more experimental approach with Gasketball , which did not fare as well . At the same time , Wohlwend collaborated with Asher Vollmer to make Puzzlejuice and with Adam Saltsman to make Hundreds based on Wohlwend 's first game design . He later released Threes ! with Vollmer in 2014 to critical acclaim . He was named among Forbes ' 2014 " 30 under 30 " in the games industry . Mikengreg released TouchTone in 2015 following two years of development .

= = Career = =

Wohlwend studied graphic design at Iowa State University and graduated in 2008 . He has described his aesthetic as " simple and elegant " , and has said about his practice that he is not good at character design and that he prefers to work with vector file formats in Adobe Illustrator so that the images can work at all resolutions . Wohlwend also feels that creativity is a skill that is cultivated and not inborn . He has been influenced by his lifelong experience playing video games , and his favorite game is Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn . His writings on the lifestyle required for indie development have been noted by games journalists . Wohlwend was named among Forbes ' 2014 " 30 under 30 " in the games industry .

= = = Intuition and Mikengreg = = =

Wohlwend met Mike Boxleiter in an experimental video game development class they took together at Iowa State University . Wohlwend had attempted to help Boxleiter with a project , but quit after drawing a few aliens . They met again as coworkers at the university 's Virtual Reality Application Center during Boxleiter 's final year of college . Upon discovering their close interests , they began to work on an Adobe Flash game named Dinowaurs while they completed college . So as to make money while they worked on the game , they founded Intuition Games at the university 's Research Park around May 2007 . They decided to stay in Ames , Iowa due to its financial feasibility and local connections , but two other team members ( friends from Iowa State ) lived farther away . They saw Flash games as an easy entry point into full @-@ time self @-@ employment , but planned to eventually work on console platforms such as WiiWare .

In their development process , Boxleiter and Wohlwend both proposed and worked on each other 's ideas , and would drop the ideas they found unexciting . Wohlwend said they often argued over aspects of their games , which he found normal and natural . Their labor as a team was divided in that Wohlwend always did the art and Boxleiter the programming , as reflective of their skills at the time . The pair agreed to an assessment of their partnership as " left @-@ brain right @-@ brain " , and saw the majority of their joint work as " editing " . Aside from the business aspects , they were grateful to have the " creative freedom " to do their own work . Wohlwend appreciated the benefits of not doing contract work , but struggled with the relative " isolation " of having few colleagues , a low salary , and job instability . He disagreed with the " cinematic action games " he saw to be popular at the time and hoped to contribute more compelling ideas to the young industry . They thought of themselves as artists and of their work as experimental . Boxleiter and Wohlwend worked long hours when making the Flash games , which they found exciting and unsustainable . At Intuition , they worked on games such as Dinowaurs , Gray , Fig . 8 , and Lifecraft and participated in at least six game jams . As of April 2010 , they had created 10 games together .

Intuition 's first game , Dinowaurs , is a Flash @-@ based strategy and action game where two players compete as dinosaurs to seize the most cavemen settlements so as to upgrade their own capacity and eventually kill the other dinosaur . It features online matchmaking . The concept came from one of Boxleiter 's unfinished projects and another Intuition member 's drawing of a stegosaurus with a jetpack . The team was funded then @-@ new Flash site Kongregate by November 2007 as one of the first five games for Kongregate platform . It was finished in two years for a 2009 release . IndieGames.com reported mixed reviews from players .

Their later games would only take a few months each , in comparison . They abandoned the use of design documents after Dinowaurs , and instead chose to refine and experiment in process . Intuition released Effing Hail and Gray around April 2009 . Players in action game Effing Hail control hail and wind to destroy the most buildings and midair objects within a time limit . The game was published through Kongregate . In Gray , players control a single character and try to end a riot by influencing other individuals in the crowd . The game was featured at IndieCade in 2009 . In the case of Fig . 8 . , Wohlwend thought of the idea based on a college art project . In the project , Wohlwend followed a bike trail in the snow , metaphorically related it to the tribulations of romantic relationship , and made an art installation involving a bike spray @-@ painted black with two errant red and blue tracks painted on the floor . The concept went unused on their whiteboard for four months until they needed an idea , whereupon Boxleiter added game mechanics to the visuals . In their next game , Liferaft , the player @-@ character is a young woman set to escape " a post @-@ apocalyptic sci @-@ fi ... test chamber " , with core gameplay that revolves around a " Bionic Commando @-@ style grappling hook " . Wohlwend used a 16 @-@ bit era graphics style . They sought crowdfunding from Kickstarter , but later canceled and put the project on hiatus in October 2009 .

In March 2010 and under the moniker Mikengreg , Boxleiter and Wohlwend 's 4fourths was selected for Kokoromi 's Gamma IV showcase . Based on the showcase 's " one button game " theme , four players control two spaceships using one button apiece to cooperatively destroy enemy ships . It was Michael Rose of IndieGame.com 's favorite game of the Gamma IV selections , was later displayed at the 2010 Game Developers Conference and in Brandon Boyer 's 2011 Wild Rumpus event .

Mikengreg announced Liferaft : Zero and Solipskier in November 2010 . The former is a " prequel teaser " to Liferaft : a game of trial @-@ based challenges with wall @-@ jumping and grappling wherein girl clones attempt to swing and jump around test chambers to reach and ring a bell . Wohlwend and Boxleiter made the shorter version to limit the scope creep of the overall project . IndieGames.com named the Flash game their third best browser platformer of the year . Their other game , 4fourths , was put on hiatus for lack of resources . They were interested in making games outside the Flash market .

= = = Solipskier = = =

Their first game as Mikengreg was the sport @-@ inspired Solipskier , where the player 's finger draws the ground for the on @-@ screen skier to pass through a level filled with gates , tunnels , and walls . It was designed as a Flash game , which set the limitations for its mechanics . The game concept came from a brainstorming session about parallax scrolling , and was revised in fits of creativity . They paired the parallax scrolling with speed and began to prototype . Wohlwend saved the skier 's character design for last since he felt it was his weakest area . Mikengreg then decided to develop for iOS in addition to Flash , and to release both versions simultaneously . It was released simultaneously for Kongregate ( Flash ) and iOS on August 29 , 2010 . Solipskier became their first game to receive public appreciation . The iOS version made around $ 70 @,@ 000 in its first two months ( as compared to $ 15 @,@ 000 from the Flash release ) , which gave them enough stability to branch out into non @-@ Flash platforms .

= = = Gasketball = = =

Riding the earnings from Solipskier , Mikengreg continued to pay themselves their same salary but now had the means to try new ideas . Wohlwend estimated that they discarded about six " fairly polished prototypes " over the development of their next game , Gasketball . They were able to live on $ 20 – 25 @,@ 000 a year each in Iowa for the next two years while working on the new game . Wohlwend made somewhat more income due to other collaborations , such as Puzzlejuice with Asher Vollmer , but shared his income with Boxleiter . Even though Solipskier was successful , the duo did not have a following comparable to indie developers like Team Meat and thus felt like their external pressure was low . Instead , their pressure was internal . Wohlwend said he worked 100 @-@ hour weeks with no weekends or vacations while living off of the Solipskier funds . In making Gasketball , Boxleiter and Wohlwend felt that their game quality had improved continually , but found the idea of a million @-@ person audience " daunting " . Wohlwend questioned whether he could even recreate Solipskier 's success . When they ran out of money , Boxleiter borrowed money from his parents , and eventually they both went homeless , living off of the couches of friends .

Gasketball was released for iPad on August 9 , 2012 . They had decided to release the game as an ethically non @-@ coercive free @-@ to @-@ play game , with a free base game and in @-@ app purchases for the extended content . Not as many players paid for the content as expected . This was due , in part , to the players ' difficulty in finding the purchase function . The game had been downloaded 200 @,@ 000 times in its August 2012 launch week and was briefly ranked near the top of an iTunes top downloads ranking , though it did not break the top 200 grossing chart .

= = = Puzzlejuice = = =

Wohlwend began to collaborate with Asher Vollmer when Vollmer reached out to Wohlwend for aesthetic advice on a game he was designing , Puzzlejuice . The game has been compared to a cross between Boggle , Tetris , and tile @-@ matching , where tetromino blocks fall from the top of the screen that players turn into letters and rearrange into words . Wohlwend and Vollmer communicated nonverbally through the entire development process via a 365 @-@ message email chain . Vollmer served as the game 's programmer , Wohlwend as the artist , and Jimmy Hinson as the composer . Puzzlejuice was selected for the PAX 10 , a spotlighted group of indie games , in July 2012 . It was released as a universal app for iPhone and iPad on January 19 , 2012 .

= = = Hundreds = = =

Upon finishing his role as artist on Solipskier , Wohlwend wanted to experiment with game programming by designing his own game . He developed Hundreds from an idea he had while staring at a ceiling , where he imagined a circle growing without overlapping another when growing . He found this to be a good core game concept and based the game around " patience and persistence " . The game 's style inadvertently borrowed from his first year in art school , where Wohlwend composed in black , white , and red so as to focus on composition rather than color . While Wohlwend 's design style is " simple and elegant " , the game 's minimalism was also functional due to his inexperience with programming . The code was " brute forced " and written in a single file . He finished Hundreds as a Flash game in 2010 , but when Flash sites were not interested in purchasing it , Wohlwend chose to open source the code ( partly with the intent to spur " non @-@ coders " to try coding , as he had ) . This version is available online at Newgrounds .

At a lull in @-@ between projects , programmer Eric Johnson of Semi Secret Software found the open source code and ported the game to iPad in a weekend before notifying Wohlwend . At the time , Wohlwend did not have an iOS device to test the port , and had to purchase an iPad . Johnson 's iPad version spurred Wohlwend to consider how Hundreds would work with multitouch and cooperative play , and Semi Secret 's Adam Saltsman to consider a Hundreds collaborative iOS release . The project was intended to be a quick level expansion , but quickly surpassed its several month estimate . Wohlwend and Saltsman extended the game 's mechanics with new circles and puzzles , and many of their implemented ideas were later removed . Wohlwend was happy with the final result and credited the game 's " emergent interaction " qualities to Saltsman . They built on each other 's level designs , though Wohlwend said that Saltsman made " basically all the levels " . The new team enjoyed working with each other .

In Hundreds , players touch circles to make them grow without overlapping . There are 100 puzzles that increase in complexity . The Flash version was much simpler in design , and added circles onscreen as the game progressed . The iOS version added a new gameplay mode and a narrative element based on ciphers and codes , and was released on January 7 , 2013 for iPhone and iPad , and later for Android . It was nominated for several Independent Games Festival awards , and The Atlantic critic Ian Bogost wrote that the game functioned like a design object , a feat unique for the video game medium .

= = = Ridiculous Fishing = = =

Wohlwend produced the art for Vlambeer 's Ridiculous Fishing . The four @-@ person team — Vlambeer designer Jan Willem Nijman and marketer Rami Ismail alongside iOS developer Zach Gage — was described by games journalists as an " indie supergroup " and a " dream team " . In Ridiculous Fishing , the player uses motion and touch controls to catch fish and consequently shoot them out of the sky for cash . The game is known for its developers ' battle against a cloned version of their game released by another company . The team worked separately and sporadically with little progress as disheartened by their cloned game predicament , until an August 2012 road trip home across the United States from Penny Arcade Expo in Seattle to New York convinced the team to set a deadline . They scrapped " 90 percent " of their work , and Wohlwend moved to New York City to live with Gage and work 14 @-@ hour days during the final weeks .

The last parts of Ridiculous Fishing assembled smoothly and it was released March 14 , 2013 for iOS and later that year for Android . It was well received at launch with " near @-@ universal perfect scores " and won both a 2013 Apple Design Award and Apple 's iPhone game of the year . While IGN 's Justin Davis thought the game 's levels could have been more differentiated in theme and art style , he found the " almost cubist design ... absolutely gorgeous " . Welsh of Eurogamer agreed that Wohlwend 's art was " achingly cool " and reflected a " retro and minimalist " indie gaming trend without overpowering the gameplay .

= = = Threes ! = = =

Wohlwend , Vollmer , and Hinson of Puzzlejuice collaborated again on Threes ! , a game where the player slides numbered tiles on a four @-@ by @-@ four grid to combine addends and multiples of three . Its development began before Ridiculous Fishing 's March 2013 release . Vollmer presented an idea similar to the final product in its simplicity : pair tiles as multiples of three . The first prototype was written in a single night . Vollmer and Wohlwend spent at least half a year of the game 's 14 @-@ month development iterating on this main idea . Early Threes designs had no inclination towards minimalism : the pair felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players . Wohlwend sent Vollmer designs with themes such as sushi , chess , broccoli and cheese soup , and hydrogen atoms , which confused their test audiences . They received a " wake @-@ up call " from fellow game designer Zach Gage , who encouraged them to return from their foray into complexity . The final game returned to its original theme of numbers . Speaking in retrospect , Wohlwend said the game " always wanted to be simple " . He noted that players " think math " upon seeing the game 's numbers , though the game is more about " spatial relationships " and just happens to have a " number theme " .

When returning to the fundamental and original game concept — pairing tiles as multiples of three — the developers felt their experiments informed their final game development decisions . The theme of individual tile personalities extended to the final version , as tiles have faces and express emotions when paired . For example , the 384 tile has a pirate personality with a large tooth and a pirate eyepatch . Of the development process , Wohlwend called it " tough and frustrating and sometimes hard to see if it was worth it " . It was released for iOS on February 6 , 2014 and later ported to Android , with an Xbox One version announced as in development . The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . Re / code reported that it " dominated " the chart in the following weeks and became one of the 25 highest grossing apps on the App Store . It later won a 2014 Apple Design Award .

= = = TouchTone = = =

After Gasketball 's 2012 release , Boxleiter and Wohlwend planned a celebratory road trip to a game jam in Victoria , British Columbia . The game did not fare as expected , so Boxleiter used the two @-@ day jam to create the core mirror reflection mechanics of what would become TouchTone , though it would take two years of sporadic work to finalize the remainder of the game . In TouchTone , the player monitors phone calls as part of a government surveillance program to find public threats . The story is told through a series of reflection puzzles wherein the player swipes the screen to reflect a beam around a room to its intended destination .

Mikengreg felt that their first theme of light , prisms , and audio signal too closely mimicked " a hacking minigame from a bigger AAA game like BioShock or System Shock " , but eventually paired the concept with a satirical Edward Snowden theme following the mid @-@ 2013 global surveillance disclosures . Their original efforts were jocular , but their concept became more serious as the story and " political message " grew deeper . Boxleiter wrote most of the script , and together with Wohlwend , would conference after each chapter for coherency . Mikengreg decided against including an option to skip puzzles , which they felt would spoil the game and the player 's capacity to adapt to increasing difficulty . They called this philosophy the " Derek Yu ( of Spelunky ) school of game design " . TouchTone was released on March 19 , 2015 for iOS . Review aggregator Metacritic characterized its reviews as generally favorable .

= = = TumbleSeed = = =

As of July 2015 , Wohlwend is collaborating with Benedict Fritz on Tumbleseed , a computer game based on arcade game Ice Cold Beer wherein the player uses four keyboard keys to navigate a seed around holes . The game 's development is part of a Cards Against Humanity game incubation program . Tumbleseed is planned for release in 2015 .

= Vincent and the Doctor =

" Vincent and the Doctor " is the tenth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 5 June 2010 . It was written by Richard Curtis and directed by Jonny Campbell and featured an uncredited guest appearance from actor Bill Nighy .

Intrigued by an ominous figure in one of Vincent van Gogh 's paintings , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) go back in time to meet Van Gogh ( Tony Curran ) and discover that Provence has been plagued by an invisible monster , known as the Krafayis , which only Van Gogh can see . The Doctor and Amy work with Van Gogh to defeat the Krafayis , but in their attempt to have Van Gogh realise his legacy through bringing him to the future they ultimately realise that not all of time can be rewritten and there are some evils which are out of the Doctor 's reach .

Curtis , inspired by the fact that Van Gogh never knew he would be famous , had the idea for an episode centred on him . He left the script open to criticism from the crew and made many revisions as a result . Curtis wanted to portray Van Gogh truthfully , rather than being cruel by writing jokes about his madness . The episode was filmed in Trogir , Croatia and many of the sets were modelled after Van Gogh paintings . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 76 million viewers on BBC One and BBC HD . Reception to the episode varied , ranging from very positive to mixed to very negative . While the amount of emotion in the episode was debated over , most reviewers agreed that the Krafayis was not a threatening monster while Curran 's performance as Van Gogh was immensely praised .

= = Plot = =

= = = Synopsis = = =

The Doctor has taken Amy to the Musée d 'Orsay in Paris , where they admire the work of the post @-@ impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh . The Doctor discovers a seemingly alien figure in a window of the painting The Church at Auvers , and decides they must travel back in time to speak to Vincent around when he painted the painting . In 1890 , they find Vincent at a cafe in Arles , a lonely man with a bad reputation . Vincent opens up when he notices Amy , sensing a loss she herself is not aware of . Outside the cafe a young girl is murdered , when the trio go out to see what happened they are stoned by locals who blame Vincent 's insanity for the killing . The Doctor and Amy talk Vincent into letting them stay the night and they return to his home .

That evening , Vincent confesses that his works have little value to anyone else . He believes the universe is filled with wonders that he must paint , and that he can " hear the colours " . Amy goes outside and is attacked by a beast that only Vincent is able to see . He sketches it for the Doctor , who identifies it as a Krafayis . Knowing the beast will appear when Vincent paints the nearby church the next evening , the Doctor and Amy plan to join him . The next morning , Vincent becomes distraught after being told that The Doctor and Amy won 't be staying long . Vincent shuts himself in his bedroom , saying that everyone leaves him in the end . The Doctor and Amy set out to capture the beast alone , but Vincent soon joins them eager to help . He confides to Amy that if she can " soldier on , then so can Vincent van Gogh " .

Vincent begins creating the painting of the church and soon spots the beast inside . The Doctor demands that Amy stay back as he enters the church alone , but she and Vincent both agree they should help the Doctor . Vincent is able to save the Doctor and Amy , describing the beast 's actions as they hide in the confessionals . The Doctor soon realises from Vincent 's description that the beast is blind , the likely reason it was abandoned on Earth . The beast is impaled on Vincent 's easel when it tries to lunge at the artist . The Doctor attempts to soothe the dying creature while Vincent empathises with its pain . After the creature dies , the three return outside the church and Vincent describes the night sky as he envisions it .

The next day , the Doctor and Amy prepare to leave . Vincent asks Amy to return and marry him should she leave the Doctor . The Doctor offers to show him something . The Doctor and Amy take Vincent in the TARDIS to the present and the Van Gogh exhibit at the Musée d 'Orsay . Vincent is stunned at the display and becomes emotionally overwhelmed when he overhears art curator Dr. Black ( Bill Nighy ) say that Van Gogh was " the greatest painter of them all " and " one of the greatest men who ever lived " . They return an emotionally changed Vincent to the past and say their final goodbyes . As the Doctor and Amy return to the present , Amy is confident that there will be hundreds of new paintings by Vincent waiting for them . She is crushed to learn that Vincent still committed suicide weeks after their adventure , at the age of 37 . The Doctor explains that life is a mixture of bad and good , and while their brief encounter with Vincent couldn 't undo all of the bad , they added some good to his life . The evidence is in Vincent 's displayed works : the face no longer appears in The Church , and now Vase with 12 Sunflowers bears the inscription , " For Amy " .

= = = Continuity = = =

Images of the First and Second Doctors are displayed on the Doctor 's mirror device and printout from the TARDIS ' typewriter . The episode presents these trips as the Doctor 's compensation to Amy for her fiancé Rory Williams ' death in the previous episode , which Amy herself does not remember since Rory was consumed by a crack in the universe and thus erased from time . Van Gogh is able to sense Amy 's sadness at Rory 's death , and the Doctor later accidentally addresses Amy and Vincent as Amy and Rory , respectively .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

Writer Richard Curtis was previously executive producer on the Doctor Who spoof The Curse of Fatal Death , a one @-@ off comedy special written for Comic Relief by current show @-@ runner Steven Moffat . Based on this experience , Moffat asked Curtis to write an episode of Doctor Who . Curtis had enjoyed the show 's historical episodes and felt comfortable writing one . He had the idea of a story centred on Van Gogh for " a long while " and was particularly interested in the fact Van Gogh never knew he would be famous , as well as his inspirational story . Curtis was also interested in depression and the price paid for it . He wanted to convey that the Doctor could rewrite time , but Van Gogh 's " demons " were out of his reach . Moffat was " enthusiastic " about the story idea .

Curtis asked Moffat to criticise " anything and everything " and later said he was very honest . Executive producer Piers Wenger and director Jonny Campbell also critiqued the script . Moffat told Curtis that it needed to " start quicker " and that the meeting with the Doctor and Vincent was " dull " and needed to be something " cute " like Curtis had done in his films . He also noted that the Doctor did not talk as much as Curtis had written and recommended Curtis watch some episodes to see he was " rather efficient in the way that he talked " . Curtis enjoyed the experience , commenting that it was " fun " to work within boundaries rather than doing it all himself . After seeing a read @-@ through performed by leads Matt Smith and Karen Gillan , Curtis made more changes . He commented that it was easy to write for them as they were " so delightful and modern and relaxed " . Curtis 's original title for the episode was " Eyes that See the Darkness " , but he said this was vetoed .

Curtis wanted to write for Doctor Who because he thought it would be " something my kids would like . " When writing " Vincent and the Doctor " , Curtis put up prints of Van Gogh paintings around the house as well as a board with index cards outlining the plot . His children helped him come up with some ideas . Gillan commented that the story had a different style and approach and was more character @-@ driven . Though it was a subject he knew " quite a lot " about , he still read a 200 @-@ page biography of Van Gogh , which was more research than he normally would have done if working on other projects ; he took Van Gogh very seriously . As such , he wanted to be " truthful rather than cruel " and refused to write any jokes about Van Gogh 's ears after he famously cut one of them off . However , he did incorporate other humour as he naturally wanted to " try to make things funny " .

= = = Casting and filming = = =

Curtis stated that casting an actor to play Van Gogh was done carefully , as he wanted him to feel to the audience as Van Gogh , not " like a bloke they ’ ve seen acting lots of other parts , in an orange wig " . Tony Curran was ultimately cast as the part ; Curtis called him a " wonderful actor " who " really could not look more like " Van Gogh . Curran , Smith and Gillan got to know each other very well , which Gillan hoped would be evident in their chemistry in the episode . Bill Nighy appears uncredited as the Musée d 'Orsay 's expert on Van Gogh . Nighy was rumoured to have been considered for the role of the Ninth Doctor when the show was revived . Campbell stated that they were " very fortunate " to have Nighy in the role , who he believed was someone people paid attention to , and the audience needed to pay attention to his character as he said facts which would become important later in the story .

Scenes set in Provence were filmed on location in Trogir , Croatia in the same production block as " The Vampires of Venice " , which sees Trogir depicting 16th @-@ century Venice . Filming took place around November 2009 . The National Museum Cardiff doubled for the interior of the Musée d 'Orsay . Some of the sets were intended to reference paintings , such as Van Gogh 's bedroom . One such set was the café where the Doctor and Amy first meet Van Gogh , which was modelled after the painting Cafe Terrace at Night . This proved challenging for the art department , who extensively looked for a suitable building in Croatia to use . Once they found the one they wanted , they had to redesign it to look like the painting ; this involved putting an awning up , changing the windows , and adding a platform with tables and chairs . The song played during the ending scene is " Chances " by the British rock band Athlete .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Vincent and the Doctor " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 5 June 2010 . Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 million , the second rated show of the day and the first on BBC One . Final consolidated ratings rose to 6 @.@ 76 million , with 6 @.@ 29 on BBC One and a further 0 @.@ 47 on BBC HD . It was the second most watched programme on BBC One and the highest on BBC HD . It was given an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .

After the original broadcast , viewers were offered a helpline if they had been affected by the issues raised in the programme . " Vincent and the Doctor " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 6 September 2010 with " The Lodger " , " The Pandorica Opens " and " The Big Bang " . It was then re @-@ released as part of the Complete Fifth Series boxset on 8 November 2010 .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Since its broadcast , Vincent and the Doctor has received critical acclaim . Dave Golder of SFX magazine gave the episode five out of five stars , calling it " a genuinely magical episode of Who , high on atmosphere ... and bursting with charm " . John Moore , writing on Den of Geek , also took a positive stance towards the episode , describing it as " life @-@ affirming " as a Doctor Who fan , and , though he did criticise some elements of the plot , likewise wrote positively about the ending , ultimately finding the episode " utterly useless , but absolutely art " . Keith Watson in the Metro was surprised by the " impressive imagining of Van Gogh 's world " , praising Curtis ' humour throughout the episode . He also praised the performance by Curran as Van Gogh , feeling that , with regard to Van Gogh 's depression , the producers " pulled it off " against the odds . Mark Lawson of The Guardian praised it as " exceptionally good " and " thrilling and funny , as well as educational " , noting its " historical rigour " and its " good arty jokes " , while Deborah Orr wrote that it was " hardly original for someone to alight on [ Van Gogh 's ] tale as a tear @-@ jerker , although it is pretty shrewd to think of placing it in a popular time @-@ travel context " and that " the feeling that I 'd been gently monstered into life @-@ affirming feel @-@ good sobs by Richard Curtis was not new , not in the least " .

In the mainstream press , Tom Sutcliffe in The Independent praised the episode as " first ingenious and then decidedly poignant " , though he felt some aspects of plot would have wider implications not addressed in the episode , and remained " coldly unfeeling " towards the death of the Krafayis . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian liked the episode , considering Curtis ' dialogue to be " witty and clever " and , despite feeling that some of the moral sentiments expressed during the episode were " as schmaltzy as sugary gloop " , described how the emotion of the episode eventually got to him . The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps gave the episode a B- , explaining that it " didn 't quite work " and suffered from tonal problems . Matt Wales on IGN was also mixed , giving it a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . He was positive toward Curran and Gillan and that the episode " finally gave us a three @-@ dimensional Amy Pond " , but thought the " usually excellent " Smith " didn 't get much to work with " . He also thought that the Krafayis was " a nice idea " for being a metaphor but was not threatening , and he labelled the emotional ending as " self @-@ indulgently mawkish " .

On The Guardian film blog , Peter Bradshaw considered " Vincent and the Doctor " to be a " terrifically clever , funny , likeable wildly surreal episode " . He praised the " unmistakeably [ sic ] Curtis dialogue " and the " uproariously emotional ending of the sort only Richard Curtis could get away with " . Dan Martin on the same paper 's regular Doctor Who blog was more critical , writing that its " main problem [ was ] that it doesn 't feel much like a Doctor Who story " and would have worked better if " the middle section with the monster had been stripped out " . He also criticised the script for its " lashings of weapons @-@ grade sentimentality " and for " throwing up possibilities that weren 't followed up " and the monster as an " afterthought [ posing ] ... no tangible threat " . However , he did praise Curran 's " great performance " along with the episode 's treatment of depression , concluding like Wollaston that he enjoyed the episode despite his misgivings .

One of the most negative reviews came from Gavin Fuller in The Telegraph , who criticised it as a " bland , inconsequential episode that , once it set up what was a decent enough premise ... completely failed to run with it " . He compared it unfavourably with the third series episode " The Shakespeare Code " in being centred round a historical " tormented artist " but wrote that it lacked that episode 's " narrative drive " , with " a serious plot hole " in Van Gogh 's ability to see the creature and that the Krafayis was " the most pointless monsters ever to appear in the series ' long history " . He also criticised Smith 's Doctor and wrote that Van Gogh still committing suicide despite the trip to the Orsay was " nonsensical " . He did , however , praise " the Doctor 's homily about good things and bad things " ( though Sam Wollaston criticised this speech in The Guardian ) and was grateful that Curtis " avoided turning the Doctor into a bumbling Hugh Grant character from his romcoms " , concluding however " he did little else right and a crushing disappointment was the result " .

= = = Awards and nominations = = =

" Vincent and the Doctor " was nominated for the Bradbury Award for Outstanding Dramatic Presentation in the 2010 Nebula Awards and the 2011 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) . It lost both of these ; the Bradbury to the film Inception and the Hugo to the series finale " The Pandorica Opens " / " The Big Bang " . In Canada 's Constellation Awards , Curran was nominated ( alongside Smith ) for Best Actor and Curtis for Best Script ; Curran came in sixth with 10 % of the votes and Curtis came in second , losing out to Christopher Nolan 's Inception by one percent of the vote .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Vincent and the Doctor " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide

= Quantum electrodynamics =

In particle physics , quantum electrodynamics ( QED ) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics . In essence , it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved . QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction .

In technical terms , QED can be described as a perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum . Richard Feynman called it " the jewel of physics " for its extremely accurate predictions of quantities like the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift of the energy levels of hydrogen .

= = History = =

The first formulation of a quantum theory describing radiation and matter interaction is attributed to British scientist Paul Dirac , who ( during the 1920s ) was able to compute the coefficient of spontaneous emission of an atom .

Dirac described the quantization of the electromagnetic field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles . In the following years , with contributions from Wolfgang Pauli , Eugene Wigner , Pascual Jordan , Werner Heisenberg and an elegant formulation of quantum electrodynamics due to Enrico Fermi , physicists came to believe that , in principle , it would be possible to perform any computation for any physical process involving photons and charged particles . However , further studies by Felix Bloch with Arnold Nordsieck , and Victor Weisskopf , in 1937 and 1939 , revealed that such computations were reliable only at a first order of perturbation theory , a problem already pointed out by Robert Oppenheimer . At higher orders in the series infinities emerged , making such computations meaningless and casting serious doubts on the internal consistency of the theory itself . With no solution for this problem known at the time , it appeared that a fundamental incompatibility existed between special relativity and quantum mechanics .

Difficulties with the theory increased through the end of 1940 . Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to take more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom , now known as the Lamb shift and magnetic moment of the electron . These experiments unequivocally exposed discrepancies which the theory was unable to explain .

A first indication of a possible way out was given by Hans Bethe . In 1947 , while he was traveling by train to reach Schenectady from New York , after giving a talk at the conference at Shelter Island on the subject , Bethe completed the first non @-@ relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the hydrogen atom as measured by Lamb and Retherford . Despite the limitations of the computation , agreement was excellent . The idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments . In this way , the infinities get absorbed in those constants and yield a finite result in good agreement with experiments . This procedure was named renormalization .

Based on Bethe 's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Sin @-@ Itiro Tomonaga , Julian Schwinger , Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson , it was finally possible to get fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics . Sin @-@ Itiro Tomonaga , Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman were jointly awarded with a Nobel prize in physics in 1965 for their work in this area . Their contributions , and those of Freeman Dyson , were about covariant and gauge invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory . Feynman 's mathematical technique , based on his diagrams , initially seemed very different from the field @-@ theoretic , operator @-@ based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga , but Freeman Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent . Renormalization , the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals , has subsequently become one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and has come to be seen as a criterion for a theory 's general acceptability . Even though renormalization works very well in practice , Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity , even referring to renormalization as a " shell game " and " hocus pocus " .

QED has served as the model and template for all subsequent quantum field theories . One such subsequent theory is quantum chromodynamics , which began in the early 1960s and attained its present form in the 1975 work by H. David Politzer , Sidney Coleman , David Gross and Frank Wilczek . Building on the pioneering work of Schwinger , Gerald Guralnik , Dick Hagen , and Tom Kibble , Peter Higgs , Jeffrey Goldstone , and others , Sheldon Glashow , Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force .

= = Feynman 's view of quantum electrodynamics = =

= = = Introduction = = =

Near the end of his life , Richard P. Feynman gave a series of lectures on QED intended for the lay public . These lectures were transcribed and published as Feynman ( 1985 ) , QED : The strange theory of light and matter , a classic non @-@ mathematical exposition of QED from the point of view articulated below .

The key components of Feynman 's presentation of QED are three basic actions .

A photon goes from one place and time to another place and time .

An electron goes from one place and time to another place and time .

An electron emits or absorbs a photon at a certain place and time .

These actions are represented in a form of visual shorthand by the three basic elements of Feynman diagrams : a wavy line for the photon , a straight line for the electron and a junction of two straight lines and a wavy one for a vertex representing emission or absorption of a photon by an electron . These can all be seen in the adjacent diagram .

It is important not to over @-@ interpret these diagrams . Nothing is implied about how a particle gets from one point to another . The diagrams do not imply that the particles are moving in straight or curved lines . They do not imply that the particles are moving with fixed speeds . The fact that the photon is often represented , by convention , by a wavy line and not a straight one does not imply that it is thought that it is more wavelike than is an electron . The images are just symbols to represent the actions above : photons and electrons do , somehow , move from point to point and electrons , somehow , emit and absorb photons . We do not know how these things happen , but the theory tells us about the probabilities of these things happening .

As well as the visual shorthand for the actions Feynman introduces another kind of shorthand for the numerical quantities called probability amplitudes . The probability is the square of the total probability amplitude . If a photon moves from one place and time — in shorthand , A — to another place and time — in shorthand , B — the associated quantity is written in Feynman 's shorthand as P ( A to B ) . The similar quantity for an electron moving from C to D is written E ( C to D ) . The quantity which tells us about the probability amplitude for the emission or absorption of a photon he calls ' j ' . This is related to , but not the same as , the measured electron charge ' e ' .

QED is based on the assumption that complex interactions of many electrons and photons can be represented by fitting together a suitable collection of the above three building blocks , and then using the probability amplitudes to calculate the probability of any such complex interaction . It turns out that the basic idea of QED can be communicated while making the assumption that the square of the total of the probability amplitudes mentioned above ( P ( A to B ) , E ( A to B ) and ' j ' ) acts just like our everyday probability . ( A simplification made in Feynman 's book . ) Later on , this will be corrected to include specifically quantum @-@ style mathematics , following Feynman .

The basic rules of probability amplitudes that will be used are that a ) if an event can happen in a variety of different ways then its probability amplitude is the sum of the probability amplitudes of the possible ways and b ) if a process involves a number of independent sub @-@ processes then its probability amplitude is the product of the component probability amplitudes .

= = = Basic constructions = = =

Suppose we start with one electron at a certain place and time ( this place and time being given the arbitrary label A ) and a photon at another place and time ( given the label B ) . A typical question from a physical standpoint is : ' What is the probability of finding an electron at C ( another place and a later time ) and a photon at D ( yet another place and time ) ? ' . The simplest process to achieve this end is for the electron to move from A to C ( an elementary action ) and for the photon to move from B to D ( another elementary action ) . From a knowledge of the probability amplitudes of each of these sub @-@ processes – E ( A to C ) and P ( B to D ) – then we would expect to calculate the probability amplitude of both happening together by multiplying them , using rule b ) above . This gives a simple estimated overall probability amplitude , which is squared to give an estimated probability .

But there are other ways in which the end result could come about . The electron might move to a place and time E where it absorbs the photon ; then move on before emitting another photon at F ; then move on to C where it is detected , while the new photon moves on to D. The probability of this complex process can again be calculated by knowing the probability amplitudes of each of the individual actions : three electron actions , two photon actions and two vertexes – one emission and one absorption . We would expect to find the total probability amplitude by multiplying the probability amplitudes of each of the actions , for any chosen positions of E and F. We then , using rule a ) above , have to add up all these probability amplitudes for all the alternatives for E and F. ( This is not elementary in practice , and involves integration . ) But there is another possibility , which is that the electron first moves to G where it emits a photon which goes on to D , while the electron moves on to H , where it absorbs the first photon , before moving on to C. Again we can calculate the probability amplitude of these possibilities ( for all points G and H ) . We then have a better estimation for the total probability amplitude by adding the probability amplitudes of these two possibilities to our original simple estimate . Incidentally the name given to this process of a photon interacting with an electron in this way is Compton scattering .

There are an infinite number of other intermediate processes in which more and more photons are absorbed and / or emitted . For each of these possibilities there is a Feynman diagram describing it . This implies a complex computation for the resulting probability amplitudes , but provided it is the case that the more complicated the diagram the less it contributes to the result , it is only a matter of time and effort to find as accurate an answer as one wants to the original question . This is the basic approach of QED . To calculate the probability of any interactive process between electrons and photons it is a matter of first noting , with Feynman diagrams , all the possible ways in which the process can be constructed from the three basic elements . Each diagram involves some calculation involving definite rules to find the associated probability amplitude .

That basic scaffolding remains when one moves to a quantum description but some conceptual changes are needed . One is that whereas we might expect in our everyday life that there would be some constraints on the points to which a particle can move , that is not true in full quantum electrodynamics . There is a possibility of an electron at A , or a photon at B , moving as a basic action to any other place and time in the universe . That includes places that could only be reached at speeds greater than that of light and also earlier times . ( An electron moving backwards in time can be viewed as a positron moving forward in time . )

= = = Probability amplitudes = = =

Quantum mechanics introduces an important change in the way probabilities are computed . Probabilities are still represented by the usual real numbers we use for probabilities in our everyday world , but probabilities are computed as the square of probability amplitudes . Probability amplitudes are complex numbers .

Feynman avoids exposing the reader to the mathematics of complex numbers by using a simple but accurate representation of them as arrows on a piece of paper or screen . ( These must not be confused with the arrows of Feynman diagrams which are actually simplified representations in two dimensions of a relationship between points in three dimensions of space and one of time . ) The amplitude arrows are fundamental to the description of the world given by quantum theory . No satisfactory reason has been given for why they are needed . But pragmatically we have to accept that they are an essential part of our description of all quantum phenomena . They are related to our everyday ideas of probability by the simple rule that the probability of an event is the square of the length of the corresponding amplitude arrow . So , for a given process , if two probability amplitudes , v and w , are involved , the probability of the process will be given either by

<formula>

or

<formula>

The rules as regards adding or multiplying , however , are the same as above . But where you would expect to add or multiply probabilities , instead you add or multiply probability amplitudes that now are complex numbers .

Addition and multiplication are familiar operations in the theory of complex numbers and are given in the figures . The sum is found as follows . Let the start of the second arrow be at the end of the first . The sum is then a third arrow that goes directly from the start of the first to the end of the second . The product of two arrows is an arrow whose length is the product of the two lengths . The direction of the product is found by adding the angles that each of the two have been turned through relative to a reference direction : that gives the angle that the product is turned relative to the reference direction .

That change , from probabilities to probability amplitudes , complicates the mathematics without changing the basic approach . But that change is still not quite enough because it fails to take into account the fact that both photons and electrons can be polarized , which is to say that their orientations in space and time have to be taken into account . Therefore , P ( A to B ) actually consists of 16 complex numbers , or probability amplitude arrows . There are also some minor changes to do with the quantity " j " , which may have to be rotated by a multiple of 90 ° for some polarizations , which is only of interest for the detailed bookkeeping .

Associated with the fact that the electron can be polarized is another small necessary detail which is connected with the fact that an electron is a fermion and obeys Fermi – Dirac statistics . The basic rule is that if we have the probability amplitude for a given complex process involving more than one electron , then when we include ( as we always must ) the complementary Feynman diagram in which we just exchange two electron events , the resulting amplitude is the reverse – the negative – of the first . The simplest case would be two electrons starting at A and B ending at C and D. The amplitude would be calculated as the " difference " , E ( A to D ) × E ( B to C ) − E ( A to C ) × E ( B to D ) , where we would expect , from our everyday idea of probabilities , that it would be a sum .

= = = Propagators = = =

Finally , one has to compute P ( A to B ) and E ( C to D ) corresponding to the probability amplitudes for the photon and the electron respectively . These are essentially the solutions of the Dirac Equation which describes the behavior of the electron 's probability amplitude and the Klein – Gordon equation which describes the behavior of the photon 's probability amplitude . These are called Feynman propagators . The translation to a notation commonly used in the standard literature is as follows :

<formula>

where a shorthand symbol such as <formula> stands for the four real numbers which give the time and position in three dimensions of the point labeled A.

= = = Mass renormalization = = =

A problem arose historically which held up progress for twenty years : although we start with the assumption of three basic " simple " actions , the rules of the game say that if we want to calculate the probability amplitude for an electron to get from A to B we must take into account all the possible ways : all possible Feynman diagrams with those end points . Thus there will be a way in which the electron travels to C , emits a photon there and then absorbs it again at D before moving on to B. Or it could do this kind of thing twice , or more . In short we have a fractal @-@ like situation in which if we look closely at a line it breaks up into a collection of " simple " lines , each of which , if looked at closely , are in turn composed of " simple " lines , and so on ad infinitum . This is a very difficult situation to handle . If adding that detail only altered things slightly then it would not have been too bad , but disaster struck when it was found that the simple correction mentioned above led to infinite probability amplitudes . In time this problem was " fixed " by the technique of renormalization . However , Feynman himself remained unhappy about it , calling it a " dippy process " .

= = = Conclusions = = =

Within the above framework physicists were then able to calculate to a high degree of accuracy some of the properties of electrons , such as the anomalous magnetic dipole moment . However , as Feynman points out , it fails totally to explain why particles such as the electron have the masses they do . " There is no theory that adequately explains these numbers . We use the numbers in all our theories , but we don 't understand them – what they are , or where they come from . I believe that from a fundamental point of view , this is a very interesting and serious problem . "

= = Mathematics = =

Mathematically , QED is an abelian gauge theory with the symmetry group U ( 1 ) . The gauge field , which mediates the interaction between the charged spin @-@ 1 / 2 fields , is the electromagnetic field . The QED Lagrangian for a spin @-@ 1 / 2 field interacting with the electromagnetic field is given by the real part of

where

<formula> are Dirac matrices ;

<formula> a bispinor field of spin @-@ 1 / 2 particles ( e.g. electron – positron field ) ;

<formula> , called " psi @-@ bar " , is sometimes referred to as the Dirac adjoint ;

<formula> is the gauge covariant derivative ;

e is the coupling constant , equal to the electric charge of the bispinor field ;

m is the mass of the electron or positron ;

<formula> is the covariant four @-@ potential of the electromagnetic field generated by the electron itself ;

<formula> is the external field imposed by external source ;

<formula> is the electromagnetic field tensor .

= = = Equations of motion = = =

To begin , substituting the definition of D into the Lagrangian gives us

<formula>

Next , we can substitute this Lagrangian into the Euler – Lagrange equation of motion for a field :

to find the field equations for QED .

The two terms from this Lagrangian are then

<formula>

<formula>

Substituting these two back into the Euler – Lagrange equation ( 2 ) results in

<formula>

with Hermitian conjugate

<formula>

Bringing the middle term to the right @-@ hand side transforms this second equation into

The left @-@ hand side is like the original Dirac equation and the right @-@ hand side is the interaction with the electromagnetic field .

One further important equation can be found by substituting the above Lagrangian into another Euler – Lagrange equation , this time for the field <formula> :

The two terms this time are

<formula>

<formula>

and these two terms , when substituted back into ( 3 ) give us

Now , if we impose the Lorenz gauge condition , that the divergence of the four potential vanishes

<formula>

then we get

<formula>

which is a wave equation for the four potential , the QED version of the classical Maxwell equations in the Lorenz gauge . ( In the above equation , the square represents the D 'Alembert operator . )

= = = Interaction picture = = =

This theory can be straightforwardly quantized by treating bosonic and fermionic sectors as free . This permits us to build a set of asymptotic states which can be used to start a computation of the probability amplitudes for different processes . In order to do so , we have to compute an evolution operator that , for a given initial state <formula> , will give a final state <formula> in such a way to have

<formula>

This technique is also known as the S @-@ matrix . The evolution operator is obtained in the interaction picture where time evolution is given by the interaction Hamiltonian , which is the integral over space of the second term in the Lagrangian density given above :

<formula>

and so , one has

<formula>

where T is the time ordering operator . This evolution operator only has meaning as a series , and what we get here is a perturbation series with the fine structure constant as the development parameter . This series is called the Dyson series .

= = = Feynman diagrams = = =

Despite the conceptual clarity of this Feynman approach to QED , almost no early textbooks follow him in their presentation . When performing calculations it is much easier to work with the Fourier transforms of the propagators . Experimental tests of quantum electrodynamics are typically scattering experiments . In scattering theory , particles ' momenta rather than their positions are considered , and it is convenient to think of particles as being created or annihilated when they interact . Feynman diagrams then look the same , but the lines have different interpretations . The electron line represents an electron with a given energy and momentum , with a similar interpretation of the photon line . A vertex diagram represents the annihilation of one electron and the creation of another together with the absorption or creation of a photon , each having specified energies and momenta .

Using Wick theorem on the terms of the Dyson series , all the terms of the S @-@ matrix for quantum electrodynamics can be computed through the technique of Feynman diagrams . In this case rules for drawing are the following

To these rules we must add a further one for closed loops that implies an integration on momenta <formula> , since these internal ( " virtual " ) particles are not constrained to any specific energy – momentum – even that usually required by special relativity ( see this article for details ) . From them , computations of probability amplitudes are straightforwardly given . An example is Compton scattering , with an electron and a photon undergoing elastic scattering . Feynman diagrams are in this case

and so we are able to get the corresponding amplitude at the first order of a perturbation series for the S @-@ matrix :

<formula>

from which we are able to compute the cross section for this scattering .

= = Renormalizability = =

Higher order terms can be straightforwardly computed for the evolution operator but these terms display diagrams containing the following simpler ones

that , being closed loops , imply the presence of diverging integrals having no mathematical meaning . To overcome this difficulty , a technique called renormalization has been devised , producing finite results in very close agreement with experiments . It is important to note that a criterion for theory being meaningful after renormalization is that the number of diverging diagrams is finite . In this case the theory is said to be renormalizable . The reason for this is that to get observables renormalized one needs a finite number of constants to maintain the predictive value of the theory untouched . This is exactly the case of quantum electrodynamics displaying just three diverging diagrams . This procedure gives observables in very close agreement with experiment as seen e.g. for electron gyromagnetic ratio .

Renormalizability has become an essential criterion for a quantum field theory to be considered as a viable one . All the theories describing fundamental interactions , except gravitation whose quantum counterpart is presently under very active research , are renormalizable theories .

= = Nonconvergence of series = =

An argument by Freeman Dyson shows that the radius of convergence of the perturbation series in QED is zero . The basic argument goes as follows : if the coupling constant were negative , this would be equivalent to the Coulomb force constant being negative . This would " reverse " the electromagnetic interaction so that like charges would attract and unlike charges would repel . This would render the vacuum unstable against decay into a cluster of electrons on one side of the universe and a cluster of positrons on the other side of the universe . Because the theory is ' sick ' for any negative value of the coupling constant , the series do not converge , but are an asymptotic series .

From a modern perspective , we say that QED is not well defined as a quantum field theory to arbitrarily high energy . The coupling constant runs to infinity at finite energy , signalling a Landau pole . The problem is essentially that QED appears to suffer from quantum triviality issues . This is one of the motivations for embedding QED within a Grand Unified Theory .

= = = Books = = =

De Broglie , Louis ( 1925 ) . Recherches sur la theorie des quanta [ Research on quantum theory ] . France : Wiley @-@ Interscience .

Feynman , Richard Phillips ( 1998 ) . Quantum Electrodynamics ( New ed . ) . Westview Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 36075 @-@ 2 .

Jauch , J.M. ; Rohrlich , F. ( 1980 ) . The Theory of Photons and Electrons . Springer @-@ Verlag . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 07295 @-@ 1 .

Greiner , Walter ; Bromley , D.A. ; Müller , Berndt ( 2000 ) . Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 67672 @-@ 0 .

Kane , Gordon , L. ( 1993 ) . Modern Elementary Particle Physics . Westview Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 62460 @-@ 1 .

Miller , Arthur I. ( 1995 ) . Early Quantum Electrodynamics : A Sourcebook . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 56891 @-@ 3 .

Milonni , Peter W. , ( 1994 ) The quantum vacuum - an introduction to quantum electrodynamics . Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 498080 @-@ 5

Schweber , Silvan S. ( 1994 ) . QED and the Men Who Made It . Princeton University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 03327 @-@ 3 .

Schwinger , Julian ( 1958 ) . Selected Papers on Quantum Electrodynamics . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 60444 @-@ 2 .

Tannoudji @-@ Cohen , Claude ; Dupont @-@ Roc , Jacques ; Grynberg , Gilbert ( 1997 ) . Photons and Atoms : Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics . Wiley @-@ Interscience . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 18433 @-@ 1 .

= = = Journals = = =

Dudley , J.M. ; Kwan , A.M. ( 1996 ) . " Richard Feynman 's popular lectures on quantum electrodynamics : The 1979 Robb Lectures at Auckland University " . American Journal of Physics 64 ( 6 ) : 694 – 698 . Bibcode : 1996AmJPh .. 64 .. 694D. doi : 10 @.@ 1119 / 1 @.@ 18234 .

= Asker Line =

The Asker Line ( Norwegian : Askerbanen ) is a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) railway line between Asker and Lysaker in Norway . The line runs along the same corridor as the Drammen Line , offering increased capacity , speed and regularity on the rail network west of Oslo . The first part opened in 2005 , and in 2011 an extension opened from Sandvika to Lysaker . An extension to Skøyen in Oslo will perhaps be built after 2020 . Most of the railway is in tunnel and is dimensioned for 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) running . The entire railway is electrified at 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC . The first section cost NOK 3 @.@ 7 billion , while the second is budgeted at NOK 2 @.@ 7 billion .

The purpose of the new line is to allow regional and express trains to run directly between Asker Station , Sandvika Station and Lysaker Station , without being slowed and delayed by commuter trains that make frequent stops at intermediate stations . The Asker Line will improve regularity , and capacity will increase from 12 to 26 trains per hour in each direction . Travel time from Asker to Skøyen Station will be reduced from 20 to 13 minutes . The line has received criticism for not being a true high @-@ speed line , and for Lysaker Station not being in compliance with accessibility requirements . Similar parallel , high @-@ speed lines have been or will be built northeast and southeast of Oslo .

The line is built , owned and maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . At Sandvika , the line connects to the Drammen Line , which runs to Oslo Central Station in the east . At Asker , the line connects to the Spikkestad and Drammen Lines ; the latter connects to the Sørland- and Vestfold Line at Drammen . The line is served by Norwegian State Railways with regional trains to Vestfold , Buskerud and Telemark , and the express trains along the Sørland Line and the Bergen Line ; in addition , the Airport Express Train operates from Asker to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . During night , freight trains also use the line .

= = Background = =

Following the construction of the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line from Oslo , via Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , to Eidsvoll , the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications started planning additional high @-@ speed lines west and southeast of Oslo . The Asker and Follo Lines would allow express and regional trains to travel faster and more reliably to Drammen and Ski , leaving the old tracks for slower freight trains , and commuter trains making frequent stops . Construction of the Follo Line will , at the earliest , be completed in 2015 .

The Gardermoen Line had shown that profits could be made by operating passenger trains , but that it would not be possible to debt @-@ finance short @-@ distance tracks in Eastern Norway . Therefore , a conventional financial method for the Asker Line was started . While the railway is entirely financed through allocation through the state budget , the prioritising was secured through a political compromise for investments in Greater Oslo , the Oslo Package 2 . Financing of a diverse range of road and public transport investments — including new motorways , extension of the Oslo Metro and new railways — would be made through a " package " . This involved both state , county and toll funding being collected in one lot , and then redistributing the funds to the agencies responsible for the investments .

Prior to the construction , the Western Corridor had a capacity of 12 – 14 trains per hour in each direction west of Skøyen . The first section of the Asker Line , from Asker to Sandvika , increased the capacity with an additional two trains . The opening of Lysaker Station will increase capacity with four more , since all stations along the line between Oslo and Drammen will then have four platforms . When the whole line is completed , total capacity in the Western Corridor will be 26 trains per hour . This is equivalent to 5 @,@ 500 cars per hour , and exceeds the capacity of a four @-@ lane motorway .

The Asker Line is also a necessary component to allow a high @-@ speed route to be built along the Vestfold and Ringerike Lines . The former is planned to branch off at Drammen , while the latter would branch of at Sandvika , and become a 60 @-@ kilometre ( 37 mi ) shortening of the Bergen Line . The first sections of the upgraded Vestfold Line opened in 1995 and 2001 , and additional proposals are under planning for the remaining sections .

= = Route = =

= = = Asker Station = = =

Asker Station is the end of the Asker Line , and trains must continue westwards along the Spikkestad Line or the Drammen Line . The latter immediately enters the Lieråsen Tunnel , allowing the same speeds as the Asker Line to Drammen . The Spikkestad Line is only used by the commuter trains to Spikkestad . Along with building the line , Asker Station was upgraded from five to six platforms , and also received a new , artistically decorated underpass between the platforms . The station is located 23 @.@ 16 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 39 mi ) from Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) at 104 @.@ 6 metres ( 343 ft ) elevation .

= = = Asker – Sandvika = = =

Construction of the section between Asker and Sandvika started in 2001 , and was completed in 2005 . It was officially opened by Torild Skogsholm , Minister of Transport from the Liberal Party , on 27 August . This section is dominated by the 3 @,@ 590 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 23 mi ) Tanum Tunnel and the 3 @,@ 790 @-@ metre ( 2 @.@ 35 mi ) Skaugum Tunnel , and cost NOK 3 @.@ 7 billion . For the last 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) of track west of Sandvika , the Asker and Drammen Line have been built along the same , new , right @-@ of @-@ way . The Drammen Line , leaves Slependen Station , and joins the Asker Line just after the latter leaves the Tanum Tunnel .

= = = Sandvika Station = = =

Sandvika Station is 14 @.@ 14 km ( 8 @.@ 79 mi ) from Oslo S , at 12 @.@ 0 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) elevation . The track layout has been criticised by among others Norsk Bane , for not permitting high through speeds . A sharp curve before the station will not permit trains to travel at more than 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , even if they are not scheduled to stop at the station . This will increase travel time , and hinder the efficiency of the line should it be used later for high @-@ speed lines to Vestfold or Western Norway . The proposed Ringerike Line would demerge just west of Sandvika Station .

= = = Sandvika – Lysaker = = =

Construction of the second section started in 2007 and was completed in 2011 . The section between Sandvika and Lysaker is 6 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) , most of which runs through the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) Bærum Tunnel . There was local debate whether the tunnel should be built using a tunnel boring machine or by drilling and blasting . The latter was preferred by the Rail Administration , since it allowed a shorter construction time , and a NOK 700 million saving . Total budget is NOK 2 @,@ 787 million .

= = = Lysaker Station = = =

Lysaker Station serves as the main public transport hub for Eastern Bærum , parts of Western Oslo and Fornebu . Within 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , there are 20 @,@ 000 jobs , with an additional 10 – 15 @,@ 000 in development . Located 7 @.@ 00 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 35 mi ) west of Oslo S , it is receiving a major overhaul between 2006 and 2009 , including 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) of new track . The current station will be entirely replaced , and the number of platforms increased from two to four . More than one thousand buses depart from Lysaker Station each day , and it has been proposed as the terminus of the Fornebu Line — a tramway originally proposed as a people mover .

The NOK 1 billion renovation has become a scandal , due to the station being built in a curve , and thus does not have straight platforms . This will become a security problem ; in addition it will create a gap up to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) between the train and the platform , hindering accessibility to the trains for disabled people . Norges Statsbaner claims they will have to buy new trains due to this station alone , costing the state @-@ owned company NOK 1 @.@ 5 billion . Minister of Transport , Liv Signe Navarsete from the Centre Party , has said that resolving the problems by building a straight station is not an alternative , since it would cost an additional hundred @-@ millions of NOK , and delay the new station several years .

= = = Lysaker – Skøyen = = =

The last section is a proposed 2 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) section from Lysaker to Skøyen ; the latter not being modified as part of the extension , since it was upgraded in 1999 . The government has not set a date to start construction , but it will not be until at least 2020 , since other projects will be prioritised over this section . No specific route has been finalised , and the project has been proposed to either run parallel to the current Drammen Line , or by placing all four tracks through a new tunnel . The former has been preferred by the Rail Administration , while the latter — which would cost NOK 1 billion more — has been preferred by the municipality . There are no intermediate commuter stations between Skøyen and Lysaker , so there is little regularity or speed potential to gain from the construction , since the Oslo Tunnel from Skøyen to Oslo Central Station will still remain a bottleneck with only two tracks . Advocates have claimed that there is no gain from building this section without building two additional tracks all the way to the central station .

= = Operation = =

Norges Statsbaner ( NSB ) operates their express trains on the Bergen and Sørland Line on the Asker Line , along with the regional trains along the Vestfold Line . They also operate some of Oslo Commuter Rail trains , that do not stop on the intermediate stations . Other commuter trains use the old Drammen Line , along with freight trains . However , in 2006 , the night freight trains were moved to the new line , despite operating at less than 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The Flytoget airport express train operates along the line three times per hour using Class 71 multiple units , connecting the main stations west of Oslo to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .

With the opening of the new line , NSB stopped operating their commuter trains from Drammen to Oslo with stops at Høn , Hvalstad and Billingstad . Passengers from Drammen now need to transfer in Asker , but all other passengers have travel times reduced from 48 to 36 minutes .

= Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad =

The Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad ( reporting mark DME ) is a Class II railroad subsidiary of the Canadian Pacific Railway operating across South Dakota and southern Minnesota in the Northern Plains of the United States . Portions of the railroad also extend into Wyoming , Nebraska and Iowa .

DM & E began operations on September 5 , 1986 , over trackage spun off from the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company in South Dakota and Minnesota . Many of the negotiations were handled by the office of Senator Larry Pressler and his legal counsel Kevin V. Schieffer . After DME 's successful first decade , Schieffer succeeded J. C. McIntyre as president of the railroad on November 7 , 1996 .

DM & E purchased the assets of I & M Rail Link railroad in 2002 , renaming it Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad . DM & E combined its management and dispatching duties with those of ICE under the holding company Cedar American Rail Holdings . The combined system directly connects Chicago through Iowa to Kansas City , Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul and continues as far west as Rapid City , South Dakota . Smaller branches extend into portions of Wisconsin , Wyoming and Nebraska .

In September 2007 it was announced that Canadian Pacific Railway ( CP ) would acquire the DM & E upon approval by the Surface Transportation Board of the US Department of Transportation . The STB announced its approval of the purchase plan on September 30 , 2008 . The merger was completed , and the official last day of operations for the DM & E was October 30 , 2008 .

= = 1986 – 1996 : Startup and initial expansion = =

In the early 1980s , Chicago and North Western Railway ( CNW ) announced plans to abandon a section of railroad through Minnesota and South Dakota that dated to 1859 . Due to pressure from customers and Senator Larry Pressler from South Dakota , a deal was reached and announced on April 24 , 1986 , creating the Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad out of sections of CNW from Winona , Minnesota , to Rapid City , South Dakota . This deal also included buildings , rolling stock and locomotives , mostly rebuilt EMD SD9s , from the CNW .

DM & E began operations on this track on September 5 , 1986 . The railroad was expanded in 1995 when it acquired additional former CNW branch lines from Rapid City , South Dakota , to Colony , Wyoming , and Crawford , Nebraska .

From startup to the railroad 's ten @-@ year anniversary in 1996 , DM & E hauled nearly 500 @,@ 000 carloads of freight , which includes 700 million bushels of grain . DM & E celebrated the anniversary with picnics and employee appreciation events and excursions in Waseca , Minnesota , and Pierre , South Dakota .

Kevin V. Schieffer , whom former United States President George H. W. Bush had appointed as US Attorney for South Dakota in 1991 , became president of DM & E on November 7 , 1996 . Schieffer was no newcomer to the railroad ; he first became involved with DM & E in 1983 when he worked to prevent the abandonment of the former CNW lines that eventually formed the first sections of DM & E 's mainline . Maintaining the status quo on DM & E was not the fate that he had in mind for the railroad as he took the reins .

= = 1997 – 2006 : plans for expansion into the Powder River Basin = =

= = = Expansion plans = = =

In 1997 , DM & E announced plans to expand into the Powder River Basin ( PRB ) in Wyoming and start providing unit coal train service from that area . The railroad filed an application for the expansion to the Surface Transportation Board ( STB ) on February 20 , 1998 . Burlington Northern Railroad built into this area in 1979 , and the Chicago and North Western Railway ( CNW ) also sought to access the PRB coalfields , a project accomplished by CNW 's successor Union Pacific Railroad . DM & E would become the third railroad to tap into the coal deposits in the region .

DM & E 's expansion would require the construction of 281 miles ( 452 km ) of new track , upgrading 598 miles ( 962 km ) of existing track ( including all of the railroad 's mainline track in Minnesota ) , new mainline connections Owatonna and Mankato , Minnesota , and three new rail yards . The plan would be the largest new railroad construction in the United States since the completion of Milwaukee Road 's Pacific extension to Seattle , Washington , in 1909 .

= = = Initial approval and lawsuits = = =

The STB approved the application on December 10 of that year pending completion of an Environmental Impact Statement ( EIS ) , which was released by the STB on September 27 , 2000 .

An analysis of the plan by Minnesota 's Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad Working Group in 2001 showed support among customers and freight shippers , but DM & E 's expansion plan led to complaints among residents in communities along the railroad 's right @-@ of @-@ way . While some communities welcomed the railroad 's expansion plan as an opportunity for increased business within their own cities , other residents and businesses felt that roads in the area were not built with enough overpasses and underpasses to deal with the traffic flow problems that the longer and more frequent unit trains would produce at grade crossings . The objectors cited concerns of the general public in safely and quickly traversing their communities as well as the ability of emergency vehicles to cross the tracks to reach emergency scenes or hospitals . The city of Rochester , Minnesota filed a lawsuit to force the railroad to build a bypass around the city . The bypass was estimated to cost around US $ 100 million .

= = = Further legal actions = = =

After a period of public comment that lasted until March 16 , 2001 , and further review by the STB , the final EIS was issued on November 19 , 2001 . In this final approval , the STB agreed with DM & E that no new bypasses around cities would be required even though the cities of Rochester , Minnesota , Brookings and Pierre , South Dakota , had requested them . In 2003 , a ruling by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit ordered the STB to re @-@ examine potential environmental issues around Rochester . The STB 's preliminary report , released in early 2005 , noted that no additional steps were needed by the railroad to alleviate noise and vibration caused by the projected increase in train traffic .

The court upheld the STB 's approval with stipulations for the new line 's environmental impact , including the projected increase in the frequency of train horn soundings along the line . From the court 's ruling , the STB prepared a Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement which sets forth mitigation strategies for the railroad . On February 15 , 2006 , the United States Surface Transportation Board ( STB ) announced its final approval of the railroad 's 1998 application .

In April 2004 , DM & E was awarded the power of eminent domain in South Dakota by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit in Pierre , South Dakota . The ruling overturned part of South Dakota legislation passed in 1999 ( two years after the railroad first announced its intentions to expand ) that would have impaired railroad operations and construction in the state . This decision restores the legal process by which the railroad can effectively force landowners along the proposed new route to sell their land to the railroad .

= = = Funding = = =

With the final EIS in place and approval from the STB , DM & E had the authority to undertake the expansion as proposed , but needed financing . On February 26 , 2007 , the FRA rejected a proposed $ 2 @.@ 3 billion loan to DM & E. In announcing the decision , Administrator Joseph H. Boardman noted that the project proposal met many federal requirements for the loan but cited concerns that the railroad might not be able to handle cost overruns during construction or to repay such a hefty amount after construction is completed .

= = 2002 – 2007 : consolidation with IC & E = =

DM & E hauled nearly 60 @,@ 000 carloads of various freight shipments in fiscal year 2002 , serving approximately 130 customers along the railroad 's mainline . Of these shipments , 53 % were grains or grain products , 24 % were bentonite and kaolin clay , 7 % were cement , and 5 % were wood and lumber products ; the remaining 11 % were split among all other types of freight .

On February 21 , 2002 , DM & E announced that it would purchase the railroad assets of 1 @,@ 700 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) I & M Rail Link ( IMRL ) from its then current owners Washington Corporation . DM & E renamed the IMRL property to Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad ( IC & E ) and began operating it under that name on July 30 , 2002 . Although a purchase price was not stated in the original announcement , an article in the May 2002 Trains Magazine suggests that several industry sources believed the total to be around $ 150 million .

DM & E and IC & E combined management under the holding company Cedar American Rail Holdings . Locomotives of both railroads were given a unified paint scheme ( see below ) and interchanges were streamlined between the two railroads . The administration of both railroads is handled by Cedar , further streamlining processes between the two railroads . As a result , the combined DM & E / IC & E system makes up the largest Class II railroad ( by route @-@ miles ) in the United States ; it is also the eighth largest system of all American railroads and the only system with direct rail connections with all Class I railroads in North America .

In its first twenty years of operations , the railroad 's revenues had increased more than tenfold , from $ 22 million in 1987 to $ 258 million in 2006 , with $ 290 million projected in 2007 and $ 340 million for 2008 . Its operating ratio ( the ratio of operating expenses to revenues ) declined to 70 @.@ 2 % in 2006 and was projected to improve further to 67 @.@ 6 % in 2007 . Its traffic was a mix of agricultural , coal , and industrial products , and ethanol shipments were projected to exceed one billion gallons in 2008 .

= = Acquisition by Canadian Pacific Railway = =

On September 4 , 2007 , the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) announced it was acquiring the DM & E from its owners , London @-@ based Electra Private Equity , for US $ 1 @.@ 48 billion , and future payments of over $ 1 @.@ 0 billion contingent on commencement of construction on the Powder River extension and specified volumes of coal shipments from the Powder River basin . The transaction will include the ICE and other affiliated companies . The merger is an " end @-@ to @-@ end " consolidation ; the lines presently interchange at three points , including the Winona , Minnesota connection between the DM & E 's main line across southern Minnesota and CP 's Chicago main . Kevin Schieffer , president of the DM & E , has called CP the DM & E 's " natural partner " and the transaction a " natural fit " .

The acquisition will give CP access to shipments of agricultural products and ethanol in addition to coal from the Wyoming coal fields . CP has stated its intention to use this purchase to gain access to the Powder River and ship coal to midwestern and eastern utilities . The transaction is subject to approval of the Surface Transportation Board , which is expected to take a year . Securities analysts have stated that competing railroads for Powder River coal , the Union Pacific and BNSF , could challenge the acquisition and delay STB approval , but are unlikely to prevent it . At least until approval is received , the DM & E will continue to operate as a separate entity .

On October 4 , 2007 , CP announced that it has completed the financial transactions to acquire the DM & E and subsidiaries . Control of DM & E has been placed into a voting trust with Richard Hamlin appointed as trustee ; the trust will remain in effect until the STB issues its decision on the acquisition . CP plans to integrate DM & E 's operations once it receives STB approval . CP expected STB approval of the purchase in October 2008 . The STB announced its approval of the purchase plan on September 30 , 2008 , with no conditions other than those that CP had already agreed to in the original plan ; the effective date of the purchase was October 30 , 2008 . CP assumed control of DM & E and IC & E on October 30 , 2008 . CP plans to invest $ 300 million in capital improvements to the former DM & E lines by 2011 .

= = Recent developments = =

On December 3 , 2012 , CP announced it was indefinitely placing on hold plans for building new trackage into the Powder River Basin . The next day the railroad announced its intention to sell the entire ex @-@ DM & E west of Tracy , Minnesota , roughly 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) of track . On January 2 , 2014 CP announced that all track west of Tracy , Minnesota was to be sold to Rapid City , Pierre and Eastern Railroad , a subsidiary of Genesee & Wyoming , a short line operator . The sale was completed on May 30 , 2014 for $ 210 million . Most of the Rapid City , Pierre and Eastern 's employees came over from the DM & E.

= = Subdivisions = =

DM & E operated over twelve subdivisions . The divisions were located in Minnesota , South Dakota , Iowa , and Nebraska .

Waseca Subdivision — Winona to Waseca , Minnesota

Hartland Subdivision — Waseca , Minnesota to Mason City , Iowa

Tracy Subdivision — Waseca to Tracy , Minnesota

Huron Subdivision — Tracy , Minnesota to Huron , South Dakota

Yale Spur Subdivision — Huron to Watertown , South Dakota

Redfield Subdivision — Aberdeen to Wolsey , South Dakota

Mansfield Subdivision — Redfield to Mansfield , South Dakota

Pierre Subdivision — Huron to Pierre , South Dakota

Onida Subdivision — Blunt to Onida , South Dakota

PRC Subdivision — Pierre to Rapid City , South Dakota

Black Hills Subdivision — Bentonite ( at Colony , WY ) to Rapid City to Dakota Junction , Nebraska

Crawford Subdivision — Chadron to Crawford , Nebraska

= = Rolling stock = =

DM & E originally purchased used first @-@ generation locomotives from a variety of railroads ; in the early years it was more common to see a locomotive with a Milwaukee Road or Chicago and North Western Railway paint scheme than a DM & E paint scheme . Over the years , the locomotives were repainted , and many of them are now in DM & E 's paint scheme ( which is closely mirrored by that of sister Iowa , Chicago and Eastern Railroad ) of blue with a yellow stripe along its length .

DM & E eventually assigns names to all of its locomotives when they are repainted , usually after locations along its right @-@ of @-@ way , but a few exceptions have been named for people ( like road number 550 , named after Senator Larry Pressler ) . All of the first @-@ generation diesel locomotives purchased from Chicago and North Western and Milwaukee Road have since been replaced with more recent locomotives , although the newer locomotives were also bought used .

In 1987 , at the railroad 's one @-@ year anniversary , DM & E owned 39 locomotives and leased five more for a total of 44 locomotives rostered . By the railroad 's tenth anniversary in 1996 , DM & E owned 69 locomotives and owned or leased over 1 @,@ 500 cars including over 600 covered hoppers for grain and cement shipments . In 2001 , the number of locomotives owned stayed about the same , while the number of cars increased to about 5 @,@ 000 with 52 % of them in dedicated grain service .

= = Company officers = =

DM & E has had three men serve as president of the railroad :

J. C. ( Pete ) McIntyre ( 1986 – 1996 ) began his railroad career in 1953 , eventually working for Chicago and North Western in the early 1980s . When DM & E was formed in 1986 , McIntyre became the new railroad 's first president .

Kevin V. Schieffer ( 1996 – 2008 ) served as counsel for Senator Larry Pressler starting in 1982 . Schieffer began working with DM & E business in 1983 when he worked to prevent the abandonment of C & NW branch lines that would eventually form the beginnings of DM & E. He initiated the negotiations in 1985 that led to DM & E 's creation . He was promoted to Chief of Staff for Senator Pressler in 1987 , a position he held until 1991 when United States President George H. W. Bush appointed Schieffer to be US Attorney for South Dakota . In 1993 , Schieffer left his US Attorney post and became the legal counsel for DM & E ; as legal counsel for the railroad , he oversaw the railroad 's recapitalization in 1994 and the acquisition of C & NW 's Colony line . He held this position until he was unanimously elected president of the railroad on November 7 , 1996 . Schieffer left the DM & E on October 7 , 2008 , shortly after the Surface Transportation Board approved the proposed purchase of the railroad by Canadian Pacific ; DM & E 's COO Ed Terbell and CFO Kurt Feaster were named to manage the railroad until CP completed the acquisition October 30 , 2008 .

Vern Graham ( 2008 – 2010 ) was appointed president November 5 , 2008 .

= Javier López ( baseball ) =

Javier Alfonso López ( born July 11 , 1977 ) is a Puerto Rican @-@ born professional baseball pitcher for the San Francisco Giants of Major League Baseball . He is 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) tall and weighs 220 pounds ( 100 kg ) . López previously pitched for the Colorado Rockies ( 2003 – 2005 ) , Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2005 ) , Boston Red Sox ( 2006 – 09 ) and Pittsburgh Pirates ( 2010 ) . He is a left @-@ handed specialist known for his sidearm delivery . He also bats left @-@ handed .

López attended the University of Virginia , earning a degree in psychology despite leaving early to begin his baseball career . He was selected by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . He began his career as a starting pitcher but struggled and converted into a sidearm ( or submarine ) reliever while still in the Diamondbacks ' organization . Before the 2003 season , he was selected by the Boston Red Sox in the Rule 5 draft , but he was traded to the Colorado Rockies during spring training . He spent all of 2003 on Colorado 's roster , nearly tying the franchise record for most consecutive batters retired and finishing third among major league rookies in games pitched . He struggled the next two seasons , getting claimed off waivers and later sent to the minors by Arizona in 2005 . In 2006 , he signed with the Chicago White Sox but failed to make the team and spent the first part of the season in the minors before getting traded to Boston during the year .

López served four stints with Boston in 2006 . In 2007 , he had three different stints but appeared in 61 games , posting a 3 @.@ 10 earned run average ( ERA ) . He posted a 15 @.@ 43 ERA in the playoffs but won his first World Series ring as the Red Sox defeated Colorado in four games . In 2008 , he spent the entire season on a major league roster for the first time since 2003 . He posted a 9 @.@ 26 ERA in his first 14 games of 2009 before getting sent to the minors for the rest of the season . In 2010 , he signed with the Pittsburgh Pirates but was traded to the San Francisco Giants during the season . He had his lowest ERA that year ( 2 @.@ 34 ) and won another World Series as the Giants defeated the Texas Rangers to win their first World Series since 1954 . In 2011 , López was one of two major league relief pitchers to throw at least 50 innings without giving up a home run . He won his third World Series in 2012 as the Giants defeated the Detroit Tigers in four games . In 2013 , López posted a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 83 ERA . He won his fourth World Series in 2014 as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games . As of 2014 , he is the only active player to have played on 4 or more World Series championship teams .

= = Early life = =

Although he was born in Puerto Rico , López grew up in Fairfax , Virginia . He and his wife , Renee , attended Robinson Secondary School in Fairfax , Virginia . Growing up , his dream was to be an FBI agent like his father .

López went to college at the University of Virginia ( UVA ) and played for the Virginia Cavaliers baseball team . Through August 2011 , he was one of 29 former UVA players to have made it to the major leagues , along with among others Mark Reynolds , and Ryan Zimmerman . While playing at UVA , he went 12 – 9 with a 6 @.@ 30 earned run average ( ERA ) . As a hitter , he had a batting average of .319 , 15 home runs , and 71 runs batted in ( RBI ) . However , while still at UVA , he discovered that pitching was most likely to get him to the major leagues . Despite leaving college after only three years to play professional baseball , López continued working on his degree in psychology , which he earned in 2002 to fulfill a promise to his father @-@ in @-@ law . He also said , " I had done three years at a great university . I figured I should finish . "

= = Professional career = =

= = = Drafts and minor leagues = = =

After three seasons at UVA , López was drafted by the Arizona Diamondbacks in the fourth round of the 1998 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft . He began his minor league career as a starting pitcher for the South Bend Silver Hawks of the A Midwest League . In 16 games ( 19 starts ) , he had a 2 – 4 record , a 6 @.@ 55 ERA , 31 strikeouts , and 30 walks in 44 innings pitched . He remained at South Bend in 1999 , posting a 4 – 6 record , a 6 @.@ 00 ERA , and 70 strikeouts over 99 innings pitched in 20 starts . In 2000 , López was promoted to the High Desert Mavericks of the A @-@ Advanced California League . In 30 games ( 21 starts ) , he had a 4 – 8 record , a 5 @.@ 22 ERA , 98 strikeouts , and two saves in 136 1 ⁄ 3 innings .

In 2001 , deciding that he would not be able to reach the major leagues as a starter , López converted to a submariner and moved to the bullpen . He said , " I don 't know if that was desperation as much as it was admitting failure . " He began the season with Arizona 's A @-@ Advanced affiliate , which was now the Lancaster JetHawks . In 17 games , he had a 1 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 62 ERA , 18 strikeouts , and one save in 24 innings pitched . He was promoted to the El Paso Diablos of the AA Texas League that season , where he had a 1 – 0 record , a 7 @.@ 42 ERA , 21 strikeouts , and 40 innings pitched in 22 games ( one start , his last professionally ) . In 2002 , he played in 61 games for El Paso as a reliever , allowing only a .204 opponent batting average . That year , he went 2 – 2 with a 2 @.@ 72 ERA , 47 strikeouts , and six saves in 46 1 ⁄ 3 innings .

= = = Colorado Rockies ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =

= = = = 2003 = = = =

In December 2002 , the Boston Red Sox selected López in the Rule 5 draft , intending for him to compete for a role as a left @-@ handed specialist in the Red Sox ' bullpen . However , on March 18 he was traded to the Colorado Rockies for a player to be named later ( Ryan Cameron ) . López made the roster and made his MLB debut for the Rockies on Opening Day in 2003 , pitching a scoreless inning in a 10 – 4 loss to the Houston Astros . He got his first major league strikeout in his next game on April 5 , punching out Tony Womack in a 4 – 3 victory over the Diamondbacks . On April 10 , he got his first win , pitching 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 7 – 6 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . He posted an 0 @.@ 72 ERA , which led all NL relievers , in his first 30 games through June 8 , posting an 18 2 ⁄ 3 innings scoreless streak at the end of that run . However , his ERA jumped up to 3 @.@ 16 on June 12 , when he allowed seven runs in 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning in a 15 – 3 loss to the Minnesota Twins . From July 31 through August 16 , López almost tied a franchise record by retiring 18 straight hitters over the span of 17 days , but he fell short of the record of 21 set by Darren Holmes in 1996 when he intentionally walked Jason Phillips in a 13 – 4 loss to the New York Mets . On August 12 , he recorded his first career save by pitching a scoreless 11th inning in a 6 – 3 victory over the Montreal Expos . He played in 72 games , the third @-@ most among rookies in the major leagues , trailing only Óscar Villareal ( 86 ) and Brad Lidge ( 78 ) . He had a 4 – 1 record , a 3 @.@ 70 ERA , and 1 save .

= = = = 2004 = = = =

López started off badly in 2004 , going 0 – 2 with a 9 @.@ 93 ERA in 46 games by mid @-@ season . He was then sent down to the AAA Colorado Springs Sky Sox of the Pacific Coast League on July 18 . While in AAA , he went 0 – 1 and had a 4 @.@ 00 ERA in eight games . He was called back to the majors on August 10 to replace an injured Aaron Cook and played the rest of the season in Colorado . He pitched better the rest of the season , allowing only two runs for a 1 @.@ 54 ERA in his final 18 games . In 64 games , López had a 1 – 2 record , a 7 @.@ 52 ERA , 20 strikeouts , and no saves in 40 2 ⁄ 3 innings .

= = = = 2005 = = = =

López began 2005 with the Rockies , but after allowing five runs in his first three games ( for a 22 @.@ 50 ERA ) , he was optioned to Colorado Springs on April 11 .

= = = Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2005 ) = = =

Before he could appear in any games with Colorado Springs , López was claimed off waivers by the Arizona Diamondbacks on April 14 . Due to major league rules , Arizona was unable to call him up until April 24 . He had another poor season , having a record of 1 – 1 and an 11 @.@ 02 ERA , the highest in the majors among relievers who made at least 30 appearances . On July 5 , López was designated for assignment to make room on the roster for Armando Almanza . He cleared waivers and was sent down to the Tucson Sidewinders of the Pacific Coast League for the rest of the season . He went 0 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 22 ERA . On October 15 , he was granted free agency .

= = = Chicago White Sox organization ( 2006 ) = = =

López signed a minor league deal for the Chicago White Sox in 2006 . He competed with Boone Logan for the role of left @-@ handed specialist , but Logan won the role , and López was sent to AAA to begin the season . Playing for the Charlotte Knights of the International League , he went 2 – 1 with 12 saves and an 0 @.@ 55 ERA in 26 games .

= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2006 – 2009 ) = = =

= = = = 2006 = = = =

On June 15 , 2006 , López was traded to the Boston Red Sox for David Riske . He posted a 4 @.@ 32 ERA in 14 appearances before getting sent to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the International League on July 17 because it was too " tough " for the Red Sox to carry a left @-@ handed specialist at that point in the season , according to manager Terry Francona . He was called up for two short stints from July 28 through August 1 and from August 20 through 22 , appearing in one game each time . On September 4 , he was recalled for the remainder of the season . In 11 September outings , López allowed only one run . He finished the year going 1 – 0 with a 2 @.@ 70 ERA in 27 games . With Pawtucket , he had no record and a 4 @.@ 86 ERA in 13 games ( 16 2 ⁄ 3 innings ) .

= = = = 2007 = = = =

López made the Red Sox ' Opening Day roster in 2007 , but after four scoreless outings he was optioned to Pawtucket on April 9 to make room for Mike Timlin , who had started the season on the disabled list . He was recalled on May 11 when Devern Hansack was sent down . On this stint , he posted a 3 @.@ 18 ERA in 40 appearances before getting sent down on August 5 to make room for Curt Schilling , who was returning from the disabled list . With the Red Sox about to face several tough left @-@ handed hitters in late August , Jon Lester was sent down on August 23 to make room for López on the roster . In 2007 , López made 61 appearances , posting a 2 – 1 record with a 3 @.@ 10 ERA in 40 2 ⁄ 3 innings . Despite his three stints in the minors , his 61 appearances ranked second on the club to Hideki Okajima 's 66 . He made 17 appearances for Pawtucket , going 2 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 78 ERA . López was a member of the playoff roster for the Red Sox , posting a 15 @.@ 43 ERA but winning his first World Series as the Red Sox swept the Rockies in four games .

= = = = 2008 = = = =

On 18 January 2008 , López agreed to a one @-@ year contract with the Red Sox for $ 840 @,@ 000 , avoiding the arbitration process . In 2008 , López spent the full season on a major league roster for the first time since his rookie year . On June 6 , he threw a career @-@ high three innings , allowing no runs in an 8 – 0 loss to the Seattle Mariners . In 70 games , López had a 2 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 43 ERA , and 38 strikeouts in 59 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He had the fifth @-@ lowest ERA among major league left @-@ handed relievers and appeared in the fifth @-@ most games of AL left @-@ handers . He had the second @-@ lowest ERA among Red Sox pitchers in 2008 .

López made the playoffs for the second year in a row as the Red Sox won the AL Wild Card . He made one appearance in the AL Division Series ( ALDS ) against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , taking the loss in Game 3 after giving up a game @-@ winning , twelfth @-@ inning single to Erick Aybar . That was Boston 's only loss of the series , as they defeated the Angels in four games . He made two appearances in the AL Championship Series ( ALCS ) against the Tampa Bay Rays , allowing no runs as the Red Sox were defeated in seven games .

= = = = 2009 = = = =

On April 30 , 2009 , López allowed five runs in 1 ⁄ 3 inning and played the remainder of the eighth inning in right field after Francona switched him with right fielder Jonathan Van Every . This game , a 13 – 0 loss to the Rays , was the first time a Red Sox pitcher had played another position in a major league game since Tom Burgmeier played left field on August 3 , 1980 . On May 10 , López was designated for assignment to make room for pitcher Daniel Bard after he started the year 0 – 2 with a 9 @.@ 26 ERA in 14 games . Shortly thereafter , he was outrighted to the minors . He spent the rest of the season in Pawtucket , going 1 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 18 ERA in 38 games . On October 5 , he was granted free agency . López ended his Red Sox tenure with a string of 152 straight games without a save , the longest stretch for a Red Sox pitcher since Rheal Cormier had 160 in 1995 and from 1999 – 2000 .

= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 2010 ) = = =

On December 18 , 2009 , López signed a one @-@ year contract with the Pittsburgh Pirates where he replaced John Grabow , who was traded mid @-@ 2009 , as the Pirates ' left @-@ handed specialist . After posting a 10 @.@ 80 ERA in his first two games , he posted a 2 @.@ 43 ERA over his next 48 through July 31 .

= = = San Francisco Giants ( 2010 – present ) = = =

= = = = 2010 = = = =

On July 31 , 2010 , López was traded to the San Francisco Giants for Joe Martinez and John Bowker . He appeared in 27 games for the Giants , earning a 2 – 0 record with an ERA of 1 @.@ 42 . His combined record of 4 – 2 for the year with both Pittsburgh and San Francisco came in 77 appearances with an ERA of 2 @.@ 34 , both career records . Left @-@ handed batters hit only .162 against López , lowest among all National League left @-@ handers ( minimum 85 at @-@ bats ) . He ended the season five days short of qualifying for free agency .

López reached the playoffs as the Giants won the NL West for the first time since 2003 . He made two appearances in the NLDS against the Atlanta Braves to face Jason Heyward , whom he struck out both times . The Giants won the series in four games . Against the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLCS , he made five appearances , all scoreless except for Game 4 , in which he allowed a run . In the deciding Game 6 , he pitched a scoreless seventh inning and was charged with the win after Juan Uribe hit a game @-@ winning home run against Ryan Madson in the eighth inning . López made two appearances against the Texas Rangers in the 2010 World Series , striking out the two batters he faced . In Game 2 , he struck out Josh Hamilton to end the top of the eighth inning with a runner on second and preserve a 2 – 0 lead , although the Giants went on to win 9 – 0 . He won his second World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Rangers in five games to win their first World Series since 1954 .

= = = = 2011 = = = =

Since joining the Giants in 2010 , López has become one of the premier lefty specialists in the game . On May 12 , 2011 , he recorded his first save since 2006 in a 3 – 2 victory over the Diamondbacks . Following the game , he crossed his arms , imitating Giants ' closer Brian Wilson 's post @-@ save gesture . In 70 games in 2011 , he had a 5 – 2 record , a 2 @.@ 72 ERA , and 40 strikeouts in 50 innings pitched . He and Brad Ziegler were the only relief pitchers in the major leagues to toss at least 50 innings without allowing a home run . His .163 opponent batting average ( OBA ) against left @-@ handers was the eighth @-@ lowest in the NL .

= = = = 2012 = = = =

After the 2011 season , the Giants re @-@ signed López to a two @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract . On July 6 , 2012 , López gave up his first home run since joining the Giants in 2010 when he allowed a 457 @-@ foot home run to Pedro Álvarez in a 6 – 5 victory over the Pirates . That brought his ERA to 4 @.@ 00 , but he posted a 1 @.@ 00 ERA over his last 32 games . Following struggles by Santiago Casilla ( who had replaced an injured Wilson as the Giants ' closer ) , Giants ' manager Bruce Bochy announced on August 7 that the Giants would be going to a " bullpen by committee " strategy , with López , Sergio Romo , and Jeremy Affeldt pitching the final two innings of close games , depending on which hitters they would be facing . Romo and López received most of the save opportunities ; Affeldt only had one save after that point . López received six save opportunities after August 7 and converted each of them . In 70 games , López had a 3 – 0 record , a 2 @.@ 50 ERA , and 28 strikeouts in 36 innings while converting seven out of nine save opportunities . He stranded 87 @.@ 9 % of inherited runners , the third @-@ best mark in the NL . López made five appearances in the NLDS and the NLCS , allowing no runs as the Giants won both of those series . He did not pitch in the World Series but won his third career World Series ring as the Giants swept the Detroit Tigers .

= = = = 2013 = = = =

López recorded his only save of the 2013 season on September 19 , pitching the final 2 ⁄ 3 of the ninth inning in a 2 – 1 victory over the Mets . He made 69 appearances in 2013 , going 4 – 2 with a career @-@ best 1 @.@ 83 ERA and striking out 37 in 39 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He held left @-@ handed hitters to a .156 OBA . On November 20 , 2013 , López was re @-@ signed by the Giants to a three @-@ year , $ 13 million contract .

= = = = 2014 = = = =

López appeared in 65 games in 2014 , recording a 3 @.@ 11 ERA with 22 strikeouts and 19 walks . In the 2014 NLDS , NLCS , and World Series , he recorded 11 outs over nine appearances , allowing 4 hits and a walk . Lopez won his fourth World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games .

= = = = 2015 = = = =

In 2015 , López matched his career high with 77 appearances , setting new career @-@ bests with a 1 @.@ 60 ERA and 0 @.@ 890 WHIP . He struck out 26 batters in 391 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .

= = Pitching style = =

López 's main pitch is a two @-@ seam fastball in the low 80s , and his secondary pitch is a slider in the high 70s . Against left @-@ handed hitters he will sometimes mix in a curveball . López 's distinctive sidearm delivery makes him appealing as a left @-@ handed specialist ; through the 2013 season , lefties have hit only .209 against him , while righties have hit .297 .

After López struggled to begin his professional career , throwing over the top , he decided he needed to change his style . In the Diamondbacks ' system in 2002 , with the help of Mike Myers , he began throwing sidearm ( or submarine ) , which Andy Baggarly called " a decision that changed his life . "

= = Personal life = =

López is married to Renée Richards , with whom he attended high school and college . The couple has two children : Kylan ( March 19 , 2010 ) and Christian ( October 26 , 2012 ) . Because López was in the 2012 World Series when Christian was born , he had to fly back home for the birth between Games 2 and 3 . He and his family reside in Denver , Colorado . López is a Christian . He says , " I do everything through faith , for sure . "

= Domitian =

Domitian ( / dəˈmɪʃən , -iən / ; Latin : Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus ; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96 ) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96 . Domitian was the third and last emperor of the Flavian dynasty .

Domitian 's youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his brother Titus , who gained military renown during the First Jewish – Roman War . This situation continued under the rule of his father Vespasian , who became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors . While Titus held a great many offices under the rule of his father , Domitian was left with honours but no responsibilities . Vespasian died in 79 and was succeeded by Titus , whose own reign came to an unexpected end when he was struck by a fatal illness in 81 . The following day Domitian was declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard , commencing a reign that lasted fifteen years – longer than any man who had ruled since Tiberius .

As Emperor , Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage , expanded the border defenses of the Empire , and initiated a massive building program to restore the damaged city of Rome . Significant wars were fought in Britain , where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia ( Scotland ) , and in Dacia , where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against king Decebalus . Domitian 's government exhibited totalitarian characteristics ; he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of brilliance . Religious , military , and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality , and by nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals . As a consequence , Domitian was popular with the people and army but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate .

Domitian 's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials . The same day he was succeeded by his advisor Nerva . After his death , Domitian 's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate , while senatorial authors such as Tacitus , Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant . Modern revisionists have instead characterized Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat whose cultural , economic and political program provided the foundation of the peaceful 2nd century .

= = Early life = =

= = = Family = = =

Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51 , the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus — commonly known as Vespasian — and Flavia Domitilla Major . He had an older sister , Domitilla the Younger , and brother , also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus .

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome , which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century . One such family , the Flavians , or gens Flavia , rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations , acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . Domitian 's great @-@ grandfather , Titus Flavius Petro , had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar 's civil war . His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC .

Nevertheless , Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla , whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro 's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I , Domitian 's grandfather . Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia ( modern Switzerland ) . By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious gens Vespasia , ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial rank .

The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor , aedile , and praetor , and culminated with a consulship in 51 , the year of Domitian 's birth . As a military commander , Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 . Nevertheless , ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian 's upbringing , even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula ( 37 – 41 ) and Nero ( 54 – 68 ) . Modern history has refuted these claims , suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 54 ) and his son Britannicus .

By all appearances , the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s . While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus , Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career . Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s , he returned to public office under Nero , serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63 , and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66 .

The same year the Jews of the Judaea province revolted against the Roman Empire in what is now known as the First Jewish @-@ Roman War . Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents , with Titus — who had completed his military education by this time — in charge of a legion .

= = = Youth and character = = =

By the time he was 6 years old , Domitian 's mother and sister had long since died , while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military , commanding armies in Germania and Judaea . For Domitian , this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives . During the Jewish @-@ Roman wars , he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II , at the time serving as city prefect of Rome ; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva , a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian .

He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class , studying rhetoric and literature . In his biography in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars , Suetonius attests to Domitian 's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions , and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent , with elegant conversation . Among his first published works were poetry , as well as writings on law and administration .

Unlike his brother Titus , Domitian was not educated at court . Whether he received formal military training is not recorded , but according to Suetonius , he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow . A detailed description of Domitian 's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius , who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality .

He was tall of stature , with a modest expression and a high colour . His eyes were large , but his sight was somewhat dim . He was handsome and graceful too , especially when a young man , and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet , the toes of which were somewhat cramped . In later life he had the further disfigurement of baldness , a protruding belly , and spindling legs , though the latter had become thin from a long illness .

Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 18

Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive regarding his baldness , which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs . According to Suetonius , he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care . With regard to Domitian 's personality , however , the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor @-@ tyrant , a man both physically and intellectually lazy , and the intelligent , refined personality drawn elsewhere .

Historian Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian that assessing the true nature of Domitian 's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources . Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence . He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father . He was prone to suspicion , displayed an odd , sometimes self @-@ deprecating sense of humour , and often communicated in cryptic ways .

This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness , and as he grew older , he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude , which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing . Indeed , by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease . Having spent the greater part of his early life in the twilight of Nero 's reign , his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s , culminating with the civil war of 69 , which brought his family to power .

= = Rise of the Flavian dynasty = =

= = = Year of the Four Emperors = = =

On 9 June 68 , amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army , Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty came to an end . Chaos ensued , leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors , during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire — Galba , Otho , Vitellius and Vespasian — successively vied for imperial power .

News of Nero 's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem . Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba , then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis ( modern northern Spain ) , as Emperor of Rome . Rather than continue his campaign , Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor .

Before reaching Italy , Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho , the governor of Lusitania ( modern Portugal ) . At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome , intent on overthrowing Otho . Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other , Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea .

Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction . With four legions at his disposal , Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80 @,@ 000 soldiers . His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt , which controlled the grain supply to Rome . His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II , as city prefect , commanded the entire city garrison of Rome . Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power , Vespasian refused to take action .

When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum , the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69 . Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus , the governor of Syria , against Vitellius . A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus , while Vespasian travelled to Alexandria , leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion .

In Rome , Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius , as a safeguard against Flavian aggression . Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian . On 24 October 69 , the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian met at the Second Battle of Bedriacum , which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius .

In despair , Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender . Terms of peace , including a voluntary abdication , were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard — the imperial bodyguard — considered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty . On the morning of 18 December , the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace . In the confusion , the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus ' house , proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor , but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus , who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill .

During the night , he was joined by his relatives , including Domitian . The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day . On 19 December , Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish , Sabinus was captured and executed . Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father 's supporters , Cornelius Primus .

By the afternoon of 20 December , Vitellius was dead , his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions . With nothing more to be feared , Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces ; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar and the mass of troops conducted him to his father 's house . The following day , 21 December , the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire .

= = = Aftermath of the war = = =

Although the war had officially ended , a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius . Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year . In the meantime , Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate . He received the title of Caesar and was appointed praetor with consular power .

The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian 's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured , at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions . Domitian 's authority was merely nominal , however , foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years . By all accounts , Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian 's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian , still only eighteen years old , did not overstep the boundaries of his function . Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar 's entourage , promoting away Flavian generals such as Arrius Varus and Antonius Primus and replacing them by more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens .

Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian 's military ambitions . The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces , leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul . Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions , led by Gaius Julius Civilis , had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus . Seven legions were sent from Rome , led by Vespasian 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Quintus Petillius Cerialis .

Although the revolt was quickly suppressed , exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own . Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own . According to Tacitus , Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him , he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome .

When news arrived of Cerialis ' victory over Civilis , Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours . Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally , suggesting he hand over command of his army but , once again , he was snubbed . With the return of Vespasian in late September , his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature .

= = = Marriage = = =

Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment , Domitian 's private affairs were more successful . In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus , Julia Flavia , but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina , going so far as to persuade her husband , Lucius Aelius Lamia , to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself . Despite its initial recklessness , the alliance was very prestigious for both families . Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo , a respected general and honoured politician who had distinguished himself for his leadership in Armenia . Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65 , he had been forced to commit suicide . The new marriage not only re @-@ established ties to senatorial opposition , but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time , which sought to diminish Vespasian 's political success under Nero . Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised , and Nero 's victims , or those otherwise disadvantaged by him , rehabilitated .

In 80 , Domitia and Domitian 's only attested son was born . It is not known what the boy 's name was , but he died in childhood in 83 . Shortly following his accession as Emperor , Domitian bestowed the honorific title of Augusta upon Domitia , while their son was deified , appearing as such on the reverse of coin types from this period . Nevertheless , the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83 . For reasons unknown , Domitian briefly exiled Domitia , and then soon recalled her , either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia . Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir . By 84 , Domitia had returned to the palace , where she lived for the remainder of Domitian 's reign without incident . Little is known of Domitia 's activities as Empress , or how much influence she wielded in Domitian 's government , but it seems her role was limited . From Suetonius , we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre , while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her . It is not known whether Domitian had other children , but he did not marry again . Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce , the marriage appears to have been happy .

= = = Ceremonial heir ( 71 – 81 ) = = =

Prior to becoming Emperor , Domitian 's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial . In June 71 , Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea . Ultimately , the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million people , a majority of whom were Jewish . The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed , its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army , and nearly 100 @,@ 000 people were captured and enslaved .

For his victory , the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph . On the day of the festivities , the Flavian family rode into the capital , preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war . The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus , while Domitian , riding a magnificent white horse , followed with the remaining Flavian relatives .

Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum , after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . A triumphal arch , the Arch of Titus , was erected at the south @-@ east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war .

Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian , both militarily and politically . As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian 's sons , Titus shared tribunician power with his father , received seven consulships , the censorship , and was given command of the Praetorian Guard ; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire . As a second son , Domitian held honorary titles , such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis , and several priesthoods , including those of augur , pontifex , frater arvalis , magister frater arvalium , and sacerdos collegiorum omnium , but no office with imperium .

He held six consulships during Vespasian 's reign but only one of these , in 73 , was an ordinary consulship . The other five were less prestigious suffect consulships , which he held in 71 , 75 , 76 , 77 and 79 respectively , usually replacing his father or brother in mid @-@ January . While ceremonial , these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate , and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance .

Under Vespasian and Titus , non @-@ Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices . Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time , and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77 . Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction ; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy .

Because Titus effectively acted as co @-@ emperor with his father , no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 23 June 79 . Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his , but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus ' brief reign . The new Emperor was not eager to alter this arrangement : he was under forty and at the height of his power .

Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80 . On 24 August 79 , Mount Vesuvius erupted , burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava ; the following year , a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and that destroyed a number of important public buildings . Consequently , Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property . On 13 September 81 after barely two years in office , he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories .

Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother , either by directly accusing him of murder , or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead , even alleging that during his lifetime , Domitian was openly plotting against his brother . It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources . Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum , but this was hardly surprising , considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven .

Whatever the nature of their relationship , Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying , instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor . The following day , 14 September , the Senate confirmed Domitian 's powers , granting tribunician power , the office of Pontifex Maximus , and the titles of Augustus , and Pater Patriae .

= = Emperor ( 81 – 96 ) = =

= = = Rule = = =

As Emperor , Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign . By moving the centre of government ( more or less formally ) to the imperial court , Domitian openly rendered the Senate 's powers obsolete . In his view , the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head .

In addition to exercising absolute political power , Domitian believed the Emperor 's role encompassed every aspect of daily life , guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority . To usher in the new era , he embarked on ambitious economic , military and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus .

Despite these grand designs Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously . He became personally involved in all branches of the administration : edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law , while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced . According to Suetonius , the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian , whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials .

Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule , those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate , and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family members ; a policy that stood in contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus . Above all , however , Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts , qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family , whom he regarded with suspicion , and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy .

The reality of Domitian 's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that , more than any emperor since Tiberius , he spent significant periods of time away from the capital . Although the Senate 's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic , under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome , but rather wherever the Emperor was . Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill , the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeii , and sometimes even farther afield . Domitian toured the European provinces extensively , and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum , conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire .

= = = Economy = = =

Domitian 's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy . The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated . The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian 's reign . Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically . He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90 % to 98 % — the actual silver weight increasing from 2 @.@ 87 grams to 3 @.@ 26 grams . A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93 @.@ 5 % and 3 @.@ 04 grams respectively .

Nevertheless , the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns . Domitian 's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years . Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian 's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits .

Jones estimates Domitian 's annual income at more than 1 @.@ 2 billion sestertii , of which over one @-@ third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army . The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome . At the time of Domitian 's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64 , the civil war of 69 and the fire in 79 .

Much more than a renovation project , Domitian 's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire @-@ wide cultural renaissance . Around fifty structures were erected , restored or completed , achievements second only to those of Augustus . Among the most important new structures were an odeon , a stadium , and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace , which was designed by Domitian 's master architect Rabirius .

The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill , said to have been covered with a gilded roof . Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , the Arch of Titus and the Colosseum , to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area .

In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives , or congiaria , throughout Domitian 's reign . The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets , which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero , while he invested large sums on entertainment and games . In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games , a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays , chariot racing , and competitions for oratory , music and acting .

Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes . Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games such as naval contests , nighttime battles , and female and dwarf gladiator fights . Lastly , he added two new factions to the chariot races , Gold and Purple , to race against the existing White , Red , Green and Blue factions .

= = = Military campaigns = = =

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian 's reign were generally defensive in nature , as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare . His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus , which encompassed a vast network of roads , forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire . Nevertheless , several important wars were fought in Gaul , against the Chatti , and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi , the Sarmatians , and the Dacians .

The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola , who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia , or modern day Scotland . Domitian also founded a new legion in 82 , the Legio I Minervia , to fight against the Chatti . Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman presence , the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain , in present @-@ day Azerbaijan . As judged by the carved titles of Caesar , Augustus and Germanicus , the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD .

Domitian 's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government . His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however . Although he claimed several triumphs , these were largely propaganda manoeuvres . Tacitus derided Domitian 's victory against the Chatti as a " mock triumph " , and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola .

Nevertheless , Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers , spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns — more than any emperor since Augustus — and raising their pay by one @-@ third . While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions , the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned .

= = = = Campaign against the Chatti = = = =

Once Emperor , Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory . As early as 82 , or possibly 83 , he went to Gaul , ostensibly to conduct a census , and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti . For this purpose , a new legion was founded , Legio I Minervia , which constructed some 75 kilometres ( 46 mi ) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy 's hiding places .

Although little information survives of the battles fought , enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83 , where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus . Domitian 's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors , who described the campaign as " uncalled for " , and a " mock triumph " . The evidence lends some credence to these claims , as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89 .

= = = = Conquest of Britain ( 77 – 84 ) = = = =

One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus , whose biography of his father @-@ in @-@ law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84 . Agricola arrived c . 77 as governor of Roman Britain , immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia ( modern Scotland ) .

In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then . He fortified the coast facing Ireland , and Tacitus recalls that his father @-@ in @-@ law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries . He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest . This conquest never happened , but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small @-@ scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland .

Turning his attention from Ireland , the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia . To aid the advance , a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil . In the summer of 84 , Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians , led by Calgacus , at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy , two @-@ thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands , ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control .

In 85 , Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian , having served for more than six years as governor , longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era . Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola 's successes outshone the Emperor 's own modest victories in Germania . The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear : on the one hand , Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue , on the other , Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown . He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa but declined it , either due to ill health or , as Tacitus claims , the machinations of Domitian .

Not long after Agricola 's recall from Britain , the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East . Reinforcements were needed , and in 87 or 88 , Domitian ordered a large @-@ scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned , moving the Roman frontier some 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) further south . The army command may have resented Domitian 's decision to retreat , but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury .

= = = = Dacian wars ( 85 – 88 ) = = = =

The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum , where the Suebi , the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river . Of these , the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat . In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians , led by King Decebalus , crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia , wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus .

Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive , personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus . Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid @-@ 85 , prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph .

The victory proved short @-@ lived , however : as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill @-@ fated expedition into Dacia , which resulted in the complete destruction of the fifth legion , Legio V Alaudae , in the First Battle of Tapae . Fuscus was killed , and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost . The loss of the battle standard , or aquila , was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride .

Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86 . He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia , and transferred three additional legions to the Danube . In 87 , the Romans invaded Dacia once more , this time under the command of Tettius Julianus , and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished . An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89 .

In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts , Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus , negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces . Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty , which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged . For the remainder of Domitian 's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom , but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses .

Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians , and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia . Trajan continued Domitian 's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia , and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars . Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106 . Again , the Roman army sustained heavy losses , but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and , importantly , annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines .

= = = Religious policy = = =

Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion , and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign . In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule , Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter , perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill . A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69 . Later in his reign , he replaced it with a more expansive building , dedicated to Jupiter Custos .

The goddess he worshipped the most zealously , however , was Minerva . Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom , she regularly appeared on his coinage — in four different attested reverse types — and he founded a legion , Legio I Minervia , in her name .

Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult , which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian . Significantly , his first act as an Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus . Upon their deaths , his infant son , and niece , Julia Flavia , were likewise enrolled among the gods . With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure , both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of Dominus et Deus . However , not only did he reject the title of Dominus during his reign , but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect , historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from the emperor .

To foster the worship of the imperial family , he erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian 's former house on the Quirinal , and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus , a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother . To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family , he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux , and completed the Arch of Titus .

Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian 's religious policy , which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals . In 85 , he nominated himself perpetual censor , the office that held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct . Once again , Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully , and with care . He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis , under which adultery was punishable by exile . From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back , while an ex @-@ quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing .

Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials , removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected . He ensured that libellous writings , especially those directed against himself , were punishable by exile or death . Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion , as their performances provided an opportunity for satire at the expense of the government . Consequently , he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public .

In 87 , Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity . As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community , this offense essentially constituted incest . Accordingly , those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death , either by a manner of their choosing , or according to the ancient fashion , which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive .

Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order , or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion . The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty , to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus . Veneration of Serapis and Isis , who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively , was especially prominent .

4th century writings by Eusebius of Caesarea maintain that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian 's reign . The Book of Revelation is thought by some to have been written during this period . Although Jews were heavily taxed , no contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion .

= = = Opposition = = =

= = = = Revolt of Governor Saturninus ( 89 ) = = = =

On 1 January 89 , the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , and his two legions at Mainz , Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax , revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people . The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain , although it appears to have been planned well in advance . The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian 's military strategies , such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack , as well as his recent retreat from Britain , and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus .

At any rate , the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus ' province , and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces . The governor of Germania Inferior , Lappius Maximus , moved to the region at once , assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia , Titus Flavius Norbanus . From Spain , Trajan was summoned , while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard .

By a stroke of luck , a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus ' aid . Within twenty @-@ four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished . The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded .

Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria , a consulship in May 95 , and finally a priesthood , which he still held in 102 . Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt , but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94 , with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague . Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva , suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy , perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero .

Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96 , he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat , surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians ' most trusted advisors . His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasize the stability and status quo of the regime . The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order .

= = = = Relationship with the Senate = = = =

Since the fall of the Republic , the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi @-@ monarchical system of government established by Augustus , known as the Principate . The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime , while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic . Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy , and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor 's status as a de facto monarch .

Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others . Domitian was not so subtle . From the outset of his reign , he stressed the reality of his autocracy . He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it , withdrawing every decision @-@ making power from the Senate , and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state .

The dislike was mutual . After Domitian 's assassination , the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house , where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion . Under the rulers of the Nervan @-@ Antonian dynasty , senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant .

Nevertheless , the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion . Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family , Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship , allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul . Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained . By offering the consulship to potential opponents , Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters . When their conduct proved unsatisfactory , they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed , and their property was confiscated .

Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian 's reign , identifying a point of sharp increase around 93 , or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89 . At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed , including Domitia Longina 's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia and three of Domitian 's own family members , Titus Flavius Sabinus IV , Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens . Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85 however , lending little credit to Tacitus ' notion of a " reign of terror " late in Domitian 's reign . According to Suetonius , some were convicted for corruption or treason , others on trivial charges , which Domitian justified through his suspicion :

He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate , since when they discovered a conspiracy , no one believed them unless they had been murdered .

Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 21

Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius ( 41 – 55 ) , noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians , and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history . Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy , despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments . His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate 's loss of power , while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt .

= = Death and succession = =

= = = Assassination ( 96 ) = = =

Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 , in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials . A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius , who alleges that Domitian 's chamberlain Parthenius was the chief instigator behind the conspiracy , citing the recent execution of Domitian 's secretary Epaphroditus as the primary motive . The murder itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus , and a steward of Domitian 's niece Flavia Domitilla , named Stephanus .

The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is less clear . At the time the Guard was commanded by Titus Flavius Norbanus and Titus Petronius Secundus and the latter was almost certainly aware of the plot . Cassius Dio , writing nearly a hundred years after the assassination , includes Domitia Longina among the conspirators , but in light of her attested devotion to Domitian — even years after her husband had died — her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely .

Dio further suggests that the assassination was improvised , while Suetonius implies a well @-@ organized conspiracy . For some days before the attack took place , Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a dagger beneath his bandages . On the day of the assassination the doors to the servants ' quarters were locked while Domitian 's personal weapon of last resort , a sword he concealed beneath his pillow , had been removed in advance .

In accordance with an astrological prediction the Emperor believed that he would die around noon , and was therefore restless during this time of the day . On his last day , Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant several times what time it was . The boy , included in the plot , lied , saying that it was much later than noon . More at ease , the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees , where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus :

Then pretending to betray a conspiracy and for that reason being given an audience , [ Stephanus ] stabbed the emperor in the groin as he was reading a paper which the assassin handed him , and stood in a state of amazement . As the wounded prince attempted to resist , he was slain with seven wounds by Clodianus , a subaltern , Maximus , a freedman of Parthenius , Satur , decurion of the chamberlains , and a gladiator from the imperial school .

Suetonius , De Vita Caesarum , " Life of Domitian " , 17

Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time , until the Emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators ; Stephanus was stabbed by Domitian during the struggle and died shortly afterward . Around noon Domitian , just one month short of his 45th birthday , was dead . His body was carried away on a common bier , and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis , who later mingled the ashes with those of his niece Julia , at the Flavian temple .

According to Suetonius , a number of omens had foretold Domitian 's death . Several days prior to the assassination , Minerva had appeared to him in a dream , announcing she had been disarmed by Jupiter and would no longer be able to protect him .

= = = Succession and aftermath = = =

The Fasti Ostienses , the Ostian Calendar , records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor . Despite his political experience , this was a remarkable choice . Nerva was old and childless , and had spent much of his career out of the public light , prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian 's assassination .

According to Cassius Dio , the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination , suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot . He does not appear in Suetonius ' version of the events , but this may be understandable , since his works were published under Nerva 's direct descendants Trajan and Hadrian . To suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder would have been less than sensitive .

On the other hand , Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire , and as a known Flavian loyalist , his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators . The precise facts have been obscured by history , but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , within hours after the news of the assassination broke . The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war , but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy .

The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian , and immediately following Nerva 's accession as Emperor , passed damnatio memoriae on his memory : his coins and statues were melted , his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records . Domitian and , over a century later Publius Septimius Geta , were the only emperors known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae , though others may have received de facto ones . In many instances , existing portraits of Domitian , such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs , were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva , which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material . Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome , and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy .

According to Suetonius , the people of Rome met the news of Domitian 's death with indifference , but the army was much grieved , calling for his deification immediately after the assassination , and in several provinces rioting . As a compensation measure , the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian 's assassins , which Nerva refused . Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus , and replaced him with a former commander , Casperius Aelianus .

Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva 's reign , and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October 97 , when members of the Praetorian Guard , led by Casperius Aelianus , laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage . He was forced to submit to their demands , agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian 's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians . Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed . Nerva was unharmed in this assault , but his authority was damaged beyond repair . Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor , and with this decision all but abdicated .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Ancient sources = = =

The classic view of Domitian is usually negative , since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class , with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations . Furthermore , contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger , Tacitus and Suetonius all wrote down the information on his reign after it had ended , and his memory had been condemned to oblivion . The work of Domitian 's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign . Perhaps as unsurprising as the attitude of post @-@ Domitianic historians , the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory , praising Domitian 's achievements as equalling those of the gods .

The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius , who was born during the reign of Vespasian , and published his works under Emperor Hadrian ( 117 – 138 ) . His De Vita Caesarum is the source of much of what is known of Domitian . Although his text is predominantly negative , it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian , and asserts that his rule started well , but gradually declined into terror . The biography is problematic however , in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian 's rule and personality , at the same time presenting him as a conscientious , moderate man , and as a decadent libertine .

According to Suetonius , Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature , and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors . Other passages , alluding to Domitian 's love of epigrammatic expression , suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers , while he also patronized poets and architects , founded artistic Olympics , and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down .

De Vita Caesarum is also the source of several outrageous stories regarding Domitian 's marriage life . According to Suetonius , Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris . When Domitian found out , he allegedly murdered Paris in the street and promptly divorced his wife , with Suetonius further adding that once Domitia was exiled , Domitian took Julia as his mistress , who later died during a failed abortion .

Modern historians consider this highly implausible however , noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia 's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post @-@ Domitianic authors , and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals , while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court . Nevertheless , the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries .

Although Tacitus is usually considered to be the most reliable author of this era , his views on Domitian are complicated by the fact that his father @-@ in @-@ law , Gnaeus Julius Agricola , may have been a personal enemy of the Emperor . In his biographical work Agricola , Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian 's own inadequacy as a military commander . Several modern authors such as Dorey have argued the opposite : that Agricola was in fact a close friend of Domitian , and that Tacitus merely sought to distance his family from the fallen dynasty once Nerva was in power .

Tacitus ' major historical works , including The Histories and Agricola 's biography , were all written and published under Domitian 's successors Nerva ( 96 – 98 ) and Trajan ( 98 – 117 ) . Unfortunately , the part of Tacitus ' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost . His views on Domitian survive through brief comments in its first five books , and the short but highly negative characterization in Agricola in which he severely criticizes Domitian 's military endeavours . Nevertheless , Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career .

Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger , the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panygericus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate , exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant . Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires , depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt , violent and unjust . As a consequence , the anti @-@ Domitianic tradition was already well established by the end of the 2nd century , and by the 3rd century , even expanded upon by early Church historians , who identified Domitian as an early persecutor of Christians , such as in the Acts of John .

= = = Modern revisionism = = =

Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th century , before archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign , and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny . In 1930 , Ronald Syme argued a complete reassessment of Domitian 's financial policy , which had until then been largely viewed as a disaster , opening his paper with the following introduction :

The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of Domitian from infamy or oblivion . But much remains to be done .

Ronald Syme , Imperial finances under Domitian , Nerva and Trajan

Over the course of the 20th century , Domitian 's military , administrative and economic policies were re @-@ evaluated . New book length studies were not published until the 1990s however , nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell 's Essai sur le règne de l 'empereur Domitien ( 1894 ) . The most important of these was The Emperor Domitian , by Brian W. Jones . In his monograph , Jones concludes that Domitian was a ruthless , but efficient autocrat . For the majority of his reign , there was no widespread dissatisfaction with the emperor or his rule . His harshness was felt by only a small , but highly vocal minority , who later exaggerated his despotism in favour of the well @-@ regarded Nervan @-@ Antonian dynasty that followed .

Domitian 's foreign policy was realistic , rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest . His economic program , which was rigorously efficient , maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve . Persecution of religious minorities , such as Jews and Christians , was non @-@ existent . Domitian 's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics . As Emperor , he saw himself as the new Augustus , an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance .

Religious , military and cultural propaganda fostered a cult of personality . He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements . Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior @-@ emperor , but many of these were either unearned or premature . By nominating himself perpetual censor , he sought to control public and private morals .

He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials . The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech , and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate . He punished libel with exile or death and , due to his suspicious nature , increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary .

Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death , his administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century . His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive , but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian 's . Much more than a " gloomy coda to the ... 1st century " the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96 , in a reign that Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian .

= = In later arts = =

= = = Literature = = =

The Roman Actor ( 1626 ) , a play by Philip Massinger that features Domitian as the main character .

Josephus and the Emperor ( 1942 ; earlier Der Tag wird kommen ) , historical novel by Lion Feuchtwanger , in which a cruel and hypocritical Domitian suggests the tyranny of Adolf Hitler .

The Ravishers ( 1980 ) , a historical romance by Jeanne Duval , about a Gallic princess who is enslaved in Rome and survives the Year of the Four Emperors

The Marcus Didius Falco series of crime novels ( 1989 — ) by Lindsey Davis , set during the reign of Vespasian . Domitian appears as a peripheral character , and is named as the primary suspect in the murder being investigated in the first novel , Silver Pigs .

The companion series , featuring Falco 's adoptive daughter , Flavia Albia , takes place during the reign of Domitian .

Master and God ( 2012 ) , a historical novel by Davis centers around the reign of Domitian .

The Light Bearer ( 1994 ) , a historical novel by Donna Gillespie .

Domitia and Domitian ( 2000 ) , a historical novel by David Corson based on the works of Brian Jones and Pat Southern , revolving around the title characters .

The Roman Mysteries series of young adult novels by Caroline Lawrence features Domitian as a peripheral character , in which he is depicted as indolent and cruel , and responsible for several plots to undermine his brother Titus 's popularity ;

Mistress of Rome ( 2010 ) , an historical novel by Kate Quinn where Domitian 's skills as an emperor are tarnished by his personal cruelty and suspicion towards those around him .

Roman Hell ( 2010 ) , a historical novel by Mark Mellon , fictionalizes the rise and fall of Domitian and suggests he may have had a role in his brother 's death .

Roman Games : A Plinius Secundus Mystery ( 2010 ) , a crime novel by Bruce Macbain , featuring Pliny the Younger ;

Blood of Caesar , a crime novel by Albert Bell , Junior , featuring Pliny as detective with the historian Tacitus as his sidekick , during Domitian 's reign ;

Empire ( 2010 ) , an epic novel of imperial Rome by Steven Saylor depicting four generations of a Roman family and their relationships with every emperor from Augustus to Hadrian , with Domitian as a major character .

" Los Asesinos del Emperador " ( 2011 ) , a novel ( in Spanish ) by Spanish writer Santiago Posteguillo .

= = = Painting = = =

The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma @-@ Tadema ( 1885 ) . Oil on canvas . Private collection . This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family . Alma @-@ Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world . Vespasian , dressed as Pontifex Maximus , walks at the head of his family , followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina , who he had only recently married . Behind Domitian follows Titus , dressed in religious regalia . An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair upon which historians have speculated .

= = = Film and television = = =

La Rivolta dei Pretoriani ( The Revolt of the Praetorians , 1964 ) , Italian film directed by Alfonso Brescia , concerning a fictional plot to overthrow Domitian ( Piero Lulli ) , who has grown into a cruel and murderous despot , which is in the end joined by the Praetorian Guard .

Dacii ( 1967 ) , Romanian film directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu about the Dacian campaign of Domitian , with György Kovács as Domitian .

Age of Treason ( 1993 ) , English television film , featuring Marcus Didius Falco from the crime novels by Lindsey Davis . The story is set during the reign of Vespasian , with Domitian , played by Jamie Glover , as a peripheral character .

San Giovanni - L 'apocalisse ( 2003 ) , English telefilm concerning the purported persecution of Christians under Domitian , who is played by Bruce Payne .

The Roman Mysteries , a TV miniseries based on the novels by Caroline Lawrence - Domitian appears in the episode , The Assassins of Rome , portrayed by Duncan Duff .

= = Ancestry = =

= = = Secondary material = = =

Donahue , John ( 1997 @-@ 10 @-@ 10 ) . " Titus Flavius Domitianus ( A.D. 81 – 96 ) " . De Imperatoribus Romanis : An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and their Families . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 02 @-@ 10 .

A private collection of silver coins minted by Domitian

= The Boat Race 1861 =

The 18th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 16 March 1861 . Held annually , The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The 1861 event , which featured the first ever non @-@ British competitor , suffered numerous interruptions from river traffic . Oxford won by 16 lengths .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by one length in the previous year 's race and led overall with ten wins to Oxford 's seven .

The challenge to race was sent from Oxford in the October term which was accepted by Cambridge . Both boats were built specifically for the race , Cambridge 's by Searle and Oxford 's by Salter . Oxford were " occasionally looked after " by H. Baxter , who rowed in the 1860 race , and C. G. Lane who represented the Dark Blues in the 1858 and 1859 races . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race .

= = Crews = =

The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 4 @.@ 875 lb ( 71 @.@ 9 kg ) , 0 @.@ 875 pounds ( 0 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their Dark Blue opposition . George Morrison returned to the Oxford crew , having rowed in the previous year 's race . Cambridge saw Chaytor , Blake , Coventry and Hall return . The race featured the first non @-@ British rower in the history of the event : William Robertson of Wadham College , Oxford was educated at Geelong Grammar School in Australia before representing the Dark Blues at number four .

= = Race = =

As a result of strong winds and a large volume of land water running into the river , the race was re @-@ scheduled for 11am . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey station to Oxford . The starter , Edward Searle , gave the command to start , with neither boat taking an early advantage . By the Star and Garter pub , Cambridge had edged ahead and spurted to take a half @-@ length lead and by the Duke 's Head pub , the Light Blues had moved further in front . A steering error from Gaskell , the Cambridge cox , saw their lead eroded such that Oxford led by Craven Cottage . At the football ground , rough water created by one of the nearby steamboats ( who , according to MacMichael , had " shamefully put her paddle @-@ wheels into motion " ) caused a swell to slow the Oxford boat .

The Dark Blue crew 's rhythm combined with more poor steering from Cambridge allowed Oxford to pull away , three lengths ahead by the Crab Tree and six by Hammersmith Bridge . Further interruption to Cambridge 's passage came from a sailing barge which they forced to steer around , and by Chiswick , they were ten lengths behind . Oxford suffered briefly at the hands of a barge blocking their route but by Barnes Bridge were at least twelve lengths ahead . They passed the flag boat ( indicating the finish of the race ) at the Ship Tavern in a time of 23 minutes 30 seconds , and a lead of 16 lengths . It was the largest winning margin since the 1841 race and would be the first in a series of nine consecutive victories for Oxford .

= Tropical Storm Dean ( 1983 ) =

Tropical Storm Dean caused minor flooding along portions of the East Coast of the United States in September 1983 . The seventh tropical cyclone and fourth named storm the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season , Dean developed from a frontal low to the northeast of the Bahamas on September 26 . Initially subtropical , it gained characteristics of a tropical cyclone while tracking slowly north @-@ northeastward . By September 27 , the system was reclassified as Tropical Storm Dean . While tracking northward on September 28 , Dean peaked with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , shortly before curving west @-@ northwestward and slowly leveling @-@ off in intensity . Eventually , Dean made landfall in Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula on September 29 as a weakening tropical storm . Dean rapidly weakened over land and was no longer classifiable as a tropical cyclone by early on October 1 .

Offshore Virginia , swells generated by the storm stranded a tugboat and injured two people . Waves along the coast also caused beach erosion , especially in Virginia and North Carolina . Inland , effects were minor and generally limited to mostly light rainfall . More than 100 campers on the Outer Banks of North Carolina were forced to evacuate due to flooding on North Carolina Highway 12 . Although near @-@ hurricane @-@ force wind gusts pelted coastal areas of Virginia and North Carolina , wind damage from the storm was minimal . The remnants of the storm brought rainfall to portions of New England , especially to Connecticut , where precipitation from the storm peaked at 4 @.@ 62 in ( 117 mm ) . Damage from the storm was unknown , but presumed to be minimal .

= = Meteorological history = =

A frontal cloud band moved offshore the East Coast of the United States on September 22 . During the next few days , the cloud band became stationary while stretching from The Bahamas to northeast of Bermuda . Around that time , a 1 @,@ 035 mbar ( 30 @.@ 6 inHg ) high pressure stalled over the Northeastern United States , producing a strong pressure gradient and gale force winds over the East Coast of the United States . While located about 455 mi ( 732 km ) east of Vero Beach , Florida , a low @-@ level circulation developed within the frontal cloud band on September 26 . At around 1800 UTC that day , the NHC classified the system as a subtropical storm , due to a ship report of gale force winds 230 mi ( 370 km ) from the center . Initially , it tracked north @-@ northeastward under the influence of the frontal cloud band that spawned the storm . The wind field quickly condensed , while the storm itself separated from the frontal cloud band . As a result , it was re @-@ classified as Tropical Storm Dean at 1800 UTC on September 27 while approximately 575 mi ( 925 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . The National Hurricane Center , which initiated advisories on the storm at 2200 UTC on the same day , indicated that a weak ridge to the north and a cold low moving offshore of the Southeastern United States would cause Dean to move slowly and possibly curve northwestward .

Early on September 28 , a reconnaissance aircraft recorded Dean 's minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Although forecast models initially indicated that the storm would continue northeastward , they quickly switched to a westward movement on September 29 . After curving northwestward later that day , Dean attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , as reported by a ship . While a reconnaissance aircraft flew into Dean north of center late on September 29 , it reported hurricane @-@ force wind gusts . However , the storm soon began to weaken . At around 1200 UTC on September 30 , Dean made landfall in Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories four hours after Dean struck the state . At 1800 UTC on September 30 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression . At 0000 UTC on October 1 , Dean became unidentifiable as a tropical cyclone while located over Virginia near the mouth of the Potomac River . The remnants continued northwestward , before curving to the northeast while near the border of Virginia and West Virginia . It crossed the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England before re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Boston , Massachusetts . By October 2 , the remnants of Dean had dissipated just offshore of the East Coast of the United States .

= = Preparations and impact = =

As Dean approached the United States , numerous gale warnings were issued . Many of these warnings were issued from North Carolina up to Rhode Island . Small craft advisories were also raised along much of the eastern seaboard , covering places between Cape Cod , Massachusetts to Jupiter Inlet , Florida . In Norfolk , Virginia , the naval station was placed under " hurricane condition 3 " , meaning that destructive winds were anticipated within 48 hours . In parts of North Carolina , residents were urged to prepare for the storm and remain out of the rough coastal waters .

As the storm moved inland over Virginia , its outer bands and high winds prompted more than 100 campers on Ocracoke Island and Cape Hatteras to evacuate after 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water flooded North Carolina Highway 12 . Along the coast , wave between 6 and 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 0 m ) were measured . Minor beach erosion ensued , although some beaches lost as much as 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) of sand . Squall lines associated with Dean brought near @-@ hurricane @-@ force wind gusts and brief , heavy rainfall . Winds caused little effect other than isolated power outages , especially on the Outer Banks . Aside from the minor damage caused by Dean , there was also a positive side to the storm . Throughout coastal waters off North Carolina , king mackerel appeared in near @-@ record numbers , improving the local fishing industry . Some catchers stated that they were finding some fish weighing up to 30 lb ( 14 kg ) .

About 300 mi ( 480 km ) off the coast of Virginia , large swells from Dean stranded a tugboat on September 29 with six people on board . Two of the crew were injured during the incident ; however , they were not seriously hurt . The ship was towed to Cape May , New Jersey later that day by the United States Coast Guard . Waves up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) caused beach erosion across the Virginia coastline . In addition to minor erosion , waves caused " slight flooding " at Buckroe Beach , totaling to $ 500 to $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1983 USD ) . Although winds were estimated to have been around 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) as the storm moved inland , structural damage was minimal . Many areas near Dean 's path experienced light rainfall of 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) of rain , especially in Virginia where the statewide peak was 1 @.@ 29 in ( 33 mm ) in Richmond .

In Maryland , thousands of tons of sand was removed by rough seas near Ocean City ; beach erosion also occurred at nearby Assateague Island . Additionally , wind gusts between 50 and 55 mph ( 80 and 89 km / h ) resulted in minor damage , while minimal flooding was reported following rainfall . Damage in Maryland was light , totaling to between $ 500 and $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 1983 USD ) . Minor effects were reported in Delaware , limited to winds gusts up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , which caused the loss of tons of sand along beaches . In coastal New Jersey , locally heavy rainfall resulted in traffic jams , downed power lines , and numerous commuting problems . In some areas of New York , especially in the southeastern portions of the state , rainfall exceeding 2 in ( 51 mm ) in 24 hours flooded roadways and delayed trains . The remnants of Dean dropped light precipitation in New England . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 4 @.@ 62 in ( 117 mm ) at the Cockaponset Ranger Station in Connecticut .

= 1869 Atlantic hurricane season =

The 1869 Atlantic hurricane season was the earliest season in the Atlantic hurricane database in which there were at least ten tropical cyclones . Initially there were only three known storms in the year , but additional research uncovered the additional storms . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates up to six storms may remain missing from the official database for each season in this era , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines . All activity occurred in a three @-@ month period between the middle of August and early October .

Out of the ten tropical storms , seven reached hurricane intensity , of which four made landfall on the United States . The strongest hurricane was a Category 3 on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale which struck New England at that intensity , one of four storms to do so . It left heavy damage , killing at least one person . The most notable hurricane of the season was the Saxby Gale , which was predicted nearly a year in advance . The hurricane was one of six to produce hurricane force winds in Maine , where it left heavy damage and flooding . The Saxby Gale left 37 deaths along its path , with its destruction greatest along the Bay of Fundy ; there , the hurricane produced a 70 @.@ 9 ft ( 21 @.@ 6 m ) high tide near the head of the bay .

= = Timeline = =

= = Storms = =

= = = Hurricane One = = =

The first tropical cyclone of the season was observed on August 12 , about 500 mi ( 800 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Its entire track was unknown , and its existence was only confirmed for 24 hours , based on three ship reports . The second , a barque , the Prinze Frederik Carl , sustained damage to all of its sails . The Hurricane Research Division ( HRD ) assessed the storm to have moved northeastward in its limited duration , and based on the ship reports estimated peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) ; this would make it a Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .

= = = Hurricane Two = = =

By August 16 , a strong hurricane was located in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico south of Louisiana . With estimated winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , it tracked westward and struck Texas on Matagorda Island before passing near Refugio . The hurricane quickly weakened over land and dissipated late on August 17 . Damage from the hurricane was heaviest in Refugio and Indianola . In the latter city , strong waves damaged wharves and boats while the storm surge flooded the streets with about 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . Intense winds knocked down several houses as well as a church , and many buildings lost their roofs . In Sabine Pass , the winds ruined a variety of fruit crops .

= = = Hurricane Three = = =

The third hurricane of the season was only known due to it affecting one ship . A vessel in the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company reported a hurricane on August 27 , about halfway between Bermuda and the Azores . The storm was estimated to have been moving north @-@ northwestward with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , although its entire track is unknown .

= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =

A tropical storm was first observed on September 1 to the east of the Bahamas . There , it left heavy damage to a brig sailing from Nassau to New York . The storm tracked generally northeastward , damaging another ship on September 2 near Bermuda .

= = = Hurricane Five = = =

On September 4 , a hurricane was located in the northern Gulf of Mexico , moving north @-@ northwestward . The next day , it moved ashore in southeastern Louisiana with winds estimated at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , passing west of New Orleans . It dissipated early on September 6 . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path that caused flooding . In addition , strong winds uprooted trees and damaged fences . High tides flooded Grand Isle with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water .

= = = Hurricane Six = = =

On September 7 , three ships observed hurricane force winds over the western Atlantic Ocean , between the Bahamas and Bermuda . The storm moved northward , impacting several other ships as it paralleled the east coast of the United States ; one of them reported a pressure of 956 mbar ( 28 @.@ 24 inHg ) , which indicated the system was an intense hurricane . Late on September 8 , it reached a peak intensity of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) with a pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) . After brushing Long Island , the hurricane weakened slightly and made landfall on southwestern Rhode Island at peak intensity . It was one of four hurricanes , along with the 1938 New England hurricane , the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane , and Hurricane Carol in 1954 , to strike New England as a major hurricane , or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale .

At landfall , the hurricane was compact , estimated around 60 mi ( 97 km ) wide . However , less than 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of the center , there were no strong winds . The hurricane produced a storm surge of 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , which was lessened due to it moving ashore at low tide . In Providence , Rhode Island , high waves damaged coastal wharves and left flooding . The hurricane weakened quickly over land , passing just west of Boston early on September 9 as a minimal hurricane . There , the winds downed many trees and left severe damage . All telegraph lines between New York and Boston were cut , although the storm did produce beneficial heavy rainfall . Shortly thereafter it dissipated over Maine . There was one confirmed death in Massachusetts . Offshore Maine , a schooner capsized , killing all but one in the crew .

= = = Hurricane Seven = = =

A ship about halfway between South America and Cape Verde reported a hurricane on September 11 . The storm tracked generally west @-@ northwestward , affecting several other ships with damaging winds . On September 15 , a ship traveling from St. Thomas to England encountered the hurricane and observed a minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 90 inHg ) ; this suggested peak winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . By September 16 the hurricane had weakened slightly as its track turned to the north and northeast . It was last observed on September 18 to the west of the Azores as a tropical storm .

= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =

The only basis for identifying the eighth tropical cyclone of the season was from a report by the bark Crescent Wave . On September 14 , the ship encountered strong winds and heavy rainfall about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . At the time , the storm was at least 600 mi ( 970 km ) east of the previous hurricane .

= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =

On October 1 , the brig Jenny observed " a revolting gale lasting 3 days " off the south coast of Puerto Rico , which indicated a tropical storm in the region . Despite being located near several islands in the Caribbean , no land stations experienced any effects from the storm .

= = = Hurricane Ten = = =

The final hurricane of the season was first observed on October 4 by a ship off the southeast coast of North Carolina . With winds estimated at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , the storm tracked northeastward , passing just east of Martha 's Vineyard before moving across Cape Cod late on October 4 . As it moved along the coast , the storm produced heavy precipitation , reaching 12 @.@ 25 in ( 311 mm ) in Canton , Connecticut . The strongest winds did not affect Massachusetts , although a few hours later the hurricane struck just east of Portland , Maine at peak intensity . This made it one of six storms to produce hurricane @-@ force winds in Maine , along with Hurricane Carol in 1953 , Hurricane Edna in 1954 , Hurricane Donna in 1960 , Hurricane Gerda in 1969 , and Hurricane Gloria in 1985 . In Maine , the high rainfall caused widespread flooding , while the high winds destroyed at least 90 houses . The hurricane quickly weakened over land , and after turning northeastward into Atlantic Canada dissipated on October 5 near the Gulf of St. Lawrence .

The hurricane was referred as Saxby 's Gale after Lieutenant S.M. Saxby of the Royal Navy predicted in November 1868 that an unusually violent storm would produce very high tides on October 5 ; he did not specify the location , however . Although heavy damage occurred in New England , the devastation was greatest in Atlantic Canada along the Bay of Fundy . The hurricane produced a storm surge of around 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) , which , in combination with the winds , the low pressure , and being in a region of naturally occurring high tides , produced a 70 @.@ 9 ft ( 21 @.@ 6 m ) high tide near the head of the bay . The high tides surpassed the dykes across New Brunswick and left widespread flooding , killing many cattle and sheep and washing away roads . In the Cumberland Basin , the floods washed two boats about 3 mi ( 5 km ) inland . In Moncton , water levels rose about 6 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 m ) higher than the previous highest level . There were 37 deaths between Maine , New Brunswick , and New York .

= Bjaðmunjo Mýrjartaksdóttir =

Bjaðmunjo Mýrjartaksdóttir ( also known in Old Norse as Bjaðmynja ; and in Gaelic as Ben Muman , Bé Binn , Blathmuine , and Bláthmín ; fl . 1102 / 1103 ) was a daughter of a Muirchertach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland . In 1102 whilst still a child , she was married to Sigurðr , son of Magnús Óláfsson , King of Norway . At this time , Magnús appears to have been in the process of setting up his son as king over the Earldom of Orkney , the Kingdom of the Isles , and the Kingdom of Dublin . The marriage itself temporarily bound Muirchertach and Magnús together as allies before the latter 's death the following year . Sigurðr thereupon repudiated Bjaðmunjo , and left for Scandinavia , where he proceeded to share the Norwegian kingship with his brothers .

= = Background = =

Bjaðmunjo was a daughter of Muirchertach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland ( died 1119 ) . In the late eleventh century , following the death of his father , Muirchertach seized control of the Kingdom of Munster and moved to extend his authority throughout Ireland as High King of Ireland . In so doing , he gained control of the Norse @-@ Gaelic Kingdom of Dublin , and as a result began to extend his influence into the nearby Kingdom of the Isles . There is uncertainty concerning the political situation in the Isles in the last decade of the eleventh century . What is known for sure is that , before the end of the century , Magnús Óláfsson , King of Norway ( died 1103 ) led a marauding fleet from Scandinavia into the Irish Sea region , where he held power until his death in 1103 .

The catalyst for this Norwegian intervention may have been the extension of Muirchertach 's influence into the Irish Sea region following the death of Gofraid Crobán , King of the Isles ( died 1095 ) . The region itself appears to have degenerated into chaos following Gofraid 's demise , and Magnús seems to have taken it upon himself to reassert Norwegian authority . Magnús made two expeditions into the Irish Sea region . One arrived in 1098 ; the other in 1102 . The focus of the second overseas operation appears to have been Ireland itself . Following an apparent Norwegian conquest of Dublin , Magnús and Muirchertach negotiated a peace agreement , sealed through the marriage of Magnús ' son , Sigurðr ( died 1130 ) , and Bjaðmunjo herself .

= = Marriage = =

The marriage agreement between Magnús and Muirchertach is noted in several sources . The Annals of Inisfallen and the Annals of the Four Masters reveal that the marriage to place in 1102 . Other sources reporting the marriage include Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum , Orkneyinga saga , and Magnúss saga berfœtts within Heimskringla . The forms of Bjaðmunjo 's name in these Scandinavian sources ( Bjaðmunjo and Bjaðmynja ) suggest that they may represent the Gaelic Bé Binn , a name known to have been borne by other members of the Uí Briain . Other Gaelic names equated to that of Bjaðmunjo include Ben Muman , Blathmuine , and Bláthmín . Sigurðr was apparently twelve @-@ years @-@ old at the time of the marriage , although Bjaðmunjo 's age is uncertain . The remarkably young age of the newlyweds , and the fact that the union is recorded at all in historical sources , suggests that a dynastic marriage was required for the conclusion of peace between their fathers .

There seems to be some confusion in several historical sources regarding the marriage . For example , the twelfth @-@ century monk Ordericus Vitalis ( died 1142 × ) claimed that Magnús himself married the daughter of an Irish king in about 1093 . According to Morkinskinna , Magnús was at one point set to marry a certain Maktildr , described as an " emperor 's daughter " . It is possible that Maktildr represents Matilda ( died 1118 ) , a woman who was a sister of the reigning Étgar mac Maíl Choluim , King of Scotland ( died 1107 ) , and who is known to have married Henry I , King of England ( died 1135 ) in 1110 . In fact , the episode concerning Magnús and Maktildr in Morkinskinna may have influenced the erroneous claim preserved by the same source and Fagrskinna purporting that Sigurðr married a daughter of Máel Coluim mac Donnchada , King of Scotland . At about the same time as the marriage between Bjaðmunjo and Sigurðr , the former 's father secured yet another marital alliance through another daughter and Arnulf de Montgomery , Earl of Pembroke ( died 1118 × 1122 ) , an English magnate in the midst of a revolt against the reigning King of England .

= = Ramifications = =

Just prior to the settlement of peace between the Uí Briain and the Norwegians , Muirchertach was not only contending with the arrival of Magnús , but was also locked in an extended struggle with Domnall Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1121 ) . The agreement of a year 's peace between Muirchertach and Magnús , however , turned Magnús from an enemy into an ally . Whilst Magnús appears to have intended for Sigurðr to rule over his recently @-@ won overseas territories — a region stretching from Orkney to Dublin — Muirchertach appears to have intended to exert influence into the Isles through his new son @-@ in @-@ law . In fact , during the following year , Muirchertach and Magnús cooperated in military operations throughout Ireland . Unfortunately for Muirchertach , and his long @-@ term ambitions in Ireland and the Isles , Magnús was slain in Ulster in 1103 . Thereupon Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna reveal that Sigurðr immediately repudiated Bjaðmunjo — their marriage apparently having been unconsummated — and returned to Norway . There Sigurðr proceeded to share the Norwegian kingship with his two brothers , Eysteinn ( died 1123 ) and Óláfr ( died 1115 ) . It would over one hundred and fifty years until another King of Norway ventured into the Isles .

= Danton @-@ class battleship =

The Danton @-@ class battleship was a class of six pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy ( Marine Nationale ) before World War I. The ships were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet after commissioning in 1911 . After the beginning of World War I in early August 1914 , five of the sister ships participated in the Battle of Antivari . They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent warships of the Central Powers from breaking out into the Mediterranean . One ship was sunk by a German submarine in 1917 .

The remaining five ships were obsolescent by the end of the war and most were assigned to secondary roles . Two of the sisters were sent to the Black Sea to support the Whites during the Russian Civil War . One ship ran aground and the crew of the other mutinied after one of its members was killed during a protest against intervention in support of the Whites . Both ships were quickly condemned and later sold for scrap . The remaining three sisters received partial modernizations in the mid @-@ 1920s and became training ships until they were condemned in the mid @-@ 1930s and later scrapped . The only survivor still afloat at the beginning of World War II in August 1939 had been hulked in 1931 and was serving as part of the navy 's torpedo school . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Vichy France in 1942 and scuttled by them after the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944 .

= = Background and description = =

The Danton @-@ class ships were ordered as the second tranche of a French naval expansion plan that began in response to the growth of the Imperial German Navy after 1900 . Discussions began in 1905 for an enlarged version of the preceding Liberté @-@ class design . French analyses of the Russian defeat by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 credited the latter 's victory to the large number of medium @-@ caliber hits that heavily damaged the superstructures of the Russian ships and started many fires that the crews had difficulty extinguishing . The superior speed and handling of the Japanese ships was also credited with a role in their victory .

The French decided that the increasing range of naval combat dictated the use of the 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun in lieu of the 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) gun used on the Liberté class as the larger gun had a greater ability to penetrate armor at longer ranges while still having a good rate of fire . The navy also wanted a faster ship , but this could only be done by reducing armor thicknesses without exceeding the 18 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 18 @,@ 000 long tons ) limit imposed by the Minister of the Navy , Gaston Thomson , for budgetary reasons . A preliminary design with the usual triple @-@ expansion steam engines was accepted in March 1906 , but various modifications were requested . One proposal was made to replace the 240 @-@ millimeter guns turrets with single 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 in ) turrets to create an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " ship , like the British battleship HMS Dreadnought , but this was rejected as it would have raised the displacement above the 18 @,@ 000 @-@ metric ton limit and the slower @-@ firing 305 @-@ millimeter guns would have reduced the volume and weight of fire to an unacceptable degree .

Initial parliamentary discussion of the design focused less on the anticipated cost of the ships than the idea that France was being left behind in the technological arms race , particularly in regard to the innovative Parsons steam turbines used by HMS Dreadnought . In response the navy sent a technical mission to inspect the Parsons factory , several shipyards , and gun factories as well as the Barr & Stroud rangefinder factory in May 1906 and concluded that the turbines offered more power in a smaller volume than triple @-@ expansion steam engines at a significant increase in fuel consumption at low speeds . Two ships had already been ordered from the naval dockyards three months previously when the navy decided to use the turbines in July . To further complicate things , Gaston requested a study using the heavier and more powerful 45 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1906 gun on 3 August while not endorsing the navy 's decision to use turbines . On 6 October the director of naval construction , M. Dudebout , urgently requested a decision while recommending that three ships use steam engines and the others turbines . He felt that this would minimize delays and expense as the design needed to be modified to accommodate the turbines and their four propeller shafts , no company in France knew how to build the turbines , and the latter were three times as expensive as steam engines . Gaston was inclined to accept Dudebout 's recommendation , but prevaricated until December , after parliamentary debates showed overwhelming support for turbines in all six ships . Contracts for the remaining four ships were signed on 26 December , the day after the conclusion of the debate . Gaston also delayed in deciding on which boilers to use . He sent another technical mission to Britain to look at Babcock & Wilcox 's design in April 1907 , but did not make a decision in favor of French @-@ built boilers until 3 June 1908 , after all the ships had been laid down .

The design was estimated to displace 18 @,@ 318 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 029 long tons ) before the adoption of the heavier Modèle 1906 gun required a new and larger turret to handle the gun which meant that the turret 's supporting structure also had to be reinforced . In an unsuccessful bid to reduce the displacement , many sections of armor were reduced in thickness , but the ships exceeded even the design estimate as built .

= = General description = =

The Dantons were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Liberté class . The ships were 145 meters ( 475 ft 9 in ) long at the waterline and 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall , over 13 meters ( 42 ft 8 in ) longer than the earlier ships . They had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 meters ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 44 meters ( 27 ft 8 in ) at deep load . The Danton @-@ class ships were slightly overweight ; they actually displaced 18 @,@ 754 metric tons ( 18 @,@ 458 long tons ) at normal load . This was over 4 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) more than the earlier ships . When serving as flagships , their crew consisted of 40 officers and 875 enlisted men . Without an admiral and his staff embarked , the crew numbered 28 officers and 824 enlisted men .

= = = Propulsion = = =

The Danton @-@ class ships had four license @-@ built Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove a single propeller , using steam from 26 coal @-@ fired Belleville or Niclausse boilers . Each boiler type was installed on three ships of the class . The boilers were housed in two large compartments , 17 in the forward boiler room that used the three forward funnels and 9 in the aft boiler which exhausted through the rear pair of funnels . The tubines were amidships , between the boiler rooms , in three compartments . The center engine room housed the turbines for the two center propeller shafts and the turbine for each of the outer shafts had their own compartment flanking the center engine room . The turbines were rated at a total of 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) using steam provided by the boilers at a working pressure of 18 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 765 kPa ; 256 psi ) . Designed for a maximum speed of 19 @.@ 25 knots ( 35 @.@ 65 km / h ; 22 @.@ 15 mph ) , they handily exceeded that during their sea trials with speeds ranging from 19 @.@ 7 to 20 @.@ 66 knots ( 36 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 3 km / h ; 22 @.@ 7 to 23 @.@ 8 mph ) .

The Niclausse boilers were not well suited for use with turbines and burned more coal than the Belleville boilers . They also produced copious amounts of smoke and sparks ; occasionally even flames from incomplete combustion of the coal . The Dantons carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 027 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) of coal which gave them an estimated range from 3 @,@ 120 – 4 @,@ 866 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 778 – 9 @,@ 012 km ; 3 @,@ 590 – 5 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , depending on which boilers were fitted . Their endurance was almost half that of their predecessors due to the uneconomical fuel consumption of their turbines at low speeds and meant that they needed frequent coaling stops during the war .

= = = Armament = = =

The main battery of the Danton @-@ class ships consisted of four 305 mm Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each turret could elevate up to + 12 ° that gave the guns a maximum range of 14 @,@ 500 meters ( 15 @,@ 900 yd ) . The guns fired 440 @-@ kilogram ( 970 lb ) armour @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 780 m / s ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute . Each turret stored eight rounds along the rear wall and their propellant was kept between the floor of the firing chamber and the bottom of the turret . The ships normally stowed 75 rounds per gun , but space was available for an additional 10 rounds . Their secondary armament consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets , three on each side of the ship . Maximum elevation of the turrets was + 13 ° and the 240 @-@ kilogram ( 530 lb ) shell could be fired to a range of 14 @,@ 000 meters ( 15 @,@ 000 yd ) . The guns could fire at a rate of two rounds per minute . Each turret had space for 12 shells and the necessary 36 propellant charges ; 80 rounds per gun was normally carried , but maximum capacity was 100 rounds per gun .

The Dantons carried a number of smaller guns to defend themselves against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Modèle 1908 Schneider guns mounted in unarmored embrasures in the hull sides . These guns had a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) and could fire approximately 15 rounds per minute . Because the shell hoists were slow and the shells difficult to handle in their three @-@ round cases in the magazines , a total of 576 rounds were stored close to the guns in ready @-@ use lockers . Each gun was provided with 400 rounds , but the maximum storage available was 430 rounds per gun . The ships also mounted ten 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns in pivot mounts on the superstructure . They had the same rate of fire as the larger 75 mm guns , but only a range of 6 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) . Each gun had 36 rounds nearby in ready @-@ use lockers and the ships were provided with a maximum of 800 rounds per gun .

The battleships were also armed with two submerged 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . Each tube was angled 10 ° forward and 3 ° downward . Each ship carried six Modèle 1909R torpedoes . They had a 114 @-@ kilogram ( 251 lb ) warhead and two speed / range settings : 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 yd ) at 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) or 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) at 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The Dantons also had storage space for 10 Harlé Modèle 1906 mines , which had an explosive charge of 60 kilograms ( 130 lb ) of guncotton . These could not be laid by the ships themselves , but had to be off @-@ loaded for use .

= = = Fire control = = =

Finding the British Barr & Stroud coincidence rangefinder design superior to existing French designs , the Dantons mounted a pair of 2 @-@ meter ( 6 ft 7 in ) FQ rangefinders atop the conning tower and a 1 @.@ 37 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 6 in ) rangefinder on each turret top for use by the turret commanders . Integrating these into the overall fire @-@ control system took some time so eight Ponthus & Therrode stadimeters , which required knowledge of the target 's mast height and overall length , were used in the interim . During the war , the rangefinders were replaced by longer , more precise instrument . A triple 4 @.@ 57 @-@ meter ( 15 ft 0 in ) model was installed above the conning tower and 2 @-@ meter models replaced the smaller ones on the turret roofs .

= = = Armor = = =

The Danton @-@ class ships were built with 6 @,@ 725 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 619 long tons ) of armor , 36 percent of their designed displacement and almost 1 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) more than their predecessors . Their waterline armored belt had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) between the fore and aft turrets that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . The belt consisted of two strakes of armor , 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 ft 9 in ) high , that covered the sides of the hull up to the main deck and extended 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 ft 7 in ) below the normal waterline . Most of the lower armor plates tapered to a thickness of 80 – 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) along their bottom edge and the upper plates tapered to 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) amidships and down to 140 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) at the ends of the ship . The belt armour was backed by 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of teak . It extended almost the entire length of the ship , with only the very stern unprotected . At the stern , the belt terminated in a 200 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) transverse bulkhead ; the forward 154 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) transverse bulkhead connected the sides of the forward barbette to the belt .

The main gun turrets had 340 millimeters ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) of armor on their faces , 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 in ) sides , and roofs of three layers of 24 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) mild @-@ steel plates . Their barbettes were protected by 246 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 7 in ) of armor which thinned to 66 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) below the upper protected deck . The secondary gun turrets had 225 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) faces , 188 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 4 in ) sides , and a roof of three layers of 17 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) plates . The 240 @-@ millimeter turret barbettes had sides 154 to 148 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 8 in ) . The front of the conning tower had armour 266 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 5 in ) thick and its sides were 216 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) . The walls of its communication tube down to the fire @-@ control center ( poste central de tir ) were 200 millimeters thick down to the upper protected deck .

The ships had two protected decks ( the pont blindée supérieur and the pont blindée inférieur ( PBI ) ) , each formed from triple layers of mild steel 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) or 16 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) thick . The lower of these , the PBI , curved downwards towards the sides of the hull to meet the torpedo bulkhead and the curved portion was reinforced by the substitution of a 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) plate of armor in lieu of the uppermost 15 @-@ millimeter plate of mild steel . The PBI also sloped downward toward the bow and was similarly reinforced to form an armored glacis . The Dantons had an internal anti @-@ torpedo bulge 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) deep along the side of the hull below the waterline . It was backed by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of three layers of 15 @-@ millimeter armor plate . Inboard of the bulkhead were 16 watertight compartments , 12 of which were normally kept empty , but the 4 abreast the boiler rooms were used as coal bunkers . This system of protection had only mixed success in practice as Danton capsized in 40 minutes after two torpedo hits while Voltaire survived her two torpedoes .

= = Ships = =

= = Construction and careers = =

The Dantons took a long time to build . Construction was prolonged by a number of factors , chief of which were the 500 plus changes were made to the original design and in the inability of Gaston to make a timely decision . This meant that the builders sometimes had to rip out already completed sections to incorporate the modifications . Other problems were shortages of necessary infrastructure at the shipyards , lengthy delays in delivery of parts , and labor shortages and a lack of building slips in the naval dockyards . For example , water in the lower end of the newly completed Point @-@ du @-@ Jour slip at Brest meant that building Danton 's stern was delayed four months after the bow began and construction of Mirabeau could not begin until the armored cruiser Waldeck @-@ Rousseau was launched .

After commissioning in 1911 , all six ships were assigned to the First Battle Squadron ( Première escadre de ligne ) of the Mediterranean Fleet where they participated in the fleet maneuvers in May – June 1913 . When the war began , the squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Paul Chocheprat , was at sea preparing to escort troop convoys from French North Africa to France . Some of the ships unsuccessfully searched for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau in the Western Mediterranean and escorted convoys . Later that month , all of the ships , except Mirabeau , participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser . They spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent German , Austro @-@ Hungarian and Turkish warships from breaking out . Mirabeau participated in the attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia in late 1916 .

= = = Post war = = =

Diderot , Mirabeau and Vergniaud briefly participated in the occupation of Constantinople after the end of the war and the latter two ships were sent to the Black Sea in early 1919 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . Vergniaud 's crew mutinied after one of its members was killed when a protest against intervention in support of the Whites was bloodily suppressed and forced the return of the French ships supporting the Whites . Mirabeau ran aground in February 1919 off the coast of the Crimea and could not be refloated until some of her guns and armor were removed .

All of the surviving ships except Condorcet were reduced to second @-@ line roles by 1920 . Mirabeau was not repaired after her salvage and was hulked for a few years before being sold . Vergniaud was in bad shape and became a target ship before she was sold for scrap . Voltaire and Diderot had their underwater protection modernized in the early 1920s and became training ships before they were condemned in the mid @-@ 1930s . Condorcet was assigned to the Channel Division in the early 1920s before she too had her underwater protection modernized . She also became a training ship after its completion , but she was hulked in 1931 and became a depot ship for the torpedo school . The ship was captured intact when the Germans occupied Toulon in November 1942 and was used by them as a barracks ship . Condorcet was scuttled by the Germans in August 1944 and refloated the following year before being scrapped .

Danton 's wreck was discovered in 2007 between Algeria and Sardinia at a depth of over 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) .

= Libor Michálek =

Mgr . Libor Michálek , MPA ( born 1968 ) is a Czech economist , politician , and whistleblower . He led successful corruption cases against the Czech National Property Fund and the Environment Ministry as former employees of both . He is the first Pirate Party candidate to be elected to office in a national legislature . His senatorial term is 2012 – 2018 .

= = Early life and career = =

Michálek was born in Náchod in 1968 . He graduated from high school in Přerov in 1987 , and from Palacký University of Olomouc in 1992 . He later studied in Masaryk University 's management program , and received his MPA from Nottingham Trent University 's executive program in 2010 . After college , he worked as a UNIX programmer , business school teacher , and portfolio manager at an investment company . Michálek was a broker at the National Property Fund from 1994 to 1996 , when he was fired after exposing a tunneling embezzlement scheme . The resulting court case found that he was improperly dismissed . He was later involved in compensating victims of financial crime . Michálek served as a capital market supervisor at the Czech Ministry of Finance from 1997 to 1998 , a director at the Czech Securities Commission from 1998 to 2006 , a director at the Czech National Bank from 2006 to 2007 , a senior consultant at the World Bank in 2007 , and the chief financial market inspector at the Czech National Bank from 2008 to 2010 .

In August 2010 , he became the director of the Czech State Environmental Fund . On December 13 , 2010 , Michálek filed a criminal complaint of corruption against the Environment Ministry in its tender for reconstruction of a Prague water treatment plant . He claimed the project was overpriced by 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Kč Kč . Based on a secretly audiotaped conversation , Michálek also alleged that Martin Knetig , an advisor to environmental minister Pavel Drobil , asked him to manipulate the tender to fund his party ( the Civic Democrats ) and Drobil 's political career . Michálek recorded his subsequent conversation with Drobil , who allegedly offered his deputy position for the destruction of the tapes . Upon the story 's publication , Drobil fired Michálek and Knetig , denied any wrongdoing , and resigned a day later .

Prime Minister Petr Nečas defended Drobil , and called Michálek untrustworthy despite his public reputation as a whistleblower . Since the Civic Democrats vowed to fight corruption , losing its first minister to corruption charges was a blow to the party 's standing . The Drobil incident was the first of several high @-@ profile resignations . On December 21 , 2010 , Czech Police Chief Oldrich Martinu resigned after Interior Minister Radek John 's month @-@ long call for his ouster in part due to the Drobil case 's mishandling . Michálek returned to the State Environmental Fund as a financial analyst in 2011 . The Drobil case is on indefinite hiatus for a lack of evidence as of September 2012 . As of February 2013 , the case against Knetig is on a similar hiatus for insufficient evidence .

Michálek is married and has three children . He is an evangelical Christian .

= = The Senate = =

At the end of July 2012 , Libor Michálek accepted the Czech Pirate , Green , and Christian Democrat Party senatorial nominations for District 26 . The Pirate Party was his primary affiliation due to its transparency and accountability platforms . His personal 12 @-@ point platform prioritized direct democracy , fair political party competition , and anti @-@ corruption oversight efforts alongside social welfare reforms . In the October 2012 elections , he won 24 @.@ 3 percent of the first round vote and 74 @.@ 4 percent of the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post runoff , giving him the seat . Another candidate , Karel Berka , challenged the decision , but the Czech Supreme Administrative Court found the claims unfounded . He was the first Pirate Party candidate to be elected to national office , the 81 @-@ seat Czech Senate . His senatorial term is 2012 – 2018 .

Czech President Miloš Zeman has publicly considered Michálek for leading the Supreme Audit Office . In 2013 , Michálek authored the first bill designed to protect whistleblowers , which was overwhelming rejected on the floor of the Senate .

= = Awards = =

In March 2011 , Michálek was awarded first prize from the Endowment Fund Against Corruption for his whistleblowing role in the Environment Ministry corruption scandal . In May 2011 , he was awarded the František Kriegel Prize by the Charter 77 Foundation for his " brave , consistent and uncompromising fight against corruption in government . "

= Dangerously in Love =

Dangerously in Love is the debut studio album by American recording artist Beyoncé . It was released on June 24 , 2003 by Columbia Records . During the recording of Destiny 's Child 's third studio album , Survivor ( 2001 ) , the group announced that they would produce solo albums to be released . Recording sessions for the album took place from March 2002 to March 2003 at several studios , during the hiatus of her then @-@ group Destiny 's Child . As executive producer of the album , Beyoncé took a wider role in its production , co @-@ writing a majority of the songs , choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks .

The tracks in the album are a mixture of uptempos and ballads , which are basically inspired by R & B and soul genres ; it also features elements of hip hop and Arabic music . Although Beyoncé remained discreet about her interpretation of the songs , its underlying meanings were attributed by music writers as an allusion to her intimate relationship with then @-@ boyfriend and well @-@ known music mogul Jay @-@ Z. Dangerously in Love received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , with critics praising Knowles ' " artistic leap " . The album also received numerous accolades , earning Beyoncé five Grammy Awards .

Dangerously in Love propelled Beyoncé in becoming a viable solo star , as well as one of the most marketable singers in the recording industry . It became a worldwide commercial success , earning multi @-@ platinum certifications in Australia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 317 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , earning Beyoncé the highest debut sales among Destiny 's Child members ' solo albums . Dangerously in Love has sold over 5 million copies in the United States as of 2016 and an estimated 11 million copies worldwide as of 2011 , and has produced two number one Billboard singles and multiple top tens .

= = Background = =

Beyoncé launched her career as lead singer to R & B group Destiny 's Child in the late 1990s . According to Corey Moss of MTV News , " fans are eager to see " how Beyoncé , after years with the group , performs solo . While recording their third album , Survivor , in late 2000 , Beyoncé announced the group would be put on hiatus in order for the members to produce solo albums in the coming years , which they hoped would boost interest in Destiny 's Child . The idea of individual releases emanated from the group 's manager and Beyoncé 's father , Mathew .

With different types of music for each member to produce , the albums were not intended to compete on the charts . Destiny 's Child 's management strategically planned to stagger the release of each group member 's album to maximise sales . Michelle Williams was the first to release a debut solo album , Heart to Yours , in April 2002 . Meanwhile , Beyoncé debuted on the big screen , starring in the comedy film Austin Powers in Goldmember , and recorded her debut single , " Work It Out " , which is featured on the soundtrack to the film . Rowland collaborated with American rapper Nelly on the song " Dilemma " as a featured artist ; it became a hit that year , leading the label to advance the release date of her debut solo album , Simply Deep , in late 2002 . Beyoncé also starred in The Fighting Temptations and recorded another solo single . In August 2002 , she collaborated with boyfriend Jay @-@ Z as featured vocalist on the song " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " . The single earned Beyoncé credibility and paved the way for the release of Dangerously in Love .

= = Recording = =

Before Beyoncé began recording for Dangerously in Love , she selected the producers with whom she would collaborate . For two days , she held meetings with prospective producers from the West Coast across the East Coast , and had interviews with them . Beyoncé went to Miami , Florida to begin sessions with Canadian record producer Scott Storch , her first collaborator , and lived in a Miami hotel in the following months . As she wanted to concentrate on the album , Beyoncé took her time to avoid pressure build @-@ up , significantly different from the hasty productions of Destiny 's Child .

As she did on Survivor , Beyoncé took a wider role in the production of Dangerously in Love , co @-@ writing a majority of the songs , choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks . Although Beyoncé did not create beats , she came up with melodies and ideas she shared with the producers . With 43 songs completed — 15 of which made it to the album — Beyoncé is credited as co @-@ writer and co @-@ producer , as well as the album 's executive producer alongside Matthew Knowles .

Beyoncé felt that recording an album without her group mates was " liberating and therapeutic " , coming into the studio and freely expressing her ideas with her collaborators . The dependency she developed with Destiny 's Child , however , meant it was harder " to be on [ her ] own creatively " . As she wanted to grow as an artist Beyoncé contacted other artists with a view to forming a collaborative partnership . When the collective finished writing several songs , she printed copies of each and sent them to prospective guest artists . She talked to them by phone for possible collaboration , eventually gaining their approval . Besides Jay @-@ Z , Beyoncé was able to work with Jamaican artist Sean Paul , American rapper Missy Elliott , among others . In contrast , some artists sent copies of songs to Beyoncé , which were eventually produced . Additionally , Beyoncé also worked with Timbaland and Missy Elliott on a track titled " Wrapped Around Me " for the album . Eventually , however , for reasons unknown , the song failed to appear on the album .

Dangerously in Love was originally a song of the same title which Beyoncé had written for Survivor . The song was deemed too sophisticated compared to other songs on Survivor , and the group decided not to release it as a single off the album . After recording several tracks for Dangerously in Love , Beyoncé decided to add " Dangerously in Love " , after realizing that it fit the overriding theme of the album . Since the album 's release date was postponed to capitalize on the success of " Dilemma " , Beyoncé had been offered the chance to further enhance the album . Although she was disappointed with the move , Beyoncé realized that " everything happens for a reason " , agreeing to return to the recording studio to work with other songwriters . This allowed her to record more songs , including the album 's lead single , " Crazy in Love " . In late 2002 , Beyoncé paused working on Dangerously in Love for a holiday tour with Destiny 's Child . With a few weeks left for recording in March 2003 , Beyoncé was still collaborating with other guests on the album , including Sean Paul and P. Diddy .

= = Music and lyrics = =

Beyoncé 's mother @-@ manager said that Dangerously in Love showcases her musical roots . While Williams and Rowland were on gospel and alternative pop , respectively , Beyoncé focused on recording R & B songs . Songs in the album are varied : from mid @-@ tempo and club @-@ oriented tracks in the first half , and ballads in the second half . Beyoncé commented : " My album is a good balance of ... ballads and ... mid @-@ tempos with just ridin ' -in @-@ your @-@ car feels , to a lot of ... up @-@ tempo club songs , to really sexy songs , to songs that make you feel emotional . It 's a nice mixture of different types of tracks . " Although the album contains high @-@ energy songs like " Crazy in Love " and " Naughty Girl " , the album 's focal mode , however , is slow and moody . Beyoncé said that she had written lots of ballads for the album . According to Beyoncé , she wanted to be understood as an artist and showcase her range , and by doing so , she blended various genres and musical influences in the album . The album incorporates R & B , hip hop , soul and reggae influences . The album took hip hop influences from Jay @-@ Z , Outkast , and Lil ' Kim ; the reggae is from Sean Paul ; and courtesy of Storch , the album explores Arabic music . His personal study of that kind of music gave the album a Middle Eastern vibe . Beyoncé and the producers also used a wide array of instrumentations .

When " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was released as a single in late 2002 , critics and the public had speculated that Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z were having a mutual affair . Despite widespread rumors , they remained silent about their relationship . According to critics , the title itself of the album sounded " more intriguing " with Beyoncé singing personal songs . Though love is the theme Beyoncé had incorporated in the album , " most the material is vague enough to be about any relationship " ; however , there are songs that suggested affirmation of their relationship . In the song " Signs " , Beyoncé sings about being in love with a Sagittarius , which coincidentally is Jay @-@ Z 's zodiac sign . In response to the persistent rumors about them , Beyoncé stated , " People can come to whatever conclusion they like ... That 's the beauty of music ... I 'm a singer , I 'll talk about writing songs all you want . But when it comes to certain personal things any normal person wouldn 't tell people they don 't know , I just feel like I don 't have to [ talk about it ] . "

Beyoncé said that Dangerously in Love is lyrically similar to Destiny 's Child 's albums . But because she only had to write for herself , Beyoncé had the chance to compose personally deeper songs than her previous records with the group . With a theme that is based upon different stages of a romantic relationship , Dangerously in Love contains songs that speak of love and honesty . In addition , Beyoncé admitted that there are songs about love @-@ making . The personal content of the album , however , was not generally attributed to Beyoncé 's own experiences — although some were based from hers — instead , the theme kept recurring in her mind . Beyoncé later explained : " I wanted to have an album that everyone could relate to and would listen to as long as I 'm alive and even after ... Love is something that never goes out of style . It 's something everybody experiences , and if they are not in love , people usually want to feel that ... " While some songs merely focus on the " beauty of love " , the album also explores another side of love , with songs that " celebrate breakup " and songs that narrate a woman 's desire to have a degree of control in a relationship . The album 's hidden track , " Daddy " , is a tribute to Beyoncé 's father , Mathew Knowles , who fronted Destiny 's Child as their manager . The song is an account of Beyoncé wanting her future husband and child to possess qualities similar to her father 's . Originally , Beyoncé did not intend to include the track in the album , having thought its lyrics would make her appear immature . However , considering it one of the songs that reflected her life at that transitional moment , she instead relegated " Daddy " as the closing track .

= = Release and promotion = =

Beyoncé said that she had trouble convincing executives at Columbia Records to release the album . The singer recounted that it almost was not released : " In 2003 , I had my first solo album . But when I played it through for my record label , they told me I didn 't have one hit on my album . I guess they were kinda right , I had five . ' Dangerously In Love ' , ' Naughty Girl ' , ' Me , Myself and I ' , ' Baby Boy ' and ' Crazy In Love ' . " Since " Dilemma " was concurrently charting atop the Billboard Hot 100 , Beyoncé 's management released , " Work It Out " , one of the songs on the soundtrack to Austin Powers in Goldmember , instead of a single from Dangerously in Love to preclude it from possibly competing with the former .

From the original release date of October 2002 , the album was pushed to December in the same year , and to May in the following year . Beyoncé recorded a version of " In da Club " , and served its way to mixtapes before its original release date . The single failed to dominate as a " dancefloor favorite " ; Mathew Knowles , however , confirmed that it was just a " buzz cut " and was not included in the album . Nonetheless , it earned enough airplay to appear on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks chart . While Beyoncé was wrapping up the album , several of its songs had leaked online . In efforts to prevent more tracks in the album from being spread illegally , as well as being a victim of bootlegging , Columbia Records , with high commercial expectations from the album , pulled the release of Dangerously in Love to June 24 , 2003 , two weeks ahead of the planned July 8 release .

Buyers who pre @-@ ordered the album online received links where they could download a song called " I Can 't Take No More " ; the promo lasted until the album 's release . On June 14 , 2003 , Beyoncé premiered songs from the album during her first solo concert and the pay @-@ per @-@ view TV special , " Ford Presents Beyoncé , Friends & Family , Live From Ford 's 100th Anniversary Celebration in Dearborn , Michigan " . By the night of the album 's release , Beyoncé 's concert was broadcast in more than twenty theaters across the United States . Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , Tyrese , Solange Knowles and girl group Ramiyah also performed in the show . Beyoncé also promoted the album by performing in television shows such as the Saturday Night Live , Late Show with David Letterman , The Today Show , The Early Show , and The View .

By April 2003 , Beyoncé 's management was choosing the album 's lead single between two songs . Sent to clubs , the song that would receive positive reception would be considered the lead single . Finally , " Crazy in Love " was released as the lead single off the album . With commercial success that included crossover music markets , the single spent eight consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Baby Boy " followed , and received greater success than " Crazy in Love " . With its dominance on radio airplays , the single surpassed " Crazy in Love " ' s chart performance , remaining on the top spot for nine consecutive weeks . " Me , Myself and I " was released as the third single and " Naughty Girl " as fourth and last ; although the last two releases only reached the top five on the Hot 100 , they all attained immediate commercial success and helped the album earn multi @-@ platinum certifications .

= = Singles = =

" Crazy in Love " was released as the lead single in mid @-@ 2003 . It was lauded by critics who described it as " deliriously catchy " . The single reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , the official US singles chart , based on heavy rotation alone . The same week the song reached number one , Dangerously in Love debuted on the Billboard 200 at number one as well . The substantial airplay and later retail sales of " Crazy in Love " facilitated it to dominate the chart , subsequently spending eight straight weeks atop the Hot 100 , making it Beyoncé 's first number @-@ one single in her solo career . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Crazy in Love " was the most downloaded song in the United States for four consecutive weeks in July 2003 . It also became a success internationally reaching the top of the charts in Ireland and the United Kingdom . " Baby Boy " was released as the second single in August 2003 . It was well received by critics , who declared it a " high @-@ profile collaboration " that " bridges the gap between the genres of R & B and dancehall . " It ultimately reached the top of the Hot 100 . It reached the chart 's top spot eight weeks after its debut , and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks . It peaked in the top two in the United Kingdom .

" Me , Myself and I " was released as the album 's third single in October 2003 . It received generally positive response , being considered a typical sounding R & B ballad with a familiar theme , in which Beyoncé sings with passion . It reached the top ten in Canada and the United States . " Naughty Girl " was the fourth single from the album , released in March 2004 . The song was lauded by critics , who cited its sensual vibe and writing : " Beyoncé borrowed a portion of Donna Summer 's naughty classic " Love to Love You Baby " to create this celebration of sensual naughtiness . " Internationally , it became a top ten hit in the United States , Australia , Canada and New Zealand .

= = Critical reception = =

Dangerously in Love received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 64 , based on 16 reviews . Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone viewed that it presents Beyoncé in two styles , one " far more flattering " than the other , and found the ballad @-@ oriented songs on the album least flattering , commenting that Beyoncé has " plenty of time " to develop the style maturely that would " [ make ] sense for her " . Entertainment Weekly 's Neil Drumming commented that the album validates Beyoncé 's " taste in innovation " . He also viewed that Beyoncé 's collaboration with various record producers explores new directions in contemporary music , doing more reinventing than revisiting . Like DeCurtis ' review , however , Drumming pointed out that " most of the disc 's missteps " are in its latter part . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani wrote that " [ Beyoncé ] is allowed more room to experiment vocally as a solo artist , exploring softer registers and lathering on the coquettish persona that was only hinted at on Destiny 's Child tracks like ' Bootylicious . ' " . Steve Jones of USA Today stated , " Beyoncé succeeds by showing greater depth as a songwriter and broader range as a singer " . Blender 's Ben Ratliff complimented Beyoncé 's performance and stated , " She ’ s playing the cool @-@ hunter but covering the bases with seraphic arrangements of multiple voices . Her reach is remarkable " . Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters called it an " artistic leap " and wrote that it " finds Ms. B in the midst of a fully flowering womanhood and doing the best singing of her career " .

In a mixed review , Vibe magazine 's Jason King said that the album occasionally " sounds desperate to reach every demographic " . Kelefa Sanneh , writing in The New York Times , felt that it missed the harmonies Beyoncé had in Destiny 's Child records and that she is more effective " when she 's got a posse behind her " . Rob Fitzpatrick of NME called it " a cruel glimpse of a talent that occasionally blazes but is frustratingly inconsistent " . Uncut called its ballads " self @-@ pitying / self @-@ mythologising " , while Q stated , " She has good songs , but no great songs " . Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols expressed that it " demonstrates vocal finesse [ ... ] But , especially on the ballads , [ Beyoncé ] often drags things out with diva acrobatics " . The Guardian 's Adam Sweeting wrote that " the desperate urge to cover every musical base from dancefloor to soul @-@ ballad means that there is barely a track here with any distinctive identity or even a tune " . In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau cited " Yes " and " Baby Boy " as the album 's highlights and quippedly remarked , " Dangerously in Love ... with her daddy , the bonus cut reveals — as if we didn 't know . " He gave the album a one @-@ star honorable mention , indicating " a worthy effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like . " In a retrospective review , Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that " the first half is good enough to make Dangerously in Love one of the best mainstream urban R & B records released in 2003 , and makes a strong case that Beyoncé might be better off fulfilling this destiny instead of reuniting with Destiny " .

= = Accolades = =

Dangerously in Love and its singles earned Beyoncé numerous awards and nominations . In 2003 , Beyoncé was recognized as New Female Artist and New R & B Artist , among the four awards she won during the Billboard Music Awards . At the 2013 American Music Awards , the album was nominated in the category for Favorite Soul / R & B Album . It also received a nomination in the category for Best Album at the 2003 MOBO Awards . At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards , Beyoncé won Best Contemporary R & B Album along with four other awards for the album 's songs . With that feat , she tied with Alicia Keys , Norah Jones , and Lauryn Hill for most Grammys won by a female artist in one night . At the 2004 Brit Awards , the album was nominated in the category for Best International Album but lost to Justin Timberlake 's Justified . However , the singer herself won in the category for Best International Female Solo Artist . Dangerously in Love was also nominated in the category for Best Album at the 2004 MTV Europe Music Awards .

The 1,000th issue of Entertainment Weekly , which celebrated " the new classics " in the entertainment industry in the period from 1983 to 2008 , ranked Dangerously in Love nineteenth in the Top 100 Best Albums of the past 25 years . The album also ranked at number 183 on the list " 200 Definitive Albums That Shaped Rock and Roll " according to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .

= = Commercial performance = =

Dangerously in Love debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with sales of 317 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . In its second week the album slid to number two with 183 @,@ 000 sold , behind Ashanti 's Chapter II . Although the album 's first @-@ week sales failed to match that of Survivor , which sold 663 @,@ 000 units in its debut in 2001 , Beyoncé earned the highest among Destiny 's Child members ' solo albums by best weeks : Rowland sold 77 @,@ 000 copies for Simply Deep in its strongest week while Williams earned 17 @,@ 000 copies for Heart to Yours in its top week . The album has been certified four @-@ time platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Dangerously in Love remains as Beyoncé 's best @-@ selling album to date , with cumulative sales of 5 million copies in the United States as of June 2016 .

Internationally , Dangerously in Love had similar commercial reception . On July 12 , 2003 , Beyoncé became the first female artist ( and the fifth artist ever ) to top both the singles — with " Crazy in Love " — and albums chart simultaneously in the United States and the United Kingdom , following The Beatles , Simon & Garfunkel , Rod Stewart , and Men at Work . As of June 2011 , the album had sold over 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , and the British Phonographic Industry has since certified the album four @-@ times platinum for sales of more than 1 @.@ 2 million units . Dangerously in Love was the 15th @-@ best selling album of 2003 in the United Kingdom . It is her second best @-@ selling album in the UK . In Australia , it reached number two ; the album was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . In 2003 , Dangerously in Love was the 51st best @-@ selling album in Australia , and the 74th the following year . As of 2015 , the album has sold more than 10 million copies worldwide .

= = Legacy = =

With the release of Dangerously in Love and the combined commercial success of its singles , Beyoncé had established herself a viable solo artist . Rebecca Louie of the New York Daily News wrote that the success of Dangerously in Love brought Beyoncé into a " sultry solo star " who " blossomed from a girly group " , referring to Destiny 's Child . The album has also facilitated her to become one of the marketable artists in the industry . She appeared on the cover of numerous magazines , guested TV for promotions , and has signed lucrative commercial deals . Beyoncé signed to PepsiCo , a conglomerate beverage manufacturer , in 2003 , and appeared on several TV commercials for its products .

The creative output of the sessions for Dangerously in Love left several tracks ready for another album pressing . In late 2003 , Beyoncé planned to release a follow @-@ up album that would comprise left @-@ over songs from Dangerously in Love . The move was prompted when a P. Diddy @-@ collaboration called " Summertime " , a left @-@ over track from the album , was sent to radio stations and had received favorable response .

Meanwhile , the success of the album incited the public to infer that it signals Destiny 's Child to finally part ways , as had pop singer Justin Timberlake " could not go back to ' N Sync after tasting solo success " . However , Beyoncé said that their side projects were only " a brief diversion in the juggernaut that has become Destiny 's Child " . As time did not permit , Beyoncé 's musical aspirations were put on hiatus for her to concentrate on her Super Bowl performance , wherein she was slated to sing the U.S. national anthem , and the recording of Destiny 's Child 's fourth album , Destiny Fulfilled ; the group finally disbanded in 2005 .

After the group 's formal disbandment , Beyoncé recorded and released her second album , B 'Day , on September 4 , 2006 . The album gave Beyoncé her second number one in the United States , and its debut week sales exceeded that of Dangerously in Love , the former having sold 541 @,@ 000 units . Despite the album 's first two singles ' average commercial performance — neither of which reached the peak of the Billboard Hot 100 — its " handsome debut " was noted by Keith Caulfield of Billboard as having generated " by goodwill earned from the performance of [ Beyoncé 's ] smash first album Dangerously in Love . "

= = Track listing = =

Notes

^ a signifies a co @-@ producer

^ b signifies a vocal producer

" Crazy in Love " samples " Are You My Woman ( Tell Me So ) " ( 1970 ) by the Chi @-@ Lites

" Naughty Girl " contains interpolations from " Love to Love You Baby " ( 1975 ) by Donna Summer

" Baby Boy " contains interpolations from " Hot Stepper " ( 1990 ) by Ini Kamoze

" Be with You " samples " Ain 't Nothing I Can Do " ( 1979 ) Tyrone Davis and contains interpolations from " I 'd Rather Be with You " ( 1976 ) by Bootsy 's Rubber Band and " Strawberry Letter 23 " ( 1977 ) by the Brothers Johnson

" That 's How You Like It " contains interpolations from " I Like It " ( 1982 ) by DeBarge

" Gift from Virgo " samples " Rainy Day " ( 1974 ) by Shuggie Otis

" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " contains interpolations from " If I Was Your Girlfriend " ( 1987 ) by Prince and samples of " Me and My Girlfriend " ( 1996 ) by 2Pac

" What 's It Gonna Be " samples " Do It Roger " ( 1981 ) by Roger Troutman

= = Personnel = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications and sales = =

= Myriostoma =

Myriostoma is a fungal genus in the family Geastraceae . The genus is monotypic , containing the single species Myriostoma coliforme . It is an earthstar , so named because the spore @-@ bearing sack 's outer wall splits open into the shape of a star . The inedible fungus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and has been found in Africa , Asia , North and South America , and Europe , where it grows in humus @-@ rich forests or in woodlands , especially on well @-@ drained and sandy soils . A somewhat rare fungus , it appears on the Red Lists of 12 European countries , and in 2004 it was one of 33 species proposed for protection under the Bern Convention by the European Council for Conservation of Fungi .

The fruit body , initially shaped like a puffball , is encased within an outer covering that splits open from the top to form rays . These rays curve down to expose an inner papery spore case , which contains the fertile spore @-@ bearing tissue , the gleba . The fungus is unique among the earthstars in having a spore case that is supported by multiple stalks , and is perforated by several small holes suggestive of its common names salt @-@ shaker earthstar and pepperpot . It is the largest of the earthstar fungi , and reaches diameters of up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . Its spherical spores have elongated warts that create a ridge @-@ like pattern on their surface . The spores are dispersed when falling water hits the outer wall of the spore sac , creating puffs of air that force the spores through the holes .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The species was first mentioned in the scientific literature by Samuel Doody in the second edition of John Ray 's Synopsis methodica Stirpium Brittanicorum in 1696 . Doody briefly described the mushroom like so : " fungus pulverulentus coli instar perforatus , cum volva stellata " ( mushroom dusty , like a perforated colander , volva star @-@ shaped ) , and went on to explain that he found it in 1695 in Kent .

It was first described scientifically as a new species in 1776 from collections made in England by James Dickson , who named it Lycoperdon coliforme . He found it growing in roadside banks and hedgerows among nettles in Suffolk and Norfolk . Nicaise Auguste Desvaux first defined and published the new genus Myriostoma in 1809 , with the species renamed Myriostoma anglicum ( an illegitimate renaming ) . Christian Hendrik Persoon had previously placed the species in Geastrum in 1801 , while Samuel Frederick Gray would in 1821 describe the genus Polystoma for it . Myriostoma coliforme received its current and final name when August Carl Joseph Corda moved Dickson 's name to Myriostoma in 1842 , replacing Desvaux 's name .

In North America the fungus began to be reported in the late 19th century , first from Colorado by Charles Horton Peck , and later from Florida , collected by Lucien Underwood in 1891 ; both findings were reported by Andrew Price Morgan in April 1892 . In 1897 , Melville Thurston Cook also reported having collected it the year before from " Albino Beach " . Curtis Gates Lloyd described Bovistoides simplex from a South African specimen in 1919 , but in 1942 , William Henry Long examined that specimen and concluded that it was a weathered spore sac of M. coliforme that had become detached from the outer star @-@ shaped exoperidium . This conclusion was confirmed in a later study of the material .

Myriostoma had been classified in the Geastraceae family until 1973 , when British mycologist Donald Dring placed it in the Astraeaceae based on the presence of trabeculae ( stout columns that extend from the peridium to the central core of the fruit body ) in the gleba , and the absence of a true hymenium . In his 1989 monograph , Stellan Sunhede returned it to the Geastraceae . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences has confirmed the traditional belief that Myriostoma and Geastrum are closely related .

Václav Jan Staněk proposed a variety capillisporum in 1958 , which has been sunk back into synonymy with the species . M. coliforme is the sole species in Myriostoma , making the genus monotypic . Because the original type material has been lost , in 1989 Sunhede suggested that Dickson 's illustration in his 1776 publication ( tab . III : 4a & b ) be used as the lectotype .

The specific epithet is derived from the Latin words colum , meaning " strainer " , and forma , meaning " shape " — Berkeley 's vernacular name " Cullenden puff @-@ ball " also refers to a colander . Gray called it the " sievelike pill @-@ box " . The generic name is from the Greek words μνριός , meaning " countless " and στόμα , meaning " mouth " ( the source of the technical term stoma ) . The species is commonly known as the " salt @-@ and @-@ pepper shaker earthstar " or simply the " pepperpot " .

= = Description = =

The fruit bodies start their development underground or buried in leaf debris , linked to a strand of mycelium at the base . As they mature , the exoperidium ( the outer tissue layer of the peridium ) splits open into 7 to 14 rays which curve backward ; this pushes the fruit body above the substrate . Fully opened specimens can reach dimensions of 2 – 12 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) from ray tip to tip . The rays are of unequal size , with tips that often roll back inward . They comprise three distinct layers of tissue . The inner pseudoparenchymatous layer ( so named for the resemblance to the tightly packed cells of plant parenchyma ) is fleshy and thick when fresh , and initially pale beige but darkening to yellow or brown as it matures , often cracking and peeling off in the process . The exterior mycelial layer , often matted with fine leaf debris or dirt , usually cracks to reveal a middle fibrous layer , which is made of densely packed hyphae 1 – 2 @.@ 5 μm wide . The base of the fruit body is concave to vaulted in shape , and often covered with adhering dirt . The roughly spherical spore sac ( endoperidium ) measures 1 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and is supported by a cluster of short columns shaped like flattened spheres . It is gray @-@ brown in color , and minutely roughened with small , lightly interconnected warts . There are several to many evenly dispersed mouths , the ostioles , mainly on the upper half of the endoperidium . They are roughly circular with fimbriate ( fringed ) edges . The inedible fruit bodies have no distinct taste , although dried specimens develop an odor resembling curry powder or bouillon cubes .

Like many earthstars , the fungus uses the force of falling raindrops to help disperse the spores , which are ejected in little bursts when objects ( such as rain ) strike the outer wall of the spore sac . The gleba is brown to grayish @-@ brown , with a cotton @-@ like texture that , when compressed , allows the endoperidium to flex quickly and create a puff of air that is forced out through the ostioles . This generates a cloud of spores that can then be carried by the wind . There are columellae ( sterile structures that start at the base of the gleba and extend through it ) , which are usually not evident in the mature gleba , but apparent at the base of the spore sac . The columellae are not connected to the ostioles , but rather , terminate within the gleba at some distance from them . The capillitia ( sterile strands within the gleba ) are long , slender , free , tapering , unbranched , and 2 – 5 μm thick , with thickened walls . The spores are spherical , nonamyloid , and are ornamented with irregularly shaped flaring protuberances up to 2 μm high . They measure 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 8 μm in diameter ( without ornamentation ) , and 5 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 0 μm including the ornamentation .

= = = Similar species = = =

Myriostoma coliforme is a distinctive species easily characterized by its size — being the largest earthstar fungus — as well as the multiple openings on its spore sack and stalk supporting the sack . Historically , it was thought that the holes might have been a result of insects . This was discussed and rejected by Thomas Jenkinson Woodward in 1797 :

It has been doubted whether these mouths might not be accidental , and formed by insects after the expansion of the plant . But this ( not to mention their regularity , and that each is furrowed by its border of ciliae ) is clearly disproved , from the marks of the projections formed by the mouths being seen on the expanded rays , when freshly opened ... I have likewise found an abortive plant , in which the seed did not ripen ; but which had numerous projecting papillae on the head , where the mouths should have been formed .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Myriostoma is saprobic , deriving nutrients from decomposing organic matter . Fruit bodies grow grouped in well @-@ drained or sandy soil , often in the partial shade of trees . The species occurs in deciduous forests and mixed forests , gardens , along hedges and grassy road banks , and grazed grasslands . In the Northern Hemisphere , it tends to grow on well @-@ drained south @-@ facing slopes , while it prefers a similar habitat on north @-@ facing slopes in Australia . In Europe , its major habitat is riparian mixed forests dominated by Salix alba and Populus alba along the great rivers . In Hawaii , it has been collected at elevations above 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) where it appears to favor the mamame ( Sophora chrysophylla ) forest .

The species is widespread , being known in its natural habitat from all five continents , but is not found in abundance . Myriostoma coliforme is rare in Europe , where it appears on the Regional Red Lists of 12 countries , and is one of 33 candidate species for listing in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ( the " Bern Convention " ) . Although originally described from England , it was considered extinct in mainland Britain until it was found again in Suffolk in 2006 near Ipswich , one of its original localities — it had been last reported in the country in 1880 . The fungus is considered extinct in Switzerland . Its most northerly location is southern Sweden , although it is generally rare in northern Europe . It is similarly widespread but rarely encountered in North America , although there may be isolated localities , like New Mexico , where it is more abundant . In Australia , where its range is limited to the central New South Wales coast , it may have been introduced from exotic plant material .

= Dusky dolphin =

The dusky dolphin ( Lagenorhynchus obscurus ) is a dolphin found in coastal waters in the Southern Hemisphere . Its specific epithet is Latin for " dark " or " dim " . It is very closely genetically related to the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin , but current scientific consensus holds they are distinct species . The dolphin 's range is patchy , with major populations around South America , southwestern Africa , New Zealand , and various oceanic islands , with some sightings around southern Australia and Tasmania . The dusky dolphin prefers cool currents and inshore waters , but can also be found offshore . It feeds on a variety of fish and squid species and has flexible hunting tactics . The dusky dolphin is known for its remarkable acrobatics , having a number of aerial behaviours . The status of the dolphin is unknown , but it has been commonly caught in gill nets .

= = Taxonomy = =

It is commonly thought that the dusky dolphin was first described by John Edward Gray in 1828 from stuffed skin and a single skull shipped from the Cape of Good Hope to the British Museum . Gray first described the species as Delphinus obscurus , with the subgenus Grampus in his 1828 Specilegia Zoologica . Gray reported that the animal was captured around the Cape of Good Hope by a Captain Haviside ( often misspelt " Heaviside " ) and sent to the British Museum though the Royal College of Surgeons in 1827 .

However , Gray later wrote that a similar dolphin was described as Delphinus supercilious by French surgeons and naturalists René Primevère Lesson and Prosper Garnot from a specimen collected off the coast of Tasmania two years before his own classification . Gray classified D. supercilious as a junior synonym of his D. obscurus and credited Lesson and Garnot ( 1826 ) for their original description . Meanwhile , Charles Darwin also described what turned out to be this species as Delphinus fitzroyi from a specimen harpooned off Argentina in 1838 . The dusky dolphin was reclassified as Prodelphinus obscurus in 1885 by British naturalist William Henry Flower , before gaining its current binomial name , Lagenorhynchus obscurus , from American biologist Frederick W. True in 1889 .

= = = Genetics = = =

The dusky dolphin and the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin are considered phylogenetically related species . Some researchers have suggested they are the same species , but morphological and life @-@ history evidence shows otherwise . The two sister species diverged at around 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 0 million years ago . Recent analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicates that the genus Lagenorhynchus , as traditionally conceived , is not a natural ( monophyletic ) group . Another study finds that the dusky and the Pacific white @-@ sided dolphin form the sister group to the ( expanded ) genus Cephalorhynchus . If this placement is accurate , a new genus name will need to be coined to accommodate these two species .

Dusky dolphins from Argentina and southwest Africa separated 2000 generations ago from an ancestral Atlantic population and subsequently diverged without much gene flow . Most populations have low genetic diversity , with the Peruvian population being an exception . Possible hybrids of dusky dolphins have been described with a long @-@ beaked common dolphin and a southern right whale dolphin . There are four subspecies classified ; ( Lagenorhynchus obscurus obscurus ) , ( L. o. fitroyi ) , ( L. o. posidonia ) and ( L. o. superciliosis ) .

= = Description = =

The dusky dolphin is small to medium in length compared with other species in the family . There is significant variation in size among the different population areas . The largest dusky dolphins have been encountered off the coast of Peru , where they are up to 210 cm ( 6 feet ) in length and 100 kg ( 210 pounds ) in mass . The size for dusky dolphins in New Zealand have been recorded to be a length range of 167 – 178 cm and a weight range of 69 – 78 kg for females and a length range of 165 – 175 cm and a weigh range of 70 – 85 kg for males .

Almost no sexual dimorphism occurs in this species , although males have more curved dorsal fins with broader bases and greater surface areas . The back of the dolphin is dark grey or black , and the dorsal fin is distinctively two @-@ toned ; the leading edge matches the back in colour , but the trailing edge is a much lighter greyish white . The dusky dolphins has a long , light @-@ grey patch on its fore side leading to a short , dark @-@ grey beak . The throat and belly are white , and the beak and lower jaw are dark grey . Two blazes of white colour run back on the body from the dorsal fin to the tail . Right between the white areas remains a characteristic thorn @-@ shaped patch of dark colour , by which the species can easily be recognised . Aside from that , dusky dolphins may be confused with other members of their genus when observed at sea . It can be distinguished from the common dolphin , which has a more prominent and longer beak and yellow flank markings . The skull of a dusky dolphin has a longer and narrower rostrum than that of an hourglass dolphin or Peale 's dolphin of similar age and size .

= = Populations and distribution = =

The dusky dolphin has a discontinuous semi @-@ circumpolar range . The dolphins can be found off the coasts of South America , southwestern Africa , southern Australia and Tasmania , New Zealand , and some oceanic islands . Off South America , they range from southern Peru to Cape Horn in the west and from southern Patagonia to around 36 ° S in the east . Its range also includes the Falkland Islands . They are particularly common from Peninsula Valdes to Mar de Plata . In comparison , they are uncommon in the Beagle Channel and the inshore waters of the Tierra del Fuego region .

Dusky dolphins are found throughout New Zealand waters . The dolphin population in this area centres around East Cape and Cape Palliser on the North Island to Timaru and Oamaru on the South Island . They are especially common in the cold waters of the Southland and Canterbury currents . In Africa , the dusky dolphin ranges from Lobito Bay , Angola in the north to False Bay , South Africa in the south . Within Australian waters , dusky dolphins have been recorded in colder waters off Kangaroo Island , eastern Tasmania , and Bass Strait , although they are uncommon and those that are sighted there are possibly transients from New Zealand . They are also found around Campbell , Auckland , and Chatham in the western South Pacific , Tristan da Cunha in the South Atlantic and Île Amsterdam , and Île Saint @-@ Paul in the southern Indian Ocean .

= = Ecology and behaviour = =

Dusky dolphins prefer cool , upwelling waters , as well as cold currents . They largely live in inshore waters and can be found up to the outer continental shelf and in similar zones in offshore islands . They can move over great distances ( around 780 km ) , but have no well @-@ defined seasonal migrations . However , dolphins off Argentina and New Zealand make inshore and offshore seasonal and diurnal movements . In Argentina , dusky dolphins associate closely with southern right whales and South American sea lions . They have been found around bottlenose dolphins , but apparently do not interact with them , and may share feeding areas with Risso 's dolphins . They also associate with various seabirds , such as kelp gulls , cormorants , terns , shearwaters , petrels , and albatrosses . In New Zealand , dusky dolphins mingle with common dolphins . Dusky dolphins have also been observed with southern right whale dolphins and pilot whales off southwestern Africa .

= = = Vocalisations and echolocation = = =

In general , three different types of sounds are produced by dolphins ( and other toothed whales ) . These are click trains , which are made of numerous individual clicks , usually broadband signals that change from low value to high value quickly , burst pulses , which are individual clicks with high repetition and can be heard by humans only as a buzzing sound , and whistles , which are signals that are pure @-@ tones and whose frequency varies depending on the time . Dusky dolphins produce all three sounds , but most commonly make burst pulses . Whistling is more common when dusky dolphins mingle with other dolphin species such as common dolphins . Their echolocation signals are broadband and of short duration , much like those other whistle @-@ producing toothed whales . They tend to have bimodal frequency spectra which peak between 40 and 50 kHz at low frequency and between 80 and 110 kHz at high frequency . The species ' echolocation signals are about 9 – 12 dB lower than for the larger white @-@ beaked dolphin .

= = = Foraging and predation = = =

Dusky dolphins prey consume a variety of fish and squid species . Common fish species eaten include anchovies , lantern fish , pilchards , sculpins , hakes , horse mackerel , hoki and red cod . They are generally coordinated hunters . Their very flexible foraging strategies can change depending on the environment . In certain parts of New Zealand , where deep oceanic waters meet the shore , dusky dolphins forage in deep scattering layers at night . They arrive at the hunting site individually , but form groups when in the layer . The dolphins use their echolocation to detect and isolate an individual prey . Groups of foraging dolphins tend to increase when the layer is near the surface and decrease when it descends .

When hunting in shallower waters in New Zealand and Argentina , dusky dolphins tend to forage during the day . The dolphins chase schools of fish or squid and herd them into stationary balls . They may control the school with light reflected from their white bellies . Dolphins herd prey against the surface , but also horizontally against the shore , a point of land , or the hull of a boat . During these times , dusky dolphins are believed to increase prey availability for other predators , including other dolphins , seabirds , sharks , and pinnipeds . In Argentina , dusky dolphins may use bird aggregations to locate and herd prey . Conversely , pinnipeds and sharks take advantage of the dolphin hunts . Dusky dolphins are themselves preyed on by killer whales and large sharks . Dolphins avoid killer whales by swimming into shallower water . Dusky dolphins are also susceptible to parasitism by certain nematode , cestode , and trematode species , mostly the genera Nasitrema and Anisakis , and Phyllobothrium delphini , Braunina cordiformis , and Pholeter gasterophilus .

= = = Social behaviour and reproduction = = =

Dusky dolphins live in a fission @-@ fusion society , with most group size increases occurring during foraging and decreases in group sizes occurring during resting and traveling . In the Golfo San José off the Valdes Peninsula , dolphins commonly switch between small traveling groups and large sociosexual groups , and encounter a variety of associates . Studies of dolphins off Kaikoura , New Zealand , showed the dolphins normally live in large groups that split into smaller subgroups . These subgroups are composed of mating adults ( mating groups ) , mothers with calves ( nursery groups ) and nonbreeding adults . Dusky dolphins have a promiscuous mating system in which both males and females mate with multiple partners . Mating groups are generally made of around 10 males and a single female . These mating groups can be found in both shallow and deep water but more often gather near shore .

In the mating groups , the males pursue a female in high @-@ speed chases . Females seem to prefer males with great speed and agility rather than size , strength , or aggression . Females may extend the chase as long as possible so only the best male remains . Females may try to evade males that are not vigorous or lack social skill . Males also may form alliances to catch females . Unlike male bottlenose dolphins , male dusky dolphins cannot monopolise females . The time when female dusky dolphins first reproduce varies between regions . New Zealand dolphins first reproduce at about seven to years , with possibly six to seven years for Argentine dolphins . A study of dusky dolphins off the coast of Peru showed the reproductive cycle lasts around 28 @.@ 6 months , with mother dolphins pregnant for 12 @.@ 9 months , lactating for a further 12 months , and resting for 3 @.@ 7 months before the cycle begins again . During copulation , females tend to be on the top . As with all species where females mate with multiple partners , male dusky dolphins have large testicles for sperm competition . Dusky dolphins sometimes engage in sexual behaviour for reasons other than reproduction , perhaps for greeting , communication , or strengthening social bonds . Homosexual behaviour between males has been observed . Dolphins having sex for social reasons tend to be more relaxed .

Females with calves tend to gather in nursery groups in shallow water . Nursery groups likely provide mothers and calves more time to rest , which is important for both . While the behaviours of nursery groups vary by month , resting is the predominant behaviour during most months . The formation of nursery groups in shallow waters also allows members to hunt prey species that inhabit in these waters . Both adults and calves have been observed to chase and catch fish , and the adults may be teaching the calves how to hunt . In contrast to shallower waters , hunting in deep water at night may be too dangerous for calves . Calves are particularly vulnerable to predators like killer whales and use of shallow water by nursery groups may be a way to avoid predation . Nursery groups tend to avoid mating groups . Adult males in these groups will aggressively herd and chase females . They can separate calves from their mothers and harass them , as well . Calves may also become even more vulnerable to predators as they become exhausted and disoriented . Mother dolphins may look after calves that are not their own .

= = = Aerial behaviour = = =

Dusky dolphins perform a number of aerial displays , including leaps , backslaps , headslaps , tailslaps , spins , and noseouts . They also perform head @-@ over @-@ tail leaps which have been called the most " acrobatic " of the displays . A headfirst re @-@ entry is performed when a dolphin leaps entirely water and positions its back in a curve while it flips the tail to land back in the water head @-@ first . " Humping " is similar , except the snout and tail remain in the water when the dolphin is the arch . Leaps , head @-@ over @-@ tail leaps , backslaps , headslaps , tailslaps , and spins are often done over and over again . Young dusky dolphins apparently are not born with the ability to perform the leaps and must learn to master each one . Calves appear to learn the leaps in this order : noisy leaps , head first re @-@ entries , coordinated leaps , and acrobatic leaps . Adults may perform different leaps in different contexts , and calves may independently learn how to perform leaps , but learn when to perform these when interacting others .

= = Relationship with humans = =

= = = Status = = =

The dusky dolphin , protected in much of its range , is listed as Data Deficient by the IUCN because ; " ... assessment of global population status is not possible with the currently available estimates of abundance and removals . The subpopulation off Peru has probably been overexploited , but present data do not allow estimation of present decline " . Dusky dolphins may fall victim to the small cetacean fisheries of Peru and Chile . The expansion of these fisheries could have started in Peru when the anchoveta fishery collapsed in 1972 . Dolphins have also been caught in gill nets in New Zealand , but catches appear to have dropped since the 1970s and 1980s . In Peru , dusky dolphins are killed in large numbers ( 10 @.@ 000 @-@ 15 @.@ 000 per year ) and used as shark bait or for human consumption . The dolphins are also thought to have been harpooned off South Africa , but the numbers are not considered large .

The dusky dolphin is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( CMS ) as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co @-@ operation organised by tailored agreements .

= = = Mussel farming = = =

The effect of mussel farming on dusky dolphins has been studied in Admiralty Bay , New Zealand . Dusky dolphins are commonly seen in this area , which is also where the greatest density of farming activity is proposed . Apparently , dolphins rarely enter existing farms , and when they do , they usually swim quickly up the lanes and between rows of lines and floats .

= = = Tourism = = =

Dusky dolphins are popular attractions for whale @-@ watching tours . Since 1997 , dolphin @-@ watching activities have increased in Patagonia , with dusky dolphins ( along with Commerson 's dolphins ) as the target species . Tourists interested in seeing dusky dolphins grew from 1 @,@ 393 in 1997 to 1 @,@ 840 in 2000 . Encounters with dolphins increased from 25 % during 1999 to 90 % in 2001 . Dolphin watching in this areas started as an alternative to whale watching , which was mostly based on that of the southern right whale . Dusky dolphin watching is also popular in New Zealand , whose dolphin @-@ watching industry begin in the late 1980s , as a side attraction to sperm whale watching . Whale and dolphin watching tours have grown with around 75 permitted dolphin tour operators . New Zealand has several locations to view and swim with dusky dolphins , notably in Kaikoura and Marlborough Sounds .

While dusky dolphin tourism is a larger industry in New Zealand than it is in Argentina , the effects of tourism on the dolphins seem to be lower in the former than the latter . New Zealand tours are operated under permits , and are limited in number and have conditions and guidelines related to approach procedures and swim operations . By contrast , no direct regulation of dolphin watching is done in Argentina . As such , dolphin activities are often disturbed by touring vessels .

= = = General = = =

Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals . Perrin , W. F. , Wursig , B and J. G.M. Thewissen . , editors . ( 2008 ) Academic Press ; 2nd edition , ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 373553 @-@ X

The Dusky Dolphin : Master Acrobat off Different Shores . Würsig , B. , and Würsig , M. , editors . ( 2010 ) Academic Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 373723 @-@ 0 .

Whales , Dolphins and . Porpoises , K. S , Norris. editor , ( 1977 ) University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 03283 @-@ 7

Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans . Thomas , J. ; Kastelein , R. , editors . ( 1990 ) Plenum Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 43695 @-@ 7 .

Cetacean Societies . Mann , J. , editor . ( 2000 ) University of Chicago Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 50341 @-@ 0 .

= Bellaire , Texas =

Bellaire is a city in southwest Harris County , Texas , United States , within the Houston – Sugar Land – Baytown metropolitan area . As of the 2010 U.S. Census , the city population was 16 @,@ 855 and is surrounded by the cities of Houston and West University Place .

Bellaire is known as the " City of Homes , " owing to its mostly residential character ; however , there are offices along the 610 Loop within the city limits .

= = History = =

Bellaire was founded in 1908 by William Wright Baldwin , who was the president of the South End Land Company . Baldwin , a native of Iowa , was well known as the vice president of the Burlington Railroad . Bellaire was founded on what was part of William Marsh Rice 's 9 @,@ 449 acres ( 38 @.@ 24 km2 ) ranch . Baldwin surveyed the eastern 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of the ranch into small truck farms . He named those farms " Westmoreland Farms " . Baldwin started Bellaire in the middle of " Westmoreland Farms " to serve as a residential neighborhood and an agricultural trading center . South End Land Company advertised to farmers in the Midwestern United States . Baldwin stated that the town was named " Bellaire " , or " Good Air " for its breezes " . Bellaire may have been named after Bellaire , Ohio , a town served by one of Baldwin 's rail lines .

Six miles of prairie was a buffer zone between Houston and Bellaire . Originally the town was bounded by Palmetto , First , Jessamine , and Sixth ( now Ferris ) Streets . In 1910 Edward Teas , a horticulturist , moved his nursery to Bellaire from Missouri so Teas could implement Sid Hare 's landscaping plans . Bellaire was incorporated as a city with a general charter in 1918 , ten years after its founding . Bellaire had a population of 200 at the time . Because of the 1918 incorporation , Houston did not incorporate Bellaire 's territory into its city limits , while Houston annexed surrounding areas that were unincorporated .

Bellaire 's population had reached 1 @,@ 124 in 1940 . After 1940 , Bellaire had a rapid population explosion in the post @-@ World War II building boom . On December 31 , 1948 , the city of Houston had annexed the land around the city of Bellaire , stopping the city of Bellaire 's land growth . Bellaire remained independent of Houston ; Bellaire adopted a home rule charter with a council @-@ manager government in April 1949 . By 1950 the city 's residents had numbered 10 @,@ 150 . Bellaire High School was established in 1955 .

According to a Bellaire resident quoted in the Houston Post , prior to 1992 , the tax base of the city of Bellaire had been decreasing . After neighbor West University Place eased restrictions on developers , new houses were constructed in West University Place , and the city gained a larger tax base . Bellaire decided to also liberalize its development restrictions to allow for new development by streamlining its no @-@ growth building permit process . According to Karl Lewis , a vice president and sales manager at John Daugherty Realtors , when the prices of West University Place land reached about $ 20 per square foot , area home buyers began to consider Bellaire , which had an average price of $ 10 – 12 per square foot . Don Stowers of the Houston Press said that Bellaire and West University Place had " comparable " attributes such as independent fire and police departments , zoning , recreation facilities and parks , and schools " among the best in Houston . " Michael Blum , president of Blum & Associates Realty , said " Bellaire is a bargain . " Blum added that Bellaire was affordable compared to similar American neighborhoods and that Bellaire had proximity to business districts , " excellent " municipal services , and " superior " schools . Affluent families increasingly moved to Bellaire . The price of an average house in Bellaire increased from $ 75 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @,@ 000 from 1986 to 2006 .

In 2002 the City of Bellaire attempted to acquire all or part of the 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) Teas Nursery , Bellaire 's oldest business and the oldest nursery in Greater Houston , for park development . The company fought the city 's take @-@ over attempt . During that year the owners of Teas sold 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) at the rear of the property to Lovett Homes , a home developer . Frank Liu , the owner of Lovett Homes , said that it had an option to buy the remaining 5 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) . When the City of Bellaire denied a replat application sent by Teas Nursery , in June 2002 the nursery filed a lawsuit against the city and its zoning commission . In 2005 the lawsuit was settled out of court .

During the Hurricane Rita evacuation , a bus filled with residents from Brighton Gardens , a nursing home in Bellaire , caught on fire and exploded in the city of Wilmer . The September 23 , 2005 , explosion killed 24 people out of the 38 residents and employees in the bus . The resulting lawsuit was settled in June 2009 . On March 23 , 2008 , a tour bus carrying Tejano singer Emilio Navaira crashed in Bellaire . By 2008 , an increasing number of houses sold for over $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .

On December 31 , 2008 , Bellaire police officers confronted Robbie Tolan , the son of former Major League Baseball player Bobby Tolan , in the driveway of his house at the 800 block of Woodstock . Officers suspected Tolan , who was unarmed , of stealing a sports utility vehicle in the driveway and shot Tolan in the chest ; Tolan 's family owned the vehicle . Tolan was hospitalized with injuries to one lung and a liver . The incident sparked allegations of racial profiling . Members of minority groups reported that Bellaire police racially profiled people . In 2002 , José Cruz , Jr . , son of baseball player José Cruz , was stopped since his vehicle was missing a front license plate . He was arrested by Bellaire police and spent one night in jail after Bellaire law enforcement told him that he had a warrant for his arrest . The Houston Chronicle said that the Bellaire police decision to arrest Cruz was a mistake . In January 2009 , Cruz accused the police of racial profiling . Mayor Cindy Siegel said that she was unaware of racial profiling by police . Siegel announced that the city will investigate racial profiling and hire an independent consultant to look at traffic stop data . The local National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) branch said that it established a pact with the City of Bellaire ; people may report civil rights violations from Bellaire Police to the branch if the people do not wish to contact the City of Bellaire . However , the NAACP branch has not yet provided the city with any civil rights violations . On April 6 , 2009 , a Harris County grand jury indicted Sergeant Jeffrey Cotton , the police officer , for aggravated assault by a public servant . If convicted , Cotton could face up to life in prison . In addition the family sued the police department and the police officer . The upcoming trial in Harris County District Court on criminal felony charges against Cotton began on January 25 , 2010 . Jury selection was scheduled to begin on May 3 , 2010 . The officer was found not guilty in his criminal trial in May 2010 .

Teas Nursery closed in 2010 ; the company president , Tom Teas , intended for the property to be redeveloped into single @-@ family houses . The Teas Nursery business was either going to move to a new location or be liquidated . In December the Rubenstein family bought the Teas property ; the family planned to donate it to the City of Bellaire for community purposes . The Teas property has two historic buildings . Scott Rubenstein , who handled negotiations for the Rubenstein family , described the Teas lot as " the last largely undeveloped tract in the city and , frankly , in the inner loop of the city of Houston where you can do something that can be used by people from all around the city . " Mayor of Bellaire Cindy Seigel said " I am just thrilled we ’ ll be able to preserve a historical property that is an important piece of Bellaire ’ s history . "

In January 2010 Siegel announced that she would oppose a plan to locate a permanent , privately funded Houston Dynamo stadium at the intersection of South Rice and Westpark , near Bellaire . In April 2010 it was announced that the Dynamo stadium , now known as BBVA Compass Stadium , would be built in East Downtown Houston .

= = Geography and climate = =

Bellaire is located at 29 ° 42 ′ 11 ″ N 95 ° 28 ′ 06 ″ W. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 3 @.@ 6 square miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) , all of it land .

The city is surrounded by Houston , West University Place , and Southside Place .

= = = Cityscape = = =

Bellaire 's housing lots are 75 feet ( 23 m ) by 130 feet ( 40 m ) , allowing for houses larger than those that could be built on typical 50 feet ( 15 m ) by 120 feet ( 37 m ) West University Place lots . A Bellaire lot can accommodate a house with a detached garage and a swimming pool , while the typical West University Place lot could accommodate a newly constructed Georgian house described by Don Stowers of the Houston Post as " lot @-@ hugging . " The more spacious and inexpensive housing lots prompted area home seekers to consider Bellaire .

The original Bellaire housing stock typically consisted of 3 bedroom , 1 bathroom post @-@ World War II houses described by Stowers as " smallish . " Because of the attributes , developers did not hesitate to tear these houses down and build new houses . Some individuals chose to renovate their houses instead of having them torn down . Many individuals who would otherwise renovate the houses reconsidered their decisions as the land value increased . In some cases the land value was higher than the value of the structure on the lot . Some subdivisions had larger houses , particularly the Carroll subdivision south of Bellaire Boulevard and the Braeburn Country Club Estates subdivision between Chimney Rock and Rice . Many of the houses in those subdivisions were built in the 1950s and early 1960s , and many were on .5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) lots . Karl Lewis , the vice president and sales manager of John Daugherty Realtors , said that many of the houses were " still quite attractive " and " similar to the large Tanglewood homes . " In 1992 smaller lots in Bellaire were about $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 84313 @.@ 49 in today 's money ) and up , while larger lots were $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 505880 @.@ 96 in today 's money ) to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 843134 @.@ 93 in today 's money ) .

In a 2007 Houston Press article John Nova Lomax , a journalist , said that parts of Bellaire 's downtown had " a certain raffish 1950s charm – the Bellaire Broiler Burger , for example – but it ’ s boring . " Lomax stated in a 2008 Houston Press article that , due to the growth and dominance of Houston , municipal enclaves with their own services , including Bellaire , " are little more than glorified neighborhoods . "

Many Bellaire streets , such as " Holly , " " Holt , " " Maple , " and " Pine , " are named after trees . The word " Holt " means a small grove or a forest of trees .

One community in Bellaire , South dale , was developed by William G. Farmington , the developer of Tanglewood . South dale was originally developed in the late 1940s with two bedroom houses . The houses were marketed to World War II veterans . The houses were about four times less expensive than the around $ 25 @,@ 000 @-@ each ( $ 246225 @.@ 76 in today 's money ) Tangle wood houses . Another subdivision in Bellaire is named " Broad Acres . "

= = Demographics = =

As of the census of 2010 , there were 16 @,@ 855 people , 6 @,@ 053 households , and 4 @,@ 688 families residing in the city . The population density was 4 @,@ 319 @.@ 0 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 668 @.@ 3 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 72 @.@ 6 % non @-@ Hispanic White , 1 @.@ 6 % African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 14 @.@ 1 % Asian , and 2 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino people of any race comprised 9 @.@ 5 % of the population .

There were 6 @,@ 053 households out of which 44 @.@ 2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 67 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together ( 56 @.@ 1 % of which had children ) , 7 @.@ 2 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 22 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . 19 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7 @.@ 9 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 78 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 21 .

In the city the population was spread out with 31 @.@ 3 % under the age of 19 , 5 @.@ 6 % from 20 to 29 , 10 @.@ 6 % from 30 to 39 , 17 @.@ 2 % from 40 to 49 , 24 @.@ 9 % from 50 to 64 , and 10 @.@ 4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 41 @.@ 6 years . For every 100 females there were 94 @.@ 6 males .

= = Government and infrastructure = =

= = = Local government = = =

Bellaire currently has a city manager style of government . The home rule government was established on April 2 , 1949 , replacing the general law form of government . The city council is made up of the mayor and six city council members . All are elected at large . The mayor is elected for two @-@ year terms , while each city council member is elected for four @-@ year terms . The mayor may not serve for more than four terms in that position . A council members may have no more than two terms as a city council member . Bellaire has zoning ordinances that dictate types of structures and uses throughout sections of the city . As of 2015 , the mayor is Dr. Phil Nauert . The six council members are , in order of position , Roman F. Reed ( 1 ) , Jim Avioli , Sr. ( 2 ) , Gus Pappas ( 3 ) , Pat McLaughlan ( 4 ) , Andrew S. Friedberg ( 5 ) , and Mandy Nathan ( 6 ) .

The Bellaire Fire Department is housed at 5101 Jessamine Street . The fire station includes two fire engines ( a main engine and a volunteer / backup engine ) , two medic units ( a main medic unit and a backup unit ) , an on shift commander vehicle , a vehicle for each the chief and assistant chief , a cascade unit , and a hazardous materials trailer . The fire department operates the Citizens Fire Academy , a fire and life safety program for Bellaire citizens held on Wednesdays and Saturdays . The old fire station was demolished on December 4 , 2009 , with demolition continuing on Monday December 7 , 2009 , and operations are temporarily relocated at the Chevron building . A new fire station was scheduled to in the location of the previous fire station . The groundbreaking for the new station was held on December 17 , 2009 .

The Bellaire Police Department is housed at 5110 Jessamine Street . As of 2008 the Chief of Police is Byron Holloway . The police department 's patrol division , the organization 's largest division , includes patrol , detention , motorcycle , and bicycle units . The support services division includes court , records , and communications divisions . The police department offers the " House Watch Program , " where interested residents allow police to check their houses while they are away on vacation .

= = = = Local politics = = = =

Zoning and land use controversies , common throughout Bellaire 's history , resulted in the 1977 recall of the mayor and three council members . The City of Bellaire voted against banning smoking in bars and restaurants on Monday January 15 , 2007 . Mayor Cindy Siegel and Pat McLaughlan , one council member , voted for the ban , while the other five members , including Peggy Faulk , voted against the ban . The National Restaurant Association asked Bellaire to consider adopting a smoking ban to put it in sync with the City of Houston , which adopted a similar ordinance in 2005 . In December 2009 the city voted to ban texting while driving . Bans of texting while driving were passed in Bellaire and West University Place , Texas within hours of one another . In 2010 the city voted 5 @-@ 2 to ban the feeding of cats on public property and establish a rule requiring the permission of the owner of a piece of private property in order to feed cats on private property . The city received negative e @-@ mail feedback from various locations , including Switzerland .

In 2011 Phil Nauert was elected as the new Mayor of Bellaire . In 2014 , long @-@ time City Manager Bernie Satterwhite retired and was replaced by Paul Hofmann .

= = = County , state , and federal government = = =

Bellaire is within Harris County Precinct 3 . As of 2008 Steve Radack serves as the commissioner of that precinct . It is in Constable Precinct One . As of 2008 Jack Abercia heads the constable precinct .

Bellaire is located in District 134 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2011 , Sarah Davis represents the district . Bellaire is within District 17 of the Texas Senate .

Bellaire is in Texas 's 7th congressional district ; as of 2008 John Culberson is the representative . The designated United States Postal Service office is the Bellaire Post Office along Bellaire Boulevard in Bellaire . Bellaire first received a post office in 1911 .

= = Transportation = =

Bellaire is a member city of the Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County , Texas ( METRO ) . The city is served by bus lines 2 ( Bellaire ) , 17 , 33 ( Post Oak Crosstown ) , 49 ( Chimney Rock Crosstown ) , and 65 ( Bissonnet ) . The Bellaire Transit Center , located at 5100 Bellaire Boulevard at South Rice Avenue , has four lines ( 2 , 33 , 49 , 65 ) . As of 2010 METRO has proposed to build the Bellaire Station as part of the METRORail University Line .

In Bellaire 's early history , Bellaire Boulevard and a historic street car line connected Bellaire to Houston . The street car line , which ran a four @-@ mile ( 6 km ) stretch from central Bellaire to Houston 's Main Street , started construction in 1909 . The streetcar line consisted of one railway track and an overhead electric wire . A waiting pavilion and a turnaround loop were located at the terminus in Bellaire . The Houston Electric Company had simultaneously constructed a south end line from Eagle Avenue to what is now Fannin Street to connect to the Bellaire Boulevard line . Service , with one required transfer at Eagle Avenue , began on December 28 , 1910 . The streetcar was nicknamed the " Toonerville Trolley " . On September 26 , 1927 , the trolley line was abandoned and replaced by a bus line . This was due to frequent derailments caused by a worn @-@ out track and the advent of the automobile . In 1985 , a similar streetcar was acquired in Portugal and brought to Bellaire for permanent display .

= = Economy = =

The City of Bellaire has property zoned for light industrial , commercial , and mixed @-@ use residential and commercial uses . Bellaire has some high @-@ rise office buildings along Interstate 610 . Frost Bank 's Houston @-@ area offices are located in Bellaire . AT & T Inc. operates its Houston @-@ area headquarters in an office building at 6500 West Loop South in Bellaire ; the building was with SBC Corporation before it absorbed the former AT & T. The Houston Metropolitan Chamber , previously the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce , assists economy activity in Bellaire . The main offices of the Greater Southwest Houston Chamber of Commerce were previously located in Bellaire . Chevron has a 33 @-@ acre ( 130 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus at 4800 Fournace Place in Bellaire that is the headquarters for the Chevron Pipe Line Company along with several other business units . Prior to the merger between Chevron and Texaco , the facility belonged to Texaco . Texaco built the 502 @,@ 000 square feet ( 46 @,@ 600 m2 ) square foot facility . South Texas Dental has its corporate headquarters in Bellaire .

In 1953 the Consulate @-@ General of Sweden moved to Bellaire . At one point the Consulate @-@ General of Honduras in Houston was located in Suite 360 at 6700 West Loop South in Bellaire . As of 2009 the Honduran Consulate @-@ General and the Swedish Honorary Consulate are located in Houston .

Bellaire had 8 @,@ 120 employed civilians as of the 2000 Census , including 3 @,@ 835 females . Of the civilian workers , 5 @,@ 368 ( 66 @.@ 1 % ) were private for profit wage and salary workers . Of them 689 ( 8 @.@ 5 % of the total Bellaire civilian workforce ) were employees of their own corporations . 952 ( 11 @.@ 7 % ) were private non @-@ profit wage and salary workers . 446 ( 5 @.@ 5 % ) worked for local governments . 479 ( 5 @.@ 9 % ) were state government workers . 111 ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) were federal workers . 754 ( 9 @.@ 3 % ) were self @-@ employed ; none of them worked in agriculture , forestry , fishing , or hunting . 10 ( .1 % ) were unpaid family workers .

= = Parks and recreation = =

Bellaire has several parks within the city limits operated by the city . Bellaire Zindler Park , a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) park , was given its current name in honor of Marvin Zindler , a Houston journalist ; it was originally named Bellaire Park . Bellaire Zindler Park includes a neighborhood pool , two lighted tennis courts , a gazebo , a picnic area , a jogging trail , an open playground , the Bellaire Recreation Center , and the Bellaire Civic Center , which includes auditoriums and meeting rooms . The .875 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 540 m2 ) Vic Driscoll Park consists entirely of open green space . The 2 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 500 m2 ) Evergreen Park includes a neighborhood pool and a playground and picnic area . The 4 @.@ 7 @-@ acre ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) Feld Park includes an adult softball field , a playground , two lighted tennis courts , and the Feld Scout House . The .2 @-@ acre ( 810 m2 ) Joe Gaither Park includes a play structure with swings and green space . The 3 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 13 @,@ 000 m2 ) Horn Field ( Avenue B at Holly Street ) includes two lighted baseball fields , youth soccer ( football ) fields , and a T @-@ Ball field . The .489 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 980 m2 ) Jacquet Park consists of a playground and picnic area . The 1 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 6 @,@ 100 m2 ) Lafayette Park includes a playground and picnic area , an open play area , and the Officer Lucy Dog Park , a dog park . The .75 @-@ acre ( 3 @,@ 000 m2 ) Locust Park consists of an open play area and a shaded picnic area . The 1 @.@ 795 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 260 m2 ) Loftin Park consists of open green space . The 2 @.@ 547 @-@ acre ( 10 @,@ 310 m2 ) Mulberry Park at 700 Mulberry Lane includes a playground area , a picnic shelter , a youth baseball field , and three lighted tennis courts . The 6 @.@ 6 @-@ acre ( 27 @,@ 000 m2 ) Paseo Park along Bellaire Boulevard includes an esplanade , the Bellaire Trolley and the Special Event area . The 7 @-@ acre ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) Pin Oak Park along the West Loop South ( 610 Loop ) includes two lighted baseball fields , one lighted soccer and American football field , one jogging track , and three basketball / tennis courts . The 4 @.@ 1 @-@ acre ( 17 @,@ 000 m2 ) Russ Pitman Park includes the Henshaw House , the Nature Discovery Area , a playground area , a sheltered picnic area , a self @-@ guided nature trail , two pavilions , and an aviary . The dedication ceremony of the future Evelyn 's Park was held on June 25 , 2011 .

As of 1996 Bellaire prohibits smoking in public parks and dogs in all non @-@ dog public parks ; as of that year smoking in public parks brings a fine of $ 500 . The ordinance was adopted around 1996 on a 4 @-@ 3 vote .

Bellaire holds annual Fourth of July parades and annual " ' snow ' in the park " Christmas celebrations .

Bellaire 's Little League baseball team entered the Little League World Series in 2000 ; the team lost to the team of Maracaibo , Venezuela . In 2002 Bellaire 's little league team was placed in the same league as the West University Place team . Previously they played in separate leagues .

= = Education = =

= = = Primary and secondary public schools = = =

The city is served by Houston Independent School District ( HISD ) . Bellaire is within Trustee District V.

Pupils who live in Bellaire inside of the 610 Loop are zoned to Paul W. Horn Academy for elementary school , while students in Bellaire outside of the 610 Loop are zoned to either Condit Elementary School or Lovett Elementary School , the latter of which is in Houston . In addition , all Bellaire pupils are zoned to Pershing Middle School in the Braeswood Place neighborhood of Houston and Bellaire High School in Bellaire . In addition , a middle school called Pin Oak Middle School , which was built in 2002 , is located in Bellaire . Students zoned to Johnston , Long , and Pershing Middle Schools may choose to attend Pin Oak instead ; therefore Bellaire students may attend Pin Oak . Pin Oak was named a National Blue Ribbon School in 2008 .

In 2012 HISD opened the Mandarin Chinese Language Immersion Magnet School Chinese language @-@ immerson magnet school in Bellaire , in the Gordon Elementary School building . It is HISD 's first Chinese immersion school . In the future the school will move to the St. George Place area of Houston .

Gabriela Mistral Early Childhood Center is the closest public early childhood center to the city of Bellaire and Kolter Elementary School is the closest school with a tuition @-@ based early childhood program . Only economically disadvantaged students , homeless students , students who are not proficient in English , or children of active @-@ duty members of the U.S. military or whose parent has been killed , injured , or missing in action while on active duty may be enrolled in tuition @-@ free HISD preschools . Students who are eligible for HISD 's preschools may attend any Early Childhood Center in Houston ISD for free . Students not eligible may enroll in tuition @-@ based HISD preschool programs .

HISD is building a new campus for Condit Elementary School , and this campus , designed by VLK Architects , will have a capacity of 750 students . The groundbreaking ceremony was held on November 10 , 2014 .

= = = = History = = = =

Bellaire 's first school opened in 1909 ; the school moved to a new site in 1914 and an addition opened in 1927 ; when the addition opened the school was renamed " Condit . " Horn opened in 1949 , Pershing opened in 1927 , Bellaire High School opened in 1955 . Pin Oak opened in 2002 . Pershing 's current campus opened in January 2007 . The current Horn and Lovett buildings were scheduled to open in August 2011 . The rebuilds of Horn , Lovett , and Herod Elementary of Houston together had a cost of $ 49 million and were a part of a $ 1 billion bond program approved by HISD voters in 2007 .

Maud W. Gordon Elementary School in Bellaire does not have a zoning boundary ; before 2012 it drew excess students from apartments west of Bellaire , in Houston , to relieve other schools in Houston west of Bellaire such as Benavidez , Cunningham , Elrod , and Milne . From its opening to 1953 to 1983 Gordon served as a neighborhood school . After its closure Gordon temporarily housed the Post Oak School and later served as administrative offices . It re @-@ opened as a relief school in 1988 for Elrod and Cunningham schools . It was scheduled to re @-@ open in September of that year .

On April 29 , 1992 , during an attendance boundary hearing committee for Southwest Houston , residents of a small portion of Bellaire zoned to Cunningham Elementary School , a school in Houston that was one block away from the city limits of Bellaire , advocated for a rezoning to Condit Elementary School , a facility in the City of Bellaire that was about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away from that section . Condit was about 50 % White and had a middle class student body while Cunningham was 95 % Hispanic . On May 21 , 1992 , the HISD board voted to rezone that portion to Condit .

Around the early 1990s portions of Bellaire west of the 610 Loop were zoned to Jane Long Middle School , while portions inside the 610 Loop were zoned to Pershing . During that decade , the Bellaire Area School Improvement Committee , or BASIC , was formed to improve the reputation of HISD in Bellaire and to improve Bellaire area schools . The committee opened after HISD 's failed attempt to acquire property in Bellaire for the West University relief school . An attempt to buy land at Bissonnet Street at Newcastle Drive in the City of Bellaire for a school to relieve West University Elementary School failed since City of Bellaire officials and parents living in Bellaire complained when they learned that they would not be zoned to the new school while losing what Tim Fleck of the Houston Press described as " a prime chunk of taxable property . "

After its formation , BASIC installed a gifted and talented magnet at Jane Long , a school which Donald R. McAdams , a former HISD school board member and author of Fighting to Save Our Urban Schools-- and Winning ! : Lessons from Houston , described as a school that was " unacceptable " to Bellaire residents since it was less than 10 % white . McAdams added that even with the new program , to many parents in Bellaire , Long was " never going to be acceptable " due to the overwhelming Hispanic presence . Therefore , there was a proposal to convert Gordon into a small middle school for Bellaire . The school would have space for about 500 students and would be at least 50 % White , so it was popular among many Bellaire residents , particularly those outside of the 610 Loop . However those inside the 610 Loop did not want to lose access to Pershing , a full service middle school that was about 40 % White . An attendance boundary committee for at HISD met from December 1992 to March 1993 . McAdams wrote that the committee was " an all @-@ out war " between the two sides . In February 1993 pro @-@ Gordon persons argued that HISD should purchase a commercial building north of Long and renovate it into an elementary school which would relieve Gordon Elementary and other overcrowded are schools . McAdams wrote that the staff members of HISD superintendent Frank Petruzielo " liked the idea , but unfortunately , on close examination the building proved to be inadequate . " In April 1993 the HISD board declared that the Gordon campus would continue to be an elementary school . McAdams wrote that the Gordon supporters and many Bellaire residents were " furious " .

= = = Primary and secondary private schools = = =

Three independent ( private ) schools , including Episcopal High School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) , The Post Oak School ( Montessori K @-@ 8 ) , and the Veritas Christian Academy ( K @-@ 8 ) , are located in Bellaire . Episcopal High School opened in fall 1984 ; its campus previously housed Marion High School and the Congregation of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament , a Roman Catholic school operated by the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and Blessed Sacrament and within the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston . The current campus of The Post Oak School opened in 1986 ; the school had been previously housed in the Gordon Elementary School campus . Pilgrim Lutheran School is located just south of Bellaire on Chimney Rock Road . Holy Ghost School , a Catholic private K @-@ 8 school , is located in Houston and adjacent to the Bellaire city limits . Private schools near Bellaire in areas of Houston include Saint Agnes Academy , Strake Jesuit College Preparatory , St. Francis Episcopal Day School ( Texas ) , and St. Thomas ' Episcopal School .

= = = Community colleges = = =

Bellaire is served by the Houston Community College System ( HCCS ) . The community college district operates the HCCS Gulfton Center , located at 5407 Gulfton Drive in the Gulfton area of Houston . Gulfton Center , a 35 @,@ 100 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 260 m2 ) campus building owned by HCCS , opened in 1990 after Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Co. sold the building to HCCS for $ 700 @,@ 000 ( 1990 dollars ) . The West Loop Center , an HCCS @-@ owned campus at 5601 West Loop South which opened in Spring 1999 , is in Houston and in close proximity to Bellaire . Both the Gulfton and West Loop campuses are part of the district 's Southwest College .

= = = Public libraries = = =

The city of Bellaire also operates its own library , the Bellaire City Library , at 5111 Jessamine Street . The Friends of the Bellaire Library , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non @-@ profit organization , was established in 1951 to support the City of Bellaire Library .

= = Media = =

The Houston Chronicle is the area regional newspaper . Residents receive the Bellaire / West U / River Oaks / Meyerland local section .

The Village News and Southwest News is the oldest local paper currently published in Bellaire ; offices are at 5160 Spruce Street . The Bellaire Examiner is a newspaper also distributed free to residents . The Bellaire Buzz is a monthly magazine about people , products and services in the community . It is mailed free of charge to all residents the first week of each month . BellaireConnect.com is a community web site for Bellaire and its surrounding neighborhoods . InstantNewsBellaire.com is an online newspaper covering the Bellaire community . Bellaire Essentials is an informational community magazine that is delivered monthly to all homes in the city .

= = Notable people = =

José Cruz , Jr .

Ezra Charles

= = Gallery = =

= Alien Spidy =

Alien Spidy is a platformer video game for Microsoft Windows , Macintosh , Xbox 360 ( through Xbox Live Arcade ) , and PlayStation 3 ( through PlayStation Network ) . It was developed by Enigma Software Productions and published by Kalypso Media . Players control an extraterrestrial spider who has crash @-@ landed on Earth , as he seeks to repair his spacecraft and rescue a fellow extraterrestrial spider .

Announced on 8 November 2011 , Alien Spidy was published on 20 March 2013 for the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , and Macintosh , and on 8 May 2013 for the PlayStation 3 . It received mixed to negative reviews upon release ; critics praised the game 's aesthetics but found the gameplay frustrating due to imprecise controls and an unforgiving level of difficultly that hampered progression through the game .

= = Gameplay = =

Alien Spidy is a physics @-@ based platformer video game . Players control the eponymous Spidy , an extraterrestrial spider , and navigate him through a series of levels that are filled with deadly obstacles . Spidy can run and jump , and has the ability to shoot a web , allowing him to grapple and swing from object to object within the environment . Interspersed throughout each level are a large number of orbs , which Spidy can collect to score points . Finishing the level quickly , collecting a large number of orbs , collecting several orbs in quick succession , and finding score multipliers all increase the player 's score for that level . Players can also lose points by dying , collecting certain orbs that decrease the player 's score , or going for too long without collecting an orb . Players earn between one and five stars on each level , based on their score . Levels are grouped into several stages , including a forest , a pond , a cave system , and outer @-@ space . In order to progress from one stage to the next , players must collect a certain number of stars . Players can collect special power @-@ up orbs scattered throughout levels . These orbs allow Spidy to perform feats he is otherwise incapable of , including traveling underwater and jumping to extreme heights . There are 69 levels in the game , and most of them take between 90 seconds and three minutes .

= = = Plot = = =

Alien Spidy has a minimal plot . The story follows the Spidy , a spider from the planet Aracnia , who has crash @-@ landed on Earth during an attempt to rescue a lady spider , Virgi . Spidy must locate Virgi and collect pieces of his spacecraft in order to return to Aracnia .

= = Development = =

On 8 November 2011 , the game was announced in a press release , with Enigma Software Productions as the developer and Kalypso Media as the publisher . The press release indicated that the game would be released in the second quarter of 2012 .

Alien Spidy was advertised as a PlayStation Vita game early in its development history , with Sony using gameplay footage of the game on the Vita at a presentation at Gamescom 2011 . The game was never released on that platform , however . In an interview , Enigma Software CEO Daniel Parente claimed that the game was developed for all major platforms , and after bringing Kalypso Media on board as a publisher , the latter chose which platforms to release the game on , and when . The project manager at Kalypso Media for Alien Spidy , Andrew McKerrow , noted that the developer attempted to secure a publisher by pitching the game on a large number of platforms . In a separate interview with Daniel Parente , conducted in October 2012 , Enigma Software 's CEO called the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 the game 's lead platforms , stating that the game was " designed to be played with a gamepad " .

It took eight months for Enigma to build the physics behind the web @-@ based grapple and swing game mechanic . During early builds of the game , the motion was slower , but the development team sped up the movement , feeling it was truer to the character . The Sonic the Hedgehog series served as an inspiration for the game 's pace . Significant effort was put into creating the game 's visual style and making Spidy a relatable , charismatic character . Daniel Parente cited Limbo , Braid , and Patapon as influences for the game 's aesthetics . Comics and cartoons served as influences for Spidy 's design . The character was given a pair of large yellow eyes , which allowed the character to emote . Two of the legs were removed , bringing the total from eight to six , which Andrew McKerrow described as an effort to avoid triggering the fears of people with arachnophobia and " make the character a little more friendly looking and little less creepy " . It was only after making these changes to Spidy that the developers decided to make Spidy an extraterrestrial , as that would justify the character design 's deviations from regular spiders .

The game was delayed several times . In August 2012 , the website XBLA Fans reported that the game would be delayed into the fall of that year . By October , a preview on the gaming website Twinfinite listed the release date as 31 December 2012 . The game was released on the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , and Macintosh on 20 March 2013 , and was released on the PlayStation 3 on 8 May 2013 .

= = Reception = =

Alien Spidy received mixed to negative reviews upon release . At Metacritic , a video game review aggregator , the Xbox 360 version of the game received an average score of 55 out of 100 , based on 19 reviews .

The game 's visuals were praised by reviewers . GamesRadar 's Lorenzo Veloria opined that " Adorable characters , beautiful visuals , and upbeat music stand out as the high points of Alien Spidy " . A large number of reviewers called the game and its characters " cute " . While a few of the reviewers praised the game 's music , Jeremy Peeples of Hardcore Gamer found that it lacked staying power . He noted , however , that the music could be muted without also muting the sound effects , allowing people to play their own music .

Critics near universally took issue with the game 's controls . Critics found that the webs that they shot did not go where they wanted them to go , and multiple reviewers described navigation as " trial and error " . Reviewers also found that they could not always jump when they wanted to , and one reviewer found that power @-@ ups failed to activate when she wanted them to . Reviewers also complained that it was extremely difficult to get enough stars to progress from one stage to the next , forcing players to replay the same levels over and over again . Because points are subtracted each time Spidy dies , the problems with the control scheme exacerbate how difficult it is to get enough stars to progress .

Opinions on the game 's mid @-@ level checkpoint system were mixed . Matt Cullen of Canadian Online Gaming noted that the checkpoints meant that players were not sent too far back into the level after each death , saving time . Official Xbox Magazine 's Taylor Cocke , however , noted that the checkpoints save players ' point progress , meaning that players would have to start the level over if their performance wasn 't good enough before they reached the checkpoint .

= Australian raven =

The Australian raven ( Corvus coronoides ) is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia . Measuring 46 – 53 centimetres ( 18 – 21 in ) in length , it has all @-@ black plumage , beak and mouth , as well as strong grey @-@ black legs and feet . The upperparts are glossy , with a purple , blue or green sheen , and its black feathers have grey bases . The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles , which are prominent in adult birds . Older adult individuals have white irises , younger adults have a white irises with an inner blue rim , while younger birds have dark brown irises until fifteen months of age , and hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months . Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827 , its species name highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow ( C. corone ) . Two subspecies are recognised , which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically .

The preferred habitat is open woodland and transitional zones . It has adapted well to urban environments and is a common city bird in Sydney , Canberra and Perth . An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material , as well as food waste from urban areas . In eastern Australia its range is strongly correlated with the presence of sheep , and it has been blamed for killing lambs . However , this is very rare , and the raven most often scavenges for afterbirth and stillborn animals as well as newborn lamb faeces . The Australian raven is territorial , with pairs generally bonding for life . Breeding takes place between July and September , with almost no variation across its range . The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree , or occasionally in a man @-@ made structure such as a windmill or other building .

= = Taxonomy and naming = =

The Australian raven was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 , when they reported George Caley 's early notes on the species from the Sydney district . Its specific epithet coronoides " crow @-@ shaped " is derived from the Greek corone / κορόνη " crow " and eidos / είδος " shape " or " form " . The two naturalists regarded the Australian raven as very similar in appearance to the carrion crow ( C. corone ) of Europe , though they noted it was larger with a longer bill . They did not give it a common name . The location where the type specimen was collected is not recorded , but thought to be in the Parramatta district . Christian Ludwig Brehm described Corvus affinis in 1845 , later determined to be this species . In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia , John Gould recognised only one species of corvid in Australia , Corvus australis , which he called the white @-@ eyed crow . He used Johann Friedrich Gmelin 's 1788 name , which predated Vigors and Horsfield 's description . In 1877 Richard Bowdler Sharpe recognised two species , but recorded that the feather bases of the type specimen of C. coronoides were white . He named C. coronoides as the " crow " and C. australis ( as Corone australis ) the " raven " . Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie @-@ Grant corrected this in 1912 after re @-@ examining the type specimen , clarifying the species as C. coronoides ( raven , and incorporating little and forest ravens ) and C. cecilae ( Torresian crow ) .

Gregory Mathews described the western subspecies perplexus in 1912 , naming it the southwestern crow and noting that it was smaller than the nominate subspecies . He called C. coronoides coronoides the eastern crow , listing its range as New South Wales , and described what is now the Australian crow as another subspecies , C. coronoides cecilae , calling it the north @-@ western crow and recording its range as northwestern Australia . In the same work he listed the raven as Corvus marianae , with a type specimen from Gosford and listing its range as New South Wales . He listed the little raven and forest raven as subspecies . Mathews had erected C. marianae in 1911 as the name after declaring Corvus australis Gould to be preoccupied ; French @-@ American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as First Revisor under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym — in 1788 , Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird — to preserve the stability of the name . This has been followed by later authors .

German ornithologist Erwin Stresemann lumped all Australian corvids plus other species as far as India into a single species , C. coronoides , as he believed there was intergradation between all characteristics such as iris colour , colour of feather bases and plumage . This was hotly disputed by Mathews . The official RAOU checklist listed three species ( Australian raven , Torresian crow and little crow ) , with the little raven recognised as a fourth species in 1967 and forest raven in 1970 . Streseman described C. difficilis in 1943 from a single specimen , now thought to have been an unusual Australian raven or an Australian raven / Torresian crow hybrid .

Alternative names sometimes seen include southern raven , southern crow and Kelly , the last thought to have alluded to the Kelly Gang , though did not appear until the 1920s . Southern crow was considered by the RAOU before Australian raven was adopted as the official name for the species in 1926 . The term " crow " is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid . The Australian raven was called wugan by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin .

= = = Evolution and systematics = = =

The Australian raven 's closest relatives are the other two species of raven occurring in Australia : the little raven and forest raven . The Australian raven is also somewhat closely related to the Torresian and little crow , although not as closely related as it is to the other raven species . Initial single gene genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another . The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the little raven may be nested within the Australian raven , though the authors conceded more genetic work was needed . Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 showed the eastern and western subspecies of the Australian raven to form two clades , almost as genetically distinct as the forest and little raven are to each other . This led the authors to propose that the subspecies be recognised as separate species .

Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north , which molecular evidence indicates occurred in the early Pliocene epoch around 4 million years ago . The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west , this split occurring around 2 million years ago in the early Pleistocene . As the climate became cooler and dryer , the aridity of central Australia split them entirely . Furthermore , the eastern birds diverged into nomadic little ravens and , in forested refuges , forest ravens . As the climate eventually became warmer , the western birds spread eastwards and almost outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia . Rowley noted that the western subspecies of the Australian raven had features intermediate between the eastern subspecies of Australian and little ravens .

Two subspecies are recognised :

C. c. coronoides , the nominate or eastern subspecies , is found across most of eastern Australia . Its range is also highly correlated with the presence of sheep . This is thought to be because of the frequency of dead animals , which can be an important source of food . Ornithologist Ian Rowley held that the eastern subspecies was expanding eastwards before European colonisation , and that this suggested it was of younger origin than the western subspecies , which appears static . The advent of agriculture facilitated further spread .

C. c. perplexus , the western subspecies , occurs from the head of the Great Australian Bight in South Australia westwards into Western Australia where its northern limits are Shark Bay and the mulga @-@ eucalypt boundary line . It is less specialised in its habitat , as it does not share its distribution with the little raven , and does not appear to correlate with the range of sheep . The western subspecies has a slightly lower @-@ pitched call than that of the eastern subspecies , with similarities to calls of the little raven . Of smaller size overall , it has a more slender bill and shorter hackles . There is otherwise no difference in plumage . Intermediate birds are found in the Eyre Peninsula , Gawler Ranges and vicinity of Lake Eyre in South Australia .

= = Description = =

Measuring 46 – 53 cm ( 18 – 21 in ) in length with a 100 cm ( 39 in ) wingspan and weighing around 650 g ( 1 @.@ 43 lb ) , the adult Australian raven is an all black @-@ bird with a black beak , mouth and tongue and sturdy black or grey @-@ black legs and feet . The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long , and the feet large and strong . It has white irises . The plumage is glossy with a blue @-@ purple to blue @-@ green sheen , greenish over the ear coverts , depending on light . The underparts are not glossy . The Australian raven has throat feathers ( hackles ) that are lanceolate with rounded tips , while the other four species of Australian corvids have bifurcate tips , though this can be difficult to see in the field . The hackles are also longer than those of the other four species ; when they are raised ( such as when the bird is calling ) , they give the bird an unusual bearded appearance . The upper third of the upper mandible , including the nares and nasal groove , is covered with bristles , which can be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) long . The heavy @-@ set beak is tipped with a slight hook , and is longer than the bird 's head . The wings are long and broad , with the longest of its ten primary feathers ( usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth ) almost reaching the end of the tail when the bird is at rest . The tail is rounded or wedge @-@ shaped . The Australian raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers , which is white in the latter species . The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows . Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field , but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled . Unlike the other four species , the Australian raven has a bare patch of skin under , and extending to beside , the bill . This can be hard to discern in the field . The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species , with the forest raven the stockiest of all . Relative size of species is only useful when two species can be seen side by side , as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small .

Juveniles resemble adults , but lack throat hackles , and sometimes have a pink fleshy gape . The bill is shorter and shallower ; its base can be pinkish and the tip can be light grey . The plumage is more ruffled and softer in appearance , lacks the glossy highlights and often having a brown tinge . The bare skin on the throat is pink in bird that have recently left the nest . Eye colour varies with age , gradually lightening from juvenile to adult . Nestlings up to four months old have blue @-@ grey irises , juveniles aged from four to fifteen months have dark brown irises , and immature birds have hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months . Immature birds older than one year develop hackles , while some pink remains in the gape until the bird is two or three years of age .

= = = Vocalisations = = =

The territorial call of the Australian raven is a slow , high ah @-@ ah @-@ aaaah with the last note drawn out . It uses this call to communicate with other Australian ravens in the area . When giving this call , the species has a horizontal posture , holding its head forward and body parallel to the ground , while perched on a prominent position . It ruffles its hackles and lowers its tail , and sometimes holds its beak open between calls . In contrast , the little raven and forest raven hold their bodies in an upright posture . This call becomes louder if trespassers encroach upon the Australian raven 's territory . The five Australian species are very difficult to tell apart , with the call being the easiest way to do so , although the drawing @-@ out of the final note — long held to be solely recorded for the Australian raven — has been recorded for the other species and is hence not diagnostic .

The volume , pitch , tempo and order of notes can be changed depending on the message the Australian raven intends to convey . There are a variety of contact calls : a pair often makes a low murmuring sound when preening each other while roosting , and members of a flock carry on with a quiet chattering while at rest . Birds make a call and answer sequence if temporarily out of sight of one another while foraging . Birds in flocks make a single high @-@ pitched caa while flying over another territory as a transit call to signify they are just passing through . An Australian raven will give a longer caa with a downward inflexion to signify its return to the nest to its mate .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The Australian raven is common throughout eastern Australia , and southern Western Australia ( the populations being connected by a narrow strip across the Nullarbor Plain ) , but it is rarer and more scattered in the north , with isolated sightings in Cape York at Coen , Windmill Creek and the Mitchell River , and becoming more common south of Rockhampton in central Queensland . It is found throughout New South Wales , though is uncommon in the northeast of the state . It is rare in the Australian Alps , being replaced there by the little raven . It occurs across Victoria and eastern South Australia , through the Eyre Peninsula and Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia , across the state north to the Wooramel River . It is found on some offshore islands such as Rottnest Island and Kangaroo Island . It is a rare vagrant to Lord Howe Island .

The Australian raven can be found in a wide range of natural and modified habitats . It requires available water and trees ( or buildings ) to roost in or perch on . Preferred habitats include eucalypt @-@ dominated sclerophyll forest , and farmland adjacent to trees . It is also found in heath and mangroves . In areas where it occurs with the little raven , namely over much of central New South Wales , Victoria and into South Australia , the Australian raven is restricted to more forested areas while the latter species prefers more open areas . Similarly , in inland Australia it can share range with the little crow , as the two do not appear to compete . However , the ranges of similar @-@ sized forest raven and Torresian crow only narrowly overlap with the Australian raven as all three compete with each other . In central and western regions , Australian ravens and Torresian crows vye for the scattered uncommon trees and outcrops , and only one or the other are found there . It co @-@ occurs with the forest raven in northeastern New South Wales from Port Stephens northwards . The Australian raven has adapted very well to human habitation in some cities and is the most common corvid in Canberra , Sydney and Perth ; in Melbourne and Adelaide it is replaced by the little raven , and by the Torresian crow in Brisbane . Its large range , abundance and increasing population mean it is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .

= = Behaviour = =

Difficulties in distinguishing Australian corvids has hampered understanding of seasonal movements . The Australian raven is thought to be largely sedentary , with most movement of over 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) due to flocks of non @-@ breeding subadult birds . Juvenile birds leave their parents and join flocks when they are four or five months old . Smaller flocks of 8 – 30 birds stay within an area of around 260 square kilometres , while larger flocks of up to 300 birds may travel hundreds of kilometres seeking food .

A single breeding pair and their brood can occupy a territory of up to around 120 hectares ( 300 acres ) and remains there year @-@ round , though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage . Australian ravens will defend their territory by chasing , dive @-@ bombing and occasionally striking the backs of birds of prey , foxes or even people . They generally mate for life , though occasionally one male has been found to be mated with two females in adjacent territories . If the female dies , the male Australian raven maintains the territory and finds another mate , while if the male bird is lost , the female abandons the territory . No courtship behaviour has been observed , and species that mate for life often lack elaborate courting displays . Once they begin breeding at three years of age , they live another four to five years on average . During this time they produce two surviving young each year on average . The longest @-@ lived Australian raven recorded is an adult ( of at least 3 years of age ) that was banded and recaptured alive 12 years and 5 months later .

Australian ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground , though do hop when hurrying . They preen themselves frequently , particularly when roosting in the middle of the day . They also engage in allopreening , where birds will preen each other 's head and neck . This takes place particularly in autumn , winter and spring , and is important in pair bonding . Either member may initiate it , generally by landing near the other bird , shuffling next to its mate , then bending its head forward and presenting its nape .

= = = Feeding = = =

The Australian raven is omnivorous , though eats more meat than smaller corvids . Its diet in summer contains a high proportion of insects , while more plant items are eaten in autumn . Flesh makes up over half its diet in winter . Invertebrates commonly eaten include spiders , millipedes , centipedes ( which ravens behead before eating ) , grasshoppers , cicadas and caterpillars ( especially of the family Noctuidae ) , which are important in feeding nestlings . Australian ravens sometimes eat yabbies ( Cherax destructor ) from the edges of dams . Unusually for a ground @-@ feeding omnivore , earthworms are rarely eaten . Australian ravens have been reported killing birds of such size as young galahs ( Eolophus roseicapillus ) and starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) . Most mammals are eaten as carrion , as many species are too large for the raven to kill , though young rabbits are a frequent prey item . Australian ravens drink water frequently , up to ten times a day in hot weather . Birds have been observed dunking pieces of meat in water before eating them , as well as doing the same with hard biscuits to make them soggy and soft .

Australian ravens are intelligent birds , and like many other corvids have innovative methods of seeking out food . Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon ; birds rest in the hotter part of the day . Food is taken mainly from the ground , birds either finding objects while flying overhead , or by walking along and looking . However , they occasionally feed in trees — Australian ravens forage eucalypt foliage for Christmas beetles ( Anoplognathus ) , and devote a substantial amount of time to look for nests and eggs to eat . They have also been known to take golf balls from fairways , possibly mistaking them for eggs . Ravens use their bill rather than their feet to explore or turn items on the ground ( rocks or sticks ) over , or hold or snatch food while flying . They have also been recorded using fence posts as anvils to bash snails against before eating them . Australian ravens most often eat food where they find it unless taking food back for nestlings . Occasionally they have been observed caching carrion or a killed animal in a hole nearby to store it . They can pack shredded meat in their mouth under their tongue . Australian ravens have adapted well to eating food scraps in urban areas , such as school playgrounds , rubbish tips , bins outside supermarkets or restaurants , abattoirs , piggeries and farmyards . In one isolated study , they were observed feeding on nectar from eucalypt flowers . Australian ravens sometimes forage in mixed @-@ species flocks with any of the other four species of Australian corvids . Sometimes they are aggressive with little ravens if both are at a food source and drive them off , though not if the smaller species greatly outnumbers the larger .

= = = Breeding = = =

Australian ravens begin breeding once they are three years old . Breeding season is from July to September , with no substantial difference in timing across its range around the country despite it inhabiting a range of diverse climates and habitats across 19 degrees of latitude . Rowley has pointed out this is unusual for a bird species with a wide range and has postulated that breeding is initiated by day length . Rarely , breeding can take place in May , June or October . Australian ravens generally nest in tall trees , never near to the ground as some species do . The nest also functions as a lookout post and so tall or emergent trees are selected . The ravens occasionally nest on buildings , telegraph poles , or tall windmills which allow the species to occupy areas lacking in tall trees . Windmills may have assisted the spread of the species in North Queensland and the Northern Territory . The highest recorded corvid nest in Australia was found atop the AWA Tower in Sydney .

Nests are generally large and untidy , consisting of a bowl or platform of sticks lined with grasses , barks , and feathers that can be up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . As they are relatively heavy , they are built on larger forks in trees rather than out in the canopy . Building the nest is often time @-@ consuming initially as the birds try ( and often fail ) to wedge sticks , which are 30 – 60 cm ( 12 – 24 in ) long and 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) thick , into the tree fork to make a platform . Thinner sticks and rootlets are used to make the bowl before the bowl is lined with feathers . Both birds build the nest , with the female taking over the lining of the nest while the male brings her material . New nests are built each year generally , as the re @-@ use of old ones might spread disease or parasites — nests become caked with faeces as the nestlings grow and the parents cannot keep up with its removal . Furthermore , old nests often disintegrate within twelve months due to their exposed locations . The female develops a brood patch — a patch of bare skin on the bird 's underparts that reddens and becomes much more extensive from around three weeks before the first egg is laid . The skin itself is oedematous and wrinkled , and does not get re @-@ feathered until December after the breeding season has finished .

Their lofty locations makes monitoring of Australian raven nests difficult . A clutch can comprise up to six eggs , though usually four or five are laid , with five being the commonest number . Measuring 45 by 30 mm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 by 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) , eggs are pale green or bluish @-@ green and splotched with darker olive , brown and blackish markings . Eggs are quite variable , and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified . Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female over roughly 20 days . Incubation is intermittent initially , becoming constant by the time the third or fourth egg is laid . Only one brood is raised per year , though a second clutch may be laid if the first clutch is lost early in the season . Late clutches have poor survival rates , possibly due to chicks getting dehydrated on hot days as the year progresses or being eaten by wedge @-@ tailed eagles . The chicks are altricial and nidicolous ; that is , they are born helpless , naked and blind , and remain in the nest for an extended period . They have pink skin until 5 days of age , when feathers under the skin turn it grey . They lose their egg tooth at the same time . Their eyes begin opening at 5 to 6 days of age and are fully open by 11 to 12 days , by which time their feathers begin emerging . At 14 days , their primary feathers begin emerging , and they are fully feathered by 35 – 36 days old . They leave the nest at 40 – 45 days of age , and stay with the parents for three to four months after that . They follow their parents and beg for food for the first month outside the nest but are feeding themselves by the third month . Young birds are often attacked when they enter neighbouring territories , and melees ensue as their parents try to defend them and herd them back .

= = = Parasites and predators = = =

A circovirus — given the name raven circovirus or RaCV — was isolated from an Australian raven suffering from feather lesions in 2006 . It has affinities with canary circovirus ( CaCV ) and pigeon circovirus ( PiCV ) . Its clinical significance is unknown . Tick infestation is rare in the Australian raven , with Ixodes holocyclus and Amblyomma triguttatum recorded . Lice and hippoboscid flies have been recorded yet little @-@ researched , and an infestation by the fly Passeromyia longicornis was recorded in one nest .

The wedge @-@ tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ) preys on adult , nestling , and fledgling Australian ravens , while the little eagle ( Hieraaetus morphnoides ) also takes nestlings , and powerful owl ( Ninox strenua ) has been recorded killing adults ; other birds of prey are seen as threats , yet there is no evidence they have successfully preyed on the ravens . The introduced red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) competes with the Australian raven for carrion and can drive it off . It may also kill young birds that it catches on the ground . The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) has been recorded as a brood parasite .

= = Relationship with humans = =

Australian ravens die most often by being shot or poisoned — generally by farmers . Despite their fondness for roadkill , fewer ravens are hit by vehicles than Australian magpies . Research in the 1950s and 60s showed that 64 % of Australian ravens perished in their first year of life . Immature birds are most at risk of dying as they are more likely to come into conflict with farmers . The Australian Raven is a peaceful bird , showing no aggression toward humans or other birds without reason . However , the Australian raven is frequently blamed for the loss of young lambs . Scientific observation in the country 's southeast showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare , but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked . Australian ravens mostly eat faeces ( often from the lamb 's anus ) , afterbirth or stillborn lambs . Newborn lamb faeces is nutritious , containing around 21 – 44 % protein , 9 – 37 % fat and 10 – 30 % carbohydrate . It has the consistency of treacle and often sticks to the lamb 's hindquarters or tail . The raven bites a sleeping lamb 's tail , holding on and walking behind it when it wakes up . A healthy lamb would respond by running away or butting the bird , but a sick one might not respond and be attacked further as it alerts the bird that it is vulnerable . Wounded lambs can also succumb to Clostridium infection as these bacteria are present on raven bills . Ravens bring some benefits to agricultural areas as they clean away carrion and eat insects that are potentially damaging to crops . In areas of Western Australia , the species is classified as a Declared Pest of Agriculture under the provisions of the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976 , meaning that shooting on private land in rural areas is legal , although should be considered only after other options have been exhausted .

= = = In indigenous culture = = =

In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Crow is a trickster , culture hero and ancestral being . In the Kulin nation in central Victoria he was known as Waa ( also Wahn or Waang ) and was regarded as one of two moiety ancestors , the other being the more sombre eaglehawk Bunjil . Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia .

To the Noongar people of southwestern Australia , the Australian raven was Waardar , " the Watcher " and was wily and unpredictable . Noongar people were socially divided into two moieties or kinships : waardarng @-@ maat and marrnetj @-@ maat , or members of the Australian raven and long @-@ billed corella ( Cacatua tenuirostris ) respectively .

= Clifton Suspension Bridge =

The Clifton Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Avon Gorge and the River Avon , linking Clifton in Bristol to Leigh Woods in North Somerset . Since opening in 1864 , it has been a toll bridge . The income from the tolls continues to provide funds for its maintenance . The bridge is built to a design by William Henry Barlow and John Hawkshaw , based on an earlier design by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , and contributed to by Sarah Guppy . It is a grade I listed building and forms part of the B3129 road .

The idea of building a bridge across the Avon Gorge originated in 1753 . Original plans were for a stone bridge and later iterations were for a wrought iron structure . In 1831 , an attempt to build Brunel 's design was halted by the Bristol riots , and the revised version of his designs was built after his death and completed in 1864 . Although similar in size , the bridge towers are not identical in design , the Clifton tower having side cut @-@ outs , the Leigh tower more pointed arches atop a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) red sandstone @-@ clad abutment . Roller @-@ mounted " saddles " at the top of each tower allow movement of the three independent wrought iron chains on each side when loads pass over the bridge . The bridge deck is suspended by 162 vertical wrought @-@ iron rods in 81 matching pairs .

The Clifton Bridge Company initially managed the bridge under licence from a charitable trust . The trust subsequently purchased the company shares , completing this in 1949 and took over the running of the bridge using the income from tolls to pay for maintenance . The bridge is a distinctive landmark , used as a symbol of Bristol on postcards , promotional materials , and informational web sites . It was also used as a backdrop to several films and television advertising and programmes . It has also been the venue for significant cultural events such as the first modern bungee jump in 1979 , the last ever Concorde flight in 2003 and a handover of the Olympic Torch relay in 2012 .

= = History = =

= = = Plans = = =

It is unknown when the first bridge was constructed across the Avon in Bristol , but the first stone bridge , Bristol Bridge , was built in the 13th century . It had houses with shopfronts built on it to pay for its maintenance . A 17th @-@ century illustration shows that these bridge houses were five stories high , including the attic rooms , and that they overhung the river much as Tudor houses would overhang the street . In the 1760s a bill to replace the bridge was carried through parliament by the Bristol MP Sir Jarrit Smyth . By the early 18th century , increase in traffic and the encroachment of shops on the roadway made the bridge fatally dangerous for many pedestrians . A new bridge , designed by James Bridges and finished by Thomas Paty was built in 1763 and 1768 . Resentment at the tolls exacted to cross the new bridge occasioned the Bristol Bridge Riot of 1793 . Other crossings were considered , but were restricted by Admiralty rules that stipulated that any bridge had to be at least 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the water to allow the passage of tall @-@ masted warships , to Bristol Harbour . To achieve this , any bridge constructed between Bristol Bridge and Avon Gorge , from Hotwells to Ashton Gate , would require massive embankments and viaducts . The alternative was to build across the narrowest point of the Avon Gorge , well above the height required for shipping .

In 1753 Bristolian merchant William Vick had left a bequest in his will of £ 1 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 140 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , invested with instructions that when the interest had accumulated to £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 370 @,@ 000 ) , it should be used for the purpose of building a stone bridge between Clifton Down ( which was in Gloucestershire , outside the City of Bristol , until the 1830s ) and Leigh Woods in Somerset . Although there was little development in the area before the late 18th century , as Bristol became more prosperous , Clifton became fashionable and more wealthy merchants moved to the area . In 1793 William Bridges published plans for a stone arch with abutments containing factories , which would pay for the upkeep of the bridge . The French Revolutionary Wars broke out soon after the design was published , affecting trade and commerce , so the plans were shelved . Sarah Guppy patented designs for a suspension bridge across the gorge which she later gave to Brunel .

By 1829 , Vick 's bequest had reached £ 8 @,@ 000 , but it was estimated that a stone bridge would cost over ten times that . A competition was held to find a design for the bridge with a prize of 100 guineas . Entries were received from 22 designers , including Samuel Brown , James Meadows Rendel , William Tierney Clark and William Hazledine . Several were for stone bridges and had estimated costs of between £ 30 @,@ 000 and £ 93 @,@ 000 . Brunel submitted four entries . The judging committee rejected 17 of the 22 plans submitted , on the grounds of appearance or cost . They then called in Scottish civil engineer Thomas Telford to make a final selection from the five remaining entries . Telford rejected all the remaining designs , arguing that 577 feet ( 176 m ) was the maximum possible span . Telford was then asked to produce a design himself , which he did , proposing a 110 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 34 m ) suspension bridge , supported on tall Gothic towers , costing £ 52 @,@ 000 .

An Act of Parliament was passed to allow a wrought iron suspension bridge to be built instead of stone , and tolls levied to recoup the cost . A company was formed and funds raised during the first few months of 1830 , but the money raised was not sufficient for the construction . Despite this , the act received Royal Assent in May 1830 . Brunel produced a new proposal costing £ 10 @,@ 000 less than Telford 's design and gained support for it in the local press . James Meadows Rendel , William Armstrong and William Hill also submitted new , cheaper proposals , complaining that the committee had not set a budget . In 1831 a second competition was held , with new judges including Davies Gilbert and John Seaward examining the engineering qualities of the proposals . Thirteen designs were submitted ; Telford 's was the only one in which the chains achieved the weight per square inch required by the judges but it was rejected as being too expensive . The winner was declared to be a design by Smith and Hawkes of the Eagle Foundry in Birmingham . Brunel had a personal meeting with Gilbert and persuaded him to change the decision . The committee then declared Brunel the winner and he was awarded a contract as project engineer . The winning design was for a suspension bridge with fashionably Egyptian @-@ influenced towers . In 2010 , newly discovered letters and documents revealed that , in producing his design , Brunel had taken advice from his father , Sir Marc Isambard Brunel . The elder Brunel had recommended including a central support for the bridge , as he did not believe a single @-@ span bridge of such length could be constructed . His son chose to ignore his advice .

= = = Construction = = =

A ceremony to mark the start of the construction works was held on 21 June 1831 . A few days later work was halted by the Bristol riots , which took place after the House of Lords rejected the second Reform Bill , which aimed to eliminate some of the rotten boroughs and give parliamentary seats to Britain 's fast growing industrial towns such as Bristol . Five hundred to six hundred young men were involved in the riots and Brunel was sworn in as a special constable . The riots severely dented commercial confidence in Bristol ; subscriptions to the bridge company ceased , and along with it , further construction of the bridge .

After the passing of the Act for the Great Western Railway reestablished financial confidence , work resumed in 1836 , but subsequent investment proved woefully inadequate . Despite the main contractors going bankrupt in 1837 , the towers were built in unfinished stone . To enable the transfer of materials , a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 300 m ) iron bar , which was 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) in diameter , had been drawn by capstan across the gorge . A contract was placed with Dowlais Ironworks to supply 600 tons of bar iron , which was to be transported to the Copperhouse foundry to be forged into bar chains . By 1843 funds were exhausted and another £ 30 @,@ 000 was needed . As the work had exceeded the time limit stated in the Act , all work stopped . Brunel suggested building a deep water pier at Portbury , which would make the bridge an essential road link , but funds for this scheme were not forthcoming . In 1851 , the ironwork was sold and used to build the Brunel @-@ designed Royal Albert Bridge on the railway between Plymouth and Saltash . The towers remained and during the 1850s intrepid passengers could cross the gorge in a basket slung from the iron bar .

Brunel died in 1859 , without seeing the completion of the bridge . His colleagues in the Institution of Civil Engineers felt that completion of the Bridge would be a fitting memorial , and started to raise new funds . In 1860 , Brunel 's Hungerford suspension bridge over the Thames in London was demolished to make way for a new railway bridge to Charing Cross railway station . Its chains were purchased for use at Clifton .

A revised design was made by William Henry Barlow and Sir John Hawkshaw , with a wider , higher and sturdier deck than Brunel intended , with triple chains instead of double .

It has been argued that the size and technology of these revisions was so great that the credit for its design should go the Barlow and Hawkshaw . The towers remained in rough stone , rather than being finished in the Egyptian style . Work on the bridge was restarted in 1862 . Initially a temporary bridge was created by pulling ropes across the gorge and making a footway of wire ropes with wood planks held together with iron hoops . This was used by the workers to move a " traveller " , consisting of a light frame on wheels , to transport each link individually , which would eventually make up the chains supporting the bridge . The chains are anchored in tapering tunnels , 25 metres ( 82 ft ) long , on either side of the bridge and plugs of Staffordshire blue brick infilled to prevent the chains being pulled out of the narrower tunnel mouth . After completion of the chains , vertical suspension rods were hung from the links in the chains and large girders hung from these . The girders on either side then support the deck , which is 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) higher at the Clifton end than at Leigh Woods so that it gives the impression of being horizontal . The strength of the structure was tested by spreading 500 tons of stone over the bridge . This caused it to sag by 7 inches ( 180 mm ) , but within the expected tolerances . During this time a tunnel was driven through the rocks on the Leigh Woods side beneath the bridge to carry the Bristol Port Railway to Avonmouth . The construction work was completed in 1864 — 111 years after a bridge at the site was first planned .

= = = Operation = = =

On 8 December 1864 , the bridge was lit by magnesium flares for its ceremonial opening parade , but they were blown out by the wind . The custom of lighting the bridge has continued with more recent events , although later thousands of electric light bulbs were attached to the bridge instead of flares .

In 1860 the Clifton Bridge Company was set up to oversee the final stages of completion and manage the operation of the bridge . They paid £ 50 each year to the trustees who gradually purchased the shares in the company . The revenues from tolls were minimal initially as there was not much traffic ; however , this increased after 1920 with greater car ownership . In 1949 the trustees purchased all the outstanding shares and debentures . The bridge is managed by a charitable trust , originally formed by the Society of Merchant Venturers following Vick 's bequest . The trust was authorised to manage the bridge and collect tolls by Acts of Parliament in 1952 , 1980 and 1986 . A toll of £ 0 @.@ 50 has been levied on vehicles since 2007 , but the £ 0 @.@ 05 toll that the Act allows for cyclists or pedestrians is not collected . Human toll collectors were replaced by automated machines in 1975 . The tolls are used to pay for the upkeep of the bridge , including the strengthening of the chain anchor points , which was done in 1925 and 1939 , and regular painting and maintenance , which is carried out from a motorised cradle slung beneath the deck . By 2008 over 4 million vehicles crossed the bridge each year . In February 2012 , the bridge trustees applied to the Department for Transport to increase the toll to £ 1 , subsequently implemented on 24 April 2014 .

On 1 April 1979 , the first modern bungee jumps were made from the bridge by members of the University of Oxford Dangerous Sports Club . In 2003 and 2004 , the weight of crowds travelling to and from the Ashton Court Festival and Bristol International Balloon Fiesta put such great strain on the bridge that it was decided to close the bridge to all motor traffic and pedestrians during the events . The closure of the bridge for major annual events has continued each year since then .

On 26 November 2003 , the last ever Concorde flight ( Concorde 216 ) flew over the bridge before landing at Filton Aerodrome . In April 2006 , the bridge was the centrepiece of the Brunel 200 weekend , celebrating the 200th anniversary of the birth of Isambard Kingdom Brunel . At the climax of the celebration a firework display was launched from the bridge . The celebrations also saw the activation of an LED @-@ based lighting array to illuminate the bridge .

On 4 April 2009 , the bridge was shut for one night to allow a crack in one of the support hangers to be repaired . On 23 May 2012 , the London 2012 Olympic Torch relay crossed over the bridge , where two of the torchbearers came together in a " kiss " to exchange the flame in the middle of Brunel 's iconic landmark . The bridge carries four million vehicles per year , along part of the B3129 road . The bridge is a grade I listed building .

In November 2011 it was announced that a new visitor centre , costing nearly £ 2 million , was to be built at the Leigh Woods end of the bridge to replace the temporary building currently being used . The new facilities were scheduled to be completed before the 150th anniversary of the opening , which was celebrated on 8 December 2014 . In December 2012 it was announced that the bridge had received £ 595 @,@ 000 of funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund to improve the visitor centre .

= = Engineering = =

Although similar in size , the bridge towers are not identical in design , the Clifton tower having side cut @-@ outs , the Leigh tower more pointed arches . Brunel 's original plan proposed they be topped with then @-@ fashionable sphinxes , but the ornaments were never constructed .

The 85 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 26 m ) Leigh Woods tower stands atop a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) red sandstone @-@ clad abutment . In 2002 it was discovered that this was not a solid structure but contained 12 vaulted chambers up to 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , linked by shafts and tunnels .

Roller @-@ mounted " saddles " at the top of each tower allow movement of the chains when loads pass over the bridge . Though their total travel is minuscule , their ability to absorb forces created by chain deflection prevents damage to both tower and chain .

The bridge has three independent wrought iron chains per side , from which the bridge deck is suspended by eighty @-@ one matching vertical wrought @-@ iron rods ranging from 65 feet ( 20 m ) at the ends to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in the centre . Composed of numerous parallel rows of eyebars connected by bolts , the chains are anchored in tunnels in the rocks 60 feet ( 18 m ) below ground level at the sides of the gorge . The deck was originally laid with wooden planking , later covered with asphalt , which was renewed in 2009 . The weight of the bridge , including chains , rods , girders and deck is approximately 1 @,@ 500 tons .

= = Dimensions = =

Clearance : 245 ft ( 75 m ) above high water level

Dip of chains : 70 ft ( 21 @.@ 34 m )

Height of towers : 86 ft ( 26 m ) above deck

Overall length : 1 @,@ 352 ft ( 412 m )

Overall width : 31 ft ( 9 @.@ 45 m )

Span : 702 ft 3 in ( 214 @.@ 05 m )

= = Incidents = =

Two men were killed during the construction of the bridge . In 1885 , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Sarah Ann Henley survived a suicide attempt off the bridge when her billowing skirts acted as a parachute ; she subsequently lived into her eighties .

The Clifton Suspension Bridge is well known as a suicide bridge and is fitted with plaques that advertise the telephone number of The Samaritans . Between 1974 and 1993 , 127 people fell to their deaths from the bridge . In 1998 barriers were installed on the bridge to prevent people jumping . In the four years after installation this reduced the suicide rate from eight deaths per year to four . Nicolette Powell , the wife of UK rhythm and blues singer Georgie Fame , formerly the Marchioness of Londonderry , committed suicide from the bridge on 13 August 1993 .

In 1957 a Filton @-@ based RAF Vampire jet from 501 Squadron piloted by Flying officer John Greenwood flew under the deck while performing a victory roll before crashing in Leigh Woods , killing the pilot . The accident caused a landslip that led to the temporary closure of the nearby Bristol to Portishead railway line . A police helicopter flew under the bridge during a search in 1997 .

On 12 February 2014 the bridge was closed to traffic due to wind for the first time in living memory .

= Social history of viruses =

The social history of viruses describes the influence of viruses and viral infections on human history . Epidemics caused by viruses began when human behaviour changed during the Neolithic period , around 12 @,@ 000 years ago , when humans developed more densely populated agricultural communities . This allowed viruses to spread rapidly and subsequently to become endemic . Viruses of plants and livestock also increased , and as humans became dependent on agriculture and farming , diseases such as potyviruses of potatoes and rinderpest of cattle had devastating consequences .

Smallpox and measles viruses are among the oldest that infect humans . Having evolved from viruses that infected other animals , they first appeared in humans in Europe and North Africa thousands of years ago . The viruses were later carried to the New World by Europeans during the time of the Spanish Conquests , but the indigenous people had no natural resistance to the viruses and millions of them died during epidemics . Influenza pandemics have been recorded since 1580 , and they have occurred with increasing frequency in subsequent centuries . The pandemic of 1918 – 19 , in which 40 – 50 million died in less than a year , was one of the most devastating in history .

Louis Pasteur and Edward Jenner were the first to develop vaccines to protect against viral infections . The nature of viruses remained unknown until the invention of the electron microscope in the 1930s , when the science of virology gained momentum . In the 20th century many diseases both old and new were found to be caused by viruses . There were epidemics of poliomyelitis that were only controlled following the development of a vaccine in the 1950s . HIV is one of the most pathogenic new viruses to have emerged in centuries . Although scientific interest in them arose because of the diseases they cause , most viruses are beneficial . They drive evolution by transferring genes across species , play important roles in ecosystems and are essential to life .

= = In prehistory = =

Over the past 50 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 years , as modern humans increased in numbers and dispersed throughout the world , new infectious diseases emerged , including those caused by viruses . Earlier , humans lived in small , isolated communities , and most epidemic diseases did not exist . Smallpox , which is the most lethal and devastating viral infection in history , first emerged among agricultural communities in India about 11 @,@ 000 years ago . The virus , which only infected humans , probably descended from the poxviruses of rodents . Humans probably came into contact with these rodents , and some people became infected by the viruses they carried . When viruses cross this so @-@ called " species barrier " , their effects can be severe , and humans may have had little natural resistance . Contemporary humans lived in small communities , and those who succumbed to infection either died or developed immunity . This acquired immunity is only passed down to offspring temporarily , by antibodies in breast milk and other antibodies that cross the placenta from the mother 's blood to the unborn child 's . Therefore , sporadic outbreaks probably occurred in each generation . In about 9000 BC , when many people began to settle on the fertile flood plains of the River Nile , the population became dense enough for the virus to maintain a constant presence because of the high concentration of susceptible people . Other epidemics of viral diseases that depend on large concentrations of people , such as mumps , rubella and polio , also first occurred at this time .

The Neolithic age , which began in the Middle East in about 9500 BC , was a time when humans became farmers . This agricultural revolution embraced the development of monoculture and presented an opportunity for the rapid spread of several species of plant viruses . The divergence and spread of sobemoviruses – southern bean mosaic virus – date from this time . The spread of the potyviruses of potatoes , and other fruits and vegetables , began about 6 @,@ 600 years ago .

About 10 @,@ 000 years ago the humans who inhabited the lands around the Mediterranean basin began to domesticate wild animals . Pigs , cattle , goats , sheep , horses , camels , cats and dogs were all kept and bred in captivity . These animals would have brought their viruses with them . The transmission of viruses from animals to humans can occur , but such zoonotic infections are rare and subsequent human @-@ to @-@ human transmission of animal viruses is even rarer , although there are notable exceptions such as influenza . Most viruses are species @-@ specific and would have posed no threat to humans . The rare epidemics of viral diseases originating in animals would have been short @-@ lived because the viruses were not fully adapted to humans and the human populations were too small to maintain the chains of infection .

Other , more ancient , viruses have been less of a threat . Herpes viruses first infected the ancestors of modern humans over 80 million years ago . Humans have developed a tolerance to these viruses , and most are infected with at least one species . Records of these milder virus infections are rare , but it is likely that early hominids suffered from colds , influenza and diarrhoea caused by viruses just as humans do today . More recently evolved viruses cause epidemics and pandemics – and it is these that history records . The influenza virus is one that seems to have crossed the species barrier from pigs to ducks and water fowl and hence to humans . It is possible that a fatal plague in the Middle East at the time of the late 18th Dynasty was associated with this transmission at Amarna .

= = In antiquity = =

Among the earliest records of a viral infection is an Egyptian stele thought to depict an Egyptian priest from the 18th Dynasty ( 1580 – 1350 BC ) with a foot drop deformity characteristic of a poliovirus infection . The mummy of Siptah – a ruler during the 19th Dynasty – shows signs of poliomyelitis , and that of Ramesses V and some other Egyptian mummies buried over 3000 years ago show evidence of smallpox . There was an epidemic of smallpox in Athens in 430 BC , in which a quarter of the Athenian army and many of the city 's civilians died from the infection .

Measles is an old disease , but it was not until the 10th century that the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al @-@ Razi ( 865 – 925 ) – known as " Rhazes " – first identified it . Rhazes used the Arabic name hasbah for measles . It has had many other names including rubeola from the Latin word rubeus , " red " , and morbilli , " small plague " . The close similarities between measles virus , canine distemper virus and rinderpest virus have given rise to speculation that measles was first transmitted to humans from domesticated dogs or cattle . The measles virus appears to have fully diverged from the then @-@ widespread rinderpest virus by the 12th century .

A measles infection confers lifelong immunity . Therefore , the virus requires a high population density to become endemic , and this probably did not occur in the Neolithic age . Following the emergence of the virus in the Middle East , it reached India by 2500 BC . Measles was so common in children at the time that it was not recognised as a disease . In Egyptian hieroglyphs it was described as a normal stage of human development . One of the earliest descriptions of a virus @-@ infected plant can be found in a poem written by the Japanese Empress Kōken ( 718 – 770 ) , in which she describes a plant in summer with yellowing leaves . The plant , later identified as Eupatorium lindleyanum , is often infected with tomato yellow leaf curl virus .

= = Middle Ages = =

The rapidly growing population of Europe and the rising concentrations of people in its towns and cities became a fertile ground for many infectious and contagious diseases , of which the Black Death – a bacterial infection – is probably the most notorious . Except for smallpox and influenza , documented outbreaks of infections now known to be caused by viruses were rare . Rabies , a disease that had been recognised for over 4000 years , was rife in Europe , and continued to be so until the development of a vaccine by Louis Pasteur in 1886 . The average life expectancy in Europe during the Middle Ages was 35 years ; 60 % of children died before the age of 16 , many of them during their first 6 years of life . Physicians – what few there were – relied as much on astrology as they did on their limited medical knowledge . Some treatments for infections consisted of ointments prepared from cats that had been roasted in hedgehog fat . Among the plethora of diseases that caused childhood death were measles , influenza and smallpox . The Crusades and the Muslim conquests aided the spread of smallpox , which was the cause of frequent epidemics in Europe following its introduction to the continent between the fifth and seventh centuries .

Measles was endemic throughout the highly populated countries of Europe , North Africa and the Middle East . In England the disease , then called " mezils " , was first described in the 13th century , and it was probably one of the 49 plagues that occurred between 526 and 1087 . Rinderpest , which is caused by a virus closely related to measles virus , is a disease of cattle known since Roman times . The disease , which originated in Asia , was first brought to Europe by the invading Huns in 370 . Later invasions of Mongols , led by Genghis Khan and his army , started pandemics in Europe in 1222 , 1233 and 1238 . The infection subsequently reached England following the importation of cattle from the continent . At the time rinderpest was a devastating disease with a mortality rate of 80 – 90 % . The resulting loss of cattle caused famine .

= = Early to late modern period = =

A short time after Henry Tudor 's victory at the Battle of Bosworth on 22 August 1485 , his army suddenly went down with " the English sweat " , which contemporary observers described as a new disease . The disease , which was unusual in that it mainly affected the affluent , might have originated in France where Henry VII had recruited soldiers for his army . An epidemic hit London in the hot summer of 1508 . Victims died within a day , and there were deaths throughout the city . The streets were deserted apart from carts transporting bodies , and King Henry declared the city off limits except for physicians and apothecaries . The disease spread to Europe , arriving in Hamburg in July 1529 where one to two thousand victims died within the first few weeks . During the following months it wreaked havoc in Prussia , Switzerland , and northern Europe . The last outbreak was in England in 1556 . The disease – which killed tens of thousands of people – was probably influenza or a similar viral infection , but records from the time when medicine was not a science can be unreliable . As medicine became a science , the descriptions of disease became less vague . Although medicine could do little at the time to alleviate the suffering of the victims of infection , measures to control the spread of diseases were used . Restrictions on trade and travel were implemented , stricken families were isolated from their communities , buildings were fumigated and livestock killed .

References to influenza infections date from the late 15th and early 16th centuries , but infections almost certainly occurred long before then . In 1173 , an epidemic occurred that was possibly the first in Europe , and in 1493 , an outbreak of what is now thought to be swine influenza , struck Native Americans in Hispaniola . There is some evidence to suggest that source of the infection was pigs on Columbus 's ships . During an influenza epidemic that occurred in England between 1557 and 1559 , five per cent of the population – about 150 @,@ 000 – died from the infection . The mortality rate was nearly five times that of the 1918 – 19 pandemic . The first pandemic that was reliably recorded began in July 1580 and swept across Europe , Africa , and Asia . The mortality rate was high – 8 @,@ 000 died in Rome . The next three pandemics occurred in the 18th century , including that during 1781 – 82 , which was probably the most devastating in history . This began in November 1781 in China and reached Moscow in December . In February 1782 it hit Saint Petersburg , and by May it had reached Denmark . Within six weeks , 75 per cent of the British population were infected and the pandemic soon spread to the Americas .

The Americas and Australia remained free of measles and smallpox until the arrival of European colonists between the 15th and 18th centuries . Along with measles and influenza , smallpox was taken to the Americas by the Spanish . Smallpox was endemic in Spain , having been introduced by the Moors from Africa . In 1519 , an epidemic of smallpox broke out in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan in Mexico . This was started by the army of Pánfilo de Narváez , who followed Hernán Cortés from Cuba and had an African slave suffering from smallpox aboard his ship . When the Spanish finally entered the capital in the summer of 1521 , they saw it strewn with the bodies of smallpox victims . The epidemic , and those that followed during 1545 – 1548 and 1576 – 1581 , eventually killed more than half of the native population . Most of the Spanish were immune ; with his army of fewer than 900 men it would not have been possible for Cortés to defeat the Aztecs and conquer Mexico without the help of smallpox . Many Native American populations were devastated later by the inadvertent spread of diseases introduced by Europeans . In the 150 years that followed Columbus 's arrival in 1492 , the Native American population of North America was reduced by 80 per cent from diseases , including measles , smallpox and influenza . The damage done by these viruses significantly aided European attempts to displace and conquer the native population .

By the 18th century , smallpox was endemic in Europe . There were five epidemics in London between 1719 and 1746 , and large outbreaks occurred in other major European cities . By the end of the century about 400 @,@ 000 Europeans were dying from the disease each year . It reached South Africa in 1713 , having been carried by ships from India , and in 1789 the disease struck Australia . In the 19th century , smallpox became the single most important cause of death of the Australian Aborigines .

In 1546 Girolamo Fracastoro ( 1478 – 1553 ) wrote a classic description of measles . He thought the disease was caused by " seeds " ( seminaria ) that were spread from person to person . An epidemic hit London in 1670 , recorded by Thomas Sydenham ( 1624 – 1689 ) , who thought it was caused by toxic vapours emanating from the earth . His theory was wrong but he was a skilled observer and kept meticulous records .

Yellow fever is an often lethal disease caused by a flavivirus . The virus is transmitted to humans by mosquitoes ( Aedes aegypti ) and first appeared over 3 @,@ 000 years ago . In 1647 , the first recorded epidemic occurred on Barbados and was called " Barbados distemper " by John Winthrop , who was the governor of the island at the time . He passed quarantine laws to protect the people – the first ever such laws in North America . Further epidemics of the disease occurred in North America in the 17th , 18th and 19th centuries . The first known cases of dengue fever occurred in Indonesia and Egypt in 1779 . Trade ships brought the disease to the US , where an epidemic occurred in Philadelphia in 1780 .

Many paintings can be found in the museums of Europe depicting tulips with attractive coloured stripes . Most , such as the still life studies of Johannes Bosschaert , were painted during the 17th century . These flowers were particularly popular and became sought after by those who could afford them . At the peak of this tulip mania in the 1630s , one bulb could cost as much as a house . It was not known at the time that the stripes were caused by a virus accidentally transferred by humans to tulips from jasmine . Weakened by the virus , the plants turned out to be a poor investment . Only a few bulbs produced flowers with the attractive characteristics of their parent plants .

Until the Irish Great Famine of 1845 – 1852 , the commonest cause of disease in potatoes was not the mould that causes blight , it was a virus . The disease , called " curl " , is caused by potato leafroll virus , and it was widespread in England in the 1770s , where it destroyed 75 per cent of the potato crop . At that time , the Irish potato crop remained relatively unscathed .

= = Discovery of vaccination = =

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu ( 1689 – 1762 ) was an aristocrat , a writer and the wife of a Member of Parliament . In 1716 , her husband , Edward Wortley Montagu , was appointed British Ambassador in Istanbul . She followed him there and two weeks after her arrival discovered the local practice of protection against smallpox by variolation – the injection of pus from smallpox victims into the skin . Her younger brother had died of smallpox , and she too had had the disease . Determined to spare her five @-@ year @-@ old son Edward from similar suffering , she ordered the embassy surgeon Charles Maitland to variolate him . On her return to London , she asked Maitland to variolate her four @-@ year @-@ old daughter in the presence of the king 's physicians . Later , Montagu persuaded the Prince and Princess of Wales to sponsor a public demonstration of the procedure . Six prisoners who had been condemned to death and were awaiting execution at Newgate Prison were offered a full pardon for serving as the subjects of the public experiment . They accepted and were variolated in 1721 . All the prisoners recovered from the procedure . To test its protective effect one of them , a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old woman , was ordered to sleep in the same bed as a ten @-@ year @-@ old smallpox victim for six weeks . She did not contract the disease .

The experiment was repeated on eleven orphan children , all of whom survived the ordeal , and by 1722 even King George I 's grandchildren had been inoculated . The practice was not entirely safe and there was a one in fifty chance of death . The procedure was expensive ; some medical practitioners charged between £ 5 and £ 10 and some sold the method to other practitioners for fees between £ 50 to £ 100 , or for half of the profits . Variolation became a lucrative franchise , but it remained beyond the means of many until the late 1770s . At the time nothing was known about viruses or the immune system , and no one knew how the procedure afforded protection .

Edward Jenner ( 1749 – 1823 ) , a British rural physician , was variolated as a boy . He had suffered greatly from the ordeal but survived fully protected from smallpox . Jenner knew of a local belief that dairy workers who had contracted a relatively mild infection called cowpox were immune to smallpox . He decided to test the theory ( although he was probably not the first to do so ) . On 14 May 1796 he selected " a healthy boy , about eight years old for the purpose of inoculation for the Cow Pox " . The boy , James Phipps ( 1788 – 1853 ) , survived the experimental inoculation with cowpox virus and suffered only a mild fever . On 1 July 1796 , Jenner took some " smallpox matter " ( probably infected pus ) and repeatedly inoculated Phipps 's arms with it . Phipps survived and was subsequently inoculated with smallpox more than 20 times without succumbing to the disease . Vaccination – the word is derived from the Latin vacca meaning " cow " – had been invented . Jenner 's method was soon shown to be safer than variolation , and by 1801 more than 100 @,@ 000 people had been vaccinated .

Despite objections from those medical practitioners who still practised variolation , and who foresaw a decline in their income , free vaccination of the poor was introduced in the UK in 1840 . Because of associated deaths , variolation was declared illegal in the same year . Vaccination was made compulsory in England and Wales by the 1853 Vaccination Act , and parents could be fined £ 1 if their children were not vaccinated before they were three months of age . The law was not adequately enforced , and the system for providing vaccinations , unchanged since 1840 , was ineffective . After an early compliance by the population only a small proportion were vaccinated . Compulsory vaccination was not well received and , following protests , the Anti @-@ Vaccination League and the Anti @-@ Compulsory Vaccination League were formed in 1866 . Following the anti @-@ vaccination campaigns there was a severe outbreak of smallpox in Gloucester in 1895 , the city 's first in twenty years ; 434 people died , including 281 children . Despite this , the British government conceded to the protesters and the Vaccination Act of 1898 abolished fines and made provision for a " conscientious objector " clause – the first use of the term – for parents who did not believe in vaccination . During the following year , 250 @,@ 000 objections were granted , and by 1912 less than half of the population of newborns were being vaccinated . By 1948 , smallpox vaccination was no longer compulsory in the UK .

= = = Louis Pasteur and rabies = = =

Rabies is an often fatal disease caused by the infection of mammals with rabies virus . In the 21st century it is mainly a disease that affects wild mammals such as foxes and bats , but it is one of the oldest known virus diseases : rabies is a Sanskrit word ( rabhas ) that dates from 3000 BC , which means " madness " or " rage " , and the disease has been known for over 4000 years . Descriptions of rabies can be found in Mesopotamian texts , and the ancient Greeks called it " lyssa " or " lytta " , meaning " madness " . References to rabies can be found in the Laws of Eshnunna , which date from 2300 BC . Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) wrote one of the earliest undisputed descriptions of the disease and how it was passed to humans . Celsus , in the first century AD , first recorded the symptom called hydrophobia and suggested that the saliva of infected animals and humans contained a slime or poison – to describe this he invented the word " virus " . Rabies does not cause epidemics , but the infection was greatly feared because of its terrible symptoms , which include insanity , hydrophobia and death .

In France during the time of Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 1895 ) there were only a few hundred rabies infections in humans each year , but cures were desperately sought . Aware of the possible danger , Pasteur began to look for the " microbe " in mad dogs . Pasteur showed that when the dried spinal cords from dogs that had died from rabies were crushed and injected into healthy dogs they did not become infected . He repeated the experiment several times on the same dog with tissue that had been dried for fewer and fewer days , until the dog survived even after injections of fresh rabies @-@ infected spinal tissue . Pasteur had immunised the dog against rabies , as he later did with 50 more .

Although Pasteur had little idea how his method worked , he tested it on a boy , Joseph Meister ( 1876 – 1940 ) , who was brought to Pasteur by his mother on 6 July 1885 . He was covered in bites , having been set upon by a mad dog . Meister 's mother begged Pasteur to help her son . Pasteur was a scientist , not a physician , and he was well aware of the consequences for him if things were to go wrong . He nevertheless decided to help the boy and injected him with increasingly virulent rabid rabbit spinal tissue over the following 10 days . Later Pasteur wrote , " as the death of this child appeared inevitable , I decided , not without deep and severe unease ... to try out on Joseph Meister the procedure , which had consistently worked on dogs " . Meister recovered and returned home with his mother on 27 July . Pasteur successfully treated a second boy in October that same year ; Jean @-@ Baptiste Jupille ( 1869 – 1923 ) was a 15 @-@ year @-@ old shepherd boy who had been severely bitten as he tried to protect other children from a rabid dog . Pasteur 's method of treatment remained in use for over 50 years .

Little was known about the cause of the disease until 1903 when Adelchi Negri ( 1876 – 1912 ) first saw microscopic lesions – now called Negri bodies – in the brains of rabid animals . He wrongly thought they were protozoan parasites . Paul Remlinger ( 1871 – 1964 ) soon showed by filtration experiments that they were much smaller than protozoa , and even smaller than bacteria . Thirty years later , Negri bodies were shown to be accumulations of particles 100 – 150 nanometres long , now known to be the size of rhabdovirus particles – the virus that causes rabies .

= = 20th and 21st centuries = =

At the turn of the 20th century , evidence for the existence of viruses was obtained from experiments with filters that had pores too small for bacteria to pass through ; the term " filterable virus " was coined to describe them . Until the 1930s most scientists believed that viruses were small bacteria , but following the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 they were shown to be completely different , to a degree that not all scientists were convinced they were anything other than accumulations of toxic proteins . The situation changed radically when it was discovered that viruses contain genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA . Once they were recognised as distinct biological entities they were soon shown to be the cause of numerous infections of plants , animals and even bacteria .

Of the many diseases of humans that were found to be caused by viruses in the 20th century one , smallpox , has been eradicated . The diseases caused by viruses such as HIV and influenza virus have proved to be more difficult to control . Other diseases , such as those caused by arboviruses , are presenting new challenges .

As humans have changed their behaviour during history , so have viruses . In ancient times the human population was too small for pandemics to occur and , in the case of some viruses , too small for them to survive . In the 20th and 21st century increasing population densities , revolutionary changes in agriculture and farming methods , and high speed travel have contributed to the spread of new viruses and the re @-@ appearance of old ones . Like smallpox , some viral diseases might be conquered , but new ones , such as severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) , will continue to emerge . Although vaccines are still the most powerful weapon against viruses , in recent decades antiviral drugs have been developed to specifically target viruses as they replicate in their hosts . The 2009 influenza pandemic showed how rapidly new strains of viruses continue to spread around the world , despite efforts to contain them .

Advances in virus discovery and control continue to be made . Human metapneumovirus , which is a cause of respiratory infections including pneumonia , was discovered in 2001 . A vaccine for the papillomaviruses that cause cervical cancer was developed between 2002 and 2006 . In 2005 , human T lymphotropic viruses 3 and 4 were discovered . In 2008 the WHO Global Polio Eradication Initiative was re @-@ launched with a plan to eradicate poliomyelitis by 2015 . In 2010 , the largest virus , Megavirus chilensis was discovered to infect amoebae . These giant viruses have renewed interest in the role viruses play in evolution and their position in the tree of life .

= = = Smallpox eradication = = =

Smallpox virus was a major cause of death in the 20th century , killing about 300 million people . It has probably killed more humans than any other virus . In 1966 an agreement was reached by the World Health Assembly ( the decision @-@ making body of the World Health Organisation ) to start an " intensified smallpox eradication programme " and attempt to eradicate the disease within ten years . At the time , smallpox was still endemic in 31 countries including Brazil , the whole of the Indian sub @-@ continent , Indonesia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . This ambitious goal was considered achievable for several reasons : the vaccine afforded exceptional protection ; there was only one type of the virus ; there were no animals that naturally carried it ; the incubation period of the infection was known and rarely varied from 12 days ; and infections always gave rise to symptoms , so it was clear who had the disease .

Following mass vaccinations , disease detection and containment were central to the eradication campaign . As soon as cases were detected , the victims were isolated as were their close contacts , who were vaccinated . Successes came quickly ; by 1970 smallpox was no longer endemic in western Africa , nor , by 1971 , in Brazil . By 1973 , smallpox remained endemic only in the Indian sub @-@ continent , Botswana and Ethiopia . Finally , after 13 years of coordinated disease surveillance and vaccination campaigns throughout the world , the World Health Organisation declared smallpox eradicated in 1979 . Although the main weapon used was vaccinia virus , which was used as the vaccine , no one seems to know exactly where vaccinia virus came from ; it is not the strain of cowpox that Edward Jenner used , and it is not a weakened form of smallpox .

The eradication campaign led to the death of Janet Parker ( c . 1938 – 1978 ) and the subsequent suicide of the smallpox expert Henry Bedson ( 1930 – 1978 ) . Parker was an employee of the University of Birmingham who worked in the same building as Bedson 's smallpox laboratory . She was infected by a strain of smallpox virus that Bedson 's team had been investigating . Ashamed of the accident and having blamed himself for it , Bedson committed suicide .

Before the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001 , the World Health Organisation proposed the destruction of all the known remaining stocks of smallpox virus that were kept in laboratories in the US and Russia . Fears of bioterrorism using smallpox virus and the possible need for the virus in the development of drugs to treat the infection have put an end to this plan . Had the destruction gone ahead , smallpox virus might have been the first to be made extinct by human intervention .

= = = Measles = = =

Before the introduction of vaccination in the US in the 1960s there were more than 500 @,@ 000 cases each year resulting in about 400 deaths . In developed countries children were mainly infected between the ages of three and five years old , but in developing countries half the children were infected before the age of two . In the US and the UK , there were regular annual or biannual epidemics of the disease , which depended on the number of children born each year . The current epidemic strain evolved in the first part of the 20th century – probably between 1908 and 1943 .

In London between 1950 and 1968 there were epidemics every two years , but in Liverpool , which had a higher birth rate , there was an annual cycle of epidemics . During the Great Depression in the US before the Second World War the birth rate was low , and epidemics of measles were sporadic . After the war the birth rate increased , and epidemics occurred regularly every two years . In developing countries with very high birth rates , epidemics occurred every year . Measles is still a major problem in densely populated , less @-@ developed countries with high birth rates and lacking effective vaccination campaigns .

By the mid @-@ 1970s , following a mass vaccination programme that was known as " make measles a memory " , the incidence of measles in the US had fallen by 90 per cent . Similar vaccination campaigns in other countries have reduced the levels of infection by 99 per cent over the past 50 years . Susceptible individuals remain a source of infection and include those who have migrated from countries with ineffective vaccination schedules , or who refuse the vaccine or choose not to have their children vaccinated . Humans are the only natural host of measles virus . Immunity to the disease following an infection is lifelong ; that afforded by vaccination is long term but eventually wanes .

The use of the vaccine has been controversial . In 1998 , Andrew Wakefield and his colleagues published a fraudulent research paper and he claimed to link the MMR vaccine with autism . The study was widely reported and fed concern about the safety of vaccinations . Wakefield 's research was identified as fraudulent and in 2010 , he was struck off the UK medical register and can no longer practise medicine in the UK . In the wake of the controversy , the MMR vaccination rate in the UK fell from 92 per cent in 1995 , to less than 80 per cent in 2003 . Cases of measles rose from 56 in 1998 to 1370 in 2008 , and similar increases occurred throughout Europe . In April 2013 , an epidemic of measles in Wales in the UK broke out , which mainly affected teenagers who had not been vaccinated . Despite this controversy , measles has been eliminated from Finland , Sweden and Cuba . Japan abolished mandatory vaccination in 1992 , and in 1995 – 1997 more than 200 @,@ 000 cases were reported in the country . Measles remains a public health problem in Japan , where it is now endemic ; a National Measles Elimination Plan was established in December 2007 , with a view to eliminating the disease from the country . The possibility of global elimination of measles has been debated in medical literature since the introduction of the vaccine in the 1960s . Should the current campaign to eradicate poliomyelitis be successful , it is likely that the debate will be renewed .

= = = Poliomyelitis = = =

During the summers of the mid @-@ 20th century , parents in the US and Europe dreaded the annual appearance of poliomyelitis ( or polio ) , which was commonly known as " infantile paralysis " . The disease was rare at the beginning of the century , and worldwide there were only a few thousand cases per year , but by the 1950s there were 60 @,@ 000 cases each year in the US alone and an average of 2 @,@ 300 in England and Wales .

During 1916 and 1917 there had been a major epidemic in the US ; 27 @,@ 000 cases and 6 @,@ 000 deaths were recorded , with 9 @,@ 000 cases in New York City . At the time nobody knew how the virus was spreading . Many of the city 's inhabitants , including scientists , thought that impoverished slum @-@ dwelling immigrants were to blame even though the prevalence of the disease was higher in the more prosperous districts such as Staten Island – a pattern that had also been seen in cities like Philadelphia . Many other industrialised countries were affected at the same time . In particular , before the outbreaks in the US , large epidemics had occurred in Sweden .

The reason for the rise of polio in industrialised countries in the 20th century has never been fully explained . The disease is caused by a virus that is passed from person to person by the faecal @-@ oral route , and naturally infects only humans . It is a paradox that it became a problem during times of improved sanitation and increasing affluence . Although the virus was discovered at the beginning of the 20th century , its ubiquity was unrecognised until the 1950s . It is now known that fewer than two per cent of individuals who are infected develop the disease , and most infections are mild . During epidemics the virus was effectively everywhere , which explains why public health officials were unable to isolate a source .

Following the development of vaccines in the mid @-@ 1950s , mass vaccination campaigns took place in many countries . In the US , after a campaign promoted by the March of Dimes , the annual number of polio cases fell dramatically ; the last outbreak was in 1979 . In 1988 the World Health Organisation along with others launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative , and by 1994 the Americas were declared to be free of disease , followed by the Pacific region in 2000 and Europe in 2003 . At the end of 2012 , only 223 cases were reported by the World Health Organisation . Mainly poliovirus type 1 infections , 122 occurred in Nigeria , one in Chad , 58 in Pakistan and 37 in Afghanistan . Vaccination teams often face danger ; seven vaccinators were murdered in Pakistan and nine in Nigeria at the beginning of 2013 . In Pakistan , the campaign was further hampered by the murder on 26 February 2013 of a police officer who was providing security .

= = = AIDS = = =

The human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) is the virus that – when the infection is not treated – can cause AIDS ( acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ) . Most virologists believe that HIV originated in sub @-@ Saharan Africa during the 20th century , and over 70 million individuals have been infected by the virus . By 2011 , an estimated 35 million had died from AIDS , making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history . HIV @-@ 1 is one of the most significant viruses to have emerged in the last quarter of the 20th century . When , in 1981 , a scientific article was published that reported the deaths of five young gay men , no one knew that they had died from AIDS . The full scale of the epidemic – and that the virus had been silently emerging over several decades – was not known .

HIV crossed the species barrier between chimpanzees and humans in Africa in the early decades of the 20th century . During the years that followed there were enormous social changes and turmoil in Africa . Population shifts were unprecedented as vast numbers of people moved from rural farms to the expanding cities , and the virus was spread from remote regions to densely populated urban conurbations . The incubation period for AIDS is around 10 years , so a global epidemic starting in the early 1980s is credible . At this time there was much scapegoating and stigmatisation . The " out of Africa " theory for the origin of the HIV pandemic was not well received by Africans , who felt that the " blame " was misplaced . This led the World Health Assembly to pass a 1987 resolution , which stated that HIV is " a naturally occurring [ virus ] of undetermined geographic origin " .

The HIV pandemic has challenged communities and brought about social changes throughout the world . Opinions on sexuality are more openly discussed . Advice on sexual practices and drug use – which were once taboo – is sponsored by many governments and their healthcare providers . Debates on the ethics of provision and cost of anti @-@ retroviral drugs , particularly in poorer countries , have highlighted inequalities in healthcare and stimulated far @-@ reaching legislative changes . In developing countries the impact of HIV / AIDS has been profound ; key organisations such as healthcare , defense and civil services have been severely disrupted . Life expectancy has fallen . In Zimbabwe , for example , life expectancy was 79 years in 1991 but by 2001 it had fallen to 39 years .

= = = Influenza = = =

When influenza virus undergoes a genetic shift many humans have no immunity to the new strain , and if the population of susceptible individuals is high enough to maintain the chain of infection , pandemics occur . The genetic changes usually happen when different strains of the virus co @-@ infect animals , particularly birds and swine . Although many viruses of vertebrates are restricted to one species , influenza virus is an exception . The last pandemic of the 19th century occurred in 1899 and resulted in the deaths of 250 @,@ 000 people in Europe . The virus , which originated in Russia or Asia , was the first to be rapidly spread by people on trains and steamships .

A new strain of the virus emerged in 1918 , and the subsequent pandemic of Spanish flu was one of the worst natural disasters in history . The death toll was enormous ; throughout the world around 50 million people died from the infection . There were 550 @,@ 000 reported deaths caused by the disease in the US , ten times the country 's losses during the First World War , and 228 @,@ 000 deaths in the UK . In India there were more than 20 million deaths , and in Western Samoa 22 per cent of the population died . Although cases of influenza occurred every winter , there were only two other pandemics in the 20th century .

In 1957 another new strain of the virus emerged and caused a pandemic of Asian flu ; although the virus was not as virulent as the 1918 strain , over one million died worldwide . The next pandemic occurred when Hong Kong flu emerged in 1968 , a new strain of the virus that replaced the 1957 strain . Affecting mainly the elderly , the 1968 pandemic was the least severe , but 33 @,@ 800 were killed in the US . New strains of influenza virus often originate in East Asia ; in rural China the concentration of ducks , pigs , and humans in close proximity is the highest in the world .

The most recent pandemic occurred in 2009 , but none of the last three has caused anything near the devastation seen in 1918 . Exactly why the strain of influenza that emerged in 1918 was so devastating is a question that still remains unanswered .

= = = Yellow fever , dengue and other arboviruses = = =

Arboviruses are viruses that are transmitted to humans and other vertebrates by blood @-@ sucking insects . These viruses are diverse ; the term " arbovirus " – which was derived from " arthropod @-@ borne virus " – is no longer used in formal taxonomy because many species of virus are known to be spread in this way . There are more than 500 species of arboviruses , but in the 1930s only three were known to cause disease in humans : yellow fever virus , dengue virus and Pappataci fever virus . More than 100 of such viruses are now known to cause human diseases including encephalitis .

Yellow fever is the most notorious disease caused by a flavivirus . The last major epidemic in the US occurred in 1905 . During the building of the Panama Canal thousands of workers died from the disease . Yellow fever originated in Africa and the virus was brought to the Americas on cargo ships , which were harbouring the Aedes aegypti mosquito that carries the virus . The first recorded epidemic in Africa occurred in Ghana , in West Africa , in 1926 . In the 1930s the disease re @-@ emerged in Brazil . Fred Soper , an American epidemiologist ( 1893 – 1977 ) , discovered the importance of the sylvatic cycle of infection in non @-@ human hosts , and that infection of humans was a " dead end " that broke this cycle . Although the yellow fever vaccine is one of the most successful ever developed , epidemics continue to occur . In 1986 – 91 in West Africa , over 20 @,@ 000 people were infected , 4 @,@ 000 of whom died .

In the 1930s , St. Louis encephalitis , eastern equine encephalitis and western equine encephalitis emerged in the US . The virus that causes La Crosse encephalitis was discovered in the 1960s , and West Nile virus arrived in New York in 1999 . As of 2010 , dengue virus is the most prevalent arbovirus and increasingly virulent strains of the virus have spread across Asia and the Americas .

= = = Hepatitis viruses = = =

Hepatitis is a disease of the liver that has been recognised since antiquity . Symptoms include jaundice , a yellowing of the skin , eyes and body fluids . There are numerous causes , including viruses – particularly hepatitis A virus , hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus . Throughout history epidemics of jaundice have been reported , mainly affecting soldiers at war . This " campaign jaundice " was common in the Middle Ages . It occurred among Napoleon 's armies and during most of the major conflicts of the 19th and 20th centuries , including the American Civil War , where over 40 @,@ 000 cases and around 150 deaths were reported . The viruses that cause epidemic jaundice were not discovered until the middle of the 20th century . The names for epidemic jaundice , hepatitis A , and for blood @-@ borne infectious jaundice , hepatitis B , were first used in 1947 , following a publication in 1946 giving evidence that the two diseases were distinct . In the 1960s , the first virus that could cause hepatitis was discovered . This was hepatitis B virus , which was named after the disease it causes . Hepatitis A virus was discovered in 1974 . The discovery of hepatitis B virus and the invention of tests to detect it have radically changed many medical , and some cosmetic procedures . The screening of donated blood , which was introduced in the early 1970s , has dramatically reduced the transmission of the virus . Donations of human blood plasma and Factor VIII collected before 1975 often contained infectious levels of hepatitis B virus . Until the late 1960s , hypodermic needles were often reused by medical professionals , and tattoo artists ' needles were a common source of infection . In the late 1990s , needle exchange programmes were established in Europe and the US to prevent the spread of infections by intravenous drug users . These measures also helped to reduce the subsequent impact of HIV and hepatitis C virus .

= = = Non @-@ human animal viruses = = =

Epizootics are outbreaks ( epidemics ) of disease among non @-@ human animals . During the 20th century significant epizootics of viral diseases in animals , particularly livestock , occurred worldwide . The many diseases caused by viruses included foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , rinderpest of cattle , avian and swine influenza , swine fever and bluetongue of sheep . Viral diseases of livestock can be devastating both to farmers and the wider community , as the outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in the UK in 2001 showed .

First appearing in East Africa in 1891 , rinderpest , a disease of cattle , spread rapidly across Africa . By 1892 , 95 per cent of the cattle in East Africa had died . This resulted in a famine that devastated the farmers and nomadic people , some of whom were entirely dependent on their cattle . Two thirds of the population of Maasai people died . The situation was made worse by epidemics of smallpox that followed in the wake of the famine . In the early years of the 20th century rinderpest was common in Asia and parts of Europe . The prevalence of the disease was steadily reduced during the century by control measures that included vaccination . By 1908 Europe was free from the disease . Outbreaks did occur following the Second World War , but these were quickly controlled . The prevalence of the disease increased in Asia , and in 1957 Thailand had to appeal for aid because so many buffaloes had died that the paddy fields could not be prepared for rice growing . Russia west of the Ural Mountains remained free from the disease – Lenin approved several laws on the control of the disease – but cattle in eastern Russia were constantly infected with rinderpest that originated in Mongolia and China where the prevalence remained high . India controlled the spread of the disease , which had retained a foothold in the southern states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala , throughout the 20th century , and had eradicated the disease by 1995 . Africa suffered two major panzootics in the 1920s and 1980s . There was a severe outbreak in Somalia in 1928 and the disease was widespread in the country until 1953 . In the 1980s , outbreaks in Tanzania and Kenya were controlled by the use of 26 million doses of vaccine , and a recurrence of the disease in 1997 was suppressed by an intensive vaccination campaign . By the end of the century rinderpest had been eradicated from most countries . A few pockets of infection remained in Ethiopia and Sudan , and in 1994 the Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme was launched by the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) with the aim of global eradication by 2010 . In May 2011 , the FAO and the World Organisation for Animal Health announced that " rinderpest as a freely circulating viral disease has been eliminated from the world . "

Foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease is a highly contagious infection caused by an aphthovirus , and is classified in the same family as poliovirus . The virus has infected animals , mainly ungulates , in Africa since ancient times and was probably brought to the Americas in the 19th century by imported livestock . Foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease is rarely fatal , but the economic losses incurred by outbreaks in sheep and cattle herds can be high . The last occurrence of the disease in the US was in 1929 , but as recently as 2001 , several large outbreaks occurred throughout the UK and thousands of animals were killed and burnt .

The natural hosts of influenza viruses are pigs and birds , although it has probably infected humans since antiquity . The virus can cause mild to severe epizootics in wild and domesticated animals . Many species of wild birds migrate and this has spread influenza across the continents throughout the ages . The virus has evolved into numerous strains and continues to do so , posing an ever @-@ present threat .

In the early years of the 21st century epizootics in livestock caused by viruses continue to have serious consequences . Bluetongue disease , a disease caused by an orbivirus broke out in sheep in France in 2007 . Until then the disease had been mainly confined to the Americas , Africa , southern Asia and northern Australia , but it is now an emerging disease around the Mediterranean .

= = = Plant viruses = = =

During the 20th century , many " old " diseases of plants were found to be caused by viruses . These included maize streak and cassava mosaic disease . As with humans , when plants thrive in close proximity , so do their viruses . This can cause huge economic losses and human tragedies . In Jordan during the 1970s , where tomatoes and cucurbits ( cucumbers , melons and gourds ) were extensively grown , entire fields were infected with viruses . Similarly , in Côte d 'Ivoire , thirty different viruses infected crops such as legumes and vegetables . In Kenya cassava mosaic virus , maize streak virus and groundnut viral diseases caused the loss of up to 70 per cent of the crop . Cassava is the most abundant crop that is grown in eastern Africa and it is a staple crop for more than 200 million people . It was introduced to Africa from South America and grows well in soils with poor fertility . The most important disease of cassava is caused by cassava mosaic virus , a geminivirus , which is transmitted between plants by whiteflies . The disease was first recorded in 1894 and outbreaks of the disease occurred in eastern Africa throughout the 20th century , often resulting in famine .

In the 1920s the sugarbeet growers in the western US suffered huge economic loss caused by damage done to their crops by the leafhopper @-@ transmitted beet curly top virus . In 1956 , between 25 and 50 per cent of the rice crop in Cuba and Venezuela was destroyed by rice hoja blanca virus . In 1958 , it caused the loss of many rice fields in Colombia . Outbreaks recurred in 1981 , which caused losses of up to 100 per cent . In Ghana between 1936 and 1977 , the mealybug @-@ transmitted cacao swollen @-@ shoot virus caused the loss of 162 million cacao trees , and additional trees were lost at the rate of 15 million each year . In 1948 , in Kansas , US , seven per cent of the wheat crop was destroyed by wheat streak mosaic virus , spread by the wheat curl mite ( Aceria tulipae ) . In the 1950s papaya ringspot virus – a potyvirus – caused a devastating loss of solo papaya crops on Oahu , Hawaii . Solo papaya had been introduced to the island in the previous century but the disease had not been seen on the island before the 1940s .

Such disasters occurred when human intervention caused ecological changes by the introduction of crops to new vectors and viruses . Cacao is native to South America and was introduced to West Africa in the late 19th century . In 1936 , swollen root disease had been transmitted to plantations by mealybugs from indigenous trees . New habitats can trigger outbreaks of plant virus diseases . Before 1970 , the rice yellow mottle virus was only found in the Kisumu district of Kenya , but following the irrigation of large areas of East Africa and extensive rice cultivation , the virus spread throughout East Africa . Human activity introduced plant viruses to native crops . The citrus tristeza virus ( CTV ) was introduced to South America from Africa between 1926 and 1930 . At the same time , the aphid Toxoptera citricidus was carried from Asia to South America and this accelerated the transmission of the virus . By 1950 , more than six million citrus trees had been killed by the virus in São Paulo , Brazil . CTV and citrus trees probably coevolved for centuries in their original countries . The dispersal of CTV to other regions and its interaction with new citrus varieties resulted in devastating outbreaks of plant diseases . Because of the problems caused by the introduction – by humans – of plant viruses , many countries have strict importation controls on any materials that can harbour dangerous plant viruses or their insect vectors .

= = Emerging viruses = =

Emerging viruses are those that have only relatively recently infected the host species . In humans , many emerging viruses have come from other animals . When viruses jump to other species the diseases caused in humans are called zoonoses or zoonotic infections .

= = = SARS = = =

Severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) is caused by a new type of coronavirus . Other coronaviruses were known to cause mild infections in humans , so the virulence and rapid spread of this novel virus strain caused alarm among health professionals as well as public fear . The fears of a major pandemic were not realised , and by July 2003 , after causing around 8 @,@ 000 cases and 800 deaths , the outbreak had ended . The exact origin of the SARS virus is not known , but evidence suggests that it came from bats .

= = = West Nile virus = = =

West Nile virus , a flavivirus , was first identified in 1937 when it was found in the blood of a feverish woman . The virus , which is carried by mosquitoes and birds , caused outbreaks of infection in North Africa and the Middle East in the 1950s and by the 1960s horses in Europe fell victim . The largest outbreak in humans occurred in 1974 in Cape Province , South Africa and 10 @,@ 000 people became ill . An increasing frequency of epidemics and epizootics ( in horses ) began in 1996 , around the Mediterranean basin , and by 1999 the virus had reached New York City . Since then the virus has spread throughout the US . In the US , mosquitoes carry the highest amounts of virus in late summer , and the number of cases of the disease increases in mid July to early September . When the weather becomes colder , the mosquitoes die and the risk of disease decreases . In Europe , many outbreaks have occurred ; in 2000 a surveillance programme began in the UK to monitor the incidence of the virus in humans , dead birds , mosquitoes and horses . The mosquito ( Culex modestus ) that can carry the virus breeds on the marshes of north Kent . This mosquito species was not previously thought to be present in the UK , but it is widespread in southern Europe where it carries West Nile virus .

= = = Nipah virus = = =

In 1997 an outbreak of respiratory disease occurred in Malaysian farmers and their pigs . More than 265 cases of encephalitis , of which 105 were fatal , were recorded . A new paramyxovirus was discovered in a victim 's brain ; it was named Nipah virus , after the village where he had lived . The infection was caused by a virus from fruit bats , after their colony had been disrupted by deforestation . The bats had moved to trees nearer the pig farm and the pigs caught the virus from their droppings .

= = = Viral haemorrhagic fevers = = =

Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the Filoviridae . Filoviruses are filament @-@ like viruses that cause viral haemorrhagic fever , and include the Ebola and Marburg viruses . The Marburg virus attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 after an outbreak in Angola . Beginning in October 2004 and continuing into 2005 , there were 252 cases including 227 deaths .

The Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa , which began in 2013 , is the most devastating since the emergence of HIV . The initial outbreak occurred in December 2013 in Meliandou , a village in southern Guinea . Among the first victims were a two @-@ year @-@ old boy , his three @-@ year @-@ old sister , their mother and grandmother . After the grandmother 's funeral , which was attended by her family and caregivers , the disease spread to neighbouring villages . By March 2014 the outbreak was severe enough to raise the concern of local health officials who reported it to the Guinean Ministry of Health . By the middle of the year the epidemic had spread to Liberia and Sierra Leone . As of June 2105 , the World Health Organisation reported over 27 @,@ 000 cases of the disease , which had resulted in more than 11 @,@ 000 deaths .

The natural source of Ebola virus is probably bats . Marburg viruses are transmitted to humans by monkeys , and Lassa fever by rats ( Mastomys natalensis ) . Zoonotic infections can be severe because humans often have no natural resistance to the infection and it is only when viruses become well @-@ adapted to new host that their virulence decreases . Some zoonotic infections are often " dead ends " , in that after the initial outbreak the rate of subsequent infections subsides because the viruses are not efficient at spreading from person to person .

The beginning of the 21st century saw an increase in the global awareness of devastating epidemics in developing countries , which , in previous decades had passed relatively unnoticed by the international health community .

= = Beneficial viruses = =

Sir Peter Medawar ( 1915 – 1987 ) described a virus as " a piece of bad news wrapped in a protein coat " . With the exception of the bacteriophages , viruses had a well @-@ deserved reputation for being nothing but the cause of diseases and death . The discovery of the abundance of viruses and their overwhelming presence in many ecosystems has led modern virologists to reconsider their role in the biosphere .

It is estimated that there are about 1031 viruses on Earth . Most of them are bacteriophages , and most are in the oceans . Microorganisms constitute more than 90 per cent of the biomass in the sea , and it has been estimated that viruses kill approximately 20 per cent of this biomass each day and that there are fifteen times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea . Viruses are the main agents responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms , which often kill other marine life , and help maintain the ecological balance of different species of marine blue @-@ green algae , and thus adequate oxygen production for life on Earth .

The emergence of strains of bacteria that are resistant to a broad range of antibiotics has become a problem in the treatment of bacterial infections . Only two new classes of antibiotics have been developed in the past 30 years , and novel ways of combating bacterial infections are being sought . Bacteriophages were first used to control bacteria in the 1920s , and a large clinical trial was conducted by Soviet scientists in 1963 . This work was unknown outside the Soviet Union until the results of the trial were published in the West in 1989 . The recent and escalating problems caused by antibiotic @-@ resistant bacteria has stimulated a renewed interest in the use of bacteriophages and phage therapy .

The Human Genome Project has revealed the presence of numerous viral DNA sequences scattered throughout the human genome . These sequences make up around eight per cent of human DNA , and appear to be the remains of ancient retrovirus infections of human ancestors . These pieces of DNA have firmly established themselves in human DNA . Most of this DNA is no longer functional , but some of these friendly viruses have brought with them novel genes that are important in human development . Viruses have transferred important genes to plants . About ten per cent of all photosynthesis uses the products of genes that have been transferred to plants from blue @-@ green algae by viruses .

= All things =

" all things " is the 17th episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Written and directed by lead actress Gillian Anderson , it first aired on April 9 , 2000 , on the Fox network . The episode is unconnected to the wider mythology of The X @-@ Files and functions as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story . Watched by 12 @.@ 18 million people , the initial broadcast had a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 1 . The episode received mixed reviews from critics ; many called the dialogue pretentious and criticized the characterization of Scully . However , viewer response was generally positive .

The series centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called " X @-@ Files " . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal . The skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , a series of coincidences lead Scully to meet Dr. Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , a married man with whom she had an affair while at medical school . After Waterston slips into a coma , Scully puts aside her skepticism and seeks out alternative medicine to save Waterston .

The script for " all things " , the only episode of the series written by Anderson , was originally fifteen pages too long with no fourth act . It was only after Anderson worked with series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz that the script was finished . The cast and crew helped Anderson adjust to her directorial debut — the first time a woman directed an episode of The X @-@ Files . The episode makes heavy use of " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play , as well as a gong . The episode has been analyzed for its themes of pragmatism and feminist philosophy .

= = Plot = =

FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is getting dressed in front of a mirror . As she leaves , her colleague Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) lies in his bed , half of his body covered by bedsheets . The narrative flashes back to a few days earlier : Scully arrives at a hospital and , after a series of coincidences , meets her former professor , Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , with whom she had an affair while attending medical school . He is ill and suffering from an undiagnosed heart condition . She questions whether she made the right decision to leave him and abandon her medical career to pursue a career in the FBI . She meets Waterston 's daughter , Maggie ( Stacy Haiduk ) , who is extremely resentful of Scully for the effect she had on Waterston 's family .

Mulder — on his way to England investigating heart chakra @-@ shaped crop circles — calls Scully and asks her to meet a contact of his , Colleen Azar ( Colleen Flynn ) , to obtain some information . As Scully speaks to Mulder on her cellphone while driving her car , a woman appears on a crosswalk . Scully brakes hard to avoid hitting the woman . As she does so , she narrowly avoids colliding with a diesel truck . She realizes that , had the woman not stepped in her path , the truck would have killed her . When she later arrives at the house of Azar , she observes that Scully is going through a personal crisis and tries to offer her guidance , but Scully is dismissive .

Later , Scully returns to apologize to Azar and agrees to listen to her ideas . Azar shares her knowledge of Buddhism , the concept of the collective unconscious , and the idea of personal auras . Azar believes these concepts might explain these strange occurrences . After a confrontation with Maggie at the hospital , Scully walks through Chinatown . Seeing the woman who appeared earlier at the crosswalk , she follows her to a small Buddhist temple before the mysterious woman seemingly vanishes . Inside the temple , Scully has a vision of what is ailing Waterston . She returns to the hospital with Azar to visit Waterston .

Azar and a healer provide alternative treatment for Waterston , who fully recovers . He announces that he still wants a relationship with Scully , but she realizes she is no longer the same person she was those many years ago and rejects him . As she sits outside the hospital on a bench , Scully thinks that she sees the mysterious woman again , but it turns out to be Mulder . Later , the two agents sit in Mulder 's apartment talking about the events of the last few days . Mulder begins to speak more existentially about what transpired , implying that fate has brought them together but , when he turns to look at Scully , he sees that she has fallen asleep .

= = Production = =

= = = Conception and writing = = =

Sometime during the sixth season of The X @-@ Files , Anderson approached series creator Chris Carter and asked to write an episode . Anderson 's own beliefs in the power of spiritual healing and Buddhism provided inspiration ; she wanted to write a script in which Scully pursued a " deeply personal X @-@ File , one in which [ she ] is taken down a spiritual path when logic fails her " . She wrote the basic outline of what became " all things " in one sitting , and pitched the script to Carter the next day ; he later approved of the " personal and quiet " characteristics of the story .

The first draft of the script was 72 pages — 15 pages too long — and did not feature a fourth act . Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz worked closely with Anderson to finish the episode , although Carter and Spotnitz later acknowledged that the majority of the script " was all Gillian " . Despite her satisfaction with the final version , Anderson regrets a handful of the " necessary " script changes , most notably , the addition that Scully and Waterston 's affair was intimate . In the original script , the two came close to having an affair , but Scully ended the relationship when she discovered that Waterston was married .

In the commentary for the episode , Anderson elaborated on Scully and Waterston 's original backstory : after Scully and Waterston came close to having an affair , Scully left to study at Quantico to become an FBI agent . After she left , Waterston become depressed , and his family began to suspect the affair . The emotional turmoil was too much for Waterston 's wife , who killed herself , which made Waterston 's daughter , Maggie , resent Scully , as shown in the finished episode . Anderson felt that the removal of this backstory made it hard for the audience to understand why Maggie was so angry at Scully .

When Anderson first wrote the episode , she did not hint that Scully and Mulder had had sex . Spotnitz and the production crew , however , felt it was natural to suggest that Scully and Mulder 's relationship may have evolved into a romantic one . The idea of heart chakra crop circles was included because Anderson wanted " whatever Mulder was involved in that took him away from me , away from Washington , to somehow tie into what it was that I was going through — the journey that I was going through " . As such , Anderson dedicated much of her time researching both crop circles and heart chakras , but she later gave additional credit to Spotnitz , who she noted was also heavily involved during the researching process .

= = = Directing and music = = =

Around the same time that she approached Carter about writing an episode , Anderson was also receiving offers from several television networks to direct shows . She , however , had never directed before , and decided that she would first attempt to helm an episode of The X @-@ Files before branching out into other series . Anderson thus expressed her wish to direct the episode when she pitched the original idea for " all things " . Carter accepted her story , but did not appoint her as director until all the revisions and rewrites had been completed . Anderson worked with series director Kim Manners for the majority of the episode , later noting that if she had any questions , she would approach Manners first . To help Anderson , Manners gave her directing exercises , such as making a list of shots for every scene . The episode also marked the first time that a woman had helmed the direction of an episode of The X @-@ Files .

Anderson 's directing helped to energize the production , and the cast and crew worked more than usual to make sure that everything was in order for her . Production designer Corey Kaplan made sure that the episode featured a Buddhist temple at Anderson 's request , and casting director Rick Millikan helped Anderson choose the appropriate actors and actresses . Millikan later said that he particularly enjoyed working with Anderson , because it was " fun " for him to watch her go through the casting process , which was entirely new to her . On set , Anderson 's directing style was described as " right on the money " by Marc Shapiro in his book all things : The Official Guide to The X @-@ Files , Volume 6 . He later wrote that " Anderson wielded a deft hand in her directorial debut , prodding the actors to her will , making decisions on the fly , and handling the complex special effects sequences " . Fans of the show later wrote to express their appreciation of Anderson 's directing abilities . Anderson was also involved in post @-@ production editing , during which she was forced to cut the final conversation scene between Scully and Daniel Waterston by 10 minutes in order to meet the allotted episode length .

The meditation scene required clips from previous episodes to appear in flashback . Initially , Paul Rabwin and the special effects crew cut the necessary scenes and placed them in animated bubbles . According to Rabwin , at this point , the crew was just experimenting with ideas . Eventually , the crew decided that the bubbles were too " hokey " , so they adopted a more standard slit @-@ scan effect . In order to create the sequence of Scully visualizing Waterston 's heart condition , Nicolas Surovy had to lie naked on a platform surrounded by a blue screen . A sphere was matched via motion control as a marker for a prosthetic beating heart that was crafted and filmed separately . The two shots were then combined .

Anderson wanted to include " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play in the episode , having heard it while driving home from work . She later explained that the song 's lyrics " fit with [ the ] idea that was unfolding for the script " . Anderson crafted the first shot after the opening credits , which involved Scully getting ready while water dripped from a sink , to create a " continuation of sound , rhythmic sound " , because it was important to the show 's musical aspect . Anderson and series composer Mark Snow worked together in post @-@ production ; after filming , she sent Snow several CDs of music and asked him for compositions that were similar in style and feel . A certain melody that the two worked on later became " Scully 's Theme " , which was not broadcast until the eighth season episode " Within " . " all things " also featured the use of the gong , an instrument that Anderson called " very Tibetan " and " appropriate for this episode " .

= = Themes = =

In the chapter " Scully as a Pragmatist Feminist " of the book The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , Erin McKenna argues that " all things " represents an " important shift " in Scully 's approach to science , knowledge acquisition , and the pursuit of the truth . She reasons that the events of the episode open Scully 's mind to new ways of knowing , specifically citing " auras , chakras , visions ... and the importance of coincidence " . McKenna notes that Scully 's shift in perspective is a shift to American pragmatism , a belief that reality is ever @-@ changing . Pragmatists believe " the truth is out there " — the motto of the series — in a manner similar to Mulder 's . In " all things " , Scully begins to embrace pragmatism , although she still clings to her skeptic roots . Mixing the two , Scully evolves from a mere skeptic who demands proof to validate a truth , to an empiricist who wants proof , but is open to other perspectives .

In addition , McKenna reasons that " all things " is heavily influenced by feminist philosophy and epistemology , schools of thought that try to criticize or re @-@ evaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy and epistemology from within a feminist framework . According to McKenna , feminism rejects dualistic ways of thinking , especially " typical male / female dualism " . Feminist philosophy , instead , calls for a pluralistic way of thinking , noting that there are many consistent sets of truths about the world . In the episode , Scully starts out " sure of her more rational scientific view and approach " . As the episode progresses , however , she decides to branch out . Eventually , she brings in a spirit healer to " corroborate or nullify the new beliefs she is encountering " . Despite dabbling in mysticism , a field generally stereotyped as feminine by the patriarchy , Scully engages in " protracted inquiry " , examining all sides of the issue , in order to return Waterston to health .

When Mulder and Scully talk at the end of the episode , Mulder questions the fact that he left " town for two days and [ Scully ] spoke to God in a Buddhist temple and God spoke back " . Scully retorts that , " I didn 't say God spoke back " . McKenna proposes that this is an example of Scully 's rational scientific approach meshing with her newer , feministic pragmatism . The two modes of understanding are not " to be seen ... as competing systems , but as complementary , as are Scully and Mulder themselves " . McKenna concludes that this is represented in the opening scene , in which Mulder and Scully are implied to have had sex . This is meant as a metaphor , showing the full merging of Scully 's and Mulder 's different philosophies into pragmatic feminism .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

The episode originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 9 , 2000 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on July 9 , 2000 . In the U.S. , " all things " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million viewers . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , tuned into the episode . In the U.K. , " all things " was seen by 580 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the seventh @-@ most watched program on Sky1 for that week . On May 13 , 2003 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh season .

Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and called it " a curious failure " . He felt that the writing was " pretentious " and composed of " some weird , weird bullshit " . VanDerWerff wrote that , although the episode was unsuccessful , there was something so " pure and unadorned at its center that I can 't outright hate it " . Furthermore , he admired the show and Anderson for " making the attempt " . Kevin Silber of Space.com gave the episode a negative review , critical of the script and characterization . He said , " nothing much seems to happen , and what does occur is substantially driven by coincidence and arbitrariness " . He did not like Azar and disapproved of Scully 's philosophical " reverie " , calling it " facile , and hard to reconcile with the determined rationalism she 's displayed over the years in the face of events no less strange than those that occur here " .

In their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson rated the episode one star out of five , calling the premise and characters dull . The two criticized Anderson for looking at the " minutiae of life too intensely " , which made many of the actors and actresses come off as ciphers . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson were critical of Anderson 's directing style , calling it " pretentious " , noting that the plot 's significance was drowned out by unnecessary artistic flourishes and needless pizzazz . Paula Vitaris from CFQ gave the episode a negative review , awarding it one star out of four . She called Anderson 's directing " heavy @-@ handed " and bemoaned the storyline because it " plays havoc with Scully 's motivations and character as established in the past seven years " .

Not all reviews were negative . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review and called it " wonderful " . He praised Anderson 's tenacity in presenting a darker moment from Scully 's past and favorably compared the episode to " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " in terms of character development . Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register wrote that the " wistful , meditative episode " was " not bad for Anderson 's first directing effort " . He did , however , comment that it was not as " sly as the episode about an alien baseball player that Duchovny directed " . The Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom , in a review of the seventh season , called the episode " interesting " .

While the episode received lukewarm reviews from critics , fans of the show reacted generally positively to " all things " , and the show 's producers received calls and letters from viewers stating that they " loved the vulnerability and quiet determination that Scully revealed in the unusual episode " .

= Hurricane Doria ( 1967 ) =

Hurricane Doria was an unusual and erratic hurricane that existed during September 1967 . The fourth named storm and hurricane of the 1967 Atlantic hurricane season , Doria developed on September 8 off the east coast of Florida . It meandered until attaining tropical storm status , at which point the storm accelerated towards the northeast . On September 10 , Doria intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After moving out to sea , the storm turned westward towards the United States . A compact cyclone , Doria weakened to a tropical storm shortly before moving ashore in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . The storm ultimately dissipated on September 21 .

The storm , which ultimately made landfall near the Virginia – North Carolina border , produced high winds along the coast from New Jersey through North Carolina . A small boat sank off the coast of New Jersey , killing three of its occupants . Overall damage was estimated around $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1967 USD ) , although the storm overall was considered beneficial .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Hurricane Doria are traced back to an area of disturbed weather off the northeastern coast of Florida on September 4 . For several days , the low pressure system meandered as its central barometric pressure gradually fell . The storm is estimated to have organized into a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 8 . At the time , it was situated north of Grand Bahama Island . Drifting westward , the cyclone attained tropical storm intensity early the next day . Doria turned northeastward and accelerated as it moved away from Florida . On September 10 , the tropical storm achieved hurricane force . Cold air became entrained into the hurricane 's circulation by September 11 , causing it to weaken to a tropical storm . However , its forward motion slowed and it once again strengthened .

The hurricane moved eastward , seemingly out to sea . However , an area of high pressure over New England began to steer Doria westward on September 13 . The hurricane continued to strengthen , and it is estimated to have peaked with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum air pressure of 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) . It maintained these winds for approximately 18 hours , before weakening slightly late on September 14 . In his 2007 book " Hurricanes and the Middle Atlantic States " , Rick Schwartz compared Doria to the 1933 Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane , citing similar intensities , tracks , and forward speeds . On September 16 , the storm weakened to a tropical storm in a colder , drier environment . As it turned southward , Doria quickly weakened . Initial forecasts suggested the possibility for the storm to maintain its severity and move ashore between Maryland and New Jersey .

Continually deteriorating , Doria made landfall near the Virginia – North Carolina border , and moved south over land . It reemerged over open waters on September 17 , and at around the same time , it weakened to a tropical depression . It curved southeastward as a weak depression , and several days later it was still identifiable as a storm system south of the island of Bermuda . It dissipated on September 21 . Doria had an unusual and capricious track , described as " one of the most erratic storms ever observed " .

= = Impact = =

In advance of the storm , hurricane warnings were issued for much of the East Coast of the United States . For 19 hours , about 260 mi ( 420 km ) of shoreline was under an advisory . At least 400 people were evacuated from their homes in southern New Jersey and 6 @,@ 600 from Ocean City , Maryland .

Doria was a small storm , although it brought high winds and moderate coastal flooding to some areas ; generally light rainfall was also observed . In North Carolina , 6 @.@ 09 in ( 155 mm ) of precipitation fell at Whiteville . Flash flooding and the overflowing of storm sewers ensued in the southeastern portions of the state ; there were also losses to crops , especially corn , cotton , and tobacco . In Virginia , strong winds were reported along the coast , with gusts up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at Wallops Island . Along the east coast of the state , winds damaged trees , roofs , signs , and billboards . In Maryland , similar impact occurred in Ocean City , with damage sustained to signs and billboards and tore the roof of a prefabricated home ; a city boardwalk also sustained storm @-@ related damage .

A station at the Indian River Inlet in Delaware recorded a tide 6 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) above @-@ normal ; the highest sustained winds reported on land association with the storm , 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , also occurred there . Atlantic City , New Jersey , recorded a peak gust of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , with rainfall amounting to 0 @.@ 53 in ( 13 mm ) . Damage from the storm was generally light . Off the coast of Ocean City , New Jersey , a cabin cruiser sank in 25 @-@ ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) seas . Three of the vessel 's occupants , a mother and her two sons , drowned . In Massachusetts , some small boats sank at the harbors . At Ipswich Bay , 10 people required rescue after two boats capsized . Minor beach erosion was reported at Nantucket . Overall damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 , which was considered minor . The storm 's passage was considered beneficial , due to adding sand to beaches and providing favorable rains .

= Brehon B. Somervell =

Brehon Burke Somervell ( 9 May 1892 – 13 February 1955 ) was a General in the United States Army and Commanding General of the Army Service Forces in World War II . As such he was responsible for the U.S. Army 's logistics . Following his death , the Washington Post lauded him as " one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced . "

Somervell graduated near the top of his United States Military Academy class of 1914 and was commissioned in the United States Army Corps of Engineers . During World War I he served with the Pancho Villa Expedition in Mexico and the American Expeditionary Force in France in logistical posts . He was also decorated for gallantry in the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive .

After the war he served in various engineering assignments . From 1936 to 1940 Somervell was head of the Works Project Administration in New York City , where he was responsible for a series of Great Depression relief works , including the construction of LaGuardia Airport .

As head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps in 1941 , Somervell took charge of the construction of a series of camps to house the large numbers of draftees who entering into the Army . Once again , Somervell was able to deliver vital projects on time . The most enduring of these projects was the Pentagon , which is today one of the most recognizable buildings in the world . From 1942 to 1945 , Somervell commanded the Army Service Forces , the logistical arm of the United States Army .

= = Early life = =

Brehon Burke Somervell was born on 9 May 1892 in Little Rock , Arkansas , the only child of William Taylor Somervell , a physician , and wife Mary née Burke , a schoolteacher . The two of them opened Belcourt Seminary , a girls ' finishing school in Washington , D.C. , in 1906 .

Somervell was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York by Congressman Charles C. Reid of Arkansas . He entered West Point in 1910 and graduated sixth out of the 106 cadets in the class of 1914 . Like other high @-@ ranking cadets of the period , he was commissioned a second Lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers .

= = World War I = =

Somervell traveled to Europe for his two months ' graduation leave and was in Paris when World War I broke out . Reporting to the U.S. Embassy in Paris for volunteer duty , he became an assistant to the military attaché . He took charge of refugee funds and dispensed $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to help American citizens to get back home .

On return to the United States , he was posted to an engineer battalion at Washington Barracks , DC . Scoring high marks in his Garrison Officers ' School examinations , he was promoted to 1st Lieutenant on 28 February 1915 . During the Punitive Expedition into Mexico in 1916 , he was for a time depot manager at Columbus , New Mexico , the main logistical base of the expedition . Later , he joined the expedition in Mexico , working on roads and as a supply officer .

Somervell returned to Washington Barracks to attend the Engineer School but his course was interrupted by the declaration of war by the United States on Germany on 6 April 1917 . The course was abruptly terminated and Somervell , along with hundreds of other junior officers , was ordered to appear before an examination board that would determine his fitness for promotion . Following a favorable report from the board , Somervell was promoted to captain on 15 May 1917 . He helped organize the 15th Engineers , a rail transport unit , at Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . In July 1917 this became the first engineer regiment to be sent overseas , arriving in England in July 1917 and France later that month . The 15th Engineers worked on a several construction projects , including a munitions dump at Mehun @-@ sur @-@ Yèvre and an advanced depot and regulating station at Is @-@ sur @-@ Tille . Somervell got his projects completed by working his men around the clock and deploying every available resource regardless of the cost . For his role , Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .

He was promoted to major on 15 August 1917 and lieutenant colonel on 1 October 1918 . While visiting some friends at the 89th Division , he volunteered his services to its chief of staff , Colonel John C. H. Lee , who accepted him as a temporary replacement for his Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 , in charge of operations , who had been captured a few days before . For leading a three @-@ man patrol to inspect damage to a bridge some 600 yards ( 550 m ) in front of American lines , Somervell was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . He was one of only nine American officers , including Douglas MacArthur , Barnwell R. Legge , Sereno E. Brett or William J. Donovan , to have been awarded both the Distinguished Service Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal in the First World War . A few days later Lee arranged for Somervell to be permanently assigned to the 89th Division .

= = Between the wars = =

The 89th Division returned to the United States in May 1919 but Somervell remained behind as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , in charge of supply , of the U.S. Third Army , and the American Forces in Germany , as it was re @-@ designated on 2 July 1919 . There , he met Anna Purnell , the daughter of a Chicago businessman , who was there as a YMCA volunteer . The two were married in August 1919 . They had three children together , all daughters . While in Germany , Somervell also met Walker D. Hines , a prominent New York corporate lawyer , whom he assisted with a survey of shipping and navigation on the Rhine River . Somervell reverted to the permanent rank of major on 1 July 1920 .

Returning to the United States in July 1920 , Somervell was posted to the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington , D.C. His war record earned him a place at the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , reserved for the Army 's best and most promising officers . He once again ranked near the top of his class . After graduation he was posted to the 1st New York Engineer District but soon obtained leave to assist Hines with a special study of navigation on the Rhine and Danube Rivers on behalf of the League of Nations , essentially a continuation of the work that the two men had done in 1920 . He then attended the Army War College from 1925 to 1926 .

From 1926 to 1930 he was District Engineer , Washington , D.C. Engineer District . As such he became involved in a conflict between proponents of the development of hydroelectric power through damming the Great Falls of the Potomac River and the Maryland @-@ National Capital Park and Planning Commission . Despite his advocacy , the falls remain undammed to this day . On 1 September 1930 , Somervell was transferred to the Lower Mississippi Valley Division as Assistant Chief Engineer . The next year he became assistant to , and then the District Engineer of the Memphis District . In 1933 , he teamed up with Hines again , for an economic survey of Turkey , which culminated in a seven @-@ volume report . Named as District Engineer for Ocala , Florida , Somervell got behind a project to build the Cross Florida Barge Canal . Somervell was chosen to head the project but although President Franklin D. Roosevelt allocated emergency funds for the canal in 1935 , opponents of the canal protested that it would cause seawater to seep into the groundwater , and work was stopped a year later . In the meantime , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1935 .

In 1935 , Somervell was appointed as head of the Works Project Administration in New York City . Over the next three and a half years he spent $ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a month on Great Depression relief works . He worked with the local politicians and labor leaders . He upheld the right of workers to form unions and improved relations with left @-@ wing groups , once declaring that " I wouldn 't know a Red if I saw one , and wouldn 't do anything about it if I did " . The biggest project was the construction of LaGuardia Airport . Somervell established a reputation as a man who could handle projects involving hundreds of thousands of people and hundreds of millions of dollars .

= = World War II = =

= = = Construction Division = = =

In December 1940 , Somervell became head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps , and was promoted to the temporary rank of brigadier general on 29 January 1941 . His immediate concern was the construction of a series of camps — which were scheduled for completion by April 1941 — to house the large numbers of draftees who were then entering the Army . Reasoning that time was more important than money , Somervell pushed the project through to completion . By February , he was responsible for a work force 485 @,@ 000 people employed on military construction projects . The job was completed on time but over $ 100 million over budget . He was also responsible for constructing new facilities to hold stores and munitions , for which $ 700 million was allocated by December 1940 . By December , 375 projects had been completed and 320 were still under way , with a total value of $ 1 @.@ 8 billion . He accepted promotion to brigadier general in the Army of the United States on February 14 , 1941 with the date of rank of January 29 , 1941 .

The best known of these projects was the Pentagon , an enormous office complex to house the War Department 's 40 @,@ 000 @-@ person staff together in one building . On the afternoon of Thursday , 17 July 1941 , Somervell summoned George Bergstrom and Major Hugh Casey . Bergstrom was a former president of the American Institute of Architects ; Casey a Corps of Engineers officer seconded to the Construction Division . The two had previously worked together closely on the design of cantonments . Somervell gave them until 9am on Monday morning to design the building , which he envisaged as a modern , four @-@ story structure with no elevators on the site of the old Washington Hoover Airport . Over that " very busy weekend " , Casey , Bergstrom and their staff roughed out the design for a four @-@ story , five @-@ sided structure with a floor area of 5 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 470 @,@ 000 m2 ) — twice that of the Empire State Building . The estimated cost was $ 35 million . President Roosevelt subsequently moved the site of the building , over Somervell 's objections , in order to prevent it being constructed in front of Arlington National Cemetery .

Somervell still pursued his own designs , making important changes , including the addition of a fifth story . The outbreak of war led to a new urgency , and by May 1942 , some 13 @,@ 000 workers were working around the clock on the building , which was completed in early 1943 at a cost of $ 63 million , the overrun being caused by the emphasis on speed and the addition of the extra floor . For his work with the Construction Division , Somervell was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal .

Somervell hoped to become Chief of Engineers but was " not really in the running " , being too junior in rank . Instead , the job went to Brigadier General Eugene Reybold , the Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 on the War Department General Staff . Somervell 's post was abolished on the transfer of the Construction Division to the Corps of Engineers . Reybold , who considered Somervell " a firecracker but ruthless " who " didn 't care who he hit " , selected Brigadier General Thomas M. Robins to head the new Corps of Engineers Construction Division .

Somervell instead received Reybold 's former assignment , with promotion to the temporary rank of major general on January 28 , 1942 and was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on March 9 , 1942 . The posting was unusual because Somervell had never previously served on War Department General Staff . As Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , Somervell pressed for the adoption of a comprehensive Army Supply Program that would set targets and priorities for all Army production . Such a program could be used as the basis for requests for appropriations , for expenditures , and for allocating scare materials .

= = = Army Service Forces = = =

Within weeks Army Chief of Staff , General George Marshall , implemented sweeping changes to the War Department designed to reduce the number of people reporting to him so as to free his time for planning and conducting a global war . Three huge new commands were created by Executive Order Number 9082 of 28 February 1942 , " Reorganizing the Army and the War Department " : the Army Air Forces under Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold , the Army Ground Forces under Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair and the Services of Supply , under Somervell . As such , he was not only promoted to the rank of lieutenant general over the heads of many more senior officers , but some of them , including Reybold , now found themselves his subordinates . He was answerable to two men : Marshall , and Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson . Somervell built up a good working relationship with both . Senator Harry S. Truman of the Truman Committee disapproved of Somervell 's cost overruns , declaring : " I will say this for General Somervell , he will get the stuff , but it is going to be hell on the taxpayer . He has a WPA attitude on the expenditure of money . " The Services of Supply were renamed the Army Service Forces in March 1943 , as the term " supply " was felt to be too narrow a description of the broad range of logistic activities carried out by the organization . As head of Army Service Forces , Somervell became responsible for the implementation of the Army Supply Program .

According to military historian John D. Millett , who served on Somervell 's Army Service Forces staff , Somervell was " impatient , tense , and decisive " . Some saw him as an " empire @-@ builder " . Millett noted the opinion of an observer that :

In the jurisdictional. wrangles that developed there was one argument ad hominem that was constantly used , to wit : that the A.S.F. and its dynamic Commanding General were constantly seeking as `Empire Builders ' to enlarge their job by encroaching on that of others . By dint of repetition it got considerable acceptance inside the Department and out . There was something in the drive of the Commanding General of the A.S.F. , his quickness on the mental trigger , his adroitness and his evident ambition to tackle tough jobs that in itself lent some support to this feeling of impending encroachment among those of a more deliberate pace . I should be surprised if the Chief of Staff ever had any such feeling though he must have been well aware of the feelings of others in his organization in this respect .

A 1943 attempt by Somervell to abolish the Technical Services failed amid the furor and panic created by false rumors that he was being considered for the post of Chief of Staff if Marshall was sent to Europe to command the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force . Somervell sometimes pushed extravagant white elephant projects , such as the Canol Road , which he continued long after the strategic imperative behind it had faded .

Somervell understood logistics and its paramount importance in modern warfare , and he spared no effort to ensure that the American fighting man had all he needed for victory . Near the end of the war , Somervell was promoted to general on March 9 , 1945 . He was the very few officers to be promoted to that rank during the war who had not commanded combat forces overseas .

When Somervell 's retirement was announced in December 1945 , Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson issued a press release that read :

In organizing and directing the worldwide supply lines on which our troops depended for their offensive power , General Somervell performed a service without parallel in military history . He was completely dedicated to the task of winning the war in the shortest possible time and with the smallest cost in America lives , and the energy and ability he applied to his task contributed in great measure to the force of our attack and the speed of our victory .

= = Decorations = =

Here is the ribbon bar of General Brehon B. Somervell :

= = Later life and legacy = =

Somervell retired from the Army on 30 April 1946 and moved to Ocala , Florida . His wife Anna had died in January , 1942 and he had married Mrs. Louise Hampton Wartmann , a former student at Belcourt , in March 1943 . Somervell accepted an offer to become president of Koppers , a Pittsburgh @-@ based company that mined coal and manufactured and sold coal @-@ based products . Applying the same managerial techniques that he had employed in the Army , he thoroughly reorganized the company , and doubled revenues and tripled profits over the next five years .

Somervell suffered a series of health problems in the 1950s . He had an appendectomy in 1953 and a hernia operation in 1954 . He suffered a severe heart attack in September 1954 and returned to his home Ocala to recuperate . In early 1955 he decided to resign as president and withdraw from day @-@ to @-@ day operations . He had a second , fatal heart attack at his home on 13 February 1955 . He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery , not far from his " brain child " , the Pentagon . Unfortunately , his other great creation , the Army Service Forces did not survive , being abolished in May 1946 . The Washington Post lauded him as " one of the ablest officers the United States Army has produced . " The USAT General Brehon B. Somervell , a US Army Reserve logistics support vessel that can carry up to 2 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 800 t ) of cargo , is named in his honor .

= Littorio @-@ class battleship =

The Littorio class , also known as the Vittorio Veneto class , was a class of battleship of the Regia Marina , the Italian navy . The class was composed of four ships : Littorio , Vittorio Veneto , Roma , and Impero . Only the first three ships of the class were completed , however . Built between 1934 and 1942 , they were the most modern battleships used by Italy during World War II . The Littorio @-@ class ships were developed in response to the French Dunkerque @-@ class battleships , and were armed with 381 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) guns and had a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . The design was considered by the Spanish Navy , but the outbreak of World War II interrupted construction plans .

The first two ships , Littorio and Vittorio Veneto , were operational by the early months of Italy 's participation in World War II . They formed the backbone of the Italian fleet , and conducted several sorties into the Mediterranean to intercept British convoys , though without any notable success . The two ships were repeatedly torpedoed throughout their careers : Littorio was hit by a torpedo during the attack on Taranto in November 1940 and again in June 1942 and Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed during the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and while escorting a convoy to North Africa in September 1941 . Roma joined the fleet in June 1942 , though all three ships remained inactive in La Spezia until June 1943 , when all three were damaged in a series of Allied air attacks on the harbor .

In September 1943 , Italy capitulated and signed an Armistice with the Allies . Littorio was then renamed Italia . The three active battleships were transferred to Malta before they were to be interned in Alexandria . While en route to Malta , German bombers attacked the fleet with Fritz X radio @-@ guided bombs , damaging Italia and sinking Roma . Nevertheless , Italia and Vittorio Veneto reached Malta and were interned . The incomplete Impero was seized by the Germans after Italy withdrew from the war and used as a target , until she was sunk by American bombers in 1945 . Italia and Vittorio Veneto were awarded to the United States and Britain , respectively , as war prizes . Italia , Vittorio Veneto , and Impero were broken up for scrap between 1952 and 1954 .

= = Design = =

The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 allotted Italy an additional 70 @,@ 000 long tons ( 71 @,@ 000 t ) of total capital ship tonnage , which could be used in 1927 – 1929 , while other powers were observing the " holiday " in battleship construction prescribed by the treaty . France , which was given parity with Italy , also possessed 70 @,@ 000 tons of capital ship tonnage . Both countries were put under significant pressure from the other signatories to use their allotted tonnage to build smaller battleships with reduced caliber main batteries . The first Italian design , prepared in 1928 , called for a 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ) ship armed with a main battery of six 381 mm ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) guns in twin turrets . They opted for this design because this allowed three ships under the 70 @,@ 000 @-@ ton limit . This would have allowed the Italian fleet to keep at least two units operational at any given time . Protection and radius of action were sacrificed for speed and heavy armament , though the Italians did not value range , as they operated primarily in the confined waters of the Mediterranean .

Later in 1928 , the design staff prepared another ship , with a displacement of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) , armed with six 406 mm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) guns and protected against guns of the same caliber . At least one of these ships would have followed the three 23 @,@ 000 @-@ ton ships once the building holiday expired in 1931 . Funding was not allocated to begin construction , however , as the Italian Navy did not want to instigate an arms race with the French Navy . The London Naval Treaty of 1930 extended the building holiday to 1936 , though Italy and France retained the right to build 70 @,@ 000 tons of new capital ships . Both countries rejected British proposals to limit new battleship designs to 25 @,@ 000 long tons ( 25 @,@ 000 t ) and 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns . After 1930 , the Italian Navy abandoned the smaller designs altogether . By 1930 , Germany had begun to build the three Deutschland @-@ class ships , armed with six 280 mm ( 11 in ) guns , and France had in turn laid down two Dunkerque @-@ class battleships to counter them . The French vessels were armed with eight 330 mm ( 13 in ) guns . In late 1932 , Italian constructors responded with a design similar to the Deutschland class , but armed with six 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) guns in triple turrets on a 18 @,@ 000 long tons ( 18 @,@ 000 t ) displacement .

The Italian Navy decided that the smaller design was impractical , and that a larger design should be pursued . A 26 @,@ 500 long tons ( 26 @,@ 900 t ) design was then prepared , which mounted eight 343 mm guns in twin turrets . This was ultimately abandoned in favor of a 35 @,@ 000 ton design to be armed with 406 mm guns . The 406 mm gun in turn was abandoned in favor of the 381 mm gun because there were no designs for the larger gun , which would delay construction ; a 381 mm gun had already been designed for the canceled Francesco Caracciolo class . Ultimately , nine 381 mm guns in three triple turrets were adopted as the primary battery for the ships , on a displacement in excess of 40 @,@ 000 long tons ( 41 @,@ 000 t ) , despite the fact that this violated the established naval treaties . Nevertheless , by the time these ships entered service , the international arms control system had fallen apart and the major naval powers had invoked the " escalator clause " that allowed for ships up to 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) displacement .

= = = General characteristics = = =

The ships of the class varied slightly in dimensions . Littorio and Vittorio Veneto were 224 @.@ 05 meters ( 735 @.@ 1 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 237 @.@ 76 m ( 780 @.@ 1 ft ) long overall , while Roma and Impero were 240 @.@ 68 m ( 789 @.@ 6 ft ) long overall . All four ships had a draft of 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) and a beam of 32 @.@ 82 m ( 107 @.@ 7 ft ) . Littorio displaced 40 @,@ 724 metric tons ( 40 @,@ 081 long tons ; 44 @,@ 891 short tons ) as designed and 45 @,@ 236 t ( 44 @,@ 522 long tons ; 49 @,@ 864 short tons ) at full load . Vittorio Veneto displaced 40 @,@ 517 t ( 39 @,@ 877 long tons ; 44 @,@ 662 short tons ) and 45 @,@ 029 t ( 44 @,@ 318 long tons ; 49 @,@ 636 short tons ) , respectively . Roma 's displacement increased slightly as compared to the other ships , to 40 @,@ 992 t ( 40 @,@ 345 long tons ; 45 @,@ 186 short tons ) and 45 @,@ 485 t ( 44 @,@ 767 long tons ; 50 @,@ 139 short tons ) , respectively . As Impero was not completed , her final displacement is unknown . As built , the ships were fitted with bulbous bows to increase their speed , but they were found to cause serious vibration , which forced a modification to the bow .

Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had a standard crew of 80 officers and 1 @,@ 750 enlisted men ; while serving as a flagship , the crew was increased by a command staff of between 11 and 31 additional officers . The standard crew for Roma and Impero was increased by 100 enlisted men . Aircraft facilities were located on the quarterdeck , where it was initially planned to base six La Cierva autogyros . Instead , a single catapult was fitted . The ships were equipped with three Ro.43 reconnaissance seaplanes or navalized Re.2000 fighters . The Re.2000 fighter was a wheeled aircraft and had to land on an airfield .

The ships ' propulsion system consisted of four Belluzzo geared steam turbines powered by eight oil @-@ fired Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 128 @,@ 200 shaft horsepower ( 95 @,@ 600 kW ) and a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . On sea trials , both Littorio and Vittorio Veneto exceeded the design specifications for their power plant . Littorio reached 137 @,@ 649 shp ( 102 @,@ 645 kW ) and 31 @.@ 3 kn ( 58 @.@ 0 km / h ; 36 @.@ 0 mph ) , while Vittorio Veneto made 133 @,@ 771 shp ( 99 @,@ 753 kW ) and 31 @.@ 4 kn ( 58 @.@ 2 km / h ; 36 @.@ 1 mph ) , both at light loadings . In service , however , the ships averaged 28 kn ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Figures for Roma 's speed trials have not been recorded . The ships carried 4 @,@ 140 t ( 4 @,@ 070 long tons ; 4 @,@ 560 short tons ) of fuel oil , which enabled a maximum range of 4 @,@ 580 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 480 km ; 5 @,@ 270 mi ) at a cruising speed of 16 kn ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . At 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , the ships ' range increased slightly to 4 @,@ 700 nmi ( 8 @,@ 700 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) . The entire machinery system accounted for about 5 @.@ 6 percent of the total displacement .

= = = Armament = = =

The ships ' main battery consisted of nine 381 mm L / 50 Ansaldo 1934 guns in three triple turrets , two in a superfiring pair forward and one aft . These long @-@ barrel , high @-@ velocity guns were chosen to compensate for the smaller 381 mm shell as compared to the 406 mm gun originally desired . The 381 mm guns had a maximum elevation of 35 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 42 @,@ 260 m ( 138 @,@ 650 ft ) . The guns fired a 885 kg ( 1 @,@ 951 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 870 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . High explosive shells weighed 774 kg ( 1 @,@ 706 lb ) . The high muzzle velocity of the guns reduced their service life and increased the dispersion of the fall of shot . Shell rooms were located below the propellant magazines beneath the gun house in the turret structure . The guns ' rate of fire was one shot every 45 seconds .

The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) L / 55 Ansaldo Model 1934 guns in four triple turrets . Two were placed abreast the No. 2 main battery turret and two on either side of the rear turret . These guns fired a 50 kg ( 110 lb ) AP shell at a muzzle velocity of 910 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) . They could elevate to 45 degrees , permitting a maximum range of 25 @,@ 740 m ( 84 @,@ 450 ft ) . They had a rate of fire of slightly better than four rounds a minute . Four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns supplemented the 152 mm guns . The ships ' anti @-@ aircraft armament was composed of a powerful battery of twelve 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 50 guns closely arranged amidships , twenty 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 54 guns , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) L / 65 guns . The 90 mm guns provided long @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft protection , and were mounted in quadriaxially stabilized single turrets . They had a rate of fire of 12 rounds per minute and had a ceiling of approximately 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . The 37 mm and 20 mm guns were designed for close @-@ range defense and had effective ranges of 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) and 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) , respectively .

= = = Armor = = =

The ships ' belt armor was designed to defeat 380 mm shells at ranges over 16 @,@ 000 m ( 52 @,@ 000 ft ) , and was inclined at 11 degrees . The belt was layered as follows : a 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) hardened steel belt was used to de @-@ cap armor @-@ piercing projectiles . A 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) wide gap separated the outer layer from the main belt armor , which was 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick and was backed with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of timber and 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) skin plating . Another 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) wide gap separated the main belt from a 36 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick splinter screen . Another 25 mm thick screen was placed further inboard . The main section of the belt armor was closed on either end by 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick transverse bulkheads . The bow was protected by a 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick belt , while the stern was given 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) of armor protection .

Horizontal protection over the magazine consisted of a 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) thick armored deck . Over the machinery spaces , the deck was reduced in thickness to 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) , and on the outboard portions of the ships , the deck was reduced further to 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) . The aft steering rooms and auxiliary machinery spaces were protected by a 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick deck . The main conning tower was protected by 50 – 130 mm thick side armor .

Above the deck , the main battery barbettes that housed the turret assemblies for the 381 mm guns were protected with 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick armor , while below deck the thickness was reduced to 280 mm . The faces of the main battery turrets were 350 mm thick , with 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and roofs . The secondary gun turrets were housed in barbettes 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick above deck and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick below deck . The turret faces were 280 mm thick , with 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick sides . Below the third deck , neither the primary nor secondary barbettes were protected by armor . The anti @-@ aircraft guns were protected with gun shields ranging in thickness from 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .

= = = = Pugliese torpedo defense system = = = =

All four ships incorporated a unique underwater protection system named after its designer , Umberto Pugliese . A 40 mm thick torpedo bulkhead extended inboard from the base of the main belt before curving down to meet the bottom of the hull . This formed a void which housed an empty drum 380 mm ( 15 in ) wide with 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) thick walls ; the rest of the void was filled with liquid . The drum ran the length of the torpedo defense system , and was designed to collapse to contain the explosive pressure of a torpedo hit . The torpedo bulkhead would prevent any splinters or explosive effects from entering the ships ' vitals . The system was designed to protect the ship from torpedo warheads up to 350 kg ( 770 lb ) .

The system did not perform as effectively as expected , however . This was due to two major defects in the design . The riveted joint that connected the interior torpedo bulkhead to the bottom of the hull was not strong enough to sustain the tremendous shear loadings associated with direct contact explosions . The joints failed even in cases of non @-@ contact explosions ; this prevented the hollow drum from collapsing as designed and resulted in massive flooding . The fineness of the hull shape prevented the 380 mm thickness from being maintained for the entire central citadel ; the width of the drum was reduced significantly abreast of the main battery , down to 228 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) . The ability of the drum to absorb explosive shock correspondingly fell in relation to its size .

= = Construction = =

The keels for Vittorio Veneto and Littorio were laid on the same day , 28 October 1934 , at the Cantieri Riuniti dell 'Adriatico shipyard in Trieste and the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa , respectively . Vittorio Veneto was launched on 22 July 1937 , with Littorio following exactly one month later on 22 August . While incomplete , Vittorio Veneto went to sea on 23 October 1939 to conduct machinery trials . She was delivered to the Italian Navy in Trieste , still incomplete , some six months later on 28 April 1940 . She departed Trieste on 1 May for final fitting out at the dockyard in La Spezia . After completion on 15 May 1940 , she went to Taranto to join the fleet . Littorio underwent the same pattern of machinery trials prior to completion ; she was delivered to the fleet on 6 May 1940 .

Two additional ships were laid down four years later . Roma was built by the CRDA shipyard , starting on 18 September 1938 . She was launched on 9 June 1940 and was completed on 14 June 1942 , after which she joined the fleet in La Spezia and replaced Littorio as the fleet flagship . Impero was laid down at the Ansaldo shipyard on 14 May 1938 . She was launched on 15 November 1939 , but she was never completed . After the entrance of Italy to World War II , the Italian Navy moved the unfinished ship from Genoa to Brindisi , out of fears of French attacks on the vessel . Work was not resumed .

= = Ships = =

= = Service history = =

Littorio and Vittorio Veneto were declared operational on 2 August 1940 , and were assigned to the 9th Division of the 1st Squadron . On 31 August , the two ships , along with three of the older battleships steamed with a force of ten cruisers and thirty @-@ one destroyers to engage the Operation Hats convoy , but poor reconnaissance prevented the Italian force from engaging the British ships . The ships made another unsuccessful sortie to attack another Malta convoy on 29 September . During the attack on Taranto on 12 November 1940 , Littorio was hit twice by torpedoes , suffering serious damage . Significant flooding caused the ship to settle by the bow . The ship was dry @-@ docked on 11 December , with repairs completed by 11 March 1941 . Vittorio Veneto , however , emerged from the attack undamaged . While her sister was being repaired , she took over flagship duties and was transferred to Naples .

Vittorio Veneto sortied on 26 November and encountered British forces south of Sardinia . During the resulting Battle of Cape Spartivento , Swordfish torpedo bombers from the carrier HMS Ark Royal attacked Vittorio Veneto , though she evaded the torpedoes . She briefly engaged British cruisers with her rear main battery turret , without scoring any hits . During the engagement , one of her Ro.43 reconnaissance planes was shot down by a Skua fighter . On the night of 8 – 9 January 1941 , the Royal Air Force attacked Naples with heavy bombers , but failed to hit the ship . In February , Vittorio Veneto , Andrea Doria and Giulio Cesare attempted to attack what was believed to be a Malta convoy . The British squadron was in fact Force H , steaming to bombard Genoa . The two fleets did not make contact , however , and the Italians returned to port .

On 26 March 1941 , Vittorio Veneto departed port to attack British convoys to Greece . Germany pressured the Italian Navy to begin the operation , under the impression that they had disabled two of the three battleships assigned to the British Mediterranean Fleet . This resulted in the Battle of Cape Matapan the following day , during which Vittorio Veneto engaged British cruisers . She was then attacked by torpedo bombers from HMS Formidable ; the first wave failed , but the second scored a single hit on both Vittorio Veneto and the heavy cruiser Pola . The battleship was flooded with some 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ; 4 @,@ 400 short tons ) of water , though she got underway after ten minutes and eventually reached Taranto on 29 March . Repairs lasted until July .

Littorio and Vittorio Veneto had both returned to active duty by August 1941 , and on the 22nd the two ships sortied to attack a convoy . They returned to port without encountering any British forces , however . On 26 September , the two battleships attempted to intercept the Operation Halberd convoy , but they broke off the operation without attacking the convoy . While escorting a convoy to North Africa , Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS Urge ; repairs lasted until Spring , 1942 . Shortly thereafter , on 13 December , Littorio escorted another convoy to North Africa . This operation resulted in the First Battle of Sirte , which ended inconclusively . She provided distant cover to another convoy on 3 – 6 January 1942 . On 21 March , she sortied to attack a British convoy , which led to the Second Battle of Sirte . During the engagement , she badly damaged the destroyers Havock and Kingston .

Repairs to Vittorio Veneto were completed in time for her to join Littorio on attacks on the convoys Vigorous and Harpoon , which had departed Alexandria and Gibraltar to reinforce Malta simultaneously in mid @-@ June . Combat was limited to the opposing light forces , and Littorio and Vittorio Veneto did not see action ; the British nevertheless broke off Operation Vigorous due to the ships ' presence and heavy air attacks . While returning to port , Littorio was hit by a bomb from an American B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bomber ; the bomb struck the forward gun turret , though it did minimal damage . Before returning to port , a British Wellington bomber torpedoed the ship . The torpedo struck her starboard bow , though she returned to port . Repairs were completed and on 12 December , both ships were moved from Taranto to La Spezia in response to the Allied landings in North Africa . Roma joined the fleet shortly after the attacks on the two convoys , and joined her sisters for the move to La Spezia . There , she replaced Littorio as the fleet flagship .

In June 1943 , a series of Allied air raids attacked La Spezia in an attempt to neutralize the three battleships . On 5 June , she was hit by two large bombs that struck her port side . She was transferred to Genoa for repairs , which were not completed before the Armistice that ended Italian participation in the war . Littorio was hit by three bombs on 19 June , a week after her sister was damaged . She was renamed Italia after Benito Mussolini 's regime collapsed . Roma was damaged during the 5 June attack and again in a third attack on 23 June . In September 1943 , following the withdrawal of Italy from the war , all three ships and a significant portion of the Italian fleet left port to be interned in Malta . While en route , German bombers laden with Fritz @-@ X radio @-@ guided bombs attacked the formation . One hit Italia in the bow forward the main battery turrets , causing serious damage . Two hit Roma ; one passed through the ship and exploded under her keel , and the second hit near the forward magazines . The bomb detonated the magazines , causing a massive explosion that destroyed the ship with heavy casualties .

Italia and Vittorio Veneto reached Malta , where they remained until 14 September , when they were transferred to Alexandria . They remained at the Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal for the rest of the war . On 6 June 1946 , Vittorio Veneto steamed to Augusta in Sicily , where , under the Treaty of Peace with Italy , she was allocated to Britain . On 14 October 1946 , she was moved to La Spezia , paid off on 3 January 1948 , and broken up for scrap . Italia left Great Bitter Lake on 5 February 1947 , to join her sister in Augusta . Allocated to the United States , she was stricken on 1 June 1948 and scrapped in La Spezia . The incomplete Impero had meanwhile been seized by the retreating Germans in 1943 , who used her as a target , until she was sunk by American bombers on 20 February 1945 . In October 1947 , the ship was raised and towed to Venice , where she was broken up .

= = The Littorio design in foreign navies = =

In 1939 , Spain 's General Francisco Franco briefly considered a naval building program after seizing power in the Spanish Civil War . Franco concluded several agreements with the Italian government that would have seen the building of four Littorio @-@ class battleships in Spain . The Italians promised to provide all necessary technical and material support for the construction of the ships . The Italian Navy pushed to modernize and enlarge the existing shipyards in Spain , so that they could handle a vessel as large as the Littorio class . The project was abandoned after Italy became involved in World War II , and as a result of limited Spanish industrial capacity .

In the early 1930s , the Soviet Navy began a naval construction program , and sought advice from foreign shipbuilders for a new class of battleships . On 14 July 1939 , Ansaldo completed a design proposal for the Soviet Navy , for a ship largely based on the Littorio class , designated U.P. 41 . The design was for a 42 @,@ 000 t ( 41 @,@ 000 long tons ; 46 @,@ 000 short tons ) ship armed with nine 406 mm guns in triple turrets . The Italians did not disclose the specifications of the Pugliese system and instead used a multiple @-@ torpedo bulkhead system . Regardless , the Soviet Navy did not use the U.P. 41 design as the basis for the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships they laid down in the late 1930s . They were , however , equipped with the Pugliese system , the details of which were revealed through Soviet espionage .

In preparing the design for the Design 1047 type of battlecruisers in early 1940 , the Dutch Navy inspected Vittorio Veneto , then under construction , in hopes of gathering some experience on the underwater protection system . The Italians refused to disclose the details of the Pugliese system , however .

= = Endnotes = =

Notes

Citations

= Typhoon =

A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean between 180 ° and 100 ° E. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin , and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth , accounting for almost one @-@ third of the world 's annual tropical cyclones . For organisational purposes , the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions : the eastern ( North America to 140 ° W ) , central ( 140 ° to 180 ° W ) , and western ( 180 ° to 100 ° E ) . The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( RSMC ) for tropical cyclone forecasts is in Japan , with other tropical cyclone warning centers for the northwest Pacific in Hawaii ( the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ) , the Philippines and Hong Kong . While the RSMC names each system , the main name list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year . The Philippines use their own naming list for systems approaching the country .

Within the northwestern Pacific there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical cyclones form throughout the year . Like any tropical cyclone , there are six main requirements for typhoon formation and development : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . The majority of storms form between June and November while tropical cyclone formation is at a minimum between December and May . On average , the northwestern Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally . Like other basins , they are steered by the subtropical ridge towards the west or northwest , with some systems recurving near and east of Japan . The Philippines receive the brunt of the landfalls , with China and Japan being impacted slightly less . Some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck China . Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the region , with a thousand @-@ year sample via documents within their archives . Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest Pacific tropical cyclone basins .

= = Nomenclature = =

= = = Etymology and usage = = =

The term Typhoon is the regional name in the northwest Pacific for a severe ( or mature ) tropical cyclone , whereas hurricane is the regional term in the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic . Elsewhere this is called a tropical cyclone , severe tropical cyclone , or severe cyclonic storm .

The Oxford English Dictionary cites several Oriental words from Persian and Chinese giving rise to two early forms in English : touffon ( from Persian ) and tuffoon / tay @-@ fun ( from Chinese ) .

The Persian source is the word توفان tūfān ( " storm " ; also Arabic طوفان ( ṭūfān , " to turn round " ) , Hindi तूफ ़ ान ( tūfān ) ) from the verb tūfīdan ( Persian : توفیدن / طوفیدن , " to roar , to blow furiously " ) .

The Chinese source is the word tai fung ( simplified Chinese : 台风 ; traditional Chinese : 颱風 ; pinyin : táifēng ) , cited as a common dialect form of Mandarin dà " big " and fēng " wind " . In Mandarin the word for the windstorm is 大风 ( dàfēng , " big wind " ) and in Cantonese 大風 ( daai6 fung1 , " big wind " ) .

The Ancient Greek Τυφῶν ( Tuphôn , " Typhon , father of the winds " ) is unrelated but has secondarily contaminated the word .

= = = Intensity classifications = = =

A tropical depression is the lowest category that the Japan Meteorological Agency uses and is the term used for a tropical system that has wind speeds not exceeding 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) . A tropical depression is upgraded to a tropical storm should its sustained wind speeds exceed 34 knots ( 39 mph ; 63 km / h ) . Tropical storms also receive official names from RSMC Tokyo . Should the storm intensify further and reach sustained wind speeds of 48 knots ( 55 mph ; 89 km / h ) then it will be classified as a severe tropical storm . Once the system 's maximum sustained winds reach wind speeds of 64 knots ( 74 mph ; 119 km / h ) , the JMA will designate the tropical cyclone as a typhoon — the highest category on its scale .

From 2009 the Hong Kong Observatory started to further divide typhoons into three different classifications : typhoon , severe typhoon and super typhoon . A typhoon has wind speed of 64 @-@ 79 knots ( 73 @-@ 91 mph ; 118 – 149 km / h ) , a severe typhoon has winds of at least 80 knots ( 92 mph ; 150 km / h ) , and a super typhoon has winds of at least 100 knots ( 120 mph ; 190 km / h ) . The United States ' Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) unofficially classifies typhoons with wind speeds of at least 130 knots ( 67 m / s ; 150 mph ; 241 km / h ) — the equivalent of a strong Category 4 storm in the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale — as super typhoons . However , the maximum sustained wind speed measurements that the JTWC uses are based on a 1 @-@ minute averaging period , akin to the U.S. ' National Hurricane Center and Central Pacific Hurricane Center . As a result , the JTWC 's wind reports are higher than JMA 's measurements , as the latter are based on a 10 @-@ minute averaging interval .

= = Genesis = =

There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre @-@ existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . While these conditions are necessary for tropical cyclone formation , they do not guarantee that a tropical cyclone will form . Normally , an ocean temperature of 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) spanning through a depth of at least 50 metres ( 160 ft ) is considered the minimum to maintain the special mesocyclone that is the tropical cyclone . These warm waters are needed to maintain the warm core that fuels tropical systems . A minimum distance of 500 km ( 300 mi ) from the equator is normally needed for tropical cyclogenesis .

Whether it be a depression in the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) or monsoon trough , a broad surface front , or an outflow boundary , a low level feature with sufficient vorticity and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis . About 85 to 90 percent of Pacific typhoons form within the monsoon trough . Even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability , the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low . Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m / s ( 20 kn , 33 ft / s ) between the ocean surface and the tropopause is required for tropical cyclone development . Typically with Pacific typhoons , there are two outflow jets : one to the north ahead of an upper trough in the Westerlies , and a second towards the equator .

In general , westerly wind increases associated with the Madden – Julian oscillation lead to increased tropical cyclogenesis in all tropical cyclone basins . As the oscillation propagates from west to east , it leads to an eastward march in tropical cyclogenesis with time during that hemisphere 's summer season . On average , twice per year twin tropical cyclones will form in the western Pacific ocean , near the 5th parallel north and the 5th parallel south , along the same meridian , or line of longitude . There is an inverse relationship between tropical cyclone activity in the western Pacific basin and the north Atlantic basin , however . When one basin is active , the other is normally quiet , and vice versa . The main reason for this appears to be the phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , or MJO , which is normally in opposite modes between the two basins at any given time .

= = Frequency = =

Nearly one @-@ third of the world 's tropical cyclones form within the western Pacific . This makes this basin the most active on Earth . Pacific typhoons have formed year round , with peak months from August to October . The peak months correspond to that of the Atlantic hurricane seasons . Along with a high storm frequency , this basin also features the most globally intense storms on record . One of the most recent busy seasons was 2013 . Tropical cyclones form in any month of the year across the northwest Pacific ocean , and concentrate around June and November in the northern Indian ocean . The area just northeast of the Philippines is the most active place on Earth for tropical cyclones to exist . Across the Philippines themselves , activity reaches a minimum in February , before increasing steadily through June , and spiking from July through October , with September being the most active month for tropical cyclones across the archipelago . Activity falls off significantly in November , although Typhoon Haiyan , the strongest Philippine typhoon on record , was a November typhoon . The most frequently impacted areas of the Philippines by tropical cyclones are northern and central Luzon and eastern Visayas . A ten @-@ year average of satellite determined precipitation showed that at least 30 percent of the annual rainfall in the northern Philippines could be traced to tropical cyclones , while the southern islands receive less than 10 percent of their annual rainfall from tropical cyclones . The genesis and intensity of typhoons are also modulated by slow variation of the sea surface temperature and circulation features following a near @-@ 10 @-@ year frequency .

= = Paths = =

Most tropical cyclones form on the side of the subtropical ridge closer to the equator , then move poleward past the ridge axis before recurving north and northeast into the main belt of the Westerlies . When the subtropical ridge position shifts due to El Niño , so will the preferred tropical cyclone tracks . Areas west of Japan and Korea tend to experience many fewer September – November tropical cyclone impacts during El Niño and neutral years . During El Niño years , the break in the subtropical ridge tends to lie near 130 ° E , which would favor the Japanese archipelago . During La Niña years , the formation of tropical cyclones , along with the subtropical ridge position , shifts westward across the western Pacific ocean , which increases the landfall threat to China and greater intensity to Philippines . Those that form near the Marshall Islands find their way to Jeju Island , Korea .

Typhoon paths follow three general directions .

Straight track ( or straight runner ) . A general westward path affects the Philippines , southern China , Taiwan , and Vietnam .

A parabolic , recurving track . Storms recurving affect eastern Philippines , eastern China , Taiwan , Korea , Japan , and the Russian Far East .

Northward track . From point of origin , the storm follows a northerly direction , only affecting small islands .

A rare few storms , like Hurricane John , were redesignated as typhoons as its track originated from the Eastern / Central Pacific and moved its way into the western Pacific .

= = Basin monitoring = =

Within the Western Pacific , RSMC Tokyo @-@ Typhoon Center , part of the Japan Meteorological Agency has had the official warning responsibility for the whole of the Western Pacific since 1989 , and the naming responsibility for systems of tropical storm strength or greater since 2000 . However each National Meteorological and Hydrological Service within the western Pacific has the responsibility for issuing warnings for land areas about tropical cyclones affecting their country , such as the Joint Typhoon Warning Center for United States agencies , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) for interests in the island archipelago nation , and the Hong Kong Observatory for storms that come close enough to cause the issuance of warning signals .

= = = Name sources = = =

The list of names consists of entries from 14 Southeast and East Asian nations and the United States who have territories directly affected by typhoons . The submitted names are arranged into five lists , and each list is cycled with each year . Unlike tropical cyclones in other parts of the world , typhoons are not named after people . Instead , they generally refer to animals , flowers , astrological signs , and a few personal names . However , PAGASA retains its own naming list , which does consist of human names . Therefore , a typhoon can possibly have two names . Storms that cross the date line from the central Pacific retain their original name , but the designation of hurricane becomes typhoon . In Japan , people use the numerical designation of typhoons according to the sequence of their occurrence in the calendar year .

= = Records = =

The most active Western Pacific typhoon season was in 1964 , when 39 storms of tropical storm strength formed . The least activity seen in the northwest Pacific ocean was during the 2010 Pacific typhoon season , when only 14 tropical storms and seven typhoons formed . In the Philippines , the most active season , since 1945 , for tropical cyclone strikes was 1993 when nineteen tropical cyclones moved through the country . There was only one tropical cyclone that moved through the Philippines in 1958 . The 2004 Pacific typhoon season was the busiest for Okinawa since 1957 . Within Guangdong in southern China , during the past thousand years , the most active decades for typhoon strikes were the 1660s and 1670s .

The highest reliably @-@ estimated maximum sustained winds on record for a typhoon were those of Typhoon Haiyan at 195 miles per hour ( 314 km / h ) shortly before its landfall in the central Philippines on Nov. 8 , 2013 . The most intense storm based on minimum pressure was Typhoon Tip in the northwestern Pacific Ocean in 1979 , which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hectopascals ( 26 inHg ) and maximum sustained wind speeds of 165 knots ( 85 m / s , 190 mph , 310 km / h ) . The deadliest typhoon of the 20th century was Typhoon Nina , which killed nearly 100 @,@ 000 in China in 1975 due to a flood that caused 12 reservoirs to fail . After Typhoon Morakot landed in Taiwan at midnight on August 8 , 2009 , almost the entire southern region of Taiwan ( Chiayi County / Chiayi City , Tainan County / Tainan City ( now merged as Tainan ) , Kaohsiung County / Kaohsiung City ( now merged as Kaohsiung ) , and Pingtung County ) and parts of Taitung County and Nantou County were flooded by record @-@ breaking heavy rain . The rainfall in Pingtung County reached 2 @,@ 327 millimeters ( 91 @.@ 6 in ) , breaking all rainfall records of any single place in Taiwan induced by a single typhoon , and making the cyclone the wettest known typhoon .

= Halo Original Soundtrack =

The Halo Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack for the video game Halo : Combat Evolved . Composed and produced by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori for Bungie , the soundtrack was released on June 11 , 2002 . Most of the music from Halo : Combat Evolved is present on the CD , although some songs have been remixed by O 'Donnell in medley form for " more enjoyable " listening . The first piece O 'Donnell wrote , known as " Halo " , became the basis for Halo 's " signature sound " which has been heard in the other games of the main trilogy .

The soundtrack features a wide range of musical styles , including chanting , string orchestra , and percussion . Upon release , the soundtrack was well received by critics . Some complimented the wide range of musical styles , and most agreed that playing the game is not required to enjoy the soundtrack . A special edition of the soundtrack was released on October 28 , 2003 , featuring a DVD with a trailer , demo movie , and high quality music for Halo 2 .

= = Background = =

As the audio director for Bungie , Martin O 'Donnell was tasked with writing the music for Halo : Combat Evolved . He had scored previous Bungie projects , including Myth : The Fallen Lords , while working for his audio company , TotalAudio , along with Michael Salvatori . O 'Donnell was nervous about the project , saying he approached it , " with fear and trepidation " . O 'Donnell stated his main influences were music he liked — " a little Samuel Barber meets Giorgio Moroder " . Bungie 's Director of cinematics , Joseph Staten told O 'Donnell , " the music should give a feeling of importance , weight , and sense of the ' ancient ' to the visuals of Halo " .

O 'Donnell 's first piece of music , " Halo " , which would become " the signature theme for Halo " , was written and recorded in three days . O 'Donnell convinced Alex Seropian to allow him to produce an original piece of music for the game 's 1999 Macworld Conference & Expo demonstration . He drew inspiration for the theme from The Beatles ' " Yesterday " . O 'Donnell recruited Salvatori and three other colleagues he had recorded jingles with — Robert Bowker , Jeffrey Morrow , and Rob Trow — to produce the " chanting monks " that open the piece . Originally , he had intended the Qawwali accents to be sung by one of the professionals , but after singing an example of what he wanted , the others suggested using O 'Donnell 's own rendition instead . The theme premiered at the 1999 Macworld Conference & Expo .

The remaining themes were written , recorded , and produced throughout 2001 . The music was written with a variety of equipment including , " keyboards , synths , and samplers as well as digital recording equipment controlled by computers " . Live instrumentations , from members of the Chicago Symphony and Chicago Lyric Opera Orchestra , were added where needed . The soundtrack features a wide range of sounds , O 'Donnell described it as , " Gregorian chant , string orchestra , percussion and just a bit of a ' Qawwali voice ' " . Working closely with level designers , O 'Donnell divided the music " into chunks " . Based on these " chunks " , " [ Halo 's ] audio engine could play [ the music ] back dynamically based on the player 's actions " . For the soundtrack release , O 'Donnell rearranged the music featured in the game in order to make listening to the soundtrack " more enjoyable " .

Bungie had previously released soundtracks for their games due to fan request , but Microsoft was hesitant to commit to producing a soundtrack for Halo ; at the time most video games did not get a commercial soundtrack release . The publisher finally relented after pressure from O 'Donnell and the outside solicitation of musician Nile Rodgers .

= = Reception = =

Reception of the soundtrack was generally positive from critics . IGN praised the soundtrack for its wide use of instruments stating , " Where other videogame scores tend to miss their mark when combining electronic and organic elements , O 'Donnell and Salvatori seem to have found a rather stable balance between the two divergent sounds . " Adding , overall , the soundtrack is " one of the better videogame oriented musical experiences out there " and playing the game is not required to find enjoyment within the score . Reviewing for Monsters At Play , Michael Johnson called the soundtrack " 66 minutes of orchestral goodness " citing the wide range of music covered as a strong point . Nuketown gave the soundtrack 9 out of 10 , stating , " the soundtrack is a welcome and invigorating reminder of good times had blasting unstoppable alien hordes " . The release went on to sell over 40 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Track listing = =

All music was written and composed by Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori .

" Opening Suite " – 3 : 33

" Truth and Reconciliation Suite " – 8 : 25

" Brothers in Arms " – 1 : 29

" Enough Dead Heroes " – 3 : 00

" Perilous Journey " – 2 : 26

" A Walk in the Woods " – 1 : 52

" Ambient Wonder " – 1 : 57

" The Gun Pointed at the Head of the Universe " – 2 : 26

" Trace Amounts " – 1 : 51

" Under Cover of Night " – 3 : 41

" What Once Was Lost " – 1 : 40

" Lament for Pvt. Jenkins " – 1 : 14

" Devils ... Monsters ... " – 1 : 30

" Covenant Dance " – 1 : 57

" Alien Corridors " – 1 : 48

" Rock Anthem for Saving the World " – 1 : 17

" The Maw " – 1 : 06

" Drumrun " – 1 : 01

" On a Pale Horse " – 1 : 35

" Perchance to Dream " – 1 : 00

" Library Suite " – 6 : 47

" The Long Run " – 2 : 12

" Suite Autumn " – 4 : 22

" Shadows " – 0 : 59

" Dust and Echoes " – 2 : 49

" Halo " – 4 : 22

= = Personnel = =

All information is taken from the CD credits .

= Icewind Dale II =

Icewind Dale II is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Black Isle Studios and published by Interplay Entertainment , released on August 27 , 2002 . Like its 2000 predecessor Icewind Dale , the game is set in the Forgotten Realms fantasy setting in the Icewind Dale region . The player assumes control of a group of mercenaries in a war between the Ten Towns of Icewind Dale and a coalition of persecuted races and religions .

The game is designed as an action @-@ oriented alternative to other Infinity Engine games , with less emphasis on exploration and story . It uses a real @-@ time adaptation of the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) Third Edition ruleset . The Infinity Engine was extensively modified to comply with the Third Edition , but the team was forced to remove certain rules because of the engine 's outdated nature . It was the final game to be developed using the Infinity Engine .

The game was well received by critics , who praised its combat , pacing , and use of the Third Edition rules . However , some reviewers felt that the graphics and engine had become outdated , and could not compete with its contemporaries .

= = Gameplay = =

Icewind Dale II is a real @-@ time adaptation of the D & D Third Edition ruleset . The game is viewed from an isometric perspective , and a head @-@ up display ( HUD ) occupies the bottom of the screen . Accessible from the HUD are an automap and a journal that records quests and important events . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to interact with the game ; for example , clicking on the ground moves the selected player character , and clicking on a passive non @-@ player character ( NPC ) will initiate dialogue . When conversations occur , the game presents multiple dialogue options . The game world is separated into area maps — obscured by fog of war — that are revealed as the area is explored . A multiplayer mode is available for up to six players over a local area network or the Internet . The " Heart of Fury " mode is also available , which increases the game 's difficulty and contains more powerful items . The game features over seven hundred items ; the designers included a system that randomizes the items the player obtains from enemies .

When beginning the game , the player may choose to play a pre @-@ selected party , or to create a party of up to six characters ; unlike the Baldur 's Gate series , Icewind Dale II does not permit the player to import characters from previous Icewind Dale games . While creating characters , the player chooses their gender , race , class , alignment , and attributes , among other things . The player can sometimes choose a subvariety of a race or class , such as Deep Gnome or Cleric of Ilmater . Race , alignment , and attributes affect the player character 's available dialogue options , as well as NPC responses . For example , some NPCs will be prejudiced against certain races , or a character of low intelligence will have limited dialogue options . Some sub @-@ races in the game are significantly more powerful than the core races present in AD & D Third Edition ; these sub @-@ races must earn more experience points than others before leveling up . Characters can reach a maximum level of thirty . It is possible to add additional characters to the party at any time , including during combat .

Icewind Dale II 's gameplay is focused on combat . The combat system is a real @-@ time adaptation of the turn @-@ based system used in D & D Third Edition , which caused the developers to remove certain aspects , such as " attacks of opportunity " . Dice rolls are simulated by the game . In place of the turn @-@ based rounds used in D & D , characters have independent rounds , during which they may execute one or more actions , depending on such factors as the duration of the action . The player can pause the game and issue orders to characters at any time . Each character can carry a limited amount of items .

= = Plot = =

= = = Setting = = =

Icewind Dale II takes place in the Forgotten Realms D & D campaign setting , on the continent of Faerûn . It centers on the northern Icewind Dale region , and is set thirty years after the original game . The game begins in the harbor town of Targos , one of the Ten Towns of Icewind Dale , which is under siege by a goblin army . The goblins are directed by the Legion of the Chimera , an army composed of outcast races and religious factions , such as goblinoids , half @-@ breeds , and followers of winter goddess Auril . Targos hires mercenaries to defend against the attack . Areas encountered in the game include : the Black Raven Monastery , built over an entrance to the Underdark ; the town of Kuldahar , constructed around a magical tree that emits heat ; the Severed Hand , an ancient elven fortress that was lost during a war with goblinoids ; and the Dragon 's Eye , a network of volcanic caverns inhabited by yuan @-@ ti . Other areas include the Underdark and the Jungles of Chult .

= = = Story = = =

The game begins as the player 's group of mercenaries arrives by ship to defend Targos . They report to the town palisade and fend off an assault by the goblin army . Afterwards , the mayor of Targos orders them to start an offensive on the goblin army . The group kills the chieftain of the army , and discovers that he was under the command of a woman named Sherincal . When they return to Targos , the mayor asks them to rendezvous with reinforcements from Neverwinter . The group travels to meet them in an airship piloted by Oswald Fiddlebender .

A storm causes the ship to crash , and the group awakens to discover that a glacier blocks the reinforcements ' path . While investigating the glacier , the group finds Sherincal , a half @-@ dragon , guarding the entrance to an Aurilite temple . They learn that Sherincal leads the Legion of the Chimera 's western forces , and that the leaders of the Legion of the Chimera , cambion twins named Isair and Madae , reside in the Severed Hand . Inside the Aurilite temple , the group finds a prisoner from Kuldahar , who asks them to warn Kuldahar of the threat posed by the Legion of the Chimera . After this , the group creates a passage through the glacier , and meets with the reinforcements .

As the group travels to Kuldahar , they meet a drow ( dark elf ) named Nym , who tells them that the pass to Kuldahar is guarded by the Legion of the Chimera , and that an alternate path through the Underdark exists . Later , Isair and Madae locate the group with information from Nym . They state their intention to attack Kuldahar , and warn the group to not interfere . The group then passes through the Black Raven Monastery to enter the Underdark . After exiting the Underdark , they are flown to Kuldahar by Oswald Fiddlebender .

When the group lands in Kuldahar , they discover it has been invaded by the Legion of the Chimera . They meet the Archdruid of Kuldahar , who tells them that a portal has been opened to allow yuan @-@ ti from the Jungles of Chult to assault Kuldahar . After the group prevents the attack , the Archdruid tells them that they may reach the Severed Hand through an exit at the bottom floor of the Dragon 's Eye . The group travels through Dragon 's Eye , and proceeds to the Severed Hand . Once inside , they learn that the war between the Ten Towns and the Legion of the Chimera was caused by the mayor of Bryn Shander , who had sent Isair and Madae poisoned food . They also discover that a mythal that was cast on the Severed Hand has been corrupted , and the structure will be transported to the plane of limbo . Eventually , the group finds Isair and Madae , and kills them .

= = Development = =

During summer 2001 , Black Isle Studios employed three development teams . These included the Icewind Dale team , the team developing Torn , and a team working on an unannounced project . Before and during Torn 's development , several members of its team expressed interest in developing another game using the Infinity Engine . The development team was not made aware of Black Isle Studios ' decision to develop Icewind Dale II until Torn 's cancellation . Lead designer J. E. Sawyer described , " I don 't know when the producers decided to make the game , but I was told that we were making the game when I learned that TORN was being cancelled ... on a Wednesday afternoon " , and that Feargus Urquhart " asked me to work with Steve Bokkes to create a story and area overview by Thursday afternoon . Steve and I talked about it for the rest of the day . I went home that night and worked on the overviews until the next day . I came in and turned the docs in , and after the Friday division meeting , the project was in development . " During this period , Interplay Entertainment relied on Black Isle Studios ' games to alleviate financial trouble , which put pressure to release games quickly . The decision to develop Icewind Dale II was based partly on the original Icewind Dale 's reception , and the development teams ' ability to create a game with the Infinity Engine relatively quickly . Sawyer said of the decision , " In all honesty , the reasons for making Icewind Dale II have to do with limiting risks and maximizing our chances for a popular title . " Conceptualization of Icewind Dale II progressed during the development of the Icewind Dale expansions , and production began late July 2001 , shortly after the completion of Icewind Dale : Trials of the Luremaster . After six months of development , Icewind Dale II was officially announced on February 4 , 2002 .

Icewind Dale II was originally planned to be an incomplete conversion to the D & D Third Edition ruleset , with many rules omitted . The kit system ( class specialization ) introduced in Baldur 's Gate 2 was to be used , but this idea was later abandoned . Sawyer and several other members of the team pushed for the game 's conversion to Third Edition . The development team was eventually granted an extension , which allowed them to complete the change to Third Edition rules . The Infinity Engine required extensive modification to comply with Third Edition rules , as it had originally been designed for Second Edition rules ; certain elements of the rules were removed due to interface and engine issues . The game 's interface was redesigned , and all @-@ new art was created . It features new item icons , with new spell icons by Brian Menze ; Menze had previously created Planescape : Torment 's spell icons . Jason Manley , the portrait artist for the previous Icewind Dale games , left Black Isle Studios in late 2001 ; several new works he painted before his departure were later used in Icewind Dale II . Black Isle Studios artist Justin Sweet was asked to substitute . The game 's resolution was increased to a minimum resolution of 800x600 , with an unofficially supported maximum resolution of 2048x1536 .

J. E. Sawyer managed rule implementation , but the areas of the game were divided between designers . For example , designer Chris Avellone created the opening sequence , designer Dave Maldonado developed the Black Raven Monastery and a large area of wilderness , and designers John Deiley and Damien Foletto created the ending areas . Partway through development , Sawyer left the team to work as the lead designer on another internal project ; Dave Maldonado and Chris Avellone were given his areas to finish . The developers wanted the game to contain more breaks from combat , with character interaction and puzzle solving , than the previous Icewind Dale . The decision to include more puzzles was influenced by the positive reception to the puzzles in Icewind Dale : Trials of the Luremaster .

The game went gold on August 5 , 2002 , and was released on August 27 . After the release of Icewind Dale II , Sawyer expressed dissatisfaction over the Icewind Dale series , saying that , " I wasn 't particularly thrilled with how my work on [ Icewind Dale ] came out ... " and , " ... [ Heart of Winter ] managed to actually be worse than my Icewind Dale stuff . " In regards to Icewind Dale II he said , " [ It ] came out better than I expected , but still , not exactly awe @-@ inspiring . " Chris Avellone later said , " Icewind Dale was a fun series , but it didn 't try to set the bar for anything other than a fun romp . People may remember enjoying it , but it wasn ’ t trying to break any new ground or do anything revolutionary . In some respects , it was almost a step back from other games we 'd done and focused more on exploration and dungeon crawls . " A Collector 's Edition containing bonus material , such as a full @-@ color cloth map and soundtrack CD , was also released . Icewind Dale II was the final game developed using the Infinity Engine .

= = = Audio = = =

The music of the game was composed by Inon Zur , whose previous works included Baldur 's Gate 2 : Throne of Bhaal and Fallout Tactics . Inon Zur worked with Jeremy Soule , the composer for Icewind Dale , to maintain the tone of the music . Inon Zur also worked closely with Interplay audio director Adam Levenson while composing the music ; Zur and Levenson had worked together on several previous titles . Inon Zur said that while composing the theme for the game , " I wrote and rewrote the main theme several times " , and " we tried to create a piece that would preserve the sound of the first Icewind Dale [ ... ] we made great efforts to convey the new elements also . Capturing all of this in 30 @-@ 45 seconds was not easy however I believe that we eventually found the right path for this game 's soundtrack . " Zur described the composing process , " After learning the storyboard and getting additional insight from the producers / music supervisor I 'll start to compose . The thematic idea ( main melody or rhythmical groove ) comes first . Then comes the accompaniment followed by the orchestration , " and that , " each piece should have its own unique flavour so every step is carefully examined . I have to make sure that the main idea of the piece is reflected in all these steps . " He called the composing experience " very pleasant and rewarding . "

The music was composed in five weeks , and the recording and mixing lasted three weeks . As the game 's music budget was low , a small Los Angeles orchestra was used to record the music ; the sound of the each instrument was doubled during production . Inon Zur described the music as having " some uniqueness to it , that basically it developed throughout the game [ with ] the [ inclusion ] of more instruments , taking flutes and percussion and combining them with the standard orchestra . " Zur later said , " I thought that we definitely met some high standards ; we compared our products to big budget films scores , " and , " in the end we were quite happy . " The game features voice work from Gabrielle Carteris , Peter Stormare , and Grey DeLisle , among others .

= = Reception = =

Icewind Dale II reached sixth on the NPD PC games sales chart in the last week of August 2002 , and climbed to fourth during the first week of September . Icewind Dale II 's reception was generally positive . Game Informer hailed it as , " one of the best RPGs ever released for the PC , " and GameSpot called it , " simply a great role @-@ playing game . " However , PC Format said , " it 's uninspired and uninspiring , giving itself a narrow remit and fulfilling that unspectacularly . " Certain reviewers compared Icewind Dale II to Neverwinter Nights . IGN said , " [ Compared to Neverwinter Nights ] the pace of IWD2 is more varied , its balance better , the gameplay more interesting , " and Game Informer considered the interface superior to that of Neverwinter Nights . PC Format said , " in the light of Neverwinter Nights in particular , there ’ s little that stands out in Icewind Dale II to recommend it , " and PC Zone said , " it 's not the BG2 killer we had all hoped for and neither does it stack up to Neverwinter Nights . "

Many reviewers praised the game 's combat and pacing . G4 called the game 's combat " sublime , " and said that " no Infinity Engine game thus far has had such interesting and intricate tactical combat . " GameSpot called it " expertly paced . " PC Zone complained that certain gameplay mechanics had become outdated , but that " the only real downer is the antiquated spell system and the inexplicable necessity to rest after every fight . " The game was also praised for its implementation of the Third Edition rules and interface . Computer Gaming World said that " IWD II has the Third Edition rules down , and in no other place in the game is it more apparent than with character development , " and PC Gamer said it had " a dazzling implementation of the D & D 3rd Edition rules . " GameSpot called the interface " a big improvement on the spread @-@ out interface of all previous Infinity Engine games , " and IGN said that " the customization improvements to the interface that seem so natural , they make you wonder why they weren 't thought of before . " Game Informer called the interface " absolutely inspired " and its inventory system " second to none . "

The game was criticized for its graphics and engine , which reviewers considered to be outdated . G4 called the engine " old " and " clunky " , and PC Format said that " the whole thing is limited by the creaking engine . " However , certain sources praised the engine . Game Informer called it " the best role @-@ playing engine that has ever been invented , " and GameSpot said that " ' immortal ' may be a better word to describe the engine , because the fact is , Icewind Dale II plays great . " In regards to the graphics , GameSpot said that " in many ways Icewind Dale II represents the best use of the Infinity Engine 's prerendered , isometric settings to date , [ but ] that doesn 't change the fact that Icewind Dale II generally looks dated . " IGN thought the sprites had become out @-@ dated , and that " the animations are crude by today 's standards . " New Straits Times agreed , saying that although some of the effects were attractive , the " dated Infinity engine " could not compare to contemporaries Dungeon Siege and Neverwinter Nights . However , Computer Gaming World believed that " it consistently offers the same striking and imaginative environments that establish the tone and immersive charm of the game , " and Computer Games Magazine said , " it may not look like much , but it 's got it where it counts . " The game 's pre @-@ rendered backgrounds received praise . IGN said that " the artwork is attractive , both conceptually and in its final form , " and Game Informer called them " beautiful " . Many reviewers complained about the game 's pathfinding AI , which PC Zone called " outrageously bad . "

Game Informer called the writing and story " on par with any fantasy novel . " PC Gamer said it had " some of the richest and most enjoyable dialogue since Planescape Torment , " and an " impressive storyline . " GameSpot called the story " engrossing , " and said that " the game is very well written , offering up a number of strong characters and serious themes . " PC Zone noted that , " thanks to the excellent NPCs , the battles have a lot more meaning , as there is a strong storyline behind the endless hacking and slashing . " PC Format thought that " IDII also suffers , like its predecessor , from a story irrevocably weakened by anonymous central characters – the six you create . " In regards to the audio , GameSpot said that " Inon Zur does a truly fantastic job that 's perhaps even better than Soule 's effort in the original Icewind Dale , " and that " the voice acting in Icewind Dale II is as great as you 've perhaps come to expect from a Black Isle Studios role @-@ playing game . " Computer Gaming World said that " [ the ] sound effects , music , and voiceovers are all excellent . "

Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , " While nobody would mistake it for " 2002 RPG of the Year " material , Black Isle Studios managed to give the Infinity engine a terrific game as its swan song . "

= Wu Zuguang =

Wu Zuguang ( Chinese : 吴祖光 ; Wade – Giles : Wu Tsu @-@ kuang ; 21 April 1917 – 9 April 2003 ) was a Chinese playwright , film director and social critic who has been called a " legendary figure in Chinese art and literary circles " . He authored more than 40 plays and film scripts , including the patriotic drama City of Phoenix , one of the most influential plays during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , and Return on a Snowy Night , which is generally considered his masterpiece . He directed The Soul of the Nation , Hong Kong 's first colour film , based on his own historical drama Song of Righteousness .

He was also well known as an outspoken critic of China 's cultural policies , both of the Kuomintang ( KMT ) and the Communist governments , and was repeatedly persecuted as a result . He fled to Hong Kong in 1945 to avoid being captured by KMT agents , and returned to Beijing after the foundation of the People 's Republic China in 1949 . He was denounced as a " rightist " during the Anti @-@ Rightist Movement and performed hard labour in the " Great Northern Wilderness " for three years , and was again persecuted during the Cultural Revolution . His wife , the celebrated pingju actress Xin Fengxia , refused to divorce him and became disabled after undergoing beatings and penal labour . Despite these ordeals , Wu continued to criticize government censorship and to call for political freedom , and was widely admired for his moral conviction .

= = Early life = =

Wu was born on 21 April 1917 to a prominent scholar @-@ official family in Beijing , with ancestral roots in Changzhou , Jiangsu Province . His grandfather Wu Zhiying ( 吴稚英 ) was a muliao of the Qing dynasty reformer Zhang Zhidong and participated in the Xinhai Revolution . His father Wu Ying ( 吴瀛 ) was a founder and curator of the Beijing Palace Museum . His mother Zhou Qinqi ( 周琴绮 ) gave birth to 15 children , 11 of whom ( four sons and seven daughters ) survived to adulthood . She gave birth to Wu Zuguang , her first child , in the mansion of Wu Ying 's uncle Zhuang Yunkuan , a minister of the Republic of China government .

In 1935 , Wu entered Sino @-@ French University in Beijing . The next year , a relative who was running a drama school in Nanjing persuaded him to move there and teach at his school . There he met several people who would become prominent dramatists , including Cao Yu and Chen Zhice .

= = Wartime career = =

At the outset of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 , Wu wrote the patriotic war play City of Phoenix ( 凤凰城 ) , which made him well @-@ known in China at age 20 . It was one of the most performed dramas during the eight @-@ year war . He later wrote several critically acclaimed plays , including Return on a Snowy Night , which is generally considered his masterpiece . His works are strongly influenced by the May Fourth New Culture Movement .

As eastern China fell to the Japanese , he moved to the wartime capital Chongqing , where he worked as an editor for the Xinmin Wanbao newspaper . In 1945 , he published Mao Zedong 's now famous poem " Snow : to the Tune of Garden in Full Spring " , which infuriated the Kuomintang government . He escaped to British Hong Kong to avoid being captured by KMT agents , and made a living writing screenplays and making films . He directed The Soul of the Nation ( 国魂 ) , Hong Kong 's first colour film , based on his historical drama , Song of Righteousness , about the Song dynasty patriot Wen Tianxiang . He also made Return on a Snowy Night into a film , as well as two others . In 1946 , Wu married the actress Lü En ( 吕恩 ) in Shanghai .

= = Early People 's Republic = =

After the Communist Party of China won the Civil War and established the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , Wu returned to Beijing . Like many intellectuals at the time , he held high hopes for the new People 's Republic which finally restored peace in a united China after decades of war and division . He wanted to return to writing plays , but was assigned by the government to direct Song of the Red Flag , a film about women textile workers . As he had no experience with factory life , it took him a year to finish the film , which he considered a " worthless failure . " He and Lü En divorced amicably in 1950 , due to differences in personality and interests .

In 1951 , his friend Lao She introduced him to the famous pingju opera performer Xin Fengxia , who had acted in one of Wu 's plays and admired his talent . They married that year , despite the fact that they were from differing socioeconomic backgrounds ; she had no formal education and was nearly illiterate , while he was from a prominent family of scholars . Wu helped her to study reading , writing , and calligraphy .

During this period he made the Peking opera film Goddess of the Luo River ( 洛神 ) and Mei Lanfang and His Stage Art , a documentary about Mei Lanfang . He also wrote the Peking operas Three Beatings of Tao Sanchun ( 三打陶三春 ) and San Guan Yan ( 三关宴 ) .

= = Persecution = =

During Mao Zedong 's Anti @-@ Rightist Movement , Wu was denounced as a " rightist " in 1957 and sent to the Great Northern Wilderness in Heilongjiang to be " reformed through labour . " His crime was to criticize the Communist Party 's control of the theatre and to argue that the neihang ( experts ) should have a greater role in such matters . He was called an enemy of the Party , even by his renowned colleague Tian Han . Tian later referenced Wu 's work approvingly , which is seen by some as an implicit apology , and was himself persecuted to death . Xin Fengxia was pressured to divorce him , but refused . Citing a legendary love story from one of her operas , she said " Wang Baochuan waited 18 years for Xue Pinggui , and I will wait 28 years for Wu Zuguang . " As a result , she was herself labeled a rightist and went through struggle sessions .

Wu returned to Beijing after three years of hard labour , but six years later , China fell into the even greater turmoil of the Cultural Revolution , which began in 1966 . Xin Fengxia and Wu Zuguang were both denounced at the beginning of the period . She became disabled below her left knee after a severe beating . Their friend Lao She drowned himself after being similarly tortured . During the tumultuous decade Wu and Xin both served years of forced labour . In December 1975 , she became paralyzed after suffering a stroke , and Wu took care of her for the rest of her life .

= = Post @-@ Cultural Revolution = =

After the end of the Cultural Revolution , Wu was politically rehabilitated in 1980 and inducted into the Communist Party , an event he described as " neither an occasion for laughter or tears " , and his publication ban was lifted after two decades . His play Itinerant Players ( 闯江湖 ) , based on Xin Fengxia 's experiences , was performed that year . In 1983 , Wu traveled to the University of Iowa in the U.S. to attend the International Writing Program .

Wu was in general loyal to Deng Xiaoping 's government , but continued to be an outspoken critic . In 1983 , he dismissed Deng 's Anti @-@ Spiritual Pollution Campaign as futile . In September 1986 , he read an essay at a meeting of the China Writers Association entitled " Against Those Who Wield the Scissors — a Plea for an End to Censorship " . It was enthusiastically received by the audience , but only a censored version was published , minus 1 @,@ 000 characters deemed " acrimonious " . After the December 1986 student demonstrations , he was pressured to leave the Communist Party in 1987 . Retired Politburo member Hu Qiaomu came to his home in person to demand his resignation from the Party . He obliged , as he did not think he was " the sort of person who should be in the Party . " In spring 1989 , Wu signed a petition calling for greater political freedom . Following the army crackdown of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , Wu called for a reassessment of the incident , but was forbidden to speak at a CPPCC meeting .

Xin Fengxia died on 12 April 1998 , during a trip to Changzhou , Wu 's ancestral hometown . He was devastated by the loss and his health quickly deteriorated . He suffered three strokes in the next few years , and died on 9 April 2003 .

= = Children = =

Wu Zuguang and Xin Fengxia had three children . Their son Wu Huan is also a writer , painter , and calligrapher . After the deaths of Wu Zuguang , he organized the exhibition " A Hundred Years of the Wu Family " at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing . It was also held in France , Hong Kong , and Taiwan .

= Zara Yaqob =

Zar 'a Ya`qob or Zera Yacob ( Ge 'ez ዘርአ : ያዕቆብ zar 'ā yāʿiqōb " Seed of Jacob , " modern zer 'a yā 'iqōb ) ( 1399 – 26 August 1468 ) was nəgusä nägäst ( 19 or 20 June 1434 – 1468 ) of Ethiopia ( throne name Kwestantinos I Ge 'ez ቈስታንቲኖስ qʷastāntīnōs or Constantine I ) , and a member of the Solomonic dynasty . Born at Tilq in the province of Fatagar ( now part of the Oromia Region , near the Awash River ) , Zara Yaqob was the youngest son of Dawit I and his youngest queen , Igzi Kebra .

The British expert on Ethiopia , Edward Ullendorff , stated that Zara Yaqob " was unquestionably the greatest ruler Ethiopia had seen since Ezana , during the heyday of Aksumite power , and none of his successors on the throne – excepted only the emperors Menelik II and Haile Selassie – can be compared to him . "

Paul B. Henze repeats the tradition that the jealousy of his older brother Tewodros I forced the courtiers to take Zara Yaqob to Tigray where he was brought up in secret , and educated in Axum and at the monastery of Debre Abbay . While admitting that this tradition " is invaluable as providing a religious background for Zar 'a @-@ Ya 'iqob 's career " , Taddesse Tamrat dismisses this story as " very improbable in its details . " The professor notes that Zara Yaqob wrote in his Mashafa Berhan that " he was brought down from the royal prison of Mount Gishan only on the eve of his accession to the throne . "

= = Reign = =

Upon the death of Emperor Dawit , his older brother Tewodros ordered Zara Yaqob confined on Amba Geshen ( around 1414 ) . Despite this , Zara Yaqob 's supporters kept him a perennial candidate for Emperor , helped by the rapid succession of his older brothers to the throne over the next 20 years , and left him as the oldest qualified candidate . David Buxton points out the effect that his forced seclusion had on his personality , " deprived of all contact with ordinary people or ordinary life . " Thrust into a position of leadership " with no experience of the affairs of state , he [ Zara Yaqob ] was faced by a kingdom seething with plots and rebellions , a Church riven with heresies , and outside enemies constantly threatening invasion . " Buxton continues ,

In the circumstances it was hardly possible for the new king to show adaptability or tolerance or diplomatic skill , which are the fruit of long experience in human relationships . Confronted with a desperate and chaotic situation he met it instead with grim determination and implacable ferocity . Towards the end of his life , forfeiting the affection and loyalty even of his courtiers and family he became a lonely figure , isolated by suspicion and mistrust . But , in spite of all , the name of this great defender of the faith is one of the most memorable in Ethiopian history .

Although he became Emperor in 1434 , Zara Yaqob was not crowned until 1436 at Axum , where he resided for three years . It was not unusual for Ethiopian rulers to postpone their coronation until later in their reigns .

After he became Emperor , Zara Yaqob married princess Eleni , who had converted from Islam before their marriage . Eleni was the daughter of the king of Hadiya , one of the Sidamo kingdoms south of the Abay River . Although she failed to bear him any children , Eleni grew into a powerful political person . When a conspiracy involving one of his Bitwodeds came to light , Zara Yaqob reacted by appointing his two daughters , Medhan Zamada and Berhan Zamada , to these two offices . According to the Chronicle of his reign , the Emperor also appointed his daughters and nieces as governors over eight of his provinces . These appointments were not successful .

He defeated Badlay ad @-@ Din , the Sultan of Adal at the Battle of Gomit in 1445 , which consolidated his hold over the Sidamo kingdoms in the south , as well as the weak Muslim kingdoms beyond the Awash River . Similar campaigns in the north against the Agaw and the Falasha were not as successful .

After witnessing a bright light in the sky ( which most historians have identified as Halley 's Comet , visible in Ethiopia in 1456 ) , Zara Yaqob founded Debre Berhan and made it his capital for the remainder of his reign .

In his later years , Zara Yaqob became more despotic . When Takla Hawariat , abbot of Dabra Libanos , criticized Yaqob 's beatings and murder of men , the emperor had the abbot himself beaten and imprisoned , where he died after few months . Zara Yaqob was convinced of a plot against him in 1453 , which led to more brutal actions . He increasingly became convinced that his wife and children were plotting against him , and had several of them beaten . Seyon Morgasa , the mother of the future emperor Baeda Maryam I , died from this mistreatment in 1462 , which led to a complete break between son and father . Eventually relations between the two were repaired , and Zara Yaqob publicly designated Baeda Maryam as his successor .

= = The Ethiopian church = =

At the time Zara Yaqob assumed the throne , the Ethiopian church had been divided over the issue of Biblical Sabbath observance for roughly a century . One group , loyal to the Coptic bishops , believed that the day of rest should be observed only on Sunday , or Great Sabbath ; another group , the followers of Ewostatewos , believed with their founder that both the original seventh @-@ day Sabbath ( i.e. , Saturday , or Lesser Sabbath ) and Sunday should be observed .

He was successful in persuading two recently arrived Egyptian bishops , Mikael and Gabriel , into accepting a compromise aimed at restoring harmony with the House of Ewostatewos , as the followers of Ewostatewos were known . At the same time , he made efforts to pacify the House of Ewostatewos . While the Ewostathians were won over to the compromise by 1442 , the two Egyptian bishops only agreed to the compromise at the Council of Debre Mitmaq in Tegulet ( 1450 ) .

Emperor Zara Yaqob also continued as the defender of the Patriarch of Alexandria . When he heard in 1441 of the destruction of the Egyptian monastery of Dabra Mitmaq by Sultan Jaqmaq , he called for a period of mourning , then sent a letter of strong protest to the Sultan . He reminded Jaqmaq that he had Muslim subjects whom he treated fairly , and warned that he had the power to divert the Nile , but refrained from doing so for the human suffering it would cause . Jaqmaq responded with gifts to appease Zara Yaqob 's anger , but refused to rebuild the Coptic Churches he had destroyed .

According to Richard Pankhurst the Emperor was also " reputedly an author of renown " , having contributed to Ethiopian literature as many as three important theological works . One was Mahsafa Berha ( " The Book of Light " ) , an exposition of his ecclesiastical reforms and a defence of his religious beliefs ; the others were Mahsafa Milad ( " The Book of Nativity " ) and Mahsafa Selassie ( " The Book of the Trinity " ) .

= = Foreign affairs = =

Zara Yaqob sent a diplomatic mission to Europe ( 1450 ) , led by a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo who had previously been successful in a mission to India , specifically asking for skilled labor . Rombulo first visited Pope Nicholas V , but his ultimate goal was the court of Alfonso V of Aragon , who responded favorably . The Catholic Ecumenical Council of Florence ( 1438 – 1445 ) declared that Zara Yaqob was the legendary rumored king Prester John .

= Fujiwara no Teika =

Fujiwara Sadaie ( 藤原定家 ) , better @-@ known as Fujiwara no Teika , ( 1162 – September 26 , 1241 ) was a Japanese poet , critic , calligrapher , novelist , anthologist , scribe , and scholar of the late Heian and early Kamakura periods . His influence was enormous , and he is counted as among the greatest of Japanese poets , and perhaps the greatest master of the waka form – an ancient poetic form consisting of five lines with a total of 31 syllables .

Teika 's critical ideas on composing poetry were extremely influential and studied until as late as the Meiji era . A member of a poetic clan , Teika was born to the noted poet Fujiwara no Shunzei . After coming to the attention of the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba ( 1180 – 1239 ; r . 1183 – 1198 ) , Teika began his long and distinguished career , spanning multiple areas of aesthetic endeavor . His relationship with Go @-@ Toba was at first cordial and led to commissions to compile anthologies , but later resulted in his banishment from the retired emperor 's court . His descendants and ideas would dominate classical Japanese poetry for centuries afterwards .

= = Biography = =

= = = Birth = = =

Teika was born to a minor and distant branch of the aristocratic and courtly clan , the Fujiwara , in 1162 , sometime after the Fujiwara regents had lost their political pre @-@ eminence in the Imperial court during the Hōgen Rebellion . His branch of the clan sought prestige and power in the court by aligning itself with the Mikohidari family , and by specializing in artistic endeavors , principally poetry . Such specialization was not unusual ; branches of extended clans were not in a position to compete directly in politics with the head branch of the clan ( or indeed other clans because of their junior status ) , but could compete in more restricted aesthetic pursuits . ( The Mikohidari , also known as the Miko , were a cadet branch of the Fujiwaras , through Fujiwara no Michinaga 's sixth son , Fujiwara no Nagaie ( 1005 – 1064 ) ; the Mikohidari were themselves aligned with the more senior Kujō branch of the original Fujiwara , who opposed the Rokujō family )

Teika 's grandfather was the venerable poet Fujiwara no Toshitada . His father was Fujiwara no Shunzei ( 1114 – 1204 ) , a well known and greatly respected poet ( and judge of poetry competitions ) , who had compiled the seventh Imperial anthology of waka ( the Senzai Wakashū ) . His sister would also become a well @-@ respected poet of waka and renga , known as Kengozen or Shunzei 's Daughter , whom he would occasionally seek out for poetic advice . His elder brother , Fujiwara no Nariee ( sometimes romanized as " Nariie " ; 藤原成家 ) , would be somewhat successful in court , but not nearly as much as his sister . Teika 's foster @-@ brother , the priest Jakuren or " Sadanaga " c . 1139 – 1202 would be successful as a poet although his career was cut tragically short ; he had been adopted by Shunzei when Shunzei 's younger brother " retired from the world " .

= = = Career = = =

Teika 's goals as the senior male of his branch were to inherit and cement his father 's position in poetry , and to advance his own reputation ( thereby also improving the political fortunes of his own clan in the court ) . While his life would be marked by repeated illness and wildly shifting fortunes – only partially moderated by his father 's long @-@ lasting influence in court ( Shunzei would live to the advanced age of 90 ) , the young and poetically inclined Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's patronage would prove to lead to some of Teika 's greatest successes .

= = = = Go @-@ Toba 's patronage = = = =

The Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba announced , in the second year of his abdication ( 1200 , the second year of the Shōji era ) that he would be conducting a poetry contest . Retired Emperors frequently became more influential after their retirement from the office of Emperor rather than as the actual Emperor , since they were free from the highly restricting ceremonial requirements and politics of the court . Go @-@ Toba was 20 when he abdicated ; he was the consummate amateur , skilled at playing the lute , considered an authority on traditional learning and courtly precedent , excellent at playing Go , and fond of equestrian pursuits such as horseback archery , shooting at running dogs , and swordsmanship .

Go @-@ Toba regarded all these pursuits as hobbies , taking one up and dropping another . One of these was his support of poetry , especially the waka . Immediately after his abdication , he had announced that he would hold two poetry contests , each requiring a number of preeminent poets to compose some 100 waka in a particular thematic progression , known as the hyakushu genre of poem sequences . The first contest ( Go @-@ Toba In shodo hyakushu後鳥羽院初度百首 - " Ex @-@ Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's First Hundred @-@ Poem Sequences " ) was considered a crucial political nexus ; if a clan 's poet did well and impressed the powerful ( and youthful ) Go @-@ Toba , the clan would benefit considerably .

Teika 's diary records that he looked forward to this chance to improve himself . He was 38 , and had reached middle age . While he was recognized as a talented poet , his career was stagnant ; he had been in the Palace Guards of the Left for twenty years , and had not been promoted for nearly 10 . He was " Lesser Commander of the Palace Guards of the Left " with little prospect of further advancement .

He had wider political problems : The influence of his patrons , the Kujōs , over the Emperors had declined drastically . Minamoto no Michichika ( d . 1202 ) had insinuated himself into Imperial circles through Go @-@ Toba 's former nursemaid ; with this leverage , Michichika 's adopted daughter ( the then Shogun 's daughter , who had decided to marry his daughter off to the Emperor , using Michichika as a go @-@ between – contrary to the Shogun 's usual policy if favoring Kujo Kanezane . The Shogun 's lack of confidence allowed Michichika to push Go @-@ Toba into firing Kanezane as kampaku in 1196 ) became Go @-@ Toba 's concubine ( making Michichika the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba 's father in law ) , and she bore him his first heir in 1195 ; the shame of this usurpation led Go @-@ Toba 's first wife , Ninshi , to retire from the court . As Ninshi was the daughter of the Kujō 's leader Kujo no Kanezane , the Kujō 's influence in court diminished considerably , even to the extent of Kanezane and Yoshitsune ( d . 1206 ; once the regent and prime minister ) being driven from the court in 1196 ; with the diminution of their influence , so dimmed Teika 's prospects . Teika expressed his disappointment through poetry , such as this example , written when he was " passed over for promotion in the spring list " in 1187 ( he would eventually be promoted in 1190 , but as his good and encouraging friend Saigyo died that year , it was cold comfort ) :

In fact , Teika was initially not invited , the instigation of the rival Rokujō clan 's leader , Suetsune and the connivance of Michichika . Suetsune and Teika were bitter enemies ; just a few months before , Teika had humiliated Suetsune by calling him " that fake poet " and publicly refusing to participate in a poetry competition with Suetsune . His revenge was well @-@ done ; Teika was furious , writing in his Meigetsuki : : " I never heard of such a thing as choosing only senior poets [ writes Teika about the pretext used to exclude him ] . I can just see Suetsune at the bottom of this , contriving by some bribe that I be left out . It has to be Suetsune , Tsuneie , that whole family . Well , I have no regrets , for there is no possible hope for me now . But I did write in confidence to Kintsune so this may all come out eventually . He has replied that there is still room for hope . "

" I gather that it was probably not the Emperor who decided on the rules for the hundred @-@ poem competition . It was due entirely to the machinations of Michichika . One feels like flicking him away in disgust . "

Teika 's appeals to the unrelenting Michichika failed , and so Shunzei stepped in with an eloquent letter ( the well @-@ known Waji sojo ; " Appeal in Japanese " – writing in Japanese as opposed to the official Chinese was considered a mark of sincerity ) addressed to Go @-@ Toba , arguing that such an exclusion was without precedent , and motivated by base jealousy on their opponent 's part :

" Of late the people who call themselves poets have all been mediocrities . The poems they compose are unpleasant to hear , wordy and lacking in finesse . "

As Keene writes , " He denounced by name Teika 's enemy Suetsune , calling him an ignoramus , and urged Gotoba not to be misled by his machinations . " Gotoba relented at this appeal from a man he greatly respected ( the second time Shunzei had so interceded on Teika 's behalf ; the first time was in 1185 when Teika had lost his temper and struck a superior – the lesser general Masayuki – with a lamp ) . He allowed Teika , along with two other " young " poets , Fujiwara no Ietaka ( 1159 – 1237 ; 1158 – 1237 , according to Brower ) , adopted son of Jakuren and pupil to Shunzei , and Takafusa ( 1148 – 1209 ) to enter the contest . Teika was overjoyed at this turn of events :

" Early this morning came a message from Lord Kintsune that last evening the Ex @-@ Emperor ordered my inclusion among the participants for the hundred @-@ poem sequences ..... To have been added to the list for this occasion fills me with inexpressible joy . Though they can hinder me no more , I am still convinced that the trouble was all due to the machinations of those evil men . And that it has turned out this way is a fulfillment of all my hopes and prayers for this life and the next . "

Teika furiously worked for more than two weeks to complete the full sequence , and when he finally turned his Shoji hyakushu in a day late , Go @-@ Toba was so eager he read the poems immediately . Go @-@ Toba 's personal secretary , Minamoto Ienaga , kept a diary ( the Minamoto Ienaga nikki ) which eulogistically concerned itself with Go @-@ Toba 's poetic activities , and he records that it was Teika 's hundred @-@ poem sequence , and more specifically , poem number 93 which was directly responsible for Teika 's being granted the special permission necessary to be admitted to the Retired Emperor 's court ( distinct from the reigning emperor 's court ; this special admittance was crucial to any future patronage ) ; this is scarcely surprising as the 100 @-@ poem sequences submitted were of uniformly high quality ( more poems originating in the sequences Go @-@ Toba commissioned were included in the Shin Kokinshū than from any other source except the enormous " Poetry Contest in 1 @,@ 500 Rounds " ) .

Interestingly , this poem is both a fine example of the jukkai ( " personal grievances " ) genre and as Minamoto no Ienaga first pointed out , also an allusion to the poem ( preserved , along with Go @-@ Shirakawa 's reply , in the Imperial anthology Senzai Wakashū ) Shunzei had sent Retired Emperor Go @-@ Shirakawa 14 years previously , imploring him to forgive Teika for striking a superior with a candlestick ; " the allusion conveys the hope that just as Shunzei 's poem obtained his erring son 's restoration to rank and office under Go @-@ Shirakawa , now Teika 's own poem will win him admission to Go @-@ Toba 's Court despite his connection with the " disgraced " Kujō faction . "

Teika and Go @-@ Toba would have a close and productive relationship ; Teika would be favored in such ways as being appointed by Go @-@ Toba as one of the six compilers ( and de facto head compiler by virtue of his dedication and force of personality in addition to his already established reputation as a poet ) of the eighth Imperial Anthology of waka poetry , the esteemed Shin Kokinshū ( c . 1205 , " New Collection of Japanese Poetry , Ancient and Modern " ) which Go @-@ Toba ordered to be written after the success of the hundred @-@ poem sequences ( which furnished a base for the collection ) . In order to compile it , Go @-@ Toba had resurrected the defunct institution , the Poetry Bureau in the seventh month of 1201 , with fifteen yoryudo , or " contributing members " , and three added later ) , who participated in the many poetry contests and similar activities that soon began taking place in the Bureau ; of the Fellows , six ( Minamoto Michitomo , Fujiwara Ariie , Teika , Fujiwara Ietaka , Fujiwara Masatsune and Jakuren , who would not live to finish the task , and was not replaced . Minamoto Ienaga was apparently detached from being Go @-@ Toba 's personal secretary to instead serve as the secretary for the compilation committee ; his and Teika 's diaries have survived , affording an unprecedentedly good view of the inner workings of how an imperial anthology was created ) were chosen to compile the Shin Kokinshū in the eleventh month of 1201 .

As if the honor of helping to compile the Shin Kokinshū and of having a remarkable 46 of his poems ( including three from the Shoji hyakushu ) included were not enough , Teika would later be appointed in 1232 by the Retired Emperor Go @-@ Horikawa to compile – by himself – the ninth Imperial Anthology , the Shinchokusen Wakashū ( c . 1235 ; " New Imperial Collection " ) . Teika was the first person to have ever been a compiler of two Imperial anthologies .

= = = = Teika and Go @-@ Toba quarrel = = = =

This favorable patronage and collaboration eventually soured even as Teika 's relation with Emperor Juntoku and Minamoto no Sanetomo deepened , over many things such as differences in how one should use " association and progression " ( as Brower terms it ) in poetic sequences . In 100 @-@ poem sequences and the like , the poems were usually in one of several groups ( the four seasons were common ones , as was love ) ; the poems generally formed an integrated sequence in which they dealt with the same subject matter , proceeding from stage to stage ( for instance , a sequence on Love might proceed from loneliness , to falling in love , to a mature relationship , and then the sorrow when it ends ) or which refer to elements of previous poems ( a technique later central to renga sequences ) . Go @-@ Toba used such techniques consistently and often , whereas Teika 's use was more erratic . During the compilation of the Shin Kokinshū , there were other differences , apparently over how wide @-@ ranging a net to throw for poems :

" In a situation like the present , where he [ Go @-@ Toba ] has included poems by a great many people one has never heard of , whose names have remained in almost total obscurity for generations , and persons who have only recently begun to attract attention had as many as ten poems apiece included – in such a situation it is no particular distinction for me to have forty @-@ odd [ 46 ] poems chosen , or for Ietaka to have a score or more . The Ex @-@ Sovereign 's recent decisions make it appear he is choosing men rather than poems – a questionable procedure . "

Teika 's displeasure manifested itself in more petty ways , such as refusing to attend a banquet in 1205 ( 300 years after the Kokinshū was completed ) celebrating the official completion of the Shin Kokinshū because there was no precedent for such a banquet ( apparently he was not convinced by the precedent of the banquet celebrating the completion of the Nihon Shoki ) ; Go @-@ Toba reciprocated by cutting Teika out of the process of continually revising the Shin Kokinshū ( while it was officially complete by the date of the banquet , it was de facto incomplete as the Japanese Preface only existed in rough drafts and because Go @-@ Toba would continue revising the selection of poems for some time thereafter , only releasing the final edition approximately 6 years later , sometime after the ninth month of 1210 ; indeed , Go @-@ Toba would continue revising it until his death , although the later revisions are not extant ) .

In addition , there apparently were serious personality conflicts , which lead Go @-@ Toba to write once , after praising Teika 's poetry , that :

" The way Teika behaved , as if he knew all about poetry , was really quite extraordinary . Especially when he was defending his own opinion , he would act like the man who insisted a stag was a horse . He was utterly oblivious of others , and would exceed all reason , refusing to listen to anything other people had to say . "

( The stag and horse anecdote refers to the ancient Chinese Chao Kao ( d . 207 BCE ) , who revolted after an incident in which he brought a stag to the Imperial court , claimed it was actually a horse , and saw that more of the officials sycophantically agreed with him , rather than the emperor who pointed out that the horse was actually a stag . )

Donald Keene believes that as Teika grew more important , he resented Go @-@ Toba 's peremptory use of him . In his later years , Go @-@ Toba took issue not merely with Teika 's personality , but also with his poetry , complaining of Teika 's more liberal style that Teika ( among other things ) " by contrast , paid no attention whatsoever to the topic . For this reason in recent times even beginners have all come to be like this . It is outrageous . Only when one concentrates very hard upon a compound topic and composes a poem which centers upon the topic is the result of any interest . This modern style is sheer carelessness . It is absolutely essential to practice composing poems on compound topics in the correct way . "

In any event , the precipitating events were two incidents , one in 1207 and the next in 1220 . In 1207 , Go @-@ Toba decided to organize the creation of 46 landscape screens for the Saishō Shitennō Temple which he had built in 1205 ( interestingly , apparently " in order to enlist divine aid in the overthrow the feudal government " ) ; each of these screens would also have a waka on the famous landscape depicted , composed by a leading poet , who would compose the requisite 46 , with the best poems for each landscape selected . Of course , Teika was asked to contribute , but one ( on the " Wood of Ikuta " , a famous and picturesque woodland attached to the Ikuta Shrine of Settsu Province , modern @-@ day Kobe ; it was famous for being a battlefield between the Minamoto and Taira clans , as well as for its scenic beauty ) was rejected by Go @-@ Toba ; not because it was a bad poem , but because it was a " poor model " , as Keene puts it . Teika , already annoyed by the minimal notice for the contest and the lack of time for composing the poems ( he had to turn them in two days after he was first informed of the contest ) , began complaining about Go @-@ Toba and attacking his poetic judgement , both with regard to the Shin Kokinshū and the poems selected from the screens . Nothing came of this incident , but nevertheless , the damage had been done .

The second incident took place in the second month of 1220 and is described in a preface to the two poems concerned as recorded in Teika 's personal anthology , the Shū gusō ; during the six @-@ year period covering such events as Teika 's banishment from Go @-@ Toba 's court and Go @-@ Toba 's participation in the Jōkyū War of 1221 , Teika 's diary is silent . Teika was asked to participate in a poem competition on the 13th of the second month ; Teika declined , citing as a reason the anniversary of his mother 's death 26 years previous , in 1194 . Go @-@ Toba and his officials sent several letters to him , strongly urging him to come , and Teika eventually gave in , arriving with only two waka . The headnote to the two poems reads :

" Having been summoned to the palace for a poetry gathering on the thirteenth day of the second month in the second year of Shokyu [ 1220 ] , I had begged to be excused because of a ritual defilement , it being the anniversary of my mother 's death . I thought no more about it , but quite unexpectedly in the evening of the appointed day , the Archivist Iemitsu come with a letter from the ex @-@ emperor , saying that I was not the hold back on account of the defilement , but was to come in any case . I continued to refuse , but after the ex @-@ emperor had sent two more letters insisting on my presence , I hastily wrote down the following two poems and took them with me . "

The first waka was critical of Go @-@ Toba but otherwise fairly innocuous , but the second was quite pointed , obliquely attacking Go @-@ Toba both for forcing Teika to attend Go @-@ Toba 's contest when Teika was memorializing his mother and also for insufficiently promoting Teika ( the final line is a variation on a phrase dealing with " double griefs " ) :

Go @-@ Toba saw this attack as both ingratitude of the rankest sort and the culmination of a series of affronts , this latest being petty resentment at what Go @-@ Toba would have seen as a flimsy pretext for attempting to get out of the poetry competition . Accordingly , he banished Teika from his court , a banishment that would last for more than a year ; this feud distressed devotees of poetry .

= = = = Teika in the ascendancy = = = =

Possibly another a factor in this estrangement was politics – Teika had had the good fortune of being selected in 1209 as a poetry teacher to the new and young shogun , Minamoto no Sanetomo ; the Shogunate was a rival and superior authority to that of the Emperors and the Imperial court . It was probably to the unhappy Sanetomo that Teika addressed the prefatory essay to his didactic collection , Kindai shūka ( " Superior Poems of Our Time " ) , and his treatise on poetry Maigetsusho ( " Monthly Notes " ) . Go @-@ Toba would become an enemy of the then @-@ bedridden Teika . Fortunately for Teika , Go @-@ Toba would be exiled by the Kamakura shogunate in 1221 for the rest of life to the Oki Islands after Go @-@ Toba led a failed rebellion against the Shogunate ( the Jōkyū War ) which Go @-@ Toba had long hated ;

Teika 's political fortunes improved in this period , as it was after Go @-@ Toba 's exile that Teika was appointed compiler of the ninth imperial anthology , the Shinchokusen Wakashū ( " New Imperial Collection " ; completed c . 1234 ) . While it was a great honor , it was poorly received except by conservatives . According to Donald Keene , Shunzei 's Daughter " declared that if it had not been compiled by Teika she would have refused even to take it into her hands . " ( From a letter sent to Fujiwara no Tameie , Teika 's son ) . She and others also criticized it for apparently deliberately excluding any of the objectively excellent poems produced by the three Retired Emperors exiled in the aftermath of the Jōkyū War This absence has been variously attributed to vengefulness on the part of Teika , or simply a desire to not potentially offend the Kamakura shogunate .

In 1232 , Teika was advanced at the age of 70 to the court rank of " Gon Chūnagon " ( Acting Middle Counselor .

But even Teika 's improved fortunes could not insulate him entirely from the various famines and disasters that wracked the country in this period , and which greatly exacberated his illnesses :

" Today I had my servants dig up the garden ( the north one ) , and plant wheat there . Even if we only grow a little , it will sustain our hunger in a bad year . Don 't make fun of me ! What other stratagem does a poor old man have ? " ( Meigetsuki , 13th day of the 10th month , 1230 )

" Starving people collapse , and their dead bodies fill the streets . Every day the numbers increase .... The stench has gradually reached my house . Day and night alike , people go by carrying the dead in their arms , too numerous to count . " ( Meigetsuki , 2nd day of the 7th month , 1231 )

During the later portions of his life , Teika experimented with refining his style of ushin , teaching and writing it ; in addition to his critical works and the manuscripts he studied and copied out , he experimented with the then @-@ very young and immature form of renga – " They are an amusement to me in my dotage . " He died in 1241 , in Kyoto , and was buried at a Buddhist temple named " Shokokuji " .

= = = Rival descendants = = =

One of his 27 children by various women ( and one of two legitimate sons ) , Fujiwara no Tameie ( 1198 – 1275 ; he is remembered as a reluctant heir , in youth inclining rather to court football at the encouragement of Go @-@ Toba than to poetry ) , would carry on Teika 's poetic legacy . Tameie 's descendants would split into three branches : the conservative elder Nijō branch ( founded by Tameie 's elder son , Nijō Tameuji ( 1222 – 1286 ) ; the middle branch of the Kyōgoku founded by Fujiwara no Tamenori ( 1226 – 1279 ) , which , before it became extinct in 1332 with the death of Fujiwara no Tamekane , merged with the Reizei at the prompting of Nun Abutsu ; and the younger , more liberal Reizei branch , founded by Tameie ' younger son Fujiwara no Tamesuke ( b . 1263 ) by Abutsu ( d. circa 1283 ; a poet and a great diarist , especially remembered for her diary Isayoi Nikki ( " Diary of the Waning Moon " ) chronicling her legal battles to get the Kamakura shogunate to stop Tameuji from disinheriting Tamesuke of the Hosokawa estate near the capital that Tameie had left Tamesuke ) .

It is a testament to Teika 's importance that the poetic history of the next centuries is in large part a story of the battles between the rival branches ; indeed , it is this rivalry that is chiefly responsible for the great number of forgeries attributed to Teika . When the Reizei lost a court case concerning possession of the Hosokawa estate Tameie had willed to Tamesuke , they were ordered to hand over the valuable manuscripts and documents inherited from Teika and Tameie over to the Nijō ; they outwardly complied , but along with the few genuine documents whose existence the Nijō had already learned of , they mostly included forgeries which the Nijō had little choice but to accept . In retaliation , the Nijō manufactured a number of forgeries of their own , the better to buttress their claims .

After a period of Reizei ascendancy under Reizei Tamehide ( 冷泉為秀 , great @-@ grandson of Teika ) ( b . 1302 ? , d . 1372 ) , they suffered a decline and a consequent rise in the fortunes of the Nijō , as Tamehide 's son , Iametuni , became a Buddhist monk . However , the Nijō soon suffered setbacks of their own under the wastrel Nijō no Tameshige ( b . 1325 , d . 1385 ) , whose promising son , Nijō no Tametō ( b . 1341 , d . 1381 ) , died comparatively young , killed by a brigand .

In a further disaster for the Nijō , Tametō 's son , Nijō no Tamemigi was killed by a brigand as well in 1399 ( ? ) , effectively wiping out the Nijō as an organized force . Under the grandson of Tamehide , Tanemasa ( b . 1361 , d . 1417 ) , the Rezei achieved temporary victory in the time of Shōtetsu . Ironically , the once @-@ liberal Reizei would become associated during and after the Meji Era with the ultra @-@ conservatives of the " Palace School " .

= = Poetic achievements = =

" In this art of poetry , those who speak ill of Teika should be denied the protection of the gods and Buddhas and condemned to the punishments of hell . " -Shōtetsu

Teika selected the works for the Ogura Hyakunin Isshu , an anthology of a hundred poems by a hundred poets . His Ogura Hyakunin Isshu was later thought to be a book of waka theory in which all types of ideal waka and all techniques were laid out ; disputes over specific style and whether to be conservative or liberal that divided his descendants into a number of feuding schools / clans like the Reizei , Kyōgoku , and Nijō .

Teika made many manuscript copies of Japanese classics , including such landmarks of Japanese literature as The Tale of Genji , The Tales of Ise and the Kokinshū anthology . In his days , the ancient Japanese pronunciations were lost or difficult to understand , rendering the orthography of kana confused and uncertain . Teika researched old documents and recovered the earlier system of deciding between interpretations of kana , and developed a systematic orthography which was used until the modern Meiji period . He applied his kana system to his manuscripts , which were known for their accuracy and general high quality and called Teika bon ( " Teika text " ) . Using his method he was able to document the accurate pronunciation of earlier waka like the ones in the Kokin Wakashū . His manuscripts were also appreciated for his eponymous distinct and bold style of calligraphy . The Adobe font " Kazuraki SPN " , released in 2009 , is based upon the calligraphic style of Fujiwara Teika .

Teika is also remembered , like his father , as being something of an innovator – the Encyclopædia Britannica says :

" Teika employed traditional language in startling new ways , showing that the prescriptive ideal of " old diction , new treatment " [ kotoba furuku , kokoro atarashi ] inherited from Shunzei might accommodate innovation and experimentation as well as ensure the preservation of the language and styles of the classical past . "

The " old diction " here are phrases and words from the " Three Collections " : the Kokinshū , the Gosen Wakashū , and the Shūi Wakashū , but not much older than that ( for instance , the diction of the Man 'yōshū was considered too old ) . Teika wrote in his Maigetsusho that the best poems were spontaneous and original , but nevertheless traditional :

" But such a notion is quite erroneous . For if we were to call such verses as that superior , then any poem at all we might write could be a fine one . No , first the powers of invention must be freed by reciting endless possibilities over and over to oneself . Then , suddenly and spontaneously , from among all the lines one is composing , may emerge a poem whose treatment of the topic is different from the common run , a verse that is somehow superior to the rest . It is full of poetic feeling , lofty in cadence , skillful , with resonances above and beyond the words themselves . It is dignified in effect , its phrasing original , yet smooth and gentle . It is interesting , suffused with an atmosphere subtle yet clear . It is richly evocative , its emotion not tense and nervous but sensible from the appropriateness of the imagery . Such a poem is not to be composed by conscious effort , but if a man will only persist in unremitting practice , he may produce one spontaneously . "

The following is an example of how Teika used old and classic imagery such as Takasago and Onoe , as well as pine and cherry trees , in fresh ways :

His poems were described as remarkable for their elegance and exemplars of Teika 's ideals , in his early and later years ( respectively ; Teika considerably modified his personal beliefs during his 40s , after the death of Shunzei , and simplified his style of composition ) , of the styles of yoen – one of the ten orthodox styles Teika defined and defended in his poetic criticism , with some of the others being the onihishigitei ( " demon @-@ quelling force " ) style , the style of sabi or " loneliness " ( closely related to mono no aware ) , the style of yugen , or " mystery and depth " ; the yoen style was concerned with " ethereal beauty " , and ushin ( " deep feeling " or " conviction of feeling " . This shift in style from yoen to ushin was intended to achieve a certain sort of makoto , or integrity ; Teika sometimes referred to his aim as ushin ( " deep feeling " ) , which confusingly was also the name of one of the ten styles . The yoen style was one of the most popular in his time due in no small part to Teika 's of it ( yoen had first been described by Fujiwara no Mototoshi in the 1150s , but had been only marginally successful ) ; years later , the Symbolists would admire and emulate ( to a degree ) his use of language to evoke atmosphere in his brief poems in the yoen style . An excellent example ( and one later chosen for an Imperial anthology ) is the first poem below :

= = Partial bibliography = =

Shūi gusō ( 拾遺愚草 ) ; Teika 's personal anthology which includes over 3500 poems selected by himself . The two poems which offended Retired Emperor Go @-@ Toba so much and caused the rift between Teika and him are preserved here only .

Meigetsuki ( 明月記 ) ( " The Record of the Clear Moon " ; sometimes called " Diary of the Clear Moon " or possibly " Chronicle of the Bright Moon " ; as the second translation suggests , this was a diary Teika kept in classical Chinese between the ages of approximately 18 ( in 1180 ) to just before his death , around 1241 ; the entries for 1180 and 1181 may have been written when Teika was an old man , but the bulk of the diary covers the 47 years between 1188 and 1235 . As its comprehensiveness might suggest , it is an extremely valuable resource for understanding the court and Teika 's place in the Imperial court , even despite its incompleteness — available extant versions consist of 56 scrolls ( the Reizei family possesses in its family library holographs of 56 and copies of two more ) , while scholars estimate that the original consisted of over 180 scrolls . ) Among its many interesting passages ( some quoted previously ) about Teika 's career and life is a famous passage from the ninth month of 1180 about Teika 's indifference to political or military advancement , in which he aristocratically remarked that " Reports of disturbances and punitive expeditions fill one 's ears , but I pay them no attention . The red banners and the expeditions against the traitors are no concern of mine . " ( Here , " red banners " probably refers to the Imperial standard ; the last line is possibly a reference to a poem by Po Chu @-@ i in which he tells of how he has been effectively exiled and passes his time playing Go ) .

Hyakunin isshu ( 百人一首 ) ( c . 1235 " Single Poems by One Hundred Poets " ; this collection became the foundation of the modern Japanese New Year game karuta . )

Hyakunin Shūka ( 百人秀歌 ) ( 1229 – 1236 ? ; a 101 @-@ poem anthology arranged at the request of Utsunomiya Yoritsuna to be copied onto 101 strips of paper and pasted onto the walls of his villa ; it has 97 poems in common with Hyakunin isshu , suggesting that perhaps it is a misidentified and variant version of the Isshu . )

Shoji hyakushu ( 正治百首 ) ( 1200 ; " Hundred @-@ Poem Sequence of the Shoji era " )

Gotoba @-@ in Kumano Gokō Ki ( 熊野御幸記 ) ( 1201 ; " The Visit of the Cloistered Emperor to Kumano " ) . Portion of Meigetsuki which Teika wrote about a trip to Kumano he took with Go @-@ Toba and Michichika ; like his other diary , it is written in classical Chinese , except for the wakas along the way to the shrines there that Go @-@ Toba was so devoted to that this trip was but one of more than thirty . Teika seems not to have enjoyed the trip ; his diary often records concern over his health and matters of decorum such as the proper clothes to wear .

Eiga taigai or Eika no Taigai ( 詠歌大概 ) ( c . 1216 , 1222 ? ; " Essentials of Poetic Composition " ) . Besides normal advice and criticism of poetry such as pedantic rules on honkadori – poems used as a base in honkadori should always be old poems and from either the Kokinshū , Shūi Wakashū , or the Gosen Wakashū with no more than two and a half lines borrowed from the originals ; similarly , borrowed elements were to be moved within the new poem and the new poem should have a different theme ) , Teika also tellingly recommends certain classic works for aspiring poets to study : the Tales of Ise , Sanjurokkasen ( or " Poems of the Thirty @-@ Six Immortals " ) and the first two portions of The Collected Works of Po Chü @-@ i . Portions of the Eiga taigai have been translated into English

Kindai shūka ( 近代秀歌 ) ( c . 1209 ; " Superior Poems of Our Time " ; a collection of poems Teika felt to be excellent models , with a preface dealing with his critical philosophy , sent to Sanetomo to instruct him in how his poems should emulate the great ancient Japanese poets – teaching by example . This sequence was constructed when he was 47 , after the death of Shunzei , which depressed Teika , as evidenced by his writing in the Kindai shūka that he had " forgotten the color of the followers of words ; the well @-@ springs of inspiration have run dry . " )

Maigetsusho ( 毎月抄 ) ( c . 1219 ; " Monthly Notes " ; an epistle of corrections of one hundred poems , sent to a student of Teika 's . Besides the corrections , it bore a preface which is a major source of information regarding Teika 's view on the aesthetics of poetry ; Shōtetsu states that it was sent to Minamoto no Sanetomo ; Ton 'a holds rather that it had been sent to the " Kinugasa Great Inner Minister " , or Fujiwara no Ieyoshi . ) Besides Brower 's English translation , the Maigetsusho was also translated to French , Italian and Hungarian .

Matsuranomiya Monogatari ( 松浦宮物語 ) ( " The Tale of the Matsura Palace " ; an experimental novel believed to be written by Teika , though Teika 's manuscript claims that he was merely copying it . )

Teika hachidai sho ( 定家八代抄 ) ( Anthology of 1811 poems from the first 8 Imperial anthologies . )

Shuka no daitai ( 秀歌大体 ) ( " A Basic Canon of Superior Poems " )

Teika Jittai ( 定家十体 ) ( 1207 – 1213 ; an anthology of 286 poems , chiefly derived from the Shin Kokinshū ; long believed a forgery , but some modern scholars contend that it is a genuine work . )

= Evan Rachel Wood =

Evan Rachel Wood ( born September 7 , 1987 ) is an American actress . She began acting in the 1990s , appearing in several television series , including American Gothic ( 1995 – 1996 ) and Once and Again ( 1999 – 2002 ) . Wood made her début as a leading film actress at the age of nine in Digging to China ( 1998 ) and became well known after her transition to a more adult @-@ oriented Golden Globe @-@ nominated role in the teen drama film Thirteen ( 2003 ) .

Wood continued acting mostly in independent films , including Pretty Persuasion ( 2005 ) , Down in the Valley ( 2006 ) , Running with Scissors ( 2006 ) , and in the big studio production Across the Universe ( 2007 ) . Since 2008 , Wood has appeared in more mainstream films , including The Wrestler ( 2008 ) , Whatever Works ( 2009 ) and The Ides of March ( 2011 ) . She has also returned to television , playing the supporting role of Queen Sophie @-@ Anne on True Blood from 2009 to 2011 and playing Kate Winslet 's character 's daughter in the HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce ( 2011 ) , a role for which she was nominated for the Golden Globe and Emmy Award for Best Supporting Actress .

Her personal life , particularly her relationship with Marilyn Manson , to whom she was previously engaged , has attracted press attention . In 2012 , she married English actor Jamie Bell , with whom she has one son . They separated in 2014 after two years of marriage .

= = Early life and family = =

Wood was born in Raleigh , North Carolina . Her father , Ira David Wood III , is a locally prominent actor , singer , theater director , and playwright ; he is the Executive Director of a local regional theatre company called Theatre in the Park . Her mother , Sara Lynn Moore ( b . March 6 , 1958 ) , is an actress , director , and acting coach . Wood 's brother , Ira David Wood IV , is also an actor ; she has two other brothers , Dana and Thomas , and a sister named Aden . Her paternal aunt , Carol Winstead Wood , was a Hollywood production designer .

Wood and her brothers were actively involved in Theatre in the Park while growing up , including an appearance by her in the 1987 production of her father 's musical comedy adaptation of A Christmas Carol when she was just a few months old . Subsequently , she played the Ghost of Christmas Past in several productions at the theater , and she later starred as Helen Keller alongside her mother ( who played Anne Sullivan ) in a production of The Miracle Worker , under her father 's direction . Wood briefly attended Cary Elementary , a public school in Cary , North Carolina . She was subsequently home @-@ schooled and received her high school diploma at age 15 .

= = Career = =

= = = Early works : 1994 – 2000 = = =

Wood began her career appearing in several made @-@ for @-@ television films from 1994 onward , also playing an occasional role in the television series American Gothic . In 1996 , Wood 's parents separated and later divorced , and Wood moved with her mother to her mother 's native Los Angeles County , California . After a one @-@ season role on the television drama Profiler , Wood was cast in the supporting role of Jessie Sammler on the television show Once and Again .

Wood 's first major screen role was in the low @-@ budget 1998 film Digging to China , which also starred Kevin Bacon and Mary Stuart Masterson . The film won the Children 's Jury Award at the Chicago International Children 's Film Festival . Wood remembers the role as initially being hard , but notes that it " eventually led to her decision that acting is something she might never want to stop doing . " She also had a role in Practical Magic , a fantasy film directed by Griffin Dunne , starring Sandra Bullock and Nicole Kidman , that same year .

= = = 2001 – 2005 = = =

Wood made her teenage debut as a leading film actress in 2002 's Little Secrets , directed by Blair Treu , where she played aspiring 14 @-@ year @-@ old concert violinist Emily Lindstrom . For that role , she was nominated for Best Leading Young Actress at the Young Artist Awards . That same year , Wood played a supporting role in the Andrew Niccol @-@ directed science fiction satirical drama film , S1m0ne , which starred Al Pacino . Wood 's breakthrough movie role followed with the 2003 film Thirteen . She played the role of Tracy Louise Freeland , one of two young teens who sink into a downward spiral of hard drugs , sex , and petty crime . Her performance was nominated for a Golden Globe Award as Best Actress - Drama and for a Screen Actors Guild ( SAG ) Award for Best Actress . During the time of Thirteen 's release , Vanity Fair named Wood as one of the It Girls of Hollywood , and she appeared , along with the other actresses , on the magazine 's July 2003 cover . A supporting role opposite Cate Blanchett and Tommy Lee Jones in Ron Howard 's The Missing , in which she played the kidnapped daughter , Lilly Gilkeson , followed the same year , as well as a role in the CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode " Got Murder ? " .

In 2005 , Wood appeared in the Mike Binder @-@ directed The Upside of Anger , opposite Kevin Costner and Joan Allen , a well @-@ reviewed film in which Wood played Lavender " Popeye " Wolfmeyer , one of four sisters dealing with their father 's absence . Her character also narrated the film . Wood 's next two starring roles were in dark independent films . In the 2005 Grand Jury Prize Sundance Film Festival nominee Pretty Persuasion , a black comedy / satirical focusing on themes of sexual harassment and discrimination in schools and attitudes about females in media and society , Wood played Kimberly Joyce , a manipulative , sexually active high @-@ schooler . One critic commented , " Wood does flip cynicism with such precise , easy rhythms and with such obvious pleasure in naughtiness that she 's impossible to hate . "

In Down in the Valley , which was directed by David Jacobson , Wood 's character , Tobe , falls in love with an older man , a cowboy who is at odds with modern society ( Edward Norton ) . Of her performance , it was written that " Wood conveys every bit of the adamant certainty and aching vulnerability inherent in late adolescence . " Wood has commented on her choice of sexually themed roles , saying that she is not aiming for the " shock factor " in her film choices .

In 2005 , Wood starred in the music videos for Bright Eyes ' " At the Bottom of Everything " and Green Day 's " Wake Me Up When September Ends " .

= = = 2006 – present = = =

In September 2006 , Wood received Premiere magazine 's " Spotlight Award for Emerging Talent . " Also in 2006 , she was described by The Guardian as being " wise beyond her years " and as " one of the best actresses of her generation . " Later in 2006 , Wood appeared with an all @-@ star ensemble cast as Natalie Finch in the Golden Globe @-@ nominated 2006 comedy @-@ drama film Running with Scissors . Directed by Ryan Murphy and starring Annette Bening , the film was based on the memoir by Augusten Burroughs , which is a semi @-@ autobiographical account of Burroughs ' childhood in a dysfunctional family . Wood was awarded the 2007 Cannes Film Festival Chopard Trophy for Female Revelation for her performance .

Wood had roles in two films released in September 2007 . King of California , which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , a story of a bipolar jazz musician ( Michael Douglas ) and his long @-@ suffering teenage daughter , Miranda ( Wood ) , who are reunited after his two @-@ year stay in a mental institution and who embark on a quixotic search for Spanish treasure . One review praised Wood 's performance as " excellent " .

Across the Universe , a Julie Taymor @-@ directed musical that was nominated for a Golden Globe and an Academy Award and was set in Liverpool , New York City , and Vietnam , focused on the tribulations of several characters during the counter @-@ cultural revolution of the 1960s . It was set to the songs of The Beatles . Wood , who has described the music of The Beatles as a major part of her life , played Lucy , who develops a relationship with Jude ( Jim Sturgess ) . The film featured her singing musical numbers and she describes the role as her favorite , calling director Julie Taymor " one of the most amazing directors out there . " One critic wrote that " Wood brings much @-@ needed emotional depth . " Wood provided the voice of an alien named Mala , a mechanically inclined free @-@ thinker , in Battle for Terra , a 2008 computer @-@ animated science fiction film about a peaceful alien planet that faces destruction from colonization by the displaced remainder of the human race . The film won the 2008 Grand Prize at the Ottawa International Animation Festival . The film showed at the San Francisco International Film Festival , where she received an award at the Midnight Awards along with Elijah Wood .

Wood starred in 2008 's Vadim Perelman @-@ directed The Life Before Her Eyes , based on the Laura Kasischke novel of the same name , about the friendship of two teens of opposite character who are involved in a Columbine @-@ like shooting incident at their school and are forced to make an impossible choice . Wood played the younger version of Uma Thurman 's character , Diana . One critic cited her performance as " hands @-@ down extraordinary " . Wood stated that she intended the film to be the last one in which she played a teenager .

In the same year , she also co @-@ starred in director Darren Aronofsky 's The Wrestler , winner of the Golden Lion Award for Best Film at the Venice Film Festival , about Randy " Ram " Robinson ( Mickey Rourke ) , a professional wrestler from the 1980s who is forced to retire after a heart attack threatens to kill him the next time he wrestles . Wood played Stephanie , Randy " Ram " Robinson 's estranged daughter . Of her performance , one critic wrote , " Once her character stops stonewalling her father and hears him out , Wood provides a fine foil for Rourke in their turbulent scenes together . "

Wood co @-@ starred in Woody Allen 's Whatever Works , which premiered at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival , playing the young wife of Larry David 's character . In May 2009 , she played Juliet in six fundraising performances of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet at the Theater In The Park . The production was directed by her brother , who also starred . Wood had a recurring role in the second and third seasons of the HBO supernatural drama series , True Blood , from 2009 to 2011 as Sophie @-@ Anne Leclerq . She appeared at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12 , 2010 . Wood had a role in the film The Conspirator , which premiered at Ford 's Theatre in Washington D. C. in April , 2011 , directed by Robert Redford ( about the conspiracy surrounding the assassination of Abraham Lincoln ) . She also had a role in The Ides of March . She portrayed the title character 's daughter in the 2011 HBO miniseries Mildred Pierce , for which she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie .

Wood played Gabi in the 2013 psychological romantic thriller film Charlie Countryman with Shia LaBeouf and Rupert Grint .

She is featured with Chris Evans in a 2016 ad for Gucci Guilty Eau fragrances . "

In June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting ; in the video , Wood and others told the stories of the people killed there .

= = Personal life = =

Wood began dating British actor Jamie Bell in 2005 after they co @-@ starred in the music video for Green Day 's song " Wake Me Up When September Ends . " They got matching tattoos of each other 's initials ; in Wood 's case , a " J " on her left ankle . After a year together , the relationship ended in 2006 . Wood later commented that , " We had matching tattoos because we knew our love would last forever . Trouble is , it didn 't , things happened , we split . But I don 't regret the tattoo . It reminds me of a great , great period in my life . "

In January 2007 , Wood 's relationship with Marilyn Manson became public . The two met at a party at the Chateau Marmont Hotel ; Wood has stated that she was attracted to Manson 's frequent use of black eye liner and once described their relationship as " healthy and loving " . Two portraits of Wood , painted by Manson , have been exhibited at the Celebritarian Corporation Gallery of Fine Art . Wood is also the inspiration behind Manson 's song " Heart @-@ Shaped Glasses " , and she appeared with Manson in the song 's music video . Manson has said that Wood 's appearance was the highest @-@ paid music video role ever . The couple split in November 2008 ; according to Wood , they " both decided to take some time apart so [ they ] could concentrate on work . " They later re @-@ united and it was reported in early January 2010 that the couple was engaged to be married . Wood and Manson ended their engagement in August 2010 .

In the summer of 2011 , Wood was reported to have rekindled her relationship with Jamie Bell , five years after they first broke up . The couple married in a small ceremony on October 30 , 2012 . They have one son , born in July 2013 . Wood had a natural home birth with her son , and publicly thanked Ricki Lake , creator of the documentary The Business of Being Born , for inspiring her decision . In May 2014 , Wood and Bell announced that they had separated after 19 months of marriage .

In August 2012 , Wood came out as bisexual via Twitter .

Wood 's mother is a convert to Judaism and Wood 's father is Christian . In 2003 , Wood described herself as Jewish . In 2012 , she stated , " I believe in God but I am not religious . I am spiritual . My definition of God isn 't in any religion . It 's very personal " .

Wood has a black belt in taekwondo .

= = Filmography = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= M @-@ 30 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 30 is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan that runs in a north – south direction from the Midland area to West Branch . The highway runs through rural parts of three counties in the Lower Peninsula . The southern end runs along the Michigan Meridian and parallel to the Tittabawassee River . Prior to 1962 , M @-@ 30 's southern terminus ended at a junction with M @-@ 46 in Merrill . Since then , the segment south of US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) was returned to local control and decommissioned . In May 2009 , M @-@ 30 was extended southerly from US 10 to M @-@ 20 , restoring some of the highway decommissioned in the 1960s to M @-@ 30 .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 30 is a rural , two @-@ lane highway . M @-@ 30 follows Meridian Road starting at an intersection with M @-@ 20 ( Isabella Road ) outside of Midland . From this intersection , the highway runs north along the Michigan Meridian through forest lands to a crossing of the Tittabawassee River near Sanford . M @-@ 30 passes through the community and crosses the US 10 freeway near the location where the latter crosses a narrow section of Sanford Lake . The road continues north running parallel to the lake along the meridian to a point near Edenville . There , the highway turns westerly along Curtis Road and then back northerly on Midland Road to a crossing of the Tittabawassee and Wixom Lake .

Past the river and lake crossings , M @-@ 30 angles to the northeast to return to the Michigan Meridian . The area adjacent to the lake is farm land , but continuing north , the highway returns to the woodlands of the Au Sable State Forest . M @-@ 30 intersects M @-@ 61 at Wooden Shoe Village near Smallwood Lake . The highway continues to parallel the Tittabawassee River , crossing several of its smaller tributaries , until a point south of the Gladwin – Ogemaw County county line . The trunkline passes through a small unnamed , unincorporated community northwest of Hockaday near Indian and Elk lakes as the road turns to the northeast between the lakes in the area . M @-@ 30 crosses the county line near Edwards and continues northward . The highway turns to the northeast as it approaches West Branch , crossing under I @-@ 75 without an interchange . M @-@ 30 ends at Business Loop I @-@ 75 / M @-@ 55 on the west side of West Branch .

The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 30 like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system . As a part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic using its roads in surveys using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . MDOT calculates the traffic level for a segment of roadway for any average day of the year in these surveys . For 2009 , the highest traffic levels were observed on the section north of US 10 at 7 @,@ 579 vehicles per day . The lowest AADT levels were the 2 @,@ 952 vehicles between the M @-@ 61 junction and the Gladwin – Ogemaw county line . The survey did not include the section south of US 10 . No segment has been listed as part of the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

M @-@ 30 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 . The original routing only ran from Winegars to West Branch . South of Winegars , the roadway is a portion of M @-@ 18 . An extension of M @-@ 18 in 1928 or 1929 south of Beaverton led to the redesignation and extension of M @-@ 30 south through Edenville and Sanford to end at M @-@ 46 . M @-@ 30 was completely paved as the last 15 miles ( 24 km ) of gravel roadway were completed between Sanford and the Midland – Saginaw county line in 1961 . The next year , when M @-@ 30 was truncated to end at the US 10 freeway in Sanford , the remaining portion south of US 10 was turned over to county control . On May 13 , 2009 , the Midland County Road Commission ( MCRC ) and the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) signed a Memorandum of Understanding that transferred control of Meridian Road south of US 10 to M @-@ 20 . The roadway transferred included a newly constructed bridge over the Tittabawassee River and other segments of roadway rebuilt by the MCRC .

= = Major intersections = =

= Father 's Day ( Doctor Who ) =

" Father 's Day " is the eighth episode of the first series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , first broadcast on 14 May 2005 on BBC One . It was written by Paul Cornell and directed by Joe Ahearne .

In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) agrees to take his companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) back to the day her father Pete ( Shaun Dingwall ) died in 1987 . When Rose intervenes and pulls her father out of the path of a car , time is wounded and dangerous Reapers attack , threatening to erase history . Pete eventually learns that to get rid of the Reapers , he must throw himself under the car that was originally meant to kill him .

Lead writer and executive producer Russell T Davies conceived " Father 's Day " as an emotionally driven time travel story to explore Rose 's character . He chose Cornell to write the episode ; Cornell had been a successful writer of spin @-@ off material during the years the programme was on hiatus . The monster element of the story was expanded based on suggestions from Cornell and BBC Head of Drama Jane Tranter , and the Reapers went through many designs . The episode was filmed in November 2004 at St Paul 's Church and streets in Cardiff . " Father 's Day " was watched by 8 @.@ 06 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received generally positive reviews . Critics praised the focus on character and emotion .

= = Plot = =

The episode opens with a flashback of Jackie Tyler telling a younger Rose about her father Pete , who died in a hit @-@ and @-@ run accident on the way to a friend 's wedding .

In the TARDIS , the Doctor agrees to take Rose to the day her father died so that she can be there when it happens . Upon their arrival in London on Saturday 7 November 1987 , they witness the accident , but Rose is unable to move when The Doctor tells her to go comfort her dying father . Rose asks the Doctor if she can try again , and the Doctor allows it but warns Rose to not run until their former selves have left to prevent a paradox . As the accident is about to happen , Rose suddenly runs out and pushes Pete aside , saving his life . The younger versions of the Doctor and Rose vanish . Rose and the Doctor fight about her actions , with the Doctor rebuking her for potentially damaging the timeline . The Doctor takes Rose 's TARDIS key back and storms off without her . Rose decides to go with Pete to the wedding , while the Doctor walks back to the TARDIS only to find that it is now an empty shell . Strange flying beasts called Reapers appear and begin consuming people .

Rose and Pete drive to the wedding together , and the car that had been meant to kill Pete nearly collides with their car . They join the other guests , including Jackie who has brought the infant Rose with her . Rose is surprised to find that Jackie and Pete argue frequently . A young Mickey runs in to warn the guests about the Reapers , who think it is a joke until a Reaper appears above and attacks them . The Doctor runs to the church and directs everyone inside , noting that the age of the church will protect them against the Reapers . The Doctor explains to Rose that her actions have caused a paradox that normally the Time Lords would have prevented . Without them , the Reapers are sterilising the wound in time by consuming everyone within it . The Doctor further warns Rose not to touch her infant self , as it could cause further damage to time and allow the Reapers into the church . Feeling that his TARDIS key is still warm , the Doctor sets it up in the middle of the church and the TARDIS slowly begins materialising around it .

While waiting in the church , Jackie sees Pete talking to Rose and thinks he is having an affair . Pete and Rose talk alone , and he comes to realise that she is his daughter . When Rose is unable to answer questions about how good of a father he was , Pete realises he was meant to die in the accident . Jackie thinks Rose is Pete 's daughter with another woman , and in a fit of frustration Pete hands the baby Rose to adult Rose . The paradox worsens , and a Reaper is able to enter the church . The Doctor declares himself the oldest thing in the church and offers himself to the Reaper , who consumes him and disappears . The TARDIS key goes cold and drops to the ground . Pete realises that they now have no other choice and that he must die in order to restore the timeline . He bids Rose and Jackie an emotional farewell , races out of the church and throws himself under the car that was originally meant to kill him . The timeline is repaired , and those previously consumed by the beasts reappear . The Doctor sends Rose off to be with her dad as he dies , and she holds his hand until he is gone . Rose and the Doctor walk hand @-@ in @-@ hand back to the restored TARDIS .

The episode ends with a flashback similar to the opening , as Jackie explains to a young Rose that Pete did not die alone . She tells Rose about a young woman who stayed with him until he died . In a voice @-@ over , the adult Rose eulogises her father .

= = = Continuity = = =

Continuing the " Bad Wolf " arc of the series , a poster advertising a rave on a wall near where Pete was supposed to die in the beginning has the words " BAD WOLF " defacing it . Rose refers to the ending of this episode in " The Parting of the Ways " , telling Jackie that she met her father and was the girl who held Pete 's hand as he died . Although Pete Tyler dies in this episode , an alternative universe version of him appears in the second series episodes " Rise of the Cybermen " / " Age of Steel " and " Army of Ghosts " / " Doomsday " .

= = Production = =

According to producer Phil Collinson , showrunner Russell T Davies came up with the concept for " Father 's Day " at an early stage in the planning of the series , as it was a " perfect time travel story " . Davies wanted the storyline to be easy @-@ to @-@ follow and drawn from human emotions . Additionally , the previous seven episodes had established why Rose was a good companion , and so " Father 's Day " shows that she does make mistakes , but in a relatable way . Davies chose Paul Cornell to write the episode ; Cornell was a successful writer of Doctor Who spin @-@ off material , especially in novels for the Virgin New Adventures , which bridged the gap between the classic series and the new . Davies originally intended that the episode be a small budget @-@ saver character piece investigating the death of Rose 's father , but Cornell suggested the addition of the Reapers and BBC Head of Drama Jane Tranter encouraged the additions of monsters to the new series . Working titles for the episode included " Wounded Time " and " Wound in Time " . Davies came up with the final title of " Father 's Day " in February 2005 , shortly before the series began airing .

Davies and Cornell debated whether it should have been Rose 's plan all along to save her father ; this is left ambiguous in the episode . Billie Piper felt that it did not occur to Rose until after she began travelling . In the original script , in the scene where the Doctor opens the TARDIS doors and discovers only a police box interior , the police box fell apart . This was changed for reasons of cost , and Cornell has stated that he thinks the change is an improvement . Cornell also states that the character of Pete Tyler is based on his own father , who attempted many different jobs and schemes ( including , like Pete , selling health drinks ) before eventually finding success running a betting shop . Pete 's line " I 'm your dad , it 's my job for it to be my fault " is taken from something Cornell 's father once said to him . Originally Pete was to take a swig of wine before sacrificing himself , but this was removed because a correlation between alcohol and bravery was not thought to be a positive message .

The entire episode was shot in Cardiff , in November 2004 . The weather changed frequently during filming , and the cast began to fall ill ; Eccleston had a cold . The production team selected several streets that looked similar . Most of the streets were in the community of Grangetown . The streets did not require much work for them to resemble 1980s streets ; only a few satellite dishes were taken down . The church is St Paul 's Church , also in Grangetown . The set of the Tyler 's flat was redressed for the time period . For the 1980s style , members of the cast and crew brought in photographs of themselves from the ' 80s ; for example , peach dresses and " big hair " were incorporated , but these elements were not meant to be distracting . Camille Coduri , who played Jackie , wore a wig for this episode . Some of the conversation between Rose and her father in the car was cut because the car had made the dialogue delivery too " bouncy " . Piper was scared of holding the baby . Because the baby is present throughout the majority of the episode , but they were limited to how many hours they could work with the infant , an " artificial baby " was used as a placeholder in some scenes .

The Reapers went through many designs . Originally , they were supposed to be " men in cowls " based on the Grim Reaper ; the final design retains some of this image with its " scythe @-@ like tail " . The original design was deemed too similar to creatures seen in " The End of the World " , and so were reworked into something more " otherworldly " . They were not originally intended to fly . There was also discussion of how much they should resemble animals as opposed to the Grim Reaper ; the end result is a mixture of the two approaches . The final design had a " shark quality " , bat wings , and a mouth influenced by the praying mantis . Vulture sound effects were used for its screech . The model was made over two months , being finished at the end of February 2005 rather than at the beginning of January as scheduled . The special effects team then had two or three weeks to complete the " 40 @-@ odd shots " of the completely CGI Reapers in the episode . The episode ended up more expensive than intended because of the CGI .

= = Outside references = =

" The Lamb and Flag " , a pub from the sitcom Bottom , is referenced in the episode . When time is damaged , one of the effects is that mobile telephones all begin to repeat the message , " Watson , come here , I need you , " purportedly Alexander Graham Bell 's first words ever spoken over a telephone . However historical records believe the words to be " Watson , come here , I want you . " The error was not present in Paul Cornell 's original script , but crept in at some point during production . Producer Phil Collinson speculated that it was because the line was rerecorded ; it was originally recorded by someone who the production team felt put on too false of a Scottish accent , and so it was rerecorded with a real Scot .

The episode features two hits from 1987 , " Never Gonna Give You Up " performed by Rick Astley and " Never Can Say Goodbye " performed by The Communards , both of which have some relevance to the basic themes of the story . It also features the 2002 song " Don 't Mug Yourself " by The Streets , indicating the damage to the timeline . Rose believes Pete to be " a bit of a Del Boy " , referring to the character from 1980s comedy Only Fools and Horses .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Father 's Day " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 14 May 2005 on BBC One . The episode received UK overnight ratings of 7 @.@ 47 million viewers , an audience share of 42 @.@ 74 % . When time @-@ shifted viewers were taken into account , the number rose to 8 @.@ 06 million . It received an Appreciation Index of 83 .

" Father 's Day " was met with a generally positive reception . Piper stated that this was her favourite episode of the first series , and the most emotionally taxing for her to perform . SFX praised the way the concept of time was explored as well as the accurate representation of the ' 80s , and stated that Dingwall gave " one of the series ' best performances " as Pete Tyler . However , the reviewer thought that the Reapers were the let @-@ down of the episode , finding that " the episode doesn 't feel as much like horror as it should " . Arnold T Blumburg of Now Playing gave the episode an A for the emotional impact and the acting . Blumburg did note , however , that there were " enormous logical gaps " involving " glowing TARDIS keys and under @-@ explained paradoxes " . In 2013 , Radio Times reviewer Mark Braxton described it as " a time @-@ travel tale with immense heart " and highlighted the shift of identification from the Doctor to Rose and the acting of Piper and Dingwall . Braxton , on the other hand , felt that the Reapers were redundant and the episode would have done " equally well if you scythed the Reapers from the script " . Reviewing " Father 's Day " for The A.V. Club in 2013 , Alasdair Wilkins gave it a grade of " A " , finding the story powerful . In Who Is the Doctor , a guide to the revived series , Robert Smith praised the emotion and the dilemma , which he felt was not heavy @-@ handed . He was also positive about the direction and Dingwall 's performance , though he felt that removing the Doctor from the plot suggested that he would have done something else to resolve it , and he was not a fan of the scene where the Doctor tells two ordinary people how important their lives are , because it was " cheesy " and " disconnected " from the rest of the story . Coauthor Graeme Burk was also positive , writing that it may be " the best story this season " . He called the direction " wonderful " and the script " sublime " , and noted how the story was more about family than time travel .

" Father 's Day " was nominated for the 2006 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , alongside other first series episodes " Dalek " and " The Empty Child " / " The Doctor Dances " . The latter won . " Father 's Day " topped the third place category in terms of votes .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Father 's Day " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey

" Father 's Day " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide

= Cyril Newall , 1st Baron Newall =

Marshal of the Royal Air Force Cyril Louis Norton Newall , 1st Baron Newall GCB , OM , GCMG , CBE , AM ( 15 February 1886 – 30 November 1963 ) was a senior officer of the British Army and Royal Air Force . He commanded units of the Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force in the First World War , and served as Chief of the Air Staff during the first years of the Second World War . From 1941 to 1946 he was the Governor @-@ General of New Zealand .

Born to a military family , Newall studied at the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , before taking a commission as a junior officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment in 1905 . After transferring to the 2nd Gurkha Rifles in the Indian Army , he saw active service on the North West Frontier , but after learning to fly in 1911 turned towards a career in military aviation . During the First World War he rose from flying instructor to command of 41st Wing RFC , the main strategic bombing force , and was awarded the Albert Medal for putting out a fire in an explosives store .

He served in staff positions through the 1920s and was Air Officer Commanding the Middle East Command in the early 1930s before becoming Air Member for Supply and Organisation in 1935 . Newall was appointed Chief of the Air Staff in 1937 and , in that role , supported sharp increases in aircraft production , increasing expenditure on the new , heavily armed , Hurricane and Spitfire fighters , essential to re @-@ equip Fighter Command . However , he was sacked after the Battle of Britain after political intrigue caused him to lose Churchill 's confidence . In 1941 he was appointed Governor @-@ General of New Zealand , holding office until 1946 .

= = Early life = =

Newall was born to Lieutenant Colonel William Potter Newall and Edith Gwendoline Caroline Newall ( née Norton ) . After education at Bedford School , he attended the Royal Military College , Sandhurst . After leaving Sandhurst , he was commissioned into the Royal Warwickshire Regiment on 16 August 1905 . He was promoted to lieutenant on 18 November 1908 , and transferred to the 2nd King Edward VII 's Own Gurkha Rifles on 16 September 1909 . He served on the North @-@ West Frontier , where he first encountered his future colleague Hugh Dowding ; at an exercise in 1909 , Dowding 's artillery section ambushed Newall 's Gurkhas whilst they were still breakfasting .

Newall began to turn towards a career in aviation in 1911 , when he learned to fly in a Bristol Biplane at Larkhill whilst on leave in England . He held certificate No. 144 issued by the Royal Aero Club . He later passed a formal course at the Central Flying School , Upavon in 1913 , and began working as a pilot trainer there from 17 November 1913 ; it was intended that he would form part of a flight training school to be established in India , but he had not yet left England when the First World War broke out .

= = First World War = =

On the outbreak of war , Newall was in England . On 12 September 1914 , he was given the temporary rank of captain , and attached to the Royal Flying Corps as a flight commander , to serve with No. 1 Squadron on the Western Front . He was promoted to the permanent rank of captain on 22 September , effective from 16 August . On 24 March 1915 he was promoted to major and appointed to command No. 12 Squadron , flying BE2c aircraft in France from September onwards . The squadron took part in the Battle of Loos , bombing railways and carrying out reconnaissance missions in October 1915 .

On taking command of the squadron , he chose to stop flying personally in order to concentrate on administration , a decision which was regarded dismissively by his men ; relations were strained until January 1916 , when he demonstrated his courage by walking into a burning bomb store to try to control the fire . He was awarded the Albert Medal for this act on the personal recommendation of General Hugh Trenchard , and in February 1916 was promoted to lieutenant colonel and given command of Training No. 6 Wing in England . In December 1916 he took command of No. 9 Wing in France , a long @-@ range bomber and reconnaissance formation , and in October 1917 took command of the newly formed No. 41 Wing . This was upgraded as the 8th Brigade in December , with Newall promoted accordingly to the temporary rank of brigadier @-@ general on 28 December 1917 . During 1918 , it joined the Independent Bombing Force , which was the main strategic bombing arm of the newly formed Royal Air Force . In June 1918 Newall was appointed the Deputy Commander of the Independent Bombing Force , serving under Trenchard .

Newall was awarded the Croix d 'Officier of the French Legion of Honour on 10 October 1918 , and appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George on 1 January 1919 , a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 3 June 1919 and an Officer of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 18 April 1921 .

= = Between the wars = =

Newall was granted a permanent commission in the Royal Air Force as a lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1919 and promoted to group captain on 8 August 1919 . He became Deputy Director of Personnel at the Air Ministry in August 1919 and then Deputy Commandant of the apprentices ' technical training school in August 1922 . He married May Weddell in 1922 ; she died in September 1924 , and he remarried the following year to Olive Foster , an American woman . He had three children with Foster , a son and two daughters .

Newall was promoted to air commodore on 1 January 1925 , and took command of the newly formed Auxiliary Air Force in May 1925 . He was appointed to a League of Nations disarmament committee in December 1925 and then became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff and Director of Operations and Intelligence on 12 April 1926 . He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1929 Birthday Honours and , having been promoted to air vice marshal on 1 January 1930 , he stood down as Deputy Chief on 6 February 1931 . He became Air Officer Commanding Wessex Bombing Area in February 1931 and then Air Officer Commanding Middle East Command in September 1931 . He then returned to the Air Ministry , where he became Air Member for Supply and Organisation on 14 January 1935 , during the beginnings of the pre @-@ war expansion and rearmament . He was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1935 Birthday Honours and promoted to air marshal on 1 July 1935 . He attended the funeral of King George V in January 1936 .

Philosophically , Newall remained a close follower of Trenchard during the interwar period ; his time in the Independent Bombing Force had left him convinced that strategic bombing was an exceptionally powerful weapon , and one that could not effectively be defended against . In this , he was a supporter of the standard doctrine of the day , which suggested that the destructive power of a bomber force was sufficiently great that it could cripple an industrial economy in short order , and that so merely its presence could potentially serve as an effective deterrent . He was promoted to air chief marshal on 1 April 1937 .

= = Chief of the Air Staff = =

On 1 September 1937 , Newall was appointed as Chief of the Air Staff , the military head of the RAF , in succession to Sir Edward Ellington . The promotion was unexpected ; of the prospective candidates mooted for the job , Newall has been widely seen by historians as the least gifted . The most prominent candidate was Hugh Dowding , the head of RAF Fighter Command and senior in rank to Newall by three months , who had been informally told by Ellington in 1936 that he was expected to be appointed as the new Chief of the Air Staff . The decision was taken by the Air Minister , Viscount Swinton , without consulting Ellington for advice .

During 1936 and 1937 , the Air Staff had been fighting with the Cabinet over the rearmament plans ; the Air Staff wanted a substantial bomber force and only minor increases in fighters , whilst the Minister for Defence Co @-@ ordination , Sir Thomas Inskip , successfully pushed for a greater role for the fighter force . Newall was promoted during the middle of this debate , and proved perhaps more flexible than might have been expected . In 1938 he supported sharp increases in aircraft production , including double @-@ shift working and duplication of factories , and pushed for the creation of a dedicated organisation to repair and refit damaged aircraft . He supported expenditure on the new , heavily armed , Hurricane and Spitfire fighters , essential to re @-@ equip Fighter Command . He even began to distance himself , albeit slightly , from orthodox bomber philosophy , noting to the Minister for Air that " no one can say with absolute certainty that a nation can be knocked out from the air , because no @-@ one has yet attempted it " . Discussing plans for reacting to a war with Italy , in early 1939 , he opposed a French proposal to force Italy 's surrender by the use of heavy bombing raids against the north , arguing that it would be unlikely to force the country out of the war without the need for ground combat .

Newall was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1938 Birthday Honours . He was still Chief of the Air Staff at the outbreak of the Second World War on 1 September 1939 ; his main contribution to the war effort was his successful resistance to the transfer of fighter squadrons to aid the collapsing French thus preserving a large portion of Fighter Command which would become crucial during the Battle of Britain . While he remained committed to the idea of a " knock @-@ out blow " offensive by Bomber Command , he also recognised that it was too weak to do so successfully , but still strongly opposed the use of the RAF for close air support .

Following the end of the Battle of Britain , Newall was quickly forced into retirement and replaced as Chief of the Air Staff by Sir Charles Portal . Contemporaries attributed this to the effects of overwork , which had certainly taken its toll , but there were also other aspects ; Newall had lost political support , particularly following a dispute with Lord Beaverbrook over the control of aircraft production and repair . Matters came to a head with the circulation of an anonymous memo attacking Newall , among other senior officers , as " a real weakness to the RAF and to the nation 's defences " . The author was Edgar McCloughry , a disaffected staff officer who saw himself as passed over for promotion and who had been brought into Beaverbrook 's inner circle . Beaverbrook pressed Churchill to dismiss Newall , gaining the support of influential ex @-@ RAF figures such as Trenchard and Salmond . Trenchard had come out against Newall for his failure to launch a decisive strategic bombing offensive , while Salmond saw Newall 's removal as the simplest way to replace Dowding as head of Fighter Command – despite Newall having also sought to sack Dowding .

He was promoted to Marshal of the Royal Air Force on 4 October 1940 and retired from the RAF later that month . He was awarded the Order of Merit on 29 October , and made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George on 21 November .

= = New Zealand and later life = =

In February 1941 Newall was appointed Governor @-@ General of New Zealand , a post he would hold for the remainder of the war . His time there was mostly quiet – described by one biographer as " a nice long rest " – and he toured the country extensively , referring to the war " in every public address " . Newall and his wife , who also carried out an extensive program of engagements , were broadly popular , but there were occasional tensions ; shortly after his arrival , it was widely ( but mistakenly ) rumoured that he had slighted the " men " of the Army in favour of the " gentlemen " of the RNZAF in a speech . A Freemason , Newall became Grand Master of New Zealand 's Grand Lodge while Governor @-@ General .

Politically , he had a lukewarm relationship with the Prime Minister , Peter Fraser – " I can 't persuade myself that he is all he quite appears to be " , Newall noted in a private report – but the two worked together effectively . Small problems occasionally flared up , such as that in October 1942 , when Fraser was reprimanded for not personally informing Newall of the resignation of four ministers . However , only one developed into a direct confrontation , when Newall became the last Governor @-@ General to refuse to follow the advice of his cabinet . Newall was presented with a government recommendation to remit four prisoners sentenced to be flogged , but refused to do so . He argued that if the government was opposed to flogging , it should repeal the legislation rather than simply remitting the sentences , and that it was constitutionally improper for the government to retain the law while ignoring it . Fraser , and his deputy Walter Nash , refused to accept this response , and the impasse stretched out for several days ; in the end , a compromise was reached where Newall remitted the sentences but the government undertook to repeal the legislation .

A second conflict emerged just before the end of his term , when in 1945 , the Labour government sought to abolish the country quota , a system that gave additional electoral seats in rural areas . Farming groups – predominantly National @-@ supporting – strongly opposed the move , and argued that such a major change could only be made after gaining approval in a general election . Newall sympathised , and advised Fraser to wait until after the election , but did not feel it was appropriate to intervene ; he assented to the bill .

Following his return from New Zealand in 1946 , Newall was raised to the peerage as Baron Newall , of Clifton upon Dunsmoor , in the county of Warwick . He spoke in the House of Lords rarely , making five speeches between 1946 and 1948 and one in 1959 , mostly addressing defence issues . Newall died at his home at Welbeck Street in London on 30 November 1963 , at which time his son Francis inherited his title .

= = Arms = =

= Salyut 6 =

Salyut 6 ( Russian : Салют @-@ 6 ; lit . Salute 6 ) , DOS @-@ 5 , was a Soviet orbital space station , the eighth flown as part of the Salyut programme . Launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket , the station was the first of the ' second @-@ generation ' type of space station . Salyut 6 possessed several revolutionary advances over the earlier Soviet space stations , which it nevertheless resembled in overall design . These included the addition of a second docking port , a new main propulsion system and the station 's primary scientific instrument , the BST @-@ 1M multispectral telescope . The addition of the second docking port made crew handovers and station resupply by unmanned Progress freighters possible for the first time . The early Salyut stations had no means of resupply or removing accumulated garbage ( aside from the limited amount that cosmonauts could carry in their Soyuz spacecraft ) , nor could the propulsion system be refueled once it exhausted its propellant supply . Consequently , once the consumables launched with the station were used up , its mission had to be concluded and as a result , manned missions had a maximum duration of three months . Progress spacecraft could now bring fresh supplies and propellant and also be used to dispose of waste , which was then destroyed once the spacecraft was deorbited .

Five crew residencies took place over the station 's lifespan , in late 1977 @-@ early 1978 , late 1978 , mid @-@ 1979 , mid @-@ 1980 , and early 1981 , including cosmonauts from Warsaw Pact countries as part of the Intercosmos programme . These crews were responsible for carrying out the primary missions of Salyut 6 , including astronomy , Earth @-@ resources observations and the study of the effect of spaceflight on the human body . Following the completion of these missions and the launch of its successor , Salyut 7 , Salyut 6 was deorbited on 29 July 1982 , almost five years after its launch .

= = Description = =

Salyut 6 , launched on a Proton 8K82K rocket on 29 September 1977 , marked the switch from engineering development stations to routine operations , and united the most effective elements from each of the previous stations . Its navigation system , made up of the Delta semi @-@ automatic computer to depict the station 's orbit and the Kaskad system to control its orientation , was based on that used on Salyut 4 , as was its power system , which consisted of a trio of steerable solar panels together producing a peak of 4 kilowatts of power over 51 m ² . The station 's thermal regulation systems , which made use of a sophisticated arrangement of insulation and radiators , was also derived from that used on Salyut 4 . In addition , Salyut 6 made use of environmental systems first used on Salyut 3 , and controlled its orientation using gyrodynes first tested on that station .

The most important feature on Salyut 6 , however , was the addition of a second docking port on the aft end of the station , which allowed two spacecraft to be docked at once . This , in turn , allowed resident crews to receive shorter , ' visiting ' expeditions whilst they remained on board , and for crew handovers to take place . In addition , it allowed Soyuz spacecraft that had exceeded their operating lifespan to be returned to Earth and replaced by fresh ones ( the Soyuz 7K used from 1972 @-@ 81 had a maximum operating lifespan of three months ) . Such handovers , with one expedition vacating the station only after the next had arrived , permitted the long sought @-@ after aim of continuous occupation to move a step closer . The very first long @-@ duration crew to visit the station broke a long @-@ standing endurance record set on board the American Skylab station , staying 96 days in orbit , whilst the longest expedition lasted 185 days . Some of the visiting expeditions were flown as part of the Intercosmos programme , with non @-@ Soviet cosmonauts visiting the station . Vladimír Remek of Czechoslovakia , the first space traveller not from the US or USSR , visited Salyut 6 in 1978 , and the station hosted cosmonauts from Hungary , Poland , Romania , Cuba , Mongolia , Vietnam , and East Germany .

The rearward of the two ports was fitted with plumbing to allow the station to be refueled by unmanned Progress spacecraft . These freighters , which brought supplies and extra equipment to keep the station replenished , helped ensure that the crew were always able to carry out useful scientific work aboard the station . In all , twelve Progress flights delivered over 20 tonnes of equipment , supplies and fuel .

The addition of the extra docking port caused the adoption of the Almaz @-@ derived twin @-@ chamber propulsion system first used on Salyut 3 and 5 , with the two engine nozzles — each producing 2 @.@ 9 kilonewtons of thrust — mounted peripherally on either side of the aft port . Salyut 6 introduced a Unified Propulsion System , with both the engines and the station 's control thrusters running on unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide , drawn from a common set of pressurized tanks , allowing the refueling capabilities of the visiting Progress tankers to be exploited to the maximum effect . The entire engine and fuel storage assembly was contained within an unpressurized bay at the rear of the station , which was the same diameter as the main pressurized compartment . However , the replacement of the Soyuz engine used on previous stations with the bay meant that the station kept a similar overall length to its predecessors . The main engines could not be fired if the rear docking port was in use , hence any orbital maneuvers during this time had to be performed by the visiting spacecraft .

Salyut 6 's propulsion system experienced a serious malfunction during the second crew residency in 1978 and was not usable again for the remainder of the station 's lifespan . As a consequence , it was limited to firing its attitude control thrusters and visiting spacecraft had to perform orbital adjustments . After each crew residency ended , it was necessary for Progress and TKS spacecraft to boost the station into a high orbit so it wouldn 't decay until the next residency began .

To enable spacewalks , Salyut 6 was equipped with an inward @-@ opening EVA hatch on the side of the forward transfer compartment , which could be used as an airlock in a similar way to the system used on Salyut 4 . This compartment contained two new semi @-@ rigid spacesuits which allowed much greater flexibility than earlier suits , and could be donned within five minutes in case of an emergency . Finally , the station offered considerable improvements in living conditions over previous outposts , with machinery being soundproofed , the crews being provided with designated ' cots ' for sleeping and the equipping of the station with a shower and extensive gymnasium .

= = = Instruments = = =

The primary instrument carried aboard the station was the BST @-@ 1M multispectral telescope , which could carry out astronomical observations in the infrared , ultraviolet and submillimetre spectra using a 1 @.@ 5 metre @-@ diameter mirror which was operated in cryogenic conditions at around − 269 ° C. The telescope could be operated only when Salyut 6 was on the night side of the Earth , and had its cover closed for the rest of the time .

The second major instrument was the MKF @-@ 6M multispectral camera , which carried out Earth @-@ resources observations . An improved form of a camera first tested on Soyuz 22 , the camera captured an area of 165 × 220 kilometres with each image , down to a resolution of 20 metres . Each image was captured simultaneously in six bands in 1200 @-@ frame cassettes , which required regular replacement due to the fogging effects of radiation . Salyut 6 also featured a KATE @-@ 140 stereoscopic topographic mapping camera with a focal length of 140 milimetres , which captured images of 450 × 450 kilometres with a resolution of 50 metres in the visible and infrared spectra , which could be operated either remotely or by the resident crews . The photographic capabilities of the station were , therefore , extensive , and the Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had planted a number of specifically selected crops at test sites to examine the capabilities of the cameras .

To further expand its scientific capabilities , Salyut 6 was equipped with 20 portholes for observations , two scientific airlocks to expose equipment to space or eject rubbish , and various pieces of apparatus to carry out biological experiments . Later on during the flight , a Progress spacecraft delivered an external telescope , the KRT @-@ 10 radio observatory , which incorporated a directional antenna and five radiometers . The antenna was deployed on the rear docking assembly , with the controller remaining inside the station , and was used for both astronomical and meteorological observations .

= = Support craft = =

Salyut 6 was primarily supported by the manned Soyuz spacecraft , which carried out crew rotations and would also have been used in the event of an emergency evacuation . The ferries docked automatically to the station , making use of the new Igla automatic docking system , and were used by departing crews to return to Earth at the end of their flight .

The station was the first to be able to be resupplied by the newly developed unmanned Progress freighters , although they could only dock at the rear port , as the front port lacked the plumbing used to refuel the propulsion system . The freighters docked automatically to the station via the Igla , and were then opened and emptied by the cosmonauts on board , whilst transfer of fuel to the station took place automatically under supervision from the ground .

In addition to the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft , after the final crew had left , Salyut 6 was visited by an experimental transport logistics spacecraft called Kosmos 1267 in 1982 . The transport logistics spacecraft , known as the TKS , was originally designed for the Almaz programme , and proved that large modules could dock automatically with space stations , a major step toward the construction of multimodular stations such as Mir and the International Space Station .

= = Resident crews = =

The station received 16 cosmonaut crews , including six long @-@ duration crews , with the longest expedition lasting 185 days . Resident crew missions were identified with an EO prefix , whilst short @-@ duration missions were identified with EP .

On 10 December 1977 the first resident crew , Yuri Romanenko and Georgi Grechko , arrived on Soyuz 26 and remained aboard Salyut 6 for 96 days .

On 15 June 1978 , Vladimir Kovalyonok and Aleksandr Ivanchenkov ( Soyuz 29 ) arrived and remained on board for 140 days .

Vladimir Lyakhov and Valery Ryumin ( Soyuz 32 ) arrived on 25 February 1979 and stayed 175 days .

On 9 April 1980 Leonid Popov and Valery Ryumin ( Soyuz 35 ) arrived for the longest stay on Salyut 6 , 185 days . While aboard , on 19 July , they sent their greetings to the Olympians and wished them happy starts in the live communication between the station and the Central Lenin Stadium , where the opening ceremony of the 1980 Summer Olympics was held . They appeared on the stadium 's scoreboard and their voices were translated via loud speakers .

A repair mission , consisting of Leonid Kizim , Oleg Makarov , and Gennady Strekalov ( Soyuz T @-@ 3 ) worked on the space station for 12 days starting on 27 November 1980 .

On 12 March 1981 the last resident crew , Vladimir Kovalyonok and Viktor Savinykh , arrived and stayed for 75 days .

= = Station operations = =

= = = Docking operations = = =

Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Moscow Time . Source :

= = = Station crews = = =

Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Coordinated Universal Time .

= = = Spacewalks = = =

Dates and times are 24 @-@ hour Coordinated Universal Time . Source :

= HMS Achilles ( 1863 ) =

HMS Achilles was an armoured frigate built for the Royal Navy in the 1860s . Upon completion in 1864 she was assigned to the Channel Fleet . The ship was paid off in 1868 to refit and be re @-@ armed . When she recommissioned in 1869 , she was assigned as the guard ship of the Fleet Reserve in the Portland District until 1874 . Achilles was refitted and re @-@ armed again in 1874 and became the guard ship of the Liverpool District in 1875 . Two years later , she was rejoined the Channel Fleet before going to the Mediterranean in 1878 . The ship returned to the Channel Fleet in 1880 and served until she was paid off in 1885 .

Achilles was recommissioned in 1901 as a depot ship at Malta under a succession of different names . She was transferred to Chatham in 1914 and was again renamed multiple times before she was sold for scrap in 1923 . Achilles had more changes of her rigging and armament than any other British warship , before or since .

= = Design and description = =

Achilles was the third member of the 1861 Naval Programme and was designed as an improved version of the earlier Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates with a complete waterline armour belt .

The ship was 380 feet 2 inches ( 115 @.@ 9 m ) long between perpendiculars , had a beam of 58 feet 3 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 9 @,@ 820 long tons ( 9 @,@ 980 t ) and had a tonnage of 6 @,@ 121 bm . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 106 compartments and had a double bottom . Achilles was designed with a high centre of gravity and was very stiff . So much so that the ship only rolled 10 degrees during one storm that ripped the main and mizen topgallant masts off and split her topsails . Because of her great length she was not very manoeuvrable . Achilles had a crew of 709 officers and enlisted men .

= = = Propulsion = = =

The ship had a single two @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) propeller . Ten rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 25 psi ( 172 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . During her sea trials on 15 March 1865 , Achilles had a maximum speed of 14 @.@ 32 knots ( 26 @.@ 52 km / h ; 16 @.@ 48 mph ) from 5 @,@ 722 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 267 kW ) . The ship carried 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) .

As built , Achilles was ship @-@ rigged with four masts , called bow , fore , main and mizen from fore to aft , and she was the only British warship ever to have four masts . They carried a total of 44 @,@ 000 square feet ( 4 @,@ 088 m2 ) of sail area , excluding the stunsails , the greatest area ever spread in a British warship . Her performance was unsatisfactory when the wind was before the beam and her bowsprit and bowmast were removed in June 1865 in an attempt to correct this problem . However , now she had too much weather helm so the bowsprit was replaced and the foremast was moved forward 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in July 1866 . This reduced her sail area to 30 @,@ 133 square feet ( 2 @,@ 799 m2 ) . In 1877 Achilles was rerigged as a barque . Both of her funnels were retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone .

= = = Armament = = =

The intended armament of Achilles changed no less than five times before it was finally mounted . She received four rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns mounted on the upper deck , two of which served as chase guns at the bow and stern , and 16 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 100 @-@ pounder Somerset cannon , eight on each side on the main deck . The breech @-@ loading guns were a new design from Armstrong and much was hoped for them . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards . In 1865 , six 68 @-@ pounder smoothbores were added , three on each side of the main deck , although she was not comprehensively rearmed until her 1868 refit .

Detailed data for the Somerset cannon is not available , but the 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . The seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 318 @.@ 2 kg ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .

Achilles was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with 22 seven @-@ inch and eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The eight @-@ inch guns and 18 seven @-@ inch guns were mounted on the main deck and the remaining seven @-@ inch guns replaced the 110 @-@ pounders on the upper deck . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre eight @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre seven @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .

In 1874 the ship was rearmed with 16 nine @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loaders replacing the 4 eight @-@ inch and 20 of the 22 seven @-@ inch guns . Fourteen of the nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) guns were mounted on the main deck and the other two replaced the seven @-@ inch chase guns . The two remaining seven @-@ inch guns stayed in their position on the quarterdeck . As the nine @-@ inch guns were considerably bigger than their predecessors , the gun ports had to be widened to accommodate them . The shell of the 14 @-@ calibre nine @-@ inch gun weighed 254 pounds ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was rated with the ability to penetrate a 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle .

= = = Armour = = =

The ship had a wrought iron waterline armour belt that ran the full length of the ship . Amidships , it was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick for a length of 212 feet ( 64 @.@ 6 m ) and tapered to a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) to the ends of the ship . The armour extended 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline . The main deck was protected by a strake of armour , also 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch thick and 212 feet long . To protect against raking fire the upper strake was closed off by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end .

= = Construction and service = =

Achilles , named after the Greek mythological hero , was ordered on 10 April 1861 from the Chatham Dockyard . She was the first iron @-@ hulled warship to be built at a royal dockyard and her construction was delayed by the need to acquire the necessary machinery to handle iron and to train the workers to use it . The ship was laid down on 1 August 1861 in a drydock and was floated out rather than being launched on 23 December 1863 . Achilles was completed on 26 November 1864 at the cost of £ 469 @,@ 572 .

She served in the Channel Fleet until 1868 . After a refit and her first major re @-@ armament , Achilles became the guardship at Portland until 1874 when she was again re @-@ armed . Upon its completion in 1875 , the ship became guardship at Liverpool until 1877 when Captain William Hewett , VC , assumed command . In 1878 she was one of the ships in the Particular Service Squadron which Admiral Geoffrey Hornby took through the Dardanelles at the time of the Russian war scare in June – August 1878 during the Russo @-@ Turkish War . Achilles accidentally collided with the flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet , Alexandra , in October 1879 , but was only lightly damaged by Alexandra 's propeller . The ship rejoined the Channel Fleet in 1880 and was paid off in 1885 .

She lay derelict in the Hamoaze until April 1901 , when she was sent to Malta as a depot ship . To release her name for the new armoured cruiser , Achilles was renamed Hibernia in 1902 . She was renamed Egmont in March 1904 , and remained in Malta until 1914 . Her role in Malta was assumed by the stone frigate Fort St Angelo . She was brought home to Chatham that year , and served there as a depot ship under the successive names of Egremont ( 19 June 1916 ) and Pembroke ( 6 June 1919 ) . The ship was sold for scrap on 26 January 1923 to the Granton Shipbreaking Co .

= M3 Gun Motor Carriage =

The M3 Gun Motor Carriage ( GMC ) was a United States Army tank destroyer equipped with one 75 mm gun and was produced by Autocar . After the fall of France , the U.S. Army decided to make a self @-@ propelled artillery piece from the M1897A4 gun on the M3 chassis , which was designated the T12 . After some improvement , it came into production as the M3 Gun Motor Carriage . However , the supply of M2A3 gun shields was insufficient for production needs , so a new gun shield was used . This was designated the M3A1 GMC .

The T12 / M3 first served in the Philippines Campaign in 1942 with the Provisional Field Artillery Brigade in the anti @-@ tank and the fire @-@ support role . It then served in North Africa in tank destroyer battalions . It was used ineffectively in the Battle of Kasserine Pass and several other engagements , but was used with success in the Battle of El Guettar . It also served in the Allied invasion of Sicily , but was eventually superseded by the M10 tank destroyer . A total of 2 @,@ 203 were produced , of which 1 @,@ 361 were converted back into M3A1 half @-@ tracks .

The M3 GMC also served in the Pacific theater , starting with the Battle of Saipan . It proved effective against the Japanese Type 95 Ha @-@ Go and Type 97 Chi @-@ Ha tanks . It later served in the Battle of Okinawa , the Battle of Peleliu and many other island battles .

= = Specifications = =

The M3 GMC was 20 @.@ 46 feet ( 6 @.@ 24 m ) long , 6 @.@ 45 feet ( 1 @.@ 97 m ) wide , 8 @.@ 17 feet ( 2 @.@ 49 m ) high ( including the gun shield ) , and weighed 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . Its suspension consisted of semi @-@ elliptical longitudal leaf springs for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks , while its transmission consisted of constant mesh . Its ground clearance was 11 @.@ 2 inches ( 280 mm ) .

It had a White 160AX 147 horsepower ( 110 kW ) , 386 cubic inch ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , 6 @-@ cylinder engine with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 44 : 1 . It had a 150 mile ( 240 km ) range , 60 US gal ( 230 l ) fuel tank , a speed of 47 mph ( 75 km / h ) , and a power to weight ratio of 14 @.@ 7 hp per ton . It was armed with one 75 mm M1897A5 with 59 rounds , had 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 625 in ( 6 @.@ 4 – 15 @.@ 9 mm ) of armor , and a crew of five consisting of a commander , gunner , two loaders , and a driver . The M3 ( with the M2A3 mount ) could traverse 19 ° left and 21 ° right , elevate 29 ° and depress − 10 ° . The M3A1 ( using the M5 mount ) could traverse 21 ° in both directions , but could only depress − 6 @.@ 5 ° .

= = Development = =

After the fall of France , the U.S. Army studied the reasons behind the effectiveness of the German campaign against the French and British forces . One aspect that was highlighted by this study was the use of self propelled artillery ; however , by 1941 , there was little available in the U.S. Army 's arsenal that could be used in such a role . The Army had a number of M1897A5 guns , sufficient enough for the mass @-@ production for such a weapon , and the M3 half @-@ track was coming into production . After some debate , the Army decided to place M1897A5 guns on the M3 half @-@ track chassis , which was designated the T12 GMC . The M1897A5 gun was originally adapted for the M3 chassis by placing it in a welded box riveted to the chassis behind the driver 's compartment . It was accepted by the Army on 31 October 1941 .

A batch of 36 T12s were used for testing , while another 50 were built and transported to the Philippines . The 36 T12s were improved in multiple ways . The improvements included the inclusion of a mount that raised the gun shield , the replacement of the original gun shield with the M2A3 gun shield , and the addition of a 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine gun , which was later removed . After the final improvements were finished , the prototype vehicles were sent to the Autocar Company for production .

= = = M3A1 = = =

As the existing supply of M2A3 gun shields was insufficient to meet requirements for the production of the M3 , the Ordnance Department developed the M5 gun shield , which replaced the M2A3 . The new design was designated as the M3A1 Gun Motor Carriage .

= = Service history = =

= = = American use = = =

The T12 / M3 GMC first saw action with the U.S. Army in the Philippines in 1941 – 42 , six months after it was designed . Three battalions of the Provisional Field Artillery Brigade operated T12s against the Japanese when they invaded the Philippines . During the early part of the campaign , the vehicle was used to provide direct covering fire and anti @-@ tank support . The Japanese captured a few vehicles in 1942 and used them in the defense of the Philippines .

By 1942 , M3 GMCs were being used by tank destroyer battalions in the North African Campaign , each of which consisted of 36 M3s and four 37 mm M6 GMCs . The M3 GMCs , which were designed for ambushing tanks , proved to be inadequate for this task in the battles of Sidi Bou Zid and Kasserine Pass , mainly due to poor tactics . Nevertheless , the M3 was later used in the Battle of El Guettar with success , claiming 30 German tanks , including possibly two Tiger tanks , at the cost of 21 M3s . Some M3s also saw service in Allied invasion of Sicily ( Operation Husky ) , but by that time , the M10 tank destroyer had replaced it in the U.S. Army . A total of 1 @,@ 360 M3 GMCs were also converted back into M3A1 half @-@ tracks .

The M3 also served with the U.S. Marines in the Pacific Theater of Operations and was first used in the invasion of Saipan . It proved highly effective against the Type 95 Ha @-@ Go and the Type 97 Chi @-@ Ha , in the fight against the Japanese 9th Tank Regiment on Saipan . It also served in the Battle of Peleliu and the Battle of Okinawa , and many other conflicts in the Pacific .

= = = Allied use = = =

The M3 GMC saw limited service with other countries as it was not widely supplied through the Lend @-@ Lease program . A small batch of 170 vehicles were supplied to Britain , which used them in armored car regiments . They were first used in the Tunisian Campaign with the Royal Dragoons . They were also used in Sicily , Italy , and later in France , but were gradually retired . The Free French Army also used M3s for training before receiving M10 tank destroyers .

= = Production = =

A total of 2 @,@ 202 M3 GMCs were produced from 1941 to 1943 . Only 86 vehicles were produced in 1941 , but this was increased in 1942 during which 1 @,@ 350 examples came off the production lines . A further 766 were completed in 1943 . Production was stopped due to the release of better tank destroyers , like the M10 GMC .

= Óengus I =

Óengus son of Fergus ( Pictish : * Onuist map Urguist ; Old Irish : Óengus mac Fergusso , " Angus mac Fergus " ) , was king of the Picts from 732 until his death in 761 . His reign can be reconstructed in some detail from a variety of sources .

Óengus became the chief king in Pictland following a period of civil war in the late 720s . During his reign , the neighbouring kingdom of Dál Riata was subjugated and the kingdom of Strathclyde was attacked with less success . The most powerful ruler in Scotland for over two decades , he was involved in wars in Ireland and England . Kings from Óengus 's family dominated Pictland until 839 when a disastrous defeat at the hands of Vikings began a new period of instability , which ended with the coming to power of Cináed mac Ailpín .

= = Rise to power = =

Irish genealogies make Óengus a member of the Eóganachta of Munster , as a descendant of Coirpre Cruthnechán or " Cairbre the little Pict " , a mythological emanation or double of Coirpre Luachra mac Cuirc , legendary son of Conall Corc , and ancestor of the Eóganacht Locha Léin , rulers of the kingdom of Iarmuman . The branch of the kindred from which he came , known in the annals as the Eoghanachta Magh Geirginn , were said to be located in an area known as Circinn , usually associated with modern Angus and the Mearns . His early life is unknown ; Óengus was middle @-@ aged by the time he entered into history . His close kin included at least two sons , Bridei ( died 736 ) and Talorgan ( died 782 ) , and two brothers , Talorgan ( died 750 ) and Bridei ( died 763 ) .

King Nechtan son of Der @-@ Ile abdicated to enter a monastery in 724 and was imprisoned by his successor Drest in 726 . In 728 and 729 , four kings competed for power in Pictland : Drest ; Nechtan ; Alpín , of whom little is known ; and lastly Óengus , who was a partisan of Nechtan , and perhaps his acknowledged heir .

Four battles large enough to be recorded in Ireland were fought in 728 and 729 . Alpín was defeated twice by Óengus , after which Nechtan was restored to power . In 729 a battle between supporters of Óengus and Nechtan 's enemies was fought at Monith Carno ( traditionally Cairn o ' Mount , near Fettercairn ) where the supporters of Óengus were victorious . Nechtan was restored to the kingship , probably until his death in 732 . On 12 August 729 Óengus defeated and killed Drest in battle at Druimm Derg Blathuug , a place which has not been identified .

= = Piercing of Dal Riata = =

In the 730s , Óengus fought against Dál Riata whose traditional overlords and protectors in Ireland , the Cenél Conaill , were much weakened at this time . A fleet from Dál Riata fought for Flaithbertach mac Loingsig , chief of the Cenél Conaill , in his war with Áed Allán of the Cenél nEógan , and suffered heavy losses in 733 . Dál Riata was ruled by Eochaid mac Echdach of the Cenél nGabráin who died in 733 , and the king lists are unclear as to who , if anyone , succeeded him as overking . The Cenél Loairn of north Argyll were ruled by Dúngal mac Selbaig whom Eochaid had deposed as overking of Dál Riata in the 720s .

Fighting between the Picts , led by Óengus 's son Bridei , and the Dál Riata , led by Talorgan mac Congussa , is recorded in 731 . In 733 , Dúngal mac Selbaig " profaned [ the sanctuary ] of Tory Island when he dragged Bridei out of it . " Dúngal , previously deposed as overking of Dál Riata , was overthrown as king of the Cenél Loairn and replaced by his first cousin Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig .

In 734 Talorgan mac Congussa was handed over to the Picts by his brother and drowned by them . Talorgan son of Drostan was captured near Dún Ollaigh . He appears to have been the King of Atholl , and was drowned on Óengus 's order in 739 . Dúngal too was a target in this year . He was wounded , the unidentified fortress of Dún Leithfinn was destroyed , and he " fled into Ireland , to be out of the power of Óengus . "

The annals report a second campaign by Óengus against the Dál Riata in 736 . Dúngal , who had returned from Ireland , and his brother Feradach , were captured and bound in chains . The fortresses of Creic and Dunadd were taken . Muiredach of the Cenél Loairn was no more successful , defeated with heavy loss by Óengus 's brother Talorgan mac Fergusa , perhaps by Loch Awe . A final campaign in 741 saw the Dál Riata again defeated . This was recorded in the Annals of Ulster as Percutio Dál Riatai la h @-@ Óengus m . Forggusso , the " smiting of Dál Riata by Óengus son of Fergus " . With this Dál Riata disappears from the record for a generation .

It may be that Óengus was involved in wars in Ireland , perhaps fighting with Áed Allán , or against him as an ally of Cathal mac Finguine . The evidence for such involvement is limited . There is the presence of Óengus 's son Bridei at Tory Island , on the north @-@ west coast of Donegal in 733 , close to the lands of Áed Allán 's enemy Flaithbertach mac Loingsig . Less certainly , the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland report the presence of a Pictish fleet from Fortriu fighting for Flaithbertach in 733 rather than against him .

= = Alt Clut , Northumbria , and Mercia = =

In 740 , a war between the Picts and the Northumbrians is reported , during which Æthelbald , King of Mercia , took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria to ravage his lands , and perhaps burn York . The reason for the war is unclear , but it has been suggested that it was related to the killing of Earnwine son of Eadwulf on Eadberht 's orders . Earnwine 's father had been an exile in the north after his defeat in the civil war of 705 – 706 , and it may be that Óengus , or Æthelbald , or both , had tried to place him on the Northumbrian throne .

Battles between the Picts and the Britons of Alt Clut , or Strathclyde , are recorded in 744 and again in 750 , when Kyle was taken from Alt Clut by Eadberht of Northumbria . The 750 battle between the Britons and the Picts is reported at a place named Mocetauc ( perhaps Mugdock near Milngavie ) in which Talorgan mac Fergusa , Óengus 's brother , was killed . Following the defeat in 750 , the Annals of Ulster record " the ebbing of the sovereignty of Óengus " . This is thought to refer to the coming to power of Áed Find , son of Eochaid mac Echdach , in all or part of Dál Riata , and his rejection of Óengus 's overlordship .

Unlike the straightforward narrative of the attacks on Dál Riata , a number of interpretations have been offered of the relations between Óengus , Eadberht and Æthelbald in the period from 740 to 750 . One suggestion is that Óengus and Æthelbald were allied against Eadberht , or even that they exercised a joint rulership of Britain , or bretwaldaship , Óengus collecting tribute north of the River Humber and Æthelbald south of the Humber . This rests largely on a confused passage in Symeon of Durham 's Historia Regum Anglorum , and it has more recently been suggested that the interpretation offered by Frank Stenton — that it is based on a textual error and that Óengus and Æthelbald were not associated in any sort of joint overlordship — is the correct one .

In 756 , Óengus is found campaigning alongside Eadberht of Northumbria . The campaign is reported as follows :

In the year of the Lord 's incarnation 756 , king Eadberht in the eighteenth year of his reign , and Unust , king of Picts led armies to the town of Dumbarton . And hence the Britons accepted terms there , on the first day of the month of August . But on the tenth day of the same month perished almost the whole army which he led from Ouania to Niwanbirig .

That Ouania is Govan is now reasonably certain , but the location of Newanbirig is less so . Although there are very many Newburghs , it is Newburgh @-@ on @-@ Tyne near Hexham that has been the preferred location . An alternative interpretation of the events of 756 has been advanced : it identifies Newanbirig with Newborough by Lichfield in the kingdom of Mercia . A defeat here for Eadberht and Óengus by Æthelbald 's Mercians would correspond with the claim in the Saint Andrews foundation legends that a king named Óengus son of Fergus founded the church there as a thanksgiving to Saint Andrew for saving him after a defeat in Mercia .

= = The cult of Saint Andrew = =

The story of the foundation of St Andrews , originally Cennrígmonaid , is not contemporary and may contain many inventions . The Irish annals report the death of " Tuathalán , abbot of Cinrigh Móna " , in 747 , making it certain that St Andrews had been founded before that date , probably by Óengus or by Nechtan son of Der @-@ Ilei . It is generally presumed that the St Andrews Sarcophagus was executed at the command of Óengus . Later generations may have conflated this king Óengus with the 9th century king of the same name . The choice of David as a model is , as Alex Woolf notes , an appropriate one : David too was an usurper .

The cult of Saint Andrew may have come to Pictland from Northumbria , as had the cult of Saint Peter which had been favoured by Nechtan , and in particular from the monastery at Hexham which was dedicated to Saint Andrew . This apparent connection with the Northumbrian church may have left a written record . Óengus , like his successors and possible kinsmen Caustantín and Eógan , is recorded prominently in the Liber Vitae Ecclesiae Dunelmensis , a list of some 3000 benefactors for whom prayers were said in religious institutions connected with Durham .

= = Death and legacy = =

Óengus died in 761 , " aged probably more than seventy , ... the dominating figure in the politics of Northern Britain " . His death is reported in the usual brief style by the annalists , except for the continuator of Bede in Northumbria , possibly relying upon a Dál Riata source , who wrote :

Óengus , king of the Picts , died . From the beginning of his reign right to the end he perpetrated bloody crimes , like a tyrannical slaughterer .

The Pictish Chronicle king lists have it that he was succeeded by his brother Bridei . His son Talorgan was later king , and is the first son of a Pictish king known to have become king .

The following 9th @-@ century Irish praise poem from the Book of Leinster is associated with Óengus :

Good the day when Óengus took Alba ,

hilly Alba with its strong chiefs ;

he brought battle to palisaded towns ,

with feet , with hands , with broad shields .

An assessment of Óengus is problematic , not least because annalistic sources provide very little information on Scotland in the succeeding generations . His apparent Irish links add to the long list of arguments which challenge the idea that the " Gaelicisation " of eastern Scotland began in the time of Cináed mac Ailpín ; indeed there are good reasons for believing that process began before Óengus 's reign . Many of the Pictish kings until the death of Eógan mac Óengusa in 839 belong to the family of Óengus , in particular the 9th century sons of Fergus , Caustantín and Óengus .

The amount of information which has survived about Óengus compared with other Pictish kings , the nature and geographical range of his activities and the length of his reign combine to make King Óengus one of the most significant rulers of the insular Dark Ages .

= 1 : Nenokkadine =

1 : Nenokkadine ( English : 1 : Lonely One ) is a 2014 Indian Telugu @-@ language psychological thriller film written and directed by Sukumar . Produced by Ram Achanta , Gopichand Achanta , and Anil Sunkara as 14 Reels Entertainment and distributed by Eros International , the film features Mahesh Babu and Kriti Sanon in the lead roles ( Sanon 's Telugu cinema debut ) . Nassar , Pradeep Rawat , Kelly Dorji , and Anu Hasan appear in supporting roles . Mahesh 's son , Gautham Krishna , made his debut in the film as a younger version of the protagonist .

1 : Nenokkadine revolves around the search by Gautham ( a schizophrenic Indian rock musician missing 25 percent of his brain 's grey matter ) for his parents , whom he believes were murdered by three men . Sameera , a journalist , convinces him that he is an orphan and is hallucinating . When Gautham kills one of the " imaginary " men for his psychological satisfaction , he realises that the dead man is real and leaves for London to find his roots and the other two men behind his parents ' death .

Sukumar began working on 1 : Nenokkadine 's script after completing 100 % Love ( 2011 ) , making a bus driver 's tale about a boy who claimed that his parents were murdered on his bus the film 's base . R. Rathnavelu was the film 's director of photography , and Karthika Srinivas its editor . Devi Sri Prasad composed the soundtrack and background score . 1 : Nenokkadine was introduced on 12 February 2012 and principal photography , which began on 23 April 2012 , was completed in late December 2013 . It was filmed in London , Belfast , Bangkok and Indian cities including Hyderabad , Mumbai , Goa , Chennai and Bangalore .

Produced on a budget of ₹ 700 million , 1 : Nenokkadine was released on 10 January 2014 on about 1 @,@ 500 screens during the Makar Sankranti festival season . Grossing over $ 1 @.@ 27 million , 1 : Nenokkadine became the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film in history at the United States box office . The film won three awards from eight nominations at the 4th South Indian International Movie Awards , and two awards at the 11th CineMAA Awards . It was dubbed into Tamil and Malayalam as Number 1 and into Hindi as 1 : Ek Ka Dum ( English : One Man 's Courage ) .

= = Plot = =

Gautham is a schizophrenic Indian rock musician who is missing 25 percent of his grey matter . He hallucinates a mysterious person he believes is one of the three murderers of his parents . As a child , Gautham was convinced that he was an orphan and assumes that his parents are dead ; he does not remember their names or what they looked like .

At one of his concerts , Gautham sees one of the three men and chases him . Sameera , a journalist at the concert , films Gautham fighting his imaginary opponent . Gautham surrenders to the police after " killing " the man , confessing that he killed three men : one in Belfast , one in Pune and one just now in Hyderabad . He is released from custody after Sameera broadcasts the video on television . According to his doctor , if Gautham can hallucinate a person other than the three men , he can be treated . Gautham goes to Goa on vacation . Sameera stalks him , convincing him that two people are stalking him : a journalist who wants to interview him ( imaginary ) , and a person claiming to be his fan ( real ) . Gautham begins to fall in love with Sameera . He saves her from a group of people trying to murder her ; on an isolated island together Gautham learns the truth behind the fourth imaginary person and writes Sameera off as a disturbed journalist . By the time he learns about Sameera 's intentions , she has left for Hyderabad ; Gautham pursues her .

In Hyderabad , Gautham accidentally spoils Sameera 's birthday plans , infuriating her . Although he is convinced that he has made up an enemy to cope with being an orphan , a mysterious person tries to kill Sameera . Gautham saves her and proposes marriage , which she accepts . Sameera learns that the mysterious person is Antonio Rosarios , a Goa @-@ based crime boss who wants to kill her because she tried to expose the presence of hydrogen cyanide in seeds sold by Rosarios ' company , AG1 . Gautham meets Rosarios in the lobby of Sameera 's office building . Assuming that he is an illusion , he shoots Rosarios in his head . By the time Gautham realises Rosarios is real he is dead , and Gautham learns that his parents were murdered . He catches an aged taxi driver who was stalking him ( one of the three men he imagined ) , and learns that two London @-@ based Indians ( one of whom was Rosarios ) killed his parents ; his father gave the taxi driver a bag to give to Gautham . In the bag is an old Rubik 's Cube , a key and a British coin .

Gautham and Sameera go to London , where they and their driver Gulaab Singh escape from a murder attempt ; Gautham 's manager , Michael , is killed . The Rubik 's Cube , when solved a certain way , reveals a safe @-@ deposit @-@ box number in which Gautham finds a preserved rice sample . After escaping another murder attempt in a parking lot , he eludes the police and the two men with Sameera and Singh 's help . One of the men — a fan — seeks revenge for his father ( one of the other murderers , according to the aged taxi driver ) , who was killed by Gautham in Belfast when he performed there . Gautham learns that the aged taxi driver he met previously is a businessman and the murderer ; the person hit by the businessman 's car in Gautham 's presence was the actual , innocent taxi driver .

Gautham and the businessman confront each other , and the businessman says that he and Gautham 's father were good friends and fellow scientists . They worked on cultivating Golden rice , a variety which could grow in any weather . When Gautham 's father refused to sell it in favour of distributing it globally for free , the businessman and Rosarios killed his parents . When he refuses to tell Gautham about his parents , Gautham kills him . On his way to the airport , Gautham passes the school he had attended and hears children singing a rhyme . It reminds him of a similar rhyme he learned from his mother , and he remembers his way back to his house . At his house ( a dilapidated villa ) Gautham finds a photo of his parents , Chandrasekhar and Kalyani . He later introduces the rice variety at a global convention as " the second green revolution " , and the film ends with Gautham standing in his field of Golden rice .

= = Cast = =

Mahesh Babu as Gautham

Kriti Sanon as Sameera

Gautham Krishna as Young Gautham

Anu Hasan as Kalyani , Gautham 's mother

Anand as Chandrashekhar , Gautham 's father

Nassar as the actual businessman

Kelly Dorji as Antonio Rosarius

Pradeep Rawat as the actual taxi driver

Sayaji Shinde as Inspector John Baadshah

Posani Krishna Murali as Gulaab Singh

Srinivasa Reddy as Baadshah 's subordinate

Naveen Polisetty as the taxi driver 's son

Surya as Gautham 's doctor

Sophie Choudry in the item number " London Babu "

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

After completing 100 % Love ( 2011 ) , Sukumar began working on a psychological thriller with Mahesh Babu in mind as the protagonist because he felt that Mahesh had universal appeal . An incident in which a bus driver talked about a young boy who said that his parents were murdered on his bus became the story 's base . Mahesh met Sukumar on the set of Businessman ( 2012 ) in Goa , and listened to the script for 25 minutes . Although Sukumar could not describe the story well in the noisy restaurant , Mahesh agreed to appear in the film within half an hour . Sukumar worked on 1 : Nenokkadine 's script for two months , and considered it his dream project .

Ram Achanta , Gopichand Achanta and Anil Sunkara of 14 Reels Entertainment , who produced Mahesh 's Dookudu ( 2011 ) and Aagadu ( 2014 ) , agreed to produce 1 : Nenokkadine after hearing the script . Asked about his frequent collaboration with them , Mahesh said that Sukumar clearly indicated the risk of budget escalation and longer production and said that he and Sukumar could be viewed as criminals if it was produced by someone else . Sunil Lulla and Andrew Hefferman were credited as co @-@ producers , and Koti Paruchuri was its executive producer . The film , introduced on 12 February 2012 in Hyderabad , received its title in May 2013 .

= = = Casting = = =

Mahesh agreed to be fit and healthy , since the film emphasised action scenes . He followed a 12 @-@ week Dynamic Transformation Plan ( DTP ) supervised by Kris Gethin , developing his abdominal muscles and losing weight . Mahesh then followed a Yoda Three Training regime ( Y3T ) , supervised by Neil Hill , further developing his muscles . His stylist , Ashwin Malwe , said that his appearance and style would be " sophisticated and classy " in the film . Sukumar had Mahesh wear eyeglasses , since the director felt that audiences tended to consider a bespectacled character to be perfectionistic and positive , and the actor 's hairstyle was changed .

Tamannaah was considered for the female lead , since the producers were impressed with her performance in 100 % Love . She declined the offer , citing scheduling conflicts , and the Producer 's Council told her not to sign for any new films until she completed her current assignments . After auditioning two actresses , Sukumar chose Kajal Aggarwal in March 2012 as the female lead . She was replaced by Kriti Sanon in October 2012 , due to scheduling conflicts . Sanon was signed for Heropanti ( 2014 ) after completing one shooting schedule for 1 : Nenokkadine , and divided her time between the films . Sanon , who was involved in several action scenes filmed on the sea , was apprehensive about a scene in which Mahesh took her from a yacht since she did not knew how to swim .

Mahesh 's seven @-@ year @-@ old son , Gautham Krishna , was chosen to play the younger version of the protagonist in his Telugu cinema debut . According to Sukumar , Gautham looked like the actor did as a child . When the director approached Mahesh and his wife , Namrata Shirodkar , Gautham Krishna was only six and they were apprehensive . His introduction scene was filmed silently by Peter Hein , since the boy was afraid of gunfire . Naveen Polisetty played a supporting role as Mahesh 's friend in the film , and Vikram Singh was signed as an antagonist . Nassar , Pradeep Rawat , Kelly Dorji , Sayaji Shinde and Anu Hasan were cast in other supporting roles .

Jacqueline Fernandez was approached to perform an item number in the film , but the producers failed to make a deal and instead signed Sophie Choudry after seeing her performance in " Aala Re Aala " from Shootout at Wadala ( 2013 ) . For her first Telugu song , Choudry joined the film 's set in September 2013 . Sukumar said about the item number , " It 's a superstar ’ s film and it should reach all . Item numbers are common these days and people expect to see them . The situation was that Mahesh had to go to a pub to get information about the person he was looking for . So there was occasion to put in an item number " .

= = = Crew = = =

R. Rathnavelu , who collaborated with Sukumar on Arya ( 2004 ) and Jagadam ( 2007 ) , was the film 's director of photography in his return to Telugu cinema after seven years . Rathnavelu called the film " more challenging aesthetically " and compared it to Enthiran ( 2010 ) , which he considered his technically @-@ toughest film . He created the film 's visual style in a week with a variety of cameras , such as Red Epic , Body Rigs , Doggies and an underwater scuba camera . For the climaxes , Rathnavelu shifted from chrome to black @-@ and @-@ white to full colour in synchronisation with the story 's mood .

Rathnavelu had to address the protagonist 's mood swings and hallucinations , replicating scenes with minor differences . The film was shot in locations with a variety of climates , and new technical crews were hired in those places . Sukumar said , " We looked at world technicians and saw them work and can use whatever we learnt " and called it a " new yet learning experience " [ sic ] .

Sukumar 's usual composer , Devi Sri Prasad , was chosen for the film 's soundtrack and score in Prasad 's first Mahesh film . He went through the script and discussed it with Sukumar , who felt that Prasad translated his vision in the background score . Prasad finished re @-@ recording the film 's second half in four days . Eleven @-@ year @-@ old journalist Smrithika Thuhina 's father was an associate director of the film , and Prasad emailed him the rhyme 's tune with several stills from the scene ; his daughter wrote the lyrics for the rhyme . P. Madhusudhan Reddy was the film 's audiographer .

Peter Hein choreographed 1 : Nenokkadine 's action sequences , and Prem Rakshith choreographed its songs . Jakka Hari Prasad and Palnati Surya Pratap worked on the film 's story , and Y. K. Arjun , Thota Srinivas and Potluri Venkateswara Rao developed the script . Jeremy Zimmerman was credited with the screenplay , assisted by Sunil Madhav . V. Srinivas Mohan was 1 : Nenokkadine 's visual @-@ effects producer and R. C. Kamalakannan and Adel Adili 's visual @-@ effects company , Makuta , worked on the film . Karthika Srinivas was its chief editor , assisted by Siva Saravanan .

= = = Filming = = =

Principal photography began on 23 April 2012 , with the filming of " Who R U ? " featuring Mahesh and Aggarwal supervised by Prem Rakshith on a set at Annapurna Studios in Hyderabad . Six hundred models performed in the song , and about 2 @,@ 000 people participated in the shoot . After its completion , an action sequence was filmed . The first shooting schedule wrapped up , and Mahesh returned to the set of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ( 2013 ) . The second schedule began on 31 May 2012 on house and colony sets at Saradhi Studios in Hyderabad , including scenes with Mahesh and others . Scenes of Mahesh at the police station were also part of the schedule .

Since the actor had allotted a block of time to Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , 1 : Nenokkadine 's filming was delayed . When the former neared completion , he resumed work on 1 : Nenokkadine in late September 2012 in Hyderabad . Filming continued in Goa in mid @-@ October , after a four @-@ month hiatus , and a song with Mahesh and others was filmed in late October . The Goa schedule wrapped up on 1 November , with half the filming completed . Mahesh took a break to promote Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu , returning to the set on 23 January 2013 . The next shooting schedule , which began on 18 March , lasted for three weeks . Night scenes focusing on Mahesh and others were filmed in Kukatpally in mid @-@ April .

The next schedule , which began on 18 June , filmed in London and Belfast for 60 days . At the Causeway Pictures studio in Northern Ireland , 1 : Nenokkadine was the first Telugu film shot in Belfast . Hollywood stunt co @-@ ordinator Conrad Palmisano supervised stunts by Mahesh and others . Rathnavelu called the action scene in a London car park " one of the most satisfying " things he had ever done . The scene takes place during a power failure , with the headlights of motorcycles chasing the protagonist the only sources of light . To film the scene , Rathnavelu used LED lamps and three torchlights ; smoke was pumped into the air to create a backdrop . When scenes were filmed on one of London 's three main bridges , traffic was stopped on both sides of the bridge for more than eight hours .

After London , filming continued in Bangkok in August 2013 and in Hyderabad in September ; some scenes were filmed in and near Banjara Hills . The last shooting schedule began in Bangkok in early October 2013 , with action scenes supervised by Peter Hein . The remaining dialogue scenes were filmed in Bangalore in mid @-@ October 2013 . They were finished by late November , and the last song was filmed in Mumbai . Principal photography wrapped in late December 2013 .

= = Soundtrack = =

The film 's five @-@ song soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad , with lyrics by Chandrabose . Lahari Music acquired its marketing rights for ₹ 10 million , a record for a Telugu film . The soundtrack was released on 19 December 2013 with a promotional event at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad . The event , watched by 14 @,@ 500 people , was shown live in 24 theatres across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and was the first Indian soundtrack release event shown live in theatres . The rhyme from the film 's climax was released separately on 25 January 2014 .

= = Release = =

1 : Nenokkadine was released globally on 10 January 2014 on about 1 @,@ 500 screens , around the same time as Yevadu ( which was released two days later ) . The film was Mahesh 's third consecutive release during the Makar Sankranti festival season , following Businessman in 2012 and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu in 2013 . Eros International acquired its global distribution rights for ₹ 720 million , and it was released and distributed by 14 Reels Entertainment . 1 : Nenokkadine was released on 900 screens across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana . Including multiplexes , 108 screens were booked in Hyderabad and there were 600 screenings on the film 's release day . It broke the record held by Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) , which had been released on 100 screens in Hyderabad . 14 Reels Entertainment released the film in Auro 11 @.@ 1 cinema audio format , supported by Barco .

Karnataka distribution rights were sold to RNR Films , who had distributed Dookudu in the state , for ₹ 450 million . 1 : Nenokkadine was released on about 200 screens overseas , a record for a Telugu film . In addition to the United States and the United Kingdom , the film was released in Australia , the Netherlands , Switzerland , Malaysia and Germany ; it was the first Telugu film released in Ukraine . When reaction to the film 's length was mixed , the producers reduced its running time from 169 to 149 minutes . 1 : Nenokkadine had its global television premiere on 8 June 2014 on Gemini TV , with a TRP rating of 7 @.@ 32 . The film was dubbed into Hindi as 1 : Ek Ka Dum that year , and into Malayalam and Tamil as Number 1 in 2015 .

= = = Marketing = = =

A mobile app was released on 10 December 2013 on Google Play , and later on iOS ; 1 : Nenokkadine 's first look , posters , video promos and other promotional material were released through the app . On 19 December 2013 , users could download the film 's soundtrack and purchase bulk pre @-@ release tickets . Its digital @-@ media marketing was handled by Sharath Chandra , Anurag and Rohita of First Show Digital . The digital campaign placed third at the 2014 Indian Digital Media Awards in Mumbai , surpassing that for Krrish 3 . It accounted for 15 percent of total promotional activity , influencing the sale of 7 @,@ 500 tickets on the film 's release day . 1 : Nenokkadine 's YouTube channel had 12 million views ; on Facebook its page received 130 million views , reaching 40 million users and engaging 3 @.@ 9 million people .

South Indian actress Samantha Ruth Prabhu found a poster of Sanon crawling behind Mahesh " regressive " , triggering a backlash on Facebook and Twitter from Mahesh 's fans . Actor Siddharth and filmmaker Sekhar Kammula shared her view , receiving a similar response , and filmmaker Pritish Nandy said that the poster was " gross " and " regressive " . Sukumar later removed that sequence from the film to avoid further issues , although the Central Board of Film Certification did not object to its inclusion .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

1 : Nenokkadine received generally negative reviews from critics . According to The New Indian Express , its audience was " gripped through the whole film , but not for the right reasons " : " Ending with a heralding of a second ' Green Revolution ' and carrying on a legacy that aims at a food Utopia , you wish the movie continued with the schizophrenia and ended in an asylum " . Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave the film three out of five stars : " The [ Telugu cinema ] format of six songs , five fights and loads of entertainment and melodrama makes it impossible to respectably adapt racy Hollywood styled suspense thrillers " . Radhika Rajamani of Rediff called the film " inordinately long , with repetitive scenes and slow and sluggish narration " , and a " sense of ennui set in after a point " ; however , Rajamani praised the lead actors ' performances . Sify gave the film 2 @.@ 75 out of five stars : " In 1 Nenokkadine , individual sequences are cool but the same cannot be said if we see it in totality . Apart from Mahesh Babu`s stunning performance , the drive of the film is completely off the track . It disappoints . " Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " To say it in a line , the film falls short of expectations and disappoints film goers , especially the fans of Mahesh Babu " . Kavirayani called Rathnavelu 's cinematography its " saving grace " , praising the lead pair 's performances . IndiaGlitz also gave 1 Nenokkadine 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars , saying that the film had the capacity to " tank without a trace if Mahesh Babu 's character did not come with a difference " ; the actor " looks that pained man every bit " , expressing " intense emotions without much effort " .

Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote , " How often do we get to watch a Telugu film where the audience , along with the protagonist and supporting characters , is also required to think and distinguish between events unfolding in real and imaginary spaces ? " and called 1 Nenokkadine a " visually stunning " film . Sridhar Vivan of Bangalore Mirror gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " As the film tries out a refined or reformed revenge saga , it needs to be seen whether 1 Nenokkadine works at the box office . If it does , it is a good sign for Telugu cinema " . A. S. Sashidhar of The Times of India wrote , " The first half of 1 : Nenokkadine is good and will keep you wanting for more . The story has a few interesting twists and turns , in the second half too to keep the audience glued to the screen " , and Sukumar " should be commended for superb attempt in choosing to make a film that has not been explored in Telugu movies " . Shekhar of Oneindia called the film a " brilliant psychological thriller " : " The first half of 1 : Nenokkadine is excellent and will impress all classes of audience . A few sentimental scenes slow down the pace of narration in the second half . But the superb climax that lasts for 15 minutes will compensate it . The viewers will surely walk out of theatre with contented hearts " .

= = = Box office = = =

1 : Nenokkadine earned a distributor share of ₹ 84 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office on its first day , and ₹ 124 million over its opening weekend . Its United States opening box @-@ office total was $ 946 @,@ 552 ( ₹ 58 @.@ 2 million ) , which trade analyst Taran Adarsh called a " glorious start " and " one of the best openings ever by an Indian film " . 1 : Nenokkadine passed the $ 1 million mark in three days , the seventh Telugu film ( and Mahesh 's third , after Dookudu and Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ) to earn a million dollars . On its fourth and fifth days the film earned ₹ 32 @.@ 5 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office , for a five @-@ day total of about ₹ 150 million .

By the end of 1 : Nenokkadine 's first week it had earned a distributor share of ₹ 181 million at the AP @-@ Nizam box office , ₹ 21 million in Karnataka and ₹ 9 million in the rest of India . The film 's first @-@ week global box @-@ office total was ₹ 25 @.@ 2 million . In ten days 1 : Nenokkadine grossed over $ 1 @.@ 27 million in the United States , the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film in that country . The film earned about ₹ 289 million worldwide , on a budget of ₹ 700 million .

= = = Accolades = = =

= Kongō @-@ class ironclad =

The Kongō @-@ class ironclads ( 金剛型 ) were a pair of armored corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) by British shipyards in the 1870s . A British offer to purchase the two ships during the Russo @-@ Turkish War in 1878 was refused . They became training ships in 1887 and made training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ships returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where one participated in the Battle of the Yalu River and both in the Battle of Weihaiwei . The Kongō @-@ class ships resumed their training duties after the war , although they played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . They were reclassified as survey ships in 1906 and were sold for scrap in 1910 and 1912 .

= = Background = =

Tensions between Japan and China heightened after the former launched its punitive expedition against Taiwan in May 1874 in retaliation of the murder of a number of shipwrecked sailors by the Paiwan aborigines . China inquired into the possibility of buying ironclad warships from Great Britain and Japan was already negotiating with the Brazilian government about the purchase of the ironclad Independencia then under construction in Britain . The Japanese terminated the negotiations with the Brazilians in October after the ship was badly damaged upon launching and the expeditionary force was about to withdraw from Taiwan . The crisis illustrated the need to reinforce the IJN and a budget request was submitted that same month by Acting Navy Minister Kawamura Sumiyoshi for ¥ 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 2 million to purchase three warships from abroad . No Japanese shipyard was able to build ships of this size so they were ordered from Great Britain . This was rejected as too expensive and a revised request of ¥ 2 @.@ 3 million was approved later that month . Nothing was done until March 1875 when Kawamura proposed to buy one ironclad for half of the money authorized and use the rest for shipbuilding and gun production at the Yokosuka Shipyard . No response was made by the Prime Minister 's office before the proposal was revised to use all of the allocated money to buy three ships , one armored frigate and two armored corvettes of composite construction to be designed by the prominent British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , formerly the Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy . Reed would also supervise the construction of the ships for an honorarium of five percent of the construction cost . The Prime Minister 's office approved the revised proposal on 2 May and notified the Japanese consul , Ueno Kagenori , that navy officers would be visiting to negotiate the contract with Reed .

Commander Matsumura Junzō arrived in London on 21 July and gave Reed the specifications for the ships . Reed responded on 3 September with an offer , excluding armament , that exceeded the amount allocated in the budget . Ueno signed the contracts for all three ships on 24 September despite this problem because Reed was scheduled to depart for a trip to Russia and the matter had to be concluded before his departure . Ueno had informed the Navy Ministry about the costs before signing , but Kawamura 's response to postpone the order for the armored frigate did not arrive until 8 October . The totals for all three contracts came to £ 433 @,@ 850 or ¥ 2 @,@ 231 @,@ 563 and did not include the armament . These were ordered from Krupp with a 50 percent down payment of £ 24 @,@ 978 . The government struggled to provide the necessary money even though the additional expenses had been approved by the Prime Minister 's office on 5 June 1876 , especially as more money was necessary to fully equip the ships for sea and to provision them for the delivery voyage to Japan .

= = Description = =

The Kongō class was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . They had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . To reduce biofouling , their hulls were sheathed with copper .

= = = Propulsion = = =

The Kongō @-@ class ships had a single two @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion horizontal return connecting rod @-@ steam engine made by Earle 's Shipbuilding and Engineering , driving a single two @-@ bladed 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) propeller . Six cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 4 @.@ 22 bar ( 422 kPa ; 61 psi ) . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the ships a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During sea trials , the ships reached maximum speeds of 13 @.@ 75 – 13 @.@ 92 knots ( 25 @.@ 47 – 25 @.@ 78 km / h ; 15 @.@ 82 – 16 @.@ 02 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 345 – 390 long tons ( 351 – 396 t ) of coal , enough to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .

The ironclads were barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . To reduce wind resistance while under sail alone , the funnel was semi @-@ retractable . Their topmasts were removed in 1895 .

Both ships were reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 : Hiei received two steel double @-@ ended cylindrical boilers while Kongō 's new boilers were of the same type as her original ones . The new boilers proved to be less powerful for both ships during sea trials , Kongō reached a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 46 knots ( 23 @.@ 08 km / h ; 14 @.@ 34 mph ) from 2 @,@ 028 ihp ( 1 @,@ 512 kW ) while Hiei was significantly slower at 10 @.@ 34 knots ( 19 @.@ 15 km / h ; 11 @.@ 90 mph ) from 1 @,@ 279 ihp ( 954 kW ) .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

The ships were fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The forward chase guns were pivot @-@ mounted and could traverse 122 degrees from straight ahead on their side of the ship . The aft gun could traverse a total of 125 degrees to each side . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . Each ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ships ' boats .

The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 172 @-@ millmeter gun weighed 132 pounds ( 59 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of about 1 @,@ 500 ft / s ( 460 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 10 @.@ 3 inches ( 262 mm ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . Data for the 152 @-@ millimeter gun is not available .

During the 1880s , the armament of the Kongō @-@ class ships was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time the ships each also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The tubes were mounted above the waterline and one torpedo was provided for each tube . Their anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , their armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .

The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron waterline armor belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .

= = Ships = =

= = Service = =

In February 1878 , during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , the British were not willing to accept the occupation of the Ottoman Turkish capital of Constantinople by Russian forces and began to prepare for war . The British government made informal inquiries about purchasing the two corvettes , but this was firmly rejected by the Japanese government . The ships sailed from Britain in February – March and arrived in Yokohama two months later . They were sailed to Japan by hired British crews as the IJN lacked the necessary experience . The ships were not formally turned over to the navy until 10 July when a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ships were opened for public tours after the ceremony .

Kongō hosted the Duke of Genoa when he visited Japan in late 1879 . Hiei made port visits in China and in the Persian Gulf the following year . In 1885 – 86 both ships were assigned to the Small Standing Fleet . They became training ships in 1887 and they both made a training cruise to the Mediterranean in 1889 – 90 with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy . Hiei and Kongō ferried the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ertuğrul back to Turkey where the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets . Until the end of the century , one or the other of the Kongō @-@ class ships made the annual cadet cruise , usually to countries bordering the Pacific Ocean . Kongō was in Honolulu on one of these cruises during the Hawaiian Revolution of 1893 , although the ship played no part in the affair . She returned to Hawaii the next year and briefly became the patrol ship there until the start of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War later in 1894 . Kongō did not participate in the Battle of the Yalu River , but Hiei was there . She was heavily engaged by Chinese ships and was damaged enough that she was forced to break off the action . Hiei was repaired after the battle and both ships were present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in early 1895 , although neither saw any significant combat .

The Kongō @-@ class ships were redesignated as 3rd @-@ class coast defense ships in 1898 although they continued their training duties . They played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before they were reclassified as survey ships in 1906 . Kongō was stricken from the Navy List in 1909 and sold the next year for scrap . Hiei was struck from the Navy List two years after her sister ship and was sold before 25 March 1912 .

= Jessica Jones ( season 1 ) =

The first season of the American web television series Jessica Jones , which is based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name , follows a former superhero who opens her own detective agency after an end to her superhero career at the hands of Kilgrave . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films and other television series of the franchise . The season was produced by Marvel Television in association with ABC Studios and Tall Girls Productions , with Melissa Rosenberg serving as showrunner .

Krysten Ritter stars as Jones , while David Tennant plays Kilgrave . The two are joined by principal cast members Mike Colter , Rachael Taylor , Wil Traval , Erin Moriarty , Eka Darville , and Carrie @-@ Anne Moss . Jessica Jones entered development in late 2013 , with Rosenberg reworking a series she had previously developed for ABC . Ritter was cast as Jones in December 2014 , with production on Jessica Jones taking place in New York City from February to August 2015 . The season addresses issues of rape and assault with realism and a grounded tone , and was always intended to be far more " adult " than other Marvel projects , particularly in terms of sex . The show 's cinematography took inspiration from noir , while visual effects house Shade VFX focused on creating " invisible " effects that would support its realistic approach .

The first two episodes of the season premiered in New York City on November 17 , 2015 , with the full season of 13 episodes released on Netflix on November 20 to an estimated high viewership and critical acclaim . Critics praised the performances of Ritter and Tennant , as well as the series ' noir tone , approach to sexuality , and coverage of darker topics such as rape , assault and posttraumatic stress disorder . The season was awarded a Peabody Award in the category of " Entertainment and Children 's programs " . A second season of Jessica Jones was ordered on January 17 , 2016 .

= = Episodes = =

= = Cast and characters = =

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

In October 2013 , Marvel and Disney announced that they would provide Netflix with live action series centered around Daredevil , Jessica Jones , Iron Fist , and Luke Cage , leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders . Melissa Rosenberg was brought on to showrun the Jessica Jones series , to be reconfigured as a " page one do @-@ over " from an original project she had developed in December 2010 for ABC . In December 2014 , the official title was revealed to be Marvel 's A.K.A. Jessica Jones , but that was shortened to Marvel 's Jessica Jones in June 2015 . The season consists of 13 hour @-@ long episodes .

= = = Writing = = =

The writers for the series worked in Los Angeles , with one member of the writing team on set in New York for filming . Actress Carrie @-@ Anne Moss talked about how the scripts developed through the production of the series , explaining that the dialogue usually did not change much while filming , but scenes were altered to accommodate the filming locations when necessary . Rosenberg stated that , since Jones is a private investigator , there would be some procedural elements to the show , " but that ’ s not our focus . There are cases . In particular , there is a large case that carries over the season . " Elaborating on this , Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb said that the " fun about being a private detective is that the line between what ’ s legal and what ’ s not legal gets very blurred .... her drive is not always necessarily to solve the case , as much as it is to go , ' Okay , can I pay the rent ? How am I going to get through this day ? ' " He also added that inspiration for the series came from " the noir films from the ‘ 40s " and " film [ s ] like Chinatown . "

Describing the tone of the series , Loeb said , " When we first started talking about Daredevil , we promised that we were telling a story that was first a crime drama and then a superhero show . This is more of a psychological thriller . This speaks to when you think about what happened to Jessica and what sort of destroyed her life and how she tried to put it together , and then to have to confront the person who deconstructed her world , that ’ s a very powerful , emotional place to start from . " On approaching rape and trauma in the series , Rosenberg wanted to avoid actually showing rape , which she called " lazy storytelling " and often a way to " spice up " male characters , and preferred to just make the trauma a part of the characters ' everyday lives rather than an " issue " for the series to tackle . When asked about the adult nature of the series , including the use of sex , Rosenberg explained that Marvel would only not allow showing nudity and the use of the word ' fuck ' in the series .

= = = Casting = = =

The main cast for the season includes Krysten Ritter as Jessica Jones , Mike Colter as Luke Cage , Rachael Taylor as Patricia " Trish " Walker , Wil Traval as Will Simpson , Erin Moriarty as Hope Shlottman , Eka Darville as Malcolm Ducasse , Carrie @-@ Anne Moss as Jeri Hogarth , and David Tennant as Kilgrave .

Appearing in recurring roles for the season are Susie Abromeit as Pam , Colby Minifie and Kieran Mulcare as Robyn and Ruben , Clarke Peters as Oscar Clemons , Michael Siberry and Lisa Emery as Albert and Louise Thompson , and Robin Weigert as Wendy Ross @-@ Hogarth . Danielle Ferland , Gillian Glasco , Ryan Farrell , and Paul Pryce also recur as victims of Kilgrave who join a support group established by Jones , while Rosario Dawson and Royce Johnson reprise their roles of Claire Temple and Brett Mahoney , respectively , from Daredevil .

= = = Design = = =

Stephanie Maslansky returned as the costume designer for Jessica Jones from Daredevil , and was assisted on the first episode by Jenn Rogien , who crafted Jessica Jones ' leather jacket , faded jeans , and boots costume . On Jones 's costume , Maslansky said she " considers her clothing to be an armor and a shield and something that helps her maintain a distance from other people and privacy . It keeps her from having to deal with the rest of humanity in a certain sort of way . " At least 10 versions of Jones 's jacket were made , which started as an Acne Studios leather motorcycle jacket that had any " bells and whistles and any additional superfluous design details " removed . 20 pairs of jeans were used , with both sets of clothing being aged and distressed .

Because Jones 's costume does not evolve much throughout the series , Maslansky used flashbacks to show how her costume had evolved to the present day : for ' pre @-@ Kilgrave ' Jessica Jones , Maslansky gave the character " more pulled together " clothes , albeit " still kind of edgy " clothes that did not change who she was as a character , but were just " different " . For instance , in a flashback to Jones working in a corporate environment , she does not wear a suit , instead " wear [ s ] her jeans and find [ s ] a really cool jacket , maybe a vintage thing , maybe something that she borrowed from Trish " . For a flashback where Jones wears a large sandwich costume , a " variety " of costumes were ordered online , with the chosen suit then distressed to " look dirty and old " ; " a mere shadow of its former sandwich self , " becoming " more of a hoagie than a sandwich . " In another flashback , Jones imagines escaping Kilgrave 's control . The bright yellow dress the character wears in the dream sequence was chosen for its juxtaposition to the character 's real situation , with Maslansky calling it " so beautiful and so free and so light " .

For Kilgrave , Maslansky used many suits created by designer Paul Smith , rather than custom @-@ making them as she originally planned , as Smith " was all about purple " in the previous fashion season . On the suits , Maslansky added that the designers " wanted to find a place where we could utilize clothing in shades of purple , but not go so over the top that it would look silly and that he would stop feeling ominous or menacing . " Expanding on this , Maslansky called purple a traditionally " fairly friendly color , and he ’ s anything but friendly . So I had to find ways to make him be ominous and frightening and terrifying . I found that I needed the right proportion of shades of purple to other shades that were similar : navy , black , maroon . " Maslansky felt Luke Cage was also someone " who wears his clothing like an armor , " with his wardrobe consisting of T @-@ shirts , jeans , leather jackets or an army jacket . For a character like Trish Walker , who does not have the same kind of " statement costume " as Jones , Maslansky tried to create a certain character style . Maslansky said that Walker 's uniform is fashion , so " even when she was hanging around the house , she was wearing a pair of Rag and Bone jeans with a Chloé top , and this was her version of a T @-@ shirt and jeans . " Maslansky added that Robin was " a blast to dress " because of her " quirky " personality , yet she was still able to " put herself together aesthetically . " For Malcolm , as his story progressively became brighter throughout the season , so did his wardrobe , becoming " a little brighter and a little more hopeful . "

= = = Filming = = =

In February 2014 , Marvel announced that Jessica Jones would be filmed in New York City . In April , Marvel Comics ' editor @-@ in @-@ chief Joe Quesada stated that the show would be filming in areas of Brooklyn and Long Island City that still look like the old Hell ’ s Kitchen , in addition to sound stage work . The series went into production in February 2015 in The Bronx at Lehman College with the working title Violet , and aimed to film each episode over nine days , on average . Filming concluded in mid @-@ late August , with other locations in New York City used including : the East Village 's Horseshoe Bar for Luke 's Bar ; the 33rd Street PATH station and a PATH train ; the 101st Street area for the exterior of Jessica 's apartment ( with the interior apartment settings created on a sound stage ) ; Douglaston , Queens for Jessica 's childhood home ; the Angel Orensanz Center for Jessica and Luke 's fight in " AKA Take a Bloody Number " ; and Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower and Pier 88 for locations in " AKA Smile " .

Concerning inspirations on the series , Loeb revealed that " Chinatown ... is one of the things that influenced Brian Michael Bendis and Michael Gaydos when they created the character . So those kind of beautiful , long , wide expansive shots , where people sort of come into frame and go back out of frame and someone ’ s in the foreground and then someone is way in the background and they ’ re having a conversation , that ’ s the stuff that makes it interesting . " Director of Photography Manuel Billeter and episodic director S. J. Clarkson took inspiration from the comics in terms of their color palette , while looking to the works of Wong Kar @-@ wai as reference to create " unconventional " compositions , with Billeter explaining , " There were a lot of foreground elements [ and ] headroom as well , and we never wanted to show an open frame . We wanted to create a sense of claustrophobia . " Billeter shot the season with a Red Epic Dragon camera in 4K resolution , with 5K used for some visual effects shots , and with Panavision PVintage lenses ; he focused mostly on static frames and " good composition " , but did occasionally employ a camera dolly or steadicam . For lighting , Billeter noted that many New York street lamps had been changed from sodium @-@ vapor lamps to LEDs , so he tried to recreate the " warm , dirty color of sodium vapor " for night exterior scenes .

Production designer Loren Weeks described Marvel 's Hell 's Kitchen as having " a little more [ East ] Village quality . " To achieve the explosion at Luke 's Bar , Weeks said , " We could not take out the windows [ at Horseshoe Bar ] , which are [ made up of ] multiple small colored glass and metal frames . We didn ’ t know frankly when we picked that location that we would have that explosion ... What we did was build a fireproof box in the entrance and we had a cannon in there which blew out debris and smoke and some fire . And then we did a lighting effect on the inside and then the rest of the explosion was handled by visual effects . " For the scenes on the PATH train and station , location manager Jason Farrar noted that production had exclusive use of the tracks and platform during the day when ridership was low to get their shots .

= = = Visual effects = = =

Shade VFX created over 600 effects shots for the season , with " invisible " effects " the showpiece , helping to push forward the darker elements the series . " Therefore , effects supervisor Karl Coyner and producer Julie Long worked closely with the crew on set to " execute stunts , set extensions , explosions , wetwork and fire sequences " while filming , rather than have Shade create those effects digitally . An effect that Shade was required to create was tinting Kilgrave 's skin purple " in a few key scenes " where he is using his powers , a nod to the comic iteration 's purple @-@ skinned appearance .

= = = Music = = =

At the 2015 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Sean Callery revealed he was composing music for Jessica Jones , eventually stating that the music required for each episode ranged from 9 to 20 minutes , totaling approximately 415 minutes of music for the season . A soundtrack album for the season was released digitally on June 3 , 2016 .

All music composed by Sean Callery , unless otherwise noted .

= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =

On existing in the MCU , specifically in the same world as the other Netflix series , Rosenberg said , " Jessica Jones is a very , very different show than Daredevil . We exist in a cinematic universe , [ and ] the mythology of the universe is connected , but they look very different , tonally they ’ re very different … That was my one concern coming in : Am I going to have to fit into Daredevil or what ’ s come before ? And the answer is no . " On references or " easter eggs " in the series , Rosenberg explained that " A little is always there and in the writer ’ s room we have some fanboys that know all this stuff and they ’ re all geeking out with different stuff .... a lot of references are to the [ Alias comic ] . " She also said that nods to the larger MCU are in the series , with each episode having a " little something in it . "

Jeryn Hogarth is closely associated with Iron Fist in the comics , and also worked with Luke Cage as part of those characters ' Heroes for Hire team . Like Daredevil , the series makes references to the events of The Avengers and the Avengers ( specifically Hulk and Captain America , though not by name ) . Jessica also mentions Angela del Toro as another private investigator , who in the comics is the hero White Tiger and has connections with K 'un @-@ Lun and Iron Fist . Paul Tassi , writing for Forbes , was disappointed with how the series fit into the larger MCU , feeling the series seemed " removed from the world of The Avengers " and did not acknowledge Daredevil enough given that " it ’ s supposed to be sharing at least this little corner of the Marvel Cinematic Universe with it . " Eric Francisco of Inverse countered that Jessica Jones 's lack of overt connections to the MCU was " the show 's chief advantage . Besides demonstrating how physically wide open the MCU 's scope really is , Jessica Jones also proves the MCU 's thematic durability . "

= = Release = =

Jessica Jones was released on November 20 , 2015 on the streaming service Netflix , in all territories where it is available , in Ultra HD 4K . In January 2015 , a month after Marvel announced a 2015 release for the series , Sarandos had said that it was " too hard to say now " if the series would actually release in 2015 , with Netflix 's plan to release a Marvel series approximately a year apart from each other after Daredevil 's April 2015 release . However , Netflix soon confirmed that the series would indeed release in 2015 , announcing the November 20 release date in September .

= = = Marketing = = =

Disney Consumer Products created a small line of products to cater to a more adult audience , given the show ’ s edgier tone . Paul Gitter , senior VP of Marvel Licensing for Disney Consumer Products explained that the focus would be more on teens and adults than very young people , with products at outlets like Hot Topic . Additionally , a Marvel Knights merchandise program was created to support the series , which creates new opportunities for individual product lines and collector focused products . Licensing partners wanted to pair up with Marvel , despite this not being a film project , given its previous successes .

In May 2015 , Marvel announced plans to reprint Alias , the comic that the series is based on , with new covers from David Mack , the original cover artist on the comic who is also providing artwork for the series ' opening credits . The reprints , which were all released digitally in June 2015 , and up to issue 15 in two trade paperbacks in September , were intended to both celebrate the history of Jessica Jones , and introduce new audiences to the character ahead of the release of the series . In late September through early October , Marvel and Netflix released short teasers for the series , which chronicled a day of Jones ' life . Also in early October , Marvel digitally released a 12 @-@ page one @-@ shot comic by the original Alias creative team — Bendis , Gaydos , and Mack — set in the universe of the television series . The one @-@ shot was created as an exclusive for New York Comic Con , where a print version was distributed . The comic sees Jessica Jones coming into contact with Daredevil character Turk Barrett , and includes a short sequence featuring Daredevil , to celebrate " the connective tissue that will build between the series . " Also during New York Comic Con , Marvel set up a street marketing campaign , and screened " AKA Ladies Night " on October 10 , while at the Marvel Booth fans could take their picture with the Alias Investigations desk , with Kilgrave 's eyes appearing in the background of the final animation . Marvel additionally partnered with Uber during the event to provide select riders with complimentary trips to or from the convention in custom designed SUVs .

A full trailer was released at the end of October , with Meagan Damore of Comic Book Resources feeling that it helped establish the same tone as Daredevil and introduced " Marvel 's creepiest villain yet " with Kilgrave . She also compared Jessica to some of the other female characters of the MCU — Black Widow , Melinda May , and Peggy Carter — feeling that Jessica stood out from the others because she does not have " a sense of togetherness " and was the most relatable because of her struggle with trauma , and that the series would have the amount of creative space required to explore the character that the other female characters were lacking . A second trailer was released on November 10 , 2015 . Sarene Leeds of The Wall Street Journal felt that this trailer highlighted empowerment , compared to the first that " was about illustrating the fear behind Jones ’ s past " . The season held its premiere in New York City on November 17 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Audience viewership = = =

As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series , Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the series based on a sample size of 15 @,@ 000 people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound . According to Symphony , from September to December 2015 , episodes of Jessica Jones averaged 4 @.@ 8 million viewers during a 35 @-@ day viewing cycle . The data was presented by Alan Wurtzel , NBCUniversal president of research and media development , in a presentation aimed to provide " perspective " when stating " digital platforms are hurting the traditional TV business " . Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos responded to the data by saying that " the whole methodology and the measurement and the data itself doesn ’ t reflect any sense of reality of anything that we keep track of . " A further study from Symphony , for the same time period , found Jessica Jones to be one of the four most watched series in the 18 to 24 demographic , ahead of any broadcast network series .

= = = Critical response = = =

The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 93 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 1 / 10 based on 54 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , " Jessica Jones builds a multifaceted drama around its engaging antihero , delivering what might be Marvel 's strongest TV franchise to date . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 81 out of 100 based on 31 critics , indicating what the website considers to be " universal acclaim " .

The early screening of the first episode at New York Comic Con was met by a very positive reaction from the crowd . George Marston of Newsarama gave the first episode a 10 out of 10 , saying the series " strikes a balance between self @-@ aware noir and Marvel ’ s first flirtations with psychological horror .... not just another hit for Marvel and Netflix , but a landmark moment for female superheroes on TV . " Eric Goldman of IGN felt that " Jessica Jones starts out with a strong premiere episode that ... easily goes further than anything in the MCU in terms of sexuality . " He called Ritter " a commendably tough , sardonic " Jessica Jones and praised the supporting cast for the strong impressions they made , later scoring the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . Evan Valentine of Collider.com gave the episode 5 stars out of 5 , feeling that Tennant would " ascend to the same level as Tom Hiddleston ’ s Loki and Vincent D 'Onofrio ’ s Wilson Fisk as one of the cornerstones of villainy in the MCU " . Katharine Trendacosta of io9 also had positive thoughts on " AKA Ladies Night " , highlighting the episode 's use of light and color , especially with purple , and the way it portrays New York as how it " actually looks — not overly bright and shiny and clean , but not suffering a never @-@ ending power @-@ outage either " . Abraham Riesman noted the episode 's presentation of sexuality , which " was shockingly and refreshingly honest " , compared to Marvel 's other films and television series . He concluded by applauding the series ' bringing up of the topics of rape and PTSD .

Reviewing the first seven episodes of the series , Maureen Ryan of Variety gave positive thoughts on Jessica Jones , stating , " The show , which features an exceptional performance from Krysten Ritter and sure @-@ handed guidance from executive producer Melissa Rosenberg , is not just a contender for the title Best Marvel @-@ related TV property ; in a supremely crowded TV scene , it is one of the year ’ s most distinctive new dramas . " Jack Shepard of The Independent , also on the first seven episodes , felt the series " not only matches [ Daredevil ] but exceeds expectations . " Shepard gave exceptional praise to Tennant 's Kilgrave , feeling he was one of the best villains produced by Marvel , and possibly " the best on @-@ screen comic book villain since Heath Ledger ’ s Joker . " Forbes ' Merrill Barr stated that after seeing the first seven episodes , " the answer is a resounding yes " if lightning could strike twice for Marvel Television , claiming , " In no uncertain terms , Jessica Jones is the best thing Marvel Television has ever produced . It contains all the hopeful anticipation of [ Agents of ] S.H.I.E.L.D. , all the feminist @-@ overtones of Agent Carter and all the grittiness of Daredevil . "

Deadline.com 's Dominic Patten also had praise for the series , particularly Rosenberg 's influence on it , the coverage of topics such as " PTSD , abuse , assault , shame , and death " and the cast , highlighting Tennant 's Kilgrave as the actor 's best role as well as the MCU 's best villain . Mary McNamara from the Los Angeles Times felt Jessica Jones " rewrote the definition of superhuman " and was " a marvel " , lauding the series ' " breathtaking " examination of recovery from a sexually , emotionally and physically abusive relationship . Daniel Fienberg for The Hollywood Reporter was also positive , saying the series " looks and feels a bit like a cable anti @-@ hero series — but it 's really more of a post @-@ hero story , making it fascinating and unique in a marketplace that doesn 't lack for costumed do @-@ gooders of all types . " His one criticism was that " the show shares Jessica 's monomaniacal fixation on [ Kilgrave ] and the result is a sort of narrative claustrophobia ... Everything in these opening episodes ties back to Kilgrave and Kilgrave is such a twisted figure that it 's hard for any light to get in . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly was slightly more critical of the series , awarding it a " B " . Though Maerz felt Ritter was a good choice for Jessica and enjoyed the cinematography , she felt the series " could 've made for a gritty character drama if it weren 't for the noir clichés ( saxophone music , shadows through glass ) and a procedural structure that 's very CSI : Marvel . The show 's biggest weakness is the same as Jessica 's : It starts out with extraordinary potential , but somewhere along the way , it loses what make it special . "

Goldman , later reviewing the whole season , gave it a 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 . He commended all the actors , the relationship between Jessica and Trish , and the episode " Sin Bin " , though was critical of the character Robyn . Additionally , Goldman also felt the series spent " too many scenes devoted to Jeri ’ s marital strife " and that it hit its peak " a bit before the actual end of the season " similar to Daredevil , with most of the thrilling moments earlier in the season .

= = = Analysis = = =

Libby Hill of the Los Angeles Times commented on how Jessica Jones exposed modern day sexism and misogyny through Kilgrave 's use of the phrase " Smile " , calling the series " the most innocuous and incisive cultural critique " from Marvel to date . Hill likened an early scene that shows Kilgrave asking Jones to smile , and her obliging , to " similar well @-@ meaning scenarios [ that ] play out in the real world time and again each day " many in the form of gendered street harassment , that resonates with many women . Hill also added that " Kilgrave serves as an exaggerated representation of perceived consent , " due to the response he gives later in the series to Jessica about never knowing if someone is doing what they want or what he tells them to do . She concludes that " Jessica Jones is revolutionary because in acknowledging casual misogyny and exaggerating its most destructive tendencies , it exposes the pervasive toxicity therein . It does all of this without making a show of its politics , instead resting easy on the knowledge that all too many women will relate to the subtleties of its premise . " Amy C. Chambers , writing for The Science and Entertainment Laboratory , noted how the season moved away from sexism even more so than the comics , by changing Kilgrave 's abilities from phermone based , with a particular effect on women , to viral , with equal effect no matter gender , indicating that " powerlessness is not gendered . "

Kwame Opam at The Verge chose to examine rape and the nature of consent in the series . Comparing Jessica Jones to other television series that have depicted rape ( Game of Thrones , Orange Is the New Black , and Outlander ) , Opam felt that " since rape is one of the show ’ s core themes , we never need to see it ... rape is a foundational part of the text , and its presence is constant . Even if it ’ s invisible , it ’ s always there . " He also felt the series took the time to examine how rape happens and what it means , especially in terms of power and consent , concluding , " Jessica Jones moves the conversation about rape forward by treating it as a complex subject worth investigating , rather than as spice for a story ... Maybe we don ’ t need to see it anymore to grasp how violent it is . Maybe our energies are better spent thinking deeply about why it happens at all . " The Guardian 's Lili Loofbourow also discussed the series depiction of rape and consent , noting the complications that come with Kilgrave telling his victims how to feel rather than just how to act , and saying , " however exceptional Kilgrave ’ s power seems , the moral quagmire it produces is all too common . It ’ s the condition of the rape victim who had an orgasm during her assault . It ’ s the condition of the soldier trained to kill when he suspects his targets are innocent . It ’ s the condition of the battered woman who goes back to her abuser and stays “ of her own free will ” . It ’ s the condition of ... any person , really , who agrees , whatever the context , to consent to forgo consent in the future . " Loofbourow also discussed the character of Simpson , comparing his power @-@ inducing red pill to the anti @-@ feminist " red pillers " , and noting that his taking of the pills " renders him not just dangerously delusional , but so utterly at odds with nature and reality of any kind that he will forget to breathe unless he counteracts the pill ’ s effects . "

= = = Accolades = = =

Jessica Jones was included on multiple Best / Top TV Shows of 2015 lists , ranking on People 's ( 1st , along with Daredevil ) , Indiewire and The Star @-@ Ledger 's ( 2nd ) , NPR 's ( 3rd ) , ScreenCrush 's ( 4th ) , Digital Spy 's ( 5th ) , Complex 's ( 6th ) , Vulture 's ( 7th ) , Slate Magazine 's ( 9th ) , and TV Guide 's ( 11th ) . It was also included on un @-@ ranked lists from Maureen Ryan of Variety , Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times , The Week , and Wired . In December 2015 , IGN named Jessica Jones the Netflix 's best original series released to date , and it was named one of the Best New Shows of 2015 by Ryan , as well as the tenth best new show of 2015 by Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen . The Atlantic named " AKA WWJD ? " one of the best television episodes of 2015 . Additionally , Jessica Jones was the second most trending television series search on Google for 2015 .

= Deepak Tijori =

Deepak Tijori ( born 28 August 1961 ) is an Indian film director and actor who works in Bollywood films and is well known for his supporting roles in Aashiqui ( 1990 ) , Khiladi ( 1992 ) , Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar ( 1992 ) , Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa ( 1993 ) , Anjaam ( 1994 ) , Ghulam ( 1998 ) and Baadshah ( 1999 ) . He also starred as a lead actor in Pehla Nasha ( 1993 ) . Tijori started his directing career with Oops ! ( 2003 ) , a film about male strippers . This was followed by Fareb ( 2005 ) , Khamoshh ... Khauff Ki Raat ( 2005 ) , Tom , Dick , and Harry ( 2006 ) and Fox ( 2009 ) . Thriller at 10 – Fareb , a TV mini @-@ series produced by Tijori won the 2001 Indian Television Academy Awards in the category best mini @-@ series .

Tijori has also been the housemate on Bigg Boss 1 ( 2006 ) . His wife is a fashion designer and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Kabir Sadanand is a film director . In 2009 Tijori 's daughter was kidnapped for a few hours .

= = Early life and career = =

Tijori received his college education from Narsee Monjee College in his hometown Mumbai . While in college , Tijori joined an amateur theatre group . Aamir Khan , Ashutosh Gowariker , Paresh Rawal and Vipul Shah were also the members of the same group . His friends influenced him to pursue a career in film acting , in which during his early career he struggled . He said in an interview with Rediff.com " For three years , I sat outside offices trying to get a word with producers [ ... ] I managed to do some tiny roles , which were very pathetic . " He had worked for Cine Blitz magazine and also as a hotel manager .

= = = Acting career = = =

Tijori portrayed minor characters in Tera Naam Mera Naam ( 1988 ) , Parbat Ke Us Paar ( 1988 ) and Main Tera Dushman ( 1989 ) before appearing as one of the antagonist 's hitman in Shashilal K. Nair 's Kroadh ( 1990 ) . Tijori 's first important role came when Mahesh Bhatt cast him to play the role of protagonist 's friend in his romantic drama Aashiqui ( 1990 ) . The film turned out to be a commercial success and his hand gestures in the film were widely copied by the youth of that time . He played minor roles in Afsana Pyar Ka ( 1991 ) and Kaun Kare Kurbanie ( 1991 ) . In the same year , he was cast again by Bhatt to play supporting roles in two of his films ; romantic drama Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin and romantic thriller Sadak . The latter film was loosely based on Martin Scorsese 's Taxi Driver ( 1976 ) and Tijori played a man who is killed by a pimp after he runs away with one of the prostitutes . In 1992 , he featured in Abbas @-@ Mustan 's suspense thriller Khiladi alongside Akshay Kumar , Ayesha Jhulka and Sabeeha . Tijori played Boney and was paired with Sabeeha . Khiladi was a commercial success . Tijori 's next important role came with the Mansoor Khan @-@ directed coming @-@ of @-@ age sports drama Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar alongside Aamir Khan , in which Tijori played the role of Shekhar Malhotra , a successful and arrogant cyclist , who wins the Inter @-@ School Championship every year . Akshay Kumar had auditioned and Milind Soman was signed for Malhotra 's role before Tijori played it . Rediff.com ranked Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar , ninth in its Bollywood 's top 10 college movies list .

Tijori produced and played his only lead role in Gowariker @-@ directed murder mystery Pehla Nasha ( 1993 ) , alongside Pooja Bhatt and Raveena Tandon . Upon release , the film received poor reviews and failed at the box office . In the same year , he appeared as the antagonist in D Rama Naidu @-@ directed Santaan . Tijori starred alongside Shah Rukh Khan in Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa and Anjaam ( both 1994 ) . The latter one is considered one of the most violent films in Bollywood . In 1995 , he starred in another Mahesh Bhatt @-@ directed film Naajayaz . Tijori played a supporting role in action drama Mrityudata ( 1997 ) which did not receive favourable reviews from critics . He portrayed supporting characters in Aamir Khan @-@ starrer Ghulam ( 1998 ) and the Abbas @-@ Mustan @-@ directed comedy thriller Baadshah . In the latter , he featured as the titular undercover CBI agent .

In the same year , Tijori acted in Mahesh Manjrekar @-@ directed crime drama Vaastav : The Reality ( 1999 ) and the Gujarati language film Hu Tu Ne Ramtudi . He played supporting roles in the romantic comedy Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge ( 2000 ) , Vaastav : The Reality 's sequel Hathyar ( 2002 ) and Kabir Sadanand @-@ directed comedy Popcorn Khao ! Mast Ho Jao ( 2004 ) . In 2012 , he played a police officer in Ram Gopal Varma 's action film Department . Tijori had approached Varma for the villain 's role but he felt that Tijori 's image did not match the character 's and refused to give him the role . Tijori changed his look in one month 's time and was eventually cast by Varma . The following year , he was cast to play the antagonist in Devang Dholakia @-@ directed Tina and Lolo . He had to lose weight for his role . Tijori stated that he himself " was looking for a change " while referring to his salt @-@ and @-@ pepper look in the film . Dholakia said that he was " looking for a new suave villain " and Tijori suited the role . He featured in the crime thriller Raja Natwarlal ( 2014 ) and played the role of a terrorist in the Sadanand @-@ directed comedy Gollu Aur Pappu ( 2014 ) .

= = = Directorial career = = =

Tijori made his directorial debut in 2003 , with an adult film about male strippers Oops ! He was also credited as the producer and the writer . The film was produced on a budget of ₹ 2 @.@ 5 crore ( US $ 370 @,@ 000 ) and considered controversial because of the subject matter and initially it faced troubles with the Central Board of Film Certification . The film was released in two versions – Hindi and English . India Today called Tijori 's direction amateurish and termed the film " an example of brave new breed " . Oops ! did not receive favourable reviews but proved to be a turning point in actress Mink Brar 's career . His next directorial venture was Fareb ( 2005 ) , starring sisters Shilpa Shetty and Shamita Shetty . Like his previous film , Fareb too had troubles with the censor board and was given A certificate implying that it was to be viewed only by adult audience . It received negative reviews . In the same year , he directed the thriller Khamoshh ... Khauff Ki Raat featuring Shilpa Shetty , Juhi Chawla , Rakhi Sawant and debutante Kainaaz Perveez . The film received mixed response . The following year Tijori directed the comedy Tom , Dick , and Harry ( 2006 ) . In a review for India Today , Anupama Chopra called it the year 's worst film .

Tijori 's thriller Fox starring Arjun Rampal and Sunny Deol was delayed due to production issues . Upon release in September 2009 , the film received poor reviews . In the same year it was announced that Tijori would direct a Vikram Bhatt @-@ produced film titled Bhaag Johny . The cast included Muzzamil Ibrahim and 2 new actresses . During the film 's shooting , Ibrahim had to leave the film due to his differences with Tijori and subsequently the film was shelved for a brief period . The following year , Bhatt announced that he himself will direct the film , there would be a different lead actor and Tijori would play the role of a Pakistani policeman . Two years later it was reported that Tijori would direct Vikram Bhatt @-@ produced film Love Games . His next directorial was an adult suspense thriller titled Dare You , starring debutante Alisha Khan who was selected after an audition of more than 800 girls . The film 's poster was the first of its kind and featured the lead actress showing her middle finger . However , Tijori left the project due to creative differences with the film 's producers . In 2013 , he directed the film Rock 'In Love which featured Hanif Hilal and Sandeepa Dhar in lead role . Do Lafzon Ki Kahani starring Randeep Hooda is Tijori 's next directorial project .

= = = Bigg Boss = = =

He played the role of a housemate in the first season of Bigg Boss , as a replacement for Salil Ankola . Ankola had signed an agreement with Balaji Telefilms , which refrained him from participating or acting in television shows made by other production houses that " directly or indirectly compete with Balaji Telefilms . " On the seventh day , the Bombay High Court ordered Ankola to leave the house or face criminal charges . He was replaced by Tijori . During Tijori 's stay at the Bigg Boss house , his wife Shivani Tijori sent text messages to her friends , family members and media @-@ persons to help Tijori in getting out of the house . After he was evicted from the show , Tijori said that he would make a film based on the show . Tijori called the show " a laundered reality " but denied that it was scripted .

= = = Television career = = =

Tijori 's production house Tijori Films produced television serials . One of his most popular serials was Rishtey , a turning point in actor Murali Sharma 's career . Tijori directed the action sequences in several of his serials . He had also planned to produce 1984 — Black October , a film based on the assassination of Indira Gandhi and the riots that followed , along with Hollywood actors . He had hired a casting director for it . Tijori himself acted in TV serial Bombay Blue and produced thriller serials like Saturday Suspense , Khauff , Dial 100 and X @-@ Zone . Thriller at 10 – Fareb , a TV mini @-@ series produced by Tijori won the 2001 Indian Television Academy Awards in the category best mini @-@ series .

= = Personal life = =

Tijori 's wife Shivani is a fashion designer . Film director Kabir Sadanand and singer Kunika Lal are his brother @-@ in @-@ law and sister @-@ in @-@ law respectively . On 10 May 2009 , Tijori 's then 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter was kidnapped for a few hours . Based on her testimony , a suspect was arrested and charged for the crime .

Goregaon ’ s Garden Estate Co @-@ operative Housing Society asked Tijori and his family to vacate their house in November 2012 , following complaints from their neighbours . The Tijori family had been living there since 2009 . The residents of the building accused them of behaving rudely , not paying charges on time , insulting the society 's office bearers and bringing disrepute to them . After a general meeting of the members , the society passed a resolution and sent a notice to Tijori , asking him to vacate his flats within the next 30 days . The resolution was sent to the local registrar . He responded by filing a criminal case against nine members of the society and in October 2014 , the registrar gave the decision in his favour . Tijori called the legal proceedings a " long nightmarish battle " and accused the society for charging wrongful maintenance money .

Tijori has featured in an advertisement for Vadilal . He was one of the judges of Miss India Worldwide 2006 and has also hosted the Miss India Worldwide 2009 . During the 2002 elections for Municipal Corporation of Delhi , he had campaigned for Indian National Congress .

= = Filmography = =

= Triptych , May – June 1973 =

Triptych , May – June 1973 is a triptych completed in 1973 by the Irish @-@ born artist Francis Bacon ( 1909 – 1992 ) . The oil @-@ on @-@ canvas was painted in memory of Bacon 's lover George Dyer , who committed suicide on the eve of the artist 's retrospective at Paris 's Grand Palais on 24 October 1971 . The triptych is a portrait of the moments before Dyer 's death from an overdose of pills in their hotel room . Bacon was haunted and preoccupied by Dyer 's loss for the remaining years of his life and painted many works based on both the actual suicide and the events of its aftermath . He admitted to friends that he never fully recovered , describing the 1973 triptych as an exorcism of his feelings of loss and guilt .

The work is stylistically more static and monumental than Bacon 's earlier triptychs of Greek figures and friends heads . It has been described as one of his " supreme achievements " and is generally viewed as his most intense and tragic canvas . Of the three Black Triptychs Bacon painted when confronting Dyer 's death , Triptych , May – June 1973 is generally regarded as the most accomplished . In 2006 , The Daily Telegraph 's art critic Sarah Crompton wrote that " emotion seeps into each panel of this giant canvas ... the sheer power and control of Bacon 's brushwork take the breath away " . Triptych , May – June 1973 was purchased at auction in 1989 by Esther Grether for $ 6 @.@ 3 million , then a record for a Bacon painting .

= = Biographical context = =

Francis Bacon met George Dyer in a Soho pub . According to Bacon " George was down the far end of the bar and he came over and said ' You all seem to be having a good time , can I buy you a drink ? ' " ( Francis Bacon quoted in : Michael Peppiat , Francis Bacon : Anatomy of an Enigma , London 2008 , p . 259 ) . From that point on , Dyer became devoted to Bacon . He admired his intellect and power and was in awe of his self @-@ confidence . He felt as if he had found a purpose , as the prominent artist 's companion . Dyer was then about thirty years old and had grown up in the East End of London in a family steeped in crime . He had spent his life drifting between theft , juvenile detention center and jail . Typical of Bacon 's taste in men , Dyer was fit , masculine , and not an intellectual .

Bacon 's relationships prior to Dyer had all been with older men who were as tumultuous in temperament as the artist himself , but each had been the dominating presence . Peter Lacy , his first lover , would often tear up the young artist 's paintings , beat him up in drunken rages , and leave him on the street half @-@ conscious . Bacon was attracted to Dyer 's vulnerability and trusting nature . Dyer was impressed by Bacon 's self @-@ confidence and his artistic success , and Bacon acted as a protector and father figure to the insecure younger man . Dyer was , like Bacon , a borderline alcoholic and similarly took obsessive care with his appearance . Pale @-@ faced and a chain @-@ smoker , Dyer typically confronted his daily hangovers by drinking again . His compact and athletic build belied a docile and inwardly tortured personality ; the art critic Michael Peppiatt described him as having the air of a man who could " land a decisive punch " . Their behaviours eventually overwhelmed their affair , and by 1970 , Bacon was merely providing Dyer with enough money to stay more or less permanently drunk .

As Bacon 's work moved from the extreme subject matter of his early paintings to portraits of friends in the mid @-@ 1960s , Dyer became a dominating presence in the artist 's work . Bacon 's treatment of his lover in these canvasses emphasises his subject 's physicality while remaining uncharacteristically tender . More than any other of the artist 's close friends portrayed during this period , Dyer came to feel inseparable from his effigies . The paintings gave him stature , a raison d 'etre , and offered meaning to what Bacon described as Dyer 's " brief interlude between life and death " . Many critics have cited Dyer 's portraits as favourites , including Michel Leiris and Lawrence Gowling . Yet as Dyer 's novelty diminished within Bacon 's circle of sophisticated intellectuals , the younger man became increasingly bitter and ill at ease . Although Dyer welcomed the attention the paintings brought him , he did not pretend to understand or even like them . " All that money an ' I fink they 're reely ' orrible " , he observed with choked pride . He abandoned crime but soon descended into alcoholism . Bacon 's money allowed Dyer to attract hangers @-@ on who would accompany him on massive benders around London 's Soho . Withdrawn and reserved when sober , Dyer was insuppressible when drunk , and would often attempt to " pull a Bacon " by buying large rounds and paying for expensive dinners for his wide circle . Dyer 's erratic behaviour inevitably wore thin — with his cronies , with Bacon , and with Bacon 's friends . Most of Bacon 's art world associates regarded Dyer as a nuisance — an intrusion into the world of high culture to which their Bacon belonged . Dyer reacted by becoming increasingly needy and dependent . By 1971 , he was drinking alone and was only in occasional contact with his former lover .

In October 1971 , Dyer accompanied Bacon to Paris for the opening of the artist 's retrospective at the Grand Palais . The show was the high point of Bacon 's career to date , and he was now being described as Britain 's " greatest living painter " . Dyer was now a desperate man , and although he was " allowed " to attend , he was well aware that he was " slipping " , in every sense , out of the picture . To draw Bacon 's attention he earlier planted cannabis in Bacon 's flat , then phoned the police , and he had attempted suicide on a number of occasions . On the eve of the Paris exhibition , Bacon and Dyer shared a hotel room , and Bacon spent the next day surrounded by people eager to meet him . In mid @-@ evening he was informed that Dyer had taken an overdose of barbiturates and was dead . Though devastated , Bacon continued with the retrospective and displayed powers of self @-@ control " to which few of us could aspire " , according to Russell . Bacon was deeply affected by the loss of Dyer , and he had recently lost four other friends and his nanny . From this point on , death haunted his life and work . Though he gave a stoic appearance at the time , he was inwardly broken . He did not express his feelings to critics , but later admitted to friends that " daemons , disaster and loss " now stalked him as if his own version of the Eumenides . Bacon spent the remainder of his stay in Paris attending to promotional activities and funeral arrangements . He returned to London later that week to comfort Dyer 's family . The funeral proved to be an emotional affair for all , and many of Dyer 's friends , including hardened East @-@ End criminals , broke down in tears . As the coffin was lowered into the grave one attendant screamed " you bloody fool ! " . Although Bacon remained stoic throughout , in the following months Dyer preoccupied his imagination as never before . To confront his loss , he painted a number of tributes on small canvasses and his three " Black Triptych " masterpieces .

= = Description = =

In each panel , Dyer is framed by a doorway , and set against a flat , anonymous foreground coloured with black and brown hues . In the left frame , he is seated on a toilet with his head crouched between his knees as if in pain . Although his arched back , thighs and legs are according to the Irish critic Colm Tóibín , " lovingly painted " , Dyer is by now clearly a broken man . This central panel shows Dyer sitting on the toilet bowl in a more contemplative pose , his head and upper body writhing beneath a hanging lightbulb which throws a large bat @-@ like shadow formed in the shape of a demon or Eumenide . The art critic Sally Yard has noted that in the portrayal of Dyer 's flesh , " life seems to visibly drain ... into the substantial character of the shadow beneath him " . Dyer 's posture suggests he is seated on a lavatory bowl , though the object is not described . Schmied has proposed that in this frame the blackness of the background has enveloped the subject , and it " seems to be advancing forward over the threshold , threatening the viewer like a flood or a giant bat with flapping wings and extended claws . "

In the right panel , Dyer is shown with his eyes shut , vomiting into a hand basin . In the two outer frames his figure is shadowed by arrows , pictorial devices that Bacon often used to place a sense of energy into his paintings . In this work , the arrows point to a man about to die , and according to Tóibín they scream " Here ! " , " Him ! " . The arrow of the right panel , according to Tóibín , points to a " dead figure on the lavatory bowl , as though telling the Furies where to find him " . The triptych is centralised by the lightbulb , and by the fact that Dyer faces inwards in the two outer canvasses . The triptych 's composition and setting are poised to suggest instability , and the doors in each side panel are splayed outwards as if to look into the darkness of the foreground .

Triptych , May – June 1973 has been said to achieve its tension by locating voluptuously described figures in an austere , cage @-@ like space . The foreground of each panel is bounded by a wall , which runs parallel to a framing door . Each door admits a stark black into its frame , while the walls establish a link between each of the three Black Triptychs . In 1975 , the curator Hugh M. Davis noted that while Bacon 's earlier triptychs had been set in public spaces " open to all kinds of visitor " , the Black Triptychs are set in a " deeply private realm , to which only the individual — accompanied , perhaps , by one or two of his closest friends — has access " . In 1999 , Yard wrote that the sense of foreboding and ill @-@ omen conjured by the Eumenides of Bacon 's Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion ( 1944 ) reappears in the triptych as a " batlike void that snared the figure of George Dyer as he subsides into the supple curves of death " . John Russell observed that the painting 's background describes an area which is half studio , half condemned cell . A reviewer of the 1975 Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition found a resemblance between the concept of the central panel and Albrecht Dürer 's engraving Melencolia I ( 1514 ) — in the figure 's pose , the bat form , and the panel 's radiance — suggesting that Bacon 's late triptychs evoke " memorable figural formulations " of classic Western culture .

Bacon later stated that " painting has nothing to do with colouring surfaces " , and in general he was not preoccupied with detailing his backgrounds : " When I feel that I have to some extent formed the image , I put the background in to see how it 's going to work and then I go with the image itself . " He told David Sylvester that he intended his " hard , flat , bright ground " to juxtapose with the complexity of the central images , and noted that " for this work , it can work more starkly if the background is very united and clear . I think that probably is why I have used a very clear background against which the image can articulate itself " . Bacon usually applied paint to the background quickly , and with " great energy " ; however , he thought of it as a secondary element . He used its colour to establish tone , but in his mind the real work began when he came to paint the figures .

Critics have argued whether the triptych should be read sequentially from left to right . Davies believes the work is a narrative , panoramic view of Dyer 's suicide , and that the triptych 's format implies a temporal continuity between each frame . Ernst van Alphen has argued that , notwithstanding spatial inconsistencies — the light bulb featured in the central panel is missing from the two outer canvasses , while the doorway view is reversed in the center panel — the triptych is a " plain representation of a story " .

= = The Black Triptychs = =

Bacon 's work from the 1970s has been described by the art critic Hugh Davies as the " frenzied momentum of a struggle against death " . Bacon admitted during a 1974 interview that he thought the most difficult aspect of aging was " losing your friends " . This was a bleak period in his life , and though he was to live for another seventeen years , he felt that his life was almost over , " and all the people I 've loved are dead " . His concern is reflected in the darkened flesh and background tones of his paintings from this period . His acute sense of mortality and awareness of the fragility of life were heightened by Dyer 's death in Paris . In the next three years he painted many images of his former lover , including the series of three " Black Triptychs " which have come to be seen as among his best work . A number of characteristics bind the triptychs together : the form of a monochromatically rendered doorway features centrally in all , and each is framed by flat and shallow walls . In each three Dyer is stalked by a broad shadow ; which takes the form of pools of blood or flesh in the outer panels and the wings of the angel of death in the left hand and central images . In its display caption for Triptych – August 1972 the Tate gallery wrote , " What death has not already consumed seeps incontinently out of the figures as their shadows . "

Each of the three Black Triptychs displays sequential views of a single figure , and each seems to be intended to be viewed as if stills from a film . The figures rendered are not drawn from any of Bacon 's usual intellectual sources ; they do not depict Golgotha , Handes , or Leopold Bloom . In these pictures Bacon strips Dyer from the context of both Dyer 's own life and the artist 's life , and presents him as a nameless , slumped , gathering of flesh , awaiting the onset of death . Describing the Black Triptychs in 1993 , the art critic Juan Vicente Aliaga wrote that " the horror , the abjection that oozed from the crucifixes has been transformed in his last paintings into quiet solitude . The masculine bodies entwined in a carnal embrace have given way to the solitary figure leaning over the washbasin , standing firm on the smooth ground , neutral , bald @-@ headed , his convex back deformed , his testicles contracted in a fold . "

When asked by the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg in 1984 if the portraits painted in the wake of Dyer 's death were depictions of his emotional reaction to the event , Bacon replied that he did not consider himself to be an " expressionist painter " . He explained that he was " not trying to express anything , I wasn 't trying to express the sorrow about somebody committing suicide ... but perhaps it comes through without knowing it " . When Bragg inquired if he often thought about death , the artist replied that he was always aware of it , and that although " it 's just around the corner for [ me ] , I don 't think about it , because there 's nothing to think about . When it comes , it 's there . You 've had it . " Reflecting on the loss of Dyer , Bacon observed that as part of aging , " life becomes more of a desert around you " . He told Bragg that he believed in " nothing . We are born and we die and that 's it . There is nothing else . " Bragg asked Bacon what he did about that reality , and after the artist told him he did nothing about it , Bragg pleaded , " No Francis , you try and paint it . "

Throughout his career , Bacon consciously and carefully avoided explaining the meaning behind his paintings , and pointedly observed that they were not intended as narratives , nor open to interpretation . When Bragg challenged him with the observation that Triptych , May – June 1973 was the nearest the artist had come to telling a story , Bacon admitted that " it is in fact the nearest I 've ever done to a story , because you know that is the triptych of how [ Dyer ] was found " . He went on to say that the work reflected not just his reaction to Dyer 's death , but his general feelings about the fact that his friends were then dying around him " like flies " . A borderline alcoholic himself , Bacon continued to explain that his dead friends were " generally heavy drinkers " , and that their deaths led directly to his composition of a series of meditative self @-@ portraits which emphasised his own aging and awareness of the passage of time .

= Julius Franks =

Julius Franks , Jr . ( September 5 , 1922 – November 26 , 2008 ) was a civil rights leader and an All @-@ American guard who played football at the University of Michigan from 1941 to 1942 . Franks wore # 62 as a varsity letterman in 1941 and # 63 in 1942 . Franks was the first ( or second depending on the source ) African @-@ American University of Michigan player to become an All @-@ American in football . Illness cut short his collegiate athletic career .

After Michigan , Franks pursued a career in dentistry . He also became an active community leader who contributed his time to public service and who helped to integrate Grand Rapids , Michigan by financing home construction in a majority Caucasian neighborhood .

= = First African @-@ American All @-@ American football player at Michigan = =

Franks , who was born in Macon , Georgia and raised in Hamtramck , Michigan , was named to the Detroit , Michigan , all @-@ city team after the 1939 high school football season . He is the son of Julius Franks , Sr. and Nellie Mae Solomon and father of Daryl , Cheryl , Bobby , Beverly A Grant , Fredrick . After graduating from high school , he attended the University of Michigan , where he became the third African @-@ American to play for the Michigan Wolverines football team . In 1942 , he became the first African @-@ American at Michigan to earn All @-@ American honors . He is described as the second to be All @-@ American by some accounts . Head coach Fritz Crisler said Franks was one of the hardest @-@ working players he ever coached . The 1942 Wolverines ' offensive line , which included Franks , Al Wistert , Robert Kolesar , Merv Pregulman , and Elmer Madar , was known as the " Seven Oak Posts " . Franks credited the group 's success to scrimmaging as rookies against the 1940 offense that included Tom Harmon , Forest Evashevski , and Bob Westfall . Franks was played all 60 minute in his games as a junior in 1942 and was named a first @-@ team All American by the International News Service ( Hearst newspapers ) , Central Press , and Collier 's Weekly , and a second @-@ team All @-@ American by the Associated Press and New York Sun .

In 1943 , Franks and teammate Tom Kuzma came down with tuberculosis and were hospitalized at University Hospital for 25 months as they recuperated . Franks recalled that head coach Fritz Crisler was a regular visitor to his hospital room , and team star Tom Harmon also stopped to visit while on leave from military service . As a result of the hospitalization , Franks missed his senior year as a football player . He obtained his bachelor of science degree in 1947 .

In 1982 , Franks was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fifth class of inductees that was inducted in 1983 . He was the twelfth Michigan football player to earn this honor .

= = Professional career and community service = =

In 1951 , Franks earned his D.D.S. from the University of Michigan Dental School , and practiced dentistry in Grand Rapids , Michigan for more than 40 years . Franks was a leader in the Urban League , United Way , American Red Cross , Boy Scouts of America , and Rotary Club . In 1964 , Michigan Governor George Romney appointed Franks to Western Michigan University 's first Board of Trustees , where he served as a trustee until 1983 . Franks served on several boards : Executive Communication , Vice President , President , 1951 – 87 ; Kent County Dental Society , 1951 – 92 ; Michigan & American Dental Association , 1951 – 96 ; trustee , Western Michigan University , 1964 – 82 ( trustee emeritus , 1983 ) ; Director , Boulevard Memorial Medical Center , 1974 – 84 ; Director , United Way Kent County , 1987 – 92 . In 1992 , Franks contracted Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome , which forced him into retirement .

In the 1960s , Franks helped to integrate Grand Rapids . In the early 1960s , African Americans were not welcome in Grand Rapids ' " white " middle @-@ class neighborhoods , and real estate agents would not show them houses . In 1962 , Franks ' friend , J.E. Adams , found vacant land designated as a potential park site . Adams , Franks , and friends Joseph Lee and Samuel Triplett created a plan to purchase the 20 acres ( 80 @,@ 937 m2 ) site and build a middle @-@ class neighborhood for African @-@ Americans . The announcement " caused an uproar that resulted in protests , lawsuits and threats . " When banks refused to finance the project , the four men purchased the land on their own for $ 60 @,@ 000 and started building . The first of 51 houses was completed in 1965 . Today , the neighborhood , known as Auburn Hills ( not to be confused with Auburn Hills , Michigan ) , has a population of 542 and the lowest crime rate in Grand Rapids . In 2006 , the Michigan Alumni Club gave Franks the " Paul G. Goebel , Sr. Distinguished Alumni in Athletics Award " . In later years , Franks was also a leader with the Urban League , United Way and other groups .

= 2009 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship =

The 2009 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Tournament was held from May 9 through May 25 , 2009 . This was the 39th annual Division I NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament . Sixteen NCAA Division I college men 's lacrosse teams met after having played their way through a regular season , and for some , a conference tournament , to play in the NCAA Tournament .

= = Overview = =

The first round of the tournament was played on May 9 and 10 at the home fields of the seeded teams . The quarterfinals were held on May 16 and 17th on neutral site fields at Hofstra University ( James M. Shuart Stadium ) and the United States Naval Academy ( Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium ) . The tournament culminated with the semifinals and final held on Memorial Day weekend at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts . The tournament was won by Syracuse University who defeated Cornell University , 10 – 9 , in overtime in front of 41 @,@ 935 fans .

= = Qualifying teams = =

The NCAA Division I Men ’ s Lacrosse Committee selected the participating teams for the championship tournament . The committee announced the qualifying teams and the seeding order on Sunday , May 3 , 2009 . Seven conferences received automatic bids for their top team . The remaining nine teams were selected by the committee as " at @-@ large " bids .

Five conferences held tournament championships , which also determined their NCAA bids . Siena earned an automatic bid by winning the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference ( MAAC ) championship for both their first conference title and first NCAA tournament appearance . Villanova earned an automatic bid by winning Colonial Athletic Association ( CAA ) championship and also made its NCAA tournament debut . Navy earned an automatic bid by winning its fifth Patriot League championship in six years . Both Notre Dame and UMBC repeated as conference champions by winning the Great Western Lacrosse League ( GWLL ) and America East Conference , respectively .

Two conferences awarded their bids based on regular season performance . UMass earned the Eastern College Athletic Conference ( ECAC ) championship and its automatic with a 6 – 1 conference record . The Ivy League awarded its automatic bid to Cornell . Princeton and Cornell possessed identical conference records and were named co @-@ champions . The head @-@ to @-@ head regular season game , which Cornell had won , acted as the tie @-@ breaking criterion .

The remaining nine berths were awarded to at @-@ large teams . Duke won the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) tournament for the third straight season , but the league does not receive an automatic bid because it does not have at least six members . Nevertheless , all four ACC teams received at @-@ large bids : Duke , Maryland , North Carolina , and Virginia . Additionally , the NCAA Selection Committee awarded at @-@ large bids to : independents Johns Hopkins and Syracuse , Brown and Princeton of the Ivy League , and Hofstra of the CAA .

= = Tournament bracket = =

* = Overtime

= = Game summaries = =

= = = First round = = =

The 1st round of the tournament , seven of the eight seeded teams advanced . Every past NCAA tournament had been won by seven of the eight teams that advanced to the quarterfinals , with Duke being the only one to have never won a national title , up to this tournament . For the first time , all four Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) teams advanced to the second round . It was just the second time in tournament history that four teams from the same conference advanced . The first instance occurred in 1990 with Brown , Harvard , Princeton , and Yale of the Ivy League .

The tournament began on Saturday , May 9 , when the Brown Bears traveled to face the eighth @-@ seeded Johns Hopkins Blue Jays at Homewood Field in Baltimore . The Blue Jays pulled away to three @-@ goal leads in the first and final quarters , but the Bears equalized both times . In the final ten seconds of regulation , Brown attackman Kyle Hollingsworth batted in a loose ball to even the score , 11 – 11 . In overtime , Hopkins won the faceoff and called a timeout , before Brian Christopher drove up the right side of the field and made a game @-@ winning top @-@ corner shot on the run . It was the third overtime goal by Christopher in Hopkins ' past four games .

UMBC then played at number @-@ six seed North Carolina . The UMBC Retrievers possessed the most efficient extra @-@ man offense ( EMO ) and the best @-@ rated midfield in the nation . Their roster , however , lacked depth , and the first @-@ string midfielders were forced to play in the 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) heat for almost the entire game . At halftime , the Retrievers led the Tar Heels , 8 – 6 . The lead changed hands several times in the third period , before North Carolina took control for the remainder of the game to win , 15 – 13 . Tar Heels attackman Billy Bitter , who attempted only nine shots , matched the school single @-@ game record with eight goals .

Hofstra played at fifth @-@ seeded Cornell , where the teams were even at halftime , 5 – 5 . The third period was the decisive quarter , and Cornell won three face @-@ offs and outscored Hofstra five @-@ to @-@ one . In Durham , third @-@ seeded Duke hosted Navy . At halftime , the Blue Devils led 10 – 0 and expanded the rout to 13 – 1 at the start of the final period . Duke advanced with a final score of 14 – 5 .

The second day of the tournament began with the Maryland Terrapins facing the seventh @-@ seeded Notre Dame Fighting Irish at home in South Bend , Indiana . The Fighting Irish entered the game in possession of a perfect 15 – 0 record , but still considered an unknown variable due to their schedule . The magazine Inside Lacrosse called the Terrapins a talented team that had underachieved during the regular season . The first @-@ ranked Notre Dame defense frustrated Maryland , but the Terps still managed to gain a 6 – 1 lead in the third quarter . Maryland 's defense effectively shut @-@ down Notre Dame and the leading Irish scorer Ryan Hoff was unable to make a single shot on goal . Maryland was the only unseeded team to advance to the quarterfinals .

Both schools making their inaugural NCAA tournament appearance suffered quick elimination . The Villanova Wildcats were trounced by the Virginia Cavaliers , 18 – 6 . The Cavaliers were led by Brian Carroll 's career @-@ high five goal performance . The Siena Saints were held scoreless for nearly 42 minutes in their loss to the Syracuse Orange , 11 – 4 . Onondaga Community College transfer Cody Jamieson , who had just been cleared academically , scored three goals in his first start for the Orange .

At Princeton University , the Tigers defeated the visiting UMass Minutemen , 10 – 7 . Princeton was led by Mark Kovler 's six @-@ point effort . The game was the final in the collegiate career of Minutemen goalkeeper Doc Schneider who led his team to the 2006 championship game as a freshman . His opposite number , Princeton 's Tyler Fiorito , became just the second freshman goalkeeper to start an NCAA tournament game for the Tigers .

= = = Quarterfinals = = =

The quarterfinals took place over the weekend of May 16 to 17 at two neutral sites . The first doubleheader was sponsored on Saturday by Hofstra University , followed by games held at the United States Naval Academy on Sunday . Despite overcast weather at both locations , it was the first time that each NCAA quarterfinals venue attracted in excess of 11 @,@ 000 spectators .

The second round opened at Hofstra 's James M. Shuart Stadium with the Maryland – Syracuse match @-@ up . Al Cavalieri filled in as the Orange goalkeeper for long @-@ time starter John Galloway who was sick with the flu . Syracuse scored three unanswered goals in the first quarter before Maryland goalie Brian Phipps suffered an ACL tear . Terrapins midfielder Grant Catalino narrowed the deficit to 5 – 3 before halftime on an extra @-@ man score . In the second half , Syracuse made defensive adjustments to shut down Maryland 's behind @-@ the @-@ goal attack , and the Orange tallied three times in the span of 2 : 10 to pull away in the third quarter . Syracuse won , 11 – 6 , and extended its postseason streak against Maryland to five .

Ivy League rivals Cornell and Princeton then had their 70th meeting , but first in the NCAA tournament . Earlier in the postseason , the Big Red defeated the Tigers to split the Ivy League championship . Three Princeton shots hit the post in the first half of the second quarter , and Cornell entered halftime with a 5 – 1 advantage . In the third quarter , Tigers attackman Tommy Davis ended their 27 : 58 scoring drought with a 15 @-@ yard shot . Princeton quickly tallied again with 28 seconds in the period . In the final quarter , the Big Red withstood two penalties to win , 6 – 4 .

The second day of the quarterfinals took place at Navy @-@ Marine Corps Memorial Stadium in Annapolis , Maryland . The first game featured top @-@ ranked Virginia and Johns Hopkins . The Cavaliers dominated the Blue Jays , 19 – 8 , in their worst postseason defeat in school history . Shamel Bratton of Virginia scored a career @-@ high five goals . The victory marked the 300th of head coach Dom Starsia 's career , and he became the third coach in Division I lacrosse history to win as many games . Virginia advanced to their fourth Final Four appearance in five seasons . With the quarterfinals elimination of both Maryland and Johns Hopkins , 2009 became only the third time since the NCAA tournament began that no team from the state participated in the Final Four .

The final game of the round featured intrastate rivals Duke and North Carolina in their third meeting of the season . In the first quarter , the Blue Devils jumped out to an early lead and survived a two @-@ man @-@ down penalty , but the Tar Heels scored four unanswered goals to briefly take the lead in the second quarter . Late in the final period , North Carolina rallied from a four @-@ point deficit to trail by one goal , 12 – 11 . As time expired , a shot by Sean Delaney missed high over the goal , and Duke defeated North Carolina for the third time of the year . The Blue Devils ' Zach Howell scored a career @-@ high three goals and Tewaaraton Trophy finalist Ned Crotty tallied twice and had six assists . The Duke defense held Carolina 's leading scorer , Billy Bitter , to just two assists .

= = = Semifinals = = =

= = = = Syracuse vs. Duke = = = =

Syracuse met Duke for the first game at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts , which was attended by 36 @,@ 594 fans , a decrease from the previous year 's 48 @,@ 224 . Nine Orange players scored in a rout of the Blue Devils , 17 – 7 , which demonstrated the depth of the Syracuse offense . It was the most goals allowed by Duke all season . Seniors Kenny Nims and Patrick Perritt led the Orange with four goals each . Freshman Tim Desko , son of head coach John Desko , and heralded transfer Cody Jamieson each tallied twice . The Orange dominated the faceoff circle and won 18 of 28 draws . To open the third quarter , senior Jake Moulton won the opening faceoff and scored nine seconds into the half . With the victory , the Orange advanced to the championship game for the seventh time since 1999 .

= = = = Cornell vs. Virginia = = = =

In the second game of the day , fifth @-@ seeded Cornell upset first @-@ ranked Virginia . The Big Red upset the Cavaliers decisively , 15 – 6 , and advanced to the championship game for the first time in over two decades . Cornell controlled the game from the start , and accounted for the game 's first three tallies and entered halftime with an 8 – 2 advantage . Big Red freshman Rob Pannell , junior Ryan Hurley , and senior Chris Finn each scored three times . The Cornell defense created 18 turnovers and stymied Virginia 's high @-@ powered attack . Commenting on the upset , Cornell head coach Jeff Tambroni said , " We knew we weren 't going to have a whole lot of believers out there . We needed to play hard first and believe second . "

= = = Championship = = =

= = = = Syracuse vs. Cornell = = = =

The final game was also held at Gillette Stadium and took place on Memorial Day , May 25 . Cornell controlled the tempo of the game for the first 56 minutes and frustrated Syracuse with a tough defense . Late in the fourth quarter , the Big Red led , 9 – 6 , before Syracuse 's Stephen Keogh and Cody Jamieson narrowed the deficit to one goal with 2 : 46 remaining . Keogh attempted another shot but missed , and Cornell took possession with 27 @.@ 6 seconds left to play . The Orange 's Kenny Nims then dislodged the ball from Matt Moyer , and Keogh recovered possession . He took a wild shot , which was caught by Syracuse 's Matt Abbott . As he was flattened by Cornell defenders , Abbott got off a pass to Nims , who had run from midfield to the very edge of the crease . Nims connected with his shot on goal to send the game into overtime . Cornell won the overtime faceoff , but Syracuse defenseman Sid Smith stripped Ryan Hurley to create a turnover . Dan Hardy feigned a shot before passing to Jamieson , positioned just beyond the crease , who scored the game @-@ winner .

= = Post @-@ tournament honors = =

After the championship , Cornell midfielder Max Seibald was honored with the Tewaaraton Trophy for the most outstanding Division I men 's lacrosse player . Syracuse attackman Kenny Nims was named the Most Outstanding Player of the tournament . The NCAA named its " All @-@ Tournament Team " following the championship game , which consisted of five players each from Syracuse and Cornell . The following individuals made up that team :

= = Record by conference = =

= The Latchkey =

The Latchkey is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The premise of the plot focuses on two businessmen who are friends Will ( or Bill in some publications ) and John . Will gives John the key to his apartment so he had stay there while Will goes on vacation . The landlady of the house leases the apartment to two ladies . John decides to go to Will 's apartment and lets himself in with the key and finds the two girls asleep . They awake and take him for a burglar and threaten to kill him and John pleads for mercy instead of addressing the misunderstanding . John is later revealed to be her employer after he is caught opening a safe in the office the next morning . The film was released on August 26 , 1910 and was met with positive reviews by the trade publications . The film is presumed lost .

= = Plot = =

Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Bioscope from November 10 , 1910 . It states : " Will and John are prosperous young businessmen and close friends . Will has an apartment in the city , while John lives in the suburbs . When Will goes to the country on his vacation he leaves the latchkey of his apartment with his chum , telling him to make himself at home . The landlady in the house in which Will lives is seized with a bright idea that she can sublet his apartment during his absence . May and Belle , two pretty girls who are in business , decide to try their hand at housekeeping . They rent Will 's apartment and settle down in their new quarters . John decides to take advantage of his friend 's invitation and make use of his rooms . He lets himself in with the latchkey , and is amazed to find the two girls sound asleep . Believing him to be a burglar the girls threaten him with annihilation . John thinks the joke too good to spoil , so does not try to square himself , but pleads for mercy . May secures his promise that he will never ' burgle ' again , and allows him to escape . Unknown to John , May has been engaged by his partner as a typist , and when she enters the office the following morning and finds John opening the safe , she decides that once again her burglar has been caught red @-@ handed . She calls for help , and is greatly chagrined when her supposed burglar is introduced as her employer . Amid explanations , the ' burglar ' and the lady shake hands and become good friends . "

In both The Moving Picture World and The Moving Picture News the character of Will was named Bill , but it is not clear if this was intentional , a renaming or error .

= = Production = =

The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . There are no known credits for the cast , but Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane are two possible actors that were prominent players in 1910 . Credits may have included Anna Rosemond , one of two leading ladies of the Thanhouser company in this era . Frank H. Crane was a leading male actor of the company and also involved since the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . A surviving film still leaves open the possibility of identifying three actors .

= = Release and reception = =

The one reel comedy , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on August 26 , 1910 . The film likely saw a wide national release , advertisements in theaters are known in Indiana , North Carolina , and Pennsylvania . The New York Dramatic Mirror gave the most detailed review of the trade publications by summing up the scenario and approving of the plot and the good acting in the production . The reviewer concluded , " Not only are the leading roles well portrayed , but the minor parts are quite well done in the picture - the dismissed stenographer and the old landlady actually look and act their parts . There is a pleasing , symmetrical competence in the whole cast . " The production was reviewed positively by The Moving Picture World and concludes with the statement , " The story ends there without a suspicion of anybody falling in love with anybody else , a restraint which will be duly appreciated . " Bower 's notes that many Thanhouser plots conclude with the romance and the reviewer noted this change was a welcome one for this production . The previous film A Dainty Politician concluded with romance and the next release An Assisted Elopement took the romance element further with two sets of parents trying to get their children to marry each other .

= Moto Racer Advance =

Moto Racer Advance is a motocross racing game developed by Adeline Software International , produced by Delphine Software International and published by Ubisoft for the Game Boy Advance . It was released in PAL regions on October 4 , 2002 and in North America on December 4 , 2002 . It is part of the Moto Racer series and was the last game to be developed by Adeline Software and also the last with any involvement from Delphine Software .

Moto Racer Advance features several different modes , but much of it centers on a " Progression " mode , which requires the player to compete in races in a variety of environments . Multiplayer is supported through the link cable . Moto Racer Advance garnered positive reception from critics , noting its graphical quality and overall presentation as two of the main reasons for its success . IGN 's Craig Harris called it one of the top racing games from 2002 . As of 2009 , Moto Racer Advance has received compilation scores of 86 / 100 and 83 % on Metacritic and GameRankings respectively .

= = Gameplay = =

The player controls a motorcyclist and must try to win races on various terrain and settings . Each motorcycle in the game handles differently with some performing better on paved roads and others working better on rougher terrain .

There are a number of different modes : Grand Prix ( GP ) , Motocross , and Traffic . GP takes place at a number of different locations across the world on paved tracks in places such as San Francisco and Russia . The paved tracks require the player to learn how to effectively use their brakes around corners . The GP courses contain small differences between them , giving more variety to the courses in the game . Motocross requires the player to drive on off @-@ road terrain and to master the act of " powersliding " on corners . The courses found in Motocross races are less hospitable and often take place in arid and unkept locales and with obstacles . Traffic mixes both GP and Motocross , having mixed pavement courses and traffic on roads that serve as obstacles .

There are three different methods of gameplay : Championship , Progression , and Single Race . The single race mode must be earned through playing the progression mode . Progression is the game 's " main mode " and places the player in a number of different tournaments and races in all three racing styles . It allows the player to earn hidden content , including new bikes which handle differently . The game contains link cable support for up to four players , provided that all four people own a copy of the game .

= = History = =

Moto Racer Advance was first displayed at the 2002 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) . IGN gave the game two awards for portable games after its E3 2002 coverage : " Best Graphics " and " Best Racing Game " . IGN praised the early version of the game for its high draw distance and smooth frame rate . The game was built from the ground up to be a racing game for the Game Boy Advance and to take advantage of the hardware offered by the system . IGN previewed the game six months before it was made available for retail and called the graphics the game 's highlight , while noting that tune @-@ ups in the physics engine were needed before release . The game manipulated 2D sprites and backgrounds to give the impression of 3D to the player . By keeping the core graphics engine simple , the game was able to contain elongated draw distances and a smooth frame rate . It was released on October 4 , 2002 in PAL regions , and on December 4 , 2002 in North America . Moto Racer Advance was the last game to be developed by Adeline Software .

Moto Racer Advance garnered positive reaction from critics for its graphics and gameplay ; it received 86 / 100 and 83 % ratings on review aggregate websites Metacritic and GameRankings , respectively . IGN 's Craig Harris praised the smooth graphics engine of the game , noting that the designers had succeeded in creating a satisfying racing game for the Game Boy Advance . He called it one of the top racing games from 2002 . The Sydney Morning Herald 's Dan Toose praised the game 's " smooth , minimalist graphics " , while GameSpy 's Steve Steinberg noted that the physics of the game felt " dead @-@ on " and enjoyed the overall presentation of the game . GamePro 's Vicious Sid was surprised by the game 's long draw distance , calling it a technical feat on the Game Boy Advance . The sound design from the game received a mixed response from critics . GameZone 's Code Cowboy stated that the Motocross bikes sounded " like gravel in a blender-- being chopped up " . IGN noted otherwise , saying that the sound stayed to the background and was mostly pleasant , while The Sydney Morning Herald praised the realistic sound the bikes created . The game received Editors ' Choice Awards from GameSpy , GamePro , and IGN .

= Tina Turner =

Tina Turner ( born November 26 , 1939 ) , née Anna Mae Bullock , is a singer , dancer , actress and author , whose career has spanned more than half a century , earning her widespread recognition and numerous awards . Born and raised in the Southeastern United States , she is now a Swiss citizen .

She began her musical career in the mid @-@ 1950s as a featured singer with Ike Turner 's Kings of Rhythm , first recording in 1958 under the name " Little Ann . " Her introduction to the public as Tina Turner began in 1960 as a member of the Ike & Tina Turner Revue . Success followed with a string of notable hits credited to the duo , including " A Fool in Love " , " River Deep – Mountain High " ( 1966 ) , " Proud Mary " ( 1971 ) and " Nutbush City Limits " ( 1973 ) , a song which she herself wrote . In her autobiography , I , Tina , she revealed several instances of severe domestic abuse against her by Ike Trevor Turner prior to their 1976 split and subsequent 1978 divorce . Raised as a Baptist , she encountered faith with Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism in 1971 , crediting the spiritual chant of Nam Myoho Renge Kyo , which Turner claims helped her to endure during difficult times .

After her divorce from Ike Turner , she rebuilt her career through live performances . In the early 1980s , she launched a major comeback with another string of hits , starting in 1983 with the single " Let 's Stay Together " followed by the 1984 release of her fifth solo album Private Dancer which became a worldwide success . " What 's Love Got to Do with It " , the lead single won three Grammy Awards including Record of the Year . Her solo success continued with the multi platinum albums Break Every Rule and Foreign Affair and with singles such as " We Don 't Need Another Hero ( Thunderdome ) " , " The Best " and " GoldenEye " for the James Bond film of the same name . " What 's Love Got to Do with It " was later used as the title of a loosely based biographical film adapted from her autobiography . In addition to her musical career , Turner has also experienced success in films , including the role of Acid Queen in the 1975 rock musical Tommy , a starring role alongside Mel Gibson in the 1985 action film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome , and a cameo role in the 1993 film Last Action Hero .

One of the world 's best @-@ selling music artists of all time , she has also been referred to as The Queen of Rock ' n ' Roll . Turner has been termed the most successful female Rock ' n ' Roll artist , receiving eleven Grammy Awards , including eight competitive awards and three Grammy Hall of Fame awards . Turner has also sold more concert tickets than any other solo performer in history . Her combined album and single sales total approximately 100 million copies worldwide , making her one of the biggest selling females in music history . She is noted for her energetic stage presence , powerful vocals , and career longevity . In 2008 , Turner returned from semi @-@ retirement to embark on her Tina ! : 50th Anniversary Tour . Turner 's tour became one of the highest selling ticketed shows of 2008 – 09 . Rolling Stone ranked her no . 63 on their 100 greatest artists of all time . In 1991 , she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .

= = Early life = =

Turner was born Anna Mae Bullock on November 26 , 1939 , in Nutbush , an unincorporated area in Haywood County , Tennessee . Her parents were Zelma Priscilla ( née Currie ) and Floyd Richard Bullock . Anna Mae was born at Poindexter Farm on Highway 180 , where her father worked as an overseer of the sharecroppers . She is of African @-@ American descent , with approximately 33 % European and 1 % Native American ancestry . ( The latter was revealed when she appeared on the PBS documentary African American Lives 2 , and the host Henry Louis Gates shared the results of Turner 's ancestral tests . )

Anna Mae had an older sister , Ruby Aillene . As young children , Anna Mae and Aillene were separated when their parents relocated to Knoxville , Tennessee , to work at a defense facility during World War II . Anna went to stay with her strict , religious paternal grandparents , Alex and Roxanna Bullock , who were deacon and deaconess at the Woodlawn Missionary Baptist Church , which was located on Woodlawn Road off Highway 19 . After the war , the sisters reunited with their parents and moved with them to Knoxville . Two years later , the family returned to Nutbush to live in the Flagg Grove community , where Anna attended Flagg Grove Elementary School from first through eighth grade . In 1889 , her great @-@ great uncle had sold the land on which the school was built to the school trustees .

As a youngster , Anna Mae sang in the church choir at Nutbush 's Spring Hill Baptist Church . When she was 11 , her mother ran off without warning , seeking freedom from her abusive relationship with Floyd Bullock . Zelma relocated to St. Louis to live with Anna Mae 's great @-@ aunt . As a preteen , Anna Mae worked as a domestic worker for the Henderson family . When Anna Mae was 13 , her father married another woman and moved to Detroit . Anna Mae and her sister were sent to live with their grandmother Georgeanna in Brownsville , Tennessee . Anna Mae later stated in her memoir I , Tina that she felt her mother had not loved her , and that she " wasn 't wanted " , stating further that her mother had planned to leave her father when pregnant with Anna Mae . " She was a very young woman who didn 't want another kid " , Anna Mae wrote . Her relationship with her mother remained estranged until Bullock 's death in 1999 .

A self @-@ professed tomboy , Anna Mae joined both the cheerleading squad and the female basketball team at Carver High School in Brownsville , and " socialized every chance she got . " Her first boyfriend , while she was living in Brownsville , was Harry Taylor , who originally attended a rival school to hers . Taylor relocated to Anna 's school to be near her . The relationship ended after Anna Mae learned Harry had married another woman .

When Anna Mae was 16 , her grandmother died suddenly . After the funeral , Anna Mae went to live with her mother in St. Louis , where she was reunited with her sister . There , Anna Mae graduated from Sumner High School in 1958 . After her graduation , she worked as a nurse 's aide at Barnes @-@ Jewish Hospital and dreamed of becoming a nurse .

= = Ike & Tina Turner = =

= = = Origins = = =

Anna and her sister began to frequent nightclubs in the St. Louis and East St. Louis areas around this time . At Club Manhattan , a nightclub in the East St. Louis area , she first saw Ike Turner and his band , the Kings of Rhythm , perform . Anna was impressed by the band 's music and of Ike 's talent , claiming the bandleader 's music put her " into a trance . " Anna felt the urge to sing on stage with Ike 's band despite the fact that few women had ever sung with him . One night , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Anna was given a microphone by Kings of Rhythm drummer Gene Washington during an intermission . Upon hearing her sing , Ike asked her if she knew more songs , she was allowed to sing that night , becoming a guest vocalist from then on . Through this period , Ike taught her the points of voice control and performance . Her first studio recording was in 1958 , singing background , under the name " Little Ann " , on the Ike Turner song , " Box Top " , alongside singer Carlson Oliver .

In 1960 , Ike wrote an R & B song , " A Fool in Love " , originally for Kings of Rhythm vocalist Art Lassiter . Lassiter failed to show up to the recording studio and Anna eventually was allowed to sing the song after much pleading to Ike . Ike agreed to use her voice as a " dummy vocal " , with the intention of erasing her vocals and adding Lassiter 's at a later date . Although some felt that the demo with Anna 's voice was " high pitched " and " screechy " , the song received decent airtime in St. Louis . Local St. Louis deejay Dave Dixon convinced Ike to send the tape to Juggy Murray , president of R & B label , Sue Records . Upon hearing the song , Murray was impressed with Anna 's vocals , later stating that her vocals " sounded like screaming dirt ... it was a funky sound . " Murray bought the track and paid Ike a $ 25 @,@ 000 advance for recording and publishing rights . Murray also convinced Turner to make Anna " the star of the show . " It was at this point that Ike Turner renamed Anna Mae Bullock " Tina " , because the name rhymed with the television character Sheena . It has also been said that the renaming of Anna Mae Bullock was intended to keep her from running off and making a name for herself . Ike Turner felt that , if Anna Mae Bullock left him , he could replace her with another singer and have her perform as Tina .

= = = Early success = = =

" A Fool in Love " was released in July 1960 and became an immediate hit , peaking at number 2 on the Hot R & B Sides chart and number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 that October . Kurt Loder described the track as " the blackest record to ever creep into the white pop charts since Ray Charles ' gospel @-@ styled ' What 'd I Say ' that previous summer . " A second pop hit , " It 's Gonna Work Out Fine " ( 1961 ) , reached the top 20 and earned the duo a Grammy Award nomination for Best Rock and Roll Performance . Notable singles released during the duo 's Sue Records period included the R & B hits , " I Idolize You " , " Poor Fool " and " Tra @-@ La @-@ La @-@ La . " In 1964 , Ike & Tina left Sue and signed with Kent Records , releasing the modest single , " I Can 't Believe What You Say . " The following year , they signed with Loma Records , a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Records and run by Bob Krasnow , who had become their manager shortly after they left Sue Records . Between 1964 and 1969 , Ike & Tina signed with more than ten labels .

The duo maintained a popularity through a rigorous touring schedule across the United States , gigging 90 days straight in dates around the country . During the days of the chitlin ' circuit , the Ike and Tina Turner Revue built a reputation that a writer for the History of Rock site cited as " one of the most hottest , most durable and potentially most explosive of all R & B ensembles " with its show rivaling that of the James Brown Show in terms of musical spectacle . The shows , organized by Ike Turner , provided them financial success . Due to their successful performances , the couple were able to perform in front of diverse crowds in the American South due to the money they made from performing in Southern clubs . Between 1963 and 1966 , the band toured constantly without the presence of a hit single . Tina 's own profile was raised after several solo appearances on shows such as American Bandstand and Shindig ! , while the entire Revue appeared on shows such as Hollywood A Go @-@ Go , The Andy Williams Show and , in late 1965 , in the concert film The Big T.N.T. Show .

= = = Mainstream success = = =

In 1965 , Phil Spector caught an Ike & Tina performance in Los Angeles and sought to work with Tina . Working out a deal , Spector gave Ike a $ 20 @,@ 000 advance to keep out of the studio to which Ike agreed . With Spector , Tina produced the song " River Deep - Mountain High " , which was released in 1966 on Spector 's Philles label . Spector considered that record , with Tina 's maximum energy over a symphonic sound , to be his best work . It was successful overseas , particularly in the United Kingdom , where it eventually reached number 3 on the singles chart , but it failed to go any higher than # 88 in the United States . Crushed , Spector never signed another act to Philles and seldom produced again . But the impact of the record gave Ike and Tina an opening spot for The Rolling Stones ' UK tour later that fall , which the Revue later extended by performing all over Europe and Australia . Signing with Blue Thumb Records in 1968 , the Revue issued the blues @-@ heavy albums , Outta Season and The Hunter . Outta Season produced the Revue 's charted cover of Otis Redding 's " I 've Been Loving You Too Long " , while the latter earned Tina a Grammy nomination for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance for her rendition of the title track , originally recorded by Albert King . The success of the albums led to the Revue headlining at Las Vegas where their shows were attended by a variety of celebrities including David Bowie , Sly Stone , Janis Joplin , Cher , James Brown , Ray Charles , Elton John and Elvis Presley .

In 1969 , the Revue 's profile in their home country was raised after opening for the Rolling Stones on their US tour . In 1970 , they performed on The Ed Sullivan Show . The tour 's success resulted in the Revue signing with Liberty Records , where they released two albums , Come Together and Workin ' Together , released in 1970 and 1971 respectively . Come Together produced the duo 's first top 40 single with their cover of Sly and the Family Stone 's " I Want to Take You Higher . " Come Together marked a turning point in their careers in which they switched from their usual R & B repertoire to incorporate more rock tunes . In early 1971 , their cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival 's " Proud Mary " became their biggest hit , reaching number 4 on the Hot 100 and selling over a million copies , winning them a Grammy for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group . Later in 1971 , their live album , What You Hear Is What You Get , taken from a performance at Carnegie Hall , was their first to be certified gold . In 1972 , Ike Turner created the studio , Bolic Sounds , near their home in Inglewood . After Liberty was bought by United Artists Records , the duo was assigned to that label , releasing ten albums in a three @-@ year period . The duo 's final major hit single , " Nutbush City Limits " , was released in 1973 , reaching number 22 on the Hot 100 , and peaking at number 4 in the UK . In 1974 , Tina released her first solo album , Tina Turns the Country On ! , winning a Grammy nomination .

That year , Tina traveled to London to participate in the filming of the rock musical , Tommy , in which she played The Acid Queen , A drug addicted prostitute who tries to heal Tommy with illegal drugs and sang the song of the same name . Turner 's performance was critically acclaimed . Shortly after filming wrapped , Turner appeared with Ann @-@ Margret on her TV special in London . Returning to the United States , Turner continued her career with the Revue . Following the release of Tommy , another Turner solo album , Acid Queen , was released in 1975 .

= = = Decline of the duo = = =

By the mid @-@ 1970s , Ike Turner 's excessive cocaine habit had gotten out of hand . During this period , Tina adopted the Nichiren Buddhism faith and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo to help her deal through a stressful marriage and career . Due to Ike Turner 's drug abuse , some shows were either canceled or postponed . In July 1976 , Ike Turner had plans to leave United Artists Records for a five @-@ year , $ 150 @,@ 000 deal with Cream Records . The deal was to be signed on July 6 . On July 2 , 1976 , Ike and Tina were en route from Los Angeles to Dallas where the Revue had a gig at the Dallas Statler Hilton . The couple engaged in a bloody fight during their ride to the hotel . Shortly after arriving to the hotel , Tina fled from the hotel and later hid at a friend 's house . On July 27 , Tina sued for divorce in the grounds of irreconcilable differences .

Tina later credited the Nichiren Buddhist faith and chanting Nam Myoho Renge Kyo with giving her the courage to strike out on her own . However , by walking out on Ike in the middle of a tour , she learned she was legally responsible to tour promoters for the canceled shows . After a year in court , their divorce was made final on March 29 , 1978 . In the divorce , she completely parted ways with him , retaining only her stage name and assuming responsibility for the debts incurred by the canceled tour as well as a significant Internal Revenue Service lien .

= = First solo performances = =

In 1977 , with finances given to her by United Artists executive Richard Stewart , Tina returned onstage , giving a round of shows in Las Vegas in a cabaret setting , influenced by the cabaret shows she witnessed while a member of the Ike & Tina Turner Revue . She took her cabaret act to smaller venues in the United States . Turner earned further income by appearing on shows such as The Hollywood Squares , Donny and Marie , The Sonny & Cher Show and The Brady Bunch Hour . Later in 1977 , Turner headlined her first solo concert tour , throughout Australia . In 1978 , United Artists released Turner 's third solo album , Rough , with distribution both in North America and Europe with EMI . That album , along with its followup , Love Explosion , which included a brief diversion to disco rhythms , failed to chart .

The albums completed her United Artists / EMI contracts and Turner left the labels . Continuing her performing career with her second headlining tour , Wild Lady of Rock ' n ' Roll , she continued to be a successful live act even without the premise of a hit record . Following an appearance on Olivia Newton @-@ John 's US TV special , Hollywood Nights , in 1979 , Turner sought contract with Newton @-@ John 's manager Roger Davies . Davies agreed to work with Turner as her manager after seeing her perform at the Venetian Ballroom in the Fairmont San Francisco hotel in February 1980 .

Davies advised Turner to drop her band and remodel her show into a grittier rock 'n'roll showcase . In 1981 , Davies booked Tina at The Ritz in New York City . Following the performance , Rod Stewart hired Turner to perform a duet version of his hit , " Hot Legs " , on Saturday Night Live , and later hired Turner to open for him on his U.S. tour . One show with Rod Stewart and Kim Carnes , on 19 December 1981 , at the L. A. Forum , Inglewood , was filmed . Afterwards , Turner opened three shows for The Rolling Stones . A recorded cover of The Temptations ' " Ball of Confusion " for the UK production team B.E.F. featuring Robert Cray , became a hit in European dance clubs in 1982 . Following performances with Chuck Berry and several short tours in the U.S. and Europe , Turner again performed at the Ritz in December of the year , which resulted in a singles deal with Capitol Records under the insistence of David Bowie .

= = Mainstream success = =

In November 1983 , Tina released her cover of Al Green 's " Let 's Stay Together " , with Capitol . The record became a hit , reaching several European charts , including a top 10 placement in the United Kingdom . The song peaked at number 26 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Turner 's first solo entry into the U.S. charts . It also peaked at the top 10 of the Hot Dance Club Songs and Hot Black Singles charts . The success of the song forced Capitol to rethink its contract with Turner , offering the singer a three album deal , demanding an album on short notice , which had Turner staging what Ebony magazine later called an " amazing comeback . " Recorded in two months in London , the album , Private Dancer , was released in June 1984 . That same month , Capitol issued the album 's second single , " What 's Love Got to Do with It . " It reached the top 10 within a month and in September had reached number 1 on the Hot 100 in the U.S. Featuring hit singles such as " Better Be Good to Me " and " Private Dancer " , the album peaked at number 3 on the Billboard 200 , selling five million copies alone in the states and selling over twenty million copies worldwide , making it her most successful album . Turner 's comeback culminated in early 1985 when she won four Grammy Awards , including Record of the Year for " What 's Love Got to Do with It . " In February of that year , she embarked on her second world tour supporting the Private Dancer album , where she toured to huge crowds . One show , filmed at Birmingham , England 's NEC Arena , was later released on home video . During this time , she also contributed on vocals to the USA for Africa benefit song " We Are the World . "

Turner 's success continued when she travelled to Australia to star opposite Mel Gibson in the 1985 post @-@ apocalyptic film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome . The movie provided her with her first acting role in ten years — she portrayed the glamorous Aunty Entity , the ruler of Bartertown . Upon release , critical response to her performance was generally positive , and the film became a global success , making more than $ 36 million in the United States alone . Turner later received the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress for her role in the film . She also recorded two songs for the film , " We Don 't Need Another Hero ( Thunderdome ) " and " One of the Living " ; both became hits , with the latter winning Turner a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance . In July , Turner performed at Live Aid alongside Mick Jagger . Encouraged by a performance together during Tina 's filmed solo concert in England , singer Bryan Adams released their duet single together , " It 's Only Love " , later resulting in a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal .

= = = Subsequent releases = = =

Turner followed up Private Dancer with Break Every Rule in 1986 . Featuring " Typical Male " , " Two People " and " What You Get Is What You See " , the album sold over four million copies worldwide . Prior to the album 's release , Turner published her memoirs , I , Tina , which later became a bestseller , and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Turner 's European Break Every Rule Tour , which culminated in March 1988 in Munich , Germany , contributed to record breaking sales and concert attendances . In January 1988 , Turner made history alongside Paul McCartney when she performed in front of the largest paying audience ( approximately 184 @,@ 000 ) to see a solo performer in Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , earning her a Guinness World Record . The success of Turner 's two live tours led to the recording of Tina Live in Europe which was released that April . Turner lay low following the end of her Break Every Rule Tour , emerging once again with Foreign Affair which included one of Turner 's signature songs , " The Best . " She later embarked on a European tour to promote the album . While Foreign Affair went gold in the United States , with its singles " The Best " and " Steamy Windows " becoming Top 40 hits there . It was hugely successful in Europe , where Turner had personally relocated .

In 1991 , Ike & Tina Turner were inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . Phil Spector later accepted on their behalf . That same year , the ex @-@ couple signed away their rights to have their lives dramatized in the semi @-@ autobiographical film What 's Love Got to Do with It , later released in 1993 and starring Angela Bassett as Tina and Laurence Fishburne as Ike , with the actors receiving Best Actress and Best Actor Academy Award nominations for their portrayals of the former husband @-@ and @-@ wife team . Turner contributed to the soundtrack for What 's Love Got to Do with It , re @-@ recording songs from her Revue days and recording several newer songs , including what turned out to be her last Top 10 U.S. hit , " I Don 't Wanna Fight . " Other than helping Bassett with her wardrobe and teaching her dance steps as well as providing songs for the soundtrack , and appearing as herself at the end of the film , she refused to be involved fully in the film , telling an interviewer , " Why would I want to see Ike Turner beat me up again ? I haven 't dwelled on it ; it 's all in the past where it belongs . " Following the film 's and soundtrack 's release , Turner embarked on her first US tour in seven years . Following the tour 's end , Turner moved to Switzerland and took a year off from the road at the end of the tour .

Turner returned in 1995 with the U2 composition , " GoldenEye " for the James Bond film of the same name . Its huge success in Europe and modest success in her native United States led Turner to record a new album , releasing the Wildest Dreams album in 1996 . Though the album itself was not as hugely successful in the United States , thanks to a world tour and a much played Hanes hosiery commercial , the album went gold in the United States . The album reached platinum success in Europe where Turner had hits with " Whatever You Want " , " Missing You " , which briefly charted in the U.S. , " Something Beautiful Remains " , and the sensual Barry White duet " In Your Wildest Dreams . " Following the tour 's end in 1997 , Turner took another break before re @-@ emerging again in 1999 appearing on the VH @-@ 1 special Divas Live ' 99 .

In 1998 the duet with Italian musician Eros Ramazzotti in " Cose della vita " became a European hit . Before celebrating her 60th birthday , Turner released the dance @-@ infused song , " When the Heartache Is Over " and its parent album , Twenty Four Seven the following month in Europe , releasing both the song and the album in North America in early 2000 . The success of " When the Heartache Is Over " and Turner 's tour supporting the album once again helped in the album going gold in the U.S. The Twenty Four Seven Tour became her most successful concert tour to date and became the highest @-@ grossing tour of 2000 according to Pollstar grossing over $ 100 million . Later , Guinness World Records announced that Turner had sold more concert tickets than any other solo concert performer in music history . Afterwards Turner announced a semi @-@ retirement .

= = Recent years = =

In 2002 , Tennessee State Route 19 between Brownsville and Nutbush was named " Tina Turner Highway . " The following year , she recorded the duet " Great Spirits " with Phil Collins for the Disney film , Brother Bear . In 2004 , Tina made her first professional appearances following her semi @-@ retirement , releasing the compilation album , All the Best , which produced the single " Open Arms " , and sold more than a million copies in the US .

In December of the following year , Turner was recognized by the Kennedy Center Honors at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington , D.C. and was elected to join an elite group of entertainers . President George W. Bush commented on Turner 's " natural skill , the energy and sensuality " , and referred to her legs as " the most famous in show business . " Several artists paid tribute to her that night including Oprah Winfrey , Melissa Etheridge ( performing " River Deep - Mountain High " ) , Queen Latifah ( performing " What 's Love Got to Do with It " ) , Beyoncé ( performing " Proud Mary " ) , and Al Green ( performing " Let 's Stay Together " ) . Winfrey stated , " We don 't need another hero . We need more heroines like you , Tina . You make me proud to spell my name w @-@ o @-@ m @-@ a @-@ n , " In November , Turner released All the Best – Live Collection and it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Turner participated in the soundtrack to All the Invisible Children , providing duet vocals to the song " Teach Me Again " , with singer Elisa , finding success in Italy where it peaked at the top spot .

In 2007 , Turner gave her first live performance in seven years , headlining a benefit concert for the Cauldwell 's Children Charity at London 's Natural History Museum . That year , Turner performed a rendition of Joni Mitchell 's " Edith and The Kingpin " on Herbie Hancock 's Mitchell tribute album , River : The Joni Letters . Turner 's original vocals for Carlos Santana 's " The Game of Love " were included in a Santana greatest hits compilation . Label demands led to Turner 's vocals being replaced at the last minute by Michelle Branch .

On December 12 , 2007 , Turner 's former husband Ike Turner died from a cocaine overdose . He had also been suffering from emphysema and cardiovascular disease . Reached for comment , Turner issued a brief statement through her spokesperson stating : " Tina hasn 't had any contact with Ike in more than 30 years . No further comment will be made . " Turner made her public comeback in February 2008 at the Grammy Awards where she performed alongside Beyoncé . In addition , she picked up a Grammy as a featured artist on River : The Joni Letters . In October 2008 , Turner embarked on her first tour in nearly ten years with the Tina ! : 50th Anniversary Tour . In support of the tour , Turner released another hits compilation . The tour became a huge success and culminated in the release of the live album / DVD , Tina Live . In 2009 , Turner participated in the singing project Beyond with fellow musicians Regula Curti , Selda Bagcan , and Dechen Shak Dagsay . Their first album Buddhist And Christian Prayers combined Buddhist chants and Christian choral music along with a spiritual message read by Turner . The album was released only in Germany and a handful of other countries . It peaked at number 7 in Switzerland .

In April 2010 , mainly due to an online campaign by fans of the Rangers Football Club , Turner 's 1989 hit , " The Best " , returned to the UK singles chart , peaking at number 9 on the chart . In 2011 , Beyond 's second album Children - With Children United In Prayer followed and charted again in Switzerland . Turner promoted the album by performing on TV shows in Germany and Switzerland in December that year . In May 2012 , Turner was spotted attending a fashion show in Beijing to support Giorgio Armani . Turner appeared on the cover of the German issue of Vogue magazine in April 2013 , becoming at the age of 73 the oldest person worldwide to feature on the cover of Vogue . On February 3 , 2014 , Parlophone Records released a new compilation titled Love Songs . Later in the year , Beyond 's third album Love Within ' was released with Turner contributing some gospel tracks .

= = Personal life = =

= = = Relationships and marriages = = =

= = = = Raymond Hill = = = =

After moving to St. Louis , Tina ( then called Anna Mae Bullock ) and her sister became acquainted with members of the Kings of Rhythm , and Anna Mae dated the band 's saxophonist Raymond Hill . After Anna Mae gave birth to their son Craig , the couple 's relationship became strained . Allegedly , after a fight between the two broke out , Ike and other Kings of Rhythm members confronted Hill and beat him up , with one member tackling him to the ground , instantly breaking his leg . The injury was so severe that Hill had to return to his hometown of Clarksdale , Mississippi . Ike later adopted Anna Mae and Hill 's son , adding his own last name legally .

= = = = Ike Turner = = = =

Tina and Ike 's early relationship was friendly and " like siblings . " In late 1958 , Tina moved into Ike 's home in East St. Louis . During that period , Ike began musically training Tina . At the beginning , the two had no mutual attraction ; Tina felt Ike was not the " ideal @-@ looking man " , while Ike viewed her as a sister and favored " curvaceous women . " Ike was still married to his common @-@ law wife , Lorraine Taylor , during this period .

Ike and Tina began a sexual relationship in 1959 , much to Tina 's chagrin . Ike also felt guilt over the relationship , stating later that having sex with Tina felt as if he were having sex with a sibling . In her book , Tina stated the couple married in Tijuana , in 1962 . She recalled the first time Ike physically abused her began after she told him she was considering leaving Ike 's group due to financial disputes and their own confusing relationship . Tina said Ike grabbed a shoe stretcher and hit her in the head with it . Afterwards , Tina said , Ike asked her to have sex with him . Tina wrote in her memoirs , I , Tina , that the incident was the first time Ike had " instilled fear " in her .

Ike 's accounts of his relationship with Tina , including the incidents of abuse , differed . In a 1985 interview with Spin magazine , Ike admitted , " Yeah I hit her , but I didn 't hit her more than the average guy beats his wife .... If she says I abused her , maybe I did . " He worded this slightly differently in his memoirs , Taking Back My Name ( 1999 ) , writing : " Sure , I 've slapped Tina .... There have been times when I punched her to the ground without thinking . But I have never beat her . "

Ike also claimed on more than one occasion that he and Tina weren 't even legally married . In the 1985 Spin article , Ike said , " As God is my judge , of all my wives , Tina is the only one I was never legally married to . " He explained in later years that Tina took his name in order to discourage a former lover from returning to her .

Ike said he had married at least 14 times , and five times before he allegedly married Tina . Tina admits she " never felt like [ she ] was married " to Ike . A musician associate of Ike 's later recounted that , except for a few arguments , he never witnessed Ike being abusive to Tina or anyone else in his close circle .

Before a show in Los Angeles , in 1968 , Tina tried to commit suicide by swallowing 50 Valiums , after a fight with Ike . After their July 1976 fight in Dallas , Tina filed for divorce . In the final divorce decree , Tina took responsibility for missed concert dates as well as an IRS lien , and requested to be allowed to retain use of her stage name as a means to find work as a performer . Following the divorce , Turner claimed she had corrective surgery on her nasal septum , which she says was injured by Ike 's frequent hitting . Turner dismissed popular notions that she was a " victim " of Ike Turner 's abuse , stating she " was in control every minute there " during the abusive marriage .

Friends and relatives of Ike 's said he never fully got over their divorce . Their son Ronald once alleged that Ike used to come to his house occasionally and snoop through his address book to locate Tina .

After divorcing Ike in 1978 , Tina abstained from relationships for a long time , as she set on bringing her career back on track .

= = = = Erwin Bach = = = =

While at a record label party in London in 1985 , Tina met German music executive Erwin Bach . Initially friends , Turner and Bach began dating the following year , and have remained together ever since . In July 2013 , after a 27 @-@ year romantic partnership , the couple married in a civil ceremony on the banks of Lake Zurich , in Küsnacht , northern Switzerland .

= = = Children = = =

Turner has two sons . Her first , Raymond Craig , born in 1958 when Turner was 18 , is the child of Kings of Rhythm saxophonist Raymond Hill . Her second , Ronald Turner , born in October 1960 , is Turner 's only child with Ike Turner .

After moving to Los Angeles in 1960 , Ike Turner 's estranged wife , Lorraine Turner , left her and Ike 's sons , Ike Jr . ( born 1958 ) and Michael ( born 1959 ) , to be raised by Ike and Tina . During Ike and Lorraine 's divorce trial , Ike sent the four boys to live with Tina at her home . In 1985 , Ike accused Tina of bad parenting , even alleging she had sent Michael to a mental hospital . Tina denied his claims , telling Australian magazine TV Week , " he gave me those children and not a penny to look after them with . "

= = = Religion = = =

Turner has sometimes referred to herself a Buddhist @-@ Baptist , alluding to her upbringing in the Baptist church and her later conversion to Buddhism . Throughout her childhood and early adulthood , Turner was Baptist . In a 2016 interview , Turner stated that " I consider myself a Buddhist . "

Turner was introduced to Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism in 1973 by a friend of Ike 's named Valerie Bishop . Turner wrote in her autobiography I , Tina that after Valerie taught her to recite the Buddhist chant Nam Myoho Renge Kyo , Tina observed that Ike , instead of hitting her for singing supposed wrong notes during recording sessions , would give her money to go shopping , something she regarded as a benefit of her newfound spiritual practice .

In an August 2011 interview with Shambhala Sun Buddhist magazine , Turner stated she adheres to the teachings and values of the Buddhist association Soka Gakkai International .

Turner has collaborated with Tibetan Buddhists and met with the 14th Dalai Lama , Tenzin Gyatso in Einsiedeln , Switzerland in 2005 , citing this as an inspiration for a spiritual music project she later co @-@ founded called Beyond . In a 2011 public interview with Shambala Sun , Turner indicated that she no longer follows the morning and evening Gongyo practice in a regimented schedule and hosts various types of Buddhist statues in her home altar located in the upper attic of one of her guesthouses in Switzerland .

In a March 2016 interview with Lion 's Roar magazine , Turner says she prays and chants each day , stating the following :

" Nam Myoho Renge Kyo is like a song . In the Soka Gakkai tradition we are taught how to sing it . It is a sound and a rhythm and it touches a place inside you . That place we try to reach is the subconscious mind . I believe that is the highest place . "

= = = Residences and citizenship = = =

Turner has been living in a lake house , Château Algonquin in Küsnacht , next to Zurich , since moving there in 1994 . She owned property in Cologne , London , and Los Angeles , and a villa on the French Riviera named Anna Fleur .

On January 25 , 2013 , it was announced that Turner had applied for Swiss citizenship , and that she would relinquish her U.S. citizenship . In April , she undertook a mandatory citizenship test which included advanced knowledge of the German language and of Swiss history . On April 22 , 2013 , she became a citizen of Switzerland and was issued a Swiss passport . Turner signed the paperwork to give up her American citizenship at the U.S. embassy in Bern on October 24 , 2013 .

= = Awards and accolades = =

In 2008 , Turner was listed at the 17th place on Rolling Stone 's list " The 100 Greatest Singers of All Time . "

Turner is a Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee .

Three of her recordings , " River Deep – Mountain High " ( 1999 ) , " Proud Mary " ( 2003 ) , and " What 's Love Got to Do with It " ( 2012 ) , are in the Grammy Hall of Fame .

Turner has won eight Grammy Awards .

Bryan Adams , who performed with her on the Private Dancer Tour , praised Turner 's live performances , saying : " I never saw Tina walk through a performance , she always put on a great show , and was gracious and grateful to her audience . "

When Turner became a recipient of the 2005 Kennedy Center Honors , her legs were noted specifically by President George W. Bush .

At age 73 , Turner became the oldest person to be featured on the front cover of Vogue , surpassing Meryl Streep , who covered American Vogue in 2012 , aged 62 .

Turner has her own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and the St. Louis Walk of Fame .

= = Discography = =

Tina Turns the Country On ! ( 1974 )

Acid Queen ( 1975 )

Rough ( 1978 )

Love Explosion ( 1979 )

Private Dancer ( 1984 )

Break Every Rule ( 1986 )

Foreign Affair ( 1989 )

What 's Love Got to Do With It ( 1993 )

Wildest Dreams ( 1996 )

Twenty Four Seven ( 1999 )

= = Tours = =

1977 : Australian Tour

1978 – 79 : The Wild Lady of Rock Tour

1982 : Nice ' n ' Rough Tour

1984 : 1984 World Tour

1985 : Private Dancer Tour

1987 – 88 : Break Every Rule World Tour

1990 : Foreign Affair : The Farewell Tour

1993 : What 's Love ? Tour

1996 – 97 : Wildest Dreams Tour

2000 : Twenty Four Seven Tour

2008 – 09 : Tina ! : 50th Anniversary Tour

= = Filmography = =

= Fursuit =

Fursuits are animal costumes . Fursuits can be worn for personal enjoyment , work or charity .

The term " fursuit " is believed to have been coined in 1993 by Robert King and is usually used to describe custom @-@ made animal costumes owned and worn by cosplayers or members of the furry fandom . Unlike mascot suits , which are usually affiliated with a team or organization , fursuits represent a stand @-@ alone character .

Fursuiters may adopt another personality while in costume for the purpose of performance . Fursuits are typically sold online by commission or auction , but can also be sold at conventions .

= = Creation and construction = =

Most fursuits are created by specialized online businesses if they are not self @-@ made . Workmanship quality varies widely depending on the cost of the suit and skill of the maker . A fursuit may cost more than a thousand dollars .

Many suits include special padding or undersuits to give the character its desired shape ( this is especially present in larger characters or those of a particular gender ) .

Other suit variations include the partial suit , which only has a mask , gloves , a tail , and possibly feet , with regular clothing covering the rest of the body . Three @-@ quarter suits also include part of the body , like the torso or legs . This type of fursuit works well for characters who only wear a shirt without pants or just a pair of pants without a shirt . Quadsuits are designed with arm @-@ extending stilts so that the wearer can walk on all fours , for a more realistic appearance .

Fursuits can be expensive to clean .

= = Applications = =

Animal costumes have been part of human culture since prehistorical times . Some of the customs have continued such as the Kurentovanje festival in Ptuj Slovenia , where participants dress in costumes of sheep or rabbit fur with feathers and animal horns and part of a fertility rite .

Fursuits are worn to furry conventions and other events such as anime or gaming conventions . Fursuits may also be worn in public .

Some fursuit owners use their suits as temporary costumed characters to bring attention to an event or charity . A subset of fursuits more resemble creature suits and may be used in live action role @-@ playing games ( LARP ) or films .

= Matt Striebel =

Matt Striebel ( born January 12 , 1979 ) is a high school lacrosse coach at Northampton High School and a professional lacrosse midfielder who plays professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) for the New York Lizards and formerly played professional box lacrosse in the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1998 through 2001 and the Princeton Tigers men 's soccer team from 1997 through 2000 .

During his time at Princeton , the team qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship all four years , reached the championship game three times , won the championship game twice and won four Ivy League championships . He was a two @-@ time honorable mention United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American and three @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( once first team , twice second team ) . He was also an All @-@ Ivy league performer in soccer and earned Princeton co @-@ athlete of the year ( all @-@ sport ) honors as a senior .

As a professional , he has earned three MLL championships , a league record eight MLL All @-@ Star recognitions and an MLL championship game MVP award . He is also a three @-@ time Team USA representative and two @-@ time World Lacrosse Championship gold medalist .

= = Background = =

Striebel is a native of Gill , Massachusetts . He first got involved in lacrosse at about the age of 12 or 13 when his sister brought home the Brine Lightning stick that he began to play with . Striebel attended The Hotchkiss School in Lakeville , Connecticut . Striebel first started playing lacrosse when he was a youth for Jeff Coulson , owner of Indoor Action Sports , in Greenfield , Massachusetts .

He also attended the Writers Workshop at The University of Iowa in Iowa City , Iowa , earning a Master of Fine Arts degree in 2007 . He had earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English at Princeton .

= = College career = =

At Princeton he was a two @-@ time honorable mention USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 2000 and 2001 . He was a second team All @-@ Ivy League selection in 1999 and 2000 and a first team selection in 2001 . He was a 2001 USILA Scholar All @-@ American . During his four @-@ year career , Princeton went undefeated in Ivy League Conference play with consecutive 6 – 0 records . Princeton was invited to the 1999 tournament , was a finalist in the 2000 tournament and earned championships in both the 1998 and 2001 tournaments , bringing the schools consecutive tournament invitations streak to twelve . In Striebel 's 2001 senior season , the arrival of freshman Ryan Boyle necessitated that he move from attack to midfield . The move came the first practice after Princeton 's 14 – 8 loss to Syracuse . Striebel had previously been orchestrating the Princeton offense from behind the goal , but on March 25 , 2001 , head coach Bill Tierney made the switch . During the 1998 season when Princeton won the NCAA title , Striebel had been playing midfield . Princeton went undefeated for the rest of the 2001 season after the switch .

During the 2000 NCAA tournament , Striebel scored two goals in the quarterfinals 10 – 7 victory against Maryland , and he added another in the 13 – 7 championship game loss to Syracuse . Striebel was one of the leading scorers on the team that season , and he was the team leader in assists entering the final four weekend . In the quarterfinals of the 2001 NCAA championship tournament , Striebel had an assist in the 8 – 7 victory over Loyola . In the 12 – 11 semifinal victory over Towson State , Striebel had a goal and an assist . Striebel scored twice in the 2001 championship game and also added two assists . He was selected to the All @-@ tournament team .

Striebel was also an honorable mention All @-@ Ivy League soccer player in 2000 as well as a 2000 Academic All @-@ Ivy selection in soccer . As a junior , Striebel was a member of the 1999 Ivy League Champion Princeton Soccer team that earned an invitation to the 1999 NCAA Men 's Division I Soccer Championship . The team posted a 10 – 5 – 2 ( 5 – 1 – 1 Ivy League ) record .

As of 2010 , Striebel ranks eighth on the Princeton Lacrosse career assists list and eleventh on the Princeton soccer career assists list . As a senior , he was honored as one of the three athletes of the year on campus ( along with Dennis Norman and Scott Denbo )

= = Professional career = =

Striebel began his career in the league 's inaugural 2001 MLL season with the Bridgeport Barrage and stayed with the team as it remained in Bridgeport , Connecticut until the 2003 season . Then he moved with the franchise and played with the Philadelphia Barrage from 2004 through 2008 . In 2009 MLL season , he joined the Chicago Machine and then became a member of the Rochester Rattlers for the 2011 MLL season . Striebel and Boyle were reunited for five seasons in Philadelphia . Striebel has helped the Barrage to win three Steinfeld Cup championships in 2004 , 2006 , and 2007 . In the 2004 championship game , he scored what the Baltimore Sun described as the clinching goal in the 13 – 11 victory over the Boston Cannons . In the 2006 game , he had nine points ( four goals , including one two @-@ pointer and four assists ) . He was presented with the 2007 Steinfeld Cup Game Most Valuable Player Award . Striebel appeared in the 2005 & 2007 Major League Lacrosse All @-@ Star Games . In the 2006 All @-@ Star game he represented Team USA by scoring a goal and two assists . Striebel was an MLL All @-@ Pro selection in 2007 and 2008 . Striebel was an MLL All @-@ Star in 2011 . In 2012 , Striebel set the MLL record for most All @-@ Star games with eight ( consecutive ) .

Striebel served as an assistant coach for Princeton Men 's Lacrosse in 2005 . Striebel also spent time assisting the men 's lacrosse team at Iowa during his time there . As of 12 April 2012 , Striebel currently coaches the Varsity Boys Lacrosse team at Northampton High School in Northampton , MA which is just south of his hometown . He also played professionally in 2012 and 2013 .

In addition to his field lacrosse career , Striebel played one season in 2003 of box lacrosse with the Philadelphia Wings in the National Lacrosse League . Streibel was traded by the Wings to the New York Saints in February 2003 . He never appeared in a game for the Saints . Striebel has also played professional soccer for the Western Massachusetts Pioneers .

Striebel has represented Team USA in the World Lacrosse Championship in 2002 , 2006 , and 2010 . In the 2002 World Lacrosse Championship semifinal match against the Iroquois Nation , Striebel scored a goal in the 18 – 8 victory . Striebel also serves as a representative of Trilogy Lacrosse .

On November 11 , 2013 , Striebel was traded to the New York Lizards .

= = Statistics = =

= = = MLL = = =

= = = Princeton University = = =

= Sembawang Hot Spring =

The Sembawang Hot Spring ( Chinese : 三巴旺溫泉 ; pinyin : sanbawang wenquan ) , located at Gambas Avenue between Woodlands Avenue 12 and Sembawang Road , is the only natural hot spring on the main island of Singapore . It lies in a wooded area about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) off the main road . The spring is believed by locals to have healing properties , and its water has been bottled commercially by Fraser and Neave , under the brand name of Seletaris . Since its discovery in 1909 , the spring , now on land belonging to a military air base , has gone through several changes of ownership and abortive redevelopment plans . The hot spring retains a rural rustic feel for nature visitors to unwind .

= = History = =

In 1909 , a Chinese merchant named Seah Eng Keong , the son of Chinese pioneer Seah Liang Seah , discovered hot springs in his pineapple estate in Sembawang . The three springs were channelled into one , so that the water would be conveniently concentrated in one area . A well was built along the spring , which became popular with the villagers , who frequently sought the waters for their supposed healing powers . The spring 's fame spread , resulting in the village becoming known as Kampong Ayer Panas , which means " Village of Hot Water " in Malay .

Soft drinks firm Fraser & Neave ( F & N ) acquired the site in 1922 , and set up a bottling plant at nearby Semangat Ayer to tap the mineral water , which they labelled Seletaris . During the Second World War , the spring 's flow was temporarily interrupted when a bomb fell near the well during a Japanese air raid over Singapore in 1942 . After the fall of Singapore , the Japanese military seized the place and converted it into recreational thermal baths ( onsen ) .

The hot spring was frequented by gamblers in 1960 , who took " good luck " baths before the start of horse races . That same year , the villagers urged the authorities to develop the area into a spa @-@ like onsen tourist resort . However , F & N shelved the suggestion after geologists could not to trace the source of the spring water . In 1967 , the proposal of the spa surfaced again , when F & N proposed plans for the development of a bathhouse , restaurants , a miniature golf course and even a nature reserve . However , the plans did not materialize , so the hot spring remained untouched and forgotten .

= = = Redevelopment = = =

In 1998 , the Ministry of Defence ( Mindef ) acquired the land containing the spring for the expansion of the nearby Sembawang Air Base , leaving F & N with less than 4 hectares ( 10 acres ) of land . Its water @-@ bottling plant survived until the early 1990s however . In January 2002 , locals ' interest to the hot spring , which had caught the attention of Singaporeans after the surrounding land had been cleared to begin the RSAF air base extension . Sembawang community leaders gathered signatures to petition Mindef , which was going to fence off the area , to preserve and develop the hot spring for the general public . Mindef gave the green light to the appeals and opened a small side gate pavement for the public to access the spring .

During that same year , a series of scalding cases , including an incident in which a senior citizen diabetic lost six toes to gangrene after soaking in the hot spring , prompted the Singapore General Hospital to warn that people with nerve disorders or diseases affecting blood circulation should be cautious to hot mineral springs . As a result of some negative rumors and hearsay , and the RSAF redevelopment , public interest began to wane and the number of visitors dwindled .

= = = Present day = = =

During its peak , up to 300 people visited the hot spring daily . On 1 March 2002 , it was closed for two months while upgrading and improvement works were carried out to the area around the spring , which had become sodden and muddy . Litter had also become a problem because of the increased numbers of visitors . The former dirt track leading to the spring was paved with cement , and lined with bougainvillea bushes and high fences to ensure the security of the air base . Drainage pipes were also installed . Mindef , which owns the land , allows public access between 7 am and 7 pm daily , free @-@ of @-@ charge . When the spring reopened on 1 May 2002 , more than 100 people visited the site despite the afternoon drizzle . At the same time , some new free @-@ hold condominiums were built in the surrounding area ; one of the developments , built by the property arm of F & N in 2001 , is called Seletaris after the company 's former mineral water .

In July 2005 , a Business Times reader proposed that the authorities should explore the possibility of tapping the geothermal heat that lies many miles under Sembawang — similar to the project in South Australia 's Cooper Basin — in order to aid Singapore 's reliance on oil and gas . The proposal was not acted upon .

As of 2014 , the well can still be seen locked inside a red @-@ brick enclosure with a steel gate , and its geothermal heat can be felt outside the building . Some plastic chairs , pails and mini @-@ tubs kindly donated by visitors are stored at the perimeter of the compound , which has a makeshift shed in one corner . A caretaker , paid by Mindef , takes care of the place to ensure its overall cleanliness , but there is no toilet on location . The hot spring is less frequented nowadays but remains rustic for rural and suburban families to discover and explore .

The potential redevelopment of Sembawang Hot Spring into a national park is currently being explored . The Ministry of Defence ( MINDEF ) said on 23 April 2016 that it is prepared to return the land occupied by the hot spring to the Singapore Land Authority . MINDEF hopes a public agency such as the National Parks Board ( NParks ) can take over to improve and maintain the place , while constructing amenities such as toilets and adding more greenery . The ministry added that putting the place under a public agency means the land need not be tendered out to the highest bidder and become commercialised .

Earlier on 16 April 2016 , a NParks senior director of Parks Development confirmed the statutory board was working with the Urban Redevelopment Authority , Singapore Land Authority and MINDEF on “ the feasibility of using the area as a park

= = Water properties = =

According to local geologists , the exact source of the spring remains unknown , but it is believed that its origin may be southwest of its actual location , possibly at Bukit Timah . Hot springs are formed when underground water comes into contact with hot rock masses . The resulting high pressure causes the water to seep upwards through cracks , forcing itself out of the ground as a spring .

A series of tests conducted by the PSB Corporation and SGS Testing & Control Services found the spring water contains 420 mg of chloride per litre , an amount which is substantially higher than the 35 to 100 mg in the water from Choa Chu Kang and Bedok waterworks . It was also found that the sulphide content is three times more than tap water and the spring water is also slightly alkaline due to the presence of minerals . Natural spring waters may have health benefits , similar to the hot springs of other countries near tectonic plates with volcanoes , in a search for cures for some skin conditions , as well as debilitating ailments like rheumatism and arthritis . Although local rheumatologists conceded that hydrotherapy is an accepted treatment that can be helpful for mild forms of rheumatism or muscle strain , they , along with dermatologists , remain skeptical of claims about the alternative healing of the natural spring water .

Hot hard water bubbles continuously in the well , releasing a slightly unpleasant sulphur mud @-@ like odour together with steam . The temperature of the spring water is measured by precision instrument to be constant 70 ° C ( 160 ° F ) . In an investigation carried out by the Nanyang Technological University in 1994 , the hot spring was found to have an estimated yield of approximately 150 litres ( 33 imp gal ; 40 US gal ) per minute at ground level through installed steel casings .

= Detour ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Detour " is the fourth episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by executive producer Frank Spotnitz and directed by Brett Dowler . The episode aired in the United States on November 23 , 1997 , on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Detour " received a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 2 , being watched by 22 @.@ 8 million viewers , and received mixed reviews from television critics .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully , while traveling to a conference with two other FBI agents , stop at a roadblock and join a nearby investigation of attacks by an unidentified predator .

Executive producer Frank Spotnitz was inspired to write the episode after watching the 1972 American thriller film Deliverance . " Detour " took nineteen days to film , over eleven more than the norm for The X @-@ Files . Shooting was hampered by incessant rain . The episode 's villains were created through a mixture of elaborate " bark suits " and digital technology . In addition , the episode contained several cultural references .

= = Plot = =

Two men are surveying an area of the Apalachicola National Forest in Leon County , Florida when they are attacked and killed by unseen assailants with glowing red eyes . Later that day , Michael Asekoff and his son , Louis , are hunting for possums with their dog , Bo , in the same stretch of woods . Upon discovering a surveyor 's bloody jacket , the father orders his son to take the dog and run home . As the son and dog take off , two shots are heard .

Meanwhile , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are carpooling with FBI agents Michael Kinsley and Carla Stonecypher en route to a " team building " seminar . When they are stopped at a roadblock by local police , Mulder decides to investigate . As Mulder and Scully venture into the woods , they are informed by Officer Michele Fazekas that no conclusive evidence has been found to support Louis ' report of a shooting . Mulder sees this as a perfect opportunity to ditch the seminar . Later , Mulder explains to Scully that no species native to North America will attack a stronger member of its prey when there is a weaker target available .

At the Asekoff residence , Bo becomes upset and begins barking . Mrs. Asekoff lets him outside but when she attempts to retrieve him , the dog refuses to budge . She turns to go back inside but discovers that it has been bolted from the inside . Louis hears his mother 's screams and climbs out of bed , but a dark , shadowy figure with red eyes corners him . Louis barely escapes through the dog door where he runs into Mulder , informing him of the creature 's whereabouts in the house .

The next morning , Mulder shows Scully some tracks by the front door of the house that appear to be human . Based on the weight distribution , however , the assailant evidently travels on the balls of its feet rather than from heel to toe . Additionally , that the creature lured the mother out of the house in order to get to Louis suggests to Mulder that the creatures are paranormal in nature .

Jeff Glaser , a local technician armed with a FLIR device , joins Fazekas , Mulder , and Scully on a search for the creature . They soon spot two creatures on the FLIR which travel in separate directions , causing the four to split up . Fazekas is attacked and disappears . Mulder deduces from this that the creatures may be related to the Mothman of Point Pleasant , West Virginia . After a brief encounter with the creatures , Glaser takes off running and is swiftly killed by a creature . Mulder is grabbed by the other creature , though it releases him after Scully manages to wound it with her firearm .

The next morning , Scully falls through a hole into an underground chamber where the bodies of their missing companions are stored . Spotting a pair of red eyes , Scully realizes she does not have her firearm on her . Mulder drops his down to her as the bushes behind him begin to rustle . He jumps in the hole as Scully shoots the creature and kills it . As they examine the dead creature , they notice its almost human @-@ like features and wood @-@ like skin . Nearby , the words " Ad Noctum " , Latin for " into darkness " , are found carved into a tree trunk .

Mulder , Scully , Asekoff , and Fazekas are rescued , but there is no sign of Glaser or the other creature . Upon leaving the forest , Mulder states that the creature may , in fact , be an evolved version of the first Spanish conquistadors who had first settled in the forest 450 years before . Although Kinsley finds it ridiculous , Mulder believes that centuries of seclusion could be adequate for such drastic adaptations to happen . Afterwards , Mulder realizes that the creatures presume others ' presence in their territory as threatening and rushes to the hotel room where Scully is packing her things . After ascertaining that she is finished packing , he firmly urges her to vacate the room , which she does . The camera then pans under the bed where a pair of red eyes open .

= = Production = =

Executive producer Frank Spotnitz was inspired to write the episode after watching the 1972 American thriller film Deliverance . Spotnitz recounted , " the idea of being stranded in a hostile environment is very interesting to me and so is the idea of something moving the brush that you can 't see . " Series writer Vince Gilligan contributed to the " team builder " exercise bit . The ending was left intentionally ambiguous . Spotnitz explained , " it 's scarier if you think [ the monster ] could still be out there . "

Initially , scenes were filmed at the Seymour Demonstration Forest in North Vancouver . Although the typical shooting time for an episode of The X @-@ Files is eight days , " Detour " took nineteen days to film . Second unit director Brett Dowler later recounted that it " rained every day " . This put a strain on the cast and crew because almost every main shot needed was intended to be outdoors in the daylight . Because of the massive delays , changes were made : the actors ' schedules were rearranged and Kim Manners was brought in to assist Dowler in finishing the second unit of the episode . Filming later moved to a soundstage to avoid the incessant rain . Spotnitz later noted that " I thought I 'd come up with a very simple concept . Literally , one that was easy for the props people and all the other departments . "

Initially , it was decided that the antagonists of the episode would be dressed in elaborate " bark suits " so that they would blend into their surroundings . Special effects supervisors Toby Lindala created several elaborate suits made from faux bark . In the end , however , difficulties were so great that the show switched to digital effects . Visual effects supervisor Laurie Kallsen @-@ George was tasked with creating the glowing red eyes . Kallsen @-@ George digitized and blended various " eyeball images " — including shots of her family 's dog .

= = Cultural references = =

The plot and nature of the episode bears a striking resemblance to the film Predator ( 1987 ) , in which a creature that is able to perfectly camouflage itself , almost to the point of complete invisibility , stalks several humans in a dense jungle . While camping in the woods overnight , Scully sings " Joy to the World " by Three Dog Night while Mulder rests so that he can know she is awake and on guard . Originally , Scully was supposed to sing " I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry " , a 1949 country song by Hank Williams . However , series creator Chris Carter requested something more " off the wall " . Spotnitz , instead , chose " Joy to the World " and later said , " in retrospect , the song was perfect " . When talking , Mulder admits that the only time he has ever thought about " seriously dying " was at the Ice Capades .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Detour " premiered on the Fox network on November 23 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 2 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 13 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 22 @.@ 8 million viewers .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Detour " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Francis Dass of New Straits Times was positive toward the episode , calling it " imaginative " . IGN named it the seventh best standalone X @-@ Files episode of the entire series . The site called the sequence wherein " Scully holds a wounded Mulder and sings ' Jeremiah was a Bullfrog ' [ sic ] " the " best scene " of the episode and praised the depth of the characters ' relationship . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode an A and called it a " solid " entry in the series . Handlen complimented the episode 's cold opening , structure , monster , and the relationship between Mulder and Scully ; writing that the " core relationship " between Mulder and Scully " was remarkably strong " . He also noted that their conversation in the woods was reminiscent of the third season episode " Quagmire " and was " sweet " . Jonathan Dunn , writing for What Culture , highlighted " Detour " for its cinematic appeal and included it in the " 5 Episodes [ of The X @-@ Files ] That Could Be Made Into Movies " list .

Other reviews were more mixed . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a 7 out of 10 , and wrote " Overall , this episode is a somewhat light @-@ hearted departure from the mythology installments and out @-@ of @-@ continuity flights of fancy that would dominate the early fifth season . While the character @-@ driven moments are a highlight , the actual ' case ' is far from special , often digressing from its purpose as a trigger for the character work . In the end , it ’ s fairly average . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She called the scene featuring Scully singing to Mulder " a failed attempt to create ' a special X @-@ Files moment ' " and noted that the sequence was " a poor substitute for meaningful dialogue " . Vitaris , however , did applaud the guest cast and called the creature 's effects " very creepy " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two noted that it replicated " Quagmire " too much for its own good and was " satisfied with the intention alone " . They reasoned that because " it 's so busy telling us how cute the interplay " between Mulder and Scully is , the episode " forgets to make it any good " . Shearman and Pearson also called the Spanish conquistador revelation " so utterly left field it feels self @-@ parodic . "

= Flora of Scotland =

The flora of Scotland is an assemblage of native plant species including over 1 @,@ 600 vascular plants , more than 1 @,@ 500 lichens and nearly 1 @,@ 000 bryophytes . The total number of vascular species is low by world standard but lichens and bryophytes are abundant and the latter form a population of global importance . Various populations of rare fern exist , although the impact of 19th century collectors threatened the existence of several species . The flora is generally typical of the north west European part of the Palearctic ecozone and prominent features of the Scottish flora include boreal Caledonian forest ( much reduced from its natural extent ) , heather moorland and coastal machair . In addition to the native varieties of vascular plants there are numerous non @-@ native introductions , now believed to make up some 43 % of the species in the country .

There are a variety of important trees species and specimens ; a Grand Fir in Argyll is the tallest tree in the United Kingdom and the Fortingall Yew may be the oldest tree in Europe . The Arran Whitebeams , Shetland Mouse @-@ ear and Scottish Primrose are endemic flowering plants and there are a variety of endemic mosses and lichens . Conservation of the natural environment is well developed and various organisations play an important role in the stewardship of the country 's flora . Numerous references to the country 's flora appear in folklore , song and poetry .

= = Habitats = =

Scotland enjoys a diversity of temperate ecologies , incorporating both deciduous and coniferous woodlands , and moorland , montane , estuarine , freshwater , oceanic , and tundra landscapes . Approximately 14 % of Scotland is wooded , much of it forestry plantations , but prior to human clearing there would have been much larger areas of boreal Caledonian and broad @-@ leaved forest . Although much reduced , significant remnants of the native Scots Pine woodlands can be found in places . 17 % of Scotland is covered by heather moorland and peatland . Caithness and Sutherland have some of the largest and most intact areas of blanket bog in the world , supporting a distinctive wildlife community . 75 % of Scotland 's land is classed as agricultural ( including some moorland ) with urban areas accounting for around 3 % of the total . The number of islands with terrestrial vegetation is nearly 800 , about 600 of them lying off the west coast . Scotland has more than 90 % of the volume and 70 % of the total surface area of fresh water in the United Kingdom . There are more than 30 @,@ 000 freshwater lochs and 6 @,@ 600 river systems .

Below the tree line there are several zones of climax forest . Birch dominates to the west and north , Scots Pine with Birch and oak in the eastern Highlands and oak ( both Quercus robur and Q. petrea ) with Birch in the Central Lowlands and Borders . Much of the Scottish coastline consists of machair , a fertile dune pasture land formed as sea levels subsided after the last ice age . Machairs have received considerable ecological and conservational attention , chiefly because of their unique ecosystems .

= = Flowering plants and shrubs = =

The total number of vascular species is low by world standards , partly due to the effects of Pleistocene glaciations ( which eliminated all or nearly all species ) and the subsequent creation of the North Sea ( which created a barrier to re @-@ colonisation ) . Nonetheless , there are a variety of important species and assemblages . Heather moor containing Ling , Bell Heather , Cross @-@ leaved Heath , Bog Myrtle and fescues is generally abundant and contains various smaller flowering species such as Cloudberry and Alpine Ladies @-@ mantle . Cliffs and mountains host a diversity of arctic and alpine plants including Alpine Pearlwort , Mossy Cyphal , Mountain Avens and Fir Clubmoss . On the Hebridean islands of the west coast , there are plantago pastures , which grow well in locations exposed to sea spray and include Red Fescue , Sea Plantain and Sea Pink . The machair landscapes include rare species such as Irish Lady 's Tresses , Yellow Rattle and numerous orchids along with more common species such as Marram and Buttercup , Ragwort , Bird 's @-@ foot Trefoil and Ribwort Plantain . Scots Lovage , ( Ligusticum scoticum ) first recorded in 1684 by Robert Sibbald , and the Oyster Plant are common plants of the coasts .

= = = Aquatic species = = =

Bogbean and Water Lobelia are common plants of moorland pools and lochans . The Least ( Nuphar pumila ) , Yellow and White Water @-@ lilies are also widespread . Pipewort has generated some botanical controversy regarding its discovery , classification and distribution . It was found growing on Skye in the 18th century , although there was subsequent confusion as to both the discoverer and the correct scientific name – now agreed to be Eriocaulon aquaticum . The European range of this plant is confined to Scotland and western Ireland and it is one of only a small number of species which is common in North America , but very restricted in Europe . There are a few localised examples of the Rigid Hornwort ( Ceratophyllum demersum ) .

= = = Grasses and sedges = = =

Grasses and sedges are common everywhere except dune systems ( where marram grass may be locally abundant ) and stony mountain tops and plateaux . The total number of species is large , 84 have been recorded on the verges of a single road in West Lothian . Smooth Meadow @-@ grass and Broad @-@ leaved Meadow @-@ grass are widespread in damp lowland conditions , Wood Sedge ( Carex sylvatica ) in woodlands , and Oval Sedge and Early Hair @-@ grass on upland moors . In damp conditions Phragmites reeds and several species of Juncus are found abundantly including Jointed Rush , Soft Rush and Toad Rush , and less commonly the introduced species Slender Rush . Common Cottongrass is a familiar site on marshy land , but Saltmarsh Sedge ( Carex salina ) was only discovered for the first time in 2004 at the head of Loch Duich .

= = = Endemic species = = =

Shetland Mouse @-@ ear ( Cerastium nigrescens ) is an endemic plant found in Shetland . It was first recorded in 1837 by Shetland botanist Thomas Edmondston . Although reported from two other sites in the 19th century , it currently grows only on two serpentine hills on the island of Unst .

The Scottish Primrose ( Primula scotica ) , is endemic to the north coast including Caithness and Orkney . It is closely related to the Arctic species Primula stricta and Primula scandinavica .

Young 's Helleborine ( Epipactis youngiana ) is a rare endemic orchid principally found on bings created by the coal @-@ mining industry in the Central Lowlands and classified as endangered .

The St Kilda Dandelion ( Taraxacum pankhurstianum ) is a species of dandelion endemic to the island of Hirta , identified in 2012 .

= = = Rare species = = =

Some of Scotland 's flowering plant species have extremely restricted ranges in the country . These include Diapensia lapponica , found only on the slopes of Sgurr an Utha , Argyll and Mountain Bearberry , recorded at only a few mainland locations , and on Skye and Orkney . The pinewoods of Strathspey contain rare species such as Creeping Lady 's Tresses , Twinflower and the One @-@ flowered Wintergreen . Plans to protect the Intermediate Wintergreen , also found here , were introduced in 2008 . Other nationally rare species include Tufted Saxifrage , Alpine Catchfly , Sword @-@ leaved Helleborine , Norwegian Sandwort , Dark @-@ red Helleborine , Iceland Purslane , Small Cow @-@ wheat and Yellow Oxytropis .

= = = Invasive plants = = =

A number of non @-@ native , invasive species have been identified as a threat to native biodiversity , including Giant Hogweed , Japanese Knotweed and Rhododendron . In May 2008 it was announced that psyllid lice from Japan , which feed on the Knotweed , may be introduced to the UK to bring the plant under control . This would be the first time that an alien species has been used in Britain in this way . Scientists at the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux International do not believe the lice will cause any environmental damage . Over @-@ grazing caused by the large numbers of Red Deer and sheep has also resulted in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland .

= = Deciduous trees = =

Only thirty @-@ one species of deciduous tree and shrub are native to Scotland , including 10 willows , four whitebeams and three birch and cherry species .

The Meikleour Beech hedges located in Perth and Kinross were planted in the autumn of 1745 by Jean Mercer and her husband , Robert Murray Nairne . This European Beech hedge , which is 530 metres ( 0 @.@ 3 miles ) in length , reaches 30 metres ( 100 ft ) in height and is noted in the Guinness World Records as the tallest and longest hedge on Earth .

The Arran Whitebeams are species unique to the Isle of Arran . The Arran Whitebeam ( Sorbus arranensis ) and the Cut @-@ leaved Whitebeam ( S. pseudofennica ) are amongst the most endangered tree species in the world if rarity is measured by numbers alone . Only 236 S. pseudofennica and 283 S. arranensis were recorded as mature trees in 1980 . The trees developed in a highly complex fashion involving the Rock Whitebeam ( S. rupicola ) , which is found on nearby Holy Isle but not Arran , interbreeding with the Rowan ( S. aucuparia ) to produce the new species . In 2007 it was announced that two specimens of a third new hybrid , the Catacol Whitebeam ( S. pseudomeinichii ) had been discovered by researchers on Arran . This tree is a cross between the native Rowan and S. pseudofennica .

Shakespeare makes reference to Birnam Wood being used as camouflage for Malcolm Canmore ’ s army before the battle at Dunsinane with MacBeth . There is an ancient tree , the Birnam Oak , standing a few hundred metres from the centre of Birnam . It may well have been part of Birnam Wood at the time of the battle 900 years ago , and remains part of the legend .

Research into the possible commercial use of Sea Buckthorn was undertaken by Moray College commencing in 2006 . The orange berries can be processed into jams , liquors and ointments and the hardy species grows well even on exposed west coasts .

= = Conifers = =

The Scots Pine and Common Juniper are the only coniferous trees definitely native to Scotland with Yew a possible contender .

The Fortingall Yew is an ancient tree in the churchyard of the village of Fortingall in Perthshire . Various estimates have put its age at between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 years ; recent research into yew tree ages suggests that it is likely to be nearer the lower limit of 2 @,@ 000 years . This still makes it the oldest tree in Europe , although there is an older Norway Spruce root system in Sweden .

At 64 @.@ 3 metres ( 211 ft ) , a Grand Fir planted beside Loch Fyne , Argyll in the 1870s was named as the UK ’ s tallest tree in 2011 . The next four tallest trees in the UK are all found in Scotland . The Stronardron Douglas Fir which grows near Dunans Castle in Argyll is recorded as 63 @.@ 79 metres ( 209 @.@ 3 ft ) . Diana ’ s Grove Grand Fir at Blair Castle , which was measured at 62 @.@ 7 metres ( 206 ft ) is the next highest . Dùghall Mòr ( Scottish Gaelic : " big dark stranger " ) , another Douglas Fir located in Reelig Glen near Inverness , reaches just over 62 metres ( 203 ft ) in height and was considered to be the tallest tree in Britain until a survey undertaken by Sparsholt College in 2009 ( which named the Stronardron fir as the highest ) . This survey concluded that the Hermitage Douglas Fir near Dunkeld came next in height , standing at 61 @.@ 31 metres ( 201 ft ) .

= = Ferns = =

Bracken is very common in upland areas , Beech Fern in woods and other shaded locations and Scaly Male Fern in wooded or open areas . Wilsons Filmy @-@ fern is a common upland variety in the Highlands , along with the Tunbridge Filmy @-@ fern , Alpine Lady @-@ fern and the rarer stunted form Newman ’ s Lady @-@ fern ( A. distentifolium var. flexile ) which is endemic to Scotland . The Killarney Fern , once found on Arran was thought to be extinct in Scotland , but has been discovered on Skye in its gametophyte form .

Scotland 's populations of Alpine Woodsia and Oblong Woodsia are on the edge of their natural ranges . The UK distribution of the former is confined to Angus , Perthshire , Argyll and north Wales , and of the latter to Angus , the Moffat Hills , north Wales and two locations in England . The plants were first identified as separate species by John Bolton in 1785 and came under severe threat from Victorian fern collectors in the mid 19th century . Cystopteris dickieana , first discovered in a sea cave in Kincardineshire , is a rare fern in a UK context whose distribution is confined to Scotland , although recent research suggests that it may be a variant of C. fragilis rather than a species in its own right .

= = Non @-@ vascular plants = =

Scotland provides ideal growing conditions for many bryophyte species , due to the damp climate , absence of lengthy droughts and winters without protracted hard frosts . In addition , the country 's diverse geology , numerous exposed rocky crags and screes and deep , damp ravines coupled with a relatively pollution @-@ free atmosphere enables a diversity of species to exist . This unique assemblage is in marked contrast to the relative impoverishment of the native vascular plants . There are about 920 species of moss and liverwort in Scotland , with 87 % of UK and 60 % of European bryophytes represented . Scotland 's bryophyte flora is globally important and this small country may host as many as 5 % of the world ’ s species ( in 0 @.@ 05 % of the Earth 's land area , similar in size to South Carolina or Assam ) . The mountains of the North @-@ west Highlands host a unique bryophyte community called the " Northern Hepatic Mat " , which is dominated by a variety of rare liverworts , such as Pleurozia purpurea and Anastrophyllum alpinum .

Scotland has played an important part in the development of the understanding of bryology , with pioneers such as Archibald Menzies and Sir William Hooker commencing explorations at the end of the eighteenth century . Tetrodontium brownianum is named after Robert Brown who first discovered the plant growing at Roslin near Edinburgh and several other species such as Plagiochila atlantica and Anastrepta orcadensis were also first discovered in the country .

= = = Mosses = = =

Sphagnum , is common and harvested commercially for use in hanging baskets and wreaths , and for medical purposes . Glittering Wood @-@ moss , Woolly Hair @-@ moss ( Racomitrium lanuginosum ) and Bristly Haircap ( Polytrichum piliferum ) are amongst many other abundant natives . Endemic species include the Scottish Thread @-@ moss , Dixon ’ s Thread Moss and Scottish Beard @-@ moss . In the Cairngorms there are small stands of Snow Brook @-@ moss and Alpine Thyme @-@ moss , and an abundance of Icy Rock @-@ moss , the latter 's UK population being found only here and at one site in England . The west coast is rich in oceanic mosses such as Cyclodictyon laetevirens and the Ben Lawers range also provides habitats for various rare species such as Tongue @-@ leaved Gland Moss . Perthshire Beard @-@ moss is a European endemic , occurring at only four European sites outside Scotland and it is classified as " Critically Endangered " .

= = = Liverworts and hornworts = = =

There are numerous common liverworts such as Conocephalum conicum and Marchantia polymorpha . Autumn Flapwort ( Jamesoniella autumnali ) , a nationally scarce species most commonly found in the sessile oak woods of western Scotland , was discovered at a site on Ben Lomond in 2008 . The species is named after the Scottish botanist , William Jameson . Northern prongwort is an endemic liverwort found only in the Beinn Eighe nature reserve . The high Cairngorms provide sites for a variety of other unusual liverworts including Marsupella arctica , the European distribution of which is confined to two sites here and Svalbard .

Hornworts are scarce in Scotland , Carolina Hornwort ( Phaeoceros carolinianus ) for example , having been found only in Lauderdale .

= = Lichens = =

Lichens are abundant , with 37 % of European species represented in just 0 @.@ 75 % of the European land area . Most rock surfaces , except those in very exposed places , or that are kept constantly wet by sea or fresh water , become grown with lichens . Reindeer Moss ( Cladonia rangiferina ) is a common species . The trunks and branches of large trees are an important lichen habitat , Tree Lungwort being particularly conspicuous . In the past lichens were widely used for dyeing clothing .

Graphis alboscripta and Halecania rhypodiza are endemic species . The former is found in the hazel woodlands of the west coast and the latter at only two sites in the Highlands . The British ranges of 35 species are confined to the Cairngorm Mountains . These include Alectoria ochroleuca , Rinodian parasitica and Cladonia trassii . Other nationally rare species found here are Jamesiella scotica , Cladonia botrytes and Ramalina polymorpha .

= = Conservation = =

Conservation of the natural environment is well developed in the United Kingdom . There are various public sector organisations with an important role in the stewardship of the country 's flora . Scottish Natural Heritage is the statutory body responsible for natural heritage management in Scotland . One of their duties is to establish National Nature Reserves . Until 2004 there were 73 , but a review carried out in that year resulted in a significant number of sites losing their NNR status , and as of 2006 there are 55 . The Forestry Commission in Scotland serves as the forestry department of the Scottish Government and is one of the country 's largest landowners . The Joint Nature Conservation Committee is the statutory adviser to Government on UK and international nature conservation .

The country has two national parks . Cairngorms National Park includes the largest area of arctic mountain landscape in the UK . Sites designated as of importance to natural heritage take up 39 % of the land area , two thirds of which are of Europe @-@ wide importance . Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park includes Britain 's largest body of freshwater , the mountains of Breadalbane and the sea lochs of Argyll .

There are also numerous charitable and voluntary organisations with an important role to play , of which the more prominent include the following . The National Trust for Scotland is the conservation charity that protects and promotes Scotland 's natural and cultural heritage . With over 270 @,@ 000 members it is the largest conservation charity in Scotland . The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds promotes conservation of birds and other wildlife through the protection and re @-@ creation of habitats . The John Muir Trust is a charity whose main role is as a guardian of wild land and wildlife , through the ownership of land and the promotion of education and conservation . The trust owns and manages estates in various locations , including Knoydart , Assynt , and on the isle of Skye . Trees for Life is a charity that aims to restore a " wild forest " in the Northwest Highlands and Grampian Mountains .

Under the auspices of the European Unions Habitats Directive , as at 31 March 2003 a total of 230 sites in Scotland covering an area of 8 @,@ 748 @.@ 08 km2 ( 3 @,@ 377 @.@ 65 sq mi ) had been submitted by the UK government to the European Commission as candidate Special Areas of Conservation ( cSAC ) .

The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prohibits the uprooting of plants without a landowner 's permission and the collection of any part of the most threatened species , which are listed in Schedule 8 . In 2012 the Scottish Government published a " Code of Practice on Non @-@ Native Species " to help people understand their responsibilities and provide guidance as to which public body has responsibility for the various habitats involved .

= = Flora in Scottish culture = =

Plants feature heavily in Gaelic and Scottish folklore , song and poetry .

The thistle has been one of the national emblem of the Scots nation since the reign of Alexander III ( 1249 – 1286 ) and was used on silver coins issued by James III in 1470 . Today , it forms part of the emblem of the Scottish Rugby Union . As legend has it , an invading army had attempted to sneak up at night on the Scots . One , perhaps barefooted , unwelcome foreign soldier stumbled upon a Scots Thistle , and cried out in pain , thus alerting Scots to their presence . Some sources suggest the specific occasion was the Battle of Largs , which marked the beginning of the departure of the Viking monarch Haakon IV of Norway , who had harried the coast for some years . Spiky plants such as brambles appear to have been used around forts since time immemorial , so the story , whether it factually relates to the Haakon episode or not , likely is the culmination of more than one such event over time . In some variants , it is invading English which stumble on a thistle , but the story predates this time .

Numerous plants are referred to in Scottish song and verse . These include Robert Burns A Red , Red Rose , Hugh MacDiarmid 's A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle , Sorley MacLean 's Hallaig , Harry Lauder 's I Love A Lassie and in the 21st century , Runrig 's And The Accordions Played . The last two lyrics include a reference to the bluebell . The " Scottish Bluebell " is Campanula rotundifolia , ( known elsewhere as the " Harebell " ) rather than Hyacinthoides non @-@ scripta , the " Common Bluebell " .

Trees held an important place in Gaelic culture from the earliest times . Particularly large trees were venerated , and the most valuable such as oak , Common Hazel and Apple were classed as " nobles " . The less important Common Alder , Common Hawthorn and Gean were classed as " commoners " , and there were " lower orders " and " slaves " such as Eurasian Aspen and Juniper . The alphabet was learned as a mnemonic using tree names . Rowan was regularly planted close to Highland houses as a protection from witchcraft .

Various plants are said to have apotropaic qualities , notably Mountain Ash . Henbane ( Hyoscyamus niger ) may have been used as a hallucinogen as long ago as the Neolithic period . This tradition has recently been taken up once again by New Agers .

= Grasshopper =

Grasshoppers are insects of the order Orthoptera , suborder Caelifera . They are sometimes referred to as short @-@ horned grasshoppers to distinguish them from the katydids ( bush crickets ) which have much longer antennae . They are typically ground @-@ dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which enable them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously . They are hemimetabolous insects ( do not undergo complete metamorphosis ) which hatch from an egg into a nymph or " hopper " which undergoes five moults , becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage . At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions , some grasshopper species can change colour and behaviour and form swarms . Under these circumstances they are known as locusts .

Grasshoppers are plant @-@ eaters , sometimes becoming serious pests of cereals , vegetables and pasture , especially when they swarm in their millions as locusts and destroy crops over wide areas . They protect themselves from predators by camouflage ; when detected , many species attempt to startle the predator with a brilliantly @-@ coloured wing @-@ flash while jumping and ( if adult ) launching themselves into the air , usually flying for only a short distance . Other species such as the rainbow grasshopper have warning coloration which deters predators . Grasshoppers are affected by parasites and various diseases , and many predatory creatures feed on both nymphs and adults . The eggs are the subject of attack by parasitoids and predators .

Grasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans . Swarms of locusts have had dramatic effects that have changed the course of history , and even in smaller numbers grasshoppers can be serious pests . They are eaten as food and also feature in art , symbolism and literature .

= = Characteristics = =

Grasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head , thorax and abdomen . The head is held vertically , at an angle to the body with the mouth at the bottom . It bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all @-@ round vision , three simple eyes which can detect light and dark and a pair of thread @-@ like antennae which are sensitive to touch and smell . The downward @-@ directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws .

The thorax and abdomen are segmented and have a rigid cuticle made up of overlapping plates composed of chitin . The three fused thoracic segments bear three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings . The forewings , known as tegmina , are narrow and leathery while the hind wings are large and membranous , the veins providing strength . The legs are terminated by claws for gripping . The hind leg is particularly powerful ; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species . The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end . The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the limbs .

The abdomen has eleven segments , the first of which is fused to the thorax and contains the auditory organ and tympanum . Segments two to eight are ring @-@ shaped and joined by flexible membranes . Segments nine to eleven are reduced ; segment nine bears a pair of cerci and segments ten and eleven house the reproductive organs . Female grasshoppers are normally larger than males , with short ovipositors . The name " Caelifera " comes from the Latin and means chisel @-@ bearing , referring to the sharp ovipositor .

Those species that make easily heard noises usually do so by rubbing a row of pegs on the hind femurs against the edges of the forewings ( stridulation ) . These sounds are produced mainly by males to attract females , though in some species the females also stridulate .

Grasshoppers are easily confused with the other sub @-@ order of Orthoptera , Ensifera ( crickets ) , but differ in many aspects , such as the number of segments in their antennae and structure of the ovipositor , as well as the location of the tympana and modes of sound production . Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20 – 24 segments , while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter , stouter antennae .

= = Phylogeny and evolution = =

The phylogeny of the Caelifera based on mitochondrial RNA of 32 taxa in six out of seven superfamilies is shown as a cladogram . The Ensifera , Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic .

In evolutionary terms , the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo @-@ Triassic boundary ; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic . The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant @-@ eaters from that time to now . The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae , Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous , though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic . Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type ; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia , especially those of the male . This information is not available from fossil specimens , and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings .

= = Diversity and range = =

The Caelifera includes some 2 @,@ 400 valid genera and about 11 @,@ 000 species . Many undescribed species probably exist , especially in tropical wet forests . The Caelifera have a predominantly tropical distribution with fewer species known from temperate zones , but most of the superfamilies have representatives worldwide . They are almost exclusively herbivorous and are probably the oldest living group of chewing herbivorous insects .

= = Biology = =

= = = Diet and digestion = = =

Most grasshoppers are polyphagous , eating vegetation from multiple plant sources , but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces . In general their preference is for grasses , including many cereals grown as crops . The mandibles chew the food slightly and salivary glands in the buccal cavity chemically begin to digest the carbohydrates present in it . The food is then passed via the oesophagus to the crop where it is stored temporarily and chemical digestion continues . Next it moves to the gizzard which has muscular walls and tooth @-@ like plates which grind the food . From here , food enters the stomach , where six hepatic caeca add further enzymes and digestion is completed . At the junction between mid and hind @-@ gut , several fine tubes known as malpighian tubules add the excretory products ( uric acid , urea and amino acids ) to the contents of the gut . Absorption of nutrients takes place in the ileum and any undigested residue is passed on to the colon . Here water is absorbed and the residue becomes solid . After storage in the rectum , the faeces are expelled as small dry pellets .

= = = Sensory organs = = =

Grasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system , and have an extensive set of external sense organs . On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement , shape , colour and distance . There are also three simple eyes ( ocelli ) on the forehead which can detect light intensity , a pair of antennae containing olfactory ( smell ) and touch receptors , and mouthparts containing gustatory ( taste ) receptors . At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception . There are numerous fine hairs covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors ( touch and wind sensors ) , and these are most dense on the antennae , the palps ( part of the mouth ) , and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen . There are special receptors ( campaniform sensillae ) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion . There are internal " chordotonal " sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton . The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons , and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself .

= = = Circulation and respiration = = =

Like other insects , grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph . A heart @-@ like structure pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen . It circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut . The haemolymph and the circulatory system are not involved in gaseous exchange . Respiration is performed using tracheae , air @-@ filled tubes , which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles . Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed , using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system .

= = = Jumping = = =

A large grasshopper such as a locust can jump about a metre ( twenty body lengths ) without using its wings ; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g . Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate ( the ground , a twig , a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on ) ; the reaction force propels them into the air . They jump for several reasons ; to escape from a predator , to launch themselves for flight , or simply to move from place to place . For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take @-@ off velocity , since this determines the range . This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement . However , a fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with both high force and high velocity , which seems like a problem . Grasshoppers overcome this apparent contradiction by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles .

The jump is a three @-@ stage process . First , the grasshopper fully flexes the lower part of the leg ( tibia ) against the upper part ( femur ) by activating the flexor tibiae muscle ( the back legs of the immature grasshopper in the top photograph are in this preparatory position ) . Second , there is a period of co @-@ contraction in which force builds up in the large , pennate extensor tibiae muscle , but the tibia is kept flexed by the simultaneous contraction of the flexor tibiae muscle . The extensor muscle is much stronger than the flexor muscle , but the latter is aided by specializations in the joint that give it a large effective mechanical advantage over the former when the tibia is fully flexed . Co @-@ contraction can last for up to half a second , and during this period the extensor muscle shortens and stores elastic strain energy by distorting stiff cuticular structures in the leg . The extensor muscle contraction is quite slow ( almost isometric ) , which allows it to develop high force ( up to 14 N in the desert locust ) , but because it is slow only low power is needed . The third stage of the jump is the trigger relaxation of the flexor muscle , which releases the tibia from the flexed position . The subsequent rapid tibial extension is driven mainly by the relaxation of the elastic structures , rather than by further shortening of the extensor muscle . In this way the stiff cuticle acts like the elastic of a catapult , or the bow of a bow @-@ and @-@ arrow . Energy is put into the store at low power by slow but strong muscle contraction , and retrieved from the store at high power by rapid relaxation of the mechanical elastic structures .

= = = Lifecycle and reproduction = = =

Grasshoppers lay their eggs in pods in the ground near food plants , generally in the summer . The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species . After a few weeks of development , the eggs of most species go into diapause , and pass the winter in this state ; in a few species the eggs hatch in the same summer they were laid . Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature ; development resumes as soon as the ground warms above a threshold temperature . The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other . They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden . These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators .

Grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis : they repeatedly moult ( undergo ecdysis ) , becoming larger and more like an adult , with for instance larger wing @-@ buds , in each instar . The number of instars varies between species . At the final moult , the wings are inflated and become fully functional . The migratory grasshopper , Melanoplus sanguinipes , spends about 25 – 30 days as a nymph depending on sex and temperature , and about 51 days as an adult .

Males stridulate , rapidly rasping the hind femur against the forewing to create a churring sound , to attract mates . Females select suitable egg @-@ laying sites , such as bare soil or near the roots of food plants according to species . Males often gather around an ovipositing female ; in some species she is mated as soon as she takes her ovipositor out of the ground . After laying the eggs , the female covers the hole with soil and litter .

= = Predators , parasites and pathogens = =

Grasshoppers have a wide range of predators at different stages of their life @-@ cycle . Eggs are eaten by bee @-@ flies , ground beetles and blister beetles . Hoppers and adults are taken by predators including other insects such as ants , robber flies and sphecid wasps ; spiders ; many birds ; and small mammals .

Parasitoids include blowflies , fleshflies , and tachinid flies . External parasites include mites . It has been found that female grasshoppers parasitised by mites produce fewer eggs and thus have fewer offspring . This is probably because the individuals concerned allocate resources in response to the parasitism which are then not available for reproduction .

Spinochordodes tellinii and Paragordius tricuspidatus are parasitic worms that infect grasshoppers and alter the behaviour of their hosts . The grasshopper is persuaded to leap into a nearby body of water where it drowns , thus enabling the parasite to continue with the next stage of its life cycle which takes place in water . The grasshopper nematode ( Mermis nigrescens ) is a long slender worm that infests grasshoppers , living in the insect 's hemocoel . Adult worms lay eggs on plants and the host gets infected when it eats the foliage .

Grasshoppers are affected by diseases caused by bacteria , viruses , fungi and protozoa . The bacteria Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have both been implicated in causing disease in grasshoppers , as has the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana . This widespread fungus has been used to control various pest insects around the world , but although it infects grasshoppers , basking in the sun has the result of raising the insect 's temperature above a threshold tolerated by the fungus , and the infection is not lethal . The fungal pathogen Entomophaga grylli is able to influence the behaviour of its grasshopper host , causing it to climb to the top of a plant and cling to the stem as it dies . This ensures wide dispersal of the fungal spores liberated from the corpse .

The fungal pathogen Metarhizium acridum is found in Africa , Australia and Brazil where it has caused epizootics in grasshoppers . It is being investigated for possible use as a microbial insecticide for locust control . The microsporidian fungus Nosema locustae , once considered to be a protozoan , can be lethal to grasshoppers . It has to be consumed by mouth and is the basis for a bait @-@ based commercial microbial pesticide . Various other microsporidians and protozoans are found in the gut .

= = = Anti @-@ predator defences = = =

Grasshoppers exemplify a range of anti @-@ predator adaptations , enabling them to avoid detection , to escape if detected , and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured . Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight . Their colouration usually resembles the background , whether green for leafy vegetation , sandy for open areas or grey for rocks . Some species can change their colouration to suit their surroundings .

Several species such as the hooded leaf grasshopper Phyllochoreia ramakrishnai ( Eumastacoidea ) are detailed mimics of leaves . Grasshoppers often have deimatic patterns on their wings , giving a sudden flash of bright colours that may startle predators long enough to give time to escape in a combination of jump and flight .

Some species are genuinely aposematic , having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators . Dictyophorus productus ( Pyrgomorphidae ) is a " heavy , bloated , sluggish insect " that makes no attempt to hide ; it has a bright red abdomen . A Cercopithecus monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species . Another species , the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona , Dactylotum bicolor ( Acridoidea ) , has been shown by experiment with a natural predator , the little striped whiptail lizard , to be aposematic .

= = Relationship with humans = =

= = = In art = = =

Grasshoppers are occasionally depicted in artworks , such as the Dutch Golden Age painter Balthasar van der Ast 's still life oil painting , Flowers in a Vase with Shells and Insects , c . 1630 , now in the National Gallery , London , though the insect may be a bush @-@ cricket .

Another orthopteran is found in Rachel Ruysch 's still life Flowers in a Vase , c . 1685 . The seemingly static scene is animated by a " grasshopper on the table that looks about ready to spring " , according to the gallery curator Betsy Wieseman , with other invertebrates including a spider , an ant , and two caterpillars .

= = = Symbolism = = =

Grasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols , as in Sir Thomas Gresham 's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street , London , dating from 1563 ; the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange , but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust .

When grasshoppers appear in dreams , these have been interpreted as symbols of " Freedom , independence , spiritual enlightenment , inability to settle down or commit to decision " . Locusts are taken literally to mean devastation of crops in the case of farmers ; figuratively as " wicked men and women " for non @-@ farmers ; and " Extravagance , misfortune , & ephemeral happiness " by " gypsies " .

= = = As food = = =

In some countries , grasshoppers are used as food . In southern Mexico , grasshoppers , known as chapulines , are eaten in a variety of dishes , such as in tortillas with chilli sauce . Grasshoppers are served on skewers in some Chinese food markets , like the Donghuamen Night Market . Fried grasshoppers ( walang goreng ) are eaten in the Gunung Kidul area of Yogjakarta , Java in Indonesia . In the Arab world , grasshoppers are boiled , salted , and sun @-@ dried , and eaten as snacks . In Native America , the Ohlone people burned grassland to herd grasshoppers into pits where they could be collected as food .

It is recorded in the Bible that John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey ( Greek : ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον , akrides kai meli agrion ) while living in the wilderness ; attempts have been made to explain the locusts as suitably ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans , but the plain meaning of ἀκρίδες is the insects .

= = = As pests = = =

Grasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development , and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies . Pasture , grain , forage , vegetable and other crops can be affected . Grasshoppers often bask in the sun , and thrive in warm sunny conditions , so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations . A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a massive population increase , but several successive dry seasons can do so , especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive . Although sunny weather stimulates growth , there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population . This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth , prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development .

Grasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment . Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging luxurious growth beside ditches and on roadside verges . With increasing numbers of grasshoppers , predator numbers may increase , but this seldom happens sufficiently rapidly to have much effect on populations . Biological control is being investigated but with little success . On a small scale , neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development . Insecticides can be used , but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill , and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth , crops may soon become reinfested .

Grasshoppers , like the Chinese rice grasshopper , are a pest in rice paddies . Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field , to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies . Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place .

= = = Locusts = = =

Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short @-@ horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae . It has been shown that swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding . Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin . This causes the grasshopper to change colour , feed more and breed faster . The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period .

Following this transformation , under suitable conditions dense nomadic bands of flightless nymphs can occur , producing pheromones which attract them to each other . With several generations in a year , the locust population can build up from localised groups into vast accumulations of flying insects known as plagues , devouring all the vegetation they encounter . The largest recorded locust swarm was one of the now @-@ extinct Rocky Mountain locust in 1875 , which was 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) long and 110 miles ( 180 km ) wide .

An adult desert locust can eat about 2 g ( 0 @.@ 1 oz ) each day so the billions of insects in a large swarm can be very destructive , stripping all the foliage from plants in an affected area and also consuming stems , flowers , fruits , seeds and bark . Locust plagues can have devastating effects on human populations , causing famines and population upheavals . They are mentioned in both the Koran and the Bible and have been held responsible for cholera epidemics , resulting from the corpses of locusts drowned in the Mediterranean Sea and decomposing on beaches .

The FAO and other organisations monitor locust activity around the world . Timely application of pesticides can prevent nomadic bands of hoppers joining together and proliferating before dense swarms of adults are built up . Besides conventional control using contact insecticides , biological pest control using the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum which specifically infects grasshoppers has been used with some success .

= = = In literature = = =

The Egyptian word for locust or grasshopper was written snḥm in the consonantal hieroglyphic writing system . The pharaoh Ramesses II compared the armies of the Hittites to locusts : " They covered the mountains and valleys and were like locusts in their multitude . "

One of Aesop 's Fables , later retold by La Fontaine , is the tale of The Ant and the Grasshopper . The ant works hard all summer , while the grasshopper plays . In winter , the ant is ready but the grasshopper starves . Somerset Maugham 's short story " The Ant and the Grasshopper " explores the fable 's symbolism via complex framing . The Canadian philosopher Bernard Suits retells the story with the grasshopper as " the exemplification of the life most worth living . " Other human weaknesses besides improvidence have become identified with the grasshopper 's behaviour . So an unfaithful woman ( hopping from man to man ) is " a grasshopper " in " Poprygunya " , an 1892 short story by Anton Chekhov , and in Jerry Paris 's 1969 film The Grasshopper .

The 1957 film Beginning of the End portrayed giant grasshoppers attacking Chicago . In the 1998 film A Bug 's Life , the heroes are the members of an ant colony , and the lead villain and his henchmen are grasshoppers .

= = = In aviation = = =

The name " Grasshopper " was used for light aircraft such as the Aeronca L @-@ 3 and Piper L @-@ 4 used for reconnaissance and other support duties in World War II .

= Ikuhiko Hata =

Ikuhiko Hata ( 秦 郁彦 , Hata Ikuhiko , born 12 December 1932 ) is a Japanese historian . He acquired his PhD at the University of Tokyo and has taught history at several universities . He is the author of a number of influential and well @-@ received scholarly works , particularly on topics related to Japan 's role in the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and World War II .

Hata is variously regarded as being a " conservative " historian or a " centrist " . He has written extensively on such controversial subjects as the Nanking Massacre and the comfort women . Fellow historian Edward Drea has called him " the doyen of Japanese military historians " .

= = Education and career = =

Ikuhiko Hata was born on 12 December 1932 in the city of Hōfu in Yamaguchi Prefecture . He graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1956 and received his PhD there in 1974 . He worked as chief historian of the Japanese Ministry of Finance between 1956 and 1976 and during this period from 1963 to 1965 he was also a research assistant at Harvard University . After resigning his post at the Finance Ministry Hata served as a visiting professor at Princeton University from 1977 to 1978 and then was a history professor at Takushoku University from 1980 to 1993 , at Chiba University from 1994 to 1997 , and at Nihon University from 1997 to 2002 .

= = Scholarship = =

Hata has been described by numerous historians as an important scholar on the history of modern Japan . Historian Edward Drea has called him " the doyen of Japanese military historians " , and has written that Hata 's " published works are models of scholarship , research , accuracy , and judicious interpretation " , and Joshua A. Fogel , a historian of China at York University , concurs that Hata " is an eminent scholar who has for over forty years been writing numerous excellent studies of Japan at war . " Masahiro Yamamoto called him " a leading Japanese scholar in the field of Japan 's modern history " .

Hata 's first published history book was Nicchū Sensōshi ( " A History of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War " ) , released in 1961 , which he began researching while completing his bachelor 's degree at the University of Tokyo . The work was well @-@ received , described by Chalmers Johnson as " the most thorough study of Japanese policies in China during the 1930s " and by James T.C. Liu as " a welcome and pioneering contribution " . Fifty years after its publication Edward Drea and Tobe Ryoichi called it " a classic account " of the war . Hata 's second book , the 1962 work Gun fashizumu undō shi ( " A History of the Military Fascist Movement " ) , was promoted by the historian Shuhei Domon as " a first @-@ rate narrative interpretation based on extensive use of documentary evidence . "

The Japan Association of International Relations selected Hata for a part of what historian James William Morley described as a team of " young , objective diplomatic and military historians " to be given unprecedented access to primary source records to write the history of the origins of World War II in Asia . The result was Taiheiyō sensō e no michi ( " The Road to the Pacific War " ) , published between 1962 and 1963 and then translated into English in the 1970s and 1980s . Hata contributed three essays to the series . Roger Dingman described the first , " The Japanese @-@ Soviet Confrontation , 1935 – 1939 " , as " a wealth of new data " , and praised the second , " The Army 's Move into Northern Indochina " , for demonstrating " brilliantly how peaceful passage through northern Indochina became forceful occupation " . Mark Peattie wrote that Hata 's third essay , " The Marco Polo Bridge Incident 1937 " , was " the best overview we now have in English " of the event , and Hata would later expand it into a full @-@ length book which Edward Drea and Tobe Ryoichi called " the single best source on the incident " .

Starting in 1968 Hata headed a team of scholars with a task from the Ministry of Education to analyze all available sources and documents on the workings of the wartime and prewar armed forces of Japan . The fruit of their research was Nihon Rikukaigun no Seido , Soshiki , Jinji ( " Institutions , Organization , and Personnel of the Japanese Army and Navy " ) , released in 1971 , which Mark Peattie called " the authoritative reference work in the field " . Soon after Hata was tasked with coordinating another collaborative research project , this one for the Finance Ministry , on the subject of the occupation of Japan by the United States after World War II . John W. Dower , Sadao Asada , and Roger Dingman credited Hata for the key role he played in producing the multivolume project , which began to be published in 1975 , and deemed it the best work of scholarship on the occupation produced until that point .

In 1993 Hata wrote a two @-@ volume work on controversial incidents in modern Japanese history , entitled Shōwashi no nazo wo ou ( " Chasing the Riddles of Showa History " ) , which was awarded the Kikuchi Kan Prize .

Hata co @-@ wrote two books with Yasuho Izawa on Japanese fighter aces of World War II , both of which were described by historians as the definitive treatments of the subject .

A work Hata had written in 1984 , Hirohito Tennō Itsutsu no Ketsudan ( " Emperor Hirohito 's Five Decisions " ) , attracted the attention of Marius Jansen , who arranged to have it translated into English as Hirohito : The Showa Emperor in War and Peace . According to Edward Drea , on the question of " whether the emperor was really Japan 's ruler and power @-@ holder or merely a puppet and robot ... [ Hata ] concludes that the answer to this complex question lies somewhere in between , although Hata credits Hirohito with considerable political savvy . " Apart from Drea the book also garnered highly positive reviews from Stephen S. Large and Hugh Cortazzi .

= = = Nankin Jiken and Nanking Massacre death toll estimates = = =

Hata 's major contribution to Nanking Massacre studies is his book Nankin jiken ( " The Nanking Incident " ) , published in 1986 , which is a detailed study of the event based on Japanese , Chinese , and English sources that was later noted by historians such as Daqing Yang to be one of the few impartial works of scholarship written on the massacre during the period . The book is known for its relatively low estimate of the death toll , which Hata put at about 40 @,@ 000 partly because , unlike most historians of the time , he excluded Chinese soldiers killed in action from his definition of the massacre . Hata 's book is acknowledged as the first to discuss what might have caused the massacre , whereas previous books had focused only on the event itself . Hata argued that the Japanese Army 's lack of military police and facilities to detain POWs , its ignorance of international laws , its excessive mopping @-@ up operations , and the Chinese General Tang Shengzhi 's decision to flee the city without formally surrendering were among the factors which led to the slaughter .

Some contemporary researchers including the historian Tomio Hora and the journalist Katsuichi Honda expressed strong disagreement with Hata 's death toll estimate , though both expressed admiration for Hata 's scholarship and sincerity . Hata is today recognized as the major scholar of the so @-@ called " centrist " school of thought on the Nanking Massacre , which in terms of the death toll believes that tens of thousands were killed and thus stands between the " great massacre " school which believes that hundreds of thousands were killed , and the " illusion " school of Nanking Massacre deniers . By contrast , Takuji Kimura has criticized Hata as a " minimizer " of the atrocity , while still acknowledging that his book on the massacre was " an excellent study " and Herbert Bix has described him as " the most notorious " of the " partial deniers " of the Nanking Massacre . However , historians Haruo Tohmatsu and HP Willmott have stated that Hata 's estimate for the death toll is regarded in Japan as being " the most academically reliable estimate " .

Hata 's Nankin jiken has continued to receive plaudits from some scholars . In 2000 Marius Jansen endorsed it as " the most reasonable of many Japanese studies " on the massacre and in 2001 prominent Nanking Massacre scholar Yutaka Yoshida deemed it one of the top five books he recommends that people read on the Nanking Massacre , despite disagreeing with its death toll estimate . In 2003 Joshua Fogel called the book " still an authority in the field " , and Ritsumeikan University professor David Askew designated it " the best introductory work on the Nanjing Incident in any language " . By 1999 the book was in its nineteenth printing .

In November 1997 at a conference in Princeton University Hata was confronted by Iris Chang , author of the book The Rape of Nanking , who asked him why he doubted the testimony of Japanese POWs who had stated that hundreds of thousands of Chinese were killed in the atrocity . When Hata replied that torture and coercion of Japanese POWs made their testimony unreliable Chang walked out and the audience became unruly , shouting Hata down and yelling insults at him . The moderator Perry Link barely kept the situation under control . In the wake of this incident , similar disruptions by Chinese students who disagreed with his death toll estimate prevented Hata from speaking at a number of universities that he visited . Bob Wakabayashi of York University argues that Hata became more strident in his tone following these attacks , once calling it the " Nanking industry " in comparison with Norman Finkelstein 's " Holocaust industry " . In the 1980s Hata had stated that the death toll was 38 @,@ 000 to 42 @,@ 000 while holding out the possibility that it might have been as high as 60 @,@ 000 , but when he wrote the second edition of Nankin Jiken in 2007 he indicated that 42 @,@ 000 massacred was the maximum possible and that the true number might have been lower .

= = = Research on comfort women = = =

Ikuhiko Hata is a leading historian on the subject of the comfort women who served alongside the Japanese Army in the 1930s and 1940s and is credited with being the first individual to expose as fraudulent the testimony of Seiji Yoshida , who claimed to have kidnapped Korean women for the Japanese military . Hata , who argues that the comfort women were not sex slaves but largely willing prostitutes with minority of them being sold by their parents and more crucially , no direct involvement by Japanese military except few incidents in South East Asia , summed up his views on the issue with ,

" There were at most 20 @,@ 000 comfort women . None of them were forcibly recruited . Forty percent of them were from Japan , the most heavily represented nation . Many were sold to brokers by their parents . Some responded willingly to brokers ' offers ; others were deceived . I would add that , on the average , living conditions in the comfort stations were practically identical to those in brothels set up for American troops during the Vietnam War . "

Historian Chunghee Sarah Soh notes that Hata had put the total number of comfort women at 90 @,@ 000 in 1993 but he later revised the number downward because of " his political alignment with the conservative anti @-@ redress camp in Japan that emerged in the latter half of the 1990s " .

Hata would expand his research into the 1999 book Ianfu to senjō no sei ( " Comfort women and sex on the battlefield " ) , described by Sarah Soh as " a 444 @-@ page treatise on the comfort women issue " . Ianfu to senjō no sei was noted for its extensive compilation of information , being praised by historian Haruo Tohmatsu as " probably the most well documented study on the question " and by Mainichi Shimbun reporter Takao Yamada as " an encyclopedia @-@ like collection of facts on comfort women " . In The International History Review , A. Hamish Ion stated that with this work Hata has succeeded in creating " a measured evaluation in the face of sensational and supposedly ill @-@ researched studies by George Hicks and others . " The book was also favorably reviewed by political scientist Itaru Shimazu and the journalist Takaaki Ishii . By contrast , historian Hirofumi Hayashi criticized the work for faulty use of documents , such as where Hata cites a document listing 650 comfort women allocated in five prefectures , when in fact the document said 400 comfort women .

Hata , who supports the retraction of the Kono Statement on comfort women , was the only historian appointed to the committee established by the government of Shinzo Abe to re @-@ examine the statement . In 2015 Hata led of group of Japanese historians in requesting that the publisher McGraw @-@ Hill make corrections to what they believed were erroneous descriptions of the comfort women in a world history textbook published in the United States .

= = Ideological leanings = =

Hata 's general ideological leanings have been described in a variety of manners . Some sources have referred to him as being a right @-@ leaning scholar , such as Thomas U. Berger who has called him , " a highly respected conservative Japanese historian " . Others , however , find characterizing Hata in these terms to be inaccurate , such as military historian Masahiro Yamamoto who notes that in the historical debate on the Nanking Massacre Hata was a centrist who actually leaned closer to the " traditionalist " scholars than the conservative " revisionists " . Takao Yamada likewise points out that Hata has criticized all sides in historical controversies and he argues that Hata can be better described as a " positivist " .

Hata is known as a strong opponent of the attempts by some Japanese nationalists to revise Japan 's wartime history in a way that he deems ideologically biased . Hata , whom the Wall Street Journal described as an advocate of the " we @-@ did @-@ wrong view " of Japanese history , has expressed grave concern about the advent of new historical revisionists seeking to apologize for Japan 's wartime aggressions and absolve former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo . In 1995 Hata stepped down from a government commission on the construction of a new war museum near Yasukuni Shrine in fear that the project would be used to glorify Japan 's wartime actions . He favors the de @-@ enshrinement of war criminals from Yasukuni Shrine and is also a critic of Yūshūkan , a museum near the shrine , for its nationalist @-@ inspired portrayal of Japanese history . While he has been strongly critical of efforts by Japanese nationalist groups to alter history textbooks , Hata also agreed to testify for the Ministry of Education against left @-@ wing historian Saburo Ienaga who believed that his textbook was being censored by the Japanese government . Hata has supported the work of the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform , despite noting that the textbook which the Society had authored " was colored more strongly by nationalism than others " .

In 2007 Hata was vocal in his denunciation of an essay written by Toshio Tamogami , a former general in the Japanese Air Self @-@ Defense Force , which sought to justify Japanese imperialism . Hata found Tamogami 's essay to be " of extremely low quality " and full of " old conspiracy theories " . Because of his scholarship on the Nanking Massacre Hata has been attacked by Nanking Massacre deniers such as Masaaki Tanaka , who said that Hata was infected with " IMTFE syndrome " , and Shōichi Watanabe .

In 1990 Hata argued that the recently released monologue of Emperor Hirohito , the former Emperor 's recollection of wartime Japan which he recorded shortly after World War II , had likely been created to prove to the United States that he was not involved in war crimes and consequently Hata theorized that an English language translation must have also been drawn up at the same time , a theory which was mocked by right @-@ wing scholars who felt the monologue was created as a simple historical record without ulterior motives . In 1997 the English language draft was discovered .

= = Personal life = =

Hata has been married to Kazuko Matsumura since 9 September 1973 and has one daughter , Mineko . He lives in Meguro in Tokyo , Japan .

= = Awards = =

1993 - Kikuchi Kan Prize

2014 - Mainichi Publishing Cultural Awards

= = Works in English = =

= = = Books = = =

Reality and Illusion : The Hidden Crisis between Japan and the USSR 1932 – 1934 . New York : Columbia University Press , 1967 .

With Yasuho Izawa . Japanese Naval Aces and Fighter Units in World War II . Annapolis : Naval Institute Press , 1989 .

With Yasuho Izawa and Christopher Shores . Japanese Army Air Force Fighter Units and Their Aces 1931 @-@ 1945 . London : Grub Street , 2002 .

Hirohito : The Showa Emperor in War and Peace . Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press , 2007 .

= = = Chapters of books = = =

" Japanese Historical Writing on the Origins of the Pacific War " ( in Papers on Modern Japan . Canberra : Australian National University Press , 1968 . )

" The Battle of Midway " ( in Purnell 's History of the 20th Century Volume Seven . New York : Purnell , 1971 . )

" The Japanese @-@ Soviet Confrontation , 1935 @-@ 1939 " ( in Deterrent Diplomacy : Japan , Germany , and the USSR 1935 @-@ 1940 . New York : Columbia University Press , 1976 . )

" The Army 's Move into Northern Indochina " ( in The Fateful Choice : Japan 's Advance into Southeast Asia , 1939 – 1941 . New York : Columbia University Press , 1980 . )

" The Occupation of Japan , 1945 – 1952 " ( in The American Military and the Far East : Proceedings of the Ninth Military History Symposium . Washington DC : Government Printing Office , 1980 . )

" From Mukden to Pearl Harbor " ( in Japan Examined : Perspectives on Modern Japanese History . Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press , 1983 . )

" The Marco Polo Bridge Incident 1937 " ( in The China Quagmire . New York : Columbia University Press , 1983 . )

" Continental Expansion 1905 – 1941 " ( in The Cambridge History of Japan Volume Six . London : Cambridge University Press , 1988 . )

" The Road to the Pacific War " ( in Pearl Harbor Reexamined . Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press , 1990 . )

" Admiral Yamamoto 's Surprise Attack and the Japanese Navy 's War Strategy " ( in From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima . London : Macmillan , 1994 . )

" From Consideration to Contempt : The Changing Nature of Japanese Military and Popular Perceptions of Prisoners of War Through the Ages " ( in Prisoners of War and Their Captors in World War II . Oxford : Berg , 1996 . )

" The Flawed UN Report on Comfort Women " ( in Women and Women 's Issues in Post World War II Japan . New York : Garland , 1998 . )

" Nanjing , construction of a ' great massacre ' " ( in An Overview of the Nanjing Debate . Tokyo : Japan Echo , 2008 . )

" Nanking atrocities , fact and fable " ( in An Overview of the Nanjing Debate . Tokyo : Japan Echo , 2008 . )

= = = Articles = = =

" A Japanese View of the Pacific War " , Orient / West , July 1962 .

" Japan Under the Occupation " , The Japan Interpreter , Winter 1976 .

" The Postwar Period in Retrospect " , Japan Echo , 1984 .

" When Ideologues Rewrite History " , Japan Echo , Winter 1986 .

" Going to War : Who Delayed the Final Note ? " , Journal of American @-@ East Asian Relations , Fall 1994 .

= Wonderland ( Faryl Smith album ) =

Wonderland is the second studio album by teenage mezzo @-@ soprano Faryl Smith , released by Decca Records on 30 November 2009 . Smith became famous after her participation in Britain 's Got Talent in 2008 , and subsequently , aged 13 , signed with Universal Classics and Jazz , releasing her debut album , Faryl . Released only a few months afterwards , Wonderland contains a mix of classical and non @-@ classical songs , which were chosen by both Smith and her record label . A concept album , it is based on Alice in Wonderland , and features a digitally produced " duet " with Luciano Pavarotti , who died in 2007 , as well as a song set to " Winter " , from Vivaldi 's Four Seasons . As with Faryl , Wonderland was produced by Jon Cohen .

Smith promoted the album with appearances on television and radio . For the most part , critics responded positively to the album , with praise for Smith 's vocals , the song choice and the musical arrangement , but criticism for " the lack of emotional weight " . Further , critics observed that Smith 's voice had improved since her appearance on Britain 's Got Talent . Despite this , Wonderland appeared in the UK Albums Chart for only one week , peaking at 54 , proving less successful than Faryl . Smith later rerecorded " The Prayer " , her cover of which was originally released on Wonderland , with 22 other classical artists , with proceeds going to charity .

= = Background = =

Smith , aged 13 at the time , signed a record @-@ breaking multi @-@ album deal with Universal Classics and Jazz in December 2008 , six months after finishing outside the top three in the Britain 's Got Talent series two final . Her debut album , Faryl , was released in March 2009 . Smith later described the album as " an introduction to me and an introduction for me to recording " , and said that she " wanted to follow up [ Faryl ] as quickly as possible with another record , something richer and varied " . In July , it was announced that work had begun on her second album , with hopes to release it later in the year . Smith said in an interview that " We 're starting to look at what songs will be on the second album ... I 'm not really choosing the songs myself , I 'm leaving that up to the people at the record label . I 'm really happy that they want me to do another album so soon – I didn 't think I would be working on one so quickly after the first one was released ... I 'm just excited to get under way with it . "

= = Recording and release = =

Wonderland was revealed as the album 's name in September , and a preliminary release date of 30 November was forwarded . Recording took place at Sarm Studios in Notting Hill , London , and completed in early October . Smith recorded her vocals during her school holidays . Initially , Smith was asked by her label for a track listing , but said that she " didn 't know what songs would be wrong or right for an album " . Instead , she and Decca both created their own lists , and the final track list was compiled from the two . The result included a variety of songs ; Smith said she was pleased with the mix , citing " classical numbers " like " The Prayer " , in contrast to " a more unexpected song " , " Close to You " . The track " O Holy Night " features a " duet " with Luciano Pavarotti , who died in 2007 ; Pavarotti 's vocals were digitally added to Smith 's recording to produce the song , resulting in the pair sounding " as if they 're really there together " . The title track , " Wonderland " , is set to " Winter " , from Vivaldi 's Four Seasons , and the lead track , " Merry Christmas Mr Lawrence ( Somewhere Far Away ) " is an adaptation of a piece by Ryuichi Sakamoto , originally from Merry Christmas , Mr. Lawrence . Smith 's favourite tracks on the album are " O Holy Night " and " The Prayer " .

The album was produced by Jon Cohen , who also produced Faryl and has previously worked with artists including the Opera Babes and Vanessa @-@ Mae . Cohen said that Smith has " matured as an artist since the first album " and that he had " no doubt that once again , people will be astonished and moved by her performances " . Smith 's father , Tony , said that the bosses at universal were hoping for the album to be more commercially successful than Faryl , but noted that the market around Christmas time is tough , due to the high volume of releases . Brian Roberts , writing for the Daily Mirror , claimed that Wonderland was " tipped to go head to head " for the number one classical album position with releases from Il Divo and Rhydian Roberts .

Wonderland is a concept album loosely based on Lewis Carroll 's Alice in Wonderland . The album took the title from the book , and was created with the intention of taking listeners on a journey , as well as showcasing Smith 's voice . She said that " that 's something I like to hear in music . Whether I listen to Beyonce [ sic ] or Vivaldi , music is supposed to transport you away , escape from the everyday . " Smith said that she sometimes felt like Alice chasing White Rabbit , and , for this reason , " Wonderland " was a suitable title track for the album .

= = Promotion = =

Wonderland was released for the Christmas market , and was labelled as a potential Christmas number one . Smith embarked on a promotional tour , beginning at the end of October , with magazine , television and radio appearances . Appearances included Ready Steady Cook , Blue Peter , the BBC News Channel , Sky News Sunrise , The Alan Titchmarsh Show and The Paul O 'Grady Show . Speaking about the album 's promotion , Smith said " [ i ] t is always a struggle when a second album comes out because you never know how it is going to do but fingers crossed people will enjoy it . I am very proud of it . ... I am excited about going on all the shows too – especially Ready Steady Cook because I can 't cook and I think it will be fun . "

= = Reception and performance = =

Critics responded positively to the album . Paul Callan , reviewing the album for the Daily Express , described Wonderland as " a joy " ; he compared it to other Christmas albums , saying that " [ t ] oo many are tired , much @-@ repeated carol selections . " He described Smith 's " control , tone and warmth " as " very moving " . Overall , he gave the album 4 out of 5 . A reviewer writing for The Sun described the album as a " lush collection " of songs , and said that Smith 's " voice is now stronger , richer and even more musical " . Andy Gill , reviewing Wonderland for The Independent , gave a more mixed review . He said that the influence of Alice in Wonderland was often hard to perceive , and said that Cohen and Smith had " sweetened the classical elements " . He praised the arrangements of " Adiemus " , " Barcarolle " , " Merry Christmas , Mr Lawrence " and " Blow the Wind Southerly " , but noted that " on " Close to You " and other tracks , " the lack of emotional weight is telling . " Overall , Gill gave Wonderland 3 out of 5 .

Local paper the Northamptonshire Evening Telegraph reported that Wonderland was selling well ; on Amazon.co.uk 's charts , it appeared at number one on the symphonies chart , 13 on easy listening and 95 overall . A spokesman for the local HMV store was quoted as saying " Sales of the new Faryl album have got off to a storming start – she is proving hugely popular at HMV . ... We 're actually selling as many copies of Faryl 's new album as we are Susan Boyle right now . " However , the album entered the top 75 of the UK Albums Chart for only one week , peaking at 54 . It appeared on the Arts & Book Review ( Independent Print ) classical albums chart for two weeks , peaking at number 6 . The album proved less successful than Smith 's debut , and , subsequent to its release , Smith 's contract with Universal ended .

Having originally released her version of " The Prayer " on Wonderland , Smith and 22 other classical musicians from the UK recorded a version of the song for charity in the aftermath of the 2010 Haiti earthquake . The proceeds of the single , which was released on 14 March 2010 , went to the Disasters Emergency Committee . Smith said " It 's a real honour to be a part of something that is being done for the first time , and I hope that all music lovers get involved and help raise money for the campaign . I really hope that we can make a difference together to help the horrible situation that Haiti is in at the moment . " The group , dubbed " Classical Band Aid " , recorded the track at Metropolis Studios and were backed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . Each vocalist in the group performed their own solo lines , and the entire group came together for the finale . " The Prayer " was the first ever classical charity single ; Smith noted that " Pop singers do things like this a lot but it 's unusual for classical singers to get involved so I 've been really excited . "

= = Credits = =

= = = Music = = =

= = = Administration and production = = =

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= Orval Grove =

Orval Leroy Grove ( August 29 , 1919 – April 20 , 1992 ) was an American pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for ten seasons in the American League with the Chicago White Sox . In 207 career games , Grove pitched 1 @,@ 176 innings and posted a win – loss record of 63 – 73 , with 66 complete games , 11 shutouts , and a 3 @.@ 78 earned run average ( ERA ) .

The only freshman on the Proviso High School varsity baseball team , Grove 's pitching ability attracted the attention of the White Sox . After signing with the team in 1937 , Grove moved between the major leagues and minor leagues for a few seasons until 1943 , when he found a solid place in the White Sox 's pitching rotation . Grove had a career @-@ year in 1943 , finishing the season with career @-@ bests in ERA , wins , and complete games ; in 1944 , he made his only All @-@ Star appearance .

Grove spent four more full seasons with the White Sox , and after pitching one game in 1949 , was sent to the Sacramento Solons of the Pacific Coast League . After playing four seasons with them , he formally retired from professional baseball . After retirement , he worked with his uncle in a trucking business in Chicago while continuing to pitch at the semi @-@ pro level . In 1992 , Grove died at the age of 72 .

= = Early life = =

Grove was born in West Mineral , Kansas , on August 29 , 1919 , and was raised in Maywood , Illinois . By eighth grade , Grove developed a fondness for baseball and began pitching for the Proviso East High School baseball team . He became the first freshman member of the varsity team in school history . During a high school pitching career of three years , Grove lost only two games and pitched a no @-@ hitter and two one @-@ hitters . Over the summer of 1937 , Grove attracted the attention of Chicago White Sox talent scout Doug Minor , who requested that he " come and workout with the Sox . " Later that year , Grove was signed by the White Sox for $ 2 @,@ 500 and began his minor league career , foregoing his senior season of high school .

= = Minor league career = =

Grove began his career with the Dallas Steers of the Texas League at the start of the 1938 season . He played with the Steers until management began to replace young players with veterans due to the team 's struggling form and moved Grove to the Longview Cannibals . As his first minor league season drew to a close , Grove planned on returning to Proviso High School to complete his education . At the end of the season , the St. Paul Saints purchased Grove 's contract to replenish their pitching staff .

After the 1939 season had begun , Grove became part of the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League ; St. Paul did not see much potential in him . Grove played well enough over the course of the season to receive votes for Most Valuable Player , which ultimately went to Nick Cullop . In 1939 , Grove had a peculiar game while pitching against the Tulsa Oilers . Playing in a night game with virtually no light due to storms , Grove did not allow a hit during his time on the mound , but earned the loss because he walked three men in a row , which allowed a run to score . As the 1940 season began , Grove became a part of the White Sox roster and began his Major League career .

= = Transition to the majors = =

During spring training in 1940 , Hall of Fame pitcher Ted Lyons said that Grove would have a great career , stating , " They 'll never drive that sinker very far . " Grove was an official part of the 40 @-@ man roster as the 1940 season began ( teams started rather than ended the season with 40 men at this time ) , but had not made an appearance after a month on the roster . The White Sox planned to use three rookie pitchers , including Grove , during the final week of May , as they had three doubleheaders that week . Grove made his Major League debut on May 28 , 1940 . He pitched in two more games for the White Sox that season before being sent back to Oklahoma City . Grove finished 1940 with six innings of major league work over three games , allowing two earned runs . The highlight of Grove 's 1940 season came on August 11 against the Oilers ; he pitched a complete game that lasted 12 innings , winning 1 – 0 against Hall of Famer Dizzy Dean . Grove finished the minor league season with nine wins and eight losses , but the team saw issues with his control , and as a result he spent most of the next season in the minor leagues .

In 1941 , Grove played two games for the White Sox , pitching seven innings and allowing eight runs during the two outings . He spent the start of the 1941 season at Oklahoma City , though on May 19 he was sent to the Shreveport Sports of the Texas League , where he spent the rest of the season . Grove concluded the year at Oklahoma City with a 17 – 7 record , an improvement over the previous season . However , Grove received a knee injury late in the season , which he did not think much of at the time . In October , Grove injured his other knee when he was involved in an automobile accident in Missouri .

The following season , Grove was provided an opportunity to be a starting pitcher for the White Sox . Over the course of the season , he started eight games and played in four more en route to a 4 – 6 record and a 5 @.@ 16 ERA . In the middle of July , Dr. Philip Kruescher discovered that Grove had torn cartilage in his left knee , a result of the same injury which caused him problems for most of the season and the previous off @-@ season . Grove was scheduled for knee surgery , which necessitated two months of recovery , effectively ending his season . Issues with his knee drew concern both during and after the season . Dr. Kruescher stated that Grove had a " 1 in 100 " chance of playing again , but the surgery was a success , and by season 's end Grove was able to test the knee and do light workouts . Complications arose shortly thereafter as an abscess developed on the back of his knee , prompting another operation in December to correct the problem .

= = Prime years = =

As the 1943 season began , the White Sox held strong doubts about Grove 's status as a pitcher . They were so doubtful of his recovery from knee surgery that Grove was signed to a $ 1 contract until he could prove that his playing ability was back on par with the abilities of the other White Sox pitchers . After Grove proved himself in spring training , manager Jimmy Dykes gave him his first major test of the season against the New York Yankees in relief of Eddie Smith . He won the game in extra innings , and was placed in the starting rotation . In 1943 , Grove had to deal with issues related to World War II and the selective service . He was originally classified as 3 @-@ A , meaning that registration was deferred due to hardship to dependents , but was ordered to take the selective service screening examination in Cleveland in mid @-@ May . After the examination , Grove was classified as 4 @-@ F , making him ineligible for military service , which meant that he could continue his baseball career .

Grove took advantage of his place in Chicago 's starting rotation by winning nine consecutive decisions to start his season and by not losing a game until a contest against the Yankees , which he lost as the result of a balk . At the time , Grove became the second member of the White Sox to win nine consecutive decisions to start a season . The first pitcher to win nine straight games for the team was Lefty Williams in 1917 , and the only one to do it since Grove was LaMarr Hoyt in 1982 . On July 8 , 1943 , Grove nearly became one of the few pitchers in baseball history to pitch a no @-@ hitter . In a game against the Yankees , he was one out away from pitching a no @-@ hitter when Joe Gordon came up to bat . Gordon hit a double to left field that was fair by inches , ending Grove 's closest bid for a Major League no @-@ hitter . Grove finished the season with career bests in ERA ( 2 @.@ 75 ) , wins ( 15 ) , and complete games ( 18 ) . He led the White Sox that season in ERA , wins , innings pitched , complete games , and strikeouts ; at the time , Grove was the youngest pitcher on the team 's staff . Grove 's personal life improved along with his career . On January 8 , 1944 , he married Catherine Sloan , having met her at a party thrown for the White Sox by her father , Francis Sloan , a year and a half earlier .

Grove started the 1944 season with an interesting honor : he was assigned to the 4 @-@ F All @-@ Star team , a group of 25 major league players who were the best of those exempt from military service . Grove was given the job of being the Opening Day starting pitcher for the White Sox . He pitched the first game of the season against the Cleveland Indians and their starting pitcher , Al Smith , on April 19 , 1944 , and won 3 – 1 . Grove also managed to shut out the Yankees on May 18 ; it was the first time the Yankees had not scored a run in 1944 . By mid @-@ season , Grove had seven wins , six losses , five complete games , and a 3 @.@ 40 ERA . Because of these statistics , he was selected to the American League All @-@ Star team , his first and only career appearance . Five American League pitchers pitched in the All @-@ Star Game on July 11 , although Grove was one of the four on the roster who did not ; therefore , his lone All @-@ Star appearance was indeed only an appearance . During the second half of the season , Grove performed well at Comiskey Park , but struggled on the road , at one point losing five straight games despite good run support from the White Sox . Grove finished the season with 14 wins , 15 losses , an ERA of 3 @.@ 72 , two shutouts , and a career best of nearly 235 innings pitched .

There was a sense of closure for Grove before the beginning of the 1945 season , as he was awarded $ 310 ( $ 4 @,@ 075 today ) in damages for the auto accident in 1941 . He held out for a new contract in the off @-@ season , and finally signed with the White Sox a couple weeks before the beginning of the season after becoming the last remaining holdout . Grove was the workhorse of the White Sox , leading the team in games pitched ( 33 ) and started ( 30 ) , while remaining the youngest pitcher on the roster . He finished the season with 217 pitched innings , a career best four shutouts , a 14 – 12 record , and a 3 @.@ 44 ERA .

The 1946 season saw Grove persist as a stable part of the White Sox pitching rotation . He pitched in 33 games during the season , second to closer Earl Caldwell , and started in 26 , second to Ed Lopat 's 29 . His best outing of the season occurred on August 3 against the Washington Senators . Grove pitched a complete game and threw to the minimum 27 batters , allowing three hits and a walk , all of which were negated by double plays . He finished the season with more losses than wins because he was eager to succeed and was trying too hard , and because of this the coaching staff planned to make Grove into " as good a pitcher most of the time as he is some of the time " . At the end of the 1946 season , Grove had eight wins and 13 losses , a 3 @.@ 02 ERA , 10 complete games , and a league @-@ leading 10 wild pitches .

= = Later career = =

During the off @-@ season , while preparations were underway for the 1947 season , Grove was the subject of trade discussions . Most notably , White Sox manager Ted Lyons and Cleveland Indians president Bill Veeck discussed trading him for Indians pitcher Steve Gromek , but the deal was nixed when they could not come to an agreement . As the season began , Grove remained part of the rotation , which was led by Lopat and included Joe Haynes and Frank Papish . While Grove started off the season well , he struggled through the middle of the year , going from May 18 to August 2 without winning a game . As a result , he was benched , and finished the season with 19 starts in 25 pitching appearances . For the first time , Grove finished a full season with an ERA above 4 @.@ 00 . He ended the season with six wins , eight losses , a 4 @.@ 44 ERA , and six complete games . Grove spent the off @-@ season working in the men 's furnishings department of Henry C. Lytton 's department store in Chicago .

In the 1948 season , the White Sox faced difficult decisions regarding their pitching staff and starting rotation . In the midst of Caldwell 's departure and Papish 's absence for most of the preseason , Grove remained a starter heading into the season , having pitched decently during spring training . In his final exhibition matchup of the season against Johnny Schmitz , Grove pitched the full nine innings and the White Sox defeated the Chicago Cubs 1 – 0 , making Grove the only White Sox pitcher to throw a complete game during the preseason . By the end of May , Grove was the lone White Sox pitcher with a complete game through the first several weeks of the season . However , Grove eventually lost his starting job , and by the end of the season , he had two wins , 10 losses , a 6 @.@ 16 ERA , and had started 11 games out of 32 total pitching appearances .

As the 1949 season began , Grove was again the subject of trade rumors . The Detroit Tigers agreed to trade an outfielder , presumably Don Lund or Jimmy Outlaw , in exchange for Grove , although the Tigers denied the existence of such a deal , stating " We need pitching , but I don 't think Grove would help us . " Grove pitched one game during the season on April 27 , 1949 , allowing four runs in two @-@ thirds of an inning . In his one appearance against the Indians , he hit Lou Boudreau with a pitch , which prompted concern until X @-@ rays revealed Boudreau 's left elbow was only bruised .

Shortly afterward , Grove was demoted to the Sacramento Solons of the Pacific Coast League , having pitched his final major league game . During his inaugural season at Sacramento , he was part of a pitching quartet that included Ken Holcombe , Bob Gillespie , and Frank Dasso , and was declared by Sporting News sportswriter John B. Old as " the best any Coast League club ever had . " Over the course of the next three seasons , Grove continued to pitch for the Solons . He was one of the workhorses of the 1950 squad , finishing the season with 17 victories .

His contract with the Solons promised him part of the purchase price if he was sold to the majors . When this did not occur , he considered quitting baseball and devoting himself full @-@ time to his uncle 's trucking business . However , Grove continued to play , and pitched 159 innings in 1951 , compiling an 8 – 9 record . There was talk of his retiring in the off @-@ season ; however , Grove ended up playing part of the 1952 season , making his season debut on June 10 and playing for the rest of the season . After the season ended , Grove was traded to the Portland Beavers , and refused to report , choosing instead to pitch at the semi @-@ pro level . Grove stated , " I 'm now pitching for Earl Smith Motors Pontiac sales service " , signaling the end of his professional baseball career .

= = Later life = =

After his retirement from baseball , Grove continued to work with his uncle . His legacy lived on in his nephew , Wayne Grove . While playing for the Bellwood Lions of the Chicago Little League , Wayne pitched a no @-@ hitter and struck out 15 , and narrowly missed a perfect game when a runner got on base with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning . Despite an unimpressive Major League career , Grove earned a few votes for induction into the Hall of Fame , receiving five votes in the 1958 balloting ( 1 @.@ 9 % of the required votes needed ) and seven in the 1960 balloting ( 2 @.@ 6 % of the required votes needed ) .

Grove had four children and four grandchildren , and later was the co @-@ owner of a car wash in Sacramento , California for 20 years . He became close friends with Joe Gordon , the player who broke up Grove 's no @-@ hitter , after moving to Sacramento . Grove died in Carmichael , California on April 20 , 1992 , and is buried alongside his wife , Catherine .

= 1994 – 95 South Pacific cyclone season =

The 1994 – 95 South Pacific cyclone season was one of the least active South Pacific tropical cyclone season 's on record , with only three tropical cyclones officially occurring within the South Pacific Ocean basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The season ran from November 1 , 1994 until April 30 , 1995 with the first disturbance of the season developing on November 12 and the last disturbance dissipating on March 17 . The most intense tropical cyclone during the season was Tropical Cyclone William , which affected the Cook Islands . After the season the name William was retired , from the tropical cyclone naming lists .

During the season , tropical cyclones were officially monitored by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers ( TCWC ) in Nadi , Fiji , Wellington , New Zealand and Brisbane , Australia . Throughout the season the United States Navy also monitored the basin and issued unofficial warnings , through its Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center ( NPMOC ) . Tropical cyclones that were located between the Equator and 25S were monitored by TCWC Nadi while any that were located to the south of 25S were monitored by TCWC Wellington . During the season the JTWC issued warnings on any tropical cyclone that was located between 160 ° E and 180 ° while the NPMOC issued warnings for tropical cyclones forming between 180 ° and the American coast . TCWC Nadi , Wellington and Brisbane all used the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale , and measured windspeeds over a 10 @-@ minute period , while the JTWC and the NPMOC measured sustained windspeeds over a 1 @-@ minute period .

= = Seasonal summary = =

The season was one of the most inactive tropical cyclone seasons on record , with only two tropical cyclones officially occurring within the South Pacific Ocean basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The first tropical depression of the season developed out of an area of convection on November 12 to the northeast of Vanuatu , before it was named Vania on November 14 after it had become a category one tropical cyclone . The cyclone went on to end a long dry spell in Vanuatu , before it last noted on November 19 to the west of Port Vila , Vanuatu . The basin remained quiet until December 13 , when Tropical Depression 04P developed to the east of the Solomon Islands , before going on to affect Fiji and Tonga . During the final days of 1994 , Tropical Cyclone William developed to the northeast of American Samoa . Throughout its lifetime , William moved southeast and affected parts of French Polynesia and the Cook Islands before becoming extratropical on January 3 . After William left the basin on January 5 , the basin remained quiet until March 16 , when Tropical Depression 18P developed near Fiji , before dissipating during the next day . After the season had ended the name William was retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists , while in June 1995 , the World Meteorological Organization made TCWC Nadi a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center .

= = Storms = =

= = = Tropical Cyclone Vania = = =

On November 12 , TCWC Nadi reported that a tropical depression had developed within a persistent area of convection , that was located about 795 kilometres ( 495 mi ) to the northeast of Port Vila , Vanuatu . Over the next couple of days the depression gradually developed further as it started to move towards the southwest , before the JTWC started to issue warnings on it during November 13 and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 01P after it had become equivalent to a tropical storm . Early on November 14 , as the system passed near the Solomon Island of Tikopia , TCWC Nadi reported that the system had become a category one tropical cyclone on the Australian scale , and named it as Vania . During that day as it continued to move towards the south — southwest and intensify , it started to affect Vanautu with storm force windspeeds and heavy rain which helped break a long dry spell in Vanuatu .

Early on November 15 , TCWC Nadi reported that Vania had become a category two tropical cyclone with peak 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of between 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) , while the JTWC reported peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) which made it equivalent to a tropical storm . Later that day Vania passed near or over several of the Vanuatuan islands as it continued to move towards the south — southwest , and started to weaken as it encountered a higher amount of vertical windshear . During the following day , TCWC Nadi reported that Vania had weakened into a category one tropical cyclone as the systems low level circulation stalled , before it turned and started to move westwards while located to the north of New Caledonia . During November 17 , as the system had become sheared the JTWC issued their final advisory on Vania , before the systems remnant low level circulation was last noted by TCWC Nadi and the JTWC during November 19 , while it was located about 100 km ( 60 mi ) to the west of Port Vila , Vanuatu . Only minor damage to crops and bush houses was reported to have occurred in the archipelago while no deaths were reported . As a result of Vania affecting parts of Vanuatu during November 15 , voting in provincial elections had to be extended by 24 hours .

= = = Tropical Depression 04P = = =

On December 13 , the US Navy started to monitor an area of disturbed weather that was located about 720 km ( 480 mi ) , to the east of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . During that day , TCWC Nadi started to monitor the system as a tropical depression as the system moved southeast towards Fiji . Over the next couple of days , the depression continued to move southeast towards Fiji and gradually developed further . On December 15 , the NPMOC initiated advisories on the depression and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 04P , while it was located about 110 km ( 70 mi ) to the northeast of Labasa , Fiji . Later that day , the NPMOC reported that the system had become a tropical storm and reached its peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , as it affected several Fijian islands including Vanua Levu and Thikombia . During December 16 , the cyclone continued to move towards the southeast and started to affect Tonga before the NPMOC issued their final warning on the system as it had weakened into a tropical depression . During the next day , the depression moved into TCWC Wellingtons area of responsibility and was subsequently declared extratropical .

= = = Tropical Cyclone William = = =

On December 30 , TCWC Nadi reported that a tropical depression had developed about 860 km ( 535 mi ) , to the northeast of Pago Pago in American Samoa . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ southeast and gradually developed further , before the NPMOC designated the depression as Tropical Cyclone 05P . During January 1 , TCWC Nadi reported that the depression had developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone and named it William as it passed near the Cook Island of Autitaki . During the next day William subsequently slowly accelerated as it passed near too or over several other Cook Islands and intensified into a category 2 tropical cyclone . Early on January 3 , TCWC Nadi reported that the system had reached its peak 10 @-@ minute wind speeds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) as it passed near or over the French Polynesian islands of Maria and Rimatara .

At around the same time the NPMOC reported that William , had reached its peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The system subsequently degenerated into an extratropical cyclone as it left the tropics later that day . The remnants of Tropical Cyclone William were tracked by TCWC Wellington until January 5 , as they moved south @-@ eastwards and moved out of the South Pacific basin . Throughout the Southern Cook Islands caused around US $ 2 @.@ 5 million worth of damage to crops , buildings and coconut trees and destroyed a causeway to a tourist resort on Aitutaki . William injured two people and destroyed over 150 houses in French Polynesia , where local leaders accused Météo @-@ France off underestimating Williams intensity .

= = = Tropical Depression 18P = = =

On March 15 , the US Navy started to monitor an area of disturbed weather , that had developed about 245 km ( 150 mi ) to the northeast of Nadi , Fiji . During that day the depression moved towards the southeast and gradually developed further while moving around the south coast of Viti Levu . During the next day , the NPMOC initiated advisories on the area of disturbed weather and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 18P , with 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . During the following day as the depression did not intensify any further as it continued to move towards the southeast . The NPMOC then issued their final advisory on the system later that day , as the depression dissipated about 960 km ( 600 mi ) to the southeast of Nuku 'alofa , Tonga .

= = Season effects = =

This table lists all the storms that developed in the South Pacific basin during the 1994 – 95 season . It includes their intensity on the Australian Tropical cyclone intensity scale , duration , name , areas affected , deaths , and damages . For most storms the data is taken from TCWC Nadi and Wellington 's archives , however data for 04P and 18P have been taken from the JTWC archives as opposed to TCWC Nadi and Wellington 's , and thus the winds are over 1 @-@ minute as opposed to 10 @-@ minutes .

= Taylor series =

In mathematics , a Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of the function 's derivatives at a single point .

The concept of a Taylor series was formulated by the Scottish mathematician James Gregory and formally introduced by the English mathematician Brook Taylor in 1715 . If the Taylor series is centered at zero , then that series is also called a Maclaurin series , named after the Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin , who made extensive use of this special case of Taylor series in the 18th century .

A function can be approximated by using a finite number of terms of its Taylor series . Taylor 's theorem gives quantitative estimates on the error introduced by the use of such an approximation . The polynomial formed by taking some initial terms of the Taylor series is called a Taylor polynomial . The Taylor series of a function is the limit of that function 's Taylor polynomials as the degree increases , provided that the limit exists . A function may not be equal to its Taylor series , even if its Taylor series converges at every point . A function that is equal to its Taylor series in an open interval ( or a disc in the complex plane ) is known as an analytic function in that interval .

= = Definition = =

The Taylor series of a real or complex @-@ valued function <formula> that is infinitely differentiable at a real or complex number <formula> is the power series

<formula>

which can be written in the more compact sigma notation as

<formula>

where <formula> denotes the factorial of n and <formula> denotes the nth derivative of <formula> evaluated at the point a . The derivative of order zero of <formula> is defined to be <formula> itself and <formula> and <formula> are both defined to be 1 . When a = 0 , the series is also called a Maclaurin series .

= = Examples = =

The Maclaurin series for any polynomial is the polynomial itself .

The Maclaurin series for ( 1 − x ) − 1 is the geometric series

<formula>

so the Taylor series for x − 1 at a

= 1 is

<formula>

By integrating the above Maclaurin series , we find the Maclaurin series for log ( 1 − x ) , where log denotes the natural logarithm :

<formula>

and the corresponding Taylor series for log ( x ) at a =

1 is

<formula>

and more generally , the corresponding Taylor series for log ( x ) at some a

= x0 is :

<formula>

The Taylor series for the exponential function ex at a =

0 is

<formula>

The above expansion holds because the derivative of ex with respect to x is also ex and e0 equals 1 . This leaves the terms ( x − 0 ) n in the numerator and n ! in the denominator for each term in the infinite sum .

= = History = =

The Greek philosopher Zeno considered the problem of summing an infinite series to achieve a finite result , but rejected it as an impossibility : the result was Zeno 's paradox . Later , Aristotle proposed a philosophical resolution of the paradox , but the mathematical content was apparently unresolved until taken up by Archimedes , as it had been prior to Aristotle by the Presocratic Atomist Democritus . It was through Archimedes 's method of exhaustion that an infinite number of progressive subdivisions could be performed to achieve a finite result . Liu Hui independently employed a similar method a few centuries later .

In the 14th century , the earliest examples of the use of Taylor series and closely related methods were given by Madhava of Sangamagrama . Though no record of his work survives , writings of later Indian mathematicians suggest that he found a number of special cases of the Taylor series , including those for the trigonometric functions of sine , cosine , tangent , and arctangent . The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics further expanded his works with various series expansions and rational approximations until the 16th century .

In the 17th century , James Gregory also worked in this area and published several Maclaurin series . It was not until 1715 however that a general method for constructing these series for all functions for which they exist was finally provided by Brook Taylor , after whom the series are now named .

The Maclaurin series was named after Colin Maclaurin , a professor in Edinburgh , who published the special case of the Taylor result in the 18th century .

= = Analytic functions = =

If f ( x ) is given by a convergent power series in an open disc ( or interval in the real line ) centered at b in the complex plane , it is said to be analytic in this disc . Thus for x in this disc , f is given by a convergent power series

<formula>

Differentiating by x the above formula n times , then setting x = b gives :

<formula>

and so the power series expansion agrees with the Taylor series . Thus a function is analytic in an open disc centered at b if and only if its Taylor series converges to the value of the function at each point of the disc .

If f ( x ) is equal to its Taylor series for all x in the complex plane , it is called entire . The polynomials , exponential function ex , and the trigonometric functions sine and cosine , are examples of entire functions . Examples of functions that are not entire include the square root , the logarithm , the trigonometric function tangent , and its inverse , arctan . For these functions the Taylor series do not converge if x is far from b . That is , the Taylor series diverges at x if the distance between x and b is larger than the radius of convergence . The Taylor series can be used to calculate the value of an entire function at every point , if the value of the function , and of all of its derivatives , are known at a single point .

Uses of the Taylor series for analytic functions include :

The partial sums ( the Taylor polynomials ) of the series can be used as approximations of the entire function . These approximations are good if sufficiently many terms are included .

Differentiation and integration of power series can be performed term by term and is hence particularly easy .

An analytic function is uniquely extended to a holomorphic function on an open disk in the complex plane . This makes the machinery of complex analysis available .

The ( truncated ) series can be used to compute function values numerically , ( often by recasting the polynomial into the Chebyshev form and evaluating it with the Clenshaw algorithm ) .

Algebraic operations can be done readily on the power series representation ; for instance , Euler 's formula follows from Taylor series expansions for trigonometric and exponential functions . This result is of fundamental importance in such fields as harmonic analysis .

Approximations using the first few terms of a Taylor series can make otherwise unsolvable problems possible for a restricted domain ; this approach is often used in physics .

= = Approximation and convergence = =

Pictured on the right is an accurate approximation of sin ( x ) around the point x

= 0 . The pink curve is a polynomial of degree seven :

<formula>

The error in this approximation is no more than | x | 9 / 9 ! . In particular , for − 1 < x < 1 , the error is less than 0 @.@ 000003 .

In contrast , also shown is a picture of the natural logarithm function log ( 1 + x ) and some of its Taylor polynomials around a =

0 . These approximations converge to the function only in the region − 1 < x ≤ 1 ; outside of this region the higher @-@ degree Taylor polynomials are worse approximations for the function . This is similar to Runge 's phenomenon .

The error incurred in approximating a function by its nth @-@ degree Taylor polynomial is called the remainder or residual and is denoted by the function Rn ( x ) . Taylor 's theorem can be used to obtain a bound on the size of the remainder .

In general , Taylor series need not be convergent at all . And in fact the set of functions with a convergent Taylor series is a meager set in the Fréchet space of smooth functions . And even if the Taylor series of a function f does converge , its limit need not in general be equal to the value of the function f ( x ) . For example , the function

<formula>

is infinitely differentiable at x

= 0 , and has all derivatives zero there . Consequently , the Taylor series of f ( x ) about x =

0 is identically zero . However , f ( x ) is not the zero function , so does not equal its Taylor series around the origin . Thus , f ( x ) is an example of a non @-@ analytic smooth function .

In real analysis , this example shows that there are infinitely differentiable functions f ( x ) whose Taylor series are not equal to f ( x ) even if they converge . By contrast , the holomorphic functions studied in complex analysis always possess a convergent Taylor series , and even the Taylor series of meromorphic functions , which might have singularities , never converge to a value different from the function itself . The complex function e − z − 2 , however , does not approach 0 when z approaches 0 along the imaginary axis , so it is not continuous in the complex plane and its Taylor series is undefined at 0 .

More generally , every sequence of real or complex numbers can appear as coefficients in the Taylor series of an infinitely differentiable function defined on the real line , a consequence of Borel 's lemma . As a result , the radius of convergence of a Taylor series can be zero . There are even infinitely differentiable functions defined on the real line whose Taylor series have a radius of convergence 0 everywhere .

Some functions cannot be written as Taylor series because they have a singularity ; in these cases , one can often still achieve a series expansion if one allows also negative powers of the variable x ; see Laurent series . For example , f ( x ) = e − x − 2 can be written as a Laurent series .

= = = Generalization = = =

There is , however , a generalization of the Taylor series that does converge to the value of the function itself for any bounded continuous function on ( 0 , ∞ ) , using the calculus of finite differences . Specifically , one has the following theorem , due to Einar Hille , that for any t > 0 @,@

<formula>

Here Δnh is the n @-@ th finite difference operator with step size h . The series is precisely the Taylor series , except that divided differences appear in place of differentiation : the series is formally similar to the Newton series . When the function f is analytic at a , the terms in the series converge to the terms of the Taylor series , and in this sense generalizes the usual Taylor series .

In general , for any infinite sequence ai , the following power series identity holds :

<formula>

So in particular ,

<formula>

The series on the right is the expectation value of f ( a + X ) , where X is a Poisson distributed random variable that takes the value jh with probability e − t / h ( t / h ) j / j ! . Hence ,

<formula>

The law of large numbers implies that the identity holds .

= = List of Maclaurin series of some common functions = =

See also List of mathematical series

Several important Maclaurin series expansions follow . All these expansions are valid for complex arguments x .

Exponential function :

<formula>

Natural logarithm :

<formula>

<formula>

Geometric series and its derivatives ( see article for variants ) :

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

Binomial series ( includes the square root for α

= 1 / 2 and the infinite geometric series for α =

− 1 ) :

<formula>

with generalized binomial coefficients

<formula>

For instance , with the first several terms written out explicitly for the common square root cases , is :

<formula>

<formula>

Trigonometric functions :

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

Hyperbolic functions :

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

<formula>

The numbers Bk appearing in the summation expansions of tan ( x ) and tanh ( x ) are the Bernoulli numbers . The Ek in the expansion of sec ( x ) are Euler numbers .

= = Calculation of Taylor series = =

Several methods exist for the calculation of Taylor series of a large number of functions . One can attempt to use the definition of the Taylor series , though this often requires generalizing the form of the coefficients according to a readily apparent pattern . Alternatively , one can use manipulations such as substitution , multiplication or division , addition or subtraction of standard Taylor series to construct the Taylor series of a function , by virtue of Taylor series being power series . In some cases , one can also derive the Taylor series by repeatedly applying integration by parts . Particularly convenient is the use of computer algebra systems to calculate Taylor series .

= = = First example = = =

In order to compute the 7th degree Maclaurin polynomial for the function

<formula> ,

one may first rewrite the function as

<formula> .

The Taylor series for the natural logarithm is ( using the big O notation )

<formula>

and for the cosine function

<formula> .

The latter series expansion has a zero constant term , which enables us to substitute the second series into the first one and to easily omit terms of higher order than the 7th degree by using the big O notation :

<formula>

Since the cosine is an even function , the coefficients for all the odd powers x , x3 , x5 , x7 , ... have to be zero .

= = = Second example = = =

Suppose we want the Taylor series at 0 of the function

<formula>

We have for the exponential function

<formula>

and , as in the first example ,

<formula>

Assume the power series is

<formula>

Then multiplication with the denominator and substitution of the series of the cosine yields

<formula>

Collecting the terms up to fourth order yields

<formula>

Comparing coefficients with the above series of the exponential function yields the desired Taylor series

<formula>

= = = Third example = = =

Here we employ a method called " Indirect Expansion " to expand the given function . This method uses the known Taylor expansion of the exponential function . In order to expand

<formula>

as a Taylor series in x , we use the known Taylor series of function ex :

<formula>

Thus ,

<formula>

= = Taylor series as definitions = =

Classically , algebraic functions are defined by an algebraic equation , and transcendental functions ( including those discussed above ) are defined by some property that holds for them , such as a differential equation . For example , the exponential function is the function which is equal to its own derivative everywhere , and assumes the value 1 at the origin . However , one may equally well define an analytic function by its Taylor series .

Taylor series are used to define functions and " operators " in diverse areas of mathematics . In particular , this is true in areas where the classical definitions of functions break down . For example , using Taylor series , one may define analytical functions of matrices and operators , such as the matrix exponential or matrix logarithm .

In other areas , such as formal analysis , it is more convenient to work directly with the power series themselves . Thus one may define a solution of a differential equation as a power series which , one hopes to prove , is the Taylor series of the desired solution .

= = Taylor series in several variables = =

The Taylor series may also be generalized to functions of more than one variable with

<formula>

For example , for a function that depends on two variables , x and y , the Taylor series to second order about the point ( a , b ) is

<formula>

where the subscripts denote the respective partial derivatives .

A second @-@ order Taylor series expansion of a scalar @-@ valued function of more than one variable can be written compactly as

<formula>

where <formula> is the gradient of <formula> evaluated at <formula> and <formula> is the Hessian matrix . Applying the multi @-@ index notation the Taylor series for several variables becomes

<formula>

which is to be understood as a still more abbreviated multi @-@ index version of the first equation of this paragraph , again in full analogy to the single variable case .

= = = Example = = =

Compute a second @-@ order Taylor series expansion around point ( a , b ) = ( 0 , 0 ) of a function

<formula>

Firstly , we compute all partial derivatives we need

<formula>

Now we evaluate these derivatives at the origin :

<formula>

The Taylor series is

<formula>

which in this case becomes

<formula>

Since log ( 1 + y ) is analytic in | y | < 1 , we have

<formula>

= = Comparison with Fourier series = =

The trigonometric Fourier series enables one to express a periodic function ( or a function defined on a closed interval [ a , b ] ) as an infinite sum of trigonometric functions ( sines and cosines ) . In this sense , the Fourier series is analogous to Taylor series , since the latter allows one to express a function as an infinite sum of powers . Nevertheless , the two series differ from each other in several relevant issues :

Obviously the finite truncations of the Taylor series of f ( x ) about the point x = a are all exactly equal to f at a . In contrast , the Fourier series is computed by integrating over an entire interval , so there is generally no such point where all the finite truncations of the series are exact .

Indeed , the computation of Taylor series requires the knowledge of the function on an arbitrary small neighbourhood of a point , whereas the computation of the Fourier series requires knowing the function on its whole domain interval . In a certain sense one could say that the Taylor series is " local " and the Fourier series is " global . "

The Taylor series is defined for a function which has infinitely many derivatives at a single point , whereas the Fourier series is defined for any integrable function . In particular , the function could be nowhere differentiable . ( For example , f ( x ) could be a Weierstrass function . )

The convergence of both series has very different properties . Even if the Taylor series has positive convergence radius , the resulting series may not coincide with the function ; but if the function is analytic then the series converges pointwise to the function , and uniformly on every compact subset of the convergence interval . Concerning the Fourier series , if the function is square @-@ integrable then the series converges in quadratic mean , but additional requirements are needed to ensure the pointwise or uniform convergence ( for instance , if the function is periodic and of class C1 then the convergence is uniform ) .

Finally , in practice one wants to approximate the function with a finite number of terms , let 's say with a Taylor polynomial or a partial sum of the trigonometric series , respectively . In the case of the Taylor series the error is very small in a neighbourhood of the point where it is computed , while it may be very large at a distant point . In the case of the Fourier series the error is distributed along the domain of the function .

= The Chariot ( band ) =

The Chariot was an American metalcore band from Douglasville , Georgia , that existed from 2003 to 2013 . The last lineup consisted of drummer David Kennedy , vocalist and bandleader Josh Scogin , and guitarists Brandon Henderson and Stephen Harrison . The band experienced frequent lineup changes since its inception , with Scogin being the only original member . The band played an abrasive style of hardcore that does not adhere to typical stylings such as melodic / abrasive dynamics and harmonic vocals . They built a reputation around their powerful live performances , with Scogin 's lyrics covering topics like materialism , personal struggle , current events , politics , and Christian themes . Their music was critically acclaimed as something " that will melt your face and leave you wanting more . "

The band was formed by Scogin shortly after he left his position of vocalist in Norma Jean . In 2004 , a record deal was signed with Solid State Records and a debut album was released , titled Everything Is Alive , Everything Is Breathing , Nothing Is Dead , and Nothing Is Bleeding . The band toured constantly after that . The Chariot released the Unsung EP in 2005 , which was then followed by three successful studio albums : The Fiancée in 2007 , Wars and Rumors of Wars in 2009 , and Long Live in 2010 . The band entered the studio in May 2012 to record their fifth full @-@ length album titled One Wing which was released August 28 , 2012 . The Chariot disbanded following a farewell tour in late 2013 .

= = Biography = =

= = = 2003 – 2004 : Formation and debut album = = =

The Chariot was formed by Josh Scogin almost immediately after leaving his previous band Norma Jean , a metalcore group based in Douglasville , Georgia . He recorded one album with them titled Bless the Martyr and Kiss the Child in 2002 . Later that year , following Norma Jean 's set at Furnace Fest , Scogin shocked the audience and his unaware bandmates by announcing his departure . Scogin stated that his departure was not the result of internal conflict , but a personal choice . The event generated a public outcry from fans in hardcore circles . Scogin returned to Douglasville in 2003 and started the Chariot with other musicians in the area ; the first lineup included guitarists Keller Harbin and Tony " Taco " Medina , bassist Joshua Beiser , and drummer Jeff Carter . The band 's name was inspired by the Biblical story of Elijah and the chariot of fire .

In 2004 , a record contract was signed with Solid State Records , a metal subdivision of Tooth & Nail Records and their first recorded song titled " It Is Usually the Boys Who Cry Wolf That Grow up to Be the Men Who Cry Sanctuary " was released on the compilation " This Is Solid State , Volume 5 " . This song was later re @-@ recorded as " Yellow Dress , Locked Knees " on their debut . The band traveled to Atlanta , Georgia and worked on their debut album with Matt Goldman . The entire album was recorded live . The album was released in November and titled Everything Is Alive , Everything Is Breathing , Nothing Is Dead , and Nothing Is Bleeding , a parody of albums that featured morbid names . The album debuted at No. 23 on Top Heatseekers , and received favorable reviews from critics . Touring followed with As Cities Burn , He Is Legend , Far @-@ less and Showbread on the Young Bloods Tour in Winter .

= = = 2005 – 2008 : The Fiancée = = =

Medina and Carter left the band soon after ; they were replaced by Brian Khounvichit and Mark Nicks respectively . Carter went on to form the progressive death metal band , Deus Invictus . Nicks was later replaced by drummer Jake Ryan . In September 2005 , The Chariot began a 27 @-@ city tour at Poughkeepsie , New York with High on Fire , Every Time I Die , and The Red Chord . An EP , titled Unsung , was released at the beginning of December . It featured two new tracks and four re @-@ recordings from their debut and was well received among critics . The band played shows with labelmates As Cities Burn , mewithoutYou , and Underoath later that month . Touring continued through 2006 as the band shared a national tour with P.O.D. in spring and garnered a spot in the Sounds of the Underground Tour with As I Lay Dying that summer . In June 2006 , Beiser and Harbin stepped down and were replaced by bassist Dan Eaton and guitarist Jon Terry respectively . The two men had been longtime friends of the band .

The Chariot embarked on the Youngbloods II Tour in fall with Solid State labelmates August Burns Red , Destroy The Runner , and Inhale Exhale . In January 2007 , the band toured through Europe with Becoming the Archetype , and Shaped by Fate . By this time , yet another bass player had been recruited — Jon " KC Wolf " Kindler . In April of the same year , after delays relating to lineup changes , their second album , The Fiancée , was released . The record was produced by Matt Goldman . The writing and recording process had been driven by time constraints . " It was actually a very easy record to write , " said Scogin , " It came more naturally to us . " However , Scogin waited until the music was written before writing lyrics , an exercise he vowed never to attempt again . Hayley Williams of Paramore made a guest performance on the track " Then Came To Kill " as did Aaron Weiss of mewithoutYou when he played the harmonica on " Forgive Me Nashville " ; Scogin had been friends with both artists for many years . The Fiancée broke the Billboard 200 — it debuted at No. 169 , selling 6 @,@ 800 copies — and was well received in the Christian and secular markets . The group played a release tour with Misery Signals , I Am Ghost , and I Hate Sally , and then made a short run on the Warped Tour in summer . Another leg of The Fiancée Tour extended into spring 2008 with LoveHateHero , Alesana , Our Last Night , and Sky Eats Airplane . The lineup underwent another drastic change in mid @-@ 2008 , as Jake Ryan , Dan Eaton and Jon Terry all decided to step down . Ryan and Eaton went on to form the indie pop band Queens Club and were signed to Tooth & Nail Records .

= = = 2009 – 2010 : Wars and Rumors of Wars = = =

The group 's third album , titled Wars and Rumors of Wars , was released in May 2009 . The lineup changed once again , leaving Scogin as the only member to appear on their first two releases . The album title was inspired by Matthew 24 : 6 , which contains the passage " You will be hearing of wars and rumors of wars ... " Scogin explained that the album title referred to internal conflict that people experience , not literal war . The band hand @-@ made the artwork and liner notes for the first 25 @,@ 000 copies of the album . Wars and Rumors of War debuted at No. 112 on the Billboard 200 , their highest to date . Critical reception was very positive about the release . The Chariot performed on the Scream the Prayer Tour with Haste the Day , Sleeping Giant , Oh , Sleeper , and Project 86 that summer . Beginning late November , The Chariot and a group of hand picked artists , including Horse the Band supported Norma Jean who headlined the nationwide Explosions 2009 Tour .

= = = 2010 : Long Live = = =

The Chariot released their fourth studio album Long Live through Good Fight on November 22 , 2010 . The album was produced with Matt Goldman . They began touring with Haste the Day in February 2011 for Haste the Day 's Farewell Tour , along with A Plea for Purging and MyChildren MyBride .

= = = 2012 – 2013 : One Wing and final tour = = =

The band announced via Twitter that they were entering the studio in May to record their next album . The album is called One Wing , and was released August 28 , 2012 . In June 2012 , longtime bassist Jon ( KC Wolf ) Kindler left the band to return to college . The band opted not to replace Kindler , continuing as a four @-@ piece . The bass on One Wing has been recorded by both Henderson and Harrison . A track from the album , " In , " premiered on Alternative Press on August 16 .

The Chariot had their final tour in October / November 2013 with Glass Cloud , Rebuker , Birds in Row and To the Wind .

Josh moved on to form the band ' 68 .

= = Musical style and influences = =

The band 's music is characterized by a metal sound , and the screamed vocals of frontman Josh Scogin . Journalists have frequently referred to the music as " chaotic " ; Allmusic writer Alex Henderson described it as a " dense , clobbering sledgehammer " , while Brian Shultz of Alternative Press called it " manically pounding , distortion @-@ soaked exercises of catharsis " . The Chariot has often been labeled a metalcore band . However , the music generally defies genre standards like melodic / abrasive dynamics and harmonizing vocals ; it wouldn 't leave room for the " nonstop firestorm of exploding drums , heaving guitars , and visceral shrieking , " as Allmusic writer Corey Apar put it . The band utilizes time changes and start @-@ stop shifts , and typically write very short songs . Some journalists believe the music is challenging and an acquired taste . In interviews , Josh Scogin has described the band as “ heavy punk rock ” , doing away with genres and subgenres , and has also debunked many of these labels . “ Sometimes people refer to us as mathcore , which I think is a very incorrect statement , because I feel like that ’ s a very pre @-@ calculated , ‘ this is weird because this time signature doesn ’ t go with this time … ’ . It ’ s very planned out . We ’ re not that smart . ”

Live performances are very important to the band . " We love playing live , " said Scogin , " That 's what this band are all about : playing live shows . " This mentality leaked into their recording process : the band 's first album was recorded entirely live in one take . Their next two efforts followed more traditional recording sensibilities : " We may go in and [ fix ] this one part , " explained Scogin , " but [ ... ] there 's lots of stuff we probably should have tightened up . [ Laughs . ] But that [ keeps ] it feeling like a real record . " Despite their attentiveness to the recording process , Scogin has maintained that their focal point is live performances , " ... recording records , that 's all circled around hopefully bringing more kids to the live show so we can perform for them . " The band 's shows have built up a reputation ; MTV called them " the thing of metalcore legend " . When tasked to describe their set on the Scream the Prayer Tour in HM Magazine , Corey Erb wrote :

Artists who possessed strong showmanship skills have largely influenced Scogin ; some of these artists include James Brown , Frank Sinatra , Jerry Lee Lewis , and Elvis Presley . He is also fond of Arcade Fire , The Beatles , Björk , Interpol , and The Killers . In an interview , Scogin expressed a desire to have seen At The Drive @-@ In and Nirvana before they disbanded .

Scogin 's introspective lyrics have covered topics like materialism , death , and the Nashville Christian music industry . The lyrics for Wars and Rumors of Wars were formed after a family loss : " ... only a year ago my father passed away . And I hate to say this , because it sounds like such a band @-@ dude thing to say , but the lyrics are a lot darker than any other record just because of how personal they are for me . " Scogin usually refers to his lyrics as poems and has maintained that " a song is never finished but abandoned . " " ... as an artist you can forever be changing a song or making a song ' better ' or whatever but the moment that you stop recording and send it off to be mastered you have not ' finished ' the song … you have only abandoned the song and that is how it will stay forever . " His lyrics sometimes espouse Christian themes and beliefs , albeit subtly . For example , the track " Yellow Dress : Locked Knees " from Everything ... contains the Spanish lyrics " Jesus , yo quiero que este mundo te conozca . " ; when translated , it says " Jesus , I want this world to know You . " The song " And Shot Each Other " from The Fiancée fades out into a Sacred Harp choir singing the song ' Child of Grace ' , which features the lyrics " How happy is a child of grace , who feels his sins forgiven / This world , he cries , is not my place / I seek a place in Heaven . "

The Chariot is frequently called a Christian band , which Scogin agreed with in a 2005 interview : " We are Christians in a band therefore we are a Christian band . We are not ashamed of our beliefs but we don ’ t force feed people what we believe either . " In 2006 , he reaffirmed his previous statements and further opined , " When I was growing up , if I liked [ a band ] , I listened to it — and I went to the shows . If I didn 't , I didn 't . It wasn 't like , ' Oh , they don 't believe the same thing I do , ' [ ... ] People care too much about the fashion of it all . To me , a band 's either good or they ain 't , and that 's the only thing that should matter . "

= = Members = =

Final Lineup

Past members

Timeline

= = Discography = =

Studio albums

2004 : Everything Is Alive , Everything Is Breathing , Nothing Is Dead , and Nothing Is Bleeding

2007 : The Fiancée

2009 : Wars and Rumors of Wars

2010 : Long Live

2012 : One Wing

EPs

2005 : Unsung EP

Compilations

2011 : Before There Was

Singles

2011 : " Music of a Grateful Heart "

Appearances

2007 : Forgive Me Nashville - This is Solid State Vol.6

2010 : The Fox and The Wolf - Bring Me The Horizon

= = Videography = =

This is the list of The Chariot music videos . Among them are official videoclips and live videos .

= = Filmography = =

2004 : Ladies and Gentlemen ... The Chariot

2007 : One More Song

2014 : Farewell Documentary

= Killer7 =

Killer7 ( キラー7 , Kirā Sebun , stylized as killer7 ) is a 2005 action @-@ adventure video game for the Nintendo GameCube and PlayStation 2 , developed by Grasshopper Manufacture and published by Capcom . The game was written and directed by Goichi Suda , also known by the nickname Suda51 , and produced by Hiroyuki Kobayashi .

The game follows an elite group of assassins called the " killer7 " . The assassins , physical manifestations of a man named Harman Smith , perform hits on behalf of the United States government . Through these missions , the killer7 uncover a deeper conspiracy regarding the role of Japan in US politics and secrets about the nature of their organization . Killer7 features first @-@ person shooter elements and a unique on rails control scheme , but the core adventure @-@ style gameplay has been compared to Myst and Snatcher .

Killer7 was Suda51 's first game released outside Japan . It received polarized reviews due to its unconventional control scheme and complex noir plot . The game 's score , visual style and thought @-@ provoking story received wide praise from most critics that considered as the best aspects of the game and lead to several accolades and nominations . While some reviewers appreciated the stripped @-@ down controls and stylized arthouse approach , others panned it as confusing and restricting . Despite these setbacks , Killer7 's cult appeal led to remakes of Suda51 's older works and the successful launch of No More Heroes .

= = Gameplay = =

The player controls the on @-@ screen character , a member of the killer7 group , from a third @-@ person view using the gamepad . The gameplay consists of elements of first @-@ person shooter and action @-@ adventure game with restricted movement ( i.e. " on rails " ) — rather than allow free motion , the game limits the on @-@ screen character to predetermined paths through the environment . The on @-@ screen character moves forward by holding a button and reverses direction with another button press . At intersections , the player may choose which path to take . Progress is made by navigating the environment and solving puzzles . Some puzzles require the talents of a specific killer7 member . The player may switch between available members via a menu in the pause screen at any time . Other puzzles require magical rings or other items collected throughout the game .

Combat in Killer7 occurs when the player encounters enemies called " Heaven Smiles " . Smiles announce their presence with a laughing sound effect and are initially invisible . The player must switch to a first @-@ person viewpoint and scan the surroundings to reveal Smiles . While in first @-@ person view , movement is disabled and the analog stick aims the character 's gun . Targeting specific body parts will disable them ; for example , shooting off a leg will cause a Smile to fall to the ground and crawl toward the player . The player may aim for a " critical point " that instantly destroys the Smile . Smiles that get too close will explode and injure the character . If a character dies , players can use Garcian Smith to retrieve the fallen character 's head and bring them back to life ; if Garcian dies , then the game ends .

Defeated Smiles yield " thick blood " and " thin blood " . Thick blood functions similarly to experience points , and players gain more by shooting Smiles ' critical points . The player may redeem thick blood for " serum " while in " Harman 's Room " , checkpoints that appear throughout the game . Serum is used to improve the attributes of the characters such as " power " and " speed " . This also unlocks special abilities for the characters . Players may save their game to a memory card in designated Harman 's Rooms . Thin blood is used to recover the characters ' stamina and fuel special abilities .

= = Plot = =

= = = Setting = = =

Killer7 takes place in an alternate version of Earth in the early 21st century . After a treaty ends all international conflict , the world powers destroy all nuclear weapons by firing them into the upper atmosphere and intercepting them with other missiles . This event becomes known as " Fireworks " and symbolizes world peace to the general populace . In an effort to combat terrorism , pandemic disease , and cyberterrorism , the International Ethics Committee ( IEC ) shuts down all air travel and public use of the Internet . Air transportation is replaced by a system of intercontinental expressways . However , a new terrorist group called " Heaven Smile " appears , targeting the United Nations ( UN ) and IEC . The members of Heaven Smile are humans who have been infected with a virus that evokes a desire to kill . Factory @-@ produced Smiles are given a " bomb @-@ organ " that allows them to explode at will , their principal means of attack .

In this Earth , Japanese politics are dominated by two parties : the UN Party and the Liberal Party . The UN Party is more powerful and moves to end the Asian Security Treaty and sever ties with the United States ( US ) . The UN Party seized control of the Japanese government through the wisdom of the " Yakumo Cabinet Policy " , a secret document which details how to run the " ideal nation " . It was written by the Union 7 , young members of the Liberal Party who went on to found the UN Party . The US government is also eager to sever relations with Japan , seeing the country as a hindrance and of little economic value . The interaction between Japan and the US is a central source of conflict in Killer7 .

= = = Characters = = =

The player controls the members of a group of assassins called the " killer7 " . The group is led by an elderly man in a wheelchair named Harman Smith , who exhibits " Multifoliate Personae Phenomenon " . This condition allows him to physically transform into one of his seven assassin personae : African American Garcian Smith , aggressive Irish American Dan Smith , barefoot Japanese American female KAEDE Smith , albino Briton Kevin Smith , Puerto Rican Coyote Smith , young Chinese American Con Smith , and Mexican American luchador MASK de Smith . These people were gifted killers in life and Harman absorbed their souls through his condition after their deaths . The killer7 were temporarily incapacitated in an incident 50 years ago , in which the members of the group were systematically tracked and killed while performing a job at the Union Hotel in Pennsylvania . Garcian , whose power is to revive fallen personae , became the dominant personality as a result . In this capacity , he receives orders from the frail Harman when his consciousness is " awake " and accepts jobs from Christopher Mills , who hires the killer7 on behalf of the US government . Multifoliate Personae Phenomenon also causes Harman and his personae to see " remnant psyches " — ghosts of their past victims . Iwazaru , a man in a bondage suit , and Travis Bell , the killer7 's first target , are the main remnant psyches who aid them throughout the game . The primary antagonist is an old friend of Harman 's named Kun Lan . He has the " Hand of God " , a supernatural power that produces the Heaven Smile virus .

= = = Story = = =

The game opens with a conversation between Garcian Smith and Christopher Mills about a new job for the killer7 . The assassins battle their way to the top of a building which has become infested with Heaven Smiles . Harman confronts the source of the Smiles , an angel @-@ like figure , but she is merely Kun Lan 's puppet . Harman and Kun Lan discuss the current state of the world before the mission ends . In the subsequent missions , the killer7 target a number of individuals on behalf of the US government or for personal reasons . They kill Andrei Ulmeyda , a Texan postal worker who established a successful company based on the Yakumo , when he becomes infected with the Heaven Smile virus . Dan Smith confronts Curtis Blackburn , his former mentor and murderer , when Mills informs the group that Blackburn is running an organ trafficking business that targets young girls . Their penultimate mission pits them against the " Handsome Men " , a group of sentai rangers who assassinate a US politician .

The central plot arc concerns the true nature of US – Japan relations . To distance itself from Japan , the US fires a volley of two hundred intercontinental ballistic missiles at Japan and contracts the killer7 to eliminate Toru Fukushima , the head of the UN Party . However , an assassin posing as Fukushima 's secretary kills him first in an attempt to reclaim the Yakumo document for the Liberal Party , believing its wisdom would help the party to regain political power . Shortly thereafter , Kenjiro Matsuoka ( nicknamed " Matsuken " ) kills two senior members of the UN Party to become its new leader , under the influence of Kun Lan . In the end , the killer7 defeat the two UN Party members who had been reanimated by Kun Lan as Japan is destroyed by the missiles .

In their final mission , the killer7 seek Matsuken , who leads the 10 million UN Party members who live in the US . The government fears that if they converge on a single state , they could win a seat in the United States Senate . Garcian travels to Coburn Elementary School near Seattle , Washington and discovers tapes that reveal the school as a front for the UN Party to train children as assassins . The tapes focus on Emir Parkreiner , a gifted killer trained at the school . Garcian encounters Matsuken , who claims that Japan has used Coburn to control the course of US politics since its founding in 1780 . The assassins battle a group of invincible Smiles and all but Garcian are incapacitated . Garcian travels to the Union Hotel where he witnesses visions of the other members being killed in their rooms . At the top , he discovers that his true identity is Emir Parkreiner , the one who killed the killer7 at the Union Hotel over 50 years ago . Following that incident , Harman absorbed Emir as a persona and Emir 's memories were lost .

Three years later , Garcian arrives at Battleship Island in Japan to destroy the last Heaven Smile . He meets with Matsuken , who presents Garcian with a choice : let him live , which allows Japan to mount an assault on the US ; or kill him , which lets the US discover Japan 's role in rigging American elections — US forces destroy Japan 's last stronghold , Battleship Island , in retaliation and wipe Japan off the map . Regardless of the player 's choice , Garcian finds that the last Heaven Smile is Iwazaru , whose real identity is Kun Lan , and kills him . However , Harman and Kun Lan are revealed to be immortal beings , representing a dialectic struggle between opposites , which persists a century in the future in Shanghai as they continue their eternal battle .

= = Development = =

Development for Killer7 began in mid @-@ 2002 as part of the Capcom Five , a set of games overseen by Shinji Mikami and intended to be exclusive to the Nintendo GameCube . Capcom produced the games to bring new intellectual property to the video game industry , which the company viewed as stagnant . Killer7 's gameplay mechanics were finalized late in development because most resources went to story and visual work . Director Suda51 wrote the scenario based on a plot he conceived together with Mikami , and later decided on the unconventional control scheme as a deconstruction of how gamers play and to " create new expression " . Complex controls and combos were omitted to present a system that fosters easy progression for the player . Producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi described the controls as " intuitive " and stated that the team wanted players to " think when they are playing " so they can enjoy the mystery in the story . The long development process culminated in several delays , the last of which was due to an artistic desire to release the game on July 7 ( 7 / 7 ) .

Suda51 drew influence from film noir , particularly the theme of multiple personality disorder , and called Killer7 a " hardboiled action @-@ adventure " . Hiro Sugiyama , Peter Saville , and American comic book artists , such as Adrian Tomine , inspired the artistic design and aesthetic . Suda51 noted the inclusion of cel animation in Western and Japanese anime styles was meant to legitimize video games as an art form by competing with traditional art forms in their stage . Kobayashi commented that Killer7 is " styled more as an interactive story than a traditional game . " Suda also drew from yakuza film Battles Without Honor and Humanity : Hiroshima Deathmatch . His experience as an undertaker had a powerful effect on the portrayal of death in his games . The game reflects his interest in professional wrestling ; Suda51 included a luchador character , MASK de Smith , and conducted interviews and attended promotional events while wearing a lucha libre mask . Reflecting on his work , Suda51 considers Killer7 his proudest achievement .

= = Reception = =

Killer7 received divisive reviews and sparked debates about depictions of sex and violence in video games and the status of video games as art . James Mielke of 1UP.com likened the game 's high @-@ contrast art style to noir and neo @-@ noir film such as Se7en . He found that despite poor pacing and stilted gameplay , the " quirky scripting and edgy plot " were strong draws , and called Killer7 one of " most artfully designed footnotes in gaming history " . Edge magazine 's reviewers echoed this sentiment and predicted that the game would " [ pave the way ] for future creative leeway " , crediting the director with an unwavering artistic vision . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed was keenly aware of the game 's limited appeal , calling it " a concept game , an arthouse game , a simple game , an often beautiful game , but most certainly never an everyman 's game " . Yahtzee Croshaw of The Escapist commends the game for " showing exactly what can be done when you flaunt all established convention and just start exploring what can really be done with gaming as an art form " .

Virtually all aspects of the game had their proponents and detractors . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot praised the unity of " great @-@ looking camera work with simple controls " and compared its " thought @-@ provoking " storyline to Metal Gear Solid , while a GamePro reviewer criticized those features , calling the controls limited , the cel @-@ shading dull , and the story incoherent . Kasavin complimented the game 's eclectic soundtrack , excellent voice acting , and distinctive sound effects , while the GamePro reviewer panned them as minimalist and irritating . IGN 's Matt Casamassina likened the control scheme to " old @-@ school adventure games like Myst and Snatcher " and commended Suda51 for making a " cult hit " , " erupting with style , mood and undiluted craziness " . Casamassina was also impressed by the quality of the anime @-@ style cutscenes featured in the latter half of the game .

The IGN , GameSpot , and GameSpy reviews noted the GameCube version features superior graphics , substantially faster loading times , and more responsive controls than the PlayStation 2 version , resulting in lower scores for the latter . Nevertheless , IGN called it the 94th best PlayStation 2 game . Nintendo Power claimed that Killer7 is a " highly rewarding " experience for dedicated gamers . Nintendo World Report writer Karl Castaneda also remarked that , despite repetitive gameplay , it was " still fun " . Charles Herold of The New York Times was less forgiving and commented that the lack of new features beyond the first hour made the remaining experience boring and annoying .

Despite its mixed reception , a number of video game publications recognized Killer7 's unconventional gameplay and innovative style . At GameSpot 's " Best and Worst of 2005 " awards , the game was nominated for Best Story , Best GameCube Game , Most Outrageous Game , Most Gratuitous Use of F------ Swearing , and won Best New Character ( Harman Smith ) and Most Innovative Game . IGN GameCube similarly nominated it for Game of the Year , Most Innovative Design , and Best Artistic Design and awarded it Best Adventure Game , Best Story , and Best Game No One Played . IGN later named Killer7 the 20th best GameCube game of all time . The game had a large presence at the 2005 Nintendo Power Awards , winning Best New Character ( Harman Smith ) .

In August 2005 , Jack Thompson , an activist who campaigns against video games , demanded that the Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) change its rating for Killer7 from " M " ( for Mature , ages 17 and up ) to " AO " ( for Adults Only , ages 18 and up ) . He cited Casamassina 's review of the game at IGN , claiming that " full @-@ blown sex sequences " present in the game would be harmful to minors . Casamassina rebutted that the scene in question involved two fully clothed adults and that a similar scene in a film would garner " only a PG @-@ 13 or , worst , R @-@ rating " .

= = Legacy and related media = =

Reviewers quickly identified Killer7 as a cult game with limited appeal . IGN lamented that its experimental style was not conducive to high sales , naming it GameCube 's Best Game No One Played in their 2005 awards . IGN 's Casamassina later placed it fourth in his Top 10 Tuesday : Underrated and Underappreciated Games feature . Despite modest sales , Killer7 's cult success prompted the development of remakes of Suda51 's older Japan @-@ only games , The Silver Case and Flower , Sun , and Rain . In 2007 , Grasshopper Manufacture released Suda51 's No More Heroes to critical and commercial success . In addition to an original soundtrack and comic book adaptation , Capcom published Hand in killer7 , a companion book that explains the plot in more depth . Kinetic Underground , the company that handled the comic book , also released a number of figurines depicting characters from the game .

= = = Music = = =

Killer7 Original Sound Track was released on June 20 , 2005 by Sony Music Entertainment . It features 55 compositions by Masafumi Takada and 6 by Jun Fukuda across two discs . Takada put a large emphasis on ambient music due to the genre 's ability to draw in the player . He called his soundtrack a " translation of the text " of the game and sought to retell the story through music . Carolyn Gudmundson of GamesRadar praised the soundtrack 's varied style , a " moody , atmosphereric base punctuated with spikes of manic energy " . She singled out " Rave On " , a track heard before mini @-@ boss battles , as an excellent example of the latter . GameSpy 's Phil Theobald had similar compliments for " Rave On " and other more subdued pieces that slowly " work [ their ] way into your mind " .

Tracklist

= = = Comic book = = =

In 2006 , Devil 's Due Publishing released a comic book adaptation of Killer7 , written and drawn by Kinetic Underground staff . The planned 12 @-@ issue limited series was cancelled after four issues . Players who preordered Killer7 through EB Games received a special " Issue # 0 " as a bonus , and " Issue # ½ " was available at the 2005 San Diego Comic @-@ Con. Writer Arvid Nelson described the story as a " mutant cross @-@ breeding of John Woo and Quentin Tarantino " , and Devil 's Due President Josh Blaylock commented that Killer7 's style was perfect for the comic book medium . In adapting the game , Nelson admitted that the plot was streamlined to maintain a comprehensible story , but noted that the " video game doesn 't spoon @-@ feed you information ... That 's how the comic 's going to be , too " .

= Cold Comfort ( Inside No. 9 ) =

" Cold Comfort " is the fourth episode of the second series of the British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . The episode , which was written and directed by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , was first broadcast on 16 April 2015 on BBC Two . Most of " Cold Comfort " is composed of a stream from a fixed camera on the desk of Andy , the protagonist , with smaller pictures on the side of the screen , in the style of a CCTV feed . " Cold Comfort " was filmed over two and a half days in Twickenham , and was , like " A Quiet Night In " from Inside No. 9 's first series , highly experimental . It was Pemberton and Shearsmith 's directorial debut .

The episode starred Pemberton , Shearsmith , Jane Horrocks , Nikki Amuka @-@ Bird and Tony Way as volunteers at Crisis Support Line , a crisis hotline . The story follows Andy ( Pemberton ) , who is starting at the call centre . After taking a particularly disturbing call from Chloe , a suicidal teenage girl , Andy begins to struggle , but he is offered support by his supervisor George ( Shearsmith ) , the gossipy Liz ( Horrocks ) and the officious Joanne ( Amuka @-@ Bird ) . Andy is later joined by Michael ( Way ) . Vilma Hollingbery , Vicky Hall and members of the comedy group Gein 's Family Giftshop ( Edward Easton , Kath Hughes and James Meehan ) voiced various callers , with the Gein 's Family Giftshop comedians also appearing as on @-@ screen extras , playing unnamed call centre volunteers .

The television critics Andrew Billen and David Chater ( both writing for The Times ) and John Robinson ( writing for The Guardian ) characterised " Cold Comfort " as somewhat weaker than other episodes of the series , but other critics , including Patrick Mulkern ( writing for Radio Times ) , the comedy critic Bruce Dessau and writers for The Sunday Times were complimentary . Commentators praised the format , the writing and the performances , especially Horrocks 's , but offered differing views about the episode 's conclusion , plot and atmosphere .

= = Production = =

The second series of Inside No. 9 written in 2014 , and then filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015 . The idea for " Cold Comfort " began with the call centre , with Pemberton having kept a newspaper article on the subject from 2005 as a potential inspiration . Once the writers had the idea for the setting , they allowed the story to grow out of this . The pair visited a large number of locations — including a number of colleges — before settling on the one used , which was in Twickenham , rejecting many because they did not look enough like offices . They had three days at the location , but completed filming in two and a half .

= = = Casting = = =

" Cold Comfort " stars Pemberton as Andy , a new volunteer , and Shearsmith as George , Andy 's supervisor . According to Shearsmith , he and Pemberton do not typically write Inside No. 9 scripts with particular actors in mind for roles , and nor do they typically write roles specifically for themselves . They were unsure , for a long time , on which characters they should take , initially considering having Shearsmith play Andy and Pemberton play George . Shearsmith said that this felt like the more " obvious " option , but the characters were switched as they " thought it would be slightly more unusual " to have it that way around .

As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who might have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . Jane Horrocks , Nikki Amuka @-@ Bird and Tony Way star respectively as Liz , Joanne and Michael , other volunteers at the call centre . The characters of Liz and Joanne have strongly differing approaches to their roles as volunteers , with Joanne focussing on detachment and Liz on involvement . Both approaches , for Pemberton , have advantages and disadvantages . Jane 's desk is adorned with various trinkets , including ornaments and pictures . These were Horrocks 's idea , and , for Pemberton and Shearsmith , served to make viewers suspicious of her from the start . Horrocks was chosen because she would be able to add humour while still keeping to the tight timings necessary for the episode ; many of her lines were improvised . The character of Michael begins to work at the centre during the episode . Pemberton and Shearsmith considered having it mentioned that he had been sent by " Pauline from Wood Green " , a reference to the stage version of The League of Gentlemen 's Pauline , who had been based at Wood Green . However , this was not included in the final episode .

Edward Easton , Vilma Hollingbery , Kath Hughes , James Meehan and Vicky Hall provide the voices of various people who call in to the centre . Some of the voice actors were drawn from the comedy group Gein 's Family Giftshop , the performing members of which are Hughes , Easton and Meehan . After watching a Gein 's Family Giftshop performance , Pemberton and Shearsmith had invited the members to star in Inside No. 9 . The comedians then suggested that they also appear on @-@ screen as extras , playing unnamed call centre volunteers . Hollingberry , who voiced " Ivy " , an old woman caller , had previously starred in Pemberton and Shearsmith 's Psychoville as Mrs Wren / Mrs Ladybirdface . She was one of the few actors whom Pemberton and Shearsmith used in both series .

= = = Direction = = =

Pemberton and Shearsmith , in addition to writing and starring in " Cold Comfort " , directed the episode . This episode — one of two in the second series that they jointly directed — was their directorial debut . The pair did not know , while writing for the series , which episodes they would be directing , meaning that their writing was unlikely to be influenced by the knowledge . Pemberton and Shearsmith had always intended to try directing , and the second series of Inside No. 9 offered them the opportunity . David Kerr , who had directed all of the episodes in the first series , was unable to return for the second . Guillem Morales and Dan Zeff each took on directorial duties for two episodes , while Pemberton and Shearsmith decided to direct the remaining two .

Shearsmith said in an interview that the pair had considered directing episodes in which they did not appear much , but scheduling concerns left them with " Cold Comfort " and " Nana 's Party " ; episodes which feature the writers quite heavily . By contrast , Pemberton said that he and Shearsmith , knowing that they were going to be directing two episodes , deliberately chose " Cold Comfort " because the fixed cameras made filming a lot simpler , though Shearsmith said that the filming was more complex than they initially anticipated . For Horrocks , it was " lovely to be directed " by Pemberton and Shearsmith , as she " really [ liked ] their choices and ... [ loves ] their work " . Shearsmith said that he found directing the episode " exhausting " ; he found little time to rest during filming , as if he was not directly involved in filming , he was involved in making directorial decisions .

= = = Picture and sound = = =

The episode progresses mostly through footage streamed from a fixed camera in booth nine of the call centre setting . Streams from other cameras are displayed on the side of the screen , in the style of a CCTV feed . The idea was inspired by a clip of a serial killer 's interview with the CIA which Shearsmith had seen online ; this , too , had a main feed with three smaller feeds giving different views of the scene . The writers felt that the multiple screens both served a narrative function and raised the tension . For much of the episode , viewers simply watch characters taking calls . Exras are seen moving back and forth in the smaller screens , with Pemberton having initially been keen for things to be happening away from the main feed . However , he was somewhat frustrated with the result , with the same extra moving on numerous occasions throughout the episode . Shearsmith felt that a whole series filmed in the same manner " would be a bit wearing on the eye " , but that the style could be used for a single episode .

The format presented certain technical difficulties . The episode was filmed in very long takes — some as long as five or six minutes — without any cuts . This meant that the actors could not make any errors , but the result was " something you don 't normally see " . Pemberton said that the episode would " either be brilliantly tense or incredibly boring " . Timing during filming had to be precise , though scenes could be cut earlier or start later than was anticipated . For example , an earlier introduction of Joanne was cut in the final episode . Other unused versions of scenes included a more violent version of George 's attack on Liz and a version of the final scene with a gunshot . The gunshot was removed on the recommendation of Jon Plowman , Inside No. 9 's executive producer , which led to some debate ; Shearsmith , for example , preferred the original version .

Alex Thompson , the episode 's sound recordist , arranged the phones so that the actors could speak to each other in real @-@ time . Pemberton and Shearsmith wanted this so that the voices would not have to be recorded in a studio later and added in ADR . The voice of " Chloe " — the identify of whom is key to the story — presented a particular technical challenge , as the writers wanted to ensure that her identity was not revealed the first time her voice is heard . First , the production team recorded Shearsmith playing George @-@ as @-@ Chloe , and then a number of actresses recorded their versions of Shearsmith playing George @-@ as @-@ Chloe . Of these , one — Hall — was chosen to lend her voice to Chloe . Shearsmith then re @-@ recorded his voice , imitating Hall 's version of George @-@ as @-@ Chloe . Hall and Shearsmith 's respective performances of George @-@ as @-@ Chloe could then be merged together for the final episode . The first time viewers hear " Chloe " , her voice is mostly Hall 's ; as the episode progresses , more of Shearsmith 's voice is audible . For Shearsmith , this did not represent the production team cheating the viewers , as viewers ' experiences are filtered through Andy 's experiences . The first time viewers hear Chloe , they — like Andy — experience her as a teenage girl . As most of the episode was filmed in real @-@ time , George is visible making calls as Chloe , meaning that he hides in plain sight . Footage of Shearsmith playing George @-@ as @-@ Chloe in George 's office — used in the final episode — was filmed separately to the rest of the episode , as a camera set @-@ up in George 's office would have been visible on one of the main cameras .

Pemberton compared " Cold Comfort " to " A Quiet Night In " , the second episode of the first series of Inside No. 9 , a sentiment echoed by some critics . Both episodes were highly experimental — " A Quiet Night In " being mostly silent and " Cold Comfort " being filmed mostly from a fixed camera — something which the writers felt suits anthology format . On the other hand , according to Pemberton , as " Cold Comfort " is " static and all about listening " , it is , in a sense , the " polar opposite " of " A Quiet Night In " . Though all episodes in the series were very different in tone , Pemberton felt that " Cold Comfort " was " the most extreme experiment " .

= = Plot = =

Andy starts to volunteer at the Comfort Support Line ( CSL ) , a crisis hotline , after the death of his sister . His supervisor George takes him through the procedure for calls , and Andy chats to the more experienced Liz . He finds his first few calls difficult , and Joanne , a volunteer who shares a mutual distaste with Liz , advises him not to get emotionally invested in the callers . Andy takes a call from Chloe , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old girl with problems at home . Chloe says that she has taken a drug overdose , and Andy sings " Shine " by Take That to her , but , when he finishes , Chloe is no longer on the line . He immediately takes a call from an elderly woman distraught that her cat has died , but responds insensitively , and hangs up .

The following day , George thinks Liz is breaking the rules by taking a personal call ; he gets angry and wrestles the handset from her . Later , Andy is upset that he listened to Chloe in her final moments , and Liz , who has made a complaint about George 's conduct , tells him that she took a call from an ex @-@ soldier , in tears because his mother committed suicide following the death of her cat . Andy realises that the man 's mother is the caller from the previous night . George advises that Andy will not face any repercussions , and asks Andy to help Michael , new to the centre , with his first call . Chloe calls in and speaks to Michael , again claiming that she has taken an overdose . Andy snatches the phone and shouts at Chloe , hanging up on her .

Following her argument with George , Liz is asked to leave CSL , and a small party is held in the workspace . During the party , Chloe calls the helpline again , asking to speak to Andy . Andy tells Chloe that her hoax call caused an old woman 's death , but Chloe says that this was Andy 's fault . She repeats what Andy had said to the old woman about her cat . Andy stays late in his cubicle and goes to George 's office , realising that " Chloe " must be someone who works at CSL . He accuses Joanne , who has just arrived , but she says she came back for her bag . He plans to get evidence from the CCTV footage and contact the police . Looking through CCTV footage , he and Joanne discover that it is George who made the calls . Unbeknownst to them , George is approaching the office ; he hastily leaves when he sees Andy and Joanne inside .

George does not arrive for work the next day . Joanne shows in a new volunteer , Glen , who is replacing Liz . Having found out that George has made similar calls to CSL for years , Andy plans to go to the police . Andy answers the phone , and it is George . In Chloe 's voice , George says that he just wanted someone to listen to him , then warns that he has told the dead woman 's son where Andy works . In the background , Glen stands , and points a gun at Andy 's head .

= = Reception = =

Critics responded positively to " Cold Comfort " , though several characterised it as weaker than previous episodes in the series . David Chater , writing in The Times , described " Cold Comfort " as " a breather " after the " small masterpieces " of " The Trial of Elizabeth Gadge " and " The 12 Days of Christine " . He said that " Cold Comfort " offers " a promising set @-@ up , but ... doesn 't unfold with the same simple , logical elegance as others in the series " . Andrew Billen , also writing for The Times , gave the episode three out of five stars , considering it weaker than is typical for Inside No. 9 . John Robinson , who reviewed the episode for The Guardian , felt that though " the episode has the tools to ratchet up the suspense " , it " lacks both the plausibility and element of surprise that characterise the best of this series " .

Patrick Mulkern , on the other hand , who was writing for the Radio Times , described " Cold Comfort " as " warped brilliance " . He said that " any real helpline volunteers watching this episode may well wince , but it remains gripping throughout " . Reviewers in The Sunday Times called the episode " another corker " , and the freelance journalist Dan Owen called the episode " easily the funniest " since " La Couchette " , awarding it three out of four stars . He characterised it as mostly successful in its aims , and summarised it as a " memorable " and " well @-@ executed " comedy @-@ drama .

Robinson felt that the writers had " dial [ ed ] back the celebrity guests " for the episode , while Phoebe @-@ Jane Boyd , writing for the entertainment website Den of Geek , said that the episode " had another set of fantastic guest stars " . The comedy critic Bruce Dessau praised the performances in the episode ; Billen said that Horrocks 's performance was " particularly good " , and critics in The Sunday Times said that Horrocks was " on fine form " . Commentators also commended the episode 's writing , though Owen felt that the plot took a while to " get going " .

The television critic Julia Raeside discussed the unusual style of " Cold Comfort " , saying that " You could argue [ that the writers ] are at the stage in their careers where they don 't need to experiment . No one else makes television like them and yet still they push themselves . " For Clare Murphy , writing in the Daily Mirror , the episode " makes great use of CCTV split @-@ screen footage " . Dessau said that the set @-@ up gave the episode " its haunting flavour " . Viewers do not just see Andy , but also streams from other cameras , which , for Dessau , " makes the viewer both intrigued and anxious " . Boyd , too , claimed that the episode played on the " inherent creepiness " of CCTV footage . She said that the split @-@ screen set @-@ up increased the tension , and that the " gimmick is a good one " ; though it could " have worked well as a pleasing novelty on its own , [ it ] also makes this ' whodunit ' / ' who 's doing it ' a refreshingly inventive take on the genre " .

Critics writing for The Sunday Times said that set @-@ up " proves very effective for the denouement " , which Mulkern described as " a creepy pay @-@ off " . Chris Bennion of The Independent said that the ending was testament to the fact that the writers " know how to play their audience like a fiddle " . Billen was less impressed , saying that " the ultimate twist in the tale was crude , and the insight that those who offer help need it most just a little banal - by this series ' standards , at least " . Owen , similarly , found the motives of " Chloe " unconvincing , and considered " the surprisingly nihilistic final shot perhaps not fully earned or plausible " , but confessed that the episode was able to " outmanoeuvre [ sic ] " him , as he did not foresee the ending .

= = = Cited sources = = =

Pemberton , Steve ; Shearsmith , Reece ( 2015 ) . Cold Comfort ( episode commentary ) . Steve & Reece IN9 ( via SoundCloud ) . Retrieved 20 March 2016 .

= Barbeyella minutissima =

Barbeyella minutissima is a slime mould species of the order Echinosteliales , and the only species of the genus Barbeyella . First described in 1914 from the Jura mountains , its habitat is restricted to montane spruce and spruce @-@ fir forests of the Northern Hemisphere , where it has been recorded from Asia , Europe , and North America . It typically colonises slimy , algae @-@ covered logs that have lost their bark and have been partially to completely covered by liverworts . The sporangia are roughly spherical , up to 0 @.@ 2 mm in diameter , and supported by a thin stalk up to 0 @.@ 7 mm tall . After the spores have developed , the walls of the sporangia split open into lobes . The species is one of the smallest members of the Myxogastria and is considered rare .

= = Taxonomy and classification = =

The species was first described in 1914 by Charles Meylan on the basis of a collection made at an altitude of 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) from the Swiss Jura in September the year before . Meylan thought the species warranted a new genus based on the unique mode of dehiscence and the makeup of the capillitium . The genus was named for the Swiss botanist William Barbey ( 1842 – 1914 ) . It and the genus Clastoderma together make up the family Clastodermataceae . Studies of the ultrastructure of the sporocarps suggests that Barbeyella occupies a systematic position intermediate between Echinosteliales and the Stemonitales .

= = Characteristics = =

The protoplasmodium , a microscopic , undifferentiated granular mass with a slime sheath , is transparent and colourless . A single sporangiophore ( the fruiting structure ) is produced from the semispherical protoplasmodium , which is approximately one and a half times the diameter of mature sporangia . It acquires dark spots as it matures and the centre of the protoplasm later becomes dark . Then , the transparent and milk @-@ white protoplasmodium climbs along the stem to the top , where first the capillitium and peridium and finally the spores are produced . At room temperature , this process lasts roughly one day .

The long @-@ stemmed , blackish @-@ brown or blackish @-@ purple , barely translucent sporangia of Barbeyella are spherical , 0 @.@ 15 to 0 @.@ 2 mm in diameter and together with the stem measure 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 7 mm long . They are usually scattered on the substrate , but also often grouped in loose , large colonies . The hypothallus ( the tissue upon which the sporangiophore rests ) has a diameter of at least 0 @.@ 7 mm . Although not visible on mosses , it has a reddish @-@ brown color when growing on wood . The brownish @-@ black stem is up to 0 @.@ 1 mm thick , thinning to 5 µm towards the top and is filled with protoplasmatic scrap material . The columella – arising from the stem tip – matures at the upper end at roughly half the height of the sporangiophore into 7 to 13 simple or occasionally bifurcated , 1 to 4 µm large , dark @-@ brown capillitium strands . Usually individual , occasionally in pairs , these are firmly fused with the lobed segments of the peridium , which are round in cross @-@ section . When the spores mature , the sporangium splits and empties into the peridium towards the base . This prevents the lobes of the peridium from detaching and provides spore dispersal over a longer period , similar to a dehiscing capsule . The sporangia are filled towards the top with plasmatic granules , which diminish increasingly towards the base . Depending on the size of the plasmatic granules , the sporangia appear papillate or smooth .

The mass of spores is blackish brown , or brown if viewed under polarised light . The surface texture ranges from almost smooth to warty , and the spores measure 7 – 9 µm in diameter . Material collected from Oregon , however , varies from European material in several ways : the fruit body is brown ; the branching of the capillitium from the columella differs ( having primary and secondary branches instead of radiating branches from an expanded tip ) ; the spore mass is tan , and individual spores measure 10 – 12 µm .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Barbeyella minutissima is considered rare . Its habitat corresponds to the mountainous spruce @-@ fir forests of the Northern Hemisphere . It is largely restricted to altitudes between 500 and 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 and 8 @,@ 200 ft ) , occasionally appearing as low as sea level and as high as 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) . It has been found in Europe ( Finland , Germany , Switzerland , Poland , Romania , Latvia , and Russia ) , in west and east North America ( Washington , Oregon , California , and Mexico ; North and South Carolina and Virginia ) , in the Indian Himalayas as well as in Japan . It is relatively common in fir forests on high @-@ altitude Mexican volcanoes , suggesting that air @-@ borne spore dispersal is effective .

= = Ecology = =

The species grows only on slightly to heavily rotten and barkless deadwood in coniferous forests in cool , moist areas . The wood is about 40 to 100 % overgrown with Marchantiophyta , especially of the genera Nowellia or Cephalozia . B. minutissima has been found growing on the liverwort Lepidozia reptans , although Nowellia curvifolia is the main indicator for the slime mould . In addition to liverworts , Barbeyella is found socialised with monocellular algae . It is assumed that the protoplasmodium phagocytises either the algae or the bacteria on their surface . Other Myxogastria species are often found together with Barbeyella , especially Lepidoderma tigrinum , Lamproderma columbinum and Colloderma oculatum . Aphanocladium album is a myxomyceticolous fungus ( i.e. , living on or within the fruit bodies of myxomycetes ) that has been reported growing on specimens of B. minutissima collected from North Carolina .

= Hollywood A.D. =

" Hollywood A.D. " is the nineteenth episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Hollywood A.D. " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 7 , being watched by 12 @.@ 88 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode was met with largely positive reviews , with many critics approving of the episode 's humorous nature .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Wayne Federman , an entrepreneurial Hollywood producer and college friend of Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) picks up the idea for a film based on the X @-@ Files , however Mulder and Scully find that the level of realism in their fictional portrayal is somewhat questionable . Meanwhile , during the filming of the movie , Mulder and Scully research the mysterious " Lazarus Bowl " , an artifact that supposedly has the words Jesus Christ spoke when he raised Lazarus from the dead .

" Hollywood A.D. " was written and directed by series star David Duchovny , his second writing and directing credit after the sixth season episode " The Unnatural . " The episode — written with a " self @-@ referential " tone — features a myriad of guest stars , including , most notably , Garry Shandling and Téa Leoni , who portray Mulder and Scully , respectively , in the episode 's fictional movie . The episode itself contains several in @-@ jokes and references deliberately placed by Duchovny .

= = Plot = =

Walter Skinner 's old college friend , Hollywood producer Wayne Federman , is involved in a film project about the FBI . During Federman 's research phase , Skinner gives him access to Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , who are investigating the attempted murder of Cardinal O 'Fallon . Federman tags along and constantly interrupts the agents . While searching the catacombs of O 'Fallon 's church , Mulder finds the remains of Micah Hoffman , a missing 1960s counter @-@ culturalist . Searching Hoffman 's apartment , they find bombs and counterfeiting tools , as well as forged gospel of Mary Magdalene . Mulder and Federman return to the church and search the catacombs , finding several skeletons and pieces of the forged gospel . Federman wanders off and stumbles upon animated bones , who attempt to assemble a shattered piece of pottery . He panics and leaves the scene .

Mulder and Scully examine the pottery . Scully tells Mulder the story of " The Lazarus Bowl " , in which the aunt of Lazarus had been making a clay bowl when Jesus Christ resurrected him . The words of Christ were then recorded in the grooves of the bowl , much like a phonograph record . Mulder brings the relic to Chuck Burks , who , after performing a sonic analysis , discovers voices in Aramaic ; in one portion part of the audio , one man commands another to rise from the dead . The other contains lyrics from " I am the Walrus " by The Beatles .

Mulder visits O 'Fallon , who admits he bought the forged gospel from Hoffman , but believed it was real . Meanwhile , during Hoffman 's autopsy , Scully experiences a vision wherein he comes back to life on the operating table and begins talking . Later , at the church , Scully sees a vision of Hoffman in Jesus ' place on a large crucifix . Mulder arrests O 'Fallon for Hoffman 's murder , but Micah Hoffman walks in , unscathed . He tells the agent that while he initially created the forgeries to make money , he came to believe he was the reincarnation of Jesus Christ , and bombed the church to get rid of the " blasphemous " forgeries . Skinner suspends Scully and Mulder for four weeks because of the mix @-@ up . Sixteen months later , O 'Fallon kills Micah Hoffman in a murder @-@ suicide . As such , the X @-@ File is never truly solved .

During their suspension , Mulder and Scully venture to Hollywood to view the production of Federman 's film . It is revealed that Federman 's movie will be called The Lazarus Bowl , and Garry Shandling will play Mulder and Téa Leoni will play Scully . After filming is done , Mulder and Scully attend a screening of the film with Skinner , but are thoroughly disgusted at how their case , and they , are portrayed on the big screen . Mulder and Scully leave the set holding hands , presumably on their way to dinner with the FBI credit card Skinner gave them after watching the movie , hinting at the continued romantic relationship between Mulder and Scully that has been suggested in the last few episodes . As the agents leave , the dead who were resting underneath the film set are revived and begin to dance passionately , reinforcing a theory Mulder made earlier in the episode .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing and filming = = =

" Hollywood A.D. " was written and directed by series star David Duchovny . The episode was written after Duchovny received positive feedback on his last creation , season six 's " The Unnatural " . Duchovny originally approached executive producer Frank Spotnitz about the possibility of writing another episode . Spotnitz gave him the go @-@ ahead and was soon given a rough copy of the script . Series creator Chris Carter was very happy with the story , calling it " a smart , [ ... ] , quirky , and intelligent idea " and he later described it as " outside the norm , even for The X @-@ Files . " Once the script was approved , Duchovny took on an active role in preparing for the episode .

There was a considerable amount of stunt work and choreographing done for " Hollywood A.D. " Two stunt doubles were hired for the scene where Shandling tackles Leoni and they tumble down a hill into an open casket . Some of the stunt men were even cast in non @-@ stunt related jobs . Several were " transformed " into zombies , a process which took five hours . The zombie dance sequence at the end of the episode took two days to film . The first day was shot during active production and the second was scheduled for the blue screen work that was required .

= = = Casting = = =

Duchovny cast several of The X @-@ Files ' technical crew members in the episode . Tina M. Amedrui , the show 's actual craft services woman , portrayed Tina , the craft service woman for Wayne Federman 's movie . Bill Roe , the show 's photography director , was cast as the vegetarian zombie . Assistant director Barry K. Thomas was cast as one of the men on the movie set , Paul Rabwin was cast as a producer , and special effects coordinator Bill Millar was cast as the movie 's director . Duchovny also cast his brother , Daniel , as the assistant director . Several of the family members and friends cast by Duchovny were able to apply for their Screen Actor 's Guild card and were able to apply for a health insurance plan .

Téa Leoni , who portrayed a fictionalized version of herself portraying Scully in the production , was married to David Duchovny when this episode was filmed , a decision casting director Rick Millikan considered " clever . " Duchovny also cast his friend and fellow actor Garry Shandling as a fictionalized version of himself portraying Mulder . Shandling had originally been sought out to play the part of Morris Fletcher in the sixth season episode " Dreamland . " The joke about Garry Shandling having a crush on Mulder came from a recurring joke from the TV show The Larry Sanders Show , starring Shandling . In the recurring joke , David Duchovny has a homosexual interest in Shandling 's character .

The joke about Mulder wanting Richard Gere to appear in the movie stemmed from the fact that Duchovny 's acting was often compared to Gere 's . Duchovny decided to turn the idea into a joke , saying , " we used to always have the joke on set that when they do the movie it 's going to be Richard Gere and Jodie Foster [ playing Mulder and Scully ] . So I originally wrote the teaser for Richard Gere and Jodie Foster and I just started to think about it and you know , it 's so much funnier with Garry and Téa . " The episode featured several uncredited celebrity cameos . During the premiere of the movie , Duchovny 's Return to Me costars Minnie Driver and David Alan Grier appear as members of the audience . In addition , Chris Carter , the show 's creator , made a cameo during the theater scene . The appearance was his second in the series .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Hollywood A.D. " first aired in the United States on April 30 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 7 , with a 12 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 12 @.@ 88 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 7 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 80 million viewers , making it the second most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Garry Shandling as Agent Mulder ? Téa Leoni as Agent Scully ? "

Critical reception to " Hollywood A.D. " was mostly positive . The Montreal Gazette named the episode the sixth best stand @-@ alone X @-@ Files episode , writing that " Despite taxing our stomach for self @-@ reflexive comedy , this David Duchovny scripted and directed episode manages to deliver some of the greatest laughs of the series . " Rob Bricken from Topless Robot named " Hollywood A.D. " the seventh funniest X @-@ Files episode . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B , slightly criticizing the dancing zombies at the end of the episode . Sarah Kendzior from 11th Hour Magazine wrote that , " My favorite [ episode ] this year may well be ' Hollywood A.D. ' , an ambitious , often ingenious and occasionally flawed sophomore effort concerning the entertainment industry , religion , and pretty much everything in between . " Rich Rosell from DigitallyObsessed.com awarded the episode 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that " [ the ] scene from the ' movie ' where Shandling / Mulder faces off against The Cigarette Smoking Pontiff , and his army of sniper zombies , is classic stuff , and earns ' Hollywood A.D. ' high marks . " Kenneth Silber from Space.com , while criticizing the episode for reveling in parody , noted that the episode was entertaining , writing , " ' Hollywood A.D. ' is a parody and , as such , will be unsatisfying to the many X @-@ Files viewers , including this long @-@ suffering reviewer , who 'd like to see the series culminate in a dramatic , multi @-@ episode denouement of its ' mythology arc ' . Nonetheless , this episode has merit as a witty and imaginative parody . "

Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a relatively positive review . He wrote , " ' Hollywood A.D. ' was Duchovny 's nudge @-@ nudge , wink @-@ wink writing @-@ directing effort for this season . [ ... ] Duchovny did not fail to deliver an episode that truly reflected his own wit and intelligence . All the while remaining true to the spirit of the show that made him famous . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , and wrote that it " is muddled and frequently so in love with just being weird for weird ’ s sake that everybody forgets we need at least a little justification to pull everything together in the end . " He also called it " a hard episode not to love , frankly . " Handlen felt that the humor and sweetness helped to make the episode a success . He also wrote that Mulder and Scully 's dynamic worked towards the episode 's favor .

= = In popular culture = =

On the " Killer Cable Snaps " episode of the popular science television series MythBusters , which aired on October 11 , 2006 , the possibility that audio could be transcribed onto pottery was tested . Clips from " Hollywood A.D. " were shown during the segment .

= Maryland Route 322 =

Maryland Route 322 ( MD 322 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Easton Parkway , the highway runs 5 @.@ 12 miles ( 8 @.@ 24 km ) on the west side of Easton between two junctions with U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) . MD 322 serves as a bypass of downtown Easton for traffic between US 50 and highways to western Talbot County , including MD 33 toward Saint Michaels and MD 333 toward Oxford . Easton Parkway was constructed in the mid to late 1960s . The state highway was originally designated as part of MD 33 ; MD 322 became the sole designation on the bypass in 1978 .

= = Route description = =

MD 322 begins at a directional intersection with US 50 ( Ocean Gateway ) south of Easton ; there is no direct access from southbound MD 322 to westbound US 50 . MD 322 heads north as a four @-@ lane divided highway to MD 565 ( Washington Street ) . Beyond this intersection , the state highway reduces to two lanes , curves to the northwest , and crosses Paper Mill Pond . MD 332 parallels the pond through the highway 's intersection with MD 333 , which heads southwest as Oxford Road and northeast as Peach Blossom Road . After the pond turns west , the state highway intersects Port Street , which heads east toward downtown Easton as MD 334 and west as a county highway into the Easton Point industrial area .

MD 322 temporarily expands to a four @-@ lane undivided highway at its intersection with MD 33 , which heads east as Bay Street toward downtown Easton and west as St. Michaels Road . The MD 322 – MD 33 intersection lies on a crossing of Tanyard Creek just east of its confluence with an unnamed creek to form the North Fork of the Tred Avon River . MD 322 continues northeast past several shopping centers and industrial parks between MD 33 and Glebe Road . Near its northern terminus , the state highway meets the northern end of Washington Street and Airpark Drive , which immediately has an intersection with MD 662 ( Centreville Road ) before entering an industrial park adjacent to Easton Airport . MD 322 reaches its northern terminus at a directional intersection with US 50 .

MD 322 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial for its entire length .

= = History = =

Easton Parkway was constructed as a way for traffic from Oxford and Saint Michaels to access points north and south via US 50 without having to travel through downtown Easton . The first section of the state highway was completed in 1965 from the present intersection with MD 33 north to US 50 . MD 33 was removed from Bay Street and Washington Street north of downtown Easton and placed on the first section of Easton Parkway . The highway was extended south to MD 333 in 1966 . The remainder of the highway south to US 50 was completed in 1970 . The MD 322 designation was originally applied to the southern part of the parkway as well as Bay Street . MD 33 and MD 322 were reassigned to their present lengths of highway in 1978 .

= = Junction list = =

The entire route is in Easton , Talbot County .

= = Auxiliary routes = =

MD 322A is the designation for the unnamed 0 @.@ 07 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 11 km ) ramp from eastbound US 50 to northbound MD 322 south of Easton .

MD 322B is the designation for the 0 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) section of Airpark Drive between MD 322 and MD 662 north of Easton .

= Asher Vollmer =

Asher Vollmer ( born September 14 , 1989 ) is an American indie video game developer and creator of Puzzlejuice and Threes . He created the 2012 iOS game Puzzlejuice while a student at USC Interactive Media & Games Division . The game began his collaboration with Greg Wohlwend . The pair 's next release , the 2014 iOS puzzle game Threes , received what review aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " , including perfect scores from Eurogamer and TouchArcade , and the title of Apple Inc . ' s iPhone game of the year . The game was later ported to multiple platforms . Polygon included Vollmer in their " 50 admirable gaming people " of the year for his work on Threes . Among other projects , Vollmer subsequently worked on Close Castles , a real @-@ time strategy game later put on hiatus , and Royals , a simulation game for OS X and Windows .

= = Career = =

Vollmer is a graduate of the USC Interactive Media & Games Division program . As a student , he began work on Puzzlejuice , a puzzle video game . He reached out to artist Greg Wohlwend for aesthetic advice , which led to a collaboration between the two . Puzzlejuice is a combination of Tetris , tile @-@ matching , and Boggle : players rearrange falling tetromino blocks into rows of similar colors , which turn into letters that are cleared from the board by forming words . The iOS game was released on January 19 , 2012 , to what review aggregator Metacritic described as " generally favorable " reviews . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty in mentally balancing the various components of the game .

Vollmer started as thatgamecompany 's " feel engineer " in August 2012 , but left in April 2013 to " go indie " and work on his own projects . On his blog , he said he thought the studio 's current project would be groundbreaking , though he was unhappy working there . Vollmer tried to write a short story in an attempt to take a break from games . Before long , he began to play with his computer keyboard . Vollmer challenged himself to make a game that only used the arrow keys , and prototyped what would become Threes in ten hours overnight . He proceeded to iterate on the idea with Wohlwend over the game 's 14 @-@ month development . In Threes , the player slides numbered tiles on a four @-@ by @-@ four grid to combine addends and multiples of three . Vollmer cited Drop7 as an inspiration for the game , having played it for two years beforehand .

Threes had no original inclination towards minimalism . In fact , Vollmer and Wohlwend felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players . They returned to the original idea and added character personalities to the tiles . The iOS game was released on February 6 , 2014 , to what Metacritic characterized as " universal acclaim " . Reviewers found the game " charming " and " addictive " , and compared it to Drop7 ( 2009 ) , Triple Town ( 2010 ) , and Stickets ( 2013 ) . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . Other developers released similar games and clones within weeks of the game 's launch . Apple named Threes its best iPhone game of 2014 . The game was later ported to Android , Xbox One , and Windows Phone platforms . Polygon included Vollmer in their " 50 admirable gaming people of 2014 " for his work on Threes .

Vollmer thought he would work on a new game a month after releasing Threes , but was kept busy by obligations to fix and update the game , to port it to other platforms , and to promote game through press and events . He was convinced that he would never make a game " as clean and tight as Threes ever again " . Vollmer 's next game was Close Castles , a real @-@ time strategy game .

= = = After Threes = = =

Vollmer unveiled Close Castles in June 2014 . Players start in corners of a " grid map " and are represented by castles . Vollmer explained that the game 's name is from castles built too close to one another , starting a mutually assured destruction scenario . Players can build three structure types out from their castle : towers that fire at incoming enemies ( defense ) , houses that make " loyal subjects " ( offense ) , and markets that make money ( economy ) . The " A " button with a direction constructs a path directing followers to the enemy . Followers capture enemy structures as denoted by a " defense bar " that fills as followers enter the structure and that destroys the structure when filled . Markets are the weakest structure , and two towers can defend against one house . Player turf grows as player structures approach the limits of their area . Players earn five units of money a second , which increases by five for every market . Polygon called the game 's simple visual design " horrifyingly deceptive " . Vollmer has said that games should last around three minutes apiece and that the local multiplayer 's lack of " hidden information " should make interactions with other players less of a " sadomasochistic " game of waiting for an opponent to concede . The game was demoed on an Xbox 360 but was planned for release on the PlayStation 4 . Vollmer put the project on hold while he worked out " fundamental flaws " in the gameplay .

While Vollmer traditionally worked on multiple games at once , Close Castles was his only project when it was in production . In March 2015 , he worked three days a week on a bigger project with a small team , and saved his other days for personal experimentation and Threes bugs . The next month , Vollmer released Royals , a pay what you want simulation game for OS X and Windows . The player controls a peasant who advances towards royal status by collecting resources and followers . Every player decision counts as a year of the peasant 's life . Polygon 's Megan Farokhmanesh described the game as difficult and charming , with a " quirky , subtle humor " . The game was designed to be " purposefully difficult and obtuse " and " nothing like Threes " . Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef wrote that the gameplay was like a " comically minimalist roguelike " for its emphasis on resource management and short player lifespans .

= Battle of Unsan =

The Battle of Unsan ( Hangul : 운산전투 ; hanja : 雲山戰鬪 ; RR : Unsan jeontu ; MR : Unsan chŏnt 'u ) , also known as the Battle of Yunshan ( Chinese : 云山战斗 ; pinyin : Yún Shān Zhàn Dòu ) , was a series of engagements of the Korean War that took place from 25 October to 4 November 1950 near Unsan , North Pyongan province in present @-@ day North Korea . As part of the Chinese First Phase Campaign , the People 's Republic of China 's People 's Volunteer Army made repeated attacks against the Republic of Korea 1st Infantry Division near Unsan beginning on 25 October , in an attempt to take advancing United Nations forces by surprise . In an accidental first encounter with the United States military during the Korean War , the Chinese 39th Corps attacked the unprepared US 8th Cavalry Regiment in Unsan on 1 November , resulting in one of the most devastating US losses of the Korean War .

= = Background = =

By October 1950 , the United Nations ( UN ) forces had successfully broken out of the Pusan Perimeter in the extreme south of Korea and begun an aggressive northward advance towards the Sino @-@ Korean border , chasing the retreating Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) . The US 1st Cavalry Division entered Pyongyang on 19 October , while the Republic of Korea Army ( ROK ) were rushing towards the Yalu River in all directions . As part of the Thanksgiving Offensive to end the war , Major General Frank W. Milburn , commander of the US I Corps , ordered the ROK 1st Infantry Division to secure the Sup 'ung Dam on the Yalu River by advancing through Unsan .

Alarmed by the rapid collapse of the KPA , China 's Chairman Mao Zedong ordered the People 's Liberation Army 's North East Frontier Force to be reorganized into the People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) for the upcoming intervention in Korea . Despite Mao 's determination to save North Korea from capitulation , the Chinese military leadership expressed doubts on the ability of the Chinese army to fight against the more modernized US forces . As a compromise , Mao authorized the First Phase Campaign , a bridgehead building operation with limited offensives against only the South Korean forces while avoiding contacts with the US forces . Under strict secrecy , the PVA entered Korea on 19 October .

= = Prelude = =

= = = Locations and terrain = = =

Unsan is a town in northwest Korea , and it is located 50 mi ( 80 km ) from the Ch 'ongch 'on River mouth on the Korean west coast . Because of the hilly terrains at the Sino @-@ Korean Border , Unsan is one of the few access points into the Yalu River area . The town is surrounded by hills to the north , the Nammyon River to the west and the Samtan River to the east . At the south of the town , a road junction controls the road from Unsan to Ipsok while a ridge dubbed " Bugle Hill " controls the road between Unsan and Yongsan @-@ dong . Those two roads formed the only retreat routes for the UN forces at Unsan .

= = = Forces and strategy = = =

Acting on Milburn 's instruction , the ROK 1st Infantry Division advanced north on 24 October with the ROK 6th Infantry Division on its right and the US 24th Infantry Division on its left , and by the morning of 25 October , the ROK 1st Infantry Division had captured Unsan . But with the UN forces spread thinly across Korea , a 15 mi ( 24 km ) gap was left between the US 24th Division and ROK 1st Division , leaving the Korean left flank unprotected .

Upon noticing the thinly held UN frontline , the Chinese decided to launch a pincer movement against the South Koreans at Unsan . As part of the First Phase Campaign , the PVA 120th Division of the 40th Corps was at first to block and hold the ROK 1st Infantry Division at Unsan . Simultaneously , the bulk of the 40th Corps , together with the PVA 38th Corps and one division from the 42nd Corps , would attack and destroy the ROK 6th and 8th Infantry Divisions at the east of Unsan . Finally , the PVA 39th Corps would destroy the ROK 1st Infantry Division by infiltrating the gap between US 24th Division and the ROK 1st Infantry Division west of Unsan . Undetected by UN intelligence , the 120th Division arrived at the blocking position on 24 October , with its 360th Regiment heavily fortified the hills north of Unsan . To obscure troop movements and to prevent UN air raids , the Chinese also started several forest fires around the end of October .

= = Battle = =

= = = Initial skirmish = = =

On 25 October at 10 : 30 , the ROK 1st Infantry Division attacked north with its 12th Regiment on the western bank of Samtan River while the 15th Regiment was trying to reach the eastern bank . But when the 15th Regiment was about to cross the river , the PVA 120th Division intercepted the South Koreans with heavy artillery fire . The South Koreans first believed the resistance to be the last remnants of the KPA , but the perception soon changed with the capture of the first Chinese prisoner in the Korean War . The prisoner revealed that there were 10 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers waiting to join the fight north of Unsan .

Faced with the sudden appearance of the overwhelming Chinese forces , the ROK 1st Infantry Division tried to establish defensive positions by capturing the hills around Unsan . The South Koreans soon found themselves in a seesaw battle with the PVA 360th Regiment during the night of 25 October . The next day , the PVA 39th Corps arrived at the west of Unsan while cutting the road between Unsan and Yongsan @-@ dong , completely surrounding the ROK 1st Infantry Division . Aided by airdrops , the US 6th Medium Tank Battalion and the US 10th Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Group , the ROK 1st Infantry Division reopened the road on 27 October . Several more attempts to advance north by the Koreans made little progress , and the fighting stopped by 28 October .

Despite the warnings given by Brigadier General Paik Sun Yup , commander of the ROK 1st Infantry Division , a general feeling of optimism about the outcome of the war prevented the warnings from being taken seriously . With the fighting reached a stalemate at Unsan , General Walton Walker of the Eighth United States Army ordered the US 8th Cavalry Regiment of the US 1st Cavalry Division to resume offensives north by relieving the ROK 12th Regiment . By the time the US 8th Cavalry Regiment reached Unsan on 29 October , the ROK 11th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 1st Infantry Division was also pulling out of Unsan . At the same time , the Chinese had destroyed the ROK 6th Infantry Division on the east of Unsan . Unsan had now became a northern salient in the UN line containing only the US 8th Cavalry Regiment and the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment .

= = = Chinese counterattack = = =

Still believing that the ROK 1st Infantry Division was tied up at Unsan , PVA Commander Peng Dehuai gave the go ahead for the 39th Corps to destroy the Unsan garrison on 1 November . The Chinese plan called for the PVA 117th Division to attack from the northeast , the 116th Division to attack from the northwest and the 115th Division to attack from the southwest . At the same time , the US 8th Cavalry Regiment had taken up positions around the town , with its 1st Battalion defending the north of Unsan by the Samtan River , while its 2nd and 3rd Battalions defending the areas west of the Unsan by the Nammyon River . The lack of UN manpower , however , created a 1 mi ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions . The ROK 15th Infantry Regiment , on the other hand , had dug in northeast of the Unsan , across the river from the US 1st Battalion .

In the early afternoon of 1 November , a combat patrol from the US 5th Cavalry Regiment , rear guard of the 8th Cavalry Regiment , was intercepted by PVA 343rd Regiment of the 115th Division at Bugle Hill . With the trap discovered , the Chinese immediately launched their attacks at 17 : 00 . Supported by rocket artillery , the 117th Division attacked the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment in full force while four Chinese battalions from the 116th Division struck the gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the US 8th Cavalry Regiment . By 23 : 00 , the heavy fighting destroyed the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment while the US 1st and 2nd Battalions were running out of ammunition . As the UN forces began to buckle around Unsan , Milburn finally ordered the garrison to withdraw after learning the destruction of the ROK 6th Infantry Division on the right flank .

Before the withdrawal could be carried out , however , the PVA 347th Regiment of the 116th Division had already entered the town of Unsan through the gap between the American battalions . Soon afterward , several roadblocks appeared behind the US 1st and 2nd Battalions . With the attacks gaining momentum , the PVA 348th Regiment of the 116th Division advanced southward from Unsan , ambushing the UN forces at the road junction by 02 : 30 . With all the roads blocked , the US 8th Cavalry Regiment 's 1st and 2nd Battalions had to escape by infiltrating the Chinese lines in small groups , abandoning most of their vehicles and heavy weapons along the way . The surviving US and ROK soldiers reached UN lines by 2 November .

While the US 8th Cavalry Regiment 's 1st and 2nd Battalions were under heavy attack , its 3rd Battalion was left alone for most of the night , but by 03 : 00 , a company of Chinese commandos from the 116th Division managed to infiltrate the battalion command post disguised as ROK soldiers . The following surprise attack set many vehicles on fire while causing numerous casualties among the Americans , most of whom were still sleeping . By the time the confusing fighting had ended , the 3rd Battalion was squeezed into a 200 yd ( 180 m ) wide perimeter by the PVA 345th Regiment of the 115th Division . The US 5th Cavalry Regiment made repeated attempts to rescue the 3rd Battalion by attacking the PVA 343rd Regiment at Bugle Hill , but after suffering 350 casualties , the 5th Cavalry was forced to withdraw under orders from Major General Hobart Gay , commander of the US 1st Cavalry Division . The trapped 3rd Battalion endured days of constant attacks , and the surviving soldiers managed to break out of the perimeter by 4 November . By the end of the battle , less than 200 survivors from the 3rd Battalion managed to return to the UN line .

= = Aftermath = =

Immediately after the success at Unsan , the rest of the Chinese forces advanced across the US lines , intending to push the US forces back across the Ch 'ongch 'on River and into Pyongyang . But food and ammunition shortages soon forced the Chinese to disengage on 5 November , thus ending the Chinese First Phase Campaign . Besides the victory at Unsan , the Chinese First Phase Campaign also destroyed the ROK 6th Infantry Division and one regiment from the ROK 8th Infantry Division at the Battle of Onjong . In return , the Chinese had suffered 10 @,@ 700 casualties by the end of the Chinese First Phase Campaign . The Battle of Unsan has been considered to be one of the most devastating US losses of the Korean War .

The Chinese victory at Unsan was as much of a surprise to the Chinese leadership as it was to the UN forces . The accidental encounter between the Chinese and US forces at Unsan eased the fear of the Chinese leadership about intervening in Korea , while the performance of the US 1st Cavalry Division was studied in great detail by Chinese commanders . For the UN forces , on the other hand , despite the heavy losses suffered by the US Eighth Army at Unsan , the unexpected Chinese withdrawal made the United Nations Command believe that China did not intervene in Korea on a large scale . PVA Commander Peng Dehuai incorporated the lessons from Unsan for the upcoming Second Phase Campaign , while General Douglas MacArthur launched the Home @-@ by @-@ Christmas Offensive under the assumption that only a weak Chinese force was present in Korea , resulting in the decisive battles at the Ch 'ongch 'on River and the Chosin Reservoir later that year .

= California King Bed =

" California King Bed " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . The sixth single from the album , it was released on May 13 , 2011 , by Def Jam . Priscilla Renea and Alex Delicata wrote the song with its main producers , Jermaine Jackson and Andrew Harr of The Runners . Its recording took place in 2010 in the studios We The Best in Miami and Burst HQ in Wisconsin . Released digitally on iTunes Store May 13 , 2011 , it began to be played on April 4 in Australian radios and May 31 in the US . Later , after their impact on radio areas , the song was also issued on CD single format in Europe and also an extended play ( EP ) digital with nine remixes from the original track .

The song had a moderate effect on music charts , leading the tables Slovakia , Poland and reaching the five best @-@ selling bands in Germany , Australia , Austria , New Zealand and Portugal , while on the Billboard Hot 100 reached the 37th position .

= = Background and composition = =

On March 1 , 2011 , Rihanna asked fans to help her choose the next single from Loud using Twitter , saying that she would film a music video within the next couple of weeks . After an influx of suggestions , the singer said she had narrowed the options down to four songs : " Man Down " , " California King Bed " , " Cheers ( Drink to That ) " and " Fading " . On March 12 , she confirmed that " California King Bed " had been selected as the next international single . However , the releases were switched , and " Man Down " was sent to rhythmic and urban radio stations in the United States on May 3 – before the May 13 release of " California King Bed " – making " Man Down " and " California King Bed " the fifth and sixth singles from Loud .

" California King Bed " is a rock and R & B song , and is set in common time in the key of G major ( F major for live performances ) with a moderately slow tempo of 85 beats per minute . The song follows a chord progression of G / B – C2 for the verses , and G – D – Em – C in the chorus . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E3 to the high note of C5 . Both Ryan Burlenson of the website Consequence of Sound and James Reed of The Boston Globe compared the song with Taylor Swift 's material . Emily Mackay of NME wrote that the song was a " inevitable big ballad with acoustic guitar ( complete with audible string scrapes ) soft piano keys and intimate melancholy , building into a massive power @-@ balladish chorus " which she also compared with " If I Were a Boy " ( 2008 ) by American singer Beyoncé Knowles .

= = Critical reception = =

Andy Gill of The Independent and Ryan Dombell from Pitchfork Media both noted that the song embodies all the elements of a big power ballad , with the former stating that it is " Rihanna 's best vocal performance " and the latter concurring , labeling the song as a " ' I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing ' type power ballad genetically engineered to soundtrack a bi @-@ coastal Kate Hudson rom @-@ com . " Daniel Brockman of Boston Phoenix writer perceived the song as an " innocuous soft jam . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani called " California King Bed " a " slushy acoustic ballad whose clever metaphor is all but suffocated beneath the song 's cheesy production choices " Andy Gill of The Independent , gave a positive review for the song saying that it contained Rihanna 's best vocal performance to date . However , Robert Copsey of Digital Spy criticized her vocals , stating that " She [ Rihanna ] belts out in a range well beyond her natural vocal ability . "

Scott Shetler of Popcrush commented that it was refreshing to see Rihanna release a down @-@ tempo ballad , instead of a continuous flow of up @-@ tempo dance songs , saying " Though ‘ California King Bed ’ follows a routine pop ballad arrangement , the song is a nice change of pace for the Barbadian hitmaker . As much as we love Rihanna ’ s dance club hits , it ’ s refreshing to hear a song built around her impressive voice . " Stacey Anderson of Spin magazine explained the lyrical meaning behind the song , saying , " ' California King Bed ' is a wrenching ballad about the waking death of a relationship , the stage of limbo before the final crash ; it 's so well @-@ delivered , in fact , that it 's hard to hear . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , saying " The fourth single proper from Loud may pull in the reins as far as the hectic dance beats and sado @-@ masochistic lyrics go , but it 's no less beefy and extravagant . Lilting acoustic guitars metamorphose into ' 80s rawk ones as she sings about the kind of separate @-@ togetherness felt moments before a break @-@ up . She belts out in a range well beyond her natural vocal ability . " Thomas Conner of Chicago Sun @-@ Times concluded that " The acoustic strums of ' California King Bed ' build to a cinematic , Diane Warren @-@ sized breakup chorus . "

Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson gave a mixed review of the song saying : " she [ Rihanna ] doesn 't have the chops to be a balladeer , which made the torch @-@ song quality of ' California King Bed ' land with a thud . " Similarly , Henry Goldblatt of the same publication graded the song with a B + and gave a critical review of the title saying that it was borrowed from Pottery Barn . However , Goldblatt praised the irresistible heartbreak in the song and added that Rihanna 's voice demonstrates more range and power than her older material . Andy Kellman of Allmusic and Emily Mackay of NME were more critical of the song in their review , with the former calling the song an " overwrought rock weeper " and the latter saying it is a " howler of a ballad , with shlocky acoustic intro , trite piano and a faux @-@ Slash solo . "

= = Chart performance = =

Before being officially released , " California King Bed " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number sixty @-@ one on April 11 , 2011 and peaked at number four for two consecutive weeks . The song has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . The song also made an appearance on the New Zealand Singles Chart before its official release , debuting at number eighteen on April 18 , 2011 , before eventually peaking at number four for two consecutive weeks . The song has since been certified Gold for sales of over 7 @,@ 500 copies . In the United Kingdom , the song reached a peaked of number eight on the UK Singles Chart on June 5 , 2011 as well as reaching a peak of number three on the UK R & B Chart on June 11 , 2011 . In the United States , the song made its debut on the week ending June 4 , 2011 at number eighty on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and reached a peak of number thirty @-@ seven , becoming Rihanna 's 25th top forty hit on the chart . " California King Bed " ranked at number 47 on Billboard magazine 's best @-@ selling Dance / Clubs songs of 2011 .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background and synopsis = = =

The music video for " California King Bed " was shot on March 17 , 2011 and was shot by Anthony Mandler , who has frequently worked with Rihanna . Mandler directed the videos for other singles from Loud including " Only Girl ( In the World ) " and " Man Down " . The creative director , Ciarra Pardo , fabricated a custom made eighteen foot long bed , which was designed with a special feature to transport Rihanna the full distance from one side to the other . On May 4 , 2011 , Rihanna posted a picture of the video which showed her laying on a man while looking in the camera . She also tweeted " Bout to tweet u sumn I cud get in trouble for ! But I know ur anxious . " The full video premiered Monday , May 9 , 2011 on Rihanna 's official website and her VEVO account . In an interview with Jocelyn Vena of MTV News , Mandler spoke of his and Rihanna 's long collaborative history , saying :

I think it 's something that is so unique about Rihanna whatever she 's doing , whatever character she 's playing , whatever side of herself she 's showing , she 's in it 1 @,@ 000 percent ... And I think the song and the theme of this song , she wanted to obviously show a softer side , a lighter side , one that 's caught in maybe a tumultuous relationship ... There 's so much variety with her and it 's been such a journey with her .

Almost the whole video set is made in tropical and romantic setting . The video begins with a shot of Rihanna herself laying down in grass . Then scenes of Rihanna walking on the beach and Rihanna curling up on the chair are shown . This is followed by her own and her partner holding each other closely in bed , sitting on different sides of a large bed , and other scenes featuring Rihanna singing through sheer curtains and drapery . In the video there are also black @-@ white scenes showing Rihanna touching to a stone wall .

= = = Reception = = =

As stated by Jason Lipshutz of Billboard , in this video , Rihanna returned to nature as in her video for her previous single , " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , which features nearly the same colors as the " California King Bed " video . Lipshutz also commented that Rihanna 's just rolled @-@ out @-@ bed appearance is completed by the modest , cream @-@ colored attire in the airy , light @-@ filled clip . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly gave a positive review of the video , writing : " Instead of being in complete control , here she is — vulnerable , open , and unsure . The video captures the feel of ' King Bed , ' not that it 's a difficult one to grasp . " Jessica Sinclair of Long Island Press was also positive about the video , praising the sensual side of Rihanna . A writer of The Huffington Post concluded : " In the video for her new video , ' California King Bed , ' the Barbadian pop star slows it down and shows her sensitive side , holding notes and bearing her soul over a troubled relationship . Set entirely in a gorgeously pink @-@ palleted open air room overlooking the beach , the winds swirl and blow the curtains dramatically around the heart broken singer . " The writer finished the review saying that " Not much happens in the video – but then , that 's the point . " Amber Katz of MTV Buzzworthy compared the video with Fergie 's " Big Girls Don 't Cry " saying , that they " Both are midtempo , ballady and filmed in a soft @-@ focus domestic setting . " Katz also complimented the bed in the video saying that it " evoke [ s ] a very Caribbean vibe , a shout @-@ out to Rihanna 's native Barbados , no doubt . " A writer of Daily Mail complimented Rihanna 's looks in the video , saying that it showed her " most sultry " side . Both Nicole Eggenberger of OK ! and Eleanor Young of Marie Claire commented that the video uses a lot of sex appeal which was a departure from Rihanna 's older videos .

= = Live performances = =

Rihanna performed the song for the first time alongside Sugarland front woman Jennifer Nettles , at the ACM Awards held by the Academy of Country Music on April 3 , 2011 . She was also a special guest star on the tenth season of American Idol on April 14 , 2011 . The performance featured Rihanna in a floor @-@ length , heavily textured rose @-@ colored gown , which she adorned as she appeared from behind flowing ceiling height curtains . Kara Warner of MTV News complimented the performance , saying " the 23 @-@ year @-@ old rocked the house with an ethereal performance of her ballad ' California King Bed . ' " A writer of Rolling Stone wrote : " It 's a classy , laid @-@ back performance with Rihanna in a lovely gown , backed up by interpretative dancers caressing large pieces of fabric that are probably meant to evoke bed sheets , but look a bit more like giant strips of toilet paper hanging from the ceiling . But either way , this is quite nice . " In March 2011 , Rihanna was appointed spokeswoman for the " 100 Years of Skin Care " Nivea Commercial campaign , which featured " California King Bed " as the song used in the commercials . As part of promotion for the campaign , Rihanna performed the song at private events in several European cities in May 2011 , including Hamburg , Milan and Paris . The song was also performed on NBC 's Today show on May 27 , 2011 , as part of their Summer Concert Series . The set also featured Rihanna performing her previous US Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one hits from Loud ; " Only Girl ( In the World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " S & M " . The song is included on the set @-@ list of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) .

= = Other versions = =

Pia Toscano and Stefano Langone , contestants of the tenth season of American Idol , covered the song during one of the nights . American rapper Snoop Dogg , released an unofficial remix of the song along with a music video . In his version of the song he sings the lines " California dreamin ' , schemin ' , you got me gleamin ' / I need you on my team ' n you get my meanin ' / It sound crazy but it 's amazing / Lay down with me so we can make some babies . " The accompanying music video a girl which looks like Kim Kardashian waiting him at the hotel , while the official video of the song is played on TV screens .

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Loud , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .

Personnel

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Radio and release history = =

= Typhoon Nelson ( 1982 ) =

Typhoon Nelson , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Bising , was the second tropical cyclone to strike the Philippines within a week in March 1982 . Nelson originated from a tropical disturbance southeast of Guam towards the middle of March . Although the system was initially poorly organized , it developed rather quickly , and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Nelson on March 19 . It tracked westward , and fluctuated in intensity for several days . On March 24 , Typhoon Nelson intensified into a typhoon , and entered an episode of rapid intensification . On March 25 , Nelson reached its peak intensity of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) , but thereafter moved ashore on the Philippines , where the storm weakened significantly . On March 27 , the typhoon entered the South China Sea , and the next day , briefly re @-@ intensified before resuming a weakening trend . Nelson dissipated on March 31 . Affecting the nation less than a week after Tropical Storm Mamie did , Nelson was responsible for additional flooding across much of the Philippines . Fifty @-@ six people were killed due to the typhoon , eight of whom perished due to drownings . Over 1 @,@ 200 homes were destroyed . More than 165 @,@ 000 people fled to shelters , including 83 @,@ 000 that were displaced from their home . Thirty fishing boats and 23 ferries were destroyed due to the system . Damage amounted to $ 17 @.@ 2 million ( 1982 USD ) .

= = Meteorological history = =

The second of three early season tropical cyclones to form in the West Pacific basin , Typhoon Nelson can be traced back to a low latitude area of disturbed in mid @-@ March . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the system at 0000 UTC on March 18 while a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued . Initially , the system was disorganized , but the disturbance was located in a favorable environment aloft and began to develop rapidly . Ten hours after the TCFA , the JTWC upgraded the system into a tropical depression . Early on March 19 , the JMA classified the system as a tropical storm . Later that morning , Hurricane Hunters reported winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Based on this , the JTWC designated the system as Tropical Storm Nelson .

Nelson tracked westward , staying south of a large subtropical ridge . Despite the aforementioned favorable environment , Nelson briefly weakened late on March 19 , but re @-@ intensified slightly the following morning . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC upgraded the system into a typhoon . Further intensification was halted due to increased easterly wind shear , and the storm began to level off in intensity as it accelerated on a westward course . On March 21 , the JMA declared Nelson a severe tropical storm . According to the JTWC , the storm fluctuated between tropical storm and typhoon status for about 60 hours , even though the JMA suggest that Nelson did not become a typhoon until March 24 . Around this time , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also started monitoring the storm , assigning it with the local name Bising .

After becoming a typhoon , Nelson forward 's speed began to slow down as the storm began to move away from the ridge and encounter more conducive conditions . Consequently , Typhoon Nelson began to deepen more rapidly , and by the afternoon of March 25 , both the JTWC and JMA increased the intensity to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Although the JMA suggests the system reached its peak intensity at that time , the JTWC indicated that Nelson strengthen slightly on March 25 , and attained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , equivalent to a major hurricane or a Category 3 system on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . Shortly thereafter , the storm moved ashore in the Philippine at peak intensity . After making landfall , Nelson weakened over the south @-@ central portion of the nation . By March 26 , the JMA had lowered the winds to 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) .

By March 27 , Nelson re @-@ emerged into the South China Sea , having weakened considerably , and data from both the JMA and JTWC indicated that Nelson was no longer a typhoon . The next day , Nelson briefly re @-@ intensified slightly , and at 1800 UTC on March 28 , the JMA estimated a secondary peak intensity of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . On the following day , Nelson resumed weakening due to increased wind shear . Despite the presence of a trough , Nelson did not recurve northeast , and instead meandered westward . On the afternoon of March 31 , the JMA ceased watching Nelson . On the next day , the JTWC followed suit while located about 450 km ( 280 mi ) east of Nha Trang , Vietnam .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Typhoon Nelson was the second storm to strike the Philippines within a week , following Tropical Storm Mamie , which claimed 54 lives . Considered a " pre @-@ season " storm by newspapers , Nelson required storm warnings for parts of the nation , which were broadcast via radio . Much of the southern section of the Philippines were placed on typhoon alert . Due to the threat of storm surge , residents in coastal areas were advised to evacuate to higher ground .

Typhoon Nelson was responsible for significant flooding across the Philippines . On the offshore Leyte Island , a radio transmitter and a school were destroyed . In Cebu City , schools , businesses , and government offices were closed for a day . Across the low @-@ lying town of Abucay , flooding occurred . A total of 1 @,@ 261 dwellings were leveled , including 703 houses destroyed in the provinces of Cebu , Bohol , and Surigao , leaving approximately 83 @,@ 000 people homeless . In Loreto Town , part of the Suriago Province , 95 % of all coconut trees were toppled , and all but 45 of the town 's 600 houses were demolished . A total of 165 @,@ 462 persons evacuated to shelters . Widespread power outages occurred while many bridges were washed away . Shipping and air services were halted ; 30 fishing boats and 23 ferries were destroyed . In all , 56 people perished due to Typhoon Nelson . Ten died in the hard @-@ hit Leyte Province . At least eight of the casualties were due to drownings , which included two woman and an infant . Overall , damage from Nelson amounted to $ 17 @.@ 2 million , crop and property damage alone totaled $ 7 @.@ 4 million .

= Hopeville Pond State Park =

Hopeville Pond State Park is a Connecticut state park located in the town of Griswold . Before European colonization , the Mohegan people constructed weirs and fished from the Pachaug River . In 1711 , Stephen Gates was granted 14 acres of land that now resides within the park 's limits and constructed a gristmill and sawmill at the natural falls . In 1818 , Elizah Abel purchased the mill privilege and built a woolen mill at the site . The mills were later acquired by John Slater who constructed a satinet mill and named it " Hope Mill " . The village of Hopeville would derive its name from the mill , and it thrived until a series of fires destroyed the mills , the church and some houses . Sometime before 1917 , the Ashland Cotton Company erected a dam on the site and created a 145 @-@ acre reservoir . The United States Government purchased the land in the 1930s for recreational use and used the Civilian Conservation Corps to adapt the land to the purpose . In 1938 , the State of Connecticut designated Hopeville Pond as a state park .

Hopeville Pond State Park 's recreational activities include biking , hiking , camping , fishing , boating and swimming . A variety of fish are found in the park , including northern pike , largemouth bass , and yellow perch . The park has a total of 80 camp sites with each site featuring a fire ring with grate and a picnic table . The park manager 's house is a National Register of Historic Places listed property .

= = History = =

Hopeville Pond was by the Mohegan Indians for fishing prior to the European colonization . The Mohegans built weirs to direct the water flow and fish to the center of the stream for easy capture in fishing baskets . In 1711 , Stephen Gates was granted 14 acres of land which lies within the state park limits . Gates constructed a gristmill and sawmill at the natural falls along the Pachaug River . In 1818 , Elizah Abel purchased the mill privilege and built a woolen mill at the site . Later , John Slater purchased the three mills and constructed a satinet mill and named it " Hope Mill " . The village of Hopeville derived its name from the mill and would also carry it through to the Hopeville Pond and the Hopeville Pond State Park name . The natural falls of the mill sites are no longer visible as they are now underwater .

By 1840 , Hopeville was a " thriving village " according to Daniel L. Phillips , author of Griswold - a history . On November 4 , 1850 , a meeting was held to discuss the construction of a house of worship . A church was erected for $ 1 @,@ 700 and dedicated on December 12 , 1852 . The village of Hopeville reached its peak in 1860 and was well known for its production of woolens . In 1881 , the mill , then owned by Edwin Lanthrop and Company , was destroyed in a fire and not rebuilt . The Ashland Cotton Company would later acquire the property . In 1900 , the church and four houses also burned . In 1908 , the original gristmill from 1711 was also destroyed by fire . Sometime before 1917 , the Ashland Cotton Company erected a dam on the site and created the 145 acre reservoir ; the dam was used to generate electrical power for its mills in Jewett City . The United States Government purchased the land in the 1930s for recreational use and used the Civilian Conservation Corps to adapt the land to the purpose , including the construction of fire control ponds , forest roads and adapting the Avery House for park use . In 1938 , the State of Connecticut designated Hopeville Pond as a state park .

= = Avery House = =

The Avery House , also known as Hopeville Pond Park House , is a 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 40 feet ( 12 m ) , the two story central @-@ chimney Colonial dating to circa 1770 . The central chimney is on a stone base and has a built @-@ in root cellar . In 1935 , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) rehabilitated the property for park use . The alterations in the house changed the traditional five @-@ room first floor plan by eliminating the keeping rooms and the removal of the kitchen fireplace . It retains much of its original door frames and wrought @-@ iron latch hardware . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 . After the rehabilitation of the property , the Avery House became the Hopeville Park manager 's residence .

= = Activities = =

Hopeville Pond State Park is listed for a multitude of recreational activities , including biking , hiking , camping , fishing , boating and swimming . Hopeville Pond was included in an 11 @-@ mile bike trail in Connecticut : Rides for the Casual Cyclist . The Lake Lubbers website states that Hopeville Pond is a popular location for fishing , including ice fishing . The reported fish include " northern pike , largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , catfish , chain pickerel , yellow perch , and bluegill " .

According to the DEEP website , the camping season begins on the third week of April on Friday and ends on September 30 . The park has a total of 80 camp sites with each site featuring a fire ring with grate and a picnic table . The layout is in two loops designated with sites A @-@ E and a second loop designated as F. Each loop has toilet and drinking water facilities . The camp site was rated highly for its beauty , spaciousness , cleanliness and security in 2013 by Best Tent Camping .

= And Yet It Moves =

And Yet It Moves is a platform video game developed by independent developer Broken Rules . The game was released for Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux on April 2 , 2009 , and a Wii port was released on the Wii Shop Channel in August 2010 . And Yet It Moves was originally designed as a computer science project at the Vienna University of Technology in 2007 . When the original prototype won or was nominated for awards at various independent game festivals , the team decided to create a full version of the game .

And Yet It Moves focuses on moving the player character through a series of hazardous environments . The player possesses the ability to freely rotate the entire game world , transforming walls into floors and vice versa . The game 's levels and puzzles are designed around this concept . The game features paper collage styled visuals designed by Jan Hackl and a beatboxing soundtrack performed by Christoph Binder .

Both the PC and WiiWare versions of the game received positive reviews , with many critics applauding the gameplay mechanics and the visuals . And Yet It Moves was also released as part of the third Humble Indie Bundle .

= = Gameplay = =

And Yet It Moves is a single @-@ player puzzle platform game set in a world stylized to resemble a paper collage , where background elements and characters consist of ripped paper . The nameless player character , who appears as a cutout pencil line @-@ drawing on white paper , is moved through a series of levels by running and jumping across the obstacles and avoiding hazards . The player possesses the ability to " spin " the entire game world in 90 or 180 degree increments at any time . Because the rotation is instantaneous and gravity will always point " downward " relative to the game screen , spinning the world has physical consequences on the player character and on the environment : walls that are too steep to climb become flat , walkable surfaces , and objects may move or react to the change in gravity . All objects retain their momentum relative to their frame of reference .

The levels in And Yet It Moves are designed such that spinning the world at certain moments is required to progress . Because the character will tear into pieces if he falls from too high a distance , the player must often spin the world such that the character can safely surmount or descend from large obstacles . Other hazards such as wild beasts , fire and boulders , or falling into the black void that borders the playing field will tear the character . However , the player has unlimited lives and will reappear at the last checkpoint he passed prior to being torn .

The main campaign mode offers 17 levels that span three different environments . There are other gameplay features available , such as online leaderboards , various time attack modes , and optional achievements that are awarded for performing specific objectives .

In the Wii version , players control the game using the Wii Remote held sideways , and the game world is rotated by twisting the controller in various directions . The Nunchuk and Classic Controller are also compatible for alternate control schemes . This version also removes the restriction to only rotate in 90 degree intervals and offers three additional levels compared to the PC versions .

= = Development = =

And Yet It Moves is the first video game developed by Broken Rules , an independent game developer based in Vienna . The game began as a bachelor project held by the Department for Design and Assessment of Technology at the Vienna University of Technology . The four computer science students involved wanted to design a game that gave the player more freedom than possible in normal 2D games ; a side @-@ scrolling platform game with the ability to rotate the entire game world was chosen . A prototype of the game took half a year to develop using the Torque game engine , and the name And Yet It Moves was chosen for its ambiguity and " it hints at world rotation , " an allusion to Galileo Galilei 's famous ( but apocryphal ) remark " Eppur si muove " . The prototype was showcased at various independent game development festivals and garnered positive feedback ; it was a winner in the Student Showcase category of the 2007 Independent Games Festival and a nominee for the 2007 Europrix Top Talent Award . The interest in the title inspired the students to develop a full game , which took approximately two years . Broken Rules was founded when it was realized that " it was a necessity [ in order ] to better deal with all the organizational , financial and juridical hassles that are involved when making business . "

Broken Rules did not have a dedicated artist , so the designers chose a graphical style they believed was both aesthetically pleasing and easy to create . A pencil @-@ on @-@ paper look was first attempted , but it appeared " empty and boring " until photographs , collected from public sources such as morgueFile , were added . The style evolved into the game 's final ripped paper collage look , intended to appear " rough and analog . " Designer Christoph Binder created the game 's background music and sound effects by beatboxing , echoing this motif . Felix Bohatsch , the project lead , stated in an interview that adding a narrative or backstory was avoided in favor of prioritizing the gameplay . He added however that the level design follows a leitmotif that conveys " a journey from being confined to becoming free " as the game progresses , first beginning in dark caves and ending in a wide blank space .

In October 2008 , Nintendo contacted Broken Rules and asked if a downloadable WiiWare version of And Yet It Moves could be developed for its Wii console after seeing a demonstration of the game at the 2008 IndieCade Festival in Los Angeles . Bohatsch stated that " we didn 't think long about this decision because we always wanted to bring And Yet It Moves to a console and I have a sweet spot for the Wii . " However , the PC game 's projected release date was April 2 , 2009 ; it was too late in development to begin co @-@ developing for Wii and launch simultaneously on both platforms . PC version development was completed first and then Wii development started in June .

Because And Yet It Moves was originally designed to be played with digital controls , the Wii Remote 's analog motion controls needed to be implemented such that they felt natural and not intrusive . Broken Rules determined , following a number of tests , that allowing the player to freely rotate to any degree best suited motion controls ; originally the player could only rotate in 90 degree intervals . Four different control schemes were implemented to satisfy a wide number of players , three of which either use motion control or the Wii Remote pointer . While the file size limit imposed on WiiWare games was not an issue , the visuals needed to be downsampled to cohere with the Wii hardware . A standard @-@ definition television was used in development ; Bohatsch felt the visuals looked nicer on the SDTV than on a PC or Mac with higher display resolution , but warned that some HDTVs might not upsample the Wii resolution properly , recommending that a component cable be used while playing the game . The online leaderboards were omitted from the Wii version because the PC version 's leaderboards were not frequently used . Three new levels , unlocked when the player completes the main campaign mode , were added . The near final version of the game was submitted to Nintendo 's Quality Assurance team in May 2010 to inspect and find bugs . And Yet It Moves was released on the Wii Shop Channel in North America on August 23 , 2010 and then in Europe on August 27 .

Broken Rules currently has no plans to develop a sequel to And Yet It Moves , due to the time spent on the game . Bohatsch commented that he is unopposed to the idea and is amenable to proposals to develop such a game .

= = Reception = =

And Yet It Moves received generally favorable reviews . The PC version gained aggregate scores of 71 @.@ 50 % and 75 on GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively , while the WiiWare version gained aggregate scores of 85 @.@ 30 % and 83 . Critics applauded the game 's unique take on the platforming genre and the game 's paper collage visual style , but felt the game was too short . Some critics noted the absence of any narrative or backstory , but felt that the game ultimately didn 't need one , though GameSpot noted it as one of the game 's weaknesses .

In his review of the PC version , IGN 's Daemon Hatfield stated that And Yet It Moves " manages to make this quarter @-@ century old genre [ 2D platformer ] feel new again . " Hatfield praised the gameplay , which was " challenging but avoids being frustrating " , but felt there wasn 't enough content to warrant the $ 15 price , despite the additional game modes available . Hatfield scored the game 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 . GameFocus scored the PC version 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , praising the gameplay , sound , controls , and use of physics . The review also stated that players are unlikely to experience motion sickness despite the frequent rotating of the game screen . GameSpot scored the PC version 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating that while the rotation mechanic " wears thin toward the end of the game , " " the increasingly exotic level design manages to keep the good times rolling until the end . "

Justin Haywald of 1UP.com stated that " even when I felt I had to guess which direction I was supposed to go , the levels are set up well enough that the way forward is always easy to figure out " . Haywald praised the visuals as well , but stated that " as the scenery grows more cluttered , it also sometimes becomes difficult to find a safe place to land after sending the world spinning " . Haywald rated And Yet It Moves a B + . NintendoLife rated the WiiWare version 9 out of 10 , stating that the new additions and updated controls made it the " definitive version of the game " despite the omission of online features seen in the PC version .

= = = Sales = = =

Felix Bohatsch of Broken Rules reported in May 2009 that sales of the PC version were " not at a level we were expecting " . No digital rights management ( DRM ) protection was placed on the game because " we ... believe that any game will be cracked , no matter how we try to protect it , so our philosophy is that adding DRM or anything similar only annoys the people who actually pay for it . " The bootlegging rate was approximately 95 @.@ 5 % , meaning " for every game [ sold ] there are 22 cracked version [ sic ] being played " . Bohatsch speculated that the poor sales were partly caused by the levels demonstrated in the free game demo , which did not focus enough on the game 's puzzles . More than 370 @,@ 000 units of the game were sold as part of the third Humble Indie Bundle .

= Sängerfest =

Sängerfest , also Sängerbund @-@ Fest , Sängerfeste , or Saengerfest , meaning singer festival , is a competition of Sängerbunds , or singer groups , with prizes for the best group or groups . Such public events are also known as a Liederfest , or song festival . Participants number in the hundreds and thousands , and the fest is usually accompanied by a parade and other celebratory events . The sängerfest is most associated with the Germanic culture . Its origins can be traced back to 19th century Europe . Swiss composer Hans Georg Nägeli and educator Carl August Zeller , both protégés of Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , established sängerbunds to help foster social change throughout Germany and Prussia . University students began to choose the art form as an avenue for political statements . As the sängerfest concept gained popularity and spread around the world , it was adapted by Christian churches for spiritual worship services . European immigrants brought the tradition in a non @-@ political form to the North American continent . In the early part of the 20th century , sängerfest celebrations drew devotees in the tens of thousands , and included some United States presidents among their audiences . Sängerbunds are still active in Europe and in American communities with Germanic heritage .

= = History = =

= = = Europe = = =

Students of Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , a proponent of social reform , applied his teachings when founding some singing groups as an instrument for cultural change . One of his students was Carl August Zeller , who helped establish the sängerbund movement throughout Prussia in 1809 . Pestalozzi 's protégé Hans Georg Nägeli was a composer , music teacher and songbook publisher who made numerous journeys across Germany from 1819 to encourage the formation of male singing groups for social reform . Nägeli established several sängerbunds in Switzerland , which became the inspiration for the 1824 establishment of the Stuttgarter Liederkranz . Following the 1819 Carlsbad Decrees in Germany , male @-@ only choral celebrations with hundreds or thousands of vocalists were popular with the masses and often part of political events .

Composer Friedrich Silcher was directly influenced by Pestalozzi and Nägeli . He began using large choirs to express political viewpoints at least as early as 1824 when he and a group of Tübingen University students performed La Marseillaise to commemorate the storming of the Bastille . In 1827 at Plochingen , Baden @-@ Württemberg , several male @-@ voiced choirs combined for a regional liederfest . Sängerfests were part of the Hambach Festival of 1832 .

Christian church organizations known as Christlicher sängerbunds adapted the sängerfest for religious gatherings and helped spread its popularity throughout Europe , North America and Australia . They became popular in late 19th century Russia among Mennonite congregations . On 30 May 1893 , a sängerfest of seven choirs was held in Rückenau in Molotschna , Ukraine . On Sunday , 29 May 1894 , the all @-@ day Russische Saengervereinigung was held in Rückenau under the direction of Polish conductor Friedrich Schweige with assistance from Aron Gerhard Sawatsky , director of the Andreasfeld Mennonite Brethren Church . Beginning on 3 May , Schweiger traveled across Russia rehearsing choirs . On 29 May there were breakfasts for attendees , an estimated 50 vocal presentations by individual choirs , prayer services and sermons , lunch for 2 @,@ 000 people and afternoon snacks .

= = = North America = = =

Mennonites established the northwest Philadelphia section of Germantown in 1683 . The Philadelphia Männerchor founded by German immigrant Phillip Matthias Wohlseiffer in 1835 was the first German @-@ American singing society organized in the United States where the sängerfest began to evolve as a form of civic entertainment . In 1836 , Wohlseiffer founded the Baltimore Liederkranz , which became the first to accept women members ( 1838 ) . In 1846 , the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania group and the Baltimore , Maryland group performed together at a public sängerfest . The " Brooklyn Daily Eagle Almanac " of 1891 listed numerous sängerbunds in the Brooklyn , New York area . On 21 June 1901 , the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund presented a sängerfest in Buffalo , New York at the famous Pan @-@ American Exposition ( where 25th President William McKinley was shot by Leon Czolgosz in a reception line in September 1901 ) . A group in Buffalo hoped to help pay the expenses of the fest by forming the Buffalo Sängerfest Company , selling 1 @,@ 600 shares of stock at $ 25 each .

In 1838 , the Cincinnati Deustcher Gesangverein was formed in Ohio , followed by the Cincinnati Deutsch Liedertafel in 1844 . The Gesang und Bildungsverein Deutscher Arbeiter formed in 1846 and was the first Cincinnati group that allowed women . Groups from Ohio , Kentucky , Maryland and Indiana created the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund in 1849 for a sängerfest hosted by Cincinnati , featuring the music of German composers . By 1908 , it was estimated that 250 @,@ 000 German Americans belonged to musical organizations , and 50 @,@ 000 of those belonged to the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund . The first post @-@ Civil War sängerfest in Columbus , Ohio took place 29 August – 1 September 1865 at Schreiner 's Hall and the Opera House . Each arriving sängerbund was escorted to the hall by the Eighteenth regiment of the United States Infantry . There were an estimated 400 singers entertaining 12 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 attendees . The closing day was celebrated with pomp and circumstance .

The first sängerfest in Texas was held in 1853 in New Braunfels , and was held annually until 1860 when conflicting loyalties about , and participation in , the American Civil War caused a 10 @-@ year gap in the events . The San Antonio Männergesang @-@ Verein was formed in 1847 , the New Braunfels Gesangverein Germania formed in 1850 , and the Austin Männerchor formed in 1852 . On 4 July 1853 in San Antonio , the San Antonio Männergesang @-@ Verein sponsored an Independence Day celebration attended by the New Braunfels Gesangverein and the Austin Männerchor . The New Braunfels Gesangverein invited everyone to meet in New Braunfels on 16 – 17 October 1853 for its first Texas Sängerfest . In 1854 , the aggregate sängerbunds formed the Texas State Sängerbund . The San Antonio Beethoven Männerchor was organized in 1867 by Wilhelm Thielepape , assistant conductor of the San Antonio Männergesang @-@ Verein . After the surrender of the Confederacy in 1865 , Thielepape raised the Union flag of the " Stars and Stripes " over the historic Texan battle site and former church mission , the Alamo in San Antonio and distributed wine and songbooks . The all @-@ male Houston Sängerbund was founded on 6 October 1883 and chartered in 1890 . It affiliated itself with Der Deutsch @-@ Texanische Sängerbund . In 1887 , founding member Carl C. Zeus served as principal of the organization 's German @-@ English school .

22nd and 24th President Grover Cleveland , his wife , and guests took a special train from Washington , D.C. on " Independence Day " , 4 July 1888 , forty miles northeast to see a Baltimore event . Cleveland had friends who were members of the sängerbunds . 27th President William Howard Taft attended the 1 July 1912 event in Philadelphia . On 15 June 1903 , 26th President Theodore Roosevelt and Ambassador Herman Speck von Sternberg attended a sängerfest of 6 @,@ 000 individual singers at Baltimore 's Armory Hall . All 9 @,@ 000 seats were sold out . President Roosevelt delivered an address praising the German culture and the sängerfest tradition . The Northeastern Sängerbund presented selections by composers Herman Spielter , David Melamet , Carl Friedrich Zöllner , E.S. Engelsberg , Felix Mendelssohn and Richard Wagner .

When Newark , New Jersey , hosted the 21st National Sängerfest , held on 1 – 4 July 1906 in Olympic Park , 25 @,@ 000 people showed up to hear the music , many arriving on chartered trains . Only a few thousand were able to get into the hall , and 2 @,@ 000 were standing . Five thousand singers from more than a hundred sängerbunds representing forty cities from New Jersey , New York , Maryland , Pennsylvania , and Delaware competed for a $ 20 @,@ 000 prize offered by Kaiser Wilhelm II . Park vendors offered souvenirs , refreshments , games , and a carousel .

Germans began emigrating to Canada through Nova Scotia , where they helped found the town of Lunenburg in 1753 . The sängerfests were first performed in Kitchener , Ontario , in 1862 . The community events included the standard concerts and meals , with drama presentations and athletic entertainment sponsored by the local Turnvereine clubs . For the next 40 years , sängerbunds and sängerfests spread throughout Ontario . Pennsylvania Mennonites began settling in Ontario in the late 19th century . Alberta and Saskatchewan host annual Mennonite sängerfestes .

In 1916 at his sentencing for bigamy , Count Max Lymer Louden related another misdeed from his past . Louden claimed he had been hired by a group of wealthy German Americans with a secret fund of $ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to take 150 @,@ 000 German reservists , disguised as sängerbunds , across the Canada – United States border for a coup d 'état of Canada , on behalf of Kaiser Wilhelm II . If they drew suspicion , they were prepared to " sing at a moment 's notice . " It was his loyalty to America , he claimed , which caused him to desert the Kaiser 's singing invasion force .

= = Current events = =

Although some local festivals were canceled or suspended during the two world wars owing to rising anti @-@ German sentiment , the triennial Sängerfest tradition has largely survived and many communities in areas with a significant German @-@ American population have Sängerfests today .

Two major German @-@ American singing associations are the Nordöstlicher ( North Eastern ) Sängerbund and the much larger Nord @-@ Amerikanischer ( North American ) Sängerbund ( which , contrary to the name , also includes a few choruses from southern states ) .

Nordöstlicher Sängerbund : The 49th Sängerfest was in Lancaster , Pennsylvania in 2006 . The 50th Sängerfest , hosted by the Washington Sängerbund , took place on the 2009 Memorial Day Weekend in Washington , D.C. The 51st Sängerfest , hosted by the Lehigh Sängerbund , took place in June 2012 in Allentown , PA . The Bloomfield Liedertafel hosted the 52nd Sängerfest in 2015 in Pittsburgh , PA .

Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund : The 61st Sängerfest of the Nord @-@ Amerikanischer Sängerbund was June 2013 in Milwaukee , Wisconsin with over 1300 singers . The 62nd Sängerfest will take place May 27 – 29 , 2016 in Pittsburgh , PA .

= = Gallery = =

= Tom Norman =

Tom Norman , born Thomas Noakes , ( 7 May 1860 – 24 August 1930 ) , was an English businessman , showman and the last exhibitor of Joseph Merrick who was otherwise known as the " Elephant Man " . Among his later exhibits were a troupe of midgets , a " Man in a Trance " , " John Chambers the armless Carpenter " , and the " World 's Ugliest Woman " .

Norman started his working life as a butcher in Sussex before moving to London at the age of 14 where he sought a career on the music hall stage . There , he became interested in freak shows which he attended in his spare time . After viewing an exhibition called " Electric Lady " next door to his place of work , he went into business with the exhibition 's manager and began his career as a showman of human oddities . He quickly became successful , for his patter as much as his exhibits , and was called the ' Silver King ' by the American showman P. T. Barnum .

In 1884 , Norman took over the management of Joseph Merrick , otherwise known as the " Elephant Man " , and exhibited him for a few weeks until police closed down the show . Merrick later went to live at the London Hospital under the care of Sir Frederick Treves . In his 1923 memoirs , Treves portrayed Norman as a cruel drunk who ruthlessly exploited his acts . Norman refuted this characterisation and said that he provided Merrick ( and his other " freaks " ) with a means of making money independently . Norman continued a successful career as a showman and later became an auctioneer of novelty shows and circuses .

Norman died in 1930 and was survived by his wife and 10 children , five of whom followed him into the entertainment business .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life = = =

Norman was born Thomas Noakes on 7 May 1860 in Dallington , Sussex . He was the eldest of 17 children to Thomas Noakes , a butcher and a farmer , and his wife Eliza ( née Haiselden ) .

Norman was introduced to his father 's trade at an early age and left school to work with him when he was 12 . He decided to go travelling two years later to seek a career as a performer . He was unsuccessful and after a short while , he moved to London where he worked as a butcher 's assistant . A kean gambler , Norman moved to Berkshire where he took up professional gambling at Ascot Racecourse . He wound up penniless and resumed his butchery trade in London where he gained a new interest in freak show entertainment .

= = = Novelties = = =

After his unsuccessful venture in Berkshire , Norman returned to being a butcher , and , one day , viewed the " novelties " at a penny gaff next to his place of employment in Islington . There , Mlle Electra , " The Only Electric Lady — A Lady Born Full of Electricity " gave audience members an electrical shock via her handshake . Norman was impressed with the exhibition , realised its lucrative potential , and left his job to enter into business with Mlle Electra 's manager . He quickly discovered Electra was a fake connected to a supply of electricity .

When Mlle Electra was exhibited at Kingston Fair , Norman realised he would be better off working alone , and successfully staged his own " Electric Lady " in Hammersmith . He learned that his skills as an entertainer were as important to his success as the novelties he exhibited . At some point , he changed his birth name to Tom Norman , and renounced his inheritance . According to Joseph Merrick 's biographers Michael Howell and Peter Ford , Norman may have changed his name to avoid shaming his family by his " distasteful " connections to circuses and fairgrounds .

Over the next few years , Norman 's travelling exhibitions featured Eliza Jenkins , the " Skeleton Woman " , a " Balloon Headed Baby " and a woman who bit off the heads of live rats — the " most gruesome " act Norman claimed to have seen . Other acts included fleas , fat ladies , giants , dwarves and retired white seamen , painted black and speaking in an invented language , billed " savage Zulus " . He displayed a " family of midgets " which in reality was composed of two men and a borrowed baby . He operated a number of shops in London and Nottingham , and exhibited travelling shows throughout the country . In 1882 , Norman gave a show at Islington 's Royal Agricultural Hall . Unknown to Norman , the show was attended by American showman P. T. Barnum . Norman falsely claimed to his audience , as he had often done in the past , that his show had been booked to appear at Barnum 's ' Greatest Show on Earth ' . Barnum was much amused and afterwards , seeing Norman 's silver necklace and noting his gift for oratory , dubbed him the ' Silver King ' . With 13 shops in London alone , Norman ran into a shortage of curiosities and travelled the country looking for new acts . He enticed human novelties into his employ with promises of generous salaries .

= = = Elephant Man = = =

In 1884 , Norman came into contact with Joseph Merrick , a young man from Leicester who had extreme deformities . Unable to find work due to his physical appearance , Merrick ended up in the Leicester workhouse for four years . In 1884 he left the workhouse and put himself in the charge of the music hall proprietors Sam Torr and J. Ellis , and the travelling showman ' Little George ' Hitchcock . Collectively , they presented Merrick as " The Elephant Man , Half @-@ a @-@ Man and Half @-@ an @-@ Elephant " . They quickly realised that they would not be able to show Merrick for too long in one place , for fear of the novelty wearing off , and towards the end of 1884 , Hitchcock contacted Norman , an acquaintance of his , and transferred management of the Elephant Man to him .

Merrick arrived in London and into Norman 's care . Norman , initially shocked by Merrick 's appearance and reluctant to display him , nonetheless exhibited him at his penny gaff shop at 123 Whitechapel Road , directly across the road from the London Hospital . Because of its proximity to the hospital , the shop received medical students and doctors as visitors . One of these was the surgeon Frederick Treves who arranged to have Merrick brought into the hospital to be examined . According to Norman 's autobiography , Merrick went to the hospital " two or three " times , but then refused to go any more , as the examinations made him feel " like an animal in a cattle market " .

The exhibition of the Elephant Man was reasonably successful , particularly with the added income from a printed pamphlet about Merrick 's life and condition . At this time , however , public opinion about freak shows was starting to change and the display of human novelties was beginning to be viewed as distasteful . After only a few weeks with Norman , the Elephant Man exhibition was shut down by the police , and Norman and Merrick parted ways . Treves later arranged for Merrick to live at the London Hospital until Merrick 's death in 1890 . In Treves 's 1923 memoir , The Elephant Man and Other Reminiscences Norman was portrayed as a drunk who cruelly exploited Merrick . Norman counteracted these claims in a letter in the World 's Fair newspaper that year , as well as his own autobiography . Norman 's opinion was that he provided Merrick ( and his other exhibits ) a way of making a living and remaining independent , but that on entering the London Hospital , Merrick remained a freak on display , only with no control over how or when he was viewed . The character Bytes , respectively portrayed by Freddie Jones in the 1980 film The Elephant Man , is based on Norman .

= = = Later life = = =

Norman remained a travelling showman for another 10 years following his encounter with Joseph Merrick , and exhibited , among others , a troupe of midgets , a ' Man in a Trance ' , John Chambers the armless Carpenter and the ' World 's Ugliest Woman ' . In 1893 , he announced that he was leaving for Chicago and advertised his goods for sale , but in the end , he never went . He became involved with the temperance movement and was the vice @-@ president of the Van Dwellers Protection Association ( which later became the Showmen 's Guild of Great Britain ) . He became a showman 's auctioneer , auctioning novelty shows and circuses and according to the World 's Fair , presided over more such sales than any other auctioneer in the country at that time . Norman married the theatre performer Amy Rayner in 1896 , and they had six sons and four daughters . The family moved to Croydon , and Norman went into semi @-@ retirement , selling off some of his shops . In 1905 he sold showman " Lord " George Sanger 's zoo , and then all of Sanger 's circus effects , an achievement Norman called " the crowning point in my life as regards the auctioneering business " . He made his comeback in 1919 with the exhibition of ' Phoebe the Strange Girl ' in Birmingham and Margate .

= = = Final years and death = = =

Norman died of throat cancer on 24 August 1930 at Croydon Hospital , aged 70 . Five of his children followed him into circus careers : George and Arthur Norman became circus clowns while Tom and Jim Norman worked in fairgrounds . Ralph Van Norman ( known professionally as Hal Denver ) became a travelling Wild West performer , appearing throughout Europe and the United States .

= Banksia sphaerocarpa =

Banksia sphaerocarpa , commonly known as the Fox Banksia or Round @-@ fruit Banksia , is a species of shrub or tree in the plant genus Banksia ( family Proteaceae ) . It is generally encountered as a 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high shrub , and is usually smaller in the north of its range . This species has narrow green leaves , and brownish , orange or yellow round flower spikes which may be seen from January to July . It is widely distributed across the southwest of Western Australia , growing exclusively in sandy soils . It is usually the dominant plant in scrubland or low woodland . It is pollinated by , and is a food source for , birds , mammals , and insects .

First described in 1810 by botanist Robert Brown , B. sphaerocarpa has a complicated taxonomic history , and several taxa once classified as part of a broadly defined B. sphaerocarpa have since been named as species in their own right . At present , most authorities recognise five varieties ; the largest variety , B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla ( Ironcap Banksia ) , is sometimes given species rank as B. dolichostyla . B. sphaerocarpa is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia , although two varieties have been placed on the Declared Rare and Priority Flora List — var. latifolia has been declared a Priority Two – Poorly Known taxon , and var. dolichostyla has been Declared Rare Flora . None of the varieties are commonly seen in cultivation .

= = Description = =

Banksia sphaerocarpa is a variable species that differs in plant size , flower size and leaf size across its range . The variability is marked enough that five varieties are recognised . This species is generally a shrub 0 @.@ 4 – 2 m ( 1 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . Plants are smaller in northern parts of the range , and grow larger in the southeast , with var. dolichostyla and rarely var. caesia reaching 4 m ( 13 ft ) in height . All varieties bear a lignotuber , a swollen starchy root crown from which the plant resprouts after bushfire . The new stems are finely hairy but become smooth with maturity . The leaves are stiff , narrow and linear , and measure 2 @.@ 5 – 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 3 @.@ 94 in ) in length , on a petiole 2 – 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 – 0 @.@ 118 in ) long . Leaves of most varieties are 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm in width , and have a pointed tip , but var. latifolia has wider leaves , 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) , and a blunter tip . The foliage is green , or a more pale blue @-@ grey in the case of caesia and dolichostyla .

The inflorescences are generally globular and measure 5 to 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , although larger forms , such as var. dolichostyla , are more oval in shape . Flowering from January to July , the blooms are yellow , orange or brownish in colour . They take five to eight weeks to develop from bud to the finish of flowering . Anthesis takes place over two weeks , as the individual flowers open in a wave across the inflorescence . Three weeks before the flowers open , the spikes develop a strong musky smell . The flowers produce unusually large quantities of nectar ; indeed some flowers produce so much that it drips to the ground . The old flowers fade to brownish and grey hues and remain curled around the flower spike . Up to 60 follicles develop on the globular spikes . The follicles are finely furred at first before becoming smooth and golden brown in colour , measuring 1 @.@ 5 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) long , 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 31 in ) high , and 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) wide . The follicles are flat with pronounced ' shoulders ' , giving a rectangular appearance in cross section . Specimens of var. sphaerocarpa in the Whicher Range , Jarrah Forest and the vicinity of Nannup have larger follicles . The seeds are wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) , and measure 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 02 in ) in length , containing a smaller cuneate seed body measuring 1 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 55 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 51 in ) wide .

Northern specimens can be quite small shrubs and may be hard to distinguish from B. micrantha , which has smaller inflorescences and large flattened follicles .

= = Taxonomy = =

The earliest known botanical collection of B. sphaerocarpa occurred in December 1801 , during the visit of HMS Investigator to King George Sound . The specimen was collected from " A single plant observed between Princess Royal Harbour & Oyster Harbour on a heath " , and is credited to English botanist Robert Brown , though it is not possible to be certain on this point , as Brown incorporated the collections of junior expedition members into his herbarium without attribution . Neither Brown nor expedition horticulturist Peter Good mentions the collection in his diary .

Brown published a formal description and name for the species in his 1810 On the Proteaceae of Jussieu . He did not designate a type specimen ( a specimen to be representative of the species ) for the species , but the one specimen in his collection has since been formally declared the lectotype for the species . He also did not state the etymology of the specific epithet , but it is accepted that the name derives from the Ancient Greek sphaera- ( " round " ) , and carpos ( " fruit " ) , in reference to the shape of its infructescences .

In Brown 's arrangement of the genus , B. sphaerocarpa was placed between B. pulchella and B. nutans in taxonomic sequence ; that is , an order that places related taxa next to each other . No subdivision of the genus was given , other than to separate a single distinctive species into a subgenus of its own . Swiss botanist Carl Meissner published a more detailed arrangement in 1856 , placing B. sphaerocarpa in section Eubanksia because its inflorescence is a spike rather than a domed head , and in series Abietinae , whose members have inrolled leaf margins with no , or only very fine , serrations . Meissner also published a variety , B. sphaerocarpa var. glabrescens , based on specimens collected by James Drummond ; this is now considered a synonym of B. incana .

George Bentham 's revision of Banksia for his 1870 Flora Australiensis overturned Meissner 's series ; instead , B. sphaerocarpa was placed in a new section , Oncostylis , because of its hooked styles . Two varieties were recognised : Meissner 's var. glabrescens was retained , and var. latifolia was newly described by Bentham . Bentham noted further variation amongst his specimens not accounted for by his varieties , stating " It is possible therefore that two species may be here confounded , but the specimens are insufficient for their distinction . "

For many years following Bentham 's arrangement , the circumscription of B. sphaerocarpa was widely recognised as unacceptably broad . William Blackall informally published two varieties , var. pinifolia and var. violacea ( properly Banksia violacea ) in his 1954 How to Know Western Australian Wildflowers ; and in 1966 the nurseryman Fred Lullfitz predicted that there were as many as eight taxa within the species . Several of these were recognised in George 's revision of the genus for 1981 " The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) " : B. micrantha , B. grossa , B. lanata , B. scabrella , B. telmatiaea , B. leptophylla and B. incana . George placed B. sphaerocarpa in subgenus Banksia because of its flower spike , section Oncostylis because its styles are hooked , and the resurrected series Abietinae , which he constrained to contain only round @-@ fruited species . He reduced variety latifolia to synonymy with variety sphaerocarpa , but conceded the species needed further review . Alex George reported that he thought Banksia sphaerocarpa 's closest relatives to be Banksia micrantha and B. grossa .

George 's arrangement remained current until 1996 , when Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published an arrangement informed by a cladistic analysis of morphological characteristics . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . Banksia ser . Abietinae was found to be very nearly monophyletic , and so retained . It further resolved into four subclades , so Thiele and Ladiges split it into four subseries . Banksia sphaerocarpa appeared in the second of these , initially called the ' grossa clade ' for its most basal member . As with George 's classification , B. grossa and B. micrantha emerged as close relatives of B. sphaerocarpa .

This clade became the basis for new subseries Sphaerocarpae , which Thiele defined as containing those species with lignotubers , styles loosely curling around the infructescence ( although this trait was reversed in micrantha ) , and " transversely aligned cells of the seed wing inner face " . Other than the most basal B. grossa , these species also have shouldered follicles . Having found B. micrantha to be more closely related than B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla to the other varieties of B. sphaerocarpa , they promoted var. dolichostyla to species rank as Banksia dolichostyla . Morphological support for this was given by the fact that the old styles of var. dolichostyla are quite different from those of other varieties , being stouter , and tending not to curl around the infructescence as the others do .

Questioning the emphasis on cladistics in Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement , George published a slightly modified version of his 1981 arrangement in his 1999 treatment of Banksia for the Flora of Australia series of monographs . He added that he did not feel the characters of dolichostyla alone justified specific rank , beings essentially merely larger in all parts than , but otherwise essentially similar to , var. caesia . Therefore , he retained it as a variety of B. sphaerocarpa . To date , George 's 1999 arrangement remains the most recent comprehensive classification . The placement of B. sphaerocarpa in George 's 1999 arrangement may be summarised as follows :

Banksia

B. subg . Banksia

B. sect . Banksia ( 9 series , 50 species , 9 subspecies , 3 varieties )

B. sect . Coccinea ( 1 species )

B. sect . Oncostylis

B. ser . Spicigerae ( 7 species , 2 subspecies , 4 varieties )

B. ser . Tricuspidae ( 1 species )

B. ser . Dryandroideae ( 1 species )

B. ser . Abietinae

B. sphaerocarpa

B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla

B. sphaerocarpa var. latifolia

B. sphaerocarpa var. pumilio

B. sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa

B. sphaerocarpa var. caesia

B. micrantha

B. grossa

B. telmatiaea

B. leptophylla ( 2 varieties )

B. lanata

B. scabrella

B. violacea

B. incana

B. laricina

B. pulchella

B. meisneri ( 2 subspecies )

B. nutans ( 2 varieties )

B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )

A 2002 study by American botanists Austin Mast and Tom Givnish yielded a surprise when molecular analysis mapped out dolichostyla as a sister taxon to its geographical neighbour B. violacea , in a clade with B. laricina and B. incana . B. micrantha and the other two varieties of B. sphaerocarpa form a separate clade nearby .

Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement of Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. sphaerocarpa is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .

In 2008 , George reinstated B. sphaerocarpa var. latifolia , and published the new variety B. sphaerocarpa var. pumilio .

= = = Varieties = = =

Banksia sphaerocarpa is a widely distributed Western Australian species with four ( or five if one includes var. dolichostyla ) varieties :

B. sphaerocarpa var. caesia , first described by Alex George in his 1981 revision of the genus , grows larger than most other varieties , reaching 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , or occasionally 4 m ( 13 ft ) , in height . It has yellow blooms and bluish grey foliage and is found in the central and southern Wheatbelt between the towns of Piawaning , Kojonup , Newdegate and Corrigin .

B. sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla ( Ironcap Banksia ) was first described by Alex George in his 1981 revision of the genus . It is the largest of the varieties , encountered as a large shrub or small tree to 4 m ( 13 ft ) high . It is larger in all parts than the other varieties , and has been considered a separate species . It is restricted to a small area from South Ironcap , east of Hyden , south to Mt Holland in the eastern Wheatbelt .

B. sphaerocarpa var. latifolia was originally described in a manuscript by Mueller and published by Bentham in 1870 . It grows as a small rounded shrub to 50 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) in height , and is restricted to the vicinity of the south coast between Denmark and the Porongorup Range , where it is found in low , open forest of Eucalyptus marginata and E. calophylla .

B. sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa is widely distributed from the Darling Plateau east of Perth to the Whicher Range in the southwest , and southeast to the Stirling Range . Populations north of Perth once referable to it are now classified as var. pumilio .

B. sphaerocarpa var. pumilio , first described by Alex George in 2008 , is a small shrub less than a metre high . It is found from Tathra National Park east of Eneabba south to the Chittering valley . Its subspecific name is derived from the Latin pumilio " small " , relating to the flowers .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Banksia sphaerocarpa is distributed widely across southwestern Western Australia — from Eneabba in the north , south to the Whicher Range , Nannup , Albany and Jerramungup , and eastwards to the vicinity of Hyden . It is mainly found on sandy soils in flat or gently sloped areas in shrubland , mallee or open woodland .

= = Conservation = =

As a species , B. sphaerocarpa is not considered to be under threat , but two of the five varieties , have been placed on the Declared Rare and Priority Flora List . B sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla has been gazetted as " Declared Rare Flora – Extant " under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 . Banksia sphaerocarpa var. latifolia , though not afforded legislative protection , has been identified as a " Priority Two – Poorly Known " taxon , because so few populations are known .

= = Ecology = =

Various animals , including mammals , birds , and insects such as bees , wasps , ants and beetles , have been recorded visiting Banksia sphaerocarpa inflorescences , including the colletid bee species Hylaeus sanguinipictus . Botanist Stephen Hopper found pollen of B. sphaerocarpa on New Holland honeyeaters ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) and honey possums ( Tarsipes rostratus ) at Cheyne Beach in a field study published in 1980 .

Knowledge of the breeding system of B. sphaerocarpa comes from a 2009 study of genetic structure within and across fragmented plant populations , which made a case study of B. sphaerocarpa var. caesia populations in the vicinity of Dongolocking , where the landscape has been severely fragmented by land clearing . Very little self @-@ pollination was observed . Most mating was between plants in the same population , but inter @-@ population mating accounted for 15 – 33 % of seed , a " very significant contribution ... to overall reproductive dynamics " . This figure was lowest in the smallest populations , which also exhibited lower rates of germination , smaller plants , and less genetic diversity than larger populations . One possible interpretation of this is that interpopulation mating confers a fitness advantage . There was also evidence of fine @-@ scale genetic structure , with plants tending to be more closely related to nearby plants than to more distant plants . The authors suggest that gene flow was probably always limited in these populations , even before they were fragmented .

Banksia sphaerocarpa is one of five closely related Banksia species that have highly unusual flower nectar . Whereas other Banksia species produce nectar that is clear and watery , the nectar of these species is pale yellow initially , but gradually becomes darker and thicker , changing to a thick , olive @-@ green mucilage within one to two days of secretion , and eventually becoming " an almost black , gelatinous lump adhering to the base of the flowers " . It was first noted by Byron Lamont in 1980 ; he attributed it to cyanobacteria that feed off the nectar sugars . Noting that many of these cyanobacteria had heterocysts , he speculated that they aid the plant by fixing atmospheric nitrogen , which is then washed off the flower heads by rain , and absorbed by the proteoid root mat . This purported symbiosis was investigated by Barrett and Lamont in 1985 , but no evidence of nitrogen fixing was found . Further investigation by Markey and Lamont in 1996 suggested that the discolouration is not caused by cyanobacteria or other microorganisms in the nectar , but is rather " a chemical phenomenon of plant origin " . Their analyses indicated that the nectar had unusually high levels of sugar and free amino acids , but three of these species , including B. sphaerocarpa , have since been shown to have normal nectar sugar compositions .

Like most Western Australian Banksia species , B. sphaerocarpa is susceptible to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi . In one experiment , 43 % of plants were dead within three months of inoculation , and the species was therefore rated as " moderately susceptible " . In another experiment , 37 % of plants were dead within three months , and 85 % within a year ; yet this study rated the species ' susceptibility as " high " . In the latter study , it took 35 to 40 days for the death rate to reach its maximum , and thereafter the death rate continued at that level throughout the year , only dipping slightly in the dry summer months .

= = Cultivation = =

None of the varieties of Banksia sphaerocarpa are commonly seen in cultivation . They are difficult to grow in the wetter conditions of Australia 's east coast . Trials with grafting have been very limited and results have been poor . Otherwise , they adapt well to gardens with good drainage , sandy soils and sunny aspects in drier and Mediterranean ( winter moisture ) climates , and are also frost tolerant . They are good bird @-@ attracting plants , and flower when not much else is in flower . Seeds do not require any treatment prior to sowing , and take 20 to 48 days to germinate .

= Hugh of Wells =

Hugh of Wells ( Hugh de Wells , or Hugh of Welles , sometimes Hugh Troteman ; died 7 February 1235 ) was a medieval Bishop of Lincoln . He began his career in the diocese of Bath , where he served two successive bishops , before joining royal service under King John of England . He served in the royal administration until 1209 , when he was elected to the see , or bishopric , of Lincoln . When John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III in November 1209 , Hugh went into exile in France , where he remained until 1213 .

When he returned to England , he continued to serve both John and John 's son King Henry III , but spent most of his time in his diocese . He introduced new administrative methods into the diocese , as well as working to improve the educational and financial well @-@ being of his clergy and to secure the canonisation of his predecessor Hugh of Avalon as a saint in 1220 . Although the medieval writer Matthew Paris accused Hugh of being opposed to monastic houses and monks , there is little evidence of the bishop being biased , and after his death on 7 February 1235 parts of his estate were left to religious houses , including nunneries .

= = Early life = =

Hugh was the son of Edward of Wells and elder brother of Jocelin of Wells , Bishop of Bath . Hugh 's year of birth is unknown , but he was probably an old man at his death in 1235 . The fact that he never left his residence from March 1233 until his death implies that he was impaired from old age . He first appears as a witness on documents of Reginald fitzJocelin , the Bishop of Bath in the late 1180s . After fitzJocelin 's death in 1191 , Hugh continued in the service of the next bishop , Savaric FitzGeldewin . By the end of the 1190s , Hugh was a canon of Wells Cathedral . Although Hugh 's brother Jocelin was given the title of magister , implying that he attended a university , Hugh is never called magister , making it unlikely that he ever received much schooling .

Hugh was a keeper of the king 's seal , serving as deputy to Simon of Wells , the Archdeacon of Wells who was Keeper of the Great Seal from around 1199 to 1204 . Simon was also a relative of Hugh 's , and seems to have helped secure positions for both Hugh and Jocelin in the royal administration . Hugh was a royal clerk in the chancery , the royal secretariat , and was named Archdeacon of Wells sometime before 25 April 1204 . He held prebends in the diocese of Lincoln and diocese of London as well . His service in the chancery would have involved him in Hubert Walter 's administrative innovations during his term as Chancellor .

Besides his episcopal appointments , Hugh was rewarded with two manors in Somerset , including the Treasurer 's House in Martock which he made his primary residence , and the right to collect taxes and fines in two hundreds in Somerset . He also served as the royal custodian of the diocese of Lincoln while the see was vacant between 1200 and 1203 , collecting the revenues of the see , most of which went to the king while a see was without a bishop . In 1205 and 1206 , Hugh was royal custodian for the diocese of Bath , which was similarly vacant .

= = Bishop of Lincoln = =

Hugh was elected to the see of Lincoln about 14 April 1209 , after a papal command to the cathedral chapter to elect a new bishop , as Lincoln had again been without a bishop since 1206 . During the summer of 1209 , Hugh , along with his brother , was one of the councilors of King John urging the king to settle with Pope Innocent III before the pope excommunicated the king . However , negotiations with papal representatives got nowhere , and the king was excommunicated on 8 November 1209 . Hugh and his brother Jocelin had continued to support King John until this , two years after many of their fellow bishops had deserted the king , but by late in the year , Hugh left the king 's service and went into exile .

The election , meanwhile , had aroused papal suspicions of undue royal influence , and Innocent sent Stephen Langton , the exiled Archbishop of Canterbury to investigate Hugh and the circumstances of his election . Langton was also to investigate rumours that Hugh was not celibate , and had two daughters . The results of the investigation must have been satisfactory , as Hugh was consecrated on 20 December 1209 at Melun . The consecration was performed by Langton . Hugh was in exile in France until he returned to England on 16 July 1213 . His only known activity while in exile was the writing of a will , which was dated November 1212 and was drawn up at St Martin de Garenne , near Paris .

Hugh attended the papal Fourth Lateran Council held in 1215 in Rome , along with a number of other English bishops , and both English archbishops . Soon after his return from the council , Hugh served as a royal judge , serving as one of the justices of the eyre for Lincolnshire , Nottinghamshire , and Derbyshire in 1218 and 1219 . In 1226 he was once more a royal justice . Later , he was employed by King Henry III as an ambassador , helping negotiate with King Louis VIII of France over the status of Normandy and Poitou . Hugh also worked to secure the canonisation of his predecessor Hugh of Avalon as a saint , which occurred in 1220 .

= = Diocesan affairs = =

In 1222 , along with the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Norwich , Hugh ordered that all those in their dioceses refrain from contact with Jews . This decree , however , was countermanded by a royal decree to the county sheriffs in the affected dioceses ordering them to imprison any residents who refused to interact with Jews . Besides these activities , Hugh was active in his diocese , including supervising the various monastic houses within it . In 1227 , a visitation to Eynsham Abbey resulted in Hugh deposing the abbot . Although the 12th chronicler Matthew Paris accused Hugh of being biased against monks and nuns , and even called him the " untiring persecutor of monks , the hammer of canons , nuns and all the religious " , there is little evidence that Hugh singled out monks for persecution . One reason for Paris ' dislike of the bishop may have been the fact that the chronicler 's own abbey of St Alban 's had to compromise with Hugh over two legal disputes , dealing with the right to appoint to various benefices .

Hugh once was credited with creating 300 new vicarages within the diocese , largely on the basis of his surviving documents dealing with this , known as the Liber Antiquus . Further research has shown that a number of the vicarages he was once assumed to have founded were instead earlier foundations that Hugh either augmented or reassessed . Hugh also worked to improve the educational level of this clergy , even refusing to allow some candidates to benefices to be installed because of their lack of education . The bishop also worked to improve the conditions of the poorer clergy in his diocese , attempting to ensure that all the clergy in his diocese had enough to live on . Previously , it was thought that Hugh had sent out a set of articles of inquiry to his diocesan clergy , but these articles are now shown to have been produced by Hugh 's successor , Robert Grosseteste .

In the administration of his diocese , Hugh introduced new methods of recording documents . This system was modelled on that which Hubert Walter had introduced into the chancery , with separate registers for each archdeaconry , and registers , or rolls , for charters and memoranda , much like the Charter Roll or Memoranda Roll of the royal chancery . He also undertook a survey of the endowments of the vicarages within his diocese .

Hugh supported the building campaign of Salisbury Cathedral , ordering that money be collected throughout his diocese . Likewise , he ordered similar collections for Daventry Priory , Sulby Abbey and parish churches in his diocese . Not only churches benefited from these sorts of collections , as the bishop offered indulgences to those who helped build bridges at Brampton , Rockingham , and Aynho .

= = Death and legacy = =

Hugh died on 7 February 1235 , at his episcopal residence at Stow Park . He was buried on 10 February 1235 in Lincoln Cathedral , in the north aisle . In 1233 he had written a new will , which mentions his brother and a niece named Agatha . He left bequests to his family , his household , Lincoln Cathedral , and a number of monasteries in his diocese . What was left after the specific legacies was to be divided between poor religious houses , such as the Barrow Gurney Nunnery , students and teachers at Oxford University , Jewish converts and the poor on the episcopal manors .

Hugh 's register of ordinations still survives , and is in the Lincoln cathedral archives . Parts of this were published by Alfred Gibbons in 1888 , and others in 1904 by the Canterbury and York Society . These records give not only the name of the person receiving a benefice , but what the clerical status of each new benefice holder was .

= Panzer Dragoon =

Panzer Dragoon ( パンツァードラグーン , Pantsā Doragūn ) is a rail shooter video game developed by Team Andromeda and released on the Sega Saturn console in 1995 ; and later released on R @-@ Zone , PC , PlayStation 2 , and as a bonus in its sequel Panzer Dragoon Orta for Xbox . The game follows the journey of Keil Fluge ( unnamed in localized versions ) , a member of a hunting party who becomes the rider of a powerful blue dragon ( red dragon in the R @-@ Zone version ) and joins it on its mission to stop a rival dragon from wreaking havoc on the world . The player moves an aiming reticle ( representing the dragon 's laser and the rider 's gun ) over the screen and shoots enemies while the dragon automatically flies through 3D environments on a predetermined track .

As one of six games available at the Sega Saturn 's surprise North American launch , Panzer Dragoon was the first game created by Team Andromeda . The game also marked the directorial debut of game designer Yukio Futatsugi , who was 25 years old at the time of the game 's release . It is the first game in the Panzer Dragoon series , and introduced the series ' gameplay elements and art style .

Panzer Dragoon received positive reviews , both in 1995 and in recent retrospective coverage . It was Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Game of the Month " in July 1995 , was named " Best Saturn Game of 1995 " in EGM 's 1996 Buyers ' Guide , and ranked 140th in EGM 's " The Greatest 200 Videogames of their time " in 2006 . In particular , its original art direction and post @-@ apocalyptic science fantasy universe gained critical acclaim . It was followed by a prequel , Panzer Dragoon II Zwei , in 1996 , and two sequels : Panzer Dragoon Saga in 1998 , and Panzer Dragoon Orta in 2002 .

= = Gameplay = =

The game spans six levels , each lasting about five minutes , with a variety of boss battles . Over the course of the game , the plot is revealed through cutscenes using the game 's own graphic engine . Gameplay consists of a player controls a flying dragon and his rider through an aiming reticle that can be moved over the whole screen with the D @-@ pad ; the player must shoot a variety of enemies ( ranging from machines to monsters ) in a 3D post @-@ apocalyptic fantasy environment of barren landscapes and mysterious ruins of a fallen civilization . Progression through the levels is made at a predetermined pace , as the player is constantly set along a rail of gameplay . The only time the game pauses is during boss battles . The field of vision can be directed with the aiming reticle on the x and y @-@ axis , but the overall direction of travel is predetermined . The dragon follows the reticle movements , allowing the player to avoid enemy projectiles and obstacles .

The player has a full , 360 @-@ degree field of view , and can quickly look left , right , forward , and behind the dragon . Enemies come from all directions , varying in size and health , and also appear on an on @-@ screen radar that monitors the dragon 's surroundings . Two weapons are available : the rider 's handgun , which can be fired with a single button press when an enemy enters the aiming reticle , and the homing laser fired by the dragon , which can lock on up to eight enemies by moving the reticle over them while holding down the fire button . Some situations with many enemies on screen require the use of the lock @-@ on laser , while in others , quick gunshots to weak spots will prove more efficient .

= = Plot = =

In the distant future , thousands of years after a great war between humans and their biologically engineered weapons , humans live in everything from small tribes to large nations . One nation , the Empire , has discovered a black tower in the middle of a lake near their capital , which gave them access to large amounts of ancient weapons which they used to beat back and control the ever present monsters in the world . The Imperials were corrupted by this power and became conquerors of others as opposed to liberators from a violent world .

The introduction movie opens with the protagonist , Keil Fluge ( unnamed in the North American version ) , hunting in a canyon . After seeing an Imperial flying battleship in the sky , he is attacked by two creatures and chases one of them to a large , ancient complex built directly into the rock . He explores the ruin , and sees relics of old technology still hanging from the ceilings . Another gigantic creature suddenly attacks him , and though his weapon is useless against the armored creature , a rumbling triggers a cave in , which crushes the monster and saves Keil . From the newly created hole , an armored , blue dragon flies down the cavern with a rider across its shoulders , being chased by an even bigger black dragon as the cavern is destroyed in an explosion . Regaining consciousness outside , Keil sees the two dragons locked in combat in the air before him . Dodging a blast from the black dragon , the blue dragon 's rider is then hit by single shot to the chest , and the black dragon flies away . The blue dragon flies towards Keil . A psychic connection is made between the rider and Keil , who is told not to let the black dragon reach the black tower . The rider then dies and Keil picks up his fallen gun , climbs atop the dragon and flies away , determined to finish the rider 's quest .

During the first level of the game , Keil and his dragon fly through a drowned city , where they encounter a small Imperial patrol ship . That ship sends a report to a large fleet of ships flying above the clouds . It is revealed that the Imperial forces are specifically searching for the blue dragon . The second level is a desert , where Keil and the dragon encounter gigantic worm @-@ like creatures . At the stormy edge of the desert , they are confronted by the Black Dragon , which is defeated and speeds away . The third level is a mountainous landscape at night @-@ time where Keil and the dragon get reacquainted with the Imperial forces , which were exploring ancient ruins . These encounters illustrate the ongoing conflict between the Imperial forces and the ancient machines and creatures . The fourth level is an ancient facility in which Keil and the dragon are pursued by both Imperial airships and cybernetic sentinels left behind by the ancient civilization . During the fifth level , they defeat a large armada of the most powerful Imperial ships over a forested area . A cutscene then shows a fleet of dragon @-@ like creatures coming out of the tower to attack the Imperial forces . The sixth level features the black dragon and Keil racing through the battle @-@ scarred Imperial capital . During this , they are both waylaid by the creatures and machines seen attacking the Imperial fleet around the tower while also being fired on by Imperial defenses . The black dragon then reaches the Tower and is mutated into a gigantic super @-@ dragon and begins a climactic battle with Keil and the blue dragon , after which the black dragon is defeated and falls into the ocean .

In the ending cutscene , Keil and the dragon enter the tower . While traveling down a long corridor , the dragon surrounds Keil in a force field , lifting him from the saddle and suspending him in the hallway . Keil watches as the dragon continues on to the core of the tower , then a blinding light is seen and the tower explodes . Keil wakes up some time later in a desert area abutting the ocean . Looking down , he sees the foot prints of the blue dragon around him , indicating that after the explosion , the dragon carried him to safety and flew away .

= = Development = =

Panzer Dragoon was created in the early 1990s as the Japanese video game company Sega was getting ready to release its Saturn console . At the time , the Saturn lacked third @-@ party games ; because of this , Sega had to internally develop games in every genre , including shoot ' em up . In 1993 , Sega asked its developers for new game ideas , and it was then that Yukio Futatsugi , a young developer who had joined Sega only two years before , proposed several new concepts . One of these concepts was accepted and became Panzer Dragoon . Futatsugi , then 23 years old , was put in charge of the project and became the head of Team Andromeda , a development team that Sega assembled for the occasion in early 1994 and was built around the duo formed by Futatsugi and Manabu Kusunoki , art designer on the project . Overall , development lasted almost a year , and 15 people worked on the game .

The project was designed as arcade @-@ style from the start , as core members of the team like Kusunoki came from Sega 's arcade department . Team Andromeda wanted to create a fully 3D arcade game , having worked on similar games such as Out Run which were not truly 3D . With influences like Space Harrier , Starblade , Star Fox , and RayForce , the project became a 3D rail shooter . Usually , in 3D shooters , the player rides a 3D object like a jet fighter or a tank . Futatsugi and Kusunoki decided , however , that it would be more original for the player to ride an armored dragon , a living creature which would also allow for richer animations . The game 's name originates from its original concept , referred to as " armored dragon " ( kiko @-@ ryu in Japanese ) , but Futatsugi , feeling that this was too bland , decided to translate it to German .

With this basic concept in mind , the creators had 3 months to define a visual identity and a setting for their game , prior to development . The game would be set in a post @-@ apocalyptic science fantasy world , featuring ruins and relics of a fallen civilization and mankind struggling for survival , something typical in anime at that time . Futatsugi was particularly influenced by one of his childhood readings , The Long Afternoon of Earth , a science @-@ fiction novel by Brian Aldiss , in which one side of the earth became perpetually hot , the other perpetually cold . The first presentation video featured a green dragon , in line with traditional European / medieval depictions , however the team quickly decided to change it and make it " more sci @-@ fi " . In order for the dragon to be more original , it was made blue and covered in a white , bone @-@ like armor . The dragon was supposed to come from the ancient times , so ruins and ancient flying technology also featured this white , shell @-@ like material .

The overall fantasy look of the game 's world , which mixed natural and technological elements , was also chosen in order to set it apart from classic science @-@ fiction 3D games of the time . This world , as well as dragon and character designs , were mainly the work of Manabu Kusunoki , who took inspiration from various sources , including anime and manga , and who pushed the art direction toward a more Turkish / Ottoman style to avoid the European aesthetics of the early presentation video . Critics have noted similarities with the works of French artist Moebius ( notably his comic book Arzach , ) of whom Kusunoki was a fan , as well as with Hayao Miyazaki 's Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind , and David Lynch 's Dune movie . However , Kusunoki was adamant not to include big robots from popular Gundam @-@ like anime , and unrealistic designs like the spiky and colorful @-@ haired characters wielding impossibly large swords from the Final Fantasy series . Kentaro Yoshida , texturing and modeling artist , described the creation process as similar in style to Star Wars , in that it " made an unearthly world appear so real " . Takashi Iwade , in charge of the opening cutscene and character models , designed the enemies using a lot of various influences : " I got inspiration from antique clocks and various industrial products from the era of the industrial revolution for mechanics , and myriapods , marine mollusks , ammonite , and a rusty fishing boat for creatures when I started thinking of the original battleship " . The team wanted a famous artist to make the game 's cover art . Manabu Kusunoki suggested Moebius , who accepted , and the team sent him designs that he was to interpret . The resulting illustration was used as the cover art for the Japanese release of the game .

The Saturn 's hardware was new to the team , and it was their first attempt at creating an original environment . It was also Futatsugi 's first year working as a full developer at Sega , so he was only able to do simple things while having a clear vision of what he wanted , which helped him to keep the overall style pure , with stark and minimalist cutscenes . Similarly , Iwade kept the enemies easy to understand visually , with simple shapes , and this overall simple style ended up fitting well with the Saturn 's hardware . Then , Team Andromeda set to work on elaborating an extensive back story , and Futatsugi , to be original and to avoid using Japanese or English , went so far as to create a new language for the game : a mix of Ancient Greek , Latin and Russian . This was apparently inspired by the anime The Wings of Honneamise , of which team members were fans and which also features an invented language .

After the story and art were established , the team set to work on the graphics . Working on new hardware proved difficult for the young team , and the game ended up missing the initial deadline given by Sega , which was the Saturn Japanese launch on November 1994 . One of the problems was that the Saturn hardware was only finalized in mid @-@ 1994 , and without actual Saturn prototype to test their progress , the programmers initially had to work with hypothetical hardware performance . Team Andromeda created its own graphics library and mapping tools instead of using Sega 's , in order to make the most of their first game on the new system . The game 's graphics and cutscenes were done with Softimage , and the 3D elements were programmed on SGI workstations using OpenGL . The programmers were eventually able to transition to the debug Saturn they had received , but the process was difficult and the game had a very low frame rate at first , before it could be locked at 20 FPS . The six levels of Panzer Dragoon are barren landscapes with ancient ruins , which is consistent with the " simple " style appropriate for the Saturn . The first two levels that the team programmed , a desert ( level 2 ) and a forest ( level 5 ) , did not have any objects or anything besides sand and forest effects , again because the team was unsure how far the hardware could be pushed . Keeping CPU limitations in mind , simple tornado effects were added to level 2 , so that it did not look too bland .

Work on the soundtrack began after completion of the game , similar to the way movie soundtracks are made . The idea was to create musics that would specifically reflect each level art @-@ style and events . As the game had an " on rail " progression system , the developers knew exactly where the player would be at any given time , so they showed videos to the composer and asked him to write specifically timed pieces that would match the player 's progression in each level . The soundtrack was outsourced to Yoshitaka Azuma , who was composing musics for NHK TV programs at that time . The music of Panzer Dragoon is a mix between orchestral and synthesizer tracks .

Sega of America made several alterations to the game in order to make the North American release more challenging than the Japanese version . These alterations were retained in the PAL version .

= = Releases = =

The game was first released in Japan on March 10 , 1995 , then in North America on May 11 , 1995 and in Europe on August 30 , 1995 , on the Sega Saturn console . The next year , Panzer Dragoon was ported on PC . Identical to the Saturn version except with a higher resolution , this PC port was also included as an unlockable bonus in the Xbox game Panzer Dragoon Orta , released in 2002 . Aside from providing the source code , Team Andromeda had no involvement in the development of the PC version . The PlayStation 2 console saw the release of an updated version of the game in 2006 in Japan , as part of the Sega Ages 2500 collection . The port was handled by development studio Land Ho , and features both the original Saturn game and an " arrange " version with anti @-@ aliasing filter , better texturing , and improved 3D models for the dragon and some enemies . The " arrange " version also includes new unlockable extras such as level selection and artworks , in the form of a " Pandora 's Box " option menu ( similar to Panzer Dragoon II Zwei ) .

= = Reception = =

Panzer Dragoon received positive reviews , both in 1995 and in retrospective coverage . Though sales were not as high as Sega expected , possibly due to the success of Sony 's PlayStation console over the Saturn , they were substantial enough for Sega to allow the series to continue with the 1996 prequel Panzer Dragoon II Zwei , also released on the Saturn .

As one of the first Saturn titles , the game was highly anticipated by journalists after its appearance in promotional material . Ed Semrad and Danyon Carpenter from Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the game for its " innovative game play " and its " awe @-@ inspiring visuals " from the opening cinematic to the backgrounds and the dragon 's animations . Al Manuel and Ken Williams criticized the game 's lack of diversity in weapons and its predetermined progression ; but the four EGM reviewers agreed that it was a must @-@ have game for Saturn owners . Similarly , The Unknown Gamer from GamePro called the game a " masterpiece " , highlighted its high @-@ quality graphics and musics , and described the story as " captivat [ ing ] " . However , the journalist noted the game 's overall difficulty " will single out all but advanced players " with its lack of power @-@ ups or extra lives of any kind . Nevertheless , the game was seen as a good example of the Saturn 's capabilities . In contrast , a reviewer from Maximum said that the game was much too easy even on the highest difficulty setting , greatly reducing its already low longevity . He also said the gameplay would be too simplistic for many players , with its on @-@ rails shooting and selection of only two weapons , but was overall very positive in his assessment of the game , highly praising the 360 degrees of rotation and most especially the textured 3D graphics of the enemies , settings , and bosses .

Patrick Gabbatta from Game Players stated that while the game may come off as " just a simple shooter " , it is at least a " very good one " that " puts a twist on the tired formula " , again praising the game play and the variety in camera angles . Chris Gore from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment named the game " the best shooter since Star Fox " , and a must @-@ have for fantasy and sci @-@ fi fans , with its " eerie " atmosphere noted by editor Betty Hallock . While the story itself was said to be " somewhat typical " and editor Chris Bieniek criticized the on @-@ rail aspect , Gore noted the game 's " spectacular visuals " , and presented it as one of the Saturn 's system sellers . Famitsu magazine 's Reader Cross Review gave the game a 9 out of 10 in April 1995 , and it was named " Best Saturn Game of 1995 " by Electronic Gaming Monthly in their 1996 Buyers ' Guide . The game 's universe itself was deemed " coolly surreal " by Entertainment Weekly reviewer Albert Kim , who thought the game 's seven @-@ minute " movie @-@ quality " introduction was " gorgeous " and " nearly overshadowed the game itself " . Kim argued that Panzer Dragoon could be seen as a " lyrical and exhilarating epic " , a " story , not just a game " which could pave the way for a " transformation " of the videogame industry . Film director Steven Spielberg approached Team Andromeda to say he was impressed by the game 's presentation at the 1995 E3 show .

James Mielke from online game magazine 1UP.com gave Panzer Dragoon a retroactive review of 8 / 10 for what the game offered in 1995 , but gave it a modern score of 6 / 10 . Mielke highlighted the music as " one of the finest game soundtracks ever produced , " but said that the game itself " staggers a bit under the glaring light of a critical rereview [ sic ] " , arguing it is " little more than Space Harrier with a 3D camera and cut @-@ scenes . " By contrast , Levi Buchanan from IGN gave the game a retrospective score of 9 / 10 , opining that " the fact that Panzer Dragoon holds up as well in 2008 as it did in 1995 is a just testament to the staying power of good art and tight gameplay . " Kurt Kalata , in a Gamasutra retrospective , also praised its art and universe , but said the actual game looked " a bit cut and dried " compared to its sequels . Panzer Dragoon ranked 140th in EGM ′ s " The Greatest 200 Videogames of their time " feature published in 2006 .

= The Converted Deacon =

The Converted Deacon is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows the daughter who disobeys her father by associated with the theater and becomes a star on the stage . She keeps it a secret , but he father arrives in town and takes her home because her mother is ill . John DeLacy follows her home and disguises himself to secure a position on the farm . A newspaper reveals the daughter 's fame and only after a song and dance does the father 's anger abate and allows the two lovers to marry . Little is known about the production of the film , but the Thanhouser films were distinguished as being the best of the Independent companies in a The New York Dramatic Mirror editorial . The film was released on July 15 , 1910 , and met with mixed reception . The film is presumed lost

= = Plot = =

Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 16 , 1910 . It states : " May Sanders is the daughter of a farmer , Deacon Sanders , who is nearly as poor as he is religious . May goes to the city to seek employment , and her father warns her to shun theatres and bad company . Her first job is a maid in the home of Mrs. Carr , wife of a theatrical manager . Mrs. Carr discovers that May can sing and dance exceptionally well , and her husband places May on the stage . She makes a hit right from the start . Also she annexes the affections of John DeLacy , a wealthy young man . But she does not dare tell her parents about her new vocation . Matters drag along until the Deacon unexpectedly arrives in town . May has still pretended to be the maid of Mrs. Carr , and the father finds her in the house when she calls . He tells her that her mother is ill , and she is needed at home . She goes and is promptly put to work on the farm . John follows his sweetheart to the country , and to be near her , pretends to be poor and secures a job on the farm . The newspaper gives the Deacon a clue to the mystery , and he prepares to disown his daughter . But when she sings and dances , his anger melts , he forgives May and John , who later marry with a paternal blessing . "

= = Production = =

The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director and the cameraman are unknown and no known credits for the cast are cited by film historian , Q. David Bowers . Members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond , Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming .

Despite the lack of production details , the quality of the Thanhouser films in general stood out amongst the Independent producers . An editorial by " The Spectator " in The New York Dramatic Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating , " ... practically all other Independent American companies , excepting Thanhouser , show haste and lack of thought in their production . Crude stories are crudely handled , giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market . Such pictures , of course , do not cost much to produce , but they are not of a class to make reputation . The Thanhouser company , alone of the Independents , shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile ... " The editorial warned that American audiences were not subject to be entertained by the novelty of moving images and cautioned the Independents that there was distinct danger in quantity over quality . The editorial was written by Frank E. Woods of the American Biograph Company , a Licensed company , and like the publication itself had a considerable slant to the Licensed companies .

= = Release and reception = =

The single reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on July 15 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release in the United States , theaters showing advertisements include those in Kansas , North Carolina , Maryland , Indiana , Pennsylvania , Arizona , and Missouri . One of the last advertisements for the film was in Neosho , Missouri on May 14 , 1913 .

The film received mixed reception in trade publications , but some advertisements would boast the power of the film or go so far as to call it a great American drama . The The Moving Picture News stated , " As a sketch of country folk , admirable because it is true . The situations are well worked out . The conversion ! Could it be ? A New England church meeting would be a good place to exhibit and - ask questions . " Though the reviewer in the The New York Dramatic Mirror however disagreed that the premise was plausible , " A [ straight @-@ laced ] old deacon forms the complicating element in this rather conventional and rather improbable story . That a girl could become a comic opera star without the knowledge of her parents is a strain for the imagination . That a simple little dance like the one in the picture could effect such a conversion is another tax on belief . The acting is good , especially in the heroine 's role . The deacon displays an unnatural tendency in such a stern character when he rapturously kisses the photograph of his daughter . " It is unknown if the character of Deacon Sanders is really a church deacon because the synopsis states Deacon Sanders is a farmer who is " nearly as poor as he is religious " .

= Christian metal =

Christian metal , also known as white metal or heavenly metal , is a form of heavy metal music usually defined by its message using song lyrics as well as the dedication of the band members to Christianity . Christian metal is typically performed by professed Christians sometimes principally for Christians who listen to heavy metal music and often produced and distributed through various Christian networks .

Christian metal bands exist in all the subgenres of heavy metal music , and the only common link among most Christian metal bands are the lyrics . The Christian themes are often melded with the subjects of the genre the band is rooted in , regularly providing a Christian take on the subject matter . It has been argued that the marginal yet transnational Christian metal subculture provides its core members an alternative religious expression and Christian identity , and that the music serves the purpose of offering a positive message through lyrical content . This may not necessarily show a direct connection or reference to the Christian faith but often it does .

Christian metal emerged in the late 1970s as a means of evangelization to the wider heavy metal music scene and was pioneered by the American Resurrection Band and Barnabas , the Swedish Jerusalem , and Canadian Daniel Band . Los Angeles ' Stryper achieved wide success in the 1980s . In the mid to late 1980s , extreme metal genres were popularized by bands such as Vengeance Rising , Deliverance , Believer and Tourniquet . In the early 1990 , the Australian death metal band Mortification rose to prominence within its country 's underground metal scene . At the turn of the 21st century , the nu metal band P.O.D , with two platinum @-@ selling albums , achieved a mainstream commercial success rivaling that of Stryper . The metalcore groups Underoath , Demon Hunter , As I Lay Dying and Norma Jean ( dubbed by Revolver Magazine as " The Holy Alliance " ) also brought some mainstream attention to the movement in the first decade of the 2000s , achieving ranks in the Billboard 200 .

= = Characteristics = =

Christian metal is not a solitary style of music , but rather an ideological umbrella term that comprises almost every subgenre of heavy metal music . The musicians within Christian metal bands typically base their lyrics on Judeo @-@ Christian traditions . The lyrical approach of Christian metal bands is somewhat varied , as some emphasize the positive aspects of faith matters while others iterate the teachings of Christ . Some bands keep their message hidden in metaphors . Only a minority take an aggressive attitude towards those who speak against Christianity , " preaching full @-@ on fire and brimstone and Old Testament style God 's wrath back at extreme Satanists " . References to eschatology and apocalyptic themes , particularly the ongoing spiritual warfare between good and evil as well as the Last Judgment and fall from grace are typical .

The lyrical style varies depending on culture , denomination , and country . For example , in Northern Europe the bands with Lutheran members usually prefer a personal lyrical approach , which is seldom meant to " convert " in an aggressive manner , since evangelism has been more typical among American bands . Christian bands never deny their conviction but typically avoid preaching , and sometimes the matter is left unexpressed , leaving religion as a private issue of the listener . Certain bands choose to deal with every day life experiences from a Christian perspective in order to draw both Christian and non @-@ Christian listeners . In such cases , identifying a " Christian band " can be difficult . Secular bands that occasionally deal with Christian topics are a different matter altogether . Defining a Christian band is a much debated issue on Christian metal forums . A Christian band is expected to have either professed Christian members or a Christian message , preferably both .

= = History = =

= = = Background : Heavy metal music and Christianity = = =

The term ' heavy metal ' , as it was used by Lester Bangs and Dave Marsh at Creem , referred to a sound best exemplified by albums such as Led Zeppelin 's Led Zeppelin II , Deep Purple 's Deep Purple in Rock , and Black Sabbath 's Paranoid .

An examination of some of the lyrics from bands such as these show a lack of any explicitly negative themes . Led Zeppelin 's " Whole Lotta Love " could just as well be a conversation between husband and wife , as not . Black Sabbath 's " Electric Funeral " exactly parallels the blood red moon of St. John 's Revelation , while their " Hand of Doom " describes the ravages of drug abuse . Ozzy Osbourne could be heard preaching to his audience in the earlier song , " Children of the Grave " : " Tell the world that love is still alive you must be brave ; or the children of today are children of the grave . " Later , in the song " In My Time Of Dying " , Robert Plant even pleaded to Jesus : " Meet me Jesus , meet me ; Meet me in the middle of the air ; if my wings should fail me Lord , please meet me with another pair . " Perhaps not overtly Christian , but songs such as these exhibited similar themes .

Early heavy metal fans were viewed by the populace as a counter @-@ culture , just as the fans of rock and roll , in general , were . Early heavy metal lyrics and themes were often accused of challenging Christian values , and as the genre grew , some bands actually did .

Among the early bands who were accused of adding negative connotations to the term was Black Sabbath , combining heavy metal music with " occult symbols and odes to the Devil " . The early bands ' use of tritones , a " dissonant sound of the medieval ' Devil 's chord ' " , led to heavy metal being " cast as dumb , crass , and , on occasions , satanic ; music hardly fit for intelligent debate , let alone theological reflection . Despite such accusations , more serious examinations of Black Sabbath lyrics find several songs actually advocate Christianity and specifically warn audiences about the Devil .

Bands such as Mötley Crüe , Ratt , and Twisted Sister took " themes of generalized rage , sexual abandon , drug abuse , violence , and despair into the homes of millions of young record buyers . " In the 1980s , with the growing appeal of metal , the National Coalition on Television Violence " called attention to the destructive potential of music videos , many of which graphically depict violence and rebellion . " A British cleric and metal fan analysed that because of distorted guitar sounds , " intense " beats and " muscular " vocals , heavy metal music songs are " unafraid to deal with death , violence and destruction " and that " much of metal 's fascination with Satan or evil is play @-@ acting , driven by a desire to shock . " The Italian Capuchin friar and former metal vocalist Cesare Bonizzi ( " Fratello Metallo " ) stated that there are " maybe " some Satanic metal bands " but I think it 's an act so that they sell more , " and went to add that " metal is the most energetic , vital , deep and true musical language that I know . "

= = = Origins = = =

Christian metal has its origins in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the Jesus movement , a hippie movement with Christian ideology consisting of hippies that converted to Christianity . The Christian hippies within this movement , known as " Jesus People " , developed a musical movement called Jesus music , which primarily began in southern California , ex . Los Angeles when hippie street musicians converted to Christianity . These musicians continued playing the same styles of music they had played before converting , among them heavy metal music , though they infused their lyrics with a Christian message . Larry Norman was one of the earliest Christian rock musicians who released his first album titled Upon This Rock in 1969 which is arguably the first Christian rock album produced . Norman 's song " Why Should the Devil Have All the Good Music ? " summarised the ideas of these musicians .

The first Christian hard rock group was possibly the California @-@ based band Agape , formed in the late 1960s . Known for their psychedelic rock and blues influences , the band released an album titled Gospel Hard Rock in 1971 , followed by Victims of Tradition in 1972 . After Agape , the Resurrection Band was formed in 1972 in Milwaukee 's Jesus People community and released the hard rock album Music to Raise the Dead in 1974 . The Swedish group Jerusalem was formed in 1975 and is cited as another early Christian hard rock group . In 1978 , Resurrection Band released its album Awaiting Your Reply and Jerusalem released Jerusalem ( Volume 1 ) . Both albums had a notable impact on Christian music culture . During that time , heavy metal was a new style of music for the Christian music industry , and many Christian labels did not expect it to sell well . However , Awaiting Your Reply hit big in the Christian market , and reached No. 6 on the Gospel album sales charts . Jerusalem also became an instant hit among listeners , and within the first six months the record sold 20 @,@ 000 copies , unheard of within the genre of Christian rock in Europe . The Canadian Daniel Band is cited among the first bands , as is Barnabas .

= = = 1980s = = =

In the early 1980s , there were four notable Christian heavy metal groups : Messiah Prophet , Leviticus , Saint , and Stryper . Although it is debatable as to which band was formed first , the Orange County native glam metal group Stryper was the most popular one . Stryper was also the first band to identify as Christian metal . Stryper gained attention with their way of throwing Bibles to the audience at their concerts . In the beginning , mostly Christians went to Stryper 's concerts but soon they reached non @-@ Christian audience . In the 1980s , Christian metal bands closely followed the trends of mainstream metal bands .

During the mid @-@ 1980s , heavy metal music divided into autonomous subgenres . Weinstein ( 2000 ) described the thematic diversity that cross @-@ cuts musical styles : " In the 1980s , white metal and black metal emerged . Their lyrical themes are at polar opposites to each other , one of them bringing the ' good news ' and the other the ' bad news . ' Both include bands whose sounds span the full spectrum of metal . White metal is commonly called Christian metal . In part a response to the popularity of the heavy metal genre , it transforms the code of heavy metal to serve purposes of Evangelical Christian sects and other denominations . In part , also , Christian metal is a well @-@ crafted missionary effort to recruit members and save souls . [ ... ] Black metal stands in the thematic opposition to Christianity , not looking upward to heaven but setting its sights on the underworld . Satanic symbols and imagery have been a staple of heavy metal since its beginnings with Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin . In the West , there is no better symbol for rebellion . But groups such as Mercyful Fate claimed that they were not playing . Their claims to be true believers , followers of the lord of the underworld , were seen by many to be a commercial ploy . " Chicago doom metal group Trouble was known to be the first band that was publicly marketed as " white metal " since their early albums Psalm 9 and The Skull feature Biblical references . The origin of the " white metal " term remains unclear ; it is merely known that the non @-@ Christian label Metal Blade Records used " white metal " as a marketing term , in contrast to black metal .

Soon the Christian metal bands became controversial for their beliefs and often evangelistic goals in the metal music scene , which typically holds individualism in particularly high esteem . Stryper , for instance , although a commercial success at that time , received a hostile reception when they played at a Dutch metal festival in 1985 . Regardless of this , Stryper helped to popularize the genre . They were the first Christian band to reach platinum status on an album . The 1986 album To Hell with the Devil sold 2 million copies and achieved a Grammy nomination . The music videos for " Free " , " Calling on You " , and the power ballad " Honestly " all spent many weeks on Music Television 's Top 10 , and " Free " was in the No. 1 position for 12 weeks ( 60 days ) , May 4 – July 24 , 1987 .

Not only was Christian metal criticized by non @-@ Christian metal fans , but soon the movement was also criticized by fundamentalists ; Allmusic wrote that " when church leaders were accusing heavy metal of encouraging Satanism , Stryper set out to prove that metal and hard rock could be used to promote Christianity . The southern California band was viewed with suspicion by both ministers ( who refused to believe that Christianity and metal were compatible ) and fellow headbangers — and yet , Stryper managed to sell millions of albums to both Christian and secular audiences . " For example , the televangelist Jimmy Swaggart wrote a book titled Religious Rock n ' Roll – A Wolf in Sheep 's Clothing in 1987 and criticized the scene , particularly Stryper , for using heavy metal music to preach the gospel of Christianity . Many new bands began to arise , eventually drawing the attention of record labels that specialized in Christian music .

In contrast , however , many Christian evangelists and church organizations took a more supportive role . For example , televangelist Jim Bakker expressed public support for the group Stryper , watching them perform and becoming personal friends with the band 's members . Many new bands began to arise , eventually drawing the attention of record labels that specialized in Christian music .

= = = = Emergence of fanzines , record labels , and Sanctuary International = = = =

Christian metal soon developed into its own independent record labels and networks . The first Christian metal label was Pure Metal Records , a sublabel of Refuge Records . Soon there appeared other labels such as R.E.X. Records and Intense Records . Fanzines were published in several countries , with Heaven 's Metal as the first one in the US in 1985 . During that time almost every Christian record label became interested in Christian metal , and they advertised the newly signed metal bands on their roster on Heaven 's Metal since it was the only publication exclusively covering the movement . Soon Heaven 's Metal achieved more popularity and became an official , professional publication . Heaven 's Metal achieved a dedicated flock of 15 @,@ 000 readers . Bands ' sales usually rose when the ensembles were covered on the magazine . During the 1980s and early 1990s , the more underground Christian metal releases were typically distributed in Christian bookstores , and those as well as the fanzines also traded Christian metal cassette copies with the music fans .

Many rock and metal fans that became Christians through the ministry of Christian metal bands were rejected from churches in the 1980s . In 1984 , California pastor Bob Beeman saw this problem and soon started the ministry called Sanctuary - The Rock and Roll Refuge . This fellowship brought many musicians together and formed groups such as Tourniquet , Deliverance , Vengeance and Mortal that would soon become ground breaking acts in Christian music culture . Sanctuary 's first worship leader was Stryper 's vocalist Michael Sweet and later Barren Cross ' bass player Jim LaVerde . Sanctuary sponsored the first Christian metal festival , The Metal Mardi Gras , held in 1987 in Los Angeles . This proved influential and soon Christian metal festivals were organized elsewhere as well . Sanctuary 's activities began spreading , and it had 36 parishes all over the United States at its peak by the 1990s . The Sanctuary parishes had a significant impact on the Christian metal movement : groups that would later become notable such as P.O.D. performed their first concerts in Sanctuary .

By the late 1990s , the parish 's workers felt that regular churches ' attitudes towards metalheads , rockers and punks had become more permissive , and therefore did not feel the need to keep Sanctuary going on any longer , hence , most of the parishes of Sanctuary were closed . Sanctuary became Sanctuary International , and it currently gives international studies and lessons on Christianity . Sanctuary also runs an internet radio station called " Intense Radio " which , in 2003 , reached approximately 150 @,@ 000 listeners .

= = = Late 1980s and 1990s = = =

Doug Van Pelt of HM Magazine stated that Christian metal had its " heyday " in the late 1980s and early 1990s . By 1987 , there were more than a hundred Christian metal bands , and their records were sold at both Christian bookstores and non @-@ Christian retails . By 1988 , the four largest Christian metal bands ( excluding the mainstream success Stryper ) were Bloodgood , Barren Cross , Whitecross , and Leviticus . The Kentucky @-@ based band Bride initially played speed metal , particularly on Live to Die , and reached a wider audience when they released Snakes in the Playground ( 1992 ) . Despite being criticized for their abrupt changes in style in favor of what 's " hot " , are still considered " a primeval force at the centre of Christian heavy metal . "

In 1989 , the Orange County group X @-@ Sinner released its debut album Get It , and was one of the most talked about bands within the white metal scene at the time . Noted for a classic metal sound similar to AC / DC , X @-@ Sinner has managed to stay at the head of the Christian classic metal scene .

Glam metal band Holy Soldier , another group hailing from California , released its self @-@ titled debut on Word and A & M Records ( Myrrh imprint ) in 1990 to critical and commercial acclaim . Two years later , the band followed up their debut with Last Train , another critical success , leading to 60 city world tour . The band Guardian achieved some mainstream attention for its album Fire and Love , and one of the videos was included in the MTV 's Headbangers Ball rotation . The heavy metal band Angelica introduced vocalist Rob Rock , who also achieved initial fame as the vocalist for guitar virtuoso Chris Impellitteri 's band Impellitteri during the 1980s and 1990s and then went solo with his Rage of Creation album .

In the early 1990s , the rising musical styles , especially grunge , began to take their places as the dominant styles in the mainstream , which resulted in heavy metal music losing popularity and going underground for a decade . Many Christian metal musicians began to play extreme metal , and soon death metal replaced thrash metal in popularity . Audiences in many underground metal scenes began favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular styles . As with other glam metal acts of the time , Stryper lost popularity and split up in 1993 .

Bruce Moore writes in the e @-@ book Metal Missionaries that during mid @-@ 1990s Christian metal " ceased to play catch up ( replicating secular bands ) and began to assimilate into its rightful place in the Extreme music scene and the artists who played became influential in helping to define this relatively new , but growing genre . " With risen musical quality and more street @-@ credibility , Christian metal and hardcore bands were signed to record labels such as Tooth and Nail , Solid State , Facedown Records as well as secular labels Metal Blade and Victory Records . Christian metal was available through non @-@ Christian outlets ; " For the first time Extreme Christian music moved from the dusty back bin of the Christian book stores to the front racks at super retailers like Best Buy , Circuit City , FYE and even giant retailers like Wal @-@ Mart , Target and Hot Topic . " The German secular metal label Nuclear Blast Records also released Christian metal . Torodd Fuglesteg of Norway 's Arctic Serenades Records has claimed : " The owner of Nuclear Blast was a committed Christian and he was pushing everything with that religious agenda through Nuclear Blast . Mortification and Horde were pushed like mad by Nuclear Blast when other labels were pushing pure satanic stuff . "

= = = 2000s = = =

In the first decade of the 21st century some groups reached mainstream popularity . There are Christian metal bands that perform virtually every subgenre of metal . The Christian metal movement has spread worldwide since it emerged in the early 1980s , and there are now hundreds of active Christian metal bands . Inspired by the metal revival , many 1980s bands have made comebacks including Saint , Bloodgood and Stryper . In October 2004 , Doug Van Pelt brought Heaven 's Metal back as its own fanzine . The Internet has had a significant role on the revival of Christian metal as well . Many websites and online communities are dedicated to discussions about Christian metal 's music , events , and bands .

For the first time since Stryper 's success in the 1980s , certain Christian metal artists found mainstream acceptance selling millions of albums to both Christian and non @-@ Christian fans , including Underoath and P.O.D. The latter became the most successful Christian metal band when their 2001 album Satellite went multi @-@ platinum , while the former 's 2006 album , Define the Great Line , ranked No. 2 on the Billboard 200 . Metalcore features many popular Christian bands , including such crossover bands such as Underoath , As I Lay Dying , August Burns Red , Blessthefall , Norma Jean , Haste the Day , The Devil Wears Prada , Disciple and Demon Hunter . As I Lay Dying have entered the Billboard 200 charts ( No. 8 ) for its record sales and were nominated for the " Best Metal Performance " Grammy for the single " Nothing Left " from the 2007 album An Ocean Between Us . The album made its debut on Metal Blade Records , charting at No. 19 in Canada . In the United States , nearly 40 @,@ 000 units were sold in its first week . The second week after it was released , it charted at No. 39 in both the United States and Canada . Other Top 200 debuts around the world include a No. 117 in the United Kingdom and No. 154 in Japan . In 2015 , August Burns Red was given " Best Metal Performance " at the Grammys for their song " Identity " , off their Found in Far Away Places album .

In its 2006 in Review issue ( February 2007 ) , Revolver magazine dubbed Christian metal the phenomenon of the year . Editor in Chief Tom Beaujour interviewed the lead vocalists of As I Lay Dying , Demon Hunter , Norma Jean , and Underoath ( Tim Lambesis , Ryan Clark , Cory Brandan Putman , and Spencer Chamberlain , respectively ) as the front @-@ page article for the issue . Tooth and Nail Records , P.O.D. , Zao , War of Ages , Still Remains , and He Is Legend were also mentioned .

= = Christian bands in metal subgenres = =

= = = Thrash metal = = =

Some notable American Christian thrash metal groups include Deliverance , Believer , Vengeance ( frontman , vocalist and last remaining member Roger Martinez currently against Christianity ) and Tourniquet . Allmusic states that Vengeance Rising 's first two albums " were huge successes in the world of Christian music , making them one of the few bands in the genre to cross over into the secular music scene . " Tourniquet was called " arguably the greatest Christian metal band in history " by Cross Rhythms in 1996 . Tourniquet 's Psycho Surgery was ranked as the second most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM Magazine . Deliverance 's 1990 music video for the title track of Weapons of Our Warfare album received some airplay on MTV . Allmusic wrote about Believer 's Sanity Obscure album : " Before 1990 , the Christian heavy metal genre rarely strayed from generic riffing and poor lyrics . Bands like Petra and Sacred Warrior never broke through to the mainstream for this very reason . With low expectations , Believer released this massive slab of molten metal . Although it never really became popular , several mainstream magazines praised the album . "

The British bands Seventh Angel and Detritus introduced Christian thrash metal to Europe . Seventh Angel were considered to be thrash metal pioneers , and their albums achieved mainstream distribution through the Music for Nations label . Cross Rhythms states that for a long time Seventh Angel were considered to be the best metal act in the UK . Seventh Angel also has included aspects of doom metal on some recordings . In the 1990s , New Mexico based Ultimatum and Oklahoman group called Eternal Decision gained some attention , the latter with its thrash and groove metal style . The 1997 album Eternal Decision hit the record stores in the U.S. and 16 other countries , achieving considerable acclaim and providing the band with even more notice .

= = = Death metal = = =

In 1990 , the Australian group Mortification became the first widely recognized Christian death metal band . Their 1992 album Scrolls of the Megilloth garnered the band some attention from the heavy metal underground , according to Allmusic .

At roughly the same time , the band Living Sacrifice was creating thrash and death metal , particularly on the albums Nonexistent ( 1992 ) and Inhabit ( 1994 ) , with Allmusic commenting that " the term Christian death metal seems like one of music 's most comical oxymorons . " Later they " evolved from their early death metal @-@ inspired rumblings into a crushing , staccato @-@ driven , heavily percussive metallic behemoth that pummels listeners with intense riffage and a decidedly personal , though nevertheless , often evangelical lyrical viewpoint . " The Minneapolis @-@ based Crimson Thorn is described by Allmusic as " one of the world 's most extreme @-@ sounding Christian metal bands . " Norwegian band Extol 's 1998 album Burial was called " Revolutionary . This release may have single @-@ handedly been responsible for the revival of the Christ @-@ centered extreme metal . " The band was popular among both Christian and general metal fans , mostly touring with well @-@ known non @-@ Christian bands .

= = = Unblack metal = = =

Horde is widely considered to be the first unblack metal ( also called Christian black metal ) band . As a one @-@ man band with only one release ( in 1994 ) , Horde initiated controversy within the extreme metal community , opposing the more common lyrical themes of Satanism and evil . The title of Horde 's only release – Hellig Usvart – means " Holy Unblack " , which is now often used by Christians to refer to Christian black metal , in order to avoid the negative connotations of the term " black metal " .

Antestor ( then called Crush Evil ) existed prior to the release of Hellig Usvart but their music was a death / doom style , and was not yet musically considered black metal . During the early 1990s when the band was known as Crush Evil , Euronymous , guitarist for the seminal black metal band Mayhem , was planning to stop Crush Evil from continuing . However , this never took place .

The release of Antestor 's The Return of the Black Death on the British black metal label Cacophonous Records in 1998 " set the standard for Christian black metal " . Swedish Crimson Moonlight 's The Covenant Progress , HM Magazine stated , " rivals the best any other band ( Christian or secular ) in this subgenre can offer . " While the unblack scene is not part of the traditional black metal scene , several musicians from both have co @-@ operated : Stian Aarstad of Dimmu Borgir produced Vaakevandring 's eponymous EP , and Jan Axel Blomberg of Mayhem played drums for Antestor 's The Forsaken ( 2005 ) album .

= = = Power metal and progressive metal = = =

Sacred Warrior preceded Christian power metal in the United States . The German group Seventh Avenue , formed in 1989 , was one of more notable Christian power metal bands in the 1990s . They released Rainbowland in 1995 , and after that the band was signed to Treasure Hunt Records . Their first release on this label , Tales of Tales , topped at 18 on the Japanese Heavy Metal Charts .

Later in the 1990s , the Swedish group Narnia made contributions to Christian power metal history , having signed with Nuclear Blast Records , Germany , and Pony Canyon Records , Japan . Later there appeared more notable European groups such as the German bands Chrystyne and Lightmare , and the Swedish groups XT , Divinefire , Harmony , and Heartcry .

Among the progressive metal representatives were Balance of Power , whose album When the World Falls Down was picked by Japanese label Pony Canyon . Jacobs Dream was signed to Metal Blade Records . HM wrote of the Athens , Georgia based Theocracy 's self @-@ titled debut album that " Not only did this release gain [ the then @-@ sole member ] Matt a lot of notoriety in the small Christian power / prog scene but the much larger secular power / prog secene embraced this as well . " Later turned to a full band , their sophomore 2008 album Mirror of Souls " defines excellence in current Christian metal . "

= = = Other = = =

In 1987 , the Swedish group Veni Domine started playing progressive and symphonic doom metal and released its first album Fall Babylon Fall in 1992 , ranked as the 38th most influential Christian metal album of all time by HM . HM Magazine wrote that Paramaecium , with its 1993 album Exhumed of the Earth , " essentially delivered the most powerful and moving death / doom recording in the history of Christian metal . " Saviour Machine 's Saviour Machine I was called " amazing accomplishment " by HM and that " their gothic @-@ tinged , progressive metal was quite unique to the scene when it was released in 1993 . "

The alternative metal style 's leading groups included the nu metal bands P.O.D. , Thousand Foot Krutch , Disciple , and Pillar . Zao was a pioneer of metalcore , paving way for bands such as Underoath and Norma Jean . The California @-@ based group Mortal is cited as one of the first Christian bands that represented the industrial metal style . Cross Rhythms wrote that when Mortal 's second album Fathom hit the scene in 1993 " there was nothing else quite like it " and that it is " truly a musical milestone . "

Another 1990s reputive Christian industrial metal band was Circle of Dust . The band received MTV exposure with a music video for " Telltale Crime " , and a part of the song " Deviate " was used as the intro @-@ song for a long time in the now defunct MTV Sports show .

Argyle Park , an underground supergroup of Christian industrial metal , received some success with the album Misguided ( 1995 ) as did , to some extent , LVL and Klank with Still Suffering in 1997 . Klank 's second album Numb was somewhat successful because the song " Blind " became a hit single . The Australian industrial metal band called Screams of Chaos was known for its bizarre style that combined several extreme metal influences with industrial . The late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century popular American shock rock group Rackets & Drapes was known to have elements of industrial metal , and received a following .

= = Christianity in mainstream metal = =

There are notable mainstream acts that feature or have featured Christian members . While these bands may or may not have had lyrics using Christian themes or symbolism , some have caused controversy in their claims to Christianity , such as Tom Araya of Slayer . Others , such as Alice Cooper Killswitch Engage , Linkin Park , Iron Maiden and Megadeth also have members who are Christian and often use spiritual themes .

= = Evangelistic subculture = =

While not uncommon in predominantly Catholic cultures , Christian metal is rooted in evangelical Protestantism , beginning as a means of evangelism among the non @-@ Christian metal scene . Over the years the focus changed because of the increased secularization of Christianity in the West during the 1990s . Moberg ( 2008 ) notes that the current scene seems to have very little interest in evangelism , especially in Northern Europe . Instead , it is argued that the current Christian metal music scene ultimately provides its core members with important resources for the shaping of an alternative and complementary form of religious expression and practice and an alternative Christian identity . Thus , Moberg states that Christian metal serves four main purposes : an alternative form of religious expression and identity ; as a legitimate form of religious expression ; as an effective means of evangelism and fighting and standing up for the Christian faith ; as a positive alternative to non @-@ Christian metal .

In a 2006 interview with HM Magazine , Steve Rowe of Mortification , one of the best known figures in the scene , implies that evangelism is of secondary importance and that Christian metal should first and foremost bring " spiritual encouragement " for its Christian listeners . Moberg ( 2006 ) suspects that Christian metal music may suggest dissatisfaction with traditional forms of worship among today 's young Christians : " They may not feel comfortable with just going to church and singing hymns , they need an alternative means to express the same faith . " Apart from evangelism , Christian metal may also provide a means " to get away from the image of Christianity as something rigid and boring " .

Luhr ( 2009 ) states that Christian metal expresses feeling of isolation and rebellion just like non @-@ Christian metal - but in a completely different way . Christian metal 's rebellion is about " Christian opposition to the perceived sinfulness and immorality of a late modern society and culture in which traditional family values have been eroded through such things as the legalization and increasing acceptability of abortion and pornography and the rise of gay rights and feminist movements . " Causes for the feeling of isolation can be explained with the fundamental Christian struggle of being in the world but not of it . Bloodgood and Barren Cross inverted the meaning of rebellion by declaring that in Western society and culture the Christian faith is true rebellion . As in non @-@ Christian metal , fans are encouraged to stand up for their faith , think for themselves and not blindly follow authorities , including religious ones .

According to Moberg ( 2008 ) , Christian metal has developed scenes in countries with long @-@ standing metal subcultures : United States , Brazil , Mexico , Germany , Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Finland . Despite its seemingly marginal niche audience , as Christian metal fans are counted in the thousands and the non @-@ Christian metal fans in the millions , the Christian metal scene is one of the few transnational Christian communities that do not have any leaders or creed - only music connects its attendees . Just like non @-@ Christian metal , the Christian metal scene has developed its own infrastructure of record labels , promotion and distribution channels , specialized media , discussion forums , attitude , rhetorics , slogans such as " Turn or Burn ! " , " Faster for the Master ! " and " Support the War against Satan ! " , webstores and festivals . Brazil and Mexico have tiny parishes of Christian metal fans . Finland in particular , with metal being more mainstream there than anywhere in the world , has held popular Metal Masses picked up by the Lutheran former state church since 2006 .

Most Christian metalheads also listen to non @-@ Christian metal ; Christian metal merely offers counterbalance for the dark message of non @-@ Christian metal , and most Christian metalheads only avoid the most satanic bands , if even them , since some ignore the issue altogether . Some differences in concert gestures have been noticed : Los Angeles Times reported in 1985 that in Stryper shows the audience were seen " poking stubby ' one way ' fingers heavenward — a refutation of the double @-@ fingered devil horns salute of many metal groups " .

= = Controversy = =

Certain Christian groups , most notably those in some King James Only denominations , consider all types of rock and metal music to be opposition to their faith , regardless of lyrical content or the lifestyles of the band members . However , fans and artists see metal as another genre of music , parallel to such genres as blues , classical , jazz , punk , and hip @-@ hop . Bands such as Showbread and Antestor believe that the instrumentation of the music is simply a medium of art , while the person creating the music as well as the lyrics being presented provide the message . Therefore , Christian metal is created when Christians compose metal music in a way that reflects their faith in Christ .

Keith Kahn @-@ Harris states in the book Extreme Metal that sometimes fans of metal consider Christian faith and adherence in Church a membership of an established authority , and therefore Christian metal bands are seen as " posers " and the use of Christian lyrics to be opposed to the " true " purpose of metal , which values individualism and ignoring the opinions or rejection of religion .

Christian metal groups such as Barnabas and Extol have criticized bands within the industry for a lack of innovation and for isolating bands within the industry . Pastor Bob Beeman of Sanctuary International stated that this is a compliment to secular music , as it lets people to listen to the music they enjoyed without feeling like they are giving up on the style they love and allows bands to crossover into mainstream success .

Some groups within the Christian metal movement have criticized bands within the industry for isolating the genre from general industry too avidly . For example , Christer Espevoll of Extol stated in 2003 : " I wish the scenes were more together . For a long time there has been a huge – and still growing – distance between Christian and secular music industries . This is the situation peculiarly in the US but also in Scandinavia . In my opinion this kind of polarization is not a good thing . Music is first and foremost about music so why should every band or artist that represents a religion or lack of it have its own industry ? Music has no religious borders . " However , most Christian bands today oppose to being isolated in the Christian music industry and have become mainstream successes , such as Virgin Black .

= = Christian metal radio = =

Since Christian metal is very much a counterculture of the Christian music scene , it has never had any major corporate radio outlets , as opposed to the more accepted CCM @-@ associated Christian music formats . Nevertheless , it has remained culturally significant in the genre , primarily enduring the test of time through word of mouth and through the help of pioneering Christian rock and metal broadcasters . Despite the lack of commercial radio support , Christian metal broadcasters have managed to hit the airwaves on public radio , campus radio , Internet radio , and in recent years through podcasting via the Internet . As digital broadcasting technology becomes more accessible , the number of Christian metal broadcasters has steadily increased . Some of today 's largest non @-@ commercial Christian alternative radio stations such as RadioU , Call FM , and Effect Radio have some Christian metal programing late nights and on weekends . However , as a whole these larger stations generally maintain a GMA @-@ prescribed format . Other stations such as Almighty Metal Radio , Savage Rock Radio , Reign Radio , Metal Blessing Radio , The Cross Stream , The Refinery Rock Radio , www.theBlast.fm , and FuelRadio.FM have been able to maintain twenty @-@ four @-@ hour Christian metal formats through Internet radio . Some notable Christian metal radio DJs , shows and podcasts include : " Jesus Solid Rock " Show ( ' 74 - ' 80 ) hosted by Pastor Bob Beeman , " Intense Radio " ( ' 95 - present ) founded by Pastor Bob Beeman and Sanctuary International , " HM Podcast " with HM Magazine founder & publisher Doug Van Pelt , " The Full Armor of God Broadcast " ( ' 97 - present ) hosted by Bro Scotland Kubinski ( Kuba " The Demon Slayer " ) , " Radio U Hardcore " and ( ' 02 - present ) hosted by Jaddeus Dempsey ( A.K.A. " Jad " ) , and " The Nation of Rockwell " .

= = Record labels = =

Blood and Ink Records

Facedown Records

Flicker Records

Intense Records

Nightmare Records

Pluto Records

R.E.X. Records

Retroactive Records

Rivel Records

Rottweiler Records

Rowe Productions

Rugged Records

Solid State Records

Tooth & Nail Records

= = Christian metal festival = =

Cornerstone Festival 1984 – 2012 ( U.S. )

Elements of Rock 2004 – present ( Switzerland )

Nordic Fest 2002 – 2011 ( Norway )

Blast of Eternity 2008 – present ( Germany )

Bobfest

Dikaion Fest ( Ecuador )

Call for Eternity / Call for Eternity Extreme 2009 – present ( Slovakia )

Admonishment ( New Zealand )

Rock Alive ( the Netherlands )

= Fifteen ( song ) =

" Fifteen " is a country pop song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . Swift self @-@ penned the song and co @-@ produced it along with Nathan Chapman . " Fifteen " was released on August 30 , 2009 by Big Machine Records , as the fourth single from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless ( 2008 ) . The song was inspired by Swift 's freshman year of high school at Hendersonville High School , where she first encountered heartbreak , along with her best friend Abigail Anderson . After writing it , Swift asked Anderson for authorization to record the song ( due to personal references in the song ) ; Anderson affirmed and it was ultimately included on Fearless . " Fifteen " is a ballad , which has Swift reminiscing on events that occurred to her and her best friend at the age of 15 and cautioning young girls to not fall in love easily .

" Fifteen " peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 and sold over a million digital downloads in the United States . The music video for " Fifteen " was directed by Roman White . It was filmed using a green screen and is heavily accentuated with special effects . The video features Swift walking through a garden , where she relives many memories with Anderson . It received a nomination for the Best Female Video category at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " . " Fifteen " was promoted with live performances , including many that were part of Swift 's first and second headlining tours , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 — 10 ) and the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) . Swift partnered with electronics retailer Best Buy for @ 15 , a program that allowed teens to help decide how funds would be distributed among various charities .

= = Background = =

Swift began writing " Fifteen " with the lyric " And Abigail gave everything she had to a boy / Who changed his mind / We both cried " , which eventually became the song 's bridge , and continued writing everything else in a backwards manner . The song was written about Swift 's freshman year of high school at Hendersonville High School , where she met her best friend Abigail Anderson . " I just decided I really wanted to tell that story about our first year of high school because I felt in my freshman year , I grew up more than any year in my life so far " , Swift stated . The events it focused on were how both Swift and Anderson fell in love for the first time , but both suffered of heartbreaks . Aside from reminiscing on the events she and Anderson experienced , Swift wrote cautionary lyrics , intended to target teenage girls entering or already in their freshman year of high school . She described it as incorporating things she wished someone would have told her in a song when she was younger . " The thing about high school , you don 't know anything . You don 't know anything , but you think you know everything " , Swift said .

After the completion of composing " Fifteen " , Swift became very nervous to show Anderson the song , for she did not know how her friend would respond . " It was a really personal song , especially from her angle of it . " However , when Swift performed the song for Anderson and asked whether she was comfortable with the song , Anderson confirmed : " She said , ' Does it bother you that your name is in a song that 's so personal ? ' And it really doesn 't just because of the way Taylor and I feel about it . If one girl can kind of learn from it or connect to a song like that , it 's totally worth it . " With Anderson 's consent , Swift recorded " Fifteen " with producer Nathan Chapman , who produced all but one track on Swift 's 2006 eponymous debut album , Taylor Swift . Recording the highly personal track caused Swift to cry . Swift attributed the event to the fact that she is most likely to cry over when her loved ones undergo pain , as she witnesses it , rather than her own experiences . She went to say " Fifteen " usually gets her every time .

= = Composition = =

" Fifteen " is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and 55 seconds . It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . The track is categorized as a ballad . It is written in the key of G major and Swift 's vocals spans a little over two octaves , from G3 to C5 . It follows the chord progression Gsus2 – Csus2 – Em – Csus2 . It concludes with an outro that consists of Swift singing " la la la " and rephrasing the song 's opening lines .

The lyrics of " Fifteen " have Swift narrating about multiple events . In the first verse , Swift details first entering high school with intentions of merely staying out of her peers ' way . The second verse bears Swift meeting Anderson and gossiping about the school 's queen bees with her . Successively , Swift describes first dates and falling in love for the first time . However , Swift and Anderson become heartbroken , revealing that Anderson " gave everything she had " to someone who later changed his mind . The song 's refrains have Swift cautioning young girls to not fall in love easily and acknowledging that she came to the realization of being able to accomplish more than dating a football team member .

= = Critical reception = =

Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone believed " Fifteen " was exemplary in that " Swift is a songwriting savant with an intuitive gift for verse @-@ chorus @-@ bridge architecture " . Rosen compared her songwriting in the track to that of producers Dr. Luke and Max Martin , who he referred to as " Swedish pop gods " . He continued , " Her music mixes an almost impersonal professionalism — it 's so rigorously crafted it sounds like it has been scientifically engineered in a hit factory — with confessions that are squirmingly intimate and true . " Jonathon Keefe of Slant Magazine considered the bridge one of the nicer moments of Fearless , but was unimpressed with Swift 's singing , particularly in the outro . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic found " Fifteen " , in which Swift portrayed the role of a big sister instead of a big star , to be one of the best and the most personal song on Fearless . Ken Tucker of Billboard magazine believed " Fifteen " could appeal with teenagers looking for hope and adult women reminiscing the past . Leah Greenbelt of Entertainment Weekly stated , " When she sings about sexuality , she sounds like a real teen , not some manufactured vixen @-@ Lolita " .

Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said " Fifteen " was one of Swift 's best @-@ written songs . James Reed of The Boston Globe believed " Fifteen " was one of Fearless 's most interesting songs and stated he could visualize the lyrics of the song scribbled in a diary that chronicled Swift 's freshman year in high school . Sean Dooley of About.com named it the best track on Fearless and said it showcased Swift 's growth as a songwriter . Josh Love of The Village Voice called the song a " standout " on the album and found it a refreshing contradiction to typical , idealistic country songs . Prior to its single release , Kate Kiefer of Paste magazine suggested for the song be released as a single from Fearless , adding that she loved it . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian called the track a fantastically good song that broadened " her potential market from teenage girls to anyone who used to be a teenage girl " . Petridis continued , " You applaud her skill , while feeling slightly unsettled by the thought of a teenager pontificating away like Yoda . " Aidan Vaziri of San Francisco Chronicle ranked it twelfth on his top 12 singles of 2009 list , commenting , " Damn it if this song isn 't too sweet , too vulnerable and just too real to ignore . "

= = Chart performance = =

Following the release of Fearless , on the week ending November 29 , 2008 , " Fifteen " debuted at number seventy @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 Its appearance , along with six other songs , on the chart tied Swift with Hannah Montana ( Miley Cyrus ) for the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week , a record later surpassed by Swift herself when she charted eleven songs at once in 2010 . It re @-@ entered at number ninety @-@ four on the week ending October 3 , 2009 , after its single release . On the week ending December 19 , 2009 , " Fifteen " reached its peak at number twenty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 , and , on the week ending February 6 , 2010 , spent its last week at number forty , after twenty @-@ one weeks on the chart . The song is one of thirteen songs from Fearless charted within the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top forty entries from a single album . The single was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . As of November 2014 , " Fifteen " has sold over 1 @,@ 323 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .

" Fifteen " debuted at number forty @-@ one on Billboard Hot Country Songs . It jumped at number thirty @-@ one on its second week and on the week @-@ ending November 7 , 2009 , it entered the top ten at number ten . Six weeks later , it reached its peak at number seven on the week @-@ ending December 12 , 2009 . The single became her second single that did not reach the top three of Billboard Hot Country Songs since her debut single " Tim McGraw " . " Fifteen " also peak at number ten on Billboard Pop Songs , number twelve on Billboard Adult Contemporary , and at number fourteen at Billboard Adult Pop Songs .

On the week ending January 23 , 2010 , the song peaked at number nineteen in Canada . It was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 @,@ 000 digital downloads . " Fifteen " peaked at number forty @-@ eight in Australia on the week ending December 13 , 2009 .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Fifteen " was directed by Roman White , who previously directed Swift 's music video " You Belong with Me " . White began with the intention of creating a video different than others Swift did in the past . To do so , he believed he needed to set the video outside of high school . White explained , " Well , I think I really wanted this video to kind of be an evolution for Taylor [ ... ] I actually said to her , ' I don 't think we should shoot in a high school . ' And I don 't think she wanted to either . " White conceptualized the video 's setting by taking into account the literal meaning of the song and transforming into something new . He conceptualized the setting to be new world where Swift could revisit her memories , as they manifest around her . " Let 's take the literal meaning of this song and watch it evolve in front of us ... almost as a memory in your head . And create this world , somewhere you walk in on this desolate desert and you start to sing about all these great memories you have ... of everything you love blooming around you , and so we literally grew this garden around her " , White said . The world moved from one situation to the next . White decided to annex surreal elements to create a cross between a garden and the heart of the memories . He intertwined Swift 's emotions with the growth of the garden . The garden grew when Swift felt happy , but at the sight of pain and negative emotions , clouds appear and the garden dies , which also symbolized Anderson 's broken heart .

Swift 's friend , Anderson , portrayed herself in the video . The love interests of both Swift and Anderson were cast by Swift after she received images of them via e @-@ mail . The video was filmed in two days . The first day consisted of actors , including Swift and Anderson , filming before a green screen . On the set , White presented Swift with caricature drawings depicting the music video , in order to guide herself . Swift was impressed by Anderson 's acting skills , considering her lack of experience , and called it " prolific " . On the second day , scenes at a high school were filmed ; artificial rain was made . Afterward , White and a team of visual effect artists created the setting . " If you watch just the offline edit of this video , it 's just green . It 's just Taylor walking around a giant green screen . And to think that every single thing in that video was created is amazing , ' cause a lot of people worked really hard on it " , White said . The visual effects team were at work for the video for some time , sometimes staying overnight in the office to produce the video . The direction was to make the video seem " magical " . Some of the props used when filming were recreated using digital animation , such as the door and the desks . Because extras were filmed separately , White was meticulous to find the right shots to make the scene more cohesive . White believed the finished product had a sense of innocence .

The video begins with Swift , barefoot and clad in a white sundress , approaching a tall , arched doorway which materializes in the middle of a barren landscape . Swift looks at a photograph of herself and her friend tucked into the arch and , then , passes through the doors . On the other side of the arch , animated flowers and vines grow across the scenes . People and objects from a high school fade in and out of view . Swift walks through the memories and begins to play an acoustic guitar beneath a tree . Afterward , Anderson appears , sitting at a desk before a chalkboard in the field of flowers . Swift sits down beside her and two begin to whisper and laugh to each other . In the next scene , Swift plays guitar while Anderson goes on her first date ; she kisses her date , but pushes him away when he tries to go further . Her love interest and all surroundings dissolve to show Anderson sitting alone on a stone bench . Swift approaches her and hugs her tightly as the field around them turns dark and stormy . The video then alternates between Swift singing in the rain and hugging her friend . After the landscape deteriorates , the video transitions to reality , where Swift , wearing a black trench coat , stands in the rain , across the street from a high school . Swift then sees a student at the entrance ; the two make eye contact and the video concludes . To date , the video has over 108 million views on YouTube .

= = = Video reception = = =

The music video premiered on October 9 , 2009 on CMT . Peter Gicas of E ! thought the video was " sweet " and said , " And while the visuals here — Taylor walking in and out of various animated scenes — are certainly nice to look at , they nevertheless take a back seat to the country star 's cuteness . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly graded the video a B. Greenblatt believed the video was reverential and painterly , but criticized it by saying " Fifteen " ' s most powerful lyrics were outdone by the dreamy design . Jocelyn Vena of MTV wrote , " Taylor Swift is ' Fifteen ' all over again in the new music video for her song of the same name . " At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , the video was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video , but lost to Lady Gaga 's video for " Bad Romance " ( 2009 ) .

= = Live performances = =

Swift first performed " Fifteen " , as a duet with pop singer Miley Cyrus , at the 51st Grammy Awards . The duo sat on wooden stools for the acoustic performance , with Swift wearing a baggy beige dress layered over a tight black outfit and playing an acoustic guitar . Swift has also performed the song at We 're All for the Hall , a benefit concert organized by Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum , the 2009 CMA Music Festival , the 2009 V Festival , the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief , and the Country Music Association Awards . In the United Kingdom , Swift performed " Fifteen " on Later ... with Jools Holland and The Paul O 'Grady Show . Swift performed the song on all venues in 2009 and 2010 of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour . The performances of " Fifteen " set on a small platform located at the opposite end , parallel to the stage in the arena . Swift , dressed in a pastel sundress , sat on a wooden stool while performing with wooden 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar strapped to her shoulder . Nicole Frehsee of Rolling Stone favored Swift 's performance of " Tim McGraw " at the August 27 , 2009 concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City . Frehsee described the entire concert as an " elaborate spectacle that doesn 't slow down , even when the singer hauls her acoustic guitar into the audience to play a sweet , stripped down set of tunes including ' Fifteen ' . " " Fifteen " served as a performance on the setlist of Swift 's second concert tour , the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 ) ; the performances featured Swift sitting and playing an acoustic guitar , wearing a blue cocktail dress .

= = @ 15 = =

Swift partnered with electronics retailer Best Buy for @ 15 , a program that allowed teens to help decide how Best Buy 's " @ 15 Fund " would be distributed among various charities . Swift taped a Public Service Announcement ( PSA ) , called a " Teen Service Announcement " by Best Buy , for @ 15 . Within the PSA , which was released on February 9 , 2009 , scenes of Swift reminiscing on high school and encouraging originality and uniqueness were inter @-@ cut with scenes of her singing " Fifteen " . In June 2009 , @ 15 became a partner for Swift 's Fearless Tour . The announcement was shown at each stop during the North American leg of the tour . In fifteen tour stops , @ 15 donated forty concert tickets and a guitar autographed by Swift to local teen @-@ oriented charity groups , such as chapters of Boys & Girls Clubs of America and Big Brothers Big Sisters .

= = Track listings = =

CD single / Digital download

" Fifteen " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 54

" You Belong with Me " ( Radio Mix ) – 3 : 50

Australia Pop Mix Edit Digital Download

" Fifteen " ( Pop Mix Edit ) – 4 : 01

= = Charts = =

= Wario World =

Wario World ( ワリオワールド , Wario Wārudo ) is a platform beat ' em up game developed by Treasure and published by Nintendo for the GameCube . It was released in Europe on June 20 , 2003 , in North America on June 23 , 2003 , in Australia on July 10 , 2003 , and in Japan on May 27 , 2004 . The game 's plot centers on Wario and his quest to regain his treasure and his castle from Black Jewel , an evil gem .

The game was fairly well received by reviewers . They praised the gameplay but criticized the game for being too short . Wario World has sold over 142 @,@ 000 copies in Japan and over 256 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In 2004 , the game was re @-@ released as a Player 's Choice title .

= = Gameplay = =

Wario World 's gameplay centers mainly on combating enemies , although it requires some platform navigation similar to Super Mario 64 and Super Mario Sunshine . The controls are simple , and are only used to jump , run , dash , perform fighting moves , and use the " Hyper Suction " ability to collect nearby coins . The level designs are platform @-@ based with combat elements , and have an overall linear design . The levels contain trapdoors , which lead to special platforming or puzzle @-@ oriented challenges . Throughout the game , small forest sprites known as " Spiritelings " give Wario advice if they are rescued from imprisonment .

During combat , Wario can grab enemies and either spin them around , throw them , or piledrive them into the ground . Enemies drop coins when defeated , and tend to regenerate if the area is left and returned to later . The coins are used to purchase items , such as life @-@ restoring garlic , and to return to life . If Wario does not have enough money to return to life , the game is over . A new feature in Wario World are the spherical " glue globes " , in which Wario is stuck to if he touches it , allowing the player to reach otherwise inaccessible areas . Along the way , Wario can re @-@ collect his lost treasures , which are hidden in treasure chests , and collect pieces of golden Wario statues , which increases Wario 's life meter by one half . In order to advance in the game , the player must collect a certain amount of red diamonds in each level . If the player collects all the treasure in the various levels , minigames from the Game Boy Advance title WarioWare , Inc . : Mega Microgames ! are unlocked , and they can be played by using the Nintendo GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable .

= = Plot = =

The game begins with Wario enjoying his newly built castle , which is filled with treasures that he has collected from earlier adventures . An evil gem called Black Jewel , hidden amongst Wario 's treasure collection , suddenly awakens and takes over Wario 's castle . Black Jewel turns Wario 's treasure into monsters , and transforms the castle into four worlds called Excitement Central , Spooktastic World , Thrillsville and Sparkle Land , each consisting of two levels and a boss fight . A central area allows access to the different worlds , as well as to the Treasure Square , where the Huge Treasure Box inside of which Black Jewel is hiding can be found . Wario proceeds through the areas controlled by Black Jewel , recovering his treasure and rescuing Spritelings ( the creatures had sealed Black Jewel away in the past ) , then obtains the key to the Huge Treasure Box and engages Black Jewel in a battle . Wario 's subsequent victory allows him to regain control of his castle .

During the game 's ending , Wario 's new castle quality depends on the number of Spiritelings rescued . The worst @-@ case scenario sees Wario with nothing but a campsite with his throne in a dark jungle , but if all 40 Spritelings were rescued , Wario is given a palace even grander than his previous one .

= = Development = =

Wario World was first shown at E3 2002 as a technical demo . At the next E3 in 2003 , it was shown with new levels of gameplay polish and tweaking , which the previous E3 demo was lacking . On August 22 , 2002 , at Nintendo 's Gamer 's Summit , Wario World 's North American release date was set to November 11 , 2002 . The game was later going to be released on May 26 , 2003 , but was further delayed by one month till June 23 .

It was uncertain who was developing Wario World , until April 22 , 2003 , when Nintendo of America officially revealed that Treasure , the company behind the successful titles Gunstar Heroes and Ikaruga , was developing the game . After the successful development collaboration Treasure and Nintendo shared with the Nintendo 64 title , Sin and Punishment , the two companies wanted to work together again . The R & D1 team wanted to continue their co @-@ development juncture with a 3D installment of the Wario franchise . Wario World 's music was composed by Norio Hanzawa and Minako Hamano . Wario was voiced by Charles Martinet , who also voices Mario and Luigi in the Mario series .

= = Reception = =

Wario World was a commercial success , selling over 142 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . In 2004 , the game was re @-@ released alongside Mario Golf : Toadstool Tour and F @-@ Zero GX as part of the Player 's Choice line , a selection of games with high sales sold for a reduced price .

Wario World received fairly positive reviews . The US version of Play magazine gave the game a perfect score , and the reviewer commented that Wario World " pays off every second [ he is ] holding the controller , and that , to [ him ] , is greatness " . Nintendo Power said that the game was " tons of fun " . GamePro stated that Wario World " stays addictive by weight of sheer design innovation " . The American @-@ based publication Game Informer praised the game for including " droves of awesome boss battles " . Matt Casamassina of IGN declared that Wario World had " some great control mechanics and inventive level work " . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Greg Ford said , " Wario [ World ] delivers a great time while it lasts and is well worth checking out . Just don 't expect a Mario @-@ quality adventure " . Worthplaying gave the game 9 out 10 , stating that " Treasure has done itself proud with this title , and Wario himself can lift his head up high . At least in my book , he 's got at least one game that 's better than Mario 's . "

Wario World received criticism for its length , with some reviewers stating that the game was shorter than the average console title . Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer compared Wario World to Luigi 's Mansion , a game also criticized for its length , and said that the game was like Luigi 's Mansion " all over again " . GameSpy stated that Wario World " offers little above and beyond the standard 3D platform romp , and what is offered turns out to be very short and repetitive " . GameSpot commented that " the final product is too short and simplistic to hold your attention for more than a day " .

= Middlesex ( novel ) =

Middlesex is a Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning novel by Jeffrey Eugenides published in 2002 . The book is a bestseller , with more than three million copies sold by May 2011 . Its characters and events are loosely based on aspects of Eugenides ' life and observations of his Greek heritage . It is not an autobiography ; unlike the protagonist , Eugenides is not intersex . The author decided to write Middlesex after he read the 1980 memoir Herculine Barbin and was dissatisfied with its discussion of intersex anatomy and emotions .

Primarily a coming @-@ of @-@ age story ( Bildungsroman ) and family saga , the novel chronicles the effect of a mutated gene on three generations of a Greek family , causing momentous changes in the protagonist 's life . According to scholars , the novel 's main themes are nature versus nurture , rebirth , and the differing experiences of what society constructs as polar opposites — such as those found between men and women . It discusses the pursuit of the American Dream and explores gender identity . The novel contains many allusions to Greek mythology , including creatures such as the Minotaur , half @-@ man and half @-@ bull , and the Chimera , a monster composed of various animal parts .

Narrator and protagonist Cal Stephanides ( initially called " Callie " ) is an intersex man of Greek descent with a condition known as 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , which causes him to have certain feminine traits . The first half of the novel is about Cal 's family and depicts his grandparents ' migration from Bursa , a city in Asia Minor , to the United States in 1922 . It follows their assimilation into American society in Detroit , Michigan , then a booming industrial city . The latter half of the novel , set in the late 20th century , focuses on Cal 's experiences in his hometown of Detroit and his escape to San Francisco , where he comes to terms with his modified gender identity .

Entertainment Weekly , the Los Angeles Times , and The New York Times Book Review considered Middlesex one of the best books of 2002 , and some scholars believed the novel should be considered for the title of Great American Novel . Generally , reviewers felt that the novel succeeded in portraying its Greek immigrant drama and were also impressed with Eugenides ' depiction of his hometown of Detroit — praising him for his social commentary . Reviewers from the medical , gay , and intersex communities mostly praised Middlesex , though some intersex commentators have been more critical . In 2007 , the book was featured in Oprah 's Book Club .

= = Conception , research , and publication = =

After publishing his first novel , The Virgin Suicides , in 1993 , Jeffrey Eugenides started on his next project Middlesex . He was inspired by having read Herculine Barbin , the diary of a 19th @-@ century French convent schoolgirl who was intersex . Eugenides had first read the memoir a decade earlier and believed it evaded discussion about the anatomy and emotions of intersex people . He intended Middlesex to be " the story [ he ] wasn 't getting from the memoir " .

Eugenides worked on Middlesex for nine years . He started writing during his short @-@ term residence at MacDowell Colony in New Hampshire , United States , and finished the novel in Berlin , Germany ; he had accepted a grant from the German Academic Exchange Service in 1999 . Eugenides spent the first few years trying to establish the narrative voice for his novel . He wanted to " [ tell ] epic events in the third person and psychosexual events in the first person " . According to Eugenides , the voice " had to render the experience of a teenage girl and an adult man , or an adult male @-@ identified hermaphrodite " .

Although Eugenides sought expert advice about intersex , sexology , and the formation of gender identity , he refrained from meeting with intersex people , saying , " [ I ] decided not to work in that reportorial mode . Instead of trying to create a separate person , I tried to pretend that I had this [ physical feature ] and that I had lived through this as much as I could " . Eugenides read books , sifted through many sheets of microfiche , and combed through videotapes and newsletters that dealt with the subject . He visited the New York Public Library 's Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture to search for the sole copy of a book about an " elusive historical figure " . He discovered details of what he considered a vivid intersex condition while browsing Columbia University 's medical library .

After discovering in his library research 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , an autosomal recessive condition manifested primarily in inbred , isolated population groups , his perception of the novel significantly changed . Rather than a " slim fictional autobiography " of an intersex individual , the novel would be epic in scope , tracing the lives of three generations of Greek Americans . Eugenides lived in Brooklyn when he began his first draft of the novel . He went through a lengthy brainstorming process . He would write 50 pages in one voice , restart in a different voice with 75 pages , and then pursue a different narrative angle . He wanted the novel to be an " intimate " portrayal of protagonist Cal 's transformation , so he wrote a draft in the first @-@ person narrative in Cal 's voice . He could not , however , portray Cal 's grandparents intimately , so he completely abandoned his preceding year 's draft in favor of writing the book in the third @-@ person . He gradually violated his narrative convention by restoring the first @-@ person voice amid the third @-@ person narration to depict the mindsets of both Cal and Cal 's grandparents . During the writing process , Eugenides moved from Brooklyn to Manhattan and later returned to Brooklyn . Worried about the narrative 's sounding forced , he added instances of " self @-@ reflexivity " to Cal 's voice . After several years of struggling with the narrative voice , Eugenides finally seated himself at his desk and wrote Middlesex 's initial page , " 500 words that contained the DNA for the protein synthesis of the entire book " .

Middlesex was published for the North American market in September 2002 by Farrar , Straus and Giroux in the United States and Vintage Canada for Canada . A month later , it was released in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury Publishing . The novel has been translated into 34 languages ; the Spanish @-@ language edition was translated by Benito Gómez Ibáñez and released in 2003 after the publisher , Jorge Herralde , had acquired the rights in a " tough auction " .

= = Plot summary = =

The novel starts with a narration by its protagonist , Cal ( his masculine identity ) , also known as Calliope ( feminine ) : He recounts how 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , a recessive condition , caused him to be born with female characteristics . The book continues with accounts of his family 's history , starting with his paternal grandparents in their home village and ending with his father 's funeral . These accounts cover the conception of Cal , his teenage years , and the discovery of his intersex condition . Throughout the book , Cal weaves his opinion of the events in hindsight and of his life after his father 's funeral . Eugenides sets Middlesex in the 20th century and interjects historical elements , such as the Balkan Wars , the Nation of Islam , the 1967 Detroit riot , and the Watergate scandal in the story .

The accounts of Cal 's family history start in 1922 . His grandfather , Eleutherios " Lefty " Stephanides , lives in Bithynios , a village in Asia Minor . Eugenides places the village high on the slope of Mount Olympos , above the city of Bursa , and describes incestuous marriages between cousins as a quietly accepted custom among the villagers . Lefty makes a living selling silkworm cocoons harvested by his sister , Desdemona . The siblings are orphans ; their parents are victims of the ongoing Greco @-@ Turkish War . As the war progresses , Lefty and Desdemona develop a romantic relationship . Fleeing the chaos brought by the war , they board a ship amid the Great Fire of Smyrna and set sail for the United States . Their histories unknown to the other passengers , they marry each other on board the vessel .

After arriving in New York , they locate their cousin , Sourmelina " Lina " Zizmo , in Detroit , Michigan , and go to stay with her . Lina is a closeted lesbian and the only person there to know of the siblings ' incestuous relationship . Starting a new life , Lefty takes on a job at Ford Motor Company , but is later retrenched . He unknowingly joins Lina 's husband , Jimmy , in bootlegging . Desdemona gives birth to a son , Milton , and later a daughter , Zoe . Lina gives birth to a daughter , Theodora or " Tessie " . The relationship between Lefty and Desdemona declines after she learns that there is an increased chance of genetic disease for children born from incest . In 1924 , after Milton 's birth , Lefty opens a bar and gambling room , calling it the Zebra Room .

Milton and Tessie marry in 1946 . They have two children , Chapter Eleven and Calliope ( " Callie " ) . Prior to Callie 's birth , Desdemona predicts the child to be a boy , although the parents prepare for a girl . Chapter Eleven is a biologically " normal " boy ; however , Callie is intersex . Her family members are unaware of her situation for many years , so they raise Callie as a girl . Elements of family life are portrayed against the rise and fall of industrial Detroit , where so many struggled . The family gets caught up in the 1967 Detroit riot resulting from racial tensions , after President Johnson authorizes the use of federal troops . The family home is raided during this period , to the shock of the parents . After this harrowing experience , the family moves to a house on Middlesex Boulevard , Grosse Pointe .

When she is 14 years old , Callie falls in love with her female best friend , whom Callie refers to as the " Obscure Object " . In separate encounters , Callie has her first sexual experiences with a woman , the Obscure Object , and with a man , the Obscure Object 's brother . After Callie is injured by a tractor , a doctor discovers that she is intersex . She is taken to a clinic in New York and undergoes a series of tests and examinations . After learning about the syndrome and facing the prospect of sex reassignment surgery , Callie runs away and assumes a male identity as Cal . He hitchhikes cross @-@ country and reaches San Francisco , where he joins a burlesque show as Hermaphroditus .

Cal is arrested by the police during a raid on his workplace . He is released into Chapter Eleven 's custody and learns of their father 's death . The siblings return to their family home on Middlesex . In a private moment , Desdemona recognizes Cal 's condition , associating it with stories from her old village about children born of incest . She confesses to Cal that her husband , Lefty , is also her brother . As Milton 's funeral takes place at the church , Cal stands in the doorway of his family home , assuming the male @-@ only role in Greek traditions to keep his father 's spirit from re @-@ entering the family home .

Several years later , Cal becomes a diplomat stationed in Berlin . He meets Julie Kikuchi , a Japanese @-@ American woman , and tentatively starts a relationship with her .

= = Autobiographical elements = =

Reporters and critics noted that many characters and events in Middlesex parallel those in Eugenides ' life . The author denied writing the novel as an autobiography . In an interview by National Public Radio in 2002 , he commented on the similarities :

Because the story is so far from my own experience , I had to use a lot of details from my own life to ground it in reality , to make it believable for me and then hopefully for the reader , as well . So I would use my own physical appearance . I would use details from my grandparents ' life , the streets they lived on , the kinds of places they lived . And all this made it real for me because it was a tall order to write such a story .

Eugenides blended fact and fiction in his book . Like Cal , the author was born in 1960 ; unlike his creation , he is not intersex . His family moved to a house on Middlesex Road in Grosse Pointe after the Detroit riot in 1967 . Eugenides studied at University Liggett School , a private institution that served as a model for Callie 's Baker and Inglis School for Girls . He tapped into his own " locker room trauma " , an adolescent experience of being naked among many other nude bodies , and used it to develop Callie 's self @-@ discovery of her body during puberty . He based the name of the character the " Obscure Object " on a Brown University classmate whom he found alluring and to whom he gave that nickname . Eugenides married a Japanese @-@ American artist , Karen Yamauchi , and moved to Berlin .

Eugenides is of Greek heritage , albeit only through his father 's side . Although his paternal grandparents were not siblings like the Stephanides , they were silk farmers like their fictional counterparts . Cal 's learning of Greek customs to better understand his grandparents mirrored Eugenides ' own actions to do likewise . The Zebra Room and the bartender profession are other items shared by their grandfathers ; Eugenides said the inclusion of the bar was a deliberate " secret code of paying homage to my grandparents and my parents " . Several aspects of Chapter Eleven were based on Eugenides ' elder brother , who withdrew from society during a " hippie phase " in his life . While revising and editing the book , the author removed information that could be offensive to his relatives . Not all such material was excised , Eugenides said , " There may still be things in there that will sting . "

= = Style = =

Several reviewers considered Middlesex to be overly verbose . The Economist described the novel as " ponderous " and said that the main story ( that of Cal ) does not " get off the ground until halfway through " the book . Time 's Richard Lacayo concurred ; he considered the hundreds of pages about Cal 's grandparents and several historical events to be trite , making Middlesex 's focus " footloose " in some spots . Several passages in the novel exhibit Eugenides ' obsession with " verbose voluptuousness " . An example noted by Thea Hillman in her review is an incident in which Cal says , " I sat in my seat , in a state of voluptuous agitation , of agitated voluptuousness , until my stop . Then I staggered out . " A contrary opinion is given by Daniel Soar in his article for London Review of Books . According to Soar , Eugenides did " both background and foreground in all the necessary detail " , seamlessly shifting from past to present . Despite the implausible tone of the novel 's events , the author successfully makes them " elaborately justified and motivated " . The quality of Middlesex 's writing was uneven in the opinions of Hillman and another reviewer , Sebastian Smee . The latter pointed out that Eugenides occasionally moves from the heartfelt ( " I remember the first time we took off our clothes in front of each other . It was like unwinding bandages " ) to the " trashily journalistic " ( " You 've heard of installation artists ? Well , the Object [ a heavy smoker ] was an exhalation artist " ) on several occasions .

Humor and irony are frequently used in the book . Mark Lawson of The Guardian considered the narrator 's tone to be " sardonic [ ally ] empath [ etic ] " , and other critics have characterized the beginning of the novel as comical . When Cal is baptized as an infant by Father Mike , a Greek Orthodox clergyman , the priest receives a surprise : " From between my cherubic legs a stream of crystalline liquid shot into the air ... Propelled by a full bladder , it cleared the lip of the font ... [ and ] struck Father Mike right in the middle of the face . " Derek Weiler of the Toronto Star noted that Eugenides has witty commentary about German compound words and the " horrific qualities of public men 's rooms " . The author employed another writing device — abrupt incongruity — in describing Desdemona 's physical appearances to suggest that her incestuous acts should be taken lightly when judging her . In describing her hair , he wrote that her " braids were not delicate like a little girl 's but heavy and womanly , possessing a natural power , like a beaver 's tail " . According to Penelope Music of Book Magazine , the mismatch in tone of the final two words compared with the rest of the sentence was such that the reading experience was changed from " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill magical realism to true , subversive comedy " . An instance of irony is illustrated by Cal 's grandparents and parents : His grandparents assimilate into American culture through hard work and struggles while retaining certain old customs . His parents , however , abandon their roots for a more comfortable lifestyle . In another incident , the diner owned by the Stephanides is engulfed in flames during the 1967 Detroit riot . Cal notes that " [ s ] hameful as it is to say , the riots were the best thing that ever happened to us . " The diner was insured and the Stephanides gain a windfall payout .

= = = Narrative modes = = =

Middlesex is written in the form of a memoir , and switches between the first and the third person in several spots . Used as a comedic device , the third person narratives illustrate Cal 's estrangement from Calliope : When he refers to her in the third person , he is identifying her as someone other than him . Patricia Chu , a scholar of English literature , noted the effectiveness of this style in the chapter in which the adolescent Callie searches for information on hermaphroditism . As the teenager reads Webster 's Dictionary , following the trail of definitions related to her condition , she reaches the entry for hermaphrodite . The narration switches from personal to external , lending poignancy to the character 's final discovery as she confronts the word " monster " .

Although the protagonist switches gender throughout the book , Cal 's manners of speech and thought are identical to Callie 's . Believing that males and females have no inherent disparities in their writing styles , Eugenides treated Cal and Callie as the same person , in terms of narrative voice . He also fixed the narrative voice in terms of age by setting up Cal to relate the entire story at one time . Eugenides gave his protagonist a mostly male outlook , justifying his treatment with the reasoning that Cal or Callie was a man in terms of appearance , sexual desires , and the brain . He asked his wife and other women to review his approaches on Cal 's feminine views . The " emotional stuff " was accurate but Eugenides had to refine certain details , such as those about toenail polish .

At the beginning of the book when Cal discusses his family 's history and actions prior to his birth , he speaks in an androgynous voice , with limited omniscience ; he acknowledges that he is fabricating some of the details . John Mullan , University College London 's professor of English and a contributor to The Guardian , wrote that by permitting Cal to be unrealistically aware of fellow characters ' thoughts , Eugenides intentionally contravenes an elementary standard in storytelling fiction . In the novel 's closing pages , Cal provides minute details about his father 's dying moments and thoughts in a nonsensical car accident even though he is several thousand miles from the scene and only learns of the tragedy from his brother . Cal has the ability to dwell in the minds of others because as a female who has become a male , his identity is not confined by his own body . According to Mullan , this " mobility of identification becomes a narrative principle " and is thoroughly exploited in Middlesex . The novel follows the principle that people are molded by events prior to their birth , and Eugenides explores a character 's prenatal life in terms of his or her genes ; the narrator is , however , subject to the principle that whatever he does not know is of his imagination . As such , contradictory statements highlight the unreliable nature of Cal 's narration . While narrating the story that pre @-@ dates his birth , he remarks , " Of course , a narrator in my position ( prefetal at the time ) can 't be entirely sure about any of this . " However , he later says , " I alone , from the private box of my primordial egg , saw what was going on . " Cal 's dubious omniscience , doubtful narration , and parodies combine to show that his unreliability is an act of mischief .

Mullan remarked that Eugenides ' narrator has a proclivity to reveal events that will happen in the future . Cal is a narrator who is absorbed in how his fate has been shaped . Cal eschews a chronological telling of the story , where he shares the characters ' nescience . He chooses instead to relate the story beginning with his future knowledge . Cal 's genes reflect an anticipation of the future : the disclosure of his actual sex identity . Cal mimics this " genetic inevitability " by enjoining the readers to know the future prior to its occurring . Mullan observed that " [ f ] or the reader , apprehension predominates over surprise " as a result of this narrative style .

= = = Genres = = =

The Kirkus Reviews described Middlesex as a " virtuosic combination of elegy , sociohistorical study , and picaresque adventure " , and Adam Begley in The New York Observer called it " a hybrid form , epic crossed with history , romance , comedy , tragedy . " Other reviews also categorized the book under various genres . Covering the lives of three generations of the Stephanides family , Middlesex is considered a family saga by novelist Geraldine Bedell . The book is more than a mere family saga , according to Samuel Cohen in his paper for Twentieth Century Literature ; it depicts the Stephanides ' trials and tribulations through historical events . Cohen is not convinced by Eugenides ' declaration that Middlesex was not conceived as a historical novel ; he said the novel satisfied much of the criterion for the genre . Cal , narrating his story in 2002 , describes events from the early 1920s to the mid @-@ 1970s . According to Cohen , the difference in timeframes , at least 25 years apart , " establishes that the novel is set safely in the past " .

According to Stewart O 'Nan of The Atlantic , Cal 's narration evokes the style of the picaresque novel , retelling events that have already occurred and foreshadowing the future through " portentous glimpses " . Francisco Collado @-@ Rodríguez , a professor of American Literature , classified the beginning of Middlesex as a historiographical and metafictional chronicle for its discussion of events such as the Greco @-@ Turkish war and the Great Fire of Smyrna . He also considered the first section of the novel as a tragicomedy about the Stephanides ' migration from Greece and assimilation into America . Soar posited Desdemona and Lefty 's passage as a romantic comedy : the lovers , brother and sister , pretend to be strangers who meet for the first time , attempting " to unknow themselves , to remythologise themselves by developing a past they could live with , unfamiliar and therefore permissible " . As the story progresses , Middlesex becomes a social novel about Detroit , discussing the seclusion of living in a 1970s suburb . At the end of the novel , the story adopts the tone of the detective genre .

The novel is characterized as a " dramatic " Bildungsroman with a " big twist " because the coming @-@ of @-@ age story is revealed to be the incorrect one : after being nurtured as a woman , Cal must instead learn to become a man . The book has " two distinct and occasionally warring halves " . Whereas the first part is about hermaphrodites , the second is about Greeks . The latter half , " full of incest , violence , and terrible family secrets " , was considered by Daniel Mendelsohn , an author and critic , to be more effective because Middlesex is largely about how Callie inherited the momentous gene that " ends up defining her indefinable life " .

Writing for The New Republic , James Wood classified Middlesex as a story written in the vein of hysterical realism . He said the novel is influenced by its own recounting of " excitements , patternings , and implausibilities that lie on the soft side of magical realism " . Such moments in the book include how two cousins conceive " on the same night and at the same moment " and how years later , those children marry each other . Woods also pointed out the seeming coincidences that involved locales . Smyrna is the burning city from which she flees to start a new life ; New Smyrna Beach is where she spends her retirement . Effectively serving as a double entendre , the title of the book refers to the name of the street where Cal stays at and describes his situation : a hermaphrodite brought up as a girl but who decides to become a boy . Cal 's condition is also reflected in his choice of locale to narrate the novel : Berlin is a city formerly of " two halves or sexes " ( East and West ) .

= = Themes = =

= = = Rebirth = = =

Following the Great Fire of Smyrna , Lefty and Desdemona must start life anew . When she is 14 years old , Callie experiences a second birth to become Cal . To become a male , Callie peregrinates across the United States and becomes a midwife of her new life by teaching herself to forget what she has learned as a female . Likewise , Cal 's grandparents undergo a transformation , becoming husband and wife instead of brother and sister . Middlesex delves into the concept of identity , including how it is formed and how it is administered . The immigrant predicament is a metaphor and synecdoche for Calliope 's hermaphroditic condition ; Callie 's paternal grandparents become Americanized through the amalgamation of the elements of heredity , cultural metamorphoses , and probability . Callie 's maternal grandfather , Jimmy Zizmo , undergoes a rebirth when he transforms from a bootlegger into Farrad Mohammad , a Muslim minister .

= = = American Dream = = =

Middlesex traces the trials and adversity faced by the Stephanides family as they pursue the American Dream . Beginning with Lefty and Desdemona , Cal 's grandparents , fleeing from their homeland to Ellis Island and the United States , the novel later depicts the family living in a suburban vista at Grosse Pointe , Michigan . After they immigrate to the United States , Lefty and Desdemona find themselves in a blissful America on the brink of economic collapse . They dream about a perfect America where effort and morals will lead to good fortune . However , they must seek to attain this perfection during a period characterized by Prohibition and xenophobic anti @-@ immigration legislation . Middlesex depicts the tribulations of attaining an identity , especially while dealing with the revelation that the American Dream is a delusion that has already disappeared .

= = = Race relations = = =

Middlesex portrays the race relations between people of different cultures ; Mendelsohn considered the handling of this theme " preachy and nervous " . In the United States , a strongly nativist country in the 1920s , Greek immigrants must suffer numerous humiliations at the hands of prejudiced whites . When Cal 's grandfather Lefty , a recent Greek immigrant , is working at one of Henry Ford 's automobile factories , Ford investigators attempt to Americanize him . They visit his house to ascertain that he has been living as a typical American . For example , during his first English @-@ language lesson , Lefty is taught that " [ e ] mployees should use plenty of soap and water in the home " . The narrow @-@ minded nativists believe that immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe are unaware of the value of soap and water .

According to scholar Robert Zecker , the novel depicts African @-@ American poverty but does not illustrate its causes . None of the characters think about how 500 @,@ 000 African @-@ Americans were placed in cramped living areas of only 25 square blocks and the bitterness and rage that stems from such conditions . The African Americans do not forget the years of oppression they have endured . However , the Greek Americans , like other whites , fail to remember that the African Americans were assaulted by whites in 1943 and faced over two decades of oppression after that . Instead , Zecker noted that the characters in the novel believe that the 1967 Detroit riots are " inexplicable cataclysms that came out of nowhere " .

The novel skims over the brutal attacks , lasting a week , on blacks in Detroit during World War II . Years later , in 1967 , Lefty is incorrectly told that that year 's Detroit riots were started by a black man raping a white woman ; this falsehood is never rectified . However , despite this misinformation , Lefty denies service to a number of white customers who partook in the riots . One dismissed customer even yells at him , " [ w ] hy don 't you go back to your own country ? " , returning the spotlight of racial prejudice on him .

The relationship between the Greek Americans and the African Americans is fraught with prejudice . For example , during the Depression , Desdemona is shocked and humiliated that she will have to work in the Black Bottom , a predominantly black neighborhood . When African Americans are beaten or taken advantage of by whites , the characters in Middlesex " suddenly are nearsighted " to the racial prejudice . Despite being in the United States for only 10 years and having experienced racism herself , she can , Zecker noted , " recite at heart the slights at blacks as lazy , dirty , sexually promiscuous , and incapable of self @-@ help " . She and other whites , including immigrants whites , feel rage because they are " convinced they were somehow forced out of Detroit following 1967 " . While walking through the neighborhood , a group of African @-@ American men loafing in front of a barbershop wolf @-@ whistle to Desdemona and make lascivious comments , thus confirming the racial stereotype .

Zecker remarked that in an ironic twist , immediately after the riots , Desdemona 's family is shamed by a white realtor who " doubts their fitness ( whiteness ) " to live in the rich city Grosse Point . In the 1970s , African Americans , instead of Mediterraneans , were discriminated against through redlining . Zecker opined that by framing African Americans as the " eternal destroyers " and white ethnics as " yet again the oppressed innocents " , Eugenides " captures perfectly the dominant narrative of urban decline in the early twenty @-@ first century American Zeitgeist " . Insurance settlement from the damage caused at the riots allows the Stephanides to purchase a home away from the African Americans . The family participates in the white flight from the city to avoid the racial desegregation in the public schools , sends Cal to a private school .

= = = Ethnic identity = = =

When Lefty and Desdemona are forced to immigrate to the United States , they have different mindsets . Whereas Lefty embraces his new country 's customs , Desdemona is adamant that she will follow her old country 's ways . For example , she is angered that her " immigrant hair " is chopped off because she does not want to " look like an Amerikanidha " and decides to regrow her hair immediately . Lefty attempts to assimilate into American culture by zealously learning English . Lina , the cousin of Lefty and Desdemona , is the paragon of immigrant integration . Cal noted : " In the five years since leaving Turkey , Sourmelina had managed to erase just about everything identifiably Greek about her . "

Cal 's father , Milton , and his friends and family cherish their Sunday gatherings . They debate and tell stories to each other , attempting to regain their ethnic roots . A " contrarian " , Milton enjoys debating Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger and lamenting the steep cost of church candles . Eugenides repeatedly returns the gathering prior to Cal 's conception to " manufacture a psychology that drives his narration " . As the immigrants attempt to maintain their identity , the stage is set for Cal 's writing even before he is conceived .

Middlesex delves into the schism and reconciling of two opposites by contrasting the experiences and opinions of males and females ; Greek Americans and White Anglo @-@ Saxon Protestants ; Greeks and Turks ; and , African Americans and White Americans . Critic Raoul Eshelman noted that despite these conflicts , the narrator is able to achieve " ethnic reconciliation " when he moves to Berlin and lives with the Turks , people who had murdered his forebears in the early 20th century and who had indirectly allowed his grandparents to consummate their incestuous relationship . Alkarim Jivani opined on BBC Television 's current affairs broadcast Newsnight that " [ o ] nly a child of the Diaspora can do that , because we stand on the threshold of two rooms . " The novel also demonstrates that love and family are vital not only to people with unambiguous genders , but also hermaphrodites .

The Greek immigrant family experiences a three @-@ phase acculturation that occurs to immigrant families , according to scholar Merton Lee 's research about sociologist George A. Kourvetaris ' work . Each generation identifies with different nationalities and cultures . In the first generation , the family members classify themselves as having a Greek nationality . In the second generation , the children classify themselves with an American nationality and Greek Orthodox religion . In the third generation , the grandchildren , who comprise the most acculturated group , characterize themselves with " Greek @-@ immigration status as a class " .

The Stephanides lineage is from Bithynios , a village in Asia Minor where the Greek middleman minority is inclined to be in uneasy relations with the Turkish majority . The people of the middleman minority do not assimilate because of their small mercantile businesses and because their host country is antagonistic towards them . Desdemona , a first @-@ generation Greek immigrant , reflects a fixation with not assimilating . She tells her husband Lefty that she does not want to become an " Amerikanidha " and is frightened that her cousin Lina 's husband , Jimmy Zizmo , is a Pontian Greek . Desdemona considers Pontians to be adulterated Greeks because Pontians inhabited Turkey , where some became Muslims and did not follow the Greek Orthodox religion .

Daniel Soar opined that Olympus , a parallel to Bithynios , served well as the starting point of a debacle ( the eventual birth of an intersex person ) that is the " story 's catalyst " . In Mount Olympus during Justinian 's days , silkworm eggs were contraband transported from China to Byzantium by missionaries . A parallel is drawn when Desdemona , a raiser of silk cocoons , attempts to bring them to Detroit . Because the silkworm eggs are considered parasites by the immigration officials , Desdemona must dispose of them . Soar noted that " for the three generations of Greek Americans who people Middlesex , the mulberry trees of Mount Olympus are an appropriately antique beginning : they are the egg inside which everything began " .

= = = Greek mythical allusions = = =

Middlesex has several allusions to Greek classical myths ; for example , the protagonist is named after Calliope , the muse of heroic poetry . Eugenides was partly inspired by the explorations of hermaphrodism in Greek myths to write the novel about an intersex man . In Middlesex , Cal acts out the story of Hermaphroditus , the Greek deity of bisexuality and effeminacy , while eking out a living in San Francisco . While narrating , Cal enters his ancestors ' thoughts and empathizes with them , an ability possessed by Hermaphroditus . The protagonist compared himself to another mythical figure — Tiresias , the blind prophet of Thebes ; the omniscient seer lived seven years as woman because of a curse .

Eugenides and several critics compared Cal 's condition to mythical creatures described by the ancient Greeks . The author alluded his protagonist 's nature and heritage to the Minotaur , the half @-@ man and half @-@ bull creature . Cal 's father is conceived after his grandparents ' attendance of a theatric play entitled The Minotaur . The puzzle of Cal 's genetic identity is akin to the creature 's labyrinth and the thread that leads out of the maze is held here by his paternal grandmother , a former silk farmer . Frances Bartkowski , a scholar of English , named Callie in her puberty as a chimera . The mythical monster is an analogy for a complex personality , a mixture of body parts from various animals that each represents a human aspect or characteristic . Similarly , adolescent Callie is an amalgamation of her genes , neither male nor female , neither adult nor child , and yet all of them at the same time .

In her book column for Detroit Free Press , Marta Salij said that Cal 's identity crisis resembles Odysseus 's fate . Whereas the mythical hero is troubled by Poseidon and succored by Athena , the intersex protagonist is affected by his chromosomes in a similar manner . John Sykes , Professor of English and Religion Education , noted another Greek @-@ hero reference . In a manner similar to Oedipus 's fulfillment of Pythia 's prophecy to slay his father and marry his mother , Callie validates the prediction her grandmother made before her birth by adopting a male identity . Eugenides also used the allusions to Greek mythology and modern pop music to show the passing of familial traits and idiosyncrasies from one generation to the next .

= = = Nature versus nurture = = =

The novel examines the nature versus nurture debate in detail . At the beginning of the novel , Cal writes , " Sing now , O Muse , of the recessive mutation on my fifth chromosome . " He then apologizes , saying , " Sorry if I get a little Homeric at times . That 's genetic , too . " This is an allusion to the poet Homer , who was also captivated with the nature versus nurture debate . In fact , Cal himself confesses , " If you were going to devise an experiment to measure the relative influences of nature versus nurture , you couldn 't come up with anything better than my life . "

Callie inherited the mutation for a gene that causes 5 @-@ alpha @-@ reductase deficiency , which impedes the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone . While the former hormone causes the brain to become masculine , it is the latter that molds male genitals . When Callie reaches puberty , her testosterone levels increase significantly , resulting in the formation of a larger Adam 's apple , the broadening of her muscles , the deepening of her voice , and the augmentation of her clitoris to resemble a penis . Doctors determine that Callie has the XY chromosomes of a male after inspecting Callie 's genitalia . Callie 's parents bring her to New York City to see Dr. Peter Luce , a foremost expert on hermaphroditism , who believes she should retain her female identity . Luce plans a gender reassignment surgery to make her a female . However , Callie knows that she is sexually attracted to females , and decides to run away to pursue a male identity . When Cal has a sexual relationship with the Japanese @-@ American photographer Julie at the end of the book , he is able to love " without the need to penetrate the object of his desire " .

Mark Lawson of The Guardian noted that the cause of Cal 's hermaphroditic condition is an inherited recessive gene . According to UC Riverside psychology professor Sonja Lyubomirsky , the novel examines how an individual 's traits are due neither solely to nature nor solely to nurture . Similarly , Cal 's gender cannot be defined solely as male or female . Rather , it is both male and female . Addressing how genetic determinism may have renewed the antediluvian beliefs about destiny , Eugenides refutes the post @-@ Freudian beliefs that a person 's traits are mainly due to nurture . Thus , the novel pits evolutionary biology against free will . Eugenides sought to find a compromise between these two views . Explaining that gender is a " very American concept " , he believes that " humans are freer than we realize . Less genetically encumbered " .

= = = Gender identity and intersex status = = =

Raised as a girl , Cal views himself as a girl who likes other girls . His ability to have a " feminine gender schema " despite his having male genes , substantiates the constructionist position that gender identity is fully dependent on outer influences . However , when Callie discovers that he could have been raised as a boy , he renounces his female gender , recognizing his chosen gender identity as a male . Disowning the female gender before he learned about masculine traits bolsters the argument for the " essentialist ideology of identity " . Cal 's embrace of his inherent male identity and renunciation of his childhood female gender identity is articulated when he reflects , " I never felt out of place being a girl , I still don 't feel entirely at home among men . "

Cal exhibits many masculine characteristics when he is a child . He writes , " I began to exude some kind of masculinity , in the way I tossed up and caught my eraser , for instance . " In another incident , Cal discusses how his penchants were masculine . While his female classmates are turned off by the blood in The Iliad , Cal is " thrilled to [ read about ] the stabbings and beheadings , the gouging out of eyes , the juicy eviscerations " . Cal ponders his gender identity and how males and females associate with each other , reflecting , " Did I see through the male tricks because I was destined to scheme that way myself ? Or do girls see through the tricks , too , and just pretend not to notice ? "

Cal also exhibits feminine characteristics , which allows Dr. Luce to classify her as possessing a female gender identity . In a home video taken when Cal was a child , his mother gives him a doll and he nurses it with a milk bottle . Luce carefully observes Callie 's actions and diagnoses them as feminine , which causes him to determine that Callie has a feminine gender identity . Luce then concludes that gender identity is nurtured and etched into children at their young ages .

Determining sex is paradoxical because the characters believe that the outward view of genitalia identifies one 's sex ; Cal 's transformation into a male shatters this belief and the methodology behind determining gender . Eugenides addresses how difficult it was for humans to devise a " universal classification for sex " . Through Cal , scholar Angela Pattatucci Aragon stated , Eugenides opines that the 1876 system devised by Edwin Klebs that used gonad tissue to determine sex provides the most accurate answer .

According to intersex activist and academic Morgan Holmes , Eugenides posits that a person 's sexual attraction determines his or her gender . Cal 's wish to become male because he desires females demonstrates a link between gender identity and sexuality . While Callie is not permitted to love the Obscure Object openly , Cal can freely love Julie . Holmes believed that the depiction of Callie " denies the legitimate place of lesbian desire and rewrites it as male heterosexuality " . Book reviewer Georgia Warnke has a similar view . She wrote that by making these choices in the novel , Eugenides agrees with the belief that being attracted to females is " masculine " and thus it is " more natural " for a male to be attracted to a female than a female be attracted to a female . Daniel Mendelsohn of The New York Review of Books argued that Callie does not have to be a male in order to be drawn towards females ; she could be gay . As an adult , Cal brags , " Breasts have the same effect on me as on anyone with my testosterone level . " Mendelsohn noted that this assertion will astonish " Eugenides 's ( presumably testosterone @-@ rich ) gay male readership " . Scholar Rachel Carroll agreed , writing that teenage Callie 's erotic interest in girls is " retroactively explained and legitimized , by the discovery of his ' true biological nature ' " . Cal 's gender identity postdates rather than predates his sexual interests . Carroll posited that Cal 's inability to form heterosexual relationships as an adult is founded not upon his being intersex , but on his rejection of the sexual ambiguities that form his sexual interests as a youth .

When Callie is in New York , she goes to the New York Public Library and searches for the meaning of the word " hermaphrodite " ; she is shocked when the dictionary entry concludes with " See synonyms at MONSTER " . Callie is not a Frankenstein ; she is more like Bigfoot or the Loch Ness Monster . Bartkowski stated that Eugenides ' message is " we must let our monsters out — they demand and deserve recognition — they are us : our same , self , others . " Morgan Holmes , formerly of ISNA , describes how the book constructs an intersex character whose life reproduces " social fascination with the monstrous and the deviant . "

Sarah Graham wrote in Ariel , a journal published by University of Calgary , that Eugenides ' " persisen [ t ] " use of the word " hermaphrodite " , instead of " intersex " , alludes to Hermaphroditus . Hermaphroditus , a young man , is chased by the nymph Salmacis . She begs the Gods to bind her and Hermaphroditus together , and the Gods literally fulfill her wish . Hermaphroditus ' name is a compound of his parent 's names — Hermes and Aphrodite . He instantaneously turns into someone of both sexes . Devastated because he is no longer fully male , he " curses " the location where he first met Salmacis . Graham stated that the use of " hermaphrodite " carries negative connotations :

Based on this origin story , the hermaphrodite 's lot is miserable , associated with disempowerment , the theft of identity and an unhappy dual existence . In addition , the term " hermaphrodite " may be deemed problematic because it alludes to an impossible state of being : no @-@ one can be equally male and female and the preferred term " intersex " indicates a blended rather than divided state . While the modern term might indicate the possibility of redefining sexual ambivalence , Cal is associated in the novel with the mythic term and all it connotes . His connection to this tragic figure is confirmed by his performance as " Hermaphroditus " in a sex show at the age of fourteen , just as he is beginning his female to male transition .

Writing that he belongs to the Intersex Society of America , Cal notes that he has not participated in any of the group 's rallies because he is not a " political person " . While discussing political activism , Cal uses the word " intersex " , though in other parts of the novel , he uses the word " hermaphrodite " . In the 1920s , Bernice L. Hausman described " intersexuality " as a " continuum of physiological and anatomical sex differences " , contesting the notion of a " true sex " concealed in the tissues of the body . Though " hermaphrodite " is burdened by the implications of the anomaly , " intersexuality " is a neologism that tries to " naturalize various sexes , which themselves are naturally occurring " . Because Cal uses " hermaphrodite " , he indicates that the sole normal genders are the classifications of male and female . Eugenides was asked by an Oprah 's Book Club member why he used the term " hermaphrodite " despite its usage being " either terribly ignorant or unforgivably callous " . Eugenides replied that he reserved " hermaphrodite " for a literary character : Hermaphroditus . He further stated : " When speaking about real people , I should — and I do my best to — use the term ' intersex ' . " Noting that one of the initial sources he consulted was the journal Hermaphrodites with Attitude published by the Intersex Society of North America , he said that those writers have " co @-@ opted " the term " hermaphrodite " . Their action is reminiscent , Eugenides wrote , of how some members of the gay community have " reclaimed " the term " queer " . Eugenides stated that it is no surprise that Cal uses " hermaphrodite " and further elaborated : " It 's paradoxical : Cal can say ' hermaphodite ' but I can 't . Or shouldn 't . "

= = = Incest and intersex = = =

Incest and intersex is another theme in Middlesex . Eugenides examines the passionate feelings that siblings living in seclusion experience for each other . Milton and Tessie , second cousins , are conceived during the same night , hinting to the incest of Desdemona and Lefty . Desdemona and Lefty 's incestuous relationship is a transgression of a powerful taboo , indicating that someone will suffer for their wrongs ; in a way , Cal 's intersex condition symbolizes this Greek hubris . In another incestuous relationship , Milton makes love to Tessie using a clarinet which he lovingly rubs against her ; their incestuous relationship enables them to contribute mutated genes to their child Cal . Cal 's mother interferes with fate by attempting to make her second child a daughter . Cal believes this interference was a factor in his being a hermaphrodite . Conversely , Cal 's relationship with his brother , Chapter Eleven , is indicative of the possible dissimilarities that are products of the biosocial .

Thea Hillman , an intersex activist and board member for ( the now defunct ) Intersex Society of North America ( ISNA ) , wrote in the Lambda Book Report , 2002 , that the combination of incest and intersex is " inaccurate and misleading " . Noting that incest is a loathed social taboo that has " shameful , pathological and criminal repercussions " , she criticized Eugenides for underscoring that Cal 's intersex condition is due to incest . Hillman stated that this adds to the fallacious belief that intersex people are " shameful and sick " and a danger to society 's wellbeing .

Sarah Graham agrees with Hillman and Holmes , writing that Cal is paralleled with the tragic Greek mythological characters Hermaphroditus , Tiresias , and the Minotaur . She opined that other " deviant " characters in the novel such as Lefty and Desdemona are spared the " tragic or monstrous " allusions even though there are numerous examples of incest in Greek mythology . She listed the marriage of Oedipus and his mother Jocasta , as well as the son Adonis produced by the incest between Theias and his daughter Smyrna as examples . Therefore , Graham stated that comparing Cal , a hermaphrodite , to people who were " mythological monsters " is " complicit with [ the ] exploitation " of intersex people .

= = Reception = =

= = = Honors and adaptation = = =

In 2003 , Middlesex was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction . The Pulitzer Board wrote in their report that Middlesex is a " vastly realized , multi @-@ generational novel as highspirited as it is intelligent . . . Like the masks of Greek drama , Middlesex is equal parts comedy and tragedy , but its real triumph is its emotional abundance , delivered with consummate authority and grace . " Eugenides was attending the Prague Writers ' Festival when Middlesex won the Pulitzer Prize . When a young Associated Press photographer notified him about winning the award , Eugenides was dubious , noting that " [ i ] t seemed very unlikely that he would be the messenger of such news . " At the time , Eugenides was with the Canadian author Yann Martel who confirmed the photographer 's words after checking on the hotel 's computer . A waiter brought champagne to Eugenides , and Greek women started kissing him . When journalists called Eugenides , he declined to take their calls , saying in an interview later that he wanted to " celebrate the moment instead of leaping immediately into the media maelstrom " .

The novel received the Ambassador Book Award , Spain 's Santiago de Compostela Literary Prize , and the Great Lakes Book Award . In 2003 , it was a finalist in the fictional category of the National Book Critics Circle Award . Middlesex was also a ﬁnalist for the Lambda Literary Award , which is given to LGBT literature . In 2003 , the novel was shortlisted for but did not win the International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award . Entertainment Weekly , the Los Angeles Times , and The New York Times Book Review considered Middlesex to be one of the best books in 2002 . In 2007 , Oprah Winfrey chose Middlesex to be discussed in her book club . Eugenides was a guest on Oprah 's show with several intersex individuals who told stories about their lives . In 2011 , Eugenides was interviewed by University College London English professor John Mullan in The Guardian Book Club .

The audiobook version of Middlesex was released by Macmillan Audio in September 2002 . Read by Kristoffer Tabori , the audiobook has 28 sides , each side having a unique style of introductory music that complements the atmosphere and plot of the saga . In 2003 , the audiobook received an Audie Award in the " unabridged fiction " category .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Some critics were dissatisfied with the scope of the novel . Daniel Mendelsohn of The New York Times Book Review wrote that thematically , there was no reason that a Greek should be an intersex or vice versa and that Eugenides had two disconnected stories to tell . Caly Risen of Flak Magazine believed that the immigrant experience was the " heart of the novel " , lamenting that it minimized the story of Callie / Cal who is such a " fascinating character that the reader feels short @-@ changed by his failure to take her / him further " . Risen wished to read more about the events between Cal 's adolescence and adulthood , such as Cal 's experience in college as an intersex person as well as the relationships he had . The Washington Post 's Lisa Zeidner opined that Eugenides purposefully devised this asymmetry . Stewart O 'Nan of The Atlantic also felt that the brief description of Callie 's childhood was lacking ; the book " gloss [ es ] over " how her mother did not recognize that Callie had male genitalia when she was washing or clothing Callie . Further , O 'Nan characterized Cal 's relationship with the Japanese @-@ American photographer Julie as " underdeveloped " , causing the reader not to experience its entirety . Michelle Vellucci of People had the same view about the novel 's end , writing that the conclusion felt " rushed " .

Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly called the novel a " big @-@ hearted , restless story " and rated it an A minus . Lisa Zeidner of the Washington Post opined that Middlesex " provides not only incest à la Ada and a Lolita @-@ style road trip , but enough dense detail to keep fans of close reading manically busy . " Tami Hoag of People concurred , writing that " this feast of a novel is thrilling in the scope of its imagination and surprising in its tenderness " . Andrew O 'Hehir of Salon agreed , praising Middlesex as an " epic and wondrous " novel filled with numerous characters and historical occurrences . Mendelsohn praised Middlesex for its " dense narrative , interwoven with sardonic , fashionably postmodern commentary " . However , he criticized the novel as a disjointed hybrid . He wrote Eugenides was successful with the story of the Greek immigrants , which he described as " authenti [ c ] " , but mishandled the hermaphrodite material , which Mendelsohn characterized as " unpersuasiv [ e ] " . The Economist review stated that a more concise , concentrated depiction of hermaphroditism would have made the book more " fun to read " . Jeff Zaleski of Publishers Weekly praised Eugenides ' portrayal of the girl , Callie , and the man Cal . Zaleski wrote that " [ i ] t 's difficult to imagine any serious male writer of earlier eras so effortlessly transcending the stereotypes of gender . " Paul Quinn of Contemporary Literary Criticism commended the novel , writing : " That Eugenides manages to move us without sinking into sentiment shows how successfully he has avoided the tentacles of irony which grip so many writers of his generation . " Christina McCarroll of The Christian Science Monitor wrote that " Eugenides wrangles with a destiny that mutates and recombines like restless chromosomes , in a novel of extraordinary flexibility , scope , and emotional depth . "

Marta Salij of the Detroit Free Press was impressed with the book 's depiction of Detroit , writing " [ a ] t last Detroit has its novel . What Dublin got from James Joyce — a sprawling , ambitious , loving , exasperated and playful chronicle of all its good and bad parts — Detroit has from native son Eugenides in these 500 pages . " David Kipen of the San Francisco Chronicle agreed , opining " [ a ] mong so many other things , this praiseworthy , prize @-@ worthy yarn succeeds as a heartbroken mash note to the Detroit of Eugenides ' birth , a city whose neighborhoods he sometimes appears to love — as he loves his characters — less for their virtues than for their defects . Any book that can make a reader actively want to visit Detroit must have one honey of a tiger in its tank . " .

Several critics have nominated the book for the title of " Great American Novel " . Tim Morris , a professor at the University of Texas at Arlington , wrote that the novel was " the latest in a long line of contenders for the status of Great American Novel " , and compared Cal to Huckleberry Finn , the narrator of Invisible Man , and J. Sutter in John Henry Days . Alexander Linklater of the Evening Standard commented that American publishers chose Middlesex as the next Great American Novel to generate progress for American fiction and that Eugenides is considered the " next stepping stone along from Jonathan Franzen " . Dan Cryer of Newsday wrote that with the publication of Middlesex , " [ f ] inally , Detroit has its very own great American novel " .

David Gates of Newsweek contrasted Eugenides ' debut novel The Virgin Suicides with Middlesex , writing that the first novel was " ingenious " , " entertaining " , and " oddly moving " , but that Middlesex is " ingenious " , " entertaining " , and " ultimately not @-@ so @-@ moving " . Despite this criticism , Gates considered Middlesex to be the novel where Eugenides " finally plays his metafictional ace " . Commenting that Middlesex is " more discursive and funnier " than The Virgin Suicides , Laura Miller of Salon wrote that the two novels deal with disunity . Max Watman of The New Criterion concurred , noting that Middlesex is " funny , big , embracing , and wonderful " , unlike Eugenides ' first novel . Mark Lawson of The Guardian praised Middlesex for having the same unique qualities as The Virgin Suicides , commenting that Middlesex had " an ability to describe the horrible in a comic voice , an unusual form of narration and an eye for bizarre detail " . Lawson noted that whereas Middlesex deals with the " links " among gender , life , and genes , The Virgin Suicides deals with the " connections " between gender and death .

According to Olivia Banner of Signs , medical journals generally had positive reviews of the novel for its depiction of the inner lives of intersex people . Writing in Archives of Disease in Childhood , Simon Fountain @-@ Polley praised the novel , writing : " All clinicians , and families who have faced gender crises or difﬁcult life @-@ changing decision [ s ] on identity should read this book ; delve into an emotional trip of discovery — where the slightest direction change could lead to myriad different lives " . Abraham Bergman wrote in the Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine : " Yes , it is fiction , but I cannot imagine a more authentic and sensitive voice . Because our interactions usually take place in limited and structured setting such as offices and hospitals , pediatricians have scant opportunity to learn how our young patients think . One way to sharpen our awareness is to listen to children 's voices as they are expressed in books . In Middlesex , the voice is loud and clear . " Banner noted that most of the reviews in intersex and queer publications praised Middlesex . She posited that the problematic issues of a " heteromasculine @-@ identified narrator " and the " fact that it was authored by a heterosexual man " may have been outweighed by the necessity for an appropriate reading that " destigmatizes ambiguous sex " .

Eugenides ' third novel , The Marriage Plot , was published in 2011 . Reviewer William Deresiewicz contrasted The Marriage Plot and Middlesex , writing that the former was " far more intimate in tone and scale " . The Marriage Plot follows two years in the lives of three characters , fourth @-@ year Brown University students in 1982 , whereas Middlesex follows the lives of three generations of characters . Deresiewicz preferred the 2011 novel , writing that " [ t ] he books are far apart in quality " . He criticized Middlesex for its " [ c ] lanking prose , clunky exposition , transparent devices , telegraphed moves " , " a hash of narrative contrivances with very little on its mind " . On a more positive note , Deresiewicz lauded Eugenides ' colorful depiction of " young love " across his three novels . In The Virgin Suicides , Eugenides resplendently portrayed the intense fear during virginal sex , as well as Gabriel García Márquez , the 1982 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate ; in Middlesex , the single event in which the novel " comes to life " is Eugenides ' depiction of Callie 's liaison with her adolescent lover ; and in The Marriage Plot , the novel was exceptional in its " sweet banter of courtship " and the " doormat nice @-@ boy role " the character Mitchell assumes in his interplay with his darling , Madeleine .

= = = Sales = = =

From the book 's publication until the early months of 2003 , its sales were unsatisfactory , according to Bill Goldstein of The New York Times . In the week following April 7 , 2003 , the day Middlesex won the Pulitzer Prize , the book sold 2 @,@ 700 copies . The book later made the best @-@ selling fiction list and kept its position for five weeks . In June 2007 , the novel ranked seventh on USA Today 's Best @-@ Selling Books list . In the same month , after Eugenides appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show to discuss the novel , Middlesex placed second on The New York Times best @-@ selling paperback fiction list . The Pulitzer award nearly propelled Middlesex to The New York Times Best Seller list , which in 2003 published only the top 15 bestsellers ; in the week after Middlesex was announced the winner of the Pulitzer Prize , the novel placed 17th on the " expanded list " . In 2007 , 1 @.@ 3 million copies of the book had been sold . The same year , the book placed ninth on the Library Journal bestsellers list , which ranks " the books most borrowed in U.S. libraries " . By May 2011 , over three million copies of Middlesex had been sold .

= Utah State Route 202 =

State Route 202 ( SR @-@ 202 ) is a 1 @.@ 907 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 069 km ) long state highway in the U.S. state of Utah that serves as a connector , linking SR @-@ 201 to Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) in rural Salt Lake County . The road has existed since at least 1937 , when it connected U.S. Route 40 ( US @-@ 40 ) and US @-@ 50 via the Garfield Cut @-@ Off Road . It also serves as the eastbound on @-@ ramp for I @-@ 80 .

= = Route description = =

Located entirely in Salt Lake County , Utah , SR @-@ 202 begins at an intersection with SR @-@ 201 and 11500 West northwest of Magna , Utah . The road travels northwesterly , bordered on the east by a large tailing pond owned by Kennecott Utah Copper and part of the former Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad rail line , which is now owned by the Union Pacific Railroad ( UP ) . The parallel rail line intersects a pair of east – west rail lines , the southern line being UP main line , and the northern line being the Feather River Route of the former Western Pacific Railroad , which is now owned by UP . After crossing the rail lines , SR @-@ 202 intersects with I @-@ 80 near the Great Salt Lake State Park and comes to a terminus at the I @-@ 80 frontage road , which provides access to the Great Salt Lake State Park and to the Saltair resort . Kennecott Utah Copper owns all of the land surrounding SR @-@ 202 , except for the right @-@ of @-@ way for the railroad , and the highway itself .

SR @-@ 202 serves as the eastbound ramp from SR @-@ 201 onto Interstate I @-@ 80 , because at its intersection with I @-@ 80 , the SR @-@ 201 ( which is the southern terminus of SR @-@ 202 ) traffic only has the option to continue on I @-@ 80 westbound , and does not have an offramp to eastbound I @-@ 80 . Traffic on SR @-@ 202 has increased 12 % between 2002 and 2007 , with a daily average of 735 cars per day using SR @-@ 202 in 2007 , compared to 475 cars per day in 2002 . Half of the traffic on SR @-@ 202 consists of buses and trucks .

= = History = =

Two other roads have been designated Utah State Route 202 in the past . From 1939 to 1953 , the name was used by the road that formed the eastern approach to Mercur , Utah and later became part of SR @-@ 73 . From 1961 to 1967 , the name was used by Main Street between SR @-@ 201 ( 2100 South ) and SR @-@ 171 in downtown Salt Lake City , which is now part of Utah State Route 186 .

The road that currently carries the SR @-@ 202 designation has existed since 1937 , when it connected US @-@ 40 and US @-@ 50 along the Garfield Cut @-@ Off Road . The Utah State Legislature designated the road SR @-@ 202 in 1969 , thus taking responsibility of maintaining the road from the county . No changes or alterations have been made to SR @-@ 202 , except for the legal definition of the road , which has changed twice since it was formed .

On September 26 , 2008 , a sulfuric acid spill occurred , reported by people in vehicles traveling on Interstate 80 .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Salt Lake County .

= Lifesong =

Lifesong is the second studio album by American Christian rock band Casting Crowns , released on August 30 , 2005 by Beach Street Records and Reunion Records . Produced by Mark A. Miller , Lifesong was the follow @-@ up to the band 's self @-@ titled debut album . Although the unexpected success of the first album led to tremendous demand for new music from Casting Crowns , lead vocalist Mark Hall was advised by Steven Curtis Chapman ( a co @-@ producer of the debut album ) and Mac Powell not to worry about commercial expectations . Lifesong , which has a pop rock and adult contemporary sound , focuses on challenging believers and indicting piousness and hypocrisy in the Christian church . Worship themes are also prominent in the album .

Lifesong was received positively by music critics . Many critics praised the album 's songwriting , although others felt the album 's sound was derivative . The album and its singles were nominated for many awards , with the album winning the Grammy Award for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album at the 48th Grammy Awards and the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 37th GMA Dove Awards . It debuted and peaked at number nine on the Billboard 200 and number on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , selling 71 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The 15th best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States , Lifesong has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and has sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies in the United States . All of the album 's singles topped the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .

= = Background and recording = =

Following the unexpected success of their first album , there was tremendous demand for new music from Casting Crowns . Although lead vocalist Mark Hall , who either wrote or co @-@ wrote all the songs on the album , felt " a little worried " about the band 's follow @-@ up album , fellow recording artists Steven Curtis Chapman ( who co @-@ produced the band 's first album ) and Mac Powell of Christian rock band Third Day encouraged Hall to " say what God wants you to say " . They also advised him to not worry about commercial expectations or whether " people are going to like it " . Ultimately , Hall " absorbed " the feedback their first record had received , using it as inspiration . Lifesong focuses mainly on the " truth @-@ can @-@ be @-@ a @-@ tough @-@ pill @-@ to @-@ swallow message " that " there are broken people within arm ’ s reach of the church , and if there is any hope of healing , it begins with people who will be the hands and feet of Jesus " . Hall responded to critics who felt the band 's material was " preaching to the choir " by saying " How can writing songs that challenge the church , songs that ask Christians to consider their actions , be a bad thing ? After all , it ’ s the message that matters ... Everybody is passionate about what they do , about what they feel called to , so for one to say the other ’ s ministry is more or less meaningful or spiritual or anything is ridiculous " . Hall also felt that there were " too many walls in Christian music " and said " I think people listen to you if you ’ re transparent ... People want to hear the truth . You just hang around church for a while , and you ’ ll see . People don ’ t want you to talk around it . They want you to tell it like it is , even if it hurts " . Hall ultimately wrote songs such as " Does Anybody Hear Her " and " Stained Glass Masquerade " , which " challenge believers " . According to Hall , he was trying to say that he didn 't think it bothers the world if people in the church sin . Rather , he felt that the world is bothered when Christians act like they don 't sin .

Lifesong was produced by Mark A. Miller , with recording and mixing done by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee . Additional recording was done at Lifesong Studio in McDonough , Georgia . The album was mastered by Richard Dodd and engineered by Dale Oliver and John Lewis Lee III . The strings on the album were arranged by Bobby Huff and were recorded at Little Big Studio by Boeho Shin and Daewoo Kim .

= = Composition = =

Musically , Lifesong is influenced by adult contemporary and pop rock music . The album also has influence from worship music in the vein of U2 , with songs building into " sweeping choruses and dramatic climaxes " . Much of the album 's lyrical content is devoted to challenging the Christian church and indicting hypocrisy and piousness within the church . Songs such as the title track and " Father , Spirit , Jesus " have worshipful lyrics while others such as " Stained Glass Masquerade " note the inability of church congregations to share their burdens openly . " Does Anybody Hear Her " condemns the church 's focus on judging rather than realizing pain and gives the message than condemning other people is wrong . " Set Me Free " is set from the perspective of " the demon @-@ possessed man " , who is calling to Jesus for relief . It also incorporates more of a rock sound than Casting Crowns normally uses .

= = Critical reception and accolades = =

Lifesong received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Kim Jones of About.com gave it five out of five stars , saying " Bottom line - my hat goes off to Casting Crowns for a job well done , once again . This is one band that doesn 't soft @-@ pedal their message , even if it is one that people enjoying a " comfort @-@ zone " may not want to hear " . Jared Johnson of AllMusic gave the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , opining " One of the brightest spots on the CCM map in 2005 , Lifesong was powered by a second dose of Mark Hall 's earnestly challenging worship themes and a penchant for reflective pop ... From start to finish , the album showcases songwriting that is consistent , polished , and potent , furthering the septet 's reputation as one of Christian music 's most popular acts of the 21st century " . Deborah Evans Price of Billboard said that " there is no sophomore letdown here for Casting Crowns ... This is intelligent , soulful music that goes beyond mere entertainment to something deeper " . David McCreary of CCM Magazine gave Lifesong an A- , opining " staying true to their approach of assimilating crisp melodies , forthright lyrics and stout vocals , the Crowns effectively blend uptempo worship anthems and emotive ballads for another well @-@ balanced set " . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today gave the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , calling the music " derivative " , said that " [ Casting Crowns ] fans will find much to love , while others continue to ponder the secret of this band 's success . All can probably agree that Lifesong is a sequel in the truest sense , offering more of the same to the delight of those so touched and inspired by the music of Casting Crowns the first time " .

Simon Eden of Cross Rhythms gave the album ten out of ten squares , saying " With ' Lifesong ' being officially [ Casting Crowns ' ] second release , the pressure is on to see if they can deliver . The simple answer is quite probably yes as the band use a refreshing formula that challenges the Church instead of serving up milk and cookies " . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout gave it three out of five stars , opining " Overall , Lifesong is musically an assortment of experimentation and familiarity , as the band continues to offer songs with relatable messages to the church body . Frontman and chief songwriter Mark Hall 's strained , shouting @-@ style vocals is [ sic ] still an acquired taste , along with his straightforward and often simplistic lyrics , but Lifesong is a noteworthy second chapter in an already impressive career for this young band " . Brian Mansfield of USA Today gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , commenting " [ Casting Crowns ] comes from the school of U2 @-@ influenced modern @-@ worship music , so its songs predictably build to sweeping choruses and dramatic climaxes . The band 's message is more distinctive , calling out the " happy plastic people under shiny plastic steeples " to offer themselves to the lonely , the grieving , the desperate " .

Lifesong and its singles received various awards and nominations . At the 48th Grammy Awards , it received the Grammy Award for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album . It received the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year award at the 37th GMA Dove Awards . The album 's title track won the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year and was nominated for the Dove Award for Song of the Year at the 37th GMA Dove Awards . " Praise You In This Storm " won the Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 38th GMA Dove Awards and was nominated for the Dove Award for Worship Song of the Year at the 39th GMA Dove Awards .

= = Release and promotion = =

Lifesong was released on August 30 , 2005 . It sold 71 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number nine on the Billboard 200 and Billboard Christian Albums chart . It spent a total of two weeks atop the Christian Albums chart and later appeared on the Billboard Catalog Albums chart in 2007 , peaking at number thirty @-@ four . By April 1 , 2006 , Lifesong had sold 503 @,@ 000 copies . It had sold 950 @,@ 000 copies by August 25 , 2007 and , as of December 5 , 2009 , it has sold a total of 1 @.@ 2 million copies . As of March 2014 , the album has sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies .

Three official singles ( " Lifesong " , " Praise You In This Storm " , " Does Anybody Hear Her " ) were released in promotion of Lifesong . All of the singles topped the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts . An additional song , " Set Me Free " , was released to Christian CHR radio , and peaked at number 23 .

= = Track listing = =

All songs written and composed by Mark Hall except where noted .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits lifted from the album liner notes of Lifesong .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Barry Bonds =

Barry Lamar Bonds ( born July 24 , 1964 ) is an American former professional baseball left fielder who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) with the Pittsburgh Pirates and San Francisco Giants . Bonds received seven NL MVP awards and 14 All @-@ Star selections , and is considered to be one of the greatest baseball players of all time . Bonds is currently the co @-@ hitting coach for the Miami Marlins along with Frank Menechino .

Bonds was regarded as an exceptional hitter , and finished his regular season career with a very high on @-@ base percentage ( .444 ) and isolated power ( .309 ) . He holds many MLB hitting records , including most career home runs , most home runs in a single season ( 73 , set in 2001 ) and most career walks . He also received eight Gold Gloves for his defense in the outfield . He is ranked second in career Wins Above Replacement among all major league position players by both Fangraphs and Baseball @-@ Reference.com , behind only Babe Ruth .

Bonds led a controversial career , notably as a central figure in baseball 's steroids scandal . In 2007 , he was indicted on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice for allegedly lying to the grand jury during the federal government 's investigation of BALCO . The perjury charges against Bonds were dropped , and he was also initially convicted of obstruction of justice , but that was overturned in 2015 .

Bonds has not been elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first four years of eligibility .

Before the 2016 MLB Season , it was announced that Bonds would become the hitting coach for the Miami Marlins .

= = Early life = =

Born in Riverside , California to former major leaguer Bobby Bonds and the former Patricia Howard , Bonds grew up in San Carlos , California and attended Junípero Serra High School in San Mateo , California and excelled in baseball , basketball and football . He played on the junior varsity team during his freshman year and the remainder of his high school career on the varsity team . He batted for a .467 batting average his senior year , and was named prep All @-@ American . The Giants drafted Bonds in the second round of the 1982 MLB draft as a high school senior , but the Giants and Bonds were unable to agree on contract terms when Tom Haller 's maximum offer was $ 70 @,@ 000 ( $ 171 @,@ 645 today ) and Bond 's minimum to go pro was $ 75 @,@ 000 , so Bonds instead decided to attend college .

= = College career = =

Bonds attended Arizona State University , hitting .347 with 45 home runs and 175 runs batted in ( RBI ) . In 1984 he batted .360 and had 30 stolen bases . In 1985 he hit 23 home runs with 66 RBIs and a .368 batting average . He was a Sporting News All @-@ American selection that year . He tied the NCAA record with seven consecutive hits in the College World Series as sophomore and was named to All @-@ Time College World Series Team in 1996 . He graduated from Arizona State in 1986 with a degree in criminology . He was named ASU On Deck Circle Most Valuable Player ; other winners include Dustin Pedroia , Willie Bloomquist , Paul Lo Duca , and Ike Davis . During college , he played part of one summer in the amateur Alaska Baseball League with the Alaska Goldpanners .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Draft and minor leagues = = =

The Pittsburgh Pirates drafted Bonds as the sixth overall pick of the 1985 Major League Baseball draft . He joined the Prince William Pirates of the Carolina League and was named July 1985 Player of the Month for the league . In 1986 , he hit .311 in 44 games for the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League .

= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1986 – 92 ) = = =

Before Bonds made it to the major leagues in Pittsburgh , Pirate fan attendance was low , with 1984 and 1985 attendance below 10 @,@ 000 per game for the 81 @-@ game home schedule . Bonds made his major league debut on May 30 , 1986 . In 1986 , Bonds led National League ( NL ) rookies with 16 home runs , 48 RBI , 36 stolen bases and 65 walks , but he finished 6th in Rookie of the Year voting . He played center field in 1986 , but switched to left field with the arrival of centerfielder Andy Van Slyke in 1987 .

In his early years , Bonds batted as the leadoff hitter . With Van Slyke also in the outfield , the Pirates had a venerable defensive tandem that worked together to cover a lot of ground on the field although they were not close off the field . The Pirates experienced a surge in fan enthusiasm with Bonds on the team and set the club attendance record of 52 @,@ 119 in the 1987 home opener . That year , he hit 25 home runs in his second season , along with 32 stolen bases and 59 RBIs .

Bonds improved in 1988 , hitting .283 with 24 home runs . The Pirates broke the record set the previous year with 54 @,@ 089 attending the home opener . Bonds now fit into a highly respected lineup featuring Bobby Bonilla , Van Slyke and Jay Bell . He finished with 19 homers , 58 RBIs , and 14 outfield assists in 1989 , which was second in the NL . Following the season , rumors that he would be traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Jeff Hamilton and John Wetteland , but the team denied the rumors and no such trade occurred .

Bonds won his first MVP Award in 1990 , hitting .301 with 33 home runs and 114 RBIs . He also stole 52 bases , which were third in the league , to become a first @-@ time member of the 30 – 30 club . He won his first Gold Glove Award and Silver Slugger Award . That year , the Pirates won the National League East title for their first postseason berth since winning the 1979 World Series . However , the Cincinnati Reds ( whose last post @-@ season berth had also been in 1979 ; they lost to the Pirates in that year 's NLCS ) defeated the Pirates in the NLCS en route to winning the World Championship .

In 1991 , Bonds also put up great numbers , hitting 25 homers and driving in 116 runs , and obtained another Gold Glove and Silver Slugger . He finished second to the Atlanta Braves ' Terry Pendleton ( the NL batting champion ) in the MVP voting . The Pirates slugging outfield of Bonds , Bonilla and Van Slyke performed miserably in the 1990 and 1991 playoffs hitting .190 in 1990 ( 12 for 63 ) and .200 in 1991 ( 15 for 75 ) .

In March 1992 , Pirates general manager Ted Simmons agreed to a deal with Atlanta Braves counterpart John Schuerholz to trade Bonds , in exchange for Alejandro Peña , Keith Mitchell , and a player to be named later . Pirates manager Jim Leyland opposed the trade vehemently , and the proposal was rescinded . Bonds stayed with Pittsburgh and won his second MVP award that season . While hitting .311 with 34 homers and 103 RBIs , he propelled the Pirates to their third straight National League East division title . However , Pittsburgh was defeated by the Braves in a seven @-@ game National League Championship Series . Bonds participated in the final play of Game 7 of the NLCS , whereby he fielded a base hit by Francisco Cabrera and attempted to throw out Sid Bream at home plate . But the throw to Pirates catcher Mike LaValliere was late and Bream scored the winning run . For the third consecutive season , the NL East Champion Pirates were denied a trip to the World Series . Following the loss , Bonds and star teammate Doug Drabek were expected to command salaries too high for Pittsburgh to again sign them .

= = = San Francisco Giants ( 1993 – 2007 ) = = =

= = = = 1993 season = = = =

In 1993 , Bonds left the Pirates to sign a lucrative free agent contract worth a then @-@ record $ 43 @.@ 75 million ( $ 71 @.@ 7 million today ) over six years with the Giants , with whom his father had spent the first seven years of his career , and with whom his godfather Willie Mays played 22 of his 24 Major League seasons . The deal was at that time the largest in baseball history , in terms of both total value and average annual salary .

Once he signed with the Giants , Bonds had intended to wear 24 , his number during most of his stay with the Pirates , and after receiving Mays ' blessing the Giants were willing to unretire it until the public commotion from fans and media became too much . To honor his father , Bonds switched his jersey number to 25 , as it had been Bobby 's number in San Francisco .

Bonds hit .336 in 1993 , leading the league with 46 home runs and 123 RBI en route to his second consecutive MVP award , and third overall . As good as the Giants were ( winning 103 games ) , the Atlanta Braves won 104 in what some call the last great pennant race ( due to the Wild Card being instituted shortly after ) .

= = = = 1994 season = = = =

In the lockout @-@ shortened season of 1994 , Bonds hit .312 with 37 home runs and a league @-@ leading 74 walks , and he finished 4th in MVP voting .

= = = = 1995 season = = = =

In 1995 , Bonds hit 33 homers and drove in 104 runs , hitting .294 but finished only 12th in MVP voting . In 1994 , he appeared in a small role as himself in the television film Jane 's House , starring James Woods and Anne Archer .

= = = = 1996 season = = = =

In 1996 , Bonds became the first National League player and second ( of the current list of four ) major league player ( s ) to hit 40 home runs and steal 40 bases in the same season . The other members of the 40 – 40 club are José Canseco – 1988 , Alex Rodriguez – 1998 , and Alfonso Soriano – 2006 ; his father Bobby Bonds was one home run short in 1973 when he hit 39 home runs and stole 43 bases .

Bonds hit his 300th and 301st home runs off the Florida Marlins ' John Burkett on April 27 . He became the fourth player in history to join the 300 – 300 club with 300 stolen bases and 300 home runs for a career , joining Willie Mays , Andre Dawson , and his father . Bonds ' totals for the season included 129 runs driven in , a .308 average and a then @-@ National League record 151 walks . He finished fifth in the MVP balloting .

= = = = 1997 season = = = =

In 1997 Bonds hit .291 , his lowest average since 1989 . He hit 40 home runs for the second straight year and drove in 101 runs , leading the league in walks again with 145 . He tied his father in 1997 for having the most 30 / 30 seasons , and he again placed fifth in the MVP balloting .

= = = = 1998 season = = = =

With two outs in the 9th inning of a game against the Arizona Diamondbacks on May 28 , 1998 , Bonds became only the fifth player in baseball history to be given an intentional walk with the bases loaded . Nap Lajoie ( 1901 ) , Del Bissonette ( 1928 ) and Bill Nicholson ( 1944 ) were three others in the 20th century who received that rare honor . The first to receive one was Abner Dalrymple in 1881 . During a game against the Philadelphia Phillies on August 2 , Bonds was hit by a pitch thrown by Ricky Bottalico , leading to Bonds charging the mound and triggering a bench @-@ clearing brawl .

On August 23 , Bonds hit his 400th career home run . By doing so , he became the first player ever to enter the 400 – 400 club by having career totals of 400 home runs and 400 stolen bases . The milestone home run came off Kirt Ojala , who , like Burkett , was pitching for the Marlins . For the season , he hit .303 with 37 home runs and drove in 122 runs , winning his eighth Gold Glove , He finished 8th in the MVP voting .

= = = = 1999 season = = = =

Bill James ranked Bonds as the best player of the 1990s . He added that the decade 's second @-@ best player , Craig Biggio , had been closer in production to the decade 's 10th @-@ best player than to Bonds . In 1999 , with statistics through 1997 being considered , Bonds ranked Number 34 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players , making him the highest @-@ ranking active player .

When the Sporting News list was redone in 2005 , Bonds was ranked 6th behind Babe Ruth , Willie Mays , Ty Cobb , Walter Johnson , and Hank Aaron . Bonds was omitted from 1999 's Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team , to which Ken Griffey , Jr. was elected . James wrote of Bonds , " Certainly the most unappreciated superstar of my lifetime . ... Griffey has always been more popular , but Bonds has been a far , far greater player . " In 1999 , he rated Bonds as the 16th @-@ best player of all time . " When people begin to take in all of his accomplishments " , he predicted , " Bonds may well be rated among the five greatest players in the history of the game . "

= = = = 2000 season = = = =

In 2000 , the following year , Bonds hit .306 with career bests through that time in both slugging percentage ( .688 ) and home runs ( 49 ) in just 143 games . He also drew a league @-@ leading 117 walks .

= = = = 2001 season = = = =

The next year , Bonds ' offensive production reached even higher levels , breaking not only his own personal records but several major league records . In the Giants ' first 50 games in 2001 , he hit 28 home runs , including 17 in May — a career high . This early stretch included his 500th home run hit on April 17 against Terry Adams of the Los Angeles Dodgers . He also hit 39 home runs by the All @-@ star break ( a major league record ) , drew a major league record 177 walks , and had a .515 on @-@ base average , a feat not seen since Mickey Mantle and Ted Williams over forty years earlier . Bonds ' slugging percentage was a major league record .863 ( 411 total bases in 476 at @-@ bats ) , and , most impressively , he ended the season with a major league record 73 home runs .

On October 4 , Bonds tied the previous record of 70 set by Mark McGwire – which McGwire set in the 162nd game in 1998 – by homering off Wilfredo Rodríguez in the 159th game of the season . He then hit numbers 71 and 72 the following night off Chan Ho Park . Bonds added his 73rd off Dennis Springer on October 7 . The ball was later sold to toy manufacturer Todd McFarlane for $ 450 @,@ 000 . He previously bought Mark McGwire 's 70th home run ball from 1998 . Bonds received the Babe Ruth Home Run Award for leading MLB in homers that season .

= = = = 2002 season = = = =

Bonds re @-@ signed with the Giants for a five @-@ year , $ 90 million contract in January 2002 . He hit five home runs in the Giants ' first four games of the season , tying Lou Brock 's 35 @-@ year record for most home runs after four games . He won the NL batting title with a career @-@ high .370 average and struck out only 47 times . He hit 46 home runs in 403 at @-@ bats .

Despite playing in nine fewer games than the previous season , he drew 198 walks , a major @-@ league record ; 68 of them were intentional walks , surpassing Willie McCovey 's 45 in 1969 for another Major League record . He slugged .799 , then the fourth @-@ highest total all time . Bonds broke Ted Williams ' major league record for on @-@ base average with .582 . Bonds also hit his 600th home run , less than a year and a half after hitting his 500th . The home run came on August 9 at home against Kip Wells of the Pirates .

= = = = 2002 postseason = = = =

Bonds batted .322 with 8 home runs , 16 RBI , and 27 walks in the postseason en route to the 2002 World Series where the Giants lost the series 4 – 3 to the Anaheim Angels .

= = = = 2003 season = = = =

In 2003 , Bonds played in just 130 games . He hit 45 home runs in just 390 at @-@ bats , along with a .341 batting average . He slugged .749 , walked 148 times , and had an on @-@ base average well over .500 ( .529 ) for the third straight year . He also became the only member of the career 500 home run / 500 stolen base club by stealing second base on June 23 off of pitcher Éric Gagné in the 11th inning of a tied ball game against the Los Angeles Dodgers ( against whom Bonds had tallied his 500th home run ) . Bonds scored the game @-@ winning run later that inning .

= = = = 2004 season = = = =

In 2004 , Bonds had perhaps his best season . He hit .362 en route to his second National League batting title , and broke his own record by walking 232 times . He slugged .812 , which was fourth @-@ highest of all time , and broke his on @-@ base percentage record with a .609 average . Bonds passed Mays on the career home run list by hitting his 661st off of Ben Ford on April 13 , He then hit his 700th off of Jake Peavy on September 17 . Bonds hit 45 home runs in 373 at @-@ bats , and struck out just 41 times , putting himself in elite company , as few major leaguers have ever had more home runs than strikeouts in a season . Bonds would win his fourth consecutive MVP award and his seventh overall . His seven MVP awards are four more than any other player in history . In addition , no other player from either league has been awarded the MVP four times in a row . ( The MVP award was first given in 1931 ) . The 40 @-@ year @-@ old Bonds also broke Willie Stargell 's 25 @-@ year record as the oldest player to win a Most Valuable Player Award ( Stargell , at 39 years , 8 months , was National League co @-@ MVP with Keith Hernandez in 1979 ) . On July 4 , he tied and passed Rickey Henderson 's career bases on balls record with his 2190th and 2191st career walks .

As Bonds neared Aaron 's record , Aaron was called on for his opinion of Bonds . He clarified that he was a fan and admirer of Bonds and avoided the controversy regarding whether the record should be denoted with an asterisk due to Bonds ' alleged steroid usage . He felt recognition and respect for the award was something to be determined by the fans . As the steroid controversy received greater media attention during the offseason before the 2005 season , Aaron expressed some reservations about the statements Bonds made on the issue . Aaron expressed that he felt drug and steroid use to boost athletic performance was inappropriate . Aaron was frustrated that the media could not focus on events that occurred in the field of play and wished drugs or gambling allegations such as those associated with Pete Rose could be emphasized less . In 2007 , Aaron felt the whole steroid use issue was very controversial and decided that he would not attend any possible record @-@ breaking games . Aaron congratulated Bonds through the media when Bonds broke Aaron 's record .

= = = = 2005 season = = = =

Bonds ' salary for the 2005 season was $ 22 million , the second @-@ highest salary in Major League Baseball ( the Yankees ' Alex Rodriguez earned the highest , $ 25 @.@ 2 million ) . Bonds endured a knee injury , multiple surgeries , and rehabilitation . He was activated on September 12 and started in left field . In his return against the San Diego Padres , he nearly hit a home run in his first at @-@ bat . Bonds finished the night 1 @-@ for @-@ 4 . Upon his return , Bonds resumed his high @-@ caliber performance at the plate , hitting home runs in four consecutive games from September 18 to September 21 and finishing with five homers in only 14 games .

= = = = 2006 season = = = =

In 2006 , Bonds earned $ 20 million ( not including bonuses ) , the fourth highest salary in baseball . Through the 2006 season he had earned approximately $ 172 million during his then 21 @-@ year career , making him baseball 's all @-@ time highest paid player . Bonds hit under .200 for his first 10 games of the season and did not hit a home run until April 22 . This 10 @-@ game stretch was his longest home run slump since the 1998 season . On May 7 , Bonds drew within one home run of tying Babe Ruth for second place on the all @-@ time list , hitting his 713th career home run into the second level of Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , off pitcher Jon Lieber in a game in which the Giants lost to the Philadelphia Phillies . The towering home run — one of the longest in Citizens Bank Park 's two @-@ season history , traveling an estimated 450 feet ( 140 m ) — hit off the facade of the third deck in right field .

On May 20 , Bonds tied Ruth , hitting his 714th career home run to deep right field to lead off the top of the 2nd inning . The home run came off left @-@ handed pitcher Brad Halsey of the Oakland A 's , in an interleague game played in Oakland , California . Since this was an interleague game at an American League stadium , Bonds was batting as the designated hitter in the lineup for the Giants . Bonds was quoted after the game as being " glad it 's over with " and stated that more attention could be focused on Albert Pujols , who was on a very rapid home run pace in early 2006 .

On May 28 , Bonds passed Ruth , hitting his 715th career home run to center field off Colorado Rockies pitcher Byung @-@ Hyun Kim . The ball was hit an estimated 445 feet ( 140 m ) into center field where it went through the hands of several fans but then fell onto an elevated platform in center field . Then it rolled off the platform where Andrew Morbitzer , a 38 @-@ year @-@ old San Francisco resident , caught the ball while he was in line at a concession stand . Mysteriously , radio broadcaster Dave Flemming 's radio play @-@ by @-@ play of the home run went silent just as the ball was hit , apparently from a microphone failure . But the televised version , called by Giants broadcaster Duane Kuiper , was not affected .

On September 22 , Bonds tied Henry Aaron 's National League career home run record of 733 . The home run came in the top of the 6th inning of a high @-@ scoring game against the Milwaukee Brewers , at Miller Park in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The achievement was notable for its occurrence in the very city where Aaron began ( with the Milwaukee Braves ) and concluded ( with the Brewers , then in the American League ) his career . With the Giants trailing 10 – 8 , Bonds hit a blast to deep center field on a 2 – 0 pitch off the Brewers ' Chris Spurling with runners on first and second and one out . Though the Giants were at the time clinging to only a slim chance of making the playoffs , Bonds ' home run provided the additional drama of giving the Giants an 11 – 10 lead late in a critical game in the final days of a pennant race . The Brewers eventually won the game , 13 – 12 , despite Bonds ' going 3 for 5 , with 2 doubles , the record @-@ tying home run , and 6 runs batted in .

On September 23 , Bonds surpassed Aaron for the NL career home run record . Hit in Milwaukee like the previous one , this was a solo home run off Chris Capuano of the Brewers . This was the last home run Bonds hit in 2006 . In 2006 , Bonds recorded his lowest slugging percentage ( a statistic that he has historically ranked among league leaders season after season ) since 1991 with the Pittsburgh Pirates .

In January 2007 , the New York Daily News reported that Bonds had tested positive for amphetamines . Under baseball 's amphetamine policy , which had been in effect for one season , players testing positive were to submit to six additional tests and undergo treatment and counseling . The policy also stated that players were not to be identified for a first positive test , but the New York Daily News leaked the test 's results . When the Players Association informed Bonds of the test results , he initially attributed it to a substance he had taken from the locker of Giants teammate Mark Sweeney , but would later retract this claim and publicly apologize to Sweeney .

= = = = 2007 season = = = =

On January 29 , 2007 , the Giants finalized a contract with Bonds for the 2007 season . After the commissioner 's office rejected Bonds ' one @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 8 million deal because it contained a personal @-@ appearance provision , the team sent revised documents to his agent , Jeff Borris , who stated that " At this time , Barry is not signing the new documents . " Bonds signed a revised one @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 8 million contract on February 15 and reported to the Giants ' Spring training camp on time .

Bonds resumed his march to the all @-@ time record early in the 2007 season . After an opening game in which all he had was a first @-@ inning single past third base against a right @-@ shifted infield ( immediately followed by a stolen base and then a base @-@ running misjudgment that got him thrown out at home ) and a deep out to left field late in the game , Bonds returned the next day , April 4 , with another mission . In his first at @-@ bat of the season 's second game at the Giants ' AT & T Park , Bonds hit a Chris Young ( of the San Diego Padres ) pitch just over the wall to the left of straightaway center field for career home run 735 . This home run put Bonds past the midway point between Ruth and Aaron .

Bonds did not homer again until April 13 , when he hit two ( 736 and 737 ) in a 3 for 3 night that included 4 RBI against the Pittsburgh Pirates . Bonds splashed a pitch by St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Ryan Franklin into McCovey Cove on April 18 for home run 738 . Home runs number 739 and 740 came in back to back games on April 21 and April 22 against the Arizona Diamondbacks .

The hype surrounding Bonds ' pursuit of the home run record escalated on May 14 . On this day , Sports Auction for Heritage ( a Dallas @-@ based auction house ) offered US $ 1 million to the fan that caught Bonds ' record @-@ breaking 756th @-@ career home run . The million dollar offer was rescinded on June 11 out of concern of fan safety . Home run 748 came on Father 's Day , June 17 , in the final game of a 3 @-@ game road series against the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park , where Bonds had never previously played . With this homer , Fenway Park became the 36th major league ballpark in which Bonds had hit a home run . He hit a Tim Wakefield knuckleball just over the low fence into the Giant 's bullpen in right field . It was his first home run off his former Pittsburgh Pirate teammate , who became the 441st different pitcher to surrender a four @-@ bagger to Bonds . The 750th career home run , hit on June 29 , also came off a former teammate : Liván Hernández . The blast came in the 8th inning and at that point tied the game at 3 – 3 .

On July 19 , after a 21 at @-@ bat hitless streak , Bonds hit 2 home runs , numbers 752 and 753 , against the Chicago Cubs . He went 3 – 3 with 2 home runs , 6 RBIs , and a walk on that day . The struggling last place Giants still lost the game , 9 – 8 . On July 27 , Bonds hit home run 754 against Florida Marlins pitcher Rick VandenHurk . Bonds was then walked his next 4 at @-@ bats in the game , but a 2 @-@ run shot helped the Giants win the game 12 – 10 . It marked the first time since he had hit # 747 that Bonds had homered in a game the Giants won . On August 4 , Bonds hit a 382 foot ( 116 m ) home run against Clay Hensley of the San Diego Padres for home run number 755 , tying Hank Aaron 's all @-@ time record . Bonds greeted his son , Nikolai , with an extended bear hug after crossing home plate . Bonds greeted his teammates and then his wife , Liz Watson , and daughter Aisha Lynn behind the backstop . Hensley was the 445th different pitcher to give up a home run to Bonds . Ironically , given the cloud of suspicion that surrounded Bonds , the tying home run was hit off a pitcher who 'd been suspended by baseball in 2005 for steroid use . He was walked in his next at bat and eventually scored on a fielder 's choice .

On August 7 at 8 : 51 PM PDT , Bonds hit a 435 foot ( 133 m ) home run , his 756th , off a pitch from Mike Bacsik of the Washington Nationals , breaking the all @-@ time career home run record , formerly held by Hank Aaron . Coincidentally , Bacsik 's father had faced Aaron ( as a pitcher for the Texas Rangers ) after Aaron had hit his 755th home run . On August 23 , 1976 , Michael J. Bacsik held Aaron to a single and a fly out to right field . The younger Bacsik commented later , " If my dad had been gracious enough to let Hank Aaron hit a home run , we both would have given up 756 . " After hitting the home run , Bonds gave Bacsik an autographed bat .

The pitch , the seventh of the at @-@ bat , was a 3 – 2 pitch which Bonds hit into the right @-@ center field bleachers . The fan who ended up with the ball , 22 @-@ year @-@ old Matt Murphy from Queens , New York ( and a Mets fan ) , was promptly protected and escorted away from the mayhem by a group of San Francisco police officers . After Bonds finished his home run trot , a ten @-@ minute delay followed , including a brief video by Aaron congratulating Bonds on breaking the record Aaron had held for 33 years , and expressing the hope that " the achievement of this record will inspire others to chase their own dreams . " Bonds made an impromptu emotional statement on the field , with Willie Mays , his godfather , at his side and thanked his teammates , family and his late father . Bonds sat out the rest of the game .

The commissioner , Bud Selig , was not in attendance in this game but was represented by the Executive Vice President of Baseball Operations , Jimmie Lee Solomon . Selig called Bonds later that night to congratulate him on breaking the record . President George W. Bush also called Bonds the next day to congratulate him . On August 24 , San Francisco honored and celebrated Bonds ' career accomplishments and breaking the home run record with a large rally in Justin Herman Plaza . The rally included video messages from Lou Brock , Ernie Banks , Ozzie Smith , Joe Montana , Wayne Gretzky and Michael Jordan . Speeches were made by Willie Mays , Giants teammates Omar Vizquel and Rich Aurilia , and Giants owner Peter Magowan . Mayor Gavin Newsom presented Bonds the key to the City and County of San Francisco and Giants vice president Larry Baer gave Bonds the home plate he touched after hitting his 756th career home run .

The record @-@ setting ball was consigned to an auction house on August 21 . Bidding began on August 28 and closed with a winning bid of US $ 752 @,@ 467 on September 15 after a three phase online auction . The high bidder , fashion designer Marc Ecko , created a website to let fans decide its fate . Subsequently , Ben Padnos , who submitted the ( US ) $ 186 @,@ 750 winning bid on Bonds ' record @-@ tying 755th home run ball also set up a website to let fans decide its fate . Of Ecko 's plans , Bonds said " He spent $ 750 @,@ 000 on the ball and that 's what he 's doing with it ? What he 's doing is stupid . " 10 million voters helped Ecko decide to brand the ball with an asterisk and send it to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum . Padnos sold 5 @-@ year ads on a website , www.endthedebate.com , where people voted by a two to one margin to smash the ball .

Bonds concluded the 2007 season with a .276 batting average , 28 home runs , and 66 RBIs in 126 games and 340 at bats . At the age of 43 , he led both leagues in walks with 132 .

= = Post @-@ playing career = =

On September 21 , 2007 , the San Francisco Giants confirmed that they would not re @-@ sign Bonds for the 2008 season . The story was first announced on Bonds ' own web site earlier that day . Bonds officially filed for free agency on October 29 , 2007 . His agent Jeff Borris said : " I 'm anticipating widespread interest from every Major League team . "

There was much speculation before the 2008 season about where Bonds might play . However , no one signed him during the 2008 or 2009 seasons . If he had returned to Major League Baseball , Bonds would have been within close range of several significant hitting milestones : needing just 65 hits to reach 3 @,@ 000 , 4 runs batted in to reach 2 @,@ 000 , and 38 home runs to reach 800 . He would have needed 69 more runs scored to move past Rickey Henderson as the all @-@ time runs champion , and 37 extra base hits to move past Hank Aaron as the all @-@ time extra base hits champion .

As of November 13 , 2009 , Borris maintained that Bonds was still not retired . On December 9 , however , Borris told the San Francisco Chronicle that Bonds has played his last major league game . Bonds announced on April 11 , 2010 that he was proud of McGwire for admitting his use of steroids . Bonds said that it was not the time to retire , but he noted that he was not in shape to play immediately if an interested club called him .

Bonds has not had a jersey number retired by either the Pirates or Giants , although there have been calls by fans of both teams to retire their respective uniform numbers held by Bonds . However , his number 24 with the Pirates remains in circulation , most prominently worn by Brian Giles from 1999 to 2003 and by Pedro Alvarez from 2011 to 2015 . The Giants have not reissued Bonds ' number 25 .

On December 15 , 2011 , Bonds was sentenced to 30 days of house arrest , two years of probation and 250 hours of community service , for an obstruction of justice conviction stemming from a grand jury appearance in 2003 . However , U.S. District Judge Susan Illston then delayed the sentence pending an appeal . In 2013 his conviction was upheld on appeal by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . However , the full court later granted Bonds an en banc rehearing , and on April 22 , 2015 , an 11 @-@ judge panel of the Ninth Circuit voted 10 @-@ 1 to overturn his conviction .

On March 10 , 2014 , Bonds began a seven @-@ day stint as a roving Spring training instructor for the Giants .

On December 4 , 2015 , he was announced as the new hitting coach for the Miami Marlins .

= = Controversies = =

= = = BALCO scandal = = =

Since 2003 , Bonds has been a key figure in the Bay Area Laboratory Co @-@ operative ( BALCO ) scandal . He was under investigation by a federal grand jury regarding his testimony in the BALCO case , and was indicted on perjury and obstruction of justice charges on November 15 , 2007 . The indictment alleges that Bonds lied while under oath about his alleged use of steroids .

In 2003 , Bonds first became embroiled in a scandal when Greg Anderson of the Bay Area Laboratory Co @-@ operative ( BALCO ) , Bonds ' trainer since 2000 , was indicted by a federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and charged with supplying anabolic steroids to athletes , including a number of baseball players . This led to speculation that Bonds had used performance @-@ enhancing drugs during a time when there was no mandatory testing in Major League Baseball . Bonds declared his innocence , attributing his changed physique and increased power to a strict regimen of bodybuilding , diet and legitimate supplements .

During grand jury testimony on December 4 , 2003 , Bonds said that he used a clear substance and a cream that he received from his personal strength trainer , Greg Anderson , who told him they were the nutritional supplement flaxseed oil and a rubbing balm for arthritis . This testimony , as reported by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru @-@ Wada , has frequently been misrepresented . Later reports on Bonds ' leaked grand @-@ jury testimony contend that he admitted to unknowingly using " the cream " and " the clear " .

In July 2005 , all four defendants in the BALCO steroid scandal trial , including Anderson , struck deals with federal prosecutors that did not require them to reveal names of athletes who may have used banned drugs .

= = = = Perjury case = = = =

On November 15 , 2007 , Bonds was indicted on four counts of perjury and one count of obstruction of justice as it relates to the government investigation of BALCO .

On February 14 , 2008 a typo in court papers filed by Federal prosecutors erroneously alleged that Bonds tested positive for steroids in November 2001 , a month after hitting his record 73rd home run . The reference was meant instead to refer to a November 2000 test that had already been disclosed and previously reported . The typo sparked a brief media frenzy .

His trial for obstruction of justice was to have begun on March 2 , 2009 , but jury selection was postponed due to 11th @-@ hour appeals by the prosecution . The trial commenced on March 21 , 2011 , in U. S. District Court , Northern District of California , with Judge Susan Illston presiding . He was convicted on April 13 , 2011 on the obstruction of justice charge , for giving an evasive answer to a question under oath . His sentence did not include prison . The conviction was initially upheld by a three judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in 2013 , but a larger panel of the court voted 10 @-@ 1 to overturn the conviction on April 22 , 2015 .

= = = Players ' Union = = =

Bonds withdrew from the MLB Players Association 's ( MLBPA ) licensing agreement because he felt independent marketing deals would be more lucrative for him . Bonds is the first player in the thirty @-@ year history of the licensing program not to sign . Because of this withdrawal , his name and likeness are not usable in any merchandise licensed by the MLBPA . In order to use his name or likeness , a company must deal directly with Bonds . For this reason he does not appear in some baseball video games , forcing game @-@ makers to create generic athletes to replace him . For example , Bonds is replaced by " Jon Dowd " in MVP Baseball 2005 .

= = = Game of Shadows = = =

In March 2006 the book Game of Shadows , written by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru @-@ Wada , was released amid a storm of media publicity including the cover of Sports Illustrated . Initially small excerpts of the book were released by the authors in the issue of Sports Illustrated . The book alleges Bonds used stanozolol and a host of other steroids , and is perhaps most responsible for the change in public opinion regarding Bonds ' steroid use .

The book contained excerpts of grand jury testimony that is supposed to be sealed and confidential by law . The authors have been steadfast in their refusal to divulge their sources and at one point faced jail time . On February 14 , 2007 , Troy Ellerman , one of Victor Conte 's lawyers , pleaded guilty to leaking grand jury testimony . Through the plea agreement , he will spend two and a half years in jail .

= = = Love Me , Hate Me = = =

In May 2006 , former Sports Illustrated writer Jeff Pearlman released a revealing biography of Bonds entitled Love Me , Hate Me : Barry Bonds and the Making of an Anti @-@ Hero . The book also contained many allegations against Bonds . The book , which describes Bonds as a polarizing insufferable braggart with a legendary ego and staggering ability , relied on over five hundred interviews , except with Bonds himself .

= = = Bonds on Bonds = = =

In April 2006 and May 2006 , ESPN aired a few episodes of a 10 @-@ part reality TV ( unscripted , documentary @-@ style ) series starring Bonds . The show , titled Bonds on Bonds , focused on Bonds ' chase of Babe Ruth 's and Hank Aaron 's home run records . Some felt the show should be put on hiatus until baseball investigated Bonds ' steroid use allegations . The series was canceled in June 2006 , ESPN and producer Tollin / Robbins Productions citing " creative control " issues with Bonds and his representatives .

= = Personal life = =

Bonds met Susann ( " Sun " ) Margreth Branco , the mother of his first two children ( Nikolai and Shikari ) , in Montreal , Quebec in August 1987 . They eloped to Las Vegas February 5 , 1988 . The couple separated in June 1994 , divorced in December 1994 , and had their marriage annulled in 1997 by the Catholic Church . The divorce was a media affair because Bonds had his Swedish spouse sign a prenuptial agreement in which she " waived her right to a share of his present and future earnings " and which was upheld . Bonds had been providing his wife $ 20 @,@ 000 / month in child support and $ 10 @,@ 000 in spousal support at the time of the ruling . During the hearings to set permanent support levels , allegations of abuse came from both parties . The trial dragged on for months , but Bonds was awarded both houses and reduced support . On August 21 , 2000 , the Supreme Court of California , in an opinion signed by Chief Justice Ronald M. George , unanimously held that " substantial evidence supports the determination of the trial court that the [ prenuptial ] agreement in the present case was entered into voluntarily . "

In 2010 , Bonds ' son Nikolai , who served as a Giants batboy during his father 's years playing in San Francisco and always sat next to his dad in the dugout during games , was charged with five misdemeanors resulting from a confrontation with his mother , Sun . Barry accompanied him to San Mateo County Superior Court .

After the end of his first marriage , Bonds had an extensive intimate relationship with Kimberly Bell from 1994 through May 2003 . Bonds purchased a home in Scottsdale , Arizona for Kimberly .

On January 10 , 1998 , Bonds married his second wife , Liz Watson , at the San Francisco Ritz @-@ Carlton Hotel in front of 240 guests . The couple lived in Los Altos Hills , California , with their daughter Aisha during their ten and a half years of marriage before Watson filed for Legal Separation on June 9 , 2009 , citing irreconcilable differences . On July 21 , 2009 , just six weeks later , Watson announced that she was withdrawing her Legal Separation action . The couple were reconciled for seven months before Watson formally filed for divorce in Los Angeles on February 26 , 2010 . On June 6 , 2011 , Bonds and Watson filed a legal agreement not to take the divorce to trial and instead settle it in an " uncontested manner " , effectively agreeing to take the proceedings out of the public eye and end the marriage privately at an unspecified later date without further court involvement .

Several of Bonds ' family and extended family members have been involved in athletics as either a career or a notable pastime . Bonds has a younger brother , Bobby , Jr . , who was also a professional baseball player . His paternal aunt , Rosie Bonds , is a former American record holder in the 80 meter hurdles , and competed in the 1964 Olympics . In addition , he is a distant cousin of Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson .

Among Bonds ' many real estate properties is a home he owns in the exclusive gated community of Beverly Park in Beverly Hills , California .

= = Career distinctions = =

Besides holding Major League career records in home runs ( 762 ) , walks ( 2 @,@ 558 ) , and intentional walks ( 688 ) , at the time of his retirement , Bonds also led all active players in RBI ( 1 @,@ 996 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .444 ) , runs ( 2 @,@ 227 ) , games ( 2 @,@ 986 ) , extra @-@ base hits ( 1 @,@ 440 ) , at @-@ bats per home run ( 12 @.@ 92 ) , and total bases ( 5 @,@ 976 ) . He is 2nd in doubles ( 601 ) , slugging percentage ( .607 ) , stolen bases ( 514 ) , at @-@ bats ( 9 @,@ 847 ) , and hits ( 2 @,@ 935 ) , 6th in triples ( 77 ) , 8th in sacrifice flies ( 91 ) , and 9th in strikeouts ( 1 @,@ 539 ) , through September 26 , 2007 .

Bonds is the lone member of the 500 – 500 club , which means he has hit at least 500 home runs ( 762 ) and stolen 500 bases ( 514 ) . He is also one of only four baseball players all @-@ time to be in the 40 – 40 club ( 1996 ) , which means he hit 40 home runs ( 42 ) and stole 40 bases ( 40 ) in the same season ; the other members are José Canseco , Alex Rodriguez and Alfonso Soriano .

= = = Records held = = =

Home runs in a single season ( 73 ) , 2001

Home runs ( career ) ( 762 )

Home runs against different pitchers ( 449 )

Home runs since turning 40 years old ( 74 )

Home runs in the year he turned 43 years old ( 28 )

Consecutive seasons with 30 or more home runs ( 13 ) , 1992 – 2004

Slugging percentage in a single season ( .863 ) , 2001

Slugging percentage in a World Series ( 1 @.@ 294 ) , 2002

Consecutive seasons with .600 slugging percentage or higher ( 8 ) , 1998 – 2005

On @-@ base percentage in a single season ( .609 ) , 2004

Walks in a single season ( 232 ) , 2004

Intentional walks in a single season ( 120 ) , 2004

Consecutive games with a walk ( 18 )

MVP awards ( 7 — closest competitors trail with 3 ) , 1990 , 1992 – 93 , 2001 – 04

Consecutive MVP awards ( 4 ) , 2001 – 04

National League Player of the Month selections ( 13 — 2nd place : 8 – Frank Thomas ; 2nd place ( N.L. ) – George Foster , Pete Rose and Dale Murphy )

Oldest player ( age 38 ) to win the National League batting title ( .370 ) for the first time , 2002

= = = Records shared = = =

Consecutive plate appearances with a walk ( 7 )

Consecutive plate appearances reaching base ( 15 )

Tied with his father , Bobby , for most seasons with 30 home runs and 30 stolen bases ( 5 ) and are the only father @-@ son members of the 30 – 30 club

Home runs in a single post @-@ season ( 8 ) , 2002

= = = Other accomplishments = = =

5 @-@ time SF Giants Player of the Year ( 1998 , 2001 – 04 )

7 @-@ time Baseball America NL All @-@ Star ( 1993 , 1998 , 2000 – 04 )

3 @-@ Time Major League Player of the Year ( 1990 , 2001 , 2004 )

3 @-@ Time Baseball America MLB Player of the Year ( 2001 , 2003 – 04 )

8 @-@ Time Gold Glove winner for NL Outfielder ( 1990 – 94 , 1996 – 98 ) .

12 @-@ Time Silver Slugger winner for NL Outfielder ( 1990 – 94 , 1996 – 97 , 2000 – 04 )

14 @-@ time All @-@ Star ( 1990 , 1992 – 98 , 2000 – 04 , 2007 )

3 @-@ Time NL Hank Aaron Award winner ( 2001 – 02 , 2004 )

Babe Ruth Home Run Award ( 2001 )

Listed at # 6 on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players , the highest @-@ ranked active player , i n 2005 .

Named a finalist to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team in 1999 , but not elected to the team in the fan balloting .

Rating of 352 on Baseball @-@ Reference.com 's Hall of Fame monitor ( 100 is a good HOF candidate ) ; 9th among all hitters , highest among hitters not in HOF yet .

Only the second player to twice have a single @-@ season slugging percentage over .800 , with his record .863 in 2001 and .812 in 2004 . Babe Ruth was the other , with .847 in 1920 and .846 in 1921 .

Became the first player in history with more times on base ( 376 ) than official times at bats ( 373 ) in 2004 . This was due to the record number of walks , which count as a time on base but not a time at @-@ bat . He had 135 hits , 232 walks , and 9 hit @-@ by @-@ pitches for the 376 number .

With his father Bobby ( 332 , 461 ) , leads all father @-@ son combinations in combined home runs ( 1 @,@ 094 ) and stolen bases ( 975 ) , respectively through September 26 , 2007 .

Played minor league baseball in both Alaska and Hawaii . In 1983 , he played for the Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks in the Alaska Baseball League , and in 1986 , he played for the Hawaii Islanders in the Pacific Coast League .

Featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated . He has appeared as the main subject on the cover eight times in total ; seven with the Giants and once with the Pirates . He has also appeared in an inset on the cover twice . He was the most recent Pirate player to appear on the cover , until Jason Grilli was featured in SIs July 22 , 2013 edition .

= Interactions ( The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man ) =

" Interactions " is the second episode of the animated television series The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , based on the comic book character Spider @-@ Man created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko . The episode sees Spider @-@ Man confronting the supervillain Electro , whose body was corrupted with electricity after a freak lab accident .

Directed by Troy Adomitis , " Interactions " was written by Kevin Hopps , who researched all the available comic books he had that featured Electro . The character 's appearance in the episode draws on his traditional comic book style , though designer Victor Cook emphasized the color green and removed the character 's customary star @-@ shaped mask . His voice actor , Crispin Freeman , sought to reflect the character 's declining sanity in his vocal style .

" Interactions " first aired March 8 , 2008 , on the Kids ' WB block of The CW network , following the first episode . Its 1 @.@ 4 / 4 Nielsen rating was higher than that of the pilot , " Survival of the Fittest " . The episode received mixed reviews ; IGN commented that " [ w ] hile not as strong as the pilot , the episode had some notable moments " .

= = Plot summary = =

The episode opens in Dr. Connors 's laboratory , where Connors demonstrates to his interns Peter , Gwen , and Eddie a new potential source of clean energy : genetically modified eels . After Gwen and Peter leave , an electrician , Max Dillon , attempts to upgrade the lab 's electrical filters , but gets electricuted and is sent to the hospital . There , he is found to be emitting strong electrical fields and is placed in quarantine . Max is further angered when a doctor explains that , although he is stable , he must wear a special suit to contain this emitted bioelectricity .

Peter , meanwhile , is assigned to tutor a popular girl named Liz Allan . He is attempting to teach her science in a café when an angry Max enters and accidentally short circuits the power . Max leaves ; Peter , believing him to be dangerous , pursues him as Spider @-@ Man . Peter manages to photograph Max and remove his mask ; Max , enraged , attacks , but flees while Peter is distracted by a phone call from Aunt May .

The following day Peter discovers that his photographs have not developed properly , but is still able to identify the man he fought as Max . He meets with Dr. Connors , Eddie , and Gwen to seek a way to contain Max , who has meanwhile been attacked by the police and has decided to seek help from the lab . On arrival , though , Max becomes aggressive and threatens Connors 's wife , Martha . Eddie distracts him long enough for Peter to lead the girls to safety and return as Spider @-@ Man : Max , declaring himself " Electro , " begins to fight with Spider @-@ Man . The battle leads the pair out from the lab into the rain , where Spider @-@ Man spots a radio tower beside a pool : he knocks Electro into the water , causing him to short circuit into unconsciousness .

At school the next day Peter talks to Liz in the hall ; she is complimenting his tutoring when the popular students approach , making her change her attitude , act rudely , and walk away . In the lab , Dr. Connors picks up a vial of lizard DNA that Electro had electrified , and leaves with his wife .

= = Production = =

" Interactions " was written by Kevin Hopps and directed by Troy Adomitis . Hopps , who had previously written for animated series such as Buzz Lightyear of Star Command , Justice League , and Darkwing Duck , researched for the episode by re @-@ reading every available comic book that featured Electro . Hopps notes that he " like [ s ] the humanity " of Electro : " Here 's a person who didn 't ask to be a villain , but found himself thrust into that role . "

The radio tower scene initially called for Electro to climb to the very top of the structure , a concept the crew found " clunky " throughout the storyboarding and directing process . Victor Cook , a producer and developer for The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man , observed " He 's gonna climb the whole tower ? It just seems kind of weird . " Before release , the scene was altered to have Electro gradually propel himself up the tower with several electrical blasts .

Cook retained the " classic silhouette " of Electro 's suit from the original comics , but removed his star @-@ shaped mask . Cook made green the key color in the Electro design , noting that " In the 1960s it seems like the majority of Spider @-@ man 's rogues gallery had green as part of their costumes . " In Cook 's broader color scheme for the cartoon green is used to symbolize negative situations in Peter 's life , while positive settings and occurrences , such as Peter 's biology class , feature other key colors like yellow .

Electro was voiced by Crispin Freeman , who sought to reflect in his vocal style the psychological decline brought on by the character 's new powers : " It never occurred to me before how that would have an effect on his character – to be dealing with that curse and blessing . And when you think about it , that 's also Peter Parker 's core issue . " The episode 's title , " Interactions , " expands the series theme " The Education of Peter Parker " chosen by developer Greg Weisman . Episodes in the early season one arc all shared a naming scheme based on the biological sciences .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Interactions " originally aired on March 8 , 2008 , on the Kids ' WB block of The CW Network , following the show 's pilot , " Survival of the Fittest . " Disney XD aired the episode on March 23 , 2009 , between " Survival of the Fittest " and " Natural Selection " . The episode 's initial broadcast garnered a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 4 / 4 , which is considered high for American television and was the network 's 2007 – 08 highest rating for the 10 : 30 a.m. timeslot . It beat the previous episode 's rating of 1 @.@ 2 / 3 ( the highest for the 10 : 00 a.m. timeslot for the same season ) and represented a 75 % increase in the share of viewers aged 2 to 11 and a 200 % increase in viewers aged 2 to 5 . " Interactions " rated the highest of the season for kids and boys aged 9 to 14 .

The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN thought the episode " wasn 't as strong as the pilot " and rated it at 7 @.@ 4 ( " Decent " ) . Goldman wrote that Electro 's redesigned costume retained " some nice visual nods to the Electro many of us grew up with . " Liz Allan 's characterization , though , he found confusing , with the character 's accent and background unclear , and the scene where Peter fought Electro while conducting a phonecall with Aunt May " just a bit too much " : " Come on , Aunt May isn 't freaking out hearing [ that ] ? " Nonetheless , Goldman praised the episode 's humorous scenes and the introduction of Dr. Conner 's limb regeneration experiments .

Rob M. Worley of the entertainment website Mania said that Freeman " charges up " the series with his role , writing that he " steps away from his luminary status in the world of anime and video game voiceovers . " Ultimate Disney reviewer Luke Bonanno did not include the episode among his top five episodes of The Spectacular Spider @-@ Man 's first season , but " feel [ s ] obligated to point out that the uniform excellence of the lot [ makes ] this a challenging task . " DVD Talk reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. described Electro 's design as " [ incorporating ] some sharp edges and dynamic plays " to an " old " character .

= Phillips ' Sound Recording Services =

Phillips ' Sound Recording Services was a studio in the house of Percy Francis Phillips ( 1896 – 1984 ) and his family at 38 Kensington , Kensington , Liverpool , England . Between the years of 1955 and 1969 , Phillips recorded numerous tapes and acetate discs for Liverpool acts , people and businesses in a small room behind the shop his family owned .

Phillips first sold bicycles and motorbikes , but later started selling and recharging batteries in a shop in the front room of his house in 1925 . After a decline in demand for batteries in the early 1950s , he started selling electrical goods and popular records . In 1955 , Phillips set up a recording studio called Phillips ' Sound Recording Services .

In 1958 , The Quarrymen ( John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison , John ' Duff ' Lowe and Colin Hanton ) recorded " That 'll Be The Day " , and " In Spite of All the Danger " in the studio . Other clients included Billy Fury , Ken Dodd , and Marty Wilde . Phillips died in 1984 . The Quarrymen recording and the site of the studio was commemorated in 2005 , when a Blue Plaque was unveiled by two of The Quarrymen ( Lowe and Hanton ) on the front of the house .

= = Early years = =

Percy Phillips was born in March 1896 , in Warrington , Lancashire . He was a veteran of the First World War , and left the British Army ( Loyal North Lancashire Regiment ) at the rank of Corporal in 1918 , since he was wounded before the war ended .

After the war , he started selling bicycles and motorbikes in a small shop in Brunswick Street , in the Kensington Fields area of Liverpool . He began selling and recharging batteries in 1925 , opening a shop in the front room of his family 's three @-@ storey Georgian terraced house , called Phillips ’ Battery Charging Depot , and had to install large accumulators in the cellar . Phillips ran the business for 30 years , even during WWII , but due to a decline in demand for batteries in the early 1950s ( most people having electricity by then ) he started selling household electrical goods . By late 1954 , the shop was only selling records and record players ; customers would buy recordings of American Country and Western , and Big Band music . As Phillips had supplied batteries to the Burtonwood air base during the war , he could buy and sell the latest records from America via his contacts there .

= = Studio = =

In 1955 , several customers asked if Phillips could make demo discs , so he bought a 1 / 4 inch tape recorder ( replaced in 1963 with a Vortexion portable ) , an MSS ( Marguerite Sound Studios - after the owner 's wife ) disc cutting machine , an amplifier , a 4 @-@ track mixer , three microphones ( a Reslo , an HMV ribbon microphone , and an AKG ) , and three pairs of headphones for £ 400 , while on a trip to London to visit his son Frank , who was there for a sound recording course at EMI Electronics .

Phillips set up the equipment behind his shop in the ( 12 square feet ) middle living room , with a piano and an overturned tin bath in the cellar as a reverb chamber , with a speaker and microphone linked to the studio above . The recordings would normally be on tape , and then transferred to disc , although the tape was recorded over again during the next session . Because of trams , trucks , and horses going up and down Kensington , Phillips had to hang heavy blankets over the studio door and a rear window to minimise the noise . Phillips ' first recording was of himself singing " Bonnie Marie of Argyle " , ( unaccompanied ) and a few days later he recorded " Unchained Melody " , with local dance band singer Betty Roy . The first disc he cut in the studio was on 7 August 1955 , with his eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Carol , singing , " Mr Sandman " . All the discs had " Play with a light @-@ weight pick @-@ up " on the label , as this would increase the life of the disc , which would eventually wear out .

Phillips advertised the studio as Phillips ' Sound Recording Services ( also advertised as P. F. Phillips ' Professional Tape & Disc Recording Service ) , and his business cards read : " PF Phillips , 38 Kensington , Liverpool , 7 . Television and Battery Service . Gramophone Record Dealer . Professional Tape and Disc Recording Studio . " He started cutting discs for members of the public , as well as for actors from the Liverpool Playhouse , who often stayed in the first @-@ floor boarding rooms above the studio , who were sometimes asked by Phillips to record monologues and poems . These included the actors John Thaw , Richard Briers , and the ventriloquist Ray Alan .

For the first couple of years , Phillips made music compilation discs for local businesses such as the local ice rink or cinema , men singing songs for loved ones , children playing an instrument , or even a neighbour ’ s dog howling along to piano accompaniment . As the record shop and studio took over the business , he had a brass plate made which he put on the wall just outside the front door , and had labels made for the discs , but changed the design of the disc label every year . By 1957 , Phillips was recording more and more groups of young men with guitars , basses , washboards and drums , who played skiffle .

Ron Wycherly ( a.k.a. Billy Fury ) recorded several songs onto disc in the studio , including , " I 'm Left You 're Right She 's Gone " , " Playin ' For Keeps " , " Paralyzed " and " Come Go With Me " ( all previously released by Elvis Presley ) as well as , " Have I Told You Lately That I Love You " ( Lulu Belle and Scotty ) and his own composition , " Yodelling Song " . Fury 's mother sent the songs to impresario Larry Parnes , which started her son 's singing career . The songs were released on DVD / CD in 2008 .

= = The Quarrymen recording = =

Johnny ' Guitar ' Byrne ( from Rory Storm and The Hurricanes ) and singer Paul Murphy recorded a version of " Butterfly " and " She ’ s Got it " in the studio on 22 June 1957 , and Byrne later played the recording to Harrison . On 12 July 1958 , a local skiffle group , The Quarrymen ( Lennon , McCartney , Harrison , Lowe and Hanton ) visited Phillips ' studio to record two songs , although the date has been disputed , as Lowe remembered that the recording was during cold weather ( October or November , 1957 ) with the band wearing scarves . Hanton also mentioned the cold weather in interviews , and before recording , Lennon suggested that Hanton put his scarf over the snare drum to lower the volume , which supports the earlier date .

The group were surprised to see how small and technically basic the studio was , with only one microphone in the centre of the room . Phillips demanded that they pay for the recording before they set up the equipment , so each member paid 3 shillings and 6 pence , but he then asked for an extra surcharge ( £ 1 ) to cover the cost of transferring the tape recording to acetate disc . As this was too expensive , Phillips said that for a cut @-@ rate price they would not be taped first , but record directly to vinyl .

The first song they recorded was " That ‘ ll Be The Day " ( sung by Lennon with harmonies by McCartney ) . Phillips wanted them to immediately record the next song , but Lennon and McCartney could not decide on a song for the B @-@ side of the disc . McCartney suggested the doo @-@ wop ballad , " In Spite of All the Danger " ( by McCartney and Harrison , but sung by Lennon ) even though Lowe and Hanton had never heard it before . They asked for some time to rehearse , but Phillips refused , saying , " For seventeen and six 17 / 6d you 're not here all day " .

Lowe and Hanton busked through the song , which was cut short by Phillips waving his hands to indicate that the cutting needle was getting close to the centre of the acetate . He then handed the band a fragile 78rpm 10 @-@ inch acetate record . It was later lost until Lowe rediscovered it in 1981 , and planned to put it up for auction at Sotheby 's , but sold it to McCartney for an undisclosed amount . McCartney later had the two songs digitally re @-@ mastered and pressed 50 copies , giving them to friends as a Christmas present , although the two songs were released on 21 November 1995 , as part of The Beatles Anthology ( Anthology 1 ) . McCartney later said , " The strangest thing for me , listening to it , is that it 's like drowning , it 's like your life flashing by in front of you . From the earliest things by me and John when we used to sag off school and the earliest demo tape we ever made , to the first little record we made which was a version of John singing " That 'll Be The Day " , and a little song of mine [ and Harrison ] on the other side that 's never been released before . "

= = Later years = =

Other customers of Phillips ' studio included The Swinging Blue Jeans , Brian Epstein , Freddie Starr , Willy Russell , Liverpool F.C. supporters club , and players from Everton F.C .. Denny Seyton and The Sabres recorded " Little Latin Lupe Lu " ( Bill Medley ) in the studio in 1963 . Phillips closed the studio in 1969 , the record shop in 1974 , and died in 1984 , at the Royal Liverpool Hospital . The recording of The Quarrymen acetate and the site of Phillips ' Sound Recording Services was commemorated on 26 August 2005 , when a Blue Plaque was unveiled by two of The Quarrymen ( Lowe and Hanton ) on the front of the house .

= Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock =

The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock ( Rupicola rupicola ) is a species of South American passerine . It is about 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) in length and weighs about 200 to 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 8 oz ) . They are found in tropical rainforests , near its preferred habitat of rocky outcrops . The males plumage is bright orange and the males have a prominent half @-@ moon crest . The females are brownish in colour , and are generally much duller coloured than the males . It is one of two species of the genus Rupicola , the other being the Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock . The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock lives across the forested region of northeastern South America . Its diet consists mostly of fruit , but sometimes includes small snakes and lizards .

The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock breeds in the early months of the year and , on average , lays its eggs around March . During the height of the mating season , males engage in competitive displays in lek , which is a complex courting behaviour that is done to attract females . Males and females live separately except when the females choose a mate . The mating success varies based on multiple factors , ranging from the plumage exhibited by a male to the composition of the lek itself . The females choose a male by flying down to the ground and pecking the male on his rump . The male then turns around and the mating takes place almost immediately . There is speculation that the male @-@ to @-@ male competition is an important factor in lek formation and breeding . The main predators of the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock are harpy eagles and black @-@ and @-@ white hawk @-@ eagles .

= = Description = =

The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is a stout @-@ bodied bird with a prominent half @-@ moon crest . It is a sexually dimorphic bird . The male 's crest is more pronounced than the female 's and is bright orange . The males also have an orange @-@ tipped black tail , black , orange and white wings , a bright orange bill , an orange iris yellowing as it nears its outer edge , and silky @-@ orange filamentous feathers of the inner remiges . Both sexes also have orange legs and skin . The less conspicuous female is dark brownish @-@ grey overall and has a yellow @-@ tipped black bill , a duller orange iris , and a smaller crest . One @-@ year @-@ old juvenile males look similar to an adult female , but has orange speckles over their bodies . After two years , the juvenile males become mostly orange with brown and grey spots . Males attain their definitive plumage at around three years . Juvenile females look almost identical to their adult counterparts . Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock have a total length of approximately 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) and a total weight of around 200 to 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 8 oz ) . The two species of cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock are allopatric , and therefore do not meet with one another . The plumage of male Andean is redder and its wings are mostly black , lacking the orange colouration seen on the male Guianan . The female Andean is reddish brown rather than the brownish @-@ gray of the Guianan .

= = Taxonomy and etymology = =

The Guanian cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is one of two species of genus Rupicola . It was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 as the type species of its genus . The Andean cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock ( Rupicola peruvianus ) is similar in body shape and colouration .

The generic and specific names are derived from the Latin words rupes " rock " or " cliff " , and cola " inhabiting " , which express its habit of nesting on rock walls .

= = Range and habitat = =

As suggested by its name , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is found in the Guianan Shield , occurring in French Guiana , Suriname , Guyana , southern Venezuela , eastern Colombia and northern Amazonian Brazil . Its preferred habitats are humid forests near rocky outcrops . They are normally found at an altitude of 300 to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 980 to 6 @,@ 560 ft ) .

The Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock has distinctive territorial markings . Males usually take dominance of an area on the ground , although they sometimes they occupy middle strata in forests . They make their characteristic marking by clearing out debris from the ground , including twigs , leaves , and pellets . This area is called a “ court ” . Quality of courts are known to have some influence on mate choice . The court quality is determined by the territory density and location to the center of activity in the lek . The reason for the focus on the center of activity in the lek is that successful males tended to own courts in the most densely clustered lek areas . Guianan courts are commonly found in the Guianan Shield , a forested region in northeastern South America .

= = Behaviour = =

= = = Diet = = =

The diet of the adult Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock consists mainly of fruits meaning they are frugivorous . Up to 65 species of fruit have been reported in their diet , primarily from canopy trees or lianas . Three quarters ( 75 % ) of the fruit eaten by the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock at one study site were either black- or red @-@ coloured fruit . In the British Guiana , Thomas E. Gilliard found papayas growing at the base of a huge rock . On top of the rock were perched females that were nesting . He found that no other papayas were growing in that part of the forest and speculated that the perched females ate papayas in the forest where they are native and dropped the seeds below where they were nesting . Small snakes , lizards , insects and frogs are occasionally found in its diet .

By selectively feeding on nearby fruit trees and then defecating or regurgitating the seeds within the leks , these birds can actively influence the regeneration and succession of the forest habitat where they breed .

= = = Breeding = = =

Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock breed early in the year , and the females lay their eggs around March . During the height of mating season , males gather in leks with multiple males defending a social display arena of much greater area than that of a lone male . The males each have their own area on the forest floor where they make their courts . The size of each court is about 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter , and the next bird is often about 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) away . The females and males live separately ; only when it is time to mate do females fly over to observe and choose a male . When this occurs , the females tap the males from behind and insemination quickly follows . When females approach a lek , the males stand firmly and present themselves rigidly .

Mating success is dependent on a variety of factors that range from the plumage exhibited by a male to the composition of the lek itself . In one study , the female Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock displayed sexual selection based off sequential comparisons or threshold standards . The hens engaged in a “ pool – comparison ” tactic , meaning that females chose males of higher rank in courtship . Males of higher rank were those with more matings received from other females ; the lower @-@ ranking single males were ignored . The rankings were determined by where the courts were positioned in the lek : courts that were more centrally placed indicated more successful and higher @-@ ranking males . The females in the study were individually observed to aggregate towards larger , more centrally concentrated leks , demonstrating active female choice .

= = = = Male mating behaviour = = = =

The smaller of the two cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock , the male Guianan takes the lesser part in breeding . It is polygynous and has nothing to do with nesting once mating is done . The male 's energy instead is devoted to very elaborate display rituals that show off its magnificent plumage . These displays take place in communal leks , where 40 or more males may gather to challenge rivals and beckon to the females .

The displaying male purposely contrasts itself from the forest , shows its crest and plumage so much that the bill and tail become obscured ; almost making it difficult to recognize as a bird , to attract females . Within the lek , each female has its own perch on a low branch , while the males own a " court " on the ground below that is cleared of dead leaves by the draughts of each male taking off and landing . The males have a variety of calls and movements , showing off the crest , elongated filaments on the rump , secondary feathers , and the snapping of their bills . Males display on branches about 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) from the ground until a female approaches , when the males display and call from individual plots on the ground . Most males copulate with only a few females . However , some are very successful and may copulate with many . Unlike many other bird species , the male does not use resources nor parental care to entice females .

Males often engage in courtship disruption practices . In a study conducted by Pepper W. Trail , the interactions between adult males , females , and yearlings were observed and linked to mate choice and male dispersion patterns within leks . Adult males produced this disruptive behaviour with varying intensity , which depended on the situation . In lower @-@ intensity disruptions , males usually directed their aggression or threats towards neighboring males , in attempts to improve or maintain breeding status and success . The males that were hassled tended to be more successful and often were disrupted with much greater frequency than males with lower mating success . Higher @-@ intensity disruptions were used by less successful males and directed towards females that wandered by . This behaviour is suggested to have the effect of redirecting females towards the hassling male . Yearlings often disrupted courtships of the more mature adults on the basis of practice for future courtships , since the yearlings do not possess any territory within the lek . Female disruption was an uncommon event that had little , if any , effect on the accessibility of a male . Young males of highly promiscuous species such as the Cock @-@ of @-@ the rock often failed to mate in their first year , probably because older , more experienced males will enjoy the majority of matings . In this strong system of sexual selection , the successive breeding of dominant and aggressive males leads to high sex drives and the endurance of polygyny . A theory suggests that the selection of these aggressive males also puts a premium , or value , on female characteristics . Hence , there is a less likely occurrence of female – elicited aggression .

= = = = Ecological consequences = = = =

One possible advantage to lek formation in Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is severe selection and consequent rapid evolutionary advancement , all of which is possible due to the high expendability of males . Only a few males are needed to fertilize the next generation . The courtship behaviour is similarly theorized to have arisen from differences in division of labour between the two sexes . Females expend their energy on building nests and rearing young , while males spend most of their time and energy of finding mates and caring for their plumage .

Because Guianan cocks @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock form large leks , averaging 55 adult males , the males in these display leks were especially vulnerable to attacks and predation by large snakes and other natural predators . In manipulated groups of smaller size , around 6 , predation was less likely to occur , giving rise to an inverse relationship between the number and frequency of attacks and the size of leks . Thus , with a smaller frequency of attacks on the smaller group , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock males was less likely to spook or disperse completely as compared to a large group where a false alarm could trigger a complete flush out 90 % of the time . It was found that these birds have relatively ineffective methods of anti @-@ predation and that only social anti @-@ predation and the infrequency of encounters with predators were keeping these lekking males alive .

There is speculation that the simulation of male @-@ male competition is important in lek formation and breeding .

= = = Nesting = = =

Unlike other species of the family Cotingidae , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock makes its nest on rocky cliff faces and caves rather than in the trees . The female lays one or two eggs in the nest of mud and plant material , which is attached by saliva to a vertical rock . The male does not participate in the building of the nest or the incubation of the eggs . Eggs typically incubate for 27 – 28 days . The ideal nesting sites for this species are usually located in a cave or vertical rock face with crevices that provide some shelter and protection from the elements . The nests themselves are solid moldings formed from mud and plant material deposited into the crevices . Due to the solid nature of these nests , they typically persist from one breeding season to the next . Females will make repairs to their nests as a breeding season begins .

= = = Impact of natural and sexual selection on trait development = = =

The colouration of the males allows them to visibly stand out from the brown forest floor . This bright colouration provides a sexual advantage for the adult males , increasing their likelihood of successfully mating . The result is rapid evolutionary selection within the species for brighter plumage and more conspicuous behaviour patterns in the males . The bright colouration also makes the males more susceptible to predation . Males are more expendable for this reason ; only a small number of males are needed within any generation in order to perpetuate the species . While sexual selection leads to bright plumage , natural selection in turn favors defensive colouration in the birds . There is higher fitness in birds monitoring nests whose colouration acts as camouflage @-@ protection from predation .

= = Conservation = =

Fairly common in its large range , and with its population stable , the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock is considered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature to be a Least Concern on its red list of threatened species .

The main predators of the Guianan cock @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rock are harpy eagles , black @-@ and @-@ white hawk @-@ eagles , black hawk @-@ eagles , and slaty @-@ backed forest falcons . Although these are the main predators , two species of owls , crested owls and spectacled owls , are also predators . Felines such as the jaguar , puma , and ocelot can also be predators , along with snakes such as the bird snake , tree boas , boa constrictor , tiger rat snake , and fer @-@ de @-@ lance .

The species is rare in captivity , but breeding has been achieved at a small number of facilities . The world 's first successful captive breeding was at Dallas World Aquarium ( USA ) in 2008 .

= = = Predation response = = =

In larger lek groups there is less risk of predation . In a group there are more individuals to alert the group about an approaching predator . All the birds in the groups will be vigilant in looking for a predator because there is an advantage to seeing the predator first . There is also the risk that in a bigger group there will more false alarm signals . The common signal is vocalization , after which the birds will fly up into the trees . It was found the birds did not however give this signal when there was a snake .

= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 2 ) =

The second season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by Stephen Hillenburg , aired on Nickelodeon from October 26 , 2000 , to July 26 , 2003 , and consists of 20 episodes . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg , who also acted as the showrunner .

During the season 's run , SpongeBob SquarePants became Nickelodeon 's No. 2 children 's program , behind Rugrats . Nearly 40 percent of SpongeBob 's audience of 2 @.@ 2 million were aged 18 to 34 . The show signed a marketing deal with Target Corporation and Burger King , expanding its merchandising , and SpongeBob 's popularity translated well into sales figures . In 2002 , the show itself was nominated at the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children 's Program . At the 29th Annie Awards , the series was nominated three times . The episodes " The Secret Box " and " Band Geeks " won at the 2002 Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing in Television — Animation , while the episodes " Jellyfish Hunter " and " The Fry Cook Games " received a nomination for Best Sound Editing in Television Animation — Music category .

Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 2nd Season DVD was released in Region 1 on October 19 , 2004 , Region 2 on October 23 , 2006 , and Region 4 on November 30 , 2006 .

= = Production = =

The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producer was series creator Stephen Hillenburg , who also functioned as the series ' showrunner . During production of the previous season , Nickelodeon picked up a second season for SpongeBob SquarePants on August 31 , 1999 . The season premiered more than a year later , on October 26 , 2000 . Season production assistant and then @-@ staff writer Derek Iversen commented , " We hoped it would go one season . We hoped it would go two seasons . I figured you do the best you can and you hope . "

In this season , production switched from cel animation , used during the first season , to digital ink and paint . Executive producer Paul Tibbitt , in 2009 , said " The first season of SpongeBob was done the old @-@ fashioned way on cells , and every cell had to be part @-@ painted , left to dry , paint some other colours . It 's still a time @-@ consuming aspect of the process now , but the digital way of doing things means it doesn 't take long to correct . " The animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Animation directors credited with episodes in the second season included Sean Dempsey , Edgar Larrazabal , Larry Leichliter , Andrew Overtoom , Leonard Robinson , Frank Weiss , and Tom Yasumi . The season was storyboarded by Walt Dohrn , C.H. Greenblatt , Chris Headrick , Chuck Klein , Carson Kugler , Jay Lender , Caleb Meurer , Dan Povenmire , William " Bill " Reiss , Octavio Rodriguez , Jim Schumann , Aaron Springer , Paul Tibbitt , and Erik Wiese .

Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Dohrn , David Fain , Greenblatt , Mr. Lawrence , Lender , Mark O 'Hare , Povenmire , William Reiss , Springer , Tibbitt , and Merriwether Williams . During the season , the writing staff used their individual childhood experiences as inspirations to come up with much of the story lines for individual episodes . For example , in the episode " Sailor Mouth " , SpongeBob learns profanity . The idea for the episode was inspired by creative director Derek Drymon 's experience " [ when ] I got in trouble for saying the f @-@ word in front of my mother . " Drymon said , " The scene where Patrick is running to Mr. Krabs to tattle , with SpongeBob chasing him , is pretty much how it happened in real life . " The end of the episode , where Mr. Krabs uses more profanity than SpongeBob and Patrick , was also inspired " by the fact that my [ Drymon 's ] mother has a sailor mouth herself . " In " Secret Box " , SpongeBob wants to see what is inside Patrick 's secret box . The idea came to Drymon because he too had a secret box as a child . Creator Hillenburg said , " [ He ] started telling us about it . We wanted to make fun of him and use it . "

= = Cast = =

The second season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .

Season two introduced various characters that would recur throughout the series . Mr. Krabs ' mother , Mama Krabs , debuted in the episode " Sailor Mouth " and was voiced by writer Paul Tibbitt . However , voice actress Sirena Irwin overtook Tibbitt 's role as the character reappeared in the fourth season episode " Enemy In @-@ Law " in 2005 . In the Christmas special " Christmas Who ? " , SpongeBob 's voice actor , Tom Kenny , portrayed Patchy the Pirate , the president of the fictional SpongeBob SquarePants fan club , while series creator Hillenburg voiced the character of Potty the Parrot . After Hillenburg 's departure from the show as showrunner in 2004 , Tibbitt was given the role voicing Potty the Parrot .

In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , athletes , authors , musicians , and artists . American rock band Ween guest starred as themselves in " Your Shoe 's Untied " . The band performed " Loop de Loop " , a song they written for the episode . Before SpongeBob SquarePants aired on television in 1999 , Hillenburg had approached band guitarist Dean Ween to compose a song for the show . Dean Ween said " [ Hillenburg ] called me and told me [ he ] was a marine biologist who was starting a cartoon about underwater sea creatures and that The Mollusk was a big reference point for him creatively and would we like to do a song for the show . " The band conceived the song and wrote it in about three minutes . Ween 's 1997 song " Ocean Man " would also be used four years later during the end credits sequence in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie , and as part of the film 's soundtrack . In the episode " Bossy Boots " , American band The Capsules performed the song " Bossy Boots " , which was later released on SpongeBob SquarePants : The Yellow Album in 2005 . In " Bubble Buddy " , professional American surfer Corky Carroll made a vocal cameo as Grubby Grouper , a famous surfer . It also stars Brad Abrell as titular character Bubble Buddy . " Grandma 's Kisses " features Marion Ross as SpongeBob 's grandmother . She would reprise her role throughout the series , including the fifth season episode " BlackJack " . In the entry " Pre @-@ Hibernation Week " , where Sandy and SpongeBob play extreme sporting games , American heavy metal band Pantera appeared as themselves for a special musical performance . McHale 's Navy actors Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned in the episode " Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy III " , reprising their roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively . John Rhys @-@ Davies also guest starred in the same episode as the heroes ' nemesis , Man Ray . Various other characters were voiced by voice acting veterans Dee Bradley Baker , Thomas F. Wilson and Clea Lewis .

= = Reception = =

Since SpongeBob SquarePants made its debut in 1999 , the show had flourished into Nickelodeon 's number 2 children 's program , after Rugrats . Nearly 40 percent of the show 's audience of 2 @.@ 2 million were aged 18 to 34 . As a result , Nickelodeon moved the show from Saturday morning to a much more valuable timeslot : almost @-@ prime time , appearing at 6 PM , from Monday through Thursday . In 2001 , Nickelodeon took the " Saturday @-@ morning ratings crown " for the fourth straight season , grabbing a 4 @.@ 8 rating / 21 share ( 1 @.@ 9 million viewers ) in two- to eleven @-@ year @-@ olds , jumping 17 % from the previous year .

SpongeBob SquarePants signed a marketing deal with Target Corporation and Burger King , expanding its merchandising . Furthermore , the popularity of SpongeBob translated well into sales figures . In 2002 , SpongeBob SquarePants dolls sold at a rate of 75 @,@ 000 per week , which was faster than Tickle Me Elmo dolls were selling at the time . Nickelodeon 's parent company Viacom purposefully targeted women in Japan as a way of marketing the SpongeBob SquarePants brand . Skeptics initially doubted that SpongeBob could be popular in Japan , as the character 's design is very different from popular designs for Hello Kitty and Pikachu , but SpongeBob has gained popularity in Japan among women . Ratings and merchandise sales showed SpongeBob SquarePants had caught on with parents and with the college audience . In a recent promotion , college @-@ oriented website Music.com gave away 80 @,@ 000 SpongeBob T @-@ shirts , four times more than during a similar promotion for Comedy Central 's South Park .

The second season was well received by media critics . In 2002 , the show itself was nominated at the Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children 's Program . At the 29th Annie Awards , the series was nominated three times , including Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female and Male Performer in an Animated Television Production categories for Mary Jo Catlett for her role as Mrs. Puff in " No Free Rides " and Tom Kenny for his role as SpongeBob SquarePants in " Wormy " , respectively . Peter Straus and Paul Tibbitt were nominated for Outstanding Individual Achievement for a Song in an Animated Production for their song " The Very First Christmas " that was featured in " Christmas Who ? " In 2002 , the episodes " The Secret Box " and " Band Geeks " won at the Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing in Television — Animation , while the episodes " Jellyfish Hunter " and " The Fry Cook Games " received a nomination for Best Sound Editing in Television Animation — Music category .

In his review for the The Spokesman @-@ Review , Isamu Jordan said , " I 'll be honest . I dig the little yellow dude who lives in a pineapple under the sea quite a bit for his absurdity À la Ren and Stimpy . " He said that " season two is worth having in your or your kid 's SpongeBob collection " given that the episodes " Krusty Love " , " Squid 's Day Off " , and " Mermaidman and Barnacleboy III " are on the set . Jason Bovberg of the DVD Talk wrote that the season release is " recommended . " He said " Let me state up front that I adore this show . I get a total kick out of watching it with my 4 @-@ year @-@ old daughter . We laugh uproariously at SpongeBob 's adventures and I 'm helplessly reduced to a boy about her age as I beam and giggle at the screen . " However , Bovberg called the included audio commentaries " downright boring . " Various celebrities — including Lance Bass of ' N Sync , Will Ferrell of Saturday Night Live , singer @-@ songwriter Tom Waits , and Jerry Lewis — admitted they were fans of the show .

During the 2001 – 02 television season , the Parents Television Council ( PTC ) , a watchdog media group , named SpongeBob SquarePants among the best programs on cable television . However , according to a report titled Wolves in Sheep 's Clothing , which documents the increase in potentially violent , profane , and sexual content in children 's programming , the PTC and fans believed the episode " Sailor Mouth " , which originally aired during the 2001 – 02 season , was an implicit attempt to promote and satirize use of profanity among children . The report cited a repeat broadcast of the episode from 2005 to prove its point that it promoted use of profanity among children . In a later report , several members of the PTC listed " Sailor Mouth " as an example of how levels of profane , sexual , and violent activity has increased in children 's television programming . Nickelodeon , in response to the incident , said " It 's sad and a little desperate that they stooped to literally putting profane language in the mouths of our characters to make a point . Has the FCC looked at this ? " Richard Huff of the New York Daily News criticized the report for misinterpreting the episode over its intent to satirize profanity implicitly .

= = Episodes = =

Key

The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .

= = DVD release = =

The DVD boxset for season two was released by Paramount Home Entertainment and Nickelodeon in the United States and Canada in October 2004 , almost two years after the season had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release features bonus materials including audio commentaries , storyboards , and featurettes . In 2005 , the DVD compilation was nominated at the 9th Golden Satellite Awards for Best Youth DVD , although did not win .

= 23rd Battalion ( Australia ) =

The 23rd Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was raised in 1915 as part of the Australian Imperial Force for service during World War I and formed part of the 6th Brigade , attached to the 2nd Division . After being formed in Australia , the battalion was sent to Egypt to complete its training , before being committed to the Gallipoli Campaign as reinforcements in September 1915 . They remained on the peninsula until the evacuation of Allied troops in December , when they were withdrawn back to Egypt where they were reorganised before being transferred to the Western Front in March 1916 . Over the course of the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , the 23rd took part in a number of significant battles in France and Belgium , before being disbanded in mid @-@ 1919 following the conclusion of hostilities . In 1921 , the battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit within the Citizens Forces in the state of Victoria , but was amalgamated with the 21st Battalion in 1929 to form the 23rd / 21st Battalion .

= = History = =

= = = World War I = = =

= = = = Formation = = = =

The 23rd Battalion was raised in Victoria in March 1915 as part of the formation of the 2nd Division of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . Its first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Morton . Together with the 21st , 22nd and 24th Battalions , it formed the 6th Brigade under the command of Colonel Richard Linton . Organised into four rifle companies , designated ' A ' through to ' D ' , with a machine gun section in support , the Australian infantry battalion of the time had an authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 men of all ranks . After completing initial training at Broadmeadows , in May 1915 the 23rd embarked upon the troopship Euripides bound for Egypt . They arrived in Alexandria on 11 June and after being moved by train to Cairo they marched to a camp at Heliopolis where they undertook further training in preparation for deployment to Gallipoli , where the units of the 1st Division had landed on 25 April 1915 .

= = = = Gallipoli = = = =

While they were training , the Allies launched the August Offensive in an attempt to break the deadlock that had developed on the Gallipoli Peninsula following the initial landing . The offensive largely failed and heavy casualties resulted . In order to replace the men that were lost and give the survivors a rest , the decision was made by Allied commanders to move the 2nd Division from Egypt . After being moved to Lemnos Island , the 23rd Battalion embarked for Gallipoli on 4 September , arriving there at 9 : 30 pm that evening . A day of familiarisation followed before the battalion took up defensive positions at Lone Pine . On 12 September , the 23rd , along with their sister battalion , the 24th , took over responsibility for the post from the 1st Division battalions that had held it previously . During the stalemate that followed , manning positions that , in some places , were only a few metres from the Ottoman lines , the 23rd Battalion began countermining operations after Turkish mining operations were discovered . For the next three months , due to the intensity of the fighting in the sector , the battalion alternated their position with the 24th Battalion almost every day until the evacuation of Allied troops from the peninsula occurred , embarking with the last troops to leave on the night of 19 / 20 December 1915 .

Following their withdrawal from Gallipoli , the 23rd Battalion was moved to Lemnos Island , where they remained until January 1916 when they were transferred back to Egypt . At this time , the AIF was reorganised and expanded in preparation for future operations . Two new infantry divisions were formed from the experienced troops of the 1st Division who had deployed to Gallipoli at the start of the campaign , while a third division was raised in Australia from scratch . The 2nd Division was largely left untouched , so that it could complete its formation which had been interrupted by its deployment to Gallipoli . The 23rd subsequently spent the early months of 1916 rebuilding its strength and conducting further training in preparation for its transfer to Europe .

= = = = Western Front = = = =

After arriving in France in March , the battalion moved to the Western Front , occupying the forward positions around Armentières in northern France on 10 April 1916 . In mid @-@ July , the battalion was transferred to the Somme , where they subsequently took part in the Battles of Pozières and Mouquet Farm , during which they suffered almost 90 per cent casualties . In early 1917 , the Germans shortened their lines and withdrew to the Hindenburg Line and the Australian divisions in the Somme were ordered to carry out an advance to follow them up . After being reinforced , the 23rd Battalion was committed to the fighting at the Second Battle of Bullecourt in early May 1917 after the first attempt to capture the town by the 4th Australian Division failed . Succeeding in capturing all its objectives , it was heavily counter @-@ attacked by German forces , suffering a large number of casualties , including 100 men killed or died of wounds before being relieved by the Australian 3rd Battalion . After this the battalion was withdrawn from the line until early September 1917 when they moved into positions around Ypres , Belgium , and participated in the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October . During this battle , the 6th Brigade was positioned to the south of Zonnebeke Lake , and the 23rd Battalion lost three officers and 101 other ranks killed or wounded , some of which were inflicted when an intense German mortar barrage fell upon their " waiting line " prior to the attack . Nevertheless , the attack which followed , after overcoming an encounter with a German regiment , the 212th , in no man 's land , resulted in success as the Australians captured the ridge .

In early 1918 , Russian resistance on the Eastern Front collapsed in the wake of the October Revolution and , as a result , the Germans were able to transfer a large number of troops to the Western Front . This greatly improved the German strength in the west and , as a result , in March , they launched their Spring Offensive . With the Germans making rapid gains , many Australian units , including the 23rd Battalion , were thrown into the line to blunt the attack in early April , as the 6th Brigade relieved the 12th around Dernancourt . After the German offensive was halted , a brief lull followed during which the Allies sought to regain the initiative , launching a series of " Peaceful Penetration " operations . Following this , the 23rd participated in the fighting at Hamel on 4 July , advancing as the right @-@ hand battalion on the southern front behind a devastatingly accurate preparatory barrage . On 8 August 1918 , the 23rd joined the Allied Hundred Days Offensive , which was launched at Amiens , and was followed by a series of advances followed as the Allies began advancing through the Somme . For his actions during the fighting at Mont St. Quentin in early September , one of the battalion 's soldiers , Private Robert Mactier , was awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously . After participating in the Battle of Beaurevoir between 3 and 4 October , the battalion was sent to the rear for rest when the units of the Australian Corps , severely depleted , were withdrawn from the line upon the insistence of the Australian prime minister , Billy Hughes . As a result , it took no further part in the fighting before the armistice was declared on 11 November .

Following the end of hostilities , the demobilisation process began and slowly the battalion 's numbers began to dwindle as its personnel were repatriated back to Australia and returned to civilian life . The 23rd Battalion was disbanded in Belgium on 30 April 1919 . Throughout its service during the war , it suffered 686 killed and 2 @,@ 317 wounded ( including gassed ) . For its involvement during the war , the 23rd Battalion received a total of 19 battle honours ; these were bestowed upon the battalion in 1927 .

= = = Re @-@ raising and subsequent amalgamation = = =

In 1921 , the decision was made to perpetuate the battle honours and traditions of the AIF by re @-@ organising the units of the Citizens Forces to adopt the numerical designations of the AIF units with which they were affiliated . As a result of this decision , the 23rd Battalion was re @-@ raised in Victoria , drawing personnel from the 2nd and 5th Battalions , 23rd Infantry Regiment , and part of the 29th Light Horse Regiment , and perpetuating the battle honours of its AIF predecessor . It later adopted the title of the " 23rd Battalion ( The City of Geelong Regiment ) " when territorial titles were introduced in 1927 . At the same time it was granted the motto Nulli Secundus . In 1928 , the battalion was part of the 2nd Brigade , within the 3rd Military District .

Initially , the Citizen Forces units were maintained through a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service , but in late 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and this , coupled with the economic privations of the Great Depression drastically reduced the number of recruits available . As a result , the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units . The 23rd Battalion was one of those chosen and it was linked with the 21st Battalion to become the 23rd / 21st Battalion , adopting the territorial designation of " The City of Geelong Regiment / The Victoria Rangers " . This battalion undertook garrison duties in the Northern Territory during World War II , before being disbanded in August 1943 as being surplus to Army requirements without having served overseas . After the war , following the demobilisation of the wartime Army , Australia 's part @-@ time military was re @-@ formed in 1948 , but the 23rd Battalion was not re @-@ raised at the time . In 1961 , although the battalion was in a state of suspended animation , it was entrusted with the 13 battle honours awarded to the 2 / 23rd Battalion for its service in North Africa and New Guinea during World War II .

= = Commanding officers = =

During World War I , the following officers served as commanding officer of the 23rd Battalion :

George Frederick Morton ;

George Hodges Knox ;

Wilfred Kent Fethers ;

William Brazenor ;

William Joseph Bateman .

= = Battle honours = =

The 23rd Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :

World War I : Gallipoli 1915 , Egypt 1915 – 16 , Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bapaume 1917 , Bullecourt , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Hamel , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Mont St Quentin , Hindenburg Line , Beaurevoir , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 .

World War II : North Africa 1941 – 42 , Defence of Tobruk , The Salient 1941 , Defence of Alamein Line , El Alamein , South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 , Lae – Nadzab , Finschhafen , Borneo , Busu River , Sattelberg , Wareo and Tarakan ( inherited ) .

= Their Child =

Their Child is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film begins with Ellen Stokes whose extravagant lifestyle is outside the means of the family . While their only son is hosting a birthday party , the husband informs Ellen that they are financially ruined because of her . Ellen attempts to get money from her uncle , who refuses , and a friend of the family soon comes to her aid with a loan . Ellen is deceptive in telling who provided the money and her jealous husband soon learns the truth . In anger , he takes the child and leaves . The child soon returns to Ellen and she whisks him away to a new home where she fails to obtain gainful employment . The son decides to sell newspapers for some money and in this job is recognized by his father , soon the family is reunited . Marie Eline played the role of " their child " and was likely so well disguised that the reviewer for The Nickelodeon believed her to be a boy . The film was released on October 21 , 1910 , and was met with positive reviews . The film is presumed lost .

= = Plot = =

Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 22 , 1910 . It states : " Ellen Stokes is a loving wife and mother , but she has one fault - extravagance . On the day that her only child is playing the host at a birthday party , Ellen 's husband informs her that he is practically ruined , and places the fault at her door . Ellen , conscience stricken , declares that she will aid her husband , and tells him that she will induce her rich uncle to aid them . When she talks to him on the subject , she finds that he is not disposed to aid her . Soon after his refusal , a friend of the family drops in , finds Ellen in tears , learns of her trouble , and offers a loan which she finally accepts . The woman 's husband is of a jealous nature and when Ellen gives him the money , he asks if it came from the other man . She hastily denies it , and says that her uncle was the one . The husband takes the money , and later finds that his wife has deceived him . In anger he leaves the house , taking their only child with him . "

" When Ellen finds that she has been deserted , she listens to the pleadings of the other man and is about to elope with him , when the baby , Tom , unexpectedly appears . He has run away from his father , and trudged through the streets , alone , to rejoin his mother . The woman clasped her child in her arms and decides to live for him in the future . The mother takes her child to humble lodgings , the whereabouts of which are unknown even to her husband . There she tries to make a living for herself and him by sewing , but is unable to do so . She has given the last crust of bread to the little one , and is herself in a starving condition , when the baby boy himself comes to the rescue by starting out on a business career , selling papers in the street . In this way the wolf is kept from the door for a little while longer , and the little fellow , while applying his trade on the street corner , is met and recognized by his father . With his son as his guide , the repentant husband , who now realizes his unjust action , goes to his wife , and with the baby as a mediator , the two become reconciled . "

= = Production = =

The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only known credit is for Marie Eline in the role of " their child " . The other cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying most of the actors in the film .

It seems that Marie Eline was so well @-@ disguised as a boy that the reviewer for The Nickelodeon was unable to recognize her true gender . The reviewer state " the meeting between the father and his newsboy child also has a touch of originality " and " [ t ] he child is a fine little actor , easily making himself the star of the piece . " Though this was not lost on the reviewer for The New York Dramatic Mirror which stated , " The work of the little girl who plays the leading role in this film is a constant wonder to spectators . " Eline had proven herself capable of handling male characters , with the first such credit as a young Italian boy in The Two Roses . Eline would also star as Hans in The Little Hero of Holland .

= = Release and reception = =

The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on October 21 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , with theaters showing the film in Maryland , Pennsylvania , South Dakota , Indiana , and Kansas . In 1917 , years after its release , it was later approved by the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors of Moving Pictures for viewing without modification .

The film was reviewed positively by the trade publications . The Moving Picture World stated , " The dramatic qualities of this film are high , but the subject is somewhat depressing ... Maybe the picture will teach the lesson that it is better to listen to explanations at first and save all those intervening years of sorrow and suffering . It ought to , at any rate , because that story is plainly wrought out and is apparent as it is possible to make it . " A review in The Nickelodeon offered little more than a summary of the film , but the reviewer found the subject to be enhanced by the attention to detail in the production . The reviewer was also pleased that the child was not brought in to serve as in deus ex machina role . Though Lonergan was fond of using the technique . Even The New York Dramatic Mirror gave some praise to the production , but noted that the acting of the mother 's friend was the weakest because " [ a ] man of his [ caliber ] wouldn 't have backed off so quickly . " Overall , the reviewer found the acting to be better than the narrative itself and concluded that " [ s ] omething less laboredly sentimental would be much stronger . "

= Victoria Cross for New Zealand =

The Victoria Cross for New Zealand ( VC ) is a military decoration awarded for valour or gallantry in the presence of the enemy to members of the New Zealand Armed Forces . It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service and civilians under military command , and is presented to the recipient by the Governor @-@ General of New Zealand during an investiture held at Government House , Wellington . As the highest award for gallantry in New Zealand it takes precedence over all other postnominals and medals .

The Victoria Cross for New Zealand was established in 1999 when New Zealand created a new award system that replaced several Commonwealth honours with New Zealand awards . It has been awarded once , on 2 July 2007 to Corporal Willie Apiata for actions in 2004 .

The original Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 by Queen Victoria to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War . That medal had been awarded 25 times to 24 individual military personnel from New Zealand ; Captain Charles Upham receiving a bar . Only 14 medals have been awarded since the end of the Second World War . The medal is made from the gunmetal of a weapon supposedly captured at the siege of Sevastopol , but several historians have since questioned the true origin of the gunmetal . Originally all Commonwealth recipients were issued with the same award , but over the last 50 years , Commonwealth countries have introduced separate award systems ; three of these retain " Victoria Cross " as part of the name of the highest award for gallantry .

= = Origin = =

= = = Victoria Cross = = =

The original Victoria Cross was created by Queen Victoria in 1856 to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a man 's lengthy or meritorious service . She signed a Royal Warrant on 29 January 1856 that officially instituted the VC . The order was retroactive to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War .

The Australian and New Zealand Victoria Crosses are made from the same gunmetal as the originals . It was originally intended that the VCs would be cast from the bronze cascabels of two cannon that were captured from the Russians at the siege of Sevastopol . The historian John Glanfield has since shown that the metal used for VCs is in fact from Chinese cannon not Russian , and their origin is a mystery .

The barrels of the cannon in question are stationed outside the Officers ' Mess at the Royal Artillery Barracks at Woolwich . The remaining portion of the only remaining cascabel , weighing 10 kilograms ( 385 oz ) , is stored in a vault maintained by 15 Regiment Royal Logistic Corps at MoD Donnington . It can only be removed under armed guard . It is estimated that approximately 80 to 85 more VCs could be cast from this source . A single company of jewellers , Hancocks of London , has been responsible for the production of every VC .

= = = Separate Commonwealth awards = = =

In the last 60 years several Commonwealth countries have introduced their own honours systems , separate from the British Honours System . Australia , Canada and New Zealand have each introduced their own decorations for gallantry and bravery , replacing British decorations such as the Military Cross with their own awards . Most Commonwealth countries , however , still recognise some form of the VC as their highest decoration for valour .

Australia was the first Commonwealth nation to create its own VC , on 15 January 1991 . Although it is a separate award , its appearance is identical to its British counterpart . Canada followed suit when in 1993 Queen Elizabeth signed Letters Patent creating the Canadian VC , which is also similar to the British version , except that the legend has been changed from FOR VALOUR to the Latin PRO VALORE . The New Zealand and Australian awards are still made by the jewellers Hancocks from the gunmetal used for the originals . The Canadian Victoria Cross also includes metal from the same cannon , along with copper and other metals from all regions of Canada .

New Zealand was the third country to create the VC as part of its own honours system . On 21 September 1999 , Prime Minister Jenny Shipley announced that the Queen had approved the formal institution of a new range of Royal awards to recognise acts of gallantry and bravery performed by New Zealanders . The awards were designed to be the final major element in the development of a distinct New Zealand Royal honours system .

The start of the process came with proposals released in 1995 by the Honours Advisory Committee that reviewed the honours system . Until May 1996 , New Zealand made recommendations for various British awards for acts of gallantry performed during military operations and acts of bravery by civilians including the Victoria Cross and George Cross . However , the British Government 's review and simplification of their awards system provided an ideal opportunity for New Zealand to also develop a unique and simplified system .

= = Appearance = =

The Victoria Cross for New Zealand is identical to the original design . The decoration is a cross pattée , 41 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) high , 36 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) wide , bearing a crown surmounted by a lion , and the inscription FOR VALOUR . This was originally to have been FOR BRAVERY , until it was changed on the recommendation of Queen Victoria , who thought some might erroneously consider that only the recipients of the VC were brave in battle . The decoration , suspension bar and link weigh about 27 grams ( 0 @.@ 87 troy ounces ) .

The cross is suspended by a ring from a seriffed " V " to a bar ornamented with laurel leaves , through which the ribbon passes . The reverse of the suspension bar is engraved with the recipient 's name , rank , number and unit . On the reverse of the medal is a circular panel on which the date of the act for which it was awarded is engraved in the centre . The ribbon is crimson , 38 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 inches ) wide . Although the warrants state the colour as being red it is described by most commentators as being crimson or " wine @-@ red " .

= = Conferment = =

The Victoria Cross for New Zealand is awarded for

The power of awarding the medal officially resides with the Queen of New Zealand . The Royal Warrant states that the " Awards of a New Zealand Gallantry Award and of a Bar to an Award shall be made by Us , Our Heirs and Successors , only on a recommendation by Our Prime Minister of New Zealand or a Minister of the Crown acting for Our Prime Minister . " As with the original Victoria Cross any recommendations pass through the New Zealand Defence Force chain of command to the Minister of Defence .

The original Victoria Cross had been awarded to 24 New Zealanders . Thirteen of these awards were for action in the First World War . The Victoria Cross for New Zealand has been awarded once . It was officially announced on 2 July 2007 that Corporal Willie Apiata of the NZ SAS was awarded the Victoria Cross for New Zealand for his actions in saving the life of a " comrade under heavy fire from opposing forces " during the Afghanistan conflict in 2004 . Apiata received his medal from Governor @-@ General Anand Satyanand at a ceremony held at Government House , Wellington on 26 July 2007 .

= 1999 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado =

The 1999 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado ( locally referred to as the May 3rd tornado ) was an extremely powerful F5 tornado in which the highest wind speeds ever measured globally , 301 miles per hour ( 484 km / h ) , were recorded by a Doppler on Wheels ( DOW ) radar . The tornado devastated southern portions of Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , along with surrounding suburbs and towns during the early evening of May 3 , 1999 . Throughout its 85 @-@ minute existence , the tornado covered 38 miles ( 61 km ) , destroying thousands of homes , killing 36 people ( plus an additional five indirectly ) , and leaving US $ 1 billion in damage , ranking it as the fifth @-@ costliest on record , not accounting for inflation .

The tornado first touched down at 6 : 23 p.m. Central Daylight Time ( CDT ) in Grady County , roughly two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south @-@ southwest of Amber . It quickly intensified into a violent F4 , and gradually reached F5 status after traveling 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) , at which time it struck the community of Bridge Creek . Once it moved through the unincorporated community , it fluctuated in strength , ranging from F2 to F5 status before it crossed into Cleveland County . Not long after entering the county , it reached F5 intensity for a third time as it moved through the city of Moore . By 7 : 30 p.m. CDT , the tornado crossed into Oklahoma County and battered southeastern Oklahoma City , Del City and Midwest City , before dissipating around 7 : 48 p.m. CDT just outside Midwest City . In terms of structural losses , a total of 8 @,@ 132 homes , 1 @,@ 041 apartments , 260 businesses , 11 public buildings and seven churches were damaged or destroyed .

In the wake of the tornado , large @-@ scale search and rescue operations took place in the affected areas . A major disaster declaration was signed by President Bill Clinton the following day ( May 4 ) , allowing for the state to receive federal aid . In the following months , disaster aid amounted to $ 67 @.@ 8 million . In light of the fatalities that occurred under highway overpasses , the notion of them being safe areas to seek shelter was dismissed , and they were from then on considered to be one of the most dangerous places to be during a tornado . Reconstruction projects in subsequent years led to a safer , tornado @-@ ready community . In May 2013 , similar areas adjacent to the 1999 storm 's track were again devastated by an EF5 tornado , resulting in 24 fatalities and extreme damage in Moore .

= = Meteorological synopsis = =

The Bridge Creek – Moore tornado was part of a much larger outbreak , which spawned 71 tornadoes across five states throughout the Central Plains on May 3 alone , along with an additional 25 that touched down on May 4 in some of the areas affected by the previous day 's activity ( some of which were spawned supercells that developed on the evening of May 3 ) , stretching eastward to the Mississippi River Valley . On the morning of May 3 , in its Day 1 Convective Outlook for the United States , the Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) issued a slight risk for severe weather , as a dry line that stretched from western Kansas into western Texas approached a warm , humid air @-@ mass over the Central Plains ; the conditions ahead of the dry line and a connecting trough positioned over northeastern Colorado appeared to favor the development of thunderstorms later that day that would contain large hail , damaging straight @-@ line winds and isolated tornadoes .

Forecasters at the SPC initially underestimated the atmospheric conditions that would support tornadic development that afternoon and evening ; around 4 : 00 a.m. CDT , Doppler radar and wind profile data indicated a 90 @-@ knot ( 100 mph ) jet streak along the border of California and Nevada , with weather balloon soundings sent up the previous evening by National Weather Service offices in the western United States and numerical computer model data failing to detect the fast @-@ moving air current as it moved ashore from the Pacific Ocean . In addition , the dry line was diffused , with surface winds behind and ahead of the boundary moving into the region from a southerly direction . SPC meteorologists began to recalculate model data during the morning to account for the stronger wind profiles caused by the jet streak ; the data acknowledged that thunderstorms would occur within the Central Plains , but disagreed on the exact area of greatest severe weather risk .

By 7 : 00 a.m. Central Daylight Time , CAPE values began exceeding 4 @,@ 000 j / kg , a level which climatologically favors the development of severe thunderstorms . Despite conflicting model data on the specified area where thunderstorms would develop , the newly available information that denoted a more favorable severe thunderstorm setup in that part of the state prompted the SPC to upgrade the forecasted threat of severe weather to a moderate risk for south @-@ central Kansas , much of the western two @-@ thirds of Oklahoma , and northwestern and north @-@ central Texas at 11 : 15 a.m. CDT that morning , which now indicated an elevated threat of strong tornadoes .

By the early afternoon hours , forecasters at both the SPC and the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Norman , Oklahoma realized that a major event was likely to take place based solely on observational data from radar and weather satellite imagery and balloon soundings , as the computer models remained uncooperative in helping meteorologists determine where the greatest threat of severe storms would occur .

Conditions became highly conducive for tornadic development by 1 : 00 p.m. CDT as wind shear intensified over the region ( as confirmed by an unscheduled balloon sounding flight conducted by the NWS Norman office ) , creating a highly unstable atmosphere . The sounding balloon recorded winds blowing southwesterly ( at 20 mph ( 17 kn ) and 50 mph ( 43 kn ) , respectively ) at the surface and at the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) level , southerly winds of 40 mph ( 35 kn ) at 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) and westerly winds of 20 mph ( 17 kn ) at 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) ; it also indicated that a capping inversion over the region was weakening in southwestern Oklahoma and north Texas ; with the warm air above the surface cooling down , this allowed warm air at the surface the chance to rise and potentially create thunderstorms . Although cirrus clouds − a bank of which had developed in west Texas and overspread portions of Oklahoma later in the morning − were present through much of the day , an area of clearing skies over western north Texas and southwestern Oklahoma early that afternoon allowed for the sun to heat up the moisture @-@ laden region , creating significant atmospheric instability .

At 3 : 49 p.m. CDT , a high risk of severe weather was issued by the Storm Prediction Center for much of central Oklahoma . Within 25 minutes of this , the National Weather Service office in Norman issued a severe thunderstorm warning for Comanche County by 4 : 15 p.m. CDT late that afternoon , as the first storm of the event rapidly intensified . A half @-@ hour later at 4 : 45 p.m. CDT , the Storm Prediction Center issued a tornado watch for western and central Oklahoma , for the threat of tornadoes , hail up to 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) in diameter and wind gusts to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .

= = Storm development and track = =

The thunderstorm that eventually spawned the F5 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado formed around 3 : 30 p.m. CDT over Tillman County . Despite the lack of overall lift prevalent in the region , the storm formed out of a contrail @-@ like horizontal area of convective clouds that developed during peak surface heating over southwestern Oklahoma , located well ahead of the dry line still positioned farther to the west , which provided enhanced lift and speed shear necessary to develop the supercell . Tracking northeast , the storm strengthened and entered Comanche County shortly after 4 : 00 p.m. CDT ; there , hail up to 1 @.@ 75 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 cm ) in diameter fell .

As the rotation in the supercell began to rapidly increase at the cloud base , a tornado warning was issued for Comanche , Caddo and Grady Counties at 4 : 50 p.m. CDT ; at 4 : 51 p.m. , a small tornado roughly 25 yards ( 75 ft ) in diameter − the first of 14 associated with supercell " A " ( the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Norman designated lettered names for the three tornado @-@ producing supercells in the outbreak in storm surveys ) − touched down along U.S. Route 62 , seven miles ( 11 km ) east @-@ northeast of Medicine Park . Five more tornadoes touched down as the storm continued northeast ; the sixth touchdown was an F3 , which caused substantial damage in central Grady County , including at Chickasha Municipal Airport , where the roofs were torn off of two hangars . At 6 : 23 p.m. CDT , the ninth tornado associated with supercell " A " touched down about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south @-@ southwest of Amber .

That tornado quickly intensified as it crossed Oklahoma State Highway 92 , attaining F4 strength about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east @-@ northeast of Amber . Damage consistent with this rating was sustained over the following 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) of the path before striking Bridge Creek . There , it attained the highest @-@ possible rating on the Fujita Scale , F5 . Damage in this area was extreme , as many homes were completely swept away , leaving only concrete slabs where the structures once were . Damage surveyors noted that the remaining structural debris from some of the homes in this area was finely granulated into small fragments , and that trees and shrubs were completely debarked . A few of these homes were bolted to their foundations . Extensive ground scouring occurred , and vehicles were thrown hundreds of yards from where they originated , including a mangled pickup truck that was found wrapped around a telephone pole . It was in this area that a mobile Doppler weather radar recorded winds of 301 mph ( 484 km / h ) within the tornado , the highest wind speed ever recorded on Earth . However , since the record for maximum winds are reported from only non @-@ tornadic events , the 253 mph ( 407 km / h ) wind gust from Cyclone Olivia in 1996 retained the title . About 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of asphalt was scoured off of a road in this area by the violent tornado . Approximately 200 mobile homes / houses were destroyed , and hundreds of other structures were damaged . The Ridgecrest Baptist Church in Bridge Creek was also destroyed . Twelve people died in Bridge Creek , nine of whom were in mobile homes ; all fatalities and the majority of injuries were concentrated in the Willow Lake Addition , Southern Hills Addition , and Bridge Creek Estates , consisting mostly of mobile homes . 39 people were injured in the area as well . Continuing northeastward , the tornado briefly weakened to F4 status before re @-@ strengthening to F5 intensity as it neared the Grady @-@ McClain County line , where a car was thrown roughly 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) , and a well @-@ built home with anchor bolts was reduced to a bare slab . At this time , it had attained a width of one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) .

Around 6 : 57 p.m. CDT , the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Norman issued the first @-@ ever tornado emergency for southern portions of the Oklahoma City metropolitan area , which was released as a standalone weather statement ( instead of within a newly issued or a Special Weather Statement on an existing tornado warning , as became usual afterward ) . David Andra , a meteorologist at the NWS Norman office , said that he drafted the enhanced warning statement to " paint the picture that a rare and deadly tornado was imminent in the metro area . "

Paralleling Interstate 44 , the tornado moved into McClain County , where it crossed the highway twice at F4 intensity , killing a woman as she was blown out from an underpass where she was attempting to seek shelter , after being dragged down the embankment by the intense channeling winds ; her 11 @-@ year @-@ old son − with whom the woman vacated their stalled car nearby − survived , staying held tight onto the steel girders of the overpass . A man who helped the mother and son up the overpass suffered severe injuries to his leg , which was partially sliced by a highway sign thrown by the winds . At 7 : 10 p.m. CDT , a satellite tornado touched down over an open field north of Newcastle ; it was rated as an F0 due to lack of damage . 38 homes and two businesses were destroyed in McClain County , and 40 homes were damaged . Some of the homes were leveled at F4 intensity , and 17 people were injured .

After crossing the Canadian River , the tornado entered Cleveland County and weakened to F2 intensity . By this time , it had entered the southern reaches of the Oklahoma City limits . Several minutes after entering the county , it re @-@ attained F4 status , and then moved directly into the city of Moore , where the tornado reached F5 intensity for a third time . Some of the most severe damage took place in Cleveland County , especially in the city of Moore , where 11 people were killed and 293 others were injured . The tornado caused an estimated $ 450 million in damage across the county . The first area impacted in Moore was the Country Place Estates subdivision , where 50 homes were damaged and one was completely swept away at F5 intensity , with only the foundation remaining . Several vehicles were picked up and tossed nearly 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) . According to local police , an airplane wing , believed to have been from an airport in Grady County , was found near Country Place Estates . Next , the powerful tornado struck the densely populated Eastlake Estates at F5 intensity , killing three people and reducing entire rows of homes to rubble . In one instance , four adjacent homes were completely destroyed , with only concrete slabs remaining , warranting an F5 rating at that location . Three other homes in this housing division also received F5 damage , with the remaining destruction rated high @-@ end F4 . Severe debarking of trees was noted in this area . At the Emerald Springs Apartments , three more people were killed and a two @-@ story apartment building was mostly flattened .

As it entered Cleveland County , the National Weather Service and Storm Prediction Center activated emergency procedures , preparing to evacuate staff and others present at the facility in the event that the supercell should turn right , placing areas surrounding the Norman campus in the tornado 's path ( under NOAA protocol in situations posing a danger to personnel at local Weather Forecast Offices and related guidance centers , responsibility over the issuance of warnings and statements on the unfolding outbreak would have been transferred to the nearest NWS Forecast Office , based in Tulsa , while the SPC 's forecasting responsibilities would be turned over to the 557th Weather Wing at Offutt Air Force Base ) . The supercell , however , continued on a northeastward track , sparing the Norman area .

Safety precautions were also enacted elsewhere in and near the storm 's path ; council members and citizens at Moore City Hall − where a council meeting was scheduled to be held that evening − sheltered in place in the building 's first @-@ floor restrooms , away from the multiple large @-@ pane windows at its facade . In downtown Oklahoma City , spectators attending sporting events being held that evening involving two of the city 's minor league teams – a regular season baseball game between the Oklahoma RedHawks and Memphis Redbirds ( which was suspended during the second inning ) and Game 2 of the Ray Miron President 's Cup series between the Oklahoma City Blazers and the Huntsville Channel Cats – were also evacuated to shelter in an underground storage area connected to the Southwestern Bell Bricktown Ballpark and Myriad Convention Center amid concerns that the storm would jog northward and place Oklahoma City itself in the tornado 's path . Flights were grounded at Will Rogers World Airport as the northern edge of the supercell approached the area ; the tornado turned right , away from southwestern parts of the city proper , shortly before airport officials began evacuating employees and visitors at the terminals . Traffic on Interstate 35 in south Oklahoma City and north Moore became backed up for several miles , as drivers evacuated from their vehicles to seek shelter under an overpass overlooking South Shields Boulevard .

Just outside the Eastlake Estates , an honors ceremony was being held at Westmoore High School at the time of the tornado ; however , adequate warning time allowed those at the school to seek shelter ; more than 400 adults and children attending the awards ceremony at the school 's auditorium were moved to the main building , sheltering in reinforced hallways and bathrooms . Ultimately , Westmoore High sustained heavy damage and dozens of cars in the parking lot were tossed around , some of which were completely destroyed or thrown into nearby homes . No injures took place at the school , though a horse was found dead between a couple of destroyed cars in this area . The tornado proceeded through additional densely populated areas of Moore shortly thereafter , where several large groups of homes were flattened in residential areas , with a mixture of high @-@ end F4 and low @-@ end F5 damage noted . Near Janeway Avenue , four people were killed in an area where multiple homes were completely destroyed . A woman , who took shelter with her husband and two children , was also killed when she was blown out from under the Shields overpass on Interstate 35 . The tornado weakened somewhat as it moved through the Highland Park neighborhood of Moore , but still caused widespread F3 and F4 damage .

The tornado then entered Oklahoma County and struck the southeast fringes of Oklahoma City , where it re @-@ intensified to high @-@ end F4 strength and two people were killed as a trucking company was completely destroyed . Shortly before it tracked into the county , patrons and employees at Crossroads Mall were evacuated to storage areas in the basement of the building . Numerous industrial buildings were leveled in this area of the city . A freight car , weighing 36 @,@ 000 lb ( 16 @,@ 000 kg ) was thrown 0 @.@ 75 mi ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) . The car bounced as it traveled , remaining airborne for 50 to 100 yd ( 46 to 91 m ) at a time . Multiple homes were also completely destroyed in southeast Oklahoma City , and one woman was killed in that area . Crossing Southeast 44th Street into Del City , the tornado moved through the highly populated Del Aire housing addition , killing six people and damaging or destroying hundreds of homes , with many sustaining F3 to F4 damage . Seven people were killed as a direct result of the tornado in Del City , and hundreds of homes were damaged or destroyed .

The tornado then crossed Sooner Road , damaged an entry gate and several buildings at Tinker Air Force Base , then crossed 29th Street into Midwest City , destroying one building at the Boeing Complex and damaging two others . Widespread F3 / F4 damage continued as the tornado moved across Interstate 40 , affecting a large business district . Approximately 800 vehicles were damaged at Hudiburg Auto Group , located just south of Interstate 40 . Hundreds of vehicles at the dealership were moved from their original location on the lot , and dozens of vehicles ( including 30 awaiting tune @-@ ups or repairs at Morris ' Auto Machine and Supply , and an unoccupied Mid @-@ Del School District bus ) were picked up and tossed northward across the interstate into several motels , a distance of approximately two @-@ tenths of a mile . Numerous motels and other businesses including Hampton Inn , Comfort Inn , Inn Suites , Clarion Inn , Cracker Barrel , and portions of Rose State College , were destroyed . Some of the damage through this area was rated high @-@ end F4 , however low @-@ end F5 was considered . The tornado then continued into another residential area located between Southeast 15th and Reno Avenue , where three fatalities occurred . Damage consistent with high @-@ end F4 wind speeds was inflicted to four homes in this area . Two of these homes were located between Southeast 11th and 12th Streets , near Buena Vista , and the other two homes were located on Will Rogers Road , just south of Southeast 15th . Damage then diminished rapidly to F0 / F1 strength as the tornado crossed Reno Avenue , before dissipating three blocks north of Reno , between Sooner Road and Air Depot Boulevard . Throughout Oklahoma County , 12 people were killed and 234 others were injured while losses amounted to $ 450 million .

= = Impact and casualties = =

Throughout the tornado 's path , 36 people were killed as a direct result of the storm and five more died of indirect causes in the hours following it ( most of the indirect deaths were due to heart attacks or injuries suffered while trying to seek shelter ; however , one survivor , who was uninsured , died from a self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound ) . According to the Oklahoma Department of Health , an estimated 583 people were injured by the tornado , accounting for those who likely did not go to the hospital or were unaccounted for . In terms of structural losses , a total of 8 @,@ 132 homes , 1 @,@ 041 apartments , 260 businesses , eleven public buildings and seven churches were damaged or destroyed . Total estimated damage costs in the areas affected by the storm totaled $ 1 @.@ 2 billion , making it the first single tornado since records were first recorded to produce damage exceeding $ 1 billion . The Bridge Creek − Moore tornado produced an estimated 220 cubic yards ( 170 m3 ) of debris from the buildings that were destroyed in the storm .

The 1999 Bridge Creek − Moore tornado was the deadliest tornado recorded in Oklahoma since an F5 tornado killed 107 people in Woodward on April 9 , 1947 . It is also the deadliest tornado ever recorded in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area ; the previous record was held by an F4 tornado that affected southwestern portions of the city on June 12 , 1942 , which killed 31 people and caused $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage ( $ 10 @.@ 6 million in ( 2016 USD ) when adjusted for inflation ) . The Bridge Creek − Moore tornado was the costliest single tornado in U.S. history until an EF4 tornado hit Tuscaloosa and northern portions of Birmingham in Alabama on April 27 , 2011 , causing an estimated $ 2 @.@ 45 billion in damage ( as of 2015 the Bridge Creek – Moore tornado is the fourth @-@ costliest single tornado , having also been surpassed by the EF5 tornadoes that hit Joplin on May 24 , 2011 and areas of Moore near the 1999 storm track on May 20 , 2013 ) . National Weather Service researchers estimated that the death toll from the storm would likely have exceeded 600 , had it not been for the advanced warning through local television and radio stations ( with coverage provided by three of the Oklahoma City market 's four television news outlets at the time − NBC affiliate KFOR @-@ TV ( channel 4 ) , ABC affiliate KOCO @-@ TV ( channel 5 ) and CBS affiliate KWTV ( channel 9 ) − being simulcast on some radio stations through central parts of Oklahoma as the storms became increasingly intense ) , and the extensive education among Oklahomans on tornadoes and the dangers they pose , as well as exercising proper safety precautions .

Preliminary damage surveys conducted by a group of structural engineers from Texas Tech University determined that many of the frame homes that were destroyed by the Bridge Creek − Moore tornado were constructed below minimal residential building code standards , discovering some structural deficiencies that violated codes , which were considered to be inadequate for regions prone to tornadic activity ( under federal building code standards , frame homes that were properly strapped and bolted would have withstood winds between 152 and 157 miles per hour ( 245 and 253 km / h ) , equivalent to an F2 tornado ) . The team , led by meteorological researcher Charles Doswell and storm damage engineer / meteorologist Tim Marshall , determined that nails attached to a plywood roof deck in one damaged home were not properly anchored to the rafters ; several homes in rural areas that were swept nearly 300 feet ( 91 m ) from their original location did not have anchor bolts that secured the frame to their foundations , as was the case at Country Place Estates , where the homes − which left a trail of debris strewn 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) away from their location − were attached to the concrete foundations by tapered cut nails that extended only a half @-@ inch to the bases ; many homes that were left at least partially standing also had their garage doors ( mainly those made from aluminum material ) collapse inward , allowing the tornado 's destructive winds to enter the houses .

Marshall discovered other building and vehicle remains that became debris missiles , including a twisted 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) steel beam , a steel leg broken off of a lawn chair that was impaled into a 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm × 13 cm ) post by the violent winds and a six @-@ foot ( 180 cm ) section of a sewer pipe that was blown into the interior hallway of one house through the front door . The team 's findings also revealed that several homes were obliterated before they experienced the full impact of the vortex 's peak wind velocities , with some disintegrating as the external winds surrounding the parent tornado reached speeds of F2 intensity . Three months later , as homes were being built in the damage path , Marshall found their construction to be scarcely superior to that of the homes destroyed in the May 3 storm .

The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) corroborated with Doswell and Marshall 's findings in its Building Performance Assessment Team Report on the May 3 outbreak , noting that much of the structural damage resulted from strong winds generated by the tornado and associated windborne debris that often " produced forces on buildings not designed to withstand such forces " and in some cases , were due to improper construction techniques and " poor selection " of materials used in their construction . The report acknowledged that federal construction code requirements needed to be revised above the then @-@ current minimum standards to allow newer buildings to better withstand higher wind speeds consistent with tornadoes of lesser intensity than the one which devastated Bridge Creek and Moore , thereby lessening the degree of damage , fatalities and injuries that are probable in buildings of typically less reinforced construction .

= = Aftermath = =

Following the outbreak of deadly and destructive tornadoes , President Bill Clinton signed a major disaster declaration for eleven Oklahoma counties on May 4 . In a press statement by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , then @-@ director James Lee Witt stated that " The President is deeply concerned about the tragic loss of life and destruction caused by these devastating storms . " The American Red Cross opened ten shelters overnight across central Oklahoma , housing 1 @,@ 600 people immediately following the disaster . By May 5 , this number had lowered to 500 . Throughout May 5 , several post @-@ disaster teams from FEMA were deployed to the region , including emergency response and preliminary damage assessment units . The United States Department of Defense deployed the 249th Engineering Battalion and placed the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on standby for assistance . Medical and mortuary teams were also sent by the Department of Health and Human Services . By May 6 , donation centers and phone banks were being established to create funds for victims of the tornadoes .

Continuing search and rescue efforts for thirteen people who were listed as missing through May 7 were assisted by urban search and rescue dogs from across the country . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 members of the Oklahoma National Guard were deployed throughout the affected region . The American Red Cross had set up ten mobile feeding stations by this time and stated that 30 more were en route . On May 8 , a disaster recovery center was opened in Moore for individuals recovering from the tornadoes . According to the Army Corps of Engineers , roughly 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 382 @,@ 277 cubic meters ) of debris was left behind and would likely take weeks to clear . Within the first few days of the disaster declaration , relief funds began being sent to families who requested aid . By May 9 , roughly $ 180 @,@ 000 had been approved by FEMA for disaster housing assistance .

Debris removal finally began on May 12 as seven cleanup teams were sent to the region , more were expected to join over the following days . That day , FEMA also declared that seven counties − Canadian , Craig , Grady , Lincoln , Logan , Noble and Oklahoma − were eligible for federal financial assistance . By May 13 , roughly $ 1 @.@ 6 million in disaster funds had been approved for housing and businesses loans . This quickly rose to more than $ 5 @.@ 9 million over the following five days . By May 21 , more than 3 @,@ 000 volunteers from across the country traveled to Oklahoma to help residents recover ; 1 @,@ 000 of these volunteers were sent to Bridge Creek to clean up debris , cut trees , sort donations and cook meals . With a $ 452 @,@ 199 grant from FEMA , a 60 @-@ day outreach program for victims suffering tornado @-@ related stress was set up to help them cope with trauma .

Applications for federal aid continued through June , with state approvals reaching $ 54 million on June 3 . By this date , the Army Corps of Engineers reported that 964 @,@ 170 cubic yards ( 737 @,@ 160 cubic meters ) , roughly 58 % , of the 1 @.@ 65 million cubic yards ( 1 @.@ 26 million cubic meters ) of debris had been removed . Assistance for farmers and ranchers who suffered severe losses from the tornadoes was also available by June 3 . After more than a month of being open , emergency shelters were set to be closed on June 18 . On June 21 , an educational road show made by FEMA visited the hardest hit areas in Oklahoma to urge residents to build storm cellars . According to FEMA , more than 9 @,@ 500 residents applied for federal aid during the allocated period in the wake of the tornadoes . Most of the applicants lived in Oklahoma and Cleveland counties , 3 @,@ 800 and 3 @,@ 757 persons respectively . In all , disaster recovery aid for the tornadoes amounted to roughly $ 67 @.@ 8 million by the end of July 2 .

From a meteorological and safety standpoint , the tornado also brought the use of highway overpasses as shelters into question . Prior to the events on May 3 , 1999 , videos of people taking shelter in overpasses during tornadoes in the past ( most notably one filmed near Wichita , Kansas during the April 26 , 1991 tornado outbreak involving a television news crew from Wichita NBC affiliate KSNW and other bystanders ) gave the public misunderstanding that overpasses provided shelter from tornadoes . For nearly 20 years , meteorologists had questioned the safety of these structures ; however , they lacked incidents involving loss of life . During the May 3 outbreak , three overpasses were directly struck by tornadoes , with a fatality taking place at each one . Two of these were from the F5 Bridge Creek – Moore tornado while the third was from a small F2 , which struck a rural area in Payne County , north @-@ northeast of Oklahoma City . According to a study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , seeking shelter in an overpass " is to become a stationary target for flying debris . "

Over the following four years , a $ 12 million project to construct storm shelters for residents across the Oklahoma City metropolitan area was enacted . The goal was to create a safer community in a tornado @-@ prone region . By May 2003 , a total of 6 @,@ 016 safe rooms were constructed . On May 9 , 2003 , the new initiative was put to the test as a tornado outbreak in the region spawned an F4 tornado , which took a path similar to that of the Bridge Creek – Moore tornado . Due to the higher standards for public safety , no one was killed by the 2003 tornado , a substantial improvement in just four years . On May 20 , 2013 , an EF5 tornado took a roughly similar path to the 1999 storm , tracking through the heart of Moore . Throughout the city , 24 people were killed ( along with one additional person who died as an indirect result of the tornado ) and more than 230 were injured .

= Dunder Mifflin Infinity =

" Dunder Mifflin Infinity " is the third and fourth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifty @-@ sixth and fifty @-@ seventh episode overall . The episode was written by Michael Schur , who also acts in the show , and directed by Craig Zisk . It first aired in the United States on October 4 , 2007 on NBC .

In this episode , Ryan returns to his old office and reveals his plan to bring technology to Dunder Mifflin . Michael and Dwight try to prove that the personal touch is better than technology . Meanwhile , Jim and Pam reveal their relationship to the rest of the office , Kelly attempts to reunite with Ryan , and Dwight and Angela 's relationship continues to plummet .

= = Plot = =

Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) returns to the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of Dunder Mifflin for the first time since his promotion to the corporate headquarters . Although he sports a much more urbane look and attitude , he garners little respect from his former peers . Ryan introduces " Dunder Mifflin Infinity , " his initiative to revitalize the company with new technology . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is initially excited about the prospect of getting a BlackBerry , but is warned by Creed Bratton ( Creed Bratton ) that the program is a ploy to get rid of older workers . Creed dyes his hair black with printer ink in an attempt to convince everyone that he is much younger . Michael holds a conference room meeting on the subject of ageism . To show that personal interaction is more effective than new technology , Michael and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) decide to go out and win back the clients they lost in the past year with gift baskets . Each manager they encounter refuses to consider returning to Dunder Mifflin unless the company improves its technology , such as Dunder Mifflin 's website . While driving back to the office , Michael misinterprets his rental car 's GPS map system 's directions and drives into Lake Scranton . He takes this as further proof that new technology is useless because it tried to kill him . After the lake incident , he and Dwight walk back to one of the former clients to awkwardly get back their gift basket , causing a scene .

Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) are exposed as a couple when Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) circulates a memo about public displays of affection . Jim secretly informs Pam that Dwight and Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) are dating , only to discover that she already knew . Meanwhile , Dwight attempts to make amends for the death of Angela 's cat Sprinkles by giving her a stray cat he found in his barn , named Garbage . Angela rejects the gift . Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) tries to restart her relationship with Ryan , an effort he ignores until she tells him she is pregnant . After going out to dinner , Ryan learns that Kelly 's pregnancy claim was a lie that Kelly used in attempt to get them back together . Back at the office , Ryan asks Pam to create a logo for Dunder Mifflin Infinity . Pam is excited about the opportunity to use her art background , but Ryan uses the logo as an excuse to ask her out , which he does in front of Jim . Pam responds that she is dating Jim , which leaves the new boss thoroughly embarrassed .

= = Production = =

The episode was the first episode of the series directed by Craig Zisk . Zisk had previously directed episodes of Nip / Tuck , Weeds , Scrubs , Smallville , and The Single Guy . " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " was written by Michael Schur , who plays Dwight 's Amish cousin Mose .

For Ryan 's new appearance this season , the writers originally had B. J. Novak grow a goatee . Show runner and executive producer Greg Daniels decided to have Novak lose the goatee , because according to Novak " a goatee would make Ryan a flat @-@ out chump . And we wanted it to be more subtle . " In addition to his five o 'clock shadow , Ryan was also seen wearing black clothes . Novak explained that " We wanted him to dress as obnoxious as possible . As much black as possible . " " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " went along with a website that had been created with the same name . The website was part of a game in which fans of The Office would sign up , and become " employees " of different " branches " . Members of the site would perform tasks such as design a logo for the company or make Creed look young again .

= = Reception = =

" Dunder Mifflin Infinity " received 4 @.@ 5 / 11 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that 4 @.@ 5 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and eleven percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 49 million viewers .

" Dunder Mifflin Infinity " received mixed reviews from critics , with Michael driving his car into the lake being particularly panned by critics and viewers . Entertainment Weekly 's Christine Fenno commented that she thought " Michael seemed a bit more focused than usual , even competent at moments . And then he drove into a lake . " Jack Rodgers , from TV Guide said that his " favorite thing about this episode was the sly parallel that connects the three love stories " and " Michael ’ s obsession with sticking to his old methods rather than learning to change and embrace technology " . Will Leitch of New York Magazine criticized the episode , saying that Michael driving into the lake felt more like the actions of a " cartoon character " , than " based in reality " . Leitch did say that if " we can get Michael out of that lake and back in a conference room with Ryan , we 'll have something . "

= Slay Tracks ( 1933 – 1969 ) =

Slay Tracks ( 1933 – 1969 ) ( also referred to as Slay Tracks ) is the debut extended play by the American indie rock band Pavement . Pavement , then consisting of founding members Stephen Malkmus ( guitar , vocals ) and Scott Kannberg ( guitar ) , recorded Slay Tracks with producer and future member Gary Young ( drums ) during a four @-@ hour session . The EP was released as a 7 " vinyl record on the band 's own record label Treble Kicker in 1989 . The music in Slay Tracks is influenced by indie and punk rock bands , including Swell Maps and The Fall , and many of the lyrics are inspired by life in the band 's hometown of Stockton , California .

Although only 1000 copies of Slay Tracks were pressed , the EP became an underground hit . It was met with generally positive reviews from critics , though most of its initial reviews were from independently produced zines . The songs on Slay Tracks would later appear on the 1993 compilation Westing ( By Musket and Sextant ) , reaching a wider audience than the EP 's limited initial release . The release of Slay Tracks was significant to Pavement 's signing to Drag City , and later to Matador Records .

= = Background and recording = =

Pavement was formed in 1989 in Stockton , California , by Stephen Malkmus and Scott Kannberg . Malkmus and Kannberg had previously performed together in the band Bag O ' Bones . Pavement had its start playing at open mike nights at clubs and bars . The songs the band played during this time were mostly covers , although they also performed many original songs that would later be released on Slay Tracks . Malkmus recalls , " It was pretty reasonable to be able to make a single for $ 1 @,@ 000 , so we decided to go for it . We didn 't have any real plans because we weren 't a real band . " Two local studios existed in Stockton , the cheaper and less professionally minded of which was Gary Young 's Louder Than You Think Studio . The band decided to record at Young 's studio due to their admiration of other local punk bands who had recorded there , including The Young Pioneers and The Authorities . Kannberg reportedly borrowed $ 800 from his father to record Slay Tracks .

Slay Tracks was recorded during a four @-@ hour session on January 17 , 1989 , at Young 's studio . Kannberg , describing the studio and the recording process , said , " You go into his house and it 's stuff everywhere , old dogs lying around , big pot plants everywhere , and Gary tells us that he got all his equipment by selling pot ! It was us going in and pretty much just laying down the songs with a glide guitar and a detuned guitar through a bass amp and then we 'd play drums over the top . " Young , though bewildered by the band 's sound , contributed by playing drums . He recalled , " [ Malkmus and Kannberg ] come in and they play this weird guitar noise and it just sounds like noise , with no background . My drums were in there so I said , ' Should I drum ? ' and they said ' Okay . ' " Kannberg said , " We did it really fast . We probably spent one day tracking and one day mixing it . " The title of the EP had been decided prior to its recording , and the pseudonyms S.M. and Spiral Stairs were used to credit Malkmus and Kannberg respectively .

= = Music = =

The music on Slay Tracks was written entirely by Malkmus , and he stated his influences on the record included Chrome , Swell Maps , and The Fall . The songs on the EP drew comparisons to the likes of R.E.M. , Pixies , and Sonic Youth by Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Heather Phares of AllMusic . Radio static and noise are prominently used on the EP , techniques which are characteristic of the lo @-@ fi and noise pop genres that Pavement are frequently associated with . According to Malkmus , " We decided to use static as the third instrument . .... It was pretty exciting to be so experimental . " Young played drums on " Box Elder " and " Price Yeah ! " , and frequently improvised . Malkmus played drums on " Maybe Maybe " , while both Malkmus and Kannberg drummed on " She Believes " .

" You 're Killing Me " , the longest song on the EP at three minutes and 20 seconds , is an example of the impact punk rock had on Pavement . The song features fuzz effects , repetitive lyrics , and no percussion or drums . " Box Elder " , an ironic song about someone wanting to move to Box Elder , Montana , was considered by Gerald Cosloy to be an example of Malkmus 's " honest , direct , and simplistic " lyrical style , and features greater influence from pop music than the rest of the EP . " Maybe Maybe " features distorted guitars and indiscernible vocals , and " Price Yeah ! " has a sound typical of hardcore punk . The band 's hometown of Stockton inspired the band 's lyrics and sound . Malkmus stated that " There 's something empty about Stockton . I wanted to convey that in our music . " Malkmus told Melody Maker in 1992 that " Pavement was originally a pathetic effort by us to do something to escape the terminal boredom we were experiencing in Stockton . "

= = Release = =

After recording was completed Kannberg was tasked with releasing the music himself , as Malkmus had left on a trip to parts of Europe , North Africa , and the Middle East . Kannberg designed the cover of the EP and sent copies to various independent labels , distributors , and zines . He recalled " I had no idea how to do it . I 'd send off these little notes to my favorite labels like SST and Twin Tone and ask , ' How do I do this ? ' " A representative from SST recommended that Kannberg use Erica Records , a Los Angeles 7 " manufacturer . Erica Records became the manufacturer of Slay Tracks ; however , Kannberg was unhappy with the master recording produced by the company : " It sounds like it sounds now — it 's just a mess — but being poor and not really caring I said , ' Okay , that 's cool , if it sounds like that – whatever . ' " 1000 copies of Slay Tracks were pressed , and the first 50 included a green dinosaur stamp on the label . The EP was distributed on Kannberg 's own Treble Kicker Records in the United States and England , although Malkmus came across a copy in a record store while visiting Austria .

Slay Tracks found unexpected attention after the Leeds , England @-@ based band The Wedding Present covered " Box Elder " on their own 1990 EP , Brassneck . The Wedding Present 's bassist , Keith Gregory , had been introduced to Slay Tracks by future Pavement bassist Mark Ibold while visiting New York City . The Wedding Present cover is different from the original in that the line " that I had to get the fuck out of this town " was changed to " that I had to get right out of this town " . The " Box Elder " cover received radio airplay from influential English disc jockey John Peel , which generated publicity for both The Wedding Present and Pavement . Neither member of Pavement was aware of the cover until Kannberg was informed of it . Kannberg remembered " I was kind of mad . I had no idea that people could do that , so I was all offended . " However , his opinion of the cover and its significance later changed : " It was so cool that some band from the UK wanted to cover this obscure , horribly recorded song . At the time I probably never appreciated the full extent of how them covering the song helped Pavement , especially in the UK , but it really did , and I 'll always be grateful to them for that . "

Shortly after its release , Slay Tracks became a collector 's item . According to an April 1990 Drag City press release , copies were typically sold for $ 500 – $ 600 . Malkmus and Kannberg each kept 100 copies of the EP , and Malkmus said " I used to sell them for fifty dollars . When I needed money I 'd go in and sell a couple to the store and they 'd sell for a hundred dollars each . I rarely meet anyone who bought it when it originally came out . " Malkmus also said that the pair " probably gave away about one @-@ hundred to friends and bands we later toured with . " The songs on Slay Tracks found airplay on several college radio stations , including University of Virginia 's WTJU and University of California , Berkeley 's KALX . Kannberg commented on the EP 's unanticipated popularity , saying " It was very surprising to find that people were into [ Slay Tracks ] . "

= = Reception = =

Slay Tracks received generally positive reviews . Much of the initial critical reception to Slay Tracks was from zines to whom Kannberg had sent the EP . A review in the San Francisco @-@ based zine Maximum RocknRoll said " Most of the tunes work by virtue of their eclecticism , freshness , and originality — this is a good one . " The zine Conflict called the EP " absolutely perfect . " Slay Tracks also received attention from mainstream publications . Robert Christgau of the Village Voice rated Slay Tracks an A- , and selected it as his fourth favorite EP of 1990 . Spin 's review said : " a long stream of noise water is omitted by Pavement . ... What a party ! " A reviewer for Option praised the band 's lo @-@ fi characteristics and attitude , calling the EP " loose and intentionally lo @-@ fi , " and saying " let 's hope this Pavement stays cracked . " College Music Journal 's review was also favorable , noting " You 're Killing Me " and " She Believes " as highlights , and calling the EP a " deep , intoxicating breath of homemade music from people with tongues in their cheeks and hearts on their sleeves ... the twin engine feedback and fuzz hits dead center with naive [ sic ] melodic balance , and whether that is in spite of or because of the sloppy , one @-@ take feel is inconsequential . "

= = Legacy = =

Young 's drum performance on Slay Tracks eventually led to him joining Pavement as a full @-@ time member . Young produced the group 's 1990 EP Demolition Plot J @-@ 7 , but displayed hostility toward then @-@ current drummer Jason Fawkes . Fawkes left Pavement in 1991 due to animosity with Malkmus , allowing Young to drum on their third EP , Perfect Sound Forever . Young drummed on all Pavement releases from then on until 1992 's Watery , Domestic , after which he was fired for his increasingly erratic behavior and was replaced with Steve West . Young 's drumming on Slay Tracks was later recognized as an important turning point in Pavement 's history , and was considered to be " the opportunity of a lifetime " by C. Harris @-@ Nystrom of the News & Review .

Dan Koretzky , founder of Drag City , ordered 200 copies of the EP for the Chicago Reckless Records store he worked for at the time . Koretzky asked Kannberg if he would sign to Drag City during the same phone call that he ordered the EP . Kannberg remembered expressing reluctance to sign to any label , but Drag City producer and session musician Rian Murphy recalled that " We asked , they said yes . Lives didn 't seem to be on the line . " Chris Lombardi and Gerald Cosloy of Matador Records also first heard of Pavement after Kannberg sent a copy of Slay Tracks to their zine , Conflict . Matador signed Pavement in 1992 for the release of their debut studio album , Slanted and Enchanted .

The songs on Slay Tracks are all included on the 1993 compilation Westing ( By Musket and Sextant ) , along with several of Pavement 's other early material . Westing has sold 63 @,@ 000 copies , and was praised by Robert Christgau and Stephen Thomas Erlewine for making songs previously found exclusively on vinyl available on compact disc . All of the songs from Slay Tracks were played live throughout Pavement 's history , with " Box Elder " particularly cited as an " old favorite " for fans at concerts . Live performances of " Box Elder " has also been included on the compilation reissues Slanted and Enchanted : Luxe & Reduxe and Wowee Zowee : Sordid Sentinels Edition , with the version on the latter beginning with a short jam session . In a 1999 retrospective of the band 's career , Donna Freydkin of CNN.com called Slay Tracks " a quick underground favorite " , while John Hicks of the Planet Weekly wrote " Although Pavement was conceived as a studio @-@ only project , the underground success of Slay Tracks ensured that it was only a matter of time before the group became a full @-@ fledged performing entity . "

= = Track listing = =

All tracks were written by Stephen Malkmus .

" You 're Killing Me " – 3 : 20

" Box Elder " – 2 : 26

" Maybe Maybe " – 2 : 14

" She Believes " – 3 : 02

" Price Yeah ! " – 3 : 00

= Cloudland Canyon State Park =

Cloudland Canyon State Park is a 3 @,@ 485 acre ( 14 @.@ 10 km ² ) Georgia state park located near Trenton and Cooper Heights on the western edge of Lookout Mountain . One of the largest and most scenic parks in Georgia , it contains rugged geology , and offers visitors a range of vistas across the deep gorge cut through the mountain by Sitton Gulch Creek , where the elevation varies from 800 to over 1 @,@ 800 feet . Views of the canyon can be seen from the picnic area parking lot , in addition to additional views located along the rim trail . At the bottom of the gorge , two waterfalls cascade across layers of sandstone and shale , ending in small pools below .

The park , previously known as Sitton Gulch ( or Gulf ) or Trenton Gulf , was purchased in stages by the state of Georgia beginning in 1938 . Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt , a project of Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression built the first facilities and signs in the park , which opened the following year . Today the park features a variety of campsites , cabins , hiking and recreational activities .

= = History = =

Cloudland Canyon was designated a state park in 1939 when the state began acquiring land from private owners . Three of these owners , from the Mathews , McCauley and McKaig families , still reside in the area . Expansion of the park continues sporadically as new land is purchased for it . The park was originally 1 @,@ 924 acres ( 7 @.@ 8 km2 ) , and has been expanded to its present size of 3 @,@ 485 acres ( 14 @.@ 1 km2 ) .

Until 1939 the only access to the area ( and much of Dade County , Georgia ) was through Tennessee or Alabama . That year Georgia began work on Highway 136 to connect U.S. 41 to the recently established park . The Civilian Conservation Corps did much of the early work to construct the state park and access roads .

= = Geology = =

The park is located on the Cumberland Plateau , atop Lookout Mountain . On the summit of Lookout Mountain , the waters of Daniel Creek and Bear Creek cut gorges through the rock , converging to form Sitton Gulch Creek . The flat @-@ topped mountains of the Cumberland Plateau are significantly different from the narrow Armuchee ridges beyond nearby Chickamauga Valley to the east . From a geological standpoint , Lookout Mountain is transitional between the flat @-@ lying sedimentary beds of central Tennessee , and the ridges and valley to the east , which display more intensive folding and faulting . Most of the canyon 's rock formations consist of sandstone ; shale layers below the sandstone are marked by pine trees .

Lookout Mountain was created through a combination of seismic activity and erosion . It was uplifted during the period of mountain building that formed the Appalachians , known as the Appalachian orogeny . Over 200 million years ago , the modern @-@ day parklands lay beneath an ocean . When first formed , the entire mountain was underwater , but the rim of the canyon eventually became a beach along the edge of the receding ocean . As the ocean dried up , Sitton Gulch Creek and its tributaries , particularly Daniel Creek , eroded the rock . The sandstone forming the bluffs has a tendency to fracture into blocks , creating unusual boulder formations . The concave shape of the top of Lookout Mountain also drains rainwater through fissures into the underlying limestone , forming miles of subterranean caves in the area .

The canyon is more than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) deep , ranging in elevation from 800 feet ( 240 m ) to over 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) ; the park 's peak elevation is 1 @,@ 980 feet ( 600 m ) . The bottom of Cloudland canyon contains a slope of rock talus , which are sandstone and shale fragments . The valley floor is also rich in fossil @-@ bearing limestone .

= = Hiking trails = =

The Park contains several well @-@ marked trails which allow visitors to view the geology of the canyon and its surroundings , which spans millions of years . A paved , wheelchair @-@ accessible trail about 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) long overlooks the rim of the canyon . The park also features four more extensive hiking trails , including one backpacking trail . These trails are generally considered moderate in difficulty .

The Waterfalls Trail begins on a paved section , at the main overlook , and progresses into the canyon along a 40 @-@ degree slope . Most of the trail consists of gravel , and a 600 @-@ step staircase . Each waterfall emanates from Daniel Creek , and both cascade down sheer faces at 60 feet ( 18 m ) and 90 feet ( 27 m ) . The trail is generally considered to be a strenuous hike , which can take up to 90 minutes to complete . Cherokee Falls is 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) from the trailhead ; Hemlock Falls , at the bottom of the canyon , appears at 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . Each cascades into small pools at the base of the canyon , and continue down through a boulder @-@ strewn stream bed . The creek flow feeding the waterfalls varies considerably according to the season . The Sitton 's Gulch trail , commencing at the bottom of the Waterfalls Trail , runs parallel to the creek until it ends in a parking area in Trenton .

In contrast , the 4 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 7 km ) long West Rim Loop Trail is rated as moderately difficult , although it contains a few short , steep rocky sections . A scenic hike beginning at the Daniels Creek Bridge , it offers panoramic views before climbing out of the canyon and onto the plateau . This trail also provides views of Trenton , Georgia , neighboring Sand Mountain , and of Cloudland Canyon . Rhododendron and mountain laurel thickets are interspersed with sourgum and dogwood ; large oaks , hickories , hemlocks and maples shade the trail . Cottages , West Rim , and Walk @-@ In Camping areas are accessible via the West Rim Loop . Passing over varied terrain , most of the hike is moderately difficult , and is considered strenuous along several short sections .

The 2 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) Backcountry Loop Trail provides access to the park 's eleven secluded primitive hike @-@ in camping sites . Beginning at the parking area for group camping , the trail passes through hemlock groves , before descending on a moderate grade into a hollow filled with spring and summer flowers . At the far end of the loop , hikers emerge from the hemlock groves onto level trail , among oaks and hickories , before returning to the parking area .

In the fall of 2011 , the park reopened the Bear Creek Trail , which had been closed to hikers for nearly a decade . This approximately 9 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) trail is the longest trail in the park . This trail begins as a spur off of the Back Country Trail and drops down to Bear Creek . After crossing the creek , the trail continues up until it becomes a loop around the northeast portion of the park . Around the area of the creek , the trail crosses over private property for a brief distance . During wet seasons , the creek crossing can be difficult as there is no bridge or dry crossing available .

= = Facilities and activities = =

Cloudland Canyon State park features a variety of camping and lodging options . There are 16 rental cottages as well as a group lodge . The park also offers 73 tent , trailer and RV sites , 30 walk @-@ in camp sites , and 11 back country camp sites for backpackers . Four pioneer sites provide facilities for groups of tent campers . The East Rim has 24 camp sites located along a loop road ; many of the sites can accommodate RVs , and all feature water and electric hookups . Bathing facilities are located nearby . The West Rim Camp ground , located across the gorge and away from the park 's busiest section , is located in thick forest , and hosts approximately 48 camp sites spread along two loops . It too offers bathing facilities .

Picnic areas include a group pavilion , tennis courts , a children ’ s playground and a disc golf course . The park has an interpretive center near the main parking lot , adjacent to the canyon . Annual events hosted in the park include a Wildflower Program in April , Adventure Weekend ( also in April ) , and a Kids ' Catfish Rodeo in May .

= Rapunzel ( Disney ) =

Rapunzel is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 50th animated feature film Tangled ( 2010 ) , and its short film Tangled Ever After ( 2012 ) . Voiced by American actress and singer Mandy Moore , Rapunzel is a young princess kept unaware of her royal heritage by a vain old woman named Mother Gothel , who raises her in a secluded tower in order to exploit her hair 's healing abilities to remain young and beautiful forever .

Created and animated by supervising animator Glen Keane , Rapunzel is loosely based on the title character who appears in the fairy tale of the same name by The Brothers Grimm . The character was adapted into a less passive heroine for the film . The writers incorporated the quirky personalities of actresses Reese Witherspoon , Natalie Portman and Amy Poehler into the character .

Critical reception of Rapunzel has been generally positive , with critics complimenting her spirited , lively personality and independence . Chronologically the tenth Disney Princess , Rapunzel was officially inducted into the line @-@ up on October 2 , 2011 , becoming the franchise 's first computer @-@ animated member . Her physical appearance and personality have drawn much comparison between her and preceding Disney Princess Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , by whom she was inspired .

= = Development = =

= = = Conception and writing = = =

Longtime Disney animator Glen Keane first decided to adapt the fairy tale " Rapunzel " by The Brothers Grimm into an animated feature film in 1996 . Keane became interested in the idea of directing an animated film based on " Rapunzel " because he was especially intrigued by the concept of a " person that was born with this gift inside of her and it had to come out " , which he felt was similar to his experience working as an animator at Walt Disney Animation Studios . Keane eventually resigned from his position as director after suffering a heart attack in 2008 , and Nathan Greno and Byron Howard were hired to replace him . However , Keane remained closely involved with the project nonetheless , serving as both the film 's executive producer and Rapunzel 's supervising animator .

Walt Disney first attempted to adapt " Rapunzel " into an animated film soon after the studio released Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 , but the project was ultimately abandoned when the story turned out to be " a really hard nut to crack " . According to Keane , this was mainly due to the fact that the majority of the fairy tale takes place within a tower . To overcome this , Tangled 's writers were forced to develop a way of " bringing Rapunzel out of the tower " . Originally , the film was conceived under the title Rapunzel Unbraided , which Keane described as " a Shrek @-@ like version of the film " that revolved around an entirely different concept . Keane said of the original plot , " It was a fun , wonderful , witty version and we had a couple of great writers . But in my heart of hearts I believed there was something much more sincere and genuine to get out of the story , so we set it aside and went back to the roots of the original fairy tale . "

As directors , Greno and Howard felt it essential that Rapunzel resemble a less " passive " heroine than the way she is depicted in the original fairy tale . " We knew we were making this movie for a contemporary audience and we wanted Rapunzel to be a real role model in a way . We wanted all this girl power and to really drive this story , so she doesn 't wait around for anything ... she 's a smart girl , she has these hopes and dreams and she 's going to get what she wants out of life . "

= = = Voice = = =

Actress and singer Kristin Chenoweth was cast as the voice of Rapunzel . At one point , though briefly , the directors had cast actress Reese Witherspoon in the role , who was also to serve as the film 's executive producer . However , Witherspoon eventually departed from the project , citing creative differences with the filmmakers . Broadway performer Idina Menzel had also auditioned for the role , but didn 't get the part . After hundreds of auditions , the directors ultimately decided to cast recording artist and actress Mandy Moore in the role because , according to co @-@ director Byron Howard , she " has this great soul to her voice " as well as " this down @-@ to @-@ earth , girl @-@ next @-@ door quality that makes her everything you could hope for in a Disney heroine . " Child actress Delaney Rose Stein was cast as a young version Rapunzel .

Moore " grew up loving Disney films " , describing the opportunity to be featured in one as " the ultimate fantasy " . Initially , she had little intention of auditioning for Tangled because she was aware that there would be much competition , and feared that a failed audition would simply result in disappointment . Once she made up her mind to audition , Moore reportedly " chased after " the role of Rapunzel , auditioning for it twice . Because the film is a musical requiring its cast to provide both their characters ' speaking and singing voices , it was mandatory for all auditioning to perform one song of their choice . Following the given instructions to sing a song that was in the style of a singer @-@ songwriter , Moore , a professional singer , performed singer @-@ songwriter Joni Mitchell 's " Help Me " , a song that she herself had covered on her fourth studio album , Coverage ( 2003 ) .

The filmmakers fought against hiring top @-@ billed celebrities to voice the film 's characters . When she joined the cast of Tangled , Moore was initially unaware that the film would become Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 50th animated feature film . Since that time , she has received her ignorance with gratitude , explaining , " I feel lucky because I would 've probably felt a bit more pressure had I known going into the recording process . " Moore was also surprised to learn that the majority of her dialogue would not be recorded in the presence of co @-@ stars Zachary Levi and Donna Murphy , who provided the voices of Flynn Rider and Mother Gothel respectively . She claims to have only met with Levi once to record the song " I See the Light " , a duet between her character Rapunzel and Levi 's character , Flynn . Moore described the recording process as challenging because she was provided with little visual aid , explaining , " All I had to work off were a few sketches ... but it was also fun because it allows you to go into the depths of your imagination . " She also revealed that creating Rapunzel 's voice was simply a process of " let [ ting ] go " . Moore was often required to re @-@ record a single line a total of four times before the directors finally heard a version with which they were satisfied . After watching the completed film for the first time , Moore was disappointed with her own performance because she felt that her voice sounded " shrill " .

= = = Characterization and design = = =

Executive producer John Lasseter explained that " The challenge is that you want to make Rapunzel feel like a smart , clever , educated , healthy , fun human being " despite the fact that the character has not ventured outside of her tower in 18 years . To avoid creating a " princessy and aloof " heroine , the writers decided to base Rapunzel 's personality on those of real @-@ life celebrities such as actresses Reese Witherspoon and Natalie Portman , as well as comedian Amy Poehler , which ultimately resulted in the character having a variety of " quirky qualities " that were used to " shake up expectations of what a princess should be . " According to The New York Times , Rapunzel 's personality made her a significant departure from traditional Disney heroines . Mandy Moore believes that Rapunzel is an atypical Disney princess because she is an independent character who " can take care of herself " , in addition to being largely oblivious to the fact that she is a princess .

Supervising animator Glen Keane designed Rapunzel under the tutelage of veteran animator Ollie Johnston , one of Disney 's original Nine Old Men . Johnston advised Keane to attempt to capture what Rapunzel is thinking as opposed to simply animating what the character is doing after reviewing one of his early pencil tests . Keane compared receiving this advice to receiving a " slap that I never forgot , so when I was drawing over people 's work , I really tried to get into the head of the thinking of the character " . Co @-@ director Byron Howard was inspired by the appearance of Ariel from Disney 's The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , a character who was also animated by Keane . Howard elaborated that " Ariel was the first character that I ever thought there was a soul behind her eyes ... We hoped to do that with Rapunzel to find some sort of soul and depth that people could relate to " . Meanwhile , Keane observed that Ariel and Rapunzel also share " irrepressible " spirits while encountering barriers that prevent them from pursuing their dreams . Keane was inspired by a book about the idea of feminine beauty ; the book cited " strangeness " as " the key to beauty ... in a woman 's face . " Taking this into consideration , Keane maintained a sense of asymmetry while drawing Rapunzel , incorporating into her face several subtle imperfections , specifically her bucked teeth that are bucked teeth . The character was also drawn with freckles , making her the first Disney princess to have this feature . Keane designed Rapunzel with large eyes in order to convey her " irrepressible quality " , a trait her also discovered in Mandy Moore 's voice . The animators created nine different versions of Rapunzel before finally settling on a design with which they were satisfied .

Keane is known for basing his characters on members of his family ; Rapunzel 's passion for art and painting was inspired by the interests of his daughter , Claire . Several of Claire 's original drawings and paintings are used to decorate Rapunzel 's tower . While Keane working on Tangled , Claire gave birth to his first grandchild , Matisse , whose appearance served as the animator 's inspiration for the infant Rapunzel .

= = = = Hair = = = =

Rapunzel was the first blonde @-@ haired Disney animated heroine since Aurora in Sleeping Beauty ( 1959 ) . Animating Rapunzel 's hair using computer @-@ generated imagery has been regarded as the most challenging aspect in the development process of Tangled . According to the Los Angeles Times , supervising animator Glen Keane has become well known for animating some of Walt Disney Animation Studios ' " greatest hair hits " since 1989 , including Ariel from The Little Mermaid , the Beast from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Pocahontas from Pocahontas ( 1995 ) . Both Keane and Howard have expressed similar opinions on Rapunzel 's hair , with Keane describing it as " this constant reminder that she has this gift " , and Howard describing it as its own character . As directors , Howard and Greno provided the animators with much live @-@ action material and reference to use as inspiration for the appearance of Rapunzel 's hair , such as attaching long strands of string to a baseball cap that they would take turns wearing in the studio and moving around it . Additionally , they recruited women who had not cut their hair in several years to serve as live models .

Senior Software Engineer Dr. Kelly Ward , a hair simulation major and graduate from the University of North Carolina , was placed in charge of developing special software meant to assist the animators in animating 70 feet of hair . Ward revealed that , in real life , the character 's hair would weigh roughly 60 pounds , " more weight than a real person would be able to move around as effortlessly as we allow Rapunzel to do in the movie " . For simplicity sake , the animators reduced the realistic total of 100 @,@ 000 individual strands of hair found on a typical human head to a more manageable 100 for Rapunzel . Acquiring the unique but realistic shade of golden blonde for Rapunzel 's hair also proved challenging animators .

= = Appearances = =

= = = Film and television = = =

In order to remain young and beautiful , a vain old woman named Mother Gothel hoards the healing properties of a magical golden flower . When the pregnant Queen falls ill , the flower is harvested and fed to her as medicine , thus preventing Gothel 's from using it . Once healthy , the Queen gives birth to Rapunzel , whose long golden hair has inherited the flower 's powerful healing magic . Hoping to regain full control over the flower , Gothel kidnaps the princess and incarcerates her in an isolated tower simply for the purpose of exploiting her magic hair in order to remain youthful . Every year on Rapunzel 's birthday , the kingdom of Corona releases thousands of floating lanterns into the sky in her memory .

Eighteen years later , Rapunzel , ignorant to the fact that she is a princess , is growing eager to leave the tower and see the " floating lights , " which she believes bear some significance to her . However , she is forbidden by Gothel , by whom she has been led to believe is her mother . When a wanted thief named Flynn Rider , in search of a place to hide , stumbles upon Rapunzel 's tower , Rapunzel , who has tricked Gothel into leaving her unattended , blackmails Flynn into taking her to see the lanterns in return for the crown that he has stolen from the palace . Accompanied by Rapunzel 's chameleon friend Pascal , they embark , but Gothel is soon in close pursuit .

Rapunzel and Flynn eventually arrive at the kingdom in time for the lantern ceremony . Soon afterwards , Flynn is ambushed and vengefully turned into the police by his former partners @-@ in @-@ crime the Stabbington Brothers , who he abandoned in an attempt to outrun the King 's soldiers , and sentenced to death . However , before the Brothers can harm Rapunzel , Gothel knocks them unconscious and takes a heartbroken Rapunzel back to the tower .

Back in her bedroom , Rapunzel is suddenly flooded by memories from her past . Realizing Gothel is a fraud , she finally finds the courage to rebel against her . However , Gothel , unwilling to lose Rapunzel , chains her up and gags her with a white handkerchief . When Flynn , having managed to escape from the castle , arrives at the tower , Gothel stabs him . Desperate to save him , Rapunzel promises to do whatever Gothel pleases in return . Gothel complies , but just as Rapunzel is about to heal him , Flynn cuts her hair short , causing it to turn brown and lose all of its magical powers and might never be long again , resulting in Gothel 's death . Flynn dies in Rapunzel 's arms and she cries bitterly . However , the flower 's magic manifests itself through Rapunzel 's tears and returns Flynn to life . Flynn returns Rapunzel to the palace , where she is finally reunited with her parents .

Rapunzel appeared later in the short film Tangled Ever After , that features his marriage with Eugene .

Rapunzel will also appear in the upcoming television series .

= = = Miscellaneous = = =

= = = Merchandise = = =

Rapunzel is the tenth member of the Disney Princess line @-@ up , a marketing franchise aimed primarily at young girls that manufactures and releases products such as toys , video and audio recordings , clothing , and video games . The Walt Disney Company introduces characters into its Disney Princess line @-@ up through coronation . Rapunzel 's was held on October 2 , 2011 , at the Kensington Palace in London , England ; the character became the franchise 's first princess to have been computer @-@ animated . However , the franchise uses a traditionally animated rendering of Rapunzel in most of its merchandise . Following her coronation , Rapunzel was recognized with her own page on the official Disney Princess website .

Disney Consumer Products has released several merchandise based on Tangled that features Rapunzel . Rapunzel appears as a playable character in an interactive adventure @-@ themed video game based on the film , entitled Tangled : The Video Game . The game was released by Disney Interactive Studios on November 23 , 2010 , one day before the film 's November 24 theatrical release , specifically for the Nintendo video game platforms Wii and DS , and follows the plot of the original film . Voice actress Mandy Moore reprises her role as Rapunzel in the video game . The character 's likeness has also been adapted into a variety of doll products . Rapunzel was the first character created and released as part of the Disney Animator 's Collection , a series of dolls depicting each of the eleven Disney Princesses as toddler . She was designed Glen Keane , who served as her supervising animator on the original film .

= = = Theme parks = = =

Rapunzel currently makes regular appearances at various Walt Disney Parks and Resorts sites , locations and attractions . In anticipation of the film 's theatrical release , several Tangled @-@ based attractions were constructed at various Disney Parks locations in both California and Florida , USA . These include a life @-@ sized replica of Rapunzel 's tower , located in Fantasyland .

As part of photographer Annie Leibovitz 's Disney Dream Portrait Series that she has been commissioning for Walt Disney Parks and Resorts since 2007 , The Walt Disney Company hired American country singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift to be featured as the model for Rapunzel . In a detailed description of the piece , Us Weekly wrote , " The stunning image — captioned ' Where a world of adventure awaits ' — shows the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Grammy winner perched on the window ledge of a moss @-@ covered stone tower . A pink petticoat peeks out from under her purple gown as she stares wistfully into the distance , her long golden tresses flowing regally in the wind . " Swift told On The Red Carpet that she was honored to have been selected for the piece .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

Critics were generally positive in their opinions of Rapunzel . The St. Paul Pioneer Press ' Chris Hewitt described the character as " no damsel in distress " , while Sara Vizcarrondo of Boxoffice described the character as " a spunky heroine who could infiltrate the heavily guarded princess canon . " Stephen Whitty of The Star @-@ Ledger dubbed Rapunzel " a fairly capable young woman " . Bruce Diones of The New Yorker wrote that Rapunzel has " a sharp wit and intelligent concerns " , while Claudia Puig of USA Today opined , " Rapunzel is ... believable in her teenage histrionics " . Calling the character a " delight " , The Austin Chronicle 's Marjorie Baumgarten wrote , " Rapunzel is a spunky gal , capable of defending herself " . Sandie Angulo Chen of Common Sense Media wrote that Rapunzel is a " guileless , strong , and beautiful " character who is " so breathtakingly good that you can 't help but weep with her when she thinks all hope is lost . " The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel 's Cathy Jakicic described Rapunzel as a " scrappy , self @-@ reliant " heroine who " can rescue herself " . The Scotsman commented , " the film doesn 't ... turn [ Rapunzel ] into a simpering damsel in distress . " Describing the character as " innocent but ( inevitably ) feisty " , Empire 's Helen O 'Hara enjoyed the fact that both Rapunzel and Flynn are given " decent character development " while " bas [ ing ] their growing love story on more than a single longing glance . " Similarly , the Mountain Xpress praised Rapunzel and Flynn 's relationship , writing , " what works best is the interplay between the two leads ... these animated characters are frankly more believable and charismatic than the human ones in ... Love and Other Drugs . " Todd Hertz of Christianity Today called Rapunzel " fun , dynamic , and wondrous " .

Jim Schembri of The Age gave the character a very detailed , positive review , writing :

And , of course , the heart of the story is Rapunzel , a freshly minted heroine who morphs from prisoner to strong @-@ willed seeker of her own destiny . Blondes have not had a good rap of late , thanks chiefly to the stream of formulaic rom @-@ coms that have played them up as the ditzes and airheads of cliche . Rapunzel 's no @-@ nonsense attitude and proactive air , however , reminds us that the blondes of yore were not to be trifled with . As reimagined in Tangled , Rapunzel defies authority , shuts down male ego and charts her own course . She 's not only a great role model for kids , she 's the type of gutsy , independently minded , value @-@ added blonde Mae West would have been proud of .

The character was not void of criticism . Although Richard Corliss of Time thoroughly enjoyed the film , he felt that too much emphasis was placed on Flynn Rider and not enough on Rapunzel . Corliss questioned the future of Disney 's animated heroines , writing , " For 60 years ... girls were the focal characters who could be expected to come of age , triumph over adversity and , in general , man up , " and accused various film studios of " abolish [ ing ] female @-@ centered stories . " Variety 's Justin Chang described Rapunzel as a " bland , plastic " heroine , likening her to a Barbie doll . Similarly , Tom Huddleston of Time Out described Rapunzel as " bland " . James Berardinelli of ReelViews was fairly mixed in his review , writing , " although likeable and energetic , [ Rapunzel ] is not as memorable as Snow White , Ariel , or Belle . " Keith Uhlich of Time Out described the character as " synthetic " . He wrote , " you never feel like you 're watching a girl on the empowering cusp of adulthood so much as a selection of attitudes compiled through demographic study . " The Independent 's Anthony Quinn panned the character , describing her as " bland and Valley Girlish " . Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch opined , " when the big @-@ eyed heroine tries to tug at our heartstrings and Flynn turns into Prince Charming , the too @-@ familiar hero @-@ and @-@ damsel motif feels like a fashion faux @-@ pas . " Similarly , the SouthtownStar 's Jake Coyle wrote , " Both Rapunzel and Flynn too much resemble Barbie and Ken , lacking both superficial and emotional individuality . " Jen Yamato of Movies.com criticized Disney for " failing to give Rapunzel a backbone and retreading ground so familiar you can fall asleep for ten minutes and still know exactly what happened " .

As the tenth Disney Princess , several critics have drawn comparisons between Rapunzel and preceding Disney Princesses and animated heroines , the most frequent and prominent of whom remains Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) . The Daily News ' Joe Neumaier likened Rapunzel 's independence to that of Belle from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) , writing , " thoroughly modern Rapunzel does most of the saving " . Jonathan Crocker of Total Film noted similarities between Rapunzel and Ariel , describing Rapunzel as " A strong @-@ willed heroine longing to see outside . " Mike Scott of The Times @-@ Picayune commented on Rapunzel 's innocence , describing it as " reminiscent of Amy Adams ' flighty Giselle from ... Enchanted . " LoveFilm 's Tom Charity commented on the character 's independence , likening Rapunzel 's spirited personality to those of both Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) and Mulan from Mulan ( 1998 ) . Charity also labeled Rapunzel " another addition to the more recent Disney tradition of emancipated heroines " .

= = = Accolades and recognition = = =

CNN 's Stephanie Goldberg included Rapunzel in her article " Brave 's Merida and other animated heroines " , a list that recognized some of Disney 's most heroic and independent heroines who have appeared in animated films . Goldberg jokingly wrote , " So what if ... Rapunzel defends herself with a frying pan and holds prisoners captive with her long , magical hair ? " Sonia Saraiya of Nerve ranked Rapunzel fourth in her article " Ranked : Disney Princesses From Least To Most Feminist " . Comparing the character 's spirited personality to that of preceding Disney Princesses Ariel and Jasmine from Aladdin ( 1992 ) , Saraiya described Rapunzel as " badass , " despite the fact that " her naivete sometimes gets in the way of her progressivism . " Saraiya continued , " [ Rapunzel ] also recognizes the unfairness of her plight and finds a way out of it , outwitting her ' mother , ' who is in fact her kidnapper , to venture to the outside world . " Tala Dayrit of Female Network included Rapunzel in her article " 30 Fierce and Fun Female Cartoon Characters " , writing that , unlike her original fairy tale counterpart , " She ’ s not the helpless damsel locked in a tower awaiting an unknown fate , but a strong woman capable of defending herself in a fight . "

In the film , Rapunzel performs the song " I See the Light " as a duet with Flynn Rider . The song received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song at the 83rd Academy Awards in 2011 . Voice actress Mandy Moore performed the song live at the ceremony with co @-@ star Zachary Levi , who provided the voice Flynn in the film . The song did , however , garner the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 54th ceremony in 2012 .

= Dragon Age : Origins =

Dragon Age : Origins is a role @-@ playing video game developed by BioWare and published by Electronic Arts . It is the first game in the Dragon Age franchise , and was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 in November 2009 , and for OS X in December 2009 . Edge of Reality developed the game 's console versions .

Set in the fictional kingdom of Ferelden during a period of civil strife , the game puts the player in the role of a warrior , mage or rogue coming from an elven , human , or dwarven background who must unite the kingdom to fight an impending invasion by demonic forces known as the " Darkspawn " . The player character is recruited as a Grey Warden and is tasked to defeat the Archdemon ( a being with the soul of an old god in the body of a powerful Dragon ) that commands the Darkspawn , and end the catastrophe known as the Blight . The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective that can be shifted to top @-@ down perspective . Throughout the game , players encounter various companions , who play major roles in the game 's plot and gameplay and accompany the player throughout the game .

BioWare described Dragon Age : Origins as a " dark heroic fantasy " set in a unique world , and a spiritual successor to their previous Baldur 's Gate and Neverwinter Nights franchises . Its setting was inspired by The Lord of the Rings and A Song of Ice & Fire , and was described by BioWare as a mix between high fantasy and low fantasy . Development of the game began in 2002 , and lasted over six years . BioWare employed more than 144 voice @-@ actors , and hired Inon Zur to compose the game 's music .

Origins received critical acclaim upon release , with praise mostly directed at its story , setting , characters , music and combat system . It sold more than 3 @.@ 2 million copies , and 1 million pieces of downloadable content . Its multiple year @-@ end accolades included Game of the Year and Best Role @-@ playing awards from several gaming publications . BioWare released several instances of downloadable content after the game 's initial launch , an expansion pack for the game titled Awakening in March 2010 , and two sequels , Dragon Age II and Dragon Age : Inquisition , were released in 2011 and 2014 respectively .

= = Gameplay = =

Dragon Age : Origins is an action role @-@ playing game . The player is a Grey Warden , part of an order of elite fighters , whose task is to defeat the Archdemon and save the world from a disastrous event called the Blight . Players create their own Grey Warden character , customizing gender and appearance as well as choosing a race and class . The available classes are warriors , who perform strong physical attacks ; rogues , who carry out stealth attacks and steal items from other characters ; and mages , who cast spells on enemies , create combo spells , and support other party members . The three choices of race are human , elf , and dwarf . The combination of class and race determines which of six different origin stories the player experiences : Dalish Elf , City Elf , Dwarven Noble , Dwarven Commoner , Mage , or Human Noble . This affects the way other in @-@ game characters perceive the player 's character ; for instance , a Dwarven Commoner would receive hatred and discrimination from other dwarves . However , all classes follow the same plot after the completion of the origin story .

During gameplay the player encounters a variety of enemies , including giant spiders , darkspawn , ghosts , walking trees , and dragons . They also recruit companions , who accompany them and provide assistance in battle . These companions are normally controlled by artificial intelligence , with behavior that the player can adjust through the " Tactic " menu , but the player also has the option to switch between characters , and is able to issue orders to them in real @-@ time or pause the game to queue up actions .

Utilizing a third @-@ person perspective , the combat in Origins is largely similar to BioWare 's previous Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic . The player and any companions engage in combat with the weapons they have equipped when the player targets or is noticed by a hostile enemy . Players can swap weapons and perform special attacks during combat , but most of these attacks have a recharge time . The point of view can be shifted from third person to a top @-@ down view , where friendly and hostile units are labelled with different colors to distinguish them . At the end of a battle the characters ' health and stamina , which powers a character 's skills , are automatically refilled . When an enemy is defeated , the player collects any items or loot from its corpse .

The player can level up their Warden character by earning experience points through completing quests and defeating enemies . Each time player levels up , they receive three points to spend on the character 's six attributes . Strength inflicts more damage , dexterity helps evade attacks more often , willpower increases stamina , magic increases spell damage or magic defense , cunning improves combat tactics , and constitution helps withstand attacks . Special skills , which are divided into four different aspects for each class , and specialization options , which offer class @-@ specific skills , can also be unlocked by levelling up .

Players can be accompanied by a maximum of three companions . Companions who are not in the player 's active party stay in base camp , a hub where the player can talk to their party members as well as purchase new weapons , armor , and gear . In addition to the main story , the player can learn more about the world of Thedas by collecting the Indexes scattered throughout the game .

The game 's dialogue engine is the same as that of Mass Effect . The player can talk and interact with both party members and other non @-@ playable characters . A dialogue tree offers several dialogue options for the player to select . Through conversation , the player can unlock unique quests and dialogue revealing the lore of Dragon Age . It can also be used to persuade or intimidate other characters . The player often must choose between morally ambiguous options , which result in consequences that affect the game 's world and progression , and can even lead to the death of a potential companion . Companions react to the player 's choices through an " approval system " . When they dislike or object to the player 's decisions , their approval drops , which can result in a companion leaving the party or even attacking the Warden . Approval points can also be influenced by gifts , which will improve any companion 's approval but are each intended for a specific companion . Some gifts , if given to the right character , start a cutscene and can even unlock a quest . A high approval rating improves a companion 's morale and gives bonuses to their combat abilities . A significant approval rating also makes it possible for the Warden to pursue a romantic relationship with certain companions . The game 's " interaction reactivity " system means that the way a player treats one companion affects the approval rating of other companions as well .

= = Synopsis = =

= = = Setting = = =

The game is set in Ferelden , one of several countries in the mythical continent Thedas . Demonic creatures called the Darkspawn dwell within the Deep Roads , an underground highway system created by the dwarves long ago , deep beneath the surface of Thedas . Every few hundred years , the Darkspawn swarm the surface world in a movement known as a Blight . Ever since the first Blight , Thedas has relied on the legendary order of warriors known as the Grey Wardens to drive the Darkspawn back . Dragon Age : Origins begins on the eve of Thedas 's fifth Blight .

Thedas is a world in which race and class combine to determine social class . Elves are often viewed as second @-@ class citizens by humans , while human nobles are treated with respect . Mages , on the other hand , are cloistered by the Chantry : they have access to the Fade , the unconscious realm that is the home of spirits , and a single lapse in vigilance could cause them to be possessed by demons . Apostate mages , who live outside the Chantry 's control , are considered extremely dangerous , and the Chantry has a militant wing , the Templars , to seek them out and subdue them by any means necessary .

= = = Characters = = =

The chief protagonist of Dragon Age : Origins is the player @-@ controlled character , whose biography and combat specialization are determined by the race and class chosen at the start of the game . While the player can choose his or her avatar 's first name , the character is usually referred to as " The Warden " by other characters and the game 's narration .

Many of the game 's non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) are companion characters , who appear throughout the game and may volunteer their services . Companions include Alistair , a reluctantly heroic Grey Warden with a sarcastic wit ; Morrigan , the sultry but cynical dark mage who has little regard for authority or social mores ; Leliana , an ex @-@ member of Ferelden 's Chantry whose optimistic and virtuous demeanor belies an aptitude for espionage and combat ; Sten , a proud but stoic warrior of the militaristic Qunari people who often questions human ways ; Oghren , a brutal dwarven warrior whose love of alcohol is only matched by his penchant for violence and loyalty to his friends ; Wynne , an Elder Mage of the Circle , a maternal figure to the party and a powerful healer ; Zevran , a rakish elven assassin who is fond of treasures , sex and innuendo ; and a loyal Mabari War Hound , which the player can name and use for scouting and combat . In the DLC , Shale , a sarcastic Golem with a mild ornithophobia who was a female dwarf in her prior life , is also available . There is also a so @-@ called " secret companion " who can be recruited , but that will cause Alister to leave the Warden . The secret companion is Loghain .

Outside of companion characters , NPCs significant to the Origins plot include Duncan , the Grey Warden who recruits the player ; King Cailan , Ferelden 's naive but courageous leader and son of the legendary King Maric ; Queen Anora , Cailan 's politically @-@ savvy wife , whose youth and beauty are matched by a commanding personality but somewhat offset by her ambition and ruthlessness ; and Flemeth , Morrigan 's mother , who appears to be a harmless old woman in public , but in truth is an infamous dark witch of Ferelden legend .

The faceless Darkspawn horde is led by the archdemon Urthemiel , supposedly one of the Old Gods of the Tevinter Imperium , incarnated in the form of a powerful and corrupted dragon with total control over the darkspawn . The game 's other main antagonists are Teyrn Loghain Mac Tir , father of Queen Anora , a once @-@ respected war hero gone mad with ambition and paranoia ; and Rendon Howe , the amoral and corrupt Arl of Amaranthine who allies with Loghain to further his own ambitions .

= = = Plot = = =

Depending on the player 's chosen race and class , they will begin the game with one of six predetermined origin stories . In each origin story , the player is introduced to Duncan , the commander of Ferelden 's Grey Wardens , who is trying to find recruits to join the order . At the end of the origin story , the player 's character is selected as a potential Grey Warden , and leaves with Duncan .

The player and Duncan journey to a fortress in southern Ferelden called Ostagar . There , they join Cailan , the King of Ferelden , and his father @-@ in @-@ law Loghain , a legendary general . The three leaders plan to make a stand against the encroaching Darkspawn before a new Blight overwhelms Ferelden . Duncan senses the influence of an Archdemon , a god @-@ like being hosted in the body of a powerful Dragon that commands the Darkspawn , which makes this the first true Blight in over 400 years . Duncan emphasizes the importance of defeating the Blight before it can gain enough momentum to threaten the rest of Thedas .

Duncan initiates the player into the Grey Wardens through a dangerous ritual called the Joining . The Joining involves imbibing Darkspawn blood , which will either kill a person or imbue them with the powerful darkspawn essence known as the Taint , granting them the ability to sense Darkspawn and a rudimentary connection into their hive mind . After surviving the Joining , the player and another Grey Warden , Alistair , are given the task of lighting a beacon at the top of the fortress which will signal Loghain 's men to charge the horde 's flank . However , upon seeing the signal , Loghain abandons the battlefield with his army . Without Loghain 's reinforcements , King Cailan and Duncan are overwhelmed and slain by the Darkspawn , who massacre Cailan 's army , seize control of Ostagar and begin advancing into southern Ferelden .

The player 's Warden and Alistair are saved by Flemeth , a powerful witch who lives in a secluded hermitage with her daughter and apprentice , Morrigan . The player , Alistair , and Morrigan decide that in order to stop the Blight from destroying Ferelden , and possibly all of Thedas , they will need to gather a new army and slay the Archdemon . Using ancient Grey Warden treaties , the player 's Warden must travel across Ferelden to enlist the aid of the Dalish Elves , the Dwarves of Orzammar , the Circle of Magi , and the soldiers of Redcliffe , loyal to Arl Eamon . In addition , Alistair reveals that he is a bastard son of King Maric Theirin , Cailin 's father , putting him in contention for the recently vacated throne .

Meanwhile , Loghain returns to Ferelden 's capital city , Denerim , to inform his daughter Queen Anora of King Cailan 's death . Loghain scapegoats the Grey Wardens for the defeat at Ostagar ; accusing them of betraying Ferelden , Loghain outlaws the order and demands the deaths of any surviving Wardens . While Anora inherits her husband 's authority , Loghain quickly declares himself her regent and effectively seizes control of the kingdom . Loghain swiftly becomes a brutal and tyrannical ruler willing to do anything to retain power , igniting a civil war between himself and Ferelden 's nobility , who refuse to acknowledge his authority . Both sides battle to an inconclusive stalemate , and the darkspawn take advantage of the chaos to advance further into Ferelden unopposed .

After the player successfully obtains the assistance of each of the primary factions , a Landsmeet is called among the nobles of Ferelden . There , the player confronts Loghain , ultimately either executing him or making him a Grey Warden ( in which case he joins the party , replacing Alistair ) . The player also settles who will lead Ferelden against the Blight ( Alistair , Anora , or both ) and rallies support from the rest of the kingdom to face the Darkspawn . At this point , the player learns that only a Grey Warden can slay the Archdemon because of the Taint present in a Grey Warden 's body . Killing the Archdemon releases the demonic essence within it , which is drawn to the Taint in the Grey Warden and effectively kills them as well ; if anyone other than a Warden slays it , the Archdemon 's essence survives and finds a new host in the nearest Darkspawn , making the monster effectively immortal .

On the night before the final battle , Morrigan offers the player 's Warden a way to slay the Archdemon without sacrificing anyone : Morrigan believes that if the player succeeds in conceiving a child with her , the child would also carry the Taint . Once the Archdemon dies , its demonic essence would be drawn away from any Grey Warden to safely merge with the unborn child instead . The resulting child would be born a demigod , which she plans to raise on her own . The player can accept Morrigan 's offer , convince Alistair or Loghain to take part instead , or refuse the witch 's proposal , which will cause her to leave the party .

The next day , the player and the newly assembled army of Ferelden fight their way through the city of Denerim , which has been overrun by the Darkspawn . After fighting their way through the Darkspawn horde , and a final battle against the Archdemon atop Denerim 's highest tower , the player is given the chance to deliver the killing blow or to let Alistair or Loghain do it . With each choice , the Archdemon is killed and the leaderless Darkspawn army retreats from Denerim , marking the end of the Fifth Blight . Unless the ritual with Morrigan was performed , whoever slew the Archdemon also perishes . The story ends with a ceremony attended by the people of Ferelden during which the player and their companions are honored for saving the kingdom . The game then presents an epilogue in text and pictures which details the ramifications of the player 's in @-@ game choices on the future of Ferelden and the lives of his or her companions .

= = Development = =

= = = Design = = =

Dragon Age : Origins was created by the Edmonton studio of BioWare , the developer of Neverwinter Nights and Jade Empire . Development of the game 's first demo began in November 2002 . It was officially revealed at E3 2004 as simply Dragon Age , and was re @-@ revealed as Dragon Age : Origins in July 2008 , alongside a new trailer for the game . According to BioWare , they kept any information about the game hidden from the public , to further the game 's design and technology . More than 180 people worked on the game , and full @-@ scale production began three years after the game 's initial development . The subtitle " Origins " was chosen to represent the six origins storyline , BioWare 's return to PC role @-@ playing games , and the beginning of a new franchise . Origins is a spiritual successor to Baldur 's Gate and Neverwinter Nights , as an attempt to build a similar fantasy RPG without any licensing restrictions or issues . The similarities are mostly present in gameplay elements , such as real @-@ time tactical combat ; the game does not share the Dungeons and Dragons setting of the Baldur 's Gate series , and is instead set in a period resembling the Stone Age or Iron Age , with dragons prevalent . The tactic menu was inspired by the gambit system from Final Fantasy XII .

David Gaider , the lead writer for Origins , built the game 's world first before writing the plot . The team chose a " fantasy " setting because Dan Tudge , the game 's director , thought that BioWare was at its best in the fantasy genre . In the first draft , there were no Darkspawn or Grey Wardens , and mages were not allowed to use magic in cities . There were twelve different origin stories , including Human Commoner and Avvar , a barbarian origin . However , most of them were scrapped for being " ridiculous " , leading to six stories being finalized . Loghain was the first character to be created , while an Ogre , nicknamed " Fluffy " , and a human with medium armor were the first enemies designed . The concepts of Alistair and Morrigan were the next to be created , as they play the largest role in the game 's plot . Their creation also took far longer than other characters . Morrigan was originally conceived to be similar to Flemeth , speaking whimsically . However , Gaider was not satisfied and decided to completely rewrite her personality . As a result , she was designed as a " blunt " person who always resists her mother . Finding a suitable voice actor for Morrigan took the most time of any character . The game 's final version features 68 @,@ 260 lines of dialogue ; the quality assurance testers for the game enabled a cheat to automatically skip these cutscenes and dialogues during test runs .

Ray Muzyka , co @-@ founder of BioWare , said that the team wanted to try something that would be new but familiar to most players . They hoped that Origins would redefine the genre to become The Lord of the Rings of video game franchises . Greg Zeschuk , another co @-@ founder of BioWare , described the fantasy of Dragon Age as in between the high fantasy of J. R. R. Tolkien 's works and the low fantasy of works by George R.R. Martin . The goal was a " dark heroic fantasy " that would suit the taste of any fan of the genre . Thus , while the game has the typical races of human , elf , and dwarf , they are slightly altered from the usual nature of the three races , and a new lizard @-@ like race called the Qunari was introduced . Some of the alterations they made included flipping how certain races , like elves , are treated in other fictional worlds . While elves are often described as a race of high prestige in fiction , Dragon Age : Origins presents them as slaves of humans , labelled as second class citizens who resent the human race . This extended to the gameplay , where the player can choose to discriminate against other races , and can experience discrimination from others based on their choices .

BioWare recognized that non @-@ linear choices are an element unique to video games in the entertainment industry . Zeschuk called the sheer number of choices in the game " big " and " impactful " , and the team designed many of those to be emotional and create a more personal experience for the player . They intentionally avoided adding a karma system , as the choices are designed to be ambiguous , with only the player to judge whether they are good or bad . According to Muzyka , their goal was to make players sympathize with events and characters , connecting with them to feel true emotions . This vision challenged the team to balance many key aspects , such as the amount of dialogue and animation in each cutscene , to create a believable scenario for players .

The team also hoped to handle romance in a more " mature " and " complicated " way , with a true reflection on human relationships and reactions rather than " adolescent titillation " . The game has sex scenes , but no nudity . Muzyka added that it was an artistic choice , and a decision made by the team , not the publisher Electronic Arts .

While Origins is a single @-@ player @-@ only game , Muzyka described it as a " social experience " , considering the narrative and its variety of paths as an integral part of the gameplay . The characters a player meets , items they collect , and quests they receive and complete may be different , leading to a completely different experience . He also considered the ways a player explores the world and discovers new areas as an exploration narrative . As each player had different experience , they hoped that those players would collaborate to expand upon their knowledge of the world . To that effect , the team built a community site as an online social environment for players to communicate . Players could share stats and automatically generated screenshots with the community .

= = = Sound = = =

The game features an orchestral soundtrack with choir , used both in @-@ game and during cutscenes . The soundtrack was recorded by performance of a 44 @-@ piece orchestra , recorded twice and merged to sound like an 88 @-@ piece orchestra . It was composed by Inon Zur and performed by the Northwest Sinfonia . According to Zur , he intentionally made most of the soundtrack feel " dark " , combining low brass and bass string instruments with ancient drums to express a feeling that is both heroic and demonic . One of the tracks , " Leliana 's Song " , was composed in under 24 hours . The soundtrack was presented at a panel in the Hollywood Music in Media Interactive Conference in 2009 , and was performed as part of the September 26 " A Night in Fantasia 2009 " concert in Sydney , Australia , by the Eminence Symphony Orchestra .

Origins contains a large amount of voice acting recorded in the US and the UK . Actors include Tim Russ , Steve Valentine , Kate Mulgrew , Simon Templeman , Mark Rolston , Tim Curry , Adam Howden , Nicola Bertram , and Claudia Black . In total , more than 140 voice actors worked on the game . A large part of these recordings became the ambient dialogue that takes place between non @-@ player characters in the adventuring party , adding to their backstories and lending more credibility to the characters . Mark Darrah , executive producer of BioWare , described the cast of characters the largest of any of their games at that time , and hoped that using celebrities would add a layer of depth and complexity to the characters . The main protagonist is not voice @-@ acted , as the team hoped that players would " reflect their own inner voice " when making decisions .

= = = Release = = =

While the game was originally intended for PC , a console version was announced in 2008 by gaming magazine Game Informer . Prior to the announcement , Zeschuk suggested that the entire franchise has a " console future " . The decision was made to bring the game to consoles to introduce it to a wider audience . Mike Laidlaw , the game 's lead designer , considered creating the console versions ' interface a challenge , as they had to convert the long and complex quickbar from the PC version to a more streamlined interface that could use the same actions with only few button presses . To that end , the team decided to map six different actions together , and allow players to customize the arrangement . Also , the console version does not allow the top @-@ down view possible in the PC version .

The game was originally set to be released in early 2009 for Microsoft Windows , and later for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The team partnered with Edge of Reality to develop the console versions of the game . However , its release date was pushed to the latter half of that year in order to have a simultaneous launch . BioWare announced that the game would be released on October 20 , 2009 , but pushed it back again to November 6 , 2009 , as the team wanted additional time to finalize some last @-@ minute decisions . The PlayStation 3 version was at one point delayed to November 17 , but did end up launching alongside the other versions . A Mac version of the game , developed by TransGaming , was released on December 21 , 2009 .

In addition to the standard version , other editions of Origins were made available for purchase . The Collector 's Edition came in a SteelBook with different artwork . Like the standard edition , the Collector 's Edition included a redemption code to obtain the Stone Prisoner and Blood Dragon Armor DLC for free , but added three additional exclusive in @-@ game items , a bonus disc containing a making @-@ of documentary , concept art , trailers , the game 's original soundtrack , and a cloth map of Ferelden . The " Ultimate Edition " , released on October 26 , 2010 , includes the base game , the Awakening expansion pack , and all 9 DLC packs .

The Dragon Age Character Creator was released on October 13 , 2009 , allowing players to create a character in advance and import it into the full game upon release . BioWare also released a " developer @-@ grade " toolset to allow extensive modification and customization of the game 's PC version . Players can use these tools to craft new campaigns , quests , cinematics , and lip @-@ syncing .

On November 26 , 2009 , Electronic Arts announced a competition called Dragon Age : Warden ’ s Quest . Contestants formed groups of four people and competed to adventure through the game 's world , with the winning group receiving $ 12 @,@ 500 . The representatives from Hungary won the contest , followed by a group called Bioware Community , Canada and a group from Poland . On March 9 , 2011 , Electronic Arts announced that players who pre @-@ ordered Darkspore would receive a free copy of Origins . In 2012 , to celebrate the first @-@ year anniversary of Electronic Arts ' own digital distribution software Origin , the game was made free to download alongside Battlefield : Bad Company 2 and Spore for a limited time . On October 8 , 2015 , it became free to download again for a limited time as part of Origin 's On the House program .

= = = Downloadable content = = =

BioWare announced that they would support the game with downloadable content for at least 2 years . The DLC packs are both story @-@ based and content @-@ based , and added in elements that were cut from the base game , such as Shale , a stone @-@ based companion who always gets stuck in doors and causes trouble with the camera system . A crossover with Mass Effect 2 , an item called the Blood Dragon Armor , is also available for purchase .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

Dragon Age : Origins received critical acclaim from major video game critics upon its release . While the game is considered to be virtually identical across all platforms , differences in user interface , graphical performance , and online content delivery have led the PC version to be reviewed more favorably than the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions ; Metacritic ranks the PC , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 versions of the game with scores of 91 , 87 , and 86 , respectively .

The game 's setting was well received by critics . Dave Snider from Giant Bomb thought that the setting felt traditional due to the presence of dwarves and elves , but that the world was beautifully executed . He also appreciated the small touches BioWare added to the world , noting the " French @-@ tinged accent " of the Orlesian Empire humans . He added that the six origin stories and their unique dialogue and referencing throughout the game make the world feel cohesive . Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot made similar comments , stating that the new ideas added to a familiar world make it feel original and new . However , Jeff Haynes from IGN said that the origin stories were inconsistent , with missteps that make the world , while " rich and vivid " , feel less believable . Joe Juba from Game Informer wrote that the world was well @-@ realized with a deep history , which makes the game addicting , as players can sense their Warden 's importance in the world .

The game 's story and characters also received praise . Snider said that the story is driven by the characters , and that the choices presented in the game were difficult , making him regret some choices for weeks after completing the game . He added that the game 's main quest was well @-@ written , and its quality boosted by excellent voice acting ; he called the performance of Claudia Black as Morrigan one of the best in the game . VanOrd commended the game 's story , saying that it was memorable and crafted with care , successfully making players care about the game 's world and characters . He added that the deep character development made every choice " momentous " . GamesRadar thought that the story and the Warden 's appearance felt generic , but that the story become more and more engrossing as it progressed . Nick Tan from Game Revolution liked the banter between companions as a humorous change of pace within the game . Gerald Villoria from GameSpy praised the exclusion of the moral system for making the characters feel more complex . Juba wrote that the story was good but predictable , not straying far from standard fantasy stories . Wesley Yin @-@ Poole from VideoGamer.com called the story memorable , saying that it " leaves an itch in your mind " , and has attracted players to return to the game " like an addict seeking a hit of relief . "

As for the game 's combat , Snider called it streamlined , but said that players who do not want to use the pause mechanic would not be able to appreciate the game , as the combat requires both patience and strategy . He liked the game 's third @-@ person view more than the top @-@ down view , saying that being able to view the sky made environments feel more complicated , and praised the high difficulty of boss battles , which task players to manage their stamina carefully . His conclusion was that Origins " feels like a real throwback to the good old days of PC role @-@ playing epics . " VanOrd said that the combat system was easily recognizable for players who have played other RPGs developed by BioWare . He added that players can have a lot of fun switching between characters , and agreed that the game had created thrilling boss battles . He praised the choice to have health and stamina replenish immediately after battles , as it sped up combat pace and flow . Tan also commended the combat , finding it a better system than other BioWare RPGs , but disliked the fact that characters can step into water . Juba praised the amount of space for players to experiment with new skills and abilities , adding that the required focus and attention make combat very satisfying .

The game 's graphics received mixed reviews . VanOrd was not impressed , stating that the environments do not look as good viewed from a top @-@ down perspective , but he praised the art style and some of the game 's " eye @-@ catching " landmarks . Tan liked that the environments were varied and unique , saying that each level felt " vast " and filled with details . Villoria found its visual quality lacking when compared with that of Mass Effect 2 , adding that the facial animation can feel wooden at times . However , he found the combat animation rewarding and satisfying . He further criticized the sex sequences as " off @-@ putting " . Yin @-@ Poole said that the game 's graphics were boring and generic , and called the sex scenes " anti @-@ climatic " and poorly @-@ executed . Both Villoria and Yin @-@ Poole felt that the six @-@ year development time was too long , considering the game 's mediocre graphics .

GamesRadar estimated that there are more than 80 hours of content available in the game . Villoria called the world engaging , and its replay value very high , as players can play the story over and over again with a different origin . Juba agreed , as did Yin @-@ Poole , who added that the way companions react to the player 's decisions , as well as the six origin stories , significantly expand the game 's longevity .

= = = Sales = = =

Dragon Age : Origins topped Steam 's sales chart on November 10 , 2009 . The Digital Deluxe version of the game was ranked first place , with the standard edition ranked second . The Xbox 360 version of the game was the ninth @-@ best @-@ selling game in the US according to the NPD Group , selling approximately 362 @,@ 100 copies . According to John Riccitiello , CEO of Electronic Arts , the company is very satisfied with the sales of Origins ; more than 1 million DLC packs for the game were sold before the end of 2009 . In February 2010 , Electronic Arts announced that more than 3 @.@ 2 million copies of the game had been sold .

= = = Accolades = = =

Origins gained recognition from several gaming publications for its achievements . The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences named it the " Role @-@ Playing / Massively Multiplayer Game of the Year 2009 " . At the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards , Dragon Age : Origins received the Best PC Game and Best RPG awards . It was chosen as the PC Game of the Year , Best Xbox 360 RPG of the Year , Best Story of the Year , and Best PC Role @-@ Playing Game of the Year by IGN . The game also received Giant Bomb 's Best PC Game of 2009 award , and Game of the Year 2009 and RPG of the Year awards from U.S. PC Gamer . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die .

= = Franchise = =

Although the name " Origins " hinted that the game would be a beginning of a new franchise , the team did not expect the game to become successful , and had never planned for sequels . Due to its success , the game spawned a Dragon Age franchise consisting of video games , comics , and novels . The game 's sequel , Dragon Age II , was announced on July 9 , 2010 , with the goal of bringing improved graphics and combat to the franchise . Dragon Age II is set within a ten @-@ year period and features a new predefined protagonist , Hawke , and a new locale within the Dragon Age world , the city of Kirkwall . Players are able to transfer save data from Dragon Age : Origins into the sequel ; decisions that the player made during the course of Dragon Age : Origins are referenced while playing Dragon Age II .

The third installment of the series , titled Dragon Age : Inquisition , was announced on September 17 , 2012 . In Inquisition , players take on the role of an Inquisitor , and must unite Ferelden and Orlais to defeat an ancient Darkspawn called Corypheus . The game was released on November 18 , 2014 , and in addition to the original three gaming platforms , it brought the Dragon Age franchise to the eighth generation of video game consoles : PlayStation 4 and Xbox One .

A free @-@ to @-@ play mobile game , Heroes of Dragon Age , was released in 2013 .

= Shōkaku @-@ class aircraft carrier =

The two Shōkaku @-@ class ( 翔鶴型 , Shōkaku @-@ gata ) aircraft carriers were built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1930s . Completed shortly before the start of the Pacific War in 1941 , they have been called " arguably the best aircraft carriers in the world " when built . With the exception of the Battle of Midway , they participated in every major naval action of the Pacific War , including the attack on Pearl Harbor , the Indian Ocean Raid , the Battle of the Coral Sea , and the Guadalcanal Campaign .

Their inexperienced air groups were relegated to airfield attacks during the attack on Pearl Harbor , but they later sank two of the four fleet carriers lost by the United States Navy during the war in addition to one elderly British light carrier . The sister ships returned to Japan after the Battle of the Coral Sea , one to repair damage and the other to replace aircraft lost during the battle , so neither ship participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 . After the catastrophic losses of four carriers during that battle , they formed the bulk of the IJN 's carrier force for the rest of the war . As such they were the primary counterattack force deployed against the American invasion of Guadalcanal in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August . Two months later , they attempted to support a major offensive by the Imperial Japanese Army to push the United States Marines off Guadalcanal . This resulted in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands where they crippled one American carrier and damaged another in exchange for damage to Shōkaku and a light carrier . Neither attempt succeeded and the Japanese withdrew their remaining forces from Guadalcanal in early 1943 using the air group from Zuikaku to provide cover .

For the next year , the sisters trained before moving south to defend against any American attempt to retake the Mariana Islands or the Philippines . Shōkaku was sunk by an American submarine during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 as the Americans invaded the Marianas and Zuikaku was sacrificed as a decoy four months later during the Battle of Cape Engano .

= = Background and description = =

The two Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were ordered in 1937 as part of the 3rd Naval Armaments Supplement Program . No longer restricted by the provisions of the Washington Naval Treaty , which had expired in December 1936 , and with relaxed budgetary limitations , the IJN sought qualitative superiority over their foreign counterparts . Drawing on experience with their existing carriers , the Navy General Staff laid out an ambitious requirement for a ship that equaled the 96 @-@ aircraft capacity of the Akagi and Kaga , the speed of Hiryū and the defensive armament of Kaga . The new ship was also to have superior protection and range over any of the existing carriers .

The Basic Design Section of the Navy Technical Department decided upon an enlarged and improved Hiryū design with the island on the port side , amidships . After construction of the ships began , the Naval Air Technical Department ( NATD ) began having second thoughts about the location of the island because it thought that the portside location of the island on Hiryū and Akagi had an adverse impact on airflow over the flight deck . Another issue identified was that the amidships position shortened the available landing area , which had the potential to be problematic in the future as aircraft landing speeds increased with their growing weight . To verify these assumptions , the NATD filmed hundreds of takeoffs and landings aboard Akagi in October – November 1938 and decided to move the island over to the starboard side and further forward , about one @-@ third of the length from the bow . Shōkaku was the furthest advanced by this point and the supporting structure for the bridge had already been built ; rebuilding it would have delayed construction so it was left in place . The changes that had to be made consisted of a 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) widening of the flight deck opposite the island and a corresponding 50 @-@ centimeter ( 20 in ) narrowing on the starboard side and the addition of 100 metric tons ( 98 long tons ) of ballast on the port side to re @-@ balance the ship .

The ships had a length of 257 @.@ 5 meters ( 844 ft 10 in ) overall , a beam of 29 meters ( 95 ft 2 in ) , a draft of 9 @.@ 32 meters ( 30 ft 7 in ) at deep load , and a moulded depth of 23 m ( 75 ft 6 in ) . They displaced 32 @,@ 105 metric tons ( 31 @,@ 598 long tons ) at deep load . Based on hydrodynamic research conducted for the Yamato @-@ class battleships , the Shōkaku class received a bulbous bow and twin rudders , both of which were positioned on the centerline abaft the propellers . Their crew consisted of 1 @,@ 660 men : 75 commissioned officers , 56 special duty officers , 71 warrant officers and 1 @,@ 458 petty officers and crewmen , excluding the air group .

The Shōkaku @-@ class ships were fitted with four Kampon geared steam turbine sets , each driving one 4 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 9 in ) propeller , using steam provided by eight Kampon Type Model B water @-@ tube boilers . With a working pressure of 30 kg / cm2 ( 2 @,@ 942 kPa ; 427 psi ) , the boilers gave the turbines enough steam to generate a total of 160 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 120 @,@ 000 kW ) and a designed speed of 34 @.@ 5 knots ( 63 @.@ 9 km / h ; 39 @.@ 7 mph ) . This was the most powerful propulsion system in IJN service , 10 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 and 6 @,@ 000 kW ) more than the Yamato class and the Mogami @-@ class cruiser , respectively . During their sea trials , the sister ships achieved 34 @.@ 37 – 34 @.@ 58 knots ( 63 @.@ 65 – 64 @.@ 04 km / h ; 39 @.@ 55 – 39 @.@ 79 mph ) from 161 @,@ 290 – 168 @,@ 100 shaft horsepower ( 120 @,@ 270 – 125 @,@ 350 kW ) . They carried 5 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 9 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 18 @,@ 000 km ; 11 @,@ 200 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The boiler uptakes were trunked to the ships ' starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels that curved downward . The Shōkaku class was fitted with three 600 @-@ kilowatt ( 800 hp ) turbo generators and two 350 @-@ kilowatt ( 470 hp ) diesel generators , all operating at 225 volts .

= = = Flight deck and hangars = = =

The carriers ' 242 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ( 794 ft 7 in ) flight deck had a maximum width of 29 meters and overhung the superstructure at both ends , supported by pillars . Ten transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck that could stop a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 8 @,@ 800 lb ) aircraft . If the aircraft missed those , it could be stopped by one of three crash barricades . Although space and weight were allocated for two aircraft catapults , their development was not completed before the Shōkaku @-@ class ships were sunk . The ships were designed with two superimposed hangars ; the upper hangar was about 200 meters ( 656 ft 2 in ) long and had a width that varied between 18 @.@ 5 and 24 meters ( 60 ft 8 in and 78 ft 9 in ) . It had a height of 4 @.@ 85 meters ( 15 ft 11 in ) while the lower hangar was 4 @.@ 7 meters ( 15 ft 5 in ) high and only usable by fighters . The lower hangar was about 20 meters ( 65 ft 7 in ) shorter than the upper one and its width ranged from 17 @.@ 5 to 20 meters ( 57 ft 5 in to 65 ft 7 in ) . Together they had a total area of 5 @,@ 545 square meters ( 59 @,@ 690 sq ft ) . Each hangar could be subdivided by five or six fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side . The lower hangar was also fitted with a carbon dioxide fire suppression system . Each subdivision was provided with a pair of enclosed and armored stations to control the fire curtains and fire fighting equipment .

Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators that took 15 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck . The forward elevator was larger than the others to allow aircraft that had just landed to be moved below without folding their wings and measured 13 by 16 meters ( 42 ft 8 in × 52 ft 6 in ) . The other elevators were narrower , 13 by 12 meters ( 42 ft 8 in × 39 ft 4 in ) . The ships mounted a crane on the starboard side of the flight deck , abreast the rear elevator . When collapsed , it was flush with the flight deck .

The Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were initially intended to have an air group of 96 , including 24 aircraft in reserve . These were envisioned as 12 Mitsubishi A5M ( " Claude " ) monoplane fighters , 24 Aichi D1A2 ( " Susie " ) Type 96 dive bombers , 24 Mitsubishi B5M ( " Mabel " ) Type 97 No. 2 torpedo bombers , and 12 Nakajima C3N Type 97 reconnaissance aircraft . All of these aircraft were either superseded by larger , more modern aircraft or cancelled while the ships were being built , so the air group was revised to consist of 18 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , 27 Aichi D3A ( " Val " ) dive bombers , and 27 Nakajima B5N ( " Kate " ) torpedo bombers . In addition , the ship carried 2 Zeros , 5 " Vals " , and 5 " Kates " as spares for a total of 84 aircraft .

= = = Armament and sensors = = =

The carriers ' primary anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of eight twin @-@ gun mounts equipped with 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons , grouped into pairs fore and aft on each side of the hull . The guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) , and a ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at an elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was fourteen rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . The ship was equipped with four Type 94 fire @-@ control directors to control the 12 @.@ 7 cm guns , one for each pair of guns , although the director on the island could control all of the Type 89 guns .

Their light AA armament consisted of a dozen triple @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm ( 1 in ) Type 96 AA guns , six mounts on each side of the flight deck . The gun was the standard Japanese light AA weapon during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast " . These guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and a ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . The Type 96 guns were controlled by six Type 95 directors , one for every pair of mounts .

In June 1942 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku had their anti @-@ aircraft armament augmented with six more triple 25 mm mounts , two each at the bow and stern , and one each fore and aft of the island . The bow and stern groups each received a Type 95 director . In October another triple 25 mm mount was added at the bow and stern and 10 single mounts were added before the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 . After the battle , Zuikaku 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced with 26 single mounts for the 25 mm Type 96 gun , bringing the total of 25 mm barrels to 96 , 60 in 20 triple mounts and 36 single mounts . These guns were supplemented by eight 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . Each 12 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) rocket weighed 22 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 50 lb ) and had a maximum velocity of 200 m / s ( 660 ft / s ) . Their maximum range was 4 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 yd ) .

Shōkaku was the first carrier in the IJN to be fitted with radar , a Type 21 early @-@ warning radar , mounted on the top of the island around September 1942 . The date of Zuikaku 's installation is unknown , but both ships received a second Type 21 radar in a retractable installation adjacent to the flight deck after October . Before June 1944 , a Type 13 air @-@ search radar was installed on the light tripod mast abaft the island . The Shōkaku @-@ class carriers were also fitted with a Type 91 hydrophone in the bow that was only useful when anchored or moving very slowly .

= = = Protection = = =

The Shōkaku class had a waterline belt that consisted of 46 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) of Copper @-@ alloy Non @-@ Cemented armor ( CNC ) that covered most of the length of the ship . The belt was 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) high , of which 2 meters ( 6 ft 7 in ) was below the waterline . The lower strake of the armor was backed by 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of Ducol steel . The magazines were protected by 165 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) of New Vickers Non @-@ Cemented ( NVNC ) armor , sloped at an inclination up to 25 ° and tapered to thicknesses of 55 – 75 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) . The flight and both hangar decks were unprotected and the ships ' propulsion machinery was protected by a 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck of CNC armor . The NVNC armor over the magazines was 132 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) thick and 105 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick over the aviation gasoline storage tanks . All of the deck armor was overlaid on a 25 @-@ millimeter deck of Ducol steel .

The Shōkakus were the first Japanese carriers to incorporate a torpedo belt system . Based on model experiments that began in 1935 , it consisted of a liquid @-@ loaded " sandwich " of compartments outboard of the torpedo bulkhead . The experiments showed that a narrow liquid @-@ loaded compartment was necessary to distribute the force of a torpedo or mine 's detonation along the torpedo bulkhead by spreading it across the full width of the bulkhead and to stop the splinters created by the detonation . Outboard of this were two compartments intended to dissipate the force of the gases of the detonation , including the watertight compartment of the double bottom . The two innermost compartments were intended to be filled with fuel oil that would be replaced by water as it was consumed . The torpedo bulkhead itself consisted of an outer Ducol plate 18 – 30 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 71 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) thick that was riveted to a 12 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) plate . The IJN expected the torpedo bulkhead to be damaged in an attack and placed a thin holding bulkhead slightly inboard to prevent any leaks from reaching the ships ' vitals .

= = Ships = =

= = Careers = =

Shortly after completion in 1941 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were assigned to the newly formed Fifth Carrier Division , which was itself assigned to the 1st Air Fleet ( Kidō Butai ) , and began working up to prepare for the Pearl Harbor attack . Due to their inexperience , their air groups were tasked with the less demanding airfield attack role rather than the anti @-@ ship mission allocated to the veteran air groups of the older carriers . Each carrier 's aircraft complement consisted of 18 Zero fighters , 27 D3A dive bombers , and 27 B5N torpedo bombers . The two carriers contributed a total of 12 Zeros and 54 D3As to the first wave on the morning of 8 December 1941 ( Japan time ) ; these latter aircraft struck Wheeler Army Airfield , Hickam Field , and Naval Air Station Ford Island while the fighters strafed Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay . Only the 54 B5Ns participated in the second wave , striking Ford Island , Hickam Field and Kaneohe Bay again . The Fifth Carrier Division 's aircraft conducted the majority of the attack against the airfields , supplemented only by fighters from the other four carriers . Only one of Shōkaku 's dive bombers was lost during the attack ; in exchange 314 American aircraft were damaged or destroyed . Historian Alan Zimm said the young aviators delivered " a sterling performance , greatly exceeding expectations and outshining the dive bombers from the more experienced carriers . "

In January 1942 , together with Akagi and Kaga of the First Carrier Division , the sisters supported the invasion of Rabaul in the Bismarck Archipelago , as the Japanese moved to secure their southern defensive perimeter against attacks from Australia . Aircraft from all four carriers attacked the Australian base at Rabaul on 20 January ; the First Carrier Division continued to attack the town while the Fifth Carrier Division moved westwards and attacked Lae and Salamaua in New Guinea . They covered the landings at Rabaul and Kavieng on 23 January before returning to Truk before the end of the month . After the Marshalls – Gilberts raids on 1 February , the Fifth Carrier Division was retained in home waters until mid @-@ March to defend against any American carrier raids on the Home Islands .

= = = Indian Ocean raid = = =

The sister ships then rejoined the Kido Butai at Staring Bay on Celebes Island in preparation for the Indian Ocean raid . By this time the air groups had been reorganized to consist of 21 each of the A6Ms , D3As and B5Ns . The Japanese intent was to defeat the British Eastern Fleet and destroy British airpower in the region in order to secure the flank of their operations in Burma . Shōkaku and Zuikaku contributed aircraft to the 5 April Easter Sunday Raid on Colombo , Ceylon . Although the civilian shipping had been evacuated from Colombo harbor , the Japanese sank an armed merchant cruiser and a destroyer and severely damaged some of the support facilities . The Kido Butai returned to Ceylon four days later and attacked Trincomalee ; the sisters ' aircraft sank a large cargo ship and damaged the monitor HMS Erebus . In the meantime , the Japanese spotted the light carrier HMS Hermes , escorted by the destroyer HMAS Vampire , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships . Aircraft from Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the first to attack the Allied ships , both of which were sunk .

= = = Battle of the Coral Sea = = =

En route to Japan , the Fifth Carrier Division was diverted to Truk to support Operation Mo ( the planned capture of Port Moresby in New Guinea ) . While they were preparing for the mission , the Americans intercepted and decrypted Japanese naval messages discussing the operation and dispatched the carriers Yorktown and Lexington to stop the invasion . The Japanese opened Operation Mo by occupying Tulagi , in the Solomon Islands , on 3 May . American land @-@ based aircraft had spotted the light carrier Shōhō escorting the transports of the main invasion force on 6 May , and the American carriers moved west to place themselves in a position to attack it the following morning .

Shōhō was quickly located again that morning and sunk . In turn , the Japanese spotted the oiler , Neosho , and her escorting destroyer , which were misidentified as a carrier and a light cruiser . A single dive bomber was lost during the consequent airstrike that sank the destroyer and damaged Neosho badly enough that she had to be scuttled a few days later . Late in the afternoon , the Japanese launched a small airstrike , without any escorting fighters , based on an erroneous spot report . The American carriers were far closer to the Japanese than they realized and roughly in line with their intended target . Alerted by radar , some of the American Combat Air Patrol ( CAP ) was vectored to intercept the Japanese aircraft , the rest being retained near the carriers because of bad weather and fading daylight . The American fighters mauled the Japanese attackers who were forced to call off the attack , but some of the surviving Japanese pilots became confused in the darkness and attempted to verify if the American carriers were their own before being driven off .

On the morning of 8 May , both sides located each other at about the same time and began launching their aircraft about 09 : 00 . The American dive bombers disabled Shōkaku 's flight deck with three hits , but the carrier was able to evade all of the torpedoes . Hidden by a rain squall , Zuikaku escaped detection and was not attacked . In return , the Japanese aircraft badly damaged Lexington with two torpedo and two bomb hits and scored a single bomb hit on Yorktown . The torpedo hits on Lexington cracked one of her avgas tanks , and leaking vapor caused a series of large explosions that caused her to be scuttled .

The air groups of the sisters were decimated in the battle , which forced Zuikaku to return to Japan with Shōkaku for resupply and aircrew training , and neither carrier was able to take part in the Battle of Midway in June . En route to Japan , Shōkaku was caught in a severe storm and nearly capsized as the weight of the water used to put out the fires had compromised her stability . Repairs took three months and she was not ready for action until late August .

= = = Battle of the Eastern Solomons = = =

The American landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August 1942 caught the Japanese by surprise . The next day , the light carrier Ryūjō joined the sister ships in the First Carrier Division , which departed for Truk on 16 August . Having learned the lesson taught at Midway , the IJN strengthened the fighter contingent at the expense of the torpedo bombers assigned to its carriers ; the Shōkaku @-@ class carriers mustered 53 Zeros , 51 D3As , 36 B5Ns and 2 Yokosuka D4Y1 @-@ C " Judy " reconnaissance aircraft between them . After an American carrier was spotted near the Solomon Islands on 21 August , the division was ordered to bypass Truk and continue to the south . Ryūjō was detached early on 24 August to move in advance of the troop convoy bound for Guadalcanal and to attack the American air base at Henderson Field if no carriers were located . The two fleet carriers were to stand off , prepared to attack the Americans if found .

Ryūjō and her escorts were the first Japanese ships spotted and sunk by the Americans later that morning , but Zuikaku and Shōkaku were not spotted until the afternoon . Shortly before an unsuccessful attack by the pair of Douglas SBD Dauntlesses conducting the search , the sisters launched half of their dive bombers to attack the American carriers Enterprise and Saratoga . Most of the American carrier aircraft were already airborne by this time , either on CAP , returning from search missions , or from sinking Ryūjō , so only a small airstrike was launched in response to the spot report . About an hour after the first Japanese airstrike took off , a second airstrike that included the rest of the dive bombers was launched , but their target location was mistaken and they failed to find the Americans . The first airstrike attacked the two American carriers , scoring one hit on the battleship USS North Carolina and three hits on Enterprise , but they were mauled by the large number of airborne American aircraft and heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire . Uncertain of the damage inflicted on each other , both sides disengaged later that evening .

= = = Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands = = =

The First Carrier Division , now including the light carrier Zuihō , departed Truk on 11 October to support the Japanese Army operation to capture Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . At this time , the sisters mustered 54 A6Ms , 45 D3As , and 36 B5Ns between them . Four days later , the Japanese spotted a small American convoy that consisted of a fleet tug towing a gasoline barge and escorted by the destroyer Meredith . Aircraft from Shōkaku and Zuikaku sank the latter , but did not attack the tug .

The Japanese and American carrier forces discovered each other in the early morning of 26 October and each side launched air strikes . Shōkaku was badly damaged by six hits from USS Hornet 's dive bombers ; Zuikaku was not spotted or attacked as she was hidden by the overcast conditions , just like at the Battle of the Coral Sea . In exchange , the Japanese crippled Hornet with two torpedoes and three bombs . In addition , two aircraft crashed into the American carrier and inflicted serious damage . Enterprise was also damaged by two bomb hits and a near miss and a destroyer was damaged when it was struck by a B5N . Attacks later in the day further damaged Hornet , which was abandoned and later sunk by Japanese destroyers Makigumo and Akigumo . The Japanese lost nearly half their aircraft that participated in the battle , together with their irreplaceable experienced aircrew . On 2 November , the First Carrier Division was ordered home for repairs and training .

Shōkaku 's repairs continued until March 1943 and Zuikaku , together with the recently repaired Zuihō , sailed for Truk on 17 January to support the impending evacuation of Japanese ground forces from Guadalcanal ( Operation Ke ) . On 29 January , the two carriers flew off 47 Zeros to Rabaul and Kahili Airfield , contributing some of their own aircraft and pilots . Zuihō was then used to cover the evacuation , while Zuikaku remained at Truk , together with the two Yamato @-@ class battleships , acting as a fleet in being threatening to sortie at any time .

In May , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were assigned to a mission to counterattack the American offensive in the Aleutian Islands , but this operation was cancelled after the Allied victory on Attu on 29 May 1943 . The sister ships were transferred to Truk in July . In response to the carrier raid on Tarawa on 18 September , the carriers and much of the fleet sortied for Eniwetok to search for the American forces before they returned to Truk on 23 September , having failed to locate them . The Japanese had intercepted some American radio traffic that suggested another attack on Wake Island , and on 17 October , Shōkaku and Zuikaku and the bulk of the 1st Fleet sailed for Eniwetok to be in a position to intercept any such attack , but no attack occurred and the fleet returned to Truk . At the beginning of November , the bulk of their air groups were transferred to Rabaul to bolster the defenses there , just in time to help defend the port against the Allied attack a few days later . They accomplished little there , for the loss of over half their number , before returning to Truk on the 13th . The sisters returned to Japan in December .

In February 1944 , Shōkaku and Zuikaku were transferred to Singapore . On 1 March the carrier divisions were reorganized with the new fleet carrier Taihō replacing Zuihō in the division . The First Carrier Division sailed in mid @-@ May for Tawi @-@ Tawi in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the IJN relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack ; the location lacked an airfield on which to train the inexperienced pilots and American submarine activity restricted the ships to the anchorage .

= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =

The 1st Mobile Fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refueled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . At this time , the sister ships mustered 54 Zeros , 60 D4Ys and 36 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers . As the carriers were launching their first airstrike the following morning , Taihō was torpedoed by an American submarine and later sank . Later that morning , Shōkaku was torpedoed by a different submarine , USS Cavalla . The three or four torpedoes started multiple fires in the hangar , which ignited fueling aircraft , in addition to causing heavy flooding . As the bow continued to sink , aircraft and munitions began to slide forward and a bomb in the hangar detonated . This ignited gas and oil fumes which caused a series of four explosions that gutted the ship . Shōkaku sank several minutes later with the loss of 1 @,@ 263 of her crew . 570 men were rescued by a light cruiser and a destroyer .

The loss of Taihō and Shōkaku left Zuikaku to recover the Division 's few remaining aircraft after their heavy losses ( only 102 aircraft remained aboard the seven surviving carriers by the evening ) and the 1st Mobile Fleet continued its withdrawal towards Okinawa . The Americans did not spot the Japanese carriers until the afternoon of the following day and launched a large airstrike that only succeeded in hitting Zuikaku with a single bomb that started a fire in the hangar .

= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =

In October 1944 , Zuikaku was the flagship of Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa 's decoy Northern Force in Operation Shō @-@ Gō 1 , the Japanese counterattack against the Allied landings on Leyte . At this time , the ship had 28 A6M5 Zero fighters , 16 A6M2 Zero fighter @-@ bombers , 7 D4Y reconnaissance aircraft and 15 B6Ns . On the morning of 24 October , she launched 10 fighters , 11 fighter @-@ bombers , 6 torpedo bombers , and 2 reconnaissance aircraft as her contribution to the airstrike intended to attract the attention of the American carriers away from the other task groups that were to destroy the landing forces . This accomplished little else as the Japanese aircraft failed to penetrate past the defending fighters ; the survivors landed at airfields on Luzon . The Americans were preoccupied dealing with the other Japanese naval forces and defending themselves from air attacks and finally found the Northern Force late that afternoon , but Admiral William Halsey , Jr . , commander of Task Force 38 , decided that it was too late in the day to mount an effective strike . He turned all of his ships north to position himself for an attack .

The American carriers launched an airstrike shortly after dawn ; Zuikaku was struck by three bombs and one torpedo that started fires in both hangars , damaged one propeller shaft , and gave her a 29 @.@ 5 ° list to port . Fifteen minutes later , the fires were extinguished and the list was reduced to 6 ° by counterflooding . She was mostly ignored by the second wave of attacking aircraft , but was a focus of the third wave that hit her with six more torpedoes and four bombs . The bombs started fires in the hangars , the torpedoes caused major flooding that increased her list , and the order to abandon ship was issued before Zuikaku sank by the stern . Lost with the ship were 49 officers and 794 crewmen , but 47 officers and 815 crewmen were rescued by her escorting destroyers .

= = See Also = =

List of ships of the Second World War

List of ship classes of the Second World War

= President of Croatia =

The President of Croatia ( Croatian : Predsjednik Hrvatske ) , officially styled the President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik Republike ) , is the head of state and chief representative of the Republic of Croatia in the country and abroad . The President is the holder of the highest office within the Republic of Croatia ; however , they are not the head of the executive branch .

The President maintains regular and coordinated operation and stability of the national government system , and safeguards the independence and territorial integrity of the country . The President has the power to call elections for the Croatian Parliament as well as referendum ( with countersignature of the Prime Minister ) . The President appoints Prime Ministers on the basis of the balance of power in the Parliament , grants pardons and awards decorations and other state awards . The President and Government cooperate in the conducting the foreign policy . In addition , the President is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Croatian Armed Forces . The President appoints the director of the Security and Intelligence Agency with the Prime Minister . The President may dissolve the Parliament as provided by the Constitution . Although enjoying immunity , the President is impeachable for violation of the Constitution . In case of incapability to discharge duties of office , the Speaker of the Parliament assumes the office of acting President until the President resumes duty , or until election of a new President .

The Office of the President of the Republic ( Ured Predsjednika Republike ) consists of the immediate staff of the president of Croatia , as well as support staff reporting to the president . The office is seated in the Presidential Palace in the Pantovčak area of Zagreb . The Constitution of Croatia defines the appearance and use of the presidential standard , flown on buildings of the Office of the President of Croatia , the residence of the president , the transportation vehicles when in use by the president , and in other ceremonial occasions .

The President is elected on the basis of universal suffrage , through a secret ballot , for a five @-@ year term . If no candidate in the elections secures more than 50 % of the votes , a runoff election is held . The Constitution of Croatia sets a limit to a maximum of two terms in office . The president @-@ elect is required to take an oath of office before the judges of the Constitutional Court . Franjo Tuđman won the first Croatian presidential elections in 1992 and 1997 . During his time in office , the constitution of 1990 provided for a semi @-@ presidential system . After his death in 1999 , the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government . Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms , in 2000 and in 2005 . Ivo Josipović won the presidential elections held in 2009 – 2010 . Winner of the most recent presidential elections , held in 2014 – 15 , was Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović . She succeeded Josipović on 19 February 2015 .

= = Powers , duties and responsibilities = =

The President of Croatia , officially styled the President of the Republic ( Croatian : Predsjednik Republike ) represents the Republic of Croatia in the country and abroad as the head of state , maintains the regular and coordinated operation and stability of the national government system and safeguards the independence and territorial integrity of the country . The president is barred from executing any other public or professional duty while in office .

The President of Croatia calls elections for the Croatian Parliament ( Croatian : Hrvatski Sabor ) and convenes the first meeting of the parliamentary assembly . The president is also required to appoint a prime minister , on the basis of the balance of power in the parliament . The appointed candidate is in turn required to seek confirmation from the parliament through a confidence vote , in order to receive a mandate to lead the Croatian Government . The president may also call referenda , grant pardons and award decorations and other forms of recognition defined by legislation .

= = = Foreign affairs = = =

The President of Croatia and the Government cooperate in the formulation and implementation of Croatia 's foreign policy . This provision of the constitution is an occasional source of conflict between the president and the government . The president decides on the establishment of diplomatic missions and consular offices of the Republic of Croatia abroad , at the Government 's proposal and with the countersignature of the prime minister . The president , following prior countersignature of the prime minister , appoints and recalls diplomatic representatives of the Republic of Croatia , at the proposal of the Government and upon receiving the opinion of an applicable committee of the parliament . The president receives letters of credence and letters of recall from foreign diplomatic representatives .

= = = National security and defense = = =

The President of Croatia is the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces of the Republic of Croatia and appoints and relieves military commanders of duty , conforming to applicable legislation . Pursuant to decisions of the parliament , the president declares war and concludes peace . In cases of immediate threats to the independence , unity and existence of the state , the president may order the use of armed forces , even if no state of war is declared , provided that such an order is countersigned by the prime minister . During a state of war , the president may promulgate regulations with the force of law on the basis of , and within the scope of , authority obtained from the parliament . In such circumstances , the president may convene government cabinet meetings and preside over them . If the parliament is not in session , the president is authorized to regulate all matters required by the state of war through regulations carrying the force of law . In case of an immediate threat to the independence , unity and existence of the state , or if the governmental bodies are prevented from performing their constitutional duties regularly , the president may , at the proposal of the prime minister , issue regulations carrying the force of law . Such regulations must also be countersigned by the prime minister to become valid . The president is required to submit regulations that are promulgated thus to the parliament for approval as soon as the parliament may convene , otherwise the regulations become void . The president cooperates with the government directing operation of the Croatian security and intelligence system . The president and the prime minister jointly appoint heads of the security agencies , and the president may attend cabinet meetings , taking part in discussions held at such meetings .

= = = Dissolution of Parliament = = =

The President of Croatia may dissolve Parliament upon the request of the government if the government proposes a confidence motion to Parliament and the majority of all deputies adopt a motion of no confidence or if Parliament fails to approve government budget 120 days after the budget is proposed in the parliament . That decision must be countersigned by the Prime Minister to become valid . The President may also dissolve Parliament after a motion of no confidence supported by a majority of all deputies has been adopted and a new government cannot be formed within 30 days or if a new government cannot be formed after general elections ( maximum period of 120 days ) . However , the President may not dissolve Parliament at the request of the government if a procedure to determine if the President has violated provisions of the constitution is in progress .

= = Office of the President = =

The Office of the President of the Republic ( Croatian : Ured Predsjednika Republike ) consists of the immediate staff of the President of Croatia , as well as support staff reporting to the president . As of May 2008 , the office employed 170 staff , with the maximum staffing level set at 191 by the Regulation on Internal Organisation of the Office of the President of Croatia . In 2009 government budget , the office was allocated 54 million kuna ( c . 7 @.@ 3 million euro ) . The net monthly salary of the president is 23 @,@ 500 kuna ( c . 3 @,@ 170 euro ) .

The Office of the President was created by a presidential decree by Franjo Tuđman on 19 January 1991 . The Office is headed by a Chief of Staff ( Croatian : Predstojnik ureda ) , who is appointed by the president . The presidents declare bylaws regulating composition of the office . The office employs advisors to the president and comprises eight departments , four councils , presidential pardon commission and two decorations and awards commissions .

= = = Presidential Palace = = =

The Presidential Palace ( Croatian : Predsjednički dvori , also referred to by the metonym Pantovčak ) in Zagreb is the official residence of the president . The president does not actually live in the building , as it is used as the Office of the President of Croatia rather than as a residence . The structure covers 3 @,@ 700 square metres ( 40 @,@ 000 square feet ) . It had been used as the official residence since then @-@ president Franjo Tuđman moved there following the October 1991 bombing of Banski dvori . In addition to the original building , there is also an 3 @,@ 500 square metres ( 38 @,@ 000 square feet ) annex built in 1993 , an ancillary structure housing office security services and a bomb shelter predating the 1990s . The building , formerly known as Villa Zagorje or Tito 's Villa , was designed by architects Vjenceslav Richter and Kazimir Ostrogović and completed in 1964 for the former Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito .

= = Election and taking office = =

The president is elected on the basis of universal suffrage , through a secret ballot , for a five @-@ year term . If no candidate in the elections secures more than 50 % of the votes , a runoff election is held in 14 days . The Constitution of Croatia sets a limit to a maximum of two terms in office and requires election dates to be determined within 30 to 60 days before the expiry of the term of the incumbent president . Any citizen of Croatia of 18 or over may be a candidate in a presidential election , provided that the candidate is endorsed by 10 @,@ 000 voters . The endorsements are required in form of a list containing name , address , personal identification number and voter signature . The presidential elections are regulated by an act of the parliament .

The constitution requires that the president @-@ elect resign from political party membership . The president @-@ elect is also required to resign from the parliament as well . Before assuming presidential duty , the president @-@ elect is required to take an oath of office before the judges of the Constitutional Court , swearing loyalty to the Constitution of Croatia . The inauguration ceremony is traditionally held at St. Mark 's Square in Zagreb , in front of the St. Mark 's Church , midway between the building of the Parliament of Croatia and Banski dvori — the seat of the Government of Croatia . The text of the oath is defined by the Presidential Elections Act amendments of 1997 .

= = = Presidential elections = = =

Presidential elections were held in Croatia for the first time on 2 August 1992 , simultaneously with the 1992 parliamentary elections . Voter turnout was 74 @.@ 9 % . The result was a victory for Franjo Tuđman of the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) , who received 57 @.@ 8 % of the vote in the first round of the elections , ahead of 7 other candidates . Dražen Budiša , the Croatian Social Liberal Party ( HSLS ) candidate and runner @-@ up in the election , received 22 @.@ 3 % of the vote . The second presidential elections in modern Croatia were held on 15 June 1997 . The incumbent , Franjo Tuđman ran opposed by Zdravko Tomac , the candidate of the Social Democratic Party of Croatia ( SDP ) , and Vlado Gotovac , nominated by the HSLS . Tomac and Gotovac received 21 @.@ 0 % and 17 @.@ 6 % of votes respectively in the first round of voting , and Tuđman secured another term . The third presidential elections were held on 24 January 2000 , to fill the office of the President of the Republic , after the incumbent Franjo Tuđman died on 10 December 1999 . The first round of voting saw Stjepan Mesić , candidate of the Croatian People 's Party ( HNS ) in the lead , receiving 41 @.@ 3 % of votes , followed by Dražen Budiša of the HSLS with 27 @.@ 8 % of votes and Mate Granić , nominated by the HDZ , receiving 22 @.@ 6 % of votes . The runoff election , the first in the presidential elections of modern Croatia , was held on 7 February , when Mesić won , picking up 56 @.@ 9 % of votes . Voter turnout in the first round was 63 @.@ 0 % and 60 @.@ 9 % in the runoff . The first round of the fourth presidential elections was held on 2 January 2005 . No candidate secured a first @-@ round victory ; however , the incumbent Mesić enjoyed a substantial lead over other candidates , as he received 48 @.@ 9 % of votes , and the second and third ranked candidates Jadranka Kosor ( HDZ ) and Boris Mikšić ( independent ) managed only 20 @.@ 3 % and 17 @.@ 8 % of voter support respectively . Ultimately , Mesić won reelection , receiving 65 @.@ 9 % of votes in the runoff held on 16 January . The 2009 – 2010 presidential election was held on 27 December 2009 , with Ivo Josipović ( SDP ) picking up 32 @.@ 4 % of votes , followed by Milan Bandić ( independent ) , Andrija Hebrang ( HDZ ) and Nadan Vidošević ( independent ) receiving 14 @.@ 8 % , 12 @.@ 0 % and 11 @.@ 3 % of the votes respectively . The second round of voting was held on 10 January 2010 , when Josipović defeated Bandić , receiving 60 @.@ 3 % of the vote . The first round of the most recent presidential election was held on 28 December 2014 , where Josipović won 38 @.@ 46 % of the votes , followed by Kolinda Grabar @-@ Kitarović ( HDZ ) who received 37 @.@ 22 % of ballots . The third was an independent candidate , Ivan Vilibor Sinčić who received 16 @.@ 42 % of votes , and Milan Kujundžić ( Croatian Dawn – Party of the People ) who was supported by 6 @.@ 3 % of the votes . The runoff was held on 11 January 2015 , and Grabar @-@ Kitarović won by a margin of approximately one percentage point .

= = = History = = =

The Socialist Republic of Croatia within SFR Yugoslavia was led by a group of communist party officials , who formed a collective Presidency with the president of the Presidency at its head . The first democratic elections of 1990 did not elect members of the Presidency directly . Rather , the parliament was tasked with filling these positions as it had done in the socialist period . The HDZ won the elections and its leader Tuđman assumed the presidency on 30 May 1990 . On 25 July of the same year , the parliament passed several constitutional amendments , including amendment LXXI , which created the position of President and Vice @-@ Presidents . The Christmas Constitution , passed on 22 December 1990 , established the government as a semi @-@ presidential system and called for presidential elections .

Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 , and was inaugurated on 12 August 1992 . He was reelected in 1997 , and the Constitution of Croatia was amended the same year . After his death in 1999 , the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government , creating a parliamentary system . Mesić won two consecutive terms in 2000 on the HNS ticket and in 2005 , the maximum term permitted by the constitution . Josipović , an SDP candidate , won the presidential elections held in 2009 – 2010 . Grabar @-@ Kitarović won the elections of 2014 – 15 and she was voted to become the first woman president of Croatia .

= = Immunity and impeachment = =

The President of Croatia enjoys immunity — the president may not be arrested , nor can any criminal proceedings be instituted against the president without prior consent from the Constitutional Court . The only case in which immunity does not apply is if the president has been caught in the act of committing a criminal offense , which carries a penalty of imprisonment for more than five years . In such a case the state body that has detained the president must notify the President of the Constitutional Court immediately .

The President of Croatia is impeachable for any violation of the Constitution committed in performance of duty . Impeachment proceedings may be initiated by the Parliament of Croatia by a two @-@ thirds majority vote of all members of the parliament . The impeachment of the president is then decided by the Constitutional Court , by a two @-@ thirds majority vote of all its judges . If the Constitutional Court impeaches the president , the president 's term is terminated .

= = Vacancy or incapacity = =

In case of brief incapacitation to execute the office of the President of Croatia due to absence , illness or vacations , the president may transfer his powers to the Speaker of the Croatian Parliament to act as a deputy . The president decides on the revocation of this authority and his return to the office . If the president is prevented from performing his duties for a longer period of time due to illness or other form of incapacitation , and especially if the president is unable to decide on a transfer of powers to a deputy , the Speaker of the parliament becomes the acting president , assuming presidential duty pursuant to a decision of the Constitutional Court , made upon request of the Government .

In case of death or resignation submitted to the President of the Constitutional Court and communicated to the Speaker of the parliament , or in cases when the Constitutional Court decides to terminate the presidential term through impeachment , the Speaker of the parliament becomes acting president . In those circumstances , new legislation is countersigned by the prime minister instead of the president and a new presidential election must be held within 60 days . This situation occurred after the death of Franjo Tuđman on 10 December 1999 , when Vlatko Pavletić became the acting president . After the parliamentary elections of 2000 , the role was transferred to Zlatko Tomčić , who filled the office until Stjepan Mesić was elected President of Croatia in 2000 .

= = Symbols = =

Legislation defines the appearance and use of the Presidential Standard of Croatia as a symbol of the President of Croatia , and the appearance and use of the presidential sash as a symbol of honour of the office of the president . The presidential standard is a square , blue field with a thin border of alternating red and white squares on each side . In the centre of the blue field is the main shield of the coat of arms of Croatia with the historical arms of Croatia surrounding the main shield . From left to right , these are the oldest known coats of arms of Croatia , the Republic of Dubrovnik , Dalmatia , Istria and Slavonia , adorned with bands of gold , red and white stripes extending down vertically . Atop the shield there is a Croatian tricolour ribbon with golden letters RH that stand for the Republic of Croatia , executed in Roman square capitals . The presidential standard is flown on buildings of the Office of the President of Croatia , the residence of the president , transportation vehicles when in use by the president , and in other ceremonial occasions . The presidential standard was designed by Miroslav Šutej in 1990 .

The presidential sash is a Croatian tricolour band , trimmed with gold and adorned with the coat of arms of Croatia , which is placed in a white field , with the tricolour at the front . The arms are bordered by oak branches on the left and olive branches on the right . The sash is worn diagonally , over the right shoulder , and is fastened using a square clasp trimmed with golden Croatian interlace . The sash is adorned with the arms used on the presidential standard , although without the ribbon used in the arms . The constitution specifies that the sash is worn on Statehood Day , during awards ceremonies , during the acceptance of letters of credence and in other ceremonial occasions . The presidential sash was not in use since 2000 inauguration of Stjepan Mesić .

= = Post @-@ presidency = =

Former presidents of the Republic of Croatia are provided with an office and two staff members paid by the state once they leave the office . In addition , former presidents are assigned a driver , an official car and bodyguards . The government of Croatia is required to provide these benefits within 30 days following the end of the term of president , upon a president 's personal request . Stjepan Mesić 's office is located in Grškovićeva Street in Zagreb . The office employs a public @-@ relations advisor and a foreign policy advisor . The office was established in 2010 and assigned an annual budget of 1 @.@ 3 million kuna ( c . 175 @,@ 000 euro ) . According to Mesić himself , his new office of the former president shall be at the disposal of Croatian companies to help them expand their market . Since the office has been established , former president Mesić also receives foreign diplomats and visits abroad where he meets officials and delivers lectures on occasion .

The rights of the former presidents are defined by a parliamentary Act enacted in 2004 , during the first term of Stjepan Mesić . Before that act was enacted , the constitution provided that the former presidents shall become members of the Chambers of Counties of the Parliament of Croatia for life , unless otherwise requested by the president . This was never exercised in practice , since Franjo Tuđman died in office and the Chamber of Counties was abolished before the end of the first term of Stjepan Mesić .

= = Living former Presidents = =

There are two living former Croatian Presidents :

Living former Presidents

= = Timeline of Presidents = =

This is a graphical timeline listing of the Presidents of Croatia since 1990 . Currently there are two living former presidents : Stjepan Mesić ( 2000 @-@ 2010 ) and Ivo Josipović ( 2010 @-@ 2015 ) . There is also one living former acting president : Zlatko Tomčić ( 2000 ) .

= Bill Brown ( cricketer ) =

William Alfred " Bill " Brown , OAM ( 31 July 1912 – 16 March 2008 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 22 Tests between 1934 and 1948 , captaining his country in one Test . A right @-@ handed opening batsman , his partnership with Jack Fingleton in the 1930s is regarded as one of the finest in Australian Test history . After the interruption of World War II , Brown was a member of Don Bradman 's Invincibles , who toured England in 1948 without defeat . In a match in November 1947 , Brown was the unwitting victim of the first instance of " Mankading " .

Raised in New South Wales , Brown initially struggled in both work and cricket , before gradually rising through the cricket ranks . He made his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales in the 1932 – 33 season and forced his way into the national side during the 1934 tour of England . When long @-@ term openers Bill Ponsford and Bill Woodfull retired at the end of the tour , Brown and his state opening partner Fingleton took over . After poor form made his selection for the 1938 tour of England controversial , Brown responded with a total of 1 @,@ 854 runs , including an unbeaten 206 that saved Australia from defeat in the second Test , and was honoured as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year .

The outbreak of the Second World War cost Brown his peak years , which he spent in the Royal Australian Air Force . Cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 and Brown , in Bradman 's absence , captained an Australian eleven in a match that was retrospectively awarded Test status . Brown missed the entirety of the following season because of injury . Upon his return , he was unable to repeat his previous success and was ousted from the opening positions by Arthur Morris and Sid Barnes . Selected for the Invincibles tour , he performed reasonably well in the tour matches but , with Morris and Barnes entrenched as openers , he batted out of position in the middle order during the first two Tests . He struggled and was dropped from the Test team , never to return . Upon returning to Australia , Brown continued playing for Queensland until the end of the 1949 – 50 season .

In retirement , Brown briefly served as a Test selector and sold cars and , later , sports goods . In 2000 , he was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket . At the time of his death in 2008 , he was Australia 's oldest Test cricketer .

= = Early years = =

The son of a dairy farmer and hotel owner , Brown was born in Toowoomba , Queensland . Aged three , business failure hit the family , and they moved to Marrickville in inner Sydney . The family 's poor financial position meant that they lived in a one @-@ bedroom home , with Brown and his brother sharing a bed . Educated at Dulwich Hill and Petersham High Schools in Sydney , Brown started playing cricket as a wicket @-@ keeper , before changing his focus to opening the batting . He left high school after two years , but was unable to find regular full @-@ time work amid the Great Depression . In 1929 – 30 , Brown played grade cricket for Marrickville Cricket Club , but was unable to hold down a regular place . He was on the verge of leaving Sydney when an innings of 172 for his Shire team reinvigorated his career . He progressed through the grades and reached the club 's First XI , where he performed steadily to earn selection for New South Wales in 1932 – 33 .

= = Pre @-@ war career = =

Making his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales in a Sheffield Shield match against Queensland on 11 November 1932 , Brown was run out for a duck without facing a ball , while opening with Jack Fingleton. however , the match ended happily with Brown 's team winning decisively by an innings and 274 runs . The highlights of Brown 's first season were his 79 against South Australia , and 69 against Douglas Jardine 's England . However , neither Harold Larwood nor Bill Voce , the Bodyline spearheads , played in the match . During his first season , Brown earned the ire of Don Bradman , who was displeased with Brown 's poor communication with batting partners when running between the wickets , with the ensuing risk of falling foul of run outs . Brown ended his debut season with 269 runs at 29 @.@ 88 .

The following season , in the opening match of the season against Queensland at Brisbane in November 1933 , Brown made 154 , partnering Bradman in a stand of 294 in just three hours . This set up at total of 4 / 494 declared and an innings victory . He followed this with 205 in an opening stand of 340 against Victoria . Brown amassed two further half @-@ centuries to end with 878 runs for the season at an average of 67 @.@ 53 , which placed him second behind Bradman in the first @-@ class run @-@ scoring aggregates . When the selectors met to discuss the tour party for the 1934 tour of England , Brown and Fingleton had similar figures , but with the incumbent Victorian opening pair of Bill Ponsford and captain Bill Woodfull firmly in place , there was only one spot available for a reserve opener . The selectors asked Bradman — Australia 's leading batsman — for advice . Bradman nominated Brown , believing that his style was better suited to English pitches . A disappointed Fingleton disagreed and wrote to Woodfull , saying " You have chosen chaps who do not like fast bowling " . Brown justified his selection before departure with a pair of 90s in two matches for a combined Australian XI against Tasmania .

Brown missed selection for the tour opener against Worcestershire — in which Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice XI — before making his debut in the second match against Leicestershire . He made a century against Cambridge University in his second tour match , making 105 in the middle order . Batting at number 3 against Lancashire in the final tour match before the Tests , Brown scored 119 . After compiling 351 runs at 43 @.@ 88 in the opening tour matches , Brown was selected for the Test side . Playing in all five Tests , Brown made his debut at Trent Bridge , Nottingham and scored 22 in his first innings . After Australia lost three early wickets in the second innings , Brown scored 73 to help secure a winning lead . Brown then made a century while opening the batting against Northamptonshire , and an unbeaten 62 in the second innings , guiding Australia to an eight @-@ wicket victory over the Gentlemen of England . He was promoted to open in the Second Test at Lord 's with Woodfull , after Ponsford was unavailable due to illness . At the home of cricket , Brown made his maiden Test century , scoring 105 in the first innings . His innings was an unhurried one ; he tended to wait for the ball to come onto the bat rather than attacking the leather . However , he was unable to prevent Australia from being forced to follow @-@ on and made two the match ended in an innings defeat . He was retained as opener upon Ponsford 's return for the Third Test , with Woodfull dropping down the order in a reshuffled batting line @-@ up . Brown made 72 and a duck . The match ended in a draw after both teams passed 490 in the first innings .

It was the start of a barren month for Brown , who passed 30 only once in 11 first @-@ class innings , totalling 171 runs at 15 @.@ 55 . He ended the unproductive sequence with an unbeaten 100 against Nottinghamshire . This came after Bill Voce had bowled Bodyline at the start of the Australian innings , in contravention of a prior agreement . After an Australian protest , Voce missed the remainder of the match and Brown 's innings was punctuated by angry heckling by the local supporters .

He was unable to pass 20 in the final two Tests and ended the series with 300 runs at 33 @.@ 33 . Despite his inability to make a substantial contribution , Australia won the Fifth Test by 562 runs to reclaim the Ashes 2 – 1 . Brown scored three consecutive half @-@ centuries after the Tests and ended with 1287 first @-@ class runs at 36 @.@ 77 .

Brown 's strong form continued upon returning to Australia , compiling 683 runs at 45 @.@ 53 , including three centuries , to be the second highest run @-@ scorer for the 1934 – 35 domestic season . He started the season with the testimonial match for Woodfull , who retired upon returning to Australia . Brown scored 102 in the second innings to help Woodfull 's men defeat Victor Richardson 's XI by seven wickets . He started the Sheffield Shield season with 11 in an innings victory over South Australia , and scored fifties in three consecutive matches , before rounding off the season with 116 in the final match against Western Australia .

= = Opening in Tests with Fingleton = =

With the retirement of Woodfull and Ponsford after the tour of England , Brown and his state partner Fingleton became Australia 's opening pair for the 1935 – 36 tour of South Africa . It was one of the most productive phases of both men 's career . In Australia 's warm @-@ up match against Western Australia before sailing across the Indian Ocean , Brown struck 55 in an innings win .

Brown started the tour consistently , scoring 148 , 58 , 31 and 28 not on out in the three warm @-@ up matches . In the first match of the tour against Natal , both Brown and Fingleton made centuries ; the first two matches were won by an innings and the third by ten wickets .

Brown scored three consecutive half @-@ centuries in the first two Tests in Durban and Johannesburg . Australia won the first by nine wickets and were 124 runs from victory with eight wickets in hand in the second when bad light stopped play . In the Third Test at Cape Town , the pair set a new Australian opening record of 233 , which laid the foundation for a large Australian total and an innings victory . It was Australia 's first double @-@ century opening stand in Test cricket , and remains an Australian Test record for the first wicket against South Africa . Brown posted 121 , his highest Test score at the time . He scored 34 and 84 in Australia 's only innings of the Fourth and Fifth Tests in Johannesburg and Durban , making solid opening stands with Fingleton , who scored three consecutive centuries . The pair laid the platform for two further innings victories , as Australia took the five @-@ Test series 4 – 0 . His compiled 417 runs at 59 @.@ 57 for the series . Brown scored a further four fifties in the remaining tour matches to end with 1065 runs at 62 @.@ 65 .

In 1936 , Brown accepted a coaching position and employment as a car salesman to move back to Queensland , representing his state of birth from 1936 – 37 onwards . He was appointed captain the following season . Brown started the new season strongly , scoring 111 for Victor Richardson 's XI in a testimonial match against Bradman 's XI , in the opening match of summer . In November , Brown played for an Australian XI and Queensland in two matches against the touring England team , scoring 71 and 74 the two drawn matches .

His 1936 – 37 season was interrupted by injury and he appeared in only the Third and Fourth Tests against England . They were relatively unsuccessful , yielding only 95 runs at 23 @.@ 75 in four innings without passing fifty . Nevertheless , Australia won the two matches . His debut season for Queensland was moderately successful , with 557 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 13 , including one century and four fifties . Brown did not taste victory with his home state during the season ; the closest Queensland came was a one @-@ wicket loss to New South Wales .

= = Wisden Cricketer of the Year = =

Brown 's form started to deteriorate in 1937 – 38 ; he scored only 400 runs at 36 @.@ 36 for the season . Queensland played five matches under his watch , losing three , and went without victory . Of the two draws , one was washed out and in the other , Queensland hung on with two wickets in hand when time ran out . Although Brown compiled two centuries , he was only twelfth in the aggregates during an Australian season with no international tours . As a result , his selection for the 1938 tour to England was criticised in some quarters .

Brown started the tour patchily , although Australia won their first four matches by an innings . In his first four innings , Brown passed five only once , scoring 72 against Oxford University . He returned to form with an unbeaten 194 against Northamptonshire , helping to set up an innings win , before adding another 96 in the next match against Surrey . Brown entered the Tests with 504 runs at 56 @.@ 00 in the lead @-@ in tour matches .

After adding 48 in Australia 's first innings of 411 , Brown scored 133 in the second innings of the First Test at Nottingham after the tourists were forced to follow @-@ on , helping Bradman ( 144 not out ) to save the Test . The Australians reached 6 / 427 in the second innings when the match ended in the draw .

Brown 's most celebrated innings came in the Second Test at Lord 's , carrying his bat to score 206 in the first televised Test match . England batted first and amassed 494 , largely on the back of Wally Hammond 's 240 . Brown featured in an opening stand of 69 before Fingleton was dismissed . Hedley Verity then bowled Bradman for 18 , leaving the score at 101 , before Stan McCabe fell after a quickfire 38 with the score at 3 / 152 . Brown registered his century in 193 minutes , during an innings highlighted by his driving on both sides of the wicket . After Lindsay Hassett was dismissed for 56 following a 134 @-@ run partnership , Australia reached stumps at 5 / 299 , with Brown on 140 . The following day , Brown set about ensuring that Australia would avoid the follow on , featuring in an aggressive eighth @-@ wicket stand with tailender Bill O 'Reilly . The pair added 85 runs in just 46 minutes , with Brown recalling " It was a nice day , and a nice wicket . O 'Reilly came in , and I told him I 'd take the quicks — Wellard and Farnes — and Tiger [ O 'Reilly ] took Verity . " Brown continued past his double century and remained unbeaten on 206 from just 375 minutes when his last partner fell , leaving Australia all out for 422 . Brown 's innings was the 100th century by an Australian against England , and the highest Test score for batsman carrying his bat ; it stood until Glenn Turner made an unbeaten 223 in 1972 . Ray Robinson quipped that Brown 's performance " did not cause smoke to rise from the back of those [ television ] sets but the charm of his style gave viewers a favourable impression of Australian batsmanship " . They went on to draw the match , which was crucial in Australia 's eventual retention of the Ashes . Brown 's uninterrupted batting meant that he was on the field from the first morning until late on the fourth day .

Immediately after making his highest Test score at Lord 's , Brown recorded his highest first @-@ class score of 265 not out against Derbyshire , in six hours of batting . Australia amassed 4 / 441 declared and won by an innings and 234 runs . He then made it three centuries in a row , scoring 101 against Warwickshire , setting up another innings win .

The Third Test was washed out without a ball being bowled , and Australia won the Fourth Test by five wickets in a low @-@ scoring match to retain The Ashes . Brown made 22 and nine as Australia scored 242 and 5 / 107 . It was the start of a quiet month for the opener , who scored only 194 runs in eight completed innings . He was the top Australian scorer in both innings of the Fifth Test at The Oval , scoring 69 and 15 . This was the match in which Len Hutton scored a world Test record 364 and England compiled 7 / 903 , before winning by an innings and 579 runs , which remains a world record winning margin in a Test match . Throughout the Tests , Brown aggregated 512 runs at 73 @.@ 14 , totaling 1854 runs at 59 @.@ 57 in all first @-@ class matches for the tour . This placed Brown second to Bradman in both aggregates and average . He was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year for his performances in 1938 . Wisden described him as a " cricketer of remarkable powers " who batted with " a charming skill , coolness , thoughtfulness and certainty " .

Upon returning to Australia , Brown scored 1 @,@ 057 runs at 105 @.@ 70 in the 1938 – 39 Australian season , including 990 at 110 @.@ 00 in six Sheffield Shield matches . Brown started the season well , scoring 84 as Queensland amassed 501 against New South Wales . His old state were still 27 runs from making Queensland bat again , but time ran out with one wicket intact , with Brown yet to taste victory with his new state . Nevertheless , he continued to perform strongly as passed 50 in each of his first four innings . In the fourth of these , he was out for 99 and then declared at 5 / 510 to leave Victoria a victory target of 319 . Brown then narrowly missed out on a milestone for the second time in the match when Victoria scraped home by three wickets to deny him a maiden victory with his home state . In the next match , he carried his bat to make an unbeaten 174 against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval , as his team fell to an innings defeat .

After twelve matches for his state of origin , Brown was still to end up on the winning side . This changed in the next match against New South Wales . After their opponents had made 214 , Brown top @-@ scored with 95 as Queensland replied with 200 . New South Wales made 264 to leave Brown 's men 279 for victory . The captain led the way , combining with Geoff Cook in Queensland 's then record first @-@ wicket partnership of 265 . Brown was out for 168 , but his team held on to secure an eight @-@ wicket victory over New South Wales . It was Brown 's first win in Queensland colours . He then scored 81 in a ten @-@ wicket defeat to South Australia , before adding a second victory , this time over Victoria . Brown ended the season by amassing 215 as Queensland reached 7 / 575 declared before completing an innings win . Brown topped the aggregates with 1 @,@ 057 runs and was the only player to pass 1 @,@ 000 runs for the season .

Brown had another strong campaign in the following year , netting 857 runs at 61 @.@ 21 , including three centuries . Despite this , Queensland had another poor season , losing five of their six matches . Brown started the season strongly , scoring 87 and 137 , but he was unable to stop New South Wales winning the opening match by three wickets . After a seven @-@ wicket loss to Victoria , Brown made 156 , but was unable to prevent an innings defeat to South Australia . After an innings loss to New South Wales , he made 111 to steer Queensland to its only win of the season , a two @-@ wicket victory over South Australia . He finished the season with 35 and 97 as The Rest of Australia lost to New South Wales by two wickets .

= = Second World War and post @-@ war career = =

Due to World War II , cricket in Australia was scaled down and in a shortened season in 1940 – 41 , Brown made 307 runs at 30 @.@ 70 in five matches , with two half @-@ centuries . In 1941 – 42 , he played one match , his last first @-@ class fixture during the war , scoring 56 and 69 in a narrow 19 @-@ run win over New South Wales .

Brown was a flight lieutenant with the Royal Australian Air Force , serving in New Guinea and the Philippines during the Second World War , losing his prime years from the age of 27 to 33 . During the pre @-@ war years , he had averaged 49 @.@ 02 in Test cricket .

First @-@ class cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 after the Allied victory , and Brown began the post @-@ war phase of his career with a steady season , scoring 604 runs at 46 @.@ 46 with five half @-@ centuries in seven matches . This placed him second to Sid Barnes in the run @-@ scoring aggregates . His best effort was a 98 against South Australia , denied a century by a run out . Queensland lost more than they won , with two victories and three losses . At the end of the season , Brown captained an Australian side on a tour of New Zealand , and all five matches resulted in convincing victories .

Australia played its inaugural Test against New Zealand in Wellington , a match that was retrospectively given Test status . The uncertain status of the tour saw the players wearing blazers that were labelled ABC ( Australian Board of Control ) , rather than the Australian coat of arms . Brown led from the front , topping the tour aggregates and averages , with 443 runs at 73 @.@ 83 in five matches . In the opening tour match against Auckland , Brown elected to bat and opened with 68 as Australia amassed 579 and took victory by an innings and 180 runs . This was followed by a match against Canterbury in Christchurch , in which Brown top @-@ scored with 137 . This laid the foundation for a total of 8 / 415 and another innings victory . Brown made his second consecutive century in the third match against Otago at Carisbrook in Dunedin , again top @-@ scoring with 106 in an eight @-@ wicket victory . Brown made 34 in the final tour match as Australia defeated Wellington in another innings victory .

The tour culminated in a match against New Zealand at the Basin Reserve in Wellington . With regular captain Don Bradman missing , Brown led a team that included seven Test debutants . The hosts won the toss and elected to bat first on a wet wicket , which came about after a week of rain before the match . New Zealand managed to reach 4 / 37 at lunch , before the sun emerged and caused the wicket to turn into a sticky with unpredictable bounce . Leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly — in his last Test — and debutant Ernie Toshack , took 5 / 14 and 4 / 12 respectively as New Zealand were bowled out for only 42 , losing their last six wickets for five runs . In reply , Australia were 1 / 9 when Ken Meuleman was dismissed . Having been dropped on 13 , Brown then combined in a 109 @-@ run first @-@ wicket stand with Barnes , before falling for the innings top @-@ score of 67 . It was the only partnership for the Test that went beyond 32 . Barnes ' dismissal triggered a collapse of 6 / 57 , prompting Brown to declare Australia 's innings closed at 8 / 199 . Australia then dismissed New Zealand for 54 in the second innings in just two hours , resulting in victory by an innings and 54 runs in just two days . As the hosts ' batsmen fell quickly , many of the Australian bowlers had limited opportunities . With one wicket left in the match , Brown used the toss of a coin to determine which of the debutants Colin McCool and Ian Johnson would bowl in Tests for the first time . McCool was given the ball and ended the match on his second delivery . Brown 's solitary Test as captain makes him the first and the only native Queenslander to have led Australia .

Brown missed the entire 1946 – 47 Test series against England due to a thumb injury . This allowed young New South Wales opener Arthur Morris to make his Test debut . Morris ' performance in the series eventually displaced Brown from his position as a first @-@ choice opening batsman alongside Barnes . The injury meant that Brown was unable to play a single match for Queensland .

= = Mankad = =

Brown returned to first @-@ class cricket in 1947 – 48 , scoring 192 runs at 38 @.@ 40 in the first three matches of the season . The season saw an Indian tour of Australia . The selectors initially dropped Barnes to pair Brown with Morris to open the batting . Apart from two Tests during the 1936 – 37 season against England , Brown had not played Test cricket on Australian soil . He had only one opportunity with the bat in the First Test in Brisbane , making 11 as India fell to an innings defeat . It was to be his only innings and Test match on his home ground . Brown 's participation in the series was overshadowed by his controversial run out by Indian left arm orthodox spinner Vinoo Mankad in the Second Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground in December 1947 . Brown was run out for 18 , when in the act of delivering the ball , Mankad held on to it and whipped the bails off at the non @-@ striker 's end . Brown was well out of his crease while he was backing @-@ up the striker , so that he could get a head start in case he attempted a run . This was the second time during the season that Mankad had dismissed Brown in this fashion — as he had previously done so a match against an Australian XI in November . On that occasion , Mankad had warned Brown before running him out . The local press strongly accused Mankad of being unsportsmanlike , although some Australians — including Bradman — defended Mankad 's actions . For his part , Brown took full blame and made light of the incident through humorous gestures in later matches , which referred to the event . After this incident , if a batsman is given out this way , he is said to have been " Mankaded " .

The dismissal ended another low @-@ scoring innings , and Australia batted only once in a shortened match . Brown was omitted from the team in favour of Barnes for the next two Tests . Morris — who had established himself as one of Australia 's first @-@ choice opening batsmen during Brown 's injury layoff during the previous season — was rested for the Fifth Test as the Australian Board trialled potential candidates for the 1948 tour of England . Morris was omitted after losing a coin toss to Barnes . Brown partnered Barnes , making 99 in the first innings before being run out . Brown had survived a confident appeal for caught behind before he had scored , and Barnes was convinced that his partner had edged the ball . Barnes claimed that had Brown failed to make an impact in the innings , he would have been overlooked for the 1948 tour .

During the first innings , Brown captained Australia while Bradman was absent with fibrositis . The tourists fell for 331 , with debutants Sam Loxton and Doug Ring taking three wickets apiece . India eventually fell to another innings defeat , so Brown did not have another opportunity to score a Test century on home soil . His Test aggregate in Australia stood at 223 runs at only 33 @.@ 86 , in contrast to his away average of 1 @,@ 369 runs at 50 @.@ 70 . His first @-@ class batting average of 43 @.@ 58 for the season was inferior to that of Barnes and Morris , both of whom averaged more than 50 .

= = Invincibles tour = =

In any case , Brown had done enough to be chosen to tour England with the Invincibles in 1948 , although Barnes and Morris were the first @-@ choice opening combination . Brown made a strong start in the tour matches preceding the Tests . In the fifth fixture , which was against Cambridge University , Brown top @-@ scored with 200 in an innings victory . In the following match against Essex , Brown combined with Bradman in a second @-@ wicket partnership of 219 in 90 minutes , ending with 153 as Australia scored a world @-@ record 721 runs in one day . Australia proceeded to another innings victory , and Brown completed his third century in as many innings with 108 against Oxford University . He preceded to add a fourth century in less than three weeks , with 122 against Nottinghamshire , and made an unbeaten 81 against Hampshire . In contrast , middle @-@ order batsman Neil Harvey had struggled in the initial stages of his first tour of England , failing to pass 25 in his first six innings . Thus , Brown gained selection in the First Test at Trent Bridge , batting out of position in the middle order , whereas Harvey was dropped despite making a century in Australia 's most recent Test against India .

Brown made 17 in his only innings as Australia won by eight wickets . Between Tests , Brown scored 113 in a slow innings against Yorkshire to retain his middle @-@ order position for the Second Test at Lord 's . He was unable to replicate the Test centuries he made in the preceding tours , scoring 24 and 32 . It was to be his last Test , as Sam Loxton top @-@ scored with 159 not out against Gloucestershire in the match before the Third Test , ousting Brown from his middle @-@ order position . Barnes was injured in the Third Test , but Brown was not recalled for the Fourth Test ; instead , Lindsay Hassett was promoted to open with Morris , while the teenaged Harvey came into the middle @-@ order and struck 112 . Brown then scored 140 against Derbyshire immediately after the Fourth Test , in a dour display that displeased spectators , and then scored consecutive centuries against Kent and the Gentlemen of England after the Tests . He ended with eight centuries and a total of 1 @,@ 448 runs on the tour at an average of 57 @.@ 92 , behind only Bradman , Hassett and Morris , with the 200 against Cambridge University his highest score . Brown took 4 / 16 against the South of England in his only bowling assignment of the tour . It was his best career bowling figures , having amassed only six wickets in his first @-@ class career . In three visits to England , Brown scored 18 centuries .

Upon returning to Australia , Bradman retired and Barnes took a break from cricket , thereby opening two vacancies in the Test team . Brown had a reasonable domestic season in 1948 – 1949 to press his claim for a Test recall . He scored 626 runs at 41 @.@ 73 , the sixth highest aggregate of the season , with a century and three fifties . Queensland won two and lost three games . Despite this , the 37 @-@ year @-@ old Brown was not named in the touring party for the Test tour of South Africa in 1949 – 50 . In the absence of the Test players , Brown scored 507 runs at 50 @.@ 70 in the Sheffield Shield season , with a top score of 190 , making him the third highest run @-@ getter . In their first five matches of the season , Queensland lost three times , before Brown 's 190 in the last match against South Australia set up a nine @-@ wicket win . It was his only century of the season after previously falling for 94 twices .

With his opportunities diminishing , he retired after captaining the Australian Second XI to New Zealand on an end @-@ of @-@ season tour , during which the team went undefeated . Most of the matches were not first @-@ class but Brown scored his final first @-@ class century against Otago , scoring 184 in an innings victory . He had been less effective in his later years , averaging 38 @.@ 29 in Tests following World War II .

= = Style = =

Brown was regarded as a cautious starter who was reluctant to use his full array of strokes . He had an upright stance and was known for his trademark leg glancing and placement of the ball . He hooked occasionally and scored the majority of his off @-@ side runs with the cut shot . Johnnie Moyes said that " even when slow , he never wearied , as some do , because his style was cultured and free from jarring faults " . Moyes felt that Brown 's superior record on English soil was a result of the crowd attitude , which was more respectful . At Australian grounds , impatient spectators who disliked Brown 's cautious batting frequently heckled him , blaming Brown for delaying Bradman 's arrival to the crease . Moyes felt that the more serene English gallery allowed Brown to play to his game plan without hastening to placate impatient spectators . " A placid chap was Brown , and he liked to play in peaceful surroundings . When on the job he was as emotionless as a stoic . " Moyes said that Brown was " always cool and thoughtful , he preferred finesse to force " . The English journalist Neville Cardus commented " His cricket is perpetually keeping an appointment leisurely with moments to spare . Does the bat have an engagement this over with a half @-@ volley ? Very well , then , put it down in the book . We 'll be there for it . Plenty of time . " Bradman also noted Brown 's ability to quickly get into position to play the ball , writing " One hallmark of good batting is that the player appears to have plenty of time in which to play his strokes . Bill Brown was an outstanding case of one who never seemed to be in a hurry for any stroke . " Ray Robinson said that Brown was " the most serene batsman I ever saw play for Australia " . Robinson said that " for artistry , Brown 's leg @-@ glancing could be mentioned in the same breath as Archie Jackson 's " . Brown 's placid nature extended to his observations of modern cricket — he disliked the emotional displays made by contemporary players .

Brown 's partnership with Fingleton was regarded as one of the great opening pairings in Australian Test cricket history . In ten Tests as an opening combination , the pair averaged 63 @.@ 75 for the first wicket , higher than any other Australian duo with more than 1000 runs . Brown was known for his self @-@ effacing nature and was well liked among teammates and opponents alike . Of his batting , Brown joked that " My wife said you could always tell when I was batting by the number of people leaving the ground " . During a domestic match at the Adelaide Oval in December 1938 , he deflected a ball onto his stumps without dislodging a bail . He added a further 147 runs to end unbeaten on 174 , eternally apologising for his luck .

In addition to his batting , Brown was a highly regarded fieldsman known for his fitness . He developed his skills through persistent training with professional sprinters in order to improve his anticipation and speed off the mark . Brown often fielded at slip or in the covers . With Australia boasting the leg spin pairing of O 'Reilly and Grimmett in the 1930s , close @-@ catchers were frequently used . Along with Fingleton , Brown often fielded in the leg trap position .

= = Off the field = =

In 1940 , Brown married Barbara Hart , a receptionist . The couple had three sons , whom Brown self @-@ deprecatingly noted were " well spaced ... like my centuries " . Outside cricket , Brown worked in a variety of jobs . When Bradman relocated from New South Wales to South Australia in 1935 , Brown took his job at the men 's clothing store FJ Palmer . Following his relocation to Queensland , Brown was a Brisbane car salesman , selling Chevrolets for Egars , later running a sports store .

Brown was a Queensland selector from 1950 – 51 to 1959 – 60 , and an Australian selector in 1952 – 53 after defeating New South Wales ' Chappie Dwyer in an election . He was the first Queenslander in 23 years to serve as a national selector . His brief tenure as a national selector was marked by abuse and harassment from parochial Queenslanders , upset that he did not include his fellow statesmen in the Test team . Brown 's sports store was vandalised and he resigned as a selector within a year . In 1992 , Brown was elected a life member of the Queensland Cricket Association , and in 2000 was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket .

Upon Bradman 's death in February 2001 , Brown became the oldest living Australian Test cricketer , greatly amused by the fame that came with the title . Highly regarded by Australian cricketers of the modern era , Steve Waugh invited Brown to present Test debutant Adam Gilchrist with his baggy green . The humble Brown was surprised , thinking himself an unworthy choice . Waugh disagreed , opining that " Bill is a baggy green icon who represents all that is good about playing for your country . He is humble , self @-@ effacing and respectful , proud to have been afforded the honour of being an Australian Test cricketer , and a man who always looks for the positive in people . " In March 2008 , Brown died in Brisbane at the age of 95 . He was the last surviving Invincible to have played Test cricket before World War II and his death leaves only four living members of Bradman 's 1948 team .

In 2009 Brown was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame .

= = Test match performance = =

Key : * – not out

= Shaun Goater =

Leonard Shaun Goater MBE ( born 25 February 1970 ) is a Bermudian footballer who is now retired . He played as a striker for a number of English clubs in the 1990s and 2000s . He is currently assistant manager at New Mills .

Goater 's first professional club was Manchester United , but he did not reach the first team , making his League debut in 1989 after moving to Rotherham United . He played for Rotherham for seven years before moving to Bristol City in 1996 . Two years later he moved to Manchester City for a fee of £ 400 @,@ 000 .

He is most well known for his time at Manchester City , where he scored over 100 goals between 1998 and 2003 , finishing as the club 's top scorer for four consecutive seasons . After leaving City , Goater had spells with Reading , Coventry City and Southend United , before retiring in May 2006 . He represented Bermuda 36 times , scoring 32 goals .

= = Early life = =

Goater was born in the Bermudian capital Hamilton , living with his mother Lynette , his grandmother and two aunts . His introduction to English football came in April 1987 when he was invited to join the Saltus Grammar School football and basketball tour . He spent two weeks playing against various English high school teams , including the Leicester City youth team . At the age of 17 , he left home to further his education in the United States , where he had a soccer scholarship at Columbia High School , New Jersey . Whilst home in Bermuda during his Thanksgiving break , Goater was spotted by scouts from Manchester United , who invited him to England for a trial . With encouragement from his mother , who was a former football player herself , Goater accepted , forfeiting his scholarship by doing so . At this time , Goater did not play as a striker , but instead played as a creative midfielder .

= = Club career = =

= = = Early career = = =

Goater 's trial resulted in the offer of a professional contract , but he did not break into the first team . In 1989 , Goater signed for Rotherham United in order to play first team football . At this time , Goater suffered homesickness , finding it difficult to adapt to the English climate : " It took me a good two years to get used to life in England . At first I thought the sun never shone and it wasn 't for me . " However , he gradually got used to living in England , and over the course of seven seasons at Rotherham he gained a reputation as a reliable lower division striker , scoring 86 goals in 262 appearances , with a winner 's medal for the 1996 Auto Windscreens Shield the highlight . A 1992 League Cup tie against Everton gave Goater his first experience of playing against a Premier League team . In the first leg , Goater scored the only goal of the game as Rotherham won 1 – 0 . However , Everton won the return leg 3 – 0 and Rotherham were eliminated . In 1993 , Goater also had a brief loan spell at Notts County , though he made only one appearance for the Nottingham club due to a work permit problem . Towards the end of the 1995 – 96 season , Goater had a disagreement with Rotherham manager Archie Gemmill , and decided his future lay elsewhere .

In the 1995 – 96 close season , Goater received offers from Spanish club Osasuna and newly formed South Koreans Suwon Samsung Bluewings , but having recently married , he decided to stay in England . Shortly after , he moved to Bristol City for a fee of £ 175 @,@ 000 . Goater 's Bristol City debut came against Gillingham . Goater scored , but Bristol City lost 3 – 2 . City finished the season in fifth , qualifying for the playoffs , but lost to Brentford . The following season Bristol City were pushing for promotion into the First Division , and Goater scored regularly , eventually being named in the PFA Team of the Year for the division . In a little under two years with the Bristol City , he scored 45 goals in 81 appearances . On 26 March 1998 , transfer deadline day , Goater signed for Manchester City , who paid Bristol City £ 400 @,@ 000 for his services .

= = = Manchester City = = =

Goater joined Manchester City at a turbulent point in their history , with newly appointed manager Joe Royle battling to save the club from relegation to Second Division . Goater scored three goals in the seven remaining matches of the 1997 – 98 season , but this was not enough to prevent the club from being relegated to the third tier of English Football for the first time ever . Fans were initially sceptical as to Goater 's ability , but as goals were scored supporters were gradually won over , creating a song in his honour , " Feed The Goat And He Will Score " ( to the tune Cwm Rhondda ) . The 1998 – 99 season saw Goater score 21 goals , finishing the season as Manchester City 's top goalscorer . The last of these was the winning goal in a play @-@ off semi @-@ final against Wigan Athletic , sending Manchester City to Wembley Stadium for a playoff final which saw City promoted after a penalty shootout .

The 1999 – 2000 season was even more successful for Goater . He was the club 's top goal score again , this time with 29 goals , and was named Manchester City 's Player of the Year by the supporters after Manchester City were promoted for the second successive year . In the summer , Goater was awarded the freedom of Bermuda , with 21 June declared as " Shaun Goater Day " on the island . The following season , Goater made his first appearance in top flight football at the age of 30 , though injury and the presence of new signings Paulo Wanchope and former World Player of the Year George Weah meant he had to wait three months to do so . Again established in the first team , Goater was Manchester City 's top goalscorer for the third consecutive season , but his 11 goals could not save the team from relegation .

During the 2000 – 01 close season , upheaval took place at Manchester City , with manager Royle departing to be replaced by Kevin Keegan . In the 2001 – 02 season , Goater became the first Manchester City player since Francis Lee in 1972 to score more than 30 goals in a season . City were promoted as champions , and he was the club 's top scorer for the fourth time in a row , as well as being the top scorer in the division .

Over the summer of 2001 – 02 , there was speculation that Goater would be transferred , as Manchester City had twice broken their transfer record by buying strikers Jon Macken and Nicolas Anelka . Goater stayed , but opportunities were limited . He started just 14 games , but scored seven goals , including his 100th for the club , which came in a derby match against local rivals Manchester United . In February 2003 , Goater struck against the same opposition to score the fastest goal by a substitute in Premier League history , just 9 seconds after coming onto the pitch . He also scored a goal that would have won City the match , but it was disallowed .

Shortly before the end of the 2002 – 03 season , Goater announced his intention to leave Manchester City when the season finished in order to seek regular first team football . In his final match for Manchester City , he was asked to captain the side in Manchester City 's final game at Maine Road . In total , Goater scored 103 goals in 212 appearances for Manchester City . Since ending his footballing career , Goater has been critical of both Kevin Keegan , who he claims never praised him and Nicolas Anelka , who he feels wanted to be ' the daddy ' of Manchester City .

= = = Later career = = =

Goater moved to Reading on 1 August 2003 . Reading chairman John Madejski described the transfer as " the biggest in Reading Football Club 's history " , but Goater 's time there was not a happy one . Shortly after Goater 's arrival , Reading manager Alan Pardew left for West Ham United , and Pardew 's replacement , Steve Coppell , did not regard Goater as part of his plans . In his second and final season at Reading , Goater played just four times , and was loaned to Coventry City . Goater then considered retirement , but instead moved to League One club Southend United for a final season as a professional . The move , a free transfer , was completed on 3 August 2005 . At Southend , Goater acted as a mentor for young striker Freddy Eastwood , and contributed towards a second successive promotion for the Shrimpers , scoring 11 goals . His final appearance before retirement was on 6 May 2006 , when Southend played Bristol City , one of Goater 's former clubs . The crowd included an estimated 400 Manchester City fans who travelled to Southend to mark the occasion .

After retiring , Goater returned to Bermuda , receiving an official welcome from the Premier of Bermuda Alex Scott on his arrival . A week later , Southend played the Bermuda national team in an appreciation game for their former striker . Goater has expressed a wish to enter coaching following his retirement , and studied for the UEFA B coaching licence in 2005 . Since 2003 , Goater has organised the annual Shaun Goater Grass @-@ roots Soccer Festival , a football coaching event for children in Bermuda . On 14 September 2006 , Goater and the United Soccer Leagues announced that Bermuda would receive a professional football team that would play in the third division of American football , the USL Second Division . Goater had roles as both a director and player of the team , the Bermuda Hogges . Goater left Bermuda Hogges in 2008 , to concentrate on youth coaching with North Village Rams in his home town .

Goater and three other partners in the Bermuda @-@ based East End Group Limited announced an amalgamation with Telecommunications Networks Limited ( now renamed East End Telecom ) on 9 November 2007 , which added to the group 's two other business subsidiaries , East End Asphalt and East End Aviation . Goater serves as the group 's Business Development Manager .

When in England , Goater has made regular appearances in local media covering the Manchester area . These have included a column entitled " Read the Goat " in the official Manchester City match programme , and a regular guest spot on the BBC Radio Manchester programme Blue Tuesday .

On 8 August 2015 , it was announced that Goater would join Northern Premier League Division One North club New Mills A.F.C. as assistant manager to Andy Fearn . In September 2015 , Fearn and Goater resigned from New Mills after nine defeats in nine games .

= = International career = =

Goater has also played for the Bermudian national team 36 times , scoring 32 goals , though due to Bermuda 's lowly standing in world football he never played in a major international tournament . He made his first international appearance at the age of 17 against Canada .

During the 1992 – 93 season , Goater missed eight weeks of the club season in order to represent his country in qualifying for the 1994 World Cup . However , Bermuda finished bottom of a group containing El Salvador , Canada and Jamaica . His final appearance was in June 2004 against El Salvador .

When playing for Bermuda , Goater was often the only professional player in the team . Bermudian journalist Chris Gibbons described the difference between Goater and his team @-@ mates : " He 's a class above every other player on the island . Before he went to England he was just quick , but now he 's a totally different player , a lot more aggressive and a much better header of the ball . The problem has been that he sets up chances for the others without them being on the same wavelength . " However , Goater noted that this had a detrimental aspect : " My fitness dropped off while I was with Bermuda . It was like being on holiday . The team just ate what they liked . I kept to my professional diet for about two or three weeks until peer pressure took over . "

= = Personal life = =

Goater is married to Anita , his childhood sweetheart , and has two daughters , Amaya and Anais ( born 3 October 2000 in Wythenshawe , Manchester ) . He was awarded the MBE in 2003 for services to sport and young people in Bermuda . His autobiography , Feed the Goat : The Shaun Goater Story was published in September 2006 .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = International goals = = =

Scores and results list Bermuda 's goal tally first .

= = Honours = =

= = = Club = = =

Rotherham United

Football League Trophy : 1995 – 96

Manchester City

Football League Second Division play @-@ offs : 1998 – 99

Football League First Division : 2001 – 02

Southend United

Football League One : 2005 – 06

= = = Individual = = =

Football League First Division Top Scorer : 2001 – 02

PFA Team of the Year : 1997 – 98 , 2001 – 02

= Carlton Hill , Brighton =

Carlton Hill is an inner @-@ city area of Brighton , part of the English city and seaside resort of Brighton and Hove . First developed in the early and mid @-@ 19th century on steeply sloping farmland east of central Brighton , it grew rapidly as the town became a fashionable , high @-@ class destination . Carlton Hill 's population was always poor , though , and by the early 20th century the area was Brighton 's worst slum : overcrowding , crime and disease were rife . Extensive slum clearance in the mid @-@ 20th century introduced high @-@ density tower blocks , but some old buildings remain : in 2008 , Brighton and Hove City Council designated part of Carlton Hill as the city 's 34th conservation area . The area now has housing of various styles and ages , large offices and small @-@ scale industry ; there are also churches , a school and some open space .

Carlton Hill 's pattern of development was defined by the long @-@ established structure of land ownership around Brighton , whereby land was divided into long , narrow strips with many different owners . This encouraged the development of terraced housing — the predominant housing pattern until the council undertook large @-@ scale demolition and high @-@ density rebuilding in the mid @-@ 20th century . This work introduced more open space and varied land uses : Brighton Art College was able to expand into the area , and American Express opened a large , visually dominant headquarters .

Buildings lost during the 20th century include schools and several chapels serving various Christian denominations . The former St John the Evangelist 's Anglican church was declared redundant and sold to Brighton 's Greek Orthodox community ; meanwhile , a distinctive Modernist church was built in the 1960s for Spiritualists . A cluster of historic early 19th @-@ century houses and other structures survived the redevelopment , and several were awarded listed status by English Heritage . These buildings and their surroundings were afforded further protection in 2008 when the city council designated the Carlton Hill conservation area .

= = Location = =

Carlton Hill stands on high ground immediately east of the centre of Brighton . Its western boundary , Grand Parade , is part of the main road to London ; Edward Street , a major road leading towards Kemp Town and the eastbound coast road , forms the southern boundary ; the Queen 's Park residential area is to the east ; and the densely populated terraced housing of Hanover lies to the north . The main road through the area runs from west to east and is also called Carlton Hill . Albion Hill , another steeply sloping west – east road , forms the northern boundary between Hanover and Carlton Hill ; the area north of Sussex Street is sometimes referred to as Albion Hill . The high ground of the area reaches a summit of 230 feet ( 70 m ) at Windmill Terrace , between Albion Hill and Richmond Street . The latter was Brighton 's steepest road until redevelopment in the 1960s severed it : its 1 : 5 gradient necessitated a full @-@ width wall halfway along , to intercept runaway handcarts and other vehicles .

The area is not prominent on Brighton 's skyline , but good views are possible from its streets , especially westwards and southwestwards towards the sea and across the valley floor in which Old Steine and the old town are situated . Tarner Park , an open space in the centre of the conservation area , offers long views through nearly 180 ° .

= = History = =

Brighton 's origins lie in the Saxon fishing and agricultural village of Bristelmestune . The English Channel formed its southern limit , but on all other sides was farmland divided into open fields called laines . These were further subdivided into furlongs — wide parallel strips — and paul @-@ pieces , which were much narrower strips . Despite their small size , neighbouring paul @-@ pieces often had different owners . Wide paths ( leakways ) ran at right @-@ angles to the furlongs , separating them . This ancient land @-@ use pattern , which survived until the 18th century despite its unsuitability for contemporary farming methods , significantly influenced the pattern of urban development in 18th- and 19th @-@ century Brighton .

Hilly Laine was one of Brighton 's five laines . It was northeast of the Steine ( later called Old Steine ) , the centre of fashionable society in the 18th century , and rose steeply eastwards from an area of sheltered flatter land close to the Steine . Some fields were used for small @-@ scale activities such as limeburning and market gardening , but most were farmed by individuals . The laine had several furlongs ; the second of these , which now forms the heart of the conservation area , was separated from its neighbours by leakways which became Carlton Hill ( the road ) and Sussex Street . Much of the land in this area was owned by Dr Benjamin Scutt , whose landholdings extended into the neighbouring village of Hove ( the Brunswick estate was built on land he sold in the 1820s ) . Starting around 1800 , the land was gradually sold to developers ; Edward Street was laid out in 1804 and quickly experienced a " mini building boom " with inns , stables and small workshops . John Street , on the first ( westernmost ) furlong of Hilly Laine , was built up by 1810 : its developer , John Hall , laid out plots for 11 by 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m × 4 @.@ 6 m ) houses and started building and selling them in 1805 . Carlton Street , by another developer , followed by 1807 . Meanwhile , development continued slowly on the second furlong : four paul @-@ pieces were occupied with buildings by 1819 .

Scutt 's land sales helped him fund the development of Carlton Place , an architectural set @-@ piece consisting of a 20 @-@ house terrace surrounding a riding school , the Royal Circus ; the development took place between 1806 and 1808 . Named after Carlton House , the Prince Regent 's London home , the development was on a larger scale than the rest of Carlton Hill 's houses : each plot measured 17 by 60 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m × 18 @.@ 3 m ) . Each cost about £ 410 ( £ 30 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) to build , and proved to be profitable : one sold for £ 700 ( £ 51 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in 1806 to a local vicar , who later bought two more to rent out . A survey of the town 's housing by the Brighton Town Commissioners in 1814 valued Carlton Place within the top 25 % of all houses in Brighton . Scutt laid out three more streets nearby at the same time : Carlton Mews , Carlton Row and Woburn Place were narrow roads crowded with small houses , stables and workshops . Meanwhile , a farmhouse was built at an unknown time in the early 19th century on nearby Mighell Street ; it may have moved from agricultural to residential and commercial use later that century , and has an obscure early history .

Built as Patriot Place in the mid @-@ 1810s , Tilbury Place ( renamed in the 1860s ) and its five houses stood next to the farm and formed a pocket of high @-@ class residential development in a mostly working @-@ class area of small houses . Number 1 , also called St John 's Lodge , was the largest , and was built for Edward Tarner ( a merchant ) and his wife Laetitia , whose maiden name was Tilbury . It passed through the family until 1933 , when Laetitia Tilbury Tarner , a descendant , left it to Brighton Corporation for charitable purposes . It was converted into Tarner Home , a nursing and care institute for poor people , and later became a hostel .

Apart from some land north of Sussex Street that remained agricultural until the 20th century , the whole hillside was covered with ( mostly terraced ) houses , small workshops and industrial structures , inns and other modest buildings by the mid @-@ 19th century . As early as 1840 , the area was considered to be affected by poverty and its high population density . Brighton Corporation undertook some slum clearance in the 1880s , when White and Blaker Streets were laid out between Carlton Hill and Edward Street . By this time , Carlton Hill was known as Brighton 's " foreign quarter " , where many Italian and French street vendors — who sold food of various types on Brighton beach , in the town centre and from door to door — settled . Brighton 's fishing industry still thrived into the early 20th century , and many fishermen lived in Carlton Hill and used its workshops and warehouses to cure and smoke their herring catches . A contemporary writer , quoted by Brighton historian Clifford Musgrave , observed that " an aromatic and appetising pall would envelop the entire neighbourhood , kippering both fish and residents alike " .

In the late 19th century and early 20th century , Carlton Hill 's notoriety as a slum increased . Poverty , drunkenness , disease and low living standards were rife . Brighton 's reputation was damaged by a disparaging article in The Lancet in 1882 : making reference to Carlton Hill , it criticised the town 's poor standards of health . Assisted by government funding , Brighton Corporation undertook extensive slum clearance from 1928 until the start of World War II , transforming the area 's appearance . Two large blocks of flats — Brighton Corporation 's first council flats — were built to rehouse many of the displaced residents . The Milner Flats , a long four @-@ storey block , stand on the site of Woburn Place , and were completed in 1934 . Alderman Hugh Milner Black , a Corporation member who campaigned for housing improvements in Brighton , was commemorated in the naming . Kingswood Flats , on the site of Nelson Place and a Primitive Methodist chapel , were built in 1938 . The name refers to Minister for Health Kingsley Wood . Some displaced residents were moved out of the area : the new council estates of Whitehawk and Moulsecoomb , built in the 1920s and early 1930s on the fringe of Brighton , accommodated many former Carlton Hill residents . An earlier low @-@ rise development took place in 1931 , when the small Tarnerland council estate was built on empty land near Tilbury Place .

The Corporation also provided non @-@ residential buildings on the cleared land . The Circus Street Municipal Market , on a wide street built behind Scutt 's Royal Circus riding school , opened in January 1937 and became one of Brighton 's main markets . A former chapel and many terraced houses had stood on the site , whose redevelopment cost £ 75 @,@ 000 ( £ 4 @,@ 364 @,@ 500 in 2016 ) . A fish market , moved from a site near the beach , was added in 1960 . The building closed in 2005 and has been empty since then , apart from its use as a temporary exhibition centre during the 2009 Brighton Festival — when sculptor Anish Kapoor showed a new work there . Two clinics , specialising in chest complaints and child welfare , opened on the north side of Sussex Street , opposite the market , in 1936 and 1938 respectively . The chest clinic closed in 1989 . The lower part of Sussex Street was renamed Morley Street at this time . Brighton Corporation compulsorily purchased Carlton Place in about 1955 and demolished the houses and former riding school in favour of new housing . John Street became the site of two important civic buildings in the mid @-@ 1960s : Brighton 's central police station was opened in 1965 , followed by the new county court building two years later .

Clearances around Albion Hill began in the 1950s . From 1959 , the narrow , densely populated terraces between Albion Hill and Morley Street were cleared and replaced with landscaped open space and seven tower blocks — Brighton 's first such buildings . The first , Highleigh , opened on 11 May 1961 . Like its later neighbours , it has 11 storeys . The steep Richmond Street was severed as part of this redevelopment ; its lower section was replaced by a zig @-@ zag path down the hillside and a short road called Richmond Parade , and new roads ( Grove Hill and Ashton Rise ) were built between the tower blocks and across the slope of the hill . Similarly , the lowest section of Carlton Hill was renamed Kingswood Street when it was redeveloped in the 1960s : Brighton Art College ( now part of the University of Brighton ) was extended in 1967 by Brighton borough architect Percy Billington , taking up a large corner plot .

In the mid @-@ 1970s , American Express sought land in Brighton to build a new European headquarters . The company had a long association with Sussex , and opened a mechanical accounting centre in a building on Edward Street in 1968 . Most of Mighell Street and all of its buildings — except the old farmhouse — and some neighbouring streets were demolished and replaced by the 300 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 28 @,@ 000 m2 ) Amex House , a nine @-@ storey office building designed by American architecture firm Gollins , Melvin , Ward and Partners . A legislative order was raised by the Secretary of State for the Environment in mid @-@ 1973 to allow Mighell Street to be severed . In September 2008 , American Express announced plans to demolish and replace the building . The new office will be set slightly further back , closer to Carlton Hill ( the road ) , and better road access will be provided by means of a new entrance from John Street . The city council granted planning permission in November 2009 , and preliminary building work started in early 2010 .

= = Buildings = =

= = = Churches = = =

Early in its development , Carlton Hill was provided with an Anglican church . St John the Evangelist 's Church , opposite the junction of Carlton Hill and White Street , was designed by George Cheesman junior in a " strangely bleak " Greek Revival / Neo @-@ Georgian style in 1838 , with Doric columns and a stuccoed and pedimented façade . Never successful in attracting large congregations , it was declared redundant by the Diocese of Chichester in 1980 . Proposals for its conversion into a drug detoxification centre were opposed , and in March 1986 the Greek Orthodox community , which had been worshipping elsewhere in Brighton , bought the church and rededicated it as the Church of the Holy Trinity . The building was severely damaged by fire in July 2010 .

The Ebenezer Reformed Baptist Church has occupied three buildings on two different sites in Carlton Hill . It was founded in 1825 , and the first service was held on 13 April of that year in a stuccoed Renaissance @-@ style building on the north side of Richmond Street . The chapel , with ebenezer chapel erected a.d. 1825 prominently displayed on its entablature , was locally nicknamed " The Lemon Squeezer " . It was demolished in 1966 during the redevelopment of the Richmond Street area . Architect C.J. Wood built a new church in the Vernacular style on the opposite side of Richmond Parade , backing on to Ivory Place , in the same year . It was in turn demolished in 2007 , and a six @-@ storey block of flats with a new church on the ground floor was built in its place . This opened in August 2010 .

Five other chapels were demolished during the area 's 20th @-@ century redevelopment . The Sussex Street Strict Baptist Chapel stood on the section of that road which is now named Morley Street . It had lancet windows and a stuccoed exterior , and opened in 1867 . The congregation moved out in 1895 , and St Margaret 's Church in Cannon Place established a mission hall in the building . The Circus Street market was built on the site after its demolition in 1937 . Also on Sussex Street , a Primitive Methodist chapel was founded in 1836 . The Kingswood Flats now occupy the site of the building , which closed in about 1950 . Mighell Street Hall , demolished in 1965 , stood on land now covered by Amex House . It was used by Baptists from 1878 , then as the church hall of St John the Evangelist 's , and finally ( from January 1949 ) by Spiritualists . When the new Brighton National Spiritualist Church , a figure @-@ of @-@ eight concrete building , opened on Edward Street in 1965 , the hall closed for good . The Carlton Hill Apostolic Church stood for 99 years until 1964 , although its Catholic Apostolic congregation moved out in 1954 . Latterly it was used as student housing for the adjacent Brighton Art College , which extended its premises onto the site when the building was demolished . The Salvation Army had a citadel at the junction of Edward Street and the now vanished Riding School Lane ( near Mighell Street ) from 1884 until 1965 , when it was demolished for road widening . The denomination registered another building for worship and marriages in 1971 : it stood at the junction of Carlton Hill and Mighell Street , and was deregistered in 1985 .

= = = Schools = = =

Carlton Hill Primary School was built by the Local education authority in 1963 . It is on the boundary of the conservation area , between Sussex Street and Carlton Hill ( the road ) on the west side of Tilbury Place , and is well screened by trees . It has a tall wooden fence that , according to the council 's Conservation Area Character Statement , " visually intrudes on the approach to the conservation area and harms its setting " . It recommends replacing the fence with a flint wall . The school adjoins the site that is being redeveloped for the new American Express headquarters : the company paid the school £ 300 @,@ 000 ( a condition of the council 's approval of the planning application ) to compensate for the effect on its playground , which will be overlooked by the building , and the building contractor Sir Robert McAlpine has paid for a school crossing patrol officer to help children cross Carlton Hill safely during the construction period .

Several schools were founded in the mid @-@ 19th century . A Ragged Schools Union school stood on Carlton Street from the mid @-@ 1850s , and St John the Evangelist 's Church established its own school in 1870 on Carlton Hill . This was rebuilt in 1914 , and later housed the American Express social club until its demolition in early 2010 . Board schools were set up in 1873 on Richmond Street and 1883 on Circus Street . The Richmond Street school was the first in Brighton to offer school meals . The two Board schools merged in 1926 and took the name Sussex Street School , after which the Circus Street building closed . It was later sold to Brighton Polytechnic ( now the University of Brighton ) . The Richmond Street school ran along the west side of Claremont Row between Richmond and Sussex Streets ; playgrounds separated the boys ' and girls ' sections . In October 1930 , a nursery section was added . The school was compulsorily purchased in 1959 and demolished for redevelopment ; Carlton Hill Primary School was built to replace it .

The Margaret Macmillan Open Air Nursery was built on part of the grounds of number 1 Tilbury Place in the 1930s , partly funded by Laetitia Tilbury Tarner ( who had bequeathed the house and its grounds to Brighton Corporation ) . A nursery school now stands on the site .

= = = Civic , commercial and public buildings = = =

Amex House " dominates the sweep of Carlton Hill " and is visible on the skyline from much of Brighton . Designed by British architecture firm Gollins Melvin and Ward , the building has prominent white horizontal bands of glass @-@ reinforced plastic and blue @-@ tinted glazing , and its corners are chamfered to give it a more rounded appearance . It is nicknamed " The Wedding Cake " , and its clean , futuristic design has been said to evoke Thunderbirds . The building is generally considered to be one of the better postwar additions to Brighton 's building stock , although it affects views into and out of the neighbouring conservation area . About 3 @,@ 000 people work at the building , making American Express the largest private employer in Brighton and Hove .

Prior House , at the north end of Tilbury Place , was built in 1936 for the Brighton Girl 's Club . This institution was founded in 1928 at Nelson Row , and was displaced from its original premises in 1934 when the Kingswood Flats were built on the site . In 1970 , Prior House became a centre for unemployed people , offering education and other social facilities ; it is now a base for voluntary and charitable groups under the aegis of the Resource Centre , a local organisation formed in 1975 . Architecturally , it is a plain red @-@ brick building with a large stuccoed extension on the second floor , affecting the ambience of Tilbury Place and the neighbouring listed buildings .

The former vicarage of St John the Evangelist 's Church , opposite the church on the south side of Carlton Hill , has been converted into an office . It dates from 1899 and is domestic in character , with bay windows containing original sashes , red @-@ brick walls and a steeply pitched roof . It is within the conservation area and is considered to make a " positive contribution " to its character .

Another building formerly associated with the church is the Edward Riley Memorial Hall , now the Sussex Deaf Centre . It has a steep clay @-@ tiled roof and brown brickwork . The high flint walls around it are described as a positive feature of the conservation area , although the building itself has a " neutral effect " according to the council 's character statement . The building was used as the church hall until the church closed in 1980 ; the Chichester Diocesan Centre for the Deaf was then established in it .

= = = Listed buildings = = =

A building or structure is defined as " listed " when it is placed on a statutory register of buildings of " special architectural or historic interest " by the Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport , a Government department , in accordance with the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 . English Heritage , a non @-@ departmental public body , acts as an agency of this department to administer the process and advise the department on relevant issues .

In February 2001 , there were 24 listed buildings with Grade I status , 70 Grade II * -listed and 1 @,@ 124 Grade II @-@ listed buildings in Brighton and Hove . Grade I @-@ listed buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest " and greater than national importance ; Grade II * , the next highest status , is used for " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " ; and the lowest grade , Grade II , is used for " nationally important buildings of special interest " .

Carlton Hill has nine listed buildings ( covered by five separate listings ) , all of which have Grade II status and lie within the conservation area . Number 1 Tilbury Place ( St John 's Lodge ) is listed together with its surrounding railings , garden wall and garden porch . The four neighbouring and contemporary houses at 2 – 5 Tilbury Place are also listed together under a single Grade II designation . Described by the council as an " impressive warm brick terrace " of " elegant townhouses " , they were much larger than the surrounding houses — especially number 1 , which also had extensive gardens . Number 5 is also slightly larger than the others , and originally had stables adjacent . They are in the Georgian style , built of pale yellow brick laid in the Flemish bond pattern . The roofs are slate @-@ tiled , but some are hidden behind parapets . The entrance doors have decorated fanlights and original windows with ogee @-@ shaped cast @-@ iron miniature balconies . All five houses are now owned by a housing association and have been divided into flats .

The former St John the Evangelist 's Church was listed at Grade II on 20 August 1971 . It is a Greek Revival @-@ style stucco @-@ clad building of stone and brick with a partly hipped roof . The three @-@ bay façade has four Tuscan pilasters beneath a substantial entablature and pediment . The frieze between them has metopes and triglyphs . Work by L.A. Mackintosh in 1957 altered the exterior ; the architect added his personal monogram and an eagle emblem ( representing John the Evangelist ) above the left and right entrances respectively .

Numbers 34 and 35 Mighell Street ( the former Mighell Farmhouse ) were jointly listed on 13 October 1952 . Described as a " surprising survival " , the now semi @-@ detached house is a two @-@ storey cobble @-@ fronted building with a prominent porch framed by Tuscan columns and topped by an entablature with a frieze and triglyph and a decorated pediment . An arched doorway with a keystone has a 19th @-@ century panelled door set into it , and the sash windows are also original and have similar arched surrounds made of bricks . The roof is tiled and has chimneys at each end . The farmhouse 's origins are unknown , although a Philip Mighell was a major landowner on Hilly Laine in the late 18th century , when some of the paul @-@ pieces bore his name . The building was apparently at least partly in commercial use by 1865 .

In Tarner Park , an area of open space formed from part of number 1 Tilbury Place 's grounds , there is a circular tower which is believed to have been built by Edward Tilbury Tarner ( son of the original occupants Edward and Laetitia Tarner ) as an observation tower so he could see ships in the English Channel . The mid @-@ 19th @-@ century structure has two storeys and about 70 steps ; the upper level is recessed and has a walkway around it . The walls are of knapped flint with some brick and stonework . Part of an iron weather vane remains at the top . Both storeys have segmental @-@ arched entrances , but these are now closed . The structure is in good condition but has some missing flints .

= = Conservation area = =

In the United Kingdom , a conservation area is a principally urban area " of special architectural or historic interest , the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance " . Such areas are identified by local authorities according to criteria defined by Sections 69 and 70 of the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 .

On 4 July 2008 , 4 @.@ 05 acres ( 1 @.@ 64 ha ) at the heart of Carlton Hill was designated as the city of Brighton and Hove 's 34th conservation area . Its boundaries are ( clockwise from north ) Sussex Street , St John 's Place , Carlton Hill ( including the stub of Mighell Street ) and Tilbury Place , with the open space of Tarner Park at the centre . All of Carlton Hill 's listed buildings are within the designated area ; these , combined with the sheltered open space of Tarner Park , substantial tree cover , the survival of old street patterns and boundary walls , and the distinctive lie of the land , contribute to the area 's " special character " , as defined by Brighton and Hove City Council .

The area does not have a unified appearance or structure , owing to the large @-@ scale redevelopment carried out in the 20th century . Instead , a " disparate group of individually interesting buildings " and small spaces define the area ; together , they form " a fragment of early 19th @-@ century Brighton " .

Flint and brown or yellow brick is used extensively , both for buildings within the conservation area and in associated structures such as boundary walls and pavements . Some kerbs are of granite , limestone and flint , while some high @-@ quality Yorkstone paving slabs survive , along with some red @-@ brick pavements .

= White @-@ eyed river martin =

The white @-@ eyed river martin ( Pseudochelidon sirintarae ) is a passerine bird , one of only two members of the river martin subfamily of the swallows . Since it has significant differences from its closest relative , the African river martin , it is sometimes placed in its own genus , Eurochelidon . First found in 1968 , it is known only from a single wintering site in Thailand , and may be extinct , since it has not been seen since 1980 despite targeted surveys in Thailand and neighbouring Cambodia . It may possibly still breed in China or Southeast Asia , but a Chinese painting initially thought to depict this species was later reassessed as showing pratincoles .

The adult white @-@ eyed river martin is a medium @-@ sized swallow , with mainly glossy greenish @-@ black plumage , a white rump , and a tail which has two elongated slender central tail feathers , each widening to a racket @-@ shape at the tip . It has a white eye ring and a broad , bright greenish @-@ yellow bill . The sexes are similar in appearance , but the juvenile lacks the tail ornaments and is generally browner than the adult . Little is known of the behaviour or breeding habitat of this martin , although like other swallows it feeds on insects caught in flight , and its wide bill suggests that it may take relatively large species . It roosts in reed beds in winter , and may nest in river sandbanks , probably in April or May before the summer rains . It may have been overlooked prior to its discovery because it tended to feed at dawn or dusk rather than during the day .

The martin 's apparent demise may have been hastened by trapping , loss of habitat and the construction of dams . The winter swallow roosts at the only known location of this martin have greatly reduced in numbers , and birds using river habitats for breeding have declined throughout the region . The white @-@ eyed river martin is one of only two birds endemic to Thailand , and the country 's government has noted this through the issues of a stamp and a high @-@ value commemorative coin .

= = Taxonomy = =

Within the swallow family , the white @-@ eyed river martin is one of only two members of the river martin subfamily Pseudochelidoninae , the other being the African river martin Pseudochelidon eurystomina of the Congo basin in Africa . These two species possess a number of distinctive features which mark them out from other swallows and martins , including their robust legs and feet , and stout bills . The extent of their differences from other swallows and the wide geographical separation of the two martins suggest that they are relict populations of a group of species that diverged from the main swallow lineage early in its evolution . The separation of this subfamily is supported by genetic evidence , and their habit of nesting in burrows is thought to be characteristic of the earliest members of the swallow family .

The white @-@ eyed river martin was discovered in 1968 by Thai ornithologist Kitti Thonglongya , who gave the bird its current binomial name . The genus name Pseudochelidon ( Hartlaub , 1861 ) comes from the Ancient Greek prefix ψευδο / pseudo " false " and χελιδον / chelidôn , " swallow " , and the species name sirintarae commemorates Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn of Thailand .

The African and Asian Pseudochelidon species differ markedly in the size of their bills and eyes , suggesting that they have different feeding ecologies , with the white @-@ eyed river martin probably able to take much larger prey . The Thai species also has a swollen , hard gape ( fleshy interior of the bill ) unlike the softer , fleshier , and much less prominent gape of the African river martin . Thonglongya estimated the bill of the Thai species to be 17 @.@ 6 % wider than that of the African bird , but a later estimate , using specimens preserved in alcohol instead of dried skins ( to avoid shrinkage ) , gave a difference of 22 @.@ 5 % between the bills of the two swallows . Following a suggestion by Kitti in his original paper , Richard Brooke proposed in 1972 that the white @-@ eyed river martin was sufficiently different from the African species to be placed in a separate monotypic genus Eurochelidon , but this was contested by other authorities . The new genus was not subsequently widely adopted by other authors , although BirdLife International uses Eurochelidon .

= = Description = =

The adult white @-@ eyed river martin is a medium @-@ sized swallow , 18 cm ( 7 in ) long , with mainly silky black plumage and a white rump . The back is green @-@ glossed black , and is separated from the similarly coloured upper tail by a narrow bright white rump band . The head is darker than the back , with a velvet @-@ black chin leading to blue @-@ green glossed black underparts . The wings are black , with brown inner edges to the flight feathers , and the tail is green @-@ glossed black with two elongated , slender , central tail feathers , up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long . These expand slightly at the tips to give narrow racquets 4 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 3 in ) long . The wing length averages 11 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail is 10 @.@ 7 cm ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) long , and the tarsus averages 1 @.@ 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) .

The iris and eyelid are white , giving the appearance of a white eye ring , and the broad , bright greenish @-@ yellow bill has a black hooked tip to the upper mandible . The large , strong feet and legs are flesh @-@ coloured . This species is silent when wintering , and its breeding vocalisations are unknown . The sexes are similar , but the juvenile lacks the tail racquets , has a brown head and chin , and is generally browner than the adult . Juveniles taken in January and February were moulting their body feathers .

The original Thai name for the Pseudochelidon , only known to local people in Bueng Boraphet , was นกตาพอง Nok Ta Phong which may be roughly translated as " bird with enlarged eyes " . After its official discovery in 1968 , it was named เจ ้ าฟ ้ าหญิงสิรินธร Nok Chaofa Ying Sirinthon ( " Princess Sirinthon bird " ) .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The white @-@ eyed river martin was discovered in 1968 by Kitti Thonglongya , who obtained nine specimens netted by professional bird @-@ hunters as part of a migratory bird survey at a night @-@ time roost at Thailand 's largest freshwater lake , Bueng Boraphet in Nakhon Sawan Province . It was first seen in the wild by ornithologists at the same wintering site in 1977 . The species has only been seen at the lake , always between the months of November and February , and the wintering habitat is assumed to be in the vicinity of open fresh water for feeding , with reed beds for the night @-@ time roost .

The white @-@ eyed river martin may be migratory , and if the breeding habitat resembles that of the African river martin , it is likely to be the forested valleys of large rivers ; these can provide sandbars and islands for nesting , and woodland over which the birds can catch insect prey . The breeding grounds and habitat are unknown , although river valleys in northern Thailand or southwestern China are possibilities . A claimed depiction of this species in a Chinese scroll painting initially appeared to support the possibility of the martin breeding in China . The bird in the painting had a similarly shaped head and bill , a white eye and a long tail , although it lacked the white rump , did not show the correct bill colour , and elongated the outer , rather than central , tail feathers . Painted before 1970 , it pre @-@ dated the publication of pictures of the Thai bird , so it must have been painted from life . It is now thought more likely that the scroll shows Oriental pratincoles ( Glareola maldivarum ) . Cambodia and Burma have also been suggested as possible refuges for the martin , but there has also been speculation on whether it is migratory at all .

= = Behaviour = =

Since its breeding grounds are undiscovered , nothing is known about the white @-@ eyed river martin 's breeding biology , although it is suggested that it may nest in burrows in river sandbars , probably in April or May before the monsoon rain raises water levels . However , distinct differences in foot and toe morphology from its African relative have led some authorities to speculate that even the assumption that it nests in burrows could be incorrect . In winter , it roosts with barn swallows in reed beds .

Like other swallows , the white @-@ eyed river martin feeds on insects , including beetles , which are caught on the wing . Given its size and unusual mouth structure , it may well take larger insects than other swallows . This species is described as graceful and buoyant in flight , and , like its African relative , appears reluctant to use perches , behaviour that , together with its unusual toe @-@ shape and the fact that mud was found on the toes of one of the first specimens , suggest that this species may be relatively terrestrial .

Pamela C. Rasmussen suggested that , given its unusually large eyes , the species might be nocturnal or at least crepuscular , a factor that could make it very inconspicuous , and thus partly explain how it remained undetected for so long . Although the fact that the first specimens were supposedly collected roosting at night in reedbeds might appear to contradict this theory , it is possible that the birds might not have been caught at the roost . Alternatively , they might be capable of both diurnal and nocturnal behaviour , or be crepuscular , depending on the season or circumstance .

= = Status = =

The white @-@ eyed river martin was seen in Thailand in 1972 , 1977 and 1980 , but not definitely since , although there is an unconfirmed sighting from Thailand from 1986 . It is classified as Critically Endangered , which is the highest risk category assigned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) for wild species . The designation means that a species ' numbers have decreased , or will decrease , by 80 % within three generations . The IUCN does not consider a species extinct until extensive targeted surveys have been conducted , but the white @-@ eyed river martin may well no longer exist in the wild , and was probably always rare .

There has been a drastic decline in the Bueng Boraphet swallow population from the hundreds of thousands reported to roost around 1970 to maximum counts of 8 @,@ 000 made in the winter of 1980 – 1981 , although it is not certain if this represents a real decline or a shift in site in response to hunting . Other potential causes for the martin 's decline include the disturbance of sand bars in the rivers , and the construction of dams ( which flood the area upstream and change the water flow downstream ) , deforestation , and increasing conversion of its habitat to agriculture . Other Southeast Asian species using riverine sand bars have also been adversely affected by disturbance and habitat degradation . Very few swallows of any kind now roost in the Bueng Boraphet reedbeds , preferring sugarcane plantations , and , despite searching , the white @-@ eyed river martin has not been found in other nearby large swallow roosts .

The martin is legally protected under Appendix 1 ( the highest category ) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) agreement , and is one of 15 " Reserved Species " in Thailand which , under the provisions of the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act , BE 2535 , cannot be legally hunted , collected , or kept in captivity under any circumstances . Despite official protection , the martin was captured by locals along with other swallows for sale as food or for release by devout Buddhists , and following its discovery by ornithologists , trappers were reported to have caught as many as 120 individuals and sold them to the director of the Nakhon Sawan Fisheries Station who was unable to keep them alive in captivity . Two birds sent to Bangkok Zoo in 1971 also soon died . The small population may therefore have become non @-@ viable .

Bueng Boraphet has been declared a Non @-@ Hunting Area in an effort to protect the species , but surveys to find this martin have been unsuccessful . These include several searches at the main site , a 1969 survey of the Nan , Yom and Wang Rivers of northern Thailand , and a 1996 survey of rivers in northern Laos . A possible sighting was made in Cambodia in 2004 , but a 2008 investigation using speedboat surveys and interviews with villagers in Cambodia near the location of the claimed sighting failed to find any positive evidence , and noted that the habitat was in poor condition . Nevertheless , animals as a large as the saola have been rediscovered in Southeast Asia , so it is conceivable that a small population of the martin survives . Despite the lack of records from China , a 2000 field guide covering the region included this species , since it is the mostly likely breeding area outside Thailand , although it is omitted from the 2008 Birds of East Asia .

The white @-@ eyed river martin and the Deignan 's babbler , Stachyridopsis rodolphei , are the only bird species endemic to Thailand , and the martin has attracted sufficient interest to be featured on a 75 satang postage stamp in 1975 , as one of a set of four depicting Thai birds , and on a 5 @,@ 000 Thai baht conservation issue gold coin in 1974 .

= Italian battleship Vittorio Emanuele =

Vittorio Emanuele was an Italian pre @-@ dreadnought battleship , laid down in 1901 , launched in 1904 and completed in 1908 . She was the second member of the Regina Elena class , which included three other vessels : Regina Elena , Napoli , and Roma . Vittorio Emmanuele was armed with a main battery of two 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns and twelve 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns . She was quite fast for the period , with a top speed of nearly 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) .

Vittorio Emmaneule saw action in the Italo @-@ Turkish War as the flagship of the 1st Division . During the war , she participated in operations in Cyrenaica and the eastern Mediterranean Sea , including the seizure of the islands of Rhodes and the Dodecanese . She served during the First World War , but saw no combat during the war due to the hesitance of both the Italian and Austro @-@ Hungarian navies to risk their capital ships in pitched battle . She remained in service as a training ship until 1923 , when she was stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap .

= = Design = =

Vittorio Emanuele was 144 @.@ 6 meters ( 474 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 4 m ( 73 ft ) and a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 58 m ( 28 @.@ 1 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 914 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 694 long tons ; 15 @,@ 338 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 424 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 484 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 21 @.@ 36 knots ( 39 @.@ 56 km / h ; 24 @.@ 58 mph ) and a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 18 @,@ 520 km ; 11 @,@ 508 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Vittorio Emanuele had a crew of 742 – 764 officers and enlisted men .

As built , the ship was armed with two 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two single gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The ship was also equipped with twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in six twin turrets amidships . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns . She was also equipped with two 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline . Vittorio Emanuele was protected with Krupp steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick , and the deck was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating . The main battery guns had 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick plating , and the 8 @-@ inch gun turrets had 6 in ( 152 mm ) thick sides .

= = Service history = =

Vittorio Emanuele was built by the Castellammare di Stabia shipyard ; her keel was laid on 18 September 1901 . The ship was launched on 12 October 1904 , and construction was completed on 1 August 1908 . Vittorio Emanuele served in the active duty squadron through 1910 , by which time her three sisters had been completed , bringing the total number of front @-@ line battleships to six , which also included the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships . The active duty squadron was typically in service for seven months of the year for training ; the rest of the year they were placed in reserve .

= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =

On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . Vittorio Emanuele served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Augusto Aubry , the commander of the 1st Division throughout the conflict . On 30 September , Vittorio Emanuele , her sister Roma , and the armored cruiser Pisa cruised in the Aegean Sea , searching for the Ottoman training squadron that had departed Beirut for Constantinople two days before , and did not know that war had been declared . The Italian flotilla failed to locate its prey , which managed to safely reach Constantinople .

On 18 October , Vittorio Emanuele and her three sisters , along with three cruisers and several destroyers and torpedo boats escorted a convoy that carried half of the 2nd Infantry Division to Benghazi . When the Ottomans refused to surrender the city before the amphibious assault , the Italian fleet opened fire on the Turkish defenders at 08 : 00 , while landing parties from the ships and the Army infantry went ashore . The Italians quickly forced the Ottomans to withdraw into the city by evening . After a short siege , the Ottoman forces withdrew on 29 October , leaving the city to the Italians .

By December , Vittorio Emanuele and the other ships of the 1st Squadron were dispersed in the ports of Cyrenaica . Vittorio Emanuele , Pisa , and the protected cruisers Etruria and Etna were stationed in Tobruk . While there , they supported the Italian Army as it occupied the city and surrounding area by contributing landing parties and providing fire support to the ground troops . In early 1912 , most of the fleet had withdrawn to Italy for repairs and refit , leaving only a small force of cruisers and light craft to patrol the North African coast . On 4 March , Aubry died while aboard his flagship ; Admiral Luigi Faravelli replaced him as the squadron commander .

On 13 April , the 1st Division left Taranto , bound for the island of Rhodes . Meanwhile , the 3rd Division escorted a convoy of troopships from Tobruk to the island . The Italian heavy ships demonstrated off the city of Rhodes while the transports landed the expeditionary force 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the south on 4 May ; the soldiers quickly advanced on the city , supported by artillery fire from the Italian fleet . The Turks surrendered the city the following day . Between 8 and 20 May , Vittorio Emanuele was involved in the seizure of several islands in the Dodecanese between Crete , Rhodes , and Samos .

In June , Vittorio Emanuele and the rest of the 1st Division was stationed at Rhodes . Over the next two months , the ships cruised in the Aegean to prevent the Turks from attempting to launch their own amphibious operations to retake the islands Italy had seized in May . The 1st Division returned to Italy in late August for repairs and refitting , and were replaced by the battleships of the 2nd Squadron . The 1st Division left port on 14 October , but was recalled later that day , when the Ottomans had agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war .

= = = World War I = = =

Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Italy 's traditional naval rival , was the primary opponent in the conflict . The Italian Naval Chief of Staff , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , believed that an active fleet policy was prohibited by the serious threat from submarines in the confined waters of the Adriatic Sea . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's capital ships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement . As a result , the ship was not particularly active during the war .

During the war , Vittorio Emanuele and her three sisters were assigned to the 2nd Division . They spent much of the war rotating between the bases at Taranto , Brindisi , and Valona , but did not see combat . On 14 – 15 May 1917 , three light cruisers of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy raided the Otranto Barrage ; in the ensuring Battle of the Strait of Otranto , Vittorio Emanuele and her sisters raised steam to assist the Allied warships , but the Italian commander refused to permit them to join the battle for fear of risking their loss in the submarine @-@ infested Adriatic .

After the end of the war , Vittorio Emanuele was used as a training ship for a short period . In the summer of 1922 , she was in Constantinople when the American destroyer USS Bulmer accidentally collided with a cutter from Vittorio Emanuele , causing minor damage to the boat . Then @-@ Lieutenant Joseph J. Clark , Bulmer 's executive officer , came aboard Vittorio Emanuele to apologize for the incident .

In early 1922 , the world 's major navies , including Italy , signed the Washington Naval Treaty . According to the terms of the treaty , Italy could keep Vittorio Emanuele and her three sisters , along with the newer dreadnought battleships . Due to the small size and age of the ships , particularly in comparison to the modern dreadnoughts , the Italians could have kept the ships in service indefinitely . They could not , however , be replaced by new battleships under the normal practice of the Treaty system , which provided for replacements after a ship was 20 years old . Vittorio Emanuele was stricken from the naval register on 1 April 1923 and subsequently broken up for scrap .

= M @-@ 49 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 49 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the south @-@ central portion of the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Ohio state line north to Litchfield through rural Hillsdale County . M @-@ 49 is the only Michigan highway in which the road crossing into another state has the same state highway number . M @-@ 49 continues as State Route 49 ( SR 49 ) , near the Indiana – Michigan – Ohio tripoint south of Camden . The highway dates back to 1930 and was only altered once in the 1940s . M @-@ 49 runs through Southern Michigan farmlands connecting several small towns along its path .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 49 starts as the continuation of SR 49 into Michigan from Ohio . The highway crosses the state line south of Camden east of the tripoint with Indiana and Ohio . Running north through rural Hillsdale County , the roadway follows Edon Road through farm land . The highway follows two sweeping curves to cross Territorial Road and continue into the village of Camden . M @-@ 49 follows Main Street through town and turns northeasterly on the north side of the village on the way to Reading . Returning to a due @-@ north course , the highway crosses a branch of the Indiana Northeastern Railroad on the south side of Reading . The Edon Road name gives way to Main Street through the city . M @-@ 49 runs north out of Reading , once again called Edon Road , through farm lands dotted with occasional trees . At Weston Road on the southeast side of Allen , the highway turns to the northeast to a junction with US 12 ( Chicago Road ) . M @-@ 49 turns west along US 12 , running concurrently into the village . M @-@ 49 resumes its northerly course at Railroad Street , separating from US 12 in the process . Outside of town , the roadway changes names to Allen Road , and through more Southern Michigan farmland , M @-@ 49 runs north to Genesee Road . The highway turns east on Genesee to Anderson Road , and then north to Litchfield . Crossing into that city , M @-@ 49 follows Chicago Street to the intersection with M @-@ 99 downtown . At that junction , M @-@ 49 terminates nearly 25 @.@ 5 miles ( 41 @.@ 0 km ) north of the state line . No part of the highway has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

M @-@ 49 was added to the state highway system in 1930 , running along its current routing between M @-@ 9 ( now M @-@ 99 ) in Litchfield and the Ohio state line south of Camden . Near the state line , the highway jogged along Territorial Road for a short distance to make the connection with the continuation of SR 49 . The second version of M @-@ 120 ran concurrently with M @-@ 49 on this section of Territorial Road starting in 1939 . This concurrency was removed in late 1946 or early 1947 when M @-@ 49 was realigned to smooth out the corners in the roadway at M @-@ 120 . The routing of M @-@ 49 has remained the same since . It is currently the only state highway that connects with a like @-@ numbered state highway from another state . The only other highways in Michigan to share a number with a cross @-@ border connection are components of the Interstate Highway System or the United States Numbered Highways .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is in Hillsdale County .

= Huletts Landing , New York =

Huletts Landing is a hamlet in the town of Dresden in northern Washington County , New York , United States . A lakeside community on the eastern shore of Lake George in the Adirondack Mountains , Huletts Landing is located entirely within the Adirondack Park . There is only one roadway access to the hamlet , County Route 6 and its suffixed routes , which head north @-@ south . Huletts Landing is geographically located at 43 ° 38 ′ 21 ″ N 73 ° 30 ′ 25 ″ W and has approximately two centuries of written history .

The hamlet derives its name from the Hulett family , which resided in the area for several generations after Revolutionary War soldier David Hulett moved near the lakeside and began farming . In 1874 his descendant Philander Hulett built a boat landing , a general store , and a post office . This opened the scenic corner of the lake to steamship traffic and tourism . This suffered a major setback in 1915 when the hamlet 's largest hotel burned to its foundation , but tourism remained an important factor to the local economy . The town ( Dresden ) population , not Huletts Landing , is 695 , according to 2007 U.S. Census Bureau estimates .

= = History = =

The Hulett family appears to have been of French origin and came to North America to avoid religious persecution for their Huguenot beliefs . David Hulett , the founder of Huletts Landing , was born in Killingly , Connecticut c . 1758 – 1762 and served as a private under General James Wadsworth during the American Revolution . For three years the unit where Pvt. Hulett served fought mainly in upstate New York . Oral history asserts that David Hulett fought heroically at the Battle of Saratoga where he refused to leave the field despite an injury to his neck . The Hulett family settled near Lake George c . 1804 , possibly because of a land grant offered to veterans in lieu of wages for service . Along with Bolton , New York and Putnam , New York , Hulett 's Landing is one of three place names on Lake George relating with Wadsworth 's Connecticut brigade .

Until 1874 the Huletts Landing area was known as Bosom Bay . Successive generations of the Hulett family lived by farming the area until Philander Hulett began to develop the area in the 1870s by building a steamship landing and submitting an application to build a post office . The post office application is the earliest document to use the Huletts Landing name . The existing Lake George Steamboat Company , which delivered mail as well as passengers , probably required either a post office or a tourism facility in order to justify adding a new stop to its schedule . An influential travelogue by Rev. William Henry Harrison Murray was published in 1868 and praised the Adirondacks for the relaxing effects of its picturesque wilderness . The first railroad service into the region was also built in the 1870s . The application received approval and Philander Hulett built the post office shortly afterward , housed in the same building as the community 's first store . He served as postmaster until his death in 1883 , but sold his property .

According to George T. Kapusinski in his history of the area :

Part of Philander Hulett ’ s property would be sold to businessman John W. Hall , but the bulk of the real estate would pass first to C.W. Wentz , an executive with the Delaware and Hudson Railroad , next to entrepreneur Henry W. Buckell , and finally by the early part of the 20th century to William H. Wyatt , an owner of hotels . All of these successive owners saw their first and primary role as marketing the property as a tourist attraction .

The first Lakeside Inn was constructed for John W. Hall in 1877 – 1878 on a 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 0040 km2 ) lot . Although the only direct access to Huletts Landing was by ferry , a combination of train , coach , and ferry was normal for Adirondack vacationers of the period . Huletts Hotel grew from expansions on the original farmhouse until a fire destroyed it on 14 November 1915 . It was hastily rebuilt for the 1916 tourist season , but questions of arson arose , and led to trial . Tourism has continued to be a mainstay of the community 's economy . Adirondack Park was originally established in 1892 . In 1931 an eastward expansion brought Lake George and its communities within park boundaries .

= = Geography = =

Huletts Landing is located at coordinates 43 @.@ 38 ° N 73 @.@ 30 ° W ﻿ / 43 @.@ 38 ; -73.30 . It is located on the northern shore of Lake George , which is a 32 @-@ mile ( 51 km ) lake in the Adirondacks . Huletts Landing is entirely situated within the Adirondack Park , which is the largest state park in the United States . Nearly two @-@ thirds of the property within the park 's formal range is privately owned with various land use restrictions .

The climate of Huletts Landing is diverse . On average , the coolest month is January , while the warmest is July . The highest monthly precipitation in the area , on average , occurs in August . The lowest recorded temperature was − 38 ° F ( − 39 ° C ) in 1979 , while the highest was 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) in 1953 .

= = Transportation = =

Huletts Landing is a remote hamlet , accessible by car only via Washington County Route 6 , which branches off of nearby New York State Route 22 . The main road is known as Huletts Landing Road , and spawns two suffixed routes which reach different parts of Huletts Landing . The first is County Route 6A , which is better known as Lands End Road , heads southward while the other , County Route 6B , which is better known as Bluff Head Road , brings the traveler northward , to locations such as Washington County Park and Huletts Landing Marina . Huletts Landing County Park is also on CR 6B .

The airport at Burlington , Vermont is approximately one @-@ hour drive from the eastern section of Adirondack Park , where Huletts Landing is located . A smaller airport within Adirondack Park is Adirondack Regional Airport in Saranac Lake .

= = Tourism = =

The area sees most of its tourism during the summer and the fall foliage season , virtually shutting down in winter . Nearby attractions include lake cruises , canoeing , golf , and hiking . Historic attractions of Huletts Landing also included hunting and local proprietors of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries provided weekly fireworks displays during tourist season .

= Hello Good Morning =

" Hello Good Morning " is a song by American rapper and producer Diddy and his band Dirty Money , from their debut album , Last Train to Paris . It was released from March 30 , 2010 as the album 's third single . The electronic dance song incorporates an acid squelch section in the middle 8 , ad was written by Marcella Araica , Richard Butler , Clifford " T.I. " Harris and Nathaniel " Danja " Hills who also produced the song . T.I. has a featured rap on the song . The song 's musical composition was inspired by Diddy 's experiences in Ibiza night clubs ; its lyrics focus around sex and money . Three official remixes were released alongside the main single : the Official Remix with Rick Ross & Nicki Minaj , the " Grime Remix " with Skepta , and a " Team UK remix " with Tinchy Stryder and Tinie Tempah . Critics noted the track as one of the better songs from Last Train to Paris , particularly for Danja 's production , but criticized the lyrics for being superficial and for lacking substance .

" Hello Good Morning " was promoted with several live television performances including on season nine of American Idol and Friday Night with Jonathan Ross , amongst others . An accompanying music video , filmed by Hype Williams , features Diddy – Dirty Money parting in Los Angeles , with T.I. enjoying the company of two ladies in an apartment and Diddy driving through the city at night . It was inspired by the 1995 film Heat . An edited version of the clip was made for the official remix , and a completely new street party @-@ themed video was filmed for the grime remix . At the time of release , " Hello Good Morning " became the album and group 's first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , reaching No. 27 . Commercially , the single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for selling in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Internationally , the single peaked at No. 22 in UK , and was particularly successful on the German Black Chart and UK R & B Chart , reaching number one and number eight respectively .

= = Composition = =

" Hello Good Morning " was written by Marcella Araica , Richard Butler , T.I. , Nathaniel " Danja " Hills . The song which features T.I. , and was produced by Danja , is an electro @-@ dance song influenced by Diddy 's experiences in Ibiza where he visited the DC10 nightclub . The music influences included " Felix da Housecat , Erick Morillo , Deep Dish and DJ Hell " . According to Rap @-@ Up magazine , the lyrics refer to " keeping a party going till early hours of the morning " and see Diddy return to using his signature ad @-@ libs . Nicki Escudero from The Phoenix New Times noted the song 's superficial themes which included lyrics about " sex , money and cheating " Brandon Soderberg from The Village Voice noted the song 's bridge where there was an " epic acid @-@ squelch breakdown " .

= = Remixes = =

Several official remixes were released alongside the video to promote the song . The first of these remixes added an introduction verse from rapper Rick Ross and then a new verse later in the song from female rapper , Nicki Minaj . Labelled the " Official Remix " , it was released in the United States on June 29 , 2010 for digital download . A music video for this version was created by adding additional footage to the original video . It premiered on June 21 , 2010 . A second remix featuring just Ross 's additional verse was used for the song 's main music video which premiered on May 11 , 2010 A third remix was made for the UK , titled the " Team UK Remix " . This version featured Tinie Tempah and Tinchy Stryder in place of Minaj and Ross . It premiered on June 11 , 2010 on Tim Westwood 's Radio 1Xtra daytime show Westwood . It was released as track two on the UK Digital EP single , released June 20 , 2010 . A final remix was created after Diddy highlighted his intent to find a UK emcee to record a new version of the song with him . Skepta was chosen for the remix , which was released as the " Official Grime Remix " . It is the only remix which alters the song 's production , and was released only in the UK , on August 12 , 2010 . A video for the grime remix was released on November 5 , 2010 . On January 5 , 2010 , MTV reported the emergence of a new remix of " Hello Good Morning " . The new remix replaces T.I. ' s vocals with a new verse from Eminem . D.L. Chandler from MTV said " Slim Shady ’ s humorous verses sound right at home over producer Danja ’ s club @-@ ready banger . "

= = Critical reception = =

In a review by USA Today , " Hello Good Morning " was picked out as one of the best three songs on the Last Train to Paris . Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song three out of five stars in his review for the song , stating that although Dirty Money promised a new sound the song sounded like " Timba – pop , albeit one with a better @-@ than @-@ average hook . " He continued , " in Diddy 's final @-@ minute rap , [ it 's ] a reminder of how he jump @-@ started his journey towards a reported $ 300m fortune and a butler called Fonzworth Bentley . " Matt from Above & Beyond said it was the Danja @-@ produced beat and the T.I. feature that make the song good . Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music said " Diddy seems to have abandoned conventional rapping in favour of some Kanye – style automooing . He 's quite good at it , too . Adds a certain nasal edge to proceedings . There 's a middle bit , and it 's like nothing else in the song ... It sounds more like someone doing the " I 've lost my keys " song , just before they leave the house in the morning . The odd thing is that it was left in there . I mean if minimal is your bag , surely that 'd be the first bit to cut ? " He awarded in four out of five stars . Becky Bain of Idolator was also positive about the song , saying , " Lyrically and stylistically , it ’ s a pretty standard club track — over various synth beats , the song covers the usual topics : hot girls dancing , crowds waiting to have fun , and spending time in a five star suite with some five star freaks getting high all week ... But honestly , we ’ re just overjoyed this song isn ’ t just a thinly @-@ veiled four @-@ minute commercial for any one of Diddy ’ s various products . "

However Nicki Escudero of the Phoenix New Times said that although the song was good for what it is , it lacked substance . " Now that Diddy @-@ Dirty Money has had success with a superficial track about money , sex and cheating , here 's hoping the group will release a deeper song about something more meaningful . Unfortunately , hope can only go so far . " Meanwhile , Michael Cragg from The Guardian 's music blog commented that the UK remix featuring Skepta salvages what would otherwise be a boring Diddy track . " Thankfully , UK grime king , Skepta , has rescued the song by pushing Diddy to the periphery – his flow consists of going ' uh ' , ' Skepta ' and spelling out ' D.I.D.D.Y. # – setting off a smorgasbord of sonic explosions , tightening the whole thing up and making it sound a lot darker and more thrilling than a host of US producers could manage . Skepta also drops the following immortal line in the first verse : ' I like tea , but I don 't like crumpets . ' A man after my own heart . "

= = Chart performance = =

Two weeks after Diddy – Dirty Money 's appearance on American Idol , " Hello Good Morning " debuted on the U.S. Hot Digital Songs chart at No. 17 , and the single debuted on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 at No. 34 . Eventually the song peaked at No. 27 on the Hot 100 in the chart week dated July 24 , 2010 . At the time of its charting , it was the first single from Last Train to Paris to appear on the Billboard Hot 100 . Consequently , the song became Diddy 's best charting Hot 100 single since his 2007 hit single " Last Night " with Keyshia Cole , as well as his eleventh top @-@ thirty Hot 100 single . In comparison , " Hello Good Morning " is Dawn Richard 's second lowest charting Hot 100 single , but first appearance on the chart since 2008 's " Damaged " as part of girlgroup , Danity Kane . For Kalenna Harper , it is her first Hot 100 chart appearance . T.I. , who is featured on the song , received his highest Hot 100 chart peak , since his 2009 single " Dead and Gone " with Justin Timberlake . On August 18 , 2010 , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold for selling at least 500 @,@ 000 copies . On the official end of year charts , compiled by Billboard , " Hello Good Morning " ranked at No. 29 on the U.S. Hot Rap Songs chart and No. 65 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .

Additionally the single proved successful on urban charts around the world . " Hello Good Morning " peaked at No. 8 on the U.S. Hot Rap Songs chart and No. 13 on the U.S. Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . In Germany , it topped the Deutsche Black Charts ( German Black Charts ) while reaching top @-@ ten on the United Kingdom 's R & B Singles Chart and No. 24 on Australia 's Urban Singles Chart . On the main singles charts , the song was most successful in the UK , where it charted at No. 22 on the UK Singles Chart . At the time of release , it became T.I. ' s best UK charting single since 2009 's " Dead and Gone " , and his overall joint sixth @-@ best charting UK single along with 2006 's " Why You Wanna " . In the rest of Europe the single had mixed success , reaching the top @-@ twenty in Belgium , on both the Ultratip Flemish and Wallonian single charts . In Canada the single managed to chart at No. 55 , and in Australia it peaked at No. 44 . According to a press release by Interscope Records , as of March 25 , 2011 , " Hello Good Morning " has sold 1 million digital downloads worldwide .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background and concept = = =

The music video for " Hello Good Morning " was directed by Hype Williams , and premiered on May 11 , 2010 , through the group 's official VEVO account . Later on May 23 , 2010 , a behind the scenes video was released , revealing that the video was filmed in Agua Dulce , California and Los Angeles . Swizz Beatz , Rico Love and Rick Ross all make cameos in the video . The video uses a remix of the song which is the same as the album version , but features an introduction rap from Ross . Dawn Richard said the concept of the video was based on the 1995 film Heat starring Robert De Niro and Al Pacino . T.I. ' s scenes were amongst the last to be filmed , and took place in an apartment in Bel Aire , CA .

= = = Synopsis = = =

The opening scene begins with panoramic camera shots of a helicopter flying over Los Angeles , at night . Then during Rick Ross 's verse the female members of the group appear posing in the background while Ross raps for the camera . Swizz Beatz and Rico Love make cameos alongside Ross . In a third scene , Diddy can be seen driving through the city at night in a black Bugatti Veyron . For the song 's chorus , Dawn Richard and Kalenna Harper take the lead , ordering drinks in a bar and enjoying the night club . A forth scene for T.I. ' s verse sees the camera focus on T.I. serenading two women in an apartment . Throughout the video the images flicker between the various scenes . In the final part of the video , and during the bridge , all three members of the group appear outside against a backdrop of thick smoke and bright red fireworks . There is a final flash of fireworks before the camera fades completely , to black .

= = = Remix videos = = =

The official remix video premiered on June 21 , 2010 , this version features Rick Ross and Nicki Minaj . The music video takes footage from the original version , but adds several new scenes . When Diddy drives through LA at night , the scene was refilmed with Minaj as his front seat passenger . Additionally there is another new scene where Minaj , in a blue curly wig , raps some of her verse against a dark backdrop . For the " Grime Remix " of the song , a completely new video was filmed Glasgow , Scotland on November 5 , 2010 and features cameos from Boy Better Know & Chipmunk . In this version , Diddy @-@ Dirty Money and Skepta pose for the camera in an elevator before joining Chipmunk and Boy Better Know , backstage at a gig . The cameras follow the group and their guests as they move around backstage partying and walking the streets at night .

= = Live performances = =

Diddy – Dirty Money performed " Hello Good Morning " live for the first time on March 31 , 2010 , on the ninth season of American Idol . The next performance did not come until June 4 , 2010 , this time on Good Morning America . They then reprised the performance five days later on French TV show , Le Grand Journal . On June 12 , 2010 , the group performed ( with guest drummer Matt Helders of Arctic Monkeys ) on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross . Dirty Money later performed " Hello Good Morning " at the 2010 Teen Choice Awards on August 9 , 2010 .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

" Hello Good Morning " was recorded at Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California and mixed at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California .

Marcella Araica – songwriter , engineer

Richard " Rico Love " Butler – songwriter , vocal production

Smith Carlson – assistant engineer

Sean " Diddy " Combs – lead vocals

Steve " Rock Star " Dickey – engineer

Clifford " T.I. " Harris – songwriter , featured vocals

Nathaniel " Danja " Hills – songwriter , producer , instruments

Jaycen Joshua – mixing

Giancarlo Lino – mixing

Dirty Money ( Dawn Richard , Kalenna Harper ) – lead vocals , vocal production

Jared Newcomb – assistant engineer

Edward Sanders – assistant engineer

Matthew Testa – engineer

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = Radio and release history = =

= Living River Siam =

Living River Siam ( Thai : โครงการแม ่ น ้ ำเพื ่ อชีวิต ; formerly South East Asia Rivers Network , or SEARIN ) is a Thai non @-@ governmental organization ( NGO ) which analyzes the impact of Thailand 's various dam projects and coordinates the research of indigenous peoples to give Thai villagers the power to document the influence of local rivers and dams . Founded in 1999 , it gained prominence during the Pak Mun Dam study period in 2001 , when it developed a method for instructing villagers on how to document the effects of the dammed river on their lives . When the Thai government proposed other dam sites , Living River Siam took its research methods to the villages surrounding those sites as well . Today , the organization works with other NGOs in Southeast Asia to counter government @-@ sponsored research that encourages dam construction .

= = Pak Mun Dam protests = =

Living River Siam was launched on March 14 , 1999 , the International Rivers Day of Action , by a group of NGO workers and Thai academics . Its first action , on March 23 , was to support an occupation of the Pak Mun Dam site by 5 @,@ 000 villagers . The Pak Mun Dam , funded partially by the World Bank , was built in 1994 and slowly became the focus of national controversy . It received widespread complaints from Thai villagers and was the focus of the Assembly of the Poor 's 99 @-@ day , 20 @,@ 000 @-@ person protest in Bangkok in 1997 . The dam generates 0 @.@ 5 percent of Thailand 's electric capacity ; 40 percent of Thailand 's total electric capacity goes unused on an everyday basis .

On June 16 , 2001 , the Thai government under Thaksin Shinawatra agreed to open the sluice gates of the Pak Mun Dam for four months to allow studies to be conducted on its social impact ; this was later extended to 13 months . Coinciding with this agreement , the government announced that official studies would be conducted by Ubon Ratchathani University and a private team contracted by the National Economic and Social Development Board . The university received a budget of 10 million baht ( roughly US $ 280 @,@ 000 ) , and the government contractors , alleged to be the same group that recommended damming another river , received 94 million baht ( roughly US $ 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 ) , raising suspicions . Villagers thought that outside academics would not be able to make an objective or accurate study of the river because they were unfamiliar with local fish migration and habitats .

= = Thai Baan research = =

In response , Living River Siam developed Ngan Wijai Thai Baan ( งานวิจัยไทบ ้ าน ) , or " research by Thai villagers " . This research is meant to circumvent the traditional approach to anthropological study by allowing villagers to investigate and document , in their own language and on their own terms , every aspect of their life on the river . The only function of the overseeing organization is to compile the villagers ' data and publish it for others to read . Living River Siam refers to this in English as " Thai Baan research " .

The Mun River research documented the spawning grounds , migration patterns , habitats , and preferred baits of 137 species of fish . Originally , there were 265 species in the river ; 220 of these disappeared when the river was dammed , and only 92 reappeared when the sluice gates were opened , meaning that the diversity of the Mun ecosystem had already been severely reduced by the dam . There were 104 species that migrated between the Mekong and Mun rivers , meaning the dam endangered the Mekong 's ecosystem as well . Thai villagers took photos of all the fish and counted the number of fish caught before and after the opening of the gates . Over 200 villagers volunteered for the study , and divided themselves up into groups to survey the sub @-@ ecosystems of rapids , channels , eddies , small waterfalls , drinking wells , don islands , bok hin pools , khum pools , wang pools , huu holes , lhum hin stone pockets , kon shallows , kan underwater rapids , and luang fishing grounds .

The use of small and large fish in the local economy was analyzed . Researchers found that while the less common large fish are sold for profit , the diet of Pak Mun villagers consisted mostly of small fish which can be caught in both the wet and dry seasons . Small fish are eaten , sold , and traded with the hill peoples for rice .

The villages documented changes in their towns as a result of the opening of the sluice gates . Fishermen who had been forced to leave for the city returned to their homes , the increase in fish caused a boom in the rural economy , in fishing and tourism . Villagers were able to hold religious ceremonies in important riverside spaces .

= = = Government reaction and other responses = = =

The results of the Thai Baan research were supported by several academics , including Niti Pawakapan of Chulalongkorn University . The Ubon Ratchathani University study also recommended keeping the sluice gates open for at least five years . However , the Thai government rejected all of the studies for unclear reasons and instead conducted a three @-@ day opinion poll of a random sample of Thais , after which it decided that the gates would stay closed for eight out of twelve months of the year . In 2007 , Prime Minister Surayud Chulanont decided to close the gates permanently , citing an alleged secret agreement between thousands of villagers and the Internal Security Operations Command .

The response from non @-@ governmental organizations has been more favorable . The Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Programme ( MWBP ) , an international alliance managed by the United Nations Development Programme and World Conservation Union , has published a study on the methodology of Thai Baan research and coordinated their own study in Sri Songkham district in 2004 , concluding that it was more useful than top @-@ down styles of village research . The study overseen by the MWBP was cited in an academic journal and submitted to an international conference . Living River Siam 's spokesperson Pianporn Deetes was invited to a United Nations Environment Programme conference on dams .

In 2002 the Thai government ’ s department of irrigation met the demands of Living River Siam and the Assembly of the Poor with a promise to halt all future dam projects , which was accepted with cautious optimism . To circumvent the issue of domestic damming , in 2007 the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand ( EGAT ) announced plans to build a series of dams on Burma 's Salween River along its border with Thailand . Living River Siam opposed this plan , citing the threat of environmental destruction in Burma 's Shan , Karenni , and Karen states as well as Mae Hong Son Province .

= = Additional research = =

Since 2004 , Living River Siam has employed its research methods in other threatened locations across rural Thailand .

= = = Amphoe Chiang Khong = = =

The Mekong River remained free of dams until 1993 because of its complex system of rapids which wreck boats , and the unusual monsoon season which reverses the course of some of its branches . In 2004 , the Thai government made an agreement with China to open the river to commercial navigation by destroying rapids , which Thai Baan research had identified as important fish spawning grounds . On the Chinese side , dams were constructed . Living River Siam gathered additional Thai Baan surveys from 146 villagers in Amphoe Chiang Khong , which determined that the blasting of rapids had made the river water unsuitable for drinking and bathing , washed away many local riverside gardens , and decimated the populations of local plants and fish . In response to the 2004 studies , the Thai government suspended blasting on one of the rapids , the Khon Pi Luang .

= = = Kaeng Sua Ten = = =

In 2006 , in response to renewed plans for dam construction in Kaeng Sua Ten , Living River Siam released a report on the people of Sa @-@ iap , Amphoe Song , Phrae Province ( part of Mae Yom National Park ) , based on their own experiences and history . It was called Chaobaan research , but the methodology was equivalent to the Thai Baan research . The report examined the ecosystem of the residents of Sa @-@ iap , the vegetables and fungi they subsisted on , medicinal herbs they used , local fauna , wood resources , and their culture .

The report divided Sa @-@ iap history into four periods . Before 1937 , the village was self @-@ sustaining and used both farming and gathering for the overwhelming majority of its needs . In 1937 , the Thai government allowed private companies to log the forest , destroying part of the villages ' infrastructure . In 1957 , the villagers entered the employ of the logging companies , causing internal and external conflict as well as increased reliance on unsustainable practices . Finally , in 1991 the villagers formed a conservation group , the Forest Lover Group , which the Chaobaan researchers agreed cut down on conflict . The mood of the villages has returned to one of mutual assistance and traditional customs .

= = = Rasi Salai Dam = = =

The Rasi Salai Dam was completed in 1994 , around the same time as the Pak Mun Dam , and received similar local complaints . The dam 's central reservoir was occupied for two years by villagers , until a July 2000 decision opened the sluice gates . From 2003 to 2004 , Living River Siam coordinated Thai Baan research in three districts : Amphoe Rasi Salai , Amphoe Rattanaburi , and Amphoe Phon Sai . The report examined village culture , ecology , biodiversity , agriculture , and food and water management . The impact of the closing and opening of the sluice gates was also examined . It was concluded that the dam reduced fish populations , but more importantly , flooded natural salt pits and spread them into rice and vegetable fields , destroying trees and crops . The government has not made a commitment to keep the Rasi Salai Dam out of commission , but as of 2008 the gates have not yet been closed .

= = = Mekong flooding = = =

In 2005 , and again in 2008 , the Mekong River flooded its banks , damaging hundreds of rural villages . Living River Siam joined with other NGOs to form the Thai People 's Network for Mekong , which pointed to dams in China as the primary cause of the flooding . An intergovernmental working group called the Mekong River Commission opposed these claims , saying China 's dams had little to do with the flood , although they also pressed China for data on the floodwaters . The back @-@ and @-@ forth was covered heavily in Thai press , which gave ample space to the statements of the People 's Network .

= = Seminars , coordination , and publications = =

Beginning in 2006 , Living River Siam began training other grassroots organizations in Thai Baan research , beginning with the Vietnam Rivers Network and expanding to a Chinese group in 2007 . In 2008 they worked with the Burma Rivers Network to conduct research on the Salween River . They also assisted a United Nations @-@ funded NGO , the Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Programme ( MWBP ) , with running Thai Baan research in 2004 . Living River Siam , along with the MWBP , organizes cross @-@ basin coordination between Thai Baan research groups .

Living River Siam has compiled the research and oral accounts of Thai villagers into many publications , which they make available on their website . Its published books document local knowledge about fish , the results of village research , a how @-@ to manual for Thai Baan research , and citizens ' guides to defending Thai rivers and communities . They also have produced posters of fish species and dams , pamphlets on fishing gear , and short documentaries about the river .

= Battle of the Plains of Abraham =

The Battle of the Plains of Abraham , also known as the Battle of Quebec , ( Bataille des Plaines d 'Abraham or Première bataille de Québec in French ) was a pivotal battle in the Seven Years ' War ( referred to as the French and Indian War in the United States ) . The battle , which began on 13 September 1759 , was fought by the British Army and Navy against the French Army on a plateau just outside the walls of Quebec City , on land that was originally owned by a farmer named Abraham Martin , hence the name of the battle . The battle involved fewer than 10 @,@ 000 troops between both sides , but proved to be a deciding moment in the conflict between France and Britain over the fate of New France , influencing the later creation of Canada .

The culmination of a three @-@ month siege by the British , the battle lasted about 15 minutes . British troops commanded by General James Wolfe successfully resisted the column advance of French troops and Canadien militia under General Louis @-@ Joseph , Marquis de Montcalm , employing new tactics that proved extremely effective against standard military formations used in most large European conflicts . Both generals were mortally wounded during the battle ; Wolfe received three gunshot wounds that ended his life within minutes of the beginning of the engagement and Montcalm died the next morning after receiving a musket ball wound just below his ribs . In the wake of the battle , the French evacuated the city ; their remaining military force in Canada and the rest of North America came under increasing pressure from British forces .

While the French forces continued to fight and prevailed in several battles after Quebec was captured , the British did not relinquish their hold on the virtually impregnable Citadelle . That tenacity carried over to other areas in North America ; within four years , France ceded most of its possessions in eastern North America to Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris .

The decisive success of the British forces and the subsequent capture of Quebec City formed part of what became known as the " Annus Mirabilis " in Great Britain .

= = Overview = =

As the Seven Years ' War entered its later stages through 1758 and 1759 , French forces and colonies in northeastern North America came under renewed attacks from British armies . In 1758 after defeat in July at the Battle of Carillon , the British took Louisbourg in August , causing Atlantic Canada to fall into British hands , and opening the sea route to attack Quebec . Fort Frontenac fell to the British in the same month , costing the French supplies for the Ohio Valley campaign . When some of the Indian supporters of the French made peace with the British , France was forced to draw its troops back . French leadership , specifically Governor de Vaudreuil and General Montcalm , were unsettled by the British successes . However , Quebec was still able to protect itself as the British prepared a three @-@ pronged attack for 1759 .

James Wolfe expected to lead 12 @,@ 000 men , but was greeted by only approximately 400 officers , 7 @,@ 000 regular troops , and 300 gunners . Wolfe 's troops were supported by a fleet of 49 ships and 140 smaller craft led by Admiral Charles Saunders .

In preparation for the fleet 's approach to Quebec , James Cook surveyed a large portion of the river , including a dangerous channel known as The Traverse . Cook 's ship was one of the first ships up the river , sounding the channel and guiding the fleet as it moved up , eventually landing Wolfe and his men on the Île d 'Orléans on 28 June . The French attempted to attack the fleet by sending seven fire ships downriver to disrupt the landing , but the ships fired too early and British sailors in longboats were able to pull the flaming craft clear of the fleet . The following day , Wolfe 's troops landed on the south bank of the river at Point Levis , nearly directly across the river from Quebec ; an artillery battery was established there in early July that nearly levelled the lower town by bombardment .

Despite an air of defeatism among the leadership , the professional French troops and New French militia defenders focused preparations for the British attacks on the Beauport Shore . Montcalm and his staff , Major @-@ General François de Gaston , Chevalier de Lévis , Colonel Louis Antoine de Bougainville , and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel de Sennezergue , distributed some 12 @,@ 000 troops in a nine @-@ kilometre @-@ long collection of fortified redoubts and batteries from the Saint @-@ Charles River to the Montmorency Falls , along the shallows of the river in areas that had previously been targeted by British attempts to land . Prior to the arrival of the British , a small fleet of supply ships had arrived in Quebec with much needed supplies . Those supplies , along with 500 reinforcements , were likely behind the lengthened siege .

Wolfe , on surveying the town of Beauport , found that the houses there had been barricaded and organized to allow for musket fire from within ; they were built in an unbroken line along the road , providing a formidable barrier . In addition , a screen of trees along the Montmorency River made an approach on that route dangerous . On 31 July , the first serious attempt by Wolfe 's troops to land on the northern shore led to the Battle of Beauport , also known as the Battle of Montmorency . Approximately 3 @,@ 500 troops , supported by a heavy bombardment , attempted to land , but were caught under fire in the river shallows . Members of the Louisbourg Grenadiers , who reached the beach , attempted a generally undisciplined charge on the French positions , but came under heavy fire ; a thunderstorm ended the fight and allowed Wolfe to pull his troops back after taking some 450 casualties to Montcalm 's 60 .

Some French officers felt the Montmorency defeat would be the last British attack ; Vaudreuil wrote afterwards that " I have no more anxiety about Quebec . Wolfe , I assure you , will make no progress … He contented himself with losing about five hundred of his best soldiers . " He predicted another attack would come within days . Others in the French camp felt the campaign was over .

For the remainder of the summer , Wolfe 's focus changed , possibly due to frustration with Montcalm 's tactics . His troops , along with American Rangers , attacked and destroyed small French settlements along the St. Lawrence . An estimated 1 @,@ 400 stone houses and manors were destroyed , and many colonists killed . The effort was likely an attempt to force Montcalm 's army out of its fortifications , but was unsuccessful . However , the attacks did reduce the amount of supplies available to the French , especially as the British navy , unable to control the St. Lawrence entirely , was successfully blockading the ports in France .

= = Preparations = =

Through the summer siege , illness spread through the British camps . In August , Wolfe himself was bedridden , causing already low morale to slump even further among the British troops . With many men in camp hospitals , British fighting numbers were thinned , and Wolfe personally felt that a new attack was needed by the end of September , or Britain 's opportunity would be lost . In addition , his frustration with Montcalm 's defensive stance continued to grow . In a letter to his mother , Wolfe wrote , " The Marquis of Montcalm is at the head of a great number of bad soldiers , and I am at the head of a small number of good ones that wish for nothing so much as to fight him ; but the wary old fellow avoids an action , doubtful of the behaviour of his army . " Montcalm also expressed frustration over the long siege , relating that he and his troops slept clothed and booted , and his horse was always saddled in preparation for an attack .

After considering and rejecting a number of plans for landings on the north shore , a decision was made in late August by Wolfe and his brigadiers to land upriver of the city . If successful , such a landing would force Montcalm to fight , as a British force on the north shore of the St. Lawrence would cut his supply lines to Montreal . Initial suggestions for landing sites ranged as far as 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) up the St. Lawrence , which would have given the French troops one or two days to prepare for the attack . Following the failed British assault on Montmorency , Montcalm altered his deployment , sending Bougainville and a column of approximately 1 @,@ 500 regular troops , 200 cavalry , and a group of New French militia — some 3 @,@ 000 men in all — upriver to Cap @-@ Rouge to monitor the British ships upstream . He further strengthened his defences of the Beauport shore following the abandonment of the British camp at Montmorency , which he regarded as preparations for a descent ( amphibious attack ) on Beauport . In spite of warnings from local commanders , he did not view an upstream landing as a serious possibility .

The British , meanwhile , prepared for their risky deployment upstream . Troops had already been aboard landing ships and drifting up and down the river for several days when Wolfe on 12 September , made a final decision on the British landing site , selecting L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon . L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon is a cove situated southwest of the city , three kilometres upstream from Cap Diamant . It lies at the bottom of a 53 @-@ metre ( 174 ft ) high cliff leading to the plateau above , and was protected by a battery of guns . It is not known why Wolfe selected Foulon , as the original landing site was to be further up the river , in a position where the British would be able to develop a foothold and strike at Bougainville 's force to draw Montcalm out of Quebec and onto the plains . Brigadier @-@ General George Townshend wrote that " by some intelligence the General had , he has changed his mind as to the place he intended to land . " In his final letter , dated HMS Sutherland , 8 : 30 p.m. 12 September , Wolfe wrote :

Wolfe 's plan of attack depended on secrecy and surprise . His plan required that a small party of men should land by night on the north shore , climb the tall cliff , seize a small road , and overpower the garrison that protected it , allowing the bulk of his army ( 5 @,@ 000 men ) to ascend the cliff by the small road and then deploy for battle on the plateau . Even if the first landing party succeeded in their mission and the army was able to follow , such a deployment would still leave his forces inside the French line of defense with no immediate retreat but the river . It is possible that Wolfe 's decision to change the landing site was owing less to a desire for secrecy and more to his general disdain for his brigadiers ( a feeling that was reciprocated ) ; it is also possible that he was still suffering the effects of his illness and the opiates he used as painkillers . Anderson believes Wolfe ordered the attack believing the advanced guard would be repulsed , and anticipated dying gallantly with his men rather than returning home in disgrace .

= = Landing = =

Bougainville , tasked with the defence of the large area between Cap Diamant and Cap Rouge , was upstream with his troops at Cap Rouge on the night of 12 September , and missed seeing numerous British ships moving downstream . A camp of approximately 100 militia led by Captain Louis Du Pont Duchambon de Vergor , who had unsuccessfully faced the British four years previously at Fort Beauséjour , had been assigned to watch the narrow road at L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon which followed a streambank , the Coulée Saint @-@ Denis . On the night of 12 September and morning of 13 September , however , the camp may have contained as few as 40 men , as others were off harvesting . Vaudreuil and others had expressed their concern at the possibility of L 'Anse @-@ au @-@ Foulon being vulnerable , but Montcalm dismissed them , saying 100 men would hold off the army until daylight , remarking , " It is not to be supposed that the enemies have wings so that they can in the same night cross the river , disembark , climb the obstructed acclivity , and scale the walls , for which last operation they would have to carry ladders . "

Sentries did detect boats moving along the river that morning , but they were expecting a French supply convoy to pass that night — a plan that had been changed without Vergor being notified . When the boats , loaded with the first wave of British troops , were challenged , a French @-@ speaking officer , either a Captain Fraser or Captain Donald McDonald of the 78th Fraser Highlanders , was able to answer the challenge in excellent French , allaying suspicion .

The boats , however , had drifted slightly off course : instead of landing at the base of the road , many soldiers found themselves at the base of a slope . A group of 24 volunteers led by Colonel William Howe with fixed bayonets were sent to clear the picket along the road , and climbed the slope , a manoeuvre that allowed them to come up behind Vergor 's camp and capture it quickly . Wolfe followed an hour later when he could use an easy access road to climb to the plain . Thus , by the time the sun rose over the Plains of Abraham , Wolfe 's army had a solid foothold at the top of the cliffs .

= = Battle = =

The plateau was undefended save for Vergor 's camp , as Vaudreuil had ordered one of the French regiments to relocate to the east of the city not long before the landing . Had the immediate defenders been more numerous , the British might have been unable to deploy or even been pushed back . An officer who would normally have patrolled the cliffs regularly through the night was unable to on the night of the 12th because one of his horses had been stolen and his two others were lame . The first notice of the landing came from a runner who had fled from Vergor 's camp , but one of Montcalm 's aides felt the man was mad and sent him away , then went back to bed . Saunders had staged a diversionary action off Montmorency , firing on the shore emplacements through the night and loading boats with troops , many of them taken from field hospitals ; this preoccupied Montcalm .

Montcalm was taken aback to learn of the British deployment , and his response has been regarded as precipitate . Though he might have awaited reinforcement by Bougainville 's column ( allowing simultaneous frontal and rear attacks on the British position ) or avoided battle while he concentrated his forces , or even yielded the city to Wolfe , he instead elected to confront Wolfe 's force directly . Had he waited , the British would have been entirely cut off — they had nowhere to go but back down the Foulon , and would have been under fire the entire way . To an artillery officer named Montbelliard , Montcalm explained his decision thus : " We cannot avoid action ; the enemy is entrenching , he already has two pieces of cannon . If we give him time to establish himself , we shall never be able to attack him with the troops we have . "

= = = First engagements = = =

In total , Montcalm had 13 @,@ 390 regular troops , Troupes de la Marine , and militia available in Quebec City and along the Beauport shore , as well as 200 cavalry , 200 artillery ( including the guns of Quebec ) , 300 native warriors ( including many Odawa under Charles de Langlade ) , and 140 Acadian volunteers , but most of these troops did not participate in the action . Many of the militia were inexperienced ; the Acadian , Canadian , and indigenous irregulars were more used to guerilla warfare . By contrast , the British troops were almost all regulars .

On the morning of 13 September , Wolfe 's army formed a line first with their backs to the river , then spread out across the Plains with its right anchored by the bluff along the St. Lawrence and its left by a bluff and thick wood above the St. Charles River . While the regular French forces were approaching from Beauport and Quebec , the Canadian militia and native sharpshooters engaged the British left flank , sheltering in the trees and scrub ; the militia held these positions throughout the battle and fell back on this line during the general retreat , eventually holding the bridge over the St. Charles River .

The British troops , numbering approximately 3 @,@ 300 , formed into a shallow horseshoe formation that stretched across the width of the Plains , the main firing line being roughly one kilometre long . In order to cover the entire plain , Wolfe was forced to array his soldiers two ranks deep , rather than the more conventional three ranks . On the left wing , regiments under Townshend exchanged fire with the militia in the scrub and captured a small collection of houses and gristmill to anchor the line . The defenders pushed the British from one house , but were repelled and , in retreat , lit several houses on fire to keep them out of enemy hands . Smoke from these fires wound up masking the British left , and may have confused Montcalm as to the width of the lines . As Wolfe 's men waited for the defenders , the steady fire became intense enough that Wolfe ordered his men to lie down amid the high grass and brush .

As French troops arrived from Beauport , Montcalm , one of few mounted men on the field , decided that a swift assault was the only way to dislodge the British from their position . Accordingly , he deployed the forces immediately available in and near Quebec City and prepared an immediate attack , without waiting for further reinforcements from the Beauport shore . He arrayed his approximately 3 @,@ 500 soldiers into place , his best regulars three deep , others six deep and his poorest regiment in column . At approximately 10 a.m. , Montcalm , riding his dark horse and waving his sword to encourage his men , ordered a general advance on the British line .

As a European @-@ trained military leader , Montcalm 's instinct was for large , set @-@ piece battles in which regiments and soldiers moved in precise order . Such actions required a disciplined soldiery , painstakingly drilled for as long as 18 months on the parade ground , trained to march in time , change formation at a word , and retain cohesion in the face of bayonet charges and musket volleys . Though his regular regiments ( the " troupes de terre " or " metropolitans " ) were adept at such formal warfare , in the course of the campaign their ranks had been replenished by less professional militiamen , whose talents at forest warfare emphasised the individual : they tended to fire early and then drop to the ground to reload , thus reducing the effect of concentrated fire at close range .

= = = Battle on the plains = = =

As the French approached , the British lines held their fire . Wolfe had devised a firing method for stopping French column advances in 1755 that called for the centre — in this case , the 43rd and 47th Foot regiments — to hold fire while waiting for the advancing force to approach within 30 yards ( 27 m ) , then open fire at close range .

The French held their fire and both armies waited for two or three minutes . The French finally fired two disorganized volleys .

Wolfe had ordered his soldiers to charge their muskets with two balls each in preparation for the engagement . Captain John Knox , serving with the 43rd Foot , wrote in his journal that as the French came within range , the regiments " gave them , with great calmness , as remarkable a close and heavy discharge as I ever saw . " After the first volley , the British lines marched forward a few paces towards the shocked French force and fired a second general volley that shattered the attackers and sent them into retreat .

Wolfe , positioned with the 28th Foot and the Louisbourg Grenadiers , had moved to a rise to observe the battle ; he had been struck in the wrist early in the fight , but had wrapped the injury and continued on . Volunteer James Henderson , with the Louisbourg Grenadiers , had been tasked with holding the hill , and reported afterwards that within moments of the command to fire , Wolfe was struck with two shots , one low in the stomach and the second , a mortal wound in the chest . Knox wrote that one of the soldiers near Wolfe shouted " They run , see how they run . " Wolfe , on the ground , opened his eyes and asked who was running . Upon being told that the French had broken , he gave several orders , then turned on his side and said " Now , God be praised , I will die in peace " , and died .

With Wolfe dead and several other key officers injured , British troops fell into a disorganised pursuit of the retreating French troops . The 78th Fraser Highlanders were ordered by Brigadier @-@ General James Murray to pursue the French with their swords , but were met near the city by a heavy fire from a floating battery covering the bridge over the St. Charles River as well as militia that remained in the trees . The 78th took the highest number of casualties of all British units in the battle .

An eyewitness with the 78th Highlanders ( Dr. Robert Macpherson ) wrote three days after the battle :

The Highlanders pursued them to the very Sally Port of the town . The Highlanders returned towards the main body . When the highlanders were gathered together , they lay 'd on a separate attack against a large body of Canadians on our flank that were posted in a small village and a Bush of woods . Here , after a wonderful escape all day , we suffered great loss both in Officers and men but at last drove them under the cover of their cannon which likeways did us considerable loss . "

Townshend took charge of the British forces and realised that Bougainville 's column was approaching from the British rear , having taken some time to arrive from Cap Rouge . He quickly formed up two battalions from the confused troops on the field and turned them to meet the oncoming French , a day @-@ saving manoeuvre ; instead of attacking with a well rested and ready force , Bougainville retreated while the rest of Montcalm 's army slipped back across the St. Charles .

During the retreat , Montcalm , still mounted , was struck by either canister shot from the British artillery or repeated musket fire , suffering injuries to the lower abdomen and thigh . He was able to make it back into the city , but his wounds were mortal and he died early the next morning . He was buried in a shell crater left in the floor of the Ursuline chapel by a British shell . The battle resulted in similar numbers of casualties on both sides of the field ; the French had 644 men killed or injured , while the British were left with 658 killed or wounded .

= = Aftermath = =

In the wake of the battle , a state of confusion spread through the French troops . Governor de Vaudreuil , who later wrote to his government and put the full blame for the French rout on the deceased Montcalm , decided to abandon Quebec and the Beauport shore , ordering all of his forces to march west and eventually join up with Bougainville , leaving the garrison in Quebec under the command of Jean @-@ Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay .

Meanwhile , the British , first under the command of Townshend and later with Murray in charge , settled in to besiege the city in conjunction with Saunders ' fleet . Within days , on 18 September , de Ramezay , Townshend and Saunders signed the Articles of Capitulation of Quebec and the city was turned over to British control . The remaining French forces positioned themselves on the Jacques @-@ Cartier River west of the city .

The British Navy was forced to leave the St. Lawrence shortly after the capture of Quebec due to pack ice closing the mouth of the river . Before the ice left the rivers in April , the Chevalier de Lévis , Montcalm 's successor as French commander , marched his 7 @,@ 000 troops to Quebec . James Murray , the British commander , had experienced a terrible winter , in which scurvy had reduced his garrison to only 4 @,@ 000 . On 28 April 1760 , Lévis ' forces met and defeated the British at the Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy , immediately west of the city ( near the site of Université Laval today ) . This battle proved bloodier than that of the Plains of Abraham , with about 850 casualties on the French side and 1 @,@ 100 on the British side . The British were defeated in the battle , but were able to withdraw within the walls of Quebec , which was now under siege . A lack of artillery and ammunition , combined with British improvements to the fortifications , meant that the French were unable to take the city before the arrival of the British fleet in mid @-@ May which defeated Levis ' support ships . A naval battle fought at Quiberon Bay , just off the coast of France , proved the decisive battle for this part of New France . The Royal Navy destroyed the French fleet , meaning France could not send a reserve force to save New France . The success of the French army 's offensive against Quebec in the spring of 1760 had depended on the dispatch of a French armada , with fresh troops and supplies .

At Montréal that September , Lévis and 2 @,@ 000 troops were confronted with 17 @,@ 000 British and American troops . The French capitulated on 8 September 1760 , and the British took possession of Montreal . The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1763 to end the war and gave possession of parts of New France to Great Britain , including Canada and the eastern half of French Louisiana — lying between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains .

= = Legacy of the Plains = =

Today , while much of the foreshore along the base of the cliffs that were scaled by William Howe 's men the morning of the battle has been taken over by industry , the Plains of Abraham themselves are preserved within one of Canada 's National Urban Parks . There is a monument on the site of the Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy .

In 2009 , a number of activities were proposed to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . A plan to hold a reenactment of the battle itself ( as well as a reenactment of the subsequent French victory of 1760 at the Battle of Sainte @-@ Foy ) was cancelled due to threats of public disorder . Leaders of separatist parties described the event as a slap in the face for Quebecers of French ancestry and as an insult for the francophone majority . Some sovereigntist groups threatened or made indirect threats by stating that if the event took place , there could be violence . The movement against re @-@ enactment and these threats of violence led the National Battlefields Commission to cancel the event .

Another commemorative event was proposed for the anniversary , the Moulin à paroles . Thousands gathered on the Plains of Abraham to listen to recitations of 140 significant texts from Quebec history , including the 1970 FLQ Manifesto . The inclusion of that document in the event led to condemnations and a boycott from federalist politicians and the withdrawal of some government funding for the event . The Moulin à paroles took place without incident .

= The Blessing Way ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" The Blessing Way " is the first episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on September 22 , 1995 . It was directed by R.W. Goodwin , and written by series creator Chris Carter . " The Blessing Way " featured guest appearances by Floyd Red Crow Westerman , Peter Donat and Jerry Hardin , and introduced John Neville as the Well @-@ Manicured Man . The episode helped explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " The Blessing Way " earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 3 , being watched by 19 @.@ 94 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from critics .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder is found near death on a Navajo reservation , and is nursed back to health by the tribe , led by Albert Hosteen ( Westerman ) . Meanwhile , Scully investigates an implant found in her neck , and fears that her life — and those of her family — may be in danger . " The Blessing Way " is part of a three @-@ episode storyline , carrying on from the second season finale " Anasazi " , and continuing in the next episode , " Paper Clip " .

Series creator Chris Carter , who called the episode one of his favorite episodes to write , created the episode as a way to explore how the character of Fox Mulder would react to the death of his father . The episode contained several elaborate special effects ; effects producer Mat Beck considered the sequence where Mulder has a vision of Deep Throat and his father to be one of the most difficult of the season .

= = Plot = =

In Two Grey Hills , New Mexico , Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) and his family are beaten by the Men in Black as they search for the whereabouts of Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is pursued by a black helicopter before soldiers retrieve her printed copies of Albert 's translations of the digital tape . Scully denies having the original tape , saying it is in Mulder 's possession . Upon returning to Washington , the FBI puts Scully on mandatory leave and forces her to turn in her badge and gun . Upon entering Mulder 's office , she finds the tape missing .

Meanwhile , in New York City , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) appears before the Syndicate , who question him over the whereabouts of the tape . Mulder , alive but severely wounded , is found buried under some rocks near the buried boxcar . Hosteen has Mulder taken to a Navajo sweat lodge to be healed during a " Blessing Way " ritual . During the ritual , Mulder has ghostly visions of Deep Throat and his father , who urge him to recover and continue his search for the truth .

Melvin Frohike visits Scully 's apartment and shows her a newspaper article about Kenneth Soona 's murder . When she returns to FBI headquarters , the metal detector curiously goes off . Scully presents Skinner with the newspaper article , thinking that the data from Soona 's death can clear Mulder in his father 's murder . Skinner , however , refuses to do any follow @-@ up on it . Leaving the building , Scully has a hunch upon seeing the metal detector again that leads to locating metal in the back of her neck . Scully sees a doctor , who removes a small metal implant .

Scully 's sister Melissa urges her to see a hypnotherapist to recover lost memories of her abduction . Scully heads there , but becomes scared and stops the session . Returning home , Scully finds Skinner leaving her apartment and driving off ; he later denies being there . Mulder , recovered from the Blessing Way ritual , is told by Albert that he cannot bathe or change clothes for four days . Scully heads to Boston to attend Bill 's funeral , where she introduces herself to Mulder 's mother , Teena . At the cemetery , Scully is approached by a Syndicate member known as the Well @-@ Manicured Man , who warns her that she is about to be killed , either by a pair of assassins or by someone she knows . Mulder goes to Connecticut and questions Teena about an old photo of his father standing with the other members of the Syndicate in front of a mysterious building .

Melissa calls Scully and tells her she is coming over . After receiving a call from someone who immediately hangs up , Scully leaves her apartment and tells Melissa that she 'll head to her home instead . As she leaves , Skinner pulls up in his car , telling her they need to speak in private . Melissa shows up soon afterwards and is mistakenly shot by Luis Cardinal , who is hiding there with Alex Krycek . Realizing they shot the wrong person , the two flee . Meanwhile , after taking Skinner to Mulder 's apartment , Scully holds him at gunpoint , believing he is the traitor the Well @-@ Manicured Man spoke of . Skinner tells Scully that he is in possession of the digital tape . Just then , someone steps outside the door . This distracts Scully enough for Skinner to pull out his gun on her .

= = Production = =

Series creator Chris Carter felt this was one of his favorite episodes to write , as he found it interesting to explore how the character of Fox Mulder would react to the death of his father . Carter had recently lost a parent himself when he began work on the episode . Frank Spotnitz said of the episode " The expectations were very high coming after a summer 's worth of anticipation to see how Mulder got out of the boxcar . We knew we had to answer that question and still leave an intriguing enough dilemma at the end of the show to bring viewers back for the third and final part . I also thought it was a big gamble to do all that Indian mysticism stuff . I thought a lot of people would not necessarily respond to that . So I was nervous about that , but very excited about the Scully storyline and the way all of that played out with Mulder and Skinner . " Carter attended Navajo chants and rituals to ensure the accuracy of the events in this episode , after being alerted to inaccuracies in the previous episode by Navajo scholars . A sand painter was brought in to create the two sand paintings for the Blessing Way sequence , which took an entire day to create . The scenes set in New Mexico were filmed in the same Vancouver quarry that had been used as a stand @-@ in in the previous episode , " Anasazi " , the repainting of which required only minor touch @-@ ups .

Visual effects producer Mat Beck considered the sequence where Fox Mulder has a vision of Deep Throat and his father the most difficult of the season . The end of the episode reads " In Memoriam , Larry Wells , 1946 - 1995 . " Wells was a costume designer on the show . Mark Snow slightly changed the piano melody from the opening theme music ( and the corresponding shortened theme in the credits ) from the first two seasons in this episode . The music would remain unchanged for several years . The title of the episode refers to the Navajo ceremony of the Blessing Way . This is the first episode where Mitch Pileggi is credited under Also Starring in the opening credits .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" The Blessing Way " premiered on the Fox network on September 22 , 1995 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on September 12 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 3 with a 22 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 22 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 19 @.@ 94 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing , making it the most viewed episode of the third season .

= = = Reviews = = =

" The Blessing Way " received mixed reviews from critics . The episode , along with both other parts of the story arc , were listed concurrently as the second @-@ best episode of the series by Den of Geek 's Nina Sordi . Sordi noted that the plotline " laid the groundwork for the mythology arc for the rest of the series " , adding that it " brought much more significance to what is to come " . John Keegan , writing for Critical Myth , gave the episode a largely positive review and rated it a 10 out of 10 . Keegan described it as the " perfect counterpoint to Anasazi " and a " strong beginning to the third season " . Other reviews were more mixed . In an overview of the third season in Entertainment Weekly , " The Blessing Way " was rated a B + . The episode was derided for its " corny dream sequence and high @-@ flown cosmic hooey " , although the introduction of the Well @-@ Manicured Man and Mitch Pileggi 's portrayal of Walter Skinner were seen as highlights . Writing for the A.V. Club , Todd VanDerWerff panned the episode 's " pseudo @-@ mystical bullshit " , rating the episode a B- . He felt that the resolution of the cliffhanger from the previous episode " Anasazi " — that of Mulder 's apparent death — was poorly handled , and that the character of Albert Hosteen was perhaps the worst in the series . However , the introduction of plot threads such as Scully 's implant and the alien @-@ human hybrids were deemed positive factors .

David Duchovny was somewhat disappointed with the episode , hoping he would have had a chance to do more in an episode that was primarily a symbolic journey for him rather than a real one . The actor said " I like the psychology , and I like the thinking that went into the episode as a viewer . As an actor , I felt like an opportunity passed me by . If I had to do any episode over again , it would be that one . " The actor called the episode in 1995 the greatest missed opportunity they had . Chris Carter disagreed , stating that Fox Mulder 's role in the episode was the right way to do it , and that the dramatic weight for the episode had to shift from Mulder to Dana Scully .

= Ratu ( band ) =

Ratu was an Indonesian music duo formed in 1999 with Maia Estianty , then the wife of musician Ahmad Dhani , on instruments and Pinkan Mambo on vocals . Ratu entered the Indonesian musical scene with their first album , Bersama ( Together ; 2003 ) . After a short break caused by Mambo 's departure in 2004 , the group formed anew with Mulan Kwok as vocalist . This new line @-@ up proved more successful , with their most successful songs – " Teman Tapi Mesra " ( " Friends with Benefits " ) and " Lelaki Buaya Darat " ( " Womaniser " ) – released in this period ; both song titles later became common terms in the Indonesian vocabulary . The group 's second studio album , No . Satu ( Number One ; 2006 ) , sold 200 @,@ 000 copies on the day of its release , a record for an album by an Indonesian female group . The group dissolved in 2007 .

Ratu was the most successful female Indonesian music group of the 2000s . Aside from their music , they were known for their physical appearance and wide coverage in infotainment media . Through their choice in costumes , Ratu popularised Harajuku styles in Indonesia . Throughout their career , the band won numerous awards ; they were the first musical act to twice be declared " Artist of the Year " and " Group / Duo Artist of The Year " at the MTV Ampuh music awards . This success inspired numerous other groups to follow in their tracks .

= = Career = =

= = = Formation and first record = = =

Maia Ahmad , at the time wife of the musician Ahmad Dhani , had been a background singer for her husband 's band Dewa 19 since 1993 . She had been musically inclined since childhood and had formed a band while a teenager . She intended to be like her husband and enter the music industry as a headline performer . In a later interview , she explained her motivations : " I wasn 't following on the success of Krisdayanti dan Anang , a husband and wife who had made an album together . I just started when I did . Dhani only gave me the time then , as our children were getting older and I could focus on my music . " With Dhani 's guidance , in 1999 Maia decided to form a duo consisting of a singer and a musician , with the name Ratu . The concept was based on that of international bands like Roxette and Savage Garden . Maia set herself as a keyboardist , then began to look for a vocalist .

Pinkan Mambo , who at the time sang at a café , was working towards a career as a professional musician . In mid @-@ 1999 , she met Dhani at a café in Pondok Indah Mall , South Jakarta . She introduced herself to him , saying that she had a good voice . When Dhani asked how good , she replied " Amazing . [ ... ] as good as Mariah Carey . " Mambo then received Dhani 's number , which she used to call him repeatedly and ask for an album . On the fifth day , Maia answered the phone and eventually offered Mambo the position of vocalist with Ratu . Although Mambo wanted to be a soloist , she accepted and had an audition at Maia 's home , where she was accepted before she could finish singing . Before she began work with Ratu , Pinkan was given training as a backing vocalist for Dewa 19 .

After three years of preparation , in January 2003 Ratu launched their debut album Bersama with Sony Music Indonesia . The album included ten songs , seven written by Maia and three by Dhani ; Maia also did the arrangement and served as backing vocalist . Other musicians involved on the album included Bintang ( bass ) , Denny Chasmala , Andra Ramadhan and Taras ( guitar ) , Agil Cinere ( drums ) , Donni ( flute ) , Sa 'unine ( strings ) and Henry Lamiri ( violin ) . The music was R & B @-@ influenced , with added piano for a " feminine touch . " With the album several singles , " Aku Baik @-@ Baik Saja " ( " I 'm Fine " ) , " Salahkah Aku Terlalu Mencintaimu " ( " Blame Me For Loving You Too Much " ) and " Jangan Bilang Siapa Siapa " ( " Don 't Tell Anyone " ) , were released . This first album was well @-@ received and sold more than 250 @,@ 000 copies . Ratu also provided a new sound , as the Indonesian music industry of the time was dominated by male groups . Ratu won Best Newcomer at the 2003 Clear Top Ten Awards . At the 2006 MTV Ampuh awards , Ratu was awarded Artist of the Year and Group / Duo Artist of The Year .

After the success of Bersama , Maia and Mambo began to work on a second album , scheduled for a 2004 release . However , on 14 October 2004 Mambo announced she was leaving the group amidst widespread media coverage of her being pregnant outside of wedlock . Reports indicated that she may have left the group because of Maia 's more dominant personality and conflicts between the two . Maia , left as the only member of the band , insisted that it was not dissolving , and would soon hold auditions for a new vocalist . As a temporary measure , several singers were contracted to perform with Maia , although not signed as members . Tia , a finalist in Akademi Fantasi Indosiar ( AFI ) , came under consideration for the position , but was unable to accept as she was still contracted to AFI .

= = = Line @-@ up change and success = = =

While looking for a new vocalist , Maia met Mulan Kwok , a performer at Barbados Cafe in Bilangan Kemang , Jakarta , in December 2004 . Of this meeting , Maia later recalled " When I met Mulan it was like meeting a new lover . I saw her and I liked her . Just fell in love . " Mulan was a café singer from Bandung who sang with Dimensi Band . She was asked to audition for the role and ultimately selected ; her appointment was announced at a press conference on 7 April 2005 . With Mulan , the group 's concept , originally " elegant " , became " coquettish and sexy " . The group 's musical style also changed ; while originally R & B with light piano , it was changed to a rock sound with dominant guitars .

On 30 August 2005 Ratu released a compilation album entitled Ratu & Friends which included two new songs from the group , " Teman Tapi Mesra " ( " Friends With Benefits " ) and a cover of Vina Panduwinata 's " Di Dadaku Ada Kamu " ( " In My Chest there is You " ) . " Teman Tapi Mesra " was an overnight hit in Indonesia , Malaysia , and Singapore and enjoyed by both adults and children alike . The term " Teman Tapi Mesra " , often abbreviated TTM , became widely used to describe those in a physical relationship without an emotional one . The ringback tone for " Teman Tapi Mesra " held the top position in Malaysia for several weeks . In Indonesia , the ringback tone saw more than a million downloads . The album sold more than 400 @,@ 000 copies and was certified double platinum . Ratu then put on a forty @-@ city concert tour throughout Indonesia with the band Radja ; the Rock in Love tour began with a concert at the Jakarta Convention Center on 20 February 2006 .

On 22 May 2006 Ratu released their second studio album , No . Satu ( Number One ) . Like on Bersama , most of the songs recorded were written by Maia . Dhani contributed three songs , while Mulan helped write the song " Seribu Cinta " ( " A Thousand Loves " ) . No . Satu also involved musicians such as Yoyo Padi , Denny Chasmala , Tepi Item , and Bintang . Two singles from the album , " Lelaki Buaya Darat " ( " Womanizer " ) and " Dear Diary " , were hits , as was the album ; it sold 200 @,@ 000 copies on the day of its release , a record for a work by a female Indonesian group . " Lelaki Buaya Darat " was banned in Malaysia because of its perceived negative connotations . The band tried to change the song 's title , but this was unsuccessful . However , some radio stations in Malaysia still played the song .

Throughout 2005 and 2006 Ratu was one of Indonesia 's dominant bands and often used in product advertisements . Both members explored different aspects of show business . Maia acted in Extravaganza , a comedy show on Trans TV , while Mulan starred in several television films . The band 's clothing , inspired by the Harajuku fashion district in Japan , made teenagers interested in street clothing . The band also received widespread coverage in infotainment media , with much gossip about Dhani 's relationship with Mulan . Noting the role that infotainment media had played in the band 's success , Maia said " Ratu should give thanks to all those reporters who gave us fame with their gossip . "

Ratu received numerous awards during this period . At the tenth Anugerah Musik Indonesia , the band received three nominations and won Best Produced Work for " Teman Tapi Mesra " . Maia and Mulan were also awarded Top Singer at the SCTV Awards , winning over established stars Agnes Monica , Ari Lasso , Iwan Fals , dan Krisdayanti . Ada the MTV Indonesia Awards , they were nominated in two categories . At the MTV Ampuh Awards , Ratu was declared Artist of the Year and " Group / Duo Artist of The Year " , making them the first group to win both awards twice .

= = = Dissolution = = =

At the end of 2006 , Ahmad Dhani threatened to disband the group if Maia did not cut back on her performance schedule ; he felt she was too busy , to the point of forgetting their children . Dhani later withdrew his threat , but – after becoming manager – limited the group to one performance a week . He then fired the group 's manager , Vita Ramona , who threatened to bring Dhani to court if he did not apologize for perceived defamation . This situation was exacerbated when Mulan publicly complained of not receiving her share of the band 's money and a lack of transparency in the management . She resigned on 30 January 2007 , after waiting ten days for her open letter to the management to receive a reply . Mulan then hired a lawyer and sued Dhani , resulting in her contract fee being returned .

After Mulan left , Maia continued to perform as Ratu own her own . She participated in the concert tour A Mild Live Soundrenaline with Shanty , Bunga Citra Lestari , and Ghea — a winner of Indonesian Idol . Later domestic troubles between Dhani and Maia led to the group to dissolve . At the end of 2007 , the group 's name became an object of contention between the two . Dhani claimed the name " Ratu " as his intellectual right and said that he had registered it with the General Directorate of Intellectual Rights . He forbid Maia , who was then looking for a new partner , to use the name .

= = Later activities = =

At the beginning of 2008 , Maia launched Duo Maia with her new partner Mey Chan . Unlike Ratu , Duo Maia was conceived as a vocal group and Maia was predominantly a vocalist . Meanwhile , Mulan signed with Republik Cinta Management under Ahmad Dhani . Mulan released a solo album entitled Makhluk Tuhan Paling Seksi ( God 's Sexiest Creature ) in 2008 and changed her stage name to Mulan Jameela . Mambo , the Ratu 's original vocalist , had already released a solo album , entitled Aku Tahu Rasanya ( I Know How It Feels ) in 2006 . In 2009 , " Teman Tapi Mesra " was bought by LadyLike , a Swedish girl band , and released in the European market as the English @-@ language " Dreaming of the Time " .

Ratu was followed by numerous Indonesian duos attempting to follow in its success . Towards the end of the 2000s , Ahmad Dhani did so as well , coaching the duos MahaDewi and The Virgin . None of these groups were as successful as Ratu , and , by 2011 , Korean @-@ inspired boy and girl bands had become dominant . Maia later said that Ratu had been successful because it was the only one of its kind , that " there were benefits to being a pioneer "

= = Discography = =

Bersama ( Together ; 2003 )

Ratu & Friends ( 2005 )

No . Satu ( Number One ; 2006 )

= = Concert tours = =

Rock in Love ( 2005 – 2006 )

A Mild Live Soundrenaline ( 2007 )

= = Awards = =

= Richard Appel =

Richard James " Rich " Appel ( born May 21 , 1963 ) is an American writer , producer and former attorney . Since 2012 , he has served as an Executive Producer and co @-@ showrunner of Family Guy on Fox . Growing up in Wilmette , Illinois , Appel developed a love of comedy and dreamed of a career as a comedy writer ; he attended Harvard University and wrote for the Harvard Lampoon . Following in his mother 's footsteps , Appel instead became a lawyer . After attending law school he started out as a law clerk for Judge John M. Walker , Jr. before becoming a federal attorney , serving as assistant U.S. attorney for the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York for three years . In 1994 , he moved into comedy writing when he was hired for The Simpsons , writing seven episodes of the show including " Mother Simpson " . He moved on to become showrunner and executive producer of King of the Hill before creating the sitcom A.U.S.A .. He then worked on The Bernie Mac Show , Family Guy and American Dad ! before co @-@ creating The Cleveland Show . He was married to the writer Mona Simpson .

= = Early life and law career = =

Richard James Appel was born May 21 , 1963 in New York City , to Nina ( neé Schick ) and Alfred Appel . His mother was a lawyer , taught law and served as dean of Loyola University Chicago 's law school from 1983 – 2004 , and his father ( who died on May 2 , 2009 ) was professor of English at Northwestern University and an expert on Vladimir Nabokov . Appel has a sister , Karen Oshman . Appel lived in California while his parents taught at Stanford University before the family moved to Wilmette , Illinois , where Appel went to North Shore Country Day School . Appel became interested in comedy from a young age , noting : " I grew up watching The Dick Van Dyke Show and always thought that what Rob Petrie did for a living was what I wanted to do . " His father introduced him to the works of Buster Keaton and Laurel and Hardy and encouraged him to " read comic books and watch quality [ sic ] television " , and he and a friend produced parody adverts and news pieces with a Betamax and often engaged in prank phone calls . At high school , he wrote sketches and routines and dreamt of being a comedy writer but " didn 't know anyone who did it , and it didn 't seem like a career that was open to me . "

He attended Harvard University and wrote for the Harvard Lampoon , alongside Conan O 'Brien and Greg Daniels , both of whom he beat for the chance to give the comic graduation speech , the Ivy Oration . Tad Friend noted : " Everyone thought it would be Conan automatically , but Rich 's speech was funny and self @-@ deprecating , in a way that was both silly and profound . " After graduation in 1985 with a degree in history and literature , Appel attended Harvard Law School rather than moving into comedy , because the idea of following his mother and grandfathers into the legal profession " appealed " to him . He then worked for two years as a law clerk for Judge John M. Walker , Jr . , of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York , working on the trials of people such as Michael Milken and Leona Helmsley . Subsequently , for three years from 1990 , Appel served as an assistant U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York . Fellow attorney Geoffrey Berman stated Appel " was an excellent lawyer . He was good on his feet , articulate , with a sense of the law that was common @-@ sensical , more intuitive than based on books . " Appel still had dreams of becoming a comedy writer despite the security working as a lawyer offered him , but only in 1993 , after his wife became pregnant , was Appel " reminde [ d ] that this was [ his ] life and [ he ] could shape it . " Three months later he had retained an agent , had written and submitted two spec @-@ scripts , and had moved to California .

= = Writing career = =

When starting out as a comedy writer , Appel recalled : " One reason I caught up to my contemporaries is that when I started to send out my scripts , the idea that I 'd been on the Lampoon , even 8 or 10 years before , was a credential I could use . " Appel got his first television job when David Mirkin hired him for the writing staff of The Simpsons in 1994 , initially on a ten @-@ week contract , and served as a writer and producer there for four years . There , he wrote seven episodes , often employing the use of " joke sequences , a narrative approach to humor that eschews the quick laugh in favor of something that develops over time . " Appel found work on The Simpsons to be a learning curve because it was a " very tough show to write for . " His first episode was season seven 's " Mother Simpson " . Appel was desperately trying to think of a story idea to show and decided that he had to really reach out and opted to do something about Homer 's mother , who previously had only been mentioned once . He named her Mona Simpson , after his wife . Many of the writers could not believe that an episode about Homer 's mother had not previously been produced . The writers used the episode to solve several little puzzles , such as where Lisa 's intelligence came from . Also for season seven he penned " Bart on the Road " , in which he utilized the plot devices of " go to work with your parents day " and Bart getting a driving license , and contributed to the episode " 22 Short Films About Springfield " ; the two segments he wrote for the episode ( one about Marge , the other about Lionel Hutz ) were both cut . Appel wrote two episodes from season eight , " Bart After Dark " and " The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " , as well as season nine 's " The Two Mrs Nahasapeemapetilons " and season 10 's " When You Dish Upon A Star " .

Daniels hired Appel as executive producer and showrunner on King of the Hill in 1997 , leading the show 's writing process and overseeing all aspects of the show . Daniels noted : " It was essential that Rich was a good writer who could deal with people , who could help manage the business in the room . But equally important was the fact that he was someone I could trust , who had a similar sense of taste and values . " He stayed until 2001 . For his work on The Simpsons and King of the Hill , Appel won three Primetime Emmy Awards . Appel created the short @-@ lived series A.U.S.A. , which aired in 2003 , which he based on his own experiences as an assistant U.S. attorney . He conceived it in 2001 and NBC ordered 13 episodes the following year ; the show 's original pilot used a single @-@ camera setup but NBC executives felt it would have more appeal as a multiple @-@ camera setup , so it was re @-@ shot . Appel noted of the show : " There 's a sense sometimes in Hollywood that writers and producers who come from animated shows maybe have something to prove to justify their credibility as live @-@ action show @-@ runners or writers . My own experience has been fortunate . I haven 't felt that . But I know it exists . " He was inspired by the comedic side of working as a lawyer when writing the show : " Whether you 're working on a case that you 're proud to tell you mother and grandmother about , you 're still going to encounter possibly really shifty dishonest lawyers , or a judge who is a little crazy , or witnesses who self @-@ destruct on the stand . " The show was not acclaimed : Scott D. Pierce of The Deseret News praised the premise but felt the show was " sort of like watching a train wreck , " while Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said it was " too cartoonish to work . " Appel then wrote and worked as a co @-@ executive producer on The Bernie Mac Show and Kitchen Confidential , and appeared as Josh in the 2004 film I ♥ Huckabees . In 2006 , Appel produced a pilot called My Ex Life about two divorcing couples for CBS , which was directed by Kelsey Grammer .

In 2008 , he served as a co @-@ executive producer on Family Guy and executive producer on American Dad ! from 2008 until 2009 . Appel wrote the Family Guy seventh season episode " Family Gay " . Appel co @-@ created , alongside Mike Henry and Seth MacFarlane , the Family Guy spin @-@ off The Cleveland Show , which they began discussing in 2007 and which premiered September 27 , 2009 . He and Henry serve as the show 's executive producers and showrunners , handling the day @-@ to @-@ day operations , with limited involvement from MacFarlane . Henry and Appel conceived the show as " more of a family show , a sweeter show " than Family Guy . The show , which was picked up to air a first season consisting of 22 episodes , was picked up by Fox for a second season , consisting of 13 episodes , bringing the total number to 35 episodes . The announcement was made on May 3 , 2009 before the first season even premiered . It was extended to a full second season . Appel signed a new three @-@ year , seven figure deal with Fox to continue serving as showrunner on The Cleveland Show in 2010 . Fox chairman Gary Newman commented : " What is special about him is his incredible leadership ability . He is a terrific showrunner , and he really sets the tone on a show that is exactly what you 're looking for . "

= = Personal life = =

He married novelist Mona Simpson , the biological sister of Apple founder Steve Jobs , in 1993 . They have two children . Appel and Simpson have since divorced .

= = Credits = =

Appel worked on the listed shows and wrote all the listed episodes :

The Simpsons ( 1994 – 1997 ) – writer , producer , co @-@ executive producer , consulting producer and story editor

" Mother Simpson "

" Bart on the Road "

" 22 Short Films About Springfield " ( co @-@ writer )

" Bart After Dark "

" The Secret War of Lisa Simpson "

" The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons "

" When You Dish Upon a Star "

King of the Hill ( 1997 – 2001 ) – executive producer

A.U.S.A. ( 2003 ) – creator , executive producer , writer

" Pilot "

" 12 Happy Grandmothers "

The Bernie Mac Show ( 2003 – 2005 ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer

" Eye of the Tiger "

" That Old Mac Magic "

" Stiff Upper Lip "

" Nerdy Mac "

I ♥ Huckabees ( 2004 ) – Actor ( as Josh )

Kitchen Confidential ( 2005 – 2006 ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer

" Praise Be Praise "

" Let 's Do Brunch "

My Ex Life ( 2006 ) – creator , executive producer , writer

Family Guy ( 2008 – 2009 , 2013 – ) – co @-@ executive producer , writer

" Family Gay "

American Dad ! ( 2008 – 2009 ) – executive producer

The Cleveland Show ( 2009 – 2013 ) – co @-@ creator , executive producer , writer

" Pilot "

= Jungle Strike =

Jungle Strike is a video game developed and published by Electronic Arts in 1993 for the Sega Mega Drive . The game was later released on several other consoles such as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) , and an upgraded version was made for the Amiga . The Amiga and other home computer conversions were the responsibility of Ocean Software while the SNES version was that of Gremlin Interactive . It is the direct sequel to Desert Strike : Return to the Gulf ( a best @-@ seller released the previous year ) and is the second instalment in the Strike series . The game is a helicopter based shoot ' em up , mixing action and strategy . The plot concerns two villains intent on destroying Washington , D.C .. The player must use the helicopter and occasionally other vehicles to thwart their plans .

Its game engine was carried over from a failed attempt at a flight simulator and was inspired by Matchbox toys and Choplifter . Jungle Strike retained its predecessor 's core mechanics and expanded on the model with additional vehicles and settings . The game was well received by most critics upon release , with the Mega Drive release receiving critical acclaim from their respective reviewers . Publications praised its gameplay , strategy , design , controls and graphics , although there were some complaints regarding the interface , difficulty and perceived jingoistic politics .

= = Plot = =

Jungle Strike features two antagonists : Ibn Kilbaba , the son of Desert Strike 's antagonist , and Carlos Ortega , a notorious South American drug lord . The opening sequence depicts the two men observing a nuclear explosion on a deserted island , while discussing the delivery of " nuclear resources " and an attack on Washington D.C. ; Kilbaba seeks revenge for his father 's death at the hands of the US , while Ortega wishes to " teach the Yankees to stay out of my drug trade " .

The player takes control of a " lone special forces " pilot . The game 's first level depicts the protagonist repelling terrorist attacks on Washington , D.C. , including the President 's limousine . Subsequent levels depict counter @-@ attacks on the drug lord 's forces , progressing towards his " jungle fortress " . In the game 's penultimate level , the player pursues Kilbaba and Ortega to their respective hideouts before capturing them .

The final level takes place in Washington , D.C. again , where the two antagonists attempt to flee after escaping from prison . The player must destroy both Kilbaba and Ortega and stop four trucks carrying nuclear bombs from blowing up the White House . The PC version also extends the storyline with an extra level set in Alaska , in which the player must wipe out the remainder of Ortega 's forces under the command of a Russian defector named Ptofski , who has taken control of oil tankers and is threatening to destroy the ecosystem with crude oil if his demands are not met . Once all levels are complete , the ending sequence begins and depicts the protagonist and his co @-@ pilot in an open @-@ topped car in front of cheering crowds .

= = Gameplay = =

Jungle Strike is a helicopter @-@ based shoot ' em up , mixing action and strategy . The player 's main weapon is a Comanche attack helicopter . Additional vehicles can be commandeered : a motorbike , hovercraft and F @-@ 117 . The latter in particular features variable height and unlimited ammunition , but is more vulnerable to crashes . The game features an " overhead " perspective " with a slight 3D twist " . The graphics uses a 2.5D perspective which simulates the appearance of being 3D .

Levels consist of several missions , which are based around the destruction of enemy weapons and installations , as well as rescuing hostages or prisoners of war , or capturing enemy personnel . The helicopter is armed with machine guns , more powerful Hydra rockets and yet more deadly Hellfire missiles . The more powerful the weapon , the fewer can be carried : the player must choose an appropriate weapon for each situation . Enemy weapons range from armoured cars , to artillery and tanks .

The player 's craft has a limited amount of armour , which is depleted as the helicopter is hit by enemy fire . Should the armour reach zero , the craft will be destroyed , losing the player a life . The player must outmanoeuvre enemies to avoid damage , but can replenish armour by means of power @-@ ups or by airlifting rescued friendlies or captives to a landing zone . The helicopter has a finite amount of fuel which is steadily depleted as the level progresses . Should the fuel run out the Comanche will crash , again costing the player a life . The craft can refuel by collecting fuel barrels . The helicopter also carries limited ammunition , which must be replenished by means of ammo crates .

= = Development and release = =

Jungle Strike is the sequel to Desert Strike : Return to the Gulf , a similar game which parodied the Gulf War and which was released in 1992 . Desert Strike arose from a failed attempt at a flight simulator and was inspired by Matchbox toys and Choplifter . Central to the game 's concept were nonlinear gameplay and the eschewing of power @-@ ups and bosses . With the success of the original title , producer Scott Berfield , game director John Manley and associate producer Tony Barnes were tasked with creating the sequel . Jungle Strike retained the core mechanics of its predecessor , with the addition of various vehicles and settings . Desert Strike was at the time Electronic Arts ' highest selling video game and maintained a high sales chart position as Jungle Strike was released in 1993 .

The Amiga conversion of Desert Strike featured upgraded graphics and sound over the Mega Drive original . With regards to the Jungle Strike Amiga conversion , senior programmer Stuart Johnson stated he " tried to keep this conversion a lot more faithful to the Mega Drive version than Desert Strike was " . He attempted to make the Amiga conversion run more smoothly than the Mega Drive original . Graphical improvements were attempted : these were less successful on the A500 than the A1200 because of technical restrictions . The developers also struggled with technical challenges because of differences in hardware between the Mega Drive and Amiga . Amendments were also made to the workings of in @-@ mission plot screens . The Amiga conversion was released as sequel Urban Strike was published for the Mega Drive in 1994 .

Jungle Strike was followed by three further sequels : Urban Strike , Soviet Strike , and Nuclear Strike . As the series moved to more advanced consoles , series creator Mike Posehn became less involved in the programming side of development . Urban Strike , released for the Mega Drive , featured new vehicles and locations , as well as on @-@ foot sections . Soviet Strike , released for Sony 's PlayStation and the Sega Saturn in 1996 , featured 3D graphics , as did Nuclear Strike , released on PC and PlayStation in 1997 and the Nintendo 64 in 1999 . Another sequel provisionally titled Future Strike was planned , but the game was eventually released as Future Cop : LAPD , a mech @-@ based shooter game .

= = Reception = =

The game was well received by critics upon release , with some reviews regarding it with critical acclaim . Adrian Pitt and Mat Yeo of Sega Force both reviewed the game . Adrian Pitt called the title a " strategy game " and commented it as the " greatest game in the genre " . Pritt said the controls were " without fault " and the graphics " superb " . The second reviewer , Mat Yeo , praised the " amazing playability and ' lastability ' " and said the game was " twice as good " as Desert Strike . Yeo called the graphics " brilliant " and said the game was " the best shoot ' em up I 've seen in a long time " . The Mega Drive version was a best @-@ seller for 3 months . MegaTech magazine said the game has " impressive graphics and tons of missions " . Mega placed the game at No. 13 in their Top Mega Drive Games of All Time .

Lim Choon Klet of New Straits Times praised the " simply wonderful " graphics but questioned whether the sound effects were enough to " create the environment of a full @-@ scale war " . Choon Klet pointed to a high initial difficulty but said : " Once the skills are acquired , be ready for many hours of enjoyment and sleepless nights . " Chip and Jonathan Carter of St. Petersburg Times deemed the game one of the best of the year and felt the SNES version " loses nothing in the translation " . The duo said the Game Boy and Game Gear versions were " less impressive " due to their technical restrictions but " about as good as you can get on the small screen " . " Sir Garnabus " of GamePro was impressed with the Game Boy version 's clear and detailed graphics , lack of slowdown , good controls , and faithfulness to the original version , but judged the Game Gear version to be " merely average " , saying issues such as poor collision detection hamper the game despite its outstanding graphics . Amiga CD32 Gamer called Jungle Strike " a 500lb gorilla among games " and praised its ease of control and " masses of gameplay and realistic detail " .

Amiga Computing said : " With its impressive graphics and superbly designed game system , it could well be the best chopper title yet " although the reviewer felt the difficulty curve was too steep . Amiga Format said of the game : " with a little more foresight and planning , it could have been a lot more fun " , as the reviewer was irritated by the fact that fuel , armour and ammunition levels were displayed on map screen . However the magazine also wrote : " The bottom line though , is that Jungle Strike is an incredibly good game " . Amiga Power called the game " an appreciable shoot ' em up " but said it was " clearly tailored for the shorter attention span " of a console gamer . CU Amiga Magazine wrote : " This blend of shooting and thinking action blends together seamlessly and in the process creates a classic blaster well worth a ride " . The One Amiga magazine wrote : " Jungle Strike 's a fine game , which will prove both a challenge for Desert Strike @-@ ophiles , and a good solid blast for first bloods " . ACAR observed the game 's " Good graphics , okay sound , smooth animation and tough game play . " Amiga Power complained that " Throughout the game you 're battered with uneasily right @-@ wing US politics " , while Amiga Format said " jingoism " was " rife " throughout the game . Amiga CD32 Gamer called the plot " typically ' ugly American ' idiocy " .

GamePro commented on the game 's skilful challenge and variety of locales , and particularly praised the Super NES version for retaining the same gameplay of the Genesis version while improving on the graphics and sound .

= U.S. Route 50 in Utah =

U.S. Route 50 ( US @-@ 50 ) in Utah crosses the center of the state . The highway serves no major population centers in Utah , with the largest city along its path being Delta . Most of the route passes through desolate , remote areas . Through the eastern half of the state the route is concurrent with Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) . US @-@ 50 both enters and exits Utah concurrent with US @-@ 6 , however the two routes are separate through the center of the state .

Three completely different routings of US @-@ 50 have existed between Green River and Ely , Nevada . The route between these cities has become progressively shorter as new roads have been paved through this largely uninhabited region of both states . The earlier routings were a result of a dispute between Utah and Nevada over which auto trails would be paved and converted to U.S. Highways .

= = Route description = =

The highway enters Utah from Nevada in a desolate portion of the Great Basin desert . Similar to many portions of the route in Nevada , there are no services from this point to Delta , a span of roadway that is about 100 miles ( 160 km ) . While passing through the Great Basin the highway crosses two mountain ranges , the Confusion Range via kings canyon and House Range via Skull Rock Pass , before arriving at the shore of Sevier Lake . Sevier Lake is an intermittent lake which is fed by snow melt from many mountain ranges in the eastern half of the Great Basin . From US @-@ 50 , water is only usually visible in the spring months . The highway follows Sevier Lake to Delta .

The scenery dramatically changes as US @-@ 50 approaches Delta , where U.S. Route 6 and 50 separate . As the road approaches Delta , a straight passage across desert changes to zigzags through farming areas . The highway continues to zigzag through farms until arriving at more mountainous terrain at Holden . At Holden , the highway merges with Interstate 15 to cross the Pavant Range at Scipio Summit . US @-@ 50 then separates from this freeway to meet Interstate 70 in Salina . The two highways run concurrent from this point east to Colorado . Yet again , there is a stretch of highway 110 miles ( 180 km ) long without services from Salina to Green River .

While co @-@ routed with I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 50 crosses the Wasatch Plateau and passes through the San Rafael Swell . The construction of I @-@ 70 through the swell is noted as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System . One specific feat , the excavation through a portion called Spotted Wolf Canyon , required excavating 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) of rock to have a bed for just 8 miles ( 13 km ) of roadway . Construction workers noted that prior to the construction of the freeway a man could stand in this canyon and touch both sides of the canyon wall .

US @-@ 6 rejoins US @-@ 50 near Green River . The three routes run concurrent and follow the southern edge of the Book Cliffs to Grand Junction , Colorado . Once again , services are not present from Thompson Springs to Fruita , Colorado , a span of about 60 miles ( 97 km ) . This portion of US @-@ 50 is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , a National Scenic Byway . The name of the byway comes from the large number of areas along the route with visible dinosaur remains .

= = History = =

The modern route of U.S. Route 50 between Ely , Nevada and Green River , Utah is the third iteration .

= = = First iteration = = =

In 1926 , when the U.S. Highway system was first announced , there was a gap in US @-@ 50 between Ely and Thistle . At the time the states of Utah and Nevada were feuding about which of the old auto trails would be paved and used for the new U.S. Highway System . Nevada favored the Lincoln Highway , which the modern US @-@ 50 closely follows in that state . Utah refused to consider the Lincoln Highway west of Salt Lake City . Officials perceived that route would carry all California bound traffic directly to Nevada while passing through very few communities in Utah . Utah instead favored the Victory Highway ( modern Interstate 80 west of Salt Lake ) and the Arrowhead Trail ( modern Interstate 15 ) . By favoring these routes Utah could force travelers destined for southern California to use a different route than those destined for northern California , with both of these traversing through more cities in Utah than the Lincoln Highway . The Arrowhead trail was especially beneficial to Utah as it passed through many communities in the state , but only Las Vegas in Nevada .

Utah prevailed and US @-@ 50 did not continue to follow the Lincoln Highway to Salt Lake City as Nevada had wanted . The first continuous route of US @-@ 50 across eastern Nevada and western Utah was an arch shaped route . US @-@ 50 proceeded north from Ely along what is now numbered U.S. Route 93 and Alternate US @-@ 93 where the highway would merge with the Victory Highway ( U.S. Route 40 along the Wendover Cut @-@ off , since replaced by I @-@ 80 ) to Salt Lake . From there the highway returned to Green River via what is now numbered State Route 201 , U.S. Route 89 and U.S. Route 6 .

= = = Second iteration = = =

The second iteration has its origins with the formation of US @-@ 6 . In 1937 , US @-@ 6 was extended west from its former terminus at Greeley , Colorado to Long Beach , California . In eastern Utah the route used the existing alignment of US @-@ 50 . However , in western Utah the route used an unpaved road through Delta reconnecting with US @-@ 50 in Ely . By 1954 , this route was fully paved and US @-@ 50 was moved to this shorter alignment . With this change US @-@ 6 / 50 ran concurrent from Ely to Grand Junction , Colorado .

The paved version did not exactly follow the unpaved roads . The dirt route passed through the numerous mountain ranges of the great basin with the most difficult being Marjum Canyon . The route was relocated to follow the north shore of Sevier Lake , which reduced the number of mountain ranges crossed . Although US @-@ 50 was moved to yet another alignment , this route remains US @-@ 6 today .

= = = Third iteration = = =

The modern route of US @-@ 50 was created in 1976 . This iteration of US @-@ 50 has its origins in a dispute over the route of Interstate 70 in Utah . While I @-@ 70 was in the planning stage Colorado lobbied for an extension of the original proposal to run across Colorado and into Utah . Utah supported an extension using then US @-@ 6 / 50 to connect Denver , Colorado with Salt Lake City . However , federal planners did not see value in this route and instead supported a route that could be used to connect Denver with Los Angeles , California . I @-@ 70 was built using the federally selected route . In 1976 , US @-@ 50 was changed again to a routing mostly concurrent with I @-@ 70 . The portion of modern US @-@ 50 between Delta and Scipio had been previously numbered State Route 26 , and the portion between Scipio and Salina had been numbered State Route 63 , with the SR @-@ 63 portion being transferred to SR @-@ 26 in 1971 .

East of Green River I @-@ 70 closely follows the original route of US @-@ 50 , with some minor straightening by Crescent Junction , Cisco , and Westwater .

= = Major intersections = =

= Susanna Cole =

Susanna Cole ( née Hutchinson ; 1633 – c . 1713 ) was the lone survivor of an Indian attack in which many of her siblings and her famed mother , Anne Hutchinson , were killed . Following the attack , she was taken captive , and held for several years before her release .

Born in Alford , Lincolnshire , England , Hutchinson was less than a year old when her family sailed from England to New England in 1634 . She was less than five when her family settled on Aquidneck Island ( later Rhode Island ) in the Narragansett Bay following her mother 's banishment from Massachusetts during the Antinomian Controversy . Shortly after her father 's death , when she was about eight years old , she , her mother and six of her siblings left Rhode Island to live in New Netherland . They settled in an area that became the far northeastern section of The Bronx in New York City , near the Westchester County line . Caught in the middle of severe tensions between the local natives and the Dutch , the family , except for Susanna , was massacred in August 1643 . She was taken captive , and raised by the Indians , later to be traded back to the English .

Hutchinson was taken to Boston where her oldest brother and an older sister lived , was re @-@ introduced into English society , and at the age of 18 married John Cole , the son of Boston innkeeper Samuel Cole . They lived in Boston for a few years , but by 1663 had moved to the Narragansett country of Rhode Island ( later North Kingstown ) to look after the lands of her oldest brother , Edward Hutchinson . Here the couple remained and raised a large family . Susanna Cole was still alive in 1707 when given administration of her husband 's estate , but was deceased by December 1713 when her son William took receipts concerning his parents ' estate .

= = Early life = =

Baptized in Alford , Lincolnshire on 15 November 1633 , Susanna Hutchinson was the youngest child of William and Anne Hutchinson to accompany her parents on the voyage from England to New England in 1634 . She was the 14th child of her parents , of which 11 survived to make the trip to the New World ; a 15th child was born in New England . The family settled in Boston , and lived across the street from magistrate John Winthrop , who was a judge during the civil trial in 1637 that led to her mother 's banishment from the Massachusetts colony . While Hutchinson was still very young , her mother hosted popular religious discussions at their home . Her mother 's religious views , at odds with the rigid orthodoxy of the Puritan ministers , helped to create a major division in the Boston church and an untenable situation for the colony 's leaders . Forced to leave Massachusetts , the family settled with many of her mother 's supporters on Aquidneck Island in the Narragansett Bay , establishing the settlement of Portsmouth , which soon became a part of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations . Hutchinson was less than five years old when the family left Boston , and was about eight when her father died in Portsmouth .

Frightened at the prospect of Massachusetts gaining influence or control over Rhode Island , Hutchinson 's widowed mother took her six youngest children , an older son , a son @-@ in @-@ law , and some servants and moved to the part of New Netherland that later became The Bronx in New York City . The Dutch and native Siwanoy were engaged in Kieft 's War during the family 's tenure there . In August 1643 Siwonoy attacked the emigrant household , and killed all members of the family , except for nine @-@ year @-@ old Hutchinson . According to one story , Susanna 's red hair spared her from the slaughter , while another account claimed that the girl was out picking blueberries some distance from the house and hid in the crevice of Split Rock . In any event , the attackers took Susanna Hutchinson captive , and held her for several years .

In his journal , Massachusetts governor John Winthrop provided an account of Susanna under the date of July 1646 :

A daughter of Mrs. Hutchinson was carried away by the Indians near the Dutch , when her mother and others were killed by them ; and upon the peace concluded between the Dutch and the same Indians , she was returned to the Dutch governor , who restored her to her friends here . She was about eight years old , when she was taken , and continued with them about four years , and she had forgot her own language , and all her friends , and was loath to have come from the Indians .

While Winthrop said that Hutchinson was captive about four years , his journal makes clear that her captivity lasted less than three years . When she returned to Boston , her known living siblings at the time were her oldest brother , Edward Hutchinson , another brother , Samuel , and her two oldest living sisters , Faith ( the wife of Thomas Savage ) , and Bridget ( the wife of John Sanford ) . Of these siblings , Faith lived in Mount Wollaston , about ten miles south of Boston ; Bridget lived in Portsmouth , Rhode Island ; and Samuel 's residence is unknown . Only her brother Edward is known to have lived in Boston proper , and it is likely that Hutchinson came to live with him and his family . On 30 December 1651 she married , in Boston , John Cole , the son of Boston innkeeper , Samuel Cole , who had established Boston 's first tavern in 1634 .

= = Adult life = =

Susanna and John Cole began raising a family in Boston , but by 1663 they had gone to look after her brother 's land in the Narragansett country , which was then in disputed territory , but later became North Kingstown , Rhode Island . Here the Coles lived for the remainder of their lives , rearing many children . The will of John Cole 's father , Samuel Cole , dated 21 December 1666 , left a property at Bendall 's Dock in Boston to Susanna and her children to satisfy an agreement with Susanna 'a brother Edward Hutchinson and uncle Samuel Hutchinson . This property was leased out in 1676 , and sold in 1698 for £ 160 .

In April 1667 , John Cole deeded their house in Boston to Susanna 's brother Edward and uncle Samuel , signifying that they intended to remain in Narragansett . They lived in the vicinity of Wickford , an area claimed by both Connecticut and Rhode Island . Many of the Wickford inhabitants preferred to be under the jurisdiction of Connecticut , and in the late 1660s John Cole became a magistrate and commissioner for the area under the auspices of the Connecticut government . Eventually , following many years of dispute and tension , Rhode Island was given control over the Narragansett lands , and in 1682 John Cole was made a conservator of the peace under the Rhode Island government . By 1707 John had died , and Susanna and her son William were given administration of his estate during that year . Susanna had died by 14 December 1713 when her son , William , " took receipts from heirs for their full proportion of estate of deceased father and mother ... "

= = Family and Legacy = =

Susanna and John Cole had 11 children : Susanna , Samuel , Mary , John , Ann , a second John , Hannah , William , Francis , Elizabeth , and Elisha ; at least 9 of them grew to maturity . Their oldest daughter , Susanna , married Thomas Eldred , but the fate of their oldest son , Samuel is not known . Mary lived into her 60s , never marrying , and John , Jr. died as a youngster . Ann married Henry Bull , the son of Jireh Bull , and grandson of Rhode Island colonial governor Henry Bull . A second John grew to maturity , Hannah married Thomas Place , and William married Ann Pinder . Francis grew to maturity , Elizabeth married Robert Potter , and Elisha married Elizabeth Dexter and was for many years a Deputy or Assistant in the Rhode Island colony . Among her well known descendants are two aspirants to the United States Presidency : Stephen Arnold Douglas , who lost to Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 election , and Willard Mitt Romney , who lost to incumbent Barack Obama in 2012 . Her grandson , John Cole , the son of Elisha Cole , was a chief justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court .

There have been numerous books and articles written about Susanna Cole 's famous mother , Anne Hutchinson , most of which mention Susanna . One book has been written about Cole , Trouble 's Daughter by Katherine Kirkpatrick , which presents a fictionalized account about her life with the Native Americans who captured her , but also presents some of the limited historical information that is available about her .

A bronze statue in front of the Massachusetts State House in Boston , dedicated in 1922 , displays an assumed likeness of Cole as a youngster , and her mother , Anne Hutchinson .

= = Ancestry = =

Some of Susanna 's ancestry on her father 's side was published by John D. Champlin in 1913 , and he published much of her ancestry on her mother 's side the following year .

= Battleship =

A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of heavy caliber guns . During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most powerful type of warship , and a fleet of battleships was vital for any nation that desired to maintain command of the sea .

The word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a contraction of the phrase line @-@ of @-@ battle ship , the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail . The term came into formal use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship , now referred to by historians as pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . In 1906 , the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design . Subsequent battleship designs , influenced by HMS Dreadnought , were referred to as " dreadnoughts " .

Battleships were a symbol of naval dominance and national might , and for decades the battleship was a major factor in both diplomacy and military strategy . The global arms race in battleship construction began in Europe , following the 1890 publication of Alfred Thayer Mahan 's The Influence of Sea Power upon History , 1660 – 1783 . This arms race culminated at the decisive Battle of Tsushima in 1905 ; the outcome of which significantly influenced the design of HMS Dreadnought . The launch of Dreadnought in 1906 commenced a new naval arms race . Three major fleet action between steel battleships took place . The decisive battles of the Yellow Sea ( 1904 ) and Tsushima ( 1905 ) during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , and the Battle of Jutland ( 1916 ) during the First World War . Jutland was the largest naval battle and the only full @-@ scale clash of battleships in the war , and it was the last major battle fought primarily by battleships in world history .

The Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships , though technical innovation in battleship design continued . Both the Allies and the Axis powers deployed battleships during World War II . However they were of lesser importance , especially after the Japanese aircraft carrier fleet sank the main American battleship fleet at Pearl Harbor in 1941 .

The value of the battleship has been questioned , even during the period of their prominence . In spite of the immense resources spent on battleships , there were few pitched battleship clashes . Even with their enormous firepower and protection , battleships were increasingly vulnerable to much smaller , cheaper weapons : initially the torpedo and the naval mine , and later aircraft and the guided missile . The growing range of naval engagements led to the aircraft carrier replacing the battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II , with the last battleship to be launched being HMS Vanguard in 1944 . Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War for fire support purposes before being stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in the 2000s .

= = Ships of the line = =

A ship of the line was a large , unarmored wooden sailing ship which mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades . The ship of the line developed gradually over centuries and , apart from growing in size , it changed little between the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship 's heyday in the 1830s . From 1794 , the alternative term ' line of battle ship ' was contracted ( informally at first ) to ' battle ship ' or ' battleship ' .

The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy , holing her hull , knocking down masts , wrecking her rigging , and killing her crew . However , the effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards , so the battle tactics of sailing ships depended in part on the wind .

The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system . Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century , initially for small craft and later for frigates . The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90 @-@ gun Napoléon in 1850 — the first true steam battleship . Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line , but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , regardless of the wind condition . This was a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement . The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships . France and the United Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships , although several other navies operated small numbers of screw battleships , including Russia ( 9 ) , Turkey ( 3 ) , Sweden ( 2 ) , Naples ( 1 ) , Denmark ( 1 ) and Austria ( 1 ) .

= = Ironclads = =

The adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century . The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad : powered by steam , protected by metal armor , and armed with guns firing high @-@ explosive shells .

= = = Explosive shells = = =

Guns that fired explosive or incendiary shells were a major threat to wooden ships , and these weapons quickly became widespread after the introduction of 8 inch shell guns as part of the standard armament of French and American line @-@ of @-@ battle ships in 1841 . In the Crimean War , six line @-@ of @-@ battle ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853 . Later in the war , French ironclad floating batteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn .

Nevertheless , wooden @-@ hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells , as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa , where the modern Austrian steam two @-@ decker SMS Kaiser ranged across a confused battlefield , rammed an Italian ironclad and took 80 hits from Italian ironclads , many of which were shells , but including at least one 300 pound shot at point blank range . Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast , and being set on fire , she was ready for action again the very next day .

= = = Iron armor and construction = = =

The development of high @-@ explosive shells made the use of iron armor plate on warships necessary . In 1859 France launched Gloire , the first ocean @-@ going ironclad warship . She had the profile of a ship of the line , cut to one deck due to weight considerations . Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys , Gloire was fitted with a propeller , and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor . Gloire prompted further innovation from the Royal Navy , anxious to prevent France from gaining a technological lead .

The superior armored frigate Warrior followed Gloire by only 14 months , and both nations embarked on a program of building new ironclads and converting existing screw ships of the line to armored frigates . Within two years , Italy , Austria , Spain and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships , and by the time of the famous clash of the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships .

Navies experimented with the positioning of guns , in turrets ( like the USS Monitor ) , central @-@ batteries or barbettes , or with the ram as the principal weapon . As steam technology developed , masts were gradually removed from battleship designs . By the mid @-@ 1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood . The French Navy 's Redoutable , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876 , was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material .

= = Pre @-@ dreadnought battleship = =

The term " battleship " was officially adopted by the Royal Navy in the re @-@ classification of 1892 . By the 1890s , there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs , and the type that later became known as the ' pre @-@ dreadnought battleship ' emerged . These were heavily armored ships , mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets , and without sails . The typical first @-@ class battleship of the pre @-@ dreadnought era displaced 15 @,@ 000 to 17 @,@ 000 tons , had a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ) , and an armament of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in two turrets fore and aft with a mixed @-@ caliber secondary battery amidships around the superstructure . An early design with superficial similarity to the pre @-@ dreadnought is the British Devastation class of 1871 .

The slow @-@ firing 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main guns were the principal weapons for battleship @-@ to @-@ battleship combat . The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles . Against major ships , it was thought a ' hail of fire ' from quick @-@ firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure , and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers . Smaller guns ( 12 @-@ pounders and smaller ) were reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats .

The beginning of the pre @-@ dreadnought era coincided with Britain reasserting her naval dominance . For many years previously , Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted . Expensive naval projects were criticised by political leaders of all inclinations . However , in 1888 a war scare with France and the build @-@ up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction , and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships . The principle that Britain 's navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established . This policy was designed to deter France and Russia from building more battleships , but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre @-@ dreadnoughts in the 1890s .

In the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th , the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany . The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorised a fleet of 38 battleships , a vital threat to the balance of naval power . Britain answered with further shipbuilding , but by the end of the pre @-@ dreadnought era , British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened . In 1883 , the United Kingdom had 38 battleships , twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together . By 1897 , Britain 's lead was far smaller due to competition from France , Germany , and Russia , as well as the development of pre @-@ dreadnought fleets in Italy , the United States and Japan . Turkey , Spain , Sweden , Denmark , Norway , the Netherlands , Chile and Brazil all had second @-@ rate fleets led by armored cruisers , coastal defence ships or monitors .

Pre @-@ dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad . Turrets , armor plate , and steam engines were all improved over the years , and torpedo tubes were introduced . A small number of designs , including the American Kearsarge and Virginia classes , experimented with all or part of the 8 @-@ inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12 @-@ inch primary . Results were poor : recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8 @-@ inch battery being completely unusable , and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations . Even though such innovative designs saved weight ( a key reason for their inception ) , they proved too cumbersome in practice .

= = Dreadnought era = =

In 1906 , the British Royal Navy launched the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought . Created as a result of pressure from Admiral Sir John ( " Jackie " ) Fisher , HMS Dreadnought made existing battleships obsolete . Combining an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " armament of ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns with unprecedented speed ( from steam turbine engines ) and protection , she prompted navies worldwide to re @-@ evaluate their battleship building programs . While the Japanese had laid down an all @-@ big @-@ gun battleship , Satsuma , in 1904 and the concept of an all @-@ big @-@ gun ship had been in circulation for several years , it had yet to be validated in combat . Dreadnought sparked a new arms race , principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide , as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power .

Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era , with steep changes in armament , armor and propulsion . Ten years after Dreadnought 's commissioning , much more powerful ships , the super @-@ dreadnoughts , were being built .

= = = Origin = = =

In the first years of the 20th century , several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns .

Admiral Vittorio Cuniberti , the Italian Navy 's chief naval architect , articulated the concept of an all @-@ big @-@ gun battleship in 1903 . When the Regia Marina did not pursue his ideas , Cuniberti wrote an article in Jane 's proposing an " ideal " future British battleship , a large armored warship of 17 @,@ 000 tons , armed solely with a single calibre main battery ( twelve 12 @-@ inch { 305 mm } guns ) , carrying 300 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) belt armor , and capable of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) .

The Russo @-@ Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the ' all @-@ big @-@ gun ' concept . At the Yellow Sea and Tsushima , pre @-@ dreadnoughts exchanged volleys at ranges of 7 @,@ 600 – 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 to 11 km ) , beyond the range of the secondary batteries . It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun over its smaller counterparts , though some historians take the view that secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons .

In Japan , the two battleships of the 1903 @-@ 4 Programme were the first to be laid down as all @-@ big @-@ gun designs , with eight 12 @-@ inch guns . However , the design had armor which was considered too thin , demanding a substantial redesign . The financial pressures of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and the short supply of 12 @-@ inch guns which had to be imported from Britain meant these ships were completed with a mixed 10- and 12 @-@ inch armament . The 1903 @-@ 4 design also retained traditional triple @-@ expansion steam engines .

As early as 1904 , Jackie Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast , powerful ships with an all @-@ big @-@ gun armament . If Tsushima influenced his thinking , it was to persuade him of the need to standardise on 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns . Fisher 's concerns were submarines and destroyers equipped with torpedoes , then threatening to outrange battleship guns , making speed imperative for capital ships . Fisher 's preferred option was his brainchild , the battlecruiser : lightly armored but heavily armed with eight 12 @-@ inch guns and propelled to 25 knots ( 46 km / h ) by steam turbines .

It was to prove this revolutionary technology that Dreadnought was designed in January 1905 , laid down in October 1905 and sped to completion by 1906 . She carried ten 12 @-@ inch guns , had an 11 @-@ inch armor belt , and was the first large ship powered by turbines . She mounted her guns in five turrets ; three on the centerline ( one forward , two aft ) and two on the wings , giving her at her launch twice the broadside of any other warship . She retained a number of 12 @-@ pound ( 3 @-@ inch , 76 mm ) quick @-@ firing guns for use against destroyers and torpedo @-@ boats . Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head @-@ to @-@ head with any other ship in a gun battle , and conceivably win .

Dreadnought was to have been followed by three Invincible @-@ class battlecruisers , their construction delayed to allow lessons from Dreadnought to be used in their design . While Fisher may have intended Dreadnought to be the last Royal Navy battleship , the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy . Although there were some problems with the ship ( the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside , and the top of the thickest armor belt lay below the waterline at full load ) , the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the Bellerophon and St. Vincent classes .

An American design , South Carolina , authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906 , was another of the first dreadnoughts , but she and her sister , Michigan , were not launched until 1908 . Both used triple @-@ expansion engines and had a superior layout of the main battery , dispensing with Dreadnought 's wing turrets . They thus retained the same broadside , despite having two fewer guns .

= = = Arms race = = =

In 1897 , before the revolution in design brought about by HMS Dreadnought , the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building , a lead of 26 over France and 50 over Germany . In 1906 , the Royal Navy owned the field with Dreadnought . The new class of ship prompted an arms race with major strategic consequences . Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts . Possession of modern battleships was not only vital to naval power , but also , as with nuclear weapons today , represented a nation 's standing in the world . Germany , France , Japan , Italy , Austria , and the United States all began dreadnought programmes ; while Ottoman Turkey , Argentina , Russia , Brazil , and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards .

= = World War I = =

The battleship , particularly the dreadnought , was the dominant naval weapon of the World War I era . There were few serious challenges at that time . The most significant naval battles of World War I , such as Jutland ( May 31 , 1916 – June 1 , 1916 ) , were fought by battleships and their battlecruiser cousins .

By virtue of geography , the Royal Navy was able to use her imposing battleship and battlecruiser fleet to impose a strict and successful naval blockade of Germany and kept Germany 's smaller battleship fleet bottled up in the North Sea : only narrow channels led to the Atlantic Ocean and these were guarded by British forces . Both sides were aware that , because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts , a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory . The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms : either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone , or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline , where friendly minefields , torpedo @-@ boats and submarines could be used to even the odds . Germany 's submarines were able to break out and raid commerce , but even though they sank many merchant ships , they could not successfully blockade Great Britain – in contrast to Britain 's successful battleship blockade of Germany , which was a major cause of Germany 's economic collapse in 1918 . The Royal Navy on the other hand , successfully adopted convoy tactics to combat Germany 's submarine blockade and eventually defeated it .

The first two years of war saw the Royal Navy 's battleships and battlecruisers regularly " sweep " the North Sea making sure that no German ships could get in or out . Only a few German surface ships that were already at sea , such as the famous light cruiser SMS Emden , were able to raid commerce . Even some of those that did manage to get out were hunted down by battlecruisers , as in the Battle of the Falklands , December 7 , 1914 . The results of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles such as the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German raids on the English coast , all of which were attempts by the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an attempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail . On May 31 , 1916 , a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland . The German fleet withdrew to port after two short encounters with the British fleet . Less than two months later , the Germans once again attempted to draw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle . The resulting Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive . This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle .

In the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles . In the Black Sea , engagement between Russian and Turkish battleships was restricted to skirmishes . In the Baltic Sea , action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys , and the laying of defensive minefields ; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre @-@ dreadnought was lost . The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea : the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade . And in the Mediterranean , the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli .

In September 1914 , the threat posed to surface ships by German U @-@ boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers , including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine SM U @-@ 9 in less than an hour . The British Super @-@ dreadnought HMS Audacious soon followed suit as she struck a mine laid by a German U @-@ boat in October 1914 and sank . The threat that German U @-@ boats posed to British dreadnoughts was enough to cause the Royal Navy to change their strategy and tactics in the North Sea to reduce the risk of U @-@ boat attack . Further near @-@ misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships .

As the war wore on however , it turned out that whilst submarines did prove to be an incredibly dangerous threat to older pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , as shown by examples such as the sinking of the Mesûdiye , which was caught in the Dardanelles by a British submarine and the HMS Majestic and HMS Triumph were torpedoed by U @-@ 21 as well as HMS Formidable , HMS Cornwallis , HMS Britannia etc . , the threat posed to dreadnought battleships proved to have been largely a false alarm . HMS Audacious turned out to have been the only dreadnought sunk by a submarine in WWI . While battleships were never intended for anti @-@ submarine warfare , there was one instance of a submarine being sunk by a dreadnought battleship . HMS Dreadnought rammed and sank the German U @-@ 29 on March 18 , 1915 off Moray Firth .

Whilst the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower at Jutland was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers successfully turning away the British battleships , the German attempt to rely on U @-@ boat attacks on the British fleet failed .

Torpedo boats did have some successes against battleships in World War I , as demonstrated by the sinking of the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Goliath by Muâvenet @-@ i Millîye during the Dardanelles Campaign and the destruction of the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought SMS Szent István by Italian motor torpedo boats in June 1918 . In large fleet actions , however , destroyers and torpedo boats were usually unable to get close enough to the battleships to damage them . The only battleship sunk in a fleet action by either torpedo boats or destroyers was the obsolescent German pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Pommern . She was sunk by destroyers during the night phase of the Battle of Jutland .

The German High Seas Fleet , for their part , were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines ; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic , the fleet stayed in port for much of the war .

= = Inter @-@ war period = =

For many years , Germany simply had no battleships . The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port ; largely because no neutral port could be found , the ships remained in British custody in Scapa Flow , Scotland . The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British . Instead , most of them were scuttled by their German crews on June 21 , 1919 just before the signature of the peace treaty . The treaty also limited the German Navy , and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships .

The inter @-@ war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out .

While the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles , many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war . Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against the United Kingdom and Japan , which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war , the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess , and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan . The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties , including the First Geneva Naval Conference ( 1927 ) , the First London Naval Treaty ( 1930 ) , the Second Geneva Naval Conference ( 1932 ) , and finally the Second London Naval Treaty ( 1936 ) , which all set limits on major warships . These treaties became effectively obsolete on September 1 , 1939 at the beginning of World War II , but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply . The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919 – 39 than in 1905 – 14 . The treaties also inhibited development by putting maximum limits on the weights of ships . Designs like the projected British N3 @-@ class battleship , the first American South Dakota class , and the Japanese Kii class — all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor — never got off the drawing board . Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships .

= = = Rise of air power = = =

As early as 1914 , the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft . By the end of World War I , aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon . In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled The Command of the Air , which foresaw the dominance of air power over naval units .

In the 1920s , General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps , believing that air forces had rendered navies around the world obsolete , testified in front of Congress that " 1 @,@ 000 bombardment airplanes can be built and operated for about the price of one battleship " and that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship , making for more efficient use of government funds . This infuriated the U.S. Navy , but Mitchell was nevertheless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers . In 1921 , he bombed and sank numerous ships , including the " unsinkable " German World War I battleship SMS Ostfriesland and the American pre @-@ dreadnought Alabama .

Although Mitchell had required " war @-@ time conditions " , the ships sunk were obsolete , stationary , defenseless and had no damage control . The sinking of Ostfriesland was accomplished by violating an agreement that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various munitions : Mitchell 's airmen disregarded the rules , and sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack . The stunt made headlines , and Mitchell declared , " No surface vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land bases are able to attack them . " While far from conclusive , Mitchell 's test was significant because it put proponents of the battleship against naval aviation on the back foot . Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations against Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of the U.S. Navy 's nascent aircraft carrier program .

= = = Rearmament = = =

The Royal Navy , United States Navy , and Imperial Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized their World War I – era battleships during the 1930s . Among the new features were an increased tower height and stability for the optical rangefinder equipment ( for gunnery control ) , more armor ( especially around turrets ) to protect against plunging fire and aerial bombing , and additional anti @-@ aircraft weapons . Some British ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the " Queen Anne 's castle " , such as in the Queen Elizabeth and Warspite , which would be used in the new conning towers of the King George V @-@ class fast battleships . External bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to counteract weight increase and provide underwater protection against mines and torpedoes . The Japanese rebuilt all of their battleships , plus their battlecruisers , with distinctive " pagoda " structures , though the Hiei received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new Yamato @-@ class battleships . Bulges were fitted , including steel tube arrays to improve both underwater and vertical protection along the waterline . The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts , though after Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships such as West Virginia and California were rebuilt to a similar appearance to their Iowa @-@ class contemporaries ( called tower masts ) . Radar , which was effective beyond visual contact and was effective in complete darkness or adverse weather conditions , was introduced to supplement optical fire control .

Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s , battleship construction did not regain the level of importance which it had held in the years before World War I. The " building holiday " imposed by the naval treaties meant that the building capacity of dockyards worldwide was relatively reduced , and the strategic position had changed .

In Germany , the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and Bismarck @-@ class battleships as commerce raiders . In Britain , the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation , and re @-@ armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the King George V class . It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare . France intended to build six battleships of the Dunkerque and Richelieu classes , and the Italians four Littorio @-@ class ships . Neither navy built significant aircraft carriers . The U.S. preferred to spend limited funds on aircraft carriers until the South Dakota class . Japan , also prioritising aircraft carriers , nevertheless began work on three mammoth Yamato @-@ class ships ( although the third , Shinano , was later completed as a carrier ) and a planned fourth was cancelled .

At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , the Spanish navy consisted of only two small dreadnought battleships , España and Jaime I. España ( originally named Alfonso XIII ) , by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base of El Ferrol , fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936 . The crew aboard Jaime I remained loyal to the Republic , killed their officers , who apparently supported Franco 's attempted coup , and joined the Republican Navy . Thus each side had one battleship ; however , the Republican Navy generally lacked experienced officers . The Spanish battleships mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades , convoy escort duties , and shore bombardment , rarely in direct fighting against other surface units . In April 1937 , España ran into a mine laid by friendly forces , and sank with little loss of life . In May 1937 , Jaime I was damaged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident . The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired . There she was again hit by several aerial bombs . It was then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port , but during the transport she suffered an internal explosion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss . Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the non @-@ intervention blockade . On May 29 , 1937 , two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship Deutschland outside Ibiza , causing severe damage and loss of life . Admiral Scheer retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería , causing much destruction , and the resulting Deutschland incident meant the end of German and Italian support for non @-@ intervention .

= = World War II = =

The German battleship Schleswig @-@ Holstein — an obsolete pre @-@ dreadnought — fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte ; and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship , USS Missouri . Between those two events , it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role .

Battleships played a part in major engagements in Atlantic , Pacific and Mediterranean theaters ; in the Atlantic , the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders . However , clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance . The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines , and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers .

In the first year of the war , armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare . Scharnhorst and Gneisenau surprised and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious off western Norway in June 1940 . This engagement marked the last time a fleet carrier was sunk by surface gunnery . In the attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir , British battleships opened fire on the French battleships in the harbor near Oran in Algeria with their heavy guns , and later pursued fleeing French ships with planes from aircraft carriers .

The subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its potential against battleships . The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more . The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German commerce @-@ raider Bismarck .

On December 7 , 1941 , the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor . Within a short time five of eight U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking , with the rest damaged . The American aircraft carriers were out to sea , however , and evaded detection . They took up the fight , and eventually turned the tide of the war in the Pacific . The sinking of the British battleship Prince of Wales and her escort , the battlecruiser Repulse , demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover , settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921 . Both warships were under way and en route to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese land @-@ based bombers and torpedo bombers on December 10 , 1941 .

At many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific , for instance Coral Sea and Midway , battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles . In later battles in the Pacific , battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti @-@ aircraft defense as escort for the carriers . Even the largest battleships ever constructed , Japan 's Yamato class , which carried a main battery of nine 18 @-@ inch ( 46 cm ) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon , were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre @-@ war planning .

The last battleship confrontation in history was the Battle of Surigao Strait , on October 25 , 1944 , in which a numerically and technically superior American battleship group destroyed a lesser Japanese battleship group by gunfire after it had already been devastated by destroyer torpedo attacks . All but one of the American battleships in this confrontation had previously been sunk by the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently raised and repaired . When Mississippi fired the last salvo of this battle , the last salvo fired by a battleship against another heavy ship , she was " firing a funeral salute to a finished era of naval warfare . " In April 1945 , during the battle for Okinawa , the world 's most powerful battleship , the Yamato , was sent out against a massive U.S. force on a suicide mission and sunk by overwhelming pressure from carrier aircraft with nearly all hands lost .

= = Cold War = =

After World War II , several navies retained their existing battleships , but they were no longer strategically dominant military assets . Indeed , it soon became apparent that they were no longer worth the considerable cost of construction and maintenance and only one new battleship was commissioned after the war , HMS Vanguard . During the war it had been demonstrated that battleship @-@ on @-@ battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the sinking of HMS Hood were the exception and not the rule , and with the growing role of aircraft engagement ranges were becoming longer and longer , making heavy gun armament irrelevant . The armor of a battleship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack as tactical missiles with a range of 100 kilometres ( 60 mi ) or more could be mounted on the Soviet Kildin @-@ class destroyer and Whiskey @-@ class submarines . By the end of the 1950s , smaller vessel classes such as destroyers , which formerly offered no noteworthy opposition to battleships , now were capable of eliminating battleships from outside the range of the ship 's heavy guns .

The remaining battleships met a variety of ends . USS Arkansas and Nagato were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946 . Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions . The Italian battleship Giulio Cesare was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed Novorossiysk ; she was sunk by a leftover German mine in the Black Sea on October 29 , 1955 . The two Andrea Doria @-@ class ships were scrapped in 1956 . The French Lorraine was scrapped in 1954 , Richelieu in 1968 , and Jean Bart in 1970 .

The United Kingdom 's four surviving King George V @-@ class ships were scrapped in 1957 , and Vanguard followed in 1960 . All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949 . The Soviet Union 's Marat was scrapped in 1953 , Parizhskaya Kommuna in 1957 and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya ( back under her original name , Gangut , since 1942 ) in 1956 @-@ 7 . Brazil 's Minas Geraes was scrapped in Genoa in 1953 , and her sister ship São Paulo sank during a storm in the Atlantic en route to the breakers in Italy in 1951 .

Argentina kept its two Rivadavia @-@ class ships until 1956 and Chile kept Almirante Latorre ( formerly HMS Canada ) until 1959 . The Turkish battlecruiser Yavûz ( formerly SMS Goeben , launched in 1911 ) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused . Sweden had several small coastal @-@ defense battleships , one of which , HSwMS Gustav V , survived until 1970 . The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s , whilst plans to build a number of new Stalingrad @-@ class battlecruisers were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 . The three old German battleships Schleswig @-@ Holstein , Schlesien , and Hessen all met similar ends . Hessen was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed Tsel . She was scrapped in 1960 . Schleswig @-@ Holstein was renamed Borodino , and was used as a target ship until 1960 . Schlesien , too , was used as a target ship . She was broken up between 1952 and 1957 .

The Iowa @-@ class battleships gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships . Radar and computer @-@ controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target . The U.S. recommissioned all four Iowa @-@ class battleships for the Korean War and the New Jersey for the Vietnam War . These were primarily used for shore bombardment , New Jersey firing nearly 6 @,@ 000 rounds of 16 inch shells and over 14 @,@ 000 rounds of 5 inch projectiles during her tour on the gunline , seven times more rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had fired in the Second World War .

As part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman 's effort to build a 600 @-@ ship Navy in the 1980s , and in response to the commissioning of Kirov by the Soviet Union , the United States recommissioned all four Iowa @-@ class battleships . On several occasions , battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups , or led their own battleship battle group . These were modernized to carry Tomahawk missiles , with New Jersey seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984 , while Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16 inch ( 406 mm ) guns at land targets and launched missiles during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 . Wisconsin served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf , directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Desert Storm , firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign . The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore based surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles ; Missouri was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles , with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer HMS Gloucester .

= = Modern times = =

All four Iowa ships were decommissioned in the early 1990s , making them the last battleships to see active service . USS Iowa and USS Wisconsin were maintained to a standard where they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels , pending the development of a superior fire support vessel . These last two battleships were finally stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in 2006 . The Military Balance and Russian Foreign Military Review states the U.S. Navy listed one battleship in the reserve ( Naval Inactive Fleet / Reserve 2nd Turn ) in 2010 . The Military Balance states the U.S. Navy listed no battleships in the reserve in 2014 . The U.S. Marine Corps believes that the current naval surface fire support gun and missile programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault or onshore operations .

With the decommissioning of the last Iowa @-@ class ships , no battleships remain in service or in reserve with any navy worldwide . A number are preserved as museum ships , either afloat or in drydock . The U.S. has eight battleships on display : Massachusetts , North Carolina , Alabama , Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , Wisconsin and Texas . Missouri and New Jersey are museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden , New Jersey , respectively . Iowa is on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro , California . Wisconsin now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk , Virginia . Massachusetts , which has the distinction of never having lost a man during service , is on display at the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River , Massachusetts . Texas , the first battleship turned into a museum , is on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site , near Houston . North Carolina is on display in Wilmington , North Carolina . Alabama is on display in Mobile , Alabama . The wreck of the Arizona , sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 , is designated a historical landmark and national gravesite .

The only other 20th @-@ century battleship on display is the Japanese pre @-@ dreadnought Mikasa . A replica of the Chinese ironclad Dingyuan was built by the Weihai Port Bureau in 2003 and is on display in Weihai , China .

= = Strategy and doctrine = =

= = = Doctrine = = =

Battleships were the embodiment of sea power . For Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers , a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation , and control of the seas was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas . Mahan 's theory , proposed in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History , 1660 – 1783 of 1890 , dictated the role of the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas . While the work of escorting , blockading , and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels , the presence of the battleship was a potential threat to any convoy escorted by any vessels other than capital ships . This concept of " potential threat " can be further generalized to the mere existence ( as opposed to presence ) of a powerful fleet tying the opposing fleet down . This concept came to be known as a " fleet in being " – an idle yet mighty fleet forcing others to spend time , resource and effort to actively guard against it .

Mahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships , which came to be known as the decisive battle doctrine in some navies , while targeting merchant ships ( commerce raiding or guerre de course , as posited by the Jeune École ) could never succeed .

Mahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship , calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible . Mahan 's work developed in the late 1880s , and by the end of the 1890s it had a massive international impact , in the end adopted by many major navies ( notably the British , American , German , and Japanese ) . The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races , and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era .

The " fleet in being " suggested battleships could simply by their existence tie down superior enemy resources . This in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a conflict even without a battle . This suggested even for inferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important strategic impact .

= = = Tactics = = =

While the role of battleships in both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine , the details of battleship deployment were more complex . Unlike the ship of the line , the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines , which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft . The Jeune École doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s recommended placing torpedo boats alongside battleships ; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun @-@ smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes . While this tactic was vitiated by the development of smokeless propellant , the threat from more capable torpedo craft ( later including submarines ) remained . By the 1890s , the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers , which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats . During the First World War and subsequently , battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers .

Battleship doctrine emphasised the concentration of the battlegroup . In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent ( or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet ) , battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships beyond horizon range . This was provided by scouting forces ; at various stages battlecruisers , cruisers , destroyers , airships , submarines and aircraft were all used . ( With the development of radio , direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play , as well , so even shore stations , broadly speaking , joined the battlegroup . ) So for most of their history , battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers . The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how , despite this support , the threat of mine and torpedo attack , and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques , seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet , the greatest battleship fleet of its time .

= = = Strategic and diplomatic impact = = =

The presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact . Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today , the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation 's force projection .

Even during the Cold War , the psychological impact of a battleship was significant . In 1946 , USS Missouri was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey , and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region . In September 1983 , when Druze militia in Lebanon 's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers , the arrival of USS New Jersey stopped the firing . Gunfire from New Jersey later killed militia leaders .

= = = Value for money = = =

Battleships were the largest and most complex , and hence the most expensive warships of their time ; as a result , the value of investment in battleships has always been contested . As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879 , " The construction of battleships is so costly , their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration , that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people " . The Jeune École school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet . It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy , based on fast , long @-@ ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports . The ideas of the Jeune Ecole were ahead of their time ; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines , torpedoes , submarines , and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented . The determination of powers such as Germany to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticised by historians , who emphasise the futility of investment in a battlefleet that has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle .

= Oryzomys =

Oryzomys is a genus of semiaquatic rodents in the tribe Oryzomyini living in southern North America and far northern South America . It includes eight species , two of which — the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) of the United States and O. couesi of Mexico and Central America — are widespread ; the six others have more restricted distributions . The species have had eventful taxonomic histories , and most species were at one time included in the marsh rice rat ; additional species may be recognized in the future . The name Oryzomys was established in 1857 by Spencer Fullerton Baird for the marsh rice rat and was soon applied to over a hundred species of American rodents . Subsequently , the genus gradually became more narrowly defined until its current contents were established in 2006 , when ten new genera were established for species previously placed in Oryzomys .

Species of Oryzomys are medium @-@ sized rats with long , coarse fur . The upperparts are gray to reddish and the underparts white to buff . The animals have broad feet with reduced or absent ungual tufts of hair around the claws and , in at least some species , with webbing between the toes . The rostrum ( front part of the skull ) is broad and the braincase is high . Both the marsh rice rat and O. couesi have 56 chromosomes , lack a gall bladder , and have a complex penis ( as is characteristic of the Sigmodontinae ) with some traits that are rare among oryzomyines ; these characteristics are unknown in the other species of this genus .

The habitat includes various kinds of wetlands , such as lakes , marshes , and rivers . Oryzomys species swim well , are active during the night , and eat both plant and animal food . They build woven nests of vegetation . After a gestation period of 21 to 28 days , about four young are born . Species of Oryzomys are infected by numerous parasites and carry at least three hantaviruses , one of which ( Bayou virus ) also infects humans . Two , maybe three , species have gone extinct over the last two centuries and at least one other is endangered , but the widespread marsh rice rat and O. couesi are not threatened .

= = Taxonomy = =

Oryzomys is one of about thirty genera within the tribe Oryzomyini , a diverse group of well over a hundred species , many of which were formerly also included in Oryzomys . Oryzomyini is one of several tribes within the subfamily Sigmodontinae of the family Cricetidae , which includes hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents , distributed mainly in the Americas and Eurasia .

Within Oryzomyini , a 2006 phylogenetic analysis by Marcelo Weksler which used both morphological and DNA sequence data found some evidence that Oryzomys is most closely related to a group including Holochilus , Lundomys , and Pseudoryzomys . Although analyses based on morphological and combined data supported this relationship , sequences of the Rbp3 gene alone instead placed Oryzomys among a group that included Nectomys , Sigmodontomys , and a few other genera . In all analyses , Oryzomys appeared within clade D of Oryzomyini . The relationship between Oryzomys and the Holochilus group was supported by five synapomorphies ( shared derived characters ) — absence or reduction of both the hypothenar and interdigital pads ; reduction of ungual tufts of hairs surrounding the claws ; having the back margin of the zygomatic plate of the skull at the same level as the front of the first upper molar ; and the anterocone ( front cusp ) of the first upper molar divided by an anteromedian fossette . The first three are adaptations to the semiaquatic lifestyle that Oryzomys and the members of the Holochilus group share , and may thus be examples of convergent evolution .

= = = Circumscription = = =

The name Oryzomys was introduced in 1857 by Spencer Fullerton Baird for the marsh rice rat ( now Oryzomys palustris ) of the eastern United States , which had been first described twenty years earlier by Richard Harlan . The name combines the Greek oryza " rice " and mys " mouse " and refers to the feeding habits of the marsh rice rat . Baird placed Oryzomys as a subgenus of the now @-@ defunct genus Hesperomys and included only the marsh rice rat in it , a classification which was followed by Elliott Coues in 1874 and 1877 . In 1890 , Oryzomys was raised to generic rank , and in subsequent years numerous additional species were ascribed to it , many of which were soon moved to separate genera . In the 1898 Catalogus Mammalium , Édouard Louis Trouessart listed 67 species of Oryzomys , including some that are now placed in Calomys , Necromys , Thomasomys , and other genera unrelated to Oryzomys . Some of the new genera proposed were soon subsumed in Oryzomys again , and in The Families and Genera of Living Rodents ( 1941 ) , John Ellerman listed Microryzomys , Oligoryzomys , Melanomys , Nesoryzomys , and Oecomys as synonyms of Oryzomys and included about 127 species in it . In 1948 , Philip Hershkovitz suggested that other oryzomyines like Nectomys and Megalomys could as well be included in Oryzomys , and Clayton Ray followed this suggestion in 1962 .

Hershkovitz and Ray 's classification was never widely followed , and from 1976 on authors started to reinstate some of the other groups lumped in Oryzomys as separate genera . The genus was reduced to 43 species ( out of 110 in Oryzomyini ) in the third edition ( 2005 ) of Mammal Species of the World , but it was still not a natural , monophyletic group ; rather , it mostly united those oryzomyines that lacked the conspicuous specializations of other genera . In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler 's comprehensive phylogenetic analysis produced further evidence that the genus was polyphyletic , as species of Oryzomys were dispersed all over the oryzomyine tree . He proposed that eleven new genera should be created to accommodate those species that were not closely related to the type species of Oryzomys , the marsh rice rat ; he considered other options that would require fewer new genera , but argued that that would result in less meaningful genus @-@ level groups in Oryzomyini . Later in the same year , Weksler , Percequillo , and Voss created ten new genera — Aegialomys , Cerradomys , Eremoryzomys , Euryoryzomys , Hylaeamys , Mindomys , Nephelomys , Oreoryzomys , Sooretamys , and Transandinomys — for species formerly placed in Oryzomys and placed six more species related to " Oryzomys " alfaroi in Handleyomys pending the description of more new genera for them . They left only five species in Oryzomys , which was now finally a natural , monophyletic group . Because of subsequent taxonomic work , the number of species has since increased to at least eight .

Some problems remain : ? Oryzomys pliocaenicus , a Miocene fossil from Kansas , is of uncertain identity but may belong in Bensonomys , and fossils from the Miocene of Oregon and Pliocene of New Mexico have also been ascribed to Oryzomys , but probably incorrectly . A possible Oryzomys has been recorded from the Irvingtonian ( Pleistocene ) of Saskatchewan .

= = = Species = = =

The current concept of Oryzomys derives from the palustris @-@ mexicanus group recognized within a much larger genus Oryzomys by Merriam ( 1901 ) and the palustris group proposed by Goldman ( 1918 ) . Merriam recognized 21 species within his group , but Goldman consolidated them into eight — the marsh rice rat in the United States , O. couesi in far southern Texas , Mexico , and Central America , and six others with small distributions . In 1960 , Raymond Hall united O. couesi and the marsh rice rat into a single species , Oryzomys palustris , and thereafter , other localized forms were also included in O. palustris . Hershkovitz described another species in the group , O. gorgasi from Colombia , in 1970 and the next year he noted that O. dimidiatus , previously classified as a Nectomys , was similar to O. palustris . After 1979 , the marsh rice rat and O. couesi were again regarded as separate as a result of further work in Texas , where their ranges meet . While reviewing O. gorgasi in 2001 , J. Sánchez H. and colleagues redefined and characterized the O. palustris group and listed O. couesi , O. dimidiatus , O. gorgasi , and the marsh rice rat as its members ; Guy Musser and Michael Carleton in the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World additionally listed O. nelsoni from María Madre Island in western Mexico .

In 2006 , Weksler and colleagues followed the 2001 definition by Sánchez and others for the restricted genus Oryzomys , but added O. antillarum from Jamaica as a species . Carleton and Joaquin Arroyo @-@ Cabrales reviewed Oryzomys from western Mexico in 2009 and in this context provided an extended diagnosis of Oryzomys . They recognized eight species : the six previously mentioned plus O. albiventer and O. peninsulae . Also in 2009 , Robert Voss and Weksler identified the subfossil Oryzomys curasoae from Curaçao as an island population of O. gorgasi . The next year , Delton Hanson and colleagues published a study using DNA sequence data from the cytochrome b , interphotoreceptor retinoid @-@ binding protein , and alcohol dehydrogenase 1 genes to assess relationships within Oryzomys . They recommended that the marsh rice rat be split into two species and that O. couesi be split into four species on the basis of the observed sequence divergence and other data .

Merriam divided his palustris @-@ mexicanus group in two " series " according to the color of the underparts ( white or fulvous ) . Goldman divided his palustris group in two " sections " — a couesi section with O. couesi and six related species , and a palustris section with O. palustris only . He noted that the latter differed from the former in the generally darker , more brownish , longer fur , and larger sphenopalatine vacuities ( openings in the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate ) . As Weksler 's 2006 analysis included only O. couesi and the marsh rice rat among species of Oryzomys in the strict sense , he could not test those groups . Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales concurred with Goldman 's division , listing additional characters , and noted that the palustris group may be more semiaquatically adapted than the members of the couesi group are . In the latter , the fur is usually reddish @-@ brown , as opposed to grayish @-@ brown in the palustris group . Members of the couesi group have smaller sphenopalatine vacuities and a smaller sphenopalatine foramen , a foramen ( opening ) in the side of the skull above the molars , and a more highly developed anterolabial cingulum on the third lower molar ( a crest at the front of the tooth ) . The hypothenar pad of the hindfoot , located on the sole far from the fingers , is present in the couesi group , but absent in the palustris group . Interdigital webbing may be more highly developed in the palustris group . Using morphological data , Voss and Weksler found a closer relationship between O. couesi and O. gorgasi to the exclusion of O. palustris , but with low confidence . The DNA sequence data of Hanson and colleagues supported a deep separation between the palustris and couesi groups , but a Costa Rican sample ( assigned to O. couesi ) was about as distant from the two groups as they were from each other .

The genus currently includes the following species :

= = Description = =

Oryzomys contains medium @-@ sized , semiaquatically specialized oryzomyine rodents . They have long , coarse fur that is grayish to reddish on the upperparts and white to buff on the underparts . The marsh rice rat superficially resembles the introduced species black rat and brown rat , but has larger differences in color between the upper- and underparts . The vibrissae ( whiskers ) are short and the ears are small and well @-@ haired . The tail is usually as long as or longer than the head and body and is sparsely haired , but the hairs on the lower side are longer than those above . Females have eight mammae , as in most oryzomyines . The hindfeet are broad and have the first and fifth digits notably shorter than the middle three . The upper surface is hairy , but the underside is naked and covered with small irregularities ( squamae ) . The pads are generally poorly developed , as are the ungual tufts . Interdigital webbing may be present , but its development is variable within the genus .

The karyotype has been recorded in various populations of the marsh rice rat and O. couesi and is apparently stable within the genus at 56 chromosomes , with the fundamental number of chromosomal arms ranging from 56 to 60 ( 2n

= 56 , FN =

56 – 60 ) . In both species , the stomach has the characteristic pattern of sigmodontines ( unilocular @-@ hemiglandular ) : it is not split in two chambers by an incisura angularis and the front part ( antrum ) is covered by a glandular epithelium . Furthermore , the gall bladder is absent , a synapomorphy of Oryzomyini .

Oryzomys species have a large skull with a short rostrum and high braincase . The interorbital region , located between the eyes , is narrowest to the front and is flanked by well @-@ developed beads at its margins . The zygomatic plate is broad and has a well @-@ developed zygomatic notch at its front . The zygomatic arch is robust and contains a small but distinct jugal bone . The interparietal bone , part of the roof of the braincase , is narrow and short ; its narrowness is a synapomorphy for O. couesi plus the marsh rice rat according to Weksler 's analysis . The incisive foramina are long , with their back margin at the front of the first molars or further back . The palate is also long , extending beyond the back margin of the maxillary bone , and is perforated near the third molars by well @-@ developed posterolateral palatal pits . There is no alisphenoid strut , an extension of the alisphenoid bone that in some other oryzomyines separates two foramina in the skull . The auditory bullae are large . The condition of the arteries in the head is highly derived . In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , the coronoid process , a process at the back , is well developed and the capsular process , a raising of the mandibular bone housing the root of the lower incisor , is conspicuous .

As usual in oryzomyines , the molars are pentalophodont ( have the mesolophs and mesolophids , accessory crests , well developed ) and bunodont , with the cusps higher than the connecting crests . The cusps on the upper molars are arranged in two longitudinal series , not three as in the black and brown rats . The front cusps of the first upper and lower molar ( anterocone and anteroconid , respectively ) are broad and not divided completely by an anteromedian flexus or flexid . Behind the anterocone , the anteroloph ( a smaller crest ) is complete and separated from the anterocone . On both the second and third lower molars , the anterolophid ( a crest on the inner front corner ) is present , a putative synapomorphy of the genus . The first molars have additional small roots in addition to the main ones , so that the upper first molar has four and the lower has three or four roots .

As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae , the marsh rice rat and O. couesi have a complex penis , with the baculum ( penis bone ) displaying large protuberances at the sides . The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines , but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue . The papilla ( nipple @-@ like projection ) on the dorsal ( upper ) side of the penis is covered with small spines , a character these two species share only with Oligoryzomys among oryzomyines examined . On the urethral process , located in the crater at the end of the penis , a fleshy process ( the subapical lobule ) is present ; it is absent in all other oryzomyines with studied penes except Holochilus brasiliensis . Both traits are recovered as synapomorphies of O. couesi plus the marsh rice rat in Weksler 's analysis .

= = Distribution , ecology , and behavior = =

The range of Oryzomys extends from New Jersey in the eastern United States through Mexico and Central America south to northwestern Colombia and east to northwestern Venezuela and Curaçao . Species of Oryzomys usually live in wet habitats such as marshes , streams , and mangroves , but both the marsh rice rat and O. couesi are also occasionally encountered in drier habitats . They occur or occurred on many continental @-@ shelf islands and one oceanic island , Jamaica ; their adeptness at colonizing islands may be caused by their close association with water and frequent occurrence in coastal wetlands . The oldest fossils date to the Rancholabrean of the United States , about 300 @,@ 000 years ago ; although there have been some earlier North American records , those are not in fact referable to Oryzomys or even Oryzomyini . Oryzomyines likely evolved in South America east of the Andes ; the presence of Oryzomys in Central America and other trans @-@ Andean regions is thought to be the result of one of several independent invasions of this region by oryzomyines . Alternatively , Oryzomys may have evolved from the Pliocene North American Jacobsomys . O. antillarum may have reached Jamaica during the last glacial period while sea levels were low .

Behavior is known mainly from the marsh rice rat and O. couesi , with some scattered data from the other species . Oryzomys are semiaquatic , spending much time in the water , and otherwise mainly live on the ground ; both the marsh rice rat and O. couesi are known to be excellent swimmers and will flee into the water when disturbed . Both are also active during the night and build nests of interwoven vegetation , which may be suspended above the water . Breeding may occur throughout the year in both species , but is known to be seasonally variable in the marsh rice rat . In both , gestation takes about 21 to 28 days and litter size is usually one to seven , averaging three to five . Young marsh rice rats and O. couesi become reproductively active when about 50 days old .

The marsh rice rat , O. couesi , and O. gorgasi are known to be omnivores , eating both plant and animal material . They eat both seeds and green plant parts and consume a variety of animals , including insects , crustaceans , and many others . The barn owl ( Tyto alba ) is a major predator on the marsh rice rat and remains of O. antillarum , O. couesi , and O. gorgasi have been found in owl pellet deposits . Several other animals are known to prey on Oryzomys . A variety of parasites are known from O. couesi and the marsh rice rat and two parasitic nematodes have been found in O. gorgasi .

= = Human interactions = =

Two species of Oryzomys , O. antillarum and O. nelsoni , have gone extinct since the 19th century , and a third , O. peninsulae , is unlikely to be still extant . Their extinction may have been caused by habitat destruction and by introduced species such as the small Asian mongoose and the brown and black rat . These same causes may threaten O. gorgasi , which the IUCN Red List assesses as " Endangered " . O. albiventer has been affected by human alteration of its habitat , but likely still survives . In contrast , the widespread species , the marsh rice rat and O. couesi , are common and of no conservation concern — indeed , both have been considered a pest — but some populations are threatened . Like these two species , O. dimidiatus is assessed as " Least Concern " by the Red List .

The marsh rice rat is the natural reservoir of the Bayou virus , the second most common cause of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the United States . Two other hantaviruses , Catacamas virus and Playa de Oro virus , occur in O. couesi in Honduras and western Mexico , respectively , but are not known to infect humans .

= Philosophie Zoologique =

Philosophie Zoologique ( " Zoological Philosophy : Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals " ) is an 1809 book by the French naturalist Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , in which he outlines his pre @-@ Darwinian theory of evolution now known as Lamarckism .

In the book , Lamarck named two supposed laws that would enable animal species to acquire characteristics under the influence of their environment . The first law stated that use or disuse would cause body structures to grow or shrink over the generations . The second law asserted that such changes would be inherited . Those conditions together imply that species continuously change by adaptation to their environments , forming a branching series of evolutionary paths .

Lamarck was largely ignored by the major French zoologists , Buffon and Cuvier , but he attracted much more interest abroad . The book was read carefully , but its thesis rejected , by nineteenth century scientists including the geologist Charles Lyell and the comparative anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley . Darwin acknowledged Lamarck as an important zoologist , and his theory a forerunner of Darwin 's evolution by natural selection .

= = Context = =

Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck ( 1744 – 1829 ) was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and a professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes and then became the first professor of zoology at the new Muséum national d 'Histoire naturelle . He became known for his work on the taxonomy of the invertebrates , especially of molluscs . However , he is mainly remembered for the theory that now bears his name , Lamarckism , and in particular his view that the environment ( called by Lamarck the conditions of life ) gave rise to permanent , inherited , evolutionary changes in animals . He described his theory in his 1802 Recherches sur l 'organisation des corps vivants , and in his 1809 Philosophie Zoologique , and later in his Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres , ( 1815 – 1822 ) .

= = Book = =

In the Philosophie Zoologique , Lamarck proposed that species could acquire new characteristics from influences in their environment , in two rules that he named as laws . His first law stated that use or disuse of a body 's structures would cause them to grow or shrink in the course of several generations . His second law held that any changes made in this way would be inherited . Together , Lamarck 's laws imply the steady adaptation of animals to their environments .

He gave names to a number of vestigial structures in the book , among them " Olivier 's Spalax , which lives underground like the mole , and is apparently exposed to daylight even less than the mole , has altogether lost the use of sight : so that it shows nothing more than vestiges of this organ . "

Lamarck described speciation as follows :

" as new modifications will necessarily continue to operate , however slowly , not only will there continually be found new species , new genera , and new orders , but each species will vary in some part of its structure and form ... individuals which from special causes are transported into very different situations from those where the others occur , and then constantly submitted to other influences - the former , I say , assume new forms , and then they constitute a new species . "

He argued that gaps between differing kinds of animals resulted from the extinction of intermediate forms :

Species form " a branching series , irregularly graduated which has no discontinuity in its parts , or which , at least , if its true that there are some because of lost species , has not always had such . It follows that the species that terminate each branch of the general series are related , at least on one side , to the other neighboring species that shade into them " .

Lamarck proposed the transmutation of species ( " transformisme " ) , but did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor . Rather he believed that simple forms of life were created continuously by spontaneous generation . He also believed that an innate life force , which he sometimes described as a nervous fluid , drove species to become more complex over time , advancing up a linear ladder of complexity similar to the mediaeval great chain of being .

= = Contents = =

Page numbers are given in parentheses .

VOLUME 1

Avertissement ( I – XXV )

Discours Préliminaire ( 1 )

Première Partie

( Considérations sur l 'Histoire naturelle des Animaux , leurs caractères , leurs rapports , leur organisation , leur distribution , leur classification et leur espèces )

I. Des Parties de l 'art dans les productions de la Nature ( 17 )

II . Importance des Rapports ( 39 )

III . De l 'Espèce parmi les Corps vivans , et de l 'idée que nous devons attacher à ce mot ( 53 )

IV . Généralités sur les Animaux ( 82 )

V. Sur l 'Etat actuel de la Distribution et de la Classification des Animaux ( 102 )

VI . Dégradation et simplification de l 'organisation d 'une extrémité a l 'autre de la Chaîne animale ( 130 )

VII . De l 'influence des Circonstances sur les actions et les habitudes des Animaux , et de celle des actions et des habitudes de ces Corps vivans , comme causes qui modifient leur organisation et leurs parties ( 218 )

VIII . De l 'Ordre naturel des Animaux et de la disposition qu 'il faut donner a leur distribution generale pour la rendre conforme a l 'ordre meme de la nature ( 269 )

Seconde Partie

( Considerations sur les Causes physiques de la Vie , les conditions qu 'elle exige pour exister , la force excitatrice de ses mouvemens , les facultes qu 'elle donne aux corps qui la possedent , et les resultats de son existence dans les corps ) ( 359 )

Introduction ( 359 )

I. Comparison des Corps inorganiques avec les Corps vivans , suivie d 'un Parallele entre les Animaux et les Vegetaux ( 377 )

II . De la Vie , de ce qui la constitue , et des Conditions essentielles a son existence dans un corps ( 400 )

VOLUME 2 [ 1830 edition ]

III . De la cause excitatrice des mouvemens organiques ( 1 )

IV . De l 'orgasme et de l 'irritabilité ( 20 )

V. Du tissu cellulaire , considere comme la gangue dans laquelle toute organisation a ete formee ( 46 )

VI . Des generations directes ou spontanees ( 61 )

VII . Des resultats immediats de la vie dans un corps ( 91 )

VIII . Des facultes communes a tous les corps vivans ( 113 )

IX . Des facultes particulieres a certains corps vivans ( 127 )

Troisieme Partie

Introduction ( 169 )

I. Du système nerveux ( 180 )

II . Du fluide nerveux ( 235 )

III . De la sensibilité physique et du mécanisme des sensations ( 252 )

IV . Du sentiment intérieur , des émotions qu 'il est susceptible d 'éprouver , et de la puissance ( 276 )

V. De la force productrice des actions des animaux ( 302 )

VI . De la volonté ( 330 )

VII . De l 'entendement , de son origine , et de celle des idees ( 346 )

VIII . Des principaux actes de l 'entendement ( 388 )

De l 'imagination ( 411 )

De la raison et de sa comparaison avec l 'instinct ( 441 )

Additions relatives aux chapitres VII et VIII de la premiere partie ( 451 )

= = Reception = =

Lamarck 's evolutionary theory made little immediate impact on his fellow zoologists , or on the public at the time . The historian of science Richard Burkhardt argues that this was because Lamarck was convinced his views would be poorly received , and made little effort to present his theory persuasively .

In the French @-@ speaking world in his lifetime , Lamarck and his theories were rejected by the major zoologists of the day , Buffon and Cuvier . However , he made more of an impact outside France and after his death , where leading scientists such as Ernst Haeckel , Charles Lyell and Darwin himself recognised him as a major zoologist , with theories that presaged Darwinian evolution .

In 1830 – 1833 , Charles Lyell , in his Principles of Geology , carefully summarised Lamarck 's theory ( in about 6 pages , with cross @-@ references to the Philosophie Zoologique ) and then roundly criticised it . Lyell begins by noting that Lamarck gives no examples at all of the development of any entirely new function ( " the substitution of some entirely new sense , faculty , or organ " ) but only proves that the " dimensions and strength " of some parts can be increased or decreased . Lyell says that with this " disregard to the strict rules of induction " Lamarck " resorts to fictions " . Lyell goes on , assuming for the sake of argument that Lamarck was right about the creation of new organs , that Lamarck 's theory would mean that instead of the nature and form of an animal giving rise to its behaviour , its behaviour would determine

the form of its body , the number and condition of its organs , in short , the faculties which it enjoys . Thus otters , beavers , waterfowl , turtles , and frogs , were not made web @-@ footed in order that they might swim ; but their wants having attracted them to the water in search of prey , they stretched out the toes of their feet to strike the water and move rapidly along its surface . By the repeated stretching of their toes , the skin which united them at the base , acquired a habit of extension , until , in the course of time , the broad membranes which now connect their extremities were formed .

Lyell similarly criticises the way Lamarck supposed the antelope and gazelle acquired " light agile forms " able to run swiftly ; or the " camelopard " ( giraffe ) became " gifted with a long flexible neck " .

Lamarckism was popularised in the English @-@ speaking world by the speculative Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844 .

In 1887 Thomas Henry Huxley , the comparative anatomist known as " Darwin 's Bulldog " for his energetic advocacy of Darwinian evolution , wrote that

With respect to the Philosophie Zoologique , it is no reproach to Lamarck to say that the discussion of the Species question in that work , whatever might be said for it in 1809 , was miserably below the level of the knowledge of half a century later . In that interval of time the elucidation of the structure of the lower animals and plants had given rise to wholly new conceptions of their relations ; histology and embryology , in the modern sense , had been created ; physiology had been reconstituted ; the facts of distribution , geological and geographical , had been prodigiously multiplied and reduced to order . To any biologist whose studies had carried him beyond mere species @-@ mongering in 1850 , one @-@ half of Lamarck 's arguments were obsolete and the other half erroneous , or defective , in virtue of omitting to deal with the various classes of evidence which had been brought to light since his time . Moreover his one suggestion as to the cause of the gradual modification of species — effort excited by change of conditions — was , on the face of it , inapplicable to the whole vegetable world . I do not think that any impartial judge who reads the Philosophie Zoologique now , and who afterwards takes up Lyell 's trenchant and effectual criticism ( published as far back as 1830 ) , will be disposed to allot to Lamarck a much higher place in the establishment of biological evolution than that which Bacon assigns to himself in relation to physical science generally , — buccinator tantum .

= = Versions = =

Lamarck : Contents

1809 , vol . I : ( Oxford )

1830 , vol . I : ( Harvard )

1830 , vol . I : ( Michigan )

1830 , vol . II : ( Michigan )

= Spanish general election , 1933 =

Elections to Spain ’ s legislature , the Cortes Generales , were held on 19 November 1933 for all 473 seats in the unicameral Cortes of the Second Spanish Republic . Since the previous elections of 1931 , a new constitution had been ratified , and the franchise extended to more than six million women . The governing Republican @-@ Socialist coalition had fallen apart , with the Radical Republican Party beginning to support a newly united political right .

The right formed an electoral coalition , as was favoured by the new electoral system enacted earlier in the year . The Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( Partido Socialista Obrero Español , or PSOE ) won only 59 seats . The newly formed Catholic conservative Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right ( Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas or CEDA ) gained 115 seats and the Radicals 102 . The right capitalised on disenchantment with the government among Catholics and other conservatives . CEDA campaigned on reversing the reforms that had been made under the Republic , and on freeing political prisoners . Anarchists favoured abstention from the vote . These factors helped the election to result in significant victory for the right over the left .

= = Background = =

Elections in June 1931 had returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists to the Cortes , with the PSOE gaining 116 seats and the Radical Republican Party 94 . The state 's financial position was poor . Wealth redistribution supported by the new government attracted criticism from the wealthy . The government also attempted to tackle poverty in rural areas by instituting an eight @-@ hour day and giving security of tenure to farm workers , drawing criticism from landlords .

An effective parliamentary opposition was led by three groups . The first included Catholic movements such as the Catholic Association of Propagandists ( Asociación Católica de Propagandistas ) . The second group consisted of organisations that had supported the monarchy , such as the Renovación Española and Carlists , who wanted to see the new republic overthrown in a violent uprising . The third group were fascist organisations . Members of the National Confederation of Labour ( Confederación Nacional del Trabajo , or CNT ) trade union movement willing to cooperate with the Republic were forced out of the CNT , which continued to oppose the government . Opposition parties had the support of the church . A new constitution was ratified on 9 December 1931 . It included many controversial articles , some of which were aimed at curbing the influence of the Catholic Church . The constitution was reformist , liberal , and democratic in nature , and was welcomed by the Republican @-@ Socialist coalition , but opposed by landowners , industrialists , the organised church , and army officers . In opposing educational and religious reforms , Spanish Catholics were forced to oppose the government . The press criticised government actions as barbaric , unjust , and corrupt .

In October 1931 Prime Minister Niceto Alcalá Zamora resigned and was succeeded by Manuel Azaña . Radical Party leader Alejandro Lerroux had wanted that job himself and became alienated , switching his party 's support to the opposition . This left Azaña dependent on the Socialists , but both the Socialists , who favoured reform , and the conservative right , who were against reform , were critical of the government . Socialists continued to support Azaña , but the left became fractured , driving the Socialists to the left , while the right united into CEDA , which tacitly embraced fascism .

On 1 October 1933 , Socialist left leader Largo Cabellero spoke out against Lerroux 's Republicans , suggesting the reform programme of the government , and thus the basis for the Republic itself , was under threat . He warned that if the government itself were the threat , the Socialists would have to withdraw support for it . The following day another Socialist leader , Indalecio Prieto , declared that the Socialists would no longer participate in government , which precipitated its collapse . Alcalá Zamora , who became President in 1931 , now requested that Republican Martínez Barrio form a new government . Socialist opposition on both constitutional and ideological grounds meant the PSOE withheld its support for the Barrio government , which was formed on 8 October , but called for fresh elections to be held on 19 November 1933 .

= = Election = =

In common with the 1936 election , Spain was divided into multi @-@ member constituencies ; for example , Madrid had 17 representatives . However , each member of the electorate could vote for somewhat less than that – in Madrid 's case , 13 . This favoured coalitions , as in Madrid when the Socialists won 13 members and the right , with only 5 @,@ 000 votes less , secured only the remaining 4 . This system had been passed in 1933 . There would be two rounds of voting ; 40 % of the vote was necessary in the first round to win . In the event that no list of candidates reached 40 % , then a second round would be composed of those achieving at least 8 % in the first round . It was the first election in Spain where women had the vote , following the new constitution . This incorporated a new 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 electors .

The governing leftist parties went to the polls divided . The political right , on the other hand , formed the Union of the Right ( Spanish : Unión de Derechas ) which incorporated CEDA , agrarian parties and traditionalists . It stood on a three @-@ point programme : religious and social reforms would be examined and rolled back where needed ; agrarian reform would be reversed ; political prisoners would be released . These parties threw vast resources into their campaign , with ten million leaflets , 300 @,@ 000 posters , radio and cinema addresses and aerial propaganda drops . They called upon Catholics to defend order and religion against the bourgeois Republic . The Radical Party campaigned primarily against the Socialists , since they would need the help of the political right if in government . They used mass @-@ appeal slogans such as ' Republic , order , freedom , social justice , amnesty ' and were confident following successes at municipal level in 1933 . Anarchists such as the CNT @-@ FAI called for absention : politicians were ' vultures ' , who must be overthrown by revolution . If the right were to win the election , there would be an uprising , they promised . Thus , anarchists should avoid voting for the left , since overthrowing the government would be preferable . Abstention was supported by Benito Pábon and Miguel Abós .

Elections were held on 19 November 1933 . A second round of voting was held in sixteen constituencies on 3 December .

= = Outcome = =

It resulted in an overwhelming victory for the right , with the CEDA and the Radicals together winning 219 seats . Although the political situation was complicated , parties of the right won around 3 @,@ 365 @,@ 700 votes , parties of the centre 2 @,@ 051 @,@ 500 votes , and parties of the left 3 @,@ 118 @,@ 000 according to one estimate . Turnout was around 8 @,@ 535 @,@ 200 votes , 67 @.@ 5 % of the electorate . The right had spent far more on their election campaign than the Socialists , who campaigned alone . Women , in their first election , mainly voted for the centre @-@ right . The Communist Party , with perhaps 3 @,@ 000 members , were at this point not significant . Nationalist Basques won twelve of seventeen Basque seats , a considerable victory . Keeping their promise , the CNT proclaimed a revolution . There were many reasons the Socialists and Republicans lost out ; the female vote alone cannot explain the shift . Among them was the disunity of the political left compared to the right , in a system that favoured broad coalitions . The Radicals and their supporters had also shifted to the right . Abstentionalism hindered Socialist and Republican candidates . Overall , the political system in Spain had changed dramatically since the last election .

The Renovación Española and the Spanish Nationalist Party ( Spanish : Partido Nacionalista Español , PNE ) formed the National Block ( Spanish : Bloque Nacional ) , with a total of 14 deputies . Similarly , the Republican Left of Catalonia ( Catalan : Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya , ERC ) , the Socialist Union of Catalonia ( Unió Socialista de Catalunya , USC ) and the Union of Rabassaires ( Unió de Rabassaires , UdR ) formed the Catalan Left ( Esquerra Catalana ) with 18 deputies . Five independents joined the Agrarians and one joined CEDA . The other seven , along with one member of Conservative Republican Party ( Spanish : Partido Republicano Conservador , PRC ) , formed a group of independents called the Independent Right ( Independiente de Derechas ) . The Mallorcan Regionalist deputy joined the Catalan League ( Lliga Catalana ) , and the independent in favour of the Estella Statute joined the Basque Nationalist Party ( Partido Nacionalista Vasco ) . 5 members of the Agrarians and one of the PRC joined CEDA , although the Agrarians as a whole resisted pressure to join CEDA , and formed the Spanish Agrarian Party ( Partido Agrario Español ) .

President of the Republic , Niceto Alcalá Zamora entrusted the formation of a cabinet to Alejandro Lerroux , who was reliant on the support of CEDA .

= = Results = =

= = = Seats = = =

Party divisions at the start of the Cortes , after seats had been awarded between coalitions :

= = = After reorganisation = = =

This left the following divisions in the Cortes :

= New York State Route 812 =

New York State Route 812 ( NY 812 ) is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 12 and NY 26 in the Lewis County village of Lowville . Its northern terminus is at the Canada – United States border in Ogdensburg , where it crosses the Ogdensburg – Prescott International Bridge and connects to Highway 16 in Ontario . While most of NY 812 passes through rural areas of the North Country , the route also serves several villages and small communities .

The origins of NY 812 date back to the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , when the portion of modern NY 812 from Lowville to Croghan became part of NY 26A and the segment of modern NY 812 between De Kalb and Ogdensburg was designated as the northernmost portion of New York State Route 87 . NY 87 originally extended as far south as Harrisville ; however , it was truncated north to Edwards in the 1940s and farther north to De Kalb in the 1970s .

In June 1978 , all of NY 87 and the Lowville – Croghan leg of NY 26A were replaced with NY 812 , a new route that began in Lowville and passed through Croghan , Harrisville , Gouverneur , and De Kalb before ending near Ogdensburg . At the time , two sections of the route — from the Croghan village line to a point west of Harrisville and from Harrisville to Fowler — were maintained by the counties that they passed through , and a piece between NY 126 and the Croghan village line was maintained by the village itself . The state of New York assumed maintenance of the Croghan – Harrisville segment in 1980 and took over the Harrisville – Fowler section in 1982 .

= = Route description = =

= = = Lewis County = = =

NY 812 begins at an intersection with NY 12 and NY 26 in the center of village of Lowville , which is located in the town of the same name . NY 26 , concurrent with NY 12 south of this point , leaves NY 12 and follows NY 812 for several blocks along North State Street before NY 812 turns northeast onto Bostwick Street . Just before Bostwick ends at East State Street , NY 812 turns off and begins its progression northward through a largely rural area of the North Country . As it exits the village of Lowville ( but remains in the town of the same name ) , it begins to parallel the western bank of the Black River . The two entities remain close for roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before NY 812 crosses over the river and enters New Bremen .

In the hamlet of New Bremen , NY 812 intersects County Route 33 ( CR 33 ) , a riverside roadway bypassing both Croghan and Beaver Falls along the east bank of the Black River , southwest of Duflo Airport . NY 812 continues onward , crossing the Black Creek as it enters Croghan , a village situated on the New Bremen – Croghan town line . At the center of the community , NY 812 meets the eastern terminus of NY 126 .

Outside of Croghan , NY 812 traverses the Beaver River just north of the village line . The route and the river continue northward along parallel routings for a brief distance before the two separate near the hamlet of High Falls . While the river curves east toward the hamlet , NY 812 presses northward through the rural hamlets of Indian River and Dutton Corners into the town of Diana , where NY 812 starts to parallel the west branch of the Oswegatchie River as both continue north through the town . At Tylers Corners , NY 812 intersects NY 3 and joins the route eastward into Harrisville , where the conjoined routes cross over the Oswegatchie . Northeast of Harrisville in extreme southwestern St. Lawrence County , NY 812 breaks from NY 3 and heads northwest through Pitcairn ( crossing over the Oswegatchie once more in the process ) .

= = = St. Lawrence County = = =

From Harrisville , NY 812 travels north through an area of Pitcairn and Fowler . This area contains numerous small lakes and rivers and is predominantly rural in nature . Within Fowler , the route serves the hamlet of Balmat ( located on the eastern edge of Sylvia Lake ) before intersecting NY 58 in the hamlet of Fowler . Here , NY 812 joins NY 58 northeast along the southern bank of the now @-@ unified Oswegatchie River to the village of Gouverneur , located in the town of the same name , where NY 812 leaves NY 58 but joins U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) at the heart of the community .

Outside of the village , US 11 and NY 812 head northeast , roughly paralleling the Oswegatchie once more into the De Kalb village of Richville . The routes quickly exit the village and separate shortly thereafter south of the hamlet of De Kalb , with the Oswegatchie leaving the path of US 11 and following NY 812 . NY 812 heads north , serving De Kalb and crossing over the Oswegatchie south of an intersection with CR 14 , a connector leading to Rensselaer Falls that was once NY 186 . Here , NY 812 begins to the northwest as it approaches the village of Heuvelton .

Within the village , located in the town of Oswegatchie , NY 812 , here known as State Street , intersects NY 184 just before traversing the Oswegatchie one final time . The name remains for three blocks before NY 812 departs the village . Farther north , NY 812 passes by the Ogdensburg International Airport before meeting NY 37 at an interchange just south of the Ogdensburg city limits . NY 812 joins NY 37 here , following the route through the southern reaches of the city . The conjoined routes intersect NY 68 before separating near the northeastern city limits . Past NY 37 , NY 812 continues onto the Ogdensburg – Prescott International Bridge over the St. Lawrence River , where it becomes Highway 16 upon crossing the Canada – United States border into Ontario .

= = History = =

In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , what is now NY 812 between Lowville and Croghan became the southern leg of NY 26A , an alternate route of NY 26 between Lowville and Carthage . Farther north , the portion of modern NY 812 between De Kalb and Ogdensburg became part of NY 87 , a route extending from Harrisville to Ogdensburg via Edwards , Russell and De Kalb . From Harrisville to Fowler , NY 87 followed a parallel alignment to modern NY 812 along Hands Flats , Stone , and Pitcairn roads , and CR 24 . Between Fowler and De Kalb , NY 87 used what is now NY 58 , CR 24 , and CR 17 before following current NY 812 north to Ogdensburg . The portion of NY 87 between De Kalb Junction and De Kalb was concurrent with US 11 . Both US 11 and NY 87 were shifted south onto a new highway c . 1936 , at which time the former routing of US 11 between the new road and De Kalb became part of NY 87 .

NY 87 was gradually truncated northward over time . The first change to the route 's southern end came in the early 1940s when it was moved northeastward to the eastern terminus of its former overlap with NY 58 in Edwards . It was moved once more , this time to what was the west end of its overlap with US 11 in De Kalb , in the early 1970s . In 1975 , officials from New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) Region 7 proposed eliminating NY 87 in favor of NY 812 , a new route that would extend from Lowville to Ogdensburg via Croghan , Harrisville , Gouverneur , and De Kalb . The designation would also supplant NY 26A south of Croghan . The proposed route was part of a larger plan to connect the Delaware River at Deposit to the Ogdensburg – Prescott International Bridge over the Saint Lawrence River by way of as few numbered routes as possible . All of the suggested changes were implemented in June 1978 .

When NY 812 was first assigned , it was locally maintained from NY 126 in Croghan to NY 3 in Diana and from NY 3 in Pitcairn to NY 58 in Fowler . The section of the route between NY 126 and the Croghan village line was maintained by the village of Croghan ; however , the rest of the two locally maintained sections were maintained by Lewis and St. Lawrence counties . Most of the Lewis County @-@ owned section was co @-@ designated as CR 11 ; however , the short piece between the Croghan village line and Belfort Road was part of CR 10 . In St. Lawrence County , NY 812 was overlaid on the existing CR 73 from NY 3 to Stone Road , CR 99 between Stone Road and Balmat , and CR 56 from Balmat to Fowler . The state of New York assumed ownership and maintenance of NY 812 between Croghan and Diana on April 1 , 1980 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and Lewis County that transferred NY 194 to the county . Ownership of NY 812 from Pitcairn to Fowler was transferred to the state on September 1 , 1982 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state and St. Lawrence County .

= = Major intersections = =

= Runcorn =

Runcorn is an industrial town and cargo port in Cheshire , England , located within the Borough of Halton . In 2010 , Runcorn 's population was recorded to be 61 @,@ 000 . In May 2014 , it became a member of the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority . The town is on the southern bank of the River Mersey , where the estuary narrows to form the Runcorn Gap . Directly to the north across the River Mersey is the town of Widnes . Upstream and 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) to the northeast is the town of Warrington , and downstream 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the west is the city of Liverpool .

Runcorn railway station is on a branch of the West Coast Main Line and provides frequent services to the Liverpool Lime Street , Birmingham New Street , and London Euston stations . The A533 road passes through the town from the south , crossing the Runcorn Gap over the Silver Jubilee Bridge , the lowest bridge crossing of the River Mersey . The Manchester Ship Canal runs alongside the Runcorn bank of the River Mersey ; the Bridgewater Canal terminates in the canal basin in the town centre , as the staircase of locks leading down to the ship canal was filled in many decades ago .

Runcorn was a small , isolated village until the Industrial Revolution . It was a health resort in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Towards the end of the 18th century , a port began to develop on the south bank of the River Mersey . During the 19th century , industries developed the manufacture of soap and alkali , quarrying , shipbuilding , engineering , and tanning . In the early 20th century , the prime industries were chemicals and tanning . The original village has grown to include what were outlying villages .

Except for chemicals , all of the old industries have disappeared and there has been diversification , in particular because of the close links to the motorway system and the development of warehousing and distribution centres . A new town was built to the east of the existing town in the 1960s and 1970s , and areas of private housing have been established farther to the east ; this has resulted in the population more than doubling from around 26 @,@ 000 to its present level of 70 @,@ 000 .

= = History = =

The earliest written reference to the town is in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , where it is spelled " Rumcofan " , literally meaning " a wide cove or bay " . This word is derived from the Old English words " rúm " ( " wide " or " broad " ) and " cofa " ( " cave " or " cove " ) . Other historical spellings of Runcorn include " Rumcoven " , " Ronchestorn " , " Runckhorne " , and " Runcorne " .

Little is known about the early history of the settlement but isolated findings of objects from the Stone , Bronze , and Iron Ages have been made and there is evidence of a Roman presence in the area . The earliest recorded event in its history is the building by Ethelfleda of a fortification at Runcorn to protect the northern frontier of her kingdom of Mercia against the Vikings in 915 . The fort was built on Castle Rock overlooking the River Mersey at Runcorn Gap .

Following the Norman conquest , Runcorn was not mentioned in the 1086 Domesday survey , although surrounding settlements were . William the Conqueror granted the earldom of Chester to Hugh d 'Avranches who granted the barony of Halton to Nigel . It is likely that Nigel erected a motte and bailey castle on Halton Hill in the 1070s . In 1115 , Nigel 's son , William Fitznigel , founded an Augustinian Priory at Runcorn . In 1134 the priory was moved to Norton , about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 6 km ) away . In 1391 the priory was raised to the higher status of abbey . In 1536 the monastery was dissolved , and around nine years later the buildings and some of the monastic lands were sold to Sir Richard Brooke who converted the habitable part of the abbey into a house .

During the Civil War Halton Castle was held for the Royalists by John Savage , 2nd Earl Rivers , the Steward of Halton . It fell twice to Parliamentarian Roundheads . The first siege was led by Sir William Brereton in 1643 ; the second was during the following year . Following this , a " Council of War " was held in Warrington in 1646 at which it was decided that the castle should be slighted . In 1656 , Runcorn was described as being " nothing but a fair parish church , a parsonage and a few scattered tenements " . And so it remained for over a century , an isolated and poor hamlet . The only through traffic used the ferry which crossed from Runcorn to the north bank of the River Mersey . Towards the end of the 18th century and in the early years of the 19th century the town was a health resort .

During the 18th century water transport had been improved in the area by the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , the Bridgewater Canal and the Trent and Mersey Canal . This gave Runcorn waterway connections with most of the interior of England through the canal system and with the sea along the River Mersey , thus forming the basis for the development of the Port of Runcorn . Later came the Runcorn to Latchford Canal linking with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , and the Weston Canal which gave better access to the Weaver Navigation system . Industries began to develop within and around the town , in particular quarrying for Runcorn sandstone , shipbuilding , engineering , the manufacture of soap and chemicals and tanning . Runcorn was becoming an industrialised and highly polluted town . During the later 19th century the town became increasingly dominated by the chemical and tanning industries .

In 1868 the Runcorn Railway Bridge was opened across the Mersey , giving Runcorn direct rail links with Liverpool and the rest of the country . In the 1880s a pipeline was opened between Northwich and Weston Point , supplying brine to the salt and chemical works . In 1894 the Manchester Ship Canal was opened throughout its length . This allowed ocean @-@ going ships to travel inland as far as Salford , some of them calling at the port of Runcorn . The rise in population between 1881 and 1891 and the drop by 1901 is explained by the number of people involved in constructing the ship canal . In 1905 the Widnes @-@ Runcorn Transporter Bridge opened , giving a direct link for vehicular traffic for the first time between the two towns .

During the first half of the 20th century the industry of the town continued to be dominated by chemicals and tanning . This growth was largely due to government fixed @-@ priced cost contracts for tanned hides . In 1926 four chemical companies merged to form Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) . As the century progressed there was diversification of industry . In 1961 the Transporter Bridge was replaced by Runcorn Road Bridge ( since named the Silver Jubilee Bridge ) which allowed a more efficient means of road traffic across Runcorn Gap . The designation of Runcorn as a new town in 1964 brought major changes and more than doubled the population . Much of the architecture of the new town was innovative , especially the Southgate development designed by Sir James Stirling and built between 1970 and 1977 . Stirling 's housing development was beset with problems and it was demolished in the early 1990s . During the second half of the 20th century the tanneries closed ( the last to close was the Highfield Tannery in the late 1960s ) and the chemical industry declined . At the same time , light industry developed together with warehouses and distribution centres .

= = Governance = =

= = = Civic history = = =

At the time of the Domesday survey , Runcorn was in the hundred of Tunendune , but later , and until the early 19th century , Runcorn was part of the Bucklow hundred . Under the Runcorn Improvement Act 1852 , a board of Improvement Commissioners was established to administer the civil government of the town . By the Local Government Act 1894 , the administration of the town and the surrounding areas was divided into Runcorn Urban District and Runcorn Rural District . Initially the urban district consisted of only the built @-@ up area of Runcorn itself . By 1937 , this area had been extended to include the communities of Weston and Weston Point to the south . By 1971 it had been further extended to the east to incorporate the village of Halton .

In 1964 , Runcorn was designated as a new town . In 1974 , as part of the Local Government Act 1972 , Runcorn Urban District was abolished and its territory amalgamated with Widnes to form the borough of Halton . In 1998 , this borough became a unitary authority within the ceremonial county of Cheshire .

= = = Political representation = = =

Before the Reform Act 1832 , Runcorn was in the parliamentary constituency of Cheshire which was represented by two Members of Parliament . Following the Reform Act , the town was placed in the North Cheshire constituency and from 1868 in the Mid Cheshire constituency . From 1885 to 1950 the town was in the constituency of Northwich . By an act of Parliament in 1948 , the constituency of Runcorn was created , and in 1950 Runcorn 's first Member of Parliament , Dennis Vosper , was elected . He continued to represent the constituency until 1964 , when he was succeeded by Mark Carlisle .

Runcorn is part of two parliamentary constituencies . The western part of the town , which includes the old town area and part of the new town , is in the constituency of Halton and the eastern part , containing the rest of the new town and private housing to the east of this , is in the Weaver Vale constituency . Being a predominantly working class Labour area and shunted into a voting pool with affluent areas outside Runcorn , has caused much resentment in the town . As Runcorn and Halton as a whole hasn 't been a part of Cheshire since 1998 , locals oppose these changes . Since the 1997 general election the Member of Parliament for the Halton constituency has been Derek Twigg of the Labour party , and he continued to hold the seat in the 2010 general election . In the 2007 election the Weaver Vale constituency was won by Mike Hall , also the Labour candidate . Hall retired at the 2010 election when the seat was won by Graham Evans , the Conservative candidate . The local authority is the borough of Halton . The town is divided into ten electoral wards , with councillors serving for up to four years . Runcorn is in the European parliamentary constituency of North West England .

= = Geography = =

Runcorn is situated on a spur projecting into the River Mersey , which flows to the north and then to the west of the town . On the north bank of the river is another spur forming the West Bank area of Widnes ; together these form Runcorn Gap , a narrowing of the River Mersey . Runcorn Gap is crossed by the Runcorn Railway Bridge , which carries the Liverpool branch of the West Coast Main Line , and the Silver Jubilee Bridge , which carries the A533 . To the south of the town is the River Weaver and the Weston Canal . Both open into the ship canal . To the southeast of the town run the M56 motorway , the Chester – Manchester railway line , and the main branch of the West Coast Main Line . The town has a system of " expressways " , roads designed to divert traffic away from the residential areas . The Central Expressway runs through the centre of the town in a north @-@ south direction . To the west of it lie most of the former settlements which formed the older part of the town , namely Runcorn , Higher Runcorn , Weston , Weston Point and Clifton ( formerly Rocksavage ) , and the new town areas of Halton Brook and Halton Lodge . To the east are the village of Halton , the old settlements of Norton and Stockham , and the new town areas of Castlefields , Palacefields , Windmill Hill , Murdishaw , Brookvale and Hallwood Park .

The density of housing is generally high , but there are open green areas , in particular heathland on Runcorn Hill and the extensive Town Park created as part of the new town . The older industries , particularly the remaining chemical factories , are concentrated mainly to the southwest of the town bordering the Mersey , while newer industries , including warehousing , are to the northeast and southeast .

= = = Geology = = =

The Runcorn area drains into the River Mersey to the north and the River Weaver to the south . The bedrock of the western and northeastern parts of the town is made up of rock from the Sherwood sandstone group ; in the other areas the bedrock is from the Mercia mudstone group . In places there are prominent outcrops of sandstone , particularly at Runcorn Hill and Halton Hill . Elsewhere the bedrock is covered by drift . At the northwestern periphery of the town the drift consists of recently blown sand . Farther to the east and bordering the River Mersey is recent alluvium . Elsewhere the drift consists of till .

= = = Climate = = =

Being close to the west coast and the Irish Sea , the climate is generally temperate with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean average temperature in the years 1971 to 2000 was 9 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 7 ° C , which was slightly above the average for the United Kingdom as was the average amount of annual sunshine at 1 @,@ 391 to 1 @,@ 470 hours . The average annual rainfall was 741 to 870 mm , which was slightly below the average for the UK . The average number of days in the year when snow is on the ground is 0 to 6 , which is low for the United Kingdom . The average number of days of air frost is 2 to 39 , which is also low .

= = Demography = =

Since the borough of Halton became a unitary authority in 1998 , demographic statistics have been collated for the authority as a whole , rather than separately for the towns of Runcorn and Widnes . While the two towns have different histories and come from different historic counties , their demographic features are similar .

The population of Halton in 2011 was 125 @,@ 700 . The change in population during the 20th and 21st centuries is shown in the following table .

In 2003 Halton had the largest proportion of the population in Cheshire in the age groups under 5 , 5 to 15 and 16 to pension age and , at 16 @.@ 1 % the lowest proportion of people at pension age or older . At 1 @.@ 2 % the proportion of non @-@ white ethnic groups in 2001 equalled the lowest in all local authorities in Cheshire . At 11 @.@ 5 per 1 @,@ 000 population , the live birth rate in Halton and Warrington is the highest in the county . At 121 the standardised mortality ratio is the highest in Cheshire , as is the percentage of persons with limiting long @-@ term illness ( 21 @.@ 5 % ) .

There has been an increase in the number of households from 47 @,@ 214 in 1991 to 52 @,@ 501 in 2006 . The average household size has fallen from 2 @.@ 70 in 1991 to 2 @.@ 44 in 2001 . In 1991 , 75 @.@ 8 % of houses were centrally heated , compared with 89 @.@ 8 % in 2001 . The type of housing has also changed , with an increase from 15 @.@ 5 % to 19 @.@ 2 % in detached houses from 1991 to 2001 , an increase over the same years in semi @-@ detached houses from 30 @.@ 0 % to 33 @.@ 0 % , and a corresponding decrease in terraced houses from 44 @.@ 0 % to 37 @.@ 5 % . The percentage of dwellings in council tax bands A – B is , at 69 % , the highest in any Cheshire local authority . The percentages in bands E – F ( 8 % ) and G – H ( 1 % ) are the lowest .

= = Economy = =

Of Runcorn 's former industries , all but the chemical industry have disappeared . The industry was dominated for many years by ICI 's Chlor Chemical division ; since divested and taken over by Ineos . In Runcorn , Ineos manufactures chemicals including chlorine , chlorine @-@ containing compounds including vinyl chloride , heavy chemicals including alkalis , and fluorine @-@ containing compounds . A separate business within the same company manufactures salt from brine transported by pipeline from the saltfields of central Cheshire . The former ICI offices and laboratories now comprise the Heath Business and Technical Park , which provides office , laboratory , conference , and leisure facilities . To the east of the town , diverse industries have been developed including , because of the proximity to the motorway system , warehouses and distribution centres . The town continues to act as a port on the Manchester Ship Canal . There are two adjacent ports . Runcorn Docks is owned by the Manchester Ship Canal Company , which is part of the Peel Ports Group . The Port of Weston is owned by the Stobart Group . In March 2014 the UK 's largest incinerator for burning refuse @-@ derived fuel , managed by Viridor , commenced operation in Weston Point .

There has been a shift in employment from manufacturing to service industries . In 1991 , 34 % worked in the manufacturing sector and 61 % were in the service sector . By 2004 17 % were in manufacturing jobs and 78 % were in service jobs . This trend in the local region is demonstrated in this chart which shows the regional " gross value added " of Halton and Warrington at current basic prices , with figures in millions of pounds .

^ includes hunting and forestry

^ includes energy and construction

^ includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured

^ Components may not sum to totals due to rounding

Runcorn has two shopping centres . The original shopping area was in the older part of the town on High Street , Regent Street and Church Street . This centre continues to exist , but with the coming of the new town , has declined . There is a small supermarket and some specialist shops , but with a higher @-@ than @-@ average proportion of charity shops and take @-@ away food outlets . A small market has been rebuilt adjacent to the old town bus station . In the centre of the new town area Runcorn Shopping Centre ( formerly Halton Lea ) is an enclosed shopping mall with an attached bus station . Adjacent to it is Trident Park containing shopping outlets and a cinema and further away is an Asda supermarket .

Servisair has its head office in Runcorn .

= = Landmarks and places of interest = =

The major landmark in the town is Halton Castle on the top of Halton Hill near the geographical centre of the town . Only ruins of the castle exist , but there are widespread views from the top of the hill . The interior of the castle grounds is open at advertised times . Incorporated in the castle walls is the Castle Hotel , which used to include a courthouse on the first floor . Another landmark is Norton water tower , built of Runcorn sandstone , 112 feet ( 34 m ) high , which holds 672 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 3 million litres ) of water and supplies water to Liverpool .

An important historical site and the major visitor centre in the town is Norton Priory , now a museum . The site contains the remains of a priory with adjacent gardens , formerly of a country house . Nearby are a walled garden , including a national collection of tree quinces , and an ice house .

Much of the architecture of the town is undistinguished , but there are listed buildings of some importance . The listed churches are All Saints Parish Church and Holy Trinity Church in the centre of the older part of the town , St Mary 's in Halton village , St John 's in Weston , and Christ Church in Weston Point . All Saints ' Church , a Grade II * listed building , dates from 1849 and was built by Anthony Salvin in red sandstone . The oldest existing houses are the Seneschal 's House in Halton village ( 1598 ) , Weston Old Hall ( 1607 ) , Brookfield Farmhouse ( 1691 ) and Halton Old Hall ( 1693 ) . Other outstanding houses include Runcorn Town Hall ( formerly Halton Grange ) , Camden House and Cottage in High Street and Bridgewater House near the ship canal .

A war memorial to those who lost their lives in the First and Second World Wars , as well as those killed later conflicts , is located at the end of Moughland Lane . There is a memorial in Castle Road , Halton village , commemorating residents of the village who served in the Boer War .

= = Culture = =

= = = Theatre and cinema = = =

The Brindley is a theatre and arts centre which opened in 2004 . It is situated in the old town centre and named after James Brindley , engineer of the adjacent Bridgewater Canal . It contains a proscenium theatre seating 420 and a multi @-@ purpose theatre seating 108 , The Studio , which doubles as a cinema . There is an exhibition space for art installations , a small café and multi @-@ purpose rooms . The centre is owned and administered by Halton Borough Council which runs community events in the building . In 2007 , it won the title of " Best Arts Project in the UK " at the National Lottery Awards . A multiplex cinema run by Cineworld is in Trident Park .

= = = Filmography = = =

Runcorn has been used for the shooting of films and television programmes . Some of the sequences in the first two series of the BBC police drama Merseybeat were filmed in and around the town . The BBC situation comedy Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps was set in Runcorn . External shots of the Waterloo Hotel in the area of High Street known as Top Locks ( which is known in the show as The Archer ) appear as well . The opening credits show the Silver Jubilee Bridge and Halton Castle . Drop Dead Gorgeous , a drama on BBC Three , was set in Runcorn . Norton Priory has been used as a location in films and television programmes .

= = = Media = = =

Runcorn is served by two weekly papers , the Runcorn Weekly News and the Runcorn World . The town is also home to Halton Community Radio , which broadcasts over the Runcorn and Widnes area on the frequency 92.3FM. This is a non @-@ commercial radio station which is run by volunteers . HCR was launched on 8 August 2008 , and currently has a five @-@ year licence to broadcast .

= = = The Runcorn Ferry = = =

Before the building of Runcorn Railway Bridge and its attached footbridge , the only way to cross the Mersey at or near Runcorn Gap , other than by the dangerous method of fording , was by ferry . The ferry has a history going back to the 12th century . The ferry was celebrated in the monologue entitled The Runcorn Ferry , written by Marriott Edgar and popularised by Stanley Holloway . It includes the lines :

= = Community facilities = =

The main library is at Halton Lea with a branch library in the old town centre . Runcorn has two locations offering One @-@ Stop @-@ Shop facilities ; one is Halton Direct Link in Halton Lea , and the other is in the old town library . Runcorn Direct Link also includes a Tourist Information Centre .

Runcorn Hill Local Nature Reserve has been developed on the site of a quarry and consists of heathland . Adjacent to it is a park which includes a bandstand , a model boating lake and sports facilities . Wigg Island is a nature reserve on a former industrial site . The reserve is on an island between the Manchester Ship Canal and the River Mersey and consists of open spaces and woodland with bird hides and pathways . Other nature reserves in the town are Murdishaw Valley , Oxmoor Woods and Ponds , and Dorchester Park . Further public open areas are Rock Park , Town Hall Park and Phoenix Park . Open areas in Runcorn form part of Mersey Forest , one of Britain 's community forests .

Runcorn 's hospital is Halton General Hospital , which is administered by the Warrington and Halton Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust . Originally planned as a District General Hospital , it was never large enough to provide a full range of services . Acute medical services have been transferred to Warrington Hospital and Halton General has become a centre for non @-@ emergency surgery and rehabilitation . Although it never had its own accident and emergency department the hospital has a minor injuries unit for basic emergency care . On the same site is the Cheshire and Merseyside NHS Treatment Centre , a purpose @-@ built hospital for orthopaedic surgery . Halton Haven Hospice is in the Murdishaw area of the town . The body responsible for planning health services in Runcorn , including primary care , is the Halton Clinical Commissioning Group .

= = Transport = =

When plans for Runcorn New Town were drawn up , they included three distinct types of road : local roads , expressways and the Busway . The expressways are intended to keep all through traffic off the local roads . This system links to the north by the A533 over the Silver Jubilee Bridge to Widnes and Merseyside , to the northeast to Warrington by the A56 , to the east to Northwich and north Cheshire by the A533 , and to the southeast by the A557 to the M56 and to Frodsham . The M56 links to the M6 and , to the north of Widnes , the A557 links to the M62 . The Busway is a system of roads for use by buses only , and bears no resemblance to guided busways or bus lanes in use elsewhere , as it is a totally separate road system , not running alongside ( or down the middle of ) existing roads . In addition , there is a network of dedicated cycleways in the town .

There are two railway stations . Runcorn Mainline Station , located in the old town , is on the Liverpool branch of the West Coast Main Line , and is managed by Virgin Trains , who provide services between Liverpool Lime Street and London Euston . London Midland run a service between Liverpool and Birmingham New Street that calls at the station . Runcorn East station , located in the Murdishaw district of the new town , is managed by Arriva Trains Wales , and provides services to Warrington , Manchester and Chester . Bus services are provided by Halton Transport and Arriva . National Express coaches call at Runcorn , and other coach services are provided by Selwyns Travel , and Anthony 's Travel , who are both based in the town .

The Silver Jubilee Bridge was widened in the mid @-@ 1970s by bolting a new pedestrian way to the side of the original structure and widening the roadways over the old footpaths . It is a bottleneck and becomes congested at peak travel times , and in the event of a breakdown or accident on the bridge , traffic in the area comes to a standstill . To resolve this problem , a second crossing of the Mersey is planned , to be known as the Mersey Gateway .

Runcorn is 8 miles ( 13 km ) from Liverpool John Lennon Airport and 22 miles ( 35 km ) from Manchester Airport .

= = Education = =

There are 29 primary schools in the town and one nursery school at the Grange . The five secondary schools are Ormiston Bolingbroke Academy ( formerly Halton High School ) , St Chad 's RC & CE High , the Grange , and the Heath and Sandymoor School . Two institutions , Halton College and Runcorn Sixth Form College , merged in 2006 to form Riverside College . There is one special school in the town , Cavendish School . There are opportunities for adult education in information technology at the Acorn Lifelong Learning Centre . Other courses for adults are held at different venues in the town .

= = = Performance table = = =

The following table shows the percentage of pupils gaining five GCSE A * – C level grades , including and excluding English and Maths in 2007 .

= = Religion = =

The 2001 census showed , that of the people living in the borough of Halton , 83 @.@ 8 % declared themselves to be Christian , 8 @.@ 7 % stated that they had " no religion , " and 7 @.@ 0 % made no religious claims at all . Those stating their religions as Buddhist , Hindu , Jewish , Islam or Sikh amounted to 0 @.@ 5 % .

The Anglican churches are part of the Diocese of Chester and the deanery of Frodsham . In Runcorn , the parish church is All Saints in the old town centre . Ten other Anglican churches are in the town . Five Roman Catholic churches can be found in Runcorn and are administered by the Diocese of Shrewsbury . There are three Methodist chapels and one Welsh Presbyterian chapel . Wicksten Drive Christian Centre is shared between the Church of England and the Methodists . Hallwood Ecumenical Parish in Beechwood and Palace Fields consists of 3 churches all recognised by the Church of England , the Methodists and the United Reformed Church . Norton Ecumenical Parish , covering Windmill Hill , Norton and Murdishaw , is served by an Ecumenical Partnership between St Berteline 's Church ( Anglican ) and Murdishaw Ecumenical Church ( Methodist run ) .

There is an Independent Baptist chapel , three independent Christian churches , and a LDS Church . The Jehovah 's Witnesses have two Kingdom Halls , and there is a Spiritualist church . In 2013 the former Waterloo Hotel was converted into a Buddhist temple by Wat Phra Singh UK .

= = Sports = =

The main sport played in Runcorn is football , with the town having two senior football teams – Runcorn Linnets FC and Runcorn Town FC – both playing in the North West Counties League , with the town also having a thriving Sunday League and Junior League . There is also an open age women 's team Runcorn Ladies FC , who have recently formed . They are affiliated to Liverpool FA , and play in the Liverpool County Women 's Open Age Division .

Runcorn Linnets were formed as a trust @-@ based team in 2006 from the now defunct Runcorn F.C. Halton . It has existed in various guises since 1918 , and its performance peaked in 1982 when it won the Alliance Premier League , then the highest division below the Football League . The club initially did not have their own ground so , up until the 2009 – 10 season , they took part in a groundshare with Witton Albion to play their home matches at Wincham Park , Northwich . In their first season the club gained promotion to Division 1 of the North West Counties League . In October 2009 planning permission was granted for the club to build a new ground in the Murdishaw area of Runcorn .

Runcorn Town was formed in 1970 as Mond Rangers FC with the club changing their name in 2005 in order to " try and bring a more professional look to the club in general , and increase support from both businesses and individuals in the local community . " After finishing in third place in the West Cheshire League at the end of the 2009 / 10 season , the club were elected to join the North West Counties League at their AGM , the highest level that they have ever played at .

Runcorn Cricket Club and Runcorn Hockey Club are based at the Runcorn Sports Club in Moughland Lane . Runcorn Rugby Union FC is based at Halton Sports Club in Murdishaw . There is an 18 hole golf course at Runcorn Golf Club in Clifton Road and a golf driving range at Sutton Fields . Runcorn Sports Club is a privately run sports club in Moughland Lane and provides facilities and coaching for cricket and hockey . Halton Sports Club is in Murdishaw Avenue . Privately run swimming pools are at Beechwood local centre and Stockham Lodge Raquet and Health Club . Adjacent to the latter are two artificial ski slopes administered by Runcorn Ski Centre . The Runcorn Rowing Club rows on the River Weaver Navigation near Clifton Village . The local authority runs several sports centres , including : Runcorn Swimming Pool ; Brookvale Recreation Centre , offering indoor sporting facilities ; and Phoenix Park , with outdoor sporting facilities . Other sports are also catered for . Runcorn also has its own professional wrestling training @-@ school ( The Runcorn Wrestling Academy ) based in Grangeway , set up in 2005 by Andy Baker and Neil Davis .

In the late 19th century , and prior to the 1895 schism , rugby union footballers from the now defunct Runcorn , Harry Collinge Speakman played during the 1888 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia and Samuel Houghton played for England . When the rugby football schism occurred in 1895 , Runcorn became founder members of the Northern Rugby Football Union ( now Rugby Football League ) . Runcorn played from the 1895 – 96 season through to the end of 1914 – 15 season , they won the Lancashire League in both the 1895 – 96 and 1899 – 1900 seasons , and were losing semi @-@ finalists in 1906 – 07 Rugby Football League Championship , and during the early part of the 20th century five rugby league players from the now defunct Runcorn played for both Great Britain , and England . Runcorn finish bottom of the league in the 1914 – 15 Northern Rugby Football Union season , and did not recommence playing following the aftermath of the First World War . Rugby league in the town is now represented by Runcorn RLC .

= = Notable people = =

= = = Arts and entertainment = = =

John Bishop ( born 1966 ) , comedian , spent part of his teenage years in Runcorn

Francis William Bourdillon ( 1852 – 1921 ) , poet born in Runcorn

Hall Caine ( 1853 – 1931 ) , novelist and playwright

Lewis Carroll ( 1832 – 1898 ) , writer of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , born near Runcorn

Phil Collins ( born 1970 ) , artist

Anna Keaveney ( 1949 – 2004 ) , actress

Kym Marsh ( born 1976 ) , singer and actress

Susan Nickson ( born 1982 ) , television writer and producer

Alistair Taylor ( 1935 – 2004 ) , assistant to Brian Epstein and General Manager of Apple Corps

Nicola Roberts ( born 1985 ) , singer and member of girl band Girls Aloud

Martin Roscoe ( born 1952 ) , classical pianist

Raymond Waring ( 1977 ) , actor

= = = Medical = = =

Nathan Alcock ( 1707 – 1779 ) , physician

= = = Military = = =

Thomas Alfred Jones ( 1880 – 1956 ) , awarded the Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal during World War II

= = = Other = = =

Richard Brooke ( died 1569 ) , bought the manor of Norton

Sir John Chesshyre ( 1662 – 1738 ) , lawyer

Sir William Edward Dudley ( 1868 – 1938 ) , president of the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society

Thomas Hazlehurst ( 1779 – 1842 ) , founder of soap and alkali manufacturer Hazlehurst & Sons

John Riley Holt ( 1918 – 2009 ) , Professor of Experimental Physics at Liverpool University who played a part in the development of the atom bomb

John Savage , 2nd Earl Rivers ( c . 1603 – 1654 ) , royalist

= = = Religious = = =

Thomas Alcock ( 1709 – 1798 ) , Vicar of Runcorn , writer , cider maker

Thomas Hazlehurst ( 1816 – 1876 ) , Methodist who paid for the construction of 12 chapels and three schools in the area

= = = Sports = = =

Graham Abel ( born 1960 ) , footballer

Scott Brown ( born 1985 ) , footballer

Shauna Coxsey ( born 1993 ) , professional rock climber

Robert Done ( 1904 – 1982 ) , footballer

Ray Dutton ( born 1945 ) , rugby league player

Jack Fish ( 1880 – 1940 ) , rugby league player

Samuel Houghton ( 1870 – 1920 ) , rugby union and rugby league player

Michael Jackson ( born 1973 ) , footballer

Kenny Lunt ( born 1979 ) , footballer

James McNulty ( born 1985 ) , footballer

Dick Padbury ( 1886 – unknown ) , rugby league player

Harry Speakman ( 1864 – 1915 ) , rugby union player

Robin Reid ( born 1971 ) , boxer

Lorna Webb ( born 1983 ) , professional cyclist

= Mary Brewster Hazelton =

Mary Brewster Hazelton ( November 23 , 1868 – September 13 , 1953 ) was an American portrait painter . She attended the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston , where she was later an instructor . Among her other achievements , Hazelton was the first woman to win an award open to both men and women in the United States when she won the Hallgarten Prize from the National Academy of Design in 1896 . Her portrait paintings are in the collections of the Massachusetts State House , Harvard University , Peabody Essex Museum , and Wellesley Historical Society . The professional organizations that Hazelton was affiliated with included the Wellesley Society of Artists , of which she was a founding member , and The Guild of Boston Artists , of which she was a charter member . She lived her adult life with her sisters in the Hazelton family home in Wellesley , Massachusetts .

= = Early life = =

Mary Brewster Hazelton was born on November 23 , 1868 in Milton , Massachusetts to Dr. Isaac Hills Hazelton ( 1838 – 1929 ) and Mary Allen Brewster Hazelton ( 1843 – 1923 ) . A Harvard College graduate , Dr. Hazelton served for the United States Navy during the Civil War as an assistant surgeon . He was an innovator in the treatment of the mentally ill . Mary had a brother , Isaac Brewster ( I. B. ) Hazelton ( 1873 – 1943 ) , and two sisters , Olivia Bowditch Hazelton ( 1873 – 1967 ) and Margaret Page Hazelton ( 1876 – 1965 ) . The family moved to Wellesley , Massachusetts , in 1873 . She began making artwork in the 1880s , which she often signed with her nickname , " Daisy " . In 1886 , Hazelton graduated from Wellesley High School . The three sisters lived together in the family home at 319 Washington Street over the course of their lives . The house has been called " Clapp House " and " Hazelton House " .

= = Education = =

Hazelton attended the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston ( MFAB ) under Edmund Tarbell . She was Philip Hale 's assistant and completed her education at MFAB in 1892 . She was a drawing class assistant for Frank Weston Benson after graduation and the following year became an assistant drawing instructor . Both Benson and Tarbell were noted Boston Impressionists .

Rupert Hughes described Hazelton 's painting , Margaret , made by 1895 , as a " more than usually tender bit of Impressionism " . She studied with Impressionist painters in Paris and also studied in Spain , England , the Netherlands and Italy after winning the Paige Traveling Scholarship from the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 1899 . Hazelton was the organization 's first traveling scholar and received $ 800 each year of her two @-@ year study program .

= = Style = =

Hazelton was one of the women that collector Everette James identified as having " demonstrate [ d ] remarkable individual artistic skill " who attended the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in the late 19th @-@ century . This was at a time , though , that women were not recognized for their individual style and abilities . " Tarbellites " was a phrase used at the time that reflected the belief that women 's skill was derived from their mentors , like Edmund C. Tarbell . Greater public exposure has helped to highlight the individual and unique qualities of some of the women portrait painters " that would rival a Tarbell , Benson or De Camp , " according to James in Antiques Journal .

In his 2001 article Early Women Artists at the Guild of Boston Artists , Bob Jackman noted that Hazelton painted in a creative and assertive style that included " a loose Impressionist manner " that rivals the works of many other Boston painters . Her technical abilities in composition and use and capture of light are exemplified in the painting Two Sisters at the Piano that she made about 1894 .

= = Career = =

Women did not win non @-@ gender specific awards until 1896 when Hazelton won the National Academy of Design Hallgarten Prize for her oil painting In a Studio . It was determined to be the best oil painted made by a person under the age of 35 in the United States that year . The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston awarded her the first Paige Traveling Scholarship in 1899 . Hazelton won an Honorable Mention at the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York in 1901 .

Hazelton had a studio at the old Harcourt Building in Boston in 1904 , when a severe fire burned the life 's work of several artists including Hazelton , Joseph DeCamp , and William M. Paxton . In the aftermath , a group of artists planned for a new building , which became Fenway Studios ( 30 Ipswich Street ) . Hazelton was among the initial group of artists that signed up , and arranged for studio 304 . From 1906 to 1940 , she had a studio at Fenway .

In 1912 , the Wellesley Hills First Congregational Church commissioned Hazelton , who was a member , to paint wall murals for the church . One mural depicts the four virtues — truth , charity , justice , and faith — in eight @-@ foot figures of three women and one man . For instance , the male figure carries a sword and scales to represent justice . She also created murals of the Four Evangelists and a representation of the Trinity .

During World War I , Hazelton designed a Liberty Loan campaign poster , using her painting Victory 's Record . She exhibited The Letter and Reverie at the Panama – Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco , California , in 1915 , where she won a bronze medal . She won the Popular Prize in Newport , Rhode Island in 1916 for The Lady in Black . She also won a prize for The Letter at Newport . John Singer Sargent considered her " one of the foremost portrait painters of her time " , according to Wellesley author Jennifer A. Jovin .

Hazelton was a Wellesley Society of Artists founder and treasurer , charter member of The Guild of Boston Artists , and an early member of the Copley Society . She was a member of the Concord Art Association , American Federation of Arts , and Connecticut Academy of Fine Arts .

= = Death = =

Hazelton suffered a stroke in 1952 , which required her to switch to painting with her left hand . She died at the Newton @-@ Wellesley Hospital on September 13 , 1953 .

In 1965 , the Wellesley Historical Society began purchasing paintings by Hazelton for its collection . Scrapbooks , correspondence , sketchbooks , diaries , photographs , and other materials are also held by the Wellesley Historical Society .

= = Collections = =

Harvard Club of Boston , Harvard University

John Adams , 1914 , after John Singleton Copley

Harvard University , Cambridge , Massachusetts

Paul Jean Louis Azan , 1918 , oil on canvas

George Cheyne Shattuck , 1910 , copy after Gilbert Stuart

Dr. John Warren

Massachusetts General Hospital

William Appleton

Massachusetts State House , Boston , Massachusetts

William Stoughton , 1924

Peabody Essex Museum , Salem , Massachusetts

Francis Henry Appleton

Wellesley Historical Society , Massachusetts – Some of the portraits in their collection of 50 paintings are : Seldon L. Brown

Ralph Coburn

Herbert M. Hazelton

Margaret Page Hazelton

Mrs. John Oldham

= = Gallery = =

Paintings by Mary Brewster Hazelton

= John J. Crittenden =

John Jordan Crittenden ( September 10 , 1787 – July 26 , 1863 ) was a politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky . He represented the state in both the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate and twice served as United States Attorney General in the administrations of William Henry Harrison , John Tyler and Millard Fillmore . He was also the 17th governor of Kentucky and served in the state legislature . Although frequently mentioned as a potential candidate for the U.S. presidency , he never consented to run for the office .

During his early political career , Crittenden served in the Kentucky House of Representatives and was chosen as speaker on several occasions . With the advent of the Second Party System , he allied with the National Republican ( later Whig ) Party and was a fervent supporter of Henry Clay and opponent of Democrats Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren . Jackson supporters in the Senate refused to confirm Crittenden 's nomination by John Quincy Adams to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1828 , but after his brief service as Kentucky Secretary of State , the state legislature elected him to the second of his four non @-@ consecutive stints in the U.S. Senate . Upon his election as president , William Henry Harrison appointed Crittenden as Attorney General , but 5 months after Harrison 's death , political differences prompted him to resign rather than continue his service under Harrison 's successor , John Tyler .

He was returned to the Senate in 1842 , serving until 1848 , when he resigned to run for governor , hoping his election would help Zachary Taylor win Kentucky 's vote in the 1848 presidential election . Taylor was elected , but Crittenden refused a post in his cabinet , fearing he would be charged with making a " corrupt bargain " , as Clay had been in 1825 . Following Taylor 's death in 1850 , Crittenden resigned the governorship and accepted Millard Fillmore 's appointment as attorney general .

As the Whig Party crumbled in the mid @-@ 1850s , Crittenden joined the Know Nothing ( or American ) Party . After the expiration of his term as attorney general , he was again elected to the U.S. Senate , where he urged compromise on the issue of slavery to prevent the breakup of the United States . As bitter partisanship increased the threat of secession , Crittenden sought out moderates from all parties and formed the Constitutional Union Party , though he refused the party 's nomination for president in the 1860 election . In December 1860 , he authored the Crittenden Compromise , a series of resolutions and constitutional amendments he hoped would avert the Civil War , but Congress would not approve them . Crittenden was elected to the House of Representatives in 1861 and continued to seek reconciliation between the states throughout his term . He declared his candidacy for re @-@ election to the House in 1863 , but died before the election took place .

= = Early life = =

John Jordan Crittenden was born September 10 , 1787 , near Versailles , Woodford County , Kentucky . He was the second child and first son of Revolutionary War veteran John Crittenden and his wife Judith Harris . John and Judith Crittenden had four sons and five daughters , all but one of whom survived infancy . On his father 's side , he was of Welsh ancestry , while his mother 's family was French Huguenot . His father had surveyed land in Kentucky with George Rogers Clark , and settled there just after the end of the American Revolution . Two of Crittenden 's brothers , Thomas and Robert , became lawyers , while the third , Henry , was a farmer .

Crittenden began a college preparatory curriculum at Pisgah Academy in Woodford County . He was then sent to a boarding school in Jessamine County . Among his classmates were Thomas Alexander Marshall and Francis P. Blair . Crittenden became especially close friends with Blair , and later political differences did little to diminish their friendship . After a year at boarding school , Crittenden moved to the Lexington , Kentucky , home of Judge George M. Bibb to study law . He began his tertiary studies at Washington College ( now Washington and Lee University ) in Lexington , Virginia . During his brief tenure there , he studied mathematics and belles @-@ lettres and became friends with Hugh Lawson White . Crittenden was dissatisfied with the curriculum at Washington College and matriculated to the College of William and Mary . He studied under St. George Tucker and became acquainted with John Tyler . Crittenden completed his studies in 1806 , and was admitted to the bar the following year . He began his practice in Woodford County , but as central Kentucky was well already supplied with able lawyers , he moved to Logan County , Kentucky , on the then western frontier and opened his practice in Russellville . At age twenty @-@ two , he was appointed by Governor Ninian Edwards of Illinois Territory as its attorney general . The following year , Edwards also made Crittenden his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . [ a ]

On May 27 , 1811 , Crittenden married Sarah O. Lee at her home in Versailles . Lee was a cousin of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor and aunt of US Senator Wilkinson Call . They had seven children before Sarah 's death in mid @-@ September 1824 . Among their children were Confederate major general George Crittenden and Union general Thomas Leonidas Crittenden . Their daughter Sallie Lee " Maria " Crittenden was the mother of John C. Watson , a Rear Admiral in the U.S. Navy during the late 19th century .

= = Early political career = =

Crittenden 's career as an elected official began in the Kentucky House of Representatives , where he represented Logan County from 1811 to 1817 . After the 1811 legislative session , he volunteered as an aide to General Samuel Hopkins in an expedition against the Indians . On the outbreak of the War of 1812 , Kentucky governor Charles Scott appointed him as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp for the First Kentucky Militia . In 1813 , he became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Governor Isaac Shelby , serving at the Battle of the Thames in Canada . Following the war , the governor issued him a special commendation for faithfulness in carrying out his orders . He then resumed his law practice in Russellville .

In 1814 , Governor Shelby appointed Crittenden to fill the U.S. Senate seat vacated by his former teacher , George M. Bibb ; later , however , Shelby learned that Crittenden was only twenty @-@ seven years old , three years shy of the constitutional age requirement for senators . Hence he returned to his seat in the Kentucky House , where was elected speaker over John Rowan . He would retain the position from 1815 to 1817 .

As speaker , Crittenden presided over a particularly tumultuous time in the legislature . In October 1816 , recently elected governor George Madison died . He was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor Gabriel Slaughter . Slaughter immediately made two extremely unpopular appointments , and quickly fell out of favor with many Kentuckians . A group of legislators , led by John C. Breckinridge , pointed out that the Kentucky Constitution provided only that the lieutenant governor would serve as governor until a new gubernatorial election was held and a qualified successor was chosen . Slaughter , they claimed , was only the " acting governor " . The group presented a bill to the House that called for new elections . The bill was defeated , but Crittenden supported it .

Crittenden 's support of a new election was both popular and politically expedient . When the U.S. Senate term of Martin D. Hardin , one of Slaughter 's unpopular nominees , expired in 1817 , the Kentucky General Assembly chose Crittenden to fill the vacancy . Though he was the youngest member of the body , he served as the second @-@ ever chairman of the newly created Committee on the Judiciary . He was also a member of the Committee on Naval Affairs . During his term , he introduced legislation to reimburse and indemnify persons who were fined under the 1798 Sedition Act . He found state politics more interesting , however , and this fact , coupled with increased financial responsibilities incurred by the birth of his third and fourth children , prompted his decision to resign his seat on March 3 , 1819 .

= = = Legislative interim = = =

After leaving Congress , Crittenden moved to Frankfort , the state capital , to attract more legal clients and be nearer the center of the state 's political activity . Among his clients after moving to Frankfort were former Presidents Madison and Monroe , future Vice @-@ President Richard Mentor Johnson , and future governors James T. Morehead , John Breathitt , and Robert P. Letcher . During this period , he collaborated with Henry Clay in defending Charles Wickliffe , son of Robert C. Wickliffe . Wickliffe was charged with the murder of the editor of the Kentucky Gazette . Crittenden argued that the slaying was self @-@ defense , and Clay delivered a passionate closing argument . The jury returned a verdict of " not guilty " only minutes after the case was submitted to them .

In January 1820 , Crittenden and John Rowan were chosen to help resolve Kentucky 's boundary dispute with Tennessee . The boundary was supposed to run along the line at 36 degrees , 30 minutes north latitude , but when Dr. Thomas Walker surveyed it , he erroneously marked the line farther south . Crittenden and Rowan proposed either that the " Walker Line " remain the boundary from the Cumberland Mountains to the Tennessee River and Tennessee would compensate for the error west of the Tennessee River , or that the boundary be reset at 36 degrees , 30 minutes throughout . Tennessee 's commissioners rejected both proposals , asking instead that the Walker Line be accepted east of the Tennessee River and a more southerly line west of it , with reciprocal agreements between the states to honor existing land grants . Crittenden was inclined to accept the offer , but Rowan was not . The Kentucky commissioners proposed that the matter be submitted to arbitration , but Tennessee refused . In a report to the General Assembly , Crittenden recommended that Kentucky accept the Tennessee proposal . The legislators were swayed by Crittenden 's report , and the articles of agreement were signed on February 2 , 1820 .

Crittenden was elected to the board of trustees for Transylvania University in 1823 , possibly due to lobbying by Henry Clay . A year later , the faculty of the university awarded him an honorary doctor of laws . Crittenden also served as a trustee and attorney for the Kentucky Seminary in Frankfort . Crittenden used his influence in support of Clay in the 1824 presidential election until Clay was eliminated from contention . He then threw his support to Andrew Jackson until he learned that John Quincy Adams , if elected , would likely make Clay Secretary of State . Critics termed Adams ' alleged promise to Clay the " corrupt bargain " , but it resulted in Adams ' election . Upon his appointment as Secretary of State , Clay was prepared to recommend Crittenden to replace him as chief counsel in Kentucky for the Second Bank of the United States , but the bank chose not to hire a replacement .

= = = Old Court – New Court controversy = = =

Crittenden was drawn back into public service by the Old Court – New Court controversy . When legislation aimed at providing relief to the state 's debtors was struck down by the Kentucky Court of Appeals , supporters of the legislation in the General Assembly passed a bill abolishing the Court and creating a new court , which they stocked with sympathetic justices . Opponents of the legislation held that the Assembly 's action was unconstitutional , and for a time , both courts claimed authority as the court of last resort in the state . Though he had served as president of the New Court @-@ backed Bank of the Commonwealth since its formation in 1820 , Crittenden publicly identified himself with the Old Court supporters in April 1825 . In the legislative election of 1825 , friends called on Crittenden to seek election to the state House of Representatives . Many believed that he was the only Old Court supporter that commanded enough respect to win one of the two seats allotted to Franklin County , a bastion of the New Court . When Crittenden consented to run , New Court supporters nominated the state 's Attorney General Solomon P. Sharp and Lewis Sanders , a prominent lawyer . Crittenden and Sharp were elected to the two seats .

In the early hours of the morning of November 7 , 1825 , the very morning the legislature was to convene , Sharp was assassinated . Charges were made that Old Court supporters had instigated the murder . Crittenden tried to blunt these charges by introducing a resolution condemning Sharp 's murder and offering $ 3 @,@ 000 for the murderer 's capture . When assassin Jereboam O. Beauchamp was apprehended , it became clear that the motivation for the killing was personal , not political . ( Beauchamp 's wife had married him on the condition that he kill Sharp , who had refused to claim the child he had fathered with her previously . ) Despite this , Crittenden refused a request to represent Beauchamp in his murder trial because he wanted to avoid any implication in the matter .

The court controversy dominated the legislative session . Crittenden joined the Old Court majority in the House in passing a measure to abolish the New Court . The bill was killed in the Senate , however , by the tie @-@ breaking vote of Lieutenant Governor Robert B. McAfee . Crittenden later served on a committee of six to resolve the conflict , but to no avail . He was unwilling to accept a solution whereby all the justices resigned from both courts , and the governor would appoint a reorganized court made up equally of Old Court and New Court supporters . This position cost him the support of some New Court partisans that had voted for him in the previous election , and he was not returned to the House in 1826 . Ultimately , Old Court partisans gained control of both houses of the legislature , and the New Court was abolished permanently in December 1826 .

On November 15 , 1826 , Crittenden married Maria Knox Todd , a widow who was the daughter of Judge Harry Innes . Crittenden took Todd 's three children as his own , and the couple had two more children : John and Eugene . Todd 's daughter Catherine married her stepbrother , Crittenden 's son Thomas ; their son , John Jordan Crittenden III , was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn . Maria Knox Todd Crittenden died on September 8 , 1851 of an unknown illness .

= = Association with the National Republicans = =

As a result of the Old Court – New Court controversy , Kentucky 's politicians became divided between the Democrats and the National Republicans . Crittenden 's alliance with Henry Clay and his own personal political views put him squarely in the National Republican Party . Because of Crittenden 's support of his presidential bid , President Adams appointed him United States district attorney for the district of Kentucky in 1827 . In 1828 , Adams nominated him to replace Kentuckian Robert Trimble as an associate justice of the Supreme Court , but Jackson supporters in the Senate refused to confirm him . When Jackson defeated Adams in the 1828 presidential election , he removed Crittenden from his post as district attorney because of his association with Clay and his opposition to Jackson 's financial policies .

Crittenden supporters sought to make him the National Republican nominee for governor in the election of 1828 . Though his nomination was all but certain , Crittenden declined the opportunity , fearing that his association with Clay , who was losing popularity in the state , would cost his party the election . Instead , he threw his support behind Thomas Metcalfe , who went on to carry a very close election over Democrat William T. Barry . Crittenden instead sought another term in the Kentucky House , but was again denied the seat .

In 1829 , Crittenden was elected to the Kentucky House via a special election . He served as Speaker of the House for his entire term . In 1830 , he was the Whig nominee to replace John Rowan in the Senate . Secretly , the party wished to nominate Henry Clay , giving him a springboard from which to launch another presidential campaign , but it was unknown whether he would be able to secure enough votes for confirmation ; it was decided that Crittenden would be the nominee , and if the voting favored the Whigs by a large enough margin , Crittenden would withdraw and allow them to confirm Clay instead . The Democrats countered successively with Richard Mentor Johnson , John Rowan , Charles A. Wickliffe , and John Breathitt . None of them polled more than sixty @-@ four of the sixty @-@ nine votes needed for confirmation . Crittenden garnered sixty @-@ eight votes on fourteen different ballots , but he refused to vote for himself because he wanted Clay to be the nominee . Some of Crittenden 's supporters , however , refused to vote for Clay , and the seat was left vacant .

The following year , a clear majority of the House of Representatives were pledged to Crittenden for the open Senate seat . However , Clay allies pressured Crittenden to step aside and allow Clay to be the Whig nominee . Crittenden obliged , and Clay was elected by a margin of nine votes over Richard M. Johnson . Crittenden went on to manage both the unsuccessful gubernatorial campaign of Richard Aylett Buckner and the campaign to help Clay win Kentucky in the 1832 presidential election . After Clay 's defeat in 1832 , he offered to resign his Senate seat and allow Crittenden to succeed him , but Crittenden refused the offer . Later that year , Crittenden retired from the General Assembly .

= = Association with the Whigs = =

Crittenden was active in organizing the Whig Party from the remnants of the defunct National Republican Party in 1834 . On July 4 , 1834 , he called to order the party 's first organizational meeting in the state at Cove Spring , Kentucky . He was chosen as chair of the committee on resolutions and in a speech on July 5 , bitterly condemned President Jackson . Later in 1834 , Kentucky governor James T. Morehead appointed Crittenden Secretary of State . In the August elections , Whigs won a majority in both houses of the General Assembly . When the Assembly convened , they elected Crittenden to the U.S. Senate over Democrat James Guthrie by a vote of 94 – 40 .

Immediately upon taking his seat in the Senate , Crittenden was named to the Committee on Public Lands and the Committee on the Judiciary , probably due to Clay 's influence . Early in his term , Crittenden vociferously opposed Senator Thomas H. Benton 's proposal to spend the federal budget surplus on public land graduation and military fortifications along the eastern seaboard . He also blasted the Jackson administration for issuing the Specie Circular , requiring that all payment for government land be made in gold or silver . He pointed out that the principles of the circular had been presented in a resolution on the Senate floor , but had been tabled by a large majority . Crittenden maintained that the tabling of the resolution was a condemnation by the Senate , yet the administration issued the circular only months later , overstepping , as Crittenden saw it , the bounds of the executive branch 's authority . Crittenden debated the issue at length with Senator Benton , and Congress ultimately passed a bill requiring the government to accept the notes of specie @-@ paying banks for the purchase of government lands , but President Jackson employed his pocket veto to prevent it from becoming law .

During his term , Crittenden remained an outspoken critic of Jackson and his successor , Martin Van Buren . He supported Henry Clay 's plan for distributing proceeds from the sale of public lands among the states , and also joined Clay in opposing the administration @-@ backed Second Seminole War . One of the few administration proposals he supported was the recognition of the new Republic of Texas . During this period of Crittenden 's service in the Senate , the issue of slavery rose to prominence . Crittenden was regarded as a moderate on the issue , seeking to keep it out of politics altogether . In 1836 , he resisted petitions by the Quakers to abolish slavery in Washington , D.C. , but he also opposed radical pro @-@ slavery measures such as John C. Calhoun 's proposal to ban abolitionist literature from being delivered by mail in the Southern states .

In contrast to his usually conciliatory nature , Crittenden was drawn into a disagreement between congressmen Jonathan Cilley and William J. Graves that ended in a duel . On the floor of the House , Cilley had attacked the integrity of Whig newspaper editor James Watson Webb . Webb demanded a retraction of Cilley 's comments through his friend , Congressman Graves . When Cilley refused to receive the communication from Graves , Graves charged that Cilley was questioning Webb 's honor and challenged him to a duel . Graves , accompanied by Kentucky Congressman Richard Menefee and Virginia Congressman Richard Wise asked Crittenden to serve as a second for Graves in the duel ; Crittenden initially protested , but finally agreed . After two misses by both combatants , Cilley was killed on the third exchange . The House proposed the expulsion of Graves and the censure of the other participants ( excluding Crittenden , who was a senator and not subject to House censure ) . The resolutions of expulsion and censure were eventually tabled , but Crittenden personally felt the sting of what he considered an indirect censure and later regretted his actions .

= = = Harrison and Tyler administrations = = =

In the 1840 presidential election , Crittenden again encouraged Kentucky Whigs to support the nomination of Henry Clay . After Clay lost the nomination , Crittenden supported eventual victor William Henry Harrison . Crittenden was re @-@ elected to the Senate in 1840 even though he was widely expected to be named to a position in Harrison 's presidential cabinet . He was apparently given his choice of cabinet positions , and chose that of Attorney General . He resigned his Senate seat to take this post .

As attorney general , Crittenden issued only one notable opinion . The plaintiff in the case was an individual whose property had been damaged during Andrew Jackson 's invasion of what would become the Florida Territory in 1818 . The case was still being adjudicated in 1841 . A Florida court found in favor of the plaintiff and ordered the federal government to compensate him for the damages and to pay him interest on his claim from the time the damages were incurred . Treasury Secretary Thomas Ewing asked Crittenden whether the court had the authority to award interest and whether or not it should be paid . Crittenden opined that it did not , and Ewing did not pay the interest . Crittenden 's opinion was used as a precedent in similar cases by future attorneys general .

Only a week after being appointed by Harrison , Crittenden was dispatched to New York to mediate tensions with Great Britain over the sinking of the steamboat Caroline by a group of Canadian rebels . In this diplomatic endeavor , Crittenden was acting separately from his official duties as attorney general . He spoke with New York Governor William H. Seward and secured his promise to pardon Alexander McLeod , who had seized and burned the Caroline , if he were convicted of a crime in New York . Ultimately , McLeod was acquitted .

Shortly after the Caroline affair , President Harrison died and Vice @-@ President John Tyler ascended to the presidency . Tyler resisted Clay 's attempts to set the Whig agenda , and vetoed two bank bills against Crittenden 's advice . Crittenden and the other Whigs in Tyler 's cabinet — excepting Daniel Webster — resigned in protest of Tyler 's deviation from the traditional Whig agenda . Crittenden 's resignation was effective September 11 , 1841 . He returned to Kentucky with no political office and very little money . A group of his friends in Woodford County purchased his boyhood home and presented it to him as a gift on his return to Kentucky .

Crittenden was appointed to the United States Senate in 1842 , filling the vacancy caused by Clay 's resignation . In January 1843 , he was elected to a full term over Richard Mentor Johnson . The Whigs ' feud with President Tyler continued unabated , and some even talked of impeaching him , but Crittenden condemned that course of action . During the 27th and 28th Congresses , he served on the Committee on Military Affairs . He was an advocate of moderate protective tariffs and federal internal improvements . He opposed giving states the option to forgo apportionment , which would have allowed them to elect their congressmen at @-@ large .

= = = Polk administration = = =

Crittenden again supported Clay 's presidential bid in 1844 . Clay was widely considered the favorite not only for the Whig nomination , but to win the general election . None of the traditional campaign issues — Tyler 's " executive usurpation , " Clay 's " corrupt bargain " with John Quincy Adams , or the protective tariff — seemed to excite the electorate . However , the issue of the annexation of Texas changed the entire campaign . Clay made a tour of the South just before the Whig nominating convention and concluded that the sentiment in favor of annexation in that part of the country was not as strong as had been assumed in Washington , D.C. Acting on this belief , and against Crittenden 's advice , Clay sent a letter opposing annexation to Crittenden , asking him to have it published in the National Intelligencer .

Clay believed the Democrats would again nominate Martin Van Buren , who was ardently opposed to annexation , and this would keep annexation from becoming an issue in the campaign . Clay was nominated by acclamation at the Whig convention in Baltimore a week later . At the Democratic nominating convention a month later , however , Van Buren was unable to secure his party 's nomination , and the Democrats instead nominated James K. Polk , who strongly favored annexation . Clay tried to moderate his views on annexation , but his changes of position drew opposition from supporters of both sides of the issue as he attempted to find a middle ground . Polk went on to win the election in a close race . This was the last time Clay would be nominated for president , and many Whigs believed that , following Clay 's defeat , Crittenden was the new leader of their party .

In 1845 , the Senate took up the question of ending the joint occupancy of the Oregon Territory with Great Britain . Lewis Cass , a senator from Michigan , supported an immediate termination of the joint occupation agreement and maintained that a war with the British over the matter was inevitable . Crittenden disagreed , and insisted that Britain be given two years notice before the joint occupation of the territory was ended in order to allow time for a diplomatic resolution . Ultimately , Crittenden 's position prevailed , and a compromise with Britain was effected , setting the dividing line between the two nations ' claims at the 49th parallel north .

In 1846 , the United States entered the Mexican – American War in an attempt to gain control of Texas . Crittenden did not support the war , and after war was declared , he insisted that commissioners accompany the U.S. armies and attempt to broker peace at every opportunity . Throughout the war , he corresponded regularly with Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott . Crittenden 's sons , George and Thomas , both served in the war ; Thomas Crittenden served on Scott 's staff . President Polk consulted Crittenden regarding the terms of peace that should be accepted to end the war . Crittenden insisted that the terms of peace should not include the acquisition of territory to which the United States did not have a " just claim " , but the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo submitted to Congress in 1848 called for Mexico to give up not only its claims to Texas , but also to New Mexico , California , and all the territory in between . A few Whigs joined the Democratic majority in Congress to ratify the treaty and defeat the Wilmot Proviso , which would have banned slavery in the newly acquired territory .

Friends encouraged Crittenden to run for president in the 1848 election . A Nashville newspaper declared its support for him as early as 1846 . A Democratic senator from Rhode Island opined that Crittenden could win support from a sizable number of Democrats in addition to the support of his own party . George B. Kinkead desired to have the Kentucky General Assembly nominate Crittenden for president in 1847 . None of these overtures swayed Crittenden . " For Heaven 's sake don 't talk to me about the Presidency , " he said , rebuffing one early offer . Clay hoped Crittenden would again support him , but Crittenden concluded that Clay was no longer a viable candidate and threw his support behind Kentuckian Zachary Taylor . This decision caused a rift between the two friends , and they were not reconciled until years later when Clay lay on his deathbed .

= = = Campaigns of 1848 = = =

The Whig Party was also divided in Kentucky , not only between Clay and Taylor , but between gubernatorial candidates . William J. Graves , out of politics since his fatal shooting of Representative Cilley , had the backing of sitting Whig governor William Owsley , while Archibald Dixon had secured support from former Whig governor Robert P. Letcher . Letcher wrote to Crittenden that a Whig split and Democratic victory in the gubernatorial election would have an injurious effect on Whig hopes of carrying Kentucky in the 1848 presidential election ; another former Whig governor , Thomas Metcalfe , concurred . At the Whig nominating convention , both Graves and Dixon withdrew their names and a delegate from Logan County put forward Crittenden 's name without his consent . The nomination easily carried before Crittenden 's friends could block it . The governorship was less prestigious and paid less than Crittenden 's position in the Senate . He would also have to abandon his growing legal practice before the Supreme Court and would lose input on national issues of importance to him such as the territorial questions that grew out of the Mexican War . Nevertheless , he believed that his candidacy would unite the Whigs and help Taylor win Kentucky 's electoral votes in the general election . He accepted the nomination a week after it was made .

Elijah Hise , Chief Justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , was the leading candidate for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination , but after the Whig nomination of Crittenden , Hise withdrew from consideration . The Democratic state convention then nominated Congressman Linn Boyd , but Boyd also declined the nomination . The Democrats were finally able to nominate Henderson lawyer Lazarus W. Powell . As Crittenden canvassed the state , his opponents charged him with disloyalty to Clay because he refused to support him in the 1848 election . Crittenden maintained that he supported Clay for the presidency over anyone else , but he had believed that Clay did not intend to seek the Whig nomination in 1848 . After Clay announced his candidacy , Crittenden said , he remained neutral in the Whigs ' choice . In the gubernatorial election , Crittenden defeated Powell by a vote of 65 @,@ 860 to 57 @,@ 397 . He resigned his Senate seat to assume the governorship .

With his own campaign at a close , Crittenden resumed direction of Taylor 's presidential campaign , dispatching accomplished Whig speakers to all parts of the country . After Taylor was elected , he offered Crittenden the post of Secretary of State . Appeals came in from both Whig and Democratic leaders across the country urging him to serve in the cabinet ; Taylor was inexperienced , and many felt that without Crittenden to guide him , his administration would fail . Taylor personally visited Crittenden in Frankfort on February 15 , 1849 , in hopes of persuading him to accept the appointment . Crittenden refused Taylor 's overtures , and Taylor similarly rejected Crittenden 's appeals to appoint his friend , Robert P. Letcher , as Postmaster General . Crittenden 's input is believed to have contributed significantly to the appointments of John M. Clayton as Secretary of State and Orlando Brown as Commissioner of Indian Affairs .

Crittenden 's reasons for refusing Taylor 's appointment were many . Partially , he declined out of respect for Clay 's feelings and partially he felt it would be viewed in the same way as Clay and Adams ' " corrupt bargain " in 1825 . Resigning the governorship also would have amounted to admitting to the Democrats ' charges that he only sought the office to help Taylor win the presidency . Finally , he had not been able to fully heal the breach in the Whig Party , and he wanted to remedy that situation .

= = = Gubernatorial administration = = =

During Crittenden 's term , he gave strong support to superintendent of public education , Robert Jefferson Breckinridge , who would come to be known as the " Father of public school system in Kentucky . " In response to Crittenden 's call for financial support for the improvement of public education , the General Assembly passed a common school law on February 26 , 1849 . This law established guidelines for several public officials regarding their administration of the common schools . The Assembly also reserved tolls collected on the Kentucky , Green , and Barren rivers for education , and passed a two percent property tax to fund the state 's schools .

Crittenden ordered the refurbishing of the state penitentiary , which had been damaged by a fire , and called for an extensive state geological survey . He also advised the creation of a sinking fund to retire the state 's debt . The state adopted a new constitution during Crittenden 's term , though Crittenden was not a delegate to the constitutional convention and apparently had little influence on the drafting of the document . Most Whigs opposed the calling of a constitutional convention because it would necessarily involve reapportionment of the state 's legislative districts and threaten Whig dominance in the General Assembly ; nevertheless , Crittenden belatedly supported the call for a convention during his 1848 gubernatorial campaign .

With the question of slavery becoming even more critical following the territorial acquisitions of the Mexican – American War , John C. Calhoun delivered an inflammatory address in December 1848 urging leaders of the southern states to resist " Northern aggression " , even if it meant secession from the Union . Crittenden strongly denounced secession in his annual messages to the legislature in 1848 and 1849 . In response , the state senate passed a resolution calling on Kentucky 's citizens to cherish the Union and resist any efforts to secede .

= = = Second term as attorney general = = =

Vice @-@ President Millard Fillmore ascended to the presidency upon Taylor 's death and offered Crittenden the post of Attorney General . Believing the rift in the Whig Party was now much improved , he accepted the offer and resigned the governorship in 1850 . Fillmore , an opponent of slavery , requested an opinion from Crittenden on the constitutionality of the fugitive slave law , one of the bills involved in the Compromise of 1850 . Specifically , he asked if the law suspended the writ of habeas corpus . Crittenden said that it did not , opining that it discharged a duty placed on Congress by the Constitution to return runaway slaves . Crittenden 's opinion was probably motivated by a desire to see the Compromise pass and avert further sectional tension . Fillmore , his misgivings assuaged , signed the bill , keeping the Compromise intact .

Questions regarding claims in Florida , some already considered by Crittenden during his first term as attorney general , continued during his second term . Specifically , some of the claimants objected to a legal provision , passed by Congress years after the Adams – Onís Treaty , that allowed the Secretary of the Treasury to refuse to pay claims awarded by Florida courts that he found not to be " just and equitable " . The claimants contended that this allowed an executive officer to overrule a judicial decision in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers . Crittenden held that the secretary 's ruling was just as much a judicial action as that of the Florida judges . Further , he reiterated his 1841 decision that no interest could be paid on claims arising from damages resulting from Jackson 's invasion . Despite this opinion , a Florida judge awarded interest to one of the claimants , and the government appealed the case to the Supreme Court , with Crittenden serving as the government 's counsel . The Court upheld Crittenden 's entire opinion in its ruling .

Crittenden was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Harvard University in 1851 . Later that year , he acted as Secretary of State during the illness of Daniel Webster . In this capacity , he wrote a vigorous warning to both Britain and France about interfering in the question of Cuban independence . He also encouraged adherence to the United States ' traditional policy of non @-@ interference in Europe during the celebrated visit of Hungarian revolutionary Louis Kossuth to the United States in 1851 .

In November 1851 , the General Assembly convened to elect a successor to Senator Joseph R. Underwood . Underwood , whose term would expire in 1853 , desired re @-@ election , and Whigs Charles S. Morehead and George Robertson had also announced their respective candidacies . Crittenden , whose term as attorney general also expired in 1853 , had publicly announced that he wished to return to the Senate after his service in President Fillmore 's cabinet , and upon learning this , Underwood and Morehead both withdrew from the race . Robertson was not expected to seriously challenge Crittenden , but following the withdrawals of the other candidates , Archibald Dixon entered the race . Historically an ally of Crittenden , Dixon 's entrance into the race after Crittenden 's announcement showed that he had switched his allegiance from Crittenden to Clay . Democrats , desirous to defeat Crittenden and embarrass the Whigs , pledged to vote against him at all costs , even if it meant electing Dixon . Crittenden 's friends , therefore , held back his name from nomination to spare him almost certain defeat . Balloting deadlocked for several days , with Clay supporters throwing their support to Dixon , Robertson , and Lieutenant Governor John B. Thompson , a compromise candidate . Another compromise was proposed whereby Clay , his health failing , would resign his Senate seat , creating two Senate vacancies and allowing both Dixon and Crittenden to be elected , but Clay refused to cooperate . Finally , on the night of December 11 , 1851 , the Whigs met in caucus and agreed to withdraw both Dixon and Crittenden and elect Thompson .

A week after the election , Clay resigned , but Crittenden now declined the appointment to fill his unexpired term . Instead , the legislature elected Dixon to the remainder of Clay 's term , set to expire in March 1855 . Three weeks before Clay 's death in 1852 , he sent for Crittenden , and the two were reconciled ; Critteden delivered a eulogy for Clay in September 1852 , publicly dispelling the feud . After Clay 's death , Crittenden became the most prominent Whig leader in Kentucky . He encouraged the party to support the nomination of Millard Fillmore for the presidency in 1852 , but the nomination ultimately went to Winfield Scott . Crittenden was proposed as the nominee for vice @-@ president , but he declined . Democrat Franklin Pierce carried the state by 2 @,@ 700 votes in the general election and Democrats also captured the governorship that year ; both were harbingers of the demise of the Whig Party in Kentucky .

= = = Return to the Senate = = =

On February 27 , 1853 , the twice @-@ widower Crittenden married his third wife , Elizabeth Moss . Moss was twice @-@ widowed , most recently to General William Henry Ashley . Moss was Crittenden 's wife until his death . Crittenden served as attorney general until the expiration of Fillmore 's term in 1853 . Following his service as attorney general , he returned to private life . He made a substantial amount of money establishing mining claims for his clients in the former Mexican territory .

In 1853 , the legislature was to elect a successor to Senator Dixon . Now satisfied that the feud between Clay and Crittenden had ended , Dixon did not seek re @-@ election , leaving Crittenden with no Whig opposition . On a joint vote of the two houses of the General Assembly , Crittenden was elected 78 – 59 over governor Lazarus Powell .

In the period between his election and his taking office , Crittenden was the lead defense counsel in the murder trial of Matt F. Ward , the son of one of Crittenden 's lifelong friends . Ward 's younger brother had been disciplined by the principal at Louisville Male High School the preceding November , and the elder Ward went to argue with the principal on behalf of his brother . In the ensuing encounter , Ward shot and killed the principal with a pistol . Public sentiment was heavily against Ward , and the trial was moved to Hardin County . During the week @-@ long trial , which began in April 1854 , Crittenden emphasized inconsistencies in the accounts of eyewitnesses and called prominent character witnesses such as Louisville mayor James Stephens Speed , Congressman William Preston , and Courier @-@ Journal editor George D. Prentice . He presented a case that Ward had acted in self @-@ defense . Because the prosecution sought the death penalty , Crittenden asserted that if the jury rendered an erroneous conviction , they would have no peace of mind knowing they had sentenced an innocent man to hang .

There was a tremendous public outcry when Ward was found not guilty . Newspapers across the nation condemned the verdict and Crittenden for his role in securing it . Only Prentice , in the Courier @-@ Journal , defended Crittenden and the Ward family . Several public meetings passed resolutions calling for Crittenden 's resignation from the Senate . After one such meeting , a mob gathered and Crittenden , Prentice , the Wards , and the twelve jurors were burned in effigy .

When he assumed his Senate seat in 1855 , Crittenden was sixty @-@ nine years old , the eldest member of that body . The Whig Party had practically dissolved by this time , and he joined many of his fellow Kentuckians in associating with the Know Nothing Party . Although he did not agree with all of the party 's principles , he would not associate with the Democrats , the party he had spent much of his career denouncing , nor would he associate with the new Republican Party because of their stance against slavery . Despite his misgivings about some of the party platform , he campaigned on behalf of Millard Fillmore , the party 's candidate in the 1856 presidential election .

In the early part of his term , Crittenden was concerned with quelling the violence in Kansas Territory . An opponent of the Kansas – Nebraska Act of 1854 , Crittenden also opposed repealing the Missouri Compromise unless the North agreed to substitute popular sovereignty for the exclusion of slavery north of the 36 ° 30 ' line . In early 1856 , he proposed sending General Winfield Scott to the Kansas Territory to ensure that fair elections were held there , but the proposal was blocked by the Pierce administration . He did not agree with all of the act proposed by Robert Toombs to allow for a constitutional convention in Kansas Territory , but he supported it as a step to bring peace there . He regarded the ratifications of both the Topeka Constitution and the Lecompton Constitution as invalid , and made one of the most highly regarded speeches of his career in opposition to the latter . His substitute bill that would have resubmitted the Lecompton Constitution to Kansas for another ratification vote was supported by Republicans , but it was ultimately defeated . So great was Crittenden 's influence after his actions on the Kansas question that Abraham Lincoln felt that Crittenden 's endorsement of Stephen Douglas cost Lincoln the Illinois senatorial election in 1858 .

= = Civil War = =

From 1858 to 1860 , Crittenden sought out moderates from all sections of the country to effect compromise on the territorial and slavery issues , thus averting war . In 1860 , he was named chair of the National Union Executive Committee , a group of congressmen and journalists who feared that sectional differences would destroy the Union . His efforts helped form the Constitutional Union Party later that year . Chosen as the keynote speaker at the party 's national convention on May 9 , 1860 , many urged him to become their nominee for president . At age seventy @-@ three , however , Crittenden was already contemplating retirement and instead orchestrated the nomination of John Bell , whom he actively supported in the 1860 presidential race .

Even after the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860 , Crittenden rejected the idea that secession was inevitable and continued to work for the preservation of the Union . He believed that the current sectional crisis could — like all past disagreements in U.S. history — be resolved through compromise . However , he believed that this compromise must not be a simple legislative action , which could be altered or even repealed by a successive Congress , but amendments to the U.S. Constitution , which would be much more difficult to change . To that end , he proposed the Crittenden Compromise — a package of six constitutional amendments and four congressional resolutions — in December 1860 . Among the resolutions were a condemnation of Northern personal liberty laws and an assertion of the constitutionality of the fugitive slave law . The amendments would have restored the Missouri Compromise line and extended it to California as a line of demarcation between slave and free territories . Crittenden 's other amendments would have further guaranteed that slavery would remain legal indefinitely in Washington , D.C. , so long as it was legal in either Maryland or Virginia and that slaveholders would be reimbursed for runaway slaves . Also , the amendments denied Congress any power to interfere with the interstate slave trade or with slavery in the existing Southern states and made the fugitive slave law and Three @-@ Fifths Compromise perpetual in duration .

The compromise proposal was referred to a special committee proposed by Crittenden 's fellow Kentucky senator , Lazarus Powell . Though it was believed that Republicans in general , including their representatives on the committee , were disposed to accept Crittenden 's compromise or one substantially similar to it , President @-@ elect Lincoln had already instructed his trusted allies in the legislature to resist any plan to extend slavery into the territories . Consequently , when the committee held its first meeting , the Republican members blocked Crittenden 's plan and six others from coming to the floor for a vote . Despite their opposition , however , the Republicans presented no alternative plan . After the rejection of Crittenden 's plan in committee , Florida , Mississippi , Alabama , and Georgia followed South Carolina 's lead and passed ordinances of secession .

On January 3 , 1861 , Crittenden tried to salvage his plan by recommending to the full Senate that it be submitted to the people in referendum . It was widely believed that a referendum would recommend adoption of Crittenden 's plan , and Republicans in Congress used a variety of procedures to prevent a vote on allowing it . On January 16 , with procedural delays exhausted , New Hampshire Senator Daniel Clark moved to substitute for Crittenden 's plan a resolution stating that constitutional amendments were unnecessary to preserve the Union , and that enforcement of the Constitution and the present laws would eliminate the need for special sectional guarantees . With the senators from southern states ( both those that had seceded and those that had not ) refusing to vote , Republicans were left with a majority in the chamber and passed Clark 's substitute resolution , effectively killing Crittenden 's proposal .

Crittenden remained in Washington for a few weeks after Congress adjourned . Having learned that John Archibald Campbell , an Alabaman serving on the Supreme Court , had decided to resign in light of his state 's secession , President Lincoln proposed to appoint Crittenden to the vacant seat . Lincoln 's cabinet approved , and the nomination papers were drafted , but Campbell belatedly reconsidered his resignation , and by the time he definitely determined to resign , Lincoln had changed his mind regarding Crittenden 's nomination .

Having failed to secure compromise at the federal level , Crittenden returned to Kentucky in early 1861 , attempting to persuade his home state to reject the overtures of fellow southern states and remain in the Union . On May 10 , 1861 , a conference was held to decide Kentucky 's course in the war . Crittenden joined Archibald Dixon and S. S. Nicholas as Unionist representatives at the conference ; the Southern Rights position was represented by John C. Breckinridge , Governor Beriah Magoffin , and Richard Hawes . The conference failed to produce a united course of action , but adopted the policy of armed neutrality . Unionists in the legislature , however , feared that the state militia and its commander Simon Bolivar Buckner , had Confederate sympathies . To counter any threat that the militia would seize control of the state for the South , the General Assembly organized the Home Guard , a separate militia controlled by a five @-@ man , pro @-@ Union commission . Crittenden enlisted in the Home Guard as a private and was part of a group styled the " Union Defense Committee " that secured weapons for the Home Guard from the federal government .

In April , the General Assembly called a border states convention to be held in Frankfort in May . Slates of delegates were nominated by both the Unionists and Southern Rightists , but war broke out before the election of delegates ; the Southern Rights delegates withdrew from the election , and the Unionist slate , including Crittenden , was chosen by default . On May 27 , 1861 , Crittenden was chosen chair of the convention and called it to order . With war having largely precluded any good the meeting could have accomplished , only nine of Kentucky 's twelve delegates were present , along with four from Missouri ( out of seven elected ) , and one from Tennessee ( and his election was questionable ) ; Virginia , Maryland , and Delaware sent no delegates . Ultimately , the convention accomplished little beyond calling on the southern states to reconsider their secession and on the northern states to moderate their demands .

Against his father 's wishes , Crittenden 's son George resigned his position as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army to join the Confederate States Army ( in which he was promoted brigadier then major general ) , only to effectively lose his career in the early Confederate defeat at Mill Springs , Kentucky . George 's brother , Thomas Leonidas Crittenden , had been a member of Buckner 's State Guard , but joined the Union Army in September 1861 and was advanced to the rank of brigadier general , serving under Don Carlos Buell . Another son , Eugene , also served in the Union Army and attained the rank of colonel . One of John Crittenden 's grandsons , John Crittenden Coleman , enlisted with the Confederate Army , while another grandson , John Crittenden Watson , graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy and participated in David Farragut 's capture of New Orleans during the war .

= = = Service in the House of Representatives and death = = =

President Lincoln called a special session of Congress to convene July 4 , 1861 , and Kentucky held special elections in June to select congressmen for the special session . Crittenden had expressed his desire to retire from public service and initially refused pleas to become a candidate , but he finally consented to run in late May . He was elected over secessionist candidate William E. Simms ; in all , nine of Kentucky 's ten congressional districts selected Unionist candidates in the special election . Upon taking his seat , he was assigned to the Committee on Foreign Affairs . On July 10 , 1861 , he accompanied Simon B. Buckner on a visit to President Lincoln to secure a renewed commitment from Lincoln to respect Kentucky 's neutrality ; Lincoln agreed only to issue a declaration that he had no present designs on Kentucky but would not commit to restrict his future actions . In order to calm the fears of border state citizens concerned about the Union 's objectives in the war , he introduced the Crittenden – Johnson Resolution , which blamed the secessionist states for the war and stated that the object of the war was not the subjugation of those states , but the defense of the Constitution and the preservation of the Union . When those ends were achieved , the resolution stated , the war should cease . Kentucky Representative Henry C. Burnett asked that the question be divided . Burnett was one of only two votes against the portion of the resolution blaming the Southern states for the war ; the only dissent on the remaining portion came from Wisconsin 's John F. Potter and Ohio 's Albert G. Riddle . In the Senate , the resolution passed 30 – 5 , with Kentucky senators Breckinridge and Powell voting in the minority . In December 1861 the House refused , by a vote of 76 – 65 , to reaffirm the resolution .

After Congress adjourned in late July 1861 , Crittenden returned home to Frankfort , but soon had to flee the city as Confederate generals Braxton Bragg and Edmund Kirby Smith invaded Kentucky , capturing both Frankfort and Lexington . He took up temporary residence at Louisville 's Galt House hotel and was still residing there when Union General William " Bull " Nelson was killed by a fellow soldier there in 1862 . He returned to his home in Frankfort shortly after the Battle of Perryville drove the Confederates from the state on October 8 , 1862 . Returning for the regular congressional session , he became the conduit through which many reports of unconstitutional military arrests in Kentucky were channeled . He spoke against the admission of West Virginia to the Union on the grounds that Virginia had not consented to the creation of the state from its territory . He also opposed the Emancipation Proclamation and the use of slaves as soldiers in the war .

When he returned to Kentucky following the 37th Congress , Crittenden 's health was failing , and he frequently complained of shortness of breath and chest pain . He had determined to retire from Congress , but once again , friends persuaded him to stand for re @-@ election . Shortly after his nomination , Crittenden and his wife were en route to an alum spring in Indiana to seek treatment to alleviate the symptoms of his failing health when he collapsed in Louisville . After remaining bedfast at the home of a local doctor , he returned home to Frankfort , where he died on July 26 , 1863 . He was interred at the State Cemetery in Frankfort . Among his other notable kinsmen were nephews Thomas Theodore Crittenden , congressman from Missouri , and Thomas Turpin Crittenden , a general in the Union Army . In Kentucky , Crittenden County and the town of Crittenden are named for him .

= Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) =

" Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . Harrison wrote the song as a tribute to Frank Crisp , a nineteenth @-@ century lawyer and the original owner of Friar Park – the Victorian Gothic residence in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , Oxfordshire , that Harrison purchased in early 1970 . Commentators have likened the song to a cinematic journey through the grand house and the grounds of the estate .

The recording features backing from musicians such as Pete Drake , Billy Preston , Gary Wright , Klaus Voormann and Alan White . It was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector , whose heavy use of reverb adds to the ethereal quality of the song . AllMusic critic Scott Janovitz describes " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " as offering " a glimpse of the true George Harrison – at once mystical , humorous , solitary , playful , and serious " .

Crisp 's eccentric homilies , which the former Beatle discovered inscribed inside the house and around the property , inspired subsequent compositions of Harrison 's , including " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " and " The Answer 's at the End " . Together with the Friar Park @-@ shot album cover for All Things Must Pass , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " established an association between Harrison and his Henley estate that has continued since his death in November 2001 . The composition gained further notability in 2009 when it provided the title for Harrison 's posthumous compilation Let It Roll . My Morning Jacket lead singer Jim James and Dhani Harrison are among the artists who have covered the song .

= = Background = =

Since 1965 , George Harrison and his wife , Pattie Boyd , had lived in Kinfauns in Surrey , south of London . The house was a bungalow and too small to accommodate a home recording studio , so the couple began a year @-@ long search for a larger property , concentrating on an area west of London encompassing the counties of Berkshire and Oxfordshire . In January 1970 , Harrison purchased the 120 @-@ room Friar Park , set on 33 acres of land , just west of Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames . Previously the home of an order of Roman Catholic nuns , the Salesians of Don Bosco , the four @-@ storey house and its grounds were in a dilapidated state , and it was not until the start of March that the Harrisons moved from a worker 's cottage and into the main residence .

The house was built in the 1898 , on the site of a thirteenth @-@ century monastery , by Sir Frank Crisp , a successful City of London solicitor , microscopist and horticulturalist well known for his eccentricities . Harrison described Crisp as a cross between Lewis Carroll and Walt Disney . While compiling Harrison 's autobiography , I , Me , Mine , in the late 1970s , Derek Taylor observed that Harrison " frequently talks as if [ Crisp ] were still alive " . Clean @-@ up work during the first few months at Friar Park unearthed various legacies of Crisp 's time there , such as stone and wood engravings containing whimsical homilies , some of which the Salesian nuns had concealed or painted over . The 10 acres of Crisp 's formal gardens were so overrun with weeds that Harrison and his friend from the Hare Krishna movement , Shyamasundar Das , used World War II @-@ era flamethrowers to clear some of the land . Among the garden features was a series of tiered lakes connected by tunnels , to the south @-@ east of the house , and an Alpine rock garden topped by a 100 @-@ foot replica of the Matterhorn , to the north @-@ west .

On 17 March 1970 , despite the property 's state of disrepair , the Harrisons threw a party to celebrate Pattie 's 26th birthday and St Patrick 's Day . According to their friend and assistant Chris O 'Dell , the guest list comprised all the other Beatles and their wives , as well as insiders such as Derek and Joan Taylor , Neil Aspinall and his wife Susie , Peter Brown , and Klaus and Christine Voormann . In what was a rare social get @-@ together for the Beatles , three weeks before Paul McCartney announced he was leaving the band , the party was a " great success " , O 'Dell writes . Shortly afterwards , Harrison invited members of the London @-@ based Hare Krishna movement to help with the restoration work , primarily in the grounds of Friar Park , and accommodated the devotees and their families in a wing of the house . While satisfying Harrison 's spiritual convictions , these visitors proved less welcome to Boyd , who found herself shut out of her husband 's life .

= = Composition = =

Following the Beatles ' break @-@ up on 10 April 1970 , and having long discussed the possibility of recording a solo album of his songs , Harrison committed to the project over dinner at Friar Park with Boyd , O 'Dell and Terry Doran , his friend and temporary estate manager . The following month , Harrison performed a selection of his compositions in London for Phil Spector , his co @-@ producer on All Things Must Pass , one of which was " Everybody , Nobody " . With its reference to roads and the UK 's Highway Code , " Everybody , Nobody " has been described by musical biographer Simon Leng as Harrison 's first " motoring " song . Harrison soon completely rewrote the lyrics and took part of the melody for his first musical tribute to Crisp and Friar Park – titled " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " . The result , in Leng 's opinion , was a signpost to its composer 's future involvement in film , an interest that , like gardening and motorsport , would flourish in a dwelling that offered " privacy without imprisonment " .

Leng writes that the song 's lyrics read " like a movie script " , with verse one " panning " from the house outside to the garden :

Let it roll across the floor

Through the hall and out the door

To the fountain of perpetual mirth

Let it roll for all it 's worth ...

In his book The Words and Music of George Harrison , Ian Inglis similarly views the song as " a guided tour of the house and grounds " , with Harrison " pointing out features of particular interest " . After " scene two " ' s setting – " among the weeds " and inside Friar Park 's formal maze – the third verse focuses on the property 's grottos and extended woodland . Verse three includes the lines " Through ye woode , here may ye rest awhile / Handkerchiefs and matching tie " , the last of which Leng describes as Harrison 's " first clear reference " to Monty Python , his favourite comedy troupe .

The song 's " final scene " focuses on what Leng calls " the illusions within the illusion " , as the narrative returns to the interior of the house and the " real people " living there . The lyrics include mentions of housekeepers and " the spiritually awakened Lord and Lady " , Leng writes , before the scene " rolls off into the unknown beyond " :

Fools ' illusions everywhere

Joan and Molly sweeps the stair

Eyes that shining full of inner light

Let it roll into the night ...

Rather than people , Inglis views the first of these lines as a reference to the " many extraordinary features Crisp had installed " , among them " fantastic statues , bizarre gargoyles , illuminated caverns ... and hidden stepping @-@ stones " . In a song otherwise free of religiosity , theologian Dale Allison interprets " Fools illusions everywhere " as a typical Harrison statement regarding māyā – the illusory nature of human existence .

According to Harrison 's later recollection , Spector suggested that " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " might attract a few cover versions if he changed the lyrics . In I , Me , Mine , Harrison acknowledges that the song was " a piece of personal indulgence " , but " those words were written because that 's what it was " – a tribute to Frank Crisp . A number of Crisp 's homilies directly inspired other Harrison songs during the first half of the 1970s , such as " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " and " The Answer 's at the End " . Harrison went on to identify philosophically with Crisp , of whom he writes elsewhere in I , Me , Mine : " Sir Frank helped my awareness ; whatever it was I felt became stronger , or found more expression by moving into that house , because everything stepped up or was heightened . " Leng considers that the song , along with " All Things Must Pass " , predicts Harrison 's eventual " retreat into an internal musical dialogue , set amid the woods and gardens of Friar Park " , a change of perspective marked by his 1979 eponymous solo album .

= = Recording = =

Harrison 's solo performance of " Everybody , Nobody " for Phil Spector took place at Abbey Road Studios on 20 May 1970 , a recording since made available unofficially on the Beware of ABKCO ! bootleg . Harrison completed the rewrite , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " , within a matter of weeks , judging by the appearance of pedal steel virtuoso Pete Drake on the session , which was held at Abbey Road between 26 May and early June . By late June , Drake was home in Nashville producing Ringo Starr 's second solo album , Beaucoups of Blues ( 1970 ) , the recording of which , author Bob Woffinden suggested in 1981 , " was probably completed more quickly than any one of the tracks on All Things Must Pass " . Part of the reason for Harrison taking so long to make his album was the interruption to recording caused by his frequent visits to Liverpool 's neurological hospital , where his mother was dying of cancer . Following her death on 7 July , Harrison invited his elder brothers Harry and Peter to live on the Friar Park estate and manage a team of full @-@ time gardeners and botanists .

The released recording of " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " , in Leng 's words , is as " an ethereal and echoey version of the Band 's minimalist melodicism " , in which Drake 's pedal steel guitar represents the " ectoplasmic " Crisp floating through the song , and Harrison " sounds like he 's recorded his vocal track in one of the park 's legendary caves " . The line @-@ up of musicians included three keyboards players , which Leng and author Bruce Spizer list as Bobby Whitlock ( on piano ) , Billy Preston ( organ ) and Gary Wright ( electric piano ) . Whitlock himself has stated that he played piano very rarely during the All Things Must Pass sessions , however . In his song @-@ by @-@ song discussion of the album , Whitlock offers a line @-@ up that includes Preston on piano and he writes of the other keyboard parts : " This track is swimming with the two Garys " – Wright and Gary Brooker .

Although Leng credits the song 's two acoustic guitar parts to Harrison alone , Spizer suggests that guitarist Peter Frampton may have supplied one of these parts . Playing the bass , as he did on most of All Things Must Pass , was Klaus Voormann , who would be another to find sanctuary at Friar Park . Harrison offered him refuge from the media in March and April 1971 , when reports had Voormann linked to a supposed Beatles offshoot band , along with Harrison , Starr and John Lennon .

While relatively free of the Wall of Sound production style found elsewhere on the album , the song 's " sense of the mysterious " is conveyed through Spector 's liberal use of reverb , Alan Clayson writes , particularly on Alan White 's snare drum and Harrison 's murmured backing vocals following verses two and four . The words that Harrison half @-@ sings are " Oh , Sir Frankie Crisp " ; this part and the lead vocal were overdubbed at Trident Studios in central London , at Spector 's suggestion . Aided by the swirling sound of Hammond organ , and Leslie treatment on the piano and pedal steel tracks , the effect of Spector 's production enshrouded " the whole tale in a reverb @-@ induced haze " , as Scott Janovitz of AllMusic puts it .

= = Release and reception = =

Delayed from its intended release date by over a month due to the extended period of production , All Things Must Pass was issued on Apple Records in late November 1970 to great acclaim . The triple album featured a cover photo of Harrison dressed in gardening attire , seated on the main lawn of Friar Park 's south garden and surrounded by four figures from Crisp 's extensive collection of Bavarian gnomes . Having been stolen " in about 1871 " , according to photographer Barry Feinstein , the figures had just been returned to Friar Park and placed on the grass . Commentators interpret Feinstein 's photo as representing Harrison 's removal from the Beatles ' collective identity , and the cover helped establish a synonymity between Harrison and Friar Park that Alan Clayson has described as equalling that between Queen Elizabeth II and Windsor Castle .

On release , " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " ' s lyrical affectations provoked comment from American reviewers in particular . Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone remarked that there were " lots of ' Ye 's ' to remind us it 's a ballad " , but identified the song as part of the album 's " musical core " , the " brooding essays on living , loving , and dying " . Village Voice contributor Nicholas Schaffner recognised it as an " olde English ballad " dedicated to what he mistakenly called " George 's 17th @-@ century castle " . To the NME 's Alan Smith , the track was a " meandering song @-@ tale ... which may take a little longer for me to appreciate " . Acknowledging that listeners in 1970 – 71 might have been " mystified " by Harrison 's lyrics , Bruce Spizer has written of this " catchy ballad " : " its beautiful melody and hook @-@ laden refrain ensured that it would be one of the album 's highlights . "

More recently , Clayson has described " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " as " [ c ] ouched in mediaeval expression " and the most " Beatle @-@ esque " of all the songs found on All Things Must Pass , featuring an arrangement that is " a breath of fresh air " . Former Mojo editor Mat Snow also acknowledges the cryptic quality of the lyrics – " unless one happened to know that George and Pattie had just moved to ... a magnificent Gothic pile near Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames " – and considers the song " hauntingly beautiful " . Less impressed , in The Rough Guide to the Beatles , Chris Ingham deems the track " drearily whimsical " and an example of how " the main song set [ on All Things Must Pass ] dips in the middle " .

Along with his description of it as a " rolling filmic snapshot " of Friar Park , Simon Leng views " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " as a " musical companion piece " to Feinstein 's album cover image : " [ The song ] conjures an allegorical dream world , populated by smirking gnomes ... a disembodied Victorian lawyer , and , in George Harrison , a refugee from the world 's attention . " Leng sees Harrison 's 1976 film clip for " Crackerbox Palace " as " the celluloid realization of the ' Let it Roll ' script " . Scott Janovitz likewise views the track as " a tour of the grounds " while praising its " darkly beautiful " melody . " Like no other Harrison song , " Janovitz adds , " ' The Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ' offers a glimpse of the true George Harrison – at once mystical , humorous , solitary , playful , and serious . "

= = Subsequent releases and cover versions = =

The title of Harrison 's only career @-@ spanning compilation album , Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison ( 2009 ) , was derived from " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " , which also appears on the album . Shortly after Harrison 's death on 29 November 2001 , My Morning Jacket lead singer Jim James recorded the track for his EP of George Harrison cover songs , Tribute To , issued in August 2009 .

In 2010 , the producers of CBS 's situation comedy How I Met Your Mother used " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " as a musical theme bookending season 6 of the show . Coinciding with the release of Martin Scorsese 's documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , a version of the song by Alessi 's Ark appeared on Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .

Los Angeles band Big Black Delta and Harrison 's son Dhani performed " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " on the US television show Conan in September 2014 . The performance was part of a week @-@ long promotion for George Harrison 's The Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set .

= = Personnel = =

The musicians who performed on the recording are believed to be as follows :

George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars , backing vocals

Pete Drake – pedal steel

Bobby Whitlock – piano

Billy Preston – organ

Gary Wright – electric piano

Klaus Voormann – bass

Alan White – drums

uncredited – tambourine

= The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz =

The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz is a 2005 American @-@ Canadian television film directed by Kirk Thatcher and starring Ashanti and The Muppets with supporting roles done by Jeffrey Tambor , Quentin Tarantino , David Alan Grier , and Queen Latifah . The film was produced by Bill Barretta and written by Debra Frank , Steve L. Hayes , Tom Martin , and Adam F. Goldberg based on a story by Frank and Hayes .

A modernized adaptation of L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz , the story follows young Dorothy Gale , who works in her Aunt Em 's diner , but dreams of becoming a singer somewhere beyond her small Kansas town . Swept up by a tornado , in her trailer home with pet prawn Toto , she lands in Oz and embarks on a journey to meet the Wizard who can help make her dreams come true .

The film co @-@ produced by The Muppets Studio , Touchstone Television , and Fox Television Studios , in association with The Jim Henson Company . Right after Disney bought the rights to The Muppets in 2004 , pre @-@ production on The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz took place throughout February 2004 , and filming occurred during September 2004 . ABC made several changes to the film after the initial script was written , ultimately deciding to adapt plot elements from Baum 's original novel rather than the 1939 MGM film , The Wizard of Oz . As with the preceding Muppet films , The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz became a musical , and included five new songs written and composed by Michael Giacchino . The production marked the feature film debut of Eric Jacobson as the performer of Sam Eagle , a character originally performed by Frank Oz .

The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz premiered on April 27 , 2005 at the Tribeca Film Festival . The film 's television premiere was broadcast on ABC on May 20 , 2005 , as the final ABC Movie of the Week . Overall , the film ended up receiving negative reviews from critics . Most critics agreed that the film was too mature for young audiences , and that the cameo scenes and popular culture references were unnecessary .

= = Plot = =

Dorothy Gale ( Ashanti ) is an orphaned teenage girl living in a trailer park in Kansas . Her Aunt Em ( Queen Latifah ) and Uncle Henry ( David Alan Grier ) own a diner , to which Dorothy works for room and board . Her dream of becoming a singer is slim , but when waiting on some truckers Dorothy overhears that the Muppets are conducting a cross @-@ country show called " Star Hunt " and are looking for a backup singer . Aunt Em disapproves , but with Uncle Henry 's best wishes , she goes to the audition . However , the Muppets are about to end the audition , and Dorothy only manages to give them a demo CD that she created beforehand . In returning home , the civil defense sirens sound as a tornado is headed for Dorothy 's trailer park . When Aunt Em and Uncle Henry run into the county storm shelter for safety , Dorothy hurries back to her family 's mobile home to get Toto , her pet prawn . She does not make it out in time , and the two are swept by the tornado across the vast fields of Kansas . When Dorothy climbs out of the wreckage , she finds that Toto ( Pepé the King Prawn ) can talk and that she is no longer in Kansas .

Dorothy and Toto discover that they are in Munchkinland , a small town part of the vast Land of Oz . After discussing her situation with the town 's people , the Munchkins ( played by Rizzo the Rat and the other rats ) , she learns that the land 's ruler the Wizard , has the power to grant her wish of becoming a famous singer . She meets the Good Witch of the North ( Miss Piggy ) , and receives a pair of magic silver slippers from the Wicked Witch of the East ( Miss Piggy ) , the Witch of the North 's sister who was killed when Dorothy 's trailer fell on her . Soon after , she embarks on a journey with Toto on the yellow brick road to meet the Wizard of Oz , who lives in the Emerald City , the capital of Oz . On her journey , she meets three creatures : a Scarecrow ( Kermit ) , a Tin Thing ( Gonzo ) , and a Cowardly Lion ( Fozzie ) . They are also seeking the Wizard of Oz to give them a brain , heart , and courage , respectively . The group meets various obstacles involving a deep gorge where the Kalidah Critics ( Statler and Waldorf ) are heckling them and a Poppy Field Club run by Clifford which nearly puts them to sleep . After arriving at the Emerald City and meeting the Wizard , Dorothy and her friends are sent to retrieve the Wicked Witch of the West 's magic eye , a tool she uses to see anything she desires in the Land of Oz .

The group assumes that completing this task will result in the granting of their wishes . The Wicked Witch of the West ( Miss Piggy ) sees them coming and consults with her pet Foo @-@ Foo and her henchman Johnny Fiama . When the Wicked Witch of the West plans to have either her pack of 40 great man @-@ eating wolves , a flock of 40 crows of despair , a swarm of angry black bees , a group of vicious squirrels , or a group of bloodthirsty cockatoos to do away with them , Johnny tells her that the animals that work for her are unavailable due to various reasons . This forces her to resort to using her Magic Biker Cap to call Sal Minella and the other Flying Monkeys ( played by Sweetums , Crazy Harry , Black Dog , Calico , Old Tom , Spotted Dick , and Aretha from Fraggle Rock ) to deal with them . The Witch and the Flying Monkeys capture Dorothy and Lion while Scarecrow and Tin Thing are dismantled by the Flying Monkeys .

After being threatened to be killed by her , Toto calls the Munchkins , who set Dorothy free and hold up the witch . During the final battle , it cuts away to a scene where Quentin Tarantino is with Kermit , discussing ideas for how Dorothy can defeat the Wicked Witch of the West . Tarantino 's ideas are deemed too expensive and too violent for a Muppet movie , so they agree for Dorothy to do a powerful kick on the witch . Cutting back to the action , Dorothy kicks the witch into her own " bottled water bath " which contains tap water ( to which she is severely allergic ) . Angel Marie admitted that he filled the water bottles with tap water to restock them . This action causes the Wicked Witch of the West to melt as Johnny averts Foo @-@ Foo 's eyes . With the Wicked Witch of the West dead , Dorothy finds the magic eye unharmed and floating in the tub and grabs it .

Dorothy gains control of the Flying Monkeys by giving back the group 's Magic Biker Cap to Sal Minella . She has Scarecrow and Tin Thing rebuilt by the Flying Monkeys . Then she and her friends travel back to the Emerald City to have their wishes granted . When they all storm into the Wizard 's room , they discover it is merely a Hollywood effects stage and that the Wizard ( Jeffrey Tambor ) is just an ordinary man , pretending . He asked for the witch 's eye so that she could not see him for who he really was . Even so , he still proceeds to grant their wishes . Dorothy finally becomes a singer in the Land of Oz , but she realizes that all she ever really wanted was to go back home and be with her family . After traveling back to Munchkinland , she meets Glinda the Good Witch of the South ( Miss Piggy ) , who tells her that if she clicks her heels together three times , she will be able to go anywhere she desires , contrary to how the Good Witch of the North said to get to the Emerald City . She does so , saying " take me home to Aunt Em " .

She is then spun by the slippers ' charm into Kansas , and , much to her surprise , she finds out that Kermit was looking for her , saying that she had the best voice they heard on the whole search , and that she has been chosen to go on the Star Hunt . Dorothy , having been reunited with her aunt and uncle , and feeling that she is not ready to leave Kansas to become a real star , rejects , but Aunt Em says that she wants her to go with the Muppets on their Star Hunt , much to her even bigger surprise . She then sings " Good Life " on television with them as the film ends .

= = Cast = =

Ashanti as Dorothy Gale : A Kansas teen dreaming of leaving her home and becoming a singer .

Queen Latifah as Aunt Em : Dorothy 's aunt and co @-@ owner of the family diner in Kansas .

David Alan Grier as Uncle Henry : Dorothy 's uncle and co @-@ owner of the family diner .

Jeffrey Tambor as The Wizard of Oz : The legendary Wizard of Oz . This is Tambor 's second appearance in a Muppet film , the first being Muppets from Space .

Quentin Tarantino as Himself ( Extended version ) : In a short appearance with Kermit the Frog , Tarantino discusses ideas on how to stop the Wicked Witch of the West . Despite the fact that his role is small his name is still mentioned in the movie trailer and listed on the cover of both the Video and DVD .

Kelly Osbourne as Dorothy Gale ( post @-@ makeover ) ( Extended version ) : Appears in a brief cameo as Dorothy when she first comes out of the Magic Makeover Machine in Emerald City .

= = = Muppet performers = = =

Steve Whitmire as :

Kermit the Frog as Himself / Scarecrow : A scarecrow in search of a brain . Scarecrow is constantly mocked by the crows in Oz , as he is defenseless and cannot do anything to stop them . Prior to Dorothy 's journey , Kermit organizes a talent scout for a star for a new show . After Dorothy 's return , he hires her .

Beaker : He appears as an Emerald City Technician . Beaker also appears at the end in the Muppets ' show .

Rizzo the Rat as Mayor of Munchkinland / Himself . He occasionally aids Dorothy when she is in danger . Prior to Dorothy 's journey , Rizzo is seen assisting Bean Bunny in loading equipment into the Muppets ' bus . He returns for the Muppets ' show at the end of the film .

Statler as Kalidah Critic # 1 . He heckles Dorothy and her friends as they try to cross a log .

Dave Goelz as :

The Great Gonzo as the Tin Thing / Himself : A robot in search of a heart . Originally human , the Tin Thing was turned into a robot by the Wicked Witch of the West who was angry at him for asking to leave her palace and marry his fiancée , Camilla the Chicken . He also appears at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .

Dr. Bunsen Honeydew : He appears as an Emerald City Technician . He also appears at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .

Waldorf as Kalidah Critic # 2 . He and the other Kalidah Critic heckles Dorothy and her friends as they try to cross a log .

Zoot : He performs backup for the songs " Naptime " , and for the " The Witch is in the House " , and appears at the end of the film in the Muppets ' new show .

Bill Barretta as :

Pepé the King Prawn as Toto : Dorothy 's pet prawn and first companion on her journey . In Kansas , Toto was a prawn that lived in a fish bowl in Dorothy 's room . Strangely , Pepé doesn 't appear in the finale with the other Muppets .

Dr. Teeth : He performs " Naptime " , and also performs in " The Witch is in the House " . He appears again at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .

Johnny Fiama : He appears as one of the henchmen of the Wicked Witch of the West , and is supposedly her love interest .

Lew Zealand : He briefly appears in Emerald City at the red carpet event , asking Dorothy to sign his boomerang fish .

The Swedish Chef : He provides the Bran Flakes for the Wizard .

Bubba the Rat : He assists the Mayor of Munchkin Land in getting Dorothy and the Lion out of Poppyfields .

Eric Jacobson as :

Miss Piggy as Herself : She appears early on with Kermit , and tries to get rid of Dorothy . She returns at the end of the film for the Muppets ' show .

as The Wicked Witch of the West : The Wicked Witch that terrifies all that meet her .

as The Tattypoo the Good Witch of the North : The Good Witch that gives Dorothy the silver slippers .

as The Glinda the Good Witch of the South : The other Good Witch that shows Dorothy how to get home .

as The Wicked Witch of the East : The original owner of the magic slippers who was killed by Dorothy 's falling mobile home .

Fozzie Bear as The Cowardly Bear / Himself : A nervous and frightened lion stand @-@ up comic that accompanies Dorothy and the others on their journey . Fozzie shows up at the end of the film in the Muppets ' show .

Animal : He performs in the songs " Naptime " and " The Witch is in the House " .

Sam Eagle : He appears as the Guardian of the Gates . Sam doesn 't appear in the Muppets ' show at the end of the film .

Brian Henson as :

Sal Manilla as Sal , a Flying Monkey : He accompanies Johnny for much of the film .

Kevin Clash as :

Clifford : He appears as the manager of the Poppy Field Club .

Mulch : He appears briefly in Poppyfields .

Black Dog as a Flying Monkey

John Kennedy as :

Angel Marie as a Flying Monkey : A servant of the Wicked Witch of the West .

Floyd Pepper : He performs in " Naptime " and " The Witch is in the House " .

Rickey Boyd as :

Scooter : He appears as the Wizard 's Assistant .

Crazy Harry as a Flying Monkey

Tyler Bunch as :

Janice : She performs in " Naptime " and " The Witch is in the House " .

Old Tom as a Flying Monkey

Pop and Treelo

Julianne Buescher as

Wizard 's Green Lady and Chicken Forms

John Henson as

Sweetums as a Flying Monkey : He provides the keys for the Cowardly Lion 's escape from his cage .

Mike Quinn as

Spotted Dick as a Flying Monkey

Allan Trautman as

Crow : He bothers the Scarecrow .

Old Tom as a Flying Monkey

Alice Dinnean as :

Camilla the Chicken : The Tin Thing 's girlfriend . The two are reunited later on in the film .

Foo @-@ Foo : Foo @-@ Foo appears as the pet of the Wicked Witch of the West .

Additional Muppets performed by Adam Behr , Jeny Cassidy , Drew Massey , Gord Robertson , Geoff Redknap , and James Rowley .

Steve Whitmire and Dave Goelz appear as audience members at Aunt Em 's Diner during the finale .

= = Production = =

When The Walt Disney Company acquired the Muppets franchise from The Jim Henson Company in February 2004 , the Muppets were re @-@ introduced to the public by marketing products and guest appearing on television shows such as Good Morning America and America 's Funniest Home Videos . After a new film titled The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz was announced by The Jim Henson Company , Fox Television Studios , Touchstone Television , and the Muppets Holding Company signed on to help produce it .

Filming took place throughout September 2004 in Vancouver , British Columbia . Before filming , ABC announced that the production would adapt elements from the original 1900 book , rather than the 1939 film. such as the Silver Shoes instead of the Ruby slippers . On August 25 , 2004 , it was announced that Hilary Duff , Jessica Simpson , and Ashanti had auditioned for the role of Dorothy Gale , but Ashanti had won the part . When asked about how she felt about working with the Muppets , Ashanti replied , " I love children , and to me , the Muppets are just like little kids . " She also stated , " The director had to give me a few pointers and tips for acting with them , but the most important thing that I learned was to keep eye contact . " Also in August 2004 , BBC News reported that Quentin Tarantino would appear in the film .

= = Music = =

Michael Giacchino , who had previously worked on a Muppet @-@ related project which is video game Muppet Monster Adventure and would become an Academy Award @-@ winning composer , worked with Jeannie Lurie , Adam Cohen , Debra Frank , and Steve Hayes to write five original songs for the film . The five songs created were " Kansas " , " When I 'm With You " , " It 's a Good Life " , " The Witch is in the House " , and " Nap Time " . " When I 'm With You " was later nominated for a Primetime Emmy in the Outstanding Music and Lyrics category , but lost to " Mary Jane / Mary Lane " from Reefer Madness . Ashanti and the Muppet cast , mainly Bill Barretta and Eric Jacobson , contributed the vocals for each of the songs . Ted Kryczko produced the album , Booker T. Washington White prepared the songs for recording , and Paul Silveira and Brandon Christy mixed the film 's songs .

= = = Soundtrack = = =

The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz official soundtrack was released on May 17 , 2005 . The album was an enhanced soundtrack titled Best of Muppets featuring The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz as it was not a film @-@ specific soundtrack , but an album featuring the Muppets ' best songs from The Muppet Show as well as songs from the film .

Track listing

" ( Gotta Get Outta ) Kansas " - Ashanti

" When I 'm With You " – Ashanti , Kermit , Gonzo , Fozzie & Pepe

" The Witch Is in the House " – Miss Piggy with Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem

" Calling All Munchkins " – The Munchkin Tap @-@ Your @-@ Knuckles Choir

" Good Life " – Ashanti

" Nap Time " – Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem

" The Muppet Show Theme " – The Muppets

" Mah Nà Mah Nà " – Mahna Mahna & the Two Snowths

" Bein ' Green " – Kermit the Frog

" Rainbow Connection " – Kermit & Muppets With Sesame Street Gang

" Lady of Spain " – Marvin Suggs & his Muppaphone

" Halfway Down the Stairs " – Kermit & Robin

" What Now My Love ? " – Miss Piggy

" Tenderly " – Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem

" Happy Feet " – Kermit and the Frog Chorus

= = Release = =

The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz premiered on April 27 , 2005 at the Tribeca Film Festival . The television premiere was on May 20 , 2005 at 8 : 00pm on ABC in the US , where it was rated TV @-@ PG . It aired in Canada on CBC Television , and in the UK on December 18 , 2005 . In the US , the film 's official soundtrack was released on May 17 , 2005 . Buena Vista Home Entertainment released the DVD and VHS in both the US and in international territories . The film was released to Region 1 DVD and VHS on August 9 , 2005 . The Canadian Home Video Classification System rated the film G for all home video releases within Canadian territories . The Region 2 DVD was released on April 3 , 2006 . The film was rated U by the British Board of Film Classification , K @-@ 3 in Finland , and G in Australia . The DVD and VHS were released under the title Extended Version in the US and Anniversary Edition outside the US . The extended version contains 20 minutes of footage cut from the feature film , including the footage of the Kelly Osbourne and Quentin Tarantino cameos . The DVD and VHS included an extended interview with Quentin Tarantino , a blooper reel , and a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at the film guided by Pepe the Prawn . In the US , the DVD and VHS release of the film was in a 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ( fullscreen ) aspect ratio , whereas the international versions are in the original 1 @.@ 78 : 1 ( widescreen ) aspect ratio . During Macy 's annual Flower Show promotion , the store 's windows along Broadway displayed flower arrangements illustrating six scenes from the movie , while the store sold The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz @-@ related merchandise , such as plush dolls .

= = = Critical reception = = =

7 @.@ 75 million viewers watched The Muppets ' Wizard of Oz on its television premiere night in the United States ; it ranked as the forty @-@ second most @-@ watched television program of the week . Michael Schneider of Variety wrote that it " performed solidly ... particularly with adults 18 – 34 , teens and kids . " The film received negative reviews from critics . At Rotten Tomatoes , the movie currently holds a 38 % " rotten " rating , with an average of three out of eight critics giving the film a positive review .

For the film 's positive response , Kevin Carr stated that " When you dig down and actually find ( and watch ) the new Muppet material , some of the magic is still there . " MaryAnn Johanson of Flick Filosopher said that , " It 's not on a par with the Muppet movie madness of old , but it 's darn close . " According to the Bums Corner 's review the film was a " treat for all ages , and that it was a colorful , musical , humorous romp . " Keith Allen of Movie Rapture gave the film 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 3 , explaining that the film 's humor was surprisingly clever , and that the film would frequently make you laugh . Mutant Reviewers commented that although the Muppet deal with Walt Disney was " disappointing " , the film managed to be funny and witty .

For the film 's " negative " response , David Nusair of Reel Film Reviews warned that the film was " strictly for kids " Nusair stated that although Ashanti can sing , she cannot act . Joshua Tyler of Cinema Blend explained that Dorothy visiting the Wizard of Oz to become a star instead of going back home was a big mistake , and that it showed how shallow society has become . R.J. Carter of The Trades gave the film a B- , also stating that Dorothy 's wish to become a star was a selfish one . Ultimate Disney 's review found that the extended version of the film did more harm than good ; Andy Dursin of The Aisle Seat said that the original film was " dull " and that the extended version was actually an improvement . Cold Fusion Video felt that although the film was entertaining , it lacked the heart and wit of Jim Henson 's Muppet films . Bryan Pope of DVD Verdict said that the film drained the Muppets of their spirit and was slightly gratuitous . Techtite TV reviews felt that the film was done poorly on all levels , and that the film was on the higher end of TV @-@ PG .

Other reviewers felt that the film 's attempt to appeal to an older , more mature audience was ultimately a bad idea . Kerry Bennett of Parent Previews warned that it sometimes steered " dangerously off course " due to an excess of sexual content and violence . Referential humor to the marriage of Jennifer Lopez , Manolo Blahnik style silver shoes , and films such as Girls Gone Wild , The Passion of the Christ , Apocalypse Now , and Kill Bill : Volume 1 were seen as too mature . Cold Fusion Video judged the Kelly Osbourne cameo as " pointless " . Dursin contrasted the two guest appearances and found that the Tarantino cameo dragged the film down . Critics were split on the merits of ABC 's modernized adaptation to rely on plot elements from the original novel instead of the iconic 1939 film .

= Mourning dove =

The mourning dove ( Zenaida macroura ) is a member of the dove family , Columbidae . The bird is also known as the turtle dove , American mourning dove or the rain dove , and was once known as the Carolina pigeon or Carolina Turtledove . It is one of the most abundant and widespread of all North American birds . It is also a leading gamebird , with more than 20 million birds ( up to 70 million in some years ) shot annually in the U.S. , both for sport and for meat . Its ability to sustain its population under such pressure is due to its prolific breeding ; in warm areas , one pair may raise up to six broods of two young each in a single year . The wings make an unusual whistling sound upon take @-@ off and landing , a form of sonation . The bird is a strong flier , capable of speeds up to 88 km / h ( 55 mph ) .

Mourning doves are light grey and brown and generally muted in color . Males and females are similar in appearance . The species is generally monogamous , with two squabs ( young ) per brood . Both parents incubate and care for the young . Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds , but the young are fed crop milk by their parents .

= = Taxonomy = =

The mourning dove is closely related to the eared dove ( Zenaida auriculata ) and the Socorro dove ( Zenaida graysoni ) . Some authorities describe them as forming a superspecies and these three birds are sometimes classified in the separate genus Zenaidura , but the current classification has them as separate species in the genus Zenaida . In addition , the Socorro dove has at times been considered conspecific with the mourning dove , although several differences in behavior , call , and appearance justify separation as two different species . While the three species do form a subgroup of Zenaida , using a separate genus would interfere with the monophyly of Zenaida by making it paraphyletic .

There are five subspecies of mourning dove :

Eastern Z. m. carolinensis ( Linnaeus , 1766 )

Clarion Island Z. m. clarionensis ( C.H.Townsend , 1890 )

West Indian Z. m. macroura ( Linnaeus , 1758 )

Western Z. m. marginella ( Woodhouse , 1852 )

Panama Z. m. turturilla Wetmore , 1956

The ranges of most of the subspecies overlap a little , with three in the United States or Canada . The West Indian subspecies is found throughout the Greater Antilles . It has recently invaded the Florida Keys . The eastern subspecies is found mainly in eastern North America , as well as Bermuda and the Bahamas . The western subspecies is found in western North America , including parts of Mexico . The Panamanian subspecies is located in Central America . The Clarion Island subspecies is found only on Clarion Island , just off the Pacific coast of Mexico .

The mourning dove is sometimes called the " American mourning dove " to distinguish it from the distantly related mourning collared dove ( Streptopelia decipiens ) of Africa . It was also formerly known as the " Carolina turtledove " and the " Carolina pigeon " . The genus name was bestowed in 1838 by French zoologist Charles L. Bonaparte in honor of his wife , Princess Zénaide , and macroura is from Ancient Greek makros , " long " and oura , " tail " . The " mourning " part of its common name comes from its call .

The mourning dove was thought to be the passenger pigeon 's closest living relative , based on morphological grounds . The mourning dove was even suggested to belong to the same genus , Ectopistes , and was listed by some authors as E. carolinensis .

= = Distribution = =

The mourning dove has a large range of nearly 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The species is resident throughout the Greater Antilles , most of Mexico , the Continental United States , and southern Canada . Much of the Canadian prairie sees these birds in summer only , and southern Central America sees them in winter only . The species is a vagrant in northern Canada , Alaska , and South America . It has been spotted as an accidental at least seven times in the Western Palearctic with records from the British Isles ( 5 ) , the Azores ( 1 ) and Iceland ( 1 ) . In 1963 , the mourning dove was introduced to Hawaii , and in 1998 there was still a small population in North Kona . The mourning dove also appeared on Socorro Island , off the western coast of Mexico , in 1988 , sixteen years after the Socorro dove was extirpated from that island .

= = Description = =

The mourning dove is a medium @-@ sized , slender dove approximately 31 cm ( 12 in ) in length . Mourning doves weigh 112 – 170 g ( 4 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 0 oz ) , usually closer to 128 g ( 4 @.@ 5 oz ) . The elliptical wings are broad , and the head is rounded . Its tail is long and tapered ( " macroura " comes from the Greek words for " large " and " tail " ) . Mourning doves have perching feet , with three toes forward and one reversed . The legs are short and reddish colored . The beak is short and dark , usually a brown @-@ black hue .

The plumage is generally light gray @-@ brown and lighter and pinkish below . The wings have black spotting , and the outer tail feathers are white , contrasting with the black inners . Below the eye is a distinctive crescent @-@ shaped area of dark feathers . The eyes are dark , with light skin surrounding them . The adult male has bright purple @-@ pink patches on the neck sides , with light pink coloring reaching the breast . The crown of the adult male is a distinctly bluish @-@ grey color . Females are similar in appearance , but with more brown coloring overall and a little smaller than the male . The iridescent feather patches on the neck above the shoulders are nearly absent , but can be quite vivid on males . Juvenile birds have a scaly appearance , and are generally darker .

All five subspecies of the mourning dove look similar and are not easily distinguishable . The nominate subspecies possesses shorter wings , and is darker and more buff @-@ colored than the " average " mourning dove . Z. m. carolinensis has longer wings and toes , a shorter beak , and is darker in color . The western subspecies has longer wings , a longer beak , shorter toes , and is more muted and lighter in color . The Panama mourning dove has shorter wings and legs , a longer beak , and is grayer in color . The Clarion Island subspecies possesses larger feet , a larger beak , and is darker brown in color .

= = Habitat = =

The mourning dove occupies a wide variety of open and semi @-@ open habitats , such as urban areas , farms , prairie , grassland , and lightly wooded areas . It avoids swamps and thick forest . The species has adapted well to areas altered by humans . They commonly nest in trees in cities or near farmsteads .

= = Migration = =

Most mourning doves migrate along flyways over land . On rare occasions , mourning doves have been seen flying over the Gulf of Mexico , but this is exceptional . Spring migration north runs from March to May . Fall migration south runs from September to November , with immatures moving first , followed by adult females and then by adult males . Migration is usually during the day , in flocks , and at low altitudes . However , not all individuals migrate . Even in Canada some mourning doves remain through winter , sustained by the presence of bird feeders .

= = Sounds = =

This species ' call is a distinctive , plaintive cooOOoo @-@ woo @-@ woo @-@ woooo , uttered by males to attract females , and may be mistaken for the call of an owl at first . ( Close up , a grating or throat @-@ rattling sound may be heard preceding the first coo . ) Other sounds include a nest call ( cooOOoo ) by paired males to attract their mates to the nest sites , a greeting call ( a soft ork ) by males upon rejoining their mates , and an alarm call ( a short roo @-@ oo ) by either male or female when threatened . In flight , the wings make a fluttery whistling sound that is hard to hear . The wing whistle is much louder and more noticeable upon take @-@ off and landing .

= = Reproduction = =

Courtship begins with a noisy flight by the male , followed by a graceful , circular glide with outstretched wings and head down . After landing , the male will approach the female with a puffed @-@ out breast , bobbing head , and loud calls . Mated pairs will often preen each other 's feathers .

The male then leads the female to potential nest sites , and the female will choose one . The female dove builds the nest . The male will fly about , gather material , and bring it to her . The male will stand on the female 's back and give the material to the female , who then builds it into the nest . The nest is constructed of twigs , conifer needles , or grass blades , and is of flimsy construction . Mourning doves will sometimes requisition the unused nests of other mourning doves , other birds , or arboreal mammals such as squirrels .

Most nests are in trees , both deciduous and coniferous . Sometimes , they can be found in shrubs , vines , or on artificial constructs like buildings , or hanging flower pots . When there is no suitable elevated object , mourning doves will nest on the ground .

See link below for : courtship dance and mating .

The clutch size is almost always two eggs . Occasionally , however , a female will lay her eggs in the nest of another pair , leading to three or four eggs in the nest . The eggs are white , 6 @.@ 6 ml ( 0 @.@ 23 imp fl oz ; 0 @.@ 22 US fl oz ) , 2 @.@ 57 – 2 @.@ 96 cm ( 1 @.@ 01 – 1 @.@ 17 in ) long , 2 @.@ 06 – 2 @.@ 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 81 – 0 @.@ 91 in ) wide , 6 – 7 g ( 0 @.@ 21 – 0 @.@ 25 oz ) at laying ( 5 – 6 % of female body mass ) . Both sexes incubate , the male from morning to afternoon , and the female the rest of the day and at night . Mourning doves are devoted parents ; nests are very rarely left unattended by the adults . When flushed from the nest , an incubating parent may perform a nest @-@ distraction display , or a broken @-@ wing display , fluttering on the ground as if injured , then flying away when the predator approaches it .

Incubation takes two weeks . The hatched young , called squabs , are strongly altricial , being helpless at hatching and covered with down . Both parents feed the squabs pigeon 's milk ( dove 's milk ) for the first 3 – 4 days of life . Thereafter , the crop milk is gradually augmented by seeds . Fledging takes place in about 11 – 15 days , before the squabs are fully grown but after they are capable of digesting adult food . They stay nearby to be fed by their father for up to two weeks after fledging .

Mourning doves are prolific breeders . In warmer areas , these birds may raise up to six broods in a season . This fast breeding is essential because mortality is high . Each year , mortality can reach 58 % a year for adults and 69 % for the young .

The mourning dove is monogamous and forms strong pair bonds . Pairs typically reconvene in the same area the following breeding season , and sometimes may remain together throughout the winter . However , lone doves will find new partners if necessary .

= = Ecology = =

Mourning doves eat almost exclusively seeds , which make up more than 99 % of their diet . Rarely , they will eat snails or insects . Mourning doves generally eat enough to fill their crops and then fly away to digest while resting . They often swallow grit such as fine gravel or sand to assist with digestion . The species usually forages on the ground , walking but not hopping . At bird feeders , mourning doves are attracted to one of the largest ranges of seed types of any North American bird , with a preference for canola , corn , millet , safflower , and sunflower seeds . Mourning doves do not dig or scratch for seeds , though they will push aside ground litter ; instead they eat what is readily visible . They will sometimes perch on plants and eat from there .

Mourning doves show a preference for the seeds of certain species of plant over others . Foods taken in preference to others include pine nuts , sweetgum seeds , and the seeds of pokeberry , amaranth , canary grass , corn , sesame , and wheat . When their favorite foods are absent , mourning doves will eat the seeds of other plants , including buckwheat , rye , goosegrass and smartweed .

Mourning doves can be afflicted with several different parasites and diseases , including tapeworms , nematodes , mites , and lice . The mouth @-@ dwelling parasite Trichomonas gallinae is particularly severe . While a mourning dove will sometimes host it without symptoms , it will often cause yellowish growth in the mouth and esophagus that will eventually starve the host to death . Avian pox is a common , insect @-@ vectored disease .

The primary predators of this species are diurnal birds of prey , such as falcons and hawks . During nesting , corvids , grackles , housecats , or rat snakes will prey on their eggs . Cowbirds rarely parasitize mourning dove nests . Mourning doves reject slightly under a third of cowbird eggs in such nests , and the mourning dove 's vegetarian diet is unsuitable for cowbirds .

= = Behavior = =

Like other columbids , the mourning dove drinks by suction , without lifting or tilting its head . It often gathers at drinking spots around dawn and dusk .

Mourning doves sunbathe or rainbathe by lying on the ground or on a flat tree limb , leaning over , stretching one wing , and keeping this posture for up to twenty minutes . These birds can also waterbathe in shallow pools or bird baths . Dustbathing is common as well .

Outside the breeding season , mourning doves roost communally in dense deciduous trees or in conifers . During sleep , the head rests between the shoulders , close to the body ; it is not tucked under the shoulder feathers as in many other species . During the winter in Canada , roosting flights to the roosts in the evening , and out of the roosts in the morning , are delayed on colder days .

= = Conservation status = =

The number of individual mourning doves is estimated to be approximately 475 million . The large population and its vast range explain why the mourning dove is considered to be of least concern , meaning that the species is not at immediate risk . As a gamebird , the mourning dove is well @-@ managed , with more than 20 million ( and up to 40 – 70 million ) shot by hunters each year .

= = As a symbol and in the arts = =

The eastern mourning dove ( Z. m. carolinensis ) is Wisconsin 's official symbol of peace . The bird is also Michigan 's state bird of peace .

The mourning dove appears as the Carolina turtle @-@ dove on plate 286 of Audubon 's Birds of America .

References to mourning doves appear frequently in Native American literature . Mourning dove imagery also turns up in contemporary American and Canadian poetry in the work of poets as diverse as Robert Bly , Jared Carter , Lorine Niedecker , and Charles Wright .

= = Closest related species = =

The mourning dove is a related species to the passenger pigeon ( Ectopistes migratorius ) , which was hunted to extinction in the early 1900s . For this reason , the possibility of using mourning doves for cloning the passenger pigeon has been discussed .

= Prince Alfred of Great Britain =

The Prince Alfred ( 22 September 1780 – 20 August 1782 ) was a member of the British Royal Family as the 14th child and 9th son of King George III and his queen consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz . Alfred became ill after his inoculation against the smallpox virus ; his early death at the age of nearly two , along with the demise of his brother Prince Octavius six months later , was a shock to their parents . In his later bouts of madness King George would have imagined conversations with both of his youngest sons .

= = Life = =

Prince Alfred was born , on 22 September 1780 , at Windsor Castle , Windsor , England . His father was King George III , his mother Charlotte of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz . The prince was baptised by Frederick Cornwallis , The Archbishop of Canterbury , in the Great Council Chamber at St James 's Palace on 21 October 1780 . His godparents were The Prince of Wales ( his eldest brother ) , The Prince Frederick ( his second brother ) and The Princess Royal ( his eldest sister ) . As his parents ' fourteenth child and ninth son , his birth was no surprise but it did bring joy to his family , especially to his older sister Sophia , who , their sister Elizabeth reported , called the new baby her " grandson " .

= = = Death and aftermath = = =

In 1782 , Prince Alfred was inoculated against smallpox . The sickness proved too much for the baby and in June he was taken to Deal with his nurse Lady Charlotte Finch to recover . It was hoped that the sea air , bathing in the water , and horseback riding would improve his condition . While he was there , Alfred endeared himself to many , including an old woman whom he waved to . In spite of his charming disposition , he continued to break out in spots and his chest was troubling him . When he returned to Windsor in August 1782 , the doctors inspected him and realized that the boy had only weeks to live . After suffering bouts of fever and continuing problems with his chest , Prince Alfred died on 20 August 1782 , at Windsor Castle , Berkshire , not even two years old .

Although the household did not go into mourning ( it was not prescribed for royal children younger than fourteen ) , his parents took the loss harshly . According to Lady Charlotte Finch , the Queen " cried vastly " and was " very much hurt by her loss and the King also . " Alfred was buried at Westminster Abbey , though his remains were later moved to the Royal Vault in St. George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle on 11 February 1820 . His father continued to dwell on his death , and the sight of Alfred 's posthumous portrait in a family painting by Thomas Gainsborough nearly a year after Alfred 's death sent his three eldest sisters into tears . Six months after Alfred 's death , his elder brother Octavius succumbed to the smallpox virus , further devastating the king . During one of his bouts of madness in 1812 , George would have imaginary conversations with his two youngest sons .

His youngest sister Princess Amelia was conceived in the months after Alfred 's death , born almost exactly a year after he died . The first of George III and Queen Charlotte 's children to die , Alfred died nearly seventy five years before his older sister Mary , who was the last survivor of George III and Queen Charlotte 's fifteen children . Alfred is also unique among their first fourteen children for never being an older sibling while he was alive , as the only child younger than him was born after his death .

= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =

= = = Titles and styles = = =

22 September 1780 – 20 August 1782 : His Royal Highness The Prince Alfred

= = Ancestry = =

= United States Assay Commission =

The United States Assay Commission was an agency of the United States government from 1792 to 1980 . Its function was to supervise the annual testing of the gold , silver , and ( in its final years ) base metal coins produced by the United States Mint to ensure that they met specifications . Although some members were designated by statute , for the most part the commission , which was freshly appointed each year , consisted of prominent Americans , including numismatists . Appointment to the Assay Commission was eagerly sought after , in part because commissioners received a commemorative medal . These medals , different each year , are extremely rare , with the exception of the 1977 issue , which was sold to the general public .

The Mint Act of 1792 authorized the Assay Commission . Beginning in 1797 , it met in most years at the Philadelphia Mint . Each year , the President of the United States appointed unpaid members , who would gather in Philadelphia to ensure the weight and fineness of silver and gold coins issued the previous year were to specifications . In 1971 , the commission met , but for the first time had no gold or silver to test , with the end of silver coinage . Beginning in 1977 , President Jimmy Carter appointed no members of the public to the commission , and in 1980 , he signed legislation abolishing it .

= = History = =

= = = Founding and early days ( 1792 – 1873 ) = = =

In January 1791 , Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton submitted a report to Congress proposing the establishment of a mint . Hamilton concluded his report :

The remedy for errors in the weight and alloy of the coins , must necessarily form a part , in the system of a mint ; and the manner of applying it will require to be regulated . The following account is given of the practice in England , in this particular : A certain number of pieces are taken promiscuously out of every fifteen pounds of gold , coined at the Mint , which are deposited , for safe keeping , in a strong box , called the pix [ sic , more commonly " pyx " ] . This box , from time to time , is opened in the presence of the Lord Chancellor , the officers of the Treasury , and others , and portions are selected from the pieces of each coinage , which are melted together , and the mass assayed by a jury of the Company of Goldsmiths ... The expediency of some similar regulation seems to be manifest .

In response to Hamilton 's report , Congress passed the Mint Act of 1792 . In addition to setting the standards for the new nation 's coinage , Congress provided for an American version of the British Trial of the Pyx :

That from every separate mass of standard gold or silver , which shall be made into coins at the said Mint , there shall be taken , set apart by the Treasurer and reserved in his custody a certain number of pieces , not less than three , and that once in every year the pieces so set apart and reserved , shall be assayed under the inspection of the Chief Justice of the United States , the Secretary and Comptroller of the Treasury , the Secretary for the Department of State , and the Attorney General of the United States , ( who are hereby required to attend for that purpose at the said Mint , on the last Monday in July in each year ) ... and if it shall be found that the gold and silver so assayed , shall not be inferior to their respective standards herein before declared more than one part in one hundred and forty @-@ four parts , the officer or officers of the said Mint whom it may concern shall be held excusable ; but if any greater inferiority shall appear , it shall be certified to the President of the United States , and the said officer or officers shall be deemed disqualified to hold their respective offices .

The following January , Congress passed legislation changing the date on which the designated officials met to the second Monday in February . Meetings did not take place immediately ; the Mint was not yet striking gold or silver . Minting of silver began in 1794 and gold in 1795 , and some coins were saved for assay : the first Mint document mentioning assay pieces is from January 1796 and indicates that exactly $ 80 in silver had been put aside . The first assay commissioners did not meet until Monday , March 20 , 1797 , a month later than the prescribed date . Once they did , annual meetings took place each year until 1980 , except in 1817 as there had been no gold or silver struck since the last meeting ( until 1837 , the commission examined the coins since the last testing , rather than for a particular calendar year ) .

In 1801 , the usual meeting was delayed , causing Mint Director Elias Boudinot to complain to President John Adams that depositors were anxious for an audit so the Mint could release coins struck from their bullion . Numismatist Fred Reed suggested that the delay was probably due to poor weather , making it difficult for officials to travel from the new capital of Washington , D.C. , to Philadelphia for the assay . In response , on March 3 , 1801 , Congress changed the designation of officials required to attend to " the district judge of Pennsylvania , the attorney for the United States in the district of Pennsylvania , and the commissioner of loans for the State of Pennsylvania " . The meeting finally took place on April 27 , 1801 . The 1806 and 1815 sessions were delayed because of outbreaks of disease in Philadelphia ; the one in 1812 was held a month late because of a heavy snowstorm which prevented the commissioners from reaching the Mint . No meeting took place in 1817 ; a fire had damaged the Philadelphia Mint in January 1816 , and no gold or silver awaited the commission . In 1818 , Congress substituted the Collector of the Port of Philadelphia for the Pennsylvania loans commissioner as a member of the Assay Commission . With the Coinage Act of 1834 , Congress removed the automatic disqualification of Mint officers in the event of an unfavorable assay , leaving the decision to the president .

The Mint Act of 1837 established the Assay Commission in the form it would have for most of the remainder of its existence . It provided that " an annual trial shall be made of the pieces reserved for this purpose [ i.e. , set aside for the assay ] at the Mint and its branches , before the judge of the district court of the United States , for the eastern district of Pennsylvania , the attorney of the United States , for the eastern district of Pennsylvania , and the collector of the port of Philadelphia , and such other persons as the President shall , from time to time , designate for that purpose , who shall meet as commissioners , for the performance of this duty , on the second Monday in February , annually " . The usual procedure for members of the public to be named to the commission after public appointments began was for the Mint Director to send the president a list of candidates for his approval . According to Jesse P. Watson in his monograph on the Bureau of the Mint , the admission of members of the public to the Assay Commission meant " that permanency and high official dignity were no longer characteristic of the commission " .

In 1861 , as the American Civil War broke out , North Carolina joined the Confederate States . The Charlotte Mint , taken over by the Confederacy , eventually closed as the dies that had been shipped from the Philadelphia Mint wore out , and it could obtain no more . Nevertheless , 12 half eagles ( $ 5 gold coins ) were sent from Charlotte to Philadelphia , through enemy lines , in October 1861 . They were duly tested by the 1862 Assay Commission , and were found to be correct .

In 1864 , with the metal nickel , used in the cent in short supply , Mint Director James Pollock asked that year 's commission to opine on a substitute for the copper @-@ nickel used in the cent . The members endorsed French bronze ( 95 % copper and 5 % tin or zinc ) as a metal to be used in the cent and a proposed two @-@ cent piece . Pollock sent the conclusions to Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , who forwarded them ( and draft legislation ) to Maine Senator William P. Fessenden , chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . The Coinage Act of 1864 was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on April 22 , 1864 .

= = = Later years ( 1873 – 1949 ) = = =

The Coinage Act of 1873 revised the laws relating to coinage and the Mint and retired several denominations including the two @-@ cent piece . The act also changed the officers required to serve on the Assay Commission :

That to secure a due conformity in the gold and silver coins to their respective standards of fineness and weight , the judge of the district court of the United States for the eastern district of Pennsylvania , the Comptroller of the Currency , the assayer of the assay @-@ office at New York , and such other persons as the President shall , from time to time , designate , shall meet as assay @-@ commissioners , at the mint in Philadelphia , to examine and test , in the presence of the Director of the Mint , the fineness and weight of the coins reserved by the several mints for this purpose , on the second Wednesday in February , annually .

The act also required the Mint to put aside one of every thousand gold coins struck , and one of every two thousand silver coins for the assay . It provided the procedure for putting the coins aside , sealing them in envelopes , and placing them in a pyx to be opened by the assay commissioners .

The 1881 Assay Commission found that approximately 3 @,@ 000 silver dollars struck at the Carson City Mint ( 1881 @-@ CC ) had been struck in .892 silver rather than the legally mandated .900 . It is unclear if the Treasury took any steps to attempt to recover the issued pieces . The 1885 commission detected a single silver dollar which was 1 @.@ 51 grains ( 0 @.@ 098 g ) below specifications , the permitted tolerance being 1 @.@ 50 grains ( 0 @.@ 097 g ) . In 1921 , the Assay Commission found that some coins struck at the Denver Mint were struck in .905 or .906 silver , above the legal .900 by more than the permitted tolerance . Investigation found that ingots which had been rejected and were intended for melting had instead been used for coin . In the early 20th century , the San Francisco Mint struck silver coins for the Philippines , then a US possession ; those pieces were included in the assay . Proof coins struck by the Mint for collectors were included in the assay ; pieces struck under contract with foreign governments were not .

The pyx was a rosewood box , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) square , of European work , and sealed by heavy padlocks . It was not filled by the coins put aside for the 1934 Assay Commission , of which there were 759 with a total face value of $ 12 @,@ 050 . This had increased by 1940 to 79 @,@ 847 coins , all silver as gold coins were no longer being struck , and by 1941 , many reserved coins could not be kept in the pyx , instead being placed in packing boxes , overflowing with sealed envelopes . By the late 1940s , more than ten million coins were being struck each day at Philadelphia alone ; in 1947 , Congress reduced the number of silver coins required to be put aside for assay from one in 2 @,@ 000 to one in 10 @,@ 000 . This was done at the urging of the Department of the Treasury , as having to store so many assay coins was a burden to the Mint , and it felt that the number of coins available to the commission would still be sufficient .

= = = Final years and abolition ( 1950 – 1980 ) = = =

By the 1950s , there was considerable competition among numismatists to be appointed an assay commissioner . Appointees received no compensation , but the appointment was prestigious and carried with it a prized assay medal . The procedure was changed so that the Mint Director submitted the names of more individuals than would actually be appointed to the White House , where the final choices were made . It remained possible for the director to ask for special consideration for certain individuals . Later nominations were also screened by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and by the IRS . The Mint Director received nominations for assay commissioner from legislators , political organizations , government officials , and from members of the public .

In 1971 , for the first time , the Assay Commission had no silver coins to test ; none were struck by the Mint for circulation in 1970 . Although part @-@ silver Kennedy half dollars were struck in 1970 , they were only for collectors and were not put aside for assay . Commissioners could instead test 21 @,@ 975 dimes and 11 @,@ 098 quarters , all made from copper @-@ nickel clad , though as the Associated Press , reporting on the 1973 Assay Commission , put it , " a discovery of a bum coin hasn 't occurred in years . " Only one in every 100 @,@ 000 clad or silver @-@ clad pieces was put aside for the Assay Commission , and only one in every 200 @,@ 000 dimes . At the 1974 meeting , one copper @-@ nickel Eisenhower dollar was discovered which weighed 15 grains ( 0 @.@ 97 g ) below specification ; after reference to the rules , the coin was deemed barely within guidelines . Numismatist Charles Logan , in his 1979 article about the impending end of the Assay Commission , stated that this incident pointed out " the basic problem with the annual trial . First , the members were not exactly sure how their job was done , or what the requirements were . Second , they really did not want to report a fault in the coinage . Finally , even if the one dollar coin had been found faulty , [ it would have had ] little consequence , except to prompt greater vigilance at the Mint . "

In early 1977 , outgoing Mint Director Mary Brooks sent a list of 117 nominees to the new president , Jimmy Carter , from which it was expected that about two or three dozen names would be selected . Carter refused to make any public appointments , feeling the Assay Commission was unneeded given that the Mint performed the same work through routine internal checks and that the $ 2 @,@ 500 appropriated each year was a poor use of taxpayer money . Only government members served on the Assay Commission in 1977 – 1980 . Even so , hundreds of numismatists applied to be on the 1978 commission . Carter made no appointments that year ; the only members were those designated by statute .

The 1979 meeting , attended by the government @-@ employed commission members and Mint Director Stella Hackel Sims , was held eight days late on February 22 due to schedule conflicts . In June 1979 , Carter 's Presidential Reorganization Project recommended the abolition of the Assay Commission and two other small agencies . The report estimated that having an Assay Commission cost the federal government about $ 20 @,@ 000 and that the work was done better by vending machine manufacturers to avoid having their machines jam . In August , columnist Jack Anderson deemed the commission an example of wasteful spending in Washington , characterizing its activities , " more than a decade ago , the government stopped putting either gold or silver in its coins — but the commission continues to hold its annual luncheon meeting . Solemnly , the commissioners measure the amounts of nonprecious metals in U.S. coins , and strike a medal to commemorate their activities . This useless exercise costs the taxpayers about $ 20 @,@ 000 a year . " As coin collector and columnist Gary Palmer put it in 1979 , " who really cares if the weight of a cupro @-@ nickel quarter is off by a grain or two ? "

On March 14 , 1980 , Carter approved legislation abolishing the Assay Commission , as well as the other two agencies , as recommended by his Reorganization Project . The President wrote in a signing statement that with the end of gold and silver coinage , the need for the commission had diminished . Numismatic leaders objected to the ending of the commission , considering the expense small and the tradition worth keeping , although they concurred the commission " had become an anachronism " . At the time of its abolition , the Assay Commission was the oldest existing government commission . In 2000 and 2001 , New Jersey Congressman Steven Rothman introduced legislation to revive the Assay Commission , stating that re @-@ establishing the commission would assure public confidence in the gold , silver , and platinum bullion coins struck by the Mint . The bills died in committee .

= = Functions and activities = =

The general function of the Assay Commission was to examine the gold and silver coins of the Mint and ensure they met the proper specifications . Assay commissioners were placed on one of three committees in most years : the Counting , Weighing , and Assaying Committees . The Counting Committee verified that the number of each type of coin in packets selected from the pyx matched what Mint records said should be there . The Weighing Committee measured the weight of coins from the pyx , checking them against the weight required by law . The Assaying Committee worked with the Philadelphia Mint 's assayer as he measured the precious metal content of some of the coins . In some years there was a Committee on Resolutions — in 1912 , it urged that a leaflet be published for visitors to the Mint 's coin collection , and that a medal be struck to commemorate the collection . The full Assay Commission adopted that committee 's report .

Congress in 1828 had required that the weights kept by the Mint Director be tested for accuracy in the presence of the assay commissioners each year . By statute passed in 1911 , the commission was required to inspect the weights and balances used in assaying at the Philadelphia Mint , and to report on their accuracy . This included the government 's official standard pound weight that had been brought from the United Kingdom .

According to a description of the 1948 meeting , silver coins selected for assay were first placed between steel rollers until the thickness was reduced to .0001 inches ( 0 @.@ 0025 mm ) , and then were chopped into fine pieces and dissolved in nitric acid . The fineness of the silver in the coin could be determined by the amount of salt solution needed to precipitate all the silver in the liquid . Numismatist Francis Pessolano @-@ Filos described the work of the Assay Commission :

Using balances and weights , the commission weighed several examples of each type of coin , then used calipers to examine them for proper thickness , and finally , using various acids and solvents , determined the amount of alloy used in manufacture of the planchets . Ledgers and journal books on the mint were also examined . If there were any imperfections or deviations from the legal standards in the coins examined , the information was immediately sent to the president of the United States .

The commission operated under rules first adopted by the 1856 commission , and then passed down , year to year , and amendable by any Assay Commission , although in practice little change was made . Under the rules , the Director of the Mint called the assay commissioners to order , then introduced the federal judge who was an ex officio member , who presided over the meetings ; if the judge was absent , the members elected a chairman . The chairman divided the members into the committees . If there had been a change of officers at a mint , commissioners examined coins from before and after . After the committees completed their work , the members re @-@ assembled to report their findings and to vote on their report .

Every Assay Commission passed the coinage that it was called upon to examine . If pieces varying from the standard were found , that was also noted ; the 1885 Assay Commission reported the one substandard silver coin , which came from the Carson City Mint , but urged the president to take no action , noting that the coin was underweight by an amount too small to be measured by the scales at Carson City .

Remains of coins used in the assay were melted by the Mint ; those put aside for the Assay Commission that were not used were placed in circulation from Philadelphia , and were not marked or distinguished in any way . There were thousands of coins for the commission , of which only a few were assayed . Commissioners often purchased some of the remaining pieces as souvenirs , although commemorative coins could not be purchased if Congress had given the exclusive right to sell them to a sponsoring organization — they were instead destroyed .

= = Commissioners = =

Appointments of members of the public to the Assay Commission by the president are known to have been made as early as 1841 ; the final ones were made in 1976 . Many early commissioners were chosen for their scientific or intellectual attainments . Such qualifications were not required of later public appointees , who included such prominent figures as Ellin Berlin , wife of songwriter Irving Berlin . The first women to be appointed to the Assay Commission were Mrs. Kellogg Fairbanks of Chicago and Mrs. B.B. Munford of Richmond , Virginia , both in 1920 .

The recordholder for service as a commissioner is Herbert Gray Torrey , 36 times an assay commissioner between 1874 and 1910 ( missing only 1879 ) by virtue of his office as assayer of the New York Assay Office . The recordholder as a presidential appointee is Dr. James Lewis Howe , head of the Department of Chemistry at Washington and Lee University , 18 times an assay commissioner , serving in 1907 and then each year from 1910 to 1926 . An employee of the National Bureau of Standards was included in the presidential appointments each year ; he brought with him the weights used in the assay , which were checked by the agency in advance . Although no future president served as an assay commissioner , Comptroller of the Currency Charles G. Dawes was a commissioner in 1899 and 1900 ; he was Vice President of the United States from 1925 to 1929 .

Among those appointed was coin collector and Congressman William A. Ashbrook , 14 times an assay commissioner between 1908 and 1934 . Ashbrook 's presence on the 1934 Assay Commission has led to speculation that he might have used his position as an assay commissioner ( he left Congress in 1921 ) to secure one or more 1933 Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagles , almost all of which were melted due to the end of gold coinage for circulation . Assay commissioners were traditionally allowed to purchase coins from the pyx that were not assayed , and numismatic historian Roger Burdette speculates that Ashbrook , generally well @-@ treated by the Treasury Department due to his onetime congressional position , might have exchanged other gold pieces for the 1933 coins .

The three known specimens of the 1873 @-@ CC quarter , without arrows by the date , and the only known dime of that description , may have been salvaged from assay pieces , as the remainder of those coins had been ordered melted as underweight . A similar mystery attends the 1894 Barber dime struck at San Francisco ( 1894 @-@ S ) of which the published mintage is 24 , although it is not certain whether this total includes the one sent to Philadelphia to await the 1895 Assay Commission . The fact that one of the 1895 assay commissioners was Robert Barnett , chief clerk of the San Francisco Mint , has led numismatic writers Nancy Oliver and Richard Kelly to speculate that he may have been made an assay commissioner in order to retrieve the dime . The 1895 Assay Commission report confirms that the dime was there , as it was counted by the Counting Committee . The dime is not mentioned as having been either weighed or assayed ; Oliver and Kelly , in a May 2011 article in The Numismatist , suggest that Barnett used that privilege of assay commissioners to obtain the rarity . He is not known , however , to have written or spoken of the matter before his murder in 1904 .

In 1964 , former assay commissioners formed the Old Time Assay Commissioners Society ( OTACS ) . When President Carter stopped appointing public members to the commission in 1977 , the OTACS fundraised in an unsuccessful attempt to induce the government to continue that tradition . The society met annually through 2012 , usually at the site of the yearly convention of the American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) . With the number of surviving OTACS members at less than three dozen , the society plans no further meetings ; its 2012 session in conjunction with the ANA convention in Philadelphia included an event at the mint .

= = Medals = =

Assay Commission medals were struck from a variety of metals , including copper , silver , bronze , and pewter . The first Assay Commission medals were struck in 1860 at the direction of Mint Director James Ross Snowden . The initial purpose in having medals struck was not principally to provide keepsakes to the assay commissioners , but to advertise the Mint 's medal @-@ striking capabilities . The nascent custom lapsed when Snowden left office in 1861 .

Numismatists R.W. Julian and Ernest E. Keusch , in their work on Assay Commission medals , theorize that the resumption of Assay Commission medal striking in 1867 was at the request of Mint Engraver James B. Longacre to new Mint Director William Millward . Medals to be given to assay commissioners were struck each year after that until public members ceased to be appointed to the Assay Commission in 1977 .

Early assay medals featured on the obverse a bust of Liberty or figure of Columbia , and on the reverse a wreath surrounding the words " annual assay " and the year . The 1870 obverse , by Longacre 's successor William Barber , features Moneta surrounded by implements of the assay , such as scales and the pyx . The distinctive designs for each year would sometimes be topical — the 1876 medal bears a design for the centennial of American Independence , and 1879 's depicted the recently deceased Mint Director Henry Linderman . Beginning in 1880 , they most often featured the president or Treasury Secretary . The medals in 1901 and from 1903 to 1909 were rectangular , a style popular at the time . The 1920 reverse , by Engraver George T. Morgan , had a design which symbolized the ending of World War I ; in 1921 , an extra medal was struck in gold , given by the assay commissioners to outgoing President Woodrow Wilson as a mark of respect .

The 1936 issuance was a mule of the Mint 's medals for the president at the time , Franklin Roosevelt , and the first president , George Washington . Bearing the words , " annual assay 1936 " on the edge , the medal was prepared in this manner by order of Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross after Mint officials realized that they had forgotten to prepare a special design for an assay medal . The 1950 medal illustrates a meeting of three 1792 officeholders ( Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton , Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Chief Justice John Jay ) . Although they were officeholders designated by the Mint Act of 1792 , no assay took place until 1797 , by which time all three had left those offices . There was no specially designed medal in 1954 ; instead , the assay commissioners , who met in Philadelphia on Lincoln 's Birthday , February 12 , 1954 , chose to receive the Mint 's standard presidential medal depicting Abraham Lincoln , with the commissioner 's name on the edge . The final medals , 1976 and 1977 , were oval and of pewter . The 1977 medal , depicting Martha Washington , was not needed for presentation , as no public assay commissioners were appointed . They were presented to various Mint and other Treasury officials , and when there was public objection , more were struck and were placed on sale for $ 20 at the mints and other Treasury outlets in 1978 . Material was available for about 1 @,@ 500 medals , and they were initially not available by mail . They were still available in person , and by mail order , in 1980 .

All Assay Commission medals are extremely rare . Except for the 1977 medal , none is believed to have been issued in a quantity of greater than 200 , and in most years fewer than 50 were struck . Additional copies of several 19th @-@ century issues are known to have been illicitly struck ; the Mint ended such practices in the early 20th century . The obverse of the 1909 issue , depicting Treasury Secretary George Cortelyou , was reused as Cortelyou 's entry in the Mint 's series of medals honoring Secretaries of the Treasury . The later pieces were struck with a blank reverse , but in the early 1960s , the reverse design from the Assay Commission issue was used with the Cortelyou obverse , and an unknown number sold to the public . The restrikes are said to be less distinctly struck than the originals .

= Fortifications of Mdina =

The fortifications of Mdina ( Maltese : Is @-@ Swar tal @-@ Imdina ) are a series of defensive walls which surround the former capital city of Mdina , Malta . The city was founded as Maleth by the Phoenicians in around the 8th century BC , and it later became part of the Roman Empire under the name Melite . The ancient city was surrounded by walls , but very few remains of these have survived .

The city walls were rebuilt a number of times , including by the Byzantine Empire in around the 8th century AD , the Arabs in around the 11th century , and the Kingdom of Sicily in the medieval period until the 15th century . Most of the extant fortifications were built by the Order of Saint John between the 16th and 18th centuries .

The city has withstood a number of sieges , and it was defeated twice – first by the Aghlabids in 870 and then by Maltese rebels in 1798 . Today , the city walls are still intact except for some outworks , and they are among the best preserved fortifications in Malta . Mdina has been on Malta 's tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1998 .

= = Punic @-@ Roman walls = =

The city of Mdina occupies the tip of a plateau located on high ground in the northern part of the island of Malta , far away from the sea . The site has been inhabited since prehistory , and by the Bronze Age it was a place of refuge since it was naturally defensible . The Phoenicians colonized Malta in around the 8th century BC , and they founded the city of Maleth on this plateau . It was taken over by the Roman Republic in 218 BC , becoming known as Melite . The Punic @-@ Roman city was about three times the size of present @-@ day Mdina , extending into a large part of modern Rabat . Melite 's walls had a thickness of around 5 m ( 16 ft ) and were surrounded by a 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) -long ditch .

Very little remains of the Punic @-@ Roman walls of Melite still survive . The remains of a city gate or tower were discovered in Saqqajja in modern Rabat , about 5 m ( 16 ft ) below the current street level . Parts of the ditch have survived under present @-@ day St. Rita Street and the Church of St. Paul . The lower foundations of some Punic @-@ Roman ramparts , consisting of rusticated ashlar blocks three courses high still in situ , were found near the Magazine Curtain in the western part of Mdina . The only other remains of the ancient walls are Punic @-@ Roman masonry blocks which were reused in the medieval period . These include a wall around Greeks Gate , and some stones which were discovered in excavations at Inguanez Street and the Xara Palace .

= = Medieval walls = =

At some point following the fall of the Western Roman Empire , a retrenchment was built within the city , reducing it to its present size . This was done to make the city 's perimeter more easily defensible , and similar reductions in city sizes were common around the Mediterranean region in the early Middle Ages . Although it was traditionally assumed that the retrenchment was built by the Arabs , it has been suggested that it was actually built by the Byzantine Empire in around the 8th century , when the threat from the Arabs increased .

In 870 , Melite was captured by the Aghlabids , who massacred its inhabitants and " demolished its fortress " according to the chronicler Al @-@ Himyarī . This account further mentions that Malta remained almost uninhabited until it was resettled in around 1048 or 1049 by a Muslim community and their slaves , who built a settlement called Medina on the site of Melite . Archaeological evidence suggests that the city was already a thriving Muslim settlement by the beginning of the 11th century , so 1048 – 49 might be the date when the city was officially founded and its walls were constructed . The Byzantines besieged Medina in 1053 – 54 , but were repelled by its defenders .

Medina surrendered peacefully to Roger I of Sicily after a short siege in 1091 , and Malta was subsequently incorporated into the County and later the Kingdom of Sicily , being dominated by a succession of feudal lords . The fortifications of Mdina were rebuilt and modified a number of times over the following centuries . A castle known as the Castellu di la Chitati or the castrum civitas was built on the southeast corner of the city near the main entrance , probably on the site of an earlier Byzantine fort . The city withstood a siege by Hafsid invaders in 1429 .

By the 15th century , most of Mdina 's enciente had a system of double walls . The land front was flanked by four towers , one near Greeks Gate , another at the centre of the land front , the Turri Mastra ( also known as Turri dila bandiera ) near the main entrance and the Turri di la Camera at the southeast corner of the city . A barbican was built near Mdina 's main entrance sometime after 1448 . In the 1450s there were fears of a Barbary or Ottoman attack , so efforts were made to improve Mdina 's walls . The main ditch was completed , and the Castellu di la Chitati was partially demolished by royal licence in 1453 , due to its ruinous state and the excessive cost for its upkeep .

By 1474 , cannons had been introduced in Mdina . Other extensive preparations for an attack were made in the 1480s , when the fortifications were once again improved under the direction of Sicilian military engineers . At this point , some buildings in Rabat were demolished to clear the fortifications ' line of fire . By 1522 , the fortifications were being modernized with the construction of embrasures . However , the walls were still regarded as obsolete , since they lacked bastions and could not resist bombardment from modern artillery .

Most of the medieval walls of Mdina were gradually dismantled between the 1530s and 1720s , when the city 's fortifications were being upgraded by the Hospitallers . One of the most significant visible remnants of the medieval fortifications is the Greeks Gate and the surrounding curtain walls , which still retains its medieval form apart from the outer portal which was built in the 18th century . Parts of the double walls , including the remains of two gun loops , still stand between the gate and the Torre dello Standardo . Most of the northern and eastern walls date back to the medieval period , although some sections were rebuilt by the Hospitallers . The northern ramparts contain a medieval wall tower , while the remains of Byzantine antemurals and the foundations of a late 15th @-@ century artillery platform have been found in the eastern walls .

= = Hospitaller walls = =

When the Order of Saint John took over in Malta in 1530 , the nobles ceremoniously handed over the keys of the city to Grand Master Philippe Villiers de L 'Isle @-@ Adam . The Order settled in Birgu and Mdina lost its status as capital city , but L 'Isle @-@ Adam converted the remaining part of the Castellu di la Chitati into a palace , which became the meeting place of the civil administrative council known as the Università .

The first major upgrade of Mdina 's fortifications occurred in the 1540s , during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon . Two new bastions were built at the extremities of the land front , possibly to designs of the military engineer Antonio Ferramolino . Parts of the eastern walls were also rebuilt en crémaillère , the only instance this style is found in Malta . The 15th @-@ century barbican in front of the main gate was demolished in 1551 since it obstructed the line of fire of the newly built bastions . That year , the city withstood a brief Ottoman attack .

Mdina was not attacked directly during the Great Siege of Malta , but it nonetheless played a crucial role in the siege . Ottoman general Lala Mustafa Pasha wanted to take over the poorly @-@ defended city first , but was overruled by Piali Pasha who wanted to attack Fort Saint Elmo . The fort was taken over after a month of heavy fighting , but the Ottomans had lost crucial time in doing so . On 7 August 1565 , the Order 's cavalry in Mdina attacked the unprotected Ottoman field hospital , which led in the invaders abandoning a major assault on the main fortifications in Birgu and Senglea . The Ottomans tried to take over the city in September so as to winter there , but abandoned their plans when Mdina fired its cannon , leading them to believe that the city had ammunition to spare .

After the siege , Maltese military engineer Girolamo Cassar drew up plans to reduce Mdina 's size by half and turning it into a fortress , but these were never implemented due to protests by the city 's nobles . The city 's main gate was reconstructed in the early 17th century , but the next major alterations were not made until the 1650s , when the large De Redin Bastion was built at the centre of the land front . Despite these modifications , by 1658 there were also proposals to abandon or demolish the entire fortress due to its state of disrepair , although these plans were opposed by the locals . In the late 17th century , some of Mdina 's medieval double walls began to be encased in sloping ramparts .

A major restoration of Mdina 's fortifications was undertaken in the 1720s by the French military engineer Charles François de Mondion , during the magistracy of António Manoel de Vilhena . L 'Isle @-@ Adam 's palace , including the remaining parts of the Castellu di la Chitati , were demolished to make way for Palazzo Vilhena , while the main gate was walled up and a new city gate was built in the Baroque style . A Baroque portal was also added to the Greeks Gate . The remaining medieval towers in the land front were demolished and the Torre dello Standardo was built on the site of the Turri Mastra , while the entire western walls of the city were demolished to make way for a single casemated curtain wall known as Magazine Curtain . D 'Homedes Bastion was modified with the addition of a bastionette , while traverse @-@ like batteries were built at the extremities of the land front . The city was further protected with the construction of outworks , including a covertway , two places @-@ of @-@ arms and a glacis .

Mondion also made further plans to strengthen Mdina 's fortifications , but they were not implemented since the Order focused on building its fortifications in the harbour area . The only major addition to the Mdina fortifications after Mondion 's reconstruction was Despuig Bastion , which was built during the reign of Ramon Despuig between 1739 and 1746 .

On 10 June 1798 , Mdina was captured by French forces without much resistance during the French invasion of Malta . A French garrison remained in the city , but a Maltese uprising broke out on 2 September of that year . The following day , rebels entered the city through a sally port in Despuig Bastion and massacred the garrison of 65 men . These events marked the beginning of a two @-@ year uprising and blockade , which ended in 1800 with Malta becoming a British protectorate .

Mdina 's fortifications remained in use during the British period , and some minor alterations such as the installation of gun emplacements were made in the 19th century . By the end of the century , the city was regarded as forming part of the defensive system of the Victoria Lines .

In the 1890s , the battery near St. Peter Bastion was demolished and a gateway known as the Għarreqin Gate was opened within the Magazine Curtain . This was done in order to facilitate access to the newly @-@ built railway station located nearby . The fortifications were included on the Antiquities List of 1925 .

Some of the countermine galleries in Mdina 's ditch were used as air raid shelters during World War II .

= = Recent history = =

Sections of the medieval walls of Mdina were rediscovered by Dr. Stephen C. Spiteri and Mario Farrugia while they were surveying the bastions in 2002 .

The first plans to undertake a major restoration of Mdina 's walls were made in 2006 , as part of a project that also included restoration of the fortifications of Valletta , Birgu and the Cittadella . In the case of Mdina , the main focus was to consolidate the terrain , since the city is built on a blue clay plateau which is prone to subsidence . The multimillion @-@ euro restoration was partially financed by the European Regional Development Fund . Works began in early 2008 by the Restoration Unit . The process of restoration was documented by Dr. Spiteri .

In 2011 , steel rods were inserted into D 'Homedes Bastion in order to prevent the walls from slipping down the clay slopes . The ditch was inaugurated as a public garden in March 2013 . All ERDF @-@ financed work was completed in late 2013 , but the Restoration Directorate later restored other parts of the fortifications , including the northern walls , St. Peter Bastion and the area around Greeks Gate . The project was fully completed in early 2016 .

Throughout the course of the restoration , a number of archaeological discoveries were made . Excavations along the eastern part of the city walls unearthed Byzantine antemurals and the base of a late 15th @-@ century cubete artillero ( artillery platform ) . In 2010 , remains of foundations of the Punic @-@ Roman walls were found when excavations were made along the Magazine Curtain . A late 14th @-@ century stone block bearing the coat of arms of Guglielmo Murina , possibly originating from the Castellu di la Chitati , was discovered in 2012 during the restoration of D 'Homedes Bastion . This block is now displayed at the Fortifications Interpretation Centre in Valletta .

= = Layout = =

The present configuration of Mdina 's fortifications consists of an irregular perimeter of curtain walls stiffened by a number of bastions . The northern , western and eastern walls are built on the perimeter of the natural plateau , so they were difficult to attack . The southern perimeter of the city is built on level ground , along what is now the border with Rabat . It was the only realistic direction to assault the city , and was hence known as the Mdina Land Front . The southern perimeter contains an arrowhead @-@ shaped bastion with rectangular orillons on each extremity , with a large pentagonal bastion in the centre :

St. Peter Bastion , also known as Greeks Gate Bastion – built in the 1550s during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon

De Redin Bastion – built in the 1650s during the magistracy of Martin de Redin

D 'Homedes Bastion , also known as St. Paul Bastion or the belguardo del Palacio – built between the 1540s and 1551 during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon It is further defended by a bastionette .

The two gates into the city , Mdina Gate and Greeks Gate , are located within the curtain walls of the land front . Remains of the medieval double walls as well as the 18th @-@ century Torre dello Standardo are located just within the city walls . The land front is surrounded by a deep ditch , and a traverse @-@ like battery is located in its eastern extremity .

Most of the eastern walls of the city consist of an en crémaillère enciente built in the mid @-@ 16th century , although parts of the walls date back to the medieval period . The pentagonal Despuig Bastion , built in the 1740s during the magistracy Ramon Despuig , is grafted below the walls on the northeastern corner of the city .

The northern walls of Mdina still retain their medieval form with a few Hospitaller modifications , and they contain the only surviving tower in the city walls . St. Mary 's Bastion or Ta ' Bachar Bastion , which was built in the 16th century , is grafted on the northwest corner of the city . This is linked to St. Peter Bastion by the Magazine Curtain , a long casemated curtain wall built in the 1720s in the western part of the city . The Għarreqin Gate , built by the British in the 19th century , is located within this curtain wall .

= Werner Mölders =

Werner Mölders ( 18 March 1913 – 22 November 1941 ) was a World War II German Luftwaffe pilot and the leading German fighter ace in the Spanish Civil War . Mölders became the first pilot in aviation history to claim 100 aerial victories — that is , 100 aerial combat encounters resulting in the destruction of the enemy aircraft , and was highly decorated for his achievements . He was instrumental in the development of new fighter tactics that led to the finger @-@ four formation . He died in an air crash in which he was a passenger .

Mölders joined the Luftwaffe in 1934 at the age of 21 . In 1938 , he volunteered for service in the Condor Legion , which supported General Francisco Franco 's Nationalist side in the Spanish Civil War , and shot down 15 aircraft . In World War II , he lost two wingmen in the Battle of France and the Battle of Britain , but shot down 53 enemy aircraft . With his tally standing at 68 victories , Mölders and his unit , the Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 ) , were transferred to the Eastern Front in June 1941 for the opening of Operation Barbarossa . By the end of 22 June 1941 , the first day of Barbarossa , he had added another four victories to his tally and a week later , Mölders surpassed Manfred von Richthofen 's 1918 record of 80 victories . By mid @-@ July , he had 100 World War II victories .

Prevented from flying further combat missions for propaganda reasons , at the age of 28 Mölders was promoted to Oberst , and appointed Inspector General of Fighters . He was inspecting the Luftwaffe units in the Crimea when he was ordered to Berlin to attend the state funeral of Ernst Udet , the World War I flying ace . On the flight to Berlin , the Heinkel He 111 in which he was traveling as a passenger encountered a heavy thunderstorm during which one of the aircraft 's engines failed . While attempting to land , the Heinkel crashed at Breslau , killing Mölders and two others .

The German Wehrmacht of the Third Reich and the Bundeswehr of the Federal Republic of Germany both honoured him by naming two fighter wings , a destroyer and barracks after him . However , in 1998 , the German Parliament decided that members of the Condor Legion such as Mölders , should " no longer be honoured " . Therefore , in 2005 , the German Ministry of Defence decided to remove the name " Mölders " from the fighter wing still bearing his name .

= = Childhood , education and early career = =

Mölders was born on 18 March 1913 in Gelsenkirchen , the son of teacher Viktor Mölders and his wife Annemarie , née Riedel . He was the third of four children , with an older sister , Annemarie , an older brother , Hans , and a younger brother , Victor . After his father , a Reserve Leutnant in the King 's 145th Infantry Regiment , was killed in action on 2 March 1915 in the Argonne Forest in France , his mother moved the family into her parents ' house in Brandenburg an der Havel .

In Brandenburg , Mölders found a father figure in Chaplain Erich Klawitter , who instilled firm religious beliefs in him . From 1919 to 1931 , Mölders attended , first , the elementary school and then the Saldria @-@ Gymnasium , or secondary school . At school he discovered his love for water sports , especially rowing . He joined two rowing clubs , first the Saldria @-@ Brandenburg and later the Brandenburger Ruderclub , and enjoyed success at rowing @-@ regattas . He was also a member of the Bund Neudeutschland in der katholischen Jugendbewegung , a Catholic youth organisation . Mölders graduated from school in early 1931 with the Abitur ( diploma ) and expressed a desire to become an officer in the armed forces .

Mölders joined the II . / 2 infantry regiment of the Reichswehr in Allenstein , East Prussia on 1 April 1931 , serving as an officer cadet in the infantry . He attained the rank of Fahnenjunker @-@ Gefreiter on 1 October 1931 , rising to Fahnenjunker @-@ Unteroffizier on 1 April 1932 . After completing his basic military training in October 1932 , he transferred to the Military School Dresden . On 1 June 1933 , he successfully completed his training in Dresden and was promoted to ensign . He again was transferred , this time to the 1st Prussian Pioneer Battalion ( Infantry Regiment 2 ) at the Pioneer School in Munich . During his training years , Mölders made his first attempt to fulfil his dream of flying and volunteered for pilot training , but was declared unfit for flying . He tried again and was given conditional permission ( bedingt tauglich — with constraints ) to begin flight training .

After his promotion to Oberfähnrich on 1 February 1934 , Mölders began his pilot training at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ( German transport flying school ) in Cottbus , lasting from 6 February 1934 to 31 December 1934 . On 1 March 1934 , he was promoted to Leutnant and assigned to the recently established Luftwaffe . In the early stages of his pilot training , he suffered continually from nausea and vomiting , but he eventually overcame these problems and finished the course at the top of his class . The next phase of his military pilot 's training was from 1 January 1935 to 30 June 1935 at the combat flying school in Tutow and the Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) at Schleißheim near Munich . He received the newly created Pilot 's Badge of the Luftwaffe on 21 May 1935 .

On 1 July 1935 , Leutnant Mölders was posted to Fliegergruppe Schwerin ( I. / JG 162 " Immelmann " ) . On 7 March 1936 , during the remilitarisation of the Rhineland , Mölders and his squadron ( Staffel ) flew from Lippstadt across the Ruhr region ; his unit was the first to arrive in Düsseldorf . During this period , Mölders met Luise Baldauf , whom he was to marry a few years later , shortly before his death . On 20 April 1936 , Adolf Hitler 's birthday , numerous promotions were handed out , and Mölders advanced to Oberleutnant , effective as of 1 April 1936 . At the same time , he became leader of the fighter training squadron of the 2nd Group of Jagdgeschwader 134 " Horst Wessel " . This group was under the command of Major Theo Osterkamp , who became another of Mölders ' early mentors . Mölders was appointed squadron leader ( Staffelkapitän ) of the 1st squadron of Jagdgeschwader 334 on 15 March 1937 and served as an instructor in Wiesbaden .

= = Condor Legion = =

In 1936 , the Germans sent a Luftwaffe force , the Condor Legion , to assist the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War . Mölders volunteered for service , and arrived by sea in Cadiz on 14 April 1938 . He was assigned to the 3rd squadron of Jagdgruppe 88 ( J 88 ) commanded by Oberleutnant Adolf Galland . The unit , stationed at the Valencia – Ebro front , was equipped with the Heinkel He 51 , but later switched to the Messerschmitt Bf 109 B @-@ 2 . Mölders assumed command of the squadron on 24 May 1938 , when Galland returned to Germany . He claimed his first aerial victory , shooting down a Polikarpov I @-@ 15 " Chato " ( " Curtiss " to the Germans ) near Algar , on 15 July 1938 . Over the remaining months of the year , Mölders became the leading ace of the Condor Legion , shooting down 15 aircraft in Spain : two I @-@ 15 " Curtiss " , 12 I @-@ 16 " Rata " and one Tupolev SB ( one " Rata " claimed on 23 September 1938 was not confirmed ) .

In recognition of his exceptional performance as a commander and fighter pilot , Mölders was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) on 18 October 1938 , effective as of 1 October 1938 . He claimed his 14th and final confirmed aerial victory of the conflict by downing a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 " Rata " near Mola on 3 November 1938 and returned to Germany on 5 December 1938 . From 6 December 1938 until March 1939 , Mölders was a member of the 1st group of Jagdgeschwader 133 ( JG 133 ) and held a staff position with the Inspector of Fighters at the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( Imperial Air Ministry ) in Berlin . His task was to devise new fighter pilot tactics . In March 1939 he was given command as Staffelkapitän of 1 . / JG 133 , taking over command from Oberleutnant Hubertus von Bonin . JG 133 was later renamed Jagdgeschwader 53 Pik As ( Ace of Spades ) .

For his achievements in Spain , Mölders was honoured with the Spanish Medalla de la Campaña and Medalla Militar on 4 May 1939 and the German Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( Spanienkreuz in Gold mit Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 6 June 1939 . The Condor Legion officially returned to Germany on 6 June 1939 and troops marched through Berlin to the Lustgarten , where the fallen were honoured . A formal state banquet for the most highly decorated soldiers was held in the marble gallery of the Reich Chancellery . Mölders was seated at table 1 , with General der Flieger Hugo Sperrle , General Don Antonio Aranda , General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano , Oberst Walter Warlimont , Oberstleutnant von Donat , Leutnant Reinhard Seiler and Oberfeldwebel Ignatz Prestele .

= = = Tactical innovations = = =

With other airmen in Spain , Mölders developed the formation known as the " finger @-@ four " . This improved the all @-@ round field of vision and combat flexibility of a flight ( Schwarm ) , enhanced mutual protection , and encouraged pilot initiative . In the " finger @-@ four " , the aircraft assumed positions corresponding to the fingertips of an outstretched hand . The fighters flew in two elements ( Rotten ) of two aircraft each ; two Rotten ( four aircraft ) made up a Schwarm ( swarm ) .

Mölders is often credited with inventing the cross @-@ over turn . An early version of the manoeuvre , as used by a " Vic " of five aircraft ( a tight formation forming the letter " V " ) , appeared in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Training Manual of 1922 , and the manoeuvre may even date back to 1918 . However , it had fallen into disuse due to the difficulty of performing it in a multi @-@ aircraft formation with the contemporary spacing of less than 100 feet ( 30 m ) between aircraft . The wide lateral separation of 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) introduced by J 88 both necessitated such a turning manoeuvre , to enable a Schwarm to turn as a unit , and minimised the risk of midair collisions previously associated with it .

= = World War II = =

= = = Phoney War and the Battle of France = = =

At the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939 , Mölders ' Staffel was stationed in the west protecting Germany 's border in the Mosel – Saar – Pfalz region . On 8 September 1939 , Mölders ' fighter suffered an engine failure ; he crash @-@ landed , flipping the aircraft over and injuring his back . The injury kept him out of combat for several days . He returned to flying on 19 September . The following day , between Contz and Sierck , at the apex of the Dreiländereck , over the three borders area , he shot down his first aircraft of the war , a Curtiss P @-@ 36 ( according to other historians , it was one of a trio of French Hawk H @-@ 75As ) , of Groupe de Chasse II / 5 ( Sgt Queginer bailed out ) . Thanks to that victory , he earned the Iron Cross 2nd Class . He recalled his first victory :

On 26 September 1939 , JG 53 was ordered to form its III . Gruppe . Mölders relinquished command of 1 . / JG 53 to Oberleutnant Hans @-@ Karl Mayer and organised the formation of III . / JG 53 at Wiesbaden – Erbenheim ; within two weeks , Gruppenkommandeur Mölders reported that the Gruppe was conditionally operational with 40 pilots and 48 aircraft .

On 22 December , Mölders , leading four Bf 109s from III . / JG 53 , engaged three Hawker Hurricanes over the Saar River , between Metz and Thionville , that were trying to intercept an unidentified aircraft . Mölders and Hans von Hahn shot down two Hurricanes flown by Sergeants R.M. Perry and J. Winn , becoming the first German fighter pilots to shoot down a Hawker Hurricane . Mölders shot down another Hurricane on 2 April , when he forced Flight Lieutenant C.D. " Pussy " Palmer of No. 1 Squadron RAF , to bail out , and on 20 April , he destroyed a French Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk ( H @-@ 75A ) east of Saarbrücken .

By the time the Phoney War ended and Operation Case Yellow ( Fall Gelb , the invasion of France and the Low Countries on 10 May 1940 ) opened the Battle of France , Mölders ' tally of aerial victories on the Western Front had increased to nine . This number included one Bristol Blenheim , two Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawks , two Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406s and four Hawker Hurricanes . On 14 May , while engaging enemy bombers over Sedan , Mölders was shot down , but bailed out safely . He claimed his 19th and 20th victories on 27 May 1940 , downing two Curtiss Hawks 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) southwest of Amiens . Subsequently , he became the first fighter pilot to be awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) and on 29 May 1940 was honourably mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht radio report , the first of 11 such mentions .

On 5 June 1940 , on his 133rd combat mission of the war , engaging in aerial combat for the 32nd time , Mölders was shot down near Compiègne at about 18 : 40 by Sous lieutenant René Pomier Layrargues , flying a French Air Force Dewoitine D.520. Mölders was taken prisoner but liberated three weeks later upon the armistice with France . While in French captivity , Mölders asked to shake hands with the pilot who had shot him down , and learned that Pomier @-@ Layrargues had been killed in action 30 minutes after their encounter . His initial experience in French captivity was harsh ; he sustained abrasions to his face and his Knight 's Cross was stolen from him . A French officer , Capitaine Giron , intervened , ensured he was treated fairly , and returned the stolen medal . When a French soldier was later sentenced to death by the Germans for beating Mölders , Mölders approached Hermann Göring and requested clemency , which was granted .

= = = Battle of Britain = = =

Returning to Germany , Mölders was promoted to Major on 19 July 1940 and took command the following day of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 ) from the recently promoted Generalmajor Theo Osterkamp . At the time , JG 51 were based at Saint @-@ Inglevert , Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , France . Mölders flew his first combat sortie with JG 51 on 28 July , attacking a No. 41 Squadron Supermarine Spitfire flown by Flying Officer A.D.J. Lovell . On this mission , according to legend , Mölders was hit in a dogfight over Dover by the South African ace Sailor Malan , sustaining three splinter wounds in the lower leg , one in the knee and one in the left foot . Oberleutnant Richard Leppla shot down the pursuing Spitfire , and Mölders was able to make an emergency landing at Wissant , France . Recent research suggests Mölders was actually wounded in combat by Flight Lieutenant J.T ( John Terence ) " Terry " Webster DFC in a Spitfire of 41 Squadron . Webster was killed in action on 5 September 1940 . Mölders wounds , although not serious , kept him from further operational flying for a month . Generalmajor Osterkamp briefly led the Geschwader again during Mölders ' convalescence . On 7 August 1940 , Mölders returned to the Geschwader without medical clearance for combat , to participate in Operation Eagle Attack ( code name Adlertag ) . Adolf Hitler had issued Führer Directive no . 17 ( Weisung Nr. 17 ) on 1 August 1940 ; the strategic objective was to engage and defeat the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) so as to achieve air superiority in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) , the proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain .

Mölders returned to approved operational flying status and flew his next two combat missions on 28 August 1940 . His aide and wingman , Oberleutnant Kircheis , was shot down and taken prisoner during one of these missions ; Oberleutnant Georg Claus took his place . Mölders claimed two Hurricanes on 31 August and was mentioned again in the Wehrmachtbericht . Oberleutnant Victor Mölders , his younger brother , who had been appointed Staffelkapitän of the 2 . / JG 51 on 11 September , was shot down and taken prisoner of war on 7 October 1940 by Archie McKellar . Two Spitfires of No. 92 Squadron RAF ( Sgt PR Eyles and P / O HP Hill both killed ) were shot down near Dungeness on 20 September increased Mölders ' tally of aerial victories to 40 . He was the first fighter pilot to reach this number during the war and was awarded the 2nd Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 21 September 1940 . The award was presented by Adolf Hitler on 23 September in the new Reichskanzlei in Berlin . After the award ceremony , Hermann Göring invited Mölders to his hunting lodge in the Rominter Heide .

Mölders returned to his unit by the end of September and continued to win aerial victories . On 11 October , Mölders claimed his 43rd victory . The 66 Squadron Spitfire I X4562 was flown by Pilot Officer J. H. T. Pickering , who bailed out , wounded , over Canterbury . Three Hurricanes on 12 October brought his tally to 51 victories , and he received a preferential promotion to Oberstleutnant in recognition of his 50 victories on 25 October 1940 . While a severe bout of influenza then kept him grounded for a few weeks , his wingman in over 60 aerial combats , Oberleutnant Georg Claus , was killed over the Thames . On 1 December , Mölders claimed his last and 55th victory of 1940 , 25 of which occurred in the Battle of France and 30 in the Battle of Britain .

Mölders and members of JG 53 spent a couple of weeks of R & R skiing in the Vorarlberg before continuing operations against the RAF over the Channel and occupied France during early 1941 . His new wingman from January 1941 was Oberleutnant Hartmann Grasser . Mölders claimed his first aerial victory after the lengthy vacation on 10 February 1941 ; his tally reached 60 on 26 February and stood at 68 when the Geschwader was recalled from the Channel front . His logbook showed 238 combat missions plus an additional 71 reconnaissance flights ; he had engaged in aerial combat 70 times .

= = = Eastern Front = = =

In June 1941 , JG 51 and the majority of the Luftwaffe were transferred to the Eastern Front in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the invasion of the Soviet Union . On the first day of combat operations , 22 June 1941 , Mölders shot down three Tupolev SB bombers and one Curtis Hawk , earning him the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) . Mölders was only the second German serviceman to receive this award ; Adolf Galland , Fighter Squadron Commodore ( Geschwaderkommodore ) of Jagdgeschwader 26 " Schlageter " ( JG 26 ) , had received one the day before . The award was presented by Adolf Hitler on 3 July 1941 in the Wolfsschanze Hitler 's Headquarters in Rastenburg . On 30 June , Mölders had become the highest @-@ scoring fighter pilot in the history of aerial warfare after downing five Soviet bombers and bringing his tally to 82 , two more than the record set in World War I by the " Red Baron " , Manfred von Richthofen .

On 12 July 1941 , JG 51 under the leadership of Mölders reported that it had destroyed 500 Soviet aircraft since the beginning of hostilities against the Soviets on 22 June , and had suffered three casualties . That day , JG 51 also reported its 1,200th aerial victory of the war , the credit going to Hauptmann Leppla . Three days later , on 15 July 1941 , Mölders surpassed the C mark , claiming victories Nos. 100 and 101 , and celebrated with a victory roll over the airfield . The following day he received news that he had been awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) . Mölders was the first of 27 German servicemen to receive this award . The diamonds added to the Knight 's Cross were introduced officially on 28 September 1941 , more than two months after Mölders earned the award . Mölders was promoted to Oberst on 20 July 1941 , effective immediately , and banned from further combat flying . Surrendering command of JG 51 to Major Friedrich Beckh he was transferred to the Reich Air Ministry , a temporary position he held until 6 August 1941 . Mölders was summoned to the Wolfsschanze again , where he received the Diamonds from Adolf Hitler on 26 July 1941 . On 7 August 1941 , he was appointed Inspector of Fighters ( Inspekteur der Jagdflieger ) .

= = = High command = = =

An Oberst at 28 , Mölders was appointed Inspector General of Fighters , a post responsible for deciding the ongoing tactical and operational doctrine of the Luftwaffe 's fighter strategies . Returning to Russia in September 1941 , he set up a command post at Chaplinka airfield , from where he flew in his personal Fieseler Fi 156 Storch ( stork ) on tours of the Jagdwaffe and personally directed German fighter operations .

Mölders also flew unofficially on missions , and actively commanded his old unit , JG 51 , for several more months . On 9 August 1941 , he took Herbert Kaiser on a " teaching " mission against a formation of Il @-@ 2 Sturmoviks . Mölders showed Kaiser how to shoot them down . He recalled later : " He positioned himself off to one side of @-@ and some distance away from @-@ the last Il @-@ 2 in a formation of six . He then turned in quickly and opened fire at the enemy 's cockpit from an angle of some 30 degrees . The Il @-@ 2 immediately burst into flames and crashed . ' Do you see how it 's done ? ' , Oberst Mölders ' voice came over the R / T. ' Right , now you take the next one . ' I carried out the same manoeuvre and , sure enough , the next Il @-@ 2 went down on fire . ' And again ! ' It was like being on a training flight . Another short burst and the third Il @-@ 2 was ablaze . The whole lesson had lasted no more than 12 minutes ! " In this way , Kaiser scored his 23rd and 24th kills . But because Mölders was officially banned from operational flying , the first Soviet aircraft was never officially credited to him . Within the next two months , it is speculated that Mölders unofficially shot down around another 30 Soviet aircraft . At least six of Mölders ' unofficial victories are recorded in his fellow pilots ' private log books .

= = = Death = = =

On 22 November 1941 , Mölders travelled as a passenger in a Heinkel He 111 of Kampfgeschwader 27 " Boelcke " from the Crimea to Germany to attend the funeral of his superior , Ernst Udet , who had committed suicide . Attempting to land at Breslau during a thunderstorm , the aircraft crashed . Mölders , pilot Oberleutnant Kolbe and flight engineer Oberfeldwebel Hobbie were killed . Major Dr. Wenzel and radio operator Oberfeldwebel Tenz survived the crash landing . Dr. Wenzel sustained a broken arm and leg as well as a concussion , and Tenz a broken ankle . Mölders ' fatal injuries included a broken back and a crushed ribcage . Accident investigators then and since have speculated whether Mölders would have survived the crash if he had used his seat belt .

Mölders was given a state funeral in Berlin on 28 November 1941 . His coffin was laid out in the honour court of the Imperial Air Ministry . The guard of honour consisted of Johann Schalk , Günther Lützow , Walter Oesau , Joachim Müncheberg , Adolf Galland , Wolfgang Falck , Herbert Kaminski and Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann . Mölders was buried next to Ernst Udet and Manfred von Richthofen at the Invalidenfriedhof in Berlin . The 8 @.@ 8 cm flak in Berlin Tiergarten fired a salute ; Hermann Göring gave the eulogy .

= = Personal life and character = =

Mölders was well known for his strength of character . His men nicknamed him " Vati " ( Daddy ) , in recognition of his paternal attitude toward them , and the care he took of their well @-@ being . He was a devoutly religious individual who demanded that all Allied aviators captured by those under his command be treated civilly , and often would invite captured pilots to dine with him .

Mölders married Luise Baldauf , née Thurner , the widow of a friend who had been killed in active service , on 13 September 1941 . Erich Klawitter , Mölders ' childhood mentor , performed the religious ceremony in Falkenstein , Taunus . Witnesses to the wedding included Leutnant Erwin Fleig and Oberleutnant Hartmann Grasser . The marriage produced a posthumous daughter , Verena .

Third Reich authorities disapproved of his choice of a Catholic marriage ceremony , performed by Klawitter . Klawitter had been barred from membership in the Reichskulturkammer ( Reich Culture Chamber ) and was considered politically unreliable after a 1936 breach of the Pulpit Law , a remnant of the 1870s Kulturkampf that among other religions barred Catholics from criticizing the state from the pulpit .

= = Legacy = =

Werner Mölders ' old unit , Jagdgeschwader 51 , was renamed " Mölders " in his honour , on 22 November 1941 , only hours after his death . Its members were entitled to wear the " Mölders " cuffband . His death , however , was also put to other uses . Shortly after Mölders died , the British Intelligence agency dropped a flyer over Germany . The so @-@ called Möldersbrief ( Mölders @-@ letter ) was a copy of correspondence supposedly written by Mölders to the provost of Schwerin . In this letter , he expressed his strong belief in Catholicism and stated that , especially in the face of death , many supporters of National Socialism still find strength and courage with Catholicism .

Mölders ' premature death , just shortly after Udet 's own suicide , was too great an opportunity for Sefton Delmer , the chief of the British black propaganda in the Political Warfare Executive ( PWE ) , to ignore . His idea was to use Mölders ' popularity in Germany , distributing a letter thus creating the assumption that Mölders strong belief led him to oppose the Nazi regime in Germany . The letter was extremely well conceived . It did not bluntly call for opposition against the state . It never even mentioned the National Socialists by name but rather used metaphors like " the godless " . Nevertheless , every German reader knew what was meant .

The letter caused a stir in the upper echelons of the Nazi regime . In his diaries , Joseph Goebbels , Reich Minister of Propaganda , assumed that someone in the German Catholic church organisation wrote , and distributed , the letter . A bounty of 100 @,@ 000 Reichsmark , posted by the Führer himself , revealed no clues to its origins . Even the strongest repressive actions could not hinder the distribution of the letter .

= = = Post @-@ war honours = = =

The Invalidenfriedhof , where Mölders is buried , lay in East Berlin and in 1975 East German officials ordered all the graves leveled . After the 1990 German reunification , Mölders ' grave was rebuilt and rededicated on 11 October 1991 by Mölders ' school friend and Domherr of the St. Hedwig 's Cathedral , Heribert Rosal . The ceremony was witnessed by guests from the United States , Great Britain , Austria , Spain and Hungary .

After the war , on 13 April 1968 , a destroyer of the Bundesmarine ( Federal German Navy ) was christened Mölders in Bath , Maine ( USA ) . It was in service between 1969 and 2003 . As of 24 June 2005 , it is the central attraction at the Navy Museum in Wilhelmshaven . On 9 November 1972 , a base of a battalion of the 34th Signal Regiment of the Bundeswehr ( Federal German Army ) in Visselhövede received the name " Mölders " . Most recently , the Fighter Wing 74 ( Jagdgeschwader 74 ) , stationed in Neuburg an der Donau , received the name " Mölders " in 1973 . Fighter Ace Generalleutnant Günther Rall presented the cuffbands .

= = = Reversal of honours = = =

Mölders ' career and legacy offer an example of the challenges posed in placing the heroism of the German armed forces in the post @-@ war cultural , political and social setting . In 1998 , on the occasion of the 61st anniversary of the bombing of the Spanish town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War , the German Parliament decided that members of the Condor Legion , such as Mölders , should " no longer be honoured " . In 2005 , the German Ministry of Defence ( Bundesministerium der Verteidigung ) decided to remove the name " Mölders " from the JG 74 . The decision was confirmed on 11 March 2005 by the Federal Minister of Defence Peter Struck , and at 10 : 00 , the flags and cufftitles were removed .

Mölders ' supporters challenged the ruling , and pointed out that Mölders had been posted to Spain well after the bombing of Guernica . They pointed to his equivocal political attitude towards National Socialism and his unequivocal moral commitment to Catholicism . Not only did he have a Catholic religious marriage ceremony but Klawitter , regarded by the Third Reich as politically " unreliable , " had performed the ceremony . Furthermore , Mölders had joined the Catholic youth organisation Bund Neudeutschland ( Union for New Germany ) on 1 October 1925 and had been a youth leader of the organisation from 1929 to 1931 . The Third Reich clearly had considered the Bund Neudeutschland as a threat : The Völkischer Beobachter ( The People 's Observer , the official newspaper of the party ) had reported on 26 January 1938 that the Bund had been outlawed for its proven subversive activities against the Reich , based on the Verordnung des Reichspräsidenten zum Schutz von Volk und Staat ( Reich Presidential Decree for the Protection of People and State ) of 28 February 1933 . Despite petitions from politicians and high @-@ ranking active and retired servicemen , among them Horst Seehofer , Günther Rall and Jörg Kuebart , the Office for Military History ( MGFA ) noted that Mölders ' membership in the Bund Neudeutschland did not provide sufficient evidence of his having been critical of the regime , but rather showed the contrary and concluded that it was questionable whether Mölders had distanced himself enough from National Socialism before his death in 1941 . Consequently , the decision remained in force .

Other evidence has surfaced illustrating Mölders ' ambiguous relationship with the National Socialist regime . Mölders may have been in contact with bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen , who was highly critical of the Nazi regime . Von Galen publicly criticised the regime for the Gestapo 's tactics and the deportation and euthanasia of the mentally ill . According to the diary kept by Heinrich Portmann , von Galen 's secretary and chaplain , Mölders threatened to return his awards if von Galen 's euthanasia accusation turned out to be true . Furthermore , Portmann stated that Hitler had asked Mölders during the presentation of the Diamonds to the Knight 's Cross if there was anything he wished for . Mölders reportedly responded , " Please leave the bishop of Münster alone . " Hitler assured him that " Yes , nothing will happen to the bishop of Münster . " The MGFA concluded in 2004 that this story was most likely false . The MGFA revised its position again on 28 June 2007 , concluding that there had been contact between Mölders and von Galen .

Evidence also demonstrates Mölders ' propensity to value friendships over political expediency . According to Viktor Mölders , his brother had saved Georg Küch , one of Werner Mölders ' closest friends , who had been classified as a half @-@ Jew by the Nuremberg Laws , from death in the concentration camps . Mölders ' and Küch 's friendship dated to their school days at the Saldria @-@ Gymnasium in Brandenburg an der Havel . Küch 's mother , Alice née Siegel , was of Jewish birth . Küch 's father , Richard Küch , owned and operated a pharmacy in Brandenburg . Georg , himself a pharmacy student , was expelled from university under the Nuremberg Laws , just two semesters shy of his graduation . In 1940 , Richard Küch fell ill , and owning and operating the pharmacy became a bureaucratic problem for the family . Georg Küch contacted his friend Mölders in mid @-@ February 1941 , asking for help . Werner Mölders immediately responded to Küch on 16 February 1941 , stating that he had taken care of the matter and asking Küch not to pursue the issue on his own . When Richard Küch died in June 1941 , his wife was able to sell the pharmacy for fair market value . Normally , since she was Jewish , it would have been confiscated . She also remained exempt from wearing the detested yellow badge until late 1943 . She was then taken to the Theresienstadt concentration camp , where she worked as a cook . Georg Küch , Alice Küch , and Georg 's sister Friedel survived the Holocaust . Friedel Küch repeatedly stated that Werner Mölders had been responsible for protecting the family ; the mantle of his protection had persisted beyond his death . The MGFA ruled this assertion " highly speculative , " and did not investigate further .

= = Summary of career = =

= = = Awards = = =

Wehrmacht Long Service Award 4th Class ( 2 October 1936 )

Medal for the Campaign of 1936 − 1939 ( Medalla de la Campaña 1936 − 1939 or Medalla de la Campaña ) ( Spain , 4 May 1939 )

Military Medal ( Medalla Militar ) ( Spain , 4 May 1939 )

Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( 6 June 1939 )

Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold and Diamonds

Wound Badge in Black

Pilot / Observer Badge in Gold with Diamonds ( August 1940 )

Iron Cross ( 1939 )

2nd Class ( 20 September 1939 )

1st Class ( 2 April 1940 )

Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds

Knight 's Cross ( 29 May 1940 ) as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of III . / Jagdgeschwader 53

2nd Oak Leaves ( 21 September 1940 ) as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51

2nd Swords ( 22 June 1941 ) as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51

1st Diamonds ( 15 July 1941 ) as Oberst and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51

Mentioned eleven times in the Wehrmachtbericht

= = = Promotions = = =

= Brainard Homestead State Park =

Brainard Homestead State Park , and alternatively Brainerd Homestead State Park , is a 25 acre undeveloped Connecticut state park located in the town of East Haddam , Connecticut , United States . A farmhouse was built on the site by Timothy Green in 1842 before being purchased by Selden Tyler Brainerd in March 1854 . The ownership of the property was willed to Geraldine W. Hayden . Upon her death in 1929 , the property was willed to the State of Connecticut with the condition that William Brainerd be able to use the property for life . William Brainerd died in 1936 , the buildings were later dismantled , but the Brainard Homestead State Park was established prior to May 1 , 1932 . The undeveloped park is said to offer bird watching , sports fields and hiking according to the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection . As of 2012 , the fields were noted to be actively farmed and there were no established trails for hiking .

= = History = =

The known history of Brainard Homestead State Park begins in 1842 when Timothy Green constructed a farmhouse on the property . Green never lived in the farmhouse , but leased it to Jonathan Morgan . In March 1854 , the property was sold to Selden Tyler Brainerd . Brainerd with his wife , Harriet , raised five children in the 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) farmhouse . At some point ownership of the property was transferred to Geraldine W. Hayden in a will . In March 1929 , Hayden died and willed the property to the State of Connecticut so that the homestead could be utilized as a memorial to her grandfather . A report by the Connecticut State Park and Forest Commission noted that it was not an ideal situation due the concerns about identifying a proposed site in advance and establishing the adaptability of the land for public use . The report also notes that Mrs. Hayden was unknown to the commissioners and despite the land having significant liabilities was waiting to become a state park by 1930 . The delay in its transformation stemmed from a request that William Brainerd , one of Selden and Harriet 's sons , have life use of the property . William Brainerd died in 1936 and the terms of the will were completed . At a later date , the State of Connecticut dismantled the buildings and established the Brainard Homestead State Park .

Land use records show that two fields on the farm were once leased and used by Mortimer Gelston , but the fields surrounding or on the Brainard Homestead State Park continue to be actively farmed . Leary writes that the park preserves the Brainard Homestead and notes that the foundations and cellar pits are visible and provides a picture of the fieldstone foundation .

The establishment date of the Brainard Homestead State Park is unknown , but it predates the death of William Brainard . The 1934 State of Connecticut Register and Manual lists the Brainard Homestead State Park as the 39th State Park and consists of 25 acres . Though it is unspecific , the 1932 State of Connecticut Register and Manual notes that there were 40 state parks as of May 1 , 1932 .

= = Activities = =

The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection website highlights three activities for Brainard Homestead State Park : bird watching , field sports and hiking . In 2004 , Leary noted that the open fields were perfect for field sports and picnics . Use of field for sports seem to have ended soon after because a geocache placed within Brainard Homestead State Park and referenced on the Geocaching website notes that the fields were used for farming . In 2012 , the " The A to Z of CT State Parks " Tumblr website noted that the fields were unusable and were currently being farmed . The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection website continues to note the park 's " field sports " use as of 2014 . Also " The A to Z of CT State Parks " states that there were no established trails for hiking . Leary writes that there are limited views of the Connecticut River in winter , but the foliage in summer " precludes much of a vista . " Al Braden writes in his book that the park provides access to the Salmon River with parking , boat ramp and docks , but this is the " Salmon River Boat Launch East Haddam " and not a part of the state park .

= Tropical Storm Nicole ( 2010 ) =

Tropical Storm Nicole was a short @-@ lived and unusually asymmetric tropical cyclone that caused extensive rainfall and flooding in Jamaica during the 2010 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the sixteenth tropical cyclone and the fourteenth named storm of the season , as well as the last of a record eight tropical storms to form in September . Originating from a broad monsoonal low , Nicole became a tropical depression over the northwestern Caribbean Sea on September 28 . It maintained an unusual structure as it tracked northeastward , with a poorly defined wind circulation and few thunderstorms near its center . Nicole approached the coast of Cuba as a weak tropical storm , losing its status as a tropical cyclone over the territory on September 29 . The remnants emerged over the Bahamas and eventually became absorbed by a separate extratropical system .

Due to Nicole 's atypical structure , the strongest thundershowers were well removed from the center ; most of the weather activity occurred over the north @-@ central Caribbean . In Jamaica , the storm triggered widespread power outages across more than 288 @,@ 000 residences . Extreme precipitation of up to 37 @.@ 42 inches ( 940 mm ) caused disastrous flooding in several parishes , severely damaging or destroying 528 houses . The devastation extended to the island 's farmland and environment , which suffered from expansive water pollution . In all , Nicole wrought an estimated $ 240 million ( 2010 USD ) in damage throughout Jamaica , and there were sixteen fatalities . Elsewhere , minor flooding occurred in Cuba , Florida , and the Cayman Islands . The remnants of the storm contributed to a large disturbance along the East Coast of the United States , causing additional damage and deaths .

= = Meteorological history = =

In late September 2010 , a wide band of disturbed weather and low pressure associated with the monsoon trough and remnant tropical moisture from Tropical Storm Matthew meandered over the northwestern Caribbean Sea . With a broad upper ridge anchored along the Yucatán coast , diffluence aloft in the vicinity of the disturbance provided focus for the development of scattered convection . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted an environment supportive of tropical development , and by September 27 a broad surface low formed amid the convection . The next day , surface pressures steadily dropped as sustained winds around the low increased to near tropical storm force . Throughout the development process , moderate westerly wind shear over the region caused the disturbance to exhibit a rather asymmetric structure ; it developed an elongated low @-@ pressure center by September 28 , well to the northwest of its strongest wind field . Despite the asymmetry , the NHC initiated advisories on a tropical depression around 15 : 00 UTC that day , after surface and satellite observations revealed a sufficiently defined circulation center west of the deep convection . Post @-@ season reassessments , however , indicated that a tropical storm had in fact formed three hours earlier , about 75 miles ( 120 km ) south of Cuba 's Isle of Youth .

For most of its duration , Nicole maintained a generally northeastward motion , caught in the steering flow between a large mid- to upper @-@ level trough and an anticyclone to the west . Within hours of the storm 's formation , observations from a Hurricane Hunters flight confirmed a composition similar to the one initially discerned , with the strongest gusts and thunderstorms dislocated 250 mi ( 400 km ) east from the ill @-@ defined center . In comparison , the core consisted of light winds and sporadic convection — a structure rather characteristic of a North Indian Ocean monsoon depression . The system 's ambiguous nature led to disagreement among weather specialist over its classification : while the NHC maintained its tropical cyclone status , Cuban meteorologist José Rubiera stated that " no tropical storm exists over [ Cuba ] , or near it , " noting a lack of significant winds in the country 's vicinity .

Over the course of September 29 , radar data showed the convection increasing over the northern half of the storm ; bands of intense thunderstorms in the southeastern periphery also formed closer to the center , and weather buoys and ships in that region observed sustained tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds . Around 12 : 00 UTC , Nicole attained an estimated peak intensity of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds and a minimum pressure of 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) , just south of Cuba . Despite the increase in strength , Nicole 's circulation soon became exceedingly elongated and untrackable over central Cuba , prompting the NHC to declassify it as a tropical cyclone by 15 : 00 UTC . The remnant low began interacting with the neighboring trough that had steered Nicole in its tropical stages , resulting in significant amounts of precipitation along the southeastern coastlines of the United States . Accelerating toward the northeast , the system acquired frontal characteristics and became extratropical over the Bahamas by 0600 UTC , September 30 , twelve hours before merging with a developing system over eastern North Carolina . Lingering low pressure and broad cyclonic flow over the north @-@ central Caribbean in Nicole 's wake contributed to the development of Hurricane Paula in the first weeks of October .

= = Preparations = =

= = = Caribbean = = =

In anticipation of a tropical storm , warnings were issued for the Cayman Islands , the northwestern and central Bahamas , and the Cuban provinces of Matanzas , Cienfuegos , Villa Clara , Sancti Spíritus , and Ciego de Ávila on September 28 . However , the warnings were discontinued the following day after reports of the storm 's prompt dissipation . After forecasters warned of severe weather across the Cayman Islands , schools and government offices closed in low @-@ lying areas , and emergency teams cleaned out storm drains and readied shelters . Thunderstorms in Grand Cayman forced Cayman Airways to cancel all express flights to Cayman Brac and Little Cayman on October 29 ; weather @-@ resistant jet service was provided to stranded passengers . A marine warning was required for all three islands due to rough sea conditions .

In Jamaica , a flash flood warning remained in effect for flood @-@ prone regions for four days , ultimately discontinued on October 3 . Schools and several businesses , including the US Embassy in Kingston , closed on September 29 – 30 as the island braced for heavy rains . Public transit was suspended islandwide on the evening of September 29 , and shipping interests were cautioned to secure their vessels . At the height of the storm , army and police officials patrolled the island in case of emergencies .

= = = United States = = =

Tropical storm warnings were issued for the Florida Keys , the Florida Bay , and from the Jupiter Inlet coast southward to Cape Sable on September 28 . A tropical storm watch was in place for the mainland north from the Jupiter Inlet to the Sebastian Inlet and north of East Cape Sable to Chokoloskee . The warnings and watch were discontinued the next day , after a direct impact was no longer expected . At the time , a flood watch remained in effect for Palm Beach , Broward , Miami @-@ Dade , Collier , and Monroe counties into September 30 . An airport weather warning was issued for Orlando International Airport and Executive Airport on September 28 ; arriving flights were put on hold , and pilots rerouted to other airports if possible . Eight Southwest Airlines flights were diverted to the airports of Tampa and Jacksonville , and one JetBlue flight to West Palm Beach . Though airport officials later reported normalized conditions , an additional 26 flights were canceled at Miami International Airport the next day .

In Brunswick and New Hanover counties , North Carolina , officials readied shelters on September 29 to accommodate stranded residents unable to access their homes . Multiple schools in New Hanover and Pender County remained closed the next morning due to worsening storm conditions from the disturbance succeeding Nicole . At the threat of prolonged rainfall , a flood watch was issued for Kent County , Maryland , from September 30 to October 1 . Also in the area , the National Weather Service declared both a coastal flood advisory and wind advisory for September 30 .

= = Impact = =

= = = Jamaica = = =

For several days , Nicole and its precursor disturbance brought great amounts of rainfall to much of Jamaica . A maximum total of 37 @.@ 42 inches ( 940 mm ) was recorded in Belleisle , Westmoreland Parish , from September 26 to 30 ; most other parishes received over 12 in ( 300 mm ) during this time . With a return period of 30 years , these quantities tripled the monthly rainfall average for September at several locations . Though the broad @-@ scale wind regime over the island remained gentle , the storm 's intense convective bands produced three microbursts — small downdrafts of intense winds . Following the degradation of river banks and waterways , the heaviest impact was due to landslides and particularly severe flooding across numerous communities , primarily in the southern parishes .

The disaster affected a total of 507 @,@ 831 people ; it resulted in 16 deaths — 14 of which confirmed — and 42 injuries . In Saint Andrew Parish 's Sandy Park , a house next to a street gully succumbed to the effects of the storm ; five bodies were recovered near the site , while the remaining missing inhabitant was later presumed dead . Elsewhere in Saint Andrew , three construction workers were killed when the shed in which they were sleeping caved in . A girl was crushed to death under the weight of a collapsed board house in Saint Catherine Parish . Rushing waters in different parts of the island swept away three people , all of whom drowned . A waterspout hit Westmoreland Parish 's capital of Savanna @-@ la @-@ Mar amid a microburst , tearing the roofs off buildings and hospitalizing five residents . In the wake of the storm , a body was recovered from debris along a road in Saint Catherine . Nationwide , floods trapped hundreds of residents in their homes . The obstruction of roads and bridges isolated various communities across seven of the island 's parishes .

Jamaica 's infrastructure was devastated in the deluge , accounting for most of the material damage on the island . At the height of the storm , more than 288 @,@ 000 residences lost power due to downed electricity lines and poles , and over 40 percent of the island 's water supply was disrupted . Dozens of bridges collapsed under the force of swollen rivers and creeks . In Kingston , underpasses suffered severe flooding as prolonged rainfall overwhelmed storm drains ; subsequent surface inundations left several of the city 's roads impassable . Destruction to the transport infrastructure was especially extensive in Westmoreland , Saint Elizabeth , and Hanover parishes , though overall 543 of the island 's principle roads sustained some degree of damage . The value of costs linked to the infrastructure neared J $ 20 billion ( US $ 235 @.@ 4 million ) .

Nicole wreaked widespread property damage , encompassing 2 @,@ 169 houses : 474 sustained severe damage , while 54 were beyond repair . The losses totaled J $ 274 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) , J $ 75 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 890 @,@ 000 ) hereof required to replace destroyed housing units . With much of its crops and livestock washed away , the island 's agricultural sector suffered about J $ 576 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 6 @.@ 8 million ) in losses , including 40 percent of the season 's banana produce . The storm had a discernible impact on the environment , which plays a crucial role in the Jamaica 's economy and tourism . Surface runoffs and spills along industrial zones and sewage systems infiltrated wide stretches of land , leading to scattered pollution , coastal erosion , and deterioration in the ecosystems of the affect regions . In addition , light damage occurred to vegetation as evidenced by uprooted trees .

= = = Elsewhere = = =

While intensifying offshore , Nicole 's outer bands produced heavy downpours over drought @-@ stricken Cuba . Locally , rain along the southeastern coast was particularly high ; a 48 @-@ hour total of 9 @.@ 22 inches ( 235 mm ) fell at Cape Cruz , in the mountainous Granma Province . The region briefly observed gale @-@ force winds , gusting to 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) at Guantánamo Bay . Throughout eastern Cuba , 300 people sought refuge during the storm . As rivers overflowed in Granma , eight houses collapsed and more than 300 others endured flooding in the coastal town of Pilón . Several roads were obstructed , with part of the highway between Granma and Santiago de Cuba destroyed . The floods resulted in 5 @,@ 000 lbs ( 2 @.@ 5 tons ) of losses in crops and livestock . These effects were nevertheless considered minor , and the rains helped alleviate a persistent dry spell in the country .

In the Cayman Islands , gusts to 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) stirred up a rough sea with 8 – 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 5 – 3 m ) high waves , causing light erosion along south and western shores . Though heavy rainfall over the region was widespread , the greatest quantities fell on Grand Cayman , where the Owen Roberts International Airport recorded 9 @.@ 02 in ( 229 mm ) of rain over a period of two days . The storm flooded low @-@ lying areas , caused roof leaks , and knocked out the power in parts of eastern Grand Cayman , but overall damage across the islands was limited .

Despite initial threats of heavy thunderstorms and strong gusts , Florida was spared a direct impact from Nicole . The storm only skirted the state with showers ; a rainfall total of 12 @.@ 71 inches ( 323 mm ) was recorded at North Key Largo , though the mainland received considerably less . Street flooding occurred in Miami Beach and the northern Florida Keys , but only one residence sustained damage . Similarly , inclement weather spread over parts of the Bahamas without significant consequences .

= = = Post @-@ tropical system = = =

The extratropical remnants of Nicole retained plenty of moisture and ultimately combined with a large low @-@ pressure system slowly tracking up the US East Coast . The resultant disturbance produced torrential thunderstorms over entire coastlines and inland as far north as Canada , resulting in widespread power outages and shattering numerous precipitation records throughout the region . The most extreme weather was concentrated over Eastern North Carolina ; in the week of September 24 – October 1 , most communities recorded rainfall totals of 8 – 10 in ( 200 – 250 mm ) . Wilmington measured 22 @.@ 54 inches ( 573 mm ) of rain , the most it had received over a five @-@ day period since 1871 , while Kinston recorded 15 in ( 380 mm ) during that time . The rains caused widespread flooding exacerbated by overflowing creeks and rivers , surrounding and isolating several homes . About 150 roads were closed due to the hazardous conditions ; traffic accidents across the state nonetheless resulted in seven deaths .

In the Mid @-@ Atlantic , the event broke daily rainfall records for September 30 at several locations including the Norfolk , Baltimore – Washington , and Ronald Reagan Washington airports , which recorded 7 @.@ 85 in ( 199 mm ) , 6 @.@ 02 in ( 153 mm ) , and 4 @.@ 66 in ( 118 mm ) respectively . In Maryland , two buses collided amid the stormy weather , injuring 26 passengers . With localized estimates of up to 8 in ( 200 mm ) , the state of New York experienced some of its most historic rainfall ; an official 4 @.@ 24 in ( 108 mm ) shattered the 24 @-@ hour record for any calendar day in Binghamtom . Flash floods throughout the state led to one drowning and about US $ 10 @,@ 000 in damage . Considerable flooding also occurred in Vermont and Pennsylvania , with a 24 @-@ hour rainfall maximum of 10 @.@ 5 in ( 265 mm ) observed in Moscow . Farther north , the remnant low enhanced a pressure gradient over southern New England , generating strong winds that knocked out power in Litchfield County . Rainfall there additionally caused minor flooding . In Quebec , torrents following 3 @.@ 5 in ( 90 mm ) of rainfall inundated basements and caused two drownings . Despite the deaths and damage , the rains alleviated prolonged drought conditions in those regions .

= = Aftermath = =

On October 5 , a national disaster was declared for Jamaica due to the effects of Nicole . In response , the USAID 's Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance provided US $ 50 @,@ 000 for the purchase and delivery of relief supplies and fuel for emergency vehicles . About J $ 4 million ( US $ 46 @,@ 800 ) was donated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries to the Greenhouse Growers Association for the repair of greenhouses . In conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization , an estimated J $ 12 million ( US $ 140 @,@ 400 ) was made available to initiate the planting of about 50 @,@ 000 crop seedlings . The Veterinary Division provided financial assistance to livestock farmers and dispatched animal technicians providing prophylactic medication and vitamins to avert foot rot disease in small ruminants , including goats and sheep . The cost of the medication was estimated at J $ 2 million ( US $ 23 @,@ 400 ) . The Banana Board 's Catastrophe Fund , which at the time comprised J $ 50 million ( US $ 585 @,@ 000 ) , delivered both monetary support and human resources to local banana and plantain farmers .

Eleven days after the storm , the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies allocated CHF150,644 ( US $ 156 @,@ 221 ) to sustain the Jamaica Red Cross in distributing aid to about 500 families — or 2 @,@ 500 beneficiaries — in need of life supplies . In late December 2010 , the Jamaica – Canadian Association in Toronto , Canada raised a total of CDN $ 10 @,@ 153 @.@ 87 ( US $ 10 @,@ 221 @.@ 33 ) in relief funds to assist flood victims . The Hanover Parish Council requested J $ 30 million ( US $ 351 @,@ 000 ) to assist the Saint James Parish Council and other municipal authorities across the country in post @-@ storm clean @-@ up and beautification work . A grant of J $ 279 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 26 million ) was approved for the reconstruction of a major roadway section in Westmoreland Parish .

In spite of the timely relief efforts , Nicole 's effects were still felt for months in its wake . The gross domestic product for Jamaica , which had been suffering from a substantially slow economic growth rate , further declined following the extensive storm damage . The agriculture sector sustained slight losses from reduced egg production due to the traumatizing effects on farm chickens , and the storm 's impact contributed to below @-@ standard levels of holiday season consumption .

= John Madden Football ' 93 =

John Madden Football ' 93 is a 1992 sports video game developed by Blue Sky Productions ( later Looking Glass Studios ) and Electronic Arts and published by EA Sports Network . Based on the sport of American football , the game puts the player in control of a football team in modes such as tournament play and sudden death . It was officially endorsed by John Madden .

The game 's Sega Genesis version was developed by Blue Sky Productions , which was simultaneously creating Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss . John Madden Football ' 93 adds new animations and features , and it allows players to play as and against famous teams such as the Oakland Raiders of 1976 . Aside from Madden Football 64 , the game was the last in the Madden franchise to lack the NFL license , which was featured in Madden NFL ' 94 onward .

With over one million units in sales , John Madden Football ' 93 was a commercial success . Critics awarded the game high scores and praised its updated graphics ; but several reviewers complained that little had changed since John Madden Football ' 92 . Royalties from the game funded the expansion of Blue Sky Productions , and the company 's director , Paul Neurath , later commented that the size of these royalties led Electronic Arts to develop future Madden titles in @-@ house .

= = Gameplay = =

John Madden Football ' 93 is an adaptation of American football that takes place from an isometric perspective in a two @-@ dimensional environment . The player begins each match by selecting such variables as the game mode , weather conditions and team . Game modes include 16 @-@ team tournaments and sudden death , among other things . In addition to the game 's single @-@ player mode , two @-@ player competitive and cooperative modes are available . Unlike prior games in the series , a coin toss at the beginning of every match determines which team will defend each goal , and which team will kick off .

Between every down , the player selects a formation , play and , on defense , coverage shell from a menu . The game contains fifty @-@ five offensive plays and seventy @-@ one defensive plays , such as screen and play @-@ action passes , blitzes and man @-@ to @-@ man defense . During a down , the player may control one team member at a time or allow the entire team to execute a play automatically . On offense , depending on the play , the player controls the quarterback , running back or kicker . After a pass , control automatically changes to the ball receiver . On defense , the player may at any time switch control between any members of the team . Instant replay is available to review plays .

New features in John Madden Football ' 93 include no @-@ huddle offense , overturning certain calls made by referees , taunting , stumbling , head @-@ butting and one @-@ handed catches . As with its predecessors , the game features updated statistics for the twenty @-@ eight NFL teams in the game , based on their performance in the previous season . In addition to these teams , eight famous team line @-@ ups , such as the Oakland Raiders of 1976 and the Dallas Cowboys of 1977 , are available . Two " All @-@ Madden Greats " teams are compiled from the best players in the history of the sport . No official player or team names , colors , or stadium names are used . A rental @-@ only version of the game , John Madden Football : Championship Edition , uses only " championship caliber " line @-@ ups from the 1966 @-@ 1991 era . Although it still lacks official names , this version features correct team colors .

= = Development = =

John Madden Football ' 93 was developed for the Sega Genesis by Blue Sky Productions ( credited as " Looking Glass Technology " ) , which was simultaneously working on Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss . The game was not a port , but was rather an original work by the company . They were approached by Electronic Arts soon after production on Ultima Underworld began , an event that company head Paul Neurath later attributed to contacts he had within the publisher , thanks to his involvement with the Electronic Arts project Chuck Yeager 's Advanced Flight Trainer . Neurath said that Electronic Arts was dissatisfied with the work that another studio had been doing on John Madden Football ' 93 , and that the publisher was " scrambling to find a [ replacement ] team " to meet the game 's rapidly approaching deadline . Blue Sky received the source code of John Madden Football ' 92 and had to develop a sequel in five months . Neurath later said that development was " part out @-@ of @-@ house and part in @-@ house " . The game 's visuals were made by Doug Wike , who also created graphics for Ultima Underworld . In 1991 , Neurath contracted the outside programmer Mark Lesser , who had previously worked on Mean 18 , to develop the game 's technical aspects . According to Lesser , this was necessary because none of Blue Sky 's employees had experience programming for the Sega Genesis .

Neurath believed that Blue Sky introduced " some nice improvements " to the franchise . A preview in Mega noted that the game had " a lot of added animation " compared to its predecessors . A writer for Mega Drive Advanced Gaming believed that " the most obvious addition is the digitised speech " , which did not appear in the game 's Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) version . In its November 1992 issue , Electronic Gaming Monthly estimated that the game was " 100 % complete " . The game 's Genesis and SNES versions were released at the same time . As with earlier John Madden Football titles , John Madden Football ' 93 lacks the NFL license , which prevented the inclusion of official teams , colors , player names and stadiums . Sega 's competing title , the Joe Montana @-@ endorsed NFL Sports Talk Football ' 93 , had received the license that year .

= = Reception = =

John Madden Football ' 93 was a commercial success , with over one million copies sold . It has been cited as the highest @-@ selling game developed by Looking Glass Studios , and Neurath later called it " one of the most successful games I 've ever worked on " . Paul Mellerick of Mega commented that " the only noticeable difference between [ John Madden Football ' 93 ] and its two predecessors is the animation " . He wrote that this new animation " makes the game incredibly good to look at " and that new motions like stumbling increase the game 's difficulty . Although he believed that the " two @-@ player mode is just as exciting as ever " , he was disappointed by the lack of a full @-@ season mode , which he called " unforgivable " in light of this feature 's appearance in Sega 's NFL Sports Talk Football ' 93 . He concluded that John Madden Football ' 93 was " the best game the Mega Drive has to offer " , but he wrote , " If you own John Madden Football ' 92 , or even the original John Madden American Football for that matter , then you should ignore this game completely " .

A writer for GamePro noted that John Madden Football ' 93 was " at first glance " largely identical to its predecessor ; but he believed that , " once you get down to serious business , you 'll notice a wealth of All @-@ Star enhancements " . He wrote that the " game play is now faster and smoother " , and that " the graphics are sharper , more detailed , and even better animated " . He believed that " Electronic Arts has [ ... ] made the best even better " , and he concluded , " John Madden Football ' 93 is even more fun to play than Madden ' 92 " . The staff of Mean Machines Sega called the game " hopelessly redundant " and " very , very disappoint [ ing ] " , and they believed that the John Madden Football series was " on its last legs " . They considered the game to be arguably worse than its predecessors , largely because of framerate problems . The reviewers concluded that it was " not a bad game at all " , but they suggested that readers buy " the slightly better John Madden Football ' 92 if [ they are ] after the definitive American Football game " .

Reviewing the SNES version of John Madden Football ' 93 , a GamePro writer believed that it was " a major improvement " over the previous SNES John Madden Football title . He wrote that the game 's visuals were the biggest leap , particularly after the " slow and chunky " graphics of the earlier release . He enjoyed its sound effects , but he noted the lack of voice clips present in the Genesis version . He concluded that the series was now roughly even across the two consoles , and he wrote that the game was " a strong candidate for SNES Sports Cart of the Year " . A writer for Nintendo Power wrote , " Madden ' 93 is easy to play and has the feel of the real game " . He believed that the most noticeable additions were the new teams and " new play options " , although he found it " awkward " to select plays . He finished , " Really the only thing missing is an option to play an entire season " . Carl Rowley of N @-@ Force called the visuals " sharper than ever " and believed that the character sprites were " small but well defined " . He found that the game played " brilliantly " , and he praised the instant replay feature as " superb " and " amazing " . He wrote that his " only niggle is the lack of sampled speech " , which he considered to be " a bit of a let down " . Finishing his review , Rowley wrote that the game was the " best American football game available " .

= = = Legacy = = =

After the game 's development concluded , programmer Mark Lesser was contracted by Electronic Arts to work on NHL ' 94 , a series that he remained on " for many years " . Neurath said that the royalties Blue Sky ( later Looking Glass Studios ) received from John Madden Football ' 93 " were quite substantial " , and that " it was really the royalties of Madden more than anything else [ ... ] that allowed us to grow the [ company ] " . Neurath believed that the size of these royalties led Electronic Arts to develop future Madden games in @-@ house , in order to maximize profit . Aside from Madden Football 64 , John Madden Football ' 93 was the last game in the Madden franchise to lack the NFL license , which the series first obtained with Madden NFL ' 94 . In 2012 , Michael Rundle wrote in The Huffington Post that John Madden Football ' 93 " really set the bar " for the franchise , and he believed that its gameplay was superior to that of Madden NFL 13 .

= Beyond Fantasy Fiction =

Beyond Fantasy Fiction was a US fantasy fiction magazine edited by H. L. Gold , with only ten issues published from 1953 to 1955 . The last two issues carried the cover title of Beyond Fiction , but the publication 's name for copyright purposes remained as before .

Although not a commercial success , it included several significant short stories by distinguished authors , such as Isaac Asimov , Ray Bradbury and Philip K. Dick . The publication has been described by critics as a successor to the tradition of Unknown , a fantasy magazine that ceased publication in 1943 . It was noted for printing fantasy with a rational basis such as werewolf stories that included scientific explanations . A selection of stories from Beyond was published in paperback form in 1963 , also under the title Beyond .

James Gunn , a historian of science fiction , regarded the magazine as the best of the fantasy magazines launched in the early 1950s , and science fiction encyclopedist Donald H. Tuck contended it printed very good material . Not every critic viewed Beyond as completely successful , however ; P. Schuyler Miller , in a 1963 review , commented that the stories were most successful when they did not try to emulate Unknown .

= = History and significance = =

Beyond Fantasy Fiction was a fantasy @-@ oriented companion to the more successful Galaxy Science Fiction , which launched in 1950 ; Beyond had been planned by editor H. L. Gold from the time Galaxy was launched , but it had to wait until Galaxy was firmly established . Beyond 's first issue , dated July 1953 , included an editorial by Gold in which he laid out the magazine 's scope , excluding ( in his words ) only " the probably possible " and " the unentertaining " . Gold recruited Sam Merwin , who had recently quit as editor of Fantastic Universe , to help in editing , though the masthead of both magazines listed Gold as editor . A typical issue of Beyond included several stories that were long enough to be listed as novellas or novelettes , with the contents augmented with shorter works , usually for a total of at least seven stories .

The first issue featured Theodore Sturgeon , Damon Knight , Frank M. Robinson , and Richard Matheson . Other writers who appeared in the magazine included Jerome Bixby , John Wyndham , James E. Gunn , Fredric Brown , Frederik Pohl ( both under his own name and with Lester del Rey under the joint pseudonym " Charles Satterfield " ) , Philip José Farmer , Randall Garrett , Zenna Henderson , and Algis Budrys .

Five of the ten covers were surrealist , which was an unusual artistic choice for a genre magazine . The cover painting for the first issue was by Richard M. Powers ; Gold was one of the very few American magazine editors to use his work , though Powers was prolific in providing artwork for paperback covers . In addition to Powers , René Vidmer and Arthur Krusz ( among others ) contributed cover art . The magazine also carried interior artwork , usually multiple illustrations , for almost every story ; in addition , each story included a facsimile of the author 's signature , set at the end of the text . The best @-@ known interior artist Beyond used was Ed Emshwiller , though there were several other regular artists . The magazine carried almost no non @-@ fiction , though there were occasional " filler " pieces to occupy spaces at the end of stories . The publication contained no book reviews , and only the first issue carried an editorial .

The magazine was not commercially successful : at that time circulation figures were not required to be published annually , as they were later , so the actual circulation figures are not known . Its demise after less than two years can be attributed in part to the decreasing popularity of fantasy and horror fiction . In a 1958 advertisement in Galaxy for complete sets of the magazine for $ 3 @.@ 50 , the publisher described Beyond as " a princely experiment to determine whether there were enough readers to support a truly handsome , fantastically high @-@ quality fantasy fiction magazine . There weren 't " , " as the rest of the country seemed to be ... out of town at the time and missed it on the newsstands " .

= = Reception = =

According to science @-@ fiction historian Donald H. Tuck , Beyond published " some very good material , " with appearances by many well @-@ known authors , and the magazine is often cited as being the successor to the unusual fantasy tradition of Unknown . Author James Gunn said of the new fantasy magazines that appeared in the 1950s that " the best of these was Beyond , created by Horace Gold as a companion fantasy magazine to Galaxy , which he had created three years before . Beyond Fantasy Fiction aimed at the same rationalized fantasy niche that Unknown had established and to which Gold had contributed stories . " Not everyone thought the magazine was completely successful in emulating Unknown , however ; P. Schuyler Miller , reviewing an anthology drawn from the pages of Beyond , was generally approving but commented that " Except for Budrys , Pohl , Brown and Sturgeon , these stories from Beyond are rather self @-@ conscious . They are best when they are not trying to be like Unknown . " Miller 's assessment of the magazine overall was that it " made a pass at the same position [ as Unknown ] but didn 't make it . "

Beyond 's selection of stories has been described by science fiction historian Michael Ashley as " seeking to achieve … high quality fantasy fiction acceptable to all readers " ; he adds that Beyond was more successful than Fantastic Science Fiction , a competitor in this niche , because Gold " had a clearer vision and was more determined … to achieve it . … despite sales problems , Gold persisted in publishing fiction that sought to stretch the boundaries of imagination . "

Several significant or widely reprinted stories appeared during Beyond 's short history :

" … And My Fear Is Great … " , by Theodore Sturgeon ( July 1953 )

" The Wall Around the World " , by Theodore R. Cogswell ( September 1953 )

" Kid Stuff " , by Isaac Asimov ( September 1953 )

" The Watchful Poker Chip " , by Ray Bradbury ( March 1954 ) . Generally reprinted under the title " The Watchful Poker Chip of H. Matisse "

" Sine of the Magus " , by James E. Gunn ( May 1954 )

" The Green Magician " , by L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt ( November 1954 ) . Part of the Incompleat Enchanter series

" Upon the Dull Earth " , by Philip K. Dick ( November 1954 )

Although no Hugo Awards were presented in 1954 , the 2004 World Science Fiction Convention awarded " Retro Hugos " for that year . Two Beyond stories appeared as runners @-@ up : Sturgeon 's " … And My Fear Is Great … " placed third in the novella category , and Cogswell 's " The Wall Around the World " fifth in the novelette category . In addition , Gold placed fifth in the editor category , though this recognized his work at Galaxy as well as at Beyond .

= = Bibliographic details = =

The publisher was Galaxy Publishing Corporation , New York . The magazine was initially titled Beyond Fantasy Fiction , and this remained the title on the masthead throughout the ten @-@ issue run . However , issue 9 changed the title to simply Beyond Fiction on the cover , spine , and table of contents . Issue 10 used the new , shorter title on the cover and spine , but reverted to Beyond Fantasy Fiction for the table of contents . As a result , the magazine is often listed as having changed its name for the last two issues .

The magazine began as a 160 @-@ page digest , priced at 35 cents . The price stayed the same throughout the run , but the page count was cut to 128 for the eighth issue , September 1954 . The magazine was bimonthly , but issues 9 and 10 did not carry month and year dates , which has led different bibliographers to catalogue them in different ways . However , the masthead for these issues indicates that the magazine remained bimonthly , and so they are now usually catalogued as November 1954 and January 1955 , respectively ; the copyright dates on the last two issues correspond to these dates . The volume numbering was completely regular ; volume 1 had six numbers , and volume 2 ceased with its fourth number . The stories were printed in the two @-@ column format usual to digest magazines .

A British edition of the magazine ran for four issues on a bimonthly schedule starting in November 1953 and finishing in May 1954 . These copied the first four issues of the US version , with slightly cut contents . They were numbered 1 to 4 but were not dated . Ten years after the magazine folded , nine stories from Beyond were collected into the 160 @-@ page paperback Beyond , published in 1963 by Berkley Books ( F712 ) and edited by Thomas Dardis ( who was not credited on the book ) .

= HMS Majestic ( 1895 ) =

HMS Majestic was a Majestic @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy . Commissioned in 1895 , she was the largest predreadnought launched at the time . She served with the Channel Fleet until 1904 , following which she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . In 1907 , she was part of the Home Fleet , firstly assigned to the Nore Division and then with the Devonport Division . From 1912 , she was part of the 7th Battle Squadron .

When World War I broke out Majestic , together with the rest of the squadron , was attached to the Channel Fleet during the early stages of the war before being detached for escort duties with Canadian troop convoys . She then had spells as a guard ship at the Nore and the Humber . In early 1915 , she was dispatched to the Mediterranean for service in the Dardanelles Campaign . She participated in bombardments of Turkish forts and supported the Allied landings at Gallipoli . On 27 May 1915 , she was torpedoed by a U @-@ boat at Cape Helles , sinking with the loss of 49 men .

= = Design = =

Majestic was laid down at the Portsmouth Dockyard in February 1894 . She was launched on 31 January 1895 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the Royal Navy less than a year later , in December 1895 . The ship was 421 feet ( 128 m ) long overall and had a beam of 75 ft ( 23 m ) and a draft of 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced up to 16 @,@ 060 t ( 15 @,@ 810 long tons ; 17 @,@ 700 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . By 1907 – 1908 , she was re @-@ boilered with oil @-@ fired models . Her engines provided a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . The Majestics were considered good seaboats with an easy roll and good steamers , although they suffered from high fuel consumption . She had a crew of 672 officers and enlisted men .

The ship was armed with four BL 12 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns in twin turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed on pear @-@ shaped barbettes ; six of her sisters had the same arrangement , but her sisters Caesar and Illustrious and all future British battleship classes had circular barbettes . Majestic also carried twelve QF 6 @-@ inch / 40 guns . They were mounted in casemates in two gun decks amidships . She also carried sixteen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and twelve QF 2 @-@ pounder guns . She was also equipped with five 18 in ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes , four of which were submerged in the ship 's hull , with the last in a deck @-@ mounted launcher . Majestic and the other ships of her class had 9 inches ( 229 mm ) of Harvey armour , which allowed equal protection with less cost in weight compared to previous types of armour . This allowed Majestic and her sisters to have a deeper and lighter belt than previous battleships without any loss in protection . The barbettes for the main battery were protected with 14 in ( 360 mm ) of armour , and the conning tower had the same thickness of steel on the sides . The ship 's armoured deck was 2 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 64 to 114 mm ) thick .

= = Operational history = =

HMS Majestic commissioned into the Channel Squadron on 12 December 1895 , and served at the Portsmouth division . She was present at the Fleet Review at Spithead for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria on 26 June 1897 , and was later flagship to Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Harry Rawson , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Channel Fleet . Captain George Egerton was appointed in command on 28 June 1899 , and paid off in April 1901 , when Captain Edward Eden Bradford was appointed in command as she became the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Arthur Wilson , who had been appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Channel Squadron . She was present at the Coronation Review for King Edward VII on 16 August 1902 . She underwent a refit at Portsmouth from February to July 1904 , and then became a unit of the Atlantic Fleet when a reorganisation resulted in the Channel Fleet becoming the Atlantic Fleet in January 1905 . On 1 October 1906 , she paid off into reserve at Portsmouth .

Majestic recommissioned at Portsmouth on 26 February 1907 to become flagship of the Nore Division in the new Home Fleet , stationed at the Nore . She began a refit later that year in which she received radio and new fire control systems . When the flag was transferred to another ship in January 1908 , she became a private ship in the Nore Division . In June 1908 , Majestic transferred to the Devonport Division of the Home Fleet , stationed at Devonport . Her refit was completed in 1909 , and in March 1909 she transferred to the 3rd Division at Devonport , then in August 1910 to the 4th Division at Devonport , where she underwent another refit in 1911 . In May 1912 , Majestic became part of the 7th Battle Squadron in the 3rd Fleet at Devonport . On 14 July 1912 she collided with her sister ship Victorious during manoeuvres , suffering no serious damage .

= = = World War I = = =

Upon the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Majestic and the rest of the 7th Battle Squadron were assigned to the Channel Fleet . Majestic underwent a refit in August and September 1914 , then covered the passage of the British Expeditionary Force to France in September 1914 . She was detached from the 7th Battle Squadron from 3 October 1914 to 14 October 1914 to escort the first Canadian troop convoy . At the end of October 1914 , Majestic was transferred to the Nore to serve as guard ship there . On 3 November 1914 , she transferred to the Humber to serve as guard ship there . In December 1914 she became a unit of the Dover Patrol , and combined with battleship Revenge to bombard German coastal artillery from off of Nieuwpoort , Belgium , on 15 December 1914 . In January 1915 , she was based at Portland .

= = = = Dardanelles campaign = = = =

In February 1915 , Majestic was assigned to participate in the upcoming Dardanelles Campaign to open the Turkish Straits , and she departed early that month under the command of Captain H. F. G. Talbot to join the Mediterranean Fleet . Upon arriving at Malta , she was fitted with what was termed " mine @-@ catching " gear so that she could serve as a " mine @-@ bumper " . She joined the Dardanelles force on 24 February 1915 , and on 26 February 1915 departed Tenedos to bombard the Ottoman Turkish inner forts at the Dardanelles that morning . On 26 February 1915 , Majestic and battleships Albion and Triumph became the first Allied heavy ships to enter the Turkish Straits during the campaign , firing on the inner forts from 0914 until 1740 hours . Majestic took a hit below the waterline , but was able to continue operations and patrolled the area again on 27 February 1915 . She supported the early landings , shelling the forts from 1125 until 1645 hours on 1 March 1915 and again while patrolling on 3 March 1915 . She arrived at Mudros on 8 March 1915 .

On 9 March 1915 , Majestic circumnavigated the entrance to the Dardanelles and bombarded Ottoman Turkish positions from 1007 until 1215 hours . She returned to Tenedos on 10 March 1915 , patrolled off the Dardanelles again on 15 March 1915 , and again returned to Tenedos on 16 March 1915 . Majestic participated in the final attempt to force the straits by naval power alone on 18 March 1915 . She opened fire on Fort 9 at 1420 hours and also engaged Turkish field guns hidden in woods . She shelled Fort 9 until she ceased fire at 18 : 35 ; the fort meanwhile fired on the mortally damaged battleship Ocean . Majestic was hit four times , twice in her lower tops and twice on her forecastle , and returned to Tenedos at 2200 hours with one dead and some wounded crew members . Majestic returned to patrol duties on 22 March 1915 . She shelled Turkish positions on 28 March 1915 from 0950 to 1015 and from 1250 to 1340 hours and again opened fire on 14 April at 1458 hours . On 18 April , she fired on the abandoned British submarine E15 aground near Fort Dardanos and in danger of being captured ; two picket boats , one from Majestic and one from Triumph , destroyed E15 with torpedoes , although the boat from Majestic was itself sunk by Turkish shore batteries while retiring . Majestic returned to Tenedos on 21 April 1915 .

On 25 April 1915 , Majestic was back in action , signalling London that Allied landings had begun at Gallipoli and supporting them with coastal bombardments until 1915 hours . She brought 99 wounded troops aboard at 2110 hours and recovered all her boats before anchoring off Gallipoli for the night . On 26 April 1915 , she was back in action early , opening fire at 0617 hours . On 27 April 1915 she exchanged fire with Turkish guns , with several Turkish shells achieving very near misses before both sides ceased firing at 1130 hours . On 29 April 1915 she again was anchored off Gallipoli . Majestic relieved Triumph as flagship of Admiral Nicholson , commanding the squadrons supporting the troops ashore off Cape Helles , on 25 May 1915 .

= = = Loss = = =

On 27 May 1915 , while stationed off W Beach at Cape Helles , Majestic became the third battleship to be torpedoed off the Gallipoli peninsula in two weeks . Around 0645 hours , Commander Otto Hersing of the German submarine U @-@ 21 fired a single torpedo through the defensive screen of destroyers and anti @-@ torpedo nets , striking Majestic and causing a huge explosion . The ship began to list to port and in nine minutes had capsized in 54 feet ( 16 m ) of water , killing 49 men . Her masts hit the mud of the sea bottom , and her upturned hull remained visible for many months until it was finally submerged when her foremast collapsed during a storm .

= Spoken For =

Spoken For is the second studio album by Christian rock band MercyMe . Released on October 1 , 2002 , Spoken For sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number 41 on the Billboard 200 ; it also peaked at number two on the Christian Albums chart and number six on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart . The album received a generally positive reception from critics , some of whom praised the album as being both a lyrical and musical progression from their debut album Almost There . Several critics also noted a shift in sound from Almost There , describing Spoken For as having a roots rock sound . At the 34th GMA Dove Awards , Spoken For was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year ; the album was certified Gold by the RIAA in October 2003 .

Three singles were released in promotion of Spoken For . The lead single and title track , " Spoken For " , peaked at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts . The second single from the album , " Word of God Speak " , spent a record 23 weeks at the top of the Billboard Christian Songs chart , and also topped the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts . " The Change Inside of Me " was released as the final single from the album , and peaked at number eight on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart .

= = Background and recording = =

All songs on the album were written and composed by MercyMe personnel , Bart Millard , Jim Bryson , Robby Shaffer , Mike Scheuchzer , Nathan Cochran , and Pete Kipley . Mark Stuart also contributed to " All the Above " .

Discussing the progression from MercyMe 's first album Almost There to the songs on Spoken For , MercyMe 's lead singer Bart Millard said in an interview : " Our goal early on was to make sure our songs were ' singable ' and make sure they fit on power point because we wanted to write songs for corporate worship . Spoken For is filled with songs that I pray the church will use . " He added that this album leaned more toward rock than Almost There . Millard said of the origin of the album title : " Over the last year I ’ ve been consumed with the idea that God is so crazy in love with us — just knowing that we are part of something bigger and we worship a God who ’ s in complete control no matter how good or bad things get . The phrase " spoken for " really stuck with me . "

Spoken For was recorded in several locations : Luminous Sound in Dallas , Texas , The Sound Kitchen in Franklin , Tennessee , Indigo Room in Franklin , Tennessee , HydeAway Sound Lab in Jeckyll Island , Georgia , The Scwoodio in Greenville , Texas , Mountain View Recorders in Glorieta , New Mexico , and Playground Recording in Wylie , Texas . It was mastered by Richard Dodd at Vital Recordings , and mixed by F. Reid Shippen at Recording Arts in Nashville , Tennessee , with the exceptions of " All Because of This " , " Word of God Speak , and " Love of God " , ( which were mixed at Salvo Mix by Salvo ) , and " Go " ( which was mixed by J. R. McNeely ) .

= = Composition = =

MercyMe had considered themselves a rock band when they started out . On Spoken For they have progressed to sound " like a solid roots rock band " while retaining an " inspirational adult contemporary sound . " Several critics described the overall sound of the album as roots rock , also regarding Spoken For as a progression or shift beyond the sound of Almost There . The lyrical content has been described as ' refreshingly deep ' and ' thoughtful ' . The instrumentation on Spoken For includes electric guitar , acoustic guitar , bass guitar , and keyboard ; string instruments are also present . The songs on Spoken For are generally guitar @-@ driven , although " Word of God Speak " features only piano and strings over Millard 's vocals .

" Spoken For " , the title track , " offers a look at Jesus recognizing His children at heaven ’ s gate " and has been referred to as ' worshipful ' . Among the individual tracks on the album , " The Change Inside of Me " has been described as " firmly on the pop side of adult contemporary music " , as well as " upbeat pop / rock " . " All The Above " has also been described as ' pop ' ; lyrically , it describes " the elation that rang through the heavens when we became children of God " . " Your Glory Goes On " is also an upbeat pop / rock song . " Crazy " is described as a driving ballad " which explores the merits of heaven over earth " , with its opening bars sounding " a little like a slower version of The Police 's " Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic " . " Come One , Come All " sounds like a cross between the sounds of Sonicflood and John Mellencamp .

= = Singles = =

" Spoken For " was released as the lead single from Spoken For ; it peaked at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts , spending seven and six weeks respectively at the top of the charts . It also peaked at number six on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart . " Word of God Speak " was released as the second single from the album , and peaked at number one on the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , as well as at number one Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts , and at number 25 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart . " Word of God Speak " spent 23 weeks atop the Christian Songs chart , a record for that chart . A third and final single , " The Change Inside pf Me " , peaked at number eight on the Christian CHR chart .

= = Release = =

Spoken For was released on October 1 , 2002 . It sold 23 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number 41 on the Billboard 200 and number two on the Christian Albums chart and at number six on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart . Spoken For ranked at number ten on the 2003 year @-@ end Christian Albums chart , and at number 20 on the 2004 year @-@ end Christian Albums chart . It also ranked at number 46 on the 2000s decade @-@ end Christian Albums chart . The RIAA certified Spoken For Gold in 2003 , signifying shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Critical reception = =

Critical reception to Spoken For was generally positive . Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday gave the album four out of five stars , comparing the album favorably to MercyMe 's previous material . Marcia Bartenhagen of CCM Magazine gave the album a positive review , noting a progression in musical focus , songwriting , and vocals . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today praised the album for its cohesiveness , and found the album an improvement upon the band 's debut album Almost There in its songwriting ; he also praised what he regarded as a shift to a roots rock musical style . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms gave the album seven out of ten stars , praising the songs as being " beautifully crafted " . Wendy Lee Nentwig of Crosswalk.com praised the band 's musical and lyrical growth since their debut effort , as well as the " passionate intensity and emotion " of lead singer Bart Millard 's vocals .

Marcia Bartenhagen of CCM Magazine concluded : " While not a perfect sophomore effort , as the group occasionally sways to the triteness so often found on AC / pop projects , MercyMe has progressed in musical focus , songwriting and vocals . "

Spoken For was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 34th GMA Dove Awards .

= = Track listing = =

( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )

= = Personnel = =

( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Flying Eagle cent =

The Flying Eagle cent is a one @-@ cent piece struck by the Mint of the United States as a pattern coin in 1856 , and for circulation in 1857 and 1858 . The coin was designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , with the eagle in flight based on the work of Longacre 's predecessor , Christian Gobrecht .

By the early 1850s , the large cent ( about the size of a half dollar ) being issued by the Mint was becoming both unpopular in commerce and expensive to coin . After experimenting with various sizes and compositions , the Mint decided on an alloy of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel for a new , smaller cent . After the Mint produced patterns with an 1856 date and gave them to legislators and officials , Congress formally authorized the new piece in February 1857 .

The new cent was issued in exchange for the worn Spanish colonial silver coin that had circulated in the U.S. until then , as well as for its larger predecessor . So many cents were issued that they choked commercial channels , especially as they were not legal tender and no one had to take them . The eagle design did not strike well , and was replaced in 1859 by Longacre 's Indian Head cent .

= = Inception = =

The cent was the first official United States coin to be struck at the Philadelphia Mint in 1793 . These pieces , today known as large cents , were made of pure copper and were about the size of a half dollar . They were struck every year , except 1815 due to a shortage of metal , but were slow to become established in commerce . Worn Spanish colonial silver pieces were then commonly used as money throughout the United States .

The Mint then struck silver or gold in response to deposits by those holding bullion , and made little profit from those transactions . By the 1840s , profits , or seignorage , from monetizing copper into cents helped fund the Mint . In 1849 , copper prices rose sharply , causing the Department of the Treasury to investigate possible alternatives to the large one @-@ cent pieces . The cent was unpopular in trade ; as it was not a legal tender , nobody had to take it , and banks and merchants often refused it . The cent was disliked for its large size as well . In 1837 , the eccentric New York chemist Lewis Feuchtwanger had experimented with a smaller cent size in making model coins as part of a plan to sell his alloy ( similar to base @-@ metal German silver ) to the government for use in coinage . His pieces circulated as hard times tokens in the recession years of the late 1830s and early 1840s .

By 1850 , it was no longer profitable for the Mint to strike cents , and on May 14 , New York Senator Daniel S. Dickinson introduced legislation for a cent made out of billon , copper with a small amount of silver . At the time , it was widely felt that coins should contain a large proportion of their face value in metal . The coin would be annular ; that is , it would have a hole in the middle . The Mint struck experimental pieces , and found that it was difficult to eject such pieces from the presses where they were struck , and that it was expensive to recover the silver from the alloy . Provisions for a smaller cent were dropped from the legislation that gave congressional approval for the three @-@ cent piece in 1851 . Numismatic historian Walter Breen suggested that one factor in rejecting the holed coins was that they reminded many of Chinese cash coins with their minimal purchasing value . A drop in copper prices in 1851 and early 1852 made the matter of a smaller cent less urgent at the Department of the Treasury , which supervised Mint activities .

Copper prices resurged in late 1852 and into 1853 past the $ 0 @.@ 40 per pound that the Mint viewed as the break @-@ even point for cent manufacture after considering the cost of production ; 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) of copper made 42 ⅔ large cents . In 1853 , patterns using a base @-@ metal alloy were struck using a quarter eagle obverse die , about the size of a dime . Some of the proposed alloys contained the metal nickel . Also considered for use in the cent was " French bronze " ( 95 % copper with the remainder tin and zinc ) and various varieties of German silver . In his 1854 annual report , Mint Director James Ross Snowden advocated the issue of small , bronze cents , as well as the elimination of the half cent , which he described as useless in commerce . A number of pattern cents were struck in 1854 and 1855 . These featured various designs , including several depictions of Liberty and two adaptations of work by the late Mint chief engraver , Christian Gobrecht : one showing a seated Liberty , which Gobrecht had placed on the silver coins in the 1830s , and another of a flying eagle , which Gobrecht had created based upon a sketch by Titian Peale .

= = Preparation = =

In early 1856 , Snowden proposed legislation to allow him to issue a smaller cent , but leaving the size and metallic composition up to him and Secretary of the Treasury James Guthrie . Under the plan , the new piece would be legal tender , up to ten cents . It would be issued in exchange for the old Spanish silver still circulating in the United States . In the exchange , the Spanish silver would be given full value ( 12 ½ cents per real , or bit ) when normally such pieces traded at about a 20 % discount due to wear . The loss the government would take on the trade would be paid for by the seignorage on the base @-@ metal pieces . The new cents would also be issued for the old cents , and in exchange for the same value in half cents — that denomination was to be discontinued . The bill was introduced in the Senate on March 25 , 1856 . The old cent weighed 168 grains ( 10 @.@ 9 g ) ; on April 16 , the bill was amended to provide for a cent of at least 95 % copper weighing at least 96 grains ( 6 @.@ 2 g ) and passed the Senate in that form .

While the legislation was being considered , Mint Melter and Refiner James Curtis Booth was conducting experiments on alloys that might be appropriate for the new cent . In July 1856 , Snowden wrote to Guthrie , proposing an alloy of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel as ideal and suggesting amendments to the pending bill that would accomplish this . Booth also wrote to Guthrie to boost the alloy ; both men proposed a weight of 72 grains ( 4 @.@ 7 g ) as convenient as 80 cents would equal a troy pound ( 373 g ) , although the avoirdupois pound ( 454 g ) was more commonly used for base metals .

The Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre , was instructed to prepare designs for pattern coins . Initially , Longacre worked with Liberty head designs such as were common at the time , but Snowden asked that a flying eagle design be prepared . This occurred as Booth 's experiments continued ; the first cent patterns with the flying eagle design were about the size of a quarter . To promote the new alloy , the Mint had 50 half cents struck in it , and had them sent to Washington for Treasury officials to show to officials and congressmen . In early November 1856 , Longacre prepared dies in what would prove to be the final design , depicting a flying eagle on the obverse and a wreathed denomination on the reverse , in the size sought by Booth .

The Mint struck at least several hundred patterns using Longacre 's flying eagle design in the proposed composition . In an effort to secure public acceptance of the new pieces , these were distributed to various congressmen and other officials , initially in November 1856 . Two hundred were sent to the House Committee on Coinage , Weights and Measures , while four were given to President Franklin Pierce . At least 634 specimens were distributed , and possibly several thousand ; extra were available on request . This was the origin of the highly collectable 1856 Flying Eagle cent , which is considered by numismatists as part of the Flying Eagle series although it was actually a pattern or transition piece , not an official coin , as congressional approval had not yet been granted . Additional 1856 small cents were later struck by Snowden for illicit sale , and to exchange for pieces the Mint sought for its coin collection .

In December 1856 , Snowden wrote to Missouri Representative John S. Phelps , hoping for progress with the legislation , and stating that he was already " pressed on all hands , and from every quarter , for the new cent — in fact , the public are very anxious for its issue " . When the legislation , amended to include the weight and alloy the Mint had decided on , was debated in the House of Representatives on December 24 , it was opposed by Tennessee Congressman George Washington Jones over the legal tender provision ; Jones felt that under the Constitution , only gold and silver should be made legal tender . Phelps defended the bill on the ground that Congress had the constitutional power to regulate the value of money , but when the bill was brought back up to be considered on January 14 , 1857 , the legal tender provision had been removed . This time , the bill was opposed by New York Congressman Thomas R. Whitney , who objected to a provision in the bill that legalized the Mint 's practice of designing and striking medals commissioned by the public , feeling that the government should not compete with private medallists . The provision was removed , and the bill passed the following day . The House version was then considered by the Senate , which debated it on February 4 , and passed it with a further amendment allowing the redemption of the Spanish coins for a minimum of two years . The House agreed to this on February 18 , and President Pierce signed the bill on the 21st . The act made foreign gold and silver coins no longer legal tender , but Spanish dollars were redeemable at their nominal value for two years in exchange for the new copper @-@ nickel cents . The half cent was abolished . The new pieces would be the same size ( 19 mm ) , though somewhat heavier , than cents are today .

In anticipation of the success of the legislation , most of the 333 @,@ 456 large cents struck in 1857 never left the Philadelphia Mint , and were later melted . Snowden purchased a new set of rollers and other equipment so that the Mint could produce its own cent planchets , the first time it had done so in over 50 years . Although the legislation was still a day from final passage , Snowden recommended Longacre 's designs to Guthrie on February 20 . Guthrie approved them on the 24th , though he requested that the edge of the coin be made less sharp ; Snowden promised to comply . Flying Eagle cents were struck beginning in April 1857 and were held pending official release . The Mint stored the pieces pending accumulation of a sufficient supply ; in mid @-@ May , Snowden notified Philadelphia newspapers that distribution would begin on May 25 .

= = Design = =

Longacre 's obverse of an eagle in flight is based on that of the Gobrecht dollar , struck in small quantities from 1836 to 1839 . Although Gobrecht 's model is not known with certainty , some sources state that the bird in flight was based on Peter the eagle , a tame bird fed by Mint workers in the early 1830s until it was caught up in machinery and killed . The bird was stuffed , and is still displayed at the Philadelphia Mint .

Despite its derivative nature , Longacre 's eagle has been widely admired . According to art historian Cornelius Vermeule in his book on U.S. coins , the flying eagle motif , when used in the 1830s , was " the first numismatic bird that could be said to derive from nature rather than from colonial carving or heraldry " . Vermeule described the Flying Eagle cent 's replacement , the Indian Head cent , as " far less attractive to the eye than the Peale @-@ Gobrecht flying eagle and its variants " . Sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , when commissioned in 1905 to provide new designs for American coinage , sought to return a flying eagle design to the cent , writing to President Theodore Roosevelt , " I am using a flying eagle , a modification of the device which was used on the cent of 1857 . I had not seen that coin for many years , and was so impressed by it that I thought if carried out with some modifications , nothing better could be done . It is by all odds the best design on any American coin . " Saint @-@ Gaudens did return the flying eagle to American coinage , but his design was used for the reverse of the double eagle rather than the cent .

The wreath on the reverse is also derivative , having been previously used on Longacre 's Type II gold dollar of 1854 , and the three @-@ dollar piece of the same year . It is composed of leaves of wheat , corn , cotton and tobacco , thus including produce associated with both the North and the South . The cotton leaves are sometimes said to be maple leaves ; the two types are not dissimilar , and maple leaves are more widely known than cotton leaves . An ear of corn is also visible .

= = Release , production , and collecting = =

The Philadelphia Mint released the new cents to the public on May 25 , 1857 . In anticipation of large popular demand , Mint authorities built a temporary wooden structure in the courtyard of the Philadelphia facility . On the morning of the date of release , hundreds of people queued , one line for those exchanging Spanish silver for cents , the other for those bringing in old copper cents and half cents . From 9 am clerks paid out cents for the old pieces ; outside the Mint precincts , early purchasers sold the new cents at a premium . Snowden wrote to Guthrie , " the demand for them is enormous ... we had on hand this morning $ 30 @,@ 000 worth , that is three million pieces . Nearly all of this amount will be paid out today . " The 1856 specimen became publicly known about the time of issuance , and had the public checking their pocket change ; 1856 small cents sold for as much as $ 2 by 1859 . The public interest in the new cents set off a coin collecting boom : in addition to seeking the rare 1856 cent , some tried to collect sets of large cents back to 1793 , and found they would have to pay a premium for the rarer dates .

The Mint had trouble striking the new design . This was due to the hard copper @-@ nickel alloy and the fact that the eagle on one side of the piece was directly opposite parts of the reverse design ; efforts to bring out the design more fully led to increased die breakage . Many Flying Eagle cents show weaknesses , especially at the eagle 's head and tail , which are opposite the wreath . In 1857 , Snowden suggested the replacement of the eagle with a head of Christopher Columbus . Longacre replied that as there had been objections to proposals to place George Washington on the coinage , there would also be to a Columbus design . Despite the difficulties , the 17 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 Flying Eagle cents struck at Philadelphia in 1857 constituted the greatest production of a single coin in a year at a U.S. mint to that time .

In 1858 , the Mint tried to alleviate the breakage problem using a new version of the cent with a shallower relief . This attempt led to the major variety of the series , as coins of the revised version have smaller letters in the inscriptions than those struck earlier . The two varieties are about equally common , and were probably struck side by side for some period as the Mint used up older dies . Efforts to conserve dies were the probable cause of another variety , the 1858 / 7 , as 1857 @-@ dated dies were overstruck to allow them to be used in the new year .

The Mint prepared pattern coins with a much smaller eagle in 1858 , which struck well , but which officials disliked . Snowden directed Longacre to prepare various patterns that he could select from for a new piece to replace the Flying Eagle cent as of January 1 , 1859 . The Mint produced between 60 and 100 sets of twelve patterns showing various designs ; these were circulated to officials and also were quietly sold by the Mint over the next several years . Longacre 's design showing Liberty wearing an Indian @-@ style headress was adopted , with a wreath with lower relief for the reverse of the Indian Head cent , solving the metal flow issues . On November 4 , 1858 , Snowden wrote to the Treasury Department , stating that the Flying Eagle cent had proved " not very acceptable to the general population " as they felt the bird was not true to life , and that the Native American design would " giv [ e ] it the character of America " .

By September 1857 , the volume of Spanish silver coming to the Mint had been so large that Snowden gave up the idea of being able to pay for it just with cents , authorizing payment with gold and silver coins . On March 3 , 1859 , the redemption of the foreign pieces was extended for an additional two years . As commerce was choked with the new cents , Congress repealed this provision in July 1860 , though Snowden continued the practice for more than a year without authorization from Congress . Bankers Magazine for October 1861 reported the end of the exchange , and quoted the Philadelphia Press : " the large issue of the new nickel cents has rendered them almost as much of a nuisance as the old Spanish currency " . According to Breen , " the foreign silver coins had been legal tender , receivable for all kinds of payments including postage stamps and some taxes ; the nickel cents were not . They quickly filled shopkeepers ' cashboxes to the exclusion of almost everything else ; they began to be legally refused in trade . " The glut was ended by the hoarding of all federal coinage in the wake of the economic upset caused by the Civil War .

After the war , the hoarded Flying Eagle cents re @-@ entered circulation . Many remained there only a few years , being pulled out from among the new bronze cents in Treasury Department redemption programs in the 1860s and 1870s — thirteen million copper @-@ nickel cents were retired by exchange for other base @-@ metal coinage . By the 1880s , it was a rarity in circulation . Today , Flying Eagle cents are relatively inexpensive in well @-@ worn grades . The 2015 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the 1857 , 1858 large letters , and 1858 small letters each at $ 28 in Good @-@ 4 condition , the lowest collectable grade . The 1856 is $ 7 @,@ 000 in that grade , rising to $ 22 @,@ 000 in uncirculated MS @-@ 63 . The 1858 / 7 starts at $ 75 in G @-@ 4 , rising to $ 10 @,@ 000 in MS @-@ 63 . An 1856 cent in MS @-@ 66 condition sold at auction in January 2004 for $ 172 @,@ 500 .

= Looking After Our Own =

" Looking After Our Own " is the second episode of the British espionage television series Spooks . It first aired on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 20 May 2002 . The episode was written by series creator David Wolstencroft , and directed by Bharat Nalluri . The episode focuses on MI5 's efforts in bringing down right @-@ wing leader Robert Osbourne ( Kevin McNally ) , who is believed to be planning a series of race riots across the UK .

The storyline was originally slated for the finale of the first series , but was pushed forward when the producers were pressured to deliver the story to the BBC . Filming took two weeks , around December 2001 . After its original broadcast , the episode was viewed by over eight million Britons , a decline of one million from the first episode , but was still the strongest performer in its time slot . The episode marked the death of a main character , Helen Flynn ( Lisa Faulkner ) , which was met with considerable controversy due to its perceived violence ; at 250 complaints , it marked the highest number of complaints for a television programme in 2002 .

= = Plot = =

MI5 suspect that right @-@ wing leader Robert Osbourne is planning a series of race riots in the UK . A team led by Danny Hunter ( David Oyelowo ) attempts to bug his home , only to find it impossible because of the home 's high @-@ tech countersurveillance equipment . What MI5 does find is that Osbourne abuses his wife Claire ( Debra Stephenson ) ; believing Claire is vulnerable for recruitment , Section D start " Operation Greensleeves " and tasks a " runner " to befriend her before recruiting . However , vetting did not pick up on the runner 's alcoholism after she becomes involved in a road traffic accident while inebriated . Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) appoints Tom Quinn ( Matthew Macfadyen ) and junior administrative officer Helen Flynn ( Lisa Faulkner ) to step in and pose as a married couple who are substitute tutors at the same Romford community college Claire is attending .

The two initially succeed , and are invited to dinner with Osbourne at his home . However , during their visit , Osbourne catches Helen out by addressing Tom as her boyfriend rather than husband ; Helen 's improvising makes Osbourne more suspicious of the two . Later , one of Osbourne 's contacts , Nick Thomas ( Tom Goodman @-@ Hill ) , is revealed to be freelance journalist Kieran Harvey . When Osbourne discovers this , he has Harvey murdered . Tom and Helen gain Claire 's trust and recruit her ; she agrees to help the two in exchange for a £ 600 @-@ a @-@ week account and transport to anywhere in the world .

In the meantime , a cargo of illegal immigrants from Chechnya is intercepted by HM Customs and Excise ; the traffickers throw their cargo overboard , drowning them . Believing the traffickers will change their routes , Tessa Phillips ( Jenny Agutter ) and Zoe Reynolds ( Keeley Hawes ) investigate and discover a link between the shipment and Osbourne . With the information gathered from " Greensleeves " , they discover that Osbourne intends to choke the asylum system by overcrowding the holding centres , and after his followers stir up the race riots , Osbourne would encourage independent Member of Parliament ( MP ) Bill Watson ( Jasper Jacob ) to raise the issue of asylum seekers in the House of Commons .

Tom and Helen prepare to move out , but are kidnapped by Osbourne 's gang and taken to the kitchen of his waste management plant for interrogation . Knowing they are MI5 officers , Osbourne demands everything Tom knows about their operation ; when Tom fails to cooperate , Osbourne forces Helen 's hand , followed by her head into a deep fryer , before shooting her . Before Tom can suffer the same fate , Claire throws a cigarette into the vat , which ignites , buying Tom time to escape and return to Thames House . However , Tom and Harry are disgusted to hear that the powers @-@ that @-@ be will take no action against Osbourne , in order to track the movements of all far @-@ right groups . At the end of the episode . Harry has Osbourne assassinated . Bill Watson receives photographs of the dead refugees washed up on a beach , presumably sent by MI5 , along with a note reading " are you happy with your wash ? "

= = Production = =

= = = Writing and pre @-@ production = = =

The episode 's storyline , including Helen 's death , was meant to be in the first series finale . However , by then , the second episode was not yet written , and series producer Kudos were due to deliver the story to the BBC in one month . As a result , the episode was brought forward to the second slot . Since the first episode began Spooks " with a bang " , series creator and writer David Wolstencroft , was under pressure to top the efforts of the first episode with the second , but not by much . During the writing stage , he introduced a story arc involving Danny Hunter and his obsession with money and spending , apparently mirroring the writer ; the arc was created for the temptations that the officers may have . In the original screenplay , Danny was to spend on his mother .

Wolstencroft included some suggestions from his friends and girlfriend . An early scene was to take place in a shower room , but was rewritten when the producers thought it would be " too racy " for a 9 : 00 p.m. audience . In another instance , a long sequence would take place at sea concerning the smugglers dropping off illegal immigrants into the water ; the scenes were cut before filming due to time constraints . Also , before deciding on waste disposal , Osbourne was originally going to head a security company . The funeral scene towards the end of the episode was inspired by The Godfather II . In the end , the script was rewritten four times before the BBC took the final version of the episode .

Kevin McNally was cast as the antagonist Robert Osbourne ; McNally was chosen because the producers thought he would be perfect to play the part , as is the case with Debra Stephenson , who portrayed his wife . Child actor Daniel Chenery , who played the part of their son , Sammy , was chosen due to his likeness of a younger version of McNally . Also , Simon Crawford Collins 's wife made a cameo appearance as a BT operator .

= = = Filming = = =

Filming took place over a 13 to 14 days period in December 2001 . It was not filmed on order of the script ; the scenes set around the Osbourne residence for instance , were all filmed at once , during two to three days , though during the episodes , the scenes took place in separate parts of the episode . Parts of the introduction scenes , where Danny 's team break into Osbourne 's house , was actually filmed on the Grid set . Parts of the sequence were originally filmed without sound ; the sound would later be added during post production . The footage of the drowned immigrants found at the shore were shot by the second unit headed by producer Simon Crawford Collins on a pebbled courtyard in Kensington to double as a beach .

Some of the exterior scenes at night were filmed with the street wet down so that the lights could kick off the ground . Also in the episode , the editing suite , where the series was edited , was used as a set . The West12 shopping centre in Shepherd 's Bush , London was used in one scene as an airport , as well as the shopping centre itself in another . The Chadford Community College was filmed at a rugby club . The safe house Tom and Helen were appointed to was filmed in two separate locations . One of those locations was used before in the Mary Kane interrogation scene in the pilot episode " Thou Shalt Not Kill " . In one scene where Tom was driving to the operation the car was in fact towed ; an error was made in the episode where the car looked taller than the other cars on the road during the shoot .

= = = Helen Flynn death scene = = =

Wolstencroft wrote the death scene with the intention of giving the audience the impression that no one in the series is safe . According to producer Jane Featherstone , the idea to kill off a main character involved a female getting " her head set on fire " later in the series , but she decided " let 's move the most dramatic thing you 've got to episode two and kill off the only actress the audience recognise [ Faulkner was considered the only recognisable cast member when the series was introduced ] and then you 've got them hooked . " Matthew Macfadyen stated that the shooting of the death scene , although not emotionally draining , was rather tough , and gruelling to perform . The part where Osbourne forces Flynn 's arm into the fryer was done with a rubber arm made to double Faulkner 's arm . Furthermore , the " oil " was in fact cold tea with food colour .

Director Bharat Nalluri wanted as little of the torture to be seen as possible , because he wanted the sequence to be more psychological to make it easier to frighten the audience , since they know the physicality of being burnt , whereas if Helen was shot , not as many would . Producer Stephen Garrett wanted to show a more realistic sense of violence , rather than a fantastical " cartoon violence " " in which blows to the head with iron bars leave small bruises rather than crushed skulls , gunshot wounds leave neat abrasions in conveniently fleshy parts of the anatomy rather than eviscerating their victims ; and fights that would hospitalise Mike Tyson are walked away from with barely a mark . "

= = Broadcast , reception and controversy = =

The episode was first broadcast on 20 May 2002 , during the 9 to 10 pm time slot . It achieved overnight viewing figures of 7 @.@ 8 million , with a 35 per cent audience share . Ratings were down over one million from the pilot episode the previous week . Regardless " Looking After Our Own " won its time slot ; the finale episode of ITV1 drama Helen West came second , with 4 @.@ 9 million viewers and a 21 per cent share . The final numbers posted on the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board website went up slightly to 8 @.@ 1 million viewers , making the episode the ninth most viewed BBC One broadcast , and the nineteenth most viewed broadcast in total the week it aired .

The episode attracted controversy following the demise of Helen Flynn after her hand and head were forced into a deep fryer . The death scenes attracted over 250 complaints , 154 of them to the television watchdog , the Broadcasting Standards Commission , the highest number of complaints for a television programme in 2002 . In the wake of the complaints , BBC insiders had admitted that the scenes " clearly disturbed " some of the viewers , but also defended their decision to show the scene as it would show the audience " the kind of threat which might be faced by agents engaged in the fight against terrorism . " The Broadcasting Standards Commission stated that despite the shocking content ; " in the context was acceptable and important for the later narrative , " however the watchdog still criticised the BBC for failing to warn viewers of the violence to come . Garrett refuted this , stating : " Not only was there a clear warning before the programme began , but for anyone who missed that , the subject matter of the episode ( a conspiracy to stir up inter @-@ racial violence perpetrated by a man who clearly beat his wife ) was hardly the stuff of which chirpy little bucolic fantasies are made . "

Wolstencroft stated that after watching the episode with his friends , they both commended and criticised his work : " I got some angry phone calls from my friends the next day saying ' how could you , but well done , but how could you , but she was so nice , but how could you , but well done ' . " Oyelowo also responded to the controversy , believing that it came from a result of Faulkner 's male fans . Comedian Charlie Brooker however , commended the scene , as well as the series in general , stating in his Guardian column : " The moment her head was forced into the deep @-@ fat @-@ fryer , viewers reared on the formulaic , it 'll @-@ be @-@ alright @-@ in @-@ the @-@ end blandness of cookie @-@ cutter populist dramas like Casualty and Merseybeat sat up and blinked in disbelief : here was a major BBC drama series that actually had the nerve to confound expectation . " In a January 2010 poll , fans of the show voted Helen 's death as the " most shocking death scene " in the series , drawing 49 % of the votes .

= Do or Die ( Thirty Seconds to Mars song ) =

" Do or Die " is a song by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , featured on their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 ) . Written and produced by lead vocalist Jared Leto , " Do or Die " explores the feeling of standing up and living one 's dreams . The song is styled in electronic rock and imbued with elements of arena rock . It was serviced to mainstream radio in July 2013 in Europe , and was released as a promotional single in the United States in March 2014 . A version of the song remixed by Dutch music producer Afrojack was digitally released in March 2014 and later included on the deluxe edition of Afrojack 's debut studio album Forget the World ( 2014 ) .

" Do or Die " received positive reviews from music critics , who hailed its musical diversity and its grand and euphoric nature . It charted in some nations due to digital sales from the parent album . The accompanying music video , directed by Leto , features live footage of Thirty Seconds to Mars onstage as well as stories from their fans , personally interviewed by Leto . The video garnered general acclaim from critics , who lauded its atmosphere and simplicity . The song was included in the setlist of the band 's Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and the subsequent Carnivores Tour .

= = Recording and composition = =

" Do or Die " was written and produced by Jared Leto . It was engineered by Jamie Reed Schefman and mixed by Serban Ghenea . John Hanes engineered it for mixing at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . The song was recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound in Los Angeles , California and mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering . Thirty Seconds to Mars unveiled six songs from their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams , including " Do or Die " , during a preview event held at the Electric Lady Studios in New York City on March 14 , 2013 .

" Do or Die " is an electronic rock song with influences and elements from arena rock . It opens with a female voiceover introducing the song 's title in the Chinese language , after which there is an electronic introduction . This is followed by the sound of guitars , drum beats and synthesizers . After the first verse , the pre @-@ chorus follows , with Leto voicing the line , " I will never forget the moment " . The full @-@ throated chorus then follows , which features heavy use of synthesizers and drums . The song includes a contribution from the band 's fans , credited as the Knights of the White Shadow , who provide additional vocals recorded at the band 's studio .

In an interview with PureVolume , Leto explained that the song is " about standing up and living out your dreams " . Markos Papadatos , in his review for Digital Journal , called it an " upbeat " song which " deals with one taking their own stance on their beliefs , and living life to the fullest " . In a preview of the record , Jeff Benjamin from Fuse described the song by saying that the band goes " the synthy dance route on the track 's intro before fire @-@ alarm guitars and pummeling drums roar in and smash the Korg keyboards to bits " .

= = Release = =

" Do or Die " was released as a promotional single in Europe in July 2013 through Virgin Records . The song debuted at number 98 on the Ultratip chart of Belgium 's Flemish region on August 24 . The following week , it jumped to number 73 and peaked at number 40 on September 21 . On August 30 , 2013 , it debuted at number 75 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 . In the Czech Republic , the song entered the national airplay chart at number 91 on the week ending October 20 , 2013 . In Slovakia , it debuted at number 67 on September 22 , 2013 and eventually peaked at number 29 on January 26 , 2014 . Polydor Records released " Do or Die " in the United Kingdom on September 9 , 2013 . It entered the UK Rock Chart at number 38 . After four weeks , the song peaked at number seven on the issue dated September 28 , 2013 . " Do or Die " was used by Major League Baseball as the theme song for the 2013 Major League Baseball Postseason .

In March 2014 , it was announced that Dutch music producer Afrojack and Thirty Seconds to Mars had collaborated on a remixed version of the song . It became commercially available for download in March 2014 and was later included on the deluxe edition of Afrojack 's debut studio album Forget the World . Leto described the collaboration by saying , " It was a lot of fun , and it 's kind of our little summer song . I think it 's good to do things that are unexpected . It keeps it exciting and collaboration is always an interesting thing . " The remixed version of " Do or Die " entered the Dutch Top 40 at number 53 on April 19 , 2014 . After five weeks , it peaked at number 42 . The song debuted at number 46 on US Dance / Electronic Songs and reached a peak of number 33 on June 7 , 2014 .

In the United States , " Do or Die " was sent to modern rock radio on March 17 , 2014 , after the release of " City of Angels " . It entered the Billboard Alternative Songs chart at number 39 and peaked at number 20 on the issue dated October 11 , 2014 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot Rock Songs chart at number 40 on August 9 .

= = Critical reception = =

" Do or Die " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Emily Zemler , of Billboard , wrote that between the album 's " eclectic experimentation " and " voiceless soundscapes " , the band " slotted in this propulsive rocker , an arena @-@ ready anthem " . She considered " Do or Die " to be one of the album 's " most straightforward tracks " . Dan Slessor of Alternative Press praised it as one of the album 's highlights , in which Thirty Seconds to Mars exercises their capacity for writing " titanic choruses full of sweeping drama in a manner that is almost untouchable " . Brent Faulkner from PopMatters gave a mixed response , writing that the song " relies on a familiar beat as well as liberal layering " . Writers for Contactmusic commended " Do or Die " as one of the standout songs on Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams and a " slow @-@ burning hit of epic , synth @-@ heavy electronica " .

Kaitlyn Hodnicki from Stature magazine was impressed with the song , calling it one of the album 's more upbeat tracks , which " blooms into another epic soundscape led by [ Leto 's ] vocals and some brilliantly used electronic elements " . She felt that the fans ' vocal contribution to the song harks back to previous album This Is War without sounding " cliché or overdone " . Sarah O ' Hara from Lowdown also responded positively to the track , writing that " glorious chants fuel the uplifting ' Do or Die ' " . In a mixed review , John Watt from Drowned in Sound called the song " half @-@ baked synth @-@ rock . " Markos Papadatos from Digital Journal rated it an A and wrote that " the band soars as whole on this tune " , calling Leto 's vocals " raw , powerful and captivating . "

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

The music video for " Do or Die " was directed by Leto , who was credited as pseudonym Bartholomew Cubbins . Leto developed its concept as a companion piece to the music video of " Closer to the Edge " ( 2010 ) , shot during the Into the Wild Tour . " Do or Die " was filmed in the summer of 2013 , during a European leg of the Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and features live footage of Thirty Seconds to Mars onstage as well as fan commentary . It premiered on August 5 , 2013 .

Leto personally interviewed the band 's fans , termed as the Echelon , who shared stories about the importance of music in their lives , some personal struggles and their own dreams . In an interview with MTV News , the frontman explained that he was inspired by the will to document the personal changes experienced by the band and its audience . " Most of the interviews " , Leto explained , " I did myself , so they 're really intimate . It 's me , it 's them , and it 's the camera . What I 've found is , that if you talk to everybody long enough , you find an incredible story . Every single person has a moment in their life , something that they 've found a solution for , a story to tell . Some are funny , some are really intriguing , and if you ask the right questions , you get interesting answers . "

The music video begins with a German boy who Leto had previously met in Berlin . He spoke about the loss of his father and how he had played a Thirty Seconds to Mars song at the funeral . After Leto again met the German fan again at a concert in Austria , he asked him to share his story on camera . Leto explained , " At the show in Austria , where there were tens of thousands of people , and I ran into him and interviewed him ; he was the first interview of the summer , and he shared this story about losing his father , and what it taught him , it was really an organic and serendipitous and beautiful way to begin . He shared a really personal part of himself and we 're really grateful to him , and that continued throughout all the interviews . "

= = = Reception = = =

Upon its release , the video received general acclaim from critics and fans . James Montgomery from MTV described it as a love @-@ letter to the band 's fans and a document of life on the road . He also considered it the " spiritual sequel to their stirring 2010 live clip " for " Closer to the Edge " . Karen Bliss of Noisecreep was impressed with the video and opened her review by writing , " Thirty Seconds to Mars never fails to impress with what they can do within the confines of a music video . " She believed that its simplicity turned out to be " impactful , touching and uniting " . Garon Cockrell from The Pratt Tribune gave the video a positive review , calling it " excellent " . John Walker from MTV felt that throughout the fans ' personal struggles " music has helped these individuals persevere and continue to enjoy life . Likewise , Thirty Seconds to Mars seem so moved by the audience 's emotions every time they perform live , ' Do or Die 's concept seems to be that they want to return the favor . "

Writers for MuchMusic noticed the band 's tradition for producing unconventional music videos and praised " Do or Die " calling it " another epic " short film . Markos Papadatos of Digital Journal found it " compelling and visually striking " , noticing real @-@ life people from all over the world telling their " moving stories " about their aspirations and dreams . Sean Fitz @-@ Gerald , writing for Mashable , called the video " an inspiring anthem featuring heartfelt , fan @-@ filmed messages " .

= = Live performances = =

" Do or Die " was first performed at special concerts , dubbed as Church of Mars , in May 2013 , shortly before the release of the album . The song later became a set @-@ fixture of the Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour , usually appearing as the penultimate song before " Up in the Air " . However , after the festival tour in June 2013 , which saw the band travel to Rock am Ring and Rock im Park as headline act , the song was moved to the middle of the setlist , usually played before Leto 's acoustic B @-@ stage set . " Do or Die " was also included in the Carnivores Tour , which Thirty Seconds to Mars co @-@ headlined with Linkin Park , and usually appeared approximately halfway through the set . Reviewing a concert , Payal Patel from AXS called " Do or Die " a " sweeping rock anthem " , while Ben Jolley of the Nottingham Post described a performance of the song as energetic and inspirational .

On September 23 , 2014 , Thirty Seconds to Mars performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , featuring a ten @-@ person choir . During the performance , Leto swung a flag bearing messages in support of certain social goals , and invited the audience to join the band on stage towards the finale , as confetti fell from the ceiling . Markos Papadatos , writing for Digital Journal , commented that the performance was another indication that Jared Leto is one of the " most charismatic live performers " in contemporary rock and that Thirty Seconds to Mars " is always able to put on a high @-@ energy show " .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Performed by Thirty Seconds to Mars

Written and produced by Jared Leto

Recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound , Los Angeles , California

Additional vocals by Knights of the White Shadow

Audio engineering by Jamie Reed Schefman

Mixed by Serban Ghenea

Engineered for Mix by John Hanes at Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia

Mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering , Los Angeles , California

Credits adapted from Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams album liner notes .

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Illmatic =

Illmatic is the debut studio album by American rapper Nas , released on April 19 , 1994 , by Columbia Records . After signing with the label with the help of MC Serch , Nas recorded the album in 1992 – 1993 at Chung King Studios , D & D Recording , Battery Studios , and Unique Recording Studios in New York City . Its production was handled by DJ Premier , Large Professor , Pete Rock , Q @-@ Tip , L.E.S. and Nas himself . Styled as a hardcore hip hop album , Illmatic features multi @-@ syllabic internal rhymes and inner @-@ city narratives based on Nas 's experiences in Queensbridge , New York .

The album debuted at # 12 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling 59 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . However , its initial sales fell below expectations and its five singles failed to achieve significant chart success . Despite the album 's low initial sales , Illmatic received rave reviews from most music critics , who praised its production and Nas ' lyricism . On January 17 , 1996 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , and on December 11 , 2001 it earned a Platinum certification after shipping one million copies in the United States .

Since its initial reception , Illmatic has been recognized by writers and music critics as a landmark album in East Coast hip hop . Its influence on subsequent hip hop artists has been attributed to the album 's production and Nas ' lyricism . It also contributed to the revival of the New York City rap scene , introducing a number of stylistic trends to the region . The album is widely regarded as the greatest hip hop album of all time , appearing on numerous best album lists by critics and publications .

= = Background = =

As a teenager , Nas wanted to pursue a career as a rapper and enlisted his best friend and neighbor , Queensbridge , Queens @-@ native Willy " Ill Will " Graham , as his DJ . He initially went by the nickname " Kid Wave " before adopting the alias " Nasty Nas " . At 15 , he met producer Large Professor from Flushing , and was introduced to his group Main Source . Nas made his recorded debut with them , performing the opening verse on " Live at the Barbeque " from their 1991 album Breaking Atoms . Nas subsequently made his solo debut on his 1992 single " Halftime " for the soundtrack to the film Zebrahead . The single added to the buzz surrounding Nas , earning him comparisons to influential golden age rapper Rakim . Despite his buzz in the underground scene , Nas did not receive an offer for a recording contract , being rejected by major rap labels such as Cold Chillin ' and Def Jam Recordings . Nas and Ill Will continued to work together , but their partnership was cut short when Graham was murdered by a gunman in Queensbridge on May 23 , 1992 ; Nas 's brother was also shot that night , but survived . Nas has cited that moment as a " wake @-@ up call " for him .

In mid 1992 , MC Serch , whose group 3rd Bass had dissolved , began working on a solo project and approached Nas . At the suggestion of producer T @-@ Ray , Serch collaborated with Nas for " Back to the Grill " , the lead single for Serch 's 1992 solo debut album Return of the Product . At the recording session for the song , Serch discovered that Nas did not have a recording contract and subsequently contacted Faith Newman , an A & R executive at Sony Music Entertainment . As Serch recounted , " Nas was in a position where his demo had been sittin ' around , ' Live at the Barbeque ' was already a classic , and he was just tryin ' to find a decent deal ... So when he gave me his demo , I shopped it around . I took it to Russell first , Russell said it sounded like G Rap , he wasn 't wit ' it . So I took it to Faith . Faith loved it , she said she 'd been looking for Nas for a year and a half . They wouldn 't let me leave the office without a deal on the table . "

Once MC Serch assumed the role of executive producer for Nas 's debut project , he attempted to connect Nas with various producers . Based on his buzz at the time , numerous New York @-@ based producers were eager to work with him and went to Power House Studios with Nas . Among those producers was DJ Premier , recognized at the time for his raw , aggressive production with jazz @-@ based samples and heavy scratching , and for his work with rapper Guru as a part of hip hop duo Gang Starr . After his production on Lord Finesse & DJ Mike Smooth 's Funky Technician ( 1990 ) and Jeru the Damaja 's The Sun Rises in the East ( 1994 ) , Premier began recording exclusively at D & D Studios in New York City before working with Nas on Illmatic .

= = Recording = =

Prior to recording , DJ Premier had listened to Nas 's debut single , later stating " When I heard ' Halftime ' , that was some next shit to me . That 's just as classic to me as ' Eric B For President ' and ' The Bridge ' . It just had that type of effect . As simple as it is , all of the elements are there . So from that point , after Serch approached me about doing some cuts , it was automatic . You 'd be stupid to pass that up even if it wasn 't payin ' no money . " Serch later noted the chemistry between Nas and DJ Premier , recounting that " Primo and Nas , they could have been separated at birth . It wasn 't a situation where his beats fit their rhymes , they fit each other . " While Serch reached out to DJ Premier , Large Professor contacted Pete Rock to collaborate with Nas on what became " The World Is Yours " . Shortly afterwards , producers Q @-@ Tip and L.E.S. chose to work on the album . Nas 's father , Olu Dara , also contributed with a cornet solo on " Life 's a Bitch " , which features rapper AZ .

In an early promotional interview , Nas claimed that the name " Illmatic " ( meaning " beyond ill " or " the ultimate " ) was a reference to his incarcerated Queensbridge friend , Illmatic Ice . Nas later described the title name as " supreme ill . It 's as ill as ill gets . That shit is a science of everything ill . " At the time of its recording , expectations in the hip hop scene were high for Illmatic . In a 1994 interview for The Source , which dubbed him " the second coming " , Nas spoke highly of the album , saying that " this feels like a big project that 's gonna affect the world [ ... ] We in here on the down low [ ... ] doing something for the world . That 's how it feels , that 's what it is . For all the ones that think it 's all about some ruff shit , talkin ' about guns all the time , but no science behind it , we gonna bring it to them like this . " AZ recounted recording on the album , " I got on Nas ' album and did the ' Life 's a Bitch ' song , but even then I thought I was terrible on it , to be honest . But once people started hearing that and liking it , that 's what built my confidence . I thought , ' OK , I can probably do this . ' That record was everything . To be the only person featured on Illmatic when Nas is considered one of the top men in New York at that time , one of the freshest new artists , that was big . " During the sessions , Nas composed the song " Nas Is Like " , which he later recorded as a single for his 1999 album I Am … .

Concerning the recording of the album 's opening song " N.Y. State of Mind " , producer DJ Premier later stated " Nas — he 's one of our saviors now . When we did ‘ N.Y. State of Mind , ’ at the beginning when he says , ‘ Straight out the dungeons of rap / Where fake niggas don ’ t make it back , ’ then you hear him say , ‘ I don ’ t know how to start this shit , ’ ’ cause he had just written it . He 's got the beat running in the studio , but he doesn ’ t know how he 's going to format how he 's going to convey it . So he 's going , ‘ I don ’ t know how to start this shit , ’ and I ’ m counting him in [ to begin his verse ] . One , two , three . And then you can hear him go , ‘ Yo , ’ and then he goes right into it . " DJ Premier later discussed the unexpectedness of Nas 's delivery during the recording , stating " He didn ’ t know how he was gonna come in , but he just started going because we were recording . I ’ m actually yelling , ‘ We ’ re recording ! ’ and banging on the [ vocal booth ] window . ‘ Come on , get ready ! ’ You hear him start the shit : Rappers … . And then everyone in the studio was like , ‘ Oh , my God ’ , ’ cause it was so unexpected . He was not ready . So we used that first verse . And that was when he was up and coming , his first album . So we was like , ' Yo , this guy is gonna be big . ' "

= = Themes = =

Illmatic contains discerning treatment of its subject matter : gang rivalries , desolation , and the ravages of urban poverty . Nas , who was twenty years old when the album was released , focuses on depicting his own experiences , creating highly detailed first @-@ person narratives that deconstruct the troubled life of an inner city teenager . One writer describes the theme of the album as a “ [ S ] tory of a gifted writer born into squalor , trying to claw his way out of the trap . It 's somewhere between The Basketball Diaries and Native Son … . ” The narratives featured in Illmatic originate from Nas 's own experiences as an adolescent growing up in Queensbridge , as the lyrics allude to the housing projects located in the Long Island City @-@ section of Queens , New York . Nas said in an interview in 2001 : “ When I made Illmatic I was a little kid in Queensbridge trapped in the ghetto . My soul was trapped in Queensbridge projects . ” In a 2012 interview , he explained his inspiration for exploring this subject matter :

" [ W ] hen my rap generation started , it was about bringing you inside my apartment . It wasn 't about being a rap star ; it was about anything other than . I want you to know who I am : what the streets taste like , feel like , smell like . What the cops talk like , walk like , think like . What crackheads do — I wanted you to smell it , feel it . It was important to me that I told the story that way because I thought that it wouldn 't be told if I didn 't tell it . I thought this was a great point in time in the 1990s in [ New York City ] that needed to be documented and my life needed to be told . "

When depicting life in the projects , Nas alternates from moments of pain and pleasure to frustration and braggadocio . The columnist for OhWord.com wrote : " [ His ] narrative voice swerves between personas that are cynical and optimistic , naïve and world @-@ weary , enraged and serene , globally conscious and provincial " . Music writer Jeff Weiss of Pitchfork describes the " enduring image " often associated with Nas 's narrated stream of consciousness : " [ A ] baby @-@ faced Buddha monk in public housing , scribbling lotto dreams and grim reaper nightmares in dollar notebooks , words enjambed in the margins . The only light is the orange glow of a blunt , bodega liquor , and the adolescent rush of first creation . Sometimes his pen taps the paper and his brain blanks . In the next sentence , he remembers dark streets and the noose . " Critic and blogger Kenny Waste comments on the significance of Queensbridge as a setting in Illmatic , writing , “ The songs are made up largely of recollections or Nas describing his emotions , which range from feeling trapped to overt optimism about his abilities to escape the ' hands of doom ' . But they always remain within the walls of his Queensbridge home . ”

Along with its narratives , Illmatic is also distinct for its many portrayals and descriptions of places , people , and interactions . In his songs , Nas often depicts the corners and boulevards of Queensbridge , while mentioning the names of streets , friends , local crews and drug dealers , and utilizing vernacular slang indigenous to his hometown . Poet and author Kevin Coval describes this approach to songwriting as that of a “ hip @-@ hop poet @-@ reporter ... rooted in the intimate specificity of locale . ” Commenting on Nas 's use of narrative , Sohail Daulatzai , Professor of Film and Media Studies at University of Southern California , compares the album to cinema , citing its " detailed descriptions , dense reportage , and visually stunning rhymes ... " In Born to Use Mics : Reading Nas 's Illmatic , he writes : " Like the 1965 landmark masterpiece film The Battle of Algiers , which captured the Algerian resistance against French colonialism , Illmatic brilliantly blurred the lines between fiction and documentary , creating a heightened sense of realism and visceral eloquence for Nas 's renegade first @-@ person narratives and character @-@ driven odes . ”

= = = Drug violence = = =

Many of the themes found in Illmatic revolve around Nas ’ s experience living in an environment where poverty , violence , and drug use abound . Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s , residents of Queensbridge experienced intense violence , as the housing development was overrun by the crack epidemic . Illmatic contains imagery inspired by this prevalence of street crime . In " N.Y. State of Mind " , Nas details the trap doors , rooftop snipers , street corner lookouts , and drug dealers that pervade his urban dreamscape . Sohail Daulatzai describes this language as " chilling " and suggests that it “ harrowingly describes and imagines with such surreal imagery , with so much noir discontent and even more fuck @-@ you ambition , the fragile and tenuous lives of ghetto dwellers … ” Author Adam Mansbach interprets Nas 's violent aesthetics as a metaphoric device meant to authenticate the rough edges of his persona : " Nas 's world and worldview are criminal and criminalized . Hence , he uses metaphoric violence as a central trope of his poetic . ” Writer and musician Gregory Tate regards this violent imagery as part of a trend towards dark subject matter that came to prevail among East Coast rappers in the hardcore hip hop scene . He writes , “ [ S ] ome of the most memorably dark , depressive but flowing lyrics in hip hop history were written by Nas , Biggie , and members of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan on the death knell of the crack trade .

Other writers , such as Mark Anthony Neal , have described these lyrical themes as a form of “ brooding introspection ” , disclosing the tortured dimensions of drug crime and its impressions on an adolescent Nas . Critic Sam Chennault wrote , " Nas captures post @-@ crack N.Y.C. in all its ruinous glory ... [ r ] ealizing that drugs were both empowering and destructive , his lyrics alternately embrace and reject the idea of ghetto glamour " . According to Steve Juon of RapReviews.com , Nas " illustrates the Queensbridge trife life of his existence [ sic ] , while at the same time providing hope that there is something greater than money , guns and drugs . " Richard Harrington of The Washington Post described Nas 's coming @-@ of @-@ age experience as " balancing limitations and possibilities , distinguishing hurdles and springboards , and acknowledging his own growth from roughneck adolescent to a maturing adult who can respect and criticize the culture of violence that surrounds him .

= = = Artistic credibility = = =

The content of Illmatic is also informed by notions of artistic authenticity . The promotional press sheet that accompanied the album 's release implied Nas ’ s refusal to conform to commercial trends , stating : “ While it 's sad that there 's so much frontin ' in the rap world today , this should only make us sit up and pay attention when a rapper comes along who 's not about milking the latest trend and running off with the loot . ” At the time of the album 's release , the hip hop community was embroiled in a debate about artistic authenticity and commercialism in popular music . Rapper Common , describes in the preface to Born to Use Mics : Reading Nas 's Illmatic the concerns that were felt by him and his contemporaries : “ It was that serious for so many of us . We didn ’ t just grow up with hip hop ; we grew up with hip @-@ hop as hip @-@ hop was also growing , and so that made for a very close and intimate relationship that was becoming more and more urgent – and we felt it . Our art was being challenged in many ways as the moneymen began to sink their teeth into us . ”

In the context of this debate , music writers have interpreted Illmatic as an admonishment for hip hop purists and practitioners . In the opening track , " The Genesis " , Nas bemoans the lack of legitimacy among other MCs in the projects , insisting that he has " Been doin ' this shit since back then . " Citing songs such as “ Life 's a Bitch ” , Guthrie Ramsay Jr. argues that Nas “ set a benchmark for rappers in an artistic field consumed by constantly shifting notions of ' realness ' , authenticity , and artistic credibility . " Sohail Daulatzai writes : " Though Illmatic was highly anticipated release , far from under the radar , Nas 's taking it back to ' the dungeons of rap ' was … a kind of exorcism or purging ( ' where fake niggas don ’ t make it back ' ) that was at the very least trying to claim a different aesthetic of resistance and rebellion that was all too aware of hip @-@ hop 's newfound mainstream potential . "

= = = Musical endowment = = =

In addition to its lyrical content , many writers have commented on the thematic significance of Illmatic 's musical endowments . “ Drawing on everything from old school hip @-@ hop , to blues , to fairly avant @-@ garde jazz compositions , ” writes music blogger Kenny Waste , “ the sampling choices within Illmatic reflect an individual with not only a deep appreciation for but also a deep knowledge of music . ” Musicologist and pianist Guthrie Ramsay Jr. describes Illmatic as “ an artistic emblem ” that “ anchors itself in the moment while reminding us that powerful musical statements often select past material and knowledge for use in the present and hope for the future . ” Kevin Coval considers the sampling of artists Craig G and Biz Markie in ' Memory Lane ' as an attempt to build upon the hip hop tradition of Queens , most notably the Juice Crew All Stars . These samples are intended to serve as tributes to “ Nas 's lyrical forebearers [ sic ] and around @-@ the @-@ way influences . He is repping his borough ’ s hip hop canon . ” The involvement of older artists , including Nas ’ s father , has also been cited as a formative influence in the making of Illmatic . Author Adam Mansbach argues , “ It 's the presence of all these benevolent elders – his father and the cadre of big brother producers steering the album – that empowers Nas to rest comfortably in his identity as an artist and an inheritor of tradition , and thus find the space to innovate . ”

Music writers have also characterized the album 's contents as a commentary on hip @-@ hop 's evolution . As Princeton University professor Imani Perry writes , Illmatic “ embodies the entire story of hip @-@ hop , bearing all of its features and gifts . Nas has the raw lyrics of old schoolers , the expert deejaying and artful lyricism of the 1980s , the slice of hood life , and the mythic ... The history of hip @-@ hop up to 1994 is embodied in Illmatic . ” In the song , " Represent " , Nas alludes to the Juice Crew 's conflict with Boogie Down Productions , which arose as a dispute over the purported origins of hip hop . Princeton University professor Eddie S. Glaude Jr. claims that this " situates Queensbridge and himself within the formative history of hip @-@ hop culture . " The opening skit , ' The Genesis , ' also contains an audio sample of the 1983 film , Wild Style , which showcased the work of early hip @-@ hop pioneers such as Grand Master Flash , Fab Five Freddy , and the Rock Steady Crew . After the music of Wild Style is unwittingly rejected by one of his peers , Nas admonishes his friend about the importance of their musical roots . Kenny Waste suggests that embedded deep within this track " is a complex and subtle exposition on the themes of Illmatic . ” Similarly , Professor Adilifu Nama of California State University Northridge writes , “ ’ [ T ] he use of Wild Style ... goes beyond a simple tactic to imbue Illmatic with an aura of old @-@ school authenticity . The sonic vignette comments on the collective memory of the hip hop community and its real , remembered , and even imagined beginning , as well as the pitfalls of assimilation , the importance of history , and the passing of hip @-@ hop 's ' age of innocence ' . ”

= = Lyricism = =

Illmatic has been noted by music writers for Nas 's unique style of delivery and lyrical & poetic substance . His lyrics contain layered rhythms , multi @-@ syllabic compounded rhymes , internal half rhymes , assonance , and ear @-@ bending enjambment . Music critic Marc Lamont Hill of PopMatters elaborates on Nas 's lyricism and delivery throughout the album , stating " Nas ' complex rhyme patterns , clever word play , and impressive vocab took the art [ of rapping ] to previously unprecedented heights . Building on the pioneering work of Kool G Rap , Big Daddy Kane , and Rakim , tracks like ' Halftime ' and the laid back ' One Time 4 Your Mind ' demonstrated a [ high ] level of technical precision and rhetorical dexterity . " Hill cites " Memory Lane ( Sittin ' in da Park ) " as " an exemplar of flawless lyricism " , while critic Steve Juon wrote that the lyrics of the album closer , " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " , are " just as quotable if not more @-@ so than anything else on the LP – what album could end on a higher note than this ? " :

Focusing on poetic forms found in his lyrics , Princeton University professor Imani Perry describes Nas 's performance as that of a " poet @-@ musician " indebted to the conventions of jazz poetry . She suggests that Nas 's lyricism might have been shaped by the " black art poetry album genre , " pioneered by Gil Scott @-@ Heron , The Last Poets , and Nikki Giovanni . Chicago @-@ based poet and music critic Kevin Coval attributes Nas 's lyricism to his unique approach to rapping , which he describes as a " fresh @-@ out @-@ the @-@ rhyme @-@ book presentation " : " It 's as if Nas , the poet , reporter , brings his notebook into the studio , hears the beat , and weaves his portraits on top with ill precision . " Coval also comments on the rapper 's vignettes of inner @-@ city life , which are depicted using elaborate rhyme structures : " All the words , faces and bodies of an abandoned post @-@ industrial , urban dystopia are framed in Nas 's tightly packed stanzas . These portraits of his brain and community in handcuffs are beautiful , brutal and extremely complex , and they lend themselves to the complex and brillantly compounded rhyme schemes he employs . "

= = Production = =

Illmatic also garnered praise for its production . According to critics , the album 's four major producers ( Large Professor , DJ Premier , Pete Rock , and Q @-@ Tip ) extensively contributed to the cohesive atmospheric aesthetic that permeated the album , while still retaining each 's individual , trademark sound . ' For instance , DJ Premier 's production on the album is noted by critics for his minimalist style , which featured simple loops over heavy beats . Charles Aaron of Spin wrote of the producers ' contributions , " nudging him toward Rakim @-@ like @-@ rumination , they offer subdued , slightly downcast beats , which in hip hop today means jazz , primarily of the ' 70s keyboard @-@ vibe variety " . Q magazine noted that " the musical backdrops are razor sharp ; hard beats but with melodic hooks and loops , atmospheric background piano , strings or muted trumpet , and samples ... A potent treat . " One music critic wrote that " Illmatic is laced with some of the finest beats this side of In Control Volume 1 " .

The majority of the album consists of vintage funk , soul , and jazz samples . Commenting on the album and its use of samples , Pitchfork ' s Jeff Weiss claims that both Nas and his producers found inspiration for the album 's production through the music of their childhood : " The loops rummage through their parent 's collection : Donald Byrd , Joe Chambers , Ahmad Jamal , Parliament , Michael Jackson . Nas invites his rolling stone father , Olu Dara to blow the trumpet coda on " Life 's a Bitch " . Jazz rap fusion had been done well prior , but rarely with such subtlety . Nas didn 't need to make the connection explicit — he allowed you to understand what jazz was like the first time your parents and grandparents heard it . " Similarly , journalist Ben Yew comments on the album 's nostalgic sounds , " The production , accentuated by infectious organ loop [ s ] , vocal sample [ s ] , and synthesizer @-@ like pads in the background , places your mind in a cheerful , reminiscent , mood . "

= = Content = =

= = = Tracks 1 – 5 = = =

The intro , " The Genesis " , is composed as an aural montage that begins with the sound of an elevated train and an almost @-@ inaudible voice rhyming beneath it . Over these sounds , a snatch of dialogue , two men arguing . It samples Grand Wizard Theodore 's " Subway Theme " from the 1983 film Wild Style , the first major hip hop motion picture . Nas made another ode to Wild Style , while shooting the music video for his single , " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " , on the same stage as the finale scene for the film . His verse on " Live at the Barbeque " is played in the background of " The Genesis " . According to music writer Mickey Hess , in the intro , " Nas tells us everything he wants us to know about him . The train is shorthand for New York ; the barely discernible rap is , in fact , his " Live at the Barbeque " verse ; and the dialogue comes from Wild Style , one of the earliest movies to focus on hip hop culture . Each of these is a point of genesis . New York for Nas as a person , ' Live at the Barbeque ' for Nas the rapper , and Wild Style , symbolically at least , for hip hop itself . These are my roots , Nas was saying , and he proceeded to demonstrate exactly what those roots had yielded . "

Setting the general grimy , yet melodic , tone of the album , " N.Y. State of Mind " features a dark , jazzy piano sample by DJ Premier . It opens with high @-@ pitched guitar notes looped from jazz and funk musician Donald Byrd 's " Flight Time " ( 1972 ) , while the prominent groove of piano notes was sampled from the Joe Chambers composition " Mind Rain " ( 1978 ) . The lyrics of " N.Y. State of Mind " have Nas recounting his participation in gang violence and philosophizing that " Life is parallel to Hell , but I must maintain " , while his rapping spans over forty bars . " N.Y. State of Mind " focuses on a mind state that a person obtains from living in Nas 's impoverished environment in New York City . Critic Marc Hill of PopMatters wrote that the song " provides as clear a depiction of ghetto life as a Gordon Parks photograph or a Langston Hughes poem . "

In other songs on Illmatic , Nas celebrates life 's pleasures and achievements , acknowledging violence as a feature of his socio @-@ economic conditions rather than the focus of his life . " Life 's a Bitch " contains a sample of The Gap Band 's hit " Yearning for Your Love " ( 1980 ) , and has guest vocals from East New York @-@ based rapper AZ . It also features Nas 's father , legendary jazz player Olu Dara , playing trumpet as the music fades out . A columnist for OhWord.com wrote that Dara 's contribution to the song provides a " beautifully wistful end to a track that feels drenched in the dying rays of a crimson sunset over the city . " " The World Is Yours " provides a more optimistic narrative from Nas 's viewpoint , as he cites political and spiritual leader Gandhi as an influence in its verse , in contrast to the previous Scarface references of " N.Y. State of Mind " . While citing " Life 's a Bitch " as " possibly the saddest hip @-@ hop song ever recorded " , Rhapsody 's Sam Chennault wrote that " The World Is Yours " " finds optimism in the darkest urban crevices " . " The World Is Yours " was named the seventh greatest rap song by About.com.

= = = Tracks 6 – 10 = = =

The nostalgic " Memory Lane ( Sittin ' in da Park ) " contains a Reuben Wilson sample , which comprises the sound of a Hammond organ , guitar , vocals and percussion , and adds to the track 's ghostly harmonies . Spence D. of IGN wrote that the lyrics evoke " the crossroads of Old School and New School . " " One Love " is composed of a series of letters to incarcerated friends , recounting mutual acquaintances and events that have occurred since the receiver 's imprisonment , and address unfaithful girlfriends , emotionally tortured mothers , and underdog loyalty . The phrase " one love " signifies street loyalty in the song . After delivering " shout @-@ outs to locked down comrades " , Nas chastises a youth who seems destined for prison in the final verse , " Shorty 's laugh was cold blooded as he spoke so foul / Only twelve tryin to tell me that he liked my style [ ... ] Words of wisdom from Nas , try to rise up above / Keep a eye out for Jake , shorty @-@ wop , one love " . Produced by Q @-@ Tip , " One Love " samples the double bass and piano from the Heath Brothers ' " Smilin ' Billy Suite Part II " ( 1975 ) and the drum break from Parliament 's " Come In Out the Rain " ( 1970 ) , complementing the track 's mystical and hypnotic soundscape .

" One Time 4 Your Mind " features battle rhyme braggadocio by Nas . With a similar vibe as " N.Y. State of Mind " , the rhythmic " Represent " has a serious tone , exemplified by Nas ' opening lines , " Straight up shit is real and any day could be your last in the jungle / get murdered on the humble , guns will blast and niggaz tumble " While the majority of the album consists of funk , soul and jazz samples , " Represent " contains a sample of " Thief of Bagdad " by organist Lee Erwin from the 1924 film of the same name . Nas discusses his lifestyle in an environment where he " loves committin ' sins " and " life ain 't shit , but stress , fake niggas and crab stunts " , while describing himself as " The brutalizer , crew de @-@ sizer , accelerator / The type of nigga who be pissin ' in your elevator " . " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " is a braggadocio rap : " Vocals 'll squeeze glocks , MC 's eavesdrop / Though they need not to sneak / My poetry 's deep , I never fail / Nas 's raps should be locked in a cell " It opens with guitars and synths of Michael Jackson 's " Human Nature " ( 1983 ) ; the song 's vocals are sampled for the intro and chorus sections , creating a swirling mix of horns and tweaked @-@ out voices . Large Professor looped in drum samples from Stanley Clarke 's " Slow Dance " ( 1978 ) and saxophone from Kool & the Gang 's " N.T. " ( 1971 ) .

= = Artwork = =

On the vinyl and cassette pressings of Illmatic , Nas replaces the traditional Side A and Side B division with " 40th Side North " and “ 41st Side South , ” respectively – the main streets that form the geographic boundaries that divide the Queensbridge housing projects . Professor Sohail Daulatzai views this labeling as significant , since it transforms Illmatic into " a sonic map . " The album serves as the legend for Nas ’ s ghetto cartography , as he narrates his experiences and those who live in the Queensbridge ” In a 2009 interview with XXL , Nas discussed the purpose behind the album artwork among other promotional efforts , stating " Really the record had to represent everything Nasir Jones is about from beginning to end , from my album cover to my videos . My record company had to beg me to stop filmin ' music videos in the projects . No matter what the song was about I had ' em out there . That 's what it was all about for me , being that kid from the projects , being a poster child for that , that didn ’ t exist back then . "

= = = Album cover = = =

The album cover of Illmatic features a picture of Nas as a child , which was taken after his father , musician Olu Dara , returned home from an overseas tour . The original cover was intended to have a picture of Nas holding Jesus Christ in a headlock , reflecting the religious imagery of Nas 's rap on " Live at the Barbeque " ; " When I was 12 , I went to hell for snuffing Jesus " .

The accepted cover , designed by Aimee Macauley , features a photo of Nas as a child superimposed over a backdrop of a New York city block , taken by Danny Clinch . In a 1994 interview , Nas discussed the concept behind the photo of him at age 7 , stating " That was the year I started to acknowledge everything [ around me ] . That 's the year everything set off . That 's the year I started seeing the future for myself and doing what was right . The ghetto makes you think . The world is ours . I used to think I couldn 't leave my projects . I used to think if I left , if anything happened to me , I thought it would be no justice or I would be just a dead slave or something . The projects used to be my world until I educated myself to see there 's more out there . " As yet , Nas has not pointed to any outside influence for the artwork of his album cover . Yet according to Ego Trip , the cover of Illmatic is " reputedly " believed to have been inspired by a jazz album , Howard Hanger Trio 's A Child Is Born ( 1974 ) -- whose cover also features a photograph of a child , superimposed on an urban landscape .

Since its release , the cover art of Illmatic has also gained an iconic reputation - having been subject to numerous parodies and tributes . Music columnist Byron Crawford later called the cover for Illmatic " one of the dopest album covers ever in hip @-@ hop . " Commenting on the cover 's artistic value , Rob Marriott of Complex writes , " Illmatic 's poignant cover matched the mood , tone , and qualities of this introspective album to such a high degree that it became an instant classic , hailed as a visual full of meaning and nuance . " XXL magazine called the album cover a " high art photo concept for a rap album " and described the artwork as a " noisy , confusing streetscape looking through the housing projects and a young boy superimposed in the center of it all . " The XXL columnist also compared the cover to that of rapper Lil Wayne 's sixth studio album Tha Carter III ( 2008 ) , stating that it also " reflects the reality of disenfranchised youth today . "

On the song " Shark Niggas ( Biters ) " from his debut album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... ( 1995 ) , rapper Raekwon with Ghostface Killah criticized the cover of The Notorious B.I.G. ' s Ready to Die ( 1994 ) , which was released a few months after Illmatic , for featuring a picture of a baby with an afro , implying that his cover had copied the idea from Nas . This generated longstanding controversy between the rappers , resulting in an unpublicized feud which Nas later references in his 2002 album God 's Son , on the song " Last Real Nigga Alive . "

= = Commercial performance = =

Illmatic was released on April 19 , 1994 through Columbia Records in the United States . The album also featured international distribution that same year in countries including France , the Netherlands , Canada and the United Kingdom . In its first week of release , Illmatic made its debut on the Billboard 200 albums chart at number 12 , while selling 59 @,@ 000 copies . In spite of this , initial record sales fell below expectations . The album 's five radio singles failed to obtain considerable Billboard success , as each single did not gain significant charting on the Billboard Hot 100 . The lead single " Halftime " only charted on the Hot Rap Singles chart at number 8 , while " Life 's a Bitch " did not chart at all . The album also suffered from extensive bootlegging prior to its release . " Regional demand was so high , " writes music critic Jeff Weiss , " that Serch claimed he discovered a garage with 60 @,@ 000 bootlegged copies . " While initial sales were low , the album was eventually certified gold in sales by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 17 , 1996 after shipping 500 @,@ 000 copies ; the RIAA later certified Illmatic platinum on December 11 , 2001 , following shipments in excess of one million copies . As of April 20 , 2014 , the album sold 1 @,@ 686 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In April 2002 , the album was also certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments in excess of 50 @,@ 000 copies in Canada .

= = Critical reception = =

Illmatic received universal acclaim from contemporary music critics , who hailed it as a hip hop masterpiece . NME called its music " rhythmic perfection " , and Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune cited it as the best hardcore hip hop album " out of the East Coast in years " . Dimitri Ehrlich of Entertainment Weekly credited Nas for giving his neighborhood " proper respect " while establishing himself and said that the clever lyrics and harsh beats " draw listeners into the borough 's lifestyle with poetic efficiency . " Touré , writing for Rolling Stone , hailed Nas as an elite rapper because of his articulation , detailed lyrics , and Rakim @-@ like tone , all of which he said " pair [ Illmatic 's ] every beautiful moment with its harsh antithesis . "

Christopher John Farley of Time praised the album as a " wake @-@ up call to [ Nas ' ] listeners " and commended him for rendering rather than glorifying " the rough world he comes from " . USA Today 's James T. Jones IV cited his lyrics as " the most urgent poetry since Public Enemy 's " and also commended Nas for honestly depicting dismal ghetto life without resorting to the sensationalism and misogyny of contemporary gangsta rappers . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post praised Nas for " balancing limitations and possibilities , distinguishing hurdles and springboards , and acknowledging his own growth from roughneck adolescent to a maturing adult who can respect and criticize the culture of violence that surrounds him " .

In a mixed review , Heidi Siegmund of the Los Angeles Times found most of Illmatic hampered by " tired attitudes and posturing " , and interpreted its acclaim from East Coast critics as " an obvious attempt to wrestle hip @-@ hop away from the West " . Charles Aaron of Spin felt that the comparisons to Rakim " will be more deserved " if Nas can expand on his ruminative lyrics with " something more personally revealing " . In his review for Playboy , Robert Christgau called it " New York 's typically spare and loquacious entry in the post @-@ gangsta sweepstakes " and recommended it to listeners who " crave full @-@ bore authenticity without brutal posturing " .

A February 19 , 2014 Village Voice cover story ranked Illmatic as the Most New York City album ever .

= = = The Source = = =

Upon its release , The Source gave Illmatic a five mic rating , their highest rating and a prestigious achievement at the time , given the magazine 's influence in the hip hop community . Jon Shecter , co @-@ founder of The Source , had received a copy of the album eight months before its scheduled release , after which he raved about it , and soon lobbied for it to receive a five mic rating . In his twitter blog , Schecter recounts hearing Illmatic in a meeting with editors on the staff :

It 's about 9pm … I get to the office and I gather all the heads in the conference room . I remember who was there : @ MatteoGlen [ the twitter account of Matty C , then The Source 's " Unsigned Hype " editor ] @ CeeWild [ twitter account of Chris Wilder , another editor ] , @ FrozenFiles [ twitter account of Schott ' Free ' Jacobs , another contemporary editor ] . Everyone is nodding their heads , eyes wide , mouths open , it 's hip @-@ hop paradise . We had a pretty shitty system in there but it didn ’ t matter , I pop in the tape and the powerful musical magic emits from the speakers . When those funky / eerie / powerful xylophone notes from ' One Love ' come on , I remember @ FrozenFiles is literally lying on the floor … He can ’ t comprehend how good it is . None of us can . It 's the best shit we ’ ve heard in our lives … Internally , we start debating how we ’ re gonna handle this . I say right away that it 's gotta get a " 5 "

Eventually , the review for Illmatic was handled by the magazine 's columnist Minya Oh ( then writing under the nom de plume , " shortie " ) , who shared Schecter 's enthusiasm for Nas 's album . In her review of Illmatic , Minyah wrote , " I must maintain this is one of the best hip @-@ hop albums I have ever heard " and wrote of its content , " Lyrically , the whole shit is on point . No cliched metaphors , no gimmicks . Never too abstract , never superficial . " She also commented on the impact of Nas 's " poetic realism " writing : “ Nas ’ images remind me of the personal memories and people , both passed and present … All this may sound like melodrama but it not just me . I 've been hearing similar responses all over . While ' Memory Lane ' is my shit , my homies claim ' The World Is Yours , ' and if you 've got peoples doing time , then ' One Love ' may hit you the hardest . " . With the backing of Schecter and the other editors on the staff , Minya awarded Illmatic with the magazine 's highest rating .

= = = = Controversy = = = =

At the time , it was unheard of for a debuting artist to receive the coveted rating . Author Matthew Gasteier writes , “ It 's difficult to overestimate the impact of receiving the five out of five mics , the first such rating given to any new release by the magazine since its then @-@ editor Reginald Dennis put a moratorium on them . " Reginald Dennis , former music editor of the magazine and XXL co @-@ founder , later recounted , " Awarding records 5 mics – classic status – has always been , on some levels , troubling to me . I mean , we are not only saying that a particular piece of music is superior to everything that is out now , but it will be better than most things released in the future as well [ ... ] I only gave one 5 under my watch and it went to Nas 's Illmatic . " Dennis cited it as " the only time I ever broke the ' no 5 ' rule " and added , " I told Jon that we 'd work all of that stuff out when it was time to review the album . But everyday , Jon was like , ' yo , this album is 5 mics — seriously , Reg , 5 mics ! '

The rating did not come without its share of controversy . Reginald Dennis described to the reaction that followed Minya Oh 's review : " I was happy , Jon was happy , Nas was happy , everybody was happy — except for all of the people who felt that The Chronic should have also gotten a 5 . " Only two years prior , Dr. Dre 's groundbreaking The Chronic failed to earn the coveted rating , despite redefining the musical landscape of hip hop . It was later revealed that while everybody at the magazine knew it was an instant classic , they decided to comply with the strict policy of staying away from a perfect rating . Subsequently , when Nas 's album was exempted from this moratorium , many fans pointed to this decision as a confirmation of journalistic bias towards East Coast hip hop . Despite receiving criticism over his staff 's earlier review of The Chronic , Reginald Dennis continues to defend the decision to award Illmatic with the magazine 's highest rating : " I ’ m just happy that Illmatic is universally acclaimed as a classic , so no one can accuse me of dropping the ball ... And if I hadn ’ t gone through what I did with The Chronic , I wouldn ’ t have had the flexibility to allow for the bending of my policy . So I think it all worked out well . ”

= = = Retrospect = = =

Since its initial reception , Illmatic has been viewed by music writers as one of the quintessential hip hop recordings of the 1990s , while its rankings near the top of many publications ' " best album " lists in disparate genres have given it a reputation as one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time . Jon Pareles of The New York Times cited Illmatic as a " milestone in trying to capture the ' street ghetto essence ' " . The album has been described by a number of writers and critics as " classic " . Chris Ryan , writing in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , called Illmatic " a portrait of an artist as a hood , loner , tortured soul , juvenile delinquent , and fledgling social critic , " and wrote that it " still stands as one of rap 's crowning achievements " . Similar to The Source 's initial sentiment , XXL later gave the album a classic " XXL " rating in a retrospective review . In a retrospective review for MSN Music , Christgau said the record was " better than I thought at the time for sure — as happens with aesthetes sometimes , the purists heard subtleties principled vulgarians like me were disinclined to enjoy " , although he still found it inferior to The Notorious B.I.G. ' s debut album Ready to Die ( 1994 ) . In 2002 , Prefix Mag 's Matthew Gasteier re @-@ examined Illmatic and its musical significance , stating :

Illmatic is the best hip @-@ hop record ever made . Not because it has ten great tracks with perfect beats and flawless rhymes , but because it encompasses everything great about hip @-@ hop that makes the genre worthy of its place in music history . Stylistically , if every other hip @-@ hop record were destroyed , the entire genre could be reconstructed from this one album . But in spirit , Illmatic can just as easily be compared to Ready to Die , It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back , and Enter the Wu @-@ Tang as it can to Rites of Spring , A Hard Day 's Night , Innervisions , and Never Mind the Bollocks . In Illmatic , you find the meaning not just of hip @-@ hop , but of music itself : the struggle of youth to retain its freedom , which is ultimately the struggle of man to retain his own essence .

Illmatic has been included in numerous publications ' " best album " lists in disparate genres . Pitchfork listed the album at number 33 on its list of the Top 100 Albums of the 1990s , and the publication 's columnist Hartley Goldstein called the album " the meticulously crafted essence of everything that makes hip @-@ hop music great ; it 's practically a sonic strand of the genre 's DNA . " It was listed as one of 33 hip hop / R & B albums in Rolling Stone 's " Essential Recordings of the 90s " . It was ranked number five in " The Critics Top 100 Black Music Albums of All Time " and number three in Hip Hop Connection 's " Top 100 Readers Poll " . The album was also ranked number four in Vibe 's list of the Top 10 Rap Albums and number two on MTV 's list of The Greatest Hip Hop Albums of All Time . In 1998 , it was selected as one of The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 400 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ; it was ranked number 314 in a revised list in 2012 . On March 30 , 2004 , Illmatic was remastered and re @-@ released with a bonus disc of remixes and new material produced by Marley Marl and Large Professor , in commemoration of its tenth anniversary . Upon its 2004 re @-@ release , Marc Hill of PopMatters dubbed it " the greatest album of all time " and stated , " Ten years after its release , Illmatic stands not only as the best hip @-@ hop album ever made , but also one of the greatest artistic productions of the twentieth century . " The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .

= = Legacy and influence = =

= = = East Coast Hip @-@ Hop = = =

Illmatic has been noted as one of the most influential hip hop albums of all time , with pundits describing it as an archetypal East Coast hip hop album . Jeff Weiss of Pitchfork writes : " No album better reflected the sound and style of New York , 94 . The alembic of soul jazz samples , SP @-@ 1200s , broken nose breaks , and raw rap distilled the Henny , no chaser ideal of boom bap . " Citing Illmatic as part of a string of notable albums released in 1994 , David Drake of Stylus Magazine writes " This was the critical point for the East Coast , a time when rappers from the New York area were releasing bucketloads of thrilling work " . John Bush of Allmusic compares Illmatic to another DJ Premier production , The Sun Rises in the East ( 1994 ) , as " one of the quintessential East Coast records " . Along with the critical acclaim of the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) ( 1993 ) and the success of The Notorious B.I.G. ' s debut Ready to Die ( 1994 ) , Illmatic was also instrumental in restoring interest in the East Coast hip hop scene . " Rarely has the birthplace of hip @-@ hop , " wrote Rob Marriott of Complex , " been so unanimous in praise of a rap record and the MC who made it . " As Nas later recounted : " It felt amazing to be accepted by New York City in that way ... at the time a lot of West Coast hip @-@ hop was selling ; East Coast wasn 't selling as much , especially for a new artist . So back then you couldn 't tell in the sales , but you could tell in the streets " .

= = = = Production = = = =

Illmatic has been noted as a creative high point for East Coast hip hop , since it featured production from renowned New York @-@ based producers Large Professor , Pete Rock and DJ Premier . The album solidified the reputation of these producers , whose contributions to Illmatic became influential in shaping the soundscape of New York 's regional scene . According to music writer Rob Marriott , Illmatic helped to establish DJ Premier as " the go @-@ to producer for the jazz @-@ and @-@ blues @-@ inflected knock that became so central to East Coast sound . "

Following the album 's release , hip hop artists increasingly began to draw upon a broad stable of producers for their projects . At the time , the assembly of big @-@ name producers was unprecedented , since most hip hop albums had primarily been the work of one dedicated producer and sometimes an embedded production team . Yet author Adam Mansbach reflects on the impact of Illmatic 's noteworthy producers , writing : " The psychological impact on the listener of having all these elite producers – some of whom , like Q @-@ Tip , really weren ’ t known yet for doing outside production work at all – coming together to lace the debut of this kid from Queensbridge was tremendous . " This same template would also be used by other successful East Coast rappers . In an article on New York hip hop , Mosi Reeves of Creative Loafing wrote that " Nas ' Illmatic . . . is the first to draw together top hip hop producers in the recording industry . That formula , most successfully mined by the late Notorious B.I.G. ( 1997 's Life After Death ) , Puff Daddy ( 1997 's No Way Out ) and Jay @-@ Z ( 1998 's Vol . 2 ... Hard Knock Life ) , is what most N.Y. prospects still use today . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times writes that after Illmatic 's release , “ [ I ] t became commonplace for rappers to search around for different producers who could enhance their sound . "

Yet while hip @-@ hop artists continue to draw upon this template for album production , the practice has earned some criticism . In an article titled , " How Nas ' " Illmatic " Ruined Hip @-@ Hop , " Insanul Ahmed of Complex argues that one " unintended consequence " of Illmatic was the overall decline in the cohesion and quality of rap albums : " Next thing you knew , rap albums started having a different producer for every song . And like a film that has a different director for every scene , albums became unfocused affairs . This also meant that producers weren ’ t tied to artists anymore . "

= = = = Queensbridge = = = =

Illmatic is also credited with reviving the Queensbridge rap scene . Once home to prestigious pioneers such as Marley Marl , MC Shan , Roxanne Shanté , Queensbridge had been one of the most productive hip hop scenes in the country during the 1980s . In an April 2006 article , an XXL columnist wrote of the history and impact of the Queensbridge hip hop scene , stating " Since the 1980s , New York City 's Queensbridge Housing Projects has been documented perhaps better than any other geographic location . Starting with super producer Marley Marl 's dominant Juice Crew in the ’ 80s all the way through ’ 90s mainstays like Nas , Cormega and Capone , the Bridge has produced the highest per @-@ capita talent of any ’ hood . " Yet during the early 1990s , the Queensbridge rap scene was otherwise stagnant . According to Nas : " I was coming from the legacy of Marley Marl , MC Shan , Juice Crew kind of vibe . Knowing these guys out in the neighborhood . At that time , the Queensbridge scene was dead . Dropping that album right there said a lot for me to carry on the legacy of the Queensbridge pioneers . "

Following Illmatic 's release , Queensbridge returned to prominence after years of obscurity , with the ascendancy of the influential hardcore rap group , Mobb Deep ( who gained credibility due to their affiliation with Nas ) and later with the emergence of the trend @-@ setting duo , Capone @-@ n @-@ Noreaga . Nas appeared on Mobb Deep 's critically acclaimed studio album The Infamous ( 1995 ) . Furthermore , the album is credited with launching the career of the East New York @-@ based rapper , AZ . AZ , who gained instant exposure and underground credibility due to his appearance on " Life 's a Bitch " , became a frequent collaborator of Nas , who appeared on his debut album Doe or Die ( 1995 ) .

= = = = Decline of Alternative Hip @-@ Hop = = = =

Illmatic was one of the first major recordings to emerge from New York 's burgeoning hardcore hip hop scene , at a time when much of East Coast hip hop was still dominated by alternative hip hop acts such as A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul ( groups often known for their jazz @-@ inspired production and playful sensibilities ) . Adam Heimlich of The New York Press comments on the appeal of alternative hip @-@ hop in New York City 's music scene , and points out that , " In 1994 , there appeared likely to be more money ( and definitely more cultural rewards ) in working with Arrested Development or Digable Planets . "

Yet according to Heimlich , Illmatic provided an " explosive , explicit rejection of the cultural assimilation of most previous hip @-@ hop , " due to its rugged use of language and its uncompromising portrayal of crime . Heimlich cites Nas ' role in the resurgent hardcore movement , writing : " [ Nas ] came on the scene as hardcore 's golden child . Along with Wu @-@ Tang Clan , Nas and Mobb Deep . . . all but invented 90s New York rap , back when the notion of an ' East Coast gangsta ' still meant Schoolly D or Kool G. Rap . Those three ... designed the manner and style in which New York artists would address what Snoop and Dre had made rap 's hottest topics : drugs and violence . " Similarly , Duke University Professor , Mark Anthony Neal , writes , “ Nas was at the forefront of a renaissance of East Coast hip hop ” in which “ ... a distinct East Coast style of so @-@ called gangsta rap appeared , ” as heard in similarly styled recordings such as Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's “ C.R.E.A.M. ” and Notorious B.I.G. ' s " Everyday Struggle " .

According to Steve Huey of Allmusic , while Illmatic contains strong elements of jazz rap , it nonetheless signaled a major regional shift towards hardcore aesthetics , marking " the beginning of a shift away from Native Tongues @-@ inspired alternative rap . " Professor Sohail Dalautzai of the University of Southern California comments on Illmatic 's indebtedness to hardcore hip hop : “ [ B ] ecause in bridging the gap and embodying the street swagger of Kool G Rap , the metaphysics of Rakim , and the revolutionary lumpen philosophies of Ice Cube , Nas ... unified the disparate threads of urban rebellion that were conflagrating from hip @-@ hop 's street corner ciphers . ”

= = = = West Coast Hip @-@ Hop = = = =

The critical acclaim surrounding the album also helped to shift attention away from the melodious , synth @-@ driven , and funk @-@ induced G @-@ funk subgenre , which dominated the charts for some time after Dr. Dre 's The Chronic ( 1992 ) . Citing the example of Snoop Dogg 's wildly popular Doggystyle ( released six months prior to Nas ' debut ) author Matthew Gasteier writes , " The first thing immediately noticeable about the [ Source magazine ] review , is that , like essentially every other review about Illmatic in publications like Vibe , Spin , Rolling Stones , and The New York Times , it mentions Snoop Doggy Dogg 's Doggystyle in the first paragraph . " That nearly every reviewer felt the need to contextualize their response to Illmatic within the frame of West Coast G @-@ Funk " is a reminder of just how pervasive the style was within the hip hop world and the music community as a whole . "

Yet according to writer Mickey Hess , Illmatic was among those East Coast records that helped " create sparse , rough and rugged soundscapes that clearly differed from Dre 's multi @-@ layered melodies . " As Allmusic 's Steve Huey writes , " It helped spearhead the artistic renaissance of New York hip hop in the post @-@ Chronic era , leading a return to street aesthetics . " Contrasting these aesthetics with the themes found in G @-@ Funk , writer and filmmaker Dream Hampton writes , " Illmatic was a dirty bomb thrown at the orchestral sonic soundtrack that was The Chronic ... This wasn ’ t a backyard bikini barbeque where the Ohio Players and DJ Quik were mashed up ; this was a three @-@ month bid on Rikers Island , a dirty dice game , blunts of brown Brooklyn sparked in the park after dark . "

Despite these regional differences , Hampton credits Illmatic with providing a common artistic ground for rappers on the West Coast and East Coast rap scenes . In the 2009 essay " Born Alone , Die Alone , " she recounts the album 's impact on West Coast artist , Tupac Shakur . While working as a journalist for The Source in 1994 , Hampton covered three court cases involving Tupac . Around this time , she received an advance @-@ copy of Illmatic and immediately dubbed a cassette version for Tupac , who became " an instant convert " of the album . The next day , she writes , Tupac " arrived in his assigned courtroom blasting Illmatic so loudly that the bailiff yelled at him to turn it off before the judge took his seat on the bench . " In her essay , Hampton implies that Nas ' lyricism might have influenced Tupac 's acclaimed album , Me Against the World , which was recorded that same year .

West Coast artist The Game also recounts the impact of Illmatic for fans like himself outside of New York . In his collaboration with Nas on " Hustlers " ( 2006 ) , he retells an episode taking place during his youth , where he decided to shoplift both Illmatic and The Chronic : " 1995 , eleven years from the day / I 'm in the record shop with choices to make Illmatic on the top shelf , The Chronic on the left , homie / Wanna cop both but only got a twenty on me / So fuck it , I stole both , spent the twenty on a dub @-@ sack / Ripped the package of Illmatic and bumped that / For my niggas it was too complex when Nas rhymed / I was the only Compton nigga with a New York State of Mind "

= = = Lyricism = = =

During the time of its release , Illmatic brought a renewed focus on lyricism to hip hop — hearkening back to the heyday of Kool G Rap , Big Daddy Kane , and Rakim . Music journalist Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote of Illmatic , stating that Nas " perfected a dense , rat @-@ a @-@ tat rhyme style that built upon the legacy of 1980s pioneers like Rakim and Big Daddy Kane . " In his book To the Break of Dawn : A Freestyle on the Hip Hop Aesthetic , William Jelani Cobb writes of Nas ' impact on lyricism and the comparisons to eminent rapper Rakim at the time :

Nas , the poetic sage of the Queensbridge projects , was hailed as the second coming of Rakim — as if the first had reached his expiration date . [ ... ] Nas never became ' the next Rakim , ' nor did he really have to . Illmatic stood on its own terms . The sublime lyricism of the CD , combined with the fact that it was delivered into the crucible of the boiling East @-@ West conflict , quickly solidified [ his ] reputation as the premier writer of his time .

Despite its initial low sales , the album had a profound impact on the hip hop underground circuit , and marked a major stylistic change in hip hop music by introducing a new standard of lyricism . Before the album 's release , hip @-@ hop lyricism was mostly defined by two popular forms . One was characterized by a fast @-@ paced ragga @-@ flow accompanied with a whimsical , often nonsensical lyrical delivery , and had been popularized by the Brooklyn @-@ based groups Das EFX and The Fu @-@ Schnickens . The other was characterized by a slurred " lazy drawl " that sacrificed lyrical complexity for clarity and rhythmic cadence , and was exemplified by West Coast hip hop emcees including Snoop Doggy Dogg and Warren G. However , Nas ' content , verbal pace , and intricate internal rhyme patterns inspired several rappers to modify their lyrical abilities . Music critic Rob Marriott notes , " [ R ] appers like Mobb Deep , Tragedy Khadafi , Nature , Cormega , Noreaga , Capone , Raekwon , Ghostface , and even the Windy City wordsmith Common seemed to find new inspiration in Nas ' self awareness , internal rhyme schemes , and mastery of street detail . " Marriott also describes the impact of Illmatic 's " poetic approach " on Jay @-@ Z , writing : " The Brooklyn MC switched his style up from his fast @-@ talking Jaz @-@ O days enough to produce Reasonable Doubt , an album marked by Nas @-@ like introspection ... "

Many rappers have taken note of Illmatic 's influence on their lyricism . Ghostface Killah recounted , “ When I used to listen to Nas back in the days , it was like , ‘ Oh shit ! He murdered that . ’ That forced me to get my pen game up ... The whole Illmatic album forced you to go ahead and do shit ... It was inspiration . " Detroit rapper Elzhi states , " [ A ] round the time Nas did Illmatic , it made me wanna step my game up ... He 's one of the reasons I did go off into storytelling because his pictures were so vivid . When he displayed his rhyme schemes and his word play and his songs , it made me wanna create visual pictures as well . " Casey Veggies also recounts the impact Nas ' lyricism had on his own work as an underground rapper in the 2000s : “ I [ got into ] Illmatic when I was 14 , 15 . I didn ’ t get onto to it till late , but when I did , that 's probably the only thing I listened to for six months to a year ... After I got heavy on Illmatic , I put out Sleeping In Class ( 2010 ) . That 's when I really tried to sharpen my skills and get better . ”

= = = = Hip @-@ Hop poetry = = = =

In addition to his rapping , Nas achieved significance for his poetic use of language . Professor Adilifu Nama of California State University Northridge writes , “ With Illmatic , hip @-@ hop witnessed the birth of an urban griot telling hard @-@ boiled tales of ghetto alienation and triumph like a spoken @-@ word of a Chester Himes novel " Author and music writer Todd Boyd wrote of Nas ' urban realism , stating that his " poetic lyrics are some of the most poignant words ever to describe the postindustrial urban experience . His spoken @-@ word like delivery and his vivid use of metaphor placed him at the top of the game in terms of overall skills as an MC and as a cultural commentator . " An OhWord.com columnist similarly described Nas as a " genius introvert who rose out of the rubble of Reaganomics to bless the mic with a forward brand of introspective , redemptive street poetry " . Princeton University professor Imani Perry also describes Illmatic as " ars poetica , a definitive statement for the art of hip @-@ hop poetry . "

According to author and poet Kevin Coval , Nas “ raise [ d ] the bar for MCs ” by advancing his lyricism “ from punch lines and hot lines to whole thought pictures manifest in rhyme form . ” Together with Paul Beatty ’ s seminal collection of poems , Joker Joker Deuce ( 1994 ) Coval cites the release of Illmatic as a " generational moment " that marked the development of hip hop poetry . Just as hip @-@ hop poetics were being written and published for the first time on paper , Nas provided a sonic production that definitively captured " the poetic response " to hip hop music . “ It is from this point on , ” he writes , “ that style , technique and craft merge with collage / pastiche , braggadocio , stark portrait @-@ painting from the margins , frenetic , fun and funny wordplay , and the rupture of linear storytelling schemes . These become tropes in a burgeoning school of American letters that 's moving toward an aesthetics of hip @-@ hop poetics . "

Many of the poetic tropes found in Illmatic have also become terms and phrases within hip @-@ hop lexicon . " ' The World Is Yours , ' Nas ' reference to the blimp in Scarface , " writes Rob Marriott , " has remained a trope hip @-@ hop has taken to heart ... Even the word " Illmatic " itself [ ... ] became synonymous with anything surprisingly excellent , street @-@ born and / or out of left field . " In 2013 , music writer Jeff Weiss commented on the extensive vernacular usage of Illmatic , writing : " The phrases and images are so deeply rooted in rap consciousness to have become cliché . Over the last 19 years , a million secret handshakes and scratched hooks have been executed to lines from Illmatic . "

= = = Hip @-@ Hop artists = = =

Many respected mainstream and underground rappers have acknowledged Illmatic 's influence . These wide range of artists include the battle rappers , SunN.Y. and Reef The Lost Cauze , conscious rappers Talib Kweli and Lupe Fiasco , the producers Just Blaze and 9th Wonder , as well as the platinum @-@ selling artists Wiz Khalifa , Alicia Keys and The Game , who makes references to the album on his debut , The Documentary In 2006 , Illmatic was featured in a list of acclaimed hip hop albums , compiled by Clipse . Malice , a member of the hip hop duo , claimed : " Illmatic captured the whole New York state of mind for me . It embraced everything I knew New York to be . The album had 10 songs , all of them flawless . Me and my homies got great memories of rolling around listening to that , huslin ' , smokin ' , chillin ' . That embodied everything that was right with hip @-@ hop . That CD never came out my deck . " Speaking in 2012 , British producer , DJ Semtex described Illmatic as " an exemplary album of perfection that forced the evolution of lyricism and production values within hip hop . Eighteen years later it remains omnipotent . "

In 2006 , Marc Mac of the electronic music duo 4hero , produced a cover version of " The World Is Yours " as part of his jazz and hip @-@ hip fusion project , The Visioneers . Lyrics from Illmatic have also been sampled by other rappers , most notably Big L 's " Ebonics " ( which samples " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " ) , Milkbone 's " Keep It Real " ( which samples " Life 's a Bitch " ) , Real Live 's " Real Live Shit " ( which samples " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " ) , Damu the Fudgemunk 's " Prosper " ft . Raw Poetic ( which samples " N.Y. State of Mind " ) , Blu & Exile 's " In Remembrance " ( which samples " The World Is Yours " and " One Love " ) , Mac Miller 's " Nikes On My Feet " ( which samples " The World Is Yours " ) and Jay @-@ Z 's " Rap Game / Crack Game " ( which samples " Represent " ) and " Dead Presidents II " ( which samples " The World Is Yours " ) .

= = = = Legacy and tributes = = = =

Since its release , Illmatic has become a benchmark for upcoming rappers whose albums are widely anticipated by critics . Hip hop pundits have viewed debut albums as crucial in generating publicity and shaping the legacy of an artist 's career . Given the historic anticipation and acclaim surrounding Nas ' debut , Illmatic has become a byword for this sort of phenomenon . As one columnist for the Complex Magazine writes , " Think about the question that pops into your head whenever a new rapper drops his first album : ' Is it the next Illmatic ? ' " In 2012 , the release of Kendrick Lamar 's album , Good Kid , M.A.A.D City , drew comparisons to Illmatic from critics and journalists . In an interview with 2 Dope Boyz , Lamar commented on these comparisons , stating :

“ Illmatic ? For people to even put my album in the light of that , is an accomplishment . It 's crazy to even be mentioned with it but it 's scary at the same time ... That era – I wanna say the age range now would be 30 , 30 to 40 – they can recognize this was the album . Illmatic ’ s the album for the ’ 90s era when I was growing up ... it 's just a weird feeling to be in that same type of light , ‘ cus it takes a whole lot of responsibility to keep that up in the long run and longevity , and that 's something I don ’ t have yet … so Illmatic will always be # 1 . ”

Illmatic has also been cited as a musical template for other hip hop artists . Common 's critically acclaimed album Be ( 2005 ) has been said to have been molded after Illmatic . In 2010 , underground hip hop artist Fashawn released the mixtape Ode to Illmatic to " pay homage , ' cause Illmatic was one of them kinda albums that really impacted my life ” . Detroit rapper Elzhi released a remake of Illmatic titled Elmatic ( 2011 ) . Taking note of a trend of tributes to Illmatic in 2011 , Richard Watson of The Guardian wrote , " To quote Nasir Jones himself ... ' It Ain 't Hard To Tell ' why today 's rappers are paying tribute to his debut album . Illmatic has become a totem , a work that both looked back into hip @-@ hop history and pointed towards its future . "

= = = Intellectual response = = =

Illmatic has also received notable attention from scholars and authors outside the music industry . Since its release , the album has become the subject of scholarship within academic and literary circles . In 2009 , as part of the 33 ⅓ book series , author Matthew Gasteier published a deconstruction of Illmatic , that focuses on the dualities that inform its narratives . In 2012 , playwright Shaun Neblett created a tribute play titled Homage 3 : Illmatic , which tells the story of an aspiring artist and explores the themes found in Nas ' debut . " [ A ] s its title suggests , " writes one reviewer , " ... the play is completely based on and acts as a tribute to Nas ’ Illmatic album . The rappers ’ bars come alive on stage through Homage 3 , which deliberately shows how intellectually well @-@ versed Nas truly is , and much bigger than that , how much Hip @-@ Hop has to offer , culturally , outside of the radio , clubs and the street . "

Illmatic is also the focus of a significant work of hip @-@ hop scholarship , Born to Use Mics : Reading Nas 's Illmatic ( 2009 ) , edited by Michael Eric Dyson and Sohail Daulatzai . With contributions from figures such as Greg Tate , Adam Mansbach , Eddie Glaude , Dream Hampton , Marc Lamont Hill , and Suheir Hammad , Born to Use Mics ... is the first academic project to assemble a group of scholars , poets , filmmakers , journalists , novelists , and musicians to reflect on a specific hip hop album . In the introduction , Daulatzai explains the singular focus on Illmatic , writing :

[ S ] ome might ask , why Illmatic ? Why not Boogie Down Productions ’ Criminal Minded , Public Enemy ’ s It Takes a Nation to Hold Us Back , or Ice Cube ’ s AmeriKKKa 's Most Wanted ? No doubt these were great albums , coming at a moment when hip hop was cutting its teeth on social commentary and refining its ear on dusty breaks , hard snares , and sonic mayhem . But there is something about Illmatic that transcends the categories that have ever existed about hip @-@ hop . Something complex about its simplicity , something elusive that we felt we wanted to explore . Straight up though , Illmatic is just a dope album , embodying everything that is hip @-@ hop while mastering what matters most : beats and rhymes .

= = = = Hip @-@ Hop debates = = = =

Illmatic has also helped to shape the attitudes and perceptions of hip hop fans , who cherish it as a music template that defines the genre 's conventions . As music critic Jeff Weiss writes , “ Illmatic is the gold standard that boom @-@ bap connoisseurs refer to in the same way that Baby Boomers talk about Highway 61 Revisited . The evidence they point to when they want to say : this is how good it can be . ” New York Times columnist Jon Caramanica also credits the album with inadvertently spawning hip hop 's counterculture . " Illmatic " he writes , " mobilized a national network of dissidents craving something true to the streets but eager to distance themselves from what was beginning to be perceived as a scourge – gangster rap . " According to Caramanica , Nas ' debut was received by these fans as a " rebuke " towards trends that were beginning to shape mainstream rap : " the pop crossover , the exuberant production values , [ and ] the splintering of rap into blithe and concerned wings . "

For this reason , Caramanica considers Illmatic to be " unusually significant to the intellectual development of the [ hip @-@ hop ] genre " yet he also remains critical of the divisiveness spawned by its " zealots . " In his essay , " ' Night Time is More Trife Than Ever ' : The Many Misuses of Nas , " he writes : " Illmatic is responsible for countless pointless ' rap versus hip @-@ hop debates , ' a shocking amount of hip @-@ hop self @-@ righteousness , the emergence of the backpack movement as something more than a regional curio , and the persistence of the idea that lyricism is the only standard great rap music should be held to . " Commenting on these polarized debates , Jeff Weiss suggests that Illmatic is " best heard by ignoring the dogma , culture wars , Nas clones , and would @-@ be saviors that have accreted since April of 1994 . Who cares whether it 's the greatest rap album of all @-@ time or not ? It 's an example of how great rap can be , but not necessarily the way it should be . " '

= = = Subsequent work by Nas = = =

While its success helped Nas ' career immeasurably , hip hop aficionados have cited the album as his inextricable " gift and curse " . Due to its critical fame , Nas ' subsequent studio albums have been weighed against Illmatic , despite all of them outselling his debut . Against this standard , they are often critically deemed as mediocre follow @-@ ups . After manager Steve Stoute convinced Nas to aim his efforts in a more commercial direction for his follow @-@ up album It Was Written ( 1996 ) , he enlisted the production team Trackmasters , who were known for their mainstream work at the time . It was criticized for its embrace of gangsta / mafioso themes and materialistic subject matter , but proved to be a commercial success , selling over three million copies . Critics gave it mixed reviews , and general consensus was that it failed to live up to the classic status of Illmatic . Many fans of Illmatic labeled his subsequent efforts as ' selling out ' , due to his crossover sensibilities ( e.g. his participation with the hip hop group The Firm ) and radio @-@ friendly hits aimed at the pop charts , such as " If I Ruled the World ( Imagine That ) " ( 1996 ) and " Hate Me Now " ( 1999 ) .

When he released his third and fourth studio albums , I Am … and Nastradamus ( 1999 ) , which underwent editing due to bootlegging of the recording sessions , many fans and critics feared that his career was deteriorating , as both albums received further criticism for their commercially oriented sound . Reflecting this widespread perception in the hip hop community and adding to his ongoing feud with Nas at the time , Jay @-@ Z mocked him in the song " Takeover " ( 2001 ) for having a " one hot album [ Illmatic ] every ten year average " . A journalist writing for The Source commented on the demanding legacy of Nas ' debut : " Blame excellence , blame perfection and aggression . Blame one of hip @-@ hop 's most beautiful moments for the prison that traps Nasir Jones today – blame Illmatic . " Nas , however , made something of a comeback with his fifth album Stillmatic ( 2001 ) and the acclaimed follow @-@ up God 's Son ( 2002 ) , as well as The Lost Tapes ( 2002 ) , a compilation of previously unreleased tracks from the I Am … and Nastradamus sessions . Afterwards , his subsequent albums have all been well received by critics . Nevertheless , most fans have regarded Illmatic as his definitive album .

In 2011 , Nas performed the album in its entirety at Rock the Bells music festival . The show featured the album 's personnel , including Pete Rock , DJ Premier , and AZ , and a stage design depicting the urban landscape of Queensbridge , with graffiti @-@ lined streets , a subway entrance , and models of Queensbridge 's housing project . In 2012 , he also performed the album in its entirety at South by Southwest music festival , with the same personnel and stage design . Illmatic will be reissued as a deluxe CD bundled with a 48 @-@ page hardcover book featuring photos , reproduced artwork , lyrics , and liner notes courtesy of The Source founder Jon Schecter .

In 2014 Nas announced Illmatic XX , the 20th Anniversary Edition of the original album Illmatic , released April 15 , 4 days prior to the 20th Anniversary of the original 's release date ( April 19 ) . Illmatic XX includes a remastered version of Illmatic , an extra disc of demos , remixes , and unreleased records from that era of Nas ' career . He also announced his plans for a tour where he will perform the whole album front to back on each stop .

= = Track listing = =

= = = Samples = = =

= = Personnel = =

Faith N. - Executive Producer

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Accolades = =

The information regarding accolades attributed to Illmatic is adapted from Acclaimed Music .

= Siege of Constantinople ( 717 – 718 ) =

The Second Arab siege of Constantinople in 717 – 718 ( 98 – 100 AH ) was a combined land and sea offensive by the Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate against the capital city of the Byzantine Empire , Constantinople . The campaign marked the culmination of twenty years of attacks and progressive Arab occupation of the Byzantine borderlands , while Byzantine strength was sapped by prolonged internal turmoil . In 716 , after years of preparations , the Arabs , led by Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik , invaded Byzantine Asia Minor . The Arabs initially hoped to exploit Byzantine civil strife and made common cause with the general Leo III the Isaurian , who had risen up against Emperor Theodosius III . Leo , however , tricked them and secured the Byzantine throne for himself .

After wintering in the western coastlands of Asia Minor , the Arab army crossed into Thrace in early summer 717 and built siege lines to blockade the city , which was protected by the massive Theodosian Walls . The Arab fleet , which accompanied the land army and was meant to complete the city 's blockade by sea , was neutralized soon after its arrival by the Byzantine navy through the use of Greek fire . This allowed Constantinople to be resupplied by sea , while the Arab army was crippled by famine and disease during the unusually hard winter that followed . In spring 718 , two Arab fleets sent as reinforcements were destroyed by the Byzantines after their Christian crews defected , and an additional army sent overland through Asia Minor was ambushed and defeated . Coupled with attacks by the Bulgars on their rear , the Arabs were forced to lift the siege on 15 August 718 . On its return journey , the Arab fleet was almost completely destroyed by natural disasters and Byzantine attacks .

The siege 's failure had wide @-@ ranging repercussions . The rescue of Constantinople ensured the continued survival of Byzantium , while the Caliphate 's strategic outlook was altered : although regular attacks on Byzantine territories continued , the goal of outright conquest was abandoned . Historians consider the siege to be one of history 's most important battles , as its failure postponed the Muslim advance into Southeastern Europe for centuries .

= = Background = =

Following the first Arab siege of Constantinople ( 674 – 678 ) , the Arabs and Byzantines experienced a period of peace . After 680 , the Umayyad Caliphate was in the throes of the Second Muslim Civil War and the consequent Byzantine ascendancy in the East enabled the emperors to extract huge amounts of tribute from the Umayyad government in Damascus . In 692 , as the Umayyads emerged as victors from the Muslim Civil War , Emperor Justinian II ( r . 685 – 695 and 705 – 711 ) re @-@ opened hostilities . The result was a series of Arab victories that led to the loss of Byzantine control over Armenia and the Caucasian principalities , and a gradual encroachment upon Byzantine borderlands . Year by year , the Caliphate 's generals , usually members of the Umayyad family , launched raids into Byzantine territory and captured fortresses and towns . After 712 , the Byzantine defensive system began to show signs of collapse : Arab raids penetrated further and further into Asia Minor , border fortresses were repeatedly attacked and sacked , and references to Byzantine reaction in the sources become more and more scarce . In this , the Arabs were aided by the prolonged period of internal instability that followed the first deposition of Justinian II in 695 , in which the Byzantine throne changed hands seven times in violent coups . In the words of the Byzantinist Warren Treadgold , " the Arab attacks would in any case have intensified after the end of their own civil war ... With far more men , land and wealth than Byzantium , the Arabs had begun to concentrate all their strength against it . Now they threatened to extinguish the empire entirely by capturing its capital . "

= = Opening stages of the campaign = =

The Arab successes opened the way for a second assault on Constantinople , an undertaking already initiated under Caliph al @-@ Walid I ( r . 705 – 715 ) . Following his death , his brother and successor Sulayman ( r . 715 – 717 ) took up the project with increased vigour , according to Arab accounts because of a prophecy that a Caliph bearing the name of a prophet would capture Constantinople ; Sulayman ( Solomon ) was the only member of the Umayyad family to bear such a name . According to Syriac sources , the new Caliph swore " to not stop fighting against Constantinople before having exhausted the country of the Arabs or to have taken the city " . The Umayyad forces began assembling at the plain of Dabiq north of Aleppo , under the direct supervision of the Caliph . As Sulayman was too sick to campaign himself , however , he entrusted command to his brother Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik . The operation against Constantinople came at a time when the Umayyad state was undergoing a period of continuous expansion to the east and west . Muslim armies advanced into Transoxiana , India and the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania .

Arab preparations , especially the construction of a large fleet , did not go unnoticed by the worried Byzantines . Emperor Anastasios II ( r . 713 – 715 ) sent an embassy to Damascus under the patrician and urban prefect , Daniel of Sinope , ostensibly in order to plea for peace , but in reality to spy on the Arabs . Anastasios , in turn , began to prepare for the inevitable siege : the fortifications of Constantinople were repaired and equipped with ample artillery ( catapults and other siege weapons ) , while food stores were brought into the city . In addition , those inhabitants who could not stockpile food for at least three years were evacuated . Anastasios strengthened his navy and in early 715 dispatched it against the Arab fleet that had come to Phoenix — usually identified with modern Finike in Lycia , it may also be modern Fenaket across Rhodes , or perhaps Phoenicia ( modern Lebanon ) , famed for its cedar forests — to collect timber for their ships . At Rhodes , however , the Byzantine fleet , encouraged by the soldiers of the Opsician Theme , rebelled , killed their commander John the Deacon and sailed north to Adramyttium . There , they acclaimed a reluctant tax collector , Theodosius , as emperor . Anastasios crossed into Bithynia in the Opsician Theme to confront the rebellion , but the rebel fleet sailed on to Chrysopolis . From there , it launched attacks against Constantinople , until , in late summer , sympathizers within the capital opened its gates to them . Anastasios held out at Nicaea for several months , finally agreeing to resign and retire as a monk . The accession of Theodosios , who from the sources comes across as both unwilling and incapable , as a puppet emperor of the Opsicians provoked the reaction of the other themes , especially the Anatolics and the Armeniacs under their respective strategoi ( generals ) Leo the Isaurian and Artabasdos .

In these conditions of near @-@ civil war , the Arabs began their carefully prepared advance . In September 715 , the vanguard , under general Sulayman ibn Mu 'ad , marched over Cilicia into Asia Minor , taking the strategic fortress of Loulon on its way . They wintered at Afik , an unidentified location near the western exit of the Cilician Gates . In early 716 , Sulayman 's army continued into central Asia Minor . The Umayyad fleet under Umar ibn Hubayra cruised along the Cilician coast , while Maslama ibn Abd al @-@ Malik awaited developments with the main army in Syria .

The Arabs hoped that the disunity among the Byzantines would play to their advantage . Maslama had already established contact with Leo the Isaurian . French scholar Rodolphe Guilland theorized that Leo offered to become a vassal of the Caliphate , although the Byzantine general intended to use the Arabs for his own purposes . In turn , Maslama supported Leo hoping to maximize confusion and weaken the Empire , easing his own task of taking Constantinople .

Sulayman 's first objective was the strategically important fortress of Amorium , which the Arabs intended to use as a base the following winter . Amorium had been left defenceless in the turmoil of the civil war and would have easily fallen , but the Arabs chose to bolster Leo 's position as a counterweight to Theodosios . They offered the city terms of surrender if its inhabitants would acknowledge Leo as emperor . The fortress capitulated , but still did not open its gates to the Arabs . Leo came to the vicinity with a handful of soldiers and executed a series of ruses and negotiations to garrison 800 men in the town . The Arab army , thwarted in its objective and with supplies running low , withdrew . Leo escaped to Pisidia and , in summer , supported by Artabasdos , was proclaimed and crowned as Byzantine emperor , openly challenging Theodosios .

Leo 's success at Amorium was fortunately timed , since Maslama with the main Arab army had in the meantime crossed the Taurus Mountains and was marching straight for the city . In addition , as the Arab general had not received news of Leo 's double @-@ dealing , he did not devastate the territories he marched through — the Armeniac and Anatolic themes , whose governors he still believed to be his allies . On meeting up with Sulayman 's retreating army and learning what had transpired , Maslama changed direction : he attacked Akroinon and from there marched to the western coastlands to spend the winter . On his way , he sacked Sardis and Pergamon . The Arab fleet wintered in Cilicia . Leo , in the meantime , began his own march on Constantinople . He captured Nicomedia , where he found and captured , among other officials , Theodosios 's son , and then marched to Chrysopolis . In spring 717 , after short negotiations , he secured Theodosios 's resignation and his recognition as emperor , entering the capital on 25 March . Theodosios and his son were allowed to retire to a monastery as monks , while Artabasdos was promoted to the position of kouropalates and received the hand of Leo 's daughter , Anna .

= = Opposing forces = =

From the outset , the Arabs prepared for a major assault on Constantinople . The late 8th @-@ century Syriac Zuqnin Chronicle reports that the Arabs were " innumerable " , while the 12th @-@ century Syriac chronicler Michael the Syrian mentions a much @-@ inflated 200 @,@ 000 men and 5 @,@ 000 ships . The 10th @-@ century Arab writer al @-@ Mas 'udi mentions 120 @,@ 000 troops , and the account of Theophanes the Confessor 1 @,@ 800 ships . Supplies for several years were hoarded , and siege engines and incendiary materials ( naphtha ) were stockpiled . The supply train is said to have numbered 12 @,@ 000 men , 6 @,@ 000 camels and 6 @,@ 000 donkeys , while according to the 13th @-@ century historian Bar Hebraeus , the troops included 30 @,@ 000 volunteers ( mutawa ) for the Holy War ( jihad ) . Whatever the true numbers , the attackers were considerably more numerous than the defenders ; according to Treadgold , the Arab host may have outnumbered the entire Byzantine army . Little is known on the detailed composition of the Arab force , but it appears that it mostly consisted of and was led by Syrians and Jazirans of the elite ahl al @-@ Sham ( " People of Syria " ) , the main pillar of the Umayyad regime and veterans of the struggle against Byzantium . Alongside Maslama , Umar ibn Hubayra , Sulayman ibn Mu 'ad , and Bakhtari ibn al @-@ Hasan are mentioned as his lieutenants by Theophanes and Agapius of Hierapolis , while the later Kitab al- ' Uyun replaces Bakhtari with Abdallah al @-@ Battal .

Although the siege consumed a large part of the Caliphate 's manpower and resources , it was still capable of launching raids against the Byzantine frontier in eastern Asia Minor during the siege 's duration : in 717 , Caliph Sulayman 's son Daud captured a fortress near Melitene and in 718 Amr ibn Qais raided the frontier . On the Byzantine side , the numbers are unknown . Aside from Anastasius II 's preparations ( which may have been neglected following his deposition ) , the Byzantines could count on the assistance of the Bulgars , with whom Leo concluded a treaty that may have included alliance against the Arabs .

= = Siege = =

In early summer , Maslama ordered his fleet to join him and with his army crossed the Hellespont ( Dardanelles ) at Abydos into Thrace . The Arabs began their march on Cοnstantinople , thoroughly devastating the countryside , gathering supplies , and sacking the towns they encountered . In mid @-@ July or mid @-@ August , the Arab army reached Constantinople and isolated it completely on land by building a double siege wall of stone , one facing the city and one facing the Thracian countryside , with their camp positioned between them . According to Arab sources , at this point Leo offered to ransom the city by paying a gold coin for every inhabitant , but Maslama replied that there could not be peace with the vanquished , and that the Arab garrison of Constantinople had already been selected .

The Arab fleet under Sulayman ( often confused with the Caliph himself in the medieval sources ) arrived on 1 September , anchoring at first near the Hebdomon . Two days later , Sulayman led his fleet into the Bosphorus and the various squadrons began anchoring by the European and Asian suburbs of the city : one part sailed south of Chalcedon to the harbours of Eutropios and Anthemios to watch over the southern entrance of the Bosporus , while the rest of the fleet sailed into the strait , passed by Constantinople and began making landfall on the coasts between Galata and Kleidion , cutting the Byzantine capital 's communication with the Black Sea . But as the Arab fleet 's rearguard , twenty heavy ships with 2 @,@ 000 marines , was passing the city , the southerly wind stopped and then reversed , drifting them towards the city walls , where a Byzantine squadron attacked them with Greek fire . Theophanes reported that some went down with all hands , while others , burning , sailed down to the Princes ' Islands of Oxeia and Plateia . The victory encouraged the Byzantines and dejected the Arabs , who , according to Theophanes , had originally intended to sail to the sea walls during the night and try to scale them using the ships ' steering paddles . The same night , Leo drew up the chain between the city and Galata , closing the entrance to the Golden Horn . The Arab fleet became reluctant to engage the Byzantines , and withdrew to the safe harbour of Sosthenion further north on the European shore of the Bosporus .

The Arab army was well @-@ provisioned , with Arab accounts reporting high mounds of supplies piled up in their camp , and had even brought along wheat to sow and harvest the next year . The failure of the Arab navy to blockade the city , however , meant that the Byzantines too could ferry in provisions . In addition , the Arab army had already devastated the Thracian countryside during its march and could not rely on it for foraging . The Arab fleet and the second Arab army , which operated in the Asian suburbs of Constantinople , were able to bring in limited supplies to Maslama 's army . As the siege drew into winter , negotiations opened between the two sides , extensively reported by Arab sources but ignored by Byzantine historians . According to the Arab accounts , Leo continued to play a double game with the Arabs . One version claims that he tricked Maslama into handing over most of his grain supplies , while another claims that the Arab general was persuaded to burn them altogether , so as to show the inhabitants of the city that they faced an imminent assault and induce them to surrender . The winter of 718 was extremely harsh ; snow covered the ground for over three months . As the supplies in the Arab camp ran out , a terrible famine broke out : the soldiers ate their horses , camels , and other livestock , and the bark , leaves and roots of trees . They swept the snow of the fields they had sown to eat the green shoots , and reportedly resorted to cannibalism and eating their own excrement . Consequently , the Arab army was ravaged by epidemics ; with great exaggeration , the Lombard historian Paul the Deacon put the number of their dead of hunger and disease at 300 @,@ 000 .

The situation looked set to improve in spring when the new Caliph , Umar II ( r . 717 – 720 ) , sent two fleets to the besiegers ' aid : 400 ships from Egypt under a commander named Sufyan and 360 ships from Africa under Izid , all laden with supplies and arms . At the same time , a fresh army began marching through Asia Minor to assist in the siege . When the new fleets arrived in the Sea of Marmara , they kept their distance from the Byzantines and anchored on the Asian shore . The Egyptians were in the Gulf of Nicomedia near modern Tuzla and the Africans south of Chalcedon ( at Satyros , Bryas and Kartalimen ) . Most of the Arab fleets ' crews were composed of Christian Egyptians , however , and they began deserting to the Byzantines upon their arrival . Notified by the Egyptians of the advent and disposition of the Arab reinforcements , Leo launched his fleet in an attack against the new Arab fleets . Crippled by the defection of their crews , and helpless against Greek fire , the Arab ships were destroyed or captured along with the weapons and supplies they carried . Constantinople was now safe from a seaborne attack . On land too the Byzantines were victorious : their troops managed to ambush the advancing Arab army under a commander named Mardasan and destroy it in the hills around Sophon , south of Nicomedia .

Constantinople could now be easily resupplied by sea and the city 's fishermen went back to sea , as the Arab fleet did not sail again . Still suffering from hunger and pestilence , the Arabs lost a major battle against the Bulgars , who killed , according to Theophanes , 22 @,@ 000 . It is unclear , however , whether the Bulgars attacked the Arab encampment because of their treaty with Leo or whether the Arabs strayed into Bulgar territory seeking provisions , as reported by the Syriac Chronicle of 846 . Michael the Syrian mentions that the Bulgars participated in the siege from the beginning , with attacks against the Arabs as they marched through Thrace and subsequently on their encampment , but this is not corroborated elsewhere . The siege had clearly failed , and Caliph Umar sent orders to Maslama to retreat . After thirteen months of siege , on 15 August 718 , the Arabs departed . The date coincided with the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos ( Assumption of Mary ) , and it was to her that the Byzantines ascribed their victory . The retreating Arabs were not hindered or attacked on their return , but their fleet lost more ships in a storm in the Marmara Sea while other ships were set afire by ashes from the volcano of Santorini , and some of the survivors were captured by the Byzantines , so that Theophanes claims that only five vessels made it back to Syria . Arab sources claim that altogether 150 @,@ 000 Muslims perished during the campaign , a figure which , according to the Byzantinist John Haldon , " while certainly inflated , is nevertheless indicative of the enormity of the disaster in medieval eyes " .

= = Aftermath = =

The expedition 's failure weakened the Umayyad state . As historian Bernard Lewis commented , " Its failure brought a grave moment for Umayyad power . The financial strain of equipping and maintaining the expedition caused an aggravation of the fiscal and financial oppression which had already aroused such dangerous opposition . The destruction of the fleet and army of Syria at the sea walls of Constantinople deprived the regime of the chief material basis of its power " . The blow to the Caliphate 's might was severe , and although the land army did not suffer losses in the same degree as the fleet , Umar is recorded as contemplating withdrawing from the recent conquests of Hispania and Transoxiana , as well as a complete evacuation of Cilicia and other Byzantine territories that the Arabs had seized over the previous years . Although his advisors dissuaded him from such drastic actions , most Arab garrisons were withdrawn from the Byzantine frontier districts they had occupied in the lead @-@ up to the siege . In Cilicia , only Mopsuestia remained in Arab hands as a defensive bulwark to protect Antioch . The Byzantines even recovered some territory in western Armenia for a time . In 719 , the Byzantine fleet raided the Syrian coast and burned down the port of Laodicea and , in 720 or 721 , the Byzantines attacked and sacked Tinnis in Egypt . Leo also restored control over Sicily , where news of the Arab siege of Constantinople and expectations of the city 's fall had prompted the local governor to declare an emperor of his own , Basil Onomagoulos . It was during this time , however , that effective Byzantine control over Sardinia and Corsica ceased . Besides this , the Byzantines failed to exploit their success in launching attacks of their own against the Arabs . In 720 , after a hiatus of two years , Arab raids against Byzantium resumed , although now they were no longer directed at conquest , but rather seeking booty . The Arab attacks would intensify again over the next two decades , until the major Byzantine victory at the Battle of Akroinon in 740 . Coupled with military defeats on the other fronts of the overextended Caliphate , and the internal instability which culminated in the Abbasid Revolution , the age of Arab expansion came to an end .

= = Historical assessment and impact = =

The second Arab siege of Constantinople was far more dangerous for Byzantium than the first as , unlike the loose blockade of 674 – 678 , the Arabs launched a direct , well @-@ planned attack on the Byzantine capital , and tried to cut off the city completely from land and sea . The siege represented a final effort by the Caliphate to " cut off the head " of the Byzantine Empire , after which the remaining provinces , especially in Asia Minor , would be easy to capture . The Arab failure was chiefly logistical , as they were operating too far from their Syrian bases , but the superiority of the Byzantine navy through the use of Greek fire , the strength of Constantinople 's fortifications , and the skill of Leo III in deception and negotiations also played important roles .

The failure of the Arab siege led to a profound change in the nature of warfare between Byzantium and the Caliphate . The Muslim goal of conquest of Constantinople was effectively abandoned , and the frontier between the two empires stabilized along the line of the Taurus and Antitaurus Mountains , over which both sides continued to launch regular raids and counter @-@ raids . In this incessant border warfare , frontier towns and fortresses changed hands frequently , but the general outline of the border remained unaltered for over two centuries , until the Byzantine conquests of the 10th century . Indeed , with the exception of the advance of the Abbasid army under Harun al @-@ Rashid up to Chrysopolis in 782 , no other Arab army would ever come within sight of the Byzantine capital again . Consequently , on the Muslim side the raids themselves eventually acquired an almost ritual character , and were valued mostly as a demonstration of the continuing jihad and sponsored by the Caliph as a symbol of his role as the leader of the Muslim community .

The outcome of the siege was of considerable macrohistorical importance . The Byzantine capital 's survival preserved the Empire as a bulwark against Islamic expansion into Europe until the 15th century , when it fell to the Ottoman Turks . Along with the Battle of Tours in 732 , the successful defence of Constantinople has been seen as instrumental in stopping Muslim expansion into Europe . As military historian Paul K. Davis wrote , " By turning back the Moslem invasion , Europe remained in Christian hands , and no serious Moslem threat to Europe existed until the fifteenth century . This victory , coincident with the Frankish victory at Tours ( 732 ) , limited Islam 's western expansion to the southern Mediterranean world . " Thus the historian John B. Bury called 718 " an ecumenical date " , while the Greek historian Spyridon Lambros likened the siege to the Battle of Marathon and Leo III to Miltiades . Consequently , military historians often include the siege in lists of the " decisive battles " of world history .

= = Cultural impact = =

Among Arabs , the 717 – 718 siege became the most famous of their expeditions against Byzantium . Several accounts survive , but most were composed at later dates and are semi @-@ fictional and contradictory . In legend , the defeat was transformed into a victory : Maslama departed only after symbolically entering the Byzantine capital on his horse accompanied by thirty riders , where Leo received him with honour and led him to the Hagia Sophia . After Leo paid homage to Maslama and promised tribute , Maslama and his troops — 30 @,@ 000 out of the original 80 @,@ 000 that set out for Constantinople — departed for Syria . The tales of the siege influenced similar episodes in Arabic epic literature . A siege of Constantinople is found in the tale of Omar bin al @-@ Nu 'uman and his sons in the Thousand and One Nights , while both Maslama and the Caliph Sulayman appear in a tale of the Hundred and One Nights from the Maghreb . The commander of Maslama 's bodyguard , Abdallah al @-@ Battal , became a celebrated figure in Arab and Turkish poetry as " Battal Gazi " for his exploits in the Arab raids of the next decades . Similarly , the 10th @-@ century epic Delhemma , related to the cycle around Battal , gives a fictionalized version of the 717 – 718 siege .

Later Muslim and Byzantine tradition also ascribed the building of Constantinople 's first mosque , near the city 's praetorium , to Maslama . In reality , the mosque near the praetorium was probably erected in about 860 , as a result of an Arab embassy in that year . Ottoman tradition also ascribed the building of the Arap Mosque ( located outside Constantinople proper in Galata ) to Maslama , although it erroneously dated this to around 686 , probably confusing Maslama 's attack with the first Arab siege in the 670s . The passing of the Arab army also left traces at Abydos , where " Maslama 's Well " and a mosque attributed to him were still known in the 10th century .

Eventually , following their repeated failures before Constantinople , and the continued resilience of the Byzantine state , the Muslims began to project the fall of Constantinople to the distant future . Thus the city 's fall came to be regarded as one of the signs of the arrival of the end times in Islamic eschatology . The siege became a motif in Byzantine apocalyptic literature as well , with decisive final battles against the Arabs before the walls of Constantinople being featured in the early 8th @-@ century Greek translation of the Syriac Apocalypse of Pseudo @-@ Methodius and the Apocalypse of Daniel , written either at about the time of the siege or a century later .

= Denmark Street =

Denmark Street is a street on the edge of London 's West End running from Charing Cross Road to St Giles . It is near St Giles in the Fields Church and Tottenham Court Road station . The street was developed in the late 17th century and named after Prince George of Denmark . Since the 1950s it has been associated with British popular music , first via publishers and later by recording studios and music shops . A blue plaque was unveiled in 2014 commemorating the street 's importance to the music industry .

The street was originally residential , but became used for commercial purposes in the 19th century . At first , metalwork was a popular trade but it became most famous as Britain 's " Tin Pan Alley " housing numerous music publishers ' offices . This market declined in the 1960s to be replaced by music shops and independent recording studios . The Rolling Stones recorded at Regent Sound Studio at No. 4 and popular musicians often socialised around the Gioconda café at No. 9 , including David Bowie and the Small Faces . Elton John and Bernie Taupin wrote songs at offices on the street through the 1960s , while the Sex Pistols lived above No. 6 , and recorded their first demos there . The comic book store , Forbidden Planet and the Helter Skelter music bookshop have also been based on the street . In the 2010s , the surrounding area was redeveloped . Parts of Denmark Street are listed to protect them , but other parts , away from the street itself , are planned to be demolished .

= = Location = =

Denmark Street is located at the southern end of the London Borough of Camden , close to its boundary with the London Borough of Westminster . It is east of Soho Square , south of St Giles Circus and close to the St Giles in the Fields Church .

The street is 108 metres ( 354 ft ) long and connects Charing Cross Road with St Giles High Street . Vehicular traffic is now only allowed to travel westbound . The nearest London Underground station is Tottenham Court Road , between two and three minutes ' walk away .

= = History = =

= = = Early history = = =

The land on which Denmark Street lies was formerly part of the grounds for St Giles Hospital , founded as a house for lepers in the early 12th century by Henry I 's wife , Matilda ( Maud ) . In 1612 , it was recorded as being owned by Tristram Gibbs . The grounds were laid out for development during the reign of James II and developed by Samuel Fortrey and Jacques Wiseman in the late 1680s . Historical evidence suggests the street was formed between 1682 and 1687 , as it was not shown on Morden and Lea 's Map of 1682 . It was named after Prince George of Denmark , who had married Princess Anne in 1683 . By 1691 , 20 houses had been completed , of which eight remain standing .

Dr John Purcell , a London physician who published A Treatise on Vapours or Hysteric Fits , lived at number 10 in 1730 , while the Reverend Doctor John James Majendie – who became Canon of Windsor – lived there from 1758 to 1771 . The painter Johann Zoffany lived at number 9 . In the late 18th century , the Jacobite Sir John Murray , lived there until the day he was " carried off by a party of strange men " .

The area around the street was known as the rookery of St Giles , which developed in the 18th century as an unplanned slum to the west of the City , and described as a " Pandora 's box of pollution , plague and pestilence " . Though much of the area was cleared by the end of the 19th century , Denmark Street is the only street in London to retain 17th century terraced facades on both sides . In 2010 , a study by Camden London Borough Council suggested that only six other streets in London have a comparable heritage to Denmark Street . A small court connected by passages ( originally known as Dudley Court , then Denmark Court and now known as Denmark Place ) runs along the back of the north side of the street , connecting to it via an opening at No. 27 .

The street started being used for commercial purposes at the beginning of the 19th century and houses were converted for this use . Ground floors became used as shops , while upper floors and back rooms were used as workshops , particularly for metalwork . Augustus Siebe , the pioneer of the diving helmet , lived and worked on the street , and today there is an English Heritage blue plaque commemorating him on the house where he lived .

In the 1930s , several Japanese businesses were established in the street , which became known as " Little Tokyo " . Azakami and Co. at No. 6 sold books , newspapers , televisions and radios . The Tokiwa restaurant and hotel were based at No. 8 and No. 22 respectively having moved from Charing Cross Road in 1927 . Other businesses included a hairdresser , jewellers , tailor and gift shop .

= = = Tin Pan Alley = = =

= = = = 1920s – 50s = = = =

Lawrence Wright was the first music publisher to set up premises on Denmark Street in 1911 . He was initially based at No. 8 and moved to No. 11 after World War I. He subsequently founded the musicians ' journal Melody Maker in 1926 . The same year , another music publisher , Campbell Connelly , moved from their original offices in Tottenham Court Road to Denmark Street . The New Musical Express was founded at No. 5 in 1952 and remained there until 1964 . By the end of the 1950s , the street had established itself as Britain 's " Tin Pan Alley " and housed numerous music publishers and other venues connected with the business .

Larry Parnes became a successful manager and entrepreneur of pop singers during the mid @-@ 1950s , and regularly took material from songwriters and publishers based in Denmark Street . Lionel Bart , writer of the musical Oliver ! , started his writing career for publishers and was subsequently known as " the king of Denmark Street " .

= = = = 1960s = = = =

The music publishing trade on Denmark Street began to decline during the 1960s , as the traditional producers lost touch with changing tastes and groups like the Rolling Stones showed it was possible to write their own material . For example , Paul Simon was based in London at this time but Mills Music at number 20 , told him that his songs " Homeward Bound " and " The Sound of Silence " were uncommercial .

Recording studios began to be operated in the street . Regent Sound Studio at No. 4 was founded in July 1961 to serve as a unit for publishers to record their songs . The studio was based above the offices of Essex Music and was frequently used by then Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham . The band recorded their first album at Regent in 1964 and the single " Not Fade Away " became their first major hit to be recorded there . Oldham liked the atmosphere in the studio as he could " stretch out a bit , experiment and learn from our mistakes " . The studios eventually expanded and moved into new premises on Tottenham Court Road , while the Denmark Street premises became the sales office . They were subsequently bought by Eddie Kassner at the end of the 1960s . Publishers Box & Cox had their offices at number 7 . Their greatest hit was " I 've Got a Lovely Bunch of Coconuts " . Southern Music , at No. 8 , also had a studio in the ground floor , which was used to record Donovan 's hit , " Catch The Wind " .

The Carter & Lewis songwriting partnership evolved when John Carter and Ken Lewis arrived in London in 1959 and decided " if you want to be in the music business , that [ Denmark Street ] was the place to be , that was the rule " . Session musicians such as Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones regularly played in Denmark Street studios . In 1964 , The Kinks with Page on guitar and Jon Lord ( later to form Deep Purple ) on piano , recorded " You Really Got Me " in one of the basement studios .

Musicians often socialised around the Gioconda café at No. 9 . David Bowie recruited his first backing band , The Lower Third , in the bar , while the Small Faces formed after the original members socialised around the Gioconda . Other regular patrons included David Bowie and Jimi Hendrix . In April 2014 , a number of music industry figures , including disc jockey Mike Read , unveiled a blue plaque above the premises that included a QR Code to access a multimedia presentation about the history of music .

= = = = 1970s = = = =

In 1970 Bernie Taupin and Elton John wrote " Your Song " , John 's first hit single , at No. 20 Denmark Street . John had started work at a music publisher in the street in 1963 , and Taupin wrote the lyrics while sitting on the roof ( " I sat on the roof and kicked off the moss " ) while waiting for John one morning . They mentioned the street in their 1974 song " Bitter Fingers " , on the semi @-@ autobiographical concept album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy . Also in 1970 , a song named " Denmark Street " appeared on the Kinks ' album Lola versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One .

Manager Malcolm McLaren asked architect Ben Kelly to refurbish a basement rehearsal room he had bought from Badfinger . The Sex Pistols rehearsed in this room , lived above No. 6 , and recorded their first demos there . Johnny Rotten drew cartoons of the members as graffiti which turned up later in an archaeological survey of the site . Scott Gorham bought his first guitar with Thin Lizzy on Denmark Street . He had turned up at the audition with a Japanese Les Paul Copy — when he got the job , Phil Lynott took him shopping on Denmark Street . After being told several guitars were too expensive , he settled on a Sunburst Gibson Les Paul Deluxe . Andy 's Guitars was established in 1978 at No. 27 and survived for many years before closing in 2007 because of increased shop rates .

The comic and science @-@ fiction bookshop , Forbidden Planet started at number 23 in 1978 before moving to New Oxford Street and becoming an international chain . When Douglas Adams attempted to attend a signing for the first The Hitch @-@ Hiker 's Guide to the Galaxy book in October 1979 , the queue to the shop was so long that Adams thought a demonstration was taking place elsewhere .

= = = = 1980s – present = = = =

By 1980 , there were a number of unlicensed nightclubs operating on Denmark Place , running adjacent to the street . The clubs were housed in buildings that had previously functioned as a hostel for musicians , which adjoined a music shop on the street , and the fire brigade had insisted that a fire escape be fitted . By the time the clubs were in operation , the shop had closed and the fire escape had fallen into disrepair . 18 Denmark Place was home to two such clubs ; on the first floor was " Rodo 's " , a salsa club popular with South American immigrants and above that " The Spanish Rooms " on the second floor which was a late night bar frequented by locals including Irish and Jamaican immigrants . On 14 August 1980 John Thompson , a local petty criminal , was ejected from The Spanish Rooms following a fight which may have been caused by a dispute about being overcharged . Thompson returned shortly thereafter and poured petrol into the ground floor of the building and ignited it . The inferno resulting from this act of arson killed 37 people from eight different nationalities and was described as the worst fire in London in terms of loss of life since World War II . Thompson was imprisoned having been convicted of murder and died in prison in 2008 on the anniversary of the tragedy .

Numbers 1 – 3 had become a Job Centre by the 1980s , specialising in vacancies for the catering industry . The serial killer Dennis Nilsen worked there and brought in a large cooking pot , in which he had boiled his victims heads , as a utensil for preparing a Christmas 1980 party .

The last major music publisher in the street , Peer Music , moved from No. 8 in 1992 , completing the gradual transformation of premises from publishers to instrument stores . In May 1990 , Andy Preston , owner of Andy 's Guitars , set up a traders association and attempted to have the street re @-@ branded as " Music Land " , similar to Drury Lane being marked Theatreland and Gerrard Street as Chinatown . Helter Skelter was set up as a bookshop dedicated to music titles in 1995 by Sean Body . The shop operated at the old Essex Music and Regent Sound building at No. 4 until rising rents forced it to close in 2004 .

= = Redevelopment = =

In 2009 , Denmark Street was identified in English Heritage 's " Heritage at Risk " register as being at risk in view of the nearby development of Crossrail . Particular attention was drawn to No. 26 , which is a Grade II listed building . In 2010 , Camden London Borough Council identified the street and adjacent properties as a Conservation Area .

In 2013 , the council announced that Denmark Street would be redeveloped by the architectural firm ORMS as part of a major development in conjunction with the Crossrail construction work around Tottenham Court Road tube station and Centre Point . The proposed development includes the construction of an 800 @-@ seat subterranean performance venue . Numbers 1 – 6 and 17 – 21 Denmark Place , which run parallel along the back of the street , and the York and Clifton Mansions will be demolished , along with partial demolition of No. 21 Denmark Street .

The scheme has been condemned by the local music industry and shopkeepers . Writer Henry Scott @-@ Irvine launched a petition to stop the planned redevelopment , which has gathered 10 @,@ 000 signatures . In an interview to Mojo , Scott @-@ Irvine said " This should be stopped " , adding that Denmark Street " should be given full heritage status like Covent Garden Market , Hatton Garden and Savile Row " . He discovered that , although demolition was scheduled to start in late 2014 , the plans were approved by the newly elected borough council . Consolidated Developments , developers for the new site , stated they were " committed to preserving and enhancing the rich musical heritage of Tin Pan Alley " .

In January 2015 , following the closure of the 12 Bar Club and clearance of Enterprise Studios on Denmark Place , a group of musicians and supporters squatted in the club 's premises and staged a demonstration in the street , protesting against redevelopment . Former Oasis manager and head of Creation Records , Alan McGee supported the protestors , saying " you really couldn ’ t say a bad word against any of them . And they know the law , so they can 't just be thrown out of there . " However , a report in the Independent judged the protest to be misguided , as most shops along the street are still trading .

= = Current occupants = =

On the corner of the street with Charing Cross Road is Chris Bryant 's Musical Instruments . Denmark Street Guitars claims to have over 3 @,@ 000 instruments in stock and to have the largest selection of guitars in the UK . Regent Sounds , formerly the recording studio , which specialises in Fender and Gretsch guitars and Essex Music at No. 4 ; the Alleycat Bar and Club sits in the basement below the store . No.Tom Vintage and Classic Guitars has a store at No. 6 . Macaris , a guitar retailer , was established in 1958 and specialises in Gibson models . As well as their shop at No. 25 , they have an additional shop nearby on Charing Cross Road .

The sheet music shop Argents is currently based at No. 19 . It was founded by The Zombies ' Rod Argent as a keyboard shop and was previously based next door , at No. 20 . Since then it has undergone two changes of owners and now specialises in sheet music and DVD sales , covering a wide variety of styles including jazz and classical .

Rose Morris have been established in Denmark Street since 1919 . Originally based at No. 11 , they now occupy No. 10 in the former offices of Southern Music Publishing . The company became the first British distributor of Rickenbacker guitars in 1962 , which had a surge in popularity after musicians noticed the Beatles ' John Lennon playing one . Rose Morris purchased instruments directly from Rickenbacker 's factory instead of their sales office , in order to keep up with demand . The British models carry unique serial numbers such as the 325 , the Rose Morris 1996 . The Early Music Shop 's London branch is based on the first floor of number 11 , above Rose Morris . The shop contains early music instruments including recorders and sheet music .

There has been a recording studio in the basement of No. 22 since Tin Pan Alley Studios was established in 1954 . It was originally founded by session violinist Ralph Elman , and was previously the premises of the Acid Jazz Records label . In 2013 , producer Guy Katsav took over management of the premises , renaming them Denmark Street Studios .

The 12 Bar Club was at No. 26 , a small live music venue with a capacity of about 100 people which was established in 1994 . The building was originally stables , built in 1635 , before becoming a blacksmiths until after World War I. It closed in January 2015 as part of the redevelopment work .

= = Listed buildings = =

Denmark Street has eight Grade II listed buildings . Though the refurbishment plans allow modernisation of these buildings , the council are keen to ensure that the affected properties remain solely in use for the music industry . A report added , " Music industry activities make a fundamental contribution to the special character of Denmark Street and support associated retail provision . "

= Pokey Mom =

" Pokey Mom " is the tenth episode of the twelfth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 2001 . In the episode , Marge befriends Jack Crowley , a convict who she believes has some artistic potential . With Marge 's help , Jack is granted parole and finds a mural @-@ painting job at Springfield Elementary School . Meanwhile , Homer suffers from a back injury and goes to see a chiropractor . Despite this his pain remains and it is not until he accidentally falls backwards onto a garbage can that his back injury disappears . Homer makes a successful business out of this injury @-@ healing garbage can , much to the dismay of chiropractors in town .

The episode was written by Tom Martin and directed by Bob Anderson , and it features guest appearances from Michael Keaton as Jack , Charles Napier as a prison warden , Robert Schimmel as a prisoner , and Bruce Vilanch as himself . " Pokey Mom " has been met with generally negative reviews from critics , being described as bland and drawn out . The staff members of the series received complaints from chiropractors after it aired , and some chiropractors have characterized the portrayal of the profession in the episode as stereotypical . Around 8 @.@ 79 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing , and in 2009 it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the twelfth season .

= = Plot = =

The Simpson family attends a prison rodeo where Marge meets Jack Crowley , a convict whom she believes to have great artistic potential after becoming impressed with his work . She later teaches a class on being an artist to the prisoners and befriends Jack . With Marge 's help , Jack is granted parole under her custody . Marge soon finds a mural @-@ painting job at Springfield Elementary School for him . Jack paints a powerful , epic mural symbolizing school spirit with a warrior woman riding a puma , which the whole school likes , but Principal Skinner ( who hates it ) demands that he tone it down using Skinner 's own childish idea of kittens in a fantasy land . Jack reluctantly gives into Skinner 's wishes ; however , upon its unveiling , the new mural is panned by everyone in town ( even Ned Flanders ) . Skinner blames Jack and fires him .

Sometime later , the mural is set on fire by a mystery arsonist . There are no suspects ; however , everyone in the school immediately assumes that Jack did it to get back at Skinner . While the police are out searching for Jack , Marge stumbles upon him hiding in the school playground . He swears to her that he did not start the fire , and Marge believes him . She then distracts Skinner and Chief Wiggum so he can escape ; however , instead , he immediately sets fire to Skinner 's car as he did to the mural , and dances around it laughing maniacally . Jack is arrested , and Marge is furious that he looked her in the eye and flat @-@ out lied to her . When Jack attempts to lie to her again — claiming this time that although he did burn the mural , he did not burn Skinner 's car ( despite the fact that she had just seen him do it ) — she ends all her involvement with him , and on the way to jail , Jack and Wiggum make conversation .

Meanwhile , Homer begins suffering from a back injury and goes to see a chiropractor . However , he fails to follow the instructions given to him by the chiropractor and his suffering continues . Later , Homer accidentally falls backwards onto a round garbage can at home and discovers that it solved his back problems . He names the garbage can " Dr. Homer 's Miracle Spine @-@ o @-@ Cylinder " , and makes a business out of his discovery . It turns out to be a successful method of solving problems with pain , causing the chiropractic business to go in decline until the chiropractors in town denounce the method and destroy the garbage can at the Simpsons ' home .

= = Production = =

" Pokey Mom " was written by Tom Martin and directed by Bob Anderson as part of the twelfth season of The Simpsons ( 2000 – 2001 ) . According to then @-@ showrunner Mike Scully , the story of this episode originated from the fact that the staff members of The Simpsons wanted to do an episode about Marge but felt they did not want it to revolve around her getting a new job , as that had been seen on the show " too often " . They decided to explore one of Marge 's attributes that had been seen in earlier episodes , eventually choosing her interest in art . Martin conceived of the sub @-@ plot surrounding Homer following a visit to a chiropractor . He has said that the " heart " of that story is that the chiropractors in Springfield become opposed to Homer 's method of healing people and try to stop it after losing business , in reference to how chiropractors in real @-@ life " are a bit hated by the AMA ( American Medical Association ) " and how the AMA has tried to restrict their businesses in the past . Martin has also noted that the episode shows how " a lot of chiropractors are these great healers and they do great work , and then there 's some that are crooked . "

Several famous Americans made guest appearances in the episode . Actor Michael Keaton guest starred as Jack Crowley , while stand @-@ up comedian Robert Schimmel appeared as a prisoner in Marge 's art class that wants to smell her clothes . Actor Charles Napier voiced the prison warden that commentates the rodeo at the prison and later grants Jack his parole . Comedy writer and actor Bruce Vilanch guest starred in the episode as himself at the unveiling of Jack 's mural painting . There , Principal Skinner jokes to the audience that " when Superintendent Chalmers suggested a school mural , I almost thought he said a ' school Muriel ' , " referencing Chalmers ' sister Muriel . When no one laughs at his joke and the audience is dead silent , Skinner sarcastically says " Well , thank you , Bruce Vilanch , " to which Vilanch replies " Whoopi would 've made it work . " This is a reference to the fact that Vilanch has written comedy material for actress Whoopi Goldberg .

= = Release = =

The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 2001 . It was viewed in approximately 8 @.@ 79 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 6 , " Pokey Mom " tied with an episode of 60 Minutes for the 38th place in the ratings for the week of January 8 – 14 , 2001 . It was the third highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following episodes of Temptation Island and Boston Public . On August 18 , 2009 , " Pokey Mom " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Twelfth Season . Staff members Tom Martin , Bob Anderson , Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , John Frink , Don Payne , Matt Selman , and Joel H. Cohen , as well as cast members Dan Castellaneta and Joe Mantegna , participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set .

Critics have given " Pokey Mom " generally negative reviews . Nancy Basile of About.com said she " loathed " it . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that " Other than a nice guest turn from Michael Keaton , ' Mom ' doesn ’ t do much to stand out from the crowd . Oh , like much of Season 12 , it keeps us interested , but that ’ s not exactly a strong endorsement . ' Mom ' provides a watchable show but nothing more . " Den of Geek critic Matt Haigh wrote that the episode " starts well , but begins to feel tired and drawn out , and there just doesn 't seem to be much of a story there . "

Following the original broadcast of the episode , the staff members of the series received several complaints from chiropractors . The February 26 , 2001 issue of the magazine Dynamic Chiropractic featured an article about the episode that noted : " [ The Simpsons ] has poked fun at numerous people , and about every institution and profession imaginable . On January 17 , it was chiropractic 's turn . " In an article of the magazine Canadian Chiropractor , Steven R. Passmore ( D.C. , M.S. ) and Lorraine Kochanowski @-@ Sutter ( D.C. ) analyzed the portrayal of chiropractors in the media . They gave " Pokey Mom " as an example of how " chiropractors on sitcoms pok [ e ] fun at themselves as they prescribe the duration of a course of care . [ ... ] Dr. Steve on The Simpsons corroborates this stereotype when telling Homer that he will need to see him ' three times a week for many years . ' " Passmore and Kochanowski @-@ Sutter also noted that in the episode " we see a dreamcatcher on the wall behind Dr. Steve as he treats Homer . This strategically placed decoration could suggest that the chiropractor is in touch with native and / or natural healing , or it could be a jab at the field ’ s more esoteric practitioners . "

= History of Sesame Street =

The preschool educational television program Sesame Street was first aired on public broadcasting television stations November 10 , 1969 , and will reach its 46th season in 2016 . The history of Sesame Street has reflected changing attitudes to developmental psychology , early childhood education and cultural diversity . Featuring Jim Henson 's Muppets , animation , live shorts , humor and celebrity appearances , it was the first television program of its kind to base its content and production values on laboratory and formative research , and the first to include a curriculum " detailed or stated in terms of measurable outcomes " . Initial responses to the show included adulatory reviews , some controversy and high ratings . By its 40th anniversary in 2009 , Sesame Street was broadcast in over 120 countries , and 20 independent international versions had been produced .

The show was conceived in 1966 during discussions between television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and Carnegie Corporation vice president Lloyd Morrisett . Their goal was to create a children 's television show that would " master the addictive qualities of television and do something good with them " , such as helping young children prepare for school . After two years of research , the newly formed Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) received a combined grant of $ 8 million from the Carnegie Corporation , the Ford Foundation and the U.S. federal government to create and produce a new children 's television show .

By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily , and several studies showed it was having a positive educational impact . The cast and crew expanded during this time , including the hiring of women in the crew and additional minorities in the cast . In 1981 , the federal government withdrew its funding , so the CTW turned to other sources , such as its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing and foreign income . During the 1980s , Sesame Street 's curriculum expanded to include topics such as relationships , ethics and emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast and crew , most notably the death of Will Lee — who played Mr. Hooper — and the marriage of Luis and Maria .

In recent decades , Sesame Street has faced societal and economic challenges , including changes in the viewing habits of young children , more competition from other shows , the development of cable television and a drop in ratings . After the turn of the 21st century , the show made major structural adaptations , including changing its traditional magazine format to a narrative format . Because of the popularity of the Muppet Elmo , the show incorporated a popular segment known as " Elmo 's World " . Sesame Street has won eight Grammys and over a hundred Emmys in its history — more than any other children 's show .

= = Background = =

In the late 1960s , 97 % of all American households owned a television set , and preschool children watched an average of 27 hours of television per week ; programs created for them were widely criticized for being too violent and for reflecting commercial values . Producer Joan Ganz Cooney called children 's programming a " wasteland " , and she was not alone in her criticism . Many children 's television programs were produced by local stations , with little regard for educational goals , or cultural diversity and the use of children 's programming as an educational tool was " unproven " and " a revolutionary concept " .

According to children 's media experts Edward Palmer and Shalom M. Fisch , children 's television programs of the 1950s and 1960s duplicated " prior media forms " . For example , they tended to show simple shots of a camera 's @-@ eye view of a location filled with children , or they recreated storybooks with shots of book covers and motionless illustrated pages . The hosts of these programs were " insufferably condescending " , though one exception was Captain Kangaroo , created and hosted by Bob Keeshan , which author Michael Davis described as having a " slower pace and idealism " that most other children 's shows lacked .

Early childhood educational research had shown that when children were prepared to succeed in school , they earned higher grades and learned more effectively . Children from low @-@ income families had fewer resources than children from higher @-@ income families to prepare them for school . Research had shown that children from low @-@ income , minority backgrounds tested " substantially lower " than middle @-@ class children in school @-@ related skills , and that they continued to have educational deficits throughout school . The field of developmental psychology had grown during this period , and scientists were beginning to understand that changes in early childhood education could increase children 's cognitive growth . Because of these trends in education , along with the great societal changes occurring in the United States during this era , the time was ripe for the creation of a show like Sesame Street .

= = Pre @-@ production ( 1966 – 1969 ) = =

= = = Beginnings = = =

Since 1962 , Cooney had been producing talk shows and documentaries at educational television station WNDT , and in 1966 had won an Emmy for a documentary about poverty in America . In early 1966 , Cooney and her husband Tim hosted a dinner party at their apartment in New York ; experimental psychologist Lloyd Morrisett , who has been called Sesame Street 's " financial godfather " , and his wife Mary were among the guests . Cooney 's boss , Lewis Freedman , whom Cooney called " the grandfather of Sesame Street " , also attended the party , as did their colleague Anne Bower . As a vice @-@ president at the Carnegie Corporation , Morrisett had awarded several million dollars in grants to organizations that educated poor and minority preschool children . Morrisett and the other guests felt that even with limited resources , television could be an effective way to reach millions of children .

A few days after the dinner party , Cooney , Freedman and Morrisett met at the Carnegie Corporation 's offices to make plans ; they wanted to harness the addictive power of television for their own purposes , but did not yet know how . The following summer , despite Cooney 's lack of experience in the field of education , Morrisett hired her to conduct research on childhood development , education and media , and she visited experts in these fields across the United States and Canada . She researched their ideas about the viewing habits of young children and wrote a report on her findings .

Cooney 's study , titled " Television for Preschool Education " , spelled out how television could be used to help young children , especially from low @-@ income families , prepare for school . The focus on the new show was on children from disadvantaged backgrounds , but Cooney and the show 's creators recognized that in order to achieve the kind of success they wanted , it had to be equally accessible to children of all socio @-@ economic and ethnic backgrounds . At the same time , they wanted to make the show so appealing to inner @-@ city children that it would help them learn as much as children with more educational opportunities . This was the show 's primary criterion for success .

Cooney proposed that public television , even though it had a poor track record in attracting inner @-@ city audiences , could be used to improve the quality of children 's programming . She suggested using the television medium 's " most engaging traits " , including high production values , sophisticated writing , and quality film and animation , to reach the largest audience possible . In the words of critic Peter Hellman , " If [ children ] could recite Budweiser jingles from TV , why not give them a program that would teach the ABCs and simple number concepts ? " Cooney wanted to create a program that would spread values favoring education to nonviewers — including their parents and older siblings , who tended to control the television set . To this end , she suggested that humor directed toward adults be included , which , as Lesser reported , " may turn out to be a pretty good system in forcing the young child to stretch to understand programs designed for older audiences " . Cooney also believed cultural references and guest appearances by celebrities would encourage parents and older siblings to watch the show together .

= = = Development = = =

As a result of Cooney 's proposal , the Carnegie Corporation awarded her a $ 1 million grant in 1968 to establish the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) to provide support to the creative staff of the new show . Morrisett , who was responsible for fundraising , procured additional grants from the United States federal government , the Corporation for Public Broadcasting , and the Ford Foundation for the CTW 's initial budget , which totaled $ 8 million ; obtaining funding from this combination of government agencies and private foundations protected the CTW from economic pressures experienced by commercial networks . Sesame Street was an expensive program to produce because the creators decided they needed to compete with other programs that invested in professional , high quality production .

The producers spent eighteen months preparing the new show , something unprecedented in children 's television . The show had an " impressive " budget of $ 28 @,@ 000 per episode . After being named executive director of the CTW , Cooney began to assemble a team of producers : Jon Stone was responsible for writing , casting , and format ; David Connell took over animation and volume ; and Samuel Gibbon served as the show 's chief liaison between the production staff and the research team . Stone , Connell , and Gibbon had worked on Captain Kangaroo together , but were not involved in children 's television when Cooney recruited them . At first , Cooney planned to divide the show 's production of five episodes a week among several teams , but she was advised by CBS vice @-@ president Mike Dann to use only one . This production team was led by Connell , who had gained experience producing many episodes in a short period of time , a process called " volume production " , during his eleven years working on Captain Kangaroo .

The CTW hired Harvard University professor Gerald S. Lesser to design the show 's educational objectives and establish and lead a National Board of Advisers . Instead of providing what Lesser called " window dressing " , the Board actively participated in the construction of educational goals and creative methods . At the Board 's direction , Lesser conducted five three @-@ day curriculum planning seminars in Boston and New York City in summer 1968 . The purpose of the seminars was to ascertain which school @-@ preparation skills to emphasize in the new show . The producers gathered professionals with diverse backgrounds to obtain ideas for educational content . They reported that the seminars were " widely successful " , and resulted in long and detailed lists of possible topics for inclusion in the Sesame Street curriculum ; in fact , the seminars produced more suggested educational objectives than could ever be addressed by one television series .

Instead of focusing on the social and emotional aspects of development , the producers decided to follow the suggestions of the seminar participants and emphasize cognitive skills , a decision they felt was warranted by the demands of school and the wishes of parents . The objectives developed during the seminars were condensed into key categories : symbolic representation , cognitive processes , and the physical and social environment . The seminars set forth the new show 's policy about race and social issues and provided the show 's production and creative team with " a crash course " in psychology , child development , and early childhood education . They also marked the beginning of Jim Henson 's involvement in Sesame Street . Cooney met Henson at one of the seminars ; Stone , who was familiar with Henson 's work , felt that if they could not bring him on board , they should " make do without puppets " .

The producers and writers decided to build the new show around a brownstone or an inner @-@ city street , a choice Davis called " unprecedented " . Stone was convinced that in order for inner @-@ city children to relate to Sesame Street , it needed to be set in a familiar place . Despite its urban setting , the producers decided to avoid depicting more negativity than what was already present in the child 's environment . Lesser commented , " [ despite ] all its raucousness and slapstick humor , Sesame Street became a sweet show , and its staff maintains that there is nothing wrong in that " .

The new show was called the " Preschool Educational Television Show " in promotional materials ; the producers were unable to agree on a name they liked and waited until the last minute to make a decision . In a short , irreverent promotional film shown to public television executives , the producers parodied their " naming dilemma " . The producers were reportedly " frantic for a title " ; they finally settled on the name that they least disliked : Sesame Street , inspired by Ali Baba 's magical phrase , although there were concerns that it would be too difficult for young children to pronounce . Stone was one of the producers who disliked the name , but , he said , " I was outvoted , for which I 'm deeply grateful " .

The responsibility of casting for Sesame Street fell to Jon Stone , who set out to form a cast where white actors were in the minority . He did not begin auditions until spring 1969 , several weeks before five test shows were due to be produced . He filmed the auditions , and Palmer took them into the field to test children 's reactions . The actors who received the " most enthusiastic thumbs up " were cast . For example , Loretta Long was chosen to play Susan when the children who saw her audition stood up and sang along with her rendition of " I 'm a Little Teapot " . Stone reported that casting was the only aspect that was " just completely haphazard " . Most of the cast and crew found jobs on Sesame Street through personal relationships with Stone and the other producers . Stone hired Bob McGrath ( an actor and singer best known at the time for his appearances on Mitch Miller 's sing @-@ along show on NBC ) to play Bob , Will Lee to play Mr. Hooper , and Garrett Saunders to play Gordon .

= = = Use of research in production = = =

Sesame Street was the first children 's television program that used a curriculum with clear and measurable outcomes , and was the first to use research in the creation of the show 's design and content . Research in Sesame Street had three functions : to test if the show was appealing to children , to discover what could be done to make the show more appealing , and to report to the public and the investors what impact the show had on its young viewers . Ten to fifteen percent of the show 's initial budget of $ 8 million was devoted to research , and researchers were always present in the studio during the show 's filming . A " Writer 's Notebook " was developed to assist writers and producers in translating the research and production goals into televised material ; this connected the show 's curriculum goals and its script development . The Muppet characters were created to fill specific curriculum needs : Oscar the Grouch , for example , was designed to teach children about their positive and negative emotions . Lesser called the collaboration between researchers and producers , as well as the idea of using television as an educational tool , the " CTW model " . Cooney agreed , commenting , " From the beginning , we — the planners of the project — designed the show as an experimental research project with educational advisers , researchers , and television producers collaborating as equal partners " .

The producers of Sesame Street believed education through television was possible if they captured and sustained children 's attention ; this meant the show needed a strong appeal . Edward Palmer , the CTW 's first Director of Research and the man Cooney credited with building the CTW 's foundation of research , was one of the few academics in the late 1960s researching children 's television . He was recruited by the CTW to test if the curricula developed in the Boston seminars were reaching their audience effectively . Palmer was also tasked with designing and executing the CTW 's in @-@ house research and with working with the Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) . His research was so crucial to Sesame Street that Gladwell asserted , " ... without Ed Palmer , the show would have never lasted through the first season " .

Palmer and his team 's approach to researching the show 's effectiveness was innovative ; it was the first time formative research was conducted in this way . For example , Palmer developed " the distractor " , which he used to test if the material shown on Sesame Street captured young viewers ' attention . Two children at a time were brought into the laboratory ; they were shown an episode on a television monitor and a slide show next to it . The slides would change every seven seconds , and researchers recorded when the children 's attention was diverted away from the episode . They were able to record almost every second of Sesame Street this way ; if the episode captured the children 's interest 80 – 90 % of the time , the producers would air it , but if it only tested 50 % , they would reshoot . By the fourth season of the show , the episodes rarely tested below 85 % .

= = = July 1969 test episodes = = =

During the production of Sesame Street 's first season , producers created five one @-@ hour episodes to test the show 's appeal to children and examine their comprehension of the material . Not intended for broadcast , they were presented to preschoolers in 60 homes throughout Philadelphia and in day care centers in New York City in July 1969 . The results were " generally very positive " ; children learned from the shows , their appeal was high , and their attention was sustained over the full hour . However , the researchers found that although children 's attention was high during the Muppet segments , their interest wavered during the " Street " segments , when no Muppets were on screen . This was because the producers had followed the advice of child psychologists who were concerned that children would be confused if human actors and Muppets were shown together . As a result of this decision , the appeal of the test episodes was lower than the target .

The Street scenes , as Palmer described them , were " the glue " that " pulled the show together " , so producers knew they needed to make significant changes . On the basis of their experience on Captain Kangaroo , Cannell , Stone , and Gibbon thought the experts ' opinions were " nonsense " ; Cooney agreed . Lesser called their decision to defy the recommendations of their advisers " a turning point in the history of Sesame Street " . The producers reshot the Street segments ; Henson and his coworkers created Muppets that could interact with the human actors , specifically Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird , who became two of the show 's most enduring characters . In addition , the producers found Saunders ' role as Gordon not to be as likable by children watching the show , resulting in the character being recast by Matt Robinson , who was initially the show 's filmed segments producer . These test episodes were directly responsible for what Gladwell called " the essence of Sesame Street — the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults " .

= = Premiere and first season ( 1969 – 1970 ) = =

Two days before the show 's premiere , a thirty @-@ minute preview entitled This Way to Sesame Street aired on NBC . The show was financed by a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from Xerox . Written by Stone and produced by CTW publicist Bob Hatch , it was taped the day before it aired . Newsday called the preview " a unique display of cooperation between commercial and noncommercial broadcasters " .

Sesame Street premièred November 10 , 1969 . It was widely praised for its originality , and was well received by parents as well as children . The show reached only 67 @.@ 6 % of the nation , but earned a 3 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating , meaning 1 @.@ 9 million households and 7 million children watched it each day . In Sesame Street 's first season , the ETS reported that children who watched the show scored higher in tests than less @-@ frequent viewers .

In November 1970 , the cover of Time magazine featured Big Bird , who had received more fan mail than any of the show 's human hosts . The magazine declared , " ... It is not only the best children 's show in TV history , it is one of the best parents ' shows as well " . David Frost , speaking about the versions of Sesame Street that were being produced in other countries , declared it was " a hit everywhere it goes " . An executive at ABC , while recognizing that Sesame Street was not perfect , said the show " opened children 's TV to taste and wit and substance " and " made the climate right for improvement " . Other reviewers predicted commercial television would be forced to improve its children 's programming , something that did not substantially occur until the 1990s . Sesame Street won a Peabody Award , three Emmys , and the Prix Jeunesse award in 1970 . President Richard Nixon sent Cooney a congratulatory letter , and Dr. Benjamin Spock predicted the program would result in " better @-@ trained citizens , fewer unemployables in the next generation , fewer people on welfare , and smaller jail populations " .

Sesame Street was not without its detractors ; there was little criticism of the show in the months following its premiere , but it increased at the end of its first season and beginning of the second season . In May 1970 , a state commission in Mississippi voted to not air the show on the state 's newly launched public television network . A member of the commission leaked the vote to The New York Times , stating that " Mississippi was not yet ready " for the show 's integrated cast . Cooney called the ban " a tragedy for both the white and black children of Mississippi " . The state commission reversed its decision after the vote made national news .

The producers of Sesame Street made a few changes in its second season . Segments that featured children became more spontaneous and allowed more impromptu dialogue , even when it meant cutting other segments . Since federal funds had been used to produce the show , more segments of the population insisted upon being represented on Sesame Street ; for example , the show was criticized by Hispanic groups for the lack of Latino characters in the early years of production . A committee of Hispanic activists , commissioned by the CTW in 1970 , called Sesame Street " racist " and said the show 's bilingual aspects were of " poor quality and patronizing " . The CTW responded to these critics by hiring Hispanic actors , production staff , and researchers . By the mid @-@ 70s , Morrow reported that " the show included Chicano and Puerto Rican cast members , films about Mexican holidays and foods , and cartoons that taught Spanish words " .

While New York Magazine reported criticism of the presence of strong single women in the show , organizations like the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) expressed concerns that the show needed to be " less male @-@ oriented " . For example , members of NOW took exception to the character Susan , who was originally a housewife . They complained about the lack of , as Morrow put it , " credible female Muppets " on the show ; Morrow reported that Henson 's response was that " women might not be strong enough to hold the puppets over the long hours of taping " . The show 's producers responded by making Susan a nurse and by hiring a female writer .

= = 1970s = =

By the mid @-@ 1970s , Sesame Street , according to Davis , had become " an American institution " . ETS conducted two " landmark " studies of the show in 1970 and 1971 which demonstrated Sesame Street had a positive educational impact on its viewers . The results of these studies led to the producers securing funding for the show over the next several years , and provided the CTW with additional ways to promote it . By the second season , Sesame Street had become so popular that the design of ETS ' experiments to track the show 's educational outcomes had to be changed : instead of comparing viewers with a control group of non @-@ viewers , the researchers studied the differences among levels of viewing . They found that children who watched Sesame Street more frequently had a higher comprehension of the material presented .

Producer Jon Stone was instrumental in guiding the show during these years . According to Davis , Stone " gave Sesame Street its soul " ; without him " there would not have been Sesame Street as we know it " . Frank Oz regarded Stone as " the father of Sesame Street " , and Cooney considered Stone " the key creative talent on Sesame Street and " probably the most brilliant writer of children 's material in America " . Stone was able to recognize and mentor talented people for his crew . He actively hired and promoted women during a time when few women earned top production jobs in television . His policies provided the show with a succession of female producers and writers , many of whom went on to lead the boom in children 's programming at Nickelodeon , the Disney Channel , and PBS in the 1990s and 2000s . One of these women was Dulcy Singer , who later became the first female executive producer of Sesame Street .

After the show 's initial success , its producers began to think about its survival beyond its development and first season and decided to explore other funding sources . The CTW decided to depend upon government agencies and private foundations to develop the show . This would protect it from the financial pressures experienced by commercial networks , but created problems in finding continued support . This era in the show 's history was marked by conflicts between the CTW and the federal government ; in 1978 , the US Department of Education refused to deliver a $ 2 million check until the last day of the CTW 's fiscal year . As a result , the CTW decided to depend upon licensing arrangements , publishing , and international sales for its funding . Henson owned the trademarks to the Muppet characters : he was reluctant to market them at first , but agreed when the CTW promised that the profits from toys , books , and other products were to be used exclusively to fund the CTW . The producers demanded complete control over all products and product decisions ; any product line associated with the show had to be educational , inexpensive , and not advertised during its airings . The CTW approached Random House to establish and manage a non @-@ broadcast materials division . Random House and the CTW named Christopher Cerf to assist the CTW in publishing books and other materials that emphasized the curriculum . In 1980 , the CTW began to produce a touring stage production based upon the show , written by Connell and performed by the Ice Follies .

Shortly after the premiere of Sesame Street , the CTW was approached by producers , educators , and officials in other nations , requesting that a version of the show be aired in their countries . Former CBS executive Mike Dann left commercial television to become vice @-@ president of the CTW and Cooney 's assistant ; Dann began what Charlotte Cole , vice president for the CTW 's International Research department , called the " globalization " of Sesame Street . A flexible model was developed , based upon the experiences of the creators and producers of the original show . The shows came to be called " co @-@ productions " , and they contained original sets , characters , and curriculum goals . Depending upon each country 's needs and resources , different versions were produced , including dubbed versions of the original show and independent programs . By 2009 , Sesame Street had expanded into 140 countries ; The New York Times reported in 2005 that income from the CTW 's international co @-@ productions of the show was $ 96 million .

Sesame Street 's cast expanded in the 1970s , better fulfilling the show 's original goal of greater diversity in both human and Muppet characters . The cast members who joined the show were Sonia Manzano ( Maria ) , who also wrote for the show , Northern Calloway ( David ) , Alaina Reed ( Olivia ) , Emilio Delgado ( Luis ) , Linda Bove ( Linda ) , and Buffy Sainte @-@ Marie ( Buffy ) . In 1975 , Roscoe Orman became the third actor to play Gordon , succeeding Hal Miller , who had briefly replaced Matt Robinson .

New Muppet characters were introduced during the 1970s . Count von Count was created and performed by Jerry Nelson , who also voiced Mr. Snuffleupagus , a large Muppet that required two puppeteers to operate . Richard Hunt , who , in Jon Stone 's words , joined the Muppets as a " wild @-@ eyed 18 @-@ year @-@ old and grew into a master puppeteer and inspired teacher " , created Gladys the Cow , Forgetful Jones , Don Music , and the construction worker Sully . Telly Monster was performed by Brian Muehl ; Marty Robinson took over the role in 1984 . Frank Oz created Cookie Monster . Matt Robinson created the " controversial " ( as Davis called him ) character Roosevelt Franklin . Fran Brill , the first female puppeteer for the Muppets , joined the Henson organization in 1970 , and originated the character Prairie Dawn . In 1975 , Henson created The Muppet Show , which was filmed and produced in London ; Henson brought many of the Muppet performers with him , so opportunities opened up for new performers and puppets to appear on Sesame Street .

The CTW wanted to attract the best composers and lyricists for Sesame Street , so songwriters like Joe Raposo , the show 's music director , and writer Jeff Moss were allowed to retain the rights to the songs they wrote . The writers earned lucrative profits , and the show was able to sustain public interest . Raposo 's " I Love Trash " , written for Oscar the Grouch , was included on the first album of Sesame Street songs , The Sesame Street Book & Record , recorded in 1970 . Moss ' " Rubber Duckie " , sung by Henson for Ernie , remained on the Top @-@ 40 Billboard charts for seven weeks that same year . Another Henson song , written by Raposo for Kermit the Frog in 1970 , " Bein ' Green " , which Davis called " Raposo 's best @-@ regarded song for Sesame Street " , was later recorded by Frank Sinatra and Ray Charles . " Sing " , which became a hit for The Carpenters in 1973 , and " Somebody Come and Play " , were also written by Raposo for Sesame Street .

In 1978 , Stone and Singer produced and wrote the show 's first special , the " triumphant " Christmas Eve on Sesame Street , which included an O Henry @-@ inspired storyline in which Bert and Ernie gave up their prized possessions — Ernie his rubber ducky and Bert his paper clip collection — to purchase each other Christmas gifts . Bert and Ernie were played by Frank Oz and Jim Henson , who in real life were , like the puppets they played , colleagues and friends . To Davis , this demonstrated the puppeteers ' remarkable ability to play " puppetry 's Odd Couple " . In Singer 's opinion , the special — which Stone also wrote and directed — demonstrated Stone 's " soul " , and Sonia Manzano called it a good example of what Sesame Street was all about . The special won Emmys for Stone and Singer in 1979 .

By the show 's tenth anniversary in 1979 , nine million American children under the age of six were watching Sesame Street daily . Four out of five children had watched it over a six @-@ week period , and 90 % of children from low @-@ income inner @-@ city homes regularly viewed the show .

= = 1980s = =

In 1984 , the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) deregulated commercial restrictions on children 's television . Advertising during network children 's programs almost doubled , and deregulation resulted in an increase in commercially oriented programming . Sesame Street was successful during this era of deregulation despite the fact that the United States government terminated all federal funding of the CTW in 1981 . By 1987 , the show was earning $ 42 million per year from its magazine division , book royalties , product licensing , and foreign income — enough to cover two @-@ thirds of its expenses . Its remaining budget , plus a $ 6 million surplus , was covered by revenue from its PBS broadcasts .

According to Davis , Sesame Street 's second decade was spent " turning inward , expanding its young viewers ' world " . The show 's curriculum grew to include more " affective " teaching — relationships , ethics , and positive and negative emotions . Many of the show 's storylines were taken from the experiences of its writing staff , cast , and crew . In 1982 , Will Lee , who had played Mr. Hooper since the show 's premiere , died . For the 1983 season , the show 's producers and research staff decided they would explain Mr. Hooper 's death to their preschool audience , instead of recasting the role : the writer of that episode , Norman Stiles , said , " We felt we owed something to a man we respected and loved " . They convened a group of psychologists , religious leaders , and other experts in the field of grief , loss , and separation . The research team conducted a series of studies before the episode to ascertain if children were able to understand the messages they wanted to convey about Mr. Hooper 's death ; the research showed most children did understand . Parents ' reactions to the episode were , according to the CTW 's own reports , " overwhelmingly positive " . The episode , which won an Emmy , aired on Thanksgiving Day in 1983 so parents could be home to discuss it with their children . Author David Borgenicht called the episode " poignant " ; Davis called it " a landmark broadcast " and " a truly memorable episode , one of the show 's best " . Caroll Spinney , who played Big Bird and who drew the caricatures prominently used in the episode , reported the cast and crew were moved to tears during filming .

In the mid @-@ 1980s , Americans were becoming more aware of the prevalence of child abuse , so Sesame Street 's researchers and producers decided to " reveal " Mr. Snuffleupagus in 1985 . " Snuffy " had never been seen by any of the adults on the show and was considered Big Bird 's " imaginary friend " . The show 's producers were concerned about the message being sent to children ; " If children saw that the adults didn 't believe what Big Bird said ( even though it was true ) , they would be afraid to talk to adults about dramatic or disturbing things that happened to them " .

For the 1988 and 1989 seasons , the topics of love , marriage , and childbirth were addressed when the show presented a storyline in which the characters Luis and Maria fall in love , marry , and have a child named Gabi . Sonia Manzano , the actress who played Maria , had married and become pregnant ; according to the book Sesame Street Unpaved , published after the show 's thirtieth anniversary in 1999 , Manzano 's real @-@ life experiences gave the show 's writers and producers the idea . Before writing began , research was done to gain an understanding of what previous studies had revealed about preschoolers ' understanding of love , marriage , and family . The show 's staff found that at the time that there was very little relevant research done about children 's understanding of these topics , and no books for children had been written about them . Studies done after the episodes about Maria 's pregnancy aired showed that as a result of watching these episodes , children 's understanding of pregnancy increased .

= = 1990s = =

Davis called the 1990s a " time of transition on Sesame Street " . Several people involved in the show from its beginnings died during this period : Jim Henson in 1990 at the age of 53 " from a runaway strep infection gone stubbornly , foolishly untreated " ; songwriter Joe Raposo from non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma fifteen months earlier ; long @-@ time cast member Northern Calloway of cardiac arrest in January 1990 ; puppeteer Richard Hunt of AIDS in early 1992 ; CTW founder and producer David Connell of bladder cancer in 1995 ; director Jon Stone of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in 1997 ; and writer Jeff Moss of colon cancer in 1998 .

By the early 1990s , Sesame Street was , as Davis put it , " the undisputed heavyweight champion of preschool television " . Entertainment Weekly reported in 1991 that the show 's music had been honored with eight Grammys . The show 's dominance , however , was soon challenged by another PBS television show for preschoolers , Barney & Friends , and Sesame Street 's ratings declined . The producers of Sesame Street responded , at the show 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary in 1993 , by expanding and redesigning the show 's set , calling it " Around the Corner " . New human and Muppet characters were introduced , including Zoe ( performed by Fran Brill ) , baby Natasha and her parents Ingrid and Humphrey , and Ruthie ( played by comedian Ruth Buzzi ) . The " Around the Corner " set was dismantled in 1997 . Zoe , one of the few characters that survived , was created to include another female Muppet on the show : her spunky and fearless personality was intended to break female stereotypes . According to Davis , she was the first character developed on the show by marketing and product development specialists , who worked with the researchers at the CTW . ( The quest for a " break @-@ out " female Muppet character continued into 2006 with the creation of Abby Cadabby , who was created after nine months of research . ) In 1998 , for the first time in the show 's history , Sesame Street pursued funding by accepting corporate sponsorship . Consumer advocate Ralph Nader , who had been a guest on the show , urged parents to protest the move by boycotting the show .

For Sesame Street 's 30th anniversary in 1999 , its producers researched the reasons for the show 's lower ratings . For the first time since the show debuted , the producers and a team of researchers analyzed Sesame Street 's content and structure during a series of two @-@ week @-@ long workshops . They also studied how children 's viewing habits had changed in the past thirty years . They found that although the show was produced for those between the ages of three and five , children began watching it at a younger age . Preschool television had become more competitive , and the CTW 's research showed the traditional magazine format was not the best way to attract young children 's attention . The growth of home videos during the ' 80s and the increase of thirty @-@ minute children 's shows on cable had demonstrated that children 's attention could be sustained for longer periods of time , but the CTW 's researchers found that their viewers , especially the younger ones , lost attention in Sesame Street after 40 to 45 minutes .

Beginning in 1998 , a new 15 @-@ minute segment shown at the end of each episode , " Elmo 's World " , used traditional elements ( animation , Muppets , music , and live @-@ action film ) , but had a more sustained narrative . " Elmo 's World " followed the same structure each episode , and depended heavily on repetition . Unlike the realism of the rest of the show , the segment took place in a stylized crayon @-@ drawing universe as conceived by its host . Elmo , who represented the three- to four @-@ year @-@ old child , was chosen as host of the closing segment because he had always tested well with this segment of their audience . He was created in 1980 and originally performed by Brian Muehl , and later Richard Hunt , but did not become what his eventual portrayer , Kevin Clash , called a " phenomenon " until Clash took over the role in 1985 . Eventually , Elmo became , as Davis reported , " the embodiment " of Sesame Street , and " the marketing wonder of our age " when five million " Tickle Me Elmo " dolls were sold in 1996 . Clash believed the " Tickle Me Elmo " phenomenon made Elmo a household name and led to the " Elmo 's World " segment . Michael Jeter was a favorite with younger audiences in his role as Mr. Noodle 's brother , Mister Noodle on Sesame Street from 1999 to 2003 .

= = 2000s and 2010s = =

In 2002 , Sesame Street 's producers went further in changing the show to reflect its younger demographic , fundamentally changing the show 's structure , which had relied on " Street scenes " interrupted by live @-@ action videos and animation . The target age for Sesame Street shifted downward , from four years to three years , after the show 's 33rd season . As co @-@ executive producer Arlene Sherman stated , " We basically deconstructed the show " . The producers expanded upon the " Elmo 's World " by changing from a magazine format to a narrative format , which made the show easier for young children to navigate . Sherman called the show 's new look " startlingly different " . Following its tradition of addressing emotionally difficult topics , Sesame Street 's producers chose to address the attacks of 9 / 11 during this season on its premiere episode , which aired February 4 , 2002 . This episode , as well as a series of four episodes that aired after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , were used in Sesame Workshop 's Community Outreach program .

In 2006 , the United States Department of State called Sesame Street " the most widely viewed children 's television show in the world " . Over half of the show 's international co @-@ productions were made after 2001 ; according to the 2006 documentary The World According to Sesame Street , the events of 9 / 11 inspired the producers of these co @-@ productions . In 2003 , Takalani Sesame , a South African co @-@ production , elicited criticism in the United States when its producers created Kami , the first HIV @-@ positive Muppet , whose purpose was educating children in South Africa about the epidemic of AIDS . The controversy , which surprised the Sesame Workshop , was short @-@ lived and died down after Kofi Annan and Jerry Falwell praised the Workshop 's efforts . By 2006 , Sesame Street had won more Emmy Awards than any other children 's show , including winning the outstanding children 's series award for twelve consecutive years — every year the Emmys included the category . By 2009 , the show had won 118 Emmys throughout its history , and was awarded the Outstanding Achievement Emmy for its 40 years on the air .

By Sesame Street 's 40th anniversary , it was ranked the fifteenth most popular children 's show on television . When the show premiered in 1969 , 130 episodes a year were produced ; in 2009 , because of rising costs , twenty @-@ six episodes were made . In 2009 , the Children 's Television Workshop , which had changed its name to the Sesame Workshop ( SW ) in June 2000 to better reflect its entry into non @-@ television and interactive media , launched a website with a library of free video clips and free podcasts from throughout the show 's history . The 2008 – 2009 recession , which led to budget cuts for many nonprofit arts organizations , severely affected Sesame Street ; in spring 2009 , the SW had to lay off 20 % of its staff .

Sesame Street 's 40th anniversary was commemorated by the 2008 publication of Street Gang : The Complete History of Sesame Street , by Michael Davis , which has been called " the definitive statement " about the history of the show .

Starting in 2009 , the producers of Sesame Street took steps to bring back older viewers ; it was also successful in increasing its audience viewership among 3 @-@ to @-@ 5 year @-@ olds by the end of the 40th season . In 2012 , the show 's 43rd season , Elmo 's World was replaced with Elmo the Musical , which was targeted at the program 's older viewers . Subsequently in September 2014 , starting with the show 's 45th season , Sesame Workshop began distributing a half @-@ hour version of the program to PBS member stations . The new version , which complemented the existing hour @-@ long broadcast and focuses more on interstitial segments ( although certain segments such as Elmo the Musical or Abby 's Flying Fairy School are omitted from that version ) , was added because of increasing mobile and online viewing among children as well as growing competition for preschoolers on linear and online television , an increase in use of PBS Kids ' mobile video app during 2013 and decreasing broadcast viewership ; the half @-@ hour version airs weekday afternoons on PBS member television stations ( with the hour @-@ long version continuing to air in the morning ) and was made available for streaming online and on mobile devices through PBS ' website , mobile app and Roku channel .

On August 13 , 2015 , as part of a five @-@ year programming and development deal , Sesame Workshop announced that first @-@ run episodes of Sesame Street would move to premium television service HBO ( which had not aired any original children 's programming since 2005 ) in late 2015 . Sesame Workshop sought the deal because of declining revenue from viewer donations , and decreases in distribution fees paid by PBS member stations and licensing for merchandise sales ( particularly through Sesame Workshop 's dependence upon revenue from DVD sales ) , with the intent to having the show remain on PBS in some fashion ( HBO already had involvement in public television at the time of the deal , providing funding for the talk show Charlie Rose ) ; the deal also came in the wake of changing viewer habits of American children over the previous ten years . HBO will hold first @-@ run rights to all newer episodes of the series starting with season 46 , after which they will air on PBS member stations following a nine @-@ month exclusivity window , with no charge to the stations for airing the content ; however , HBO has not announced whether first @-@ run episodes will air on the pay service 's main channel or its multiplex channel HBO Family . The agreement also gives HBO exclusive rights to stream past and future Sesame Street episodes on HBO Go and HBO Now – assuming those rights from Amazon Video and Netflix . On August 14 , Sesame Workshop announced that it would phase out its in @-@ house subscription streaming service , Sesame Go , as a standalone service ; instead of shutting it down entirely , it intends to scale back its offerings to either provide access to a reduced slate of free content or act as a portal for Sesame Street 's website .

= Hands All Over ( Maroon 5 song ) =

" Hands All Over " is a song recorded by American band Maroon 5 , for their 2010 third studio album of the same name . It was written by Adam Levine , Jesse Carmichael , Sam Farrar , while the production was done by Robert John " Mutt " Lange . A funk metal and rock song , " Hands All Over " features an instrumentation consisting of electronic tones , drums , guitar , piano and percussion accompanied with heavy backing vocals ; lyrically , the song speaks of sexiness .

The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with some of them calling it the best track on the album . It received comparison to the works of Prince , Nine Inch Nails and most notably to English band Def Leppard . Upon the release of the album , " Hands All Over " debuted on national charts in South Korea and Spain ; it peaked at number 20 on the Gaon Chart and 38 on the Spanish Singles Chart , respectively . A music video for the song was shot by Don Tyler was released on December 24 , 2010 . It features a nude animated woman flirting and dancing for the band members .

= = Background and production = =

Maroon 5 began writing material for their third studio album , Hands All Over , after completion of a world tour that was launched in support of their 2007 studio album It Won 't Be Soon Before Long . Months later , the band received a phone call from Robert John " Mutt " Lange , who had heard that the band were beginning to write a new album , and expressed an interest in producing it . In a press release on their official website , the album is described as " a killer hybrid of rock , pop , funk and R & B. " The band 's frontman Adam Levine described Mutt as one of the most successful producers who have ever lived . Jesse Carmichael , the band ’ s keyboardist , said , " Mutt really helped us play to the best of our ability . And it drove us to be bigger and better than ever . " Hands All Over was released on September 21 , 2010 in the United States . It received generally favorable reviews from music critics and debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 .

The album 's title track was written by Levine , Jesse Carmichael and Sam Farrar , while the production was done by Mutt . The additional production , engineering and programming was provided by Farrar and Noah " Mailbox " Passovoy . The song was recorded at Mutt 's studio in Vevey ( Lake Geneva ) , Switzerland by Olle Romo who also provided the Pro @-@ Tools . Mike Shipley did the additional recording and also mixed " Hands All Over " . Additional engineering of the song was done by Isha Erskine , while Eric Rose and Chad Hugo did the additional programming . Scott Cooke and Lenny Castro played the percussion . Brad Blackwood from Euphonic Masters was the mastering engineer .

= = Composition = =

" Hands All Over " is a funk metal and rock song with a length of three minutes and thirteen seconds ( 3 : 13 ) . It has an instrumentation consisting of drums , guitar , piano and percussion . Bill Lamb of About.com wrote for the song , " crunchy guitars and a rock star sway animate the title song " . Contactmusic 's Nima Baniamer stated that " Hands All Over " , follows a trend consisting of heavy percussions and more heavier backing vocals . Melinda Newman of HitFix wrote that the song " is a heavy thump of a song that sounds pure Lange with a big kick drum propelling it forward . " In a review of the album , Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that the track contains a " rude guitar sleaze " , while according to Ben Czajkowski of 411mania " Hands all Over " borders on anthemic rock with a biting guitar technique " .

Written in the key of C minor , the song is placed in common time , with a moderate funk tempo . " Hands " All Over " starts with dark and shadowed electronic undertones before " sudden " bursts of electronic guitars start playing before transitioning into a " rock @-@ studded " production . The track also contains a lot of electronic guitar solo 's in the chorus and the verses , in the verses and the bridges and so forth . According to a reviewer of Billboard , at some points during the duration of the song , the guitars " just bleed " throughout the verses . " Put your hands all over me " , " Levine bellows over burly power chords " according to Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone . Thomas Conner of Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that , lyrically , " Hands All Over " together with " Never Gonna Leave This Bed " speak of sexiness .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical = = =

The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jakob Dorof of Slant Magazine wrote that " Hands All Over " is " the one real gamble " ; despite the fact that it tries to hard to find a missing connection between the works of Prince , Queen and Nine Inch Nails , " it 's certainly one of the more interesting things the band has ever recorded . " Similarly , McAlpine of BBC Music wrote that on songs like " Hands All Over " and " Stutter " , the Maroon 5 shows a band " who are really at their best when they play pop music like the sleazy rockers they clearly are . " Contactmusic 's Banimaer stated that although the track is a little repetitive , it shows what kind of band Maroon 5 wants to be .

Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that it is a " big , silly arena @-@ rock song reminiscent of Def Leppard " . She further noted , " but Maroon 5 are too meticulous , a little too uptight , to make good on the song 's party @-@ hearty promise . Levine and crew could be blue @-@ eyed @-@ soul godheads , the 21st @-@ century Hall and Oates . But they need to loosen up first . " Leah Greenblat of Entertainment Weekly also spotted the Def Leppard influence on " Hands All Over " . Writing for the Bay of Plenty Times , Tamlyn Stewart said that the song is sexy and funky and is similar to the band 's works on their second studio album It Won 't Be Soon Before Long ( 2007 ) . Billboard 's reviewer labeled " Hands All Over " the best track among others including " Give a Little More " , " Misery " and " Out of Goodbyes " .

= = = Commercial = = =

Upon the release of Hands All Over , due to the strong digital downloads , " Hands All Over " appeared on the national charts in South Korea and Spain . The song debuted and peaked at number 20 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart . On the Spanish Singles Chart , " Hands All Over " peaked at number 38 and stayed on the chart for one week .

= = Music video = =

A music video for the song was released on December 24 , 2010 . It was directed by Don Tyler , who previously worked on videos for the bands A Day to Remember and Flyleaf . It was digitally released on June 14 , 2011 via iTunes Store and the same day was also uploaded on the band 's Vevo channel on YouTube . Shot in an animated technique , the video starts with an animated version of lead singer Levine singing on a microphone while hands are behind his back touching his body . As the video progresses , a nude animated woman is shown dancing around him and flirting with the other members of the band . Several animation effects such as angel wings and devil elements are shown behind Levine as he is singing , while the woman is also dancing for the other members . The video finishes with a close shot of Levine 's face .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Hands All Over , A & M / Octone Records .

= = Charts = =

= Glassheart Tour =

The Glassheart Tour was the second headlining concert tour by British recording artist Leona Lewis . It was launched in support of her third studio album , Glassheart ( 2012 ) . Announced on 8 October 2012 , with an initial run of sixteen dates in the United Kingdom , the Glassheart Tour was extended to include five dates in Germany and one in Switzerland . English singer @-@ songwriter Ryan Keen served as the support act . It marks the first time that Lewis has performed material in Europe as part of a headline tour ; her previous tour The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) , only visited the UK .

Lewis was inspired by American hip hop artist and music producer Kanye West 's style of performance and noted British playwright William Shakespeare as inspiration for the tour . Lewis performed the set list with her band which consisted mostly of a string quartet and acoustic song arrangements . It was the acoustic performances and Lewis ' vocals that garnered the most praise from critics ; however , there was a mixed reaction to some of the arrangements such as the reggae influences on " Better in Time " . Critics were also divided over the lack of diversity from previous live performances though Lewis ' stage presence was commended .

= = Background and development = =

Lewis released her third studio album Glassheart on 12 October 2012 , almost a year after the original release date of November 2011 . The album had been conceptualised in July 2010 , following Lewis ' completion of her first tour , The Labyrinth . The album title Glassheart was inspired from a conversation that Lewis had with Ryan Tedder . During the conversation , Tedder asked Lewis about her past experiences with love and life in general . Lewis ' response led him to the word " Glassheart . " During an interview with Clyde 1 radio , Lewis said " Glassheart represents protecting your heart , yourself and protecting your emotions , its very poignant " . On 8 October 2012 , a week before the album 's UK release , Lewis announced her supporting tour of the same name . The tour is named after the album , and although Lewis said she is not American hip hop artist and music producer Kanye West 's " biggest fan " , she was inspired by his tour performances where he appeared on stage alone and just " did his thing " .

During an interview with Digital Spy , Lewis told Tom Eames that Glassheart has a running theme about " star @-@ crossed lovers that can 't be together " , and so it was likely that this idea would feature on the tour . Lewis also cited William Shakespeare as another source of inspiration . She spent the three days of the final tour rehearsals at The Backstage Centre in Purfleet , Essex ( UK ) . The Glassheart Tour was scheduled to visit twenty @-@ one venues across Germany and the United Kingdom . The tour was expected to begin on 15 April in Berlin . The list had expanded from an initial sixteen to include five dates in Germany . Lewis would then proceed with UK dates beginning in Glasgow , including two dates at London 's Royal Albert Hall before finishing on 18 May in Plymouth . Speaking about the tour , Lewis said " I can 't wait to get out there and play my new songs . I had such fun on my last tour and I 'm really excited about doing it again next year . " Barclaycard ran a competition which gave fans the chance to win tickets to 6 May concert at Birmingham 's National Indoor Arena .

= = Critics ' reviews = =

In a review for the Express & Star , Elizabeth Joyce said although Lewis was not like her contemporaries : " meat dress @-@ wearing " Lady Gaga or the Russell Brand @-@ marrying Katy Perry , " no one can reach those soft lows or soaring highs quite like her " . Joyce praised the concert for showing the best of Lewis ' vocal abilities . Focussing predominately on songs from Spirit ( 2007 ) and Glassheart ( 2012 ) , the concert was largely acoustic music with a band and string quartet . In particular Joyce praised Lewis ' performances of " First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " and " Bleeding Love " which earned her standing ovations , in addition to the " note perfect " rendition of " Run " . Katherine Hollisey @-@ McLean for the Worthing Herald largely agreed , commenting that if anyone expected Lewis to be " belting out song after song " they were right . Hollisey @-@ McLean praised the decisions to switch the song arrangements , for example adding reggae beats to " Better in Time " and performing the acoustic version of " Trouble " . She ended by saying that Lewis ' vocals were " flawless " and that her stage presence and confidence had vastly improved over the last seven years .

The Guardian 's Malcolm Jack was less impressed ; he stated that when Lewis tried to diversify the show by dancing or switching the arrangements , she risked becoming the British diva that pop music forgot . Jack said that during a " sassy dance routine " for " Forgive Me " Lewis came off as a " budget Beyoncé " , whilst on the " cringey windin ' and grindin ' reggae take on ' Better in Time ' song " she comes across like a " reasonably priced Rihanna " . Jack concluded by saying the show was in need of a shot of " adrenaline " . In writing for the Nottingham Post , Paul Hindle agreed , saying that when the tempo increased and choreography was introduced " Lewis looked endearingly uncomfortable " ; however , Hindle was positive about Lewis ' vocals , calling her vocal performance " virtuoso " . He concluded that Lewis ' " spellbinding rendition " of " Run " was a highlight of the concert , and that fans should not have left disappointed .

= = Set list = =

The following set list is representative of the show in Berlin on 15 April 2013 . It may not represent the setlist from all of the shows .

" Come Alive "

" Fireflies "

" A Moment Like This " ( Acoustic version )

" Collide "

" Forgive Me "

" Better in Time " ( contains elements of " Man Down " , a song originally performed by Rihanna )

" Happy "

" Sugar "

" I to You "

" Broken "

" Trouble " ( Acoustic version )

" Locked Out of Heaven " ( A cover originally performed by Bruno Mars )

" Footprints in the Sand "

" The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face "

" Bleeding Love "

" Glassheart "

" Run "

Notes

Lewis performed a cover of the Rihanna song " Diamonds " in Scarborough on 12 July 2013 .

= = Shows = =

= New Jersey Route 177 =

Route 177 was the shortest state highway recorded in Somerset County , New Jersey and the second shortest around the entire state of New Jersey . ( New Jersey Route 59 is the shortest recorded route in the state at 0 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) long . ) Route 177 went for a short , 0 @.@ 24 miles ( 0 @.@ 39 km ) state @-@ maintained portion of Bridge Street in Somerville . One of only three state highways in Somerset County after the 1953 state highway renumbering , Route 177 was the only one to be decommissioned later on . ( The other two highways are Route 27 further south and Route 28 further north ) The short @-@ lived designation went from U.S. Route 206 in Somerville , up Bridge Street near the Old Cemetery to Fifth Street , where state maintenance terminated . In 1974 , the Department of Transportation turned maintenance of this short highway over to the borough of Somerville for future use .

= = Route description = =

Route 177 began at a traffic light intersection with U.S. Route 206 in the city of Somerville . At the intersection , southbound traffic on Route 206 had to use a jughandle to connect to Route 177 . The state highway went northeastward , progressing along as South Bridge Street through a curve . Heading northward , the route passed the Somerville Old Cemetery before intersecting with Fifth Street . There , state @-@ maintenance ended , and the designation of Route 177 terminated . Entering downtown Somerville , South Bridge Street continued northward into a large residential community . Passing to the east and west of several residential homes , South Bridge Street continued into the downtown portion , crossing the current @-@ day Raritan Valley Line tracks maintained by New Jersey Transit and served the Somerville train station . After a couple of blocks of residential homes and businesses , South Bridge Street came to an intersection with New Jersey Route 28 , where it switched to North Bridge Street .

= = History = =

The alignment of Route 177 was a former alignment of State Highway Route 31 through Somerville . The highway was instated in 1926 as U.S. Route 206 and 1927 as State Highway Route 31 by the New Jersey State Highway Department and the Federal Highway Administration respectively . By 1930 , Routes 206 and 31 was shifted off of Bridge Street , running along a partially completed bypass of Somerville . By 1938 , this was completed and Route 206 was shifted to the southern terminus of Bridge Street south of the old cemetery . Bridge Street remained unnumbered until the second state highway renumbering on January 1 , 1953 . That day , the unnumbered alignment became Route 177 , running from US 206 to Fifth Street , where it met US 206 's former alignment . The route remained intact for a couple of decades , as one of three state highways in Somerset County ( along with Route 28 and Route 27 ) until 1974 , when the route was decommissioned and turned over to the borough of Somerville .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route was in Somerville , Somerset County .

= Dan Leno =

George Wild Galvin ( 20 December 1860 – 31 October 1904 ) , better known by the stage name Dan Leno , was a leading English music hall comedian and musical theatre actor during the late Victorian era . He was best known , aside from his music hall act , for his dame roles in the annual pantomimes that were popular at London 's Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , from 1888 to 1904 .

Leno was born in St Pancras , London , and began to entertain as a child . In 1864 , he joined his parents on stage in their music hall act , and he made his first solo appearance , aged nine , at the Britannia Music Hall in Coventry . As a youth , he was famous for his clog dancing , and in his teen years , he became the star of his family 's act . He adopted the stage name Dan Leno and , in 1884 , made his first performance under that name in London . As a solo artist , he became increasingly popular during the late 1880s and 1890s , when he was one of the highest @-@ paid comedians in the world . He developed a music hall act of talking about life 's mundane subjects , mixed with comic songs and surreal observations , and created a host of mostly working @-@ class characters to illustrate his stories . In 1901 , still at the peak of his career , he performed his " Huntsman " sketch for Edward VII at Sandringham . The monarch was so impressed that Leno became publicly known as " the king 's jester " .

Leno also appeared in burlesque and , every year from 1888 to 1904 , in the Drury Lane Theatre 's Christmas pantomime spectacles . He was generous and active in charitable causes , especially to benefit performers in need . Leno continued to appear in musical comedies and his own music hall routines until 1902 , although he suffered increasingly from alcoholism . This , together with his long association with dame and low comedy roles , prevented him from being taken seriously as a dramatic actor , and he was turned down for Shakespearean roles . Leno began to behave in an erratic and furious manner by 1902 , and he suffered a mental breakdown in early 1903 . He was committed to a mental asylum , but was discharged later that year . After one more show , his health declined , and he died aged 43 .

= = Biography = =

= = = Family background and early life = = =

Leno was born in St Pancras , London . He was the youngest of six children , including two elder brothers , John and Henry , and an elder sister , Frances . Two other siblings died in infancy . His parents , John Galvin ( 1826 – 1864 ) and his wife Louisa ( née Dutton ; 1831 – 1891 ) , performed together in a music hall double act called " The Singing and Acting Duettists " . They were known professionally as Mr. and Mrs. Johnny Wild . They were not very successful , and the family struggled in poverty .

Having had very little schooling , and being raised by performers , Leno learned to entertain as a child . In 1862 , Leno 's parents and elder brothers appeared at the Surrey Music Hall in Sheffield , then performed in northern cities later in the year . In 1864 , at the age of four , Leno joined his parents on stage for the first time , at the Cosmotheca Music Hall in Paddington , under the billing " Little George , the Infant Wonder , Contortionist , and Posturer " .

When Leno was still four , his father , an alcoholic , died at the age of 37 . The family moved to Liverpool a few months later , where his mother married William Grant ( 1837 – 1896 ) , on 7 March 1866 . Grant was a comedian of Lancastrian and Irish descent , who performed in music halls throughout the British provinces under the stage name of William Leno . He was a seasoned actor and had previously been employed by Charles Kean in his theatre company at the Princess 's Theatre in London . In 1866 , the family home in Marylebone was demolished to make way for St Pancras railway station and , as a result , Leno 's sister Frances was sent to live with an uncle , while his brother John , who performed occasionally with his parents , took full @-@ time employment . Leno , his mother , stepfather and brother Henry moved north and settled in Liverpool , where they performed in various halls and theatres , including the Star Music Hall , but they often returned to London to perform in the capital 's music halls .

= = = Early career = = =

In 1865 , Leno and his brother Henry , who first taught Leno to dance , formed a clog dancing double act known as " The Great Little Lenos " . This was the first time that Leno used his stepfather 's stage name , " Leno " , which he never registered legally . The same year , Leno also appeared in his first pantomime , in Liverpool , where he had a supporting part as a juvenile clown in Fortunatus ; or , The Magic Wishing Cap alongside his parents , who appeared as " Mr and Mrs Leno – Comic Duettists " . On 18 July 1866 , Leno , Henry and their parents appeared on the opening night of the Cambridge Music Hall in Toxteth , Liverpool , under the billing " Mr. and Mrs. Leno , the Great , Sensational , Dramatic and Comic Duettists and The Brothers Leno , Lancashire Clog , Boot and Pump Dancers " . The following year , the brothers made their first appearance without their parents at the Britannia music hall in Hoxton . Although initially successful , the pair would experience many bouts of unemployment and often busked outside London pubs to make a living . Tired of surviving on little or no money , Henry left the clog dancing act to take up a trade in London , forcing Leno to consider a future as a solo performer . Henry later founded a dance school . Soon , however , Henry was replaced intermittently in the act by the boys ' uncle , Johnny Danvers , who was a week older than Leno . Leno and Danvers were close from an early age .

Leno made his debut as a solo performer in 1869 , returning to the Britannia music hall in Hoxton , where he became known as " The Great Little Leno , the Quintessence of Irish Comedians " . The name was suggested by his stepfather , William , who thought the Irish connection would appeal to audiences on their upcoming visit to Dublin . Arriving in Ireland the same year , the Lenos were struggling financially and stayed with William 's relatives . In addition to his performances as part of the family act , young Leno appeared as a solo act under an Irish @-@ sounding stage name , " Dan Patrick " . This allowed him to earn a separate fee of 23 shillings per performance plus living expenses . The name " Dan " was chosen to honour Dan Lowery , a northern music hall comedian and music hall proprietor whom the Lenos had met a few months earlier . During this tour of Ireland , the Lenos appeared in Dublin in a pantomime written by Leno 's father : Old King Humpty ; or , Harlequin Emerald Isle and Katty of Killarney ( 1869 ) , in which Leno received praise from Charles Dickens , who was in the audience and told him : " Good little man , you 'll make headway ! "

In 1870 , the Lenos appeared in another pantomime by Leno 's father , Jack the Giant Killer ; or , Harlequin Grim Gosling , or the Good Fairy Queen of the Golden Pine Grove , in which Leno played the title character and also featured in the variety entertainment that preceded the pantomime . This was his last theatrical role until 1886 . Throughout the 1870s , Leno and his parents performed as " The Comic Trio ( Mr. & Mrs. Leno and Dan Patrick ) In Their Really Funny Entertainments , Songs and Dances " . In the family act with his parents and Danvers , young Leno often took the leading role in such sketches as his stepfather 's The Wicklow Wedding . Another of their sketches was Torpedo Bill , in which Leno played the title role , an inventor of explosive devices . His parents played a " washerwoman " and a " comic cobbler " . This was followed by another sketch , Pongo the Monkey . Opening at Pullan 's Theatre of Varieties in Bradford on 20 May 1878 , this burlesque featured Leno as an escaped monkey ; it became his favourite sketch of the period .

The teenage Leno 's growing popularity led to bookings at , among others , the Varieties Theatre in Sheffield and the Star Music Hall in Manchester . At the same time , Leno 's clog dancing continued to be so good that in 1880 he won the world championship at the Princess 's Music Hall in Leeds , for which he received a gold and silver belt weighing 44 @.@ 5 oz ( 1 @.@ 26 kg ) . His biographer , the pantomime librettist J. Hickory Wood , described his act : " He danced on the stage ; he danced on a pedestal ; he danced on a slab of slate ; he was encored over and over again ; but throughout his performance , he never uttered a word " .

= = = 1880s = = =

In 1878 , Leno and his family moved to Manchester . There , he met Lydia Reynolds , who , in 1883 , joined the Leno family theatre company , which already consisted of his parents , Danvers and Leno . The following year , Leno and Reynolds married ; around this time , he adopted the stage name " Dan Leno " . On 10 March 1884 , the Leno family took over the running of the Grand Varieties Theatre in Sheffield . The Lenos felt comfortable with their working class Sheffield audiences . On their opening night , over 4 @,@ 000 patrons entered the theatre , paying sixpence to see Dan Leno star in Doctor Cut ' Em Up . In October 1884 , facing tough competition , the Lenos gave up the lease on the theatre .

In 1885 , Leno and his wife moved to Clapham Park , London , and Leno gained new success with a solo act that featured comedy patter , dancing and song . On the night of his London debut , he appeared in three music halls : the Foresters ' Music Hall in Mile End , Middlesex Music Hall in Drury Lane and Gatti 's @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Road , where he earned £ 5 a week in total ( £ 487 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) . Although billed as " The Great Irish Comic Vocalist and Clog Champion " at first , he slowly phased out his dancing in favour of character studies , such as " Going to Buy Milk for the Twins " , " When Rafferty Raffled his Watch " and " The Railway Guard " . His dancing had earned him popularity in the provinces , but Leno found that his London audiences preferred these sketches and his comic songs . Leno 's other London venues in the late 1880s included the Collins Music Hall in Islington , the Queen 's Theatre in Poplar and the Standard in Pimlico .

Leno was a replacement in the role of Leontes in the 1888 musical burlesque of the ancient Greek character Atalanta at the Strand Theatre , directed by Charles Hawtrey . It was written by Hawtrey 's brother , George P. Hawtrey , and it starred Frank Wyatt , Willie Warde and William Hawtrey . The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News praised Leno 's singing and dancing and reported that : " He brings a good deal of fun and quaintness to the not very important part of Leontes . " Leno accepted the role at short notice , with no opportunity to learn the script . But his improvised comedy helped to extend the life of the show . When Leno and another leading actor left a few months later , the production closed .

= = = Music hall = = =

During the 1890s , Leno was the leading performer on the music hall stage , rivalled only by Albert Chevalier , who moved into music hall from the legitimate theatre . Their styles and appeal were very different : Leno 's characters were gritty working @-@ class realists , while Chevalier 's were overflowing in romanticism , and his act depicted an affluent point of view . The two represented the opposite poles of cockney comedy .

For his music hall acts , Leno created characters that were based on observations about life in London , including shopwalkers , grocer 's assistants , beefeaters , huntsmen , racegoers , firemen , fathers , henpecked husbands , garrulous wives , pantomime dames , a police officer , a Spanish bandit , a fireman and a hairdresser . One such character was Mrs. Kelly , a gossip . Leno would sing a verse of a song , then begin a monologue , often his You know Mrs. Kelly ? routine , which became a well @-@ known catchphrase : " You see we had a row once , and it was all through Mrs. Kelly . You know Mrs. Kelly , of course . ... Oh , you must know Mrs. Kelly ; everybody knows Mrs. Kelly . "

For his London acts , Leno purchased songs from the foremost music hall writers and composers . One such composer was Harry King , who wrote many of Leno 's early successes . Other well @-@ known composers of the day who supplied Leno with numbers included Harry Dacre and Joseph Tabrar . From 1890 , Leno commissioned George Le Brunn to compose the incidental music to many of his songs , including " The Detective " , " My Old Man " , " Chimney on Fire " , " The Fasting Man " , " The Jap " , " All Through A Little Piece of Bacon " and " The Detective Camera " . Le Brunn also provided the incidental music for three of Leno 's best @-@ known songs that depicted life in everyday occupations : " The Railway Guard " ( 1890 ) , " The Shopwalker " and " The Waiter " ( both from 1891 ) . The songs in each piece became instantly distinctive and familiar to Leno 's audiences , but his occasional changes to the characterisations kept the sketches fresh and topical .

" The Railway Guard " featured Leno in a mad characterisation of a railway station guard dressed in an ill @-@ fitting uniform , with an unkempt beard and a whistle . The character was created by exaggerating the behaviour that Leno saw in a real employee at Brixton station who concerned himself in other people 's business while , at the same time , not doing any work . " The Shopwalker " was full of comic one @-@ liners and was heavily influenced by pantomime . Leno played the part of a shop assistant , again of manic demeanour , enticing imaginary clientele into the shop before launching into a frantic selling technique sung in verse . Leno 's depiction of " The Waiter " , dressed in an oversized dinner jacket and loose @-@ fitting white dickey , which would flap up and hit his face , was of a man consumed in self @-@ pity and indignation . Overworked , overwrought and overwhelmed by the number of his customers , the waiter gave out excuses for the bad service faster than the customers could complain :

Yes , sir ! No , sir ! Yes , sir ! When I first came here these trousers were knee @-@ breeches . Legs worn down by waiting . Sir ! What did you say ? How long would your steak be ? Oh , about four inches I should say , about four inches . No , sir ! sorry sir . Can 't take it back now , sir . You 've stuck your fork in and let the steam out !

= = = Pantomime = = =

Leno 's first London appearance in pantomime was as Dame Durden in Jack and the Beanstalk , which he performed at London 's Surrey Theatre in 1886 , having been spotted singing " Going to Buy Milk " by the Surrey Theatre manager , George Conquest . Conquest also hired Leno 's wife to star in the production . The pantomime was a success , and Leno received rave reviews ; as a result , he was booked to star as Tinpanz the Tinker in the following year 's pantomime , which had the unique title of Sinbad and the Little Old Man of the Sea ; or , The Tinker , the Tailor , the Soldier , the Sailor , Apothecary , Ploughboy , Gentleman Thief .

After these pantomime performances proved popular with audiences , Leno was hired in 1888 by Augustus Harris , manager at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , to appear in that year 's Christmas pantomime , Babes in the Wood . Harris 's pantomime productions at the huge theatre were known for their extravagance and splendour . Each one had a cast of over a hundred performers , ballet dancers , acrobats , marionettes and animals , and included an elaborate transformation scene and an energetic harlequinade . Often they were partly written by Harris . Herbert Campbell and Harry Nicholls starred with Leno in the next fifteen Christmas productions at Drury Lane . Campbell had appeared in the theatre 's previous five pantomimes and was a favourite of the writer of those productions , E. L. Blanchard . Blanchard left the theatre when Leno was hired , believing that music hall performers were unsuitable for his Christmas pantomimes . This was not a view shared by audiences or the critics , one of whom wrote :

I am inclined to think " the cake " for frolicsome humour is taken by the dapper new @-@ comer , Mr. Dan Leno , who is sketched as the galvanic baroness in the wonderfully amusing dance which sets the house in a roar . The substantial " babes " , Mr. Herbert Campbell and Mr. Harry Nicholls , would have no excuse if they did not vie in drollery with the light footed Dan Leno .

Babes in the Wood was a triumph : the theatre reported record attendance , and the run was extended until 27 April 1889 . Leno considerably reduced his music @-@ hall engagements as a consequence . Nevertheless , between April and October 1889 , Leno appeared simultaneously at the Empire Theatre and the Oxford Music Hall , performing his one @-@ man show . By this time , Leno was much in demand and had bookings for the next three years . On 9 May 1889 he starred for George P. Hawtrey in a matinee of Penelope , a musical version of a famous farce The Area Belle , to benefit the Holborn Lodge for Shop Girls . In this benefit , he played the role of Pitcher opposite the seasoned Gilbert and Sullivan performer Rutland Barrington . The Times considered that his performance treated the piece " too much in the manner of pantomime " . During Leno 's long association with the Drury Lane pantomimes , he appeared chiefly as the dame . After Harris died in 1896 , Arthur Collins became the manager of the theatre and oversaw ( and often helped to write ) the pantomimes .

In their pantomimes , the diminutive Leno and the massive Campbell were a visually comic duo . They would often deviate from the script , improvising freely . This was met with some scepticism by producers , who feared that the scenes would not be funny to audiences and observed that , in any event , they were rarely at their best until a few nights after opening . George Bernard Shaw wrote of one appearance : " I hope I never again have to endure anything more dismally futile " , and the English essayist and caricaturist Max Beerbohm stated that " Leno does not do himself justice collaborating with the public " . He noted , however , that Leno " was exceptional in giving each of his dames a personality of her own , from extravagant queen to artless gossip " . In Sleeping Beauty , Leno and Campbell caused the audience to laugh even when they could not see them : they would arrive on stage in closed palanquins and exchange the lines , " Have you anything to do this afternoon , my dear ? " – " No , I have nothing on " , before being carried off again . Leno and Campbell 's pantomimes from 1889 were Jack and the Beanstalk ( 1889 and 1899 ) , Beauty and the Beast ( 1890 and 1900 ) , Humpty Dumpty ( 1891 and 1903 ) , Little Bo @-@ Peep ( 1892 ) , Robinson Crusoe ( 1893 ) , Dick Whittington and His Cat ( 1894 ) , Cinderella ( 1895 ) , Aladdin ( 1896 ) , Babes in the Wood ( 1897 ) and the Forty Thieves ( 1898 ) .

Leno considered the dame roles in two of his last pantomimes , Bluebeard ( 1901 ) and Mother Goose ( 1902 ) , written by J. Hickory Wood , to be his favourites . He was paid £ 200 ( £ 19 @,@ 582 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) for each of the pantomime seasons . Leno appeared at Drury Lane as Sister Anne in Bluebeard , a character described by Wood as " a sprightly , somewhat below middle aged person who was of a coming on disposition and who had not yet abandoned hope " The Times drama critic noted : " It is a quite peculiar and original Sister Anne , who dances breakdowns and sings strange ballads to a still stranger harp and plays ping @-@ pong with a frying @-@ pan and potatoes and burlesques Sherlock Holmes and wears the oddest of garments and dresses her hair like Miss Morleena Kenwigs , and speaks in a piping voice – in short it is none other than Dan Leno whom we all know " . Mother Goose provided Leno with one of the most challenging roles of his career , in which he was required to portray the same woman in several different guises . Wood 's idea , that neither fortune nor beauty would bring happiness , was illustrated by a series of magical character transformations . The poor , unkempt and generally ugly Mother Goose eventually became a rich and beautiful but tasteless parvenu , searching for a suitor . The production was one of Drury Lane 's most successful pantomimes , running until 28 March 1903 .

= = = Later career = = =

In 1896 , the impresario Milton Bode approached Leno with a proposal for a farcical musical comedy vehicle devised for him called Orlando Dando , the Volunteer , by Basil Hood with music by Walter Slaughter . Leno 's agent declined the offer , as his client was solidly booked for two years . Bode offered Leno £ 625 ( £ 82 @,@ 880 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) for a six @-@ week appearance in 1898 . Upon hearing this , the comedian overrode his agent and accepted the offer . Leno toured the provinces in the piece and was an immediate success . So popular was his performance that Bode re @-@ engaged him for a further two shows : the musical farce In Gay Piccadilly ! ( 1899 ) , by George R. Sims , in which Leno 's uncle , Johnny Danvers appeared ( The Era said that Leno was " attracting huge houses " and called him " excruciatingly funny " ) ; and the musical comedy Mr. Wix of Wickham ( 1902 ) . Both toured after their original runs . In 1897 , Leno went to America and made his debut on 12 April of that year at Hammerstein 's Olympia Music Hall on Broadway , where he was billed as " The Funniest Man on Earth " . Reviews were mixed : one newspaper reported that the house roared its approval , while another complained that Leno 's English humour was out of date . His American engagement came to an end a month later , and Leno said that it was " the crown of my career " . Despite his jubilation , Leno was conscious of the few negative reviews he had received and rejected all later offers to tour the United States and Australia .

The same year , the comedian lent his name and writing talents to Dan Leno 's Comic Journal . The paper was primarily aimed at young adults and featured a mythologised version of Leno – the first comic paper to take its name from , and base a central character on , a living person . Published by C. Arthur Pearson , Issue No. 1 appeared on 26 February 1898 , and the paper sold 350 @,@ 000 copies a year . Leno wrote most of the paper 's comic stories and jokes , and Tom Browne contributed many of the illustrations . The comedian retained editorial control of the paper , deciding which items to omit . The Journal was known for its slogans , including " One Touch of Leno Makes the Whole World Grin " and " Won 't wash clothes but will mangle melancholy " . The cover always showed a caricature of Leno and his editorial staff at work and play . Inside , the features included " Daniel 's Diary " , " Moans from the Martyr " , two yarns , a couple of dozen cartoons and " Leno 's Latest – Fresh Jokes and Wheezes Made on the Premises " . After a run of nearly two years the novelty wore off , and Leno lost interest . The paper shut down on 2 December 1899 .

A journalist wrote , in the late 1890s , that Leno was " probably the highest paid funny man in the world " . In 1898 , Leno , Herbert Campbell and Johnny Danvers formed a consortium to build the Granville Theatre in Fulham , which was demolished in 1971 . Leno published an autobiography , Dan Leno : Hys Booke , in 1899 , ghostwritten by T. C. Elder . Leno 's biographer J. Hickory Wood commented : " I can honestly say that I never saw him absolutely at rest . He was always doing something , and had something else to do afterwards ; or he had just been somewhere , was going somewhere else , and had several other appointments to follow . " That year , Leno performed the role of " waxi omo " ( a slang expression for a black @-@ face performer ) in the Doo @-@ da @-@ Day Minstrels , an act that included Danvers , Campbell , Bransby Williams , Joe Elvin and Eugene Stratton . The troupe 's only performance was at the London Pavilion on 29 May 1899 as part of a benefit . Leno 's song " The Funny Little Nigger " greatly amused the audience . His biographer Barry Anthony considered the performance to be " more or less , the last gasp of black @-@ face minstrelsy in Britain " .

Between 1901 and 1903 , Leno recorded more than twenty @-@ five songs and monologues on the Gramophone and Typewriter Company label . He also made 14 short films towards the end of his life , in which he portrayed a bumbling buffoon who struggles to carry out everyday tasks , such as riding a bicycle or opening a bottle of champagne . On 26 November 1901 , Leno , along with Seymour Hicks and his wife , the actress Ellaline Terriss , was invited to Sandringham House to take part in a Royal Command Performance to entertain King Edward VII , Queen Alexandra , their son George and his wife , Mary , the Prince and Princess of Wales . Leno performed a thirty @-@ five @-@ minute solo act that included two of his best @-@ known songs : " How to Buy a House " and " The Huntsman " . After the performance , Leno reported , " The King , the Queen and the Prince of Wales all very kindly shook hands with me and told me how much they had enjoyed it . The Princess of Wales was just going to shake hands with me , when she looked at my face , and couldn 't do it for some time , because she laughed so much . I wasn 't intending to look funny – I was really trying to look dignified and courtly ; but I suppose I couldn 't help myself . " As a memento , the king presented Leno with a jewel @-@ encrusted royal tie pin , and thereafter , Leno became known as " the King 's Jester " . Leno was the first music hall performer to give a Royal Command Performance during the king 's reign .

= = Personal life = =

In 1883 , Leno met Sarah Lydia Reynolds ( 1866 – 1942 ) , a young dancer and comedy singer from Birmingham , while both were appearing at King Ohmy 's Circus of Varieties , Rochdale . The daughter of a stage carpenter , Lydia , as she was known professionally , was already an accomplished actress as a teenager : of her performance in Sinbad the Sailor in 1881 , one critic wrote that she " played Zorlida very well for a young artiste . She is well known at this theatre and with proper training will prove a very clever actress . " She and Leno married in 1884 in a discreet ceremony at St. George 's Church , in Hulme , Manchester , soon after the birth of their first daughter , Georgina . A second child died in infancy , and John was born in 1888 . Their three youngest children – Ernest ( b . 1889 ) , Sidney ( b . 1891 ) and May ( b . 1896 ) – all followed their father onto the stage . Sidney later performed as Dan Leno , Jr . After Leno 's mother and stepfather retired from performing , Leno supported them financially until their deaths .

Leno owned 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) of land at the back of his house in Clapham Park , and was self @-@ sufficient , producing cabbages , potatoes , poultry , butter and eggs . He would also send these as gifts to friends and family at Christmas . In 1898 , Leno and his family moved to 56 Akerman Road , Lambeth , where they lived for several years . A blue plaque was erected there in 1962 by the London County Council .

= = = Charity and fundraising = = =

The Terriers Association was established in 1890 to help retired artists in need of financial help . Leno was an active fundraiser in this and in the Music Hall Benevolent Fund , of which he became President . He was an early member of the entertainment charity Grand Order of Water Rats , which helps performers who are in financial need , and served as its leader , the King Rat , in 1891 , 1892 and 1897 . Near the end of his life , Leno co @-@ founded The Music Hall Artistes Railway Association , which entered a partnership with the Water Rats to form music hall 's first trade union . Some of Leno 's charity was discreet and unpublicised .

In the late 1890s , Leno formed a cricket team called the " Dainties " , for which he recruited many of the day 's leading comedians and music hall stars . They played for charity against a variety of amateur teams willing to put up with their comedic mayhem , such as London 's Metropolitan Police Force ; Leno 's and his teammates ' tomfoolery on the green amused the large crowds that they drew . From 1898 to 1903 , the Dainties continued to play matches across London . Two films of action from the matches were produced in 1900 for audiences of the new medium of cinema . In September 1901 , at a major charity match , the press noted the carnival atmosphere . The comedians wore silly costumes – Leno was dressed as an undertaker and later as a schoolgirl riding a camel . Bands played , and clowns circulated through the crowd . The rival team of professional Surrey cricketers were persuaded to wear tall hats during the match . 18 @,@ 000 spectators attended , contributing funds for music hall and cricketers ' charities , among others .

= = = Decline and mental breakdown = = =

Leno began to drink heavily after performances , and , by 1901 , like his father and stepfather before him , he had become an alcoholic . He gradually declined physically and mentally and displayed frequent bouts of erratic behaviour that began to affect his work . By 1902 , Leno 's angry and violent behaviour directed at fellow cast members , friends and family had become frequent . Once composed , he would become remorseful and apologetic . His erratic behaviour was often a result of his diminishing ability to remember his lines and inaudibility in performance . Leno also suffered increasing deafness , which eventually caused problems on and off stage . In 1901 , during a production of Bluebeard , Leno missed his verbal cue and , as a result , was left stuck up a tower for more than twenty minutes . At the end of the run of Mother Goose in 1903 , producer Arthur Collins gave a tribute to Leno and presented him , on behalf of the Drury Lane Theatre 's management , with an expensive silver dinner service . Leno rose to his feet and said : " Governor , it 's a magnificent present ! I congratulate you and you deserve it ! "

Frustrated at not being accepted as a serious actor , Leno became obsessed with the idea of playing Richard III and other great Shakespearean roles , inundating the actor – manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree with his proposals . After his final run of Mother Goose at the Drury Lane Theatre in early 1903 , Leno 's delusions overwhelmed him . On the closing evening , and again soon afterwards , he travelled to the home of Constance Collier , who was Beerbohm Tree 's leading lady at His Majesty 's Theatre , and also followed her to rehearsal there . He attempted to persuade her to act alongside him in a Shakespearean season that Leno was willing to fund . On the second visit to her home , Leno brought Collier a jewellery box holding a diamond @-@ encrusted plaque . Recognising that Leno was having a mental breakdown , she sadly and gently refused his offer , and Leno left distraught .

Two days later , he was admitted into an asylum for the insane . Leno spent several months in Camberwell House Asylum , London , under the care of Dr. Savage , who treated Leno with " peace and quiet and a little water colouring " . On his second day , Leno told a nurse that the clock was wrong . When she stated that it was right , Leno remarked , " Well if it 's right , then what 's it doing here ? " Leno made several attempts to leave the asylum , twice being successful . He was found each time and promptly returned .

= = = Last year and death = = =

Upon Leno 's release from the institution in October 1903 , the press offered much welcoming commentary and speculated as to whether he would appear that year in the Drury Lane pantomime , scheduled to be Humpty Dumpty . Concerned that Leno might suffer a relapse , Arthur Collins employed Marie Lloyd to take his place . By the time of rehearsals , however , Leno persuaded Collins that he was well enough to take part , and the cast was reshuffled to accommodate him . Leno appeared with success . Upon hearing his signature song , the audience reportedly gave him a standing ovation that lasted five minutes . He received a telegram from the King congratulating him on his performance . Leno 's stage partner Herbert Campbell died in July 1904 , shortly after the pantomime , following an accident at the age of fifty @-@ seven . The death affected Leno deeply , and he went into a decline . At that time , he was appearing at the London Pavilion , but the show had to be cancelled owing to his inability to remember his lines . So harsh were the critics that Leno wrote a statement , published in The Era , to defend the show 's originality . On 20 October 1904 , Leno gave his last performance in the show . Afterwards , he stopped at the Belgrave Hospital for Children in Kennington to leave a donation of £ 625 ( £ 60 @,@ 527 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) .

Leno died at his home in London on 31 October 1904 , aged 43 , and was buried at Lambeth Cemetery , Tooting . The cause of death is not known . His death and funeral were national news . The Daily Telegraph wrote in its obituary : " There was only one Dan . His methods were inimitable ; his face was indeed his fortune ... Who has seen him in any of his disguises and has failed to laugh ? " Max Beerbohm later said of Leno 's death : " So little and frail a lantern could not long harbour so big a flame " . His memorial is maintained by the Grand Order of Water Rats , which commissioned the restoration of his grave in 2004 .

= 1980 National League West tie @-@ breaker game =

The 1980 National League West tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1980 regular season , played between the Houston Astros and the Los Angeles Dodgers to decide the winner of the National League 's ( NL ) West Division . The game was played on October 6 , 1980 , at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California . It was necessary after the Dodgers overcame a three @-@ game deficit in the final three games of the season and both teams finished with identical win – loss records of 92 – 70 . The Dodgers won a coin flip late in the season which , by rule at the time , awarded them home field for the game .

The Astros won the game , 7 – 1 , with Houston starter Joe Niekro throwing a complete game . This victory advanced the Astros to the 1980 NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) , in which they lost to the Philadelphia Phillies , ending the Astros ' season . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 163rd regular season game for both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .

= = Background = =

The Cincinnati Reds won the West division the previous season with the Astros finishing 1 @.@ 5 games back in second , and the Dodgers 11 @.@ 5 back in third . However , the Reds went on to lose the 1979 NLCS in three games to the Pittsburgh Pirates , ending their season . The Astros acquired Joe Morgan and Nolan Ryan via free agency during the offseason and the Dodgers signed Dave Goltz . Dave Kindred of the Washington Post , George Vecsey of The New York Times , and Astros ' relief pitcher Joe Sambito all credited Morgan 's leadership with the Astros ' success in 1980 .

The Reds maintained early success in 1980 with an eight @-@ game winning streak to open the season and held at least a share of first place in the division until April 30 . They were not as successful over the remainder of the season , only occasionally taking the division lead and last holding it on August 16 . The Astros held the lead for the majority of the season thereafter , including a three @-@ game lead over Los Angeles entering the final series of the season . The series matched the Astros with the Dodgers for three games at Dodger Stadium . The Dodgers won all three games , all by a single run , stopping the Astros from clinching a division championship as the two teams sat tied at 92 – 70 . Kindred described the Astros as losing each game of the series by " fail [ ing ] to make elementary fielding plays . " The final game included a run @-@ scoring pinch hit single by Manny Mota , who had been almost exclusively a coach and not a player that season , and a home run by Ron Cey which also scored Steve Garvey , who had reached base in the previous at bat on an error . The Dodgers needed each of these runs as they won the game 4 – 3 .

= = Game summary = =

Box score for Monday October 6 , 1980 — 3 : 10 p.m. ( PT ) at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles , California

The Astros took their lead early , scoring in the top of the first inning . Terry Puhl led off the game reaching base on an error by the second baseman . Enos Cabell followed Puhl with a single and , while Joe Morgan batted , stole second base to put runners at second and third . Morgan struck out and José Cruz appeared to hit into a fielder 's choice but a catching error by the catcher allowed Puhl to score , Cabell to advance to third base , and Cruz to reach safely all with no out recorded . Cabell then scored on a César Cedeño ground out to make the game 2 – 0 . Art Howe singled to advance Cruz to third , but Dodgers ' starting pitcher Dave Goltz escaped the inning without further scoring .

The Astros ' Joe Niekro retired the Dodgers in order in the first and second innings . The Astros added to their lead in the top of the third as Cedeño singled , stole second ( after Cruz had been caught stealing earlier in the inning ) , and scored on Art Howe 's home run to make the game 4 – 0 . Niekro allowed two successive singles to lead off the bottom of the inning , but proceeded to retire three straight Dodgers without allowing either runner to score . The Astros further added to their lead in the fourth , as Puhl singled on a bunt to third base and then stole second and third base while Cabell batted . Both he and Morgan walked to load the bases with one out . Puhl scored on a Cruz sacrifice fly , Cedeño walked to re @-@ load the bases , and finally a Howe single gave the Astros another two runs to make the game 7 – 0 .

The Dodgers scored their only run in the bottom of the fourth as Dusty Baker singled , advanced to second on an error , and scored on another single . They threatened again in the sixth inning , loading the bases , though they failed to score . That was the only inning after the fourth in which a Dodgers ' runner reached scoring position . Niekro steadied again after the sixth , allowing just one baserunner on a two @-@ out ninth @-@ inning single over the remaining three innings .

= = Aftermath = =

Houston 's win clinched the team 's first postseason berth in franchise history . The Astros lost the five @-@ game NLCS to the Phillies 3 – 2 , ending their season . Due to the 1981 Major League Baseball strike , the following season was split into halves and the winner of each half advanced to the postseason . The Dodgers won the first half and the Astros the second and so met in the first National League Division Series . The Dodgers won , and went on to win the 1981 World Series . The Astros did not return to the NLCS until 1986 and did not win a NL pennant until 2005 , leading to a loss in the 2005 World Series .

In baseball statistics , tie @-@ breakers count as regular season games , with all events in them added to regular season statistics . Niekro , for example , reached his 20th win to break a tie with Jim Bibby for the 2nd most wins in the NL that season . Similarly , Steve Garvey played in his 163rd game of the season , leading the league with a figure which could not have been equaled by anyone not on the Astros or Dodgers . Dusty Baker won a Silver Slugger Award and Steve Howe , who pitched the final two scoreless innings of the tie @-@ breaker for the Dodgers in relief , won the Rookie of the Year Award for their performances in the regular season . Additionally six Dodgers ( Garvey , Davey Lopes , Bill Russell , Reggie Smith , Jerry Reuss , and Bob Welch ) and two Astros ( J. R. Richard and Cruz ) were named to the National League 's All @-@ Star team .

= Hutchinson Letters Affair =

The Hutchinson Letters Affair was an incident that increased tensions between the colonists of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and the British government prior to the American Revolution . In June 1773 letters written several years earlier by Thomas Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver , governor and lieutenant governor of the province at the time of their publication , were published in a Boston newspaper . The content of the letters was propagandistically claimed by Massachusetts radical politicians to call for the abridgement of colonial rights , and a duel was fought in England over the matter .

The affair served to inflame tensions in Massachusetts , where implementation of the 1773 Tea Act was met with resistance that culminated in the Boston Tea Party in December 1773 . The response of the British government to the publication of the letters served to turn Benjamin Franklin , one of the principal figures in the affair , into a committed Patriot .

= = Background = =

During the 1760s , relations between Great Britain and some of its North American colonies became strained by a series of Parliamentary laws ( including the 1765 Stamp Act and the 1767 Townshend Acts ) , intended to raise revenue for the crown , and to assert Parliament 's authority to pass such legislation despite a lack of colonial representation . These laws had sparked strong protests in the Thirteen Colonies ; the Province of Massachusetts Bay in particular saw significant unrest and direct action against crown officials . The introduction of British Army troops into Boston in 1768 further raised tensions that escalated to the Boston Massacre in 1770 .

In the years after the enactment of the Townshend Acts , Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his colonial secretary ( and brother @-@ in @-@ law ) Andrew Oliver wrote a series of letters concerning the acts , the protests against them , and containing suggestions on how to respond , to Thomas Whately , an assistant to Prime Minister George Grenville . Whateley died in 1772 , and his papers were turned over to his brother William . Whateley at one point gave access to his brother 's papers to John Temple , another colonial official who sought to recover letters of his own from those papers .

Hutchinson was appointed governor of Massachusetts in 1770 , following the critical publication by opposition politicians of letters written by his predecessor , Francis Bernard . Over the next two years Hutchinson engaged in an extended and rancorous written debate with the provincial assembly and the governor 's council , both of which were dominated by radical leadership hostile to Parliamentary authority . The debate centered on the arbitrariness of executive prerogative and the role of Parliament in colonial governance , and greatly deepened divisions in the province .

The Massachusetts debate reached a pitch in England when the colonial secretary , Lord Dartmouth , insisted that Benjamin Franklin , then acting as agent for Massachusetts in London , demanded that the Massachusetts assembly retract its response to a speech the governor gave early in 1772 as part of this ongoing debate . Franklin had acquired a packet of about twenty letters that had been written to Whately . Upon reading them , Franklin concluded that Hutchinson and Oliver had mischaracterized the situation in the colonies , and thus misled Parliament . He felt that wider knowledge of these letters would then focus colonial anger away from Parliament and at those who had written the misleading letters . Franklin sent the letters to Thomas Cushing , the speaker of the Massachusetts assembly , in December 1772 . He insisted to Cushing that they not be published or widely circulated . He specifically wrote that they should be seen only by a few people , and that he was not " at liberty to make the letters public . "

The letters arrived in Massachusetts in March 1773 , and came into the hands of Samuel Adams , then serving as the clerk of the Massachusetts assembly . By Franklin 's instructions , only a select few people , including the Massachusetts Committee of Correspondence , were to see the letters . Alarmed at what they read , Cushing wrote Franklin , asking if the restrictions on their circulation could be eased . In a response received by Cushing in early June , Franklin reiterated that they were not to be copied or published , but could be shown to anyone .

= = Publication = =

A longtime opponent of Hutchinson 's , Samuel Adams narrowly followed Franklin 's request , but managed to orchestrate a propaganda campaign against Hutchinson without immediately disclosing the letters . He informed the assembly of the existence of the letters , after which it designated a committee to analyze them . Strategic leaks suggestive of their content made their way into the press and political discussions , causing Hutchinson much discomfort . The assembly eventually concluded , according to John Hancock , that in the letters Hutchinson sought to " overthrow the Constitution of this Government , and to introduce arbitrary Power into the Province " , and called for the removal of Hutchinson and Oliver . Hutchinson complained that Adams and the opposition were misrepresenting what he had written , and that nothing he had written in them on the subject of Parliamentary supremacy went beyond other statements he had made . The letters were finally published in the Boston Gazette in mid @-@ June 1773 , causing a political firestorm in Massachusetts and raising significant questions in England .

= = Content of the letters = =

The letters were written primarily in 1768 and 1769 , principally by Hutchinson and Oliver , although the published letters also included some written by Charles Paxton , a customs official and Hutchinson supporter , and Hutchinson 's nephew Nathaniel Rogers . The letters written by Oliver ( who became lieutenant governor when Hutchinson became governor ) proposed a significant revamping of the Massachusetts government to strengthen the executive , while those of Hutchinson were ruminations on the difficult state of affairs in the province . Historian Bernard Bailyn confirms Hutchinson 's own assertion that much of the content of his letters expressed relatively little that had not already been publicly stated .

According to Bailyn , Hutchinson 's ruminations included the observation that it was impossible for colonists have the full rights they would have in the home country , essentially requiring an " abridgement of what are called English liberties " . Hutchinson , unlike Oliver , made no specific proposals on how the colonial government should be reformed , writing in a letter that was not among those published , " I can think of nothing but what will produce as great an evil as that which it may remove or will be of a very uncertain event . " Oliver 's letters , in contrast , specifically proposed that the governor 's council , whose members where then elected by the assembly with the governor 's consent , be changed to one whose members were appointed by the crown .

= = Consequences = =

In England , speculation ran rampant over the source of the leak . William Whately accused John Temple of taking the letters , which Temple denied , challenging Whately to a duel . Whately was wounded in the encounter in early December 1773 , but neither participant was satisfied , and a second duel was planned . In order to forestall that event , Franklin on Christmas Day published a letter admitting that he was responsible for the acquisition and transmission of the letters , to prevent " further mischief " . He justified his actions by pointing out that the letters had been written between public officials for the purpose of influencing public policy .

When Hutchinson 's opponents in Massachusetts read the letters , they seized on key phrases ( including the " abridgement " phrase ) to argue that Hutchinson was in fact lobbying the London government to make changes that would effect such an abridgement . Combined with Oliver 's explicit recommendations for reform , they presented this as a clear indication that the provincial leaders were working against the interests of the people and not for them .

Bostonians were outraged at the content of the published letters , burning Hutchinson and Oliver in effigy on Boston Common . The letters were widely reprinted throughout the British North American colonies , and acts of protest took place as far away as Philadelphia . The Massachusetts assembly and governor 's council petitioned the Board of Trade for Hutchinson 's removal . In the Privy Council hearing concerning Hutchinson 's fate , in which the aftermath of the Boston Tea Party was also discussed , Franklin stood silently while he was lambasted by Solicitor General Alexander Wedderburn for his role in the affair . He was accused of thievery and dishonor , and called the prime mover in England on behalf of Boston 's radical Committee of Correspondence . The Board of Trade dismissed Franklin from his post as colonial Postmaster General , and dismissed the petition for Hutchinson 's removal as " groundless " and " vexatious " . Parliament then passed the so @-@ called " Coercive Acts " , a package of measures designed to punish Massachusetts for the tea party . Hutchinson was recalled , and the Massachusetts governorship was given to the commander of British forces in North America , Lieutenant General Thomas Gage . Hutchinson left Massachusetts in May 1774 , never to return . Andrew Oliver suffered a stroke and died in March 1774 .

Gage 's implementation of the Coercive Acts further raised tensions that led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in April 1775 . Franklin , who had been politically neutral with respect to the colonial radicals prior to his appearance before the Board of Trade , returned to America in early 1775 , committed to independence . He went on to serve in the Second Continental Congress and became a leading figure in the American Revolution .

= = Who gave Franklin the letters ? = =

A number of candidates have been proposed as the means by which Benjamin Franklin acquired the letters . John Temple , despite his political differences with Hutchinson , was apparently able to convince the latter in 1774 that he was not involved in their acquisition . He did , however , claim to know who was involved , but refused to name him , because that would " prove the ruin of the guilty party . " Several historians ( including Bernard Bailyn and Bernard Knollenberg ) have concluded that Thomas Pownall was the probable source of the letters . Pownall was Massachusetts governor before Francis Bernard , had similar views to Franklin on colonial matters , and had access to centers of colonial administration through his brother John , the colonial secretary . Other individuals have also been suggested , but all appear to have an only tenuous connection to Franklin or the situation . Historian Kenneth Penegar believes the question will remain unanswerable unless new documents emerge to shed light on the episode .

= Massive Attack ( song ) =

" Massive Attack " is a song by American rapper Nicki Minaj and American recording artist Sean Garrett . Written by Minaj , co @-@ written and produced by Garrett and Alex da Kid , " Massive Attack " was released on April 13 , 2010 . It was initially intended to be the first single from Minaj 's debut studio album Pink Friday , but the release was later scrapped in favor of " Your Love " . The song was a distinct change in Minaj 's previous work on mixtapes and features , thus receiving mixed to positive reviews from critics , commending lyrical content and distinctiveness , and critiquing that it did not fit her " Barbie " persona well . An accompanying music video which features a helicopter chase , and militaristic jungle and desert scenes , was positively received .

Commercially , the song had limited success , reaching number 65 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart but only managing to bubble under the Billboard Hot 100 at 22 . Later in an interview with Billboard magazine , Garrett revealed that the song would not be included on Pink Friday and that the poor performance of the song was out of his control , " I was only able to do as much as I was allowed to do . Sometimes you have to step back and get off the wheel . I didn 't have control of the entire creative process . A lot of [ other ] artists trust me enough and allow me to do what I know is best to do as a producer " .

= = Background = =

In an interview with Rap @-@ Up in March 2010 , Minaj revealed the title to the song , and Garrett later hinted around details around his single with Minaj , stating ,

" I just did Nicki ’ s first single featuring me . It ’ s gonna be a fucking bomb . It ’ s very , very explosive ! It ’ s a club banger . It ’ s a lot broader than what people would expect her to come with . The record puts her in the game in a way that says she should ’ ve been here a long time ago . She has a real way of how she wants to do this . It ’ s just gonna be a surprise when it comes . She just wants to make it as huge as possible . "

Additionally , co @-@ producer Alex da Kid said , " I started on the train and finished in the studio . I knew it was special from the start . It wasn 't like I was aiming for Nicki with this track ; I had a idea I thought was crazy . Nicki heard it and the rest was history . " In an interview with MTV News , Minaj stated when she first heard the song she felt she was in Africa and fell in love with the drum beats , and commented , " It 's a very rare . ... You 're not gonna get the song the first time you hear it . After the second or third time , you 're gonna be like , ' Whoa , what is this ? ' It sounds nothing like anything that 's out right now . " She also called the song " next @-@ level futuristic " , and said that she chose Garrett for the song in that he would be the best to " illustrate Nicki Minaj " , as he got her and her personality " . In an interview on the set of the video shoot for " Massive Attack " , Minaj said , " I 'm excited for people to hear me ... doing more than one verse . It 's really creative . I wanted to be theatrical , but I am very serous about what I do . " Also on the set of the video , Garrett said , " We wanted to give her something that was global , " he continued . " We wanted to give her something that was urban ; we wanted to give her something that was mainstream pop , you know what I mean , that the world could get a chance to see her out on this pedestal . And of course , you know , I had to come along with her , because I 've got an album dropping soon . " The song made its debut March 29 , 2010 on WQHT . The song leaked onto the Internet on March 30 , 2010 , the day before its music video premiere on 106 & Park . The single 's art cover was revealed on April 1 , 2010 , featuring a still of Minaj in the music video as a ninja and comic book font designs . Alex da Kid said that a lot of artists wanted the beat such as Jamie Foxx and Young Jeezy but he gave it to Nicki because it fit her " quirky , left @-@ field vibe . "

Alex da Kid was also interviewed by Rap @-@ Up , and when asked about the commercial flop of the song and he said , " My whole thing [ is that ] I don ’ t want to do anything that ’ s the same as what ’ s out there , I think ' Massive Attack ' may have been too different . If we would 've put a big feature on it , like a Kanye or Rihanna or someone , I think it might 've done a bit better . It needed something familiar about it . "

= = Music and lyrics = =

The song fuses hip @-@ hop and dance as Minaj delivers her lyrics in a Caribbean accent . It is composed in a " futuristic " style with heavy drum beats . It carries a " chaotic " beat with " screechy Euro @-@ club synths " compared to Timbaland . Minaj references E.T. The Extra Terrestrial , Mr. Miyagi , The Phantom of the Opera , and Simba and Mufasa of The Lion King film in her lines .

= = Critical reception = =

Monica Herrera of Billboard gave the single a mixed review , stating that Minaj , being " one of the most visually distinctive rappers to come along in years " , that the single was an " anticlimatic coming out song " , " considering the hype Minaj has generated through mixtapes , cameos and her co @-@ starring role in Lil Wayne 's Young Money project " . However Hererra did commend the lyrical content , stating " her sassy one @-@ liners are as entertaining as always " , and the overall production although it didn 't suit Minaj 's " her mental @-@ patient delivery nearly as well as , say , Kane Beatz ' simpler track for Young Money 's " BedRock " . Robbie Daw of ' Idolator ' said , " we wouldn ’ t expect Nicki to do any less than come out of the gate charging full force , lyrically , on her debut single . That said , we were expecting maybe a tad more of a melody on the track . " Chris Ryan of ' MTV Buzzworthy ' gave the song a positive review , stating " you get the feeling , listening to the song 's air @-@ raid keyboards and thunderous beats , that the Young Money princess really wants to separate herself from the rap pack and carve out a space all her own " . Ryan also said , " her verbal dexterity , complex flow and humor , Nicki is reminiscent of classic Missy Elliott -- and that 's a compliment of the highest order " .

= = Music video = =

A music video for the single was shot on March 15 , 2010 in the deserts of Lancaster , California , directed by Hype Williams . When talking to ' MTV News ' about the video Minaj stated ,

" I didn 't want to shoot the typical new @-@ artist vision . Thank God I have a wonderful label that stands behind me and my vision . I met Hype in a freakin ' airport ... and it happened to be a week before I wanted to shoot a video . I told him the idea . Of course , I had to let Baby and Slim know and hope they would understand my expensive taste . It all came together . " It 's just beautiful — the clothes , everything . The ambiance .. It 's for all the girls that like to play dress @-@ up . They 're gonna love this one ... we get on the walkie @-@ talkie , like , ' Mayday ! Mayday ! ' It 's really fashion and beauty shots , and we 're acting like we 're doing something important . We wanted to make it pretty in the dirt . We wanted to have a very crazy contrast . I didn 't want to do everything clean . I like the dirt . All that pink stuff looks even prettier in the dirt . "

= = = Concept = = =

Sean Garrett appears in the video and Birdman , Amber Rose , and Ringmasters of Season 3 of America 's Best Dance Crew make cameos . The video premiered on BET 's 106 & Park on March 31 , 2010 The video comprises a helicopter chase and militaristic desert and jungle scenes . The music video begins with Birdman giving Minaj a stack of money to carry to an unknown area in the desert . As the song begins Minaj appears in a blonde wig with a pink background which than cuts to Minaj riding in a pink Lamborghini with Amber Rose driving as a potential new take on Thelma & Louise in a helicopter chase . Shots of desert creatures and Minaj in her Barbie wig are shown during the first hook . As the helicopter chase progresses , Minaj is seen singing to the camera in military gear and is later shown walking in an attacking line with her Harajuku Army , which are all dressed in the same gear with pink wigs under helmets . During the chorus of the song , a shirtless Garrett is shown singing into the camera while clips of the helicopter chase are interpreted . During the second verse Minaj is in the jungle as a ninja with a long pink braid running down her back as she crawls on the ground and walks around the jungle . Some clips of two men ( from Ringmasters ) dancing with double @-@ jointed shoulders are also shown . During the climax of the song Minaj is still in the jungle this time with a green wig were dancing in the mud and comes out of the water , crawling through the forest . The video ends as clips of the entire video are shown and closes with Minaj and Rose escaping in the pink Lamborghini .

= = = Reception and lawsuit = = =

The video garnered media attention , with Monica Herrera of Billboard commenting on a review for the single , " It figures , then , that discussion of her debut single , " Massive Attack , " would take a back seat to its Hype Williams @-@ directed , B @-@ movie @-@ inspired video . " Chris Ryan of MTV News commented on the video , saying , " We L @-@ U @-@ V Barbie because she 's a trendsetter and a strident , unique artist . But with great style comes great responsibility . Her video for ' Massive Attack , ' the first single off her long @-@ awaited debut album , is bananas " .

On June 11 , 2010 Hollywood Exotic Car Rental filed a lawsuit against Minaj for damages and unpaid rental charges on the car . They claimed that the vehicle was driven " off @-@ road " and damaged “ in the approximate amount of $ 11 @,@ 589 @.@ 41 . " Along with damages to the car , Minaj rented the car for $ 1 @,@ 750 a day , and used the vehicle an additional three days totaling in an extra $ 5 @,@ 250 owed . The rental company is suing for unpaid rental charges , property damage , and punitive damage .

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Shepseskare =

Shepseskare or Shepseskara ( Egyptian for " Noble is the Soul of Ra " ) was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty ( 2494 – 2345 BC ) during the Old Kingdom period . Shepseskare lived in the mid @-@ 25th century BC and was probably the owner of an unfinished pyramid in Abusir , which was abandoned after a few weeks of work in the earliest stages of its construction .

Following historical sources , Shepseskare was traditionally believed to have reigned for seven years , succeeding Neferirkare Kakai and preceding Neferefre on the throne , making him the fourth ruler of the dynasty . He is the most obscure ruler of this dynasty and the Egyptologist Miroslav Verner has strongly argued that Shepseskare 's reign lasted only a few months at the most , after that of Neferefre . This conclusion is based upon the state and location of Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid in Abusir as well as the very small number of artefacts attributable to this king . Verner 's arguments have now convinced several Egyptologists such as Darrell Baker and Erik Hornung .

Shepseskare 's relations to his predecessor and successor are not known for certain . Verner has proposed that he was a son of Sahure and a brother to Neferirkare Kakai , who briefly seized the throne following the premature death of his predecessor and probable nephew , Neferefre . Shepseskare may himself have died unexpectedly or he may have lost the throne to another of his nephews , the future pharaoh Nyuserre Ini . The possibility that Shepseskare was a short @-@ lived usurper from outside the royal family cannot be totally excluded .

= = Attestations = =

= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =

Shepseskare was a king of Ancient Egypt , the fourth or fifth ruler of the Fifth Dynasty . Egypt was unified at the time , with its capital located at Memphis . Shepseskare is the least @-@ known king of the Fifth Dynasty as very few artefacts dating to his reign have survived to this day . Only two cylinder seals of Shepseskare are known : one , made of bronze , bears Shepseskare 's Horus name and was uncovered in the ruins of Memphis in the early 20th century . The second seal , of unknown provenance , is made of black serpentine and reads " Shepseskare beloved of the gods , Shepseskare beloved of Hathor " . Beyond these two seals the only surviving artefacts attributable to Shepseskare are five fragments of seal impressions on clay from Abusir and six further fragments discovered in the mortuary temple and Sanctuary of the Knife of the Pyramid of Neferefre , also in Abusir . These fragments probably come from three different seals and were most likely placed on the doors of magazine rooms in the temple .

Finally , there is a single scarab seal reading " Shepeskare " [ sic ] that the Egyptologist Flinders Petrie attributed to Shepseskare at the end of the 19th century . Modern scholars doubt this attribution and rather believe the scarab to be a work of the much later Saite period ( 685 – 525 BC ) executed in archaic style . Equally , the scarab could belong to Gemenefkhonsbak Shepeskare , an obscure kinglet of Tanis during the 25th Dynasty ( 760 – 656 BC ) .

= = = Historical sources = = =

The only ancient Egyptian king list mentioning Shepseskare is the Saqqara Tablet ( on the 28th entry ) . The tablet was inscribed during the reign of Ramesses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) , around 1200 years after Shepseskare 's lifetime , and records the dynastic succession Neferikare → Shepseskare → Neferkhare ( a variant name of Neferefre ) . Shepseskare is completely absent from another king list dating to the same period : the Abydos king list , written during the reign of Seti I ( 1294 – 1279 BC ) . He is also absent from the Turin canon ( reign of Ramses II ) , although in this case a lacuna affects the papyrus on which the list is written at the place where Shepseskare and Neferefre 's names should have been . Of the two entries concerning Shepseskare and Neferefre on the king list , only one reign length is still legible and it has been variously read as one year , eleven years or one to four months . The damaged state of the papyrus also makes it impossible to decide safely whose reign length this is .

Shepseskare was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is now known only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned the succession " Nefercheres → Sisires → Cheres " for the mid Fifth Dynasty . Nefercheres and Cheres are believed to be the hellenized forms for Neferirkare and Neferkhare ( that is Neferefre ) , respectively . Thus , " Sisires " is traditionally believed to be the Greek name of Shepseskare , making Manetho 's reconstruction of the Fifth Dynasty in good agreement with the Saqqara tablet . Furthermore , according to Africanus , Manetho credits Sisires with seven years of reign while other sources report Manetho 's figure as nine years .

= = Reign = =

= = = Chronological position = = =

Both the relative chronological position and absolute dates of Shepseskare 's reign are uncertain . The Saqqara Tablet records Shepseskare as the successor of Neferirkare Kakai and the predecessor of Neferefre , which became the traditional opinion among Egyptologists . Following discoveries in the early 1980s , the Czech Egyptologist Miroslav Verner advocates the hypothesis that Shepseskare succeeded , rather than preceded , Neferefre .

In support of this hypothesis , Verner first emphasizes the presence of several clay seal impressions bearing Shepseskare 's Horus name " Sekhemkaw " ( meaning " He whose apparitions are powerful " ) in the oldest part of Neferere 's mortuary temple , which was not built " until Neferefre 's death " . This appears to suggest that Shepseskare ruled after — rather than before — Neferefre . Verner 's second argument concerns the alignment of pyramids of Sahure , Neferirkare Kakai and Neferefre : they form a line pointing to Heliopolis , just as the three pyramids of Giza do . In contrast , Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid does not fall on the line to Heliopolis , which strongly suggests that Neferefre 's pyramid had already been in place when Shepseskare started his . Finally , Verner observes that Neferefre is known to have been Neferirkare 's eldest son and around 20 years old when his father died so that he was in optimal position to inherit the throne . Shespeskare thus most likely took the throne after Neferefre . As Verner notes , while Shepseskare is noted as the immediate predecessor of Neferefre in the Saqqara tablet , " this slight discrepancy can ... be attributed to the [ political ] disorders of the time and its dynastic disputes . "

= = = Duration = = =

In two articles published in 2000 and 2001 Verner argues that , contrary to what Manetho indicates , Shepseskare must have reigned for a couple of months at the most , an hypothesis already proposed by the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal in 1988 . Verner 's conclusion is based on the archeological record , in particular Shepseskare 's intended pyramid at Abusir . Verner emphasizes that the progress of the pyramid , which is unfinished ,

was interrupted [ and ] corresponds to the work of several weeks , perhaps no more than one or two months . In fact , the place was merely leveled and the excavation of the pit for the construction of the underground funerary apartment had only commenced . Moreover , the owner of the building obviously wanted to demonstrate by his choice of place ( half @-@ way between Sahure 's pyramid and the sun temple of Userkaf ) his relationship to either Sahure or Userkaf . Theoretically , only two kings of the Fifth Dynasty whose pyramids had not yet been identified can be taken into consideration – Shepseskara or Menkauhor . However , according to a number of contemporaneous documents , Menkauhor ... probably completed [ his ] pyramid elsewhere , in North Saqqara or Dahshur . Shepseskara , therefore , seems to be the likelier owner of the unfinished platform for a pyramid in North Abusir . Anyway , the builder of the platform [ viz . , Shepseskare ] must have reigned for a very short time .

The rediscovery in 2008 of the Headless Pyramid in Saqqara and its subsequent attribution to Menkauhor Kaiu by the excavators under the direction of Zahi Hawass confirms Verner 's attribution of the unfinished pyramid of Abusir to Shepseskare .

Unlike the other kings of the Fifth Dynasty , Shepseskare 's name appears neither in the personal names of people of the time nor in the names of funerary estates . He is also absent from the titles and biographies of state officials . For example , the stela of the Fifth Dynasty official Khau @-@ Ptah lists an uninterrupted sequence of kings whom he served under , namely Sahure , Neferirkare , Neferefre and Nyuserre . The omission of Shepseskare , be it between Neferirkare and Neferefre or between Neferefre and Nyuserre , indicates that his reign must have been very short . Since Manetho 's Aegyptiaca dates to the 3rd century BC , Khau @-@ Ptah 's contemporary account can be regarded as a more accurate indication of the political situation during the Fifth Dynasty .

Verner 's arguments together with the scarcity of artefacts attributable to Shepseskare have now convinced many Egyptologists , such as Darrell Baker and Erik Hornung , that Shepseskare 's reign was indeed ephemeral .

= = Family = =

In view of the scarcity of sources concerning Shepseskare , nothing is known for certain about his relation to his predecessors . He was most likely a member of the royal family , although the possibility that he was a usurper unrelated to his predecessors cannot be totally excluded .

Verner has proposed that Shepseskare was a son of Sahure who managed to briefly seize power after the premature death of Neferefre . This would explain the proximity of Shepseskare 's unfinished pyramid to that of Sahure . Lending credence to this theory is the discovery by Verner and Tarek El Awady in 2005 of reliefs from the causeway of Sahure 's pyramid complex showing him , his wife Meretnebty and their two sons Ranefer and Netjerirenre . The relief gives both sons the title of " king 's eldest son " , indicating that they were possibly twins . The relief further indicates that Ranefer took the throne as " Neferirkare king of Upper and Lower Egypt " . Verner and Awady thus speculate that while Ranefer and his son Neferefre became kings , Netjerirenre could have attempted to seize the throne at the death of the latter . In this hypothesis Shepseskare would be the throne name of Netjerirenre .

Shepseskare 's reign may have been cut short by his unexpected death or his claim to the throne could have been thwarted by Nyuserre Ini , Neferefre 's younger brother and the younger son of King Neferirkare and Queen Khentkaus II . Khentkaus II 's pivotal role in Nyuserre 's eventual accession to the throne might explain her high esteem in Egyptian folklore and " the additional enlargement and upgrading of her mortuary temple " by Nyuserre . Nyuserre also seemed to have been favored by powerful courtiers and officials , foremost among whom was Ptahshepses , who would become Nyuserre 's son @-@ in @-@ law and vizier .

= = Building activities = =

= = = Pyramid = = =

An unfinished pyramid located in north Abusir , between the sun temple of Userkaf and the Pyramid of Sahure , is believed to belong to Shepseskare . The structure was discovered in 1980 by a Czechoslovakian archaeological team led by Miroslav Verner and seems to have been abandoned after no more than a few weeks or months of work . A square area of roughly 100 m2 ( 1 @,@ 100 sq ft ) was leveled and the digging of a T @-@ shaped ditch was just started in its center . This ditch was to be left open during the pyramid construction to allow for simultaneous works on the pyramid filling and its substructures . This construction technique is common to all pyramids of the Fifth Dynasty and can directly be seen in the case of the Pyramid of Neferefre , which was also left unfinished . This technique as well as the location of the unfinished pyramid in the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty indicates that it belonged in all likeliness to Shepseskare , the pyramids of the other kings of the dynasty being already known . If finished according to the established pattern , the pyramid would have reached 73 m ( 240 ft ) high , similar to the Pyramid of Neferirkare .

Analyzing the fragments of clay seals bearing Shepeseskare 's name , the Swiss Egyptologist Peter Kaplony has proposed that the ancient name of Shepseskare 's pyramid could be reconstructed as Rsj @-@ Špss @-@ k3 @-@ Rˁ , reading " Resj @-@ Shespeskare " and meaning " The awakening of Shepseskare " . Verner rejects this hypothesis , and he contests the reading of certain signs and their interpretation as the name of a pyramid .

= = = Sun temple = = =

Kaplony has proposed that Shepseskare started to build a sun temple named Ḥtp @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ , reading " Hotepibre " and meaning " Satisfied is the heart of Ra " . Although all the kings of the early to mid @-@ Fifth Dynasty , from Userkaf to Menkauhor Kaiu , did build sun temples , Verner regards Kaplony 's hypothesis as " sheer speculation " since it is based on the tentative reconstruction of a single clay seal . Verner first argues that this seal is not inscribed with Shepseskare 's name but rather bears traces of a Horus name which could equally well be that of Djedkare Isesi . Second , Verner notes that the name of a sun temple is rarely found with that of the king who built it : more often it is found with the name of another king during whose reign the seal was made . Finally , he doubts that the sign reading Ḥtp , " Hotep " , is really part of the name of a sun temple . Instead , he believes it is more probable that the seal either refers to the sun temple of Neferirkare , named St @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ.w , that is " Setibraw " ; or to that of Nyuserre , which was called Šsp @-@ jb @-@ Rˁ , " Shesepibraw " .

= = = Mortuary temple of Neferefre = = =

It is possible that Shepseskare continued the construction of the funerary complex of his predecessor . As Neferefre had died after a short reign , his pyramid complex was far from finished and neither the burial chamber nor the mortuary temple had been built . The planned pyramid was thus hastily changed into a square mastaba representing a stylized primeval hill and the accompanying mortuary temple was completed during the reign of Nyuserre . The presence of seals of Shepseskare in the oldest part of Neferefre 's mortuary temple could indicate that the former also undertook construction works there . The evidence for such works is uncertain : these seals could have been placed on boxes which were later moved into the magazine rooms of the temple . For example , seals of Userkaf , Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai were also found in the temple , while these three pharaohs died before Neferefre 's reign .

= Lum You =

Lum You ( ca . 1861 – January 31 , 1902 ) — sometimes spelled Lum Yu — was an immigrant Chinese laborer and convicted murderer in the Pacific Northwest . He is famous for being the only person to have been legally executed in Pacific County , Washington , and for his death row prison break supposedly arranged by the very jailers charged with his captivity .

= = Biography = =

Lum You was among the many Chinese laborers who came to Washington near the turn of the century . A proud , sociable dandy , You was well @-@ liked in the white community . He spoke a little English , and acted as an agent between the Chinese workers and their employers .

In 1894 You approached the South Bend police chief , Marion Egbert , complaining that a fellow Chinese resident by the name of Ging had threatened him . Egbert brushed You off and suggested he deal with the situation himself . You took this advice , attacking Ging with an axe . For this act he was convicted of assault ; he was fined $ 500 and was sentenced to a prison term of six months .

In the summer of 1901 , You was employed as a cannery worker and living in Bay Center . While playing cards on August 6 of that year , he was assaulted , threatened , and robbed by Oscar Bloom , a white man with a reputation as a bully . This time You did not approach the police , but instead immediately took matters into his own hands : he went to his room to retrieve his gun , sought out and shot Bloom in the abdomen , and then fled the scene . Bloom survived long enough to swear a deathbed affidavit identifying You as his killer .

Public sympathy for You was high , but white employers of the Chinese workers pressed officials for action to be taken against him . Accordingly , You was arrested on August 7 and in October 1901 was tried and convicted for the murder of Oscar Bloom . Contrary to the jurors ' belief that You would receive a light sentence , the judge ordered that You be hanged . The execution was scheduled for January 31 , 1902 .

Even after his conviction You continued to enjoy public support . Petitions for clemency , one of which was signed by one of the jurors , were sent to the state governor . County officials sympathized with You , supposedly leaving his cell door unlocked at night and encouraging him to escape . You eventually did escape , early in the morning of January 14 : one news report claimed the improvised lock to his cell door had been picked with the aid of a confederate . You hid in the environs of South Bend for several days , during which he was hunted by a squad led by sheriff Thomas A. Roney . On January 15 he was sighted by two men ; the following day the county commissioners met and agreed to offer a reward of $ 200 for You 's capture . On January 17 You was finally apprehended by a three @-@ man posse . You offered no resistance , and when asked how he escaped , said only that the door was open and he walked out .

On January 27 governor Henry McBride rejected one of the petitions for clemency on procedural grounds , and on January 30 confirmed by wire that he would not be commuting You 's sentence . Anticipation of the execution became so great that Roney was besieged with requests to attend . Roney issued 500 invitation cards , some examples of which survive .

You 's hanging proceeded as planned inside the courthouse of the county seat , South Bend , on the morning of January 31 , 1902 . Though it had been expected that he would break down , You ate fairly well that morning and went to the gallows without assistance . He bade his friends goodbye and then uttered his last words , to his executioners : " Kill me good . " The trap was sprung by means of a rope which , along with three dummy ropes , extended into an adjoining room . Each of the four executioners concealed in that room pulled his rope simultaneously , but only the sheriff knew which was the trigger .

You 's was the first and only official execution ever to take place in Pacific County . A month after his arrest , a new act of the Washington State Legislature took effect which required executions for any future crimes to be carried out at the Washington State Penitentiary in Walla Walla .

= = Legacy = =

Lum You 's trial and execution attracted a great deal of contemporary publicity in Pacific County , and has since passed into the realm of folk legend . His story has been researched and recounted by local historians Ruth Dixon , Willard R. Espy , and Sydney Stevens . Espy , also a nationally renowned poet , memorialized You in a humorous epitaph . You was also the subject of a biographical play , The Hanging of Lum You by the Oysterville @-@ based Shoalwater Storytellers .

= Henry Allingham =

Henry William Allingham ( 6 June 1896 – 18 July 2009 ) was a British supercentenarian , the oldest British man ever , First World War veteran and , for one month , the verified oldest living man in the world . He is also the second @-@ oldest military veteran ever , and at the time of his death , he was the 12th @-@ verified oldest man of all time .

Allingham was the oldest ever surviving member of any of the British Armed Forces and one of the oldest surviving veterans of the First World War . He was the last survivor of the Battle of Jutland , the last surviving member of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) and the last surviving founding member of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . In 2001 he became the face of the First World War veterans ' association and made frequent public appearances to ensure that awareness of the sacrifices of the First World War was not lost to modern generations . He received many honours and awards for his First World War service and his longevity .

= = Early life = =

Allingham was born in 1896 in Clapton , County of London . When he was 14 months old , his father , Henry Thomas Allingham ( 1868 @-@ 1897 ) , died at age 29 of tuberculosis . Henry is recorded in the 1901 census with his widowed mother Amy Jane Allingham ( née Foster ) ( 1873 @-@ 1915 ) , a laundress forewoman , living with her parents and brother at 23 Verulam Avenue , Walthamstow . His mother remarried in 1905 to Hubert George Higgs and in 1907 the family moved to Clapham , London . Henry and his mother are recorded in the 1911 Census living at 21 Heyford Avenue , Lambeth , while his stepfather was lodging away from home working as a wheelwright . Henry attended a London County Council school before attending the Regent Street Polytechnic . Allingham remembered seeing the City Imperial Volunteers return from the Second Boer War , and also recalled watching W. G. Grace play cricket . On leaving school , Allingham started work as a trainee surgical instrument maker at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital . He did not find this job very interesting , and so left to work for a coachbuilder specialising in car bodies .

= = First World War = =

Allingham wanted to join the war effort in August 1914 as a despatch rider , but his critically ill mother managed to persuade him to stay at home and look after her . However , after his mother died in 1915 , aged 42 , Allingham enlisted with the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . He became formally rated as an Air Mechanic Second Class on 21 September 1915 , and was posted to Chingford before completing his training at Sheerness , Kent . His RNAS serial number was RNAS F8317 .

After graduation , Allingham was posted to the RNAS Air Station at Great Yarmouth where he worked in aircraft maintenance . On 13 April 1916 , King George V inspected the air station and its aircraft . Allingham later reported disappointment at barely missing an opportunity to speak with the king .

Allingham also worked in Bacton , Norfolk , further up the coast , where night @-@ flying was conducted and was later involved in supporting anti @-@ submarine patrols . A typical patrol would last two or three days and would involve the manual labour of hoisting a seaplane in and out of the water by means of a deck @-@ mounted derrick .

During the preparations for what has become known as the Battle of Jutland , Allingham was ordered to join the naval trawler HMT Kingfisher . Onboard was a Sopwith Schneider seaplane that was used to patrol the surrounding waters for the German High Seas Fleet . Allingham 's responsibilities included helping to launch this aircraft . Although the Kingfisher was not directly involved in the battle ( it shadowed the British Grand Fleet and then the High Seas Fleet ) , Allingham still rightfully claimed to be the last known survivor of that battle and could recall " seeing shells ricocheting across the sea . "

In September 1917 , Allingham , by then an Air Mechanic First Class , was posted to the Western Front to join No. 12 Squadron RNAS . This unit acted as a training squadron for other RNAS squadrons based on the Western Front . There is also some evidence that the squadron was involved in combat operations . When Allingham arrived at Petite @-@ Synthe , both the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) and the RNAS were involved in the Ypres offensive . Allingham also instrumented the very first reconnaissance aircraft camera during the First World War . On 3 November 1917 , he was posted to the aircraft depot at Dunkirk , France where he remained for the rest of the war , on aircraft repair and recovery duties . He recalls being bombed from the air and shelled from both the land and the sea .

He transferred to the Royal Air Force when the RNAS and the RFC were merged on 1 April 1918 . The creation of the Royal Air Force did not initially have a big impact on Allingham and he later remarked that at that time he still considered himself a navy man . In the RAF he was ranked as a Rigger Aero , Aircraft Mechanic Second Class and was given a new service number : 208317 . Allingham returned to the Home Establishment in February 1919 and was formally discharged to the RAF Reserve on 16 April 1919 . During the last few years of his life Allingham was recognized as the last surviving founding member of the RAF . Speaking with Dennis Goodwin of the First World War Veterans ' Association , Allingham said , " It is a shock as well as a privilege to think that I am the only man alive from that original reorganisation when the RAF was formed . "

= = Inter @-@ war years = =

= = = Career = = =

In addition to his military service as a mechanic , Allingham spent the vast majority of his professional life as an engineer . His employers included Thorns Car Body Makers , Vickers General Motors and H.J.M. Car Body Builders . He started his longest stretch of employment in 1934 designing new car bodies for the Ford Motor Company at their Dagenham plant which had opened only a few years previously in 1931 .

= = = Family life = = =

Allingham met Dorothy Cator ( 1895 – 1970 ) in Great Yarmouth , Norfolk in 1918 . They married the same year in Romford , when she was 22 . They moved to Eastbourne , Sussex in 1960 and remained married until she died there from acute and chronic lymphatic leukaemia . They had two daughters , Betty ( born 1920 ) and Jean ( 1923 – 2001 ) . Jean emigrated to the United States and died aged 78 in 2001 . At the time of his death Allingham believed that Betty had died . He had lost touch with her in the 1970s following a family rift after the death of his wife in 1970 . In fact Betty Hankin was still alive aged 89 when her father died , and living in Stroud , Gloucestershire . In addition to his one remaining daughter Betty , at the time of his death Allingham had seven grandchildren , 16 great @-@ grandchildren , 14 great @-@ great @-@ grandchildren , and one great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandchild .

= = Second World War = =

During the Second World War , Allingham was in a reserved occupation and worked on a number of projects . Perhaps his most significant contribution was the design of an effective counter @-@ measure to the German magnetic mines . During his Christmas lunch in 1939 he was called away to help design a system that would neutralise the mines and open the port of Harwich , Essex . Nine days later , he had successfully completed the task .

= = Later life = =

After the Second World War Allingham continued to work for Ford until he retired in 1960 . After Denis Goodwin of the First World War Veterans ' Association tracked him down in 2001 , Allingham took a prominent role in telling his story so that later generations would not forget . On 16 October 2003 , he helped launch the 2003 Royal British Legion Poppy Appeal with model Nell McAndrew aboard the cruiser HMS Belfast . He was quoted as saying " [ The veterans ] have given all they have got for the country ... I owe them ... we all owe them . "

A ceremony at the Cenotaph in Whitehall , London on 4 August 2004 , marked the 90th anniversary of Britain 's entry into the First World War . Allingham attended , together with three other First World War veterans , William Stone , Fred Lloyd and John Oborne . Allingham also marched past the Cenotaph on Remembrance Sunday in 2005 and laid wreaths at memorials in Saint @-@ Omer on Armistice Day . That was the last time a First World War veteran marched past the Cenotaph and it marked the end of an era . No First World War veterans were present at the Cenotaph for the 2006 Remembrance Sunday Parade .

As the last surviving member of the RNAS , and the last living founding member of the RAF , Allingham was an honoured guest when the British Air Services Memorial was unveiled at Saint @-@ Omer on 11 September 2004 . During the ceremony Allingham was given the Gold Medal of Saint @-@ Omer , which marked the award of the Freedom of the Town . The group of RAF technical trainees that joined him at this ceremony continued to visit Allingham at his retirement home in Eastbourne , demonstrating the bond of respect that these men had for Allingham .

In November 2005 Allingham accepted an invitation from the International Holographic Portrait Archive to have his holographic portrait taken . His image was recorded for posterity in December 2005 . At the same time , an exhibition was being planned for London 's floating naval museum on board HMS Belfast , entitled the Ghosts of Jutland . A copy of this portrait was donated to the museum and HRH The Duchess of Gloucester unveiled the portrait to mark the opening of the exhibition .

Allingham was awarded the freedom of his home town of Eastbourne by the mayor on 21 April 2006 . He lived on his own until May 2006 when , one month before his 110th birthday and with failing eyesight , he moved to St Dunstan 's , a charity for blind ex @-@ service personnel , at Ovingdean , near Brighton . Aside from his poor eyesight , he was reportedly in good health , with visitors remarking on his memory and voice . Allingham attended the 1 July 2006 commemorations at the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing . He did not attend the 2006 Remembrance Day parade on 11 November at the Cenotaph as he was in France at a wreath @-@ laying ceremony and to receive the Freedom of The Town of Saint @-@ Omer . He did , however , launch the Eastbourne Poppy Appeal before leaving for this trip .

On 18 April 2007 Allingham visited Wilnecote High School in Tamworth , Staffordshire to answer students ' questions about the First World War , after they wrote to veterans asking them about their experiences . In October 2007 he was honoured at the Pride of Britain Awards . Between his 110th and 111th birthdays Allingham made over 60 public appearances , including a visit to The Oval on 5 June 2007 , the day before his 111th birthday , where he was wheeled around the boundary in front of the spectators .

On his 111th birthday , a Royal Marines band played to Allingham on board HMS Victory before he returned with friends and relatives to the Queen 's Hotel on the Portsmouth seafront for afternoon tea . Asked how it felt , Allingham replied , " I 'm pleased to be seeing another tomorrow . It 's just the same as it was as at any age , it 's no different . I 'm happy to be alive and I 'm looking forward to the celebrations . I never imagined I 'd get to 111 . "

On 1 April 2008 , the 90th anniversary of the establishment of the Royal Air Force , Allingham was guest of honour at the celebratory events at RAF Odiham in Hampshire . By then , Allingham was the only surviving founder member of the RAF .

Allingham celebrated his 112th birthday with members of his family at RAF Cranwell , Lincolnshire as the guest of honour at a luncheon at the college . During the day the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight performed a flypast which was followed by an aerobatic display from two Tutor aircraft . In June 2008 , at his personal request , Allingham was taken on a guided tour of the Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft at BAE Systems in Warton , Lancashire , as part of the National Veterans ' Day celebrations .

On 23 September 2008 , Allingham launched a book about his life , co @-@ written by Denis Goodwin , with an event at the RAF Club in London . On 11 November 2008 , marking the 90th anniversary of the end of the First World War , together with Harry Patch and Bill Stone , Allingham laid a commemorative wreath for the Act of Remembrance at The Cenotaph in London . Allingham was invested as a Scout on 18 November 2008 , 100 years after he first joined as a youth . He said he was only able to spend six weeks with his local group as a boy . Allingham celebrated his 113th birthday on HMS President , at an event hosted by the Royal Navy . He received a signed birthday card from First Sea Lord Sir Jonathon Band and saw a Mark 8 Royal Navy Lynx flying overhead while he was sitting outside in his wheelchair . When asked the secret of his long life , Allingham said , " I don 't know , but I would say , be as good as you possibly can . "

= = Oldest living man = =

Allingham credited " cigarettes , whisky and wild , wild women – and a good sense of humour " for his longevity .

Allingham overtook George Frederick Ives as the longest lived member of the British Armed Forces on 1 November 2007 . He was therefore the longest lived British First World War veteran to date .

Following the death of Tomoji Tanabe on 19 June 2009 , Allingham became the oldest living man . At his death , he was the oldest living veteran of the First World War , but not the longest lived member of any armed force in any conflict ; this record is held by Emiliano Mercado del Toro of Puerto Rico , who also served in the First World War .

Allingham was the oldest living man in England for several years . Official recognition by Guinness World Records came in January 2007 . On 8 February 2007 , when 110 @-@ year @-@ old Antonio Pierro died , Allingham became the oldest known living veteran of the First World War , and the third @-@ oldest living man in the world . After French supercentenarian Maurice Floquet died on 10 November 2006 , Allingham was the oldest validated living man in Europe . After Japanese man Sukesaburo Nakanishi died on 22 August 2007 , Allingham shared the position of second @-@ oldest man in the world with George Francis , an American man also born on 6 June 1896 , for more than a year until Francis died on 27 December 2008 . On 29 March 2009 , Allingham became the oldest British man of all time . With the death of Tomoji Tanabe on 19 June 2009 he became the oldest living man in the world ; after Allingham died , that title passed to Walter Breuning of Montana .

On 13 February 2007 , he became Britain 's second @-@ oldest living person , behind Florrie Baldwin , and on 29 March 2009 , he became the oldest ever British man , surpassing Welshman John Evans who died aged 112 years and 295 days . He was also the first ever verified British man to reach the age of 113 . On 18 July 2009 , Allingham died of natural causes aged 113 years and 42 days .

As the number of First World War veterans dwindled , calls grew to give the last remaining veteran a state funeral . The calls resulted in Her Majesty 's Government approving on 27 June 2006 a National Memorial Service at Westminster Abbey to take place after the death of the last known British First World War veteran . Prior to this announcement Allingham often said that he tried not to think about the prospect , but has also been quoted as saying " I don 't mind — as long as it 's not me . " Allingham received a letter from Member of Parliament Tom Watson on 14 July 2006 explaining the reasoning for a national memorial service rather than a state funeral , as the intention is to commemorate the entire generation that fought in the war rather than single out an individual .

In Harry Patch 's book The Last Fighting Tommy , the author claims that Allingham planned to leave his body to medical science . In his own book Kitchener 's Last Volunteer Allingham confirmed that he was intending to leave his body to medical science . However he was persuaded by Denis Goodwin to change his mind , as he became a symbol of World War I to remind people of the sacrifices made during the conflict . To that end he agreed to a funeral and cremation .

= = = Milestones = = =

6 June 1996 – 100th birthday

20 July 2003 – Oldest verified living British veteran of the First World War upon the death of Jack Davis

6 December 2005 – Oldest man living in Britain upon the death of Jerzy Pajączkowski @-@ Dydyński

6 June 2006 – 110th birthday

10 November 2006 – Oldest living man in Europe following the death of Frenchman Maurice Floquet

13 February 2007 – Second oldest person in Britain upon the death of Aida Mason

1 November 2007 – Oldest ever member of any British armed forces , surpassing George Ives who died in 1993 aged 111 years and 146 days

13 March 2008 – Oldest ever English man , surpassing John Mosely Turner who died in 1968 aged 111 years and 280 days

29 March 2009 – Oldest ever British man , surpassing Welshman John Evans who died in 1990 aged 112 years and 295 days

6 June 2009 – First British man to reach the age of 113

19 June 2009 – Oldest living man in the world following the death of Japanese man Tomoji Tanabe

18 July 2009 – Died aged 113 years 42 days , the second oldest man ever to die in Europe , behind only Joan Riudavets of Spain who died in 2004 aged 114 years and 81 days .

= = Awards = =

= = = War medals and awards = = =

Allingham was awarded four medals , two of which were medals from the First World War . The Gold Medal of Saint @-@ Omer was awarded to Allingham on 11 September 2004 when he was given the Freedom of the Town of Saint @-@ Omer . He was also awarded France 's highest military honour , the Légion d 'honneur , in which he was appointed a chevalier in 2003 and promoted to officier in 2009 . The remaining two medals are British Campaign Medals from the First World War : the British War Medal and the Victory Medal ; those two medals are colloquially known as " Mutt and Jeff " . These two medals are replacement medals supplied by the Ministry of Defence after discovering at a recent cenotaph parade that Allingham 's original campaign medals were destroyed during the Blitz of the Second World War .

= = = Honorary awards = = =

As well as the above @-@ mentioned decorations , Allingham won several awards and honorary memberships . Examples include the Pride of Britain award , and a position as an honorary member of the Fleet Air Arm Association .

Although not formally qualified he was recognised by the Institute of Mechanical Engineers ( IMechE ) who presented him with a Chartered Engineer award on 19 December 2008 .

Allingham had the following to say about the award :

Since entering the engineering profession I always hoped to become a chartered engineer , but when I was younger we just couldn ’ t afford it . It ’ s something I never thought would happen for me , so to receive this honorary certificate from IMechE is a lifetime ’ s goal finally realised . I am very grateful to the Institution for presenting me with the award .

This was followed on 22 May 2009 with the award of an honorary doctorate in engineering at the Southampton Solent University by the university 's chancellor , the former First Sea Lord Alan West , for his contribution to Britain and its allies during two world wars and his continuing charity work , especially connected with veteran servicemen and women .

= = Death and funeral = =

Allingham died of natural causes in his sleep at 3 : 10 am on 18 July 2009 at his care home , St Dunstan 's Centre in Ovingdean near Brighton , aged 113 years and 42 days . After his death Walter Breuning took over as the world 's oldest man .

Allingham 's funeral took place at St Nicholas ' Church , Brighton at noon on 30 July 2009 , with full military honours . His coffin was carried by three Royal Navy seamen and three RAF airmen . The service was preceded by a half @-@ muffled quarter peal on the church 's bells , rung by local ringers and members of the RAF and Royal Navy change ringing associations . Among the mourners were the Duchess of Gloucester , representing the Queen , and Veterans ' Minister Kevan Jones . Senior Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officers , including Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Adrian Johns and Air Vice @-@ Marshal Peter Dye , represented the two services of which Allingham had been a member . Allingham 's surviving daughter , Betty Hankin , 89 , attended the funeral , with several members of her family . The funeral was followed by a flypast of five replica First World War aircraft ; British and French buglers played the Last Post and Reveille ; and a bell was tolled 113 times , once for each year of his life .

The BBC commissioned Carol Ann Duffy , the Poet Laureate , to write a poem to mark the deaths of Allingham and Harry Patch , who died one week after Allingham on 25 July 2009 . The result , Last Post , was read by Duffy on the BBC Radio 4 programme Today on the day of Allingham 's funeral . A tree was planted , and a commemorative plaque unveiled , at the Eastbourne Redoubt on 22 May 2010 to mark Allingham 's residence in the town .

= = = Autobiography = = =

Allingham , Henry ; Goodwin , Denis ( 2008 ) . Kitchener 's Last Volunteer . Mainstream Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84596 @-@ 416 @-@ 0 .

= Ottoman ironclad Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik =

Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik ( Ottoman Turkish : God 's Favor ) was an ironclad warship of the Ottoman Navy built in the 1860s , the only member of her class . She was built as part of a major expansion program for the Ottoman fleet in the 1860s following the Crimean War . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was a 4 @,@ 600 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 4 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 5 @,@ 100 @-@ short @-@ ton ) barbette ship armed with a main battery of eight 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) guns in a central battery . In 1903 – 1906 , the ship was extensively rebuilt in Germany and a new battery of 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) quick @-@ firing guns replaced the older weapons .

Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik served in the Ottoman fleet for more than four decades . During this period , she saw action in two major wars , the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 88 and the First Balkan War in 1913 . During the first conflict , she was torpedoed by a Russian torpedo boat but was only slightly damaged . She took part in the abortive Battle of Elli against the Greek Navy in December 1912 during the First Balkan War . While operating against Bulgarian positions in February 1913 , she ran aground ; Bulgarian field artillery then shelled the ship . The damage they inflicted , coupled with heavy seas , destroyed the ship .

= = Design = =

In the aftermath of the Crimean War , where an entire Ottoman squadron was destroyed by a Russian fleet at Sinop , the Ottoman Empire began a small naval construction program , limited primarily by the chronically weak Ottoman economy . The design for Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was based on contemporary French warships like the Colbert @-@ class ironclads , although significantly reduced in size .

= = = General characteristics = = =

Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was 83 @.@ 01 meters ( 272 @.@ 3 ft ) long between perpendiculars and she had a beam of 16 m ( 52 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) . She displaced 4 @,@ 687 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 613 long tons ; 5 @,@ 167 short tons ) normally . The ship had an iron hull with a partial double bottom and a ram bow , as was customary for ironclads of the period . She had a crew of 320 officers and enlisted men . In 1903 – 06 , the ship was substantially rebuilt . Both ends were cut down , a single military mast was installed amidships , and a new conning tower was built .

The ship was powered by a single horizontal compound steam engine that drove one screw propeller . Steam was provided by six box boilers , which were trunked into a single funnel amidships . The engines and boilers were both manufactured by her builder at the La Seyne shipyard . The engines were rated at 3 @,@ 560 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 650 kW ) for a top speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , though by 1895 poor maintenance over her career had reduced her top speed to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The steam engine was supplemented by a barque sailing rig . During the reconstruction , the sailing rig was removed and the old boilers were replaced with newer Niclausse boilers . She also received a new engine , the performance of which is unknown .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was armed with a main battery of eight 220 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) muzzle @-@ loading guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . Six of the guns were mounted in an armored battery amidships , with three on each broadside , and the other two were placed directly above in open barbettes . In 1891 , the two barbette guns were replaced with 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) breech @-@ loading guns built by Krupp , and several smaller Krupp guns were installed . These included a pair of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) guns and a pair of 63 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Two 25 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 in ) Nordenfelt guns were also added .

The ship 's armament was radically revised during the 1903 – 06 reconstruction . All of the old guns were removed and a battery of medium @-@ caliber quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns manufactured by Krupp was installed . Three 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in single shielded mounts were placed forward , with one on the forecastle and the other two abreast of the conning tower . The central battery guns were replaced with six 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) SK L / 40 guns , with a seventh gun mounted on the stern . Six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) QF guns were also added .

As built , the ship was protected with an iron armored belt that was 200 mm ( 8 in ) thick . The transverse bulkheads that connected both ends of the belt were 75 mm ( 3 in ) thick . The central battery had thinner iron plating than the belt , at 150 mm ( 6 in ) , and the barbette guns were protected with 130 mm ( 5 in ) of iron . The reconstruction added a 75 mm armored deck , and the new conning tower was protected with 150 mm thick armor plating .

= = Service history = =

Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was ordered in 1865 by the government of Egypt as Ibrahimiye and laid down two years later at the French Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne . The ship was launched in 1868 and completed by 1869 for sea trials . In the meantime , Egypt had transitioned from a state directly ruled by the Ottoman government to the autonomous Khedivate of Egypt , and on 29 August 1868 the Khedivate transferred the ship to the Ottoman Navy . She was commissioned as Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik in 1870 .

= = = Russo @-@ Turkish War = = =

The ship saw action during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 88 . She spent the war in the Black Sea squadron . The Ottoman fleet , commanded by Hobart Pasha , was vastly superior to the Russian Black Sea Fleet ; the only ironclads the Russians possessed there were the two Admiral Popov @-@ class ships , circular vessels that had proved to be useless in service . The presence of the fleet did force the Russians to keep two corps in reserve for coastal defense , but the Ottoman high command failed to make use of its naval superiority in a more meaningful way , particularly to hinder the Russian advance into the Balkans . Hobart Pasha took the fleet to the western Black Sea , where he was able to make a more aggressive use of it to support the Ottoman forces battling the Russians in the Caucasus . The fleet bombarded Poti and assisted in the defense of Batumi .

In June , the Russian Baltic Fleet began a campaign to neutralize the Ottoman ironclads using torpedo boats equipped with towed and spar torpedoes . On the night of 23 – 24 August 1877 , three Russian torpedo boats , Miner , Navarin , and Sinop , attempted to sink the ship with spar torpedoes while she was moored in Sukhumi . Gunfire from the Ottoman ships , along with troops on the shore , made the Russian attack difficult . Sinop detonated her torpedo against a boat that was protecting Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , causing only minor damage to the ironclad , though the Russians initially believed they had sunk her . The ship was able to steam to Batumi , where she was repaired . The attackers had been aided by a fire burning on the beach , which illuminated the Ottoman vessels in the harbor . The Ottoman fleet continued to support the Ottoman garrison at Batumi , when held out against constant Russian attacks to the end of the war . After the end of the war , the ship was laid up in 1878 at Constantinople , the Ottoman capital .

= = = Modernization = = =

From 1890 to 1892 , the ship was re @-@ boilered at the Imperial Arsenal on the Golden Horn . Following the Greco @-@ Turkish War in 1897 , which highlighted the seriously degraded state of the Ottoman fleet , the government decided to begin a naval reconstruction program . The first stage was to rebuild the older armored warships , including Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . Requests for proposals were sent to foreign shipyards , and in October 1898 the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa requested permission to survey the ship and the ironclad Mesudiye . Both vessels were accordingly sent to Genoa in January 1899 , arriving on the 28th . There she was briefly laid up . Instead , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was transferred to the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , Germany for a major reconstruction , arriving on 29 May 1900 , with the transport İzmir .

After docking in Kiel , the men from Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik were transferred to İzmir , but with no funds to buy coal , the men were stranded in Germany . Germaniawerft stripped down Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , but then halted work to await the first Ottoman payment . By mid @-@ 1901 , the men had accumulated significant debt and the Ottoman government had made no effort to return them or pay the installments for the modernization program . Even Kaiser Wilhelm II became involved in an attempt to press the Ottoman government to settle the debts incurred by the sailors . Instead , the Ottomans demanded that Krupp , the owner of the Germaniawerft shipyard , make an advance of 6 @,@ 000 lira so that İzmir could be prepared for the voyage back to Constantinople . The Ottomans were at the time negotiating for a large armament contract with Krupp for the Army , and used this as leverage ; by late 1901 , Krupp conceded , rather than risk the lucrative contract . The debts in Kiel were paid and İzmir finally departed for home .

No work was done to the ship over the following two years . On 18 January 1904 , Ottoman negotiators began a new round of talks with Krupp , demanding a reduction in the cost of the modernization from 282 @,@ 000 lira to 65 @,@ 000 lira ; this amount does not cover the preparatory work that had been initially carried out , let alone the reconstruction . In return , the Ottoman government would order a pair of torpedo cruisers — the Peyk @-@ i Şevket class — from Germaniawerft . With the armament contract still under negotiation , Krupp was forced to concede , despite the significant financial loss the reconstruction deal represented . By April , the armament contract was signed , and so work began slowly on Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . Work was completed by late 1906 . The reconstructed ship departed Kiel on 19 November , and arrived in Constantinople on 4 January 1907 .

In 1909 , she participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was assigned to the Reserve Division , along with Mesudiye and the torpedo cruiser Berk @-@ i Satvet . She did not see action during the conflict , since the Ottoman fleet spent the war in port . This was in part due to the rising tensions in the Balkans that presaged the Balkan Wars ; the Ottomans kept their fleet in port so it could be prepared for the inevitable conflict .

= = = First Balkan War = = =

The ship saw significant service during the First Balkan War of 1912 – 13 . At the start of the war , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was suffering from boiler trouble , which necessitated repairs that lasted until 9 November . She was then sent to support the Ottoman troops defending the Çatalca Line against Bulgarian troops . She took up a position off Tekirdağ to provide gunfire support . After the Bulgarians occupied the town , she bombarded their positions , but the attack had little effect . The ship was then moved to Büyükçekmece , where she joined the rest of the fleet . They had no contact with Bulgarian forces during this period .

She took part in the Battle of Elli , the first Ottoman surface action involving major warships since the Russo @-@ Turkish War , on 16 December 1912 . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik joined a fleet consisting of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , Mesudiye , and several smaller warships . The Ottoman fleet sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 ; the smaller craft remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , hugging the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra @-@ class ironclads , sailing from the island of Lemnos , altered course to the northeast to block the advance of the Ottoman battleships .

The Ottoman ships opened fire on the Greeks at 9 : 40 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Five minutes later , Georgios Averof crossed over to the other side of the Ottoman fleet , placing the Ottomans in the unfavorable position of being under fire from both sides . At 9 : 50 and under heavy pressure from the Greek fleet , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and headed for the safety of the straits . The turn was poorly conducted , and the ships fell out of formation , blocking each other 's fields of fire . By 10 : 17 , both sides had ceased firing and the Ottoman fleet withdrew into the Dardanelles . When they approached the straits , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik and Mesudiye took up positions to cover the withdrawal of the damaged pre @-@ dreadnoughts . The ships reached port by 13 : 00 and transferred their casualties to the hospital ship Resit Paşa . Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik had not been hit in the engagement . The battle was considered a Greek victory , because the Ottoman fleet remained blockaded .

On 10 January 1913 , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik supported another sortie by the fleet , this time patrolling off the Dardanelles while the rest of the fleet raided Imbros . While protecting the fleet 's flank , she encountered Greek destroyers and forced them to withdraw after firing a few shots . Neither side scored any hits in the engagement . The ship was lost while operating in the Black Sea against Bulgarian forces . On 7 February , the ship was ordered to proceed to Yalıköy to support a raid by the Army . The following day , the raid was launched on the town , but was quickly forced to withdraw from heavy Bulgarian resistance ; Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik was ordered to move in and shell the town , but ran aground on an uncharted sandbank at 12 : 45 . On 10 February , salvage work began , beginning with the removal of equipment . By the 12th , all armament and coal had been removed , but the ship could not be freed . Heavy seas and Bulgarian artillery damaged the wreck , which rendered her a total loss .

= Jill Marsden ( EastEnders ) =

Detective Chief Inspector Jillian " Jill " Marsden is a fictional character in the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Sophie Stanton . She made her first appearance on 5 March 2001 investigating the shooting of Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) , which was part of the whodunit storyline " Who Shot Phil ? " . Marsden returned in 2002 , 2003 and 2009 ( for another whodunit storyline , " Who Killed Archie ? " ) . She returned on 5 January 2012 for her third whodunit storyline , " Who 's Stalking Phil ? " , departing four months later on 10 May 2012 . Marsden returned for two episodes on 17 August 2012 to conclude the latter storyline . On 16 July 2015 , she returned for part of the " Who Killed Lucy Beale ? " whodunit storyline .

When she was brought back in 2009 , Marsden 's feelings were explored in a segment of the BBC EastEnders homepage entitled " Marsden 's Video Diaries " , documenting the character 's thoughts about the storyline in which she was involved . Marsden 's relationship with Phil has been explored since her first appearance , with the BBC describing their relationship as a " romance in negative ... her ultimate dream is that some day she 'll get [ Phil ] behind bars " and the Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart calling her Phil 's " arch enemy " .

The character has been criticised by police detectives who felt that Marsden 's habit of discussing investigation details with suspects ( as her colleagues accepted bribes ) did not properly represent their profession . In response , the BBC said it had sought advice from a police consultant for storylines involving Marsden .

= = Storylines = =

= = = 2001 – 03 = = =

Marsden first arrives in Albert Square in March 2001 , investigating Phil Mitchell 's shooting in her first case as detective chief inspector . She identifies the five main suspects : Ian Beale ( Adam Woodyatt ) , Dan Sullivan ( Craig Fairbrass ) , Steve Owen ( Martin Kemp ) , Mark Fowler ( Todd Carty ) and Lisa Shaw ( Lucy Benjamin ) . Marsden arrests Dan for the shooting , although he is later acquitted due to lack of evidence . Dan was set up by Phil but it was , in fact , Lisa who shot him . Marsden later arrests Little Mo Slater ( Kacey Ainsworth ) for the attempted murder of her husband Trevor Morgan ( Alex Ferns ) . Little Mo claims self @-@ defence , since she has been a victim of domestic violence at the hands of Trevor . The trial ends , with Trevor 's treatment of Little Mo revealed . In 2003 , Sonia Jackson ( Natalie Cassidy ) visits Marsden with evidence that Phil killed his ex @-@ girlfriend Lisa . Jill helps set up a honey @-@ trap for Phil in order to obtain a confession from him , with PC Kate Morton ( Jill Halfpenny ) and DI Dominic Price ( Paul Brennen ) , but it fails when Kate falls in love with Phil and Marsden fires her . Marsden arrests Phil , but with insufficient evidence and no confession he is released . It later emerges that Lisa is safe and well , and Phil is innocent . Marsden later arrests Phil when Dennis Rickman ( Nigel Harman ) and Den Watts ( Leslie Grantham ) set him up in an armed robbery .

= = = 2009 – 10 = = =

Marsden reappears on Albert Square in 2009 when Archie Mitchell ( Larry Lamb ) is murdered . She arrives on the scene when several people say they suspect Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) , but Marsden waits before questioning her , and questions the Mitchells first . She makes a televised appeal for witnesses and later interviews Phil , but he is provided an alibi by his girlfriend Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) . A few days later , a red fingernail is found at the scene of the murder ; Marsden visits the female locals , checking their hands . Seeing an upset Heather Trott ( Cheryl Fergison ) , knowing that she is vulnerable and lives with Shirley , she talks to Heather about Christmas Day and Heather accidentally tells Marsden that Phil wasn 't there . Marsden interviews Phil and later visits his home , asking to see the clothes he was wearing on Christmas Day . Shirley shows her a clean shirt ; Marsden closes the laundrette , hoping anyone with blood @-@ stained clothes will not be able to wash them . After a tip @-@ off Marsden arrests Sam Mitchell ( Danniella Westbrook ) ; Sam accuses her mother , Peggy Mitchell ( Barbara Windsor ) , of the murder . Marsden confirms that she was there to talk to Peggy , questioning Peggy and Sam at the police station . Peggy is released without charge ; however , Sam is detained for jumping bail . Marsden visits Janine , who insists that people will say anything to get her in trouble . She asks Janine why she was out in the cold on Christmas Day , and asks if Janine knows where Archie 's laptop as it had gone missing .

On 18 January , Marsden arrests Ian after Janine told her that Ian took advantage of her , stole Archie 's laptop , which had a recording of them having sex on it , and dumped it in the canal . Ian refuses to talk , but when Marsden shows him CCTV footage of him dumping the laptop , and then shows him the recovered laptop , he admits visiting Archie on Christmas Day , claiming that Archie was threatening him . He wanted to delete the recording and denies murdering Archie , but Marsden charges him . Days later , Janine tells Marsden she saw Ian leave the Queen Victoria on Christmas Day but the bust of Queen Victoria was on the bar after he left . Marsden places Janine at the scene , but she also denies murdering Archie . Marsden tells Ian that although the murder charge will be dropped , he will still be charged with burglary and theft of Archie 's laptop . She and DC Wayne Hughes ( Jamie Treacher ) attend Archie 's funeral , watching people 's reactions in the hope of a new lead . Peggy returns to Archie 's grave ; when Marsden asks why , she explains that she didn 't believe him when he said his cancer had returned .

The following week , Ronnie Mitchell ( Samantha Womack ) spots her ex @-@ boyfriend Jack Branning ( Scott Maslen ) talking to Marsden ; Jack tells Ronnie that he was fishing for information . With no new leads , Marsden 's boss threatens to take her off the case . She reviews the suspects and decides to question Jack , since he is asking more questions than he has answered . In the café Marsden and Hughes discuss new information she has obtained , ensuring that she is overheard . Chinese whisper @-@ style rumours circulate , ending with the certainty that Marsden would arrest Ronnie . Ronnie sees Marsden in the Square , and a struggle ensues . She knocks Marsden down , is arrested and charged with assaulting a police officer but is released on bail . Marsden suspects Ronnie further , saying that she has now shown her true colours . Later , DC Jasmine Field ( Karen Ascoe ) enters the pub with other officers to arrest a suspect ; frightened , Ronnie leaves Walford . The police officers are there to arrest Dot Branning ( June Brown ) , who was accused by Dotty Cotton ( Molly Conlin ) after Dot slapped her . Jack confronts Marsden for unnecessarily sending a uniformed officer to arrest Dot and unsettling the locals , and realises there was no new information .

Janine tells Marsden that Ronnie has fled , but Marsden finds her at the Queen Vic . Marsden remarks that a new forensic profile has been found , and DNA screening of white males will shortly begin . After Hughes accepts a bribe from Jack to make the DNA samples disappear , Marsden receives an anonymous tip @-@ off . The police search Janine 's flat , finding the engagement ring that went missing the night of Archie 's murder , and Janine is arrested but later released for lack of evidence . Becca Swanson ( Simone James ) calls the police , saying that Bradley Branning ( Charlie Clements ) attacked Archie on Christmas Day , and the police arrive to arrest him . Marsden spots him when his phone rings ; two officers chase him to the roof , where he stumbles and falls to his death . The investigation ends , since the police believe that Bradley had killed Archie ; however , his killer was actually Stacey Slater ( Lacey Turner ) .

= = = 2012 = = =

In January 2012 , Denise Fox ( Diane Parish ) gives Marsden a letter incriminating Phil in the death of a homeless man , who died when he torched the car lot in an insurance scam in 1994 ; she adds that Phil also murdered Stella Crawford ( Sophie Thompson ) , and Marsden thanks Denise for the information . Marsden arrives in Walford and begins trailing Phil . She asks Denise not to tell Phil that she is in town , wanting to ensure Phil 's imprisonment . Marsden then targets Phil 's son Ben ( Joshua Pascoe ) , interviewing him about Stella 's death . Ben was abused by Stella and finds Marsden 's questions distressing ; however , she continues to press him . After a falling @-@ out with Phil Ben changes his statement , telling Marsden that Phil told Stella to jump off a building or he would push her . Marsden then arrests Phil for murder , and Ben reveals he was stalking him . She informs Phil 's partner , Shirley , that he has been charged with Stella 's murder . Ben pleads with Marsden to keep his statement a secret from the Mitchells , but she tells him he must accept that his father will learn about Ben 's involvement in his arrest eventually . After discovering Ben 's lies about Phil , Ian then passes this information on to Marsden and Ben is arrested . On the day of Phil 's release he helps Ben hide his involvement in Heather 's murder ; Marsden tells Phil at the police station she will contact him about Ben 's accusations . The charges against Ben are dropped ; Marsden visits Phil , taunting him that he will eventually slip up , and suggests that Ben may ultimately bring Phil down .

In August , Marsden reappears when Ben confesses Heather 's murder . She does not believe his confession , thinking it is another lie to get attention from Phil . However , Ben is arrested and charged with the murder after Marsden helps DS Luke Crisp ( Rufus Wright ) convince Jay Brown ( Jamie Borthwick ) to implicate Ben as Heather 's killer .

= = = 2015 – = = =

In July 2015 , the Beales are informed by DI Samantha Keeble ( Alison Newman ) that the police have a new DCI dealing with the murder of Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) , who is making an arrest . At Phil 's house , Marsden knocks on his door and Phil is shocked to see her . Marsden wants to speak to Ben about Lucy 's murder , but Phil slams the door in her face and then attempts to delay Marsden so Ben can flee Walford , but Ben is eventually arrested .

= = Development = =

= = = Characterisation = = =

Nicknamed the " female sleuth " by the Daily Record , Marsden 's profile on the EastEnders website describes her as " fearless , [ a ] no @-@ nonsense copper and the scourge of Walford ’ s criminal fraternity . " The East Anglian Daily Times described Marsden as " tough " , Ian Hyland from The Mirror called her " scary " and Nancy Banks @-@ Smith from The Guardian characterised her as " strict " . Naomi Mcelroy described Marsden as a " curly @-@ haired copper " , but said as a detective she was " rubbish " ; Polly Hudson from The Daily Mirror similarly opined , saying she was " useless " ( as did Mcelroy ) , and stated that Marsden was " making a right pig 's ear " of investigating Archie 's ( Lamb ) murder . The Daily Mirror 's Tony Stewart characterised her as " vindictive " .

= = = Introduction , 2002 and 2003 returns = = =

Marsden first appeared on 5 March 2001 in the " Who Shot Phil ? " storyline . In the whodunit storyline the five main suspects were Dan Sullivan , Steve Owen , Lisa Shaw , Ian Beale and Mark Fowler . A source in the Daily Record said , " Sooner or later the truth will out . But until then there 's going to be a lot of probing going on . " She left on 27 March 2001 after unsuccessfully identifying the shooter ( who turned out to be Lisa ) . In 2002 she appeared in January , April and from 14 November to 6 December . In November , when Marsden returns , the police suspect that Phil has murdered his ex @-@ wife Lisa . The Daily Mirror said , " They are the words Phil Mitchell has heard many times before . ' You 're nicked ' , baldy . Intrepid DCI Marsden may not be a Jane Tennison , but she 's nabbed her prime suspect . " I 've got some good news for you , Phil , " she says , after arresting him on suspicion of murder . " The police in Portugal found your jacket . Unfortunately for you , it 's covered in blood . Mrs Fowler 's blood ... " In 2003 , Marsden returned in March July , August , November and for a longer stint in December .

= = = Who Killed Archie ? and 2012 returns = = =

In November 2009 , it was reported that Stanton would reprise her role as Jill . Digital Spy forum members had previously pointed out that her return was hinted at in a photo on the official EastEnders website and in a feature ( " Script Peek " ) where Phil is quoted as saying , " I know exactly what makes her tick " before adding " I 've wriggled off her hook so many times . She 's already picturing me standing in the dock " in the 29 December episode . Marsden returned to investigate the murder of Archie Mitchell . A source told Digital Spy , " Marsden has a score to settle with Phil . She was never far behind Phil when he put a foot out of place all those years ago and she 's back with a vengeance ... With so many people in the frame for Archie 's murder , Marsden has a difficult job on her hands if she wants to pin it on Phil . " Of her return she said , " It came completely out of the blue , and knocked me for six . " ... I really thought Marsden was no more . It was a really great surprise because I ’ d just finished a year ’ s run at the National Theatre , appearing in a new play called England People Very Nice – so it couldn ’ t have come at a better time . " She returned on 28 December 2009 .

Although Stanton did not know who murdered Archie , she guessed that it could be Stacey Slater ( which turned out to be correct ) . Speaking of this , she said that Sophie was one of the few to correctly guess it was Stacey . " I had an epiphany about a week before the live episode . It was a memory of the whole Who Shot Phil ? storyline , and how there were eight different suspects , including some really hard blokes , and it turned out to be Lisa . I knew DCI Marsden wasn ’ t going to get the culprit , because of a couple of scenes of the following episode we ’ d shot in December , and I thought that narratively , Stacey was the only person who the audience would forgive , and who could get away with it . That was my theory and it turned out to be right ! " Naomi Mcelroy from The Sunday Mirror thought that Marsden could be Archie 's killer . Marsden left on 22 February 2010 , and returned on 5 January 2012 . She returned after Phil is framed for Kevin Wicks ' ( Phil Daniels ) ' s death and that of a homeless man , who died accidentally in a car @-@ lot fire ( part of an insurance scam ) . According to Inside Soap the police would begin questioning Phil 's former fiancée Stella Crawford 's death , teasing Marsden 's return : " The investigation is set to bring Phil face to face with his old nemisis , DCI Marsden – and this time she 'll stop at nothing to put the bad boy permanently behind bars " . Digital Spy reported that Marsden re @-@ opens the investigation into Stella 's death , " suspecting that all is not what it seems " . Finally , Marsden returned for two single episodes on 17 August 2012 .

= = = Who Killed Lucy Beale ? = = =

In July 2015 , it was revealed that Stanton would be reprising her role as Marsden for the continuation of the Who Killed Lucy Beale ? storyline . Whilst viewers know Bobby Beale is the culprit , Marsden , Samantha Keeble and Cameron Bryant will reportedly make an arrest for the murder , arresting an innocent suspect .

= = Related media = =

The BBC used viral promotion on the EastEnders homepage to further develop the storyline of Who Killed Archie ? , with Marsden the main character in the nine videos . A new section ( " Marsden 's Video Diaries " ) was launched , encompassing events on the show from 25 December 2009 onwards in diary style from Marsden 's point of view . Insight was provided on the character 's thoughts and feelings on the events surrounding her each week , beginning with the introduction : " Christmas Day . I should be at home with my feet up eating a mince pie and watching the Doctor Who Christmas special . Instead , I ’ ve been called into work . Murder . A bloody one too . The victim , one Archibald Mitchell . Not the first time a Mitchell 's ruined my night . Still , if this leads to Phil Mitchell all wrapped up in Walford nick by New Years day , might be the best present I ’ ve ever had . " On the videos Marsden discussed evidence , suspects she had brought in and her relationship with Phil .

During the next three video diaries , Marsden talks about the suspects and the evidence against them . In episode three it is Ronnie , Peggy and Sam ; in episode four she talks about Janine Butcher , and in episode five she discusses Ian 's motives . Towards the end of the series ( in episode seven ) , Marsden 's boss threatens to fire her if she does not capture the culprit : " I ’ ve got to get someone . I ’ ve got to pin this on someone . Every address in the immediate area door @-@ stopped . Five suspects questioned , one arrest . Nothing . They tell me nothing . Mitchell , the ex wife , the daughter , Beale , Butcher , [ Jack ] Branning , I ’ m getting closer , I just need time . Of course my boss is putting pressure on . Says I ’ m losing my touch , That he 'll take the case of me . This is my case . Somebody 's going down for it and it ain ’ t going to be me . " In the penultimate episode , Marsden announces that the DNA results have come through ; this is aired on EastEnders . The final episode of Marsden 's Video Diaries aired on 19 February 2010 , three days before Marsden 's departure in 2010 . In this episode ( " Case Closed " ) , the Lionel Richie song " Hello " plays as the " Who Killed Archie ? " storyline replays with the focus on Marsden . The BBC described the episode : " DCI Marsden 's caught Archie 's killer – or she 's collared someone for it at least . But Hello ! ? Was it Phil she was looking for ? Don 't tell us you didn 't spot the latent chemistry between this pair . Shirley must have been livid . We wouldn 't like to surmise what the DCI planned to do with Phil if she got him behind bars . But we do hope this is one Endless Love that will be revisited ... "

= = Reception = =

When Marsden returned in December 2002 , Ian Hyland of The Mirror said he disliked the " smouldering " sexual tension between Phil and Marsden . Jo Atkison of the Western Mail discussed the Marsden @-@ Kate @-@ Phil storyline , saying , " Betrayal with a capital B is the order of the day in the Square this week . It 's the cop Kate plot I 'm interested in . To shop or not to shop is a dilemma that Kate finds hard to cope with as she waits for the confession that will nail Phil for good " . In an interview with the East Anglian Daily Times , Stanton remarked that she was frequently asked to have her photo taken due to her role in EastEnders .

Real @-@ life police detectives criticised the portrayals of detectives Marsden and her colleague DC Wayne Hughes in the show , saying that viewers who see them talking to residents about the case and accepting bribes may believe that the police operate that way in reality . The BBC insisted that a police consultant was used , adding that " this is heightened fiction and all the things that we show might not always represent real life . " A spokesperson said , " We always have a police consultant on shows like this that we go to before casting . " Jane Simon and Brian Mclver described Marsden as having an " appetite for making random arrests " . Simon added , " While the list of suspects includes the entire northern hemisphere , it 's time for DCI Marsden to make another of her daily arrests . Like a Formula One pit stop , she has got it down to a fine art . " Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror commented on the " Who Killed Archie ? " storyline : " Despite widespread apathy , Albert Square 's Cockney rabble trundle on with the life @-@ sapping saga of Who Killed Archie ? Who gives a toss ? While potential murderers Phil , Ian , Bradley ( Charlie Clements ) and the gang hint furtively at their guilt , the absurd DCI Marple – sorry Marsden – keeps arresting bunny @-@ boiler Ronnie without a shred of evidence . " I 've spent 20 years building a career on hunches , " bragged Miss Marsden . Yeah , and you 've made it all the way to Walford nick . A real high flyer ! "

In 2015 , Laura @-@ Jayne Tyler from Inside Soap bemoaned Marsden 's return , saying " Can someone please explain to us why DCI Marsden is now in charge of the Lucy Beale case ? She couldn 't catch a bus , let along a killer . "

= Roxy Ann Peak =

Roxy Ann Peak is a 3 @,@ 576 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 1 @,@ 090 m ) mountain in the Western Cascade Range at the eastern edge of Medford , Oregon . Composed of several geologic layers , the majority of the peak is of volcanic origin and dates to the early Oligocene . It is primarily covered by oak savanna and open grassland on its lower slopes , and mixed coniferous forest on its upper slopes and summit . Despite the peak 's relatively small topographic prominence of 753 feet ( 230 m ) , it rises 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) above Medford and is visible from most of the Rogue Valley . The mountain is Medford 's most important viewshed , open space reserve , and recreational resource .

The peak was originally settled 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago by ancestors of the Latgawa Native American tribe . In the early 1850s , a sudden influx of non @-@ indigenous settlers resulted in the Rogue River Wars . After the wars , the Latgawa were forced away from the region onto reservations . The peak was named in the late 1850s after one of its first landowners , Roxy Ann Bowen .

In 1883 , the city of Medford was established to the west of the mountain , and became incorporated two years later . After acquiring a large amount of land from the Lions Club and the federal government between 1930 and 1933 , the city created the 1 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ( 704 ha ) Prescott Park in 1937 . The park protects much of the upper slopes and summit of the peak and remains largely undeveloped . The peak 's southern foothills have some quickly expanding single @-@ family residential subdivisions .

= = Geology = =

Roxy Ann Peak is part of the old and deeply eroded Western Cascades , along with nearby Pilot Rock , Grizzly Peak , and Baldy . It is composed of several distinct geologic layers . The oldest layer , the 35- to 50 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Payne Cliffs Formation , forms the base of the peak and consists of sedimentary sandstone , shale , and conglomerates . Most of the rest of the mountain is made up of 30- to 35 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old volcanic basalt , breccias , and agglomerates , known as the Roxy Formation . These rocks are some of the oldest in the Cascades . At the summit , younger basalt dikes and intrusions K – Ar dated to 30 @.@ 82 ± 2 million years ago form a relatively erosion @-@ resistant cap , likely contributing to the peak 's isolation and familiar conical shape . Much of the lower slopes of Roxy Ann are covered by a 4 @-@ to @-@ 5 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) layer of dense , sticky clay . Due to the clay 's low shear strength , the soil is prone to creep , earthflows , and landslides . Several large subdivisions lie on top of these deposits , some of which are up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) thick .

The peak stands 3 @,@ 576 feet ( 1 @,@ 090 m ) above sea level with a topographic prominence of 753 feet ( 230 m ) , and rises 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) above the surrounding Rogue Valley . The unique rounded top , location , and height of the peak create a landmark distinguishable from as far away as Shady Cove , 15 @.@ 5 miles ( 24 @.@ 9 km ) to the north , and the Siskiyou Summit , 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) to the south .

= = History = =

= = = Early history = = =

Humans have lived in the vicinity of Roxy Ann Peak for the past 8 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years . The first inhabitants were semi @-@ nomadic , most likely living off edible bulbs and large mammals such as mastodons and giant bison . Within the last millennium , the region became home to the Latgawa Native American tribe , who called the peak Al @-@ wiya . They probably used the mountain for gathering acorns and hunting black @-@ tailed deer and small birds , animals which are still abundant there .

The first European Americans to visit the area were a group of fur trappers led by Peter Skene Ogden who traveled north through the Rogue Valley on February 14 , 1827 . The first non @-@ indigenous settlers arrived a few decades later . The sudden increase in population created conflicts with the Latgawa , which ultimately led to the Rogue River Wars of 1855 and 1856 . After the wars , the remaining Latgawa were forced hundreds of miles north to the Siletz Reservation on the central Oregon Coast .

Early settlers named the peak Skinner Butte , after Alonzo A. Skinner , the Rogue Valley Indian agent between 1851 and 1853 . The current name of the mountain originates from one of its first residents , Roxy Ann Bowen . Two couples — Roxy Ann and her husband John McKee and Stephen and Mary Taylor — claimed almost the entire peak in 1853 , and by the late 1850s , it came to be known as Roxy Ann Peak .

In November 1883 , the Oregon and California Railroad was built through the center of the Rogue Valley , bypassing Jacksonville , the county seat . The railroad company also constructed a train depot halfway between Central Point and Phoenix , and platted 82 city blocks around it . The townsite was named Medford in December . In 1884 , residents celebrated the town 's first Independence Day by firing 38 cannon blasts — one for each U.S. state — from Roxy Ann Peak 's summit . Medford grew quickly , and was incorporated on February 24 , 1885 .

Beginning in the early 1900s , the mountain 's foothills were predominantly used for pear orchards and lignite mining . Mining ceased at the onset of World War I , and many of the orchards were abandoned during the Great Depression , but some still remain .

= = = Prescott Park = = =

In 1929 , the Lions Club purchased two sizable portions of land on the peak , and deeded 200 acres ( 80 @.@ 9 ha ) to Medford for recreational use the following year . In 1931 , the city acquired another 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 607 @.@ 0 ha ) via the Recreation and Public Purposes Act , and 40 acres ( 16 ha ) more in 1933 . The park was dedicated in 1937 to George J. Prescott , a Lions Club leader and Medford police officer who was killed on duty on March 16 , 1933 .

Starting in 1933 , the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) made the first improvements to Prescott Park , including constructing 18 miles ( 29 km ) of trails and a 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) access road ( Roxy Ann Road ) , creating several picnic areas and overlooks , and digging drainage ditches . The CCC stopped work in 1942 , soon after the beginning of World War II . Park maintenance ceased due to municipal budget problems , and gasoline rationing caused the number of visitors to drop markedly . By 1956 , the CCC 's improvements had suffered $ 110 @,@ 000 in damage . The trend of disrepair continued for several decades .

During the late 1990s , the park experienced a surge in vandalism , littering , and wildfires caused by off @-@ roading , and Roxy Ann Road became nearly impassable because of lack of maintenance . Medford police officers had to devote much of their time to patrolling the mountain , made difficult by the park 's remote location . To alleviate these problems , the city regraded Roxy Ann Road in 1998 , and installed two gates near the park entrance two years later . By 2006 , vandalism had decreased by 70 percent .

At 1 @,@ 740 acres ( 704 @.@ 2 ha ) , Prescott Park is Medford 's largest park , covering much of the upper slopes and summit of Roxy Ann . It is two and a half times larger than the city 's other parks combined .

= = = 21st century = = =

Prescott Park and Roxy Ann Peak 's upper slopes remain relatively undeveloped , being outside of Medford 's city limits and urban growth boundary . The summit of the peak is home to a 180 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) radio tower built in 2007 ; the new tower replaced three of four existing 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) towers . Roxy Ann Peak and nearby Baldy are the only two primary transmitter station sites in the Rogue Valley .

Residential development of the mountain 's southern foothills has been on the rise for several years , primarily in the form of single @-@ family residences . Construction costs have continued to rise as well , in part because of a bill passed in 2003 . Oregon House Bill 3375 required that new construction on slopes of 20 percent or greater with unstable soil undergo increased regulation and an extended approval process . The bill doubled the cost of new foundations to around $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 30 @,@ 000 , and the cost of retrofitting an existing structure approached $ 100 @,@ 000 .

Roxy Ann Peak 's southern foothills are also home to the RoxyAnn Winery , a Rogue Valley AVA winery founded in 2002 . On the opposite side of the mountain is the first bioreactor landfill in Southern Oregon , the Dry Creek Landfill , which began a program in 2006 to generate power from collected methane .

On September 21 , 2009 , a wildfire broke out on Roxy Ann Peak 's western slopes and consumed approximately 633 acres ( 256 ha ) . It left 25 @,@ 000 residents without electricity , forced the evacuation of over 100 homes , and cost over $ 1 @.@ 3 million to fight , but no structures were damaged .

= = Flora and fauna = =

Roxy Ann Peak 's high biodiversity is due to its wide range of elevations and its location between the Cascade , Klamath , and Eastern Cascade ecoregions . The lower slopes of the peak support chaparral , oak savanna , and open grassland . Scattered California black oak , Oregon white oak , and Pacific madrone trees grow in these areas , as do sclerophyllous shrubs such as birchleaf mountain mahogany , sticky whiteleaf manzanita , buckbrush , antelope bitterbrush , and Pacific poison oak . Common grasses include blue wildrye and prairie Junegrass . Wildflowers including Southern Oregon buttercup , common yarrow , and Tolmie star @-@ tulip also grow in these regions . At higher elevations , the vegetation transitions to mixed coniferous forest , dominated by Douglas fir , ponderosa pine , incense cedar , western juniper , and Pacific madrone trees . Shrubs such as common snowberry , bearbrush , greenleaf manzanita , sticky whiteleaf manzanita , deerbrush , and Pacific poison oak make up the understory of the forest , along with herbaceous plants such as creeping snowberry and Idaho fescue .

The peak is home to many species of birds , including blue @-@ gray gnatcatchers , lazuli buntings , oak titmice , acorn woodpeckers , and California quail on the lower slopes , and mountain quail , mountain chickadees , and red @-@ breasted nuthatches on the upper slopes . Wild turkeys and raptors such as Cooper 's hawks , golden eagles , bald eagles , and prairie falcons are also common . A few species migrate to the peak in the winter , including ruby @-@ crowned kinglets , yellow @-@ rumped warblers , and golden @-@ crowned sparrows . Mammals that inhabit the mountain include black @-@ tailed deer , cougars , bobcats , skunks , raccoons , coyotes , bears , weasels , and squirrels . A large herd of Roosevelt elk frequent the peak 's western foothills . The herd swelled to over 100 individuals in the mid @-@ 2000s , causing traffic problems and severe damage to local pear orchards , but shrank to about 40 members by 2009 after an Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife relocation effort . Other common animals on the peak include western rattlesnakes and western blacklegged ticks .

= = Recreation = =

Roxy Ann Peak and Prescott Park serve as Medford 's most important viewshed , open space reserve , and recreational resource . Popular recreational activities on the peak include picnicking and hiking , mountain biking , and horseback riding on the 4 miles ( 6 km ) of designated trails in Prescott Park , which range in difficulty from moderate to steep . In August 2013 , the city of Medford and the International Mountain Bicycling Association released a conceptual plan detailing future improvements to the park 's trail system . The plan would add 30 miles ( 48 km ) of new multi @-@ use trails throughout the park , improve existing trails and trail signage , and add a new trailhead on the mountain 's western slope , at an estimated cost of between $ 360 @,@ 000 and $ 720 @,@ 000 . If approved , construction on the first phase could begin by 2015 .

A challenge course opened in Prescott Park in April 2012 , operated by the Tigard @-@ based company Synergo . The course has 15 elements — eight low and seven high — each formed by various combinations of ropes , wires , platforms , ladders , and swings . They range from 2 to 40 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 12 m ) above the ground .

The peak and park can be accessed via Roxy Ann Road on the southern side of the mountain . There are two gates on the road ; the first is near the base of the peak and is opened and closed on a set schedule , and the second is about one mile beyond it at the park boundary , and is closed to all unauthorized motor vehicles . One mile past the second gate , the road splits into a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) loop around the summit . Tower Road begins on the north side of the loop and ascends to the summit of the peak . The peak offers expansive views of the surrounding landscape , including the Rogue Valley , Mount Ashland , Mount McLoughlin , Pilot Rock , the Crater Lake rim , and even Mount Thielsen , 66 miles ( 110 km ) to the north , and Mount Shasta , 72 miles ( 120 km ) to the south .

= I Take Thee Quagmire =

" I Take Thee Quagmire " is the 21st episode of season four of Family Guy , originally broadcast on March 12 , 2006 . Peter wins free maid service for a week ; he intentionally creates extra work for the maid , Joan . Quagmire meets her and instantly falls in love with her , leading him to propose to her after the second date . After the marriage , Quagmire comes to regret his new relationship , but learns that Joan will kill him and herself if he leaves her , so he fakes his own death .

The episode was written by Tom Maxwell , Don Woodard and Steve Callaghan and directed by Seth Kearsley . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 06 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Adam Carolla , Stephan Cox , Bryan Cranston , Darrel Heath , Beth Littleford , Christy Carlson Romano , Nicole Sullivan , Fred Tatasciore , Alex Thomas , and Alex Trebek , as well as several recurring voice actors for the series .

= = Plot = =

Peter is a contestant on Wheel of Fortune , advances to the bonus round , and wins , despite choosing Z , 4 , three Qs , and the Batman symbol for his consonants and vowel , and taking a self @-@ described " shot in the dark " with his answer , " Alex Karras in ' Webster ' " , managing to get the correct answer on his first try , to Pat 's shock . He chooses , among several other prizes , one week of free maid service . When his maid Joan arrives , Peter has her pull items out of his belly button ( including , among other things , a ColecoVision set and a carton of Parliament Cigarettes to the shock of Peter , who says he hasn 't smoked in ten years ) , and rides her back to the store . Peter decides to over @-@ work Joan on her last night by giving Meg a watermelon filled with chocolate pudding and firecrackers , which explodes in her face . After being introduced to her by Peter , Quagmire falls in love with her . After dating Joan , Quagmire proposes marriage to her , which she accepts and the couple prepare their marriage ceremony . Lois , Peter and their neighbors visit Quagmire 's house , finding that he has changed his personality significantly . Peter still believes this to be a prank and shows Quagmire porn magazines in an attempt to change him back to his former ways . Meanwhile , Lois begins to question whether she should keep breastfeeding Stewie , as he 's hurting her when feeding .

By the time of Quagmire 's wedding , Lois ' breasts have gotten very large after deciding to wean Stewie , on the advice of Brian . While at the reception , the top of her shirt rips open . Peter notices that Quagmire is staring at Lois ' huge breasts , and spills champagne on them . Peter then " helps " Lois by shaking her , which makes her large breasts jiggle . This arouses Quagmire , and he realizes that he has made a mistake by marrying Joan . He informs Joan that some of his friends think they should get an annulment after discussing it with Peter , Joe and Cleveland , but she threatens to cut herself and him if he annuls their marriage . As a result , Peter decides to help Quagmire fake his death . He shows Joan a video of Quagmire being attacked by a ninja ( Joe ) , a Nazi ( Cleveland ) , a " pots and pans " robot ( Peter ) , and the body being consumed by a dinosaur held by Peter ( to the theme of Jurassic Park ) . Joan is unconvinced by the video . Peter and his friends then operate plan B , which consists of Quagmire pretending to suffer a heart attack and die . Quagmire is buried in a coffin with enough oxygen to last him a short period of time so Peter can return after the funeral has finished and dig him up . However , when Mayor West announces that all coffins must be buried in concrete ( to guard against zombies ) , Peter exclaims that Quagmire is not dead , and brings him out of the coffin , alive . Death shows up to retrieve his body . Joan pleads for Quagmire 's life , and touches Death 's arm , which kills her instantly . Death takes Joan instead , as " she was suicidal and her last name was Quagmire . " However , before he leaves , Quagmire asks Death to leave the body for another five minutes , thus turning him back into his old usual self .

Meanwhile , Stewie has been having drug @-@ like withdrawals since Lois decided to wean him . He becomes so desperate that when he and Lois are at the park , he jumps on a woman breastfeeding her baby and greedily suckles on her , but is pulled off by Lois . One night , he then tries to milk Lois in her sleep . He pumps her breasts and succeeds , but spills and desperately tries licking it up . Stewie realizes how pathetic he is and accepts his weaning . He comes to Brian and informs that he is now off breast milk , but Lois has other plans . Lois allows Stewie to be breastfed again , thus delighting him .

= = Production = =

This episode starts by depicting the game show Wheel of Fortune . When Brian is watching Malcolm in the Middle on television , a scene begins showing the mother of the fictional family screaming at the children and father . Jane Kaczmarek was asked to do the voice as she was the original actor in the series , however she refused . MacFarlane said that he gets a message that Kaczmarek wishes to portray that character as likable , and does not wish to jeopardize that . The father during that scene was voiced by Bryan Cranston , the original actor in the series , who accepted the role . Seth MacFarlane comments that " this is the first real Quagmire story we 've ever done . " A scene was made of Stewie attending a meeting similar to those at Alcoholics Anonymous , however the meeting was designed for those who are too addicted to breast milk . The format of Wheel of Fortune is somewhat similar to the layout of the modern @-@ day program , but the scene also features several aspects which are now no longer broadcast , such as not automatically being given R , S , T , L , N , and E , and were featured in the 1980s .

Two scenes during this episode were censored for television broadcasting . When Quagmire meets Joan and invites her out on a date , Cleveland asks , " Is that a banana in your pocket , or a erection in your pocket ? " Although this entire scene was not censored , Fox Broadcasting Company bleeped " erection " , which , according to DVD commentary , made what Cleveland said sound worse than what was intended . The scene where Peter is promoting ' Crystal Pepsi ' was shown only on the DVD , because it is prohibited to promote one product over another on television .

There is also a scene after the watermelon exploding trick where Meg was supposed to say " Fuck you , asshole ! I 'll kick your ass to hell ! " , but Fox also censored the line and was replaced by " I hate you ! I hate you ! " instead .

In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Adam Carolla , actor Stephan Cox , actor Bryan Cranston , actor Darrel Heath , actress Beth Littleford , actress Christy Carlson Romano , voice actress Nicole Sullivan , voice actor Fred Tatasciore , actor Alex Thomas , and game show host Alex Trebek guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Ralph Garman , Mike Henry , writer Danny Smith , actress Jennifer Tilly , and writer John Viener made minor appearances in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Patrick Warburton and Adam West made appearances in the episode as well .

= = Cultural references = =

In the opening scene of the episode , Peter is shown playing on the gameshow Wheel of Fortune , with hosts Pat Sajak and Vanna White also appearing . When Mayor West is playing as a contestant on Jeopardy ! , he spells the name of the host , Alex Trebek backwards ( Kebert Xela ) , sending him back to the fifth dimension ; this is a reference to when DC Comics supervillain and nemesis to Superman , Mister Mxyzptlk , is sent to the fifth dimension when someone makes him say his own name backwards . A Family Guy fan later did this in a real life episode of Jeopardy ! When Peter and the children are flying through space and singing , this is a reference to The Great Space Coaster . The two Asian men who meet Peter at the traffic lights when riding Joan 's back speak in a very similar tone to Howard Cosell , a reference to the 1985 cult film Better Off Dead . When Quagmire fantasizes about being alone in the forest with Joan and speaking to her in Elvish , this is a reference to a scene from The Lord of the Rings ; Quagmire goes on to imagine himself with Joan dancing dressed as the title characters from Beauty and the Beast , eating a plate of spaghetti similar to that shown in Lady and the Tramp , and flying on a magic carpet dressed as Aladdin and Princess Jasmine . They also fly through Baghdad which is in ruins from terrorism . Adam West 's response to seeing the Statue of Liberty is taken from the original Planet of the Apes . Also , there is a scene where Brian watches Malcolm in the Middle . In the scene , Lois nags the boys so much that she will go on strike , so Hal ends up killing her with a refrigerator door and walks away blissfully with the boys . Twice during the episode Quagmire engraves his name with his nose much like Woody Woodpecker . In the end , he engraves " giggity giggity goo " in the same fashion .

= = Reception = =

Bob Sassone of TV Squad commented that " this episode had one of the more hysterical / disturbing images of this TV season : Lois flashing her breasts to Brian after giving Stewie his lunch . " Michael Drucker of IGN noted that " the volume four episodes are easily funnier than the volume three ones " , referring to the episode .

= Episode 3 ( Twin Peaks ) =

" Episode 3 " , later also known as " Rest in Pain " , is the fourth episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by Harley Peyton , and directed by Tina Rathborne . " Episode 3 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean and Ray Wise , and introduces Sheryl Lee 's second role , Maddy Ferguson .

Rathborne has highlighted the episode 's introduction of Jungian analytical psychology to the series . She also described MacLachlan 's character Dale Cooper as not only a wholesome , grounded anchor against which the series ' more bizarre elements could be contrasted ; but as the central component of the series ' coming @-@ of @-@ age " Bildungsroman " narrative .

" Episode 3 " was first broadcast on April 26 , 1990 , and was viewed by approximately 18 percent of the available audience in its initial airing . The episode received positive reviews from critics , with its mix of comedy and tragedy seen as a highlight , and Miguel Ferrer 's character Albert Rosenfield singled out as a particularly successful example of this . The episode also drew praise from The New York Times for its compelling and unusual cast of characters .

= = Plot = =

= = = Background = = =

The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) . However , other inhabitants of the town have their own suspicions : the violent , drug @-@ dealing truck driver Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) is seen as a possible suspect . Cooper experiences a surreal dream in which a dwarf and a woman resembling Laura reveal the identity of the killer .

= = = Events = = =

Cooper and Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) share breakfast , as he realizes she had slipped a note under his hotel room door ; the note referred to One @-@ Eyed Jacks , a brothel over the Canadian border . When she leaves , Cooper discusses his dream with Sheriff Harry S. Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) , believing it to be a coded solution to the murder .

Cooper 's colleague , Albert Rosenfield ( Miguel Ferrer ) wishes to conduct a further post @-@ mortem on Laura 's body , but it is due to be released for the funeral that day . As the argument grows more heated , Truman ends it by punching Rosenfield and knocking him down . Later , Rosenfield shares what he has found ; Laura had been bound when she was killed , had been addicted to cocaine , and had been clawed by a bird . An unidentified plastic shard was also found in her stomach .

Leland Palmer ( Ray Wise ) is at home when he is visited by his niece , Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) . Ferguson is identical to Laura save for having black hair , not blonde . At the same time , Cooper and Truman question Johnson about Laura 's death , believing him to be lying when he denies knowing her . Later , Hurley arrives at Laura 's funeral late , watching from a distance . Briggs begins to accost the mourners , accusing them of doing nothing when they knew Laura had been troubled . Hurley intervenes and the two begin fighting ; Leland falls on the casket as it is being lowered into the grave , sobbing uncontrollably .

That night , Cooper , Truman , Deputy Hawk ( Michael Horse ) and Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) meet at the RR Diner . Truman explains that someone has been smuggling cocaine into town ; he suspects that Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) , bartender at the town 's Roadhouse Bar , is involved . He also explains that the woods around the town seem to contain a " darkness " , and reveals that there is a secret society of men gathered to stand watch against this : the Bookhouse Boys . Truman and the others bring Cooper to their headquarters , where James has Jacques ' brother Bernard ( Clay Wilcox ) bound and gagged . They question Bernard but he denies any crime .

Elsewhere , Jacques realizes his brother is in trouble , and calls Johnson for help . When Johnson leaves , his abused wife Shelley ( Mädchen Amick ) hides a gun in a secret drawer . Meanwhile , sawmill owner Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) tells Truman , her lover , that her sister @-@ in @-@ law Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) is scheming to take over the mill . Packard knows there are two account books , one fake and one real , but cannot locate the real one Martell has been hiding .

= = Production = =

" Episode 3 " was the first of the series to be written by Harley Peyton ; Peyton returned to pen a number of other episodes across both seasons . The episode was directed by Tina Rathborne , who would also go on to helm " Episode 17 " in the second season . Rathborne had previously worked with series co @-@ creator David Lynch when she had cast him in her 1988 feature film Zelly and Me .

The episode introduces the character of Maddy Ferguson , Laura 's nearly identical cousin , the second role in the series played by Sheryl Lee . Lee had been a stage actor living in Washington , where " Pilot " was filmed , and had remained there after production moved to Los Angeles as she believed that , with her character dead , she would have no further part in the series . However , Lynch was impressed with her performance and called to ask her to return , telling her he would " figure [ ... ] out " a way for her to continue appearing .

Rathborne chose to open the episode with a shot centered on Sherilyn Fenn , finding the actress to be " seductive " and " absorbing " in a similar manner to screen icon Marilyn Monroe . Rathborne had initially worried that the episode featured too many static scenes of characters sitting and talking , with little action , and asked Lynch if she could borrow some of the imagery of the previous episode 's surreal dream sequence to keep these conversations more interesting , adding brief snippets of footage as Cooper discussed the dream with the others . Rathborne has noted that this dream @-@ centric approach to the character of Cooper is rooted in Carl Jung 's theories of analytical psychology . She felt this was something that had not been seen on television before , and credits Lynch with introducing it to the series . She has also described the narrative , both of " Episode 3 " and of Twin Peaks as a whole , as a " Bildungsroman " showing Cooper 's development into a more rounded and enlightened person .

Working on studio sets was a new experience for Rathborne , whose previous work had all been filmed on location . She also found it refreshing to work with the series ' ensemble cast , recalling that Miguel Ferrer often had the cast and crew laughing at the way he approached his material , imbuing the atmosphere during filming with a mix of comedy and drama . Rathborne has also noted the use of ordinary , almost banal , daily life in the series , finding it a necessary element to be able to play the series ' more violent and surreal elements against effectively . She particularly singled out Cooper as a wholesome " boy next door " character who allowed the town 's more unusual residents to stand out more starkly .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Episode 3 " was first broadcast by the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on April 19 , 1990 . In its initial airing , it was viewed by 11 @.@ 3 percent of US households , representing 18 percent of the available audience . This marked a slight decline from the previous episode , which had attracted 13 @.@ 1 percent of the population and 21 percent of the available audience .

The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps rated the episode a B + , finding that it struggled to live up to the preceding episode ; however , he felt that this was understandable , as " after pushing television to the limits of sanity there was nowhere to go but back " . Phipps also described the funeral scene as a highlight of the episode , finding that he grew to appreciate its mix of tragic and comic more over repeated viewings . Writing for Allrovi , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four stars out of five .

John J. O 'Connor , writing for The New York Times praised the episode , stating that it features " the most bizarrely compelling collection of characters ever to hit prime time " . O 'Connor spoke positively of the intricate plot seen in the episode and the series as a whole , noting that " the overall narrative is paramount " and affirming his belief that the series " seems to have been mapped out carefully " by Lynch and Frost . Television Without Pity 's Daniel J. Blau praised the episode 's black humour , singling out in particular the scene in which Ferrer 's character is punched after an argument in the town morgue . However , Blau was critical of guest stars Olkewicz and Wilcox , finding their attempted French @-@ Canadian accents particularly poor . Writing for Digital Spy , Tony Delgado has also praised Ferrer 's role as Rosenfield , adding that his dialogue " may not appear to be the epitome of wit , but the way [ Ferrer ] delivered such lines caused plenty of howling hysterics in living rooms across the globe " .

= Gunther E. Rothenberg =

Gunther Erich Rothenberg ( 11 July 1923 – 26 April 2004 ) was an internationally known military historian , best known for his publications on the Habsburg military and Napoleonic Wars . He had a fifteen @-@ year military career , as a British Army soldier in World War II , a Haganah officer in the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , and in the United States Air Force during the Korean War .

= = Escape from Nazi Germany and military service = =

Gunther Erich Rothenberg was born in Berlin . His family was a culturally assimilated German Jewish family . In 1937 , Rothenberg moved to the Netherlands with his mother ; his father later joined them . The family moved next to Britain , where Rothenberg had some schooling . In 1939 , he moved to Mandatory Palestine , then under British rule . There he joined the Zionist movement and Hashomer Hatzair ( The Youth Guard ) , a Socialist @-@ Zionist youth movement . He retained his passion for a Jewish homeland throughout his life .

On 13 July 1941 , his parents emigrated to the United States on the Villa de Madrid , an overcrowded ocean @-@ liner that left Barcelona on 20 June . His father , Erich Joseph Rothenberg , was an importer , and both his parents spoke English , Hebrew , French , and German . Their visas , issued in Lisbon , Portugal , claimed Cuban citizenship . At the age of 57 , his father registered for the fourth draft in 1942 , listing his residence as New York City , and his next of kin as his wife , Lotte .

In 1941 , Gunther Rothenberg volunteered for the British army , serving in an all @-@ Jewish unit . He was wounded in North Africa . He transferred from the Royal Army Service Corps to the Intelligence Corps and fought with the Eighth Army . He served in the Italian campaign , in the Yugoslav war of liberation and in Austria . His service continued in the occupation of Austria until 1946 . He was a civilian employee of U.S. Intelligence 1946 @-@ 1948 . Rothenberg returned to Palestine and joined the Haganah for Israel 's War of Independence . He rose to the rank of captain in the Israel Defense Forces .

By 1948 , Rothenberg 's father had died and his mother , Lotte ( 1894 – 1990 ) , had become a naturalized United States citizen . To be with her in New York City , Rothenberg journeyed to Canada , arriving in Halifax , Nova Scotia ; traveling from there to Toronto , he lived for a while at Wycliffe College , where he worked briefly as a construction laborer . On 19 November 1948 , he crossed the international border into the United States at Buffalo , with $ 12 @.@ 00 in his pocket . In 1951 , he volunteered for the United States Army , transferred to the Air Force , and served in the Korean War until 1955 . He remained guided by a deep sense of duty and a strong sense of American patriotism throughout his life .

= = Education and career = =

After military service in the United States Air Force , he graduated from the University of Illinois with an undergraduate degree . Two years later , he had a master 's degree from the University of Chicago . In 1959 he finished his doctoral degree at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . He retired from Purdue University , was appointed Professor Emeritus , and lived in Canberra , Australia , where he continued to write about the Napoleonic Wars .

He wrote several ground @-@ breaking books on the organization of the Habsburg military and the military reforms of Archduke Charles in the first decade of the Napoleonic Wars . His last book , The Emperor 's Last Victory , about the Battle of Wagram in 1809 , was published posthumously . Although he had never finished high school , with the help of the GI Bill , Rothenberg completed a bachelor 's degree from the University of Illinois in 1954 . He attended graduate school at the University of Chicago , where he was recognized as an argumentative , sometimes abrasive , graduate student with a keen mind . As a graduate student , Rothenberg reviewed W.E.D. Allen 's Caucasian Battlefields : A History of the Wars on the Turco @-@ Caucasian Border , 1828 – 1921 ( Cambridge University Press , 1953 ) for Journal of Modern History , He wrote his 1956 masters ' thesis entitled General Crook and the Apaches , 1871 – 1874 : the campaign in the Tonto Basin . Rothenberg received his doctorate from the University of Illinois : his 1959 dissertation , Antemurales Christianitatis : then military border in Croatia , 1522 – 1749 , was published in 1960 by the University of Chicago Press , as The Military Border in Croatia , 1522 – 1749 ; he followed this with a second study , The Military Border in Croatia , 1750 – 1888 : a study of an imperial institution in 1966 , also published by University of Chicago Press . Both volumes were translated into German in 1970 .

In part @-@ time temporary teaching positions in Illinois and four years at the Southern Illinois University , Rothenberg taught European and world history , and published an instructor 's manual on history of the world , with Henry C. Boren . In 1962 , Rothenberg joined the faculty of the University of New Mexico ; over the following ten years , he rose to the position of full professor . In 1972 , he accepted a position at Purdue University . There , he taught courses in military and European history . As a teacher , his popular course on World War II attracted more than 250 undergraduates annually .

In the 1970s , Rothenberg also established himself as an international Napoleonic scholar with The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon , published in 1977 . He also mentored hundreds of graduate and doctoral students . He regularly published in such peer @-@ reviewed publications as Journal of Military History and served on the editorial board of War in History . In 1985 , Rothenberg was a visiting Fulbright fellow in the Department of History in the Faculty of Military Studies at the Australian Royal Military College , Duntroon . He retired from Purdue in 1999 and was named Professor Emeritus .

From 1995 – 2001 , Rothenberg was a visiting fellow at the School of Historical Studies , Monash University . After his retirement , he moved to Melbourne , Australia , and then to Canberra , where his third wife , Eleanor Hancock , taught at the Australian Defence Force Academy . Although retired , he continued to teach , lecture , and publish reviews . He also wrote two more books .

Life in Australia did not always please him ; he missed both his colleagues in North America and his Purdue students . His politics — he " was anything but politically correct " — did not mesh well with Australia 's leftist atmosphere . He wrote indignantly to a friend in the United States that he regretted moving to Australia when the authorities confiscated his muzzle loaders , which were prohibited " Down Under . "

In 2004 , he returned to the United States to present the keynote address at the 34th Annual Conference of the Consortium on Revolutionary Europe . He had recently completed The Emperor ’ s Last Victory : Napoleon and the Battle of Wagram , which was published posthumously in November 2004 . He died at the age of 80 .

= = Legacy = =

Rothenberg 's legacy is not only the generations of scholars he prepared , but also his vast historiographical contribution to understanding the Revolutionary era . For many years , his Army of Francis Joseph ( 1976 ) was the standard and the only English language analysis of the Habsburg Army in the French Revolutionary and the Napoleonic wars . He changed the widespread perception of Archduke Charles ' military acumen . A masterful historian , Rothenberg was known furthermore as an eminently fair scholar . After publishing a critique of a publication , the author contacted him , and proved the critique unjust ; Rothenberg immediately wrote to a review retracting the criticism , and the two scholars remained friends for the remainder of his life .

Some of his colleagues considered Rothenberg " the greatest scholar of the Napoleonic era of our day . " His adventurous life and diverse experiences gave him a deep understanding of human nature . This made him a valuable colleague and a treasured mentor for his many graduate students .

High Point University conducts the Gunther E. Rothenberg Seminar in Military History .

= = Personal life and family = =

His first marriage in 1952 ended in a 1967 divorce . In 1969 , Rothenberg married Ruth Gillah Smith , a widow with three daughters ( Judith Goris , Laura Allman , Georgia Jones ( all born Herron ) ) , whom he helped to raise ; she died in 1992 . In 1995 , he married for a third time , to Eleanor Hancock , a lecturer at Monash University in Australia . She is now a Senior Lecturer in History at the Australian Defence Force Academy at the University of New South Wales , and has written the first biography of Ernst Julius Röhm . Her 1988 doctoral thesis , National Socialist Leadership And Total War , 1941 – 45 for the Australia National University was published by St. Martin 's Press in 1992 .

= = Publications = =

Rothenberg published hundreds of journal articles , reviews , and lectures . This is a partial list .

= = = Books = = =

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1960 ) . The Austrian Military Border in Croatia , 1522 – 1747 . Urbana , IL : University of Illinois Press . LCCN 60015931 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1966 ) . The Austrian Military Border in Croatia , 1740 – 1881 ; a Study of an Imperial Institution . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . LCCN 66013887 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1976 ) . The army of Francis Joseph . West Lafayette , Indiana : Purdue University Press . ISBN 0911198415 . LCCN 75016051 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1979 ) . The anatomy of the Israeli army . London : B. T. Batsford . ISBN 0713419660 . LCCN 79321715 .

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1982 ) . Napoleon 's Great Adversaries : the Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army , 1792 – 1814 . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0253339693 . LCCN 82047512 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 . ( Subsequent editions titled Napoleon 's Great Adversary : the Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army . )

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 1978 ) . The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 31076 @-@ 8 . LCCN 77086495 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 2000 ) . Keegan , John , ed . The Napoleonic Wars . London : Cassell . ISBN 0304352675 . LCCN 2001347125 .

Rothenberg , Gunther Erich ( 2004 ) . The Emperor 's Last Victory : Napoleon and the Battle of Wagram . London : Weidenfeld & Nicolson . ISBN 0297846728 . LCCN 2005440770 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .

Király , Béla Kalman ; Rothenberg , Gunther E. , eds . ( 1979 ) . Special topics and generalizations on the 18th and 19th centuries . New York : Brooklyn College Press . ISBN 0930888049 . LCCN 79051780 . Distributed by Columbia University Press

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ; Király , Béla K. ; Sugar , Peter F. , eds . ( 1982 ) . East Central European society and war in the prerevolutionary eighteenth century . New York : Boulder Social Science Monographs . ISBN 0930888197 . LCCN 81050886 . Distributed by Columbia University Press

= = = Journal articles = = =

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( June 1960 ) . " The Origins of the Austrian Military Frontier in Croatia and the Alleged Treaty of 22 December 1522 " . The Slavonic and East European Review ( Modern Humanities Research Association ) 38 ( 91 ) : 493 – 498 . Retrieved 2014 @-@ 02 @-@ 01 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1961 ) . " Venice and the Uskoks of Senj : 1537 – 1618 " . The Journal of Modern History 33 ( 2 ) : 148 – 156 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 238780 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1963 ) . " Aventinus and the Defense of the Empire Against the Turks " . Studies in the Renaissance 10 : 60 – 67 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2857048 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1964 ) . " The Croatian Military Border and the Rise of Yugoslav Nationalism " . The Slavonic and East European Review 43 ( 100 ) : 34 – 45 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1964 ) . " The Struggle Over the Dissolution of the Croatian Military Border , 1850- 1871 " . Slavic Review 23 ( 1 ) : 63 – 78 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2492376 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1968 ) . " The Austrian Army in the Age of Metternich " . The Journal of Modern History 40 ( 2 ) : 155 – 165 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 240187 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1972 ) . " Toward a National Hungarian Army : The Military Compromise of 1868 and its Consequences " . Slavic Review 31 ( 4 ) : 805 – 816 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2493764 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1973 ) . " The Austrian Sanitary Cordon and the Control of the Bubonic Plague : 1710 – 1871 " . Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / jhmas / XXVIII.1.15.

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1973 ) . " The Habsburg Army in the Napoleonic Wars " . Military Affairs : The Journal of Military History , Including Theory and Technology 37 ( 1 ) : 1 – 5 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1986561 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1976 ) . " Nobility and Military Careers : The Habsburg Officer Corps , 1740 @-@ 1914 " . Military Affairs : The Journal of Military History , Including Theory and Technology 40 ( 4 ) : 182 – 186 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1986702 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1988 ) . " The Origins , Causes , and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon " . Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18 ( 4 ) : 771 – 793 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 204824 .

Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 1989 ) . " The Austro @-@ Hungarian Campaign Against Serbia in 1914 " . Journal of Military History 53 ( 2 ) : 127 – 146 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 1985745 .

= Symphony Six =

The Symphony Six were a group of Canadian musicians under contract to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra ( TSO ) who were denied entry to the United States for a concert tour in November 1951 . Coming at the height of the McCarthy era in the US , the six musicians – Ruth Budd , Dirk Keetbaas , William Kuinka , Abe Mannheim , John Moskalyk , and Steven Staryk – were denied visas on the suspicion of being involved in communist activities . The TSO sent other musicians in their place and completed its tour . The six musicians resumed playing with the orchestra upon its return to Canada .

At the end of the 1951 @-@ 1952 season , the TSO refused to renew the contracts of these musicians , stating that they had not fulfilled their contractual agreements . The six musicians appealed this decision to its union , the Toronto Musicians ' Association ; the Mayor of Toronto ; the Canadian Civil Liberties Association ; and many other bodies , without success . They received support from the Federation of Canadian Artists and the Canada Council for the Arts , but not from the Canadian Congress of Labour . The incident garnered extensive media coverage in both Canada and the United States , and sparked a protest against the TSO 's decision . The orchestra 's director , Ernest MacMillan , did not speak about the matter in public , which also prompted criticism , and two members of the TSO board resigned . The six musicians were viewed with suspicion by their colleagues and people avoided them to protect themselves from guilt by association . Budd and Staryk later returned to the TSO , while the four other musicians continued their careers elsewhere .

= = Background = =

The Toronto Symphony Orchestra was founded by Luigi von Kunits in 1922 . From 1931 to 1956 it was conducted by Sir Ernest MacMillan , who achieved renown as " the leading figure in Canadian music " . By the 1940s the orchestra 's popularity had increased , but its financial condition did not allow it to tour or invite many guest conductors and soloists . In 1951 @-@ 52 it received CA $ 56 @,@ 000 in donations and grants , CA $ 10 @,@ 000 less than the amount raised by the smaller Vancouver Symphony Orchestra . Some TSO musicians freelanced for the CBC Symphony Orchestra and a few left the TSO to work for the CBC . MacMillan hoped that the TSO could boost its reputation through international engagements .

= = Event = =

The Toronto Symphony Orchestra was invited to perform at the Detroit Masonic Temple auditorium on November 27 , 1951 as part of the Major Symphony Series , which also featured the Boston Symphony Orchestra , the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , the Cleveland Orchestra , and the Philadelphia Orchestra . TSO director MacMillan viewed this first @-@ ever US invitation as a golden opportunity to garner more international invitations for the orchestra . He added vocal soloist Lois Marshall to the orchestra , as well as a piece by an American composer , Herbert Elwell 's work Pastorale , and Edward Elgar 's Enigma Variations , to the repertoire .

At this time in the United States , McCarthyism was at its height , generating fear and suspicion of entertainment industry figures , academics , military figures , and government officials by accusing them of real or suggested links to communist activities . The TSO was required to submit to United States immigration authorities all the names of its musicians and other staff who would be accompanying the tour . The immigration department approved visas for all but seven musicians , suspecting them of communist activities . One of the musicians was later cleared , leaving six musicians who were denied entry .

These six musicians , who became known as the Symphony Six , were :

Ruth Budd , double bassist . Born in Winnipeg , she joined the TSO in 1947 , becoming Canada 's first professional female bassist .

Dirk Keetbaas , Jr . , principal flautist . Born in the Netherlands , Keetbaas was a naturalized Canadian citizen . He also performed in the CBC Symphony Orchestra and in chamber music groups . He joined the TSO in 1949 .

William Kuinka , double bassist . Born in British Columbia , he had served in the Second World War . He was self @-@ taught in mandolin and guitar as well . The 1951 @-@ 1952 season was his first and last year in the TSO .

Abe Mannheim , bassist . This was his fourth season with the orchestra . Immigration officials had questioned him for 4 hours .

John Moskalyk , violinist . He joined the TSO in 1945 .

Steven Staryk , violinist . Born in Toronto , he studied violin as a child with , among others , John Mosklyk , and performed in his first recital on CBC Radio at the age of 14 . He joined the TSO in 1950 when he was still in his teens .

Several of the six musicians had been involved with Canadian @-@ Russian friendship organizations formed in the 1940s for the purposes of artistic collaboration ; however , they denied charges of political involvement . Staryk related that he had played at Ukrainian and other ethnic events , and Budd admitted to being a member of a left @-@ wing youth group . John Moskalyk 's surname was listed in the TSO 's programs as " Moscow " ; he had conducted the Budapest orchestra for two concert performances in August 1949 . Keetbaas could not recall any association with left @-@ wing groups . Harry Freedman , who was on the board of the Toronto Musicians ' Association at the time and whose vote thwarted unanimous decisions against the Symphony Six , stated that he was not aware of any of the six musicians promoting communism . Later , he felt that he should have taken " more direct action " .

MacMillan himself had been involved in the National Council for Canadian @-@ Soviet Friendship in the 1940s , though he had since quit that organization . In 1950 , with an eye to taking the orchestra on international tours , he had written a letter to the American consul in Toronto admitting his former affiliation . He received his visa in November 1951 without any difficulties . After the six musicians were denied entry and before the orchestra had left for the United States , MacMillan solicited help for them from the Canadian ambassador in Washington , but his plea was unsuccessful . In January 1952 he wrote to US immigration officials trying to clear Staryk 's name , lauding him as " an exceptionally talented violinist and valuable member of the orchestra . I have no reason to doubt that he has no Communist affiliations other than that he played from ages twelve to fourteen with a Ukrainian orchestra that is under some suspicion " . His entreaties on behalf of Staryk did not help to exonerate the musician .

The TSO board sent other musicians in place of the six who had been denied visas , and the concert went on as planned . The orchestra 's performance was a success and received positive reviews from both the American and Canadian press . After the TSO returned to Canada , the six musicians resumed their positions .

= = Refusal to renew contracts = =

At the end of the 1951 @-@ 1952 season , with more American concerts planned for the orchestra in Boston , New York , and Philadelphia in the coming season , the TSO did not renew its contracts with all six musicians . Jack Elton , manager of the orchestra , discussed the problem of these six players with the TSO board in a meeting held on April 21 , 1952 . At the meeting , Elton said that " for artistic reasons there could be no substitutes for such an important concert " . The board agreed with Elton 's arguments and contended that the six musicians had not fulfilled their contractual agreement to join the orchestra on international tours , and that being barred from entering the United States would prevent them from joining the orchestra in future US appearances . Ernest MacMillan was not present at the meeting .

The incident and the board 's decision not to renew the musicians ' contracts created controversy when it became public , garnering media attention both nationally and internationally . Members of the press castigated the TSO for not cancelling the US tour in protest over the immigration department ’ s decision , citing a similar case in which the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra of Amsterdam had cancelled its US tour when several of its musicians were denied entry . One reporter , Langford Dixon of The Globe and Mail , " defended the six so vehemently that it led to his dismissal from the paper " . Many people wrote letters to the TSO and some even cancelled their subscriptions . For its part , the TSO board blamed the newly established Canadian television for the unprecedented decline in subscriptions . A letter to the editor of Toronto Daily Star called the firing " an offence against Canadian independence . "

The TSO board gave orchestra manager Jack Elton the authority to decide what steps should be taken . Elton asked the Toronto Musicians ' Association to intervene . The union upheld the board 's decision . The six musicians appealed but the union turned them down , stating that they had not fulfilled their contractual agreements and so the orchestra had the right not to renew their contracts . Walter Murdoch , president of the Toronto Musicians ' Association , said that it was " a straight contractual matter " and " there is nothing wrong in the orchestra 's not rehiring musicians " .

On May 26 , 1952 twelve members of the TSO board met to review their decision not to renew the contracts . Nine of the members voted in favor of the decision while three voted against it . It was decided that the contracts would not be renewed , but if the United States immigration officials would issue entry permits to the six musicians by September 1 , the TSO would renew the contracts . This decision created a controversy and a split within the TSO board , which eventually led to the resignation of two members , Mrs. Edmund Boyd and Mrs. R. B. Whitehead , although these two remained members of the orchestra 's women 's committee .

The Assembly for the Canadian Arts called a rally in support of the Symphony Six on May 29 . The Toronto Musicians ' Association instructed its members not to attend and sent members to stand outside the entrance " to intimidate members from entering " . Aspersions were cast on the Assembly for the Canadian Arts as being a communist front organization , and the Toronto Evening Telegram called the gathering " a communist meeting " . Several members of the Assembly quit the group in fear " of being labelled communists " . On June 4 the United Church of Canada urged the TSO board to reconsider its decision .

The controversy continued into the orchestra 's 1952 @-@ 1953 season . The six musicians appealed again to the TSO board and the Toronto Musicians ' Association , but made no headway . The musicians also held meetings with the Canadian Civil Liberties Association and the Toronto Board of Control , and pleaded their case to the Mayor of Toronto , Allan A. Lamport , and the American Federation of Musicians , without success . While the Federation of Canadian Artists and the Canada Council for the Arts supported the six musicians , the Canadian Congress of Labour rejected a proposal to back them . In 1952 then @-@ Canadian foreign minister Lester Pearson was quoted as saying that it would not " serve any useful purpose to take the matter up again " . Pearson blamed the Cold War for such incidents , and added that the Canadian government was also denying entries to people wishing to attend communist meetings and was providing US officials with " security information " . A special committee was set up by the TSO board to screen all its members .

MacMillan stayed out of the matter ; he did not attend meetings of the TSO board and maintained a public silence through the spring and summer of 1952 . According to TSO archivist Warren , MacMillan 's correspondence indicates that he supported the board 's decision not to rehire the six musicians .

While the Symphony Six garnered support from many corners , they did not receive widespread support from their peers . While some orchestra members were " genuinely supportive " , according to Budd , many others publicly shunned them for fear of being perceived as communist sympathizers and losing their own jobs .

= = Aftermath = =

Only two of the Symphony Six eventually returned to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra : Ruth Budd and Stephen Staryk . After her contract was not renewed , Budd played with orchestras in Halifax and other Canadian cities . She was rehired by the TSO in 1964 and continued as a double bassist until 1989 , becoming " one of the most beloved members of the orchestra " . Staryk played in the CBC Symphony Orchestra from 1952 to 1956 and then traveled to London , where he was appointed concertmaster of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . In 1960 he became concertmaster of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam and toured the US with them , although he had not been officially cleared by the US immigration department . Staryk was the first Canadian concertmaster of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra from 1963 to 1967 . He returned to the Toronto Symphony Orchestra in 1982 , serving as concertmaster until 1986 .

Keetbaas became the principal flautist for the Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra and the CBC Winnipeg Orchestra from 1953 to 1968 . From 1956 to 1966 he directed and performed with the Dirk Keetbaas Players , a wind quintet featuring flute , oboe , clarinet , bassoon , and French horn .

Kuinka performed with the Toronto Renaissance Quintet from 1963 to 1965 . In 1964 he formed the Toronto Mandolin Chamber Ensemble , which existed until 1969 . He also performed with the orchestra of the National Ballet of Canada . He received a research grant from the Canada Council to study European teaching methods and repertoire in 1966 .

Mannheim later performed in the Vancouver Symphony Orchestra and the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra .

Moskalyk joined the Faculty of Music at the University of Toronto and also became a faculty member of The Royal Conservatory of Music .

The TSO board had not renewed the musicians ' contracts hoping that it would receive more concert invitations from the United States . However , it received only eight invitations in the following four years , all from the state of Michigan . The eighth tour had to be cancelled because of a snowstorm .

In a letter written to Dan Cameron , President of the Canadian Federation of Music Teachers , in November 1952 , MacMillan reflected that " the orchestra , far from suffering musically , has in some respects improved . "

= Alisia Dragoon =

Alisia Dragoon ( Japanese : アリシアドラグーン , Hepburn : Arishia Doragūn ) is a 1992 platform game developed by Game Arts for the Sega Genesis . The player controls Alisia , a young woman who is on a quest to avenge her father and save the world . She can fire lightning from her hands and summon four faithful beasts to aid her .

The game was released outside of Japan by Sega , who packaged the heroine as a rugged gladiator instead of the dainty @-@ looking sorceress she originally was . Due to the lack of publicity for the game internationally , Alisia Dragoon did not make a big impact on the video game market , despite the critical acclaim it received .

= = Gameplay = =

In Alisia Dragoon , the player controls the female protagonist , Alisia , in her quest to save the world by defeating the evil forces that killed her father . The game consists of eight levels of side @-@ scrolling environments ; Alisia has to jump across gaps and kill the enemies that stand in her way . Each stage is completed by defeating the boss at the end .

Alisia attacks by shooting streaks of lightning from her hands . The attack automatically targets enemies in range but gets weaker with each volley as Alisia 's power is depleted . Her power recharges when she stops attacking ; when fully charged , it allows her to unleash a smart @-@ bomb @-@ like attack , hitting every enemy on the screen . The energy system introduces an element of strategy , encouraging the player to manage Alisia 's power to have her able to defend herself at critical moments .

Helping Alisia in her quest are her pet monsters . These creatures fly around the heroine on their own , attacking her foes , and blocking enemy attacks from hitting her . There are four pets , each with its own type of attack . The Dragon Frye spits fireballs , and the Boomerang Lizard hurls boomerangs . The Thunder Raven emits a thunder blast that affects enemies across the screen , and the Ball O ' Fire burns enemies on contact . Only one pet can fight alongside Alisia in her quest , but the player can select any of the four ( or none ) as the active companion at any time .

Over the course of the game , Alisia and her monsters can improve their abilities by collecting power @-@ ups . These enhancement items are placed throughout the first seven stages , mostly in hidden locations . The various power @-@ ups can heal Alisia and her monsters , increase their maximum life bars , improve their attacks , or grant invulnerability for a certain time . Life bars are lost by taking damage from enemy attacks and traps . When Alisia 's pets lose all their life bars , they are removed from play and cannot be brought back until a " Revive " power @-@ up is collected . If Alisia loses all her life bars , she can restart the level by expending a continue . The game ends if all the continues have been used . Alisia Dragoon has no features for saving the player 's progress . After the game is completed , a screen is shown , charting the overall performance of the player based on the number of kills , the power level of Alisia 's attack , and the frequency the pet monsters are used .

= = Plot = =

Similar to most action games on the Sega Genesis , the plot in Alisia Dragoon is simple and short . The game goes straight into the action , tasking Alisia to kill everything in sight . After defeating the final boss , the player is treated to a cinematic cutscene of Alisia 's triumphant return to her home .

For the Japanese release , much of the back @-@ story was described in the manual . Alisia is the daughter of a sorcerer who has imprisoned the main villain , Baldour , in a cocoon and sent it into outer space . Her father is in turn tortured to death by Baldour 's followers . When the villain crashes back to the planet and begins to awaken , Alisia sets out to defeat him and his followers . The American and European versions of the game promoted a different back @-@ story , with Alisia as a gladiator who champions the cause of the people with her four pet companions . Her task is to eradicate the evil monsters and the source of their production , a " silver star " that has crashed to Earth .

= = Development = =

In 1992 , Japanese animation studio Gainax was in a collaboration with Game Arts , the makers of the Lunar role @-@ playing games , to produce an action video game . Gainax 's video game product line tended to target a niche crowd who generally preferred dating simulations and anime @-@ based adventure games . Alisia Dragoon is a departure from this tradition . The animation studio handled the artistic end of the production , writing the story and creating the artwork that would be used for the design of the game 's environments and characters . Several of its founders had worked on Hayao Miyazaki 's animated films , and the influences of Miyazaki 's 1984 science fiction animated film Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind were evident in certain levels of the game . Similarly , due to the predominance of mixing science fiction with fantasy themes in the Japanese animation circles at that time , Alisia Dragoon featured high @-@ tech spaceships and robots alongside mythical zombies and dragons . The composition of the soundtrack was delegated to Mecano Associates , who had produced the music for other works from Game Arts , such as the action games Fire Hawk : Thexder 2 and Silpheed . Game Arts , however , did most of the work in producing Alisia Dragoon , adapting the artwork into environments and creatures that can be rendered by the console hardware , and writing them as lines of software code .

= = Reception = =

Due to a small customer base in Japan , Alisia Dragoon sold few copies on its release ( April 24 , 1992 ) ; the console it was made for , the Sega Mega Drive , was not a popular device in Japan , selling 3 – 3 @.@ 5 million units ( 10 % of all Mega Drives / Genesis sold around the world ) . The game was published earlier by Sega for North America and Europe , on March 30 . However , it was a subdued release ; Sega did not place major advertisements for the game in the media . To localize the contents for the Western market , the video game publisher made several cosmetic changes to Alisia Dragoon . Instead of a big @-@ eyed heroine drawn in typical anime styling , Alisia was portrayed as a golden bikini @-@ wearing female barbarian on the box covers outside Japan . The Western version of Alisia was likened to the scantily clad females in artist Boris Vallejo 's work .

Westerners were more enthusiastic toward the game than were the Japanese , although there were a few negative appraisals . GamePro magazine opined Alisia Dragoon 's responsive controls , coupled with the hectic action and handsome graphics , made the game highly desirable for owners of the Genesis console . The Lessers of Dragon magazine were equally impressed with the gameplay , praising Alisia Dragoon for its " solid arcade action " that satisfied their " need for fast reflexes " . Mean Machines 's Julian Rignall praised the game for its pet monsters design , calling the management of the pets in the game an encouragement toward tactics . His fellow reviewer , Richard Leadbetter , wrote the game was visually attractive with " beautiful sprites " and " amazing backdrops " . He found the gameplay challenging , being forced to conserve energy as the game " [ threw ] everything but the kitchen sink at [ him ] " . Rignall agreed with Leadbetter on the game 's difficulty , which along with the secret rooms and power @-@ ups to be discovered made Alisia Dragoon an excellent action platform game that had long @-@ lasting appeal . Of the hundreds of Genesis games , Mega magazine rated Alisia Dragoon among the top 100 games , calling it " [ probably ] the best dragon @-@ based platform game around . " Despite the positive sentiments , sales of the game outside Japan were weak .

Sixteen years after the game 's release , Todd Ciolek of Anime News Network reviewed Alisia Dragoon and repeated much of the same sentiments as the Mean Machines reviewers . Noting Gainax 's catalog of games , he noted that Alisia Dragoon was very different from the rest ; instead of targeting hardcore fans of anime and focusing on exploitive themes , the game 's appeal was for everyone . In light of this , Ciolek called Alisia Dragoon " the best video game Gainax ever touched " and " a spectacular ride in its own right " .

Alisia Dragoon has been recognized retrospectively as a relatively early video game to challenge a gender bias prevalent in the industry at the time . In the early 1990s , the video game market was skewed toward the young male demographic , and games often portrayed women as " damsels in distress " , submissive and requiring rescue by the male protagonists . Along with contemporary games like Streets of Rage or Wurm : Journey to the Center of the Earth , Alisia Dragoon featured a female leading character who can defend herself without the help of a male hero .

= Maurice ( Shelley ) =

" Maurice , or the Fisher 's Cot " is a children 's story by the Romantic writer Mary Shelley . Written in 1820 for Laurette Tighe , a daughter of friends of Percy and Mary Shelley , Mary Shelley tried to have it published by her father , William Godwin , but he refused . The text was lost until 1997 , when a manuscript copy was discovered in Italy .

" Maurice " tells the story of a boy searching for a home and his encounters with a traveller who turns out to be his long @-@ lost father . The story is narrated in a melancholy tone from several points of view and focuses on the theme of loss , particularly the separation of parents and children . Shelley explored this partly autobiographical theme in other works written at the same time , including her novel Mathilda and her play Proserpine . The story 's straightforward language reflects that of the Romantic poet William Wordsworth , whose works Shelley was reading while she composed " Maurice " .

= = Background = =

In 1814 , the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Mary Shelley ( Mary Godwin , at the time ) ran off with Percy Bysshe Shelley to continental Europe , accompanied by Claire Clairmont , Mary 's stepsister . After six weeks of travelling , they returned to England but continued to live together . Mary returned pregnant with Percy 's child , but their infant daughter died soon after her premature birth . Percy was alienated from his family and received little financial support from them ; he was therefore harassed by creditors . In 1816 , Mary and Percy had a second child , William . The same year , Claire Clairmont began an affair with the poet Lord Byron , and in January 1817 she had a daughter by him , Allegra . The group spent the summer of 1817 with Byron at Lake Geneva , where Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein . That fall , Percy 's wife , Harriet , committed suicide , and in December Percy and Mary were married . In September 1817 , Mary and Percy had another child , Clara .

The group traveled to Italy in early 1818 . They first surrendered Allegra to Byron in April , much to Claire 's distress . In August , Percy Shelley took Claire to see Allegra , at her request . Percy arrived in Venice , telling Byron he had the entire family . Mary was thus summoned to Venice to substantiate Percy 's story . However , baby Clara Shelley was sick and traveling made her even more ill . She died shortly after arriving in Venice . In the winter of 1818 , Percy registered a child in Naples to himself and Mary : Elena Adelaide . However , it is unclear who this child 's parents really were .

In 1819 , the group moved to Rome , where Mary and Percy Shelley 's son William died . Mary Shelley had now lost all three of her children and was very depressed . Claire became increasingly concerned about Allegra , as Byron refused to allow her to see their daughter or reveal where she was . Mary , however , became pregnant again , with Percy Florence , and the group traveled from Rome to Pisa and Florence . En route , they became friends with a couple who helped and inspired them : Lady Mountcashell , who as Margaret King had been an eager pupil of Mary Shelley 's mother , Mary Wollstonecraft ; and George William Tighe , the agricultural theorist for whom she had left her husband and children . Both were poets and , like the Shelleys , were republicans and freethinkers . Lady Mountcashell referred to herself as " Mrs. Mason " after a character from Wollstonecraft 's own children 's story Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) . The couple had two children , Anna Laura Georgiana ( called Laurette ) and Nerina , who quickly became attached to Mary and Claire .

After traveling to Florence , Mary Shelley wrote to Lady Mountcashell , praising Laurette 's " simplicity and frankness " . By way of her mother , Laurette inquired after Mary 's health and requested her presence . Mary Shelley invited Laurette to stay with her in Florence two months after the birth of Percy Florence , but the girl 's mother could not bear to part with her . In early 1820 , the group moved to Pisa and Claire became like an elder sister to Laurette , taking her to operas and the Carnival . In the summer , the group moved again , from Pisa to Livorno , and Mary Shelley began researching her historical novel Valperga . Throughout the summer , Claire wrote anxiously to Byron , begging to see Allegra . Believing that the Shelleys were careless parents who were responsible for the deaths of their children and concerned that the children were not receiving proper religious training , he consistently refused to let Claire see their daughter .

= = Writing and publication = =

Mary Shelley wrote " Maurice " for Laurette Tighe on 10 August 1820 . Shelley 's journal for that day notes : " Thursday 10 — Write a story for Laurette — Walk on the mountain — Le Buche delle Fate [ fairy grottoes or caves ] — The weather is warm & delightful " . Claire Clairmont and Laurette had spent Laurette 's birthday together in Pisa and the following day on the coast with Mary Shelley ; this excursion may have inspired the story , which may have been a birthday present . Shelley suggested that her father , philosopher William Godwin , publish Maurice as part of his Juvenile Library , but he refused . He may have thought it was too short or that it too closely resembled a story by Caroline Barnard entitled The Fisher @-@ boy of Weymouth that he had just published in 1819 . In his article on " Maurice " , L. Adam Mekler suggests that Godwin may also have rejected the story because of the " strong biographical parallels " with the history of the Shelleys and the Godwins .

The manuscript was lost until Cristina Dazzi discovered it in the summer of 1997 in the home of the Dazzi family , Casa Cini , in San Marcello Pistoiese . She was looking through a box of old papers , searching for " something interesting " to add to an exhibit about the winter of 1827 – 28 when the poet Giacomo Leopardi had visited and met Lady Mountcashell and her daughter . Excerpts were first published in an Italian book about Lady Mountcashell by Mario Curreli in 1997 . One year later , Percy Shelley and Mary Wollstonecraft biographer Claire Tomalin published the entire story , along with a lengthy introduction and a typescript of the manuscript .

= = Plot summary = =

In " Part I " , a traveller arrives in Torquay , Devonshire . He sees a funeral procession passing by and notices a beautiful , distressed young boy taking part . The traveller goes to a local inn , where a countryman tells the story of Maurice and the late @-@ dead Old Barnet . Old Barnet was a fisherman married to Dame Barnet . She had died a little over a year ago and Old Barnet was distraught ; he had no wife to come home to . One day , Maurice showed up and volunteered to help him out around the house while he was out fishing . Poor and sickly , Maurice could not perform difficult tasks , but he was diligent . Old Barnet grew to love Maurice , as did the villagers .

" Part II " opens with Old Barnet 's brother informing Maurice that he must leave the cottage after one week . Maurice spends his days mourning the fisherman . One day the traveller returns to the village and seeks out Maurice ; he stops at the cottage and asks to stay the night . He and Maurice talk and Maurice tells of his plans to leave the cottage and find work on a farm . He also tells the traveller of his poor family and how he does not want to be a bother to them , revealing that his father used to beat him because he did not believe Maurice was really ill . The traveller and Maurice sit together , enjoying nature , and discuss the pleasures of country life and reading . The traveller offers to care for Maurice and to educate him .

The traveller explains in " Part III " how he is the son of an Oxford mathematics professor . When young , he loved to read outdoors and wanted to know how the world worked . He became an architect and travelled throughout Europe . Eventually he married a lovely woman with whom he had a son , Henry . One day the couple left their son with his nurse during an outing and she fell asleep . When they returned , their son was gone , and he could not be found . The traveller spent years searching the countryside for his son ; one day he met the woman , Dame Smithson , who had stolen his son . To please her sailor husband who wanted a child , she lied to him and said she was pregnant . Before his return , she needed a child , so she stole the traveller 's . Unused to the harsh life of a peasant , the child suffered and became sickly . As a result , the woman 's husband disliked him and beat him , believing him to be worthless . Hearing this story , Maurice reveals himself to be the traveller 's son ; he had changed his name to avoid the person he believed to be his cruel father . Overjoyed to be reunited with his son , the traveller buys the cottage for him and they return every once in a while . Maurice is educated , grows up , and travels widely . He returns to see that the cottage has disintegrated ; he builds a new one for another poor fisherman 's family , beside the lot of the old one .

= = Style , genre , and themes = =

Maurice is divided into three parts , perhaps reflecting the trend for triple @-@ decker novels for adults at the time , and contains multiple narrators . It is written in a melancholy tone , beginning with a funeral and finishing with the decay of the cottage . However , in her review of the Tomalin edition in the New York Times , Marina Warner writes that the story " contains little of the seething originality , moral complexity or sinister Gothic speculativeness of Frankenstein " .

Mary Shelley was reading the poetry of William Wordsworth while she wrote Maurice . Tomalin has argued that " Wordsworth does seem to preside over Maurice , with its clear , straightforward language , and its setting among simple people and poor labourers , and against elemental backgrounds of rocks and trees , cliffs and seashore " .

Maurice 's natural goodness never wavers in the story . Unlike Shelley 's Frankenstein , which suggests that environment determines a person 's morality , Maurice assumes that people can be innately good . Maurice even forgives Dame Smithson , who stole him from his nurse . The story aims to generate sympathy in its readers . In contrast with other children 's stories of its day , it lacks didacticism and draws no clear distinctions between virtue and vice .

Despite the appeal to sympathy , loss is the predominant theme of Maurice : parents lose their child ; a mother yearns for a child to the point that she steals one ; and " Maurice " loses his sense of identity . The overarching themes of the story are Romantic , according to Tomalin : " the vulnerability of childhood , and of parenthood ; displacement , loss , pain , death and rehabilitation ; delight in the natural world ; and the power of time both to heal and to destroy " .

The loss of children , in particular , may have had autobiographical and biographical resonances . Lady Mountcashell had separated from her husband and been forced to give up her children . A court had ruled Percy Bysshe Shelley unfit to raise the children from his marriage to his deceased first wife and placed them in the care of a court @-@ appointed guardian . A third reference may be to the death of three of Mary and Percy 's children . Literary critic A. A. Markley points out that Shelley wrote other works at this time that engaged with the issue of child @-@ parent separation , most notably her novel Mathilda and the children 's drama Proserpine , both of which she worked on in 1820 . Markley explains that Maurice is a reworking of Mathilda , " in which a long deferred reunion of father and child is orchestrated with happy rather than tragic results " . This theme is also explored in Mary Shelley 's short stories " The Mourner " , " The Evil Eye " , and " The Pilgrims " , as well as her novel Lodore ( 1835 ) .

Mekler argues that the story may be a veiled criticism of Mary Shelley 's stepmother , Mary Jane Clairmont . Dame Smithson lies to her husband regarding her children , a possible allusion to the origins of Mary Jane Clairmont 's own first two children and to her " propensity for falsehood " . ( Clairmont represented herself as a widow , with legitimate children , which was not the case . ) Mekler speculates that " in her theft of the first @-@ born son , Dame Smithson replicates in metaphorical fashion Mary Jane 's usurpation of the role as mother of the male heir that had originally belonged to Mary Wollstonecraft " .

= = Reception = =

According to Miranda Seymour , author of a biography of Mary Shelley , while the story itself was " no great work ... the public responded to the discovery with an interest not shown , for example , towards recently found letters of [ Percy ] Shelley and Byron " . She explained this occurred because Mary Shelley is now considered a significant Romantic writer , her works have become increasingly accessible to the public , and her authorship of Frankenstein is often mentioned in the popular press .

= Concurrent use registration =

A concurrent use registration , in United States trademark law , is a federal trademark registration of the same trademark to two or more unrelated parties , with each party having a registration limited to a distinct geographic area . Such a registration is achieved by filing a concurrent use application ( or by converting an existing application to a concurrent use application ) and then prevailing in a concurrent use proceeding before the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board ( " TTAB " ) , which is a judicial body within the United States Patent and Trademark Office ( " USPTO " ) . A concurrent use application may be filed with respect to a trademark which is already registered or otherwise in use by another party , but may be allowed to go forward based on the assertion that the existing use can co @-@ exist with the new registration without causing consumer confusion .

The authority for this type of registration is set forth in the Lanham Act , which permits concurrent use registration where the concurrent use applicant made a good @-@ faith adoption of the mark prior to the registrant filing an application for registration . Such registrations are most commonly achieved by agreement of the parties involved , although the USPTO must still determine that no confusion will be caused .

= = Statutory basis = =

The authority of the USPTO to issue a concurrent use registration is set forth in the Lanham Act , section 2 ( d ) , enacted in 1947 and coded at 15 U.S.C. § 1052 , which states in relevant part :

Through these provisions , the Act effectively places three requirements on marks for which a later applicant seeks a concurrent use registration :

1 ) the later applicant must have used the mark in commerce prior to the time that the earlier registrant filed its application for registration , unless the senior registrant consents to the junior user 's registration ;

2 ) the later applicant 's use in commerce must have been lawful

3 ) concurrent use of the marks may not result in a likelihood of confusion .

The statute essentially codifies the Tea Rose @-@ Rectanus doctrine , established by the United States Supreme Court in two cases decided in 1916 and 1918 . The Court had established in those cases that a junior user of a mark that is geographically remote from the senior user of the mark may establish priority over a senior user 's claim to the mark in the junior user 's area .

Any party may voluntarily limit the geographic scope of its application while conceding the rights of another party to a different geographic territory . A concurrent use application may not be filed based on a party 's intent to use a mark , but must rely on actual use in commerce . The concurrent use application must identify all other parties who are entitled to use the mark , and provide the names and addresses of the parties identified . Instead of making the usual assertion that no other party has the right to use the mark , the applicant must assert that no other party " except as specified in the application " has such a right .

Where two or more geographically unrestricted applications are pending at the same time , and no registration has yet been issued , the USPTO will proceed with the earliest application , and put all later applications on hold pending a determination on the earliest .

= = = Use in commerce prior to an adverse filing for registration = = =

By the terms of the Act , the critical dates with respect to concurrent registration are the date of the applicant ’ s first use and the earliest filing date of any other registrant . In other words , as the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board Manual of Procedure ( " TBMP " ) states , " an application seeking concurrent registration through a concurrent use proceeding normally must assert a date of first use in commerce prior to the earliest application filing date of the application ( s ) ... involved in the proceeding . "

The Lanham Act requires that an Applicant ’ s use in commerce must have been lawful . The TTAB ( and its predecessor , the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals ( " CCPA " ) ) has read this to mean that the applicant 's use must not have infringed another party 's use at the time that applicant adopted its mark . Therefore , one potential pitfall facing applicant is that " [ g ] enerally , concurrent rights arise when a party , in good faith , and without knowledge of a prior party ’ s use in another geographic area , adopts and uses the same or similar mark for the same or similar goods or services within its own geographic area . "

The mere fact that an applicant 's use was geographically remote from a registrant or other opposer ’ s use does not establish good faith , as " courts have generally held that the remote use defense ... is unavailable where the junior user adopts a substantially identical mark in a remote geographic area with full knowledge of the senior user ’ s prior use elsewhere . " However , the TTAB has also previously held that " mere knowledge of the existence of the prior user should not , by itself , constitute bad faith . "

= = = Likelihood of confusion = = =

The factors under which the TTAB evaluates the likelihood of confusion were established in In re E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co . , and are commonly referred to as the " du Pont factors " .

The thirteen du Pont factors are :

( 1 ) The similarity or dissimilarity of the marks in their entireties as to appearance , sound , connotation and commercial impression .

( 2 ) The similarity or dissimilarity and nature of the goods or services as described in an application or registration or in connection with which a prior mark is in use .

( 3 ) The similarity or dissimilarity of established , likely @-@ to @-@ continue trade channels .

( 4 ) The conditions under which and buyers to whom sales are made , i.e. " impulse " vs. careful , sophisticated purchasing .

( 5 ) The fame of the prior mark ( sales , advertising , length of use ) .

( 6 ) The number and nature of similar marks in use on similar goods .

( 7 ) The nature and extent of any actual confusion .

( 8 ) The length of time during and conditions under which there has been concurrent use without evidence of actual confusion .

( 9 ) The variety of goods on which a mark is or is not used ( house mark , " family " mark , product mark ) .

( 10 ) The market interface between applicant and the owner of a prior mark :

( a ) a mere " consent " to register or use .

( b ) agreement provisions designed to preclude confusion , i.e. limitations on continued use of the marks by each party .

( c ) assignment of mark , application , registration and good will of the related business .

( d ) laches and estoppel attributable to owner of prior mark and indicative of lack of confusion .

( 11 ) The extent to which applicant has a right to exclude others from use of its mark on its goods .

( 12 ) The extent of potential confusion , i.e. , whether de minimis or substantial .

( 13 ) Any other established fact probative of the effect of use .

In many instances , only a few of the categories will be applicable to the facts of the case before the TTAB .

= = Procedure to acquire = =

The procedures to acquire such a registration are set forth in the TBMP Chapter 1100 . They are initiated when a concurrent use application is submitted to the USPTO , which will initiate a concurrent use proceeding to determine if the applicant is entitled to such registration . An existing application that has been denied registration because of a conflict with an existing mark may be converted into a concurrent use application against that existing mark . In either case , the applicant must assert that its mark was used in commerce before the owner of the existing registration , called the " senior registrant " , had filed its own application for registration . The applicant must also demonstrate that the marks can both be used in their specific geographic areas without causing a likelihood of confusion .

The USPTO will contact the senior registrant to inform that party of the claim against their mark . The proceeding in which the respective rights of the parties are determined is like a trial in which the applicant must submit evidence showing that the applicant had adopted the mark in good faith , that the applicant had adopted the mark prior to the senior registrant 's date of registration , and that the confusion is not likely . The senior registrant may present evidence to the contrary , in order to prevent the loss of control over the use of the registered mark in the applicant 's claimed territory . Both parties may take discovery in the form of requests for admission , interrogatories , requests for production , and depositions . As with a regular trial , the TTAB may be called upon to resolve disputes over whether discovery requests are overbroad , and whether discovery responses are inadequate .

The senior registrant in such a proceeding has ample incentive to oppose the grant of a concurrent use registration , because a registered trademark is presumed to apply throughout the entire United States . Thus , the grant of a concurrent use registration carves out some geographic territory from the senior registrant 's exclusive control .

As 15 U.S.C. § 1052 ( d ) indicates , a concurrent use registration may also be issued " when a court of competent jurisdiction has finally determined that more than one person is entitled to use the same or similar marks in commerce . " As a matter of right , the TTAB will issue such a registration pursuant to a court order that an applicant has the right to use its mark in certain geographic area . Where a court has issued such an order , a concurrent use proceeding is not needed , as evidence has already been taken in the court proceeding , and the rights of the parties have already been determined .

Most concurrent use proceedings result in a legal settlement between the parties . Frequently , one party will surrender its concurrent use claim and instead receive a trademark license from the other party . In other situations , each party may agree to geographic limitations on its use of the mark at issue , which the TTAB will honor if the settlement stipulates to facts which show that no confusion is likely . A benefit of such an agreement is that the parties can agree to terms beyond the scope of the TTAB 's decision , such as specific restrictions on time and place of advertising , or modifications to the appearance of either mark . However , irrespective of the agreement reached , the TTAB must still make an independent finding that no consumer confusion is likely to result from the concurrent use registration . Even if both parties assert that no confusion is likely , the TTAB may still make findings of fact which demonstrate that confusion is likely , and deny registration to the junior user of the mark .

A pivotal factor in assessing the likelihood of confusion in such a circumstance " is whether the parties whose marks are in question have agreed , in some form , to memorialize methods of avoiding confusion . " In that case , the court held that such an agreement " is viewed in light of the parties ’ interests and the prevailing marketplace " , further stating :

Furthermore , the issuance of concurrent use registrations need not prevent either party from engaging in advertising or other activities which might result in the incidental publication of one registrant ’ s mark in the territory of the other registrant . In the Amalgamated Bank case , the Federal Circuit found acceptable a term in the agreement that " nothing in this agreement will preclude Amalgamated New York from conducting advertising which might enter in the State of Illinois or from dealing with customers who happen to be located in the State of Illinois . " Courts have similarly held that a concurrent use registration does not curtail either party from advertising over the Internet , particularly where the junior user includes a disclaimer of some form on their website .

= = Geographic divisions = =

A concurrent use registration can be very detailed in the geographic divisions laid down . It may , for example , allow one party to own the right to use a mark within a fifty @-@ mile radius around a handful of selected cities or counties , while the other party owns the right to use the same mark everywhere else in the country . It may even divide the rights to use a mark within a particular city by reference to roads or other landmarks in that city .

The TTAB succinctly describes its territorial analysis in Weiner King , Inc. v. Wiener King Corp. :

The TTAB has found that in concurrent use proceedings , " [ t ] he area for which registration is sought is usually more extensive than the area in which applicant is actually using the mark . " " As a general rule , a prior user of a mark is entitled to a registration covering the entire United States limited only to the extent that the subsequent user can establish that no likelihood of confusion exists and that it has concurrent rights in its actual area of use , plus its area of natural expansion . "

Between lawful concurrent users of the same mark in geographically separate markets , the senior registrant has the right to maintain his registration for at least those market areas in which it is using the mark . However , the senior registrant does not always maintain the right to use the mark in territories not yet occupied by either party . In Pinocchio 's Pizza , for example , the first applicant ( but the junior user of the mark in commerce ) owned one small restaurant in Maryland and had expressed no plans for expansion , while the second applicant ( but senior user of the mark in commerce ) owned multiple restaurants in Texas and was planning aggressive expansion . The TTAB held that " purpose of the statute is best served by granting [ the second ] applicant a registration for the entire United States except for registrant ’ s trading area . " The TTAB therefore restricted the first applicant ’ s registration to permit exclusive use in Maryland , and within 50 miles of the first applicant ’ s restaurant in areas crossing into other states .

Furthermore , although the general rule provides that the entire United States should be covered by the respective registrations , it is permissible for parties to a proceeding to resolve the issue of territorial rights in a way that leaves some part of the country uncovered entirely . In a contested proceeding In re Beatrice Foods Co . , the court held that the senior user of a mark was entitled to a registration covering the entire United States , outside of the junior user 's area of actual use . However , the court went on to say :

The few courts that have considered the antitrust implications of concurrent use registration have determined that it does not raise any violation of antitrust laws . Although it is considered a violation of such laws for companies to agree to divide up geographic territories for the sale of goods , concurrent use agreements dividing up trademark territories are specifically provided for by Congress . Furthermore , even with such an agreement in place , a company can still sell competing products in the trademark territory of another company , so long as the intruding party sells that product under a different mark .

= = Impact = =

The availability of concurrent use registration is not commonly invoked , even where the applicant might stand an excellent chance of demonstrating the existence of geographically distinct markets . Proceedings before the TTAB , like proceedings before any court , can be expensive and time @-@ consuming . A contested concurrent use proceeding may last for two or three years before the resolution of a claim , and the outcome will remain uncertain until the end . The outcome of the proceeding will then be subject to an appeal before the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit , or to a collateral challenge in a United States District Court .

Perhaps the most notable instance of a continuing concurrent use registration is that of Holiday Inn . Although the national chain owns numerous trademark registrations , there is one registration for an unrelated " Holiday Inn " which is " restricted to the area comprising the town of Myrtle Beach , S.C. " . The Myrtle Beach hotel had used that name since the 1940s , and initiated a concurrent use proceeding in 1970 . While this proceeding was pending , the national chain commenced an action in the United States District Court . The concurrent use proceeding was suspended during the pendency of the federal litigation , which resulted in a judgment in 1973 authorizing the Myrtle Beach hotel to use a distinctive , noninfringing Holiday Inn service mark within the Town of Myrtle Beach . The concurrent use proceeding resumed , and in 1976 , the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals awarded the Myrtle Beach hotel a federal trademark registration .

Even where a concurrent use registration is issued , the parties may eventually come to an agreement under which one party will surrender its registration . In some instances , a party will simply happen to cease using the mark in favor of a new brand name , and the registration will lapse . In other cases , the larger company will eventually acquire the smaller .

A final note is that concurrent use registration was devised before the advent of the Internet , which serves to diminish geographic distinctions between sellers . John L. Welch , a Harvard @-@ educated attorney who writes a well @-@ known blog on the proceedings of the TTAB , has noted that " vigorously contested proceedings may well make it clear that concurrent use registrations are , in this Internet Age , a dying breed " .

= TV Everywhere =

TV Everywhere ( also known as authenticated streaming or authenticated video on @-@ demand ) refers to a business model wherein access to streaming video content from a television channel requires users to " authenticate " themselves as current subscribers to the channel , via an account provided by their participating pay television provider , in order to access the content .

Under the model , broadcasters offer their customers the ability to access content from their channels through internet @-@ based services and mobile apps — either live or on @-@ demand , as part of their subscription to the service . Time Warner Cable first proposed the concept in 2009 ; in 2010 , many television providers and networks began to roll out TV Everywhere services for their subscribers , including major networks such as TBS and TNT ( whose owner was an early supporter of the concept ) , ESPN , and HBO among others . Broadcast television networks also began to adopt TV Everywhere restrictions for their online content .

Although providers have touted the advantages of being able to access content across multiple platforms ( including on the internet , and on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets ) as part of their television subscription , TV Everywhere services have been criticized for being difficult for end @-@ users to set up , while media activists have criticized the concept for being a paywall that extends the existing oligarchy of the subscription television industry to the internet , and considering it to be collusion against " cord cutters " — those who drop cable and satellite entirely in favor of accessing content via terrestrial television , the internet , and subscription video on demand ( SVOD ) services .

= = Rationale = =

TV Everywhere services were developed in an attempt to compete with the market trend of " cord cutting " , where consumers drop traditional pay television subscriptions in favor of accessing TV content exclusively through over @-@ the @-@ air television and / or online on @-@ demand services , including Hulu , Netflix , YouTube , and other sources . Authenticated streaming and video on @-@ demand services allow traditional television providers to directly compete with these competitors , and add value to existing television subscriptions in an effort to retain subscribers .

In particular , broadcasters and providers have emphasized the use of TV Everywhere services to allow multi @-@ platform access to their content , on devices such as personal computers , smartphones , tablets , and video game consoles .

= = History = =

= = = Precursors = = =

ESPN first introduced a TV Everywhere @-@ like concept with ESPN360 , a service which allowed users to stream sports programming from its networks either live or on @-@ demand through a website . However , access to ESPN360 was restricted to the users of internet service providers who had negotiated deals with ESPN to offer the service ; a model closer in nature to cable television carriage . Similar tactics were soon used by several other channels , such as NFL Network ( who used the technique to restrict access to its Game Extra service for Thursday Night Football ) and Epix . David Preschlack , ESPN 's executive vice president for affiliate sales and marketing , foresaw a future in the model , believing that access to exclusive content would soon play a greater role in competition between high @-@ speed internet providers . Although the model was deemed a violation of the principles of net neutrality by critics , the FCC 's policies on net neutrality only apply to ISPs and not content providers .

= = = Introduction and adoption = = =

In 2009 , Time Warner Cable announced an initiative known as TV Everywhere , a set of principles which were " designed to serve as a framework to facilitate deployment of online television content in a way that is consumer friendly , pro @-@ competitive . " The concept would enable users of their respective cable television services to access live and on @-@ demand online content from channels that they subscribe to by using an account @-@ based authentication system . TWC CEO Jeffrey Bewkes believed that the TV Everywhere principles were " good concepts " that are " likely to be the general direction for all TV networks and all the distribution connections that are out there . " That summer , both TWC and Comcast began trials of services based on the system ; Turner Broadcasting was an early supporter of the system , providing access to TBS and TNT content as part of the trials . Comcast officially launched a public beta of its TV Everywhere @-@ based portal , Xfinity Fancast , in December 2009 for all double @-@ play television and internet customers . Afterwards , other providers began to follow suit .

In 2010 , broadcasters and television providers began a wider roll @-@ out of TV Everywhere @-@ based services ; for the 2010 Winter Olympics , NBC Sports offered live and video on @-@ demand access to events throughout the Games that required users to authenticate for access . Also in February , HBO launched HBO Go , a video on demand service exclusive to HBO subscribers on participating providers . In September 2010 , Disney would begin launching an array of TV Everywhere @-@ based services , including WatchESPN ( allowing users to stream ESPN 's entire suite of channels ) , accompanied by the later launches of similar " Watch " services for Disney Channel and Disney XD .

In August 2011 , Fox became the first over @-@ the @-@ air network to restrict on @-@ demand access with a TV Everywhere @-@ based system ; " next day " on @-@ demand episodes ( either through its website or Hulu , itself a joint venture between Fox , NBC , and ABC at the time ) would only be available online to users authenticating themselves as a subscriber to a cable or satellite provider , or those who subscribe to the Hulu Plus service . All other users would be subject to an 8 @-@ day delay . On September 1 , 2011 , fellow Fox property Big Ten Network ( a college sports network dedicated to the Big Ten Conference , operated in partnership with Fox Sports ) also launched a TV Everywhere service known as BTN2Go .

= = = Expansion = = =

Matt Strauss , Comcast senior vice president of digital and emerging platforms , considered the 2012 Summer Olympics to be a " watershed " event for TV Everywhere services ; NBCUniversal announced that a total of nearly 10 million authenticated devices accessed its online coverage during the Games across both the NBCOlympics.com site and NBC Olympics Live Extra app ; in particular , parent company Comcast accounted for 3 @.@ 3 million devices from 1 @.@ 5 million users . Following the Games , the NBC Olympics Live Extra app was re @-@ launched as NBC Sports Live Extra , serving as a general TV Everywhere app for NBC Sports . TV Everywhere services also began to appear in Canada , with the Canadian launch of HBO Go in 2012 , and the 2013 announcement of TV Everywhere services from Bell Media ( beginning with Bravo Go , and also including CTV Go and TSN Go ) and Shaw Media ( beginning with Global ) . The majority of Canadian broadcasters are vertically integrated ; both Bell and Shaw operate internet service providers and national satellite television services .

In May 2013 , ABC released its Watch ABC mobile app , which allows viewers on participating providers to access live streams from participating ABC affiliates . In December 2013 , ABC confirmed that it would impose a similar restriction to Fox for " next day " on @-@ demand episodes beginning on January 6 , 2014 , with 7 @-@ day exclusivity for authenticated users and Hulu Plus subscribers . NBC unveiled its own plans for a similar TV Everywhere app to its affiliate board in April 2014 .

In November 2015 , after negotiations surrounding revenue sharing and infrastructural mandates ( including a proposed requirement that the games only be available through the league 's existing apps ) , Major League Baseball reached a three @-@ year deal with Fox to allow it to offer in @-@ market online streaming on Fox Sports Go ( though streamed using MLB Advanced Media infrastructure ) for the 16 teams that it holds regional rights to through the Fox Sports Networks division . In December 2015 , Discovery Communications , a long hold @-@ out on the concept , launched Discovery Go , a centralized TV Everywhere service and mobile app for Discovery Channel , TLC , as well as sister networks American Heroes Channel , Animal Planet , Destination America , Discovery Life , Investigation Discovery , Science Channel , and Velocity .

= = Reception = =

The TV Everywhere concept has been met with mixed reception . Some broadcasters were initially hesitant to introduce TV Everywhere services , with concerns that they might affect advertising revenue and not be adequately counted by Nielsen ratings . Media activists have criticized the system for protecting the existing closed , regionalized oligarchy of multichannel television by tying internet @-@ based content to traditional television providers , thus harming competitors that are purely internet @-@ based . Public Knowledge believed that " under the ' TV Everywhere ' plan , no other program distributors would be able to emerge , and no consumers will be able to ' cut the cord ' because they find what they want online . As a result , consumers will be the losers . "

In 2010 , Free Press released a report entitled " TV Nowhere : How the Cable Industry Is Colluding to Kill Online TV " , contending that " under TV Everywhere , traditional cable TV distributors will continue to serve only consumers within their current geographically limited footprints , not competing with providers in other areas " and that " by tying programming to local cable subscriptions , while denying content to pure online TV distributors , the incumbent industry hopes to artificially reproduce the lack of competition for TV distribution to which it is accustomed , based on geographical fiefdoms and turf . " The National Cable and Telecommunications Association ( NCTA ) denied many of Free Press ' arguments , stating that " [ TV Everywhere ] is an effort to ensure more content than ever is distributed over the Internet at no extra charge to consumers . " On the other hand , Songwriters Guild of America president Rick Carnes praised the TV Everywhere concept and other recent developments for helping to provide easier , legal access to premium content online .

In July 2014 , BTIG analyst Richard Greenfield criticized the video on demand services offered through TV Everywhere systems for being ad @-@ supported . In examples from FX and TNT , he noticed that ads often repeated , and that in TNT 's case , its version of an episode of The Last Ship included 20 minutes of unskippable ads across 45 minutes of programming . In conclusion , he contended that viewers would rather wait for programs to appear on commercial @-@ free SVOD services rather than use TV Everywhere services .

= = = Viewer awareness = = =

Despite efforts by broadcasters to educate viewers on TV Everywhere services and how to utilize them ( including Fox , who featured a promotional video with Jane Lynch as her Glee character Sue Sylvester , describing the process as being less painful than waterboarding ) , critics and end @-@ users criticized the registration and authentication processes for being frustrating and difficult . In response , providers took steps to improve their user experiences ; Disney reported that use of its TV Everywhere services increased after it simply changed its process to use the term " verify " instead of " authenticate " , Comcast and Cablevision introduced systems that automatically verify users with their residential gateways , and Synacor ( a provider of authentication platforms used by providers ) added the ability for users to link their provider account to a social network login , such as Facebook or Twitter .

For the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2014 Winter Olympics , NBC worked closer with providers to help educate users , and produced customized marketing materials and video tutorials featuring Carson Daly ( 2012 ) and Ryan Seacrest ( 2014 ) to help inform users . As an incentive , NBC also allowed authenticated users to enter a sweepstakes to win a trip to London ( 2012 ) or Rio de Janeiro ( 2014 ) . Still , dissatisfaction with the system and the quality of NBC 's overall coverage led to an increase in the use of virtual private network ( VPN ) services to access the more comprehensive online coverage of the Games being provided by broadcasters in Canada ( CTV in London , CBC in Sochi ) and the United Kingdom ( BBC ) , which did not use authentication , but cannot normally be viewed inside the United States due to territorial rights restrictions .

In April 2014 , the Cable & Telecommunications Association for Marketing ( CTAM ) unveiled an industry @-@ wide initiative for marketing and educating subscribers about TV Everywhere services provided by broadcasters and providers ; these efforts include a stylized " tv everywhere " logo which the organization intends providers to use as a unified brand to denote TV Everywhere services . The logo consists of interlocking rectangles , representing multiple " screens " ( platforms ) for viewing content . The association also provided design recommendations for TV Everywhere user experiences , aiming to alleviate the confusion that had been experienced by users during the authentication process .

= = = Adoption = = =

In a December 2013 survey of 4 @,@ 205 pay television subscribers , NPD Group found that 21 % of them used a TV Everywhere service at least once per month , and that 90 % of them were satisfied with the experience . NPD analyst Russ Crupnick felt that " aggressive " use of the model was helping to counter cord cutting , which " speaks to the level of engagement they have with programming and a comfort in using the Internet to both access and interact with that programming . " The study also found that 3 out of 10 pay television subscribers who were also subscribed to an SVOD service used TV Everywhere services at least once a week ( in comparison to 2 out of 10 for those who were not ) .

Amid criticism of NBC 's coverage , adoption of NBC 's TV Everywhere services during the 2014 Winter Olympics was still significantly large : on February 21 , 2014 , coverage of the Men 's hockey semi @-@ final featuring the U.S. and Canada recorded the largest Live Extra audience in NBC Sports history , with 2 @.@ 12 million unique viewers , augmenting the average NBCSN television audience of 3 @.@ 9 million . ESPN 's coverage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup drew similarly heavy online viewership : during a group stage match between the U.S. and Portugal , at least 1 @.@ 7 million concurrent viewers were using WatchESPN ( though , not all of the viewers were necessarily watching the game ) .

In December 2015 , research firm GfK estimated that 53 % of the United States ' pay television subscribers have used a TV Everywhere service — an increase from 42 % in 2012 , that overall use had doubled since 2012 , and 79 % of those surveyed found the login process easy . However , only 25 % of those surveyed were aware of the term " TV Everywhere " or the CTAM logo , leading to the firm believing that consumer awareness and education was still a " critical missing piece " in the adoption of these services .

= = = Platform non @-@ neutrality = = =

In 2014 , Comcast was criticized for its decision to arbitrarily block access to HBO Go on PlayStation 3 and Roku devices , but still allowing its use on competing Apple TV and Xbox 360 . Comcast similarly blocked access to Showtime Anytime on Roku as well . A spokesperson for the provider stated that " with every new website , device or player we authenticate , we need to work through technical integration and customer service which takes time and resources . Moving forward , we will continue to prioritize as we partner with various players . "

During both the FCC 's net neutrality hearings and comments regarding Comcast 's then @-@ proposed merger with Time Warner Cable ( which , by contrast , allows HBO Go access on all supported devices ) , Roku criticized the provider for contradicting the TV Everywhere concept by discriminating against specific devices , thus prioritizing its own on @-@ demand platform over external services . The company argued that providers could selectively favor certain platforms over others , further stating that " a large and powerful MVPD may use this leverage in negotiations with content providers or operators of streaming platforms , ultimately favoring parties that can either afford to pay for the privilege of authentication , or have other business leverage that can be used as a counterweight to discriminatory authentication . "

On December 15 , 2014 , Comcast enabled the ability to use HBO Go and Showtime Anytime on Roku devices . However , Comcast still blocks HBO Go on PlayStation consoles .

= Stanley Internment Camp =

Stanley Internment Camp ( Chinese : 赤柱拘留營 ) was a civilian internment camp in Hong Kong during World War II . Located in Stanley , on the southern end of Hong Kong Island , it was used by the Japanese imperial forces to hold non @-@ Chinese enemy nationals after their victory in the Battle of Hong Kong , a battle in the Pacific campaign of World War II . About 2 @,@ 800 men , women , and children were held at the non @-@ segregated camp for 44 months from early January 1942 to August 1945 when Japanese forces surrendered . The camp area consisted of St. Stephen 's College and the grounds of Stanley Prison , excluding the prison itself .

= = Evacuation and arrival at camp = =

In 1939 , the British government had drawn up evacuation plans for the British and other European residents of Hong Kong , which was a Crown colony of the United Kingdom ( UK ) at the time . The War Office by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff thought the city would inevitably fall to Japanese forces in the event of an attack , so it should not be reinforced with more defensive forces . The presence of a large number of British women and children would have been an " embarrassment " for the government when the Japanese forces take Hong Kong , and additionally it was thought the internment of thousands of British civilians would cause unnecessary suffering and serve the Japanese as propaganda material . In July 1940 , the colonial government of Hong Kong received orders from the UK to proceed with the evacuations . By 3 August , all service families and registered non @-@ service British women and children were moved to the Philippines . However , the hurried compulsory evacuations prompted criticism from many evacuees , their husbands , and their employees , who felt the evacuations were premature and unnecessary . According to Bernice Archer and Kent Fedorowich , respectively of the University of Essex and the University of the West of England , the local Chinese population were angered by their exclusion from the evacuations and condemned the plans as racist . Additionally , the plans excluded British passport holders who were not of European ancestry . Amidst the criticism , the government subsequently made the evacuations non @-@ compulsory . Existing evacuations already ordered were cancelled provided evacuees volunteered for auxiliary roles , such as nursing or administrative work .

On 8 December 1941 , Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong , marking the start of the Battle of Hong Kong . Seventeen days later , on Christmas Day of 1941 , which came to be known as " Black Christmas " , the Hong Kong government surrendered , and Hong Kong came under Japanese occupation . On 4 January 1942 , a notice appeared in an English @-@ language newspaper that all " enemy nationals " were to assemble on Murray Parade Grounds . Many people did not see the notice , but about 1 @,@ 000 people were eventually gathered on the grounds . In addition to those who gathered voluntarily , there were people forcibly removed from their homes .

The people assembled were marched to and initially interned in hotel @-@ brothels on the waterfront near the present @-@ day Macau Ferry Pier . The conditions there were dirty and overcrowded , and the food was poor . After 17 days , the internees were taken by boat to Stanley . The " enemy nationals " who failed to assemble on Murray Parade Grounds avoided internment at the hotel @-@ brothels . However , by the end of January , most of the civilians to be interned were moved to Stanley . Upon arrival at camp , the internees discovered little was prepared for them there . There were no cooking facilities , no furniture , little crockery or cutlery . The toilet facilities were dirty , inadequate , and without water . The rooms were soon overcrowded with random assortments of people unrelated to each other , and with little attention paid to hygiene or public health .

= = Camp grounds = =

The Stanley site was chosen by the Japanese through consultation with two Hong Kong government officials – Dr. P. S. Selwyn @-@ Clarke , Director of Medical Services , and F. C. Gimson , the Colonial Secretary . Located on Stanley Peninsula , which was about nine kilometres from the city at the time , the camp consisted of St. Stephen 's College and the grounds of Stanley Prison , excluding the prison itself ; the prison was used by the Japanese authorities to hold what they considered " criminals " from Hong Kong . Several hundred internees lived at St. Stephen 's , while the majority of them lived on the prison grounds . Prior to Japanese occupation , St. Stephen 's was a secondary school whose facilities , in addition to classrooms , included an assembly hall , bungalows for teachers , and science laboratories . Over twenty internees occupied each bungalow , which was built for one family , and more than that occupied each science laboratory , living between partitions of sacking and old blankets . Almost all the buildings in the camp were used for housing .

Certain buildings and areas on the prison grounds had specific functions :

The Prison Officers ' Club was used for multiple functions ; it was used as a canteen , a kindergarten , Catholic church , and recreation centre .

Two main divisions of quarters existed – the Warders ' Quarters and the Indian Quarters . Before the war , the Warders ' Quarters housed European warders , with large flats designed for one family each , and the Indian Quarters housed Indian prison guards , built with smaller flats . An average of thirty internees lived in each Warders ' Quarters flat , and an average of six internees lived in each Indian Quarters flat .

A building which had housed single Indian warders before the war was turned into a hospital called Tweed Bay Hospital .

Two houses , originally used as homes for the prison superintendent and the prison doctor , were turned into the Japanese headquarters for the camp .

The cemetery on the grounds became a popular spot for quiet relaxation as well as a place for intimate meetings between male and female internees .

= = Life at camp = =

The internees numbered at 2 @,@ 800 , where an estimated 2 @,@ 325 to 2 @,@ 514 were British . The adult population numbered at 1 @,@ 370 men and 858 women , and children 16 years of age or younger numbered at 286 , with 99 of whom were below the age of 4 . The camp was under the control of the Japanese Foreign Affairs Department , but according to historian Geoffrey Charles Emerson , the Japanese forces had not made plans for dealing with enemy civilians in Hong Kong . As such , the camp was provided with few necessities , and the internees were left to govern the camp themselves . Committees were formed for such matters as housing , food , and medical care . The national groups remained mostly independent of each other except for matters of welfare and medical care . Very few government servants were selected to serve on these committees , due to anti @-@ government sentiments ; most internees blamed the government for the quick surrender of Hong Kong .

The biggest concern was food ; ensuring there was enough food occupied most of the internees ' time . Little food was provided by the Japanese authorities , and it was of poor quality – frequently containing dust , mud , rat and cockroach excreta , cigarette ends , and sometimes dead rats . Everyday , the internees were served rice congee at 8 am , and meals consisting of rice with stew at both 11 a.m. and 5 p.m. Additionally , they relied on food mailed from friends or relatives in the city , Red Cross aid , garden @-@ grown vegetables , and bought food from the canteen or the black market .

Another concern was the health and medical care of the internees . Although medical facilities were inadequate , the internees counted amongst them about 40 doctors , 2 dentists , 6 pharmacists , 100 trained nurses , and a large number of volunteer auxiliary nurses . Because of this , according to historian G. B. Endacott , no major epidemic occurred . The most common sickness amongst the internees were malaria , malnutrition and its associated diseases , beriberi , and pellagra . The shortage of medical supplies and equipment posed a challenge for those in charge of medical care , with the lack of soap and disinfectant being a particularly troublesome concern .

The women and children contributed to a sense of normality as their presence provided conventional social , family , and gender relations . The internees believed the children 's presence made them less selfish , as it forced them to think of the latter 's welfare . The women organised Christmas and birthday celebrations . Other diversions such as musicals , plays , recitals , and variety shows were also staged . Although the camp lacked books and educational equipment , the teachers and educational administrators amongst the internees were able to provide lessons for the children at the primary and secondary levels . Additionally , extensive adult education was available for the adults : language courses for Chinese , Malay , and French , and also lectures on photography , yachting , journalism , and poultry @-@ keeping . In addition to the personal diaries kept by internees , many of them now held by the Imperial War Museum , a record of life in the camp was created using a double bed sheet . The Day Joyce Sheet was embroidered and appliquéd with 1100 names , signs and figures including a diary in code .

= = Deaths = =

Records show that 121 internees died in the camp , mostly due to illness , with half the deaths being of internees over the age of 50 . There were also a few accidental deaths . Two internees died from falls and one child had drowned . The worst camp accident occurred on 16 January 1945 , when an American plane accidentally bombed Bungalow 5 at St. Stephen 's College , killing 14 internees . These internees were buried at Stanley Military Cemetery .

Another seven internees were executed by the Japanese authorities . These internees had possessed a radio set which they used to pass messages in and out of camp . The radio was discovered by the Japanese and the internees were arrested . The other internees were forced to watch their public torture . Military trials were subsequently held and on 29 October 1943 , some of the internees were executed by being shot and at least one , John Fraser , was beheaded . Aside from this , the Japanese authorities had executed by decapitation , three Chinese policemen for bringing cigarettes and tobacco to the camp 's internees .

= = Escape attempts = =

A number of factors made escape attempts daunting for the internees ; they would have to navigate through Japanese @-@ occupied territory , find food , and , as few internees actually spoke Cantonese , they would also have to deal with language difficulties in Hong Kong if they succeeded in escaping . Despite the difficulties , there were three major escape attempts , with two being successful in March 1942 . One group of eight internees escaped on a small boat to neighbouring Macau . Another group , consisting of two internees , escaped through the New Territories and into mainland China . The third group , four policemen , in April 1942 managed to escape the camp grounds but were caught within a few miles of camp . They were subsequently imprisoned and released back to camp after a few weeks .

= = Early Repatriations = =

Repatriation was one of the two most talked @-@ about subject at camp ( the other being the subject of food ) . On 6 May 1942 , the Japanese authorities informed the internees repatriation for the Americans would take place on 15 June . Japanese treatment of the American internees improved during this period before the actual repatriation took place ; more and better food was given to them , and they were allowed contacts with Chinese friends outside of camp . American journalists were interviewed by a Japanese news agency and asked questions about the war and the camp . The internees came to find out later the interview became war propaganda for the Japanese , in the form of an article claiming that American journalists had complimented the Japanese military and the camp itself , stating the camp was " probably the most comfortable in the world . " It was not until 29 June that repatriation for the Americans finally took place , after Japanese and Thai citizens held in the US and South America boarded ships in late June in preparation for exchange of internees . Those being repatriated were given smallpox vaccination , cholera inoculation , and thorough medical examinations . No books , bibles , diaries , or addresses were allowed to leave with the Americans , but the remaining internees were each allowed to write a 150 @-@ word letter for the Americans to take with them . The American internees boarded the ship , the Asama Maru , along with other Americans who had been allowed to stay in Hong Kong outside of the camp . After picking up Americans for repatriation from other locations in Asia , the Asama Maru arrived at Maputo , Mozambique ( then called Lourenço Marques ) on 22 July , where the Americans and Japanese exchanged internees . The Americans were to finally reach New York City on 25 August . Reportedly a total of 377 Americans were repatriated from Hong Kong .

Repatriation of Canadian internees and remaining American internees were announced in August 1943 ( not all American internees had been repatriated in June 1942 ) . Preparations similar to the prior repatriation were made , including messages and reports to be delivered . The ship , the Teia Maru , reached Hong Kong on 23 September , taking on board 73 Canadian internees , 24 American internees , and 13 Latin American internees . The ship sailed to Goa , where an exchange of prisoners and internees with Japan took place .

There were indications and notices to the British internees that their repatriation was possible ; Gimson told them a Swiss Red Cross representative had spoken " encouragingly " about repatriation , the Japanese authorities twice informed them ( on 24 May 1943 and 2 November 1943 ) that they would be repatriated , and 25 May 1943 issue of the Hong Kong News reported negotiations for repatriation were " going on rather smoothly " . Despite this , the British internees were not repatriated until the end of the war .

= = Freedom = =

The internees were freed on 16 August 1945 , the day after Emperor Hirohito broadcast his acceptance of the Potsdam Proclamation in surrender . About two weeks later , the British fleet came for the internees , and several weeks after that , the camp was closed . Many internees went back to the city and began to adjust back to their former lives , and many others , particularly those of poor health , remained on the camp grounds to await for ships to take them away . Historian Geoffrey Charles Emerson wrote the " probable " reason the British internees were not repatriated before the end of the war was related to the Allied forces refusing to release Japanese nationals held in Australia . These nationals were the only sizeable group of Japanese nationals held by the Allies after the repatriation of the American and Canadian internees . They had been pearl fishermen in Australia before the war , and knew the Australian coastline well . Their knowledge would have been " militarily important " to the Japanese if an invasion of Australia was attempted , hence the Allied refusal to release them .

= = Compensation = =

In 1948 , the US government , through the War Claims Act , authorised the payment of US $ 60 for every month an adult spent in an internment camp , and US $ 25 per month for child internees . Some also received US $ 1 per day for " missed meals " . In the UK , from 1952 to 1956 , about 8 @,@ 800 British internees , specifically those who normally resided in the UK when the war began , received a sum of ₤ 48 @.@ 50 as reparation . Payments for American and British internees were made from the proceeds of Japanese assets seized per the Treaty of San Francisco . Dutch internees each received a sum of US $ 100 , with the payments funded by a separate agreement signed between the Dutch and the Japanese in 1957 .

The rise of Japan as an economic power and the opening of World War II files at the UK 's Public Record Office created a sentiment in the 1990s that not enough had been done to redress the suffering of internees and prisoners @-@ of @-@ war . In November 2000 , the British government announced a compensation scheme for British civilians who had been interned in World War II . The scheme called for a package of £ 167 million , and by February 2001 , the first raft of payments of £ 10 @,@ 000 were being made . Initially , the plan excluded British persons who had no " bloodlink " to Britain , a point of distinction that was made between those who were " British citizens " and those who were " British subjects " .

In reaction to this , former Stanley internee Diana Elias launched a civil action case against the British government , alleging the distinction of " bloodlink " made by the compensation scheme was discriminatory , and that the Japanese authorities had made no such distinction in their treatment of the internees . Elias ' family , including her parents and her grandparents , were all holders of British passports . The " bloodlink " distinction , however , made her ineligible for compensation because she is of Iraqi Jewish ancestry . In July 2005 , the High Court in London ruled in her favour , and was subsequently backed by the Court of Appeals when the Ministry of Defence appealed the High Court 's decision . This allowed for hundreds of surviving civilian internees to collect the compensation earlier denied to them by the " bloodlink " distinction .

= = Post @-@ war = =

St. Stephen 's College was re @-@ opened in 1945 after the war . St. Stephen 's Chapel was built on the grounds of the school in 1950 ; the memorial window over its west door was a donation , serving to remember the suffering at Stanley Internment Camp .

= = Notable internees = =

Sir C. Grenville Alabaster – Attorney General of Hong Kong

Morris Abraham Cohen

Kenelm Hutchinson Digby

Elly Kadoorie

Sir Atholl MacGregor – Chief Justice of Hong Kong

Lewis Morley

Hilda Selwyn @-@ Clarke

Francis Arthur Sutton

= Monster Cable =

Monster Inc. is an American company that manufactures and markets 6 @,@ 000 different products , but is best known for audio and video cables . It also produces speakers , headphones , power strips , mobile accessories and audio devices for automobiles . The company was founded by an audiophile and engineer , Noel Lee , in 1979 by experimenting with different ways to build audio cables . It grew by doing demonstrations to convince the industry that audio cables made a difference in audio quality and by establishing relationships with retailers that were attracted to the cable 's profit margins .

Over the years it created new divisions like Monster Music , Monster Game , Monster Mobile , Monster Photo and Monster Power . In the 2000s , Monster had legal trademark disputes regarding other companies or products that have " Monster " in their name , such as Monster.com and the film Monsters , Inc . Monster said it needed to defend its premium brand , while critics said it was pursuing litigation against companies that do not have confusingly similar products . It began manufacturing headphones in a partnership with Dr. Dre in 2008 , which ended in 2012 , and it created other celebrity branded or Monster @-@ branded headphone products .

Several tests done by audiophile publications , news reporters and academics have conflicting viewpoints on whether more expensive audio or video cables like those from Monster make a difference in audio or video quality when compared to generic cables . Instead of advertising , Monster offers incentives to retailers and their salespeople to sell the cables . Retailers bundle high profit @-@ margin cables with larger purchases that have smaller margins in order to improve profitability .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

Monster was founded in 1979 by Noel Lee as Monster Cable Products . Lee , an audiophile and engineer , was experimenting with different copper qualities , wire constructs and winding methods of audio cables in his family 's garage and comparing them while listening to Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture . He became convinced that audio cables could be engineered to improve audio quality by conducting electricity more efficiently . Using a borrowed portion of somebody 's booth at the 1978 Consumer Electronics Show , he did demonstrations of his cables in comparison to standard wires . After a positive reception at CES , he quit his job at Lawrence Berkeley Lab and started Monster Cable Products with $ 250 @,@ 000 in bank financing . Monster 's first cables were manufactured by Lee by hand and sold door @-@ to @-@ door .

Initial sales were slow , because at the time electronics retailers provided low @-@ cost lamp cords to consumers for free or at low prices and audiophiles didn 't believe audio cables made a difference in the sound . Monster is credited with creating the market for high @-@ end audio cables in the 1980s through Lee 's " marketing prowess . " He did demonstrations comparing the audio of standard cables to Monster cables for retailers and trained their salespeople to do the same for customers .

= = = Diversification = = =

In 1980 , Monster Cable Products moved out of Lee 's garage and into a San Francisco facility . It also introduced its second audio cable , Interlink . The company grew through word @-@ of @-@ mouth and an increasing number of retailers that carried Monster products . It attempted to enter the market for audio devices for automotive briefly , but withdrew to focus on home entertainment . Its first product intended for the mass @-@ market was introduced in 1987 .

Monster re @-@ entered the auto audio market in the early 1990s with a new line of speaker cables and its first speaker product , the Persona One . Its high @-@ end M @-@ series product line was introduced in 1992 . It also expanded internationally , especially in Asia . Monster had a Taiwanese distributor file its trademark in the region , which led to the distributor continuing to sell products under the Monster brand after their agreement with Monster was terminated . This led to a lengthy legal battle and eventually a settlement . Monster acquired the Entec in @-@ car audio brand in 1998 .

Monster 's program for retailers was formalized in 1993 as the M4 Dealer Success Program . The " M4 " stands for four " M " s : Mix ( product mix ) , Merchandising ( displays ) , Monsterization ( training ) and Management commitment . In the 1990s , the business grew from $ 20 million in annual revenues to $ 100 million . By 1998 , Monster was producing 1 @,@ 000 different products out of a distribution and manufacturing center in Brisbane , California that was established that year . It had created a record label company , Monster Music , in 1989 , which was followed by Monster Power for power products such as power cords and surge protectors , in 1998 , Monster Game for video game accessories in 2000 and the Monster Mobile division which markets cell phone and digital camera accessories in 2001 . A Monster Photo product line was created in 2003 that includes power cells , cables and bags for digital cameras , followed by Monster Signature Series Power . In 2004 , it created a spin @-@ off called M @-@ Design , run by Lee 's son , which sells furniture with electronics built in .

= = = Recent history = = =

In September 2004 , Monster paid $ 6 million in an agreement with the San Francisco 49ers and the city of San Francisco to rename the football team 's home stadium from Candlestick Park to Monster Park for four years . $ 3 million of it was given to the football team and the other $ 3 million to the San Francisco Recreation and Parks Department . Critics of local politician Matt Gonzales said it was inappropriate for the city to sell the name of a public facility to a corporation and a ballot was passed ensuring that the name of the park reverted back to Candlestick Park in 2008 .

Monster 's first wireless products , a receiver and transmitter for connecting televisions and devices was introduced in 2008 . In 2012 , the company changed its name from " Monster Cable Products " to just " Monster Inc . " .

= = = = Trademark disputes = = = =

As of 2004 , Monster owned about 300 trademarks , 70 of which are related to the word " Monster " . By 2009 , the company had made 190 filings with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office . Most filings were to delay potentially infringing trademark applications so Monster could study them . Some were formal oppositions and about 30 have resulted in lawsuits . Most lawsuits were settled with non @-@ disclosed terms . Critics and defendants say that Monster is too aggressive in pursuing trademark protections against companies that do not have confusingly similar products and that it is trying to own a common word , not protect a brand . Monster representatives say they are doing what most " premium " brands do to protect their marks and that their products include things like clothes , mints and music .

In the 2000s , Monster had legal disputes over its trademarks with the Discovery Channel for its show Monster Garage . Monster also had trademark disputes with Bally Gaming International over its slot machines , Monster Slots , with Hansen Beverage Co. for its Monster Energy drink , and the Chicago Bears , who use the nickname " Monsters of the Midway . " Other trademark disputes include a 2001 lawsuit against The Walt Disney Company for products related to the film Monsters , Inc . , and a claim against an online used clothing retailer , MonsterVintage LLC . In 2004 , Monster filed a complaint about the trademark application from Snow Monsters , a video website with skiing content for kids . The Snow Monsters owner initiated a lawsuit against Monster pre @-@ emptively . It has also had a trademark dispute with the job site , Monster.com.

In 2006 Monster brought a suit against Monster Mini Golf , a company selling franchise Mini Golf locations throughout the US . After an unsuccessful legal mediation , Monster Mini Golf launched a grassroots campaign against Monster Cable on the Internet . As a result , Monster received more than 200 complaints from the public . Monster Cable dropped the lawsuit and agreed to pay up to $ 200 @,@ 000 of Monster Mini Golf 's legal fees . In 2009 Monster Cable CEO Noel Lee said on Fox Business that the company has had to balance their trademark protection efforts with the public 's point @-@ of @-@ view .

= = = = Headphones = = = =

Monster established a partnership with rap artist Dr. Dre and Interscope Records in 2007 to design and manufacture the Beats Electronics line of headphones called " Beats by Dr. Dre " . This led to a trend among headphone manufacturers to create celebrity @-@ endorsed products . Monster created similar partnerships with Lady Gaga for the Heartbeats brand of headphones in 2009 , PDiddy 's Diddybeats in May 2010 and LeBron James later that year . In 2010 , Monster began developing a series of products for the Chinese market that were co @-@ branded with basketball player Yao Ming . According to analyst firm NPD Group , the Beats brand that Monster distributed exclusively grew to own 53 percent of a $ 1 billion headphones market . A 51 percent interest in Beats was sold to HTC in August 2011 . At the end of the five @-@ year agreement between Monster and Dr. Dre in 2012 , Dre decided not to renew . According to Bloomberg , both parties said the separation was " amicable " but they had disagreements on who deserves credit and the share of revenues . The partnership was responsible for a substantial portion of Monster 's revenues . After the split , Monster created its own headphones product line and other celebrity @-@ branded headphones with music groups Earth , Wind & Fire and Miles Davis .

= = Products = =

Monster manufactures 6 @,@ 000 different products , including headphones , speakers , surge protectors , televisions , and accessories for cars and mobile devices . The company is best known for its speaker cable . It created the market for high @-@ end audio cables in the 1980s . According to a reporter from SoundStage Network , it " has retained a huge lead " for high @-@ end audio cables ever since .

Monster also makes cables for TVs , DVDs , computers , printers , gaming consoles , cameras and for audio equipment in cars . As high @-@ definition televisions grew in popularity , the company expanded into HDMI and high @-@ def cables , including a lower @-@ cost HDMI Basic and HDMI cables with five different speed ratings . It also produces cables intended for specific gaming consoles and Apple products .

Monster began manufacturing and marketing USB and ethernet cables as well as power strips and power management products in 2009 . It 's been producing its own line of headphones since 2012 and also manufactures celebrity @-@ branded headphones . Monster sells speakers under the Clarity and Katana brands and mobile accessories like an iPod dock and a line @-@ up of Tron @-@ branded products .

In the 2000s , it entered into markets for " lifestyle products " like amplifiers , speakers and furniture with electronics built @-@ in , as well as wireless products .

= = Pricing and performance questions = =

Many audiophiles and reporters disagree on whether more expensive cables have an effect on audio quality . In 1980 Speaker Builder said that Monster audio cables were " a reasonable investment " and that they out @-@ perform generic 24- or 18- gauge cables . Tests by Stereo Review Magazine in 1983 concluded that Monster cables did not make a difference in the sound and were " indistinguishable " from 16 @-@ gauge lamp cord . Smaller gauge numbers equate to larger wire , so this is a comparison to heavier ( 16 gauge ) wire than 18 or 24 gauge speaker wires . The same publication in 1990 said that whether the cables are worth it depends on the application and the user 's willingness to pay a premium .

Whether someone can hear the difference varies from person to person . Many reporters and audiophiles have done double @-@ blind a / b listening tests and are unable to hear the difference . The New York Times and PC World have reported not hearing a difference in the sound , while USA Today said Monster had " a slight edge . " According to PC Magazine , Monster is " often accused of selling over @-@ priced cables that you can buy elsewhere for a fraction of the price . "

Gizmodo tested Monster @-@ branded HDMI cables and compared them to generic cables using a Digital Serial Analyzer . They found that the cables performed relatively equally over a short distance of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , but inexpensive cables experienced distortion when ran over longer distances . WIRED also said Monster 's HDMI cables made a difference over 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) distances , but that , " with Monster , you pay a staggering premium for durability and good looks . " In tests by PC World , Monster 's M500CV video cables had the least distortion out of all the cables tested , being within 1 ohm of the standard 75 ohm impedance .

Monster CEO Noel Lee claims the average consumer may not be able to tell the difference on @-@ screen , but that Monster 's video cables have higher bandwidth , are future @-@ proofed , are more durable and that they perform better over long distances . Many reviewers stress in turn that Monster cables are not needed for lower @-@ resolution televisions or over short distances and that the difference in audio quality is not substantial enough .

= = Relationship with retailers = =

Monster Cable and similar " boutique " cables are a substantial source of revenue for retailers of electronics , such as DVD players and TVs . While the profit margins of DVD players and TVs may be low , the profit margins of Monster Cables and similar products provide supplemental revenue for these retailers . Employees of such retailers are trained to market and bundle Monster Cable and similar products in order to increase profitability .

According to The New York Times , profit margins for retailers can be 40 percent or more and The Consumerist reported that one retailer was selling some cables at an 80 percent markup . This has led to criticisms that sales staff are motivated to sell high @-@ end cable products to customers that don 't need them and to be aggressive in order to obtain incentives . Monster has responded by saying that markups are determined by the retailer and are usually less than those found on clothing , jewelry and furniture .

As of 1998 , Monster spent $ 13 million a year in training and incentive programs for salespeople . The sales staff are provided data on their performance in selling the cables and top @-@ performers are sent on all @-@ expenses @-@ paid vacations . Monster also hosts its Retailer Awards at CES each year , which the Las Vegas Sun called , " one of the biggest events on the CES party circuit . "

= SummerSlam ( 2007 ) =

SummerSlam ( 2007 ) was the twentieth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by THQ 's Stuntman Ignition . It took place on August 26 , 2007 , at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey and featured talent from each of WWE 's three brands : Raw , SmackDown , and ECW . Tickets for SummerSlam went on sale December 30 and sold out in forty minutes .

The main feud , a staged rivalry between wrestlers , heading into the event from the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton . On the July 23 episode of Raw , Jonathan Coachman announced Orton as the number one contender to the WWE Championship . Over the proceeding weeks , Orton provoked Cena by interfering and attacking him during his matches . From SmackDown , the predominant feud was between The Great Khali and Batista . After Khali defeated Batista and Kane in a Triple Threat match , a match between three wrestlers contested under standard rules , Theodore Long booked Khali to defend the World Heavyweight Championship against Batista at SummerSlam . The primary feud from ECW was between John Morrison and CM Punk . By defeating Morrison in a 15 Minutes of Fame match , Punk became the number one contender to the ECW Championship at SummerSlam .

Several of the existing feuds carried on after the event . Notably , CM Punk continued to face John Morrison , defeating him for the ECW Championship the following month on ECW on Sci Fi . The day after SummerSlam , Orton , as part of the scripted events , interfered in a match between Cena and King Booker and intensified the feud by attacking Cena 's father . Khali and Batista faced each other at Unforgiven , the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , as part of a Triple Threat match ; Batista was victorious in this match and won the World Heavyweight Championship .

= = Background = =

World Wrestling Entertainment had originally planned a storyline between the cast of the Jackass TV series and Umaga , with the conclusion in a match at SummerSlam . It was scheduled to begin at the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Great American Bash , but was canceled after the Jackass cast dropped out due to the negative media attention surrounding the Chris Benoit double murder and suicide .

The main staged rivalry heading into SummerSlam on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Randy Orton over the WWE Championship . At The Great American Bash , Cena defeated Bobby Lashley to retain the WWE Championship . The next night on Raw , one of three main television programs of WWE ( along with WWE SmackDown and ECW on Sci Fi ) , after a Handicap match involving Cena , Orton came out and executed an RKO on Cena . Shortly thereafter , Executive Assistant Jonathan Coachman announced Orton as the new number @-@ one contender to the WWE Championship . Before that , Orton claimed that he had never faced Cena in a one @-@ on @-@ one WWE Championship match . On the July 30 episode of Raw , Carlito defeated Cena in a non @-@ title match after Orton interfered and distracted Cena . Three weeks later , on the August 18 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event , Cena faced off against Carlito in another non @-@ title match , which Cena won . After the match , Orton came out and attacked Cena , which led to a RKO from Orton through a steel chair .

The main storyline on the SmackDown brand was between The Great Khali and Batista over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the July 6 episode of SmackDown , Khali issued an open challenge for a match at The Great American Bash , which was accepted by Batista later that night . On SmackDown the following week , the match between Khali and Batista was made official after a contract signing . That same night , then @-@ World Heavyweight Champion Edge , who was scheduled to face Kane for the title at The Great American Bash , suffered a real injury — a left pectoral muscle tear — after Kane interrupted his Mardi Gras style celebration . On the July 20 episode of SmackDown , Edge was forced to vacate the World Heavyweight Championship due to the severity of his injury . He later commented-

I ’ m still the rightful champion . My pectoral muscle is hanging on by a single fiber ; literally hanging from the bone . Theodore Long comes out and strips me of what I ’ ve worked for my entire career — from childhood until now . My mood is obviously not great right now . I ’ m disgusted .

I go out there and put my body through hell . I ’ ve broken my neck , dislocated my shoulder twice , torn my other pec , my elbows are mush , I have two protruding discs in my lower back . I even got bit by a brown recluse spider that turned into a flesh @-@ eating disease — the list goes on . I still go out there and prove that I am the best .

Why do I still do this ? Not for them . I do it for my pride . I don 't give a rat 's ass what the fans think . I never have . That 's not how I operate . I know that fans will be happy with this , and that pisses me off . I 've come to the realization that our fans never will appreciate me . But they had to live with me as their champion , and when I return and become a four @-@ time World Champion , they 'll have to deal with me again .

SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long then announced that there would be a 20 @-@ man Battle Royal later that night to determine a new World Heavyweight Champion . Khali won the Battle Royal and became the new World Heavyweight Champion by last eliminating Kane and Batista . Khali defeated the two and retained the title at The Great American Bash . Five days later on SmackDown , Batista interrupted Khali 's celebration and challenged him to a match at SummerSlam . The next week , on the August 3 episode of SmackDown , Long announced that Khali would defend his title against Batista at SummerSlam .

Another main rivalry on the Raw brand heading into SummerSlam was between the returning Triple H against King Booker . At New Year 's Revolution , during a World Tag Team Championship match between Rated @-@ RKO ( Edge and Randy Orton ) and D @-@ Generation X ( Shawn Michaels and Triple H ) , Triple H suffered a legitimate torn right quadriceps during the match that left him out of action . On July 16 , Booker T , who is referred as King Booker after winning the 2006 King of the Ring tournament started using Triple H 's entrance music " King of Kings " . King Booker declared that neither Triple H nor Jerry Lawler could be known as " The King " . On August 6 episode of Raw , King Booker defeated Lawler in a match where the loser had to crown the winner the next week . When the time came , Lawler refused , declaring that Triple H was still a king and announcing that King Booker would face Triple H at SummerSlam . Booker then attacked Lawler , throwing him into the ring post and hitting him with a TV monitor .

The predominant staged rivalry from the ECW brand was between John Morrison and CM Punk over the ECW Championship . Morrison won the title at Vengeance : Night of Champions , the pay @-@ per @-@ view two months before SummerSlam by defeating CM Punk . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , The Great American Bash , Morrison defeated Punk to retain the ECW Championship . On the July 31 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , Punk defeated Tommy Dreamer and Elijah Burke in a Triple threat match to earn a 15 Minutes of Fame match with Morrison . The following week , on ECW on Sci Fi , Punk defeated Morrison by pinfall after executing a GTS ( Go To Sleep ) . As a result of this victory , Punk earned himself a championship match against Morrison at SummerSlam .

One of the primary preliminary matches was a standard one @-@ on @-@ one match between Rey Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero . Their storyline first began in July 2006 at The Great American Bash . Guerrero interfered in Mysterio 's World Heavyweight Championship match with King Booker by hitting Mysterio with a steel chair . Guerrero defeated Mysterio the following month at SummerSlam 2006 , winning the match after performing a frog splash At No Mercy , the pay @-@ per @-@ view two months after SummerSlam , Mysterio defeated Guerrero in a Falls Count Anywhere match , pinning him after performing a crossbody off a guard rail . Two weeks later , Guerrero defeated Mysterio in an " I Quit " match forcing him to quit after hitting his left knee repeatedly with a steel chair . During the match , Mysterio suffered a real injury — an ACL and patella tendon tear in his left knee . Ten months later , on the August 3 episode of SmackDown ! , a match between Mysterio and Guerrero was booked for SummerSlam .

= = Event = =

Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , World Tag Team Champions Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch defeated Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a dark match .

= = = Preliminary matches = = =

The first match that aired was between Kane and Finlay . Kane controlled the opening minutes of the match , performing a variety of moves including a scoop slam and a big boot . After some back and forth action , Finlay was able to hit Kane with a shillelagh in the ribs . Kane kicked out of the pin attempt and executed a chokeslam , pinning him afterwards for the win .

Next was a Triple Threat match for the WWE Intercontinental Championship that involved Umaga , Carlito , and Mr. Kennedy . Kennedy attempted to form an alliance with Carlito in the beginning , but Umaga quickly turned the match in his favor . Kennedy and Carlito soon gained the upper hand after Carlito dropkicked Umaga to the outside . Shortly thereafter , Carlito turned on Kennedy and attempted to pin him with a roll @-@ up . After a back and forth match between the three , Umaga regained control and performed a Samoan Spike on Kennedy , which led to Umaga pinning Kennedy for the win and successfully retaining the WWE Intercontinental Championship .

The third match was Rey Mysterio versus Chavo Guerrero , which was Mysterio 's first match since Guerrero injured his knee in October 2006 . Mysterio gained the early advantage when he was able to perform an arm drag and a plancha on Guerrero . Mysterio then performed a low dropkick to Guerrero 's left knee , followed by a diving hurricanrana . Towards the end of the match , Guerrero was able to perform a Gory Bomb on Mysterio after Mysterio had missed a crossbody . Mysterio kicked out of the pin attempt and performed a 619 followed by a springboard splash for the pinfall victory .

Next was an Interpromotional Divas Battle Royal involving Beth Phoenix , Melina , Mickie James , Jillian Hall , and Maria from Raw , Michelle McCool , Torrie Wilson , Kristal Marshall , and Victoria from SmackDown , and Kelly Kelly , Layla , and Brooke from ECW . Shortly after the match began , Phoenix threw Brooke over the top rope . Soon after , Hall eliminated Maria and Layla was thrown out by Melina . Kristal then eliminated Victoria , but was then thrown over the ropes by James and accidentally knocked off the apron by McCool . Shortly after , Phoenix and Hall eliminated Kelly , and Hall and James began pulling each other over the ropes . Wilson threw Hall out to the floor whilst Melina knocked James off the apron . McCool and Wilson then worked together to eliminate Melina . The two continued their alliance , but Phoenix was able to get the upper hand , first eliminating Wilson , followed by throwing McCool over the ropes to win the match and a future WWE Women 's Championship match .

Shortly after the match ended , WWE United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) came to the ring and challenged Matt Hardy to a beer drinking contest . Hardy declined and named a replacement , Stone Cold Steve Austin . Austin came out and mocked MVP by doing several warm @-@ up exercises similar to those MVP does before a match . As the contest was set to start , Austin delivered a Stone Cold Stunner to MVP and left the ring .

Next on the card was John Morrison versus CM Punk for the ECW Championship . Punk gained early control when he was able to perform a scoop slam as well as a springboard dropkick ; however , Morrison was able to counter a shoulder block attempt into a neckbreaker on the ring apron . After Morrison controlled the match for several minutes , Punk was able to put the match back in his favor after performing a diving crossbody followed by an enzuigiri . Morrison , however , countered a Frankensteiner attempt into a pin @-@ cover while using the ropes for leverage . He got the win , thus retaining the ECW Championship .

= = = Main event matches = = =

The sixth match of the event was between the returning Triple H and King Booker , who was accompanied by Queen Sharmell . Triple H gained the early advantage as the match began ; however , Booker was able to gain control after performing a low dropkick . Triple H regained control after countering Booker and performing a variety of moves , which included a corner clothesline and a spinebuster . Booker put the match back in his favor after reversing a clothesline attempt into a Book End , which was followed by a sidewalk slam . After Booker missed a diving somersault leg drop , Triple H was able to recover and perform a Pedigree . Triple H pinned Booker afterwards to gain the victory .

The World Heavyweight Championship match between champion The Great Khali and challenger Batista was next . Khali controlled most of the match and performed a variety of moves , which included a brain chop , a big boot , and multiple clotheslines . Batista won the match after Khali intentionally disqualified himself by hitting him with a steel chair . Since a championship cannot change hands via countout or disqualification , Khali retained the title .

Next was the main event , which saw John Cena defend the WWE Championship against Randy Orton . After back and forth action in the opening minutes , Orton gained the advantage over Cena after Cena missed a flying shoulder block attempt . Orton followed up by applying a reverse chinlock and attacking Cena 's leg . After Orton controlled the match for several minutes , Cena gained the advantage and performed various maneuvers , which included a twisting belly to belly side slam and the Five Knuckle Shuffle ; Orton , however , was able to counter an FU attempt into an inverted headlock backbreaker . Cena countered a running punt attempt into the STFU submission hold . Orton , however , got to the bottom rope , and performed an RKO . Cena kicked out of the pin attempt and performed an FU for the pinfall victory , thus retaining the WWE Championship .

= = Aftermath = =

During the event , John Cena provoked his feud with Randy Orton . On the August 27 episode of Raw , Cena faced King Booker in a non @-@ title match . When Cena appeared close to winning , Randy Orton interfered and attacked him , causing Booker to lose by disqualification . After the match ended , Orton attacked Cena 's father , who was sitting at ringside , and kicked him in the head . The two faced each other in a rematch at Unforgiven for the WWE Championship . Cena was disqualified in the match for continuously punching Orton . Orton won the match but not the title . Afterwards , Cena 's father kicked Orton in the head , in the same way Orton had kicked his one @-@ month prior .

On the August 31 episode of SmackDown , Rey Mysterio , Finlay , Kane , and Batista participated in a four @-@ man Championship Competition tournament . Mysterio defeated Batista and Finlay and became the number @-@ one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship at Unforgiven . On the September 7 episode of SmackDown , Mysterio defeated Chavo Guerrero in an " I Quit " match . After the match , The Great Khali attacked Mysterio until Batista came out and executed a spear on Khali . Batista was then included in the one @-@ on @-@ one title match at Unforgiven , making it a Triple Threat match . At the event , Batista won the championship for a third time .

The feud between Matt Hardy and Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) continued when they were forced to team up against Deuce ' n Domino on the August 31 episode of SmackDown . They won the match and the WWE Tag Team Championship . The following month at Unforgiven , MVP and Hardy defeated Deuce ' n Domino to retain the WWE Tag Team Championship . That October , at No Mercy , Hardy defeated MVP in a pizza @-@ eating contest . On the November 16 episode of SmackDown , MVP and Hardy lost the WWE Tag Team Championship to the team of The Miz and John Morrison .

Umaga lost the WWE Intercontinental Championship to Jeff Hardy on the September 3 episode of Raw . Afterwards , Umaga started a feud with Triple H and faced off against him in a Street Fight two months later at Cyber Sunday . At Unforgiven , Candice Michelle defeated Beth Phoenix to retain the WWE Women 's Championship . Phoenix , however , later defeated Candice at No Mercy to win the title . On the September 4 episode of ECW on Sci Fi , CM Punk defeated John Morrison to win the ECW Championship . At Cyber Sunday , Punk retained the title by defeating The Miz . The following month , at Survivor Series , Punk defeated Morrison and The Miz in a Triple Threat match to retain the ECW Championship .

= = = Reception = = =

The event grossed over US $ 1 million in ticket sales from an attendance of 17 @,@ 441 out of a 17 @,@ 040 maximum capacity building . Due to the production of the event , however , the capacity of the arena was set at a lower standard , and as a result the arena reached its maximum capacity . This was confirmed by the ticket sales and by WWE 's official website on August 28 , 2007 . According to a press release by WWE in late @-@ 2007 , the event received 537 @,@ 000 buys , which was higher than the previous year 's SummerSlam buys of 529 @,@ 000 . The buys from SummerSlam helped the promotion 's revenue , which was $ 18 @.@ 8 million , a sum lower than the prior year of $ 19 @.@ 7 million . Canadian Online Explorer and its professional wrestling section rated the entire event a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The rating was higher than the previous year 's SummerSlam rating , a 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The main event from the Raw brand was rated a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 ; while the main event from the SmackDown brand was rated a 1 out of 10 . The event had 537 @,@ 000 buys , up slightly on the SummerSlam 2006 figure of 529 @,@ 000 buys .

The event was released on DVD on September 25 , 2007 . The DVD was distributed by the label , Genius Products . The DVD reached a peak position of first on Billboard 's Weekly Video Sales chart for the week of October 27 , 2007 . The DVD remained on the charts for twelve consecutive weeks ; though , after the week of October 27 , 2007 , the DVD ranked lower . During its final week on the chart , January 18 , 2008 , it ranked 19th . The DVD also received reviews from customers , as the average customer rating from Amazon.com was a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . The average customer rating however , from CD Universe was a 5 out of 5 stars .

= = Results = =

= Magia ( Shakira album ) =

Magia ( English : Magic ) is the debut album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira . It was released in June 1991 by Sony Music Colombia , with whom she signed a three @-@ album recording contract . The record is a collection of pop ballads Shakira wrote since she was eight years old , with themes inspired from the experience hanging out with males , adventure stories , and dreams of living on the coast .

The album 's live performances helped Shakira receive attention on Colombian media , and the LP earned her an award at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival . However , it was not a commercial success , with sales estimated at between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 copies . By Shakira 's request , Magia and its follow @-@ up Peligro ( 1993 ) were removed from music markets . " Magia " was released as promotional single in 1991 .

= = Development and composition = =

Born in Barranquilla , Colombia , Shakira began writing songs at the age of eight years , her first one being " Tus Gafas Oscuras " . Her performances at local competitions led to a meeting with local theater producer Monica Ariza , who later held an audition for her in Bogotá . She performed three songs for executives of Sony Music Columbia , who were impressed enough to sign her , at the age of 13 , to record three albums , which were Magia , Peligro and Pies Descalzos .

The low @-@ budget Magia was put in almost three months of pre @-@ production , which involved choreography of live performances for the album , singing lessons for Shakira , and arranging the songs . The concept of the music still reflected her personality , despite the fact that it was managed by the record label . The tracks deal with emotions of a person 's first time falling in love , and range from a love poem ( " Sueños " ) to a celebration of dance ( " Esta noche voy contigo " ) . These were influenced from experiences with males such as her ex @-@ boyfriend Oscar Pardo , stories told by her father , and dreams of living on the coast . In the book Shakira : Woman Full of Grace , Ximena Diego wrote that the album " demonstrated her [ Shakira 's ] indisputable potential . "

Magia is a collection of songs written by Shakira between the ages of 8 and 12 , and mainly consists of pop ballads . It was produced by Miguel E. Cubillos and Pablo Tedeschi , and recorded at Aga Studios in Bogotá , when Shakira was 13 . A Sony Music Columbia representative said that the recording process was simple and went perfectly fine . But for Shakira , the process was problematic , as she had no ability to decide which tracks would be included and no input into the rhythmic structure or artistic production of the songs .

= = Release and promotion = =

To promote the launch of the album , as a suggestion from Shakira , live performances were held in locations such as Teatro Amira de la Rosa , Cartagena , Santa Marta , Riohacha , Medellín , Cali , Bogotá , and other various theaters and events , all of which received print , radio and television coverage . The performances featured additional dancers and background vocalists such as Cesar Navarro , Guillermo Gomez , Mauricio Pinilla , and Richard Ricardo . A music video was done for " Magia " , which Navarro also starred in . Navarro found working with Shakira enjoyable and relaxing , and recalled her as sensitive and energetic : " She was a tireless worker , but more than anything , she was a total blast . " The choreography for the performances was done by Gary Julio and Ray Silva . The album won an award at the Viña del Mar International Song Festival in 1991 , although Shakira was not able to attend the ceremony due to her age of under 16 years . Despite the live performances and the amount of media coverage , the LP did not fare well commercially ; between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 copies were sold in her home country . Shakira has refused to allow the re @-@ release of both Magia and her next album , Peligro , because of their " immaturity " ; neither has ever been released in the U.S.

= = Track listing = =

= = Personnel = =

Credits from liner notes :

Shakira – songwriter , vocals

Sergio Solano – acoustic and electric guitars

Antonio " Toño " Arnedo – saxophone

Miguel Enrique Cubillos N. – producer , songwriter , music direction , artistic arrangement , vocal direction , chorus

Ana Maria Gónzalez @-@ Liliana Avila – chorus

Juanita Loboguerrero – songwriter

Miguel E. Cubillos – producer , songwriter , music direction , artistic arrangement , vocal direction

Pablo Tedeschi – producer , songwriter , musical direction , arrangement , computer programming , synthesizer programming , drum programming

Alvaro Eduardo Ortiz Q – design

Gabriel Muñoz – general coordination

Luis Miguel Olivar – sound engineer , mixing engineer

Leo Erazzo – album artwork

= Goodies ( album ) =

Goodies is the debut studio album by American recording artist Ciara . It was released on September 28 , 2004 via LaFace Records . After writing songs for several established acts , Ciara 's talents were noticed by Jazze Pha , and she began to work on what became Goodies . The album 's conception came through the which the title track , created as a female crunk counterpart to Usher 's " Yeah " and Petey Pablo 's " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek . " Ciara worked with several writers and producers on the album , including Jazze Pha , Lil Jon , Bangladesh , R. Kelly , Johntá Austin , Sean Garrett , and Keri Hilson , among others .

With Goodies , Ciara was hailed as the " Princess " or " First Lady of Crunk & B. " The album uses dance music while utilizing pop , R & B , and hip @-@ hop influences . The album delivers contradictory lyrical content , featuring female empowerment and independence @-@ promoting lyrics in songs like the title track , while others show interest in adult activities . Critics gave the album positive to mixed reviews , commending the " Goodies " -esque songs , while deeming others as unoriginal and noting Ciara 's limited vocal abilities . Most critics compared the work to singer Aaliyah , and also said it had qualities of Destiny 's Child .

Commercially the album was a success , in the United States , the album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , selling 124 @,@ 750 copies in its opening week . It was later certified triple platinum by the RIAA , and as of June 2010 , had sold over 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States . The album also fared well internationally being certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) and Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Goodies earned Ciara two Grammy nominations at the 48th Grammy Awards including Best New Artist and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " 1 , 2 Step . "

= = Background = =

In her mid @-@ teens , Ciara formed the all @-@ girl group Hearsay with two of her friends . The group recorded demos , but as time went on , they began to have differences and eventually parted ways . Despite this setback , Ciara was still determined to reach her goal and signed a publishing deal as a songwriter . After leaving the group Hearsay , Texas native Ciara earned a writing job via her manager , for Atlanta 's Tricky Stewart and The @-@ Dream 's RedZone Entertainment , penning songs for Mýa and Fantasia among others . According to Ciara , no one believed in her dreams of hearing her own music on the radio until she met producer Jazze Pha in 2002 . Within five months of meeting her , Pha signed her to his Sho 'nuff label and they had already recorded five tracks . About Ciara , Jazze Pha said , " What was really lacking is the Janet Jackson , high @-@ energy dance [ music ] . Ciara fills that void . She 's pretty , she can dance , she can write music , and kids love her . Everyone loves her . "

= = Recording = =

After graduating from Riverdale High School in Riverdale , Georgia in 2003 , she was signed by LaFace Records executive , L.A. Reid , whom she was introduced to by Jazze Pha . She began production on her debut album later that year . Recording sessions for the album took place at Chocolate Factory , Chicago , IL ; Circle House Studios , Miami , FL ; Darp Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Doppler Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Futuristic Recording Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Ground Breaking Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Hit Factory Criteria , Miami , FL ; Hitco , Atlanta , GA ; Patchwerk Recordings , Atlanta , GA ; Phoenix Ave . Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Sony Music Studios , New York , NY ; Studio 609 Recordings , Philadelphia , PA ; The Studio , Philadelphia , PA .

In early 2004 , Ciara wrote a demo with record producer , Sean Garrett , co @-@ writer of Usher 's crunk hit " Yeah . " After hearing a demo , crunk producer Lil Jon , who also produced and was featured on " Yeah " , began to work on the full record , to have it released on LaFace , which was also Usher 's label . Originally , Ciara was reluctant to work with the track produced by Lil Jon , reportedly disliking crunk music at first . However , she decided to use the song to go against the grain and deliver lyrics in contrast of female promiscuity lines delivered by fellow female artists . To give her a title to stand out , Lil Jon dubbed Ciara as the " Princess of Crunk & B. " Dubbed the female counterpart to " Yeah " and fellow crunk hit " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek " by Petey Pablo , it looked to capitalize on the success of the previous songs . In addition to working with Jazze Pha , whom produced most of the album , Lil Jon , and Garrett , she worked with several other Atlanta @-@ based writers and producers including Bangladesh , Johntá Austin , Jasper Cameron , and others , while featuring collaborations from Atlanta 's T.I. and Ludacris . R & B singer R. Kelly wrote and produced a track .

When talking about the album 's theme , Ciara said it was universal , stating , " It 's about everybody . You 'll have songs with different emotions , happy , sad , ' my heart is broken . ' What everybody goes through . " On her success with the preluding title track , Ciara said , " I 'm very content right now . I take everything a day at a time . Every time I hear good news , I 'm shouting out , ' Praise God . ' Everybody around me is so excited , I still haven 't got it . I haven 't really felt it like they 're feeling it for me . "

= = Composition = =

The album consists of bouncy dance music mixed with crunk , combined with either R & B , pop or hip hop music . The ballads on the set utilize Ciara 's breathy vocals , as the uptempo pieces . Lyrical content varies on the album . Songs like " Goodies " issue a message of female empowerment and abstinence , and this is contradicted as she hints at teasing sex . Slant Magazine compared this to Britney Spears @-@ esque " layer of tease to the mature " in her early work . Utilizing influences from 80 's dance music , qualities of the work of Destiny 's Child and Aaliyah are evident .

" Goodies " is heavily influenced by male counterpart crunk song " Yeah " and also has been compared to Kelis 's " Milkshake . " The song makes use of a repeated whistle , " faux operated vocals " in parts and a western guitar riff near the end . " 1 , 2 Step , " which continues the club music theme , is built around a simple dance and features Missy Elliott in a pas de deux. and according to Mike Pattensden of The Times , " owes plenty to classic New York electro . " " Oh , " a downtempo song , features a heavy bassline and has been called " brooding electronic grind , " and , according to Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian , " sounds like R & B reimagined by Gary Numan . " " Pick Up the Phone " was described as a rip @-@ off of Aaliyah 's " Rock the Boat " by Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine . " Next to You , " written by R. Kelly , is part of the album 's second half of ballads , and was said to capture " Ciara 's youthful indecisiveness . " " Hotline " features a " funky clap " and beatboxing .

= = Singles = =

Goodies ' lead single , the title track , featuring Petey Pablo , was released on June 8 , 2004 . Conceived as a crunk female counterpart to Usher 's " Yeah , " the lyrical content goes against the grain , speaking of abstinence , rejecting advances because " the goodies will stay in the jar . " Critics hailed it as an " anthem of the summer " and one of the best singles of the year , complementing its dance @-@ feel and beat , and the irony of the " clever " lyrics . The single performed well worldwide , topping the charts in Canada , the United States and the United Kingdom , and charting in the top ten of other charts , receiving Platinum certification in the United States . The music video shot for the song features Ciara partying with friends . " 1 , 2 Step , " featuring Missy Elliott , was released as the second single , incorporating a hip @-@ hop and dance @-@ pop feel , deriving influences from 1980s electro music . While topping the charts in Canada , it additionally appeared the in top ten of six other countries , and was certified Platinum or Gold in multiple regions . The accompanying music video features Ciara and others performing the dance . The song was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards .

" Oh , " featuring Ludacris , proclaimed as a love song to Atlanta , was released as the album 's third single on March 5 , 2005 . Carrying a slow , dark tone , critics noted " Oh " as a standout track from Goodies . The song performed well worldwide , appearing the top ten of seven charts , and certified either Platinum or Gold in multiple regions . The song 's music video , which is similar to that of " Goodies , " takes place at a block party , and was nominated for Best R & B Video at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards . The album 's final single , " And I , " was released on August 30 , 2005 , and only managed to peak at ninety @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for " And I " is loosely based on the 1992 film , The Bodyguard , and NBA player Carmelo Anthony portrayed Ciara 's love interest .

= = Critical reception = =

Raymond Fiore of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B and commented , " If Aaliyah had lived to make another CD , it might have sounded like Goodies , " and said that other album cuts " prove she 's no one @-@ track pony . " Noting the singles " Goodies , " " 1 , 2 Step , " and " Oh " as standout tracks , Allmusic gave the album three and a half out of five stars . Steve Jones of USA Today said , " The voice doesn 't blow you away , but as with Goodies , she takes a lyrically intriguing offbeat path from time to time . Though not every song is a goodie , she does have a few treats in store . " Even though he said the album wasn 't a perfect work , Azeem Ahmad of musicOMH said , " The talent is obviously there but if we are to carry out Ciara 's wish of forgetting about " the other chicks " then there 's some fine @-@ tuning needed . For now there 's no direct threat to any other hip @-@ hop divas , but the void left by Aaliyah is still there for someone to try and fill . There 's no reason why Ciara can 't one day hold her own with the best . " Jalylah Burrell of PopMatters commented that " Goodies is nothing new , but it is executed well . "

Although pointing out the flaws of Goodies , Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian said , " Ciara has no conviction as a sweet @-@ talker but her disconnected style clicks perfectly with the cold , clinical ( in a good way ) hits . " Mike Pattenden of The Times said , " Goodies has some tasty treats , but they 're all stacked on top of the jar , " commenting that Ciara 's " whispery , girlish voice that is often relegated to the background by stronger performers , suggesting she is little more than a pretty mouthpiece for Jon and his posse of producers . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani compared it to the work to Aaliyah , stating some of it was not up to par with the late singer , but complimented the title track @-@ esque tracks .

= = Commercial performance = =

The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 , selling 124 @,@ 750 copies in its initial week . It topped the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , before being dethroned by the Usher 's Confessions . Goodies had a seventy @-@ one week stint on the Billboard 200 , and certified three times @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on October 10 , 2006 , and has sold around 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States as of June 2010 .

Charting at twenty @-@ two on the Canadian Albums Chart , it was certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . The album charted at twenty @-@ six in on the UK Albums Chart , and spent twenty weeks on the chart . It was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry , remaining to be Ciara 's sole certified album in the UK . Goodies charted moderately in other countries , including the top forty on the New Zealand Albums Chart and Irish Albums Chart .

= = Legacy = =

With the release of her debut single " Goodies " , Ciara was referred to as the Princess of Crunk & B. Allison Stewart of The Washington Post commented that she has a " reedy , agile voice , capable of conveying the only three emotions ( sexy , sassy , sad ) an R & B singer needs . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times commented that " Ciara has been the most synthetic of the R & B divas over the past decade , an electro @-@ leaning vocalist whose instrumental palate has heavily favored stark 808 beats , sassy and seductive vocal lines . " In the early to mid @-@ 2000s , some crunk music hits like " Get Low " , " Goodies " , " Yeah ! " and " Freek @-@ a @-@ Leek " produced by Lil Jon climbed to the Top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 charts . Both " Yeah ! " and " Goodies " were the first tracks to introduce the substyle of crunk music and contemporary R & B , called crunk & B , to the public . Both of those tracks ( performed by Usher and Ciara , respectively ) were the main mainstream hits of 2004 . Since then , crunk & B has been one of the most popular genres of sung African @-@ American music , along with electropop , the genre that replaced crunk and crunk & B in the charts in 2008 . After the album 's lead single reached the summit of the US Billboard Hot 100 , it spent seven weeks at number one , becoming the longest @-@ running number @-@ one debut single by a female artist since 1977

The album 's lead singles success exemplified urban music 's commercial dominance during the early 2000s , which featured massive crossover success on the Billboard charts by R & B and hip hop artists . In 2004 , all 12 songs that topped the Billboard Hot 100 were African @-@ American recording artists and accounted for 80 % of the number @-@ one R & B hits that year . Along with Usher 's streak of singles , Top 40 radio and both pop and R & B charts were topped by OutKast 's " Hey Ya ! " , Snoop Dogg 's " Drop It Like It 's Hot " , Terror Squad 's " Lean Back " , and Ciara 's " Goodies " . Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that " by the early 2000s , urban music was pop music . "

The work helped Ciara earn several nominations , including Best New Artist at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards . Several Goodies singles received several nominations at different ceremonies , which included " 1 , 2 Step " being nominated at the 48th Grammy Awards for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration . The song " 1 , 2 Step " from the album Goodies has received numerous awards , including both " Best Performed Songs in the ASCAP Repertory " and " Most Performed Songs " from the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers , " Best Collaboration " from the BET Awards , and " Best Dance Cut " from the Soul Train Lady of Soul Music Awards , and " Choice Music R & B / Hip Hop Track " from the Teen Choice Awards . Ciara has received nine nominations from the BET Awards , winning one of them .

= = Track listing = =

Notes

" The Title " contains a sample from " Love Ballad " , written by Skip Scarborough , as performed by L.T.D.

= = Credits and personnel = =

Adapted from Goodies at Allmusic .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= 2012 – 13 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season =

The 2012 – 13 Big Ten men 's basketball season began with practices in October 2012 , followed by the start of the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season in November . Conference play began in early @-@ January 2013 , and concluded in March with the 2013 Big Ten Men 's Basketball Tournament at the United Center in Chicago . All conference regular season and tournament games were broadcast nationally . For the 37th consecutive season , the conference led the nation in attendance .

The conference enjoyed nine postseason invitations including seven to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament ( NCAA Tournament ) . Eight of the nine posteason participants posted at least one win . The Conference compiled a 19 – 9 postseason record including a 14 – 7 record in the NCAA Tournament . Michigan was runner up in the NCAA Tournament and Iowa was runnerup in the 2013 National Invitation Tournament .

Trey Burke won almost every National Player of the Year award ( Oscar Robertson Trophy , John R. Wooden Award , Associated Press POY , Sports Illustrated POY , NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year ) , while Victor Oladipo won the Sporting News POY and Adolph Rupp Trophy . Oladipo also shared NABC Defensive Player of the Year with Jeff Withey . Four Big Ten athletes ( Burke , Oladipo , Cody Zeller and Deshaun Thomas ) earned 2013 NCAA All @-@ American recognition ( Burke , Oladipo and Zeller as consensus All @-@ Americans ) . In addition , Jordan Hulls won the Senior CLASS Award and Aaron Craft earned Men 's Basketball Academic All @-@ American of the Year . Burke was the Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Player of the Year , Oladipo was the Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year , and Craft was the Most Outstanding Player at the 2013 Big Ten Tournament . Craft earned national defensive player of the year recognition by CBSSports.com. Burke also earned the Bob Cousy Award .

With Oladipo , Zeller and Burke being selected 2nd , 4th and 9th respectively in the 2013 NBA Draft , the Big Ten had its first trio of top ten selections since the 1990 NBA Draft . All five players who declared early for were drafted ( Hardaway 24th and Thomas 58th ) .

= = Preseason = =

Five teams were ranked in the preseason AP Poll and USA Today / ESPN Coaches ' poll : Indiana ( number 1 AP / number 1 Coaches ) , Ohio State ( 4 / 4 ) Michigan ( 5 / 5 ) , Michigan State ( 14 / 14 ) and Wisconsin ( 23 / 21 ) . Minnesota was also receiving votes .

= = = Preseason watchlists = = =

Below are lists selected by notable committees prior to the season that represent what they anticipate to be the most likely candidates to be recognized at the end of the season for their specific awards . They are called watchlists because they are lists of players to watch for each award .

= = = Preseason honors = = =

The following players were selected to the CBS Sports , Associated Press , Sporting News and ESPN preseason All @-@ American teams and the preseason media All @-@ Big Ten team .

= = = Preseason national polls = = =

= = Preconference schedules = =

Ohio State won the four @-@ team Hall of Fame Tipoff tournament on November 18 at Mohegan Sun Arena . Indiana won the four @-@ team Legends Classic on November 20 at Barclays Center . Illinois won the eight @-@ team Maui Invitational Tournament on November 21 at Lahaina Civic Center . Michigan won the sixteen @-@ team NIT Season Tip @-@ off tournament on November 23 at Madison Square Garden . On November 24 , Northwestern won the four @-@ team South Padre Island Invitational .

= = = Early @-@ season tournament victories = = =

* Although these tournaments include more teams , only the number listed play for the championship .

= = = 2012 ACC – Big Ten Challenge = = =

ACC – Big Ten Challenge results :

* All Times Eastern

= = Rankings = =

By achieving high rankings throughout the season , the Big Ten was able to keep at least three teams in the top 10 of the national polls during 10 of the 11 weeks of the conference portion of the season . As a result , the Big Ten set a record for most matchups between two top 10 opponents in conference play with a total of 9 such games . Michigan played in six with a 3 – 3 record and Indiana played in five , winning all of them . Michigan State , Minnesota and Ohio State also played in top 10 games .

= = Conference Schedules = =

Before the season , it was announced that for the sixth consecutive season , all regular season conference games and conference tournament games would be broadcast nationally by CBS Sports , ESPN Inc. family of networks including ESPN , ESPN2 and ESPNU , and the Big Ten Network . During the season , the Big Ten led the nation in attendance for the 37th consecutive season with an average attendance of 13 @,@ 114 , which paced the nation 's conferences by over 2 @,@ 400 per game .

= = = Conference Matrix = = =

This table summarizes the head @-@ to @-@ head results between teams in conference play . ( x ) indicates games remaining this season .

On February 2 , 2013 , Michigan ( number 1 AP / number 2 Coaches ) and Indiana ( 3 / 3 ) appeared on ESPN 's College GameDay at Assembly Hall . Indiana won 81 – 73 , and the television broadcast of the game on ESPN set a Big Ten record for viewership with 4 @.@ 035 million viewers .

The Iowa vs. Nebraska game , scheduled for February 21 , 2013 at the Devany Center , was rescheduled for February 23 due to a winter storm .

= = Big Ten Tournament seeding = =

These are the Big Ten standings including tiebreakers and conference tournament games . Bold indicates the winner of the Big Ten Tournament .

* Regular season record

* * Conference record including Big Ten Tournament games

All tournament games were nationally broadcast . The tournament set an attendance record with 124 @,@ 000 spectators attending 6 sessions , shattering the 109 @,@ 769 total set for the 2001 tournament .

= = Player of the week = =

Players of the week

Throughout the conference regular season , the Big Ten offices named one or two players of the week each Monday .

On December 11 , Paul also earned United States Basketball Writers Association Oscar Robertson National Player of the Week recognition . On January 8 , Burke earned the Oscar Robertson National Players of the Week . On April 1 , Burke earned ESPN.com Player of the Week recognition .

= = Postseason = =

= = = Big Ten Tournament = = =

March 14 – 17 , 2013 Big Ten Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament , United Center , Chicago , IL .

= = = NCAA Tournament = = =

The Big Ten entered seven teams in the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , ranging from Indiana making its 37th trip and earning a number one seed to Minnesota making its 8th appearance and earningn an eleven seed . The Big Ten became the first conference to send four teams to the Sweet Sixteen in back @-@ to @-@ back years since the 1997 and 1998 tournaments . Although it was the Big Ten 's fifth time advancing four teams , it was the first time with consecutive occurrences . Entering Sweet Sixteen round with four strong contenders spread across four regions , there was talk of the conference matching or surpassing the 1985 Big East Conference performance with three final four entrants . Only Michigan advanced . Burke was named South Regional Tournament Most Outstanding Player . Michigan made its fourth appearance in the final four , giving the conference a total of 43 such appearances . Michigan was part of the highest attendance National Championship game to date with an attendance of 74 @,@ 326 .

= = = National Invitation Tournament = = =

Iowa made the school 's first trip to the NIT semifinals at Madison Square Garden and marked the conference 's second consecutive year sending a team to the semifinals .

= = = College Basketball Invitational = = =

= = = CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament = = =

There were no entrants from the Big Ten Conference in the CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament .

= = = 2013 NBA Draft = = =

Junior Deshaun Thomas declared for the draft on April 5 . On April 9 , junior Oladipo entered the draft . On April 10 sophomore Zeller announced plans to enter the draft . On April 14 , sophomore Burke entered the Draft . On April 17 , Hardaway declared for the NBA Draft . Those 5 first team All @-@ Big Ten selections were the only players from the conference to declare early for the NBA Draft . Burke , Hardaway , Trevor Mbakwe , Oladipo , Brandon Paul , Thomas , and Zeller were among the 60 players invited to the 2013 NBA Draft Combine . The following all @-@ conference selections were listed as seniors : Jared Berggren , Mbakwe , Paul , Christian Watford and D. J. Richardson .

Victor Oladipo ( 2nd ) , Cody Zeller ( 4th ) and Burke ( 9th ) combined to give the Big Ten its first top ten trio since the 1990 NBA Draft . Hardaway ( 24th ) joined his father ( 14th in 1989 NBA Draft ) as a first round selection .

= = Honors and Awards = =

= = = Watchlists = = =

On January 9 , 4 Big Ten points guards ( Burke , Keith Appling , Craft and Andre Hollins ) among the 20 Cousy Award finalists . On January 10 the Wooden Award midseason top 25 list was announced and it included Burke , Brandon Paul and Deshaun Thomas . On January 31 , Burke , Victor Oladipo , Thomas and Cody Zeller were named to the Oscar Robertson Trophy ( USBWA National Player of the Year ) midseason top 12 list , while Yogi Ferrell , Glenn Robinson III and Nik Stauskas were named to the Wayman Tisdale Award ( USBWA National Freshman of the Year ) top 12 midseason list . Jared Berggren , Aaron Craft , Jordan Hulls and Zeller were first team All @-@ District selections placing them among the 40 candidates for the 15 @-@ man Academic All @-@ American team . On February 26 , Oladipo , Zeller , Thomas , Paul , Burke and Berggren were among the top 30 finalists for the Naismith Award . On March 4 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas and Zeller were announced on the 14 @-@ man Robertson watchlist , while Gary Harris was among 8 players on the Tisdale watchlist . On March 9 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas and Zeller were named as top 15 Wooden Award finalists . On March 11 , Burke was named one of five finalists for the Cousy Award . On March 24 , Burke and Oladipo was named among four finalists for the Naismith Award .

= = = All @-@ Americans = = =

Jordan Hulls was named a finalist for the Senior CLASS Award , making him one of ten Senior All @-@ Americans . Craft , a repeat Academic All @-@ America selection , was named the Men 's Basketball Academic All @-@ America Team Members of the Year . He was joined on the Academic All @-@ America first team by Zeller , and Hulls was a third team selection .

Burke and Oladipo were named a first @-@ team All @-@ American by Sporting News ( TSN ) on March 11 , while Thomas was a second @-@ team selection and Zeller was named to the third @-@ team . Burke and Oladipo were also named to the first team by the USBWA On March 18 , while Zeller was named to its second team . Burke and Zeller were named All @-@ American by Sports Illustrated ( SI ) on March 19 . On March 20 Burke and Oladipo were named to the CBSSports.com All @-@ American first team , while Thomas was a second team selection , Zeller was a third team selection and Craft was Defensive Player of the Year . On March 26 , Burke , Oladipo , Thomas , and Zeller were selected to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Lute Olson All @-@ America Team . On March 28 , Burke and Oladipo were named first team All @-@ American by the NABC , while Zeller was a second team selection and Thomas was a third team selection . On April 1 , the Associated Press gave the Big Ten the same recognitions as the NABC : 1st team : Burke and Oladipo , 2nd team : Zeller and 3rd team : Thomas . On the same day , Burke , Oladipo , Zeller and Thomas were named to the 10 @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team of finalists for the Wooden Award . Also on April 1 , Glenn Robinson III and Gary Harris were named to the 21 @-@ man 2013 Kyle Macy Freshman All @-@ America team .

= = = National awards = = =

TSN named Oladipo National Player of the Year on March 13 . SI also named Burke National Player of the Year on the 19th . On April 4 , Burke was named Associated Press College Basketball Player of the Year . Burke also won the Bob Cousy Award on April 4 . On April 5 , Burke won the Oscar Robertson Trophy from the USBWA as well as the John R. Wooden Award . Jordan Hulls won the Senior CLASS Award . On April 7 , Burke won the NABC Player of the Year and Naismith College Player of the Year awards . Oladipo was named co @-@ National Defensive Player of the Year ( along with Jeff Withey ) by the NABC . Oladipo also won the Adolph Rupp Trophy .

= = = All @-@ Big Ten Awards and Teams = = =

On March 11 , The Big Ten announced most of its conference awards . On March 27 , 38 Big Ten men 's basketball players were recognized as Winter Academic All @-@ Big Ten honorees for maintaining 3 @.@ 0 averages .

= = = USBWA = = =

On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association released its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District Teams , based upon voting from its national membership . There were nine regions from coast to coast , and a player and coach of the year were selected in each . The following lists all the Big Ten representatives selected within their respective regions .

= = = NABC = = =

The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 26 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selections on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams . The following list represented the District 7 players chosen to the list .

= = = Coaching = = =

Tom Izzo will be recognized with the 2013 Wayman Tisdale Humanitarian Award on April 15 . John Beilein was selected as an assistant coach for the 2013 World University Games . Bo Ryan earned the NABC 's Coaches vs. Cancer Champion Award .

= = = USA Basketball = = =

In addition to Beilein being a coach for the World University Games , the Big Ten was represented at the games by Yogi Ferrell , Will Sheehey , Aaron White and Adreian Payne .

= Cool Hand Peter =

" Cool Hand Peter " is the eighth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . In the episode , Peter Griffin and his friends Joe , Quagmire and Cleveland ( who has returned to Quahog ) decide to go on a road trip to New Orleans , Louisiana . Whilst driving they are stopped by a police officer , arrested and thrown in jail by the sheriff who abuses his power , and plants marijuana in their car . The group then attempt to escape the prison due to their stay being extended indefinitely , and return to Quahog .

The episode served as a follow @-@ up to the exit of the main character Cleveland Brown , who left Family Guy in order to star in his own Fox spin @-@ off , entitled The Cleveland Show . Main cast member and former series writer Mike Henry returned to the series to provide the voice of Cleveland . The episode also featured a crossover between Family Guy and The Cleveland Show , both of which were created by executive producer Seth MacFarlane , and included cameo appearances by two of The Cleveland Show 's main characters .

First announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Artie Johann and Shawn Ries , and directed by Brian Iles . The episode received mixed reviews , praising its structure and humor , but criticizing it for not living up to the 1967 drama film Cool Hand Luke , which the episode was named after . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 7 @.@ 14 million people in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Ralph Garman , Bob Gunton , Sanaa Lathan , Julius Sharpe , and Jennifer Tilly , along with several recurring guest voice actors from the series .

= = Plot = =

When Cleveland Brown returns to Quahog for a week , he visits his old friends Peter , Joe and Quagmire . When Peter gets tired of his wife constantly demanding that he do chores , the group decides to take a road trip to New Orleans . While their husbands are away , Lois , Bonnie and Donna proceed to enjoy " girl time " , eventually resulting in wine @-@ induced childish antics , such as making Brian wear a bumblebee costume .

While driving through a rural area in Georgia , Peter and his group are pulled over by the local sheriff , and Peter makes every effort to talk as annoyingly and rudely to him as possible . The Sheriff is more offended by Cleveland 's attempt to calmly explain themselves , prompting him to punch out one of their headlights and plant a bag of marijuana in their trunk . The group is then sentenced to work at a county work camp for two weeks . As their stay nears its scheduled end , the warden approaches them and tells them that their stay has been extended , without any judicial oversight . Learning from another prisoner that they might be locked up forever , the group decides to break out of the prison when the prison guard 's eyes are diverted . Successful in their attempt , they soon come across a house where they discover a set of handcuff and shackle keys .

They then discover that they are in the sheriff 's home , who returns soon after . Peter , who almost gives them away after accidentally farting , pretends to be the sheriff 's wife while hiding in a closet , and he convinces the sheriff to let the fugitives go free . This exchange ends with the sheriff asking for a hug , prompting Peter to jump out of the closet and reveal the group , causing the sheriff to give chase to them after revealing that he was never married . The entire police force then chases them , until they are able to jump on a train and arrive in Quahog , only to be met by the Georgia sheriff and his deputies . Joe , however , had called ahead and arranged for the Quahog police department to arrive and rescue them . Joe then smashes the sheriff 's vehicle and shoots him in the leg as retribution for the sheriff 's corruption and abuse towards the group . Joe tells the sheriff that just because he has a badge does not mean he can treat anyone the way he wants to . Without hesitation , Joe angrily demands that the sheriff and his deputies leave Quahog , which they reluctantly do . The gang congratulates Joe when Mayor West appears , riding on a bike and says , " Hey , what are you guys , on a date ? Gay ! " At the end of the show , Peter acknowledges that they 've done a wrap @-@ up of what they 've learned hundreds of times and just mumbles the cadence , which is then picked up by Lois and the family .

= = Production and development = =

The episode was directed by series regular Brian Iles and written by Artie Johann and Shawn Ries , in their first episode of the series . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Spencer Porter , Anthony Blasucci , Mike Desilets , and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . The episode saw the re @-@ appearance of former main cast member Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy , in order to star as the character in his own spinoff , entitled The Cleveland Show , which was co @-@ created by Henry . Sanaa Lathan , who portrays Donna Tubbs on The Cleveland Show , also guest starred as her character in the episode . " Cool Hand Peter " was first announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 23 , 2011 by series showrunners and executive producers Steve Callaghan and Mark Hentemann .

In addition to the regular cast and Lathan , actor Bob Gunton , voice actor Julius Sharpe , and actress Jennifer Tilly , who portrayed the sheriff , warden , UPS Guy and Bonnie Swanson , respectively , guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , voice actor Ralph Garman , and writer John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode . Recurring cast members Adam West , and Patrick Warburton also appeared in the episode , portraying the characters of Adam West and Joe Swanson , respectively . Bob Gunton 's voicing of the warden is probably a nod to his most famous role , that of the warden in the film The Shawshank Redemption .

= = Cultural references = =

The title of the episode is a reference to the 1967 American film Cool Hand Luke . In the opening scene of the episode , while Peter , Joe , Cleveland and Quagmire are drinking at the local bar , Peter 's wife , Lois , calls him on his phone . The theme song from The Cleveland Show then begins playing as Peter 's ringtone . While the group drives to New Orleans , they attempt to pass the time by playing various games in the car . One of the games involves deciding whether to be a " hobo , " or former German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler . After the group is pulled over by the sheriff , and arrested for drug possession , they are all taken to court , where the jury is revealed to be various characters from the Fox animation series The Simpsons . The warden of the prison resembles the warden in the movie The Shawshank Redemption , who is also authoritarian and cruel . In fact , the voice of the warden is the voice of Bob Gunton , the actor who portrayed the warden in The " Shawshank Redemption " . After the group escapes from jail , Peter remarks that he is filled with hunger , and would like to stop at a " Burger Queen " or " McDaniels " along the way back to Quahog , a reference to the American fast food restaurants Burger King and McDonalds , as indicated by Quagmire .

= = Reception = =

" Cool Hand Peter " was broadcast on Fox in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . It was watched by 7 @.@ 14 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Good Wife on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 6 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Allen Gregory and The Cleveland Show , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased significantly from the previous week 's episode , " Amish Guy " .

The episode received mixed reviews , with Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club calling the storyline " disappointing . " He wrote of the episode , " At this juncture , disappointment is an expectation , something I have to fight against whenever I sit down to watch the show in an attempt to give each episode a fair shake . " He continued , " This week , I was at a bit of a loss , because despite a return to an older , more successful formula , with a clearly plotted path , Family Guy didn 't muster up enough material to fill out the A @-@ plot of a half hour . " McFarland also stated that the episode did not live up to the 1967 drama film Cool Hand Luke , that the title of the episode was named after . He concluded his review of the episode by giving the episode a grade of C. Terren R. Moore of Ology also found the episode to be unimpressive , noting , " It 's good fun while it 's on , but nothing here really sticks or adds to anything new to love about Family Guy . " Moore also commented , " it 's a pretty weak episode of Family Guy , where the most memorable joke of the night involves a thought bubble where Quagmire pulls a string of beads out of a woman 's vagina . " In the conclusion of the review , Moore gave the episode a 6 / 10 score .

= University of Campinas =

The University of Campinas ( Portuguese : Universidade Estadual de Campinas ) , commonly called Unicamp , is a public research university in the state of São Paulo , Brazil , and one of the best universities in the country and in Latin America .

Established in 1962 , Unicamp was designed from scratch as an integrated research center unlike other top Brazilian universities , usually created by the consolidation of previously existing schools and institutes . Its research focus reflects on almost half of its students being graduate students , the largest proportion across all large universities in Brazil , and also in the large number of graduate programs it offers : 153 compared to 70 undergraduate programs . It also offers several non @-@ degree granting open @-@ enrollment courses to around 8 @,@ 000 students through its extension school .

Its main campus occupies 3 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 860 acres ) located in the Barão Geraldo district , a suburban area 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the center of Campinas , and , built shortly after the creation of the university . It also has satellite campuses in Limeira , Piracicaba and Paulínia , and manages two technical high schools located in Campinas and Limeira . Funding is provided almost entirely by the state government and , like other Brazilian public universities , no tuition fees or administrative fees are charged for undergraduate and graduate programs .

Unicamp is responsible for around 15 % of Brazilian research , a disproportionately high number when compared to much larger and older institutions in the country such as the University of São Paulo . It also produces more patents than any other research organization in Brazil , being second only to the state @-@ owned oil company , Petrobras . Multiple international university rankings place it amongst the best universities in the world , with QS placing it in the Top 200 globally and ranking it the 11th best university under 50 years , and in 2015 it was rated as the best university in the country by Brazil 's Ministry of Education .

= = History = =

= = = 1960s : Foundation = = =

In the early 1960s the Government of the State of São Paulo planned to open a new research center in the interior of the state to promote development and industrialization in the region , and commissioned Zeferino Vaz , founder of the University of São Paulo 's School of Medicine in Ribeirão Preto , to organize it . In parallel , a medical school was being planned in Campinas , a demand from the local population that dated from the early 1940s . The School of Medicine of Campinas was created by law in 1959 , but actual implementation never took place .

The new university was created by law on December 28 , 1962 , but effective functioning begun in 1966 . Before that , only the School of Medicine functioned . In April of 1963 the first vestibular , the general admissions exam , happened , with 1 @,@ 592 candidates competing for 50 spots in the medicine program . The first lecture in the newly created University of Campinas took place on May 20 of the same year . By 1965 , the organizing commission for the new university started looking for a location for a new campus .

A large area comprising 110 hectares ( 270 acres ) was donated by the Almeida Prado family , located in a valley in the district of Barão Geraldo in the city of Campinas , near the intersections of multiple highways . Until then , Barão Geraldo was a small village surrounded by farmland , in particular sugar cane plantations . The new development brought dramatic change to the district , resulting in entire new neighborhoods being zoned , planned and built , usually by the same Almeida Prado family .

Work on the new campus begun on October 5 , 1966 , and the first building completed was the Institute of Biology , followed by administrative buildings . In the same year , Zeferino Vaz was nominated the rector . In parallel to the new campus , new units were opened in other cities , absorbing local schools . The Dental School of Piracicaba was absorbed in 1967 , and in 1969 the Engineering School of Limeira .

= = = 1970 – 1990 : Growth and crisis = = =

Over the following two decades , the new university expanded rapidly . The campus quickly grew to 19 institutes and schools , and after Zeferino Vaz died in 1981 was named after him . With the campus construction completed , the School of Medical Sciences ( formerly the School of Medicine of Campinas ) was moved into the new campus , and its teaching hospital , Hospital de Clínicas , became the largest public hospital in the region .

Expansion on the campus continued rapidly , with new buildings , institutes and expansions being added nearly every year . But by the late 1970s , the university faced a crisis . During its fast expansion , it relied on draft bylaws , mostly borrowed from the University of São Paulo , and lacked formal internal regulations with the aging Zeferino Vaz , while no longer the rector , acting as a moderating force between parties with conflicting interests , in particular the leftist academic community and the State 's government , appointed by the conservative military regime ruling the country .

After Zeferino 's death in 1981 , a conflict took place between the university 's General Coordinator , appointed and backed by the government , and the Directive Council , composed of directors of the different institutes . The rector introduced new rules reducing the power of the General Coordinator . As retaliation , the State 's government removed 6 members of the Directive Council , replacing them with people from the state 's Education Council , loyal to the governor , Paulo Maluf .

Tensions between the academic community and the government @-@ appointed counselors increased , with the future Minister of Education , Paulo Renato Costa Souza , then president of the Faculty Association , classifying the episode as a " white intervention " . Following the dismissal of several institute heads and members of the administration , the administrative workers went on strike , with the support of students and faculty . With activities in the university frozen by the strike , the governor declared a formal intervention in the university in October 1981 .

Despite the police @-@ backed intervention , the university continued on strike . The appointed institute heads failed to break the stalemate between internal and external forces , and by early 1982 , discussions begun on a new list of candidates to the rectorship . Eventually , José Aristodemo Pinotti , a former dean of the School of Medical Sciences generally considered a moderate , was selected by the academic community and accepted by the governor . In the following week , on April 19 , 1982 , the intervention was lifted , and academic activities resumed normally .

After the crisis , Unicamp saw a period of renewal and restructuring . In 1983 the bylaws were rewritten , ensuring the autonomy of the academic community , and the new management structure for the campus was implemented . In 1986 the newly created University Council replaces the previous Directive Council as the supreme body of the university . The last years of the 1980s saw a reformulation of the admissions exam , expansion of the laboratories and the completion of the first units of the student housing .

= = = 1990 onwards = = =

With a new administrative structure capable of supporting continuous growth and with its autonomy secured , Unicamp went through a period of consolidation in the 1990s . There was an increase in night programs , created to provide an alternative for low @-@ income students who had to work during the day , and to increase utilization of classrooms and the existing infrastructure , reaching one third of total available places .

The period also saw an expansion of the technology industry in the region , centered around Unicamp , with Motorola , IBM , Solectron , Lucent Technologies and many others set up research labs and production centers in the region driven by the large number of highly qualified students graduating every year , culminating in the opening of the Institute of Computing in 1996 .

In the 2000s Unicamp consolidated itself as one of the leading research and education centers in Latin America but also brought new challenges : just as with other public universities in Brazil , the high payroll costs ( over 90 % of the total budget ) constrain investment and expansion . This is further aggravated by the economic depression that Brazil is facing since 2014 , the largest in the country 's history .

= = Campus = =

= = = Main campus = = =

The flagship campus of the University of Campinas is located in the district of Barão Geraldo , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the center of Campinas . It currently occupies an area of 350 hectares ( 860 acres ) situated in a valley surrounded by gentle rolling hills and is bounded on the west by the urban area of Barão Geraldo , on the south and east by farmland and to the north by a lake and a new industrial park built in the 2000s .

= = = = Design = = = =

The campus has a unique design , with the main library , student service buildings and restaurant in a central circular plaza , and most of the academic buildings located in blocks emanating from the center in a radial fashion . The different areas of study are grouped in larger sections , but neighboring other areas with which they share similarities : the philosophy buildings mark the frontier between human sciences , mathematics and economics , while the School of Food Engineering is bordered by the chemical engineering and biology buildings . The architect responsible for the overall design of the campus was João Carlos Bross .

Streets are named after significant contributors to each field , including Elis Regina and Carlos Gomes Streets , a Brazilian singer and a composer , respectively , Alan Turing Avenue and others .

= = = = History = = = =

The area occupied by the campus was part of the much larger Rio das Pedras farm , owned by the prominent Almeida Prado family . To set up a new campus , Zeferino Vaz was looking for a large , flat area in the outskirts of the city , where he would have the freedom to design the campus and its surroundings from scratch . Interested in developing the area of the farm around Barão Geraldo , the family donated an initial area of 110 hectares ( 270 acres ) to the university . The remainder of the farmland was eventually zoned and developed into multiple neighborhoods , but the main historical farmhouse and its surroundings remain , now a protected heritage site and a natural reserve .

With the land secured , the campus was designed in a way to ensure the maximum collaboration between the different sciences , with buildings laid along radial streets emanating from a central circular plaza , which also hosted administrative buildings . The layout of the campus would eventually be used on the design of the university 's logo , created by Max Schiefer , which is essentially a simplified map of the core circle of the campus . This design is similar to the University of California , Irvine campus , build around the same time .

Construction started in 1966 , with General Castello Branco , the first president of Brazil 's military regime , laying the cornerstone of the Institute of Biology , which was inaugurated in 1968 , and classes started in the new campus on the following year . In 1971 the area of the campus was expanded by 130 hectares ( 320 acres ) , more than doubling its size , to accommodate the move of the School of Medical Sciences , until then located across several buildings in Campinas , to the new campus . This expansion saw the construction of a massive public hospital , the Hospital das Clínicas ( HC ) , which began serving the public in 1979 .

While initial construction was considered complete by 1978 , the campus has grown through continuous addition of new buildings and institutes . In 2014 , after years of negotiation , the university decided to buy the Argentina Farm , located on the east side of the campus , increasing the total area by 60 % to 350 hectares ( 860 acres ) . This purchase will allow for expansion of the medical sciences and athletics areas , as well as new laboratories .

= = = = Medical center = = = =

Unicamp 's main campus houses the School of Medical Sciences ' teaching hospital , the Hospital das Clinicas . Construction started in 1975 and the hospital opened its first clinics and patient facilities in 1979 , but was only fully operational in 1985 , when the School of Medical Sciences was transferred from Campinas ' maternity to the new campus .

The hospital has almost 1 @,@ 000 beds , and serves half a million people every year through Brazil 's unified public health system , SUS , performing on average 40 surgeries and 13 births every day . In the 2000 's , the hospital was changed from a primary and secondary care to a specialized tertiary care center , receiving complex cases from other hospitals and clinics in the region , but around 60 % of patients in the hospital are still cases that could be handled by local health centers .

The hospital directly employs 3 @,@ 100 people , and also serves as a practice center for the university 's faculty and a training and residency center for the students of medicine , nursery and speech therapy .

= = = = Synchrotron lab = = = =

While not part of Unicamp , the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory ( LNLS ) is a research institution focused on physics , structural biology and nanotechnology that maintains close ties with the university and is operated as part of the National Center for Research in Energy and Materials ( CNPEM ) . The laboratory was designed in 1983 and began operating in 1997 , located next to the main campus . The LNLS has Latin America 's only particle accelerator , a synchrotron , used as a synchrotron light source designed and built in Brazil for various physical , chemical , geological , and biological studies .

= = = Limeira = = =

Unicamp 's presence in Limeira , a city about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from Campinas , dates from the late 1960s , when the young university absorbed the Engineering School of Limeira , which became the School of Civil Engineering . While this school was eventually transferred to the Campinas campus in 1989 , new programs were launched by the university in Limeira , creating CESET , the School of Technology of Limeira , which still exists and is located near the center of the city , focused on technical higher education .

In 2008 Unicamp decided to establish a new campus in Limeira , and in 2008 the School of Applied Sciences was created , offering programs such as public administration , business management , nutrition and industrial engineering . The total undergraduate class size for the new campus is 480 students per year .

= = = Piracicaba = = =

In 1967 Unicamp absorbed the School of Odontology of Piracicaba , founded in 1955 and located 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) northwest of the main campus in Campinas . With over 1 @,@ 000 students , the school was initially located in a historic building near the center of the city , and in the 1970s a new campus was built , occupying an area of 60 hectares ( 150 acres ) in what was then the outskirts of the city , and a short distance from USP 's ESALQ .

= = = Paulínia = = =

In the neighboring city of Paulínia , the university operates a multidisciplinary research center focused on biosciences , acquired in 1986 from Monsanto and integrated into the university as CPQBA . As part of the acquisition , Unicamp gained access and continued research into subjects previously explored at the center , specially agricultural sciences . Research is usually funded by external parties , such as companies and other universities .

= = = COTUCA and COTIL = = =

In addition to the higher education programs , Unicamp is also responsible for running and funding two technical high schools , the Technical High School of Campinas ( COTUCA ) and the Technical High School of Limeira ( COTIL ) . Cotuca was located for 50 years in a historical building near the center of the city built in 1918 which also housed Unicamp for a brief period before the current campus was built . In 2014 it was transferred to the main campus as the old building went through renovations . Both schools are amongst the best public high schools in the country , and are highly competitive , with admissions done through a selection exam open to middle @-@ school students .

= = Organization and administration = =

Similarly to other Brazilian institutions , Unicamp is composed of several semi @-@ autonomous teaching units , designated as schools and institutes . Each unit is headed by a director from the faculty , equivalent to a dean , elected by the faculty and student representatives .

The university 's administration is structured in a way similar to other public universities in Brazil . The supreme decision body is the University Council ( CONSU ) , composed of all deans , plus several representatives from the academic community , students , administrative staff and the external community . The council meets roughly 4 to 5 times per year , ruling on high level administrative decisions such as approving the budget and has the final word in internal administrative processes . Routine administration is left to the rector , similar to a university chancellor in English @-@ speaking countries , and the rectorate .

= = = Rectors = = =

The rector is chosen by the governor of the State of São Paulo from a list of 3 candidates elected by the university 's community , including students and administrative staff . Traditionally , the governor always selects the candidate with the largest number of votes , but it retains the power to choose a different one should it decide to do so . The rector serves for a term of 4 years before a new election is held , and can not be reelected in the following term . Zeferino Vaz was the first rector and held the position for 12 years until his mandatory retirement .

Zeferino Vaz ( 1966 – 1978 )

Plínio Alves de Moraes ( 1978 – 1982 )

José Aristodemo Pinotti ( 1982 – 1986 )

Paulo Renato Costa Souza ( 1986 – 1990 )

Carlos Vogt ( 1990 – 1994 )

José Martins Filho ( 1994 – 1998 )

Hermano Tavares ( 1998 – 2002 )

Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz ( 2002 – 2005 )

José Tadeu Jorge ( 2005 – 2009 )

Fernando Ferreira Costa ( 2009 – 2013 )

José Tadeu Jorge ( 2013 – present )

= = = Schools and Institutes = = =

Unicamp is composed of a total of 24 units , 10 of which are institutes and 14 are schools . The university is also home to 22 interdisciplinary centers which conduct research and outreach on topics ranging from dance ( such as LUME ) to computing and education ( such as NIED ) .

Unicamp is also responsible for two technical high schools , the Technical High School of Campinas ( COTUCA ) and the Technical High School of Limeira ( COTIL ) .

= = = Funding & financial information = = =

Like other public universities in Brazil , Unicamp is almost entirely funded by the government , in this particular case of the State of São Paulo . Funding is provided mainly from sales taxes , but a small percentage of total budget is obtained from donations , paid extension programs and corporate sponsors .

The total budget proposed for 2016 is of R $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , a decrease by almost 7 % in real terms when compare to 2015 . Fixed costs ( payroll , interest and debt service ) will account for 92 @.@ 2 % of the government funding . And additional 4 % is spent on student assistance and 2 % on utilities .

A problem faced by Unicamp , and other public universities in Brazil , is the high dependency on economic conditions , that directly impact tax earnings , while most of the expenses , payroll specially , are indexed to inflation . While not as critical as in similar universities ( at the University of São Paulo payroll accounted for over 106 % of the total funding available in 2014 ) , Unicamp currently faces a funding crisis , with total funding expected to decrease in real terms while payroll , which takes around 85 % of total university funding , is expected to increase in line with inflation . This situation is aggravated by the long @-@ running trend of raising staff salaries above inflation as a response to the annual strikes led by the workers ' union , STU .

= = Academics = =

At Unicamp , academic studies are usually divided into four main areas : exact sciences ( which includes formal and physical sciences ) , human sciences ( roughly equivalent to social science , including Arts ) , biological sciences ( roughly equivalent to life sciences ) and technologies ( including engineering and technical studies ) . This division reflects on how the university are structured how the campuses was designed .

= = = Undergraduate programs = = =

Unicamp offers 70 different degree @-@ granting undergraduate programs , covering nearly all different areas of science . Completing an undergraduate program grants either a bachelor 's degree or a licentiate degree , although some programs offer both degrees . In line with the Brazilian educational system , no graduate education is required to practice any profession , including law and medicine , so undergraduate programs vary in length to provide all the necessary training . Most programs at Unicamp last a total of 4 years , with engineering programs typically lasting 5 years and medicine lasting 6 years .

The academic year is aligned with the calendar year , with classes usually starting in late February , and ending in early December , the beginning of summer in Brazil . The year is divided into two semester terms , and all courses are a semester long . While there is a suggested curriculum for each program , students are free to choose any classes to attend during a specific semester , and class attribution is done in the basis of grade average , with higher @-@ graded students having priority when choosing classes .

Students are admitted to a single program and are expected to take all the classes required to complete that program in the number of semesters prescribed , although they can take 50 % longer before facing administrative measures . While each program is usually managed by a single school or institute ( exceptions apply , such as Computer Engineering , co @-@ managed by the Institute of Computing and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering ) , classes are usually ministered across different institutes or schools .

Program class sizes usually range between 30 and 60 students per year for each program , but some programs can have over 100 students per year , and are named by the year of admission : the class of 2015 is composed of all students entering in the year of 2015 , regardless of the program length or expected graduation . There is no campus @-@ wide graduation ceremony , with each school or institute conducting its own .

= = = Graduate programs = = =

Unicamp offers 153 postgraduate programs , with about half of those being masters , serving almost 16 thousand students , one third of which come from outside the State of São Paulo , and around 5 % are international students . Just as with undergraduate studies , students pay no tuition fees . While the programs are coordinated by the rectorship , the individual institutions have a lot of freedom on defining the focus , length and admission process of each program .

= = = Extension programs and community outreach = = =

Unicamp offers over one thousand extension programs to the community , with different levels of minimum requirements ( high school degree , undergraduate degree , etc . ) and across all areas of study , focusing mainly on specialization courses and community outreach . The programs are mainly coordinated by the Pro @-@ Rectorate for Extension and Outreach ( Pró @-@ Reitoria de Extensão e Assuntos Comunitários , PREAC ) . PREAC aims to promote actions of extension and culture through integration with society , disseminating and acquiring knowledge through the academic community .

Specialization programs are either offered by Unicamp 's extension school , Extecamp , or directly by the schools and institutes . In the past 25 years , over 100 @,@ 000 students have been reached and in 2014 , Unicamp joined Coursera and currently eight online courses are being offered , two of them are between the most popular Coursera courses in Brazil . Outreach actions take a variety of forms , including events , publications , technological , educational , cultural and social products and services . The Department for Cultural Development hosts several events , usually open for the surrounding community . Events are also held at the Casa do Lago Cultural Space and at the Cultural Center for Social Inclusion and Integration .

Every year , Unicamp also hosts an open doors event ( Unicamp de Portas Abertas , UPA ) , in which the main campus is visited by over 50 thousand high school students from across the country . The event provides presentations and discussions on the role of the university in the society , as well as career presentations and tours , with the students visiting several areas of the university and gaining a better understanding of the different areas of study .

= = = Faculty = = =

Unicamp employs close to 1 @,@ 800 professors , nearly all with at least a doctoral degree . The faculty career is structured in three major tiers :

Doctor Professor ( Professor Doutor , equivalent to assistant professor ) : candidates must have a doctoral or equivalent degree

Associate Professor ( Professor Associado ) : candidates must have a Livre Docente title , similar to the German Habilitation

Tenured Professor ( Professor Titular ) – MS @-@ 6 ( top rank , only MS @-@ 6 professors are allowed to hold positions such as Dean of a Faculty / School or Rector of the University )

Hiring is done through a civil service examination , including a written test , a teaching examination , academic history analysis and other additional criteria . The same process is required for professors changing tiers : an associate professor pursuing a tenure position must go through the same examination process compete with other external candidates for the position . The two initial tiers also include sub levels , and professors are promoted between them for merit . Monthly starting salary for a full @-@ time assistant professorship is around R $ 10 thousand , and for a tenured position around R $ 15 thousand . Uniquely among public universities in Brazil , Unicamp has a career focused on full @-@ time research . Currently there are approximately 100 full @-@ time researchers at the university .

= = = Library system = = =

The university 's library system ( Sistema de Bibliotecas da Unicamp ; SBU ) comprises a large central library named in honor of César Lattes , and 27 other satellite libraries , located in the individual institutions , housing over 1 million volumes , in addition to hundreds of thousands of ebooks and academic journals . The system was officially created in 1983 , aggregating the several independent libraries that operated across the university . The large central library was inaugurated six years later , in 1989 .

The library system is automated and its collections may be accessed and searched on the Internet . Its Digital Library section supports a database with more than 25 @,@ 000 dissertations presented in the university , as well access to the largest electronic libraries of academic journals in the world . It also includes several historical libraries and media archives focused on specific authors and topics , such as the Edgard Leuenroth Archive and collections honoring César Lattes , Sérgio Buarque de Holanda , Monteiro Lobato and others .

= = Admissions = =

= = = Undergraduate programs = = =

Similarly to other Brazilian public universities , admissions to undergraduate programs are through a comprehensive general examination , called vestibular . While other Brazilian public universities , specially federally managed ones , which use the National High School Exam ( ENEM , in Portuguese Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio ) as an entrance exam , Unicamp has its own national entrance exam applied yearly by its Vestibular Commission ( COMVEST , in Portuguese Comissão Permanentes para os Vestibulares ) in two rounds . Generally , the first round happens in November and is a test composed of 90 multiple @-@ choice general knowledge questions . Students applying to programs that require specific skills ( such as music , architecture , dance , and others ) must take a specific knowledge test even before the first phase .

Selection in the admissions process is program @-@ specific . Applicants that score a minimum standardized grade in the first round are selected to participate in the second round , which takes place over three days in January , where they must answer 48 short @-@ answer written questions , plus write two long @-@ form essays , on themes selected by the evaluation board .

The Unicamp national exam is very competitive and is considered one of the most difficult in Brazil . In 2015 there were 77 @,@ 145 applications for only 3 @,@ 320 possible places , with 23 candidates competing for each position in an undergraduate program , an average acceptance rate of 4 @.@ 3 % . The exam covers all topics taught in the Brazilian high school system , including Portuguese , mathematics , Brazilian and world history , geography , biology , physics , chemistry , sociology , philosophy , arts and English . Despite that , questions in the exams are generally interdisciplinary .

The most competitive undergraduate programs are Medicine with a 0 @.@ 5 % acceptance rate , Architecture and Urbanism with 0 @.@ 6 % , and Communication with 2 % . Such high competitivity leads many students to take preparatory courses during or after the last regular high school year called cursinhos in Portuguese , generally privately offered or managed by some association or organization . Many private cursinhos have special classes focused on highly competitive programs like medicine , making them very expensive . It is common to find students admitted in Medicine , Engineering and other programs after several years of preparatory courses .

While the selection process is need @-@ blind and race @-@ blind , most of the best high schools and preparatory schools in Brazil are private and very expensive , and represent a majority of admissions in Brazilian public universities , leading to increased inequality in the country . To remedy this , Unicamp introduced in 2004 the Social Inclusion and Affirmative Action Program ( PAAIS , in Portuguese Programa de Ação Afirmativa e Inclusão Social ) that allows high schoolers coming from public schools to receive a bonus score in their overall vestibular score . While not focused on racial and ethnical factors , over the years , the PAAIS initiative has increased the number of admission of minorities from public high school , especially black and native @-@ Brazilians , historically the most economical and social fragile groups in Brazil . With this program , around 30 % of admissions come from public schools , and the participation of minorities increased from 10 % to around 30 % .

= = = Graduate programs = = =

Unlike undergrad admissions , there is no single admission process for graduate students . Each institution inside Unicamp has its own set of procedures , which usually include an admissions exam which can be specific for Unicamp or a standard exam applied across the country ( such as ANPEC ( in Portuguese ) for economics , and PosComp ( in Portuguese ) for computer science . Besides the exam , the process usually includes an academic history analysis , interviews and in many cases requires a submission of a research project to be undertaken during the graduate studies .

= = Student life = =

= = = Housing = = =

Similarly to other Brazilian universities , Unicamp offers no large @-@ scale in @-@ campus housing , and most students live either near the campus or in Campinas . A student tradition in Brazil , inherited from the Portuguese universities , is the república , a fraternity @-@ style private housing where multiple students rent large houses or apartments and live together . Dues to the suburban campus and the large number of students coming from other cities , repúblicas play a key role in the student life , serving as centers for social life , parties and also study and work areas . While some repúlicas have existed for decades , sometimes moving from one house to another , most are formed by students in the same or similar classes , and last for a few years .

Besides repúblicas , studio apartments are very common around the university . While more expensive than the shared houses , they afford more privacy and have more flexible contracts , are well as being furnished .

= = = = University housing = = = =

Unicamp provides a limited amount of free housing to low income students in the Student Residence compound . Built in 1992 , it is located near the center of Barão Geraldo , about four kilometers from Unicamp , and is served by a university shuttle that takes student to the campus and back free of charge . The compound has 226 houses of 60 square metres ( 650 sq ft ) , with a capacity of four students per house , and 27 studios of 46 square metres ( 500 sq ft ) , for couples with children , a total of 904 vacancies in houses and 54 adults in the studios . Assignment criteria is means @-@ based , with lower income students receiving priority .

The Student Residence supports several cultural projects developed by voluntary and worker students and open to the participation of internal and external community . It encourages interdisciplinary training and integration between the resident students and the external community . The diversity of races and cultures , brought by colleagues from other states and countries is an advantage for the residents who live in the house , facilitating full citizenship , through the exercise of their rights and duties within the community .

= = = University restaurants = = =

There are multiple restaurants operated and subsidized by the university serving only the academic community . Commonly called bandejão ( " large tray " in Portuguese ) due to the metal trays used to serve the students , the restaurants provide up to three meals per day , each one costing R $ 2 , a price that has not been updated in over a decade , despite the strong inflation . The main bandejão is located near the center of the circular campus , receiving students from all different areas of the university and acting as the informal social heart of the university where events , parties and political campaigns are announced to the students .

The restaurants at the University are staffed with nutritionists and food engineers , often students at the university , offering balanced menu that meets the nutritional needs of the university population , serving over 10 thousand meals per day at the main campus . The menu usually consists of rice and beans , a traditional staple food in Brazil , a type of meat ( chicken , beef , sausage , pork , etc . ) , textured soy protein for vegetarians , salad , juice , and dessert .

There are three such restaurants in the main campus , with two additional restaurants located in the Limeira and Piracicaba campuses . In all of them access is restricted to those who have a university @-@ issued smart card ID , which is also used to pay for the food . In addition to the subsidized restaurants , there are several smaller , privately ran restaurants across the campus and many more located in Barão Geraldo , often just a short walk away from the campus .

= = = Athletics = = =

There are no university @-@ sponsored athletic programs at Unicamp , and sporting competitions , either internal or played with other schools , are entirely organized by the students . The Liga das Atléticas da Unicamp , a university @-@ wide league of the different athletic associations , is responsible for organizing internal sporting events , such as the Unicamp Olympics .

In addition to internal competitions , there are multiple external competitions between several universities focused on different areas of study : in the Intermed medical students from different universities compete against each other , and in the Engenharíadas , engineering students gather to play sports . The games are usually held in the city of one of the participating universities over a long weekend , with students being housed in public schools , farms and hotels .

The university has a sports center with courts for basketball , volleyball , a full size regulation football field , an athletics field with running tracks , a competition swimming pool , a covered gymnasium for indoor spectator sports , attached to a convention center .

= = In popular culture = =

= = = Varginha incident = = =

Unicamp is generally regarded by the Brazilian population as Brazil 's Area 51 , with the government running a secret underground area purportedly called Pavilion 18 , located under the Institute of Chemistry . In 1996 there were reports of an extraterrestrial sighting in the city of Varginha , commonly called the Varginha Incident , followed by additional reports of military intervention in the region and that the extraterrestrial would have been taken to the secret Pavilion 18 area at Unicamp .

= Ones ( album ) =

Ones ( Spanish : Unos ) is the twelfth compilation album by American Tejano singer Selena , released in the United States on October 1 , 2002 by EMI Latin . It was released on November 11 , 2002 in Spanish @-@ speaking countries , while the limited edition included a bonus DVD of her music videos . Ones was released building on the popularity of the 1997 biographical film Selena . The singer 's father Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. and sister Suzette Quintanilla told CBS TV host Julie Chen that the album was aimed at Selena 's new generation of fans . Ones was released as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection — a nine @-@ disc series of her studio , live , soundtrack and compilation albums . The recording features six number one singles namely , " Amor Prohibido " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , " Fotos y Recuerdos " , and her duets with Alvaro Torres on " Buenos Amigos " and Barrio Boyzz on " Donde Quiera Que Estés " .

Selena 's brother , A.B. Quintanilla III , remixed three of her singles ( " Amor Prohibido " , " Como la Flor " and " Si Una Vez " ) into a medley mash @-@ up entitled " Con Tanto Amor Medley " , the same tracks found on the album . The track was released as a promotional single to radio stations , and received a mixed response from music critics . The album also received a mixed reception , with Jon O 'Brien of AllMusic noting that the record label ignored Selena 's self @-@ titled debut album from the track listing on Ones . The recording peaked at number four on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts . Ones peaked at number 159 on the Billboard 200 chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , signifying shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .

= = Background and release = =

Selena 's family was interviewed by Julie Chen of The Early Show about Ones . Chen asked Selena 's father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , about his intention to re @-@ release her songs on Ones . Quintanilla , Jr. told Chen that because of the success of the 1997 biopic about Selena 's life , many new fans know who she was . Chris Pérez , her widower , told Chen that the recording was released for Selena 's new fans ; building on the film 's popularity , explaining that the family used the DVD to showcase the singer for those who never saw her perform live .

The recording was released as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection series , a retrospective of Selena 's musical career . Ones was released on October 1 , 2002 by EMI Latin , and included audio statements by her family , friends and members of Selena y Los Dinos , her former band . On November 11 , 2002 , Unos was released in Spanish @-@ speaking countries with the same track listing as the American edition .

= = Songs = =

The first of Selena 's number ones on the album was " Buenos Amigos " , a duet with Salvadoran singer Álvaro Torres . " Baila Esta Cumbia " and " No Quiero Saber " are from Selena 's second studio album , Ven Conmigo ( 1990 ) ; the latter track peaked at number six on the US Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart . " Como la Flor " , Selena 's signature song , and " La Carcacha " are both originally on 1992 's Entre a Mi Mundo . " Como la Flor " launched her on the Latin music scene , according to journalists . The song was acclaimed by music critics and was credited as Selena 's first solo number one single in popular culture despite Billboard 's official record of the single peaking at number six . " No Debes Jugar " , the lead single from 1993 's Live ! , and " La Llamada " made the album cut . Sally Jacobs of the Boston Globe called " No Debes Jugar " one of " her cumbia signature songs " and " most popular cumbia song [ s ] " . Four of the six number ones on the album are singles from Selena 's last studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . The song of the same name was number one on the Hot Latin Tracks chart for nine consecutive weeks , one week short of the record for most weeks at number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart . " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , the second single off of Amor Prohibido , spent five consecutive weeks at the top of the Hot Latin Tracks chart . The third single from Amor Prohibido to be featured on the album , " No Me Queda Más " , peaked at number one for seven weeks .

" Si Una Vez " peaked at number four on the Regional Mexican Songs chart , while " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " failed to chart . Her posthumous number one single " Fotos y Recuerdos " spent seven consecutive weeks atop the Hot Latin Tracks chart . " Techno Cumbia " peaked at number four on Billboard 's Latin charts . " Donde Quiera Que Estés " , a duet with the Barrio Boyzz , is Selena 's second number one duet . " I Could Fall in Love " and " Dreaming of You " are the only English @-@ language tracks on Ones , and are her most recognizable recordings to American music fans . Both tracks were taken from her crossover attempt , Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) , which was released posthumously . The only other track from that album , " Tú Sólo Tú " , also appears on Ones , Selena 's sixth number one single on the album . " Siempre Hace Frio " was originally released on Siempre Selena ( 1996 ) , her first remix album . Quintanilla III and Pete Astudillo composed " Con Tanto Amor Medley " , a medley mash @-@ up of " Amor Prohibido " , " Si Una Vez " and " Como la Flor " . The track was produced by Kike Santander and Jose Luis Arroyae . Tatiana Morales of CBS called it a " beautiful ballad " , but John Lannert had the impression that the medley was composed to " fit [ in ] various Latin radio formats . " He noted that the recording had a pop twist with acoustic guitar and " discreet strings " , calling it " tasteful bolero @-@ like percussion " . Because of the mariachi trumpets used in the " Como la Flor " part of the medley , Lannert thought the track was aimed at regional Mexican radio stations . He was disappointed by the dissolution of the " saucy cumbia beats " that " originally took these songs to the top of the charts " , but called " Con Tanto Amor Medley " " [ a ] rare medley that achieves a seamless transition from track to track " and " manages to sound cohesive , generic arrangements notwithstanding " . Lannert ended his review by calling the track " an appropriate balance for an homage . "

= = Reception and chart performance = =

The album was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express News compared Ones to the greatest hit collections of musicians such as Buddy Holly , Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix . Jon O 'Brien of AllMusic wrote that Ones ignores Selena 's self @-@ titled EMI debut album , focusing on her career between 1990 and 1995 . Ones was nominated for Latin Greatest Hits Album of the Year at the 2003 Billboard Latin Music Awards . It debuted ( and peaked ) at number four on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums chart , achieving a Hot Shot Debut on October 19 , 2002 . The album debuted at number 162 on the Billboard 200 chart . It peaked two weeks later at number 159 the week of November 9 , 2002 . Ones was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2003 , signifying 100 @,@ 000 units shipped in the United States . The recording became the 13th Top Latin Album of 2002 and the ninth Top Latin Pop Album of that year , ranking number 88 on the Top Latin Album of the 2000s chart .

Ones reentered the Top Latin Albums chart the week of February 7 , 2004 at number 74 before slipping off and reentering the chart the week of March 13 at number 65 . After 77 weeks of release , Ones was in 70th position on the Top Latin Albums chart the week of April 10 , 2004 . The following week ( April 17 ) it rose to number 11 , achieving " greatest gainer " status from its previous position . Ones slipped off the chart the week of May 29 from number 66 . The 14th anniversary of Selena 's death sparked a 51 @-@ percent increase in sales for Ones , which rose to number four on the Top Latin Albums chart ( up 61 percent from its previous position ) . In February 2010 the RIAA certified the album gold , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .

= = Track listing = =

= = Personnel = =

Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = = Weekly charts = = =

= Day One ( Torchwood ) =

" Day One " is the second episode of the first series of the British science fiction television series Torchwood . Directed by Brian Kelly , the episode was first broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three on 22 October 2006 with the series pilot , " Everything Changes " , and later repeated on terrestrial channel BBC Two on 25 October . It was the first work in the Doctor Who universe to be written by future Doctor Who showrunner Chris Chibnall .

The episode centres on Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) working her first case with Torchwood Three in Cardiff . A purple alien gas is loose in the city and takes Carys Fletcher ( Sara Lloyd Gregory ) host ; the gas kills its victims by orgasm , leaving behind a pile of dust . Over the course of the episode , the team hunt for Carys before the gas kills her . In the end they track her down to a fertility clinic ; the gas leaves Carys to take Gwen host , but is stopped by a portable prison cell and dies out .

Originally entitled " New Girl " , the episode was written to interpret Gwen 's " first day in hell " . On the sex gas , series creator Russell T Davies stated " when we 're launching a new adult science fiction drama , it 's kind of inevitable you 're going to do the sex monster " . The episode was filmed during a three- to four @-@ week period in May 2006 , with much of it filmed before the first episode in the same production block . " Day One " was originally seen by 2 @.@ 3 million viewers , making it one of the highest @-@ rated BBC Three broadcasts of all time , but was met with generally mixed reviews .

= = Plot = =

A date between Gwen Cooper and her boyfriend Rhys Williams ( Kai Owen ) is cut short when they witness a meteor crashing outside Cardiff . Gwen receives a message on her mobile phone , and is called into action . As the Army secures the area , Torchwood investigate the meteor . Colleague Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) taunts Gwen by calling her the " new girl " . In an attempt to retaliate , she throws a chisel at him , but misses and cracks open the meteor , allowing a purple gas entity to escape . The gas finds a young woman , Carys Fletcher , outside a nightclub and takes her host . In the club , a possessed Carys seduces a man and takes him to a restroom , where they proceed to have sex . At the moment of climax however , the man dissolves into dust while Carys absorbs the energy that remains .

The Torchwood team become aware of the bizarre death and realises through CCTV that the gas has taken over Carys . Gwen feels guilty at having caused the man 's death , but team leader Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) assures her that everybody makes mistakes . Gwen also learns that she is the only team member who 's in a relationship , as the others are too busy working to find time . They later find where Carys lives and arrives there before she could harm a postman . When she tries to escape , Owen traps her using a portable prison cell , much to Jack 's chagrin , as he forbids the removal of alien technology from Torchwood 's base without his permission .

Carys is placed in a Torchwood holding cell . As tests are run on Carys , Gwen feels uncontrollable urges to kiss her , showing that Carys is emitting high levels of pheromones , effectively becoming a " walking aphrodisiac " , but the gas is also slowly killing her . Later , Carys escapes from her cell after seducing Owen . Jack attempts to apprehend her , but she manages to get hold of a jar containing a severed hand , which Jack finds valuable . He allows her to leave for the jar 's safety , but she destroys it anyway .

In an attempt to capture her again , the team run on Toshiko Sato 's ( Naoko Mori ) hunch that she will be after her ex @-@ boyfriend ; they arrive at his house to find Carys already killed him . Later they discover Carys works as a temp at a fertility clinic . They race to the clinic to find Carys has been inside for some time killing some of the clients . After eventually cornering Carys , they find that she has moments before she dies . Jack buys her some time by kissing her , transferring some of his " excess " of life onto her . Gwen offers the gas presence her own body as a host to save Carys ; it leaves Carys , but before it could enter Gwen , Jack throws the portable prison cell at it . Since it cannot survive in Earth 's atmosphere for long , the gas dies out . As Jack inspects its remains , Gwen kisses Jack on the lips , saying " thank you " , leaving Jack puzzled .

In the end , Carys is reunited with her father . The team returns to Torchwood , and as she leaves for home , Jack advises Gwen not to let the job consume her because her perspective is important to the team . He then encourages Gwen to go home and spend time with Rhys .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

The working title for the episode was " New Girl " , which changed to the current " Day One " by the beginning of October 2006 . Head writer Chris Chibnall , who wrote the episode , found that writing the second episode was hard , as there was a challenge to demonstrate how Torchwood works , and set the formula for the rest of the series . He wanted to write an episode that would centre on Gwen about her " first day in hell " , and show the audience that Torchwood is unlike any normal job , as one small mistake can have major ramifications on the city . The scene where Gwen accidentally opens the meteor was meant to " extend the metaphor of breaking the photocopier on your first day at work " . It is also set to show the separate dynamic between the team and Gwen . Series creator Russell T Davies stated that as the rest of the team are for the aliens , science , technology and mythology , Gwen is for " the people " ; she 's the only person in the team who cares about what happens to Carys . Eve Myles also noted in the episode 's audio commentary that throughout the episode , it added a mix between her domestic life and the science fiction .

The idea behind using the sex gas came from Chibnall , but he admitted to having " genuinely no idea where the episode came from " . Davies stated " when we 're launching a new adult science fiction drama , it 's kind of inevitable you 're going to do the sex monster . " He also emphasised that the episode is not solely about " having a laugh " with the sex gas , as it also has " something to say about the world " . The scene where Carys walks down the street featuring sex in advertisements and couples kissing in public was one of Davies ' favourite scenes in the episode , as it explores how sexualised the Western world is . The episode was originally much lighter in tone , however , the majority of the comedic moments had to be cut on the final script , as they got in the way of the plot . Also , Carys was originally meant to have two or three boyfriends , but because of scheduling restrictions , there could only be one . This ended up being beneficial to the episode , as it made it more emotive . There was a scene that would be filmed with Carys and a second boyfriend , but that would be cut and added on the deleted scenes on the DVD boxset of the first series .

After it was written , BBC controller of fiction , Jane Tranter , fed back to the producers and suggested that the Torchwood team take a " breather " and talk about the mysteries behind Captain Jack while having a Chinese takeway . Through the read through of the script before filming , Burn Gorman noted that he saw " big smiles " and giggling from several readers because of its content . Sara Gregory read the script with her mother .

= = = Filming = = =

Much of the episode was filmed in the first production block along with " Everything Changes " , but much of it was filmed before the pilot . It took place during a three- to four @-@ week period in May 2006 in and around Cardiff , the city where the series was set . The majority of the episode was filmed during the night , to keep with the style that the majority of the series is set during the night as well . However , because it was approaching summer , where nights are shorter , night sequences had to be shot between 10 pm and 4 : 30 am during each night of filming . Even the scenes set in the Torchwood hub were mostly filmed at nighttime . The first sequence to be shot was where the team stop Carys from having sex with the postman . However , the sequence had to be shot again twelve days later .

The meteor crash site was filmed at a natural erosion site just outside Cardiff , which the location managers found by chance , and felt it was the perfect location for a crash site . The producers included an easter egg in the Torchwood Hub set by including the picture of Craig @-@ y @-@ Nos Castle , used as a location of Torchwood House in the Doctor Who episode " Tooth and Claw " ; in the end of the episode the Torchwood Institute was established by Queen Victoria . To film the scene where Gwen and Carys kiss , actresses Eve Myles and Sara Gregory discussed how they would execute it beforehand and agreed that they have to imagine Gregory as Johnny Depp , and Myles as Brad Pitt . To film the exploding rat sequence , episode director Brian Kelly filmed a rat in a cage , and then replace it with a fur covered condom filled with " chicken bits " and red dye to simulate guts , then exploded with a squib .

= = = Post @-@ production = = =

" Day One " was the first episode to include a teaser in the beginning with shots from the series . The episode 's visual effects were produced by The Mill . To complete the effect of the gas , 3D artist Paul Burton based his design of the alien from the water creature in The Abyss .

= = Continuity = =

The Doctor 's severed hand appears in this episode when Carys uses it as her bargaining chip to escape .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Day One " was broadcast on Sunday , 22 October 2006 on BBC Three , just after the first episode , " Everything Changes " . The second episode received overnight viewing figures of 2 @.@ 3 million with a 13 @.@ 8 % audience share , holding the majority of the audience from the first episode . Together both episodes received the largest multichannel audience for a UK @-@ originated non @-@ sports programme and the at the time largest audience for BBC Three . The finale figure for the episode was 2 @.@ 498 million viewers . The record would be held until the broadcast of EastEnders Live : The Aftermath on 19 February 2010 . The repeat of " Day One " on analogue channel BBC Two on 25 October was seen by 2 @.@ 8 million with a 13 % audience share . " Day One " was given an Appreciation Index of 83 .

Daniel Montesinos @-@ Donaghy of Den of Geek stated " After the excellent pilot episode , ' Day One ' is both a step forward and a step backward . As silly as the idea of a nymphomaniac extra @-@ terrestrial gas is , the cast throw themselves into it with aplomb , quipping their way to the relatively gripping conclusion . " Patrick Holm of Total Sci @-@ Fi felt that the second episode " equates the word ' adult ' with sex and swearing – more of a playground definition than a serious drama . In the conclusion of his review , Jonathan Capps of Noise to Signal felt that the episode was " certainly nothing to get excited about , but I think it won 't be too indicative of later episodes , as we 're still getting to know these characters , and that has to take the fore in the first few episodes . However , Chris ' [ Chibnall ] painfully simplistic , heavy @-@ handed and often clichéd interpretation of sci @-@ fi ( some of Jack 's techno @-@ babble is frankly embarrassing ) could prove to be a worrying factor later in the series . " A reviewer of TV Fodder felt " Day One " was a " great second episode " , adding " there doesn 't seem to be anything I don 't like about this show " .

= 808s & Heartbreak =

808s & Heartbreak is the fourth studio album by American recording artist Kanye West , released on November 24 , 2008 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records . It was recorded during September and October 2008 at Glenwood Studios in Burbank , California and Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu , Hawaii , with the help of producers No I.D. , Jeff Bhasker and others .

Conceived in the wake of a series of distressing personal events , 808s & Heartbreak marked a major musical departure for West from his previous rap records , instead featuring a sparse , electronic sound and West singing through an Auto @-@ Tune vocal processor . His lyrics explored themes of loss , alienated fame , and heartache , while the album 's production abandoned conventional hip hop sounds in favor of a minimalist sonic palette , which included prominent use of the titular Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine . Despite varying responses from audiences , the album received positive reviews from most critics and was named one of 2008 's best records in several year @-@ end lists .

808s & Heartbreak debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 450 @,@ 145 copies in its first week . By 2013 , it had sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States . Four singles were released to promote the record , including the hit singles " Love Lockdown " and " Heartless " . In the years since its release , 808s & Heartbreak has been cited as a prominent influence on subsequent hip hop , pop , and R & B music , as a new wave of rappers , singers , and producers came to adopt aspects of its style and thematic content . In 2014 , Rolling Stone named it one of the 40 most groundbreaking albums of all time .

= = Background = =

Following the release of his third studio album Graduation , the remainder of 2007 and the following year featured events that profoundly affected Kanye West . On November 10 , 2007 , West 's mother Donda West died due to complications arising from cosmetic surgery involving a tummy tuck and breast reduction procedure . Months later , West and fiancée Alexis Phifer ended their engagement and their long @-@ term intermittent relationship , which had begun in 2002 . At the same time , West struggled to adapt to his newfound pop star status he had once striven to achieve , often becoming the subject of media scrutiny . The loss , loneliness and longing for companionship and a sense of normality served to inspire 808s & Heartbreak . West stated that " This album was therapeutic – it 's lonely at the top . " A photograph taken by Danny Clinch of West kissing his mother on the cheek was included in the album 's booklet liner notes .

West felt that his emotions could not be fully expressed simply through rapping , which he said had limitations . There were " melodies that were in me " , he explained . " What was in me I couldn 't stop . " West went to classify 808s & Heartbreak as a pop album , asserting his disdain towards the contemporary backlash to the concept of pop music and expressed admiration for what some pop stars have accomplished in their careers . He later stated that he wishes to present the music as a new genre called " pop art , " clarifying that he was well aware of the visual art movement of the same name and wished to present a musical equivalent . " Either call it ' pop ' or ' pop art , ' either one I 'm good with , " he later stated .

= = Recording and production = =

The album was recorded over a span of approximately three weeks from September to October 2008 . Recording sessions took place at Glenwood Studios in Burbank , California and at Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu , Hawaii . As implied by its title , 808s & Heartbreak prominently features the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine . Drawing inspiration from 1980s synthpop and electropop performers such as Phil Collins , Gary Numan , TJ Swan and Boy George , West felt that the 808 is a resourceful instrument that can be used to evoke emotion ; the concept was introduced to him by Jon Brion . West utilized the sounds created by the 808 and manipulated its pitch to produce a distorted , electronic sound , an effect he referred to as " heartbreak " . He felt the characteristic of the sound was representative of his state of mind . According to West , the fact that Hawaii 's area code was " 808 " was coincidental , as he had already developed the album 's title before being informed . The realization inspired him to pursue his direction with the album , however . In terms of musical direction , West 's intentions , according to Mike Dean , were to go against the typical sound of hip hop beat , instead evoking the presence of tribal drums . Overall , West maintained a " minimal but functional " approach towards the album 's studio production .

The album makes prominent use of the voice audio processor technology of Auto @-@ Tune . West had previously experimented with the technology on The College Dropout for the background vocals of " Jesus Walks " and " Never Let Me Down " , but he had not used it for lead vocals until 2008 . " We were working on the remixes for Lil Wayne 's ' Lollipop ' and Young Jeezy 's ' Put On ' and he fell in love with the Auto @-@ Tune " , producer Mike Dean explained . Towards the end , West enlisted T @-@ Pain for coaching on how to utilize the technology . West himself openly stated that he loved using Auto @-@ Tune and was dismayed that the term has been commonly associated with being " wack " . He considers the technology " the funnest thing to use " and compared the situation to when he was a child and thought the color pink was cool until someone told him " it was gay " , producing an analogy of how the views of society can rob people of their confidence and self @-@ esteem . He later went on to state that he enjoyed the electronic feel produced by Auto @-@ Tune and sought out to juxtapose the mechanical sounds with the traditional sounds of taiko drums and choir monks .

Rapper Kid Cudi , who had signed onto West 's G.O.O.D. Music label , contributed to two of the album 's songs . Young Jeezy contributed a rap verse on the track " Amazing " while " See You in My Nightmares " is a duet with Lil Wayne . Singer @-@ songwriter Esthero provided the few female vocals found on the album ; credited under birth name Jenny @-@ Bea Englishman , she co @-@ wrote three tracks . When " RoboCop " appeared on the Internet , West disclaimed responsibility and was upset that the leak had occurred as the track was an unfinished version . Mike Dean had previously stated that the track was expected to receive additional treatment by Herbie Hancock before the album 's release .

= = Music and lyrics = =

808s & Heartbreak is a radical departure from West 's previous hip hop albums . According to 33 ⅓ writer Kirk Walker Graves , 808s & Heartbreak is an avant @-@ garde electropop album . Rolling Stone magazine called it an " introspective , synthpop album , " while The 405 described it as West 's " experimental pop record . " According to The Independent , West abandoned his customary hip hop sound in favor of sparse , drum machine @-@ based electropop . Pitchfork Media 's Scott Plagenhoef also categorized the album as " an introspective , minimal electro @-@ pop record " , but added that it is " steeped in regret , pain , and even more self @-@ examination than a typical Kanye West album " . Music writer Robert Christgau called it a " slow , sad @-@ ass and self @-@ involved ... breakup album " and analyzed that West 's choice to " robotize as well as pitch @-@ correct his voice both undercuts his self @-@ importance and adds physical reality to tales of alienated fame that might otherwise be pure pity parties " . Christgau asserted that its final track " Pinocchio Story " is " the only track here about what 's really bringing [ West ] down : not the loss of his girlfriend but the death of his mother , during cosmetic surgery that somewhere not too deep down he 's sure traces all too directly to his alienated fame . " Andre Grant of HipHopDX wrote that " to combat this trenchant melancholia , he poured himself into an all @-@ autotunes R & B album " which would prove divisive in hip hop . West 's singing has been characterized as " flat " and " nearly unmelodic " which " underscores his own cyborgish detachment . " Canadian writer Stephen Marche viewed that West used " the shallow musical gimmickry of Auto @-@ Tune , a program designed to eliminate individuality , and produced a hauntingly personal album . "

The music of 808s & Heartbreak draws heavily on electronic elements , particularly virtual synthesis , the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , and explicitly auto @-@ tuned vocal tracks . Tracks on the album utilize step input drum machine and synth @-@ bass parts . Step input sequencing , a product of vintage analogue devices limited to recording only 16 individual notes , was popular in music production during the 1980s , but also became available in digital workstations . The album 's music features austere production and elements such as dense drums , lengthy strings , droning synths , and somber piano . Andy Kellman of AllMusic writes of the music , " Several tracks have almost as much in common with irrefutably bleak post @-@ punk albums , such as New Order 's Movement and The Cure 's Pornography , as contemporary rap and R & B. " These musical elements help convey moods of despair and dejection that reflect the album 's subject matter . Critic Trist McCall wrote that the record " stripped modern art @-@ pop down to its iconic rudiments — beats , charismatic personalities , hand @-@ selected melodies , and computer @-@ assisted vocals . " Most of the lyrics are directed at an ex @-@ lover ; West refers to her treatment of him as " the coldest story ever told " on " Heartless " , and on " RoboCop " , she is called a " spoiled little L.A. girl " and is compared to the antagonist in the 1990 film Misery . On " Welcome to Heartbreak " , West 's character faces an existential crisis as he dispassionately recounts sitting alone on a flight , with a laughing family seated ahead of him . He longs for his late mother on the album 's penultimate track " Coldest Winter " , which samples the desolate 1983 song " Memories Fade " by Tears for Fears .

= = Release and promotion = =

On September 24 , West announced that he had finished the album and would be releasing it sometime in November . In his blog post , he wrote " I changed my album to November something cause I finished the album and I felt like it .. I want y 'all to hear it as soon as possible " . West later stated that the album would be released on November 25 , 2008 . However , Island Def Jam , the distributing label , brought the date forward by one day to capitalize on Thanksgiving weekend . 808s & Heartbreak was also released on November 24 , 2008 in the United Kingdom and the Philippines . A limited edition in a digipak case was first released in Germany on November 21 , 2008 . A special edition of the album was released on December 16 that contains the album in CD and dual LP format , and also features album artwork redone by the artist of the original cover , KAWS .

On October 16 , West released an excerpt of " Coldest Winter " on the radio station Power 106 in Los Angeles . The track recreates elements of the song " Memories Fade " by the band Tears for Fears . The song " Paranoid " later leaked onto the Internet and features Mr. Hudson in the chorus . A remixed version of " Paranoid " was reported to feature pop singer Rihanna , but did not materialize . Also appearing prior to the release date were " Amazing " featuring Young Jeezy , " See You in My Nightmares " featuring Lil Wayne , " Street Lights " , " Say You Will " , " Welcome to Heartbreak " and " Bad News " . An additional track , " Pinocchio Story " is a freestyle recorded at a live concert in Singapore . It was included in the album at the request of Beyoncé Knowles .

On October 14 , West , in collaboration with Italian artist Vanessa Beecroft , hosted a promotional album listening event at Ace Gallery . Over 700 guests were invited to preview the entirety of 808s & Heartbreak . Under Beecroft 's guidance , the event featured approximately forty nude women wearing nothing besides wool masks who silently stood in the center of the room . The women were illuminated by multicolored lights that would change as the music progressed . When it came time for him to speak , West stated that he 'd been a fan of Beecroft 's work and strong imagery , saying that he liked the idea of nudity because " society told us to wear clothes at a certain point " . Beecroft had been contacted a month prior and conceptualized and generated the installation in a week . Beecroft admitted that while he had caught her offguard , she had the opportunity to hear the album for herself and heard things that touched her own life . Five days later , promotional photos for the album by photographer Willy Vanderperre were released . The images portrayed West wearing a grey glen plaid suit , large browline glasses , and a heart @-@ shaped pin .

In October 2009 , West was scheduled to embark on a tour , Fame Kills : Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga tour , in promotion of Gaga 's The Fame , and West 's 808s & Heartbreak . It was canceled on October 1 , 2009 , without reason . Several songs from the album were performed by West during his live VH1 Storytellers performance , such as " Heartless " , " Amazing " and " Say You Will . " In the interim , director Nabil Elderkin directed two additional promotional videos for the album . " Welcome to Heartbreak " , which featured an artistic use of liberal compression artifacts , was released in June 2009 . A remixed version of " Coldest Winter " was released in February 2010 . This video featured a woman in a wedding gown running away from a cult group through a moonlit forest .

= = Public reaction = =

Before its release , reaction to 808s & Heartbreak was mixed , ranging from anticipation to bewilderment and indifference to the album 's concept . Upon the unveiling of the lead single " Love Lockdown " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , music audiences were taken aback by the uncharacteristic production style and the presence of Auto @-@ Tune . The negative feedback intensified when West revealed that the entire album would be primarily sung with Auto @-@ Tune rather than rapped and would focus on themes of love and heartache .

Numerous hip hop fans and certain rappers mocked West for becoming " sappy " while others deemed the upcoming LP as a throwaway experimental album . Comparisons were drawn to Electric Circus , an album recorded by West 's labelmate and close friend Common . MTV eventually interviewed Common to share his thoughts and views on the artistic direction of the album . Common expressed both his understanding and his support for West 's intentions , stating " I love it . I 'mma tell you , as an artist , you wanna be free . I 'mma do what I feel . You can 't just cater to the audience . You gotta say , ' Hey , y 'all , this is where I 'm at . ' For him to do an album called 808s and Heartbreak , you know that 's where he is at this moment . I heard some songs , and I think it 's fresh . I think the people are ready for it . "

West received similar approval from Lil Wayne and Young Jeezy , both of whom contributed to the album . During an interview , when asked what music today inspires him , Wayne stated " everybody 's doing their thing , but they 're not exciting . Everybody is doing the same thing . That 's terrible . Do I love the music that 's out right now ? I love it with a passion . Does it motivate me ? Not one bit . That 's because 808s & Heartbreak isn 't out yet . " Despite the approval from the rap superstars , as well as the record @-@ breaking chart performances of the first two singles , hip hop audiences remained indifferent towards the album , predicting it would flop . Responding to reviews , West stated that he didn 't care about sales or getting good ratings , saying that it came from the heart and that 's all that matters to him . When asked about the current state of hip hop , West compared it to a high school , stating that hip hop used to be all about being fearless and standing out , and that now it is about being afraid and fitting in .

= = = Commercial performance = = =

In its first week of sales , 808s & Heartbreak reached the number one spot on Billboard 200 , selling 450 @,@ 145 units in its first week . In the last week of the year , 808s & Heartbreak sold 165 @,@ 100 copies , jumping from the eleventh spot back up to the number five on the Billboard 200 . The album moved up again the following week , selling 70 @,@ 900 units and landing at number three . On January 27 , 2009 , 808s & Heartbreak was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , serving as West 's fourth album to ship one million copies in the United States . As of June 14 , 2013 , it has sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan .

Despite the debate and uncertainty surrounding the album 's conception , its preceding singles demonstrated outstanding chart performances . Upon its release , the lead single " Love Lockdown " debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and became a " Hot Shot Debut " . It is the highest debut of West 's career , the second highest debut on the Hot 100 that year and the tenth song of the millennium to debut in the top three . Grossing over 1 @.@ 3 million copies at the iTunes Store alone , the single was certified platinum by the RIAA by the end of the year . On August 18 , 2010 , it was certified triple platinum by the RIAA , for shipments of three million units in the US . The single was also met by positive reviews from music critics , eventually culminating with being crowned " Song of the Year " by Time . The second single , " Heartless " performed similarly and became his second consecutive " Hot Shot Debut " by debuting at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified double platinum by the RIAA , having shipped two million units in the US . Due in part to the momentum produced by the album 's release , certain tracks were met by chart success despite not actually being released as singles . The tenth track " See You in My Nightmares " became yet another " Hot Shot Debut , " peaking at number twenty @-@ one in the US and at number twenty @-@ two in Canada while the fourth track " Amazing " charted at 81 on the Hot 100 . Following suit , " Welcome to Heartbreak " peaked at number eighty @-@ seven on the Pop 100 .

= = Critical reception = =

808s & Heartbreak received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 75 , based on 36 reviews . Chris Richards from The Washington Post called it " an information @-@ age masterpiece " , while USA Today critic Steve Jones said " West deftly uses the 808 drum machine and Auto @-@ Tune vocal effect to channel his feelings of hurt , anger and doubt through his well @-@ crafted lyrics " . Dan Cairns from The Times stated , " This so should not work ... Yet 808s & Heartbreak is a triumph , recklessly departing from the commercially copper @-@ bottomed script and venturing far beyond West ’ s comfort zone . " Rolling Stone 's Jody Rosen commended West 's incorporation of the Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine and described the album as " Kanye 's would @-@ be Here , My Dear or Blood on the Tracks , a mournful song @-@ suite that swings violently between self @-@ pity and self @-@ loathing " . In the Chicago Tribune , Greg Kot called it West 's " most radical yet " and said while West 's fans may be disappointed , " this one is for him . It remains to be seen if he goes back to making records for everybody else . For now , this is one fascinatingly perverse detour . " PopMatters critic Dave Heaton was impressed by West 's " song and album construction , and with the way he captures a particular feeling through unusual , evocative , carefully crafted music that ’ s both simple and complex , cold and warm , mechanical and human , melodic and harsh " . Writing for MSN Music , Robert Christgau found it " brilliant " with a unique " dark sound " and " engaging tunes " , despite a second @-@ half drop @-@ off , and praised West 's use of Auto @-@ Tune , which he felt " both undercuts his self @-@ importance and adds physical reality to tales of alienated fame that might otherwise be pure pity parties " .

In a less enthusiastic review , The Independent found West 's " immersion in personal misery " uncomfortable and commented that the " stylistic tropes quickly become irritating " . AllMusic editor Andy Kellman stated " no matter its commendable fearlessness , the album is a listless , bleary trudge along West 's permafrost " . Charles Aaron of Spin criticized the songs ' musical structures , calling the album " a long processional that starts and restarts and never reaches the ceremony " . Slant Magazine 's Wilson McBee panned West 's singing , while Jon Caramanica from The New York Times singled it out as the " weakness for which this album will ultimately be remembered , some solid songs notwithstanding . " Caramanica wrote that , " at best , it is a rough sketch for a great album , with ideas he would have typically rendered with complexity , here distilled to a few words , a few synthesizer notes , a lean drumbeat . At worst , it ’ s clumsy and underfed , a reminder that all of that ornamentation served a purpose " . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Jim DeRogatis stated , " If West had interspersed the more mechanical tracks with some that were the exact opposite — say , simple piano interludes provided by his old collaborators John Legend or Jon Brion — he might have made a masterpiece . Instead , he 's merely given us an extremely intriguing , sporadically gripping , undeniably fearless and altogether unexpected piece of his troubled soul . "

= = = Accolades = = =

808s & Heartbreak was voted the tenth best album of 2008 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of prominent American critics . The album was also named one of the ten best albums of 2008 by a number of publications , including the Associated Press ( number four ) , The Hartford Courant ( number seven ) , NOW ( number four ) , The Observer ( number eight ) , Vibe ( no order ) and Time ( number six ) . Pitchfork Media named 808s & Heartbreak the twenty @-@ first best album of 2008 . Dan Leroy of LA Weekly cited it as one of the top ten hip hop albums of the year . Jam ! named it the top album of 2008 . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Jim DeRogatis included the album on his list of the year 's ten best albums and wrote , " With every listen , the poignancy of these personal tales of loss grows deeper , perfectly matched by the cold , lonely , robotic but nevertheless winning grooves that accompany them . Upon further reflection , it is a brave and daring 4 @-@ star effort that deserves to be heard by any fan of adventurous pop music . " Time Out New York featured the album on its list of the Best and Worst Albums of 2008 . The magazine 's writer Colin St. John cited 808s & Heartbreak as one of the worst of 2008 , and editor Steve Smith named it third on his best @-@ of list , while calling the album " the year 's most misunderstood triumph . "

Despite its accolades , 808s & Heartbreak was largely overlooked as a contender for the 52nd Grammy Awards . According to Vibe magazine editor @-@ in @-@ chief Jermaine Hall , West 's controversial incident at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards and the ensuing backlash against West " probably hurt him " , but perceived West 's stylistic change on the album as the primary reason for it not being nominated . West received one solo nomination , Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for " Amazing " , and five other nominations for his guest appearances and collaborational work . 808s & Heartbreak received a nomination for Outstanding Album at 40th annual NAACP Image Awards . The album also received a nomination for Best Album at the 2009 MOBO Awards . In 2009 , Rolling Stone ranked it number 63 on its list of the 100 Best Album of the Decade , and Q named it the decade 's 81st best record . On similar lists , Slant Magazine and PopMatters ranked it 124th and 42nd , respectively .

= = Legacy and influence = =

Although West designed it as a melancholic pop album , 808s & Heartbreak had a significant effect on hip hop music . While his decision to sing about love , loneliness , and heartache for the entirety of the album was at first heavily criticized by music audiences and the album predicted to be a flop , its subsequent critical acclaim and commercial success encouraged other mainstream rappers to take greater creative risks with their music . During the release of The Blueprint 3 , New York rap mogul Jay @-@ Z revealed that his next studio album would be an experimental effort , stating , " ... it 's not gonna be a # 1 album . That 's where I 'm at right now . I wanna make the most experimental album I ever made . " Jay @-@ Z elaborated that like West , he was unsatisfied with contemporary hip hop , was being inspired by indie @-@ rockers like Grizzly Bear and asserted his belief that the indie rock movement would play an important role in the continued evolution of hip hop .

The album impacted hip hop stylistically and laid the groundwork for a new wave of hip hop artists who generally eschewed typical rap braggadocio for intimate subject matter and introspection , including B.o.B , Kid Cudi , Childish Gambino , Frank Ocean , The Weeknd , and Drake . Jake Paine of HipHopDX dubbed the album as " our Chronic " , noting West 's effect on hip hop with 808s & Heartbreak as " a sound , no different than the way Dr. Dre 's synthesizer challenged the boom @-@ bap of the early ' 90s . " Fact described the record as an " art @-@ pop masterpiece [ which ] broke the shackles of generations of one @-@ upmanship [ in hip hop ] . " Rolling Stone journalist Matthew Trammell asserted that the record was ahead of its time and wrote in a 2012 article , " Now that popular music has finally caught up to it , 808s & Heartbreak has revealed itself to be Kanye ’ s most vulnerable work , and perhaps his most brilliant . "

According to Greg Kot , 808s & Heartbreak initiated the " wave of inward @-@ looking sensitivity " and " emo " -inspired rappers during the late 2000s : " [ It ] presaged everything from the introspective hip @-@ hop of Kid Cudi 's Man on the Moon : The End of Day ( 2009 ) to the wispy crooning , plush keyboards and light mechanical beats of Bon Iver 's Justin Vernon and British dub @-@ step balladeer James Blake . " Consequence of Sound credited it with shaping subsequent developments in " indie R & B or electropop or whatever you want to call it " : " 808s ' is flooded with R & B and it digitizes the raw emotion and isolated feelings that [ James Blake and The Weeknd ] have carved their brands out of today . " Craig D. Linsey from The Village Voice wrote that the album 's " naked humanity ... practically set off the emo @-@ rap / r & b boom that everyone from Drake to Frank Ocean to The Weeknd now traffic in . " Marcus Scott of GIANT said rappers such as B.o.B , Drake , and Kid Cudi followed West 's album with similarly @-@ minded works , citing West 's introspective , emotional themes and synthpop / " Vangelis @-@ inspired " music as influences . In the opinion of Billboard senior editor Alex Gale , the album was " the equivalent of ( Bob ) Dylan going electric , and you still hear that all the time , in hip @-@ hop and outside of hip @-@ hop . " Drake 's 2009 mixtape So Far Gone received comparisons from critics to 808s & Heartbreak . Todd Martens of the Los Angeles Times cited 808s & Heartbreak as " the template [ ... ] for essentially the entirety of Drake 's young career " , and that wrote that he " shares West 's love for mood and never @-@ ending existential analysis " . In a 2009 interview , Drake cited West as " the most influential person " in shaping his own sound .

= = Track listing = =

Songwriting credits , production credits , and notes for tracks 1 – 11 adapted from the liner notes of 808s & Heartbreak . Songwriting credits for track 12 adapted from BMI .

Notes

^ [ a ] co @-@ producer

" RoboCop " embodies portions of " Kissing in the Rain " , written by Doyle .

" Bad News " contains a sample of the recording " See Line Woman " as performed by Nina Simone and written by Bass .

" Coldest Winter " embodies an interpolation of " Memories Fade " , written by Orzabal .

= = Personnel = =

Credits for 808s & Heartbreak adapted from AllMusic .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= History of supernova observation =

The known history of supernova observation goes back to 185 CE , when , supernova SN 185 appeared , the oldest appearance of a supernova recorded by humankind . Several additional supernovae within the Milky Way galaxy have been recorded since that time , with SN 1604 being the most recent supernova to be observed in this galaxy .

Since the development of the telescope , the field of supernova discovery has expanded to other galaxies . These occurrences provide important information on the distances of galaxies . Successful models of supernova behavior have also been developed , and the role of supernovae in the star formation process is now increasingly understood .

= = Early history = =

The supernova explosion that formed the Vela Supernova Remnant most likely occurred 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago . In 1976 , NASA astronomers suggested that inhabitants of the southern hemisphere may have witnessed this explosion and recorded it symbolically . A year later , archaeologist George Michanowsky recalled some incomprehensible ancient markings in Bolivia that were left by Native Americans . The carvings showed four small circles flanked by two larger circles . The smaller circles resemble stellar groupings in the constellations Vela and Carina . One of the larger circles may represent the star Capella . Another circle is located near the position of the supernova remnant , George Michanowsky suggested this may represent the supernova explosion as witnessed by the indigenous residents .

In 185 CE , Chinese astronomers recorded the appearance of a bright star in the sky , and observed that it took about eight months to fade from the sky . It was observed to sparkle like a star and did not move across the heavens like a comet . These observations are consistent with the appearance of a supernova , and this is believed to be the oldest confirmed record of a supernova event by humankind . SN 185 may have also possibly been recorded in Roman literature , though no records have survived . The gaseous shell RCW 86 is suspected as being the remnant of this event , and recent X @-@ ray studies show a good match for the expected age .

In 393 CE , the Chinese recorded the appearance of another " guest star " , SN 393 , in the modern constellation of Scorpius . Additional unconfirmed supernovae events may have been observed in 369 CE , 386 CE , 437 CE , 827 CE and 902 CE . However these have not yet been associated with a supernova remnant , and so they remain only candidates . Over a span of about 2 @,@ 000 years , Chinese astronomers recorded a total of twenty such candidate events , including later explosions noted by Islamic , European , and possibly Indian and other observers .

The supernova SN 1006 appeared in the southern constellation of Lupus during the year 1006 CE . This was the brightest recorded star ever to appear in the night sky , and its presence was noted in China , Egypt , Iraq , Italy , Japan and Switzerland . It may also have been noted in France , Syria , and North America . Egyptian physician , astronomer and astrologer Ali ibn Ridwan gave the brightness of this star as one @-@ quarter the brightness of the Moon . Modern astronomers have discovered the faint remnant of this explosion and determined that it was only 7 @,@ 100 light @-@ years from the Earth .

Supernova SN 1054 was another widely observed event , with Arab , Chinese , and Japanese astronomers recording the star 's appearance in 1054 CE . It may also have been recorded by the Anasazi as a petroglyph . This explosion appeared in the constellation of Taurus , where it produced the Crab Nebula remnant . At its peak , the luminosity of SN 1054 may have been four times as bright as Venus , and it remained visible in daylight for 23 days and was visible in the night sky for 653 days .

There are fewer records of supernova SN 1181 , which occurred in the constellation Cassiopeia just over a century after SN 1054 . It was noted by Chinese and Japanese astronomers , however . The pulsar 3C58 may be the stellar relic from this event .

The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was noted for his careful observations of the night sky from his observatory on the island of Hven . In 1572 he noted the appearance of a new star , also in the constellation Cassiopeia . Later called SN 1572 , this supernova was associated with a remnant during the 1960s .

A common belief in Europe during this period was the Aristotelian idea that the world beyond the Moon and planets was immutable . So observers argued that the phenomenon was something in the Earth 's atmosphere . However Tycho noted that the object remained stationary from night to night — never changing its parallax — so it must lie far away . He published his observations in the small book De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella ( Latin for " Concerning the new and previously unseen star " ) in 1573 . It is from the title of this book that the modern word nova for cataclysmic variable stars is derived .

The most recent supernova to be seen in the Milky Way galaxy was SN 1604 , which was observed October 9 , 1604 . Several people noted the sudden appearance of this star , but it was Johannes Kepler who became noted for his systematic study of the object . He published his observations in the work De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii .

Galileo , like Tycho before him , tried in vain to measure the parallax of this new star , and then argued against the Aristotelian view of an immutable heavens . The remnant of this supernova was identified in 1941 at the Mount Wilson Observatory .

= = Telescope observation = =

The true nature of the supernova remained obscure for some time . Observers slowly came to recognize a class of stars that undergo long @-@ term periodic fluctuations in luminosity . Both John Russell Hind in 1848 and Norman Pogson in 1863 had charted stars that underwent sudden changes in brightness . However these received little attention from the astronomical community . Finally , in 1866 , English astronomer William Huggins made the first spectroscopic observations of a nova , discovering lines of hydrogen in the unusual spectrum of the recurrent nova T Coronae Borealis . Huggins proposed a cataclysmic explosion as the underlying mechanism , and his efforts drew interest from other astronomers .

In 1885 , a nova @-@ like outburst was observed in the direction of the Andromeda galaxy by Ernst Hartwig in Estonia . S Andromedae increased to 6th magnitude , outshining the entire nucleus of the galaxy , then faded in a manner much like a nova . In 1917 , George W. Ritchey measured the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy and discovered it lay much farther than had previously been thought . This meant that S Andromedae , which did not just lie along the line of sight to the galaxy but had actually resided in the nucleus , released a much greater amount of energy than was typical for a nova .

Early work on this new category of nova was performed during the 1930s by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky at Mount Wilson Observatory . They identified S Andromedae , what they considered a typical supernova , as an explosive event that released radiation approximately equal to the Sun 's total energy output for 107 years . They decided to call this new class of cataclysmic variables super @-@ novae , and postulated that the energy was generated by the gravitational collapse of ordinary stars into neutron stars . The name super @-@ novae was first used in a 1931 lecture at Caltech by Zwicky , then used publicly in 1933 at a meeting of the American Physical Society . By 1938 , the hyphen had been lost and the modern name was in use .

Although supernovae are relatively rare events , occurring on average about once every 50 years in the Milky Way , observations of distant galaxies allowed supernovae to be discovered and examined more frequently . The first supernova detection patrol was begun by Zwicky in 1933 . He was joined by Josef J. Johnson from Caltech in 1936 . Using a 45 @-@ cm Schmidt telescope at Palomar observatory , they discovered twelve new supernovae within three years by comparing new photographic plates to reference images of extragalactic regions .

In 1938 , Walter Baade became the first astronomer to identify a nebula as a supernova remnant when he suggested that the Crab Nebula was the remains of SN 1054 . He noted that , while it had the appearance of a planetary nebula , the measured velocity of expansion was much too large to belong to that classification . During the same year , Baade first proposed the use of the Type Ia supernova as a secondary distance indicator . Later , the work of Allan Sandage and Gustav Tammann helped refine the process so that Type Ia supernovae became a type of standard candle for measuring large distances across the cosmos .

The first spectral classification of these distant supernovae was performed by Rudolph Minkowski in 1941 . He categorized them into two types , based on whether or not lines of the element hydrogen appeared in the supernova spectrum . Zwicky later proposed additional types III , IV , and V , although these are no longer used and now appear to be associated with single peculiar supernova types . Further sub @-@ division of the spectra categories resulted in the modern supernova classification scheme .

In the aftermath of the Second World War , Fred Hoyle worked on the problem of how the various observed elements in the universe were produced . In 1946 he proposed that a massive star could generate the necessary thermonuclear reactions , and the nuclear reactions of heavy elements were responsible for the removal of energy necessary for a gravitational collapse to occur . The collapsing star became rotationally unstable , and produced an explosive expulsion of elements that were distributed into interstellar space . The concept that rapid nuclear fusion was the source of energy for a supernova explosion was developed by Hoyle and William Fowler during the 1960s .

The first computer @-@ controlled search for supernovae was begun in the 1960s at Northwestern University . They built a 24 @-@ inch telescope at Corralitos Observatory in New Mexico that could be repositioned under computer control . The telescope displayed a new galaxy each minute , with observers checking the view on a television screen . By this means , they discovered 14 supernovae over a period of two years .

= = 1970 – 1999 = =

The modern standard model for Type Ia supernovae explosions is founded on a proposal by Whelan and Iben in 1973 , and is based upon a mass @-@ transfer scenario to a degenerate companion star . In particular , the light curve of SN1972e in NGC 5253 , which was observed for more than a year , was followed long enough to discover that after its broad " hump " in brightness , the supernova faded at a nearly constant rate of about 0 @.@ 01 magnitudes per day . Translated to another system of units , this is nearly the same as the decay rate of cobalt @-@ 56 ( 56Co ) , whose half @-@ life is 77 days . The degenerate explosion model predicts the production of about a solar mass of nickel @-@ 56 ( 56Ni ) by the exploding star . The 56Ni decays with a half @-@ life of 6 @.@ 8 days to 56Co , and the decay of the nickel and cobalt provides the energy radiated away by the supernova late in its history . The agreement in both total energy production and the fade rate between the theoretical models and the observations of 1972e led to rapid acceptance of the degenerate @-@ explosion model .

Through observation of the light curves of many Type Ia supernovae , it was discovered that they appear to have a common peak luminosity . By measuring the luminosity of these events , the distance to their host galaxy can be estimated with good accuracy . Thus this category of supernovae has become highly useful as a standard candle for measuring cosmic distances . In 1998 , the High @-@ Z Supernova Search and the Supernova Cosmology Project discovered that the most distant Type Ia supernovae appeared dimmer than expected . This has provided evidence that the expansion of the universe may be accelerating .

Although no supernova has been observed in the Milky Way since 1604 , it appears that a supernova exploded in the constellation Cassiopeia about 300 years ago , around the year 1667 or 1680 . The remnant of this explosion , Cassiopeia A — is heavily obscured by interstellar dust , which is possibly why it did not make a notable appearance . However it can be observed in other parts of the spectrum , and it is currently the brightest radio source beyond our solar system .

In 1987 , Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was observed within hours of its start . It was the first supernova to be detected through its neutrino emission and the first to be observed across every band of the electromagnetic spectrum . The relative proximity of this supernova has allowed detailed observation , and it provided the first opportunity for modern theories of supernova formation to be tested against observations .

The rate of supernova discovery steadily increased throughout the twentieth century . In the 1990s , several automated supernova search programs were initiated . The Leuschner Observatory Supernova Search program was begun in 1992 at Leuschner Observatory . It was joined the same year by the Berkeley Automated Imaging Telescope program . These were succeeded in 1996 by the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope at Lick Observatory , which was primarily used for the Lick Observatory Supernova Search ( LOSS ) . By 2000 , the Lick program resulted in the discovery of 96 supernovae , making it the world 's most successful Supernova search program .

In the late 1990s it was proposed that recent supernova remnants could be found by looking for gamma rays from the decay of titanium @-@ 44 . This has a half @-@ life of 90 years and the gamma rays can traverse the galaxy easily , so it permits us to see any remnants from the last millennium or so . Two sources were found , the previously discovered Cassiopeia A remnant , and the RX J0852.0 @-@ 4622 remnant , which had just been discovered overlapping the Vela Supernova Remnant

This remnant ( RX J0852.0 @-@ 4622 ) had been found in front ( apparently ) of the larger Vela Supernova Remnant . The gamma rays from the decay of titanium @-@ 44 showed that it must have exploded fairly recently ( perhaps around 1200 AD ) , but there is no historical record of it . The flux of gamma rays and x @-@ rays indicates that the supernova was relatively close to us ( perhaps 200 parsecs or 600 ly ) . If so , this is a surprising event because supernovae less than 200 parsecs away are estimated to occur less than once per 100 @,@ 000 years .

= = 2000 to present = =

The " SN 2003fg " was discovered in a forming galaxy in 2003 . The appearance of this supernova was studied in " real @-@ time " , and it has posed several major physical questions as it seems more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit would allow .

First observed in September 2006 , the supernova SN 2006gy , which occurred in a galaxy called NGC 1260 ( 240 million light @-@ years away ) , is the largest and , until confirmation of luminosity of SN 2005ap in October 2007 , the most luminous supernova ever observed . The explosion was at least 100 times more luminous than any previously observed supernova , with the progenitor star being estimated 150 times more massive than the Sun . Although this had some characteristics of a Type Ia supernova , Hydrogen was found in the spectrum . It is thought that SN 2006gy is a likely candidate for a pair @-@ instability supernova . SN 2005ap , which was discovered by Robert Quimby who also discovered SN 2006gy , was about twice as bright as SN 2006gy and about 300 times as bright as a normal type II supernova .

On May 21 , 2008 , astronomers announced that they had for the first time caught a supernova on camera just as it was exploding . By chance , a burst of X @-@ rays was noticed while looking at galaxy NGC 2770 , 88 million light @-@ years from Earth , and a variety of telescopes were aimed in that direction just in time to capture what has been named SN 2008D . " This eventually confirmed that the big X @-@ ray blast marked the birth of a supernova , " said Alicia Soderberg of Princeton University .

One of the many amateur astronomers looking for supernovae , Caroline Moore , a member of the Puckett Observatory Supernova Search Team , found supernova SN 2008ha late November 2008 . At the age of 14 she has now been declared the youngest person ever to find a supernova . However , in January 2011 , 10 @-@ year @-@ old Kathryn Aurora Gray from Canada was reported to have discovered a supernova , making her the youngest ever to find a supernova . Ms. Gray , her father , and a friend spotted SN 2010lt , a magnitude 17 supernova in galaxy UGC 3378 in the constellation Camelopardalis , about 240 million light years away .

In 2009 , researchers have found nitrates in ice cores from Antarctica at depths corresponding to the known supernovae of 1006 and 1054 AD , as well as from around 1060 AD . The nitrates were apparently formed from nitrogen oxides created by gamma rays from the supernovae . This technique should be able to detect supernovae going back several thousand years .

On November 15 , 2010 , astronomers using NASA 's Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory announced that , while viewing the remnant of SN 1979C in the galaxy Messier 100 , they have discovered an object which could be a young , 30 @-@ year @-@ old black hole . NASA also noted the possibility this object could be a spinning neutron star producing a wind of high energy particles .

On August 24 , 2011 , the Palomar Transient Factory automated survey discovered a new Type Ia supernova ( SN 2011fe ) in the Pinwheel Galaxy ( M101 ) shortly after it burst into existence . Being only 21 million lightyears away and detected so early after the event started , it will allow scientists to learn more about the early developments of these types of supernovae .

On 16 March 2012 , a Type II supernova , designated as SN 2012aw , was discovered in M95 .

On January 22 , 2014 , students at the University of London Observatory spotted an exploding star SN 2014J in the nearby galaxy M82 ( the Cigar Galaxy ) . At a distance of around 12 million light years , the supernova is one of the nearest to be observed in recent decades .

= = Future = =

The estimated rate of supernova production in a galaxy the size of the Milky Way is about one every 50 years . This is much higher than the actual observed rate , implying that a portion of these events have been obscured from the Earth by interstellar dust . The deployment of new instruments that can observe across a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum , along with neutrino detectors , means that the next such event will almost certainly be detected .

= W. B. Yeats =

William Butler Yeats ( / ˈjeɪts / ; 13 June 1865 – 28 January 1939 ) was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th @-@ century literature . A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments , in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms . Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and , along with Lady Gregory , Edward Martyn , and others , founded the Abbey Theatre , where he served as its chief during its early years . In 1923 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature as the first Irishman so honoured for what the Nobel Committee described as " inspired poetry , which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation " . Yeats is considered to be one of the few writers who completed their greatest works after being awarded the Nobel Prize ; such works include The Tower ( 1928 ) and The Winding Stair and Other Poems ( 1933 ) .

William Butler Yeats was born in Sandymount , Ireland and educated there and in London ; he spent his childhood holidays in County Sligo . He studied poetry in his youth and from an early age was fascinated by both Irish legends and the occult . Those topics feature in the first phase of his work , which lasted roughly until the turn of the 20th century . His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889 , and its slow @-@ paced and lyrical poems display Yeats 's debts to Edmund Spenser , Percy Bysshe Shelley , and the poets of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood . From 1900 , Yeats 's poetry grew more physical and realistic . He largely renounced the transcendental beliefs of his youth , though he remained preoccupied with physical and spiritual masks , as well as with cyclical theories of life .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early years = = =

Of Anglo @-@ Irish descent , William Butler Yeats was born at Sandymount in County Dublin , Ireland . His father , John Butler Yeats ( 1839 – 1922 ) , was a descendant of Jervis Yeats , a Williamite soldier , linen merchant , and well @-@ known painter who died in 1712 . Benjamin Yeats , Jervis 's grandson and William 's great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , had in 1773 married Mary Butler of a landed family in County Kildare . Following their marriage , they kept the name Butler in the family name . Mary was a descendant of the Butler of Ormond family from the Neigham ( pronounced Nyam ) Gowran branch of the family . They were descendants of the first Earls of Ormond .

At the time of his marriage , William 's father John Yeats was studying law but abandoned his studies to study art at Heatherley 's Art School in London . His mother , Susan Mary Pollexfen , came from a wealthy merchant family in Sligo , who owned a milling and shipping business . Soon after William 's birth the family relocated to the Pollexfen home at Merville , Sligo to stay with her extended family , and the young poet came to think of the area as his childhood and spiritual home . Its landscape became , over time , both literally and symbolically , his " country of the heart " . The Butler Yeats family were highly artistic ; his brother Jack became an esteemed painter , while his sisters Elizabeth and Susan Mary — known to family and friends as Lollie and Lily — became involved in the Arts and Crafts Movement .

Yeats grew up as a member of the former Protestant Ascendancy at the time undergoing a crisis of identity . While his family was broadly supportive of the changes Ireland was experiencing , the nationalist revival of the late 19th century directly disadvantaged his heritage , and informed his outlook for the remainder of his life . In 1997 , his biographer R. F. Foster observed that Napoleon 's dictum that to understand the man you have to know what was happening in the world when he was twenty " is manifestly true of W.B.Y. " Yeats 's childhood and young adulthood were shadowed by the power shift away from the minority Protestant Ascendancy . The 1880s saw the rise of Parnell and the home rule movement ; the 1890s saw the momentum of nationalism , while the Catholics became prominent around the turn of the century . These developments had a profound effect on his poetry , and his subsequent explorations of Irish identity had a significant influence on the creation of his country 's biography .

In 1867 , the family moved to England to aid their father , John , to further his career as an artist . At first the Yeats children were educated at home . Their mother entertained them with stories and Irish folktales . John provided an erratic education in geography and chemistry , and took William on natural history explorations of the nearby Slough countryside . On 26 January 1877 , the young poet entered the Godolphin school , which he attended for four years . He did not distinguish himself academically , and an early school report describes his performance as " only fair . Perhaps better in Latin than in any other subject . Very poor in spelling " . Though he had difficulty with mathematics and languages ( possibly because he was tone deaf ) , he was fascinated by biology and zoology . For financial reasons , the family returned to Dublin toward the end of 1880 , living at first in the suburbs of Harold 's Cross and later Howth . In October 1881 , Yeats resumed his education at Dublin 's Erasmus Smith High School . His father 's studio was nearby and William spent a great deal of time there , where he met many of the city 's artists and writers . During this period he started writing poetry , and , in 1885 , the Dublin University Review published Yeats 's first poems , as well as an essay entitled " The Poetry of Sir Samuel Ferguson " . Between 1884 and 1886 , William attended the Metropolitan School of Art — now the National College of Art and Design — in Thomas Street .

His first known works were written when he was seventeen , and included a poem — heavily influenced by Percy Bysshe Shelley — that describes a magician who set up a throne in central Asia . Other pieces from this period include a draft of a play about a bishop , a monk , and a woman accused of paganism by local shepherds , as well as love @-@ poems and narrative lyrics on German knights . The early works were both conventional and , according to the critic Charles Johnston , " utterly unIrish " , seeming to come out of a " vast murmurous gloom of dreams " . Although Yeats 's early works drew heavily on Shelley , Edmund Spenser , and on the diction and colouring of pre @-@ Raphaelite verse , he soon turned to Irish mythology and folklore and the writings of William Blake . In later life , Yeats paid tribute to Blake by describing him as one of the " great artificers of God who uttered great truths to a little clan " . In 1891 , Yeats published " John Sherman " and " Dhoya " , one a novella , the other a story .

= = = Young poet = = =

The family returned to London in 1887 . In March 1890 Yeats joined the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . That same year Yeats and Ernest Rhys co @-@ founded the Rhymers ' Club , a group of London @-@ based poets who met regularly in a Fleet Street tavern to recite their verse . Yeats later sought to mythologize the collective , calling it the " Tragic Generation " in his autobiography , and published two anthologies of the Rhymers ' work , the first one in 1892 and the second one in 1894 . He collaborated with Edwin Ellis on the first complete edition of William Blake 's works , in the process rediscovering a forgotten poem , " Vala , or , the Four Zoas " . In a late essay on Shelley , Yeats wrote , " I have re @-@ read Prometheus Unbound ... and it seems to me to have an even more certain place than I had thought among the sacred books of the world . "

Yeats had a life @-@ long interest in mysticism , spiritualism , occultism and astrology . He read extensively on the subjects throughout his life , became a member of the paranormal research organisation " The Ghost Club " ( in 1911 ) and was especially influenced by the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg . As early as 1892 , he wrote : " If I had not made magic my constant study I could not have written a single word of my Blake book , nor would The Countess Kathleen ever have come to exist . The mystical life is the centre of all that I do and all that I think and all that I write . " His mystical interests — also inspired by a study of Hinduism , under the Theosophist Mohini Chatterjee , and the occult — formed much of the basis of his late poetry . Some critics disparaged this aspect of Yeats 's work ; W. H. Auden called it the " deplorable spectacle of a grown man occupied with the mumbo @-@ jumbo of magic and the nonsense of India . "

His first significant poem was " The Island of Statues " , a fantasy work that took Edmund Spenser and Shelley for its poetic models . The piece was serialized in the Dublin University Review . Yeats wished to include it in his first collection , but it was deemed too long , and in fact was never republished in his lifetime . Quinx Books published the poem in complete form for the first time in 2014 . His first solo publication was the pamphlet Mosada : A Dramatic Poem ( 1886 ) , which comprised a print run of 100 copies paid for by his father . This was followed by the collection The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems ( 1889 ) , which arranged a series of verse that dated as far back as the mid @-@ 1880s . The long title poem contains , in the words of his biographer R.F. Foster , " obscure Gaelic names , striking repetitions [ and ] an unremitting rhythm subtly varied as the poem proceeded through its three sections " ;

We rode in sorrow , with strong hounds three ,

Bran , Sceolan , and Lomair ,

On a morning misty and mild and fair .

The mist @-@ drops hung on the fragrant trees ,

And in the blossoms hung the bees .

We rode in sadness above Lough Lean ,

For our best were dead on Gavra 's green .

" The Wanderings of Oisin " is based on the lyrics of the Fenian Cycle of Irish mythology and displays the influence of both Sir Samuel Ferguson and the Pre @-@ Raphaelite poets . The poem took two years to complete and was one of the few works from this period that he did not disown in his maturity . Oisin introduces what was to become one of his most important themes : the appeal of the life of contemplation over the appeal of the life of action . Following the work , Yeats never again attempted another long poem . His other early poems , which are meditations on the themes of love or mystical and esoteric subjects , include Poems ( 1895 ) , The Secret Rose ( 1897 ) , and The Wind Among the Reeds ( 1899 ) . The covers of these volumes were illustrated by Yeats ' friend Althea Gyles .

During 1885 , Yeats was involved in the formation of the Dublin Hermetic Order . The society held its first meeting on 16 June , with Yeats acting as its chairman . The same year , the Dublin Theosophical lodge was opened in conjunction with Brahmin Mohini Chatterjee , who travelled from the Theosophical Society in London to lecture . Yeats attended his first séance the following year . He later became heavily involved with the Theosophical Society and with hermeticism , particularly with the eclectic Rosicrucianism of the Golden Dawn . During séances held from 1912 , a spirit calling itself " Leo Africanus " apparently claimed it was Yeats 's Daemon or anti @-@ self , inspiring some of the speculations in Per Amica Silentia Lunae . He was admitted into the Golden Dawn in March 1890 and took the magical motto Daemon est Deus inversus — translated as Devil is God inverted or A demon is a god reflected . He was an active recruiter for the sect 's Isis @-@ Urania Temple , and brought in his uncle George Pollexfen , Maud Gonne , and Florence Farr . Although he reserved a distaste for abstract and dogmatic religions founded around personality cults , he was attracted to the type of people he met at the Golden Dawn . He was involved in the Order 's power struggles , both with Farr and Macgregor Mathers , and was involved when Mathers sent Aleister Crowley to repossess Golden Dawn paraphernalia during the " Battle of Blythe Road " . After the Golden Dawn ceased and splintered into various offshoots , Yeats remained with the Stella Matutina until 1921 .

= = = Maud Gonne = = =

In 1889 , Yeats met Maud Gonne , then a 23 @-@ year @-@ old English heiress and ardent Irish Nationalist . Gonne was eighteen months younger than Yeats and later claimed she met the poet as a " paint @-@ stained art student . " Gonne had admired " The Island of Statues " and sought out his acquaintance . Yeats developed an obsessive infatuation with her beauty and outspoken manner , and she had a significant and lasting effect on his poetry and his life thereafter .

In later years he admitted , " it seems to me that she [ Gonne ] brought into my life those days — for as yet I saw only what lay upon the surface — the middle of the tint , a sound as of a Burmese gong , an over @-@ powering tumult that had yet many pleasant secondary notes . " Yeats ' love initially remained unrequited , in part due to his reluctance to participate in her nationalist activism .

In 1891 , he visited Gonne in Ireland and proposed marriage , but she rejected him . He later admitted that from that point " the troubling of my life began " . Yeats proposed to Gonne three more times : in 1899 , 1900 and 1901 . She refused each proposal , and in 1903 , to his horror , married the Irish nationalist Major John MacBride . His only other love affair during this period was with Olivia Shakespear , whom he first met in 1894 , and parted from in 1897 .

Yeats continually sought to deride and demean John MacBride both in his letters and his poetry , but there were two main reasons why he was horrified by Gonne 's marriage to him . Firstly , to lose his muse to another man affected his reputation with the public . Secondly , Gonne converted to Catholicism before her marriage , and Yeats was Protestant / agnostic . He worried his muse would come under the influence of the priests and do their bidding .

Gonne 's marriage to MacBride , as forecast by both their sets of friends and relations , was a disaster early on . This pleased Yeats , as Gonne began to visit him in London . After the birth of her son , Seán MacBride , in 1904 , Gonne and MacBride agreed to end the marriage , although they were unable to agree on the child 's welfare . Despite the use of intermediaries , a divorce case ensued in Paris in 1905 . Gonne made a series of allegations against her husband with Yeats as her main ' second , ' though he did not attend court or travel to France . A divorce was not granted as the only accusation that held up in court was that MacBride had been drunk once during the marriage . A separation was granted with Gonne having custody of the baby and John having visiting rights .

Yeats 's friendship with Gonne persisted , and , in Paris , in 1908 , they finally consummated their relationship . " The long years of fidelity rewarded at last " was how another of his lovers described the event . Yeats was less sentimental and later remarked that " the tragedy of sexual intercourse is the perpetual virginity of the soul . " The relationship did not develop into a new phase after their night together , and soon afterwards Gonne wrote to the poet indicating that despite the physical consummation , they could not continue as they had been : " I have prayed so hard to have all earthly desire taken from my love for you and dearest , loving you as I do , I have prayed and I am praying still that the bodily desire for me may be taken from you too . " By January 1909 , Gonne was sending Yeats letters praising the advantage given to artists who abstain from sex . Nearly twenty years later , Yeats recalled the night with Gonne in his poem " A Man Young and Old " :

My arms are like the twisted thorn

And yet there beauty lay ;

The first of all the tribe lay there

And did such pleasure take ;

She who had brought great Hector down

And put all Troy to wreck .

In 1896 , Yeats was introduced to Lady Gregory by their mutual friend Edward Martyn . Gregory encouraged Yeats ' nationalism , and convinced him to continue focusing on writing drama . Although he was influenced by French Symbolism , Yeats concentrated on an identifiably Irish content and this inclination was reinforced by his involvement with a new generation of younger and emerging Irish authors . Together with Lady Gregory , Martyn , and other writers including J. M. Synge , Seán O 'Casey , and Padraic Colum , Yeats was one of those responsible for the establishment of the " Irish Literary Revival " movement . Apart from these creative writers , much of the impetus for the Revival came from the work of scholarly translators who were aiding in the discovery of both the ancient sagas and Ossianic poetry and the more recent folk song tradition in Irish . One of the most significant of these was Douglas Hyde , later the first President of Ireland , whose Love Songs of Connacht was widely admired .

= = = Abbey Theatre = = =

In 1899 , Yeats , Lady Gregory , Edward Martyn and George Moore established the Irish Literary Theatre for the purpose of performing Irish and Celtic plays . The ideals of the Abbey were derived from the avant @-@ garde French theatre , which sought to express the " ascendancy of the playwright rather than the actor @-@ manager à l 'anglais . " The group 's manifesto , which Yeats wrote , declared , " We hope to find in Ireland an uncorrupted & imaginative audience trained to listen by its passion for oratory ... & that freedom to experiment which is not found in the theatres of England , & without which no new movement in art or literature can succeed . "

The collective survived for about two years but was not successful . Working with two Irish brothers with theatrical experience , William and Frank Fay , Yeats 's unpaid yet independently wealthy secretary Annie Horniman , and the leading West End actress Florence Farr , the group established the Irish National Theatre Society . Along with Synge , they acquired property in Dublin and on 27 December 1904 opened the Abbey Theatre . Yeats 's play Cathleen Ní Houlihan and Lady Gregory 's Spreading the News were featured on the opening night . Yeats remained involved with the Abbey until his death , both as a member of the board and a prolific playwright . In 1902 , he helped set up the Dun Emer Press to publish work by writers associated with the Revival . This became the Cuala Press in 1904 , and inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement , sought to " find work for Irish hands in the making of beautiful things . " From then until its closure in 1946 , the press — which was run by the poet 's sisters — produced over 70 titles ; 48 of them books by Yeats himself .

In 1909 , Yeats met the American poet Ezra Pound . Pound had travelled to London at least partly to meet the older man , whom he considered " the only poet worthy of serious study . " From that year until 1916 , the two men wintered in the Stone Cottage at Ashdown Forest , with Pound nominally acting as Yeats 's secretary . The relationship got off to a rocky start when Pound arranged for the publication in the magazine Poetry of some of Yeats 's verse with Pound 's own unauthorised alterations . These changes reflected Pound 's distaste for Victorian prosody . A more indirect influence was the scholarship on Japanese Noh plays that Pound had obtained from Ernest Fenollosa 's widow , which provided Yeats with a model for the aristocratic drama he intended to write . The first of his plays modelled on Noh was At the Hawk 's Well , the first draft of which he dictated to Pound in January 1916 .

The emergence of a nationalist revolutionary movement from the ranks of the mostly Roman Catholic lower @-@ middle and working class made Yeats reassess some of his attitudes . In the refrain of " Easter , 1916 " ( " All changed , changed utterly / A terrible beauty is born " ) , Yeats faces his own failure to recognise the merits of the leaders of the Easter Rising , due to his attitude towards their ordinary backgrounds and lives .

= = = Politics = = =

Yeats was an Irish Nationalist at heart , looking for the kind of traditional lifestyle displayed through poems such as ' The Fisherman ' . However , as his life progressed , he sheltered much of his revolutionary spirit and distanced himself from the intense political landscape until 1922 , when he was appointed Senator for the Irish Free State .

In the earlier part of his life , Yeats was a member of the Irish Republican Brotherhood . Due to the escalating tension of the political scene , Yeats distanced himself from the core political activism in the midst of the Easter Rising , even holding back his poetry inspired by the events until 1920 .

= = = Marriage to Georgie Hyde Lees = = =

By 1916 , Yeats was 51 years old and determined to marry and produce an heir . John MacBride had been executed by British forces for his role in the 1916 Easter Rising , and Yeats thought that his widow might remarry . His final proposal to Maud Gonne took place in mid @-@ 1916 . Gonne 's history of revolutionary political activism , as well as a series of personal catastrophes in the previous few years of her life , including chloroform addiction and her troubled marriage to MacBride made her a potentially unsuitable wife and biographer R.F. Foster has observed that Yeats 's last offer was motivated more by a sense of duty than by a genuine desire to marry her .

Yeats proposed in an indifferent manner , with conditions attached , and he both expected and hoped she would turn him down . According to Foster " when he duly asked Maud to marry him , and was duly refused , his thoughts shifted with surprising speed to her daughter . " Iseult Gonne was Maud 's second child with Lucien Millevoye , and at the time was twenty @-@ one years old . She had lived a sad life to this point ; conceived as an attempt to reincarnate her short @-@ lived brother , for the first few years of her life she was presented as her mother 's adopted niece . When Maud told her that she was going to marry , Iseult cried and told her mother that she hated MacBride . At fifteen , she proposed to Yeats . In 1917 he proposed to Iseult , but was rejected .

That September , Yeats proposed to 25 @-@ year @-@ old Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees ( 1892 – 1968 ) , known as George , whom he had met through Olivia Shakespear . Despite warnings from her friends — " George ... you can 't . He must be dead " — Hyde @-@ Lees accepted , and the two were married on 20 October . Their marriage was a success , in spite of the age difference , and in spite of Yeats 's feelings of remorse and regret during their honeymoon . The couple went on to have two children , Anne and Michael . Although in later years he had romantic relationships with other women and possibly affairs , George herself wrote to her husband " When you are dead , people will talk about your love affairs , but I shall say nothing , for I will remember how proud you were . "

During the first years of his marriage , he and George experimented with automatic writing , and George contacted a variety of spirits and guides they called " Instructors " while in a trance . The spirits communicated a complex and esoteric system of philosophy and history , which the couple developed into an exposition using geometrical shapes : phases , cones , and gyres . Yeats devoted much time to preparing this material for publication as A Vision ( 1925 ) . In 1924 , he wrote to his publisher T. Werner Laurie admitting : " I dare say I delude myself in thinking this book my book of books " .

= = = Nobel Prize = = =

In December 1923 , Yeats was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature , " for his always inspired poetry , which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation " . He was aware of the symbolic value of an Irish winner so soon after Ireland had gained independence , and sought to highlight the fact at each available opportunity . His reply to many of the letters of congratulations sent to him contained the words : " I consider that this honour has come to me less as an individual than as a representative of Irish literature , it is part of Europe 's welcome to the Free State . " Yeats used the occasion of his acceptance lecture at the Royal Academy of Sweden to present himself as a standard @-@ bearer of Irish nationalism and Irish cultural independence . As he remarked , " The theatres of Dublin were empty buildings hired by the English travelling companies , and we wanted Irish plays and Irish players . When we thought of these plays we thought of everything that was romantic and poetical , because the nationalism we had called up — the nationalism every generation had called up in moments of discouragement — was romantic and poetical . " The prize led to a significant increase in the sales of his books , as his publishers Macmillan sought to capitalise on the publicity . For the first time he had money , and he was able to repay not only his own debts , but those of his father .

= = = Old age and death = = =

By early 1925 , Yeats ' health had stabilised , and he had completed most of the writing for " A Vision " ( dated 1925 , it actually appeared in January 1926 , when he almost immediately started rewriting it for a second version ) . He had been appointed to the first Irish Senate in 1922 , and was re @-@ appointed for a second term in 1925 . Early in his tenure , a debate on divorce arose , and Yeats viewed the issue as primarily a confrontation between the emerging Roman Catholic ethos and the Protestant minority . When the Roman Catholic Church weighed in with a blanket refusal to consider their anti position , the Irish Times countered that a measure to outlaw divorce would alienate Protestants and " crystallise " the partition of Ireland .

In response , Yeats delivered a series of speeches that attacked the " quixotically impressive " ambitions of the government and clergy , likening their campaign tactics to those of " medieval Spain . " " Marriage is not to us a Sacrament , but , upon the other hand , the love of a man and woman , and the inseparable physical desire , are sacred . This conviction has come to us through ancient philosophy and modern literature , and it seems to us a most sacrilegious thing to persuade two people who hate each other ... to live together , and it is to us no remedy to permit them to part if neither can re @-@ marry . " The resulting debate has been described as one of Yeats 's " supreme public moments " , and began his ideological move away from pluralism towards religious confrontation .

His language became more forceful ; the Jesuit Father Peter Finlay was described by Yeats as a man of " monstrous discourtesy " , and he lamented that , " It is one of the glories of the Church in which I was born that we have put our Bishops in their place in discussions requiring legislation " . During his time in the Senate , Yeats further warned his colleagues : " If you show that this country , southern Ireland , is going to be governed by Roman Catholic ideas and by Catholic ideas alone , you will never get the North ... You will put a wedge in the midst of this nation " . He memorably said of his fellow Irish Protestants , " we are no petty people " .

In 1924 , he chaired a coinage committee charged with selecting a set of designs for the first currency of the Irish Free State . Aware of the symbolic power latent in the imagery of a young state 's currency , he sought a form that was " elegant , racy of the soil , and utterly unpolitical " . When the house finally decided on the artwork of Percy Metcalfe , Yeats was pleased , though he regretted that compromise had led to " lost muscular tension " in the finally depicted images . He retired from the Senate in 1928 because of ill health .

Towards the end of his life — and especially after the Wall Street Crash and Great Depression , which led some to question whether democracy could cope with deep economic difficulty — Yeats seems to have returned to his aristocratic sympathies . During the aftermath of the First World War , he became sceptical about the efficacy of democratic government , and anticipated political reconstruction in Europe through totalitarian rule . His later association with Pound drew him towards Benito Mussolini , for whom he expressed admiration on a number of occasions . He wrote three " marching songs " — never used — for the Irish General Eoin O 'Duffy 's Blueshirts .

At the age of 69 he was ' rejuvenated ' by the Steinach operation which was performed on 6 April 1934 by Norman Haire . For the last five years of his life Yeats found a new vigour evident from both his poetry and his intimate relations with younger women . During this time , Yeats was involved in a number of romantic affairs with , among others , the poet and actress Margot Ruddock , and the novelist , journalist and sexual radical Ethel Mannin . As in his earlier life , Yeats found erotic adventure conducive to his creative energy , and , despite age and ill @-@ health , he remained a prolific writer . In a letter of 1935 , Yeats noted : " I find my present weakness made worse by the strange second puberty the operation has given me , the ferment that has come upon my imagination . If I write poetry it will be unlike anything I have done " . In 1936 , he undertook editorship of the Oxford Book of Modern Verse , 1892 – 1935 .

He died at the Hôtel Idéal Séjour , in Menton , France , on 28 January 1939 . He was buried after a discreet and private funeral at Roquebrune @-@ Cap @-@ Martin . Attempts had been made at Roquebrune to dissuade the family from proceeding with the removal of the remains to Ireland due to the uncertainty of their identity . His body had earlier been exhumed and transferred to the ossuary . Yeats and George had often discussed his death , and his express wish was that he be buried quickly in France with a minimum of fuss . According to George , " His actual words were ' If I die bury me up there [ at Roquebrune ] and then in a year 's time when the newspapers have forgotten me , dig me up and plant me in Sligo ' . " In September 1948 , Yeats ' body was moved to Drumcliff , County Sligo , on the Irish Naval Service corvette LÉ Macha . The person in charge of this operation for the Irish Government was Sean MacBride , son of Maud Gonne MacBride , and then Minister of External Affairs . His epitaph is taken from the last lines of " Under Ben Bulben " , one of his final poems :

Cast a cold Eye

On Life , on Death .

Horseman , pass by !

= = Style = =

Yeats is generally considered one of the twentieth century 's key English language poets . He was a Symbolist poet , in that he used allusive imagery and symbolic structures throughout his career . Yeats chose words and assembled them so that , in addition to a particular meaning , they suggest other abstract thoughts that may seem more significant and resonant . His use of symbols is usually something physical that is both itself and a suggestion of other , perhaps immaterial , timeless qualities .

Unlike other modernists who experimented with free verse , Yeats was a master of the traditional forms . The impact of modernism on his work can be seen in the increasing abandonment of the more conventionally poetic diction of his early work in favour of the more austere language and more direct approach to his themes that increasingly characterises the poetry and plays of his middle period , comprising the volumes In the Seven Woods , Responsibilities and The Green Helmet . His later poetry and plays are written in a more personal vein , and the works written in the last twenty years of his life include mention of his son and daughter , as well as meditations on the experience of growing old . In his poem , " The Circus Animals ' Desertion " , he describes the inspiration for these late works :

Now that my ladder 's gone

I must lie down where all the ladders start

In the foul rag and bone shop of the heart .

During 1929 , he stayed at Thoor Ballylee near Gort in County Galway ( where Yeats had his summer home since 1919 ) for the last time . Much of the remainder of his life was lived outside Ireland , although he did lease Riversdale house in the Dublin suburb of Rathfarnham in 1932 . He wrote prolifically through his final years , and published poetry , plays , and prose . In 1938 , he attended the Abbey for the final time to see the premier of his play Purgatory . His Autobiographies of William Butler Yeats was published that same year . In 1913 , Yeats wrote the preface for the English translation of Rabindranath Tagore 's Gitanjali ( Song Offering ) for which Tagore received Nobel Prize in literature .

While Yeats 's early poetry drew heavily on Irish myth and folklore , his later work was engaged with more contemporary issues , and his style underwent a dramatic transformation . His work can be divided into three general periods . The early poems are lushly pre @-@ Raphaelite in tone , self @-@ consciously ornate , and , at times , according to unsympathetic critics , stilted . Yeats began by writing epic poems such as The Isle of Statues and The Wanderings of Oisin . His other early poems are lyrics on the themes of love or mystical and esoteric subjects . Yeats 's middle period saw him abandon the pre @-@ Raphaelite character of his early work and attempt to turn himself into a Landor @-@ style social ironist .

Critics who admire his middle work might characterize it as supple and muscular in its rhythms and sometimes harshly modernist , while others find these poems barren and weak in imaginative power . Yeats 's later work found new imaginative inspiration in the mystical system he began to work out for himself under the influence of spiritualism . In many ways , this poetry is a return to the vision of his earlier work . The opposition between the worldly minded man of the sword and the spiritually minded man of God , the theme of The Wanderings of Oisin , is reproduced in A Dialogue Between Self and Soul .

Some critics claim that Yeats spanned the transition from the nineteenth century into twentieth @-@ century modernism in poetry much as Pablo Picasso did in painting while others question whether late Yeats has much in common with modernists of the Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot variety .

Modernists read the well @-@ known poem The Second Coming as a dirge for the decline of European civilisation in the mode of Eliot , but later critics have pointed out that this poem is an expression of Yeats 's apocalyptic mystical theories , and thus the expression of a mind shaped by the 1890s . His most important collections of poetry started with The Green Helmet ( 1910 ) and Responsibilities ( 1914 ) . In imagery , Yeats 's poetry became sparer and more powerful as he grew older . The Tower ( 1928 ) , The Winding Stair ( 1933 ) , and New Poems ( 1938 ) contained some of the most potent images in twentieth @-@ century poetry .

Yeats 's mystical inclinations , informed by Hindu Theosophical beliefs and the occult , provided much of the basis of his late poetry , which some critics have judged as lacking in intellectual credibility . The metaphysics of Yeats 's late works must be read in relation to his system of esoteric fundamentals in A Vision ( 1925 ) .

His 1921 poem , " The Second Coming " contains some of literature 's most potent images of the twentieth century .

Turning and turning in the widening gyre

The falcon cannot hear the falconer

Things fall apart ; the centre cannot hold ;

Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world ,

The blood @-@ dimmed tide is loosed , and everywhere

The ceremony of innocence is drowned .

The best lack all conviction , while the worst

Are full of passionate intensity .

Here , Yeats incorporates his ideas on the gyre – a historical cycle of about 2000 years . He first published this idea in A Vision , which predicted the anarchy expected to be released around 2000 years after the birth of Christ .

According to some interpretations " the best " referred to the traditional ruling classes of Europe who were unable to protect the traditional culture of Europe from materialistic mass movements . The concluding lines also refer to Yeats 's belief that history was cyclic , and that his age represented the end of the cycle that began with the rise of Christianity .

And what rough beast , its hour come round at last ,

Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born ?

= The Baby Show =

" The Baby Show " is the ninth episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Michael Engler . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 4 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Rachel Dratch , John Lutz , Bridget Moloney , Maulik Pancholy , Chris Parnell , Keith Powell , and Lonny Ross .

In the episode , Cerie Xerox ( Bowden ) gets engaged so that she can be a " young hot mom " , causing Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) to think about marriage and having a family . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) has trouble dealing with his own domineering mother , who wants to move in with him , and at the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) becomes upset by Josh Girard 's ( Ross ) impression of him .

" The Baby Show " received mixed reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .

= = Plot = =

Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) announces her engagement during a gathering for Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) birthday , and says that she wants to be a " young hot mom " . Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) confronts her own marital and maternal status . She speaks with Jenna about this , and Jenna proceeds to tell all of the men in the office — Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , and J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) — that Liz is looking for someone to get her pregnant . Later that day , Liz sees Cerie in the makeup department getting herself made up . Anna ( Bridget Moloney ) , the makeup artist has her baby at work with her . She asks Liz to hold the baby for a while , so Liz takes the baby for a stroll around the 30 Rock building . Suddenly she realizes that she is no longer in the building , but is now in her apartment . She hurries back to the office with the baby , and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) fixes the situation .

Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is being harassed by his mother over the phone . She calls him repeatedly , with the intention of moving in with him . The situation causes him to exhibit some stress @-@ eating tendencies . At the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and Josh Girard ( Lonny Ross ) begin to hang out , but Tracy gets annoyed of Josh 's impression of him . He demands that Liz fire Josh , but she refuses , so instead she tries to fix the situation , but Tracy threatens to go to Jack if she does not . Josh tries to avoid getting in trouble by calling Tracy and impersonating Jack , and then calling Jack and impersonating Tracy . It is not long before he is caught and Jack and Tracy have their revenge on him . As part of his punishment , Jack forces Josh talk to his mother " Every day , for the rest of your or her life . "

= = Production = =

" The Baby Show " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Michael Engler . This was Burditt 's second writing credit , having written the episode " Jack Meets Dennis " , and was Engler 's first directed episode . " The Baby Show " originally aired on January 4 , 2007 on NBC as the ninth episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series . This was the first of several episodes to make reference to Liz 's desire to become a mother . This plot came to a head in the third season episode " Do @-@ Over " in which Liz attempts to adopt a child .

Rachel Dratch , longtime comedy partner and fellow Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) alumna of series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , the latter who was the show 's head writer from 1999 until 2006 , was originally cast to portray Jenna Maroney . Dratch played the role in the show 's original pilot , but in August 2006 , actress Jane Krakowski was announced as Dratch 's replacement . Executive producer Lorne Michaels announced that while Dratch would not be playing a series regular , she would appear in various episodes in a different role . In the pilot and in this episode , Dratch played Greta Johansen , the The Girlie Show 's cat wrangler . In this episode , Greta tells Liz Lemon that she would be interested in carrying her baby , after hearing that Liz was looking for someone to get her pregnant . Actor Chris Parnell appeared as Dr. Leo Spaceman in " The Baby Show " , in which Liz calls him for fertility purposes . Various other cast members of SNL have appeared on 30 Rock . These cast members include : Fred Armisen , Kristen Wiig , Will Forte , Jason Sudeikis , Molly Shannon , Horatio Sanz , and Jan Hooks . Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of SNL .

= = Reception = =

According to the Nielsen ratings system , " The Baby Show " was watched by 5 @.@ 9 million households , the same as the previous week 's episode " The Break @-@ Up " , in its original American broadcast . It received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .

IGN contributor Robert Canning said the episode " had plenty of standout bits " but that it " represented a major flaw " and " perhaps in the program as a whole " , citing that " [ t ] here seems to be more of an emphasis on comedic ' bits ' rather than comedic ' situations , ' which doesn 't bode well for a situation comedy . " He explained that " The Baby Show " in particular " felt very disjointed , bouncing between jokes more than storylines . It even opened with a Jenna surprise @-@ birthday segment that was funny for what it was , but had absolutely nothing to do with the rest of the show . " Canning gave the episode a 7 @.@ 0 out 10 rating . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich liked that Josh had a story in this episode , and said that his impression of Tracy was " pretty good " . He remarked that " The Baby Show " was " a solid episode , if a bit too theme @-@ y for my broad @-@ sitcom liking . "

= SMS Prinz Adalbert ( 1865 ) =

For other ships of the same name , see SMS Prinz Adalbert

SMS Prinz Adalbert was an ironclad warship of the Prussian Navy , originally ordered by the Confederate States Navy . Prussia purchased the ship during the Second Schleswig War against Denmark , though the vessel was not delivered until after the war . The vessel was designed as an armored ram , but also carried three guns : one 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) and two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) pieces in armored turrets . She was named after Prince Adalbert of Prussia , an early proponent of German naval power .

The ship was poorly constructed and as a result had a very limited service career . She was heavily modified after her delivery to Prussia in 1865 and briefly served with the fleet between 1866 and 1871 . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War in 1870 – 1871 , the ship was assigned as a guard ship in Hamburg . After the war , it was discovered that the internal wood construction was badly rotted ; she was therefore removed from service in October 1871 . Prinz Adalbert was stricken from the naval register in May 1878 and broken up for scrap that year .

= = Design = =

= = = General characteristics and propulsion = = =

Prinz Adalbert was 50 @.@ 48 meters ( 165 @.@ 6 ft ) long at the waterline and 56 @.@ 96 m ( 186 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 9 @.@ 92 m ( 32 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 96 m ( 16 @.@ 3 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 02 m ( 16 @.@ 5 ft ) aft . She was designed to displace 1 @,@ 440 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 420 long tons ; 1 @,@ 590 short tons ) at a normal load and up to 1 @,@ 560 t ( 1 @,@ 540 long tons ; 1 @,@ 720 short tons ) at combat load . The ship 's hull was constructed from transverse frames , and included both iron and timber . The hull was sheathed in copper to protect it from parasites . The Prussians regarded the ship as a poor sea boat . The ram bow caused the vessel to ship a great deal of water . It was , however , responsive to commands from the helm and had a very tight turning radius . Prinz Adalbert had a crew of ten officers and 120 enlisted men .

Prinz Adalbert 's propulsion system was provided by Mazeline , based in Le Havre . The ship was powered by a pair of 2 @-@ cylinder single expansion engines , each of which drove a four @-@ bladed screw that was 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 ft 10 in ) in diameter . The engines were placed in a single engine room . Two trunk boilers , also in a single boiler room , supplied steam to the engines at 1 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 150 kPa ) . Two rudders were fitted side by side to control the vessel . The ship was initially fitted with a 740 square meter ( 2 @,@ 428 sq ft ) brig rig , though this was subsequently replaced with a 677 square meter topsail schooner rig .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

As built , Prinz Adalbert was armed with three rifled 36 pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns . One was placed in an integral five @-@ port bow turret , while the other two were located in a fixed two @-@ port turret amidships . After delivery in 1865 , the French guns were replaced with a 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) L / 19 gun in the bow and two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) L / 25 guns in a revolving turret . The forward gun was supplied with 76 rounds of ammunition while the central guns had 71 shells each . Prinz Adalbert was armored with wrought iron , which was mounted on the wooden hull . The armored belt , which protected the waterline of the ship , was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The turrets were protected by 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) of armor plating on the sides .

= = Service history = =

Prinz Adalbert was built under the cover name Cheops by the French shipyard of the Arman brothers in Bordeaux . Her sister ship , built under the cover name Sphinx , was delivered to the Confederate Navy and renamed CSS Stonewall . The French emperor , Napoleon III , ordered the Arman brothers to sell Cheops to another navy immediately ; Prussia purchased the ship on 25 May 1864 . The Second Schleswig War between Denmark and Prussia and its ally Austria delayed delivery of the ship . Cheops was commissioned into the Prussian fleet on 29 October 1865 as Prinz Adalbert . Along with the turret ship Arminius , Prinz Adalbert was among the first armored vessels acquired by the Prussian Navy . The ship was named for Prince Adalbert of Prussia , one of the creators of the German fleet . While conducting trials off Denmark in June 1865 , Prinz Adalbert ran aground . During the Austro @-@ Prussian War in 1866 , Prinz Adalbert was mobilized in Kiel under the command of Admiral Jachmann , but due to the lack of opponents in the North and Baltic Seas , the ship remained in the Baltic for the duration of the war .

The ship did not last long in service due to her poor construction ; this necessitated significant refurbishment , which was carried out at the naval depot at Geestemünde in 1868 – 1869 . Her armor plating had to be removed and reinstalled , a breakwater was installed at the stern of the ship , and the main mast had to be relocated . She was re @-@ rigged to a schooner rig during this refit . Prinz Adalbert also suffered from severe leaking throughout her short career . In 1870 , shortly before the outbreak of the Franco @-@ Prussian War , the Prussian fleet was mobilized for a training cruise into the Atlantic . Prinz Adalbert and the recently commissioned broadside ironclad König Wilhelm steamed to Plymouth , England , where they rendezvoused with the rest of the fleet . While in Plymouth , the squadron received news of imminent hostilities with France , and made for safety in Wilhelmshaven , arriving on 16 July , three days before the outbreak of war . For the duration of the conflict , Prinz Adalbert served as a harbor guard ship in Hamburg . Her timber hull was found to be rotten in 1871 , which forced her decommissioning . She was removed from service on 23 October 1871 and disarmed in 1875 – 1876 . The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 28 May 1878 . She was broken up that year in Wilhelmshaven , and her engines were removed and reused .

= Battle of Lissa ( 1811 ) =

The Battle of Lissa ( sometimes called the Battle of Vis ; French : Bataille de Lissa ; Italian : Battaglia di Lissa ; Croatian : Viška bitka ) was a naval action fought between a British frigate squadron and a larger squadron of French and Venetian frigates and smaller ships on 13 March 1811 during the Adriatic campaign of the Napoleonic Wars . The engagement was fought in the Adriatic Sea for possession of the strategically important island of Lissa ( also known as Vis ) , from which the British squadron had been disrupting French shipping in the Adriatic . The French needed to control the Adriatic to supply a growing army in the Illyrian Provinces , and consequently dispatched an invasion force in March 1811 consisting of six frigates , numerous smaller craft and a battalion of Italian soldiers .

The French invasion force under Bernard Dubourdieu was met by Captain William Hoste and his four ships based on the island . In the subsequent battle , Hoste sank the French flagship , captured two others , and scattered the remainder of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron . The battle has been hailed as an important British victory , due to both the disparity between the forces and the signal raised by Hoste , a former subordinate of Horatio Nelson . Hoste had raised the message " Remember Nelson " as the French bore down , and had then manoeuvred to drive Dubourdieu 's flagship ashore and scatter his squadron in what has been described as " one of the most brilliant naval achievements of the war " .

= = Background = =

The Napoleonic Wars , the name for a succession of connected conflicts between the armies of the French Emperor Napoleon and his European opponents , were nine years old when the War of the Fifth Coalition ended in 1809 . The Treaty of Schönbrunn that followed the war gave Napoleon possession of the final part of Adriatic coastline not under his control : the Illyrian Provinces . This formalised the control the French had exercised in Illyria since 1805 and over the whole Adriatic Sea since the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 . In the Treaty of Tilsit , Russia had granted France control over the Septinsular Republic and withdrawn their own forces from the region , allowing Napoleon freedom of action in the Adriatic . At Schönbrunn , Napoleon made the Illyrian Provinces part of metropolitan France and therefore under direct French rule , unlike the neighbouring Kingdom of Italy which was nominally independent but in reality came under his personal rule . Thus , the Treaty of Schönbrunn formalised Napoleon 's control of almost the entire coastline of the Adriatic and , if unopposed , would allow him to transport troops and supplies to the Balkans . The French army forming in the Illyrian Provinces was possibly intended for an invasion of the Ottoman Empire in conjunction with the Russians ; the two countries had signed an agreement to support one another against the Ottomans at Tilsit .

To disrupt the preparations of this army , the British Royal Navy , which had controlled most of the Mediterranean since the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , seized the Dalmatian Island of Lissa in 1807 and used it as a base for raiding the coastal shipping of Italy and Illyria . These operations captured dozens of ships and caused panic and disruption to French strategy in the region . To counter this , the French government started a major shipbuilding programme in the Italian seaports , particularly Venice , and despatched frigates of their own to protect their shipping . Commodore Bernard Dubourdieu 's Franco @-@ Venetian forces were unable to bring the smaller British force under William Hoste to a concerted action , where Dubourdieu 's superior numbers might prove decisive . Instead , the British and French frigate squadrons engaged in a campaign of raids and counter @-@ raids during 1810 .

In October 1810 , Dubourdieu landed 700 Italian soldiers on Lissa while Hoste searched in vain for the French squadron in the Southern Adriatic . The island had been left in the command of two midshipmen , James Lew and Robert Kingston , who withdrew the entire population of the island into the central mountains along with their supplies . The Italian troops were left in possession of the deserted main town , Port St. George . The French and Italians burnt several vessels in the harbour and captured others , but remained on the island for no more than seven hours , retreating before Hoste returned . The remainder of the year was quiet , the British squadron gaining superiority after being reinforced by the third @-@ rate ship of the line HMS Montagu .

Early in 1811 the raiding campaigns began again , and British attacks along the Italian coast prompted Dubourdieu to mount a second invasion of Lissa . Taking advantage of the temporary absence of Montagu , Dubourdieu assembled six frigates and numerous smaller craft and embarked over 500 Italian soldiers under Colonel Alexander Gifflenga . The squadron amassed by Dubourdieu not only outnumbered the British in terms of men and ships , it was also twice as heavy in weight of shot . Dubourdieu planned to overwhelm Hoste 's frigate squadron and then invade and capture the island , which would eradicate the British threat in the Adriatic for months to come .

= = Battle = =

Dubourdieu ( as commodore ) led a squadron consisting of six frigates ( four of 40 guns and two of 32 guns ) , a 16 @-@ gun brig , two schooners , one xebec , and two gunboats . Three of his ships were from the French Navy , and the others from the Navy of the Kingdom of Italy . In addition the squadron carried 500 Italian soldiers . In the absence of Montagu , Hoste 's squadron consisted of three frigates ( one of 38 guns and two of 32 guns ) and one 22 @-@ gun post ship . The island of Lissa itself was defended by a small number of local troops under the command of two midshipmen .

Dubourdieu 's squadron was spotted approaching the island of Lissa at 03 : 00 on 12 March 1811 by Captain Gordon in HMS Active , which had led the British squadron from Port St George on a cruise off Ancona . Turning west , the British squadron awaited the French approach in line ahead , sailing along the north coast of the island within half a mile of the shoreline . By 06 : 00 , Dubourdieu was approaching the British line from the north @-@ east in two divisions , leading in Favorite at the head of the windward or western division . Dubourdieu hoped to pass ahead of Active at the head of the British line and cross it further east with Danaé , which led the leeward division . Dubourdieu intended to break the British line in two places and destroy the British squadron in the crossfire .

Over the next three hours the squadrons continued to close , light winds restricting them to a little over three knots . A protege of Nelson , Hoste recalled the inspirational effect of Nelson 's signal before the Battle of Trafalgar and raised his own : " Remember Nelson " , which was greeted with wild cheering from the squadron . As he closed with Hoste 's force , Dubourdieu realised that he would be unable to successfully cross Active 's bow due to the British ship 's speed , and would also be unable to break through their line due to the British ships ' close proximity to one another . He instead sought to attack the second ship in the British line , Hoste 's flagship HMS Amphion . Dubourdieu possessed not only a significant advantage in ships but also in men , the Italian soldiers aboard giving him the opportunity to overwhelm the British crews if he could board their frigates successfully . The first shots of the battle were fired at 09 : 00 , as the British used their wider field of fire to attack the leading French ships , Favorite and Danaé , unopposed for several minutes . The French squadron held their fire , Dubourdieu gathering his troops and sailors into Favorite 's bow in order to maximise the effect of his initial attack once his flagship came into contact with Amphion .

Hoste was aware of Dubourdieu 's intentions and the French advantage in numbers , and consequently ordered a large 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) howitzer on Amphion 's deck triple @-@ shotted until the cannon contained over 750 musket balls Once Favorite was within a few yards of Amphion 's stern , Hoste gave permission for the gun to be fired and the cannon 's discharge instantly swept the bow of Favorite clear of the French and Italian boarding party . Among the dozens killed and wounded were Dubourdieu and all the frigate 's officers , leaving Colonel Gifflenga in command of Favorite . As Favorite and Amphion closed with one another , firing continued between the British rear and the French leeward division , led by Danaé . Several of the French ships came at an angle at which they could bring their guns to bear on HMS Cerberus , the rearmost British ship , and both sides were firing regular broadsides at one another .

= = = Hoste 's manoeuvre = = =

Following the death of Dubourdieu , Captain Péridier on Flore ordered the French and Venetian ships to attack the British line directly . The battered Favorite led with an attempt to round Amphion and rake her before catching her in crossfire , as had been Dubourdieu 's original intention . The remainder of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron followed this lead and attempted to bring their superior numbers to bear on the British squadron . Hoste was prepared for this eventuality and immediately ordered his ships to wear , turning south and then east to reverse direction . This movement threw the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron into confusion and as a result the squadron 's formation became disorganised . Favorite , which had lost almost its entire complement of officers , was unable to respond quickly enough to the manoeuvre and drove onto the rocky coastline in confusion , becoming a total wreck .

Thrown into further confusion by the loss of Favorite , the French and Venetian formation began to break up and the British squadron was able to pull ahead of their opponents ; the leading French ships Flore and Bellona succeeded in only reaching Amphion , which was now at the rear of the British line . Amphion found herself caught between the two frigates and this slowed the British line enough that the French eastern division , led by Danaé , was able to strike at HMS Volage , now the leading British ship after overtaking Cerberus during the turn . Volage was much smaller than her opponent but was armed with 32 @-@ pounder carronades , short range guns that caused such damage to Danaé that the French ship was forced to haul off and reengage from a longer range . The strain of combat at this greater distance ruptured Volage 's short @-@ ranged carronades and left the ship much weakened , with only a single gun with which to engage the enemy .

= = = Chase = = =

Behind Volage and Danaé , the Venetian Corona had engaged Cerberus in a close range duel , during which Cerberus took heavy damage but inflicted similar injuries on the Italian ship . This exchange continued until the arrival of Active caused the Danaé , Corona and Carolina to sheer off and retreat to the east . To the rear , Amphion , succeeded in closing with and raking Flore , and caused such damage that within five minutes the French ship 's officers threw the French colours overboard in surrender . Captain Péridier had been seriously wounded in the action , and took no part in Flore 's later movements . Amphion then attacked Bellona and in an engagement that lasted until 12 : 00 , forced the Italian ship 's surrender . During this combat , the small ship Principessa Augusta fired on Amphion from a distance , until the frigate was able to turn a gun on them and drive them off . Hoste sent a punt to take possession of Bellona but due to the damage suffered was unable to launch a boat to seize Flore . Realising Amphion 's difficulty , the officers of Flore , who had made hasty repairs during the conflict between Amphion and Bellona , immediately set sail for the French harbour on Lesina ( Hvar ) , despite having already surrendered .

Active , the only British ship still in fighting condition , took up pursuit of the retreating enemy and at 12 : 30 caught the Corona in the channel between Lissa and the small island of Spalmadon . The frigates manoeuvred around one another for the next hour ; captains Gordon and Pasqualigo each seeking the best position from which to engage . The frigates engaged in combat at 13 @.@ 45 , Active forcing Corona 's surrender 45 minutes later after a fire broke out aboard the Italian ship . Active too had suffered severely and as the British squadron was not strong enough to continue the action by attacking the remaining squadron in its protected harbour on Lesina , the battle came to an end . The survivors of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron had all reached safety ; Carolina and Danaé had used the conflict between Active and Corona to cover their escape while Flore had indicated to each British ship she passed that she had surrendered and was in British possession despite the absence of a British officer on board . Once Flore was clear of the British squadron she headed for safety , reaching the batteries of Lesina shortly after her Carolina and Danaé and ahead of the limping British pursuit . The smaller craft of the Franco @-@ Venetian squadron scattered during the battle 's final stages and reached Lesina independently .

= = = Conclusion = = =

Although Favorite was wrecked , over 200 of her crew and soldier @-@ passengers had reached the land and , having set fire to their ship , prepared to march on Port St. George under the leadership of Colonel Gifflenga . Two British midshipmen left in command of the town organised the British and indigenous population into a defensive force and marched to meet Gifflenga . The junior British officers informed Gifflenga that the return of the British squadron would bring overwhelming numbers of sailors , marines and naval artillery to bear on his small force and that if he surrendered immediately he could expect better terms . Gifflenga recognised that his position was untenable and capitulated . At Port St. George , the Venetian gunboat Lodola sneaked unnoticed into the harbour and almost captured a Sicilian privateer , Vincitore . The raider was driven off by the remaining garrison of the town without the prize , while attempting to manoeuvre her out of the bay .

In the seas off Lissa , British prize crews were making strenuous efforts to protect their captures ; Corona was heavily on fire in consequence of her engagement with Active and the British prize crew fought the blaze alongside their Italian prisoners . The fire was eventually brought under control , but not without the death of five men and several more seriously burnt when the blazing mainmast collapsed . Problems were also experienced aboard Bellona , where Captain Duodo planned to ignite the powder magazine and destroy the ship following its surrender . Duodo had been mortally wounded in the action , and so ordered his second in command to light the fuse . The officer promised to do so , but instead handed control of the magazine to the British prize crew when they arrived . Duodo died still believing that the fuse had been lit .

Hoste also remained at sea , cruising in the battered Amphion beyond the range of the shore batteries on Lesina . Hoste was furious at the behaviour of Flore 's officers and sent a note into Lesina demanding that they give up the ship as indicated by its earlier surrender . In surrendering and then escaping , the officers of Flore had breached an informal rule of naval conflict under which a ship that voluntarily struck its flag submitted to an opponent in order to prevent continued loss of life among its crew . Flore had been able to pass unmolested through the British squadron only because she was recognised to have surrendered , and to abuse this custom in this way was considered , in the Royal Navy especially , to be a dishonourable act . The French at Lesina did not respond to Hoste 's note , and the British squadron was eventually forced to return to Lissa to effect repairs .

= = Aftermath = =

Casualties of the action were heavy on both sides . The British ships suffered 190 killed or wounded in the battle and a number lost afterwards in the fire aboard Corona . Captains Hoste and Hornby were both badly wounded and the entire British squadron was in need of urgent repair before resuming the campaign . In the French and Italian squadron the situation was even worse , although precise losses are not known . At least 150 had been killed aboard Favorite either in the action or the wreck , and the 200 survivors of her crew and passengers were all made prisoner . Bellona had suffered at least 70 casualties and Corona 's losses were also severe . Among the ships that escaped less is known of their casualties , but all required repair and reinforcement before the campaign could resume . Total French and Italian losses are estimated at no less than 700 . Losses among the officers of the combined squadron were especially high , with Commodore Dubourdieu and captains Meillerie and Duodo killed and Péridier seriously wounded .

The immediate aftermath saw renewed efforts by Hoste to induce the French to hand over Flore , efforts that were rebuffed by the captain of the Danaé , who had assumed command of the French squadron . The surviving French and Venetian ships were initially laid up in Ragusa ( Dubrovnik ) awaiting supplies to continue the campaign , but a separate British squadron discovered and sank the supply ship at Parenzo ( Poreč ) , necessitating a full French withdrawal from the area . In Britain , Hoste 's action was widely praised ; the squadron 's first lieutenants were all promoted to commander and the captains all presented with a commemorative medal . Nearly four decades later the battle was also recognized in the issue of the clasp Lissa to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded to all British participants still living in 1847 . On their arrival in Britain , Corona and Bellone were repaired and later purchased for service in the Royal Navy , the newly built Corona being named HMS Daedalus and Bellone becoming the troopship HMS Dover . Daedalus was commissioned in 1812 under Captain Murray Maxwell , but served less than a year ; wrecked off Ceylon in July 1813 .

British numerical superiority in the region was assured ; when French reinforcements for the Adriatic departed Toulon on 25 March they were hunted down and driven back to France by Captain Robert Otway in HMS Ajax before they had even passed Corsica . Throughout the remainder of 1811 however , British and French frigate squadrons continued to spar across the Adriatic , the most significant engagement being the action of 29 November 1811 , in which a second French squadron was destroyed . The action had significant long @-@ term effects ; the destruction of one of the best @-@ trained and best @-@ led squadrons in the French Navy and the death of the aggressive Dubourdieu ended the French ability to strike into the Balkans against the Ottoman Empire .

= = Order of battle = =

Key

A † symbol indicates that the officer was killed during the action or subsequently died of wounds received .

The ships are ordered in the sequence in which they formed up for battle .

= British Royal Navy , =

French Navy , = Navy of the Kingdom of Italy .

= Jean @-@ Mathieu @-@ Philibert Sérurier =

Jean @-@ Mathieu @-@ Philibert Sérurier , 1st Comte Sérurier ( 8 December 1742 – 21 December 1819 ) led a division in the War of the First Coalition and became a Marshal of France under Emperor Napoleon . He was born into the minor nobility and in 1755 joined the Laon militia which was soon sent to fight in the Seven Years ' War . After transferring into the regular army as an ensign , he was wounded at Warburg in 1760 . He fought in the Spanish @-@ Portuguese War in 1762 . He married in 1779 after a promotion to captain . A newly minted major in 1789 , the French Revolution sped up promotion so that he was colonel of the regiment in 1792 . After leading Army of Italy troops in a number of actions , he became a general of brigade in 1793 and a general of division the following year .

Sérurier led a division in Napoleon Bonaparte 's Italian campaign of 1796 , except during bouts of illness . He especially distinguished himself at the Battle of Mondovì and the Siege of Mantua . In 1799 , he again fought in Italy during the War of the Second Coalition at Verona , Magnano and Cassano , being captured in the latter action . After being paroled , he supported Napoleon 's rise to political power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire in late 1799 . The apex of his career occurred on 19 May 1804 when Napoleon appointed him a Marshal of the Empire . His active military career over , Sérurier served in the French Senate and was ennobled by Napoleon . In 1814 as the First French Empire was crumbling , he burned all the many flags captured by the French armies . His troops called him the " Virgin of Italy " for his rigorous standards of discipline and honesty in an army known for generals who enriched themselves by plundering the conquered territories . His surname is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe , on Column 24 .

= = Early life = =

Sérurier was born at Laon on 8 December 1742 , the son of Mathieu @-@ Guillaume Sérurier . The family formed part of the minor provincial nobility , his father holding the title Seigneur de Sort and the job of mole @-@ catcher to the king 's breeding stud . After 1750 his father 's title became Seigneur de Saint @-@ Gobert . Sérurier got a good education and was of sober character . He received a commission as lieutenant in the Laon militia battalion on 25 March 1755 , his uncle being the unit 's commander . He transferred to the Soissons militia battalion on 12 June 1758 . When he heard that the Laon battalion was called to serve in the Seven Years ' War he switched back to his old unit on 30 November 1758 . After sustaining a bayonet wound , he transferred into the Mazarin Infantry Regiment as a cadet on 1 October 1759 . At the Battle of Warburg on 31 July 1760 , Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick surprised the French under Louis Nicolas Victor de Felix d 'Ollieres , Count Du Muy . While defending a critical post , Sérurier was hit on the right side of his face by a bullet , which broke his jaw and left a lasting scar . The injury also cost him most of his teeth . He was promoted to second lieutenant on 25 April 1762 .

Sérurier 's regiment was ordered to Bayonne where it joined a force under Charles Juste de Beauvau , Prince of Craon . These troops entered Spain on 3 June 1762 to take part in the Spanish @-@ Portuguese War . The first battalion , in which Sérurier served , participated in the siege of Almeida which fell to the Franco @-@ Spanish on 25 August 1762 . The unit returned to France in November that year and after the Treaty of Paris was renamed the Beauce Regiment . After the peace Sérurier was demoted to sous @-@ lieutenant and spent six years as a drill instructor . He was promoted to second lieutenant again on 21 February 1767 and was shipped to Corsica in 1770 . The Republic of Genoa transferred Corsica to France in 1764 but Pasquale Paoli led an insurrection against the occupiers which resulted in a few skirmishes . His superiors called Sérurier an " excellent officer " but he was not promoted to first lieutenant until 28 February 1778 . A year later he was promoted to captain . He married Louise @-@ Marie @-@ Madeleine Itasse on 3 July 1779 . Her father was the Registrar of the bail bondsmen of Laon .

On 29 July 1781 Sérurier was awarded the Order of Saint @-@ Louis . On 10 May 1782 he assumed the rank of captain commandant and on 1 June 1783 he took command of the regiment 's Chasseur company . Irked by the lack of promotion , he asked to retire on pension on 8 September 1788 . His commanding officer argued to retain such a good officer and Sérurier transferred into the Médoc Regiment as a major on 17 May 1789 . He became lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1791 . Since the French Revolution the garrison at Perpignan became agitated so the regiment was sent there to calm down the other troops . Instead , the Médoc Regiment itself became affected by the troubles . On 23 July 1791 , fearing that Sérurier was about to leave the country with the regiment 's colors , a body of soldiers removed them from his quarters . In January 1792 , 19 officers from the regiment emigrated to Spain . A story existed that Sérurier and a companion tried to flee to Spain but were nearly caught by a patrol and only his companion made it across the border . In June 1792 the Médoc , renamed the 70th Infantry Regiment , marched to the Camp of Tournoux in the Alps . Sérurier became the commanding officer of the 70th with the rank of colonel on 7 August 1792 .

= = French Revolutionary Wars = =

= = = 1792 – 94 = = =

On 29 September 1792 , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man division under Jacques Bernard d 'Anselme crossed the Var River and occupied Nice , then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia . This force was part of the Army of the Midi which was split on 1 October 1792 , with the troops on the Alpine front becoming the Army of the Alps . On 7 November d 'Anselme 's division became the Army of Italy , which included the 70th Regiment . At about this time Sérurier was arrested for harboring royalist sentiments , but Paul Barras got his rank restored . On 19 May 1793 , the new army commander Gaspard Jean @-@ Baptiste Brunet sent him with a column to occupy Saint @-@ Sauveur @-@ sur @-@ Tinée . Sérurier moved north up the Tinée River and captured Isola on the 21st . With 3 @,@ 000 troops , he attacked the Col de Raus west of Belvédère but was repulsed on 8 June . During the First Battle of Saorgio he led a major attack on the Massif de l 'Authion on 12 June , but it was defeated with losses of 280 dead and 1 @,@ 252 wounded . At the end of July Brunet made another assault on Massif de l 'Authion while Sérurier attacked the Col de Raus again but both efforts failed . The representatives on mission were pleased with Sérurier 's performance and nominated him general of brigade on 25 June ; the promotion was confirmed on 22 August 1793 . Meanwhile , Brunet was arrested and executed on 15 November 1793 .

In September 1793 the Sardinian army tried to recapture the County of Nice . The French right flank held its ground , but on the left Sérurier gave up the east bank of the Vésubie River and fell back to Utelle on 10 September . Jacques François Dugommier took command of the left wing three days later and Sérurier took charge of the right wing of the Army of the Alps at Entrevaux . Sérurier was arrested for retreating too much and for being of noble blood . He was reinstated after the representatives on mission and the War Minister Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte termed the charges as unimportant while the citizens of Laon sent a petition vouching for his patriotism . After the fighting petered out in the December snow , Sérurier 's division was transferred to form the left flank of the Army of Italy . In January 1794 he was denounced for listening to aristocratic songs and for not caring about desertions , but Bouchotte and the representatives brushed aside these charges . Under army commander Pierre Jadart Dumerbion a French offensive began on 5 April and Oneglia was seized . André Masséna commanded the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ man main column on the right wing while François Macquard directed the center division and Pierre Dominique Garnier led the left division . Sérurier , who commanded Garnier 's left brigade , reoccupied Isola and went on to seize the Colle delle Finestre against weak resistance . In the Second Battle of Saorgio on 24 April 1794 , Masséna defeated Michelangelo Alessandro Colli @-@ Marchi , the French inflicting 2 @,@ 800 casualties on the Sardinians while losing 1 @,@ 500 killed and wounded . In the aftermath , Macquard occupied Saorge and the Col de Tende while Masséna held Ormea in the Tanaro valley . At the end of June , Sérurier took part in a small operation in the Valle Stura di Demonte .

In September 1794 the Sardinians and Austrians advanced to Carcare , threatening to cut the French link to Genoa , where supplies were obtained . Advised by his artillery chief Napoleon Bonaparte , Dumerbion struck back on 15 September . While Sérurier feinted at Vinadio on the left and Macquard feinted at Limone Piemonte in the center , Masséna mounted the main thrust on the right . In the First Battle of Dego on 21 September , 18 @,@ 000 French troops beat Olivier , Count of Wallis and 8 @,@ 000 Austro @-@ Sardinians . Though the allies escaped encirclement , the French later seized the port of Vado Ligure . Dumerbion and Garnier both recommended Sérurier 's promotion and he was nominated general of division on 22 December 1794 . Given command of the right flank division in place of Masséna who was sick , his brigadiers were Barthélemy Catherine Joubert and Sextius Alexandre François de Miollis .

= = = 1795 = = =

On 4 November 1794 , Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer replaced the ill Dumerbion as army commander . Schérer wrote that Sérurier was " a very good officer , devoted to his duties ; his patriotism has been attacked in the time of Hébert and his consorts ; he has emerged victorious from all these charges . In my opinion he is worthy of the post he holds on the right of the active army . " Sérurier 's promotion was not confirmed until 13 June 1795 . The Austro @-@ Sardinian commander Joseph Nikolaus De Vins attacked the French lines on 24 June . Most of the assaults failed but since a few positions were captured and could not be retaken , the French withdrew from Vado to Borghetto Santo Spirito by 5 July . In the new line , Masséna with 14 @,@ 000 troops held the coast while Sérurier and 6 @,@ 000 men defended Ormea . On 5 July Sérurier reported that a key position had been partly lost , causing consternation at army headquarters . Later that day he reported that one of his brigadiers , Louis Pelletier , retook the position . Curiously , this incident did not count against him ; instead Sérurier was given command of the left wing in place of Garnier . On the evening of 31 August , his headquarters at Saint @-@ Martin @-@ Vésubie was surrounded by the enemy . Though only 318 soldiers were at hand , Sérurier resisted successfully until early the following morning when he attacked and scattered his attackers , capturing 86 of them . The enemy commander , the émigré Chevalier Bonnaud committed suicide . Not only was he a good soldier , but Sérurier 's troops liked him , he treated the local civilians with decency and his diplomacy allowed him to serve as a link between his army and the neighboring Army of the Alps . François Christophe Kellermann then in command of both armies , wrote , " It is to the coolness and courage of this excellent officer that was due the success of this glorious day . "

On 23 – 24 November 1795 , the Battle of Loano was fought . Schérer deployed Pierre Augereau with 6 @,@ 961 troops on the right , Masséna with 13 @,@ 276 men in the center and Sérurier with 5 @,@ 155 soldiers on the left . The plan called for Sérurier to pin down the Allied right while Masséna broke through the center and rolled up the Allied left with the help of Augereau . By luck , Wallis replaced De Vins in command of the Allies on 22 November . That day Sérurier 's attack on the Colle San Bernardo was repulsed but it tied down Colli 's division . The plan was carried out with success . Masséna and Augereau both defeated the forces in front of them . The Austro @-@ Sardinians suffered losses of 3 @,@ 000 killed and wounded , 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , 48 guns and five colors while French losses numbered 2 @,@ 500 killed and wounded and 500 captured . Snow soon compelled both armies to withdraw into winter quarters . The French soldiers were in a wretched state , with very little food ; they became insubordinate and the generals quarreled . Sérurier got into a dispute with Schérer and nearly left the army . On 18 March 1796 Sérurier 's division refused to obey orders .

= = = 1796 = = =

After the winter campaign , Schérer placed the divisions in the positions where they would start the 1796 campaign . From right to left , they were Masséna with two divisions on the coast , Augereau on the Bormida River , Sérurier on the Tanaro , Macquard at the Col de Tende and Garnier on the far left . On 27 March 1796 Bonaparte arrived to take command of the Army of Italy . At this date Sérurier was 53 years old with 40 years of military service . He applied to retire on a pension due to his age , health and wounds , but after meeting Bonaparte he decided to stay . Masséna later wrote that Bonaparte did not impress his generals at first . Then the new commander put on his hat and sharply questioned them ; the generals went away believing that they had a true leader at last . Bonaparte 's plan was to mass over 20 @,@ 000 men under Masséna and Augereau near Carcare where the Austrian and Sardinian armies linked . Sérurier 's division would join the others near Ceva as they moved west . His 9 @,@ 448 @-@ strong division consisted of the 39th , 69th and 85th Line Infantry Demi @-@ brigades .

In the Montenotte Campaign , the French won victories at Montenotte , Millesimo and Dego between 11 and 15 April . In the Battle of Ceva Colli 's Sardinians repelled Augereau 's attack but they retreated to the west when Sérurier 's division appeared . Colli detailed Jean @-@ Gaspard Dichat de Toisinge with 8 @,@ 000 Sardinians and 15 guns to defend San Michele Mondovi against a French attack . On 19 April , Sérurier formed his division into two 3 @,@ 000 @-@ man brigades under Pascal Antoine Fiorella and Jean Joseph Guieu plus a reserve under his personal command . The Corsaglia River was unfordable due to the spring thaw and the French attack soon stalled . However , some of Guieu 's skirmishers found an unguarded footbridge and made a lodgement on the west bank . The French captured San Michele but the unpaid , hungry soldiers went on a looting spree . Led by a company of Swiss troops , Colli organized a counterattack which drove Sérurier 's division out of the town , though Guieu 's brigade maintained its bridgehead . The repulse cost the French about 600 casualties while the Sardinians lost 300 .

Colli 's troops withdrew toward Mondovì on the night of 20 April , but the move was soon discovered by the French who caught up with them at Vicoforte at mid @-@ morning . In the Battle of Mondovì on 21 April , the brigades of Fiorella , Guieu and Elzéar Auguste Cousin de Dommartin fought their way into Vicoforte and routed the Sardinians . Dichat was killed and Henri Christian Michel de Stengel mortally wounded . Mondovì surrendered in the late afternoon . There was no looting but large requisitions of food were made from the town . Auguste de Marmont recalled of Sérurier , " To form his men into three columns , put himself at the head of the central one , throw out a cloud of skirmishers , and march at the double , sword in hand , ten paces in front of his column : that is what he did . A fine spectacle , that of an old general , resolute and decided , whose vigor was revived by the presence of the enemy . I accompanied him in this attack , the success of which was complete " . On 28 April the Armistice of Cherasco was signed , taking Sardinia out of the war .

In May 1796 , Bonaparte detailed Sérurier to demonstrate with his division at Valenza while the rest of the army crossed the Po River near Piacenza . After the Battle of Lodi , Bonaparte divided the Army of Italy into a cavalry reserve and four divisions including one under Sérurier . During the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May , his division feinted at the upper Mincio River while other troops made the main thrust against Johann Peter Beaulieu 's army at Valeggio sul Mincio . On 1 June , the 4 @,@ 700 @-@ strong division took position on the north side of the fortress of Mantua . On 8 June , Sérurier , artillerist Augustin de Lespinasse and engineer Francois , marquis de Chasseloup @-@ Laubat reconnoitered the fortress . Two days later Bonaparte put Sérurier in charge of the Siege of Mantua with about 8 @,@ 000 soldiers . Soon after , Bonaparte wrote to the French Directory , " I shall not speak to you of the conduct of the intrepid General Sérurier , whose military reputation is established , and to whom we owe , amongst other things since the campaign began , the victory of Mondovi " . Because of the approach of Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser 's Austrian army , the siege was raised on 31 July , the heavy cannons were buried and the division withdrew behind the Oglio River . Sérurier then became feverish with malaria , so that Fiorella and Gaspard Amédée Gardanne directed the division during the Battle of Castiglione . The general returned to France to recuperate . On 14 August 1796 Bonaparte wrote a confidential assessment of his generals to the Directory . In it he wrote , " Sérurier , fights like a private , takes nothing on himself , firm ; has not a good enough opinion of his troops , is ill " .

= = = 1797 = = =

After his recovery Sérurier took command at Livorno ( Leghorn ) but he was thrilled to get the order to return to the army . On 27 December 1796 he resumed command of the Mantua siege corps , replacing Charles Edward Jennings de Kilmaine who had also become ill . The corps consisted of 10 @,@ 000 men in two divisions under Thomas @-@ Alexandre Dumas and Claude Dallemagne . On 14 – 15 January 1797 Bonaparte defeated József Alvinczi in the Battle of Rivoli , inflicting terrible losses on the Austrians . Meanwhile , a relief column under Giovanni Marchese di Provera reached the north side of Mantua and on 16 January there was a battle . The Mantua garrison launched a sortie led by Karl Philipp Sebottendorf that made progress at first but was beaten back by reinforcements under Claude Perrin Victor . At the same time , Sérurier and 1 @,@ 500 troops at La Favorita Palace blocked Provera from joining the garrison . By noon Provera was hemmed in by French reinforcements and at 2 : 00 pm he surrendered to Sérurier with 7 @,@ 000 men , 22 field guns , a pontoon train and a food convoy . Afterward , Sérurier got into a dispute with Dumas , who had commanded armies but was now a mere division commander . Angry that his contributions were not recognized , Dumas sent an abusive note to the army chief of staff Louis @-@ Alexandre Berthier and was demoted by Bonaparte . On 30 January , Wurmser began negotiations with Sérurier for the capitulation of Mantua ; this was signed on 2 February 1797 by the two generals . The articles permitted Wurmser , his staff , his generals , 700 soldiers and six artillery pieces to go free , but 16 @,@ 324 men of the garrison became prisoners of war .

For the spring 1797 campaign , Bonaparte organized his army into eight divisions of which the 3rd Division under Sérurier counted 6 @,@ 543 soldiers . In the Battle of Valvasone on 16 March , Bonaparte drove back the rear guard of Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen . During the operation Sérurier 's division was in reserve , but in the subsequent advance it was on the right flank while Jean @-@ Baptiste Bernadotte 's division was in the center and Guieu 's division was on the left flank . On 19 March Bernadotte attacked Gradisca d 'Isonzo and was repulsed . After Sérurier 's division swung around the south side of Gradisca and gained the heights in the rear of the town , the garrison surrendered . The French captured four battalions of Austrian infantry totaling 2 @,@ 500 soldiers , 10 guns and eight colors . While Bernadotte continued advancing to the east , Guieu 's division followed by Sérurier turned north in pursuit of a column under Adam Bajalics von Bajahaza . At this time Sérurier fell ill and command of his division passed to Louis François Jean Chabot . Trapped between Massena and Guieu , Bajalics was forced to surrender with 4 @,@ 000 men in the Battle of Tarvis . After recovering , Sérurier resumed command of his division at Graz on 20 April and after the Treaty of Leoben the unit withdrew from Austria and took position at Sacile .

On 3 June 1797 Bonaparte notified the French government that he was sending Sérurier with 22 captured colors . He wrote that he , " has in the last two campaigns displayed as much talent as bravery and patriotism ... General Sérurier is extremely severe with himself : he is sometimes so with others . A strict friend of discipline , and of the order and virtues most necessary to the maintenance of society , he disdains intrigue and intriguers , which has sometimes made him enemies amongst those men who are always ready to accuse of unpatriotism any one who wishes to see them submitted to their superiors " . He was received in Paris by a large audience of government officials on 28 June who he assured of his loyalty and that of his soldiers . He was back with his division on 9 August and missed the Coup of 18 Fructidor . A little later Louis Desaix described him , " tall , 55 years old ... honest , estimable in every respect , considered to be an aristocrat but supported by General Bonaparte , who values and admires him " . Venice was occupied by French troops but by the recent treaty was to be handed over to Austria . Bonaparte ordered Sérurier to carry out the unpleasant job of removing all military stores and ships as well as all works of art . Over the objection of the Austrians and the inhabitants , the city was thoroughly plundered . Although he was the target of anger and abuse , Sérurier did not personally benefit from the looting and did his best to prevent others from doing so . He confiscated the salt and biscuits in the Venice arsenal but that was to raise money to pay his soldiers . In the same army , Masséna and Augereau were notorious for looting for personal gain , and many lesser officers also did it . Sérurier earned such a reputation for honesty that his soldiers called him the " Virgin of Italy " .

= = = 1798 – 99 = = =

Early in 1798 Sérurier temporarily commanded the divisions left in Italy where he had his hands full trying to calm unpaid soldiers who were on the verge of mutiny . Bonaparte did not take him on the French campaign in Egypt and Syria because he was too old . Sometime after February 1798 , he was ordered to the Army of England where he made his headquarters at Rennes . On 15 September he became Inspector General of the troops in the interior of France . On 5 November 1798 he transferred back to Italy to serve under Army of Italy commander Joubert . Sérurier was ordered by Joubert to occupy Livorno , but instructions soon changed to invade the Republic of Lucca . His cavalry entered Lucca on 22 December 1798 and extorted large sums of cash and clothing for the army 's use . Sérurier 's 6 @,@ 000 infantry arrived at the city on 2 January 1799 . After declaring that Lucca was a French @-@ style republic on 25 January , he handed it over to Miollis on 5 February and returned to Mantua . At that time , the Army of Italy was led by Schérer who gave Sérurier command of the Tyrol Division with a paper strength of 8 @,@ 328 men .

The outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition saw Schérer with 43 @,@ 000 troops facing Paul Kray with 50 @,@ 700 Austrians near Verona and 24 @,@ 551 Russians under Alexander Suvorov marching up in support . Hoping to maul Kray before his Russians allies arrived , Schérer opted to attack . On 26 March 1799 in the Battle of Verona , the French gained a success at Pastrengo in the north , fought to a draw in front of Verona and were drubbed in the south at Legnago . In the north Sérurier drove the Austrians from Rivoli Veronese . On the 27th Kray rapidly shifted his strength to the north to assist his outnumbered right wing . Schérer shuffled the positions of his divisions which exhausted the soldiers without accomplishing anything . Belatedly , Schérer tried push his advantage in the north by sending Sérurier with 6 @,@ 000 troops to advance on Verona from the north . On 30 March he ran into 15 @,@ 000 Austrians at Parona and was badly defeated , losing 600 killed and wounded and 1 @,@ 177 prisoners . Austrian casualties numbered only 390 .

The Battle of Magnano on 5 April 1799 resulted in a French defeat . In the fighting Sérurier 's division included three battalions each of the 18th , 29th and 30th Light Infantry Demi brigades , one battalion of the 1st Light , 180 grenadiers , 850 cavalry and 60 gunners . Both armies advanced , Sérurier successfully capturing Villafranca on the left . However , the divisions of Claude Perrin Victor and Paul Grenier were routed on the right . The French lost 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 men , seven colors and eight cannons , while Kray 's army sustained 5 @,@ 228 casualties . The worst casualty was the confidence of the French generals and the morale of the troops . When Schérer found that 12 @,@ 000 Austrians were marching from the County of Tyrol to turn his north flank , he withdrew from the line of the Mincio , leaving 12 @,@ 000 soldiers to defend Mantua . During the retreat many Italian and Swiss allies deserted from the Army of Italy .

By the end of April 1799 , Schérer had 28 @,@ 000 troops behind the Adda River , strung out on a line 115 kilometres ( 71 mi ) in length . The army was arranged in three small corps under Sérurier on the left , Grenier in the center and Victor on the right . By the morning of 27 April , Suvorov 's Austro @-@ Russian army had won crossings over the Adda at Capriate San Gervasio and Brivio . That day Jean Victor Marie Moreau replaced Schérer in command of the Army of Italy and the Allies defeated the French in the Battle of Cassano . After a struggle , Grenier 's soldiers were beaten at Trezzo while the Austrians broke through Victor 's defenses at Cassano . The French withdrew toward Milan leaving Sérurier isolated and without orders between Trezzo and Brivio . During the night the old veteran entrenched 2 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 000 troops in an all @-@ around defense near Verderio . Finding the French in his path , Josef Philipp Vukassovich split his division into three columns and enveloped Sérurier 's position . Vukassovich reported that his enemies put up a " desperate " fight , but out of ammunition , Sérurier surrendered on the evening of 28 April . By the terms of the capitulation , the general and his officers were released on parole to France . The Austrians reported capturing 243 officers and 3 @,@ 487 soldiers . Vukassovich 's troops suffered 2 @,@ 750 casualties , over half of the Allied losses at Cassano . Sérurier 's left wing near Lake Como escaped and rejoined the main army .

Suvorov invited the captured general to dinner and found it impossible to coax any military information from him . The Russian wondered why such a reputable man should be fighting for the First French Republic . Sérurier retorted , " My father , in giving me my sword , expressly ordered me to use it only to defend my country " . Historian Ramsay Weston Phipps considered Verderio to be the biggest blunder of Sérurier 's career . He suggested that the general was accustomed to seeing Bonaparte save dire situations with brilliant maneuvers . When Moreau next saw the paroled general , he severely reprimanded him but later admitted to the government that Sérurier 's only mistake was hewing to his orders too rigidly . This was the last time Sérurier led troops in combat .

Meanwhile , the French Directory sank in popularity after military defeats and mismanagement . Back in Paris , Sérurier became part of the Bonaparte faction , having seen nothing but disaster since serving under the military genius . Bonaparte launched the Coup of 18 Brumaire on 9 November 1799 during which Sérurier led a reserve detachment of soldiers at the Pont @-@ du @-@ Jour . The next day , the coup almost collapsed when Bonaparte had to be rescued from the Council of Five Hundred . However , Lucien Bonaparte convinced the Council 's own guard battalion that only a minority of members opposed his brother . These soldiers soon evicted the lawmakers from their own hall . During these events , Sérurier 's troops arrived at Saint @-@ Cloud and the general was heard addressing them , " The wretches ! They wished to kill General Bonaparte . Do not stir soldiers ; wait until you get orders " . In the aftermath of the coup , Sérurier was put on a commission to determine how to use auxiliary battalions on 15 November 1799 . He became a member of the Sénat conservateur ( Senate ) on 27 December .

= = Later life = =

In time Sérurier became vice @-@ president of the Senate and in 1803 was appointed president of a commission that determined the border between France and Piedmont . In 1804 he was named governor of Les Invalides , a hospital and retirement home for veterans . On 19 May that year Emperor Napoleon named him an honorary Marshal of France . Out of 18 marshals appointed on this date , the other three honorary ones were Bon Adrien Jeannot de Moncey , François Christophe de Kellermann and Catherine @-@ Dominique de Pérignon . Sérurier was awarded the Grand Eagle of the Légion d 'Honneur and the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Iron Crown . He was ennobled as a Count of the Empire in 1808 and granted a pension of 40 @,@ 000 francs per year .

On 31 March 1814 , upon the arrival of the Sixth Coalition armies at Paris , Sérurier publicly destroyed the 1 @,@ 417 captured enemy flags and personally burned the sword and sash of Frederick the Great as to not let them fall into the Allies ' hands . The restored King Louis XVIII made Sérurier a Peer of France , but he joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days , when the former emperor briefly returned to power . This caused him to lose his post at Les Invalides and his marshal 's salary after Napoleon 's second downfall . Despite his Bonapartist sympathies , as Peer Sérurier voted in favour of the death penalty for Marshal Michel Ney .

Sérurier was restored to the dignity of marshal in 1819 . He died on 21 December that year in Paris and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery . His body was not transferred to Les Invalides until 26 February 1847 SERURIER is one of the names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe , on Column 24 .

= Daniel Santos ( singer ) =

Daniel Santos ( February 5 , 1916 – November 27 , 1992 ) was a singer and composer of boleros , and an overall performer of multiple Caribbean music genres , including guaracha , plena and rumba . Over the course of his career he adopted several names created by the public and became known as " El Jefe " and " El Inquieto Anacobero " .

= = Early years = =

Santos ( birth name : Daniel Doroteo Santos Betancourt ) was born and raised with his three sisters , Sara , Rosa Lydia and Luz América in Trastalleres , a poor section of Santurce , Puerto Rico . He attended Las Palmitas Elementary School . Although he was doing well in school his father Rosendo took him out of school when he was in the fourth grade and forced him to shine shoes because of his family 's poverty .

In 1924 , his family moved to New York City looking for a better way of life . When his parents , Rosendo and María enrolled him in school , he had to start from the first grade again because he did not know enough English . Santos joined his high school 's choir , but he dropped out of high school in his second year and moved out of his parents ' apartment . When he was fifteen years old he began looking for work in Manhattan .

Santos moved into a small apartment , where , one day , he started to sing " Te Quiero , Dijiste " ( You said ' I Love You ' ) . A member of the Trío Lírico was passing by and heard him sing . He then knocked on Santos ' door . The trio member invited Daniel to join the trio and he accepted . Santos debuted with them on September 13 , 1930 ; he sang in various social events and was paid a dollar for every song that he sang . He returned to Puerto Rico only to return once more to Manhattan after he unsuccessfully tried to acquire a job as a singer at WKAQ , which was one of the island 's main radio stations .

= = Musical career = =

= = = " Cuarteto Flores " with Pedro Flores = = =

In late 1933 and 1934 , Santos performed in a nightclub named Los Chilenos located near Broadway and was paid twenty dollars per weekend . Personally , Santos led a life of excesses , including maintaining several romantic relationships at once . In 1938 , Santos was working at the Cuban Casino Cabaret in Manhattan , which was normally visited by Puerto Ricans and other Latinos . His chores included singing , waiting on tables and on occasions he was the master of ceremonies for which he was paid a salary of thirty dollars . On one occasion , he was singing " Amor Perdido " ( Lost Love ) , without knowing that the composer of the song Pedro Flores was in the audience . Flores liked what he heard and invited Santos to join his group " El Cuarteto Flores " which also included Myrta Silva , and would in the future also include Pedro Ortiz Davila ( also known by his stage name " Davilita " ) . Santos recorded many songs with the Cuarteto Flores and started to gain fame . Among the songs he recorded were : " Perdon " ; " Amor " ; " El Ultimo Adios " " Si Yo Fuera Millonario " by singer / composer Miguel Poventud and Borracho no Vale ' .

= = = Participation in World War II = = =

In the early 1940s , many young Puerto Rican men were drafted for World War II , among them Santos . Santos recorded " Despedida " ( My Good @-@ bye ) , a farewell song written by Flores from the viewpoint of an Army recruit who had to leave behind his girlfriend and his ailing mother , which became a hit . Santos recalled in an interview once that he had to hold back tears while recording the song , since his draft papers had just arrived and he would soon have to live a situation similar to what the song 's lyrics described , but that a friend started mocking him at the control booth , to which he decided to curse him on the spot , trading the word mama 'o ( an expletive in Puerto Rican Spanish ) for mamá ( mother ) . This incident produced two mannerisms that Santos eventually adopted in his singing style : chopped delivery ( almost syllable by syllable , as suggested by Flores ) and stretched last vowel in the last verse of each stanza , in almost every song he recorded afterwards .

He was sent to Maui Island , after completing his basic military training in Kentucky . In Maui , he was assigned to a US Army infantry unit which was used to replenish casualties in the Pacific theatre . Santos would joke that he escaped the " replenishment levies " because of his guitar playing skills . Nevertheless , he was sent to Okinawa towards the end of the war . While in the military Santos teamed up with Juanito Jiménez as a part of a duo dubbed Los Cumbancheros . After the war concluded Santos returned to New York , where he received a tribute upon his arrival . There he recorded " Linda " , written specially for him by Flores for one of Santos ' old girlfriends .

= = = International performances = = =

Santos became active in the Puerto Rican Independence Movement and identified himself with the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and its president Pedro Albizu Campos after he was discharged from the military because of the prejudice which he experienced within the Army . His devotion for Albizu lasted throughout his life , to the point of commissioning , later in his life , a bronze bust of Albizu for his estate in Puerto Rico . With Davilita , he recorded " Patriotas " ( " Patriots " ) and " La Lucha por la Independencia de Puerto Rico " ( " The Fight for Puerto Rico 's Independence " ) , which was adopted from one of Juan Antonio Corretjer 's poems .

On March 1946 , Santos inaugurated a bar and restaurant named Borinquen , and administrated the establishment for some weeks . Two months later he began singing Mexican music and boleros at Greenwich Village . Later that year he visited the Dominican Republic , where he had legal problems and was jailed briefly .

= = = Santos in Cuba = = =

By this time Santos ' fame had grown and he decided to travel to Cuba , establishing a residence in Havana in 1946 . At the moment Cuba was experiencing economic growth and Santos developed an interest in the island . Upon arriving he experienced success , making presentations in Paseo del Prado , Miramar and Vedado . These included a special presentation titled Alegrias de Hatuey , which was broadcast by " Radio Progreso " , a radio station . He participated and sang for several other stations , including RHC @-@ Cadena Azul and CMQ , where he participated in a program named Cascabel . This exposition came after he established friendships with local public figures . The Cuban public created two names adopted by Santos , these were Inquieto and Anacobero , which he later fused and became known as El Inquieto Anacobero . He also made five presentations in theaters , among them the Martí theater .

In 1948 , Santos was invited to perform in the Cuban National Palace by the president in office , Carlos Prío Socarrás . This year also marked Santos ' debut with La Sonora Matancera , where he served as vocalist . His first successful single was titled Bigote de Gato , based on an area of Havana named " Luyano " , which was infamous for serving as the home for fortune tellers . Later that year Santos was arrested after becoming involved in a fight where he accidentally injured a woman after trying to defend himself . Santos was subsequently pardoned by Prío Socarrás , but he asked to remain in jail twelve additional days to spend the Christmas celebration with some of the inmates . While in prison he composed a single named El Preso and was asked to write Amnistía as part of a campaign to promote the well @-@ being of inmates . This was followed by several successful productions with the Sonora Matancera . These included Dos gardenias and Pa ' fricasé los pollos , which were based on Cuban music . Among several other contemporary records were : El juego de la vida , El 5 y 6 , El ajiaco , El niño majadero , Ramoncito campeón and El tíbiri tábara .

On March 10 , 1952 , Fulgencio Batista organized a successful coup d 'état and took control of the island 's government . Santos , known for his Puerto Rican independentist preferences , was never in the good graces of the dictator . He made his nationalistic and democratic views well known throughout Latin America . As many people during those days , he viewed Fidel Castro 's fight against Batista very favorably . In 1958 , forbidden by Batista from returning to the island , he composed the song " Sierra Maestra " , which borrowed parts of the official hymn of the 26th of July Movement . Santos donated the profits from " Sierra Maestra " to the Cuban Revolution .

= = = Return to Puerto Rico = = =

He returned to the island later that year and began an international tour on 1953 , among the countries visited were Venezuela , Colombia and Mexico . In 1954 , he returned to Puerto Rico and performed in hotels located in San Juan before continuing his tour throughout America which extended from 1955 to 1956 . The tour concluded with a presentation in New York and he his returned to Cuba . Later that year he visited Ecuador for the first time in his artistic career . Here he was contracted to perform in a theater named " Apolo " , where he worked with a band named the " Costa Rica Swing Boys " . During his third presentation Santos lost his voice without completing the scheduled show , he tried to explain the situation to the public but was unable to calm them down and a riot erupted . While in Ecuador he composed two successful singles , Cataplum pa ' and Cautiverio . Late in 1956 , Santos recorded with a Venezuelan record label named " Discomoda " .

In 1959 , he briefly returned to Cuba . It was during this trip that he confronted Raul Castro and Ernesto " Che " Guevara about the political nature of the Cuban Revolution he had supported . He left Cuba abruptly , never to return , when Castro and Guevara failed to convince him that the Cuban Revolution was " nationalistic " . A self proclaimed " anti @-@ communist " , he explained that he had supported the Cuban Revolution because its leadership had assured him that it was not communist .

On July 22 , 1972 he performed in the inauguration ceremony of El Balcon del Pueblo , a building owned by Radio Cristal , which was located at Guayaquil . In this activity he performed for two consecutive hours , working an additional hour due to public acclaim .

= = Later years = =

During the last years of his life , Santos toured the United States and Latin @-@ America , while experiencing health problems . He continued performing with several music groups . While he performed with the Sonora Matancera , Santos suffered a heart attack while he was sleeping in a hotel located in La Reforma after eating dinner . Santos continued performing during the following decades , making presentations in several Latin American countries . He continued to sing the songs which he had written during his career until he finally retired and established a residence in Florida .

In 1991 , Santos visited some friends in New York City 's Barrio Latino , during this visit Santo 's was walking through the street on a Saturday evening when he fainted and collapsed . He was attended by some bystanders and residents of the neighborhood who called the New York City Police Department . When the police arrived at the scene they transported him to a local hospital , Santos was released two days after . During this time Santos was also suffering from mental illnesses , including memory loss due to Alzheimer 's disease . Despite his health he made final presentations in some of Puerto Rico 's municipalities where he received recognitions in San Juan and Ponce . Santos was also invited to participate in a music festival in Cuba , where he was supposed to receive a homage , but he was unable to attend .

Over the course of his life Daniel Santos was legally married on twelve separate occasions . His first marriage took place in 1934 , where he married Lucy Montilla when he was eighteen years old . In 1947 , he married Cuban socialite Eugenia Perez Portal , who gave him his first son in 1948 , Daniel Jr . After this he was involved in several relationships with women of several Latin American countries , on occasions having more than one consecutively . When he was fifty @-@ six years old he married Luz Dary Pedredín in a ceremony organized on Colombia . The couple had two children , Danilú and David Albizu . Santos ' last marriage was with Ana Rivera , who was originally of Puerto Rico .

Daniel Santos died on November 27 , 1992 , aged 76 , at his ranch , " Anacobero 's Ranch " in Ocala , Florida . He is buried at what is virtually Puerto Rico 's national pantheon , the St. Mary Magdalene of Pazzis cemetery in Old San Juan , geographically quite close to where Albizu Campos and Pedro Flores were interred . Due to the scarcity of empty space in the cemetery , when fellow Puerto Rican singer and Santos boyhood friend Eladio Peguero ( commonly known as " Yayo El Indio " ) later died , he was also buried in Santos ' tomb .

= = Legacy = =

Santos ' life was the subject of one semi @-@ autobiography , El Inquieto Anacobero : confesiones de Daniel Santos a Héctor Mújica , written as Santos told his story to Venezuelan author Héctor Mújica in 1982 . His life was also the subject of three biographical books : Vengo a decirle adiós a los muchachos ( 1989 ) , by Josean Ramos ; La importancia de llamarse Daniel Santos ( 1988 ) , by Luis Rafael Sánchez and El Inquieto Anacobero , by Salvador Garmendia .

= 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak =

The 2007 Bernard Matthews H5N1 outbreak was an occurrence of avian influenza in England caused by the H5N1 subtype of Influenza virus A that began on 30 January 2007 . The infection affected poultry at one of Bernard Matthews ' farms in Holton in Suffolk . It was the third instance of H5N1 @-@ subtype detected in the United Kingdom and a range of precautions were instituted to prevent spread of the disease including a large cull of turkeys , the imposition of segregation zones , and a disinfection programme for the plant .

The cause of the outbreak was not determined . However , it was considered significant that Bernard Matthews regularly transports turkeys and turkey products between the UK and its plant in Hungary , and that the H5N1 strains previously found in Hungary , and those found at Suffolk , were effectively genetically identical .

= = Background = =

= = = H5N1 = = =

H5N1 is a subtype of the Influenza A virus , the viruses responsible for influenza in humans and many other animal species . A bird @-@ adapted strain of H5N1 , called HPAI A ( H5N1 ) for " highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of subtype H5N1 " , is the causative agent of H5N1 flu .

HPAI A ( H5N1 ) is considered an avian disease , although there is some evidence of limited human @-@ to @-@ human transmission of the virus . A risk factor for contracting the virus is handling of infected poultry , but transmission of the virus from infected birds to humans is inefficient . Poultry farming practices have changed due to H5N1 . The cost of poultry farming has increased , while the cost to consumers has gone down , due to fears from H5N1 driving demand below supply .

= = = Recent outbreaks in the UK and rest of EU = = =

The outbreak was the third instance of H5N1 detected in the United Kingdom . The first outbreak occurred in October 2005 among exotic birds imported from Taiwan and South America at a privately owned quarantine facility in Essex , England . The second instance involved a dead whooper swan found to have the virus in Cellardyke , Scotland in April 2006 . A corresponding incidence on a farm in south @-@ eastern Hungary was confirmed by the European Commission on 25 January 2007 .

= = The outbreak = =

Initial signs of the outbreak occurred on Tuesday , 30 January when 55 turkey poults died and 16 had to be killed because they were sick . At least 185 more died the following day .

It was not until 1 February that the deaths were reported to Defra . The farm was sealed off while tests were carried out , on samples taken from the dead birds , at the Veterinary Laboratories Agency in Weybridge , Surrey . Another 1 @,@ 500 birds died on 2 February . Then on 3 February 2007 the H5N1 causation was confirmed .

A 3 km protection zone , 10 km surveillance zone and a restricted zone encompassing 2000 km2 were set up . Another 159 @,@ 000 turkeys were slaughtered with the cull being completed on the evening of 5 February . Also on 5 February there was criticism that nearby farmers had not been advised as to the action to be taken . Around 320 workers at the plant were given anti @-@ viral drugs . Although a vet from the site was admitted into hospital , suffering from a ' mild respiratory illness ' during the evening of 6 February , it was found not to be bird flu . The plant was thoroughly disinfected , with cleaning complete on 12 February , and permission being given for production to resume .

It emerged in a highly critical report from Defra that there was a series of biosecurity failings at the Holton plant , some of which were drawn to the company 's attention in the past . These included " gulls were taking turkey waste to roosts on top of the turkey @-@ house 500 m away " and " holes in the turkey houses could have allowed in birds or rodents " . Defra minister Jeff Rooker stated in a House of Lords debate on 22 February that the outbreak was " exclusively a Bernard Matthews Holton problem " .

= = Hungarian connection = =

The Government , on 8 February , admitted that the outbreak may have been caused by semi @-@ processed turkey meat imported directly from Hungary , where the disease is prevalent , despite earlier in the week the Environment Secretary , David Miliband assuring the House of Commons that there was " no Hungarian connection " .

Bernard Matthews had been importing 38 tons of partly processed turkey meat on a weekly basis from their Saga Foods company , in Sárvár , Hungary , to a processing plant next to the farm . Though Saga Foods lies 165 miles ( 266 km ) from where the recent Hungarian H5N1 outbreak had occurred , a company director admitted it was " possible " that some of the meat could have come from the exclusion zone . In response to this revelation , Whitehall expressed concern over biosecurity and whether any meat may have been distributed for human consumption in Britain . On 9 February 2007 the Hungarian authorities started an investigation to try to establish whether there was a connection between the Suffolk and Hungarian outbreaks . On 11 February the investigation revealed that turkey products were still being transported , in both directions , between the plant and Hungary with EU regulations being cited as the reason why a transport ban could not be imposed .

The Hungary link was dismissed by the European Commission on 12 February . Even so , the H5N1 bird flu strains found in Hungary and Britain were shown to be 99 @.@ 96 % genetically identical and , according to an analysis of the viruses by the Veterinary Laboratories Agency in Weybridge , Surrey , were almost certainly linked . A leak from the Government 's COBRA emergency committee indicated that the authorities were not aware of the Hungarian connection until an investigator found a Gallfoods delivery wrapper in a Bernard Matthews bin . This raised the possibility that the outbreak was due to a " third party abattoir , Gallfoods in Hungary , just outside the restricted zone " . This abattoir might have been a middle man for contaminated poultry farming tools , feed , or product from within the restricted zone , such as a Bernard Matthews owned subsidiary in Hungary .

In response to the incident and allegations of a cover @-@ up , Bernard Matthews himself stated on 14 February " I 'm sorry - but this has not been of our making . There 's been absolutely no cover up at our end . I 've been upset about allegations that we may have withheld information . That is completely untrue . "

Bernard Matthews was given permission to resume its shipments of poultry between the UK and Hungary from 17 February even though Defra indicated that Hungarian turkey products remained the " most plausible " cause of the outbreak .

= = Consequences = =

By 8 February there was a lengthening list of countries that had banned the importation of poultry products from Britain including South Africa , Russia , Japan , and many others but a spokesman for the European Commission condemned the bans as " totally disproportionate " and the British Poultry Council pointed out that exports were less than 9 % of the level of domestic sales . Supermarket sales of Bernard Matthews branded turkeys halved after the onset of the outbreak as shoppers sought out alternatives . One of the biggest ongoing surveys of consumer confidence revealed that , by 13 February 2007 , Bernard Matthews was the least respected and trusted brand in Britain .

Following the outbreak the company confirmed , on 19 February 2007 , that 130 workers would be laid off for a period of twenty days due to a drop in product sales . The Transport and General Workers ' Union then called for the government to provide compensation to the workers affected . The Transport and General Workers ' Union paid out hardship monies from union funds to union members , on top of any state benefits to which the laid @-@ off workers were entitled and a one @-@ off £ 100 payment from Bernard Matthews .

A row broke out on 1 March 2007 when it emerged that the Government were paying compensation to the company for the 159 @,@ 000 culled turkeys while laid @-@ off workers were receiving nothing . At £ 3 @.@ 75 each for hens and £ 3 @.@ 53 for toms , the payout was then estimated at between £ 537 @,@ 000 and £ 570 @,@ 000 . In the event , though , the actual compensation bill came out at £ 589 @,@ 356 @.@ 89 . The crisis cost Bernard Matthews at least £ 20 m in lost sales and costs .

= Norman Whiteside =

Norman Whiteside ( born 7 May 1965 ) is a former Northern Ireland international footballer who played in two World Cups . He played both as a midfielder and as a striker .

Whiteside began his career at Manchester United , signing professional forms in 1982 at the age of 17 and quickly becoming a key member of the side . He scored 68 goals in 278 league and cup appearances for the club over the next seven years , picking up two FA Cup winners medals in 1983 and 1985 , as well as playing in the 1982 FA Youth Cup final , the 1983 League Cup final , and the FA Charity Shield in 1983 .

He remained with United until July 1989 , when he was sold to Everton for £ 600 @,@ 000 . However , he retired from playing two years later , aged only 26 , due to a knee injury .

Whiteside holds records as the youngest player to take part in a World Cup , the youngest player to score in a League Cup and FA Cup final , and the youngest player to score a senior goal for Manchester United . Winning 38 caps for Northern Ireland , he played at the 1982 and 1986 World Cups , and also helped his country to win the last ever British Home Championship in 1984 . After retiring as a player he became a podiatrist , and still works at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford .

= = Early years = =

Born in Belfast to Norman and Aileen Whiteside , he grew up on Shankill Road , and because of his aggressive , physical playing style he was later nicknamed the " Shankill Skinhead " by Manchester United supporters . The family later moved to 10 Danube Street , and the family 's poverty meant that Whiteside had to share a bed with his two brothers . He remained relatively unscathed by The Troubles as his Protestant parents kept a firm watch on their children to ensure that they did not stray far from home and that none of them became involved with Ulster loyalism . At the age of around seven he joined the Boys ' Brigade , and quickly showed his natural talent for football , scoring ten goals in a game against boys almost twice his age . He was educated at Cairnmartin High School , and became famous in the Shankill area as a footballing prodigy by the age of 11 .

He was said to have been discovered by Ipswich Town scout Jim Rodgers ( his goals at schoolboy level meant that he was already well known to all the football scouts in Northern Ireland ) , who was told by manager Bobby Robson to wait until Whiteside grew older . Instead , it was Manchester United 's 80 @-@ year @-@ old Ulster scout Bob Bishop , who previously unearthed Belfast @-@ born George Best and Sammy McIlroy for the club , who first offered him a trial at an English club . Whiteside 's family were Manchester United supporters , though the youngster himself held no particular allegiance . He found that he had been offered schoolboy terms at the club during a school trip to the United States ; on the trip , he and his classmates met President Jimmy Carter at the Oval Office , a rare and extraordinary occasion for children from a disadvantaged background .

= = Club career = =

= = = Manchester United = = =

A few days before Whiteside was old enough to sign schoolboy terms with Manchester United , he was offered a trial at Liverpool , causing United 's chief scout Joe Brown to fly over to Belfast to immediately offer him the schoolboy contract to sign . Whiteside remained in Belfast , and flew over to Manchester every weekend for training . From age 14 , he was constantly compared to the now @-@ retired George Best , and did little to cease such comparisons when he told a journalist that " the only thing I have in common with George Best is that we come from the same place , play for the same club and were discovered by the same man " .

His injury problems started as early as 1980 , when he was 15 years old and saw Glentoran 's physio Bobby McGregor to resolve a groin strain ; Whiteside said that the highly physical massage he was subjected to damaged his pelvis and robbed him of his natural pace . His lack of pace was later seen as the one weakness in his game . Six weeks into his apprenticeship , in July 1981 , and an innocuous looking challenge by a Preston North End player in an ' A ' team game saw Whiteside requiring an operation on his right knee . Had the injury occurred a couple of years later he would have been able to have pioneering keyhole surgery , which could potentially have saved his career . After a seven @-@ month lay @-@ off and a further operation to remove cartilage , he returned to fitness in January 1982 . He had to adapt his playing style to compensate for his damaged knee and pelvis , and developed well under youth team coach Eric Harrison .

Whiteside became United 's youngest first team player since Duncan Edwards in 1953 , when he made his debut as a substitute against Brighton & Hove Albion in a 1 – 0 league win at the Goldstone Ground on 24 April 1982 , two weeks before his 17th birthday . He later played in the FA Youth Cup final defeat to Watford , though it would be just another year before he appeared in the final of the senior competition . He turned professional at Old Trafford on his 17th birthday , signing a three @-@ year contract , and he shared a room with Steve Coppell , who was heading into retirement due to a knee injury of his own . He also struck up a close friendship with Paul McGrath , who would also face similar problems with his knee . On the final day of the season , eight days after his 17th birthday , he became the club 's youngest goalscorer in a 2 – 0 home win over Stoke City .

His performances at the World Cup convinced manager Ron Atkinson to start Whiteside alongside Frank Stapleton at the front of United 's attack for the 1982 – 83 season . The pair were similar players in that they held the ball up and made frequent runs into the box , allowing midfielder Bryan Robson to join in the attack . Whiteside scored four goals in the first five games of the campaign , before entering a seventeen @-@ game drought . He scored six goals in 16 games in domestic cup competitions that season , helping Manchester United to the finals of both the League Cup and FA Cup , notably by scoring past Arsenal in the FA Cup semi @-@ finals . At the age of 17 years and 323 days , he beat Liverpool centre @-@ half Alan Hansen to score in the League Cup final defeat at Wembley , making him the youngest player to score in a League Cup final ; his consistent performances against Liverpool during the 1980s earned him the moniker of the " Scourge of the Scousers " from United supporters . He gave an assist to Stapleton in the FA Cup Final , which finished as a 2 – 2 draw with Brighton & Hove Albion . At the age of 18 years and 18 days , he then scored a headed goal in the replay , which United won 4 – 0 , to become the youngest player score in an FA Cup Final . He also became the first player to score in both domestic cup finals in the same season . He played 57 times in all competitions that season and missed just three league games , scoring a total of 14 goals .

Manchester United later accepted a £ 1 @.@ 5 million offer for Whiteside from A.C. Milan , and offered him £ 100 @,@ 000 in cash to accept the transfer . He refused the move as he felt he still had a good future with Manchester United and because he was given only a brief time to consider whether or not to relocate to a club and location he knew little about . He continued to impress , despite on @-@ loan striker Garth Crooks being tipped to take his first team place and sign a permanent contract ( which never happened ) . United were trophyless however in 1983 – 84 , exiting both domestic cup competitions to Third Division sides . He did though play a part in the memorable 3 – 0 win over Barcelona at Old Trafford in the Third Round of the Cup Winners ' Cup . He lost his starting place to Mark Hughes for the semi @-@ final clash with Juventus at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino , which ended in a 2 – 1 defeat .

By February 1985 , he had started just eight games in the 1984 – 85 season , having fallen behind in the pecking order to Stapleton , Hughes , and new signing Alan Brazil . However , injury to midfielder Remi Moses left an opening at the centre of the field , and Whiteside proved to be a revelation in the role with his intelligent play and positioning skills , and stayed in midfield for the rest of manager Ron Atkinson 's time at the club . He formed a solid partnership with Bryan Robson , despite the two being similarly attacking players , and United lost just one of their first 15 games with this new midfield partnership in operation . Whiteside scored the only hat @-@ trick of his professional career in a 4 – 2 home win over West Ham United on 9 March 1985 , in the FA Cup quarter @-@ finals ; it was a ' perfect hat @-@ trick ' in that he scored once with each foot and once with his head . He went on to score the winning goal in the 1985 FA Cup Final , curling a shot in from the right hand side in the 20th minute of extra time , to give ten @-@ man United victory over Everton , and Whiteside his second FA Cup winner 's medal . The goal required vision , timing , and precise shooting ; and The Guardian praised his " cool footballing brain " and " clever concealment of the shot " . After this success he negotiated a new contract of £ 60 @,@ 000 a year .

United won 13 and drew two of their opening 15 league matches of the 1985 – 86 campaign , and seemed destined to win the First Division title . However they dropped off in mid @-@ season and won just six of their final 18 games to end the season in fourth place . The press blamed the decline in form on the club 's drinking culture and Ron Atkinson 's lax disciplinary attitude , though in his autobiography Whiteside denies that this was to blame , and states that stories of the player 's drinking sessions were exaggerated .

Then came a decline in his career at such a young age which began soon after the arrival of new manager Alex Ferguson in November 1986 , the change of manager coming after a dismal start to the season led to the decision to sack Ron Atkinson . Whiteside , still only 21 , was facing trouble from his right knee which was now beginning to require serious medical procedures to prevent it from causing his retirement . Ferguson put Whiteside back up front , and in turn he scored three times in his first four games back from injury . Ferguson did though have to rebuke Whiteside after some of his numerous drinking sessions . He ended the 1986 – 87 season with 10 goals in 37 appearances , however United could only manage an 11th @-@ place finish .

" I felt the excitement that is felt by watching a player of the highest class . He had self @-@ assurance that was extraordinary in a twenty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old . The excellence of his technique gave him easy mastery of the ball and he had the gift of making time for himself in the stamp of quality . He was an island of composure , looking up and unhurriedly making his decisions . He rarely surrendered possession and he increased the angle and weight of his passes so well that the receiver never had to fight the ball . His eyes were as cold as steel and he had the temperament to match . As a player he was close to the genius category . "

At the start of the 1987 – 88 season , Whiteside represented the Football League in a game against the ' Rest of the World ' to celebrate the league 's centenary . He formed a solid partnership with Brian McClair , scoring 10 goals in 35 appearances , though United finished second in the league behind Liverpool , and he often found himself back in midfield or on the bench when Peter Davenport was selected to play alongside McClair . However he felt that he was due a better contract , and decided to ' call the bluff ' of the club by handing in a transfer request . Recovering from injury and abuse from some supporters for his transfer request , he put what many United fans call the best performance of his career at Anfield on 4 April 1988 , when he came off a substitute with his team 3 – 1 down to help United to salvage a point .

He ruptured his Achilles midway through the 1987 – 88 season and missed almost a year of first team action . Whiteside 's goal in a 2 – 1 win over Derby County in a league match at the Baseball Ground on 10 February 1988 would prove to be his last for Manchester United . He was limited to just six goalless appearances in 1988 – 89 . In the summer of 1988 , he came close to joining American club Portland Timbers , before injury put negotiations on hold . In view of Whiteside 's medical reports , Ferguson rejected bids of £ 500 @,@ 000 from Osasuna of Spain and from Ron Atkinson 's new club Sheffield Wednesday , before accepting a bid of £ 600 @,@ 000 ( with £ 150 @,@ 000 to follow if Whiteside reached 50 games ) from Everton in July 1989 . This was to the dismay of some of the club 's supporters , who felt that there was still hope that he could re @-@ establish himself as the key player he had been at the club as recently as three years earlier . Ferguson intended to build his own team having signed midfield duo Neil Webb and Mike Phelan , and also in the hunt for other players including Paul Ince , Gary Pallister and Danny Wallace .

He had played a total of 274 games in all competitions for United , scoring 67 goals , and collected two winner 's medals in the FA Cup , despite only being 24 years old when he left .

= = = Everton = = =

Whiteside signed a four @-@ year contract with Everton , and Alex Ferguson helped him to negotiate a pay deal that would see him earn more in two years at Goodison Park than he had done during his eight years in Manchester . He was also offered £ 50 @,@ 000 to put his name to a tabloid article criticising Ferguson , though he declined the offer . At the time Everton boasted more recent success than Manchester United , having won two league titles , an FA Cup and the European Cup Winners ' Cup . Manager Colin Harvey was planning to boost the " Toffees " chances of more silverware , and also in 1989 signed Mike Newell , Martin Keown , Stefan Rehn and Raymond Atteveld . Whiteside became Everton 's playmaker in 1989 – 90 , and formed an effective partnership with Stuart McCall in midfield to score 13 goals in his 35 appearances . Everton finished the season in sixth place , some 20 points behind rivals Liverpool .

However intense running sessions ran by coach Mick Lyons took their toll on his right knee , and on 20 September 1990 he took a knock in a practice match , which required him to have yet another operation on his right knee . After the return of Howard Kendall as manager in November 1990 , Whiteside managed to appear in a few reserve team games , but this only delayed the inevitable , and he was forced to retire from the game at the age of 26 in June 1991 . He had a testimonial game between Manchester United and Everton at Old Trafford in May 1992 , but as United lost the title the previous week , only 7 @,@ 434 turned out for the occasion .

= = International career = =

Whiteside broke Pelé 's record as the youngest player to appear in a World Cup , when he debuted for Northern Ireland aged 17 years and 41 days at the 1982 World Cup in Spain . When selected for the World Cup squad by manager Billy Bingham , he had played just two competitive games at club level . The opening game against Yugoslavia at the La Romareda in Zaragoza on 17 June was his international debut ; he received a yellow card in the second half for a challenge on Nenad Stojković , and the game finished goalless . Five days later he helped " Norn Iron " to a 1 – 1 draw with Honduras , which was a disappointment , and many believed had doomed Northern Ireland 's chances of advancing in the competition . They needed a win against hosts Spain in the third and final group game at the Mestalla Stadium in Valencia . They faced a partisan atmosphere with a mostly Spanish crowd and a Spanish speaking referee in Héctor Ortiz who was unwilling to punish dirty play from the Spanish players . However a mistake from goalkeeper Luis Arconada gifted Gerry Armstrong the only goal of the game , and despite having Mal Donaghy sent off on 60 minutes , Northern Ireland went on to record an historic 1 – 0 win . Whiteside played at left @-@ midfielder for the 2 – 2 draw with Austria at the Vicente Calderón Stadium . A win against France would take them into the semi @-@ finals , however a French team inspired by Michel Platini won 4 – 1 and therefore eliminated Northern Ireland from the competition .

He featured in qualifying for UEFA Euro 1984 , as the " Green and White Army " suffered heartbreak after winning their final group game 1 – 0 over West Germany , Whiteside managing to get the better of one of the world 's best man @-@ markers in Karlheinz Förster . However the Germans secured the only qualification place in the group in their final match of the group with a late winner over Albania . The nation did though achieve some glory that year , when Whiteside helped Northern Ireland win the 100th and last edition of the British Home Championship in 1984 .

Northern Ireland won qualification to the World Cup for a second successive tournament with a goalless draw with England in their final group game ; Whiteside scored three goals during the qualification process , with his strike again Romania at Windsor Park proving to be crucial as they ended up qualifying at the Romanian 's expense . At the 1986 FIFA World Cup finals in Mexico , he scored in his country 's only result in the tournament , a 1 – 1 draw against Algeria at the Estadio Tres de Marzo . They were beaten in their other two group games , losing 2 – 1 to Spain and 3 – 0 to Brazil . Whiteside won a total of 38 caps and scored nine times in eight years playing for Northern Ireland .

= = Personal life and post @-@ retirement = =

He married wife Judy on 4 October 1987 ; the two had met when Whiteside was 16 and she was 20 . The relationship blossomed despite fears of reprisal on Shankill , with him being a Protestant and Judy being a Catholic . The marriage ended acrimoniously in 2001 , after the couple had 20 years together and three children : Della , Blaine and Clodagh . He subsequently married Denise .

Upon retirement , Whiteside studied to become a podiatrist , graduating with a degree from the University of Salford , and served Northwich Victoria as their assistant manager / physio from October 1991 until March 1992 . He quit the role as he did not enjoy the amount of time spent travelling between games . During his playing career , he had attended courses at Lilleshall to pick up his coaching badges , but he did not wish to go into coaching . He instead became an after @-@ dinner speaker . He also worked for the Professional Footballers ' Association , while taking a postgraduate course at Manchester Metropolitan University . He later took up private practice as a podiatrist in Manchester . Since 1994 , he has also worked at the corporate hospitality department at Old Trafford . In 2003 , he released a book entitled My Memories of Manchester United . With the help of writer Rob Bagchi , he released his autobiography entitled Determined in August 2007 , published by Headline , and with a foreword by actor James Nesbitt . When Saturday Comes magazine reviewer Joyce Woolridge wrote that " Determined is an entertaining , well written account of one of the less ordinary 1980s footballers , with the added twist of how Whiteside was able to rebuild his life , if not his knee . " The next month it was reported that Whiteside had been diagnosed with irregular heart rhythms . Whiteside worked as a pundit on ITV 's coverage of UEFA Euro 2016 .

= = Statistics = =

= = = Club statistics = = =

Notes

European statistics : 1982 – 83 & 1984 – 85 ( UEFA Cup ) ; 1983 – 84 ( UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup ) .

Statistics listed in Whiteside 's autobiography :

= = = International statistics = = =

= = = International goals = = =

Scores and results list Northern Ireland 's goal tally first .

= = Honours = =

Manchester United

FA Cup ( 2 ) : 1983 , 1985

FA Charity Shield ( 1 ) : 1984 – 85

Northern Ireland

British Home Championship ( 1 ) : 1984

= Horace Greeley =

Horace Greeley ( February 3 , 1811 – November 29 , 1872 ) was editor of the New @-@ York Tribune , among the great newspapers of its time . Long active in politics , he served briefly as a congressman from New York , and was the candidate of the Democratic and Liberal Republican parties in the 1872 presidential election . He was defeated by President Ulysses S. Grant , and died before the casting of the electoral vote .

Born to a poor family in New Hampshire , Greeley was apprenticed to a printer in Vermont , and in 1831 went to New York City to seek his fortune . He wrote for or edited several publications , and involved himself in Whig Party politics , taking a significant part in William Henry Harrison 's successful 1840 presidential campaign . The following year , he founded the Tribune , which through weekly editions sent by mail became the highest @-@ circulating newspaper in the country . Among many other issues , he urged the settlement of the American West , which he saw as a land of opportunity for the young and the unemployed . He popularized the phrase " Go West , young man , and grow up with the country , " although it is uncertain whether it originated with him .

Greeley 's alliance with William H. Seward and Thurlow Weed led to him serving three months in the House of Representatives , where he angered many by investigating Congress in his newspaper . He helped found the Republican Party in 1854 , but about then broke with Seward and Weed , backing other presidential candidates against Seward at the 1860 Republican National Convention , and supporting the nominee , Abraham Lincoln . When the Civil War broke out , he mostly supported Lincoln , though urging him to commit to the end of slavery before the president was willing to do so . After Lincoln 's assassination , he supported the Radical Republicans in opposition to President Andrew Johnson .

Leading against the corruption of Grant 's Republican administration , Greeley was the new Liberal Republican Party 's candidate in the 1872 U.S. presidential election . Despite having the additional support of the Democratic Party , he lost in a landslide . Devastated at the defeat , he died three weeks later . Greeley is the only major @-@ party presidential candidate to have died prior to the electoral vote being cast .

= = Early life = =

Horace Greeley was born on February 3 , 1811 , on a farm about five miles from Amherst , New Hampshire . He could not breathe for the first twenty minutes of his life . It is suggested that this deprivation may have caused him to develop Asperger 's syndrome — some of his biographers , such as Mitchell Snay , maintain that this condition would account for his eccentric behaviors in later life .

Greeley was the son of poor farmers Zaccheus and Mary ( Woodburn ) Greeley . Zaccheus was not successful , and moved his family several times , as far west as Pennsylvania . Horace attended the local schools , and was a brilliant student . He was of English descent , and his forebears included early settlers of Massachusetts and New Hampshire .

Seeing the boy 's intelligence , some neighbors offered to pay Horace 's way at Phillips Exeter Academy , but the Greeleys were too proud to accept charity . In 1820 , Zaccheus 's financial reverses caused him to flee New Hampshire with his family lest he be imprisoned for debt , and settle in Vermont . Even as his father struggled to make a living as a hired hand , Horace Greeley read everything he could — the Greeleys had a neighbor who let Horace use his library . In 1822 , Horace ran away from home to become a printer 's apprentice , but was told he was too young .

In 1826 , at age 15 , he was made a printer 's apprentice to Amos Bliss , editor of the Northern Spectator , a newspaper in East Poultney , Vermont . There , he learned the mechanics of a printer 's job , and acquired a reputation as the town encyclopedia , reading his way through the local library . When the paper closed in 1830 , the young man went west to join his family , living near Erie , Pennsylvania . He remained there only briefly , going from town to town seeking newspaper employment , and was hired by the Erie Gazette . Although ambitious for greater things , he remained until 1831 to help support his father . While there , he became a Universalist , breaking from his Congregationalist upbringing .

= = First efforts at publishing = =

In late 1831 , Greeley went to New York City to seek his fortune . There were many young printers in New York who had likewise come to the metropolis , and he could only find short @-@ term work . In 1832 , Greeley worked as an employee of the publication Spirit of the Times . He built his resources and set up a print shop in that year . In 1833 , he tried his hand with Horatio D. Sheppard at editing a daily newspaper , the New York Morning Post , which was not a success . Despite this failure and its attendant financial loss , Greeley published the thrice @-@ weekly Constitutionalist , which mostly printed lottery results .

On March 22 , 1834 , he published the first issue of The New @-@ Yorker in partnership with Jonas Winchester . It was less expensive than other literary magazines of the time and published both contemporary ditties and political commentary . Circulation reached 9 @,@ 000 , then a sizable number , yet it was ill @-@ managed and eventually fell victim to the economic Panic of 1837 . He also published the campaign news sheet of the new Whig Party in New York for the 1834 campaign , and came to believe in its positions , including free markets with government assistance in developing the nation .

Soon after his move to New York City , Greeley met Mary Young Cheney . Both were living at a boarding house run on the diet principles of Sylvester Graham , eschewing meat , alcohol , coffee , tea , and spices , as well as abstaining from the use of tobacco . Greeley was subscribing to Graham 's principles at the time , and to the end of his life rarely ate meat . Mary Cheney , a schoolteacher , moved to North Carolina to take a teaching job in 1835 . They were married in Warrenton , North Carolina on July 5 , 1836 , and an announcement duly appeared in The New @-@ Yorker eleven days later . Greeley had stopped over in Washington , D.C. on his way south to observe Congress . He took no honeymoon with his new wife , returning to work while his wife took up a teaching job in New York City .

One of the positions taken by The New @-@ Yorker was that the unemployed of the cities should seek lives in the developing American West ( in the 1830s , the West encompassed today 's Midwestern states ) . The harsh winter of 1836 – 1837 and the financial crisis that developed soon after made many New Yorkers homeless and destitute . In his journal , Greeley urged new immigrants to buy guide books on the West , and Congress to make public lands available for purchase at cheap rates to settlers . He told his readers , " Fly , scatter through the country , go to the Great West , anything rather than remain here ... the West is the true destination . " In 1838 , he advised " any young man " about to start in the world , " Go to the West : there your capabilities are sure to be appreciated and your energy and industry rewarded . "

In 1838 , Greeley met Albany editor Thurlow Weed . Weed spoke for a liberal faction of the Whigs in his newspaper the Albany Evening Journal . He hired Greeley as editor of the state Whig newspaper for the upcoming campaign . The newspaper , the Jeffersonian , premiered in February 1838 and helped elect the Whig candidate for governor , William H. Seward . In 1839 , Greeley worked for several journals , and took a month @-@ long break to go as far west as Detroit .

Greeley was deeply involved in the campaign of the Whig candidate for president in 1840 , William Henry Harrison . He published the major Whig periodical the Log Cabin , and also wrote many of the pro @-@ Harrison songs that marked the campaign . These songs were sung at mass meetings , many organized and led by Greeley . According to biographer Robert C. Williams , " Greeley 's lyrics swept the country and roused Whig voters to action . " Funds raised by Weed helped distribute the Log Cabin widely . Harrison and his running mate John Tyler were easily elected .

= = Editor of the Tribune = =

= = = Early years ( 1841 – 1848 ) = = =

By the end of the 1840 campaign , the Log Cabin 's circulation had risen to 80 @,@ 000 and Greeley decided to establish a daily newspaper , the New @-@ York Tribune . At the time , New York had many newspapers , dominated by James Gordon Bennett 's New York Herald , which with a circulation of about 55 @,@ 000 had more readers than its combined competition . As technology advanced , it became cheaper and easier to publish a newspaper , and the daily press came to dominate the weekly , which had once been the more common format for news periodicals . Greeley borrowed money from friends to get started , and published the first issue of the Tribune on April 10 , 1841 — the day of a memorial parade in New York for President Harrison , who had died after a month in office and been replaced by Vice President Tyler .

In the first issue , Greeley promised that his newspaper would be a " new morning Journal of Politics , Literature , and General Intelligence " . New Yorkers were not initially receptive ; the first week 's receipts were $ 92 and expenses $ 525 . The paper was sold for a cent a copy by newsboys who purchased bundles of papers at a discount . The price of advertising was initially four cents a line , but was quickly raised to six cents . Through the 1840s , the Tribune was four pages , that is , a single sheet folded . It initially had 600 subscribers and 5 @,@ 000 copies were sold of the first issue .

In the early days , Greeley 's chief assistant was Henry J. Raymond , who a decade later founded The New York Times . To place the Tribune on a sound financial footing , Greeley sold a half @-@ interest in it to attorney Thomas McElrath , who became publisher of the Tribune ( Greeley was editor ) and ran the business side . Politically , the Tribune backed Kentucky Senator Henry Clay , who had unsuccessfully sought the presidential nomination that fell to Harrison , and supported Clay 's American System for development of the country . Greeley was one of the first newspaper editors to have a full @-@ time correspondent in Washington , an innovation quickly followed by his rivals . Part of Greeley 's strategy was to make the Tribune a newspaper of national scope , not merely local . One factor in establishing the paper nationally was the Weekly Tribune , created in September , 1841 when the Log Cabin and The New @-@ Yorker were merged . With an initial subscription price of $ 2 a year , this was sent to many across the United States by mail , and was especially popular in the Midwest . In December 1841 , Greeley was offered the editorship of the national Whig newspaper , the Madisonian . He demanded full control , and declined when not given it .

Greeley , in his paper , initially supported the Whig program . As divisions between Clay and President Tyler became apparent , he supported the Kentucky senator and looked to a Clay nomination for president in 1844 . However , when Clay was nominated by the Whigs , he was defeated by the Democrat , former Tennessee governor James K. Polk , though Greeley worked hard on Clay 's behalf . Greeley had taken positions in opposition to slavery as editor of The New @-@ Yorker in the late 1830s , opposing the annexation of the slaveholding Republic of Texas to the United States . In the 1840s , Greeley became an increasingly vocal opponent of the expansion of slavery .

Greeley hired Margaret Fuller in 1844 as first literary editor of the Tribune , for which she wrote over 200 articles . She lived with the Greeley family for several years , and when she moved to Italy , he made her a foreign correspondent . He promoted the work of Henry David Thoreau , serving as literary agent and seeing to it that Thoreau 's work was published . Ralph Waldo Emerson also benefited from Greeley 's promotion . Historian Allan Nevins explained :

The Tribune set a new standard in American journalism by its combination of energy in news gathering with good taste , high moral standards , and intellectual appeal . Police reports , scandals , dubious medical advertisements , and flippant personalities were barred from its pages ; the editorials were vigorous but usually temperate ; the political news was the most exact in the city ; book reviews and book @-@ extracts were numerous ; and as an inveterate lecturer Greeley gave generous space to lectures . The paper appealed to substantial and thoughtful people .

Greeley , who had met his wife at a Graham boarding house , became enthusiastic about other social movements that did not last , and promoted them in his paper . He subscribed to the views of Charles Fourier , a French mathematician and social thinker , then recently deceased , who proposed the establishment of settlements called " phalanxes " with a given number of people from various walks of life , who would function as a corporation and among whose members profits would be shared . Greeley , in addition to promoting Fourierism in the Tribune , was associated with two such settlements , both of which eventually failed , though the town that eventually developed on the site of the one in Pennsylvania was after his death renamed Greeley .

= = = Congressman ( 1848 – 1849 ) = = =

In November 1848 , Congressman David S. Jackson , a Democrat , of New York 's Sixth District was unseated for election fraud . Jackson 's term was to expire in March 1849 , but during the 19th century Congress convened annually in December , making it important to fill the seat . Under the laws then in force , the Whig committee from the Sixth District chose Jackson 's replacement and they chose Greeley , though they did not select him as their candidate for the seat in the following Congress . The Sixth District , or Sixth Ward as it was commonly called , was mostly Irish @-@ American , and Greeley proclaimed his support for Irish efforts towards independence from Great Britain . He took his seat when Congress convened in December 1848 . Greeley 's selection was procured by the influence of his ally , Thurlow Weed .

As a congressman for three months , Greeley introduced legislation for a homestead act that would allow settlers who improved land to purchase it at low rates — a fourth of what speculators would pay . He was quickly noticed because he launched a series of attacks on legislative privileges , taking note of which congressmen were missing votes , and questioning the office of House Chaplain . This was enough to make him unpopular . But he outraged his colleagues when on December 22 , 1848 the Tribune published evidence that many congressmen had been paid excessive sums as travel allowance . In January 1849 , Greeley supported a bill that would have corrected the issue , but it was defeated . He was so disliked , he wrote a friend , that he had " divided the House into two parties — one that would like to see me extinguished and the other that wouldn 't be satisfied without a hand in doing it . "

Other legislation , all failed , introduced by Greeley included attempts to end flogging in the Navy , and to ban alcohol from its ships . He tried to change the name of the United States to " Columbia " , abolish slavery in the District of Columbia , and increase tariffs . One lasting effect of the term of Congressman Greeley was his friendship with a fellow Whig , serving his only term in the House , Illinois 's Abraham Lincoln . Greeley 's term ended after March 3 , 1849 , and he returned to New York and the Tribune , having , according to Williams , " failed to achieve much except notoriety " .

= = = Influence ( 1849 – 1860 ) = = =

By the end of the 1840s , Greeley 's Tribune was not only solidly established in New York as a daily paper , it was highly influential nationally through its weekly edition , which circulated in rural areas and small towns . Journalist Bayard Taylor deemed its influence in the Midwest second only to that of the Bible . According to Williams , the Tribune could mold public opinion through Greeley 's editorials more effectively than could the president . Greeley sharpened those skills over time , laying down what future Secretary of State John Hay , who worked for the Tribune in the 1870s , deemed the " Gospel according to St. Horace " .

The Tribune remained a Whig paper , but Greeley took an independent course . In 1848 , he had been slow to endorse the Whig presidential nominee , General Zachary Taylor , a Louisianan and hero of the Mexican @-@ American War . Greeley opposed both the war and the expansion of slavery into the new territories seized from Mexico , and feared Taylor would support expansion as president . Greeley considered endorsing former president Martin Van Buren , candidate of the Free Soil Party , but finally endorsed Taylor , who was elected ; the editor was rewarded for his loyalty with the congressional term . Greeley vacillated on support for the Compromise of 1850 , which gave victories to both sides of the slavery issue , before finally opposing it . In the 1852 presidential race , he supported the Whig candidate , General Winfield Scott , but savaged the Whig platform for its support of the Compromise . " We defy it , execrate it , spit upon it . " Such party divisions contributed to Scott 's defeat by former New Hampshire senator Franklin Pierce .

In 1853 , with the party increasingly divided over the slavery issue , Greeley printed an editorial disclaiming the paper 's identity as Whig and declaring it to be nonpartisan . He was confident that the paper would not suffer financially , trusting in reader loyalty . Some in the party were not sorry to see him go : the Republic , a Whig organ , mocked Greeley and his beliefs : " If a party is to be built up and maintained on Fourierism , Mesmerism , Maine Liquor laws , Spiritual Rappings , Kossuthism , Socialism , Abolitionism , and forty other isms , we have no disposition to mix with any such companions . " When in 1854 , Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas introduced his Kansas @-@ Nebraska Bill , allowing residents of each territory to decide whether it would be slave or free , Greeley strongly fought the legislation in his newspaper . After it passed , and the Border War broke out in Kansas Territory , Greeley was part of efforts to send free @-@ state settlers there , and to arm them . In return , proponents of slavery recognized Greeley and the Tribune as adversaries , stopping shipments of the paper to the South and harassing local agents . Nevertheless , by 1858 , the Tribune reached 300 @,@ 000 subscribers through the weekly edition , and it would continue as the foremost American newspaper through the years of the Civil War .

The Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act helped destroy the Whig Party , but a new party with opposition to the spread of slavery at its heart had been under discussion for some years . Beginning in 1853 , Greeley participated in the discussions that led to the founding of the Republican Party and may have coined its name . Greeley attended the first New York state Republican Convention in 1854 , and was disappointed not to be nominated either for governor or lieutenant governor . The switch in parties coincided with the end of two of his longtime political alliances : in December 1854 , Greeley wrote that the political partnership between Weed , William Seward ( who was by then senator after serving as governor ) and himself was ended " by the withdrawal of the junior partner " . Greeley was angered over patronage disputes , and felt Seward was courting the rival The New York Times for support .

In 1853 , Greeley purchased a farm in rural Chappaqua , New York , where he experimented with farming techniques . In 1856 , he designed and built Rehoboth , one of the first concrete structures in the United States .

The Tribune continued to print a wide variety of material . In 1851 , its managing editor Charles Dana recruited Karl Marx as a foreign correspondent in London . Marx collaborated with Friedrich Engels on his work for the Tribune , which continued for over a decade , covering 500 articles . Greeley felt compelled to print , " Mr. Marx has very decided opinions of his own , with some of which we are far from agreeing , but those who do not read his letters are neglecting one of the most instructive sources of information on the great questions of current European politics . "

In 1859 , Greeley traveled across the continent to see the West for himself , to write about it for the Tribune , and to publicize the need for a transcontinental railroad . He also planned to give speeches to promote the Republican Party . He went to Chicago , then to Lawrence in Kansas Territory , and was unimpressed by the local people . Greeley took one of the first stagecoaches to Denver , seeing the town then in course of formation as a mining camp of the Pike 's Peak Gold Rush . Sending dispatches back to be published in the Tribune , Greeley took the Overland Trail , reaching Salt Lake City , where he conducted a two @-@ hour interview with the Mormon leader , Brigham Young , the first newspaper interview Young had given . Greeley encountered Native Americans , and was sympathetic , but like many of his time , deemed Indian culture inferior . In California , he explored widely and gave many addresses .

= = = 1860 campaign = = =

Although he remained on cordial terms with Senator Seward , Greeley never seriously considered supporting him in his bid for the Republican nomination for president . Instead , during the run @-@ up to the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago , he pressed the candidacy of former Missouri representative Edward Bates , an opponent of the spread of slavery who had freed his own slaves . In his newspaper , in speeches , and in conversation , Greeley pushed Bates as a man who could win the North and even make inroads in the South . Nevertheless , when one of the dark horse candidates for the Republican nomination , Abraham Lincoln , came to New York to give an address at Cooper Union , Greeley urged his readers to go hear Lincoln , and was among those who accompanied him to the platform . Greeley thought of Lincoln as a possible nominee for vice president .

Greeley attended the convention as a substitute for a delegate from Oregon who was unable to attend . In Chicago , he promoted Bates but deemed his cause hopeless and felt that Seward would be nominated . In conversations with other delegates , he predicted that , if nominated , Seward could not carry crucial battleground states such as Pennsylvania . Greeley 's estrangement from Seward was not widely known , giving the editor more credibility . Greeley ( and Seward ) biographer Glyndon G. Van Deusen noted that it is uncertain how great a part Greeley played in Seward 's defeat by Lincoln — he had little success gaining delegates for Bates . On the first two ballots , Seward led Lincoln , but on the second only by a small margin . After the third ballot , on which Lincoln was nominated , Greeley was seen among the Oregon delegation , a broad smile on his face . According to Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning historian Doris Kearns Goodwin , " it is hard to imagine Lincoln letting Greeley 's resentment smolder for years as Seward did " .

Seward 's forces made Greeley a target of their anger at the senator 's defeat . One subscriber cancelled , regretting the three @-@ cent stamp he had to use on the letter ; Greeley supplied a replacement . When he was attacked in print , Greeley responded in kind . He launched a campaign against corruption in the New York Legislature , hoping voters would defeat incumbents and the new legislators would elect him to the Senate when Seward 's term expired in 1861 ( senators were until 1913 elected by state legislatures ) . But his main activity during the campaign of 1860 was boosting Lincoln and denigrating the other presidential candidates . He made it clear that a Republican administration would not interfere with slavery where it already was , and denied that Lincoln was in favor of voting rights for African Americans . He kept up the pressure until Lincoln was elected in November .

Lincoln soon let it be known that Seward would be Secretary of State , meaning he would not be a candidate for re @-@ election to the Senate . Weed wanted William M. Evarts elected in his place , while the anti @-@ Seward forces in New York gathered around Greeley . The crucial battleground was the Republican caucus , as the party held the majority in the legislature . Greeley 's forces did not have enough votes to send him to the Senate , but they had enough strength to block Evarts 's candidacy . Weed threw his support to Ira Harris , who had already received several votes , and who was chosen by the caucus and elected by the legislature in February 1861 . Weed was content to have blocked the editor , and stated that he had " paid the first installment on a large debt to Mr. Greeley " .

= = = Civil War = = =

= = = = War breaks out = = = =

After Lincoln 's election , there was talk of secession in the South . The Tribune was initially in favor of peaceful separation , with the South becoming a separate nation . According to an editorial on November 9 @,@

If the Cotton States shall become satisfied that they can do better out of the Union than in it , we insist on letting them go in peace . The right to secede may be a revolutionary one , but it exists nevertheless .... And whenever a considerable section of our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out , we shall resist all coercive measures designed to keep it in . We hope never to live in a republic where of one section is pinned to the residue by bayonets .

Similar editorials appeared through January 1861 , after which Tribune editorials took a hard line on the South , opposing concessions . Williams concludes that " for a brief moment , Horace Greeley had believed that peaceful secession might be a form of freedom preferable to civil war " . This brief flirtation with disunion would have consequences for Greeley — it was used by his opponents against him when he ran for president in 1872 .

In the days leading up to Lincoln 's inauguration , the Tribune headed its editorial columns each day , in large capital letters : " No compromise ! / No concession to traitors ! / The Constitution as it is ! " Greeley attended the inauguration , sitting close to Senator Douglas , as the Tribune hailed the beginning of Lincoln 's presidency . When southern forces attacked Fort Sumter , the Tribune regretted the loss of the fort , but applauded the fact that war to subdue the rebels , who formed the Confederate States of America , would now take place . The paper criticized Lincoln for not being quick to use force .

Through the spring and early summer of 1861 , Greeley and the Tribune beat the drum for a Union attack . " On to Richmond " , a phrase coined by a Tribune stringer , became the watchword of the newspaper as Greeley urged the occupation of the rebel capital of Richmond before the Confederate Congress could meet on July 20 . In part because of the public pressure , Lincoln sent the half @-@ trained Union Army into the field at the First Battle of Manassas in mid @-@ July where it was soundly beaten . The defeat threw Greeley into despair , and he may have suffered a nervous breakdown .

= = = = " Prayer of Twenty Millions " = = = =

Restored to health by two weeks at the farm he had purchased in Chappaqua , Greeley returned to the Tribune and a policy of general backing of the Lincoln administration , even having kind words to say about Secretary Seward , his old foe . He was supportive even during the military defeats of the first year of the war . Late in 1861 , he proposed to Lincoln through an intermediary that the president provide him with advance information as to its policies , in exchange for friendly coverage in the Tribune . Lincoln eagerly accepted , " having him firmly behind me will be as helpful to me as an army of one hundred thousand men . "

By early 1862 , however , Greeley was again sometimes critical of the administration , frustrated by the failure to win decisive military victories , and perturbed at the president 's slowness to commit to the emancipation of the slaves once the Confederacy was defeated , something the Tribune was urging in its editorials . This was a change in Greeley 's thinking which began after First Manassas , a shift from preservation of the Union being the primary war purpose to wanting the war to end slavery . By March , the only action against slavery that Lincoln had backed was a proposal for compensated emancipation in the border states that had remained loyal to the Union , though he signed legislation abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia . Lincoln supposedly asked a Tribune correspondent , " What in the world is the matter with Uncle Horace ? Why can 't he restrain himself and wait a little while ? "

Greeley 's prodding of Lincoln culminated in a letter to him on August 19 , 1862 , reprinted on the following day in the Tribune as the " Prayer of Twenty Millions " . By this time , Lincoln had informed his Cabinet of the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation he had composed , and Greeley was told of it the same day the prayer was printed . In his letter , Greeley demanded action on emancipation , and strict enforcement of the Confiscation Acts . Lincoln must " fight slavery with liberty " , and not fight " wolves with the devices of a sheep " .

Lincoln 's reply would become famous , much more so than the prayer that provoked it . " My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union , and is not either to save or to destroy slavery . If I could save the Union without freeing any slave , I would do it , and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it ; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that . What I do about slavery , and the colored race , I do because it helps to save the Union ; and what I forbear , I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union . " Lincoln 's statement angered abolitionists ; William Seward 's wife Frances complained to her husband that Lincoln had made it seem " that the mere keeping together a number of states is more important than human freedom . " Greeley felt Lincoln had not truly answered him , " but I 'll forgive him everything if he 'll issue the proclamation " . When Lincoln did , on September 22 , Greeley hailed the Emancipation Proclamation as a " great boon of freedom " . According to Williams , " Lincoln 's war for Union was now also Greeley 's war for emancipation . "

= = = = Draft Riots and peace efforts = = = =

After the Union victory at Gettysburg in early July 1863 , the Tribune wrote that the rebellion would be quickly " stamped out " . A week after the battle , the New York City draft riots erupted . Greeley and the Tribune were generally supportive of conscription , though feeling that the rich should not be allowed to evade it by hiring substitutes . Support for the draft made them targets of the mob , and the Tribune Building was surrounded , and at least once invaded . Greeley secured arms from the Brooklyn Navy Yard and 150 soldiers kept the building secure . Mary Greeley and her children were at the farm in Chappaqua ; a mob threatened them , but dispersed without doing harm .

In August 1863 , Greeley was requested by a firm of Hartford publishers to write a history of the war . Greeley agreed , and over the next eight months penned a 600 @-@ page volume , which would be the first of two , entitled The American Conflict . The books were very successful , selling a total of 225 @,@ 000 copies by 1870 , a large sale for the time .

Throughout the war , Greeley played with ideas as to how to settle it . In 1862 , Greeley had approached the French minister to Washington , Henri Mercier , to discuss a mediated settlement . However , Seward rejected such talks and the prospect of European intervention receded after the bloody Union victory at Antietam in September 1862 . In July 1864 , Greeley received word that there were Confederate commissioners in Canada , empowered to offer peace . In fact , the men were in Niagara Falls , Canada to aid Peace Democrats and otherwise undermine the Union war effort. but they played along when Greeley journeyed to Niagara Falls , at Lincoln 's request : the president was willing to consider any deal that included reunion and emancipation . The Confederates had no credentials and were unwilling to accompany Greeley to Washington under safe conduct . Greeley returned to New York , and the episode , when it became public , embarrassed the administration . Lincoln said nothing publicly concerning Greeley 's credulous conduct , but privately indicated that he had no confidence in him anymore .

Greeley did not initially support Lincoln for nomination in 1864 , casting about for other candidates . In February , he wrote in the Tribune that Lincoln could not be elected to a second term . Nevertheless , no candidate made a serious challenge to Lincoln , who was nominated in June , which the Tribune applauded slightly . In August , fearing a Democratic victory and acceptance of the Confederacy , Greeley engaged in a plot to get a new convention to nominate another candidate , with Lincoln withdrawing . The plot came to nothing . Once Atlanta was taken by Union forces on September 3 , Greeley became a fervent supporter of Lincoln . Greeley was gratified both by Lincoln 's re @-@ election and continued Union victories .

= = = Reconstruction = = =

As the war drew to a close in April 1865 , Greeley and the Tribune urged magnanimity towards the defeated Confederates , arguing that making martyrs of Confederate leaders would only inspire future rebels . This talk of moderation ceased when Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth . Many concluded that Lincoln had fallen as the result of a final rebel plot , and the new president , Andrew Johnson , offered $ 100 @,@ 000 for the capture of fugitive Confederate president Jefferson Davis . After the rebel leader was caught , Greeley initially advocated that " punishment be meted out in accord with a just verdict " .

Through 1866 , Greeley editorialized that Davis , who was being held at Fortress Monroe , should either be set free or put on trial . Davis 's wife Varina urged Greeley to use his influence to gain her husband 's release . In May 1867 , a Richmond judge set bail for the former Confederate president at $ 100 @,@ 000 . Greeley was among those who signed the bail bond , and the two men met briefly at the courthouse . This act resulted in public anger against Greeley in the North . Sales of the second volume of his history ( published in 1866 ) declined sharply . Subscriptions to the Tribune ( especially the Weekly Tribune ) also dropped off , though they recovered during the 1868 election .

Beginning as a supporter , Greeley soon became disillusioned with President Johnson , whose Reconstruction policies allowed the quick formation of state governments without provision for suffrage for the freedman . When Congress convened and gradually took control of Reconstruction , Greeley generally supported their actions , favoring universal male suffrage and , his anger against the Confederates having cooled , amnesty . While Greeley generally supported the Radical Republicans , he did not like the harshness of Thaddeus Stevens . Greeley ran for Congress in 1866 , but lost badly , and for Senate in the legislative election held in early 1867 , to be defeated by Roscoe Conkling .

As president and Congress battled , Greeley remained firmly opposed to Johnson , and when the president was impeached in 1868 , Greeley and the Tribune strongly supported his removal , strongly attacking Johnson . Nevertheless , the president was acquitted by the Senate , much to Greeley 's disappointment . Also in 1868 , Greeley sought the Republican nomination for governor , but was frustrated by the Conkling forces . Greeley supported the successful Republican presidential nominee , General Ulysses S. Grant in the 1868 election .

= = = Grant years = = =

In 1868 , Whitelaw Reid joined the Tribune ' s staff as managing editor . In Reid , Greeley had found a reliable second @-@ in @-@ command . Also on the Tribune 's staff in the late 1860s was Mark Twain ; Henry George sometimes contributed pieces , as did Bret Harte . In 1870 , Lincoln 's assistant private secretary , John Hay , joined the staff as an editorial writer . Greeley soon pronounced Hay the most brilliant at that craft ever to write for the Tribune .

Greeley maintained his interest in associationism . Beginning in 1869 , he was heavily involved in an attempt to found a utopia on the prairie in a scheme led by Nathan Meeker . Named Greeley , Colorado Territory , its namesake served as treasurer of the town association , bought two lots there , which he inspected in 1870 , and lent Meeker money to keep the colony afloat . Greeley 's close friend P. T. Barnum also interested himself in the project , and built a hotel there . After early struggles , the colony survived under Meeker 's leadership , though adopting a normal municipal government . In 1871 , Greeley published a book What I Know About Farming , based on his childhood experience and that from his country home in Chappaqua .

Greeley continued to seek political office , running for state comptroller in 1869 and the House of Representatives in 1870 , losing both times . In 1870 , President Grant offered Greeley the post of minister to Santo Domingo ( today , the Dominican Republic ) , which he declined .

= = Presidential candidate = =

As had been the case for much of the 19th century , political parties continued to be formed and to vanish after the Civil War . In September 1871 , Missouri Senator Carl Schurz formed the Liberal Republican Party , founded on opposition to President Grant , opposition to corruption , and support of civil service reform , lower taxes , and land reform . He gathered around him an eclectic group of supporters whose only real link was their opposition to Grant , whose administration had proved increasingly corrupt . The party needed a candidate , with a presidential election upcoming . Greeley was one of the best @-@ known Americans , as well as being a perennial candidate for office . He was more minded to consider a run for the Republican nomination , fearing the effect on the Tribune should he bolt the party . Nevertheless , he wanted to be president , as a Republican if possible , if not , as a Liberal Republican .

The Liberal Republican national convention met in Cincinnati in May 1872 . Greeley was spoken of as a possible candidate , as was Missouri Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown . Schurz was ineligible as foreign @-@ born . On the first ballot , Supreme Court Justice David Davis led , but Greeley took a narrow lead on the second ballot . Former minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams took the lead , but on the sixth ballot , after a " spontaneous " demonstration staged by Reid , Greeley gained the nomination , with Brown as vice presidential candidate .

The Democrats , when they met in Baltimore in July , faced a stark choice — either nominate Greeley , long a thorn in their side , or split the anti @-@ Grant vote and go to certain defeat . They chose the former , and even adopted the Liberal Republican platform , calling for equal rights for African Americans . This was the first time one man had been nominated for president by two political parties . Greeley resigned as editor of the Tribune for the campaign , and , unusually for the time , embarked on a speaking tour to bring his message to the people . As it was more usual for candidates for major office to not actively campaign , he was attacked as a seeker after office . Nevertheless , in late July , Greeley ( and others , such as former Ohio governor Rutherford B. Hayes ) thought he would very likely be elected . Greeley campaigned on a platform of intersectional reconciliation , arguing that the war was over and the issue of slavery was resolved . It was time to restore normalcy and end the continuing military occupation of the South .

The Republican counterattack was well @-@ financed , accusing Greeley of support for everything from treason to the Ku Klux Klan . The anti @-@ Greeley campaign was famously and effectively summed up in the cartoons of Thomas Nast , whom Grant later credited with a major role in his re @-@ election . Nast 's cartoons showed Greeley giving bail money for Jefferson Davis , throwing mud on Grant , and shaking hands with John Wilkes Booth across Lincoln 's grave . The Crédit Mobilier scandal — corruption in the financing of the Union Pacific Railroad — broke in September , but Greeley was unable to take advantage of the Grant administration 's ties to the scandal as he had stock in the railroad himself , and some alleged it had been given him in exchange for favorable coverage .

Greeley 's wife Mary had returned ill from a trip to Europe in late June . Her condition worsened in October , and he effectively broke off campaigning after October 12 to be with her . She died on October 30 , plunging him into despair a week before the election . Poor results for the Democrats in those states that had elections for other offices in September and October presaged defeat for Greeley , and so it proved . He received 2 @,@ 834 @,@ 125 votes to 3 @,@ 597 @,@ 132 for Grant , who secured 286 electors to 66 chosen for Greeley . The editor @-@ turned @-@ candidate won only six states : Georgia , Kentucky , Maryland , Missouri , Tennessee and Texas .

= = = Final month and death = = =

Greeley resumed the editorship of the Tribune , but quickly learned there was a movement under way to unseat him . He found himself unable to sleep , and after a final visit to the Tribune on November 13 ( a week after the election ) remained under medical care . At the recommendation of a family physician , Greeley was sent to the asylum of Dr. George S. Choate at Pleasantville , New York . There , he continued to worsen , and died on November 29 , with his two surviving daughters and Whitelaw Reid at his side .

His death came before the Electoral College convened . His 66 electoral votes were divided among four others , principally Indiana governor @-@ elect Thomas A. Hendricks and Greeley 's vice presidential running mate , Benjamin Gratz Brown .

Although Greeley had requested a simple funeral , his daughters ignored his wishes and arranged a grand affair . He is buried in Brooklyn 's Green @-@ Wood Cemetery . Among the mourners were old friends , Tribune employees including Reid and Hay , his journalistic rivals , and a broad array of politicians , led by President Grant .

= = Appraisal = =

Despite the venom that had been spewed over him in the presidential campaign , Greeley 's death was publicly mourned . Harper 's Weekly , which had printed Nast 's cartoons , wrote , " Since the assassination of Mr. Lincoln , the death of no American has been so sincerely deplored as that of Horace Greeley ; and its tragical circumstances have given a peculiarly affectionate pathos to all that has been said of him . " Henry Ward Beecher wrote in the Christian Union , " when Horace Greeley died , unjust and hard judgment of him died also " . Harriett Beecher Stowe noted Greeley 's eccentric dress , " That poor white hat ! If , alas , it covered many weaknesses , it covered also much strength , much real kindness and benevolence , and much that the world will be better for " .

Greeley 's view of freedom was based in the desire that all should have the opportunity to better themselves . According to his biographer , Erik S. Lunde , " a dedicated social reformer deeply sympathetic to the treatment of poor white males , slaves , free blacks , and white women , he still espoused the virtues of self @-@ help and free enterprise " . Van Deusen stated : " His genuine human sympathies , his moral fervor , even the exhibitionism that was a part of his makeup , made it inevitable that he should crusade for a better world . He did so with apostolic zeal . "

Nevertheless , Greeley 's effectiveness as a reformer was undermined by his idiosyncrasies : according to Williams , he " must have looked like an apparition , a man of eccentric habits dressed in an old linen coat that made him look like a farmer who came into town for supplies " . Van Deusen wrote , " Greeley 's effectiveness as a crusader was limited by some of his traits and characteristics . Culturally deficient , he was to the end ignorant of his own limitations , and this ignorance was a great handicap . "

The Tribune remained under that name until 1924 , when it merged with the New York Herald to become the New York Herald @-@ Tribune , which ceased to publish in 1966 . The name survived until 2013 , when the International Herald @-@ Tribune became the International New York Times .

There is a statue of Greeley in City Hall Park in New York , donated by the Tribune Association . Cast in 1890 , it was not dedicated until 1916 . A second statue of Greeley is located in Greeley Square in Midtown Manhattan . Greeley Square , at Broadway and 33rd Street , was named by the New York City Common Council in a vote after Greeley 's death . Van Deusen concluded his biography of Greeley :

More significant still was the service that Greeley performed as a result of his faith in his country and his countrymen , his belief in infinite American progress . For all his faults and shortcomings , Greeley symbolized an America that , though often shortsighted and misled , was never suffocated by the wealth pouring from its farms and furnaces ... For through his faith in the American future , a faith expressed in his ceaseless efforts to make real the promise of America , he inspired others with hope and confidence , making them feel that their dreams also had the substance of realty . It is his faith , and theirs that has given him his place in American history . In that faith he still marches among us , scolding and benevolent , exhorting us to confidence and to victory in the great struggles of our own day .

= = = Explanatory notes = = =

= Stede Bonnet =

Stede Bonnet ( c.1688 – 10 December 1718 ) was an early 18th @-@ century Barbadian pirate , sometimes called " The Gentleman Pirate " because he was a moderately wealthy landowner before turning to a life of crime . Bonnet was born into a wealthy English family on the island of Barbados , and inherited the family estate after his father 's death in 1694 . In 1709 , he married Mary Allamby , and engaged in some level of militia service . Because of marital problems , and despite his lack of sailing experience , Bonnet decided to turn to piracy in the summer of 1717 . He bought a sailing vessel , named it Revenge , and traveled with his paid crew along the Eastern Seaboard of what is now the United States , capturing other vessels and burning other Barbadian ships .

Bonnet set sail for Nassau , Bahamas , to the haven for pirates known as the ' Pirates ' republic ' , but he was seriously wounded en route during an encounter with a Spanish warship . After arriving in Nassau , Bonnet met Edward Teach , the infamous pirate Blackbeard . Incapable of leading his crew , Bonnet temporarily ceded his ship 's command to Blackbeard . Before separating in December 1717 , Blackbeard and Bonnet plundered and captured merchant ships along the East Coast . After Bonnet failed to capture the Protestant Caesar , his crew abandoned him to join Blackbeard aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge . Bonnet stayed on Blackbeard 's ship as a guest , and did not command a crew again until summer 1718 , when he was pardoned by North Carolina governor Charles Eden and received clearance to go privateering against Spanish shipping . Bonnet was tempted to resume his piracy , but did not want to lose his pardon , so he adopted the alias " Captain Thomas " and changed his ship 's name to Royal James . He had returned to piracy by July 1718 .

In August 1718 , Bonnet anchored the Royal James on an estuary of the Cape Fear River to careen and repair the ship . In late August and September , Colonel William Rhett , with the authorisation of South Carolina governor Robert Johnson , led a naval expedition against pirates on the river . Rhett and Bonnet 's men fought each other for hours , but the outnumbered pirates ultimately surrendered . Rhett arrested the pirates and brought them to Charleston in early October . Bonnet escaped on 24 October , but was recaptured on Sullivan 's Island . On 10 November , Bonnet was brought to trial and charged with two acts of piracy . Judge Nicholas Trott sentenced Bonnet to death . Bonnet wrote to Governor Johnson to ask for clemency , but Johnson endorsed the judge 's decision , and Bonnet was hanged in Charleston on 10 December 1718 .

= = Pre @-@ criminal life = =

Bonnet is believed to have been born in 1688 , as he was christened at Christ Church parish on 29 July 1688 . His parents , Edward and Sarah Bonnet , owned an estate of over 400 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) southeast of Bridgetown , which was bequeathed to Bonnet upon his father 's death in 1694 . It is not known where Bonnet received his education , but many who knew him described him as bookish , and Judge Nicholas Trott alluded to Bonnet 's liberal education when sentencing him . Bonnet married Mary Allamby in Bridgetown on 21 November 1709 . They had three sons — Allamby , Edward , and Stede — and a daughter , Mary . Allamby died before 1715 , while the other children survived to see their father abandon them for piracy . Edward 's granddaughter , Anne Thomasine Clarke , was the wife of General Robert Haynes , for 36 years Speaker of the Assembly of Barbados .

In A General History of the Pyrates , Charles Johnson wrote that Bonnet was driven to piracy by Mary 's nagging and " [ d ] iscomforts he found in a married State . " Details of Bonnet 's military service are unclear , but he held the rank of major in the Barbados militia . The rank was probably due to his land holdings , since deterring slave revolts was an important function of the militia . Bonnet 's militia service coincided with the War of the Spanish Succession , but there is no record that he took part in the fighting .

= = Early career as a pirate = =

During the spring of 1717 , Stede Bonnet decided to become a pirate , despite having no knowledge of shipboard life . He contracted a local shipyard to build him a sixty @-@ ton sloop , which he equipped with six guns and named the Revenge . This was unusual , as most pirates seized their ships by mutiny or boarding , or else converted a privateer vessel to a pirate ship . Bonnet enlisted a crew of more than seventy men . He relied on his quartermaster and officer for their knowledge of sailing , and as a result , he was not highly respected by his crew . In another break from tradition , Bonnet paid his crew wages , not shares of plunder as most pirates did . Royal Navy intelligence reported that he departed Carlisle Bay , Barbados under cover of darkness .

Bonnet 's initial cruise took him to the coast of Virginia near the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay , where he captured and plundered four vessels , and burned the Barbadian ship Turbet to keep news of his crimes from his home island . He then sailed north to New York , taking two more ships , and picking up naval supplies and releasing captives at Gardiners Island . By August 1717 , Bonnet had returned to the Carolinas , where he attacked two more ships , a brigantine from Boston and a Barbadian sloop . He stripped the brigantine , but brought the cargo @-@ filled Barbadian sloop to an inlet off North Carolina to use for careening and repairing the Revenge . After the Barbadian sloop 's tackle was used to careen the Revenge , the ship was dismantled for timber , and the remains were then burned . In September 1717 , Bonnet set course for Nassau , which was then an infamous pirate den on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas . En route , he encountered , fought , and escaped from a Spanish man of war . The Revenge was badly damaged , Bonnet was seriously wounded , and half the crew of the sloop was killed or wounded in the encounter . Putting in at Nassau , Bonnet replaced his casualties and refitted the Revenge , increasing the sloop 's armament to twelve guns .

= = Collaboration with Blackbeard = =

While at Nassau , Bonnet met Captain Benjamin Hornigold and Edward Teach for the first time ; Teach , better known as Blackbeard , played a large role in the remainder of Bonnet 's life . Disabled by his wounds , Bonnet temporarily ceded command of the Revenge to Blackbeard , but remained aboard as a guest of the more experienced pirate captain . Blackbeard and Bonnet weighed anchor and sailed northward to Delaware Bay , where they plundered eleven ships . On 29 September 1717 , the Revenge , captained by Blackbeard , plundered the sloop Betty , which had a cargo full of Madeira wine . Captain Codd , whose merchant ship was taken on 12 October , described Bonnet as walking the deck in his nightshirt , lacking any command and still unwell from his wounds . The Revenge later captured and looted the Spofford and Sea Nymph , which were leaving Philadelphia . On 22 October , the Revenge stopped and robbed the Robert and Good Intent of their supplies .

Blackbeard and Bonnet left Delaware Bay and returned to the Caribbean in November , where they successfully continued their piracy . On 17 November , a 200 @-@ ton ship named the Concorde was attacked by two pirate craft nearly 100 miles ( 160 km ) away from the island of Martinique . The lieutenant on board described the pirate vessels as one having 12 guns and 120 men and the other having eight guns and 30 men . The crew of the Concorde put up a fight , but surrendered after the pirates bombarded them with " two volleys of cannons and musketry . " Blackbeard took the Concorde and sailed south into the Grenadines , where he renamed the ship Queen Anne 's Revenge , possibly as an insult to King George I of Great Britain . Some time after 19 December , Bonnet and Blackbeard separated . Bonnet now sailed into the western Caribbean . In March 1718 , he encountered the 400 @-@ ton merchant vessel Protestant Caesar off Honduras . The ship escaped him , and his frustrated crew became restive . When Bonnet encountered Blackbeard again shortly afterward , Bonnet 's crew deserted him to join Blackbeard . Blackbeard put a henchman named Richards in command of the Revenge . Bonnet , surprised that his colleague had betrayed him , found himself as a guest aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge . Bonnet confided in a few loyal crew members that he was ready to give up his criminal life if he could exile himself in Spain or Portugal . Bonnet would not exercise command again until the summer of 1718 .

Under Captain Richards , the Revenge captured a Jamaican sloop , the Adventure , captained by David Herriot . Herriot joined the pirates , and Blackbeard now possessed three ships . Bonnet accompanied Blackbeard to South Carolina , where Blackbeard 's four vessels blockaded the port of Charleston in the late spring of 1718 . Needing a place to rest and refit their vessels , Blackbeard and Bonnet headed north to Topsail Inlet , where the Queen Anne 's Revenge ran aground and was lost . Leaving the remaining three vessels at Topsail Inlet , Blackbeard and Bonnet went ashore and journeyed to Bath , which was then capital of North Carolina . Once there , both men accepted pardons from Governor Charles Eden under King George 's Act of Grace , putatively on condition of their renouncing piracy forever . While Blackbeard quietly returned to Topsail Inlet , Bonnet stayed in Bath to get a " clearance " to take the Revenge to Denmark 's Caribbean colony of St. Thomas , where he planned to buy a letter of marque and go privateering against Spanish shipping . Eden granted Bonnet this clearance .

= = Resumption of pirate command = =

Bonnet returned to Topsail Inlet to find that Blackbeard had beached the majority of their former crew , robbed the Revenge and two other vessels of the squadron of most of their supplies , and sailed away for parts unknown aboard the sloop Adventure , carrying all the loot with him . Bonnet now ( probably late June or early July 1718 ) resumed command of the Revenge . Few , if any , of his original crew from Barbados were still aboard . Bonnet reinforced the Revenge by rescuing a number of men whom Blackbeard had marooned on a sandbar in Topsail Inlet .

Shortly after Bonnet resumed command , a bumboat 's crew told him that Blackbeard was moored in Ocracoke Inlet . Bonnet set sail at once to hunt down his treacherous ex @-@ confederate , but could not find him , and Bonnet never met Blackbeard again . Although Bonnet apparently never discarded his hopes of reaching St. Thomas and getting his letter of marque , two pressing problems now tempted him back into piracy . First , Blackbeard had stolen the food and supplies he and his men needed to subsist ( one pirate testified at his trial that no more than ten or eleven barrels remained aboard the Revenge ) . Second , St. Thomas was now in the midst of the Atlantic hurricane season , which would last until autumn . However , returning to freebooting meant nullifying Bonnet 's pardon .

Hoping to preserve his pardon , Bonnet adopted the alias " Captain Thomas " and changed the Revenge 's name to the Royal James . The name Royal James that Bonnet conferred on his sloop was presumably a reference to the younger Prince James Stuart , and may suggest that Bonnet or his men had Jacobite sympathies . One of Bonnet 's prisoners further reported witnessing Bonnet 's men drinking to the health of the Old Pretender and wishing to see him king of the English nation .

Bonnet further tried to disguise his return to piracy by engaging in a pretense of trade with the next two vessels he robbed . Soon afterward , Bonnet quit the charade of trading and reverted to naked piracy . In July 1718 , he cruised north to Delaware Bay , pillaging another eleven vessels . He took several prisoners , some of whom joined his pirate crew . While Bonnet set loose most of his prizes after looting them , he retained control of the last two ships he captured : the sloops Francis and Fortune . On 1 August 1718 , the Royal James and the two captured sloops sailed southward from Delaware Bay . The captured sloops lagged behind , and Bonnet threatened to sink them if they did not stay closer . During the passage , Bonnet and his crew divided their loot into shares of about £ 10 or £ 11 and distributed them amongst themselves . This is the only time Bonnet is known to have practiced this important pirate custom , and it suggests he had by then abandoned his unorthodox practice of paying regular wages to his crew .

Twelve days out of Delaware Bay , Bonnet entered the estuary of the Cape Fear River and anchored near the mouth of a small waterway now known as Bonnet 's Creek . The Royal James had begun to leak badly and was in need of careening . Shortly afterward , a small shallop entered the river and was captured . Bonnet had the shallop broken up to help repair the Royal James . The work of careening was done , in whole or in part , by the prisoners Bonnet had captured . Bonnet threatened at least one man with marooning if he did not work the Royal James ' pumps . Bonnet remained in the Cape Fear River for the next 45 days . According to Bonnet 's boatswain , Ignatius Pell , the pirates intended to wait out the hurricane season there .

= = Battle of Cape Fear River = =

By the end of August , news had reached Charleston that Bonnet 's vessels were moored in the Cape Fear River . Robert Johnson , governor of South Carolina , authorised Colonel William Rhett to lead a naval expedition against the pirates , even though the Cape Fear River was in North Carolina 's jurisdiction . After a false start due to the appearance of another pirate ship near Charleston , Rhett arrived at the mouth of the Cape Fear River on 26 September with two eight @-@ gun sloops , the Henry and the Sea Nymph , and a force of 130 militia men . Bonnet initially mistook Rhett 's squadron for merchantmen and sent three canoes to capture them . Unfortunately for Rhett , his flagship Henry had run aground in the river mouth , enabling Bonnet 's canoe crews to approach , recognise the heavily armed and manned sloops as hostile and return uninjured to warn Bonnet . The sun had set by the time the rising tide lifted the Henry off the river bottom .

The 46 pirates were scattered among the three sloops . During the night , Bonnet brought all of them aboard the Royal James and planned to fight his way out to sea in the morning rather than risk the Cape Fear River 's narrow channels in the dark . Bonnet also wrote a letter to Governor Johnson , threatening to burn all the ships in Charleston harbor . At daybreak , on 27 September 1718 , Bonnet set sail toward Rhett 's force , and all three sloops opened fire , initiating the Battle of Cape Fear River . The two South Carolinian sloops split up in an effort to bracket the Royal James . Bonnet tried to avoid the trap by steering the Royal James close to the river 's western shore , but ran aground in the process . Rhett 's closing sloops also ran aground , leaving only the Henry in range of the Royal James .

The battle was at a stalemate for the next five or six hours , with all the participants immobilised . Bonnet 's men had the advantage that their deck was heeled away from their opponents , giving them cover , while the Henry 's deck was tilted toward the pirates , thus exposing Rhett 's men to punishing musket volleys . Bonnet 's force suffered twelve casualties while killing ten and wounding fourteen of Rhett 's 70 @-@ man crew . Most of Bonnet 's men fought enthusiastically , challenging their enemies to board and fight hand to hand , and tying a knot in their flag as a mock signal to come aboard and render aid . Bonnet himself patrolled the deck with a pistol drawn , threatening to kill any pirate who faltered in the fight . Nevertheless , some of the prisoners who had been forced to join the pirate crew refused to fire on Rhett 's men , and one narrowly escaped death at Bonnet 's hands in the confusion of the engagement .

The battle was ultimately decided when the rising tide lifted Rhett 's sloops free while temporarily leaving the Royal James stranded . Bonnet was left helpless , watching while the enemy vessels repaired their rigging and closed to board his paralysed vessel . Outnumbered almost three to one , Bonnet 's men would have had little hope of winning a boarding action . Bonnet ordered his gunner , George Ross , to blow up the Royal James 's powder magazine . Ross apparently attempted this , but was overruled by the remainder of the crew , who surrendered . Rhett arrested the pirates and returned to Charleston with his prisoners on 3 October .

= = Escape , recapture , and execution = =

In Charleston , Bonnet was separated from the bulk of his crew and held for three weeks in the provost marshal 's house along with his boatswain , Ignatius Pell , and his sailing master , David Herriott . On 24 October , Bonnet and Herriott escaped , probably by colluding with local merchant Richard Tookerman . Governor Johnson at once placed a £ 700 bounty on Bonnet 's head and dispatched search teams to track him down . Bonnet and Herriott , accompanied by a slave and an Indian , obtained a boat and made for the north shore of Charleston Harbor , but foul winds and lack of supplies forced the four of them onto Sullivan 's Island . Governor Johnson sent a posse under Rhett to Sullivan 's Island to hunt for Bonnet . The posse discovered Bonnet after an extensive search , and opened fire , killing Herriott and wounding the two slaves . Bonnet surrendered and was returned to Charleston . While awaiting trial , some sort of civil uprising in his support took place within the city , an event authorities would later describe as having nearly resulted in the burning of the town and the overthrow of the government .

On 10 November 1718 , Bonnet was brought to trial before Sir Nicholas Trott , sitting in his capacity as Vice @-@ Admiralty judge . Trott had already sat in judgment on Bonnet 's crew and sentenced most of them to hang . Bonnet was formally charged with only two acts of piracy , against the Francis and the Fortune , whose commanders were on hand to testify against Bonnet in person . Ignatius Pell had turned King 's evidence in the trial of Bonnet 's crew and now testified , somewhat reluctantly , against Bonnet himself . Bonnet pleaded not guilty and conducted his own defence without assistance of counsel , cross @-@ examining the witnesses to little avail , and calling a character witness in his favor . Trott rendered a damning summation of the evidence , and the jury delivered a guilty verdict . Two days later , after treating the convicted man to a stern lecture on his violation of Christian duties , Trott sentenced Bonnet to death .

While awaiting his execution , Bonnet wrote to Governor Johnson , begging abjectly for clemency and promising to have his own arms and legs cut off as assurance that he would never again commit piracy . Charles Johnson wrote that Bonnet 's visibly disintegrating mind moved many Carolinians to pity , particularly the female population , and London papers later reported that the governor delayed his execution seven times . Bonnet was eventually hanged at White Point Garden , in Charleston , on 10 December 1718 .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Bonnet 's authority = = =

The actual degree of authority any pirate captain exercised over his crew was questionable , as he had no access to the procedures and sanctions of admiralty law that supported legitimate captains . Many pirate captains were elected by their crews and could be deposed in the same manner . Because of his ignorance of nautical matters , Bonnet was in an even weaker position than other pirate captains , as is demonstrated by the utter domination Blackbeard exercised over him during their collaboration . During Bonnet 's early career , his crew seems to have been less than loyal to him and to have greatly preferred the more charismatic and experienced Blackbeard .

At his trial , Bonnet downplayed his own authority over his pirate crew . He told the court that his crew engaged in piracy against his will , and said he had warned them that he would leave the crew unless they stopped robbing vessels . He further stated that he had been asleep during the capture of the sloop Francis . The court did not accept these protestations . Boatswain Ignatius Pell testified that Bonnet 's quartermaster , Robert Tucker , had more power than Bonnet . A powerful quartermaster appears to have been a common feature of pirate crews in the early modern era .

Nevertheless , Bonnet 's crew represented him as being a leader , and it appears likely that , after his rescue of Blackbeard 's marooned crewmen , he became at least a co @-@ equal commander aboard the Royal James . He appears to have been entrusted with the company 's treasure , and made most major command decisions such as the direction of the ship and what vessels to attack . Most significantly , at Delaware Bay he ordered two of his crew to be flogged for breaches of discipline . Pirates did not lightly submit to flogging , as they resented the frequent use of this punishment in the naval and merchant services from which most of them came , and thus only a leader who commanded the obedience of his crew could successfully order such penalties .

= = = Bonnet 's pirate flag = = =

Bonnet 's flag is traditionally represented as a white skull above a horizontal long bone between a heart and a dagger , all on a black field . Despite the frequent appearance of this flag in modern pirate literature , no known early @-@ Georgian period source describes any such device , much less attributes it to Bonnet . This version of Bonnet 's flag is probably one of a number of pirate flags appearing on an undated manuscript with unknown provenance in Britain 's National Maritime Museum , which was donated by Dr. Philip Gosse in 1939 . Bonnet 's crew and contemporaries generally referred to him flying a " bloody flag " , which likely means a dark red flag . There is also a report from the 1718 Boston News @-@ Letter of Bonnet flying a death 's @-@ head flag during his pursuit of the Protestant Caesar , with no mention of color or of any long bone , heart , or dagger .

= = = Walking the plank = = =

Bonnet is alleged to have been one of the few pirates to make his prisoners walk the plank . No contemporary source makes any mention of Bonnet forcing prisoners to walk the plank , and modern scholars such as Marcus Rediker , Professor of History at the University of Pittsburgh , generally agree that the whole concept of pirates forcing prisoners to walk the plank belongs to a later age than Bonnet 's .

= = = Popular culture = = =

Bonnet has been portrayed several times in literature . He is a major character in Tim Powers ' On Stranger Tides , along with other famous piratical characters , particularly Blackbeard . In this novel , Bonnet takes up piracy after having been framed by Blackbeard , who has used Bonnet 's hatred for his wife ( only married two years in the novel ) against him . Kate Bonnet : The Romance of a Pirate 's Daughter , by 19th century author Frank Stockton , is a satirical novel relating the adventures of a fictional daughter of Bonnet named Kate . Portrayals of Bonnet also extend to video games , such as Sid Meier 's Pirates ! and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag

A plaque commemorating Bonnet stands near Bonnet 's Creek in Southport , North Carolina , on the Cape Fear River . The Yacht Basin Provision Company also holds an annual Stede Bonnet Regatta near Southport , commemorating the infamous pirate 's dash for the ocean .

= Henry DeWolf Smyth =

Henry DeWolf " Harry " Smyth ( / ˈhɛnri dəˈwʊlf ˈsmaɪθ / ; May 1 , 1898 – September 11 , 1986 ) was an American physicist , diplomat , and bureaucrat . He played a number of key roles in the early development of nuclear energy , as a participant in the Manhattan Project , a member of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , and U.S. ambassador to the International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA ) .

Educated at Princeton University and the University of Cambridge , he was a faculty member in Princeton 's Department of Physics from 1924 to 1966 . He chaired the department from 1935 to 1949 . His early research was on the ionization of gases , but his interests shifted toward nuclear physics beginning in the mid @-@ 1930s .

During World War II he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee 's Uranium Section and a consultant on the Manhattan Project . He wrote the Manhattan Project 's first public official history , which came to be known as the Smyth Report .

On the AEC from 1949 to 1954 , Smyth argued unsuccessfully against a crash course to develop the hydrogen bomb and in favor of international control of nuclear weapons . He was the sole member of the commission to vote against stripping J. Robert Oppenheimer 's security clearance . As IAEA ambassador from 1961 to 1970 he played an important role in the realization of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty .

He received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 and the U.S. State Department 's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970 . The American Nuclear Society 's award for " nuclear statesmanship " , of which he was the first recipient , is named in his honor .

= = Personal life = =

Smyth was born May 1 , 1898 , in Clinton , New York , to Ruth Anne Phelps and Charles Henry Smyth , Jr . , a professor of geology at Hamilton College . Woodrow Wilson , then President of Princeton University , convinced Smyth pére to join the faculty at Princeton , and in 1905 the family moved to Princeton , New Jersey .

Henry DeWolf Smyth 's elder brother , Charles Phelps Smyth , attended the same primary and secondary schools as Henry . The elder brother also received undergraduate and master 's degrees from Princeton , but in chemistry . He earned his Ph.D. at Harvard University but like Henry and their father became a faculty member at Princeton . Both brothers served in the Chemical Warfare Service in World War I and on the Manhattan Project .

Henry DeWolf Smyth married Mary de Coningh on June 30 , 1936 . He was a member of the Democratic Party .

= = Education = =

In Princeton , Smyth attended Miss Fine 's School , which later became the Princeton Day School , and the Lawrenceville School . After graduating from Lawrenceville in 1914 , he entered Princeton University , where he received a classical education and graduated first in his class in 1918 . He was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi .

Smyth remained at Princeton to do graduate work ; he and Allen Shenstone were the only graduate students in the Department of Physics . Smyth earned a master 's degree and Ph.D. in physics from Princeton in 1920 and 1921 , respectively , studying under Karl Taylor Compton . The U.S. National Research Council awarded Smyth a fellowship , and he joined the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge . There he studied under Ernest Rutherford and earned a second Ph.D. in 1923 . At Cambridge he was affiliated with Caius College and formed a friendship with Pyotr Kapitsa , a Soviet physicist who would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics and work briefly on the Soviet atomic bomb project .

= = Early career = =

During World War I , Smyth worked in the Chemical Warfare Service and at the Aberdeen Proving Ground . After earning his second Ph.D. , he returned to Princeton for the last year of his NRC fellowship . During his early years on the Princeton faculty he lived in the Graduate College west of the main campus . He was appointed an instructor in 1924 , an assistant professor in 1925 , an associate professor in 1929 , and a full professor in 1936 . In 1935 he became chairman of the Department of Physics , a position he held until 1949 . During 1931 – 32 he was a Guggenheim Fellow at the University of Göttingen , where he studied the spectra of triatomic molecules , particularly carbon dioxide , with James Franck .

Smyth 's early research was in spectroscopy , focusing on ionization of gases by impact with electrons as a means to study the gases ' critical energy levels . He published his first research article , on the radiating potentials of nitrogen gas , in 1919 ; this became the basis of his first dissertation . In a 1922 article , he described a method for determining the ionization energy of a molecule using anode rays and demonstrated the method on mercury vapor . In the following year he used this same method to study nitrogen . He also published on the ionization of hydrogen , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , nitrogen dioxide , water vapor , sulfur dioxide , and carbon disulfide . As Robert H. Dicke , Val Logsdon Fitch , and Rubby Sherr wrote in 1989 , " By 1935 his 30 published papers established him as a leading experimentalist " in the field . In 1929 Kenneth Bainbridge completed his Ph.D. dissertation at Princeton working under Smyth , using anode rays to search for element 87 .

In the mid @-@ 1930s , Smyth began to shift his interest to nuclear physics , inspired by James Chadwick 's discovery of the neutron , John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton splitting the atom , and Ernest Lawrence 's invention of the cyclotron . Three of his last research articles concerned detection of triatomic hydrogen and helium @-@ 3 . His appointment as department chair forced him to devote more time to administrative work , at the expense of research . As department chair , he had two cyclotrons built at Princeton , one in 1935 and the other in 1946 .

He was a member of the subcommittee on physics of the National Research Council from 1928 to 1935 . In 1936 Smyth responded to media criticism of basic science research as " useless " by suggesting that seemingly useless research could turn out to be very useful later .

= = World War II = =

During World War II , Smyth was involved in helping the United States build the atomic bomb . From 1941 – 43 he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) ' s Uranium Section charged with producing fissile material for the bomb . Smyth proposed the electromagnetic methods that were used to enrich the first large U @-@ 235 samples for the project . He also oversaw a nuclear fission @-@ related project for the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) . During 1943 – 45 he was a consultant to the Manhattan Project , which built and tested the weapon , and associate director of the University of Chicago 's Metallurgical Laboratory , which contributed to the Manhattan Project . At the Metallurgical Laboratory he headed research on heavy water . He remained chairman of Princeton 's physics department throughout the war , and the attendant obligations forced him to participate less actively in the project 's later stages .

In August 1944 General Leslie Groves , director of the Manhattan Project , appointed Smyth to the Postwar Policy Committee , which was charged with proposing government policy for research and development of atomic energy after the war was over . The committee recommended that a national commission modeled on the OSRD fund and oversee continued production and fundamental research in government laboratories , universities , and the private sector .

= = = Smyth Report = = =

Smyth advocated within the NDRC for a comprehensive report to be released to the public following the weapon 's first use . Vannevar Bush , who as civilian director of the OSRD oversaw the NDRC , agreed , and selected Smyth to write the report following the recommendation of NDRC chairman James Bryant Conant . Groves granted Smyth unlimited access , waiving his usual security @-@ minded insistence on compartmentalization . Smyth wrote what became known as the Smyth Report in his office in Princeton 's Palmer Laboratory , which later became the Frist Campus Center .

The report was first released to the press on August 12 , 1945 , days after the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The Government Printing Office could not print enough copies to meet demand , so Smyth persuaded the director of the Princeton University Press to print more . By the end of the Press 's 1946 fiscal year it had printed 103 @,@ 000 copies . Smyth held the copyright to the work to prevent others from claiming it , but he permitted widespread reproduction , essentially releasing it into the public domain . He later reported that " my financial balance from the Smyth Report is minus two dollars , the copyright fee . "

In the report , Smyth called it " a semi @-@ technical report which it is hoped men of science in this country can use to help their fellow citizens in reaching wise decisions " in the new Atomic Age . At the urging of his superiors , he removed several discussions of the bomb 's moral implications and its creators ' unease . Rebecca Press Schwartz argues that Smyth 's academic background and his report 's security @-@ driven focus on physics at the expense of engineering caused the Smyth Report to promote a public perception of the Manhattan Project as primarily an achievement of physicists .

= = Postwar = =

Following the war , Smyth returned full @-@ time to his duties at Princeton . He continued to chair the Physics Department and was named the Joseph Henry Professor of Physics in 1946 . During this time he spoke and wrote regularly about nuclear energy and science policy and worked to expand the physics department .

In early 1949 , physicist Robert Bacher stepped down from the Atomic Energy Commission . He and AEC Chairman David Lilienthal wanted a physicist to replace Bacher , and they ultimately recommended Smyth for the position . President Harry Truman nominated Smyth to the AEC later that year , prompting Smyth resign as Physics Department chairman . ( His old colleague Allen Shenstone took up the post . ) Smyth was the commission 's only scientist . He spent his first weeks in the position attending hearings of the U.S. Congress 's Joint Committee on Atomic Energy . Led by Senator Bourke Hickenlooper , the hearings inquired into a small amount of uranium that was alleged to be unaccounted for in AEC labs . Smyth later condemned the hearings as grounded in misconceptions about the work of nuclear scientists .

Following the Soviet Union 's successful nuclear test in August 1949 , the U.S. was considering a crash course to develop a hydrogen bomb . The AEC 's nine @-@ member General Advisory Committee , chaired by J. Robert Oppenheimer , recommended unanimously against such a course , and Smyth was one of three of the five AEC commissioners to agree . Smyth urged Truman to endorse international control of nuclear weapons , but Truman decided instead to authorize a hydrogen bomb program . In his autobiography , Smyth 's Princeton colleague John Archibald Wheeler recalled that Smyth recruited him to the Ivy Mike hydrogen bomb project and expressed support for the project in response to the Soviet test .

In 1953 Smyth and John A. Hall served as principal advisors to President Dwight Eisenhower in preparing his Atoms for Peace speech to the United Nations . The IAEA traces its origins to this speech .

In 1954 the AEC was considering rescinding Oppenheimer 's security clearance on suspicion that he was a Communist . Smyth was still the only scientist on the commission . Despite his personal dislike of Oppenheimer and pressure from the commission 's new chairman , Lewis Strauss , Smyth was the sole commissioner to vote against stripping Oppenheimer 's clearance on June 29 , 1954 . Smyth resigned from the AEC on September 30 of that year out of frustration with Strauss . Eulogizing Oppenheimer in 1967 , Smyth said of Oppenheimer 's treatment , " Such a wrong can never be righted ; such a blot on our history never erased .... We regret that his great work for his country was repaid so shabbily " .

Smyth returned to Princeton and served on several high @-@ level administrative committees . This work included advising on the construction of a particle accelerator built jointly with the University of Pennsylvania and overseeing Project Matterhorn , which became the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory . He chaired the committee that chose Robert F. Goheen to succeed Harold W. Dodds as President of Princeton . He also served as a consultant on nuclear power to Congress , the AEC , and private industry . He retired from Princeton in 1966 .

Smyth was a fellow of the American Physical Society and served as its Vice President in 1956 and its President in 1957 . He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1947 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1956 . He was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations .

= = IAEA representative = =

President John F. Kennedy appointed Smyth as the representative of the United States to the IAEA , a position with the rank of Ambassador . Smyth assumed the position on June 13 , 1961 , following confirmation by the U.S. Senate . Smyth shared the organization 's stated goal of developing nuclear technology for peaceful purposes . He helped develop what Glenn Seaborg later called " an unprecedented atmosphere of rapport " at the IAEA and played a crucial role in the adoption of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty in 1970 . He retired from the IAEA on August 31 , 1970 .

In September 1961 , Harlan Cleveland , then Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs , appointed Smyth to chair a committee to review U.S. policy toward the IAEA . The committee 's report affirmed the importance of civilian uses of nuclear energy . In 1962 Cleveland again tapped Smyth , this time as an adviser to the State Department on the IAEA . In this position Smyth advocated for a transfer of national nuclear safeguards to the IAEA .

In December 1965 , Smyth was elected Chairman of the Board of the Universities Research Association . During Smyth 's tenure , the URA signed a contract with the U.S. government to construct and operate the National Accelerator Laboratory , which later became known as Fermilab . Construction began , and research programs were planned . Smyth stepped down as chairman in 1970 but remained on the board . He also served on the board of Associated Universities , Inc . , which operated the Brookhaven National Laboratory and National Radio Astronomy Observatory .

Smyth received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1968 ( with Sigvard Eklund and Abdus Salam ) and the State Department 's Distinguished Honor Award in 1970 . In 1972 he became the first recipient of an award for nuclear statesmanship given jointly by the American Nuclear Society and the Nuclear Energy Institute . By 1974 , when the award was next given , it had been named the Henry DeWolf Smyth Nuclear Statesman Award .

= = Later life and legacy = =

After retiring from the IAEA , Smyth remained active . On the 40th anniversary of the Trinity test in 1985 , he denounced President Ronald Reagan 's Strategic Defense Initiative and called for joint arms reductions between the United States and the Soviet Union . He died September 11 , 1986 , in Princeton . The cause was cardiac arrest , though he had long battled cancer .

Smyth endowed a chair in the Physics Department in his will . The sitting Henry DeWolf Smyth Professor of Physics is Suzanne Staggs .

= Sebaceous gland =

Sebaceous glands are microscopic exocrine glands in the skin that secrete an oily or waxy matter , called sebum , to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals . In humans , they occur in the greatest number on the face and scalp , but also on all parts of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . The type of secretion of the sebaceous glands is referred to as holocrine .

In the eyelids , meibomian glands , also called tarsal glands , are a type of sebaceous gland that secrete a special type of sebum into tears . Fordyce spots are ectopic ( misplaced ) sebaceous glands found usually on the lips , gums and inner cheeks . Areolar glands surround the female nipples . Preputial glands also known as Tyson 's glands are found in the genitals of both sexes of mice and rats .

Several related medical conditions involve sebum — including acne , sebaceous cysts , hyperplasia , and sebaceous adenoma . These are usually attributable to overactive sebaceous glands , which produce excess sebum .

= = Structure = =

= = = Location = = =

The sebaceous glands are found throughout all areas of the skin except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . There are two types of sebaceous gland , those connected to hair follicles , in pilosebaceous units , and those that exist independently .

Sebaceous glands are found in hair @-@ covered areas , where they are connected to hair follicles . One or more glands may surround each hair follicle , and the glands themselves are surrounded by arrector pili muscles . The glands have an acinar structure ( like a many @-@ lobed berry ) , in which multiple glands branch off a central duct . The glands deposit sebum on the hairs , and bring it to the skin surface along the hair shaft . The structure consisting of hair , hair follicle , arrector pili muscles , and sebaceous gland is an epidermal invagination known as a pilosebaceous unit .

Sebaceous glands are also found in hairless areas ( glabrous skin ) of the eyelids , nose , penis , labia minora , the inner mucosal membrane of the cheek , and nipples . Some sebaceous glands have unique names . Sebaceous glands on the lip and mucosa of the cheek are known as Fordyce spots , and glands on the eyelids are known as meibomian glands . Sebaceous glands of the breast are also known as Montgomery 's glands .

= = = Development = = =

Sebaceous glands are first visible from the 13th to the 16th week of fetal development , as bulgings off hair follicles . Sebaceous glands develop from the same tissue that gives rise to the epidermis of the skin . Overexpression of the signalling factors Wnt , Myc and SHH all increase the likelihood of sebaceous gland presence .

The sebaceous glands of a human fetus secrete a substance called vernix caseosa , a waxy , translucent white substance coating the skin of newborns . After birth , activity of the glands decreases until there is almost no activity during ages 2 – 6 years , and then increases to a peak of activity during puberty , due to heightened levels of androgens .

= = Function = =

Sebaceous glands secrete the oily , waxy substance called sebum ( Latin : fat , tallow ) that is made of triglycerides , wax esters , squalene , and metabolites of fat @-@ producing cells . Sebum waterproofs and lubricates the skin and hair of mammals . Sebaceous secretions in conjunction with apocrine glands also play an important thermoregulatory role . In hot conditions , the secretions emulsify the sweat produced by the eccrine glands and this produces a sheet of sweat that is not readily lost in drops of sweat . This is of importance in delaying dehydration . In colder conditions , the nature of sebum becomes more lipid and in coating the hair and skin , rain is effectively repelled .

Sebum is produced in a holocrine process , in which cells within the sebaceous gland rupture and disintegrate as they release the sebum and the cell remnants are secreted together with the sebum . The cells are constantly replaced by mitosis at the base of the duct .

= = = Sebum = = =

Sebum , secreted by the sebaceous gland in humans , is primarily composed of triglycerides ( ~ 41 % ) , wax esters ( ~ 26 % ) , squalene ( ~ 12 % ) , and free fatty acids ( ~ 16 % ) . The composition of sebum varies across species . Wax esters and squalene are unique to sebum and not produced as final products anywhere else in the body . Sapienic acid is a sebum fatty acid that is unique to humans , and is implicated in the development of acne . Sebum is odorless , but its breakdown by bacteria can produce strong odors .

Sex steroids are known to affect the rate of sebum secretion ; androgens such as testosterone have been shown to stimulate secretion , and estrogens have been shown to inhibit secretion . Dihydrotestosterone acts as the primary androgen in the prostate and in hair follicles .

= = = Immune function and nutrition = = =

Sebaceous glands are part of the body 's integumentary system and serve to protect the body against germs . Sebaceous glands secrete acids that form the acid mantle . This is a very fine , slightly acidic film on the surface of the skin that acts as a barrier to bacteria , viruses , and other potential contaminants that might penetrate the skin . The pH of the skin is between 4 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 2 , and this acidity helps to neutralise the primarily alkaline nature of contaminants .

Sebaceous lipids make an important contribution in maintaining the integrity of the skin barrier , and express both pro @-@ inflammatory and anti @-@ inflammatory properties . Sebum may act as a delivery system for antioxidants , antimicrobial lipids , pheromones , and hydration of the stratum corneum . The insoluble fatty acids contained within sebum have broad antimicrobial activity . Additionally , sebaceous gland secretion provides vitamin E to the upper layers of facial skin .

= = = Unique sebaceous glands = = =

During the last three months of fetal development , the sebaceous glands of the fetus produce vernix caseosa , a waxy white substance that coats the skin to protect it from amniotic fluid .

The areolar glands are in the areola that surrounds the nipple in the female breast . These glands secrete an oily fluid that lubricates the nipple , and also secrete volatile compounds that are thought to serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn . During pregnancy and lactation these glands , also called Montgomery 's glands , become enlarged .

Meibomian glands , in the eyelids , secrete a form of sebum called meibum onto the eye , that slows the evaporation of tears . It also serves to create an airtight seal when the eyes are closed and its lipid quality also prevents the eyelids from sticking together . The meibomian glands are also known as tarsal glands , Zeis glands and palpebral glands . They attach directly to the follicles of the eyelashes , which are arranged vertically within the tarsal plates of the eyelids .

Fordyce spots , or Fordyce granules , are ectopic sebaceous glands found on the genitals and oral mucosa . They show themselves as yellowish @-@ white milia ( milkspots ) .

Earwax is partly composed of sebum produced by glands in the ear canal . These secretions are viscous and have a high lipid content , which provides good lubrication .

= = Clinical significance = =

Sebaceous glands are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis pilaris . In the skin pores , sebum and keratin can create a hyperkeratotic plug called a comedo .

= = = Acne = = =

Acne is a very common problem , particularly during puberty in teenagers , and is thought to relate to an increased production of sebum due to hormonal factors . The increased production of sebum can lead to a blockage of the sebaceous gland duct . This can cause a comedo , ( commonly called a blackhead or a whitehead ) , which can lead to infection , particularly by the bacteria Propionibacterium acnes . This can inflame the comedones , which then change into the characteristic acne lesions . Comedones generally occur on the areas with more sebaceous glands , particularly the face , shoulders , upper chest and back . Comedones may be ' black ' or ' white ' depending on whether the entire pilosebaceous unit , or just the sebaceous duct , is blocked . Sebaceous filaments — innocuous build @-@ ups of sebum — are often mistaken for whiteheads .

There are many treatments available for acne from reducing sugars in the diet , to medications that include antibiotics , benzoyl peroxide , retinoids and hormonal treatments . Retinoids reduce the amount of sebum produced by the sebaceous glands . Should the usual treatments fail , the presence of the Demodex mite could be looked for as the possible cause .

= = = Other = = =

Other conditions that involve the sebaceous glands include :

Seborrhoea refers to overactive sebaceous glands , a cause of oily skin or hair .

Sebaceous hyperplasia , referring to excessive proliferation of the cells within the glands , and visible macroscopically as small papules on the skin , particularly on the forehead , nose and cheeks .

Seborrhoeic dermatitis , a chronic , usually mild form of dermatitis effected by changes in the sebaceous glands . In newborn infants seborrhoea dermatitis can occur as cradle cap .

Seborrheic @-@ like psoriasis ( also known as " Sebopsoriasis , " and " Seborrhiasis " ) is a skin condition characterized by psoriasis with an overlapping seborrheic dermatitis .

Sebaceous adenoma , a benign slow @-@ growing tumour — which may , however , in rare cases be a precursor to a cancer syndrome known as Muir @-@ Torre syndrome .

Sebaceous carcinoma , an uncommon and aggressive cutaneous tumour .

Sebaceous cyst is a term used to refer to both an epidermoid cyst and a pilar cyst , though neither of these contain sebum , only keratin and do not originate in the sebaceous gland and so are not true sebaceous cysts . A true sebaceous cyst is relatively rare and is known as a steatocystoma .

Phymatous rosacea is a cutaneous condition characterized by an overgrowth of sebaceous glands .

= = History = =

The word sebaceous , meaning " consisting of sebum " , was first termed in 1728 and comes from the Latin for tallow . Sebaceous glands have been documented since at least 1746 by Jean Astruc , who defined them as " ... the glands which separate the fat . " He describes them in the oral cavity , on the head , eyelids and ears , as " universally " acknowledged . , viii Astruc describes them being blocked by " small animals " that are " implanted " in the excretory ducts , and attributes their presence in the oral cavity to apthous ulcers , noting " these glands naturally [ secrete ] a viscous humour , which puts on various colours and consistencies ... in its natural state is very mild , balsamic , and intended to wet and lubricate the mouth " In The Principles of Physiology 1834 , A. Combe noted that the glands were not present in the palms of the hands or soles of the feet .

= = Other animals = =

The preputial glands of mice and rats are large modified sebaceous glands that produce pheromones used for territorial marking . These and the scent glands in the flanks of hamsters have a similar composition to human sebaceous glands , are androgen responsive , and have been used as a basis for study .

Sebaceous adenitis is an autoimmune disease that affects sebaceous glands . It is mainly known to occur in dogs , particularly poodles and akitas , where it is thought to be generally autosomal recessively inherited . It has also been described in cats , and one report describes this condition in a rabbit . In these animals , it causes hair loss , though the nature and distribution of the hair loss differs greatly .

= = Additional images = =

= Nansen 's Fram expedition =

Nansen 's Fram expedition was an 1893 – 1896 attempt by the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen to reach the geographical North Pole by harnessing the natural east – west current of the Arctic Ocean . In the face of much discouragement from other polar explorers , Nansen took his ship Fram to the New Siberian Islands in the eastern Arctic Ocean , froze her into the pack ice , and waited for the drift to carry her towards the pole . Impatient with the slow speed and erratic character of the drift , after 18 months Nansen and a chosen companion , Hjalmar Johansen , left the ship with a team of dogs and sledges and made for the pole . They did not reach it , but they achieved a record Farthest North latitude of 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N before a long retreat over ice and water to reach safety in Franz Josef Land . Meanwhile , Fram continued to drift westward , finally emerging in the North Atlantic Ocean .

The idea for the expedition had arisen after items from the American vessel Jeannette , which had sunk off the north coast of Siberia in 1881 , were discovered three years later off the south @-@ west coast of Greenland . The wreckage had obviously been carried across the polar ocean , perhaps across the pole itself . Based on this and other debris recovered from the Greenland coast , the meteorologist Henrik Mohn developed a theory of transpolar drift , which led Nansen to believe that a specially designed ship could be frozen in the pack ice and follow the same track as the Jeannette wreckage , thus reaching the vicinity of the pole .

Nansen supervised the construction of a vessel with a rounded hull and other features designed to withstand prolonged pressure from ice . The ship was rarely threatened during her long imprisonment , and emerged unscathed after three years . The scientific observations carried out during this period contributed significantly to the new discipline of oceanography , which subsequently became the main focus of Nansen 's scientific work . Fram 's drift and Nansen 's sledge journey proved conclusively that there were no significant land masses between the Eurasian continents and the North Pole , and confirmed the general character of the north polar region as a deep , ice @-@ covered sea . Although Nansen retired from exploration after this expedition , the methods of travel and survival he developed with Johansen influenced all the polar expeditions , north and south , which followed in the subsequent three decades .

= = Background = =

In September 1879 the Jeannette , an ex @-@ Royal Navy gunboat converted by the US Navy for Arctic exploration , and commanded by George Washington De Long , entered the pack ice north of the Bering Strait . She remained ice @-@ bound for nearly two years , drifting to the area of the New Siberian Islands , before being crushed and sunk on 13 June 1881 . Her crew escaped in boats and made for the Siberian coast ; most , including De Long , subsequently perished either during the boat journey or in the wastelands of the Lena River delta . Three years later , relics from the Jeannette appeared on the opposite side of the world , in the vicinity of Julianehaab on the southwest coast of Greenland . These items , frozen into the drifting ice , included clothing bearing crew members ' names and documents signed by De Long ; they were indisputably genuine .

In a lecture given in 1884 to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Dr. Henrik Mohn , one of the founders of modern meteorology , argued that the finding of the Jeannette relics indicated the existence of an ocean current flowing from east to west across the entire Arctic ocean . The Danish governor of Julianehaab , writing of the find , surmised that an expedition frozen into the Siberian sea might , if its ship were to prove strong enough , cross the polar ocean and land in South Greenland . These theories were read with interest by the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Fridtjof Nansen , then working as a curator at the Bergen Museum while completing his doctoral studies . Nansen was already captivated by the frozen north ; two years earlier he had experienced a four @-@ month voyage on the sealer Viking , which had included three weeks trapped in drifting ice . An expert skier , Nansen was making plans to lead the first crossing of the Greenland icecap , an objective delayed by the demands of his academic studies , but triumphantly achieved in 1888 – 89 . Through these years Nansen remembered the east – west Arctic drift theory and its inherent possibilities for further polar exploration , and shortly after his return from Greenland he was ready to announce his plans .

= = Preparations = =

= = = Plan = = =

In February 1890 Nansen addressed a meeting of the Norwegian Geographical Society in Oslo ( then called Christiania ) . After drawing attention to the failures of the many expeditions which had approached the North Pole from the west , he considered the implications of the discovery of the Jeannette items , along with further finds of driftwood and other debris from Siberia or Alaska that had been identified along the Greenland coast . " Putting all this together , " Nansen said , " we are driven to the conclusion that a current flows ... from the Siberian Arctic Sea to the east coast of Greenland , " probably passing across the Pole . It seemed that the obvious thing to do was " to make our way into the current on that side of the Pole where it flows northward , and by its help to penetrate into those regions which all who have hitherto worked against [ the current ] have sought in vain to reach . "

Nansen 's plan required a small , strong and manoeuvrable ship , powered by sail and an engine , capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years . The vessel would follow Jeannette 's route to the New Siberian Islands , and in the approximate position of Jeannette 's sinking , when ice conditions were right " we shall plough our way in amongst the ice as far as we can . " The ship would then drift with the ice towards the pole and eventually reach the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen . Should the ship founder , a possibility which Nansen thought very unlikely , the party would camp on a floe and allow itself to be carried towards safety . Nansen observed : " If the Jeannette Expedition had had sufficient provisions , and had remained on the ice @-@ floe on which the relics were found , the result would doubtless have been very different from what it was . "

When Nansen 's plans became public knowledge The New York Times was enthusiastic , deeming it " highly probable that there is a comparatively short and direct route across the Arctic Ocean by way of the North Pole , and that nature herself has supplied a means of communication across it . " However , most experienced polar hands were dismissive . The American explorer Adolphus Greely called it " an illogical scheme of self @-@ destruction " ; his assistant , Lieutenant David Brainerd , called it " one of the most ill @-@ advised schemes ever embarked on " , and predicted that it would end in disaster . Sir Allen Young , a veteran of the searches for Sir John Franklin 's lost expedition , did not believe that a ship could be built to withstand the crushing pressure of the ice : " If there is no swell the ice must go through her , whatever material she is made of . " Sir Joseph Hooker , who had sailed south with James Clark Ross in 1839 – 43 , was of the same opinion , and thought the risks were not worth taking . However , the equally experienced Sir Leopold McClintock called Nansen 's project " the most adventurous programme ever brought under the notice of the Royal Geographical Society " . The Swedish philanthropist Oscar Dickson , who had financed Baron Nordenskiöld 's conquest of the North @-@ East Passage in 1878 – 79 , was sufficiently impressed to offer to meet Nansen 's costs . With Norwegian nationalism on the rise , however , this gesture from their union partner Sweden provoked hostility in the Norwegian press ; Nansen decided to rely solely on Norwegian support , and declined Dickson 's proposal .

= = = Finance = = =

Nansen 's original estimate for the total cost of the expedition was NOK 300 @,@ 000 . After giving a passionate speech before the Parliament of Norway ( the Storting ) , Nansen was awarded a grant of NOK 200 @,@ 000 ; the balance was raised from private contributions which included 20 @,@ 000 kroner from King Oscar II of Norway and Sweden . The Royal Geographical Society in London gave £ 300 ( about NOK 6 @,@ 000 ) . Unfortunately , Nansen had underestimated the financing required — the ship alone would cost more than the total at his disposal . A renewed plea to the Storting produced a further NOK 80 @,@ 000 , and a national appeal raised the grand total to NOK 445 @,@ 000 . According to Nansen 's own account , he made up the remaining deficiency from his own resources . His biographer Roland Huntford records that the final deficit of NOK 12 @,@ 000 was cleared by two wealthy supporters , Axel Heiberg and an English expatriate , Charles Dick .

= = = Ship = = =

To design and build his ship Nansen chose Colin Archer , Norway 's leading shipbuilder and naval architect . Archer was well known for a particular hull design that combined seaworthiness with a shallow draught , and had pioneered the design of " double @-@ ended " craft in which the conventional stern was replaced by a point , increasing manoeuvrability . Nansen records that Archer made " plan after plan of the projected ship ; one model after another was prepared and abandoned " . Finally , agreement was reached on a design , and on 9 June 1891 the two men signed the contract .

Nansen wanted the ship in one year ; he was eager to get away before anyone else could adopt his ideas and forestall him . The ship 's most significant external feature was the roundness of the hull , designed so that there was nothing upon which the ice could get a grip . Bow , stern and keel were rounded off , and the sides smoothed so that , in Nansen 's words , the vessel would " slip like an eel out of the embraces of the ice " . To give exceptional strength the hull was sheathed in South American greenheart , the hardest timber available . The three layers of wood forming the hull provided a combined thickness of between 24 and 28 inches ( 60 – 70 cm ) , increasing to around 48 inches ( 1 @.@ 25 metres ) at the bow , which was further protected by a protruding iron stem . Added strength was provided by crossbeams and braces throughout the length of the hull .

The ship was rigged as a three @-@ masted schooner , with a total sail area of 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 560 m2 ) . Its auxiliary engine of 220 horse @-@ power was capable of speeds up to 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) . However , speed and sailing qualities were secondary to the requirement of providing a safe and warm stronghold for Nansen and his crew during a drift that might extend for several years , so particular attention was paid to the insulation of the living quarters . At around 400 gross register tonnage , the ship was considerably larger than Nansen had first anticipated , with an overall length of 128 feet ( 39 m ) and a breadth of 36 feet ( 11 m ) , a ratio of just over three to one , giving her an unusually stubby appearance . This odd shape was explained by Archer : " A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for [ Nansen 's ] object must differ essentially from any known vessel . " On 6 October 1892 , at Archer 's yard at Larvik , the ship was launched by Nansen 's wife Eva after a brief ceremony . The ship was named Fram , meaning " Forward " .

= = = Crew = = =

For his Greenland expedition of 1888 – 89 Nansen had departed from the traditional dependence on large @-@ scale personnel , ships and backup , relying instead on a small well @-@ trained group . Using the same principle for the Fram voyage , Nansen chose a party of just twelve from the thousands of applications that poured in from all over the world . One applicant was the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Roald Amundsen , future conqueror of the South Pole , whose mother stopped him from going . The English explorer Frederick Jackson applied , but Nansen wanted only Norwegians , so Jackson organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land .

To captain the ship and act as the expedition 's second @-@ in @-@ command Nansen chose Otto Sverdrup , an experienced sailor who had taken part in the Greenland crossing . Theodore Jacobsen , who had experience in the Arctic as skipper of a sloop , signed on as Fram 's mate , and a young naval lieutenant , Sigurd Scott Hansen , took charge of meteorological and magnetic observations . The ship 's doctor , and the expedition 's botanist , was Henrik Blessing , who graduated in medicine just before Fram 's sailing date . Hjalmar Johansen , an army reserve lieutenant and dog @-@ driving expert , was so determined to join the expedition that he agreed to sign on as stoker , the only position by then available . Likewise Adolf Juell , with 20 years ' experience at sea as mate and captain , took the post of cook on the Fram voyage . Ivar Mogstad was an official at Gaustad psychiatric hospital , but his technical abilities as a handyman and mechanic impressed Nansen . The oldest man in the party , at 40 , was the chief engineer , Anton Amundsen ( no relation of Roald ) . The second engineer , Lars Pettersen , kept his Swedish nationality from Nansen , and although it was soon discovered by his shipmates , he was allowed to remain with the expedition , the only non @-@ Norwegian in the party . The remaining crew members were Peter Henriksen , Bernhard Nordahl and Bernt Bentzen , the last – named joining the expedition in Tromsø at very short notice .

= = Voyage = =

= = = Journey to the ice = = =

Before the start of the voyage Nansen decided to deviate from his original plan : instead of following Jeannette 's route to the New Siberian Islands by way of the Bering Strait , he would make a shorter journey , taking Nordenskiöld 's North @-@ East Passage along the northern coast of Siberia . Fram left Christiania on 24 June 1893 , seen on her way by a cannon salute from the fort and the cheers of thousands of well @-@ wishers . This was the first of a series of farewells as Fram sailed round the coast and moved northward , reaching Bergen on 1 July ( where there was a great banquet in Nansen 's honour ) , Trondheim on 5 July and Tromsø , north of the Arctic Circle , a week later . The last Norwegian port of call was Vardø , where Fram arrived on 18 July . After the final provisions were taken on board , Nansen , Sverdrup , Hansen and Blessing spent their last hours ashore in a sauna , being beaten with birch twigs by two young girls .

The first leg of the journey eastward took Fram across the Barents Sea towards Novaya Zemlya and then to the North Russian settlement of Khabarova where the first batch of dogs was brought on board . On 3 August Fram weighed anchor and moved cautiously eastward , entering the Kara Sea the next day . Few ships had sailed the Kara Sea before , and charts were incomplete . On 18 August , in the area of the Yenisei River delta , an uncharted island was discovered and named Sverdrup Island after Fram 's commander . Fram was now moving towards the Taimyr Peninsula and Cape Chelyuskin , the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass . Heavy ice slowed the expedition 's progress , and at the end of August it was held up for four days while the ship 's boiler was repaired and cleaned . The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon , where a ship 's forward progress is impeded by energy dissipation caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water . On 9 September a wide stretch of ice @-@ free water opened up , and next day Fram rounded Cape Chelyuskin — the second ship to do so , after Nordenskiöld 's Vega in 1878 — and entered the Laptev Sea .

After being prevented by ice from reaching the mouth of the Olenyok River , where a second batch of dogs was waiting to be picked up , Fram moved north and east towards the New Siberian Islands . Nansen 's hope was to find open water to 80 ° north latitude and then enter the pack ; however , on 20 September ice was sighted just south of 78 ° . Fram followed the line of the ice before stopping in a small bay beyond the 78 ° mark . On 28 September it became evident that the ice would not break up , and the dogs were moved from the ship to kennels on the ice . On 5 October the rudder was raised to a position of safety and the ship , in Scott Hansen 's words , was " well and truly moored for the winter " . The position was 78 ° 49 ′ N , 132 ° 53 ′ E.

= = = Drift ( first phase ) = = =

On 9 October Fram had her first experience of ice pressure . Archer 's design was quickly vindicated as the ship rose and fell , the ice being unable to grip the hull . Otherwise the first weeks in the ice were disappointing , as the unpredictable drift moved Fram in gyratory fashion , sometimes north , sometimes south ; by 19 November , after six weeks , Fram was south of the latitude at which she had entered the ice .

After the sun disappeared on 25 October the ship was lit by electric lamps from a wind @-@ powered generator . The crew settled down to a comfortable routine in which boredom and inactivity were the main enemies . Men began to irritate each other , and fights sometimes broke out . Nansen attempted to start a newspaper , but the project soon fizzled out through lack of interest . Small tasks were undertaken and scientific observations maintained , but there was no urgency . Nansen expressed his frustration in his journal : " I feel I must break through this deadness , this inertia , and find some outlet for my energies . " And later : " Can 't something happen ? Could not a hurricane come and tear up this ice ? " Only after the turn of the year , in January 1894 , did the northerly direction become generally settled . The 80 ° mark was finally passed on 22 March .

Based on the uncertain direction and slow speed of the drift , Nansen calculated that it might take the ship five years to reach the pole . In January 1894 he had first discussed with both Henriksen and Johansen the possibility of making a sledge journey with the dogs , from Fram to the pole , though they made no immediate plans . Nansen 's first attempts to master dog @-@ driving were an embarrassing failure , but he persevered and gradually achieved better results . He also discovered that the normal cross @-@ country skiing speed was the same as that of dogs pulling loaded sledges . Men could travel under their own power , skiing , rather than riding on the sledge , and loads could be correspondingly increased . This , according to biographer and historian Roland Huntford , amounted to a revolution in polar travel methods .

On 19 May , two days after the celebrations for Norway 's National Day , Fram passed 81 ° , indicating that the ship 's northerly speed was slowly increasing , though it was still barely a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) a day . With a growing conviction that a sledge journey might be necessary to reach the pole , in September Nansen decreed that everyone would practice skiing for two hours a day . On 16 November he revealed his intention to the crew : he and one companion would leave the ship and start for the pole when the 83 ° mark was passed . After reaching the pole the pair would make for Franz Josef Land , and then cross to Spitsbergen where they hoped to find a ship to take them home . Three days later Nansen asked Hjalmar Johansen , the most experienced dog @-@ driver among the crew , to join him on the polar journey .

The crew spent the following months preparing for the forthcoming dash for the pole . They built sledges that would facilitate fast travel over rough terrain and constructed kayaks on the Inuit model , for use during the expected water crossings . There were endless trials of special clothing and other gear . Violent and prolonged tremors began to shake the ship on 3 January 1895 , and two days later the crew disembarked , expecting the ship to be crushed . Instead the pressure lessened , and the crew went back on board and resumed preparations for Nansen 's journey . After the excitement it was noted that Fram had drifted beyond Greely 's Farthest North record of 83 ° 24 , and on 8 January was at 83 ° 34 ′ N.

= = = March for the Pole = = =

On 17 February 1895 Nansen began a farewell letter to his wife , Eva , writing that should he come to grief " you will know that your image will be the last I see . " He was also reading everything he could about Franz Josef Land , his intended destination after the pole . The archipelago had been discovered in 1873 by Julius Payer , and was incompletely mapped . It was , however , apparently the home of countless bears and seals , and Nansen saw it as an excellent food source on his return journey to civilization .

On 14 March , with the ship at 84 ° 4 ′ N , the pair finally began their polar march . This was their third attempt to leave the ship ; on 26 February and again on the 28th , damage to sledges had forced them to return after travelling short distances . After these mishaps Nansen thoroughly overhauled his equipment , minimised the travelling stores , recalculated weights and reduced the convoy to three sledges , before giving the order to start again . A supporting party accompanied the pair and shared the first night 's camp . The next day , Nansen and Johansen skied on alone .

The pair initially traveled mainly over flat snowfields . Nansen had allowed 50 days to cover the 356 nautical miles ( 660 km ; 410 mi ) to the pole , requiring an average daily journey of seven nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) . On 22 March a sextant observation showed that the pair had travelled 65 nautical miles ( 120 km ; 75 mi ) towards the pole at a daily average of over nine nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) . This had been achieved despite very low temperatures , typically around − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) , and small scale mishaps including the loss of the sledgemeter that recorded mileage . However , as the surfaces became uneven and made skiing more difficult , their speeds slowed . A sextant reading on 29 March of 85 ° 56 ′ N indicated that a week 's travel had brought them 47 nautical miles ( 87 km ; 54 mi ) nearer to the pole , but also showed that their average daily distances were falling . More worryingly , a theodolite reading that day suggested that they were at only 85 ° 15 ′ N , and they had no means of knowing which of the readings was correct . They realised that they were fighting a southerly drift , and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to northerly progression . Johansen 's diary indicated his failing spirits : " My fingers are all destroyed . All mittens are frozen stiff ... It is becoming worse and worse ... God knows what will happen to us " .

On 3 April , after days of difficult travel , Nansen privately began to wonder if the pole might , after all , be out of reach . Unless the surface improved , their food would not last them to the pole and then on to Franz Josef Land . The next day they calculated their position at a disappointing 86 ° 3 ' ; Nansen confided in his diary that : " I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time . " After making camp on 7 April Nansen scouted ahead on snowshoes looking for a path forward , but saw only " a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon " . He decided that they would go no further north , and would head for Cape Fligely in Franz Josef Land . Nansen recorded the latitude of their final northerly camp as 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N , almost three degrees ( 169 @.@ 6 nautical miles , or 314 km ) beyond Greely 's previous Farthest North mark .

= = = Retreat to Franz Josef Land = = =

The change of direction to south @-@ west provided much better travelling conditions , probably because the course to Franz Josef Land was broadly parallel to the lines of disturbance in the ice instead of perpendicular to them . Progress was swift : " If this goes on , " Nansen recorded on 13 April , " the return journey will be quicker than I thought . " However , the same diary entry records a mishap that day : both men 's watches had stopped . Although Nansen 's journal comment is mild , the incident was potentially disastrous . Without the correct time they could not calculate their longitude and thus maintain the correct course to Franz Josef Land . They restarted the watches based on Nansen 's guesswork that their longitude was 86 ° E , but the pair were no longer certain where they were . If they were farther west than Nansen 's assumption , they might miss Franz Josef Land altogether , and head for the open Atlantic .

The direction of the drift became northerly , hampering the pair 's progress . By 18 April , after 11 days ' travel from Farthest North , they had only made 40 nautical miles ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) to the south . They now travelled over much more broken terrain with wide open leads of water . On about 20 April they were cheered by the sight of a large piece of driftwood stuck in a floe , the first object from the outside world they had seen since Fram had entered the ice . Johansen carved his and Nansen 's initials on it , with the latitude and date . A day or two later they spotted the tracks of an Arctic fox , the first trace of a living creature other than their dogs since leaving Fram . Other tracks soon appeared , and Nansen began to believe that land might be near .

The latitude calculated on 9 May , 84 ° 3 ′ N , was disappointing — Nansen had hoped they were farther south . However , as May progressed they began to see bear tracks , and by the end of the month seals , gulls and whales were plentiful . By Nansen 's calculations , they had reached 82 ° 21 ′ N on 31 May , placing them only 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) from Cape Fligely at the northern extremity of Franz Josef Land , if his longitude estimate was accurate . In the warmer weather the ice began to break up , making travel more difficult . Since 24 April dogs had been killed at regular intervals to feed the others , and by the beginning of June only seven of the original 28 remained . On 21 June the pair jettisoned all surplus equipment and supplies , planning to travel light and live off the now plentiful supplies of seal and birds . After a day 's travel in this manner they decided to rest on a floe , waterproof the kayaks and build up their own strength for the next stage of their journey . They remained camped on the floe for a whole month .

On 23 July , the day after leaving the camp , Nansen had the first indisputable glimpse of land . He wrote : " At last the marvel has come to pass — land , land , and after we had almost given up our belief in it ! " In the succeeding days the pair struggled towards this land , which seemingly grew no nearer , although by the end of July they could hear the distant sound of breaking surf . On 4 August they survived a polar bear attack ; two days later they reached the edge of the ice , and only water lay between them and the land . On 6 August they shot the last two Samoyed dogs , converted the kayaks into a catamaran by lashing sledges and skis across them , and raised a sail .

Nansen called this first land " Hvidtenland " ( " White Island " ) . After making camp on an ice foot they ascended a slope and looked about them . It was apparent that they were in an archipelago , but what they could see bore no relation to their incomplete map of Franz Josef Land . They could only continue south in the hopes of finding a geographical feature they could pinpoint with certainty . On 16 August Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder , marked on Payer 's maps as on the western coast of Franz Josef Land . Nansen 's objective was now to reach a hut and supplies that had been left by an earlier expedition at a location known as Eira Harbour , at the southern end of the islands . However , contrary winds and loose ice made further progress in the kayak hazardous , and on 28 August Nansen decided that , with another polar winter drawing near , they should stay where they were and await the following spring .

= = = To Cape Flora = = =

As the base for their winter quarters , Nansen and Johansen found a beach in a sheltered cove on what is now called Jackson Island , with a plentiful supply of stones and moss for building materials . They excavated a hole three feet deep , raised walls around it using loose rocks and stones , and stretched walrus skins over the top to form a roof . A chimney was improvised using snow and walrus bones . This shelter , which they called " The Hole " , was finally ready on 28 September , and was to be their home for the next eight months . Their situation was uncomfortable , but not life @-@ threatening ; there was a plentiful supply of bear , walrus and seal to stock up their larder . The chief enemy was boredom ; to pass time they were reduced to reading Nansen 's sailing almanac and navigation tables by the light of their blubber lamp , and then reading them again .

At Christmas the pair celebrated with chocolate and bread from their sledging rations . On New Year 's Eve Johansen recorded that Nansen finally adopted the familiar form of address , having until then maintained formalities ( " Mr Johansen " , " Professor Nansen " ) throughout the journey . In the New Year they fashioned themselves simple outer clothing — smocks and trousers — from a discarded sleeping bag , in readiness for the resumption of their journey when the weather grew warmer . On 19 May 1896 , after weeks of preparation , they were ready . Nansen left a note in the hut to inform a possible finder : " We are going south west , along the land , to cross over to Spitsbergen " .

For more than two weeks they followed the shoreline southwards . Nothing they saw seemed to fit with their rudimentary map of Franz Josef Land , and Nansen speculated whether they were in uncharted lands between Franz Josef Land and Spitsbergen . On 4 June a change in conditions allowed them to launch their kayaks for the first time since leaving their winter quarters . A week later , Nansen was forced to dive into the icy waters to rescue the kayaks which , still tied together , had drifted away after being carelessly moored . He managed to reach the craft and , with a last effort , to haul himself aboard . Despite his frozen condition he shot and retrieved two guillemots as he paddled the catamaran back .

On 13 June walruses attacked and damaged the kayaks , causing another stop for repairs . On 17 June , as they prepared to leave again , Nansen thought he heard a dog bark and went to investigate . He then heard voices , and a few minutes later encountered a human being . It was Frederick Jackson , who had organised his own expedition to Franz Josef Land after being rejected by Nansen , and had based his headquarters at Cape Flora on Northbrook Island , the southernmost island of the archipelago . Jackson 's own account records that his first reaction to this sudden meeting was to assume the figure to be a shipwrecked sailor , perhaps from the expedition 's supply ship Windward which was due to call that summer . As he approached , Jackson saw " a tall man , wearing a soft felt hat , loosely made , voluminous clothes and long shaggy hair and beard , all reeking with black grease " . After a moment 's awkward hesitation , Jackson recognised his visitor : " You are Nansen , aren 't you ? " , and received the reply " Yes , I am Nansen . "

Johansen was rescued , and the pair taken to the base at Cape Flora , where they posed for photographs ( in one instance re @-@ enacting the Jackson – Nansen meeting ) before taking baths and haircuts . Both men seemed in good health , despite their ordeal ; Nansen had put on 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) in weight since the start of the expedition , and Johansen 13 pounds ( 5 @.@ 9 kg ) . In honour of his rescuer , Nansen named the island where he had wintered " Frederick Jackson Island " . For the next six weeks Nansen had little to do but await the arrival of Windward , worrying that he might have to spend the winter at Cape Flora , and sometimes regretting that he and Johansen had not pressed on to Spitsbergen . Johansen noted in his journal that Nansen had changed from the overbearing personality of the Fram days , and was now subdued and polite , adamant that he would never undertake such a journey again . On 26 July Windward finally arrived ; on 7 August , with Nansen and Johansen aboard , she sailed south and on 13 August reached Vardø . A batch of telegrams was sent , informing the world of Nansen 's safe return .

= = = Drift ( second phase ) = = =

Before his departure from Fram , Nansen appointed Sverdrup as leader of the rest of the expedition , with orders to continue with the drift towards the Atlantic Ocean unless circumstances warranted abandoning the ship and marching for land . Nansen left precise instructions about keeping up the scientific work , especially the ocean depth soundings and the tests for the thickness of the ice . He concluded : " May we meet in Norway , whether it be on board of this vessel or without her . "

Sverdrup 's main task now was to keep his crew busy . He ordered a thorough spring cleaning , and set a party to chip away some of the surrounding ice which was threatening to destabilise the ship . Although there was no immediate danger to Fram , Sverdrup oversaw the repair and overhaul of sledges , and the organisation of provisions should it after all be necessary to abandon ship and march to land . With the arrival of warmer weather as the 1895 summer approached , Sverdrup resumed daily ski practice . Amid these activities a full programme of meteorological , magnetic and oceanographic activities continued under Scott Hansen ; Fram had become a moving oceanographic , meteorological and biological laboratory .

As the drift proceeded the ocean became deeper ; soundings gave successive depths of 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , a progression which indicated that no undiscovered land mass was nearby . On 15 November 1895 Fram reached 85 ° 55 ′ N , only 19 nautical miles ( 35 km ; 22 mi ) below Nansen 's Farthest North mark . From this point on , the drift was generally to the south and west , although progress was for long periods almost imperceptible . Inactivity and boredom led to increased drinking ; Scott Hansen recorded that Christmas and New Year passed " with the usual hot punch and consequent hangover " , and wrote that he was " getting more and more disgusted with drunkenness " . By mid @-@ March 1896 , the position was 84 ° 25 ′ N , 12 ° 50 ′ E , placing the ship north of Spitsbergen . On 13 June a lead opened and , for the first time in nearly three years , Fram became a living ship . It was a further two months , on 13 August 1896 , before she found open water and , with a blast from her cannon , left the ice behind . She had emerged from the ice just north and west of Spitsbergen , close to Nansen 's original prediction , proving him right and his detractors wrong . Later that same day a ship was sighted — Søstrone , a seal hunter from Tromsø . Sverdrup rowed across for news , and learned that nothing had been heard from Nansen . Fram called briefly at Spitsbergen , where the Swedish explorer @-@ engineer Salomon Andrée was preparing for the balloon flight that he hoped would take him to the pole . After a short time ashore , Sverdrup and his crew began the trip south to Norway .

= = Reunion and reception = =

In the course of the expedition , rumours circulated that Nansen had reached the North Pole , the first as early as April 1894 , in the French Newspaper Le Figaro . In September 1895 Eva Nansen was informed that messages signed by Nansen had been discovered , " sent from the North Pole " . In February 1896 The New York Times ran a dispatch from Irkutsk , in Siberia , from a supposed Nansen agent , claiming that Nansen had reached the pole and found land there . Charles P. Daly of the American Geographical Society called this " startling news " and , " if true , the most important discovery that has been made in ages . "

Experts were sceptical of all such reports , and Nansen 's arrival in Vardø quickly put paid to them . In Vardø , he and Johansen were greeted by Professor Mohn , the originator of the polar drift theory , who was in the town by chance . The pair waited for the weekly mail steamer to take them south , and on 18 August arrived in Hammerfest to an enthusiastic reception . The lack of news about Fram was preying on Nansen 's mind ; however , on 20 August he received news that Sverdrup had brought the ship to the tiny port of Skjervøy , south of Hammerfest , and was now continuing with her to Tromsø . The next day , Nansen and Johansen sailed into Tromsø and joined their comrades in an emotional reunion .

After days of celebration and recuperation the ship left Tromsø on 26 August . The voyage south was a triumphal procession , with receptions at every port . Fram finally arrived in Christiania on 9 September , escorted into the harbour by a squadron of warships and welcomed by thousands — the largest crowds the city had ever seen , according to Huntford . Nansen and his crew were received by King Oscar ; on the way to the reception they passed through a triumphal arch formed by 200 gymnasts . Nansen and his family stayed at the palace as special guests of the king ; by contrast , Johansen remained in the background , largely overlooked , and writing that " reality , after all , is not so wonderful as it appeared to me in the midst of our hard life . "

= = Assessment and aftermath = =

The traditional approach to Arctic exploration had relied on large @-@ scale forces , with a presumption that European techniques could be successfully transplanted into the hostile polar climate . Over the years this strategy had brought little success , and had led to heavy losses of men and ships . By contrast , Nansen 's method of using small , trained crews , and harnessing Inuit and Sami expertise in his methods of travel , had ensured that his expedition was completed without a single casualty or major mishap .

Although it did not achieve the objective of reaching the North Pole , the expedition made major geographical and scientific discoveries . Sir Clements Markham , president of Britain 's Royal Geographical Society , declared that the expedition had resolved " the whole problem of Arctic geography " . It was now established that the North Pole was located not on land , nor on a permanent ice sheet , but on shifting , unpredictable pack ice . The Arctic Ocean was a deep basin , with no significant land masses north of the Eurasian continent — any hidden expanse of land would have blocked the free movement of ice . Nansen had proved the polar drift theory ; furthermore , he had noted the presence of a Coriolis force driving the ice to the right of the wind direction , due to the effect of the Earth 's rotation . This discovery would be developed by Nansen 's pupil , Vagn Walfrid Ekman , who later became the leading oceanographer of his time . From its programme of scientific observation the expedition provided the first detailed oceanographic information from the area ; in due course the scientific data gathered during the Fram voyage would run to six published volumes .

Throughout the expedition Nansen continued to experiment with equipment and techniques , altering the designs of skis and sledges and investigating types of clothing , tents and cooking apparatus , thereby revolutionising methods of Arctic travel . In the era of polar exploration which followed his return , explorers routinely sought Nansen 's advice as to methods and equipment — although sometimes they chose not to follow it , usually to their cost . According to Huntford , the South Pole heroes Amundsen , Scott , and Ernest Shackleton were all Nansen 's acolytes .

Nansen 's status was never seriously challenged , although he did not escape criticism . American explorer Robert Peary wondered why Nansen had not returned to the ship when his polar dash was thwarted after a mere three weeks away . " Was he ashamed to go back after so short an absence , or had there been a row ... or did he go off for Franz Josef Land from sensational motives or business reasons ? " Adolphus Greely , who had initially dismissed the entire expedition as infeasible , admitted that he had been proved wrong but nevertheless drew attention to " the single blemish " — Nansen 's decision to leave his comrades hundreds of miles from land . " It passes comprehension " , Greely wrote , " how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition . " Nansen 's reputation nevertheless survived ; a hundred years after the expedition the British explorer Wally Herbert called the Fram voyage " one of the most inspiring examples of courageous intelligence in the history of exploration " .

The Fram voyage was Nansen 's final expedition . He was appointed to a research professorship at the University of Christiania in 1897 , and to a full professorship in oceanography in 1908 . He became independently wealthy as a result of the publication of his expedition account ; in his later career he served the newly independent kingdom of Norway in different capacities , and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1922 , in recognition of his work on behalf of refugees . Hjalmar Johansen never settled back into normal life . After years of drifting , debt and drunkenness he was given the opportunity , through Nansen 's influence , to join Roald Amundsen 's South Pole expedition in 1910 . Johansen quarreled violently with Amundsen at the expedition 's base camp , and was omitted from the South Pole party . He committed suicide within a year of his return from Antarctica . Otto Sverdrup remained as captain of Fram , and in 1898 took the ship , with a new crew , to the Canadian Arctic for four years ' exploration . In later years Sverdrup helped to raise funds that enabled the ship to be restored and housed in a permanent museum . He died in November 1930 , seven months after Nansen 's death .

Nansen 's farthest north record lasted for just over five years . On 24 April 1900 a party of three from an Italian expedition led by the Duke of the Abruzzi reached 86 ° 34 ′ N , having left Franz Josef Land with dogs and sledges on 11 March . The party barely made it back ; one of their support groups of three men vanished entirely .

= The Monkey Suit =

" The Monkey Suit " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the seventeenth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14 , 2006 . In the episode , Ned Flanders is shocked after seeing a new display at the museum about evolution . Together with Reverend Lovejoy , he spreads the religious belief of creationism in Springfield , and at a later town meeting , teaching evolution is made illegal . As a result , Lisa decides to hold secret classes for people interested in evolution . However , she is quickly arrested and a trial against her is initiated .

J. Stewart Burns wrote " The Monkey Suit " , for which he received inspiration from the 1925 Scopes Monkey Trial . The episode features a few references to this legal case , as well as several references to popular culture . Many analysts have commented on the episode 's treatment of the creation – evolution controversy , a dispute about the origin of humanity between those who support a creationist view based upon their religious beliefs , versus those who accept evolution , as supported by scientific evidence .

Critics have given the episode generally positive reviews , praising it for its satire of the creation – evolution debate . " The Monkey Suit " has won an award from the Independent Investigations Group ( IIG ) for being " one of those rare shows in the media that encourage science , critical thinking , and ridicule those shows that peddle pseudoscience and superstition . " In 2007 , a scene from the episode was highlighted in the scientific journal Nature .

= = Plot = =

On the last day of summer vacation , Lisa brings the family to the museum to see a weaving exhibit as her summer activity , but they quickly discover that it has been canceled and replaced by a " History of Weapons " exhibit . Faced with an incredibly long line , Homer notices Ned Flanders and his children at the front of the line and cuts in front of them . Others start taking advantage of Ned ’ s kindness as well , until the Flanders family is stuck at the end . At the end of the day , they are still waiting , and are denied entry , as it is closing time for the weapons exhibit . They therefore decide to check out the evolution exhibit next door . Ned is horrified to hear that humans evolved from apes and that the creation account in the Genesis is characterized as a myth . Covering his children 's eyes , he drags them out of the exhibit .

Ned meets up with the church council to suggest promotion of creationism . The next day , he and Reverend Lovejoy blackmail Principal Skinner into introducing creationism in the school . Lisa is perturbed by this , and at a town meeting asks everyone to make a choice between creationism and Darwinism , as there is only one truth . The townspeople vote for creationism , much to her chagrin , and the act of teaching or learning Darwinism and evolution is made illegal . Lisa therefore decides to start holding secret classes for people interested in evolution . However , just as the first lesson is about to begin , she is arrested by Chief Wiggum . She asks why she 's being arrested when there are far worse crimes out there , and embarrassed he tells her they only have enough manpower to enforce the last three laws passed , even stating that it 's the worst law system there is . Lisa is brought to trial , which is dubbed Lisa Simpson v. God . Representing her is Clarice Drummond , a despised American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) lawyer , while on God ’ s ( i.e. , Ned 's ) side is Wallace Brady , a beloved , overweight , southern lawyer . The trial does not go smoothly for Lisa , as Professor Frink ( called by Clarice ) gives ambiguous answers regarding God 's existence , while a creationist scientist says that evolution cannot be real , as there is no proof of a " missing link " ( depicted in a picture as a savage hominid , holding a rock over his head ) .

With Lisa now facing a long jail sentence , Marge decides to help her out . She starts reading Charles Darwin 's The Origin of Species and becomes addicted to it . When the trial resumes , Marge tells Lisa that she now knows a way that she can help her . While Ned is being cross @-@ examined by Clarice , Marge gives Homer a cold beer . Homer , ecstatic at getting a beer , tries to open it unsuccessfully . The more he tries , the more primitive he gets , hooting and banging the bottle on the bench , disrupting the trial . Finally , Ned loses his cool and refers to Homer as a " big monkey @-@ faced gorilla . " Clarice then asks Ned to compare the picture of the " missing link " and Homer shaking the beer over his head , and asks if he truthfully believes Homer cannot be related to apes . Ned cannot and concedes victory to Lisa . Lisa kindly tells Ned that she fully respects religious beliefs , but she just does not think it is proper for the church to dominate the school , the same way that Mr. Flanders and Reverend Lovejoy do not want scientists taking over the church . Ned agrees and offers to take Lisa and his kids out for ice cream .

= = Production = =

" The Monkey Suit " was written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Raymond S. Persi as part of the seventeenth season of The Simpsons ( 2005 – 2006 ) . Burns received inspiration for the episode from the Scopes Monkey Trial , a 1925 legal case in which high school science teacher John Scopes was accused of violating Tennessee 's Butler Act which made teaching evolution unlawful . Clarice Drummond , the ACLU lawyer who represents Lisa , is a reference to the ACLU lawyer Clarence Darrow who defended Scopes , while Wallace Brady is a reference to William Jennings Bryan , an attorney in the Scopes Monkey Trial . American actor Larry Hagman guest starred in the episode as Wallace Brady , while American actress Melanie Griffith played herself as the narrator of an audio tour at the museum . Burns did research for " The Monkey Suit " by reading Richard Dawkins ' book The Selfish Gene and watching Inherit the Wind ( a film based on the Scopes Monkey Trial ) . He also visited a natural history museum .

The opening of the episode , in which Bart rushes to do everything he planned on doing during summer vacation , was originally written and animated for the season fourteen episode " I 'm Spelling as Fast as I Can " ( 2003 ) but was cut . This episode came in short , and to fill in time , the sequence was added . Burns has said commented the episode " ended up being incredibly short because when you do an episode where there 's really just one good side of an argument [ creation vs. evolution ] , you don 't fill out as much time as you need to . " The opening sequence features a large number of allusions to popular culture , including references to The Natural ( 1984 film ) , Happy Days ( television sitcom ) , and Men in Black ( 1997 film ) .

= = Themes = =

" The Monkey Suit " is an episode that tackles the creation – evolution controversy , and according to Theresa Sanders in her book Approaching Eden : Adam and Eve in Popular Culture , " skewered antievolution legislation . " The authors of the book Chronology of the Evolution @-@ Creationism Controversy commented that the episode " caricatures creationism as an intellectual joke . " Burns has cited the episode as " a nice example of The Simpsons really taking one clear side " . However , as pointed out by Sanders , it " should be pointed out that though the Simpsons episode clearly sides with Darwin , evolutionists come in for criticism as well . When Ned and his sons go into the museum 's Hall of Man , one of the exhibits they see in support of evolution is a collection of dinosaur bones with the title ' Indisputable Fossil Records . ' The cartoon 's inclusion of the sign can be interpreted as mocking the pretension that science knows all and may not be questioned . " Sanders cited another scene as an example of this ; at the trial , Drummond asks Professor Frink if " this theory of evolution necessarily mean that there is no God ? " , to which he replies , " No , of course not . It just says that God is an impotent nothing from nowhere with less power than the undersecretary of Agriculture . " Sanders wrote that " His arrogance is clear , and equally clear is the show 's satirical presentation of science 's hubris . "

Ted Gournelos analyzed " The Monkey Suit " in his 2009 book Popular Culture and the Future of Politics : Cultural Studies and the Tao of South Park , writing : " More than anything , the episode is used to critique the demonization of evolutionary theory by religious propaganda , by an instructional video used in the school ( that shows a drunken Charles Darwin passionately kissing Satan ) as well as by the prosecuting attorney . This allows for a somewhat leftist discussion of the issue , but ultimately is unable to address the rise of Christian fundamentalism in the United States [ ... ] " . Gournelos noted that the episode focuses on the old Scopes Monkey Trial and does not address contemporary creation – evolution debates , adding : " Interestingly , The Simpsons continues to place creationism at a higher popular plain than evolution , as the jury and trial audience are obviously biased towards the creationists ( who , unlike in contemporary cases , are the prosecutors rather than the plaintiffs ) . " Gournelos concluded that the episode " pokes gentle fun at media rhetoric and the questioning of evolutionary theory [ ... ] , but is unable or unwilling to address the rise of intelligent design or contemporary court battles ( in Pennsylvania [ see Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District ] , Kansas [ see Kansas evolution hearings ] , and elsewhere ) that might encourage debate in its audience . "

= = Release = =

The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 14 , 2006 . During this broadcast , it was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 41 millions viewers , finishing forty @-@ sixth in the ratings for the week of May 8 – 14 , 2006 . Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews from critics . In a retrospective that was published on the twentieth anniversary of The Simpsons in 2010 , writers for BBC News selected " The Monkey Suit " as one of the show 's " 10 classic episodes " , one they said demonstrated that " the writers still have fire in their bellies . " TV Squad critic Adam Finley wrote that " Last night 's episode had some good moments , but it did feel like they were treading upon somewhat familiar ground and not saying anything especially new , " referring to the fact the issue of science and religion has been dealt with before on the show , " most notably in the ' Lisa the Skeptic ' episode in which the supposed skeleton of a dead angel is found . " In 2007 , " The Monkey Suit " won an award from the Independent Investigations Group ( IIG ) for being " one of those rare shows in the media that encourage science , critical thinking , and ridicule those shows that peddle pseudoscience and superstition . " J. Stewart Burns , the writer of the episode , was present at the awards ceremony to accept the award .

While reviewing the seventeenth season of The Simpsons , Jesse Hassenger of PopMatters noted that he thought the show had declined in quality compared to its earlier years , and added that the stronger episodes in the later seasons are that ones that " satirize topical issues " , giving " The Monkey Suit " as an example . Similarly , Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram staff writer Robert Philpot commented that " Even in its weak seasons , this show has always been good for at least one belly laugh per episode . Not this year [ season seventeen ] . Aside from an installment that took on the evolution -vs.-creationism edge and a couple of other bits , the satirical edge has really dulled , making the announcement that it will have at least two more seasons a cause for concern rather than celebration . " In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " the scene from the episode in which " Flanders is flabbergasted that the science museum 's exhibit on the origins of man both highlights evolution and makes light of creationism — and , to top it all , has a unisex bathroom . "

= Horse =

The horse ( Equus ferus caballus ) is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus . It is an odd @-@ toed ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae . The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi @-@ toed creature , Eohippus , into the large , single @-@ toed animal of today . Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC , and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC . Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated , although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses . These feral populations are not true wild horses , as this term is used to describe horses that have never been domesticated , such as the endangered Przewalski 's horse , a separate subspecies , and the only remaining true wild horse . There is an extensive , specialized vocabulary used to describe equine @-@ related concepts , covering everything from anatomy to life stages , size , colors , markings , breeds , locomotion , and behavior .

Horses ' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well @-@ developed sense of balance and a strong fight @-@ or @-@ flight response . Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait : horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down . Female horses , called mares , carry their young for approximately 11 months , and a young horse , called a foal , can stand and run shortly following birth . Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four . They reach full adult development by age five , and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years .

Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament : spirited " hot bloods " with speed and endurance ; " cold bloods " , such as draft horses and some ponies , suitable for slow , heavy work ; and " warmbloods " , developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods , often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes , particularly in Europe . There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today , developed for many different uses .

Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non @-@ competitive recreational pursuits , as well as in working activities such as police work , agriculture , entertainment , and therapy . Horses were historically used in warfare , from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed , using many different styles of equipment and methods of control . Many products are derived from horses , including meat , milk , hide , hair , bone , and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares . Humans provide domesticated horses with food , water and shelter , as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers .

= = Biology = =

Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy , different life stages , colors and breeds .

= = = Lifespan and life stages = = =

Depending on breed , management and environment , the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years . Uncommonly , a few animals live into their 40s and , occasionally , beyond . The oldest verifiable record was " Old Billy " , a 19th @-@ century horse that lived to the age of 62 . In modern times , Sugar Puff , who had been listed in Guinness World Records as the world 's oldest living pony , died in 2007 at age 56 .

Regardless of a horse or pony 's actual birth date , for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere . The exception is in endurance riding , where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal 's actual calendar age .

The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages :

Colt : A male horse under the age of four . A common terminology error is to call any young horse a " colt " , when the term actually only refers to young male horses .

Filly : A female horse under the age of four .

Foal : A horse of either sex less than one year old . A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling . Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age , although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects .

Gelding : A castrated male horse of any age .

Mare : A female horse four years old and older .

Stallion : A non @-@ castrated male horse four years old and older . The term " horse " is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion .

Yearling : A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old .

In horse racing , these definitions may differ : For example , in the British Isles , Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old . However , Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old .

= = = Size and measurement = = =

The height of horses is usually measured at the highest point of the withers , where the neck meets the back . This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy , unlike the head or neck , which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse .

In English @-@ speaking countries , the height of horses is often stated in units of hands and inches : one hand is equal to 4 inches ( 101 @.@ 6 mm ) . The height is expressed as the number of full hands , followed by a point , then the number of additional inches , and ending with the abbreviation " h " or " hh " ( for " hands high " ) . Thus , a horse described as " 15 @.@ 2 h " is 15 hands plus 2 inches , for a total of 62 inches ( 157 @.@ 5 cm ) in height .

The size of horses varies by breed , but also is influenced by nutrition . Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands ( 56 to 64 inches , 142 to 163 cm ) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms ( 840 to 1 @,@ 210 lb ) . Larger riding horses usually start at about 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) and often are as tall as 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) , weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 to 1 @,@ 320 lb ) . Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) high and can be as tall as 18 hands ( 72 inches , 183 cm ) high . They can weigh from about 700 to 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 540 to 2 @,@ 200 lb ) .

The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth , who was born in 1848 . He stood 21 @.@ 2 1 ⁄ 4 hands ( 86 @.@ 25 inches , 219 cm ) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1 @,@ 524 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 360 lb ) . The current record holder for the world 's smallest horse is Thumbelina , a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism . She is 17 in ( 43 cm ) tall and weighs 57 lb ( 26 kg ) .

= = = = Ponies = = = =

Ponies are taxonomically the same animals as horses . The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height , especially for competition purposes . However , height alone is not dispositive ; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of phenotype , including conformation and temperament .

The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) . An animal 14 @.@ 2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14 @.@ 2 h a pony , but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard . In Australia , ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands ( 56 inches , 142 cm ) , For competition in the Western division of the United States Equestrian Federation , the cutoff is 14 @.@ 1 hands ( 57 inches , 145 cm ) The International Federation for Equestrian Sports , the world governing body for horse sport , uses metric measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres ( 58 @.@ 27 in ) at the withers without shoes , which is just over 14 @.@ 2 h , and 149 centimetres ( 58 @.@ 66 in ) , or just over 14 @.@ 2 ½ h , with shoes .

Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies . Breed registries for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14 @.@ 2 h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height . Conversely , some pony breeds may have features in common with horses , and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14 @.@ 2 h , but are still considered to be ponies .

Ponies often exhibit thicker manes , tails , and overall coat . They also have proportionally shorter legs , wider barrels , heavier bone , shorter and thicker necks , and short heads with broad foreheads . They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers . Small size , by itself , is not an exclusive determinant . For example , the Shetland pony which averages 10 hands ( 40 inches , 102 cm ) , is considered a pony . Conversely , breeds such as the Falabella and other miniature horses , which can be no taller than 30 inches ( 76 cm ) , are classified by their registries as very small horses , not ponies .

= = = Genetics = = =

Horses have 64 chromosomes . The horse genome was sequenced in 2007 . It contains 2 @.@ 7 billion DNA base pairs , which is larger than the dog genome , but smaller than the human genome or the bovine genome . The map is available to researchers .

= = = Colors and markings = = =

Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings , described by a specialized vocabulary . Often , a horse is classified first by its coat color , before breed or sex . Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings , which , along with various spotting patterns , are inherited separately from coat color .

Many genes that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified . Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different alleles influencing coat color , and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits . The basic coat colors of chestnut and black are determined by the gene controlled by the Melanocortin 1 receptor , also known as the " extension gene " or " red factor , " as its recessive form is " red " ( chestnut ) and its dominant form is black . Additional genes control suppression of black color to point coloration that results in a bay , spotting patterns such as pinto or leopard , dilution genes such as palomino or dun , as well as graying , and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses .

Horses which have a white coat color are often mislabeled ; a horse that looks " white " is usually a middle @-@ aged or older gray . Grays are born a darker shade , get lighter as they age , but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat ( with the exception of pink skin under white markings ) . The only horses properly called white are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin , a fairly rare occurrence . Different and unrelated genetic factors can produce white coat colors in horses , including several different alleles of dominant white and the sabino @-@ 1 gene . However , there are no " albino " horses , defined as having both pink skin and red eyes .

= = = Reproduction and development = = =

Gestation lasts approximately 340 days , with an average range 320 – 370 days , and usually results in one foal ; twins are rare . Horses are a precocial species , and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth . Foals are usually born in the spring . The estrous cycle of a mare occurs roughly every 19 – 22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn . Most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period . Foals are generally weaned from their mothers between four and six months of age .

Horses , particularly colts , sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months , but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three , especially females . Horses four years old are considered mature , although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six ; maturation also depends on the horse 's size , breed , sex , and quality of care . Larger horses have larger bones ; therefore , not only do the bones take longer to form bone tissue , but the epiphyseal plates are larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone . These plates convert after the other parts of the bones , and are crucial to development .

Depending on maturity , breed , and work expected , horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four . Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries , horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old , because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed . For endurance riding competition , horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months ( five years ) old .

= = = Anatomy = = =

= = = = Skeletal system = = = =

The horse skeleton averages 205 bones . A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a collarbone — the horse 's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles , tendons , and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso . The horse 's legs and hooves are also unique structures . Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human . For example , the body part that is called a horse 's " knee " is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist . Similarly , the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel . The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot , and the fetlock ( incorrectly called the " ankle " ) is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones ( a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones ) and the proximal phalanges , located where one finds the " knuckles " of a human . A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks , only skin , hair , bone , tendons , ligaments , cartilage , and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof .

= = = = Hooves = = = =

The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage , " no foot , no horse " . The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges , the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe , surrounded by cartilage and other specialized , blood @-@ rich soft tissues such as the laminae . The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of keratin , the same material as a human fingernail . The end result is that a horse , weighing on average 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) , travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe . For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions , some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier . The hoof continually grows , and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed ( and horseshoes reset , if used ) every five to eight weeks , though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain .

= = = = Teeth = = = =

Horses are adapted to grazing . In an adult horse , there are 12 incisors at the front of the mouth , adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation . There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing , the premolars and molars , at the back of the mouth . Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors , a type of canine teeth called " tushes " . Some horses , both male and female , will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars , known as " wolf " teeth , which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit . There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums , or " bars " of the horse 's mouth when the horse is bridled .

An estimate of a horse 's age can be made from looking at its teeth . The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing . Therefore , the incisors show changes as the horse ages ; they develop a distinct wear pattern , changes in tooth shape , and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet . This allows a very rough estimate of a horse 's age , although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear .

= = = = Digestion = = = =

Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material , consumed steadily throughout the day . Therefore , compared to humans , they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients . A 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms ( 15 to 24 lb ) of food per day and , under normal use , drink 38 to 45 litres ( 8 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 9 imp gal ; 10 to 12 US gal ) of water . Horses are not ruminants , they have only one stomach , like humans , but unlike humans , they can utilize cellulose , a major component of grass . Horses are hindgut fermenters , Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum , or " water gut " , which food goes through before reaching the large intestine . Horses cannot vomit , so digestion problems can quickly cause colic , a leading cause of death .

= = = = Senses = = = =

The horses ' senses are based on their status as prey animals , where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times . They have the largest eyes of any land mammal , and are lateral @-@ eyed , meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads . This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350 ° , with approximately 65 ° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285 ° monocular vision . Horses have excellent day and night vision , but they have two @-@ color , or dichromatic vision ; their color vision is somewhat like red @-@ green color blindness in humans , where certain colors , especially red and related colors , appear as a shade of green .

Their sense of smell , while much better than that of humans , is not quite as good as that of a dog . It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment . Horses have two olfactory centers . The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity , which analyze a wide range of odors . The second , located under the nasal cavity , are the Vomeronasal organs , also called Jacobson 's organs . These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze pheromones .

A horse 's hearing is good , and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180 ° , giving the potential for 360 ° hearing without having to move the head . Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress : A 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting , or if listening to country or classical music , but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music . This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21 decibels . An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music , and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing .

Horses have a great sense of balance , due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioception — the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times . A horse 's sense of touch is well developed . The most sensitive areas are around the eyes , ears , and nose . Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body .

Horses have an advanced sense of taste , which allows them to sort through fodder and choose what they would most like to eat , and their prehensile lips can easily sort even small grains . Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants , however , there are exceptions ; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food .

= = = Movement = = =

All horses move naturally with four basic gaits : the four @-@ beat walk , which averages 6 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ( 4 @.@ 0 mph ) ; the two @-@ beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour ( 8 @.@ 1 to 11 @.@ 8 mph ) ( faster for harness racing horses ) ; the canter or lope , a three @-@ beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour ( 12 to 15 mph ) ; and the gallop . The gallop averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour ( 25 to 30 mph ) , but the world record for a horse galloping over a short , sprint distance is 70 @.@ 76 kilometres per hour ( 43 @.@ 97 mph ) . Besides these basic gaits , some horses perform a two @-@ beat pace , instead of the trot . There also are several four @-@ beat " ambling " gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace , though smoother to ride . These include the lateral rack , running walk , and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot . Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds , known collectively as gaited horses . Often , gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits .

= = = Behavior = = =

Horses are prey animals with a strong fight @-@ or @-@ flight response . Their first reaction to threat is to startle and usually flee , although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened . They also tend to be curious ; when startled , they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright , and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non @-@ threatening . Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed , agility , alertness and endurance ; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors . However , through selective breeding , some breeds of horses are quite docile , particularly certain draft horses .

Horses are herd animals , with a clear hierarchy of rank , led by a dominant individual , usually a mare . They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals , including humans . They communicate in various ways , including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying , mutual grooming , and body language . Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated , but with training , horses can learn to accept a human as a companion , and thus be comfortable away from other horses . However , when confined with insufficient companionship , exercise , or stimulation , individuals may develop stable vices , an assortment of bad habits , mostly stereotypies of psychological origin , that include wood chewing , wall kicking , " weaving " ( rocking back and forth ) , and other problems .

= = = = Intelligence and learning = = = =

Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis , meeting mental challenges that include food procurement and identification of individuals within a social system . They also have good spatial discrimination abilities . Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as problem solving , speed of learning , and memory . Horses excel at simple learning , but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning . They can learn using habituation , desensitization , classical conditioning , and operant conditioning , and positive and negative reinforcement . One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between " more or less " if the quantity involved is less than four .

Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses , because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural . Horses are animals of habit that respond well to regimentation , and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently . One trainer believes that " intelligent " horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal 's natural inclinations .

= = = = Temperament = = = =

Horses are mammals , and as such are warm @-@ blooded , or endothermic creatures , as opposed to cold @-@ blooded , or poikilothermic animals . However , these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology , used to describe temperament , not body temperature . For example , the " hot @-@ bloods " , such as many race horses , exhibit more sensitivity and energy , while the " cold @-@ bloods " , such as most draft breeds , are quieter and calmer . Sometimes " hot @-@ bloods " are classified as " light horses " or " riding horses " , with the " cold @-@ bloods " classified as " draft horses " or " work horses " .

" Hot blooded " breeds include " oriental horses " such as the Akhal @-@ Teke , Arabian horse , Barb and now @-@ extinct Turkoman horse , as well as the Thoroughbred , a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds . Hot bloods tend to be spirited , bold , and learn quickly . They are bred for agility and speed . They tend to be physically refined — thin @-@ skinned , slim , and long @-@ legged . The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses .

Muscular , heavy draft horses are known as " cold bloods " , as they are bred not only for strength , but also to have the calm , patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people . They are sometimes nicknamed " gentle giants " . Well @-@ known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale . Some , like the Percheron , are lighter and livelier , developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates . Others , such as the Shire , are slower and more powerful , bred to plow fields with heavy , clay @-@ based soils . The cold @-@ blooded group also includes some pony breeds .

" Warmblood " breeds , such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian , developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds , producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse , but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed . Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders . Warmbloods are considered a " light horse " or " riding horse " .

Today , the term " Warmblood " refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping . Strictly speaking , the term " warm blood " refers to any cross between cold @-@ blooded and hot @-@ blooded breeds . Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay . The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians , such as the Morgan horse .

= = = = Sleep patterns = = = =

Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down . In an adaptation from life in the wild , horses are able to enter light sleep by using a " stay apparatus " in their legs , allowing them to doze without collapsing . Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators . A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger .

Unlike humans , horses do not sleep in a solid , unbroken period of time , but take many short periods of rest . Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest , and from a few minutes to several hours lying down . Total sleep time in a 24 @-@ hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours , mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each . The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2 @.@ 9 hours per day .

Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep . They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements . However , if a horse is never allowed to lie down , after several days it will become sleep @-@ deprived , and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing . This condition differs from narcolepsy , although horses may also suffer from that disorder .

= = Taxonomy and evolution = =

The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide @-@ open terrain with sparse vegetation , surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals , especially ruminants , could not . Horses and other equids are odd @-@ toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla , a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period . In the past , this order contained 14 families , but only three — Equidae ( the horse and related species ) , the tapir , and the rhinoceros — have survived to the present day .

The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the Hyracotherium , which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago , during the Eocene period . It had 4 toes on each front foot , and 3 toes on each back foot . The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus , which lived 32 to 37 million years ago . Over time , the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished . All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee , known informally as splint bones . Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed . By about 5 million years ago , the modern Equus had evolved . Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft , tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material , then to grazing of tougher plains grasses . Thus proto @-@ horses changed from leaf @-@ eating forest @-@ dwellers to grass @-@ eating inhabitants of semi @-@ arid regions worldwide , including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America .

By about 15 @,@ 000 years ago , Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species . Horse bones from this time period , the late Pleistocene , are found in Europe , Eurasia , Beringia , and North America . Yet between 10 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 600 years ago , the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere . The reasons for this extinction are not fully known , but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival . Another theory points to climate change , noting that approximately 12 @,@ 500 years ago , the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra , which was covered with unpalatable plants .

= = = Wild species surviving into modern times = = =

A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated . Therefore , most " wild " horses today are actually feral horses , animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals . Only two never @-@ domesticated subspecies , the Tarpan and the Przewalski 's Horse , survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today .

The Przewalski 's horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii ) , named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky , is a rare Asian animal . It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse ; Mongolian people know it as the taki , and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag . The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992 , while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world . In 1992 , it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos . Today , a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia . There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world .

The tarpan or European wild horse ( Equus ferus ferus ) was found in Europe and much of Asia . It survived into the historical era , but became extinct in 1909 , when the last captive died in a Russian zoo . Thus , the genetic line was lost . Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan , which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities , but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses .

Periodically , populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relict populations of wild horses , but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic . For example , the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such , but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses . Similarly , the Sorraia of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics , but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness .

= = = Other modern equids = = =

Besides the horse , there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family . These are the ass or donkey , Equus asinus ; the mountain zebra , Equus zebra ; plains zebra , Equus quagga ; Grévy 's zebra , Equus grevyi ; the kiang , Equus kiang ; and the onager , Equus hemionus .

Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus . The most common hybrid is the mule , a cross between a " jack " ( male donkey ) and a mare . A related hybrid , a hinny , is a cross between a stallion and a jenny ( female donkey ) . Other hybrids include the zorse , a cross between a zebra and a horse . With rare exceptions , most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce .

= = Domestication = =

Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC . Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world . The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries ; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains .

The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan , dating to approximately 3500 – 4000 BC . By 3000 BC , the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe , indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent . The most recent , but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c . 2100 BC .

Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present @-@ day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations . The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse , while many mares were part of early domesticated herds . This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal , or sire line ( Y @-@ chromosome ) versus that passed on along the maternal , or dam line ( mitochondrial DNA ) . There are very low levels of Y @-@ chromosome variability , but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA . There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds . Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation . In horses , this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC .

Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse , various hypotheses were proposed . One classification was based on body types and conformation , suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication . Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication . However , the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses .

= = = Feral populations = = =

Feral horses are born and live in the wild , but are descended from domesticated animals . Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world . Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses , as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions .

There are also semi @-@ feral horses in many parts of the world , such as Dartmoor and the New Forest in the UK , where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in " wild " conditions on undeveloped , often public , lands . Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights .

= = = Breeds = = =

The concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled , written breed registry has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times . Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called " thoroughbreds " . Thoroughbred is a specific breed of horse , while a " purebred " is a horse ( or any other animal ) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry . Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring , such as conformation , color , performance ability , or disposition . These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods . Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication . An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin , who had a reputation for careful practices , keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines . These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition . In the 14th century , Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse .

Breeds developed due to a need for " form to function " , the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work . Thus , a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for dressage . Heavy draft horses developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons . Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work , carriage and road work , various sport disciplines , or simply as pets . Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds , while others descended from a single foundation sire , or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock . One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds , which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed . There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today .

= = Interaction with humans = =

Worldwide , horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia . Horses are used for leisure activities , sports , and working purposes . The Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) estimates that in 2008 , there were almost 59 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 horses in the world , with around 33 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in the Americas , 13 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 in Asia and 6 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania . There are estimated to be 9 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 horses in the United States alone . The American Horse Council estimates that horse @-@ related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $ 39 billion , and when indirect spending is considered , the impact is over $ 102 billion . In a 2004 " poll " conducted by Animal Planet , more than 50 @,@ 000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world 's 4th favorite animal .

Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity ; to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning , and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control . Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle , and occasionally , horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear . Many horses are also driven , which requires a harness , bridle , and some type of vehicle .

= = = Sport = = =

Historically , equestrians honed their skills through games and races . Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle . Many sports , such as dressage , eventing and show jumping , have origins in military training , which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider . Other sports , such as rodeo , developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations . Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques . Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers . All forms of competition , requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider , resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport . The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat .

Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions . Examples include show jumping , dressage , three @-@ day eventing , competitive driving , endurance riding , gymkhana , rodeos , and fox hunting . Horse shows , which have their origins in medieval European fairs , are held around the world . They host a huge range of classes , covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines , as well as " In @-@ hand " classes where the horses are led , rather than ridden , to be evaluated on their conformation . The method of judging varies with the discipline , but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider . Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself , but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game . Although the horse requires specialized training to participate , the details of its performance are not judged , only the result of the rider 's actions — be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task . Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting , in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other , and buzkashi , a team game played throughout Central Asia , the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback .

Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry , watched in almost every nation of the world . There are three types : " flat " racing ; steeplechasing , i.e. racing over jumps ; and harness racing , where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small , light cart known as a sulky . A major part of horse racing 's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it .

= = = Work = = =

There are certain jobs that horses do very well , and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them . For example , mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control . Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote , rugged terrain . Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people , particularly hikers and children , and to provide disaster relief assistance . Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil , such as nature reserves . They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas . Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles . Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols , and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective .

Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world , an estimated 100 million horses , donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas . This number includes around 27 million working animals in Africa alone . Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses . In agriculture , less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses . Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging .

= = = Entertainment and culture = = =

Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes . Horses are used , complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica , in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history , especially recreations of famous battles . Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes . Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse @-@ drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events . Public exhibitions are another example , such as the Budweiser Clydesdales , seen in parades and other public settings , a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck .

Horses are frequently seen in television , films and literature . They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals , but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories . Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products . The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry , in a variety of poses and equipment . The mythologies of many cultures , including Greco @-@ Roman , Hindu , Islamic , and Norse , include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs , and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun . The horse also appears in the 12 @-@ year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar .

= = = Therapeutic use = = =

People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses . Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination , increased self @-@ confidence , and a greater feeling of freedom and independence . The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para @-@ equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ( FEI ) . Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical , occupational , and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement . In hippotherapy , a therapist uses the horse 's movement to improve their patient 's cognitive , coordination , balance , and fine motor skills , whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills .

Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not . " Equine @-@ assisted " or " equine @-@ facilitated " therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness , including anxiety disorders , psychotic disorders , mood disorders , behavioral difficulties , and those who are going through major life changes . There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings . Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave .

= = = Warfare = = =

Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history . The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BC , and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age . Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war , horses are still seen today in limited military uses , mostly for ceremonial purposes , or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective . Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur .

= = = Products = = =

Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history , including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses .

Products collected from living horses include mare 's milk , used by people with large horse herds , such as the Mongols , who let it ferment to produce kumis . Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes , who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling . Drinking their own horses ' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat . The drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares ( pregnant mares ' urine ) , and was previously a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy . The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin , viola , cello , and double bass .

Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages . It is eaten in many parts of the world , though consumption is taboo in some cultures , and a subject of political controversy in others . Horsehide leather has been used for boots , gloves , jackets , baseballs , and baseball gloves . Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue . Horse bones can be used to make implements . Specifically , in Italian cuisine , the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto , which is used to test the readiness of a ( pig ) ham as it cures . In Asia , the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis .

= = = Care = = =

Horses are grazing animals , and their major source of nutrients is good @-@ quality forage from hay or pasture . They can consume approximately 2 % to 2 @.@ 5 % of their body weight in dry feed each day . Therefore , a 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms ( 24 lb ) of food . Sometimes , concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay , especially when the animal is very active . When grain is fed , equine nutritionists recommend that 50 % or more of the animal 's diet by weight should still be forage .

Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water , a minimum of 10 US gallons ( 38 L ) to 12 US gallons ( 45 L ) per day . Although horses are adapted to live outside , they require shelter from the wind and precipitation , which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable .

Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier , as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases , and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist . If horses are kept inside in a barn , they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well @-@ being . When turned outside , they require well @-@ maintained , sturdy fences to be safely contained . Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin .

= Patience ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Patience " is the third episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on November 19 , 2000 . The episode was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . " Patience " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 and was viewed by 13 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics .

The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , John Doggett , after having been assigned to the X @-@ Files , joins Scully to investigate a series of gruesome murders that appear to be the work of a bat @-@ like creature . This being their first case together , Scully and Doggett find that their investigative techniques are less than similar .

Carter was inspired to write " Patience " to emulate the " back @-@ to @-@ basics stand alones [ … ] of the earlier seasons " . The episode was the first The X @-@ Files entry to neither feature actor David Duchovny nor feature his name in the opening credits . Furthermore , the episode was crafted to be the first to test Doggett 's skepticism of paranormal activity .

= = Plot = =

In Burley , Idaho , an undertaker and his wife are brutally murdered by some sort of flying creature . Later , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , who has been assigned to the X @-@ Files , begin talking about the case . Scully explains about the death of the undertaker and his wife and notes that the cause of death being blood loss from human bite marks on their bodies .

Scully and Doggett arrive at the crime scene in Idaho and meet Detective Yale Abbott . He says they are less sure that the bites were made by a human and draws their attention to the strange footprint , believing that wild animals fed on the bodies after the fact . Scully points out that there is only one footprint , which looks ominously human , and that if it were left by an animal there would be more footprints leading to the bodies . Scully and Doggett check out the house and find prints leading upstairs and into the attic . Inside , Scully and Doggett find the missing fingers of the undertaker . They look like they have been regurgitated by something and the claw marks in the attic suggest something was hanging from the rafters . Meanwhile , elderly Mrs. McKesson is killed in her attic while looking at a photo album .

At the morgue , Scully explains that she studied the bite wounds and discovered that they are similar , but intrinsically different , than human bites ; the saliva on the regurgitated fingers has anti @-@ coagulants in it , which only bats have in their saliva . Doggett finds the evidence interesting , due to the newspaper article he brought Scully : in 1956 , a series of deaths was reported that ended when a group of hunters killed a man @-@ bat creature and brought it to the county morgue in part of Montana . The coroner said the creature was neither bat nor man . Then the coroner was killed a few days later and soon after a few more people were killed or disappeared .

Scully and Doggett join the investigation at McKesson ’ s home . Scully suggests a connection between the burned body of Ariel McKesson who disappeared in 1956 and her mother , the latest victim . Scully believes that the burned body should be exhumed to potentially learn the connection with the other deaths . Later , the gravediggers already have the coffin excavated when Detective Abbott shows up at the town cemetery . They tell him that they did not have to dig because somebody already dug the coffin up and scratched the lid up . While they drive off with the body , Abbott inspects a dead tree . The creature is within and it eviscerates Abbott .

The police are upset about Abbott ’ s death and blame Scully while Doggett reminds them that only the thing that killed Abbott and the others is to blame . Scully explains Ariel McKesson died of heart failure and then was burned to cover something up . She realizes that all the victims were people who came in contact with the body of Ariel McKesson : Abbott investigated the crime , her mother identified the body , the undertaker prepared the body , and Myron Stefaniuk pulled the body from the river . All but Myron Stefaniuk are now dead . Doggett and Scully find Myron and ask him about Ernie Stefaniuk , one of the hunters from 1956 , who he reveals disappeared along time ago . The two eventually track down Ernie Stefaniuk , who tells them that he hid on an island in the middle of the town 's lake with his wife , Ariel , for 44 years . Ernie says that the bat creature kills anyone with Ernie ’ s scent on them , so he had burned his wife ’ s body to try and cover up the scent . He informs them that it hunts only at night and Myron is in danger . Doggett goes back to find Myron only to be attacked and badly torn up by the creature at the river .

Ernie says Scully is now marked and the creature will go after her too . When his ground radar goes off , Scully goes outside . Ernie stays inside and is butchered by the bat creature . Scully returns to see it ravaging Ernie ; she manages to shoot it before being knocked down . Doggett appears and shoots the creature several more times , saving Scully . The creature disappears into the night while Scully helps the injured Doggett .

= = Production = =

" Patience " was written and directed by series creator Chris Carter . The episode , inspired by the " back @-@ to @-@ basics stand alones [ … ] of the earlier seasons " , was the first episode of The X @-@ Files to neither feature actor David Duchovny nor feature his name in the opening credits . After settling his contract dispute with Fox , Duchovny quit full @-@ time participation in the show after the seventh season . In order to explain Mulder 's absence , Duchovny 's character was abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem " , and as such , did not appear in " Patience " .

The episode 's main villain , the human @-@ bat hybrid , was inspired by the 1970s comic book villain , Man @-@ Bat , one of the arch @-@ nemeses of Batman . During the filming of the episode , live bats were used ; the type of bat used in " Patience " was the Egyptian Fruit Bat . Furthermore , the episode was the first to test Doggett 's skepticism of paranormal activity . As Robert Patrick explained , " [ ' Patience ' ] is where it starts to toy with my willingness to believe in the paranormal and strange happenings . You 've got a guy that 's a bat , which is sort of out of the norm . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Patience " first aired on Fox on November 19 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 27 million households , and 13 @.@ 3 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 42nd most @-@ watched episode for the week ending November 19 . The episode subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on the BBC Two on July 28 , 2002 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " More deadly than a man . More ruthless than a bat . A hungry predator waits in the darkness for its next prey ... Scully and Doggett . "

= = = Reviews = = =

" Patience " received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Jay Anderson , writing for What Culture , was positive toward the episode . While noting the show 's return to its " dark , creepy [ ... ] roots " in the eighth season , Anderson described the episode as an " early success at returning to the realm of the scary " . Anderson ranked the human bat as the eighth creepiest creature of the show . Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a D and criticized the episode 's references to Mulder 's absence , most notably the scene wherein Scully put Mulder 's nameplate away , asking , sardonically , " Is that supposed to be symbolic , I wonder ? " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that , despite the fact that " a lot of [ the episode ] works [ … ] because the scenes between Doggett and Scully are so good " , the positive aspects of the episode were not " put to better use in a more exciting episode ; this particular case hardly stretched anyone 's deductive prowess . " Shearman and Pearson later wrote that if the episode had been " a Mulder and Scully adventure , this would have been bottom of the barrel stuff . "

Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " and criticized both its monster , and its guest cast . Concerning the former , he wrote that it was " just ridiculous " and that its design was " bland and generic " . Concerning the latter , he wrote that the cast was filled with " actors hamming it up " . VanDerWerff did note that the episode was better " than its reputation " suggested , but that it still was " undone by some very strange story choices and a dumb monster " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris bluntly wrote , " if you 're looking for a suspenseful , bite @-@ your @-@ nails , monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week X @-@ Files episode … this isn 't it . " Furthermore , she criticized the villain , calling it " a dull monster in fake @-@ looking make @-@ up " .

= = = Awards = = =

" Patience " earned a nomination for an ASC Award by the American Society of Cinematographers for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography - Regular Series .

= First Massacre of Machecoul =

The Machecoul massacre is one of the first events of the War in the Vendée , a revolt against mass conscription and the civil constitution of the clergy . The first massacre took place on 11 March 1793 , in the provincial city of Machecoul , in the district of the lower Loire . The city was a thriving center of grain trade ; most of the victims were administrators , merchants and citizens of the city .

Although the Machecoul massacre , and others that followed it , are often viewed ( variously ) as a royalist revolt , or a counter @-@ revolution , twenty @-@ first century historians generally agree that Vendee revolt was a complicated popular event brought on by anti @-@ clericalism of the Revolution , mass conscription , and Jacobin anti @-@ federalism . In the geographic area south of the Loire , resistance to recruitment was particularly intense , and much of this area also resented intrusion by partisans of the republic , called " blue coats " , who brought with them new ideas about district and judicial organization , and who required reorganization of parishes with the so @-@ called juring priests ( those who had taken the civil oath ) . Consequently , the insurgency became a combination of many impulses , at which conscription and the organization of parishes led the list . The response to it was incredibly violent on both sides .

= = Background = =

In 1791 , two representatives on mission informed the National Convention of the disquieting condition of Vendée , and this news was quickly followed by the exposure of a royalist plot organized by the Marquis de la Rouerie . It was not until the social unrest combined with the external pressures from the Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( 1790 ) and the introduction of a levy of 300 @,@ 000 on the whole of France , decreed by the National Convention in February 1793 , that the region erupted .

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy required all clerics to swear allegiance to it and , by extension , to the increasingly anti @-@ clerical National Constituent Assembly . All but seven of the 160 French bishops refused the oath , as did about half of the parish priests . Persecution of the clergy and of the faithful was the first trigger of the rebellion . Those who refused the oath , called non @-@ juring priests , had been exiled or imprisoned . Women on their way to Mass were beaten in the streets . Religious orders had been suppressed and Church property , confiscated . On 3 March 1793 , most of the churches were ordered closed . Soldiers confiscated sacramental vessels and the people were forbidden to place crosses on graves .

Nearly all the purchasers of church land were bourgeois ; very few peasants benefited from the sales . To add to this insult , on 23 February 1793 the Convention required the raising of an additional 300 @,@ 000 troops from the provinces , an act which enraged the populace , who took up arms instead as The Catholic Army ; the term " Royal " was added later . This army fought first and foremost for the reopening of parish churches with the former priests .

In March 1793 , as word of the conscription requirements filtered into the countryside , many Vendéans refused to satisfy the decree of the levee en masse issued on 23 February 1793 . Within weeks the rebel forces had formed a substantial , if ill @-@ equipped , army , the Royal and Catholic Army , supported by two thousand irregular cavalry and a few captured artillery pieces . Most of the insurgents operated on a much smaller scale , using guerrilla tactics , supported by the local knowledge and the good @-@ will of the people .

= = Massacre = =

The irregular army raised in the countryside had not reached Machecoul , but the officials from the conscription officers had . On Monday , 11 March 1793 , a crowd arrived in the center of the town , from the surrounding countryside ; they started the chant Pas de milice ( no enlistments ) and surrounded the Republic 's conscription officers in the town . A nervous soldier opened fire and the enraged crowd retaliated . Between 22 and 26 soldiers were killed , including their lieutenant , Pierre @-@ Claude Ferré . The immediate victims also included the juring priest , Pierre Letort , who was bayoneted to death and whose body was mutilated , Pagnot the magistrate , and Étienne Gaschignard , the principal of the college . The National Guard was routed , and the rebels , including many women , seized those they called " patriots " — also called the " Blues " , or the people who supported the republican cause — and led them to prison in the old castle and the convent of Sisters of Cavalry . There they killed the guardsmen and some notable inhabitants , about 20 in total , although according to some testimony , as many as 26 were killed on the first day and 18 the next day . Alfred Lallié , another witness , gave 22 as the count of dead .

The situation then spiraled out of control . In the following days , the insurgents swelled to some six thousand men and women , and some of the republican adherents and their families fled to Nantes and other strongholds . On 19 March , many counter @-@ revolutionary suspects were rounded up and the republicans inflicted their own massacres : in La Rochelle , six non @-@ juring priests were hacked to death and their heads ( and other body parts ) shown throughout the city . About a week later , the insurgents from Machecoul seized the neighboring harbor town of Pornic ( approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the northwest ) on 23 March , this time joined by some of the irregular army that had been forming elsewhere , and sacked it . A republican patrol surprised the Vendeans , who were carousing on liberated cellars , and killed between 200 and 500 of them . The angry peasants returned to Machecoul and in reprisal killed another dozen prisoners on 27 March . In total , about 200 died ( not all in the battle ) , and when the survivors of Pornic returned to Machecoul , they pulled the detained " blue coats " out of the prisoner and shot them , a process that lasted over the next few weeks , into mid @-@ April .

Tales of brutality , some of which may have been true , abounded ; numbers of those killed escalated . Current research suggests that 150 were executed in the town overall , but contemporary republican reports put the figure at 500 . Despite the demonization of the insurgents , though , twenty @-@ two " blue coats " from the parish were saved by the request of their own neighborhoods ; others were even cleared by tribunals established to monitor executions , and overseen by the local jurist , René François Souchu . Souchu , a lawyer and judge by profession , directed the execution of approximately 50 republican officials and adherents on 3 April ; they were shot down and buried in a field outside of the city .

= = = Contemporary reports = = =

The most influential of the contemporary reports came from Citizen Boullemer , and was published in over 1000 pamphlets later in the year . Boullemer claimed to be among the few surviving eyewitnesses : " there arrived from all exits of the city , five to six thousand peasants , women and children , armed [ with ] guns , scythes , knives , shovels and pikes . They shouted , running the streets : peace ! peace ! " Boullemer 's account continues : they descended on Machecoul , confronted a detachment of the National guard that had come to enforce the levy . One hundred National Guardsmen and police defended the town against them . Louis @-@ Charles @-@ César Maupassant , a farmer , merchant and a deputy to the Convention , tried to harangue the attackers into quiescence , but could not be heard above the din . Most of the Republican troops and officials scattered before the threatening crowd . According to Louis Mortimer @-@ Ternaux , another eye @-@ witness , only three officers and five or six gendarmes remained at their posts . At that time , according to him , some national guardsmen who had tried to escape through an alley were ambushed by peasants , pursued , and finally brought down by the crowd at the feet of the deputy , Maupassant . The crowd then pulled him off his horse and killed him with a stroke of a shovel .

Boullemer 's wrote his sensational account well after the fact , in the safety of Rennes , where he was taken after being rescued by republican forces . Boullemer admitted that he had spent most of the six weeks of the upheaval at Machecoul in the safety of his granary , hiding from the peasants . His account of the terror , though lost nothing in the fact that he had seen little : the peasants in the town sounded the tocsin , he wrote , and others exploded from the surrounding fields . Within a short time the entire affair had become a wholesale massacre of republican troops , the constitutional priest , known radical sympathizers and anyone involved with the municipal administration . Prisoners had their hands tied behind their backs , and were linked with a rope passed under their armpits , in a so @-@ called rosary ; then they were dragged into fields and forced to dig their own graves before being gunned down . Patriots , those who supported the revolution , were hunted down , lashed to trees , and emasculated . Patriot women were raped and cut down in orchards . Boullemer placed the count of the dead at 552 .

= = View from Paris = =

From the Jacobin clubs , the Convention , and the streets and alleyways in Paris , this could only be viewed as insurrection . For them , the Revolution meant a France indivisible . Anything that divided France — anything that varied from the path set the revolutionary government — was dangerous to the success for the revolution itself . Any idea , an action , or thought that ran counter to the revolutionary ideology smacked of federalism or , worse , of royalist sentiment . The historians ' debate over federalism and the French Revolution reaches almost to the days of the Revolution itself . To be called a " federalist " in 1793 , 1794 , or 1795 , or any other time in the revolution , for that matter , was tantamount to being labeled as an anti @-@ revolutionary ; to be called anti @-@ revolutionary meant one was de facto a royalist . It was a convenient epithet : to be called a federalist alienated one from the principal radical goal of the revolution , which was to create a single , unified French Republic . Any notion of sectionalism — the possibility that a department or departments could establish for themselves a set of conditions and a government — must be labeled as anti @-@ revolutionary . For the moderate Girondins and the radical Montagnards , federalism meant the watering @-@ down of the Revolution , the violation of the civic body , and the loss of their dreams . If the peasants of the Vendée did not want to fight for the Revolution , if they preferred their priests and their ( dead ) king to their liberty , then they must be against the Revolution and , consequently , they must be severed from its benefits .

This uncompromising vision of revolutionary goals implied a plain and brutal truth : " convert heads or chop them off . " One deputy complained , " if there were only 30 @,@ 000 , it would be a simple matter of putting them all to the sword , but there are so many ! " Boullemer 's written description of the event was published as a pamphlet in November 1793 , and the representative on mission , Jacques Garnier , sent a thousand copies to the Convention , the Executive Council and to all departments ; it also served as a basis for the official report that François Toussaint Villers presented to the Convention .

= = Aftermath = =

There were other levy riots across France , when the departments started to draft men into the army in response to the Levy Decree but reaction in the northwest in March was particularly pronounced with large scale rioting verging on insurrection . By early April , in areas north of the Loire , order had been restored by the revolutionary government , but south of the river , in the four departments that became known as the Vendée Militaire , there were few troops to control rebels and what had started as rioting quickly took on the form of a full insurrection led by priests and the local nobility .

Evidence links these events to local dissatisfaction with the reorganization of the church into a government entity . The unrest began half way through Lent ; Easter that year occurred on 31 March 1793 , and , significantly , the initial violence was directed at the local priest Letort . Letort personified the revolution , and the republican government in Paris by taking the Civil Oath of the Clergy , essentially becoming a puppet of the republicans in Paris , at least in the eyes of the insurgents . The violence followed what Raymond Jonas called a singular pattern of logic : it targeted those who personified the revolution in their function or status : National Guard Lieutenant Ferré , such prominent townsmen as Deputy Maupassant , and the constitutional priest Letort . Yet , the local district administrator , the jurist Souchu , was left alone : apparently he was known for his anti @-@ republican sentiments and actually threw his lot in with the insurgents . After the furor in Machecoul died down later in the spring , the former pastor at Machecoul , the non @-@ juring priest François Priou , refused to celebrate at the now " liberated " church because the schismatic constitutional priest had profaned it . Instead , he said the Mass outside on a makeshift altar .

Class differences were not as great in the Vendée as in Paris or in other French provinces . In the rural Vendée , the local nobility seems to have been more permanently in residence and less bitterly resented than in other parts of France . Alexis de Tocqueville noted that most French nobles lived in cities by 1789 . An Intendants ' survey showed one of the few areas where they still lived with the peasants was the Vendée . Consequently , the conflicts that drove the revolution in Paris , for example , were also lessened in this particularly isolated part of France by the strong adherence of the populace to their Catholic faith .

= Ersatz Yorck @-@ class battlecruiser =

The Ersatz Yorck class was a group of three battlecruisers ordered for the Imperial German Navy in April 1915 . The name derived from the fact that the lead ship was intended as a replacement ( German : ersatz ) for the armored cruiser Yorck , lost to mines in 1914 . They were a slightly enlarged version of the Mackensen @-@ class battlecruiser , armed with 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns as opposed to the 35 cm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) weapons on the preceding design . The boilers would have been trunked into a single massive funnel . The three ships were originally ordered as part of the Mackensen class but the design was changed when details of the British Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers became known to German intelligence . The vessels were ordered under the provisional names Ersatz Yorck , Ersatz Gneisenau , and Ersatz Scharnhorst . They were considered to be replacements for the armored cruisers Yorck , which had been sunk by German mines in 1914 , and Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , both of which had been sunk at the Battle of the Falkland Islands also in 1914 .

As with the Mackensens , the three ships of the Ersatz Yorck class were never completed . This was primarily due to shifting wartime construction priorities ; U @-@ boats were deemed more important to Germany 's war effort , and so work on other types of ships was slowed or halted outright . The lead ship , Ersatz Yorck , was the only vessel of the three to have construction begin , though she was over two years from completion by the time work was abandoned . With the hull incomplete , the ship could not be launched and towed to ship @-@ breakers ; as a result , Ersatz Yorck was broken up in situ .

= = Design = =

= = = General characteristics = = =

The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships were an enlargement of the previous Mackensen @-@ class ships . They were 227 @.@ 80 m ( 747 ft 5 in ) long , compared to 223 m ( 731 ft 8 in ) on the earlier vessels . Ersatz Yorck had the same beam as the earlier vessels , at 30 @.@ 40 m ( 99 ft 9 in ) , and the same draft of 9 @.@ 30 m ( 30 ft 6 in ) . The ships were planned to displace 33 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 33 @,@ 000 long tons ) at standard weight , and up to 38 @,@ 000 t ( 37 @,@ 000 long tons ) fully laden . This was approximately 2 @,@ 500 t ( 2 @,@ 500 long tons ) heavier than the Mackensens . The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships ' hulls were to have been constructed with longitudinal steel frames with the outer plating riveted on .

= = = Machinery = = =

As with all German battlecruisers that had been built , the Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships would have been equipped with four sets of Parsons turbine engines , each of which drove a 3 @-@ bladed screw that was 4 @.@ 20 m ( 13 ft 9 in ) in diameter . The turbines were supplied with steam by 24 coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft single ended boilers and 8 oil @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft double ended boilers . Ersatz Yorck and Ersatz Gneisenau were intended to use Föttinger fluid transmission for their turbines , while Ersatz Scharnhorst 's turbines retained direct coupled geared transmissions . The ships were to have electrical power provided by diesel generators . The Ersatz Yorcks were intended to mount a pair of twin rudders alongside each other for steering .

The power plant was rated 90 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower and 295 revolutions per minute , the same as the preceding Mackensen @-@ class ships . Their slightly greater size reduced their speed somewhat , from 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) in the Mackensen @-@ class ships to 27 @.@ 3 knots ( 50 @.@ 6 km / h ; 31 @.@ 4 mph ) for the new vessels . The ships were designed to store 850 t ( 840 long tons ) of coal and 250 t ( 250 long tons ) of oil in purpose @-@ designed fuel bunkers . However , the areas of the hull between the torpedo bulkhead and the outer wall of the ship were also used for fuel storage . This additional space provided an increased total of 4 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 900 long tons ) of coal and 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of oil . With fuel stores topped off , the ships were estimated to have been able to steam for 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 kn ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) .

= = = Armament = = =

The ships ' main battery was to have consisted of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK L / 45 guns in four Drh LC / 1913 twin gun turrets , placed in superfiring pairs fore and aft of the superstructure . These were the same " Langer Max " guns as those mounted on the Bayern @-@ class battleships . The guns could initially depress to − 8 degrees and elevate to 16 degrees ; this provided maximum range of 20 @,@ 400 m . The gun mountings were modified to allow elevation up to 20 degrees ; the range was correspondingly increased to 23 @,@ 200 m . The turrets could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline . The main battery was supplied with a total of 720 shells or 90 rounds per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 @.@ 5 shells per minute . Post @-@ war tests conducted by the British Royal Navy showed that the guns on the battleship Baden could be ready to fire again 23 seconds after firing ; this was significantly faster than their British contemporaries , the 38 cm guns on the Renown class , which took 36 seconds between salvos . The guns fired 750 kg ( 1 @,@ 650 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shells with a 277 kg ( 610 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 625 fps ) . Each gun was expected to fire 300 shells before replacement was required .

The ships ' secondary battery consisted of twelve 15 cm SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in armored casemates along the central superstructure . Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds , and had a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 m , though this was later extended to 16 @,@ 800 m . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of 5 to 7 rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 30 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced .

The ships were also armed with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) L / 45 Flak guns in single pedestal mounts . Four were arranged around the rear superfiring main battery turret and the other four around the forward conning tower . The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 20 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m at 70 degrees .

As was standard for warships of the period , the Ersatz Yorcks were equipped with submerged torpedo tubes . There were three 60 cm ( 24 in ) tubes : one in the bow , and one on each flank of the ship . The torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 8 m long and carried a 210 kg ( 460 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) when set at a speed of 36 knots ; at a reduced speed of 30 knots , the range increased significantly to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 15 @,@ 300 yd ) .

= = = Armor = = =

The Ersatz Yorck @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . The armor layout was identical to the preceding Mackensen class , which was itself very similar to the armor scheme on the preceding Derfflinger @-@ class ships . They had an armor belt that was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the ship were located . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) forward and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The belt tapered down to 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) at the bow , though the stern was not protected by armor at all . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm thick in less important areas , to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship .

The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick and the roof was covered with 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick and the roofs were 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The 15 cm guns had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) worth of armor plating in the casemates ; the guns themselves had 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters .

= = Construction and cancellation = =

Three ships were ordered for the new design . Ersatz Yorck , a replacement for the armored cruiser Yorck , was ordered from AG Vulcan in Hamburg , laid down in July 1916 under construction number 63 . After 1917 , work on the ship only took place in order to keep dockyard workers occupied . Construction was suspended to concentrate on the U @-@ boat program , and the hull frames that had been assembled were subsequently scrapped on the slip . Ersatz Gneisenau , a replacement for the armored cruiser Gneisenau , was ordered from Germaniawerft in Kiel under construction number 250 . Work was not started due to shifting priorities , though some material had been constructed . The diesel engines that had been built were subsequently installed on the first four Type U 151 U @-@ boats U @-@ 151 , U @-@ 152 , U @-@ 153 , and U @-@ 154 . Ersatz Scharnhorst , a replacement for the armored cruiser Scharnhorst , was ordered from Blohm + Voss in Hamburg under construction number 246 . Construction never began on her as well , due to shifting priorities . However , the design formed the basis for the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships built by the Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s .

= Rameswaram =

Rameswaram , ( also spelt as Ramesvaram , Rameshwaram or Ramisseram ) is a town and a second grade municipality in the Ramanathapuram district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It is located on Pamban Island separated from mainland India by the Pamban channel and is about 50 kilometres from Mannar Island , Sri Lanka . It is situated in the Gulf of Mannar , at the very tip of the Indian peninsula . Pamban Island , also known as Rameswaram Island , is connected to mainland India by the Pamban Bridge . Rameswaram is the terminus of the railway line from Chennai and Madurai . Together with Varanasi , it is considered to be one of the holiest places in India to Hindus , and part of the Char Dham pilgrimage .

It is said that this is the place from where the Hindu god Rama built a bridge across the sea to Lanka to rescue his wife Sita from her abductor Ravana . The Ramanathaswamy Temple , dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva , is located at the centre of the town and is closely associated with Rama . The temple , along with the town , is considered a holy pilgrimage site for both shaivas and vaishnavas .

Rameswaram is the closest point from which to reach Sri Lanka from India , and geological evidence suggests that the Rama Sethu was a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka . The town has been in the news over the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project , Kachchatheevu , Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and capturing local fishermen for alleged cross @-@ border activities by Sri Lankan Forces . Rameswaram is administered by a municipality established in 1994 . The town covers an area of 53 km2 and had a population of 44 @,@ 856 as of 2011 . Tourism and fishery employ the majority of workforce in Rameswaram .

= = Legend = =

Rameswara means " Lord of Rama " in Sanskrit , an epithet of Shiva , the presiding deity of the Ramanathaswamy Temple . According to Hindu epic Ramayana , Rama , the seventh avatar of the god Vishnu , prayed to Shiva here to absolve any sins that he might have committed during his war against the demon @-@ king Ravana in Sri Lanka . According to the Puranas ( Hindu scriptures ) , upon the advice of sages , Rama along with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana , installed and worshipped the lingam ( an iconic symbol of Shiva ) here to expiate the sin of Brahmahatya incurred while killing of the Brahmin Ravana . To worship Shiva , Rama wanted to have the largest lingam and directed his monkey lieutenant Hanuman to bring it from Himalayas . Since it took longer to bring the lingam , Sita built a small lingam , which is believed to be the one in the sanctum of the temple . This account is not supported by the original Ramayana authored by Valmiki , nor in the Tamil version of the Ramayana authored by Tamil poet , Kambar ( 1180 – 1250 CE ) . Support for this account is found in some of the later versions of the Ramayana , such as the one penned by Tulasidas ( 15th century ) . Sethu Karai is a place 22 km before the island of Rameswaram from where Rama is believed to have built a floating stone bridge , the Ramsetu bridge , that further continued to Dhanushkodi in Rameswaram till Talaimannar in Sri Lanka . According to another version , as quoted in Adhyatma Ramayana , Rama installed the lingam before the construction of the bridge to Lanka .

= = History = =

The history of Rameswaram is centred around the island being a transit point to reach Sri Lanka ( Ceylon historically ) and the presence of Ramanathaswamy Temple . Tevaram , the 7th – 8th century Tamil compositions on Shiva by the three prominent Nayanars ( Saivites ) namely Appar , Sundarar and Thirugnanasambandar . The Chola king Rajendra Chola I ( 1012 – 1040 CE ) had a control of the town for a short period . The Jaffna kingdom ( 1215 – 1624 CE ) had close connections with the island and claimed the title Setukavalan meaning custodians of the Rameswaram . Hinduism was their state religion and they made generous contribution to the temple . Setu was used in their coins as well as in inscriptions as marker of the dynasty .

According to Firishta , Malik Kafur , the head general of Alauddin Khilji , the ruler of Delhi Sultanate , reached Rameswaram during his political campaign in spite of stiff resistance from the Pandyan princes in the early 14th century . He erected a mosque by name Alia al @-@ Din Khaldji in honour of victory of Islam . During the early 15th century , the present day Ramanathapuram , Kamuthi and Rameswaram were included in the Pandya dynasty . In 1520 CE , the town came under the rule of Vijayanagara Empire . The Sethupathis , the breakaway from Madurai Nayaks , ruled Ramanathapuram and contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple . The most notable of them are the contributions of Muthu Kumara Ragunatha and Muthu Ramalinga Sethupathi , who transformed the temple to an architectural ensemble . The region was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib ( 1740 – 1754 CE ) , Arcot Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan ( 1725 – 1764 CE ) in the middle of 18th century . In 1795 CE , Rameswaram came under the direct control of the British East India Company and was annexed to the Madras Presidency . After 1947 , the town became a part of Independent India .

= = Geography = =

Rameswaram has an average elevation of 10 metres ( 32 feet ) . The island is spread across an area of 61 @.@ 8 square kilometres and is in the shape of a conch . 74 % of the area has sandy soil due to the presence of sea and it has many islands surrounding it , the Palk Strait in the north west and Gulf of Mannar in the south East . The Ramanathaswamy Temple occupies major area of Rameswaram . The beach of Rameswaram is featured with no waves at all – the sea waves rise to a maximum height of 3 cm and the view looks like a very big river . Rameswaram has dry tropical climate with low humidity , with average monthly rainfall of 75 @.@ 73 mm , mostly from North East monsoon from October to January . The highest ever temperature recorded at Pamban station was 37 ° C and the lowest was 17 ° C.

Ramsetu Bridge is a chain of limestone shoals , between Rameswaram and Mannar Island , off the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka . Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka . The bridge is 18 miles ( 30 km ) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar ( north east ) from the Palk Strait ( South West ) . It was reportedly passable on foot up to the 15th century until storms deepened the channel . The temple records record that Rama ’ s Bridge was completely above sea level until it broke in a cyclone in 1480 CE . The bridge was first mentioned in the ancient Indian Sanskrit epic Ramayana of Valmiki . The name Rama 's Bridge or Rama Setu ( Sanskrit ; setu : bridge ) refers to the bridge built by the Vanara ( ape men ) army of Rama in Hindu mythology , which he used to reach Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana . The Ramayana attributes the building of this bridge to Rama in verse 2 @-@ 22 @-@ 76 , naming it as Setubandhanam . The sea separating India and Sri Lanka is called Sethusamudram meaning " Sea of the Bridge " . Maps prepared by a Dutch cartographer in 1747 CE , available at the Tanjore Saraswathi Mahal Library show this area as Ramancoil , a colloquial form of the Tamil Raman Kovil ( or Rama 's Temple ) . Many other maps in Schwartzberg 's historical atlas and other sources such as travel texts by Marco Polo call this area by various names such as Sethubandha and Sethubandha Rameswaram .

= = Demographics = =

According to 2011 census , Rameswaram had a population of 44 @,@ 856 with a sex @-@ ratio of 969 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 5 @,@ 022 were under the age of six , constituting 2 @,@ 544 males and 2 @,@ 478 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 6 @.@ 8 % and .03 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 73 @.@ 36 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of 10579 households . There were a total of 16 @,@ 645 workers , comprising 69 cultivators , 20 main agricultural labourers , 148 in house hold industries , 15 @,@ 130 other workers , 1 @,@ 278 marginal workers , 11 marginal cultivators , 26 marginal agricultural labourers , 44 marginal workers in household industries and 1 @,@ 197 other marginal workers . The total number of households below poverty lane ( BPL ) in 2003 were 976 , which is 10 @.@ 45 % of the total households in the town and these were raised to 3003 ( 29 @.@ 12 % ) in 2007 .

As per the religious census of 2011 , Rameswaram had 87 @.@ 4 % Hindus , 4 @.@ 36 % Muslims , 8 @.@ 13 % Christians , 0 @.@ 03 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , and 0 @.@ 07 % following other religions .

= = Municipal Administration and politics = =

According to the Madras Presidency Panchayat Act of 1885 , Rameswaram was declared a panchyat union during British times . It became a township during 1958 and was declared a municipality in 2004 . Rameswaram is a 3rd grade municipality having 21 wards , out of which 6 are General wards for women and one is reserved for SC ( Scheduled Caste ) women . The major sources of budgeted income for Rameswaram municipality comes from Devolution Fund of ₹ 17 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 3 million ) and property tax of ₹ 2 @.@ 4 million ( US $ 43 @,@ 000 ) . The major expense heads are for salaries of ₹ 06 million ( US $ 0 @.@ 1 million ) , operating expenses of ₹ 03 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 65 @,@ 000 ) and repair & maintenance expenditure of ₹ 02 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 42 @,@ 000 ) . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : General , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , Town planning and the Computer Wing . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 21 members , one each from the 21 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson .

Rameswaram comes under the Ramanathapuram assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . The current MLA of the constituency is Dr. Manikandan from the AIADMK .

Rameswaram is a part of the Ramanathapuram ( Lok Sabha constituency ) – it has been realigned in 2008 to have the following assembly constituencies – Paramakudi ( SC ) , Ramanathapuram , Mudukulathur , Aranthangi , Tiruchuli ( newly created ) . The constituency was traditionally a stronghold of the Indian National Congress that won 6 times till the 1991 elections , after which it was won twice each by the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( ADMK ) and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is A. Anwhar Raajhaa from the AIADMK party .

India 's renowned scientist and former President of India , A. P. J. Abdul Kalam , was born in Rameswaram .

= = Economy = =

Being a pilgrimage town , the majority of the population is involved in tourism related industry consisting of trade and services . Service sector increased from 70 % in 1971 to 98 @.@ 78 % in 2001 , while the agricultural sector reduced from 23 % in 1971 to 0 @.@ 13 % in 2001 . Rameswaram is an industrially backward town – there has been no demarcation for industrial land due to the pilgrim sanctity and ecological fragile geography . Being an island town , the traditional occupation was fishing , but due to poor returns , the people in fishing community have gradually shifted to other professions . Banks such as State Bank of India , Indian Bank and RDCC Bank have their branches in Rameswaram .

= = Transport and Communication = =

Pamban Bridge is a cantilever bridge on the Palk Strait that connects Rameswaram to mainland India . The railway bridge is 6 @,@ 776 ft ( 2 @,@ 065 m ) and was opened to traffic in 1914 . The railroad bridge is a double @-@ leaf bascule bridge section that can be raised to let ships pass under it . The railway bridge historically carried metre @-@ gauge trains on it , but Indian Railways upgraded the bridge to carry broad @-@ gauge trains in a project that finished on 12 August 2007 . Historically , the two leaves of the bridge were opened manually using levers by workers . About 10 ships – cargo carriers , coast guard ships , fishing vessels and oil tankers pass through the bridge every month . After completion of bridge , metre @-@ gauge lines were laid from Mandapam up to Pamban Station , from where the railway lines bifurcated into two directions , one towards Rameswaram about 6 @.@ 25 miles ( 10 @.@ 06 km ) up and another branch line of 15 miles ( 24 km ) terminating at Dhanushkodi . The noted Boat Mail ran on this track between 1915 and 1964 from Chennai Egmore up to Dhanushkodi , from where the passengers were ferried to Talaimannar in Ceylon . The metre @-@ gauge branch line from Pamban Junction to Dhanushkodi was abandoned after it was destroyed in a cyclone in 1964 .

There are daily express trains connecting major cities in Tamil Nadu like Chennai , Madurai , Trichy and Coimbatore . There are weekly express trains connecting Coimbatore , Varanasi and Bhubaneswar . Passenger trains ply from Rameswaram to Madurai and Trichy daily , making railways as the major mode of transportation . The Ramanathapuram – Rameswaram National Highway is the main connecting link from Rameswaram to the mainland . Prior to the 1914 train service linking the mainland with Rameswaram , boats were the only mode of transport to Rameswaram island .

The National highway NH 49 connects Madurai to Dhanushkodi , linking major towns like Manamadurai , Paramakkudi , and Ramanathapuram in the Ramanathapuram district . The Rameswaram municipality covers a total road length of 52 km and 20 km of national highway covering about 80 percent of the town . The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation runs daily services connecting various cities to Rameswaram and operates a computerised reservation centre in the municipal bus stand of Rameswaram .

Rameswaram is the important port among all the ports in the district , having a ferry service to Talaimannar of Sri Lanka , though not operational throughout the year . Limited foreign trade is conducted with Jaffna , Kaits , Talaimannar and Colombo .

The Rameswaram TV Tower is the tallest tower in India . The tower is a 323m tall circular concrete tower with a square steel mast of 45m height , diameter of 24m at the bottom tapering to 6.5m at top . The tower has been designed for a wind velocity of 160 km / h . There are two lighthouses in Rameswaram , the Pamban lighthouse and Rameswaram lighthouse .

= = Education and utility services = =

Ramanathapuram district has one of the lowest literacy rates in the state of Tamil Nadu and Rameswaram , following the district statistics has a lower literacy rate . There are a couple of Government high schools , one each for boys and girls . There are seven other schools namely , Swami . Vivekananda vidyalaya Matriculation School ( which provide excellent education in the island and secure district and state level ranks in board exams frequently ) , St. Joseph Higher Secondary School , Mandapam Panchayat Union 9 – School , Micro Matriculation School , Sri Sankara Vidhyalaya , Holy Island Little Flower School and Kendriya Vidhyalaya School . Alagappa University Evening College is the only college present in the town and all the nearest colleges are located in Ramanathapuram and Paramakudi .

Electricity supply to the town is regulated and distributed by the Ramanathapuram circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Rameswaram Municipality – the head works is located at Nambunayaki Amman Kovil , Meyyambuli , Semmamadam & Natarajapuram and distributed through four over head tanks having a total capacity of 1430 @,@ 000 litres . About 6 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from the town every day in the four zones covering the whole of the town . Rameswaram does not have a sewerage system for disposal of sullage and the disposal system consists of septic tanks and public conveniences . Roadside drains carry untreated sewage out of the town to let out raw into the sea or accumulates in low @-@ lying area .

Rameswaram comes under the Karaikudi Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Apart from telecom , BSNL also provides broadband internet service along with other major internet service provider like Reliance .

= = Religion = =

Being a Hindu pilgrimage centre , Hindus form the visitor base of the city . There is a minority of Christians belonging to the fishing community . C.S.I island mission church and St Antony 's Church at Oriyur on the eastern shore of the island are prominent Churches in the island .

= = = Ramanathaswamy Temple = = =

The Ramanathaswamy Temple is the most notable historic landmark of the town . Located in the centre of town , Ramanathaswamy Temple is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to the god Shiva . The temple is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga shrines , where Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Jyotirlinga meaning " pillar of light " . It is also one of the 275 Paadal Petra Sthalam temples and is glorified in hymns by the three of the most revered Nayanar saints ( 7th century Saivite saints ) , Appar , Sundarar and Tirugnana Sambandar . The temple in its current structure was built during the 12th century by Pandya Dynasty . The temple has the longest corridor among all Hindu temples in India . The breadth of these columned corridors varies from 17 to 21 feet with a height of 25 feet . Each pillar is sculpted in Nayak style as in Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple . The contribution of the kings of the Sethupathy dynasty ( 17th century ) to the temple was considerable . Large amount of money was spent during the tenure of Pradani Muthirulappa Pillai towards the restoration of the pagodas which were falling into ruins – the Chockattan Mantapam or the cloistered precincts of the temple was reconstructed by him . The rulers of Sri Lanka contributed to the temple – Parakrama Bahu ( 1153 – 1186 CE ) was involved in the construction of the sanctum sanctorum of the temple . The eastern tower and shrine of Nataraja were built by Dalavai Sethupathy in 1649 CE . The second enclosure is ascribed to Chinna Udayar Sethupathy and his son Ragunatha Thirumalai ( 1500 – 1540 CE ) . The third enclosure was constructed by Muthu Ramalinga Sethupathy ( 1725 – 1771 CE ) – his statue is located in the entrance of the corridor .

= = = Temple Tanks = = =

There are sixty @-@ four Tīrthas or Theerthams ( holy water bodies ) in and around Rameswaram . According to the Skanda Purana , twenty @-@ four of them are important . Of the 24 , 14 are in the form of tanks and wells within the precincts of the temple . Bathing in these tanks is a major aspect of the pilgrimage to Rameswaram and is considered equivalent to penance . Twenty @-@ two of the tanks are within the Ramanathaswamy Temple . The foremost one is called Agni Theertham , the sea ( Bay of Bengal ) . Jatayu , King of the Birds , who fought in vain with the demon @-@ king Ravana to save Sita , is said to have fallen down at Jadayu Theertham as his wings were severed . Villoondi Theertham literally translates to ' buried bow ' , is located around 7 kilometres from the main temple on the way to Pamban . It is believed to be the place where Rama quenched the thirst of Sita by dipping the bow into the sea water . Other major holy bodies are Hanuman Theertham , Sugreeva Theertham and Lakshmana Theertham .

= = = Gandhamathana Parvatham = = =

Gandhamathan Parvatham , a hillock situated 3 km to the north of the temple is the highest point in the island . There is a two storeyed hall , where Rama 's feet is found as an imprint on a chakra ( wheel ) . The Ramarpatham Temple is located on the hillock .

= = = Dhanushkodi = = =

Dhanushkodi is the southernmost tip of the island and houses the Kothandaramaswamy Temple dedicated to Rama . Though Dhanushkodi was washed away during the 1964 cyclone , the temple alone remained intact . It is 18 km way from the centre of the town and can be reached by road . A popular belief is that , Dhanushkodi is where Vibishana , a brother of Ravana surrendered before Rama in the epic Ramayana .

= = = Hindu Pilgrimage = = =

Rameswaram is significant for many Hindus as a pilgrimage to Varanasi is considered to be incomplete without a pilgrimage to Rameswaram . The town along with the Ramanathaswamy temple is one of the holiest Hindu Char Dham ( four divine sites ) sites comprising Badrinath , Puri and Dwarka . Though the origins are not clearly known , the Advaita school of Hinduism established by Sankaracharya , attributes the origin of Char Dham to the seer . The four monasteries are located across the four corners of India and their attendant temples are Badrinath Temple at Badrinath in the North , Jagannath Temple at Puri in the East , Dwarakadheesh Temple at Dwarka in the West and Ramanathaswamy Temple at Rameswaram in the South . Though ideologically the temples are divided between the sects of Hinduism , namely Saivism and Vaishnavism , the Char Dham pilgrimage is an all Hindu affair . The journey across the four cardinal points in India is considered sacred by Hindus who aspire to visit these temples once in their lifetime . Traditionally the trip starts at the eastern end from Puri , proceeding in clockwise direction in a manner typically followed for circuambulation in Hindu temples . The temple is one of the famous pilgrimage sites historically – the Maratha kings who ruled Thanjavur established chatrams or rest houses all through Mayiladuthurai and Rameswaram between 1745 and 1837 CE and donated them to the temple .

= = Interaction with Sri Lanka = =

Rameswaram is frequently in headlines over fishermen issues like attack , arrest and alleged harassment by Sri Lankan navy for alleged cross border activities , Sethusamudram canal project , Kachchatheevu , Sri Lankan Tamil refugees and also on intercountry smuggling between India and Sri Lanka . As an initial step to curb enhanced smuggling , the Tamil Nadu government has set up 30 more marine police stations to bring the state ’ s entire coastal belt under close vigil .

= = = Sri Lankan Tamil Refugees = = =

During the intense civil war of Sri Lanka , post 1980 , Rameswaram acted as one of the focal points of smuggling and intense patrolling was carried out during the period . There are a total of 65 @,@ 940 registered destitute Sri Lankan refugees dwelling in 129 Refugee camps situated in different parts of Tamil Nadu as of Apr 2000 and a majority of them enter via Rameswaram . There are an additional 20 @,@ 667 non @-@ camp refugees who entered via Rameswaram , registered in Mandapam transit camp and opted to reside outside the camps in various parts of Tamil Nadu . On 11 March 1990 , a record number of 2 @,@ 337 refugees in 38 boats arrived from Talaimannar in Sri Lanka to Rameswaram – this was the largest number of refugees arriving in a single day since the ethnic violence from July 1983 . As of October 2006 , an estimated 200 @,@ 000 refugees have been reported in Mandapam Camp . Sivarasan , one of the mastermind behind the Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi , the ex @-@ prime minister of India registered as refugee in Rameswaram camp on 12 September 1990 .

= = = Rameswaram Fishery = = =

Being an island , a significant population is involved in fishery traditionally . There have been incremental cases of Rameswaram fishermen allegedly killed or arrested by Sri Lankan navy along the maritime borders of India and Sri Lanka from the time of Sri Lankan civil war during 1983 . In the face of simmering tension after the 1985 January Colombo bound Yaldevi train attack in which 22 Sri Lankan soldiers and 16 civilians were killed , Rameswaram fishermen dared to venture to seas spelling acute hardship for the 10 @,@ 000 fishermen family . An estimated 381 fishermen have been killed in the sea due to shoot outs from 1983 to 2009 . The Sri Lankan army attributed the killings to the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam ( LTTE ) , but the casualty continues even after the end of LTTE in the region . The Tamil Nadu state government has increased the compensation of casualty from the original ₹ 100 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 800 to $ 9 @,@ 000 ) . There has not been a single prosecution in any of the 381 killings committed so far from the Indian judiciary . The cases not being filed is attributed to the fact that people killed beyond the maritime boundary of India are not eligible for compensation and not many file complaints against the Sri Lankan navy . Though the Indian judiciary has provisions to prosecute foreigners , there is little progress due to the diplomatic overheads involved . Indian government has also ventured into the use of technology like use of Global positioning system ( GPS ) by the fishermen and enabling cellphone blips to alert their mobile phones whenever they are crossing into Sri Lankan waters . The Sri Lankan navy has confirmed reports on Indian fishermen risking the international boundary due to depleted catch in Indian waters .

There is a yearly 45 @-@ day ban on fishery with motorboats in the region . The fishing ban for the year 2012 was effective during the months of April – May . The jetty at Rameswaram is the largest landing centre for fishing boats in the region and it usually comes alive after the ban , with the arrival of fishermen , boat captains , shore workers and others from their native places .

Sea World Aquarium is a natural habitat lying opposite to the Rameswaram Bus Stand , having an assortment of underwater creatures – it is the only one of its kind in the state , filled with such varied marine life forms including exotic species .

= = = Kachchatheevu = = =

Another focal point on the simmering tension between Indian and Sri Lankan governments is over the use of Kachchatheevu , an uninhabited island 15 km north of Rameswaram , belonging to Sri Lanka . The accord of 1974 allows fishermen of both the countries for resting and soaking the nets in the island . Repeated allegations on attacks by the Lankan navy , which on many occasions killed Indian fishermen , prevented them from making it to the island . The annual two @-@ day Saint Anthony fest at the island draws huge number of people from the fishermen community of both the countries . The number of pilgrims for the 2012 function crossed 4 @,@ 000 , the largest attendance in the past two decades . The feast also provides an opportunity for the Indian fishermen to meet their Sri Lankan counterparts and exchange views on their mutual problems . The event served as a meeting point to find brides and grooms from both countries , but this practice has now been stopped from the 90s due to political constraint of fishermen family living in different countries .

= = = Sethusamudram Canal Project = = =

Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project proposes linking the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka by creating a shipping canal through the shallow sea sometimes called Setu Samudram , and through the chain of islands variously known as Ram Sethu or the Rama 's Bridge . A few organisations are opposing the dredging of Ramasethu on religious , environmental and economical grounds . Many of these parties and organisations support implementation of this project using one of the five alternative alignments considered earlier without damaging the structure considered sacred by Hindus . With 22 km of dredging remaining , the project is held from March 2010 by a Supreme Court order seeking the Central Government to clarify the status of the bridge as a national monument .

= Archaeoraptor =

" Archaeoraptor " is the informal generic name for a fossil from China in an article published in National Geographic magazine in 1999 . The magazine claimed that the fossil was a " missing link " between birds and terrestrial theropod dinosaurs . Even prior to this publication there had been severe doubts about the fossil 's authenticity . Further scientific study showed it to be a forgery constructed from rearranged pieces of real fossils from different species . Zhou et al. found that the head and upper body actually belong to a specimen of the primitive fossil bird Yanornis . A 2002 study found that the tail belongs to a small winged dromaeosaur , Microraptor , named in 2000 . The legs and feet belong to an as yet unknown animal .

The scandal brought attention to illegal fossil deals conducted in China . Although " Archaeoraptor " was a forgery , many true examples of feathered dinosaurs have been found and demonstrate the evolutionary connection between birds and other theropods .

= = Scandal = =

" Archaeoraptor " was unveiled at a press conference held by National Geographic magazine in October 1999 . At the same press conference , plans were announced to return the fossil to Chinese authorities , as it was illegally exported . In November 1999 National Geographic featured the fossil in an article written by art editor Christopher Sloan . The article in general discussed feathered dinosaurs and the origin of birds . It claimed the fossil was " a missing link between terrestrial dinosaurs and birds that could actually fly " and informally referred to it as " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " , announcing it would later be formally named as such . This name means " ancient robber of Liaoning " . This drew immediate criticism from Storrs L. Olson , Curator of Birds at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington , D.C. Writing in Backbone , the newsletter of his museum , he denounced the publication of a scientific name in a popular journal , without peer review , as a " nightmare " .

On February 3 , 2000 , National Geographic issued a press release stating that the fossil could be a composite , and that an internal investigation had begun . In that same month Bill Allen , National Geographic editor , told Nature that he was " furious " to learn that the fossil might have been faked . In the March issue , in the forum section , a letter from Dr. Xu Xing pointed out that the tail section probably did not match the upper body . In October 2000 National Geographic published the results of their investigation , in an article written by Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning investigative journalist Lewis M. Simons . Simons concluded that the fossil was a composite and that virtually everyone involved in the project had made some mistakes .

= = = Chronology = = =

According to National Geographic 's report , the story of " Archaeoraptor " begins in July 1997 in Xiasanjiazi , China , where farmers routinely dug in the shale pits with picks and sold fossils to dealers for a few dollars . This was an illegal practice , but it was common then . In this case one farmer found a rare fossil of a toothed bird , complete with feather impressions . The fossil broke into pieces during collection . Nearby , in the same pit , he found pieces including a feathered tail and legs . He cemented several of these pieces together in a manner that he believed was correct . He apparently knew that it would make a more complete @-@ looking and , thus , more expensive fossil . It was sold in June 1998 to an anonymous dealer and smuggled to the United States . According to authorities in Beijing , no fossils may leave China legally .

By the fall 1998 annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology , held in Utah , United States , rumors were circulating about a striking fossil of a primitive bird that was in private hands . This fossil was presented by an anonymous dealer at a gem show in Tucson , Arizona . The Dinosaur Museum in Blanding , Utah , purchased it in February 1999 . The museum is run by Stephen A. Czerkas and his wife , Sylvia Czerkas . Mr. Czerkas does not hold a university degree , but he is a dinosaur enthusiast and artist . He arranged for patrons of his museum , including trustee Dale Slade , to provide $ 80 @,@ 000 for the purchase of the fossil , in order to study it scientifically and prevent it from disappearing into an anonymous private collection .

The Czerkases contacted paleontologist Phil Currie , who contacted the National Geographic Society . Currie agreed to study the fossil on condition that it was eventually returned to China . The National Geographic Society intended to get the fossil formally published in the peer @-@ reviewed science journal Nature , and then follow up immediately with a press conference and an issue of National Geographic . Editor Bill Allen asked that all members of the project keep the fossil secret , so that the magazine would have a scoop on the story .

Slade and the Czerkases intended the fossil to be the " crown jewel " of the Dinosaur Museum and planned to keep it on display there for five years . Sloan says that he flew to Utah in the spring of 1999 to convince Stephen Czerkas to return the fossil to China immediately after publication , or he would not write about it for National Geographic and Currie would not work on it . Czerkas then agreed . Currie then contacted the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology in Beijing , and National Geographic flew the IVPP 's Xu Xing to Utah to be part of the " Archaeoraptor " team .

During the initial examination of the fossil on March 6 , 1999 it had already become clear to Currie that the left and right feet mirrored each other perfectly and that the fossil had been completed by using both slab and counterslab . He also noticed no connection could be seen between the tail and the body . In July 1999 , Currie and the Czerkases brought the fossil to the High @-@ Resolution X @-@ ray CT Facility of the University of Texas ( Austin ) founded and operated by Dr. Timothy Rowe to make CT scans . Rowe , having made the scans on July 29 , determined that they indicated that the bottom fragments , showing the tail and the lower legs , were not part of the larger fossil . He informed the Czerkases on August 2 that there was a chance of the whole being a fraud . During a subsequent discussion Rowe and Currie were pressured by the Czerkases to keep their reservations private .

Currie in the first week of September sent his preparator , Kevin Aulenback , to the Dinosaur Museum in Blanding to prepare the fossil for better study . Aulenback concluded that the fossil was " a composite specimen of at least 3 specimens ... with a maximum ... of five ... separate specimens " , but the Czerkases angrily denied this and Aulenbeck only reported this to Currie . Currie did not inform National Geographic of these problems .

On August 13 , 1999 , the team submitted a manuscript titled " A New Toothed Bird With a Dromaeosaur @-@ like Tail " under the names of Stephen Czerkas , Currie , Rowe , and Xu , to the journal Nature in London . The paper mentions in two places , and includes a figure illustrating the point that , one of the legs and the tail are counterparts that were composited into the main slab .

On August 20 Nature rejected the paper , indicating to the Czerkases that National Geographic had refused to delay publication , leaving too little time for peer review . The authors then submitted the paper to Science , which sent it out for peer review . Two reviewers informed Science that " the specimen was smuggled out of China and illegally purchased " and that the fossil had been " doctored " in China " to enhance its value . " Science then rejected the paper . According to Sloan , the Czerkases did not inform National Geographic about the details of the two rejections .

By that time the November issue of National Geographic was already in preparation for printing , but " Archaeoraptor " was never formally published in any peer @-@ reviewed journal .

National Geographic went ahead and published without peer review . The fossil was unveiled in a press conference on October 15 , 1999 , and the November 1999 National Geographic contained an article by Christopher P. Sloan — a National Geographic art editor . Sloan described it as a missing link that helped elucidate the connection between dinosaurs and birds . The original fossil was put on display at the National Geographic Society in Washington , DC , pending return to China . In the article Sloan used the name " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " but with a disclaimer ( so that it would not count as a nomenclatural act for the purposes of scientific classification ) in anticipation of Czerkas being able to publish a peer @-@ reviewed description at some point in the future .

After the November National Geographic came out , Storrs L. Olson , curator of birds in the National Museum of Natural History of the Smithsonian Institution published an open letter on 1 November 1999 , pointing out that " the specimen in question is known to have been illegally exported " and protesting the " prevailing dogma that birds evolved from dinosaurs . " Olson complained that Sloan , a journalist , had usurped the process of scientific nomenclature by publishing a name first in the popular press : " This is the worst nightmare of many zoologists — that their chance to name a new organism will be inadvertently scooped by some witless journalist . "

In October 1999 , after having been informed by Currie of the problems and seeing the specimen for the first time , Xu noticed that the tail of " Archaeoraptor " strongly resembled an unnamed maniraptoran dinosaur that he was studying — later to be named Microraptor zhaoianus . He returned to China and traveled to Liaoning Province where he inspected the fossil site and contacted a number of fossil dealers . He eventually found a fairly complete fossil of a tiny dromaeosaur , and the tail of this new fossil corresponded so exactly to the tail on the " Archaeoraptor " fossil that it had to be the counterslab — it even had two matching yellow oxide stains . On December 20 , 1999 Xu Xing sent e @-@ mails to the authors and Sloan , announcing that the fossil was a fake .

On February 3 , 2000 The National Geographic News issued a press release stating that the " Archaeoraptor " fossil might be a composite , and that an internal investigation had begun . In the March issue of National Geographic Xu 's letter ran in the Forum section of the magazine , and Bill Allen had Xu change the word " fake " to " composite " .

On April 4 , 2000 Stephen Czerkas told a group of paleontologists in Washington that he and Sylvia had made " an idiot , bone @-@ stupid mistake " . Currie , Allen and Sloan all expressed regret . Rowe felt vindicated , claiming the affair as evidence that his scans were correct . Rowe published a Brief Communication in Nature in 2001 describing his findings . He concluded that , apart from the top part , several specimens had been used to complete the fossil : a first for the left femur , a second for the tibiae , a third for both feet and at least one more for the tail , which alone consisted of five separate parts .

In June 2000 the fossil was returned to China . In the October 2000 issue , National Geographic published the results of their investigation .

= = Ongoing confusion = =

The fossils involved in the " Archaeoraptor " scandal have led to ongoing confusion over taxon names . In December 2000 , Microraptor was described in Nature . Zhou et al . ( 2002 ) examined the upper body of the " Archaeoraptor " fossil and reported that it belonged to the previously @-@ named genus Yanornis .

= = = Dinosaur Museum Journal = = =

In 2002 the Czerkases published a volume through their Dinosaur Museum titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight . In this journal they described and named several species . Of the six species named in the book , five are disputed .

Despite the work of Zhou et al . ( 2002 ) , Czerkas and co @-@ author Xu Xing described the upper portion of the " Archaeoraptor " fossil as a new bird genus , Archaeovolans , in the Dinosaur Museum Journal . The article does include the caveat that it might actually be a specimen of Yanornis . Thus , this same fossil specimen has been named " Archaeoraptor " , Archeovolans , and Yanornis , in different places .

Across the monographs in the Dinosaur Museum Journal , Stephen Czerkas built a case for his controversial view that maniraptoran dinosaurs are secondarily flightless birds . In so doing , he criticized prominent paleontologists . In the text on Cryptovolans , Czerkas accused Dr. Mark Norell of misinterpreting the fossil BPM 1 3 @-@ 13 as having long leg feathers due to the " blinding influences of preconceived ideas . " In fact , though , Norell 's interpretation was correct , and Czerkas added leg feathers to his own reconstruction of the fossil in the art that promotes the traveling exhibit .

Two other taxa that Czerkas and his co @-@ authors named were later treated as junior synonyms by other authors . Czerkas ' Cryptovolans was treated as Microraptor , and his Scansoriopteryx was treated as Epidendrosaurus . Czerkas described Omnivoropteryx , noting that it was similar to Sapeornis . Later specimens of Sapeornis with skulls demonstrated that the two were probably synonymous .

Another taxon that Czerkas assigned to the pterosauria and named Utahdactylus was reviewed by Dr. Chris Bennett . Bennett found multiple misidentifications of bones and inconsistencies between Czerkas ' diagrams and the actual fossils . Bennett found the specimen to be an indeterminate diapsid and criticized the previous authors for publishing a species name when no diagnostic characters below the class level could be verified . He made Utahdactylus a nomen dubium .

= = = Traveling exhibit = = =

In 2001 Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas compiled a traveling exhibit containing 34 other Chinese fossils . The show is titled Feathered Dinosaurs and the Origin of Flight . The San Diego Natural History Museum paid a set fee to the Dinosaur Museum to display this show in 2004 . When the show opened , Dr. Ji Qiang told reporters from Nature that about a dozen of the fossils had left China illegally . Ji arranged with the Czerkases to assign accession numbers to three of the most valuable specimens , thus formally adding them to the collection of Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences in Beijing , although they remain in the possession of the Czerkases . Stephen Czerkas denied Ji 's assertion that the fossils were illegal . Sylvia Czerkas told Nature magazine that she had worked out an agreement with officials of Liaoning Province in 2001 to borrow the fossils , and that they were to be repatriated in 2007 . Through March 2009 , however , the show is scheduled for the Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art and Science in California . According to Nature , the Czerkases refused requests to make the officials from Liaoning available for interview .

Many scientists consider it unethical to work on fossils if there is any chance that they have been smuggled , and many disregard privately owned fossils altogether . Some professionals feel that private collectors put fossils in private hands where science may not be able to access or study them . Some believe that private collectors may damage important fossils , subject them to forgery , and obscure their origins or evidence about their ages . Illegal dealers have also participated in , and may encourage , governmental corruption . Another philosophy argues that if scientists could bend their ethics and agree to publish on important private fossils , this would encourage private holders to make them available for study .

= = = Taxonomic history = = =

In April 2000 Olson published an article in Backbone , the newsletter of the National Museum of Natural History . In this article he justified his views on the evolution of birds , but also revised and redescribed the species " Archaeoraptor liaoningensis " by designating just the tail of the original fraudulent specimen as the type specimen . To prevent the tainted name " Archaeoraptor " from entering paleornithological literature , this redescription assigned the name to that part of the chimeric specimen least likely to be classified under Aves , rather than to the portion which was later shown to represent a true bird species . Olson presumed that the National Geographic article had already validly named the fossil , and he therefore failed to explicitly indicate the name was new , as demanded by article 16 of the ICZN as a condition for a name to be valid . Several months afterwards Xu , Zhou and Wang published their description of Microraptor zhaoianus in Nature .

= = = Creationism = = =

The scandal is sometimes used by creationists like Kent Hovind , Kirk Cameron , and Ray Comfort to cast doubt on the hypothesis that birds evolved from dinosaurs . Many creationists insist that no missing links between birds and dinosaurs have been found , and commonly point to " Archaeoraptor " as evidence of misconduct performed to support the evolutionary theory . They see " Archaeoraptor " as a real " Piltdown Bird " . However , contrary to the Piltdown Man , " Archaeoraptor " was not a deliberate hoax . Furthermore , the authenticity of " Archaeoraptor " would not have been an essential proof for the hypothesis that birds are theropods , as this is sufficiently corroborated by other data ; paleontologist Christopher Brochu concluded in November 2001 : " That birds are derived theropod dinosaurs is no longer the subject of scholarly dispute . " Though playing the role of " terrestrial dinosaur " in the " Archaeoraptor " affair , Microraptor , showing wings and clear traces of rectrices , is generally assumed to have had at least a gliding capacity and is itself an excellent example of a transitional fossil .

= Buddhaghoṣa =

Buddhaghoṣa ( Thai : พระพุทธโฆษาจารย ์ , Chinese : 覺音 / 佛音 ) was a 5th @-@ century Indian Theravada Buddhist commentator and scholar . His best @-@ known work is the Visuddhimagga " Path of Purification " , a comprehensive summary and analysis of the Theravada understanding of the Buddha 's path to liberation . The interpretations provided by Buddhaghosa have generally constituted the orthodox understanding of Theravada scriptures since at least the 12th century CE . He is generally recognized by both Western scholars and Theravadins as the most important commentator of the Theravada .

= = Biography = =

Limited reliable information is available about the life of Buddhaghosa . Three primary sources of information exist : short prologues and epilogues attached to Buddhaghosa 's works ; details of his life recorded in the Mahavamsa , a Sri Lankan chronicle ; and a later biographical work called the Buddhaghosuppatti . A few other sources discuss the life of Buddhaghosa , but do not appear to add any reliable material . His name means " Voice of the Buddha " ( Buddha + ghosa ) in Pali .

The biographical excerpts attached to works attributed to Buddhaghosa reveal relatively few details of his life , but were presumably added at the time of his actual composition . Largely identical in form , these short excerpts describe Buddhaghosa as having come to Sri Lanka from India and settled in Anuradhapura . Besides this information , they provide only short lists of teachers , supporters , and associates of Buddhaghosa , whose names are not generally to be found elsewhere for comparison .

The Mahavamsa records that Buddhaghosa was born into a Brahmin family in the kingdom of Magadha . He is said to have been born near Bodh Gaya , and to have been a master of the Vedas , traveling through India engaging in philosophical debates . Only upon encountering a Buddhist monk named Revata was Buddhaghosa bested in debate , first being defeated in a dispute over the meaning of a Vedic doctrine and then being confounded by the presentation of a teaching from the Abhidhamma . Impressed , Buddhaghosa became a bhikkhu ( Buddhism monk ) and undertook the study of the Tipiṭaka and its commentaries . On finding a text for which the commentary had been lost in India , Buddhaghosa determined to travel to Sri Lanka to study a Sinhalese commentary that was believed to have been preserved .

In Sri Lanka , Buddhaghosa began to study what was apparently a very large volume of commentarial texts that had been assembled and preserved by the monks of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya . Buddhaghosa sought permission to synthesize the assembled Sinhalese @-@ language commentaries into a comprehensive single commentary composed in Pali . The elder monks sought to first test Buddhaghosa 's knowledge by assigning him the task of elaborating the doctrine regarding two verses of the suttas ; Buddhaghosa replied by composing the Visuddhimagga . His abilities were further tested when deities intervened and hid the text of his book , twice forcing him to recreate it from scratch . When the three texts were found to completely summarize all of the Tipiṭaka and match in every respect , the monks acceded to his request and provided Buddhaghosa with the full body of their commentaries .

Buddhaghosa went on to write commentaries on most of the other major books of the Pali Canon , with his works becoming the definitive Theravadin interpretation of the scriptures . Having synthesized or translated the whole of the Sinhalese commentary preserved at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya , Buddhaghosa reportedly returned to India , making a pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya to pay his respects to the Bodhi Tree .

The details of the Mahavamsa account cannot readily be verified ; while it is generally regarded by Western scholars as having been embellished with legendary events ( such as the hiding of Buddhaghosa 's text by the gods ) , in the absence of contradictory evidence it is assumed to be generally accurate . While the Mahavamsa claims that Buddhaghosa was born in northern India near Bodh Gaya , the epilogues to his commentaries make reference to only one location in India as being a place of at least temporary residence : Kanci in southern India . Some scholars thus conclude ( among them Oskar von Hinüber and Polwatte Buddhadatta Thera ) that Buddhaghosa was actually born in South India and was relocated in later biographies to give him closer ties to the region of the Buddha .

The Buddhaghosuppatti , a later biographical text , is generally regarded by Western scholars as being legend rather than history . It adds to the Mahavamsa tale certain details , such as the identity of Buddhaghosa 's parents and his village , as well as several dramatic episodes , such as the conversion of Buddhaghosa 's father and Buddhaghosa 's role in deciding a legal case . It also explains the eventual loss of the Sinhalese originals that Buddhaghosa worked from in creating his Pali commentaries by claiming that Buddhaghosa collected and burnt the original manuscripts once his work was completed .

= = Writings and translations = =

Buddhaghosa was reputedly responsible for an extensive project of synthesizing and translating a large body of Sinhala commentaries on the Pāli Canon . His Visuddhimagga ( Pāli : Path of Purification ) is a comprehensive manual of Theravada Buddhism that is still read and studied today . The Mahavamsa ascribes a great many books to Buddhaghosa 's composition , some of which are not believed to have been his work , but rather were composed later and attributed to him .

Below is a listing of the fourteen commentaries on the Pāli Canon traditionally ascribed to Buddhaghosa , the Aṭṭhakathā :

While traditional accounts list Buddhaghosa as the author of all of these works , the current consensus among scholars accepts only the Visuddhimagga and the commentaries on the first four nikayas as Buddhaghosa 's work .

= = Influence and Legacy = =

In the 12th century , the Sri Lankan monk Sariputta became the leading scholar of the Theravada following the reunification of the Sri Lankan monastic community by King Parakramabahu I. Sariputta incorporated many of the works of Buddhaghosa into his own interpretations . In subsequent years , many monks from Theravada traditions in Southeast Asia sought ordination or re @-@ ordination in Sri Lanka because of the reputation of the Sri Lankan Mahavihara lineage for doctrinal purity and scholarship . The result was the spread of the teachings of the Mahavihara tradition — and thus Buddhaghosa — throughout the Theravada world . Buddhaghosa 's commentaries thereby became the standard method by which the Theravada scriptures were understood , establishing Buddhaghosa as the definitive interpreter of Theravada doctrine .

In later years , Buddhaghosa 's fame and influence inspired various accolades . His life story was recorded , in an expanded and likely exaggerated form , in a Pali chronicle known as the Buddhaghosuppatti , or " The Development of the Career of Buddhaghosa " . Despite the general belief that he was Indian by birth , he later may have been claimed by the Mon people of Burma as an attempt to assert primacy over Sri Lanka in the development of Theravada tradition . Other scholars believe that the Mon records refer to another figure , but whose name and personal history are much in the mold of the Indian Buddhaghosa .

Finally , Buddhaghosa 's works likely played a significant role in the revival and preservation of the Pali language as the scriptural language of the Theravada , and as a lingua franca in the exchange of ideas , texts , and scholars between Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of mainland Southeast Asia . The development of new analyses of Theravada doctrine , both in Pali and Sinhalese , seems to have dried up prior to Buddhaghosa 's emergence in Sri Lanka . In India , new schools of Buddhist philosophy ( such as the Mahayana ) were emerging , many of them making use of classical Sanskrit both as a scriptural language and as a language of philosophical discourse . The monks of the Mahavihara may have attempted to counter the growth of such schools by re @-@ emphasizing the study and composition in Pali , along with the study of previously disused secondary sources that may have vanished in India , as evidenced by the Mahavamsa . Early indications of this resurgence in the use of Pali as a literary language may be visible in the composition of the Dipavamsa and the Vimuttimagga , both dating to shortly before Buddhaghosa 's arrival in Sri Lanka . The addition of Buddhaghosa 's works — which combined the pedigree of the oldest Sinhalese commentaries with the use of Pali , a language shared by all of the Theravada learning centers of the time — provided a significant boost to the revitalization of the Pali language and the Theravada intellectual tradition , possibly aiding the Theravada school in surviving the challenge to its position posed by emerging Buddhist schools of mainland India .

Some scholars have argued that Buddhaghosa 's writing evinces a strong but unacknowledged Yogācāra Buddhist influence , which subsequently came to characterize Theravada thought in the wake of his profound influence on the Theravada tradition .

= = Critics = =

The Visuddhimagga reflects changes in interpretation which appeared during the centuries since the Buddha 's time .

The Australian Buddhist monastic Shravasti Dhammika is critical of contemporary practice . He concludes that Buddhaghosa did not believe that following the practice set forth in the Visuddhimagga will really lead him to Nirvana , basing himself on the postscript to the Visuddhimagga :

Even Buddhaghosa did not really believe that Theravada practice could lead to Nirvana . His Visuddhimagga is supposed to be a detailed , step by step guide to enlightenment . And yet in the postscript [ ... ] he says he hopes that the merit he has earned by writing the Vishuddhimagga will allow him to be reborn in heaven , abide there until Metteyya ( Maitreya ) appears , hear his teaching and then attain enlightenment .

Yet Ñāṇamoli notes that this postscript does not appear in the original Pali .

According to Kalupahana , Buddhaghosa was influenced by Mahayana @-@ thought , which were subtly mixed with Theravada orthodoxy to introduce new ideas . Eventually this led to the flowering of metaphysical tendencies , in contrast to the original stress on anattā in early Buddhism

= Idiotest =

Idiotest ( a portmanteau of " idiot " and " test " and stylized as Id ! otest ) is an American television game show broadcast by Game Show Network ( GSN ) . Hosted by Ben Gleib , the series features contestants in teams of two competing to answer brain teaser and puzzle questions . The winning team advances to a bonus round for an opportunity to increase their winnings to $ 10 @,@ 000 . The series was announced at GSN 's upfront presentation in March 2014 ; the first episode premiered on August 12 of that year .

Critical reception for the series has been mixed , with one writer calling it " enjoyable " while another called it " uninteresting . " Additionally , GSN released an online game midway through the first season that allows users to answer questions from the series ' past episodes .

= = Gameplay = =

The main game features two pairs of contestants answering brain teaser questions . In the first round , each team faces two questions , taking the form of a visual puzzle . Contestants can work together and must answer by pointing to the correct answer ( or answers depending on what the question is asking them ) on the screen . The question is often phrased so that the contestants may be misled if they do not read it correctly ( for example , " Touch the largest greenhouse " could be misread as " Touch the largest green house " ) The value of the question begins at $ 300 , with $ 20 deducted for every second the team takes in answering ; the money begins counting down when the puzzle first appears on the screen . The money stops counting down when the contestants submit an answer on the touchscreen . For all questions , a correct answer earns the remaining money , while a wrong answer or no answer earns nothing . In round two , there are 4 questions with each contestant working alone and cannot confer with their partners . The opening value of the question is $ 500 , decreasing by $ 25 each second until an answer is given . In the third round , one contestant from each team faces the same question simultaneously . Contestants have their own money countdown , which starts at $ 1 @,@ 000 and decreases by $ 50 per second . The other contestant from each team then faces a more difficult question , with an opening value of $ 2 @,@ 500 and decreasing by $ 100 per second . The host usually reads the question to the contestants during this round . After this second question , the team that has more money wins it and plays the bonus round for $ 10 @,@ 000 . If the game ended in a tie , the team who solves their puzzles the fastest are the winners .

= = = Smart Money Round = = =

In the bonus round , entitled the " Smart Money Round " , each member of the winning team plays the same question individually . While the first contestant is asked the question , the second is isolated offstage so that they cannot see or hear the question . The two teammates have a total of 40 seconds to answer ( in seasons 1 and 2 , the time limit was 30 seconds ) ; the clock stops when the first contestant submits an answer , and resumes when the second contestant first sees the question . If one team member answers the question correctly , they receive an additional $ 1 @,@ 000 ; if both answer correctly , their winnings are augmented to $ 10 @,@ 000 .

Midway through the first season , another version of the " Smart Money Round " was introduced requiring a team to correctly answer five questions in 60 seconds , with five @-@ second penalties for wrong answers . Each correct answer is worth $ 500 , with five correct answers winning $ 10 @,@ 000 .

= = = Online version = = =

An online game based on the series was developed for GSN 's website midway through the show 's first season . The game allows online users to answer questions seen on the actual show . Answering a certain amount of questions correctly allows players to level up and face more difficult questions ; a total of 32 levels are available .

= = Production = =

The show received very little advanced press before it was announced at GSN 's 2014 – 15 upfront presentation on March 18 , 2014 . At the presentation , GSN revealed plans to order 40 episodes of the series , while confirming August 12 as the premiere date on June 19 , 2014 . On October 28 , 2014 , the show was renewed for a 65 @-@ episode second season , which began airing April 1 , 2015 . The series was renewed for a third season on March 16 , 2016 , with the season premiere airing on April 12 .

The series has also produced some special editions featuring contestants from a preexisting rivalry . These episodes have included competitions between USC and UCLA graduates , as well as an Election Day special between pairs of Democrats and Republicans . This theme was revived with a special episode entitled Political Idiotest , which both taped and aired April 20 , 2016 and featured brain teasers referring to political subjects .

= = Reception = =

The series has received mixed reviews from critics . Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment argued the series to be " truly enjoyable to watch " while calling Gleib 's hosting " sarcastic and funny " . Conversely , Tim Conroy of Media Life Magazine argued that the show " just doesn 't do the trick " and thought Gleib had a difficult time " drawing amusing responses from the contestants " . Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times was equally unimpressed , saying that the show had " low ambitions " and arguing that Gleib 's hosting made the show " even more uninteresting " . Paired with the mixed critical reception , the series has seen a wide range of ratings for new episodes , bringing in between 245 @,@ 000 and 561 @,@ 000 total viewers during the first season .

The season two double episode premiere drew 388 @,@ 000 and 360 @,@ 000 viewers respectively .

= Puzzlejuice =

Puzzlejuice is a 2012 indie puzzle video game for iOS produced and developed by video game company Sirvo . The game is a combination of Tetris , tile @-@ matching , and Boggle : players rearrange falling tetromino blocks into rows of similar colors , which turn into letters that are cleared from the board by forming words . The fast @-@ paced game also includes challenges and power @-@ ups . The development team consisted three people ; programmer Asher Vollmer initially developed the game alone , before reaching out to artist Greg Wohlwend for advice on the aesthetics . Composer Jimmy Hinson produced the game 's music .

The game was released January 19 , 2012 to what video game review score aggregator Metacritic called " generally favorable " reviews . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty involved in juggling the three game components simultaneously .

= = Gameplay = =

In Puzzlejuice , the player turns falling tetrominos into letters , and those letters into words and points . The player taps and drags on the touchscreen to rotate and position multicolored tetrominos that fall from the top of the screen . When the player completes a solid row of tiles , or arranges the fallen blocks such that four or more like @-@ colored tiles touch , the color tiles turn into letters . Players connect these letter tiles with their eight adjacent tiles ( in ordinal directions ) to make words . Words of sufficient length are cleared from play as well as their adjacent tiles — thus longer words clear more blocks . The iPhone version shows a magnified version of the tile obscured by the player 's finger near the finger . The game has been compared to a cross between Boggle , Tetris , and tile @-@ matching .

The game also offers objectives to be accomplished over multiple sessions , like making a six @-@ letter word , or clearing three or more rows at once . This unlocks power @-@ ups that occasionally provide opportunities such as halting the rate of new tetromino drops , and removing blocks from the screen . Up to three power @-@ ups can be selected to be used in each game .

The object of the game is to get the highest score . There are two play modes : Zen and Core . There is a 90 @-@ second time limit in Zen mode . In Core mode , players play until the screen fills with poorly placed tetrominos , similar to Tetris . Core has two difficulties . On the easiest difficulty , three @-@ letter words suffice , but harder modes require five @-@ letter words at a minimum . A score multiplier grows as players maintain a combo of multiple words created in succession , and resets if players are too slow . Scores are uploaded to Game Center .

= = Development = =

Puzzlejuice was built by a group called Collaboratory and later renamed Sirvo . The three @-@ person team consisted of programmer Asher Vollmer , artist Greg Wohlwend , and composer Jimmy Hinson . The game began as Vollmer 's idea . He later reached out to Wohlwend for aesthetic advice , which resulted in a 365 @-@ message chain email and the final product . Wohlwend and Vollmer did not speak a word to each other — or use a medium outside of Gmail and Twitter — throughout the entire development process . The title was inspired by what Vollmer described as the " EXTREME " American culture of the 1990s , exemplified by the board game Crossfire and juice @-@ filled Gushers fruit snacks . A similar game , Spelltower , was released during Puzzlejuice 's development , but Vollmer and Wohlwend ultimately considered their game sufficiently different to proceed . Puzzlejuice was selected for the PAX 10 , a spotlighted group of indie games , in July 2012 . The game was released as a universal app for iPhone and iPad on January 19 , 2012 . Vollmer expressed an interest in bringing the game to Steam Greenlight in August 2012 .

= = Reception = =

The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Multiple reviewers compared its core mechanics to a combination of Boggle , Tetris , and a tile @-@ matching game , such as Bejeweled or Puyo Puyo . Comparing word games , Edge called it the " fast @-@ paced action @-@ adventure " to Spelltower 's " survival horror " . Multiple reviewers mentioned the difficulty in mentally balancing the various components of the game , which VideoGamer.com compared to " doing open heart surgery while playing Dance Dance Revolution " .

Edge suggested playing on the game 's hardest difficulty , which they found the most engaging . They called it " mayhem , ... elegantly handled " . Pocket Gamer 's Harry Slater said the game " forces your brain to think in ways that it 's never been asked to before " . Edge compared the game 's challenges to Jetpack Joyride 's missions , and complimented the connection between Vollmer 's " magpie " design and Wohlwend 's " luminously flat pastel @-@ colored art " . Phil Eaves of Slide to Play wrote that the player should play with headphones or else miss a " wonderful " chiptune soundtrack .

Edge called the game " too hectic and exhausting " to return to often . VideoGamer.com 's Mark Brown struggled with registering the right input on the small screen , and found himself inadvertently making words from letters instead of moving color blocks . Slide to Play 's Eaves was also troubled by the controls , and recommended the iPad version for the extra screen space . Pocket Gamer 's Slater said it was too easy to clear the board with three @-@ letter words , and thus that the design execution was not as robust as the concept , never being " more than the sum of its strange combination of parts " . While TouchArcade 's Troy Woodfield called the gameplay " not ... totally original " in how it combines three common game ideas , he still found the combination " a stroke of genius " , and highly recommended the game as " a breath of fresh air " . Brown of VideoGamer.com agreed that Puzzlejuice distinguished itself from the crowded iOS puzzle game genre , and Slide to Play 's Eaves called its balance between game types " perfect " .

= Potlatch River =

The Potlatch River is in the state of Idaho in the United States . About 56 miles ( 90 km ) long , it is the lowermost major tributary to the Clearwater River , a tributary of the Snake River that is in turn a tributary of the Columbia River . Once surrounded by arid grasslands of the Columbia Plateau adjacent to the western foothills of the Rocky Mountains , the Potlatch today is used mainly for agriculture and irrigation purposes .

Its name derives from potlatch , a type of ceremony held by the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest ; one such tribe lived along the river for hundreds of years before the arrival of whites . Pioneers settled the watershed and established farms and ranches in the late 19th century . After that , logging eliminated most of the forests within the watershed and the ecology of the river is still in the process of recovery . Fishing , hiking and camping are popular recreational activities on the river ; 14 percent the watershed lies on public lands . Before logging and agriculture , many varieties of riparian and forest plants once populated the catchment , and several species of fish still swim the river and its tributaries .

= = Course and drainage = =

The Hoodoo Mountains are the source of the Potlatch River . The Potlatch 's course traces a southwesterly line across the eastern Columbia Plateau in the arid Rocky Mountain foothills . Two forks form the river 's headwaters in the southern part of the Idaho Panhandle . The West Fork drains part of Latah County and the East Fork is in Clearwater County . These two forks combine near Helmer , and soon the river descends into a canyon that continues all the way to the mouth . While in the canyon , it receives Pine , Big Bear , Middle Potlatch and Little Potlatch Creeks from the north , and Boulder and Cedar Creeks from the south . Idaho State Highway 3 follows part of the lower canyon , and the town of Juliaetta is located at the Middle Potlatch Creek confluence . The river merges with the Clearwater at the elevation of 801 feet ( 244 m ) between the towns of Myrtle and Spalding . Its average discharge at the mouth , according to a USGS stream gauge , is 379 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 10 @.@ 75 m3 / s ) . A peak flow of 8 @,@ 150 cubic feet per second ( 231 m3 / s ) was recorded there in 2006 . The river reaches its highest peaks in the winter and early spring , while it reduces to a trickle by summer and autumn . The river mainly flows over and through coarse Columbia River basalts that comprise the Columbia Plateau , similar in geology to the Palouse River farther west .

= = History = =

Native Americans of the Nez Perce tribe have lived along the Potlatch River for hundreds of years . The Potlatch River area was once a broad sweep of dry grassland bordered by forested mountains , on the eastern edge of the arid Columbia Plateau . Because of its location just southwest of the foothills of the Rockies , the Potlatch River receives much more rainfall than watersheds just to the west , such as the Palouse and Tucannon Rivers . In 1805 and again in 1806 , the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed the mouth of the Potlatch River while traveling down the Clearwater River . They referred to it as " a large creek " and named it Colter 's Creek , in honor of John Colter , a member of the expedition . It is not known if they were the first whites to see the river . The modern name of the river was adopted in 1897 .

The native environment stayed relatively intact until settlers began to arrive in western Idaho in great numbers in the 1870s , and miners also were attracted by a gold strike at nearby Orofino , on the banks of the Clearwater River . Many of these emigrants set up dryland farms and ranches in the prairies surrounding the Potlatch River . Soil conditions generally improve as one travels southwards through the watershed , but there was a major drawback to growing crops in the southern part of the basin : the inaccessibility of water . Already scarce in the arid Potlatch River drainage , the river 's water was hard to reach because of the steep canyon it passes through in most of its lower course . Farmers were restricted to growing crops that did not require irrigation , and many of the lands that did not have access to abundant @-@ enough water were relegated to pasture or hay producing status .

At first , the forests of the watershed were not significantly affected , but after logging operations sprung up near the start of the 20th century , most of the virgin timber in the watershed was cleared . The first sawmills were built to provide lumber for local uses , such as building houses and barns . Soon , however , the Washington , Idaho and Montana Railway extended its tracks into the area , allowing lumber to be exported out of the basin . Logging turned out to be a very profitable industry but had a lasting negative effect on the ecology of the Potlatch River watershed .

Splash dams , greased chutes , railroad landings , railroad branch lines and steam donkey operations were among the strategies utilized to exploit the watershed 's resources of timber . Unfortunately , railroad embankments and fills used to build up tributaries had artificially straightened them in the process , and erosion increased dramatically on the barren hillside , causing many streams to become much siltier than they naturally would be . Nearly all the old @-@ growth forest in the watershed is now gone , and the forests that remain are mostly second @-@ growth stands .

= = Ecology = =

At one time the river 's watershed was dominated by grassland mostly consisting of Idaho fescue and bluebunch wheatgrass . Cottonwoods , quaking aspen , maple , and alder formed the riparian zone along the Potlatch River . In the foothills , a meadow steppe environment abounding with black hawthorn , snowberry and small conifers flourished , while along the banks of smaller tributaries , hawthorn and mock orange grew . Camas and forbs thrived in the thinly distributed seasonal wetlands along the river and its larger tributary creeks . The forests were mainly a mix of Douglas fir and ponderosa pine , interspersed with rare stands of grand fir , western redcedar , western white pine , and larch , and an understory of oceanspray , ninebark , serviceberry , wild rose and snowberry . Wildfires burned through the watershed from time to time , clearing the way for new growth . After human intervention , these vegetation communities continued to persist , but in lesser numbers , and the grasslands have mostly been wiped out by farming . The average annual precipitation ranges from 15 to 50 inches ( 380 to 1 @,@ 270 mm ) per year , and annual variations in temperature are around 25 to 100 ° F ( − 4 to 38 ° C ) .

According to a study from 2003 – 2004 , there were 13 different species of fish in the Potlatch River watershed , including speckled dace , longnose dace , rainbow trout ( both wild and farm @-@ raised ) , brook trout , largemouth bass , pumpkinseed , northern pikeminnow , redside shiner , sculpin , bridgelip sucker , largescale sucker , and yellow perch . Migration of steelhead , the anadromous phase of rainbow trout , has been impacted by the construction of dams downstream on the Snake and Columbia Rivers . The two species of dace were cumulatively the largest individual fish population in the watershed , while steelhead accounted for 58 @.@ 4 % of the biomass . Of all the streams sampled during the study , the West Fork Potlatch River had the highest diversity because of its relatively pristine condition . The lower section of the river suffers from chronic pollution caused by agricultural runoff . From 2005 to 2008 , the population of steelhead ( rainbow ) trout in the watershed was recorded by the Potlatch River Steelhead Monitoring and Evaluation Program ( PRSME ) . There was no data for steelhead populations in the main stem but 197 adult steelhead were recorded in the East Fork of the river , while an average of 226 was recorded annually in one of the river 's larger tributaries , Big Bear Creek . Over 1 @,@ 000 steelhead are estimated to return to the Potlatch drainage in strong run years . Outmigration of steelhead smolt from the East Fork was estimated at 6 @,@ 976 fish while the average for Big Bear Creek was 9 @,@ 491 . The Idaho Department of Fish and Game began a series of seven projects in 2009 in order to conserve fish habitat in the Potlatch .

= = = Land use = = =

Forests cover about 57 % of the Potlatch River watershed , while about 38 % is used for agriculture and ranching . 78 % of the land is privately owned while 14 % lie within national forests . 7 % is owned by the state , while the Bureau of Land Management and Bureau of Indian Affairs each have a 1 % share .

= = Recreation = =

Many of the mountainous and forested sections of the drainage basin lie protected under national forest lands . There are several campgrounds overseen by the U.S. Forest Service in the headwaters of the Potlatch River watershed . Fishing is also good in the Potlatch River and many of its tributaries . Anglers are only permitted to catch brook trout , cutthroat trout , and rainbow and steelhead trout . The Department of Fish and Game annually stocks fish in the river . Fishing is permitted on the Potlatch from its mouth upstream to where Moose Creek joins the river near Bovill , as well as on the East Fork .

= When You Reach Me =

When You Reach Me is a Newbery Medal @-@ winning science fiction and mystery novel by Rebecca Stead , published in 2009 . It takes place in the Upper West Side in New York during 1978 and 1979 and follows the protagonist , Miranda Sinclair . She receives a strange note asking her to record future events and write down the location of her spare key . As the novel progresses , Miranda receives three more notes with requests . The novel contains three storylines — the appearance of Miranda 's mom on the game show , The $ 20 @,@ 000 Pyramid , Miranda 's best friend Sal suddenly not talking with Miranda , and the appearance of a laughing man . Central themes in the novel include independence , redemption and friendship . Stead also wanted to demonstrate the possibilities that she saw in time travel . The author hoped to show her children what New York was like in her childhood , and demonstrate how in an earlier time children were more independent .

When You Reach Me was inspired by a newspaper article about a man suffering from amnesia , and by parts of her childhood and her favorite book , A Wrinkle in Time . After completing much of the novel , Stead gave the draft to her editor , Wendy Lamb , who liked it . They expanded on the initial concepts and published When You Reach Me on July 14 , 2009 , under Wendy Lamb Books , an imprint of Random House . The book was well received by critics , who praised its realistic setting and the author 's deft handling of small details . The novel has reached the best @-@ seller lists of The New York Times , Los Angeles Times and USA Today . In addition to receiving the 2010 Newbery Medal , When You Reach Me won several Best Book of the Year awards .

= = Concept and development = =

The two main characters are Miranda , and the laughing man . Stead began writing When You Reach Me in 2007 after reading an article in The New York Times gave her an idea for a novel about traveling in time to save someone 's life . The article was about a man who woke up in Denver suffering from amnesia , having forgotten who he was or why he was there . Many people worked with the man to help him regain his memory . Under hypnosis , he spoke about his apparent wife , Penny , and two daughters who died in a car crash . However , when he and Penny reunited , the man found out she was only his fiancée — and they had no children . Upon reading this , Stead wondered if somehow the man had returned to the past to prevent an accident but lost his memory along the way . In addition , the article reminded Stead of a strange old man , called the ' laughing man ' , who lived near her house as a child .

While the news story initially inspired Stead , she also tied in parts of her childhood into the novel . Besides the laughing man , she included her primary school , her apartment and a sandwich store where she used to work . Stead also added memories of herself acting mean without reason . Slowly the novel became " more and more about these ordinary mysteries of life and less about the fantastic time @-@ travel @-@ y one " . After developing the basic idea , Stead began researching the science behind time travel to make sure her ideas would be logical . She asked her father for help with the science and complicated technical aspects , since he enjoyed mathematical puzzles . As they talked about time travel , Stead " just kept falling into the same hole with the logic , and he really helped me straighten it out " .

When Stead was only halfway done , she hit a wall : she wondered if she had focused the novel too much on her own personal life and problems . By her 40th birthday in January 2008 , she had stopped writing . One week after her birthday celebration , Stead went to a writers ' conference where the presenter advised attendees to stop thinking and just write . This speech worked as an antidote to Stead 's writer 's block ; she started working on When You Reach Me again . After she had written two @-@ thirds of the novel , Stead sent the draft to her editor Wendy Lamb at Random House . Perusing the script , Lamb found herself absorbed and wanted to help develop the book . Unlike Stead 's debut novel First Light , which Lamb heavily edited , Lamb modified nothing on the first draft of When You Reach Me . Throughout the process , Stead helped Lamb understand the complicated concepts in the book and had drafts read by others to make sure " revision hadn 't created any holes or contradictions in the plot " .

= = = A Wrinkle in Time = = =

Throughout the story , the main character Miranda is often reading Madeleine L 'Engle 's A Wrinkle in Time , Stead 's favorite book as a child ; she read and reread it multiple times . She recalls that L 'Engle was the only author she met in her childhood . Stead described the novel as a talisman for Miranda ; she included it in the first draft and planned to remove it , " because you can 't just toss A Wrinkle in Time in there casually " . Her editor suggested leaving it in if it could be better tied into the story . Stead was aware that she did not want A Wrinkle in Time to have too big an influence on When You Reach Me . Keeping this in mind , she reread A Wrinkle in Time through the perspective of different characters , which enabled her to develop new connections and ideas in her own work .

= = = Setting = = =

When You Reach Me takes place during the 1978 @-@ 1979 school year of Miranda , the main character . Stead placed Miranda 's home in the Upper West Side , New York City , where Stead grew up . Many parts of the novel explore " the same streets where Stead grew up , and riffs on some of her experiences " . Stead was inspired to use this setting because she moved into an apartment near her childhood home early in the development of the story . There she had experienced her first independence while exploring the streets , only to find a scary man near her house . Wondering why he was there , Stead later used this encounter as " the anchor as she wrote When You Reach Me " .

= = Plot summary = =

When You Reach Me follows a sixth @-@ grade protagonist , Miranda . She lives with her single mother who has a kindhearted boyfriend , Richard . Miranda 's best friend Sal , who she knew since she was a small child , had recently started ignoring Miranda after he had been punched in the stomach by another boy , Marcus .

A homeless man lives on the corner of Miranda 's street . She calls him the " laughing man " for his tendency to laugh without cause . Miranda notices that he always utters the words " book bag pocket shoe " . The phrase refers to the order and place he will send Miranda notes — her library book , a bread bag , her coat pocket and Richard 's shoe . The first three notes instruct Miranda to write a letter describing the future events . The notes , whose writer claims to be coming to Miranda 's time to save a life , offer three signs of the truth of the messages . As the plot develops , the proofs come true , and Miranda is intrigued .

Miranda and her new friends , Annemarie and Colin find a sandwich shop on the corner , wondering if they can get paid for a job there . The owner , Jimmy , agrees , but he does not wish to pay them with money instead he intends to give a free pop and a sandwich each day of their work . Miranda , Annemarie and Colin discover a Flintstone bank in the back of sandwich shop . Colin , wanting to see more of the bank , is pulled way by Annemarie insisting that Jimmy could find them . The next day , Jimmy fires the three workers , thinking that one of them stole the Flintstone bank , when it was actually Marcus who stole it . The workers write a card , give it to Jimmy and insist that they did not steal the bank . Jimmy believes them and let them work at the sandwich shop . He then tells them that he figured out who stole the bank . He thinks that it is Julia , a classmate in their class , and a best friend to Annemarie . He thinks she did it because she is African American . This upsets Annemarie greatly and she immediately quits her job .

At school , Julia starts shouting at Miranda for letting Annemarie drink soda and eat sandwiches . Julia explains that because Annemarie is epileptic she has to eat a special diet . Miranda explains that she didn 't know any of that . Colin was later hanging out with Sal . Miranda was home alone until her mom got home from work . Someone did a type of tap on her door which scares her because she doesn 't know anyone that knocks like that . She looks though the peep hole and sees Colin . She opens the door and he looks at her then kisses her . She then kisses him back . Colin smiles and then runs off .

In a later scene , Marcus encounters Sal . Marcus wants to apologize for his misbehavior , and chases Sal when he flees . Sal runs onto a street right ahead of an oncoming truck . Before the truck can hit Sal , the laughing man kicks Sal out of the way , sacrificing his own life for Sal 's . Miranda finds the fourth note in Richard 's shoe and learns that the laughing man came from the future to save Sal 's life . The note asks Miranda to prepare a chronicle of recent events and deliver it by hand . Miranda obeys this command .

Miranda 's mom is expected to appear on the $ 20 @,@ 000 Pyramid . In hopes of winning the money and having a better life , Miranda and her mom 's boyfriend Richard prep her for the show . Miranda and Sal are friends again . While her mother is on @-@ stage , Miranda reminisces about a conversation with Marcus about how no one would recognize a time @-@ traveler from a different age . She suddenly realizes that the laughing man is an older incarnation of Marcus , who has come from the future to save Sal 's life . He needed to deliver the notes to the young Marcus through Miranda , who is conveniently her friend . The novel ends as Miranda reflects on the events in an epilogue .

= = Genres = =

When You Reach Me is classified in the science fiction and mystery genres , but includes features of some other genres . Monica Edinger of The New York Times found When You Reach Me to be " a hybrid of genres , it is a complex mystery , a work of historical fiction , a school story and one of friendship , with a leitmotif of time travel running through it . " Augusta Scattergood of the Christian Science Monitor wondered , " Is When You Reach Me science fiction ? Time travel ? A highly imaginative girl 's completely conceived experience ? Maybe it 's historical fiction . After all , it is set in 1979 . " According to Mary Quattlebaum of The Washington Post , the novel is of the science fiction and time travel genres . Quattlebaum found that , unlike the usual time travel stories , When You Reach Me does not involve " cheesy time travel machines and rock- ' em @-@ sock- ' em action [ but instead ] far surpasses the usual whodunit or sci @-@ fi adventure to become an incandescent exploration of ' life , death , and the beauty of it all . ' " Both Kirkus Reviews and Publishers Weekly found that despite the book 's science @-@ fiction devices , the setting was still " firmly rooted in reality . "

Some reviewers have placed parts the novel in the mystery genre . Edinger found that despite the broad genres , the novel is mainly " a thrilling puzzle " . She relates the pieces slowly ; clues are found in the story itself , on the map , in words and chapter titles . At the end of the book everything is tied together and makes sense . Ann Crewdson of School Library Journal found that each note Miranda receives foreshadows the next event . Each note is " skillfully " integrated into the novel , along with subsequent clues , until the climax is reached and all the clues come together . Stead 's editor Lamb agreed with the mystery genre , in that " there 's plenty to wonder about after you finish the book . Just as we wonder why our feelings change so suddenly , or why someone like the laughing man appears on the corner one day . " Gurdon of The Wall Street Journal concurred with Lamb , adding that although the novel is clearly a mystery , the mystery itself is not revealed until the end where the last note comes and where everything ties together .

= = Themes = =

Aaron Mead found that , " the novel addresses the question of how to hold on to old friendships without stifling them , and it insightfully brings out the stabilizing effect that new friendships can have in the effort to preserve or reclaim old ones " . He noted that the novel deeply helps children in middle school . Crewdson opined that the book deals with the " intricacies of friendship " .

This theme of friendship is explored when Sal abandons his friendship with Miranda after he is hit by Marcus . Elli Housden of The Courier @-@ Mail found that Miranda is forced to deal with the fact that Sal seemingly abandons their friendship and ignores her for no apparent reason . Scattergood considered the novel an " ordinary friendship story " with Sal ignoring Miranda to find other friends . Julie Long from Reading Time noted how the incident forces Miranda to find new friends and become more active in school , where she starts learning the dynamics of that environment .

Mead noted that " the book builds toward second chances for Miranda 's mother — both vocationally and relationally . " As the novel progresses , Miranda gives second chances to Julia , a girl whom Miranda initially hates , and Alice , a girl who always needs to use the bathroom but never does . Miranda previously considered Julia " a competitor for Annemarie 's affection , and Alice as the weird kid who waited too long to go to the bathroom " . By the end of the book , she finds Julia to be Annemarie 's friend and discovers that Alice is an insecure girl .

Stead finds that kids today are much less independent since her childhood . She wrote , " [ F ] rom age nine , my friends and I were on the streets , walking home , going to each other 's houses , going to the store . I really wanted to write about that : the independence that 's a little bit scary but also a really positive thing in a lot of ways . And I 'm not sure that most kids have that today " . Throughout the novel , Miranda and her friends often walk around town without any adults . They are even found working in a sandwich store at lunch and walking home from school while trying to avoid the laughing man . While writing the novel , Stead hoped to show her sons the time period in which she lived , " send [ ing ] them on a little time @-@ travel journey of their own " . Laura Miller of The New Yorker found that this lack of independence in today 's youth is mainly due to the fact that kids now grow up with adults constantly watching them . Miller noted how , despite the lower crime rate in current times , the " characters , middle @-@ class middle school students , routinely walk around the Upper West Side by themselves , a rare freedom in today 's city . "

= = = Time travel = = =

Julianna Helt from the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette found that time travel forms a central theme as Miranda constantly wonders how time travel could be possible . In When You Reach Me , Marcus helps Miranda realize that the three old ladies from A Wrinkle in Time lied to Meg by promising they would return five minutes before they left . Marcus explains :

" So the garden is where they appear when they get home at the end of the book . Remember ? They land in the broccoli . So if they had gotten home five minutes before they left , like those ladies promised they would , then they would have seen themselves get back . Before they did " .

Roger Sutton from Horn Magazine felt that the moment Marcus explains this flaw to Miranda is the first exchange that shows the novel to be complicated and mysterious . Quattlebaum noted , " The story 's structure – an expert interweaving of past , present and future – brilliantly contradicts Miranda 's commonsensical belief that the end can 't happen before the middle . " Stead explained her view of time travel in her novel , where going back in time is fulfilling the future , rather than changing it . She hoped to make the time travel element logical to show that " Miranda wasn 't struggling to understand the seeming randomness and infinity of the universe , but learning that her world has value and that people do care about her " .

= = Audiobook adaption = =

The audiobook adaption of When You Reach Me was released by Listening Library and contains four disks . In praise of Cynthia Holloway 's performance of Miranda , M.V.P from Horn Book Magazine stated that her tone " emphasized the novel 's interpersonal aspects " . The reviewer found it beneficial that the chapter titles were added to the audio , since they seemed to add more detail about the book , but can be easily skipped over when reading . M.V.P criticized the voicing of Miranda 's mom . AudioFile praised Halloway for " a strong reading ... [ that ] makes listeners curious about this story 's nonlinear structure " and for managing the different elements of the story .

= = Critical reception = =

When You Reach Me was published on July 14 , 2009 , in hardcover format by Wendy Lamb Books , an imprint of Random House Children 's Books . Reception of When You Reach Me was positive . Reviewers praised the details and characters . The novel has reached many bestseller lists ; it was on the New York Times Best Seller list for 16 weeks ending May 9 , 2010 . It was number 127 on USA Today 's bestseller list during the week of January 28 , 2010 . On April 22 , 2010 , after staying at number 15 for two weeks , When You Reach Me left the Los Angeles Times bestseller list .

Reviewers lauded the realistic setting and characters . Ilene Cooper of Booklist acknowledged that although she was unsure if the ending was logical , " everything else is quite wonderful " . She praised the realistic portrayal of New York and mentioned that " the characters , children and adults ... are honest bits of humanity " . Julianna M. Helt of The Post Gazette felt that along with the " wonderful sense of middle school dynamics " , Stead 's depiction of New York City in the 1970s was superb . Quattlebaum considered no character to be minor ; each plays an important part in the story . Caitlin Augusta of School Library Journal found the setting to be " consistently strong . The stores — and even the streets — in Miranda 's neighborhood act as physical entities and impact the plot in tangible ways " .

Reviewers praised how Stead made every small detail matter . Augusta Scattergood of the Christian Science Monitor enjoyed the detailed work : " The beauty of Stead 's writing is found in the way she weaves subplots and settings together seamlessly . Richard 's stolen shoe drops into place . A reference to forbidden grapes is tied up sweetly . Stolen $ 2 bills ? Another part of the enigma explained by the end . " Edginer agreed , commenting that despite the small size of the novel compared to other popular books , When You Reach Me is a " taut novel , every word , every sentence , has meaning and substance . " Publishers Weekly added that even the smallest of details — Miranda 's name , her strange habits and why she carries A Wrinkle in Time with her — have a reason for their inclusion by the end of the novel .

= = = 2010 Newbery Medal = = =

Stead won the annual Newbery Medal recognizing When You Reach Me as the year 's " most distinguished contribution to American literature for children " . The judges chose the novel for making the small details important to the plot . Chairwoman of the Newbery committee Katie O 'Dell felt that " Every scene , every nuance , every word is vital both to character development and the progression of the mystery that really is going to engage readers and satisfy them " . The committee was " very excited about this book because it is exceptionally conceived , finely crafted and highly original " .

On January 18 , 2010 , a worker at Random House had tweeted the result 17 minutes prior the official announcement . The tweet was quickly taken down when the mistake was noticed .

= = = 2012 survey = = =

In 2012 , When You Reach Me was ranked number 11 among all @-@ time best children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal , a monthly with primarily U.S. audience . It was the only 21st @-@ century work among the top 20 .

= = Awards and nominations = =

= Flekkefjord Station =

Flekkefjord Station ( Norwegian : Flekkefjord stasjon ) is a former railway station located in Flekkefjord , Norway . It served as the terminus of the 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) gauge Flekkefjord Line from 1904 to 1990 . The station building was designed by Paul Armin Due and was built in brick Art Nouveau .

The station was important for transport along the coast until 1944 , when the completion of the Sørland Line made Flekkefjord a branch station . At the same time , the line was converted to standard gauge , the number of station tracks was reduced , and the station received an overhaul . The station building was demolished in 1970 , but the station was still served until the line closed in 1990 . The tracks and depot buildings still exist .

= = History = =

The Flekkefjord Line ran from Egersund to Flekkefjord , as an extension of the Jæren Line , that ran from Stavanger to Egersund . The Norwegian Parliament voted in favor of the line in 1894 , and construction started two years later . While initial plans were to open the line in 1902 , the station and line did not open until 1 November 1904 . The line was built as a 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) gauge line , and the first rolling stock was reallocated from the Voss Line .

Initially , there were four trains daily in each direction , reduced to three on holidays . The most important train was the one that coordinated with the west @-@ bound steam ship ; the train would wait up to 45 minutes if the ship was delayed . This become the dominant route for people to get from Stavanger to cities along the South Coast , as well as to Oslo . In addition to passengers , major cargo shipments included seasonal shipments of herring , as well as lumber from the surrounding areas . Coal for the trains was imported by steam ship to Flekkefjord .

With the arrival of the Kragerø Line to Kragerø in 1927 , and the Sørland Line to Arendal in 1935 , buses were used between Flekkefjord and the terminus cities , allowing land connection between Stavanger and Oslo via Flekkefjord . At the same time , diesel multiple units were introduced on the " lightning trains " , cutting travel time to Stavanger by 50 minutes to 3 hours 15 minutes .

The Flekkefjord Line was planned as part of the Sørland Line , that would make Flekkefjord a station on the line between Oslo , Kristiansand and Stavanger . Instead , the route of the Sørland Line was chosen to traverse an inner route , and the Flekkefjord Line became a 17 @.@ 1 km ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) branch line of the Sørland Line in 1944 . As part of the construction , the Flekkefjord Line was converted in 1940 – 41 to standard gauge . The first standard gauge train , a NSB Class 18 , operated on 8 August 1941 . The large traffic during the reconstruction period caused so much damage to the wharf that it had to be taken out of service . The speed on the line was also reduced to 40 kilometres per hour ( 25 mph ) , as the gauge conversion was done without changing the right @-@ of @-@ way profile . Dual gauge was kept until 1 March 1944 . At the same time the four tracks at the station were reduced to three . The cargo building was also moved three metres . In June 1945 , twelve people were employed at the station .

With the introduction of standard gauge , Flekkefjord went from being an important hub for transport along the south coast , to merely being a branch station . However , the number of daily trains to Sira and Moi had increased to twelve , operated with Class 86 and Class 87 multiple units . The Class 87 was used until 1956 , when Class 86 came into service . In 1966 , Class 87 was reintroduced . Important cargo customers at the time were Draco ( who made boats ) and Halvorsens Kjelfabrikk ( who made boilers ) . From 1981 , the Class 89 came into use , remaining until the station was closed in 1990 .

= = Facilities = =

As the only proper station on the line , Flekkefjord was built in brick in Art Nouveau . The two @-@ story 338 m2 ( 3 @,@ 640 sq ft ) building which was designed by Paul Armin Due had a ground floor with a ticket office , four offices and three waiting rooms . The second story was an apartment for the station master . Due chose to design the building symmetrically around the waiting room . It had arched widows and doors , curved corners and two round towers . This gave both a tight and soft form in organic interaction . It has been considered one of Due 's best works of Art Nouveau . Beside the station there was a 196 m2 ( 2 @,@ 110 sq ft ) single story restaurant building . In addition to a large main building , the station had a freight building , a wharf , a locomotive and wagon depot , and a loading area . There were four tracks past the station , in addition to two track to the cargo area . The cargo building had room for three wagons . The locomotive depot had places for six steam locomotives .

The restaurant was converted into housing in the 1950s , and in May 1970 the station building was demolished to make room for a new bus station . The cargo building was refurbished to serve as a station building for passengers and as offices . The wharf was sold by the municipality in 1987 , and the last train to serve the station departed on 31 December 1990 . Most of the line and infrastructure is however intact .

= Case of the Dean of St Asaph =

The Case of the Dean of St Asaph , formally R v Shipley , was the 1784 trial of William Davies Shipley , the Dean of St Asaph , for seditious libel . In the aftermath of the American War of Independence , electoral reform had become a substantial issue , and William Pitt the Younger attempted to bring a Bill before Parliament to reform the electoral system . In its support Shipley republished a pamphlet written by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Sir William Jones , which noted the defects of the existing system and argued in support of Pitt 's reforms . Thomas FitzMaurice , the brother of British Prime Minister Earl of Shelburne , reacted by indicting Shipley for seditious libel , a criminal offence which acted as " the government 's chief weapon against criticism " , since merely publishing something that an individual judge interpreted as libel was enough for a conviction ; a jury was prohibited from deciding whether the material was actually libellous . The law was widely seen as unfair , and a Society for Constitutional Information was formed to pay Shipley 's legal fees . With financial backing from the society Shipley was able to secure the services of Thomas Erskine KC as his barrister .

Shipley was tried in 1784 by Mr Justice Buller and a specially convened jury at Shrewsbury . Edward Bearcroft , counsel for the prosecution , argued that on the basis of the existing system the jury could not decide on the nature of the pamphlet , while Erskine argued not only that they could , but that the material did not constitute seditious libel , containing as it did " a solemn protest against all sedition " . Persuaded by Erskine 's arguments , the jury ruled that Shipley was neither " guilty " or " not guilty " , but instead " guilty of publication only " , a confusing and non @-@ standard ruling which , after a long dialogue , Mr Justice Buller declared to mean " guilty on all charges " . Erskine appealed the decision to the Court of King 's Bench on 8 November , where the judges again ruled that juries could not decide whether material was libellous , but nevertheless released Shipley on a technicality ; his freedom was greeted with fireworks and bonfires , and Erskine was rewarded with the Freedom of the City of Gloucester . Still seeking to reform the law , Erskine sent the court records to Charles James Fox and Lord Camden , who , after much effort , passed the Libel Act 1792 , which secured the right of juries to decide whether material was libellous .

= = Background = =

Following the end of the American War of Independence , British public attention had turned to the need for Parliamentary reform – specifically , the lack of franchise in many towns and the presence of rotten boroughs . In response , William Pitt the Younger brought the idea of reform before Parliament and , in support of his actions , Sir William Jones wrote and published a pamphlet titled A Dialogue between a Farmer and a Country Gentleman on the Principles of Government , which covered the " virtues of government and defects in the representation of the people " . In 1783 Shipley , Jones 's father @-@ in @-@ law , recommended it to a group of Welsh constitutional reformers and had it reprinted in Welsh with his own preface suggesting it was " just , rational and constitutional " . As a result , Thomas FitzMaurice , the brother of the Earl of Shelburne , indicted Shipley for seditious libel , specifically for " publishing a false , scandalous and malicious libel ... to raise seditions and tumults within the kingdom , and to excite His Majesty 's subjects to attempt , by armed rebellion and violence , to subvert the state and constitution of the nation " .

The law dealing with seditious libel was particularly strict . Acting as " the government 's chief weapon against criticism " , it followed principles laid down in De Libellis Famosis and R v Carr : that seditious libel was a criminal offence , that the intention of the publisher or the truth of the allegations was irrelevant , that mere publication was sufficient for a conviction , and that juries were only allowed to deliver a verdict on whether the material had been published by the defendant , not whether it was libellous . Traditionally , matters of fact were left to the jury and matters of law to the judge , but with seditious libel " matters of law " was construed very widely ; it was the judge 's job to decide if the material was libellous , what constituted " seditious libel " , and the nature of " publication " , which was understood to include almost anything . Even a private letter , if intercepted , could lead to a prosecution .

Because of public disquiet with these principles , Shipley 's trial acted as a " test case " for the law of seditious libel ; a Society for Constitutional Information was formed by concerned citizens and began raising money to pay for his defence . Able to afford the best representation , the society gave the brief to Thomas Erskine KC , a noted defence barrister . The trial was to be heard by Lord Kenyon , then Chief Justice of Chester , at Wrexam ; after travelling 200 miles to the court Erskine discovered that a paper had been circulated in the area arguing that in libel cases juries were allowed to decide whether a publication was libellous , as well as whether it had been published . Citing the paper 's circulation , the prosecution asked for a postponement ; ignoring claims that a delay would cause Shipley hardship , Kenyon agree to postpone the trial . The case was eventually heard on 6 August 1784 by Mr Justice Buller , at Shrewsbury .

= = Trial and appeal = =

Edward Bearcroft , lead counsel for the prosecution , described the Dialogue as libel and argued that the truth of this was not a question for the jury to decide on ; they were bound to convict the defendant as long as they decided that he had published the Dialogue , regardless of the contents . Those contents , Bearcroft went on , sought to persuade the public that " every man of age had a right to choose his own representative in Parliament " . Erskine , in his reply , argued that the Dialogue was not libellous ( it opened with a preface containing " a solemn protest against all sedition " ) , and insisted that the jury had the right to decide what constituted libel :

If they know that the subject of the paper is the topic that agitates the country around them ; if they see danger in that agitation , and have reason to think that the publisher must have intended it , they say he is guilty . If , on the other hand , they consider the paper to be legal and enlightening in principle ; likely to promote a spirit of activity and liberty , in times when the activity of such a spirit is essential to the public safety , and have reason to believe it to be written and published in that spirit ; they say , as they ought to do , that the writer or the publisher is not guilty .

To demonstrate his feelings on the subject , Erskine asked the jury to consider him a fellow defendant , since he intended to publish the pamphlet himself as soon as possible ; he then went through the Dialogue line by line , showing that not only would most people agree with it , but that it was the foundation of Pitt 's Reform Bill . After Erskine concluded his arguments , again stating that the jury should feel free to debate whether the material constituted libel , Mr Justice Buller began his summing up , instructing the jury that they were only allowed to decide on whether Shipley had published the work . The jury retired , and after half an hour of discussion returned to declare Shipley " guilty of publishing only " . After a long and " confounding " debate between Erskine , Buller , and the jury , Buller declared Shipley guilty on all counts .

Erskine immediately appealed the decision to the Court of King 's Bench , where he argued on 8 November that Buller 's statement had misdirected the jury , and that as the jury was traditionally not given the right to investigate Shipley 's actual guilt , the previous trial was invalid ; a jury should be permitted to determine not only whether a statement was published , but whether it was libellous . With the exception of Mr Justice Wiles , the court unanimously declared that Erskine 's arguments were incorrect , and that the jury had no such role ; accordingly , his appeal was denied . Shipley was , however , later freed when the King 's Bench held that the initial indictment had been invalid because " there were no averments to point the application of the paper as a libel on the king and government " .

= = Aftermath = =

Although the case did not directly lead to legal change , it was nevertheless widely seen as a victory ; upon his release Shipley was greeted with fireworks and bonfires , and Erskine was rewarded with the Freedom of the City of Gloucester . Erskine , however , perceived it differently , and had records of the entire trial printed and sent to Charles James Fox and Lord Camden . Taking this as a hint , Fox ( after much delay ) introduced a Bill to Parliament in May 1791 , seeking to reform the law relating to libel . After it was passed through the Commons it went to the House of Lords , where members of the judiciary attempted to delay it ; in response Lord Camden , then 78 , rose and bluntly stated that if the judges were to be the sole arbiters of public opinion , nothing would be able to appear that criticised the government , leading to a stifling of the freedom of the press . His appeal was successful – without it , historian H. M. Lubasz writes , the Bill would never have passed the Lords – and within three weeks Parliament had formally passed the Libel Act 1792 , commonly known as Fox 's Libel Act , allowing juries for the first time to decide precisely what constituted libel .

= Colin Hall Simpson =

Major General Colin Hall Simpson , CBE , MC , VD ( 13 April 1894 – 23 August 1964 ) was an Australian Army officer who rose to the rank of major general as Signal Officer in Chief during the Second World War . He was one of the founders of Amcal , the largest retail pharmacy chain in Australia .

Simpson joined the First Australian Imperial Force in 1916 , and served on the Western Front in the Battle of Messines and Battle of Passchendaele . He was twice wounded , and was mentioned in despatches and awarded the Military Cross . After the war he worked as a pharmacist , and rose to the rank of colonel in the Militia . He transferred to the Australian Corps of Signals on its formation in 1925 .

During the Second World War he participated in the campaigns in Greece and Syria as Chief Signals Officer of the I Corps . He returned to Australia in 1942 to become the Australian Army 's Signal Officer in Chief . He also became the first Australian Corps of Signals officer to reach the rank of major general .

= = Early life = =

Colin Hall Simpson was born in St Kilda , Victoria , on 13 April 1894 , the son of Colin Simpson , a plumber , and his wife Elizabeth Fulton Simpson , née Jordan . He was educated at St Kilda Primary School , and , from 1911 , at Caulfield Grammar School . While at Caulfield Grammar , Simpson joined the Australian Army Cadets , rising to the rank of sergeant . After leaving school he became an apprentice pharmacist . He served with the 49th ( Prahran ) Battalion in which he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 1 March 1914 . He became its assistant adjutant on 12 April 1915 and was promoted to lieutenant on 1 July 1915 .

= = First World War = =

Simpson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 1 May 1916 , and posted to the 3rd Pioneer Battalion , part of the 3rd Division , which was then being raised in Australia . He embarked from Port Melbourne on the transport HMAT Wandilla on 6 June 1916 , arriving in England on 26 July 1916 . The 3rd Division trained on the Salisbury Plain in England , where he was promoted to lieutenant on 13 October 1916 . He was transferred to the 3rd Division Signal Company on 16 November 1916 . Soon after , the 3rd Division moved to the Western Front , moving into the line near Armentières . Simpson was mentioned in despatches on 4 January 1917 .

The 3rd Division carried out its first offensive at the Battle of Messines in June 1917 . For his part in the battle , Simpson was awarded the Military Cross . His citation read :

For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . He organised the Brigade Signal Service so thoroughly that communication was maintained with every unit throughout . He was continually under shell @-@ fire , but personally supervised all repairs , by his vigorous and cheerful manner impressing all ranks in the highest degree .

Simpson participated in the Battle of Passchendale where he was gassed and wounded . He was evacuated to England on 22 October 1917 . While in hospital he applied for nine months ' leave to return to Australia and complete his pharmaceutical studies . He had passed the Intermediate Examination before leaving Australia but not the Final Examination . This was granted , and he embarked for home on the transport HMAT Persic on 21 December 1917 . He passed the Final Examination , and was registered as a pharmacist on 10 July 1918 . He never returned to the front , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 9 August 1918 .

= = Between the wars = =

Simpson remained in the Army as a reservist . He was posted to the 2 / 14th Infantry on 1 October 1918 , and was promoted to captain on 16 April 1920 . In the post @-@ war reorganisation of the Army , the 2 / 14th was absorbed into the 14th Infantry Battalion in March 1921 . In May , he transferred to the Royal Australian Engineers and joined the 3rd Division Signals Company . He was promoted to major on 1 July 1922 , and became its commander , with the rank of lieutenant colonel , on 1 September 1922 . On 1 January 1925 , the signal units were separated from the Engineers to form the Australian Corps of Signals , and he was transferred to the new corps . He commanded the 39th Infantry Battalion from 1 July 1929 to 30 June 1933 , after which he was on the unattached list for two years before resuming command of the 3rd Division Signals Company . On 1 May 1939 , he assumed command of the 6th Infantry Brigade , with the temporary rank of colonel .

Simpson opened his own chemist shop in Brunswick West in 1918 . On 12 August 1919 he married Jean Elizabeth Watson at the Congregational Church in Ascot Vale , Victoria . Their marriage produced two children , a son who died in infancy and a daughter , Jean Marjorie . One of the witnesses at their wedding ceremony was a fellow Militia officer , Alan Ramsay , who later married Jean 's sister Edna . In 1937 , Simpson banded together with D. E. Robertson and A. E. Moore to create the Allied Master Chemists of Australia Ltd , today better known as Amcal . They invited other pharmacists to join them to compete against the growing market power of major retailers . The business grew from 12 members in 1937 to over 100 by 1946 . Today Amcal is the largest retail pharmacy chain in Australia .

= = Second World War = =

= = = Middle East = = =

Simpson joined the Second Australian Imperial Force on 15 October 1939 with the rank of lieutenant colonel . He was allocated the AIF service number VX79 , and assumed command of the Australian Corps Signals . When the I Corps was formed in April 1940 , Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey was appointed its commander , and Simpson its Chief Signals Officer , with a promotion to the rank of colonel .

Simpson embarked on the transport Nieuw Holland on 15 September 1940 , arriving in Kantara , Egypt , on 12 October . He met with his British counterparts , and discussed arrangements for the creation of an AIF Signals School in the Middle East . Some negotiation was required before this proposal was finally accepted . He was disappointed at the standard of training that had been achieved by the I Corps and 6th Division signals units in the Middle East , and just as disappointed with the reinforcements arriving from Australia . Both the standard of training of the units and the establishment of the schools intended to remedy the situation were hampered by a serious shortage of equipment . The 6th Division 's list of critical shortfalls — by no means restricted to signals equipment — included 120 telephones and 120 miles ( 190 km ) of electrical cable . Not until January 1941 — after the 6th Division had been committed to battle in Libya — did the cable become available in Australia . Some units equipped themselves with captured enemy materiel .

Simpson arrived in Greece on 7 March 1941 as part of the I Corps advance party . The Battle of Greece presented a major challenge for Simpson 's signals units , as rugged terrain , enemy action and frequent troop movements conspired to frustrate their efforts to maintain reliable communications . The news that Yugoslavia had offered to surrender reached Blamey from a BBC broadcast on 15 April picked up on a receiver built into a kerosene case that Simpson had insisted that he take . Much signals equipment was lost during the fighting , and some had to be destroyed following the order to evacuate Greece . Simpson embarked for Crete on HMS Phoebe on 25 April . From there he took a flying boat to Alexandria . His first priority on arrival was arranging for the lost equipment to be replaced .

The shortage of signals equipment was an important factor in the delay in committing the I Corps to the Syria – Lebanon campaign until it became clear that General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson could not adequately control operations from his headquarters at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem . Once again , the signallers had to battle with inhospitable terrain . The hills and atmospheric conditions made reception difficult for the radio operations , and those same hills , along with shortages of cable , made the linesmen 's task no less difficult . He was mentioned in dispatches , and made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for " maintenance of communications under difficult conditions in the Grecian campaign " .

Simpson was promoted to the rank of brigadier on 11 September 1941 , becoming the first officer of the Australian Corps of Signals to reach that rank . He was involved in a serious motor vehicle accident on 13 September 1941 and suffered severe lacerations , a concussion , and a broken collarbone , rib and finger . He was taken to the 2 / 1st General Hospital , and was evacuated to Australia on the hospital ship MS Wanganella . He returned to the Middle East by air , arriving back on 20 January 1942 .

= = = South West Pacific = = =

Within days , Simpson was heading east again , taking a flying boat to Batavia , where he joined the advance party of the I Corps , which was being sent from the Middle East to the Dutch East Indies to counter the Japanese threat . He met there with the local authorities regarding signals arrangements for the defence of Java . These were soon well in hand , but the tactical situation rapidly deteriorated to the extent that the I Corps was ordered to leave Java on 21 February 1942 . Simpson departed on the troop ship Orcades , which arrived in Adelaide on 14 March .

Blamey was appointed Commander in Chief of the Australian Military Forces on 27 March . He instituted a sweeping reorganisation of the Army , replacing officers with men who had experience in the Middle East . Simpson became the Signal Officer in Chief on 6 April , with the rank of major general , the first Australian Corps of Signals officer to reach that rank .

One of Simpson 's first tasks was to confer with the Chief Signals Officer at General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) South West Pacific Area , Brigadier General Spencer B. Akin . The two established mechanisms to divide responsibility for the theatre 's communications between the two armies , which often worked together on the same projects . An important outcome of their first meeting was the creation of the Central Bureau as a combined signals intelligence organisation . Simpson had been thinking about such an organisation while on the Orcades . Blamey had an appreciation of signals intelligence from his time as Deputy Commander in Chief in the Middle East , and readily gave his support . After a slow start , signals intelligence became an important element of the war in the South West Pacific .

Perhaps Simpson 's most ambitious project was the laying of a submarine cable between Cape York and New Guinea . A cable laying ship , the SS Mernoo , was chartered , and two old cables that ran across the Bass Strait were lifted and re @-@ laid across the Torres Strait in October 1943 . When the land connections were completed in December 1943 , it became possible to send a message all the way from Melbourne to Port Moresby . Simpson , who was on an inspection tour of New Guinea , was on hand for the receipt of the first message . In November 1944 , he visited the front in the Netherlands , Belgium and France , returning to Australia via the United States and Canada .

To man his signals units , Simpson sought to obtain some 4 @,@ 000 Australian Women 's Army Service ( AWAS ) personnel . Two special signal training battalions were activated to cater for them , and Simpson inspected the 2nd Signal Training Battalion ( AWAS ) at Ivanhoe Grammar School with Lieutenant Colonel Sybil Irving on 6 July 1942 . By 1945 , the Australian Corps of Signals numbered some 25 @,@ 000 men and women . The large numbers of women serving in Signals units caused friction between Irving and Simpson over what degree of control he exercised over them .

Aware that signals is usually forgotten when the signallers are doing their best work , Simpson attempted to obtain various accolades for his corps . He held ceremonial parades through Melbourne to celebrate VE Day on 10 May 1945 , and VP Day on 20 August 1945 . He attempted to get the title " Royal " granted in recognition of its wartime service . This occurred on 10 November 1948 .

= = Later life = =

Simpson handed over the position of Signal Officer in Chief to Brigadier A. D. Malloy on 23 May 1946 . He was placed on the retired list with the honorary rank of major general on 19 December 1946 . He served as Colonel Commandant for the Australian Corps of Signals in Southern Command from June 1958 to June 1963 , and was Colonel Commandant of the corps from September 1959 to December 1960 . In 1946 he was appointed director of the Columbia Graphophone Company ( Australia ) .

Simpson was a keen supporter of the Essendon Football Club , serving as its vice president from 1947 to 1964 . He was awarded a life membership in 1957 . He was elected Victorian State President of the Australian Legion of Ex @-@ Servicemen and Women in 1948 . He resigned in October after a dispute with the State Council over its suspension of two members for being communists , which Simpson opposed . Yet Simpson was no communist sympathiser ; far from it . He organised The Association , a clandestine right wing paramilitary organisation headed by Blamey which was established to counter a possible communist coup . The Association disbanded in 1950 .

= = Death and legacy = =

Simpson died of cancer in Heidelberg Repatriation Hospital on 23 August 1964 . He was survived by his wife and daughter . He was buried in St Kilda Cemetery after a funeral service at St Cuthbert 's Church in Brighton , Victoria . His pall bearers included Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring and Major General Alan Ramsay .

Simpson Barracks at Watsonia in Melbourne was named in his honour in 1986 . It is considered the home of the Royal Australian Corps of Signals , and contains the Defence Force School of Signals and the Royal Australian Corps of Signals Museum .

= Prince of Wales ( 1786 ship ) =

Prince of Wales was a transport ship in the First Fleet , assigned to carry convicts for the European colonisation of Australia . There is some ambiguity about her origins and she was probably launched in 1779 at Sidmouth and rebuilt at London in 1786 . Still , in 1787 she set sail for Australia , and reached Botany Bay in January 1788 . On a difficult return voyage in 1788 – 89 she became separated from her convoy , was taken eastward around the world instead of west and drifted helplessly off Rio de Janeiro for a day while her crew was incapacitated with scurvy .

After her return to Britain her owners deployed her as a whaler in the South Seas Fisheries . They then sold her and she became a privateer and letter of marque , before performing a voyage as a slave ship . During this voyage a French privateer captured Prince of Wales ; in a process that is currently unclear , she returned to British , albeit new , hands . Her new owners then employed her trading between London and the West Indies , the Mediterranean , and the West Indies again . She was last listed in 1810 .

= = Origins = =

Prince of Wales was a square @-@ sterned barque of 300 to 350 tons ( bm ) , 103 feet ( 31 m ) long and 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) wide and with a height between decks of 5 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 73 m ) amidships and 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) fore and aft .

By one account , she was built in 1779 at Sidmouth as a West Indiaman with ship 's master James Johnston . By another account , she was built on the River Thames in 1786 , by the firm Christopher Watson and Co. of Rotherhithe , which had also built HMS Sirius . Both accounts give her owner as Cornhill merchant John Mather , who had previously purchased and disposed of Captain Cook 's Endeavour after that vessel had returned from Botany Bay .

It is possible to reconcile these accounts somewhat . There is no mention of Prince of Wales in Lloyd 's Register until 1787 , when she appears in the supplemental pages as being of 300 tons ( bm ) , launched in 1779 at Sidmouth , with master J. Mason , and owner John Mather . The reconciliation between the two origins may rest in the notation that she had been almost totally rebuilt in 1786 . It is therefore quite reasonable to suppose that she was launched at Sidmouth in 1779 and rebuilt at Rotherhithe in 1786 .

The entry in Lloyd 's Register , however , adds further confusion of a different sort . It reports that in 1786 Prince of Wales had been named Hannibal . The situation is more complex than that . If one works back from 1787 , the only thing that is clear is that vessels have been bought , disposed of , and renamed .

What appears to have occurred is a mixing of records and a confusion of names . One may conjecture that one vessel was the South Carolina @-@ built slaver Heart of Oak , launched in 1762 , repaired in 1784 , of 310 tons ( bm ) , and renamed Hannibal in 1786 . The other was the West Indiaman Hannibal , Sidmouth @-@ built , launched in 1779 , not yet rebuilt , and of 300 tons ( bm ) , and eventually renamed Prince of Wales . Unfortunately , Lloyd 's Register for 1785 is not readily available on @-@ line . Furthermore , in 1784 , although J. Mather apparently owned 17 vessels , including Heart of Oak , none was built in Sidmouth in 1779 . Nor is there any other vessel listed built in Sidmouth in 1779 . Full resolution of the issue may have to await primary research .

= = Voyage to Australia = =

The south London shipbroker William Richards contracted Prince of Wales in 1787 for the First Fleet voyage . Richards selected her after consultation with Royal Marine officers Watkin Tench and David Collins . Both officers would sail with the Fleet to Australia , Tench as a captain of marines , and Collins as judge @-@ advocate for the new colony . She was the second @-@ smallest of the First Fleet transports after Friendship , and the last to be contracted to join the voyage .

The Navy Board assigned Prince of Wales to the First Fleet on 2 March 1787 under the immediate command of ship 's master John Mason , and the overall command of naval officer and future Governor of New South Wales , Arthur Phillip aboard Sirius . She was the last transport added to the Fleet before it sailed .

She left Portsmouth on 13 May 1787 with a crew of around 25 , and was accompanied by the other vessels of the Fleet : five transports , three storeships and two Royal Navy vessels . The 24 @-@ gun post ship HMS Hyaena accompanied the Fleet through the Channel as fleet escort , departing when the ships reached Atlantic waters . Prince of Wales arrived in Tenerife on 5 June , where she was resupplied . A second resupply took place in August in the Portuguese port of Rio de Janeiro , including the delivery aboard Prince of Wales of quantities of fresh fruit and vegetables , seeds , and some rum for the marines . Prince of Wales then turned southeast with the Fleet , reaching Cape Town in October and entering the Great Southern Ocean on 13 November for the last leg of the voyage to Australia . The first death among the crew occurred on the night of 24 November when a seaman fell overboard from the topsail yard and could not be rescued . A week later a second seaman , Yorgan Younginson , drowned after being washed overboard in heavy seas .

By mid @-@ December the ship 's supply of flour and butter for the voyage had been exhausted and Philip authorised Mason to broach the stores set aside for the future colony in order to continue to feed the convicts . A month later , on 20 January 1788 , Prince of Wales reached Australia 's Botany Bay . Six days later she sailed for Sydney Cove as part of the relocation of the convict settlement to Port Jackson . Leaving Botany Bay she collided with Friendship , losing her mainmast staysail and topsail , but the damage was swiftly repaired and she was able to enter Port Jackson in line with her fellow transports . There she landed 49 convicts , 31 marines and 23 civilians .

= = = Convicts = = =

Prince of Wales carried 47 female convicts on departure from Portsmouth . After five days at sea , 2 males were also brought across from Scarborough , ringleaders of a failed mutiny . They remained aboard Prince of Wales for the remainder of the voyage to Australia .

Convict health was comparatively good during the voyage , with a report by Governor Philip showing only nine cases of illness aboard Prince of Wales by the time she reached Tenerife , the least for any First Fleet transport . Indeed , Phillip wrote to Admiralty advising that " the convicts are not so sickly as when we sailed , " though the women aboard Prince of Wales had no new clothing and were still in the ragged apparel they had worn in prison . There was no ship 's surgeon aboard but Chief Surgeon John White , periodically came on board from Sirius when weather and sailing conditions permitted . As the Fleet headed toward Rio in July , humid conditions and heavy rains generated a " plague of bugs " below decks with more than a hundred insects found in one small sleeping area alone . There were also reports of rats , fleas and lice , and an outbreak of scurvy in late December .

Despite this , serious illness remained rare and the first convict death was from accidental causes rather than disease . On 24 July the ship 's longboat fell from a boom and struck 22 @-@ year @-@ old Jane Bonner in the head ; she died from her injuries six days later . A second convict , John Hartley , died of unknown causes on 5 August . These two deaths compared favourably with those on other transports , particularly Alexander ; Alexander recorded 30 deaths , a consequence of overcrowding and an overflowing bilge .

Convict discipline was also well maintained , except for prostitution between the female convicts and the crew , which was rampant on Prince of Wales , Friendship and Lady Penrhyn . The first recorded punishment of a convict aboard Prince of Wales was in October 1787 , nearly nine months after she had sailed ; six lashes for a woman caught stealing from her fellows while they were " at prayer . "

= = = Marines = = =

The ship also carried a contingent of 31 marines of the New South Wales Marine Corps , comprising lieutenants Thomas Davey and Thomas Timins , five non @-@ commissioned officers , and 24 privates . Sixteen of the marines embarked with their wives , and there were six children . Discipline was poor . In June 1787 two marines were court @-@ martialed for disobeying orders ; one received 300 lashes . Later in the voyage , two sergeants refused to share a mess after one insulted the other 's wife . Drunkenness was also common . In June one drunken marine sergeant fell through an open hatchway and injured the pregnant wife of another marine , for which offence he was placed in legcuffs for two weeks and then transferred to Alexander . Then in late October , First Lieutenant James Maxwell , who had recently transferred aboard from Charlotte , was found incoherently drunk on duty and promptly returned to Charlotte .

Two more children were born to the wives of marines during the voyage . In October 1787 the wife of marine drummer Benjamin Cook died from an unspecified illness and was buried at sea after a brief ceremony .

James Scott , a Sergeant of Marines , wrote an account of the voyage in his journals , now held at the State Library of New South Wales

= = = Return to England = = =

Prince of Wales remained anchored in Sydney Cove for five months after her voyage , while her stores were unloaded . A shipboard inspection during this time found her hull was rotten with shipworm and on 23 May 1788 she was careened on the beach for repairs . In July she was released from government service and set sail for England on the 14th of that month , in convoy with her First Fleet sister ships Alexander , Borrowdale and Friendship , and under the overall command of Lieutenant John Shortland in Alexander .

The plan was that the convoy sail north to rendezvous at Lord Howe Island , then set a course broadly parallel to the Great Barrier Reef with the aim of reaching the Dutch port of Batavia . From there the convoy would sail west through the Sunda Straits to the Cape of Good Hope , then north through the Atlantic to England . This route was comparatively well mapped – the first part largely mirroring that of James Cook in his first voyage in the Pacific from 1768 to 1771 , and the remainder from Batavia being the traditional route of Dutch East Indiamen returning to Europe . Shortland estimated the voyage would take the convoy between six and ten months .

This navigation plan was abandoned when both Prince of Wales and Borrowdale lost sight of Alexander and Friendship during a severe storm in late July , and found themselves alone and off course by the time the weather cleared . The two lost ships anchored while their masters , John Mason in Prince of Wales and Hobson Reed in Borrowdale , consulted . Neither considered it likely they could reach the Lord Howe Island rendezvous . They were also reluctant to hazard the voyage to Batavia through the Great Barrier Reef without Alexander in the lead . Instead , they agreed to turn their ships southeast into the open ocean and to return to England by sailing the other way around the world , via Cape Horn and Rio de Janeiro and then northeast across the Atlantic to Europe .

The Pacific weather proved favourable but by August the two ships had lost sight of each other and continued their voyage separately . On 23 August Prince of Wales rounded Cape Horn alone and headed northeast and north on a path to Rio . Throughout the voyage her crew had been heavily reliant on a diet of salted meat and by early September scurvy had incapacitated the majority . Mason died from the condition on 9 October , and another 13 men were too ill to leave their bunks . When Rio was finally sighted on 13 October the crew were too sick to bring the ship to port . She drifted helplessly in the outer harbor until Rio 's harbourmaster sighted her the following morning and had additional seamen rowed out to assist . Twelve of Prince of Wales ' sickest crew members were hospitalised in Rio while the remainder recovered on board .

A resupplied Prince of Wales set sail from Rio on Christmas Day 1788 , completing an uneventful final leg to reach Falmouth in England on 25 March 1789 . Despite the delays of disease , weather and an unfamiliar route , she was the first of the Fleet to return home , two months ahead of Alexander which did not reach England until 28 May .

= = Whaler = =

Between 1790 and into 1793 @-@ 4 Mather & Co. employed Prince of Wales as a whaler in the South Seas Fisheries , under the command of Captain F. Bolton . In 1790 she left for the Brazil Banks and Africa Grounds , but returned in November . By 10 August 1791 she was " All well " at Walwich ( Walvis ) Bay . In April 1792 Prince of Wales returned to England ; she sailed again in July . She sailed around Cape Horn to Peru , but returned to England by late in 1793 .

= = Privateer = =

Mather & Co. sold Prince of Wales to Clayton Tarleton in 1793 . Tarleton armed her with twenty 6 @-@ pounder guns and placed her under the command of William Scales . Scales received a letter of marque on 1 March 1793 . The letter indicated that Prince of Wales had a crew of 100 men , many more than she needed to sail her , suggesting that Tarleton intended her to sail as a privateer .

Prince of Wales departed on a cruise and on 7 April she captured the French merchant vessel " Le Federatis " , which was sailing from Cap @-@ François to Bordeaux with a cargo valued at £ 40 @,@ 000 , or £ 32 @,@ 000 . Prince of Wales brought her prize into Hoylake a week later .

Plans changed , and Tarleton appointed Captain James Thomson ( or Thompson ) to command of Prince of Wales , with the intent of sailing her on the Liverpool @-@ Africa trade , i.e. , as a slaver . James Thomson received a letter of marque on 4 September 1793 . His letter indicated that he would have a crew of 40 men .

In late 1793 , Thompson sailed from Viana ( probably Viana do Castello , Portugal ) , for Dartmouth , in company with the Somme . On 8 October he captured the Maryland , which was sailing from Baltimore to Bordeaux with a cargo of coffee , sugar , and barrel staves . He sent her into " Montserrat " . In December he recaptured the Best , which had been sailing from Lancaster to the West Indies when a French man @-@ of @-@ war had captured her . Thompson brought Best into the Mersey .

On 1 January 1794 , Thomson spoke with a ship that was sailing for Botany Bay . The ship had encountered a French privateer , of 14 guns , which the British ship managed to drive off after an engagement that lasted almost two hours . Reportedly , Prince of Wales went on to recapture a British brig that a French 74 @-@ gun ship of the line had captured . Prince of Wales sent the brig into Oporto . However , this may have been the Best . Lastly , in early 1974 , Prince of Wales captured and brought in the Flugen , of Malmö , which had been carrying wine , brandy , and bale goods from Bordeaux to Saint @-@ Domingue .

= = Slaver and capture = =

Later in 1794 a new captain replaced Thomson . Radcliffe Shimmin received a letter of marque on 11 June 1794 . A database of slave voyages by Liverpool @-@ registered ships also names Shimmin as master of Prince of Wales .

Shimmin 's voyage was ill @-@ fated . Lloyd 's List reported that as Prince of Wales was approaching Barbados , having sailed from West Africa for the West Indies , she encountered a French privateer . The privateer , possibly built in Baltimore , was armed with 28 guns and carried a crew of 300 men . She captured Prince of Wales and took her into Saint Thomas , then a Danish colony , and hence neutral. the capture took place in late 1794 or early 1795 .

Unsurprisingly , there is no listing for Prince of Wales in Lloyd 's Register in 1796 .

= = British merchantman = =

What is perhaps more surprising is that Prince of Wales returned to British ownership . There is an entry for her in the supplemental ( i.e. , late addition ) pages for the 1797 volume . One suspects that the Royal Navy recaptured her in the West Indies , but so far evidence for the conjecture is lacking .

Barclay and Co. sailed Prince of Wales between the West Indies and London , and particularly Martinique and London , from 1797 to 1800 . They then sold her to Fairbridge & Co . Under the command of Captain " Farbidge " , she sailed between London and the Mediterranean between 1801 and 1805 . In 1806 Prince of Wales received a large repair and new deck and sides . Fairbridge also rearmed her with six 6 @-@ pounder guns . From 1805 or so , she was under the command of Captain Stoker , who then sailed in the London @-@ St Vincent trade . She was still listed as sailing in 1810 .

= = Lloyd 's Register = =

Lloyd 's Register is only as accurate as the information owners gave it , and there are discrepancies between the entries for vessels and information from other sources . That said , there is generally a strong correspondence between the information in Lloyd 's Register , and other sources , at least with respect to Prince of Wales .

= Garbage Museum =

The Garbage Museum was a waste @-@ management themed museum located in Stratford , Connecticut , United States . Constructed and opened in 1994 , the recycling facility and museum was constructed for a cost of $ 5 million and funded through a group of 19 local municipalities , collectively known as the Southwest Connecticut Recycling Committee . The museum was operated by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority which focused on empowering visitors with knowledge about waste management and allowed visitors to watch the sorting process of recyclables . The most iconic exhibit was Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus , a dinosaur sculpture made of garbage . Funding for the museum dropped in 2009 due to expiring contracts , but remained open until 2011 . The closure of the museum followed a failed fundraising campaign . In 2014 , the Connecticut General Assembly approved a measure to fund the museum by allowing the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection to award a grant of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Connecticut Resource Recovery Authority .

= = Operation = =

The recycling facility and museum was constructed for a cost of $ 5 million and opened in 1993 . Funding for the museum was provided through a group of 19 local municipalities , known as the Southwest Connecticut Recycling Committee , which transported recyclables to the facility for processing . The museum was part of an active recycling operation that allows visitors to follow the recyclable materials through the sorting processes to the crushing and baling process before they are shipped to processors to be recycled into new products . The museum was overseen and operated by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority .

= = Exhibits = =

The museum 's goal was to empower its visitors to make good choices and be knowledgeable about waste management in the midst of a " waste crisis " . The center director of the museum , Valerie Knight @-@ Di @-@ Gangi said , " We 've created exhibits that encourage children to explore serious environmental issues , and do so in a fun way to have lasting impact and empower them to take responsibility for the environment . " The museum was operated by the Southwest Connecticut Regional Recycling Operating Committee which staffed the museum with " educational specialists who design [ ed ] and conduct [ ed ] the educational programs " .

The Garbage Museum was an operating recycling facility and featured a viewing area for the operation which processes around 60 @,@ 000 tons of recyclables from 20 local towns . Educational exhibits focused on the benefits of recycling drink cans and mining bauxite , the main source of aluminum , and reducing air pollution and water pollution . Another exhibit features a walk @-@ through tunnel depicting a compost pile . Interactive exhibits included a general store and a " Trash Bash " activity in which " imprison [ ed ] helmet @-@ wearing contestants ... answer questions . If the answer is wrong , others are given the green light to dump trash on them from an overhead opening . " There were also art exhibits made from recyclable material including a " life @-@ size mannequin made from crushed and colored milk containers strung together with pipe cleaners " . In 2004 , a new exhibit showcasing the trash @-@ to @-@ energy process was created by Mike Blasavage as part of a project funded by the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority . The exhibit follows trash , represented as marbles , being transferred from bins to toy trucks , the trucks transfers the trash to the energy plant that generates energy to open and close a drawbridge .

A popular and unique exhibit was Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus , a 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall and 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long dinosaur made out of junk that was prominently on display in the Garbage Museum . The one @-@ ton sculpture was created by Leo Sewell of Pennsylvania and made of " no parking " signs , cell phones , license plates , and other materials . The sculpture represents the average amount of garbage and recyclables that a person in Connecticut discards each year . The exhibit was focused on the importance of recycling and had an interactive checklist of items to find the comprise the sculpture . In April 2011 , the museum celebrated the 16th birthday of the Trash @-@ o @-@ saurus with a birthday party .

= = Closure = =

In 2009 , the fate of the Garbage Museum became uncertain due to financial problems when the recycling plant 's contracts expired on June 30 and the commodity prices dropped due to the economic recession . The museum began fundraising efforts and started collecting $ 2 for entrance fees in September 2008 . The United States Internal Revenue Service also ruled that museum donations could be tax @-@ deductible increasing opportunities for fundraising . The Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority also applied for federal funding as a " shovel @-@ ready " project to upgrade and automate the recycling center 's operations . In 2009 , Nonnenmacher stated that the museum 's operational costs were between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 250 @,@ 000 per year . Interest in the museum also came from a group of East Haven High School students who produced a short documentary video about the Garbage Museum , it went on to win a state award and attract some international interest .

Prior to its close in 2011 , the operating budget was $ 341 @,@ 000 , which funded staffing , educational programs , and the museum 's heating and lighting . In July 2011 , Milford 's Board of Aldermen approved allocating $ 26 @,@ 000 via a $ 0 @.@ 75 tax per ton of municipal solid waste , then representing the latest addition to a $ 100 @,@ 000 fundraising drive . On August 25 , 2011 , the museum was closed after the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority Board of Directors voted to close the Garbage Museum immediately . In 2013 , Connecticut State Senator Kevin C. Kelly introduced legislation to reopen the museum , but the amendment failed to garner support . In 2014 , the Connecticut General Assembly approved a measure to fund the museum by allowing the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection to award a grant of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Connecticut Resource Recovery Authority via funding of the Municipal Tipping Fee Fund .

= The Boat Race 1950 =

The 96th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1950 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The Cambridge crew contained three Olympic silver medallists from the 1948 Summer Olympics ; six of their crew rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club . In a race umpired by the Olympic medallist and former Cantabrigian rower Kenneth Payne , Cambridge won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 15 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 52 – 43 in their favour .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1949 race by a quarter of a length , with Cambridge leading overall with 51 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .

Cambridge were coached by R. Beesly ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1927 , 1928 and 1929 races ) , Roy Meldrum ( a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club ) , Mike Nicholson ( non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1947 race ) , Harold Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) and R. H. H. Symonds ( who had rowed in the 1931 race ) . Oxford 's coaches were T. A. Brocklebank ( who had rowed for Cambridge three times between 1929 and 1931 and who had also coached the Light Blues in the 1934 race ) , R. E. Eason ( a Dark Blue in the 1924 race ) , Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930 ) and J. A. MacNabb ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1924 race ) . The race was umpired for the second time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .

The Light Blues were initially considered " hot favourites " and were described by the rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian as " full of brilliant promise " while Oxford were " a collection of competent oarsmen who had to be moulded into a crew " . The Observer 's G. I. F. Thomson suggested that " it is anyone 's race " .

= = Crews = =

The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 8 @.@ 25 lb ( 79 @.@ 8 kg ) , 4 @.@ 75 pounds ( 2 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw three rowers return to the boat with experience of the event , including number five G. C. Fisk who was rowing in his third consecutive Boat Race . Cambridge 's crew contained five rowers who had taken part in the Boat Race previously , including Paul Bircher who was also making his third appearance in the race . Four of the participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British , two in each crew . Oxford 's Fisk and Calvert came from Australia , as did Cambridge 's Charles Lloyd , while Light Blue W. T. Arthur was South African .

The Cambridge crew contained three rowers who had won silver medals at the 1948 Summer Olympics : Paul Massey , Bircher and Lloyd were in the crew that came second in the men 's eight in London . Chris Davidge , the Oxford University Boat Club president , was forced to drop out of the race through illness . Five of the Oxford rowers were educated at Eton College ; six of the Cambridge rowers were studying at St John 's College and so rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club .

= = Race = =

Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Umpire Payne started the race at 12 : 30 p.m. , with the Dark Blues making a slightly faster start ; after a minute they were about a canvas @-@ length ahead of their opponents . Although having the outside of the first bend , they had extended their lead to a quarter of a length by Craven Cottage . By the time the crews passed the Mile Post , Cambridge were leading by a quarter @-@ length which they extended to half a length by Harrods Furniture Depository . Cambridge 's stroke Crick increased his crew 's rate ; his opposite number Cavenagh responded to prevent the Light Blues going clear .

While the conditions were not too rough , both crews slowed their stroke rate , with Cambridge passing below Hammersmith Bridge still half a length ahead . As they passed The Doves pub , Oxford slowly began to gain , rating marginally higher . Cavenagh pushed on again before Chiswick Eyot but could not prevent the Light Blues extending their lead to nearly a length by the time the crews passed Chiswick Steps . Despite further spurts from Oxford , Cambridge 's " better stride " saw them pass below Barnes Bridge two and a half lengths ahead . Cambridge passed the finishing post leading by three and a half lengths in a time of 20 minutes 15 seconds , their fourth consecutive win in the slowest time since the 1947 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 52 – 43 in their favour . The rowing correspondent for The Times noted that " Cambridge rowed far better than they have recently " while " Oxford surpassed what anyone could reasonably have expected from them . " The Manchester Guardian 's rowing correspondent declared that Cambridge 's crew was " generally acknowledged to be one of the best seen on the tideway " , and that " Oxford could not , short of shipwreck or piracy , win the race " . Writing in The Observer , G. I. F. Thomson noted of Cambridge that " all through practice they had shown more promising form and power , as well as unity " while Oxford had " made great strides ... and were never out of the running . "

= Sandsfoot Castle =

Sandsfoot Castle , also known historically as Weymouth Castle , is an artillery fort constructed by Henry VIII near Weymouth , Dorset . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the Weymouth Bay anchorage . The stone castle had an octagonal gun platform , linked to a residential blockhouse , and was completed by 1542 at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 887 . Earthwork defences were built around the landward side of the castle , probably in 1623 . Sandsfoot saw service during the English Civil War , when it was held by Parliament and Royalists in turn during the conflict . It survived the interregnum but , following Charles II 's restoration to the throne , the fortress was withdrawn from military use in 1665 .

By the early 18th century , Sandsfoot was in ruins , its stonework taken for use in local building projects . The clay cliffs on which the castle had been built had always been unstable and subject to erosion . The castle 's gun platform began to collapse into the sea and , by the 1950s , had been entirely destroyed . The ruins were closed to visitors on safety grounds , although civic gardens were planted alongside it in 1951 . Repairs were undertaken between 2009 and 2012 at a total cost of £ 217 @,@ 800 , enabling the site to be reopened to the public . Historic England considers Sandsfoot to be " one of the most substantial examples " of the 16th @-@ century blockhouses to survive in England .

= = History = =

= = = 16th century = = =

Sandsfoot Castle was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to the local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict with one another , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences , based around simple blockhouses and towers , existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were very limited in scale .

After 1533 , Henry broke with popes Pope Clement VII and Paul III in order to annul the long @-@ standing marriage to his wife , Catherine of Aragon , and remarry . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , and Charles took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .

Sandsfoot Castle was built to protect the Weymouth Bay anchorage , being placed on cliffs overlooking the waterway , opposite Portland Castle on the other side . Sandsfoot was a blockhouse , intended to defeat enemy ships using a battery of heavy artillery , and had minimal protection against an attack from the land . It was completed by 1541 , run by a captain appointed by the Crown , and cost £ 3 @,@ 887 to build . There was probably an early agreement that the nearby village of Wyke Regis had a responsibility to support the castle , and in exchange they came to traditionally enjoy an exemption from taxes and militia duties . The antiquarian John Leland visited the castle soon after its construction , describing it as " a right goodlie and warlyke castle " with " one open barbican " , probably referring to the castle 's gun platform .

Coastal erosion quickly began to threaten the castle , causing what was reported as a " great gulf " on its seaward side , and repairs costing £ 383 were necessary by 1583 . During the invasion scare that accompanied the Spanish Armada of 1588 , the normal garrison of Sandsfoot was supplemented by another 50 men .

= = = 17th – 19th centuries = = =

Repairs were made to the castle between 1610 and 1611 by the captain , Sir George Bampfield , at a cost of £ 211 . A survey in 1623 carried out by Sir Richard Morryson showed the castle to be equipped with ten iron guns – one culverin , five demi @-@ culverins , two sakers , a minion and a falcon – and garrisoned by its captain , five gunners and three soldiers . It was in a poor condition , and one corner of the gun platform had been undermined by the sea ; Morryson 's team estimated the likely costs of repairs to amount to £ 459 .

During the English Civil War between the supporters of Charles I and Parliament , Weymouth was predominantly Parliamentarian in loyalty and the surrounding forts were held by their garrisons . Robert Dormer , the Earl of Carnarvon , entered Dorset with an army in 1643 and Weymouth surrendered , resulting in Sandsfoot Castle being controlled by the Royalists between August 1643 and June 1644 . During this period the castle may have been used as a Royalist mint . Robert Devereux , the Earl of Essex , then retook the county for Parliament ; Colonel William Ashburnham , the Royalist governor of Weymouth , retreated to Portland Castle without a fight . Devereux approached Sandsfoot and , after three hours of negotiations , the fort surrendered to him . In 1647 , Parliament ordered the garrison at the castle to be demobilised but this did not occur , and John Hayne was appointed as its new captain .

Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 and the next year a fresh order was given to demobilise the garrison at Sandsfoot . An argument then broke out between Humphrey Weld , the lieutenant @-@ governor of Portland and captain of Sandsfoot Castle , and Charles Stewart , the Duke of Richmond , over the control of the local defences . The village of Wyke Regis petitioned Weld in a bid to prevent the demobilisation , concerned that their traditional exemptions from militia service would be revoked by the Duke . Weld championed their case but was dismissed from his post as lieutenant @-@ governor , and the Duke occupied Sandsfoot with his militia . Weld appealed to the government and in 1665 a compromise was announced in which Weld would be reappointed to his role as lieutenant @-@ governor , while Sandsfoot would be declared redundant and be demolished . The order for its destruction was never carried out , and the castle was used as a storehouse until at least 1691 .

By 1725 , the castle had become ruinous . Early in the century , the remains of the castle was sold to the town of Weymouth , whose people reused some of the stone to construct their new town bridge . Local tradition in the 19th century maintained that several houses in Weymouth were also constructed using stone taken from the castle . In 1825 , the carved stone Elizabethan arms of the castle were moved to All Saints Church in Wyke Regis . Captains continued to be formally appointed , however , and Gabriel Stewart held the post as late as 1795 .

The majority of the gun platform collapsed into the sea as the cliffs eroded . It is uncertain precisely when this occurred ; in a prolonged historical debate over this during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , the historian Henry Symonds argued that the first falls occurred during the 18th century , W. Norman placed the main fall in 1835 , and T. Groves argued in favour of a more recent collapse in the second half of the 19th century . The ruined castle was drawn and painted by various artists in the 18th and 19th centuries , including Samuel Buck , J. H. Grimm , C. Sawyer and Edward Pritchard . The castle featured in Joseph Drew 's short novel " the Poisoned Cup " in 1876 .

= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =

In 1902 , the Weymouth Corporation purchased the castle for the town from the Department of Woods and Forests for a total of £ 150 . During the Second World War the castle probably housed an anti @-@ aircraft battery as part of the defences created around Portland Harbour . Despite the construction of the Portland breakwaters nearby , the unstable clay cliffs remained vulnerable to erosion ; in 1930 the ruins were closed to the public due to safety concerns and the remaining embrasure of the gun platform collapsed during in the 1950s .

In 2009 , £ 23 @,@ 100 was awarded by the Heritage Lottery Fund for an initial survey of the site , which by now had been placed on English Heritage 's register of listed buildings at risk of decline , followed by a further £ 194 @,@ 700 in 2011 for substantial repair work . As part of the work , a three @-@ dimensional laser scan of the stonework was undertaken , and a steel and oak walkway was installed around the interior of the castle . The castle reopened to the public in 2012 , and the following year it was removed from English Heritage 's at risk register . The castle is protected under UK law as a grade II * listed building and as a scheduled ancient monument .

= = Architecture = =

Sandsfoot Castle was built from Portland stone with ashlar facings and a rubble core . It comprised a main blockhouse attached to an octagonal gun room , overlooking the sea . The two @-@ storey blockhouse is 42 by 32 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 by 9 @.@ 8 m ) across , with a gate @-@ tower on its landward side . It probably originally had four rooms for the accommodation and cooking facilities for the garrison , with staircases leading up to the first floor and down into its basement . The gate @-@ tower held a small room on the first floor and was designed to hold a portcullis . The one @-@ storey gun room was approximately 36 by 28 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 by 8 @.@ 5 m ) across with five embrasures for guns and a flat roof that also probably supported artillery . Both the gun room and the main block were probably protected by parapets .

The gun room has been lost to erosion , although the south @-@ western embrasure is still visible where it fell onto the beach below . The ashlar facings of the blockhouse have been largely robbed , although some elements remain , and the roof and floors have been lost . Historic England considers that the castle " represents one of the most substantial examples " of an unaltered 16th @-@ century blockhouse in England .

The castle originally had an outer ward , reached over a bridge , and stables , although these have been both been lost . Protective rectangular earthworks were constructed to protect the castle on the landward side , probably in 1623 , with two bastions in the north and west corners , and some form of stone structure along the earthworks . In the 18th century these earthworks were described as forming a " deep trench " and mid @-@ 19th century accounts suggested that they were around 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep . Now only 100 feet ( 30 m ) of the bank and ditch survives , with the earthworks approximately 10 metres ( 33 ft ) wide overall and 2 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 ft 3 in ) deep between the top of the bank and the base of the ditch . The north bastion still survives largely intact , although the west has been mostly destroyed . Outside the entrance to the earthworks are the Sandsfoot Gardens , civic gardens dating from 1951 , designed in a Tudor style with an ornamental pond .

= Salvia divinorum =

Salvia divinorum ( also known as sage of the diviners , ska maría pastora , seer 's sage , yerba de la pastora and just salvia ) is a psychoactive plant which can induce visions and other altered and spiritual experiences . Its native habitat is in cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca , Mexico , where it grows in shady and moist locations . The plant grows to over a meter high , has hollow square stems , large leaves , and occasional white flowers with violet calyxes . Botanists have not determined whether Salvia divinorum is a cultigen or a hybrid ; native plants reproduce vegetatively , rarely producing viable seed .

Mazatec shamans have a long and continuous tradition of religious use of Salvia divinorum , using it to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions . Most of the plant 's local common names allude to the Mazatecs ' post @-@ Columbian belief that the plant is an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , with its ritual use also invoking that relationship .

Its chief active psychoactive constituent is a structurally unique diterpenoid called salvinorin A , a potent κ @-@ opioid and D2 receptor agonist . Salvia divinorum is generally understood to be of low toxicity ( high LD50 ) and low addictive potential since it is a κ @-@ opioid agonist and a great deal of research has indicated that κ @-@ opioid agonist activation of the kappa opioid receptor as shown by salvia may , in fact , serve as a potent addiction treatment therapy .

Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries and , within the United States , is legal in the majority of states . However , some have called for its prohibition . While not currently regulated by US federal drug laws , several states have passed laws criminalizing the substance . Some proposed state bills have failed to progress and have not been made into law ( with motions having been voted down or otherwise dying in committee stages ) . There have not been many publicized prosecutions of individuals violating anti @-@ salvia laws in the few jurisdictions in which it is prohibited .

= = History = =

Salvia divinorum is native to the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca , Mexico , where it is still used by the Mazatec , primarily to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination . S. divinorum is one of several species with hallucinogenic properties that are ritually used by Mazatec shamans . Others include certain morning glory seeds ( Turbina corymbosa ) , psilocybin mushrooms , and various coleus species . In their rituals , the shamans use only fresh S. divinorum leaves . They see the plant as an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , and begin the ritual with an invocation to Mary , Saint Peter , the Holy Trinity , and other saints . Ritual use traditionally involves being in a quiet place after ingestion of the leaf — the Maztec shamans say that " La Maria ( S. divinorum ) speaks with a quiet voice . "

It is also used remedially at lower dosages as a diuretic , and to treat ailments including diarrhea , anemia , headaches , rheumatism , and a semi @-@ magical disease known as panzón de borrego , or a swollen belly ( literally , " lamb belly " ) .

The history of the plant is not well known , and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin . Speculation includes Salvia divinorum being a wild plant native to the area ; a cultigen of the Mazatecs ; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group . Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen .

= = = Academic discovery = = =

Salvia divinorum was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism . He later documented its usage and reported its effects through personal testimonials . It was not until the 1990s that the psychoactive mechanism was identified by a team led by Daniel Siebert .

Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated that the plant could be the mythological pipiltzintzintli , the " Noble Prince " of the Aztec codices . Wasson 's speculation has been the subject of further debate amongst ethnobotanists , with some scepticism coming from Leander J. Valdés , and counterpoints more supportive of Wasson 's theory from Jonathan Ott .

The identity of another mysterious Aztec entheogen , namely that of poyomatli , has also been suggested as being Salvia divinorum . Here too there are other candidate plants , notably Cacahuaxochitl ( Quararibea funebris ) , again suggesting that there is no consensus .

= = = Etymology = = =

The genus name , Salvia , was first used by Pliny for a plant that was likely Salvia officinalis ( common sage ) and is derived from the Latin salvere . The specific epithet , divinorum , was given because of the plant 's traditional use in divination and healing. it is often loosely translated as " diviner 's sage " or " seer 's sage " . Albert Hofmann , who collected the first plants with Wasson , objected to the new plant being given the name divinorum :

I was not very happy with the name because Salvia divinorum means " Salvia of the ghosts " , whereas Salvia divinatorum , the correct name , means " Salvia of the priests " , But it is now in the botanical literature under the name Salvia divinorum .

There are many common names for S. divinorum , most of them relating to the plant 's association with the Virgin Mary . The Mazatec believe the plant to be an incarnation of the Virgin Mary , so they take great care in handling the plant . The name " Ska Maria Pastora " , often shortened to " Ska Maria " or " Ska Pastora " , refers to " the leaf or herb of Mary , the Shepherdess . " Other Spanish names include " hojas de Maria " , " hojas de la Pastora " , " hierba ( yerba ) Maria " , and " la Maria " . A plant believed to be S. divinorum was referred to as " hoja de adivinacion " ( leaf of prophecy ) by the Cuicatec and Mazatec . S. divinorum is also known as la hembra ( " the female " ) , when it is included by the Mazatec as part of a family of similar religious hallucinogens . The others it is connected with are Coleus pumila , called el macho ( " the male " ) , and two forms of Coleus blumei which are called el nene ( " the child " ) and el ahijado ( " the godson " ) .

Some researchers see the lack of an indigenous Mazatec name as demonstrating a non @-@ Mazatec origin for the plant . Others point out that the Virgin Mary is not normally viewed as a shepherdess in Christianity , and that image may hint at a pre @-@ Hispanic Mazatec cultural reference to the plant .

= = = Recent history = = =

Salvia divinorum has become both increasingly well @-@ known and available in modern culture . The Internet has allowed for the growth of many businesses selling live salvia plants , dried leaves , extracts , and other preparations .

Medical experts , as well as accident and emergency rooms , have not been reporting cases that suggest particular salvia @-@ related health concerns , and police have not been reporting it as a significant issue with regard to public order offences ; in any case , Salvia divinorum has attracted negative attention from the media and some lawmakers .

Media stories generally raise alarms over Salvia divinorum 's legal status and are sometimes headlined with generally ill @-@ supported comparisons to LSD or other psychoactive substances . Parental concerns are raised by focusing on salvia 's usage by younger teens — the emergence of YouTube videos purporting to depict its use being an area of particular concern in this respect . The isolated and controversial suicide of Brett Chidester received much media attention .

Salvia divinorum was the subject of the first use of YouTube within drug @-@ behavioral research when scientists at San Diego State University rated randomly selected videos of salvia users to study observed impairment . Their findings corroborate reports that the most profound effects of smoking salvia appear almost immediately and last about eight minutes . Effects include temporary speech and coordination loss .

= = Botany = =

Salvia divinorum has large green ovate ( often also dentate ) leaves , with a yellow undertone that reach 10 to 30 cm ( 4 to 12 in ) long . The leaves have no hairs on either surface , and little or no petiole . The plant grows to well over 1 metre ( 3 ft ) in height , on hollow square stems which tend to break or trail on the ground , with the plant rooting quite readily at the nodes and internodes .

The flowers , which bloom only rarely , grow in whorls on a 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) inflorescence , with about six flowers to each whorl . The 3 @-@ centimetre ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) flowers are white , curved and covered with hairs , and held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands . When it does bloom in its native habitat , it does so from September to May .

Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas , based on Epling and Játiva 's description . The first plant material they received was dried , so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson , who didn 't realize that their " blue flowers , crowned with a white dome " were in fact violet calyces with unopened white corollas .

= = = Distribution and habitat = = =

Salvia divinorum is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico , growing in the primary or secondary cloud forest and tropical evergreen forest at elevations from 300 to 1 @,@ 830 metres ( 980 to 6 @,@ 000 ft ) . Its most common habitat is black soil along stream banks where small trees and bushes provide an environment of low light and high humidity .

= = = Reproduction = = =

Salvia divinorum produces few viable seeds even when it does flower — no seeds have ever been observed on plants in the wild . For an unknown reason , pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced . There is no active pollen tube inhibition within the style , but some event or process after the pollen tube reaches the ovary is aberrant . The likeliest explanations are inbreeding depression or hybridity . All of the Mazatec populations appear to be clonal . The plant 's square stems break easily and tend to trail on the ground , rooting easily at the nodes and internodes .

= = = Taxonomy = = =

Salvia divinorum was first documented in 1939 , but it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites . Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species . In 1962 , the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann , and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson , traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals and looking for specimens of the plant . They were unable to locate live plants . Eventually , the Mazatec provided them some flowering specimens . These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva , who described and named the plant as Salvia divinorum , after its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec . By 1985 , up to fifteen populations of the plant had been found .

Until 2010 , there were differing opinions on whether Salvia divinorum is an interspecific hybrid . The plant 's partial sterility was suggestive of a hybrid origin , though no two parent species have been found with an obvious affinity to Salvia divinorum . One other possibility for the plant 's partial sterility is that long @-@ term cultivation and selection have produced an inbred cultigen .

In 2010 , a molecular phylogenetic approach by DNA sequencing of Salvia divinorum and a number of related species strongly suggest that the species is not a hybrid . One earlier proposed parent was Salvia cyanea ( a synonym for Salvia concolor ) , which Epling and Játiva believed to be closely allied to Salvia divinorum . The 2010 study demonstrated Salvia divinorum 's closest relative to be Salvia venulosa — a rare and endemic Salvia that is native to Colombia , growing in shaded , wooded gullies at 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 4 @,@ 900 to 6 @,@ 600 ft ) elevation . It also showed that Salvia divinorum does not belong to the Salvia section Dusenostachys , as believed earlier . The genetic study also indicated that Salvia venulosa was likely misplaced into Salvia section Tubiflorae , and that it may not be related to other Colombia Salvia species , though further tests are needed .

The origin of Salvia divinorum is still a mystery , one of only three plants in the extensive Salvia genus ( approximately 900 species ) with unknown origins — the other two are Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii .

= = = Strains = = =

There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct . One is the strain that was collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell ( the Bunnell strain ) , colloquially mis @-@ attributed as the Wasson @-@ Hofmann strain . The other was collected from Huautla de Jiménez in 1991 by anthropologist Bret Blosser ( the Blosser or Palatable strain ) . There are other strains that are not as well documented , such as the Luna strain ( possibly Bunnell ) isolated from a Hawaiian patch of Salvia divinorum clones , featuring unusually serrated and rounded rather than ovate leaves .

= = = Cultivation = = =

= = = = Propagation by cuttings = = = =

Salvia divinorum is usually propagated through vegetative reproduction . Small cuttings , between two and eight inches long , cut off of the mother plant just below a node , will usually root in plain tap water within two or three weeks .

= = = = Flowering = = = =

Blooms occur when the day length becomes shorter than 12 hours ( beginning in mid @-@ October in some places ) , necessitating a shade cloth in urban environments with exposure to light pollution ( HPS ) .

= = Chemistry = =

The known active constituent of Salvia divinorum is a trans @-@ neoclerodane diterpenoid known as salvinorin A ( chemical formula C23H28O8 ) . This compound is present in the dried plant at about 0 @.@ 18 % .

Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid , ( meaning it does not contain a basic nitrogen ) , unlike most known opioid receptor ligands . Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen .

Similar to many psychoactive herbs , Salvia divinorum synthesizes and excretes its active constituent ( salvinorin A ) via trichomes , of the peltate @-@ glandular morphology , located just beneath the cuticle ( subcuticular ) layer .

= = = Potency = = =

By mass , salvinorin A " is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen . " It is active at doses as low as 200 µg . Synthetic chemicals , such as LSD ( active at 20 – 30 µg doses ) , can be more potent . Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ @-@ Opioid ( kappa @-@ Opioid ) receptor agonist . It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by κ @-@ Opioid receptor antagonists . However , it is an even more potent D2 receptor partial agonist , and it is likely this action plays a significant role in its effects as well . Salvinorin A has no actions at the 5 @-@ HT2A serotonin receptor , the principal molecular target responsible for the actions of ' classic ' hallucinogens , such as mescaline and LSD , nor is it known to have affinity for any other sites to date .

Salvinorin 's potency should not be confused with toxicity . Rodents chronically exposed to dosages many times greater than those to which humans are exposed show no signs of organ damage .

= = = Other terpenoids = = =

Other terpenoids have been isolated from Salvia divinorum , including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and salvinicins . None of these compounds has shown significant ( sub @-@ micromolar ) affinity at the κ @-@ Opioid receptor , and there is no evidence that they contribute to the plant 's psychoactivity .

= = = Other pharmaceutical action = = =

Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility ( e.g. diarrhea ) , through a combination of κ @-@ opioid and cannabinoid ( mainly CB1 receptor ) receptors in inflamed but not normal gut in vivo . The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as ' prejunctional ' , as it was able to modify electrically induced contractions , but not those of exogenous acetylcholine . Results from a small study by an assistant professor at the University of Iowa indicate that it may have potential as an analgesic and as a therapeutic tool for treating drug addictions .

A pharmacologically important aspect of the contraction @-@ reducing ( antispasmodic ) properties of ingested Salvinorin A on gut tissue is that it is only pharmacologically active on inflamed and not normal tissue , thus reducing possible side @-@ effects .

= = Ingestion = =

There are a few ways to consume Salvia divinorum . In traditional Mazatec ritual , shamans use only fresh Salvia divinorum leaves . Modern methods have been developed to more effectively absorb the active principle , salvinorin A. If enough salvinorin A is absorbed , an altered state of consciousness can occur . The duration of experience varies with the method of ingestion and the amount of salvinorin A absorbed .

= = = Traditional methods = = =

Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 ( about 50g / 2 oz to 200g / 7 oz . ) or more fresh leaves . They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or ' tea ' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies .

Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method . Oral consumption of the leaf makes the effects come on more slowly , over a period of 10 to 20 minutes . The experience , from the onset of effects , lasts from about 30 minutes up to one and a half hours .

Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking . By calculating the concentrations per leaf ( " an average concentration of 2 @.@ 45 mg per gram " of leaf ) , the average weight per leaf ( " about 50 g " per 20 leaves , or 2.5g / leaf ) , and the standard dose for chewing ( about 8 @-@ 28 leaves ) , the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg .

= = = Modern methods = = =

Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf , or using a tincture , as described in the following sections .

Salvia divinorum is becoming more widely known and used in modern culture . The National Survey on Drug Use and Health , an annual US based survey sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration ( SAMHSA ) , for 2006 estimated that about 1 @.@ 8 million persons aged 12 or older had used Salvia divinorum in their lifetime , of which approximately 750 @,@ 000 had done so in that year . The following year , 2007 , saw the annual figure rise from 750 @,@ 000 to 1 million US users .

= = = = Smoking = = = =

Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe , or through the use of a water pipe to cool the smoke . The temperature required to release salvinorin from the plant material is quite high ( about 240 ° C ) . A cooler flame will work , but the direct application of a more intense flame , such as that of a torch lighter , is often preferred .

Some find that untreated dry leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects . Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves , have become widely available . This enhanced ( or " fortified " ) leaf is described by a number followed by an x ( e.g. 5x , 10x ) , the multiplicative factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of leaf concentrate , though there is no accepted standard for these claims . Other sources may use a system of color codes to form their own standards of potency ; for example , " green " , " yellow " , and " red . "

These grades of potency may be roughly indicative of the relative concentration of the active principle , ( salvinorin A ) , but the measure should not be taken as absolute . Overall extract potency will depend on the ( naturally varying ) strength of the untreated leaf used in preparing the extract , as well as the efficiency of the extraction process itself . Extracts reduce the overall amount of inhalations needed to ingest a given amount of active principle , thus facilitating more powerful experiences .

If salvia is smoked , then the main effects are experienced quickly . The most intense ' peak ' is reached within a minute or so and lasts for 1 – 5 minutes , followed by a gradual tapering off . At 5 – 10 minutes , less intense yet still noticeable effects typically persist , giving way to a returning sense of the everyday and familiar until back to baseline after about 15 to 20 minutes .

= = = = Quid chewing = = = =

The traditional method of chewing the leaves has continued in modern use . However , salvinorin A is generally considered to be inactive when orally ingested , as salvinorin A is effectively deactivated by the gastrointestinal system . Therefore , in what 's understood to be a modern innovation , the ' quid ' of leaves is held in the mouth as long as possible in order to facilitate absorption of the active constituents through the oral mucosa . ' Quid ' refers to the fact that at the end of this method the user spits out the leaves rather than swallowing them because ingesting the leaves has no known effect . Chewing consumes more of the plant than smoking , and produces a longer @-@ lasting experience .

= = = = Using a tincture = = = =

Less commonly , some may ingest salvia in the form of a tincture . This is administered sublingually , usually with the aid of a glass dropper . It may be taken diluted with water just before use , which may slightly reduce the intensity of its effects , but can also serve to lessen or avoid a stinging sensation in the mouth caused by the presence of alcohol . Tinctures vary in potency , and the effects can range from inducing a mild meditative state to bringing about a more intense visionary one .

When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion , though they may be significantly more intense , depending on extract potency .

= = Immediate effects = =

Psychedelic experiences are necessarily somewhat subjective and variations in reported effects are to be expected . Aside from individual reported experiences there has been a limited amount of published work summarising the effects . D.M. Turner 's book Salvinorin — The Psychedelic Essence of Salvia Divinorum quotes Daniel Siebert 's summarisation , mentioning that the effects may include :

Uncontrollable laughter

Past memories , such as revisiting places from childhood memory

Sensations of motion , or being pulled or twisted by forces

Visions of membranes , films , various two @-@ dimensional surfaces , and fractal patterns

Merging with or becoming objects

Overlapping realities , such as the perception of being in several locations at once

There also may be synesthetic experiences . Glossolalia ( speaking in tongues ) has been reported by Reason .

A survey of salvia users found that 38 % described the effects as unique in comparison to other methods of altering consciousness . 23 % said the effects were like yoga , meditation or trance .

One firsthand journalistic account has been published in the UK science magazine New Scientist ( note : the dose for this experience was not reported ) :

The salvia took me on a consciousness @-@ expanding journey unlike any other I have ever experienced . My body felt disconnected from ' me ' and objects and people appeared cartoonish , surreal and marvellous . Then , as suddenly as it had began , it was over . The visions vanished and I was back in my bedroom . I spoke to my ' sitter ' — the friend who was watching over me , as recommended on the packaging — but my mouth was awkward and clumsy . When I attempted to stand my coordination was off . Within a couple of minutes , however , I was fine and clear @-@ headed , though dripping with sweat . The whole experience had lasted less than 5 minutes .

There have been few books published on the subject . One notable example is Dale Pendell 's work " Pharmako / Poeia — Plant Powers , Poisons , and Herbcraft " , which won the 1996 Firecracker Alternative Book Award and has a chapter dedicated to Salvia divinorum . It includes some experience accounts :

It 's very intense , I call it a reality stutter , or a reality strobing . I think that having been a test pilot , and flying in that unforgiving environment with only two feet between our wingtips , helped to prepare me for this kind of exploration .

Other users have written extensive prose and / or poetry about their experiences ; some describe their visions pictorially , and there exist examples of visionary art which are ' salvia @-@ inspired ' . Others claim musical inspiration from the plant : including " Salvia divinorum " by 1200 Micrograms , " Salvia " by Deepwater Sunshine , and " Flight 77 " by Paul Dereas .

= = = Cautionary notes = = =

Dale Pendell expresses some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia . In its natural form salvia is more balanced and benevolent , and quite strong enough , he argues . High strength extracts on the other hand can show " a more precipitous , and more terrifying , face " and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience .

The Salvia Divinorum User 's Guide recommends having a trip sitter present to those who are new to salvia , are experimenting with a stronger form , or are using a more effective method of ingestion .

The guide says that while the effects of salvia are generally quite different from those of alcohol , like alcohol , it impairs coordination . It also emphasizes that salvia is not a ' party drug.'

Salvia is not ' fun ' in the way that alcohol or cannabis can be . If you try to party with salvia you probably will not have a good experience . Salvia is a consciousness @-@ changing herb that can be used in a vision quest , or in a healing ritual . In the right setting , salvia makes it possible to see visions . It is an herb with a long tradition of sacred use . It is useful for deep meditation . It is best taken in a quiet , nearly dark room ; either alone , or with one or two good friends present .

= = = = Vaporization = = = =

Daniel Siebert cautions that inhaling hot air can be irritating and potentially damaging to the lungs . Vapor produced by a heat gun needs to be cooled by running it through a water pipe or cooling chamber before inhalation .

The vaporizers that have been reported effective for use with dried S. divinorum leaves are those that use a paint stripper “ heat gun ” as the heat source . These get very hot , and people have reported that they work quite well sometimes too well — for smoking dried S. divinorum leaves ; we have heard of several people using this type of vaporizer who had experiences that were too intense , including one report of someone passing out . Measuring an accurate dose with these devices can be quite tricky , and they are not recommended .

An experienced salvia user who is chewing a quid , may often choose to do it alone , and may be quite safe in doing so . But having a pleasant , sensible , sober sitter is an absolute must if you are trying vaporization , smoking high doses of extract @-@ enhanced leaves , or using pure salvinorin .

= = After @-@ effects = =

= = = Short term = = =

After the peak effects , normal awareness @-@ of @-@ self and the immediate surroundings return but lingering effects may be felt . These short @-@ term lingering effects have a completely different character than the peak experience . About half of users report a pleasing ' afterglow ' , or pleasant state of mind following the main effects . Researchers from the University of California and California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute conducted a survey of 500 salvia users which identified that they ' sometimes or often ' experience certain effects , including :

Other commonly reported effects include :

Feelings of calmness : 42 @.@ 2 %

Weird thoughts : 36 @.@ 4 %

Things seeming unreal : 32 @.@ 4 %

Floating feelings : 32 %

Mind racing : 23 @.@ 2 %

Feeling lightheaded : 22 @.@ 2 %

= = = Long term = = =

Differing studies suggest no consensus so far with regard to the long @-@ term effects of Salvia divinorum on mood . It is well @-@ established that some k @-@ opioid agonists can cause dysphoria in humans . One study using rats in forced @-@ swim tests has been used to suggest that Salvia divinorum may have " depressive @-@ like " effects , although this conclusion has been contradicted by subsequent research . However , a report has been published detailing an individual case of Salvia divinorum use as self @-@ medicated treatment for depression , and Baggott 's survey of 500 people with firsthand experience of salvia found that 25 @.@ 8 % of respondents reported improved mood and " antidepressant @-@ like effects " lasting 24 hours or longer . Only 4 @.@ 4 % reported persisting ( 24 hours or more ) negative effects ( most often anxiety ) on at least one occasion .

There has been one report of salvia precipitating psychosis . The authors state that they suspect this patient was genetically predisposed to schizophrenia , but their own clinical report shows no family psychiatric history , no personal psychiatric history , and no abnormal lab results .

It has been suggested that the long @-@ term effects of salvia use may include feelings of déjà vu .

The Baggott survey found little evidence of addictive potential ( chemical dependence ) in its survey population . 0 @.@ 6 % percent of respondents reported feeling addicted to or dependent on salvia at some point , and 1 @.@ 2 % reported strong cravings . About this the researchers said " there were too few of these individuals to interpret their reports with any confidence " .

Most users report no hangover or negative after @-@ effects ( e.g. withdrawal , comedown or rebound effect ) the next day . This is consistent with the apparent low toxicity of salvia indicated by research conducted at the University of Nebraska .

= = = Effects on addiction = = =

Salvia researcher Griffith said that from animal testing salvia appears to not be addictive , also the intensity of the experience creates a dysphoria that causes people not to return to the drug .

Thomas Prisinzano , assistant professor of medicinal and natural products chemistry at the University of Iowa , has suggested that salvia may help treat cocaine addiction :

You can give a rat free access to cocaine , give them free access to Salvinorin A , and they stop taking cocaine .

= = = Therapeutic potential = = =

Aside from individual reports of self @-@ medicated use in the treatment of depression , research suggests that Salvia divinorum , in line with the studied effects of other κ @-@ opioid agonists , may have further therapeutic potential .

Professor Bryan L. Roth , director of the National Institute on Mental Health 's Psychoactive Drug Screening Program , has said :

We think that drugs derived from the active ingredient could be useful for a range of diseases : Alzheimer 's , depression , schizophrenia , chronic pain and even AIDS or HIV .

Clinical pharmacologist John Mendelsohn has said :

There may be some derivatives that could be made that would actually be active against cancer and HIV [ ... ] At the present time , there are a lot of therapeutic targets that have many people excited .

An ABC news story which reported on this went on to suggest " the excitement could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia , as the Drug Enforcement Agency [ sic ] is considering doing right now . " A proposed Schedule I classification would mean ( among other things ) that there 's no " currently accepted medical use " as far as the United States government is concerned . Scientists worry that such legislation would restrict further work . Mendelsohn said scheduling salvia could scare away a great deal of research and development into salvia 's therapeutic promise .

= = Controversy = =

The relatively recent emergence of Salvia divinorum in modern Western culture , in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use , contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject .

Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or " a gift from the gods " , to ' threat to society ' , to be banned as quickly as possible in order to " spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse " .

= = = Media coverage = = =

Interest in Salvia divinorum has been escalating in the news media , particularly in the United States , where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast .

These stories generally raise alarms over salvia 's legal status , for example comparing it to LSD , or describing it as " the new pot " , with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia 's use by younger teens .

Story headlines may also include ' danger ' keywords , such as " Dangerous Herb is Legal ... " or " Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High " .

Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject . In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington , DC on July 11 , 2007 , the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction " Now , an exclusive I @-@ Team investigation of a hallucinogenic drug that has begun to sweep the nation . What might amaze you is that right now the federal government is doing nothing to stop it " .

In March 2008 a Texas news report aired with the story " A legal drug that teenagers are now using to get high could soon be banned here in San Antonio - all because of a Fox News 4 investigation " , going on to say , " The drug is legal in Texas , at least for now . But a News 4 investigation could lead to a new ordinance to protect your kids . "

Many salvia media stories headline with comparisons to LSD . However , while LSD and salvinorin A may have comparative potencies , in the sense that both can produce their effects at low dosages , they are otherwise quite different . The two substances are not chemically similar or related , as salvinorin A is found naturally in a single plant while LSD is chemically semisynthesized from lysergamides like ergotamine . They are ingested in different ways and produce different effects , which manifest themselves over different timescales . For example , the effects of salvia when smoked typically last for only a few minutes as compared to LSD , whose effects can persist for 8 – 12 hours .

= = = Brett 's law = = =

A particular focus of many US media stories is the long @-@ running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by carbon monoxide poisoning .

Reportedly , some months before this , Brett 's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it . Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation , but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth . They have instead argued that salvia @-@ induced depression was largely to blame for his death . Some of Brett 's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think " existence in general is pointless . " Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett 's suicide note . In any case , a law was soon passed in Delaware classifying the herb as a Schedule I controlled substance in that state . This legislation was nicknamed Brett 's law ( formally referred to as Senate bill 259 ) .

Although the Chidester story has been given continued exposure by US media , there has not been anywhere else , either before or since this controversial incident , any other reported cases involving or alleging Salvia divinorum as a serious factor in suicide , overdose , accidental , or any other kind of death . Regarding this , San Francisco attorney Alex Coolman has commented , " It 's remarkable that Chidester 's parents , and only Chidester 's parents , continue to be cited over and over again by the mainstream media in their coverage of the supposed ' controversy ' over the risks of Salvia divinorum . "

Kathleen Chidester has continued campaigning for " Schedule I " -like legislation beyond their home state of Delaware . For example , three years after Brett 's death , in written testimony in support of Senator Richard Colburn 's proposed Senate Bill to the Maryland State Legislature , saying , " My hope and goal is to have salvia regulated across the US . It 's my son 's legacy and I will not end my fight until this happens . "

= = = Usage shown on YouTube = = =

A reported concern has been the emergence of YouTube videos showing alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably , apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate . In an interview with California @-@ based newspaper the San Francisco Chronicle , published in June 2007 , Daniel Siebert was quoted as saying :

" Those videos are certainly not going to help the situation . They make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous [ ... ] " and " The sad thing is it creates this public image where people don 't realize there are sensible ways to use something like this . "

The New York Times has reported that " in state after state [ ... ] the YouTube videos have become Exhibit A in legislative efforts to regulate salvia . "

Waco Representative Charles Anderson ( R ) , who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas saying , " When you see it , well , it sure makes a believer out of you . " Anderson told colleagues at a legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car .

" What we really worry about , " said Mr. Anderson at the hearing , " is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping in a pool somewhere . "

Michigan Representative Michael Sak ( D ) submitted a bill which proposed Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A. He said that if people had questions about the deleterious effects of salvia , they should go on YouTube to watch the videos . A reporter questioned Sak as to whether he had ever seen a " Girls Gone Wild " video , and whether that would incite him to make alcohol illegal ( Sak replied that he hadn 't yet had a chance to review the material ) .

Nebraska Senator Vickie McDonald said :

" Anytime anything 's on YouTube it 's an issue , " and " Legislators , parents , grandparents , we need to be on top of these things , " [ ... ] " We need to protect our children ... "

Senator McDonald of Nebraska proposed Schedule I listing Salvia divinorum as part of their Controlled Substances Act , under which possession of salvia would have been considered a Class IV felony with a penalty of up to five years and trafficking would have fallen under a Class III felony with up to a 20 year penalty .

In Massachusetts , YouTube videos were shown by a retired police officer to public health and judiciary committees as evidence in favor of outlawing it there .

The issue has been raised of whether the salvia videos are in breach of YouTube 's own community guidelines , which ask users not to " cross the line " and post videos showing " bad stuff " like " drug abuse " . The question is considered as particularly problematical as the videos may be something of an enforcement grey area .

= = Legal status = =

At present Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries . Countries where it is controlled in some manner include : Belgium , Canada , Denmark , Estonia , Italy , Japan , the United States , Russia , Spain , Sweden , Finland , and Romania .

The prohibitive degree of Salvia divinorum legislation varies widely from country to country . Australia has imposed its strictest ' schedule 9 ' ( US Schedule I equivalent ) , and Italy has also placed salvia in its ' Table I ' of controlled substances ( also US Schedule I equivalent ) . In Spain , there are controls focusing only on the commercial trade of Salvia divinorum , personal cultivation ( i.e. for non @-@ commercial use ) is not targeted .

Legislation may prove difficult to enforce . The plant has a nondescript appearance ; unlike many other drug plants , the leaves are non @-@ descript , and without a detectable odour . Salvia divinorum can be grown as an ordinary houseplant without the need of special equipment such as hydroponics or high @-@ power lights .

= = = UK legality = = =

In the United Kingdom , following a local newspaper story in October 2005 , a parliamentary Early Day Motion was raised calling for Salvia divinorum to be banned there . However , it only received 11 signatures . A second motion raised in October 2008 attracted 18 signatures , and it was reported that Mann had also written to Jacqui Smith , then Home Secretary . The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs , the independent body that advises UK government on drugs , was asked to investigate further .

= = = Australia legality = = =

Salvia divinorum is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited plant in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as " Substances which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research , or for analytical , teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO . "

= = = US legality = = =

National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca ( D- California ) . Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert , who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation , and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics ( CCLE ) , who sent key members of the US Congress a report on Salvia divinorum and its active principle , along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling Salvia divinorum would negatively impact important research on the plant . The bill did not pass .

Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act , some American states , including Alabama , Delaware , Illinois , Louisiana , Michigan , Missouri , Ohio , Texas and others , have passed their own laws . Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia , including Alaska , California , Florida , Iowa , Maryland , New Jersey , New York , Oregon , and Pennsylvania . Many of these proposals have not made it into law , with motions having failed , stalled or otherwise died , for example at committee review stages .

Where individual state legislation does exist , it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree .

Salvia divinorum has been banned by various branches of the U.S. military and some military bases .

= = = = Internet sale = = = =

Some internet vendors will not sell live salvia cuttings , leaf , or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited .

Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy , eBay does not permit sale of Salvia divinorum or derived products ( despite legality in most areas ) .

= = = Opinions and arguments = = =

Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of salvia reflect those of the media , with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on " protecting our children " being echoed ; and with legislative proposals following soon after news stories breaking .

Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative nature , " We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem , " or of an imitative nature , " The Australians have clearly found a problem with it . There 's obviously a risk in people taking it . " Concerns about driving while under the influence of salvia have also been expressed .

Opponents of more prohibitive measures against salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence , pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine . While not objecting to some form of legal control , in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high @-@ strength extracts , most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation .

Those advocating consideration of Salvia divinorum 's potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture , where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament . In light of this it is argued that Salvia divinorum could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen .

= = = = Public opinion = = = =

Despite its growing notoriety in some circles , media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia , with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it .

Although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole , some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories .

= = = News references = = =

= = = = UK = = = =

= = = = US = = = =

= = Further research = =

= New York State Route 251 =

New York State Route 251 ( NY 251 ) is an east – west state highway in western New York in the United States . It extends for 17 @.@ 79 miles ( 28 @.@ 63 km ) from NY 383 in Scottsville , Monroe County , to NY 96 in the town of Victor , Ontario County . NY 251 connects to Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) in Rush and serves the village of Honeoye Falls ( via NY 65 ) and the hamlet of Mendon within the town of the same name . The route , a two @-@ lane , rural highway for much of its length , also intersects NY 15 and NY 64 , two north – south highways leading to the Southern Tier and the Finger Lakes , respectively . Two sections of the route — from south of Scottsville to Rush and from Mendon to western Victor — follow linear east – west alignments . All but 3 miles ( 5 km ) of the route are located in Monroe County .

From 1911 to 1921 , the north – south section of modern NY 251 near Scottsville was part of Route 15 , an unsigned legislative route assigned by the New York State Legislature . The first portion of what is now NY 251 to receive a posted designation was the segment east of NY 64 in Mendon , which was part of the signed NY 15 from 1924 to 1930 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 251 was assigned to an alignment extending from Gates to Victor via Scottsville , utilizing modern NY 386 north of Scottsville and its current alignment east of the village . NY 251 was truncated to begin at NY 383 in Scottsville in the late 1970s , at which time the former routing of NY 251 between Scottsville and Gates became part of an extended NY 386 .

= = Route description = =

NY 251 begins at an intersection with NY 383 in the center of the village of Scottsville , located within the town of Wheatland . It departs Scottsville to the south as River Road and crosses over Oatka Creek before meeting Quaker Road at a rural intersection just south of the village . While River Road continues southward as the unsigned NY 940H , NY 251 turns east to begin its east – west trek across the mostly undeveloped southern portion of Monroe County . After roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , it crosses over the Genesee River and into the town of Rush , becoming Rush – Scottsville Road in the process . Just inside the town line , NY 251 passes through the hamlet of Industry , a location centered around NY 251 's grade crossing with the Livonia , Avon and Lakeville Railroad and the adjacent Rochester & Genesee Valley Railroad Museum .

Midway through the town of Rush , NY 251 widens from two to four lanes and meets I @-@ 390 at exit 11 . Just east of the freeway , NY 251 intersects NY 15 , which is also served by exit 11 by way of a pair of short collector / distributor roads paralleling I @-@ 390 from NY 251 to NY 15 . Past NY 15 , the route reverts to a two @-@ lane highway and veers southeast to parallel Honeoye Creek into the hamlet of Rush . Here , the route passes through a more populated area as it intersects NY 15A in the center of the community , at which point it becomes Rush – Mendon Road . NY 251 continues to follow Honeoye Creek through progressively less developed areas and into the town of Mendon , where the creek curves southward toward Honeoye Falls at Rochester Junction . The highway , however , turns northeastward to meet NY 65 at a roundabout . The northeasterly routing of NY 251 continues to Mendon Center , a small hamlet near the southern tip of Mendon Ponds Park , where it turns eastward once more .

NY 251 continues across open fields to the densely populated hamlet of Mendon , where it has a junction with NY 64 in the center of the community . East of the junction , NY 251 becomes Victor – Mendon Road as it heads out of Mendon . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from NY 64 , the open surroundings return as the route crosses into the Ontario County town of Victor . NY 251 continues on a virtual east – west line for its first 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) in the county , heading through slightly more developed but still sparsely populated areas . At Phillips Road , the route curves southeastward for 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before making one final turn to the northeast . On this last stretch , NY 251 crosses the Ontario Central Railroad at a grade crossing and ends at a junction with NY 96 northwest of the village of Victor .

= = History = =

The westernmost portion of what is now NY 251 between NY 383 in Scottsville and the junction of River and Quaker Roads south of the village was once part of Route 15 , an unsigned legislative route assigned by the New York State Legislature . Route 15 was extended northward from its original terminus in Caledonia to Scottsville via River Road on July 24 , 1911 ; however , it was realigned on March 1 , 1921 , to enter Scottsville on modern NY 383 instead . When the first set of posted routes were assigned in New York in 1924 , this piece of modern NY 251 did not receive a designation . Another section did , however , as the portion extending from Mendon east to Victor was designated as part of NY 15 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 15 was rerouted between Victor and Pittsford to follow current NY 96 . The former routing of NY 15 from Victor to Mendon became part of NY 251 , a new highway extending from NY 15 in Victor to NY 33 in Gates via Chili and Scottsville . West of Scottsville , NY 251 was routed on modern NY 383 and NY 386 .

From 1930 to c . 1938 , the River Road section of NY 251 overlapped with NY 35 , which initially entered Monroe County on the former routing of legislative Route 15 and continued north to Rochester on current NY 383 . The southwestern end of NY 35 was moved to Mumford c . 1938 , shifting the location of the overlap to Main Street in Scottsville . The concurrency was replaced with one with NY 383 when it supplanted most of NY 35 in the early 1940s . In the late 1970s , NY 251 was truncated to begin at the eastern end of its overlap with NY 383 in Scottsville . The former routing of NY 251 from the west end of the concurrency in Scottsville to Gates became an extension of NY 386 , which was a simple connector in northern Gates and southern Greece prior to the change .

= = Major intersections = =

= Tropical Storm Lester ( 2004 ) =

Tropical Storm Lester was a weak tropical storm that paralleled the Mexican coastline in October 2004 . The 16th tropical cyclone and 12th named storm of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Lester originated from an area of disturbed weather that persisted southwest of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . After organizing , the system was designated as a tropical depression on October 11 . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm the next day , and moved northwestward , just off the Mexican coastline . Due to the interaction with land among other factors , the storm degenerated on October 13 . The storm dropped locally heavy rainfall , which caused minor flooding and mudslides . No fatalities or significant damage were reported .

= = Meteorological history = =

By October 10 , 2004 , an area of disturbed weather was situated well to the southwest of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Later that day , a surface low pressure system developed , and convection began to organize into slightly curved bands . The disturbance continued to in this manner , and at 1800 UTC on October 11 , the low level circulation had become sufficiently organized to be designated as a tropical depression . At the time , the depression consisted of a well @-@ defined circulation , with some deep thunderstorm activity . Despite weak steering currents , the system started what was initially thought to be a westward drift , though just a few hours later was found to be towards the northwest . A small cyclone , a burst of deep convection formed at around the same time , and was said could have produced tropical storm @-@ force winds .

Continuing its slow , northwestward track under the weal steering currents of a weak mid @-@ level ridge to its north , and a broad cyclonic circulation to its southwest , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Lester at 1800 UTC on October 12 . Originally , it was unclear whether the center of circulation would remain slightly offshore , or move inland . Due to the presence of a weak upper @-@ level anticyclone that was centered just east of the system , favorable atmospheric conditions for strengthening prevailed , and the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) about 6 – 12 hours after being upgraded to a tropical storm . Early on October 13 , radar imagery from Acapulco , Mexico indicated that Lester remained a small and well @-@ organized cyclone as it passed just offshore . At the same time , light southwesterly wind shear began to develop . The interaction with land , combined with influence from the low to the southwest , started to weaken the storm , and it was downgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on October 13 . By later that day , reports from an Air Force Reserve Unit Hurricane Hunter Aircraft indicated that the cyclone had degenerated into a trough on the northeastern side of the larger low to the southwest .

= = Preparations and impact = =

On October 12 , in response to Lester , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for the coast between Punta Maldonado to Zihuatanejo . It was upgraded to a warning later that day . It was extended to Lázaro Cárdenas on October 13 . Later that day , the warning was lifted when Lester dissipated . Lester brought rains to parts of Oaxaca and Guerrero , reaching 3 to 5 inches ( 76 to 127 mm ) . The highest 24 @-@ hour total peaked at 106 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 19 in ) , recorded on October 12 . Localized flooding was likely caused by the storm , though no reports of deaths were received by the National Hurricane Center . However , the storm capsized two ships , and washed two more ashore . The heavy rain caused mudslides , which buried one man in his home ; he was later rescued by his family . In and around the port of Acapulco , about 14 trees were downed , and minor pooling of water was reported .

= Tvrđa =

Tvrđa ( Citadel ) is the Old Town of the city of Osijek in Croatia . It is the best @-@ preserved and largest ensemble of Baroque buildings in Croatia and consists of a Habsburg star fort built on the right bank of the River Drava . Tvrđa has been described by the World Monuments Fund as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " .

The star fort was constructed in the immediate vicinity of medieval Osijek after the defeat of the Ottoman forces in 1687 , due to Osijek 's strategic importance . Constructed starting in 1712 to plans by Mathias von Kaiserfeld and then Maximilian Gosseau de Henef , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete by 1715 . By 1735 , the inner town was finished and three northern bastions had been added . When complete , it was the largest and most advanced Habsburg fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire , consisting of eight bastions and featuring armories , depots , a garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , a garrison physician , guardhouse , officers ' apartments , a military hospital and seven barracks . The completed fort was entirely surrounded with walls and palisades and had four main gates at each side ( north , south , east , west ) . Tvrđa had street lights by 1717 and was the site of the first public water supply in Croatia , opened in 1751 .

Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 , with the increasing stability of the surrounding region . Most of the fort walls and fortifications were destroyed in the 1920s due to the obstacle they presented to the development of Osijek . While the fortifications have largely been removed , the fort 's interior core remains intact and is now home to churches , museums , schools and other public buildings , as well as numerous bars and restaurants . Of the fortification system , only the northern side of the walls now remain intact , as well as parts of the first and eighth bastions along with the northern gate known as the ' water gate ' ( ' vodena vrata ' ) . Tvrđa sustained significant damage during the Croatian War of Independence during the 1990s and was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It now features on Croatia 's ' tentative list ' for consideration as a nominee for a World Heritage Site .

= = History = =

= = = Medieval and Ottoman eras = = =

The new name of Osijek first appeared in 1196 . The center of medieval Osijek was on the banks of the River Drava where Tvrđa now stands . The town was a trade and port settlement from the early 12th century due to its position on the way from Pécs and Buda southwards . The site was home to the Romanesque church of the Holy Trinity . Between 1526 and 1687 Osijek was ruled by the Ottomans , who did not change the layout of the settlement in any substantial way but introduced Islamic places of worship , giving the area an Oriental appearance . Traces of medieval and Ottoman towns remain to this day , including a remnant of the old Ottoman fortress wall , known today as the " Turkish Wall " ( Turski zid ) or " Filibey 's Fort " ( Filibejeva utvrda ) , lying next to the Tvrđa access road .

During the Ottoman period , Osijek was internationally known because of the Suleiman Bridge . The construction of the bridge was begun by İbrahim Pasha on 16 August 1526 following the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent . The bridge , which connected Osijek and Darda , took the form of a wooden road on piers and was approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long and 6 metres ( 20 ft ) wide . Seen as a great threat to Christian Europe the bridge was attacked several times , being destroyed in 1664 , when it was set on fire on the orders of Croatian feudal lord Nicholas VII of Zrin ( Croatian : Nikola VII . Zrinski , Hungarian : VII . Zrínyi Miklós ) . The bridge was rebuilt during the rule of Suleiman II . Finally , it was burned down by the Habsburg armies in 1686 .

= = = Design and construction = = =

= = = = First layout in late 17th century = = = =

Development of the military settlement at Tvrđa started in 1687 when the Habsburg armies drove the Ottomans out of the city during the Great Turkish War . The chief commander of the Imperial army , Louis William , Margrave of Baden @-@ Baden , saw Osijek as a location of exceptional strategic importance in the war against the Ottomans . He urged the repair of the city walls , and proposed construction of a new fort according to Vauban 's principles of military engineering .

The town magistrate was established in 1690 , while the plans for the new fort were still being drawn up , and one of its documents from August of the same year described the condition of the settlement as " ruinous " . Two months later , on 29 October , the Ottoman army suddenly attacked . The attack was repulsed only thanks to a well @-@ organised defense , and the Turks withdrew on 6 November , after a brief siege . The event was a clear lesson that the construction of the fort must not be delayed any further . The first phase of Tvrđa 's conversion into a Baroque fortress was based on the plan devised by the engineer Mathias von Kaiserfeld from 1691 .

= = = = Second layout in 18th century = = = =

The original plan for Tvrđa was drafted because of the need to reinforce the town walls , but did not include provisions to redesign the interior and envisaged largely uncontrolled development . New plans for a fort on the right bank of the River Drava were drawn up by Maximilian Gosseau de Henef . Gosseau took over planning of the fort when construction was already under way . Starting in August 1712 , Austrian engineers , supervised by the fort 's commander , General Johann Stephan von Beckers , built barracks , staff headquarters , churches and monasteries , surrounded by system of moats , bastions and gun positions , respecting Gosseau 's design . The design followed the model of lowland Dutch military fortifications of the period .

By 1715 , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete . An additional , western , gate leading to the Upper Town was added in 1716 . The construction of the outwork on the opposite bank of the River Drava , designed to offer protection from the north and to serve as a bridgehead , was completed by 1721 . The final , fourth gate , leading to the Lower Town , was not added until 1783 . Construction of the inner town was completed by 1733 , and in 1735 three additional northern bastions were completed , along with a post office , the fort 's construction office and a hospital . The completed fort had " eight bastions , two armories , two major depots , garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , garrison physician , guardhouse , officer apartments , military hospital and seven barracks " . Based on the ' ring model ' , the fortifications took up an area of 80 hectares ( 200 acres ) , making Tvrđa the largest fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire .

Gosseau 's plan left space for churches to be built where mosques had once stood . Initially , converted mosques were used as churches , but Franciscans started to build a Baroque church in 1709 and it was consecrated in 1732 . A Franciscan monastery was built between 1699 and 1705 , with a new wing being added between 1731 and 1733 , which subsequently became a new monastery in 1761 . In 1725 , the Jesuits commenced construction of the parish church of St. Michael ( Croatian : Sveti Mihovil ) , following the construction of their own monastery . This church was in use after 1734 , despite being incomplete . A Holy Trinity column was erected in the fort 's main square in 1730 as a plague monument featuring volutes with pedestals on which four protectors against the plague are placed . Four additional pedestals were added to the monument in 1784 , each featuring a statue of a saint . Tvrđa had street lighting as early as 1717 . The first system to supply public water in Croatia was opened in Tvrđa in 1751 .

In the mid @-@ 18th century there were reportedly more than 35 inns in Tvrđa , estimated to an account for one in three of the fort 's buildings . Crown prince Joseph stayed in one of the inns when visiting Osijek . In 1786 , as Joseph II , he decreed the merger of the Upper Town , Lower Town and Tvrđa into one single town council .

= = = 19th and 20th century = = =

As early as the second half of the 18th century there was little or no new constructions taking place in Tvrđa , and even maintenance of the fort became a burden . In 1809 Osijek was granted free royal town status . Osijek 's council was accommodated in a building at the south @-@ eastern corner of Tvrđa 's main square .

Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 as a result of increasing political and military stability in the region . Two north @-@ western bastions were demolished in the 1870s , making way for Ambrose 's Park ( Croatian : Ambrozijev perivoj ) . Construction of the Royal Grammar School started in 1881 , and the Royal General Secondary School was completed in 1890 . Episcopal seminary was also built in the south @-@ western corner of the main square in 1898 . These were the only buildings erected within Tvrđa walls in the last three decades of the 19th century .

As Osijek grew as a city , the fort 's presence hindered the potential for urban development . The demolition of most of the fort walls happened between 1923 and 1926 , with the construction of an electric tramway . The last gunpowder magazine , located behind the church of St. Michael , was demolished in 1958 . While most of the fortifications have been demolished ( only the first and eighth bastions and the northern wall with its so @-@ called ' water gate ' were kept ) , the center of Tvrđa remains intact . The Yugoslav People 's Army maintained a garrison and a military hospital in Tvrđa , but in the 1980s these buildings were gradually being abandoned , and adapted into ateliers for local painters and sculptors .

The fort sustained considerable damage during the Croatian War of Independence , which lasted from 1991 until 1995 . The war brought structural damage from collapsing roofs , walls and floors . These damages threaten plaster , sculpture and murals that lack proper protection and are subject to continuing decay .

= = Present day = =

After the fortress 's military importance decreased at the end of the 19th century , Tvrđa became a center of administrative , educational , cultural , and scholarly life in Osijek and the entire region . The first school in Osijek was organized at Tvrđa ; the first scholarly curriculum was introduced in 1707 , to be later expanded and renewed , and the first printing press started working in 1735 . The significance of educational institutions of Tvrđa are best underlined by the fact that Croatian Nobel Prize laureates , Lavoslav Ružička and Vladimir Prelog , along with Serbian scientist Milutin Milanković ( Milankovitch cycles ) , were all alumni ( graduates ) of the Tvrđa schools . The Faculty of Agriculture of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek has occupied the former general headquarters since 1995 after its previous site was destroyed in the Croatian War of Independence . The Faculty of Food Technology has been relocated to a building that served as the first military hospital in Osijek , from the mid @-@ 17th century until the beginning of the 1990s . Other present @-@ day educational institutions in Tvrđa include the II and the III Gymnasium , Franjo Kuhač Music School ( former Roman Catholic Seminary ) , Jesuit Classical Gymnasium ( former logistics barracks built in the mid @-@ 18th century ) , and the Secondary School of Economics ( former grammar school for girls ) .

According to the 2001 census , within the Tvrđa city district , there are 10 @,@ 277 inhabitants living in 3 @,@ 310 households . The fort interior is now a centre of Osijek 's nightlife . There are numerous bars and restaurants in Tvrđa . The fort hosts the Museum of Slavonia , the largest general @-@ type museum in Croatia , located in Tvrđa since 1946 . The former town museum and archives building today houses the State Directorate for Monument Protection , a department of the Croatian Ministry of Culture . The patron saint of the Tvrđa is Saint Michael , and his feast day of September 29 is celebrated as the day of the Tvrđa city district .

= = Heritage status = =

" I have seen many European towns , but have never found an identical development whereby an existing urban nucleus was turned into a fortification , or a similar town @-@ planning solution " .

The World Monuments Fund has described Tvrđa as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " . Tvrđa is on Croatia 's ' Tentative List ' for consideration as nominee for the World Heritage Site . During the 1991 – 95 conflict in Croatia , 90 per cent of the buildings in Tvrđa were damaged to some extent and the fort was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It has not appeared on the list , published every two years , since .

The building of the general headquarters , dating from 1726 , and the ground plan of the fortress are depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 200 kuna banknote , issued in 1993 and 2002 .

The Agency for Restoration of Osijek Tvrđa ( Croatian : Agencija za obnovu osječke Tvrđe ) was established in 1999 . Its stated goals are protection , restoration and revitalization of Tvrđa . The restoration process aims to preserve architectural , historical and aesthetic qualities of Tvrđa in full accordance with the restoration principles set by the International Council on Monuments and Sites , while maintaining its multifunctional character . International cooperation is also envisioned , in particular with the Council of Europe . The Agency is jointly funded by the Government of Croatia , Osijek @-@ Baranja County and the City of Osijek .

= Bigeye thresher =

The bigeye thresher ( Alopias superciliosus ) is a species of thresher shark , family Alopiidae , found in temperate and tropical oceans worldwide . Like other thresher sharks , nearly half its total length consists of the elongated upper lobe of the tail fin . Its common name comes from its enormous eyes , which are placed in keyhole @-@ shaped sockets that allow them to be rotated upward . This species can also be distinguished by a pair of deep grooves on the top of its head , from which its scientific name is derived .

The large eyes of the bigeye thresher are adapted for hunting in low light conditions . It is one of the few sharks that conduct a diel vertical migration , staying in deep water during the day and moving into surface waters at night to feed . To protect its sensitive brain and eyes from the temperature changes accompanying these movements , the bigeye thresher has a vascular exchange system called the rete mirabile around those organs . This species feeds mainly on fish and squid , which are stunned via whip @-@ like strikes of the long tail . Bigeye threshers are ovoviviparous , usually bearing litters of two pups . The embryos are oophagous and feed on ova produced by the mother while inside the uterus . This shark is caught by commercial fisheries across its range ; the meat is not highly regarded but the skin , fins , and liver oil are valued . It has been assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

British biologist Richard Thomas Lowe was the first to scientifically describe the bigeye thresher , in papers published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London ( 1840 ) and Transactions of the Zoological Society of London ( 1849 , sometimes given as 1839 ) . He based his description on a specimen caught off Madeira in the eastern Atlantic Ocean . However , Lowe 's description was subsequently overlooked by researchers and this species was known by different names until the 1940s , when new specimens from Cuba and Florida prompted its original scientific name to be resurrected . The specific epithet superciliosus is from the Latin super meaning " above " , and ciliosus meaning " eyebrow " , referring to the distinct lateral grooves above the eyes .

An allozyme analysis conducted by Blaise Eitner in 1995 showed that the closest relative of the bigeye thresher is the pelagic thresher ( A. pelagicus ) , with which it forms a clade . Fossil remains of the bigeye thresher dating to the Middle Miocene ( 16 @.@ 0 – 11 @.@ 6 Ma ) have been found in the Hokuriku region of Japan .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The bigeye thresher has a virtually circumtropical distribution . In the western Atlantic Ocean , it has been reported from New York to Florida , the Bahamas , Cuba , Venezuela , Tobago and southern Brazil . In the eastern Atlantic , it is known from Portugal , Madeira , Senegal , Guinea to Sierra Leone , Angola , and the Mediterranean Sea . In the western Indian Ocean , it occurs off South Africa , Madagascar , and the Arabian Sea . In the Pacific Ocean , it is known from southern Japan , Taiwan , New Caledonia , northwestern Australia , and New Zealand , and eastward to Hawaii , southern California , the Gulf of California , and west of the Galapagos Islands . Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has shown that Atlantic and Indo @-@ Pacific populations are somewhat genetically divergent from each other .

Bigeye threshers are usually found over the continental shelf and in the open sea , though they are occasionally encountered in shallow coastal waters . They occur in surface temperatures of 16 – 25 ° C ( 61 – 77 ° F ) , but have been tracked as far down as 723 m ( 2 @,@ 372 ft ) , where the temperature is only 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . Little is known of their geographical movements ; one individual has been documented moving from New York to the Gulf of Mexico , a straight @-@ line distance of 2 @,@ 767 km ( 1 @,@ 719 mi ) .

= = Description = =

The eyes of the bigeye thresher can measure up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) across in adults . Each eye is taller than wide , with a bulbous upper portion . The orbits extend onto the dorsal surface of the head , allowing the eyes to orient upwards . There are also a pair of distinctive lateral grooves that extend from above the eyes to over the gill slits , giving it a " helmet " -like appearance . The snout is moderately long and bulbous , and there are no labial furrows at the corners of the mouth . The teeth are moderately large with a single , narrow cusp . There are 19 – 24 teeth in the upper jaw and 20 – 24 teeth in the lower jaw ; their shapes are similar in both jaws . There are large and small dermal denticles , with the smaller ones more numerous and interspersed amongst the larger ones . The smaller denticles taper to a point .

Up to half the body length is taken up by the long upper lobe of the caudal fin , which is broader than in other threshers . The large pectoral fins have a curved anterior margin and broad tips . The first dorsal fin is placed further back than in the other thresher sharks , with the free rear tip located above or just before the pelvic fins . Its coloration is a deep , metallic violet to purplish brown above and creamy white below . This color rapidly fades to a dull gray after death . Most bigeye threshers are 3 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 0 m ( 10 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) long and weigh 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . The largest known bigeye thresher measured 4 @.@ 9 m ( 16 ft ) long and weighed 364 kg ( 802 lb ) , and was caught near Tutukaka , New Zealand , in February 1981 .

= = Biology and ecology = =

The size and upward orientation of the bigeye thresher 's eyes are adapted to search for the silhouettes of prey in dim light . This species is one of a handful of shark species that conducts a diel vertical migration , spending daytime in deeper water between 300 – 500 m ( 980 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) , beneath the thermocline where the temperature ranges from 6 to 12 ° C ( 43 to 54 ° F ) , and ascending above it to water less than 100 m ( 330 ft ) deep during nighttime . This migration likely relates to finding prey at night and avoiding predators during the day . The sharks ' daytime swimming patterns are usually steady , while at night they have a pattern of slow ascents and rapid descents .

Bigeye threshers are likely preyed upon by larger sharks and marine mammals . Known parasites of the bigeye thresher include the copepod Pagina tunica , and the tapeworm Litobothrium janovyi . Sea lampreys ( Petromyzon marinus ) have been seen attached near the cloaca of this shark . The bigeye thresher appears to be an ecological competitor of the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) , and the numbers of the two species are negatively correlated such as that only one of two occurs in any given location .

= = = Feeding = = =

The bigeye thresher has larger teeth than other threshers and feeds on a wider variety of prey . Known food items include schooling forage fish such as mackerel and herring , benthic fishes such as hake and whiting , larger pelagic fishes such as lancetfish and small billfish , squid such as lycoteuthids and ommastrephids , and possibly crab megalopae . They likely use their long tails to stun their prey prior to capture , as they are often found hooked by their tails on longlines and with the bait fish in their stomachs . The shape of their eye sockets give them binocular vision in an upward direction to better aim their strikes . In the Mediterranean , they are strongly associated with schools of frigate mackerel ( Auxis rochei ) , suggesting that these sharks follow concentrations of their prey from place to place . It is said that the bigeye thresher uses its long tail to smack down birds .

= = = Life history = = =

Like other mackerel sharks , bigeye threshers are ovoviviparous and bear litters of two pups , one in each uterus . Very rarely , the litter size may be one , three , or four . There is no defined breeding season and most adult females are pregnant throughout the year without any apparent lag time between pregnancies . The gestation period is unknown . The developing fetuses are initially nourished by a yolk sac , and later on exhibit oophagy , in which they consume infertile eggs produced by their mother ( and possibly also uterine fluid ) . There is no evidence of sibling cannibalism as in the sand tiger shark ( Carcharias taurus ) . Unborn embryos are similar in appearance to adults , with proportionally larger heads and eyes . They are covered with a thin layer of epithelium that prevents the uterine wall from being abraded by the embryo 's sharp dermal denticles ; this has not been observed in the young of other thresher sharks . The young measure 1 @.@ 35 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long at birth . Males mature at a length around 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 m ( 8 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 5 ft ) and at an age of 9 – 10 years , while females mature at a length around 3 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 6 m ( 11 – 12 ft ) and at an age of 12 – 14 years . The maximum lifespan of this species is believed to be 19 years for a male and 20 years for a female . A female bigeye thresher is estimated to produce only 20 young over her entire life .

= = = Thermoregulation = = =

There is conflicting evidence on whether the bigeye thresher is warm @-@ bodied like the common thresher ( A. vulpinus ) . In a 1971 study , Carey et al. probed the swimming muscles of two bigeye threshers with a thermistor needle and reported finding a temperature elevation of 1 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 3 ° C ( 3 @.@ 8 and 9 @.@ 1 ° F ) compared to the ambient environment . However , an anatomical examination conducted by Sepulveda et al. in 2005 found that though the bigeye thresher possesses the aerobic red muscles responsible for generating heat in the common thresher , these muscles are arranged in two strips along the flanks just beneath the skin , as opposed to near the core of the body . There is also no blood vessel countercurrent exchange system ( the rete mirabile ) in the trunk to limit the loss of metabolic heat to the water . Based on these differences , the authors questioned earlier measurements and concluded it was unlikely that the bigeye thresher maintains an elevated body temperature . The bigeye thresher does possess a highly developed rete system around its brain and eyes . This is thought to function in buffering those sensitive organs against temperature changes during the shark 's daily migrations up and down the water column , which can be as much as 15 – 16 ° C ( 27 – 29 ° F ) .

= = Human interactions = =

The bigeye thresher shark is rarely encountered by divers underwater and poses no danger . This species is or was taken by longline fisheries operated by many countries , including the United States , Japan , Spain , Brazil , Uruguay , and Mexico , and constitutes about 10 % of the pelagic shark catch . The bigeye thresher comprises 20 % of the longline catch off Cuba , where it is attracted at night using cyalume sticks ( chemical lights ) . It is also significant to Taiwanese fisheries , which land about 220 metric tons annually . The meat is marketed fresh , smoked , or dried and salted , though it is not highly regarded due to its mushy texture . The skin is used to make leather products , the liver oil for vitamins , and the fins for shark fin soup .

In the waters of the United States , this species is considered a nuisance bycatch of longlines , gillnets , and trawls . It is also occasionally caught in shark nets around beaches in South Africa . Along with the other thresher species , the bigeye thresher is listed as a game fish by the International Game Fish Association ( IGFA ) , and is pursued by recreational anglers off the United States , South Africa , and New Zealand . The bigeye thresher is highly susceptible to over @-@ exploitation due to its low lifetime fecundity . All three thesher shark species were assessed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) in 2007 .

= HMS Daring ( H16 ) =

HMS Daring was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station . She was briefly commanded by Louis Mountbatten before World War II . Daring escorted convoys in the Red Sea in October – November 1939 and then returned to the UK in January 1940 for the first time in five years . While escorting a convoy from Norway , she was sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 23 in February 1940 .

= = Description = =

Daring displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Daring carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .

The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Daring had a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) QF gun between her funnels and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .

= = Career = =

Daring was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates , and was laid down at John I Thornycroft 's yard at Woolston , Southampton on 18 June 1931 . She was launched on 7 April 1932 and completed on 25 November 1932 , at a total cost of £ 225 @,@ 536 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – October 1933 . Lord Louis Mountbatten assumed command on 29 April 1934 , and Daring was given a refit at Sheerness Dockyard from 3 September to 24 October to prepare the ship for service on the China Station .

In December 1934 she sailed to join the 8th Destroyer Flotilla in the Far East and served there until the outbreak of war . Upon the ship 's arrival at Singapore , Lord Mountbatten was transferred to command HMS Wishart and Commander Geoffrey Barnard assumed command .

The ship and her sisters Duncan , Diana , and Dainty were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly before World War II began in September 1939 . Daring was kept in the Red Sea for escort and patrol work until November 1939 . She was overhauled in Malta from 25 November to 20 December . The ship escorted the Union @-@ Castle Line ocean liner SS Dunnottar Castle to Belfast in early 1940 and was under repair at Portsmouth until 25 January . Daring joined the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla in Scapa Flow on 10 February 1940 for escort duties . While escorting Convoy HN12 from Norway , she was torpedoed on 18 February in position 58 ° 39 ′ N 01 ° 40 ′ W by U @-@ 23 , under the command of Otto Kretschmer . Daring capsized and sank very quickly after having her stern blown off ; 157 of the ship 's company were lost . The five survivors were rescued by the submarine HMS Thistle , which had witnessed the attack .

= = Acclaimed model = =

A model of HMS Daring by renowned marine model maker Norman A. Ough is held by the National Maritime Museum .

= Kaga Rebellion =

The Kaga Rebellion or Chōkyō Uprising was a large @-@ scale revolt in Kaga Province ( present @-@ day southern Ishikawa Prefecture ) , Japan , in late 1487 through 1488 . Togashi Masachika , who ruled Kaga Province as shugo , had been restored to power in 1473 with aid from the Asakura clan as well as the Ikkō @-@ ikki , a loose collection of lesser nobility , monks , and farmers . By 1474 , however , the Ikkō @-@ ikki grew discontent with Masachika , and launched some initial revolts , which were easily quelled . In 1487 , when Masachika left on a military campaign , between one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand Ikkō @-@ ikki revolted . Masachika returned with his army , but the Ikkō @-@ ikki , backed by several disaffected vassal families , overwhelmed his army and surrounded him in his palace , where he committed seppuku . The former vassals of Masachika granted the position of shugo to Masachika 's uncle Yasutaka , but over the next several decades the Ikkō @-@ ikki increased their political hold on the province , which they would effectively control for almost a century .

= = Background and initial revolts = =

During the 15th century in Japan , peasant revolts , known as ikki , became much more commonplace . During the turmoil of the Ōnin War ( 1467 – 1477 ) and subsequent years , these rebellions increased in both frequency and success . Many of these rebels became known as Ikkō @-@ ikki , a collection of peasant farmers , Buddhist monks , Shinto priests , and jizamurai ( lesser nobles ) who all espoused belief in the Jōdo Shinshū sect of Buddhism . Rennyo , the Hongan @-@ ji abbot who led the Jōdo Shinshū movement , attracted a large following in Kaga and Echizen Province , but distanced himself from the political goals of the ikki , advocating violence only for self @-@ defense or defense of one 's religion .

During the mid @-@ 15th century , a civil war broke out among the Togashi clan over the position of shugo . Togashi Masachika had been driven out of Kaga by his younger brother , Kochiyo . When the Ōnin War broke out in 1467 , Masachika sided with Hosokawa and Kochiyo with Yamana . In 1473 , Masachika requested aid from Asakura Toshikaga , the lord of Echizen and ally of Hosokawa , as well as from the priests of Yoshizaki , who were associated with Rennyo . Masachika promised the ikki that if restored to power , he would lift his supporters out of their poverty . Further motivating the ikki to support Masachika were the religious policies of Kochiyo : Kochiyo patronized the Takada school of Jōdo Shinshū , a fierce rival to the Hongan @-@ ji for control of the Shinshū sect , and persecuted followers of the Hongan @-@ ji . Toshikaga pledged his support , as did the Yoshizaki priests , the latter prior to any approval from Rennyo . Rennyo eventually granted his approval to the actions of the Yoshizaki priests , and with Toshikaga providing military aid and the Ikkō @-@ ikki rioting throughout Kaga , Masachika quickly overthrew his brother . But Ikkō @-@ ikki support of Masachika was short @-@ lived . By 1474 , the Ikkō @-@ ikki were in dispute with Masachika as they claimed that he did not fulfill his promises of economic reward , and they attempted a rebellion . Rennyo refused to support their actions and the rebels were quickly defeated and forced to take refuge in Etchū Province . In 1475 , Shimotsuma Rensu , a disciple of Rennyo , falsely claimed that Rennyo supported a renewed uprising in Kaga . The revolt failed , and Rennyo excommunicated Rensu . Tiring of his efforts to restrain the unruly Ikkō @-@ ikki , Rennyo left Yoshizaki for the capital region .

= = 1488 revolt = =

Despite the previous revolts having been easily suppressed , unrest continued to simmer in Kaga under Masachika 's governance . The Ikkō @-@ ikki who remained in Kaga grew bolder , refusing to pay taxes and even seizing tax revenue and land , despite Rennyo 's continued protestations . In 1487 , Masachika left with a large army for Ōmi Province in response to a call for aid from shogun Ashikaga Yoshihisa , who was attempting to suppress the robber baron Rokkaku Tokoyori . In Masachika 's absence , the Ikkō @-@ ikki , led by Rengo , Renkō , and Rensei , three sons of Rennyo , launched their revolt and between one hundred thousand and two hundred thousand members took up arms . Masachika quickly returned from his military expedition , and defeated the rebels in several battles . However , several vassal families , discontent with Masachika , joined with the rebels . The rebels cut off Masachika from reinforcements from his allies in the bordering Echizen , Etchū , and Noto Provinces , and besieged his castle . Masachika , trapped in a burning castle and faced with certain defeat , committed seppuku . In his place , the vassal families who rebelled against Masachika put forward his uncle and ex @-@ shugo , Yasutaka , as a candidate to be the new shugo .

= = Aftermath = =

Following the overthrow of Masachika , Kaga became known as " hyakusho no motaru kuni " ( " the kingdom of peasants " , or " province ruled by peasants " ) . Shogun Yoshihisa , a friend and ally of Masachika , demanded that Rennyo excommunicate the Kaga ikki . However , Hosokawa Masamoto , an influential political figure who was also a close friend and patron of Rennyo , negotiated a deal which permitted Rennyo to merely reprimand the ikki while Masamoto would join the Hongan @-@ ji . In Kaga , Togashi Yasutaka took power as shugo , ruling the province until his death in 1504 . Afterward , under the rule of his son , Taneyasu , the ikki began to assert their influence over the vassal families that supported them in the uprising . The ikki soon split into rival political factions and initiated a series of political struggles which culminated in a civil war in 1531 . The heads of the three predominant Hongan @-@ ji temples in Kaga , as well as Taneyasu , were defeated when Renjun , a son of Rennyo , brought in Ikkō @-@ ikki troops from Mikawa Province . Upon Renjun 's victory , the office of shugo was abolished and the leaders of the opposition were exiled . The Ikkō @-@ ikki would control Kaga until 1580 , when forces loyal to Oda Nobunaga defeated them .

= Clavaria zollingeri =

Clavaria zollingeri , commonly known as the violet coral or the magenta coral , is a widely distributed species of fungus . It produces striking tubular , purple to pinkish @-@ violet fruit bodies that grow up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The extreme tips of the fragile , slender branches are usually rounded and brownish . A typical member of the clavarioid or club fungi , Clavaria zollingeri is saprobic , and so derives nutrients by breaking down organic matter . The fruit bodies are typically found growing on the ground in woodland litter , or in grasslands . Variations in branching and color can often be used to distinguish C. zollingeri from similarly colored coral fungi such as Alloclavaria purpurea and Clavulina amethystina , although microscopy is required to reliably identify the latter species .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The species was first described scientifically by French mycologist Joseph @-@ Henri Léveillé in 1846 . It was named after German botanist Heinrich Zollinger , who researched the genus Clavaria , and collected the type specimen in Java , Indonesia . Léveillé considered the dichotomous branching to be the prominent characteristic that separated this species from the otherwise similar Clavaria amethystina . American Charles Horton Peck published a species collected from Stow , Massachusetts as Clavaria lavendula in 1910 , but this is a synonym . The mushroom is commonly known as the " violet coral " , or the " magenta coral " .

In a 1978 classification of the genus Clavaria , Ronald Petersen placed C. zollingeri in the subgenus Clavaria , a grouping of species with clamp connections absent from all septa in the fruit body ; others in the subgenus included C. purpurea , C. fumosa , and the type , C. vermicularis . A large @-@ scale molecular analysis of the phylogenetic distributions and limits of clavarioid fungi in the family Clavariaceae was published by Bryn Dentiger and David McLaughlin in 2006 . Based on their analysis of ribosomal DNA sequences , C. zollingeri shared the greatest genetic similarity with Clavulinopsis laeticolor . Petersen 's concept of the infrageneric classification of Clavaria was largely rejected in this analysis , as two of the three subgenera he proposed were found to be polyphyletic .

= = Description = =

The coloring of the fruit bodies is quite variable , ranging from violet to amethyst , or violet shaded with brown or red . The colors may be variable over the fruit body ; in one instance the outside branches were brown while the inner branches in the center of the bundle were light violet . Dried specimens may lose their coloring almost entirely , as the pigments may be sensitive to light or dryness . The fruit body is typically 5 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 4 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The stem , or base , is short , and the branching starts a short distance above the ground . The surfaces of the fragile branches are smooth and dry ; the branches are 2 – 6 thick , typically with rounded tips . It has no distinguishable odor , and a taste somewhat like radishes or cucumber . Although edible in small quantities , the fragile fruit bodies are of limited culinary value , and may have a laxative effect .

In mass , the spores ( produced on the surface of the branches ) are white . Light microscopy reveals additional details : the spores are roughly spherical to broadly elliptical , with dimensions of 4 – 7 by 3 – 5 μm . They have a clear apiculus about 1 μm long , and a single large oil droplet . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , do not have clamps , and measure 50 – 60 by 7 – 9 μm , gradually widening at the apex .

= = = Similar species = = =

Other lavender to violet @-@ colored corals include Clavulina amethystinoides , which is so multiply branched so as to appear toothed , and Clavulina amethystina , which can only be reliably distinguished by its two @-@ spored basidia in comparison to the four @-@ spored basidia of Clavaria species . In Alloclavaria purpurea , the branching is reduced and the color usually a duller purple . The Australian coral Clavaria versatilis is also similar in appearance to Clavaria zollinger , but has branch tips that end in two short and blunt processes that are the same color as the rest of the fruit body . Ramariopsis pulchella — a small , violet @-@ colored coral fungus rarely taller than 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) — could be mistaken for a small C. zollingeri . It has roughly spherical spores measuring 3 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 μm .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

The fruit bodies of Clavaria zollingeri grow either solitarily , in groups , or in clusters on the ground in grassy spots , usually near hardwood trees , or with mosses . It is a saprobic species , deriving nutrients by breaking down organic matter . It has a widespread distribution , and has been found in Australia , New Zealand , North America , South America , and Asia ( including Brunei , India , and Korea ) . In North America , the distribution is restricted to the northeastern regions of the continent . Rare in Europe , it is listed in the Red Lists of threatened species in Denmark and Great Britain . In Ireland , it is used as an indicator species to help assess the fungal diversity of nutrient @-@ poor grasslands , a habitat under threat . It was recorded from the Netherlands for the first time in 2006 .

= = Bioactive compounds = =

Clavaria zollingeri contains lectins , a class of proteins that bind specific carbohydrates on the surface of cells , causing them to clump together . A Korean study demonstrated that extracts of the fungus caused lymphoagglutination , a specific form of agglutination that involves white blood cells . In general , lectins are used in blood typing and serology , and they are widely used in affinity chromatography for purifying proteins .

= Ashdod =

Ashdod ( Hebrew : אַשְׁדּוֹד ( audio ) ; Arabic : اشدود , إسدود Isdud ) is the sixth @-@ largest city in Israel , located in the Southern District of the country , on the Mediterranean coast where it is situated between Tel Aviv to the north ( 32 kilometres ( 20 miles ) away ) and Ashkelon to the south ( 20 km ( 12 mi ) away ) . Jerusalem is 53 km ( 33 mi ) to the east .

Ashdod is Israel 's largest port , accounting for 60 % of the country 's imported goods . The city is also an important regional industrial center .

Modern Ashdod covers the territory of two ancient twin towns , one inland and one on the coast , which were for most of their history two separate entities , connected though by close ties with each other . This article is dealing with both these historic towns and other ancient sites now located within the territory of modern Ashdod .

The first documented urban settlement at Ashdod dates to the Canaanite culture of the 17th century BCE , making the city one of the oldest in the world . Ashdod is mentioned 13 times in the Bible . During its pre @-@ 1956 history the city was settled by Philistines , Israelites , colonists coming in the wake of Alexander 's conquests , Romans and Byzantines , Arabs , Crusaders , and Ottoman Turks .

Modern Ashdod was established in 1956 on the sand hills near the site of the ancient town , and incorporated as a city in 1968 , with a land @-@ area of approximately 60 square kilometres ( 23 sq mi ) . Being a planned city , expansion followed a main development plan , which facilitated traffic and prevented air pollution in the residential areas , despite population growth . According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , Ashdod had a population of 217 @,@ 959 in 2014 , with an area of 47 @,@ 242 dunams ( 47 @.@ 242 km2 ; 18 @.@ 240 sq mi ) .

= = History = =

= = = Stone Age = = =

Three stone tools dating from the Neolithic era were discovered , but no other evidence of a Stone Age settlement in Ashdod was found , suggesting that the tools were deposited here in a later period .

= = = Bronze and Iron Ages = = =

The site of Ashdod in the Bronze Age and Iron Ages was at a tell just south of the modern city . It was excavated by archaeologists in nine seasons between 1962 and 1972 . The effort was led during the first few years by David Noel Freedman of the Pittsburgh Theological Seminary and Moshe Dothan . The remaining seasons were headed by Dothan for the Israel Antiquities Authority .

The earliest major habitation in Ashdod dates to the 17th century BCE , when the acropolis of the tell was fortified . Ashdod is first mentioned in written documents from Late Bronze Age Ugarit , which indicate that the city was a center of export for dyed woolen purple fabric and garments . At the end of the 13th century BCE the Sea Peoples conquered and destroyed Ashdod . By the beginning of the 12th century BCE , the Philistines , generally thought to have been one of the Sea Peoples , ruled the city . During their reign , the city prospered and was a member of the Philistine Pentapolis , which included Ashkelon and Gaza on the coast and Ekron and Gath farther inland , in addition to Ashdod .

In 950 BCE Ashdod was destroyed during Pharaoh Siamun 's conquest of the region . The city was not rebuilt until at least 815 BCE .

Asdûdu led the revolt of Philistines , Judeans , Edomites , and Moabites against Assyria after expulsion of king Ahimiti , whom Sargon had installed instead of his brother Azuri . Gath ( Gimtu ) belonged to the kingdom of Ashdod at that time . Assyrian king Sargon II 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief ( turtanu ) , whom the King James Bible calls simply " Tartan " , Isaiah 20 : 1 regained control of Ashdod in 712 / 711 BCE and forced the usurper Yamani to flee . Sargon 's general destroyed the city and exiled its residents , including some Israelites who were subsequently settled in Media and Elam .

Mitinti was king at the time of Sargon 's son Sennacherib ( r . 705 – 681 BCE ) , and Akhimilki in the reign of Sennacherib 's son Esarhaddon ( r . 681 – 669 BCE ) .

Psamtik I of Egypt ( r . 664 – 610 BCE ) is reported to have besieged the great city Azotus for twenty @-@ nine years ( Herodotus , ii . 157 ) ; the biblical references to the remnant of Ashdod ( Jeremiah 25 : 20 ; cf Zephaniah 2 : 4 ) are interpreted as allusions to this event .

The city absorbed another blow in 605 BCE , when Nebuchadnezzar conquered it .

In 539 BCE the city was rebuilt by the Persians . In 332 BCE it was conquered in the wars of Alexander the Great .

In the Book of Nehemiah , the Ashdodites seem to represent the whole nation of the Philistines in the sixth century BCE , the speech of Ashdod ( which half of the children from mixed families are described as adopting ) would simply be the general Philistine dialect . Hugo Winckler explains the use of that name by the fact that Ashdod was the nearest of the Philistine cities to Jerusalem .

= = = In the Hebrew Bible = = =

There are Biblical episodes referencing Ashdod but they remain uncorroborated by archaeological finds :

Upon Joshua 's conquest of the Promised Land , Ashdod was allotted to the Tribe of Judah ( Book of Joshua 15 : 46 ) .

In I Samuel 6 : 17 Ashdod is mentioned among the principal Philistine cities . After capturing the Ark of the covenant from the Israelites , the Philistines took it to Ashdod and placed it in the temple of Dagon . The next morning Dagon was found prostrate before the Ark ; on being restored to his place , he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken . The people of Ashdod were smitten with boils ; a plague of mice was sent over the land ( 1 Samuel 6 : 5 ) .

According to the Bible , during the 10th century BCE Ashdod became , along with all the kingdom of Philistia , a patronage area of the Kingdom of Israel under the control of King David .

The capture of the city by King Uzziah of Judah shortly after 815 BCE is mentioned within 2 Chronicles ( 26 : 6 ) and in the Book of Zechariah ( 9 : 6 ) , speaking of the false Jews .

In the Book of Nehemiah ( Nehemiah 13 : 23 – 24 ) , some 5th century BCE residents of Jerusalem are said to have married women from Ashdod , and half of the children of these unions were reportedly unable to understand Hebrew ; instead , they spoke " the language of Ashdod " .

= = = Hellenistic period = = =

Once Hellenised , the city changed its name to the more Greek @-@ sounding Αzotus ( Greek : Άζωτος ) and prospered until the Hasmonean Revolt . During the rebellion Judas Maccabeus " took it , and laid it waste " ( Antiquities of the Jews Book 12 , 8 : 6 ) His brother Jonathan conquered it again in 147 BCE and destroyed the temple of Dagon of biblical fame ( Antiquities Book 13 , 4 : 4 ; 1 Samuel 5 : 1 @-@ 5 ) . During the rule of Alexander Jannæus , Ashdod was part of his territory ( Antiquities Book 13 , 15 : 4 ) .

= = = Roman and Byzantine periods = = =

After the destruction wreaked during the succession wars between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , Pompey restored the independence of Azotus , as he did with all Hellenising coastal cities ( Antiquities Book 14 , 4 : 4 ) . A few years later , in 55 BCE , after more fighting , Roman general Gabinius helped rebuild Ashdod and several other cities left without protective walls ( Antiquities Book 14 , 5 : 2 ) . In 30 BCE Ashdod came under the rule of King Herod , who then bequeathed it to his sister Salome ( Antiquities Book 17 , 8 : 1 ) . By the time of the First Jewish – Roman War ( 66 @-@ 70 ) , there must have been a large enough Jewish presence in Ashdod for Vespasian to feel compelled to place a garrison in the city .

Despite its location four miles ( 6 km ) from the coast , Ptolemy ( c . 90 – c . 168 CE ) described it as a maritime city , as did Josephus in Antiquities Book 13 , 15 : 4 . The same Josephus though describes Ashdod as " in the inland parts " ( Antiquities Book 14 , 4 : 4 ) . This curious contradiction may refer to Ashdod 's control of a separate harbor , called Azotus Paralios , or Ashdod @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Sea ( παράλιος - " paralios " , Greek for " on the coast " ) . The landlocked city was called by the Romans Hippinos , " of the horsemen " , and by the Greeks until late in the medieval period , Azotus mesogaios or " inland Azotus " .

During the Byzantine period , the port city overshadowed its inland counterpart in size and importance . The 6th @-@ century Madaba Map is showing both under their respective names .

= = = In the New Testament = = =

The 1st century AD Book of Acts refers to Azotus as the place in which Philip the Evangelist reappeared after he converted the Ethiopian eunuch to Christianity . Philip preached the gospel throughout the area until he reached Caesarea , about 90 km to the north .

= = = Early Muslim period = = =

The prominence of Hellenised , then Christian Azotus continued until the 7th century , when it came under Muslim rule .

A coastal fort was erected by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik , the builder of the Dome of the Rock , at or near the former Azotus Paralios , which was later reconstructed by the Fatimids and Crusaders .

The medieval Arabic name of the port town was Mahuz Azdud , " harbour of Azdud " , a very interesting combination between the by then already ancient Aramaic word for harbour , mahuz , and " Azdud " , a return to a form much closer to the old Semitic name " Ashdod " .

The geographer Ibn Khordadbeh ( c . 820 – 912 ) referred to the inland city as " Azdud " and described it as a postal station between al @-@ Ramla and Gaza .

= = = Crusader period = = =

Documents from the Crusader period indicate that Ashdod belonged to the lordship of Ramla , and it appears probable that in 1169 the old Arab sea fort was given by Hugh , lord of Ramla , to his knight Nicolas de Beroard . From this period the fort is known as Castellum Beroart .

= = = Ayyubid and Mamluk periods = = =

The port stops being mentioned during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods , making it likely that it was destroyed by the Muslims along with the other port cities , due to fears that they might again be used by Crusader invasions from the sea . With the destruction of the port city , its inland counterpart regains its importance .

= = = Ottoman rule = = =

The location of the village on Via Maris enhanced the city 's importance during the Ottoman rule . In 1596 CE , administrated by nahiya ( " subdistrict " ) of Gaza under the liwa ' ( " district " ) of Gaza , the population of Ashdod numbered about 413 . The villagers paid taxes on wheat , barley , sesame and fruit crops , as well as goats and beehives .

In the late nineteenth century , Isdud was described as a village spread across the eastern slope of a low hill , covered with gardens . A ruined khan stood southwest of the village . Its houses were one @-@ storey high with walls and enclosures built of adobe brick . There were two main sources of water : a pond and a masonry well . Both were surrounded by groves of date @-@ palm and fig @-@ trees .

= = = British Mandate = = =

In the 1922 census of Palestine , conducted by the British Mandate authorities , Isdud had a population of 2 @,@ 566 ; 2 @,@ 555 Muslims and 11 Christians , where the Christians were all Catholics . The population increased in the 1931 census to 3 @,@ 240 ; 3 @,@ 238 Muslims and 2 Christians , in a total of 764 houses .

During the Mandatory period , Isdud had two elementary schools ; one for boys which was opened in 1922 , and one for girls which started in 1942 . By the mid @-@ 1940s the boy @-@ school had 371 students , while the girl @-@ school had 74 .

In 1945 Isdud had a population of 4 @,@ 620 Arabs and 290 Jews , with a total of 47 @,@ 871 dunams of land , according to an official land and population survey . Of this , 3 @,@ 277 dunams were used citrus and bananas , 8 @,@ 327 for plantations and irrigable land , 23 @,@ 762 for cereals , while 131 dunams were built @-@ up land .

= = = 1948 war = = =

The village of Isdud was occupied by the Egyptian army on May 29 , 1948 and became the Egyptians ' northernmost position during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . While the Israelis failed to capture territory , and suffered heavy casualties , Egypt changed its strategy from offensive to defensive , thus halting their advance northwards . Egyptian and Israeli forces clashed in the surrounding area , with the Egyptians being unable to hold the Ad Halom bridge over the Lachish River . Israeli forces surrounded the town during Operation Pleshet , and shelled and bombed it from the air . For three nights from 18 October the Israeli Air Force bombed Isdud and several other locations . Fearing encirclement , Egyptian forces retreated on October 28 , 1948 and the majority of the residents fled . The 300 townspeople who remained were driven southwards by the Israel Defense Forces .

= = = State of Israel = = =

In 1950 , the moshavim of Sde Uziyahu and Shtulim were established to the east of Isdud , and in 1949 and 1953 , Bnei Darom and Gan HaDarom were established north of Isdud . According to Khalidi , they were established on the village lands .

The modern city of Ashdod was founded in 1956 . On May 1 , 1956 , then finance minister Levi Eshkol approved the establishment of the city of Ashdod . " Ashdod Company Ltd . " , a daughter company of City @-@ Builders Company Ltd . , was created for that purpose by Oved Ben @-@ Ami and Philipp Klutznick . The first settlers , 22 families from Morocco , arrived in November 1956 , followed by a small influx of immigrants from Egypt . In July 1957 , the government granted a 24 square kilometres ( 9 square miles ) , approximately 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) from Tel Aviv , to the Ashdod Company Ltd . , for building the modern city of Ashdod . The building of the Eshkol A power station in Ashdod was completed in 1958 and included 3 units : 2 units of 50 megawatt , and one unit of 45 megawatt ( with sea water desalination capabilities ) .

The first local council was appointed in October 1959 . Dov Gur was appointed the first local council head on behalf of the Israeli Ministry of Interior . The Magistrates ' Court in the city was inaugurated in 1963 . The building of the port of Ashdod began in April 1961 . The port was inaugurated in November 1963 , and was first utilized in November 1965 , with the coming of the Swedish ship " Wiengelgad " .

Large @-@ scale growth of the city began in 1991 , with the massive arrival of immigrants from the Soviet Union and Ethiopia and infrastructure development . From 1990 to 2001 the city accepted more than 100 @,@ 000 new inhabitants , a 150 % growth .

Ashdod was one of six cities that won the 2012 Education Prize awarded by the Israel Ministry of Education .

= = Urban development = =

The modern city of Ashdod city was built outside the historic settlement site , on virgin sands . The development followed a main development plan . The planners divided the city into seventeen neighborhoods of ten to fifteen thousand people . Wide avenues between the neighborhoods make traffic flow relatively freely inside the city . Each neighborhood has access to its own commercial center , urban park , and health and education infrastructure . The original plan also called for a business and administrative center , built in the mid @-@ 1990s , when the city population grew rapidly more than doubling in ten years .

Three industrial zones were placed adjacent to the port in the northern part of the city , taking into account the prevailing southern winds which take air pollution away from the city . The plan had its problems , however , including asymmetric growth of upscale and poorer neighborhoods and the long @-@ time lack of a main business and administrative center .

The city was planned for a maximum of 250 @,@ 000 inhabitants , and an additional area in the south was reserved for further development .

In 2012 , a plan to build an industrial zone on part of the Ashdod Sand Dune was approved . The plan calls for a hi @-@ tech industrial park , events halls , and coffee shops to be built adjacent to the train station . It will cover 400 dunams ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ; 0 @.@ 2 sq mi ) , including 130 dunams of built @-@ up space , with the rest of the area being preserved as a nature reserve . In addition , the Port of Ashdod is undergoing a massive expansion program , and a private hospital will be built in the city .

= = Geography = =

The Ashdod @-@ Nitzanim sand dune nature reserve is a 20 @-@ kilometer ( 12 @-@ mile ) stretch of sand dunes on the southern outskirts of Ashdod .

= = Climate = =

Ashdod has a Mediterranean climate with hot summers , pleasant spring and fall , and cool , rainy winters . As a seaside town , the humidity tends to be high many times year round , and rain occurs mainly from November to March . In winter , temperatures seldom drop below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) and are more likely to be in the range of 10 – 15 ° C ( 50 – 59 ° F ) , while in summer the average is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) . The average annual rainfall is 510 mm ( 20 in ) .

= = Economy = =

Ashdod is one of the most important industrial centers in Israel . All industrial activities in the city are located in northern areas such as the port area , the northern industrial zone , and around the Lachish River . The port of Ashdod is the largest port in Israel , handling about 60 % of Israel 's port cargo . It was mainly upgraded in recent years and will be able to provide berths for Panamax ships . Various shipping companies offices are also located in the port area which also is home to an Eshkol A power station and coal terminal .

The Northern industrial zone is located on Highway 41 and includes various industry including an oil refinery , which is one of only two in the country . The heavy industry zone located south of the Lachish River was once the main industrial center in Ashdod . Recently , however , leisure facilities have moved into the area . There is still some industry here , however , such as a Teva Pharmaceutical Industries plant , construction components producer Ashtrom , and Solbar a soybean oil producer . Ashdod is also home to Elta , a part of Israel Aircraft Industries where radar equipment , electronic warfare systems , and ELINT are developed .

= = Shopping , going out = =

Historically each neighborhood of Ashdod had its own commercial center . In 1990 , however , when the mall shopping culture developed in Israel , the main commercial activity in Ashdod moved to malls . The first mall to open in Ashdod was the Forum Center in the industrial zone . Restaurants , bars and night clubs were opened in the area . Today , the Forum center is mainly used for offices . Lev Ashdod Mall , which opened in 1993 , has been enlarged and upgraded since then . Ashdod Mall , billed at the time as the city 's largest shopping mall , has also been redesigned since its opening in 1995 . City Mall , Ashdod was opened in a combined building with the central bus station in 1996 , following the examples of the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station and the Jerusalem Central Bus Station . The Sea Mall , a three @-@ story mall near the government offices , has a climbing wall and movie theater . Star Center doubled in size in 2007 .

= = Education = =

In 2013 , Ashdod had 500 schools employing 3 @,@ 500 teachers . The student population was 55 @,@ 000 . The city 's education budget was NIS 418 million shekels .

Lycée français Guivat @-@ Washington , a French international high school , is in Givat Washington , in proximity to Ashdod .

= = Transportation = =

= = = Road = = =

Ashdod is located on the historic Via Maris . Highway 4 was developed following this route along the southern sea shore of Israel ; it serves as the main connection to the north , towards the Tel Aviv metropolitan area , and to the south , towards Ashkelon.Ad Halom junction was planned as the main entrance to the city from the east .

Ashdod Interchange was opened in 2009 . The interchange continues the freeway section of Highway 4 further south , by removing the traffic light at this junction , and also added grade separation with the railway . The other main road in the area is Highway 41 which served the city from the start of its modern history . This road runs from west to east towards Gedera and it is the main transport link to the port of Ashdod and the industrial zones , and connects to Highway 4 with an interchange .

In late 2012 , Ashdod won a NIS 220 million grant from the Israeli Transport Ministry to improve public transportation and decrease private car use . According to the municipality 's plans , a 20 @-@ kilometer ring of road arteries will be given priority in public transportation . These arteries will carry four bus rapid transit lines . In the city 's more crowded areas , such as Herzl Boulevard or the western part of Menachem Begin Boulevard , a public transportation lane will be paved in the center of the road . In other areas , the right @-@ hand lane will be reserved for public transportation . Buses will also be given priority at traffic lights ; electronic devices will allow a bus to signal its approach , causing the light to turn green . In addition , an electric @-@ powered bicycle rental network will be set up , and 22 kilometres ( 14 miles ) of bicycle paths will be paved in the city .

= = = Train = = =

The passenger railway connection to Ashdod opened in 1992 after the renovation of the historical railway to Egypt . Ashdod railway station is on Israel Railways ' Binyamina / Netanya – Tel Aviv – Ashkelon line and it is located near Ad Halom Junction . The station was upgraded in 2003 when a new terminal building was built . The station building is modern , but proper road access to it was only organized on September 23 , 2008 , when a new road to the station was opened .

There is also heavy freight traffic in the area . Port of Ashdod has its own railway spur line as well as a special terminal for potash brought from the Sodom area and exported abroad .

= = = Buses = = =

A new central bus station opened in 1996 . It serves as the terminus both for inter- and intracity lines . The central bus station is attached to the City Mall . Intercity bus lines connect the city with most population centers in central and southern Israel . Following is the list of bus companies serving routes at the central bus station :

The Egged Ta 'avura company has been operating urban buses in Ashdod since 2007 . In addition , a share taxi service exists in Ashdod , operated by Moniyot HaIr . Most share taxi lines coincide with intracity bus lines .

= = = Cruise ships and yachts = = =

There is a passenger pier in the Port of Ashdod . The traffic at this gateway is constantly growing , especially due to cruise ship activities . The other sea gateway is Blue Marina .

= = Demographics = =

According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics , Ashdod had a population of about 204 @,@ 400 at the end of 2006 , making it the fifth largest city in Israel . The annual population growth rate is 2 @.@ 6 % and the ratio of women to men is 1 @,@ 046 to 1 @,@ 000 . The population age distribution was recorded as 19 @.@ 7 % under the age of 10 , 15 @.@ 7 % from age 10 to 19 , 14 @.@ 9 % from 20 to 29 , 19 @.@ 1 % from 30 to 44 , 19 @.@ 1 % from 45 to 64 , and 11 @.@ 3 % were 65 or older . The population of Ashdod is significantly younger than the Israeli average because of the large number of young couples living in the city . The city is ranked medium @-@ low in socio @-@ economic grading , with a rating of 4 out of 10 . 56 @.@ 1 % of 12th grade students in Ashdod were eligible for matriculation certificates in 2000 . The average salary in 2000 was NIS 4 @,@ 821 compared to the national average of NIS 6 @,@ 835 .

= = = Immigrant absorption = = =

Ashdod has seen much of its growth as the result of absorption of immigrants . The first settlers were Jewish immigrants from Morocco and Egypt . In the 1960s Ashdod accepted a large number of immigrants from Romania , followed by a large number from Georgia ( then part of the Soviet Union ) in the 1970s . More than 60 @,@ 000 Russian Jews from the former Soviet Union who immigrated to Israel in the 1990s following the collapse of the Soviet Union settled in Ashdod . Recent demographic figures suggest that about 32 % of the city 's population are new immigrants , 85 % of whom are originally from the former Soviet Union . During the 1990s the city absorbed a large number of Beta Israel immigrants from Ethiopia , and in more recent years Ashdod absorbed a large number of immigrants from the United States , United Kingdom , France , Argentina , and South Africa . Many of the 60 @,@ 000 Marathi @-@ speaking Bene Israel from Maharashtra , India who moved to Israel also settled there . Ashdod also receives a significant amount of internal migration , especially from the Gush Dan region .

= = = Religion = = =

Over 95 % of Ashdod 's population is Jewish , over 30 % of whom are religiously observant . Despite this , the city is generally secular , although most of the non @-@ Jewish population is a result of mixed marriages . About 100 families are affiliated with the Pittsburg Hasidic group , established here in 1969 by Grand Rabbi Avraham Abba Leifer and continued today by his son , Grand Rabbi Mordechai Yissachar Ber Leifer . Ashdod has many synagogues serving different streams of Judaism . The city is also home to the world 's largest Karaite community , about five thousand strong . There is also a Scandinavian Seamen Protestant church , established by Norwegian Righteous Among the Nations pastor Per Faye @-@ Hansen .

= = Local government = =

Ashdod was declared a city in 1968 . The Ashdod City Council has twenty @-@ five elected members , one of whom is the mayor . The mayor serves a five @-@ year term and appoints six deputies . The current mayor of Ashdod , Yehiel Lasri , was last elected in 2008 after Zvi Zilker has been in office continuously since 1989 . Within the city council there are various factions representing different population groups . The headquarters of the Ashdod Municipality and the mayor 's office are at city hall . This new municipal building is located in the main culture and business area .

= = = Mayors = = =

= = Culture and art = =

= = = Music and performing arts = = =

Ashdod is home to the Israeli Andalusian Orchestra , which performs Andalusian classical music . It is an Arabic music style that originates from Moorish Iberia or Al @-@ Andalus , has been jealously preserved in its original form by Arab and Jewish musicians of the Maghreb over the centuries , and has left its mark on the cante flamenco , the flamenco singing style , perhaps better known in the West . The orchestra was awarded the Israel Prize in 2006 .

Ashdod also has one of the biggest open theaters in Israel - Amphi Ashdod that can hosts more than 6 @,@ 400 guests . The Amphi hosts Ashdod 's international art festival " Méditerranée " .

The MonArt Centre for the Arts , which includes a ballet school , a music center and the Ashdod Museum of Art , is a performing arts center which comprises different galleries , art schools , studios and events . The ambitious architectural complex has been inaugurated in 2003 . Theatre and concerts are hosted in several cultural venues ; the most important are performed at the Ashdod Performing Arts Center , a new 938 @-@ seat concert hall of distinct elegance and originality designed by Israeli architect Haim Dotan and inaugurated in 2012 in the city 's cultural center . Ashdod plays host to many national and international music festivals , including the annual Super Jazz Ashdod Festival managed by Leonid Ptashka .

The ACADMA conservatory is a professional educational institute for music and performance studies based in Ashdod . Operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Education , the institute was established in 1966 , and serves as a home for 600 young musicians in different fields .

= = = Museums = = =

The Corinne Mamane Museum of Philistine Culture is worldwide the only museum dedicated to this topic . It reopened in 2014 with a new interactive exhibition .

The Ashdod Museum of Art , located in the MonArt center ( see above at " Music and performing arts " ) , has 12 galleries and two exhibition halls . In an architectural echo of the Louvre , the entrance to the museum is through a glass pyramid . In 2003 the internal spaces of the museum were redesigned by the architects Eyal Weizman , Rafi Segal and Manuel Herz .

= = Sports = =

Ashdod 's football team , F.C. Ashdod represents the city in Ligat ha 'Al , Israel 's Premier League . The club is known for its successful soccer school . The city 's top basketball team is Maccabi Ashdod . The men squad plays in First League , Israel 's First tier league , and the women squad Maccabi Bnot Ashdod plays in top division .

Ashdod plays host to many national and international sporting tournaments , including the annual Ashdod International Chess Festival . The city has a cricket team , a rarity in Israel . It is run and organized by citizens of Indian descent . Ashdod 's beaches are a venue for water sports , like as windsurfing and Scuba diving . The Ashdod Marina offers yachting services .

Notable athletes from Ashdod include :

Vered Borochovsky – 2000 Sydney Olympics and 2004 Summer Olympics swimmer .

Alon Hazan – international soccer player

Haim Revivo – international soccer player

Gocha Tzitziashvili – 2003 Greco @-@ Roman Wrestling World champion & 2004 Summer Olympics wrestler

= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =

Ashdod is twinned with

= = Notable residents = =

Valery Panov

= Héctor López =

Héctor Headley López Swainson ( born July 9 , 1929 ( possibly April 8 , 1932 ) ) is a former left fielder and third baseman in Major League Baseball who played for the Kansas City Athletics and New York Yankees from 1955 to 1966 . He is notable as the first black manager at the AAA baseball level , as the third outfielder on the Maris / Mantle Yankees , and as the Kansas City Athletics franchise hitting streak record holder . López was on World Series Championship teams for the Yankees in 1961 and 1962 . In various seasons , he finished among the top 10 American League hitters in hits , runs batted in , runs scored , doubles , triples , slugging percentage , sacrifice flies , sacrifice hits , games played , times hit by pitch and at bats . He was also known for his hustle , his clutch hitting and poor fielding .

López was the second Panamanian @-@ born major league baseball player and continues to be one of the country 's most revered world champion athletes . Although Humberto Robinson ( 102 games played / 5 seasons ) debuted in the major leagues 22 days earlier than López , López ( 1 @,@ 450 games played / 12 seasons ) was the first of the 49 major leaguers born in Panama to have an extensive career . He was the first Panamanian @-@ born major leaguer to finish in the top 10 in any official statistical category ( sacrifice hits , 1956 ) ; first to lead his league in any official statistic ( sacrifice flies , 1958 ) ; first to play in the World Series ( with the 1960 Yankees ) ; and the first to win a World Championship ( with the 1961 Yankees ) .

He was an infielder for the Athletics , and later was often the third outfielder on the Maris / Mantle Yankees of the early and mid @-@ 1960s . López had his most successful season in 1959 , but continued to contribute effectively during the early 1960s during their pennant successes . The utility player divided his career almost equally between infield and outfield positions . After retiring from baseball , he went on to become a groundbreaking manager in minor league baseball as the first to break the baseball color line as a black manager at the AAA level for the Buffalo Bisons and then served in various international managerial and coaching positions .

= = Early life = =

Born in Colón , Panama , López grew up in Colón and the neighboring Panama Canal Zone . He held a part @-@ time job at an American military base bowling alley . He was a high school track star whose father had been a pitcher for the Panama national baseball team . As a high school athlete , he played semipro baseball for US $ 100 per month in Colón . After he graduated from high school he signed to play with St. Hyacinthe of the Canadian Provincial League who also employed Clifford " Connie " Johnson .

= = Kansas City Athletics ( 1955 – 59 ) = =

Prior to the 1952 season , López was acquired by the Philadelphia Athletics from the Drummondville Cubs of the Class @-@ C Provincial League for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 13 @,@ 367 today ) . In 1954 , López won baseball 's Triple Crown in the Winter League . Throughout his professional career , he played in the Panama winter league where he won three batting titles and regularly led the league in home runs . López developed in the A 's farm system , and when the team relocated to Kansas City in 1955 he was recalled to the major league club . López made his major league debut in 1955 . That season he finished second to Carlos Paula among rookies in batting average and was overshadowed by American League strikeout @-@ leading pitcher Herb Score for the Rookie of the Year . He usually played second or third base during his time with the Athletics . During his rookie season , he finished third on the team in home runs , trailing only Gus Zernial ( 30 ) and Vic Power ( 19 ) . He tied Jim Finigan for third on the team in RBIs with 68 , trailing only Zernial and Power , who had 84 and 76 , respectively . López was the team 's regular third baseman , and was the youngest regular starter on the team . In 1956 , the team finished with a 52 – 102 record , but López had a career @-@ high 153 hits . He also set then @-@ career highs in home runs ( 18 ) and runs batted in ( 69 ) . In his early years , black and white players did not room together on the road , so he roomed with Vic Power even though Power 's closest friend on the team was Clete Boyer . In 1957 , he had a 22 @-@ game hitting streak , that is the All @-@ time Kansas City Athletics team record for the thirteen seasons the franchise played there .

He earned a position in the top @-@ 10 in the American League in both games played and at bats in 1956 and 1958 , as well as leading the AL in sacrifice flies and times grounded into double plays in 1958 . López also was in the top 10 in doubles and runs scored in 1958 and in sacrifice hits in 1956 . On June 26 , 1958 , López hit three home runs in a game against the Washington Senators . During his career with the Athletics , he hit .278 with 67 home runs and 269 RBIs , and scored 298 runs . However , his talents were wasted on a team that never finished above 6th place . On May 26 , 1959 , he was traded with Ralph Terry to the New York Yankees for Johnny Kucks , Tom Sturdivant , and Jerry Lumpe . For all his offensive skills , López led American League third basemen in errors in each of his four full seasons in Kansas City .

Baseball writer and Kansas City Athletics fan Bill James wrote that López was as bad a defensive player as you would ever want to see . The Authors of The Great American Baseball Card Flipping , Trading and Bubble Gum Book wrote of López 's defense " I would like to go on record right here and now as declaring Hector López the all @-@ time worst fielding major league ballplayer . "

= = New York Yankees ( 1959 – 66 ) = =

In his first season with the Yankees after being traded , he played 35 games in the outfield , the first time in his career he played more than 20 outfield games . He still played 76 games at third base for the team . In his 33 games with Kansas City at the start of the 1959 Major League Baseball season , he had played exclusively at second base . In his next five seasons with the Yankees from 1960 to 1964 , he mostly played in the outfield as he was part of five consecutive pennant winners . During his time with the Yankees , he was often the third outfielder of the Maris / Mantle Yankees that won two of the five consecutive World Series they played in from 1960 to 1964 . He logged the most games in left field during the back @-@ to @-@ back World Series Championship seasons of 1961 & 1962 ( 129 vs. Berra @-@ 109 , Tresh @-@ 43 ) . During the five pennant years , with Roger Maris playing right field and Mickey Mantle playing center field , López logged 406 games in left field . This was the most by any Yankee during this period ( Tom Tresh @-@ 195 , Yogi Berra @-@ 129 ) . López is one of eleven Yankees to have been on these five consecutive pennant winners and along with Whitey Ford , Elston Howard , Bobby Richardson , & Clete Boyer is one of seven Yankees to have been part of the entire Maris / Mantle Yankee era . In 1965 and 1966 , he made the majority of his outfield appearances in right field . However , in 1965 Mantle did not play center field . Mantle did return to center field for the majority of his appearances in 1966 ( the final year of the Maris / Mantle Yankees and the final year of López ' career ) .

In 1959 , he finished in the top 10 in slugging percentage , hits , doubles and RBI . In 1960 he was among the top 10 in triples and sacrifice hits . During the 1961 World Series , López replaced Mantle ( who only had six Series at bats ) in Game 4 and recorded a 2 @-@ run single on the way to a 7 – 0 victory . In Game 5 , which was the Series @-@ clinching game , he homered and tripled , driving in five runs , and caught Vada Pinson 's fly ball for the final out of the Series . His three for seven , 7 run batted in performance continues to be remembered by New Yorkers as a highlight of the series .

= = Managing = =

López was the manager of the Buffalo Bisons in 1969 . This made him the first black manager at the AAA level . This was six years before Frank Robinson became the first black manager in the major leagues . López was one of three black men ( along with Sam Bankhead and Gene Baker ) to manage in the minor leagues in the twenty @-@ five years after Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in 1947 . In 1990 , he coached Malverne High School of Malverne , New York in Nassau County on Long Island in addition to working in the parks department in the Town of Hempstead . López has also managed in Venezuela and been a player @-@ manager in Panama . He was the manager of the Panama national baseball team in the 2009 World Baseball Classic .

= = Panamanian history = =

He paved the way as a role model for the first three Panamanian Major League All @-@ Stars , Ben Oglivie and Manny Sanguillén also from Colón , and Rod Carew a Colonense born in neighboring Gatun . López recorded many firsts among Panamanian baseball players ; he was the first regular major leaguer , since 1955 was his rookie season , whereas Robinson did not qualify as a rookie until 1958 ( the season in which he recorded his 50th career inning pitched ) and Webbo Clarke , who also debuted in 1955 , never qualified as a rookie . López ' 1955 rookie season , when he batted .290 , was also the first by a Panamanian to qualify for baseball 's statistical leadership by recording the minimum number of plate appearances or innings pitched . Thus , although he was not the first to appear in the major leagues , he was in a sense the first Panamanian everyday player .

None of the other major leaguers born in Panama who played in the 1950s ( Robinson , Clarke , Pat Scantlebury , Tom Hughes ) played in the major league postseason , which then only included the World Series , before López did so with the 1960 Yankees . No other Panamanian was part of a World Series champion before López with the 1961 Yankees . He was the first Panamanian to record many statistical accomplishments , such as a stolen base , home run , double , triple , walk or strikeout . His 1956 season was the first by a Panamanian with more than 150 hits , more than 25 doubles , 90 runs scored , or more than 60 walks . His 1959 season was the first with more than 20 home runs or 90 runs batted in . López twice had .350 on @-@ base percentages , but in each season he recorded over 400 plate appearances without recording the qualifying number for unofficial league leadership . Thus , his career high on @-@ base percentage in a season in which he qualified for statistical leadership was .347 in 1956 . He was the first to finish among the top 10 in his league in each of the aforementioned statistical categories , and the first to lead his league in any official statistical batting category ( sacrifice flies in 1958 ) . López was the first Panamanian to accumulate a sufficient number of career appearances to qualify for career statistical leadership ( which depending upon the source is based on 3000 , 4000 or 5000 at bats ) , although his career .269 batting average , .330 on @-@ base percentage and .415 slugging percentage are not historically significant .

He also represented Panama in the 1960 Caribbean Series and tied with Félix Torres and Herman Davis for the tournament home run leadership . He continues to be considered a legendary world champion who represented the country . In 2006 , he was cited by professional basketball coach , Joseph Clarke , as ranking alongside such noted Panamanian sports personalities as Ismael Laguna , Roberto Durán , and Mariano Rivera as Panamanian World Champions . López has two sons . Ever since López ' performances with the Yankees , the team has had a huge following in Panama .

= = Post @-@ playing career = =

Lopez retired following the 1966 season at the age of 36 . That year , he also participated in his first Old @-@ Timers ' Day . He has returned to the annual event every year ( totaling 49 years as of 2015 ) .

= Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer =

Maria Goeppert Mayer ( June 28 , 1906 – February 20 , 1972 ) was a German @-@ born American theoretical physicist , and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus . She was the second female Nobel laureate in physics , after Marie Curie .

A graduate of the University of Göttingen , Goeppert Mayer wrote her doctorate on the theory of possible two @-@ photon absorption by atoms . At the time , the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote , but the development of the laser permitted this . Today , the unit for the two @-@ photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert Mayer ( GM ) unit .

Maria Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer and moved to the United States , where he was an associate professor at Johns Hopkins University . Strict rules against nepotism prevented Johns Hopkins University from taking her on as a faculty member , but she was given a job as an assistant and published a landmark paper on double beta decay in 1935 . In 1937 , she moved to Columbia University , where she took an unpaid position . During World War II , she worked for the Manhattan Project at Columbia on isotope separation , and with Edward Teller at the Los Alamos Laboratory on the development of the Teller 's " Super " bomb .

After the war , Goeppert Mayer became a voluntary associate professor of Physics at the University of Chicago ( where Teller and her husband worked ) and a senior physicist at the nearby Argonne National Laboratory . She developed a mathematical model for the structure of nuclear shells , for which she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 , which she shared with J. Hans D. Jensen and Eugene Wigner . In 1960 , she was appointed full professor of physics at the University of California at San Diego .

= = Early life = =

Maria Göppert was born on June 28 , 1906 , in Kattowitz ( now Katowice , Poland ) , a city in Prussia , the only child of Friedrich Göppert and his wife Maria née Wolff . In 1910 , she moved with her family to Göttingen when her father , a sixth @-@ generation university professor , was appointed as the professor of pediatrics at the University of Göttingen . Goeppert was closer to her father than her mother . " Well , my father was more interesting , " she later explained . " He was after all a scientist . "

Göppert was educated at the Höhere Technische in Göttingen , a school for middle @-@ class girls who aspired to higher education . In 1921 , she entered the Frauenstudium , a private high school run by suffragettes that aimed to prepare girls for university . She took the abitur , the university entrance examination , at age 17 , a year early , with three or four girls from her school and thirty boys . All the girls passed , but only one of the boys did .

In the Spring of 1924 , Göppert entered the University of Göttingen , where she studied mathematics . A purported shortage of women mathematics teachers for schools for girls led to an upsurge of women studying mathematics at a time of high unemployment , and there was even a female professor of mathematics at Göttingen , Emmy Noether , but most were only interested in qualifying for their teaching certificate .

Instead , Goeppert became interested in physics , and chose to pursue a Ph.D. In her 1930 doctoral thesis she worked out the theory of possible two @-@ photon absorption by atoms . Eugene Wigner later described the thesis as " a masterpiece of clarity and concreteness " . At the time , the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote , but the development of the laser permitted the first experimental verification in 1961 when two @-@ photon @-@ excited fluorescence was detected in a europium @-@ doped crystal . To honor her fundamental contribution to this area , the unit for the two @-@ photon absorption cross section is named the Goeppert @-@ Mayer ( GM ) unit . One GM is 10 − 50 cm4 s photon − 1 . Her examiners were three future Nobel prize winners : Max Born , James Franck and Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus .

On January 19 , 1930 , Goeppert married Joseph Edward Mayer , an American Rockefeller fellow who was one of James Franck 's assistants . The two had met when Mayer had boarded with the Goeppert family . The couple moved to Mayer 's home country of the United States , where he had been offered a position as associate professor of chemistry at Johns Hopkins University . They had two children , Maria Ann and Peter Conrad .

= = United States = =

Strict rules against nepotism ostensibly prevented Johns Hopkins University from hiring Goeppert Mayer as a faculty member , but she was given a job as an assistant in the Physics Department working with German correspondence . She received a very small salary , a place to work and access to the facilities . She taught some courses , published an important paper on double beta decay in 1935 .

There was little interest in quantum mechanics at Johns Hopkins , but Goeppert Mayer worked with Karl Herzfeld , collaborating on a number of papers . She also returned to Göttingen in the summers of 1931 , 1932 and 1933 to work with her former examiner Born , writing an article with him for the Handbuch der Physik . This ended when the NSDAP came to power in 1933 , and many academics , including Born and Franck , lost their jobs . Goeppert Mayer and Herzfeld became involved in refugee relief efforts .

Joe Mayer was fired in 1937 . He attributed this to the hatred of women on the part of the dean of physical sciences , which he thought was provoked by Goeppert Mayer 's presence in the laboratory . Herzfeld agreed and added that , with Goeppert Mayer , Franck and Herzfeld all at Johns Hopkins , some thought that there were too many German scientists there . There were also complaints from some students that Mayer 's chemistry lectures contained too much modern physics . Mayer took up a position at Columbia University , where the chairman of the Physics Department , George B. Pegram , arranged for Goeppert Mayer to have an office , but she received no salary . She soon made good friends with Harold Urey and Enrico Fermi , who arrived at Columbia in 1939 . Fermi asked her to investigate the valence shell of the undiscovered transuranic elements . Using the Thomas – Fermi model , she predicted that they would form a new series similar to the rare earth elements . This proved to be correct .

= = Manhattan Project = =

In December 1941 , Goeppert Mayer took up her first paid professional position , teaching science part @-@ time at Sarah Lawrence College . In the spring of 1942 , with the United States embroiled in World War II , she joined the Manhattan Project . She accepted a part @-@ time research post from Urey with Columbia University 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories . The objective of this project was to find a means of separating the fissile uranium @-@ 235 isotope in natural uranium ; she researched the chemical and thermodynamic properties of uranium hexafluoride and investigated the possibility of separating isotopes by photochemical reactions . This method proved impractical at the time , but the development of lasers would later open the possibility of separation of isotopes by laser excitation .

Through her friend Edward Teller , Goeppert Mayer was given a position at Columbia with the Opacity Project , which researched the properties of matter and radiation at extremely high temperatures with an eye to the development of the Teller 's " Super " bomb , the wartime program for the development of thermonuclear weapons . In February 1945 , Joe was sent to the Pacific War , and Goeppert Mayer decided to leave her children in New York and join Teller 's group at the Los Alamos Laboratory . Joe came back from the Pacific earlier than expected , and they returned to New York together in July 1945 .

In February 1946 , Joe became a professor in the Chemistry Department and the new Institute for Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago , and Goeppert Mayer was able to become a voluntary associate professor of Physics at the school . When Teller also accepted a position there , she was able to continue her Opacity work with him . When the nearby Argonne National Laboratory was founded on July 1 , 1946 , Goeppert Mayer was also offered a part @-@ time job there as a senior physicist in the Theoretical Physics Division . She responded " I don 't know anything about nuclear physics . " She programmed the Aberdeen Proving Ground 's ENIAC to solve criticality problems for a liquid metal cooled reactor using the Monte Carlo method .

= = Nuclear shell model = =

During her time at Chicago and Argonne in the late 1940s , Goeppert Mayer developed a mathematical model for the structure of nuclear shells , which she published in 1950 . Her model explained why certain numbers of nucleons in an atomic nucleus result in particularly stable configurations . These numbers are what Eugene Wigner called magic numbers : 2 , 8 , 20 , 28 , 50 , 82 , and 126 . Enrico Fermi provided a critical insight by asking her : " Is there any indication of spin orbit coupling ? " She realised that this was indeed the case , and postulated that the nucleus is a series of closed shells and pairs of neutrons and protons tend to couple together . She described the idea as follows :

Think of a room full of waltzers . Suppose they go round the room in circles , each circle enclosed within another . Then imagine that in each circle , you can fit twice as many dancers by having one pair go clockwise and another pair go counterclockwise . Then add one more variation ; all the dancers are spinning twirling round and round like tops as they circle the room , each pair both twirling and circling . But only some of those that go counterclockwise are twirling counterclockwise . The others are twirling clockwise while circling counterclockwise . The same is true of those that are dancing around clockwise : some twirl clockwise , others twirl counterclockwise .

Three German scientists , Otto Haxel , J. Hans D. Jensen , and Hans Suess , were also working on solving the same problem , and arrived at the same conclusion independently . Their results were announced in the issue of the Physical Review before Goeppert Mayer ' s announcement in June 1949 . Afterwards , she collaborated with them . Hans Jensen co @-@ authored a book with Goeppert Mayer in 1950 titled Elementary Theory of Nuclear Shell Structure . In 1963 , Goeppert Mayer , Jensen , and Wigner shared the Nobel Prize for Physics " for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure . " She was the second and most recent female Nobel laureate in physics , after Marie Curie .

= = Death and legacy = =

In 1960 , Goeppert Mayer was appointed full professor of physics at the University of California at San Diego . Although she suffered from a stroke shortly after arriving there , she continued to teach and conduct research for a number of years . She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965 . Goeppert Mayer died in San Diego , California , on February 20 , 1972 , after a heart attack that had struck her the previous year left her comatose . She was buried at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego .

After her death , the Maria Goeppert Mayer Award was created by the American Physical Society to honor young female physicists at the beginning of their careers . Open to all female physicists who hold Ph.D.s , the winner receives money and the opportunity to give guest lectures about her research at four major institutions . Two of her former universities also honor her . The Argonne National Laboratory presents an award each year to an outstanding young woman scientist or engineer , while the University of California at San Diego hosts an annual Maria Goeppert Mayer symposium , bringing together female researchers to discuss current science . Crater Goeppert Mayer on Venus with a diameter of about 35 km is also named after Goeppert @-@ Mayer . In 2011 , she was included in the third issuance of the American Scientists collection of US postage stamps , along with Melvin Calvin , Asa Gray , and Severo Ochoa . Her papers are in the Geisel Library at the University of California , San Diego , and the university 's physics department is housed in Mayer Hall , which is named after her and her husband .

= Powhatan Beaty =

Powhatan Beaty ( October 8 , 1837 – December 6 , 1916 ) was an African American soldier and actor . During the American Civil War , he served in the Union Army 's 5th United States Colored Infantry Regiment throughout the Richmond – Petersburg Campaign . He received America 's highest military decoration , the Medal of Honor , for taking command of his company at the Battle of Chaffin 's Farm after all officers had been killed and / or wounded .

Following the war , he became an orator and actor , appearing in amateur theater productions in his home of Cincinnati , Ohio . His most well @-@ known stage performance was an 1884 appearance at Ford 's Opera House on 9th Street in Washington , D.C. , opposite Henrietta Vinton Davis .

= = Early life = =

Beaty was born into slavery on October 8 , 1837 , in Richmond , Virginia . He moved to Cincinnati , Ohio , in 1849 , where he received an education . He gained his freedom sometime on or before April 19 , 1861 ; the exact date is unknown and may have been before his move to Ohio . While in school , he developed an interest in theater and made his public acting debut at a school concert . After leaving school , he was apprenticed to a black cabinet maker and eventually worked as a turner . He continued to study acting privately and received training in the field from several coaches , including James E. Murdock , a retired professional stage actor from Philadelphia .

A year after the outbreak of the Civil War , with the Confederate victory at the Battle of Richmond , Kentucky , on August 30 , 1862 , rumors of an impending Confederate attack on Cincinnati began to circulate . Richmond was one hundred miles to the south of Cincinnati , and no organized Union troops lay between the two cities . An attack by Confederate Colonel John Hunt Morgan , who had led his cavalry on a raid behind Union lines in Kentucky the previous month , was also feared . On September 2 , the men of Cincinnati were organized into work units to build fortifications around the city .

Although Cincinnati 's African Americans were initially pressed into service at bayonet point , after the appointment of William Dickson as commander of the black troops their treatment improved significantly . Dickson promised that they would be treated fairly and kept together as a distinct unit , to be called the Black Brigade . He then allowed them to return home to prepare for military service , with orders to report the next morning for duty . About four hundred men were released that day , September 4 , and the next morning about seven hundred reported for duty . Among those men was Beaty , who served in Company Number 1 of the Brigade 's 3rd Regiment . Despite the danger of Confederate attack , the unarmed unit was assigned to build defenses near the Licking River in Kentucky , far in advance of the Union lines . For the next fifteen days , they cleared forests , constructed forts , magazines and roads , and dug trenches and rifle pits . The brigade was disbanded on September 20 , the threat of attack having receded .

= = United States Colored Troops service = =

By June 1863 , Ohio had not yet fielded an African American combat unit , but Ohio blacks were being recruited for service in the regiments of other states . Beaty enlisted from Cincinnati on June 7 , 1863 for a three @-@ year term of service in the Union Army ; he was among a group of men recruited for a Massachusetts regiment . He joined as a private but was promoted to sergeant only two days later . He was placed in charge of a squad of forty @-@ seven other recruits and ordered to report to Columbus , Ohio , from where they would be sent to Boston . Upon arriving in Columbus on June 15 , however , they learned that the Massachusetts regiments were full and unable to accept their service . The Governor of Ohio , David Tod , immediately requested permission from the Department of War to form an Ohio regiment of African Americans . Permission was granted , and on June 17 , Beaty and his squad became the first members of the 127th Ohio Volunteer Infantry , later re @-@ designated the 5th United States Colored Troops . After three months of recruitment and organization in Camp Delaware , on the Olentangy River outside of Delaware , Ohio , the unit set out for Virginia .

By the Battle of Chaffin 's Farm on September 29 , 1864 , Beaty had risen to the rank of first sergeant in Company G. His regiment was among a division of black troops assigned to attack the center of the Confederate defenses at New Market Heights . The defenses consisted of two lines of abatis and one line of palisades manned by Brigadier General John Gregg 's Texas Brigade . The attack was met with intense Confederate fire and was turned back after reaching a line of abatis . During the retreat , Company G 's color bearer was killed ; Beaty returned through about 600 yards of enemy fire to retrieve the flag and return it to the company lines . The regiment had suffered severe casualties in the failed charge . Of Company G 's eight officers and eighty @-@ three enlisted men who entered the battle , only sixteen enlisted men , including Beaty , survived the attack unwounded . With no officers remaining , Beaty took command of the company and led it through a second charge at the Confederate lines . The second attack successfully drove the Confederates from their fortified positions , at the cost of three more men from Company G. By the end of the battle , over fifty percent of the black division had been killed , captured , or wounded . For his actions , Beaty was commended on the battlefield by General Benjamin Butler and seven months later , on April 6 , 1865 , awarded the Medal of Honor .

Beaty continued to distinguish himself in the 5th Regiment 's further engagements . His actions during the Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Road in October 1864 earned him a mention in the general orders to the Army of the Potomac . The regimental commander , Colonel Giles Shurtleff , twice recommended him for a promotion to commissioned officer . Nothing came of Colonel Shurtleff 's requests , however Beaty did receive a brevet promotion to lieutenant . By the time he was mustered out of the Army he had participated in thirteen battles and numerous skirmishes .

= = Post @-@ war life = =

After the war , Beaty returned to Cincinnati and raised his family . His son , A. Lee Beaty , became an Ohio state legislator and an assistant U.S. District Attorney for southern Ohio . He resumed his career as a turner and pursued amateur acting and public speaking engagements . He gave public readings for charitable causes and became a well @-@ known elocutionist among the African American community of Cincinnati . Through the 1870s he acted in local theaters and directed music and drama exhibitions in the city . He wrote a play about a rich southern planter entitled Delmar , or Scenes in Southland , which was performed in January 1881 with himself in the lead role . Set in Kentucky , Mississippi , and Massachusetts , the work covered the end of slavery and transition to freedom for blacks from 1860 to 1875 . The privately run play was well received , but Beaty did not engage in self @-@ promotion and it never moved into public theaters .

In January 1884 , Beaty was working as an assistant engineer at the Cincinnati water works when Henrietta Vinton Davis , a prominent African American actress , came to perform in the city . Together , he and Davis put on a large musical and dramatic festival in Melodeon Hall which proved to be very successful . Included in the show were productions of Ingomar , the Barbarian and Robert Montgomery Bird 's The Gladiator , in which Beaty took the role of Spartacus . The culmination of the festival was a performance of selected scenes from Macbeth , with Beaty playing the title role and Davis as Lady Macbeth . Newspapers in both the black and white communities of Cincinnati praised the performances of the two actors , with the Commercial stating that Beaty " threw himself into his part with masterly energy and power " .

The successful festival led to Beaty being invited to play as a principal actor in a Washington , D.C. , Shakespearean production organized by Davis . A company including Davis , Beaty , and amateur actors from the D.C. area performed Richard III almost in entirety , three scenes from Macbeth , and one scene from Ingomar , the Barbarian . Davis , the premier black Shakespearean actress of the time , was the star of the show and Beaty played opposite her as Macbeth , King Henry VI , and Ingomar . The May 7 , 1884 , production was played in Ford 's Opera House to a full house of more than 1 @,@ 100 people ; among them was Frederick Douglass . There was some heckling during the play , primarily from some of the white attendees , however a reviewer from The Washington Post reported that " the earnestness and intelligence of several of the leading performers were such as to command the respect of those most disposed to find cause for laughter in everything that was said or done " . Washington newspapers praised the principal actors , but noted that the inexperience of some of the supporting cast was evident . Reviewers for African American newspapers were especially pleased to see such a production in an important venue like Ford 's Theater . The New York Globe wrote of the performance " [ t ] hus leap by leap the colored man and woman encroach upon the ground so long held sacred by their white brother and sister " .

Beaty continued to tour with Davis and performed a show in Philadelphia before returning to Cincinnati . He helped form his city 's Literary and Dramatic Club and , in 1888 , became the organization 's drama director . He lived out the rest of his life in Cincinnati and died at age seventy @-@ nine on December 6 , 1916 ; he was buried at Union Baptist Cemetery .

= = Medal of Honor citation = =

Citation :

Took command of his company , all the officers having been killed or wounded , and gallantly led it .

= Ra.One =

Ra.One is a 2011 Indian science fiction superhero film directed by Anubhav Sinha , and starring Shah Rukh Khan , Arjun Rampal , Kareena Kapoor , Armaan Verma , Shahana Goswami and Tom Wu in pivotal roles . The script , written by Anubhav Sinha and Kanika Dhillon , originated as an idea that Anubhav Sinha got when he saw a television commercial , and which he subsequently expanded . The film follows Shekhar Subramanium ( Shah Rukh Khan ) , a game designer who creates a motion sensor @-@ based game in which the antagonist ( Ra.One ) is more powerful than the protagonist ( G.One ) . The former escapes from the game 's virtual world and enters the real world ; his aim is to kill Lucifer , the game ID of Shekhar 's son and the only player to have challenged Ra.One 's power . Relentlessly pursued , the family is forced to bring out G.One from the virtual world to defeat Ra.One and protect them .

Principal photography began in March 2010 and took place in India and the United Kingdom , and was overseen by an international crew . The post @-@ production involved 3 @-@ D conversion and the application of visual effects , the latter being recognised as a technological breakthrough among Indian films . With a budget of ₹ 150 crore ( US $ 22 million ) , inclusive of publicity costs , Ra.One was one of the most expensive Indian films at the time of release . The producers spent ₹ 150 crore ( US $ 22 million ) out of a ₹ 52 crore ( US $ 7 @.@ 7 million ) marketing budget , which involved a nine @-@ month publicity campaign , brand tie @-@ ups , merchandise , video games and viral marketing .

Ra.One was initially scheduled to release on 3 June 2011 , but delays due to a lengthy post @-@ production process and escalating costs pushed back the release date . The film also faced controversies involving plagiarism , content leaks and copyright challenges . Consequently , Ra.One was theatrically released on 26 October 2011 , the beginning of the five @-@ day Diwali weekend , in 2D , 3D and dubbed versions , with three international premieres being held between October 24 & 26 , 2011 . The film witnessed the largest international theatrical release for an Indian film as of 2011 , and was preceded by high audience and commercial expectations .

Upon release , Ra.One received mixed reviews , with critics praising the visuals and music , but criticising the script and direction . Commercially , the film became the third highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 domestically , the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 worldwide , and broke a number of opening box office records , though it failed to sustain at the box office after its extended opening weekend . Although the film earned more than Rs 170 crores it was still not considered as a hit film as the distributors failed to recover their investment . The film subsequently won a number of awards for its technical aspects , notably one National Film Award , one Filmfare Award and four International Indian Film Academy Awards .

= = Plot = =

Shekhar Subramanium ( Shah Rukh Khan ) , a game designer who works for the London @-@ based Barron Industries , has delivered a number of commercial failures ; an irate Barron ( Dalip Tahil ) gives him his last chance to develop a successful game . To impress his sceptical son Prateek ( Armaan Verma ) , and upon the request of his wife Sonia ( Kareena Kapoor ) , Shekhar uses his son 's idea that the antagonist should be more powerful than the protagonist . His colleague , computer programmer Jenny ( Shahana Goswami ) , uses Shekhar 's face as a model for that of the game 's protagonist G.One ( Shah Rukh Khan ) ( Technically Good One and in Hindi Jeevan , which means life ) , while the shape @-@ shifting antagonist Ra.One ( Technically Random Access Version One and in Hindi Ravan , a mythical demon ) is made faceless . Another colleague , Akashi ( Tom Wu ) , implements the characters ' movements . The game , named Ra.One , contains three levels , the final level being the only one in which either character can be killed . Each character possesses a special device – the H.A.R.T ( Hertz Amplifying Resonance Transmitter ) which gives them their powers . Upon reaching the last level , the characters gain a gun with one bullet ; the other character can be killed by this bullet but only if his H.A.R.T is attached .

When Ra.One undergoes final tests , Akashi notices unusual glitches but chooses to ignore them . When the game is officially launched , it receives a standing ovation from the audience ; an enamored Prateek insists on playing it immediately . He logs in under the ID Lucifer and proceeds to the second level , but is interrupted by Akashi . Ra.One , unable to end his turn with Lucifer and angry that a player has proceeded so far , becomes determined that Lucifer will die . He uses a wireless technology ( which Jenny had introduced in a conference ) to enter the real world , a process which causes the mainframe to malfunction . Akashi informs Shekhar , who partially understands the situation and rushes home , fearing for his son 's life . Meanwhile , Ra.One murders Akashi and assumes his appearance ; he goes to find Lucifer , and meets Shekhar in the process . In an attempt to save his son , Shekhar claims that he is Lucifer , but his lie is exposed when Ra.One scans his identity card . Consequently , Ra.One kills Shekhar and makes it look like a car accident .

Sonia , devastated after Shekhar 's death , tells Prateek that the family will return to India after Shekhar 's funeral . A suspicious Prateek notices digital patterns on the fateful road and realises that Ra.One has come to life . He convinces Jenny of the same when they see the destroyed game laboratory , and the latter tries to bring G.One into the real world . Meanwhile , Ra.One , having taken the form of Akashi , chases the family on their way to the airport , but G.One enters the real world and causes a gas explosion which temporarily destroys Ra.One. G.One takes Ra.One 's H.A.R.T. and accompanies the family to Mumbai after Sonia realises that she needs him .

Subsequently , Ra.One returns to life , takes the form of a billboard model ( Arjun Rampal ) , and tracks down G.One to Prateek 's birthday party . Hypnotising Sonia , he assumes her form to kidnap Prateek . Ra.One then instructs G.One to give him his H.A.R.T. back , and sends the real Sonia in a malfunctioning local train . The train crashes into the Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus , but G.One saves Sonia in time . To save Prateek , he returns to the virtual world and fights Ra.One ; both reach the third level , the former left with little power . G.One tricks Ra.One into shooting him without his H.A.R.T. attached , leaving Ra.One helpless ; furious , the latter creates ten copies of himself . Prateek , unable to identify the real Ra.One , asks G.One to quote Shekhar : " If you join the forces of evil , its shadows shall always follow you " . The duo realise that only one of the ten Ra.Ones has a shadow : the original one . G.One shoots and destroys him , absorbs Ra.One 's remains and disappears .

Six months later , Prateek and Sonia return to London , where the former manages to restore G.One to the real world .

= = Cast = =

The major characters of Ra.One were played by protagonists Shahrukh Khan and Kareena Kapoor , and primary antagonist Arjun Rampal . Supporting roles were played by Tom Wu , Shahana Goswami and child artist Armaan Verma . The film featured cameo appearances by Rajinikanth playing the Enthiran character Chitti , Sanjay Dutt and Priyanka Chopra , the latter two being characters in a dream sequence . Additional minor roles were played by Dalip Tahil and Satish Shah , and an important voice @-@ over was provided by Amitabh Bachchan . Khan performed both as Shekhar and G.One. The titular character Ra.One was enacted by three actors – Rampal , Wu and Kapoor , signifying the character 's shape @-@ shifting ability .

Khan was the first actor to be cast in the film . Three actors had initially been considered for the lead female role ; Kapoor was ultimately chosen because she insisted on playing the part . Rampal accepted the role of Ra.One after Sinha expressed a strong desire to cast him in the film . Wu was contracted to the film in July 2010 , and Goswami was cast one month later . Bachchan agreed to be a part of the film after being requested by Khan and Sinha . Several cast members prepared extensively for their roles ; Rampal and Kapoor followed special diets to lose weight , and Verma learnt capoeira . Khan and Verma performed their own stunts , and Kapoor subsequently did so as well despite initial reluctance .

However , the cast did encounter problems during production . Khan faced difficulties with his superhero suit and prosthetic makeup , and injured his left knee . The decision to cast Rampal was met with scepticism due to " questionable acting abilities , " a statement Sinha criticised . In addition , Rampal encountered back problems ( which were treated by the time production began ) , prompting speculation of a possible replacement by Vivek Oberoi . Jackie Chan had initially been approached for the role of Akashi , but he declined the offer . Rajnikanth suffered from health problems which caused a delay in the filming of his cameo appearance . Dutt faced a scheduling conflict with Agneepath ( 2012 ) , which was later resolved .

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

According to director Anubhav Sinha , the idea of Ra.One originated when he saw an advertisement on television which showed children remotely controlling a human . He was attracted to the concept and wrote a script based on it . Sinha then approached Khan , who liked the story and decided to produce the film under his production company Red Chillies Entertainment . Sinha was apprehensive of retaining Khan 's support after the former 's previous film Cash ( 2007 ) became a commercial failure , but Khan reportedly " remained unchanged " .

Shahrukh Khan felt that the film possessed significant commercial potential , in addition to being a fulfilment of his " childhood dream " to be a superhero and to fly . He stated that he wanted to " make a film that gives me the right to deserve the iconic status that I 've got for 20 years . " He also said that he wanted to make a film dedicated to father @-@ son relationships , which were , in his opinion , " neglected " in Bollywood . Khan 's idea was to make a simple family drama which expanded into an action film . He declined to make the film in English to increase its appeal for Western audiences , feeling that " cracking Hollywood on their terms " was unnecessary . Both Khan and Sinha credited their children for providing encouragement , and regularly " approving " the film 's execution .

Red Chillies Entertainment continued to work on other projects before finalising the production aspects of Ra.One. After providing the visual effects for My Name Is Khan ( 2010 ) , the studio focused solely on Ra.One and did not take up any other films . Khan initially approached a number of directors to helm the film , including Aditya Chopra and Karan Johar , but they declined ; eventually , Sinha was made the film 's director . To prepare the film 's premises and characterisation , Sinha spent several months viewing video clips , digital art portals and comic books . Sinha and Khan also watched around 200 superhero films from all over the world . The storyboards were designed by Atul Chouthmal , who was contracted after he met Khan at Yash Raj Studios . While the former began work on the storyboards , the producers hired a storyboard artist from Hollywood . Chouthmal revealed that Khan and the other artist differed on their visions of the film , and so he was brought back . Before filming , Khan reportedly took tips from actor Kamal Hassan regarding the production of large @-@ scale films , having been impressed by Hassan 's Dasavathaaram ( 2008 ) .

The title of the film received significant media attention due to it being the name of the antagonist rather than the protagonist . The move was considered innovative , and noted as a sign of the " rising importance of the villain in Bollywood . " According to Sinha , the title had not been planned as such , and was ultimately chosen because Ra.One " sounded cooler " than G.One. Khan was advised to name the film after his own character ; he declined to do so , citing the inter @-@ dependence between good and evil . He also called Alfred Hitchcock as his inspiration , and pointed out that the antagonists in films like Sholay , Mr. India and Sadak were better remembered than the protagonists .

= = = Principal photography = = =

The crew of Ra.One featured both Indian and overseas personnel . Nicola Pecorini served as the director of photography , with V. Manikandan providing assistance . Andy Gill and Spiro Razatos were hired as the stunt supervisors , and Nino Pansini was hired as the stunt cinematographer . Sabu Cyril and Marcus Wookey were responsible for the production design . The film 's producer was Bobby Chawla , but Gauri Khan later stepped in after the former suffered a brain haemorrhage . Filming took place at a number of studios , notably Filmistan Studios , Film City and Yash Raj Studios in India and the Black Hangar Studios in the UK .

Principal photography was initially set to begin in Miami , but the idea was abandoned due to budget constraints . The first phase of filming began in Goa on 21 March 2010 and continued until May . The second and third phases took place in London with the entire cast , beginning in July 2010 and ending in August . The next phase was split into two schedules ; the first schedule commenced at Filmistan Studios in the first week of September 2010 , while the second schedule began in December 2010 and took place over a seven @-@ day period . The remaining portions were filmed in July 2011 at Film City . A cameo appearance and a music video were filmed in the weeks leading up to the release , the former at the Whistling Woods Studios in Mumbai .

Ra.One featured three major action sequences , which were filmed in sets and real locations across Mumbai and London . The cinematography borrowed ideas from video games , such as rapid transitions between first @-@ person and third @-@ person perspectives . Procedures such as bullet time were also incorporated into the film . The production design was closely associated with the lighting and cinematography to facilitate smooth filming . However , filming faced a number of difficulties including increasing costs , delays and safety constraints . In addition , differences between Khan and Sinha caused tensions on the sets .

= = = Post @-@ production = = =

As with the filming crew , the post @-@ production crew of the film included both Indian and overseas personnel . Prime Focus carried out the film 's 3 @-@ D conversion , with London @-@ based colorist Richard Fearon performing the color grading . Red Chillies VFX partnered with a number of visual effects studios around the world , and undertook the incorporation of the visual effects under the supervision of Jeffrey Kleiser . Nvidia provided the information technology – based software utilised for the effects , while Edwark Quirk supervised over the computer @-@ generated imagery used in the film . Resul Pookutty was responsible for the film 's sound design .

The idea for converting the film to 3 @-@ D was put forth during filming , and was implemented in July 2011 due to a revived interest in 3 @-@ D films . The process required 2 @,@ 600 artists to convert 4 @,@ 400 shots of the film . The sound design involved bridging the real and the virtual world , and the required sound enhancements were achieved by using the Dolby Surround 7 @.@ 1 system . Incorporating the visual effects began in April 2010 , and was preceded by extensive research . 1 @,@ 200 artists worked for 2 ½ years to complete the visual effects work . A number of complex procedures were executed , including cubical transformations and the design of the faceless form of Ra.One.

Despite precautions , the post @-@ production faced significant delays owing to the digital inter @-@ mediation , increased work @-@ load due to the 3 @-@ D and dubbed versions of the film , and delays in the completion of the visual effects . The post @-@ production also faced budget constraints and witnessed an overuse of CGI according to the cinematographer . The delays left only two days for printing the film and sending it to theatres , generating significant anxiety over a possible delay in the release . Khan subsequently kept strict tabs on the progress of work , and postponed his knee surgery to complete the film on time .

= = = Costumes = = =

The body suits worn by Khan and Rampal were designed by Robert Kurtzman and Tim Flattery , and made by a team of specialists based in Los Angeles . Sinha spent around three months conceptualising the costumes , watching various superhero films to design a costume not created already . He then wrote a 23 @-@ page document with his sketches and details of what he wanted , and gave it to the designers to work upon . To create the suit , Khan was required to enter a small chamber where a warm latex @-@ like liquid was released up to his neck and allowed to solidify , forming the mould which was then peeled off his body . The suit was joined by a concealed zipper and subsequently modified . Computer @-@ generated embellishments such as light beams and electricity were added to the suits after Khan expressed dissatisfaction with the initial rushes of the film . A total of 21 costumes were made for the film , with each suit reportedly costing ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) .

Khan 's suit was made of reinforced latex , coloured steel @-@ blue and fitted with micro @-@ computer circuitry . Rampal 's suit was made of three @-@ inch thick solid rubber , and was red in color . Both actors were required to wear additional suits inside their body suits to prevent skin contact . Wearing the suits created a number of difficulties for the actors . It took 20 minutes to put on the suits and 40 minutes to remove them . In addition , the non @-@ porous nature of the suits created intense heat inside , causing excessive perspiration despite the presence of special air conditioning ducts . Khan later felt that the suits ' conception had been a mistake since filming occurred during the day ; digital adjustments to the suits brought " all the efforts to naught . "

Manish Malhotra designed the look and the costume of Kareena Kapoor for the song " Chammak Challo " , which received widespread media coverage . Kapoor wore a red sari draped in the style of a dhoti . Since the release of the song , the costume was termed a " fashion rage , " becoming popular in India and some overseas countries . Fashion experts applauded the costume and Kapoor 's ability to carry it off " stunningly , " though certain experts dismissed the naming of the sari color .

= = Music = =

The soundtrack of Ra.One was composed by Vishal @-@ Shekhar , with the lyrics being written by Atahar Panchi , Vishal Dadlani and Kumaar . A. R. Rahman provided the background score for a single sequence . Sinha announced that R & B singer Akon and the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra would be a part of the soundtrack ; the former lent his vocals for " Chammak Challo " and " Criminal " , while the latter performed in " Bhare Naina " . The composers obtained the official license to use Ben E. King 's " Stand By Me , " on which they based the song " Dildaara . " The soundtrack contains fifteen tracks , including seven original songs , four remixes , three instrumentals and an international version of " Chammak Challo " . The music rights were bought by T @-@ Series for ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) . The Hindi version of the soundtrack was released on 12 September 2011 ; the Tamil and Telugu versions were released on 10 October 2011 , featuring six tracks each .

= = Release = =

= = = Statistics = = =

In India , the Hindi version of Ra.One was released across more than 4 @,@ 000 plus screens worldwide- 3 @,@ 100 screens in 2 @,@ 100 theatres , breaking the record for the widest Bollywood release previously held by Bodyguard ( 2011 ) . The Tamil and Telugu versions were released on 275 prints and 125 prints respectively . A week before the release , multiplex owners throughout India decided to allot 95 % of the total available screen space to the film . Overseas , Ra.One was released in 904 prints . This including 600 prints in Germany , 344 prints in the USA , 200 – 300 prints in South Korea , 202 prints in the UK , 79 prints in the Middle East , 75 prints in Russia , 51 prints in Australia , 49 prints in Canada and 25 prints in New Zealand and Taiwan . In early October 2011 , a partnership deal was being finalised by the distributors to allow the film to be released in China across 1 @,@ 000 prints . In addition , the film was released in Pakistan and non @-@ traditional territories like Brazil , Spain , Italy , Greece and Hong Kong . The 3D version was released in 550 screens across the world . Ra.One was noted for the extensive use of digital prints , reportedly making up 50 – 60 % of the total release ; in India , the film was exhibited in over 1 @,@ 300 digital theatres , breaking the record previously held by Bodyguard . The wide digital release was implemented to lower distribution costs , make the film accessible to a wider audience and reduce piracy . However , despite the measures taken , pirated versions of Ra.One were available on the Internet within hours of the film 's release .

= = = Marketing = = =

The producers of Ra.One spent ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) out of a ₹ 520 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 7 million ) marketing budget , ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) of this was utilised for internet promotions alone . The film 's first theatrical poster was released in December 2010 , and was followed by the release of two teaser trailers during the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup . The first theatrical trailer premiered three months later . Khan and Sinha undertook a multi @-@ city tour during which they unveiled a 3 @,@ 600 feet @-@ long piece of fan mail to collect audience messages . The official website of Ra.One was launched on 31 May 2011 , and an official YouTube channel for the film was subsequently unveiled . On 20 October 2011 , Khan held a live chat with fans on Google Plus , the first time an Indian film personality had done so . Rampal 's look in the film , which had been kept secret , was revealed in late October 2011 .

The film 's marketing utilised merchandise and games to facilitate the creation of a franchise . Khan marketed merchandise related to the film , which included toys , tablets and apparel . On 14 October 2011 , a gaming tournament featuring games like Call of Duty was conducted in Mumbai and telecast live on YouTube . Red Chillies Entertainment partnered with Sony Computer Entertainment Europe to create " Ra.One – The Game , " a game for PlayStations which was released on 5 October 2011 . The producers further collaborated with UTV Indiagames to design a social game titled Ra.One Genesis , with an independent plot based on G.One , in addition to designing digital comics based on the film 's characters .

= = = Screenings = = =

In May 2011 , the first rushes of Ra.One were shown to the cast of Khan 's other home production Always Kabhi Kabhi ( 2011 ) . Subsequently , the film was screened for test audiences to study and gauge the film 's appeal across different age groups . A few days prior to the theatrical release , Khan arranged a special screening of the film 's final cut in Yash Raj Studios , where he invited close friends , his family and the film 's crew . Between 24 and 26 October 2011 , Ra.One had international premieres in Dubai , London and Toronto , all of which were chosen due to their international significance and large South Asian populations . The premiere in Dubai was held on 24 October 2011 at the Grand Cinemas , Wafi . A high @-@ profile dinner and charity auction followed , where Khan raised AED30,000 ( approximately US $ 8 @,@ 200 ) to build a workshop for children with special needs . The premiere included three simultaneous screenings of the film , for which tickets were placed on sale for the public . The premiere in London took place at the O2 Cineworld the following day , and the premiere in Toronto took place at the TIFF Bell Lightbox on 26 October 2011 .

Ra.One was submitted to the Central Board of Film Certification on 14 October 2011 to receive its viewership rating . The Board raised strong objections to the film 's action scenes , fearing that they would influence young children to emulate the stunts . The police and the Indian Railways security force had made similar objections to the train @-@ based stunts in the film , claiming that youngsters would " blindly imitate them " and hence put their lives at risk . The film was finally passed with a ' U ' certificate without cuts , but under the condition that prominent disclaimers were shown , stating that the stunts were computer @-@ generated and should not be imitated . The British Board of Film Classification rated the film 12A for " moderate fantasy violence " . In March 2012 , a Mid @-@ Day report alleged that Ra.One had received a favourable rating , pointing out that the producers had violated the rules by meeting the Board officials during the screening .

= = = Plagiarism allegations = = =

The film faced allegations of plagiarism with similarities to Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) , the Batman series , Iron Man ( 2008 ) , The Sorcerer 's Apprentice ( 2010 ) and Tron : Legacy ( 2010 ) . Khan denied the allegations , saying , " I got inspired from a lot of superhero movies but the movie is original . In fact , Ra.One will be the first superhero @-@ based movie in the world in which the superhero lives in a family . "

A few days before the release , screenwriter Yash Patnaik claimed that Ra.One resembled a concept that he had developed several years before . Patnaik appealed to the Bombay High Court to delay the film 's release , until he was given due credit or 10 % of the film 's overall profit . The court , observing prima facie evidence that there had been copyright violations , asked the filmmakers to deposit ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) with the court on 21 October 2011 before releasing the film . However , Patnaik challenged the court 's decision and demanded that the producers give him credit and not cash . Sinha later claimed that he alone had developed the film 's story .

= = = Hacking = = =

Ra.One also faced cybertheft and hacking issues . On 3 June 2011 , three days after its launch , the official website of the film was hacked by suspected Pakistani cyber criminals who stated that the act was in revenge for a similar attack on a Karachi press club website . The hackers defaced the homepage and left a note threatening the Indian Press Club . Despite precautions , the song " Chammak Challo " was leaked several months before the official release of the soundtrack . Khan clarified that the leaked song was a " rough version " of the actual song , and that the person responsible for the leak was being looked for . He subsequently refuted claims that the leak had been engineered as a publicity stunt .

= = = Television and home media = = =

The television broadcasting rights for Ra.One were bought by Star India for a then @-@ record sum of ₹ 350 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) , surpassing 3 Idiots ( 2009 ) . The Indian television premiere of Ra.One took place on 21 January 2012 on STAR Gold , garnering a 28 % market sharefor the channel and a TVR of 6 @.@ 7 . Star India subsequently syndicated the television screening rights to Disney XD , where it premiered on 2 June 2012 . In May 2012 , International Media Distribution announced that Ra.One would be televised on Comcast and Cox , as a part of the celebrations of the Asian Pacific American Heritage Month . Discovery Channel tied up with Red Chillies Entertainment to produce a one @-@ hour program titled " Revealed : The Making of Ra.One , " which aired on the channel on 30 March 2012 . The program discussed the making of the film in detail , including the visual effects and the challenges faced while filming .

Eros International released the DVD of Ra.One on 13 December 2011 across all regions in one @-@ disc and two @-@ disc packs complying with the NTSC format . The DVD of the film contained alternate endings . Initially , Khan had wanted to add alternate endings to the theatrical release itself , but later deemed it risky . The DVD version was made interactive as well . VCD and Blu @-@ Ray versions of the film were also released .

= = Reception = =

Upon release , Ra.One received mixed reviews from critics in India and generally positive reviews overseas . Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 69 % of 16 critics gave Ra.One a positive review , with an average critic rating of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 , granting the film a " Fresh " consensus . On Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean from film reviews , Ra.One holds a rating of 60 % based on eight reviews , signifying " mixed or average reviews . "

Positive reviews described the film as an ambitious initiative and a technological success , with some critics thinking that Ra.One had put Indian films on par with Hollywood . The visual effects received near @-@ universal praise , though dissenting opinions stated that they were " all over the place " . The action sequences were also widely praised . Other aspects of the film received more polarising opinions , and one very positive review was criticised for " over @-@ rating " the film . Mixed views were opined regarding the plot 's gaming concept , with some critics deeming it " far @-@ fetched " and others lauding the " gaming @-@ style aesthetics " . Similarly , some critics called the emotional scenes " fulfilling " while others felt them to be " lacking in connect with the audience " .

The story was negatively received by several critics , with a number of them deeming it to be disappointing and lacking in originality ; one critic praised the original idea but criticised its " Bollywoodization " . The direction was criticised in a number of reviews , though a few critics praised Sinha 's pacing of the film and the execution of the action sequences . Some critics pointed to the presence of scenes which were not child @-@ friendly , despite Ra.One being promoted as a children 's film . Particular reviews criticised the lack of character development and the film 's " incoherently hackneyed morality " . A few critics panned the film as a whole , describing it as a " mess " ; one review commented , " It 's convenient to say that if you have no expectations from the film , you wouldn 't be disappointed . "

After its release , Ra.One received numerous nominations and awards in India and abroad , a majority of them for its technical aspects . The film notably won the National Film Award and the Filmfare Award for Best Special Effects , and four International Indian Film Academy Awards . The film also received several business awards for its marketing and distribution . On the other hand , the film received negative ( " dishonorable " ) awards as well . Ra.One won the titles of Worst Film and Worst Director at the Golden Kela Awards , and also won the Worst Film award at the Ghanta Awards .

= = Economics = =

= = = Pre @-@ release = = =

The budget of Ra.One was the subject of significant speculation prior to its release . A number of estimates placed the budget between ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) and ₹ 2 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . It was universally accepted that the film was the most expensive Bollywood film of all time , with certain sources stating that the film was the most expensive Indian film ever . The original budget was revealed to be ₹ 1 @.@ 30 billion ( US $ 19 million ) after promotional expenses . Khan stated that he had " worked very hard " to finance the film without borrowing money , and reportedly hosted a television show just to finance the film . Ra.One earned ₹ 1 @.@ 32 billion ( US $ 20 million ) from pre @-@ release revenue sources , setting a new record for Bollywood films .

The extensive marketing campaign greatly increased audience expectations of the film . Ra.One set records for the level of pre @-@ release buzz for a Bollywood film , and also topped a number of polls gauging the most awaited Bollywood films of the year . Anticipation for the film was equally high among the trade analysts , with some commenting that the film would pass the ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) mark in one week and the ₹ 3 billion ( US $ 45 million ) mark in over three weeks . Advance bookings commenced on 20 October 2011 on a limited scale , and expanded later . While initial ticket sales were low , they picked up considerably near the release date . A few days prior to the release , the advance booking was described as " phenomenal , " with an overall advance booking rate of 20 – 25 % across the country . A number of advantages of the film 's release were pointed out , such as the festive season and higher 3D ticket prices , though there had been doubt regarding the timely release of the 3D version .

= = = Box office = = =

In India , Ra.One debuted at the beginning of the five @-@ day Diwali weekend , and subsequently broke the Diwali opening day record . The film then set the records for the biggest single @-@ day net revenue and the biggest three @-@ day opening weekend earned by a Bollywood film , breaking the previous records held by Bodyguard .

Subsequently , the film began to suffer significant drops in its collections , with its five @-@ day extended weekend and nine @-@ day extended week coming second to the records of Bodyguard . The film faced an 84 percent drop in collections in its second week and fell a further 90 percent in its third week , the latter primarily due to the release of Rockstar . The dubbed versions showed similar trends . The Tamil and Telugu versions together earned around ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) nett .

In overseas markets , Ra.One earned the highest three @-@ day and five @-@ day opening weekends among the Bollywood releases of 2011 ; by its second weekend , the film had become the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of 2011 in overseas markets , but the collections suffered drops throughout . In general , families and children formed the major portion of the film 's audience , and the 3D version is regarded as a success .

= = Possible sequel = =

Reports of a planned sequel of Ra.One began surfacing prior to the film 's release , though the extent of real progress on the sequel is unknown . Both Khan and Sinha admitted to formulating plans for a sequel , though the former noted that it would be " presumptuous " to start the sequel before the first film 's release . Khan later refuted the speculations , saying that a sequel was unlikely due to his other commitments . After Ra.One won a National Award , an " overjoyed " Khan said that the film 's world could be further explored . He stated that the sequel , if made , would be titled G.One and not Ra.Two , and that he would make it " faster , bigger and better " than Ra.One. Khan was reported to be looking for a script , without a fixed release date . In April 2012 , Mushtaq Sheikh said that the pre @-@ production of the sequel had begun . A number of reports stated that Kareena Kapoor would not be a part of the sequel .

Despite Khan 's enthusiasm for the idea of a sequel , the film industry expressed mixed opinions regarding it . Filmmaker Rajkumar Gupta commented , " It would be challenging to take forward a story that has not worked earlier . " Producer Ramesh Taurani responded negatively to the idea , saying , " It is important for the film to be appreciated so that a sequel can be made . " Trade analyst Atul Mohan called the sequel " a bad idea . " Conversely , others were supportive of the sequel . Producer Goldie Behl brushed aside arguments about the success of the first film , saying , " If the people think that they can earn some more , then it doesn 't matter how big or small the hit was . " Director Kunal Kohli also reacted positively , saying , " Certain ideas naturally lend themselves to sequels . So why not use that investment of your time and effort to make a sequel that will take the brand further ? "

= Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell =

Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell is the 2004 debut novel of British writer Susanna Clarke . An alternative history set in 19th @-@ century England around the time of the Napoleonic Wars , it is based on the premise that magic once existed in England and has returned with two men : Gilbert Norrell and Jonathan Strange . Centred on the relationship between these two men , the novel investigates the nature of " Englishness " and the boundaries between reason and unreason , Anglo @-@ Saxon and Anglo @-@ Dane , and Northern and Southern English cultural tropes / stereotypes . It has been described as a fantasy novel , an alternative history , and a historical novel . It inverts the Industrial Revolution conception of the North @-@ South divide in England : in this book the North is romantic and magical , rather than rational and concrete . It can be usefully compared and contrasted with Elizabeth Gaskell 's attempts at synthesising a unitary English identity in her fiction .

The narrative draws on various Romantic literary traditions , such as the comedy of manners , the Gothic tale , and the Byronic hero . The novel 's language is a pastiche of 19th @-@ century writing styles , such as those of Jane Austen and Charles Dickens . Clarke describes the supernatural with mundane details . She supplements the text with almost 200 footnotes , outlining the backstory and an entire fictional corpus of magical scholarship .

Clarke began writing Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell in 1992 ; ten years later she submitted the manuscript for publication . It was accepted by Bloomsbury and published in September 2004 , with illustrations by Portia Rosenberg . Bloomsbury were so sure of its success that they printed 250 @,@ 000 hardcover copies . The novel was well received by critics and reached number three on the New York Times best @-@ seller list . It was longlisted for the 2004 Man Booker Prize and won the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Novel .

= = Plot summary = =

= = = Volume I : Mr Norrell = = =

The novel opens in autumn 1806 in northern England with The Learned Society of York Magicians , made up of " theoretical magicians " , who believe that magic died out several hundred years earlier . The group is stunned to learn of a " practising magician " , Mr Gilbert Norrell , who owns a large collection of " books of magic " , which he has spent years purchasing to keep them out of the hands of others . Norrell proves his skill as a practical magician by making the statues in York Cathedral speak . John Childermass , Mr Norrell 's long @-@ time servant , convinces a member of the group , John Segundus , to write about the event for the London newspapers .

Segundus 's article generates considerable interest in Mr Norrell , who moves to London to revive practical English magic . He enters society with the help of two gentlemen about town and meets a Cabinet Minister , Sir Walter Pole . To ingratiate himself , Mr Norrell attempts to recall Sir Walter 's fiancée , Emma Wintertowne , from the dead . He summons a fairy — " the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair " — who strikes a bargain with Mr Norrell to restore Emma : half of her life will be spent with the fairy . After news spreads of Emma 's resurrection and happy marriage to Sir Walter , magic becomes respectable ; and Mr Norrell performs various feats to aid the government in their ongoing war against Napoleon .

While living in London , Mr Norrell encounters Vinculus , a street @-@ magician , who relates a prophecy about a nameless slave and two magicians in England , but Norrell dismisses it . While travelling , Vinculus later meets Jonathan Strange , a young gentleman of property from Shropshire , and recites the same prophecy , prompting Strange to become a magician . Meanwhile , the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair takes a liking to Stephen Black , Sir Walter 's capable black butler , and promises to make him a king . Emma ( now Lady Pole ) lapses into lassitude . She rarely speaks , and her attempts to communicate her situation are confounded by magic . No doctor can cure her , and Mr Norrell claims that her problems cannot be solved by magic . Without the knowledge of the other characters , each evening she and Stephen are forced to attend balls held by the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair in the Faerie kingdom of Lost @-@ Hope , where they dance all night long .

= = = Volume II : Jonathan Strange = = =

Volume II opens in Summer 1809 with Strange learning of Mr Norrell and travelling to London to meet him . They immediately clash over the importance of John Uskglass ( the legendary Raven King ) to English magic . Strange argues that " without the Raven King there would be no magic and no magicians " while Norrell retorts that the Raven King made war upon England and should be forgotten . Despite their differing opinions and temperaments , Strange becomes Norrell 's pupil . Norrell , however , deliberately keeps some knowledge from Strange .

Lady Pole and Strange 's wife , Arabella , become friends ; several times Lady Pole attempts to tell Arabella about her forced nights of dancing at the fairy 's castle in Lost @-@ Hope , but each time she tells an unrelated story . Arabella also meets the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair at the Poles ' , but she assumes he is simply a resident . Without her husband 's knowledge , the fairy plots to enchant her , although Stephen Black continually attempts to dissuade him .

The Stranges become a popular couple in London . The Cabinet ministers find Strange easier to deal with than Norrell , and they send him to assist the Duke of Wellington on his Peninsular Campaign . For over a year , Strange helps the army : he creates roads , moves towns , and makes dead men speak . After he returns , he fails to cure George III 's madness , although Strange manages to save the king from becoming enchanted by the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair , who is determined to make Stephen a king . Strange then helps defeat Napoleon at the horrific Battle of Waterloo .

Frustrated with being Norrell 's pupil , Strange pens a scathing review of a book outlining Norrell 's theories on modern magic ; in particular , Strange challenges Norrell 's views of the Raven King . The English public splits into " Norrellites " and " Strangites " ; Norrell and Strange part company , although not without regret . Strange returns home and works on his own book , The History and Practice of English Magic . Arabella goes missing , then suddenly reappears , sick and weak . Three days later she dies .

= = = Volume III : John Uskglass = = =

Volume III opens in January 1816 with Childermass experiencing strong magic that is not produced by either Norrell or Strange . At the same time , Lady Pole attempts to shoot Mr Norrell as he is returning home . Childermass takes the bullet himself but is not killed . Afterwards , Lady Pole is cared for in the country by John Segundus , who has an inkling of the magic surrounding her . During travels in the north , Stephen meets Vinculus , who recites his prophecy : " the nameless slave shall be a king in a strange country ... " Stephen believes it applies to him , but the gentleman with thistle @-@ down hair argues that it applies to the Raven King .

Strange settles in Venice and meets Flora Greysteel . They become fond of each other and Strange 's friends believe he may marry again . However , after experimenting with dangerous magic that threatens his sanity to gain access to Faerie , he discovers that Arabella is alive and being held captive . Immediately after he discovers this , the gentleman with the thistledown hair curses him with Eternal Night , an eerie darkness that engulfs him and follows him wherever he goes . Thereafter , Strange 's strenuous efforts to rescue her take their toll , and his letters to friends begin to appear crazed . At Strange 's request , Flora moves with her family to Padua and secludes herself inside her home , along with a mirror given to her by Strange . Drawlight is sent by Lascelles and Norrell to Venice to only enquire about Strange but is brought before him by Strange 's magic . Strange instructs Drawlight with several tasks and re @-@ invokes the old alliances within England between the forces of nature and John Uskglass . In England , this reawakening sparks a magical renaissance , but Norrell fails to grasp its significance . Strange returns and gives Childermass instructions which allow him to free Lady Pole from the fairy 's enchantment . Strange , bringing " Eternal Night " with him , asks Norrell to help him undo Arabella 's enchantment by summoning John Uskglass .

Childermass meanwhile indirectly receives the message meant for him by Strange and uses it to break the enchantment over Lady Pole . Enraged by this the gentleman with the thistledown hair first murders Vinculus forcing Stephen Black to watch . Then after begins to place a second curse upon Lady Pole that would lead to her imminent death for cheating him of his prize . In parallel , Norrell and Strange attempt a spell intended to pay homage from the forces of England to John Uskglass . Their same belief as the gentleman with the thistledown hair that the ' nameless slave ' applies to Uskglass ends up in them devoting their power to Stephen who uses his momentary control of England to destroy the man with the thistledown hair . Amongst the confusion , Stephen leaves down one of the newly opened Faerie roads , and becomes the new king of the now blossoming Lost @-@ Hope .

Between the death of Vinculus and the gentleman with the thistledown hair , Childermass notes that tattooed upon Vinculus 's body is the last works of John Uskglass . As he tries to preserve the tattoos in memory , a man appears . Between calling Childermass his servant ( leading him to believe it is Norrell in disguise ) and trivially performing other feats of great magic , the unknown man brings Vinculus back to life .

As a result of the imprecision of the fairy 's curse , which was placed on " the English magician , " Norrell is trapped along with Strange in the " Eternal Night , " and they cannot move more than a certain distance from each other . Upon the gentleman with the thistledown hair 's death , Arabella comes through the mirror in Venice , where Flora is waiting for her upon instruction of Strange . The penultimate scene is of the now infamous Childermass releasing the contract upon The Learned Society of York Magicians , telling them they can study magic again , and showing the now restored Vinculus as proof that one last book remains , tattooed upon his body . Two months later , Strange has a conversation with the now stronger Arabella still living in Venice , explaining that he and Norrell are working to undo the eternal darkness they are both trapped in , but are planning to adventure into other worlds . Neither wish to take her to Faerie again , so he instead promises to return to her when he dis @-@ spells the darkness and tells her not to be a widow till then , which she agrees to .

= = Composition and publication = =

Clarke first developed the idea for Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell during a year spent teaching English in Bilbao , Spain : " I had a kind of waking dream ... about a man in 18th @-@ century clothes in a place rather like Venice , talking to some English tourists . And I felt strongly that he had some sort of magical background – he 'd been dabbling in magic , and something had gone badly wrong . " She had also recently re @-@ read J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and afterwards was inspired to " trying writing a novel of magic and fantasy " .

After she returned from Spain in 1993 , Clarke began to think seriously about writing her novel . She signed up for a five @-@ day fantasy and science @-@ fiction writing workshop , co @-@ taught by writers Colin Greenland and Geoff Ryman . The students were expected to prepare a short story before attending , but Clarke only had " bundles " of material for her novel . From this she extracted " The Ladies of Grace Adieu " , a story about three women secretly practising magic who are discovered by the famous Jonathan Strange . Greenland was so impressed with the story that , without Clarke 's knowledge , he sent an excerpt to his friend , the fantasy writer Neil Gaiman . Gaiman later said , " It was terrifying from my point of view to read this first short story that had so much assurance ... It was like watching someone sit down to play the piano for the first time and she plays a sonata . " Gaiman showed the story to his friend , science @-@ fiction writer and editor Patrick Nielsen Hayden . Clarke learned of these events when Nielsen Hayden called and offered to publish her story in his anthology Starlight 1 , which featured pieces by well @-@ regarded science @-@ fiction and fantasy writers . She accepted , and the book won the World Fantasy Award for best anthology in 1997 .

Clarke spent the next ten years working on the novel in her spare time , while editing cookbooks full @-@ time for Simon & Schuster in Cambridge . She also published stories in Starlight 2 and Starlight 3 ; according to the New York Times Magazine , her work was known and appreciated by a small group of fantasy fans and critics on the internet . She was never sure , however , if she would finish her novel or if it would be published . Clarke tried to write for three hours each day , beginning at 5 : 30 am , but struggled to keep this schedule . Rather than writing the novel from beginning to end , she wrote in fragments and attempted to stitch them together . Clarke , admitting that the project was for herself and not the reader , " clung to this method " " because I felt that if I went back and started at the beginning , [ the novel ] would lack depth , and I would just be skimming the surface of what I could do . But if I had known it was going to take me ten years , I would never have begun . I was buoyed up by thinking that I would finish it next year , or the year after next . " Clarke and Greenland fell in love while she was writing the novel and moved in together . Greenland did not read the novel until it was published .

Around 2001 , Clarke " had begun to despair " , and started looking for someone to help her finish and sell the book . Giles Gordon became her agent and sold the unfinished manuscript to Bloomsbury in early 2003 , after two publishers rejected it as unmarketable . Bloomsbury were so sure the novel would be a success that they offered Clarke a £ 1 million advance . They printed 250 @,@ 000 hardcover copies simultaneously in the United States , Britain , and Germany . Seventeen translations were begun before the first English publication was released . Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell was first published in the United States on 8 September 2004 , in the United Kingdom on 30 September , and in other countries on 4 October .

= = Style = =

Clarke 's style has frequently been described as a pastiche , particularly of nineteenth @-@ century British writers such as Charles Dickens , Jane Austen , and George Meredith . Specifically , the novel 's minor characters , including sycophants , rakes , and the Duke of Wellington , evoke Dickens ' caricatures . Laura Miller , in her review for Salon , suggests that the novel is " about a certain literary voice , the eminently civilized voice of early 19th century social comedy " , exemplified by the works of Austen . The novel even uses obsolete spellings — chuse for choose and shewed for showed , for example — to convey this voice as well as the free indirect speech made famous by Austen . Clarke herself notes that Austen 's influence is particularly strong in the " domestic scenes , set in living rooms and drawing rooms where people mostly chat about magic " where Dickens 's is prominent " any time there 's more action or description " . While many reviewers compare Clarke 's style to that of Austen , Gregory Feeley argues in his review for The Weekly Standard that " the points of resemblance are mostly superficial " . He writes that " Austen gets down to business briskly , while Clarke engages in a curious narrative strategy of continual deferral and delay . " For example , Clarke mentions Jonathan Strange on the first page of the novel , but only in a footnote . He reappears in other footnotes throughout the opening but does not appear as a character in the text proper until a quarter of the way through the novel .

In Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell , Clarke infuses her dry wit with prosaic quaintness . For example , the narrator notes : " It has been remarked ( by a lady infinitely cleverer than the present author ) how kindly disposed the world in general feels to young people who either die or marry . Imagine then the interest that surrounded Miss Wintertowne ! No young lady ever had such advantages before : for she died upon the Tuesday , was raised to life in the early hours of Wednesday morning , and was married upon the Thursday ; which some people thought too much excitement for one week . " As Michel Faber explains in his review for The Guardian , " here we have all the defining features of Clarke 's style simultaneously : the archly Austenesque tone , the somewhat overdone quaintness ( " upon the Tuesday " ) , the winningly matter @-@ of @-@ fact use of the supernatural , and drollness to spare . " Gregory Maguire notes in The New York Times that Clarke even gently ridicules the genre of the novel itself : " [ A gentleman ] picks up a book and begins to read ... but he is not attending to what he reads and he has got to Page 22 before he discovers it is a novel – the sort of work which above all others he most despises – and he puts it down in disgust . " Elsewhere , the narrator remarks , " Dear Emma does not waste her energies upon novels like other young women . " The narrator 's identity has been a topic of discussion , with Clarke declaring that said narrator is female and omniscient rather than a future scholar from within the real storyline as some had suggested .

Clarke 's style extends to the novel 's 185 footnotes , which document a meticulous invented history of English magic . At times , the footnotes dominate entire pages of the novel . Michael Dirda , in his review for The Washington Post , describes these notes as " dazzling feats of imaginative scholarship " , in which the anonymous narrator " provides elaborate mini @-@ essays , relating anecdotes from the lives of semi @-@ legendary magicians , describing strange books and their contents , speculating upon the early years and later fate of the Raven King " . This extensive extra @-@ textual apparatus is reminiscent of postmodernist works , such as David Foster Wallace 's Infinite Jest ( 1996 ) and Thomas Pynchon 's Mason & Dixon ( 1997 ) , particularly as Clarke 's notes humorously refer to previous notes in the novel . Clarke did not expect her publisher to accept the footnotes .

Feeley explains that Romantic poet John Keats 's " vision of enchantment and devastation following upon any dealings with faeries " informs the novel , as the passing reference to the " cold hillside " makes clear . The magic in Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell has been described as " wintry and sinister " and " a melancholy , macabre thing " . There are " flocks of black birds , a forest that grows up in the canals of Venice , a countryside of bleak moors that can only be entered through mirrors , a phantom bell that makes people think of everything they have ever lost , a midnight darkness that follows an accursed man everywhere he goes " . The setting reflects this tone , as " dark , fog , mist and wet give the book much of its creepy , northern atmosphere . " According to Nisi Shawl in her review for The Seattle Times , the illustrations reinforce this tenor : " Shadows fill the illustrations by Portia Rosenberg , as apt as Edward Gorey 's for Dickens ' ' Bleak House ' . " Author John Clute disagrees , arguing that they are " astonishingly inappropriate " to the tone of the novel . Noting that Clarke refers to important nineteenth @-@ century illustrators George Cruikshank and [ Thomas Rowlandson ] , whose works are " line @-@ dominated , intricate , scabrous , cartoon @-@ like , savage and funny " , he is disappointed with the " soft and wooden " illustrations provided by Rosenberg .

= = Genre = =

Reviewers variously describe Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell as a fantasy novel , an alternative history , a historical fiction , or as a combination of these styles . Clarke herself says , " I think the novel is viewed as something new ... blending together a few genres – such as fantasy and adventure and pastiche historical – plus there 's the whole thing about slightly knowing footnotes commenting on the story . " She explains in an interview that she was particularly influenced by the historical fiction of Rosemary Sutcliff as well as the fantasies of Ursula K. Le Guin and Alan Garner , and that she loves the works of Austen .

In his review for The Boston Globe , John Freeman observes that Clarke 's fantasy , like that of Franz Kafka and Neil Gaiman , is imbued with realism . He argues that the footnotes in particular lend an air of credibility to the narrative : for example , they describe a fictional biography of Jonathan Strange and list where particular paintings in Norrell ’ s house are located . In an interview , Clarke describes how she creates this realist fantasy : " One way of grounding the magic is by putting in lots of stuff about street lamps , carriages and how difficult it is to get good servants . " To create this effect , the novel includes many references to real early @-@ nineteenth century people and things , such as : artists Francisco Goya , Cruikshank , and Rowlandson ; writers Frances Burney , William Beckford , Monk Lewis , Lord Byron , and Ann Radcliffe ; Maria Edgeworth 's Belinda and Austen 's Emma ; publisher John Murray ; politicians Lord Castlereagh and George Canning ; The Gentleman 's Magazine and The Edinburgh Review ; Chippendale and Wedgwood furnishings ; and the madness of King George III . Clarke has said that she hopes the magic is as realistic as that in Le Guin 's Earthsea trilogy . This realism has led other reviewers , such as Polly Shulman , to argue that Clarke 's book is more of an historical fiction , akin to the works of Patrick O 'Brian . As she explains , " Both Clarke 's and O 'Brian 's stories are about a complicated relationship between two men bound together by their profession ; both are set during the Napoleonic wars ; and they share a dry , melancholy wit and unconventional narrative shape . " Shulman sees fantasy and historical fiction as similar because both must follow rigid rules or risk a breakdown of the narrative .

As well as literary styles , Clarke pastiches many Romantic literary genres : the comedy of manners , the Gothic tale , the silver @-@ fork novel , the military adventure , the Byronic hero , and the historical romance of Walter Scott . In fact , Clarke 's novel maps the literary history of the early nineteenth century : the novel begins with the style and genres of Regency England , an " Austenian world of light , bright , sparkling dialogue and well @-@ mannered gentility " , and gradually transforms into a dark , Byronic tale . Clarke combines these Romantic genres with modern ones , such as the fantasy novel , drawing on the works of J. R. R. Tolkien , Philip Pullman , T. H. White , and C. S. Lewis . As Maguire notes , Clarke includes rings of power and books of spells that originate in these authors ' works . In contrast , Sacha Zimmerman suggests in The New Republic that while Tolkien 's world is " entirely new " , Clarke 's world is more engaging because it is eerily close to the reader 's . Although many reviewers compare Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell to the Harry Potter series , Annie Linskey contends in The Baltimore Sun that " the allusion is misleading " : unlike J. K. Rowling 's novels , Clarke 's is morally ambiguous , with its complex plot and dark characters .

= = Themes = =

= = = Friendship = = =

Reviewers focus most frequently on the dynamic between Norrell and Strange , arguing that the novel is about their relationship . In her review for the Times Literary Supplement , Roz Kaveney writes that the two illustrate Harold Bloom 's notion of the " anxiety of influence " in addition to romantic friendship . The two are a " study in contrasts " , with Norrell " exceptionally learned but shy and fussy " while Strange is " charming , young , fashionable and romantic " . As one reviewer remarks , " Clarke could have called the book Sense and Sensibility if the title weren 't already taken . "

= = = Reason and madness = = =

The novel is not about the fight between good and evil but rather the differences between madness and reason — and it is the fairy world that is connected to madness ( mad people can see fairies , for example ) . Lady Pole , who is taken away into the fairyland of Lost @-@ Hope every night , appears insane to those around her . She is hidden away , like the character type examined by Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar in their seminal book The Madwoman in the Attic ( 1979 ) . Developing a " divided consciousness " , she is passive and quiet at home at the same time she is vengeful and murderous in the fairy land .

= = = Englishness = = =

Clarke 's book is identified as distinctively English not only because of its style but also because of its themes of " vigorous common sense " , " firm ethical fiber " , " serene reason and self @-@ confidence " , which are drawn from its Augustan literary roots . The " muddy , bloody , instinctual spirit of the fairies " is equally a part of its Englishness , along with " arrogance , provincialism and class prejudice " . The fairy tradition that Clarke draws on is particularly English ; she alludes to tales from children 's literature and others which date back to the medieval period . As Feeley notes , " The idea of fairies forming a hidden supernatural aristocracy certainly predates Spenser and Shakespeare , and seems to distinguish the English tales of wee folk from those of Scotland and Ireland . " In these medieval English stories , the fairies are depicted as " capricious , inconsistent in their attitude toward humankind , [ and ] finally unknowable " , characteristics which Clarke integrates into her own fairies . Clarke notes in an interview that she drew the idea of unpredictable , amoral fairies from the works of Neil Gaiman .

In an interview with Locus , Clarke explains why and how she integrated the theme of " Englishness " into Jonathan Strange : " I wanted to explore my ideas of the fantastic , as well as my ideas of England and my attachment to English landscape . ... Sometimes it feels to me as though we don 't have a fable of England , of Britain , something strong and idealized and romantic . I was picking up on things like Chesterton and Conan Doyle , and the sense ( which is also in Jane Austen ) of what it was to be an English gentleman at the time when England was a very confident place " . In particular , " it 's the sort of Englishness which is stuffy but fundamentally benevolent , and fundamentally very responsible about the rest of the world " , which connects Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes to Clarke 's Jonathan Strange .

= = = Historical otherness = = =

Using techniques of the genre of alternative history , Clarke creates events and characters that would have been impossible in the early nineteenth century . She also explores the " silencing " of under @-@ represented groups : women , people of colour , and poor whites . Both Strange and Norrell suppress the voices of these groups in their rise to power . Mr Norrell , for example , attempts to buy up all the books of magic in England to keep anyone else from acquiring their knowledge . He also barters away half of Emma Wintertowne 's ( Lady Pole 's ) life for political influence , a deal about which , due to an enchantment , she cannot speak coherently .

Clarke explores the limits of " English " magic through the characters of Stephen Black and Vinculus . As Clarke explains , " If you put a fairy next to a person who is also outside English society ... suddenly the fact that there is this alien race seems more believable , because you 've got another alien and the two of them can talk about the English in this very natural way . " The gentleman with the thistle @-@ down hair sees Stephen as a noble savage and enslaves him — like Lady Pole , Stephen is silenced . Both " suffer under a silencing spell that mimics gaps in the historical record " . Furthermore , the gentleman 's desire to acquire Stephen for his dancing hall is reminiscent of the English objectification of black slaves . Stephen vows to hate all white Englishmen after he discovers that they enslaved his mother , but when the gentleman shows him the hanging of the white Vinculus , he weeps . Both Strange and Norrell see the essence of Englishness in the Raven King , a character who was raised by fairies and could not speak English . As Elizabeth Hoiem explains , " The most English of all Englishmen , then , is both king and slave , in many ways indistinguishable from Stephen Black . This paradox is what ultimately resolves the plot . When Strange and Norrell summon ' the nameless slave ' , the Raven King 's powerful alliances with nature are transferred to Stephen Black , allowing Stephen to kill the Gentleman and free himself from slavery . " In the end , it is Strange and Norrell who are trapped in everlasting darkness while the silenced women , people of colour , and poor whites defeat the antagonist .

= = Reception = =

To promote Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell , Bloomsbury — who also published the Harry Potter series — launched what The Observer called " one of the biggest marketing campaigns in publishing history " . Their campaign included plans for newspaper serialisations , book deliveries by horse and carriage , and the placement of " themed teasers " , such as period stationery and mock newspapers , in United States coffeeshops . 7 @,@ 500 advance readers ' copies were sent out , a limited number wrapped in paper and sealed with wax . These sold for more than US $ 100 each on eBay in England in the weeks leading up to publication . By 2005 , collectors were paying hundreds of pounds for signed copies of a limited edition of the novel .

The book debuted at No. 9 on the New York Times best @-@ seller list , rising to No. 3 two weeks later . It remained on the list for eleven weeks . Four weeks after the book 's initial publication , it was in Amazon 's top ten . Clarke went on a 20 @-@ city tour to promote the novel , after its near @-@ simultaneous publication in 20 countries . Endorsements from independent booksellers helped the book sell out its first printing ; by the end of September 2004 , it had gone through eight printings .

The novel met with " a crackle of favorable reviews in major papers " . The New Republic hailed it as " an exceptional work " , both " thoughtful and irrepressibly imaginative " . The Houston Chronicle described Clarke as " a superb character writer " , and the Denver Post called her a " superb storyteller " . The reviews praised Clarke 's " deft " handling of the pastiche of styles , but many criticised the novel 's pace , The Guardian complaining that " the plot creaks frightfully in many places and the pace dawdles " . In his review for Science Fiction Weekly , Clute suggested that " almost every scene in the first 300 pages should have been carefully and delicately trimmed " ( emphasis in original ) since they do little to advance the story . He argued that , at times , Clarke 's Austenesque tone gets in the way of plot development . On the other hand , The Baltimore Sun found the novel " a quick read " . Complaining that the book leaves the reader " longing for just a bit more lyricism and poetry " , The Washington Post reviewer noted , with others , that " sex plays virtually no role in the story ... [ and ] one looks in vain for the corruption of the innocent " . The New Statesman reviewer , Amanda Craig , praised the novel as " a tale of magic such as might have been written by the young Jane Austen – or , perhaps , by the young Mrs Radcliffe , whose Gothic imagination and exuberant delicacy of style set the key . " However , she also criticised the book : " As fantasy , it is deplorable , given that it fails to embrace the essentially anarchic nature of such tales . What is so wonderful about magicians , wizards and all witches other than Morgan le Fay is not just their magical powers , but that they possess these in spite of being low @-@ born . Far from caring about being gentlemen , wizards are the ultimate expression of rank 's irrelevance to talent " . However , reviewers were not in universal agreement on any of these points . Maguire wrote in the New York Times :

What keeps this densely realised confection aloft is that very quality of reverence to the writers of the past . The chief character in Jonathan Strange and Mr. Norrell isn 't , in fact , either of the magicians : it 's the library that they both adore , the books they consult and write and , in a sense , become . Clarke 's giddiness comes from finding a way at once to enter the company of her literary heroes , to pay them homage and to add to the literature .

While promoting the novel , Neil Gaiman said that it was " unquestionably the finest English novel of the fantastic written in the last 70 years " , a statement which has most often been read hyperbolically . However , as Clute explains , what Gaiman meant was that Jonathan Strange is " the finest English novel of the fantastic since Hope Mirrlees 's great Lud @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Mist ( 1926 ) , which is almost certainly the finest English fantasy about the relationship between England and the fantastic yet published " ( emphasis in original ) . Clute writes that " a more cautious claim " would be : " if Susanna Clarke finishes the story she has hardly begun in Strange ... she may well have then written the finest English novel of the fantastic about the myth of England and the myth of the fantastic and the marriage of the two ever published , bar none of the above , including Mirrlees . "

= = Awards and nominations = =

= = Adaptations and sequel = =

= = = Film = = =

On 15 October 2004 , New Line Cinema announced that it had bought a three @-@ year option on the film rights to Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell . Clarke received an undisclosed " seven @-@ figure sum " , making the deal " one of the biggest acquisitions of film rights for a book in recent years " . New Line chose Christopher Hampton , whose adaptation of Dangerous Liaisons won an Academy Award , to write it ; New Line executives Mark Ordesky and Ileen Maisel were overseeing the production . On 7 November 2005 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Hampton had finished the first draft : " As you can imagine , it took a fair amount of time to work out some way to encapsulate that enormous book in a film of sensible length ... [ b ] ut it was lots of fun – and very unlike anything I have ever done before . " At that time , no director or cast had yet been chosen . As of June 2006 , Hampton was still working on the screenplay . Julian Fellowes then took over writing duties before the collapse of New Line Cinema .

= = = Television = = =

A seven @-@ part adaptation of the book by the BBC began broadcast on BBC One on Sunday 17 May 2015 . The book was adapted by Peter Harness , directed by Toby Haynes , and produced by Cuba Pictures and Feel Films . A number of co @-@ producers joined the project , including BBC America , Screen Yorkshire , Space and Far Moor , and it is to be distributed by Endemol Worldwide Distribution .

Pre @-@ production began in April 2013 , and filming later in the year , including locations in Yorkshire and Canada .

= = = Audio book = = =

The 32 @-@ hour audio book of Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell was released by Audio Renaissance in 2004 . According to a review in The Boston Globe , reader Simon Prebble " navigates this production with much assuredness and an array of accents . ... Prebble 's full voice is altered to a delicate softness for young ladies of a certain breeding , or tightened to convey the snarkiness often heard in the costive Norrell . " Prebble interrupts the main text to read the footnotes , announcing them with the word footnote . According to the AudioFile review , the " narrative flow suffers " because of these interruptions and the reviewer recommends listening " with text in hand " . Each note is on its own track , so listeners have the option of skipping them without missing text from the main narrative . When doing public readings , Clarke herself skips the notes .

= = = Sequel = = =

In 2004 , Clarke announced that she was working on a book that begins a few years after Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell ends . It is intended to centre on characters such as Childermass and Vinculus who , as Clarke says , are " a bit lower down the social scale " .

= Union Bank of Switzerland =

Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) was a large integrated financial services company located in Switzerland . The bank , which at the time was the second largest bank in Switzerland , merged with Swiss Bank Corporation in 1998 , to become UBS to form what was then the largest bank in Europe and the second largest bank in the World .

UBS was formed in 1912 through the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and Toggenburger Bank , both founded in the early 1860s . UBS then continued to grow through acquisitions , including Aargauische Kreditanstalt in 1919 , Eidgenössische Bank in 1945 , Interhandel Basel in 1967 , Phillips & Drew in 1986 , and Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. in 1997 among others .

The historical UBS logo features a horizontal acronym " UBS " referring to the " Union Bank of Switzerland " , " Union de Banques Suisses " or " Unione di Banche Svizzere " . The vertical acronym " SBG " refers to the name of the bank in German " Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft " . " UBS " ceased to be considered a representational abbreviation for the Union Bank of Switzerland after the bank 's 1998 merger with Swiss Bank Corporation and is today considered a standalone brand .

= = 1980 – 1998 = =

By the 1980s , the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally . The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé , Rockwell , IBM , and Mobil at below market rates .

The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986 , first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm , founded in 1895 . However , UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew . The firm lost £ 15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm ’ s settlement system in 1987 . Then the bank lost £ 48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash . Between April 1987 and February 1988 , UBS was required to spend as much as £ 115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew . Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses . UBS also expanded into West Germany , acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986 .

In 1991 , UBS made its first acquisition in the United States , purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation , the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank . Chase Investors , which was established in 1972 , was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition . At the time of the acquisition , which resulted in approximately US $ 100 million for Chase , the business managed in excess of US $ 30 billion in public and private pension plans , as well as various financial assets of corporations , governments , foundations and endowments .

UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life . UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995 , known as UBS Swiss Life . UBS took a 25 % ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50 % share in the joint venture .

UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks . Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse , which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking , UBS ’ s investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60 % of the bank 's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations . In 1993 , Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland 's Swiss Volksbank , the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s . The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time . UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions , purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell @-@ Ausserrhoden in 1996 .

In its final acquisition , prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , the bank acquired Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients . Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks : Schroeder Brothers & Co . , Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co . ( formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach ) .

= = Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation = =

During the mid @-@ 1990s , UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders , critical of bank 's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity . Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid @-@ 1990s . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . UBS 's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS 's chairman , Robert Studer . Studer 's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .

On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively both trailing Credit Suisse . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .

The all @-@ stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion . Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world , at that time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management .

The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in UBS 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . UBS 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer . However , it quickly became evident that from a management perspective , it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Additionally , UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions , particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses . The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business , Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London . Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform . UBS , on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities .

After the merger was completed , it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger . It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have .

= = The company = =

Prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , UBS operated as a full @-@ service bank and a provider of wholesale financial services through its retail banking , commercial banking , investment banking , asset management and wealth management businesses . In 1997 , prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , UBS operated 275 branches in Switzerland and 82 branches , subsidiaries and representative offices outside Switzerland . The company had approximately 27 @,@ 611 employees , of which 19 @,@ 355 worked in Switzerland and the remaining 8 @,@ 256 employees were outside Switzerland . The bank had total assets of nearly CHF578 billion and shareholders ' equity of nearly CHF28 billion as of the end of 1997 .

= = History = =

= = = Origins of the Union Bank of Switzerland = = =

In 1862 , The Bank in Winterthur was founded in Winterthur , Switzerland , with an initial share capital of CHF5 million . The Bank in Winterthur operated primarily as a commercial bank , providing financing for a range of companies and projects . The bank would be involved in funding the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works , the hotel Baur au Lac in Zurich and many other companies . The bank capitalized on its location at an important Swiss railroad junction and its large warehousing facilities allowed the bank to take advantage of the dramatic rise in cotton prices caused by the American Civil War . The Bank in Winterthur saw its share capital double by the end of the war .

Meanwhile , in 1863 , the Toggenburger Bank was founded in Lichtensteig , Switzerland with an initial share capital of CHF1.5 million . The Toggenburger Bank was a savings and mortgage bank for individual customers with a branch office network in Eastern Switzerland . In 1882 , Toggenburger Bank opened a branch in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland and began to shift its operations there through the end of the 19th century .

The Union Bank of Switzerland was formed in 1912 when the Bank in Winterthur merged with the Toggenburger Bank . The combined bank had total assets of CHF202 million and a total shareholders ' equity of CHF46 million . This combination was part of a larger trend toward concentration in the banking sector in Switzerland at the time . Through the next few years , the bank would begin to shift its operations to Zurich from its historical headquarters in the cities of Winterthur and St. Gallen , Switzerland . In 1917 , UBS completed construction of a new headquarters in Zurich on Bahnhofstrasse , considered to be the Wall Street of Switzerland .

The new bank used different names in its three core languages : German , French and English . In German , the bank was Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft and was known by the initials SBG . The original English name for the combined bank was the Swiss Banking Association , but it was later changed to Union Bank of Switzerland in 1921 to mirror the French form of the name : Union de Banques Suisses . The bank 's logo , introduced in 1966 , would later reflect both the German SBG and the English and French name UBS .

UBS acquired a number of banks in its first decade as a combined bank and expanded its branch network , establishing representation throughout Switzerland by 1923 . UBS acquired a controlling interest in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1913 and Banque Ch . Masson & Cie. in 1916 . Although the bank suffered during World War I and the postwar economic crises in Europe , UBS continued to make acquisitions after the conclusion of World War I. The bank purchased the remaining stake in Aargauische Creditanstalt in 1919 that it had not acquired in 1913 . Also in 1919 , the bank acquired Commandit @-@ AG Weibel & Cie. in Fleurier and William Cuénod & Cie . In 1920 , UBS acquired Banca Svizzera @-@ Americana with branches in Locarno and Lugano ; Unionbank Geneva and Banque Henry Rieckel & Cie . , based in La Chaux @-@ de @-@ Fonds . Three years later , in 1923 , UBS acquired the Schweizerische Vereinsbank in Bern establishing representation in the last of the major cities in Switzerland .

Through the Great Depression , UBS pared its assets considerably shrinking from CHF993 million in 1929 to CHF441 million at the end of 1935 . The bank saw its shareholders ' capital decline from CHF100 million in 1929 to CHF80 million in 1933 and then further to CHF40 million by 1936 . However , the bank continued to acquire smaller , weaker competitors , purchasing Banca Unione di Credito in Lugano and Chiasso in 1935 followed by Berner Handelsbank in Bern in 1938 . In 1937 , UBS established Intrag AG , an asset management business responsible for investment trusts ( i.e. , mutual funds ) and set up the " America @-@ Canada Trust Fund AMCA " . Over the years , Intrag would set up a series of other funds , including the " Mutual Fund for Swiss Stocks FONSA " and the " South Africa Trust Fund SAFIT " .

The Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank merge to form the Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft . Its French name is Union de Banques Suisses ( UBS ) and its Italian name is Unione di Banche Svizzere ( UBS ) . The English name of the bank at first is Swiss Banking Association . In 1921 that somewhat inappropriate name is changed into Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) .

The merged bank shows the following figures for 1912 : Total assets : CHF202 million . Shareholders ' Equity : CHF46 million . Profit : CHF2.4 million .

Dr. Rudolf Ernst ( 1865 – 1956 )

First Chairman of the Board of Directors of the merged bank from 1912 until 1941 is Rudolf Ernst , of Winterthur , until 1921 alternating with C. Emil Grob @-@ Halter of Lichtensteig .

After the merger of the Bank in Winterthur and the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland ( UBS ) , Dr. Rudolf Ernst became the merged bank 's first chairman in 1912 . Following his resignation in 1941 , he was elected as an Honorary chairman of Union Bank of Switzerland .

Rudolf Ernst joined the Bank in Winterthur in 1895 . He was also financial director of the City of Winterthur for 16 years . At the young age of 36 , he was elected in 1901 to the Board of Directors of the Bank in Winterthur and as its chairman at the same time . During his chairmanship , the bank changed its focus from its original lending business and began to expand its issuing and asset management franchise . With the acquisition of the Bank in Baden in 1906 , the bank gained a branch in Zurich and a seat on the stock exchange , one of the cornerstones for the successful merger in 1912 with the Toggenburger Bank to form Union Bank of Switzerland . Rudolf Ernst also held directorships on the boards of various industrial and insurance companies . Between 1912 and his retirement in 1941 , he was chairman of the Board of Union Bank of Switzerland , in an alternating capacity with Carl Emil Grob @-@ Halter , who held the chairmanship in 1916 and 1918 as the representative of the merger partner Toggenburger Bank .

= = = Activities in World War II = = =

On the eve of World War II , UBS was the recipient of a large influx of foreign funds for safekeeping . During the war , the bank 's traditional business fell off and the Swiss government became their largest clients . Still , unlike many of its peers , UBS 's business lagged through much of the war .

Decades after the war , it was demonstrated that Union Bank of Switzerland likely took active roles in trading stolen gold , securities and other assets during World War II . The issue of " unclaimed property " of Holocaust victims became a major issue for UBS in the mid @-@ 1990s and a series of revelations in 1997 brought the issue to the forefront of national attention in 1996 and 1997 . UBS confirmed that a large number of accounts that had gone unclaimed as a result of the bank 's policy of requiring death certificates from family members to claim the contents of the account . UBS 's handling of these revelations were largely criticized and the bank received significant negative attention in the U.S. UBS came under significant pressure , particularly from American politicians , to compensate Holocaust survivors who were making claims against the bank .

In January 1997 , Christoph Meili , a night watchman at the Union Bank of Switzerland , found employees shredding archives compiled by a subsidiary that had extensive dealings with Nazi Germany . The shredding was in direct violation of a recent Swiss law adopted in December 1996 protecting such material . UBS acknowledged that it had " made a deplorable mistake " , but an internal historian maintained that the destroyed archives were unrelated to the Holocaust . Criminal proceedings then began against the archivist for possible violation of a recent Federal Document Destruction decree and against Meili for possible violation of bank secrecy , which is a criminal offence in Switzerland . Both proceedings were discontinued by the District Attorney in September 1997 .

Meili was suspended from his job at the security company that served UBS , following a criminal investigation . Meili and his family left Switzerland for the United States where they were granted political asylum . By contrast , in the U.S. , Meili was largely regarded as a hero and whistleblower and received a particularly warm reception from the American Jewish community .

In 1997 , the World Jewish Congress lawsuit against Swiss banks ( WJC ) was launched to retrieve deposits made by victims of Nazi persecution during and prior to World War II . Negotiations involving Union Bank of Switzerland , Credit Suisse , the WJC and Stuart Eizenstat , on behalf of the U.S. , ultimately resulted in a settlement of US $ 1 @.@ 25 billion in August 1998 . The settlement , which coincided with UBS 's merger with Swiss Bank , together with the bank 's embarrassment in the Long Term Capital Management collapse in 1998 brought a degree of closure to the issue .

= = = 1945 – 1979 = = =

Shortly after the end of World War II , UBS completed the acquisition of Eidgenössische Bank , a large Zurich @-@ based bank that became insolvent . As a result of the merger , UBS exceeded CHF1 billion of assets for the first time and completed the transition of its operations to Zurich . Although UBS opened an office in New York in 1946 , the bank remained primarily focused on its domestic business . Prior to the end of World War II , the Swiss banking landscape was dominated by Swiss Bank Corporation and Credit Suisse . UBS was among the next group of large banks that included Schweizerische Volksbank ( Swiss Volksbank or Swiss Popular Bank ) and Bank Leu . Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the Union Bank of Switzerland , which was at best the third largest bank in Switzerland would catch up to its larger peers and by the 1970s surpass them in terms of size .

UBS opened branches and acquired a series of banks in Switzerland growing from 31 offices in 1950 to 81 offices by the beginning of the 1960s . Throughout the 1950s , UBS was the most acquisitive bank in Switzerland , acquiring Banque Palézieux & Cie . ( 1948 ) , Volksbank Interlaken ( 1952 ) , Weck , Aebi & Cie ( 1954 ) , Banque Tissières fils & Cie . ( 1956 ) , Banque de Sion ( 1956 ) , Banque de Brigue ( 1957 ) , the Crédit Gruyérien ( 1957 ) , Crédit Sierrois ( 1957 ) , Bank Cantrade AG ( 1960 ) and Volksbank in Visp ( 1960 ) .

In addition to these bank acquisitions , UBS also acquired an 80 % stake in Argor SA , a Swiss precious metal refinery founded in 1951 , through whom they started to issue UBS branded gold bars . In 1973 , the bank increased the stake to full 100 % ownership only to withdraw by 1999 with ownership of the refinery changing to Hereaus & Management . Nevertheless , UBS continues to issue gold bars via Argor @-@ Heraeus which is famous for the unique kinebar holographic technology it uses to provide enhanced protection against bank gold bar counterfeiting .

By 1962 , UBS reached CHF6.96 billion of assets , narrowly edging ahead of Swiss Bank Corporation to become the largest bank in Switzerland temporarily . Through 1979 , SBC was consistently the largest of the three major Swiss banks by assets , except for short periods in 1962 and then again in 1968 when UBS temporarily moved ahead of SBC . After 1979 , UBS would firmly establish itself as the largest Swiss bank . UBS would retain this position for the next 15 years until Credit Suisse leapfrogged into the top spot following its 1993 acquisition of Schweizerische Volksbank ( Swiss Volksbank ) and later Winterthur Group .

UBS continued its rapid growth in the 1960s punctuated by the acquisition of Interhandel ( Industrie- und Handelsbeteiligungen AG ) in 1967 . Interhandel , originally , was a large Swiss conglomerate that up until the 1960s had both financial as well as industrial holdings . Interhandel was the corporate successor of I.G. Chemie , which the U.S. government had claimed was a front for Germany 's I.G. Farben during World War II . During the war , the U.S. government seized General Aniline & Film ( later GAF Corporation ) , an Interhandel subsidiary , and it was not until 1963 that the long @-@ running dispute between Interhandel and the U.S. government was resolved . The shares in GAF Corporation were sold in a highly competitive auction in 1965 and the proceeds were split between Interhandel and the U.S. government . As a result of the sale of GAF , at the time of its merger with UBS , Interhandel held substantial amounts of cash . The addition of the Interhandel capital , which propelled UBS into the top spot among Swiss banks in 1968 , also made UBS one of the strongest banks in Europe and helped fuel the bank ’ s further expansion in the late 1960s and 1970s . UBS consolidated four affiliated mortgage lenders and assumed their domestic retail operations . The bank further expanded into consumer lending through the acquisition of a series of Swiss financial businesses in 1969 , including Banque Orca , Abri Bank Bern , Aufina Bank and AKO Bank .

UBS also began to intensify its overseas expansion . In 1967 , UBS opened a full branch office in London , its first such office outside Switzerland . Prior to this , UBS had operated through a series of correspondent banks and representative offices . Three years later , UBS opened a branch office in New York . The bank also established a UK subsidiary in 1975 and a U.S. subsidiary in 1979 to focus on building the bank ’ s presence in the underwriting of debt and equity securities . Nevertheless , UBS , which had traditionally concentrated its efforts on the domestic Swiss market , was the last of the three largest Swiss banks to establish a branch office in the U.S. and its securities operations were overshadowed by those of its two Swiss peers .

= = = 1980 – 1998 = = =

By the 1980s , the bank had undertaken a major push into the securities business internationally . The bank established a position as a leading European underwriter of Eurobonds and pulled off a major coup in 1985 by pricing a large bond offering for Nestlé , Rockwell , IBM , and Mobil at below market rates .

The bank also made two major acquisitions in 1986 , first it purchased Phillips & Drew an established British brokerage and asset management firm , founded in 1895 . However , UBS initially had issues integrating Phillips & Drew . The firm lost £ 15 million when a rush of orders overwhelmed the firm ’ s settlement system in 1987 . Then the bank lost £ 48 million as a result of Philips & Drew positions in the October 1987 stock market crash . Between April 1987 and February 1988 , UBS was required to spend as much as £ 115 million to shore up Phillips & Drew . Phillips & Drew unit returned to profitability in 1992 after years of losses . UBS also expanded into West Germany , acquiring Deutsche Länderbank in 1986 .

In 1991 , UBS made its first acquisition in the United States , purchasing Chase Investors Management Corporation , the asset management business of Chase Manhattan Bank . Chase Investors , which was established in 1972 , was subsequently folded into UBS Asset Management after the acquisition . At the time of the acquisition , which resulted in approximately US $ 100 million for Chase , the business managed in excess of US $ 30 billion in public and private pension plans , as well as various financial assets of corporations , governments , foundations and endowments .

UBS also entered the life insurance business in 1993 establishing UBS Life . UBS formed a joint venture with Swiss Life in 1995 , known as UBS Swiss Life . UBS took a 25 % ownership position in Swiss Life in exchange for a 50 % share in the joint venture .

UBS entered the 1990s clearly the largest and most conservative of the three large Swiss Banks . Unlike Swiss Bank and Credit Suisse , which had both made aggressive international acquisitions in trading and investment banking , UBS ’ s investments had been more conservative in businesses such as asset management and life insurance while 60 % of the bank 's profits came from its even more conservative Swiss banking operations . In 1993 , Credit Suisse outbid UBS for Switzerland 's Swiss Volksbank , the fifth largest bank in Switzerland which had run into financial difficulties in the early 1990s . The acquisition propelled Credit Suisse ahead of UBS as the largest bank in Switzerland for the first time . UBS instead settled on a group of less audacious acquisitions , purchasing a group of smaller banks in Switzerland in 1994 and then acquiring the Cantonal Bank of Appenzell @-@ Ausserrhoden in 1996 .

In its final acquisition , prior to the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation , the bank acquired Schröder , Münchmeyer , Hengst & Co. from Lloyds TSB in 1997 in order to further penetrate the German investment banking market as well as the market for wealthy private clients . Schröder Münchmeyer Hengst was formed through the 1969 merger of three German banks : Schroeder Brothers & Co . , Muenchmeyer & Co. and Frederick Hengst & Co . ( formerly known as Bank Siegmund Merzbach ) .

= = = Merger with Swiss Bank Corporation = = =

During the mid @-@ 1990s , UBS came under fire from dissident shareholders , critical of bank 's relatively conservative management and lower return on equity . Martin Ebner , through his investment trust , BK Vision became the largest shareholder in UBS and attempted to force a major restructuring of the bank ’ s operations . The battles between Ebner and UBS management proved a distraction to the bank in the mid @-@ 1990s . Looking to take advantage of the situation , Credit Suisse approached UBS about a merger that would have created the second largest bank in the world in 1996 . UBS 's management and board unanimously rebuffed the proposed merger . Ebner , who supported the idea of a merger , led a major shareholder revolt that resulted in the replacement of UBS 's chairman , Robert Studer . Studer 's successor Mathis Cabiallavetta would be one of the key architects of the merger with Swiss Bank Corporation .

On 8 December 1997 , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation announced an all stock merger . At the time of the merger , Union Bank of Switzerland and Swiss Bank Corporation were the second and third largest banks in Switzerland , respectively both trailing Credit Suisse . Discussions between the two banks had begun several months earlier , less than a year after rebuffing Credit Suisse 's merger overtures .

The all @-@ stock merger resulted in the creation UBS AG , a huge new bank with total assets of more than US $ 590 billion . Also referred to as the " New UBS " to distinguish itself from the former Union Bank of Switzerland , the combined bank became the second largest in the world , at that time , behind only the Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi . Additionally , the merger pulled together the banks ' various asset management businesses to create the world 's largest money manager , with approximately US $ 910 billion in assets under management .

The merger , which was billed as a merger of equals , resulted in UBS 's shareholders receiving 60 % of the combined company and Swiss Bank 's shareholders receiving the remaining 40 % of the bank 's common shares . UBS 's Mathis Cabiallavetta became chairman of the new bank while Swiss Bank 's Marcel Ospel was named chief executive officer . However , it quickly became evident that from a management perspective , it was Swiss Bank that was buying UBS as nearly 80 % of the top management positions were filled by legacy Swiss Bank professionals . Additionally , UBS professionals suffered more headcount reductions , particularly in the investment banking unit where there were heavy cuts in the corporate finance and equities businesses . The more severe cuts at UBS were an acknowledgment that prior to the merger Swiss Bank Corporation had built a global investment banking business , Warburg Dillon Read through its acquisitions of Dillon Read in New York and S.G. Warburg in London . Swiss Bank was generally considered to be further along than UBS in developing its international investment banking business , particularly in the higher margin advisory businesses where Warburg Dillon Read was considered to be the more established platform . UBS , on the other hand had a stronger retail and commercial banking business in Switzerland and both banks had notably strong asset management capabilities .

After the merger was completed , it was widely speculated that a series of losses suffered by UBS on its equity derivative positions in late 1997 was a contributing factor in pushing UBS management to consummate the merger . It would become clear that the derivatives losses prompted UBS to accept the terms proposed by Swiss Bank more readily than they otherwise would have .

= = = Long @-@ Term Capital Management = = =

Union Bank of Switzerland , suffering criticism of its conservative business model , was looking for ways to catch up to its key Swiss rivals and viewed LTCM as the type of client that could help accelerate the bank 's growth . In 1997 , UBS entered into a financing arrangement with LTCM and the hedge fund quickly became the bank 's largest client , generating US $ 15 million in fees for UBS . Union Bank of Switzerland sold LTCM a 7 @-@ year European call option on 1 million shares in LTCM , then valued at about US $ 800 million . It hedged this option by purchasing a US $ 800 million interest in LTCM and invested a further US $ 300 million in the hedge fund . Following the merger , Swiss Bank managers were surprised to discover the massive exposure to LTCM at UBS . Ultimately , UBS was unable to sell or hedge its interest in LTCM as its value declined in the summer of 1998 .

By November 1998 , UBS 's losses from its exposure to LTCM were estimated at approximately CHF790 million . UBS would prove to be the largest single loser in the LTCM collapse , ultimately writing off CHF950 million . The Federal Reserve Bank of New York organized a bailout of US $ 3 @.@ 625 billion by the hedge fund 's major creditors to avoid a wider collapse in the financial markets . UBS contributed US $ 300 million to the bailout effort , which would largely be recovered . In the aftermath of the LTCM collapse , Mathis Cabiallavetta resigned as chairman of UBS along with three other executives .

= = = Acquisition history = = =

Union Bank of Switzerland , prior to its merger with Swiss Bank Corporation was the result of the combination of dozens of individual firms , many of which date to the 19th century . The following is an illustration of the company 's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors , although this is not necessarily a comprehensive list :

= Ginga Legend Weed =

Ginga Legend Weed ( Japanese : 銀牙伝説ウィード , Hepburn : Ginga Densetsu Wīdo , lit . Silver Fang Legend Weed ) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Takahashi . It is a sequel to Takahashi 's 1980s manga Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , and focuses on Weed , the son of Gin , the original series ' protagonist . Weed , named after the English word for wild plant , leaves his birthplace to search for his father in the Ōu Mountains . Upon arriving , Weed immediately begins protecting Ōu and its soldiers from dangerous threats . As the series progresses , Weed and his allies journey throughout Japan , aiding those in need and preventing takeovers .

Ginga Legend Weed was originally serialized in the magazine Weekly Manga Goraku from 1999 to 2009 . Publisher Nihon Bungeisha released 60 bound volumes and later reprinted early volumes . ComicsOne licensed the series for release in Canada and the United States , but issued only three volumes before it went out of business . Ginga Legend Weed has not been relicensed and distributed in the English language .

In addition to the main series , Takahashi authored several side stories and books relating to Weed and the supporting cast . In 2005 , Studio Deen produced an anime series that aired on Animax . The show was released on several DVDs between 2006 and 2007 in Japan , and was licensed and distributed in Taiwan and several Nordic countries . Takahashi also published a prequel to Ginga Legend .

= = Plot = =

Several years after the events of Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , Gin 's son is born in the Japanese Alps . After the puppy 's mother Sakura dies from an illness , an English Setter named GB pledges to bring him to the Ōu Mountains and reunite him with his father . GB decides to name the pup Weed , after the English word for wild plant , because he is " small but powerful " . Upon arriving at Ōu , the pair learn that a monstrous creature is wreaking havoc and Ōu has fallen into turmoil . Gin is away , on a desperate search for his mate . Weed , GB , and other Ōu soldiers meet a team of dogs led by the German shepherd Jerome . Jerome explains that the monster is a mutated dog that escaped from a laboratory after killing several scientists . Weed 's group joins them and they succeed in killing the monster , though lose several soldiers in the process , among them Gin 's old ally , Smith .

The series then introduces Hōgen and Genba , Great Dane brothers who plan to create an army and overthrow Gin . When Gin and his close friends John and Akame are found by Hōgen and his troops , Akame escapes to alert Ōu , while Gin , John , and Hiro ( a dog loyal to Gin ) are taken as hostages . John escapes , but is killed while acting as a diversion for Hiro . Akame locates Weed and explains the situation , prompting him to search for dogs to join Ōu 's army . Gin escapes and starts recruiting soldiers . Hōgen , alone after having to mercy kill Genba , launches his attack on Ōu . Weed clashes with Hōgen and is injured , but spirits of dead Ōu soldiers appear to give him strength . Weed defeats Hōgen but chooses not to kill him . Hōgen stumbles away and is found by Shōji Sudou , a policeman whose partner was killed by Genba and Hōgen . Shōji shoots and kills Hōgen .

Later , Weed encounters a dog named Yukimura , and learns that a group of monkeys have been terrorizing the area . Leading them is Shōgun , a vicious baboon that feeds on young monkeys and puppies . Shōgun had previously attacked Yukimura and his family , permanently damaging his adopted father Saheiji . Weed , his comrades , Yukimura , and several rebellious monkeys attack Shōgun and his followers . Yukimura is able to injure Shōgun enough to ensure his death , but dies in the process . Saheiji reveals that Yukimura was Weed 's brother : Sakura , too sick to care for all of her children , had given two of her puppies to Saheiji to raise as foster sons .

While Jerome is in Hokkaidō , he is captured by a Russian German shepherd named Victor , who aims to conquer the island . Jerome escapes and alerts Hakurō , a former Ōu soldier who resides in Hokkaidō . Hakurō and several of his sons are attacked and killed by Victor 's forces . Gin and Weed go to Hokkaidō , but are unable to defeat Victor 's troops . Jerome rejoins the Ōu soldiers with Lydia and Maxim , two subordinates of Victor . Angry at Maxim 's betrayal , Victor orders a friend of Maxim , Alam , to kill him . Alam feels an intense regret for following orders , but later learns that Maxim survived . Alam decides to drown Victor by dragging him underwater and entangling him in seaweed . With Victor gone , Lydia chooses to stay with Jerome while Maxim and his remaining subordinates swim back to Russia .

While traveling , Weed meets his other brother , Joe . Joe dislikes Gin for leaving Sakura unattended in the Alps . He is unaware that Sakura had left Ōu under the false impression that Gin was dead , and that Gin had been unaware of Sakura 's leaving . Joe explains that a large hybrid bear has attacked and killed his mate , Hitomi . Weed 's group joins Joe to defeat the animal . During the battle , GB dies saving Weed , and Weed vows to avenge him . Weed knocks himself and the bear into a river . The bear dies after hitting a floodgate and Weed manages to survive . He returns to Ōu and learns that his mate , Koyuki , is pregnant . Weeks later , she gives birth to four pups .

= = Media = =

= = = Manga = = =

Ginga Legend Weed was written and illustrated by Yoshihiro Takahashi . It is a sequel to his 1980s series Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , and follows the son of Gin , the title character from the original series . It began serialization in Weekly Manga Goraku magazine in 1999 . The Japanese publisher Nihon Bungeisha released the series in collected volumes from January 2000 to September 2009 . Cumulatively , 60 volumes were published . In October 2006 , Nihon Bungeisha released the first volume of a reprinted edition of Ginga Legend Weed . The company has released 22 volumes of the reprint edition , with the latest published in December 2007 . The American company ComicsOne licensed the series for release in the United States and Canada in 2000 with the first three volumes released between March and June 2001 . Additionally , they provided an Adobe Digital Editions e @-@ book version . ComicsOne later went bankrupt . American publisher DrMaster acquired the rights to some of ComicsOne 's titles , but not Ginga Legend Weed . While the physical copies are out @-@ of @-@ print , the e @-@ book version is still available .

Under their G @-@ Comics imprint , Nihon Bungeisha released several Ginga Legend Weed omnibus editions labeled as " specials " . A series of three specials were released in April 2004 called Gajō no Kettō Hen ( 牙城の血闘編 ) . Throughout 2009 and 2010 , another set of eight " specials " were produced : Tabidachi Hen ( September 2009 ) , Senshi no Shōmei Hen ( October 2009 ) , Inuzoku no Tsutome Hen ( November 2009 ) , Otoko no Yakusoku Hen ( December 2009 ) , Taiman Shōbu Hen ( January 2010 ) , Taishō no Utsuwa Hen ( February 2010 ) , Dōshu Taiketsu Hen ( March 2010 ) , and Uketsuga Reshi Kiba Hen ( April 2010 ) .

= = = Related books = = =

Nihon Bungeisha released several books authored by Takahashi that relate to the main series . Ginga Legend Weed Gaiden ( 銀牙伝説ウィード外伝 ) , first released on August 9 , 2001 and re @-@ released in December 2007 , is a collection of four short stories , including a side @-@ story about a Golden Retriever named Mel , who is a character in the main series , and the story of Takahashi 's past dog Hanako . My Dog , My Weed ( ぼくの犬 僕のウィード ) , a collection of art , essays , and personal experiences pertaining to the attachment between people and animals , was released in November 2001 . In 2002 , Nihon Bungeisha released a magazine called Weed World , which centered around Ginga Legend Weed and related material . In total , 5 issues were published between March and May . In January 2002 , an art book entitled Ginga Legend Weed : Gengashū ( 銀牙伝説ウィード原画集 ) was released . Ginga Legend Weed : Meishōbu Retsuden ( 銀牙伝説ウィード名勝負列伝 ) , a book containing character biographies and statistics , was released in May 2003 . In November 2005 , Ginga Densetsu Weed Tokubetsu Han ( 銀牙伝説ウィード特別版 ) , an omnibus volume containing the prequel Ginga Legend Riki and Weed Gaiden , was released .

= = = Anime = = =

In 2005 , Studio Deen produced a 26 @-@ episode animated adaptation of Ginga Legend Weed , directed by Toshiyuki Kato . In Japan , the series aired from November 3 , 2005 to May 11 , 2006 on Animax with the SKY PerfecTV ! service . Dohatsuten , a Japanese band , performed both the opening and ending themes , Ginga Densetsu Weed and Tsuki Akari ( つきあかり ) , respectively . On December 7 , 2005 , Imperial Records released a single containing the themes and karaoke versions . The full soundtrack for the series , composed by Y2 DOGS , was released by Imperial Records on January 25 , 2006 . The entirety of Ginga Legend Weed was initially released on 13 DVDs published between February 17 , 2006 and March 1 , 2007 . On August 29 , 2008 , a complete box set containing all 13 discs was released . The electronics company Sankyo created a Ginga Legend Weed pachinko game that utilizes the anime character designs .

Top @-@ Insight International licensed Ginga Legend Weed for release in Taiwan . The company released seven individual DVDs , and one complete box set . The series aired in Taiwan on China Television . Future Film licensed and released the series in Finland . The company released Ginga Legend Weed on eight separate DVDs between August 2 , 2006 and December 5 , 2006 . On November 14 , 2007 , Future Film released the entire series on a collector 's edition . The release was bundled with a Weed booklet and mobile phone charm . In Sweden , AudVid distributed the series in one box set on June 15 , 2007 . The set included an extra 16 @-@ page booklet . The Finnish and Swedish releases included both Swedish and Finnish subtitles . In Denmark , Scanbox Entertainment released eight DVDs containing the series in 2007 , and in 2008 produced two box sets containing episodes 1 @-@ 13 and 14 @-@ 26 , respectively . In addition to a Danish dub , Scanbox 's release included Danish and Norwegian subtitles .

= = Reception = =

The 55th volume of Ginga Legend Weed was listed as number 30 on the Oricon sales chart in Japan for the week December 9 – 15 , 2008 . Its sales numbers for the week were 20 @,@ 059 copies , for a cumulative total of 21 @,@ 320 since its release .

Ginga Legend Weed was featured on Jason Thompson 's House of 1000 Manga segment on Anime News Network . He praised the series for its story and took note of the " flavor " of having a combination of physically realistic dogs , " shōnen tropes " , the dogs ' knowledge of the human world ( such as job occupations and dog breeds ) , and dog behavior involving honor , loyalty , honorifics , and auras . However , Thompson noted that the " noble melodrama sometimes gets to be a little much " , and felt that several characters , with the exception of Weed , began " to blur together " due to the difficulty of drawing a very large cast of dogs . Additionally , he commented that the fights weren 't visually " exciting " , as dogs are " lacking prehensile arms " . Overall , Thompson felt that the series was unique , stating that " no one else [ is ] making manga quite like this . " In a later installment of House of 1000 Manga , Thompson expressed his preference for Takahashi 's original work , Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin , stating that it felt " more exciting and natural " than its " stiffer and more pompous " sequel .

= = Legacy = =

In 2002 , Takahashi began publishing Ginga Legend Riki ( 銀牙伝説リキ , lit . Silver Fang Legend Riki ) , a prequel to Ginga Legend Weed and Ginga : Nagareboshi Gin . It was originally serialized in the Weed @-@ centric magazine Weed World , published by Nihon Bungeisha , between March 31 , 2002 and December 10 , 2002 . In March 2003 , Nihon Bungeisha released the collected chapters in a single book and in December 2005 , it was included in the omnibus Ginga Densetsu Weed Tokubetsu Han with Weed Gaiden . A reprinted edition of Ginga Legend Riki was released in March 2007 . The one @-@ shot follows Riki , father of Gin and former leader of the Ōu soldiers . Riki , though sired by the prized bear hound Shiro , is born a runt and never homed . After his mother Yamabuki is returned to her owner , Riki , stricken with sadness , decides to visit her .

During his trek , Riki is attacked by a pack of dogs and falls into a river . Riki is rescued by his father , Shiro , who advises him about the importance of strength and leaves , not knowing Riki is his son . Influenced by Shiro , Riki aims to become strong and continually visits his mother . On a later trip , Riki sees a young boy , Daisuke , hit by a truck on a mountain road and sent over the road railing . Riki howls for help , but instead attracts the dogs that had attacked him . Riki defends Daisuke until Shiro and his owner , Gohei , arrive . Shiro learns that Riki is his son . The book ends with Gohei and Shiro fighting the bear Akakabuto . A bullet becomes lodged in Akakabuto 's brain , driving him insane . Riki watches as the bear grabs Shiro and they fall off a cliff .

Takahashi began a sequel to Ginga Legend Weed , entitled Ginga Legend Weed : Orion ( 銀牙伝説ウィード オリオン , Ginga Densetsu Wīdo : Orion , lit . Silver Fang Legend Weed : Orion ) , in issue # 2173 of Manga Goraku , released on July 24 , 2009 . The first collected volume was released by Nihon Bungeisha in November 2009 . 30 volumes have been published and the series as of July 2014 . The new series follows Weed 's offspring : Bellatrix , Rigel , Sirius , and , in particular , Orion . They are all named after astronomical phenomenon : Orion after the Orion constellation , Rigel after the star Rigel , Sirius after the star Sirius , and Bellatrix after the star Bellatrix . Orion bears a close physical resemblance Riki and possesses an inborn strength , but is rude and hot @-@ headed . Rigel shares Orion 's fiery personality , while Sirius , who resembles his father , is level @-@ headed and a peace @-@ keeper . Bellatrix , Weed 's only daughter , is portrayed as immature and whiny .

An earthquake and subsequent volcanic eruption separates Orion from his parents and siblings . Joe locates Orion and brings him to safety but disappears in the process , while the other siblings are put under the charge of the Ōu soldier Sasuke . With the Ōu Mountains in complete disarray , new threats arrive to exploit its weaknesses . Three sons of the Irish Wolfhound Kamakiri , a platoon leader for Hōgen , wish to avenge their father 's death . Kurohabaki Masamune , the leader of the Kurohabaki Clan of ninja dogs , aims to take over Ōu and strengthen his army . He is the adoptive son of the former Kurohabaki leader , Terumune , and was previously denied leadership of the clan , despite his striving for approval . Instead , Terumune decided that his blood @-@ related son Yamabiko , born after Masamune 's arrival , would become leader . Thereafter , Masamune banished Terumune and took control of the clan . He holds a grudge against Yamabiko and plans to find and kill him . Meanwhile , members of the Kurohabaki clan roam Ōu , gathering recruits and killing those who resist .

= Manuel Alberti =

Manuel Máximiliano Alberti ( 28 May 1763 – 31 January 1811 ) was a priest from Buenos Aires , when the city was part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata . He had a curacy at Maldonado , Uruguay during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata , and returned to Buenos Aires in time to take part in the May Revolution of 1810 . He was chosen as one of the seven members of the Primera Junta , which is considered the first national government of Argentina . He supported most of the proposals of Mariano Moreno and worked at the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspaper . The internal disputes of the Junta had a negative effect on his health , and he died of a heart attack in 1811 .

= = Biography = =

= = = Colonial times = = =

Manuel Alberti was born in Buenos Aires on 28 May 1763 to Antonio Alberti and Juana Agustina Marín . He was baptized on the following 1 June at the Concepción parish ; his godparents were Juan Javier Dogan and Isabel de Soria y Santa Cruz . He had three brothers , Isidoro , Manuel Silvestre and Félix , and three sisters , Casimira , Juana María and María Clotilde . The Alberti family became benefactor of the House of Spiritual Works of Buenos Aires by donating them a land plot so it could move its headquarters .

He made his first studies at the Real Colegio de San Carlos in February 1777 , graduating in philosophy , logic , physics and metaphysics . He studied with Hipólito Vieytes , and ended his secondary education on 17 February 1779 . He moved to Córdoba the following year , to get university studies of theology at the National University of Córdoba . Despite a brief return to Buenos Aires during his second year because of health problems , he could finish all the syllabus . He got his doctorate in theology and physics on 16 July 1785 . He got his degree at the Church of the Company from interim provost Fray Pedro Gaitán .

He received the presbyterate in the first months of 1786 , and was appointed for the Concepción parish , the same one where he was baptized . He also worked at the aforementioned House of Spiritual Works of Buenos Aires . He got the curacy of Magdalena on 12 September 1790 , but resigned a year later because of health problems . He returned in 1793 , and resigned definitively on 21 February 1794 . After this , he moved to Maldonado . There are few historical records of his activities in those curacies .

The territory fell briefly under British rule during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata . There was looting after the failed resistance , and Alberti hid all the valuable things from the half @-@ built parish . In defiance of the new British rule , Alberti gave medical aid to the Spanish soldiers and Catholic burials to the deceased , and mailed the Spanish forces with details about the British troops located in the city . As a result , he was jailed . He was released by the British Juan Jaime Backhouse in order to restore religious practices ( the invaders did not attempt to enforce Protestantism in the population ) , but under military escort . The British would be defeated by Santiago de Liniers , and driven away from the viceroyalty .

= = = Primera Junta = = =

He returned to Buenos Aires in 1808 , and got the curacy of San Benito de Palermo . This was supposed to be a new jurisdiction split from the one of San Nicolás de Bari , but such change was never enforced , so he was actually in charge of both . He became involved with politics as well , joining the groups of Miguel de Azcuénaga and Nicolás Rodríguez Peña . Those groups sought to generate great political and social changes , and would lead to the May Revolution . He was selected to take part in the open cabildo celebrated on 22 May to decide the fate of Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros , as well as other twenty @-@ seven ecclesiastics . He was among the nineteen that voted for the removal of the viceroy , supporting the proposal of Cornelio Saavedra . He also supported Juan Nepomuceno Solá and Ramón Vieytes , who proposed the calling of deputies from the other cities of the viceroyalty .

His brother Manuel Silvestre Alberti signed the popular petition formulated on 25 May that aimed to draft the composition of the Primera Junta that would replace Cisneros in power . On that day Alberti moved to Azcuénaga 's house and from it he observed the events in the plaza , along with many other patriots gathered there . He was there when he came to know that he was chosen as a member of the new Junta . The reasons of Alberti 's inclusion in the Junta are unclear , as with all its members . A common accepted theory considers it to be a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists , and Alberti in particular may have been elected to serve as chaplain of the government .

In the Junta , Alberti was aligned with most of the reformist proposals of Mariano Moreno , as well as Juan Larrea and Juan José Castelli . He signed most of the rulings that shaped the new political system , such as those related to popular sovereignty , representative and republican principles , separation of powers , publicity of the government actions , freedom of speech and the bases of political federalism . However , he did not support the actions of the Junta that contradicted his religious formation , regardless of the context . He refused to sign the death penalty for Santiago de Liniers , captured after the defeat of his counter @-@ revolution . He signed the harsh commands given to Castelli for the first Upper Peru campaign , but noticing next to his signature that he made an exception with the articles involving capital punishment . He was also concerned by the role of the church in the new political system and headed a dispute against the Cabildo about it . He considered that the Cabildo should not have any authority over the Junta in ecclesiastic topics , to prevent the former abuses of the absolutist governments .

Manuel Alberti worked in journalism as well , at the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspaper created by the Junta . The ruling that created this newspaper gave Alberti the duty of selecting the news reports to publish . This duty was exclusive of Alberti and not shared with the other members of the Junta . Some historians also consider that Alberti may be the real author of the newspaper 's editorials , as they were not signed and the style is not similar to other reports by Mariano Moreno , who is usually considered the author .

The first conflict between Alberti and Moreno was caused by the arrival of Gregorio Funes , dean of Córdoba with similar ideas to those of Cornelio Saavedra , president of the Junta . Moreno was keeping an internal dispute with Saavedra , and expected Alberti to write against Funes . He did not , and Moreno made harsh comments about it . Alberti would be further distanced from Moreno when the Junta voted for the incorporation of the deputies from other cities into the Junta . At first , both of them opposed the proposal , but Alberti ultimately voted accepting it , stating that he did so just out of political convenience . The Primera Junta was thus turned into the Junta Grande . Mariano Moreno , left in a minority group , resigned .

The inclusion of new deputies increased disputes within the Junta . He opposed both Saavedra and Funes , albeit in a more moderate manner than Moreno . Those fights affected his health , and he had a mild heart attack on 28 January 1811 . Fearing for his life , he wrote his will and received the Anointing of the Sick . Three days later he had another strong disagreement with Funes , and had another heart attack when he was returning to his house . He was buried in the cemetery of San Nicolás de Bari , as requested in his will . The death certificate states that he hadn 't been given last rites because his unanticipated death did not allow for time . Alberti was the first member of the Primera Junta to die .

= = Commemoration = =

All members of the Junta Grande assisted to Alberti 's funeral , even his political enemy Gregorio Funes . Domingo Matheu was the most affected one by his death , to the point of crying for it . Alberti was replaced in the Junta by Nicolás Rodríguez Peña , a decided morenist . Saavedra and Funes did not like him , but with the social commotion generated by Alberti 's death , they avoided to offer resistance to his nomination .

Alberti requested in his will to avoid pageantry or complex funerals , and inherited his properties ( house , farm , furniture , slaves , clothing , books , etc . ) to his siblings Juana María , Matilde , Casimira and Manuel Silvestre . His personal diaries are kept , but with some parts of them being lost due to poor keeping . Still , his personal bibliography is used by historians to reconstruct his influences and ideological background . It included many works of theology , studies of the Bible , scholastic theologists and juridical studies . Alberti 's remains were lost when the chapel was demolished to make way for an expansion of 9 de Julio Avenue .

The government of Buenos Aires name a street in his honor in 1822 . In 1910 , during the Argentina Centennial , a statue of him was erected in Barrancas de Belgrano , a neighborhood at the north of Buenos Aires . The district of Manuel Alberti , in Buenos Aires Province , is also named after him .

= Horses in the Middle Ages =

Horses in the Middle Ages differed in size , build and breed from the modern horse , and were , on average , smaller . They were also more central to society than their modern counterparts , being essential for war , agriculture , and transport .

Consequently , specific types of horse developed , many of which have no modern equivalent . While an understanding of modern horse breeds and equestrianism is vital for any analysis of the medieval horse , researchers also need to consider documentary ( both written and pictorial ) and archaeological evidence .

Horses in the Middle Ages were rarely differentiated by breed , but rather by use . This led them to be described , for example , as " chargers " ( war horses ) , " palfreys " ( riding horses ) , cart horses or packhorses . Reference is also given to their place of origin , such as " Spanish horses , " but whether this referred to one breed or several is unknown . Another difficulty arising during any study of medieval documents or literature is the flexibility of the medieval languages , where several words can be used for one thing ( or , conversely , several objects are referred to by one word ) . Words such as ' courser ' and ' charger ' are used interchangeably ( even within one document ) , and where one epic may speak disparagingly of a rouncey , another praises its skill and swiftness .

Significant technological advances in equestrian equipment , often introduced from other cultures , allowed for significant changes in both warfare and agriculture . In particular , improved designs for the solid @-@ treed saddle as well as the arrival of the stirrup , horseshoe and horse collar were significant advances in medieval society .

Consequently , the assumptions and theories developed by historians are not definitive , and debate still rages on many issues , such as the breeding or size of the horse , and a number of sources must be consulted in order to understand the breadth of the subject .

= = Breeding = =

During the decline of the Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages , much of the quality breeding stock developed during the classical period was lost due to uncontrolled breeding and had to be built up again over the following centuries . In the west , this may have been due in part to the reliance of the British and Scandinavians on infantry @-@ based warfare , where horses were only used for riding and pursuit .

However , there were exceptions ; in the 7th century a Merovingian kingdom still retained at least one active Roman horse breeding centre . The Spanish also retained many quality horses , in part due to the historic reputation of the region as a horse @-@ breeding land , and partially due to the cultural influences related to the Islamic conquest of the Iberian peninsula between the 8th and 15th centuries .

The origins of the medieval war horse are obscure , although it is believed they had some Barb and Arabian blood through the Spanish Jennet , a forerunner to the modern Friesian and Andalusian horse . It is also possible that other sources of oriental bloodstock came from what was called the Nisaean breed ( possibly akin to the Turkoman horse ) from Iran and Anatolia , another type of oriental horse brought back from the Crusades . " Spanish " horses , whatever their breeding , were the most expensive . In fact , in Germany the word spanjol became the term for quality war horses . However , German literary sources also refer to fine horses from Scandinavia . France also produced good war horses . Some scholars attribute this to the strong Feudal society there , but an equally probable explanation is the historic influence of the Roman horse breeding traditions preserved by the Merovingians , combined with the addition of valuable Spanish and oriental bloodstock captured in the wake of the victory of Charles Martel over the Islamic Umayyad invaders at the Battle of Tours in 732 . Following this battle , the Carolingians began to increase their heavy cavalry , which resulted in the seizure of land ( for fodder production ) , and a change in tribute payment from cattle to horses .

As the importance of horse breeding to successful warfare was realized , planned breeding programs increased . Many changes were due to the influence of Islamic culture through both the Crusades and the Moorish invasions of Spain ; the Arabs kept extensive pedigrees of their Barb and Arabian horses via an oral tradition . Some of the earliest written pedigrees in recorded European history were kept by Carthusian monks , who were among those who bred the Spanish Jennet . Because they could read and write , thus kept careful records , monastics were given the responsibility for horse breeding by certain members of the nobility , particularly in Spain . In England , a common source of warhorses were the wild moorland ponies , which were rounded up annually by horse @-@ breeders , including the Cistercians , for use as campaign riding horses , or light cavalry ; one such breed was the Fell pony , which had similar ancestry to the Friesian horse .

It is also hard to trace what happened to the bloodlines of destriers when this type seems to disappear from record during the 17th century . Many modern draft breeds claim some link to the medieval " great horse , " with some historians considering breeds such as the Percheron , Belgian and Suffolk Punch likely descendants of the destrier . However , other historians discount this theory , since the historical record suggests the medieval warhorse was quite a different ' type ' to the modern draught horse Such a theory would suggest the war horses were crossed once again with " cold blooded " work horses , since war horses , and the destrier in particular , were renowned for their hot @-@ blooded nature .

= = = Types of horse = = =

Throughout the period , horses were rarely considered breeds , but instead were defined by type : by describing their purpose or their physical attributes . Many of the definitions were not precise , or were interchangeable . Prior to approximately the 13th century , few pedigrees were written down . Thus , many terms for horses in the Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today , but rather described appearance or purpose .

One of the best @-@ known of the medieval horses was the destrier , renowned and admired for its capabilities in war . It was well trained , and was required to be strong , fast and agile . A 14th @-@ century writer described them as " tall and majestic and with great strength " . In contemporary sources , the destrier was frequently referred to as the " great horse " because of its size and reputation . Being a subjective term , it gives no firm information about its actual height or weight , but since the average horse of the time was 12 to 14 hands ( 48 to 56 inches , 122 to 142 cm ) , thus a " great horse " by medieval standards might appear small to our modern eyes . The destrier was highly prized by knights and men @-@ at @-@ arms , but was actually not very common , and appears to have been most suited to the joust .

Coursers were generally preferred for hard battle as they were light , fast and strong . They were valuable , but not as costly as the destrier . They were also used frequently for hunting .

A more general @-@ purpose horse was the rouncey ( also rounsey ) , which could be kept as a riding horse or trained for war . It was commonly used by squires , men @-@ at @-@ arms or poorer knights . A wealthy knight would keep rounceys for his retinue . Sometimes the expected nature of warfare dictated the choice of horse ; when a summons to war was sent out in England , in 1327 , it expressly requested rounceys , for swift pursuit , rather than destriers . Rounceys were sometimes used as pack horses ( but never as cart horses ) .

The well @-@ bred palfrey , which could equal a destrier in price , was popular with nobles and highly ranked knights for riding , hunting and ceremonial use . Ambling was a desirable trait in a palfrey , as the smooth gait allowed the rider to cover long distances quickly in relative comfort . Other horse types included the jennet , a small horse first bred in Spain from Barb and Arabian bloodstock . Their quiet and dependable nature , as well as size , made them popular as riding horses for ladies ; however , they were also used as cavalry horses by the Spanish .

The hobby was a lightweight horse , about 13 to 14 hands ( 52 to 56 inches , 132 to 142 cm ) , developed in Ireland from Spanish or Libyan ( Barb ) bloodstock . This type of quick and agile horse was popular for skirmishing , and was often ridden by light cavalry known as Hobelars . Hobbies were used successfully by both sides during the Wars of Scottish Independence , with Edward I of England trying to gain advantage by preventing Irish exports of the horses to Scotland . Robert Bruce employed the hobby for his guerilla warfare and mounted raids , covering 60 to 70 miles ( 97 to 113 km ) a day .

= = Horses in warfare = =

.

While light cavalry had been used in warfare for many centuries , the medieval era saw the rise of heavy cavalry , particularly the European knight . Historians are uncertain when the use of heavy cavalry in the form of mounted shock troops first occurred , but the technique had become widespread by the mid @-@ 12th century . The heavy cavalry charge itself was not a common occurrence in warfare . Pitched battles were avoided if at all possible , with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges , or swift mounted raids called chevauchées , with the warriors lightly armed on swift horses and their heavy war horses safely in the stable . Pitched battles were sometimes unavoidable , but were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry . While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks , by the 14th century , it was common for knights to dismount to fight . Horses were sent to the rear , and kept ready for pursuit . By the Late Middle Ages ( approx 1300 @-@ 1550 ) , large battles became more common , probably because of the success of infantry tactics and changes in weaponry . However , because such tactics left the knight unmounted , the role of the war horse also changed . By the 17th century , the medieval charger had become a thing of the past , replaced by lighter , unarmoured horses . Throughout the period , light horse , or prickers , were used for scouting and reconnaissance ; they also provided a defensive screen for marching armies . Large teams of draught horses , or oxen , were used for pulling the heavy early cannon . Other horses pulled wagons and carried supplies for the armies .

= = = Tournaments = = =

Tournaments and hastiludes began in the 11th century as both a sport and to provide training for battle . Usually taking the form of a melee , the participants used the horses , armour and weapons of war . The sport of jousting grew out of the tournament and , by the 15th century , the art of tilting became quite sophisticated . In the process , the pageantry and specialization became less war @-@ like , perhaps because of the knight 's changing role in war .

Horses were specially bred for the joust , and heavier armour developed . However , this did not necessarily lead to significantly larger horses . Interpreters at the Royal Armouries , Leeds , re @-@ created the joust , using specially bred horses and replica armour . Their horses accurately represented the medieval mount , being compactly built and not particularly tall .

= = = Types of war horses = = =

The most well @-@ known horse of the medieval era of Europe is the destrier , known for carrying knights into war . However , most knights and mounted men @-@ at @-@ arms rode smaller horses known as coursers and rounceys . ( A common generic name for medieval war horses was charger , which was interchangeable with the other terms ) . In Spain , the jennet was used as a light cavalry horse .

Stallions were often used as war horses in Europe due to their natural aggression and hot @-@ blooded tendencies . A 13th @-@ century work describes destriers " biting and kicking " on the battlefield , and , in the heat of battle , war horses were often seen fighting each other . However , the use of mares by European warriors cannot be discounted from literary references . Mares were the preferred war horse of the Moors , Islamic invaders who attacked various European nations from AD 700 through the 15th century . They also were preferred by the Mongols .

War horses were more expensive than normal riding horses , and destriers the most prized , but figures vary greatly from source to source . Destriers are given a values ranging from seven times the price of an ordinary horse to 700 times . The Bohemian king Wenzel II rode a horse " valued at one thousand marks " in 1298 . At the other extreme , a 1265 French ordinance ruled that a squire could not spend more than twenty marks on a rouncey . Knights were expected to have at least one war horse ( as well as riding horses and packhorses ) , with some records from the later Middle Ages showing knights bringing twenty @-@ four horses on campaign . Five horses was perhaps the standard .

= = = Size of war horses = = =

There is dispute in medievalist circles over the size of the war horse , with some notable historians claiming a size of 17 to 18 hands ( 68 to 72 inches , 173 to 183 cm ) , as large as a modern Shire horse . However , there are practical reasons for dispute over size . Analysis of existing horse armour located in the Royal Armouries indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of 15 to 16 hands ( 60 to 64 inches , 152 to 163 cm ) , or about the size and build of a modern field hunter or ordinary riding horse . Research undertaken at the Museum of London , using literary , pictorial and archaeological sources , supports military horses of 14 to 15 hands ( 56 to 60 inches , 142 to 152 cm ) , distinguished from a riding horse by its strength and skill , rather than its size . This average does not seem to vary greatly across the medieval period . Horses appear to have been selectively bred for increased size from the 9th and 10th centuries , and by the 11th century the average warhorse was probably 14 @.@ 2 to 15 hands ( 58 to 60 inches , 147 to 152 cm ) , a size verified by studies of Norman horseshoes as well as the depictions of horses on the Bayeux Tapestry . Analysis of horse transports suggests 13th @-@ century destriers were a stocky build , and no more than 15 to 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 60 to 62 inches , 152 to 157 cm ) . Three centuries later , warhorses were not significantly bigger ; the Royal Armouries used a 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) Lithuanian Heavy Draught mare as a model for the statues displaying various 15th- and 16th @-@ century horse armours , as her body shape was an excellent fit .

Perhaps one reason for the pervasive belief that the medieval war horse had to be of draught horse type is the assumption , still held by many , that medieval armour was heavy . In fact , even the heaviest tournament armour ( for knights ) weighed little more than 90 pounds ( 41 kg ) , and field ( war ) armour 40 to 70 pounds ( 18 to 32 kg ) ; barding , or horse armour , more common in tournaments than war , rarely weighed more than 70 pounds ( 32 kg ) . For horses , Cuir bouilli ( a type of hardened leather ) , and padded caparisons were more common , and probably as effective . Allowing for the weight of the rider and other equipment , horses can carry approximately 30 % of their weight ; thus such loads could certainly be carried by a heavy riding horse in the 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 300 pounds ( 540 to 590 kg ) range , and a draught horse was not needed .

Although a large horse is not required to carry an armoured knight , it is held by some historians that a large horse was desirable to increase the power of a lance strike . However , practical experiments by re @-@ enactors have suggested that the rider 's weight and strength is of more relevance than the size of the mount , and that little of the horse 's weight is translated to the lance .

Further evidence for a 14 @-@ 16 hand ( 56 to 64 inches ( 140 to 160 cm ) ) war horse is that it was a matter of pride to a knight to be able to vault onto his horse in full armour , without touching the stirrup . This arose not from vanity , but necessity : if unhorsed during battle , a knight would remain vulnerable if unable to mount by himself . In reality , of course , a wounded or weary knight might find it difficult , and rely on a vigilant squire to assist him . Incidentally , a knight 's armour served in his favour in any fall . With his long hair twisted on his head to form a springy padding under his padded @-@ linen hood , and his helm placed on top , he had head protection not dissimilar to a modern bicycle or equestrian helmet .

= = Transportation = =

Throughout the Middle Ages it was customary for people of all classes and background to travel , often widely . The households of the upper classes and royal courts moved between manors and estates ; the demands of diplomacy , war and crusades took men to distant countries ; priests travelled between churches , monasteries and formed emissaries to Rome ; people of all classes went on pilgrimage , or travelled to find work ; others travelled as a pastime . Most people undertook small journeys on foot and hired horses for longer journeys . For the upper classes , travel was accompanied by a great deal of pomp and display , with fine horses , large retinues and magnificent cavalcades in order to display their wealth as well as to ensure personal comfort . For example , in 1445 , the English royal household contained 60 horses in the king 's stable and 186 kept for " chariots " ( carriages ) and carts .

During much of the Middle Ages , there was no system of interconnected roads and bridges . Though parts of Europe still had remnants of Roman roads built before the collapse of the Roman Empire , most had long fallen into disrepair . Because of the necessity to ride long distances over uncertain roads , smooth @-@ gaited horses were preferred , and most ordinary riding horses were of greater value if they could do one of the smooth but ground @-@ covering four @-@ beat gaits collectively known as an amble rather than the more jarring trot .

Mule trains , for land travel , and barges , for river and canal travel , were the most common form of long @-@ distance haulage , although wheeled horse @-@ drawn vehicles were used for shorter journeys . In areas with good roads , regular carrier services were established between major towns . However , because medieval roads were generally so poor , carriages for human passengers were rare . When roads permitted , early carriages were developed from freight wagons . Carriage travel was made more comfortable in the late 14th century with the introduction of the chariot branlant , which had strap suspension .

The speed of travel varied greatly . Large retinues could be slowed by the presence of slow @-@ paced carts and litters , or by servants and attendants on foot , and could rarely cover more than fifteen to twenty miles a day . Small mounted companies might travel 30 miles a day . However , there were exceptions : stopping only for a change of horses midway , Richard II of England once managed the 70 miles between Daventry and Westminster in a night .

For breeding , war and travel purposes , it was also necessary to be able to transport horses themselves . For this purpose , boats were adapted and built to be used as horse transports . William of Normandy 's invasion of England in 1066 required the transfer of over 2000 horses from Normandy . Similarly , when travelling to France in 1285 – 6 , Edward I of England ferried over 1000 horses across the English Channel to provide the royal party with transport .

= = = Riding horses = = =

Riding horses were used by a variety of people during the Middle Ages , and so varied greatly in quality , size and breeding . Knights and nobles kept riding horses in their war @-@ trains , saving their warhorses for the battle . The names of horses referred to a type of horse , rather than a breed . Many horses were named by the region where they or their immediate ancestors were foaled . For example , in Germany , Hungarian horses were commonly used for riding . Individual horses were often described by their gait ( ' trotters ' or ' amblers ' ) , by their colouring , or by the name of their breeder .

The best riding horses were known as palfreys ; other riding horses were often called hackneys , from which the modern term " hack " is derived . Women sometimes rode palfreys or small , quiet horses known as jennets .

= = = Harness and pack horses = = =

A variety of work horses were used throughout the Middle Ages . The pack horse ( or " sumpter horse " ) carried equipment and belongings . Common riding horses , often called " hackneys " , could be used as pack horses . Cart horses pulled wagons for trading and freight haulage , on farms , or as part of a military campaign . These draught horses were smaller than their modern counterparts ; pictorial and archaeological evidence suggests that they were stout but short , approximately 13 to 14 hands ( 52 to 56 inches , 132 to 142 cm ) , and capable of drawing a load of 500 to 600 pounds ( 230 to 270 kg ) per horse . Four @-@ wheeled wagons and two @-@ wheeled carts were more common in towns , such as London and , depending on type of vehicle and weight of the load , were usually pulled by teams of two , three , or four horses harnessed in tandem . Starting in the 12th century , in England the use of oxen to pull carts was gradually superseded by the use of horses , a process that extended through the 13th century . This change came because horse @-@ drawn transport moved goods quicker and over greater distances than ox @-@ drawn methods of transport .

= = Agriculture = =

The Romans had used a two @-@ field crop rotation agricultural system , but from the 8th century on , a three @-@ field system became more common . One field would be sown with a winter crop , the second with a spring crop , and the third left fallow . This allowed a greater amount of spring crop of oats to be grown , which provided fodder for horses . Another advance during the Middle Ages was the development of the heavy mouldboard plough , which allowed dense and heavy soils to be tilled easily ; this technology required the use of larger teams of draught animals including oxen and horses , as well as the adoption of larger fields . Particularly after the 12th century , the increased use of both the horse collar and use of iron horse shoes allowed horsepower to be directed more efficiently . Horse teams usually were four horses , or perhaps six , as compared to eight oxen , and the lesser numbers compensated for the fact that the horses needed to be fed grain on top of pasture , unlike oxen . The increased speed of horses also allowed more land to be ploughed in a day , with an eight ox plough team averaging half of an acre per day , but a horse team averaged a full acre per day .

For farm work , such as ploughing and harrowing , the draught horse utilized for this purpose was called an affrus ( or stott ) , which was usually smaller and cheaper than the cart horse . While oxen were traditionally used as work animals on farms , horses began to be used in greater numbers after the development of the horse collar . Oxen and horses were sometimes harnessed together . The transition from oxen to horses for farm work was documented in pictorial sources ( for example , the 11th @-@ century Bayeux tapestry depicts working horses ) , and also clear from the change from the Roman two @-@ field crop @-@ rotation system to a new three @-@ field system , which increased the cultivation of fodder crops ( predominantly oats , barley and beans ) . Horses were also used to process crops ; they were used to turn the wheels in mills ( such as corn mills ) , and transport crops to market . The change to horse @-@ drawn teams also meant a change in ploughs , as horses were more suited to a wheeled plough , unlike oxen .

= = Equestrian equipment and technological innovations = =

The development of equestrian technology proceeded at a similar pace as the development of horse breeding and utilisation . The changes in warfare during the Early Middle Ages to heavy cavalry both precipitated and relied on the arrival of the stirrup , solid @-@ treed saddle , and horseshoe from other cultures .

The development of the nailed horseshoe enabled longer , faster journeys on horseback , particularly in the wetter lands in northern Europe , and were useful for campaigns on varied terrains . By providing protection and support , nailed horse shoes also improved the efficiency of draught horse teams . Though the Romans had developed an iron " hipposandal " that resembled a hoof boot , there is much debate over the actual origins of the nailed horseshoe , though it does appear to be of European origin . There is little evidence of nailed @-@ on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600 , though there is speculation that the Celtic Gauls were the first to nail on metal horseshoes . The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to " crescent figured irons and their nails " in a list of cavalry equipment from AD 910 . Additional archaeological evidence suggests they were used in Siberia during the 9th and 10th centuries , and had spread to Byzantium soon afterward ; by the 11th century , horseshoes were commonly used in Europe . By the time the Crusades began in 1096 , horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources .

= = = Riding technology = = =

The saddle with a solid tree provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider . The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid @-@ treed saddle , possibly as early as the 1st century BC , and it was widespread by the 2nd century AD . Early medieval saddles resembled the Roman " four @-@ horn " saddle , and were used without stirrups . The development of the solid saddle tree was significant ; it raised the rider above the horse 's back , and distributed the rider 's weight , reducing the pounds per square inch carried on any one part of the horse 's back , thus greatly increasing the comfort of the horse and prolonging its useful life . Horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree . It also allowed a more built up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle . From the 12th century on , the high war @-@ saddle became more common , providing protection as well as added security . The built up cantle of a solid @-@ treed saddle enabled horsemen to use lance more effectively .

Beneath the saddle , caparisons or saddle cloths were sometimes worn ; these could be decorated or embroidered with heraldic colours and arms . War horses could be equipped with additional covers , blankets and armour collectively referred to as barding ; this could be for decorative or protective purposes . Early forms of horse armour , usually restricted to tournaments , comprised padded leather pieces , covered by a trapper ( a decorated cloth ) , which was not particularly heavy . Mail and plate armour was also occasionally used ; there are literary references to horse armour ( an " iron blanket " ) starting in the late 12th century .

The solid tree allowed for effective use of the stirrup . The stirrup was developed in China and in widespread use there by 477 AD . By the 7th century , primarily due to invaders from Central Asia , such as the Avars , stirrups arrived in Europe , and European riders had adopted them by the 8th century . Among other advantages , stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider , which allowed the knight to use a sword more efficiently without falling , especially against infantry .

The increased use of the stirrup from the 8th century on aided the warrior 's stability and security in the saddle when fighting . This may have led to greater use of shock tactics , although a couched lance could be used effectively without stirrups . In particular , Charles Martel recognized the military potential of the stirrup , and distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner .

A theory known as The Great Stirrup Controversy argues that the advantages in warfare that stemmed from use of the stirrup led to the birth of feudalism itself . Other scholars , however , dispute this assertion , suggesting that stirrups provided little advantage in shock warfare , being useful primarily for allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting , and simply reduce the risk of falling off . Therefore , it is argued , they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in Medieval militaries , nor the reason for the emergence of Feudalism .

There was a variety of headgear used to control horses , predominantly bridles with assorted designs of bits . Many of the bits used during the Middle Ages resemble the bradoon , snaffle bit and curb bit that are still in common use today . However , they often were decorated to a greater degree : the bit rings or shanks were frequently covered with large , ornamental " bosses . " Some designs were also more extreme and severe than those used today.The curb bit was known during the classical period , but was not generally used during the Middle Ages until the mid @-@ 14th century . Some styles of snaffle bit used during the Middle Ages had the lower cheek extended , in the manner of the modern half @-@ cheek or full cheek snaffle . Until the late 13th century , bridles generally had a single pair of reins ; after this period it became more common for knights to use two sets of reins , similar to that of the modern double bridle , and often at least one set was decorated .

Spurs were commonly used throughout the period , especially by knights , with whom they were regularly associated . A young man was said to have " won his spurs " when he achieved knighthood . Wealthy knights and riders frequently wore decorated and filigreed spurs . Attached to the rider 's heel by straps , spurs could be used both to encourage horses to quickly move forward or to direct lateral movement . Early spurs had a short shanks or " neck " , placing the rowel relatively close to the rider 's heel ; further developments in the spur shape lengthened the neck , making it easier to touch the horse with less leg movement on the part of the rider .

= = = Harness technology = = =

A significant development which increased the importance and use of horses in harness , particularly for ploughing and other farm work , was the horse collar . The horse collar was invented in China during the 5th century , arrived in Europe during the 9th century , and became widespread throughout Europe by the 12th century . It allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle by means of yokes or breastcollars used in earlier times . The yoke was designed for oxen and not suited to the anatomy of horses , it required horses to pull with their shoulders rather than using the power of their hindquarters . Harnessed in such a manner , horse teams could pull no more than 500 kg . The breastplate @-@ style harness that had flat straps across the neck and chest of the animal , while useful for pulling light vehicles , was of little use for heavy work . These straps pressed against the horse 's sterno @-@ cephalicus muscle and trachea , which restricted breathing and reduced the pulling power of the horse . Two horses harnessed with a breastcollar harness were limited to pulling a combined total of about 1 @,@ 100 pounds ( 500 kg ) . In contrast , the horse collar rested on horses ' shoulders and did not impede breathing . It allowed a horse to use its full strength , by pushing forward with its hindquarters into the collar rather than to pull with its shoulders . With the horse collar , a horse could provide a work effort of 50 % more foot @-@ pounds per second than an ox , because it could move at a greater speed , as well as having generally greater endurance and the ability to work more hours in a day . A single horse with a more efficient collar harness could draw a weight of about 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) .

A further improvement was managed by altering the arrangement of the teams ; by hitching horses one behind the other , rather than side by side , weight could be distributed more evenly , and pulling power increased . This increase in horse power is demonstrated in the building accounts of Troyes , which show carters hauling stone from quarries 50 miles ( 80 km ) distant ; the carts weighed , on average , 5 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) , on which 5 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 500 kg ) of stone was regularly loaded , sometimes increasing to 8 @,@ 600 pounds ( 3 @,@ 900 kg ) – a significant increase from Roman @-@ era loads .

= = Horse trades and professions = =

The elite horseman of the Middle Ages was the knight . Generally raised from the middle and upper classes , the knight was trained from childhood in the arts of war and management of the horse . In most languages , the term for knight reflects his status as a horseman : the French chevalier , Spanish caballero and German Ritter . The French word for horse @-@ mastery – chevalerie – gave its name to the highest concept of knighthood : chivalry .

A large number of trades and positions arose to ensure the appropriate management and care of horses . In aristrocratic households , the marshal was responsible for all aspects relating to horses : the care and management of all horses from the chargers to the pack horses , as well as all travel logistics . The position of marshal ( literally " horse servant " ) was a high one in court circles and the king 's marshal ( such as the Earl Marshal in England ) was also responsible for managing many military matters . Also present within the great households was the constable ( or " count of the stable " ) , who was responsible for protection and the maintenance of order within the household and commanding the military component and , with marshals , might organise hastiludes and other chivalrous events . Within lower social groupings , the ' marshal ' acted as a farrier . The highly skilled marshal made and fitted horseshoes , cared for the hoof , and provided general veterinary care for horses ; throughout the Middle Ages , a distinction was drawn between the marshal and the blacksmith , whose work was more limited .

A number of tradesmen dealt with the provision of horses . Horse dealers ( frequently called " horse coursers " in England ) bought and sold horses , and frequently had a reputation as dishonest figures , responsible for the brisk trade in stolen horses . Others , such as the " hackneymen " offered horses for hire , and many formed large establishments on busy roads , often branding their horses to deter theft .

= = Women and horses = =

It was not uncommon for a girl to learn her father 's trade and for a woman to share her husband 's trade , since the entire family often helped run medieval shops and farms . Many guilds also accepted the membership of widows , so they might continue their husband 's business . Under this system , some women trained in horse @-@ related trades , and there are records of women working as farriers and saddle @-@ makers . On farms , where every hand was needed , excessive emphasis on division of labour was impracticable , and women often worked alongside men ( on their own farms or as hired help ) , leading the farm horses and oxen , and managing their care .

Despite the difficulties of travel , it was customary for many people , including women , to travel long distances . Upper @-@ class wives frequently accompanied their husbands on crusade or to tournaments , and many women traveled for social or family engagements ; both nuns and laywomen would perform pilgrimages . When not on foot , women would usually travel on horseback or , if weakened or infirm , be carried in a wagon or a litter . If roads permitted , women sometimes rode in early carriages developed from freight wagons , pulled by three or four horses . After the invention of better suspension systems , travel in carriages became more comfortable . Women of the nobility also rode horses for sport , accompanying men in activities that included hunting and hawking .

Most medieval women rode astride . Although an early chair @-@ like sidesaddle with handles and a footrest was available by the 13th century and allowed women of the nobility to ride while wearing elaborate gowns , they were not universally adopted during the Middle Ages . This was largely due to the insecure seat they offered , which necessitated a smooth @-@ gaited horse being led by another handler . The sidesaddle did not become practical for everyday riding until the 16th @-@ century development of the pommel horn that allowed a woman to hook her leg around the saddle and hence use the reins to control her own horse . Even then , sidesaddle riding remained a precarious activity until the invention of the second , " leaping horn " in the 19th century .

It was not unknown for women to ride war horses , and take their part in warfare . Joan of Arc is probably the most famous female warrior of the medieval period , but there were many others , including the Empress Matilda who , armoured and mounted , led an army against her cousin Stephen of Blois , and Stephen 's wife Matilda of Boulogne in the 12th century . The 15th @-@ century writer Christine de Pizan advised aristocratic ladies that they must " know the laws of arms and all things pertaining to warfare , ever prepared to command her men if there is need of it . "

= Billy Meredith =

William Henry " Billy " Meredith ( 30 July 1874 – 19 April 1958 ) was a Welsh professional footballer . He was considered one of the early superstars of football due to his performances , notably for Manchester City and Manchester United . He won each domestic trophy in the English football league and gained 48 caps for Wales , for whom he scored 11 goals and won two British Home Championship titles . His favoured position was outside right , and his key skills were dribbling , passing , crossing and shooting . A dedicated and extremely fit professional , his habit of chewing on a toothpick during games made him instantly recognisable .

In 27 seasons in the Football League from 1892 to 1924 ( not including the four seasons lost to the First World War and the 1905 – 06 season in which he was banned for bribing an opposition player ) , he scored 176 goals in 740 league and cup appearances . He played for Chirk , before joining Northwich Victoria in 1892 . His career took off when he signed with Manchester City in 1894 and turned professional in January 1895 . He captained the team to the club 's first major honour , a 1 – 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers in the 1904 FA Cup Final . He moved to Manchester United in May 1906 after being banned for bribing Aston Villa half @-@ back Alex Leake £ 10 to lose a match . There he won the league title in 1907 – 08 and 1910 – 11 , the FA Cup in 1909 , as well as two FA Charity Shields . He also helped to set up the Players ' Union , which was a fore @-@ runner of the Professional Footballers ' Association . He returned to Manchester City in 1921 at the age of 47 and played a further 32 games before retiring in 1924 , making him the oldest ever player for City , United and Wales . He later ran the Stretford Road Hotel and helped to coach the short @-@ lived Manchester Central .

= = Early life = =

Meredith was born in 1874 in Chirk , a small mining town in Denbighshire , North Wales , just south of Wrexham . He started work at Black Park Colliery as a pit pony driver at the age of 12 . His family were Primitive Methodists , and Meredith himself remained a lifelong teetotaller . He spent eight years working in the mines , and worked during a tough time for the industry , enduring a 25 % pay cut which led to strike action in 1893 ; this experience helped to shape his political views , which would become significant later in his life . An interest in football was kindled by his elder brothers . Elias , the eldest , was a train driver for the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway . His work allowed him to take Meredith to watch professional teams such as Everton . Football was a keen pastime for the miners , and the standard of amateur teams from towns and villages in north east Wales was high as a result ; Chirk won the Welsh Cup five times between 1887 and 1894 , with miners making up a large proportion of the team . All the Meredith brothers played football , but Sam , two years older than Billy , was the first to make an impression . He left Chirk to attempt a professional career , and went on to play for Stoke City as a full @-@ back .

Meredith made his debut for the Chirk first team in September 1892 . The club played in The Combination , a league which contained a mixture of town clubs and reserve teams of clubs from big cities . At the end of his first season Meredith played in the 1893 Welsh Cup final , which Chirk lost 2 – 1 to Wrexham . Meredith formed a solid understanding with inside @-@ right William Owen , a former Wales international . Chirk withdrew from The Combination and entered only the Welsh league in 1893 due to low attendances caused by the coal miners ' strike . In an attempt to make ends meet , Meredith not only played for Chirk , but accepted an offer to play for Football League club Northwich Victoria as well , who gave him a small fee on top of his expenses . Northwich were a struggling side , who withdrew from the Football League at the end of the 1893 – 94 season after finishing bottom of the Second Division . The club won just three league matches ; Meredith featured in each win . Back at Chirk , Meredith gained his first honour as part of the team that beat Westminster Rovers to win the 1894 Welsh Cup .

= = Club career = =

= = = First spell at Manchester City = = =

Meredith 's performances for Northwich gained the attention of several other clubs in the Football League . Bolton Wanderers full @-@ back Di Jones , a former Chirk player , spoke with him about a possible move , but Bolton secretary J.J. Bentley felt Meredith was too inexperienced and his frame too slight . Lawrence Furniss , an official at Ardwick , had first noticed him while refereeing a Northwich match . Meredith also played in both meetings between the clubs that season . Later in 1894 , Ardwick , by then known as Manchester City , vigorously pursued Meredith 's signature . Two club officials travelled to Wales to meet the player . One was secretary @-@ manager Joshua Parlby , the other either Furniss or chairman John Chapman . The pair were met with suspicion . Anecdotes by contemporary figures suggest they were initially chased away by locals , and were only allowed to speak to Meredith after they bought drinks for his mining colleagues . Meredith did not wish to abandon life in Chirk . His mother was particularly against the idea : " It is all very well for you gentlemen to leave your big cities and come to our villages to steal our boys away ... Our boys are happy and healthy , satisfied with their work and innocent amusements ... if Billy takes my advice he will stick to his work and play football for his own amusement when work is finished . " Meredith did eventually sign for Manchester City , but as an amateur . He continued to work at the pit for at least a year , commuting back and forth for matches .

Meredith made his Manchester City debut in November 1894 in a 5 – 4 loss to Newcastle United . The following week he played his first home match for the club at Hyde Road , and scored two goals against Newton Heath – who later became Manchester United – in the first Manchester derby to take place in the league . Newton Heath won the match 5 – 2 . He turned professional in January 1895 , and ended the 1894 – 95 season with 12 goals in 18 appearances , just three strikes behind top @-@ scorer Pat Finnerhan , who had played an extra 12 games .

In his first full season at Manchester City , Meredith finished as top scorer . He was appointed club captain in his second season at the club , aged just 21 . The club finished as Second Division runners @-@ up in 1895 – 96 , but were denied promotion after heavy defeats to West Bromwich Albion and Small Heath in the test matches . After the departure of strike partner Pat Finnerhan to Liverpool in March 1897 , Meredith remained as City 's star player .

His new partner for the 1897 – 98 season was William Smith ( known as " Stockport Smith " to differentiate him from another William Smith in the team ) , whilst Billie Gillespie was placed at centre @-@ forward . Meredith provided Gillespie with many crosses into the box , picking up numerous assists as Gillespie outscored Meredith by 19 goals to 12 . Meredith also acted as a mentor for the slightly younger Gillespie , steering him away from drinking sessions by taking him along on fishing trips . The final match of the season saw Meredith score his first hat @-@ trick for the club in an emphatic 9 – 0 win against Burton Swifts .

City dominated the Second Division in the 1898 – 99 season , and won promotion as champions . Helping them to keep them in winning ways in the close season was late signing Jimmy Ross , a veteran forward who Meredith considered to be his " favourite hero " . Meredith claimed 30 goals in 35 games , including hat @-@ tricks against Grimsby Town , Loughborough , Darwen and Barnsley .

Meredith scored City 's first goal in the First Division on the opening day of the 1899 – 1900 season in a 4 – 3 defeat to Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park on 2 September . Seven days later he claimed two goals in a 4 – 0 home victory over Derby County , and " led the field that day " by dribbling the ball almost the whole length of the pitch before launching a powerful shot that settled into the corner of Jack Fryer 's net . The Athletic News reported that " for real brilliance the right @-@ wing [ Meredith and Ross ] took the biscuit " .

First Division defences managed to limit Meredith 's contribution in the 1900 – 01 campaign by singling him out for rough treatment , though Liverpool manager Tom Watson felt compelled to write a letter to Manchester City denying that a Liverpool director had stated that " all that the opposition had to do was watch Meredith – the rest are no good " . He finished the season with just seven goals in 35 appearances .

Meredith found the net eight times in 38 games in the 1901 – 02 campaign , as City were relegated back out of the First Division . The club 's secretary , Sam Ormerod , selected 29 different players as the club slumped to defeat in 13 of the opening 20 games . Ormerod was forced to step down , as new business figures took control behind the scenes and began to sign promising young Scottish players . New manager Tom Maley was more willing than his predecessor to confront Meredith over his tendency to stray out of position and attempt to dominate the City attack .

City won immediate promotion as Second Division champions in 1902 – 03 , with Meredith scoring 22 goals in 37 appearances and claiming a hat @-@ trick against Chesterfield Town . Maley managed to find him a suitable inside @-@ right partner in Jimmy Bannister , who was unselfish in his play and willing to feed the ball through to Meredith . He also played Sammy Frost at half @-@ back , who was able to win the ball and bring Meredith into the play , and signed outside @-@ left Frank Booth to balance the attack . Maley encouraged teamwork , meaning there was less pressure on Meredith from opposition defenders .

Meredith was partnered with George Livingstone for the 1903 – 04 campaign , who was able to supply him and the rest of the team with quality passes . Drawn against a strong Sunderland outfit in the First Round of the FA Cup , Meredith was the " raider @-@ in @-@ chief " as City claimed a 3 – 2 victory at Hyde Road . City then defeated Woolwich Arsenal and Middlesbrough to reach the semi @-@ finals . There they faced The Wednesday at Goodison Park , and Meredith scored one goal ( bundled in by Gillespie ) and claimed two assists as City won the game 3 – 1 . Their opponents in the final at Crystal Palace were mid @-@ table Second Division outfit Bolton Wanderers , and Meredith was cautiously optimistic before the match , stating " We ought to win ... if we play anything like our normal game the cup is ours ... but this is the cup final and , well , anything might happen . " With just over 20 minutes played , Livingstone found Meredith with a long ball , who then beat goalkeeper Dai Davies to score the only goal of the game ; Bolton supporters long maintained that Meredith had been offside . As captain , Meredith was handed the trophy by Prime Minister Arthur Balfour .

He scored nine goals in 36 games in the 1904 – 05 season , as City came within two points and two places of champions Newcastle United . The season ended in controversial circumstances at Villa Park , and with a 3 – 2 defeat to Aston Villa ending any hopes of winning the league , Sandy Turnbull and Villa captain Alex Leake exchanged blows . The Football Association launched an investigation into the violence , and the findings shocked the sporting world as Meredith was suspended for the entirety of the 1905 – 06 season for ( unsuccessfully ) attempting to bribe Alex Leake . No evidence was taken from Meredith , who denied the charge , and the evidence was not made public . The club , fearful of FA sanctions , refused to pay Meredith during the campaign . He was transfer listed in May 1906 after he claimed that he had only attempted to bribe Leake on the orders of manager Tom Maley and that illegal payments were common practice at Hyde Road . The FA acted on his information , and fined Manchester City £ 900 for illegal payments and suspended numerous players , boardroom members and staff members .

You approve of the severe punishment administered by the Commission AGAINST ME and state that the offence I committed at Aston Villa should have wiped me out of football forever . Why ME ALONE ? when I was only the spokesman of others equally guilty .

= = = Manchester United = = =

In May 1906 , while still serving his ban , Meredith moved to Manchester United . He joined on a free transfer and received a £ 500 signing @-@ on fee from United ; Manchester City reluctantly accepted the transfer as they had previously signed an undertaking promising Meredith a benefit match , and he was willing to forego on the agreement if the club instead granted his transfer . He returned from suspension on 1 January 1907 , and marked his debut at Bank Street with an assist for Sandy Turnbull to score the only goal of the game against Aston Villa . In addition to Turnbull , Meredith was joined at United by former City teammates Jimmy Bannister and Herbert Burgess . This new forward line made the team into a powerful force , as they already possessed a dominant half @-@ back line in captain Charlie Roberts , Dick Duckworth and Alex Bell . They ended the 1906 – 07 season in eighth place in the First Division .

Manager Ernest Mangnall signed Jimmy Turnbull , and the forward line of Meredith , Bannister , Jimmy Turnbull and Sandy Turnbull were dominant in the 1907 – 08 campaign . United won the title with a nine @-@ point margin over second @-@ placed Aston Villa , and secured the 1908 FA Charity Shield ( the first ever Charity Shield ) with a 4 – 0 win over Queens Park Rangers at Stamford Bridge .

United slipped to a disappointing 13th @-@ place finish in 1908 – 09 . Meredith was suspended for the month of January in punishment for kicking a Brighton & Hove Albion player in an FA Cup match . The club reached the 1909 FA Cup Final , knocking out Brighton , Everton , Blackburn Rovers , Burnley and Newcastle United . Their cup final opponents at Crystal Palace were Bristol City , captained at centre @-@ half by Billy Wedlock – England captain and staunch opponent of the Players ' Union . A Sandy Turnbull goal settled the tie , which was described as quite a boring game ; Meredith himself dismissed reports of the match , stating " it was a good game for dashing , keen , thrilling football , great goalkeeping and narrow escapes at either end " . Meredith and his teammates celebrated the victory with music hall stars such as George Robey .

United finished fifth in 1909 – 10 and exited the FA Cup at the First Round with a defeat to Burnley at Turf Moor . However the club continued to advance under the generous chairmanship of John Henry Davies , and Old Trafford was opened in February 1910 .

Harold Halse was to partner Meredith at inside @-@ right for the 1910 – 11 season , but proved too much of a " free @-@ spirit " and was replaced by Jack Picken , a " plodder [ who ] understands what Meredith requires " . A defeat at Villa Park in the penultimate game of the season left United needing to beat third @-@ place Sunderland and hope that Aston Villa failed to beat Liverpool . United were a goal down when Meredith provided Enoch West with a cross which West sent into the net for the equalising goal . Four more goals came and they won the game 5 – 1 and left the field as champions of England for the second time .

Meredith played in the 1911 FA Charity Shield , as United beat Swindon Town 8 – 4 at Stamford Bridge . However the 1911 – 12 campaign ended in a disappointing 13th @-@ place finish and Mangnall left the club to manage rivals Manchester City . Meredith 's Benefit match was played on 7 September 1912 , between Manchester United and Manchester City , and the Welsh FA also donated the proceeds of two trial matches to the fund . There were 39 @,@ 911 spectators and a total of £ 1 @,@ 400 was raised .

New manager John Bentley led United to a fourth @-@ place finish in 1912 – 13 . He dropped Meredith to blood a young Jackie Sheldon . By this time , Meredith made headlines primarily due to his squabbling with the club over them stalling payment of his benefit matches and his dissatisfaction at being dropped . The club dropped to 14th spot in 1913 – 14 , and only avoided relegation on the last day of the 1914 – 15 season after bribing Liverpool to lose 2 – 0 at Old Trafford ; Meredith this time played no part in the resulting bribery scandal . He instead claimed to be baffled as to why his teammates refused to pass to him during the game .

During the First World War he actually played a match against United , making a guest appearance for Port Vale , with Vale recording a 5 – 2 victory at the Old Recreation Ground . Frustrated with the club for delaying payments over his benefit match , he also played as a guest for Manchester City . After the war ended he demanded a free transfer , and was repulsed that the club demanded a transfer fee , stating that the transfer market was a " degrading business " for players . On 7 May 1921 , at 46 years , 281 days , he became United 's oldest ever player when he took to the field in a league game against Derby County .

= = = Return to Manchester City = = =

In 1921 he returned to Manchester City on a free transfer . He played 25 first team games in the 1921 – 22 season , helping City to record a derby victory over rivals Manchester United . He featured once in the 1922 – 23 campaign , playing the club 's final game at Hyde Road . He played four FA Cup and two First Division games in the 1923 – 24 season . Mangnall , now his manager at City , shocked Manchester when he selected Meredith for the cup game with Brighton & Hove Albion at the Goldstone Ground , but was vindicated with a 5 – 1 victory ; Meredith also scored a goal , though this was due to a poor mistake from the Brighton goalkeeper . He played both games against Cardiff City in the next round , a 0 – 0 draw at Maine Road and 1 – 0 win at Ninian Park , and claimed an assist in the goal that settled the tie . His last match was against Newcastle United in the semi @-@ finals at the age of 49 years and 245 days , making him City 's oldest ever player ; the game ended in a 2 – 1 defeat .

= = International career = =

Meredith won his first cap for Wales in a 2 – 2 draw with Ireland on 16 March 1895 in Belfast . He won 12 caps in the 1890s , but was forced to miss six games as his club would not let him play in games that clashed with league fixtures . Wales could compete with Ireland , but were regularly beaten by Scotland and England . On 26 March 1900 , Wales played for the first time in South Wales , at Cardiff Arms Park , and Meredith scored a goal to earn the Welsh a celebrated 1 – 1 draw with England . After serving his suspension , he returned to Wales for the British Home Championship title victory in 1907 , the nation 's first success in the competition . In those three games , he scored against Ireland in a 3 – 2 victory , and captained Wales to a 1 – 0 win over Scotland and a 1 – 1 draw with England . Wales were denied a late penalty against the English , and Meredith was later recorded to have said " never mind , little Wales will win some day [ against England ] . May I be there at the death . "

After draws with Ireland and Scotland , Meredith " wept unashamedly " as he helped Wales to beat England 2 – 1 at Highbury to claim the 1920 British Home Championship . It was only his second victory against the English in 20 attempts , and it marked the last of his 48 caps . Though his record number of caps was later surpassed , at 45 years and 229 days he remains the oldest player to win a Wales cap . He was actually chosen by the selectors for 71 consecutive matches , but only made 48 appearances as his clubs regularly refused to release him for international duty .

= = Style of play = =

Meredith was able to avoid injury throughout his career , despite the extremely physical nature of the game during the period . This was due in part to his extraordinary balance and agility , which allowed him to avoid clumsy challenges , and the toughness he had built up from spending his adolescence working in the mines . A model professional , he spent his spare time improving his game with extra training sessions and maintained peak physical fitness by avoiding alcohol and tobacco . His " gimmick " was to chew on a toothpick during matches , and this unusual trait was picked up on by cartoonists of the time .

Writing a 1947 critique of Stanley Matthews , Meredith criticised the lack of direct play on show in the 1940s and stated that when he was playing that " I knew what was expected of me – to beat the wing @-@ half and the full @-@ back , take the ball down to the corner flag and centre " . His ball control skills were unparalleled , leaving opposition players unable to tackle him . He also was an extremely accurate passer and crosser of the ball . His dribbling and crossing gave him a large advantage over rival wingers , who relied solely on speed to beat opposition full @-@ backs . In addition to wing @-@ play , he was also highly skilled at sending in long @-@ range shots across the face of the goal , and could be relied upon to meet crosses from his left @-@ winger with a powerful volley .

Meredith had to deal with extremely physical defences , and was often boxed into the corner of the pitch by as many as four players . As his talents became widely regarded , more well organised defences would designate him with a man @-@ marker , to try and isolate him from his teammates . This often left him reliant on an unselfish inside @-@ right partner willing to fetch and carry the ball for him without expecting much in terms of goals or glory in return . A hard @-@ working wing @-@ half would also improve Meredith 's effectiveness by winning the ball and sending him a pass down the flank . The best teams he played in also had a centre @-@ forward able to make the most of his accurate crosses .

= = Players ' Union = =

Meredith organised the first meeting of the Players ' Union ( PU ) in December 1907 . Meredith had previously been involved with the Association Footballers ' Union ( the " AFU " ) , the first attempt by football players in England to organise a trade union . The Players ' Union , like the AFU before it , sought the relaxation of restrictions on transfers and wages . Others made the argument that a free market wage structure would ruin the amateur principles the sport was founded on , but Meredith felt that these words rang hollow considering that club directors and shareholders made vast profits . At the first annual meeting in December 1908 , the PU stated their aims as to allow unlimited wages , the right to transfer from club to club , and for players to take a percentage of any transfer fee .

With the union threatening strike action , particularly at international matches , in April 1909 the Football Association insisted that all players agree to leave the union and pledge loyalty to the FA . Manchester United refused to issue the revised contracts to its players , and FA suspended the entire squad . The club then refused to pay the players in lieu of their suspension , and so the players instead took away ornaments from the club 's office before Mangnall persuaded them to return the items . The players continued to train , and captain Charlie Roberts came up with the name of Outcasts F.C. The FA organised a meeting of 200 players , excluding the Outcasts , but a rambling speech from chairman Charles Clegg failed to win them over , and an agreement was reached where the PU would be recognised by the FA .

In October 1909 , the Union balloted its members over the organisation 's membership of the General Federation of Trade Unions ( GTFU ) . The result of the vote , a decisive " no " to GFTU support , effectively supported the FA 's position that professional footballers were fundamentally different from workmen in other industries . Meredith resumed league football in November 1909 , bemoaning his view that " many players refuse to take things seriously and continue to live a kind of schoolboy life " .

= = Personal life and legacy = =

He married Ellen Negus in 1901 , and the couple had two daughters . He was a supporter of the Liberal Party . He ran businesses throughout his career , with little success , and was declared bankrupt in July 1909 after his outfitting shop was damaged by fire.Harding 1998 , p . 135 During the 1910s he ran a public house ( despite being a teetotaller ) and later pursued an interest in the film industry by buying shares in numerous Stretford cinemas in the 1930s . He also starred in 1926 picture The Ball of Fortune , playing himself as a football trainer ; the film received generally positive reviews . In 1928 , together with former colleague Charlie Roberts he became a coach for the ambitious but short @-@ lived Manchester Central . Meredith 's son @-@ in @-@ law , former City captain Charlie Pringle , was a player . He retained a passion for football , and spent much of his retirement discussing the game with former colleagues and regulars at his hotel , the Stretford Road Hotel , which he ran from 1930 to 1945 . He rarely missed the chance to attend a Wales game in the 1920s and 1930s .

Meredith died in Withington , Manchester in April 1958 at the age of 83 , two months after the Munich air disaster , which claimed the lives of eight Manchester United players . After he spent many years in an unmarked grave , the Professional Footballers ' Association , the Welsh FA , Manchester City and Manchester United all agreed to cover the cost of upkeep on a new headstone . Meredith is honoured in the hall of fame at the City of Manchester Stadium . It was announced in August 2007 that Meredith was one of the 10 new inductees for 2007 to the English Football Hall of Fame .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Club statistics = = =

= = = International statistics = = =

= = Honours = =

= = = Club = = =

Chirk

Welsh Cup ( 1 ) : 1894

Manchester City

Second Division ( 1 ) : 1898 – 99

FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1903 – 04

Manchester United

First Division ( 2 ) : 1907 – 08 , 1910 – 11

FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1908 – 09

FA Charity Shield ( 2 ) : 1908 , 1911

= = = National team = = =

Wales

British Home Championship ( 2 ) : 1907 , 1920

= Jean Abraham Grill =

Jean Abraham Grill ( 21 July 1736 – 12 March 1792 ) , sometimes called Johan Abraham Grill , was a Swedish merchant , supercargo , director of the Swedish East India Company ( SOIC ) and ironmaster at Godegård with several factories .

Grill journeyed to China twice as the representative for the SOIC . He lived in Canton ( now known as Guangzhou ) as well as Macao for a total of almost ten years , doing trade for the company during the arrival of three Swedish ships . In China he lived the life of an adventurer ; survived a shipwreck , traded with other East Asian countries together with his partner Michael Grubb and smuggled opium from India to China .

He returned to Sweden in 1768 , a wealthy man and lived the rest of his life in Swedish high society , writing minor essays about his travels as member of the Royal Swedish Academies of Sciences and Music . He married Lovisa Ulrika Lüning and bought the Godegård Manor and several ironworks , which he renovated and improved . When Grill died in 1792 , his wife took over his business and ran the ironworks and factories .

His most notable legacy is the notes , correspondence , accounts , cargo lists and books he kept during his life . They are preserved in the Godegård Archive and in the Gothenburg University Library .

= = Early life = =

One of the Grill family , Jean Abraham Grill was the eldest son of merchant Abraham Grill , the Younger ( 1707 – 68 ) and Anna Maria Petersen ( 1713 – 54 ) . He was born in Helsingør where his father was the Swedish consul at that time . In 1746 , the family moved to Gothenburg where his father had started a trading house . When Jean Abraham was 14 years old , he started working as an apprentice in his fathers office , and three years later he became a clerk at the Swedish East India Company ( SOIC ) . Through his fathers mediation he was appointed to second assistant on the ship Sophia Albertina for its journey to Canton ( now known as Guangzhou ) between 1755 and 1756 .

Being ambitious , Grill aimed for the higher positions in the SOIC , and to achieve that he had to learn more and gain more experience . So when he returned to Sweden from China , he decided to go abroad again as soon as possible . He started out at the trading office of Kristian Holm , Swedish consul to France , in Montpellier where he worked for about six months . He stayed in France for five years , and in 1758 , he was employed by the Mallet & Blancheney firm in Marseille . Grill 's letters to his family during those years indicates that he enjoyed his time in France and was interested in style and his own appearance . His initial plans had been to set up a business in Marseille , but his family , especially his uncle Claes Grill , advised against it . Claes had started out as a merchant in the European market , but he soon moved on to the more lucrative Canton trade and encouraged his nephew to do the same .

= = In Canton = =

Grill followed his uncle Claes ' advice and went to Canton as third supercargo on the Fredric Adolph in 1761 , during the second carter of the SOIC . On 3 September 1761 , the ship ran aground at the Pratas Islands in the South China Sea . The ship 's captain , Daniel Shierman , did what he could to lighten the ship and tried to get it afloat again , but to no avail . Seven hours later the ship was a wreck , resting on the rocks and everyone aboard went into the boats . Twenty men stayed behind to guard the ship , while 122 men , including Grill , immediately set off for the nearest port . Five days later they landed on the Chinese mainland , in the " province of Catsi " [ sic ] , where they eventually got permission from the Chinese authorities to proceed to Canton . In Canton they met with the men left to guard the ship , now 17 in number , who had arrived two weeks earlier . Three expeditions with divers , one of them led by Grill , went to recover the cargo from the wreck . They managed to salvage about two @-@ thirds of the silver , tin , iron , coral , lead and copper from the cargo , plus one cat and a dog .

After the shipwreck , Grill remained in Canton as resident supercargo for seven years . As such he was the company 's representative in Canton , contacting Chinese merchants as well as buying goods and cargo for the ships . He was supercargo for the arrival of three more ships of the SIOC : the Stockholms Slott ( outward journey ) in 1762 , the Stockholms Slott ( resident supercargo in Canton ) in 1765 and the Cron Prins Gustaf ( journey home ) 1768 . One of his tasks in Canton was to make sure that the Swedish factory at the Thirteen Factories was in good order and maintained . The Swedes rented factories or houses from the mandarins at other locations as well , but the one on 13 : e Faktorigatan ( the 13 : th Factory street ) operated as their main building . Grills records of the Swedish factory are detailed and provide good insight into life in Canton at that time .

He also started a successful private company in partnership with the older and more experienced Michael Grubb , one of the directors of the SOIC and founder of the first Swedish trading office in Canton . They traded in Canton and Macao , which technically was against the rules and regulations in the charter of the SOIC . Grill took advantage of the fact that his father was a director of the SOIC , and until his father 's death shipped his own goods on board SOIC ships . From Europe the ships brought objets d 'art , corals from the Mediterranean Sea , expensive clocks and other mechanical automatons known to the Chinese as sing @-@ songs . Such goods were appreciated by the Emperor and the rich mandarins .

The Grubb @-@ Grill company used Chinese junks to trade with India , Java , Indochina , Philippines and Japan . From these places they traded in Japanese silk , pigments , spices , gold and silver treads , pearls and lacquerware . The most profitable product in that trade was opium , the smuggling of which became Grill 's own private business . During his time in Canton he smuggled " considerable quantities " from India to Macao . It is documented that he in 1767 received a shipment of 150 chests of opium sent from Madras ( now known as Chennai ) by Jacob Hahr , another supercargo . Consequently , Grill became Sweden 's first major drug runner .

The resident supercargo was responsible for buying goods such as tea , porcelain , silk , arrack , sago and miscellaneous for the next ship arriving from Sweden . The SOIC traded mainly with the Chinese merchant Puankhequa , who had his factory next to the Swedish , and judging from their letters , Puankhequa and Grill became friends . Grill was entrusted with funds from the SOIC for buying tea and other goods during off @-@ season when the price was at its lowest . He bought most of the tea from Puankhequa , and several contracts are preserved . However , he did not buy the tea from the Chinese merchant on the SOIC 's behalf but instead bought it through his own company and sold it on to the SOIC at a slightly higher price . After some time the SOIC became suspicious and director David Sandberg was sent to Canton to investigate the matter in 1766 . Grill and his companions , Grubb and Hahr , had to sign an agreement not to misuse their position within the SOIC . In 1768 , Grill was ordered to return home as supercargo on the ship Cron Prins Gustaf . Even so , Hahr stayed behind in Canton , continued their business and was able to transfer Grill 's share of the profit through international bank notes .

By 1770 , Grill was a partner in the Carlos & Claes Grill Trading house , and as such he became a director in the third charter of the SOIC in 1778 .

= = Science and music = =

Grill wrote a number of essays for the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences about his observations and experiences in Canton , and in 1773 , he became a member of the academy . In 1774 , Grill became its preses or president . He was also an accomplished flute player , and on 16 June 1772 , he was elected as member no . 46 of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music .

Grill was also interested in porcelain . Part of his orders may have been just a way to get his money transferred from China to Sweden after he was ordered to return home in 1768 , but he also ordered his own armorial dinner service .

= = Ironmaster and estate owner = =

When Grill returned to Sweden in 1768 , he first lived in Stockholm where he occupied himself with trade . He owned a malmgård ( suburban manor ) at Ersta in the south part of Stockholm , where he established a crucible steel factory with the help of Bengt Andersson Qvist in 1770 .

Grill married Lovisa Ulrika Lüning ( 1744 – 1824 ) in Stockholm in 1772 . They had ten children . She was the daughter of wholesaler Johan Christian Lüning and Margaretha Sabbath . In 1775 , Grill sold the manor and the steel factory to Qvist and moved to Godegård where he had bought the manor and the ironworks from the estate of Jean de Geer . In doing so he followed the pattern of other supercargos who made their fortunes abroad during a short period of time in the East India trade and on their return invested their money in Swedish factories and farms .

Aside from renovating the factories in Godegård ( the largest ironworks in Östergötland ) he also had an English park planned and built at his manor in Godergård . The park had an orangery , canals , bridges and pavilions and was modelled after the larger park at Drottningholm Palace with its Chinese Pavilion . The Godegård estate also included Mariedamm with the Trehörnings blast furnace and the De Geersfors manufacturing house . Grill also bought the Bona estate in Västra Ny , where he built a wrought iron factory and the Medevi seat farm in 1779 , ( sold the following year ) . In 1782 , he bought the Flerohopp ironworks .

Grill established a small scale trade monopoly at Godegård in 1775 . Before he became owner of the ironworks , the farmers around Godegård had refined the wrought iron from the factory into large quantities of nails using small trip hammers . The nails were sold in Askersund . As a trader Grill would not abide this . First he decreed that the farmers had to buy all their goods at the ironworks ' general store . Second , he forbade the farmers and tenant farmers to sell nails to the merchants at Askersund , at that time a center for nail trade . In this way Grill assumed control over all nail trade himself .

Jean Abraham Grill died on 12 March 1792 , in Norrköping under " mysterious circumstances " and was interred in the Grill family grave at the Godegård Church . When Grill died , his wife Lovisa Ulrika took over and ran the ironworks and factories until their children succeeded her .

= = Archives = =

Throughout his life Grill kept meticulous notes of his business . Some of these are in the Gothenburg University library , and most of them , along with Grill 's letters and correspondence , are now in the Godegård Archive in the Nordic Museum . Most of the 7 @,@ 000 documents in the archive have been digitized following a request from the Macau Historical Archives in 2003 . They are available online , including documentation , letters , cargo lists , provisions for the ships and accounts for the Swedish factory in Canton during Grill 's time with the SOIC .

= Metabolism =

Metabolism ( from Greek : μεταβολή metabolē , " change " ) is the set of life @-@ sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms . The three main purposes of metabolism are the conversion of food / fuel to energy to run cellular processes , the conversion of food / fuel to building blocks for proteins , lipids , nucleic acids , and some carbohydrates , and the elimination of nitrogenous wastes . These enzyme @-@ catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce , maintain their structures , and respond to their environments . The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms , including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells , in which case the set of reactions within the cells is called intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism .

Metabolism is usually divided into two categories : catabolism , the breaking down of organic matter , for example , by cellular respiration , and anabolism , the building up of components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids . Usually , breaking down releases energy and building up consumes energy .

The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways , in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical , by a sequence of enzymes . Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves , by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy . Enzymes act as catalysts that allow the reactions to proceed more rapidly . Enzymes also allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the cell 's environment or to signals from other cells .

The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous . For example , some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient , yet this gas is poisonous to animals . The speed of metabolism , the metabolic rate , influences how much food an organism will require , and also affects how it is able to obtain that food .

A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species . For example , the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms , being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants . These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history , and their retention because of their efficacy .

= = Key biochemicals = =

Most of the structures that make up animals , plants and microbes are made from three basic classes of molecule : amino acids , carbohydrates and lipids ( often called fats ) . As these molecules are vital for life , metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues , or by breaking them down and using them as a source of energy , by their digestion . These biochemicals can be joined together to make polymers such as DNA and proteins , essential macromolecules of life .

= = = Amino acids and proteins = = =

Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds . Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism . Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions , such as those that form the cytoskeleton , a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape . Proteins are also important in cell signaling , immune responses , cell adhesion , active transport across membranes , and the cell cycle . Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle ( tricarboxylic acid cycle ) , especially when a primary source of energy , such as glucose , is scarce , or when cells undergo metabolic stress .

= = = Lipids = = =

Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals . Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external , such as the cell membrane , or as a source of energy . Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform . The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol ; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride . Several variations on this basic structure exist , including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids , and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids . Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids .

= = = Carbohydrates = = =

Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones , with many hydroxyl groups attached , that can exist as straight chains or rings . Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules , and fill numerous roles , such as the storage and transport of energy ( starch , glycogen ) and structural components ( cellulose in plants , chitin in animals ) . The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose , fructose , and most importantly glucose . Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways .

= = = Nucleotides = = =

The two nucleic acids , DNA and RNA , are polymers of nucleotides . Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base . Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information , and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis . This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication . Many viruses have an RNA genome , such as HIV , which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome . RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions . Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar . These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen , classified as purines or pyrimidines . Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic @-@ group @-@ transfer reactions .

= = = Coenzymes = = =

Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions , but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules . This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions . These group @-@ transfer intermediates are called coenzymes . Each class of group @-@ transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme , which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it , and a set of enzymes that consume it . These coenzymes are therefore continuously made , consumed and then recycled .

One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the universal energy currency of cells . This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions . There is only a small amount of ATP in cells , but as it is continuously regenerated , the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day . ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism . Catabolism breaks down molecules and anabolism puts them together . Catabolic reactions generate ATP and anabolic reactions consume it . It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions .

A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells . In human nutrition , most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification ; for example , all water @-@ soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells . Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD + ) , a derivative of vitamin B3 ( niacin ) , is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor . Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD + into NADH . This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to reduce their substrates . Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell , NADH and NADPH . The NAD + / NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions , while NADP + / NADPH is used in anabolic reactions .

= = = Minerals and cofactors = = =

Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism ; some are abundant ( e.g. sodium and potassium ) while others function at minute concentrations . About 99 % of a mammal 's mass is made up of the elements carbon , nitrogen , calcium , sodium , chlorine , potassium , hydrogen , phosphorus , oxygen and sulfur . Organic compounds ( proteins , lipids and carbohydrates ) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen ; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water .

The abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes . The most important ions are sodium , potassium , calcium , magnesium , chloride , phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate . The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH . Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function , as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell 's fluid , the cytosol . Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels . For example , muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium , sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T @-@ tubules .

Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms , with zinc and iron being most abundant of those . These metals are used in some proteins as cofactors and are essential for the activity of enzymes such as catalase and oxygen @-@ carrier proteins such as hemoglobin . Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins ; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis , they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed . Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use .

= = Catabolism = =

Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules . These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules . The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions . The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy and carbon ( their primary nutritional groups ) , as shown in the table below . Organic molecules are used as a source of energy by organotrophs , while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates and phototrophs capture sunlight as chemical energy . However , all these different forms of metabolism depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules , water , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to acceptor molecules such as oxygen , nitrate or sulfate . In animals these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules , such as carbon dioxide and water . In photosynthetic organisms such as plants and cyanobacteria , these electron @-@ transfer reactions do not release energy , but are used as a way of storing energy absorbed from sunlight .

The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages . In the first , large organic molecules such as proteins , polysaccharides or lipids are digested into their smaller components outside cells . Next , these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to yet smaller molecules , usually acetyl coenzyme A ( acetyl @-@ CoA ) , which releases some energy . Finally , the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidised to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain , releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD + ) into NADH .

= = = Digestion = = =

Macromolecules such as starch , cellulose or proteins cannot be rapidly taken up by cells and must be broken into their smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism . Several common classes of enzymes digest these polymers . These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids , as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides .

Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings , while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts . The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins .

= = = Energy from organic compounds = = =

Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units . Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides . Once inside , the major route of breakdown is glycolysis , where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated . Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways , but the majority is converted to acetyl @-@ CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle . Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle , the most important product is NADH , which is made from NAD + as the acetyl @-@ CoA is oxidized . This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product . In anaerobic conditions , glycolysis produces lactate , through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re @-@ oxidizing NADH to NAD + for re @-@ use in glycolysis . An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway , which reduces the coenzyme NADPH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose , the sugar component of nucleic acids .

Fats are catabolised by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol . The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl @-@ CoA , which then is fed into the citric acid cycle . Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures . Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation , and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl @-@ CoA , propionyl @-@ CoA , and pyruvate , which can all be used by the cell for energy . M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon , and genes involved in the cholesterol use pathway ( s ) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis .

Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules , or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy . The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase . The amino group is fed into the urea cycle , leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid . Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle , for example the deamination of glutamate forms α @-@ ketoglutarate . The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose , through gluconeogenesis ( discussed below ) .

= = Energy transformations = =

= = = Oxidative phosphorylation = = =

In oxidative phosphorylation , the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the protagon acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP . This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain . In prokaryotes , these proteins are found in the cell 's inner membrane . These proteins use the energy released from passing electrons from reduced molecules like NADH onto oxygen to pump protons across a membrane .

Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient . This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase . The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate , causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP .

= = = Energy from inorganic compounds = = =

Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds . These organisms can use hydrogen , reduced sulfur compounds ( such as sulfide , hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate ) , ferrous iron ( FeII ) or ammonia as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrite . These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis , nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility .

= = = Energy from light = = =

The energy in sunlight is captured by plants , cyanobacteria , purple bacteria , green sulfur bacteria and some protists . This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds , as part of photosynthesis , which is discussed below . The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can however operate separately in prokaryotes , as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy , while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds .

In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation , as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient . This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis . The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light @-@ gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres or rhodopsins . Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present , with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type , while plants and cyanobacteria have two .

In plants , algae , and cyanobacteria , photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water , releasing oxygen as a waste product . The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex , which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast . These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase , as before . The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then either be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP + , for use in the Calvin cycle , which is discussed below , or recycled for further ATP generation .

= = Anabolism = =

Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules . In general , the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step @-@ by @-@ step from small and simple precursors . Anabolism involves three basic stages . First , the production of precursors such as amino acids , monosaccharides , isoprenoids and nucleotides , secondly , their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP , and thirdly , the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins , polysaccharides , lipids and nucleic acids .

Organisms differ in how many of the molecules in their cells they can construct for themselves . Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water . Heterotrophs , on the other hand , require a source of more complex substances , such as monosaccharides and amino acids , to produce these complex molecules . Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy : photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light , whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from inorganic oxidation reactions .

= = = Carbon fixation = = =

Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . In plants , cyanobacteria and algae , oxygenic photosynthesis splits water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres , as described above , to convert CO2 into glycerate 3 @-@ phosphate , which can then be converted into glucose . This carbon @-@ fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle . Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants , C3 carbon fixation , C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis . These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle , with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly , while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first , as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions .

In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse . Here , carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle , a reversed citric acid cycle , or the carboxylation of acetyl @-@ CoA . Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin – Benson cycle , but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction .

= = = Carbohydrates and glycans = = =

In carbohydrate anabolism , simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch . The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate , lactate , glycerol , glycerate 3 @-@ phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis . Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate through a series of intermediates , many of which are shared with glycolysis . However , this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse , as several steps are catalyzed by non @-@ glycolytic enzymes . This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately , and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle .

Although fat is a common way of storing energy , in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl @-@ CoA into pyruvate ; plants do , but animals do not , have the necessary enzymatic machinery . As a result , after long @-@ term starvation , vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids . In other organisms such as plants and bacteria , this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle , which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl @-@ CoA to oxaloacetate , where it can be used for the production of glucose .

Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar @-@ phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose ( UDP @-@ glucose ) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide . As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors , the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures . The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves , or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases .

= = = Fatty acids , isoprenoids and steroids = = =

Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl @-@ CoA units . The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group , reduce it to an alcohol , dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group . The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups : in animals and fungi , all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein , while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway .

Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products . These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate . These precursors can be made in different ways . In animals and archaea , the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl @-@ CoA , while in plants and bacteria the non @-@ mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate as substrates . One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis . Here , the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol . Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol .

= = = Proteins = = =

Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids . Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty , but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids , so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food . Some simple parasites , such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae , lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts . All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis , the citric acid cycle , or the pentose phosphate pathway . Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine . Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha @-@ keto acid , which is then transaminated to form an amino acid .

Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined together in a chain of peptide bonds . Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues : this is its primary structure . Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words , amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins . Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP @-@ dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase . This aminoacyl @-@ tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome , which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain , using the sequence information in a messenger RNA .

= = = Nucleotide synthesis and salvage = = =

Nucleotides are made from amino acids , carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy . Consequently , most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides . Purines are synthesized as nucleosides ( bases attached to ribose ) . Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate , which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine , glutamine , and aspartic acid , as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate . Pyrimidines , on the other hand , are synthesized from the base orotate , which is formed from glutamine and aspartate .

= = Xenobiotics and redox metabolism = =

All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells , as they have no metabolic function . These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics . Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs , natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic @-@ metabolizing enzymes . In humans , these include cytochrome P450 oxidases , UDP @-@ glucuronosyltransferases , and glutathione S @-@ transferases . This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic ( phase I ) and then conjugate water @-@ soluble groups onto the molecule ( phase II ) . The modified water @-@ soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted ( phase III ) . In ecology , these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills . Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms , but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms , and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds .

A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress . Here , processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide . These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases .

= = Thermodynamics of living organisms = =

Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics , which describe the transfer of heat and work . The second law of thermodynamics states that in any closed system , the amount of entropy ( disorder ) cannot decrease . Although living organisms ' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law , life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings . Thus living systems are not in equilibrium , but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments . The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non @-@ spontaneous processes of anabolism . In thermodynamic terms , metabolism maintains order by creating disorder .

= = Regulation and control = =

As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing , the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells , a condition called homeostasis . Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments . Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled . Firstly , the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals . Secondly , the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway ( the flux through the pathway ) . For example , an enzyme may show large changes in activity ( i.e. it is highly regulated ) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway , then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway .

There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation . In intrinsic regulation , the metabolic pathway self @-@ regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products ; for example , a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate . This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway . Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells . These signals are usually in the form of soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface . These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins .

A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin . Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels . Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen . The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase , the enzyme that breaks down glycogen , and glycogen synthase , the enzyme that makes it . These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion , with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase , but activating phosphorylase . Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes .

= = Evolution = =

The central pathways of metabolism described above , such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle , are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal ancestor . This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid , nucleotide , carbohydrate and lipid metabolism . The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems , with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps . The first pathways of enzyme @-@ based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism , while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world .

Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve . These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway , the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre @-@ existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway . The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear , but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry , suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step @-@ by @-@ step fashion with novel functions created from pre @-@ existing steps in the pathway . An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins ' structures in metabolic networks , this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited , borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways ( evident in the MANET database ) These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic . A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as " modules " that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules .

As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways , evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions . For example , in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids , nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host . Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms .

= = Investigation and manipulation = =

Classically , metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway . Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole @-@ organism , tissue and cellular levels , which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products . The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated . A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue ; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome . Overall , these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways , but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell .

An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right : the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 45 @,@ 000 genes . However , it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior . These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies . Using these techniques , a model of human metabolism has now been produced , which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research . These models are now used in network analysis , to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites .

Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow @-@ tie organization , an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies .

A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering . Here , organisms such as yeast , plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1 @,@ 3 @-@ propanediol and shikimic acid . These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product , increase yields and reduce the production of wastes .

= = History = =

The term metabolism is derived from the Greek Μεταβολισμός – " Metabolismos " for " change " , or " overthrow " . The first documented references of metabolism were made by Ibn al @-@ Nafis in his 1260 AD work titled Al @-@ Risalah al @-@ Kamiliyyah fil Siera al @-@ Nabawiyyah ( The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet 's Biography ) which included the following phrase " Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment , so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change . " The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies , to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry . The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina . He described how he weighed himself before and after eating , sleep , working , sex , fasting , drinking , and excreting . He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called " insensible perspiration " .

In these early studies , the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue . In the 19th century , when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast , Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called " ferments " . He wrote that " alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells , not with the death or putrefaction of the cells . " This discovery , along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea , and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors . This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry .

It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells , and marked the beginnings of biochemistry . The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century . One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism . He discovered the urea cycle and later , working with Hans Kornberg , the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle . Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography , X @-@ ray diffraction , NMR spectroscopy , radioisotopic labelling , electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations . These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells .

= Bangla Desh ( song ) =

" Bangla Desh " is a song by English musician George Harrison . It was released as a non @-@ album single in July 1971 , to raise awareness for the millions of refugees from the country formerly known as East Pakistan , following the 1970 Bhola cyclone and the outbreak of the Bangladesh Liberation War . Harrison 's inspiration for the song came from his friend Ravi Shankar , a Bengali musician , who approached Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering . " Bangla Desh " has been described as " one of the most cogent social statements in music history " and helped gain international support for Bangladeshi independence by establishing the name of the fledgling nation around the world . In 2005 , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan identified the song 's success in personalising the Bangladesh crisis , through its emotive description of Shankar 's request for help .

" Bangla Desh " appeared at the height of Harrison 's popularity as a solo artist , following the break @-@ up of the Beatles and the acclaim afforded his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . It was pop music 's first charity single , and its release took place three days before the Harrison @-@ sponsored Concert for Bangladesh shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden . The single became a top ten hit in the United Kingdom and elsewhere in Europe , and peaked at number 23 on America 's Billboard Hot 100 . The recording was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector and features contributions from Leon Russell , Jim Horn , Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner . The Los Angeles session for the song marked the start of two enduring musical associations in Harrison 's solo career , with Keltner and Horn .

Backed by these musicians and others including Eric Clapton and Billy Preston , Harrison performed " Bangla Desh " at the UNICEF concerts , on 1 August 1971 , as a rousing encore . In a review of the Concert for Bangladesh live album for Rolling Stone magazine , Jon Landau identified this reading as " the concert 's single greatest performance by all concerned " . The studio recording appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which remained its only official CD release until September 2014 , when it was included as a bonus track on the Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of Harrison 's Living in the Material World album . Artists who have covered the song include Stu Phillips & the Hollyridge Strings and Italian saxophonist Fausto Papetti .

= = Background = =

By the spring of 1971 , George Harrison had established himself as the most successful ex @-@ Beatle during the former band members ' first year as solo artists ; in the words of biographer Elliot Huntley , he " couldn 't have got any more popular in the eyes of the public " . Just as importantly , writes Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , Harrison had " amassed such good will in the music community " during that time . Rather than looking to immediately follow up his All Things Must Pass triple album , he had spent the months since recording ended in October 1970 repaying favours to the friends and musicians who had helped make the album such a success . These included co @-@ producer Phil Spector , whose wife , Ronnie Spector , Harrison supplied with songs for a proposed solo album on Apple Records ; Ringo Starr , whose " It Don 't Come Easy " single he produced and prepared for release , following the original session for the song in March 1970 ; Bobby Whitlock , singer and keyboard player with the short @-@ lived Derek and the Dominos , whose eponymous debut solo album featured Harrison and Eric Clapton on guitar ; and former Spooky Tooth pianist Gary Wright , whose Footprint album ( 1971 ) Harrison also guested on , along with All Things Must Pass orchestrator John Barham .

Another project was a documentary on the life and music of Ravi Shankar , Howard Worth 's Raga ( 1971 ) , for which Harrison had stepped in at the last minute to provide funding and distribution through Apple Films . With Harrison also serving as record producer for the accompanying soundtrack album , work began with Shankar in Los Angeles during April 1971 and resumed in late June , following Harrison @-@ produced sessions in London for the band Badfinger .

A Bengali by birth , Shankar had already brought the growing humanitarian crisis in Bangladesh to Harrison 's attention , while staying at the ex @-@ Beatle 's house , Friar Park , earlier in the year . The state formerly known as East Pakistan ( and before that , East Bengal ) had suffered an estimated 300 @,@ 000 casualties when the Bhola cyclone hit its shores on 12 November 1970 , and the indifference shown by the ruling government in West Pakistan , particularly by President Yahya Khan , was just one reason the Bengali national movement sought independence on 25 March 1971 . This declaration resulted in an immediate military crackdown by Khan 's troops , and three days later the Bangladesh Liberation War began . By 13 June , details of the systematic massacre of citizens were beginning to emerge internationally via the publication in London 's Sunday Times of an article by Anthony Mascarenhas . Along with the torrential rains and intensive flooding that were threatening the passage of millions of refugees into north @-@ eastern India , this news galvanised Shankar into approaching Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering . " I was in a very sad mood , having read all this news , " Shankar later told Rolling Stone magazine , " and I said , ' George , this is the situation , I know it doesn 't concern you , I know you can 't possibly identify . ' But while I talked to George he was very deeply moved ... and he said , ' Yes , I think I 'll be able to do something . ' "

As a result , Harrison committed to staging the Concert for Bangladesh at Madison Square Garden , New York , on Sunday , 1 August . Six weeks of frantic activity ensued as Harrison flew between New York , Los Angeles and London , making preparations and recruiting other musicians to join him and Shankar for the shows . While conceding that Harrison was no " natural sloganeer " in the manner of his former bandmate John Lennon , author Robert Rodriguez has written : " if any ex @-@ Fab had the cachet with his fan base to solicit good works , it was the spiritual Beatle . "

= = Composition = =

Foreign journalists had been deported from East Pakistan shortly before the Pakistani army 's Operation Searchlight , and even after Mascarenhas ' first @-@ hand observations had been published , Shankar and Harrison were concerned that the mainstream media in the West were showing a reluctance to report all the facts . That summer , it also emerged that America was supporting General Khan 's military offensive , both financially and with weaponry – despite the Blood telegram in April , in which officials at the US Consulate in Dacca advised their State Department of the " genocide " taking place and accused the US Government of " moral bankruptcy " . Realising the need to create greater awareness of the situation in Bangladesh , and particularly the refugee camps of India that had become " infectious open @-@ air graveyards " with the outbreak of cholera , Harrison quickly composed a song for the cause . " Bangla Desh " was " written in ten minutes at the piano " , he would later recall . The title translates as " Bengal nation " , and the fact that Harrison spelt it as two words is indicative of how little the new country name had been acknowledged by the Western media at this time .

As with the concerts , Harrison made a point of steering clear of the politics behind the problem , his lyrics focusing instead on the human perspective . At the suggestion of Leon Russell , who had participated in the recent Ronnie Spector and Badfinger sessions , Harrison began the song with a brief verse outlining his own introduction to the Bangladesh crisis :

My friend came to me with sadness in his eyes

Told me that he wanted help before his country dies

Although I couldn 't feel the pain , I knew I had to try

Now I 'm asking all of you to help us save some lives .

These lines refer to Shankar 's request for help , and " [ in ] deference to the Shankar context " , musical biographer Simon Leng suggests , Harrison set the opening verse as a rock version of Indian music 's traditional alap – " a slow introductory statement of the main ideas " . Lyrically , the remainder of the song concentrates on the uncompromising message " We 've got to relieve Bangla Desh " as thousands of refugees , particularly children , fell victim to the effects of famine and disease .

Bangla Desh , Bangla Desh

Where so many people are dying fast

And it sure looks like a mess

I 've never seen such distress

Now won 't you lend your hand , try to understand

Relieve the people of Bangla Desh .

The final verse @-@ chorus reflects a point that former US Fund for UNICEF president Charles Lyons has identified as a perennial obstacle when addressing global issues of poverty – that the problems appear to be too big and too distant for individuals to be able to solve :

Now , it may seem so far from where we all are

It 's something we can 't reject

That suffering , I can 't neglect ...

In this verse , the line " Now won 't you give some bread to get the starving fed " contains a " clever pun " , Harrison biographer Ian Inglis notes , whereby the word " bread " is used to refer to both money and food .

= = Recording = =

With little time to begin rehearsing for the New York shows , the " Bangla Desh " single was rush @-@ recorded in Los Angeles . Sources differ over the venue and date : the Record Plant West seems the most likely studio , with sessions taking place on 4 – 5 July and horn overdubs perhaps on 10 July . Phil Spector again co @-@ produced , but as with the recording details for the sessions , the exact line @-@ up of musicians is a matter of conjecture . According to Simon Leng , who consulted Klaus Voormann and Jim Horn for his book While My Guitar Gently Weeps , the line @-@ up comprised Harrison , Leon Russell ( piano ) , Horn ( saxophones ) , Voormann ( bass ) , Starr , Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) and Billy Preston ( organ ) . Leng and Beatles author Bruce Spizer credit a " horn section " led by Jim Horn , which could include regular partner Chuck Findley and even the rest of the six @-@ piece section , christened " the Hollywood Horns " , that would go on to perform in New York on 1 August .

The recording begins with Harrison 's emotive introduction backed by what Lavezzoli describes as a " rolling piano figure " from Russell . Following the words " help us save some lives " , the piano sets up the song 's " driving groove " , Lavezzoli continues , as the rhythm section and Harrison 's electric guitar join in , creating the same musical blend of gospel and rock that Harrison had adopted on much of All Things Must Pass . In a review for the NME in August 1971 , Derek Johnson wrote of " Bangla Desh " : " Opens almost like a sermon , then the beat come is ... as George wails fervently to a backing of a solid rhythm section and handclaps . " The track retains an " urgent ' live ' mood " , Leng notes , although it is possible that Starr 's contribution was overdubbed after the main session , due to his filming schedule for the Western movie Blindman ( 1971 ) , in Spain . The song features solos shared between Russell , Horn ( on tenor sax ) and Harrison ( slide guitar ) , and fades out with the ensemble playing in double time , similar to a fast gat section ( or drut ) used in Hindustani classical music .

" Bangla Desh " marked the first occasion that Harrison worked with Horn , who would go on to become a regular collaborator . Already a veteran of the LA music scene by 1971 , Horn recalls his " jaded " mindset before meeting Harrison , but describes the session as a " real turning point " in his career , " because we were doing something for a cause " . It was also the first time that Keltner played on a George Harrison session , the two musicians having already worked together on Lennon 's Imagine album ( 1971 ) . The " Bangla Desh " session was the beginning of a lifelong friendship , with the pair remaining " as brothers " , Keltner has said , until Harrison 's death in 2001 . Together with Clapton , Preston , Bob Dylan and the group Badfinger , all these musicians joined Harrison and Shankar on stage at Madison Square Garden .

Ravi Shankar cut a benefit disc of his own at this time , the Harrison @-@ produced Joi Bangla EP . The A @-@ side featured two vocal compositions sung in Bengali – the title track ( which translated to mean " Victory to Bangladesh " ) and " Oh Bhaugowan " – while on the reverse was a six @-@ minute recital of " Raga Mishra Jhinjoti " , featuring Shankar , sarod master Ali Akbar Khan , and Shankar 's regular tabla player , Alla Rakha .

= = Release = =

At Harrison 's urging , Capitol Records , Apple 's distributor in the United States , set all four of its manufacturing plants to producing copies of the " Bangla Desh " single ; one @-@ sided , white label promo discs were also rushed through to ensure immediate radio play for the song . For the US picture sleeve , designer Tom Wilkes chose a suitably topical image , incorporating headlines and text from New York Times articles about the Bangladesh crisis . The articles made mention of vultures being the " happiest creatures " amid the chaos in Dacca , and India 's " wait and see " policy regarding events in East Pakistan . The front of the picture sleeve was topped with the line " ( We 've Got to Relieve ) " before the words " Bangla Desh " , leading a number of publications to include the parenthetical text as part of the official song title . Boxed off at the foot of the front sleeve were details of the George Harrison – Ravi Shankar Special Emergency Relief Fund ( care of UNICEF 's New York headquarters ) , to which proceeds of the single would go and further donations were encouraged . The back cover of the US sleeve was taken from a UPI news agency photograph – an " emotional " image showing a mother comforting her starving child . This photo was also used in the aid project 's magazine advertising campaign , as well as for the front of the single 's picture sleeve in Denmark and Japan .

Backed with the well @-@ regarded " Deep Blue " , the " Bangla Desh " single was issued on 28 July 1971 in the United States ( as Apple 1836 ) , with a UK release following two days later ( R 5912 ) . It peaked at number 10 on Britain 's national singles chart and number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 in America ; the other US chart compilers , Cash Box and Record World , placed the single at number 20 and number 13 , respectively . " Bangla Desh " attracted sustained airplay in the days leading up to the concerts , and lent the relief project an authentic social and political significance . A Bangladeshi academic , Professor Farida Majid , would later write : " To the utter consternation of [ US President ] Nixon and [ Secretary of State ] Kissinger , George Harrison 's ' Bangla Desh ' hit the chart . It was a thrilling moment in the midst of all the sad news emanating from the battlefront . Even the Western journalists covering the civil war in East Pakistan were not yet using the word ' Bangladesh ' . " The studio recording was also played at the Concert for Bangladesh shows , following Shankar 's opening set , over footage of the refugees and scenes from the war .

= = = Reissue = = =

Despite the song having been a hit – and its status as the first @-@ ever pop charity single , fourteen years before Band Aid and USA for Africa – " Bangla Desh " was mostly ignored by record @-@ company repackagers following 1971 . Over a period of 43 years , the studio version received an album release only on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which was issued on CD in 1987 . The song has since been included as a bonus track , remixed by Paul Hicks , on the 2014 reissue of Harrison 's Living in the Material World album , part of the eight @-@ disc Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set .

= = Reception and legacy = =

On release , Billboard magazine described " Bangla Desh " as " a musical appeal to help our fellow @-@ man " that " should find immediate and heavy chart action " . In his contemporary review for the NME , Derek Johnson considered the song to be " [ n ] ot so strong melodically as ' My Sweet Lord ' , but still nagging and insistent " , and added : " one can immediately detect the despair and pity in [ Harrison 's ] voice as he sings of the appalling plight of the East Pakistanis ... his lyric is bound to cause some heart @-@ searching . " A wave of public goodwill accompanied the single 's release in 1971 , as was the case with the two benefit concerts , the subsequent live album , and the 1972 concert film . Simon Leng has identified genuine friendship as being key to the success of Harrison and Shankar 's relief project : the friendship between the two of them that saw the ex @-@ Beatle become involved , and the friendships Harrison had cultivated with Dylan , Clapton and Starr that ensured their participation . Leng notes that the opening lyrics to " Bangla Desh " ( " My friend came to me ... " ) could equally have applied to Harrison 's efforts to enlist the reluctant Dylan and heroin @-@ sidelined Clapton .

In his concert review for The Village Voice , Don Heckman described " Bangla Desh " as " a song which expresses far better than words what kind of man Harrison is " . Heckman went on to compare Harrison 's philanthropy with the activities of two of his former bandmates , saying : " I have no quarrel with John Lennon 's endless clattering around inside his psyche , or Paul McCartney 's search for sweetness and light , but at the moment I have to have stronger feelings about George Harrison 's active efforts to do something about the misery in the world around him . How surprising that the most introspective of the Beatles should be the one who , in the long run , takes the most effective actions . "

Away from its context as a song designed purely to bring attention to the Bengalis ' cause , as Harrison himself described it , " Bangla Desh " has often been viewed by commentators as a rushed and underwhelming composition . Robert Rodriguez qualifies this opinion , however : " As a single , the song was possibly not the most commercial of records , but as a call to service , it could scarcely have been improved upon . " " Bangla Desh " ' s standing as rock music 's first charity single is not overlooked , with Ian Inglis stating : " ' Bangla Desh ' serves as a model for the charity singles that would become commonplace in the decades ahead , although , in this instance , the power of Harrison 's song lies not in its assembly of famous performers but in its literal and absolute commitment . " On this point , Leng deems the song as having " as much raw energy as anything [ Lennon 's ] Plastic Ono Band ever offered " . In The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , Peter Lavezzoli writes : " Harrison 's lyric and vocal were concise and powerful , a direct call for action in a specific crisis . As such , ' Bangla Desh ' remains one of the most cogent social statements in music history . "

In his interview for the 2005 reissue of Saul Swimmer 's Concert for Bangladesh film , UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan acknowledged Harrison and Shankar as " pioneers " in their efforts for the people of Bangladesh , and credited the song 's opening verse for personalising the crisis by showing " the man behind the music " . Thirty @-@ three years before this , on 5 June 1972 , UNICEF officially recognised Harrison and Shankar with its annual Child Is the Father of the Man award .

In 2004 , " Bangla Desh " was played during the final episode of the BBC television series Himalaya with Michael Palin , in which Palin travels south from Bhutan to Bay of Bengal and reflects on Bangladesh 's struggle for independence . Writing for Blender magazine in April that year , Paul Du Noyer described the song as a " fine 1971 single " . In the 2005 " Beatles Solo " edition of NME Originals , Adrian Thrills rated " Bangla Desh " second among Harrison 's " ten solo gems " ( behind " What Is Life " ) , referring to it as a " jazz @-@ blues @-@ rock shuffle " that " set the template for Band Aid " . Writing in The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles in 2009 , Michael Frontani said that with his Bangladesh relief effort , Harrison " pioneered the whole idea of the charity album and single , as well as of the rock concert fundraiser " . While bemoaning the song 's omission from the 2009 Harrison compilation Let It Roll , Jon Cummings of popdose.com described " Bangla Desh " as " no great artistic achievement " within itself , but " a key moment ... in the evolution of pop @-@ music activism " .

The song is featured in Bruce Pollock 's 2005 book The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 . In 2010 , AOL Radio listeners placed " Bangla Desh " at number 10 in a poll to decide the ten best post @-@ Beatles Harrison songs .

= = Live version = =

Harrison played " Bangla Desh " as an encore at both of the Madison Square Garden shows on 1 August 1971 , with the evening performance being selected for inclusion on the Concert for Bangladesh triple live album . After the familiar introduction to the song , the band " threw their full weight behind Harrison " , Lavezzoli writes , " playing the darkest and heaviest music of the show " . On release that December , Jon Landau of Rolling Stone identified the song as " the concert 's single greatest performance by all concerned " , and added that by the close of the show , the lyrics to Harrison 's single were " no longer an expression of intent but of an accomplished mission – help has been given , people have been reached , an effort has been made and results will be felt " .

In his album review for Melody Maker , Richard Williams wrote that the live version of " Bangla Desh " " roars and rages to a stunning close " . Played at a faster tempo than the studio recording , it features what Spizer terms a " blistering " saxophone solo from Horn , and a vocal by Harrison that Leng describes as " astonishingly powerful " and " a pure act of zeal " . As shown in the concert film , following his brief guitar solo towards the end of the song , Harrison repeats the line " Relieve the people of Bangla Desh " before exiting the stage to great applause , as the band plays on without him . In his book on the Beatles ' first decade as solo artists , Rodriguez views this live performance as perhaps Harrison 's " high water mark of public esteem " .

Although he was reportedly eager to repeat the experience of these New York shows , Harrison never played " Bangla Desh " in concert after 1971 and he did not perform live again until his 1974 North American tour with Shankar . By that point , the Bangladesh Liberation War had long ended , with India 's defeat of the Pakistani army in December 1971 , but Bangladesh was now experiencing a devastating famine that would account for up to 1 @.@ 5 million lives . During a concert in Los Angeles on 11 November , Harrison responded to requests for the song " Bangla Desh " with a suggestion that the audience instead chant " Krishna , Krishna , Krishna " and use the positive power of mantra to help the Bangladeshi population .

= = Cover versions = =

Harrison biographer Alan Clayson has written of the " triumph " of the Bangladesh concerts leading to a host of imitators and tribute acts replicating the shows ' programme , among which was a French band 's cover version of " Bangla Desh " . Another example was the Tribe 's Bangla Desh ( 1972 ) , a full album of highlights from the concerts , including Harrison 's " Bangla Desh " , " My Sweet Lord " and " Here Comes the Sun " . The previous year , Stu Phillips & the Hollyridge Strings released an easy listening version of " Bangla Desh " on their Beatles tribute album The George , John , Paul & Ringo Songbook ( 1971 ) . Another 1971 cover version , re @-@ released in 2002 on the compilation When They Was Fab – A Tribute to the Solo Beatles , was recorded by the Top of the Poppers .

Following Jim Horn 's prominent contribution to the original Harrison recording , Italian saxophonist Fausto Papetti recorded the song for his 1972 album 14a Raccolta . Alternative band B.A.L.L. covered " Bangla Desh " on their 1988 album Bird , as part of their parody of early 1970s rock stars such as the former Beatles .

= = Personnel = =

The following musicians are believed to have played on the studio recording of " Bangla Desh " .

George Harrison – vocals , electric guitar , slide guitar , backing vocals

Leon Russell – piano

Jim Horn – tenor sax , baritone sax , horn arrangement

Billy Preston – organ

Klaus Voorman – bass

Ringo Starr – drums , handclaps *

Jim Keltner – drums

Chuck Findley – trumpet *

* denotes unconfirmed credits .

= = Chart performance = =

= Anna Akhmatova =

Anna Andreyevna Gorenko ( 23 June [ O.S. 11 June ] 1889 – 5 March 1966 ) , better known by the pen name Anna Akhmatova ( / ɑːkˈmɑːtɔːvə / ; Russian : Анна Ахматова , IPA : [ ɐxˈmatəvə ] ) , was a Russian modernist poet , one of the most acclaimed writers in the Russian canon .

Akhmatova 's work ranges from short lyric poems to intricately structured cycles , such as Requiem ( 1935 – 40 ) , her tragic masterpiece about the Stalinist terror . Her style , characterised by its economy and emotional restraint , was strikingly original and distinctive to her contemporaries . The strong and clear leading female voice struck a new chord in Russian poetry . Her writing can be said to fall into two periods – the early work ( 1912 – 25 ) and her later work ( from around 1936 until her death ) , divided by a decade of reduced literary output . Her work was condemned and censored by Stalinist authorities and she is notable for choosing not to emigrate , and remaining in Russia , acting as witness to the events around her . Her perennial themes include meditations on time and memory , and the difficulties of living and writing in the shadow of Stalinism .

Primary sources of information about Akhmatova 's life are relatively scant , as war , revolution and the totalitarian regime caused much of the written record to be destroyed . For long periods she was in official disfavour and many of those who were close to her died in the aftermath of the revolution . Akhmatova 's first husband , Nikolai Gumilev was executed by the Soviet secret police , and her son Lev Gumilev and her common @-@ law husband Nikolay Punin spent many years in the Gulag , where Punin died .

= = Early life and family = =

Akhmatova was born at Bolshoy Fontan , near the Black Sea port of Odessa . Her father , Andrey Antonovich Gorenko , a naval engineer , and her mother , Inna Erazmovna Stogova , were both descended from the Russian nobility . She wrote :

No one in my large family wrote poetry . But the first Russian woman poet , Anna Bunina , was the aunt of my grandfather Erasm Ivanovich Stogov . The Stogovs were modest landowners in the Mozhaisk region of the Moscow Province . They were moved here after the insurrection during the time of Posadnitsa Marfa . In Novgorod they had been a wealthier and more distinguished family . Khan Akhmat , my ancestor , was killed one night in his tent by a Russian killer @-@ for @-@ hire . Karamzin tells us that this marked the end of the Mongol yoke on Russia . [ ... ] It was well known that this Akhmat was a descendant of Genghiz Khan . In the eighteenth century , one of the Akhmatov Princesses – Praskovia Yegorvna – married the rich and famous Simbirsk landowner Motovilov . Yegor Motovilov was my great @-@ grandfather ; his daughter , Anna Yegorovna , was my grandmother . She died when my mother was nine years old , and I was named in her honour . Several diamond rings and one emerald were made from her brooch . Though my fingers are thin , still her thimble didn 't fit me .

Her family moved north to Tsarskoye Selo , near St. Petersburg when she was eleven months old . The family lived in a house on the corner of Shirokaya Street and Bezymyanny Lane ; ( the building is no longer there today ) , spending summers from age 7 to 13 in a dacha near Sevastopol . She studied at the Mariinskaya High School , moving to Kiev ( 1906 – 10 ) and finished her schooling there , after her parents separated in 1905 . She went on to study law at Kiev University , leaving a year later to study literature in St Petersburg .

Akhmatova started writing poetry at the age of 11 , and was published in her late teens , inspired by the poets Nikolay Nekrasov , Jean Racine , Alexander Pushkin , Evgeny Baratynsky and the Symbolists ; however , none of her juvenilia survives . Her sister Inna also wrote poetry though she did not pursue the practice and married shortly after high school . Akhmatova 's father did not want to see any verses printed under his " respectable " name , so she chose to adopt her grandmother 's distinctly Tatar surname ' Akhmatova ' as a pen name .

She met a young poet , Nikolay Gumilev , on Christmas Eve in 1903 . Gumilev , encouraged her to write and pursued her intensely , making numerous marriage proposals starting in 1905 . At 17 years old , in his journal Sirius , she published her first poem which could be translated as " On his hand you may see many glittering rings " , ( 1907 ) signing it " Anna G. " She soon became known in St Petersburg 's artistic circles , regularly giving public readings . That year , she wrote unenthusiastically to a friend , “ He has loved me for three years now , and I believe that it is my fate to be his wife . Whether or not I love him , I do not know , but it seems to me that I do . ” She married Gumilev in Kiev in April 1910 ; however , none of Akhmatova ’ s family attended the wedding . The couple honeymooned in Paris , and there she met and befriended the Italian artist Amedeo Modigliani .

In late 1910 , she came together with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky to form the Guild of Poets . It promoted the idea of craft as the key to poetry rather than inspiration or mystery , taking themes of the concrete rather than the more ephemeral world of the Symbolists . Over time , they developed the influential Acmeist anti @-@ symbolist school , concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America . From the first year of their marriage , Gumilev began to chafe against its constraints . She wrote that he had " lost his passion " for her and by the end of that year he left on a six @-@ month trip to Africa .

She had " her first taste of fame " , becoming renowned , not so much for her beauty , as her intense magnetism and allure , attracting the fascinated attention of a great many men , including the great and the good . She returned to visit Modigliani in Paris , where he created at least 20 paintings of her , including several nudes .

She later began an affair with the celebrated Acmeist poet Osip Mandelstam , whose wife , Nadezhda , declared later , in her autobiography that she came to forgive Akhmatova for it in time . Akhmatova 's son , Lev , was born in 1912 , and would become a renowned Neo @-@ Eurasianist historian .

= = Silver Age = =

In 1912 , the Guild of Poets published her book of verse Evening ( Vecher ) – the first of five in nine years . The small edition of 500 copies quickly sold out and she received around a dozen positive notices in the literary press . She exercised a strong selectivity for the pieces – including only 35 of the 200 poems she had written by the end of 1911 . ( She noted that Song of the Last Meeting , dated 29 September 1911 , was her 200th poem ) . The book secured her reputation as a new and striking young writer , the poems Grey @-@ eyed king , In the Forest , Over the Water and I don ’ t need my legs anymore making her famous . She later wrote " These naïve poems by a frivolous girl for some reason were reprinted thirteen times [ ... ] And they came out in several translations . The girl herself ( as far as I recall ) did not foresee such a fate for them and used to hide the issues of the journals in which they were first published under the sofa cushions " .

Her second collection , The Rosary ( or Beads – Chetki ) appeared in March 1914 and firmly established her as one of the most popular and sought after poets of the day . Thousands of women composed poems " in honour of Akhmatova " , mimicking her style and prompting Akhmatova to exclaim : " I taught our women how to speak , but don 't know how to make them silent " . Her aristocratic manners and artistic integrity won her the titles " Queen of the Neva " and " Soul of the Silver Age , " as the period came to be known in the history of Russian poetry . In Poem Without a Hero , the longest and one of the best known of her works , written many decades later , she would recall this as a blessed time of her life . She became close friends with Boris Pasternak ( who , though married , proposed to her many times ) and rumours began to circulate that she was having an affair with influential lyrical poet Alexander Blok . In July 1914 , Akhmatova wrote “ Frightening times are approaching / Soon fresh graves will cover the land " ; on August 1 , Germany declared war on Russia , marking the start of " the dark storm " of world war , civil war , revolution and totalitarian repression for Russia . The Silver Age came to a close .

Akhmatova had a relationship with the mosaic artist and poet Boris Anrep ; many of her poems in the period are about him and he in turn created mosaics in which she is featured . She selected poems for her third collection , Belaya Staya ( White Flock ) , in 1917 , a volume which poet and critic Joseph Brodsky later described as writing of personal lyricism tinged with the “ note of controlled terror ” . She later came to be memorialised by his description of her as " the keening muse " . Essayist John Bayley describes her writing at this time as " grim , spare and laconic " .

In February 1917 , the revolution started in Petersburg ( then named Petrograd ) ; soldiers fired on marching protestors , and others mutinied . They looked to a past in which the future was " rotting " . In a city without electricity or sewage service , with little water or food , they faced starvation and sickness . Her friends died around her and others left in droves for safer havens in Europe and America , including Anrep , who escaped to England . She had the option to leave , and considered it for a time , but chose to stay and was proud of her decision to remain . :

She wrote of her own temptation to leave :

At the height of Akhmatova 's fame , in 1918 , she divorced her husband and that same year , though many of her friends considered it a mistake , Akhmatova married prominent Assyriologist and poet Vladimir Shilejko . She later said “ I felt so filthy . I thought it would be like a cleansing , like going to a convent , knowing you are going to lose your freedom . ” She began affairs with theatre director Mikhail Zimmerman and composer Arthur Lourié , who set many of her poems to music .

= = 1920s and 1930s = =

In 1921 , Akhmatova 's former husband Nikolay Gumilev was prosecuted for his alleged role in a monarchist anti @-@ Bolshevik conspiracy and on 25 August was shot along with 61 others . According to the historian Rayfield , the murder of Gumilev was part of the state response to the Kronstadt Rebellion . The Cheka ( secret police ) blamed the rebellion on Petrograd 's intellectuals , prompting the senior Cheka officer Yakov Agranov to forcibly extract the names of ' conspirators ' , from an imprisoned professor , guaranteeing them amnesty from execution . Agranov 's guarantee proved to be meaningless . He sentenced dozens of the named persons to death , including Gumilev . Maxim Gorky and others appealed for leniency , but by the time Lenin agreed to several pardons , the condemned had been shot . Within a few days of his death , Akhmatova wrote :

The murders had a powerful effect on the Russian intelligentsia , destroying the Acmeist poetry group , and placing a stigma on Akhmatova and her son Lev ( by Gumilev ) . Lev 's later arrest during the purges and terrors of the 1930s was based on being his father 's son . From a new Marxist perspective , Akhmatova 's poetry was deemed to represent an introspective " bourgeois aesthetic " , reflecting only trivial " female " preoccupations , not in keeping with these new revolutionary politics of the time . She was roundly attacked by the state , by former supporters and friends , and seen to be an anachronism . During what she termed " The Vegetarian Years " , Akhmatova 's work was unofficially banned by a party resolution of 1925 and she found it hard to publish , though she didn 't stop writing poetry . She made acclaimed translations of works by Victor Hugo , Rabindranath Tagore , Giacomo Leopardi and pursued academic work on Pushkin and Dostoyevsky . She worked as a critic and essayist , though many USSR and foreign critics and readers concluded she had died .

She had little food and almost no money ; her son was denied access to study at academic institutions by dint of his parents ' alleged anti @-@ state activities . The impact of the nationwide repression and purges had a decimating effect on her St Petersburg circle of friends , artists and intellectuals . Her close friend and fellow poet Mandelstam was deported and then sentenced to a Gulag labour camp , where he would die . Akhmatova narrowly escaped arrest , though her son Lev was imprisoned on numerous occasions by the Stalinist regime , accused of counter @-@ revolutionary activity . She would often queue for hours to deliver him food packages and plead on his behalf . She describes standing outside a stone prison :

One day somebody in the crowd identified me . Standing behind me was a woman , with lips blue from cold , who had , of course , never heard me called by name before . Now she started out of the torpor common to us all and asked me in a whisper ( everyone whispered there ) : ' Can you describe this ? '

And I said : ' I can.'

Then something like a smile passed fleetingly over what had once been her face .

Akhmatova wrote that by 1935 every time she went to see someone off at the train station as they went into exile , she 'd find herself greeting friends at every step as so many of St Petersburg 's intellectual and cultural figures would be leaving on the same train . In her poetry circles Mayakovsky and Esenin committed suicide and Marina Tsvetaeva would follow them in 1941 , after returning from exile .

Akhmatova was a common @-@ law wife to Nikolai Punin , an art scholar and lifelong friend , whom she stayed with until 1935 . He also was repeatedly taken into custody , dying in the Gulag in 1953 . Her tragic cycle Requiem documents her personal experience of this time ; as she writes , " one hundred million voices shout " through her " tortured mouth " .

= = 1939 – 1960 = =

In 1939 , Stalin approved the publication of one volume of poetry , From Six Books ; however , the collection was withdrawn and pulped after only a few months . In 1993 , it was revealed that the authorities had bugged her flat and kept her under constant surveillance , keeping detailed files on her from this time , accruing some 900 pages of " denunciations , reports of phone taps , quotations from writings , confessions of those close to her " . Although officially stifled , Akhmatova 's work continued to circulate in secret . Akhmatova 's close friend , chronicler Lydia Chukovskaya described how writers working to keep poetic messages alive used various strategies . A small trusted circle would , for example , memorise each other 's works and circulate them only by oral means . She tells how Akhmatova would write out her poem for a visitor on a scrap of paper to be read in a moment , then burnt in her stove . The poems were carefully disseminated in this way , however it is likely that many complied in this manner were lost . " It was like a ritual , " Chukovskaya wrote . " Hands , matches , an ashtray . A ritual beautiful and bitter . "

During World War II , Akhmatova witnessed the 900 day Siege of Leningrad ( now St Petersburg ) . In 1940 , Akhmatova started her Poem without a Hero , finishing a first draft in Tashkent , but working on " The Poem " for twenty years and considering it to be the major work of her life , dedicating it to " the memory of its first audience – my friends and fellow citizens who perished in Leningrad during the siege " . She was evacuated to Chistopol in spring of 1942 and then to greener , safer Tashkent in Uzbekistan , along with other artists , such as Shostakovitch . During her time away she became seriously ill with typhus ( she had suffered from severe bronchitis and tuberculosis as a young woman ) . On returning to Leningrad in May 1944 , she writes of how disturbed she was to find " a terrible ghost that pretended to be my city " .

She regularly read to soldiers in the military hospitals and on the front line ; her later pieces seem to be the voice of those who had struggled and the many she has outlived . She moved away from romantic themes towards a more diverse , complex and philosophical body of work and some of her more patriotic poems found their way to the front pages of Pravda . She was condemned for a visit by the liberal , western , Jewish philosopher Isaiah Berlin in 1945 , and Official Andrei Zhdanov publicly labelled her " half harlot , half nun " , her work " the poetry of an overwrought , upper @-@ class lady " , her work the product of " eroticism , mysticism , and political indifference " . He banned her poems from publication in the journals Zvezda and Leningrad , accusing her of poisoning the minds of Soviet youth . Her surveillance was increased and she was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers .

Berlin described his visit to her flat : It was very barely furnished — virtually everything in it had , I gathered , been taken away — looted or sold — during the siege .... A stately , grey @-@ haired lady , a white shawl draped about her shoulders , slowly rose to greet us . Anna Akhmatova was immensely dignified , with unhurried gestures , a noble head , beautiful , somewhat severe features , and an expression of immense sadness .

Akhmatova 's son Lev was arrested again at the end of 1949 and sentenced to 10 years in a Siberian prison camp . She spent much of the next years trying to ensure his release , to this end , and for the first time , she published overtly propagandist poetry , “ In Praise of Peace , ” in the magazine Ogoniok , openly supporting Stalin and his regime . Lev remained in the camps until 1956 , well after Stalin 's death , his final release potentially aided by his mother 's concerted efforts . Bayley suggests that her period of pro @-@ Stalinist work may also have saved her own life ; notably however , Akhmatova never acknowledged these pieces in her official corpus . Akhmatova 's stature among Soviet poets was slowly conceded by party officials , her name no longer cited in only scathing contexts and she was readmitted to Union of Writers in 1951 , being fully recognised again following Stalin 's death in 1953 . With the press still heavily controlled and censored under Nikita Khrushchev , a translation by Akhmatova was praised in a public review in 1955 , and her own poems began to re @-@ appear in 1956 . That same year Lev was released from the camps , embittered , believing that his mother cared more about her poetry than for him and that she had not worked hard for his release . Akhmatova 's status was confirmed by 1958 , with the publication of Stikhotvoreniya ( Poems ) and then Stikhotvoreniya 1909 – 1960 ( Poems : 1909 – 1960 ) in 1961 . Beg vremeni ( The flight of time ) , collected works 1909 – 1965 , published 1965 , was the most complete volume of her works in her lifetime , though the long damning poem Requiem , condemning the Stalinist purges , was conspicuously absent . Isaiah Berlin predicted at the time that it could never be published in the Soviet Union .

= = Last years = =

During the last years of her life she continued to live with the Punin family in Leningrad , still translating , researching Pushkin and writing her own poetry . Though still censored , she was concerned to re @-@ construct work that had been destroyed or suppressed during the purges or which had posed a threat to the life of her son in the camps , such as the lost , semi @-@ autobiographical play Enûma Elish . She worked on her official memoirs , planned novels and worked on her epic Poem without a hero , 20 years in the writing .

Akhmatova was widely honoured in the USSR and the West . In 1962 she was visited by Robert Frost ; Isaiah Berlin tried to visit her again , but she refused him , worried that her son might be re @-@ arrested due to family association with the ideologically suspect western philosopher . She inspired and advised a large circle of key young Soviet writers . Her dacha in Komarovo was frequented by such poets as Yevgeny Rein and Joseph Brodsky , whom she mentored . Brodsky , arrested in 1963 and interned for social parasitism , would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature ( 1987 ) and become Poet Laureate ( 1991 ) as an exile in the U.S.

As one of the last remaining major poets of the Silver Age , she was newly acclaimed by the Soviet authorities as a fine and loyal representative of their country and permitted to travel . At the same time , by virtue of works such as Requiem , Akhmatova was being hailed at home and abroad as an unofficial leader of the dissident movement , and reinforcing this image herself . She was becoming representative of both the Soviet Union and Tsarist Russia , more popular in the 1960s than she had ever been before the revolution , this reputation only continuing to grow after her death . For her 75th birthday in 1964 , new collections of her verse were published .

Akhmatova was able to meet some of her pre @-@ revolutionary acquaintances in 1965 , when she was allowed to travel to Sicily and England , in order to receive the Taormina prize and an honorary doctoral degree from Oxford University , accompanied by her lifelong friend and secretary Lydia Chukovskaya . Akhmatova 's Requiem in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963 , the whole work not published within USSR until 1987 . Her long poem The Way of All the Earth or Woman of Kitezh ( Kitezhanka ) was published in complete form in 1965 .

In November 1965 , soon after her Oxford visit , Akhmatova suffered a heart attack and was hospitalised . She was moved to a sanatorium in Moscow in the spring of 1966 and died of heart failure on March 5 , at the age of 76 . Thousands attended the two memorial ceremonies which were held in Moscow and in Leningrad . After being displayed in an open coffin , she was interred at Komarovo Cemetery in St Petersburg .

Isaiah Berlin described the impact of her life , as he saw it :

The widespread worship of her memory in Soviet Union today , both as an artist and as an unsurrendering human being , has , so far as I know , no parallel . The legend of her life and unyielding passive resistance to what she regarded as unworthy of her country and herself , transformed her into a figure [ ... ] not merely in Russian literature , but in Russian history in [ the Twentieth ] century .

In 1988 , to celebrate what would have been Akhmatova 's 100th birthday , the University of Harvard held an international conference on her life and work . Today her work may be explored at the Anna Akhmatova Literary and Memorial Museum in St. Petersburg .

= = Work and themes = =

Akhmatova joined the Acmeist group of poets in 1910 with poets such as Osip Mandelstam and Sergey Gorodetsky , working in response to the Symbolist school , concurrent with the growth of Imagism in Europe and America . It promoted the use of craft and rigorous poetic form over mysticism or spiritual in @-@ roads to composition , favouring the concrete over the ephemeral . Akhmatova modeled its principles of writing with clarity , simplicity , and disciplined form . Her first collections Evening ( 1912 ) and Rosary ( 1914 ) received wide critical acclaim and made her famous from the start of her career . They contained brief , psychologically taut pieces , acclaimed for their classical diction , telling details , and the skilful use of colour . Evening and her next four books were mostly lyric miniatures on the theme of love , shot through with sadness .

Her early poems usually picture a man and a woman involved in the most poignant , ambiguous moment of their relationship , much imitated and later parodied by Nabokov and others . Critic Roberta Reeder notes that the early poems always attracted large numbers of admirers : " For Akhmatova was able to capture and convey the vast range of evolving emotions experienced in a love affair , from the first thrill of meeting , to a deepening love contending with hatred , and eventually to violent destructive passion or total indifference . But [ ... ] her poetry marks a radical break with the erudite , ornate style and the mystical representation of love so typical of poets like Alexander Blok and Andrey Bely . Her lyrics are composed of short fragments of simple speech that do not form a logical coherent pattern . Instead , they reflect the way we actually think , the links between the images are emotional , and simple everyday objects are charged with psychological associations . Like Alexander Pushkin , who was her model in many ways , Akhmatova was intent on conveying worlds of meaning through precise details . "

Akhmatova often complained that the critics " walled her in " to their perception of her work in the early years of romantic passion , despite major changes of theme in the later years of The Terror . This was mainly due to the secret nature of her work after the public and critical effusion over her first volumes . The risks during the purges were very great . Many of her close friends and family were exiled , imprisoned or shot ; her son was under constant threat of arrest , she was often under close surveillance . Following artistic repression and public condemnation by the state in the 1920s , many within literary and public circles , at home and abroad , thought she had died . Her readership generally did not know her later opus , the railing passion of Requiem or Poem without a Hero and her other scathing works , which were shared only with a very trusted few or circulated in secret by word of mouth ( samizdat ) .

Between 1935 and 1940 Akhmatova composed , worked and reworked the long poem Requiem in secret , a lyrical cycle of lamentation and witness , depicting the suffering of the common people under Soviet terror . She carried it with her as she worked and lived in towns and cities across the Soviet Union . It was conspicuously absent from her collected works , given its explicit condemnation of the purges . The work in Russian finally appeared in book form in Munich in 1963 , the whole work not published within USSR until 1987 . It consists of ten numbered poems that examine a series of emotional states , exploring suffering , despair , devotion , rather than a clear narrative . Biblical themes such as Christ 's crucifixion and the devastation of Mary , Mother of Jesus and Mary Magdelene , reflect the ravaging of Russia , particularly witnessing the harrowing of women in the 1930s . It represented , to some degree , a rejection of her own earlier romantic work as she took on the public role as chronicler of the Terror . This is a role she holds to this day .

Her essays on Pushkin and Poem Without a Hero , her longest work , were only published after her death . This long poem , composed between 1940 and 1965 , is often critically regarded as her best work and also one of the finest poems of the twentieth century . It gives a deep and detailed analysis of her epoch and her approach to it , including her important encounter with Isaiah Berlin ( 1909 – 97 ) in 1945 . Her talent in composition and translation is evidenced in her fine translations of the works of poets writing in French , English , Italian , Armenian , and Korean .

= = = Cultural influence = = =

Translations of some of her poems by Babette Deutsch and Lyn Coffin are set to music on the album The Trackless Woods by Iris DeMent .

= = Honours = =

1964 Etna @-@ Taormina prize

1965 honorary doctorate from Oxford University in 1965 .

= = Selected poetry collections = =

= = = Published by Akhmatova = = =

1912 Vecher / Вечер ( Evening ) .

1914 Chetki ( Rosary or literally Beads )

1917 Belaya Staya ( White flock )

1921 Podorozhnik ( Wayside grass / Plantain ) . 60 pages , 1000 copies published .

1921 Anno Domini MCMXXI

Reed – 2 Volume Selected Poems ( 1924 – 1926 ) was compiled but never published .

Uneven – compiled but never published .

1940 From Six Books ( Publication suspended shortly after release , copies pulped ) .

1943 Izbrannoe Stikhi ( Selections of poetry ) Tashkent , government edited .

Iva not separately published

Sed 'maya kniga ( Seventh book ) – not separately published ;

1958 Stikhotvoreniya ( Poems ) ( 25 @,@ 000 copies )

1961 Stikhotvoreniya 1909 – 1960 ( Poems : 1909 – 1960 )

1965 Beg vremeni ( The flight of time Collected works 1909 – 1965 )

= = = Later editions = = =

1967 Poems of Akhmatova . Ed. and Trans . Stanley Kunitz , Boston

1976 Anna Akhmatova Selected Poems . D.M. Thomas Penguin Books

1985 Twenty Poems of Anna Akhmatova ( trans Jane Kenyon ) ; Eighties Press and Ally Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 915408 @-@ 30 @-@ 9

1988 Selected Poems Trans . Richard McKane ; Bloodaxe Books Ltd ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85224 @-@ 063 @-@ 6

2000 The Complete Poems of Anna Akhmatova ( trans . Judith Hemschemeyer ; ed . Roberta Reeder ) ; Zephyr Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 939010 @-@ 27 @-@ 5

2004 The Word That Causes Death 's Defeat : Poems of Memory ( Annals of Communism ) ( trans . Nancy Anderson ) . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 10377 @-@ 8

2006 Selected Poems ( trans D. M. Thomas ) ; Penguin Classics ; ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 042464 @-@ 4

2009 Selected Poems ( trans . Walter Arndt ) ; Overlook TP ; ISBN 0 @-@ 88233 @-@ 180 @-@ 9

= Isaac =

Isaac ( / ˈaɪzək / ; Hebrew : יִצְחָק , Modern Yitshak , Tiberian Yiṣḥāq , ISO 259 @-@ 3 Yiçḥaq , " [ he ] will laugh " ; Ancient Greek : Ἰσαάκ Isaak Arabic : إسحاق or إسحٰق ʼIsḥāq ) as described in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur 'an , was the second son of Abraham , the only son Abraham had with his wife Sarah , and the father of Jacob and Esau . According to the Book of Genesis , Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born , and Sarah was past 90 .

According to Genesis , Abraham brought Isaac to Mount Moriah , where , at God 's command , Abraham built a sacrificial altar to sacrifice Isaac . This event served as a test of Abraham 's faith . At the last moment , Abraham was stopped by the angel of the Lord .

Isaac was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites . Isaac was the only biblical patriarch whose name was not changed , and the only one who did not move out of Canaan . Compared to Abraham and Jacob , the Bible relates fewer incidents of Isaac 's life . He died when he was 180 years old , making him the longest @-@ lived of the three .

= = Etymology = =

The anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq which literally means " He laughs / will laugh . " Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El . Genesis , however , ascribes the laughter to Isaac 's parents , Abraham and Sarah , rather than El . According to the biblical narrative , Abraham fell on his face and laughed when Elohim imparted the news of their son 's eventual birth . He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing ; both she and Abraham were advanced in age . Later , when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise , she laughed inwardly for the same reason . Sarah denied laughing when Elohim questioned Abraham about it .

= = Genesis narrative = =

= = = Birth = = =

It was prophesied to the patriarch Abraham that he would have a son and that his name should be Isaac . When Abraham became one hundred years old , this son was born to him by his first wife Sarah . Though this was Abraham 's second son it was Sarah ’ s first and only child .

On the eighth day from his birth , Isaac was circumcised , as was necessary for all males of Abraham 's household , in order to be in compliance with Yahweh 's covenant .

After Isaac had been weaned , Sarah saw Ishmael mocking , and urged her husband to cast out Hagar the bondservant and her son , so that Isaac would be Abraham 's sole heir . Abraham was hesitant , but at God 's order he listened to his wife 's request .

= = = Binding = = =

At some point in Isaac 's youth , his father Abraham brought him to Mount Moriah . At God 's command , Abraham was to build a sacrificial altar and sacrifice his son Isaac upon it . After he had bound his son to the altar and drawn his knife to kill him , at the very last moment an angel of God prevented Abraham from proceeding . Rather , he was directed to sacrifice instead a nearby ram that was stuck in thickets . This event served as a test of Abraham 's faith in God , not as an actual human sacrifice .

= = = Family life = = =

When Isaac was 40 , Abraham sent Eliezer , his steward , into Mesopotamia to find a wife for Isaac , from his nephew Bethuel 's family . Eliezer chose the Aramean Rebekah for Isaac . After many years of marriage to Isaac , Rebekah had still not given birth to a child and was believed to be barren . Isaac prayed for her and she conceived . Rebekah gave birth to twin boys , Esau and Jacob . Isaac was 60 years old when his two sons were born . Isaac favored Esau , and Rebekah favored Jacob .

Isaac is unique among the patriarchs for remaining faithful to his wife , and for not having concubines .

= = = Migration = = =

At the age of 75 , Isaac moved to Beer @-@ lahai @-@ roi after his father died . When the land experienced famine , he removed to the Philistine land of Gerar where his father once lived . This land was still under the control of King Abimelech as it was in the days of Abraham . Like his father , Isaac also deceived Abimelech about his wife and also got into the well business . He had gone back to all of the wells that his father dug and saw that they were all stopped up with earth . The Philistines did this after Abraham died . So , Isaac unearthed them and began to dig for more wells all the way to Beersheba , where he made a pact with Abimelech , just like in the day of his father .

= = = Birthright = = =

Isaac grew old and became blind . He called his son Esau and directed him to procure some venison for him , in order to receive Isaac 's blessing . While Esau was hunting , Jacob , after listening to his mother 's advice , deceived his blind father by misrepresenting himself as Esau and thereby obtained his father 's blessing , such that Jacob became Isaac 's primary heir and Esau was left in an inferior position . According to Genesis 25 : 29 @-@ 34 , Esau had previously sold his birthright to Jacob for " bread and stew of lentils " . Thereafter , Isaac sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a wife of his mother 's brother 's house . After 20 years working for his uncle Laban , Jacob returned home . He reconciled with his twin brother Esau , then he and Esau buried their father , Isaac , in Hebron after he died at the age of 180 .

= = = Family tree = = =

= = Burial site = =

According to local tradition , the graves of Isaac and Rebekah , along with the graves of Abraham and Sarah and Jacob and Leah , are in the Cave of the Patriarchs .

= = Jewish views = =

In rabbinical tradition , the age of Isaac at the time of binding is taken to be 37 which contrasts with common portrayals of Isaac as a child . The rabbis also thought that the reason for the death of Sarah was the news of the intended sacrifice of Isaac . The sacrifice of Isaac is cited in appeals for the mercy of God in later Jewish traditions . The post @-@ biblical Jewish interpretations often elaborate the role of Isaac beyond the biblical description and primarily focus on Abraham 's intended sacrifice of Isaac , called the aqedah ( " binding " ) . According to a version of these interpretations , Isaac died in the sacrifice and was revived . According to many accounts of Aggadah , unlike the Bible , it is Satan who is testing Isaac as an agent of God . Isaac 's willingness to follow God 's command at the cost of his death has been a model for many Jews who preferred martyrdom to violation of the Jewish law .

According to the Jewish tradition , Isaac instituted the afternoon prayer . This tradition is based on Genesis chapter 24 , verse 63 ( " Isaac went out to meditate in the field at the eventide " ) .

Isaac was the only patriarch who stayed in Canaan during his whole life and though once he tried to leave , God told him not to do so . Rabbinic tradition gave the explanation that Isaac was almost sacrificed and anything dedicated as a sacrifice may not leave the Land of Israel . Isaac was the oldest of the biblical patriarchs at the time of his death , and the only patriarch whose name was not changed .

Rabbinic literature also linked Isaac 's blindness in old age , as stated in the Bible , to the sacrificial binding : Isaac 's eyes went blind because the tears of angels present at the time of his sacrifice fell on Isaac 's eyes .

= = Christian views = =

The early Christian church continued and developed the New Testament theme of Isaac as a type of Christ and the Church being both " the son of the promise " and the " father of the faithful " . Tertullian draws a parallel between Isaac 's bearing the wood for the sacrificial fire with Christ 's carrying his cross. and there was a general agreement that , while all the sacrifices of the Old Law were anticipations of that on Calvary , the sacrifice of Isaac was so " in a pre @-@ eminent way " .

The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church consider Isaac as a Saint along with other biblical patriarchs . Along with those of other patriarchs and the Old Testament Righteous , his feast day is celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine rite of the Catholic Church on the Second Sunday before Christmas ( December 11 – 17 ) , under the title the Sunday of the Forefathers .

= = = New Testament = = =

The New Testament states Isaac was " offered up " by Abraham his father , and that Isaac blessed his sons . Paul contrasted Isaac , symbolizing Christian liberty , with the rejected older son Ishmael , symbolizing slavery ; Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant , while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace , into which her son Isaac enters . The Epistle of James chapter 2 , verses 21 @-@ 24 , states that the sacrifice of Isaac shows that justification ( in the Johannine sense ) requires both faith and works .

In the Epistle to the Hebrews , Abraham 's willingness to follow God 's command to sacrifice Isaac is used as an example of faith as is Isaac 's action in blessing Jacob and Esau with reference to the future promised by God to Abraham In verse 19 , the author views the release of Isaac from sacrifice as analogous to the resurrection of Jesus , the idea of the sacrifice of Isaac being a prefigure of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross .

= = Islamic views = =

Isaac ( Arabic : إسحاق [ note A ] ʾIsḥāq ) is revered by Muslims to be a prophet of Islam . Islam considers Isaac as a prophet of Islam , and describes him as the father of the Israelites and a righteous servant of God .

Isaac , along with Ishmael , is highly important for Muslims for continuing to preach the message of monotheism after his father Abraham . Among Isaac 's children was the follow @-@ up Israelite patriarch Jacob , who too is venerated an Islamic prophet .

Isaac is mentioned fifteen times by name in the Qur 'an , often with his father and his son , Jacob . The Qur 'an states that Abraham received " good tidings of Isaac , a prophet , of the righteous " , and that God blessed them both ( 37 : 12 ) . In a fuller description , when angels came to Abraham to tell him of the future punishment to be imposed on Sodom and Gomorrah , his wife , Sarah , " laughed , and We gave her good tidings of Isaac , and after Isaac of ( a grandson ) Jacob " ( 11 : 71 @-@ 74 ) ; and it is further explained that this event will take place despite Abraham and Sarah 's old age . Several verses speak of Isaac as a " gift " to Abraham ( 6 : 84 ; 14 : 49 @-@ 50 ) , and 24 : 26 @-@ 27 adds that God made " prophethood and the Book to be among his offspring " , which has been interpreted to refer to Abraham 's two prophetic sons , his prophetic grandson Jacob , and his prophetic great @-@ grandson Joseph . In the Qur 'an , it later narrates that Abraham also praised God for giving him Ishmael and Isaac in his old age ( 14 : 39 @-@ 41 ) .

Elsewhere in the Qur 'an , Isaac is mentioned in lists : Joseph follows the religion of his forefathers Abraham , Isaac and Jacob ( 12 : 38 ) and speaks of God 's favor to them ( 12 : 6 ) ; Jacob 's sons all testify their faith and promise to worship the God that their forefathers , " Abraham , Ishmael and Isaac " , worshiped ( 2 : 127 ) ; and the Qur 'an commands Muslims to believe in the revelations that were given to " Abraham , Ishmael , Isaac , Jacob and the Patriarchs " ( 2 : 136 ; 3 : 84 ) . In the Qur 'an 's narrative of Abraham 's near @-@ sacrifice of his son ( 37 : 102 ) , the name of the son is not mentioned and debate has continued over the son 's identity , though many feel that the identity is the least important element in a story which is given to show the courage that one develops through faith .

= = = Qur 'an = = =

The Qur 'an mentions Isaac as a prophet and a righteous man of God . Isaac and Jacob are mentioned as being bestowed upon Abraham as gifts of God , who then worshipped God only and were righteous leaders in the way of God :

And We bestowed on him Isaac and , as an additional gift , ( a grandson ) , Jacob , and We made righteous men of every one ( of them ) .

And We made them leaders , guiding ( men ) by Our Command , and We sent them inspiration to do good deeds , to establish regular prayers , and to practise regular charity ; and they constantly served Us ( and Us only ) .

And WE gave him the glad tidings of Isaac , a Prophet , and one of the righteous .

= = Academic = =

Some scholars have described Isaac as " a legendary figure " while others view him " as a figure representing tribal history , or " as a seminomadic leader . " The stories of Isaac , like other patriarchal stories of Genesis , are generally believed to have " their origin in folk memories and oral traditions of the early Hebrew pastoralist experience . " The Cambridge Companion to the Bible makes the following comment on the biblical stories of the patriarchs :

Yet for all that these stories maintain a distance between their world and that of their time of literary growth and composition , they reflect the political realities of the later periods . Many of the narratives deal with the relationship between the ancestors and peoples who were part of Israel ’ s political world at the time the stories began to be written down ( eighth century B.C.E. ) . Lot is the ancestor of the Transjordanian peoples of Ammon and Moab , and Ishmael personifies the nomadic peoples known to have inhabited north Arabia , although located in the Old Testament in the Negev . Esau personifies Edom ( 36 : 1 ) , and Laban represents the Aramean states to Israel ’ s north . A persistent theme is that of difference between the ancestors and the indigenous Canaanites … In fact , the theme of the differences between Judah and Israel , as personified by the ancestors , and the neighboring peoples of the time of the monarchy is pressed effectively into theological service to articulate the choosing by God of Judah and Israel to bring blessing to all peoples . ”

According to Martin Noth , a scholar of the Hebrew Bible , the narratives of Isaac date back to an older cultural stage than that of the West @-@ Jordanian Jacob . At that era , the Israelite tribes were not yet sedentary . In the course of looking for grazing areas , they had come in contact in southern Philistia with the inhabitants of the settled countryside . The biblical historian , A. Jopsen , believes in the connection between the Isaac traditions and the north , and in support of this theory adduces Amos 7 : 9 ( " the high places of Isaac " ) .

Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth hold that , " The figure of Isaac was enhanced when the theme of promise , previously bound to the cults of the ' God the Fathers ' was incorporated into the Israelite creed during the southern @-@ Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition . " According to Martin Noth , at the Southern Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition , Isaac became established as one of the biblical patriarchs , but his traditions were receded in the favor of Abraham .

= = = Documentary hypothesis = = =

Form critics variously assign passages like Genesis chapter 26 , verses 6 @-@ 11 , to the Jahwist source , and Genesis chapter 20 verses 1 @-@ 7 , chapter 21 , verse 1 to chapter 22 , verse 14 and chapter 22 , verse 19 to the Elohist . According to the compilation hypothesis , the formulaic use of the word toledoth ( generations ) indicates that Genesis chapter 11 , verse 27 to chapter 25 , verse 19 is Isaac 's record through Abraham 's death ( with Ishmael 's record appended ) , and Genesis chapter 25 , verse 19 to chapter 37 , verse 2 is Jacob 's record through Isaac 's death ( with Esau 's records appended ) .

= = In art = =

The earliest Christian portrayal of Isaac is found in the Roman catacomb frescoes . Excluding the fragments , Alison Moore Smith classifies these artistic works in three categories :

" Abraham leads Isaac towards the altar ; or Isaac approaches with the bundle of sticks , Abraham having preceded him to the place of offering .... Abraham is upon a pedestal and Isaac stands near at hand , both figures in orant attitude .... Abraham is shown about to sacrifice Isaac while the latter stands or kneels on the ground beside the altar . Sometimes Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair . Occasionally the ram is added to the scene and in the later paintings the Hand of God emerges from above . "

= Yugoslav destroyer Dubrovnik =

Dubrovnik was a flotilla leader built for the Royal Yugoslav Navy by Yarrow Shipbuilders in Glasgow between 1930 and 1931 . She was one of the largest destroyers of her time . Resembling contemporary British designs , Dubrovnik was a fast ship with a main armament of four Czechoslovak @-@ built Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) guns in single mounts . Intended to be the first of three flotilla leaders built for Yugoslavia , she was the only one completed . During her service with the Royal Yugoslav Navy , Dubrovnik undertook several peacetime cruises through the Mediterranean , the Turkish Straits and the Black Sea . In October 1934 , she conveyed King Alexander to France for a state visit , and carried his body back to Yugoslavia following his assassination in Marseille .

During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Dubrovnik was captured by the Italians . After a refit , which included the replacement of some of her weapons and the shortening of her mainmast and funnels , she was commissioned into the Royal Italian Navy as Premuda . In Italian service she was mainly used as an escort and troop transport . In June 1942 , she was part of the Italian force that attacked the Allied Operation Harpoon convoy attempting to relieve the island of Malta . In July 1943 , she broke down and put in to Genoa for repair and a refit . Premuda was the most important and effective Italian war prize ship of World War II .

At the time of the Italian surrender to the Allies in September 1943 , Premuda was still docked in Genoa , and was seized by Germany . Plans to convert her into a radar picket for night fighters were abandoned . In August 1944 , following the replacement of her armament , she was commissioned into the German Navy as a Torpedoboot Ausland ( foreign torpedo boat ) with the designation TA32 . The ship saw action shelling Allied positions on the Italian coast and laying naval mines . In March 1945 , she took part in the Battle of the Ligurian Sea against two Royal Navy destroyers , during which she was lightly damaged . She was scuttled the following month as the Germans retreated from Genoa .

= = Development = =

Following the demise of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire and the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS ) , Austria @-@ Hungary transferred the vessels of the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to the new nation . The Kingdom of Italy was unhappy with this , and convinced the Allies to share the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships among the victorious powers . As a result , the only modern sea @-@ going vessels left to the KSCS were 12 torpedo boats , and they had to build their naval forces from scratch . During the 1920s , many navies were pursuing the flotilla leader concept , building large destroyers similar to the World War I Royal Navy V and W @-@ class destroyers . In the interwar French Navy , these ships were known as contre @-@ torpilleurs , and were intended to operate with smaller destroyers , or as half @-@ flotillas of three ships . The idea was that such a half @-@ flotilla could defeat an Italian light cruiser of the Condottieri @-@ class . The Navy of the KSCS decided to build three such flotilla leaders , ships that would have the ability to reach high speeds and with a long endurance . The long endurance requirement reflected Yugoslav plans to deploy the ships into the central Mediterranean , where they would be able to operate alongside French and British warships .

At the time the decision was made , French shipyards were heavily committed to producing vessels for the French Navy . So , despite its intention to develop a French concept , the KSCS engaged Yarrow Shipbuilders in Glasgow , Scotland to build the ships . Unlike the French , who preferred to install guns of their own manufacture , Yarrow was happy to order the guns from the Czechoslovak firm Škoda . The initial Yarrow design was based on an expanded version of the British Shakespeare @-@ class , with five Skoda 14 cm / 56 naval guns . Excessive top weight resulted in the deletion of one of the guns , to be replaced with a seaplane mounting . The final version replaced the seaplane mounting with improved anti @-@ aircraft armament . The intention to build three flotilla leaders was demonstrated by the fact that Yarrow ordered a total of 12 Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) guns , four per ship . In the late summer of 1929 , the KSCS ( the Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 3 October 1929 ) signed a contract with Yarrow for a destroyer named Dubrovnik . Soon after she was ordered , the onset of the Great Depression meant that only one ship of the planned half @-@ flotilla was ever built .

= = Description and construction = =

Dubrovnik was similar in many respects to the British destroyers being manufactured at the same time , having a square box @-@ like bridge , a long forecastle , and a sharp raked stem similar to the later Tribal @-@ class . Her rounded stern was adapted for minelaying . She had an overall length of 113 @.@ 2 metres ( 371 ft 5 in ) , with a 10 @.@ 67 m ( 35 ft ) beam and a mean draught of 3 @.@ 58 m ( 11 ft 9 in ) ( maximum draught of 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft 5 in ) ) . Her standard displacement was 1 @,@ 880 long tons ( 1 @,@ 910 t ) , ( 2 @,@ 400 long tons ( 2 @,@ 439 t ) at full load ) . Dubrovnik had two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , located in separate boiler rooms , and the turbines were rated at 48 @,@ 000 shp ( 36 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , the ship had a maximum speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) . In 1934 , under ideal conditions , she achieved a maximum speed of 40 @.@ 3 knots ( 74 @.@ 6 km / h ; 46 @.@ 4 mph ) . A separate Curtis turbine , rated at 900 shp ( 670 kW ) , was installed for cruising , with which she could achieve a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . She carried 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of fuel oil .

Her main armament consisted of four Škoda 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) L / 56 superfiring guns in single mounts , two forward of the superstructure and two aft . For air defence , Dubrovnik had twin @-@ mounted Škoda 83 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 29 in ) L / 55 guns , and six Škoda 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / L67 anti @-@ aircraft guns , arranged in two twin mounts and two single mounts . She was also equipped with two triple 533 mm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes , two depth charge throwers and two depth charge rails , two Škoda 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) machine guns and 40 mines . Her crew comprised 20 officers and 220 ratings . She was laid down on 10 June 1930 , and was launched on 11 October 1931 .

= = Service history = =

= = = Dubrovnik = = =

Dubrovnik was completed at the Yarrow shipyards in Glasgow in 1932 , at which time her main guns and light anti @-@ aircraft guns had been installed . After sailing to the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic , she was fitted with her heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was commissioned with the Royal Yugoslav Navy in 1932 , and her captain was Armin Pavić . In late September 1933 , the ship left the Bay of Kotor and sailed through the Turkish Straits to Constanța on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria , where she embarked King Alexander and Queen Maria of Yugoslavia . She then visited Balcic in Romania and Varna in Bulgaria , before returning via Istanbul and the Greek island of Corfu in the Ionian Sea , arriving back at the Bay of Kotor on 8 October . On 6 October 1934 , King Alexander left the Bay of Kotor on board Dubrovnik for a state visit to France , arriving in Marseille on 9 October . He was killed that same day by a Bulgarian assassin , and Dubrovnik conveyed his body back to Yugoslavia , escorted by French , Italian and British ships . Soon after , Vladimir Šaškijević replaced Pavić as captain . In August 1935 , Dubrovnik visited Corfu and Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia . In August 1937 , Dubrovnik visited Istanbul and the Greek ports of Mudros in the northern Aegean Sea and Piraeus near Athens .

In April 1941 , Yugoslavia entered World War II when it was invaded by the German @-@ led Axis powers . At the time , Dubrovnik was still under the command of Šaškijević and was assigned as flagship of the 1st Torpedo Division , along with the three smaller Beograd @-@ class destroyers , Beograd , Ljubljana and Zagreb .

= = = Premuda = = =

The Italians captured Dubrovnik in the Bay of Kotor on 17 April 1941 ; she had been damaged by Yugoslav civilians prior to her seizure . Dubrovnik was sailed to Taranto in southern Italy on 21 May , where she underwent repairs and a refit . She was renamed Premuda , after the Dalmatian island near which an Italian motor torpedo boat had sunk the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought Szent István in June 1918 . Her aft deckhouse and emergency bridge was removed and replaced with an anti @-@ aircraft platform , and her mainmast and funnels were shortened . Her twin Škoda 83 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 29 in ) L / 55 anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by a 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L15 howitzer firing star shells for illumination , while the six Škoda 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / L67 anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by four Breda Model 35 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / L65 machine guns in single mounts . Later in her Italian service , the 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) howitzer was replaced by a twin Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / L54 anti @-@ aircraft gun mount . In Italian service , her crew consisted of 13 officers and 191 enlisted ranks .

Premuda was commissioned in the Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) in February 1942 . Later that month she rescued British prisoners of war who survived the sinking of the SS Ariosto , an Italian ship ferrying them from Tripoli to Sicily . In early June , the Italian submarine Alagi fired on Premuda , mistaking her for a British destroyer due to her similarities with a British H @-@ class destroyer . The attack missed Premuda and struck the Navigatori @-@ class destroyer Antoniotto Usodimare , sinking her . From 12 – 16 June 1942 , Premuda took part in operations against the Allied Operation Harpoon convoy attempting to reach the beleaguered island of Malta from Gibraltar . As part of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla , Premuda supported the Italian 7th Cruiser Squadron , comprising the light cruisers Eugenio di Savoia and Raimondo Montecuccoli . The force that attacked the Operation Harpoon convoy included most of the fighting power of the Italian Navy , including two battleships and two heavy cruisers . The Allied naval escort lost one cruiser , three destroyers and several merchant ships to a combination of air attacks , submarines and naval mines . One Italian battleship was damaged , and the Trento @-@ class cruiser Trento was sunk . One of the other damaged Italian ships was the Navigatori @-@ class destroyer Ugolino Vivaldi , and Premuda was tasked to tow her to safety in the harbour of Pantelleria , an island in the Strait of Sicily , under escort from the destroyer Lanzerotto Malocello .

On 6 – 7 January 1943 , Premuda and 13 other Italian destroyers transported troops to the Axis @-@ held port of Tunis in North Africa , completing two more such missions over the next two months . On 17 July , she developed serious engine problems in the Ligurian Sea near La Spezia , and was brought to Genoa for a major boiler and engine overhaul . It was decided to rebuild her along the lines of the Navigatori @-@ class , including a wider beam to improve her stability . As shells for her Škoda @-@ built main guns were in short supply , the decision was made to replace them with Italian @-@ made 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) / L45 guns in single mounts . The rebuild had not been completed when Italy surrendered to the Allies , and Premuda was seized by Germany at Genoa on 9 September 1943 . Premuda was the most important and effective Italian war prize ship of World War II .

= = = TA32 = = =

When she was captured by the Germans , Premuda 's new guns had not been completed . Their initial plans called for the ship to serve as a radar picket for night fighters , with three 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) / L45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in single mounts , Freya early @-@ warning radar , Würzburg gun @-@ laying radar and a FuMO 21 surface fire @-@ control system . These plans were soon abandoned due to the German lack of destroyers and torpedo boats in the Mediterranean , and the decision was made to commission her as a Torpedoboot Ausland ( foreign torpedo boat ) with a DeTe radar instead of the Freya and Würzburg radar sets . Her armament was replaced with four 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) / L45 naval guns , eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and between thirty @-@ two and thirty @-@ six 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns in quadruple and twin mounts . The number of torpedo tubes was reduced from six to three . The number of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns was later increased to ten , in four twin and two single mounts . In German service , she had a total crew of 220 officers and men .

She was commissioned in the German Navy ( German : Kriegsmarine ) on 18 August 1944 , as TA32 , under the command of Kapitänleutnant Emil Kopka . She served in the Ligurian Sea with the 10th Torpedo Boat Flotilla , and was immediately committed to shelling Allied positions on the Italian coast , then scouting and minelaying tasks in the western Gulf of Genoa . On 2 October 1944 , TA32 , along with TA24 and TA29 , sailed towards Sanremo to lay mines , where they encountered the destroyer USS Gleaves . After exchanging fire , the three ships returned to Genoa without being hit . By mid @-@ March 1945 , TA32 , TA24 and TA29 were the only ships of the 10th Torpedo Boat Flotilla that remained operational . On the night of 17 – 18 March 1945 , TA32 placed 76 naval mines off Cap Corse , the northern tip of Corsica , in an offensive minelaying operation , along with TA24 and TA29 . After being detected by a shore based radar , the ships were engaged by the destroyers HMS Lookout and HMS Meteor , in what would become known as the Battle of the Ligurian Sea . Outgunned , TA24 and TA29 were sunk , while TA32 managed to escape with light damage to her rudder , after firing a few rounds and making an unsuccessful torpedo attack . TA32 was finally scuttled at Genoa on 24 April 1945 , as the Germans retreated . Her wreck was raised and broken up in 1950 .

= = = Books = = =

= = = Periodicals = = =

= Sozin 's Comet : The Final Battle =

" Sozin 's Comet : The Final Battle " is the series finale for the Nickelodeon television series Avatar : The Last Airbender . It was directed by Ethan Spaulding , Giancarlo Volpe , and Joaquim Dos Santos , and written by Michael Dante DiMartino , Bryan Konietzko , and Aaron Ehasz . Although the finale is split into four episodes , it aired as a two @-@ hour four @-@ part movie on July 19 , 2008 . Before the week of July 14 – 19 , no episodes had been shown since November 30 , 2007 . The Saturday airing of Sozin 's Comet acted as a climax to a week of ten new episodes that concluded Avatar 's third season .

The finale focuses on series protagonist Aang 's non @-@ violent personality and his reluctance to kill Fire Lord Ozai . The finale also follows the exploits of many of Aang 's friends and allies , including Sokka , Toph and Suki 's struggle to destroy a Fire Nation airship armada , Zuko and Katara 's battle against Zuko 's sister Azula , and Iroh , King Bumi , and the Order of the White Lotus ' attempt to liberate Ba Sing Se .

Sozin 's Comet received positive reception from critics and fans alike . The initial showing averaged 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , a 195 % increase in ratings compared with ratings from mid @-@ July 2007 . The premiere of episodes 52 – 61 throughout the week of Sozin 's Comet 's release received over 19 million views , of which 5 @.@ 6 million were from the premiere of Sozin 's Comet . At the 2008 Annie Awards , the director of the third part of Sozin 's Comet won an award for " Best Directing in an Animated Television Production " .

Although " Sozin 's Comet " is the series finale , Avatar : The Last Airbender has continued as an ongoing graphic novel series , taking place after the finale and before the sequel series The Legend of Korra , which has been published by Dark Horse Comics since January 2012 , with each annual story arc split into three parts .

= = Plot = =

= = = Part 1 : " The Phoenix King " = = =

Aang suddenly abandons his Firebending lesson with Zuko to have a beach party , causing Zuko to attack him in his frustration . Aang explains he plans to challenge Fire Lord Ozai only after Sozin 's Comet and its enhancement of Firebending have come and gone , due to his own self @-@ perceived lack of Firebending skills at the moment . When Zuko tells the group Ozai plans to use the comet 's power to burn down the Earth Kingdom , Aang resolves to face him before the comet arrives . Sokka decides to have a simulation fight against a scarecrow , but Aang refuses to kill it due to his pacifistic nature and non @-@ violent upbringing , and even berates his friends as they tell him that he may eventually have no choice but to kill Ozai .

That night , Aang sleepwalks to an island not to be found in the morning . After the group fails to locate him , Zuko takes them to June , a tracker who might be able to locate Aang . Meanwhile , Fire Lord Ozai proclaims himself to be ruler of the world , under the title " Phoenix King " , and declares Azula to be the new Fire Lord , setting off to burn the world and rebuild it under his new order .

= = = Part 2 : " The Old Masters " = = =

Zuko 's tracker , June , is unable to locate Aang , but he is reunited with his uncle , Iroh , who reconcile with each other after Zuko 's betrayal in Ba Sing Se . He and several other characters ( Katara 's Waterbending master Pakku , Aang 's first Firebending instructor Jeong Jeong , Aang 's Earthbender friend King Bumi , and Sokka 's swordmaster Piandao ) are part of an otherwise non @-@ aligned group known as the " Order of the White Lotus " , which plans to liberate the Earth Kingdom capital , Ba Sing Se , from Fire Nation rule . Zuko and Katara decide to fight Azula in the Fire Nation capital while Sokka , Toph , and Suki attempt to destroy the airship fleet .

Meanwhile , Aang awakens on a floating island . Frustrated with his inability to find a way to defeat Ozai without killing him , he asks four of his past lives for advice . Unsatisfied with their answers , he asks the island for help . The island , which is actually a giant " lion @-@ turtle " , provides Aang with the power of energybending and leaves him on the Earth Kingdom shores while Ozai readies his airship fleet for takeoff .

= = = Part 3 : " Into the Inferno " = = =

The Comet appears in the sky , and Azula 's coronation takes place . Azula banishes nearly all of her subjects ( including her Dai Li agents ) in fear of betrayal , haunted by the actions of former friends Mai and Ty Lee in " The Boiling Rock , Part 2 " . Her paranoia and loneliness begin to drive her insane . Before she is crowned , Zuko and Katara arrive . Zuko accepts Azula 's challenge of an Agni Kai , or " fire duel " , because he feels that something is wrong with Azula and he does not want Katara injured . Just as Zuko is on the verge of defeating Azula , she shoots a bolt of lightning at Katara instead of Zuko . Zuko throws himself in front of her and intercepts the lightning , preventing Katara from getting hurt , but he gravely injures himself after he fails to correctly redirect the lightning .

Meanwhile , Sokka , Toph , and Suki hijack a Fire Nation airship , and use it to destroy many others , effectively stopping Ozai 's plan of incinerating the Earth Kingdom . In Ba Sing Se , the Order of the White Lotus , led by Iroh , lays siege to the Fire Nation forces within the city , with the sole intention of re @-@ conquering it in the name of the Earth Kingdom . Aang reappears and begins to duel the Fire Lord . However , when Aang successfully redirects lightning he intentionally aims it into the sky to avoid killing Ozai . Because of Aang 's pacifism , Ozai begins to gain the advantage .

= = = Part 4 : " Avatar Aang " = = =

Zuko lies on the ground twitching as Katara and Azula fight . After several minutes of running and being unable to gain the advantage at first , Katara freezes Azula and chains her to the ground defeating her . Katara then uses her waterbending to revive and heal Zuko . As a result of her defeat by two people she considers less than worthless , Azula 's mind finally snaps and she screams and sobs in fury , breathing blue fire out of her mouth , yet unable to escape her chains .

After a fierce battle , Ozai slams Aang into a rock , hitting the scar on his back from Azula 's lightning in the previous season and inadvertently releasing his locked seventh chakra , allowing Aang to enter the Avatar State . With the combined power of his past lives , Aang quickly overwhelms Ozai . Once Ozai is subdued , Aang refuses to kill him , instead locking him down with earth ; understanding the lion @-@ turtle 's meaning , he uses Energybending to strip Ozai of his Firebending powers , removing his ability to wage war . Then Aang raises and lowers the nearby ocean to undo the damage from the Fire Nation ; Sozin 's Comet vanishes beyond the horizon afterward .

The Order of the White Lotus liberates Ba Sing Se in the name of the Earth King . During his coronation , Zuko promises to aid the world in the postwar reconstruction . Sometime after the ceremony , Zuko visits Ozai 's prison and demands he tell him the location of the banished Ursa , Zuko 's mother . Zuko and Mai finally reconcile . Ty Lee joins the Kyoshi warriors , having bonded with them in prison and shared some chi @-@ blocking techniques . A final scene depicts the main cast gathered in Iroh 's new tea shop , the Jasmine Dragon , and with Aang and Katara officially confirming their genuinely strong and close romantic relationship with a loving hug and passionate kiss .

= = Production = =

Co @-@ creators Michael Dante DiMartino and Bryan Konietzko wrote the majority of the finale ; DiMartino wrote parts one , three , and four , and Konietzko assisted with parts three and four . Aaron Ehasz , co @-@ executive producer and head writer of the show , wrote part two . Ethan Spaulding directed part one , Giancarlo Volpe directed part two , and Joaquim Dos Santos directed parts three and four . Dos Santos was nominated for an Annie Award for his directing of part three , " Into the Inferno " . Although Sozin 's Comet was originally written as a three @-@ part story , the creators noticed that the length had grown beyond what they had predicted from the initial script . To avoid pacing issues , they split the final part in two , adding several scenes to fill the remaining time .

Although Avatar is not considered anime because of its American origin , Tasha Robinson of the SciFi Channel observed that " Avatar blurs the line between anime and [ US ] domestic cartoons until it becomes irrelevant . " An IGN reviewer commented that Sozin 's Comet " had that classic anime @-@ look that I 've always loved to see when watching old anime movies . The story through the animation was perfectly done . " The special 's music was written and composed by " The Track Team " , led by Jeremy Zuckerman . However , unlike past episodes , a music track produced by a live orchestra was used , rather than one in MIDI format .

During the San Diego Comic @-@ con , it was announced that a reunion between Zuko and his mother , Ursa , had been arranged and made into a storyboard . However , it was dropped just before the finale was finished , as requested by show co @-@ creator Michael Dante DiMartino , who felt that it resolved Ursa 's disappearance in an unsatisfactory way and that wasn 't the way the story should be told .

The cast of Sozin 's Comet includes all of the key characters from season three . Protagonists Aang , Katara , Sokka , and Toph are voiced by Zach Tyler Eisen , Mae Whitman , Jack DeSena , and Jessie Flower respectively . Iroh is voiced by Greg Baldwin and Zuko is voiced by Dante Basco . Grey DeLisle and Mark Hamill voice the two antagonists , Azula and Fire Lord Ozai , respectively . The co @-@ creators also lend their voices to two minor characters in the third part , " Into the Inferno " .

Avatar : The Last Airbender borrows extensively from East Asian art to create its fictional universe . Four " bending " arts exist in the universe ; they are based on different styles and variations of Chinese martial arts : Baguazhang for Airbending , Hung Gar and Southern Praying Mantis for Earthbending , Northern Shaolin for Firebending , and T 'ai chi for Waterbending . Additionally , series borrows heavily from the Taoist concept of balance and order . The Avatar , an incarnation of a divine being , is supposed to maintain the world 's order .

Nickelodeon originally broadcast Sozin 's Comet from 8 : 00 pm to 10 : 00 pm EST on July 19 , 2008 . Just ten days later , on July 29 , the " Book 3 : Fire – Volume 4 " DVD was released , which contained the four episodes as well as episodes 56 and 57 , audio commentary from the series ' co @-@ creators , cast , and crew , and a comic book .

= = Reception = =

Sozin 's Comet received many positive critical reviews ; Ed Liu of Toon Zone stated that it made Avatar " one of the finest animated television series ever made " , and IGN stating that this " film " deserved an Academy Award . Toon Zone praised the skill of the animation directors in designing the sweeping movements of the battle scenes , as well as the slower scenes , " including one moving reconciliation and the quiet coda that ties off many of the remaining loose ends of the series " . IGN reviewer Tory Ireland Mell wrote that she would " put it in the top ten films of all time " . She also praised the artistic skill of the designers , stating that the " whole dark tone was gorgeous to look at " , especially the " art of the Lion Turtle " . She thought that Sozin 's Comet lacked plot holes , as well as unnecessary plot devices , stating that the " story moved and kept us moving right along with it from beginning to end " . She gave Sozin 's Comet a 10 out of 10 " Masterful " rating .

Sozin 's Comet has received its share of criticism as well . Reviewers commented about the difficulty in understanding the voice of a new character : the Lion Turtle . The Lion Turtle was designed by Bryan Konietzko and character designer Jae Woo Kim . Bryan Konietzko disliked how the Lion Turtle turned out ; he felt that the art was not up to standards of the original design he had received . CraveOnline felt that because " the series was for children , the writers were at a loss of ideas to work around the murder angle , " and the decision not to kill the Fire Lord introduced " so many convenient plot twists [ that ] set us up for a humongous deus ex machina that allows the Fire Lord to be thwarted without dying " .

The premiere of Sozin 's Comet averaged 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , 195 % more viewers than Nickelodeon had received in mid @-@ July 2007 . During the week of July 14 , 2008 , it ranked as the most @-@ viewed program for the under @-@ 14 demographic . The premiere of episodes 52 – 61 throughout the week of Sozin 's Comet ' s release received a total of 19 million views , and Avatar reached Neilsen 's list of Top 20 Cable Results for the week ending June 20 , 2008 four times . It also appeared on iTunes ' top ten list of best @-@ selling television episodes during that same week . Sozin 's Comet ' s popularity affected online media as well ; " Rise of the Phoenix King " , a Nick.com online game based on Sozin 's Comet , generated almost 815 @,@ 000 game plays within three days . A video game loosely based on the third season , Avatar : The Last Airbender – Into the Inferno , was released on October 13 , 2008 .

Joaquim Dos Santos won the " Best Directing in an Animated Television Production " caption in the 2008 Annie Awards for his directing in " Into the Inferno " . Additionally , music editor and composer Jeremy Zuckerman and the sound editing team were nominated a Golden Reel award for " Best Sound Editing in a Television Animation " for their work in " Avatar Aang " .

= Magnus Carlsen =

Sven Magnus Øen Carlsen ( Norwegian : [ sʋɛn ˈmɑŋnʉs øːn ˈkɑːɭsn ̩ ] ; born 30 November 1990 ) is a Norwegian chess grandmaster , and the current World Chess Champion .

Carlsen is a former chess prodigy . He became a Grandmaster in 2004 , at the age of 13 years , 148 days . This made him the third youngest grandmaster in history .

In November 2013 Carlsen became World Champion by defeating Viswanathan Anand in the World Chess Championship 2013 . On the May 2014 FIDE rating list , Carlsen reached his peak rating of 2882 , which is the highest in history . He successfully defended his title in November 2014 , once again defeating Anand . The same year , he also won the World Rapid Championship and the World Blitz Championship , thus holding all three world championship titles . In 2015 Carlsen won the inaugural Grand Chess Tour , a series of three supertournaments featuring the 10 best chess grandmasters in the world .

Carlsen was known for his attacking style as a teenager , but he has since developed into a more universal player . He does not rely on opening preparation as much as other top players , and plays a variety of openings in order to make it more difficult for opponents to prepare against him . Carlsen 's positional mastery and endgame prowess have drawn comparisons to those of former world champions Bobby Fischer , José Raúl Capablanca , Vasily Smyslov , and Anatoly Karpov .

= = Childhood = =

Carlsen was born in Tønsberg , Norway , on 30 November 1990 , to Sigrun Øen and Henrik Albert Carlsen , both engineers ( sivilingeniør ) by profession . The family spent one year in Espoo , Finland , and then in Brussels , Belgium , and in 1998 returned to Norway and settled in Lommedalen , Bærum . They later moved to Haslum . Carlsen showed an aptitude for intellectual challenges at a young age : at two years , he could solve 50 @-@ piece jigsaw puzzles ; at four , he enjoyed assembling Lego sets with instructions intended for children aged 10 – 14 . His father taught him to play chess at the age of 5 , although he initially showed little interest in the game .

The first chess book Carlsen read was Find the Plan by Bent Larsen , and his first book on openings was Eduard Gufeld 's The Complete Dragon . Carlsen developed his early chess skills by playing by himself for hours at a time — moving the pieces around the chessboard , searching for combinations , and replaying games and positions shown to him by his father . Simen Agdestein emphasises Carlsen 's extreme memory , claiming that he was able to recall the areas , population numbers , flags and capitals of all the countries in the world by the age of five . Later , Carlsen had memorised the areas , population numbers , coat @-@ of @-@ arms and administrative centres of " virtually all " Norwegian municipalities . Carlsen participated in his first tournament — the youngest division of the 1999 Norwegian Chess Championship — at the age of 8 years and 7 months , scoring 6 ½ / 11 .

Carlsen was later coached at the Norwegian College of Elite Sport by the country 's top player , Grandmaster ( GM ) Simen Agdestein , who in turn cites Norwegian football manager Egil " Drillo " Olsen as a key inspiration for his coaching strategy . In 2000 , Agdestein introduced Carlsen to Torbjørn Ringdal Hansen , an International Master ( IM ) and former Norwegian junior champion , as Ringdal served a one @-@ year siviltjeneste ( an alternative civilian service programme ) at the college . Over the course of this year , Carlsen 's rating rose from 904 in June 2000 , to 1907 . Carlsen 's breakthrough occurred in the Norwegian junior teams championship in September 2000 , where Carlsen scored 3 ½ / 5 against the top junior players of the country , and a performance rating ( PR ) of about 2000 . Apart from chess , which Carlsen studied about three to four hours a day , his favourite pastimes included football , skiing , and reading Donald Duck comics . Carlsen also practiced ski jumping until the age of ten . His personal best is 21 metres .

From autumn 2000 to the end of 2002 , Carlsen played almost 300 rated tournament games , as well as several blitz tournaments , and participated in other minor events . In October 2002 , he placed sixth in the European Under @-@ 12 Championship in Peñiscola . In the following month , he tied for first place in the World Under @-@ 12 Championship in Heraklio , placing second to Ian Nepomniachtchi on tiebreak . After this , he obtained three IM norms in relatively quick succession ; his first was at the January 2003 Gausdal Troll Masters ( score 7 / 10 , 2345 PR ) , the second was at the June 2003 Salongernas IM @-@ tournament in Stockholm ( 6 / 9 , 2470 PR ) , and the third and final IM norm was obtained at the July 2003 Politiken Cup in Copenhagen ( 8 / 11 , 2503 PR ) . He was officially awarded the IM title on 20 August 2003 . After finishing primary school , Carlsen took a year off to participate in international chess tournaments held in Europe during the fall season of 2003 , returning to complete secondary education at a sports school . During the year away from school , he finished in a tie for third in the European Under @-@ 14 Championship and placed ninth in the World Under @-@ 14 Championship . Both events were won by Sergei Zhigalko .

= = Chess career = =

= = = 2004 = = =

Carlsen made headlines after his victory in the C group at the Corus chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee . Carlsen obtained a score of 10 ½ / 13 , losing just one game ( against the highest @-@ rated player of the C group , Duško Pavasovič ) . As a result of the victory , he earned his first GM norm , and achieved a PR of 2702 . Particularly notable was his win over Sipke Ernst in the penultimate round , when Carlsen sacrificed material to give mate in just 29 moves . The first 23 moves in that game had already been played in another game — Almagro Llanas – Gustafsson , Madrid 2003 ( which ended in a draw ) — but Carlsen 's over @-@ the @-@ board novelty immediately led to a winning position . Carlsen 's victory in the C group qualified him to play in the B group in 2005 , and it led Lubomir Kavalek , writing for the Washington Post , to give him the title " Mozart of chess " . Agdestein said that Carlsen had an excellent memory and played an unusually wide range of openings . Carlsen 's prowess caught the attention of Microsoft , which became his sponsor .

Carlsen obtained his second GM norm at the Moscow Aeroflot Open in February . On 17 March , in a blitz chess tournament in Reykjavík , Iceland , Carlsen defeated former World Champion Anatoly Karpov . The blitz tournament was a preliminary event leading up to a rapid knockout tournament beginning the next day . In that event , Carlsen was paired with Garry Kasparov , then the top @-@ rated player in the world . Carlsen achieved a draw in their first game and lost the second one , and was thus knocked out of the tournament .

In the sixth Dubai Open Chess Championship , held 18 – 28 April , Carlsen obtained his third and final GM norm . This caused him to become the world 's youngest GM at the time , as well as the third @-@ youngest GM in history ( after Sergey Karjakin , who earned the title at the age of 12 years and 7 months and Parimarjan Negi ) . Carlsen played in the FIDE World Chess Championship , thus becoming the youngest player ever to participate in one , but was knocked out in the first round by Levon Aronian .

In July , Carlsen and Berge Østenstad ( then the reigning Norwegian champion ) tied for first in the Norwegian Chess Championship , each scoring 7 / 9 . A two @-@ game match between them was arranged to decide the title . Both games were drawn , which left Østenstad the champion because he had superior tiebreaks in the tournament .

= = = 2005 = = =

In the Smartfish Chess Masters event at the Drammen International Chess Festival 2004 – 05 , Carlsen defeated Alexei Shirov , then ranked No. 10 in the world , as well as the co @-@ winner of the tournament . In the semifinals of the Ciudad de León rapid chess tournament in June , Carlsen played a four @-@ game match against Viswanathan Anand , who was ranked No. 2 in the world at the time and had won the 2003 World Rapid Chess Championship . Anand won 3 – 1 .

In the Norwegian Chess Championship , Carlsen again finished in shared first place , this time with his mentor Simen Agdestein . A playoff between them was played between 7 and 10 November . This time , Carlsen had the better tiebreaks , but the rule giving the title to the player with better tiebreak scores in the event of a 1 – 1 draw had been revoked previously . The match was closely fought — Agdestein won the first game , Carlsen the second — so the match went into a series of two @-@ game rapid matches until there was a winner . Carlsen won the first rapid game , Agdestein the second . Then followed three draws until Agdestein won the championship title with a victory in the sixth rapid game .

At the end of 2005 , Carlsen participated at the Chess World Cup in Khanty @-@ Mansiysk , Russia . In the knockout tournament , he upset the 44th @-@ ranked Zurab Azmaiparashvili in round one , and proceeded to defeat Farrukh Amonatov and Ivan Cheparinov to reach the round of 16 . There , Carlsen lost to Evgeny Bareev , but then won against Joël Lautier and Vladimir Malakhov before losing again to Gata Kamsky . Thus , Carlsen finished in tenth place and became the youngest player to be an official World Championship Candidate . In October , he took first place at the Arnold Eikrem Memorial in Gausdal with a score 8 / 9 and a PR of 2792 .

= = = 2006 = = =

Carlsen qualified for a place in the Corus B group due to his first @-@ place finish in Corus group C in 2004 . His shared first place with Alexander Motylev with 9 / 13 ( + 6 − 1 = 6 ) qualified him to play in the Corus group A in 2007 .

At the traditional international ' Bosna ' tournament in Sarajevo 2006 , Carlsen shared first place with Liviu @-@ Dieter Nisipeanu ( who won on tiebreak evaluation ) and Vladimir Malakhov ; this could be regarded as Carlsen 's first “ A ” elite tournament win , although it was not a clear first .

Carlsen was close to winning the 2006 Norwegian Chess Championship outright , but a last @-@ round loss to Berge Østenstad dropped him into another tie for first place with Agdestein . It also prevented Carlsen from beating Agdestein 's record as the youngest Norwegian champion ever . Nonetheless , in the playoff held from 19 – 21 September , Carlsen won 3 – 1 . After two draws at standard time controls , Carlsen won both rapid games in round two , securing his first Norwegian championship win .

Carlsen won the Glitnir Blitz Tournament in Iceland . He achieved a 2 – 0 win over Viswanathan Anand in the semifinals and achieved the same score in the finals . He scored 6 / 8 in the 37th Chess Olympiad and achieved a PR of 2820 .

In the Midnight Sun Chess Tournament in Tromsø , Carlsen finished second behind Sergei Shipov . In the Biel Grandmaster Tournament , he placed second , beating the tournament winner Alexander Morozevich twice .

In the NH Chess Tournament held in Amsterdam in August , Carlsen participated in an " Experience " vs. " Rising Stars " Scheveningen team match . The " Rising Stars " won the match 28 – 22 , with Carlsen achieving the best individual score for the Rising Stars team ( 6 ½ / 10 ) and a 2700 PR , thus winning the right to participate in the 2007 Melody Amber tournament .

With a score of 7 ½ / 15 , Carlsen placed 8th out of 16 participants at the World Blitz Championship in Rishon LeZion , Israel . In the rapid chess tournament Rencontres nationales et internationales d 'échecs in Cap d 'Agde , France , he reached the semifinal , losing there to Sergey Karjakin . In November , Carlsen achieved a shared 8th place of 10 participants in the Mikhail Tal Memorial in Moscow with two losses and seven draws . He finished ninth in a group of 18 participants in the associated blitz tournament , which was won by Anand .

= = = 2007 = = =

Playing in the top group of the Corus chess tournament for the first time , Carlsen placed last with nine draws and four losses , scoring 4 ½ / 13 . In the prestigious Linares chess tournament , Carlsen played against the following top @-@ rated players : Veselin Topalov , Viswanathan Anand , Peter Svidler , Alexander Morozevich , Levon Aronian , Peter Leko , and Vassily Ivanchuk . Despite being rated significantly lower than any of them , he finished in second place on tiebreaks with 7 ½ / 14 , having scored four wins , seven draws and three losses , and achieving a PR of 2778 .

Carlsen played for the first time in the Melody Amber blind and rapid chess tournament in Monte Carlo in March . In the 11 rounds , he achieved eight draws and three losses in the blindfold games , as well as three wins , seven draws and one loss in the rapid games . This resulted in a shared ninth place in the blindfold , shared second place in the rapid ( behind Anand ) , and a shared eighth place in the overall tournament .

In May and June , he participated in the Candidates Tournament for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2007 , facing Levon Aronian in a six @-@ game match at standard time controls , which Carlsen drew ( + 2 − 2 = 2 ) by coming from behind twice . The four @-@ game rapid playoff was drawn as well ( + 1 − 1 = 2 ) , with Carlsen winning the last game to stay in the match . Eventually , Aronian eliminated Carlsen from the tournament after winning both tiebreak blitz games .

In July and August , Carlsen won the Biel Grandmaster Tournament with a 6 / 10 record and a PR of 2753 . His score was matched by Alexander Onischuk and they played a match to break the tie . After drawing two rapid and two blitz games , Carlsen won the armageddon game . Immediately after the Biel tournament , Carlsen entered the open Arctic Chess Challenge in Tromsø , but his fourth @-@ place result with + 5 = 4 was a slight underperformance in terms of rating . In the first round , Carlsen , surprisingly , conceded a draw to his classmate Brede Hagen ( rated 2034 ) after having a lost position at one point . A game which attracted some attention was his sixth @-@ round win over his father , Henrik Carlsen .

Carlsen reached the semifinal round of the World Chess Cup in December , after defeating Michael Adams in the round of 16 and Ivan Cheparinov in the quarterfinals . In the semifinal , he was eliminated by the eventual winner , Gata Kamsky , scoring ½ – 1 ½ .

= = = 2008 = = =

In the top group A of the Corus chess tournament , Carlsen scored 8 / 13 , achieving a PR of 2830 . Carlsen won five games , lost two and drew six , sharing first place with Levon Aronian . At the Linares chess tournament , Carlsen had another 2800 + PR , scoring 8 / 14 . He finished in sole second place , ½ point behind the winner World Champion Viswanathan Anand .

In March , Carlsen played for the second time in the Melody Amber blind and rapid chess tournament , held in Nice for the first time . In the 11 rounds he achieved four wins , four draws and two losses in the blindfold , and three wins , two losses , and six draws in the rapid . This resulted in a shared fifth place in the blindfold , shared third place in the rapid and a shared second place in the overall tournament .

Carlsen was one of 21 players in the six @-@ tournament FIDE Grand Prix 2008 – 2009 , a qualifier for the World Chess Championship 2012 . In the first tournament , in Baku , Azerbaijan , he finished in a three @-@ way tie for first place , with another 2800 PR . Carlsen later withdrew from the Grand Prix cycle despite his initial success , criticizing how FIDE was " changing the rules dramatically in the middle of a [ World Championship ] cycle " .

Carlsen won a rapid match against Peter Leko held in Miskolc , Hungary , scoring 5 – 3 . In June , Carlsen won the annual Aerosvit chess tournament , finishing undefeated with 8 / 11 in a category 19 field and achieving a PR of 2877 , his best PR at that point in his career . Playing in the category 18 Biel Grandmaster Tournament , Carlsen finished third with 6 / 10 , with a PR of 2740 .

In the Mainz World Rapid Chess Championship , Carlsen finished in second place after losing the final to defending champion Anand 3 – 1 . In the qualification round Carlsen scoring 1 ½ – ½ against Judit Polgár , 1 – 1 against Anand and 1 – 1 against Alexander Morozevich . In the category 22 Bilbao Masters , Carlsen tied for second with a 2768 PR .

= = = 2009 = = =

Playing in Group A of the Corus chess tournament , Carlsen tied for fifth with a 2739 PR . In the Linares chess tournament , Carlsen finished third with a 2777 PR . Carlsen tied for second place with Veselin Topalov at the M @-@ Tel Masters ( category 21 ) tournament in Sofia , Bulgaria . He lost to eventual winner Alexei Shirov in their final game , dropping him from first .

Carlsen won the category 21 Nanjing Pearl Spring tournament , 2 ½ points ahead of second @-@ place finisher Topalov , the world 's highest @-@ rated player at the time . He scored an undefeated 8 / 10 , winning every game as white ( against Topalov , Wang Yue , Leko , Teimour Radjabov , and Dmitry Jakovenko ) , and also winning as black against Jakovenko . By rating performance , this was one of the greatest results in history , with a PR of 3002 . Chess statistician Jeff Sonas has declared it one of the 20 best tournament performances of all time , and the best chess performance of all time by a teenager .

In the Tal Memorial , played from 5 to 14 November , Carlsen started with seven straight draws , but finished with wins over former FIDE World Champion Ruslan Ponomariov and Peter Leko . This result put Carlsen in shared second place behind former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik and equal with Ivanchuk . After the Tal Memorial , Carlsen won the World Blitz Championship , played from 16 to 18 November in Moscow , Russia . His score of 28 wins , 6 draws and 8 losses left him three points ahead of Anand , who finished in second place .

Carlsen entered the London Chess Classic as the top seed in a field including Kramnik , Hikaru Nakamura , Michael Adams , Nigel Short , Ni Hua , Luke McShane and David Howell . He defeated Kramnik in round one and went on to win the tournament with 13 / 21 ( three points were awarded for a win , and one for a draw ; using classical scoring he finished with 5 / 7 ) and a PR of 2844 , one point ahead of Kramnik . This victory propelled him to the top of the FIDE rating list , surpassing Veselin Topalov .

Based on his average ranking from the July 2009 and January 2010 FIDE lists , Carlsen qualified for the Candidates Tournament that would determine the challenger to World Champion Viswanathan Anand in the World Chess Championship 2012 . In November 2010 , however , Carlsen announced he was withdrawing from the Candidates Tournament . Carlsen described the 2008 – 12 cycle as " [ not ] sufficiently modern and fair " , and wrote that " Reigning champion privileges , the long ( five year ) span of the cycle , changes made during the cycle resulting in a new format ( Candidates ) that no World Champion has had to go through since Kasparov , puzzling ranking criteria as well as the shallow ceaseless match @-@ after @-@ match concept are all less than satisfactory in my opinion . "

In early 2009 Carlsen engaged former World Champion Garry Kasparov as a personal trainer . In September their partnership was revealed to the public by Norwegian newspapers .

Responding to a question in an interview with Time magazine in December 2009 as to whether he used computers when studying chess , Carlsen explained that he does not use a chess set when studying on his own .

= = = 2010 = = =

Carlsen won the Corus chess tournament played 16 – 31 January with 8 ½ points . His ninth @-@ round loss to Kramnik ended a streak of 36 rated games undefeated . Carlsen appeared to struggle in the last round against Fabiano Caruana , but saved a draw , leaving him half a point ahead of Kramnik and Shirov .

In March it was announced that Carlsen had split from Kasparov and would no longer use him as a trainer , although this was put into different context by Carlsen himself in an interview with the German magazine Der Spiegel , in which he stated that they would remain in contact and he would continue to attend training sessions with Kasparov . In 2011 , Carlsen said : " Thanks to [ Kasparov ] I began to understand a whole class of positions better . ... Kasparov gave me a great deal of practical help . " In 2012 , when asked what he learnt from working with Kasparov , Carlsen answered : " Complex positions . That was the most important thing . "

Carlsen shared first place alongside Ivanchuk in the Amber blindfold and rapid tournament . Scoring 6 ½ / 11 in the blindfold and 8 / 11 in the rapid , Carlsen accumulated 14 ½ from a possible 22 points . In May it was revealed that Carlsen had helped Anand prepare for the World Chess Championship 2010 against challenger Veselin Topalov , which Anand won 6 ½ – 5 ½ to retain the title . Carlsen had also helped Anand prepare for the World Chess Championships in 2007 and 2008 .

Carlsen played in the Bazna Kings Tournament in Romania on 14 – 25 June . The tournament was a double round robin involving Wang Yue , Boris Gelfand , Ruslan Ponomariov , Teimour Radjabov , and Liviu @-@ Dieter Nisipeanu . He finished with 7 ½ / 10 and a 2918 PR , winning the tournament by two points ahead of Radjabov and Gelfand . Carlsen then played in a rapid tournament 28 – 30 August at the Arctic Securities Chess Stars tournament in Kristiansund , Norway . The field featured World Champion Viswanathan Anand , female world No. 1 Judit Polgár , and Jon Ludvig Hammer . In the preliminary round robin , Carlsen scored 3 ½ / 6 to qualify for the final , second behind Anand . In the final , Carlsen defeated Anand 1 ½ – ½ to win the championship . Following this event , Carlsen suffered setbacks in his next two tournaments . In the 39th Chess Olympiad from 19 September to 4 October , he scored 4 ½ / 8 , losing three games , to Baadur Jobava , Michael Adams , and Sanan Sjugirov ; these were his first losses with the black pieces in more than a year . His team , Norway , finished 51st out of 149 teams .

Carlsen 's next tournament was the Grand Slam Masters Final on 9 – 15 October , which he had qualified for automatically by winning three of the previous year 's four Grand Slam chess events ( 2009 Nanjing Pearl Spring , 2010 Corus , 2010 Bazna Kings ) . Along with Carlsen , the finals consisted of World Champion Anand and the highest two scorers from the preliminary stage held in Shanghai in September : Kramnik and Shirov . The average Elo of the participants at the time was 2789 , making the Grand Slam Final the strongest chess tournament in history . In the first round , Carlsen lost with black to Kramnik ; this was Carlsen 's second consecutive loss to Kramnik , and placed his hold on the world No. 1 ranking in serious jeopardy . In his second round , Carlsen lost with the white pieces to Anand ; this was his first loss as White since January 2010 . Carlsen recovered somewhat in the latter part of the tournament , achieving a win over Shirov , and finishing with 2 ½ / 6 . The tournament was won by Kramnik with 4 / 6 . Carlsen finished this tournament with a rating of 2802 , two points behind Anand at 2804 who temporarily ended Carlsen 's reign at world No. 1 . These setbacks called into question from some whether Carlsen 's activities outside chess , such as modelling for G @-@ Star Raw , were distracting him from performing well at the chessboard . Carlsen said he did not believe there was a direct connection .

Carlsen 's next tournament was the Pearl Spring chess tournament on 19 – 30 October in Nanjing , China , against Anand , Topalov , Vugar Gashimov , Wang Yue , and Étienne Bacrot . This was the only tournament in 2010 to feature Anand , Carlsen and Topalov , at the time the top three players in the world , and was the first tournament in history to feature three players rated at least 2800 . With early wins over Bacrot , Wang Yue , and Topalov with white , Carlsen took the early lead , extending his winning streak with white in Nanjing to eight . This streak was halted by a draw to Anand in round seven , but in the penultimate round Carlsen secured first place by defeating Topalov with black . This was his second victory in the tournament over the former world No. 1 ; his final score of 7 / 10 ( with a PR of 2903 ) was a full point ahead of runner @-@ up Anand .

In the World Blitz Championship , held in Moscow on 16 – 18 November , Carlsen attempted to defend his 2009 title . With a score of 23 ½ / 38 , he finished in third place behind Radjabov and winner Levon Aronian . After the tournament , Carlsen played a private 40 @-@ game blitz match against Hikaru Nakamura , winning with a score of 23 ½ – 16 ½ .

Carlsen won the London Chess Classic on 8 – 15 December in a field comprising World Champion Anand , Vladimir Kramnik , Nakamura , and British players Adams , Nigel Short , David Howell , and Luke McShane . Carlsen had a rocky start , losing his games to McShane and Anand in rounds 1 and 3 , but winning with white against Adams and Nakamura in rounds 2 and 4 . He joined the lead with a win over Howell in round 5 , and managed to stay in the lead following a harrowing draw against Kramnik in round 6 , before defeating Short in the last round . Since the tournament was played with three points for a win , Carlsen 's + 4 − 2 = 1 score put him ahead of Anand and McShane who scored + 2 = 5 ( a more traditional two @-@ points @-@ for @-@ a @-@ win system would have yielded a three @-@ way tie , with Carlsen still on top , having the better tiebreaker due to four games with black — Anand and McShane played only three times with black ) .

= = = 2011 = = =

Carlsen competed in the GM @-@ A group of the Tata Steel Chess Tournament ( formerly called Corus Chess Tournament ) on 14 – 30 January in Wijk aan Zee in an attempt to defend his title ; the field included World Champion Viswanathan Anand , Levon Aronian , former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik , Alexander Grischuk , Hikaru Nakamura , Ruslan Ponomariov , among others . Despite losing games with white against Anish Giri and reigning Russian champion Ian Nepomniachtchi , Carlsen finished with 8 / 13 , including victories over Kramnik and tournament winner Nakamura . Although Carlsen 's performance raised his rating from 2814 to 2815 , Anand 's 8 ½ / 13 score elevated his rating to 2817 , making him the world No. 1 for the March 2011 FIDE rating list .

The first tournament victory of the year came in the Bazna Kings tournament , a double round robin played in Mediaș , Romania on 11 – 21 June . Carlsen finished with 6 ½ / 10 , equal with Sergey Karjakin but with a better tiebreak score . Carlsen won his White games against Nakamura , Nisipeanu , and Ivanchuk and drew the rest of the games .

The Grand Slam Chess Final was held as a double round robin with six players , in São Paulo ( 25 September – 1 October ) and Bilbao ( 5 – 11 October ) . Although Carlsen had a slow start , including a loss against bottom @-@ ranked Francisco Vallejo Pons , he finished + 3 − 1 = 6 , equal with Ivanchuk ( whose + 4 − 3 = 3 finish was equal due to three points for a win ) . Carlsen then won the blitz tiebreak against Ivanchuk . The other players were Anand , Aronian , Nakamura , and Vallejo Pons .

Another tournament victory was achieved in the Tal Memorial in Moscow 16 – 25 November as a round robin with ten players . Carlsen won two games , against Gelfand and Nakamura , and drew the rest . Although he finished equal on points with Aronian , he placed ahead since the tiebreak was determined by the number of black games ; Carlsen had five black games , while Aronian only had four .

In the London Chess Classic , played 3 – 12 December , Carlsen 's streak of tournament victories ended when he finished third , behind Kramnik and Nakamura . Carlsen won three games and drew five . Although he did not win the tournament , Carlsen gained rating points , rising to a new personal record of 2835 .

= = = 2012 = = =

At the Tata Steel Chess Tournament held on 14 – 29 January in Wijk aan Zee , Carlsen finished in a shared second place with 8 / 13 , behind Aronian , and equal with Radjabov and Caruana . Carlsen defeated Gashimov , Aronian , Gelfand , and Topalov , but lost against Karjakin . At the blitz chess tournament at Tal Memorial , held in Moscow on 7 June , Carlsen shared first place with Morozevich . In the main event ( a category 22 ten @-@ player round robin ) , he won two games and drew seven . He finished in first place , ahead of Radjabov and Caruana .

Carlsen then went on to finish second in the Biel Grandmaster Tournament , with 18 points , just one point behind Wang Hao using the 3 – 1 – 0 scoring system . As in the Tal Memorial earlier in 2012 , Carlsen managed to finish the tournament without any losses ( + 4 − 0 = 6 ) . He also defeated the winner Wang in both of their individual games . In the exhibition blitz tournament at Biel before the GM tournament , Carlsen was eliminated ( + 1 − 2 = 0 ) in the first round by Étienne Bacrot . Bacrot deprived Carlsen of a win in the classical tournament by holding him to a draw in the final round . Carlsen would have won the classical tournament on the traditional 1 – ½ – 0 scoring system , with 7 / 10 .

The Grand Slam Chess Final was again held as a double round robin with six players , in São Paulo and Bilbao . Carlsen started with a loss against Caruana , but after three wins in the second ( Bilbao ) round , finished + 4 − 1 = 5 , equal first with Caruana , and ahead of Aronian , Karjakin and Anand . Carlsen won the tournament by winning both tiebreak games against Caruana .

From 24 to 25 November , Carlsen took part in the chess festival " Segunda Gran Fiesta Internacional de Ajedrez " in Mexico City . As part of it , Carlsen took on an online audience ( dubbed as " The World " ) with the white pieces and won . He then took part in the knockout exhibition event " Cuadrangular UNAM " . Carlsen first beat Lázaro Bruzón 1 ½ – ½ , thus qualifying for a final against Judit Polgár ( who had in turn beat Manuel León Hoyos 1 ½ – ½ ) . Carlsen lost the first game , but won the second one , and in the tiebreak defeated Polgár 2 – 0 .

Carlsen won the London Chess Classic in December with five wins ( over McShane , Aronian , Gawain Jones , Adams and Judit Polgár ) and three draws ( against Kramnik , Nakamura and Anand ) . This win , the third time Carlsen had won the tournament in the past four years , increased his rating from 2848 to a new record of 2861 , breaking Kasparov 's 13 @-@ year record of 2851 . By rating performance , this was one of the best results in history , with a PR of 2994 .

= = = 2013 = = =

Carlsen played in the 75th Tata Steel Chess Tournament from 11 to 27 January in Wijk aan Zee . In the 13 @-@ round tournament , he scored 10 points ( + 7 − 0 = 6 ) , winning clear first 1 ½ points ahead of second @-@ place finisher Aronian . On 1 February , Danish GM Peter Heine Nielsen joined the team of assistants who helped Carlsen prepare for the Candidates Tournament in March . Before this , Nielsen was on Viswanathan Anand 's team .

Carlsen played in the 2013 Candidates Tournament , which took place in London , from 15 March to 1 April . He finished with + 5 − 2 = 7 , and won the tournament on tiebreak over Vladimir Kramnik . As a result , he earned the right to challenge Anand for the World Champion title .

In May , Carlsen played in the first edition of Norway Chess tournament . He finished second , scoring 5 ½ / 9 ( + 3 − 1 = 5 ) , half a point behind Sergey Karjakin .

Carlsen played in the Tal Memorial from June 12 to June 23 . He finished second , with 5 ½ / 9 , half a point behind Boris Gelfand . Carlsen ended the tournament with + 3 − 1 = 5 , losing to Caruana but beating Anand , Kramnik and Nakamura . Later that month , Carlsen played a four @-@ game friendly rapid match against Borki Predojević , which he won 2 ½ – 1 ½ .

In the Sinquefield Cup , held in September , Carlsen finished first , scoring + 3 − 0 = 3 , a point ahead of Nakamura .

= = = = World Chess Championship 2013 = = = =

Carlsen faced Anand in the World Chess Championship 2013 in Chennai , India , from 9 to 22 November . Carlsen won the match 6 ½ – 3 ½ by winning games five , six and nine and drawing the remainder . Thus , Carlsen became the new world chess champion .

= = = 2014 = = =

From 29 January to 4 February , Carlsen played in the Zurich Chess Challenge , winning the preliminary blitz event ( + 2 − 1 = 2 ) and the classical event ( + 3 − 0 = 2 ) . He performed less well in the rapid event ( + 1 − 2 = 2 ) , which counted towards the overall standings , but retained enough of a lead to win the tournament . The other players in the event were Aronian , Nakamura , Caruana , Gelfand and Anand .

Carlsen played a game for his club Stavanger in the final team match for promotion to the Norwegian Premier League on 22 March . His win over Vladimir Georgiev helped his team to a 3 ½ – 2 ½ win over Nordstrand .

Carlsen won the Vugar Gashimov Memorial in Şəmkir , Azerbaijan , played from 20 – 30 April . He played in the A group along with Caruana , Nakamura , Karjakin , Shakhriyar Mamedyarov and Radjabov . Carlsen started the tournament with 2 / 2 , beating Mamedyarov and Nakamura . He then drew Karjakin , only to lose two games in a row for the first time in four years , losing to Caruana with black and then with white to Radjabov . In the second half of the tournament , Carlsen scored 4 / 5 , beating Mamedyarov and Nakamura again , and securing the tournament victory by beating Caruana in the final round , finishing with + 5 − 2 = 3 .

On 8 May Carlsen played an exhibition game at Oslo City against the people of Norway , assisted by a grandmaster panel consisting of Simen Agdestein , Leif Erlend Johannessen , and Jon Ludvig Hammer . Each of the panel members proposed a move and the public could then vote over the proposed moves . Each panel member was allowed three chances to let chess engine Houdini propose a move during the game . Norway 's moves were executed by Oddvar Brå who was disguised in a red spandex suit for the occasion . The game was drawn when Carlsen forced a perpetual check .

Carlsen placed second ( to Sergey Karjakin ) in the second edition of Norway Chess , a ten @-@ player round robin , from 2 June to 13 June . Other players in the event were Aronian , Caruana , Topalov , Svidler , Kramnik , Grischuk , Giri and Agdestein .

Carlsen won FIDE World Rapid Championships held in Dubai from 16 June to 19 June . He went on to claim the World Blitz Championships two days later , becoming the first player to simultaneously hold the title in all three FIDE rated time controls .

Carlsen played nine games for Norway in the 41st Chess Olympiad , scoring five wins , two draws , and two losses ( against Arkadij Naiditsch and Ivan Šarić ) .

Carlsen placed second to Fabiano Caruana in the Sinquefield Cup , a six @-@ player double round robin in Saint Louis , Missouri from 27 August to 7 September . Billed as the strongest chess tournament ever held , the remaining 4 players in the event were Levon Aronian , Hikaru Nakamura , Veselin Topalov , and Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave . He lost to Fabiano Caruana in Round 3 and defeated Levon Aronian and Hikaru Nakamura in Rounds 5 and 7 , respectively . He finished the tournament in second place , with 5 @.@ 5 / 10 ( + 2 @-@ 1 = 7 ) , behind Caruana .

= = = = World Chess Championship 2014 = = = =

Carlsen faced Anand in a match for the title of World Chess Champion in November 2014 , as Anand qualified by winning the 2014 Candidates Tournament . The rematch was held from November 7 to 23 in Sochi , Russia . After 11 of 12 games , Carlsen led 6 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 , thereby defending his World Champion title .

= = = 2015 = = =

In January , Carlsen won the Tata Steel Chess Tournament , which was played mainly in Wijk aan Zee on 9 – 25 January . Carlsen had a poor start to the tournament with two draws and a loss in the third round to Radosław Wojtaszek , which left him in tenth place among the fourteen players . However , a string of six wins in a row thrust Carlsen into clear first place . Drawing the final four games was sufficient to win the tournament with 9 points out of 13 , half a point ahead of Anish Giri , Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Wesley So and Ding Liren . In February , Carlsen won the 3rd Grenke Chess Classic in Baden @-@ Baden after a five @-@ game tiebreak with Arkadij Naiditsch . Carlsen finished equal first with Naiditsch on 4 @.@ 5 / 7 , beating Michael Adams , Anand , and David Baramidze , and losing to Naiditsch in their classical encounter . This tournament victory meant that Carlsen began 2015 by winning two out of two tournaments . Carlsen continued his streak in April , winning Shamkir Chess with a score of 7 / 9 , beating Mamedyarov , Caruana , Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Kramnik , and Rauf Mamedov , going + 5 @-@ 0 = 4 . With a performance rating of 2981 , this was Carlsen 's third best tournament result ever . His performance was only bested in Nanjing 2009 ( 3002 TPR ) and London 2012 ( 2993 TPR ) . Carlsen had a poor result in the Norway Chess event of 15 – 26 June . In the first round he obtained a winning position against Topalov after pressing in a long endgame , only to lose on time when he mistakenly thought that he would receive 15 minutes of extra time at move 60 . He was then outplayed by Caruana in the second round , missed a win against Anish Giri in round 3 , and lost to Anand in round 4 . He won against Grischuk in round 5 , drew against Nakamura and Vachier @-@ Lagrave in rounds 6 and 7 , and defeated Aronian in round 8 , but he lost the last round against Jon Ludvig Hammer , leaving him tied for seventh and eighth place . Carlsen finished 2nd place at the 2015 Sinquefield Cup with 5 points , one point below tournament winner Levon Aronian . He defeated the 2014 Sinquefield Cup 's winner Fabiano Caruana , French # 1 Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , and wild @-@ card Wesley So , but lost to Veselin Topalov and Alexander Grischuk .

In October , Carlsen successfully defended his title in the FIDE World Rapid Championships held in Berlin , as the first world rapid champion to do so in history , going + 8 @-@ 0 = 7 . He reached the highest live rapid rating in history after the tournament , and was at that point ranked # 1 in all three disciplines simultaneously . However , Carlsen quickly lost his # 1 blitz spot after he had a weak second day in the World Blitz Championship , causing him to lose his title to Alexander Grischuk . In November 2015 , Carlsen participated in the European Team Chess Championship , playing for the Norwegian team . He started off poorly , scoring 0 @.@ 5 points out of 3 games - losing to Levon Aronian , drawing against Sune Berg Hansen , and losing again to Yannick Pelletier due to a blunder . He finished the tournament strongly , scoring victories against Peter Leko and Radoslaw Wojtaszek , the latter of whom he had lost to earlier in the year . However , his performance was not enough to earn his team a medal , and he lost 16 rating points during the event . In December 2015 , Carlsen participated in the final leg of the Grand Chess Tour , the London Chess Classic . He scored + 2 @-@ 0 = 7 in the event , defeating Hikaru Nakamura ( and inflicting Nakamura 's 12th classical loss to Carlsen ) and Alexander Grischuk . In the 3 @-@ way tiebreak between Anish Giri and Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , he was the top seed , meaning he faced the winner of the two @-@ game match between Giri and Vachier @-@ Lagrave . He eventually won against the match , the Classic , and the overall inaugural Grand Chess Tour , earning him $ 75 @,@ 000 for the London Chess Classic and the Grand Chess Tour bonus prizes . In late @-@ December 2015 , Carlsen won first place at the 2nd edition of the Qatar Masters Open , defeating Grandmaster Yu Yangyi in a tie @-@ break after both players had finished on a + 5 score . This concluded his final tournament for the 2015 year .

= = = 2016 = = =

From January 15 to 31 , 2016 , Carlsen participated in the 78th Tata Steel Chess Tournament , held in Wijk Aan Zee , The Netherlands . Carlsen won the tournament by scoring 9 points out of 13 ( + 5 @-@ 0 = 8 ) , earning him his 5th Wijk Aan Zee title .

In the 2016 World Chess Championship in New York City , Carlsen will face Sergey Karjakin for the World Chess Championship . The match will take place from 11 – 30 November .

On April 29th , 2016 , Magnus Carlsen won the 4th edition of the Norway Chess Tournament , after scoring a final round victory against Pavel Eljanov .

In July 2016 , Carlsen won the 9th edition of the Bilbao Masters Final , scoring 17 points out of 10 games ( + 4 @-@ 1 = 5 ) . Wins were awarded with 3 points , a draw with 1 point and losses with 0 points .

= = Honours = =

Carlsen won the Chess Oscars for 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 and 2013 . The Chess Oscar , conducted by the Russian chess magazine 64 , is awarded to the year 's best player according to a worldwide poll of leading chess critics , writers , and journalists . The Norwegian tabloid Verdens Gang ( VG ) has awarded him " Name of the Year " ( Årets navn ) twice , in 2009 and 2013 . VG also named him " Sportsman of the year " in 2009 and in the same year he won the Folkets Idrettspris , a people 's choice award from the newspaper Dagbladet . In 2011 , he was given the Peer Gynt Prize , a Norwegian honour prize awarded annually to " a person or institution that has achieved distinction in society " ; the following year , he repeated as winner of Folkets Idrettspris . In 2013 , Time magazine named Carlsen one of the 100 most influential people in the world .

= = Playing style = =

Carlsen had an aggressive style of play as a youth , and , according to Agdestein , his play was characterised by " a fearless readiness to offer material for activity " . Carlsen found as he matured that this risky playing style was not as well suited against the world elite . When he started playing in top tournaments he was struggling against top players , and had trouble getting much out of the opening . To progress , Carlsen 's style became more universal , capable of handling all sorts of positions well . Carlsen opens with both 1.d4 and 1.e4 , as well as 1.c4 , and , on occasion , 1.Nf3 , thus making it harder for opponents to prepare against him . Evgeny Sveshnikov has criticised Carlsen 's opening play , claiming in a 2013 interview that without a more " scientific " approach to preparation , his " future doesn 't look so promising " .

Garry Kasparov , who coached Carlsen from 2009 to 2010 , said that Carlsen has a positional style similar to that of past world champions such as Anatoly Karpov , José Raúl Capablanca , and Vasily Smyslov , rather than the tactical style of Alexander Alekhine , Mikhail Tal , and Kasparov himself . According to Carlsen , however , he does not have any preferences in playing style . Kasparov said in 2013 that " Carlsen is a combination of Karpov [ and ] Fischer . He gets his positions [ and ] then never lets go of that bulldog bite . Exhausting for opponents . " Carlsen has also stated that he follows in the traditions of Karpov and Fischer , but also mentions Reuben Fine as a player who " was doing in chess similar to what I am doing . " Anand has said of Carlsen : " The majority of ideas occur to him absolutely naturally . He 's also very flexible , he knows all the structures and he can play almost any position . ... Magnus can literally do almost everything . " Kasparov expressed similar sentiments : " [ Carlsen ] has the ability to correctly evaluate any position , which only Karpov could boast of before him . " In a 2012 interview , Vladimir Kramnik attributed much of Carlsen 's success against other top players to his " excellent physical shape " and his ability to avoid " psychological lapses " , which enables him to maintain a high standard of play over long games and at the end of tournaments , when the energy levels of others have dropped . Tyler Cowen gave a point of view on Carlsen 's playing style : " Carlsen is demonstrating one of his most feared qualities , namely his ' nettlesomeness , ' to use a term coined for this purpose by Ken Regan . Using computer analysis , you can measure which players do the most to cause their opponents to make mistakes . Carlsen has the highest nettlesomeness score by this metric , because his creative moves pressure the other player and open up a lot of room for mistakes . In contrast , a player such as Kramnik plays a high percentage of very accurate moves , and of course he is very strong , but those moves are in some way calmer and they are less likely to induce mistakes in response . "

Carlsen 's endgame prowess has been described as among the greatest in history . Jon Speelman , analysing several of Carlsen 's endgames from the 2012 London Classic ( in particular , his wins against McShane , Aronian , and Adams ) , described what he calls the " Carlsen effect " :

... through the combined force of his skill and no less important his reputation , he drives his opponents into errors . ... He plays on for ever , calmly , methodically and , perhaps most importantly of all , without fear : calculating superbly , with very few outright mistakes and a good proportion of the " very best " moves . This makes him a monster and makes many opponents wilt .

= = Rating = =

= = = Rating achievements = = =

In the January 2006 FIDE list , at the age of 15 years , 32 days , he attained a 2625 Elo rating , which made Carlsen the youngest person to surpass 2600 Elo ( the record has since been broken by Wesley So , Wei Yi and John M. Burke ) . In the July 2007 FIDE list , at the age of 16 years , 213 days , Carlsen attained a 2710 Elo rating , which made him the youngest person to surpass 2700 Elo ( the record has since been broken by Wei Yi at the age of 15 years , 9 months ) . On 5 September 2008 , after winning round 4 in the Bilbao Grand Slam chess championship , Carlsen , just 17 years , 280 days old , briefly became No. 1 on the unofficial live ratings list . Carlsen 's September – October 2009 victory in the Nanjing Pearl tournament raised his FIDE rating to 2801 , making him at age 18 years , 336 days , the youngest player ever to break 2800 . The youngest before him was Vladimir Kramnik at age 25 . Before Carlsen , only Kasparov , Topalov , Kramnik , and Anand had achieved a 2800 + rating . After the Tal Memorial ( November 2009 ) he became No. 1 on the unofficial live chess rating list with his new peak rating of 2805 @.@ 7 , 0 @.@ 6 point over the No. 2 ranked player , Veselin Topalov .

The FIDE rankings from January 2010 , which took into account the 16 games played at the Tal Memorial and the London Chess Classic , were enough to raise Carlsen 's rating to 2810 . This meant that Carlsen started 2010 by being , at the age of 19 years , 32 days , the youngest ever world No. 1 , and also the first player from a Western nation to reach the top of the FIDE rating list since Bobby Fischer in 1971 . The press coverage of this feat included an interview and article in Time magazine .

The March 2010 FIDE rating list showed Carlsen with a new peak rating of 2813 , a figure that only Kasparov had bettered at that time . On the January 2013 FIDE rating list , Carlsen reached 2861 , thus surpassing Garry Kasparov 's 2851 record from July 1999 . On list from May 2014 , Carlsen achieved an all @-@ time high record of 2882 .

= = Head @-@ to @-@ head record versus selected grandmasters = =

( Rapid , blitz and blindfold games not included ; listed as + wins − losses = draws as of 23 Jul 2016 . ) Players who have been undisputed World Champion in boldface

= = Notable games = =

All links in this section lead to an external site .

Carlsen – Garry Kasparov , Reykjavík Rapid ( 2004 ) , Queen 's Gambit Declined : Cambridge Springs Variation ( D52 ) , ½ – ½ At the age of just 13 years , Carlsen had serious winning chances in a rapid game against Garry Kasparov , ranked No. 1 in the world at that time , and considered by many to be the greatest chess player of all time .

Carlsen – Veselin Topalov , M @-@ Tel Masters ( 2009 ) , Semi @-@ Slav Defense : General ( D43 ) , 1 – 0 This was Carlsen 's first win against a 2800 + player .

Carlsen – Boris Gelfand , Tal Memorial ( 2011 ) , Slav Defense : Quiet Variation . Schallopp Defense ( D12 ) , 1 – 0 The No. 1 Israeli player and future World Championship challenger creates a seemingly decisive rook invasion into White 's back rank , but Carlsen vanquishes his threats . Carlsen called it " one of the most interesting games I have played in recent times " .

Carlsen – Hikaru Nakamura , London Chess Classic ( 2011 ) , Italian Game : Classical Variation . Giuoco Pianissimo ( C53 ) , 1 – 0 Facing the No. 1 American player , Carlsen demolishes Black 's pawn structure .

Carlsen – Viswanathan Anand , Bilbao Masters ( 2012 ) , Sicilian Defense : Canal Attack . Main Line ( B52 ) , 1 – 0 Playing against the then World Champion in a game he considers one of the best in his career , Carlsen sacrifices a pawn to leave Black with a cramped position , leading to his resignation at move 30 .

Carlsen 's complete PGN chess game collection can be downloaded from [ 1 ]

= = Beyond chess = =

Carlsen modelled for G @-@ Star Raw 's Autumn / Winter 2010 advertising campaign with actress Liv Tyler . The campaign was shot by Dutch film director and photographer Anton Corbijn . The campaign was coordinated with the RAW World Chess Challenge in New York , an event where Carlsen played an online team of global chess players who voted on moves suggested by three GMs : Maxime Vachier @-@ Lagrave , Hikaru Nakamura , and Judit Polgár . Carlsen , playing White , won in 43 moves . Film director J. J. Abrams offered Carlsen a role in the movie Star Trek Into Darkness as " a chess player from the future " , but he had to decline , unable to get a US work permit in time for shooting . In 2012 , Carlsen was featured in a 60 Minutes segment , and appeared as a guest on The Colbert Report . He was also interviewed by Rainn Wilson for SoulPancake . Carlsen was selected as one of the " sexiest men of 2013 " by Cosmopolitan . In August 2013 , Carlsen became an ambassador for Nordic Semiconductor .

As of 2012 , Carlsen is the only active chess professional with a full @-@ time manager . Espen Agdestein , brother of Carlsen 's former trainer Simen , and a FIDE Master and twice member of the Norwegian team at the Chess Olympiads , began working as an agent for Carlsen in late 2008 . His work consisted initially of finding sponsors and negotiating media contacts , but since 2011 , he has taken over management tasks formerly performed by Carlsen 's father Henrik . Carlsen reportedly earned roughly US $ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2012 , the bulk of which was from sponsorships .

In October 2013 , Carlsen started his majority @-@ owned company , Play Magnus AS . Based in Oslo , Norway , Play Magnus ' first product is an iOS app that allows a user to play a Magnus Carlsen @-@ tuned chess engine at 21 different ages ( from ages 5 to 25 ) . The chess engine was created using a database of thousands of Carlsen 's recorded games from the age of 10 . Carlsen 's goal is to use Play Magnus as a platform to encourage more people to play chess .

In 2008 during a Q & A session with Nettavisen , when Carlsen was asked whether he had a form of autism spectrum disorder , he replied " well , isn 't that obvious ? " In December 2013 , in an interview with Norwegian tabloid Verdens Gang , he clarified that he had meant " obviously not " , and said that he considers himself to have " normal social skills and to be functioning normally . "

In February 2014 , Carlsen appeared in G @-@ Star Raw 's Spring / Summer 2014 campaign along with actress and model Lily Cole .

= = Books and films = =

Valaker , O ; Carlsen , M. ( 2004 ) . Lær sjakk med Magnus [ Learn Chess with Magnus ] . Gyldendal Norsk Forlag . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 05 @-@ 33963 @-@ 7 .

The Prince of Chess , a film about Magnus Carlsen ( 2005 ) . Directed by Øyvind Asbjørnsen .

Opedal , Hallgeir ( 2011 ) . Smarte trekk . Magnus Carlsen : Verdens beste sjakkspiller [ Smart Moves . Magnus Carlsen : The World 's Best Chess Player ] . Kagge . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 489 @-@ 1050 @-@ 3

Mikhalchishin , Adrian ; Stetsko , Oleg . ( 2012 ) . Fighting Chess with Magnus Carlsen ( Progress in Chess ) . Edition Olms . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 283 @-@ 01020 @-@ 1 .

Crouch , Colin ( 2013 ) . Magnus Force : How Carlsen Beat Kasparov 's Record . Everyman Chess . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78194 @-@ 133 @-@ 1 .

Kotronias , Vassilios & Logothetis , Sotiris ( 2013 ) . Carlsen 's assault on the throne . Quality Chess . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 906552 @-@ 22 @-@ 0 .

Magnus ( 2016 ) . Directed by Benjamin Ree .

= Louis Antoine de Saint @-@ Just =

Louis Antoine Léon de Saint @-@ Just ( French pronunciation : ​ [ sɛ ̃ ʒyst ] ; 25 August 1767 – 28 July 1794 ) was a military and political leader during the French Revolution . The youngest of the deputies elected to the National Convention in 1792 , Saint @-@ Just rose quickly in their ranks and became a major leader of the government of the French First Republic . He spearheaded the movement to execute King Louis XVI and later drafted the radical French Constitution of 1793 .

He became a close friend of Maximilien Robespierre , and served with him as one of the commissioners of the powerful Committee of Public Safety . Dispatched as a commissar to the army during its rocky start in the French Revolutionary Wars , Saint @-@ Just imposed severe discipline , and he was credited by many for the army 's subsequent revival at the front . Back in Paris , he supervised the consolidation of Robespierre 's power through a ruthless and bloody program of intimidation . In his relatively brief time on the historical stage , he became the enduring public face of the Reign of Terror and was dubbed the " Angel of Death " by later writers . Saint @-@ Just organized the arrests and prosecutions of many of the most famous figures of the Revolution .

Saint @-@ Just was arrested in the violent episode of 9 Thermidor and executed the next day with Robespierre and their allies . In many histories of the Revolution , their deaths at the guillotine mark the end of the Reign of Terror .

= = Early life = =

Louis Antoine de Saint @-@ Just was born at Decize in the former Nivernais province of central France . He was the eldest child of Louis Jean de Saint @-@ Just de Richebourg ( 1716 – 1777 ) , a retired French cavalry officer , knight of the Order of Saint Louis , and of the 20 @-@ years younger Marie @-@ Anne Robinot ( 1736 – 1811 ) , the daughter of a notary . He had two younger sisters , born in 1768 and 1769 . The family later moved north and in 1776 settled in the village of Blérancourt in the former Picardy province , establishing themselves as a countryside noble family living out of the rents from their land . A year after the move , Louis Antoine 's father died leaving his mother with the three children . She saved diligently for her only son 's education , and in 1779 he was sent to the Oratorian school at Soissons . After a promising start , Saint @-@ Just acquired a reputation as a troublemaker , augmented by infamous stories ( almost certainly apocryphal ) of how he led a students ' rebellion and tried to burn down the school . Nonetheless , he earned his graduation in 1786 .

His restive nature , however , did not diminish . As a young man , Saint @-@ Just was " wild , handsome , [ and ] transgressive " . Well @-@ connected and popular , he showed a special affection toward a young woman of Blérancourt , Thérèse Gellé . She was the daughter of another wealthy notary , a powerful and autocratic figure in the town ; he was still an undistinguished adolescent . He is said to have proposed marriage to her ; she is said to have desired it . Though no hard evidence exists regarding their relationship , official records show that on 25 July 1786 , Thérèse was married to Emmanuel Thorin , the scion of a prominent local family . Saint @-@ Just was out of town and unaware of the event , and tradition portrays him as brokenhearted . Whatever his true state , it is known that a few weeks after the marriage he abruptly left home for Paris – without an announcement , but not without gathering up a pair of pistols and a good quantity of his mother 's silver . His venture turned short when his mother had him seized by police and sent to a reformatory ( maison de correction ) where he stayed from September 1786 to March 1787 . Chastened , Saint @-@ Just attempted to begin anew : he enrolled as a student at the School of Law , Reims University . After a year , however , he drifted away from law school and returned to his mother 's home in Blérancourt penniless , without any occupational prospects .

= = = Organt = = =

At a young age Saint @-@ Just had shown a fascination with literature , and during his stay at the reformatory he used his time to begin writing a lengthy poem . He published it anonymously more than two years later , in May 1789 , at the very outbreak of the Revolution . The 21 @-@ year @-@ old Saint @-@ Just thereby added his own touch to the social tumult of the times with Organt , poem in twenty cantos . The poem , a medieval epic fantasy , relates the quest of young Antoine Organt . It extols the virtues of primitive man , praising his libertinism and independence while blaming all present @-@ day troubles on modern inequalities of wealth and power . Written in a style mimicking Ariosto , it gave a juvenile foreshadowing of his own political extremism . Spiked with brutal satire and scandalous pornographic episodes , it also made unmistakable attacks upon the monarchy , the nobility , and the Church .

Contemporaries regarded Organt as something of a salacious novelty and it was quickly banned , but censors who tried to confiscate it discovered that few copies were available anywhere . It did not sell well and resulted in a financial loss for its author . The public 's taste for literature had changed in the prelude to the Revolution , and Saint @-@ Just 's taste changed with it : aside from a few pages of an unfinished novel found amidst his papers at the end of his life , Saint @-@ Just devoted his future writing entirely to undecorated essays of social and political theory . With his previous ambitions of literary and lawyerly fame unfulfilled , Saint @-@ Just directed his focus on the single goal of revolutionary command .

= = Early revolutionary career = =

Blérancourt 's traditional power structure was reshaped by the events of 1789 . The notary Gellé , previously an undisputed town leader , was challenged by a group of reformists who were led by several of Saint @-@ Just 's friends , including the husband of his sister Louise . Their attempts were not successful until 1790 when Blérancourt held its first open municipal elections . Mandated by the National Constituent Assembly , the new electoral structure allowed Saint @-@ Just 's friends to assume authority in the village as mayor , secretary , and , in the case of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , head of the local National Guard . The jobless Saint @-@ Just , despite not meeting the legal age and tax qualifications , was allowed to join the Guard .

Saint @-@ Just immediately exhibited the ruthless disciplinarianism for which he would be famous . Within a few months he was the commanding officer , at the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel . At local meetings he moved attendees with his patriotic zeal and flair : in one much @-@ repeated story , Saint @-@ Just brought the town council to tears by thrusting his hand into the flame of a burning anti @-@ revolutionary pamphlet , swearing his devotion to the Republic . He had powerful allies when he sought to become a member of his district ’ s electoral assembly , and he initiated correspondence with well @-@ known leaders of the Revolution like Camille Desmoulins . In late 1790 , he wrote to Robespierre for the first time , asking him to consider a local petition . The letter was filled with the highest of praise , beginning : “ You , who uphold our tottering country against the torrent of despotism and intrigue ; you whom I know , as I know God , only through his miracles ... ” Through their correspondence , the two developed " a deep and mysterious friendship that would last until the day [ they ] died . "

= = = L 'Esprit de la Revolution = = =

While Saint @-@ Just waited for the next election , he composed an extensive work , L 'Esprit de la Revolution et de la constitution de France , published in the spring of 1791 . His writing style had shed all satire and now adopted the stern and moralizing tone of classical Romans so adored by French revolutionaries . It revealed an unexpectedly moderate set of principles deeply influenced by Montesquieu , and remained fully confined to a paradigm of constitutional monarchy . He expressed abhorrence at the violence in the Revolution thus far , and he disdained the character of those who partook in it as little more than " riotous slaves " . Instead , he heaped his praise upon the people 's representatives in the Legislative Assembly , whose sober virtue would guide the Revolution best . Spread out over five books , L 'Esprit de la Revolution is inconsistent in many of its assertions but still shows clearly that Saint @-@ Just no longer saw government as oppressive to man 's nature but necessary to its success : its ultimate object was to " edge society in the direction of the distant ideal . "

The new work , like its predecessor , attracted minimal readership . On 21 June 1791 , just days after it was published , all attention became focused on King Louis XVI 's ill @-@ fated flight to Varennes , and Saint @-@ Just 's theories about constitutional monarchy were made suddenly irrelevant . Yet the episode had another effect – it fostered a public anger toward the king which simmered all year until finally a Parisian mob attacked the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792 . In response , the Assembly declared itself ready to step down ahead of schedule and called for a new election , this one under universal male suffrage . The timing was excellent for Saint @-@ Just , who turned the legal age of twenty @-@ five before the end of the month . The fear inspired by the invasion of the Tuileries made most of his opponents retire from the scene , and Saint @-@ Just was elected as one of the deputies for the département of Aisne . He left for Paris to join the National Convention as its youngest member .

= = = Deputy to the Convention = = =

Among the deputies , Saint @-@ Just was watchful but interacted little at first . He joined the Parisian Jacobin Club but he remained aloof from Girondins and Montagnards alike . He waited until 13 November 1792 to give his first speech to the Convention , but when he did the effect was spectacular . What brought him to the lectern was the discussion over how to treat the king after Varennes . In dramatic contrast to the earlier speakers , Saint @-@ Just delivered a blazing condemnation of the king . He demanded that " Louis Capet " should be judged not as a king or even a citizen , but as a traitor , an enemy who deserves death . " As for me , " he declared , " I see no middle ground : this man must reign or die ! He oppressed a free nation ; he declared himself its enemy ; he abused the laws : he must die to assure the repose of the people , since it was in his mind to crush the people to assure his own . ”

The young deputy 's speech electrified the Convention . Saint @-@ Just was interrupted frequently by bursts of applause and towards the end of his speech he uttered his eerily universal observation , " No one can reign innocently . " Robespierre was particularly impressed – he spoke from the lectern the next day in terms almost identical to those of Saint @-@ Just , and their views became the official position of the Jacobins . By December , that position had become law : the king was taken to a trial before the Convention , sentenced to death , and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793 .

= = Constitution of 1793 = =

Because the first French Constitution had included a role for the king , it was long since invalid and needed to be updated for the Republic . A large number of drafts had been circulating within the Convention since the king 's execution , and Saint @-@ Just submitted his own lengthy proposal on 24 April 1793 . His draft incorporated the most common assertions of the others : the right to vote , the right to petition , and equal eligibility for employment were among the basic principles that made his draft tenable . Where he stood apart from the rest was on the issue of elections . Saint @-@ Just dismissed all complex systems of voting and eligibility and supported only the classical style of a simple majority of citizens in a nationwide vote . Amid a flurry of proposals by other deputies , Saint @-@ Just held inflexibly to his " one man one vote " plan , and this conspicuous homage to Greco @-@ Roman traditions ( which were particularly prized and idealized in French culture during the Revolution ) enhanced his political cachet . When no plan gained enough votes to pass , a compromise was made which tasked a small body of deputies as official constitutional draftsmen , and Saint @-@ Just was among the five elected members . In recognition of the importance of their mission , the draftsmen were all added to the powerful new Committee of Public Safety .

The Convention had given the Committee extraordinary authority to provide for state security ever since the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War in early 1793 . Committee members were originally intended to serve for periods of only thirty days before replacements were elected , so they needed to work quickly . Saint @-@ Just took charge of the issue and led the development of the French Constitution of 1793 . Before the end of his first term , the new document was completed , submitted to the Convention , and ratified as law on 24 June 1793 .

The new constitution remained a showpiece for Saint @-@ Just but little more . However much he may have wanted to see it implemented , emergency measures for wartime were in effect . The war had called for ( or provided cover for ) a moratorium on constitutional democracy . It gave supreme power to the sitting Convention , with the Committee of Public Safety at the top of its administrative pyramid . Robespierre , with Saint @-@ Just 's assistance , fought vigorously to ensure that the government would remain under emergency measures – " revolutionary " – until victory .

= = Committee of Public Safety = =

= = = Proscription of the Girondins = = =

During the time that Saint @-@ Just was working on the constitution , dramatic political warfare was taking place . The sans @-@ culottes – deemed " the people " by many radicals , and represented by the Paris Commune – had grown antipathetic to the moderate Girondins and on 2 June 1793 , in a mass action supported by National Guardsmen , they surrounded the Convention and exacted the arrest of the Girondin deputies . The deputies – even the Montagnards , who had long enjoyed an informal alliance with the sans @-@ culottes – resented the intimidation but they were compelled to make some obeisance . The Girondin leader Jacques Pierre Brissot was indicted for treason and scheduled for trial , but the other Brissotins were imprisoned ( or pursued ) without formal charges . The Convention debated their fate and the political disorder lasted for weeks . Saint @-@ Just had previously remained silent about the Girondins , but now clearly stood with Robespierre who had been thoroughly opposed to most of them for a long time . When the initial indictment by the Committee was served , it was Saint @-@ Just who delivered the report to the Convention .

In its secret negotiations , the Committee of Public Safety was initially unable to form a consensus concerning the jailed deputies , but as some Girondins fled to the provinces and attempted to incite an insurrection , its opinion hardened . By early July , Saint @-@ Just was able to address the Convention with a lengthy report in the name of the Committee , and his damning attack left no room for any further conciliation . The Girondins ' trials must proceed , he said , and any verdicts must be severe . The proceedings dragged on for months , but Brissot and twenty of his allies were eventually condemned and sent to the guillotine on 31 October 1793 . Saint @-@ Just used their situation to gain approval for intimidating new laws , culminating in the Law of Suspects ( 17 September 1793 ) which gave the Committee vast new powers of arrest and punishment .

= = Military commissar = =

Saint @-@ Just made the proposal that deputies from the Convention should directly oversee all military efforts , which was approved on 10 October 1793 . Amid worsening conditions at the front in the fall of that year , several deputies were sent to the critical area of Alsace to shore up the disintegrating Army of the Rhine . Results were not sufficiently forthcoming , so at the end of the month Saint @-@ Just himself was sent there along with an ally from the Convention , Philippe @-@ François @-@ Joseph Le Bas . The two men were charged with " extraordinary powers " to impose discipline and reorganize the troops .

From the start , Saint @-@ Just dominated the mission . He was relentless in demanding results from the commanders as well as sympathetic to the complaints of common soldiers . On his first day at the front , he issued a proclamation promising " examples of justice and severity as the Army has not yet witnessed . " Within a short time , many officers were dismissed and many more were executed by firing squad , including at least one general . The entire army was placed immediately under the harshest discipline .

Among soldiers and civilians alike , Saint @-@ Just repressed opponents of the Revolution but he did not agree to the mass executions ordered by some of the other deputies on the mission . He vetoed much of the deputies ' work and had many of them recalled to Paris . Local politicians were even more vulnerable to him : even the powerful Eulogius Schneider , the revolutionary leader of Alsace 's largest city and called the " Marat of Strasbourg " , was arrested by Saint @-@ Just 's orders and rapidly dispatched to the guillotine . Saint @-@ Just worked closely only with General Charles Pichegru , a reliable Jacobin whom he respected . Under Saint @-@ Just 's unblinking surveillance , Pichegru and General Lazare Hoche ably secured the frontier and began an invasion of the German Rhineland .

With the army revitalized , Saint @-@ Just returned briefly to Paris where his success was applauded . However , there was little time to celebrate . He was quickly sent back to the frontlines , this time in Belgium where the Army of the North was experiencing the same problems of discipline and organization . Again he delivered results ruthlessly and effectively , but after less than a month the mission was cut short . As Paris convulsed in political violence , his assistance was required by Robespierre .

= = President of the Convention = =

With the republican army advancing and the Girondins destroyed , the left @-@ wing Montagnards , led by the Jacobins and Robespierre , controlled the Convention . In these circumstances , on the first day of Ventôse in Year II of the Revolution ( 19 February 1794 ) , Saint @-@ Just was elected president of the National Convention .

With this new power he persuaded the chamber to pass the radical Ventôse Decrees , under which the régime would confiscate aristocratic émigré property and distribute it to needy sans @-@ culottes . But these acts of wealth redistribution , arguably the most revolutionary acts of the French Revolution , never went into operation . The Committee faltered in creating procedures for their enforcement , and the frantic pace of unfolding political events left them behind .

Opponents of the Jacobins saw the Ventôse Decrees as a cynical ploy to appeal to the militant extreme left . Sincere or not , Saint @-@ Just made impassioned arguments for them . One week after their adoption , Saint @-@ Just urged that the Decrees be exercised vigorously , and hailed them for ushering in a new era : " Eliminate the poverty that dishonors a free state ; the property of patriots is sacred but the goods of conspirators are there for the wretched . The wretched are the powerful of the earth ; they have the right to speak as masters to the governments who neglect them . "

= = = Germinal = = =

As the spring of 1794 approached , the Committee of Public Safety , led by Robespierre , Couthon , Lebas and Saint @-@ Just , exercised near complete control over the government . Despite the vast reach of their powers , however , rivals and enemies remained . One of the thorniest problems , at least to Robespierre , came in the shape of the populist agitator Jacques Hébert , who discharged torrents of criticism against bourgeois Jacobinism in his newspaper , Le Père Duchesne . Ultra @-@ radical Hébertists in the Cordeliers Club undermined Jacobin efforts to court and manage the sans @-@ culottes , and the most extreme Hébertists even called openly for insurrection .

Saint @-@ Just , in his role as president of the Convention , announced unequivocally that " whoever vilified or attacked the dignity of the revolutionary government should be condemned to death " , and the Convention agreed in a vote on 13 Ventôse . Hébert and his closest associates were arrested the following day . Saint @-@ Just vowed , " No more pity , no weakness towards the guilty ... Henceforth the government will pardon no more crimes , " and on 4 Germinal ( 24 March 1794 ) , the Revolutionary Tribunal sent Hébert , Ronsin , Vincent and most other prominent Hébertists to the guillotine .

The ongoing political combat – bloody enough since at least the time of the arrest of the Girondins to be known as the Reign of Terror – spread more and more widely . When the Hébertists fell , Robespierre felt compelled to eliminate his other rivals in the Cordeliers , starting with Fabre d 'Églantine and his close friend Georges Danton . These powerful deputies were difficult prey , but a financial scandal involving the French East India Company provided a " convenient pretext " . Robespierre again sent Saint @-@ Just to the Convention to deliver a Committee " report " ( 31 March 1794 ) in which he announced the arrest of Danton and " the last partisans of royalism " . After a tumultuous show @-@ trial , Fabre , Desmoulins , and other top supporters of Danton went to the scaffold with their leader on 16 Germinal ( 5 April 1794 ) . In his report , Saint @-@ Just had promised that this would be a " final cleansing " of the Republic 's enemies .

The violent removal of the Hébertists and Dantonists provided only a mirage of stability for Saint @-@ Just and Robespierre . The deaths caused deep resentment and their absence only made it more difficult for the Jacobins to influence the dangerously unpredictable masses of sans @-@ culottes . This lack of support in the street would prove fatal during the events of Thermidor .

As the deliverer of Committee reports , Saint @-@ Just served as the public face of the Terror , and he became known widely as the " Angel of Death " . After the events of Germinal , Saint @-@ Just intensified his control over the state @-@ security apparatus . He created a new bureau of " general police " for the Committee of Public Safety which matched – and usurped – the powers that had been given officially to the Committee of General Security . Shortly after its establishment , however , administration of the new bureau passed to Robespierre when Saint @-@ Just left Paris once more for the front lines .

= = Last days = =

= = = Battle of Fleurus = = =

Sent back on mission to the army in Belgium , Saint @-@ Just again took supreme oversight of the Army of the North and contributed to the victory at Fleurus . This hotly contested battle on 26 June 1794 sent the Austrian army into retreat and marked the turning point in the War of the First Coalition . France would remain on the offensive until its eventual victory in 1797 . After his return from the battle , Saint @-@ Just was treated as a hero and " cheered from all sides . "

Back in Paris , Saint @-@ Just discovered that Robespierre 's political position had degraded significantly . As the Terror reached its apogee – the so @-@ called " Great Terror " – the danger of a counterstrike by his enemies became almost inevitable . Saint @-@ Just , however , remained unshakable in his alliance with Robespierre . The French victory at Fleurus , and others which followed , reduced the need for national security during the war which had been predicated as a justification for the Terror . " The excuse for the Terror was at an end . " Opponents of the Terror used Saint @-@ Just 's own words against him by demanding a full implementation of the constitution of 1793 .

With political combat reaching a fever pitch , the Committee introduced a bill to establish a newer version of the " Law of Suspects " – the Law of 22 Prairial . With it , a new category of " enemies of the people " was established in terms so vague that virtually anyone could be accused . Defendants were not permitted legal counsel and the Revolutionary Tribunal was instructed to impose no sentence other than death . The bill was swiftly shepherded into law by Robespierre , and although Saint @-@ Just was not directly involved in its composition , he was certainly supportive . The new statutes defined the Great Terror : in their first month , the average of executions in Paris rose from five per day to seventeen , soaring in the following month to twenty @-@ six .

The Law of Prairial was the breaking point for opponents of Robespierre . Resistance to the Terror spread throughout the Convention , and Saint @-@ Just was compelled to address the division . Barère and other Thermidorians have claimed that he proposed a dictatorship for Robespierre , but nonetheless some of them considered him to be redeemable , or at least useful – until he delivered his uncompromising public defence of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor ( 27 July 1794 ) .

= = = Thermidor = = =

On the dais , Saint @-@ Just declared the absolute necessity of current law , and conspiring deputies buzzed angrily as he spoke . Finally several of them physically shoved him away from the lectern , and each started his own address in which they called for the removal of Robespierre and all his supporters . Amid the uproar , recalled Barras , Saint @-@ Just " did not leave the platform , in spite of the interruptions which would have driven any one else away . He only came down a few steps , then mounted again , to continue his discourse proudly ... Motionless , unmoved , he seemed to defy everyone with his calm . "

Saint @-@ Just saved his dignity at the lectern but not his life . Rising in his support , Robespierre sputtered and lost his voice ; his brother Augustin , Philippe Lebas , and other key allies all tried to sway the deputies , but failed . The meeting ended with an order for their arrest . Saint @-@ Just , still on the platform , remained unmoved and " looked on contemptuously " at the scene . His confidence seemed validated when troops from the Paris Commune under Hanriot arrived to liberate them , but within hours the entire group was confined to the Hôtel de Ville . When soldiers finally broke inside , a number of the defeated Jacobins tried to commit suicide ; Saint @-@ Just stood beside Lebas who shot himself in the head . Any contemplation of his own suicide is unclear , but he alone emerged unruffled from the wild , violent final arrest – among the captured , " only St. Just , his hands bound but his head held high , was able to walk . " Robespierre , Saint @-@ Just and twenty of their allies were guillotined the next day , and Saint @-@ Just reputedly accepted his death with coolness and pride . At a last formality of identification , he gestured to a copy of the Constitution of 1793 and said , " I am the one who made that . "

= = Legacy = =

= = = Other writings = = =

Throughout his lifetime , Saint @-@ Just continued to work on books and essays about the meaning of the Revolution , but he did not survive to see any of them published . They have been collected and edited in various Œuvres complètes . These include Organt , L 'Esprit de la Revolution , published speeches and legislative proposals , as well as military orders , notes , drafts , and private correspondence .

Many of Saint @-@ Just 's legislative proposals were compiled after his death to form an outline for a communal and egalitarian society – they were published as a single volume , Fragments sur les institutions républicaines . The proposals were far more radical than the constitution of 1793 , and identify closely with the legendarily fearsome traditions of ancient Sparta . Many of them are interpreted as proto @-@ socialist precepts : the overarching theme is equality , which Saint @-@ Just at one point summarizes as " Man must be independent ... There should be neither rich nor poor . "

= = = = De la Nature = = = =

Saint @-@ Just also composed a lengthy draft of his own philosophical views , De la Nature , which remained hidden in obscurity until its transcription by Albert Soboul in 1951 . Soboul first published this work in 1951 under the title " Un manuscrit oublié de Saint @-@ Just " in the Annales historiques de la révolution française , No. 124 . An expanded version is included in Alain Liénard 's Saint @-@ Just , théorie politique and later versions of Œuvres complètes . De la Nature outlines Saint @-@ Just 's ideas on the nature of society ; the actual date it was written is disputed , but the most agreed upon range is between 1791 and 1792 .

Based on the assumption that man is a social animal , Saint @-@ Just argues that in nature there is no need for contracts , legislation , or acts of force . These constructs only become necessary when a society is in need of moral regeneration and serve merely as unsatisfactory substitutes for the natural bonds of free people . Such constructs permit small groups to assume unwarranted powers which , according to Saint @-@ Just , leads to corruption within society . Because a return to the natural state is impossible , Saint @-@ Just argues for a government composed of the most educated members of society , who could be expected to share an understanding of the larger social good . Outside the government itself , Saint @-@ Just asserts there must be full equality between all men , including equal security in material possessions and personal independence . Property must be protected by the state but , in order to secure universal independence , all citizens ( including women ) must own property .

= = = = Posthumous publications = = = =

Saint @-@ Just , Fragments sur les institutions républicaines ( French )

Saint @-@ Just , Théorie politique , edited by Alain Liénard , Seuil , Paris , 1976 . ( French )

= = = = Complete collections = = = =

Œuvres de Saint @-@ Just , précédés d 'une notice historique sur sa vie edited by Adolphe Havard , Paris , 1834 . ( French )

Œuvres complètes de Saint @-@ Just in two volumes edited by Charles Vellay , Paris , 1908 . ( French )

Œuvres choisies , with introduction by Jean Gratien , Paris , 1946 . ( French )

Œuvres complètes , edited by Michèle Duval , Paris , 1984 . ( French )

Œuvres complètes , edited by Anne Kupiec and Miguel Abensour , Paris , 2004 . ( French )

= = = Character = = =

Ambitious and active @-@ minded , Saint @-@ Just worked urgently and tirelessly towards his goals : " For Revolutionists there is no rest but in the tomb . " He was repeatedly described by contemporaries as arrogant , believing himself to be a skilled leader and orator as well as having proper revolutionary character . This self @-@ assurance manifested itself in a superiority complex , and he always “ made it clear … that he considered himself to be in charge and that his will was law . ” Camille Desmoulins once wrote of Saint @-@ Just , " He carries his head like a sacred host . "

Saint @-@ Just 's rise to power wrought a remarkable change in his personality . Freewheeling and passionate in his youth , Saint @-@ Just quickly became focused , " tyrannical and pitilessly thorough . " He became " the ice @-@ cold ideologist of republican purity , " " as inaccessible as stone to all the warm passions . " A measure of his change can be inferred from the experience of Thérèse Gellé , who is known to have left her husband and taken up residence in a Parisian neighborhood near Saint @-@ Just in late 1793 . Saint @-@ Just – who had already developed something of a relationship , tepid but potentially expedient , with the sister of his colleague Lebas – refused to see her . Gelle stayed there for over a year , returning to Blérancourt only after Saint @-@ Just was dead . No record exists of any exchanges they might have had , but Saint @-@ Just is known to have written to a friend complaining impatiently about the rumors connecting him to " citizen Thorin " .

In his public speaking , Saint @-@ Just was even more daring and outspoken than his mentor Robespierre . Regarding France 's internal strife , he spared few : “ You have to punish not only the traitors , but even those who are indifferent ; you have to punish whoever is passive in the republic , and who does nothing for it . ” He thought the only way to create a true republic was to rid it of enemies , to enforce the “ complete destruction of its opposite . ” Regarding the war , he declared without regret to the Convention , “ The vessel of the Revolution can arrive in port only on a sea reddened with torrents of blood . ” He urged the deputies to embrace the notion that “ a nation generates itself only upon heaps of corpses . ”

Despite his flaws , Saint @-@ Just is often accorded respect for the strength of his convictions . Although his words and actions may be viewed as reprehensible , his commitment to them is rarely questioned : he was " implacable but sincere " . Like Robespierre , he was incorruptible in the sense that he exhibited no attraction to material benefits but devoted himself entirely to the advancement of a political agenda .

= = = = Camus and Saint @-@ Just = = = =

In Albert Camus 's The Rebel ( 1951 ) , Saint @-@ Just is discussed extensively in the context of an analysis of rebellion and man 's progression towards enlightenment and freedom . Camus identifies Saint @-@ Just 's successful argument for the execution of Louis XVI as the moment of death for monarchical divine right , a Nietzschean Twilight of the Idols . Saint @-@ Just 's dedication to " the sovereignty of the people and the sacred power of laws " is described as " a source of absolutism " and indeed " the new God " . His kind of " deification of the political " is examined as the source of the creeping totalitarianism which grew so powerfully in Camus ' own lifetime .

= = = = In popular culture = = = =

Representations of Saint @-@ Just include those found in the novel Stello ( 1832 ) by Alfred de Vigny , and in the plays Danton 's Death ( 1835 , by Georg Büchner ) and Poor Bitos ( Pauvre Bitos , ou Le dîner de têtes , 1956 , by Jean Anouilh ) . In film , Saint @-@ Just has been portrayed by Abel Gance in Napoléon ( 1927 ) ; Jess Barker in Reign of Terror ( 1949 ) ; Bogusław Linda in Danton ( 1983 ) ; and Christopher Thompson in La Révolution française ( 1989 ) . Jean @-@ Pierre Léaud plays a surreal caricature of Saint @-@ Just in Jean @-@ Luc Godard 's Week End ( 1967 ) . Saint @-@ Just is the main character in the fantasy novel Light from Aphelion : Rising from Dust ( 2016 , by Martine Carlsson ) .

= Feeling This =

" Feeling This " is a song recorded by American rock band Blink @-@ 182 for their eponymously titled fifth studio album ( 2003 ) . The song was released as the lead single from Blink @-@ 182 on October 2 , 2003 through Geffen Records . It was written by guitarist Tom DeLonge , bassist Mark Hoppus , and drummer Travis Barker , and was produced and mixed by Jerry Finn . The song originated on the first day of producing the album . Its lyrics are purely sexual in nature ; the band attempted to juxtapose lust and passion between verses and choruses , thematically connected with a wistful , regretful tone .

The song 's composition contains elements of spoken word in the verses and a Latin @-@ inspired backbeat in the chorus , and the song ends in a melodic , harmonized duet split between DeLonge and Hoppus . Elements of the song were inspired by rock groups Led Zeppelin and the Beach Boys . The song 's music video , photographed by David LaChapelle , depicts a dystopian correctional facility that is overtaken by its inmates . An early version of the song , erroneously titled " Action " , was released on the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 .

" Feeling This " received critical acclaim and the song peaked to number two on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart in late 2003 . It was also a top 20 hit in the United Kingdom and Australia . The digital single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005 . Blink @-@ 182 has performed " Feeling This " in a number of live appearances , including on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .

= = Background = =

" Feeling This " was the first track that was recorded for Blink @-@ 182 in early 2003 . On the first day of pre @-@ production on the album , bassist Mark Hoppus asked an engineer to explain Pro Tools to him , as it was the first time the band would record their music digitally . He began recording guitar and bass parts and experimenting with the software . When guitarist Tom DeLonge and drummer Travis Barker arrived , they too began adding new tracks to the project . The song was written in one day . " I think if I sit there and try to analyze everything , what would be cool here or there , I just feel like I get so far away from what I would do , and I think your gut instinct is usually the best thing , " said Barker at the time .

The lyrics were written with Hoppus and DeLonge going into separate rooms — Hoppus writing the choruses and DeLonge writing the verses . The two had not spoken to each other about the lyrics ahead of time , and it turned out that the two had both written about sex . When put together , the song represents the lustful side of sex during the verses , the passionate side in the bridge and the romantic side in the chorus , creating a juxtaposition between both voices . It has been interpreted as a description for failed romance , one that " illustrates a scenario of lust , ambivalence and regret . " For Barker , the song 's drum track was " super in respect to John Bonham . [ ... ] We were kind of messing around with the verse . It ’ s like , ' Well , I want to do a four @-@ bar drum intro and just see how it works for the song . ' And we never second @-@ guessed it . We were like , ' That sounds rad . ' "

According to engineer Ryan Hewitt , the track contains " four distinct drum sounds created by old school tape editing . " The song was recorded " part @-@ by @-@ part , committing to different sounds by changing relative levels , EQ , and compression throughout , " and the engineers would slightly move microphones used to record Barker 's drum kit to tailor the natural ambience of the home it was recorded in . Upon playback of a rough mix of the song , the engineer automated the music to fade at the song 's conclusion , but mistakenly forgot to do the same for the vocal tracks . Hoppus , who had been listening to the Beach Boys at the time , liked the a cappella interplay of their voices . All agreed to keep it in the final version of the song .

= = Composition = =

The song is composed in the key of E major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 173 beats per minute . The vocal range spans from E3 to B4 .

" Feeling This " opens with flanged drums . Although computer technology offered it during the album ’ s production , according to Hoppus , the band opted to produce the effect " the old school way " , opting for two tape machines . Originally taking root as a faster @-@ paced drum ' n ' bass @-@ inspired track , Barker imitated that genre 's groove on open hi @-@ hats . The influence of John Bonham is most explicit in the song 's first few seconds , in which Barker performs eighth @-@ note triplets on his bass drum , much like the Led Zeppelin song " Good Times Bad Times " ( 1969 ) . Following a sample from Captain America ( 1990 ) — " Get ready for action ! — the song moves into a " stabbing guitar rhythm " over the verses , which are " half @-@ barked " and contain delivery reminiscent of hip @-@ hop . The " harmony @-@ rich " chorus of the song , which contains the refrain " Fate fell short this time , smile fades in the summer / Place your hand in mine , I 'll leave when I wanna " , is replete with a " syncopated Latin @-@ flavored backbeat . " In the chorus , Barker plays a cowbell , which he initially included as a joke , believing Hoppus and DeLonge would " hate it . "

The song is particularly memorable for a section of the chorus of the song ( right before the bridge begins ) , in which guitarist Tom DeLonge sings the vocals loudly and off @-@ key . According to the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 , DeLonge stated that the recording was done in a 30 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) living room at the home previously mentioned , with microphones 10 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) away . The end of the song is a melodic duet between the band 's two vocalists , both singing conflicting but harmonizing parts .

= = Release = =

Blink @-@ 182 first performed " Feeling This " alongside other new songs from Blink @-@ 182 during their performances at the 2003 Reading and Leeds festivals . The band picked " Feeling This " as the first single because they felt it representative of the transition they had undergone since their fourth studio album , Take Off Your Pants and Jacket ( 2001 ) . A slightly different version of the song had been released previously as part of the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 under the erroneous title " Action " . Barker explained in an interview that " ' Action ' just sounded kind of dorky to us . Like we would always call it ' Feeling This ' and then someone at our label , I think , like wrote it as ' Action ' one time and sent out singles to people . And it was always supposed to be ' Feeling This ' . "

To promote Blink @-@ 182 , the group performed " Feeling This " , as well as their past hit " Dammit " on Total Request Live on November 11 , 2003 , and on the late @-@ night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live ! in November 26 , 2003 . Richard Cheese covered the song on their 2004 album I 'd Like a Virgin .

= = Commercial performance = =

" Feeling This " debuted at number 40 on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks chart on October 18 , 2003 , jumping to number 13 in its second week , which was at that time the fourth @-@ biggest move in the history of that chart . The song moved upwards on the chart over the following weeks , eventually achieving a peak of number two on November 29 , 2003 . It remained at number two for two more weeks before dropping to number three , after which it continued dropping before exiting the top 20 on February 21 , 2004 . In total , it spent nine weeks on the chart . It spent eight weeks on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , which acts as an extension to the Billboard Hot 100 chart ; it peaked at number two on December 20 , 2003 .

In the United Kingdom , " Feeling This " debuted at number 15 on the UK Singles Chart for the week ending date November 30 , 2003 . It dropped to number 35 the following week before exiting the chart on December 28 ; in all , it spent ten weeks on the chart .

= = Critical reception = =

" Feeling This " received favorable reviews from music critics . Kelefa Sanneh , writing for The New York Times felt the song was an " appealing hybrid , " while noting the growing popularity of emo could have influenced the " more anguished " tone . Greg Kot of Entertainment Weekly praised the vocal harmonies , calling them reminiscent of Queen . Joshua Klein of The Washington Post similarly complimented the interplay between DeLonge and Hoppus and its " multiple @-@ perspective portrait of first love . " Andy Doerschuk of Drum ! praised Barker 's " fat , syncopated beat " and noted elements of Bonham as well as James Brown 's drummers . Rolling Stone 's Jenny Eliscu made note of its " catchy hooks " , while Stephen Thompson , writing for The A.V. Club , considered it among many songs on the album that were " straightforwardly conventional . "

= = Music video = =

The video follows students at a dystopian @-@ based correctional facility who rebel and take over the establishment , intertwined with shots of the band performing outside the prison in a cage , providing a " soundtrack to the chaos . " Hoppus described their idea for the facility : " It 's kind of a combination of prep school and reform school , and it 's very repressed and kids are being held down . There is a lot of authority and a lot of strict regiment , and the kids lash out and take over the school and destroy the place . " The band 's main goal for the video was for it to resemble an art piece , much in the same way they viewed the production of the album , to keep in line with tone . To this end , they enlisted director David LaChapelle . LaChapelle 's input — which " ranges from an evil prison warden cracking a whip at marching school kids to escapees ripping their uniforms and doing acrobatic moves down the hallways " — was regarded by the band as " completely wacked out and twisted , which is exactly what we love . "

In the narrative , the boys and girls are separated at the school and sexually repressed , and release their energies when they meet between a glass window . The clip was shot at the abandoned Lincoln Heights Jail north of downtown Los Angeles .

= = Formats and track listings = =

All songs written and composed by Tom DeLonge , Mark Hoppus and Travis Barker , except where noted .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Blink @-@ 182 , Geffen Records .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Scipione Piattoli =

Scipione Piattoli ( Italian pronunciation : [ ʃiˈpjoːne ˈpjattoli ] ; November 10 , 1749 – April 12 , 1809 ) was an Italian Catholic priest — a Piarist — an educator , writer and political activist , and a major figure of the Enlightenment in Poland . After ten years as a professor at the University of Modena in Italy , he migrated to the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , where he became associated with several magnate families — the Potockis , Lubomirskis and Czartoryskis . He was a member of the Duchess Dorothea von Medem 's court in Courland ( Lithuania ) and of King Stanisław August Poniatowski 's court in the Commonwealth .

Piattoli was politically active in Warsaw during and after the Four @-@ Year Sejm ( 1788 – 92 ) . He served as intermediary between the reformist Patriotic Party and King Stanisław August Poniatowski , and as an aide to the King ( 1789 – 93 ) . He is best remembered for his participation in drafting the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 , a milestone act in the history of Polish political legislation . He was one of the organizers of the Kościuszko Insurrection against Russian influence in 1794 , which was the last armed struggle to be held under the banners of the Commonwealth . After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795 , Piattoli was interned by the Austrians for several years , together with another Polish activist of the Constitution movement , Hugo Kołłątaj . Freed in 1800 , he worked several years with Polish and Russian statesman Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski in the service of Russia , before retiring to Courland .

Piattoli was an inspiration to Leo Tolstoy , who based the figure of the Abbé Morio in War and Peace ( 1869 ) on him . He is also one of the figures immortalized in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting , Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . In his 1980 ten @-@ page entry on Piattoli in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , historian Emanuel Rostworowski notes that , “ despite two Italian monographs ( by A.D. Ancon and G. Bozzolato ) ” , Piattoli still awaits a definitive biography .

= = Early life = =

Scipione Piattoli was born in Florence on November 10 , 1749 , to a family of painters ( father , Gaetano Piattoli ; mother , Maria Anna Bacherini ; brother , Giuseppe Piattoli ) .

In 1763 he joined the Piarist order , taking the name Urban . Some historians have questioned whether he ever took Holy Orders ; in any case he was known for a rather secular lifestyle . He taught rhetoric in Piarist schools in Messa and Corregio , and got his doctorate from the University of Florence . From 1772 to 1782 he was a professor at the University of Modena , teaching religious history and Greek . Soon he became involved in political activism , and in 1774 he published ( anonymously ) a brochure titled Saggio intorno al luogo del seppellire , which focused on the issue of hygiene and burials near churches . Also in 1774 he received permission to leave the Piarists , and resumed using the name Scipione . He would , however , keep and use the title of " the priest " ( l 'abbé ) for most of his life . By the turn of the decade , Piattoli found himself in a faction that was losing in the politics of Modena , and decided to move , giving up his professorship in 1782 .

Piattoli arrived in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth that year , as a tutor for the sons of Piotr Potocki , a member of the magnate Potocki family . It was said in a contemporary account that his entire material wealth at that time was composed of a “ sizable library ” . Piattoli ended his service with the Potocki family around 1784 due to personal disagreements with Pelagia Potocka and Maria Radziwiłł . In the meantime , he became associated with the Lubomirski family — Izabela Lubomirska in particular — and through them befriended Stanisław Kostka Potocki and Grzegorz Piramowicz . Through Potocki and Piramowicz he became a member of the Society for Elementary Books in 1784 . In the Society he was tasked with writing a textbook on the history of science . Around that time he was also active in Warsaw freemasonry .

Piattoli traveled through Europe in the retinue of the Lubomirski family , including Izabela , and as a tutor of young Henryk Lubomirski . During that time he developed extensive contacts at various European courts in Courland , Austria ( Vienna ) , Italy ( Turin ) and France ( Paris ) . During his three @-@ year stay in the Lubomirskis ' Parisian residence , he was in touch with many important men of the Age of Enlightenment . He met — often through another Florentinian , Filippo Mazzei — Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Thomas Jefferson , the Marquis de Lafayette , Luigi Landriani , Girolamo Lucchesini , and the Marquis de Condorcet . He also corresponded with J. G. Herder . In Poland , he developed close contacts with Ignacy Potocki and Julian Ursyn Niemcewicza . From 1787 he also tutored Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , later an important politician in the Russian Empire , on whom Piattoli would retain significant influence .

= = Reformer and constitution drafter = =

Piattoli developed contacts with notable figures on the Polish political scene , initially from the group opposed to the royal faction . By the end of his stay in Paris , he likely became a supporter of reforms in France and Poland , and begun taking his first serious steps in political activism , through the involvement in the Quattuowirat , a group of magnates planning a ( never realized ) confederacy . He became a foreign member of the Société des Amis des Noirs .

Through his freemason contacts with Pierre Maurice Glayre , Piattoli won the confidence of Poland 's King Stanisław August Poniatowski , becoming his agent in Paris and , by the end of 1789 , his private secretary and librarian , although without any official title . Acting as a sort of cultural aide , Piattoli , who had strong ties to the reformist and often anti @-@ royal opposition , became an important link between the reformers — Ignacy Potocki in particular — and the king . In the words of a Swedish diplomat , L. Engstrom , he was “ like a tireless spring ” , constantly mediating between the two factions .

Due to his association with the reformers , in conservative Rome he became infamous as a staunch supporter of revolutionary ideals and was accused of " democratism " . Vatican diplomats criticized the king for hiring such a " revolutionary " , but the king defended Piattoli quite vividly . In any case , many such claims were exaggerations or rumours spread by his political enemies : according to one such rumour , Piattoli was alleged to incite crowds in France to kill the king . In reality , Piattoli supported the Monarchiens of the French Revolution 's early stages , but more in the direction of peaceful transformation into a constitutional republic than the regicidal excesses .

Between 1790 and 1792 , Piattoli was sent on several sensitive diplomatic missions for the king to Berlin and other places . He was involved in the negotiations of the Polish @-@ Prussian alliance . He collaborated with Ignacy Potocki , helping draft many texts connected with Potocki 's work in the Sejm , the legislature of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . He was also an active supporter of Poniatowski 's plan for a hereditary succession . Piattoli , as Poniatowski 's secretary and a resident of the Royal Castle in Warsaw , has been credited with winning the King over to the idea of social reforms and with playing a part in the drafting of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . The exact nature of Piattoli 's role in regard to the Constitution remains uncertain ; modern historians disagree to what degree he was an executor , a mediator , or an initiator . He played a role in convincing the King to collaborate with the leaders of the Patriotic Party on drafting a constitution . He might have prepared or expanded drafts of the document , based on discussions among the principal authors , including the King , Hugo Kołłątaj ( another politically active Roman Catholic priest ) and Ignacy Potocki . At a minimum , he seems to have helped catalyze the process . Historian Emanuel Rostworowski describes him as a vital secretary @-@ editor , who certainly participated in related discussions and influenced both Potocki and the king , and calls Piattoli 's quarters in the Royal Palace a “ creche ” of the constitution . Piattoli was , finally , involved in the final preparations for the vote that took place during the Sejm session on May 3 .

Later that month he became a founder of the Friends of the Constitution . He was active in various political causes and worked closely with other key figures in Poland such as Hugo Kołłątaj . He became a trusted adviser to Dorothea von Medem , Duchess of Courland . He supported reforms to improve the status of the burghers and Jews .

= = Final years = =

During the War in Defence of the Constitution in 1792 , Piattoli found himself on another diplomatic mission to Dresden , where he stayed after the Commonwealth 's defeat at the hands of Imperial Russia resulted in the Second Partition of Poland . In Dresden and nearby Leipzig , Piattoli was active in the circles of Polish patriotic emigres , who included Potocki and Kolłątaj . In 1793 he officially parted ways with Poniatowski , receiving a letter in which he was discharged from his service . In 1794 he was involved in the preparations for the Kościuszko Insurrection against Russian influence , and in negotiations with the newly republican France , in which Polish reformists proposed an alliance with France , promising to turn Poland into a second republic in Europe . At the same time , he was involved in much more conservative negotiations with Russians .

In July 1794 he and several other activists were exiled from Leipzig , and Piattoli was soon arrested by the Austrian authorities . After the failure of the Kościuszko Insurrection later in 1794 , many prisoners were set free , but Piattoli was kept imprisoned , together with Kołłątaj , as the Russian authorities insisted that the two were “ extremely dangerous ” . Hence , even after the final Partitions of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795 , Piattoli was kept interned in Prague by the Austrian Empire authorities until 1800 , despite requests for his release from Poniatowski and even Napoleon Bonaparte . His release in 1800 seems to have been the result of efforts of the Czartoryski family and Duchess Dorothea .

After his release he returned to Dorothea 's Courland court , where he served as a tutor for her daughter . Around 1803 he began cooperating with Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , who was now working for the Russian authorities . Around that time , he and Czartoryski authored a plan for a European federal organization of states intended to prevent armed conflicts and to maintain perpetual peace . Piattoli , through Czartoryski , briefly worked in the diplomatic service and administration of the Russians , too . Like Czartoryski , Piattoli tried to push for a more lenient and friendly attitude towards Poland at the Russian court , but with little success .

In 1807 Scipione Piattoli returned to Courland . There he finally settled , abandoned the priesthood , and married one of the ladies of the court . In his final years in Courland he was involved with Courland 's educational system , and hoped to pursue some scientific studies , a lifelong dream for which he never found enough time . He died of a lung infection in Altenburg on April 12 , 1809 . He was buried in a park in Löbichau .

= = Remembrance = =

Piattoli was an inspiration to Leo Tolstoy , who based the figure of the Abbé Morio in War and Peace ( 1869 ) on him . He is also one of the figures immortalized in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting , Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . In his 1980 ten @-@ page entry on Piattoli in the Polish Biographical Dictionary , historian Emanuel Rostworowski notes that , “ despite two Italian monographs ( by A.D. Ancon and G. Bozzolato ) ” , Piattoli still awaits a definitive biography .

= Sudirman =

General of the Army Raden Soedirman ( Perfected Spelling : Sudirman ; 24 January 1916 – 29 January 1950 ) was a high @-@ ranking Indonesian military officer during the Indonesian National Revolution . The first commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces , he continues to be widely respected in the country .

Born in Purbalingga , Dutch East Indies , Sudirman moved to Cilacap in 1916 and was raised by his uncle . A diligent student at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run school , he became respected within the community for his devotion to Islam . After dropping out of teacher 's college , in 1936 he began working as a teacher , and later headmaster , at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run elementary school . After the Japanese occupied the Indies in 1942 , Sudirman continued to teach , before joining the Japanese @-@ sponsored Defenders of the Homeland as a battalion commander in Banyumas in 1944 . In this position he put down a rebellion by his fellow soldiers , but was later interned in Bogor . After Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945 , Sudirman led a break @-@ out then went to Jakarta to meet President Sukarno . Tasked with overseeing the surrender of Japanese soldiers in Banyumas , he established a division of the People 's Safety Body there . On 12 November 1945 , at an election to decide the military 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Yogyakarta , Sudirman was chosen over Oerip Soemohardjo in a close vote . While waiting to be confirmed , Sudirman ordered an assault on British and Dutch forces in Ambarawa . The ensuing battle and British withdrawal strengthened Sudirman 's popular support , and he was ultimately confirmed on 18 December .

During the following three years Sudirman saw negotiations with the returning Dutch colonial forces fail , first after the Linggadjati Agreement – which Sudirman participated in drafting – and then the Renville Agreement ; he was also faced with internal dissent , including a 1948 coup d 'état attempt . He later blamed these issues for his tuberculosis , which led to his right lung being collapsed in November 1948 . On 19 December 1948 , several days after Sudirman 's release from the hospital , the Dutch launched an assault on the capital . Sudirman and a small contingent escaped Dutch forces and left the city , making their headquarters at Sobo , near Mount Lawu . There Sudirman commanded military activities throughout Java , including a show of force in Yogyakarta on 1 March 1949 . When the Dutch began withdrawing , in July 1949 Sudirman was recalled to Yogyakarta and forbidden to fight further . In late 1949 Sudirman 's tuberculosis relapsed , and he retired to Magelang , where he died slightly more than a month after the Dutch recognised Indonesia 's independence . He is buried at Semaki Heroes ' Cemetery in Yogyakarta .

Sudirman 's death was grieved throughout Indonesia , with flags flown at half @-@ mast and thousands gathering to see his funeral convoy and procession . He continues to be highly respected in Indonesia . His guerrilla campaign has been credited with developing the army 's esprit de corps , and the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) long route he took must be followed by Indonesian cadets before graduation . Sudirman featured prominently on the 1968 series of rupiah banknotes , and has numerous streets , museums , and monuments named after him . On 10 December 1964 he was declared a National Hero of Indonesia .

= = Early life = =

Sudirman was born to Karsid Kartawiraji ( father ) and Siyem while they lived with Siyem 's sister Tarsem , one of three women married to the sub @-@ district head Raden Cokrosunaryo , in Rembang , Bodas Karangjati , Purbalingga , Dutch East Indies . According to the family 's records , Sudirman – named by his uncle – was born on a pon Sunday in the month of Maulud in the Javanese calendar ; the Indonesian government later established 24 January 1916 as Sudirman 's birthday . As Cokrosunaryo was in a better financial situation , he adopted Sudirman and gave him the title Raden , reserved for Javanese nobility ; however , Sudirman was not told that Cokrosunaryo was not his birth father until he was eighteen . When Cokrosunaryo retired from his position as chief in late 1916 , Sudirman went with the family to Manggisan , Cilacap , where he was raised . In Cilacap Karsid and Siyem had another son , Muhammad Samingan . Karsid died when Sudirman was six , at which time Siyem left the boys with her brother @-@ in @-@ law and went back to her village at Parakan Onje , Ajibarang .

Sudirman was raised with stories of heroic deeds and taught the etiquette and ways of the priyayi , or noble caste , as well as the work ethic and simplicity of the wong cilik , or commoners . For his religious education , he studied Islam under Kyai Hajji Qahar with his brother ; Sudirman was a religious child , and always prayed on time . He was soon entrusted with performing both the adhan and iqama , or calls to prayer . When he was seven years old , Sudirman was enrolled at a school for natives ( hollandsch inlandsche school ) , where he was an average student . The family , although it had enough to live by , was not rich . During his tenure as sub @-@ district head , Cokrosunaryo had not accumulated much wealth , and in Cilacap he became a distributor of Singer sewing machines .

In his fifth year of school , Sudirman asked to leave his studies , concerned with the ridicule he faced at the government @-@ run school ; this request was at first refused , but Sudirman was transferred to a junior high school run by Taman Siswa in his seventh year of school . In his eighth year , Sudirman transferred to Wirotomo Junior High School after the Taman Siswa School was found to be unregistered and closed under the Wild School Ordinance . Many of Sudirman 's teachers at Wirotomo were Indonesian nationalists , which influenced his views of the Dutch colonists . Sudirman studied diligently at school ; his teacher Suwarjo Tirtosupono later recalled that Sudirman would already be studying second @-@ term lessons while the class was still in term one . Although he performed poorly in Javanese calligraphy , Sudirman was strong in mathematics , science , and writing in both Dutch and Indonesian . Sudirman also became more religious under the guidance of his teacher Raden Mohamad Kholil ; his classmates named him " hajji " because of his devotion to his prayers , and Sudirman took up preaching to other students . Aside from his studies and religious activities , Sudirman also served in the school 's musical troupe and on the football team , on which he was a defender . Although Cokrosunaryo 's death in 1934 left the family poor , Sudirman was allowed to continue his studies without paying until he graduated later that year ; after his step @-@ father 's death , Sudirman also devoted more time to studying the Sunnah and prayer . By age 19 , Sudirman had become a pupil teacher at Wirotomo .

While at Wirotomo Sudirman was a member of the Wirotomo Student Union , drama club , and band . He helped establish a branch of the Hizboel Wathan , an organisation similar to the Boy Scouts , which was run by the Islamic establishment Muhammadiyah . Sudirman became the leader of the Cilacap division after graduating from Wirotomo ; he was tasked with deciding and planning his groups ' activities . He emphasised the need for religious studies , insisting that the contingents from Cilacap attend Muhammadiyah conferences throughout Java . He taught the younger members about the history of Islam and the importance of morality , while with older members he enforced near @-@ military discipline .

= = Teaching = =

After graduating from Wirotomo , Sudirman spent a year at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run teacher 's college in Surakarta , but later dropped out owing to a lack of funds . In 1936 he returned to Cilacap to teach at a Muhammadiyah @-@ run elementary school , having been trained by his teachers at Wirotomo ; that year he married Alfiah , a former schoolmate and the daughter of the rich batik merchant Raden Sastroatmojo . After the marriage Sudirman lived at his father @-@ in @-@ law 's house in Cilacap so he could save money for his own home . The couple went on to have three sons , Ahmad Tidarwono , Muhammad Teguh Bambang Tjahjadi , and Taufik Effendi , and four daughters , Didi Praptiastuti , Didi Sutjiati , Didi Pudjiati , and Titi Wahjuti Satyaningrum .

As a teacher , Sudirman taught his students lessons on morality using examples from the lives of the prophets and traditional wayang stories . One of his students later recalled that Sudirman was an even @-@ handed and patient teacher who would mix humour and nationalism in his lessons ; this made him popular with the students . A hard @-@ working teacher despite poor pay , within several years Sudirman had become headmaster despite not having a teacher 's certificate . As a result , his monthly wages quadrupled from three gulden to twelve and a half . As headmaster , Sudirman worked on numerous administrative duties , including finding middle ground between feuding teachers . A coworker later recalled that Sudirman was a moderate , democratic leader . He was also active in fundraising , both for the needs of his school and the construction of others .

During this time Sudirman also continued to serve as a member of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group . Within the group he was known as a keen negotiator and mediator , working to resolve issues between members ; he also preached at the local mosque . He was elected as Chair of the Banyumas District of the Muhammadiyah Youth Group at the end of 1937 . In this role he enacted policies facilitating members ' studies and activities , both religious and secular . He was later put in charge of Youth Group activities throughout Central Java and spent much of his free time travelling and preaching Islam , putting an emphasis on self @-@ awareness . Alfiah was also active in Muhammadiyah @-@ sponsored activities through the group 's branch for women , Nasyiatul Aisyiyah .

= = Japanese occupation = =

When World War II broke out in Europe , it was expected that the Japanese , who had already made aggressive moves against mainland China , would try to invade the Indies . In response , the Dutch colonial government – which had previously limited military training for native Indonesians – began teaching the populace how to deal with air raids . To co @-@ ordinate the preparations , the Dutch formed Air Raid Preparation teams . Sudirman , respected in the community , was asked to lead the Cilacap chapter . Aside from teaching local citizens the safety procedures for dealing with an air raid , Sudirman established watchposts throughout the area . He and the Dutch would also have passing aircraft drop materials to simulate a bombing run ; this was intended to improve response time .

After the Japanese began occupying the Indies in early 1942 , winning several battles against Dutch and Dutch @-@ trained forces of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger , or KNIL ) , on 9 March 1942 Governor @-@ General Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and head of the KNIL General Hein ter Poorten capitulated . This brought drastic changes in the governance of the archipelago and reduced the quality of life for non @-@ Japanese in the Indies , many of whom suffered from widespread human rights violations at the hands of the Japanese . In Cilacap , Sudirman 's school had been closed and turned into a military outpost ; this was part of a widespread effort to close private schools . After Sudirman convinced the Japanese to reopen the school , he and the other teachers were forced to use substandard supplies . Sudirman was also involved in several social and humanitarian organisations during this period , including as chair of the Indonesian People 's Cooperation . This brought him greater recognition among the people of Cilacap .

In early 1944 , after a year as a representative at the Japanese @-@ run regency council board ( Syu Sangikai ) , Sudirman was asked to join the Defenders of the Homeland ( Pembela Tanah Air , or PETA ) ; the Japanese occupation government had established PETA in October 1943 to help repel any Allied invasion , and were focused on recruiting younger men , those who had " not yet been ' contaminated ' " by Dutch rule . After a few days of hesitance , caused in part by a knee injury he had occurred as a youth , Sudirman agreed to begin training in Bogor . Owing to his standing in the community , Sudirman was made a commander ( daidanco ) and trained with other persons of that rank . Trained by Japanese officers and soldiers , the cadets were armed with confiscated Dutch equipment . After four months of training Sudirman was put in charge of the battalion stationed at Kroya , Banyumas , Central Java , not far from Cilacap .

Sudirman 's time as a PETA commander passed uneventfully until 21 April 1945 , when PETA troops under the command of Kusaeri began to rebel against the Japanese . Ordered to stop the rebellion , Sudirman agreed to do so only if the PETA rebels would not be harmed , and places harbouring them not razed ; this condition was accepted by the Japanese commander , and Sudirman and his troops began searching for the rebels . Although Kusaeri 's men initially shot at the commander , after Sudirman used a loudspeaker to tell them they would not be harmed , they backed down . Kusaeri surrendered on 25 April . This garnered support for Sudirman within the occupation forces , although several high @-@ ranking Japanese officers expressed concern over Sudirman 's support for Indonesian independence . Sudirman and his men were soon sent to a camp in Bogor , ostensibly for training ; however , they were tasked with hard labour as a way to prevent a further uprising , and rumours circulated that the PETA officers would be killed .

= = National revolution = =

= = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = =

After news of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki reached the Indies in early August 1945 , followed by the proclamation of Indonesian independence on 17 August , it was evident that Japanese control was weakening . Sudirman led a break out from the camp in Bogor . Although his fellow internees wanted to attack the Japanese soldiers , Sudirman convinced them against it . After ordering the others to their hometowns , Sudirman made his way to Jakarta and met with President Sukarno , who asked him to lead resistance against Japanese forces in the city . Unfamiliar with Jakarta , Sudirman refused , instead offering to lead forces in Kroya . He left for his former command on 19 August 1945 . At the same time , Allied forces were in the process of retaking the Indonesian archipelago for the Netherlands . The first British forces arrived on 8 September 1945 .

In late August , Sukarno established the People 's Safety Body ( Badan Keamanan Rakjat , or BKR ) , which united troops from the former PETA , Heihō , and KNIL . The BKR served mostly as a police organisation , partly because the political leadership were intent on using diplomacy to garner international recognition of the new country and partly to avoid appearing overly aggressive to the Japanese forces still in the archipelago . Sudirman and several of his fellow PETA soldiers formed a BKR branch in Banyumas in late August , after stopping at Kroya and discovering that his battalion had been disbanded . In a meeting with the Japanese commander for the region , Saburo Tamura , and the resident of Banyumas , Iwashige , Sudirman and Iskak Cokroadisuryo forced the Japanese to surrender and hand over their weapons while a crowd of armed Indonesians encircled the Japanese camp . Many of these weapons were later used by Sudirman 's BKR unit , making it one of the best equipped in the country ; surplus weapons were distributed to other battalions .

As the newly independent nation did not yet have a professional military , on 5 October 1945 Sukarno passed a decree establishing the People 's Security Army ( Tentara Keamaanan Rakjat or TKR , now known as the Tentara Nasional Indonesia ) . Most officers were former KNIL officers , while rank @-@ and @-@ file soldiers were mostly PETA and Heihō . As the decreed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armed Forces , Soeprijadi , failed to come forward , chief of staff Lieutenant General Oerip Soemohardjo served as an interim leader . That October British @-@ led forces , tasked with disarming Japanese troops and repatriating Dutch prisoners of war , arrived in Semarang , then made their way south to Magelang . When the British began rearming repatriated Dutch prisoners and seemed to be preparing a military base in Magelang , Sudirman – now a colonel – sent some of his troops under Lieutenant Colonel Isdiman to drive them away ; the mission was successful , and the European soldiers withdrew to Ambarawa , midway between Magelang and Semarang . On 20 October Sudirman was put in command of the Fifth Division , after Oerip began dividing Java into different military commands .

On 12 November 1945 , at the first general meeting of Army leadership , Sudirman was elected leader of the Army following two deadlocked votes . In the third round , Oerip had 21 votes to Sudirman 's 22 ; the division commanders from Sumatra voted unanimously for Sudirman and swayed the ballot in his favour . Sudirman , aged 29 at the time , was surprised at his selection and offered to relinquish the leadership position to Oerip , but the meeting did not allow it . Oerip himself , who had lost control of the meeting prior to the vote , was glad to no longer be in charge of the entire Army . Sudirman kept Oerip to serve as chief of staff under him . In accordance with his new role , Sudirman was promoted to general . After the meeting , Sudirman returned to Banyumas to await confirmation as leader of the TKR and began developing strategies on how repel Allied advances . The Indonesians feared that the Dutch , through the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration ( Nederlandsch Indië Civil Administratie , or NICA ) , would attempt to retake the archipelago ; soldiers of the Dutch @-@ British alliance had landed in Java in September , and a large battle had occurred in Surabaya during late October and early November . This instability , as well as Sukarno 's uncertainty about Sudirman 's qualifications , led to a delay in Sudirman 's confirmation .

While waiting for his appointment to be confirmed , in late November Sudirman ordered the Fifth Division to attack Allied forces stationed in Ambarawa , once again with Isdiman in charge ; the city was considered strategically important owing to its military barracks and training facilities dating from the colonial period . This assault was countered by an air strike and the use of tanks , which forced the division to retreat ; Isdiman died in the battle , killed by a strafing P @-@ 51 Mustang Sudirman then led the Division in another assault against Allied forces ; the Indonesian troops were armed with a variety of weapons , ranging from bamboo spears and confiscated katanas to rifles , while the British were armed with modern equipment . Sudirman led from the front , wielding a katana . The Allies , whose air support had been cut off when guerrilla soldiers attacked Kalibanteng Airfield in Semarang , were forced onto the defensive and holed up in Willem Fortress . On 12 December Sudirman led a four @-@ day siege , which resulted in the Allied force withdrawing to Semarang .

The Battle of Ambarawa brought Sudirman greater attention at a national level , and generally silenced whispers that he was unfit for military command because of his lack of military experience and previous employment as a schoolteacher . Ultimately , Sudirman was chosen as his loyalty was undoubted , while Oerip 's former pledge of loyalty to the Dutch led to him being viewed with suspicion . Sudirman was confirmed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief on 18 December 1945 . He was replaced as head of the Fifth Division by Colonel Sutiro , and began to focus on strategic problems . This was done partly by establishing a board of advisors , which gave the general advice on both political and military issues . Oerip handled many of the military matters .

Together , Sudirman and Oerip were able to reduce the differences and mistrust between former KNIL and PETA troops , although some troops were reluctant to be subordinated to a central command , instead choosing to follow their popularly @-@ selected battalion commanders . The government renamed the Army twice in January 1946 , first to the Peoples ' Salvation Army ( Tentara Keselamatan Rakjat ) , then to the Army of the Republic of Indonesia ( Tentara Repoeblik Indonesia , or TRI ) . This was followed by the formal establishment of a navy and air force in early 1946 . In the meantime , the Indonesian government had moved from Jakarta – now under Dutch control – to Yogyakarta in January ; delegates led by Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir spent much of April and May unsuccessfully negotiating for Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty . On 25 May Sudirman was reconfirmed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the expanded military , after its reorganisation . At the ceremony , Sudirman swore to protect the republic " until he shed his last drop of blood . "

The leftist Minister of Defence Amir Sjarifuddin , who had received greater power in the reorganisation , began collecting socialist and communist troops under his direct control , as well as leftist paramilitary units ( laskar ) that were funded by and loyal to the various political parties . The minister instituted political education programmes in the army , which were meant to spread leftist ideology . This use of the military for political manoeverings disappointed both Sudirman and Oerip , who were at the time busy ensuring equal treatment for soldiers from different military backgrounds . However , rumours among the populace had spread that Sudirman was preparing for a coup d 'état ; although an attempt did occur in early July 1946 , Sudirman 's role , if any , is not certain . In July Sudirman addressed these rumours through a speech broadcast on Radio Republik Indonesia ( RRI ) , stating that he , like all Indonesians , was a servant of the State , and that , if he were offered the presidency , he would refuse it . In his later career he stated that the military had no place in politics , and vice versa .

= = = Negotiations with the Dutch = = =

Meanwhile , Sjahrir continued to work on negotiations with the Allied forces . On 7 October 1946 , Sjahrir and the former Dutch Prime Minister , Wim Schermerhorn , agreed to work towards a ceasefire . The discussions were to be moderated by the British diplomat Lord Killearn and involved Sudirman . He took a specially commissioned train to Jakarta , departing on 20 October . However , he ordered it to return to Yogyakarta when Dutch troops refused to allow him and his men to enter the city with their weapons , feeling that such an order violated his sense of honour ; the Dutch apologised , construing the events as a misunderstanding . Sudirman took another train in late October , arriving at Gambir Station in Jakarta on 1 November , where he was greeted by large crowds . The discussions in Jakarta resulted in the drafting of the Linggadjati Agreement on 15 November ; the agreement was ratified on 25 March 1947 , despite heavy opposition from Indonesian nationalists . Sudirman was vocally against the agreement , which he found to be detrimental to Indonesian interests , but considered himself obliged to follow his orders .

In early 1947 , with the Linggadjati Agreement granting relative peace , Sudirman began work on consolidating the TKR with various laskar . As part of a committee , Sudirman began reorganising the military ; they reached an agreement in May 1947 , and on 3 June 1947 the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , or TNI ) was formalised ; it consisted of TKR forces and various laskar groups , which Sudirman had included only after realising the extent of their manipulation by the political parties . However , the ceasefire obtained through the Linggadjati Agreement was not long lasting . On 21 July 1947 the Dutch forces – which had occupied areas left by the British during their withdrawal – launched Operation Product , and quickly gained control of large swaths of Java and Sumatra ; the national government in Yogyakarta remained untouched . Sudirman called the army to fight , using the code " Ibu Pertiwi is calling ! Ibu Pertiwi is calling ! " , and later delivered several speeches over RRI in an unsuccessful attempt to encourage soldiers to fight against the Dutch . However , the Indonesian soldiers were unprepared and their lines crumbled quickly .

Pressured by the United Nations , which had looked at the situation in the former East Indies with disdain , on 29 August 1947 the Dutch established the Van Mook Line , which divided Dutch and Indonesian @-@ controlled areas . Along this line a ceasefire was called . Sudirman recalled the Indonesian guerrillas hiding in Dutch @-@ held lands , ordering them to return to Indonesian @-@ held areas . To keep their spirits up , he referred to the withdrawal as a hijrah , reminiscent of Muhammad 's migration to Medina in 622 AD , implying that they would return . Over 35 @,@ 000 troops left western Java at this order , travelling to Yogyakarta by train and ship . This boundary was formalised by the Renville Agreement on 17 January 1948 ; among the signatories was Amir Sjarifuddin , by then also serving as prime minister . Meanwhile , Sjarifuddin began rationalising the army , cutting back on the number of troops . At the time the regular army consisted of 350 @,@ 000 men , with a further 470 @,@ 000 in the laskar .

In this programme , by presidential decree Sudirman was no longer commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the military starting on 2 January 1948 . He was demoted to lieutenant general , while Chief of the Air Force Soerjadi Soerjadarma was intended to be commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Shortly afterwards , Sjarifuddin was ousted in a vote of no confidence for his involvement in the Renville Agreement , and the new prime minister , Mohammad Hatta , worked to implement the rationalisation programme . This led to a several months @-@ long debate between pro- and anti @-@ rationalisation groups . Sudirman served as a rallying point and driving force for soldiers , including numerous older commanders , who were against the programme . Sudirman was formally reinstated on 1 June 1946 , upon which he effectively rescinded the command to rationalise . He chose Colonel Abdul Haris Nasution as his deputy , but remained a lieutenant general .

As the rationalisation programme was winding down , Sjarifuddin began gathering soldiers from the Socialist Party , Communist Party , and members of the All Indonesia Centre of Labour Organizations for a would @-@ be proletarian revolution in Madiun , East Java , which occurred on 18 September 1948 . Sudirman , ill at the time , sent Nasution to deal with the revolution ; Sudirman also sent two other officers as peace feelers before the attacks . Although the revolutionary leader Muso was amenable to peace , Nasution and his soldiers had quashed the uprising by 30 September . Sudirman visited Madiun not long after the battle , later telling his wife that he had been unable to sleep there for all the bloodshed .

This rebellion , and ongoing political instability , sapped Sudirman of much of his remaining strength . On 5 October 1948 , after celebrations of the military 's third anniversary , Sudirman collapsed . After being examined by numerous doctors , he was diagnosed with tuberculosis . At the end of the month he was brought to Panti Rapih Hospital and had his right lung collapsed , in hope that it would stop the spread of the disease . During his time at the hospital , he delegated most of his duties to Nasution . However , the two continued to discuss plans for the war against the Dutch , and Sudirman continued to receive status reports . They agreed that guerrilla warfare , which had been applied on raids into Dutch @-@ held territory since May , would be best suited for their needs ; towards this goal , Sudirman issued a general order on 11 November , with Nasution handling most of the preparations . Sudirman was released from the hospital on 28 November 1948 .

Although he continued to issue orders , Sudirman only returned to active duty on 17 December ; in light of the growing tension between the Dutch and Indonesian forces , he ordered the TNI soldiers to maintain an increased level of awareness ; he also ordered large @-@ scale military exercises as a in an unsuccessful attempt to convince the Dutch that the TNI was too strong to attack . Two days later , after a nighttime announcement that they were no longer bound by the Renville Agreement , on 19 December the Dutch launched Operation Kraai , an attempt to capture the capital at Yogyakarta . By 07 : 10 local time ( UTC + 7 ) , the airfield at Maguwo had been taken by paratroopers under the command of Captain Eekhout . Sudirman , upon becoming aware of the attack , had an order read over RRI which stated that soldiers should fight as they had been trained – as guerrillas .

He then went to the Presidential Palace in central Yogyakarta , where the government leaders were discussing an ultimatum which stated that the city would be stormed unless the leadership accepted colonial rule . Sudirman urged that the president and vice @-@ president leave the city and fight as guerrillas , actions they had previously promised , but this suggestion was rejected . Although his doctors forbade it , Sudirman received permission from Sukarno to join his men . The central government evacuated to the Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat at the urging of Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX , but were captured and exiled .

= = = Guerrilla warfare = = =

Sudirman first went to his official home and gathered sensitive documents , which he burned to prevent them falling into Dutch hands . His convoy , consisting of Sudirman , a small group of soldiers , and his personal doctor , then made their way south , towards Kretek , Parangtritis , Bantul . There they were received by the district head at 18 : 00 . After several days in Kretek , during which time Sudirman sent undercover troops into the Dutch @-@ occupied city for reconnaissance and to ask his wife for jewellery to sell and help fund the guerrilla movement , he and his group travelled east along the south coast to Wonogiri . Before the Dutch attack it had already been decided that Sudirman would be able to better control the guerrillas from eastern Java , where there were still several bases . Meanwhile , Alfiah and the children were ordered to stay in the Kraton . Aware that he was being pursued by the Dutch , on 23 December Sudirman ordered his troops to continue to Ponorogo , where they stopped at the home of Mahfuz , a kyai and Islamic religious leader ; Mahfuz gave the general a cane to help him walk , although Sudirman was , and continued to be , carried on a litter . They then continued east .

Outside of Trenggalek , Sudirman and his group were stopped by TNI soldiers belonging to 102 Battalion . These soldiers , who were told that Sudirman – who was in civilian clothes and unrecognised by the troops holding them – was a prisoner , refused to allow the group to pass ; they were suspicious as Sudirman 's convoy carried maps and notes on Indonesian military movements , things which may have belonged to spies . When the group 's commander , Major Zainal Fanani , came to check the situation , he realised that Sudirman was with them and apologised . Told that his men were right to guard their areas diligently , Fanani called a post in Kediri and ordered that a car be sent to pick up the general and his troops . After a time in Kediri , they continued further east ; as they left the city on 24 December , Dutch planes attacked Kediri .

The constant Dutch attacks led Sudirman , perhaps at the suggestion of one of his men , to change his clothes and give his old outfit to one of his soldiers , Second Lieutenant Heru Kesser – who bore a resemblance to Sudirman . Kesser was ordered to head south with a large company of soldiers , remove the clothes , and furtively return north , while Sudirman waited in Karangnongko . The diversion was successful , and on 27 December Sudirman and his men made their way to Jambu Village . Arriving on 9 January 1949 , Sudirman met with several government ministers who had not been present during the Dutch attack on Yogyakarta : Supeno , Susanto Tirtoprojo , and Susilowati . With the politicians , Sudirman made his way to Banyutuwo , ordering some of his soldiers to linger back and hold off Dutch ground troops . In Banyutuwo , they held for over a week . However , on 21 January , when Dutch forces approached the village , Sudirman and his entourage were forced to leave , fighting their way out in heavy rain .

Sudirman and his troops continued to make their way through the jungles and forests , eventually arriving at Sobo , near Mount Lawu , on 18 February . During the journey , Sudirman used a radio set to convey orders to local TNI troops if he believed that the region was secure . Feeling weaker because of the physical hardships he had faced , including travelling through the forests and a lack of food , and believing the area to be safe , Sudirman decided that Sobo would serve as his guerrilla headquarters . The local commander , Lieutenant Colonel Wiliater Hutagalung , served as his go @-@ between with the other TNI leaders . Aware that international opinion , which was beginning to condemn Dutch actions in Indonesia , could bring Indonesia greater recognition , Sudirman and Hutagalung discussed possible terms of action , before agreeing on a large @-@ scale assault . Meanwhile , the Dutch began to spread propaganda claiming that they had captured Sudirman ; this claim was intended to break the morale of the guerrillas .

Sudirman ordered Hutagalung to begin planning a full @-@ scale assault , in which TNI soldiers – in uniform – would attack the Dutch and show their strength in front of foreign reporters and United Nations investigative teams . Hutagalung , together with officers under his commander Colonel Bambang Sugeng and government officials under Governor Wongsonegoro , spent several days discussing ways to ensure the attack could be successful . The discussion may have resulted in the General Offensive of 1 March 1949 , which saw TNI soldiers attack Dutch outposts throughout central Java . Troops under Lieutenant Colonel Suharto retook Yogyakarta for six hours before withdrawing , a successful show of force which caused the Dutch to lose face internationally ; they had previously declared the TNI eradicated . However , who truly ordered the offensive remains uncertain : Suharto and Hamengkubuwana IX claimed responsibility , while Bambang Sugeng 's brother reportedly overheard him ordering the assault .

Under increased pressure from the United Nations , on 7 May 1949 Dutch – Indonesian negotiations resulted in the Roem @-@ Royen Agreement , a controversial measure which guaranteed Dutch withdrawal from Yogyakarta , among other points ; The Dutch withdrawal commenced in late June , and the Indonesian leadership began returning to Yogyakarta from exile in early July . Sukarno ordered Sudirman to return to Yogyakarta as well , but Sudirman refused to let the Dutch withdraw without a fight ; he considered the TNI to now be strong enough to defeat the dispirited Dutch . Although he was promised medicine and support in Yogyakarta , Sudirman refused to return to the political leadership , whom he considered acquiescent to the Dutch . He only agreed to return after receiving a letter , although sources disagree on its sender . On 10 July , Sudirman and his group returned to Yogyakarta , where they were greeted by thousands of civilians and warmly received by the political elite there . The reporter Rosihan Anwar , who was present when the letter was delivered , wrote in 1973 that " Sudirman had to return to Yogyakarta to avoid any perceptions of a rift among the republic 's top leaders " .

= = Post @-@ war and death = =

In early August Sudirman approached Sukarno and asked him to continue the guerrilla war ; Sudirman did not expect the Dutch to abide by the Roem @-@ Royen Agreement , based on the failings of the previous agreements . Sukarno disagreed , which was a blow to Sudirman . When Sudirman threatened to resign his post , blaming the government 's inconsistency for his tuberculosis and Oerip 's death in November 1948 , Sukarno threatened to do so as well . As he thought that such a resignation would have a destabilising effect , Sudirman stayed his hand , and a Java @-@ wide cease fire came into effect on 11 August 1949 .

Continuing to suffer from tuberculosis , Sudirman was checked into Panti Rapih hospital , where he stayed until October , when he was transferred to a sanatorium in nearby Pakem . As a result of his illness , Sudirman made few public appearances . Sudirman was transferred to a home in Magelang in December . In the meantime , the Indonesian and Dutch governments held a several @-@ month @-@ long conference which resulted in Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty on 27 December 1949 . Sudirman , despite his illness , was reconfirmed that day as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the TNI , now serving the newly established Republic of the United States of Indonesia . On 28 December , Jakarta once again became the nation 's capital .

Sudirman died in Magelang at 18 : 30 on 29 January 1950 ; this was reported in a special broadcast over RRI . Upon receiving news of his death , the Sudirman family home received numerous visitors , including the entirety of the 9th Brigade , which was stationed nearby . The following morning Sudirman 's body was brought to Yogyakarta . As the funeral convoy passed , led by four tanks and consisting of eighty motor vehicles , thousands of mourners stood at the sides of the streets . The convoy was organised by members of the 9th Brigade .

The viewing , held at the Great Mosque of Yogyakarta in the afternoon , was attended by numerous political and military elite from both Indonesia and foreign countries ; this included Prime Minister Abdul Halim , Minister of Defence Hamengkubuwana IX , Minister of Health Johannes Leimena , Minister of Justice Abdoel Gaffar Pringgodigdo , Minister of Information Arnold Mononutu , Chief of the Air Force Soerjadi Soerjadarma , Colonel Paku Alam VIII , and Suharto . The viewing was closed with a 24 @-@ gun salute . Sudirman 's body was brought to Semaki Heroes ' Cemetery on foot , with a crowd of mourners 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) long trailing behind . He was interred next to Oerip , after another gun salute . His wife filled in the first scoop of dirt , followed by the government ministers . The national government ordered flags to be flown at half @-@ mast throughout the country , and Sudirman was promoted to full general . Major @-@ General Tahi Bonar Simatupang was selected as the new leader of the armed forces . Sudirman 's memoirs were published later that year ; a series of his speeches were also published in 1970 .

= = Legacy = =

An obituary in the Yogyakarta @-@ based daily Kedaulatan Rakjat wrote that Indonesia had lost a " brave and true hero " . Colonel Paku Alam VIII , in charge of the Yogyakarta area , told the national news agency Antara that all Indonesians , especially the armed forces , had " lost a father figure who did uncountable deeds for his country " . The Indonesian Muslim leader Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah , writing soon after Sudirman 's death , described the general as a " symbol of the strength of spirit shown by Indonesian heroes , " while the Muslim politician Muhammad Isa Anshary described Sudirman as a " son of the revolution , as he was born in the revolution , and raised by the revolution . " In a radio speech , Hatta described Sudirman as impossible to control and hard @-@ headed , but ultimately intent on doing what was right for the country ; Hatta noted that , although Sudirman often did not like the government 's position , he would generally obey his orders . However , Hamengkubuwana IX noted that KNIL trained soldiers such as Abdul Haris Nasution and Tahi Bonar Simatupang were disappointed in Sudirman because of his background and poor knowledge of military techniques .

Modern opinions in Indonesia tend to be laudatory . Sardiman , a professor of history at Yogyakarta State University , writes that Sudirman was as lively a speaker as Sukarno , who was known for his fiery speeches , and a devoted , incorruptible leader . The Indonesian historian and former Minister of Education and Culture Nugroho Notosusanto described Sudirman as " his only idol " , citing the general 's guerrilla period as the origin of the army 's esprit de corps . The general 's guerrilla campaign is emphasised in biographies of him because , during that period , the army had a greater role than the exiled political leadership ; beginning in the 1970s , all military cadets had to retrace the 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) long route prior to graduation , a " pilgrimage " meant to instill a sense of struggle . Sudirman 's grave is also a pilgrimage destination , both for the military and general public . According to Katharine McGregor of the University of Melbourne , the Indonesian military has elevated Sudirman to a saint @-@ like status .

Sudirman received numerous awards from the national government posthumously , including the Bintang Sakti , Bintang Gerilya , Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna , Bintang Mahaputera Pratama , Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna , and Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipradana . On 10 December 1964 Sudirman was declared a National Hero of Indonesia by Presidential Decree 314 of 1964 . Oerip was declared a National Hero by the same decree . He was promoted to General of the Army in 1997 .

According to McGregor , the military increasingly used Sudirman 's image as a symbol of leadership as it gained more political power . An image of Sudirman was featured on every denomination of the 1968 series of rupiah . He featured as a major character in several war films , including Janur Kuning ( Yellow Coconut Leaf ; 1979 ) and Serangan Fajar ( Dawn Attack ; 1982 ) .

Numerous museums have been dedicated to Sudirman . His childhood home in Purbalingga is now the Sudirman Museum , while his official home in Yogyakarta is now the Sasmitaloka Museum to General Sudirman . The house in Magelang where he died is also now the Sudirman Museum , established on 18 May 1967 and containing artefacts belonging to the general . Other museums , including the Monument Yogya Kembali in Yogyakarta and the Satriamandala Museum in Jakarta have rooms dedicated to him . Numerous streets are named after Sudirman , including a major street in Jakarta ; McGregor states that nearly every city in the country has a General Sudirman Street . Statues and monuments to him are spread throughout the archipelago , most of which were built after 1970 . Jenderal Soedirman University in Banyumas , established in 1963 , is named after him .

= Jekyll ( TV series ) =

Jekyll is a British television drama serial produced by Hartswood Films and Stagescreen Productions for BBC One . The series also received funding from BBC America . Steven Moffat wrote all six episodes , with Douglas Mackinnon and Matt Lipsey each directing three episodes .

The series is described by its creators as a sequel to the novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde , rather than an adaptation of it , with the Robert Louis Stevenson tale serving as a backstory within the series . It stars James Nesbitt as Tom Jackman , a modern @-@ day descendant of Dr. Jekyll , who has recently begun transforming into a version of Mr. Hyde ( also played by Nesbitt ) . Jackman is aided by psychiatric nurse Katherine Reimer , played by Michelle Ryan . Gina Bellman also appears as Claire , Tom 's wife .

Filming took place at various locations around southern England in late 2006 . The series was first transmitted on BBC One in June and July 2007 , receiving mainly positive reviews .

= = Plot = =

Doctor Tom Jackman ( James Nesbitt ) , a married father of two , has abandoned his family without explanation to live in a heavily fortified basement flat . He hires psychiatric nurse Katherine Reimer ( Michelle Ryan ) to help him with his unusual case . After explaining a set of elaborate security procedures to Reimer , he straps himself into a secured metal chair and undergoes a psychological transformation .

Reimer observes that Jackman 's alter ego exhibits rage , heightened senses , greatly superior strength and speed , and a more playful and flirtatious manner . She assures this persona she will keep his secrets just as she keeps Jackman 's , but asks for guarantees he will not harm her . After being informed of the novella Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde , Jackman 's alter ego takes Hyde 's name for his own and the two agree to form an uneasy truce . While they share a body , neither remembers what the other did while dominant . They use a micro cassette recorder to leave messages for each other .

Jackman began transforming into the violent , lecherous Hyde recently . Fearing for his family 's safety , he chose to isolate himself from them , but he cannot bring himself to cut off all contact , and visits his wife Claire ( Gina Bellman ) . During one such visit , Hyde assumes control and learns about Jackman 's family .

Miranda Callendar ( Meera Syal ) , a detective employed by Claire , learns about Hyde and informs Jackman that Jekyll and Hyde was not fiction , but a fictionalized version of actual events . Callendar shows Jackman a picture of the real Doctor Jekyll who lived in Edinburgh , Scotland in the 19th century . Jackman is startled to see that Jekyll looks exactly like him , and that he died at around Jackman 's current age ; and Callendar speculates that he is a descendant of the original Doctor Jekyll , except for the fact that Doctor Jekyll had died without children .

Jackman is also being stalked by a private security team led by an American named Benjamin ( Paterson Joseph ) . Unbeknownst to him , the team works for his former employers at the biotechnology firm , Klein and Utterson , and is directed by his friend Peter Syme ( Denis Lawson ) .

When Benjamin 's team puts Jackman 's children at risk , Hyde asserts himself , killing Benjamin and several of the men , and hospitalizing others . At the hospital he is approached by Sophia , an elderly woman who claims to be his mother , but before he can question her she disappears .

Jackman confronts Peter Syme , who attempts to drug him . This provokes Hyde to appear and take Syme and Claire hostage . Claire argues that they need to find a cure for Jackman 's condition . Syme insists that Klein and Utterson have had a cure for a long time . Jackman is captured and locked inside a metal coffin .

Reimer and Callendar confront Syme , claiming they know the truth about Jackman . Callendar theorizes that Klein and Utterson have access to cloning technology and that Jackman is Jekyll 's clone . Syme denies this and orders them taken away to be killed .

Syme reveals to Claire that the treatment Jackman is undergoing will stabilize into one persona : If it is Hyde , he will be kept for research in order to synthesize the potion that turned the original Jekyll into Hyde ; If it is Jackman , she is free to take him home . When the box is opened , Hyde is dominant .

In a flashback triggered by genetic memory , Hyde has a vision of a meeting between Jekyll and Robert Louis Stevenson , the author of Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde . Stevenson agrees to write a fictional version of Jekyll 's case but reveals that he knows the truth : there is no potion . Instead , Jekyll was transformed into Hyde by his love for Alice , a maid within his household . Flashbacks into Jackman 's own life show his Hyde first manifesting fully during a seaside holiday with Claire , after the pair were accosted by hooligans .

Enraged by further threats to Jackman 's family , Hyde escapes from Klein and Utterson . Ms. Utterson , a ruthless redheaded American woman at the head of Klein and Utterson , takes Claire and her sons hostage at a private estate , locking the twins in miniature versions of the same coffin used on their father .

Tom 's alleged mother , Sophia , appears on the premises and helps Claire escape her locked bedroom . She tells Claire how Klein and Utterson had indeed tried to clone Doctor Jekyll but had been unsuccessful . Claire meets several of the failed attempts in the lowest basement of the building . They are disfigured and in a near @-@ vegetative state . Sophia explains that Jackman is a descendant of Doctor Jekyll , ( who died a virgin ) , through Mr Hyde , and by chance a perfect natural genetic duplicate , " a perfect throwback , a chance in a million " . Klein and Utterson had discovered this and had him under surveillance for almost his entire life , from when he was six @-@ months @-@ old . In order to trigger his transformation into Hyde , they created a clone of Alice , the maid whom Jekyll had loved . This clone is Claire herself .

Hyde tries to rescue Jackman 's family from Klein and Utterson , killing Syme and many other personnel . In the end there is a stand @-@ off , with Jackman and Claire 's sons held hostage and suffocating . The Hyde personality is apparently killed when he is shot with multiple bullets and then manages to avoid ' sharing the damage ' by taking the wounds onto himself while allowing Jackman to assume his undamaged , healthy form , leaving Doctor Jackman as the only personality .

Six months later , Jackman has tracked down Sophia , the woman who claimed to be his mother . When he questions her about his father , she reveals that she is the descendant of Hyde , the one through whom he had inherited the family curse from , and that it 's " never over " . As Jackman watches horrified , the powerless , tired , grey @-@ haired Sophia transforms into her own version of the Hyde persona , the feral , red @-@ headed Ms Utterson .

= = = Episodes = = =

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

Jeffrey Tayor of Stagescreen Productions had the idea of a modern version of Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde in the mid @-@ 1990s . He attempted to get it produced in the United States three times , but all three attempts fell through for various reasons . He returned to England from the west coast of the United States and joined with Hartswood Films when Elaine Cameron was scouting for ideas for a supernatural thriller . Cameron then approached Steven Moffat for a script , and a six @-@ part series was commissioned by the BBC 's Jane Tranter and John Yorke in November 2005 . BBC America signed on to provide co @-@ production funding in March 2006 . The producers regularly met with Moffat for brainstorming sessions . Cameron 's assistant took notes from these conversations , after which they would look over the notes and start the process again . The producers invited Moffat to " write anything " , with the intention of cutting the material back later . However , they were reluctant to cut material once they saw it on the page . The first episode starts with Jackman already knowing about his alter ego . Because the plot of Jekyll begins after the story has developed for the characters , Nesbitt says that the show feels like it is a second series .

Moffat explicitly describes the series as a sequel , rather than an adaptation , stating the Jekyll of the original story really existed , and Jackman is his " modern @-@ day descendant dealing with the same problems " . As Jekyll and Hyde is such a well @-@ known phrase , Moffat labored over what to call the series , eventually deciding upon Jekyll because that word " carries the name Hyde " . The final episode replaces the title " Jekyll " with " Hyde " . Producer Elaine Cameron says the one word title gives the series a " very modern feel " . Moffat initially named the character Jekyll rather than Jackman , but found it cumbersome to constantly explain that the book had not been written in this alternate universe . Instead he chose a version where the book exists , but changed the name to Jackman . Otherwise , Cameron felt , the character would appear stupid by not realising what was happening when turning into Hyde .

The scene between Tom and Katherine was expanded slightly in the sixth episode to keep their relationship active to facilitate a second series . However , no further episodes were commissioned . In an August 2007 interview , Moffat told Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger that he had a sequel written for the miniseries " should the BBC be interested " . Following Jekyll , Moffat became a co @-@ writer on Sherlock .

= = = Casting = = =

James Nesbitt and his agent attended a meeting with Jane Tranter in late 2005 regarding the 2006 series of Murphy 's Law . At the conclusion of the meeting , she offered him a script for Jekyll , suggesting that he might like the role . Nesbitt took the script role as a way of putting a distance between his previous work . The casting of Nesbitt as Tom Jackman and Hyde was publicised on 12 December 2005 , but filming was not scheduled to begin until September 2006 , increasing Nesbitt 's anticipation to play the roles . Writer Steven Moffat said that the dual @-@ role required a very skilled actor , and a well @-@ known actor was necessary because it was such an expensive show to produce . The production team decided Nesbitt 's two characters would be mainly differentiated over a change in performance rather than by extensive make @-@ up because they wanted Hyde to be able to walk around in public without attracting attention .

Michelle Ryan , known for her long @-@ running role as Zoe Slater in the soap opera EastEnders , was revealed by tabloid newspaper The Sun to have been cast as " Jekyll 's sultry assistant " ( Katherine Reimer ) in August 2006 . Ryan believed herself to be too young for the part , though that aspect had already been written into the character . To prepare , she consulted the Royal College of Psychiatry . Ryan dyed her hair red for the role to help differentiate her from Tom Jackman 's wife . Denis Lawson was cast as Peter Syme . The actor consulted his post @-@ graduate son for information on Syme 's job .

Moffat initially doubted Gina Bellman 's suitability for the role of Claire Jackman because he associated her too much with Jane Christie , the character she had played in his sitcom Coupling . Moffat did not imagine the character to be as beautiful as Bellman , but her audition was so good that he revised his vision of the character . Bellman originally auditioned for the role of Katherine , but the producers wanted someone younger to play that role . However , Bellman said that she talked herself out of the role by arguing that there should be an age gap between Katherine and Claire to avoid Katherine becoming a threat to the wife . Bellman approached her role as if Claire had become caught up in Tom 's mid @-@ life crisis , an angle that impressed the producers .

Meera Syal was attracted to her role because Miranda was not a clichéd private detective and she thought the humour was " fresh " . During the second filming block , Mark Gatiss briefly joined the cast , playing the small but important role of Robert Louis Stevenson in flashback scenes in episode five .

Other roles included Paterson Joseph as Benjamin Maddox , and Linda Marlowe as Ms Utterson .

= = = Production = = =

The series was filmed in two blocks of three episodes . The first three were directed by Douglas Mackinnon and the second three episodes by Matt Lipsey . It took an hour of make @-@ up each day to turn Nesbitt into Hyde ; a hairpiece lowered his hairline and prosthetics were added to his chin , nose and ear lobes . He also wore black contact lenses to make Hyde " soulless " . After many debates , the producers decided that Hyde 's imminent arrival would be indicated by the flash of a black eye . The eye imagery evolved during filming , and did not appear in the script .

Filming began in September 2006 with the zoo sequence from the second episode , in which Benjamin 's team have set Tom up to force out Hyde by placing his son , Eddie , in the lion 's den . Writing the sequence at a late stage in the production , Moffat wanted to compare Hyde 's natural instinct to kill to that of a lion . This was shot on location at Heythrop Zoo , a private zoo in Chipping Norton run by Jim Clubb , whose firm Amazing Animals specialises in training animals for cinema and television . The Norman Foster @-@ designed building in Chertsey , Surrey , which then housed the European Headquarters of video game designer and publisher Electronic Arts , was used as The Klein & Utterson Institute . A large country estate near Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames and in Bognor Regis was used for some of the scenes whilst on the run and in flashbacks . A disused Boys ' school in Gloucestershire , and the Hammer House in Wardour Street , Soho were used in episode six . Filming concluded on 20 December 2006 .

The schedule was tight for a complex production . The production team had twelve days to shoot each episode , which director Douglas Mackinnon says was the biggest challenge of the project . The required amount of material was shot for most of the episodes . However , an extra twenty minutes of material was filmed for episode six . Director Matt Lipsey recalls that the team struggled to cut the extra material whilst maintaining the integrity of the episode . Lipsey credits Moffat for not " being precious " over his material during the editing process , and points out that his willingness to cut superfluous material means that he is taken seriously when he argues for something to be retained .

The music was composed by Debbie Wiseman . The orchestra featured approximately 18 pieces . Some cues featured the vocals of Hayley Westenra to foreshadow the importance of a female voice .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

Jekyll was broadcast on BBC One on Saturday nights from 9 p.m. A two @-@ week break occurred between showings of the third and fourth episodes because the Live Earth benefit concert was broadcast during its timeslot on 7 July . The series began airing on BBC America from 4 August , as part of a " Supernatural Saturday " programming strand . In Australia , Jekyll began broadcasting on ABC1 , Sundays at 8 @.@ 30 p.m. from 2 March 2008 with a double episode back @-@ to @-@ back each week . In Canada , Jekyll began broadcasting on Showcase , beginning at the end of August 2007 and on BBC Canada , Wednesdays at 10 : 00 p.m. from 26 March 2008 . Also in Hong Kong , Wednesday at 11 : 55 p.m. from 11 February 2009 on TVB Pearl . In the Netherlands , Jekyll was broadcast in the summer of 2009 on Sci @-@ Fi Channel .

Certain edits were made to the United Kingdom broadcasts in order to remove language unsuitable for Saturday night BBC One audiences . For example , a line spoken by Hyde in episode one was changed from " Who the fuck is Mr Hyde ? " to " Who the hell is Mr Hyde ? "

James Jackson of The Times rated the first episode four out of five stars , calling Nesbitt 's performance as Hyde " as entertainingly [ over the top ] as a dozen Doctor Who villains , with a palpable sense of menace to boot " . The conspiracy plot is praised as a storyline that distinguishes this series from other adaptations . The Daily Telegraph 's Stephen Pile criticised the script for " veering between Hammer horror and larky humour " and for being " cheesy " . He also criticised Hyde 's gravity @-@ defying hijinks and mistook Michelle Ryan for a model . In the same newspaper , James Walton called the first episode a combination of " a good yarn with several nicely thoughtful touches " . David Cornelius of DVDTalk was full of compliments for the series , summing up its review with the statement " six episodes , 300 minutes , not a single one of them wasted . ' Jekyll ' is this year 's finest television event " . The Australian Broadcasting Corporation , commenting on the series being part of their 2008 line @-@ up , said " This classic horror tale has been given a modern make @-@ over that will leave you on the edge of your seat and begging for more . James Nesbitt is outstanding as the new Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde " . Nesbitt was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini @-@ Series or Motion Picture Made for Television for his roles . Paterson Joseph received a mention in the nominations for the 2008 Screen Nation awards .

= = Home release = =

The BBFC rated all episodes as a 15 certificate on 11 June 2007 . Jekyll : Season One was released for region 2 on 30 July 2007 by Contender Home Entertainment . It includes uncut episodes , including restoration of some swearing cut from the BBC broadcasts . As DVD Verdict says about this uncut version , " the language is saucier , the violence a bit more bloody , and the sex more primal . " The disc contains audio commentaries on two episodes : producer Elaine Cameron , writer Steven Moffat and first @-@ block director Douglas Mackinnon comment on episode one , while executive producer Beryl Vertue , second @-@ block director Matt Lipsey and actress Gina Bellman comment upon the sixth episode . The set also contains two documentaries : " Anatomy of a Scene " focuses upon the production of the zoo sequence in episode two , while " The Tale Retold " covers the evolution of the series . The first Region 1 release occurred in the United States on September 18 , 2007 , although the Region 1 Canadian release was delayed until October 9 , following the Canadian broadcast of the series on Showcase , which commenced at the end of August 2007 .

= István Szabó =

István Szabó ( born February 18 , 1938 ) is a Hungarian film director , screenwriter , and opera director .

Szabó is the most internationally famous Hungarian filmmaker since the late 1960s . Working in the tradition of European auteurism , he has made films that represent many of the political and psychological conflicts of Central Europe ’ s recent history , as well as of his own personal history . He made his first short film in 1959 as a student at the Hungarian Academy of Theatrical and Cinematic Arts , and his first feature film in 1964 .

He achieved his greatest international success with Mephisto ( 1981 ) , which won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film . Since then , most of Szabó 's films have been international co @-@ productions filmed in a variety of languages and European locations . He has continued to make some films in Hungarian , however , and even in his international co @-@ productions , he often films in Hungary and uses Hungarian talent . Szabó became involved in a national controversy in 2006 when the Hungarian newspaper Life and Literature revealed that he had been an informant of the Communist regime ’ s secret police .

= = Life = =

Born in Budapest , Szabó is the son of Mária ( née Vita ) and István Szabó , the latter of whom was a doctor from a long line of doctors . Szabó came from a family of Jews who had converted to Catholicism , but were considered Jews by the Arrow Cross Party ( Hungarian Nazis ) . They were forced to separate and hide in Budapest sometime between October 1944 , when Nazi Germany occupied Hungary and installed the Arrow Cross in power , and February 1945 , when the Soviets defeated the German Army in Budapest .

Szabó survived by hiding at an orphanage , but his father died of diphtheria shortly after the German defeat . Memories of these events would later appear in several of his films .

In 2006 the Hungarian newspaper Life and Literature revealed that Szabó had been an informant of the Communist regime ’ s secret police . Between 1957 and 1961 , he submitted forty @-@ eight reports on seventy @-@ two people , mostly classmates and teachers at the Academy of Theatrical and Cinematic Arts . According to historian Istvan Deak , only in one case did Szabó 's informing cause significant damage , when an individual was denied a passport .

After the article was published , over one hundred prominent intellectuals , including some of the people Szabó had denounced , published a letter of support for him . Szabó ’ s initial response to the article was that informing had been an act of bravery intended to save the life of former classmate Pál Gábor . When this claim turned out not to be true , Szabó admitted that his true motive had been to prevent his own expulsion from the Academy .

= = Career = =

= = = Pre – 1964 = = =

As a child , Szabó wanted to be a doctor like his father . By the age of 16 , however , he had been inspired by a book by Hungarian film theorist Béla Balázs to become a film director . Upon graduation from high school , he became one of 11 applicants out of 800 who were admitted to the Academy of Theatrical and Cinematic Arts . At the Academy , he studied with the famous director Félix Máriássy , who became something of a father figure to Szabó . Among his classmates were Judit Elek , Zsolt Kézdi @-@ Kovács , Janos Rozsa , Pál Gábor , Imre Gyöngyössy , Ferenc Kardos , and Zoltán Huszárik . While at the Academy , Szabó directed several short films , culminating in his thesis film , Koncert ( 1963 ) , which won a prize at the International Short Film Festival Oberhausen . Thanks to János Herskó , head of the Hunnia Film Studio at which he apprenticed , Szabó was given his first opportunity to direct a feature film at the age of 25 , rather than being required to spend ten years working as an assistant director .

The beginning of Szabó ’ s career coincided with the beginning of a “ new wave ” in Hungarian cinema , one of several new wave cinemas that occurred around this time throughout Western and Eastern Europe . The Eastern European new waves were caused by political liberalization , the decentralization of film industries , and the emergence of films as valuable commodities for export to Western European markets . The resulting films were more formally experimental , politically anti @-@ establishment , and , especially in the case of Szabó , psychologically probing than the films of the previous generation . Hungarian filmmakers in particular experienced a significant increase in freedom of expression due to the reforms of the Kádár government .

= = = Hungarian films , 1964 – 1980 = = =

Szabó 's first feature film , The Age of Illusions ( 1964 ) , is a partly autobiographical film about the struggles of Szabó ’ s generation in starting a career , encountering the obsolescence of the older generation , and establishing romantic relationships . The appearance of a poster for François Truffaut 's The 400 Blows in the background of a scene suggested Szabó 's artistic compatibility with Truffaut and the French New Wave . The film won the Silver Sail for Best First Work at the Locarno International Film Festival and a Special Jury Prize for Best Director at the Hungarian Film Festival .

Father ( 1966 ) is a coming of age story that displays Szabó ’ s increasing fascination with history and memory . The main character copes with the childhood loss of his father against the backdrop of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and memories of the Arrow Cross dictatorship . The film won the Grand Prix at the 5th Moscow International Film Festival and the Special Jury Prize at Locarno , and established Szabó as the most internationally famous Hungarian filmmaker of his time , as well as an auteur in the European film tradition . In 2000 , Father appeared as number 11 on a list of the 12 best Hungarian films according to a group of Hungarian film critics .

Lovefilm ( 1970 ) focuses on a young man ’ s relationship with his childhood sweetheart , told through flashbacks that include the Arrow Cross dictatorship and 1956 , and rendered in an experimental , fragmented form . This experimental tendency in Szabó ’ s films reached its apotheosis in 25 Fireman Street ( 1973 ) , which began as a short film , Dream About a House ( 1971 ) . 25 Fireman Street takes place during the course of a long , hot night in Budapest , during which the residents of a single apartment building are plagued by dream @-@ memories of pain and loss spanning thirty years , including both World Wars , the Arrow Cross dictatorship , the Communist takeover , and 1956 . While the film won the top prize at Locarno , Szabó was upset by its lack of success at the box office and at film festivals . Attributing this lack of success to the film 's complex structure , he decided to give his next film a simpler structure .

In Budapest Tales ( 1976 ) , Szabó traded his earlier , complex narrative structures , characterized by flashbacks and dreams , for a more linear one . At the same time , he traded the literal representation of history for an allegorical one . The film follows a disparate group of people who come together on the outskirts of an unnamed city at the end of an unnamed war to repair a damaged tram and ride it into the city . Allegorically , the film was interpreted by critics variously as representing Hungarian history specifically or universal human responses to war and reconstruction more generally .

Szabó 's first four full @-@ length films featured the actor András Bálint in roles based on Szabó himself . While Bálint also appeared in Budapest Tales , this was Szabó 's first feature film that did not contain a significant amount of autobiographical material . He did not make another autobiographical film until Meeting Venus , eighteen years later .

Budapest Tales was even less successful than 25 Fireman Street at the box office and festivals . According to author David Paul , this may explain why Szabó shifted gears even more dramatically in his next film , Confidence ( 1980 ) , in which historical events are represented straightforwardly , and are filtered through neither memory nor allegory . The film focuses on the relationship between a man and woman who are forced to share a room as they hide from the Arrow Cross toward the end of the Second World War . It garnered a Best Director award for Szabó at the Berlin Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 53rd Academy Awards .

= = = International co @-@ productions featuring Brandauer , 1981 – 1988 = = =

Szabó ’ s next three films constituted a new phase in his career — moving away from Hungarian productions , in Hungarian , written by Szabó alone , and featuring Bálint , and moving toward international co @-@ productions , in German , written by Szabó in collaboration with others , and featuring Austrian actor Klaus Maria Brandauer . The informal trilogy — Mephisto ( 1981 ) , Colonel Redl ( 1985 ) and Hanussen ( 1988 ) — features Brandauer in a series of roles based on historical figures who , as represented in the films , compromised their morals in order to climb the ladder of success within a context of authoritarian political power . In Mephisto , based on a novel by Klaus Mann , Brandauer plays an actor and theater director in Nazi Germany , a role based on Mann ’ s former brother @-@ in @-@ law Gustaf Gründgens . The film won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film , and the award for Best Screenplay at the Cannes Film Festival , and greatly increased Szabó ’ s international prestige .

In Colonel Redl , Brandauer plays Alfred Redl , counter @-@ intelligence chief of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire who was blackmailed into espionage for the Russians in order to prevent the revelation of his homosexuality . The film won top awards in Germany and the UK , but provoked a scandal in Austria , where several periodicals accused the film of bringing the country into disrepute . In Hanussen , Brandauer plays the real life clairvoyant performer Erik Jan Hanussen , whose growing fame brings him into increasingly close — and dangerous — contact with the Nazis .

= = = 1991 – present = = =

After his Brandauer trilogy , Szabó continued to make international co @-@ productions , filming in a variety of languages and European locations . He has continued to make some films in Hungarian , however , and even in his international co @-@ productions , he often films in Hungary and uses Hungarian talent .

Meeting Venus ( 1991 ) , the first of several English @-@ language films directed by Szabó — and his first comedy — is based on his experience directing Tannhäuser at the Paris Opera in 1984 . Niels Arestrup plays a Hungarian directing the opera at an imaginary pan @-@ European opera company , and encountering a multitude of pitfalls that symbolize the challenges of a united Europe . An inside joke was that the multinational characters were all named with translations of " Taylor " , which is the meaning of " Szabó " .

With Sweet Emma , Dear Böbe ( 1992 ) , Szabó returned to a strictly Hungarian subject — this time , however , focused on a contemporary , rather than historical , social problem . The film follows two young , female teachers of Russian facing the obsolescence of their specialty after the fall of the socialist government , as well as a variety of types of sexual harassment in the new Hungary . The film won the top prize at the Berlin Film Festival .

Sunshine ( 1999 ) — a three @-@ hour historical epic , and an English @-@ language , international co @-@ production — was viewed by many critics as Szabó ’ s most ambitious film , and , along with Mephisto , his most important . Hungary ’ s Jews had figured in either a marginal or coded fashion in several of Szabó ’ s earlier films , produced during the socialist period when discourse around the history of the country ’ s Jews was more circumscribed . In Sunshine , for the first time , Szabó focused explicitly on this aspect of Hungarian history , which he himself had experienced as a child during the Arrow Cross dictatorship . Ralph Fiennes plays three generations in the Sonnenschein family as they experience the trials of twentieth @-@ century Hungarian Jewish history , from the late Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire through the Holocaust to the 1956 Revolution .

Several characters are based on real people , including the Zwack family , with their successful liquor business , the Olympic fencer Attila Petschauer , and the Jewish police official Ernö Szücs . The film won European Film Awards for Best Screenwriter , Best Actor , and Best Cinematographer . It received a rating of 74 % Fresh from review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes .

An example of an extremely positive review was that of Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who called it “ a movie of substance and thrilling historical sweep . ” A. O. Scott of the New York Times had a more mixed reaction , writing that , by the end , “ the movie has accumulated sufficient power and momentum to erase the memory of its earlier awkwardness . It shows such sympathy for its characters , and approaches its subject with such intelligence , that it 's easy to forgive the clumsy editing , the haphazard insertion of black @-@ and @-@ white newsreels , and the hyperventilating sexual ardor that seems to be a Sors family curse . ”

In Taking Sides ( 2001 ) , Szabó returned to thematic territory he had explored in Mephisto . Stellan Skarsgård plays real life German conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler , and Harvey Keitel a U.S. Army investigator interrogating Furtwängler about his collaboration with the Nazis . The film won several awards at the Mar del Plata Film Festival in Argentina , including Best Director .

Being Julia ( 2004 ) , based on a novel by W. Somerset Maugham , stars Annette Bening as a famous British actress experiencing a series of romantic and professional rivalries . Bening won a Golden Globe Award for her performance .

In 2005 , Szabó was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 27th Moscow International Film Festival .

Rokonok ( 2006 ) was a Hungarian production based on a 1932 novel by Zsigmond Móricz about political corruption . Sándor Csányi plays a newly elected attorney general whose relatives ( rokonok ) come out of the woodwork looking for favors . It was entered into the 28th Moscow International Film Festival .

The Door ( 2012 ) , an English language production based on a Hungarian novel by Magda Szabó ( no relation ) , focuses on the relationship between an affluent novelist ( Martina Gedeck ) and her poor , mysterious maid ( Helen Mirren ) . It opened the 13th Tbilisi International Film Festival , and won the Michael Curtiz Audience Award at the Hungarian Film Festival of Los Angeles .

Szabó ’ s frequent collaborators have included actors András Bálint , Klaus Maria Brandauer , Péter Andorai , and Ildikó Bánsági ; cinematographer Lajos Koltai ; and screenwriters Péter Dobai and Andrea Vészits .

= = = Themes = = =

Several interconnected themes run through Szabó ’ s films , the most common being the relationship between the personal and the political or historical . On the personal level , his first three feature films deal with coming of age issues , but political / historical events form the backdrop of these issues and continually rupture the attempts of the characters to lead their private lives . In an interview in 2008 , Szabó said , “ My mother once told me , ‘ We had a nice childhood and our youth was beautiful , but our life was destroyed by politics and history . ’ ” The political / historical events most commonly depicted are the dominant traumatic events of mid @-@ 20th century Hungarian and Central European history — Nazism , the Second World War , and , in Hungary — or , more accurately , Budapest — the Arrow Cross dictatorship and the Holocaust , the Communist takeover , and the 1956 Revolution . Szabó himself has frequently referred to this theme as the search for security .

A related theme is the moral compromises individuals make in order to succeed in immoral political systems . In an interview about Taking Sides , Szabó said , “ I don 't think that life is possible without making compromises . The question is only one of limits : how far to go . When one crosses the line , then the compromise starts to be a bad , even deadly , one . ” This theme is dominant in the Brandauer trilogy and , as Istvan Deak points out , may be related to Szabó ’ s own collaboration with the Communist secret police .

Another closely related theme is the arts — most often theater , but also music and film itself . In several of Szabó ’ s films — most famously in Mephisto — artists become caught up in conflicts around politics , role @-@ playing , and identity .

= = = Style = = =

Szabó ’ s early films — culminating in Lovefilm and 25 Fireman Street — were influenced by the French New Wave in their experimentation with flashbacks , dream sequences , and unconventional narrative structures built on these techniques .

Szabó emphasizes iconography in his films , insofar as he tends to invest certain objects and places with symbolic meaning . Tram cars play this role in many of his films , and one becomes the central image in Budapest Tales . Budapest itself plays an important role in many of his films , including scenes of the Danube and of buildings Szabó lived in when he was a child .

Acting also plays a key role in Szabó ’ s films , as he values psychological complexity in his central characters . In his first several features , he tended to use the same lead actors over and over — first András Bálint , then Klaus Maria Brandauer . Consistent with this focus on acting , he frequently employs long close @-@ up shots to emphasize the play of emotions on the faces of his characters .

= = = Other work = = =

In addition to writing and directing films , Szabó has also served in a variety of other capacities in the film industry , including writing and directing television movies and episodes , short films , and documentaries , as well as serving as assistant director , screenwriter , producer , and actor in films directed by others . In 1969 , he was a member of the jury at the 6th Moscow International Film Festival .

Szabó has directed several operas , including Tannhäuser in Paris , Boris Godunov in Leipzig , Il Trovatore in Vienna , and Three Sisters in Budapest . He has taught at film schools in Budapest , London , Berlin , and Vienna . In 1989 , he was one of the founding members of the European Film Academy , and , in 1992 , of the Széchenyi Academy of Literature and Arts .

= = Filmography = =

= = Television = =

= = Appearances in documentaries = =

= Jim and Mary McCartney =

James " Jim " McCartney ( 7 July 1902 – 18 March 1976 ) and Mary Patricia McCartney ( née Mohan ) ( 29 September 1909 – 31 October 1956 ) were the parents of musician , author and artist Paul McCartney of the Beatles and Wings , and younger brother photographer and musician Mike McCartney ( better known professionally as Mike McGear ) , who worked with the comedy rock trio the Scaffold .

Like many families in Liverpool , the McCartney and Mohin families are of Irish descent . Jim worked for most of his life in the cotton trade , as well as playing in ragtime and jazz bands in Liverpool , while Mary was a trained nurse and midwife .

The McCartney family lived in council houses during Mary 's life , but Paul later bought his father a house called Rembrandt , in Heswall , Cheshire . Jim encouraged his two sons to take up music by buying instruments for them to learn , as well as improving their education . Mary was Paul 's inspiration for the song , " Let It Be " . After Mary 's death , Jim married Angela Williams and adopted her daughter from a previous marriage , Ruth McCartney .

= = McCartney and Mohin = =

Jim 's great @-@ grandfather , James McCartney ( an upholsterer ) , was born in Ireland , but it was previously unknown where Jim 's grandfather , James McCartney II , was born . New evidence found in Scottish archives suggests that James McCartney moved with his family ( including James McCartney II ) from Ireland to Galloway , Scotland , around 1859 , before moving south and settling in Liverpool .

James II ( a plumber and painter ) married Elizabeth Williams in 1864 , in Liverpool . The pair were both under @-@ age when they were wed , but found a place to live together in Scotland Road . Jim 's father , Joseph " Joe " McCartney ( born 23 November 1866 ) was a tobacco @-@ cutter by trade when he married Florence " Florrie " Clegg ( born 2 June 1874 ) in the Christ Church , Kensington , Liverpool , on 17 May 1896 . Joe never drank alcohol , went to bed at 10 o 'clock every night , and the only swear word he used was " Jaysus " . Florrie was known as " Granny Mac " in the neighbourhood and was often consulted when families had problems .

Mary 's father was born in Tullynamalrow , County Monaghan , Ireland , in 1880 , as Owen Mohan , but permanently changed his name to Mohin when he was at school to avoid confusion with many other pupils with the same surname . After moving to Liverpool , he worked as a coalman , and married Mary Theresa Danher from Toxteth Park , at St. Charles Roman Catholic Church , on 24 April 1905 .

= = = Jim = = =

Jim was born at 8 Fishguard Street , Everton , Liverpool and was the third eldest of seven children . The McCartney children were John ( Jack ) , Edith , James ( Jim ) , Ann , Millie , Jane ( Jin ) and Joe ( who was named after a brother who died in infancy ) . Joe and Florrie McCartney moved shortly after Jim 's birth to 3 Solva Street in Everton , which was a run @-@ down terraced house about three @-@ quarters of a mile from the Liverpool city centre , where Jim attended the Steers Street Primary School off Everton Road . After leaving school at 14 , Jim found work for six shillings a week as a cotton " sample boy " , at A. Hanney & Co . ; a cotton broker in Chapel Street , Liverpool . Jim 's job entailed running up and down Old Hall Street with large bundles of cotton that had to be delivered to cotton brokers or merchants in various salesrooms . He worked ten @-@ hour days , five days a week , although he received a bonus at Christmas that was almost double his annual salary .

When World War II started Jim was too old to be called up for active service , as well as having previously been disqualified on medical grounds after falling from a wall and smashing his left eardrum when 10 years old . After the cotton exchange closed for the duration of the war , Jim worked as an inspector at Napier 's engineering works , which made shell cases that were later filled with explosives . He volunteered to be a fireman at night and often watched Liverpool burning from his rooftop observer 's position . Between 1940 and 1942 , Liverpool endured 68 air @-@ raids , which killed or injured more than 4 @,@ 500 of the population and destroyed more than 10 @,@ 000 homes . After the war he worked as an inspector for Liverpool Corporation 's Cleansing Department before returning to the cotton trade in 1946 .

Jim avidly read the Liverpool Echo or Express , liked solving crosswords and instigated discussions about varied subjects . His attitude to life was based upon self @-@ respect , perseverance , fairness and a strong work ethic . His political views were far from left @-@ wing , as he insisted that there was nothing anyone could do about the situation the working classes were in at the time , and nothing would ever change .

62 @-@ year @-@ old Jim was earning £ 10 a week in 1964 , but Paul suggested that his father should retire , and bought " Rembrandt " ; a detached mock @-@ Tudor house in Baskervyle Road , Heswall , Cheshire , for £ 8 @,@ 750 . He bought his father a horse called " Drake 's Drum " , and a couple of years later , the horse won the race immediately preceding the Grand National .

Jim died of bronchial pneumonia on 18 March 1976 . His second wife , Angela McCartney ( née Williams ) said that his last words were " I 'll be with Mary soon . " Jim died two days before a Wings European tour ; his eldest son was unable to attend the funeral . Jim was cremated at Landican Cemetery , near Heswall , Merseyside on 22 March 1976 .

= = = Mary = = =

Mary Patricia Mohan was born at 2 Third Avenue , Fazakerley , Liverpool . After two years Mary 's father met and married his second wife , Rose , while on a trip to Monaghan , in Ireland . Rose arrived in Liverpool with two children from a previous marriage , but Mary , who had until then been looking after the Mohan family , realised that Rose did not care much for domesticity or her new husband 's children . After a year she chose to live with her aunts . In 1923 , at the age of 14 years , Mary started work as a nurse trainee at the Smithdown Road Hospital , and then took a three @-@ year training course at Walton Road Hospital in Rice Lane , Liverpool ; eventually becoming a state registered nurse .

Mary became a domiciliary health visitor and midwife , and was on @-@ call day or night , riding a bicycle to houses where she was needed as a midwife . Her eldest son , Paul , said his first memory was watching her cycling away when it was snowing heavily . After she had been diagnosed with cancer , Mary still carried on cycling to work , but often doubled up in pain and had trouble breathing . The day Mary was due to have a mastectomy operation , she cleaned the McCartney house and laid her two sons ' school clothes out ; ready for the next day . She said to Dill Mohin , her sister @-@ in @-@ law , " Now everything 's ready for them in case I don 't come back . " Mary died of an embolism on 31 October 1956 , after an operation to stop the spread of breast cancer . Her last words to Dill Mohin were " I would love to have seen the boys growing up . " Mary was buried on 3 November 1956 at Yew Tree Cemetery , Finch Lane , Liverpool . Paul later named his daughter Mary after his mother , and Michael released an album entitled Woman in 1972 , including the song , " Woman , " with a photo of Mary on the front cover .

= = Marriage = =

Mary met her future husband during an air raid on Liverpool in 1940 , when Jim was 38 years old , and had settled into what his friends thought was , " a confirmed bachelorhood . " Mary had been too career @-@ conscious to think of marriage and , at the age of 31 years , was thought of as a spinster . They met in June 1940 , at 11 Scargreen Avenue , West Derby , the McCartney family home . Mary was staying with Jim 's sister , Jin , because of the lack of accommodation in Liverpool at the time . As Mary sat quietly in an armchair , the air @-@ raid sirens sounded at 9 : 30 . At that time , the group moved to the Anderson shelter in the back garden to wait for the all @-@ clear , but as there was an intensive bombing raid , the signal did not come and everyone was thus forced to sit in the cellar until dawn . Mary talked long enough with Jim to become romantically interested in him , and thought that he was " utterly charming and uncomplicated , " as well as being entertained by his " considerable good humour . " They took out a marriage licence at Liverpool Town Hall on 8 April 1941 , and were married a week later at St. Swithin 's Roman Catholic chapel in Gillmoss , West Derby , on 15 April 1941 . They first lived at 10 Sunbury Road , Anfield , and then resided for a short time at 92 Broadway , Wallasey , during November 1942 . Jim 's job at Napiers was classified as war work , so the McCartneys were given a small , but temporary , prefab house at 3 Roach Avenue , Knowsley .

Mary 's job enabled the McCartneys to move to a ground @-@ floor flat at 75 Sir Thomas White Gardens , off St. Domingo Road in Everton , to live in a rent @-@ free flat that was supplied by her employers . They moved shortly after , in February 1946 , to 72 Western Avenue in Speke . In 1948 , the family moved again to 12 Ardwick Road ( also in Speke ) which was part of a new estate in the suburbs of Liverpool . The frequent moves to better areas were Mary 's idea , as she wanted to raise her children in the best neighbourhood possible .

In 1955 , the McCartney family moved for the last time to a small three @-@ bedroomed brick @-@ built terrace house at 20 Forthlin Road in Allerton , which is now owned by The National Trust . It only cost £ 1 : 6s : 0d per week , which was due to Mary 's seniority at the hospital . Before moving to Forthlin Road , Jim had been secretary of the Speke Horticultural Society , and had often sent his sons out to canvass for new members . Jim planted dahlias and snapdragons in the front garden of Forthlin Road and regularly trimmed the lavender hedge , although it was Paul 's job to collect horse manure from the local streets in a bucket to be dug into the flowerbeds . As Jim was a heavy smoker , Jim would first dry and then crush sprigs of Lavender and then burn them ( like incense ) in the ashtrays to kill the smell of his cigarette smoke .

Money was a problem in the McCartney house , as Jim only earned up to £ 6 @.@ 00 a week , which was less than his wife . Because of their financial situation , the McCartney family could not afford to buy a television set until the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 , and never owned a car . His two sons were the first in the McCartney family line to buy cars . When The Beatles became successful , Jim had to leave Forthlin Road because fans used to stand outside and stare through the windows , which made him feel uncomfortable and nervous . Eight years after Mary 's death , Jim married Angela Williams , on 24 November 1964 . Williams had a daughter from a previous marriage , Ruth , whom Jim legally adopted .

= = = Children = = =

James Paul McCartney ( born 18 June 1942 ) and Peter Michael McCartney ( born 7 January 1944 ) were both delivered in the Walton General Hospital in Rice Lane , Liverpool , where Mary had previously worked as a nursing sister in charge of the maternity ward . Mary was welcomed back shortly before she gave birth to her first son by being given a bed in a private ward . Jim was not present at the birth as he was fighting a warehouse fire , but arrived at the hospital two hours later .

As Mary was a Roman Catholic and Jim a Church of England Protestant — who later turned agnostic — their children were baptised Roman Catholic but raised non @-@ denominationally , although Mary had married Jim on the promise that any children would be baptised in the Catholic faith . Although registered on his birth certificate as James Paul McCartney their first son was known as Paul thereafter . The two boys were not enrolled in Catholic schools , as their father believed that they leaned too much towards religion instead of education . Paul remembers his mother encouraging her children to use the Queen 's English and not the Liverpudlian dialect , which was unusual for the area they lived in .

Jim and Mary would often take Paul and Michael for a walk to the local rustic village of Hale ( home of the giant Childe of Hale 's gravesite ) . According to Paul , these frequent trips out of Liverpool to the countryside inspired his love of nature . The McCartneys had a full set of George Newnes encyclopedias which Jim encouraged Paul and Michael to use , and told his sons to look up any word they did not understand . After Paul had passed the Eleven @-@ plus Exam — meaning he would automatically gain a place at the Liverpool Institute — it was hoped that Paul would become a doctor or a teacher . Michael would also attend the Liverpool Institute two years later . After Mary 's death , Paul and Michael were sent to live with Jim 's brother Joe , and his wife Joan , for two months , so as to let their father grieve in private . Jim depended heavily on his sisters , Jin and Millie , to help around the house . Jim later took part in the running of the household , as Cynthia Lennon remembered that when she and John Lennon used to visit Forthlin Road , Jim would often answer the door with his sleeves rolled up , a tea towel in his hand and an apron tied around his waist . When Paul later played at The Cavern during lunchtimes , Jim would drop off food there that Paul would later put in the oven at Forthlin Road . Ruth remembered that Jim was funny and musical with her , but also strict when she was young , and was insistent that she learned good table manners and etiquette when speaking to people .

= = Music = =

Joe McCartney , Jim 's father , was a traditionalist who liked opera and played an E @-@ flat tuba in the local Territorial Army band that played in Stanley Park , and the Copes ' Tobacco factory Brass Band where he worked . He also played the double bass at home , sang , and hoped to interest his children in music . Jim learned how to play the trumpet and piano by ear , and at the age of 17 started playing ragtime music . Joe McCartney thought that ragtime — the most popular music of the period — was " tin @-@ can music " . Jim 's first public appearance was at St Catherine 's Hall , Vine Street , Liverpool , with a band that wore black masks as a gimmick , calling themselves the Masked Melody Makers . He later led Jim Mac 's Jazz Band in the 1920s , with his brother Jack on trombone , and composed his first tune , " Eloise " . Paul would later record it as , " Walking in The Park With Eloise " . Jim had an upright piano in the Forthlin Road front room that he had bought from Harry Epstein 's North End Music Store ( NEMS ) and Brian Epstein , Harry 's son , later became The Beatles ' manager .

Jim had a collection of old , 78 rpm records that he would often play , or perform his musical " party @-@ pieces " — the hits of the time — on the piano . He used to point out the different instruments in songs on the radio to his sons , and took them to local brass band concerts . Jim also taught them a basic idea of harmony between instruments , and Paul credits Jim 's tuition as being helpful when later singing harmonies with Lennon . After Mary 's death , Jim bought Paul a nickel @-@ plated trumpet as a birthday present . When skiffle music became popular , Paul swapped the trumpet for a £ 15 Framus Zenith ( model 17 ) acoustic guitar . Paul also played his father 's Framus Spanish guitar when writing early songs with Lennon .

With encouragement from Jim , Paul started playing the family piano and wrote " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " on it . Jim advised Paul to take some music lessons , which he did , but soon realised that he preferred to learn ' by ear ' ( as his father had done ) and because he never paid attention in music classes . After Paul and Michael became interested in music , Jim connected the radio in the living room to extension cords connected to two pairs of Bakelite headphones so that they could listen to Radio Luxembourg at night when they were in bed .

After first meeting Lennon , Jim warned Paul that he would get him " into trouble " , although he later allowed The Quarrymen to rehearse in the dining room at Forthlin Road in the evenings . Jim was reluctant to let the teenage Paul go to Hamburg with The Beatles until Paul said the group would earn £ 15 per week each . As this was more than he earned himself , Jim finally agreed , but only after a visit from the group 's then @-@ manager , Allan Williams , who said that Jim should not worry . Jim was later present at a Beatles ' concert in Manchester when fans surrounded drummer Pete Best , and ignored the rest of The Beatles . Jim criticised Best by saying , " Why did you have to attract all the attention ? Why didn 't you call the other lads back ? I think that was very selfish of you " . Bill Harry recalled that Jim was probably " The Beatles ' biggest fan " , and was extremely proud of Paul 's success . Shelagh Johnson — later to become director of The Beatles ' Museum in Liverpool — said that Jim 's outward show of pride embarrassed his son . Jim enlisted Michael 's help when sorting through the ever @-@ increasing sacks of fan letters that were delivered to Forthlin Road , with both composing " personal " responses that were supposedly from Paul . Michael would later have success on his own with the group The Scaffold .

= = = Songs = = =

Paul wrote " I Lost My Little Girl " just after Mary had died , and explained that it was a subconscious reference to his late mother . He also wrote " Golden Slumbers " at his father 's house in Heswall , and said the lyrics were taken from Ruth McCartney 's sheet @-@ music copy of Thomas Dekker 's lullaby — also called " Golden Slumbers " — that Ruth had left on the piano at Rembrandt . Hunter Davies , who was at Jim 's house at the time doing an interview for his Beatles ' biography , remembered Jim listening to an acetate disc of " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " . Davies wrote that Paul recorded the song specifically for his father , as Jim was then 64 years old and had married Angela two years previously . Paul wrote " Let It Be " , because of a dream he had in 1968 . He said that he had dreamt of his mother , and the " Mother Mary " lyric was about her . He later said , " It was great to visit with her again . I felt very blessed to have that dream . So that got me writing ' Let It Be ' . "

In 1974 , Paul recorded a song his father had previously written , entitled " Walking in the Park with Eloise " , which was released by Wings under the pseudonym , " The Country Hams " . The Country Hams ' single was backed with a tune entitled " Bridge on the River Suite " . Both songs can be found on the CD Wings at the Speed of Sound from The Paul McCartney Collection .

= M @-@ 99 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 99 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs from the Ohio state border , where it connects to State Route 15 ( SR 15 ) , north to Lansing , where it terminates at a junction with Interstate 496 ( I @-@ 496 ) and the Capitol Loop . The highway mainly serves local communities along the route as it passes through farm lands in the southern part of the state . One segment is routed concurrently with US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) in Jonesville while the northern end runs through urban areas on a street named for Martin Luther King , Jr. in Lansing .

The current highway is the third to carry the M @-@ 99 designation . The others were located near Lake Michigan near Muskegon in the Lower Peninsula and Gulliver in the Upper Peninsula in the 1920s and 1930s . The current highway was first designated as parts of M @-@ 34 and M @-@ 64 in 1919 . These numbers were later dropped in favor of an M @-@ 9 designation in 1929 . For part of 1934 , a loop route was designated M @-@ 158 in Hillsdale County that was used for a rerouted M @-@ 9 in the area . The M @-@ 99 designation was applied to the highway in 1940 . Since then , the state has completed paving twice ; one segment was returned to gravel surface for two years in the 1950s . The southern section in Hillsdale County was rerouted in the 1960s , and sections were converted into divided highways in the late 1970s .

= = Route description = =

SR 15 ends at the Michigan state line just north of Pioneer , Ohio , where it becomes M @-@ 99 . The roadway travels northward from the state line on Pioneer Road , through mostly agricultural areas of Hillsdale County before reaching a junction with M @-@ 34 just west of Osseo . The trunkline turns westward on Hudson Road , which curves to the north around Baw Beese Lake just southeast of Hillsdale . M @-@ 99 passes through Hillsdale on a northwest course on Broad Street and Carlton Road , passing just a few blocks to the west of Hillsdale College . After leaving town , the road bends to the north as Olds Street as it runs parallel to the St. Joseph River to Jonesville . In that community , M @-@ 99 intersects US 12 . The two highways run concurrently through Jonesville for less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before M @-@ 99 returns to its northwesterly course . It leaves the town toward Litchfield continuing parallel to the river .

In Litchfield , M @-@ 99 enters the town from the southeast , passing near downtown where it meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 49 . The highway leaves Litchfield heading northwest on Homer Road for a few miles before bending to the north as it crosses into Calhoun County . The trunkline passes through more farmland as it runs toward Homer on Hillsdale Street . In Homer , after passing through a roundabout , M @-@ 99 meets up with M @-@ 60 and the two highways run concurrently through the town to the northeast . The road briefly splits into a divided highway near the end of the concurrency . M @-@ 99 heads north , while M @-@ 60 continues eastward . From here , M @-@ 99 continues northward on 28 Mile Road toward the city of Albion . After crossing the Kalamazoo River in downtown , M @-@ 99 merges with Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) . M @-@ 99 continues east concurrently with the business loop on Michigan Avenue passing near Albion College before heading back north to an interchange with I @-@ 94 at exit 124 ; this interchange marks the end of BL I @-@ 94 and M @-@ 99 continues northward on Eaton Rapids Road .

M @-@ 99 heads north through farmland to the village of Springport where it turns eastward along Main Street as it passes through the town . The highway continues easterly on Eaton Rapids Road before turning northward to cross into Eaton County . Shortly after crossing the county line , M @-@ 50 comes in from the southwest to meet up with M @-@ 99 . The two highways travel together into Eaton Rapids . Together they form Main Street in the city before they separate on the north side of town . M @-@ 50 leaves to the northwest as Dexter Road , and M @-@ 99 continues to the northeast as Canal and Michigan streets . For the next few miles , the trunkline splits into a divided highway and runs parallel to the general course of the Grand River . M @-@ 99 crosses the river southeast of Diamondale after the opposing directions merge back together as an undivided highway . North of the river crossing , M @-@ 99 meets I @-@ 96 at the latter 's exit 101 on the southern border of Lansing .

From I @-@ 96 , the road continues north through residential neighborhoods into Lansing as Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard . The highway travels northeasterly through the southern side of the capital city , as far as Jolly Road . There it turns northward through the Old Everett Neighborhood . The street is bordered by commercial properties in this area . M @-@ 99 widens into a boulevard south of the intersection with Mount Hope Avenue before crossing the Grand River . North of the river , the highway is bordered by the site of the former Lansing Car Assembly plant , which for a century produced Oldsmobiles and other GM cars . M @-@ 99 ends at a junction with I @-@ 496 just north of the assembly plant area at exit 5 ; MLK Boulevard continues north from this interchange as the Capitol Loop .

M @-@ 99 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 99 were the 32 @,@ 262 vehicles daily north of Mount Hope Avenue in Lansing ; the lowest counts were the 2 @,@ 300 vehicles per day between the state line and the M @-@ 34 junction . No section of M @-@ 99 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

= = = Previous designations = = =

When the state highway system was originally signed in 1919 , M @-@ 99 was designated on a road between the Lake Michigan shoreline and M @-@ 11 ( now US 31 ) between Muskegon and Hart . This highway was decommissioned in 1929 . In 1931 , M @-@ 99 was designated on a gravel road in the Upper Peninsula from US 2 just east of Gulliver ) to Port Inland on Lake Michigan . This highway was decommissioned as well in 1939 .

= = = Current designation = = =

In 1919 , the highway that is now M @-@ 99 was first signed as M @-@ 64 from the Ohio state line to Hillsdale and as M @-@ 34 from Hillsdale to the Litchfield area . In 1924 , the western terminus of M @-@ 34 was extended to Homer where it terminated at M @-@ 60 . Just a few years later , in 1926 , the western terminus was truncated , to end at Hillsdale , with the remainder to Jonesville becoming an extension of the M @-@ 64 .

In 1929 , this version of M @-@ 64 was renumbered M @-@ 9 . In 1934 , M @-@ 9 traveled on Pioneer Road in Hillsdale County , from the Ohio border before turning west on Burt Road , north on Clark Road , west on Montgomery Road then north onto Hillsdale Road . During this time a loop was planned to continue north from the corner of Pioneer and Burt Roads to Montgomery Road where it turned west and met back up with M @-@ 9 at Clark Road . This short loop was designated M @-@ 158 , however later in the year the routing of M @-@ 9 was shifted onto the M @-@ 158 alignment , eliminating that route . By the middle of 1936 , the highway was extended northward to end in Lansing . The M @-@ 9 designation was replaced with M @-@ 99 in 1940 .

By 1947 , M @-@ 99 was completely paved . One segment between Litchfield and Homer was converted back to gravel surface in 1952 ; a change that was reverted two years later . By 1960 , the former US 12 / M @-@ 99 concurrency through Albion was redesignated Business US 12 through the city when the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway was completed . Within a year , that business loop was redesignated BL I @-@ 94 when the US 12 designation was removed from the freeway and applied to the former US 112 ; at the same time , the US 112 / M @-@ 99 concurrency in Jonesville became US 12 / M @-@ 99 as well .

A new alignment of M @-@ 99 highway was opened from the Ransom area north to Osseo in 1966 ; the western terminus of M @-@ 34 was scaled back to end at the new highway near Osseo and M @-@ 99 supplanted M @-@ 34 from Osseo to Hillsdale . The divided highway section of M @-@ 99 was opened north of Eaton Rapids in 1979 .

= = Major intersections = =

= 1853 Atlantic hurricane season =

The 1853 Atlantic hurricane season featured eight known tropical cyclones , none of which made landfall . Operationally , a ninth tropical storm was believed to have existed over the Dominican Republic on November 26 , but HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database – now excludes this system . The first system , Tropical Storm One , was initially observed on August 5 . The final storm , Hurricane Eight , was last observed on October 22 . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . At two points during the season , pairs of tropical cyclones existed simultaneously . Four of the cyclones only have a single known point in their tracks due to a sparsity of data , so storm summaries for those systems are unavailable .

Of the season 's eight tropical cyclones , four reached hurricane status . Furthermore , two of those four strengthened into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The strongest cyclone of the season , the third hurricane , peaked at Category 4 strength with 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds . With a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) , it was the most intense tropical cyclone recorded in the Atlantic basin until the 1924 Cuba hurricane . The hurricane caused 40 fatalities after a brig went missing off the coast of North Carolina . Despite remaining offshore , Tropical Storm Five brought very strong winds to the Mexican city of Veracruz . Hurricane Eight brought strong winds and rough seas to North Florida and Georgia , causing significant damage in the latter .

= = Timeline = =

= = Storms = =

= = = Hurricane Three = = =

Meteorologist William C. Redfield first observed the season 's third tropical storm south of Cape Verde on August 30 , which was the first Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane ever recorded . Initially , the storm moved west @-@ northwestward and gradually strengthened , becoming a hurricane on September 1 . Over the next two days , the hurricane intensified significantly and reached Category 2 strength early on September 2 . The system strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane by September 3 , attaining its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) was recorded by the barque Hermann soon thereafter . It was the most intense storm in the Atlantic until the 1924 Cuba hurricane , a Category 5 hurricane with a minimum pressure of 910 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . The Great Havana Hurricane of 1846 may have been stronger , though it is discounted because HURDAT records did not begin until the 1851 season .

By September 5 , the hurricane curved toward the northwest and began to weaken . Early on September 7 , it turned northward and fell to Category 3 intensity , situated about 340 miles ( 550 km ) east of Charleston , South Carolina . The hurricane passed offshore North Carolina later that day , and its outer rainbands produced heavy rainfall along the state 's southern coastlines . The brig Albermarle was lost at sea on September 7 with 40 of its crewmen missing ; they were later presumed to have drowned . The hurricane recurved east @-@ northeastward and continued to deteriorate steadily , weakening to Category 1 status by September 9 . The storm was last observed late on September 10 , centered about 525 miles ( 845 km ) north @-@ northwest of Flores Island in the Azores .

= = = Hurricane Four = = =

The ship Gilbert Gallatin encountered the fourth hurricane of the season on September 8 , which was centered about 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) east of the third hurricane . Sustained winds were initially observed to have reached 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , indicative of a Category 3 hurricane . Several other ships reportedly encountered this storm as it tracked northeastward . With winds decreasing to 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , it weakened to a Category 2 hurricane on September 10 . The storm was last noted by the ship Josephine later that day , while located about 615 miles ( 990 km ) north @-@ northeast of Graciosa in the Azores .

= = = Hurricane Six = = =

The sixth hurricane of the season was first observed as a tropical storm to the southeast of Bermuda on September 26 . Initially , the storm headed north @-@ northwestward , before curving north @-@ northeastward on September 27 , while bypassing Bermuda . Later that day , the storm strengthened into a hurricane . The brig Samuel and Edward encountered the hurricane on September 2 , reporting winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) ; this was the maximum sustained wind speed associated with the storm . Thereafter , the storm executed a cyclonic loop , which lasted until September 30 . It curved northeastward on October 1 and was last noted at 0600 UTC , while located about 590 miles ( 950 km ) northeast of Bermuda .

= = = Hurricane Eight = = =

The barque Edward reported a hurricane about 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Grand Bahama on October 19 . Several other ships encountered the storm between October 19 and October 20 . It moved slowly north @-@ northwestward and gradually strengthened . On October 20 , the storm reached maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . Additionally , ships reported a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . After weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane on October 21 , the storm veered east @-@ northeastward , avoiding a landfall in the Southeastern United States . It was last noted on October 22 , while centered about 80 miles ( 130 km ) east @-@ southeast of Charleston , South Carolina .

Strong winds , combined with tides in Jacksonville , Florida , pushed water over wharfs and onto Bay Street . William Gaston Captain Thomas E. Shaw reported that the gale at Brunswick , Georgia caused significant damage to the town . An engine @-@ house belonging to the Brunswick Railroad Company was flattened , as was a large cotton shed , a blacksmith shop , and a new frame house , and a number of other buildings were damaged . The new railroad wharf was washed away and its remains were floating in the harbor . Offshore , there were numerous shipwrecks , including the schooners W. Mercer , G. W. Pickering , Mary Ann , and the Steamer Planter . Additionally , the schooner James House reported " a perfect hurricane " .

= = = Other storms = = =

In addition to the four tropical cyclones of the season , there were four others with only a single point on their track , due to the sparsity of data . The barque W.B. Bowen encountered a gale with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) near 33 @.@ 5 ° N , 69 @.@ 2 ° W on August 5 , which is located about 255 miles ( 410 km ) east of Bermuda . This system would later be listed in HURDAT records as Tropical Storm One . However , due to heavy prevailing weather , further data on this storm is unavailable . A publication by meteorologist Ivan R. Tannehill indicates that Tropical Storm Two was centered near Barbados on August 10 . However , due its weak nature – maximum sustained winds were only 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) – only a single data point is known of the storm 's path .

Tropical Storm Five was reported to have existed on September 21 at 20 ° N , 95 ° W , which is located in the Bay of Campeche . The Elize and Crichton encountered a heavy " norther " upon arriving at Veracruz , Veracruz on that day . Although it was centered offshore , very strong winds were reported in Veracruz , possibly induced by the funneling effect from the Sierra Madre Oriental . Further information of this tropical storm is sparse . Two separate reports by meteorologists Ivan R. Tannehill and Edward B. Garriott indicate that the seventh tropical storm of the season existed at 15 ° N , 37 ° W on September 28 , which is located west of Cape Verde . Observations noted that maximum sustained winds reached 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . With only a single data point , no further information is available on this storm .

= Egon Mayer =

Egon Mayer ( 19 August 1917 – 2 March 1944 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 102 enemy aircraft shot down in over 353 combat missions . His victories were all claimed over the Western Front and included 26 four @-@ engine bombers , 51 Supermarine Spitfires and 12 P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts . Mayer was the first fighter pilot to score 100 victories entirely on the Western Front .

Born in Konstanz , Mayer , who was a glider pilot in his youth , volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1937 . Following flight training he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 . He fought in the Battle of France and claimed his first aerial victory in that campaign on 13 June 1940 . Mayer was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of the 7 . Staffel ( 7th squadron ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " in June 1941 . Two months later , following his 21st aerial victory , he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 1 August 1941 . He claimed 16 further victories and was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 16 July 1942 . In November 1942 , Mayer was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " .

Mayer claimed his first victories over United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) four @-@ engine bombers when he shot down two B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses and a B @-@ 24 Liberator on 23 November 1942 . Together with fellow fighter ace Georg @-@ Peter Eder , Mayer developed the head @-@ on attack as the most effective tactic against the Allied daylight heavy combat box bomber formations . He received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 16 April 1943 after 63 victories . On 1 July 1943 , he replaced Walter Oesau as Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " . He claimed his 90th victory on 31 December 1943 and on 5 February 1944 became the first pilot on the Channel Front to reach 100 victories . Mayer was killed in action on 2 March 1944 while leading an attack on a USAAF bomber formation ; he was shot down by P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt escort fighters near Montmédy , France . He was posthumously awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords that day .

= = Early life and career = =

Mayer , the son of a farmer , was born on 19 August 1917 in Konstanz at the Bodensee . Konstanz at the time was in the Grand Duchy of Baden of the German Empire . Mayer grew up on his parents ' farm named Hauserhof and spent his spare time at the glider airfield at the Bellenberg near Engen . He went to school at the Langemarck @-@ Realgymnasium — a secondary school built on the mid @-@ level Realschule to achieve the Abitur ( university entry qualification ) — in Singen . Today , the Langemarck @-@ Realgymnasium , which had been named after the location of the World War I Battle of Langemarck , is the Hegau @-@ Gymnasium .

Following his graduation , Mayer volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe on 1 November 1937 . His military training began at the 2nd Air Warfare School ( Luftkriegsschule 2 ) at Gatow , on the southwestern outskirts of Berlin . He was then trained as a fighter pilot and promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 August 1939 .

= = World War II = =

World War II in Europe began on Friday , 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . Mayer received the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) on 25 October 1939 and was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) , named after the after World War I fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen , on 6 December 1939 . For his entire combat career , with the exception of a brief posting to the fighter pilot school at Werneuchen , Mayer would serve in JG 2 " Richthofen " . He claimed his first aerial victory on 13 June 1940 during the Battle of France , shooting down an Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406.

In the Battle of Britain , Mayer often flew over the English Channel as the wingman of Helmut Wick . He claimed three further victories in this campaign , all over Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Supermarine Spitfires , but was himself shot down or forced to land at the French Coast . Once he had to swim in the Channel for an hour before he was rescued . At the end of 1940 Mayer had four victories to his credit and JG 2 " Richthofen " was withdrawn from combat to replenish the heavy losses it had sustained . Following a short tour as fighter pilot instructor at the Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) in Werneuchen , Mayer was sent back to the Channel Front .

On 10 June 1941 , Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) Mayer was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 7 . Staffel ( 7th squadron ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " , based at Saint @-@ Pol @-@ Brias . He claimed his 19th and 20th victory on 23 July 1941 and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 1 August 1941 after his 21st aerial victory . He received the award with fellow JG 2 " Richthofen " pilots Oberleutnant Erich Leie and Oberleutnant Rudolf Pflanz on that day . The triple award presentation was recorded by the Deutsche Wochenschau ( German Weekly Review ) , a newsreel series released in the cinemas . His score had increased to 28 aerial victories by the end of 1941 .

Mayer received the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) on 16 July 1942 . On 19 August , his 25th birthday , Mayer shot down two Spitfires over Dieppe during Operation Jubilee , his 49th and 50th victory .

= = = Group commander = = =

Mayer was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) and was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of III . Gruppe of JG 2 " Richthofen " in November 1942 . On 23 November , Mayer claimed his first victories over United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) four @-@ engined bombers , when he shot down two B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses and a B @-@ 24 Liberator . Together with Georg @-@ Peter Eder , Mayer developed the head @-@ on attack as the most effective tactic against the Allied daylight heavy combat box bomber formations . The concept was based on a Kette ( chain ) , three aircraft flying in a " V " formation , attacking from ahead and to the left . When in range , the attackers opened fire with a deflection burst , aiming in front of the enemy aircraft . Following the attack , the pilots would pull up sharply to the left or right . This gave the attacking fighters the best chance of avoiding the massed firepower of the bombers ' guns .

On 14 February 1943 , Mayer shot down three RAF Hawker Typhoons , claiming his 60th to 62nd victories . Following his 63rd victory he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 16 April 1943 , the 232nd officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored . The presentation was made by Adolf Hitler in his office at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin on 11 May 1943 . Mayer was then promoted to Major ( major ) on 1 June 1943 .

In June 1943 , Mayer encountered Robert S. Johnson , a future ace from the 56th Fighter Group of the US Eighth Air Force . Johnson 's P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt had been badly shot @-@ up by some Focke Wulf Fw 190s during a routine mission . As Johnson limped home , with a canopy that would not open and hydraulic fluid and oil covering his windscreen , Mayer pulled alongside him in his Fw @-@ 190 . Mayer looked the wounded P @-@ 47 over , and then circled to come in from Johnson 's six @-@ o 'clock to give it the coup de grâce . The first gun pass failed to knock the heavy American fighter out of the sky . Mayer made two more runs on Johnson , without success . After running out of ammunition , Mayer pulled alongside Johnson , saluted him and headed for home . Johnson landed his plane , and counted more than 200 holes , without even moving around the airplane . He also saw that a 20 mm cannon shell had exploded just behind his headrest , which had made it impossible to open his canopy .

On 22 June 1943 , a flight led by Mayer encountered an RAF Spitfire unit . During the course of the engagement , he claimed one Spitfire shot down and damage to another . He shot down three USAAF P @-@ 47s on 26 June 1943 .

= = = Wing commander and death = = =

Mayer was appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " on 1 July 1943 , thus succeeding Oberst ( Colonel ) Walter Oesau . Command of III . Gruppe was passed on to the Staffelkapitän of 8 . Staffel , Hauptmann Bruno Stolle . He claimed three B @-@ 17s shot down within 19 minutes on 6 September . The Eighth Air Force was targeting Stuttgart that day and lost 45 aircraft . On 1 December 1943 , Mayer shot down three P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts . His claimed aerial victories increased to 90 on 30 December 1943 . Mayer was credited with four victories on 7 January 1944 , three B @-@ 24s and one B @-@ 17 shot down in the vicinity of Orléans . On 4 February 1944 he claimed his 100th victory , the first fighter pilot on the Channel Front to achieve this mark .

Mayer 's final score stood at 102 when he was shot down and killed in action by a P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt near Montmédy on 2 March 1944 . Flying Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 A @-@ 6 ( factory number 470468 ) , Mayer had led his Stabsschwarm ( headquarters unit ) and elements of III . Gruppe , 14 Fw 190s in total , in an attack on B @-@ 17s in the area of Sedan , but failed to detect the fighter escort of 29 P @-@ 47s 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 meters ) above . His aircraft was seen taking hits at a range of 400 yards ( 370 meters ) in the nose and cockpit . It made a violent snap roll and went into a vertical dive , crashing within 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometers ) of Montmédy . He was posthumously decorated with the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) that day .

Recent research by historian Norman Fortier suggests that Mayer was shot down by Lieutenant Walter Gresham of the 358th Fighter Squadron of the 355th Fighter Wing . The claim is based on gun camera footage and recollections of Mayer 's wingman , who was forced to bail out during the action . Mayer was buried at the cemetery of Beaumont @-@ le @-@ Roger , France , and in 1955 re @-@ interred at the German War Cemetery in St. Desiré de Lisieux .

= = Awards = =

Wound Badge in Silver

Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold with Pennant " 300 "

Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge

Iron Cross ( 1939 )

2nd Class ( 25 October 1939 )

1st Class ( May 1940 )

German Cross in Gold on 16 July 1942 as Oberleutnant in the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "

Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords

Knight 's Cross on 1 August 1941 as Leutnant of the Reserves and pilot in Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "

232nd Oak Leaves on 16 April 1943 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "

51st Swords on 2 March 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "

= Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal =

The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Scandal was a political scandal in Alberta , Canada in 1910 , which forced the resignation of the Liberal provincial government of Alexander Cameron Rutherford . Rutherford and his government were accused of giving loan guarantees to private interests for the construction of the Alberta and Great Waterways ( A & GW ) Railway that substantially exceeded the actual cost of construction , and which paid interest considerably above the market rate . They were also accused of exercising insufficient oversight over the railway 's operations .

The scandal split the Liberal Party : Rutherford 's Minister of Public Works , William Henry Cushing , resigned from his government and publicly attacked its railway policy , and a large portion of the Liberal caucus voted to defeat the government in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . Although the government survived all of these votes , and Rutherford largely placated the legislature by appointing a royal commission to investigate the affair , pressure from Lieutenant @-@ Governor George Bulyea forced Rutherford 's resignation and his replacement by Arthur Sifton .

The royal commission reported months after Rutherford had already resigned . The majority did not find Rutherford or his cabinet guilty of any wrongdoing , but criticized them for poor judgment , both in relation to the loan guarantees and in relation to the exemptions the A & GW received from provincial legislation ; a minority report was more sympathetic , and declared the allegations against them " disproved " . James Cornwall , a Liberal backbencher who supported Rutherford , fared somewhat worse : his personal financial involvement in the railway gave rise to " suspicious circumstances " , but he too was not proven guilty of any wrongdoing .

Besides provoking Rutherford 's resignation , the scandal opened rifts in the Liberal Party that took years to heal . Sifton eventually smoothed over most of these divisions , but was frustrated in his railway policy by legal defeats . He ultimately adopted a similar policy to Rutherford 's , and the A & GW was eventually built by private interests using the money raised from provincial loan guarantees . The Liberals went on to be re @-@ elected in 1913 and 1917 .

= = Background = =

Alberta 's first years as a province were optimistic ones , and one way that this optimism manifested itself was in a desire for railroads . The public , media , and politicians all called for the rapid development of new lines and expansion of existing ones . Rutherford 's Liberals had set up a framework that allowed almost anybody to enter the railroad business , but few firms had done so by 1909 . The opposition Conservatives called for the government 's direct entry into the industry . Rutherford 's government instead opted for a regime of loan guarantees : the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway and the Canadian Northern Railway ( CNR ) had their bonds , which were to pay 4 % per year over their thirty @-@ year term , guaranteed at a rate of $ 13 @,@ 000 per mile of railway constructed . The legislature had the right to increase this to $ 15 @,@ 000 . In exchange , the railways were subject to a minimum rate of line construction : the CNR was required to build 125 miles ( 201 km ) and the Grand Trunk Railway 50 miles ( 80 km ) before the end of 1909 .

Besides the established companies , guarantees were also offered to new companies . One company to take advantage of this was the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway , which was founded by two Kansas City bankers , William R. Clarke and Bertrand R. Clarke , and a Winnipeg accountant , William Bain . The company proposed to build a " line from Edmonton north @-@ easterly to a point at or near the west end of Lac la Biche , thence to a point at or near Fort McMurray . " Guarantees to the so @-@ called " A & GW " were more generous than to the established companies : $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile for 350 miles ( 560 km ) and $ 400 @,@ 000 for its Edmonton terminal . The bonds also paid better interest ( 5 % ) over a longer term ( fifty years ) than those of the established companies . Upon the bonds ' sale , the money was to be placed in a bank account controlled by the government , and paid to the railway as the line was constructed .

= = The scandal = =

The Rutherford government had just been resoundingly re @-@ elected in the 1909 provincial election , winning 36 of the legislature 's 41 seats , when the new legislature first met in February 1910 . There was initially no sign of controversy in relation to the A & GW Railway : William Clarke , A & GW President , had several months earlier announced that the line would be completed by the end of 1912 , ahead of schedule . When the A & GW bonds went on sale in London in November 1909 , the issue was oversubscribed . The following month , the contract for ties was awarded . Everything seemed to be progressing as planned when , at the beginning of the new legislative session , Liberal backbencher John R. Boyle asked the government a series of innocuous questions about the company and the guarantees made to it . Rutherford , Minister of Railways as well as Premier , responded to the questions in writing . Before he did so , however , a rumour began to circulate that William Henry Cushing , Minister of Public Works , had resigned from the cabinet .

Boyle and Conservative leader R. B. Bennett questioned Rutherford about the rumours , but Rutherford initially refused to make any announcement . The next day , however , the rumour was confirmed when the Premier read Cushing 's letter of resignation in the legislature . In this letter , Cushing gave his reasons for resigning as disagreement with the government 's railway policy , which he claimed was developed without his involvement or consent . Rutherford disagreed with this claim , and expressed his regret for Cushing 's resignation .

= = = J. R. Boyle 's resolution = = =

On February 21 , Boyle gave notice of a resolution to expropriate the rights of the A & GW and build the line directly . He asserted that the government had guaranteed to the A & GW more than was necessary , as a line of 230 miles ( 370 km ) , barely two thirds what had been guaranteed , was sufficient . The next day , Boyle further alleged that Deputy Attorney @-@ General S. B. Woods had tampered with the government 's files on the A & GW before Boyle and Bennett had viewed them . Attorney @-@ General Charles Wilson Cross strongly disputed this allegation .

Debate on Boyle 's resolution began February 25 , in front of a full public gallery . Cushing opened debate . He explained that the cabinet 's original intention had been for $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile to be the maximum guarantee , with less promised for more easily built portions of the line . He claimed that he had taken ill at a time that this understanding was still in place , only to have Rutherford move responsibility for railways from Cushing 's Public Works department to a new Railways department , headed by Rutherford himself . He recounted his discomfort with Rutherford 's refusal to consult with Public Works engineers on the actual costs of constructing the line , and his relief at Rutherford 's assurance that Cushing himself would be consulted . He claimed that Rutherford had not followed @-@ through on this pledge , and that , upon seeing the completed agreement between the A & GW and the government , Cushing had decided to resign . Rutherford disputed this version of events , noted that Cushing had been at all relevant cabinet meetings , and cited the report of government engineer R. W. Jones in disputing that the line could be constructed for less than $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile .

Boyle followed , alleging that Rutherford had privately committed the government to the $ 20 @,@ 000 figure as early as November 14 , 1908 , before a government engineer had even been appointed . He also accused the government of negligence in failing to verify the paid in capital of the A & GW before committing $ 7 @.@ 4 million of government loan guarantees to it . He closed by repeating his demand that the government expropriate the company 's rights and build the line itself . Cross rebutted for the government , questioning Cushing 's sincerity and quoting a March 1909 speech in which the then @-@ Minister of Public Works had defended the government 's railway policy against Bennett 's attacks . Cross also reminded the legislature that no money was to be paid to the A & GW until tracks were actually constructed .

On February 28 Liberal member and Cushing @-@ ally Ezra Riley proposed an amendment to Boyle 's resolution , striking out the proposals to expropriate and substituting a statement that " the contract and agreement entered into between the Government and the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Company are not such as to commend them to the judgment and confidence of this house " . The same day , an amendment to this amendment was moved by Liberal John William Woolf and seconded by Liberal John Alexander McDougall . Woolf and McDougall proposed redrafting the agreement along the lines proposed by A & GW President Clarke in a letter to Rutherford . This letter suggested that the A & GW should offer to the government its construction equipment and other assets in guarantee of its construction pledges .

The Woolf @-@ McDougall amendment was considered friendly to the government , but Rutherford was not yet in the clear . Independent Edward Michener attacked the government for receiving only par value for the bonds when they had been sold at ten percent above par . McDougall voiced his support for Michener 's argument ; though McDougall had seconded Woolf 's pro @-@ government amendment , it became apparent that his reasons for doing so were less support for the government than a principled aversion to the province using its law @-@ making power to extricate itself from inconvenient contracts .

Opposition to the government came to a head March 2 when Conservative leader Bennett first spoke . Bennett was renowned as one of the province 's finest orators , and his five @-@ hour speech earned plaudits even from the Liberal Edmonton Bulletin , which praised its " splendor in diction [ and ] the physical endurance of the orator " and called it a " high water mark for parliamentary debate in Alberta " . Bennett lashed out at the government 's handling of the A & GW file , accusing it of culpable negligence in failing to properly oversee the company 's activities . He claimed to have been approached directly by " great financial interests " intent on preventing his participation in the debate . He argued that the discrepancy in the sale price of the bonds and what the government had received for them meant that Clarke and his associates had realized a profit of between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 300 @,@ 000 at the government 's expense . He closed with an accusation that Cross had sent an emissary to a telephone company that wanted to install an automatic telephone system in Calgary agreeing to reverse his opposition to the deal in exchange for a $ 12 @,@ 000 contribution to Cross 's campaign fund . These charges , corroborated by Cushing but hotly denied by Cross , were not related to the A & GW affair , but were designed to damage the credibility of the government 's de facto house leader on the eve of the vote on the Woolf @-@ McDougall amendment . The government side adopted similar tactics : Agriculture Minister Duncan Marshall accused Boyle of being motivated by bitterness over having been denied the solicitorship of the A & GW ; Boyle admitted that he had applied for this position , but denied an accusation from Peace River MLA James Cornwall that he had requested Cornwall 's assistance in lobbying for it .

The Woolf @-@ McDougall amendment came to a vote the evening of March 3 . In a victory for the government , the amendment passed twenty @-@ three votes to fifteen . In addition to Michener and the legislature 's two Conservatives , the amendment was opposed by twelve of the legislature 's thirty @-@ seven Liberals , including Cushing . Charles M. O 'Brien , the legislature 's lone Socialist representative , voted with the government .

= = = Cabinet confusion = = =

On March 9 , Cross suddenly resigned . His resignation was quickly followed by that of Woods , his deputy . The next day William Ashbury Buchanan , Minister without Portfolio , did the same ; though he had voted on the government 's side on the Woolf @-@ McDougall motion , he harboured considerable doubts about the government 's railway policy . Rumours circulated that Agriculture Minister Marshall and Minister without Portfolio Prosper @-@ Edmond Lessard had also resigned , though these proved false . Buchanan , Marshall , Lessard , and Rutherford made no comment on the situation to either the press or the legislature , but Cross was more forthcoming : he said that Rutherford had told him that Cushing had been asked to re @-@ enter cabinet and had accepted , leading Cross to conclude that , in light of his public conflict with Cushing , he " could not , under the circumstances , remain a member of the Alberta government . " ( Woods , who as a deputy minister did not sit in the legislature , denied that his resignation had any political motivation at all ; he said that he had received an employment offer carrying three times his current salary . )

Cushing also made public statements and , as usual , his were not in line with Cross 's . While acknowledging that Rutherford had invited him to rejoin the cabinet , he claimed that the Premier had offered Cross 's resignation as one of the terms for Cushing 's re @-@ entry . He further denied that he had ever accepted Rutherford 's offer , both because of persisting conflict between him and the Premier and because his re @-@ entry was unanimously opposed by his fellow dissident Liberals . He directly accused Cross of having fabricated his claim that Rutherford had told him that Cushing had agreed to re @-@ enter cabinet .

Rutherford held his silence until March 11 , when he told the legislature that he had not accepted any resignations . He said that the only vacant cabinet post was the ministry of Public Works previously held by Cushing , and that he hoped to fill it soon . In the meantime , he intended to continue governing . While he eventually acknowledged Buchanan 's resignation March 14 , Cross remained in cabinet .

= = = Further manoeuvring in the legislature = = =

Following the passage of the Woolf @-@ McDougall motion , the government took the offensive . On March 9 , Rutherford gave notice of a resolution to strike a provincial railway board , with a membership of Rutherford , Deputy Public Works Minister John Stocks , and provincial railway engineer R. W. Jones . The board would have the power to discharge any government responsibility under the Alberta Railway Act . Stocks , however , publicly repudiated the resolution , and announced that he would have nothing to do with it .

On March 11 , government supporter Charles Stewart attempted to disclose a scandalous rumour about Boyle in the legislature , but was ruled out of order by Speaker Charles W. Fisher . The allegation was quickly printed in the Edmonton Bulletin instead : Boyle , who expected to be named Attorney @-@ General in the event that Cushing formed a government , was accused of approaching Lucien Boudreau and Robert L. Shaw , two government supporters who were hoteliers in their extra @-@ legislative careers , and offering them immunity from prosecution for liquor license violations in exchange for their support of the insurgency .

That same day , Riley and Boyle moved a motion of no confidence in the government . It was defeated by a margin of twenty to seventeen . Ominously for Rutherford , two hitherto loyal Liberals , Buchanan and Henry William McKenney , switched their support to the rebels . More favourably , the ill member for Macleod , Colin Genge , was rumoured to be recovering from his illness and soon on his way to Edmonton , where he was expected to support the government ( in fact , Genge would die without ever taking his seat ) . The government was also encouraged by the motion of dissident George P. Smith to strike an apolitical commission to supervise the construction of the A & GW , since it corresponded closely to its own proposal to appoint a royal commission .

Rutherford gave notice of a resolution to strike this royal commission , to be composed of three judges of the provincial supreme court , March 14 . After one final attempt by the rebels to defeat the government legislatively ( which failed by three votes ) , the resolution to strike the royal commission passed the legislature unanimously the next day . The Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal was , for the time being , out of the legislature 's hands .

= = Aftermath = =

= = = The commission 's inquiry = = =

The commission first met in Edmonton March 29 . The three commissioners — Justices David Lynch Scott , Horace Harvey , and Nicholas Beck — were joined by counsel for the insurgents ( including Bennett himself ) , Cross , Rutherford , the A & GW , and Cornwall ( who had been accused of using his involvement with the Athabasca Railway for personal benefit during the scandal ) . The evidence they heard was reported in great detail by Alberta 's press , to the initial interest of the public . Before long , however , the details grew tedious , and the public became less engaged .

The greatest surprise to emerge during the commission 's inquiry did not come from one of the forty @-@ six witnesses to testify , but from one who did not : A & GW President Clarke moved back to the United States , and did not return for his scheduled testimony . While this disappearance did not prove the government 's guilt , in the eyes of the press it did prove Clarke 's . As the Edmonton Journal put it , the only question left to answer was " were the members of the government simple innocents whom Clarke worked through their credulity or were they in on it with him ? "

= = = George Bulyea 's role = = =

Though it was George Bulyea , Alberta 's first lieutenant governor , who had invited Rutherford to form the province 's first government in 1905 , the Premier never fully enjoyed Bulyea 's confidence . Bulyea preferred several other candidates to Rutherford , including federal Member of Parliament ( MP ) Peter Talbot , but when these proved unwilling he acquiesced with Rutherford , the choice of Alberta Liberals . Now , with Rutherford reeling , Bulyea saw his initial doubts validated and began the search for potential successors .

The obvious choice was Cushing , but Bulyea felt little enthusiasm for him , doubting his political acumen ( in this opinion he was supported by other Liberal Party luminaries , including Frank Oliver , federal Minister of the Interior and proprietor of the Bulletin ) . He continued to prefer Talbot , but found that the insurgent Liberals , who favoured Cushing , would not accept him . Oliver was also a possibility , but he had no interest in leaving Ottawa .

Talbot suggested Arthur Sifton , the province 's chief justice . Sifton was a Liberal , but as a judge he was remote from political mudslinging . However , he had been offered the office of Premier in 1905 , when it had seemed more desirable than it did now ; would he have any interest ? The question was answered May 26 , when the legislature reconvened . Bulyea entered the house and announced that he had accepted Rutherford 's resignation and that he had asked Sifton to form a government . Sifton had accepted .

The arrangement had nearly fallen apart at the last moment : MLAs loyal to Cross indicated on May 25 that they would accept Sifton only if Cross remained the Attorney @-@ General , which Sifton refused . It appeared for a time that Rutherford would not resign ; after considering the matter overnight , Bulyea decided the morning of May 26 that he was in a position to force the Premier 's hand , but it proved unnecessary when Rutherford stepped down of his own volition .

= = = The commission 's report = = =

The commission reported to the legislature November 10 , 1910 . Its findings were split into two reports : a majority report from Justices Scott and Harvey , and a minority report from Justice Beck .

The majority report traced the origins of the A & GW scandal to 1905 , when a number of Albertans , including James Cornwall , were federally incorporated as the Athabasca Railway Company , chartered to construct a railway from Edmonton to Fort McMurray . The legal work for the incorporation had been done by the law firm of Charles Wilson Cross , Cornwall 's close friend and personal solicitor . In October 1906 Cornwall sold the ARC 's charter to a syndicate of Winnipegers for $ 2 @,@ 500 and a one @-@ sixth share in the syndicate . The syndicate costed out the construction of the railway , and found that cost per mile would be $ 13 @,@ 700 from Edmonton to Lac la Biche , and one thousand dollars per mile more from Lac la Biche to Fort McMurray . It decided to undertake the venture if it could get a loan guarantee of $ 13 @,@ 000 per mile from the Alberta government .

At the end of 1906 , syndicate members visited Alberta , where Cornwall introduced them to members of the cabinet . Negotiations between the syndicate and the government continued for several years . During this time , new construction estimates prepared by the syndicate placed the cost of the railway at between eighteen and twenty thousand dollars per mile . February 2 , 1907 , Cornwall entered into an agreement with the syndicate whereby he would receive $ 544 @,@ 000 in stock in the resulting railway company if he could secure the necessary loan guarantees ; this amount was later changed to $ 100 @,@ 000 .

At the beginning of 1908 , Clarke appeared on the scene , and eventually acquired the syndicate 's full interest in the railway , including a purchase of Cornwall 's interest for $ 14 @,@ 500 ( of an agreed @-@ upon $ 25 @,@ 000 ) . Shortly thereafter , Clarke met with members of cabinet in Calgary ; Cushing asserted that he had not been present for this meeting , while Rutherford insisted that he had been . While no formal guarantee was made at this meeting , Clarke left it confident that he would receive the necessary loan guarantee , and proceeded with construction plans . He obtained new cost estimates for the railroad of $ 27 @,@ 000 per mile , though Clarke 's engineer confidentially advised him that it could be built for half this amount . By November 14 , 1908 , the cabinet , led by Rutherford and Cross , had agreed to the $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile guarantee . The majority report was critical of Rutherford and Cross for this , and also for setting the bonds ' interest rate at 5 percent rather than 4 percent . The stated reason for this discrepancy was that the proposed railroad was likely to be difficult and expensive to build , crossing hundreds of miles of wilderness ; in response , the report pointed out that the provincial guarantee of $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile took this difficulty into account , and that there was thus no need for a higher interest rate to lure investors .

The majority report also took a dim view of the exemptions from the province 's railway legislation that were built into the A & GW 's charter : unlike the province 's other railways , the A & GW was not required to have directors resident in Alberta and was exempt from the requirement that railway companies not commence business until 25 % of their capital was subscribed and 10 % paid up . The A & GW was held to a figure of less than 1 % for both , and even this requirement was met in an unusual manner : Clarke brought his personal account into overdraft to issue a $ 50 @,@ 000 cheque to the company , thereby allowing the latter to meet its capital requirements and commence operations . The company then authorized a payment of the same amount to Clarke on account of expenses incurred by him on behalf of the company ; he used this payment to clear his overdraft .

The majority declined to find Rutherford and Cross guilty of any wrongdoing beyond poor judgment , though its findings were hardly flattering : " As there is room for doubt that the inference of personal interest is the only reasonable inference to be drawn from the circumstances related , and in view of the positive denial , it can only be said that , in the opinion of your commissioners , the evidence does not warrant the finding that there was or is any personal interest on the part of Dr. Rutherford or Mr. Cross " . Its findings with regards to Cornwall were similar : his receipt of $ 14 @,@ 500 and his expectation of $ 10 @,@ 500 more constituted " suspicious circumstances " , but these " point to no definite conclusion ; and he has denied that he received any other benefit , or was interested in any other way in the enterprise , and it must be held that the evidence does not establish the contrary . "

Justice Beck 's minority report was more sympathetic to all three men . Beck declared himself perfectly satisfied that Cushing , despite his protestations to the contrary , had been aware of all details of the negotiations . While acknowledging that " in some instances the wisdom of their course may be doubtful " , he accepted Rutherford 's and Cross 's explanations for their actions and labelled the accusations against them " disproved " . He felt similarly about Cornwall , concluding that by the time he was using his position to advocate for the construction of the A & GW , he was free of any pecuniary interest in it .

= = = Long @-@ term effects = = =

Sifton was selected Premier in an effort to restore party unity , and his first cabinet reflected that . There were three ministers in addition to Sifton . Charles R. Mitchell had been , like Sifton , a judge during the scandal , and was therefore unattached to either side . Duncan Marshall had been a Rutherford cabinet minister , but not one identified strongly with its railway policy . Archibald J. McLean had voted with the rebels , but not been a leader among them . The cabinet thus included members of both factions , but none of those who inspired such strong opinions as to be overly divisive .

In late 1910 , the new government introduced legislation to revoke the A & GW 's charter and confiscate the proceeds from the sale of bonds , which were still held by the province . In introducing the bill , Sifton made no commitment as to what would be done with the funds once confiscated . Many northern MLAs , including Cornwall and Cross , suspected that the Premier 's plans for the money did not include construction of a northern railway , and opposed the bill on that basis . Clarke re @-@ surfaced in Winnipeg to deny Sifton 's charge that the A & GW had defaulted on any of its obligations , and Conservative leader Bennett opposed the confiscation out of stated respect for private property : " Clarke I despise but Clarke I am bound to respect because this province gave him a right by charter and if I know the United States I do not think it will allow this province to take his property ' without due process of law ' . "

The government won the vote 25 to 14 . Once the legislation was signed into law by Bulyea , the government immediately wrote cheques drawing on the bond money . The Royal , Dominion , and Union banks , where the funds were deposited , refused payment . The government sued , and the provincial supreme court ruled in its favour in 1912 . The Royal Bank subsequently requested that the federal government use its power of disallowance to invalidate the legislation and appealed the supreme court 's decision to the British privy council , at the time Canada 's highest court of appeal . While the federal government declined to act , in 1913 the privy council found that the provincial legislature did not have the authority to confiscate money that had been raised from investors from outside of the province .

In its objective of smoothing over Liberal divisions , Sifton 's succession was only partially successful . Rutherford himself became increasingly distant from the party , and sought re @-@ election in the next election as an independent Liberal , opposed to Sifton 's government . In fact , he offered to campaign for the Conservatives across the province if they would agree not to run a candidate against him in his own riding ; the Conservatives declined his offer , and Rutherford was defeated . He would go on to campaign for the Conservatives in the 1921 election . On the other side , Ezra Riley , a leader of the insurgency , resigned his seat in protest of Cushing 's exclusion from the new administration ; he was defeated in the ensuing by @-@ election by a pro @-@ Sifton candidate . It is possible that supporters of Cross would have taken a similar tack , but Sifton brought him back into cabinet before the next election . With the noisiest dissidents neutralized , the Liberals enjoyed a period relatively free of intra @-@ party strife , until the Conscription Crisis of 1917 once again split the party .

= A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush =

A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush is a 1958 book by the English travel writer Eric Newby . It is an autobiographical account of his adventures in the Hindu Kush , around the Nuristan mountains of Afghanistan , ostensibly to make the first mountaineering ascent of Mir Samir . It has been described as a comic masterpiece , intensely English , and understated . Publications including The Guardian and The Telegraph list it among the greatest travel books of all time . It has sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in paperback .

The book has 14 monochrome photographs taken mainly by Newby , and two hand @-@ drawn maps . The novelist Evelyn Waugh wrote a preface that mentions the book 's whimsy and its Englishness .

The action in the book moves from Newby 's life in the fashion business in London to Afghanistan . On the way Newby describes his very brief training in mountaineering in North Wales , a stop in Istanbul , and a nearly @-@ disastrous drive across Turkey and Persia . They are driven out to the Panjshir Valley , where they begin their walk , with many small hardships described in a humorous narrative , supported by genuine history of Nuristan and brief descriptions of the rare moments of beauty along the way . Disagreements with Newby 's Persian @-@ speaking companion Hugh Carless , and odd phrases in an antique grammar book , are exploited to comic effect .

The book has been reprinted many times , in at least 16 English versions and in Spanish , Chinese and German editions . While some critics consider Newby 's Love and War in the Apennines a better book , A Short Walk was the book that made him well @-@ known , and critics agree that it is both understated and very funny in an old @-@ school British way .

= = Background = =

In 1956 at the age of 36 , Newby ended his London career in fashion and decided impulsively to travel to a remote corner of Afghanistan where no Englishman had ventured for 60 years .

He sent a telegraph to his friend the diplomat Hugh Carless , then due to take up his position as First Secretary in Tehran later that year , requesting he accompany him on an expedition to Northern Afghanistan . They were poorly prepared and inexperienced , but Newby and Carless vowed to attempt Mir Samir , a glacial and then unclimbed 20 @,@ 000 foot peak in the Hindu Kush .

= = The book = =

= = = Publication = = =

A Short Walk was first published in 1958 by Secker and Warburg . It has been reprinted many times since .

Translations include :

1997 : Laertes , Barcelona ( Spanish )

1998 : 馬可孛羅文化事業股份有限公司 . Marco Polo , Taibei ( Chinese )

2002 : Eichborn , Frankfurt am Main ( German )

2005 : Goldmann , München ( German )

= = = Illustrations = = =

The book was illustrated with 14 monochrome photographs taken by Newby or Carless ; one depicts the explorer Wilfred Thesiger in his sleeping @-@ bag .

There are two hand @-@ drawn maps . The " Map to illustrate a journey in Nuristan by Eric Newby and Hugh Carless in 1956 " , shows an area of 75 x 55 miles covering the Panjshir valley to the Northwest , and Nuristan and the Pushal valley to the Southeast ; it has a small inset of Central Asia showing the area 's location to the Northeast of Kabul . The other map , " Nuristan " , covers a larger area of about 185 x 140 miles , showing Kabul and Jalalabad to the South , and Chitral and the Pakistan region of Kohistan to the East .

= = = Preface by Evelyn Waugh = = =

A two @-@ page preface by novelist Evelyn Waugh recommends the book , remarking on its " idiomatic , uncalculated manner " , and that the " beguiling narrative " is " intensely English " . He hopes that Newby is not the last of a " whimsical tradition " . He explains that Newby is not the other English writer of the same name and confesses ( or pretends ) that he began to read it thinking that it was the other man 's work . He sketches out the " deliciously funny " account of Newby selling women 's clothes , and the " call of the wild " ( he admits it is an absurdly trite phrase ) that led him to the Hindu Kush . Waugh ends by advising the " dear reader " to " fall to and enjoy this characteristic artifact . "

= = = Structure = = =

The book contains 20 chapters , all narrated in the first person by Newby .

= = = = The rag trade = = = =

Chapter 1 Life of a Salesman

Newby describes his frustration with life in the fashion business or " rag trade " in London .

Chapter 2 Death of a Salesman

Newby leaves the rag trade .

= = = = Training = = = =

Chapter 3 Birth of a Mountain Climber

Newby and Carless receive very brief training in mountaineering technique , on boulders and small cliffs in North Wales . The inn has " splendid " waitresses who seem to be expert climbers and who take them up the Ivy Sepulchre on Dinas Cromlech , as the easier Spiral Stairs route is busy .

= = = = Driving out = = = =

Chapter 4 Pera Palace

Newby arrives in Istanbul with his wife , Wanda , having driven across Europe .

Chapter 5 The Dying Nomad

With Carless , they drive across Turkey to Persia ( present day Iran ) . They make an emergency stop on the road , just short of a dying nomad , and with difficulty convince the police they did not cause the death .

Chapter 6 Airing in a Closed Carriage

Wanda returns home and the men cross Persia and Afghanistan , driving through Herat to Kandahar and Kabul . They had driven 5 @,@ 000 miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ) in a month . There are comic touches , as when " The proprietor Abdul , a broken @-@ toothed demon of a man , conceived a violent passion for Hugh . We sat with him drinking coffee ... ' Arrrh , CAHARLESS , soul of your father . You have ill @-@ used your motor @-@ car . ' He hit Hugh a violent blow of affection in the small of his back , just as he was drinking his coffee . ' Urggh ! ' "

= = = = Journey = = = =

Chapter 7 A Little Bit of Protocol

Newby and Carless try to acclimatise to the altitude with a practice walk . They visit the Foreign Ministry , hire an Afghan cook , and buy a " very short " list of supplies . Newby describes the geography of Nuristan " walled in on every side by the most formidable mountains " and a little history , with the legend of descent from Alexander the Great , the British imperial adventures , and pre @-@ war German expeditions .

Chapter 8 Panjshir Valley

They are driven out from Kabul by a servant from the Embassy . They stay in a tall mud house in a place with mulberry trees , vines and willows by a river . Hugh puts the dinner guests to sleep with a complicated story " about an anaconda killing a horse " .

Chapter 9 A Walk in the Sun

They meet their three " very small " horses and their horse @-@ drivers . The cook has to return to Kabul . Despite having horses , they decide to carry 40 pound ( 20 kg ) packs " to toughen ourselves up " . The local people insult them for carrying loads in the heat . The drivers are angry at having to walk in the heat . They agree the drivers ' pay .

Chapter 10 Finding our Feet

They walk . They get upset stomachs and blisters . They find a man " with his skull smashed to pulp " ; the head driver suggests they should leave the place immediately . Two lammergeiers circle overhead .

Chapter 11 Western Approaches

They become tired of each other 's company , and of the food they have brought . They come to a ruinous summer pasture village , and eat local food : boiled milk , the yellow crust that forms on cream , and fresh bread . They catch sight of their goal , Mir Samir . They find tracks of ibex and wolf . One of their drivers catches a snowcock by running after it .

Chapter 12 Round 1

They look up at the awesome West wall of the mountain above them . They walk up the glacier wearing new crampons , probing for crevasses with their ice @-@ axes . They cross the bergschrund and climb " a few feet of easy rock " . Carless suggests rappelling 200 feet ( 60 m ) to the next glacier . They agree " it would be difficult " to get back if they did that . They return to their base camp and try again the next morning , again finding their way blocked . They wish the climbing waitresses from Wales were with them .

Chapter 13 Coming Round the Mountain

An injured boy is dressed in a " devilish " goatskin to draw the poison from his wounds . Newby has to eat the tail of a fat @-@ tailed sheep . They are escorted up the Chamar valley by a greedy farting albino . Newby tries to learn some phrases in the Bashguli or Kafir language from a 1901 Indian Staff Corps grammar , which contains sentences such as " A lammergeier came down from the sky and took off my cock " .

Chapter 14 Round 2

Setting out at 5 a.m. , they attempt to climb the East ridge . It becomes very hot . The rock is gritty with sharp flakes of mica . They pretend to be " Damon Runyon characters trying to climb a mountain " to cheer themselves up . They get better at roped climbing . After six and a half hours the altimeter shows 18 @,@ 000 feet . They reckon they could reach the top if they tried a different gully and started at 4 a.m. They go down . Carless 's hands are red and bleeding .

Chapter 15 Knock @-@ out

They camp below a cliff . Rocks continually fall , bouncing over their heads . It is bitterly cold . There is a thunderstorm . They eat pea soup , tinned apple pudding , and jam straight from the tin . They try to sleep . They try to ascend a 70 degree ice slope . They reach the ridge , after five hours , not the estimated two . At 19 @,@ 100 feet they have a tremendous view of the Hindu Kush , the Anjuman Pass , Tirich Mir , and the mountains that border Pakistan . Choughs croak above them . They are only 700 feet below the summit , but four hours away . They turn back . " The descent was terrible . " They return to camp at 9 p.m. after climbing for 17 hours .

Chapter 16 Over the Top

Carless makes an impressive speech in Persian to convince the drivers to continue into Nuristan . They climb an extremely indistinct track to the pass . They descend into Nuristan : it grows hot . Men run to meet them : they are told they are the first Europeans ever to cross the pass ( Newby doesn 't believe this ) . They are given ice @-@ cold milk to drink .

Chapter 17 Going Down !

They make camp in a loop of the river to reduce the risk of being murdered in the night . They are visited by two evil @-@ looking men with an ancient Martini @-@ Henry rifle , riding a horse . In the morning they try out the Bashguli grammar on a man ; he understands , but speaks a variant dialect or language . Newby tells the history of the Kafirs and the Russians . Their guide does not let them camp in a grove of mulberry trees full of " extremely handsome " girls and young women ; instead , he makes them camp under some cliffs in a place full of flies and excrement . They undress to wash in the river , discovering how thin they have become .

Chapter 18 A Room with a View

A large audience gathers to watch them get up and cook . There is a violent storm . They reach Pushal , " the capital of the Ramgul Kafirs " . The headman gives them delicious apricots and tells tales of the old days . They admire the antique rifles of many kinds that the men have , all " in a disgraceful condition " . A mullah forbids them to go to a funeral where a bullock is to be slaughtered , in a holiday atmosphere . Instead , they sit under a walnut tree beside a river , with kingfishers , butterflies , hummingbird hawkmoths , a woodpecker drilling , and have " a rare moment of peace " . Newby shakes hands with two lepers . They all have dysentery . Newby spends hours negotiating the price of a complete male Nuristanis costume .

Chapter 19 Disaster at Lake Mundul

Walking down from Lustagam they pass hand @-@ made irrigation canals of hollowed @-@ out halved tree trunks on stone pillars . They are shown a large rock , the Sang Neveshteh , with an inscription said to be in Kufic script , supposedly recording the Emperor Timur Leng 's visit in 1398 A.D. Newby gives some pages of history " lifted almost in their entirety ... from Elliott [ sic ] and Dawson 's History of India , Vol . III , London , 1871 . " The emperor forcibly converted the Nuristanis to Islam , which Newby implies they still regret . The country becomes lusher , with both ordinary mulberries and the king mulberry , plums , sloes and soft apples . Then they cross a wooded country with watermills , wild raspberries and buttercups " like a summer morning in England , but a long time ago " . They climb back into the " wilderness " to Gadval , a village on a cliff , with picturesque privies over the streams . At Lake Mundul a mullah swims the horse with Newby 's camera and all their film and other possessions across the river . The headman shows a scar inflicted on him in deep snow by a black bear .

Chapter 20 Beyond the Arayu

They climb 2 @,@ 000 feet out of the valley to reach the Arayu . At Warna they rest by a waterfall with mulberry trees . They walk on . Newby dreams of cool drinks and hot baths . They struggle on over a high cold pass . The last village of Nuristan , Achagaur , is peopled by Rajputs who claim to come from Arabia . They reach the top of the Arayu pass , " one of the lonely places of the earth with all the winds of Asia droning over it " . Newby feels the place will continue " whatever disasters overtook the rest of mankind " . They feel very happy going down from the pass . They meet the explorer and author of Arabian Sands , Wilfred Thesiger . He is disgusted by their air @-@ beds .

Maps

= = Reception = =

Edward Mace George , writing in The Guardian , notes that the book " is the comic masterpiece Newby will be remembered by " , though his finest work was Love and War in the Apennines ( 1971 ) .

Kari Herbert notes in The Guardian 's list of travel writer 's favourite travel books that she inherited her father , English polar explorer Wally Herbert 's " well @-@ loved copy " of Newby 's book . " Like Newby , I was in a soulless job , desperate for change and adventure . Reading A Short Walk was a revelation . The superbly crafted , eccentric and evocative story of his Afghan travels was like a call to arms . " John Gimlette , in the same list , chooses Newby 's Love and War in the Apennines . The Telegraph includes it as one of its " 20 best travel books of all time " , describing Newby and Carless 's meeting with the explorer Wilfred Thesiger as a " hilarious segment " . It quotes " We started to blow up our air @-@ beds . ' God , you must be a couple of pansies , ' said Thesiger . " Outside magazine includes A Short Walk among its " 25 essential books for the well @-@ read explorer " .

Margalit Fox , writing Newby 's obituary in the New York Times , notes that the trip was the one that made him famous , and states that " As in all his work , the narrative was marked by genial self @-@ effacement and overwhelming understatement . " She cites a 1959 review in the same publication by William O. Douglas , later a Supreme Court judge , who called the book " a chatty , humorous and perceptive account " , adding that " Even the unsanitary hotel accommodations , the infected drinking water , the unpalatable food , the inevitable dysentery are lively , amusing , laughable episodes . "

The Anmore Ladies Book Club ( Gentlemen welcomed ) called the book " an understated and very humorous travel story " , with " often ' laugh out loud ' funny " descriptions . While " the writing was a bit tedious at times , the general consensus was that [ the book ] was well worth the read " .

Travel writer John Pilkington includes the book in his " Top 10 writer 's reads " in Geographical magazine , observing that it is " still unmatched after nearly 50 years in print " , and describing it as a " hilarious and nicely understated description of an ill @-@ fated journey " .

American novelist Rick Skwiot enjoys the " blithely confident Brit 's " narrative style , finding echoes of its concept , structure and humour in Bill Bryson 's A Walk in the Woods . Skwiot notes the hazards of the journey as crevasses , precipices , thieves , bears , disease , thirst , hunger . " Somehow they blunder on toward their whimsical destination " , he remarks , the " seductive and tickling narrative " told with " understatement , self @-@ effacement , savage wit , honed irony , and unrelenting honesty . " The reader is drawn in " by his endearingly flawed humanity . "

Michael Shapiro , interviewing Newby for Travelers ' Tales , calls the book " a classic piece of old @-@ school British exploration , and established Newby ’ s trademark self @-@ deprecating wry humor . "

In Varieties of Nostalgia in Contemporary Travel Writing , Patrick Holland and Graham Huggan observe that " travel writing , like travel itself , is generated by nostalgia " . But the " anachronistic gentleman " can only exist , they note , quoting Simon Raven , " in circumstances that are manifestly contrived or unreal " . The resulting " atmosphere of enhanced affectation is exploited to maximum comic effect " in books like A Short Walk , which they call " an acclaimed post @-@ Byronic escapade in which gentlemanly theatrics come to assume the proportions of full @-@ blown farce . "

= = Legacy = =

The Austrian alpinist Adolf Diemberger wrote in a 1966 report that in mountaineering terms Newby and Carless 's reconnaissance of the Central Hindu Kush was a " negligible effort " , admitting however that they " almost climbed it " . The climb was more warmly described in the same year as " The first serious attempt at mountaineering in that country [ the Afghan Hindu Kush ] " by the Polish mountaineer Boleslaw Chwascinski .

In January 2012 , an expedition under the auspices of the British Mountaineering Council , citing the " popular adventure book " , attempted the first winter ascent of Mir Samir , but it was cut short by an equipment theft and " very deep snow conditions and route finding difficulties " .

= = = Edition = = =

Newby , Eric ( 1974 ) . A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush . Pan . ISBN 0 @-@ 330 @-@ 24227 @-@ X.

= Philip Humber =

Philip Gregory Humber ( / ˈʌmbər / ; born December 21 , 1982 ) is an American former professional baseball pitcher . He pitched for the New York Mets , Minnesota Twins , Kansas City Royals , Chicago White Sox , and Houston Astros in seven seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Although he debuted in the major leagues in 2006 and had worked mostly as a starter in the minor leagues , he did not become a regular MLB starter until 2011 .

Humber earned three Texas Little League state championships . He subsequently attended Carthage High School in Carthage , Texas , where he led the baseball team to the state championship game in 2001 , his senior season , winning state Player of the Year honors . He then attended Rice University , where he played college baseball for the Rice Owls baseball team . Humber was the winning pitcher in the clinching game of the 2003 College World Series . He has also represented the United States at the World University Baseball Championship .

The Mets selected Humber with the third overall selection in the 2004 MLB draft . During his minor league career , he underwent ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction , before making his MLB debut with the Mets . It took him several years to regain his ability to throw with the same velocity that he had prior to the injury . After being included in a trade to the Twins for Johan Santana , Humber struggled to establish himself . He spent a year with the Royals organization and was briefly a member of the Oakland Athletics organization , before being claimed on waivers by the White Sox in 2011 , getting an opportunity to pitch in the White Sox ' starting rotation . On April 21 , 2012 , Humber pitched the 21st perfect game in MLB history , defeating the Seattle Mariners .

= = Early life = =

Born in Nacogdoches , Texas , Humber was raised in Carthage , Texas . Living in an area with an abundance of baseball fields , Humber grew up with a batting cage in his backyard . At the age of 11 , Humber visited the Chicago White Sox during spring training in Florida as the guest of Robert Ellis , a family friend of the Humbers , who then was a minor league baseball pitcher for the White Sox .

Carthage was a Texas anomaly , its baseball athletes being the most admired role models rather than its football players . As of 2004 , the Panola County Dixie League teams had won 15 state championships in the preceding 20 years and Humber played for three state champions .

= = Amateur career = =

Humber attended Carthage High School . The Carthage Bulldogs had won the state title in 1990 and been one of the final four teams in the state tournament in 1994 . Humber was promoted from junior varsity midway through his sophomore season . He compiled a 4 – 0 win – loss record with a low 1 @.@ 09 earned run average ( ERA ) . He went 7 – 2 as a junior , and posted a 13 – 1 record with a 0 @.@ 90 ERA and 146 strikeouts as a senior . A capable batter , he also had a .371 batting average with six home runs . Humber threw a shutout in the Texas University Interscholastic League Class 4A semifinals against Cedar Park High School in 2001 , his senior season . Although Carthage lost the state championship to Western Hills High School in baseball that year , Humber was named Texas High School Class 4A Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association . According to former Major League Baseball prospect and East Texas native Alan Move : " Back in high school , he ( Humber ) threw harder than everyone else and changed speeds pretty well and that 's all you need in high school . "

Humber was drafted by the New York Yankees in the 29th round of the 2001 Major League Baseball draft . As the 875th pick overall , he described himself as " more of a draft @-@ and @-@ follow " prospect . The Yankees made Humber an offer in an attempt to lure him away from his college scholarship , but he did not sign , choosing instead to attend Rice University in order to play college baseball for the Rice Owls baseball team , competing in the Western Athletic Conference ( WAC ) of NCAA Division I.

At Rice , Humber was coached by Wayne Graham . Humber 's first home appearance at Reckling Park was in the annual Rice Alumni game in February 2002 . After retiring his first two batters in relief , Humber faced a pair of Major League Baseball players . José Cruz , Jr. bounced the baseball off of the wall in center field and then Lance Berkman hit the ball over the scoreboard . After his inauspicious debut , he became a dominant pitcher during his three college seasons for the Rice Owls , stepping into the nationally ranked Owls ' starting rotation as a freshman . Humber finished his freshman season in 2002 with an 11 – 1 win – loss record , a 2 @.@ 78 ERA , and a WAC @-@ leading 130 strikeouts in 110 2 ⁄ 3 innings , earning National Freshman Player of the Year honors from Collegiate Baseball and All @-@ America honors from several publications — Collegiate Baseball ( Second Team ) , Baseball America ( Second Team ) and Baseball Weekly ( Third Team ) . Humber 's strikeout total was the most for an Owl freshman since 1976 . That season , Rice reached the 2002 College World Series , but lost its first two games and was eliminated . Nonetheless , Humber earned an invitation to USA Baseball 's national team trials . He was the scheduled starter in the second of the two games , which was against the Notre Dame Fighting Irish on June 17 , but the team could not hold a 3 – 2 lead in the bottom of the ninth . He then competed for the United States national baseball team at the 2002 World University Baseball Championship , which was held in Messina , Sicily . On August 7 , he earned a victory for the United States in a game against the South Korean team . The United States won the silver medal in the tournament .

Entering his sophomore season , he was expected to be a key part of the starting pitching rotation . The 2003 season saw the development of Rice 's " Big Three " rotation , featuring Humber and sophomore classmates Wade Townsend and Jeff Niemann . Humber developed a curveball that season , to augment his arsenal that included a fastball , changeup and split @-@ finger fastball . During the season , Humber achieved his 17th consecutive win in WAC play . He was recognized as a Third Team All @-@ American by Collegiate Baseball and was a First Team All @-@ Western Athletic Conference honoree . The trio entered the 2003 College World Series with gaudy numbers — Niemann ( 16 – 0 , 1 @.@ 63 ERA ) and Townsend ( 10 – 1 , 1 @.@ 90 ERA ) complementing Humber — and with Humber scheduled for the third game , if necessary . Humber finished with an 11 – 3 win – loss record with a 3 @.@ 30 ERA , as Rice won its first national championship in any team sport . He pitched a complete game in the decisive third game of the series , a 14 – 2 win over the Stanford Cardinal . The game established a College World Series record for largest title game margin of victory . During the season , Rice established a school record 30 @-@ game winning streak . Upon his becoming the College World Series hero , June 26 , 2003 was declared ' Philip Humber Day ' in his hometown of Carthage , Texas in his honor . Following the season , all three pitchers competed in collegiate summer baseball in the Cape Cod Baseball League ; Humber pitched for the Yarmouth – Dennis Red Sox . Baseball America rated Humber as the seventh @-@ best prospect in the Cape Cod League .

In his junior season of 2004 , Humber compiled a 13 – 4 win – loss record and 2 @.@ 27 ERA . He struck out 154 batters and issued only 37 walks in 115 innings . He also set the Rice single @-@ game record for strikeouts when he struck out 17 Hawaii Rainbow Warriors hitters on March 20 , 2004 . Rice entered the 64 @-@ team NCAA Baseball tournament as one of the eight national seeds . In the first game of the regional round of the tournament , Rice was upset by the Texas Southern Tigers . Humber entered the next game against the Texas A & M Aggies with the bases loaded and surrendered a first @-@ pitch grand slam to Justin Ruggiano . For the season , Humber totaled 154 strikeouts in 115 innings pitched .

Humber finished his three @-@ year career with a 35 – 8 win – loss record and 2 @.@ 80 ERA , striking out 422 in 354 innings pitched . Humber 's totals rank him with the third most wins in Rice baseball history and second most strikeouts . Among his honors for the season were selection to the 2004 Louisville Slugger All @-@ America team by Collegiate Baseball and the 2004 USA TODAY / Sports Weekly All @-@ America team . During the inaugural year for the Roger Clemens Award , which designates the top college pitcher , he was one of 10 named semifinalists . He was also among the 10 finalists for the Dick Howser Trophy in 2004 , in recognition of his performance as one of college baseball 's top players .

Following the early exit in the Houston Regional due to the upset by the Aggies , Humber looked forward to the Major League Baseball Draft . Niemann , and Townsend were all selected along with Humber in the first eight picks of the 2004 MLB Draft — the first time three teammates had ever gone so early in the same draft . Only twice had three teammates been taken in the first round , most recently when Steve Hosey , Tom Goodwin and Eddie Zosky of the Fresno State Bulldogs were selected in the first round of the 1989 Major League Baseball draft . Teammate David Aardsma , a relief pitcher , was also selected in the first round .

= = Professional career = =

= = = New York Mets ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =

The New York Mets chose Humber out of Rice University with their first @-@ round pick in the 2004 Major League Baseball draft , the third overall selection . The Mets chose Humber over Jered Weaver and Stephen Drew , who also received consideration , as they considered Humber to be the " safe " selection . They also scouted Justin Verlander , who the Detroit Tigers had chosen with the second overall pick . It was reported that the Mets preferred Verlander , and would have chosen him if the Tigers had selected Drew .

On January 11 , 2005 , Humber and the Mets agreed to a five @-@ year contract , ending a long holdout the day before the Mets began their two @-@ day minicamp in Port St. Lucie , Florida . Humber and the Mets were motivated to complete a deal due to a change in federal tax law that made signing bonuses subject to Federal Insurance Contributions Act and Social Security taxes . There is some discrepancy about the value of the contract . According to MLB.com , Humber received a combined $ 3 @.@ 7 million signing bonus and contract from the Mets . The Houston Chronicle reported the contract to be a $ 4 @.@ 2 million deal with a $ 3 million signing bonus and that Humber would fly to minicamp . Six months later , Lee Jenkins of The New York Times also reported the signing bonus to be $ 3 million , but he claimed the contract was for $ 5 million in total . John Manuel of Baseball America reported the contract was worth a maximum of $ 5 @.@ 116 million , with $ 4 @.@ 2 million guaranteed .

Baseball America rated Humber as the 50th @-@ best prospect in baseball heading into the 2005 season . Humber entered spring training in 2005 with the Mets . There , he clashed with Mets ' pitching coach Rick Peterson , who wanted Humber to adopt a different training regimen and change the manner with which he threw the ball to the plate . The Mets front office supported Humber , telling him to pitch how he felt comfortable .

After the brief stint in spring training , the Mets assigned Humber to start his professional career with the St. Lucie Mets of the Class @-@ A Advanced Florida State League , where , in fourteen starts , he posted a 2 – 6 win – loss record and a 4 @.@ 99 ERA . Humber was then promoted to the Class @-@ AA Binghamton Mets of the Eastern League . In one start , Humber gave up three earned runs in four innings . Humber left the game early due to elbow pain caused by bone spurs , which required ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction ( more commonly known as Tommy John surgery ) to repair a torn ligament in his elbow . The surgery was performed by Dr. James Andrews of the American Sports Medicine Institute . Coincidentally , his Rice pitching teammates , Townsend ( Tommy John surgery ) and Niemann ( arthroscopic shoulder surgery ) , also endured major surgeries that year . Rice coach Graham , who also coached MLB starters such as Roger Clemens and Andy Pettitte in college , shied away from any blame , noting that all three missed out on fall league play by holding out . In spite of his arm surgery , Humber was named the 20th @-@ best prospect in the Florida State League by Baseball America , which ranked him as the fifth @-@ best prospect in the Mets organization following the season .

On March 8 , he was assigned to the Mets minor league camp . After rehabilitating from surgery , Humber resumed pitching with St. Lucie in 2006 , posting a 2 @.@ 37 ERA in seven starts . He compiled a 3 – 1 win – loss record . On July 31 , 2006 , a year after his surgery , Humber was once again promoted to Binghamton , where he was 2 – 2 with a 2 @.@ 88 ERA . He was an early September call @-@ up when the Major League rosters expanded on September 1 . However , Humber did not make his Major League Baseball debut until September 24 , 2006 . He made two appearances for the Mets as a relief pitcher , pitching two innings . However , Humber was unable to obtain his pre @-@ surgery velocity . That fall , he began play in the Arizona Fall League but his participation was discontinued when he endured shoulder tendinitis .

Before the 2007 season , Baseball America rated Humber as the fourth @-@ best prospect in the Mets organization . That year , the Mets had nine pitchers competing for five spots in the starting rotation in spring training camp . Óliver Pérez , Tom Glavine , Orlando Hernández , and John Maine were the favorites for the spots in the rotation . Veterans Aaron Sele , Chan Ho Park and Jorge Sosa were also invited to camp so that the team could be patient with former first round draft choices Humber and Mike Pelfrey , who were considered the most promising pitchers in camp . Rated the 73rd @-@ best prospect in baseball by Baseball America prior to the 2007 season , Humber competed for a spot on the Mets roster in spring training . However , Humber was optioned to the minor leagues during spring training in 2007 . Assigned to the New Orleans Zephyrs of the Class @-@ AAA Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , Humber had an 11 – 9 win – loss record and 4 @.@ 27 ERA in 139 innings pitched . He allowed 129 hits and walked 44 while striking out 120 batters in 25 starts . For the season , Humber finished tied for fourth in the PCL in wins and had the tenth @-@ best ERA . He had started the season by earning the PCL Pitcher of the week for the week ending April 22 . That week he allowed 2 earned runs in 13 innings of work over two starts , earning a win on April 16 against the Nashville Sounds with six innings of work and suffering a blown save after seven innings against the Albuquerque Isotopes on April 21 . He flirted with a no @-@ hitter with the Zephyrs on August 22 when he entered the ninth inning without giving up a hit to the Iowa Cubs . In his subsequent start , he allowed only an unearned run on two hits over five innings , but he was removed from the game when a batted ball hit him in the shoulder .

Humber was promoted to the Mets , again as a September call @-@ up , on September 2 . Though the Mets considered inserting him into the starting rotation immediately , they chose to start Pelfrey . Humber made two relief appearances for the Mets , on September 5 and 11 . The Mets , having lost eight of their previous 12 games and seen their lead over the Philadelphia Phillies in the National League East division race decrease from seven games to two , removed Pelfrey from the final rotation to give an extra day of rest to pitchers Pérez , Maine , and Pedro Martínez , and gave Humber his first Major League start on September 26 , 2007 , against the Washington Nationals , choosing him over Dave Williams . Although the Mets raced out to a 6 – 2 lead , Humber allowed five runs in four @-@ plus innings , receiving a no decision in a game the Mets eventually lost , 9 – 6 . The decision to start Humber was seen as emblematic of the Mets ' desperation . As George Vecsey wrote in The New York Times , " How did it come to this ? How did the entire Mets ' season come to depend so much on a young pitcher , Philip Humber , who had never started in the major leagues until last night ? " He concluded his three Mets appearances in the 2007 season with a 7 @.@ 71 ERA .

= = = Minnesota Twins ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = =

Following the 2007 season , the Mets began to discuss trading Humber to the Minnesota Twins in a package of prospects to acquire two @-@ time Cy Young Award @-@ winning pitcher Johan Santana . Eligible to become a free agent after the 2008 season , Santana had rejected a proposed four @-@ year , $ 80 million contract extension from the Twins . Assuming that he was unlikely to resign with Minnesota , the Twins began to shop him to other MLB teams .

On February 2 , 2008 , the Mets traded Humber , along with outfielder Carlos Gómez and pitchers Kevin Mulvey and Deolis Guerra , to the Twins for Santana . At the time Baseball America ranked Guerra , Gomez , Mulvey and Humber the second , third , fourth and seventh @-@ best prospects in the Mets organization , respectively .

During spring training , the Twins assigned Humber to Santana 's former place in the Twins ' clubhouse . While trying to earn a spot in the rotation , Humber compiled 11 consecutive scoreless innings in the Grapefruit League . By late March , Humber had a spring training ERA of 1 @.@ 29 .

Humber spent most of the 2008 season assigned to the Twins ' Class @-@ AAA affiliate , the Rochester Red Wings of the International League . He started off slow with a 0 – 5 win – loss record and a 5 @.@ 83 ERA in his first nine starts . With Rochester , Humber eventually compiled a 10 – 8 win – loss record with a 4 @.@ 56 ERA in 31 games . He finished with a 6 – 1 win – loss record and a 2 @.@ 67 ERA in the second half . His 4 – 1 win – loss record with a 2 @.@ 74 ERA in August earned him the Minor League Pitcher of the Month Award . The Twins promoted Humber in August 2008 , and he appeared in five games for the Twins , all in relief . Humber pitched 11 2 ⁄ 3 innings , and posted a 4 @.@ 63 ERA and six strikeouts for the Twins . Following the 2008 season , Humber was out of options , and could not be sent to the minor leagues without first being subjected to waivers , where other teams could claim him .

Humber made the Twins ' Opening Day roster in 2009 as a long reliever . Humber struggled at the start of the 2009 season , pitching to a 12 @.@ 46 ERA over 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings , while giving up 11 hits and walking four batters . The Twins designated Humber for assignment on April 17 , 2009 to make room on their roster for Juan Morillo , who the Twins had claimed off waivers from the Colorado Rockies . Humber cleared waivers and the Twins assigned him to Rochester . The Twins recalled Humber in August 2009 due to an injury to Francisco Liriano , but outrighted him to the minor leagues ten days later . Humber was granted free agency after the 2009 season .

= = = Kansas City Royals ( 2010 ) = = =

On December 15 , 2009 , Humber signed a minor league contract with the Kansas City Royals , receiving an invitation to spring training . After he pitched to an 11 @.@ 74 ERA in four spring training games , the Royals reassigned Humber to their minor league camp on March 22 .

Humber was assigned to start the year with the Omaha Royals of the PCL . On June 10 , 2010 , while pitching in a game for Omaha , Humber was hit in the face on a line drive by Luis Cruz . After lying on the mound for a few minutes , he was able to get up and walk on his own to the dugout . He was then transported to a local hospital , where he received eighteen stitches . He earned the second PCL Pitcher of the Week Award of his career for play during the week ending August 1 . He won the award based on having posted a complete game 4 @-@ hit 7 @-@ strikeout shutout against the Nashville Sounds on July 30 .

However , Humber began to regain the velocity he had lost following Tommy John surgery in 2005 . Humber was called up by the Kansas City Royals on August 5 , 2010 , when Kansas City designated José Guillén for assignment . On August 25 , Humber pitched three relief innings for the Royals against the Detroit Tigers and earned his first MLB win . He finished the 2010 season with a 2 – 1 win – loss record and 4 @.@ 15 ERA in eight games for the Royals , including one game started . He also appeared in 21 games , 20 of them starts , for the Omaha Royals , pitching to a 5 – 6 win – loss record and 4 @.@ 47 ERA . The Royals designated Humber for assignment in December 2010 , in order to make room on the roster for newly signed Jeff Francoeur .

= = = Chicago White Sox ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = =

In December 2010 , the Royals waived Humber , and he was claimed by the Oakland Athletics , who had extra room on their 40 @-@ man roster at the time of the waiver claim . However , the team subsequently filled its 40 @-@ man roster and designated Humber for assignment later that off @-@ season in order to make room on their roster for Guillermo Moscoso , who the Athletics acquired from the Texas Rangers in a trade during January 2011 . The Chicago White Sox claimed Humber off waivers from the Athletics on January 18 , 2011 . He signed a contract worth $ 500 @,@ 000 for the season . White Sox pitching coach Don Cooper worked with Humber , as he replaced his cut fastball with a slider and improved his pitching mechanics in the fashion originally recommended by Peterson in 2005 .

Humber debuted with the White Sox in their third game in relief . He made two pitches , both of which resulted in hits and base runners that came around to score . With Jake Peavy injured at the start of the 2011 season , the White Sox gave Humber the opportunity to pitch in their starting rotation . On April 9 , 2011 , Humber won his first start with the White Sox , pitching 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings and only allowing one run . Humber surprised the White Sox with his strong performance . On April 25 , in the sixth start of his career , he took a no @-@ hitter into the seventh inning against the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium , but with one out Alex Rodriguez singled up the middle . He finished with seven scoreless innings . He took a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning against the Washington Nationals on June 26 , but ended up earning a 2 – 1 loss when he surrendered a seventh inning home run to Danny Espinosa . In early July , when he led the major leagues with 103 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched and held an 8 – 4 record with a 2 @.@ 69 ERA , he seemed like a probable selection for the 2011 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . In mid @-@ July , the White Sox switched to a six @-@ man rotation . By early August , Humber was in a slump . Humber denies the extra rest affected his pitch command . He spent time on the disabled list with a facial bruise after Kosuke Fukudome lined a baseball into his face above the right eye on August 18 . After he was hit , he was very concerned for his wife : " I thought , ' I 've got to get up because she 's in the stands , ' " Humber said . " As soon as I went in [ the clubhouse ] , I asked one of the guys to call her to make sure she knew I was OK . " , adding " My main concern was cheering up my wife . " He appeared in one rehabilitation start for the Charlotte Knights of the Class @-@ AAA International League . Humber pitched seven scoreless innings in his major league return . Humber completed his first full season as an MLB starting pitcher with a 9 – 9 win – loss record with a 3 @.@ 75 ERA in 163 innings .

As Humber performed better in the first half of the 2011 season ( 8 – 5 , 3 @.@ 10 ERA ) than in the second half ( 1 – 4 , 5 @.@ 01 ERA ) , which he attributed to general fatigue , Humber decided to add 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) during his offseason workouts . Humber signed a one @-@ year contract in March for $ 530 @,@ 000 , above the minimum salary for a player with his level of MLB experience . In the first season in which he did not have to battle for a roster spot in spring training , he made his final spring training start in his home state near Rice at Minute Maid Park in front of many relatives . Although the 2012 Chicago White Sox 's rotation was said to be made up of five number @-@ three starters , Humber began the season as the number five starter .

In Humber 's 30th career start in MLB , he pitched the 21st perfect game in MLB history against the Seattle Mariners on April 21 , 2012 . It was the third perfect game in White Sox history after those thrown by Charlie Robertson and Mark Buehrle , and the 18th no @-@ hitter in White Sox history . It was Humber 's second start of the 2012 season and first career complete game .

Humber was named American League ( AL ) Player of the Week for the week ending April 22 . Humber went 1 – 0 with a 0 @.@ 63 ERA in 14 1 ⁄ 3 innings while striking out 16 over two starts that week , including the perfect game . He received a congratulatory phone call from President Barack Obama , a noted White Sox fan . Humber appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman , where he read the " Top Ten List " . Humber 's perfect game will be memorialized with a plaque at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum .

Since the perfect game , Humber has struggled . He allowed 20 runs in his next three starts across 13 1 ⁄ 3 innings . He missed one month of the season due to a right elbow strain . Following the acquisition of Francisco Liriano , the White Sox removed Humber from the starting rotation .

= = = Houston Astros ( 2013 ) = = =

The Houston Astros claimed Humber off waivers on November 30 , 2012 . Humber made the Astros ' starting rotation at the start of the 2013 season . Humber lost his spot in the starting rotation to Érik Bédard after opening the season with an 0 – 7 record and an ERA of 8 @.@ 82 . Humber was designated for assignment on May 12 , after his record fell to 0 – 8 with a 9 @.@ 59 ERA . After pitching in relief for the Oklahoma City RedHawks of the PCL , the Astros selected his contract on August 12 , when they traded Wesley Wright to the Tampa Bay Rays . On October 3 , the Astros declined a $ 3 million option for 2014 , instead paying him his guaranteed $ 500 @,@ 000 and releasing him .

= = = Oakland Athletics = = =

On November 2 , 2013 , Humber signed a minor league contract with the Oakland Athletics , with an invitation to spring training . The Athletics assigned him to the Sacramento River Cats of the PCL .

= = = Kia Tigers = = =

On December 8 , 2014 , Humber signed a contract with the Kia Tigers of the Korea Baseball Organization . After pitching to a 6 @.@ 75 ERA in 50 2 / 3 innings , Humber was released by the Tigers on July 20 , 2015 .

= = = San Diego Padres = = =

On December 10 , 2015 , Humber signed a minor league deal with the San Diego Padres . Humber retired on March 29 , 2016 .

= = = Pitching style = = =

Humber relied on five pitches . He had a four @-@ seam fastball ranging from 89 to 92 miles per hour ( 143 – 148 km / h ) , a two @-@ seam fastball ( 89 to 92 miles per hour ( 143 – 148 km / h ) ) , a slider ( mid 80s ) , a changeup ( mid 80s ) , and a 12 @-@ 6 curveball ( 78 to 81 miles per hour ( 126 – 130 km / h ) ) . He used his slider against right @-@ handed hitters but preferred to use his changeup and curveball as off @-@ speed pitches against left @-@ handed hitters . Humber favored his curveball in two @-@ strike situations . He used a conventional " three @-@ quarters " arm slot to deliver his pitches .

= = Personal life = =

Humber married his wife , Kristan , in November 2007 . They were introduced by mutual friends in 2005 . At the time of his perfect game , Humber 's wife was nine months pregnant with the couple 's first child , a son named John Gregory , who was born on May 1 . Humber comes from a large extended family .

Humber is a registered member of the Republican Party . He has the Bible verse Colossians 3 : 23 inscribed in his baseball glove . He undertook a charitable mission to the Philippines in the 2011 – 12 offseason with Brett Carroll , where they instructed children about baseball and Christianity .

Josh Tomlin , an MLB pitcher , is a close friend of Humber . From nearby Tyler , Texas , Tomlin competed against Humber in high school , and the two train together during offseasons . Humber is currently a Tyler resident .

= Jonathan Lethem =

Jonathan Allen Lethem ( born February 19 , 1964 ) is an American novelist , essayist and short story writer . His first novel , Gun , with Occasional Music , a genre work that mixed elements of science fiction and detective fiction , was published in 1994 . It was followed by three more science fiction novels .

In 1999 , Lethem published Motherless Brooklyn , a National Book Critics Circle Award @-@ winning novel that achieved mainstream success . In 2003 , he published The Fortress of Solitude , which became a New York Times Best Seller . In 2005 , he received a MacArthur Fellowship .

= = Early life = =

Lethem was born in Brooklyn , New York , to Judith Frank Lethem , a political activist , and Richard Brown Lethem , an avant @-@ garde painter . He was the eldest of three children . His father was Protestant ( with Scottish and English ancestry ) and his mother was Jewish , from a family with roots in Germany , Poland , and Russia . His brother Blake became an artist , and his sister Mara became a photographer , writer , and translator . The family lived in a commune in the pre @-@ gentrified Brooklyn neighborhood of North Gowanus ( now called Boerum Hill ) . Despite the racial tensions and conflicts , he later described his bohemian childhood as " thrilling " and culturally wide @-@ reaching . He gained an encyclopedic knowledge of the music of Bob Dylan , saw Star Wars twenty @-@ one times during its original theatrical release , and read the complete works of the science fiction writer Philip K. Dick . Lethem later said Dick ’ s work was " as formative an influence as marijuana or punk rock — as equally responsible for beautifully fucking up my life , for bending it irreversibly along a course I still travel . "

His parents divorced when Lethem was young . When he was thirteen , his mother Judith died from a malignant brain tumor , an event which he has said haunted him and has strongly affected his writing . ( Lethem discusses the direct relation between his mother and the Bob Dylan song " Like a Rolling Stone " in the 2003 Canadian documentary Complete Unknown . ) In 2007 , Lethem explained , " My books all have this giant , howling missing [ center ] — language has disappeared , or someone has vanished , or memory has gone . "

Intending to become a visual artist like his father , Lethem attended the High School of Music & Art in New York , where he painted in a style he describes as " glib , show @-@ offy , usually cartoonish " . At Music & Art he produced his own zine , The Literary Exchange , which featured artwork and writing . He also created animated films and wrote a 125 @-@ page novel , Heroes , still unpublished .

After graduating from high school , Lethem entered Bennington College in Vermont in 1982 as a prospective art student . At Bennington , Lethem experienced an " overwhelming .... collision with the realities of class — my parents ’ bohemian milieu had kept me from understanding , even a little , that we were poor .... at Bennington that was all demolished by an encounter with the fact of real privilege . " This , coupled with the realization that he was more interested in writing than art , led Lethem to drop out halfway through his sophomore year . He hitchhiked from Denver , Colorado to Berkeley , California in 1984 , across " a thousand miles of desert and mountains through Wyoming , Utah , and Nevada , with about 40 dollars in my pocket , " describing it as " one of the stupidest and most memorable things I 've ever done . "

Lethem lived in California for twelve years , working as a clerk in used bookstores , including Moe 's and Pegasus & Pendragon Books , and writing on his own time . Lethem published his first short story in 1989 and published several more in the early 1990s .

= = Career = =

= = = First novels = = =

Lethem ’ s first novel , Gun , with Occasional Music , is a merging of science fiction and the Chandleresque detective story , which includes talking kangaroos , radical futuristic versions of the drug scene , and cryogenic prisons . The novel was published in 1994 by Harcourt Brace , in what Lethem later described as a " delirious " experience . " I 'd pictured my first novels being published as paperback originals , " he recalled , " and instead a prestigious house was doing the book in cloth .... I was in heaven . " The novel was released to little initial fanfare , but an enthusiastic review in Newsweek , which declared Gun an " audaciously assured first novel " , catapulted the book to wider commercial success . Gun , with Occasional Music was a finalist for the 1994 Nebula Award , and placed first in the " Best First Novel " category of the 1995 Locus Magazine reader 's poll . In the mid @-@ 1990s , film producer @-@ director Alan J. Pakula optioned the novel 's movie rights , which allowed Lethem to quit working in bookstores and devote his time to writing .

His next book was Amnesia Moon ( 1995 ) . Partially inspired by Lethem 's experiences hitchhiking cross @-@ country , this second novel uses a road narrative to explore a multi @-@ post @-@ apocalyptic future landscape rife with perception tricks . After publishing many of his early stories in a 1996 collection , The Wall of the Sky , the Wall of the Eye , Lethem published his third novel , As She Climbed Across the Table ( 1997 ) . It starts with a physics researcher who falls in love with an artificially generated spatial anomaly called " Lack " , for whom she spurns her previous partner . Her ex @-@ partner 's comic struggle with this rejection , and with the anomaly , constitute the majority of the narrative .

In 1996 , Lethem moved from the San Francisco Bay Area back to Brooklyn . His next book , published after his return to Brooklyn , was Girl in Landscape . In the novel , a young girl must endure puberty while also having to face a strange and new world populated by aliens known as Archbuilders . Lethem has said that Girl in Landscape 's plot and characters , including the figures of a young girl and a violently protective father figure , were " very strongly influenced " by the 1956 John Wayne Western The Searchers , a movie with which he is " obsessed . "

= = = Mainstream success and " genre bending " = = =

The first novel Lethem began after returning to New York City was Motherless Brooklyn , a return to the detective theme . He maintained objective realism while exploring subjective alterity through Lionel Essrog . His protagonist has Tourette syndrome and is obsessed with language . Lethem later said that Essrog

... obviously [ is ] the character I 've written with whom I most identify ... [ the novel ] stands outside myself ... It 's the only one which doesn 't need me , never did . It would have found someone to write it , by necessity .

Upon its publication in 1999 , Motherless Brooklyn won the National Book Critics Circle Award for Fiction , The Macallan Gold Dagger for crime fiction , and the Salon Book Award ; it was named book of the year by Esquire . In 1999 , actor Edward Norton announced that he was planning to write , direct and star in a film adaptation of the novel . In March 2007 , Norton said he was still working on the screenplay .

According to The New York Times , the mainstream success of Motherless Brooklyn made Lethem " something of a hipster celebrity " , and he was referred to several times as a " genre bender " . Critics cited the variety of Lethem 's novels , which were alternately hard @-@ boiled detective fiction , science fiction , and autobiographical . ( Lethem credited his comfort in genre @-@ mixing to his father 's art , which " always combined observed and imagined reality on the same canvas , very naturally , very un @-@ self @-@ consciously . " ) In Time magazine , Lev Grossman classed Lethem with a movement of authors similarly eager to blend literary and popular writing , including Michael Chabon ( with whom Lethem is friends ) , Margaret Atwood , and Susanna Clarke .

In 2003 , Lethem commented on the concept of " genre bending " :

The fact is , I used to get very involved , six or seven years ago , and before that , in questions of taxonomy of genre , and in the idea — which is ultimately a political idea — that a given writer , perhaps me , could in some objective way alter or reorganize the boundaries between genres .... Nowadays , I 've come to feel that talking about categories , about " high " and " low " , about genre and their boundaries and the blurring of those boundaries , all consists only of an elaborate way to avoid actually discussing what moves and interests me about books — my own , and others ' . What I like are books in their homely actuality — the insides of the books , the mysterious movements of characters and situations and the emotions that accompany those movements . The play of sentences , their infinite variety .

In the early 2000s , Lethem published a story collection , edited two anthologies , wrote magazine pieces , and published the 55 @-@ page novella This Shape We 're In ( 2000 ) . This Shape We 're In was one of the first offerings from McSweeney 's Books , the publishing imprint that developed from Dave Eggers ' McSweeney 's Quarterly Concern .

In November 2000 , Lethem said that he was working on an uncharacteristically " big sprawling " novel , about a child who grows up to be a rock journalist . The novel was published in 2003 as The Fortress of Solitude . The semi @-@ autobiographical bildungsroman features dozens of characters in a variety of milieus , but features a tale of racial tensions and boyhood in Brooklyn during the late 1970s . The main characters are two friends of different backgrounds who grew up on the same block in Boerum Hill . It was named one of nine " Editor 's Choice " books of the year by The New York Times and has been published in fifteen languages .

Lethem 's second collection of short fiction , Men and Cartoons , was published in late 2004 . In March 2005 , The Disappointment Artist , his first collection of essays , was released . On September 20 , 2005 , Lethem received a MacArthur Fellowship .

In an interview with Armchair / Shotgun in 2009 , Lethem said of short fiction :

I 'm writing short stories right now , that 's what I do between novels , and I love them . I 'm very devoted to it . You know , it 's funny . There seems to be some sort of law that you only get to be celebrated for one or the other . And then a couple of people will break it . Updike did . They didn 't review his story collections by saying , " Well , these are nice , but he 's a novelist . " Or review his novels by saying , " Well , too bad he can 't do the longer stuff . " Other people tend to get patronized on one end or the other — and I 'll take it . I have a very happy life as a novelist . But the story collections I 've published are tremendously important to me . And many of the uncollected stories — or yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ collected stories — are among my proudest writings . They 're very closely allied , obviously , to novel writing . But also very distinct , and , you know , there 's no need to choose .

= = = 2005 – present = = =

In September 2006 , Lethem wrote the article , " The Genius of Bob Dylan " , a lengthy interview with Bob Dylan , which was published in Rolling Stone . The interview contained Lethem 's reflections on Dylan 's artistic achievements . It revealed Dylan 's dissatisfaction with contemporary recording techniques and his thoughts on his own status .

After Motherless Brooklyn and The Fortress of Solitude , Lethem decided that " [ i ] t was time to leave Brooklyn in a literary sense anyway ... I really needed to defy all that stuff about place and memory . " In 2007 , he returned as a novelist to California , where some of his earlier fiction had been set , with You Don 't Love Me Yet , a novel about an upstart rock band . The novel revolves around a woman in the band , Lucinda , who answers phones for her friend 's complaint line and uses some of a caller 's words as lyrics . According to Lethem , the book was inspired by the years he spent as the lead singer in an upstart California band in the late 1980s and early 1990s , during what he called " the unformed posturing phase of life " . The novel received mixed reviews .

In 2005 , Lethem had announced that he was planning to revive the Marvel Comics character Omega the Unknown in a ten @-@ issue series to be published in 2006 . After hearing of the project , Omega co @-@ creator Steve Gerber expressed personal outrage over the use of the character without his participation , though he later discussed the project with Lethem and admitted that he had " misjudged " him . In May 2006 , Marvel Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief Joe Quesada explained that the series had been delayed to 2007 , saying that " winning the MacArthur Grant put additional and unexpected demands on [ Lethem 's ] time . " The revamped Omega the Unknown series was published in ten monthly issues from October 2007 to July 2008 ; the issues were published in a single volume in October 2008 .

In early 2007 , Lethem began work on Chronic City , which was published on October 13 , 2009 . In July 2008 , Lethem said that Chronic City is " set on the Upper East Side of Manhattan , it ’ s strongly influenced by Saul Bellow , Philip K. Dick , Charles G. Finney and Hitchcock ’ s Vertigo and it concerns a circle of friends including a faded child @-@ star actor , a cultural critic , a hack ghost @-@ writer of autobiographies , and a city official . And it ’ s long and strange . "

His essay , " The Ecstasy of Influence : A Plagiarism " ( 2007 ) , is a passionate defense of plagiarism and a call for a return to a " gift economy " in the arts . He writes ,

The kernel , the soul — let us go further and say the substance , the bulk , the actual and valuable material of all human utterances — is plagiarism ... Don 't pirate my editions ; do plunder my visions . The name of the game is Give All . You , reader , are welcome to my stories . They were never mine in the first place , but I gave them to you .

The essay was included in his 2011 collection , The Ecstasy of Influence : Nonfictions , Etc .

In 2011 , The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick , edited by Pamela Jackson and Lethem , was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . Among other projects , Lethem published short books about John Carpenter 's film They Live ( published in October , 2010 as They Live ) and the Talking Heads album Fear of Music . Starting in 2011 , he served as the Roy E. Disney Professor in Creative Writing at Pomona College , a position formerly held by the late David Foster Wallace .

Lethem 's ninth novel , entitled Dissident Gardens , was released on September 10 , 2013 . According to Lethem in an interview with the Los Angeles Times , the novel concerns " American leftists " , very specifically " a red @-@ diaper baby generation trying to figure out what it all means , this legacy of American Communism . " Regarding the novel 's setting , Lethem said in the same interview that it is

" set in Queens and Greenwich Village , another New York neighborhood book , very much about the life of the city ... writing about Greenwich Village in 1958 was really a jump for me , it was as much of an imaginative leap as any of the more fantastical things I 've done . But really exciting , too . "

Dissident Gardens was quickly followed up in February 2015 with Lucky Alan and Other Stories , Lethem 's fifth short story collection . Lethem 's next novel , his tenth , is scheduled for publication in October 2016 . Titled A Gambler 's Anatomy , the novel 's official plot description on the Penguin Books website alludes to it concerning " an international backgammon hustler who thinks he ’ s psychic " .

= = Personal life = =

In 1987 , Lethem married the writer and artist Shelley Jackson ; they were divorced by 1997 . In 2000 , he married Julia Rosenberg , a Canadian film executive ; they divorced two years later .

As of 2007 , Lethem lived in Brooklyn and Berwick , Maine , with his third wife , the filmmaker Amy Barrett , and their son , Everett Barrett Lethem ( b . May 23 , 2007 ) .

= = Works = =

= = Criticism and interpretation = =

Cohen , Samuel . After the End of History : American Fiction in the 1990s . University of Iowa Press , 2009 . [ contains discussion of The Fortress of Solitude ]

Clarke , Jaime ( ed . ) . Conversations with Jonathan Lethem . Literary Conversations . University Press of Mississippi , 2012 .

Luter , Matthew . Understanding Jonathan Lethem . Understanding Contemporary American Literature . University of South Carolina Press , 2015 .

Peacock , James . Jonathan Lethem . Contemporary American and Canadian Writers . Manchester University Press , 2012 .

= Nki National Park =

Nki National Park is a national park in southeastern Cameroon , located in its East Province . The closest towns to Nki are Yokadouma , Moloundou and Lomie , beyond which are rural lands . Due to its remoteness , Nki has been described as " the last true wilderness . " It has a large and varied ecosystem , and it is home to over 265 species of birds , and the forests of Cameroon contain some of the highest population density of forest elephants of any nation with an elephant density of roughly 2 @.@ 5 per square kilometer for Nki and neighboring Boumba Bek National Park combined . These animals are victims of poaching , which has been a major problem since an economic depression in the 1980s . The indigenous people follow in the footsteps of the poachers , attracted by the financial opportunities . The removal of logging industries from the park , on the other hand , has been a success ; it is no longer considered a major threat to Nki 's wilderness .

= = History = =

The World Wildlife Fund has been in the process of conserving the park since the 1980s , including ridding the area of the logging business . This movement , however , has been met with some criticism , especially by members of the remote village of Ndongo , Cameroon . Before WWF arrived , Ndongo was a bustling logging town of 300 residents with fairly good roads and plentiful working opportunities . Once the organization established itself , it pressured the logging companies to operate in a more environmentally friendly manner . The logging companies pulled out of the town in 1988 , leaving broken machinery and severely damaging Ndongo 's economy . According to Leonard Usongo , manager of WWF projects in southeast Cameroon , " we cannot convince a community of the need to protect forests if we don ’ t acknowledge their problems or their poverty . "

Today , logging is no longer a major problem , as " it would require a lot of investment to develop necessary infrastructure , such as roads , for [ its ] operations , especially in the southern portion of Nki . " According to the WWF 's scientific advisor in the region , Paul Robinson Ngnegueu , " poaching is the biggest threat to ... Nki . " It is a result of the late 1980s economic depression in Cameroon . The indigenous people followed the poachers , attracted by the financial opportunities . They would sell their product through " intermediaries " for money and more hunting supplies .

Cameroonian authorities fought poaching in Nki by applying repressive measures to the indigenous population . An example of this was in January 1997 , when Bakas were forced from their homes near Mambele . These actions turned the Bakas against the WWF , which they considered " an organization of whites who want to protect animals " . Every year , poachers travel up the Dja for central Nki , where elephant ivory is abundant . Strong currents on the river are a deterrent for half the year , but after that , according to freelance journalist Jemini Pandya , the fauna is easy to prey upon .

Nonetheless , when Pandya of the WWF visited Nki National Park in the early 1990s , she described it as " the last true wilderness . " In 1995 , the park was named an Essential Protection Zone , its first official status . It was not formally established as a national park until the Cameroonian government decreed the creation of Boumba Bek and Nki National Parks on 17 October 2005 . This establishment was not without opposition ; the Bakas have continually asked to reduce the park 's boundaries and ask for higher usage rights , which invaded upon " their " land .

Cameroon and Gabon are currently working on the TRIDOM project , a conservation initiative leading to a land management plan which will oversee access to and use of forests . It will create a tri @-@ national " interzone " bordered by the Minkebe , Boumba @-@ Bek , Nki , and Odzala National Parks and the Dja Wildlife Reserve . This project is part of a conservation movement toward the zoning and designation of new protected areas .

= = Geography and climate = =

The park is located in a remote area of southeastern Cameroon , which " has helped maintain most of its pristine forest and beauty . " It has never been completely explored . Largely hilly in its terrain at an elevation of 350 – 650 m , it falls within the Sangha ecoregion . Nki is crossed by several large rivers , including the Dja River . A waterfall , Nki falls , is located on the river in the park , giving " a tinge of exoticism to the landscape . " The park is situated from latitude 2 ˚ 05 to 2 ˚ 50 N and longitude 14 ˚ 05 to 14 ˚ 50 E. It covers a surface area of 3 @,@ 093 km2 ( 1 @,@ 194 sq mi ) and straddles two administrative divisions in the East province : Ngoyla in Haut Nyon and Moloundou in Boumba et Ngoko Division . The closest towns to Nki are Yokadouma , Moloundou and Lomie , beyond which is rural lands .

Seventy @-@ three bais , or forest clearings , have been discovered in Nki National Park . In April 2006 , while looking for elephant groups , a WWF team discovered the largest bai in the region , Ikwa Bai . Dr. Mike Loomis , a member of the group , confirmed that this bai is slightly larger than Dzanga Sangha Bai ( Central African Republic ) , which had previously held the record . He also reported little human development adjacent to the bai , and noticed 21 elephants and 16 buffaloes in it simultaneously . The bai has a small creek running through its center , which sits atop a bed of rocks and sand . A large mineral pit is located next to the stream . It is the habitat of several wildlife species , the largest @-@ numbering being chimpanzees , elephants , buffaloes , and gorillas .

The park has a tropical climate with temperature ranging from 23 @.@ 1 – 25 ˚ C with an average annual temperature of 24 ˚ C. Its relative humidity varies between 60 and 90 % while annual rainfall is 1500 mm per year . According to the Cameroon Ministry of Agriculture , nearby Moloundou has a rainy season from September to November , a dry season from November to March , a rainy season from March to June , and a dry season from July to August .

= = Demographics = =

The area around the park , as defined by the World Wildlife Fund , has a human population of 22 @,@ 882 , mostly ethnic Bantus and , despite being named a minority in Cameroon 's constitution of 18 January 1996 , Baka Pygmies . These include the Djem , Bangando , Bakwele and Zime tribes . Non @-@ indigenous employees of logging companies and traders make up a sizeable amount of the population . The population density of the region is about five people per square kilometer , concentrated along the main Yokadouma @-@ Moloundou road . The villages around the park are mostly homogeneous as there are few non @-@ natives , most of whom work as civil servants or traders .

= = Biodiversity = =

= = = Flora = = =

As with Boumba @-@ Bek to the northeast , the main type of forest is semi @-@ evergreen with an open canopy dominated by the 50 – 60 m Triplochiton , though it is mixed with large patches of closed evergreens . There are also some seasonally flooded Uapaca trees along the Dja River .

= = = Fauna = = =

Nki , according to the Environmental News Service , " encompass [ es ] a biodiverse group of plants and animals . " This has been confirmed by various studies over the years . Sitatunga , chimpanzees , forest antelope ( largely duikers ) , bushbucks , giant forest hogs , bush pigs , leopard , Nile crocodiles and bongos are all found in Nki National Park , along with " hundreds " of fish species .

The forests of Cameroon contain some of the highest population density of forest elephants of any nation , and Nki is no different , with an elephant density of roughly 2 @.@ 5 per square kilometer for Boumba Bek and Nki combined . The population has been steadily rising , from 1 @,@ 547 in 1998 to 3 @,@ 000 in 2006 . Gorillas are also reported to abundant ; there are an estimated 6 @,@ 000 adults in Nki . The park is also home to diurnal primates , such as the threatened crested monkey , De Brazza monkey , and the black colobus , who reportedly only live east of the Dja River .

A 20 @-@ day study held by BirdLife International discovered 265 species of birds in the park . Of these , the yellow @-@ bellied form of forest robin is widespread . In the study , a pair of Ja River scrub warblers was discovered in a 1 hectare patch of Rhynchospora marsh ; its population must be small as there are few such marshes in Nki . Three species of forest nightjar have been observed in the park ; Bate 's and brown nightjars are common in southeastern Cameroon , while a rarer and unidentified third species ' call has been heard twice . It is likely that this is Prigogine 's nightjar , as its voice is identical to that of the only known specimen of this species which was found in the Democratic Republic of Congo . Two small owls , Sjostedt 's and African barred owlets coexist in Nki , due to similar habitat requirements .

= Mauritius women 's national football team =

The Mauritius women 's national football team is a women 's association football team that represents the country of Mauritius . They have played two matches in their history , playing Réunion on 3 June 2012 and 25 November 2012 . As Réunion are not a FIFA member , this match was not recognised by FIFA . They are controlled by the Mauritius Football Association and are members of FIFA , the Confederation of African Football ( CAF ) , and the Council of Southern Africa Football Associations ( COSAFA ) . As of 2012 the head coach is Alain Jules . The development of women 's football in the country and in Africa as a whole faces a number of challenges , with a programme for women 's football not being created in the country until 1997 . FIFA gives money to the Mauritius Football Association , 10 % of which is aimed at developing football in the country in areas that include women 's football , sport medicine and futsal .

= = History = =

In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team and Mauritius was no exception with a women 's football programme only being established in the country in 1997 . As of January 2013 , the team has not played in , nor have they scheduled , any FIFA sanctioned matches . The only match they have played to date was against Réunion on 3 June 2012 in Saint @-@ Denis . This match ended in a 3 – 0 defeat . A return match was planned for July 2012 in Mauritius , but this was put back to November 2012 . The match was played in Bambous on 25 November 2012 , with Réunion winning again , this time by 2 goals to 1 .

Mauritius was scheduled to compete in several competitions , which they ended up withdrawing from before playing a single match . The list includes the 2002 Confederation of Southern African Football Associations women 's tournament in Harare , Zimbabwe from which they withdrew . In 2005 , Zambia was supposed to host a regional Council of Southern Africa Football Associations ( COSAFA ) women 's football tournament , with several countries agreeing to send teams including South Africa , Zimbabwe , Mozambique , Malawi , Seychelles , Mauritius , Madagascar , Zambia , Botswana , Namibia , Lesotho and Swaziland . The tournament eventually took place in 2006 , but Mauritius did not send a team . Beyond that , they were scheduled to participate in the 2008 Women 's U @-@ 20 World Cup qualification , where they were scheduled to play Zimbabwe in the preliminary round ; however , Zimbabwe withdrew from the competition giving Mauritius an automatic bye into the first round . In that round Mauritius was supposed to play South Africa , but withdrew from the competition .

As of 2012 , the head coach is Alain Jules . As of March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA , as it had not yet participated in any matches against other FIFA members .

= = Recruitment and organisation = =

Women 's football in Africa as a whole faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental gender inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . Another problem with the development for the national team , one faced throughout the continent , is if quality female football players are found , many leave the country seeking greater opportunity in Northern Europe or the United States .

Women 's football was formally established in Mauritius in 1997 . As of 2009 , there was no national or regional women 's competition but a school competition existed . There are 17 clubs for women over the age of 16 and four youth clubs in the country . The country has three national women 's football teams : senior , under @-@ 15 , and under @-@ 19 . In the period between 2002 and 2006 , none of them played even one international match . 10 % of the money from the FIFA Financial Assistance Programme ( FAP ) is targeted at the technical development of the game , which includes women 's football , sport medicine and futsal . This compares to 15 % for men 's competitions and 4 % for youth football development . Between 1991 and 2010 in Mauritius , there was no FIFA FUTURO III regional course for women 's coaching , no women 's football seminar held in the country and no FIFA MA course held for women / youth football .

= = Players = =

Players called for the two leg 2016 Africa Women Cup of Nations qualification matches against Botswana in March 2016 .

Head coach : Alain Jules

= Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) =

" Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " is an instrumental by English musician George Harrison , released as the opening track of his 1974 album Dark Horse . It was also the B @-@ side of the album 's second single – which was " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " in North America and most other territories , and " Dark Horse " in Britain and some European countries . Among Harrison 's post @-@ Beatles solo releases , the track is the first of only two genuine instrumentals he released from 1970 onwards – the other being the Grammy Award @-@ winning " Marwa Blues " , from his 2002 album Brainwashed .

Harrison recorded " Hari 's on Tour " in April 1974 at a spontaneous session held at his home , Friar Park . A slide guitar @-@ based composition , the track also features saxophonist Tom Scott and the latter 's jazz @-@ rock band L.A. Express , who were touring as Joni Mitchell 's backing group at the time . It was the first Harrison song to feature Scott , who became a regular collaborator and served as band leader during Harrison 's only series of concerts in North America , the highly publicised " Dark Horse Tour " with Ravi Shankar . " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " was played as the opening number throughout this tour , over November and December 1974 .

Although music critics and Harrison biographers have generally viewed the album track in an unfavourable light , several concert reviewers identified it as an effective opener for the shows . " Hari 's on Tour " is one of only two songs from the 1974 tour to have been released officially , after a live version was included on the limited @-@ edition Songs by George Harrison 2 EP in 1992 . This live recording was taken from the Washington , DC stop on the tour , during which Harrison met with President Gerald Ford at the White House .

= = Background = =

George Harrison first worked with jazz saxophonist , flautist and arranger Tom Scott in April 1973 , during the Los Angeles sessions for Ravi Shankar 's Shankar Family & Friends album . The two musicians also contributed to Ringo Starr 's album Ringo around that time , as well as Cheech & Chong 's Los Cochinos . Outside of his session work , Scott 's main activities were leading his band , L.A. Express , and backing Joni Mitchell , both live and in the studio . Just as Harrison had long combined elements of Hindustani classical music with Western rock and gospel , and was now moving towards the funk and soul genres , Scott 's solo work fused jazz , funk , pop and Middle Eastern influences . His collaborations with Mitchell also coincided with her move from confessional folk songwriting towards pop and jazz , and eventually avant garde .

Harrison , Scott and Mitchell soon developed a mutual rapport , according to L.A. Express bassist Max Bennett . In addition to carrying out further sessions for Shankar Family & Friends in Los Angeles , in March 1974 , Harrison had begun spending time there trying to set up his own record label , with the winding down of the Beatles ' Apple Records from mid 1973 onwards . In August 1973 , rumours in the music industry claimed that Harrison , Bob Dylan , Joan Baez and Paul Simon were forming a label together ; in fact , Harrison founded Dark Horse Records , one of the first releases of which was the Shankar album , and Dylan temporarily signed with David Geffen 's Asylum Records , which was Mitchell 's label .

= = Composition and recording = =

Mitchell 's tour in support of her critically acclaimed Court and Spark album arrived in London in April 1974 . While backstage at her and Scott 's show at the New Victoria Theatre , Harrison invited the five members of the L.A. Express to come out to his Oxfordshire home , Friar Park , the following day . Bennett recalls that they arrived by limousine and he mistook the property 's grand gatehouse for the main residence .

Scott later told music journalist Michael Gross that only a social visit was planned , but the band were impressed with Friar Park 's 16 @-@ track home studio , FPSHOT , and Harrison suggested they record something . The first song they worked on was an untitled instrumental tune that later became known as " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " , for which Scott made a lead sheet for the band . Part of the title was taken from " Hari Georgeson " , the latest pseudonym adopted by Harrison when working with non @-@ EMI / Capitol artists , since he was still contracted to Apple until January 1976 .

Harrison played slide guitar on the track , in his preferred open E tuning , adopting a similar sound to the one he had used three years earlier on John Lennon 's song " How Do You Sleep ? " Aside from Scott and Bennett 's contributions , on saxophone and bass , respectively , the other musicians were Robben Ford ( electric guitar ) , Roger Kellaway ( piano ) and John Guerin ( drums ) . Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , writes that the tune predominantly uses major chords , with the " main melodic interest " coming with a shift to C # minor seventh , which provides " a moment of softening sweetness " . Leng notes the contrast between Harrison 's Fender Stratocaster " roaring into action " on this song and the " opulence " of his previous album , Living in the Material World , and suggests that Harrison now " just wanted to be one of the boys " in a " working , rocking band " . The engineer at the session was Phil McDonald .

According to Scott , the basic track took " a couple of hours " before they had a satisfactory take . The musicians then recorded a second song , " Simply Shady " , which , like " Hari 's on Tour " , would be included on Harrison 's forthcoming album , Dark Horse . The five band members stayed over at Friar Park before Ford , Bennett , Kellaway and Guerin left for Denver the following day . Scott says he stayed on and worked further with Harrison at FPSHOT ; in addition to the various horn parts , he played organ on " Hari 's on Tour " .

In the same interview with Gross , for Circus Raves magazine , Scott recalled that he was the first Western musician that Harrison approached about joining him and Shankar for a tour of the United States and Canada later in the year . The tour would be the first in North America by a former Beatle since the group 's 1966 US visit , and Harrison 's first live performances since his staging of the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 . Rather than include Beatles material on the 1974 tour , however , Harrison planned to present a varied program combining rock , soul / R & B , jazz , funk and Indian classical music . Eight Arms to Hold You authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest that " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " was written " simply as a show opener " for the North American concerts , which would also feature Harrison 's former Apple Records protégé Billy Preston .

Although his 1969 experimental album Electronic Sound consists of Moog synthesizer sounds and the 1968 Wonderwall Music soundtrack is almost entirely devoid of vocals , out of all the tracks released by Harrison as a solo artist after the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , " Hari 's on Tour " is a rare example of a genuine instrumental composition . Only 2002 's " Marwa Blues " stands as another . Among other projects they worked on together through to the early 1980s , Harrison played on the instrumental " Appolonia ( Foxtrata ) " , from Scott 's 1975 album New York Connection , and Scott helped produce Harrison 's debut on Dark Horse Records , Thirty Three & 1 / 3 .

= = North American tour and album release = =

Harrison 's overcommittal of his time to Dark Horse acts Ravi Shankar and Splinter during 1974 resulted in him having to rush @-@ record much of Dark Horse while preparing for the North American tour . Due to the pressure , Harrison developed laryngitis during rehearsals and damaged his voice . As well as placing further importance on the instrumentals in his setlist , which included " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " and Scott 's track " Tom Cat " , Harrison 's depleted vocals marred the concerts for many observers .

In addition , while many critics admired the adventurousness of the musical program and reviewed the shows favourably , others , particularly in music publications such as Rolling Stone , wrote scathingly of Harrison 's reluctance to acknowledge the Beatles ' legacy , together with his willingness to share the spotlight so readily with Shankar 's orchestra of classical musicians and Preston . In his role as band leader , Scott spoke out in support of Harrison 's musical direction and refuted reports that the tour was not going well ; instead , he told Circus Raves , audience reaction had been " radically different from city to city " and dependent on whether concertgoers chose to listen , or came expecting to hear the Beatles .

Harrison played " Hari 's on Tour " as the opening song throughout the tour , which began on 2 November 1974 in Vancouver and ended in New York on 20 December . It was preceded by a recording of Monty Python 's " The Lumberjack Song " , played through the concert PA while the band took the stage . As the many bootlegs from the tour reveal , early on in each performance of " Hari 's on Tour " , Harrison often called out a greeting to the city or town in question . Some concert reviewers referred to the song as " Hari Good Boy Express " or " Hari Good Bye Express " . The first of these two titles is how Harrison named the track on the preliminary artwork included in the 2014 reissue of Dark Horse .

The studio version appeared as the opening track on Dark Horse , followed by " Simply Shady " . Due to the delay in its completion , the album was released on 9 December in North America , towards the end of the Harrison – Shankar tour , and a few days before Christmas in Britain . Although Christmas shows in the UK had been under consideration , no such performances took place , and Harrison 's only tour after 1974 would be a series of Japanese concerts in December 1991 with Eric Clapton . Following its initial release , " Hari 's on Tour " was issued as the B @-@ side to the second single off the album – " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " in the United States , Canada and a number of other territories , and " Dark Horse " in Britain and some other European countries .

= = Reception = =

Contrasting with his successes as a solo artist since 1970 , Dark Horse earned Harrison the worst critical notices of his career . " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " drew a favourable response during the 1974 tour , however , as reviewers commented on the energy with which the band performed the piece . In his feature article on the West Coast concerts , for Rolling Stone , Ben Fong @-@ Torres described the song as a " well @-@ arranged , tension @-@ and @-@ release number " , while the Pacific Sun called it " a zingy and classically melodic instrumental ... a touchstone of the Harrison style " . Reviewing the second show of the tour , D.P. Bond of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer wrote : " Harrison 's opening instrumental piece was beautiful : the fullest , finest explosion of rock ' n ' roll that I think I have ever heard . "

The NME 's Bob Woffinden wrote a notably unfavourable assessment of the Dark Horse album , in which he found " Hari 's on Tour " to be " an unevenly paced boogie thing that has George blowing most of his licks straightaway and Tom Scott coming on with a few quasi @-@ Jnr . Walker bursts " . Woffinden continued : " Which , you feel , would not be a bad appetiser for the real meat to follow . Unfortunately , Hari 's vegetarian . " In an equally unfavourable review of the album , Jim Miller of Rolling Stone dismissed the track as " banal " . Harrison biographer Alan Clayson refers to Hari 's on Tour " as " an instrumental that went in one ear and out the other " , while in The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , critics Roy Carr and Tony Tyler described it as sounding like " a backing track from which the vocal line has mysteriously been deleted " . Author Elliot Huntley acknowledges that the musicians " performed brilliantly " on the recording , but adds , " unfortunately brilliant musicians alone do not a good song make " .

Echoing the magazine 's earlier support for the tour , Brian Harrigan of Melody Maker praised Harrison 's " nifty slide guitar " on the opening song and throughout the album , which he felt " should certainly do a tremendous amount to salvage George 's battered reputation " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner similarly opined that " Hari 's on Tour " " boasts some mean licks " while commenting that neither the tour nor the album " warrant [ ed ] all the abuse they got " . Writing more recently for AllMusic , Richard Ginell describes the recording as " Tom Scott 's L.A. Express churning out all @-@ pro L.A.-studio jazz / rock " and adds that the song " gets the doomed project off to a spirited start " .

Simon Leng views this " neat instrumental " as a collaborative effort between Harrison and Scott , and a logical step for the guitarist , given Harrison 's early appreciation of Chet Atkins ' instrumentals . Leng regrets Harrison 's apparent abandoning of his " meticulous approach " to recording in favour of uncharacteristic spontaneity , and concludes : " Ultimately , this good @-@ time guitar showcase is as relevant as Dylan 's ' Nashville Skyline Rag ' . " Ian Inglis writes of Scott 's soprano sax producing an " atmosphere of anticipation " similar to a successful film or television theme , and identifies " Hari 's on Tour " as an indication that Harrison , some years before his career became focused on movie production , was able to " effectively incorporate the conventions of a soundtrack within the codes of rock " . Reviewing the 2014 reissue of Dark Horse , Joe Marchese of The Second Disc describes the track as " a bright opening to an album that would considerably darken in tone " .

= = Live version = =

Harrison recorded and filmed several of the 1974 concerts for a planned release , but only live versions of this instrumental and " For You Blue " have ever been issued officially . In 1992 , " Hari 's on Tour " appeared on the four @-@ song EP accompanying Songs by George Harrison 2 , a limited @-@ edition , hand @-@ bound book produced by Genesis Publications . Text accompanying this disc gives the recording information as simply " live in Washington DC in 1974 " , referring to Harrison 's 13 December show at the Capital Centre in Landover , Maryland , a suburb of Washington . The book was limited to a print run of 2500 and published on 22 June 1992 .

Described by Leng as " the leading performers of the period " , Harrison 's tour band comprised Scott and Robben Ford from the L.A. Express , Preston on keyboards , jazz percussionist Emil Richards , the rhythm section of Willie Weeks and Andy Newmark , and additional horn players Jim Horn and Chuck Findley . Jim Keltner joined as second drummer midway through the tour , and some of Ravi Shankar 's musicians played during Harrison 's portion of each show . The sound heard during the opening seconds of " Hari 's on Tour " is a sarangi , played by Sultan Khan , who was one of the fifteen musicians in Shankar 's orchestra .

The Washington stop was among the highlights of the tour . At the invitation of Jack Ford – son of US president Gerald Ford – Harrison , Shankar , Scott , Preston and others in the entourage visited the White House on 13 December , where Harrison met with President Ford . Surprised at the " good vibes " there so soon after the Watergate hearings , Harrison asked Ford to personally intercede in both John Lennon 's struggle to be allowed to remain in the United States , and the US Treasury 's audit of the funds raised through the Concert for Bangladesh .

Madinger and Easter write that this released version of the song is most likely a composite of performances from the evening show at Landover and the 6 December matinee performance at Toronto 's Maple Leaf Gardens . As with all the tracks from the highly priced Songs by George Harrison volumes , " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " is available unofficially on bootleg compilations such as Pirate Songs .

= = Personnel = =

George Harrison – slide guitar , acoustic guitar

Tom Scott – saxophones , horn arrangement , organ

Robben Ford – electric guitar

Roger Kellaway – piano

Max Bennett – bass

John Guerin – drums

uncredited – tambourine

= Vine Street , London =

Vine Street is a street in Westminster , London , running from Swallow Street , parallel to Regent Street and Piccadilly . It is now a dead end that was shortened from a longer road in the early 18th century owing to the building of Regent Street .

From the 18th to 20th century , it was home to Vine Street Police Station , which grew from a watch @-@ house into one of the busiest police stations in the world . The Marquess of Queensberry was charged with libel against Oscar Wilde here in 1895 . There was also a court house in the 18th and early 19th century . The street 's association with law has led to it being grouped with Bow Street and Marlborough Street on the standard British Monopoly board .

= = Geography = =

The street is approximately 70 feet ( 21 m ) long and is a dead end , running east and parallel to Piccadilly near Piccadilly Circus . It consists mainly of the rear facades of buildings facing onto other streets . It connects to Swallow Street at its western end and an alleyway , Piccadilly Place halfway along . At the eastern end , the Man in the Moon Passage provides foot access to Regent Street . The nearest tube station is Piccadilly Circus .

= = History = =

The street is named after The Vine , an 18th @-@ century public house , which in turn may have been named after a former vineyard that was based at this location in Roman times . It was documented on ratebooks as Little Swallow Street in 1675 . It was laid out around 1686 and originally ran further , along what is now the Man in the Moon Passage . John Rocque 's Map of London , 1746 shows Vine Street extending from Piccadilly northeast to Warwick Street . In 1720 , the main properties on the street were a brewery and a carpenter 's yard .

Vine Street was split into two sections following the construction of Regent Street between 1816 and 1819 . The Man in the Moon Passage was created at this time , named after a former pub at this location . The northern section towards Warwick Street was renamed Great Vine Street , and then a branch of Warwick Street itself . It ceased to exist after the reconstruction of the Regent Street Quadrant in 1920 .

In 1853 , Charles Moreign purchased several small houses at the end of Vine Street so they could be redeveloped into St James 's Hall , Piccadilly . A rear entrance to the hall backed onto the street . The hall was demolished in 1905 and replaced by the Piccadilly Hotel , which also backs onto Vine Street .

= = = Police and law = = =

Vine Street has long been associated with the police and law . Around 1751 @-@ 2 , a court house was built at the western end of the street , on the corner of what is now Piccadilly Place . It closed in 1836 following the reorganisation of the court system around Westminster and was subsequently occupied by the lawyer Edward Gaffin .

The Vine Street Police Station was at No. 10 . It was originally built as a watch @-@ house around 1767 , and rebuilt following a fire in 1786 that destroyed several properties on and around the street . A school operated on the first floor , and two cells were in the basement . A further storey was added to the building in 1816 . It was renamed Vine Street Police Station in 1829 following the establishment of the Metropolitan Police District . The school moved from the building to Swallow Street in 1836 , where it stayed before closing in 1881 . The police station went on to become one of the main stations in Central London . In 1850 , it was extended over the 18th century courthouses . At one point in the 19th century it was one of the busiest police stations in the world . An Arts and Crafts extension wing was built on the station in 1897 , that faced onto Swallow Street . The Man in the Moon pub , adjacent to the station , was bought by the police receiver in 1931 .

The station closed in 1940 ( along with nearby Marlborough Street Magistrates Court ) to be replaced with an integrated West End Central Police Station at Savile Row , with the street being renamed Piccadilly Place . A subsequent rise in foot traffic around the area , and associated crime , led to the station being re @-@ opened in 1966 , with the street being renamed back to Vine Street in 1972 . The police station closed in 1997 and the building was demolished in 2005 for redevelopment .

= = Events and incidents = =

The Dutch artist Peter Scheemakers moved into a house on the western edge of Vine Street around 1741 . He stayed there until 1769 , when he returned to Antwerp .

On 2 September 1791 , composer Frantisek Kotzwara died at prostitute Susannah Hill 's house at No. 5 Vine Street from erotic asphyxiation following a sexual act that involved tying his neck to a doorknob . Hill was charged with Kotzwara 's murder but later acquitted .

In 1895 , the Marquess of Queensbury was charged at Vine Street Police Station with libel against Oscar Wilde . This ultimately led to Wilde 's arrest and subsequent imprisonment . On 29 May 1901 , the stonemason James Schulty reported he had information about the murder of Mary Ann Austin but refused to reveal details anywhere except the Vine Street Police Station . The information was discarded by the Metropolitan Police as little value .

In 1928 , an officer working at the station was sacked after it was revealed he had been gathering bribes from local nightclubs and brothels , acquiring over £ 17 @,@ 000 ( now £ 924 @,@ 000 ) in the process . The officer subsequently committed suicide and the station is believed to be haunted by his ghost . Related incidents include reports of papers being inexplicably moved , and an officer hearing footsteps despite knowing he was the only one in the station .

The street and station is mentioned in the Pogues ' song " The Old Main Drag " on their 1985 album Rum Sodomy & the Lash . It refers to the station and street 's unpopularity with some of London owing to their distrust of the police force . Because of its relatively hidden location and proximity to Piccadilly Circus , the street suffers from crime , which has led to Westminster City Council gating off the Man in the Moon Passage so service vehicles can access connecting buildings safely .

The street features as a property with a purchase price of £ 200 on the British Monopoly board . It is one of a group of three , coded orange , with connections to law , and is named after the police station . The other two orange properties , Bow Street and Marlborough Street , which are both valued at £ 180 , are named after the Bow Street Runners and Marlborough Street Magistrates Court respectively . Since the Man in the Moon is now closed , students on a Monopoly board pub crawl drink in one of the nearby pubs , such as those on Swallow Street , instead .

= 4 Minutes =

" 4 Minutes " is a song by American singer and songwriter Madonna from her eleventh studio album Hard Candy ( 2008 ) , featuring vocals by American singers Justin Timberlake and Timbaland . It was released as the lead single from the album on March 17 , 2008 , by Warner Bros. Records . According to Madonna , the song is about saving the environment and " hav [ ing ] a good time while we are doing it " . She also cited the song as the inspiration for the documentary I Am Because We Are ( 2008 ) .

The song was recorded at Sarm West Studios , in London , while the mixing of the track was finished at The Hit Factory studio , in Miami . Sound engineer Demo Castellon first worked on the vocals and then on the beats , while the synths were composed by Timbaland and Danja . An uptempo dance @-@ pop song with an urban and hip hop style , " 4 Minutes " incorporates Timbaland 's characteristic bhangra beats and the instrumentation used in the song includes brass , foghorns and cowbells . The song 's lyrics carry a message of social awareness , inspired by Madonna 's visit to Africa and the human suffering she witnessed in the continent .

" 4 Minutes " received positive reviews from critics , who called it a busy dance track and complimented its music , which was compared to that of a marching band . Some reviewers noted that it was Madonna who appeared more of a featured artist on the track , rather than Timberlake . The song peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 , giving Madonna her 37th top @-@ ten single , breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley , as the artist with most top @-@ ten hits . It remains Madonna 's best @-@ selling digital single in the United States , with sales of over three million copies . Internationally , " 4 Minutes " topped the chart in 21 countries , including Australia , Canada , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom .

In the song 's accompanying music video , Madonna and Timberlake sing and run away from a giant black screen that devours everything in its path . At the end of the video , both of them are consumed by the screen . " 4 Minutes " was performed by Madonna on the promotional tour for Hard Candy and the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour . In the latter , the song served as the opener of the rave segment , where Madonna wore a futuristic robotic outfit . During performances of the song , Timberlake and Timbaland appeared on video screens and sang their lines . The song received two Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical at the 2009 ceremony .

= = Writing and inspiration = =

Following the release of her tenth studio album , Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) , Madonna wanted to record more dance music . When asked by producer Stuart Price what kind of music appealed to her , Madonna replied that she loved the records of singer Justin Timberlake and producer Timbaland , so she collaborated with them . " 4 Minutes " was written by all three artists , along with Nate " Danja " Hills , and produced by Timbaland , Timberlake and Danja . The song , initially named " 4 Minutes to Save the World " , was one of the last to be produced for Madonna 's album Hard Candy . In an interview with MTV News , Madonna said that the concept of the song was developed through discussions with Timberlake . She further explained the meaning of the song :

I don 't think it 's important to take it too literally . I think the song , more than anything , is about having a sense of urgency ; about how we are you know , living on borrowed time essentially and people are becoming much more aware of the environment and how we 're destroying the planet . We can 't just keep distracting ourselves we do have to educate ourselves and wake up and do something about it . You know at the same time we don 't want to be boring and serious and not have fun so it 's kind of like well if we 're going to save the planet can we have a good time while we are doing it ?

Madonna clarified that her age did not have anything to do with the sense of urgency reflected in the track ; instead , it was just something that she had in mind for a long time and with " 4 Minutes " , the sense seeped into her music . Ingrid Sischy from Interview magazine said that the song felt like a ballad for the world , containing " the sounds of a great big marching band . It 's a giant dance song " . Madonna agreed with Sischy and responded that the song was " a funny paradox " and was one of the inspirations behind her documentary I Am Because We Are ( 2008 ) . The documentary dealt with the acute suffering and food shortage afflicting the African nation of Malawi .

= = Recording and mixing = =

The recording sessions for " 4 Minutes " took place at Sarm West Studios in West London , on a 72 @-@ channel SSL 9080 scratching tool . Paul Tingen from Sound on Sound magazine interviewed mixing and recording engineer Demacio " Demo " Castellon , who recalled that he did not attend the first recording sessions because he was working on another project . Over half of the song was already done by the time Castellon arrived , leaving him to do the programming in the intro and the end . At Sarm , Timbaland and Danja used Akai MPC3000 and Ensoniq ASR @-@ 10 sampling drum machines , Yamaha Motif workstation and synths to build the backing track for " 4 Minutes " . Castellon explained that the recording session took longer than expected . In total 46 tracks were used for drums and percussion and 16 stereo tracks for the bass . The whole session included 100 tracks , and further mixing was done on Pro Tools .

In the case of ' 4 Minutes ' , Tim had a vision from the beginning of how things should go , especially sonically ... When I opened up the session of ' 4 Minutes ' , there was so much going on that I knew right away that the hard part would be to make sure that the vocals would cut through and were right in the pocket . Beginning with working on the vocals was the only way to achieve this . After that I formed all the other parts around the vocals . The other challenge was to make sure that everything in the track sounded clear and that you could hear every instrument , every syllable , every breath . Also , I do almost always work linear in time on a track . It 's easier , because when you 're done , you 're done . So I keep working on section after section , until I get to the end of the track and then I know the whole mix is pretty close .

Castellon said that he did not want the SSL 's internal automation to interfere with his blending of the music , instead used Pro Tools , with automatic levels . According to him , he " then ran everything through the SSL , on which [ he ] did EQ , compression and panning . " The mixing of the track was made at The Hit Factory studio , in Miami on a 96 @-@ channel SSL J @-@ series desk . Considering the quantity of recorded backing tracks , Castellon 's challenge was to make sure that the music did not overpower the vocals . He accomplished this by first mixing the vocals , then adding the music and the drums , which was an unusual method for him . Minimal digital plug @-@ ins were employed for the mix as Castellon preferred the sound of outboard gear .

After the mixes were done , Castellon began working on Timbaland 's introduction , and continued with Madonna and Timberlake 's vocals . On Timbaland 's vocals , he utilized the SSL 's EQ to reduce " some bottom end " , and he set input levels to avoid clipping . For Madonna and Timberlake he used SSL 's dynamic range compression , and on Madonna 's voice he applied " an eighth @-@ note delay from a [ Lexicon ] PCM42 " , a reverb from Eventide H3500 for the verse , and [ TC Electronic ] TC3000 for the hook . " These digital signal processors were employed to give Madonna 's vocals a sense of stereophonic space . Castellon applied Waves Audio " Renaissance Compressor " plug @-@ in to control the level of kick drum . He recalled that " there was one particular kick sound there that clashed with the other tracks , so Tim replaced it with another kick that had a very different note and sound . " Using a Focusrite D2 equalizer let him " match the sound of that new kick drum to the other kick drum sounds " . Once the drums and percussion were added , the recording and mixing of " 4 Minutes " was finished .

= = Composition = =

" 4 Minutes " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song , composed in an urban , hip hop style . It incorporates the effect of a marching band , a clanging beat and instrumentation from a brass that is played in a " scale @-@ like riff " , as described by Caryn Ganz from Rolling Stone . Other musical instruments used are foghorns and cow bells . In " 4 Minutes " , Madonna and Timberlake sing and trade verses , the rhythm moves towards a hard clanging beat as Madonna sings the lines that the " road to hell is paved with good intentions . " Madonna and Timberlake start singing the chorus with Timberlake singing the line of " We 've only got four minutes to save the world " . The track continues in the same momentum in the second verse and second chorus whence the track ends where every beat ceases except for Timbaland 's characteristic bhangra beats , the brass riffs and Madonna singing the words " tick @-@ tock " repeatedly , after which it ends .

According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , the song is written in the key of G minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 115 beats per minute . Timbaland 's bhangra beats are featured at the start and the end of the song . Madonna and Timberlake 's vocal range spans two octaves , from F3 to Bb5 . The song has a sequence of D – G – C – F – B ♭ – D in the verses and E ♭ 5 – D5 – C5 – D5 in the chorus , as its chord progression . The lyrics of " 4 Minutes " carry a message of social awareness , inspired by Madonna 's visit to Africa and the human suffering she witnessed . Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that " [ h ] owever , the song sounds as if four minutes is the time taken for a song to be a guaranteed pop hit or the time required for a quickie ; in reality it is the only song from Hard Candy album which contains a message of social awareness in it . " The sound of a clock ticking away emphasizes this message further . Madonna explained in New York magazine that the line " The road to hell is paved with good intentions " did not relate to her charity work . Instead it was her question to herself : " Do I understand this opinion that I 've adopted or this Zeitgeist that I 've allowed myself to be swept up in ? Because you could have the best intentions but not have enough information and make huge mistakes . " Regarding the line " Sometimes I feel what I need is a you intervention " , Madonna explained , " [ y ] eah , meaning , sometimes I think you need to save me . "

= = Critical reception = =

Caryn Ganz called it " a loud , busy , energetic track " , and commented that Timberlake did " his best Michael Jackson impression " . Billboard music reviewer and editor Chuck Taylor said that with the song , Madonna " is poised to score her first top 10 hit since 2005 's ' Hung Up ' . [ ... ] There 's an awful lot going on in the busy dance track [ ... ] but the trade @-@ off chorus between Madge and Justin of ' We 've only got four minutes to save the world ' is hooky enough unto itself to sell the song . " He added that the song " qualifies as an event record between superpowers [ Madonna and Timberlake ] who not only share equal billing , but sound gangbusters together . " Mark Savage of BBC described the sound as " so futuristic it could realistically have been beamed in from the end of the world . " Andy Gill of The Independent called " 4 Minutes " one of Hard Candy 's saviors . He noted that " the Mardi Gras marching @-@ band bumping rambunctiously along " , is one of the album 's " most ambitious offerings . " Joey Guerra of Houston Chronicle compared the track to the work of Nelly Furtado and felt that the composition was " a bid for radio play . "

According to Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , the song is an " advertisement for the rest of the album . " Chris Williams of Entertainment Weekly called it a " flirty duet " . Ben Thompson of The Guardian said : " It has a hard to escape sense that all concerned are going through the motions [ of life ] – effortlessly , sometimes brilliantly . " Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe believed that the song is " chart @-@ topper for its sheer star power as well as instant musical allure , and on the eve of Madonna 's 50th birthday [ ... ] ' 4 Minutes ' feels a lot like an icon 's can 't @-@ miss gift to herself . " However , she noticed that the " shift in the power structure [ is nowhere ] more blatant than on ' 4 Minutes ' , where Madonna sounds like a featured guest trying to keep pace with Timbaland 's colossal beats and Timberlake 's nimble melody . " Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post complimented the song for being busy and brassy . She commented : " [ P ] ropelled by a detonative marching @-@ band beat [ ... ] it 's one of the most thrilling things Madonna has done in this decade . "

Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic praised the melodic and rhythmic hook , but was disappointed that Madonna 's voice is " drowned out by Timbaland 's farting four @-@ note synth – which might not have been so bad if the tracks were fresher and if the whole enterprise didn 't feel quite so joylessly mechanical . " At the 51st Grammy Awards , " 4 Minutes " garnered Madonna , Timberlake and Timbaland a nomination in the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals category . Dutch musician Junkie XL also earned a nomination in the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical category for his remix of the song .

= = Chart performance = =

In the United States , " 4 Minutes " debuted at number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for the issue dated April 5 , 2008 , based solely on airplay . Within a week , the song had jumped 65 places , reaching number three on the chart . This leap was spurred by first @-@ week digital sales of 217 @,@ 000 , enabling the song to enter Billboard 's Digital chart at number two , behind Mariah Carey 's single " Touch My Body " . The song became Madonna 's first top @-@ ten single since " Hung Up " ( 2005 ) , and was her 37th Hot 100 top @-@ ten hit , breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley . " 4 Minutes " was also her highest @-@ charting single on the Hot 100 since " Music " reached the top of the chart in 2000 . For Timberlake , " 4 Minutes " became his ninth top @-@ ten hit . On the Pop 100 chart , the song reached a peak of two . " 4 Minutes " was a success on Billboard 's dance charts , topping both the Hot Dance Club Play and the Hot Dance Airplay charts . Almost five months after its release , " 4 Minutes " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of two million paid digital downloads . " 4 Minutes " was the tenth most downloaded song in the United States in 2008 with sales of 2 @.@ 37 million , according to Nielsen SoundScan , and has sold over three million copies as of July 2012 .

In Canada , Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems ( BDS ) confirmed that " 4 Minutes " debuted at the top of the Canadian Contemporary Hit Radio chart . This marked the first time any song entered at the top of the CHR chart in BDS history . The song debuted at number 27 on the Canadian Hot 100 on March 27 , 2008 , and topped the chart the next week . By the end of the year , " 4 Minutes " was the fifth best selling digital song in Canada with sales of 143 @,@ 000 copies , and ranked fourth on the year @-@ end tabulation of the Canadian Hot 100 .

" 4 Minutes " was also a success in Australia and New Zealand . The song debuted at number three on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , and ascended to the number @-@ one position two weeks later , where it stayed for three consecutive weeks . " 4 Minutes " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for the shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , " 4 Minutes " made its debut at number 14 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and ascended to the top ten , finally peaking at number three . The song has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies .

In the United Kingdom , " 4 Minutes " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number seven . The song became Madonna 's 60th UK top @-@ ten single . It debuted on the airplay charts at number 19 , with first week tallies of 564 plays and 27 @.@ 10 million listeners . The song rose to the top of the chart on April 20 , 2008 ( for the week ending date April 26 , 2008 ) , with sales of 40 @,@ 634 copies , thus giving Madonna her 13th British number @-@ one single . It remained at the top for four weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , it was the ninth best @-@ selling song of 2008 and has sold 530 @,@ 000 copies there as of 2016 , being certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . " 4 Minutes " was also number one on Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles for four weeks . Overall , " 4 Minutes " reached number one in 21 countries worldwide .

= = Music video = =

The music video was directed by French duo Jonas & François in London , United Kingdom . It featured choreography by Jamie King , who worked on Madonna 's Confessions , Re @-@ Invention and Drowned World tours as well as her video for the single " Sorry " ( 2006 ) . Japanese hip hop dancing duo Hamutsun Serve also made an appearance in the video . Before its release , Rolling Stone said that in the video Madonna and Timberlake act as if they were " superheroes " while they evade multiple obstacles . In the video , Madonna wore a cream colored corset , glistening black boots and styled her hair in platinum blond waves while Timberlake wore mainly denims and a scarf around his neck . Regarding the idea behind the music video , Madonna said that " it was conceptualistic " . She explained that the video was shot like a march past ; " It 's a movement , and we want to take everybody with us . " About the idea of a black screen devouring everything , Madonna said ,

None of us did [ understand the concept of the black screen ] . It was just , you know , it 's very conceptual . We basically gave the song to the two French directors [ Jonas & François ] and they came up with the only concept that I thought was interesting , with this black sort of amorphous graphic line slowly eating up the world . I just liked that as a concept .

The video used soft focus , gentle lighting and airbrushing looks on Madonna . It starts with Timbaland chanting the opening line in front of a giant timer screen that counts down from four minutes . As he sings , a black geometric patterned screen comes from behind and engulfs all of the musical devices present . Madonna and Timberlake enter a house but run away from it after finding the screen there , which starts eating the hands and legs of the inhabitants of the house , thus showing their insides . After a number of shots showing Madonna and Timberlake jumping on and over cars to escape from the screen , they finally move into a supermarket . The screen follows them , consuming the long lines of stalls and the people present there . As the second chorus starts , they arrive in front of the screen where Timbaland is singing . After choreographed dancing , Madonna performs a back arch as the timer reaches zero time . The last " tick @-@ tock , tick @-@ tock " sound is heard , Madonna and Timberlake dance again on a long stage ; the black screen approaches them from both sides . The video ends with both of them kissing , and the black screen devouring them . Timberlake 's bones and ribs , and Madonna 's cheeks are seen in the last shot .

Regarding the video , Madonna said it was like " [ g ] oody goody gum drops " , referring to the candy @-@ oriented theme of the album . Virginia Heffernan from The New York Times called the video heart @-@ pounding , and compared its momentum with the music video of " Thriller , " In the Air Tonight " and " Shadows of the Night " . However , Eric Wilson from the same newspaper commented that the video did not yield a breakout Madonna look compared to her videos from the 1980s . Singer Miley Cyrus created her own version of the video and posted it on her YouTube channel . Madonna responded to it in her own video and said , " All you people out there who are making videos to my new single , ' 4 Minutes , ' keep up the good work , nice job . " " 4 Minutes " was nominated for an award at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards in the " Best Dancing in a Video " category , but lost to the Pussycat Dolls ' single " When I Grow Up " .

= = Live performances and covers = =

The song was performed during the Hard Candy Promo Tour and Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) . At the promotional tour , " 4 Minutes " was performed as the third song of the setlist . Madonna wore a shiny black outfit with black tails , Adidas track pants and high @-@ heeled , lace @-@ up boots for the performance . Justin Timberlake made an appearance alongside Madonna , at the Roseland Ballroom in New York , to perform the song . As Timbaland appeared on the video screens , the beat of the song started . The four side @-@ stage video screens began to glide across the stage , and swiveled around to reveal Timberlake behind one and Madonna behind the other . They performed the song in a similar choreography from the music video .

During " 4 Minutes " performance on the Sticky & Sweet Tour , Madonna wore a futuristic robotic outfit designed by Heatherette . She coupled it with metallic plates on her shoulder and a wig with long curled hair . Madonna and her dancers emerged from behind backdrops , on which Timbaland and Timberlake appeared , to perform their lines . An apparent duet between Madonna and Timberlake ensues , with Timberlake singing and dancing his part from the screens . He joined Madonna in person , for the show at Los Angeles 's Dodger Stadium on November 6 , 2008 , the same show in which Britney Spears appeared alongside Madonna to perform " Human Nature " . They performed " 4 Minutes " in similar fashion to the promotional tour choreography . Timbaland sang his part of the song in person on November 26 , 2008 at Dolphins Stadium in Miami Gardens , Florida . " 4 Minutes " was also used as mashups during the performance of songs like " Vogue " and " Hung Up " .

" 4 Minutes " was used in the film Get Smart ( 2008 ) , in a scene and its film credits . It was one of the songs covered by the cast of Glee during the April 20 , 2010 episode " The Power of Madonna " . The fictional character Kurt Hummel , portrayed by Chris Colfer , sang Madonna 's parts while Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) sang Timberlake 's . In the episode , the song is performed during a routine by the high @-@ school cheering squad , accompanied by the school band . The version was released both as a digital downloadable single and on the EP , Glee : The Music , The Power of Madonna . " 4 Minutes " cover charted on the Hot Digital Songs of Billboard at number 55 on May 8 , 2010 , while reaching number 89 and number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 and Canadian Hot 100 , respectively .

= = Track listings and formats = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Madonna – writer , vocals , background vocals , executive producer

Justin Timberlake – writer , vocals , producer

Timbaland – writer , vocals , producer , drum programming , recording

Danja – writer , producer , keyboard instrument

Demacio " Demo " Castellon – programming , mixing , scratching and recording at Sarm West Studios ( London ) and The Hit Factory Studios ( Miami )

Marcella Araica – mixing , scratching

Ron Taylor – protools editing

Credits and personnel adapted from Hard Candy album liner notes .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Greed ( film ) =

Greed is a 1924 American silent film , written and directed by Erich von Stroheim and based on the 1899 Frank Norris novel McTeague . It stars Gibson Gowland as Dr. John McTeague , ZaSu Pitts as his wife Trina Sieppe and Jean Hersholt as McTeague 's friend and eventual enemy Marcus Schouler . The film tells the story of McTeague , a San Francisco dentist , who marries his best friend Schouler 's girlfriend Trina . Shortly after their engagement , Trina wins a lottery prize of $ 5 @,@ 000 , at that time a substantial sum . Schouler jealously informs the authorities that McTeague had been practicing dentistry without a license , and McTeague and Trina become impoverished . While living in squalor , McTeague becomes a violent alcoholic and Trina becomes greedily obsessed with her winnings , refusing to spend any of them , despite how poor she and her husband have become . Eventually McTeague murders Trina for the money and flees to Death Valley . Schouler catches up with him there for a final confrontation .

Stroheim shot more than 85 hours of footage and obsessed over accuracy during the filming . Two months were spent shooting in Death Valley for the film 's final sequence and many of the cast and crew became ill . Greed was one of the few films of its time to be shot entirely on location . Stroheim used sophisticated filming techniques such as deep @-@ focus cinematography and montage editing . He considered Greed to be a Greek tragedy , in which environment and heredity controlled the characters ' fates and reduced them to primitive bête humaines ( human beasts ) .

During the making of Greed , the production company merged into Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , putting Irving Thalberg in charge of the production . Thalberg had fired Stroheim a few years earlier at Universal Pictures . Originally almost eight hours long , Greed was edited against Stroheim 's wishes to about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours . Only twelve people saw the full @-@ length 42 @-@ reel version , now lost ; some of them called it the greatest film ever made . Stroheim later called Greed his most fully realized work and was hurt both professionally and personally by the studio 's re @-@ editing of it .

The uncut version has been called the " holy grail " for film archivists , amid repeated false claims of the discovery of the missing footage . In 1999 Turner Entertainment created a four @-@ hour version of Greed that used existing stills of cut scenes to reconstruct the film . Greed was a critical and financial failure upon its initial release , but by the 1950s it began to be regarded as one of the greatest films ever made ; filmmakers and scholars have praised it for its influence on subsequent films .

= = Plot summary = =

John McTeague is a miner working in Placer County , California . A traveling dentist calling himself Dr. " Painless " Potter visits the town , and McTeague 's mother begs Potter to take her son on as an apprentice . Potter agrees and McTeague eventually becomes a dentist , practicing on Polk Street in San Francisco .

Marcus Schouler brings Trina Sieppe , his cousin and intended fiancée , into McTeague 's office for dental work . Schouler and McTeague are friends and McTeague gladly agrees to examine her . As they wait for an opening , Trina buys a lottery ticket . McTeague becomes enamored with Trina and begs Schouler for permission to court Trina . After seeing McTeague 's conviction , Schouler agrees . Trina eventually agrees to marry McTeague and shortly afterwards her lottery ticket wins her $ 5 @,@ 000 . Schouler bitterly claims that the money should have been his , causing a rift between McTeague and Schouler . After McTeague and Trina wed , they continue to live in their small apartment with Trina refusing to spend her $ 5 @,@ 000 .

Schouler leaves the city to become a cattle rancher . Before he goes he secretly reports McTeague for practicing dentistry without a license in order to ruin his former friend . McTeague is ordered to shut down his practice or face jail . Even though she has saved over $ 200 in addition to the original $ 5 @,@ 000 from the lottery ticket , Trina is unwilling to spend her money . Money becomes increasingly scarce , with the couple forced to sell their possessions . McTeague finally snaps and bites Trina 's fingers in a fit of rage . Later he leaves to go fishing to earn money , taking Trina 's savings ( now totaling $ 450 ) .

Trina 's bitten fingers become infected and have to be amputated . To earn money she becomes a janitor at a children 's school . She withdraws the $ 5 @,@ 000 from the bank to keep it close to her , eventually spreading it on her bed so she can sleep on it . McTeague then returns , having spent the money he took and asks Trina for more . The following day McTeague confronts Trina at the school . After a heated argument McTeague beats Trina to death and steals her $ 5 @,@ 000 .

Now an outlaw , McTeague returns to Placer County and teams up with a prospector named Cribbens . Headed towards Death Valley , they find a large quantity of quartz and plan to become millionaires . Before they can begin mining , McTeague senses danger and flees into Death Valley with a single horse , the remaining money and one water jug . Several marshals pursue him , joined by Schouler . Schouler wants to catch McTeague personally and rides into Death Valley alone .

The oppressive heat slows McTeague 's progress . Schouler 's progress is also beginning to wane when he spies McTeague and moves in to arrest him . After a confrontation , McTeague 's horse bolts and Schouler shoots it , puncturing the water container . The water spills onto the desert floor . The pair fight one last time , with McTeague proving the victor ; however , Schouler has handcuffed himself to McTeague . The film ends with McTeague left in the desert with no horse , no water , handcuffed to a corpse and unable to reach the remaining money .

= = = Sub @-@ plots = = =

Von Stroheim 's original edit contained two main sub @-@ plots that were later cut . The point of these sub @-@ plots was to contrast two possible outcomes of Trina and McTeague 's life together . The first depicted the lives of the junkman Zerkow and Maria Miranda Macapa , the young Mexican woman who collects junk for Zerkow and sold Trina the lottery ticket . Maria often talks about her imaginary solid gold dining set with Zerkow , who becomes obsessed by it . Eventually , believing she has riches hidden away , Zerkow marries her . He often asks about it , but she gives a different answer each time he mentions it . Zerkow does not believe her and becomes obsessed with prying the truth from her . He murders her and after having lost his mind , leaps into San Francisco Bay .

The second sub @-@ plot depicts the lives of Charles W. Grannis and Miss Anastasia Baker . Grannis and Baker are two elderly boarders who share adjoining rooms in the apartment complex where Trina and McTeague live . Throughout their time at the apartment complex , they have not met . They both sit close to their adjoining wall and listen to the other for company , so they know almost everything about each other . They finally meet and cannot hide their long @-@ time feelings for each other . When they reveal their love , Grannis admits he has $ 5 @,@ 000 , making him just as rich as Trina . But this makes little difference to them . Eventually , they marry and a door connects their rooms .

= = Cast = =

Gibson Gowland as Dr. John McTeague , a dentist

ZaSu Pitts as Trina Sieppe , McTeague 's wife

Jean Hersholt as Marcus Schouler , McTeague 's friend

Prologue

Jack Curtis as McTeague 's father

Tempe Pigott as McTeague 's mother

Florence Gibson as a hag

Erich von Ritzau as Dr. ' Painless ' Potter , a travelling dentist

Sieppe Family

Chester Conklin as Hans ' Popper ' Sieppe , Trina 's father

Silvia Ashton as ' Mommer ' Sieppe , Trina 's mother

Austen Jewell as August Sieppe , Trina 's younger brother

Oscar Gottell as Max Sieppe , Trina 's younger brother

Otto Gottell as Moritz Sieppe , Trina 's younger brother

Joan Standing as Selina , Trina 's cousin

Max Tyron as Uncle Rudolph Oelbermann , Trina 's uncle

Subplots

Dale Fuller as Maria Miranda Macapa , Zerkow 's wife

Cesare Gravina as Zerkow , a junkman

Frank Hayes as Charles W. Grannis , proprietor of the Modern Dog Hospital

Fanny Midgley as Miss Anastasia Baker , Grannis ' neighbor and later wife

Friends and Neighbors at Polk Street

Hughie Mack as Mr. Heise , the harness maker

E. ' Tiny ' Jones as Mrs. Heise

J. Aldrich Libbey as Mr. Ryer

Reta Revela as Mrs. Ryer

S.S. Simon as Joe Frenna

Hugh J. McCauley as the photographer

William Mollenhauer as the palmist

Others

William Barlow as the Minister

Lon Poff as the man from the lottery company

James F. Fulton as Cribbens , a prospector

James Gibson as a Deputy

Jack McDonald as the Sheriff of Placer County

Erich von Stroheim as the balloon vendor

= = Production = =

= = = Background and writing = = =

Greed is based on the American author Frank Norris 's 1899 novel McTeague : A Story of San Francisco . Stroheim 's interest in McTeague can be traced back to January 1920 , when he told a journalist that he wanted to film the novel . He had himself lived in San Francisco in the early 1910s , living there in poverty like that of the story 's characters . He eventually moved to Los Angeles and worked his way up in the film industry under pioneering director D. W. Griffith . By 1919 he had become a successful director at Universal Film Manufacturing Company , although one with a reputation of going over budget and over schedule .

Upon the appointment of Irving Thalberg as general manager at Universal , Stroheim 's excesses were no longer tolerated . After Thalberg 's shutdown of his 1921 picture Foolish Wives ( which had been shooting nonstop for eleven months ) , and after six weeks of filming Merry @-@ Go @-@ Round , Stroheim was finally fired from the studio on October 6 , 1922 . This was a step unprecedented in Hollywood and heralded a new era in which the producer and the studio held artistic power over actors and directors . However , by this time Stroheim had received several offers of contracts with other studios , even before being fired from Universal . He had met with executives of the Goldwyn Company on September 14 , 1922 , less than a month before , and he formally signed with them in late November .

Stroheim chose his new studio because of the level of artistic freedom he was offered , which he had been denied at Universal under Thalberg . Since March 1922 Goldwyn had been run by Abe Lehr , who publicly promised that " each director will have his own staff and will be given every facility in putting into production his own individuality and personality . " Stroheim signed a one @-@ year , three @-@ feature deal with Goldwyn on November 20 , 1922 . The deal stipulated that each feature would be between 4 @,@ 500 and 8 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 400 and 2 @,@ 600 m ) long , cost no more than $ 175 @,@ 000 and be completed in fourteen weeks . It also promised von Stroheim $ 30 @,@ 000 for each completed film .

Lehr initially wanted Stroheim to film a big @-@ budget version of The Merry Widow , which the producer saw as a guaranteed hit . Stroheim convinced Lehr to let him make Greed first , promising low costs . A press release of February 1923 said that although Stroheim had " run rather freely to large sets in the past , [ he ] seems to have reformed — or surrendered — for it is announced that he will not build any sets at all . "

Stroheim wrote a highly detailed 300 @-@ page script that contained camera movements , composition and tint cues . Among the changes that he made to Norris 's novel was giving McTeague the first name of John and omitting Norris 's anti @-@ Semitism . McTeague had been filmed once before as Life 's Whirlpool , a five @-@ reel short by William A. Brady 's World Pictures , starring Broadway star Holbrook Blinn as McTeague , which had been released in 1916 . Film critics disliked this version and Stroheim later criticized Blinn 's performance . According to film historian Kevin Brownlow , Life 's Whirlpool was also shot on location in Death Valley .

Stroheim was known for his meticulous perfectionism and attention to detail , as well as his insolence towards studio executives . Working on Greed , Stroheim set out to make a realistic film about everyday people and rejected the Hollywood tropes of glamor , happy endings and upper @-@ class characters . Before shooting began , Stroheim told a reporter :

It is possible to tell a great story in motion pictures in such a way that the spectator forgets he is looking at beauteous Gertie Gefelta , the producer 's pet and discovers himself intensely interested , just as if he were looking out of a window at life itself . He will come to believe that what he is gazing at is real — a cameraman was present in the household and nobody knew it . They went on in their daily life with their joys , fun and tragedies and the camera stole it all , holding it up afterward for all to see .

In early January 1923 Stroheim arrived in San Francisco , where he scouted locations and finished writing the shooting script . While researching for Greed , he attended society functions in town and met many friends of Frank Norris , including his brother Charles and his sister @-@ in @-@ law Kathleen . To capture the authentic spirit of the story , Stroheim insisted on filming on location in San Francisco , the Sierra Nevada mountains , the Big Dipper Mine in Iowa Hill , and Death Valley . He rented some of the actual buildings that had inspired scenes in the novel . Other locations included Cliff House and San Francisco Bay .

Norris had similarly scouted settings for his novel and chose the upstairs of a building on the corner of Polk and California street as McTeague 's dentist office , as well as many of the saloons and lunch counters in the area . Stroheim discovered that many of the locations that Norris had described , such as Polk Street , had been destroyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake , but he was able to find suitable period locations on Hayes and Laguna streets . For authenticity , Stroheim had no sets built in San Francisco and only redecorated existing locations , such as saloons , butcher shops , and wooden shacks , thus saving on construction costs .

Despite the strict conditions of Stroheim 's initial contract , Goldwyn approved the lengthy shooting script before filming began . Production Manager J. J. Cohn later explained that " they thought they could control him when the time comes . "

= = = Casting = = =

With the exception of Jean Hersholt , all of the main actors in Greed were regulars of Stroheim 's earlier films , a group dubbed the " Stroheim Stock Company . " Gibson Gowland had previously appeared in Blind Husbands and returned to the U.S. from Scotland for the role of John McTeague . Cesare Gravina , who played the junkman Zerkow , and Dale Fuller , the lottery @-@ ticket seller Maria , had both appeared in Foolish Wives and would later appear in The Merry Widow . Other actors in Stroheim 's Stock Company included Sidney Bracey , Mae Busch , George Fawcett , Maude George , Hughie Mack and George Nichols .

Trina was the most difficult role to cast , and ZaSu Pitts was hired at the last minute , after Stroheim had rejected both Claire Windsor and Colleen Moore . Pitts had previously acted only in comedic roles ; Greed was her first dramatic part . The actress later appeared in both The Wedding March and Hello , Sister ! Stroheim said that Pitts was " the greatest psychopathological actress in the American cinema " and that " she should not be in comedy , for she is the greatest of all tragediennes . "

Stroheim had met casually with Jean Hersholt to discuss the role of Marcus Schouler , but he was initially reluctant to cast him . However , after Hersholt adjusted his appearance and wardrobe to more closely resemble Schouler , Stroheim changed his mind on the spot . With the exception of Gowland , Stroheim shot extensive screen tests of all the other actors at Goldwyn with cinematographer Paul Ivano . A scene from the Goldwyn film Souls for Sale is thought to be behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Stroheim directing Greed , but it actually depicts him directing Hersholt during one of these screen tests .

= = = Filming = = =

Filming began in San Francisco on March 13 , 1923 , and lasted until late June . Despite the initial contract between von Stroheim and Goldwyn , Lehr agreed to double the film 's budget to $ 347 @,@ 000 three days after shooting began . Von Stroheim had already worked twenty @-@ hour days for over two months of pre @-@ production and collapsed on set after a few days of filming . He remained in good health for the remainder of the shoot . This was not the only mishap on set ; during scenes shot at San Francisco Bay , Cesare Gravina got double pneumonia , making von Stroheim bitterly ashamed that Gravina 's entire performance was later cut from the film , despite the actor 's dedication to the role . Hersholt was knocked out by Gowland during the picnic scene in which McTeague and Schouler fight , and Pitts was almost run over by a trolley . In late May , Lehr visited von Stroheim on the set and praised the footage that he had seen , saying that " it has atmosphere , color and realism that could not possibly have been reproduced in the studio . "

One scene that von Stroheim re @-@ shot at the studio 's insistence depicted a younger McTeague in his apprenticeship with Potter . In the scene McTeague is too embarrassed to examine the teeth of a young woman and Potter has to take over . A thinly disguised ZaSu Pitts portrayed the woman so that the audience would see a resemblance to Trina , but the studio insisted that the scene was confusing and von Stroheim agreed to re @-@ shoot it . Von Stroheim also conceded his original vision when shooting the bar confrontation between McTeague and Schouler . The director wanted to have a knife thrower actually throw a real knife at Gibson Gowland 's head . Von Stroheim was overruled by Gowland himself , who refused to allow such a dangerous stunt . A special @-@ effect shot was used instead .

After filming in San Francisco wrapped in late June , the production traveled to Death Valley . Most Hollywood films that required desert scenes settled for the local Oxnard dunes north of Los Angeles , but von Stroheim insisted on authenticity . Death Valley had no roads , hotels , gas stations , or running water and was occupied by tarantulas , scorpions and poisonous snakes . The nearest populated area to the shoot was 100 miles ( 160 km ) away and insurance coverage was denied . Filming in Death Valley lasted for two months during midsummer , allowing actors Gowland and Hersholt time to grow the beards necessary for the sequence . Some members of the production reported temperatures between 91 and 161 ° F ( 33 and 72 ° C ) , but the highest temperature officially recorded in Death Valley during the period was 123 ° F ( 51 ° C ) . Of the 43 members of the cast and crew who worked on the Death Valley sequence , 14 became ill and were sent back to Los Angeles .

While shooting , crew members would collapse of heat exhaustion every day . Hersholt spent a week in the hospital after shooting was completed , suffering from internal bleeding . Hersholt claimed to have lost 27 pounds ( 12 kg ) , and was covered in blisters by the end of filming . Despite the hardship Hersholt said that he considered it the best role of his career . In order to motivate Hersholt and Gibson during the scene where they fight , von Stroheim yelled at them , " Fight , fight ! Try to hate each other as you both hate me ! " Throughout filming , von Stroheim brought musicians on set to help create mood for the actors . He continued to use this for the Death Valley scenes with a harmonium and violin player . A theme , inspired by the music of Ruggero Leoncavallo , was composed and played throughout production . Other music used included the popular songs " Nearer , My God , to Thee , " " Hearts and Flowers , " " Oh Promise Me , " and " Call Me Thine Own . "

Filming moved to Placer County , California , on September 13 and continued for less than a month . The Big Dipper Mine had been closed for ten years , so von Stroheim convinced the Goldwyn Company to lease and renovate it for filming . While first visiting Placer County during pre @-@ production , von Stroheim had met Harold Henderson , a local resident and fan of Norris whose brother had worked in the mine in the 1890s . Von Stroheim hired Henderson to oversee the renovation of the mine and other locations in Iowa Hill . Von Stroheim also wanted to restore the local cemetery for a newly invented scene depicting McTeague 's mother 's funeral , but the Goldwyn Company turned down this proposal . Inside the mine , von Stroheim usually shot at night between 9 pm and 6 am . Cinematographer William H. Daniels later said that von Stroheim insisted on descending 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 900 m ) underground for realism , even though the setting would have looked exactly the same at 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Filming was completed on October 6 , 1923 , after 198 days . Despite his original contract stipulating that all films be under 8 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) , von Stroheim shot a total of 446 @,@ 103 feet ( 135 @,@ 972 m ) of footage for the film , running approximately 85 hours .

= = = Style = = =

Stroheim 's biographer Arthur Lennig compared the director 's visual style to that of D. W. Griffith but felt that " unlike Griffith , who viewed scenes as though through a fourth wall , Stroheim shot from many sides and from different angles ; he also used deep @-@ focus , meaningful foregrounds and effective camera movement . " Greed 's lighting included high contrast , chiaroscuro techniques with pools or shafts of lights illuminating an otherwise dark space . Examples of this technique include the scene where McTeague begs Trina for money in a pool of moonlight and the merry @-@ go @-@ round scene in which characters alternate between appearing only as dark silhouettes and being fully lit .

Daniels was especially proud of the wedding scene , which has a funeral procession visible through the window and was difficult to light properly . Greed has often been praised for its use of deep @-@ focus cinematography , seventeen years before its more @-@ famous application in Citizen Kane . Daniels sometimes used incandescent lights instead of studio arc lights , due to the constraints of his locations . He later said that Stroheim " was one of the first to insist on no make @-@ up for men , on real paint on the walls which were shiny , real glass in the windows , pure white on sets and in costumes ... everything up to then had been painted a dull brown " to mask the scratches on worn @-@ down film prints . Although not officially credited , Ernest B. Schoedsack worked on the picture as a camera operator .

Stroheim favored " Soviet @-@ style " montage editing . Greed often uses dramatic close @-@ ups and cuts instead of long takes . One exception to this is the scene in which Schouler becomes angry with McTeague and breaks his pipe , which was shot in one long , unbroken take . Stroheim also used symbolic cross @-@ cutting for dramatic effect , such as his use of animals in the film and a shot of a train when McTeague and Trina first kiss . In 1932 film theorist Andrew Buchanan called Stroheim a montage director , stating that " each observation would be captured in a ' close @-@ up ' and at leisure , he would assemble his ' shots ' in just the order which would most forcibly illustrate the fact . " In the 1950s film critic André Bazin praised Stroheim 's use of mise en scène and noted his " one simple rule for directing . Take a close look at the world , keep on doing so and in the end it will lay bare for you all its cruelty and ugliness . "

Despite Stroheim 's reputation as a perfectionist , Greed contains anachronisms . In the scenes on Polk Street , the main characters are clothed in 1890s fashions , but the extras wear 1920s clothing . Stroheim did his best to avoid such historical mistakes ; he shot only those buildings that were from the era Greed was set in , and he kept motor vehicles out of sight while filming . Daniels stated that , despite his desire for authenticity , Stroheim sometimes had walls knocked out of real locations to achieve a desired camera position .

= = = Themes = = =

Frank Norris 's novel belongs to the literary school of naturalism founded by French author Émile Zola . McTeague depicts the fate of its lower @-@ class characters in terms of heredity and their environment , with the belief that " man 's nature , despite free will , is determined by genetic and environmental factors " and that heredity controls fate , despite efforts at upward mobility . This literary style was influenced by Charles Darwin and portrayed characters whose higher states of being , the rational and compassionate , are in conflict with their lower states , the bête humaine ( human beast ) . McTeague was first published in 1899 and was inspired by an October 1893 murder case in which Patrick Collins , a poor husband with a history of beating his wife Sarah , finally stole her money and stabbed her to death at her San Francisco workplace . Sarah Collins worked at the Lest Norris kindergarten , which was financed by Norris 's family .

Von Stroheim did not see Greed as political and told a journalist that he considered it to be like a Greek tragedy . Despite the characters ' struggles with poverty and class , von Stroheim followed the naturalist technique of portraying characters whose lives are driven by fate and their inner nature . Von Stroheim employed variations of this theme in his other films , which often involved a commoner falling in love with an aristocrat or royal .

One of the cinematic techniques by which von Stroheim portrayed naturalism was animal symbolism . In Greed McTeague is associated with a canary , only briefly mentioned in the novel . Von Stroheim altered Norris 's original ending and has McTeague release the canary in Death Valley . McTeague buys Trina a female canary as a wedding gift and early in their marriage von Stroheim cuts from a shot of them kissing to birds fluttering wildly in their cage . Another scene with animal imagery includes cross @-@ cutting between a cat attempting to pounce on the canaries in the scene where Schouler bids goodbye to McTeague and Trina without telling them that he has informed on McTeague . Dogs , cats and monkeys are associated with various supporting characters . Von Stroheim also used the naturalist technique of giving characters specific objects , gestures or phrases that repeat throughout the film as a visual leitmotif . For example , Trina tugs on her lips and McTeague fiddles with his birdcage .

Throughout his career von Stroheim used grotesque imagery and characters . This is most apparent in the wedding @-@ banquet scene , which includes a midget , a hunchback , a woman with buck teeth and a boy on crutches . The wedding guests violently and crudely devour their meal like animals . This scene was unlike any other in films of that period , which treated meals with dignity and a sense of communion . Other instances of grotesque imagery include Trina 's fingers becoming infected and amputated . Von Stroheim contrasted love scenes between McTeague and Trina with their ugly , lower @-@ class environment , such as the sewer with the dead rat and a garbage truck driving by as they kiss .

As in his other films , von Stroheim used Christian imagery and symbols , such as crosses and churches . Trina first shows signs of greed on Easter Sunday and is murdered by McTeague on Christmas Eve . Christmas Eve was often depicted in von Stroheim 's films and was close to the date of his father 's death . Lennig asserted that the character of McTeague 's father ( who was only briefly mentioned in the novel ) is based on von Stroheim 's own father , while McTeague 's mother is a tribute to von Stroheim 's mother , to whom Greed is dedicated . Von Stroheim stated that he considered all of his good qualities to have come from his mother and all of his bad qualities to have come from his father .

= = Editing = =

= = = Initial editing = = =

Editing Greed took almost a year and von Stroheim 's contract did not include payment for his post @-@ production work . He and his chief film cutter Frank Hull worked on the film for several months before completing a rough cut . Von Stroheim was indecisive during editing . He felt restricted by his contract 's limitation on the length of the film . Von Stroheim colored certain scenes with gold tinting by using the Handschiegl Color Process , in which individual frames are hand colored with stencils . Von Stroheim credited himself in the beginning titles with " Personally directed by Erich von Stroheim . "

Other than studio personnel , only twelve people saw the original 42 @-@ reel version of Greed at a special screening in January 1924 ; they included Harry Carr , Rex Ingram , Aileen Pringle , Carmel Myers , Idwal Jones , Joseph Jackson , Jack Jungmeyer , Fritz Tidden , Welford Beaton , Valentine Mandelstam , and Jean Bertin . After the screening Jones , Carr and Ingram all agreed that they had just seen the greatest film ever made and that it was unlikely that a better film would ever be made . Carr wrote a review of the advance screening where he raved that he " saw a wonderful picture the other day — that no one else will ever see ... I can 't imagine what they are going to do with it . It is like Les Miserables . Episodes come along that you think have no bearing on the story , then 12 or 14 reels later it hits you with a crash . For stark , terrible realism and marvelous artistry , it is the greatest picture I have ever seen . But I don 't know what it will be like when it shrinks to 8 reels . " Jonathan Rosenbaum suggested that Carr was most likely referring to a cut sequence early in the film that introduced all of the characters who lived in McTeague 's building . The forty @-@ minute scene depicted what the tenants did on a Saturday afternoon , and established cinematic atmosphere without furthering the plot . Rosenbaum compared the cut sequence to novels of the 19th century and to the first few hours of Jacques Rivette 's Out 1 . Jones publicly praised the advance screening and compared Greed to The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari and Dr. Mabuse the Gambler . However , Welford Beaton of The Film Spectator disliked the 42 @-@ reel version and criticized its excessive use of close @-@ ups .

Many sources claim that the 42 @-@ reel version was only ever intended to be a rough cut , and that Von Stroheim chose to cut it down to 24 reels by March 18 , 1924 , with the intention of screening it with intermissions over two nights . The director had difficulty cutting the film down , telling his friend Don Ryan , " I could take out sequences and thus get the job over in a day . That would be child 's play . But I can 't do it . It would leave gaps that could only be bridged through titles . When you do such a thing you have illustrated subtitles instead of a motion picture . " Von Stroheim later claimed that at this time the Goldwyn Company wanted him to shoot a scene of McTeague waking up in his dentist chair , showing the entire film to have been a bad dream . While von Stroheim was editing the 24 @-@ reel cut June Mathis , who was the head of the Goldwyn Story Department , had made her own 13 @-@ reel version of Greed by January 21 , 1924 . She ordered even more cuts to be made on January 29 , but then left for Rome in early February to oversee the production of Ben @-@ Hur and was uninvolved in the film 's editing for several months .

After having completed the 24 @-@ reel cut of Greed , von Stroheim told Goldwyn executives that he could not cut another frame . Goldwyn producers thought that this version was still too long and told him to cut it to a more manageable length . Von Stroheim then sent the film to his friend , director Rex Ingram , who turned it over to his editor , Grant Whytock . Whytock had worked with von Stroheim on The Devil 's Pass Key and was familiar with the director 's style and tastes . Whytock initially proposed that it be split in two , with one 8 @-@ reel film ending with the wedding and a second 7 @-@ reel film ending at Death Valley . Whytock eventually cut the film down to 18 reels . His only major cut was the entire subplot of Zerkow and Maria , which he thought was " very distasteful . " Otherwise he simply cut down scenes and cut out 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 400 m ) of quick " flash " shots that only lasted a few frames . However , Whytock 's version of Greed retained the prologue and other subplots , as well as much of the humor that was later cut out of it .

Whytock and Ingram screened their version of Greed to studio executives , who responded favorably to it but worried that the tragic ending would be hard to sell to the public . Ingram then sent the 18 @-@ reel version to von Stroheim and told him , " If you cut one more frame I shall never speak to you again . " On April 10 , 1924 , the Goldwyn Company officially agreed to merge with Metro Pictures , putting von Stroheim 's nemesis Thalberg directly in charge of Greed . Von Stroheim and Louis B. Mayer had a lengthy confrontation over the film 's editing , which according to both men ended with von Stroheim claiming that all women were whores and Mayer punching him . Mayer disliked the film because of its lack of glamor , optimism or morality and considered it to be a guaranteed flop .

= = = Studio editing = = =

MGM executives screened Greed at full length once to meet contractual obligations . Idwal Jones , a San Francisco critic , attended the all @-@ day screening and wrote that while some of the scenes were compelling , Stroheim 's desire that " every comma of the book [ be ] put in " was ultimately negative . MGM then took control and re @-@ edited it . The studio ordered June Mathis to cut it down further ; she assigned the job to an editor named Joseph Farnham . Farnham was a well @-@ known " titles editor , " who patched scenes together using title cards to keep continuity . His contributions to Greed include the notorious title cards " Such was McTeague " and " Let 's go over and sit on the sewer , " which were snickered at for years . Eventually Farnham reduced Greed to 10 reels , totaling 10 @,@ 607 feet ( 3 @,@ 233 m ) . Von Stroheim said that the film " was cut by a hack with nothing on his mind but his hat . " He later bitterly lamented that Greed was made before the financial success of Eugene O 'Neill 's four @-@ hour play Strange Interlude in 1928 . Von Stroheim angrily disowned the final version , blaming Mathis for destroying his masterpiece .

One week before Greed 's release the New York State Motion Picture Committee ( which censored films ) demanded several more cuts on moral grounds . These cuts included the administration of ether in the dental scenes and certain instances of foul language . Although these cuts were made to prints that were screened in New York State , the footage was kept in many other prints .

= = = Difference between von Stroheim 's cut and MGM 's cut = = =

The main cuts to Greed were the elimination of its two sub @-@ plots and other entire sequences , while individual scenes were often not touched . Commenting about the cuts made in the film to the Los Angeles Times , Thalberg stated :

This whole story is about greed — a progressive greed . It is the story of the way greed grew in Trina 's heart until it obsessed her . I found that the junk dealer 's greed was so much greater than hers that it almost destroyed the theme . His intense greed drowned out Trina 's greed just as a steam whistle drowns out a small street noise . Instead of hurting the picture , throwing out this junk dealer 's story made the picture stronger .

Thalberg also stated that he " took no chances in cutting it . We took it around to different theaters in the suburbs , ran it at its enormous length , and then we took note of the places at which interest seemed to droop . "

Individual scenes or sequences that were cut include McTeague and Trina 's early , happy years of marriage , the sequence showing McTeague and Trina eventually moving into their shack , the family life of the Sieppe family before Trina 's marriage , the prologue depicting McTeague 's mother and father at the Big Dipper mine and McTeague 's apprenticeship . Other cuts included the more suggestive and sexual close @-@ up shots depicting McTeague and Trina 's physical attraction to each other , the scenes after McTeague has murdered Trina and roams around San Francisco and Placer County , additional footage of Death Valley , additional footage of Trina with her money , and a more gradual version of Trina 's descent into greed and miserly obsession .

= = Reception = =

= = = Release and critical reviews = = =

Greed premiered on December 4 , 1924 , at the Cosmopolitan Theatre in Columbus Circle , New York City , which was owned by William Randolph Hearst . Frank Norris had once worked for Hearst as a foreign correspondent during the Spanish – American War and Hearst praised Greed , calling it the greatest film he had ever seen . Hearst 's newspapers promoted the film , but MGM did very little advertising . At the time of the release von Stroheim was in Los Angeles , having begun production on The Merry Widow on December 1 . In May 1926 Greed was released in Berlin , where its premiere famously caused a riot at the theater that may have been instigated by members of the then @-@ fledgling Nazi party .

Greed received mostly negative reviews . The trade paper Harrison 's Report said that " [ i ] f a contest were to be held to determine which has been the filthiest , vilest , most putrid picture in the history of the motion picture business , I am sure that Greed would win . " Variety Weekly called it " an out @-@ and @-@ out box office flop " only six days after its premiere and claimed that the film had taken two years to shoot , cost $ 700 @,@ 000 and was originally 130 reels long . The review went on say that " nothing more morbid and senseless , from a commercial picture standpoint , has been seen on the screen for a long , long time " and that despite its " excellent acting , fine direction and the undoubted power of its story ... it does not entertain . " In its December 1924 – January 1925 issue , Exceptional Photoplays called it " one of the most uncompromising films ever shown on the screen . There have already been many criticisms of its brutality , its stark realism , its sordidness . But the point is that it was never intended to be a pleasant picture . " In the February 1925 issue of Theatre Magazine , Aileen St. John @-@ Brenon wrote that " the persons in the photoplay are not characters , but types — they are well selected , weighed and completely drilled . But they did not act ; they do not come to life . They perform their mission like so many uncouth images of miserliness and repugnant animalism . " Mordaunt Hall of the New York Times gave the film a mostly positive review in regards to the acting and directing while criticizing how it was edited , writing that MGM " clipped this production as much as they dared ... and are to be congratulated on their efforts and the only pity is that they did not use the scissors more generously in the beginning . " In a Life Magazine article , Robert E. Sherwood also defended MGM 's cutting of the film and called von Stroheim " a genius ... badly in need of a stopwatch . " Iris Barry of the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) disliked the tinting , saying " a not very pleasing yellow tinge is smudged in . " A March 1925 review in Pictureplay magazine stated , " perhaps an American director would not have seen greed as a vice . "

A more favorable review came from Richard Watts , Jr. of the New York Herald Tribune , who called Greed " the most important picture yet produced in America ... It is the one picture of the season that can hold its own as a work of dramatic art worthy of comparison with such stage plays as What Price Glory ? and Desire Under the Elms . " The April 20 , 1925 , edition of The Montreal Gazette claimed it " impresses as a powerful film " and described the " capacity audience " screening as " one of the few pictures which are as worthy of serious consideration ... which offer a real and convincing study of life and character and that secure their ends by artistic and intellectual means rather than by writing down to the level of the groundlings . " The review went on to describe the direction as " masterly , " citing " its remarkable delineation of character development and the subtle touches which convey ideas through vision rather than the written word , an all too @-@ rare employment of the possibilities of the cinema play as a distinct branch of art capable of truthful and convincing revelation and interpretation of life 's realities . " A review in Exceptional Photoplays stated that " Mr. von Stroheim has always been the realist as Rex Ingram is the romanticist and Griffith the sentimentalist of the screen , and in Greed he has given us an example of realism at its starkest . Like the novel from which the plot was taken , Greed is a terrible and wonderful thing . "

= = = Box office = = =

Greed was a financial disappointment . On its initial run , it earned $ 224 @,@ 500 in the United States , $ 3 @,@ 063 in Canada and $ 47 @,@ 264 in other markets . In total it earned $ 274 @,@ 827 . Von Stroheim 's biographer Arthur Lennig stated that according to MGM 's records the final cost of Greed was $ 546 @,@ 883 . Another biographer , Richard Koszarski , stated that its final cost was $ 665 @,@ 603 : $ 585 @,@ 250 for the production , $ 30 @,@ 000 for von Stroheim 's personal fee , $ 54 @,@ 971 for processing and editing , $ 53 @,@ 654 for advertising and $ 1 @,@ 726 for Motion Picture dues .

Arthur Lennig asserted that MGM 's official budget for Greed was suspiciously high for a film with no stars , no built sets , a small crew and inexpensive film stock . Lennig suspects that MGM averaged the film 's cost with the more expensive The Merry Widow in order to prevent von Stroheim from getting a percentage of the more profitable film . The Merry Widow ended up being a hit and earned more profits than Greed had lost ; it cost $ 614 @,@ 961 but earned $ 996 @,@ 226 on its initial run .

= = Legacy = =

In his final years , von Stroheim said that " of all my films , only Greed was a fully realized work , only Greed had a total validity . " In 1926 a British foundation of Arts and Sciences requested a copy of the original version of Greed to keep in their archive , but their request was denied by MGM . Henri Langlois screened the studio version of Greed for von Stroheim in 1950 . Von Stroheim said , " It was for me an exhumation . It was like opening a coffin in which there was just dust , giving off a terrible stench , a couple of vertebra and a piece of shoulder bone . " He went on to say that " It was as if a man 's beloved was run over by a truck , maimed beyond recognition . He goes to see her in the morgue . Of course , he still loves her but it 's only the memory of her that he can love — because he doesn 't recognize her anymore . "

In the early 1950s Greed 's reputation began to grow and it appeared on several lists of the greatest films ever made . In 1952 at the Festival Mondial du Film et des Beaux Arts de Belgique , Greed was named the fifth greatest film ever made , with such directors as Luchino Visconti , Orson Welles and Billy Wilder voting for it . Later in 1952 Sight and Sound magazine published its first list of the " ten greatest films ever made . " Greed was tied for 7th place on that list , with such critics as Andre Bazin , Lotte Eisner , Curtis Harrington , Penelope Houston and Gavin Lambert voting for it . In 1962 it was tied for 4th on the same list . Since 1972 it has failed to reach a spot on the top ten . The Cinémathèque royale de Belgique released a list of " the most important and misappreciated American films of all time " in 1978 . Greed was third on its list after Citizen Kane and Sunrise : A Song of Two Humans . In a University of Southern California list of the " 50 Most Significant American Films " made by the school 's Performing Arts Council , Greed was listed as number 21 . In 1991 Greed was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . "

Among those who have praised Greed over the years are Sergei Eisenstein ; Joseph von Sternberg , who said , " We were all influenced by Greed " ; Jean Renoir , who called it " the film of films " ; and Ernst Lubitsch , who called von Stroheim " the only true ' novelist ' " in films . More recently Guillermo del Toro called it " a perfect reflection of the anxiety permeating the passage into the 20th century and the absolute dehumanization that was to come . " and Norbert Pfaffenbichler said that " the last shot of the movie is unforgettable . " Jonathan Rosenbaum has stated that Greed was a major influence on the style and content of many films . Stroheim 's shots filming the sun predated Akira Kurosawa 's better @-@ known uses of the technique in Rashomon ( 1950 ) . Rosenbaum compared specific shot set @-@ ups in Greed to shots in King Vidor 's The Crowd , Jean Renoir 's Le Crime de Monsieur Lange , Orson Welles 's The Magnificent Ambersons , Howard Hawks ' To Have and Have Not and Michelangelo Antonioni 's L 'Avventura . In addition , he likened certain plot elements or characters in Greed to John Huston 's The Treasure of the Sierra Madre ( 1948 ) , Alfred Hitchcock 's Rear Window ( 1954 ) , Claude Chabrol 's Les Bonnes Femmes ( 1960 ) and Elaine May 's Mikey and Nicky ( 1975 ) . Rosenbaum singled out Stroheim 's influence on May , an American director , with Mikey and Nicky centering on the disintegration of a friendship over money and sex , and including grotesque elements and characters caught between innocence and corruption . Rosenbaum also asserts that Orson Welles ' use of satirical caricatures in all of his films is in " the spirit of von Stroheim . "

The two films most commonly compared to Greed are Huston 's The Treasure of the Sierra Madre and Welles ' The Magnificent Ambersons . Rosenbaum believes that besides Huston 's film ending with gold being lost in the desert and similarities between Trina 's descent into madness with Fred C. Dobbs own obsessions , the two films have little else in common . The Magnificent Ambersons and Greed both have characters who struggle with class differences that lead to their downfall . Ambersons was famously edited down drastically by its studio and the cut footage is now lost . Rosenbaum goes on to state that Greed influenced the methods in which novels are adapted into films and filmmakers like Welles , Huston and Bill Forsyth followed von Stroheim 's example by re @-@ arranging the plot and adding new scenes to their films while still remaining faithful to the intentions of the original novels . The 1994 Jonathan Lynn film Greedy pays tribute to the film by giving the main characters the last name McTeague .

Attempts to reconstruct the uncut version of Greed without use of the lost footage first began in 1958 . At the Brussels International Exposition , the Cinémathèque royale de Belgique named Greed as one of the twelve greatest films ever made and simultaneously published von Stroheim 's original , uncut script for Greed , which came directly from von Stroheim 's personal copy preserved by his widow Denise Vernac . This publication led to three separate books that all used von Stroheim 's script in order to reconstruct the original version of the film and compare it to the released version : a French book edited by Jacques @-@ G. Perret in 1968 and two versions edited by Joel Finler and Herman G. Weinberg , both in 1972 . Weinberg 's book utilized 400 individual stills and production photos to reconstruct the uncut version of Greed , the first time that images from the uncut version were publicly available .

In 1999 , Turner Entertainment ( the film 's current rights holder ) decided to recreate , as closely as possible , the original version by combining the existing footage with over 650 still photographs of the lost scenes ( many of which had been used in Weinberg 's book ) , in accordance with an original continuity outline written by von Stroheim . All materials were provided by the Margaret Herrick Library . This restoration runs almost four hours . It was produced by film preservationist Rick Schmidlin and edited by Glenn Morgan . Schmidlin restored many characters and sub @-@ plots from the original version . A new musical score was composed by Robert Israel . The reconstruction cost $ 100 @,@ 000 to produce . Schmidlin called the finished product " a reconstruction of Von Stroheim 's lost narrative . " It premiered at the 1999 Telluride Film Festival and was later screened at the Venice Film Festival and the Pordenone Silent Film Festival before being aired on Turner Classic Movies in December 1999 . Film critic Todd McCarthy called the restored version of Greed a triumph . Roger Ebert called Greed a masterpiece and said that the restored Schmidlin cut illustrates the " prudish sensibilities [ that ] went into MGM 's chop job . " Rosenbaum praised the project , but claimed it could only be considered a " study version . " The re @-@ construction won a special citation from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards .

= = Myths and misconceptions = =

Stroheim was known to exaggerate events from his life and create myths about himself , such as his fictitious aristocratic origins and military record in Austria . He claimed that shortly after having moved to the US in the early 1910s , he had found a copy of McTeague in a motel in New York and had read it in one sitting . He also said that wanting to adapt the book inspired him to make a career in filmmaking . Georges Sadoul later stated that Stroheim had first read the novel in 1914 , while living in poverty in Los Angeles .

Claims that Stroheim 's original cut was a completely unabridged version of McTeague are not accurate . Stroheim 's 300 @-@ page script was almost as long as the original novel , but he rethought the entire story and invented new scenes , as well as extensively elaborating existing ones . In the Norris novel , McTeague 's back story in Placer County and relationships with his father , mother and Potter were remembered as a flashback and took two paragraphs . In Stroheim 's original Greed , this sequence took up the first hour of the film and was not a flashback . Stroheim also modernized the novel 's time span to between 1908 and 1923 , a quarter @-@ century later than the novel .

Greed has sometimes been said to be over 100 reels long . Stroheim said that his initial edit was 42 reels , although several of the people who saw this cut remembered it as being anywhere from 42 to 47 reels . Grant Whytock remembered the edited version that Stroheim initially sent to him as between 26 and 28 reels . MGM 's official studio files list the original cut of the film at 22 reels . As recently as 1992 , former MGM Story Editor Samuel Marx erroneously claimed that the original version of Greed was 70 reels .

June Mathis is credited with co @-@ writing the script due to her work on the 10 @-@ reel version . Mathis was the head of the Story Department at MGM and her contract stipulated that she would receive writing credit for all MGM films . She did not actually write any part of the screenplay . She is also said to have changed its title from McTeague to Greed during post @-@ production ; however , a publicity still of the cast and crew taken during production clearly indicates that it was titled Greed before the MGM merger even took place . The film 's working title was " Greedy Wives , " a joke on Stroheim 's previous film Foolish Wives ; this working title was never considered as the film 's actual title .

The original version of Greed has been called the " holy grail " for film archivists . Various reports of the original version proved to be unfounded . Among these " sightings " are a claim that a copy existed in a vault in South America that was only screened once a year for invited guests on New Year 's Eve . Another claim was that a copy in the possession of a Texan millionaire was sold to Henri Langlois of Cinémathèque Française . Other claims include that a film society in Boston held a private screening of a print found by a World War II veteran in Berlin from a tip by Emil Jannings , that David Shepherd of the American Film Institute had found a copy at a garage sale , and that the head of a film society in Redwood City , California , owned " the longest existing version of Greed ( purchased in Europe ) . " Stroheim himself once stated that Benito Mussolini owned a personal copy of the film . Stroheim 's son Joseph von Stroheim once claimed that when he was in the Army during World War II , he saw a version of the film that took two nights to fully screen , although he could not remember exactly how long it was .

There were also reports that MGM had retained a copy of the original version . Iris Barry of the Museum of Modern Art claimed that a copy was locked in the MGM vaults , although Thalberg denied it . It was also reported that John Houseman had a private screening at MGM and that MGM owned two copies stored in a vault in a Utah salt mine . Lotte Eisner once claimed that in the 1950s and 1960s , several cans of films labeled " McTeague " were found in MGM 's vaults and destroyed by executives who did not know that it was footage from Greed . MGM executive Al Lewin said that several years after the film 's release Stroheim asked him for the cut footage . Lewin and editor Margaret Booth searched MGM 's vault but could not find any missing footage .

= BabyFirst =

BabyFirst is a media company that produces and distributes content for babies through television , the internet and mobile apps . The content is intended to develop a baby 's skills , such as color recognition , counting and vocabulary . There are about 90 BabyFirst TV shows and 41 apps for mobile devices . As of 2014 , the network is distributed to 81 million homes , and is based in Los Angeles , California .

BabyFirst was founded in 2004 by Guy Oranim and Sharon Rechter . Its first broadcast was through DirecTV in 2006 . It was founded by Regency Enterprises , Kardan , and Bellco Capital . Distribution expanded through agreements with the Echostar Dish Network , Comcast , AT & T U @-@ verse and others . It also developed a premium BabyFirst YouTube channel , and mobile apps . One app developed with AT & T U @-@ verse allows babies to interact with the television programming by drawing on a mobile device .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

BabyFirst was founded in 2004 by Guy Oranim and Sharon Rechter . The network was launched on May 11 , 2006 on DirecTV and was later made available through EchoStar 's Dish Network that June . It was made available through EchoStar 's Dish Network that June . The BabyFirst network is based in Los Angeles and was initially funded by Regency Enterprises ( a Hollywood movie studio ) , Kardan ( a holding company ) and Bellco Capital ( a private fund ) . BabyFirst was controversial when it was introduced , because it was the first 24 @-@ hour channel for children six months to three years in age . However , the channel was popular among parents and grew quickly .

= = = Distribution expansion = = =

In 2007 , BabyFirst obtained agreements to distribute the channel in the United Kingdom through the BSkyB satellite network as well as in Mexico through Sky Mexico and Cablevision . A French version was introduced with CanalSat in 2007 . By the end of 2007 , it had arranged broadcasting agreements throughout Europe , the Middle @-@ East and Canada among others .

BabyFirst also started broadcasting in ten territories in the Asia Pacific , such as China and Korea . In October 2008 , SingTel started distributing the channel to the Singapore audience . It was also being broadcast in Africa and Latin America . In May 2008 , it signed a distribution agreement with Time Warner Cable . In 2009 , HBO Asia became the exclusive distributor for the channel in Asia . A bilingual Latin / English channel , BabyFirst Americas , was launched with Comcast in 2012 . A premium BabyFirst YouTube channel was introduced in June 2013 .

In the early 2000s , the Federal Trade Commission responded to a complaint by the Campaign for a Commercial Free Childhood alleging that BabyFirst 's advertising that it helped babies develop skills was misleading . The FTC did not impose any sanctions . As of 2014 , it has 81 million viewers and is broadcast in 33 countries , in ten languages .

= = = Recent history = = =

In 2013 , former ABC Network President Steven McPherson and Rich Frank , the former chairman of Disney Channel became investors and board members as the company worked to develop new content and improve advertising revenues . In May 2014 , BabyFirst and AT & T U @-@ verse released a co @-@ developed second @-@ screen app for mobile devices that allows children to interact with the television programming through tablets or smartphones .

= = Programming = =

BabyFirst 's television channel provides 24 @-@ hour programming for babies . About 90 percent of the 90 shows BabyFirst produces are original content created at BabyFirst 's studios . It produces and broadcasts short videos three to five minutes in length that are either live @-@ action or animated .

The New York Times described the content as " decidedly unhurried " and said it makes extensive use of bright colors and upbeat music . Programming development is guided by child psychology experts and is designed to encourage a child 's skills development , such as counting , vocabulary and color recognition . The BabyFirst logo in the corner changes colors to indicate the skills a segment is intended to develop . Late @-@ night programming is intended to lull viewers to sleep .

There are also 41 BabyFirst apps for mobile devices . An app available to AT & T U @-@ verse viewers allows children to draw on a mobile device and have the drawing appear on the television screen .

Some experts argue that exposing children to television at such an early age is taking technology too far or that parents are using BabyFirst as a digital babysitter . Parents in @-@ turn refute that argument , claiming that experts have lost touch with the realities of raising a child . BabyFirst suggests the programming is intended to be watched by parents and their children together in an interactive way . The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends against exposing children under the age of two to television , while a 2003 study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that most children under two years of age are already watching TV . According to The Washington Post , very little is known about whether young children watching television has a negative or positive effect on them .

= John Michael Wright =

John Michael Wright ( May 1617 – July 1694 ) was a portrait painter in the Baroque style . Described variously as English and Scottish , Wright trained in Edinburgh under the Scots painter George Jamesone , and acquired a considerable reputation as an artist and scholar during a long sojourn in Rome . There he was admitted to the Accademia di San Luca , and was associated with some of the leading artists of his generation . He was engaged by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria , the governor of the Spanish Netherlands , to acquire artworks in Oliver Cromwell 's England in 1655 . He took up permanent residence in England from 1656 , and served as court painter before and after the English Restoration . A convert to Roman Catholicism , he was a favourite of the restored Stuart court , a client of both Charles II and James II , and was a witness to many of the political maneuverings of the era . In the final years of the Stuart monarchy he returned to Rome as part of an embassy to Pope Innocent XI .

Wright is currently rated as one of the leading indigenous British painters of his generation , largely for the distinctive realism in his portraiture . Perhaps due to the unusually cosmopolitan nature of his experience , he was favoured by patrons at the highest level of society in an age in which foreign artists were usually preferred . Wright 's paintings of royalty and aristocracy are included amongst the collections of many leading galleries today .

= = Early years and Scottish connections = =

John Michael Wright , who at the height of his career would interchangeably sign himself " Anglus " or " Scotus " , is of uncertain origin . The diarist John Evelyn called him a Scotsman , an epithet repeated by Horace Walpole and tentatively accepted by his later biographer , Verne . However , writing in 1700 , the English antiquarian Thomas Hearne claims Wright was born in Shoe Lane , London and , after an adolescent conversion to Roman Catholicism , was taken to Scotland by a priest . A London birth certainly seems supported by a baptismal record , dated 25 May 1617 , for a " Mighell Wryghtt " , son of James Wright , described as a tailor and a citizen of London , in St Bride 's Church , Fleet Street , London .

What is known is that , on 6 April 1636 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Wright was apprenticed to George Jamesone , an Edinburgh portrait painter of some repute . The Edinburgh Register of Apprentices records him as " Michaell , son to James W ( right ) , tailor , citizen of London " . The reasons for this move to Scotland are unclear , but may have to do with familial connections ( his parents may have been London Scots ) or the advent of plague in London . During his apprenticeship , Wright is likely to have lodged at the High Street tenement near the Netherbow Gate that served as Jameson 's workplace . The apprenticeship was contracted for five years , but may have been curtailed by Jameson 's imprisonment in late 1639 . There is no record of any independent work by Wright from this period ( his earliest known painting being a small portrait of Robert Bruce , 1st Earl of Ailesbury , painted in the early 1640s during his time in Rome ) .

It is also possible that Wright met his wife during his Scottish residency . Nothing is known of her , except from a statement of thirty years later which describes her as " related to the most noble and distinguished families of Scotland . " If this is accurate , it may explain how Wright was later able to find aristocratic patronage . All that is known for certain is that Wright had at least one child by her , a son , Thomas .

= = Rome and the Netherlands = =

There is evidence to suggest that Wright went to France following his apprenticeship , however his eventual destination was Italy . It is possible that he arrived in Rome as early as 1642 in the entourage of James Alban Gibbes ( a scholar of English descent ) , but he was certainly resident there from 1647 . Although details of his time there are sketchy , his skills and reputation increased so much so that by 1648 he had become a member of the prestigious Accademia di San Luca ( where he is recorded as " Michele Rita , pittore inglese " ) . At that time , the Accademia included numbers of established Italian painters as well as illustrious foreigners including the French Nicolas Poussin and Spaniard Diego Velázquez . On 10 February that year he was elected to the Congregazione dei Virtuosi al Pantheon , a charitable body promoting the Roman Catholic faith through art , which hosted an annual exhibition in the Pantheon .

Wright was to spend more than ten years in Rome . During that time became an accomplished linguist as well as an established art connoisseur . He also became prosperous enough to build up a substantial collection of books , prints , paintings , gems and medals , including works attributed to Mantegna , Michelangelo , Raphael , Titian and Correggio . He acquired some forty paintings – perhaps as much through dealing as collecting . Richard Symonds , the amateur painter and royalist , catalogued Wright 's collection in the early 1650s ( and interestingly designated him as " Scotus " ) .

= = = Antiquarian for Leopold of Austria = = =

In 1654 , after a decade in Rome , Wright travelled to Brussels where his abilities were recognised by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria then governor of the Spanish Netherlands . Leopold employed him not as an artist , but as an advisor on antiquities . As the younger brother of the Emperor Ferdinand III and cousin of Philip IV of Spain , the Archduke had the wherewithal to amass a large collection of paintings and antiquities . Moreover , in the spring of 1655 , the Archduke was enjoying a period of cordial relations with Oliver Cromwell , then Lord Protector of England . ( Indeed , the two had been exchanging gifts of horses , and Leopold had provided Cromwell with choice tapestries and other artefacts for the refurbishment of the Palace of Whitehall . Cromwell also received an embassy from the Habsburgs congratulating him on his new office . )

Since the execution of Charles I in 1649 , Leopold had been purchasing artworks from the royal collections and those of various aristocrats , and , against this background , commissioned Wright to travel to London and acquire further specimens . A passport was issued to him as " ' Juan Miguel Rita , pintor Ingles , qua va a Inglaterra a procurar pinturas , medalas , antiguedades , y otras costa señaladas , que le hemosencargado ... " to allow him to travel to England . The passport is dated 22 May 1655 , and signed by the Archduke at Brussels , indicating that Wright had left Italy for Flanders by this time . ( The addition of the saint 's name name , John , probably marks his conversion to Roman Catholicism at some time prior . )

As one on an official mission , Wright would probably have offered greetings to Leopold 's ambassador extraordinary in London , the Marqués de Lede , and to Alonso de Cárdenas , the regular Habsburg ambassador , who had also been engaged since 1649 in art procurement for the Spanish Monarch . The lack of records means that the timing and duration of this visit remain uncertain . However , de Lede left in late June , and de Cárdenas a few weeks later – as relations between Cromwell and the Habsburgs deteriorated – so Wright probably arrived back in Flanders , with any acquisitions he had made , just in time to learn of the Archduke 's impending departure – and that of his huge art collection – from Brussels in the autumn of 1655 .

However , after the relocation of his patron to Vienna , Wright again visited London . On 9 April 1656 he passed through Dover , and the register of visitors indicates :

Michael Wright Englishman landed at Dover the 9th present out of the Pacquet boat from Dunkerque and came to London on the 12th and lodgeth at the house of Mrs Johnston in Weldstreet in the parish of Gyles in the fields in Middlesex and saith that having exercised the Art of Picture drawing in France & Italy & other parts the greatest part of his life , he intendeth shortly to returne to Italy where he left his family

Perhaps tactfully , the record glosses Wright 's employment in Flanders , ( euphemistically referred to as " other parts " ) as England and the Habsburgs were now at open war , and it fails to mention his membership of the Accademia di San Luca , which would have identified him as a Roman Catholic .

= = England = =

Whatever his intentions , Wright did not return to Italy , rather he was joined in England by his family soon after . Despite his Roman Catholicism and the strong Protestantism of the Protectorate ( 1653 – 1659 ) , Wright seems to have been able to find prestigious work . Indeed , Waterhouse speaks of him engaging in " the most deliberate and unblushing toadying to Cromwell " in his 1658 painting of a small posthumous portrait of Elizabeth Claypole , Oliver Cromwell 's daughter ( now in the National Portrait Gallery ) . This is an allegorical portrait depicting Elizabeth as Minerva , leaning on a carved relief representing the goddess springing from the head of Jove with the motto " Ab Jove Principium " – an allusion to Cromwell himself , whose cameo portrait she holds . Seemingly , he was also willing to work the other side of the political divide : in 1659 he painted Colonel John Russell who was a player in the " Sealed Knot " conspiracy to restore Charles II to the throne . That particular portrait is regarded by at least one critic as Wright 's " masterpiece " .

After the restoration of Charles II in 1660 , Wright 's Roman Catholicism became less of a handicap , due to the King 's preference for religious toleration . Never a good businessman , Wright encountered some financial difficulties and King Charles granted him the privilege of disposing of his collection of Old Masters by means of a lottery . The King himself acquired 14 of the paintings . By the early 1660s Wright had established a successful studio in London , and was described by diarist John Evelyn as " the famous painter Mr Write " . Later , the Great Plague of London ( 1665 ) drove Wright out to countryside , where he painted at least three members of the Catholic family of Arundell of Wardour .

Ironically , in the next year , the Great Fire of London ( 1666 ) was to be of benefit to him , when he received one of the City of London 's first new artistic commissions to paint twenty @-@ two full length portraits of the so @-@ called ' Fire Judges ' ( those appointed to assess the property disputes arising from the fire ) . These paintings , completed in 1670 , hung in London 's Guildhall until it was bombed during World War II ; today only two ( those of Sir Matthew Hale and Sir Hugh Wyndham ) remain in the Guildhall Art Gallery the remainder having been destroyed or dispersed .

= = = Royal patronage = = =

Charles II , who promoted a number of Roman Catholics at court , granted Wright a measure of royal art patronage . In 1661 , soon after the coronation , he painted a formalised portrait of the monarch , seated in front of a tapestry representing the Judgement of Solomon , wearing St. Edward 's Crown , the robes of the Garter , and carrying the orb and sceptre . Wright was also commissioned to paint an allegorical ceiling for the King 's bedchamber at Whitehall Palace , and he was further appointed in 1673 to the office of " picture drawer in ordinary " , allowing him to exercise his right to sign his pictures " Pictor Regis " . However , to his disappointment , he did not receive the coveted office of King 's Painter , which was held in the 1660s by Sir Peter Lely alone . In contrast to Wright 's sympathetic realism , and carefully observed landscape backgrounds , Lely had a more glamorous style , favoured by the court , and based on Van Dyck 's pre @-@ Civil War style . This prompted the diarist Samuel Pepys to remark , after an enjoyable visit to Lely 's studio , " thence to Wright 's the painters : but Lord , the difference that is between their two works " .

Unlike Lely , who was knighted , Wright never received significant recognition from King Charles . However , at least one admirer thought he did deserve it . In 1669 , Wright and the miniaturist Samuel Cooper had met Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany . Cosimo later called at Wright 's studio where he commissioned a portrait of the Duke of Albemarle from Wright . On 3 March 1673 , perhaps some time after Wright had painted his state picture of Charles II ( now in the Royal Collection ) , a strange letter was sent from an obscure " Mairie Lady Hermistan " ( evidently a fellow Roman Catholic ) to Cosimo , asking him to intercede with the King to grant Wright a baronetcy . However , nothing came of the request .

As antipathy towards Catholics intensified in London from the late 1670s , Wright spent more time working away from court . He painted six family portraits for Sir Walter Bagot of Blithfield in Staffordshire in 1676 / 7 . In 1678 , he removed to Dublin for a number of years , perhaps due to the anti @-@ Catholic hysteria generated by Titus Oates 's Popish Plot . Here , still styling himself " Pictor Regis " , he painted " The Ladies Catherine and Charlotte Talbot " , which is today in the National Gallery of Ireland . He also painted two full @-@ lengths portraits of costumed chieftains , the " Sir Neil O 'Neill " ( c . 1680 ) , now in the Tate Collection , and the " Lord Mungo Murray " ( c.1683 ) , now in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery . Sir Neil O 'Neill was a fellow Roman Catholic , also in exile in Dublin . Wright portrayed him in the dress costume of an Irish chieftain , with suit of rare Japanese armour at his feet . The significance of this armour is that it is thought to be a coded symbol of a triumph over the persecutors of Roman Catholicism , of whom , at that time , the Japanese were notorious . The portrait of Mungo Murray ( the 5th son of the Royalist Marquis of Atholl ) is notable for being considered one of the first instance of Scottish tartan being portrayed in art .

= = = Roman embassy = = =

In 1685 , when the openly Roman Catholic James II ascended the throne , Wright was able to return to royal service . However , significantly , James did not employ Wright as an artist , but gave him the " time consuming and futile post " of steward on a diplomatic embassy . He was appointed as steward to Roger Palmer , 1st Earl of Castlemaine husband of Barbara Villiers , the late King 's mistress . Wright 's knowledge of Rome and of the Italian language may have played a part in this , as Castlemaine was dispatched , in 1686 , on an embassy to Pope Innocent XI to demonstrate that England could become a player on the Roman Catholic side in impending European conflicts . Wright 's role in the embassy was to oversee the production of elaborate coaches , costumes and decorations for the procession , which secured a papal audience in January 1687 . He also arranged a stupendous banquet for a thousand guests in the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj , complete with sugar sculptures and a large state portrait of James II . While in Rome , Wright published an illustrated Italian account of the embassy , dedicated to the Duchess of Modena and , on his return , an English version was published in October 1687 , dedicated to her daughter Queen Mary .

= = = Final years = = =

Wright 's career came to an end in 1688 with the expulsion of King James II during the Glorious Revolution . He seems to have accepted the inevitable end of his royal favour with the accession to the throne of the Protestant William of Orange . He lived on , in relative poverty , for a further six years until 1694 . In March of that year , he made a will leaving his house in St Paul 's parish to his niece Katherine Vaux . His collection of drawings , prints and books were left to his nephew , the painter Michael Wright ; however a codicil to the will stated that the books were to be sold on behalf of his son Thomas , who was then abroad . The books were auctioned on 4 June and on 1 August 1694 , John Michael Wright was buried at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields .

= = Artistic legacy = =

Much of the scholarly appreciation of Wright 's work is fairly recent . In 1982 , an exhibition of his work : ‘ John Michael Wright – The King ’ s Painter ’ – in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery – led to a renewed interest in his contributions , and the catalogue ( edited by Sara Stevenson and Duncan Thomson ) re @-@ wrote and uncovered much of the known biographical details . New works continue to be discovered and previously known ones re @-@ attributed to him . Wright is now viewed as amongst the most successful of seventeenth @-@ century Britain 's indigenous artists , and is rated alongside contemporaries such as Robert Walker and William Dobson . One modern exhibition catalogue described him as " the finest seventeenth century British @-@ born painter " . Certainly , he was one of the few who painted the elite aristocracy of his day , and was responsible for some of the most magnificent royal portraiture surviving . This achievement is particularly significant in an age where even British patrons had tended to favour foreign artists like Holbein and Van Dyck , and would continue to favour immigrants such as Lely and Kneller . Indeed , part of the reason for Wright 's success is recognised as being his unusually cosmopolitan training : no prior British artist had so much exposure to European influence . During his Italian sojourn , and his participation in the Accademia di San Luca , not only had Wright collected works attributed to continental giants like Michelangelo , Raphael and Titian , he had also been influenced by , and even copied , much of their tone and style .

In his field and day , Wright was certainly eclipsed by his rival the more prolific Lely , to whom he is often compared . One critic , Millar , observes that any comparisons undertaken would " ruthlessly expose Wright 's weaknesses and mannerisms " but that positively " they would also demonstrate his remarkable independence , his unfailing integrity and charm , the sources of which must partly lie in his unusual origins , fragmented career and attractive personality " . Millar suggests that a particularly useful comparison can be made between Lely and Wright 's respective portrayals of the Duchess of Clevland ( Barbara Villiers ) ( above ) . Whereas Lely portrayed her as a " full @-@ blown and palpably desirable strumpet " , the more seriously minded Wright , who was not really in sympathy with the morality of the new court and its courtesans , rendered a more puppet @-@ like figure .

However , even if Lely was considered the more masterly and fashionable of the two in seventeenth @-@ century Britain , Wright is generally accepted as portraying the more lively and realistic likenesses of his subjects , a fact that reinforces Pepys 's observation that Lely 's work was " good but not like " . Neither should Wright 's realism be confused with a prudishness ; as can be seen , for example , in his portrait the lady , thought to be Ann Davis ( right ) . The picture , with the sitter 's clothing left undone and her modesty barely preserved by a red drape , has been described as exhibiting a fresh – even risky – reality : erotic by contemporary standards . Whereas Wright 's contemporaries might have used the ‘ disguise ’ of presenting the sitter in the guise of a classical goddess to protect against accusation of salaciousness , Wright 's portrait rather depends on his realism , notably in his flesh tones , and depth .

= On the Internet , nobody knows you 're a dog =

" On the Internet , nobody knows you 're a dog " is an adage which began as a cartoon caption by Peter Steiner and published by The New Yorker on July 5 , 1993 . The cartoon features two dogs : one sitting on a chair in front of a computer , speaking the caption to a second dog sitting on the floor listening to the first . As of 2011 , the panel was the most reproduced cartoon from The New Yorker , and Steiner has earned over US $ 50 @,@ 000 from its reprinting .

= = History = =

Peter Steiner , a cartoonist and contributor to The New Yorker since 1979 , said the cartoon initially did not get a lot of attention , but later took on a life of its own , and that he felt similar to the person who created the " smiley face " . In fact , Steiner was not that interested in the Internet when he drew the cartoon , and although he did have an online account , he recalled attaching no " profound " meaning to the cartoon ; it was just something he drew in the manner of a " make @-@ up @-@ a @-@ caption " cartoon .

In response to the comic 's popularity , he stated , " I can 't quite fathom that it 's that widely known and recognized . "

= = Context = =

The cartoon marks a notable moment in the history of the Internet . Once the exclusive domain of government engineers and academics , the Internet had by then become a subject of discussion in general interest magazines like The New Yorker . Lotus Software founder and early Internet activist Mitch Kapor commented in a Time magazine article in 1993 that " the true sign that popular interest has reached critical mass came this summer when the New Yorker printed a cartoon showing two computer @-@ savvy canines " .

The cartoon symbolizes an understanding of Internet privacy that stresses the ability of users to send and receive messages in general anonymity . Lawrence Lessig suggests " no one knows " because Internet protocols do not force users to identify themselves ; although local access points such as a user 's university may , this information is privately held by the local access point and is not an intrinsic part of the Internet transaction .

A study by Morahan @-@ Martin and Schumacher ( 2000 ) on compulsive or problematic Internet use discusses this phenomenon , suggesting the ability to self @-@ represent from behind the computer screen may be part of the compulsion to go online . The phrase can be taken " to mean that cyberspace will be liberatory because gender , race , age , looks , or even ' dogness ' are potentially absent or alternatively fabricated or exaggerated with unchecked creative license for a multitude of purposes both legal and illegal " , an understanding that echoed statements made in 1996 by John Gilmore , a key figure in the history of Usenet . The phrase also suggests the ability to " computer cross @-@ dress " and represent oneself as a different gender , age , race , etc . On another level , " the freedom which the dog chooses to avail itself of , is the freedom to ' pass ' as part of a privileged group ; i.e. human computer users with access to the Internet " .

According to Bob Mankoff , The New Yorker 's cartoon editor , " The cartoon resonated with our wariness about the facile façade that could be thrown up by anyone with a rudimentary knowledge of html . "

= = In popular culture = =

The cartoon has inspired the play Nobody Knows I 'm a Dog by Alan David Perkins . The play revolves around six different individuals unable to communicate effectively with people in their lives who find the courage to socialize on the Internet , protected by their anonymity .

The Apple Internet suite Cyberdog was named after this cartoon .

A cartoon by Kaamran Hafeez published in The New Yorker on February 23 , 2015 features a similar pair of dogs watching their owner sitting at a computer , with one asking the other , " Remember when , on the Internet , nobody knew who you were ? "

= I Am God =

" I Am God " is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fortieth episode overall . Written by Diane Ruggiero and Cathy Belben and directed by Martha Mitchell , the episode premiered on UPN on April 11 , 2006 .

The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica experiences persistent and vivid nightmares of the students who died in the bus crash , and she attempts to piece together the clues she 's gotten from these dreams . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) and Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) are forced to work together on a science experiment .

During the filming of " I Am God " , several press members , primarily bloggers , were allowed to visit the show 's set , an event that was the first of its kind for Veronica Mars . Bloggers had been an important source of the show 's fandom and press coverage , and the event was set up by UPN executives as a public relations project . The episode also features a guest appearance by Kayla Ewell and the first appearance by James Jordan . The episode received 1 @.@ 76 million viewers in its original US airing , and it received mixed reviews from television critics , with reviewers divided on the use of dream sequences as well as the episode 's emotional impact overall .

= = Synopsis = =

Veronica has a dream of the students who died in the bus crash , which takes place in " Normal Is the Watchword " , before she visits the guidance counselor , Rebecca ( Paula Marshall ) , who talks to her about her problems , and Veronica tells her about her nightmares . Veronica lists the bus crash victims and asks Rebecca about a janitor named Lucky ( James Jordan ) , whom Meg used to talk about a lot . Veronica describes some more dreams and tells Rebecca that she met with a student named Rhonda , who handed her a phone with a voice recording of Dick on the bus . Veronica recounts a dream encounter with her father , in which she discovered a piece of paper with the words “ I am God ” and pictures of nine coffins . Veronica talks to Logan about Lucky , the janitor , and Logan says that Veronica met Lucky before .

Veronica talks to Dick about his relationship with Betina . Veronica talks to one of Betina ’ s friends , who says that Dick mistreated her , and Betina ’ s goal was for Dick to get her pregnant so she could get him in trouble . Veronica asks Keith about whether or not he has resumed a relationship with Rebecca , and Veronica gets into Stanford University . Veronica is pushed into second place at the Kane scholarship after Angie . Rebecca denies having a relationship with Keith , while Angie also gets into Stanford . Wallace points out Rhonda ’ s sister to Veronica , but she doesn ’ t give Veronica any information . Veronica asks Keith to dig into the financial records of the bus crash victims . Veronica learns that none of the families had very much money , except for Rhonda ’ s family , who got a $ 2 million bailout from Woody ( Steve Guttenberg ) .

Keith meets with Principal Clemmons and finds Veronica in the closet . Veronica talks to Mr. Wu about one of his students , Peter , who had feelings for Mr. Wu . However , Mr. Wu is not gay . That night , Veronica has a dream about Peter , who “ asks ” her why he would even want to go to a baseball stadium . Veronica talks to Beaver , who was pushed into a wall by Cervando , a PCHer who died in the bus crash . Keith solves a case for Principal Clemmons about students who get diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder from the same doctor for better grades . Angie wins the experiment competition , and we learn that Angie was one of the students who was diagnosed with GAD for money . Principal Clemmons revokes exceptions for GAD students . Veronica has a dream about Cervando , who says that the perpetrator was probably in the vicinity of the bus crash . Veronica learns that the “ I am God ” image is actually an album cover . Keith tells Veronica that the perpetrator was probably targeting Dick and Beaver . Veronica has another , more frightening dream .

In science class , Logan gets paired with Wallace and Dick gets paired with Angie Dahl ( Kayla Ewell ) . Logan and Wallace perform their experiment half @-@ heartedly , and afterwards , they decide to continue working with each other . In the end , they receive a passing grade .

= = Production = =

" I Am God " was written by Diane Ruggiero and Cathy Belben and directed by Martha Mitchell , marking Ruggiero 's eleventh writing credit for the series , Belben 's third and final writing credit ( after " Blast from the Past " and " Ahoy , Mateys ! " ) and Mitchell 's first and only directing credit for the show . Despite being credited , Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) , Weevil ( Francis Capra ) , and Jackie ( Tessa Thompson ) do not appear in the episode . During the filming of " I Am God " , UPN and Warner Bros. set up a " Veronica Mars Press Day " , on which several members of the press visited the show 's set and wrote about their visit . Bloggers had been important to press coverage of Veronica Mars ; because of this , Joanna Massey , UPN 's senior vice president for media relations , decided to set up this event as a public relations project . On organizing the event , Massey elaborated :

Once we sent out the invitations , there was instantly a lot of ( Internet ) chatter about why we invited certain people . Then there was chatter leading up to the trip , and there was chatter when everyone got back . And they instantly posted all of their photos , which I love . And then they will blog again when the episode runs . With the traditional media , when do you get that kind of coverage ?

Series creator Rob Thomas also appreciated bloggers ' contributions to Veronica Mars , stating " Sometimes I think bloggers are our journalists . [ … ] I feel like the bloggers made the show . In a way , a day like ( the press day ) is preaching to the choir , but I don 't know that we 'd exist without them . ” This was the first time that non @-@ cast or crew members visited the set . After reaching Kearny Mesa , San Diego , where the show primarily films , the bloggers toured the set and talked with cast and crew members . One press member expressed that Ryan Hansen , Thomas , and Kristen Bell were especially kind and receptive to the visitors .

On his role in the episode , Jason Dohring , who plays Logan , elaborated , " I think what 's funny is that he always gets what 's coming to him . Like a terrible thing happens to him , but he 's like that to other people . So it 's like in real life … what goes around comes around . " The episode features a guest @-@ starring appearance by Kayla Ewell , who would eventually become most known for her role on The Vampire Diaries . The episode also features a guest appearance by James Jordan , as Lucky , the janitor . In season 3 , Jordan would become the first actor to have two different roles on Veronica Mars when he was cast as Tim Foyle , a teaching assistant .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original broadcast , " I Am God " was watched by 1 @.@ 76 million viewers , ranking 111th of 116 in the weekly rankings . This marked a sharp decrease in 1 @.@ 09 million viewers from the previous episode , " Plan B " , which received 2 @.@ 85 million viewers .

= = = Reviews = = =

The episode received mixed reviews . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club was very positive towards the episode , writing " ' I Am God ' is probably the strangest episode since ' Nobody Puts Baby in a Corner ' , but unlike that one 's somewhat random focus , ' I Am God ' is intently pointed at one thing : the bus crash . " While hoping that it had come earlier in the season , the reviewer wrote that " its intense style and emotional stakes put it on the shortlist of best Veronica Mars episodes . " Price Peterson of TV.com praised the dream sequences for their beauty , but criticized them for their complexity . " Man , I just could not get enough of the dream @-@ flashbacks in which Veronica talked to the dead students . So beautiful and well @-@ done . On the other hand , my poor brain is starting to have a hard time keeping all the facts straight . "

Others were more negative towards the episode . Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B " , criticizing Paula Marshall 's reappearance , declaring her a " show killer . " BuzzFeed ranked the episode as the second @-@ worst episode of Veronica Mars , writing that the dream sequences " [ looked ] like Bonnie Tyler videos and bad erotic movies from the ' 80s . " Reviewer Alan Sepinwall gave a mixed review , praising Logan and Wallace 's interactions and Kristen Bell 's performance , but criticizing the fact that the episode came so late in the season . " Had this been the season 's fourth or fifth episode , it would have been fine . As the fifth @-@ to @-@ last episode , it felt like exactly what it was : a belated correction for a season @-@ long problem . " He also felt that " Keith 's subplot was missing a scene or two . "

= June 1941 uprising in eastern Herzegovina =

In June 1941 , Serbs in eastern Herzegovina rebelled against the authorities of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , an Axis puppet state established during World War II on the territory of the defeated Kingdom of Yugoslavia . As the NDH imposed its authority , members of the fascist Ustaše ruling party began a campaign of persecution against Serbs throughout the country . In eastern Herzegovina , the Ustaše perpetrated a series of massacres and attacks against the majority Serb population commencing in the first week of June . Between 3 and 22 June 1941 , spontaneous clashes occurred between NDH authorities and groups of Serbs in the region .

The German invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June . Over the next two days , the sporadic revolts by Serbs against the NDH in eastern Herzegovina erupted into mass rebellion , triggered by Ustaše persecution , Serb solidarity with the Russian people , hatred and fear of the NDH authorities , and other factors . Serb rebels , under the leadership of both local Serbs and Montenegrins , attacked police , gendarmerie , Ustaše and Croatian Home Guard forces in the region . In the first few days , the rebels captured gendarmerie posts in several villages , set up roadblocks on the major roads and ambushed several military vehicles . On the night of 26 June , the rebels mounted a sustained attack on the town of Nevesinje in an attempt to capture it , but the garrison held out until the morning of 28 June when NDH troops broke through the rebel roadblocks .

On 28 June , the rebels ambushed a truckload of Italian soldiers , prompting the Italian Army commander in the NDH to warn the NDH government that he would take unilateral action to secure communication routes . A further gendarmerie post was destroyed by the rebels , and in the evening the rebels captured the village of Avtovac , looting and burning it , and killing dozens of non @-@ Serb civilians . The following day an Italian column cleared the rebels from Avtovac and relieved the hard @-@ pressed NDH garrison in the town of Gacko . From 3 July , an NDH force of over 2 @,@ 000 fanned out from Nevesinje , clearing towns , villages and routes of rebels . The rebel forces did not put up any significant opposition to the clearing operation , and either retreated into nearby Montenegro , or hid their weapons in the mountains and went home . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control of all towns and major transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .

= = Background = =

The Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) was founded on 10 April 1941 , during the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers . The NDH consisted of most of modern @-@ day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina , together with some parts of modern @-@ day Serbia . It was essentially an Italo – German quasi @-@ protectorate , as it owed its existence to the Axis powers , who maintained occupation forces within the puppet state throughout its existence . In the immediate aftermath of the Yugoslav surrender on 17 April , former Royal Yugoslav Army troops returned to their homes in eastern Herzegovina with their weapons . This was a significant security concern for the fledgling NDH government due to the proximity of the border with Montenegro , the close relationship between the people of eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro , and widespread banditry in the region . On the day after the surrender , the commander of the NDH armed forces , Vojskovođa ( Marshal ) Slavko Kvaternik issued a proclamation demanding the surrender of all weapons to NDH authorities by 24 April .

On 24 April , the NDH created five military command areas , including Bosnia Command and Adriatic Command , both of which were initially headquartered in Sarajevo . Each of the five military commands included several district commands . Adriatic Command included the districts of Knin and Sinj in the Dalmatian hinterland , and Mostar and Trebinje in eastern Herzegovina . The NDH began to mobilise soldiers for the Home Guard , with six battalions identified to join Adriatic Command . The battalions were mobilised from areas outside of eastern Herzegovina , and were to be ready by 20 May . The aggressive actions of the Ustaše fifth column during the Axis invasion made Serb civilian leaders in eastern Herzegovina apprehensive about the NDH , and they attempted to obtain Italian protection , and urged the Italians to annex eastern Herzegovina to the neighboring Italian @-@ occupied territory of Montenegro . A collaborationist " Interim Advisory Committee " of Montenegrin separatists was advocating the establishment of an " independent " Montenegrin state , and a similar committee of separatist Serbs was formed in eastern Herzegovina . A delegation from that committee arrived in Cetinje in Montenegro on 6 May to ask for Italian protection . Similarly , a delegation of Muslims from eastern Herzegovina travelled to Sarajevo , the historic Bosnian capital , to urge the NDH authorities to link eastern Herzegovina to that city .

Due to the poor response to the demand for the surrender of weapons , the deadline was extended several times until a date of 8 July was fixed . On 17 May , courts @-@ martial were established to try those that were arrested in possession of weapons , and those found guilty were immediately executed by firing squad . The precedent for this brutal repressive measure against Serbs had already been established by the Germans . It was clear from the outset that the NDH weapons laws were not being enforced as strictly against Croats as they were against Serbs . Securing the border between eastern Herzegovina and Montenegro was considered a high priority due to concerns that the Montenegrin Federalist Party had revived Montenegrin claims to parts of the NDH that had been promised to the Kingdom of Montenegro in the 1915 Treaty of London .

The Italians handed over the administration of eastern Herzegovina to the NDH government on 20 May 1941 , following the signing of the Treaties of Rome , which ceded formerly Yugoslav territory along the Adriatic coast to Italy . The Italians did not immediately withdraw all their troops from the region . The NDH moved quickly to establish its authority in the towns and districts of eastern Herzegovina , which included appointing mayors and prefects , the creation of local units of the Ustaše Militia , and deploying hundreds of gendarmes , Croatian Home Guards and Ustaše Militia units from outside eastern Herzegovina . These forces were brought in to maintain order . The academic Professor Alija Šuljak was appointed the Ustaše commissioner for eastern Herzegovina .

On 20 May , the recently formed Home Guard battalions began to deploy into the Adriatic Command area . On 27 May , 6 officers and 300 gendarmes of the Sarajevo @-@ based 4th Gendarmerie Regiment were deployed into parts of eastern Herzegovina . They established platoon strength posts in Nevesinje , Trebinje , Gacko and Bileća , with their headquarters also in Bileća . The Dubrovnik @-@ based 2nd Gendarmerie Regiment established posts in Stolac and Berkovići . The headquarters of Adriatic Command was transferred to Mostar in late May , and General Ivan Prpić was appointed as its commander .

By 29 May , the battalions of Adriatic Command were in their garrison locations : the 6th Battalion at Mostar , the 7th Battalion at Trebinje , and the 10th Battalion in the Dubrovnik area . The other two Adriatic Command battalions were deployed to Knin and Sinj far to the west . The 18th Battalion was allocated as a reserve and was garrisoned in Mostar . Main Ustaše Headquarters was tasked to recruit one battalion for duties within the Adriatic Command area . Home Guard battalions had a standard structure , consisting of a headquarters company , three infantry companies , a machine gun platoon and a communications section , while battalions of the Ustaše Militia consisted of a headquarters , three companies and a motorised section . Even after the establishment of NDH authorities in eastern Herzegovina , Italian forces maintained their presence in the region . The 55th Regiment of the 32nd Infantry Division Marche remained garrisoned in Trebinje , with the 56th Regiment based in Mostar . The 49th MVSN Legion ( Blackshirts ) were also stationed in Bileća . The Italians maintained a troop presence in Nevesinje until 17 June , and conducted almost daily motorised patrols throughout eastern Herzegovina .

The NDH authorities established new administrative sub @-@ divisions , organising the state into counties ( Croatian : velike župe ) and then districts ( Croatian : kotar ) . Eastern Herzegovina was covered by the counties of Hum and Dubrava . Hum County included the districts of Mostar and Nevesinje , and Dubrava County included the districts of Bileća , Gacko , Stolac , Ravno and Trebinje . The Župan ( county prefect ) of Hum was Josip Trajer with his seat in Mostar , and the Župan of Dubrava was Ante Buć , based in Dubrovnik .

According to the Yugoslav census of 1931 , the population of eastern Herzegovina comprised 4 per cent Croats , 28 per cent Muslims , and 68 per cent Serbs . According to Professor Jozo Tomasevich , the estimated population of the districts of Bileća , Gacko and Nevesinje was only around 1 @.@ 1 per cent Croat , so in those areas nearly all the NDH government appointments and local Ustaše units were staffed by Muslims , an ethnic group that made up about 23 @.@ 7 per cent of the local population . The poor Muslim peasants of eastern Herzegovina largely sided with the Ustaše . The NDH government immediately tried to strengthen their position by vilifying the Serbs , who , according to Tomasevich , comprised around 75 per cent of the population .

= = Prelude = =

The Ustaše began to impose the new laws on the Serb population of the NDH . On 28 May , a group of ten young Ustaše students from the University of Zagreb arrived in Trebinje and began removing signs written in the Cyrillic script used by Serbs . On 1 June , in several towns and villages in eastern Herzegovina , Serbs were shot and businesses belonging to Serb merchants and others were seized . On that day , the Ustaše students in Trebinje shot nine Serbs and arrested another fifteen , apparently due to their links to the inter @-@ war Chetnik Association . Differences began to appear between the brutal treatment of Serbs by the Ustaše and the more careful approach of the other NDH authorities such as the Home Guard , who were aware of the potential danger created by Ustaše methods . In early June , the NDH authorities began operations to confiscate weapons from the population , meeting with immediate resistance . On 1 June , the residents of the village of Donji Drežanj , near Nevesinje , refused to co @-@ operate with weapons collectors . In response , the Ustaše killed a number of Serbs and burned their homes .

On 3 June , there were several incidents in which armed villagers spontaneously retaliated against the local authorities . That afternoon , 20 Ustaše were entering Donji Drežanj to confiscate firearms when they were attacked by a group of armed villagers . The villagers withdrew after a short firefight , with one of their number being captured . Reinforcements from the Home Guard and gendarmerie soon arrived , along with more Ustaše who burned another 20 houses and shot a woman . On the night of 4 / 5 June , a group under the control of the Ustaše commissioner for the Gacko district , Herman Tonogal , killed 140 Serbs in the village of Korita , near Bileća , and threw their bodies into a nearby sinkhole . Another 27 Serbs from the village were killed between this massacre and 9 June , and over 5 @,@ 000 head of livestock were stolen and distributed to Muslim villages in the Gacko area for the exclusive use of the Ustaše . The estimated number of Serbs killed at Korita vary from 133 to 180 .

In the immediate aftermath , Serbs and Montenegrins from the local area attacked villages , and Adriatic Command sent the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion from Bileća to reinforce the Ustaše . After a brief clash near Korita , during which the Ustaše and gendarmerie lost one killed and several wounded , the rebels withdrew across the nearby border into Montenegro . The 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion spent the night in the village of Stepen before establishing itself as the Avtovac garrison the following day . Due to its exposure to fire from rebels overlooking their location , the gendarmes were unable to re @-@ occupy their post in Stepen , which meant that the Stepen – Korita road was no longer secure . On 8 June , the district office in Gacko reported to Adriatic Command that they had taken 200 Serbs as hostages and issued a proclamation to the population to cease fighting and surrender their weapons . As this proclamation met with no response , on 10 June the Ustaše Commissioner for Bosnia and Herzegovina , Jure Francetić , had 19 hostages shot ( one escaped ) . On 12 June , the gendarmerie in Ravno shot four people on the orders of the Ustaše commissioner for Ljubinje . Such actions led to Serb peasants leaving their villages to seek safety in more remote areas , and Muslim villagers became increasingly nervous about their Serb neighbours .

In mid @-@ June , the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Bileća wrote to Adriatic Command complaining about the activities of the Ustaše , referring to them as " armed scum and animals " who were dishonouring " honest Croats " . When the Italians heard that the Ustaše had burned two villages across the border in Montenegro , they sent an intelligence officer to Gacko to investigate the unrest . He did not accept the explanation of the gendarmerie commander in Gacko , who claimed that the violence was caused by " personal hatred and revenge " , and met with rebels . The rebels did not attack him or his security escort , and told him that the reason behind the rebellion was that " Croats and Turks are beating us and throwing us into a pit " . He concluded that the cause of the unrest was the attempt to disarm the Serb community .

On 17 and 18 June , Tonogal and Lieutenant Colonel Aganović , gendarmerie commander for eastern Herzegovina , made an attempt to calm the situation by visiting villages east of the Gacko – Avtovac road to re @-@ establish peace in the area . They received a written message from four villages that they did not acknowledge the NDH authorities , and wanted the message to be passed on to the Italians . The residents of the villages of Jasenik and Lipnik were willing to talk and return to work , but they asked that the gendarmerie not visit their villages , as this would tempt the Montenegrins to attack . Aganović assessed that while this was probably true , their request was insincere . The gendarmerie commander in Bileća believed that the reason for the rebellion was that the local Serbs were wedded to the idea of Greater Serbia , and did not accept that their villages were part of the NDH . This approach essentially meant that local Serbs wanted the NDH authorities to leave them alone and not impose on their lives . According to the historian Davor Marijan , this was a poor choice that gave the Ustaše an excuse to take radical action .

The response of the NDH authorities to resistance had been to burn down the villages where this had occurred , and there were mass shootings of Serbs , which escalated the level of violence even further . In late May and June , 173 Serbs had been rounded up , tortured and killed in Nevesinje , and in early June , another 140 Serbs had been killed at Ljubinje . In response , Serbs attacked Ustaše officials and facilities , and conducted raids themselves , killing Muslim villagers .

= = Uprising = =

The NDH authorities only had weak forces in eastern Herzegovina at the time the mass uprising occurred , roughly equal to two Croatian Home Guard battalions , as well as gendarmerie posts in some towns . This was barely adequate to guard important locations , and was insufficient for offensive action . Deployed forces consisted of one company of the 10th Battalion in Trebinje , the headquarters and a reinforced company of the 7th Battalion in Bileća ( the balance of the battalion being divided between Gacko and Avtovac ) , and a company of the 6th Battalion in Nevesinje . The remainder of the 10th Battalion was deploying to Trebinje at the time the rebellion broke out .

= = = 23 – 24 June = = =

The first indication that the situation had changed significantly was on 23 June , when a group of 200 Ustaše clashed with a group of rebels they estimated to number between 600 and 1 @,@ 000 . After an extended firefight near the village of Stepen , 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of Korita , during which they suffered several casualties , the Ustaše also burned down four villages . They then entered two Muslim @-@ majority villages in the area and arrested 13 Serbs who had not been involved in the earlier fighting . The arrested Serbs were transported north to Avtovac and shot . That night , all adult Serbs above the age of 16 in Gacko , 4 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) northwest of Avtovac , were arrested , and 26 were immediately shot . The rest were transported 50 km ( 31 mi ) west to a camp in Nevesinje . Over the period 23 – 25 June , 150 Serbs from the village of Ravno , 30 km ( 19 mi ) southwest of Ljubinje , were arrested and killed at the gendarmerie post , and the remainder of the population fled to the hills .

On 23 and 24 June , spontaneous mass gatherings occurred at several villages in the Gacko and Nevesinje districts . These rallies were prompted by the news of the German invasion of the Soviet Union , and those attending them voted to fight against the Ustaše . Professor Marko Attila Hoare states that the full @-@ scale uprising resulted from the Ustaše retaliation against attempts of the Serbs of eastern Herzegovina to defend themselves , combined with the launching of the German invasion on 22 June . At dawn on 24 June , the area of Nevesinje descended into full @-@ scale revolt , with around 400 armed rebels engaging the Home Guard garrison . By 24 June , the uprising had reached a massive scale across eastern Herzegovina , with between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 armed rebels in total , including some Montenegrins .

= = = 25 June = = =

On the morning of 25 June , the company of the 6th Battalion at Nevesinje reported that rebels were gathering to attack the town ; Nevesinje 's Ustaše commissioner claimed that the rebel force numbered 5 @,@ 000 , and were led by a former Yugoslav Army colonel . About 10 : 00 , the town was attacked from the south and southwest . In response , the Home Guard despatched two more companies of the 6th Battalion from Mostar to Nevesinje . That morning , reports also arrived from Bileća and Stolac that rebels were approaching the village of Berkovići from the north , and had captured the gendarmerie post at Gornji Lukavac . About 11 : 30 , the Ustaše commissioner for Stolac reported that 3 @,@ 000 Montenegrins had gathered between Nevesinje and Stolac , and he requested the immediate supply of 150 rifles for his men . A rebel attack on the gendarmerie post in the village of Divin near Bileća was repulsed around midday . A platoon of Home Guard reinforcements and weapons for the Ustaše arrived at Stolac in the afternoon , and Bileća was held throughout the day .

Reports of the uprising reached Kvaternik during 25 June , but he dismissed them and the reports of 5 @,@ 000 rebels , cancelling Adriatic Command 's redeployment of the 21st Battalion from Slavonski Brod as well as a request to the Italians for air reconnaissance support . He stated that the suppression of the uprising could be handled by local forces . Loss of communication with Nevesinje resulted in rumours that the town had fallen to the rebels . The gendarmerie post at Fojnica ( near Gacko ) was captured on the afternoon of 25 June , with the survivors escaping to Gacko . Newspapers reported rumours that Gacko and Avtovac had fallen to the rebels . Having already despatched a reinforced company towards Nevesinje from Sarajevo earlier in the day , Adriatic Command ordered the rest of the battalion to follow . The initial company group had already reached Kalinovik some 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) from Nevesinje , and the rest of the battalion was expected to spend the night of 25 / 26 June there before arriving in Nevesinje around noon on 26 June . Kvaternik received an updated report on the situation in eastern Herzegovina during the night , and Prpić travelled from Sarajevo to Mostar to take control of operations , to find that information about the situation in eastern Herzegovina was unclear , but suggested that NDH forces could be facing serious difficulties .

= = = 26 June = = =

On the morning of 26 June , the company of the 6th Battalion that had been sent from Mostar continued towards Nevesinje , but almost immediately came under fire from a rebel group . With the assistance of Ustaše , the Home Guard were able to hold their ground , but they were unable to break through to Nevesinje . That afternoon , two aircraft of the Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske , ZNDH ) from Sarajevo conducted an armed reconnaissance over eastern Herzegovina , and discovered that NDH forces still held Nevesinje . They observed barricades across the Mostar – Nevesinje road , and strafed a group of 50 rebels north of Nevesinje near the village of Kifino Selo . Prpić bolstered the force on the Mostar – Nevesinje road with the 17th Battalion , recently arrived from Sarajevo , and sent his deputy , Colonel Antun Prohaska to command it . The 17th Battalion joined that force at 20 : 00 . About 17 : 00 , the company of the 11th Battalion reached Nevesinje from Kalinovik , and a further company of the battalion was despatched from Sarajevo , along with the battalion commander .

In the southern part of the area of operations around Stolac , the situation was significantly calmer than around Nevesinje , although a group of 200 Ustaše at Berkovići were falsely claiming that they were being surrounded by rebels at night . Despite this claim , they had suffered no casualties . Regardless , Prpić sent them ammunition and a platoon of the 18th Battalion . At 19 : 00 on 26 June , Francetić arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to be briefed on the situation . He resolved that he would travel to Berkovići the following day and take personal command of the Ustaše unit there .

Around Gacko and Avtovac in the north , the day had been quiet . When the commander of the 2nd Company of the 7th Battalion at Gacko reported rebels gathering near the town , Prpić sent a truck @-@ mounted platoon with an ammunition resupply . The platoon was ambushed en route , with 14 Home Guardsmen being captured . Gacko was reinforced later in the day from troops in Avtovac . On the night of 26 June , the Nevesinje garrison was subjected to a sustained attack by the rebels , but held out .

The NDH authorities in Trebinje heard rumours that the Serbs could start an uprising there on 28 June , the feast day of Saint Vitus , and warned NDH forces in the region to be prepared for a revolt . As a result of these reports , the Poglavnik ( leader ) of the NDH , Ante Pavelić , issued orders threatening that anyone who spread these rumours would be court @-@ martialled . On the eve of the feast day , both the gendarmerie and Ustaše took several hostages in case the rumours were true . Later , the gendarmerie released their hostages , but the 19 hostages held by the Ustaše were killed . In contrast to the actions of the Ustaše , the Home Guard units in the area tried to calm the situation down .

= = = 27 – 28 June = = =

On the morning of 27 June , Prpić launched a three @-@ pronged assault to clear the routes to Nevesinje . Prohaska commanded the push east along the Mostar – Nevesinje road by a force close to two battalions , Francetić led his unit of Ustaše north from Berkovići through the mountains via Odžak to approach Nevesinje from the south , and two companies of the 11th Battalion thrust southwest along the road from Plužine . Once this task was complete , the NDH forces were to vigorously pursue the rebels and destroy them .

The Prohaska group deployed with one company on the road , and elements of the 17th Battalion and 70 Ustaše on the left flank . Their attack commenced about 10 : 00 , and although they faced strong resistance from the rebels , aided by strafing and bombing by ZNDH aircraft , they reached villages on the outskirts of Nevesinje after fighting that lasted until dawn on 28 June . One Home Guard battalion halted and took up a defensive stance , and the commander was threatened with dismissal by Prpić before he resumed the attack . Francetić 's Ustaše unit also faced heavy fighting , and had to call for ammunition resupply on two occasions . One of the resupply vehicles was ambushed by rebels between Stolac and Berkovići , and some ammunition was finally delivered by passenger car during the night . Elsewhere , rebels attacked Gacko and Avtovac , and one ZNDH aircraft was shot down by rebel machine gun fire near Avtovac . That night , Prpić telephoned Kvaternik and advised him that the imposition of martial law was necessary to restore order to Herzegovina . Army Chief of Staff General Vladimir Laxa was immediately appointed by Pavelić to control both Hum and Dubrava counties , which incorporated much of eastern Herzegovina .

On 28 June , Laxa became the overall commander of all NDH authorities in Hum and Dubrava counties , which included Ustaše , Home Guard , civil administration , gendarmerie and police . Military courts were established to deal with those resisting the NDH authorities . Armed guards were posted at the entrance to towns and villages , and any armed civilians were to be disarmed and brought to military authorities . Laxa issued an order that gave the rebels until 2 July to submit to the authorities . On that day , after the Prohaska group broke through to Nevesinje from Mostar , Prohaska sent a company of the 6th Battalion to Kifino Selo to meet the two companies of the 11th Battalion advancing from Plužine . Despite ZNDH air support , the company of the 6th Battalion was attacked by rebels near the entrance to Kifino Selo and the majority broke and ran . Prohaska had to send reserves to block the road between Nevesinje and Kifino Selo , and the companies from the 11th Battalion began to reconnoitre the rebel positions towards Odžak .

Also on that morning , the 200 Home Guard troops and about 50 armed locals in Avtovac were attacked from three directions by rebels . They recovered from their initial surprise and held the town during the day , but in the evening a renewed assault caused them to withdraw from Avtovac and retreat to the villages of Međuljići and Ključ . Upon capturing Avtovac , the rebels looted the village , burned down a large number of Muslim homes and killed 32 Muslim civilians , mostly women , children and the elderly . Gacko was also attacked by the rebels , with eight soldiers killed , and one officer and 12 soldiers wounded . Also on 28 June , two Italian Army trucks driving from Bileća to Avtovac were ambushed by rebels , who killed three soldiers and wounded 17 . Around 18 : 00 , the Italian command advised Kvaternik that they would be clearing the route from Bileća via Gacko to Nevesinje on an unspecified future date . During the fighting around Gacko , several ZNDH aircraft were forced to land due to pilot casualties and engine trouble . ZNDH air support operations were suspended due to lack of fuel and spares for the aircraft .

There was no improvement in the situation around Stolac , and an Ustaše unit made up of armed civilians proved to be of such low combat value that Laxa spoke to Francetić and criticised its performance . South of Bileća , rebels destroyed the gendarmerie post in a village , killing seven gendarmes . Dozens of gendarmes were sent from Trebinje to assist them , but they were stopped by rebels and withdrew into a village schoolhouse . In the afternoon a platoon of the 10th Home Guard Battalion was sent north from Trebinje to support the gendarmes , but they were attacked near the village of Mosko , and withdrew into a defensive position . They were reinforced by a second platoon during the night , and were given orders to clear the road from Trebinje to Bileća on the following morning ahead of the Italians .

= = = 29 – 30 June = = =

At dawn on 29 June , the rebels attacked the Ustaše in a village on the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Prohaska demanded help from Mostar , and planned to send a force from Nevesinje to assist . From Mostar , a company of the 21st Battalion was despatched to relieve the Ustaše , who had managed to hold off the rebels . The Home Guard company then took over the post from the Ustaše . The same day , two new battalions arrived in Mostar , the 23rd Battalion from Osijek and the 15th Battalion from Travnik . These reinforcements arrived just as Prpić received confirmation that Avtovac had been captured by the rebels . The remaining small garrison in Gacko , consisting of only 20 gendarmes and 30 Ustaše , were holding out but expecting more attacks by the rebels . In the morning , the attack by elements of the 10th Battalion stalled until the battalion commander , Lieutenant Colonel Julije Reš , personally took command of the operation , clearing the way for the Italians . The promised Italian intervention commenced about midday , and about 100 trucks of Italian soldiers arrived in Gacko about 17 : 00 . As they had passed through Avtovac , the rebels had left the town and withdrawn to villages to the east . About 18 : 00 , the 10th Battalion relieved the besieged gendarmes in the village schoolhouse . ZNDH aircraft from Mostar airfield flew reconnaissance sorties over the area and dropped leaflets over Stolac , Stepen , Avtovac , Gacko and Plužine .

After the garrison of Nevesinje had been relieved , Laxa directed his main effort towards the Gacko and Avtovac districts . Sensitive to the fact that the Italians had not respected the territorial borders of the NDH when they sent their column to Gacko , he considered it very important that Croatian military and political prestige be restored , otherwise the Italians might decide to remain in the area rather than withdraw to their garrison near the Adriatic coast . He planned to follow this consolidation by clearing the border areas with Montenegro then clearing the hinterland of any remaining rebels . For this last task he intended to deploy a yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ formed special unit to be led by Lieutenant Colonel Josip Metzger . The task of re @-@ asserting NDH authority in the Gacko and Avtovac districts was allocated to Prohaska 's group , consisting of the 6th Battalion , one company of the 18th Battalion , two companies of the 17th Battalion , and the recently arrived 15th and 21st Battalions , which were to be sent to Nevesinje from Mostar . Prohaska was to act in concert with the 11th Battalion who were already in the vicinity of Plužine , just to the north of the Nevesinje – Gacko road . In preparation , the 15th Battalion was trucked to Nevesinje , and a company of the 17th Battalion conducted a coordinated attack with the 11th Battalion on rebel positions near Kifino Selo . This attack was defeated by the rebels , and a battalion commander was killed .

During the remainder of the day , the Italians collected the bodies of their dead from the rebel ambush on 28 June , and rescued some Home Guard troops that had escaped Avtovac , but then returned to Plana , just north of Bileća . The value of further operations in the Gacko and Avtovac areas was brought into question when the Italians reported that both towns had been burned to the ground , and all the inhabitants had been massacred . The Italians blamed Montenegrins attached to the rebels for the destruction and killings in the two towns . The Italian estimate of rebel strength was around 3 @,@ 000 armed with machine guns , artillery and anti @-@ aircraft guns . A German intelligence officer from Sarajevo arrived at Prpić 's headquarters in Mostar to receive a briefing on the situation . The small garrison of Gacko was anticipating an attack by rebels during the night , but in the afternoon 180 Home Guardsmen that had withdrawn from Avtovac arrived to bolster their position , and the night passed without incident .

= = = 1 – 7 July = = =

On 1 July , an Italian armoured unit arrived in Gacko to reinforce the garrison . An Ustaše operation to clear the insurgents from the Stolac district began on 3 July , meeting with success and opening of the road from Berkovci north to Odžak . The Ustaše did not go closer to Nevesinje as they were not in uniform , and were concerned that the Home Guards would mistake them for rebels . During this operation , three Ustaše were killed , including their commander , and the Ustaše fighters killed ten rebels and captured two . In the belongings of one of the captured rebels , the Ustaše located a report by the " National Movement for the Liberation of Nevesinje " ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Narodni pokret za oslobođenje Nevesinja ) , which was apparently how the rebels referred to themselves . The report made it clear that the rebels were using military tactics and organisation , and hinted at co @-@ operation with the Italians . According to information gathered by the police , the local rebel leadership included former Mostar merchant Čedo Milić , the Bjelogrlić brothers from Avtovac , the Orthodox priest Father Mastilović from Nadinići , and a Captain Radović from Avtovac . Montenegrins involved in the leadership of the uprising included Colonel Bajo Stanišić , Major Minja Višnjić , and Radojica Nikčević from Nikšić .

Following the Italian intervention , Prpić was able to proceed with the task of clearing the wider area of Nevesinje from 3 July , ensuring NDH control of population centres and roads . On 5 July , he replaced his deputy Prohaska with Colonel Franjo Šimić , and assigned him a force consisting of the 6th , 11th , 15th and 17th Battalions , a company of the 18th Battalion and a troop of artillery . The force numbered 62 officers and 2 @,@ 062 men , with heavy weapons including four 100 mm Skoda houfnice vz 14 mountain howitzers , six heavy machine guns and twenty @-@ seven light machine guns . Šimić seized the crossroads near Kifino Selo and Plužine , securing it with one company of the 11th Battalion , then sent the 15th Battalion to Gacko and the 17th Battalion to Berkovići . A half company of the 21st Battalion secured the Mostar – Nevesinje road . Once this was completed , the major roads in eastern Herzegovina were secured . These operations proceeded without significant fighting , as some of the rebels retreated over the border with Montenegro , and others hid their weapons in the mountains and returned to their homes . By 7 July , NDH forces had regained full control over all the towns and transport routes in eastern Herzegovina .

= = Aftermath = =

Tomasevich states that the uprising was a " spontaneous , unorganised outburst " that was doomed to failure , and involved neither the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović nor the Communist Party of Yugoslavia ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Komunistička partija Jugoslavije , KPJ ) . He contends that the uprising was the result of several factors , including the Ustaše persecutions , fear and hatred of the NDH authorities , a local tradition of rebellion against the Ottoman Empire , the poor economic conditions in eastern Herzegovina , and news of the launching of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union . Hoare concurs with Tomasevich that the uprising was in the tradition of the Herzegovinian rebellions against the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century , such as the uprisings in 1875 – 77 . Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau , the German Plenipotentiary General in the NDH , believed that the Italians might have deliberately avoided interfering in the uprising . General Renzo Dalmazzo , the commander of the Italian 6th Army Corps , blamed the Ustaše and Muslims for stoking the revolt .

In eastern Herzegovina , the KPJ had little impact until mid @-@ August 1941 , well after the initial revolt had been suppressed . During the lead @-@ up to the mass uprising , the KPJ organisation in Herzegovina would not commit itself , as it was waiting for orders from the provincial organisation in Sarajevo , which was expecting direction from the KPJ Central Committee to launch a general uprising across Yugoslavia . Once they became aware of the German attack on the Soviet Union , the KPJ in Herzegovina voted to join the mass uprising , but this only occurred on 24 June , when the uprising was already in full swing . According to Milazzo , the rebels remained a threat throughout eastern Herzegovina well into July , although the uprising in Herzegovina did not advance until the Bosnia @-@ wide revolt occurred at the end of July , by which time the KPJ was ready for active involvement in the fighting .

= Katori @-@ class battleship =

The Katori class ( 香取型戦艦 , Katori @-@ gata senkan ) was a two @-@ ship class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the early 1900s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships itself , they were designed and built in the UK . They were the last battleships to be built for Japan at overseas shipyards , and the last to be equipped with a ram . The ships were delivered after the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . They saw no action during World War I , although both were present when Japan joined the Siberian Intervention in 1918 . They were disarmed and scrapped in 1923 – 25 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 .

= = Design and description = =

The Katori @-@ class ships were ordered under the 1903 Third Fleet Extension Program . As with the earlier battleships , Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships , and turned again to the United Kingdom , placing orders with Armstrong and Vickers in January 1904 . The next class of battleships , the Satsuma class , were built in Japan .

The design of the Katori class was a modified and improved version of the King Edward VII @-@ class battleships of the Royal Navy . The Vickers @-@ built Katori was slightly smaller than her sister ship , Kashima . They had an overall length of 456 @.@ 25 – 470 @.@ 6 feet ( 139 @.@ 1 – 143 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 78 – 78 @.@ 16 feet ( 23 @.@ 8 – 23 @.@ 8 m ) , and a normal draught of 26 @.@ 6 – 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 1 – 8 @.@ 2 m ) . They displaced 15 @,@ 950 – 16 @,@ 383 long tons ( 16 @,@ 206 – 16 @,@ 646 t ) at normal load . The crew consisted of 864 officers and enlisted men .

= = = Propulsion = = =

The ships were powered by a pair of four @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller , using steam generated by 20 Niclausse boilers using a mixture of coal and fuel oil . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 600 – 16 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 600 – 12 @,@ 400 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) although they proved to be faster during their sea trials . Kashima reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 24 knots ( 35 @.@ 63 km / h ; 22 @.@ 14 mph ) using 17 @,@ 280 ihp ( 12 @,@ 890 kW ) and Katori made 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) from 18 @,@ 500 ihp ( 13 @,@ 800 kW ) . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 150 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 120 long tons ) of coal and 377 – 750 long tons ( 383 – 762 t ) of fuel oil which allowed them to steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .

= = = Armament = = =

The Katori class were equipped with four 45 @-@ calibre Elswick Ordnance Company 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Type 41 guns mounted in twin @-@ gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure that had armoured hoods to protect the guns and were usually called gun turrets . The barbettes were positioned fore and aft of the superstructure . These were more powerful than the 40 @-@ calibre guns on Mikasa and earlier Japanese battleships . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) .

The King Edward VII class introduced an intermediate calibre of 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) guns between the primary 12 @-@ inch guns and the secondary six @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns and the Japanese upgraded these to 45 @-@ calibre 10 @-@ inch Type 41 guns in four single barbettes mounted at the corners of the superstructure . The guns had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 707 ft / s ( 825 m / s ) when firing 500 @-@ pound ( 227 kg ) shells . The Japanese added an additional pair of quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber six @-@ inch Type 41 guns , making a total of 12 guns , compared to the 10 of the King Edward VIIs . Ten of these guns were mounted in the hull and the remaining two were placed in the superstructure between the 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) gun turrets . Their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) when fired by the Type 41 guns .

Protection against torpedo boat attacks was provided by 12 to 16 QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and three 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF three @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . The 12 @-@ pounders fired 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 359 ft / s ( 719 m / s ) . The ships were also equipped with five submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .

= = = Armor = = =

The waterline main belt of the Katori @-@ class vessels consisted of Krupp cemented armour 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , of which 2 feet 6 inches ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) was above the waterline at normal load . It had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) amidships . It was only 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) inches thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six @-@ inch , 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) strake of armour that ran between the main gun barbettes and protected most of the secondary guns . The barbettes for the main guns were 5 – 12 inches ( 130 – 300 mm ) thick and those for the intermediate turrets were protected by six inches of armour . The armour of the main gun barbette hoods had a maximum thickness of nine inches and those of the intermediate barbettes were 6 – 8 inches ( 150 – 200 mm ) thick . The sides of the superstructure between the intermediate barbettes had 4 inches ( 102 mm ) of armour .

The flat portion of the deck armour was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick amidships where it sloped down to the bottom of the armour belt . This significantly improved the ships ' protection as any shell that penetrated their vertical armour also had to penetrate the sloping deck before it could reach the machinery compartments or magazines . Outside the central armoured citadel , the sloped deck had a thickness of 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) . The conning tower was protected by nine inches of armour .

= = Ships = =

= = Service = =

Whilst conducting gunnery training in Hiroshima Bay on 16 September 1907 , brown powder propellant in Kashima 's starboard rear 10 @-@ inch gun mount ignited when it came in contact with burning residue from the previous shot . The fire killed seven officers and 27 enlisted men ; wounding two officers and six enlisted men . When World War I began , Kashima was refitting while Katori was assigned to the 1st Battleship Squadron . The former was assigned to the 2nd Battleship Squadron when her refit was completed in 1915 and became the squadron 's flagship in 1916 . Katori began a refit in 1914 that lasted until late 1916 and was assigned to the 5th Battleship Squadron upon its completion . Kashima joined her sister in the 5th Battleship Squadron as its flagship in 1918 and both ships covered the landing of Japanese troops in Siberia in August of that year as Japan decided to intervene in the Russian Civil War .

In 1921 , Katori , escorted by Kashima , carried Crown Prince Hirohito on his tour of Europe where he met King George V. Both ships were disarmed in 1923 and later scrapped to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .

= Sonnet 86 =

Sonnet 86 is one of 154 sonnets written by the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare . It is the final poem of the Rival Poet subsection of the Fair Youth sonnets in which Shakespeare writes about an unnamed young man and a rival poet competing for the youth 's attention . While the exact date of its composition is unknown , scholars generally agree that the Rival Poet series was written between 1598 and 1600 and published along with the rest of the sonnets in the 1609 Quarto .

Within the sonnet , the speaker contemplates his inability to articulate his admiration for the Fair Youth , a fault he attributes to his jealousy of the Fair Youth 's appearance in the poems of the speaker 's Rival Poet . Sonnet 86 is notable within the Rival Poet subsection of sonnets because it allegedly provides important clues as to the historical identity of this Rival Poet . The sonnet is written in the typical Shakespearean sonnet form , containing 14 lines of iambic pentameter and ending in a rhymed couplet .

= = Paraphrase = =

The poem , in which the speaker rhetorically asks why he has lost his ability to write poetry , uses boating references while staying closely connected to the poetic structure of a sonnet .

Below is a paraphrase , written in contemporary English and in prose .

Was it his ambitious poetry , which was written to win you , that stopped my ability to think ? Did it cause all of my ideas to die as soon as they were born ? Was it his heaven given ability , writing which was blessed by the gods , that stopped me in my tracks ? Neither he nor his companions who helped him were able to stop my poetic ability . Neither he nor the Muse which aids him each night can claim to have silenced me . For I am not afraid . However , when your beauty was gifted to him then I was lost and destroyed .

= = Structure = =

Shakespeare 's sonnets follow the fourteen line rhyme scheme of the ' English ' or ' Surreyan ' sonnet form ( abab cdcd efef gg ) . A sonnet originally referred to any short lyric . In 1573 , George Gascoigne tried to define the word sonnet . This definition , stated below , delineates the structure within which Shakespeare often wrote .

I can best allowe to call those Sonnets which are of fourtene lynes , every line conteyning tenne syllables . The first twelve do ryme in staves of foure lines by crosse metre , and the last twoo ryming together do conclude the whole .

While conventional English sonnet form described by Gascoigne is seen in Sonnet 86 , the Petrarchan sonnet form , which requires a pause between the first eight lines and the last six lines is also evident . At the end of line eight Shakespeare uses a period to bring the sonnet to a stop , changing the sonnet 's direction by moving away from rhetorical questions to a more decisive tone within the sestet , which seems to answer the distress of the octave .

The Shakespearean sonnet is composed in iambic pentameter , a type of poetic metre based on five pairs of metrically weak / strong syllabic positions . The 6th line exemplifies a regular iambic pentameter :

× / × / × / × / × /

Above a mortal pitch , that struck me dead ? ( 86 @.@ 6 )

/

= ictus , a metrically strong syllabic position . × =

nonictus .

Line two exhibits the first of a large number of necessary or potential initial reversals :

/ × × / × / × / × /

Bound for the prize of all @-@ too @-@ precious you , ( 86 @.@ 2 )

Initial reversals also occur in lines four and eight . Potential initial reversal occur in lines one , five , seven , nine , and twelve ; while potential mid @-@ line reversals occur in lines three , seven , and thirteen .

The meter demands that in the fifth line , the first " spirit " count as one syllable ( possibly pronounced as spear 't , sprite , sprit , or spurt ) , while the second " spirits " counts as two . Line eight 's " astonishèd " is pronounced with four syllables .

= = Context = =

Sonnet 86 is well known as the final sonnet of The Rival Poet sonnets , in Shakespeares 1609 edition of sonnets . The rival poet series , Sonnets 78 @-@ 86 , is generally thought to be written around the years of 1598 – 1600 , based on vocabulary evidence and similarities found with the plays that were also written during this time period . There is no exact answer as to who this rival poet is since nearly every well @-@ known poet contemporary with Shakespeare has , at some time , been suggested as the " rival poet " . Among the poets considered to be the rival poet , George Chapman and Christopher Marlowe , colleagues and literary competitors to Shakespeare , are generally considered to be two of the most likely contenders .

Many of these potential identifications have been made using alleged clues found in Sonnet 86 . The second and third quatrains in particular have garnered much attention in this regard . The description of a poet " by spirits taught to write " has led several critics , including Katherine Duncan @-@ Jones and William Minto , to name George Chapman as the likeliest candidate . This is due to his supposed spiritual inspiration by the ghost of Homer . Another scholar , Richard Levin , connects the line " Above a mortal pitch , that struck me dead ? " to Christopher Marlowe 's play Tamburlaine , saying that the reactions described in both are similar to each other .

In a different reading , Shakespearean scholar Eric Sams has interpreted this reference to spiritual communion as an allusion to Barnabe Barnes , a notorious English occultist and poet , while others contend that the significance of the spirit is simply an allusion to poetic genius and that it contains no reference to an actual personage .

= = Exegesis = =

= = = Overview = = =

While scholarly debate abounds as to the identities of the persons contemplated in the sonnet , there is general consensus as to Sonnet 86 's role within the Rival Poet subsection of the Fair Youth sonnets . As Joseph Pequigney notes , " Sonnet 86 is written in the past tense , as distinct from the present tense of the eight previous sonnets , to signal the end of the episode , " that is , the Rival Poet series of sonnets . As the final sonnet in the series , it is also the sonnet in which Shakespeare claims his ultimate victory over the rival poet , the situation " resolved in Shakespeare 's favor " as he relentlessly mocks his opponent . Though he admits to having experienced a poetic hesitation , Shakespeare maintains that it was not the Rival Poet who caused it . Katherine Duncan @-@ Jones writes : " Undaunted by the splendour of his rival 's verses , the speaker quails only at [ his rival 's ] appropriation of the young man 's favour . "

= = = Quatrain 1 = = =

The sonnet begins with the speaker rhetorically asking whether it was the " great verse " of his rival poet that had prevented the speaker from expressing his own " ripe thoughts . " According to Duncan @-@ Jones , " the speaker claims to be unable to voice his thoughts of love ; they are ready for utterance ( ripe ) , but remain buried ( in @-@ hearsed ) in his brain because he is intimidated by his rival . " However , as Harold Bloom contends , this intimidation is apparently not caused by the artistic skill of his rival . In the opening lines of the sonnet , " [ Shakespeare ] charmingly suggests an inhibition through jealousy , not of superior poetic powers , but of encountering the Fair Young Man 's portrait in a rival 's verses . " The significance behind the apparent flattery of this rival 's art seems open to interpretation . Kenneth Muir writes : " Whether " the proud full sail of his great verse " is sincere admiration or a hint that it is bombastic is still debated , " though contemporary scholars tend to gravitate toward the latter , more sarcastic interpretation . Pequiney , amongst others , asserts that this verse is a derogatory adversion to the ostentatious craft of his opponent , belittling the rival 's delusions of grandeur .

= = = Quatrain 2 = = =

As noted above , many of the alleged clues as to the identity of the rival poet have been discovered within this quatrain . While Duncan @-@ Jones and Minto interpret references of the poet " by spirits taught to write " as allusions to George Chapman , other scholars have posited poets from Marlowe to Gervase Markham as contenders . Eric Sams , for one , relies heavily on these descriptions of spiritual communication to reinforce his argument for Barnes as the Rival Poet , noting Barnes ' scandalous occultism in 16th century England . In addition to these claims ( which assume the existence of a historical counterpart ) , there are also scholars who argue that the significance of the spirit is overstated and that it simply refers to poetic inspiration . As these diverse interpretations attest , a definitive identification of the Rival remains far from determined . Bloom writes , " Nearly every contemporary with Shakespeare has been put forward , including Christopher Marlowe , Ben Jonson , Samuel Daniel , and Edmund Spenser " . Structurally , this quatrain both extends and answers the question previously advanced by the sonnet 's speaker . He again asks whether it was the spirit of his rival that extinguished the speaker 's inspiration , then responds that it was certainly not . Within this response , Shakespeare simultaneously attacks the merit of the Rival 's output , " underscoring his " spiritual " composition , not to say his quackery , " while thoroughly rejecting its influence on the speaker 's own poetry . An accurate reading of the eighth line ( " Giving him aid , my verse astonished . " ) must take note that the word " astonished " is herein found with its earliest definition : " bereft of sensation ; stunned , benumbed , " in describing the status of the speaker 's " verse . "

= = = Quatrain 3 = = =

In the third quatrain , after again questioning the integrity of his rival 's work , Shakespeare continues to affirm his fearlessness in the face of his rival 's poetry . Lines nine and ten lend themselves to the same ambiguous interpretation found in the previous quatrain , with many scholars reading them as a reference to a specific poet . Of the " affable familiar ghost " found in line nine , Duncan @-@ Jones writes : " The phrase seems to carry an allusion to some well @-@ known relationship between a poet and his Muse or inspiring genius , such as Chapman 's with the spirit of Homer . " Shakespeare , however , mocks this relationship , stating that the Rival has been " gulled " by whatever spirit he may be communicating with and even this creative alliance is unable to claim the victory of the speaker 's silence . The final line of the quatrain ( " I was not sick of any fear from thence . " ) sets the stage for the couplet , alluding to the fact that , while his fear did not come from " thence , " i.e. , the rival poet , there is indeed a fear that has disrupted his poetic output .

= = = Couplet = = =

The couplet of Sonnet 86 finally allows the reader a glimpse of the speaker 's true vulnerability . It is here that he sets aside his attack on the Rival Poet in order to admit the true cause of his work 's impediment . Pequigney writes " Shakespeare finishes the episode by acknowledging what had long been evident , that the focus and cause of the contention was centered on the youth , not on literary laurels . " Bloom calls this couplet " a climactic , if dispiriting , close for the speaker , " as it demonstrates that while the speaker may have defeated the Rival Poet on the grounds of artistry , there is still competition between the two for the favor of the Fair Youth . In terms of the Rival Poet 's identity , Sams uses the penultimate verse to strengthen his argument for Barnes , reading line 13 as a reference to Barne 's 1593 work Parthenophil and Parthenophe . Sams writes : " One phrase in Sonnet 86 echoes Barnes , namely " when your countenance filled up his line . " Barnes 's sonnet to Henry Wriothesley , 3rd Earl of Southampton includes the actual words " your countenance . " Thus Southampton 's favour is solicited for the love − lyrics of Parthenophil and Parthenophe , so " that with your countenance graced they may withstand " envy and criticism . The word " countenance " has indeed " filled up " Barnes 's line — to overflowing , since it adds an extra syllable . " Shakespeare 's verse , on the other hand , conforms to a traditional iambic scansion . This interpretation also reads this line as a final blow against the Rival Poet , demonstrating Shakespeare 's superior mastery of the sonnet form .

= New York State Route 47 =

New York State Route 47 ( NY 47 ) was a 19 @.@ 34 @-@ mile ( 31 @.@ 12 km ) long state highway around Rochester in New York , in the United States . It formed a semicircle through the inner suburbs of Rochester , following expressways west and east of the city and surface streets south of Rochester . The western terminus of the route was at an interchange with NY 104 west of the city limits in Greece . The eastern terminus was at an intersection with Culver Road in Irondequoit mere yards from Lake Ontario . In between its western and eastern extents , NY 47 met Interstate 490 ( I @-@ 490 ) twice . The limited @-@ access highway portions of the route were known as the Rochester Outer Loop ( or Outer Loop ) in contrast to the Inner Loop around downtown Rochester .

NY 47 was originally routed along surface streets through the city when it was assigned c . 1937 . It began at NY 31 in Gates and followed Howard Road and Brooks Avenue southeast into Rochester , where it continued eastward on Genesee Park Boulevard and Elmwood Avenue . NY 47 remained on the latter through Brighton to an area known as Twelve Corners . At this point , the route turned north onto Winton Road and followed that street through the eastern fringe of the city to Irondequoit , where NY 47 ended at a junction with U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 , now NY 404 ) . The Outer Loop was constructed in stages , beginning with the portion of the Sea Breeze Expressway north of Ridge Road in the early 1950s . From that point on , construction progressed in a generally clockwise fashion around the city .

By the late 1960s and early 1970s , the Outer Loop was complete from NY 383 to US 104 west of the city and from modern I @-@ 590 exit 1 to the lakeshore east of Rochester . NY 47 followed the loop from US 104 south to NY 383 and from Elmwood Avenue north to modern NY 590 exit 8 ; north of that point , the expressway was part of US 104 and NY 18 . NY 47 was extended northward along the remainder of the Sea Breeze Expressway in 1970 . On March 18 , 1980 , the NY 47 designation was removed and replaced with several others , primarily I @-@ 390 , I @-@ 590 , NY 390 , and NY 590 .

= = Route description = =

NY 47 followed a half @-@ circle routing around the city of Rochester , beginning northwest of downtown in the town of Greece and proceeding generally counterclockwise around the city before ending northeast of downtown at the Lake Ontario shoreline in Irondequoit . The limited @-@ access highway portions of NY 47 were named the " Rochester Outer Loop " ( or " Outer Loop " ) in contrast to the Inner Loop around downtown Rochester . This moniker remains in use to this day , now referring to the designations that have since replaced NY 47 along the loop . Conceptually , NY 104 completes the Outer Loop along the north side of the city . However , only the section east of the Genesee River is expressway , leaving NY 104 from modern NY 390 to the Veterans Memorial Bridge as the only at @-@ grade portion of the loop . The at @-@ grade portion of NY 47 along Scottsville Road and Elmwood Avenue was known as the " Rochester Bypass " prior to the completion of the Outer Loop . The alignment described within this section is of NY 47 upon its removal in 1980 .

= = = Western expressway = = =

NY 47 began at an interchange with NY 104 ( now the interchange between NY 390 and NY 104 ) in Greece one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the Rochester city limits . Although , at the time , the freeway terminated just north of the interchange , the interchange itself was roughly complete , with only ramps to and from future NY 390 north of the interchange missing . NY 47 followed the modern NY 390 alignment south to I @-@ 490 , where NY 47 continued onto what is now I @-@ 390 . The routings of NY 47 and current I @-@ 390 were identical to NY 383 ( Scottsville Road ) in Chili , where NY 47 was forced to grade level via a partially constructed interchange , as modern I @-@ 390 had yet to be constructed in the area southeast of NY 383 .

= = = At @-@ grade = = =

Off the expressway and now at @-@ grade , NY 47 turned north onto NY 383 , forming a short concurrency with NY 383 into Rochester . At Elmwood Avenue , NY 47 and NY 383 departed Scottsville Road and proceeded eastward on Elmwood Avenue . Two blocks to the east , at an intersection with South Plymouth Avenue , NY 383 split from NY 47 , following Plymouth Avenue into downtown Rochester . NY 47 remained routed on Elmwood Avenue , crossing the Genesee River and passing north of Strong Memorial Hospital prior to intersecting NY 15 ( Mount Hope Avenue ) in the shadow of Mount Hope Cemetery . East of NY 15 , NY 47 progressed along Elmwood Avenue , intersecting several local streets before entering Brighton .

Within Brighton , NY 47 continued on Elmwood Avenue through " Twelve Corners " , intersecting NY 31 ( Monroe Avenue ) at the location , to what is now I @-@ 590 . At the northbound entrance ramp of the modern interchange between I @-@ 590 and Elmwood Avenue , NY 47 separated from the latter , entering the freeway . While what is now I @-@ 590 was constructed and open from Winton Road to I @-@ 490 , it had no signed designation between Winton and Elmwood .

= = = Eastern expressway = = =

NY 47 followed modern I @-@ 590 northward through Brighton to the Can of Worms , where NY 47 met I @-@ 490 for the second time . Due to the way the interchange was designed at the time , traffic continuing on NY 47 across I @-@ 490 had to merge with I @-@ 490 traffic for roughly 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) before exiting I @-@ 490 onto the other portion of NY 47 . North of I @-@ 490 , NY 47 followed the length of what is now NY 590 through Brighton , Rochester , and Irondequoit to Culver Road at the Lake Ontario shoreline .

= = History = =

= = = Original alignment = = =

When NY 47 was first commissioned in the Rochester area c . 1937 , it was routed along previously unnumbered roadways , with its northwest terminus located at the intersection of NY 31 ( Lyell Avenue ) and Howard Road in Gates . NY 47 took Howard Road south , passing through Gates Center and intersecting NY 33 before crossing the then @-@ New York Central Railroad main line ( now the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision ) at @-@ grade . The route remained on Howard Road until the intersection of Howard Road and Chili Avenue ( NY 33A ) , which also included Brooks Avenue at this juncture of time . NY 47 turned east onto Brooks Avenue and proceeded toward the Greater Rochester International Airport , joining the current routing of NY 204 at Beahan Road ( now Old Beahan Road ) .

NY 47 followed the entire alignment of NY 204 to what is now I @-@ 390 and continued on Brooks Avenue into Rochester to Genesee Park Boulevard . Route 47 turned south onto the street , which circles around the southwestern quadrant of the city , and followed its length to Genesee Street , where it turned south for a short distance before resuming its eastward alignment on Elmwood Avenue . The route remained on Elmwood Avenue into Brighton , where it turned north onto South Winton Road at Twelve Corners . At Highland Avenue , NY 47 reentered Rochester and became North Winton Road at East Avenue ( NY 96 ) . The route remained on Winton through Rochester and Irondequoit before terminating at Empire Boulevard ( then US 104 , now NY 404 ) just west of Irondequoit Bay .

= = = Expressway realignments = = =

= = = = East of Rochester = = = =

In the early 1950s , construction began on the Sea Breeze Expressway , a mostly limited @-@ access highway linking the Lake Ontario shoreline to the proposed I @-@ 490 east of Rochester . The first portion of the road , a divided highway extending from East Ridge Road in Irondequoit to Culver Road just west of the Irondequoit Bay Outlet , was opened to traffic by 1954 as a realignment of NY 18 . Construction on a limited @-@ access extension south to Empire Boulevard ( three blocks west of NY 47 's western terminus ) began at some point between 1956 and 1958 and was completed by 1960 as a realignment of US 104 . Another extension of the highway south to the partially complete I @-@ 490 in Brighton was completed c . 1961 and largely became part of a rerouted NY 47 by the following year . At the time , NY 47 left the expressway at Blossom Road and followed it west to Winton Road , where it rejoined its original routing .

By 1964 , construction was underway on a new expressway leading south from I @-@ 490 at the Can of Worms to Elmwood Avenue east of Twelve Corners . The highway was completed c . 1965 , at which time NY 47 was realigned to follow the Sea Breeze Expressway and the new expressway south through the Can of Worms to its end at a partial interchange with Elmwood Avenue ( now I @-@ 590 exit 3 ) . It continued west on Elmwood Avenue to Twelve Corners , where it reconnected to its old alignment at Winton Road .

= = = = West of Rochester = = = =

The first realignment of NY 47 west of the city occurred c . 1962 when it was rerouted between Chili and Elmwood Avenues to bypass the then @-@ Rochester – Monroe County Airport to the south . Instead of turning east onto Brooks Avenue as it did prior to 1962 , the route continued south on Beahan Road to Scottsville Road ( NY 383 ) , where it turned to overlap NY 383 north to Elmwood Avenue . At the time , Beahan Road connected directly to Scottsville Road ( via modern Old Beahan Road ) as the primary runway southwest of the airport had yet to be extended to its present length . By 1962 , construction was underway on a new limited @-@ access highway paralleling NY 47 ( Howard Road ) to the east between NY 31 and NY 33 . Within two years , work had begun on an extension of the highway south along the Erie Canal to Scottsville Road . Farther east , construction was underway on a new highway leading south from I @-@ 490 to Elmwood Avenue east of Twelve Corners .

All of the limited @-@ access highway between NY 31 and NY 383 opened to traffic c . 1965 . NY 47 was reconfigured to begin a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of Howard Road at modern NY 390 exit 21 and follow the new highway southeastward to its temporary end at what is now I @-@ 390 exit 17 east of the airport . At this point , NY 47 joined its pre @-@ 1965 routing and followed NY 383 northeastward into the city limits . By 1968 , construction was underway on a northward extension of the expressway to US 104 in Greece . It was completed and opened to traffic by 1971 .

= = = Extensions and deletion = = =

NY 47 was officially extended on both ends on January 1 , 1970 , to terminate at Lake Ontario on opposite sides of Rochester . In Greece , the designation officially followed what is now NY 390 north to the Lake Ontario State Parkway ; however , the portion between US 104 and the parkway had yet to be constructed . To the east in Irondequoit , NY 47 was stretched northward along the Sea Breeze Expressway to Culver Road , resulting in overlaps with both US 104 and NY 18 . At the time , the overlap with US 104 existed only between Empire Boulevard and the Keeler Street Expressway , which became the new alignment of the route through Irondequoit after its completion in 1969 . The overlap with US 104 was eliminated entirely the following year when that route was realigned onto a new expressway alignment between NY 47 and Webster that traversed Irondequoit Bay via the newly built Irondequoit Bay Bridge . The overlap with NY 18 was eliminated c . 1973 when NY 18 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Kodak Park .

On March 18 , 1980 , the NY 47 designation was eliminated and split into four other routes . From NY 104 in Greece to I @-@ 490 , NY 47 became NY 390 . The section from I @-@ 490 south to NY 383 was designated as part of I @-@ 390 ; however , it would not connect to the existing portion of I @-@ 390 south of Rochester until 1981 , when the interchange between I @-@ 390 and I @-@ 590 was completed . The segment of NY 47 from Elmwood Avenue north to the Can of Worms became part of I @-@ 590 , which continued southwest along the freeway to Winton Road . From the Can of Worms to Lake Ontario , NY 47 was redesignated NY 590 .

Off the expressways , the former alignments of NY 47 now carry several designations . Howard Road , bypassed by the 1960s realignment in Gates , is still maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 940L , an unsigned reference route 2 @.@ 37 miles ( 3 @.@ 81 km ) in length . Beahan Road , also bypassed by the same 1960s rerouting , was reconfigured into its current alignment by 1971 due to an expansion by the airport . The section of Beahan Road that carried NY 47 is currently maintained by Monroe County as part of County Route 164 ( CR 164 ) , the county 's unsigned designation for all of Beahan Road . The portion of NY 47 on Elmwood Avenue from the Rochester city line to I @-@ 590 is also maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 87 . Lastly , the segments of Winton Road outside of the Rochester city limits are now part of CR 98 . The remainder of c . 1980 NY 47 and the former alignments of the route are currently locally maintained .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route was in Monroe County .

= Battle of Nanking =

The Battle of Nanking ( or Nanjing ) was fought in early December 1937 during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War between the National Revolutionary Army of China and the Imperial Japanese Army for control of Nanking ( Nanjing ) , the capital of the Republic of China .

Following the outbreak of war between Japan and China in July 1937 the Japanese government at first attempting to contain the fighting and sought a negotiated settlement to the war . However , after victory in the Battle of Shanghai expansionists prevailed within the Japanese military and on December 1 a campaign to capture Nanking was officially authorized . The task of occupying Nanking was given to General Iwane Matsui , the commander of Japan 's Central China Area Army , who believed that the capture of Nanking would force China to surrender and thus end the war . Chinese leader Chiang Kai @-@ shek ultimately decided to defend the city and appointed Tang Shengzhi to command the Nanking Garrison Force , a hastily assembled army of local conscripts and the remnants of the Chinese units who had fought in Shanghai .

Japanese soldiers marched from Shanghai to Nanking at a breakneck pace , rapidly defeating pockets of Chinese resistance . By December 9 they had reached the last line of defense , the Fukuo Line , behind which lay Nanking 's fortified walls . On December 10 Matsui ordered an all @-@ out attack on Nanking , and after less than two days of intense fighting Chiang decided to abandon the city . Before fleeing , Tang ordered his men to launch a concerted breakout of the Japanese siege , but by this time Nanking was largely surrounded and its defenses were at the breaking point . Most of Tang 's units simply collapsed , their soldiers often casting off their weapons and uniforms in the streets in the hopes of hiding among the city 's civilian population .

Following the capture of the city Japanese soldiers massacred Chinese prisoners of war , murdered civilians , and committed acts of looting and rape in an event known as the Nanking Massacre . Though Japan 's military victory excited and emboldened them , the subsequent massacre tarnished their reputation in the eyes of the world . Contrary to Matsui 's expectations , China did not surrender and the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War continued for another eight years .

= = Prelude to the battle = =

= = = Japan 's decision to capture Nanking = = =

The conflict which would become known as Second Sino @-@ Japanese War started on July 7 , 1937 with a skirmish at Marco Polo Bridge which escalated rapidly into a full @-@ scale war in northern China between the armies of China and Japan . China , however , wanted to avoid a decisive confrontation in the north and so instead opened a second front by attacking Japanese units in Shanghai in central China . The Japanese responded by dispatching the Shanghai Expeditionary Army ( SEA ) , commanded by General Iwane Matsui , to drive the Chinese Army from Shanghai . Intense fighting in Shanghai forced Japan 's Army General Staff , which was in charge of military operations , to repeatedly reinforce the SEA , and finally on November 9 an entirely new army , the 10th Army commanded by Lieutenant General Heisuke Yanagawa , was also landed at Hangzhou Bay just south of Shanghai .

Although the arrival of the 10th Army succeeded at forcing the Chinese Army to retreat from Shanghai , the Japanese Army General Staff had decided to adopt a policy of non @-@ expansion of hostilities with the aim of ending the war . On November 7 its de facto leader Deputy Chief of Staff Hayao Tada laid down an " operation restriction line " preventing its forces from leaving the vicinity of Shanghai , or more specifically from going west of the Chinese cites of Suzhou and Jiaxing . The city of Nanking is 300 kilometers ( 186 miles ) west of Shanghai .

However , a major rift of opinion existed between the Japanese government and its two field armies , the SEA and 10th Army , which as of November were both nominally under the control of the Central China Area Army led by SEA commander Matsui . Matsui made clear to his superiors even before he left for Shanghai that he wanted to march on Nanking . He was convinced that the conquest of the Chinese capital city of Nanking would provoke the fall of the entire Nationalist Government of China and thus hand Japan a quick and complete victory in its war on China . Yanagawa was likewise eager to conquer Nanking and both men chafed under the operation restriction line that had been imposed on them by the Army General Staff .

On November 19 Yanagawa ordered his 10th Army to pursue retreating Chinese forces across the operation restriction line to Nanking , a flagrant act of insubordination . When Tada discovered this the next day he ordered Yanagawa to stop immediately , but was ignored . Matsui made some effort to restrain Yanagawa , but also told him that he could send some advance units beyond the line . In fact , Matsui was highly sympathetic with Yanagawa 's actions and a few days later on November 22 Matsui issued an urgent telegram to the Army General Staff insisting that " To resolve this crisis in a prompt manner we need to take advantage of the enemy 's present declining fortunes and conquer Nanking ... By staying behind the operation restriction line at this point we are not only letting our chance to advance slip by , but it is also having the effect of encouraging the enemy to replenish their fighting strength and recover their fighting spirit and there is a risk that it will become harder to completely break their will to make war . "

Meanwhile , as more and more Japanese units continued to slip past the operation restriction line , Tada was also coming under pressure from within the Army General Staff . Many of Tada 's colleagues and subordinates , including the powerful Chief of the General Staff Operations Division Sadamu Shimomura , had come around to Matsui 's viewpoint and wanted Tada to approve an attack on Nanking . On November 24 Tada finally relented and abolished the operation restriction line " owing to circumstances beyond our control " , and then several days later he reluctantly approved the operation to capture Nanking . Tada flew to Shanghai in person on December 1 to deliver the order , though by then his own armies in the field were already well on their way to Nanking .

= = = China 's decision to defend Nanking = = =

On November 15 , near the end of the Battle of Shanghai , Chiang Kai @-@ shek convened a meeting of the Military Affairs Commission 's Supreme National Defense Council to undertake strategic planning , including a decision on what to do in case of a Japanese attack on Nanking . Here Chiang insisted fervently on mounting a sustained defense of Nanking . Chiang argued , just as he had during the Battle of Shanghai , that China would be more likely to receive aid from the great powers , possibly at the ongoing Nine Power Treaty Conference , if it could prove on the battlefield its will and capacity to resist the Japanese . He also noted that holding onto Nanking would strengthen China 's hand in peace talks which he wanted the German ambassador Oskar Trautmann to mediate .

Chiang ran into stiff opposition from his officers , including the powerful Chief of Staff of the Military Affairs Commission He Yingqin , the Deputy Chief of Staff Bai Chongxi , the head of the Fifth War Zone Li Zongren , and his German advisor Alexander von Falkenhausen . They argued that the Chinese Army needed more time to recover from its losses at Shanghai , and pointed out that Nanking was highly indefensible topographically . The mostly gently sloping terrain in front of Nanking would make it easy for the attackers to advance on the city , while the Yangtze River behind Nanking would cut off the defenders ' retreat .

Chiang , however , had become increasingly agitated over the course of the Battle of Shanghai , even angrily declaring that he would stay behind in Nanking alone and command its defense personally . But just when Chiang believed himself completely isolated , General Tang Shengzhi , an ambitious senior member of the Military Affairs Commission , spoke out in defense of Chiang 's position , although accounts vary on whether Tang vociferously jumped to Chiang 's aid or only reluctantly did so . Seizing the opportunity Tang had given him , Chiang responded by organizing the Nanking Garrison Force on November 20 and officially making Tang its commander on November 25 . The orders Tang received from Chiang on November 30 were to " defend the established defense lines at any cost and destroy the enemy ’ s besieging force " .

Though both men publicly declared that they would defend Nanking " to the last man " , they were aware of their precarious situation . On the same day that the Garrison Force was established Chiang officially moved the capital of China from Nanking to Chongqing deep in China 's interior . Further , both Chiang and Tang would at times give contradictory instructions to their subordinates on whether their mission was to defend Nanking to the death or merely delay the Japanese advance .

= = The road to Nanking = =

= = = China 's defense preparations = = =

On November 20 the Chinese Army and teams of conscripted laborers began to hurriedly bolster Nanking 's defenses both inside and outside the city . Nanking itself was surrounded by formidable stone walls stretching almost fifty kilometers ( 31 miles ) around the entire city . The walls , which had been constructed hundreds of years earlier during the Ming Dynasty , rose up to twenty meters ( 65 feet ) in height , were nine meters ( 30 feet ) thick , and had been studded with machine gun emplacements . By December 6 all the gates into the city had been closed and then barricaded with an additional layer of sandbags and concrete six meters ( 20 feet ) thick .

Outside the walls a series of semicircular defense lines were constructed in the path of the Japanese advance , most notably an outer one about sixteen kilometers ( 10 miles ) from the city and an inner one directly outside the city known as the Fukuo Line , or multiple positions line . The Fukuo Line , a sprawling network of trenches , moats , barbed wire , mine fields , gun emplacements , and pillboxes , was to be the final defense line outside Nanking 's city walls . There were also two key high points of land on the Fukuo Line , the peaks of Zijinshan to the northeast and the plateau of Yuhuatai to the south , where fortification was especially dense . In order to deny the Japanese invaders any shelter or supplies in this area , Tang adopted a strategy of scorched earth on December 7 , ordering all homes and structures in the path of the Japanese within one to two kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 miles ) of the city to be incinerated , as well as all homes and structures near roadways within sixteen kilometers ( 10 miles ) of the city .

The defending army , the Nanking Garrison Force , was on paper a formidable army of thirteen divisions , including three elite German @-@ trained divisions plus the super @-@ elite Training Brigade , but in reality most of these units had trickled back to Nanking severely mauled from the fighting in Shanghai . By the time they reached Nanking they were physically exhausted , low on equipment , and badly depleted in total troop strength . In order to replenish some of these units , 16 @,@ 000 young men and teenagers from Nanking and the rural villages surrounding it were speedily pressed into service as new recruits . An additional 14 @,@ 000 fresh soldiers were brought in from Hankou to fill the ranks of the 2nd Army . However , due the unexpected rapidity of the Japanese advance , most of the new conscripts received only rudimentary training on how to fire their guns on their way to or upon their arrival at the frontlines . No definitive statistics exist on how many soldiers the Nanking Garrison Force had managed to cobble together by the time of the battle , but among leading estimates are those of David Askew who says 73 @,@ 790 to 81 @,@ 500 , those of Ikuhiko Hata who estimates 100 @,@ 000 , and those of Tokushi Kasahara who argues in favor of about 150 @,@ 000 .

But during this period Japan 's Navy Air Service was launching frequent air raids on the city , eventually totaling 50 raids according to the Navy 's own records . The Navy Air Service had struck Nanking for the first time on August 15 , and after winning air supremacy over the city on September 19 it began bombing the city night and day with impunity , hitting both military and civilian targets . In the face of Japanese bombs and the ongoing advance of the Japanese Army , the large majority of Nanking 's citizens fled the city . By early December Nanking 's population had dropped from its former total of more than one million to less than 500 @,@ 000 , a figure which included Chinese refugees from rural villages burned down by their own government 's scorched earth policies . Most of those still in the city were very poor and had nowhere else to go . Foreign residents of Nanking were also repeatedly asked to leave the city which was becoming more and more chaotic under the strain of bombings , fires , looting by criminals , and electrical outages , but those few foreigners brave enough to stay behind strived to find a way to help the Chinese civilians who had been unable to leave . In late @-@ November a group of them led by German citizen John Rabe established the Nanking Safety Zone in the center of the city , a self @-@ proclaimed demilitarized zone where civilian refugees could congregate in order to hopefully escape the fighting . The safety zone was recognized by the Chinese government , and on December 8 Tang Shengzhi demanded that all civilians evacuate there .

Among those Chinese who did manage to escape Nanking were Chiang Kai @-@ shek and his wife Soong Mei @-@ ling , who had flown out of Nanking on a private plane just before the crack of dawn on December 7 . The mayor of Nanking and most of the municipal government left the same day , entrusting management of the city to the Nanking Garrison Force .

= = = Japan 's march on Nanking = = =

By the start of December Japan 's Central China Area Army had swollen in strength to over 160 @,@ 000 men , though only about 50 @,@ 000 of these would ultimately participate in the fighting . The plan of attack against Nanking was a pincer movement which the Japanese called " encirclement and annihilation " . The two prongs of the Central China Area Army 's pincer were the Shanghai Expeditionary Army ( SEA ) advancing on Nanking from its eastern side and the 10th Army advancing from its southern side . To the north and west of Nanking lay the Yangtze River , but the Japanese planned to plug this possible escape route as well both by dispatching a squadron of ships up the river and by deploying two special detachments to circle around behind the city . The Kunisaki Detachment was to cross the Yangtze in the south with the ultimate aim of occupying Pukou on the river bank west of Nanking while the Yamada Detachment was to be sent on the far north route with the ultimate aim of taking Mufushan just north of Nanking .

General Matsui , along with the Army General Staff , envisaged making a slow and steady march on Nanking , but his subordinates refused to play along and instead raced eagerly with each other to be the first to get to the city . Soon all units were roaring to Nanking at the breakneck pace of up to forty kilometers ( 25 miles ) per day . For instance , the 10th Army captured the key town of Guangde on November 30 three days before it was even supposed to start its planned advance , and the SEA captured Danyang on December 2 more than five days ahead of schedule . In order to achieve such speeds , the Japanese soldiers carried little with them except weaponry and ammunition . Because they were marching well ahead of most of their supply lines they had to purchase or loot their food from Chinese civilians along the way .

During their advance the Japanese overcame initially light resistance from the already battered Chinese forces who were being pursued by the Japanese from Shanghai in a " running battle " . Here the Japanese were aided by their complete air supremacy , their abundance of tanks , the improvised and hastily constructed nature of the Chinese defenses , and also by the Chinese strategy of concentrating their defending forces on small patches of relatively high ground which made them easy to outflank and surround .

On December 5 , Chiang Kai @-@ shek paid a visit to a defensive encampment near Jurong to heckle his men to keep up the fight , but he was forced to beat a hasty retreat when the Japanese Army burst onto the battlefield guns blazing . On that day the rapidly moving forward contingents of the SEA occupied Jurong and then arrived at Chunhuazhen , a key point of Nanking 's outer line of defense which would put Japanese artillery in range of the city . Here China 's 51st Division flung its main force into the fighting and repeatedly repulsed Japanese attacks before cracking on December 8 when the main force of the SEA arrived . The SEA also took the fortress at Zhenjiang and the spa town of Tangshuizhen on that day . Meanwhile , on the south side of the same defense line , armored vehicles of Japan 's 10th Army charged the Chinese position at Jiangjunshan and Niushoushan defended by China 's 58th Division . Valiant Chinese soldiers armed with hammers jumped onto the vehicles and banged repeatedly on their roofs shouting " Get out of there ! " , but after darkness fell on the battlefield the 58th Division was finally overwhelmed on December 9 after suffering , according to its own records , 800 casualties .

By December 9 Japan 's forces had reached Nanking 's last line of defense , the daunting Fukuo Line . At this point General Matsui had a " summons to surrender " drawn up which implored the Chinese to send military envoys to Nanking 's Zhongshan Gate to discuss terms for the peaceful occupation of the city , and he then had a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 21 scatter thousands of copies of the message over the city . On December 10 a group of Matsui 's senior staff officers waited to see if the gate would be opened , but Tang Shengzhi had no intention of responding .

Later that day Tang proclaimed to his men that , " Our army has entered into the final battle to defend Nanking on the Fukuo Line . Each unit shall firmly defend its post with the resolve to either live or die with it . You 're not allowed to retreat on your own , causing defense to collapse . " The American journalist F. Tillman Durdin , who was reporting on site during the battle , saw one small group of Chinese soldiers set up a barricade , assemble in a solemn semicircle , and promise each other that they would die together where they stood .

= = Final battle for Nanking = =

At 1 : 00 pm on December 10 General Matsui ordered all units to launch a full @-@ scale attack on Nanking . That day the SEA assaulted China 's super @-@ elite Training Brigade on the peaks of Zijinshan , which dominate Nanking 's northeast horizon . Clambering up the ridges of the mountain , the men of the SEA had to painstakingly wrest control of each Chinese encampment one by one in bloody infantry charges . Advancing along the south side of Zijinshan was no easier as General Matsui had forbidden his men from using artillery there due to his deep conviction that no damage should come to its two famous historical sites , Sun Yat @-@ sen Mausoleum and Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum .

Also on Nanking 's eastern side but further south , other units of the SEA faced the difficult task of fording the large moat standing between them and three of the city gates , Zhongshan Gate , Guanghua Gate , and Tongji Gate , though the speed of Japan 's earlier advance played in their favor as key Chinese units slated to be deployed here were not yet in position . That evening Japanese engineers and artillerymen closing in on Guanghua Gate managed to blow a hole in the wall . A Japanese battalion launched a daring attack through the gap and planted a Japanese flag on a portion of the gate , but was immediately pinned down by a series of determined Chinese counterattacks . The Chinese brought up reinforcements , including tanks , and they poured down grenades and even flaming , gasoline @-@ soaked lumber onto the Japanese battalion , which was only saved from annihilation by timely bursts of concentrated artillery fire from the rest of their division . The battalion succeeded in holding its position for the rest of the battle despite losing eighty of its eighty @-@ eight men .

At the same time Japan 's 10th Army was storming Yuhuatai , a rugged plateau situated directly in front of Zhonghua Gate on Nanking 's southern side . The 10th Army 's progress was slow and casualties were heavy as Yuhuatai was built like a fortress of interlocking pillboxes and trenches manned by three Chinese divisions , including the German @-@ trained 88th Division , though the Chinese were also apt to counterattack and some Japanese units were forced to spend more time defending than attacking . Close to every single man that the 88th Division had deployed on Yuhuatai was killed in action , including four of its three regimental commanders and both of its brigade commanders , but in the process the Japanese were made to suffer 2 @,@ 240 casualties including 566 dead . Yuhuatai was finally overrun at noon on December 12 .

Behind Yuhuatai the 88th Division had stationed its barely trained new recruits atop Nanking 's Zhonghua Gate . The Japanese had already tried the previous night to infiltrate a " suicide squadron " bearing explosive picric acid up to this gate to blow a hole in it , but it got lost in the morning fog and failed to reach the wall . At noon on December 12 a team of just six Japanese soldiers made it across the moat in a small boat and succeeded in scaling the wall at Zhonghua Gate on a shaky bamboo ladder and raising the Japanese flag there . Five of them were killed by gunfire but the last man grabbed a Chinese machine gun and held the position singlehandedly . Soon after another Japanese team set a fire in front of the gate to create a smokescreen . By 5 : 00 pm more and more Japanese troops were crossing the moat and swarming Zhonghua Gate by fording makeshift bridges so rickety their engineers had to hold them aloft with their own bodies , and with the help of some well aimed Japanese artillery fire from atop Yuhuatai parts of the wall finally crumbled . Meanwhile , just west of Zhonghua Gate , other soldiers also of Japan 's 10th Army had punched a hole through Chinese lines in the wetlands south of Shuixi Gate and were launching a violent drive on that gate with the support of a fleet of tanks .

At the height of the battle Tang Shengzhi complained to Chiang that , " Our casualties are naturally heavy and we are fighting against metal with merely flesh and blood " , but what the Chinese lacked in equipment they made up for in the sheer ferocity with which they fought , though this was partially due to strict orders that no man or unit was to retreat one step without permission . Over the course of the battle roughly 1 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers were shot dead by other members of their own army for attempting to retreat , and on Yuhuatai Japanese soldiers noticed that many Chinese pillboxes were chained from the outside to prevent their occupants from fleeing .

Nonetheless , the Japanese were gaining the upper hand over the hard @-@ pressed and surrounded Chinese defenders . On December 12 the SEA captured Peak # 2 of Zijinshan and from this vantage point unleashed a torrent of artillery fire at Zhongshan Gate where a large portion of the wall suddenly gave way . After sunset the fires that blazed out of control on Zijinshan were visible even from Zhonghua Gate in the south which was completely occupied by Japan 's 10th Army on the night of December 12 to 13 .

= = = Collapse of the Nanking Garrison Force = = =

Unbeknownst to the Japanese however , Chiang had already ordered Tang to abandon the defense . In spite of his earlier talk about holding out in Nanking to the bitter end , Chiang telegraphed an order to Tang on December 11 to abandon the city . Tang prepared to do so the next day on December 12 , but startled by Japan 's intensified onslaught he made a frantic last @-@ minute bid to conclude a temporary ceasefire with the Japanese through German citizens John Rabe and Eduard Sperling . Only when it became clear that the negotiations could not be completed in time did Tang finally finish drawing up a plan calling for all his units to launch a coordinated breakout of the Japanese encirclement . They were to commence the breakout under cover of darkness at 11 : 00 pm that night and then muster in Anhui . Just after 5 : 00 pm on December 12 Tang arranged for this plan to be transmitted to all units , and then he crossed the Yangtze River , escaping through the city of Pukou on the opposite bank of the river less than twenty @-@ four hours before it was occupied by Japan 's Kunisaki Detachment .

By the time Tang slipped out of the city , however , the entire Nanking Garrison Force was rapidly disintegrating with some units in open flight . Furthermore , contact had already been lost with many units who thus never received Tang 's message and continued to hold their positions as ordered , though even those that did receive it had little luck at slipping through the Japanese lines . China 's 66th and 83rd Corps made a bid to evade the Japanese as planned through a gap to the east but immediately ran into their own minefield . After that they were attacked in flight by Japanese units and lost two divisional chiefs of staff in combat . Though the two corps had started the battle at least 11 @,@ 000 men strong , only 600 of them escaped Nanking . Near dawn on December 13 a portion of China 's 74th Corps was also annihilated in a bid to break through Japanese lines along the Yangtze River south of Nanking .

One of the few units that did manage to get out of Nanking was China 's 2nd Army led by Xu Yuanquan situated just north of Nanking . Though Xu never received Tang 's order to abandon the defense , on the night of December 12 he had heard that Nanking had been captured and so decided to withdraw on his own accord . During the night he managed to evacuate most of his unit across the Yangtze River just before Japanese naval units blockaded the river .

By contrast , a massive crowd of thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians from the south side of Nanking , who were fleeing in panic and disarray from the advance of Japan 's 10th Army on the same night , were prevented from reaching the harbor at Xiaguan by Chinese barrier troops who fired on the crowd for retreating without permission and managed to hold it back . At 9 : 00 pm a fleeing Chinese tank unit , which had also not received Tang 's parting message , charged the barrier troops and burst through their blockade , only for the crowd to then find that there were hardly any boats remaining in the harbor . The crowd fought to clamber aboard what few craft were available , but these soon became so overloaded that they sank midway . The rest of the Chinese soldiers took to the Yangtze 's rough and frigid waters en masse while clinging to logs and pieces of scrap lumber , though most were quickly swallowed up by the river . Furthermore , by this point the Japanese encirclement of Nanking was virtually complete and many who were attempting to brave the Yangtze soon found themselves being fired upon from both sides of the river . Others who saw this turned back to the city in despair .

Many of these tens of thousands of Chinese soldiers who could not escape the city responded by casting off their uniforms and weaponry , switching to civilian clothes often by stealing them from passersby , and then desperately seeking sanctuary in the Nanking Safety Zone by mingling with civilians . The American journalist F. Tillman Durdin " witnessed the wholesale undressing of an army that was almost comic . " " Arms were discarded along with uniforms , and the streets became covered with guns , grenades , swords , knapsacks , coats , shoes and helmets ... In front of the Ministry of Communications and for two blocks further on , trucks , artillery , busses , staff cars , wagons , machine @-@ guns , and small arms became piled up as in a junk yard . "

= = Mopping @-@ up operations and the Nanking Massacre = =

The fighting in Nanking did not end entirely on the night of December 12 – 13 when the Japanese Army took the remaining gates and entered the city . During their mopping @-@ up operations in the city the Japanese continued for several more days to beat back sporadic resistance from Chinese stragglers . Though Mufushan , just north of Nanking , was taken by Japan 's Yamada Detachment without much bloodshed on the morning of December 14 , pockets of resistance outside Nanking persisted for several more days .

Meanwhile , the Japanese units on mopping @-@ up duty in Nanking had decided that the former Chinese soldiers hiding in the city were a possible security risk and therefore carried out a thorough search of every building in Nanking and made frequent incursions into the Nanking Safety Zone in search of them . Japanese units attempted to distinguish former soldiers from civilians by checking if they had marks on their shoulders from wearing a backpack or carrying a rifle . However , the criteria used were often arbitrary as was the case with one Japanese company which apprehended all men with " shoe sores , callouses on the face , extremely good posture , and / or sharp @-@ looking eyes " and for this reason many civilians were taken at the same time . What happened to the Chinese soldiers and civilians who were captured varied greatly from unit to unit , though many were summarily executed in an event that came to be known as the Nanking Massacre , which the foreign residents and journalists in Nanking made known internationally within days of the city 's fall . Though the Japanese also committed random acts of murder , rape , looting , and arson during their occupation of Nanking , military historian Masahiro Yamamoto notes that very few of the corpses buried in and around Nanking after the fall of the city were women or children , suggesting that the large majority of the victims of the massacre were adult Chinese men taken by the Japanese as former soldiers and massacred . Estimates for the total death toll of the Nanking Massacre vary widely .

The Japanese Army 's mopping @-@ up operations and the large @-@ scale massacres that accompanied them were over by the afternoon of December 17 when General Matsui entered Nanking for the victory parade . By the end of December most Japanese soldiers had left Nanking , though units of the Shanghai Expeditionary Army stayed on to occupy the city . The Nanking Self @-@ Government Committee , a new municipal authority formed from local Chinese collaborators , was inaugurated on January 1 , 1938 , but it was not until February 25 that all restrictions on the free movement of civilians into and out of the city were lifted .

= = Aftermath and assessment = =

News of the massacre was tightly censored in Japan , where Nanking 's capture provoked a frenzy of excitement among the citizenry . Mass celebrations of every sort , either spontaneous or government @-@ sponsored , took place throughout the country , including a number of resplendent lantern parades which were still vividly remembered by onlookers several decades later . F. Tillman Durdin noted even before Nanking had fallen that " Events in the field have renewed the belief of the Japanese people in the invincibility of their arms . "

The conquest of Nanking had been quicker and easier than the Japanese had foreseen ; they lost only 1 @,@ 953 soldiers in battle , plus 4 @,@ 994 wounded . Japan 's casualties were undoubtedly dwarfed by those of China , though no precise figures exist on how many Chinese were killed in action . The Japanese claimed to have killed 84 @,@ 000 enemy during the campaign whereas a contemporary Chinese source claimed that their army suffered 20 @,@ 000 casualties , but Masahiro Yamamoto notes that the Japanese usually inflated their opponent 's body counts while the Chinese had reason to downplay the scale of their loss . Ikuhiko Hata estimates that 50 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers were killed in combat during the entire battle whereas Jay Taylor puts the number at 70 @,@ 000 and states that proportionate to the size of the force committed , such losses were greater than those suffered in the devastating Battle of Shanghai . On the other hand , Chinese scholar Sun Zhaiwei estimates Chinese combat losses at 6 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 men .

An official report of the Nationalist Government argued that an excess of untrained and inexperienced troops was a major cause of the defeat , but at the time Tang Shengzhi was made to bear much of the blame and later historians have also criticized him . Japanese historian Tokushi Kasahara , for instance , has characterized his battlefield leadership as incompetent , arguing that an orderly withdrawal from Nanking may have been possible if Tang had carried it out on December 11 or if he had not fled his post well in advance of most of his beleaguered units . However , Chiang 's very decision to defend Nanking is also controversial . Masahiro Yamamoto believes that Chiang chose " almost entirely out of emotion " to fight a battle he knew he could only lose , and fellow historian Frederick Fu Liu concurs that the decision is often regarded as one of " the greatest strategical mistakes of the Sino @-@ Japanese war " . Still , the historian Jay Taylor notes that Chiang was convinced that to run from his capital city " without a serious fight ... would forever be regarded as a cowardly decision . "

In spite of its military accomplishment , Japan 's international reputation was blackened by the Nanking Massacre , as well as by a series of international incidents that occurred during and after the battle . Most notable among them were the shelling by Japanese artillery of the British steamship Ladybird on the Yangtze River on December 12 , and the sinking by Japanese aircraft of the American gunboat Panay not far downstream on the same day . The Allison Incident , the slapping of an American consul by a Japanese soldier , further increased tensions with the United States .

Furthermore , the loss of Nanking did not force China to capitulate as Japan 's leaders had predicted . Even so , buoyed by their victory , the Japanese government replaced the lenient terms for peace which they had relayed to the mediator Ambassador Trautmann prior to the battle with an extremely harsh set of demands that were ultimately rejected by China . On December 17 in a fiery speech entitled , " A Message to the People Upon Our Withdrawal from Nanking " , Chiang Kai @-@ shek defiantly declared that ,

The outcome of this war will not be decided at Nanking or in any other big city ; it will be decided in the countryside of our vast country and by the inflexible will of our people ... In the end we will wear the enemy down . In time the enemy 's military might will count for nothing . I can assure you that the final victory will be ours .

The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War was to drag on for another eight years and ultimately end with Japan 's defeat in 1945 .

= Eagle Boys =

Eagle Boys is an Australian fast food chain specialising in Italian American cuisine , in particular pizza . With more than 160 stores throughout Australia , it is the third largest pizza chain in Australia , with 12 % of the share of the country 's pizza market recorded in June 2015 .

Eagle Boys was founded in Albury , New South Wales by businessman Tom Potter in 1987 . Since 1992 , Eagle Boys national headquarters have been located in Annerley , Queensland . In 2007 NBC Capital , a Queensland @-@ based venture capital group , bought Eagle Boys from Potter . At the chain 's peak , in 2013 , more than 340 Eagle Boys stores were operating across Australia . Outlet numbers fell drastically between the end of 2013 and the end of 2014 to around 170 . In July 2016 , administrators were bought in to identify restructuring options ahead of a potential sale of the business , although the move did not extend to franchisee @-@ operated outlets .

= = Major Competitors = =

Eagle Boys ' major competitors are Pizza Hut , Domino 's Pizza Enterprises , ( trading as Dominoes Australia ) , Pizza Capers and Crust Gourmet Pizza Bar ( referred to simply as Crust )

= = Stores = =

More than 340 Eagle Boys stores were operating across Australia at the pizza chain 's peak , in 2013 . Outlet numbers fell drastically between the end of 2013 and the end of 2014 to around 170 . At July 2014 , Eagle Boys was the third largest pizza chain in Australia , with 12 % share of Australia 's pizza market .

As at April 2016 , Eagle Boys stores could be found in New South Wales , Northern Territory , Queensland , Victoria , South Australia and Western Australia . The stores have a strong regional emphasis with most outlets located in non @-@ metropolitan areas , including Bathurst , Shepparton and Mareeba .

= = History = =

= = = 1987 – 2007 : the first 20 years = = =

The first Eagles Boys store opened in Albury , New South Wales in 1987 , a venture spearheaded by businessman Tom Potter in partnership with his mother , Barbara Potter , who guaranteed a $ 70 @,@ 000 loan to enable him to open the store . The store was initially called " Beagle Boys " after the Disney Beagle Boys , but Potter dropped the ' B ' after a few months in operation , worrying that the naming may have been a copyright infringement . Potter went on to build the business and become CEO of the chain .

In 1989 Potter started recruiting franchisees . Eagle Boys ' national headquarters were opened in 1992 in the Brisbane suburb of Annerley .

Eagle Boys set up in New Zealand in 1996 when Stallone 's Pizza owner Gavin Cook agreed to merge with Eagle Boys to provide an established base in the South Island . Rapid expansion saw the Eagle Boys chain grow to 54 national outlets in the country by early April 2000 . In 2000 , all New Zealand stores were sold to Restaurant Brands for NZ $ 28m and converted to Pizza Hut outlets .

The company developed an express system " Eaglexpress " between 1999 and 2002 , to serve two minute " express " pizzas ( limited range of four ) between 5 : 30 and 8 : 00 pm , which was achieved by constantly remaking their four most popular pizzas and keeping them in a warmer for sale . Unsold pizzas were discarded after 30 minutes . Between 2002 , when the Eaglexpress concept was launched , and 2003 , sales at the chain rose by around 40 % . The chain came to see the Eaglexpress two @-@ minute pizza service and the its drive @-@ through services as a " beachhead " to compete with its biggest fast @-@ food competitors including Hungry Jack 's and KFC .

= = = 2007 : handover to NBC Capital = = =

In March 2007 , Tom Potter handed his control of Eagle Boys on to NBC Capital , a Queensland @-@ based venture capital group . He retained some shares in the company , and worked in a consultancy role advising the chain on operations for 12 months . By 2008 , Potter retained less than 10 % of the vote for corporate decision making and was no longer involved in operations .

In late 2007 , Eagle Boys began trialing an online ordering system and announced plans to enable customers to order online from all of its stores by February 2008 . By the end of 2008 , the system was fully implemented .

= = = 2008 – 2013 : five years of fast growth = = =

In July 2008 , Eagle Boys entered into a deal to acquire the Pizza Haven chain across Australia . The deal saw Eagle Boys move into Sydney and South Australia for the first time . Between July 2008 and June 2009 , Eagle Boys opened 56 stores — the fastest growth the chain had experienced in its history .

In February 2010 , Eagle Boys was named in BRW Magazine 's Fast Franchise list for the first time . By March 2011 , Eagle Boys had more than 25 stores in Sydney . It had also overtaken Pizza Hut to become the second largest pizza maker in Australia . However , Pizza Hut regained second position by July 2014 .

CEO Todd Clayton departed Eagle Boys in 2012 , he had been in the role since NBC Capital acquired a majority stake in 2007 . At the time , the founder of NBC Bruce Scott stepped in as CEO .

In July 2013 , Eagle Boys commenced operations in Papua New Guinea . Worldwide , stores numbered over 330 by September 2013 .

= = = 2014 : media reports franchising issues = = =

On 3 October 2014 the Sydney Morning Herald reported that former franchisees asserted that the current franchisor , NBC Capital , had stopped print and media advertising since purchasing the business . The number of stores was reported to have halved from 340 locations . Franchise owners told media they were concerned at changes to the advertising mix , including the reduction of offline advertising activities .

= = = 2015 – 16 : plans for new growth = = =

To capitalise on the benefits of cloud computing , Eagle Boys shifted its ordering system to Microsoft Azure in 2015 . Through providing improved website performance and uptime and providing more sophisticated performance metrics , the new hosting system should support more online orders , which the Eagle Boys IT chief says are worth 1 @.@ 5 times the orders which are made in @-@ store or by telephone .

In May 2015 , Eagle Boys announced it was aiming to expand with a plan for 50 outlets in India by the end of 2015 . The same month a franchisee opened an Eagle Boys store in Suva , Fiji .

Eagle Boys appointed Nick Vincent as the new CEO in October 2015 , replacing Bruce Scott . Vincent had previously been the company 's general manager of retail , since April 2014 .

= = = Administrators appointed in 2016 = = =

On 15 July 2016 Eagle Boys Pizza appointed administrators to identify restructuring options ahead of a potential sale of the business . The administrators , SV Partners , took control of the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the business , and will attempt to find potential buyers and negotiate a sale . Eagle Boys announced that trade would continue as normal at franchisee @-@ operated outlets during the administration .

Fairfax Media outlets tipped Domino 's and Retail Food Group ( the owner of Pizza Capers and Crust ) as possible buyers . However , Retail Food Group confirmed it was not in discussions with the owners or administrators of the Eagle Boys franchise system in a statement on 19 July 2016 .

= = Marketing = =

In 1992 , Eagle Boys registered its " pink glow " — the pink look of its logo — with IP Australia , the Australian Government intellectual property office . A customer survey in support of the company 's application found people strongly associated the pink glow with Eagle Boys stores . The distinctive colour scheme was designed to create a fun and upbeat feel .

In 2007 , Eagle Boys launched the " Vote 1 Full Size Large Pizza " campaign bringing to task its competitors for selling smaller pizzas . Domino 's had reduced the size of their large pizzas in mid @-@ 2007 and Pizza Hut had changed their sizing in late 2006 . The campaign produced a sales uplift of over 27 % .

In 2009 , the pizza chain announced a $ 7 million advertising campaign , called the " Real " campaign , that reinforced its " Bigger , Better " slogan . The campaign involved the VW " Real Mobile " driving around Australia offering Eagle Boys pizza and recording testimonials for a TV commercial . Later in the year , Eagle Boys launched another campaign comparing its pizzas to those of its competitors , this time built around the " blind taste test " which found almost half of test subjects preferred Eagle Boys pizzas to those of pizzas from Domino 's and Pizza Hut combined .

In 2010 , Eagle Boys launched a multimillion @-@ dollar campaign " 31 New Menu Items – Each One Delicious ” . The campaign was the first to use Eagle Boys ' new phone name 1300 EAGLE BOYS . New pastas were among the 31 new menu offerings , Desserts were also included , among them a chocolate fudge mousse that received a Gold Medal at the 2010 Royal Queensland Food and Wine Show . The menu was tested over a 12 @-@ month period ahead of the launch . Eagle Boys told media it expected a 15 % spike in sales on the back of the launch . A gluten " friendly " base was also on the menu for the first time , with an Eagle Boys spokesperson claiming it was more transparent than claiming it could offer a gluten @-@ free base — only food prepared in a gluten @-@ free kitchen can make the claim that it is truly offering a gluten free range . The chain also announced it would scale back its social media spend .

In 2011 , the chain released advertising " Our large pizzas are bigger than theirs " in another attempt to demonstrate their large pizza offered effectively an extra slice of pizza to their closest rival , Domino 's . Domino 's chief executive , in response , told media that " value is not in the size of a pizza . " Eagle Boys recorded a 20 % jump in sales in the first week of the campaign compared to the previous week . The pizza chain also announced it would be supporting the Cerebral Palsy Alliance , with a plan to donate more than $ 200 @,@ 000 over three years to the charity , starting with $ 1 from every dessert sold during Cerebral Palsy week in August 2011 . In July 2011 , Eagle Boys received Halal accreditation for its Bexley store .

Rebranding in 2013 as part of the " making pizza happy " campaign involved introducing a new logo along with new pizza boxes and uniforms . The iconic eagle was dropped from the logo at time , with management citing pressure its client base to drop to eagle . The company introduced a " happy bell " to ring when customers were having a good time — aiming for a happier feeling for the in @-@ store experience . The campaign was rolled out in stages , beginning in Far North Queensland , a decision an Eagle Boys spokesperson said was designed to pay homage to the chain 's regional heritage .

By 2014 , around one @-@ third of the pizza chain 's marketing budget was directed to digital spend . That year , the chain released a campaign leveraging off the release of Australian film Fat Pizza vs. Housos . It also announced a partnership with streaming company Quickflix , offering customers an exclusive deal on a one DVD and streaming bundle package . In 2014 the chain also donated more than 600kg of potatoes to food rescue charity OzHarvest .

2015 saw Eagle Boys launch the first " store of the future " in Bundaberg . The concept store , with a design including exposed brickwork and recycled timber , was developed based on research carried out on customer preferences and behaviours .

In March 2016 , Eagle Boys launched a trial of " Virtual Drivethru " at several of their stores in the Townsville area . The technology enables customers to order their pizzas online , drive to the store and alert store team members that they have arrived by pushing a button so that staff can deliver their order to their customers ' cars .

= Wood thrush =

The wood thrush ( Hylocichla mustelina ) is a North American passerine bird . It is closely related to other thrushes such as the American robin and is widely distributed across North America , wintering in Central America and southern Mexico . The wood thrush is the official bird of the District of Columbia .

The wood thrush is a medium @-@ sized thrush , with brown upper parts with mottled brown and white underparts . The male and female are similar in appearance . The song of the male is often cited as being the most beautiful in North America .

The wood thrush is an omnivore , and feeds preferentially on soil invertebrates and larvae , but will also eat fruits . In the summer , it feeds on insects continuously in order to meet daily metabolic needs . It is solitary , but sometimes forms mixed @-@ species flocks . The wood thrush defends a territory that ranges in size from 800 to 28 @,@ 000 m2 ( 960 to 33 @,@ 490 sq yd ) . The wood thrush is monogamous , and its breeding season begins in the spring ; about 50 % of all mated pairs are able to raise two broods , ranging in size from two to four chicks .

= = Taxonomy = =

The only member of the genus Hylocichla , the wood thrush was described by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789 . The generic name is a direct translation of its common name , derived from the Greek words hyle / ύλη " woodland " and cichle / κιχλη " thrush " or " fieldfare " . The specific name comes from the Latin mustela " weasel " . It is closely related to the other typical American thrushes of the genus Catharus , and is sometimes merged into that genus . It has been considered close to the long @-@ distance migrant species of that genus , as opposed to the generally resident nightingale @-@ thrushes , but this appears to be erroneous . The wood thrush also appears to be fairly closely related to the large Turdus thrushes , such as the American robin .

= = Description = =

The adult wood thrush is 18 to 21 @.@ 5 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 to 8 @.@ 5 in ) long , with a wingspan of 30 to 40 cm ( 12 to 16 in ) and a body mass of 48 to 72 g ( 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 5 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 9 @.@ 6 to 11 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 8 to 4 @.@ 6 in ) , the bill is 1 @.@ 6 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 63 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) and the tarsus is 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . It is distinctly larger than the Catharus thrushes with which the species is often sympatric but slightly smaller than the common American robin . The longest known lifespan for a wood thrush in the wild is 8 years , 11 months . The crown , nape , and upper back are cinnamon @-@ brown , while the back wings , and tail are a slightly duller brown . The breast and belly are white with large dark brown spots on the breast , sides , and flanks . It has white eye rings and pink legs . Other brownish thrushes have finer spotting on the breast . The juvenile looks similar to adults , but has additional spots on the back , neck , and wing coverts . The male and female are similar in size and plumage .

= = = Vocalizations = = =

The wood thrush has been reported to have one of the most beautiful songs of North American birds . American naturalist Henry David Thoreau wrote :

Whenever a man hears it he is young , and Nature is in her spring ; wherever he hears it , it is a new world and a free country , and the gates of Heaven are not shut against him .

While the female is not known to sing , the male has a unique song that has three parts . The first subsong component is often inaudible unless the listener is close , and consists of two to six short , low @-@ pitched notes such as bup , bup , bup . The middle part is a loud phrase often written ee @-@ oh @-@ lay , and the third part is a ventriloquial , trill @-@ like phrase of non @-@ harmonic pairs of notes given rapidly and simultaneously .

The male is able to sing two notes at once , which gives its song an ethereal , flute @-@ like quality . Each individual bird has its own repertoire based on combinations of variations of the three parts . Songs are often repeated in order . The bup , bup , bup phrase is also sometimes used as a call , which is louder and at a greater frequency when the bird is agitated . The wood thrush also use a tut , tut to signal agitation . The nocturnal flight call is an emphatic buzzing heeh .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The wood thrush 's breeding range extends from Manitoba , Ontario and Nova Scotia in southern Canada to northern Florida and from the Atlantic coast to the Missouri River and the eastern Great Plains . It migrates to southern Mexico through to Panama in Central America in the winter , mostly in the lowlands along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts . It generally arrives on the U.S. Gulf Coast during the first week of April . Fall migration usually begins in mid @-@ August and continues through mid @-@ September . Migration takes place at night , allowing them to find their direction from the stars and orient themselves by detecting the Earth 's magnetic field .

The wood thrush prefers deciduous and mixed forests for breeding . It prefers late @-@ successional , upland mesic forests with a moderately @-@ dense shrub layer . Robert I. Bertin ( 1977 ) found that this thrush favors areas with running water , moist ground , and high understorey cover . The breeding habitat generally includes trees taller than 16 m ( 52 ft ) , a fairly open forest floor , moist soil , and leaf litter , with substrate moisture more important than either canopy cover or access to running water . The wood thrush can breed in habitat patches as small as 0 @.@ 4 hectares ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) , but it runs the risk of higher predation and nest parasitism . The wood thrush 's breeding range has expanded northward , displacing the veery and hermit thrush in some locations . In recent times , as a result of fragmentation of forests , it has been increasingly exposed to nest parasitism by brown @-@ headed cowbirds , as well as loss of habitat in the winter range .

= = = Conservation status = = =

The wood thrush has become a symbol of the decline of Neotropical songbirds of eastern North America , having declined by approximately 50 % since 1966 . Along with many other species , this thrush faces threats both to its North American breeding grounds and Central American wintering grounds . Forest fragmentation in North American forests has resulted in both increased nest predation and increased cowbird parasitism , significantly reducing their reproductive success . A study by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology was the first large @-@ scale analysis that linked acid rain to this thrush 's decline . Continued destruction of primary forest in Central America eliminated preferred wood thrush wintering habitats , likely forcing the birds to choose secondary habitats where mortality rates are higher . In spite of this , the wood thrush is still considered to be of least concern .

= = = Vagrancy = = =

The wood thrush has been recorded twice as a vagrant in Europe , in Iceland at Kvísker in Öræfi East Skaftafellssýsla by Björnsson Hálfdán on 23 October 1967 and on Wingletang Down , St Agnes , Isles of Scilly , England on 7 October 1987 .

= = Behavior = =

The wood thrush is primarily solitary , but occasionally forms mixed @-@ species flocks in the winter . Its breeding territory ranges from 800 to 8 @,@ 000 m2 ( 960 to 9 @,@ 570 sq yd ) in size , and are used for nesting , gathering nest materials , and foraging . Some wood thrushes also defend a feeding territory in the winter . Territorial interactions are usually settled without physical contact , but in high @-@ intensity encounters or nest defense , physical interactions with the feet or bill have been observed . Defense behaviors in response to nest predators include wing flicks , tail flicks , and raising the crest , sometimes escalating to dives and strikes .

This species has also been observed displaying a behavior known as " anting . " Anting occurs when a bird picks up a single ant or group of ants and rubs them on its feathers . The purpose of this behavior is unknown , but it is thought that the birds may be able to acquire defensive secretions from the ants possibly used for some medicinal purposes , or that it simply supplements the birds ' own preen oil .

= = = Diet = = =

Soil invertebrates and larvae make up most of the wood thrush 's omnivorous diet , but it will also eat fruits in the late summer , fall , and late winter . It occasionally feeds on arboreal insects , snails , and small salamanders . The young are fed insects and some fruit . After breeding and before migration , the wood thrush will switch from insects to fruits with high lipid levels . In the summer , low fruit consumption and lipid reserves require the bird to feed on insects continuously in order to meet its metabolic needs .

The wood thrush forages mainly on the forest floor , flipping leaves over with their bills to reveal insects . It can be observed hopping around in leaf litter and on semi @-@ bare ground under the forest canopy . Fruits are swallowed whole .

= = = Predation = = =

Eggs and chicks are vulnerable to chipmunks , raccoons , blue jays , American crows , black rat snakes , brown @-@ headed cowbirds , common grackles , southern flying squirrels , gray squirrels , least weasels , white @-@ footed mice , domestic cats , great horned owls , and sharp @-@ shinned hawks . Adults are primarily taken by hawks and owls .

= = = Reproduction = = =

Wood thrushes are monogamous . Breeding pairs form in mid @-@ April to early @-@ May , and usually last throughout the breeding season . Most thrushes find a new mate each year , and mate guarding and extra @-@ pair copulations have not been observed in this species .

Some male wood thrushes arrive at the breeding grounds several days before the earliest females while other males arrive at the same time as the females , establishing territories ranging in size from 0 @.@ 08 to 0 @.@ 8 hectares ( one @-@ fifth of an acre to two acres ) . The female typically leads silent circular flights 1 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) from the ground , with the male chasing . Six or more flights generally take place in succession . The pairs will perch together and feed each other in between flights . The male begins to sing at dawn and dusk a few days after arriving at breeding grounds . Early in the breeding season , the male sings from high perches in the tallest trees , but as the season progresses , it sings somewhat shorter and less elaborate songs from lower perches . Each day 's singing begins and is most intense just before sunrise . The male may sing throughout the day but especially at dusk . The song season is usually over by the end of July .

Typically , the female chooses the nest site and builds the nest . However , there has been some indication that the male is able to influence the selection of the nest site by perching nearby and singing . Usually , though , the female chooses whether or not to accept or reject the nest site suggested by the male . The nest is usually sited in a dense patch of vegetation in a tree or shrub that provides concealment and shade . It is usually made of dead grasses , stems , and leaves , and lined with mud , and placed in a fork at a horizontal branch . The nest is not reused . Usually , two broods are attempted , although three to four separate nests may be built before a pair succeeds . Two to four pale blue eggs are laid at the rate of one per day . The eggs are incubated by the female only for 11 to 14 days , with the average being 13 days . Like all passerines , the chicks are altricial at hatching , mostly naked with closed eyes . The female broods the chicks during the first four days after hatching . Both parents feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs from the nest . The chicks fledge 12 – 15 days after hatching , but the parents continue to feed them until they become independent and leave the parents ' territory at 21 – 31 days old .

The young wood thrush is able to begin breeding the next summer . Most females lay their first eggs in mid @-@ May , but older females may begin laying sooner . Pairs usually attempt to rear a second brood no later than late July , with the last of the young fledging around mid @-@ August . About half of all wood thrush pairs successfully raise two broods .

= Kristen Bell =

Kristen Anne Bell ( born July 18 , 1980 ) is an American actress and singer . She began her acting career starring in stage productions and attended the Tisch School of Arts in New York . In 2001 , she made her Broadway debut as Becky Thatcher in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and starred in the Broadway revival of The Crucible the following year . In 2004 , she had a supporting role in the film Spartan and received praise for her first leading performance in Gracie 's Choice .

Bell gained critical acclaim for her first major role as the title character in the teen noir drama television series Veronica Mars ( 2004 – 07 ) . For her performance she awarded a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television . She reprised the eponymous role in the 2014 film continuation of the series . During her time on Veronica Mars , Bell appeared as Mary Lane in the 2005 film Reefer Madness : The Movie Musical , a reprise of the role she had played in the New York musical upon which the film was based . In 2007 , Bell joined the cast of the sci @-@ fi series Heroes , playing the character Elle Bishop , for which she was nominated for a Saturn Award .

In 2008 , she had her breakout film role as the title character in Forgetting Sarah Marshall . She has since appeared in a number of comedy films , such as Couples Retreat ( 2009 ) , When in Rome ( 2010 ) , and You Again ( 2010 ) . Bell garnered further recognition for voicing Princess Anna in the 2013 Disney film Frozen and the 2015 short film Frozen Fever . She also starred as the female lead on the Showtime series House of Lies . Bell married actor Dax Shepard in 2013 , with whom she has two daughters .

= = Early life and family = =

Kristen Anne Bell was born on July 18 , 1980 and was raised in Huntington Woods , Michigan , a suburb of Detroit . Her mother , Lorelei ( née Frygier ) , is a registered nurse , and her father , Tom Bell , works as the television news director for CBS Television in Sacramento . Her parents divorced when she was two years old , and she has two half @-@ sisters , Sara and Jody , from her father 's second marriage . Bell is of Scottish , Polish , German and Irish descent .

Bell stated that she did not like her first name at the age of four . Bell 's mother convinced her to go by her middle name of Anne instead ; she used the name Annie until high school . Bell once broke both her wrists at the same time playing street hockey with friends .

Just before her freshman year of high school , Bell 's parents decided to pull her from the public school system . She then attended Shrine Catholic High School in nearby Royal Oak , where she took part in the drama and music club . During her time at the school , she won the starring role in the school 's 1997 production of The Wizard of Oz , as Dorothy Gale and also appeared in productions of Fiddler on the Roof ( 1995 ) , Lady Be Good ( 1996 ) , and Li 'l Abner ( 1998 ) . In 1998 , the year she graduated , Bell was named the yearbook 's " Best Looking Girl " by senior class vote .

Shortly after her high school graduation , Bell moved to New York City to attend New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts , majoring in musical theater . In 2001 , during her senior year , Bell left a few credits shy of graduating to take a role in the Broadway musical version of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer .

= = Career = =

= = = 1992 – 2003 : Early work = = =

In 1992 , Bell went to her first audition and won a dual role as a banana and a tree in a suburban Detroit theater 's production of Raggedy Ann and Andy . Her mother had established her with an agent before Bell was 13 , which allowed her to appear in newspaper advertisements for several Detroit retailers and television commercials . She also began private acting lessons . In 1998 , she appeared with an uncredited role in the locally filmed film Polish Wedding .

In 2001 , Bell left New York University to play a role as Becky Thatcher in the short @-@ lived Broadway musical of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer . That same year , she made her credited film debut in Pootie Tang . Her one line in the film was cut and her appearance exists only as a scene shown during the credit sequence . Additionally , she auditioned for the television series Smallville for the role of Chloe Sullivan , a part eventually won by Allison Mack . In 2002 , she appeared in the Broadway revival of The Crucible with Liam Neeson , Angela Bettis and Laura Linney . Bell then moved to Los Angeles , California in 2002 because of her friendship with writers Kevin Murphy and Dan Studney , and appeared in a handful of television shows as a special guest , finding trouble gaining a recurring role in a television series . Bell had " tested like eight times and booked nothing and every show [ she ] tested for got picked up , " including auditions for Skin and a Norm Macdonald series .

= = = 2004 – 06 : Veronica Mars and other roles = = =

In 2004 , Bell appeared in the Lifetime television film Gracie 's Choice , which received one of the network 's highest ratings . She made her debut in a theatrically released film , with David Mamet 's Spartan , as Laura Newton , the kidnapped daughter of the U.S. President , acting alongside Val Kilmer . Bell also guest @-@ starred on the HBO drama Deadwood in a two @-@ episode story arc ( " Bullock Returns to the Camp " and " Suffer the Little Children " ) .

At 24 , she won the role of the title character in UPN 's drama Veronica Mars , which was launched in the fall of 2004 . Created by Rob Thomas , the series starred Bell as the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old anti @-@ establishment high school student / detective . Bell drew on the parallels between the character of Veronica and her own life , since Bell 's parents had divorced and her best friend had also died . The series earned acclaim from television critics , as did Bell 's performance . Some critics asserted that her performance was overlooked , and deserved consideration for an Emmy Award .

Aside from working on Veronica Mars , Bell starred in Reefer Madness : The Movie Musical , reprising the role she played in the short @-@ lived 2001 off @-@ broadway musical . The musical was a spoof of the 1936 exploitation film of the same name . Reefer Madness : The Movie Musical debuted on the Showtime network on April 16 , 2005 . Also in April , Bell starred as Gracie in Fifty Pills , an entry for the Tribeca Film Festival . She appeared in a short independent film called The Receipt and the horror film Roman , which was directed by her The Crucible co @-@ star Angela Bettis . Released on August 11 , 2006 , Pulse starred Bell as the lead Mattie . A remake of the Japanese horror film Kairo , the film grossed US $ 27 @.@ 9 million worldwide , ; however it garnered negative response from critics . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter commented , " despite the starring presence of Kristen Bell , [ the ] young actress has far less interesting material to work with here than she does as [ the character ] " Veronica Mars . " "

= = = 2007 – 2011 : Film breakthrough = = =

Veronica Mars continued on UPN for a second season ; for the third season , the show was renewed and appeared on the newly created The CW . On January 19 , 2007 , CW Entertainment President Dawn Ostroff announced that while she was pleased with the gradual improvement of Veronica Mars 's ratings , the series would be put on hiatus after February sweeps to air a new reality series , Pussycat Dolls Present . On May 17 , 2007 Ostroff announced the cancellation of the series . A two @-@ hour series finale aired in the United States on May 22 , 2007 , and on June 11 , 2007 Thomas officially announced in an email to TV Guide 's Michael Ausiello that Veronica Mars had been canceled by the CW . A Veronica Mars feature film and comic book series continuation had been discussed , and for a short time there was talk of another collaboration between Bell and creator Thomas that would be unrelated to the Veronica Mars series .

Following the cancellation of Veronica Mars , Bell voiced interest in appearing on Heroes because she was a fan . On July 29 , 2007 , during a train ride back to Los Angeles from the San Diego Comic @-@ Con with Heroes actors Zachary Quinto and Masi Oka , and writers from the series , the writers had mentioned that if she " ever want [ ed ] to come on Heroes , give us [ writers ] a call , " to which Bell said she would " love to . " Meanwhile , there were discussions about a role on Lost , but Bell turned down the role of Charlotte Staples Lewis . Bell portrayed Elle Bishop on Heroes , a " mysterious young lady " with an " awesome power " . She did not have to audition for the role of Elle , who made her first appearance in an October 2007 episode , and appeared in at least thirteen episodes during the run of the series . The casting of Bell , Heroes creator Tim Kring explained , " was not easy to pull off " , but because of the large ensemble cast of the series and multiple story arcs , " we found a way to jump into a small window in [ Bell 's ] schedule . " . Bell lent her voice to the CW series Gossip Girl : she voiced the title character in every episode of the series , appearing in person only for a surprise cameo in the final episode , portraying herself .

Shortly after the cancellation of Veronica Mars in early 2007 , Bell filmed on location in Hawaii for a starring role as the title character in the Judd Apatow comedy Forgetting Sarah Marshall . She regarded the improvisational comedy in the film as " a lovely experience " . The film , written by and also starring Jason Segel , was released theatrically on April 18 , 2008 , and is considered to be Bell 's star @-@ making role . Bell lent her voice and likeness to the video game Assassin 's Creed which was released on November 13 , 2007 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 and April 8 , 2008 for the PC . Bell reprised her role of Lucy in Assassin 's Creed II released on November 17 , 2009 , and again in Assassin 's Creed : Brotherhood , released on November 16 , 2010 . In the spring of 2006 , she finished filming the Star Wars @-@ themed comedy Fanboys , which had its release date pushed to January 14 , 2008 . This was due to additional funding given to director Kyle Newman to shoot new scenes , however , the busy schedules of the actors only allowed for filming in September 2007 , thus moving the release date to accommodate that . Bell also starred in the 2009 comedies Serious Moonlight , alongside Meg Ryan , and Couples Retreat , which chronicles four couples who partake in therapy sessions at a tropical island resort . Jason Bateman played her husband . She also provided the voice for Cora in Astro Boy . On March 31 , 2008 , Bell began shooting the Mark Steven Johnson @-@ written Disney film When in Rome in locations in Rome and New York ; the film was released in 2010 . Bell reprised her role as Sarah Marshall for a cameo appearance in the film Get Him to the Greek , a spin @-@ off sequel from Forgetting Sarah Marshall , released June 4 , 2010 .

She co @-@ starred with singers Christina Aguilera and Cher in the film musical Burlesque which was released on Thanksgiving in 2010 . Bell had a cameo in the slasher horror film , Scream 4 , which was released on April 15 , 2011 .

= = = 2012 – present : Frozen and future projects = = =

In 2012 , Bell starred in the family drama film Big Miracle . She has also appeared in the music video for " Madder Red " by Brooklyn experimental rock band Yeasayer . Bell portrayed " Mary Magdalene " in The Truth & Life Dramatized Audio New Testament Bible , a 22 @-@ hour , celebrity @-@ voiced , dramatized audio New Testament which uses the RSV @-@ CE translation .

Bell stars as Jeannie van der Hooven , the female lead on the Showtime series House of Lies , which premiered on January 8 , 2012 . Bell starred in The Lifeguard , written and directed by Liz W. Garcia , which began filming in July 2012 , and was released in August 2013 . She also voiced Anna in Frozen , which was released on November 22 , 2013 . In 2013 , for multiple episodes , Bell played Ingrid de Forest , an Eagleton City Councilwoman , on Parks and Recreation .

On March 13 , 2013 , it was confirmed that a Veronica Mars film would finally be coming to fruition . Bell and series creator Rob Thomas , launched a fundraising campaign to produce the film through Kickstarter and attained the $ 2 million goal in less than ten hours . The main cast members of the series all reprised their roles in the feature film . Production of the film took place during summer 2013 , and it was released theatrically and on video @-@ on @-@ demand on March 14 , 2014 .

In September 2014 , Bell starred with her husband , Dax Shephard , in a commercial for the Samsung Galaxy Tab S. It was so popular ( with over 20 million YouTube views ) that they did another for the holiday season . The ad agency McKinney was behind both . In 2016 , Bell voiced the sloth Priscilla in the animated comedy film Zootopia and starred as Claire in the comedy film The Boss . She will appear in the 2016 comedy film Bad Moms , and the 2017 action comedy CHiPs . Bell will also star as the main character , Eleanor , in the NBC comedy series The Good Place , which is set to premiere in the fall of 2016 .

= = In the media = =

In 2006 and again in 2013 , Bell was selected " World 's Sexiest Vegetarian " on PETA 's yearly poll . She was placed No. 68 on Maxim 's 2005 " Hot 100 " list , No. 11 in Maxim 's 2006 " Hot 100 " list , and No. 46 in Maxim 's 2007 " Hot 100 " list in which she was stated to have " single @-@ handedly saved the CW from becoming the worst network ever . " In 2006 , Maxim also placed Bell at the top of the " Fall TV 's Criminally Sexy Investigators " List . In 2008 , she was featured at No. 59 on Ask Men 's Top 99 Women of 2008 List . Reflecting on her admitted popularity with " geeks " , Bell was voted the fourth sexiest woman on TV by the staff at Wizard magazine .

Bell stated she never thought of herself as womanly because " I always play and look and act 10 years younger than I am , " however , she said , " Something magical happened when I turned 25 — I looked in the mirror and was like , You might not get carded for an R @-@ rated movie anymore . Like I didn 't have a little stick figure anymore . " Bell has said that many of her characters are tomboys because she was " not homely enough to play the nerdy girl and not nearly pretty enough to play the pretty girl " .

Bell has been associated with the idea that " nerdy is the new cool " , and she explained , " what was previously perceived as nerdy is now viewed as original . What I like about nerdiness , geekiness , is it doesn 't really matter what you 're into — it just means you 're not a follower . " She has also said , " I love nerds . Comic @-@ Con junkies are the tastemakers of tomorrow . Isn 't that funny ? The tables have turned . " Vanessa Juarez of Entertainment Weekly commented that Bell 's roles on Veronica Mars , Heroes and as a Star Wars fanatic in Fanboys have " solidif [ ied ] her placement at the center of the geek universe " , while Rodney Rothman stated , " I guess she 's cornered the market on losers . " Bell 's work is often compared to Sarah Michelle Gellar 's portrayal of the title character on the cult television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter stated that Bell was " arguably the television successor [ to Gellar 's portrayal of Buffy ] when it comes to fighting bad guys . " Bell is sometimes confused with Lauren Conrad from the show The Hills . " Yeah , sometimes fans yell , ' Hey , Lauren ' to me , but usually from a distance , " said Kristen .

Despite " new celebrity " status , Bell claimed that she was not concerned because " no one ever recognizes me anyway " . As Bell explained , " I hang out with Hayden quite a bit — they never take pictures of me . I just step to the side , and I push myself in front of her when she wants to get out of it , or put her in the car . " Bell was a recurring guest on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson , appearing in interviews as well as sketches . On The Late Late Show , she shows a humorous hostility towards Craig 's robot skeleton sidekick Geoff Peterson , claiming that she had wanted to be Craig 's sidekick on his show and taking it upon herself to cut Geoff down every chance she gets . Both Bell and Geoff Peterson appeared with Ferguson during the five Late Late Shows filmed in France .

In January 2011 , it was announced that Bell would be the new face of Neutrogena .

= = Personal life = =

= = = Relationships and family = = =

In 2007 , Bell ended a five @-@ year relationship with former fiancé Kevin Mann . She later told Complex magazine that dating " makes me want to vomit . And not out of grossness — OK , a little bit out of grossness , but just nerves ... I 've always been a serial monogamist . "

Bell began dating actor Dax Shepard in late 2007 . The couple announced their engagement in January 2010 . They decided to delay marriage until the state of California passed legislation legalizing same @-@ sex marriage . They co @-@ starred in the 2010 film When In Rome and in the 2012 film Hit and Run . After section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act fell on June 26 , 2013 , Bell asked Shepard to marry her through Twitter , which he accepted . They were married at the Beverly Hills County Clerk 's Office on October 17 , 2013 . They have two daughters : Lincoln Bell Shepard ( born March 28 , 2013 ) and Delta Bell Shepard ( born December 19 , 2014 ) .

= = = Beliefs , interests and charity work = = =

At age 11 , Bell became a vegetarian . In an interview with PETA , Bell stated , " I have always been an animal lover . I had a hard time disassociating the animals I cuddled with — dogs and cats , for example — from the animals on my plate , and I never really cared for the taste of meat . I always loved my Brussels sprouts ! " By 2012 Bell became vegan with her husband after watching the documentary Forks Over Knives . During her time in Michigan , Bell fostered animals from Michigan Humane Society and she now supports the San Diego @-@ based Helen Woodward Animal Center . Bell often attends fund raisers for the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and other non @-@ profit organizations dedicated to protecting animals . She has a Welsh Corgi @-@ Chow Chow mix named Lola , a Welsh Corgi @-@ Chihuahua mix named Shakey , and a black Labrador Retriever named Sadie , who was 11 years old when she was rescued from Hurricane Katrina and adopted by Bell in 2005 .

Bell has also become a strong advocate of vaccination . Though initially skeptical she has since stated " I think it 's really important to acknowledge that we have something called the herd immunity , where there are people that cannot get immunizations because of autoimmune diseases or cancer treatments , " and that " If we don ’ t get the vaccinations to keep them safe , then they 're screwed . " Citing scientific research , she shares her belief that it is her duty to not only protect her children , but other children , too - especially those who may suffer from autoimmune diseases or cancer .

She and many of those who worked on Veronica Mars , including personal friend Ryan Hansen , are involved with the charity organization Invisible Children , Inc . The goal of the organization is to create awareness regarding the plight of Northern Ugandans who are caught in the midst of a civil war between the government and Joseph Kony 's Lord 's Resistance Army . Bell has also done a public service announcement for Do Something 's Healthy Living Campaign . In 2014 , Bell launched a Prizeo campaign offering fans a chance to win a date with her in return for donating to Invisible Children .

Bell supported and campaigned for Barack Obama during the 2008 United States presidential election . Along with Rashida Jones , she visited college campuses in Missouri to discuss the candidates and encourage voter registration . Bell showed support for the Writers Guild of America in the writer 's strike , appearing in the picket lines in December 2007 stating , " the writers are just looking for some fairness . "

Bell also has a strong liking of Tommy Wiseau 's 2003 cult film The Room . She hosts parties at her house for The Room , attended cinema screenings of it , and has said that " there is a magic about that film that is indescribable . "

= = = Depression and anxiety = = =

In May 2016 , Bell revealed that she has struggled with and received help for depression and anxiety . She said , " It ’ s important for me to be candid about this so people in a similar situation can realize that they are not worthless and that they do have something to offer . "

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= = = Video games = = =

= = = Web series = = =

= = Theatre = =

= = Soundtrack appearances = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= Ratatouille ( film ) =

Ratatouille ( / rætəˈtuːiː / ; French pronunciation : ​ [ ʁatatuj ] ) is a 2007 American computer @-@ animated comedy film produced by Pixar and released by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution . It is the eighth film produced by Pixar , and was co @-@ written and directed by Brad Bird , who took over from Jan Pinkava in 2005 . The title refers to a French dish , " ratatouille " , which is served at the end of the film , and is also a play on words about the species of the main character . The film stars the voices of Patton Oswalt as Remy , an anthropomorphic rat who is interested in cooking ; Lou Romano as Linguini , a young garbage boy who befriends Remy ; Ian Holm as Skinner , the head chef of Auguste Gusteau 's restaurant ; Janeane Garofalo as Colette , a rôtisseur at Gusteau 's restaurant ; Peter O 'Toole as Anton Ego , a restaurant critic ; Brian Dennehy as Django , Remy 's father and leader of his clan ; Peter Sohn as Emile , Remy 's older brother ; and Brad Garrett as Auguste Gusteau , a recently deceased chef . The plot follows Remy , who dreams of becoming a chef and tries to achieve his goal by forming an alliance with a Parisian restaurant 's garbage boy .

Development of Ratatouille began in 2000 when Pinkava wrote the original concepts of the film . In 2005 , Bird was approached to direct the film and revise the story . Bird and some of the film 's crew members also visited Paris for inspiration . To create the food animation used in the film , the crew consulted chefs from both France and the United States . Bird also interned at Thomas Keller 's French Laundry restaurant , where Keller developed the confit byaldi , a dish used in the film .

Ratatouille premiered on June 22 , 2007 , at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles , California , with its general release June 29 , 2007 , in the United States . The film grossed $ 623 @.@ 7 million at the box office and received positive reviews . The film later won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature , among other honors .

= = Plot = =

Remy is an idealistic and ambitious young rat , gifted with highly developed senses of taste and smell . Inspired by his idol , the recently deceased chef Auguste Gusteau , Remy dreams of becoming a cook himself . When an old woman armed with a shotgun sees his clan , they are forced to abandon their home ; the gunshots cause Remy to be separated from his family . He ends up in the sewers of Paris and eventually finds himself at a skylight overlooking the kitchen of Gusteau 's restaurant .

As Remy watches , a young man named Alfredo Linguini , is hired as a garbage boy by Skinner , the restaurant 's devious current owner and Gusteau 's former sous @-@ chef . When Linguini spills a pot of soup and attempts to recreate it with disastrous results , Remy falls into the kitchen and uses other ingredients to complement the soup to perfection . Linguini catches Remy and is confronted by Skinner . As Skinner argues with Linguini , the soup is accidentally served and proves to be a success . Colette Tatou , the staff 's only female chef , convinces Skinner to retain Linguini , who is assumed to be the soup 's creator . After Skinner catches Remy in the act of escaping , he orders Linguini to take the rat far away and kill it . Linguini then discovers Remy 's intelligence and passion for food , so he keeps him .

On Linguini 's first day as a chef , he and Remy find a way to communicate ; Remy guides Linguini like a marionette by pulling on his hair while hidden under Linguini 's toque blanche , while Skinner assigns Colette to train his new cook .

Suspicious , Skinner learns that the boy is Gusteau 's illegitimate son and the rightful heir to the restaurant , which threatens his use of the restaurant 's reputation to establish a packaged food franchise he started after Gusteau died . Remy discovers the evidence of Linguini 's inheritance and , after eluding Skinner , gives it to Linguini , who deposes Skinner as owner . The restaurant continues to thrive , and Linguini and Colette develop a budding romance , leaving Remy feeling left out . Meanwhile , Remy reunites with his father , Django , and his brother , Emile , who take him back to their new lair . Though thrilled that his family and clan are safe , he tells him that he cannot stay . In an attempt to rid his son from his like of humans , Django shows Remy a window display of dead rats , poison , and traps , but Remy leaves .

France 's top restaurant critic Anton Ego , whose previous review cost Gusteau 's one of its stars , announces he will be re @-@ reviewing the restaurant the following evening . After an argument with Linguini , Remy leads his clan in a raid on the restaurant 's pantries . Linguini catches them and throws them out . Now aware of Remy 's skills , Skinner captures him in an attempt to use him to create a new line of frozen foods . However , Remy is freed by Django and Emile . He returns to the restaurant , only to find Linguini is unable to cook without him . Linguini apologizes and reveals the truth to the staff , but they leave , believing that Linguini has lost his mind . Colette later returns after recalling Gusteau 's motto , " Anyone can cook . "

Django arrives with the rest of the clan , offering to help after seeing his son 's determination . Remy has the rats cook , while Linguini serves as waiter . For Ego ( and Skinner ) , Remy and Colette create a variation of ratatouille , which brings back an astonished Ego memories of his mother 's cooking . During the service , the rats are forced to tie up Skinner and a health inspector to prevent them from revealing their involvement in the cooking . When Ego requests to see the chef , Linguini and Colette make him wait until the rest of the diners have left before introducing Remy . Ego is stunned and leaves the restaurant , deep in thought . He writes a positive and thoughtful review for the newspaper the next day , stating that Gusteau 's chef ( Remy ) is " nothing less than the finest chef in France . "

Despite the positive review , Gusteau 's is shut down , since Linguini and Remy had to release Skinner and the health inspector . Ego loses credibility as a critic but funds a popular new bistro , " La Ratatouille " , created and run by Remy , Linguini , and Colette ; Ego frequents the bistro for Remy 's cooking . The rats settle in their new home in the bistro 's roof .

= = Voice cast = =

Patton Oswalt as Remy . Director Brad Bird chose Oswalt after hearing his food @-@ related comedy routine .

Lou Romano as Alfredo Linguini , the son of Auguste Gusteau and Renata Linguini .

Janeane Garofalo as Colette Tatou , Gusteau 's rôtisseur , inspired by French chef Hélène Darroze .

Ian Holm as Skinner , a diminutive chef and owner of Auguste Gusteau 's restaurant . Since Gusteau 's death , Skinner has used the Gusteau name to market a line of cheap microwaveable meals . Skinner 's behavior , diminutive size , and body language are loosely based on Louis de Funès .

Brian Dennehy as Django , Remy and Emile 's father and the leader of the rats .

Peter O 'Toole as Anton Ego , a restaurant critic . His appearance was modeled after Louis Jouvet .

Brad Garrett as Auguste Gusteau ( whose first and last names are anagrams of each other ) . Many reviewers believe that Gusteau is inspired by real @-@ life chef Bernard Loiseau , who committed suicide after media speculation that his flagship restaurant , La Côte d 'Or , was going to be downgraded from three Michelin stars to two . La Côte d 'Or was one of the restaurants visited by Brad Bird and others in France .

Peter Sohn as Emile , Remy 's older brother .

Will Arnett as Horst , Skinner 's German sous chef .

Julius Callahan as Lalo , Gusteau 's saucier and poissonnier . Callahan also voices François , Skinner 's advertising executive .

James Remar as Larousse , Gusteau 's garde manger .

John Ratzenberger as Mustafa , Gusteau 's head waiter .

Teddy Newton as Talon Labarthe , Skinner 's lawyer .

Tony Fucile as Pompidou , Gusteau 's patissier . Fucile also voices Nadar Lessard , a health inspector employed by Skinner .

Jake Steinfeld as Git , a former lab rat and member of Django 's colony .

Brad Bird as Ambrister Minion , Anton Ego 's butler .

Stéphane Roux as the narrator of the cooking channel .

Thomas Keller as a dining patron who asks " what 's new " .

= = Production = =

Jan Pinkava came up with the concept in 2000 , creating the original design , sets and characters and core storyline , but he was never formally named the director of the film . Lacking confidence in Pinkava 's story development , Pixar management replaced him with Bird in 2005 . Bird was attracted to the film because of the outlandishness of the concept and the conflict that drove it : that rats feared kitchens , yet a rat wanted to work in one . Bird was also delighted that the film could be made a highly physical comedy , with the character of Linguini providing endless fun for the animators . Bird rewrote the story , with a change in emphasis . He killed off Gusteau , gave larger roles to Skinner and Colette , and also changed the appearance of the rats to be less anthropomorphic .

Because Ratatouille is intended to be a romantic , lush vision of Paris , giving it an identity distinct from previous Pixar films , director Brad Bird , producer Brad Lewis and some of the crew spent a week in the city to properly understand its environment , taking a motorcycle tour and eating at five top restaurants . There are also many water @-@ based sequences in the film , one of which is set in the sewers and is more complex than the blue whale scene in Finding Nemo . One scene has Linguini wet after jumping into the Seine to fetch Remy . A Pixar employee ( Shade / Paint department coordinator Kesten Migdal ) jumped into Pixar 's swimming pool wearing a chef 's uniform and apron to see which parts of the suit stuck to his body and which became translucent from water absorption .

Ratatouille was originally going to be released in 2006 , however , in December 2004 , the date was changed to 2007 . The release date change was the same day Disney / Pixar changed the release date of Cars , from November 2005 to June 2006 , thus pushing Ratatouille to 2007 .

A challenge for the filmmakers was creating computer @-@ generated images of food that would appear delicious . Gourmet chefs in both the U.S. and France were consulted and animators attended cooking classes at San Francisco @-@ area culinary schools to understand the workings of a commercial kitchen . Sets / Layout department manager Michael Warch , a culinary @-@ academy trained professional chef before working at Pixar , helped teach and consult animators as they worked . He also prepared dishes used by the Art , Shade / Paint , Effects and Sets Modeling departments . Renowned chef Thomas Keller allowed producer Brad Lewis to intern in his French Laundry kitchen . For the film 's climax , Keller designed a fancy , layered version of the title dish for the rat characters to cook , which he called " confit byaldi " in honor of the original Turkish name . The same sub @-@ surface light scattering technique that was used on skin in The Incredibles was used on fruits and vegetables , while new programs gave an organic texture and movement to the food . Completing the illusion were music , dialogue , and abstract imagery representing the characters ' mental sensations while appreciating food . The visual flavor metaphors were created by animator Michel Gagné inspired by the work of Oscar Fischinger and Norman McLaren . To create a realistic compost pile , the Art Department photographed fifteen different kinds of produce , such as apples , berries , bananas , mushrooms , oranges , broccoli , and lettuce , in the process of rotting .

According to Pixar designer Jason Deamer , " Most of the characters were designed while Jan [ Pinkava ] was still directing ... He has a real eye for sculpture . " For example , according to Pinkava , the critic Anton Ego was designed to resemble a vulture . Rat expert Debbie Ducommun ( a.k.a. the " Rat Lady " ) was consulted on rat habits and characteristics . A vivarium containing pet rats sat in a hallway for more than a year so animators could study the movement of the animals ' fur , noses , ears , paws , and tails as they ran . The cast members strove to make their French accents authentic yet understandable . John Ratzenberger notes that he often segued into an Italian accent . To save time , human characters were designed and animated without toes .

Promotional material for Intel credits their platform for a 30 percent performance improvement in rendering software . They used Remy in some of their marketing materials .

= = Music = =

Brad Bird reteamed with Michael Giacchino on the score for Ratatouille since they got along well during the scoring of The Incredibles . Giacchino had written two themes for Remy , one about his thief self and the other about his hopes and dreams . He also wrote a buddy theme for both Remy and Linguini that plays when they 're together . In addition to the score , Giacchino wrote the main theme song , " Le Festin " , about Remy and his wishes to be a chef . Camille was hired to perform " Le Festin " after Giacchino listened to her music and realized she was perfect for the song ; as a result , the song is sung in French in all versions of the film .

The music for Ratatouille gave Giacchino his first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score as well as his first Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album . Giacchino returned to Pixar to score their 2009 blockbuster Up .

= = Release = =

Ratatouille 's world premiere was on June 22 , 2007 , at Los Angeles ' Kodak Theater . The commercial release was one week later , with the short film Lifted preceding Ratatouille in theaters . Earlier in the year , it had received an Academy Award nomination . A test screening of the film was shown at the Harkins Cine Capri Theater in Scottsdale , Arizona on June 16 , 2007 , at which a Pixar representative was present to collect viewer feedback . Disney CEO Bob Iger announced an upcoming theatrical re @-@ release of the film in 3D at the Disney shareholders meeting in March 2014 .

= = = Marketing = = =

The trailer for Ratatouille debuted with the release of its immediate predecessor , Cars . It depicts an original scene where Remy is caught on the cheese trolley in the restaurant 's dining area sampling the cheese and barely escaping the establishment , intercut with separate scenes of the rat explaining directly to the audience why he is taking such risks . Similar to most of Pixar 's teaser trailers , the scene was not present in the final film release .

A second trailer was released on March 23 , 2007 . The Ratatouille Big Cheese Tour began on May 11 , 2007 , with cooking demonstrations and a film preview . Voice actor Lou Romano attended the San Francisco leg of the tour for autograph signings .

Disney and Pixar were working to bring a French @-@ produced Ratatouille @-@ branded wine to Costco stores in August 2007 , but abandoned plans because of complaints from the California Wine Institute , citing standards in labeling that restrict the use of cartoon characters to avoid attracting under @-@ age drinkers .

In the United Kingdom , in place of releasing a theatrical trailer , a theatrical commercial featuring Remy and Emile was released in cinemas before its release to discourage obtaining unlicensed copies of films . Also in the United Kingdom , the main characters were used for a theatrical commercial for the Nissan Note , with Remy and Emile watching an original commercial for it made for the " Surprisingly Spacious " ad campaign and also parodying it respectively .

Disney / Pixar were concerned that audiences , particularly children , would not be familiar with the word " ratatouille " and its pronunciation . The title was therefore also spelled phonetically within trailers and on posters . For similar reasons , in the American release of the film , on @-@ screen text in French was printed in English , such as the title of Gusteau 's cookbook and the sign telling kitchen staff to wash their hands , though in the British English release , these are rendered in French . In Canada , the film was released theatrically with text in English , but on DVD , the majority of the text ( including Gusteau 's will ) was in French .

= = = Home media = = =

Disney released Ratatouille on high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD in North America on November 6 , 2007 . A new animated short film featuring Remy and Emile entitled Your Friend the Rat was included as a special feature , in which the two rats attempt to entreat the viewer , a human , to welcome rats as their friends , demonstrating the benefits and misconceptions of rats towards humanity through several historical examples . The eleven @-@ minute short uses 3D animation , 2D animation , live action and even stop motion animation , a first for Pixar .

The disc also includes a CG short entitled Lifted , which screened before the film during its theatrical run . It depicts an adolescent extraterrestrial attempting to abduct a sleeping human . Throughout the sequence , he is graded by an adult extraterrestrial in a manner reminiscent of a driver 's licensing exam road test . The entire short contains no dialogue , which is typical of Pixar Shorts not based on existing properties . Also included among the special features are deleted scenes , a featurette featuring Brad Bird discussing filmmaking and chef Thomas Keller discussing culinary creativity entitled " Fine Food and Film " , and four easter eggs . Although the Region 1 Blu @-@ ray edition has a French audio track , the Region 1 DVD does not , except for some copies marked as for sale only in Canada .

It was released on DVD on November 6 , 2007 , and earned 4 @,@ 919 @,@ 574 units ( equivalent to $ 73 @,@ 744 @,@ 414 ) on its first week ( Nov. 6 – 11 , 2007 ) during which it topped the DVD charts . In total it sold 12 @,@ 531 @,@ 266 units ( $ 189 @,@ 212 @,@ 532 ) becoming the second best @-@ selling animated DVD of 2007 , both in units sold and sales revenue , behind Happy Feet .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 96 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 4 / 10 based on 241 reviews . The site 's consensus reads : " Fast @-@ paced and stunningly animated , Ratatouille adds another delightfully entertaining entry -- and a rather unlikely hero -- to the Pixar canon . " Another review aggregation website Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 96 out of 100 based on 37 reviews , the highest of any Pixar film and the eighth @-@ highest rated film on the site .

A. O. Scott of The New York Times called Ratatouille " a nearly flawless piece of popular art , as well as one of the most persuasive portraits of an artist ever committed to film " ; echoing the character Anton Ego in the film , he ended his review with a simple " thank you " to the creators of the film . Wally Hammond of Time Out gave the film five out of five stars , saying " A test for tiny tots , a mite nostalgic and as male @-@ dominated as a modern kitchen it may be , but these are mere quibbles about this delightful addition to the Pixar pantheon . " Andrea Gronvall of the Chicago Reader gave the film a positive review , saying " Brad Bird 's second collaboration with Pixar is more ambitious and meditative than his Oscar @-@ winning The Incredibles . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B , saying " Ratatouille has the Pixar technical magic without , somehow , the full Pixar flavor . It 's Brad Bird 's genial dessert , not so much incredible as merely sweetly edible . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " What makes Ratatouille such a hilarious and heartfelt wonder is the way Bird contrives to let it sneak up on you . And get a load of that score from Michael Giacchino , a perfect compliment to a delicious meal . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars , saying " For parents looking to spend time in a theater with their kids or adults who want something lighter and less testosterone @-@ oriented than the usual summer fare , Ratatouille offers a savory main course . " Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film a positive review , saying " Ratatouille is free of the kind of gratuitous pop @-@ culture references that plague so many movies of the genre ; it tells a story , it 's very much of our world but it never goes for the cheap , easy gag . " Justin Chang of Variety gave the film a positive review , saying " The master chefs at Pixar have blended all the right ingredients -- abundant verbal and visual wit , genius slapstick timing , a soupcon of Gallic sophistication -- to produce a warm and irresistible concoction . "

Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film four out of four stars , saying " The film may be animated , and largely taken up with rats , but its pulse is gratifyingly human . And you have never seen a computer @-@ animated feature with this sort of visual panache and detail . " Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film three out of four stars , saying " So many computer @-@ animated movies are brash , loud and popping with pop @-@ culture comedy , but Ratatouille has the warm glow of a favorite book . The characters are more than the sum of their gigabyte @-@ consuming parts -- they feel handcrafted . " Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film three out of five stars , saying " Has Pixar lost its magic recipe ? Ratatouille is filled with fairly generic animated imagery , a few modest chases , a couple of good gags , not a lot of laughs . " Scott Foundas of LA Weekly gave the film a positive review , saying " Bird has taken the raw ingredients of an anthropomorphic @-@ animal kiddie matinee and whipped them into a heady brew about nothing less than the principles of artistic creation . " Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film four out of four stars , saying " It 's not just the computer animation that is vibrantly three @-@ dimensional . It 's also the well @-@ rounded characters ... I defy you to name another animated film so overflowing with superfluous beauty . " Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " With Ratatouille , Bird once again delivers not just a great , witty story , but dazzling visuals as well . " Bill Muller of The Arizona Republic gave the film four and a half stars out of five , saying " Like the burbling soup that plays a key part in Ratatouille , the movie is a delectable blend of ingredients that tickles the palette and leaves you hungry for more . "

Rene Rodriguez of the Miami Herald gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Ratatouille is the most straightforward and formulaic picture to date from Pixar Animation Studios , but it is also among the most enchanting and touching . " Jack Mathews of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of four stars , saying " The Pixar magic continues with Brad Bird 's Ratatouille , a gorgeous , wonderfully inventive computer @-@ animated comedy . " Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star @-@ Ledger gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Fresh family fun . Although there are those slightly noxious images of rodents scampering around a kitchen , the movie doesn 't stoop to kid @-@ pandering jokes based on back talk and bodily gases . " David Ansen of Newsweek gave the film a positive review , saying " A film as rich as a sauce béarnaise , as refreshing as a raspberry sorbet , and a lot less predictable than the damn food metaphors and adjectives all us critics will churn out to describe it . OK , one more and then I 'll be done : it 's yummy . " Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film four out of four stars , saying " Ratatouille never overwhelms , even though it 's stocked with action , romance , historical content , family drama and serious statements about the creation of art . " Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review , saying " From the moment Remy enters , crashing , to the final happy fadeout , Ratatouille parades the brio and depth that set Pixar apart from and above other animation studios . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film four out of four stars , saying " A lot of animated movies have inspired sequels , notably Shrek , but Brad Bird 's Ratatouille is the first one that made me positively desire one . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star gave the film four out of four stars , saying " Had Bird gone the safe route , he would have robbed us of a great new cartoon figure in Remy , who like the rest of the film is rendered with animation that is at once fanciful and life @-@ like . It 's also my pick for Pixar 's best . "

Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal gave the film a positive review , saying " The characters are irresistible , the animation is astonishing and the film , a fantasy version of a foodie rhapsody , sustains a level of joyous invention that hasn 't been seen in family entertainment since The Incredibles . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four and a half stars out of five , saying " Brad Bird 's Ratatouille is so audacious you have to fall in love with its unlikely hero . " Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Ratatouille is delicious fun sure to be savored by audiences of all ages for its sumptuous visuals , clever wit and irresistibly inspiring tale . " Miriam Di Nunzio of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Ratatouille will make you wonder why animation needs to hide behind the mantle of ' it 's for children , but grownups will like it , too . ' This one 's for Mom and Dad , and yep , the kids will like it , too . " Michael Booth of The Denver Post gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Writer and director Brad Bird keeps Ratatouille moving without resorting to the cute animal jokes or pop @-@ culture wisecracking that ruined so many other recent animated films . " Tom Long of The Detroit News gave the film an A , saying " Ratatouille has the technical genius , emotional core and storytelling audacity to lift it into the ranks of [ the best ] Pixar films , the crème de la crème of modern animation . " Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " No sketchy backgrounds here -- Ratatouille 's scenes feels like deep @-@ focus camera shots . The textures , from the gleam of copper pans to the cobblestone streets , are almost palpable . " Desson Thomson of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review , saying " Ratatouille doesn 't center on the over @-@ familiar surfaces of contemporary life . It harks back to Disney 's older era , when cartoons seemed part of a more elegant world with less edgy characters . "

= = = Box office = = =

In its opening weekend in North America , Ratatouille opened in 3 @,@ 940 theaters and debuted at number one with $ 47 million , the lowest Pixar opening since A Bug 's Life . However , in France , where the film is set , the film broke the record for the biggest debut for an animated film . In the UK , the film debuted at number one with sales over £ 4 million . The film has grossed $ 206 @,@ 445 @,@ 654 in the United States and Canada and a total of $ 623 @,@ 722 @,@ 818 worldwide , currently making it the sixth highest grossing Pixar film , just behind Toy Story 3 , Finding Nemo , Monsters University , Up , and The Incredibles .

= = = Accolades = = =

Ratatouille was nominated for five Oscars including Best Original Score , Best Sound Editing , Best Sound Mixing , Best Original Screenplay and Best Animated Film , which it lost to Atonement , The Bourne Ultimatum ( for both Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing ) and Juno , respectively , winning only the last one . At the time , the film held the record for the greatest number of Oscar nominations for a computer animated feature film , breaking the previous record held by Monsters , Inc . , Finding Nemo and The Incredibles at four nominations , but tied with Aladdin for any animated film . In 2008 , WALL @-@ E surpassed that record with 6 nominations . As of 2013 , Ratatouille is tied with Up and Toy Story 3 for animated film with the second greatest number of Oscar nominations . Beauty and the Beast still holds the record for most Oscar nominations ( also 6 ) for an animated feature film .

Furthermore , Ratatouille was nominated for 13 Annie Awards including twice in the Best Animated Effects , where it lost to Surf 's Up , and three times in the Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production for Janeane Garofalo , Ian Holm , and Patton Oswalt , where Ian Holm won the award . It won the Best Animated Feature Award from multiple associations including the Chicago Film Critics , the National Board of Review , the Annie Awards , the Broadcast Film Critics , the British Academy of Film and Television ( BAFTA ) , and the Golden Globes .

= = Plagiarized film = =

If magazine described Ratatoing , a 2007 Brazilian computer graphics cartoon by Vídeo Brinquedo , as a " ripoff " of Ratatouille . Marco Aurélio Canônico of Folha de S. Paulo described Ratatoing as a derivative of Ratatouille . Canônico discussed whether lawsuits from Pixar would appear . The Brazilian Ministry of Culture posted Marco Aurélio Canônico 's article on its website . In the end , Pixar reportedly did not seek legal action . Video Brinquedo films with concepts blatantly plagiarized from films by Pixar , Disney , DreamWorks Animation and other major studios in other countries .

= = Video game = =

A video game adaptation of the film was released for all major consoles and handhelds in 2007 . A Nintendo DS exclusive game , titled Ratatouille : Food Frenzy , was released in October 2007 . Ratatouille is also among the films represented in Kinect Rush : A Disney @-@ Pixar Adventure , released in March 2012 for Xbox 360 .

= = Theme park attraction = =

A Disney theme park attraction based on the film has been constructed in Walt Disney Studios Park , Disneyland Paris . Ratatouille : L 'Aventure Totalement Toquée de Rémy is based upon scenes from the film and uses trackless ride technology . In the attraction , riders " shrink down to the size of a rat " .

= Jon Hamm =

Jonathan Daniel " Jon " Hamm ( born March 10 , 1971 ) is an American actor , director , and television producer best known for playing advertising executive Don Draper in the AMC drama series , Mad Men ( 2007 – 2015 ) .

For much of the mid @-@ 1990s , Hamm lived in Los Angeles , making appearances in television series Providence , The Division , What About Brian , and Related . In 2000 , he made his feature film debut in the space adventure film Space Cowboys . The following year , he had a minor role in the independent comedy , Kissing Jessica Stein ( 2001 ) .

Hamm gained wide recognition when Mad Men began airing in July 2007 . His performance earned him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama in 2008 and 2016 and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 2015 . He also directed two episodes of the show . In 2008 , Hamm appeared in a remake of the science fiction film The Day The Earth Stood Still . His first leading film role was in the 2010 independent thriller Stolen . He also had supporting roles in The Town ( 2010 ) , Sucker Punch ( 2011 ) , and Bridesmaids ( 2011 ) . Hamm has received 16 Primetime Emmy Award nominations for his performances in Mad Men , 30 Rock ( 2006 – 2013 ) , and Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt ( 2015 – present ) .

His other television credits include starring in the Sky Arts series A Young Doctor 's Notebook and guest roles in Parks and Recreation and Wet Hot American Summer : First Day of Camp . He provided his voice to the animated film Shrek Forever After in 2010 , and in 2015 , he starred in the animated film Minions .

= = Early life = =

Hamm was born in St. Louis , Missouri , the son of Deborah and Daniel Hamm . His father ran a family trucking company , and his mother was a secretary . He is of German , English , and Irish descent ; his surname originates with German immigrants . Hamm 's parents divorced when he was two years old , and he lived in Creve Coeur with his mother until her death from colon cancer , when he was 10 . Hamm then moved in with his father .

Hamm 's first acting role was as Winnie the Pooh in first grade . At 16 , he was cast as Judas in Godspell , and enjoyed the experience , though he did not take acting seriously .

Hamm attended the private John Burroughs School in Ladue , where he was a member of the football , baseball , and swim teams . During this time , he dated future actress Sarah Clarke . His father died when he was 20 .

Following graduation in 1989 , Hamm enrolled at the University of Texas , where he was a member of the Upsilon Chapter of Sigma Nu fraternity . There , Hamm was arrested for participating in a violent hazing incident that occurred in November 1990 , involving another student , Mark Sanders . Sanders was beaten with a paddle and a broom , while Hamm was leading him around the fraternity house with the claw of a hammer beneath Sanders ' genitals , and Sanders ' clothes were set on fire . The incident led to the fraternity 's being shut down on campus . Hamm completed the terms of a deferred adjudication , and the charges were dismissed in August 1995 .

Hamm enrolled at the University of Missouri . At Missouri he answered an advertisement from a theater company looking for players in a production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream , auditioned , and was cast in the production . Other roles followed , such as Leon Czolgosz in Assassins .

After graduating in 1993 with a Bachelor of Arts in English , Hamm returned to his high school to teach eighth @-@ grade acting . One of his students was Ellie Kemper , who later became an actress and would go on to star in the Netflix original series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt , in which Hamm has a recurring role ; another was Beau Willimon , who became a screenwriter .

= = Career = =

= = = Early work = = =

Hamm has known actor Paul Rudd for many years , and visited him in Hollywood in 1992 . Not wishing to stay in a " normal career " , Hamm moved to Los Angeles permanently in 1995 with an automobile and $ 150 . He moved into a house with four other aspiring actors and began working as a waiter while attending auditions . He acted in theatre , including as Flavius in a production of Shakespeare 's Timon of Athens with the Sacred Fools Theater Company .

Finding employment as an actor was difficult , despite representation by the William Morris Agency , because unlike other actors his age , he could not be cast in youth @-@ oriented productions like Dawson 's Creek due to his older appearance . In 1998 , having failed to obtain any acting jobs after three years , he was dropped by William Morris . Hamm continued working as a waiter and , briefly , as a set designer for a softcore pornography film . After repeatedly failing to obtain promising roles , he set his 30th birthday as a deadline to succeed in Hollywood , stating :

You either suck that up and find another agent , or you go home and say you gave it a shot , but that 's the end of that . The last thing I wanted to be out here was one of those actors who 's 45 years old , with a tenuous grasp of their own reality , and not really working much . So I gave myself five years . I said , if I can 't get it going by the time I 'm 30 , I 'm in the wrong place . And as soon as I said that , it 's like I started working right away .

In 2000 , Hamm obtained the role of romantic firefighter Burt Ridley on NBC 's drama series Providence . His one @-@ episode contract grew to 19 , and led him to quit waiting tables . Hamm made his feature film debut with one line in Clint Eastwood 's space adventure Space Cowboys ( 2000 ) ; more substantial roles followed in the independent comedy Kissing Jessica Stein ( 2001 ) and the war film We Were Soldiers ( 2002 ) , during filming of which he turned 30 . His career was further bolstered when he played the recurring role of police inspector Nate Basso on Lifetime 's television series The Division , from 2002 to 2004 . Other minor roles followed on the television series What About Brian , CSI : Miami , Related , Numb3rs , The Unit , and The Sarah Silverman Program . Hamm 's Mad Men castmate Eric Ladin had said that one of the reasons he looks up to Jon is that while he " made it " later than most actors , Hamm never gave up on acting .

= = = International recognition = = =

Hamm received his breakthrough role in 2007 , when he was cast from more than 80 candidates as the protagonist character Don Draper , in AMC 's drama series Mad Men . In the series , set in a fictional 1960s advertising agency , he plays a suave advertising executive with an obscure past .

Hamm recalled , " I read the script for Mad Men and I loved it . [ ... ] I never thought they 'd cast me — I mean , I thought they 'd go with one of the five guys who look like me but are movie stars " , and that an actor with a " proven track record " would likely have been chosen if another network had aired the show . He went through numerous auditions and explained each time to the casting directors what he could bring to the character , if given the part . Alan Taylor and Mad Men creator Matthew Weiner initially thought Hamm was too handsome for the role but ultimately decided , " it was perfect to cast sort of the perfect male in this part " ; Weiner also sensed that the actor had not been raised by his parents , similar to Draper 's backstory .

Hamm used memories of his father to portray Draper , a well @-@ dressed , influential figure in business and society hiding great inner turmoil and facing changes in the world beyond his control .

Mad Men debuted on July 19 , 2007 , with almost 1 @.@ 4 million viewers . It quickly developed a loyal audience , with Hamm receiving strong reviews .

Robert Bianco of USA Today was complimentary of Hamm , noting that his interpretation of Draper was a " starmaking performance " . The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert called Hamm a " brilliant lead " .

For his work , Hamm won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Drama in 2008 . Also in 2008 , he was nominated for both the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series . In 2009 , Hamm was again nominated for the Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award in the same category , and received another Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series . In 2010 , Hamm received his third Golden Globe Award nomination . Mad Men concluded its seven @-@ season run on May 17 , 2015 . Hamm received his first Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series on September 20 , 2015 after receiving 12 Emmy nominations for acting on and producing the series .

Hamm 's next film role was in the 2008 science fiction film The Day the Earth Stood Still , a remake of the 1951 film of the same name . Although the film received mixed reviews , it was financially successful , earning $ 230 million worldwide at the box office .

Hamm hosted Saturday Night Live , season 34 , episode 6 , on October 25 , 2008 , and played various roles , including Don Draper in two sketches . He returned to host again on January 30 and October 30 , 2010 .

In 2009 , Hamm guest starred in three episodes of the NBC situation comedy show 30 Rock , as Drew Baird , a doctor who is a neighbor and love interest of Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) . For these performances , he received three nominations for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series .

Hamm 's film projects post @-@ 2009 include the independent mystery thriller Stolen ( 2009 ) and his first leading role , in which he plays a man trying to demystify the circumstances surrounding his son 's kidnapping . The Hollywood Reporter 's Frank Scheck stated that the feature never came together , and that Hamm was unable to do much with his " underwritten role " .

Hamm had a voice cameo in the animated feature Shrek Forever After ( released in May 2010 ) , as an ogre leader named Brogan . Also that year , he appeared as an FBI agent in The Town ( 2010 ) , with Ben Affleck ; after receiving " about 40 scripts that were all set in the 60s , or had me playing advertising guys " , Hamm was pleased that the film offered a role " the opposite to Don Draper " . The feature received generally favorable reviews and earned $ 144 million worldwide .

His next acting role was as defense attorney Jake Ehrlich in the independent drama Howl , based on Allen Ginsberg 's eponymous 1956 poem . On December 12 , 2010 , Hamm made a guest appearance as an FBI supervisor on Fox 's animated series The Simpsons .

Returning to film , he appeared in Zack Snyder 's action @-@ fantasy movie Sucker Punch ( 2011 ) , as the character High Roller , and the doctor . He also had a supporting role in the comedy Bridesmaids as Kristen Wiig 's " rude and arrogant sex buddy " . Hamm was next seen in the independent feature Friends with Kids ( 2011 ) , which he produced alongside his then @-@ partner Jennifer Westfeldt ; the story centers around a group of friends whose lives are changed as the couples in the group begin to have children .

He has a recurring role in the sitcom The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret , as the servant of sociopathic billionaire Dave Mountford ( Blake Harrison ) . The role is later revealed to , in fact , be a fictionalized version of Hamm complaining that being made into Dave 's servant has required him to be written out of four episodes of Mad Men .

Hamm hosted the 21st ESPYS Awards on July 17 , 2013 and played sports agent J.B. Bernstein in Disney 's sports drama Million Dollar Arm the following year .

Hamm starred alongside Daniel Radcliffe in the Ovation television dark comedy A Young Doctor 's Notebook , playing an older version of Radcliffe 's character , from December 2012 to December 2013 . He had a number of roles in 2015 , in the comedy shows Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt and Wet Hot American Summer : First Day of Camp , as well as the animated comedy Minions , as the voice of Herb Overkill . Minions was a major box office success ; despite mixed reviews , it grossed a total of over $ 1 billion worldwide .

Hamm filmed the upcoming action comedy Keeping Up with the Joneses in the spring of 2015 , which also stars Zach Galifianakis and Gal Gadot and will be released in October 2016 after being pushed back seven months . His other upcoming film roles include the drama Aardvark , science fiction film Marjorie Prime ( both 2016 ) , and Edgar Wright 's comedy crime film Baby Driver in 2017 .

= = Personal life = =

In 1997 , Hamm began a relationship with actress and screenwriter Jennifer Westfeldt . They jointly own homes in Los Angeles and the Upper West Side in New York . In an interview discussion about his relationship with Westfeldt , Hamm said : " We may not have a piece of paper that says we 're husband and wife , but after 10 years , Jennifer is more than just a girlfriend . What we have is much deeper and we both know that . To me , people [ should ] get married when they 're ready to have kids , which I 'm not ruling out . " Along with Westfeldt , Hamm has appeared in Gap @-@ related campaign advertisements . In April 2009 , Hamm and Westfeldt formed their own production company , Points West Pictures . Hamm and Westfeldt are advocates of animal rescue and have adopted a mixed breed dog named Cora from the Much Love Animal Shelter in California . In September 2015 , Hamm and Westfeldt announced they were ending their relationship .

Although his role as Don Draper required Hamm to smoke , he gave up smoking when he was 24 . On set he does not smoke actual cigarettes , but rather herbal cigarettes that do not contain tobacco or nicotine .

In March 2015 , Hamm 's representative confirmed that Hamm had recently completed inpatient treatment for alcoholism . Additionally , Hamm reported developing vitiligo throughout the filming of Mad Men .

Hamm identifies as a Democrat .

= = = Sports and related endorsements = = =

Hamm is an avid golfer and tennis player , and a devoted fan of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) team the St. Louis Blues ' ; he 's even appeared in two television spots advertising for the team . He is also a fan of the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) team the St. Louis Cardinals ' , and narrated the official highlight film for the 2011 World Series , which the Cardinals won . He is a cricket fan , too , having been introduced to the sport by Daniel Radcliffe when filming A Young Doctor 's Notebook .

= = = Other product endorsements = = =

In March 2010 , Mercedes @-@ Benz hired Hamm ( replacing actor Richard Thomas ) as their new voice actor for the S400 Hybrid campaign . In 2013 , American Airlines debuted a commercial titled " Change is in the Air " , featuring Hamm 's voice @-@ over . Hamm is an American Airlines frequent flier , and his Mad Men character Don Draper often spoke of aspiring to win such accounts as American Airlines .

= = Reception = =

Internationally viewed as a sex symbol , Hamm was named one of Salon.com 's Sexiest Man Living in 2007 and one of People magazine 's Sexiest Men Alive in 2008 . In November 2008 , Entertainment Weekly named him one of their Entertainers of the Year . He again was named one of the magazine 's Entertainers of the Year in 2010 . Hamm also won GQ 's " International Man " award in September 2010 .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= = = Music videos = = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= USS Yancey ( AKA @-@ 93 ) =

USS Yancey ( AKA @-@ 93 / LKA @-@ 93 ) was an Andromeda @-@ class attack cargo ship built by the Moore Dry Dock Company of Oakland , California for the United States Navy during World War II . The ship was named in honor of Yancey County , North Carolina .

Yancey 's keel was laid in May 1944 , and the ship was launched in July , and commissioned in October . The ship operated in the Pacific during the war and was a participant in the amphibious landings at Iwo Jima in February 1945 and Okinawa in April . After Japan 's surrender in August , Yancey was in Tokyo Bay during the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on 2 September . The ship made voyages delivering troops for the occupation of Japan before returning to the United States in January 1946 . After spending most of the next year on the east coast , Yancey was ordered back into the Pacific in November , and took part in Operation Highjump , a Navy expedition to Antarctica in January 1947 ; Yancey Glacier was named in the ship 's honor .

After spending most of the next decade in duties in the Western Pacific , Yancey was decommissioned in March 1958 and placed in reserve at Olympia , Washington . Yancey was reactivated in the aftermath of the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and recommissioned in November . During the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis she sailed in support of the U.S. blockade of Cuba , and during the April 1965 U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic she carried almost a quarter of all of the evacuees from Santo Domingo . In January 1970 , Yancey was blown by a storm into the Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel which closed the structure for several weeks .

The ship was decommissioned for the final time in January 1971 , and struck from the Naval Vessel Register in January 1977 . After being stripped of salvageable materials , the ship was sunk as an artificial reef off the North Carolina coast in 1990 . The ship is intact and rests on her starboard side at a depth of 160 feet ( 49 m ) .

= = Design and construction = =

Yancey was laid down under a Maritime Commission contract ( MC hull 1193 ) on 22 May 1944 by the Moore Dry Dock Company at Oakland , California . The ship was launched on 8 July 1944 and was sponsored by Miss Beverly Bartlett . As built , Yancey was just over 459 feet ( 140 m ) long and 63 feet ( 19 m ) abeam . When fully loaded she had a displacement of 13 @,@ 910 long tons ( 14 @,@ 130 t ) and drew a little more than 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by a single steam turbine capable of generating 6 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) , and attained a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ) during her trials .

Yancey was equipped to carry eight LCMs ( " Landing Craft Mechanized " ) , which were designed to land vehicles in amphibious landings ; one LCP ( L ) ( " Landing Craft , Personnel ( Large ) " ) ; and fifteen LCVPs ( " Landing Craft , Vehicle , Personnel " ) , or Higgins boats . Yancey was outfitted with primarily defensive weapons : one 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 38 caliber dual @-@ purpose gun mount , ; four twin 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounts ; and sixteen 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) AA gun mounts .

= = World War II = =

The ship was commissioned as USS Yancey ( AKA @-@ 93 ) on 11 October 1944 under the command of Commander Edward R. Rice , USNR . After fitting out at San Francisco , California , Yancey received her boat group of 26 landing craft and conducted a shakedown cruise out of San Pedro , California . After post @-@ shakedown alterations and repairs at San Diego , California , she sailed for San Francisco to load cargo from 18 to 24 November . Yancey sailed for Pearl Harbor the next day , and was assigned to Transport Division ( TransDiv ) 47 , Transport Squadron ( TransRon ) 16 upon her arrival on 2 December .

= = = Iwo Jima = = =

After remaining at Pearl Harbor until 27 January 1945 , Yancey departed for the Marianas with elements and cargo of the 5th Marine Division as part of Task Group ( TG ) 51 @.@ 12 in support of the invasion of Iwo Jima . After stops for fuel and supplies at Eniwetok and invasion rehearsals at Tinian , the ship arrived off Iwo Jima at 06 : 24 on 19 February , D @-@ day for the initial landing . During almost continuous operations for the first four days of the battle , Yancey only lost two landing craft ( LCVPs ) : one to enemy mortar fire , and another to heavy surf . Yancey received minor damage when she collided with Pensacola while transferring 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) ammunition to the heavy cruiser .

On 29 February , after the tactical situation ashore had improved sufficiently , Yancey anchored off " Red " beach to unload her general cargo . During this time the ship was hit by one long @-@ range mortar shell , but suffered no casualties among her crew . Slowed by nightly air raids , and high surf that required cargo to be offloaded to LSTs , LSMs , and LCTs , Yancey completed her unloading on 2 March . The cargo ship sailed with three other transports and a pair of screening destroyers to Saipan and then to Espiritu Santo , where she rejoined her TransRon 16 squadron mates in embarking the 27th Infantry Division .

= = = Okinawa = = =

Yancey sailed on 25 March as a part of TG 51 @.@ 3 , the designated " mobile reserve " for the invasion of Okinawa . As the group headed for a planned stop in the Carolines , Yancey took a disabled LSM under tow and delivered the vessel to Ulithi . TransDiv 47 was detached from TG 51 @.@ 3 and arrived off Kerama Retto on 9 April , eight days after the battle had commenced . After receiving her orders , Yancey anchored off the Hagushi beaches on the 12th . During her four days of unloading , the crew was hampered by Japanese air raids and delayed — according to the ship 's commander — over 15 hours because of the attacks . Yancey 's number four 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) mount claimed a " sure assist " on a Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " fighter that crashed 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) from the ship . Despite delays caused by the air attacks , Yancey was the first attack cargo ship of her group to finish unloading , and sailed independently for the Marianas on the 16th . During her stay off the Okinawa beaches , the ship lost none of her boats and suffered three casualties : two men were wounded by shrapnel , and another broke an arm .

After a short rest @-@ and @-@ recreation stop at Guam , Yancey rejoined her squadron at Ultihi and underwent boiler repairs and intensive antiaircraft training ; her crew won numerous five @-@ case " beer prizes " for shooting down target sleeves . Getting underway again on 8 May , Yancey spent the next two months shuttling men and materiel from rear area bases , calling at Manus in the Admiralty Islands ; Finschhafen , New Guinea ; Tulagi ; Hollandia , Dutch New Guinea ; and finally Guiuan , on the island of Samar , in the Philippines . She rejoined TransDiv 47 , TransRon 16 , at San Pedro Bay , Leyte Gulf , on 16 July and sailed with the rest of the division to Iloilo , on the island of Panay , to conduct amphibious training exercises with the United States Army 's 43rd Infantry Division .

Yancey was in the Philippines when word of the Japanese surrender came in on 15 August . TransDiv 47 took on provisions at Iloilo after training exercises for the planned invasion of Japan were cancelled ; after arriving at Batangas , Luzon , Philippines , she embarked elements of the 1st Cavalry Division slated for the occupation of Japan .

After completing the loading process on 23 August , Yancey weighed anchor on the 25th as a member of Task Force ( TF ) 33 . However , the ships had to turn back because of a tropical storm in the vicinity . The typhoon delayed the task force for only a day , as the ships weathered the fringes of the storm at Subic Bay before again getting underway soon thereafter . Yancey entered Tokyo Bay on the morning of 2 September , the day Japan signed the formal articles of surrender on the deck of the battleship Missouri anchored there . Shortly after the conclusion of those ceremonies , the attack cargo ship headed into Yokohama harbor , the third ship in her squadron to enter that port and the first to start unloading . The ship completed her unloading in 19 hours and then proceeded to an anchorage off Yokohama .

During her World War II service , Yancey was awarded two battle stars .

= = Post war = =

Yancey 's squadron departed on 4 September 1945 and steamed via Leyte Gulf to Zamboanga . There , they commenced loading elements of the Army 's 41st Infantry Division from 16 to 18 September . Yancey and her sisters shifted soon thereafter to Bugo , Mindanao , where she picked up Army LCMs . After TG 54 @.@ 28 had assembled in Leyte Gulf on 21 September , the group — which included Yancey — sailed for Japan 's Inland Sea .

Due to minesweeping difficulties , however , the landings scheduled for the Kure – Hiroshima area were postponed ; and the task group sailed instead for Buckner Bay , Okinawa . On 28 September , the ship put to sea to evade another typhoon . On 1 October , she returned and anchored in Buckner Bay . Two days later , Yancey again headed for Japanese waters and entered Bungo Suido on the 5th , beginning the long , difficult passage up the Inland Sea along the channel swept through the minefields . The next morning — after spending the night anchored in the cleared channel — Yancey headed for Hiro Wan , where the landings were made . The ship completed her unloading in 48 hours . On 9 October , she was detached from TransRon 16 and reported to CinCPac for assignment . The following day , Yancey rode out a third typhoon with 130 fathoms ( 240 m ) of chain on deck , a second anchor ready to go , and steam at the throttle .

The attack cargo ship , remaining behind when the rest of her squadron was sent back to the United States on 11 October , headed instead to Haiphong , French Indochina to embark Chinese troops . After an 11 @-@ day delay , 1 @,@ 027 officers and men of the 471st Regiment , 62nd Chinese Army — and one interpreter — boarded the American vessel for passage to Takao , Formosa . After arrival , the Chinese troops had all been offloaded by 17 : 00 on 17 November . After sailing to Manila , Yancey received orders to proceed to the United States on 25 November , one year to the day she had sailed from San Francisco . Yancey took on a capacity load of Army and Navy men returning to the United States for discharge and departed Manila harbor on 27 November . During the voyage , she flew a 310 @-@ foot ( 94 m ) " homeward @-@ bound pennant " adorned with 27 stars .

After a stop at Pearl Harbor for boiler repairs and to offload her Army passengers , Yancey sailed for Balboa , Panama Canal Zone , reaching there on the last day of the year ; she was the last ship to transit the Panama Canal in 1945 . On 6 January 1946 , Yancey cleared Cristobal , Canal Zone , bound for Louisiana . After a brief stop at New Orleans , the attack cargo ship proceeded on , via Jacksonville , Florida , to Norfolk , where she arrived on 29 January . Less than a month later , on 27 February , Yancey sailed farther north and reached the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard the following day .

Over the next few months , Yancey underwent a regular overhaul there and then operated off the eastern seaboard and into the western Atlantic . During that time , she called at Bayonne , New Jersey ; Bermuda ; San Juan , Puerto Rico ; Guantanamo Bay , Cuba ; Balboa , Canal Zone ; Jacksonville , Florida ; and made return calls at Norfolk , Bayonne , and Bermuda . In addition , the ship visited the New York Naval Shipyard and Davisville , Rhode Island , before being assigned tentatively to TF 68 effective on 9 November .

= = Operation Highjump = =

In compliance with her new orders , Yancey proceeded back to the west coast , sailing via Cristobal and the Panama Canal . After arriving at San Pedro , California , Yancey reported for duty with TF 68 and was reassigned to the Pacific Fleets Service Force and homeported at San Francisco , on 11 November . The next day , she shifted to Port Hueneme , California , where she began loading cargo for Operation Highjump , the U.S. Navy expedition to Antarctica .

Departing Port Hueneme on 2 December , Yancey pressed southward , headed for Antarctica , and spent Christmas at sea . Two days later , she saw her first icebergs — visible evidence that she was entering the polar latitudes . She sighted the northern limit of the Antarctic pack ice on the 28th and spent the next two days investigating ice conditions . She fueled from USS Canisteo 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) south of Scott Island , Antarctica , purportedly becoming the first ship to conduct an underway refueling below the Antarctic Circle .

After threading her way through the pack ice over the ensuing weeks , Yancey finally arrived at Bay of Whales , Antarctica , mooring at the shelf ice on 18 January 1947 . Subsequently departing that " port " on 6 February for the area to the north of the ice floes , the attack cargo ship entered the pack ice on the 9th . Over the next three days , she pressed through the floes that extended for a width of almost 275 nautical miles ( 509 km ) .

On 13 February , Yancey joined TU 68 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 which also included the Coast Guard icebreaker , Northwind , towing the attack cargo ship Merrick . Within a week , the ships were riding out a fierce storm that justified — at least to Yancey sailors — the Antarctic 's title as " The World 's Stormiest Sea " . Yancey reached Port Chalmers , New Zealand , on 22 February and departed that port on 5 March , bound for Samoa .

Subsequently departing Pago Pago on 27 March bound for Hawaii with YTL @-@ 153 in tow , the attack cargo ship arrived at Pearl Harbor on 14 April . She soon got underway for the west coast of the United States and reached Port Hueneme on 2 May 1947 . There , Yancey disembarked a unit of a construction battalion ( " Seabees " ) and discharged TF 68 cargo . Her duty with TF 68 thus completed on 15 May , Yancey reported for duty with Service Division ( ServDiv ) 12 . Shortly thereafter , Yancey shifted to San Pedro before heading to Terminal Island , California , for restricted availability on 20 May . After that period of repairs and alterations , Yancey returned to Port Hueneme to load cargo earmarked for shipment to Pearl Harbor and Guam .

= = Korean War = =

Over the next decade , Yancey operated between west coast ports and advanced bases in the Western Pacific ( WestPac ) , including ports in Japan , Korea , and the Philippines . During that period , she also supported United Nations ( UN ) actions in Korea , operating in support of the initial attempts to fight the North Korean advance ; in the first UN counteroffensives in early 1951 ; and in the final phases of activity that preceded the armistice in the summer of 1953 . Yancey was awarded three battle stars for her Korean War service .

In December 1957 , after having served continuously since 1944 , Yancey was deactivated at San Francisco . She was placed out of commission in March 1958 , and entered the Reserve Fleet at Olympia , Washington , on 11 October 1960 .

= = Recommissioning = =

In the aftermath of the Berlin Crisis of 1961 , Yancey was reactivated as part of President John F. Kennedy 's bid to build up the U.S. Navy . On 17 November 1961 , Yancey was recommissioned at Portland , Oregon , with Captain Gordon R. Keating in command . The ship departed from San Diego on 12 January 1962 and reached Norfolk , her new assigned home port , on 2 February , there becoming the newest member of Amphibious Squadron ( PhibRon ) 12 . Over the next months , Yancey took part in a variety of exercises and maneuvers .

Yancey participated in Operation Phiblex in the spring of 1962 , operating off Roosevelt Roads and Vieques , Puerto Rico . She later paid a port call at Charlotte Amalie , St. Thomas , Virgin Islands , before she returned to Roosevelt Roads and reloaded equipment and embarked Marines slated to return to Morehead City , North Carolina . Subsequently returning to Norfolk on 2 May , Yancey touched briefly at Charleston , South Carolina , to take on additional landing craft before returning to the Tidewater region to spend the remainder of May .

Subsequently visiting Boston , and Rockland , Maine , Yancey participated in amphibious boat exercises at Provincetown , Massachusetts , before she got underway on 24 July for Davisville , Rhode Island . There , she loaded a Seabee unit and their equipment and headed eastward , bound for Rota , Spain . Offloading one Seabee unit and onloading another , Yancey then paused briefly at Gibraltar before touching at Lisbon on the return leg of her voyage to the United States . Disembarking the seabees and unloading their equipment at Davisville , Yancey headed back to Norfolk , reaching her homeport on 18 August 1962 .

On 17 October , Yancey again sailed from Norfolk and proceeded to Morehead City , to load marines and equipment for Operation PhiBrigLex ( Amphibious Brigade Exercises ) slated for Vieques , Puerto Rico . Upon arrival , the attack cargo ship loaded immediately and set out to join the rest of the ships in the squadron . She soon was fighting her way through Hurricane Ella which caused her to alter her course to avoid the most severe part of the storm .

= = Cuban Missile Crisis and Dominican Republic operations = =

On 23 October 1962 , President Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine of Cuba in response to the presence of Soviet missiles on the soil of that island nation . Yancey sortied in support of the American operations in the Caribbean , and remained on station until the missiles were removed and tensions were relaxed . Over the next few years , Yancey made regular deployments to the Mediterranean to take part in joint exercises with NATO forces .

In April 1965 , Yancey was ordered to the Dominican Republic to support Operation Power Pack , the code name for the United States ' intervention in the Dominican Republic . The attack cargo ship arrived at Santo Domingo , the capital city , on 30 April . Yancey loaded nearly 600 evacuees from 21 nations . Among those on board the ship were the daughter of William Tapley Bennett Jr . , the United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic ; the Belgian Ambassador to the Dominican Republic ; sixteen nuns from the Dominican Order ; and several large families . Yancey 's officers and crew vacated their quarters to allow room for female passengers and children , and many slept on the decks of the ship during the passage to San Juan , Puerto Rico . One of the passengers gave birth during the short trip , and gave her son the middle name of Yancey in honor of the ship .

After debarking her passengers at San Juan on 1 May , the ship took on supplies needed by the American ground forces in Santo Domingo : gasoline , oil , and ammunition . She docked in Santo Domingo on 2 May and exchanged her cargo for 450 more evacuees to be taken to San Juan . In all , Yancey carried almost a quarter of those fleeing the Dominican Republic . She returned to Norfolk soon thereafter , and resumed her role of training and cruising off the eastern seaboard and into the Caribbean basin . On 1 January 1969 , Yancey was redesignated as LKA @-@ 93 .

= = Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel incident = =

Toward the end of her career , Yancey made headlines . Yancey was at anchor near one stretch of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel near Norfolk on 21 January 1970 . Driven by the winds in a snowy gale that gusted up to 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) , Yancey dragged her anchors and hit the bridge , knocking it out of service for several weeks . The Navy started a free shuttle service for commuters that normally used the route , using helicopters and LCUs . Fortunately , there were no vehicles on the bridge at the time of the collision , and no one was injured . Sources do not report on any damage to Yancey from the incident , but any damages suffered must have been easily repaired , because the ship deployed to the Mediterranean a few months later .

After a return to the United States in mid @-@ 1970 , Yancey entered inactive status at Norfolk on 1 October of that year . The ship was decommissioned at Norfolk on 20 January 1971 , and entered the James River berthing area of the National Defense Reserve Fleet . Yancey was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 January 1977 . The vessel remained in the James River fleet until 16 August 1984 when she was withdrawn to be stripped of useful equipment by the U.S. Navy . She re @-@ entered the fleet one year later , on 28 August 1985 , but was withdrawn for the final time on 15 December 1989 to be prepared for sinking as an artificial reef .

In 1990 , the former Yancey was sunk as an artificial reef off Morehead City , North Carolina , and rests on her starboard side at a depth of 160 feet ( 49 m ) .

= Leopard 2E =

The Leopard 2E or Leopard 2A6E ( E stands for España , Spanish for Spain ) is a variant of the German Leopard 2 main battle tank , tailored to the requirements of the Spanish army , which acquired it as part of an armament modernization program named Programa Coraza , or Program Breastplate . The acquisition program for the Leopard 2E began in 1994 , five years after the cancellation of the Lince tank program that culminated in an agreement to transfer 108 Leopard 2A4s to the Spanish army in 1998 and started the local production of the Leopard 2E in December 2003 . Despite postponement of production owing to the 2003 merger between Santa Bárbara Sistemas and General Dynamics , and continued fabrication issues between 2006 and 2007 , 219 Leopard 2Es have been delivered to the Spanish army .

The Leopard 2E is a major improvement over the M60 Patton tank , which it replaced in Spain 's mechanized and armored units . Its development represented a total of 2 @.@ 6 million man @-@ hours worth of work , 9 @,@ 600 of them in Germany , at a total cost of 2 @.@ 4 billion euros . This makes it one of the most expensive Leopard 2s built . Indigenous production amounted to 60 % and the vehicles were assembled locally at Sevilla by Santa Bárbara Sistemas . It has thicker armor on the turret and glacis plate than the German Leopard 2A6 , and uses a Spanish @-@ designed tank command and control system , similar to the one fitted in German Leopard 2s . The Leopard 2E is expected to remain in service until 2025 .

= = Spanish armor programs 1987 – 93 = =

By 1987 , the Spanish army was equipped with 299 French @-@ designed AMX @-@ 30Es , assembled by Santa Bárbara Sistemas , and 552 American M47 and M48 Patton tanks . The AMX @-@ 30Es were put into service in 1970 , while the latter went into service in the mid @-@ 1950s . Although Spain 's M47s and M48s were modernized to M47Es and M48Es , bringing them to near equivalence with the M60 Patton tank , the Spanish army considered them antiquated . In 1984 , when deciding to replace its Patton tanks , the Spanish government declared its intention to produce a whole new main battle tank locally , since known as the Lince . Five companies expressed interest in bidding , including Krauss @-@ Maffei in a partnership with Santa Bárbara Sistemas , GIAT with what became the Leclerc , General Dynamics with the M1 Abrams and Vickers with the Valiant . While the M1 Abrams and Valiant bids were not accepted , the bidding continued until 1989 when it was officially canceled .

Instead , the Spanish government opted to replace its older Patton tanks with American M60 Patton tanks retired from Central Europe in accordance with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe . Although the Spanish army was originally to receive 532 M60 and M60A1 tanks , only 260 M60A3s were ultimately delivered , of which 244 were put into active service in the army . In the late 1980s the Spanish Ministry of Defense approved a modernization program for 150 of its AMX @-@ 30Es and a reconstruction program for the remaining 149 vehicles of this type , restoring them to their original condition . However , neither the M60s nor the AMX @-@ 30s were a considerable improvement over Spain 's fleet of M47 and M48 Patton tanks .

Since the existing tank fleet did not meet the Spanish army 's needs , Spain opened talks with Germany and Krauss @-@ Maffei over the possibility of future collaboration in regards to Spain 's future tank , and sent a military delegation to Germany in 1994 . Although the Germans offered Spain surplus Leopard 1 tanks and Soviet equipment incorporated into the German army after the reunification of Germany , the Spanish government declined these offers and pressed for the Leopard 2 .

= = Programa Coraza = =

In March 1994 , the Spanish Ministry of Defense created Programa Coraza 2000 ( Program Breastplate 2000 ) , which focused on the procurement and integration of new armament for the Spanish army 's modernization . The program included the Leopard 2E and the Pizarro infantry combat vehicle , as well as the Eurocopter Tiger attack helicopter . The program 's scope extended to the integration of 108 Leopard 2A4s , which were leased to Spain in late 1995 . Apart from procurement , Programa Coraza was meant to prepare the Spanish army logistically for the introduction of new matériel .

= = = Leopard 2A4 = = =

A memorandum of understanding was signed on 9 June 1995 between the German and Spanish governments , setting the foundations for an acquisition of up to 308 brand @-@ new Leopard 2Es . These were to be assembled in Spain by Santa Bárbara Sistemas , with 60 – 70 percent of the components manufactured by Spanish companies , and production taking place between 1998 and 2003 . Furthermore , the German government agreed to lend the Spanish army 108 Leopard 2A4s for training purposes for a period of five years . These vehicles were delivered between November 1995 and June 1996 . In 1998 , Spain agreed to procure the ceded Leopard 2A4s and reduce production of the brand @-@ new Leopard 2E to 219 vehicles . In 2005 it was declared that the 108 Leopard 2A4s were to cost Spain just € 16.9m , to be paid by 2016 .

The Leopard 2A4s equipped X and XI Mechanized Infantry Brigade , which at the time formed part of Eurocorps . As production of the Leopard 2E began and these units received Leopard 2Es , their Leopard 2A4s re @-@ equipped the Alcántara Armored Cavalry Regiment , based in Melilla .

Spain 's Leopard 2E is based on the Leopard 2A6 , and incorporates the add @-@ on wedge armor of the Leopard 2A5 on the turret . This armor maximizes the armor depth that a kinetic energy penetrator must travel through to enter the internal volume of the turret . Like the Swedish Leopard 2S ( Strv 122 ) , the Leopard 2E has increased armor thickness on the hull 's glacis plate , the turret frontal arc and the turret roof , bringing the vehicle 's weight close to 63 tonnes ( 69 @.@ 4 tons ) . The vehicle 's protection is augmented by the added armor that is built into the tank during the manufacturing process , as opposed to being added on after assembly as is the case for German Leopard 2A5s and 2A6s . As a consequence , the Leopard 2E is one of the best @-@ protected Leopard 2s in service .

The tank is armed with Rheinmetall 's 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 55 tank @-@ gun , and is capable of adopting a 140 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) gun . Both the tank commander and gunner have identical second generation thermal viewers , derived from those of the TOW 2B Light Launcher System . These are integrated into the tank by Indra and Rheinmetall Defense Electronics . Indra provides the tank 's command and control system , called the Leopard Information and Command Equipment ( LINCE ) , based on the Swedish and German Integrierte Führungssysteme ( IFIS ) . Other differences between the Spanish Leopard 2E and other Leopard 2A6s include an auxiliary power unit , manufactured by SAPA , an air conditioning system and new rubber pads for the vehicle 's tracks to increase their lifespan on the irregular Spanish terrain . About 60 % of each Leopard 2E was manufactured in Spain , as opposed to 30 % for the Swedish Leopard 2S , for example .

Although the final contract for the production of Spanish Leopard 2Es was signed in 1998 , calling for a production rate of four tanks per month , the first Leopard 2Es were not manufactured until late 2003 . This was largely due to the merging of Santa Bárbara Sistemas with General Dynamics , and Krauss @-@ Maffei 's reservations regarding the sharing of the Leopard 2 's technology with a rival company manufacturer of the M1 Abrams . Krauss @-@ Maffei delivered 30 Leopard 2Es between 2003 and 2006 . Production by Santa Bárbara Sistemas was delayed after assembly had begun ; between January and November 2007 , for example , only three of the 43 Leopard 2Es to be delivered to the Spanish army were actually delivered — with 15 more being delivered before the end of the year to make up for the earlier production problems . By 1 July 2006 the Spanish army had received 48 Leopard 2Es and nine Büffel armored recovery vehicles , which was only a quarter of those contracted . Production of the Leopard 2E was planned to end by 2007 but was extended into 2008 .

The Leopard 2E replaced the Leopard 2A4 in Spanish mechanized units , which in turn replaced M60s in cavalry units . Both versions of the Leopard 2 are expected to remain in service with the Spanish army until 2025 . In terms of industrial scale , the production and development of the Leopard 2E represents a total of 2 @.@ 6 million man @-@ hours of work , including 9 @,@ 600 in Germany . It is one of the most expensive Leopard 2s built ; the original contract was worth € 1,910m but the final cost was € 2,399m .

= = = Comparison with other tanks in Spanish service = = =

The Spanish army replaced its M60 Patton tanks and AMX @-@ 30s with the Leopard 2 between 1995 and 2008 , a considerable improvement in capability . Previously , the Spanish army was equipped with M47 and M48 Patton tanks , which were upgraded to near M60 equivalency during the late 1970s and during the 1980s . Both the Leopard 2A4 and Leopard 2E sport a much more powerful gun than the AMX @-@ 30 and M60 tanks . The Leopard 2 's 1 @,@ 500 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 110 kW ) engine provides greater power than the M60A3 's 750 horsepower ( 559 @.@ 27 kW ) and the AMX @-@ 30EM2 's 850 horsepower ( 633 @.@ 84 kW ) engines . On the other hand , the Leopard 2 carries fewer , but larger rounds than the M60A3 .

= Indian Ocean raid ( 1944 ) =

In March 1944 , a force of three Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) heavy cruisers raided Allied shipping in the Indian Ocean . The cruisers departed Japanese @-@ held territory on 1 March with the support of other IJN vessels and aircraft . On 9 March , they encountered and sank the British steamer Behar , with the heavy cruiser Tone picking up over 100 survivors . Fearing detection , the Japanese force subsequently returned to the Netherlands East Indies ( NEI ) , arriving on 16 March . Two days later , most of Behar 's crew and passengers were murdered on board Tone . Following the war the commander of the raid , Rear Admiral Naomasa Sakonju , was executed for this war crime and Tone 's captain Haruo Mayuzumi ( ja : 黛治夫 ) was sentenced to seven years imprisonment .

= = Background = =

In February 1944 , the Japanese Combined Fleet withdrew from its base at Truk in the Central Pacific to Palau and Singapore . The appearance of a powerful Japanese naval force at Singapore concerned the Allies , as it was feared that these ships could potentially conduct raids in the Indian Ocean and against Western Australia . In response , the Allies strengthened their naval and air forces in the area by transferring two British light cruisers from the Atlantic and Mediterranean as well as several U.S. Navy warships from the Pacific . The number of air units in Ceylon and the Bay of Bengal region was also increased . Admiral James Somerville , the commander of the British Eastern Fleet , feared that the Japanese would repeat their devastating Indian Ocean raid of early 1942 , and on 25 February requested permission to withdraw his fleet from its base at Trincomalee so that it was not at risk from the larger Japanese force . The Admiralty rejected this request , and directed that the fleet should remain at Trincomalee unless it was threatened by a superior Japanese force as its withdrawal would affect morale and harm Britain 's prestige in the region . It was agreed , however , that the Eastern Fleet should not engage superior Japanese forces and could withdraw if Somerville judged this necessary .

In late February , Vice @-@ Admiral Shiro Takasu — the Commander in Chief , Southwest Area Fleet — ordered the heavy cruisers Aoba , Chikuma , and Tone to raid Allied shipping on the main route between Aden and Fremantle . This force was commanded by Vice Admiral Naomasa Sakonju on board Aoba . In his instructions to Sakonju , Vice Admiral Takasu directed that if the force captured Allied merchant seamen all prisoners , other than radio operators and other personnel who might possess useful information , were to be killed . Sakonju did not question this order . The Japanese cruisers embarked specialised boarding parties for this operation as it was hoped that they could capture merchant ships to alleviate Japan 's shipping shortage .

= = Raid = =

The three Japanese heavy cruisers departed from the Combined Fleet 's anchorage in the Lingga Islands on 27 February . The light cruisers Kinu and Ōi and three destroyers escorted the force through the Sunda Strait on 1 March . The raiders were supported by 10 medium bombers and three or four seaplanes based in Sumatra and west Java which conducted patrols in the direction of Ceylon . Three or four submarines from the 8th Flotilla also monitored Allied shipping movements near Ceylon , the Maldive Islands and Chagos Archipelago . The Allies did not detect the Japanese force 's departure , but reinforced their forces in Western Australia after an American submarine encountered Kinu and Ōi operating near the Lombok Strait on 6 March . The presence of these ships was taken to indicate that a hostile force had possibly been dispatched into the Indian Ocean . On 8 March , Somerville directed all Allied ships travelling between 80 and 100 ° east to divert to the south or west .

After leaving the Sunda Strait , the Japanese heavy cruisers sailed south @-@ west for the main route between Aden and Fremantle . The ships were spread 50 km ( 27 nmi ; 50 km ) by day and 20 km ( 11 nmi ; 12 mi ) by night and maintained radio silence . On the morning of 9 March , they encountered the 6 @,@ 100 long tons ( 6 @,@ 200 t ) British steamer Behar at 20 ° 32 ′ S 87 ° 10 ′ E , about midway between Fremantle and Colombo . The ship was travelling from Fremantle to Bombay as part of a voyage between Newcastle , New South Wales and the United Kingdom carrying a cargo of zinc .

Upon sighting the Japanese ships , Behar 's master , Captain Maurice Symons , ordered that his radio operator transmit the " RRR " code in order to notify other ships and Allied bases that the merchant ship was being attacked by surface raiders . Tone 's signals room picked up this message , and the cruiser opened fire on Behar . The Japanese cruiser did not attempt to capture the steamer , as it was judged too risky to sail her back to Japanese territory . Tone 's gunners scored hits on Behar 's prow and stern which killed three of her crew . Five minutes after the sighting , Behar 's crew and passengers abandoned ship . The steamer sank shortly afterwards and either 104 or 108 survivors were rescued by Tone . ( I )

The Behar survivors were maltreated by members of Tone 's crew . Japanese sailors forced the survivors to hand over all their personal belongings of any value , and then used ropes to tie the survivors in painful positions which caused them to have difficultly breathing . The merchant ship 's chief officer was beaten after he complained that treating civilians in such a way violated the Geneva Convention . However , the female survivors later had their ropes removed . When the survivors were taken below decks to be imprisoned they were badly beaten by Japanese sailors .

Following the attack , Sakonju judged that it was too dangerous to continue the raid as Behar 's distress message may have alerted the Allies to his force 's presence . Accordingly , the Japanese turned back for the NEI that day . The heavy cruisers were again escorted through the Sunda Strait by Kinu , Ōi and five destroyers , and arrived back at the NEI on 15 March . During this time , the Behar survivors were held in a small and extremely hot store room on board Tone , and were given little access to food and water , sanitary facilities and exercise .

Despite Sakonju 's fears , the Allies were not immediately aware of the attack on Behar . Her distress signal had been picked up by only a single Allied merchant ship , which did not report it until she arrived at Fremantle on 17 March . In the meantime , Somerville had decided on 16 March that surface raiders no longer posed a threat to shipping in the Indian Ocean and allowed Allied vessels to resume their normal routing .

= = Massacre = =

Shortly after the Behar survivors were rescued , Sakonju sent a radio message to Tone 's commanding officer , Captain Haruo Mayuzumi , reprimanding him for taking non @-@ essential personnel prisoner and not capturing the merchant ship . In this message Sakonju ordered that the survivors be killed . Mayuzumi was unwilling to so , however , as he felt that this would violate his Christian religious beliefs . His executive officer , Commander Junsuke Mii , also opposed killing the prisoners . Mayuzumi radioed a request to Sakonju that the prisoners be put ashore , but this was rejected . The captain then visited Aoba to argue his case , but Sakonju remained unmoved and told Mayuzumi to " obey my orders " . Despite his misgivings , Mayuzumi decided to kill the prisoners .

On 15 March the three heavy cruisers anchored at Tanjung Priok near Java . Following this , either 15 or 36 survivors were transferred to Aoba . ( II ) The party sent to Aoba included Symonds , the Behar 's chief officer and several of the senior officers as well as both of the ship 's female passengers . All of this group were later landed at Tanjung Priok .

The three cruisers sailed from Tanjung Priok bound for Singapore on 18 March . That night , all the prisoners on board Tone were beheaded by several of the cruiser 's officers . Mayuzumi watched the killings from the ship 's bridge but Mii refused to take part .

= = Aftermath = =

Aoba , Chikuma and Tone arrived at Singapore on 25 March . The Indian Ocean raid was the last operation conducted by Axis surface raiders during World War II . As a result , Behar was the final Allied merchant ship to be sunk by surface raiders during the war . The raid is notable chiefly for the Behar massacre ; it achieved little militarily . The raid failed to disrupt Allied traffic in the region as the diversions ordered by Somerville on 8 March were rescinded by the 16th . The only tangible result was the sinking of one ship , the Behar ; by contrast Axis submarines sank three ships in the Indian Ocean during the same period . The raid was also less successful than comparable raids by surface ships in the region , such as that of the Admiral Scheer in 1941 . The Japanese made no attempt to capitalize on their numerical superiority in the region and by the end of the month it had vanished ; reinforcements to the Eastern Fleet enabled Somerville to start a series of carrier raids , commencing with the attack on Sabang on 19 April 1944 .

The party of Behar survivors who had been landed at Tanjung Priok were initially interred in prisoner of war camps in Java ; the male prisoners were sent to a camp near Batavia and the women were held in a female camp nearby . After all the members of the group had been interrogated , the survivors were separated and sent to other camps in Java or to work as slave labourers in Japan . All the survivors were freed after the end of the war in August 1945 .

Following the war , the Allies prosecuted the officers responsible for the murders on board Tone . Vice Admiral Takasu had died from disease in September 1944 , but Sakonju was tried by the British in 1947 at Hong Kong and sentenced to death . Mayuzumi was also convicted for his role in the killings and sentenced to seven years imprisonment .

= Geneforge =

Geneforge is the first video game in the Geneforge series of role @-@ playing video games created by Spiderweb Software .

Players assume the role of an apprentice Shaper , a sect of mages who can create living creatures through force of will . The apprentice is cast away on Sucia , an island abandoned by the sect 200 years prior . The island contains groups of the Shapers ' creations , who have formed their own ideologies regarding their creators in the intervening years . The primary motivation of the player is to escape the island and , in the process , deal with the forces working to steal the Shaper secrets abandoned on Sucia Isle .

The game 's setting stemmed from the idea of players being able to create and control a group of obedient creatures . The Shapers and the world of Geneforge were the result of Vogel imagining how would a being possess such power and how would they use it . The game 's setting , a mixture of science fiction and fantasy , differs from the pure science fiction setting the game had been envisioned as . Vogel had difficulties balancing gameplay with the powerful directed @-@ energy weapons players would expect to use in a science fiction game . Sales exceeded the developer 's expectations , despite fears that the departure from Spiderweb 's Avernum series would deter players . Geneforge received a positive reception from reviewers , despite the quality of the graphics being rated as poor and the game containing one piece of music , the title theme . The plot and setting were praised by reviewers for uniqueness and detail .

= = Gameplay = =

Players create a character and travel around Sucia Island , a location Barred to the members of the player character 's sect . Whilst searching for a way off the island , the game 's ultimate goal , players can form alliances with the island 's inhabitants and complete quests through combat or other means . Geneforge is played in 45 ° axonometric perspective , movement through the game 's environs is real @-@ time but switches to turn @-@ based combat in the game 's playing field . The game world is divided up into 77 areas accessible through a world map . The first two areas serve as the game 's tutorial ; introducing players to navigation , controls and shaping creations . Clearing areas by defeating guardians or successfully traversing the terrain allows players to bypass those areas via the world map , reducing travelling time . The game has an always @-@ visible auto @-@ map , which begins each area completely darkened , and is revealed as the player explores . As the player 's party performs tasks or defeats enemies they receive experience , leading to increased levels and additional skill points . The player character 's skill points can be used to increase their statistics or to improve their aptitude in one of the fifteen available skills . Canisters which increase skills or add new abilities are scattered throughout the game .

Before starting the game , players choose from three basic character classes , each of which has a particular playing style . Guardians are fighters who excel in standard combat skills , especially hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . They are capable of shaping creations , but have little affinity for magic . Agents excel in spell casting and are capable of hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , but have poor shaping skills . The Shaper is a summoner , capable of creating living creatures by using their own life essence . Shapers rely on their creations for protection . Every character class is referred to as " Shaper " in @-@ game . Most objectives in the game must be completed via combat or diplomacy , but players can also use subterfuge to pass obstacles . All three character classes can use different methods , depending on which skills they are adept in . Some areas are difficult to pass , and some tasks are difficult to complete , unless the player character is a certain class . Each character class has a different combat style , the combat skills they are associated with cost fewer skill points to increase .

Essence is used for both creating creatures and casting spells ; the number , type and strength of creations is limited by the player 's essence capacity . For instance , if a character with 70 maximum essence summons a creature which costs 20 essence , their maximum essence is reduced to 50 until the creation is destroyed , either through combat or being absorbed by the Shaper to regain essence . A total of 18 different creations are featured in the game , with larger and more powerful creatures costing more essence to create . The types and strengths of creations can be altered depending on the player 's combat style . Creations accompanying the player receive a percentage of the experience points received for completing quests or defeating foes , levelling up and receiving skill points in the same manner as the player character . These skill points can be spent to increase creations ' statistics , but every statistic increase costs more essence and reduces the amount of essence available to summon other creations or cast spells . Essence and health are regained from Shaper @-@ designed pools or by entering a friendly town .

Combat is turn @-@ based , with each character in the player 's party receiving action points at the beginning of the player 's turn . The number received is dependent on the items the player character has equipped and the skills the character or creations possess . Each action uses a specific number of points , for example , moving one square takes a single point and attacks or spells take five . Attacking or spellcasting with fewer than ten action points immediately ends the character 's turn , otherwise a character can continue to act until they run out of points . Most enemies will attack the player on sight , retreating in terror if they reach a certain threshold of damage without being killed . Other specialized behaviors are also present , including creatures which call for help , or creatures which act as sentries and retreat to an ambush location when threatened . Creations made by the player character can also be controlled by a similar artificial intelligence , or the player can invest more essence in the creation 's intelligence and control them manually .

Geneforge 's dialogue is delivered through on @-@ screen text . Encounters with intelligent creations or humans result in the player being given a series of pre @-@ determined questions or responses . Conversation options and the outcome of those conversations change according to the player 's previous interactions. as well as which quests have been completed ; which items the player has ; which group the player belongs to and the player 's leadership skill . The player can collect items from defeated enemies and the game environments to improve their own equipment . Non @-@ player characters can trade with the player , buying most items regardless of type . The shopkeeper has a fixed amount of gold at the start of the game which does not replenish itself . It is possible for the player to drain all shopkeepers of their gold reserves , making it impossible to sell further items .

= = Plot = =

The player begins as an initiate of a powerful sect of magicians , the Shapers . Members of the sect create living beings from the magical essence within themselves . Apprentices are sent to academies to learn the art of shaping and the player 's character has been accepted to do so . The player departs on a voyage to the academy aboard a specially modified Drayk , a dragon @-@ like Shaper Creation . During the journey , the Shaper passes a group of islands , one of which is recognized as the Barred Sucia Island . Locations Barred by the Shapers are closed to both the sect and outsiders alike , meaning a catastrophe has occurred or something very valuable is located there . As the Shaper examines Sucia , lost in thought , the craft is attacked and mortally wounded by an unidentified sailing ship . After igniting the vessel 's sails with a fireball , the craft deposits the Shaper on an abandoned dockside before dying . The player is now stranded on Sucia Island and must find a way to leave .

Exploration of the docks reveals a strange canister filled with swirling liquid . Thinking the canister contains healing or energizing properties , the Shaper breaks the seal and absorbs the contents . Instead the contents absorb into the Shaper 's body , strengthening and changing it . The changes become visibly apparent , the player character 's skin smoothens and glows slightly . The canisters also affect the user 's mental state , causing a more violent and arrogant temperament . Serviles remain on the island , having been abandoned when the island was Barred . They are intelligent creations of Shapers , designed to serve them without question or hesitation . These Serviles have had no contact with Shapers for two centuries , and have separated into three groups with differing philosophies regarding their creators . The Obeyers are still faithful to the Shapers , the Awakened believe that they should be treated as equals . The Takers have rejected Shapers completely and view the sect as oppressors to be fought .

After encountering the three servile groups , the player begins to learn of a group of foreigners known as Sholai , explorers who have been shipwrecked on the island . It was the Sholai , led by a man named Trajkov , who attacked the player with their last remaining ship . Trajkov controls a device called the Geneforge , created by the Shapers , which can rewrite the user 's DNA and make them incredibly powerful . This is the cause of the island 's Barred status , the device was deemed too dangerous in the wrong hands . Trajkov and his followers have allied themselves with the Takers , absorbing the contents of canisters and trying to claim Shaper powers as their own . The group have been unable to activate the Geneforge itself due to a Shaper being needed to activate the device . A Shaper named Goettsch was kidnapped for this purpose , in the same manner as the player @-@ character . Goettsch fled and stole the shaping gloves needed to safely use the Geneforge , causing Trajkov to attempt to kidnap the player as a replacement . During these events , some Sholai have escaped from their increasingly violent and unpredictable leader .

The player is free to join any one of the servile groups and share common goals , or remain unaligned . Geneforge can be completed without joining any group . Trajkov can be killed through combat or tricked into killing himself by using the Geneforge . He can also be aided in activating the device , if the player steals the shaper gloves from Goettsch . Goettsch offers the player fake shaper gauntlets , which do not protect Trajkov from the Geneforge 's energy should he be convinced they are genuine shaping gloves . The player can complete the game by using the last boat on Sucia Island . The small vessel is moored in a guarded dock on the far side of the island . Finishing the game unlocks one of more than a dozen game endings , dependent on the player 's actions during the game .

= = Development = =

Work on Geneforge began during the development of Avernum 2 , initially little information was revealed . In an interview published by RPGDot Vogel compared the game 's movement system to Fallout and revealed that a new game engine was being implemented . The project had initially been intended as pure science fiction but this was soon abandoned in favor of a mixed fantasy and science fiction setting . In an interview published on website RPG Codex , Vogel stated this was due difficulties maintaining game balance with futuristic weaponry which " should be devastating " . He added " I found it to be too difficult to model the weapons in a way that simultaneously felt sensible and maintained balance . "

Geneforge stemmed from the idea of creating a horde of creatures and the ability to care for those creatures or send them to their deaths . The choice was to be made by the player . From this point , Vogel considered who would be able to gain such powers , how they would control them and how these creatures would be treated . The game was developed with the intention of giving players choices ; which factions to side with , how non @-@ Shaper human outsiders are treated and whether to pursue goals through combat or diplomacy . Unlike most role @-@ playing games , Geneforge was designed so that it would be possible to complete the game without using violence . Vogel cited Baldur 's Gate II : Shadows of Amn , Planescape : Torment , Deus Ex and EverQuest as influences .

The game marked a departure from the Avernum series and its predecessor the Exile series , Vogel expressed a need to work on other projects - " every few years , I need to do something cool and weird . It keeps me interested . " He stated that the differences in Geneforge meant the game might struggle to find an audience , however sales exceeded his expectations .

= = Reception = =

Geneforge received positive reviews , the game 's story and lack of bugs received praise in particular . InsideMacGames ' Christopher Morin suggested that players interested in a " strong storyline and a unique take on magic " would be impressed , but not those who sought high quality graphics and sound . The game 's setting has been described as unique and fresh , the level of detail in Geneforge 's fictional world was praised by reviewers.Jeff Green of Computer Gaming World praised the game for its " story and gameplay " as something that high @-@ budget games often lack .

The quality of the game 's graphics was rated poorly by most reviewers , reviewers noted that the overall quality of the game made up for this deficiency . GameSpy 's Carla Harker described the graphics as " ... dated by about seven years " and the game as a " technological pariah " , despite calling it one of the best role @-@ playing games released in the past year . Green similarly described graphics as dated and something to put up with in favor of gameplay . Website Just RPG 's Eric Arevalo described them as simplistic but noted the game 's story and the ability to control " fascinating mutant creatures " made up for this . The Entertainment Depot 's Nick Stewart differed , praising the graphics as " Simplistic without being plain , lavish without being overdone " as well as the fluidity of character animation and detail of character designs .

The almost total lack of music , except for the title screen theme song , and complete lack of voice acting was noted by reviewers . This highlighted the game 's sound effects and environmental sounds , such as weapons clashing and the background noise of towns . Nick Stewart found " a fairly decent variety of effects and noises scattered throughout " , that they " added somewhat to the experience " , but became irritated by the amount of hissing and popping in the environmental sounds after extended play . Carla Harker described the sound as " Almost non @-@ existent " and Eric Arevalo found that there weren 't enough sound effects . RPGDot 's Val Sucher noted that the music player Winamp could be played in the background , due to the game 's small memory requirements .

= Giant mouse lemur =

The giant mouse lemurs ( members of the genus Mirza ) are a genus of strepsirrhine primates . Two species have been formally described ; the northern giant mouse lemur ( Mirza zaza ) and Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur ( Mirza coquereli ) . Like all other lemurs , they are native to Madagascar , where they are found in the western dry deciduous forests and further to the north in the Sambirano valley and Sahamalaza Peninsula . First described in 1867 as a single species , they were grouped with mouse lemurs and dwarf lemurs . In 1870 , British zoologist John Edward Gray assigned them to their own genus , Mirza . The classification was not widely accepted until the 1990s , which followed the revival of the genus by American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall in 1982 . In 2005 , the northern population was declared a new species , and in 2010 , the World Wide Fund for Nature announced that a southwestern population might also be a new species .

Giant mouse lemurs are about three times larger than mouse lemurs , weighing approximately 300 g ( 11 oz ) , and have a long , bushy tail . They are most closely related to mouse lemurs within Cheirogaleidae , a family of small , nocturnal lemurs . Giant mouse lemurs sleep in nests during the day and forage alone at night for fruit , tree gum , insects , and small vertebrates . Unlike many other cheirogaleids , they do not enter a state of torpor during the dry season . The northern species is generally more social than the southern species , particularly when nesting , though males and females may form pair bonds . The northern species also has the largest testicle size relative to its body size among all primates and is atypical among lemurs for breeding year @-@ round instead of seasonally . Home ranges often overlap , with related females living closely together while males disperse . Giant mouse lemurs are vocal , although they also scent mark using saliva , urine , and secretions from the anogenital scent gland .

Predators of giant mouse lemurs include the Madagascar buzzard , Madagascar owl , fossa , and the narrow @-@ striped mongoose . Giant mouse lemurs reproduce once a year , with two offspring born after a 90 @-@ day gestation . Babies are initially left in the nest while the mother forages , but are later carried by mouth and parked in vegetation while she forages nearby . In captivity , giant mouse lemurs will breed year @-@ round . Their lifespan in the wild is thought to be five to six years . Both species are listed as endangered due to habitat destruction and hunting . Like all lemurs , they are protected under CITES Appendix I , which prohibits commercial trade . Despite breeding easily , they are rarely kept in captivity . The Duke Lemur Center coordinated the captive breeding of an imported collection of the northern species , which rose from six individuals in 1982 to 62 individuals by 1989 , but the population fell to six by 2009 and was no longer considered a breeding population .

= = Taxonomy = =

The first species of giant mouse lemur was described by the French naturalist Alfred Grandidier in 1867 based on seven individuals he had collected near Morondava in southwestern Madagascar . Of these seven specimens , the lectotype was selected in 1939 as MNHN 1867 – 603 , an adult skull and skin . Naming the species after the French entomologist Charles Coquerel , Grandidier placed Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur ( M. coquereli ) with the dwarf lemurs in the genus Cheirogaleus ( which he spelled Cheirogalus ) as C. coquereli . He selected this generic assignment based on similarities with fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) , which he considered to also be members of Cheirogaleus . The following year , the German naturalist Hermann Schlegel and Dutch naturalist François Pollen independently described the same species and coincidentally gave it the same specific name , coquereli , basing theirs on an individual from around the Bay of Ampasindava in northern Madagascar . Unlike Grandidier , they placed their specimen in the genus Microcebus ( mouse lemurs ) ; however , these authors also listed all Cheirogaleus under Microcebus and based the classification of their species on similarities with the greater dwarf lemur ( M. typicus , now C. major ) .

In 1870 , the British zoologist John Edward Gray placed Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur into its own genus , Mirza . This classification was widely ignored and later rejected in the early 1930s by zoologists Ernst Schwarz , Guillaume Grandidier , and others , who felt that its longer fur and bushy tail did not merit a separate genus and instead placed it in Microcebus . British anatomist William Charles Osman Hill also favored this view in 1953 , noting that despite its larger size ( comparable to Cheirogaleus ) , its first upper premolar was proportionally small as in Microcebus . In 1977 , French zoologist Jean @-@ Jacques Petter also favored the Microcebus classification , despite the threefold size difference between Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur and the other members of the genus .

The genus Mirza was resurrected in 1982 by American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall to represent an intermediate branch between Microcebus and Cheirogaleus , citing the Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur 's significantly larger size than the largest Microcebus and locomotor behavior more closely aligned with Cheirogaleus . Adoption of Mirza was slow , though in 1994 it was used in the first edition of Lemurs of Madagascar by Conservation International . In 1993 , primatologist Colin Groves initially favored the Microcebus classification in the second edition of Mammal Species of the World , but began supporting the resurrection of Mirza in 2001 . In 1991 , prior to adopting Mirza , Groves was the first to use the common name " giant mouse lemur " . Prior to that , they were popularly referred to as " Coquerel 's mouse lemur " .

In 2005 , Peter M. Kappeler and Christian Roos described a new species of giant mouse lemur , the northern giant mouse lemur ( M. zaza ) . Their studies compared the morphology , behavioral ecology , and mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences of specimens from both Kirindy Forest in central @-@ western Madagascar and around Ambato in northwestern Madagascar , part of the Sambirano valley . Their study demonstrated distinct differences in size , sociality , and breeding , as well as sufficient genetic distance to merit specific distinction between the northern and central @-@ western populations . Because Grandidier 's description was based on a southern specimen , they named the northern population as a new species .

The World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) announced in 2010 that a biodiversity study from 2009 in the gallery forest of Ranobe near Toliara in southwestern Madagascar revealed a population of giant mouse lemurs previously unknown to science , and possibly a new species . They noted a significant difference in coloration between the two known species and the specimen they observed . However , further testing was required to confirm the discovery .

= = = Etymology = = =

The etymology of Mirza puzzled researchers for many years . Gray often created mysterious and unexplained taxonomic names — a trend not only continued with his description of Mirza in 1870 , but also with the genera Phaner ( fork @-@ marked lemurs ) and Azema ( for M. rufus , now a synonym for Microcebus ) , both of which were described in the same publication . In 1904 , American zoologist Theodore Sherman Palmer attempted to document the etymologies of all mammalian taxa , but could not definitively explain these three genera . For Mirza , Palmer only noted that it derived from the Persian title mîrzâ ( " prince " ) , a view tentatively supported by Alex Dunkel , Jelle Zijlstra , and Groves in 2012 . However , because the reference to Persian princes might have come from Arabian Nights , a popular piece of literature at the time , Dunkel et al. also searched the general literature published around 1870 . The origin of all three names was found in a British comedy The Palace of Truth by W. S. Gilbert , which premiered in London on 19 November 1870 , nearly one and a half weeks prior to the date written on the preface of Gray 's manuscript ( also published in London ) . The comedy featured characters bearing all three names : King Phanor ( sic ) , Mirza , and Azema . The authors concluded that Gray had seen the comedy and then based the names of three lemur genera on its characters .

= = = Evolution = = =

Based on studies using morphology , immunology , repetitive DNA , SINE analysis , multilocus phylogenetic tests , and mitochondrial genes ( mtDNA ) , giant mouse lemurs are most closely related to mouse lemurs within the family Cheirogaleidae , and together they form a clade with the hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ( Allocebus ) . Both dwarf lemurs and fork @-@ marked lemurs are more distantly related , with fork @-@ marked lemurs being either a sister group of all cheirogaleids , or more closely related to sportive lemurs ( Lepilemur ) .

Although Mirza , Microcebus , and Allocebus form a clade within Cheirogaleidae , the three lineages are thought to have diverged during a narrow window of time , so the relationships within this clade are difficult to determine and may change with further research . All three are thought to have diverged at least 20 mya ( million years ago ) , although another estimate using mtDNA places the divergence between Mirza and Microcebus at 24 @.@ 2 mya . Divergence between the two recognized species of giant mouse lemur is estimated at 2 @.@ 1 mya .

= = Description = =

Though giant mouse lemurs are relatively small cheirogaleids , they are more than three times larger than the smallest members of the family , the mouse lemurs . Their body weight averages 300 g ( 11 oz ) . At around 300 mm ( 12 in ) , their bushy and long tail is longer than their head @-@ body length , which averages 233 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) . Their forelimbs are shorter than the hind limbs ( with an intermembral index of 70 ) , a trait shared with mouse lemurs . The skull is similar to that of dwarf and mouse lemurs , and the auditory bullae are small .

Like other cheirogaleids , the dental formula for giant mouse lemurs is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 = 36 ; on each side of the mouth , top and bottom , there are two incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars — a total of 36 teeth . Their upper teeth converge towards the front of the mouth , but are straighter than those in mouse lemurs . The first upper premolar ( P2 ) is relatively small , but nearly as tall as the next premolar ( P3 ) . Unlike mouse lemurs and more like dwarf lemurs , giant mouse lemurs have a prominent anterior lower premolar ( P2 ) . Also more aligned with dwarf lemurs , the first two upper molars ( M1 – 2 ) have a more anterior hypocone that sits opposite the metacone , compared to the mouse lemurs ' more posterior hypocone , which is presumably a symplesiomorphic ( ancestral ) trait . Also on M1 and M2 , the cingulum ( a crest or ridge on the tongue side ) comprises two small cuspules . In all other dental characteristics , giant mouse lemurs are noticeably similar to both dwarf and mouse lemurs .

Giant mouse lemurs have two pairs of mammae , one on the chest ( pectoral ) and one on the abdomen ( abdominal ) . Their fur is typically grayish @-@ brown on the dorsal ( back ) side and more gray in color on the ventral ( front ) side . The tail is typically black @-@ tipped . The new population found by WWF in 2010 has an overall lighter color , along with reddish or rusty patches near the hands and feet on the dorsal side of the arms and legs . This population also has a red tail , which darkens at the end . Vibrissae are found above the eyes ( superciliary ) , above the mouth ( buccal ) , under the lower jaw ( genal ) , near the top of the jaw ( interramal ) , and on the wrist ( carpal ) . Like mouse lemurs , the ears are large and membranous .

Ear size is one differentiating factor between the northern giant mouse lemur and Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , with the former having shorter , rounded ears , while the latter has relatively large ears . The northern giant mouse lemur is generally larger and also has a shorter tail and shorter canine teeth . This species also has the largest testicles relative to body size of any living primate , with an average volume of 15 @.@ 48 cm3 ( 0 @.@ 945 cu in ) , corresponding to 5 @.@ 5 % of its body weight . If human males had comparably sized testes , they would weigh 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) and be the size of a grapefruit .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur has a spotty distribution across western Madagascar 's dry deciduous forests due to the forest fragmentation throughout the region . The dry forests in this lowland region vary in elevation from sea level to 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) . The range of this species is divided into northern and southern subpopulations , which are separated by several hundred kilometers . Both historical and current populations between these ranges are uncertain . The southern region is bound by the Onilahy River in the south and the Tsiribihina River in the north , while the northern population is found in the northwestern corner of the island at Tsingy de Namoroka National Park . They are most commonly found in forests near rivers and ponds .

The northern giant mouse lemur is found in isolated forest patches along the northwest coast in both the more humid Sambirano valley and Sahamalaza Peninsula , as well as the Ampasindava Peninsula . Its range extends from the Maeverano River in the south to the Mahavavy River in the north . The new population reported by the WWF in 2010 is found in the gallery forests of Ranobe near Toliara in southwestern Madagascar .

= = Behavior = =

Giant mouse lemurs were first studied in the wild by Petter and colleagues in 1971 . His observations were secondary to his primary research interest , the fork @-@ marked lemurs north of Morondava . Both northern and southern populations were studied intermittently between 1978 and 1981 , and in 1993 , long @-@ term social and genetic studies began in Kirindy Forest . Behavioral studies of captive individuals have also been performed at the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) in Durham , North Carolina during the 1990s .

= = = Population density and territory = = =

Before the recognition of more than one species , differences in population density were noted between southern forests like Kirindy and northern forests near Ambanja . Later , it was recognized that Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur was found in lower densities than the northern giant mouse lemur . The former range between 30 and 210 individuals per square kilometer ( 250 acres ) , with lower densities in open areas of the forest , while the latter has been recorded with 385 to 1 @,@ 086 individuals per km2 . However , in the case of the northern giant mouse lemur , populations were found in more isolated forest fragments and it is thought that their consumption of introduced cashew and mango help sustain these higher populations .

According to studies of Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , home ranges of both sexes vary from 1 to 4 hectares ( 2 to 10 acres ) with frequent overlap , particularly on the periphery of their range . Individuals most heavily use and aggressively defend a smaller core area within their range . Individuals can have up to eight neighbors . Home ranges of males tend to overlap with those of both females and other males , and typically expand to four times the size during the mating season . Female home ranges show no variability in size , and can remain stable for years . At Kirindy Forest , genetic studies showed that the home ranges of related females tend to clump closely together , while unrelated males may overlap their range , suggesting male dispersal and migration is responsible for gene flow .

= = = Activity patterns = = =

Both species are strictly nocturnal , leaving their nests around sunset to stretch and self @-@ groom for a few minutes . Both species typically forage between 5 and 10 m ( 16 and 33 ft ) above the forest floor , though Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur has been observed on the ground . They primarily move by quadrupedal running and occasionally leaping between branches , and use the same feeding postures as mouse lemurs , such as clinging to tree trunks . When moving through the trees , giant mouse lemurs scurry rapidly like mouse lemurs , unlike dwarf lemurs , which use more deliberate movement . Slow movements are usually seen in lower , denser foliage when hunting for insects , while more rapid motion and leaping is typically seen at moderate heights of 2 – 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 16 ft ) . Surveillance of the home range involves slower movements in lighter foliage near the tops of large trees , while movements along the border of a home range is more rapid and occurs at a lower height . Similar movement patterns have been observed in captivity as well .

Giant mouse lemurs begin foraging moments before the sun disappears , occasionally participate in social activities during the last half of the night , and return to one of their nests prior to sunrise . Cold temperatures cause them to leave the nest later and return early , sometime during the second half of the night . During the first half of the night , giant mouse lemurs are more likely to rest for an hour or more , usually at the expense of social activities , but not feeding time . Rest periods are longer when temperatures are low . Unlike many other cheirogaleids , they remain active all year and do not enter daily or seasonal torpor .

= = = Nesting = = =

Both species sleep in round nests up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) across made of interlaced lianas , branches , leaves , and twigs gathered from nearby trees and woven using the mouth and hands . Nests are typically between 2 and 10 m ( 6 @.@ 6 and 33 ft ) above the ground in the fork of large tree branches or surrounded by dense lianas . Trees covered in thick lianas as well as trees with year @-@ round leaf cover ( e.g. Euphorbiaceae ) are favored for nest construction , though large bare trees may be used by building the nest higher . In addition to nesting in dense lianas , individual giant mouse lemurs will rotate between 10 and 12 nests every few days to avoid predators . Only females have been observed building nests in the wild , though males , females , and young have been observed building nests in captivity . Multiple nests are sometimes built in the same tree or in nearby trees and are shared by neighboring giant mouse lemurs , fork @-@ marked lemurs , and the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) . Unlike most other nocturnal lemurs , giant mouse lemurs do not appear to sleep in tree holes .

= = = Social structure = = =

Both species usually are solitary foragers , although the northern giant mouse lemur tends to be the most social , possibly due to its higher population density . Up to eight ( typically four ) adult males , adult females , and juveniles may be found in a northern giant mouse lemur nest , whereas Coquerel 's giant mouse lemurs do not nest communally , except when females share their nest with their offspring . Males do groom and call to females when they come into contact , and according to radio @-@ tracking and direct observations at Analabe near Kirindy , they form pair bonds , sometimes briefly traveling together during the dry season . However , most interactions between adults are infrequent and typically occur later at night and particularly during the dry season in overlapping core areas , often involving chases and other agonistic behavior , and only rarely social grooming . During the mating season , males act aggressively towards one another , pulling out fur around the head and shoulders and biting the head .

Giant mouse lemurs use at least eight vocalizations , the most common of which are contact calls , which sound like " hum " or a " hein " and are used when moving and when meeting familiar individuals . A " mother @-@ infant meeting call " used at dawn before returning to the nest consists of short , modulated whistles . Both males and females have distinct single note calls used in territorial behavior ; the female call sounds like " pfiou " and the male call is a short , loud whistle . Both sexes use an alarm call , which sounds like a " croak " , and an agonistic call , which consists of repeated " tisk @-@ tisk @-@ tisk " sounds . Females exhibit a " waking call sequence " , sometimes referred to as " loud calls " , which start when foraging commences and then switch to quieter " hon " calls possibly to indicate their position to their neighbors . A long " sexual call sequence " consisting of soft whistle and several modulated , hoarse " brroak " calls is used by both sexes during estrus . Studies of captive individuals have found other vocalizations , but their purpose has not been determined . The northern giant mouse lemur appears to be the most vocal of the two species . Although vocalizations are the primary form of social communication , they also scent mark using saliva , urine , and secretions from the anogenital scent gland on small branches and other objects .

= = = Reproduction = = =

Reproduction starts in November for Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur at Kirindy Forest ; the estrous cycle runs approximately 22 days , while estrus lasts only a day or less . The mating season in this southern population is limited to a few weeks , whereas the northern giant mouse lemur is thought to breed throughout the year , a trend seen in only two other species of lemur : the aye @-@ aye ( Daubentonia madagascariensis ) and the red @-@ bellied lemur ( Eulemur rubriventer ) . The northern giant mouse lemur had been observed breeding year @-@ round in captivity if their litter did not survive or was removed , but at the time this population was thought to be Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur .

One to three offspring ( typically two ) are born after 90 days of gestation , weighing approximately 12 g ( 0 @.@ 42 oz ) . Because they are poorly developed , they initially remain in their mother 's nest for up to three weeks , being transported by mouth between nests . Once they have grown sufficiently , typically after three weeks , the mother will park her offspring in vegetation while she forages nearby . After a month , the young begin to participate in social play and grooming with their mother , and between the first and second month , young males begin to exhibit early sexual behaviors ( including mounting , neck biting , and pelvic thrusting ) . By the third month , the young forage independently , though they maintain vocal contact with their mother and use a small part of her range .

Females start reproducing after ten months , while males develop functional testicles by their second mating season . Testicle size in the northern giant mouse lemur does not appear to fluctuate by season , and is so large relative to the animal 's body mass that it is the highest among all primates . This emphasis on sperm production in males , as well as the use of copulatory plugs , suggests a mating system best described as polygynandrous where males use scramble competition ( roaming widely to find many females ) . In contrast , male Coquerel 's giant mouse lemurs appear to fight for access to females ( contest competition ) during their breeding season . Males disperse from their natal range , and the age at which they leave varies from two years to several . Females reproduce every year , although postpartum estrus has been observed in captivity . In the wild , the lifespan of giant mouse lemurs is thought to rarely exceed five or six years , though in captivity they can live up to 15 years .

= = Ecology = =

Both species are omnivorous , eating fruit , flowers , buds , insect excretions , tree gums , large insects , spiders , frogs , chameleons , snakes , small birds , and eggs . Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur is thought to opportunistically prey on mouse lemurs after an individual was found with a half @-@ eaten gray mouse lemur ( M. murinus ) in a trap . During June and July , at the peak of the dry season , this species relies on sugary excretions from the larvae of hemipteran and cochineal insects as well as tree gums . The sugary excretions are obtained by either licking them from the back of the insect or collecting the crystallized sugars that accumulate beneath the insect colony . During this time of year , feeding on insect secretions can account for 60 % of feeding activity . In contrast , the northern giant mouse lemur relies on cashew fruits during the dry season .

Giant mouse lemurs are often sympatric with mouse lemurs , such as M. murinus , though they are typically found higher in the canopy and favor thicker , taller gallery forests . At the Marosalaza forest ( north of Morondava ) , Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur is sympatric with four other nocturnal lemurs ( mouse lemurs , sportive lemurs , dwarf lemurs , and fork @-@ marked lemurs ) , but manages niche differentiation by feeding at different times and specializing on insect secretions during the dry season .

Diurnal birds of prey such as the Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) are their most significant predators . Other documented predators of giant mouse lemurs include the fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , Madagascar owl ( Asio madagascariensis ) , and the narrow @-@ striped mongoose ( Mungotictis decemlineata ) .

= = Conservation = =

In 2012 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) assessed both Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur and the northern giant mouse lemur as endangered . Prior to that , both species had been listed as vulnerable . Populations of both species are in decline due to habitat destruction , primarily for slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and charcoal production . Also , they are both hunted for bushmeat . The population announced by the WWF in 2010 was found outside the limits of a nearby protected area , PK32 @-@ Ranobe , which was granted temporary protection status in December 2008 and is co @-@ managed by the WWF . Its forests were not included in the protected area due to existing concessions for mining activities .

As with all lemurs , giant mouse lemurs were first protected in 1969 when they were listed as " Class A " of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources . This prohibited hunting and capture without authorization , which would only be given for scientific purposes or the national interest . In 1973 , they were also protected under CITES Appendix I , which strictly regulates their trade and forbids commercial trade . Although enforcement is patchy , they are also protected under Malagasy law .

Giant mouse lemurs are rarely kept in captivity , though they breed easily . In 1989 , the Duke Lemur Center held more than 70 % of the captive population ( 45 of 62 individuals ) . At the time , the DLC was coordinating a captive breeding program for Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , and all individuals kept at American facilities were descended from six individuals imported by the DLC in 1982 from the region around Ambanja . As of 2009 , the International Species Information System ( ISIS ) recorded only six remaining individuals registered in the United States and Europe , all reclassified as northern giant mouse lemurs and considered a non @-@ breeding population ; and in 2015 , only a single female remained on record .

= Copper shark =

The copper shark , bronze whaler , or narrowtooth shark ( Carcharhinus brachyurus ) is a species of requiem shark , family Carcharhinidae , and the only member of its genus found mostly at temperate latitudes . It is distributed in a number of separate populations in the northeastern and southwestern Atlantic , off southern Africa , in the northwestern and eastern Pacific , and around Australia and New Zealand , with scattered reports from equatorial regions . This species can be found from brackish rivers and estuaries , to shallow bays and harbors , to offshore waters 100 m ( 330 ft ) deep or more . Females are found apart from males for most of the year , and conduct seasonal migrations . A large species reaching 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) long , the copper shark is difficult to distinguish from other large requiem sharks . It is characterized by its narrow , hook @-@ shaped upper teeth , lack of a prominent ridge between the dorsal fins , and plain bronze coloration .

Feeding mainly on cephalopods , bony fishes , and other cartilaginous fishes , the copper shark is a fast @-@ swimming predator that has been known to hunt in large groups , utilizing their numbers to their advantage ; however for most of the time they remain solitary . Off South Africa , this species associates closely with the annual sardine run , involving millions of southern African pilchard ( Sardinops sagax ) . Like other requiem sharks , it is viviparous , with the developing embryos mainly nourished through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Females bear litters of 7 to 24 pups every other year in coastal nursery areas , after a gestation period of 12 or perhaps as long as 21 months . It is extremely slow @-@ growing , with males and females not reaching maturity until 13 – 19 and 19 – 20 years of age respectively .

This species is valued by commercial and recreational fisheries throughout its range , and utilized as food . The species population size is unknown , but the ICUN 's Red List assesses the species as Near Threatened because it is very susceptible to population depletion due to its low growth and reproductive rates and because its numbers are believed to have declined in some areas .

Copper sharks only attack humans infrequently , but the species places sixth in the number of unprovoked attacks on people .

= = Taxonomy = =

Because of its very patchy range , the copper shark has been scientifically described several times from different locales . The earliest valid description is presently considered to be British zoologist Albert Günther 's account of Carcharias brachyurus in the 1870 eighth volume of Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum . The earliest name was once thought to be Auguste Duméril 's 1865 Carcharias remotus , until it was found that the type specimen associated with that name is actually a blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) . Thus , this shark was often referred to as C. remotus in older literature . An even earlier name , Richard Owen 's 1853 Galeolamna greyi , is of questionable taxonomic status as it was based solely on a set of now @-@ destroyed jaws that may or may not have belonged to a copper shark . Modern authors have assigned this species to the genus Carcharhinus .

The specific epithet brachyurus is derived from the Greek brachys ( " short " ) and oura ( " tail " ) . The name " whaler " originated in the 19th century , applied by the crews of whaling vessels in the Pacific who saw large sharks of various species congregating around harpooned whale carcasses . This species may also be referred to as black @-@ tipped whaler , cocktail shark or cocktail whaler , or New Zealand whaler , as well as by the shortened " bronze " , " bronzie " , or " cocktail " . Günther originally referred to four syntypes : a stuffed specimen from Antarctica and another from New Zealand , which have since been lost , and two fetuses from Australia that were later discovered to be bull sharks ( C. leucas ) . In the interests of taxonomic stability , in 1982 Jack Garrick designated a 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long female caught off Whanganui , New Zealand as a new type specimen .

= = Phylogeny and evolution = =

The first efforts to determine the evolutionary relationships of the copper shark were based on morphology and returned inconclusive results : in 1982 Jack Garrick placed it by itself as a grouping within Carcharhinus , while in 1988 Leonard Compagno placed it in an informal " transitional group " that also contained the blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) , the blacktip reef shark ( C. melanopterus ) , the nervous shark ( C. cautus ) , the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) , and the night shark ( C. signatus ) . Gavin Naylor 's 1992 allozyme study concluded that the closest relative of the copper shark is the spinner shark ( C. brevipinna ) , but could not resolve their wider relationships with the rest of the genus . Fossilized teeth from the copper shark have been recovered from the Pungo River in North Carolina , dating to the Miocene ( 23 – 5 @.@ 3 Ma ) , from Tuscany , dating to the Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 6 Ma ) , and from Costa Mesa in California , dating to the Late Pleistocene ( 126 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 years ago ) .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The copper shark is the only member of its genus largely found in temperate rather than tropical waters , in temperatures above 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . It is widely distributed but as disjunct regional populations with little to no interchange between them . In the Atlantic , this shark occurs from the Mediterranean Sea to Morocco and the Canary Islands , off Argentina , and off Namibia and South Africa ( where there may be two separate populations ) , with infrequent records from Mauritania , the Gulf of Guinea , and possibly the Gulf of Mexico . In the Indo @-@ Pacific , it is found from the East China Sea to Japan ( excluding Hokkaido ) and southern Russia , off southern Australia ( mostly between Sydney and Perth but occasionally further north ) , and around New Zealand but not as far as the Kermadec Islands ; there are also unconfirmed reports from the Seychelles and the Gulf of Thailand . In the eastern Pacific , it occurs from northern Chile to Peru , and from Mexico to Point Conception , California , including the Gulf of California . The copper shark is common off parts of Argentina , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand , and rare elsewhere ; in many areas its range is ill @-@ defined because of confusion with other species .

Copper sharks can be found from the surf zone to slightly beyond the continental shelf in the open ocean , diving to depths of 100 m ( 330 ft ) or more . This species commonly enters very shallow habitats , including bays , shoals , and harbors , and also inhabits rocky areas and offshore islands . It is tolerant of low and changing salinities , and has been reported from estuaries and the lower reaches of large rivers . Juveniles inhabit inshore waters less than 30 m ( 98 ft ) deep throughout the year , while adults tend to be found further offshore and regularly approach the coast only in spring and summer , when large aggregations can be readily observed in shallow water .

Populations of copper sharks in both hemispheres perform seasonal migrations , in response to temperature changes , reproductive events , and / or prey availability ; the movement patterns differ with sex and age . Adult females and juveniles spend winter in the subtropics and generally shift to higher latitudes as spring nears , with pregnant females also moving towards the coast to give birth in inshore nursery areas . Adult males remain in the subtropics for most of the year , except in late winter or spring when they also move into higher latitudes , in time to encounter and mate with post @-@ partum females dispersing from the nurseries . During migrations , individual sharks have been recorded traveling up to 1 @,@ 320 km ( 820 mi ) . It is philopatric , returning to the same areas year after year .

= = Description = =

The copper shark has a slender , streamlined body with a slightly arched profile just behind the head . The snout is rather long and pointed , with the nostrils preceded by low flaps of skin . The round , moderately large eyes are equipped with nictating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The mouth has short , subtle furrows at the corners and contains 29 – 35 upper tooth rows and 29 – 33 lower tooth rows . The teeth are serrated with single narrow cusps ; the upper teeth have a distinctive hooked shape and become more angled towards the corners of the jaw , while the lower teeth are upright . The upper teeth of adult males are longer , narrower , more curved , and more finely serrated than those of adult females and juveniles . The five pairs of gill slits are fairly long .

The pectoral fins are large , pointed , and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) . The first dorsal fin is tall , with a pointed apex and a concave trailing margin ; its origin lies about even with the tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is small and low , and positioned about opposite to the anal fin . There is usually no ridge between the dorsal fins . The caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a deep ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . This species is bronze to olive @-@ gray above with a metallic sheen and sometimes a pink cast , darkening towards the fin tips and margins but not conspicuously so ; the color fades quickly to a dull gray @-@ brown after death . The underside is white , which extends onto the flanks as a prominent band . The copper shark is easily mistaken for other large Carcharhinus species , particularly the dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) , but can be identified by its upper tooth shape , absent or weak interdorsal ridge , and lack of obvious fin markings . It reportedly reaches a maximum length of 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) and weight of 305 kilograms ( 672 lb ) .

= = Biology and ecology = =

Fast and active , the copper shark may be encountered alone , in pairs , or in loosely organized schools containing up to hundreds of individuals . Some aggregations seem to form for reproductive purposes , while others form in response to concentrations of food . This species may fall prey to larger sharks . Known parasites of the copper shark include the tapeworms Cathetocephalus australis , Dasyrhynchus pacificus and D. talismani , Floriceps minacanthus , Phoreiobothrium robertsoni , and Pseudogrillotia spratti , the leech Stibarobdella macrothela , and the fluke Otodistomum veliporum .

= = = Feeding = = =

The copper shark feeds more towards the bottom of the water column than the top , consuming cephalopods , including squid ( Loligo spp . ) , cuttlefishes , and octopus ; bony fishes , including gurnards , flatfishes , hakes , catfishes , jacks , Australian salmon , mullets , sea breams , smelts , tunas , sardines , and anchovies ; and cartilaginous fishes , including dogfish sharks ( Squalus spp . ) , stingrays , skates , electric rays , and sawfishes . Cephalopods and cartilaginous fishes become relatively more important food for sharks over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Young sharks also consume scyphozoan jellyfish and crustaceans , including mud shrimps ( Callianassa ) and penaeid prawns . It does not attack marine mammals , though has been known rarely to scavenge on dolphins that had succumbed to fishing nets . The predominant prey of this species off South Africa is the southern African pilchard ( Sardinops sagax ) , which comprise 69 – 95 % of its diet . Every winter , schools of copper sharks follow the " run " of the pilchard from the Eastern Cape to KwaZulu @-@ Natal . The gathering of millions of forage fish attract a multitude of predators , including several species of sharks , of which copper sharks are the most numerous .

Large numbers of copper sharks have been observed hunting together in a seemingly cooperative fashion . Small schooling fish are " herded " into a tight ball , whereupon each shark swims through in turn with its mouth open to feed . For groups of tuna and larger prey , the pursuing sharks may adopt a " wing " formation to force their quarry closer together , with each shark targeting a particular fish and attacking in turn . In False Bay , South Africa , this species reportedly follows seine net fishing vessels .

= = = Life history = = =

Like other members of its family , the copper shark is viviparous , in which the yolk sac of the developing embryo , once depleted , is converted into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment . Adult females have one functional ovary , on the right , and two functional uteruses . The male bites the female as a prelude to mating . In the Southern Hemisphere , mating takes place from October to December ( spring and early summer ) , when both sexes have migrated into offshore waters at higher latitudes . Birthing seems to occur from June to January , peaking in October and November .

Female copper sharks make use of shallow inshore habitats , varying from stretches of open coast to more sheltered bays and inlets , as nurseries . These nurseries provide abundant food and reduce the likelihood of predation by larger members of the species . Known and suspected nursery areas occur off northern North Island from Waimea Inlet to Hawke Bay for New Zealand sharks , off Albany , in and around Gulf St Vincent , and in Port Phillip Bay for Australian sharks , off Niigata ( Japan ) for northwestern Pacific sharks , off the Eastern Cape for South Africa sharks , off Rhodes ( Greece ) , Nice ( France ) , and Al Hoceima ( Morocco ) for Mediterranean sharks , off Río de Oro ( Western Sahara ) for northwest African sharks , off Rio de Janeiro ( Brazil ) and Buenos Aires and Bahía Blanca ( Argentina ) for southwestern Atlantic sharks , and off Paita and Guanape Cove ( Peru ) , in Sebastián Vizcaíno Bay ( Mexico ) , and in and around San Diego Bay for eastern Pacific sharks .

Most sources estimate a gestation period of 12 months , though some data support the interpretation of a 15 – 21 month long gestation period instead . Females produce litters every other year , with the number of pups ranging from 7 to 24 and averaging 15 or 16 . Females off California and the Baja Peninsula tend to bear fewer young relative to other parts of the world . The newborns measure 55 – 67 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) long . The copper shark is among the slowest @-@ growing Carcharhinus species : off South Africa , males reach sexual maturity at 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long and an age of 13 – 19 years , while females mature at 2 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 7 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long and an age of 19 – 20 years . Females off Australia mature at a comparable length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , while females off Argentina mature at a slightly smaller length of 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) . The maximum lifespan is at least 30 years for males and 25 years for females .

= = Human interactions = =

= = = Attacks on Humans = = =

Copper sharks attack humans infrequently , but the species places sixth in the number of unprovoked attacks on people . During the tracking period through 2013 , the University of Florida attributed 20 attacks to the species . ( In comparison , great white sharks topped the list , with 279 attacks . ) Though large and powerful , the copper shark is not particularly aggressive towards humans unless in the presence of food . Copper Sharks have been known to harass and attack spear fishers in an attempt to steal catches . Copper sharks have bitten several swimmers in Australia and New Zealand , where the species is common . ( The species is commonly called bronze whalers in this part of the world . )

Fatal attacks attributed to the copper shark ( bronze whaler ) include the 2014 death of a swimmer in Tathra , New South Wales , Australia , and the 1976 death of a swimmer in Te Kaha , New Zealand . Three out of ten shark attacks in New Zealand are attributed to Copper sharks . Witnesses also attributed a fatal attack on September 2011 in Bunker Bay , Western Australia to a copper shark .

One problem with counting attacks on humans is that the copper shark is so similar to other requiem sharks . Victims and witnesses are unlikely to correctly identify which type of genus Carcharhinus shark is responsible for the attack . Experts trying to confirm shark attacks by species warn that their statistics undercount the number of attacks by requiem sharks like the copper .

= = = Captivity = = =

Like many large , active sharks , this species adapts poorly to captivity ; it tends to bump into the sides of its enclosure , and the resulting abrasions then become infected with often fatal consequences .

= = = Fishing = = =

Commercial fisheries for the copper shark exist off New Zealand , Australia ( though the " bronze whaler fishery " of Western Australia actually takes mostly dusky sharks ) , South Africa , Brazil , Uruguay , Argentina , Mexico , and China ; it also contributes to the bycatch of other commercial fisheries across its range . This species is caught in gillnets and on bottom longlines , and to a much lesser extent in bottom trawls and on pelagic longlines . The meat is sold for human consumption . The copper shark is also popular with recreational fishers in Namibia , New Zealand , Australia , South Africa , Argentina , Mexico and California , predominantly by anglers but also by bowfishers and gillnetters . In New Zealand , it is the Carcharhinus species most frequently caught by sport fishers and sustains a small , summer recreational fishery in northern North Island , that mainly captures pregnant and post @-@ partum females and for the most part practices tag and release . A tag and release program is also practiced in Namibia .

= = = Conservation = = =

The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the copper shark as Near Threatened worldwide . While the global population is unknown , the long maturation time and low reproductive rate of this species render it highly susceptible to overfishing . Regionally , the IUCN has listed this species under Least Concern off Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa , where fisheries are generally well @-@ managed ; the local copper shark population for each of those three countries is contained almost entirely within their respective Exclusive Economic Zones ( EEZ ) . Reported catches by New Zealand have steadily declined from a peak of 40 tons in 1995 / 96 to 20 tons 2001 / 02 , though it is uncertain whether this reflects a genuine decline or changing fishing habits .

In the eastern Pacific , the copper shark is rare and little fishery information is available , leading to an assessment of Data Deficient . However , catch declines across all shark and ray species have been documented in the heavily @-@ fished Gulf of California . Off East Asia , the copper shark has been assessed as Vulnerable ; though species @-@ specific data is unavailable , shark populations overall have been decimated in the region . The number of large adults have been too low to sustain targeted fisheries since the 1970s , and most of the current shark catch consists of small juveniles . Additional threats to this species include the degradation and destruction of its coastal nurseries from development , pollution , and aquaculture , mortality from shark nets used to protect beaches in South Africa and Australia , and persecution by fish farmers in southern Australia .

= Fantastic ( magazine ) =

Fantastic was an American digest size fantasy and science fiction magazine , published from 1952 to 1980 . It was founded by Ziff Davis as a fantasy companion to Amazing Stories . Early sales were good , and Ziff Davis quickly decided to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest , and to cease publication of their other science fiction pulp , Fantastic Adventures . Within a few years sales fell , and Howard Browne , the editor , was forced to switch the focus to science fiction rather than fantasy . Browne lost interest in the magazine as a result and the magazine generally ran poor quality fiction in the mid @-@ 1950s , under Browne and his successor , Paul W. Fairman .

At the end of the 1950s Cele Goldsmith took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing , and quickly invigorated the magazines , bringing in many new writers and making them , in the words of one science fiction historian , the " best @-@ looking and brightest " magazines in the field . She helped to nurture the early careers of writers such as Roger Zelazny and Ursula K. Le Guin , but was unable to increase circulation , and in 1965 the magazines were sold to Sol Cohen , who hired Joseph Wrzos as editor and switched to a reprint @-@ only policy . This was financially successful , but brought Cohen into conflict with the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America . After a turbulent period at the end of the 1960s , Ted White became editor and the reprints were phased out .

White worked hard to make the magazine successful , introducing artwork from artists who had made their names in comics , and working with new authors such as Gordon Eklund . His budget for fiction was low , but he was occasionally able to find good stories from well @-@ known writers which had been rejected by the other markets . Circulation continued to decline and in 1978 Cohen sold out his half of the business to his partner , Arthur Bernhard . White resigned shortly afterwards , and was replaced by Elinor Mavor , but within two years Bernhard decided to close down Fantastic , merging it with Amazing , which had always had slightly higher circulation .

= = Publishing history = =

In 1938 , Ziff @-@ Davis , a Chicago @-@ based publisher looking to expand into the pulp magazine market , acquired Amazing Stories . The number of science fiction magazines grew quickly ; several new titles appeared over the next few years , including Fantastic Adventures , which was launched by Ziff @-@ Davis in 1939 as a companion to Amazing . Under the editorship of Raymond Palmer the magazines were reasonably successful but published poor quality work , and when Howard Browne took over as editor of Amazing in January 1950 he decided to try to move the magazine upmarket . Ziff @-@ Davis agreed to back the new magazine , and Browne put together a sample copy , but when the Korean War broke out Ziff @-@ Davis cut their budgets and the project was abandoned . Browne did not give up , and in 1952 received the go @-@ ahead to try a new magazine instead , focused on high @-@ quality fantasy , a genre which had recently become more popular . The first issue of Fantastic , dated Summer 1952 , appeared on March 21 of that year .

= = = Early years = = =

Sales were very good , and Ziff @-@ Davis was sufficiently impressed to move the magazine from a quarterly to a bimonthly schedule after only two issues , and to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest @-@ size to match Fantastic . Shortly afterwards the decision was taken to eliminate Fantastic Adventures : the March 1953 issue was the last , and the May – June 1953 issue of Fantastic added a mention of Fantastic Adventures to the masthead , though this disappeared with the following issue . Payment started at two cents per word for all rights , but could go up to ten cents at the editor 's discretion ; this put Fantastic in the second echelon of magazines , behind markets such as Astounding and Galaxy . The experiment with quality fiction did not last ; circulation dropped , which led to budget cuts , and in turn the quality of the fiction fell . Browne had wanted to separate Fantastic from Amazing 's pulp roots , but now found he had to print more science fiction ( sf ) and less fantasy in order to attract Amazing 's readers to its sister magazine . Fantastic 's poor results were probably a consequence of the overloaded sf magazine market ; far more magazines appeared in the early 1950s than the market was able to support . Ziff @-@ Davis sales staff were able to help sell Fantastic and Amazing along with the technical magazines that it published , and the availability of a national sales network , even though it was not focused solely on Fantastic , undoubtedly helped the magazine to survive .

In May 1956 Browne left Ziff @-@ Davis to become a screenwriter . Paul W. Fairman took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing . In 1957 Bernard Davis left Ziff @-@ Davis ; it had been Davis who had suggested the acquisition of Amazing in 1939 , and he had stayed involved with the sf magazines throughout the time he spent there . With his departure Amazing and Fantastic stagnated ; they remained monthly but drew no attention from Ziff @-@ Davis 's management .

= = = Mid @-@ 1950s to late 1960s = = =

In November 1955 , Ziff @-@ Davis hired an assistant , Cele Goldsmith , who began by helping with two new magazines under development , Dream World and Pen Pals . She also read the slush piles for all the magazines , and was quickly given more responsibility . In 1957 she was made managing editor of both Amazing and Fantastic , doing the administrative chores and reading unsolicited manuscripts ; and at the end of 1958 she became editor , replacing Fairman , who left to edit Ellery Queen 's Mystery Magazine . Goldsmith ( who became Cele Lalli when she married in 1964 ) stayed as editor for six and a half years .

Circulation dropped for both Amazing and Fantastic ; in 1964 Fantastic had a paid circulation of only 27 @,@ 000 . In 1965 Sol Cohen , who at that time was Galaxy 's publisher , set up his own publishing company , Ultimate Publishing , and bought both Amazing and Fantastic from Ziff @-@ Davis . Cohen had decided to make the magazines as profitable as possible by filling them only with reprints . This was possible because Ziff @-@ Davis had acquired second serial rights for all stories they had published , and since Cohen had bought the backfile of stories he was able to reprint them using these rights . Using reprints in this way saved Cohen about $ 8 @,@ 000 a year between the two magazines . Lalli decided that she did not want to work for Cohen , and stayed with Ziff @-@ Davis . Her last issue was June 1965 . Cohen replaced Lalli with Joseph Wrzos , who used the name " Joseph Ross " on the magazines . Cohen had met Wrzos at the Galaxy offices not long before ; Wrzos was teaching English full @-@ time , but had worked for Gnome Press as an assistant editor in 1953 – 1954 .

Cohen also launched a series of reprint magazines , drawing from the backfile of both Amazing and Fantastic , again using the second serial rights he had acquired from Ziff @-@ Davis . The first reprint magazine was Great Science Fiction ; the first issue , titled Great Science Fiction from Amazing , appeared in August 1965 . By early 1967 this had been joined by The Most Thrilling Science Fiction Ever Told and Science Fiction Classics . These increased the workload on Wrzos , though Cohen made the selection of stories , and Wrzos found himself able to work on Fantastic and Amazing only part @-@ time . Cohen hired Herb Lehrman to help with the other magazines .

Although Cohen felt that his deal with Ziff @-@ Davis gave him the reprint rights he needed , the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America ( SFWA ) received complaints about Cohen 's refusal to pay anything for the reprints . He was also reportedly not responding to requests for reassignment of copyright . SFWA organized a boycott of Cohen 's magazines ; after a year Cohen agreed to pay a flat fee for the reprints , and in August 1967 he agreed to a graduated scale of payments , and the boycott was withdrawn .

Harry Harrison had been involved in the negotiations between SFWA and Cohen , and when the agreement was reached in 1967 Cohen asked Harrison if he would take over as editor of both magazines . Harrison was available because SF Impulse , which he had been editing , had ceased publication in early 1967 . Cohen agreed to phase out the reprints by the end of the year , and Harrison took the job . Cohen added Harrison 's name to the masthead of two issues of Great Science Fiction , although Harrison had had nothing to do with that magazine , but the reprints in Fantastic and Amazing continued and Harrison decided to quit in February 1968 . He recommended Barry Malzberg as his replacement . Cohen had worked with Malzberg at the Scott Meredith Literary Agency , and felt Malzberg would be more cooperative than Harrison . Malzberg , however , turned out to be just as unwilling as Harrison to work with Cohen if the reprints continued , and soon regretted taking the job . In October 1968 Cohen refused to pay for a cover that Malzberg had commissioned ; Malzberg insisted , threatening to resign if Cohen did not agree . Cohen contacted Robert Silverberg , then the president of SFWA , and told him ( falsely ) that Malzberg had actually resigned . Silverberg recommended Ted White as a replacement . Cohen secured White 's agreement and then fired Malzberg ; White took over in October 1968 , but because there was a backlog of stories Malzberg had acquired , the first issue on which he was credited as editor was the June 1969 issue .

= = = 1970s to Present = = =

Like his immediate predecessors , White took the job on condition that the reprints would be phased out . It was some time before this was achieved : there was at least one reprinted story in every issue until the end of 1971 . The February 1972 issue contained some artwork reprinted from 1939 , and after that the reprints ceased .

Fantastic 's circulation was about 37 @,@ 000 when White took over ; only about 4 percent of this was subscription sales . Cohen 's wife filled the subscriptions from their garage , and according to White , Cohen regarded this as a burden , and never tried to increase the subscription base . Despite White 's efforts , Fantastic 's circulation fell , from almost 37 @,@ 000 when he took over as editor to less than 24 @,@ 000 in the summer of 1975 . Cohen was rumored to be interested in selling both Fantastic and Amazing ; among other possibilities , both Roger Elwood , at that time an active science fiction anthology editor , and Edward Ferman , the editor of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction , approached Cohen with a view to acquiring the titles . Nothing came of it , however , and White was not aware of the possible sales . He was working at a low salary , with unpaid help from friends to read unsolicited submissions — at one point he introduced a 25 @-@ cent reading fee for manuscripts from unpublished writers ; the fee would be refunded if White bought the story . White sometimes found himself at odds with Cohen 's business partner , Arthur Bernhard , due to their different political views . White 's unhappiness with his working conditions culminated in his resignation after Cohen refused his proposal to publish Fantastic as a slick magazine , with larger pages and higher quality paper . White commented in an article in Science Fiction Review that he had brought to the magazines " a lot of energy and enthusiasm and a great many ideas for their improvement ... Well , I have put into effect nearly every idea which I was allowed to follow through on ... and have spent most of my energy and enthusiasm . " Cohen was able to persuade him to stay for another year ; in the event White stayed for another three .

White was unable to completely halt the slide in circulation , though it rose a little in 1977 . That year Cohen lost $ 15 @,@ 000 dollars on the magazines , and decided to sell . He spent some time looking for a new publisher — editor Roy Torgeson was one of those interested — but on September 15 , 1978 , he sold his half of the business to Arthur Bernhard , his partner . White renewed his suggestions for improving the format of the magazine : he wanted to make Fantastic the same size as Time , and believed he could avoid the mistakes that had been made by other sf magazines that had tried that approach . White also proposed an increase in the budget and asked for a raise . Bernhard not only turned down White 's ideas , but also stopped paying him : White responded by resigning . His last official day as editor was November 9 ; the last issue of Fantastic under his control was the January 1979 issue . He returned all submissions to their authors , saying that he had been told to do so by Bernhard ; Bernhard denied this .

Bernhard brought in Elinor Mavor to edit both Amazing and Fantastic . Mavor had previously edited Bill of Fare , a restaurant trade journal , and was a long @-@ time science fiction reader , but she had little knowledge of the history of the magazines . She was unaware , for example , that she was not the first woman to edit them , and so adopted a male pseudonym — " Omar Gohagen " — for a while . She suggested a campaign to increase circulation , and went so far as to gather information about costs while on a trip to New York in 1979 . Bernhard decided instead to merge the two magazines . Circulation was continuing to drop ; the figures for the last two years are not available , but sf historian Mike Ashley estimates that Fantastic paid circulation may have been as low as 13 @,@ 000 . Bernhard felt that since Fantastic had never been profitable , whereas Amazing had made money , it was best to keep Amazing . Until the March 1985 issue , Amazing included a mention of Fantastic on the spine and on the contents page . In 1999 , the fiction magazine formerly known as Pirate Writings revived the Fantastic title and Cele Goldsmith @-@ era logotype for several issues , ultimately unsuccessfully , though this was not intended as a continuation of the original magazine .

In August 2014 , Warren Lapine , former editor of Absolute Magnitude , Realms of Fantasy , and Weird Tales , revived the Fantastic logotype of Fantastic Stories of the Imagination as a free webzine .

= = Contents and reception = =

= = = Browne and Fairman = = =

The first issue of Fantastic was impressive , with a cover that sf historian Mike Ashley has described as " one of the most captivating of all first issues " ; the painting , by Barye Phillips and Leo Summers , illustrated Kris Neville 's " The Opal Necklace " . The fiction included some stories by well known names ; in particular , Raymond Chandler 's " Professor Bingo 's Snuff " would have caught readers ' eyes — the story had appeared the year before in Park East magazine , but would have been new to most readers . It was a short mystery in which the fantasy element was invisibility , achieved by magical snuff . Isaac Asimov and Ray Bradbury also contributed stories , and the issue led with " Six and Ten Are Johnny " , by Walter M. Miller . The rear cover reprinted Pierre Roy 's painting " Danger on the Stairs " , which depicted a snake on a staircase ; it was an odd choice , but subsequent back covers were more natural fits for a fantasy magazine . The quality of the fiction continued to be high for the first year ; sf historian Mike Ashley comments that almost every story in the first seven issues was of high quality , and historian David Kyle regards it as an " outstandingly successful experiment " . Science fiction bibliographer Donald Tuck dissents , however , regarding the first few years as containing " little of note " , and James Blish wrote a contemporary review of the second issue which found it lacking : Blish dismissed three of the seven stories in the Fall 1952 issue as being essentially crime stories written for the sf market , and commented that of the remaining four , only two were " reasonably competent and craftsmanlike " .

Other well @-@ known writers appeared in the early issues , including Shirley Jackson , B. Traven , Truman Capote and Evelyn Waugh . Mickey Spillane had written a story called " The Woman With Green Skin " , but had been unable to sell it ; Browne offered to buy it on condition that he had permission to rewrite it as he wished . This was agreed and Browne scrapped Spillane 's text completely , writing a new story called " The Veiled Woman " and publishing it as by Spillane in the November – December 1952 issue . The issue sold so well it was reprinted , with over 300 @,@ 000 copies sold .

The emphasis was on fantasy , and much of it was " slick " fantasy — the sort of genre fiction that the upmarket slick magazines , such as The Saturday Evening Post , were willing to buy . Some science fiction appeared as well in the first couple of years , including Isaac Asimov 's " Sally " , which portrays a world in which cars have been given robotic brains and are intelligent . In 1955 it was decided to move the focus from fantasy to sf : in Browne 's words , " Stories of straight fantasy were largely eliminated and straight science @-@ fiction substituted , cover subject matter became of a scientific nature , the words " science fiction " appeared under the title , interior artwork was tightened up to replace the loose , ' arty ' kind of drawing we had been using . " Sales rose 17 % within two issues . Browne was uninterested in science fiction , however , and the quality of the fiction soon dropped , with a small stable of writers producing much of Fantastic 's fiction under house names over the next couple of years . By the start of 1956 the fiction in Fantastic was , in the opinion of sf historian Mike Ashley , " [ in ] a trough of hack predictability " , but there was some inventiveness evident from newer writers such as Robert Silverberg , Harlan Ellison and Randall Garrett .

Although Browne had been unable to make Fantastic successful by specializing in fantasy , he was still interested in the fantasy genre , and experimented in the December 1955 issue with the theme of wish fulfilment . He dropped the words " Science Fiction " from the cover , and published five stories , all of which dealt with male fantasies in one form or another . The cover showed a man walking through a wall to find a woman undressing ; the art was by Ed Valigursky and illustrated Paul Fairman 's " All Walls Were Mist " . Reader reaction , according to Browne , was almost entirely favorable , and he continued to publish occasional stories on the wish @-@ fulfilment theme . The experiment was repeated with the October 1956 issue , which again ran without " Science Fiction " on the cover , and contained stories on the theme of " Incredible Powers " . Once again the cover illustrated a male fantasy : this time it showed a man materializing in a bath house where women were showering . Browne had left Ziff @-@ Davis by the time this issue appeared , but Browne 's plans for a magazine around these themes were well advanced , and Fairman , who by this time was editing both Fantastic and Amazing , was given Dream World to edit as well . It ran for three quarterly issues , starting in February 1957 , but proved too narrow a market to succeed .

Fairman devoted the July 1958 issue of Fantastic to the Shaver Mystery — a lurid set of beliefs propounded by Richard Shaver in the late 1940s that told of " detrimental robots " , or " deros " , who were behind many of the disasters that befell humanity . Most of these stories had run in Amazing , though the editor at that time , Ray Palmer , had been forced to drop Shaver by Ziff @-@ Davis when the stories began to attract ridicule in the press . Fantastic 's readers were no kinder , complaining vigorously .

= = = Goldsmith = = =

When Goldsmith took over as editor , there was some concern at Ziff @-@ Davis that she might not be able to handle the job . A consultant , Norman Lobsenz , was brought in to help her ; Lobsenz 's title was " editorial director " , but in fact Goldsmith made the story selections . Lobsenz provided blurbs and editorials , read the stories Goldsmith bought , and met with Goldsmith every week or so . Goldsmith was not a long @-@ time sf reader , and knew little about the field ; she simply looked for good quality fiction and bought what she liked . In Mike Ashley 's words , " the result , between 1961 and 1964 , was the two most exciting and original magazines in the field " . New writers whose first story appeared in Fantastic during this period included Phyllis Gotlieb , Larry Eisenberg , Ursula K. Le Guin , Thomas M. Disch , and Piers Anthony . The November 1959 issue was dedicated to Fritz Leiber ; it included " Lean Times in Lankhmar " , one of Leiber 's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories . Goldsmith published another half @-@ dozen stories in the series over the next six years , along with other similar ( and sometimes imitative ) fiction such as early work by Michael Moorcock , and John Jakes ' early stories of Brak the Barbarian . This helped to invigorate the nascent sword and sorcery subgenre . Goldsmith obtained an early story by Cordwainer Smith , " The Fife of Bodidharma " , which ran in the June 1959 issue , but shortly thereafter Pohl at Galaxy reached an agreement to get first refusal on all Smith 's work .

During the early 1960s Goldsmith managed to make Fantastic and Amazing , in the words of Mike Ashley , " the best @-@ looking and brightest " magazines around . This applied both to the covers , where Goldsmith used artists such as Alex Schomburg and Leo Summers , and the content . Ashley also describes Fantastic as the " premier fantasy magazine " during Goldsmith 's tenure — at that time the only other magazine focused specifically on fantasy fiction was the British Science Fantasy .

Goldsmith 's tastes were too diverse for Fantastic to be limited to genre fantasy , however , and her willingness to buy fiction she liked , regardless of genre expectations , allowed many new writers to flourish on the pages of both Amazing and Fantastic . Writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin , Roger Zelazny and Thomas M. Disch sold regularly to her at the start of their careers Le Guin later commented that Goldsmith was " as enterprising and perceptive an editor as the science fiction magazines ever had " . Not all Goldsmith 's choices were universally popular with the magazine 's subscribers : she regularly published fiction by David R. Bunch , for example , to mixed reviews from the readership .

= = = Reprint era = = =

Wrzos persuaded Cohen that both Amazing and Fantastic should carry a new story in every issue , rather than running nothing but reprints ; Goldsmith had left a backlog of unpublished stories , and Wrzos was able to stretch these out for some time . One such story was Fritz Leiber 's " Stardock " , another Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story , which appeared in the September 1965 issue ; it was subsequently nominated for a Hugo Award . The reprints were well received by the fans , because Wrzos was able to find good quality stories that were unavailable except in the original magazines , meaning that to many of Fantastic 's readers they were fresh material . Wrzos also reprinted " The People of the Black Circle " , a Robert E. Howard story from Weird Tales , in 1967 , when Howard 's Conan stories were becoming popular .

In addition to the backlog of new stories from the Ziff @-@ Davis era , Wrzos was able to acquire some new material . He was especially glad to acquire " For a Breath I Tarry " , by Roger Zelazny ; however , he had to wait for Cohen 's approval for his acquisitions . Cohen , perhaps uncertain because of the story 's originality , delayed until it appeared in the British magazine New Worlds before agreeing to publish it . Wrzos commented years later that he would " never forgive him [ Cohen ] his timidity at that time " . Wrzos bought Doris Piserchia 's first story , " Rocket to Gehenna " , and was the first editor to acquire a story by Dean Koontz . He had to work with Koontz to improve it , and the delay this caused , in addition to the slow publishing schedule for new material , meant that Koontz appeared in print with " Soft Come the Dragons " , in the August 1967 Fantasy & Science Fiction , before " A Darkness in My Soul " appeared in the January 1968 Fantastic .

After Wrzos 's departure , Harrison and Malzberg had little opportunity to reshape the magazine as between them they only took responsibility for a handful of issues before Ted White took over . However , Harrison did print James Tiptree 's first sale , " Fault " , in the August 1968 issue ; again the slow schedule meant that this was not Tiptree 's first appearance in print . Harrison added a science column by Leon Stover , but was unable to change Cohen 's position on the reprints , and so could not print much new fiction . When Malzberg took over from Harrison he published John Sladek , Thomas M. Disch , and James Sallis , all of whom were associated with New Wave science fiction , but his tenure was too short for him to have a significant impact on the magazine .

= = = White and Mavor = = =

White was only able to offer his writers one cent per word , which was substantially lower than the leading magazines in the field — Analog Science Fiction and Fact paid five cents , and Galaxy and Fantasy & Science Fiction paid three . Most stories would only be submitted to White once the higher @-@ paying markets had rejected them , but among the rejects White was sometimes able to find experimental material that he liked . For example , Piers Anthony had been unable to sell an early fantasy novel , Hasan ; White saw a review of the manuscript and promptly acquired it for Fantastic , where it was serialized starting in the December 1969 issue . White also took care to establish relationships with newer writers . White bought Gordon Eklund 's first story , " Dear Aunt Annie " , it appeared in the April 1970 issue and was nominated for a Nebula award . Eklund was unwilling to become a full @-@ time writer , despite this success , because of the financial risks , so White agreed to buy anything Eklund wrote , on condition that Eklund himself believed it was a good story . The result was that much of Eklund 's fiction appeared in Amazing and Fantastic over the next few years . In addition to experimental work , White was able to obtain material by some of the leading sf writers of the day , including Brian Aldiss and John Brunner . White also acquired some early work by writers who became better known in other fields : Roger Ebert sold two stories in the early 1970s to Fantastic ; the first , " After the Last Mass " , appeared in the February 1972 issue ; and in 1975 White bought Ian McEwan 's second story , " Solid Geometry " . It was included in First Love , Last Rites , McEwan 's first short story collection , which won the Somerset Maugham Award in 1976 .

White had been an active science fiction fan before he became professionally involved in the field , and although he estimated that only 1 in 30 readers were active sf fans , he tried to use this fan base to help by urging the readership to give him feedback and to help with distribution by checking local newsstands for the magazines . White wanted to introduce established artists from outside the sf field , such as Jeff Jones , Vaughn Bodé , and Steve Hickman ; however , the company was saddled with cheap artwork acquired from European magazines to be used for the cover and he was instructed to make use of them . He commissioned a comic strip from Vaughn Bodé , but was outbid by Judy @-@ Lynn Benjamin at Galaxy ; he subsequently told his readers that he 'd signed up Bodé again for interior artwork , but this never materialized . Instead a four @-@ page comic strip by Jay Kinney appeared in December 1970 ; a second strip , by Art Spiegelman , was planned , but never published . Eventually White was allowed to commission original cover art ; he published early work by Mike Hinge , and Mike Kaluta made his first professional sale to Fantastic . He tried to hire Hinge as art director , but this fell through and White filled the role himself , sometimes using the pseudonym " J. Edwards " .

Because of poor distribution , Fantastic was never able to benefit from the increasing popularity of the fantasy genre , though White was able to publish several stories by well @-@ known writers in the field , including a sword and sorcery novella by Dean R. Koontz , which appeared in the October 1970 issue , and an Elric story by Michael Moorcock in February 1972 . A revival of Robert E. Howard 's character Conan , in stories by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter , was successful at increasing sales ; the first of these stories appeared in August 1972 , and White reported that sales of that issue were higher than for any other issue of Amazing or Fantastic that year . Each Conan story , according to White , increased sales of that issue by 10 @,@ 000 copies . White also published several of Fritz Leiber 's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories , and added " Sword and Sorcery " to the cover in 1975 . In the same year a companion magazine , Sword & Sorcery Annual , was launched , but the first issue was the only one to appear .

The quality of the magazine remained high even as the financial stress was mounting in the late 1970s . White acquired cover artwork by Stephen Fabian and Douglas Beekman , and stories by some of the new generation of sf writers , such as George R. R. Martin and Charles Sheffield . White departed in November 1978 , but the first issue of Fantastic under Elinor Mavor 's editorial control was April 1979 . Because White had returned unsold stories she had very little to work with and was forced to fill the magazine with reprints . This led to renewed conflict with the sf community , which she did her best to defuse . At a convention in 1979 she met Harlan Ellison , who complained about the reprint policy ; she explained that it was temporary and was able to get him to agree to contribute stories , publishing two pieces by him in Amazing over the next three years . The January 1980 issue of Fantastic ( Mavor 's fourth issue ) was the last to contain reprinted stories . Once the reprints had been phased out , Mavor was able to find new writers to work with , including Brad Linaweaver and John E. Stith , both of whom sold their first stories to Fantastic . The last year of Fantastic showed " a steady improvement in content " , according to Mike Ashley , who cites in particular Daemon , a serialized graphic story , illustrated by Stephen Fabian . However , at the end of 1980 Fantastic 's independent existence ceased , and it was merged with Amazing .

= = Publication details = =

= = = Editors = = =

The list below gives the person who was acting as editor . In some cases , such as at the start of Cele Goldsmith 's stint , the official editor was not the same person ; details are given above .

Howard Browne ( Summer 1952 – August 1956 ) .

Paul Fairman ( October 1956 – November 1958 ) .

Cele Goldsmith ( December 1958 – June 1965 ) . Goldsmith used her married name , Cele G. Lalli , from July 1964 .

Joseph Ross ( September 1965 – November 1967 ) .

Harry Harrison ( January 1968 – October 1968 ) .

Barry N. Malzberg ( December 1968 – April 1969 ) .

Ted White ( June 1969 – January 1979 )

Elinor Mavor ( April 1979 – October 1980 )

= = = Other bibliographic details = = =

The title changed multiple times , and was frequently inconsistently given between the cover , spine , indicia , and masthead .

The following table shows which issues appeared from which publisher .

A British edition published by Thorpe & Porter ran for eight bimonthly issues from December 1953 to February 1955 ; the issues were not dated on the cover . These correspond to the US issues from September / October 1953 to December 1954 , and were numbered volume 1 , numbers 1 through 8 .

Fantastic was digest @-@ sized throughout its life . The page count began at 160 but dropped to 144 with the September / October 1953 issue , and then again to 128 pages with the very next issue , November / December 1953 . The July 1960 issue had 144 pages , but apart from that one issue the page count stayed at 128 until September 1965 , when it increased to 160 . In January 1968 it went back down to 144 pages , and it dropped to 128 pages from February 1971 through the end of its run . The first issue was priced at 35 cents ; thereafter the price went up as follows : 50 cents in May 1963 , 60 cents in December 1969 , 75 cents in July 1974 , $ 1 @.@ 00 in October 1975 , $ 1 @.@ 25 in April 1978 , and finally $ 1 @.@ 50 from April 1979 until the last issue .

= = = Derivative anthologies = = =

Three anthologies of stories from Fantastic have been published . Note that Time Untamed contains stories that were published in Fantastic during its reprint years , but which did not necessarily first appear there .

= Mountain of Madness =

" Mountain of Madness " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 2 , 1997 . In the episode , Mr. Burns tries to encourage more cooperation among his employees and forces the workers of Springfield Nuclear Power Plant to go for a team @-@ building hike in the mountains . Burns and Homer are paired together and trapped in a cabin that gets buried by multiple avalanches .

" Mountain of Madness " was directed by Mark Kirkland and written by John Swartzwelder . The script underwent many rewrites and the story was completely rewritten . Several new designs and backgrounds had to be created for the wilderness scenes . The episode received mostly positive reviews .

= = Plot = =

Mr. Burns decides to hold a good old @-@ fashioned fire drill in order to excite things up around the plant . Upon hearing the bells ring , the employees panic and fail to clear the plant within 15 minutes . Outraged , Burns declares that everyone will be subjected to a teamwork competition at Mt . Useful . Homer brings his family to the mountain , not realizing it was only for employees , so he leaves them in the visitor center . Homer ends up being partnered with Burns while Smithers has to journey on his own , fuming that he was not paired with his boss . The object of this competition is to reach a cabin at the top of the mountain ; the last team to arrive will be fired .

Along the way , Burns talks Homer into cheating and they use a snowmobile ( which Burns refers to as a " horseless sleigh " ) to reach the cabin . Arriving several hours early , they settle down in the comfortable surroundings . Burns and Homer quickly become friends . However , while clinking their champagne glasses , they inadvertently cause an avalanche that buries the entire cabin . Despite Burns 's attempt to operate a telegraph machine or Homer 's attempt to dig a tunnel through the snow , they remain trapped . The pair attempt further tunneling escapes , but each time they speak , they cause more avalanches that place even more snow between them and freedom . Meanwhile , Bart and Lisa meet Smithers and offer to help him proceed to the cabin , though they cause more stalling than helping .

Back in the cabin , Burns and Homer are beset by cabin fever . They build snowmen to pass the time ( though Burns insists they build real men out of snow ) and clothe them at the expense of their own warmth . The other employees reach what appears to be their destination ; however , it is actually a ranger station and they begin to realize that something bad has happened to their colleagues . In the cabin , Homer and Burns stare at each other 's eyes , filling their minds with paranoia . They are both driven mad and attempt to kill each other . After a vicious struggle , Burns ignites the cabin 's propane tank , launching the building out of the snow and propelling it toward the horrified onlookers . Once it comes to a halt , Mr. Burns reminds everyone of the contest , and all the workers hurry inside .

Lenny is the last person in the cabin , and is told he is fired . Burns is informed the completion time of the competition has set a new record , and then decides that no one will be fired after all ( although Lenny , who is outside and falls into a crevasse , does not know that ) . The episode ends with Mr. Burns and Homer alternately laughing and glaring at each other .

= = Production = =

" Mountain of Madness " was written by John Swartzwelder , although the script underwent many rewrites . According to Josh Weinstein , " a Swartzwelder script is like a finely tooled crazy German machine and if you have the wrong engineers try to fix it , it blows up . And that 's the thing , ' cause it had great jokes but we sort of changed the story and went through a bunch of drafts . " The story was completely rewritten and as a result , the plot became odder and quirkier with the scenes of paranoia deriving from this . The original script was " really crazy " but a lot of the more insane material was cut . However , most of the rewrites were done during the script @-@ writing and did not require any major animation changes . One change was the ending , which was added after the animatic . The episode features several pairings of established characters who had previously interacted little , such as Smithers with Bart and Lisa . Weinstein feels that this was one of the first episodes to really feature the duo of Lenny Leonard and Carl Carlson and developed them more .

The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland and a lot of new designs and backgrounds had to be created for the wilderness scenes . The backgrounds were designed by animator Debbie Silver . The design of the forest ranger was based on then @-@ Vice President Al Gore . In the episode , Marge watches an old film which includes a comment from naturalist John Muir . The impression of Muir was done by Dan Castellaneta , who originally based the voice on an impersonator he met at Yosemite National Park . However , the producers asked him to make the voice older and crazier .

= = Reception = =

In its original broadcast , " Mountain of Madness " finished 38 in ratings for the week of February 2 – 9 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the second @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following King of the Hill . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " an inventive episode , with several memorable moments " . Tim Raynor of DVDTown.com said there are some " good , sidesplitting moments to say the least for this witty episode " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson called the episode " a good show " and praised it for the " snowy setting [ that ] allows the other characters to expand as well " .

= Descent : FreeSpace – The Great War =

Descent : FreeSpace – The Great War is a 1998 space combat simulation IBM PC compatible computer game developed by Volition , Inc. when it was split off from Parallax Software . Published by Interplay Entertainment , it is also known as Conflict : FreeSpace – The Great War in Europe . In 2001 , it was ported to the Amiga platform as FreeSpace : The Great War by Hyperion Entertainment .

The story places the player in the role of a human pilot in the Galactic Terran Alliance , as it engages in war with the alien Parliamentary Vasudan Empire . This war is interrupted by the appearance of the enigmatic and militant Shivans , who begin slaughtering Terrans and Vasudans alike . Putting aside their differences , the Terrans and Vasudans form an alliance , and the player is assigned to missions to stop the Shivans ' genocidal advance . The player pilots a starfighter , and alongside competent AI wingmen , completes these missions to determine the fate of two races . Important battles in the story feature capital ships , which dwarf the fighters piloted by the player , and explode spectacularly when destroyed .

Descent : FreeSpace was well received as a single @-@ player space simulation that integrated all the desired features of its genre , but its multiplayer mode was plagued by lag and inaccurate tracking of statistics . Its expansion , Silent Threat , which comprised additional missions , was also released in 1998 . Its sequel , FreeSpace 2 , was released to critical acclaim a year later in 1999 .

= = Gameplay = =

Descent : FreeSpace – The Great War puts the player in a starfighter flying out on missions to investigate , protect , or destroy certain targets . Some have categorized it as a flight simulator , since it has more controls and commands than a typical arcade game . However , its flight model is simple , akin to that of the game TIE Fighter , though it incorporates some elements of Newtonian physics such as precise collision physics . In the single @-@ player mode , the player flies through a series of missions in a campaign .

Before flying a mission , the player goes through a briefing , which details relevant information and objectives . Ships and weapons are selected following the briefing , adding an element of strategy to the missions . When flying , the game 's perspective is a first @-@ person view from within the cockpit , but the only visible interface is that of the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . The player can customize the HUD by changing its color , or by toggling the information displays .

Missions must be successfully completed for the campaign to advance . However , not all objectives must be met for a mission to be considered successful . Results of a mission can affect later missions ; for example , an enemy capital ship allowed to flee in a particular mission may return in a later mission . Completed missions can be replayed on the in @-@ game mission simulator . Training missions are mixed in with the regular missions ( and can be skipped ) , gradually introducing players to advanced commands and techniques as the missions become more sophisticated . The game has been said to be easily playable with the keyboard alone , or together with a mouse or joystick .

The game features multiplayer matches online or over a local area network ( LAN ) . Players can either band together to complete cooperative missions , or split up into teams to battle against one another . Voice chat is available , although reviewers advised it to be used only on broadband or LAN . Online gameplay was free over the services offered by Parallax Online , which also kept track of players ' statistics and rankings .

= = Setting = =

FreeSpace takes place in the 24th century when humanity has discovered interstellar travel by using interstellar subspace jump nodes which function the same way as wormholes , and have spread among the stars as the Galactic Terran Alliance ( GTA ) . The player character , a pilot in the GTA navy , is thrust into the game during the fourteenth year of war ( 2335 ) between the GTA and the alien Parliamentary Vasudan Empire ( PVE ) .

= = Plot = =

The story begins in 2335 , 14 years after the start of the Terran – Vasudan war . A lone GTA pilot , Lt. Ash , calls out for aid while being chased by ships belonging to an unknown race of aliens , who attacked both the GTA and PVE without warning , yet despite his best efforts to alert anyone in the GTA , the unknown ships jump in and promptly destroy his fighter and the nearby GTA space station , Riviera .

GTA command tries to cover up the incident as nothing more than an unsubstantiated rumor , as the player character is assigned as a fighter pilot to the Terran Orion @-@ class destroyer Galatea . The player is tasked with engaging Vasudan forces in the contested Antares , Ribos , Beta Cygni and Betelgeuse systems . During these engagements between the GTA and PVE , the prototype of the Terran " Avenger " cannon is stolen by a rogue Terran officer , Lt. Alexander McCarthy , who promptly attempts to defect to the Vasudans . The player subdues McCarthy but as they attempt to return the prototypes to the GTA , the same unknown ships attack again . The unknowns ' attacks intensify and with their energy shielding technology making their fighters virtually invincible , the GTA and PVE are forced into a ceasefire , as the two sides attempt to reverse @-@ engineer the shield technology for their own purposes as well as adapting their pre @-@ existing weapons to be more effective against the shields .

This new species is dubbed " Shivans " , and the GTA has squadrons embark on several missions , alongside the Vasudans as allies , to catch up with the Shivans ' technological superiority by capturing Shivan supply depots , acquiring Shivan shield generator technology in the process , while fending off a Vasudan death cult , the Hammer of Light , who worship the Shivans and refuses to accept the peace between the GTA and PVE . During operations , the GTA @-@ PVE alliance manage to capture a Shivan cruiser , the SC Taranis . But its capture is only celebrated for a short time , as a Shivan warship , a super @-@ destroyer dubbed the Lucifer , suddenly appears , destroying the captured Taranis and many other allied ships , while spearheading an invasion into the Vasudan systems and Terran outer colonies . To the shock of the alliance , they find that the Lucifer utilizes a powerful shield that makes it immune to all conventional weaponry . While continuing to do what is possible to stop the Shivans and eliminate the Hammer of Light , a Shivan fighter , dubbed a Dragon , is captured , and used to scan vessels entering a Vasudan controlled system , providing much intel on the super @-@ destroyer . Yet despite all efforts , the GTA fail to stop the Lucifer 's journey to the Vasudan 's homeworld , losing the GTD Galatea in the process . The Lucifer enters the Vasudan home system and soon bombards the species ' homeworld into oblivion , killing 4 billion Vasudans .

However a small Vasudan refugee fleet that managed to escape , sends out a transmission revealing that they were forced to land on an uncharted planet in the Altair system where they had discover the remnants of an extinct alien civilization dubbed " the Ancients " which were destroyed by the Shivans long ago ; their backstory is told through cutscenes at various points in the game . The Vasudans discover that the Ancients knew how to penetrate the Lucifer 's shields as well as how to track ships travelling through subspace . Learning that shield systems do not work in subspace , but that the Ancients could not capitalize on this and were wiped out , the GTA and PVE launch a desperate assault on the Lucifer .

As the Lucifer begins heading for Earth through a jump node between the Sol and Delta Serpentis systems , squadrons of fighters and bombers follow it into subspace and manage to destroy the super @-@ destroyer while its shields are offline , by hitting its reactors . While the plan works , the destruction of the Lucifer in the jump node causes it to collapse , along with the other jump nodes in the system , cutting Sol off from the rest of the Terran colonies .

The expansion Silent Threat continues the story in a straightforward manner . The player joins the Galactic Terran Intelligence ( GTI ) while the Terran – Vasudan alliance is in a fragile state , and is told to preserve the alliance by ruthlessly pacifying rebellious elements and fending off remnants of the Shivan forces . However , it all turns out to be a cover @-@ up , as the GTI is plotting a coup , and has constructed a Terran – Shivan hybrid superdestroyer of their own , the GTD Hades , which the player must destroy .

= = Development = =

FreeSpace was Volition 's first project after the split from Parallax Software , which also spawned Outrage Entertainment . It is not part of the canon of the Descent computer game series , and contained none of its ideas and only small portions of its code . It was only prefixed with Descent to avoid trademark issues with Mijenix Corporation 's " FreeSpace " , a disk compression utility . Volition also used the term " FreeSpace " in the game to initially describe what became later known as subspace . The game was conceived by Adam Pletcher , with all the features of space simulator games his team had found to be fun . The games TIE Fighter and Wing Commander were their primary inspirations , and those influences made their way into the game 's flight model , along with the influence of historical WWII dogfights . Themes from the fiction of Star Wars , Space : Above and Beyond , and Ender 's Game form a part in shaping the background and story of the FreeSpace world . The chaotic battles between masses of ships commonly found in science @-@ fiction anime became one of the features of FreeSpace .

Begun with a crew of five , the project grew to a staff of 17 . The game 's code was built from scratch . Most of the software modules were interlinked with each other , increasing the job 's complexity and difficulty . The code incorporated small portions of Descent 's code for specific functions . Kulas , who had worked on several versions of Flight Simulator and Descent , brought his experience into the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) . The game 's difficulty levels are based on advancing the enemy AI , rather than simply increasing damage and " hit points " of enemies . Some realism was incorporated into the game 's physics , such that an impact on one part of a starfighter 's body will send it spinning appropriately , unlike sphere @-@ based collision detection , in which an impact would simply ' push ' the starfighter in a particular direction . Due to time and budget constraints , many of the initially planned cutscenes and stories were cut from the final product . Examples of such cuts include a campaign path where the Terran @-@ Vasudan alliance goes on a retreat , and scenes of racial tension within the alliance . Despite the promise of a deathmatch mode for multiplayer , it was cut from the final product . The expansion Silent Threat also suffered the same fate of cuts due to budgetary and time concerns .

Apogee Software announced on December 12 , 1997 that they would be exclusively publishing FreeSpace for the first three months before handing the publishing rights back to Interplay Entertainment . This was part of their agreement with Interplay for the latter 's purchase of the rights to Descent , and Apogee decided to release FreeSpace as shareware , with themselves as the merchant of the registered version . Interplay , however , bought the full rights to FreeSpace from Apogee in late April , 1998 , keeping the ownership of the game solely to themselves .

Volition aimed for a quality release , and promised to deliver a product without major bugs . Minor bugs would be fixed in a prompt manner . The shipped game , however , had deficiencies admitted by the team , such as problems with the multiplayer code , and a few design issues . The game underwent four patches , which resolved most of the bugs , and improved the multiplayer performance . Complaints about an online mission giving unfair scores led to Volition removing the mission from scoring play . Another patch allowed EAX capability to be enabled for Creative Sound Blaster sound cards . Interplay played its part in drumming up the community 's interest by holding contests , and expanding material for the FreeSpace universe . Meanwhile , Volition created official star maps , and released Vasudan voice clips and story development notes . Interplay hired science @-@ fiction writers such as Fred Saberhagen , Simon Hawke , and Jeff Grubb to write weekly FreeSpace stories for two months . Preparing for Silent Threat 's release , Interplay held a contest from July 28 to August 25 , 1998 , in which the submitted fan @-@ designed missions could win their authors prizes such as free copies of Silent Threat , FreeSpace apparel , and gaming hardware . Entries were judged by a panel from PC Gamer , and qualified entries constituted half of the missions in Silent Threat .

On December 14 , 1999 , Hyperion Entertainment announced their acquisition of the license to port FreeSpace to the Amiga system . The publisher was changed to Haage & Partner Computer on October 18 , 2001 . Despite the game 's official release being announced for December 2001 , the approval to do so could only be gotten on January 7 , 2002 . The game was shipped without a printed manual , but had additional German and French language support . Hyperion had stated they would port over Silent Threat if the FreeSpace port sold well . To date , Silent Threat has yet to be ported over to the Amiga platform .

= = Reception = =

FreeSpace — which was placed 20th in PC Gamer UK 's 1999 Top 100 Awards — was frequently compared to Wing Commander : Prophecy and X @-@ Wing vs. TIE Fighter in its reviews , and stood up well against them . It has been said to be a combination of the two games , possessing the better qualities of each ; the plot is fairly epic , but the player is still just a pilot caught up in it all , fighting amongst fleets of starships . As the game took inspiration from space simulation classics and offered comparatively little of its own innovation , it was called unoriginal by a few reviewers .

Most reviewers glossed over the game 's story , but a few found it lacking the depth needed to captivate the player . Some suggested that the game would have been better if the player had a greater role in controlling the outcome of the story . Without this impetus , these reviewers found themselves simply playing a " very sweet looking arcade title " , and felt detached from their wingmen and environment . This feeling was made worse in Silent Threat with its " cold and inhuman " briefings and non @-@ player characters .

Several reviewers praised FreeSpace 's graphics , claiming asteroids are realistically rendered against softly glowing nebulae , while galaxies and stars of varying colors lay in the background . Others felt differently , stating the 3D effects were less spectacular than those of the software rendered version , the nebulae were unconvincing , and the ships ' textures were blurry and lacking detail . However , reviewers unanimously agreed the explosions in FreeSpace were the most spectacular they had ever seen , and were impressed with the many small details of capital ships breaking up . Sharky Extreme was dismayed by the game 's inability to go beyond 640x480 screen size . The game 's AI also received praise from reviewers , as the player 's wingmen were competent on their own and could be trusted with orders , even to the extent of co @-@ ordinating attacks on capital ships . Likewise , the player 's enemies acted in concert with each other to achieve their squadron 's objectives .

Despite one reviewer 's glowing praise for the FreeSpace 's online multiplayer over cable modems , the majority at that time were on dial @-@ up access and roundly condemned the online multiplayer mode . The chief complaint was lag . GameSpot 's Desslock was amazed the game dared to advertise as being able to support 16 players online when it could not even support two players on 56k modems . Combatsim.com 's Fitzgerald called the multiplayer " bug ridden " after experiencing many of his shots not registering hits or kills on enemy ships after over 40 minutes of play ; all of it due to lag . Other reviewers found their situations similar with their guns only firing seconds after depressing the trigger , and their ships randomly jumping over the playing area .

Silent Threat was judged to be a decent but uninspired add @-@ on . The campaign missions were either standard escort or destroy missions , and offered no new equipment which were unable to compete against the older equipment . The stand @-@ alone missions , however , were toasted for the way they were conceived . The contest @-@ winning entries gave breadth to the game 's variety of missions . This was made possible with the free editor FreeSpace Editor , or FRED for short . With the ability to import personal audio and 3D animation files , the editor allows users the same capability as Volition to create their own missions . The possibilities offered by the editor resulted in a call to the community to stop the flood of " Battle of Endor " -type missions , and to design missions following Volition 's Jason Hoffoss ' Zen philosophy of accomplishing more with less .

= = See Also = =

Freespace 2

= Ontario Highway 72 =

King 's Highway 72 , commonly referred to as Highway 72 , is a provincially maintained highway in the northern half of the Canadian province of Ontario . The highway connects Highway 17 in Dinorwic with the town of Sioux Lookout , where there are connections with Highway 516 towards Savant Lake and Highway 642 towards Silver Dollar .

Highway 72 was built as a trunk route by 1920 , and became a provincial highway in 1937 . It has remained largely unchanged since then , aside from the reconstruction and realignment of the Frog Rapids bridge , and the renumbering of the fork towards Hudson as Highway 664 . The length of the highway is 68 @.@ 5 km ( 42 @.@ 6 mi ) , the entirety of which is situated in Kenora District . There are no significant settlements between its endpoints .

= = Route description = =

Highway 72 is a 68 @.@ 5 km ( 42 @.@ 6 mi ) route which serves to connect Sioux Lookout with the Trans @-@ Canada Highway . The route begins at Highway 17 , on the western edge of Dinorwic . From there it follows an old routing of Highway 17 along the northern edge of the village , but eventually turns to the north into the wilderness . Between this point and south of the Frog Rapids Narrows , where Highway 664 intersects the route , the highways passes through a remote forested region dotted with lakes and muskeg ; there is almost no human habitation . After crossing the Frog Rapids Narrows , the highway enters Sioux Lookout . It zig @-@ zags through the town , crossing the old Grand Trunk Railroad , now a Canadian National Railway line , next to a large rail depot . It exits Sioux Narrows , ending at an intersection with the Ed Arlano Bypass , Highway 516 and Highway 642 just east of the town .

= = History = =

Sioux Lookout and Hudson were both originally accessible only by rail and water when they were established as stops on the Grand Trunk Railway shortly after 1900 ; roads would not reach the remote area until 1920 . The road connecting Sioux Lookout and Hudson with the Ignace – Dryden Road was initially under the upkeep of the Department of Northern Development . On April 1 , 1937 , that department was merged into the Department of Highways ( DHO ) , after which the provincial highway network was expanded into northern Ontario .

Shortly after the merger , the DHO began to assume highways throughout northern Ontario . On October 6 , 1937 , Highway 72 was established , connecting Highway 17 with both Sioux Lookout and Hudson . On the 1938 – 39 Official Ontario Road Map , the distance from Dinorwic to Sioux Lookout is listed as 48 @.@ 0 miles ( 77 @.@ 2 km ) , and from Dinorwic to Hudson as 53 @.@ 0 miles ( 85 @.@ 3 km ) . This routing remained in place until at least 1953 . By 1954 , however , the branch leading to Hudson was renumbered as Highway 116 . Highway 72 has , aside from minor realignments , remained unchanged since then .

= = Major intersections = =

The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 72 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Kenora District .

= Croatia – Serbia border dispute =

The Croatia – Serbia border dispute refers to differing views held by Croatia and Serbia regarding their border in the area of the Danube River . While Serbia holds the opinion that the thalweg of the Danube valley and the centerline of the river represents the international border between the two countries , Croatia disagrees and claims that the international border lies along the boundaries of the cadastral municipalities located along the river — departing from the course at several points along a 140 @-@ kilometre ( 87 mi ) section . The cadastre @-@ based boundary reflects the course of the Danube which existed in the 19th century , before meandering and hydraulic engineering works altered its course . The area size of the territory in dispute is reported variously , up to 140 square kilometres ( 54 square miles ) .

The dispute first arose in 1947 , but was left unresolved during the existence of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . It became a contentious issue after the breakup of Yugoslavia . Particular prominence was given to the dispute at the time of Croatia 's accession to the European Union . As of September 2014 the dispute remains unresolved , and the line of control mostly corresponds to Serbia 's claim .

= = Territorial claims = =

The Croatia – Serbia border dispute entails competing claims regarding the border at several points along the Danube River valley shared by the two countries . The disputed areas are located along a 140 @-@ kilometre ( 87 mi ) portion of the course , out of 188 @-@ kilometre ( 117 mi ) of the river course in the area . In that area , the border is defined differently by the neighbouring countries — either as following the course of the Danube , as claimed by Serbia , or following a line tracing the borders of cadastral municipalities having seat in either of the two countries , as claimed by Croatia . The cadastre @-@ based boundary also traces the former riverbed of the Danube , which was changed by meandering and hydraulic engineering works in the 19th century , after the cadastre was established . The border dispute involves up to 140 square kilometres ( 54 square miles ) of territory . Other sources specify somewhat different figures , indicating a Croatian claim over 100 square kilometres ( 39 square miles ) on the eastern bank of the river , in Bačka , while saying that the cadastre @-@ based boundary leaves 10 to 30 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 6 square miles ) of territory on the western bank of the Danube , in Baranja to Serbia . Yet another estimate cites a total area of 100 square kilometres ( 39 square miles ) in dispute , 90 % of which is located on the eastern bank of the Danube , controlled by Serbia .

The bulk of the territory in dispute is in the vicinity of the town of Apatin , while the Island of Šarengrad and the Island of Vukovar are cited as particularly contentious parts of the dispute . Further disputed areas are located near the town of Bačka Palanka , and in the municipality of Sombor , at the tripoint of Croatia , Hungary and Serbia . Croatia claims that the cadastre @-@ based boundary was adopted by the Đilas Commission , set up in 1945 to determine the borders between federal constituents of Yugoslavia , while Serbia claims that the same commission identified the boundary as the course of the Danube in 1945 . In 1991 , the Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia ruled that the border between federal units of Yugoslavia became inviolable international borders , without referring to locations of any specific claim or line . The opinion was rendered at the request of Serbia . Prior to the ruling , Serbia asserted that the borders were subject to change following the breakup of Yugoslavia and the independence of Croatia . Since the Croatian War of Independence , the line of control coincides with the Serbian claim .

On 28 July 2002 , warning shots were fired by a patrol boat of the Yugoslav Army at four boats carrying the prefect of Vukovar @-@ Srijem County and the mayors of Vukovar and Bačka Palanka , as well as several other civilians to Bačka Palanka . The incident took place approximately 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 feet ) away from Šarengrad Island . Shots were also fired at a Croatian patrol boat after it attempted to approach the vessel carrying the prefect and the mayor . There were no casualties , but the passengers and crew of the civilian boat were arrested . Four elderly individuals and four children were released immediately , while the rest were interviewed at a Yugoslav military barracks for two hours before being set free . Yugoslav foreign minister Goran Svilanović expressed regret over the incident , but Croatian Prime Minister Ivica Račan stated that Croatia was not satisfied with the gesture . The Serbian Army withdrew from the border in October 2006 , turning control over to the Serbian police .

= = = Recent developments = = =

In early 2000 , Croatia and Serbia set up a commission tasked with determining the border , but in its first ten years it convened only once or twice . Since 2010 , the issue has gained increasing prominence in the disputing countries . Plans for construction of a port in Apatin , on a piece of territory claimed by Croatia , added fuel to the dispute . After years of inactivity the inter @-@ governmental commission established to identify and determine the border between Croatia and Serbia met in Zagreb in April 2010 , only to conclude that there was a difference of opinions on the matter . Later that month , the Serbian Radical Party ( SRS ) proposed a National Assembly resolution which would require that Serbian officials resolve the dispute in compliance with the Serbian claim . Months later , Radoslav Stojanović , a former legal representative of Serbia and Montenegro in the Bosnian Genocide Case and former ambassador to the Netherlands , likened the dispute to the Croatia – Slovenia border dispute in the Gulf of Piran . Stojanović said that the position held by Croatia in its dispute with Slovenia was favourable for Serbia and warned that Serbia might be in a disadvantageous position if Croatia joined the European Union ( EU ) before Serbia — which would allow it to impose its conditions to the process of accession of Serbia to the EU .

By 2011 , Serbian diplomats made several requests to the EU , asking it to pressure Croatia to resolve the dispute before Croatia 's accession to the union out of fear that it might follow the Slovene example and stall Serbian accession similar to the impasse between Croatia and Slovenia over their border disputes and the subsequent blockade of the Croatian EU accession negotiation process . The request was denied by the EU . Croatian President Ivo Josipović said that the dispute was the most contentious issue of Croatia – Serbia relations but added that it should not be difficult to resolve . In 2012 , Josipović stated that Croatia should not block Serbia 's EU accession over the issue and suggested that the dispute should be resolved through arbitration , which is considered to be an acceptable solution by both countries . In 2014 , the Croatian ambassador to Serbia reiterated Josipović 's stance from 2012 . On the other hand , Zoran Milanović , the Prime Minister of Croatia , said that the resolution of the border dispute would be Croatia 's condition placed before Serbia in its EU accession negotiations .

= = = = Vukovar Island Agreement = = = =

In 2006 , representatives of the city of Vukovar and the municipality of Bač , located on the bank opposite Vukovar , reached an agreement on use of the Vukovar Island as a recreational facility and beach . The island is accessible to organised transport by boats sailing from Vukovar . No border controls are involved in the process . By 2012 , visits to the island reached 150 @,@ 000 persons per year .

= = = = Liberland and other claims = = = =

In 2015 , Vít Jedlička from the Czech Party of Free Citizens proclaimed the micronation Liberland on what he said is land left unclaimed by both Croatia and Serbia .

Shortly after Liberland , another micronation project , the Kingdom of Enclava , was declared , eventually claiming the second largest pocket as their territory , founded in November 2014 Principality of Ongal claimed the all others pockets . The Croatian Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs has rejected these claims , stating that the differing border claims between Serbia and Croatia do not involve terra nullius , and are not subject to occupation by a third party . However , the Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated on 24 April 2015 that while Serbia does not consider " Liberland " to be an important matter , the " new state " does not impinge upon the Serbian border , which is delineated by the Danube River .

= = Evolution of the border = =

= = = Until 1922 = = =

The evolution of the Croatia – Serbia border began in 1699 with the Treaty of Karlowitz , transferring Slavonia and a portion of Syrmia from the Ottoman Empire to the Habsburg Monarchy at the conclusion of the Great Turkish War . The rest of Syrmia was transferred to the Habsburg Monarchy through the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718 . The transferred territories were organised within the monarchy into the Kingdom of Slavonia , with its eastern border established at the Danube , and the defensive belt of Military Frontier stretching along the Sava River , governed directly from Vienna .

Subsequent territorial changes in the region included the proclamation of the short @-@ lived Serbian Vojvodina during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , which included Syrmia as its territory . A year later Serbian Vojvodina was abolished and replaced by the crown land of the Voivodeship of Serbia and Temes Banat , which ceded Syrmia back to the Kingdom of Slavonia . In 1868 , following the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement , the Kingdom of Slavonia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia , before the Slavonian Military Frontier was fully annexed to Croatia @-@ Slavonia in 1881 . At the end of World War I in 1918 , Croatia @-@ Slavonia became a part of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( renamed Yugoslavia in 1929 ) , as did Bačka and Baranja , which were formed after the division of Hungarian Baranya and Bács @-@ Bodrog Counties along the " Clemenceau line " established through the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 . The territory of southern Baranja was ceded to the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes on the premise that it formed a natural hinterland of the city of Osijek . The territory south of the " Clemenceau line " was not distributed to any administrative divisions in existence before the whole of the country was reorganised administratively in 1922 .

= = = After 1945 = = =

The first general outline of the post @-@ 1945 borders of Croatia was made by the Anti @-@ Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia on 24 February 1945 . Some issues regarding the border , such as Baranja , were left unresolved . The newly established Autonomous Province of Vojvodina , a part of the Socialist Republic of Serbia since April 1945 , sought to establish its border with the Socialist Republic of Croatia along the Drava River , thus including Baranja , the Danube and along the Vukovar – Županja line . To counter the claims made by Vojvodina , Croatian authorities staked counterclaims in the areas of Vukovar , Vinkovci , Baranja and in the area of Sombor .

In order to settle the matter , the federal authorities set up a five @-@ member commission presided over by Milovan Đilas in June 1945 . The commission identified three sets of disputed territories . Those were the districts of Subotica , Sombor , Apatin and Odžaci in Bačka , districts of Batina and Darda in Baranja , and districts of Vukovar , Šid and Ilok in Syrmia . The districts in Bačka were awarded to Vojvodina , while those in Baranja were awarded to Croatia , both primarily along ethnic lines . The commission also noted that if Yugoslavia managed to acquire the region of Baja from Hungary , the decision regarding Bačka would be reviewed . The district of Vukovar was also awarded to Croatia , while Ilok and Šid were assigned to Vojvodina . In case of Ilok , the decision was specified to be provisional until authorities are consolidated on either side of the boundary , when the issue would be reexamined .

Subsequently , the Serbian Parliament enacted a law establishing Vojvodina 's borders . It referred to the boundary proposed by the Đilas commission explicitly noting that it was temporary . The law noted that the border follows the Danube from the Hungarian border to Ilok , crosses the Danube leaving Ilok , Šarengrad and Mohovo in Croatia then moves south and leaves the cadastral municipalities of Opatovac , Lovas , Tovarnik , Podgrađe , Apševci , Lipovac , Strošinci and Jamena in Croatia , and everything east of the line in Vojvodina . The awarding of Ilok to Croatia was a departure from the findings of Đilas commission and it was based on a referendum held in the town on the matter in 1945 or 1946 , when its population voted to be added to Croatia .

= = = Start of the dispute = = =

In 1947 , Vojvodina 's Ministry of Agriculture complained to Serbia 's Ministry of Forestry that the authorities in Vukovar refused to hand over four river islands , and then to Croatia 's Ministry of Forestry regarding the same matter , asking for assistance . After Croatia refused the request , the Serbian authorities turned to the federal government . The federal authorities advised resolving the matter through mutual agreement and said that Vojvodina 's interpretation of the law on its borders — that the border runs along thalweg of the Danube valley , i.e. along the river 's midpoint — is erroneous because the law does not apply such wording . In a letter dated 18 April 1947 , Yugoslav authorities said that the disputed river islands were the territory of Vukovar district and that the territory could not be transferred to Vojvodina before the border was defined otherwise .

By May 1947 , authorities in Vojvodina noted that there was a dispute between them and the authorities in Croatia regarding the interpretation of the position of the border along the Danube , and that the federal authorities , who were asked to mediate in the dispute , supported the position of Croatia . At the same time , Vojvodina requested that Croatia return the territories on the right bank of the Danube that had previously been ceded to it ( Varoš @-@ Viza and Mala Siga ) . While in the Yugoslav framework , the issue received little further attention as its resolution was discouraged by the federal authorities , and because the area involved had limited economic value , was uninhabited and frequently flooded .

By 1948 , Croatia and Serbia agreed on two modifications of the border — the village of Bapska was transferred to Croatia , while Jamena was turned over to Vojvodina . No further changes to the border were agreed upon . A map of the area issued by the Yugoslav People 's Army Military @-@ Geographic Institute in 1967 depicts the border along the cadastre @-@ based boundary , corresponding to the Croatian claim in the dispute .

= = External link = =

Media related to Principality of Ongal at Wikimedia Commons

= The Boat Race 1958 =

The 104th Boat Race took place on 5 April 1958 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was umpired by former Cambridge rower Kenneth Payne and featured the first cox to follow his father in steering one of the boats . The reigning champions Cambridge won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 18 minutes 15 seconds , the third @-@ fastest winning time in history , and took the overall record to 58 – 45 in their favour .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1957 race by two lengths , and led overall with 57 victories to Oxford 's 45 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .

Cambridge were coached by J. R. F. Best , James Crowden ( who rowed twice for Cambridge , in the 1951 and 1952 races ) , Charles Lloyd ( a three @-@ time Blue , rowing in the 1949 , 1950 and 1951 races ) , J. R. Owen ( who rowed in the 1959 and 1960 races ) and Harold Rickett ( three @-@ time Blue between 1930 and 1932 ) . Oxford 's coaches were Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1930 races ) , J. H. Page , C. F. Porter and L. A. F. Stokes ( who rowed in the 1951 and 1952 races . The race was umpired for the sixth time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races .

In the buildup to the race , Cambridge 's P. D. Rickett was struck down by influenza for a week and was unable to train .

= = Crews = =

The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 3 lb ( 83 @.@ 7 kg ) , 3 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew had two rowers with Boat Race experience , including stroke G. Sorrell ( who was rowing in his third race ) and number four S. F. A. Miskin . Cambridge saw a single participant return in number three J. A. Pitchford . Two of the participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British . Oxford 's number six , Rodd Rubin , hailed from America while Cambridge 's number five R. B. Ritchie was Australian .

Cambridge 's James Sulley became the first cox to follow in his father 's footsteps : A. L. " Jimmy " Sulley steered the Light Blues in the 1928 race . Peter Rickett , the Light Blues ' number six , also followed his father ( and coach for this year ) Harold , while R. B. Ritchie 's father A. B. Ritchie and R. D. Carver 's father H. R. Carver also rowed for Cambridge , in the 1922 and 1925 races respectively . Oxford 's stroke , David Edwards was the son of Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards who rowed in the 1930 race while P. D. Rickett 's father and coach Harold rowed in three races for Cambridge , from 1930 to 1932 .

= = Race = =

Cambridge , who went into the race as favourites , won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . In conditions described in The Times as " wretched " with fog and rain , the race started at 1 : 30 p.m. Although Oxford out @-@ rated Cambridge , the Light Blues ' length of stroke saw them hold a three @-@ quarter length lead after the first minute . Continuing to pull away , Cambridge were clear by Beverley Brook , half a length clear by the time the crews passed Craven Steps and increased this to a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half by the Mile Post .

A spurt from Oxford at the Crab Tree pub made no impression on the lead . Oxford were still out @-@ rating by Cambridge three strokes per minute as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge , two lengths adrift of the Light Blues . By Chiswick Steps , the lead was three lengths where Cambridge saw off another spurt , with Oxford now rowing six strokes per minute faster than their opponents . Able to relax , Cambridge passed the finishing post three and a half lengths clear of Oxford in a time of 18 minutes 15 seconds , the third fastest winning time in the event 's history . It was Cambridge 's fourth consecutive victory and the fastest winning time since the 1948 race . A correspondent writing in The Times described the victory as a " great success " and attributed the win to Cambridge 's " uniformity , precision , and properly covered blades ... not to the brilliance of any individuals in the boat . " Jack Beresford , writing in The Observer , suggested that Cambridge 's crew was " as good as any since the war " but that while Oxford " rowed gallantly and never gave up " , their technique was inadequate .

= She : A History of Adventure =

She — subtitled A History of Adventure — is a novel by H. Rider Haggard ( 1856 – 1925 ) , first serialised in The Graphic magazine from October 1886 to January 1887 . She is one of the classics of imaginative literature , and one of the best @-@ selling books of all time , with over 100 million copies sold in 44 different languages as of 2013 . She was extraordinarily popular upon its release and has never been out of print . According to literary historian Andrew M. Stauffer , " She has always been Rider Haggard 's most popular and influential novel , challenged only by King Solomon 's Mines in this regard " .

The story is a first @-@ person narrative that follows the journey of Horace Holly and his ward Leo Vincey to a lost kingdom in the African interior . There they encounter a primitive race of natives and a mysterious white queen named Ayesha who reigns as the all @-@ powerful " She " , or " She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed " . In this work , Rider Haggard developed the conventions of the Lost World subgenre , which many later authors emulated .

She is placed firmly in the imperialist literature of nineteenth @-@ century England , and inspired by Rider Haggard 's experiences of South Africa and British colonialism . The story expresses numerous racial and evolutionary conceptions of the late Victorians , especially notions of degeneration and racial decline prominent during the fin de siècle . In the figure of She , the novel notably explored themes of female authority and feminine behaviour . It has received praise and criticism alike for its representation of womanhood .

= = Synopsis = =

A young Cambridge University professor , Horace Holly , is visited by a colleague , Vincey , who reveals that he will soon die . Vincey proceeds to tell Holly a fantastical tale of his family heritage . He charges Holly with the task of raising his young son , Leo ( whom he has never seen ) and gives Holly a locked iron box , with instructions that it is not to be opened until Leo turns 25 . Holly agrees , and indeed Vincey is found dead the next day . Holly raises the boy as his own ; when the box is opened on Leo 's 25th birthday they discover the ancient and mysterious " Sherd of Amenartas " , which seems to corroborate Leo 's father 's story . Holly , Leo and their servant , Job , follow instructions on the Sherd and travel to eastern Africa but are shipwrecked . They alone survive , together with their Arab captain , Mahomed ; after a perilous journey into an uncharted region of the African interior , they are captured by the savage Amahagger people . The adventurers learn that the natives are ruled by a fearsome white queen , who is worshiped as Hiya or " She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed " . The Amahagger are curious about the white @-@ skinned interlopers , having been warned of their coming by the mysterious queen .

Billali , the chief elder of one of the Amahagger tribes , takes charge of the three men , introducing them to the ways of his people . One of the Amahagger maidens , Ustane , takes a liking to Leo and , by kissing him and embracing him publicly , weds him according to Amahagger customs . Leo , likewise , grows very fond of her .

Billali tells Holly that he needs to go and report the white men 's arrival to She . In his absence , some of the Amahagger become restless and seize Mahomed , intending to eat him as part of a ritual " hotpot " . Realising what is about to happen , Holly shoots several of the Amahagger , killing Mahomed in the process ; in the ensuing struggle Leo is gravely wounded , but Ustane saves his life by throwing herself onto his prostrate body to shield him from spears . All seems lost as the Amahagger resolve to kill Ustane along with the white men but Billali returns in the nick of time and declares that the three men are under the protection of She . Leo 's condition , however , worsens and he nears death as Ustane faithfully tends to him .

They are taken to the home of the queen , which lies near the ruins of the lost city of Kôr , a once mighty civilisation that predated the Egyptians . The queen and her retinue live under a dormant volcano in a series of catacombs built as tombs for the people of Kôr . There , Holly is presented to the queen , a white sorceress named Ayesha . Her beauty is so great that it enchants any man who beholds it . She , who is veiled and lies behind a partition , warns Holly that the power of her splendour arouses both desire and fear , but he is dubious . When she shows herself , however , Holly is enraptured and prostrates himself before her . Ayesha reveals that she has learned the secret of immortality and that she possesses other supernatural powers including the ability to read the minds of others , a form of telegnosis and the ability to heal wounds and cure illness ; she is also revealed to have a tremendous knowledge of chemistry , but is notably unable to see into the future . She tells Holly that she has lived in the realm of Kôr for more than two millennia , awaiting the reincarnated return of her lover , Kallikrates ( whom she had slain in a fit of jealous rage ) . Later , when Holly inadvertently and secretly discovers Ayesha in her hidden chamber , he learns that she may have some degree of power to reanimate the dead .

The next evening She visits Leo to heal him . But upon seeing his face , she is stunned and declares him to be the reincarnation of Kallikrates . She saves him and becomes jealous of Ustane . The latter is ordered to leave Leo and never to set her eyes on him again . Ustane refuses , however , and Ayesha eventually strikes her dead with magic . Despite the murder of their friend , Holly and Leo cannot free themselves from the power of Ayesha 's beauty and Leo becomes bewitched . In explaining her history , Ayesha shows Leo the perfectly preserved body of Kallikrates , which she has kept with her , but she then dissolves the remains with a powerful acid , confident that Leo is indeed the reincarnation of her former lover .

In the climax of the novel , Ayesha takes the two men to see the Pillar of Fire , passing through the ruined city of Kôr into the heart of the ancient volcano . She is determined that Leo should bathe in the fire to become immortal and remain with her forever , and that together they can become the immortal and all @-@ powerful rulers of the world . After a perilous journey , they come to a great cavern , but at the last Leo doubts the safety of entering the flame . To allay his fears , Ayesha steps into the Spirit of Life , but with this second immersion , the life @-@ preserving power is lost and Ayesha begins to revert to her true age . Holly speculates that it may be that a second exposure undoes the effects of the previous or the Spirit of Life spews death on occasion . Before their eyes , Ayesha withers away in the fire , and her body shrinks . The sight is so shocking that Job dies in fright . Before dying , She tells Leo , " Forget me not . I shall come again ! "

= = = Characters = = =

Horace Holly – protagonist and narrator , Holly is a Cambridge man whose keen intellect and knowledge was developed to compensate for his ape @-@ like appearance . Holly knows a number of ancient languages , including Greek , Arabic , and Hebrew , which allow him to communicate with the Amahagger ( who speak a form of Arabic ) and She ( who knows all three languages ) . Holly 's interest in archaeology and the origins of civilisation lead him to explore the ruins of Kôr .

Leo Vincey – ward of Horace Holly , Leo is an attractive , physically active young English gentleman with a thick head of blond hair . He is the confidant of Holly and befriends Ustane . According to She , Leo resembles Kallikrates in appearance and is his reincarnation .

Ayesha – the title character of the novel , called Hiya by the native Amahagger , or " She " ( She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed ) . Ayesha was born over 2 @,@ 000 years ago amongst the Arabs , mastering the lore of the ancients and becoming a great sorceress . Learning of the Pillar of Life in the African interior , she journeyed to the ruined kingdom of Kôr , feigning friendship with a hermit who was the keeper of the Flame that granted immortality . She bathed in the Pillar of Life 's fire .

Job – Holly 's trusted servant . Job is a working @-@ class man and highly suspicious and judgmental of non @-@ English peoples . He is also a devout Protestant . Of all the travellers , he is especially disgusted by the Amahagger and fearful of She .

Billali – an elder of one of the Amahagger tribes .

Ustane – an Amahagger maiden . She becomes romantically attached to Leo , caring for him when he is injured , acting as his protector , and defying She to stay with him .

Kallikrates – an ancient Greek , the husband of Amenartas , and ancestor of Leo . Two thousand years ago , he and Amenartas fled Egypt , seeking a haven in the African interior where they met Ayesha . There , She fell in love with him , promising to give him the secret of immortality if he would kill Amenartas . He refused , and , enraged , She struck him down .

Amenartas – an ancient Egyptian priestess and ancestress of the Vincey family . As a priestess of Isis , she was protected from the power of She . When Ayesha slew Kallikrates , she expelled Amenartas from her realm . Amenartas gave birth to Kallikrates ' son , beginning the line of the Vinceys ( Leo 's ancestors ) .

= = Background = =

= = = South Africa = = =

In 1875 , Haggard was sent to Cape Town , South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer , the lieutenant @-@ governor of Natal . Haggard wrote in his memoirs of his aspirations to become a colonial governor himself , and of his youthful excitement at the prospects . The major event during his time in Africa was Britain 's annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 . Haggard was part of the expedition that established British control over the Boer republic , and which helped raise the Union flag over the capital of Pretoria on 24 May 1877 . Writing of the moment , Haggard declared :

Haggard had advocated the British annexation of the Boer republic in a journal article entitled " The Transvaal " , published in the May 1877 issue of Macmillan 's Magazine . He maintained that it was Britain 's " mission to conquer and hold in subjection " lesser races , " not from thirst of conquest but for the sake of law , justice , and order " . However , Boer resistance to British rule and the resulting Anglo @-@ Zulu war caused the imperial government in London to withdraw from pursuing British sovereignty over the South African interior . Haggard considered this to be a " great betrayal " by Prime Minister Gladstone and the Liberal Party , which " no lapse of time ever can solace or even alleviate " . He became increasingly disillusioned with the realities of colonial Africa . Victorian scholar Patrick Brantlinger notes in his introduction to She : " Little that Haggard witnessed matched the romantic depictions of ' the dark continent ' in boys ' adventure novels , in the press , and even in such bestselling explorers ' journals as David Livingstone 's Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa ( 1857 ) . "

During his time in South Africa , Haggard developed an intense hatred for the Boers , but also came to admire the Zulus . However , his admiration of the Zulus did not extend to other African peoples ; rather , he shared many of the assumptions that underlay contemporary Victorian politics and philosophy , such as those expressed by James Hunt , the President of the Anthropological Society of London : " the Negro is inferior intellectually to the European ... [ and ] can only be humanised and civilised by Europeans . The analogies are far more numerous between the Negro and apes , than between the European and apes . " The Victorian belief in the inherent inferiority of the ' darker races ' made them the object of a civilising impulse in the European Scramble for Africa . Although disenchanted with the colonial effort , Haggard remained committed to this ideology . He believed that the British " alone of all the nations in the world appear to be able to control coloured races without the exercise of cruelty " .

= = = Return to Britain = = =

Rider Haggard returned to Britain in 1881 . At the time , England was increasingly beset by the social and cultural anxieties that marked the fin de siècle . One of the most prominent concerns was the fear of political and racial decline , encapsulated in Max Nordau 's Degeneration ( 1895 ) . Barely half a century earlier , Thomas Babington Macaulay had declared " the history of England " to be " emphatically the history of progress " , but late @-@ Victorians living in the wake of Darwinian evolution had lost the earlier positivism of their age . Uncertainty over the immutability of Britain 's historical identity , what historian Tim Murray has called the " threat of the past " , was manifested in the Victorian obsession with ancient times and archaeology . Haggard was greatly interested in the ruins discovered at Zimbabwe in the 1870s . In 1896 , he provided the preface to a monograph that detailed a history of the site , declaring :

Haggard was strongly influenced by archaeology and evolutionary theories , especially ideas about the " racialisation " of historical decline prevalent during the fin de siècle . His distaste for the Boers stemmed in part from their depiction as a ' mixed ' race , descended from various European stock and intermarried with African locals . Lack of racial purity was seen as leading to evolutionary degeneration and national decline , a concept which he embodied in the Amahagger people .

By the time that Haggard began writing She , society had more anxiety about the role of women . Debates regarding " The Woman Question " dominated Britain during the fin de siècle , as well as anxieties over the increasing position and independence of the " New Woman " . Alarm over social degeneration and societal decadence further fanned concerns over the woman 's movement and female liberalisation , which challenged the traditional conception of Victorian womanhood . The role and rights of women had changed dramatically since the early part of the century , as they entered the workforce , received better education , and gained more political and legal independence . Writing in 1894 , Haggard believed that marriage was the natural state for women : " Notwithstanding the energetic repudiations of the fact that confront us at every turn , it may be taken for granted that in most cases it is the natural mission of women to marry ; that – always in most cases – if they do not marry they become narrowed , live a half life only , and suffer in health of body and of mind . " He created the character of She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed " who provided a touchstone for many of the anxieties surrounding the New Woman in late @-@ Victorian England " .

= = Concept and creation = =

According to Haggard 's daughter Lilias , the phrase " She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed " originated from his childhood and " the particularly hideous aspect " of one rag @-@ doll : " This doll was something of a fetish , and Rider , as a small child , was terrified of her , a fact soon discovered by an unscrupulous nurse who made full use of it to frighten him into obedience . Why or how it came to be called She @-@ Who @-@ Must @-@ Be @-@ Obeyed he could not remember " . Haggard wrote that " the title She " was taken " from a certain rag doll , so named , which a nurse at Bradenham used to bring out of some dark recess in order to terrify those of my brothers and sisters who were in her charge . "

In his autobiography , Haggard spoke of how he composed She within a six @-@ week period of February and March 1886 , having just completed Jess , which was published in 1887 . Haggard claimed that this period was an intensely creative moment : the text " was never rewritten , and the manuscript carries but few corrections " . Haggard went on to declare : " The fact is that it was written at white heat , almost without rest , and that is the best way to compose . " He admitted to having had no clear story in mind when he began writing :

Various scholars have detected a number of analogues to She in earlier literature . According to Brantlinger , Haggard certainly read and was aware of the stories of Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton , in particular A Strange Story ( 1862 ) which includes a mysterious , veiled woman called " Ayesha " , and The Coming Race ( 1871 ) about the discovery of a subterranean civilisation . Similarly , the name of the underground civilisation in She , known as Kôr , is derived from Norse mythological romance , where the " deathbed " of the goddess Hel is called Kör and means " disease " in Old Norse . In She , a plague destroyed the original inhabitants of Kôr .

According to Haggard , he wrote the final scene of Ayesha 's demise while waiting for his literary agent , A. P. Watt , to return to his offices . Upon completion , he entered Watt 's office and threw the manuscript " ... on the table with the remark : ' There is what I shall be remembered by ' " .

An interesting and obscure reference to She appears in Lieut . George Witton 's 1907 Book , Scapegoats of the Empire ; The True Story of the Bushveldt Carbineers :

" By midday we reached the Letaba Valley , in the Majajes Mountains , inhabited by a powerful tribe of natives once ruled by a princess said to be the prototype of Rider Haggard 's ' She ' . "

= = = Publication = = =

She was first published as a serial story in the Graphic , a large folio magazine printed weekly in London , between October 1886 and January 1887 . The serialisation was accompanied with illustrations by E. K. Johnson . An American edition was published by Harper and Bros. in New York on 24 December 1886 ; this included the Johnson illustrations . On 1 January 1887 , an English edition was published by Longmans , Green , and Co . , but without any images . It was the first publication of She in book format , and featured significant textual revisions from the Graphic serial made by Haggard . He made further revisions for an 1888 edition , which included illustrations by Maurice Greiffenhagen and C. H. M. Kerr . In 2006 a Broadview publication of She became the first edition to reproduce the Graphic serial text since 1887 .

= = = Narrative revisions = = =

Haggard contended that romances such as She or King Solomon 's Mines were best left unrevised , because " wine of this character loses its bouquet when it is poured from glass to glass . " However , he made a number of alterations to the original Graphic version of She before its publication as a novel in 1887 . One of the most significant was to the third chapter concerning the sherd , which was substantially expanded from the original to include the tale of Amenartas in uncial and cursive Greek scripts . Facsimile illustrations were also included of an antique vase , made @-@ up by Haggard 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Agnes Barber to resemble the sherd of Amenartas . A number of footnotes were also included containing historical references from the narrator . Haggard was keen to stress the historicity of the narrative , improving some of the information about geography and the history of ancient civilisations in chapters 4 , 13 , and 17 .

The 1887 novel also featured a substantial rewrite of the " hotpot " scene in chapter eight , when Mahomed is killed . In the original serialisation of She , the cannibal Amahagger grow restless and hungry and place a large heated pot over the head of Mahomed , enacting the hotpotting ritual before eating him . Haggard 's stories were criticised at the time for their violence , and he toned down this scene for the novel publication . The novel revised the hotpotting incident , with Mahomed dying instead when Holly shoots him accidentally in the scuffle with the Amahagger . Comparing the serial and novel editions of She , Stauffer describes the more compact narrative of the original as a reflection of the intense but short burst of creativity in which Haggard composed the story , arguing that " the style and grammar of the Graphic [ edition ] is more energetic and immediate " , although as he noted , " sometimes more flawed " .

Haggard continued to revise She for later publications , with the " New Edition " of 1888 containing over 400 minor alterations . The last revision by Haggard to be published was in 1896 .

= = Genre = =

= = = Fantasy and science fiction = = =

She is one of the foundational works of fantasy literature , coming around the time of The Princess and the Goblin ( 1858 ) by George MacDonald , William Morris ' The Wood Beyond the World and The Well at the World 's End , and the short stories of Lord Dunsany . It is marked by a strong element of " the marvelous " in the figure of Ayesha , a two @-@ thousand @-@ year @-@ old sorceress , and the ' Spirit of the World ' , an undying fire that confers immortality . Indeed , Haggard 's story is one of the first in modern literature to feature " a slight intrusion of something unreal " into a very real world – a hallmark of the fantasy genre . Similarly , the carefully constructed " fantasy history " of She foreshadows the use of this technique that characterises later fantasies such as The Lord of the Rings and The Wheel of Time series , and which imparts a " degree of security " to the secondary world . However , the story of She is firmly ensconced in what fantasy theorists call ' primary world reality ' , with the lost kingdom of Kôr , the realm ruled by the supernatural She , a fantastic " Tertiary World " at once directly part of and at the same time indirectly set apart from normative " primary " reality . Along with Haggard 's prior novel , King Solomon 's Mines , She laid the blueprints for the " Lost World " subgenre in fantasy literature , as well as the convention of the " lost race " . As Brantlinger has noted of the novel 's importance to the development of the " secondary world " in fantasy literature : " Haggard may seem peripheral to the development of science fiction , and yet his African quest romances could easily be transposed to other planets and galaxies " . In his history of science fiction , Billion Year Spree , Brian Aldiss notes the frequency with which Ayesha 's death in the Pillar of Fire has been imitated by later science fiction and fantasy writers : " From Haggard on , crumbling women , priestesses , or empresses – all symbols of women as Untouchable and Unmakeable – fill the pages of many a scientific romance " .

= = = Adventure romance = = =

She is part of the adventure subgenre of literature which was especially popular at the end of the 19th century , but which remains an important form of fiction to the present day . Along with works such as Treasure Island ( 1883 ) and Prince Otto ( 1885 ) by Robert Louis Stevenson , and Jules Verne 's A Journey to the Centre of the Earth ( 1871 ) and Around the World in Eighty Days ( 1875 ) , She had an important formative effect on the development of the adventure novel . Indeed , Rider Haggard is credited with inventing the romance of archaeological exploration which began in King Solomon 's Mines and crystallised in She . One of the most notable modern forms of this genre is the Indiana Jones movie series , as well as the Tarzan novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and recently Alan Moore 's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen ( 2000 ) . In such fictional narratives the explorer is the hero , with the drama unfolding as they are cast into " the nostrum of the living past " . Holly and Leo are prototypes of the adventurer , who has become a critical figure in modern fiction .

= = = Imperial Gothic = = =

She is also one of the central texts in the development of Imperial Gothic . Many late @-@ Victorian authors during the fin de siècle employed Gothic conventions and motifs in their writing , stressing and alluding to the supernatural , the ghostly , and the demonic . As Brantlinger has noted , " Connected to imperialist adventure fiction , these interests often imply anxieties about the stability of Britain , of the British Empire , or , more generally , of Western civilisation " . Novels like Dracula and the Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde present depictions of repressed , foreign , and demonic forces at the heart of the imperial polity . In She the danger is raised in the form of Ayesha herself :

She 's threat to replace Queen Victoria with herself echoes the underlying anxiety over imperialism and European colonialism emblematic of the Imperial Gothic genre . Indeed , Judith Wilt characterises the narrative of She , in which British imperialist penetration of Africa ( represented by Holly , Leo , and Job ) suddenly suffers a potential " counter @-@ attack " ( from Ayesha ) , as one of the archetypal illustrations of the " reverse colonalism " motif in Victorian Gothic . Similarly , She marks one of the first fictional examples to raise the spectre of the natural decline of civilisation , and by extension , British imperial power , which would become an increasingly frequent theme in Gothic and invasion literature until the onset of World War I.

= = Style = =

Rider Haggard 's writing style was the source of much criticism in reviews of She and his other works . His harshest critic was Augustus Moore , who wrote " God help English literature when English people lay aside their Waverley novels , and the works of Defoe , Swift , Thackeray , Charlotte Brontë , George Eliot , and even Charles Reade for the penny dreadfuls of Mr Haggard " ; adding , " The man who could write ' he spoke to She ' can have no ear at all " . A more common sentiment was expressed by the review of She in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine : " Mr. Rider Haggard is not an exquisite workman like Mr. [ Robert Louis ] Stevenson , but he has a great deal of power in his way , and rougher qualities which are more likely , perhaps , to ' take the town ' than skill more delicate " .

Modern literary criticism has tended to be more circumspect . As Victorian scholar Daniel Karlin has noted , " That Haggard 's style is frequently bathetic or clumsy cannot be denied ; but the matter is not so easily settled " . Stauffer cites the passage where Holly is meditating as he tries to fall asleep as emblematic of " the charges against " Haggard 's writing . In this scene , Holly lays down ,

The passage concludes with a wry remark from Holly , " I at last managed to get to sleep , a fact for which anybody who reads this narrative , if anybody ever does , may very probably be thankful " . According to Stauffer , " the disarming deflation of the passage goes a long way toward redeeming it , and is typical of the winning contradictions of the narrator 's style " . Tom Pocock in Rider Haggard and the Lost Empire has also highlighted the " literary framework " that Haggard constructs throughout much of the narrative , referencing Keats , Shakespeare , and Classical literature to imbue the story with a " Gothic sensibility " . Yet as Stauffer notes , " Ultimately , however , one thinks of Haggard 's plots , episodes , and images as the source of his lasting reputation and influence .

= = Themes = =

= = = Imperialism = = =

She is set firmly in the imperialist literature of the late @-@ Victorian period . The so @-@ called " New Imperialism " marking the last quarter of the 19th century witnessed a further expansion of British power , particularly on the African continent , and was characterised by a seemingly confident sentiment in the merits of empire and English civilisation . Thus She " invokes a particularly British view of the world " as Rider Haggard projects concepts of the English self against the foreign otherness of Africa . One such example occurs when Holly is first ushered into the presence of Ayesha , walking into the chamber behind a grovelling Billali who warns Holly to follow his example , or " a surety she will blast thee where thou standest " . Indeed , She is preoccupied with stressing quintessential British qualities through the " adventure " of empire , usually in contrast to foreign barbarism . However , the notion of imperialism is further compounded by the figure of She , who is herself a foreign colonising force . " In a sense then " , writes Stauffer , " a single property line divides the realm of Queen Victoria and that of She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed , two white queens who rule dark @-@ skinned natives of the African continent " .

= = = Race and evolution = = =

Like many of his Victorian contemporaries , Rider Haggard " proceeds on the assumption that whites are naturally superior to blacks , and that Britain 's imperial extensions into Africa are a noble , civilising enterprise " . Although Haggard penned a number of novels that portrayed Africans in a comparatively realistic light , She was not among their number . Even in King Solomon 's Mines , the representation of Umbopa ( who was based on an actual warrior ) and the Kukuanas , drew upon Haggard 's knowledge and understanding of the Zulus . In contrast , She makes no such distinctions . Ayesha , the English travellers , and the ancient inhabitants of Kôr are all white embodiments of civilisation , while the darker Amahagger , as a people , illustrate notions of savagery , barbarity , and superstition . Nonetheless , the " racial politics of the novel are more complex than they first appear " , given that Ayesha is in origin an ancient Arabian , Leo is descended from , and physically resembles a blond Hellenistic Greek , while Holly is said to resemble a baboon in facial appearance – an animal Victorians typically associated with black Africans . Whilst critics like Wendy Katz , Patricia Murphy , and Susan Gubar have analysed the strong racist undercurrent in She , Andrew Stauffer has taken note of the qualifications through which " the novel suggests deeper connections among the races , an ancient genealogy of ethnicities and civilizations in which every character is a hybrid " .

Indeed , there is a strong Darwinian undercurrent framing the representation of race in She , stemming from Haggard 's own interest in evolutionary theory and archaeological history . In particular the theme of racial degeneration is a prominent aspect in the novel . Moving into the fin de siècle , late @-@ Victorians were increasingly concerned about cultural and national decline resulting from racial decay . In She , this evolutionary concept of degeneration is manifested in Ayesha and the Amahagger . Haggard represents the Amahagger as a debased mixture of ethnicities , " a curious mingling of races " , originally descended from the inhabitants of Kôr but having intermarried with Arabs and Africans . Racial hybridisation of any kind " entailed degeneration " to Victorians , a " decline from the pure blood " of the initial races , and thus " an aspect of their degeneration is the idea that the Amahagger have lost whatever elements of civilization their Kôr ancestors may have imparted to them " . Thus , Ayesha proudly proclaims her own racial purity as a quality to be admired : " for Arabian am I by birth , even ' al Arab al Ariba ' ( an Arab of the Arabs ) , and of the race of our father Yárab , the son of Khâtan [ ... ] of the true Arab blood " . However , the novel 's starkest evocation of the evolutionary principle occurs in the regressive demise of Ayesha . Stepping into the Pillar of Fire , the immortal She begins to wither and decay , undergoing as death what Judith Wilt describes as the " ultimate Darwinian nightmare " , evolution in reverse .

= = = Female authority and sexuality = = =

When Rider Haggard first conceived of She he began with the theme of " an immortal woman inspired by an immortal love " . Although ostensibly a romance , the novel is part of the wider discourse regarding women and womanhood in late @-@ Victorian Britain . Many scholars have noted how She was published as a book in 1887 , the year of Queen Victoria 's Golden Jubilee , and Adrienne Munich argues that Haggard 's story " could fittingly be considered an ominous literary monument to Victoria after fifty years of her reign " . Indeed , in her devotion to Kallikrates ( two thousand years after his death ) , Ayesha echoes the long @-@ lasting fidelity of Victoria to her husband , Albert . However , unlike the " benign " Victoria , the question of female authority is realised to the extreme in the figure of She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed , whose autonomous will seemingly embodies Victorian anti @-@ feminist fears of New Women desiring ' absolute personal independence coupled with supreme power over men ' . Haggard constantly emphasises this anxiety over female authority in She , so that even the rationally minded and misogynistic Holly , who has put his " heart away from such vanity as woman 's loveliness " , ultimately falls upon his knees and worships Ayesha " as never woman was worshipped " . Similarly , although the masculine and chivalric Leo is determined to reject Ayesha for killing the devoted native girl Ustane , he too quickly falls under her will . In fact , Ayesha 's absolute command over the male sex is one of the most startling and unnerving aspects of the story .

In her role as the seductive femme fatale , Ayesha is part of " a long tradition of male fantasy that includes Homer 's Circe , Shakespeare 's Cleopatra , and Keats 's ' La Belle Dame sans Merci ' " . Brantlinger identifies the theme of " the white ( or at least light @-@ skinned ) queen ruling a black or brown @-@ skinned savage race " as " a powerfully erotic one " with its opposite being " the image of the helpless white woman captured by savages and threatened , at least , with rape " . The figure of She both inspires male desire and dominates male sovereignty , represented in her conquest of the enlightened Victorians Holly and Leo . The two Englishmen embody the powers of manhood , with Leo a reflection of masculine physicality and Holly a representation of man 's intellectual strength ; but both are conquered by the feminine powers of She , who rules as much through sex @-@ appeal as through sorcery , immortality , and will . Thus Steven Arata describes her as " the veiled woman , that ubiquitous nineteenth @-@ century figure of male desire and anxiety , whose body is Truth but a Truth that blasts " . Similarly , Sarah Gilbert sees the theme of feminine sexuality and authority realised in Ayesha as critical to the novel 's success : " Unlike the women earlier Victorian writers had idealised or excoriated , She was neither an angel nor a monster . Rather , She was an odd but significant blend of the two types – an angelically chaste woman with monstrous powers , a monstrously passionate woman with angelic charms " .

= = Reception = =

After its publication in 1887 She became an immediate success . According to The Literary World " Mr. Rider Haggard has made for himself a new field in fiction " . Comparing the novel to King Solomon 's Mines the review declared : " The book before us displays all the same qualities , and we anticipate for it a similar popularity . There is even more imagination in the later than in the earlier story ; it contains scenes of greater sensuous beauty and also of more gruesome horror " . The Public Opinion was equally rapturous in its praise :

The fantasy of She received particular acclaim from Victorian readers and critics . The review appearing in The Academy on 15 January was impressed by the " grown @-@ up " vision of the novel , declaring " the more impossible it gets the better Mr. Haggard does it ... his astonishing imagination , and a certain vraisemblance [ " verisimilitude " ( French ) ] makes the most impossible adventures appear true " . This sentiment was echoed in The Queen : The Lady 's Newspaper , with the reviewer pronouncing that " this is a tale in the hands of a writer not so able as Mr. Haggard might easily have become absurd ; but he has treated it with so much vividness and picturesque power as to invest it with unflagging interest , and given to the mystery a port of philosophic possibility that makes us quite willing to submit to the illusion .

The Spectator was more equivocal in its appraisal of She . The review described the narrative as " very stirring " and " exciting " and of " remarkable imaginative power " , adding : " The ingenuity of the story ... is as subtle as ever romancer invented , and from the day when Leo and Holly land on the coast of Africa , to the day when the Pillar of Fire is revealed to them by the all but immortal ' She @-@ who @-@ must @-@ be @-@ obeyed ' , the interest of the tale rises higher and higher with every new turn in its course " . However , the review took issue with the characterisation of She and the manner of her demise : " To the present writer there is a sense of the ludicrous in the end of She that spoiled , instead of concluding with imaginative fitness , the thread of the impossible worked into the substance of this vivid and brilliantly told story " . Haggard was moved to respond to the criticism of Ayesha 's death , writing that " in the insolence of her strength and loveliness , she lifts herself up against the Omnipotent . Therefore , at the appointed time she is swept away by It ... Vengeance , more heavy because more long delayed , strikes her in her proudest part – her beauty " .

A number of reviews were more critical of Haggard 's work . Although the reviewer of She in Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine considered it better than King Solomon 's Mines , he opined , " Mr. Rider Haggard has not proved as yet that he has anything that can be called imagination at all ... It might be wrought up into an unparalleled stage effect : but it is rather a failure in pen and ink . The more fearful and wonderful such circumstances are intended to be , the more absurd is the failure of them " . Even more scathing was Augustus Moore in the May edition of Time : A Monthly Miscellany , who declared : " In Mr Haggard 's book I find none of the powerful imagination , the elaborate detail , the vivid English which would entitle his work to be described as a romance ... [ rather ] it seems to me to be the method of the modern melodrama " . Moore was particularly dismissive of the novel 's style and prose : " Mr Haggard cannot write English at all . I do not merely refer to his bad grammar , which a boy at a Boarding School would deserve to be birched for ... It can only have been written by a man who not only knew nothing , but cared nothing for ' English undefiled ' . " Haggard 's English was a common source of criticisms , but Moore was even dismissive of the character of She who widely garnered universal praise . " Ayesha " , Moore declares , " is about as impressive as the singing chambermaid who represents the naughty fairy of a pantomime in tights and a tow wig " . Concluding his review , Moore wondered at the success that had greeted She :

Despite such criticism , the reception that met She was overwhelmingly positive and echoed the sentiments expressed by anthropologist and literary critic Andrew Lang before the story 's first publication : " I think She is one of the most astonishing romances I ever read . The more impossible it is , the better you do it , till it seems like a story from the literature of another planet " .

= = Modern interpretations = =

= = = Feminist = = =

Feminist literary historians have tended to define the figure of She as a literary manifestation of male alarm over the " learned and crusading new woman " . In this view , Ayesha is a terrifying and dominant figure , a prominent and influential rendering of the misogynistic " fictive explorations of female authority " undertaken by male writers that ushered in literary modernism . Ann Ardis , for instance , views the fears Holly harbours over Ayesha 's plan to return to England as being " exactly those voiced about the New Woman 's entrance in the public arena " . According to the feminist interpretation of the narrative , the death of She acts as a kind of teleological " judgement " of her transgression of Victorian gender boundaries , with Ardis likening it to a " witch @-@ burning " . However , to Rider Haggard , She was an investigation into love and immortality and the demise of Ayesha the moral end of this exploration :

Indeed , far from being a radical or threatening manifestation of womanhood , recent academics have noted the extent to which the character of She conforms to traditional conceptions of Victorian femininity ; in particular her deferring devotion to Kallikrates / Leo , whom she swears wifely obedience to at the story 's climax : " ' Behold ! ' and she took his [ Leo 's ] hand and placed it upon her shapely head , and then bent herself slowly down till one knee for an instant touched the ground – ' Behold ! in token of submission do I bow me to my lord ! Behold ! ' and she kissed him on the lips , ' in token of my wifely love do I kiss my lord ' . " Ayesha declares this to be the " first most holy hour of completed womanhood " .

= = Legacy = =

She is one of the most influential novels in modern literature , with authors like Rudyard Kipling , Henry Miller , Graham Greene , J.R.R. Tolkien , and Margaret Atwood all acknowledging the importance of the work to their own and others ' writing . With over 83 million copies sold , the work is one of the biggest selling fictional titles of all time and has been translated into 44 languages . According to Stauffer , " She has always been Rider Haggard 's most popular and influential novel , challenged only by King Solomon 's Mines in this regard " . Such was the popularity and influence of the novel that it was cited in the psychoanalytical theories of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung , the latter describing the character of She as a manifestation of the anima figure .

The story is one of the most important texts of imaginative literature and had a lasting impact on the fantasy genre , directly giving rise to the ' lost civilisation ' tales of Edgar Rice Burroughs and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , and the creation of mythologised locations such as Shangri @-@ la . Tolkien recognised the importance of She to his own fantasy works , especially in its foregrounding of a fictional history and narrative . The figure of She is also considered by many scholars to be a formative influence on Galadriel - Ayesha 's reflecting pool seems to be a direct precursor of Galadriel 's mirror . Other characters in Tolkien 's Legendarium also seem to have been influenced , including Shelob ( who is referred to as " She " and " Her " in the text ) , and the escape across the chasm is highly reminiscent of the escape of the Fellowship across the chasm in Moria . Indeed , Haggard 's characterisation of Ayesha became the prototype of the female antagonist in modern fantasy literature , most famously realised in the figure of the White Witch , Jadis , from C. S. Lewis 's The Chronicles of Narnia . Kor and Ayesha appear in Alan Moore 's Nemo : Heart of Ice

= = = Adaptations = = =

She has been adapted for the cinema at least ten times , and was one of the earliest films to be made in 1899 as La Colonne de feu ( The Pillar of Fire ) , by Georges Méliès . A 1911 version starred Marguerite Snow , a British @-@ produced version appeared in 1916 and in 1917 Valeska Suratt appeared in a production for Fox which is lost . In 1925 a silent film of She , starring Betty Blythe , was produced with the active participation of Rider Haggard , who wrote the intertitles . The film combines elements from all the books in the series .

A decade later another cinematic version of the novel was released , featuring Helen Gahagan , Randolph Scott and Nigel Bruce . This 1935 adaptation was set in the Arctic , rather than Africa , and depicts the ancient civilisation of the story in an Art Deco style , with music by Max Steiner .

The 1965 film , She , was produced by Hammer Film Productions and starred Ursula Andress as Ayesha and John Richardson as her reincarnated love , with Peter Cushing and Bernard Cribbins as other members of the expedition .

In 2001 another adaption was released direct @-@ to @-@ video with Ian Duncan as Leo Vincey , Ophélie Winter as Ayesha and Marie Bäumer as Roxane .

Tim McInnerny starred as Holly with Mia Soteriou as Ayesha and Oliver Chris as Leo in a two @-@ part adaptation on BBC Radio 4 's Classic Serial , originally broadcast on 2 July and 9 July 2006 .

In 2007 a rock @-@ opera / musical version of She was recorded live at the Wyspianski Theatre , Katowice , Poland by Clive Nolan and was released on DVD . In February 2012 the Nolan version of She had its first UK performance at the Playhouse in Cheltenham .

= Lynn Bomar =

Robert Lynn Bomar ( January 21 , 1901 – June 11 , 1964 ) was an American football end in the National Football League ( NFL ) . Bomar played college football , basketball and baseball for Vanderbilt University , following coach Wallace Wade and classmate Hek Wakefield there from prep school , and was a unanimous 1922 All @-@ Southern selection and a consensus 1923 All @-@ American selection in football . The latter season included a first @-@ team All @-@ American selection by Walter Camp , rare for a player in the South . A paralyzing injury ended Bomar 's college career , but he quickly recovered and sat on the bench for all of his team 's games . He played for the New York Giants in 1925 and 1926 , retiring abruptly after a separate injury . Bomar was nicknamed " the Blonde Bear " .

He had a later career in law enforcement . In his position as Tennessee 's Commissioner of Public Safety and Patrol chief , Bomar supervised the ransacking of black households during the 1946 Columbia race riot . He was the warden of Tennessee State Prison from 1955 until his death , and oversaw several executions . In 1956 , Bomar was the first Vanderbilt football player elected to the College Football Hall of Fame .

= = Early life and education = =

Bomar was born on January 21 , 1901 , in Bell Buckle , Tennessee to Oliver Eugene Bomar , a blacksmith , and Elizabeth May McAdams . Vanderbilt records indicate that he spent part of his youth in Gallatin . Bomar attended Webb School in his native Bell Buckle , and spent a year at Castle Heights Military Academy .

= = = Fitzgerald and Clarke = = =

Bomar then attended preparatory school at the Fitzgerald and Clarke Military Academy in Tullahoma , Tennessee . In 1920 , he was a member of teams which won the state prep @-@ school football and basketball championships . In both sports Bomar played under head coach Wallace Wade . While Wade coached at Fitzgerald and Clarke , the school 's overall football record was 15 – 2 . With him on the football team was future college teammate and All @-@ American Hek Wakefield . On March 14 , 1922 , while Bomar was in college , the school burned to the ground and was never rebuilt .

= = Vanderbilt University = =

= = = Football = = =

Bomar played for head coach Dan McGugin 's Vanderbilt Commodores football team at Vanderbilt University from 1921 to 1924 . Wallace Wade was hired as Vanderbilt football 's assistant and line coach for 1921 and head coach of the basketball and baseball teams for 1922 . Bomar and Wakefield enrolled at the school in the same class .

He was prominent on Commodore teams which compiled a win – loss – tie record of 26 – 5 – 4 ( .800 ) and three straight conference titles during his four seasons . Bomar was an All @-@ Southern and All @-@ American selection in 1922 and 1923 . In addition to playing end and tackle ( offense and defense ) , he made the kickoffs . Bomar 's play was described :

The Blonde Bear was one of the world 's greatest football players , who never missed an open field block . When one considers he made Walter Camp 's All @-@ America team when he was backing up the line on defense and blocking and catching passes on offense , his greatness is realized .

[ Bomar ] plucked passes out of the ozone that seemed impossible to get , and then raced through the enemy like they were tied . " Often he started games at fullback , shifted to halfback or end , and finished at tackle . In backing up the line , [ he ] hurled back all comers with the same savage vigor .

His favorite refrain to opponents was , " I hope you don 't like it . "

= = = = 1921 = = = =

During Bomar 's freshman season at Vanderbilt , he was already a standout player as a starting fullback . In a game against the Longhorns at the Texas State Fair in Dallas , the Commodores won 20 – 0 after they were expected to lose by two touchdowns . Texas had been undefeated in 1920 , winning the Southwest Conference . The 1921 squad was considered possibly the best in Longhorns history , and Vanderbilt football seemed to be in decline when Georgia Tech defeated the Commodores 44 – 0 the previous year . Dan McGugin gave a speech invoking late former Vanderbilt quarterback Irby Curry before the game . According to Edwin Pope 's Football 's Greatest Coaches , " The Texas game , sparked by McGugin 's unforgettable oratory , was the big one ; and Vandy got out of the year without a loss . " Bomar scored on a 40 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown in the fourth quarter , increasing the Commodore lead to two touchdowns . In the sixth game of the season , Vanderbilt defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide 14 – 0 at Birmingham . The victory was expected by insiders ( then often called the " dope " ) , with Vanderbilt favored by two touchdowns . Early in the first quarter several runs by Jess Neely , a long pass from Neely to Tot McCullough and a 17 @-@ yard run by Neely brought the ball to the nine @-@ yard line . After a run by Frank Godchaux , Bomar bucked over the line for a touchdown . The game against the Georgia Bulldogs decided the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) championship that season , with Bomar excelling at linebacker . " Georgia would have trampled Vanderbilt to atoms but for Lynn Bomar , " wrote Nashville Tennessean sportswriter Blinkey Horn . " Lynn Bomar was the stellar performer of the game . In the first @-@ half he made two @-@ thirds of the tackles " , and reportedly prevented five Georgia touchdowns that day . The Commodores tied the Bulldogs 7 – 7 on a fourth @-@ quarter onside kick for a share of the SIAA title , finishing the season with a 7 – 0 – 1 record .

= = = = 1922 = = = =

Vanderbilt had its second straight undefeated season in 1922 , with Bomar playing his preferred position at end . He was a starter in the scoreless tie with Michigan at the dedication of Dudley Field , spending much of the game tackling Michigan runners . According to the school yearbook , Bomar " tore through the Wolverine line constantly , and always emerged after a play on the far side of the defense " and the game included a goal line stand . Another account read , " Thousands of cheering Vanderbilt fans inspired the surge of center Alf Sharp , guard Gus Morrow , tackle Tex Bradford , and end Lynn Bomar , who stopped Michigan cold in four attempts . " The next week against Texas at the Dallas State Fair , Vanderbilt won 20 – 10 . Bomar made an interception and caught a 23 @-@ yard pass from Jess Neely , running 20 yards to set up a Gil Reese touchdown . Against the Tennessee Volunteers , he scored the second of two touchdowns on a short pass from Neely in a 14 – 6 victory .

Bomar 's best offensive performance that year was against Georgia . Neely made a long pass from a few yards behind the line of scrimmage at the 45 @-@ yard line ; Bomar caught it near the seven @-@ yard line , and was tackled by Georgia halfback Loren Chester ( Teany ) Randall at around the three @-@ yard line before Reese scored the touchdown . Neely and Bomar were among the best pass @-@ receiver combinations in Vanderbilt history : " Bomar , unquestionably , was Vanderbilt 's best receiver , snatching everything thrown at him . "

A similar play in the game 's second half scored another touchdown . Quarterback Doc Kuhn dropped back for a more than 40 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bomar . The pass went 28 yards in the air , with Bomar running the rest of the way . Georgia running back Dave Collings tackled him as he crossed the goal line ( injuring himself ) , and Bomar also made an interception in the 12 – 0 Vanderbilt victory . The season 's final game , against Vanderbilt 's oldest rival Sewanee , had a trick play by the Commodores . A fake run ended with Kuhn tossing the ball to Bomar , who was left open behind the defense and easily ran it in ; Vanderbilt won , 26 – 0 .

After the season , Bomar received first @-@ team All @-@ American honors from Frank G. Menke . He was also chosen a second @-@ team All @-@ American by Walter Camp , a third @-@ team All @-@ American by Walter Eckersall and appeared on Billy Evans ' National Honor Roll . Bomar and Red Barron of Georgia Tech were the two unanimous All @-@ Southern selections . Grantland Rice wrote the next year , " There was no better end in the country last fall " and Camp described Bomar :

Bomar , of Vanderbilt , is only shaded a little by two other ends , largely through the experienced gained by his rivals against stronger opposition . He weighs 200 pounds , is tremendously fast , and a hardy , defensive player . On attack he is able to pick the forward pass out of the air on the full run , and , running with a high @-@ knee action quite like that of the redoubtable Ted Coy , if he cannot get by his man , runs him down and goes on over him , still on his feet .

= = = = 1923 = = = =

In 1923 , assistant coach Wallace Wade was hired as head coach at Alabama and was replaced by former star tackle Josh Cody . A rematch against the Michigan Wolverines at Ferry Field was a 3 – 0 Vanderbilt loss , with consensus All @-@ American center Jack Blott scoring Michigan 's field goal . According to the Michigan Alumnus , Harry Kipke could not return punts for fear of fumbling ; when he received the ball , Vanderbilt ends Hek Wakefield or Bomar would tackle him . In a diagram of the game 's plays , Vanderbilt 's only completed pass was from Bomar to Kuhn . Bomar excelled against Tulane , blocking a number of punts in a 17 – 0 victory . Times @-@ Picayune sportswriter Ed Hebert wrote , " Take Bomar out of the Vandy lineup and Tulane would have won the game by three touchdowns . " A postseason charity game was played against former and contemporary Princeton Tigers all @-@ stars . The game was a 7 – 7 tie , with Vanderbilt 's touchdown scored on an 18 @-@ yard pass from Kuhn to Bomar .

Vanderbilt and Washington and Lee finished the season as Southern Conference co @-@ champions . A sportswriters ' poll chose the Commodores as best team in the South , awarding them the Pickens Trophy ( awarded from 1923 to 1926 ) . Bomar was a consensus All @-@ American , receiving first @-@ team honors from Collier 's Weekly ( Walter Camp ) and second @-@ team honors from Athletic World magazine . He was one of the first players from the South to receive first @-@ team honors from Camp , who described the player :

Bomar of Vanderbilt is an experienced end of 200 pounds in weight , with speed , initiative , and an uncanny perception in diagnosing plays . Bomar can back up a line when needed , can not be swept out by swinging interference and is powerful enough to hold his own even when big guards and tackles come at him .

As a receiver of a forward pass , he has , besides the skill , the excellent quality of being very hard to knock off his feet , and when he and the defense both try for the pass at the same time , Bomar is far more likely to get the ball on account of the fact that he outweighs the majority of defensive players . He has been used in all sorts of positions this year , both in attack and defense and this had broadened his scope and increased his value .

= = = = 1924 = = = =

During Bomar 's senior season ( when he moved to halfback ) , the Commodores tied the Quantico Marines 13 – 13 . Bomar , picking up a fumble , ran 84 yards for a touchdown . According to a newspaper account , " It was Lynn Bomar 's gigantic figure that broke up what looked like a Marine cakewalk . After receiving the kickoff , the Marines drove steadily to Vanderbilt 's 10 @-@ yard line as Goettge repeatedly completed short passes . At the 10 , Groves dropped back . The pass from center was low . He missed it . He reached for the ball . It trickled off his fingers . The Commodores were boring in . Wakefield was in there . Then Bomar came charging through . He picked up the ball and with a twist was out of Groves ' grasp . He came out of the bunch with a long , charging run . Then he seemed a little undecided . One fleeting glance behind him and he struck out . Up came his free arm to brush off his headgear . His thin , yellow hair stood out . On he swept like a thundercloud of vengeance across the goal . Bedlam broke loose . " Captain and guard Tuck Kelly was injured during the game , making Bomar the interim captain two weeks later against the Georgia Bulldogs .

In the Georgia game Bomar had a brain hemorrhage after he was kicked in the chin , and half his body was paralyzed for two days . It was thought that he would never play football again : " Not a player on the team could talk of Bomar 's injury without tears coming to his eyes " , and Bomar sat on the bench for the rest of the season 's games . Known as a devastating blocker and " lightning fast , " he was the first Commodore football player elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1956 . At his induction Bomar said , " I just wish all the men who played with me at Vanderbilt between 1921 and 1924 could also receive this coveted award . They deserve it more than I do . After all , they made it possible for me to be chosen . "

He was a member of the Kappa Sigma fraternity . Nashville sportswriter Fred Russell , who entered Vanderbilt in 1924 , told a story about Bomar in his autobiography Bury Me In An Old Press Box : " As a freshman I had pledged Kappa Sigma fraternity , which at that time had many varsity athletes . Among them was Lynn Bomar , selected All @-@ American end in 1923 ... I also had the responsibility , as a freshman , of awakening Bomar in time for him to get to classes , and at the end of the school year I did this one morning by rolling the biggest lighted firecracker I ever saw under his bed . When it exploded I feared the whole corner of the fraternity house had been blown off , and I was so scared that even Bomar in his BVD 's chasing me across the street and deep into the campus couldn 't catch me . "

According to Vanderbilt 's All @-@ Southern halfback and 1924 captain @-@ elect Gil Reese , " He would never let them jump on me . Whenever anyone would threaten me , Bomar was always right there to say ' Keep your hands off that boy ' . They always did , too . Bomar always looked after me , and he always called back to me when we started on end runs . No one could run interference like Bomar . " Bomar and Reese were on an all @-@ time Vanderbilt team in the school 's 1934 yearbook , and Bomar was chosen for an Associated Press Southeast Area all @-@ time football team for the era from 1920 to 1969 .

= = = Basketball = = =

Bomar also played baseball and basketball at Vanderbilt , and was a forward on the basketball team . He attracted large crowds at basketball games because of his football prowess .

= = = = 1922 – 23 = = = =

The 1922 – 23 team had a 16 – 8 record , beating the LSU Tigers but losing to the Virginia Tech Hokies in the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association tournament . An account of the LSU game read , " Either Vanderbilt was in rare form or L.S.U. has a good fighting team with no shooting ability . Fans were treated to the most one @-@ sided contest of opening day when these two clubs met , the Commodores scoring 13 points before the Louisianans had counted once , winning 36 to 10 . " Bomar scored two points in the game .

= = = = 1923 – 24 = = = =

The team , coached by Josh Cody , had a 7 – 15 record . In the SoCon tournament , Vanderbilt defeated Clemson 42 – 13 and Bomar scored seven points . According to one account , " Reese and Bomar used to be famous for their forward pass work . They are still using it in basketball . Most of Bomar 's passes to Reese are caught over the right shoulder with the recipient facing away from the passer . " Along with Reese , All @-@ Southern forward Alvin Bell was also a teammate . Vanderbilt lost the next game to the eventual tournament champions , Jack Cobb and Cartwright Carmichael @-@ led North Carolina , 37 – 20 . When Bomar was sidelined by a football injury in 1924 , Gil Reese became the basketball team captain .

= = = Baseball = = =

He was a catcher on the baseball team . Cliff Wheatley spoke of the many good catchers from which to choose for his 1922 All @-@ Southern baseball team , " And up at Vanderbilt , Lynn Bomar made a splendid record . "

= = New York Giants = =

= = = 1925 = = =

Bomar fully recovered from his injury and played professional football as an end for the inaugural 1925 New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) with Jim Thorpe , Century Milstead , and Owen Reynolds . He was signed to the Giants by Harry March .

The first noteworthy game for Bomar was a 14 – 0 loss to the Frankford Yellow Jackets . After the Giants ' poor first half , the Yellow Jackets led by 14 points . During the second half the Giants recovered somewhat , with good passes from Jack McBride to Bomar but no chance of a comeback . In a 13 – 0 victory over the Rochester Jeffersons , McBride threw a 27 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Bomar . A 13 – 12 win over the Providence Steam Roller had a 24 @-@ yard touchdown pass from McBride to Bomar and an interesting ending . The Giants were backed up near their end zone , faced with a fourth down and leading 13 – 10 . Providence was set for a blitz on the punter , but when he caught the ball he knelt in the end zone for a safety ( not enough for Providence to win ) . Against the Kansas City Cowboys , several passes from McBride to Bomar netted 24 yards in a 67 @-@ yard touchdown drive for a 9 – 3 victory . Bomar had possibly his best day in a 23 – 0 victory over the Dayton Triangles before a crowd of 18 @,@ 000 . Six of McBride 's completed passes that day were to Bomar , including a 45 @-@ yarder for the Giants ' first touchdown . Bomar was selected to NFL president Joseph Carr 's all @-@ star team .

Although the Giants played well , the team experienced financial hardship during its first year . Player salaries were so low that most had to take additional jobs to support themselves . The team 's brief practices , held at 4 : 30 pm each day to accommodate outside @-@ work schedules , enabled little in @-@ season improvement . Overshadowed by baseball , boxing and college football , professional football was not a popular sport in 1925 and owner Tim Mara spent $ 25 @,@ 000 of his own money during the season to keep the team going . The financial struggle continued until the 11th game of the season , when the visiting Red Grange and the Chicago Bears drew more than 73 @,@ 000 fans ( a pro @-@ football record ) and an additional 20 @,@ 000 were turned away . This gave the Giants much @-@ needed revenue , possibly altering the team 's history . In the 19 – 7 Bears victory , Grange intercepted a pass intended for Bomar and returned it for a touchdown .

= = = 1926 = = =

In the season 's second week Bomar scored against Providence on a 15 @-@ yard pass from McBride , and he scored on a 37 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Walt Koppisch against Kansas City . However , his football career ended abruptly when he dislocated his knee in a game against the Brooklyn Lions .

= = = = Longest pass = = = =

From the top of the American Radiator Building to the ground in Bryant Park , a drop of 324 feet ( 98 @.@ 75 m ) , Bomar completed a pass to Hinkey Haines for a record on November 12 . Haines caught the ball on the fifth attempt . On Bomar 's first attempt , the New York Times reported that the ball " hit the sidewalk and burst " and the third pass knocked Haines over . The stunt took place two days before a game with the Los Angeles Buccaneers . " It was as much as anything a playful jab at Brick Muller " ( the Buccaneers ' end ) , who caught a pass thrown from atop the Telephone Building — a drop of 320 feet ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) — in San Francisco the year before to advertise the first East @-@ West Shrine Game .

= = Personal life = =

Bomar married Veturia Edna Hicks on November 20 , 1927 in Williamson County , Tennessee . Their only son , Robert , was a resident surgeon at Vanderbilt Hospital . Bomar was a Baptist .

= = Law @-@ enforcement career = =

After football and marriage , Bomar was assistant manager of the Colonial Hotel in Springfield , Tennessee for seven years . He sold life insurance , but found it dull . Bomar then began a long career in law enforcement , beginning in the United States Marshals Service office from 1934 to 1939 . In 1939 he became a division chief with the Knoxville Highway Patrol and a year later became director of public safety , overseeing the city 's police and fire departments . For a few months the public @-@ safety position was eliminated , and Bomar was again the Highway Patrol division chief . Governor Prentice Cooper promoted him to chief on a trial basis in 1942 , when the incumbent went on active duty in World War II .

= = = Commissioner of Public Safety = = =

In 1945 , Bomar was appointed as both state commissioner of public safety and patrol chief . In this capacity he worked for the Tennessee Motor Transportation Association , Universal Tire and Appliance Company and the Tennessee Superintendent of Public Works .

= = = = Columbia Race Riots = = = =

In 1946 , Bomar supervised the ransacking of African @-@ American households in the Columbia Race Riot . A February 25 fight between James Stephenson , an African @-@ American Navy veteran , and a white shopkeeper reportedly ignited the unrest . Later that day there was gunfire , fighting and rioting between whites and African Americans in Mink Slide , Columbia 's African @-@ American business district . When black citizens shot out the street lights , three officers and a chief responded to the gunfire ; all four were shot . Bomar , described by one writer as commanding " the firing line of the State Highway Police , " led the team sent in after the shootings with permission from the state attorney general to search homes and businesses for weapons . None of the accused were granted bail or allowed legal counsel , and 12 were charged with attempted murder .

Under oath in court , Bomar said that he had no search warrant and anticipated that he would not have a warrant the next time he searched similar properties . He called journalist Vincent Sheean a " lying Communistic yellow — — . " According to a contemporary account , " In this situation , even though it ’ s fair to say [ Bomar ] was just doing his job , it ’ s equally clear that he was a loose cannon . His personality dominated the scene , and it was the personality of a bully . "

= = = Warden = = =

Bomar was warden of Tennessee State Prison from 1955 until his death . He oversaw the execution of several men including William Tines , an African American convicted of raping a 45 @-@ year @-@ old white woman , who was executed in the electric chair . Tines was the last man executed by electrocution in Tennessee , and the last person executed until Robert Glen Coe in 2000 .

= = = = The Prisonaires = = = =

Bomar supported the Prisonaires , a doo @-@ wop quintet of inmates who received a BMI award for their hit " Just Walkin ' in the Rain " in his office . A spoken @-@ word track on their album , Only Believe ... , was " Message from Prison Warden Lynn Bomar " .

= = Death = =

On June 11 , 1964 , Bomar died a few hours after a heart attack . In 1966 , he was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Sports Hall of Fame .

= Sitting Bull =

Sitting Bull ( Lakota : Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake in Standard Lakota Orthography , also nicknamed Húŋkešni or " Slow " ; c . 1831 – December 15 , 1890 ) was a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies . He was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him , at a time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement .

Before the Battle of the Little Bighorn , Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers , " as thick as grasshoppers , " falling upside down into the Lakota camp , which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which a large number of soldiers would be killed . About three weeks later , the confederated Lakota tribes with the Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25 , 1876 , annihilating Custer 's battalion and seeming to bear out Sitting Bull 's prophetic vision . Sitting Bull 's leadership inspired his people to a major victory . Months after their victory at the battle , Sitting Bull and his group left the United States for Wood Mountain , North @-@ West Territories ( now Saskatchewan ) , where he remained until 1881 , at which time he and most of his band returned to US territory and surrendered to U.S. forces . A small remnant of his band under Waŋblí Ǧi decided to stay at Wood Mountain .

After working as a performer with Buffalo Bill 's Wild West show , Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota . Because of fears that he would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement , Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest . During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull 's followers and the agency police , Sitting Bull was shot in the side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head ( Tatankapah Lakota : Tȟatȟáŋka Pȟá ) and Red Tomahawk ( Marcelus Chankpidutah Lakota : " Čhaŋȟpí Dúta " ) after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull 's supporters . His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial . In 1953 , his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains , reburying them near Mobridge , South Dakota , near his birthplace .

= = Early life = =

Sitting Bull was born in Dakota Territory . In 2007 , Sitting Bull 's great @-@ grandson asserted from family oral tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River , south of present @-@ day Miles City , Montana . He was named Jumping Badger at birth , and nicknamed Hunkesi , or " Slow , " said to describe his careful and unhurried nature . When the boy was fourteen years old he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors ( which included his father and his uncle Four Horns ) in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors . Jumping Badger displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow , which was witnessed by the other mounted Lakota . Upon returning to camp his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son . The name , Tȟatȟaŋka Iyotȟaŋka ( Tatanka Iyotaka ) , which in the Lakota language means " Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down " , would later be abbreviated to " Sitting Bull " . Thereafter , Sitting Bull 's father was known as Jumping Bull . At this ceremony before the entire band , Sitting Bull 's father presented his son with an eagle feather to wear in his hair , a warrior 's horse , and a hardened buffalo hide shield to mark his son 's passage into manhood as a Lakota warrior .

During the Dakota War of 1862 , in which Sitting Bull 's people were not involved , several bands of eastern Dakota people killed an estimated 300 to 800 settlers and soldiers in south @-@ central Minnesota in response to poor treatment by the government and in an effort to drive the whites away . Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War , the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864 , even against bands which had not been involved in the hostilities . In 1864 , two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village . The defenders were led by Sitting Bull , Gall and Inkpaduta . The Lakota and Dakota were driven out , but skirmishing continued into August .

In September , Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a small party near what is now Marmarth , North Dakota . They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect some repairs to an overturned wagon . When he led an attack , Sitting Bull was shot in the left hip by a soldier . The bullet exited out through the small of his back , and the wound was not serious .

= = Red Cloud 's War = =

From 1866 to 1868 , Red Cloud as a leader of the Oglala Lakota fought against US forces , attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of the Powder River Country of Montana . In support of him , Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold , Fort Stevenson , and Fort Buford and their environs from 1865 through 1868 . Sitting Bull also made guerrilla attacks on emigrant parties and smaller forts throughout the upper Missouri River region .

By early 1868 , the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to Red Cloud 's War . It agreed to Red Cloud 's demands that the US abandon forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith . Gall of the Hunkpapa ( among other representatives of the Hunkpapa , Blackfeet , and Yankton Dakota ) signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2 , 1868 at Fort Rice ( near Bismarck , North Dakota ) . Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty . He told the Jesuit missionary , Pierre Jean De Smet , who sought him out on behalf of the government : “ I wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of part of my country . ” He continued his hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on forts in the upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s .

The events of 1866 @-@ 1868 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull 's life . According to historian Stanley Vestal , who conducted interviews with surviving Hunkpapa in 1930 , Sitting Bull was made " Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation " at this time . Later historians and ethnologists have refuted this concept of authority , as the Lakota society was highly decentralized . Lakota bands and their elders made individual decisions , including whether to wage war .

= = The Great Sioux War of 1876 = =

Sitting Bull 's band of Hunkpapa continued to attack migrating parties and forts in the late 1860s . When in 1871 the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands , it encountered stiff Lakota resistance . The same railway people returned the following year accompanied by federal troops . Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa attacked the survey party , which was forced to turn back . In 1873 , the military accompaniment for the surveyors was increased again , but Sitting Bull 's forces resisted the survey " most vigorously . " The Panic of 1873 forced the Northern Pacific Railway 's backers ( such as Jay Cooke ) into bankruptcy . This halted construction of the railroad through Lakota , Dakota , and Nakota territory .

After the 1848 finding of gold in the Sierra Nevada and dramatic gains in new wealth from it , other men became interested in the potential for gold mining in the Black Hills . In 1874 , Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led a military expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln near Bismarck , to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine a suitable location for a military fort in the Hills . Custer 's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush . Tensions increased between the Lakota and whites seeking to move into the Black Hills .

Although Sitting Bull did not attack Custer 's expedition in 1874 , the US government was increasingly pressured by citizens to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement . Failing in an attempt to negotiate a purchase or lease of the Hills , the government in Washington had to find a way around the promise to protect the Sioux in their land , as specified in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie.It was alarmed at reports of Sioux depredations ( encouraged by Sitting Bull ) . In November 1875 , President Grant ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto the reservation , knowing full well that not all would comply . As of February 1 , 1876 , the Interior Department certified as " hostile " those bands who continued to live off the reservation . This certification allowed the military to pursue Sitting Bull and other Lakota bands as " hostiles " .

Based on tribal oral histories , historian Margot Liberty theorizes many Lakota bands allied with the Cheyenne during the Plains Wars because they thought the other nation was under attack by the US . Given this connection , she suggests the major war should have been called " The Great Cheyenne War " . Since 1860 , the Northern Cheyenne had led several battles among the Plains Indians . Before 1876 , the U.S. Army had destroyed seven Cheyenne camps , more than those of any other nation .

Other historians , such as Robert M. Utley and Jerome Greene , also use Lakota oral testimony , but they have concluded that the Lakota coalition , of which Sitting Bull was the ostensible head , was the primary target of the federal government 's pacification campaign .

= = = Battle of the Little Bighorn = = =

During the period 1868 – 1876 , Sitting Bull developed into the most important of Native American political leaders . After the Treaty of Fort Laramie ( 1868 ) and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation , many traditional Sioux warriors , such as Red Cloud of the Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brulé , moved to reside permanently on the reservations . They were largely dependent for subsistence on the US Indian agencies . Many other chiefs , including members of Sitting Bull 's Hunkpapa band such as Gall , at times lived temporarily at the agencies . They needed the supplies at a time when white encroachment and the depletion of buffalo herds reduced their resources and challenged Native American independence .

In 1875 the Northern Cheyenne , Hunkpapa , Oglala , Sans Arc , and Minneconjou camped together for a Sun Dance , with both the Cheyenne medicine man White Bull or Ice and Sitting Bull in association . This ceremonial alliance preceded their fighting together in 1876 . Sitting Bull had a major revelation .

At the climactic moment , " Sitting Bull intoned , ' The Great Spirit has given our enemies to us . We are to destroy them . We do not know who they are . They may be soldiers . ' Ice too observed , ' No one then knew who the enemy were – of what tribe . ' ... They were soon to find out . " ( Utley 1992 : 122 – 24 )

Sitting Bull 's refusal to adopt any dependence on the US government meant that at times he and his small band of warriors lived isolated on the Plains . When Native Americans were threatened by the United States , numerous members from various Sioux bands and other tribes , such as the North Cheyenne , came to Sitting Bull 's camp . His reputation for " strong medicine " developed as he continued to evade the European Americans .

After the January 1st ultimatum of 1876 , when the US Army began to track down as hostiles those Sioux and others living off the reservation , Native Americans gathered at Sitting Bull 's camp . He took an active role in encouraging this " unity camp " . He sent scouts to the reservations to recruit warriors , and told the Hunkpapa to share supplies with those Native Americans who joined them . An example of his generosity was Sitting Bull 's taking care of Wooden Leg 's Northern Cheyenne tribe . They had been impoverished by Captain Reynold 's March 17 , 1876 attack and fled to Sitting Bull 's camp for safety .

Over the course of the first half of 1876 , Sitting Bull 's camp continually expanded , as natives joined him for safety in numbers . His leadership had attracted warriors and families , creating an extensive village estimated at more than 10 @,@ 000 people . Lt. Col. Custer came across this large camp on June 25 , 1876 . Sitting Bull did not take a direct military role in the ensuing battle ; instead he acted as a spiritual leader . A week prior to the attack , he had performed the Sun Dance , in which he fasted and sacrificed over 100 pieces of flesh from his arms .

Custer ’ s 7th Cavalry advance party attacked Cheyenne and Lakota tribes at their camp on the Little Big Horn River ( known as the Greasy Grass River to the Lakota ) on June 25 , 1876 . The U.S. Army did not realize how large the camp was . More than 2 @,@ 000 Native American warriors had left their reservations to follow Sitting Bull . Inspired by a vision of Sitting Bull ’ s , in which he saw U.S. soldiers being killed as they entered the tribe ’ s camp , the Cheyenne and Lakota fought back . Custer 's badly outnumbered troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat . The tribes led a counter @-@ attack against the soldiers on a nearby ridge , ultimately annihilating them .

The Native Americans ' victory celebrations were short @-@ lived . Public shock and outrage at Custer 's death and defeat , and the government 's knowledge about the remaining Sioux , led them to assign thousands more soldiers to the area . Over the next year , the new American military forces pursued the Lakota , forcing many of the Native Americans to surrender . Sitting Bull refused to surrender and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North @-@ West Territories , Canada . He remained in exile for four years near Wood Mountain , refusing a pardon and the chance to return . When crossing the border into Canadian territory , Sitting Bull was met by the Mounties of the region . During this meeting , James Morrow Walsh , commander of the North @-@ West Mounted Police , explained to Sitting Bull that the Lakota were now on British soil and must obey British law . Walsh emphasized that he enforced the law equally and that every person in the territory had a right to justice . Walsh became an advocate for Sitting Bull and the two became good friends for the remainder of their lives .

While in Canada , Sitting Bull also met with Crowfoot , who was a leader of the Blackfeet , long @-@ time powerful enemies of the Lakota and Cheyenne . Sitting Bull wished to make peace with the Blackfeet Nation and Crowfoot . As an advocate for peace himself , Crowfoot eagerly accepted the tobacco peace offering . Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him . Sitting Bull and his people stayed in Canada for 4 years . Due to the smaller size of the buffalo herds in Canada , Sitting Bull and his men found it difficult to find enough food to feed his people , who were starving and exhausted . Sitting Bull ’ s presence in the country led to increased tensions between the Canadian and the United States governments . Before Sitting Bull left Canada , he may have visited Walsh for a final time and left a ceremonial headdress as a memento .

= = = Surrender = = =

Hunger and desperation eventually forced Sitting Bull , and 186 of his family and followers , to return to the United States and surrender on July 19 , 1881 . Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his Winchester lever @-@ action carbine to Major David H. Brotherton , commanding officer of Fort Buford , Sitting Bull said to Major David H. Brotherton , " I , Takanka Iyotanka , wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle . " To the Oglala Lakotas , Dakotas and Nakota , " to surrender my rifle " in this context meant " We have killed enough white men with your own rifles so I give this rifle back to you , for Tunkasila Wakantanka ( Grandfather Great Mystery ) will use a different way to help us overcome the white man . " In the parlor of the Commanding Officer 's Quarters in a ceremony the next day , he told the four soldiers , 20 warriors and other guests in the small room that he wished to regard the soldiers and the white race as friends but he wanted to know who would teach his son the new ways of the world . Two weeks later , after waiting in vain for other members of his tribe to follow him from Canada , the Army transferred Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Yates , the military post located adjacent to the Standing Rock Agency . This reservation straddles the present @-@ day boundary between North and South Dakota .

Sitting Bull and his band of 186 people were kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency . Army officials were concerned that he would stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands . On August 26 , 1881 , he was visited by census taker William T. Selwyn , who counted twelve people in the Hunkpapa leader 's immediate family . Forty @-@ one families , totaling 195 people , were recorded in Sitting Bull 's band .

The military decided to transfer Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Randall , to be held as prisoners of war . Loaded onto a steamboat , the band of 172 people was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall ( near present @-@ day Pickstown , South Dakota ) on the southern border of the state . There they spent the next 20 months . They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883 .

In 1883 , rumors were reported that Sitting Bull had been baptized into the Catholic Church . James McLaughlin , Indian agent at Standing Rock Agency , dismissed these reports , saying that " The reported baptism of Sitting @-@ Bull is erroneous . There is no immediate prospect of such ceremony so far as I am aware . "

= = Meets Annie Oakley = =

In 1884 show promoter Alvaren Allen asked Agent James McLaughlin to allow Sitting Bull to tour parts of Canada and the northern United States . The show was called the " Sitting Bull Connection . " It was during this tour that Sitting Bull met Annie Oakley in Minnesota . He was so impressed with Oakley 's skills with firearms that he offered $ 65 for a photographer to take a photo of the two together . The admiration and respect was mutual . Oakley stated that Sitting Bull made a " great pet " of her . In observing Oakley , Sitting Bull 's respect for the young sharpshooter grew . Oakley was quite modest in her attire , deeply respectful of others , and had a remarkable stage persona despite being a woman who stood only five feet in height . Sitting Bull felt that she was " gifted " by supernatural means in order to shoot so accurately with both hands . As a result of his esteem , he symbolically " adopted " her as a daughter in 1884 . He named her " Little Sure Shot " — a name that Oakley used throughout her career .

= = Wild West Show = =

In 1885 , Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody ’ s Buffalo Bill 's Wild West . He earned about $ 50 a week for riding once around the arena , where he was a popular attraction . Although it is rumored that he cursed his audiences in his native tongue during the show , the historian Utley contends that he did not . Historians have reported that Sitting Bull gave speeches about his desire for education for the young , and reconciling relations between the Sioux and whites . The historian Edward Lazarus wrote that Sitting Bull reportedly cursed his audience in Lakota in 1884 , during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway .

Sitting Bull stayed with the show for four months before returning home . During that time , audiences considered him a celebrity and romanticized him as a warrior . He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture , although he often gave his money away to the homeless and beggars .

= = Ghost Dance Movement = =

Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency after working in Buffalo Bill 's Wild West show . Tension between Sitting Bull and Agent McLaughlin increased and each became more wary of the other over several issues including division and sale of parts of the Great Sioux Reservation . During that period , in 1889 Indian Rights Activist Caroline Weldon from Brooklyn , New York , a member of the National Indian Defense Association " NIDA " , reached out to Sitting Bull , acting to be his voice , secretary , interpreter and advocate . She joined him , together with her young son Christy at his compound on the Grand River , sharing with him and his family home and hearth . A Paiute Indian , named Wovoka , spread a religious movement from Nevada eastward to the Plains in 1889 that preached a resurrection of the Native . This was a time of severe conditions of harsh winters and long droughts impacting the Sioux Reservation . It was known as the “ Ghost Dance Movement ” , because it called on the Indians to dance and chant for the rising up of deceased relatives and return of the buffalo . When the movement reached Standing Rock , Sitting Bull allowed the dancers to gather at his camp . Although he did not appear to participate in the dancing , he was viewed as a key instigator . Alarm spread to nearby white settlements as the Sioux added a new feature to the dance – shirts that were said to stop bullets .

= = Death and burial = =

In 1890 , James McLaughlin , the U.S. Indian Agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency , feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers , so he ordered the police to arrest him . On December 14 , 1890 , McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lt. Henry Bullhead ( noted as Bull Head in lead ) , an Indian agency policeman , that included instructions and a plan to capture Sitting Bull . The plan called for the arrest to take place at dawn on December 15 , and advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate removal before his followers could rally . Bullhead decided against using the wagon . He intended to have the police officers force Sitting Bull to mount a horse immediately after the arrest .

Around 5 : 30 a.m. on December 15 , 39 police officers and four volunteers approached Sitting Bull 's house . They surrounded the house , knocked and entered . Lt. Bull Head told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside . Sitting Bull and his wife noisily stalled for time , the camp awakened and men converged at the house . As Lt. Bullhead ordered Sitting Bull to mount a horse , he said the Indian Affairs agent needed to see the chief , and then he could return to his house . When Sitting Bull refused to comply , the police used force on him . The Sioux in the village were enraged . Catch @-@ the @-@ Bear , a Lakota , shouldered his rifle and shot Lt. Bullhead , who reacted by firing his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull . Another police officer , Red Tomahawk , shot Sitting Bull in the head , and he dropped to the ground . He died between 12 and 1 p.m.

A close @-@ quarters fight erupted , and within minutes several men were dead . The Lakota killed six policemen immediately and two more died shortly after the fight , including Lt. Bullhead . The police killed Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters at the site , along with two horses .

Sitting Bull 's body was taken to Fort Yates , where it was placed in a coffin ( made by the Army carpenter ) and buried . A monument was installed to mark his burial site after his remains were reportedly taken to South Dakota .

In 1953 Lakota family members exhumed what they believed to be Sitting Bull 's remains , transporting them for reinterment near Mobridge , South Dakota , his birthplace . A monument to him was erected there .

= = Legacy = =

Following Sitting Bull 's death , his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago for use as an exhibit at the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition . Native American dancers also performed at the Exposition .

On September 14 , 1989 , the United States Postal Service released a Great Americans series 28 ¢ postage stamp featuring a likeness of Sitting Bull .

On March 6 , 1996 , Standing Rock College was renamed Sitting Bull College in his honor . Sitting Bull College serves as an institution of higher education on Sitting Bull 's home of Standing Rock in North Dakota and South Dakota .

The American historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published Sitting Bull and the Paradox of Lakota Nationhood ( 2010 ) , a revisionist examination of the Lakota medicine man . Anderson stresses the Little Big Horn in light of past successes of the Lakota Nation and the merits of Sitting Bull himself , rather than simply a mishap by Custer .

In August 2010 , a research team led by Eske Willerslev , an ancient DNA expert at the University of Copenhagen , announced their intention to sequence the genome of Sitting Bull , with the approval of his descendants , using a hair sample obtained during his lifetime .

= = Representation in popular culture = =

Sitting Bull was the subject of , or a featured character in , several Hollywood motion pictures and documentaries , which have reflected changing ideas about him and Lakota culture in relation to the United States . Among them are :

Sitting Bull : The Hostile Sioux Indian Chief ( 1914 )

Sitting Bull at the Spirit Lake Massacre ( 1927 )

Annie Oakley ( 1935 )

Annie Get Your Gun ( 1950 )

Sitting Bull ( 1954 ) , with J. Carrol Naish in the title role , Iron Eyes Cody as Crazy Horse ; with Dale Robertson and William Tannen .

Cheyenne ( 1957 ) , with Clint Walker in the title role of the episode " The Broken Pledge " ; Frank DeKova plays Sitting Bull , and Whit Bissell , George Custer

Buffalo Bill and the Indians , or Sitting Bull 's History Lesson ( 1976 )

Buffalo Girls ( 1995 TV film )

Into the West ( 2005 )

Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee ( 2007 )

Sitting Bull : A Stone in My Heart ( 2008 ) Documentary

As time passed , Sitting Bull has become a symbol and archetype of Native American resistance movements as well as a figure celebrated by descendants of his former enemies :

Legoland Billund , the first Legoland park , contains a Lego sculpture of Sitting Bull , the largest sculpture in the park .

Sitting Bull is featured as the leader for the Native American Civilization in the computer game Civilization IV .

Sitting Bull is lionized as one of 13 great Americans in President Barack Obama 's children 's book , Of Thee I Sing : A Letter to My Daughters .

Sitting Bull is a major character in Sharon Pollock 's play " Walsh " ( 1973 ) , in which he is depicted as a wise and tragic figure during the Lakota nation 's time at Fort Walsh in Saskatchewan . The play is sympathetic to the character of Sitting Bull and hostile to the legend of George Armstrong Custer , re @-@ presenting the General from the perspective of Native Americans as a butcher of women and children .

= The Boat Race 1905 =

The 62nd Boat Race took place on 1 April 1905 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race . In this year 's race , umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 35 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 34 – 27 in their favour .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2015 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1904 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford led overall with 33 victories to Cambridge 's 27 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .

Cambridge were coached by John Edwards @-@ Moss who had rowed in the 1902 and 1903 races , Francis Escombe and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . Oxford 's coaches were William Fletcher , who rowed for them in the 1890 , 1891 , 1892 and 1893 races and C. K. Philips who had represented the Dark Blues four times between 1895 and 1898 . The umpire for the third year was old Etonian and former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman who rowed in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .

= = Crews = =

The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 0 lb ( 76 @.@ 0 kg ) , 1 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained five rowers with Boat Race experience , including A. K. Graham who was rowing in his third consecutive race . Cambridge saw four rowers return to their crew , including P. H. Thomas who was making his fourth appearance in the event . All of the participants in the race were registered as British .

According to former Oxford rower and author George Drinkwater , the Dark Blues , while they " had no great difficulties in training ... never got really together or attained any great place " . Conversely , the Cambridge crew " suffered many misfortunes . " Old Etonian W. P. Wormald was forbidden from joining the crew by doctors , his replacement Stanley Bruce had to stand down soon after the Light Blues arrived at Putney , and he was replaced by novice P. H. Thomas who was unfit having recently returned from Africa .

= = Race = =

Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race started at 11 : 30 a.m. under the command of umpire Pitman , and the Dark Blues took the lead . According to Drinkwater , they " had the race well in hand at the Mile " and " won as they liked it . " Oxford won by three lengths in a time of 20 minutes 35 seconds . It was their first victory in four years and the narrowest winning margin since the 1901 race .

= Tropical Storm Elena ( 1979 ) =

Tropical Storm Elena was a weak tropical storm that moved ashore along Texas in the 1979 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth tropical storm of the season , Elena developed from a tropical wave to the south of Louisiana on August 29 . It tracked generally west @-@ northwest , strengthening little before making landfall on Matagorda Island on September 1 as a minimal tropical storm ; the storm quickly dissipated over land . Elena dropped moderate rainfall along its path , causing two direct deaths in Houston from drowning ; storm damage was minor , amounting to less than $ 10 million ( 1979 USD , $ 28 million 2007 USD ) . Lightning from the storm set fire to an oil supertanker in Houston , causing three indirect deaths and 13 injuries .

= = Meteorological history = =

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 17 . It tracked westward , passing through the Lesser Antilles on August 22 , and on August 27 the weak wave axis crossed through Florida . A tropical disturbance organized along the wave axis , with ship and buoy reports indicating the development of a low @-@ level circulation by August 29 . At 2308 GMT later that day , a Hurricane Hunters flight reported the existence of a tropical depression ; it was classified as Tropical Depression Thirteen , while located about 240 miles ( 390 km ) south of the mouth of the Mississippi River . With a ridge of high pressure located over the southeastern United States , the depression continued tracking generally westward and intensified into Tropical Storm Elena late on August 30 . Elena was the sixth tropical storm of the season , as Hurricane Frederic attained tropical storm status six hours prior to Elena .

Unfavorable northerly vertical wind shear persisted through much of Elena 's duration , which prohibited the development of convection . An approaching frontal trough weakened the high pressure system to its north , which resulted in Elena turning northwestward toward the Texas coastline . The storm remained poorly organized , failing to strengthen further , and on September 1 it made landfall on Matagorda Island as a minimal tropical storm . The cyclone rapidly weakened after moving ashore , and early on September 2 Elena degenerated into a remnant low pressure area over southeastern Texas . Trapped between two high pressure systems , the remnant mid @-@ level circulation drifted southwestward just inland for several days before dissipating on September 6 .

= = Impact = =

As Elena was upgraded to a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a gale warning from Port O 'Connor , Texas to Morgan City , Louisiana ; these remained in effect until the storm moved ashore . Winds were fairly minor in association with the storm ; a station in Galveston , Texas recorded a peak wind gust of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . As Elena moved ashore , it produced a 3 foot ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) storm tide at Galveston and Baytown . Rainfall from the storm was generally limited to the coastline , and peaked at 10 @.@ 3 inches ( 261 mm ) at Palacios ; light rainfall also extended along the coastline of Louisiana . Near Houston , 4 @.@ 6 inches ( 117 mm ) of precipitation was reported , which caused two drownings from flooding . Overall storm damage was fairly minor , totaling to less than $ 10 million ( 1979 USD , $ 28 million 2007 USD ) .

At a dock owned by Shell Oil Company in Deer Park near Houston , a lightning bolt from thunderstorms of Elena struck the oil supertanker SS Chevron Hawaii . The lightning started a fire on the ship , which expanded and wrecked one adjacent barge and burned nearby docks . The ship was nearly split in half from the lightning strike , and oil seeped into Houston Ship Channel for several hours . Firefighters combated the fire on the tanker in boats , but their efforts were hindered due to unsettled weather from Elena , as well as unsafe water to travel through . The fire caused three deaths and 13 injuries , and damage related to the incident totaled $ 27 million ( 1979 USD , $ 76 million 2007 USD ) .

Two Sperry Technicians that were dispatched to repair the radar on the ship were crossing the gangplank at the time of the explosion and were killed . Their names are David Strout and Don Wampler .

= Michigan State University =

Michigan State University ( MSU ) is a public research university in East Lansing , Michigan , United States . MSU was founded in 1855 and became the nation 's first land @-@ grant institution under the Morrill Act of 1862 , serving as a model for future land @-@ grant universities . The university was founded as the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan , one of the country 's first institutions of higher education to teach scientific agriculture . After the introduction of the Morrill Act , the college became coeducational and expanded its curriculum beyond agriculture . Today , MSU is the eighth @-@ largest university in the United States ( in terms of enrollment ) and has approximately 540 @,@ 000 living alumni worldwide .

MSU pioneered the studies of packaging , hospitality business , botany , supply chain management , criminal justice , music therapy , and communication sciences . Michigan State frequently ranks among the top 30 public universities in the United States and the top 100 research universities in the world . U.S. News & World Report ranks many of its graduate programs among the best in the nation , including African history , criminology , industrial and organizational psychology , educational psychology , elementary and secondary education , osteopathic medicine , nuclear physics , rehabilitation counseling , supply chain / logistics , and veterinary medicine . MSU is a member of the Association of American Universities , an organization of 62 leading research universities in North America . The university 's campus houses the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory , the W. J. Beal Botanical Garden , the Abrams Planetarium , the Wharton Center for Performing Arts , the Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum , the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams , and the country 's largest residence hall system .

The Michigan State Spartans compete in the NCAA Division I Big Ten Conference . Michigan State Spartans football won the Rose Bowl Game in 1954 , 1956 , 1988 and 2014 , and a total of six national championships . Spartans men 's basketball won the NCAA National Championship in 1979 and 2000 , and has enjoyed a streak of seven Final Four appearances since the 1998 @-@ 1999 season . Spartans ice hockey won NCAA national titles in 1966 , 1986 and 2007 .

= = History = =

= = = Agriculture school = = =

The Michigan Constitution of 1850 called for the creation of an " agricultural school , " though it was not until February 12 , 1855 , that Michigan Governor Kinsley S. Bingham signed a bill establishing the United States ' first agriculture college , the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan . Classes began on May 13 , 1857 , with three buildings , five faculty members , and 63 male students .

The first president , Joseph R. Williams , designed a curriculum that required more scientific study than practically any undergraduate institution of the era . It balanced science , liberal arts , and practical training . The curriculum excluded Latin and Greek studies , since most applicants did not study any classical languages in their rural high schools . However , it did require three hours of daily manual labor , which kept costs down for both the students and the College . Despite Williams ' innovations and his defense of education for the masses , the State Board of Education saw Williams ' curriculum as elitist . They forced him to resign in 1859 and reduced the curriculum to a two @-@ year vocational program .

= = = Land Grant pioneer = = =

In 1860 , Williams became acting lieutenant governor and helped pass the Reorganization Act of 1861 . This gave the College a four @-@ year curriculum and the power to grant master 's degrees . Under the act , a newly created body , known as the State Board of Agriculture , took over from the State Board of Education in running the institution . The College changed its name to State Agricultural College , and its first class graduated in the same year . As the Civil War had just begun , there was no time for an elaborate graduation ceremony . The first alumni enlisted to the Union Army . Williams died , and the following year , Abraham Lincoln signed the First Morrill Act of 1862 to support similar colleges , making the Michigan school a national model .

= = = Co @-@ ed college = = =

The college first admitted women in 1870 , although at that time there were no female residence halls . The few women who enrolled boarded with faculty families or made the arduous stagecoach trek from Lansing . From the early days , female students took the same rigorous scientific agriculture courses as male students . In 1896 , the faculty created a " Women Course " that melded a home economics curriculum with liberal arts and sciences . That same year , the College turned the old Abbot Hall male dorm into a women 's dormitory . It was not until 1899 that the State Agricultural College admitted its first African American student , William O. Thompson . After graduation , he taught at what is now Tuskegee University . President Jonathan L. Snyder invited its president Booker T. Washington to be the Class of 1900 commencement speaker . A few years later , Myrtle Craig became the first woman African @-@ American student to enroll at the College . Along with the Class of 1907 , she received her degree from U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt , commencement speaker for the Semi @-@ Centennial celebration . The City of East Lansing was incorporated that same year , and two years later the college officially changed its name to Michigan Agricultural College ( M.A.C. ) .

= = = Big Ten university = = =

During the early 20th century , M.A.C. expanded its curriculum well beyond agriculture . By 1925 it had expanded enough that it changed its name to Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science ( M.S.C. ) . In 1941 the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture , John A. Hannah , became president of the College . He began the largest expansion in the institution 's history , with the help of the 1945 G.I. Bill , which helped World War II veterans to receive an education . One of Hannah 's strategies was to build a new dormitory building , enroll enough students to fill it , and use the income to start construction on a new dormitory . Under his plan , enrollment increased from 15 @,@ 000 in 1950 to 38 @,@ 000 in 1965 .

In 1957 , Hannah continued MSU 's expansion by co @-@ founding Michigan State University – Oakland , now Oakland University , with Matilda Dodge Wilson . Hannah also got the chance to improve the athletic reputation of M.S.C. when the University of Chicago resigned from the Big Ten Conference in 1946 . Hannah lobbied to take its place , gaining admission in 1949 .

Six years later , in its Centennial year of 1955 , the State of Michigan renamed the College as Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science . Nine years after that , the University governing body changed its name from the State Board of Agriculture to the MSU Board of Trustees . The State of Michigan allowed the University to drop the words " Agriculture and Applied Science " from its name . Since 1964 the institution has gone by the name of Michigan State University .

= = = Oakland University = = =

In 1957 , the donation of 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) in Pontiac Township , Oakland County , Michigan prompted creation of Michigan State University – Oakland . That campus became the independent school , Oakland University , in 1970 .

= = = Global leader by 2012 = = =

Since the end of the Hannah era in 1969 , Michigan State has shifted its focus from increasing the size of its student body to advancing its national and global reputation . In September 2005 , president Lou Anna Simon called for MSU , one of the public ivy institutions , to become the global model leader for Land Grant institutions by the year 2012 . Her plans include creating a new residential college and increasing grants awarded from the National Institutes of Health past the US $ 100 million mark . While there are over 100 Land @-@ grant universities in the United States , she has stated she would like Michigan State University to be the leader .

Michigan State , the University of Michigan and Wayne State University created the University Research Corridor in 2006 . This alliance was formed to transform and strengthen Michigan 's economy by reaching out to businesses , policymakers , innovators , investors and the public to speed up technology transfer , make resources more accessible and attract new jobs to the state .

= = = Sexual assault investigation = = =

On May 1 , 2014 , Michigan State University was named one of fifty @-@ five higher education institutions under investigation by the Office of Civil Rights “ for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints ” by Barack Obama 's White House Task Force To Protect Students from Sexual Assault . " The investigation at Michigan State involves its response to sexual harassment and sexual assault complaints involving students , " according to one reporter . It was later reported in the same paper that " An investigation by the U.S. Department of Education into how Michigan State University handles sexual assault complaints was spurred by an incident in Wonders Hall in August 2010 , a spokesman said . "

= = Campus = =

MSU 's sprawling campus is in East Lansing , Michigan . The campus is perched on the banks of the Red Cedar River . Development of the campus started in 1856 with three buildings : a multipurpose building called College Hall , a dormitory later called " Saints ' Rest " , and a barn . Today , MSU 's contiguous campus consists of 5 @,@ 200 acres ( 21 km2 ) , 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) of which are developed . There are 556 buildings : 100 for academics , 131 for agriculture , 166 for housing and food service , and 42 for athletics . Overall , the university has 22 @,@ 763 @,@ 025 square feet ( 2 @,@ 114 @,@ 754 @.@ 2 m2 ) of indoor space . Connecting it all is 26 miles ( 42 km ) of roads and 100 miles ( 160 km ) of sidewalks . MSU also owns 44 non @-@ campus properties , totaling 22 @,@ 000 acres ( 89 km2 ) in 28 different counties .

= = = North campus = = =

The oldest part of campus lies on the north bank of the Red Cedar . It includes Collegiate Gothic architecture , plentiful trees , and curving roads with few straight lines . The College built its first three buildings here , of which none survive . Other historic buildings north of the river include the president 's official residence , Cowles House , and Beaumont Tower , a carillon clock tower marking the site of College Hall , the original classroom building . To the east lies Eustace – Cole Hall , America 's first freestanding horticulture laboratory . Other landmarks include the bronze statue of former president John A. Hannah , the W. J. Beal Botanical Garden , and the painted boulder known as " The Rock " , a popular spot for theatre , tailgating , and candlelight vigils . On the campus 's northwest corner is the University 's hotel , the Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center . The university also has a museum , initiated in 1857 . MSU Museum is one of the Midwest 's oldest museums and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums .

= = = South campus = = =

The campus south of the river consists mostly of post @-@ World War II International Style buildings , and is characterized by sparser foliage , relatively straight roadways , and many parking lots . The " 2020 Vision " Master Plan proposes replacing these parking lots with parking ramps and green space , but these plans will take many years to reach fruition . As part of the master plan , the University erected a new bronze statue of The Spartan in 2005 to be placed at the intersection of Chestnut and Kalamazoo , just south of the Red Cedar River . This replica replaced the original modernist terra cotta statue , which can still be seen inside Spartan Stadium . Notable academic and research buildings on the South Campus include the Cyclotron and the College of Law .

This part of campus is home to the MSU Horticulture Gardens and the adjoining 4 @-@ H Children 's Garden . South of the gardens lie the Canadian National and CSX railroads , which divide the main campus from thousands of acres of university @-@ owned farmland . The university 's agricultural facilities include the Horse , Dairy Cattle , Beef Cattle , Sheep , and Poultry Teaching and Research Farms , as well as the Air Quality Control Lab and the Diagnostics Center for Population and Animal Health .

= = = Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center = = =

The Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center doubles as a 4 @-@ star hotel and a business @-@ friendly conference center . It is on the northwest corner of Michigan State University 's campus , across from the Brody Complex , on Harrison Road just south of Michigan Avenue . The hotel 's 160 rooms and suites can accommodate anyone staying in East Lansing for a business conference , sporting event or an on @-@ campus visit , but it originally was a dormitory . Besides a lodging facility , the Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center is a " learning laboratory for the 300 – 400 students each year that are enrolled in The School of Hospitality Business and other majors . " The Kellogg Hotel and Conference Center strives to facilitate education by hosting conferences and seminars .

= = = Dubai Campus = = =

MSU runs a small campus at Dubai Knowledge Village , Dubai , United Arab Emirates . It first offered only one program , a master 's program in human resources and labor relations . In 2011 , it added a master 's program in Public Health . In April 2012 , MSU Dubai announced it hopes to begin in 2013 two programs in law : a LL.M program as well as a Master of Jurisprudence program .

Previously , MSU established an education center in Dubai offering six undergraduate programs , thereby becoming the first American university with a presence in Dubai International Academic City . The University attracted 100 students in 2007 , its first year , but the school was unable to achieve the 100 @-@ 150 new students per year needed for the program to be viable , and in 2010 MSU closed the program and the campus .

= = Academics = =

= = = Admissions = = =

Michigan State offers a rolling admissions system , with an early admission deadline in October . MSU is considered " more selective " by the U.S. News & World Report . Its admissions are difficult ; for 2009 's entering class , the 25th / 75th percentiles for the SAT were 1030 and 1240 / 1600 , and its 25th / 75th percentiles on the ACT were 23 and 27 / 36 .

For Fall 2014 , MSU received over 33 @,@ 000 freshman applications , which is a record for the school , and admitted 66 @.@ 1 % applicants . Incoming freshman had an average high school GPA of 3 @.@ 66 .

MSU has the seventh largest student body in the U.S. For the fiscal year of 2009 – 10 , the Office of the Registrar conferred 11 @,@ 140 degrees . The student body is 55 % female and 45 % male . While 89 % of students come from all 83 counties in the State of Michigan , also represented are all 50 states in the U.S. and about 130 other countries .

In 2011 – 2012 , 5 @,@ 898 international students enrolled at MSU . The top five countries represented : China , Korea , India , Taiwan and Canada . According to a Brookings Institution report analyzing foreign student visa approvals from 2008 @-@ 2012 , MSU has the third @-@ highest enrollment of Chinese international students in the United States , with roughly 4 @,@ 700 Chinese citizens enrolled during the period of the study .

MSU has about 4 @,@ 500 faculty and 6 @,@ 000 staff members , and a student / faculty ratio of 19 : 1 . Listed as a Public Ivy , Michigan State is a member of the Association of American Universities . Michigan State University Ombudsman is the longest continually operating ombudsman office at a college or university in the country . MSU 's study abroad program is the largest of any single @-@ campus university in the United States with 2 @,@ 461 students studying abroad in 2004 – 2005 in over 60 countries on all continents , including Antarctica .

MSU has six faculty members elected to the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) ; Martin Bukovac ( 1983 ) , James Dye ( 1989 ) , Pamela Fraker ( 2007 ) , Richard Lenski ( 2006 ) , Michael Thomashow ( 2003 ) , and James Tiedje ( 2003 ) .

= = = Rankings = = =

Michigan State ranks 99th in the world in 2015 , according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities . In its 2015 @-@ 16 rankings , Times Higher Education World University Rankings also ranked it 99th in the world . The 2015 QS World University Rankings placed Michigan State University at 164th internationally . In its 2016 edition , U.S. News & World Report ranked it as tied for the 29th @-@ best public university in the United States , tied for 75th nationally and tied for 82nd globally .

The university has over 200 academic programs . U.S. News ranked MSU 's graduate @-@ level programs in elementary teacher 's education , secondary teacher 's education , industrial and organizational psychology , and nuclear physics first in the nation for 2016 . U.S. News also ranks MSU third nationally for graduate education in African history and fourth nationally for graduate education in Educational Psychology .

The Eli Broad College of Business was ranked No. 42nd among undergraduate institutions nationally by Businessweek . Ninety @-@ four percent of the school 's graduates received job offers in 2014 . The 2016 U.S. News ranked Michigan State 's undergraduate supply chain management / logistics program in the Eli Broad College of Business 1st in the nation . In addition , the Eli Broad College of Business undergraduate accounting program is ranked 13th , the master 's accounting program is ranked 15th , and the doctoral program is ranked 11th , according to the 2013 Public Accounting Report 's Annual Survey of Accounting Professors . The MBA program is ranked 19th in the U.S. by Forbes magazine .

The College of Communication Arts and Sciences was established in 1955 and was the first of its kind in the United States . The college 's Media and Information Studies doctoral program was ranked No. 2 in 2007 by The Chronicle of Higher Education in the category of mass communication . The communication doctoral program was ranked No. 4 in a separate category of communication in The Chronicle of Higher Education 's 2005 Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index , published in 2007 . The college 's faculty and alumni include eight Pulitzer Prize winners and a two @-@ time Emmy Award winning recording mixer .

Other programs of note include criminal justice , hospitality business , packaging , political science , dietetics and communications . The Sustainable Endowments Institute awarded Michigan State with an overall grade of " B " on the 2009 Campus Sustainability Survey , including " A " s in the categories of Administration , Transportation , Endowment Transparency , and Investment Policies .

= = = Collections and Museum = = =

The Eli and Edythe Broad Art Museum is the university 's contemporary art museum . Michigan State University Libraries comprise North America 's 29th largest academic library system with over 4 @.@ 9 million volumes and 6 @.@ 7 million microforms .

= = = Research = = =

The university has a long history of academic research , and in 2013 – 14 spent $ 528 million toward it . In 1877 , botany professor William J. Beal performed the first documented genetic crosses to produce hybrid corn , which led to increased yields . MSU dairy professor G. Malcolm Trout invented the process for the homogenization of milk in the 1930s . In the 1960s , MSU scientists developed cisplatin , a leading cancer fighting drug . Albert Fert , an Adjunct professor at MSU , was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physics together with Peter Grünberg .

Today , Michigan State continues its research with facilities such as the U.S. Department of Energy @-@ sponsored MSU @-@ DOE Plant Research Laboratory and a particle accelerator called the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory . The U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science named Michigan State University as the site for the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams ( FRIB ) . The $ 730 million facility will attract top researchers from around the world to conduct experiments in basic nuclear science , astrophysics , and applications of isotopes to other fields .

In 2004 , scientists at the Cyclotron produced and observed a new isotope of the element germanium , called Ge @-@ 60 In that same year , Michigan State , in consortium with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the government of Brazil , broke ground on the 4 @.@ 1 @-@ meter Southern Astrophysical Research Telescope ( SOAR ) in the Andes Mountains of Chile . The consortium telescope will allow the Physics & Astronomy department to study galaxy formation and origins . Since 1999 , MSU has been part of a consortium called the Michigan Life Sciences Corridor , which aims to develop biotechnology research in the State of Michigan . Finally , the College of Communication Arts and Sciences ' Quello Center researches issues of information and communication management .

= = = = Big Ten Academic Alliance = = = =

Michigan State University is a participant in the Big Ten Academic Alliance . The Big Ten Academic Alliance ( BTAA ) is the academic consortium of the universities in the Big Ten Conference . Engaging in $ 10 billion in research in 2014 @-@ 2015 , BTAA universities provide powerful insight into important issues in medicine , technology , agriculture , and communities . Students at participating schools are also allowed " in @-@ house " borrowing privileges at other schools ' libraries . The BTAA uses collective purchasing and licensing , and has saved member institutions $ 19 million to date . Course sharing , professional development programs , study abroad and international collaborations , and other initiatives are also part of the BTAA .

= = = Endowment = = =

MSU 's ( private , non @-@ Morrill Act ) endowment started in 1916 when the Engineering Building burned down . Automobile magnate R.E. Olds helped the program stay afloat with a gift of $ 100 @,@ 000 . There was a time when MSU lagged behind peer institutions in terms of endowments . As recently as the early 1990s , MSU was last among the eleven Big Ten schools , with barely over $ 100 million in endowment funds .

This changed dramatically in the 2000s ( decade ) , when the University started a campaign to increase the size of the endowment . At the close of fiscal year 2004 – 2005 , the endowment had risen to $ 1 @.@ 325 billion , raising the University to sixth of the 11 Big Ten schools in terms of endowment ; within $ 2 million of the fifth @-@ rated school . The rapid increase in the size of the endowment will help to improve outdated facilities , such as the Music Building , which the College of Music hopes to soon replace with money from its alumni fundraising program .

= = Colleges = =

MSU has over 200 academic programs offered by 17 @-@ degree @-@ granting colleges .

= = = Residential colleges = = =

MSU has several residential colleges , based on the Oxbridge " living @-@ learning " model . By putting classes in student dormitories , these colleges improve student access to faculty and facilities . MSU 's first residential college , Justin Morrill College started in 1965 with an interdisciplinary curriculum . MSU closed Morrill College in 1979 , but today the university has three residential colleges , including the recent opening of the Residential College in Arts & Humanities ( RCAH ) located in Snyder and Phillips halls .

Established in 1967 , James Madison College is a smaller component residential college featuring multidisciplinary programs in the social sciences , founded on a model of liberal education . James Madison College is housed in Case Hall . Classes in the college are small , with an average of 25 students , and most instructors are tenure track faculty . James Madison College has about 1150 students total , with each freshman class containing about 320 students . Each of Madison 's four majors — Social Relations and Policy , International Relations , Political Theory and Constitutional Democracy , and Comparative Cultures and Politics — requires two years of foreign language and one semester of " field experience " in an internship or study abroad program . Although Madison students make up about 4 % of MSU graduates , they represent around 35 % of the MSU 's Phi Beta Kappa members .

Also established in 1967 , Lyman Briggs College teaches math and science within social , historical and philosophical contexts . Many Lyman Briggs students intend to pursue careers in medicine , but the school supports over 30 coordinate majors , from human biology to computer sciences . Lyman Briggs is one of the few colleges that lets undergraduates teach as " Learning Assistants . "

MSU 's newest residential college is the Residential College in Arts & Humanities . Founded October 21 , 2005 , the college provides around 600 undergraduates with an individualized curriculum in the liberal , visual and performing arts . Though all the students will graduate with the same degree , MSU encourages students in the college to get a second degree or specialization . The university houses the new college in a newly renovated Snyder @-@ Phillips Hall , the location of MSU 's first residential college , Justin Morrill College .

= = = Professional schools = = =

The Michigan State University College of Law is an independent , non @-@ profit corporation affiliated with the public institution . Founded in Detroit in 1891 as the Detroit College of Law , the law school moved to East Lansing in 1995 becoming an integral part of the university . Students attending MSU College of Law come from 42 states and 13 countries . The law school publishes the Michigan State Law Review , the Michigan State Journal of International Law , the Journal of Medicine Law , and the Journal of Business & Securities Law . The College of Law is the home of the Geoffrey Fieger Trial Practice Institute , the first trial practice institute in the United States . The Intellectual Property and Communications Law program was ranked seventeenth nationally , in 2006 .

The Eli Broad College of Business has programs in accounting , information systems , finance , general management , human resource management , marketing , supply chain management , and hospitality business . The school has 2 @,@ 066 admitted undergraduate students and 817 graduate students . The Eli Broad Graduate School of Management , which Businessweek magazine in 2012 ranked 35th in the nation and 14th among public institutions , offers three MBA programs , as well as joint degrees with the College of Law . The opening of the Eugene C. Eppley Center for Graduate Studies in Hotel , Restaurant and Institutional Management brought the first program in the United States to offer a Master of Business Administration degree in Hotel , Restaurant and Institutional Management to MSU .

The Michigan State University College of Nursing grants B.S.N. , M.S.N. , and PhD degrees .

The Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine was the world 's first publicly funded college of osteopathic medicine . It has a long @-@ standing tradition of retaining its alumni in Michigan to practice – more than two @-@ thirds of the college 's graduates remain to practice in Michigan . In 2008 , the Michigan State University Board of Trustees approved a resolution endorsing the expansion of the College of Osteopathic Medicine to two sites in southeast Michigan , a move board members and college officials say will not only improve medical education in the state , but also address a projected physician shortage .

According to U.S. News & World Report 's 2016 rankings , the College of Osteopathic Medicine ( D.O. degree ) ranked tied for 12th among U.S. medical schools for primary care , and the College of Human Medicine ( MD degree ) was ranked 70th among the U.S. medical schools for primary care .

The College of Human Medicine graduates students with a Doctor of Medicine ( M.D. degree ) and is split into seven distinct campuses located in East Lansing , Kalamazoo , Flint , Saginaw , Marquette , Traverse City and Grand Rapids . Each campus is affiliated with local hospitals and other medical facilities professionals in the area . For example , the Lansing campus includes Sparrow Hospital and McLaren – Greater Lansing Hospital . The College of Human Medicine has recently gained attention for its expansion into the Grand Rapids area , with the new Secchia Center completed in the Fall of 2010 , that is expected to fuel the growing medical industry in that region .

Though Michigan State has offered courses in veterinary science since its founding , the College of Veterinary Medicine was not formally established as a four @-@ year , degree @-@ granting program until 1910 . In 2011 , the Michigan State University College of Veterinary Medicine was ranked No. 9 in the nation . The college has over 170 @,@ 000 square feet ( 16 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office , teaching , and research space , as well as a veterinary teaching hospital .

= = = Other academic units = = =

In recent years , MSU 's music program has grown substantially . Music major enrollment increased more than 97 % between 1991 and 2004 . In early 2007 , this growth led the university board of trustees to spin the music program off into its own college unit : The MSU College of Music . The new college faces many new challenges , such as working with limited space and funding . Nevertheless , MSU 's music college plans on continued success , placing an annual average of 25 graduate students in tenure stream university positions .

The College of Education at Michigan State University offers graduate and undergraduate degrees in several fields , including counseling , educational psychology , special education , teacher education and kinesiology . The graduate school has several programs ranked in the top five in the country by U.S. News & World Report for 2016 : elementary teacher education ( 1st ) , secondary teacher education ( 1st ) , curriculum and instruction ( 3rd ) , educational psychology ( 4th ) , and higher education administration ( 4th ) . The College of Education is housed in Erickson Hall .

Founded in 1956 , the MSU Honors College provides individualized curricula to MSU 's top undergraduate students . Though the college offers no majors of its own , it has its own dean and academic advisers to help Honors students with their educational pursuits . High school students starting at MSU may join the Honors College if they are in the top 5 % of their high school graduating class and have an ACT score of at least 30 or an SAT total score of at least 1360 . Students can also be admitted after their first semester , generally if they 're in the top 10 % of their College in GPA . Once admitted , students must maintain a 3 @.@ 20 GPA and complete eight approved honors courses to graduate with Honors College designation on their degree . If membership is relinquished , it cannot be reclaimed .

After three years of planning , The College of Engineering launched the first stages of its Residential Experience for Spartan Engineering , formally known as the Residential Option for Scientists and Engineers ( ROSES ) , the new program is in Wilson Hall after being housed in Bailey Hall for a number of years . The Residential program essentially combines with a brand new academic component , Cornerstone Engineering , where freshman engineering students not only get an overview of the engineering field ( s ) but get a hands @-@ on experience along with it . Global Engineering is a new subject that is of interest for not only the Cornerstone Engineering and Residential Experience programs but the entire College of Engineering at MSU . Engineering in today 's society has shown to have a monumental impact on the global economy due to advancements in education , interdependence on economics with infrastructure , computers , transportation , technology and other manufactured goods as well as Michigan State University 's study @-@ abroad program being ranked No. 1 in the nation , allowing for students to experience education and learn cultures in hundreds of countries . The newly established Cornerstone Engineering and Residential Experience programs for College of Engineering have started programs abroad for more courses in engineering including Study abroad seminars .

MSU offers a 30 credit graduate program for Masters in Educational Technology in 3 different formats ; completely online , hybrid in East Lansing , Michigan , or overseas .

= = Athletics = =

Michigan State 's NCAA Division I @-@ A program offers 12 varsity sports for men and 13 for women . Since their teams are called the Spartans , MSU 's mascot is a Spartan warrior named Sparty . The university participates in the Big Ten Conference in all varsity sports , including the new Big Ten hockey conference , featuring 6 teams . The current athletic director is Mark Hollis , who was promoted to the position on January 1 , 2008 . Hollis replaced Ron Mason , who served as head hockey coach from 1979 to 2002 , retiring with a record total of 924 wins , and a 635 – 270 – 69 record at MSU .

In 1888 Michigan State University ( then as known as Michigan Agricultural College ) along with Olivet , Albion and Hillsdale Colleges was a founding member of the nation 's oldest athletic conference , the Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( MIAA ) . MAC left the conference in 1907 .

= = = Football = = =

Football has a long tradition at Michigan State . Starting as a club sport in 1884 , football gained varsity status in 1896 . MSU football teams won the Rose Bowl in 1954 , 1956 , 1988 , and 2014 . They won national championships in 1951 , 1952 , 1955 , 1957 , 1965 and 1966 . The Spartans accounted for four of the top eight selections in the 1967 NFL Draft , the only time a college football program has accomplished such a feat .

Today , the football team competes in Spartan Stadium , a renovated 75 @,@ 005 seat football stadium near the center of campus . The current coach is Mark Dantonio , who was hired on November 27 , 2006 . He led the team in its first season to a 7 – 6 record . In 2010 , the Spartans finished 11 – 2 ( 7 @-@ 1 in conference play ) and were Co @-@ Big Ten Champion along with Wisconsin and Ohio State . In 2011 , the Spartans finished 1st in the Legends Division of the Big Ten with a 7 – 1 ( 11 – 3 ) conference record , logging back @-@ to @-@ back 11 win seasons for the first time in Spartan history . In 2014 , MSU achieved an 11 @-@ 2 overall record with losses only to the University of Oregon Ducks and The Ohio State Buckeyes , and ended the season ranked # 5 .

MSU 's traditional archrival is the University of Michigan , against whom they compete annually for the Paul Bunyan Trophy . Their overall record against the Wolverines currently stands at 32 – 67 – 5 and 23 – 34 – 2 since 1953 when the Paul Bunyan Trophy was established and MSU joined the Big Ten Conference .

= = = Men 's basketball = = =

MSU 's men 's basketball team has won the National Championship twice : in 1979 and again in 2000 . In 1979 , Earvin " Magic " Johnson , along with Greg Kelser , Jay Vincent and Mike Brkovich , led the MSU team to a 75 – 64 win against the Larry Bird @-@ led Indiana State Sycamores . In 2000 , three players from Flint , Morris Peterson , Charlie Bell and Mateen Cleaves , led the team to its second national title . Dubbed the " Flintstones " , they were the key to the Spartans ' win against the University of Florida . On December 13 , 2003 , Michigan State and Kentucky played in the Basketbowl , in which a record crowd of 78 @,@ 129 watched the game in Detroit 's Ford Field . Kentucky won 79 – 74 . The basketball team plays at the Jack Breslin Student Events Center under head coach Tom Izzo , who has a 403 – 166 record as of February 2012 ( 70 @.@ 8 % winning percentage ) . The student spirit section at Breslin is called the Izzone . Izzo 's coaching has helped the team make seven Final Fours since 1999 , winning the title in 2000 , and eighteen consecutive NCAA tournament appearances ( beginning in 1998 ) . In 2009 the Spartans made it to the National Championship game and lost 89 – 72 to North Carolina .

= = = Men 's ice hockey = = =

The Michigan State University men 's ice hockey team started in 1924 , though it has only been a varsity sport since 1950 . The team has since won national titles in 1966 , 1986 and 2007 . The Spartans came close to repeating the national title in 1987 , but lost the championship game to the University of North Dakota . They play at MSU 's Munn Ice Arena . Former head coach Ron Mason is college hockey 's winningest coach with 924 wins total and 635 at MSU . The current head coach is Tom Anastos . The MSU men 's ice hockey team competes in the Big Ten conference . They formerly competed in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association . Michigan State leads the CCHA in all @-@ time wins , is second in CCHA Conference championships with 7 , and is first in CCHA Tournament Championships with 11 . Along with the University of Michigan ( U @-@ M ) and the Ohio State University , it was one of three Big Ten schools in the CCHA . As with other sports , the hockey rivalry between MSU and U @-@ M is a fierce one , and on October 6 , 2001 , MSU faced U @-@ M in the Cold War , during which a world record crowd of 74 @,@ 554 packed Spartan Stadium to watch the game end in a 3 – 3 tie . In the 2006 – 2007 season , the Men 's Ice Hockey team defeated Boston College for its third NCAA hockey championship .

= = = Men 's cross country = = =

Between World War I and World War II , Michigan State College competed in the Central Collegiate Conference , winning titles in 1926 – 1929 , 1932 , 1933 and 1935 . Michigan State also experienced success in the IC4A , at New York 's Van Cortlandt Park , winning 15 team titles ( 1933 – 1937 , 1949 , 1953 , 1956 – 1960 , 1962 , 1963 and 1968 ) . Since entering the Big Ten in 1950 , Michigan State has won 14 men 's team titles ( 1951 – 1953 , 1955 – 1960 , 1962 , 1963 , 1968 , 1970 and 1971 ) . Michigan State hosted the inaugural NCAA cross country championships in 1938 and every year thereafter through 1964 ( there was no championship in 1943 ) . The Spartans won NCAA championships in 1939 , 1948 , 1949 , 1952 , 1955 , 1956 , 1958 and 1959 .

= = = Wrestling = = =

MSU Spartan Wrestling won their only team NCAA Championship in 1967 . The current Spartans Head coach is Tom Minkel in his 25th season . The team competes on campus at the Jenison Field House . Spartan Wrestling has over 50 Big Ten Conference Champions , over 100 All @-@ Americans , and 11 individual wrestlers have NCAA Division I Wrestling Championships . Notable former Spartan wrestlers include Rashad Evans and Gray Maynard .

= = Student life = =

East Lansing is very much a college town , with 60 @.@ 2 % of the population between the ages of 15 and 24 . President John A. Hannah 's push to expand in the 1950s and 1960s resulted in the largest residence hall system in the United States . Around 16 @,@ 000 students live in MSU 's 23 undergraduate halls , one graduate hall , and three apartment villages . Each residence hall has its own hall government , with representatives in the Residence Halls Association . Yet despite the size and extent of on @-@ campus housing , the residence halls are complemented by a variety of housing options . 58 % of students live off @-@ campus , mostly in the areas closest to campus , in either apartment buildings , former single @-@ family homes , fraternity and sorority houses , or in a co @-@ op .

In 2014 there were approximately 50 @,@ 085 students , 38 @,@ 786 undergraduate and 11 @,@ 299 graduate and professional . The students are from all 50 states and 130 countries around the world .

= = = Greek life = = =

With over 3 @,@ 000 members , Michigan State University 's Greek Community is one of the largest in the US . Started in 1872 and re @-@ established in 1922 by Lambda Chi Alpha Fraternity , Alpha Gamma Rho Fraternity , and Alpha Phi Sorority ; the MSU Greek system now consists of 55 Greek lettered student societies . These chapters are in turn under the jurisdiction of one of MSU 's four Greek governing councils : National Panhellenic Conference , North American Interfraternity Council , National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council , and Independent Greek Council . National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council is made up of 9 organizations , 5 Fraternities and 4 Sororities , that were founded on Historically Black College and Universities ( HBCU 's ) . The Interfraternity Council and the Women 's Panhellenic Council are each entirely responsible for their own budgets , giving them the freedom to hold large fundraising and recruitment events . MSU 's fraternities and sororities hold many philanthropy events and community fundraisers . For example , in April 2011 the Greek Community held Greek Week to raise over $ 260 @,@ 000 for the American Cancer Society , and $ 5 @,@ 000 for each of these charities : Big Brothers Big Sisters , The Listening Ear and previous charities include : the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation ( MSU Chapter ) , Share Laura 's Hope , The Mary Beth Knox Scholarship , and the Special Olympics , in which fraternity and sorority members get to help each other participate .

= = = Student organizations = = =

The Associated Students of Michigan State University ( ASMSU ) is the all @-@ university undergraduate student government of Michigan State University . It is unusual amongst university student governments for its decentralized bicameral structure , and the relatively non @-@ existent influence of the Greek system . The structure has since changed to a single General Assembly as part of reorganization in the late 2000s . ASMSU representatives are nonpartisan and many are elected in noncompetitive races . Their mission is to enhance the individual and collective student experience through education , empowerment , and advocacy by education to the needs and interest of students . Some services they offer include : free blue books , low cost copies and printing , free yearbooks , interest free loans , funding for student organizations , free legal consultation , and iClicker and graphing calculator rentals .

Students pay $ 18 per semester to fund the functions of the ASMSU , including stipends for the organization 's officers and activities throughout the year . Some students have criticized ASMSU for not having enough electoral participation to gain a student mandate . Turnout since 2001 has hovered between 3 and 17 percent , with the 2006 election bringing out 8 % of the undergraduate student body .

Student @-@ run organizations beyond student government also have a large impact on the East Lansing / Michigan State University community . Student Organizations are registered through the Department of Student Life , which currently has a registry of over 800 student organizations . The Eli Broad College of Business includes 27 student organizations . The three largest organizations are the Finance Association ( FA ) , the Accounting Student Association ( ASA ) , and the Supply Chain Management Association ( SCMA ) . The SCMA is the host of the university 's largest major specific career fair . The fair attracts over 100 companies and over 400 students each year .

= = = Activism = = =

Activists have played a significant role in MSU history . During the height of the Vietnam War , student protests helped create co @-@ ed residence halls , and blocked the routing of Interstate 496 through campus . In the 1980s , Michigan State students convinced the University to divest the stocks of companies doing business in apartheid South Africa from its endowment portfolio , such as Coca @-@ Cola . MSU has many student groups focused on political change . Graduate campus groups include the Graduate Employees Union and the Council of Graduate Students . Michigan State also has a variety of partisan groups ranging from liberal to conservative , including the College Republicans , the College Democrats and several third party organizations . Other partisan activist groups include Young Americans for Freedom and Young Americans for Liberty on the right ; Young Democratic Socialists , Students for Economic Justice , Young Communist League and MEChA on the left . Given MSU 's proximity to the Michigan state capital of Lansing , many politically inclined Spartans intern for state representatives .

= = = Sustainability = = =

The MSU Office of Sustainability works with the University Committee for a Sustainable Campus to " foster a collaborative learning culture that leads the community to heightened awareness of its environmental impact . " The University is a member of the Chicago Climate Exchange , the world 's first greenhouse gas emission registry , and boasts the lowest electrical consumption per square foot among Big Ten universities . The University has set a goal of reducing energy use by 15 % , reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 % , reducing landfill waste by 30 % by 2015 .

The university has also pledged to meet LEED @-@ certification standards for all new construction . In July 2009 , the University completed construction of a $ 13 @.@ 3 million recycling center , and hopes to double their 2008 recycling rate of 14 % by 2010 . The construction of Brody Hall , a residence hall of Michigan State University Housing , was completed in August 2011 and qualified for LEED Silver certification because the facility includes a rain water collection tank used for restroom fixtures , a white PVC roof , meters that will monitor utilities to make sure they are used efficiently , and the use of recycled matter and local sources for building materials .

The Environmental Steward 's program support 's president Simon 's " Boldness by Design " strategic vision to transform environmental stewardship on campus within the seven @-@ year time frame . Environmental stewards promote environmental changes among co @-@ workers and peers , be points of contact for their department for environment @-@ related concerns , and be liaisons between the Be Spartan Green Team and buildings .

The Student Organic Farm is a student @-@ run , four @-@ season farm , which teaches the principals of organic farming and through a certificate program and community supported agriculture ( CSA ) on ten acres on the MSU campus . The certificate program consists of year round crop production , course work in organic farming , practical training and management , and an off @-@ site internship requirement .

= = = Media = = =

MSU has a variety of campus media outlets . The student @-@ run newspaper is the The State News and free copies are available online or at East Lansing newsstands . The paper prints 28 @,@ 500 copies from Monday through Friday during the fall and spring semesters , and 15 @,@ 000 copies Monday through Friday during the summer . The paper is not published on weekends , holidays , or semester breaks , but is continually updated online at statenews.com. The campus yearbook is called the Red Cedar Log . Red Cedar Review , Michigan State University 's premier literary digest for over forty years , is the longest running undergraduate @-@ run literary journal in the United States . It is published annually by the Michigan State University Press .

MSU also publishes a student @-@ run magazine during the academic year called Ing Magazine . Created in 2007 by MSU alumnus Adam Grant , the publication is released at the beginning of each month and publishes 7 issues each school year . MSU also publishes a student @-@ run fashion and lifestyle magazine called VIM Magazine once a semester .

Electronic media include three radio stations and one public television station , as well as student @-@ produced television shows . MSU 's Public Broadcasting Service affiliate , WKAR @-@ TV , the station is the second @-@ oldest educational television station in the United States , and the oldest east of the Mississippi River . Besides broadcasting PBS shows , WKAR @-@ TV produces its own local programming , such as a high school quiz bowl show called " QuizBusters " . In addition , MSU has three radio stations ; WKAR @-@ AM plays National Public Radio 's talk radio programming , whereas WKAR @-@ FM focuses mostly on classical music programming . Michigan State 's student @-@ run radio station , WDBM , broadcasts mostly alternative music during weekdays and electric music programming nights and weekends .

= = People = =

The current president of the University is Lou Anna Simon who took over on January 1 , 2005 , after being appointed by MSU 's governing board , the Board of Trustees . The Board receives its mandate from the Michigan Constitution as MSU is a state @-@ owned school . The constitution allows for eight trustees who are elected by statewide referendum every two years . Trustees have eight @-@ year terms , with two of the eight elected every other year . As of 2007 , the Board is made up of three Republicans and five Democrats .

= = = 19th century = = =

Important College leaders in the 19th century include John C. Holmes , who kept the Agriculture School from being a part of the University of Michigan and is widely credited with being the prime mover for the school 's founding ; Joseph R. Williams , the first president ; and Theophilus C. Abbot , the third president who stabilized the College after the Civil War . Also of importance was botany professor William J. Beal , an early plant ( hybrid corn ) geneticist who championed the laboratory teaching method . Another distinguished faculty member of the era was the alumnus / professor Liberty Hyde Bailey . Bailey was the first to raise the study of horticulture to a science , paralleling botany , which earned him the title of " Father of American Horticulture " . William L. Carpenter , a jurist who was elected to the Third Judicial Circuit of Michigan in 1894 , and member of the Michigan Supreme Court from 1902 until 1904 . Other famous 19th @-@ century graduates include Ray Stannard Baker , a famed " muckraker " journalist and Pulitzer Prize winning biographer ; Minakata Kumagusu , a renowned environmental scientist ; and William Chandler Bagley , a pioneering education reformer .

= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =

There are currently around 442 @,@ 000 living MSU alumni worldwide giving the school one of the largest number of alumni of any institution of higher learning . Famous MSU alumni include former Michigan governors James Blanchard and John Engler , U.S. Senators Debbie Stabenow and Tim Johnson , U.S. Ambassador to Brazil Donna Hrinak , Prime Minister of South Korea Lee Wan @-@ koo , Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Director Richard Cordray , former Jordan prime minister Adnan Badran , billionaire philanthropists Tom Gores , Andrew Beal and Eli Broad , Chief Justice of the Texas Supreme Court Wallace B. Jefferson , trial lawyer Geoffrey Feiger , former Food and Drug Administration official Peter Rheinstein , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning novelist Richard Ford , Teamsters president James P. Hoffa , Quicken Loans founder and billionaire Cleveland Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert , Sergeant at Arms of the U.S. House of Representatives Wilson Livingood , former Michigan U.S. Senator and Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham , former Vice President of the Republic of Liberia Harry Moniba , and former U.S. Ambassador to Italy Peter Secchia .

Alumni in Hollywood include actors such as James Caan , Anthony Heald , Robert Urich and William Fawcett ; comedian Dick Martin , comedian Jackie Martling , film directors Michael Cimino and Sam Raimi , and film editor Bob Murawski , as well as screenwriter David Magee Puerto Rican comedian Sunshine Logroño ( who has played the occasional Hollywood movie ) was a graduate student at MSU .

Composer Dika Newlin received her undergraduate degree from MSU , while lyricist , theatrical director and clinical psychologist Jacques Levy earned a doctorate in psychology . The university has also produced such jazz luminaries as pianist Henry Butler , vibraphonist Milt Jackson , and keyboardist / composer @-@ arranger Clare Fischer .

Journalists include NBC reporter Chris Hansen , AP White House correspondent Nedra Pickler , NPR Washington correspondent Don Gonyea , and veteran Michigan Capitol correspondent and PBS 's Off the Record host Tim Skubick . Novelist Michael Kimball graduated in 1990 . Novelist and true crime author R. Barri Flowers , who in 1977 a bachelors and in 1980 a masters in criminal justice , was inducted in 2006 into the MSU Criminal Justice Wall of Fame . Author Erik Qualman graduated with honors in 1994 and was also Academic Big @-@ Ten in basketball . Susan K. Avery , the first woman president and director of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , received an MSU bachelor 's degree in physics . In addition , two of the Little Rock Nine attended Michigan State , including Ernest Green , the first black student to graduate from Little Rock Central High School , and Carlotta Walls LaNier . The University awarded an honorary degree to Robert Mugabe in 1990 , but revoked it in 2008 .

Spartans formerly or currently in the NBA include Earvin " Magic " Johnson , Greg Kelser , Jay Vincent , Steve Smith , Scott Skiles , Jason Richardson , Mateen Cleaves , Alan Anderson , Zach Randolph , Morris Peterson , Charlie Bell , Johnny Green , Maurice Ager , Shannon Brown , Draymond Green , Denzel Valentine and Deyonta Davis .

On the American Football League 's All @-@ Time Team are tight @-@ end Fred Arbanas and safety George Saimes .

In the National Football League , MSU alumni include Carl Banks , who was a member of the Giants teams that won Super Bowls XXI and XXV . Banks was a standout in their Super Bowl XXI victory in which he recorded 14 total tackles , including ten solo tackles , as well as being part of the NFL 's 1980 's All @-@ Decade Team Morten Andersen , Plaxico Burress , Andre Rison , Derrick Mason , Muhsin Muhammad , T. J. Duckett , Flozell Adams , Julian Peterson , Charles Rogers , Jim Miller , Earl Morrall , Wayne Fontes , Bubba Smith and Drew Stanton . Former MSU quarterback Jeff Smoker now plays in the Arena Football League .

Former Michigan State players in the National Hockey League include All Star Defensemen Duncan Keith , Rod Brind 'Amour , Anson Carter , Donald McSween , Adam Hall , John @-@ Michael Liles , Justin Abdelkader , Corey Tropp , brothers Kelly Miller and Kip Miller , as well as their cousins , brothers Ryan Miller and Drew Miller .

Former Michigan State players in Major League Baseball include Hall of Fame inductee Robin Roberts , Kirk Gibson , Steve Garvey and Mark Mulder . Olympic gold medalists include Savatheda Fynes and Fred Alderman . The Spartans are also contributing athletes to Major League Soccer , as Kevin Reiman , Doug DeMartin , Dave Hertel , Greg Janicki , Kenzo Webster , Rauwshan McKenzie , John Minagawa @-@ Webster and Ryan McMahen have all played in Major League Soccer . In addition , Alex Skotarek , Steve Twellman and Buzz Demling played in the North American Soccer League , with Demling playing in the 1972 Summer Olympics and the United States Men 's National Soccer Team in the 1970s .

Ryan Riess , 2013 World Series of Poker Main Event Champion , is a 2012 graduate of MSU .

Miss Michigan 2015 , Emily Kieliszewski , is a 2013 graduate of MSU . Miss America 1961 , Nancy Fleming , is also a graduate of Michigan State .

NCAA Gymnastics Champion and former Sesame Street Muppet performer Toby Towson is an MSU graduate .

Verghese Kurien was an Indian social entrepreneur known as the " Father of the White Revolution " for his Operation Flood , the world 's largest agricultural development programme . He earned a Master of Science in Metallurgical Engineering from Michigan State University in 1948 .

= Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All =

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All , known in Japan as Gyakuten Saiban 2 ( Japanese : 逆転裁判2 , " Turnabout Trial 2 " ) , is a visual novel adventure video game developed and published by Capcom . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan , and has since been released on multiple platforms . The Nintendo DS version , initially released in 2006 in Japan , was released in English in the West in 2007 . The game is the second entry in the Ace Attorney series , following Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney .

The story follows Phoenix Wright , a defense attorney who defends his clients in four episodes . Among other characters are his partner Maya Fey , her cousin Pearl , and the rival prosecutor Franziska von Karma . The game is divided into two types of sections : courtroom sessions , where the player cross @-@ examines witnesses and tries to uncover contradictions in their testimonies , and investigations , where the player gathers evidence and talks to witnesses .

The game was directed and written by Shu Takumi , as the second entry in a planned Ace Attorney trilogy . It was originally intended to feature the first game 's prosecutor , Miles Edgeworth , in all episodes ; Franziska was created when the development team learned that Edgeworth had become popular among players , and Takumi wanted to use the character more carefully and sparingly . They only introduced one new gameplay mechanic in the game ; Takumi wanted to keep the game focused on the core concept of finding lies , and to keep it simple enough for his mother to play . The game was positively received by critics , who generally liked the writing , but criticized the game 's short length and the lack of the Nintendo DS @-@ exclusive gameplay mechanics that appeared in the previous game .

= = Gameplay = =

Justice for All is a visual novel adventure game in which the player takes the role of Phoenix Wright , a defense attorney who defends people accused of murder in four different episodes . At first , only one episode is available ; as the player solves a case , a new episode is unlocked to play . The episodes are all divided into chapters , consisting of courtroom sections and investigation sections .

During the investigation sections , the player investigates the case to gather evidence needed for the trial ; once enough evidence has been collected , the game moves on to the next chapter of the episode . During these sections , the player has access to a menu with four options : examine , move , present , and talk . By choosing " examine " , the player can move a cursor around the screen and look at various things in the environment ; by choosing " move " , the player reaches a sub @-@ menu with all locations they can choose to move to ; by choosing " present " , the player can choose to show a piece of evidence or a character profile to a character at the location ; and by choosing " talk " , the player is able to pick a topic to discuss with a character who is present at the location . As the player talks to a character , the topics they have already discussed get marked with a checkmark .

If the player chooses a topic the witnesses does not want to discuss , the player is shown locks and chains on top of the character , referred to as " psyche @-@ locks " ; additionally , a lock symbol is added to that topic in the talk menu . By presenting a magatama to the character , the player is able to start breaking the psyche @-@ locks and unlock the topics ; this is done by showing the character evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something . The deeper the secret is that the character is hiding , the more psyche @-@ locks appear ; by breaking all the locks , the topic gets unlocked and the player is given access to new information .

During the courtroom sections , the player attempts to get the defendant declared innocent by questioning witnesses and presenting evidence to the judge and the prosecutor . Many witnesses lie during their testimonies ; the player is able to move back and forth through the testimony to try to find any inconsistencies . There are two options available during cross @-@ examinations : " press " , which makes the player question a particular statement , which sometimes makes the witnesses change their testimony ; and " present " , which is used to show a piece of evidence or a character profile that the player thinks shows a contradiction in the witness 's currently shown statement . In the upper right corner of the screen , the player 's health bar is shown , representing the judge 's patience . The bar decreases if the player makes mistakes , such as presenting the wrong piece of evidence ; if it reaches zero , the defendant is declared guilty , and the player loses the game . While the player cannot lose the game while trying to break a psyche @-@ lock , the bar will still decrease if the player presents the wrong evidence while trying to break psyche @-@ locks . 50 % of the bar is restored when the player manages to break a psyche @-@ lock , and 100 % is restored when an episode is completed .

= = Plot = =

The game 's first episode involves defense attorney Phoenix Wright getting amnesia after being hit on the head by Richard Wellington , a witness in the case . Phoenix is forced to defend Maggey Byrde , a policewoman who has been accused of murdering her boyfriend , with no memory of the case . Phoenix regains his memory with help from Byrde and his partner , the spirit medium Maya Fey , and deduces that Wellington is the true killer . The second episode takes place before the first , and involves Dr. Turner Grey requesting a spirit channeling from Maya Fey at the Kurain Village . During the channeling , Grey is killed , and Maya is arrested on suspicion of murder . When defending her , Phoenix faces prosecutor Franziska von Karma , who has never lost a case and has come to America to defeat Phoenix in court . Phoenix discovers that Grey 's death was plotted by a nurse who once worked under him and Maya 's aunt , Morgan Fey , who sought to displace Maya as the master of Kurain Village to allow her own 8 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Pearl Fey , to take the title instead . After the case , Morgan is arrested and placed into solitary confinement , and Maya and Phoenix step in to take care of Pearl . In the third episode , Maximillion Galactica , a magician at the Berry Big Circus , is charged with the ringmaster 's murder . Phoenix successfully defends him against Franziska von Karma , and the real killer is revealed to be one of the circus 's trapeze artists , who accidentally killed the ringmaster while trying to murder the ringmaster 's daughter as revenge for his brother .

In the fourth episode , Maya is kidnapped after the actor Matt Engarde has been suspected of murdering his media rival Juan Corrida . The kidnapper , the infamous assassin Shelly de Killer , promises to let Maya go if Phoenix can get a complete acquittal for Engarde . Phoenix learns that Engarde , Corrida , and their managers had a complicated romantic relationship , and that Engarde had hired de Killer to force Phoenix to defend him in court . During the case , de Killer shoots Franziska , wounding her and forcing a new prosecutor in the case to step in : Miles Edgeworth , who had just returned to the country in time . Edgeworth picks up on Phoenix 's unusual behavior in court and recognizes that Maya is in trouble , and helps extend the case to give the police more time to rescue Maya . When Phoenix reveals to de Killer that Engarde has blackmail evidence on de Killer 's actions , de Killer reneges his loyalty to Engarde , promising to kill him next . Engarde , terrified by de Killer 's promise , pleads guilty in order to escape his wrath . Maya is freed and reunited with Phoenix and Pearl , while Franziska , recovering from her wounds , decides to return home . If the player presents the wrong evidence towards the end of the trial , an alternate ending ensues , in which Engarde is freed and his manager is tried and convicted of Juan 's murder , causing Phoenix to be shunned forever by Maya and abandon his profession . In the regular ending following Engarde 's conviction , Edgeworth follows Franziska to the airport . Franziska says that she had planned to take revenge on Phoenix after he had proved her father 's guilt in a trial in the first game , but that she has failed . With Edgeworth 's encouragement , she vows to return as a better prosecutor .

= = Development = =

After development of the original Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney was finished , the writer and director Shu Takumi 's boss , Shinji Mikami , told him that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy , with a grand finale in the third game 's last case . Development of the game began immediately when Takumi returned to work from his vacation : the producer , Atsushi Inaba , called him in to a meeting , and told Takumi that he wanted him to write the script for five episodes before the game went into full production , with a deadline of three and a half months . Takumi thought that this was " completely insane " , as it had taken him an average of more than a month to write each of the four episodes for the first Ace Attorney ; additionally , he felt that he did not have any " tricks " left to use for mysteries or any story threads to work off of . He wanted to protest , but still ended up having to do it . As soon as he returned to his desk , he drafted a work schedule : he scheduled two and a half month to write the dialogue , with half a month per episode , leaving him with a month to create the first prototype and figure out the " tricks " to be used in the mysteries . He doubted that he would be able to do it in time , but managed to write the whole script by the deadline . However , due to issues with memory on the game 's cartridge , one episode ended up having to be cut from the game ; it was later used as the third episode of the third game .

After finishing writing the dialogue , Takumi was called into another meeting with Inaba , and was told to add a new gameplay mechanic to the investigations . Takumi wanted to keep the gameplay simple enough for his mother to be able to play it , and keep it focused on the core concept of finding lies ; according to him , he immediately had a vision of the psyche lock system during the meeting with Inaba , but still asked for three days to come up with an idea . He found it easy to formulate the idea , but it took over a month to create the system ; the biggest problem was how to visually represent the psyche locks . Takumi also drew storyboards for the episodes ' openings , which consisted of series of detailed drawings that show what is happening . He also drew rough sketches of cut @-@ in illustrations ; it was only decided after all the text had been written what scenes would have illustrations made for them . While the game 's opening features the judge , it was originally supposed to have featured a demon instead ; this was because Takumi was playing Devil May Cry at the time , and had liked its opening . As Takumi wanted the first three Ace Attorney games to be part of one larger work , he did not want the first game to look outdated in comparison to later ones , so it was decided to keep the same graphics for main characters such as Phoenix , Maya and Edgeworth throughout all their appearances , and not make updates to them . The game 's music was composed by Naoto Tanaka under the pseudonym Akemi Kimura .

As the dialogue @-@ integrated " tutorial " in the first Ace Attorney was well received , the inclusion of one in Justice for All was considered a " major point " . While the first game 's tutorial involved Phoenix being helped through his first trial by his mentor Mia and the judge , this could not be used twice , which led to the idea of giving Phoenix a temporary amnesia from a blow to the head . Takumi included a circus and magic in the game 's third episode ; he really wanted to do this , as performing magic is a hobby of his . The episode includes two themes that he wanted to explore : the difficulties in forming a cohesive team with different people , and a person who against the odds tries to make something whole . The former was reflected in how the circus members come together at the end , while the latter was reflected in the character Moe . Several different versions of the fourth episode were created , partially because of them running out of memory on the game 's cartridge , but also because of the popularity of the character of Miles Edgeworth : Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes , but when they were in full production the development team learned that the character had become popular , which led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly . Because of this , he created the character Franziska von Karma , to save Edgeworth for the game 's last case , and avoid a situation where he – a supposed prodigy – loses every case . The character Pearl Fey was originally intended to be a rival character around the same age as Maya , only appearing in the game 's second episode ; one of the game 's designers suggested that it would be more dramatic if she were much younger , so Takumi wrote her as an eight @-@ year @-@ old . As he ended up liking her , he included her in other episodes as well .

= = Release = =

The game was originally released by Capcom for the Game Boy Advance on October 18 , 2002 in Japan ; a Nintendo DS version followed on October 26 , 2006 in Japan , on January 16 , 2007 in North America , and on March 16 , 2007 in Europe . A PC port of the Game Boy Advance version , developed by a company called Daletto , was released in Japan in an episodic format , starting on April 15 , 2008 . A Wii version was released through WiiWare on January 26 , 2010 in Japan , on February 15 , 2010 in North America , and on February 19 , 2010 in Europe .

A high @-@ definition iOS version of the first three Ace Attorney games , Ace Attorney : Phoenix Wright Trilogy HD , was released in Japan on February 7 , 2012 , and in the West on May 30 , 2013 . Another collection of the first three games , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney Trilogy , was released for the Nintendo 3DS in Japan on April 17 , 2014 , in North America on December 9 , 2014 , and in Europe on December 11 , 2014 .

= = = Localization = = =

Starting with Justice for All , the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu ; by the time she joined Capcom 's localization team in 2005 , the first Ace Attorney had already been localized , with the original localization team having decided to do a full localization , changing the setting from Japan to Los Angeles . While Hsu thought that this was the right choice to make , as it made the characters and dialogue more relatable and made for an emotional experience closer to what players of the Japanese version experience , it resulted in issues with each following game . According to the localization editor , Brandon Gay , Justice for All was one of their largest games to localize due to its focus on the story , and how it needs to convey the whole game world and its characters through just text ; this made it a challenge to make the characters relatable for an American audience . Another thing the localization team had to keep in mind was to ensure that recurring characters were consistent with how they behave in the first Ace Attorney . According to JP Kellams , another staff member working on the localization , there was a lot of pressure on them to make a good localization , as the first game 's localization had been well received ; he also felt that there was room for creativity due to the game 's style and subject , with room for humor that might not fit in other localizations . A lot of the humor in the original was based on Japanese wordplay ; these jokes had to be redone entirely for the English release . Hsu felt that the game was more demanding than previous projects she had worked on , as the localizers " almost have to become [ the characters ] " in order to get the nuance and motivations right due to their complexity .

One of the first decisions Hsu had to make was how to localize Maya 's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan . She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti @-@ Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed , anti @-@ Japanese sentiments were not powerful , and where Japanese culture flourished . This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese ; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese , as that was Maya 's heritage , while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed . Despite the setting in the United States in the localized version , the Japanese justice system of the original remained intact in the localization , as changing it would have altered the entire game structure . As the localization team wanted to keep the humor in the Japanese names for the characters , it was decided to make the English names contain the same kinds of double meanings : character name puns were based on their personalities or backgrounds , or were visual gags . A lot of the names were determined with the original Japanese name in mind ; for the game 's third episode , several Japanese names were used without changes , since they were English puns to begin with . For some other characters , the names had to be altered heavily from the Japanese originals . Due to the dramatic feeling of the last episode , the characters in it were given names that sounded more like real names , while still making use of deeper meanings . Takumi personally approved all the English names ; for one of the names , Takumi and the localization team had a discussion for days , as Takumi did not think the English name conveyed the same feeling as the Japanese one .

According to Gay , characters with " extreme personality quirks " were both fun and stressful to write : for the clown Moe , he found it challenging to get the balance right between his silly jokes and the seriousness of his dialogue . Among other challenging characters to write for were Acro , who led to " heated arguments " about how to get his personality and tone right ; and Morgan Fey , whose " very old style " of speaking in the Japanese version was difficult to translate to English . One aspect they had to change due to cultural differences was a conversation with the lecherous character Director Hotti , where an animation of him grabbing in the air with his hands is played while he talks about Pearl . According to Hsu , the Japanese version is considered funny to Japanese people , as Hotti is set up as the " butt of the joke " , and Phoenix reacts negatively to him , while it would have been considered sickening to an American audience . They were unable to change the animation , so the dialogue was rewritten to instead be directed at an adult nurse .

= = Reception = =

Justice for All holds a score of 76 / 100 at the review aggregator Metacritic based on 51 critics , indicating generally favorable reviews .

Writers for Famitsu praised the mix of seriousness and comedy , and liked the characters ' quirkiness and the pacing of the conversations . John Walker at Eurogamer called the game " splendidly crazy as ever " and " the most joyfully daft fun imaginable " . Tom East at Official Nintendo Magazine called the script fantastic . Joe Juba at Game Informer found the game entertaining , calling the writing hilarious and the problem @-@ solving clever , with the two aspects complimenting each other well . Aaron Thomas at GameSpot liked the game , praising the game 's story and calling the characters its greatest strength . He thought that the pacing was better than the first Ace Attorney 's , but still found the game to be a step back : he felt that the game often reuses the same kinds of twists from the first . Gerald Villoria at GameSpy called the episodes well structured and stronger than the ones in first game , and called the dialogue sharp . Mikel Reparaz at GamesRadar said that the script , while entertaining , contains " long stretches of meaningless dialogue " and tends to leave the player knowing what happened and how to prove it before Phoenix does . He initially liked the new rival character Franziska , but thought that she only becomes increasingly obnoxious . Craig Harris at IGN said that the episodes are well @-@ written , with enthusiasm and personality , making them hard to put down .

Walker found the court sections " maddening " due to how the game sometimes requires very specific evidence to be presented , with evidence that he found reasonable being rejected , forcing him to resort to guessing ; he wished that the health meter would have been replenished through correct answers , or that it had been removed from the game entirely . Bryan Vore at Game Informer found the investigation sections tedious at times , but found them to be helped by how the psyche @-@ locks add " courtroom drama " to the investigations . Juba thought that the game 's reliance on text made the investigations move slowly , but that the game becomes an " irresistible adventure " when the text is mixed with gameplay in the trials . Thomas found the psyche @-@ locks interesting , but underwhelming as the only new feature . East said that the psyche @-@ locks were what made the investigations fun . Reparaz liked how the psyche @-@ lock mechanic adds " a new dimension of weirdness " to the game . Both Harris and Thomas wished that the game had been less linear , with more possible wrong paths to take or more endings . Thomas , Reparaz and East wished that the Nintendo DS @-@ exclusive gameplay features introduced in the first game 's final episode had been used in Justice for All , with Reparaz calling it disappointing but " not a huge deal " . Villoria and East said that the game does not last very long ; Walker did not consider it short , but found it to not last as long as the first game .

Vore said that the game is lacking in " advanced graphics and interface " , but felt that it makes up for it through its charm and intrigue . Thomas called the character designs outstanding , but thought that the reused art assets for returning characters and locations from the first game made it feel like Capcom had " cut some corners " . He called the music " uniformly outstanding and used masterfully " , both for conveying various moods throughout the story , and for characters ' personalities . Harris found the music " moody and appropriate " , but wished that there had been a full voice @-@ over as an option . He said that the game 's art was nice , but not more than that . Thomas called the localization outstanding despite finding some errors , finding it impressive how smoothly Capcom was able to localize such a text @-@ heavy game . Harris liked the game 's localization , saying that the localization team 's writing was what made the game design work so well . Walker called the localization incredible , and said that while there are a few spelling errors and grammatical errors in the text , it did not bother him much as the localization was included in the Japanese Nintendo DS release .

= Bjorøy Tunnel =

The Bjorøy Tunnel ( Norwegian : Bjorøytunnelen ) is a 2 @,@ 012 @-@ metre ( 6 @,@ 601 ft ) long subsea road tunnel in Hordaland county , Norway . The tunnel is part of the Norwegian County Road 207 which connects the island of Bjorøy in the municipality of Fjell to the mainland near Håkonshella and Hilleren in the city @-@ municipality of Bergen . It crosses underneath the Vatlestraumen strait , reaching 88 metres ( 289 ft ) below mean sea level . It serves as a fixed link for the 900 residents of the islands of Bjorøy and Tyssøy as well as a large number of cottage owners who vacation on the islands . The first proposal was launched in 1980 , and construction started on 29 September 1993 . There were severe problems because the tunneling encountered an area of sandstone , causing a year 's delay . The total construction cost was NOK 59 million . It opened on 7 May 1996 and remained a toll road until 29 January 2005 .

= = Specifications = =

The Bjorøy Tunnel is a subsea tunnel which runs below the Vatlestraumen strait between the island of Bjorøy and the mainland of Bergen . It carries two lanes of Hordaland County Road 207 . It is the only fixed link for the islands of Bjorøy and Tyssøy ( Tyssøy is connected to Bjorøy by a bridge ) . The tunnel is 2 @,@ 012 metres ( 6 @,@ 601 ft ) long and reaches 88 m ( 289 ft ) below mean sea level . The maximum gradient is 10 degrees ( about 18 % grade ) . It is one of few tunnels in Norway without mobile telephone coverage , although there are emergency telephones that connect to the operation center of the Norwegian Public Roads Administration , and the tunnel will receive coverage with the future Norwegian Public Safety Radio .

Before the construction of the Bjorøy Tunnel , the geology of the area was thought to consist entirely of metamorphic basement rocks similar to those exposed on the surrounding islands . The Jurassic sediments encountered in the tunnel included breccia and conglomerate in contact with the underlying gneisses and a sandstone with coal fragments , some of which was quite unconsolidated . Spore and pollen samples gave an Oxfordian age ( Late Jurassic ) for the sequence . The sedimentary rocks appear to have been deposited into an eroded depression caused by a fault zone , which later reactivated , disrupting the bedding and causing steep dips .

= = History = =

= = = Planning = = =

Since 1966 , Bjorøy had been served by the Alvøen – Bjorøyhamn Ferry . The plans for a tunnel to Bjorøy were first launched by the engineer Jack Jahnsen in 1980 . These were based on the then under construction Vardø Tunnel , which became the first subsea tunnel in Norway when it opened in 1982 . He had a meeting at his place on 18 December 1980 , to which the three municipal councilors from Bjorøy also were invited , where he tried to get support for the tunnel , which would be the topic of a municipal council meeting on 20 December . The council unanimously voted in favour of establishing a committee to look into the tunnel . The committee was established on 6 January 1981 and concluded with that there were three alternative possibilities to build a fixed link to Bjorøy : a bridge from the island over Søre Steinsundet via Vestre Steinsundholmen , Kjerringholmen and Kaggen to Søre Snekkevik on Litlesotra ; a tunnel under Vatlestraumen to Håkonshella ; or a bridge over Vatlestraumen to Håkonshella or Kongshaug .

At the time , a bridge to Litlesotra was estimated to cost NOK 111 million , a tunnel was estimated to cost NOK 36 million , while a bridge over Vatlestraumen was estimated to cost NOK 74 million . All three included a road connection to Tyssøy , with the bridge proposals costing NOK 16 million for the Tyssøy connection , and the tunnel having a cost of NOK 4 million , in part because the earthworks volume from the tunnel could be used to build a mole with a short bridge . Seismology tests were done in August 1983 , and they concluded that the ground had good conditions : the uncompacted material laid mostly only 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) deep , albeit at times as deep as 7 meters ( 23 ft ) . The proposed tunnel crossing followed a mountain ridge , and the maximum depth was between 40 and 45 metres ( 131 and 148 ft ) , although the topography went steep down to those depths .

The plans were presented to Johan J. Jakobsen , Minister of Transport and Communications , and cooperation was started with the Norwegian Public Roads Administration to find a suitable connection to Tyssøy , so that they could also take advantage of the tunnel . To connect the two islands , it was chosen to build across Nautasundet , which was shallow and 175 metres ( 574 ft ) wide . In 1987 , Kaare Hartman joined the committee and proposed that the tunnel be built with borrowed money , guaranteed by land @-@ owners on the islands , and repaid using tolls . At the time the project was not on any prioritized investment list , and this way the project was not dependent on public grants . On 7 September 1987 , Hartmann reached agreement with Norges Skibshypotek to borrow the estimated NOK 50 million . The bank had a guarantee in the income from the tunnel .

However , Norges Skibshypotek had to withdraw , as it was not permitted to invest in non @-@ shipping investments . Instead , a loan was taken in Bergens Skillingsbank . Four land @-@ owners made a guarantee for NOK 9 million , with a judicial registration covering an area of 347 hectares ( 860 acres ) . They hoped that the value of their land would increase after the tunnel had been built . The same amount was also guaranteed by Fjell Municipality . Public grants were also secured , so the debt would be NOK 27 to 30 million . The planning was done by Chr . F. Grøner , for which the municipality paid the costs . Statistics from the ferry showed that 26 @,@ 400 cars and 93 @,@ 902 people had taken it in 1986 , which had grown to 40 @,@ 400 and 121 @,@ 000 in 1989 . The estimates were for a 90 % increase until 2000 , given an opening in 2002 . A bid for the project was gathered from Selmer – Furuholmen , which gave a maximum price of NOK 55 million , given that construction started in 1989 .

On 12 December 1989 , the committee sent an official offer to Hordaland Public Roads Administration whereby they , as a company under establishment , offered to fully finance the tunnel . The plans called for tolls of NOK 51 for a car and an investment cost of NOK 47 million . The plans were at first nearly discarded by the administration , as they felt it was impossible for a community of 400 people to finance such a large project without other grants . However , it became evident that the administration was spending NOK 2 million per year on the ferry service , and as the ferry soon would have to be replaced , this would increase to NOK 3 to 5 million per year . On 1 October 1990 , the issue was considered by Hordaland Transport Board , which approved the plans . This was followed up by Hordaland County Council on 19 June 1991 , which involved NOK 27 million being financed by debt and NOK 28 to 33 million being financed through reduced subsidies to the ferry .

The plans were met with criticism from locals on the Bergen side where the tunnel would emerge . They stated that the plans had " cheap solutions " and had unnecessary negative impact on their local environment . This included the demolishing of a football field and lack of noise barriers . Bergen Municipality demanded that the costs of a new field be paid for by the project , and that the tunnel be slightly extended . A new estimate was made , which increased the price by NOK 10 @.@ 3 million ; however , Hordaland Public Roads Administration protested , stating that it would give an inferior road technically , that the existing development plans permitted the construction , and that the noise would not exceed the permitted limits . They concluded that should these demands remain , the increased costs would terminate the project . On 16 November 1992 , Bergen City Council voted to allow the tunnel , under the condition that the tunnel project financed a new football field . The decision was appealed by lawyers representing the local community , but this was rejected by Hordaland County Governor on 30 August 1993 .

Originally the unlimited company Bjorøy og Tyssøy ANS had been attempted established with capital from locals , but instead the company Fastlandssambandet Bjorøy – Tyssøy AS was established on 29 September 1993 . Capital for NOK 40 @,@ 000 was paid by Fjell Municipality , NOK 20 @,@ 000 by Sund Municipality and NOK 10 @,@ 000 by Jack Jahnsen . The plans were sent to the Ministry of Transport and Communications in October 1992 , who started working on a proposal for parliament in January 1993 . Issues raised by the ministry were that the loans had been issued in 1987 , and whether the land estimated value of the guaranteed real estate was real . The project was presented to the Parliament of Norway , who must approve all toll roads . By then the costs were estimated at NOK 61 @.@ 5 million , including NOK 4 @.@ 5 million in ordinary county grants and NOK 30 million in extraordinary county grants . The proposal estimated annual toll collection costs to NOK 825 @,@ 000 , with the collection taking place on Bjorøy . It was originally planned that the toll plaza would be manned between 06 : 00 and 22 : 00 , meaning passing would be free at night .

An agreement was made between the ministry , the tunnel company and the county municipality on 6 January 1994 to build the tunnel . The company had the right to collect tolls for up to 15 years on fees dictated by the county municipality , and would have to pay NOK 27 million for the tunnel , with the county paying for the rest of the costs . The construction would be the responsibility of Hordaland Public Roads Administration , with the tunnel company only responsible for their part of the financing and the collection of tolls . An agreement was made with Selmer , whereby they would charge NOK 59 @,@ 422 @,@ 500 and take the risk of the project , including any expenditures for unknown geological conditions or similar costs increases . They were also responsible for an insurance to reclaim the investments should it be proven impossible to build the tunnel .

= = = Construction = = =

The construction of the tunnel started on 29 September 1993 , with the original plans calling for the tunnel to open on 15 June 1995 . The original construction consisted of blasting from Bjorøy , but by January 1994 there were problems with water leaks through cracks . The contractor described these as " common problems " when building tunnels , but that construction would be delayed by up to two weeks . To keep up with the schedule , the company started also blasting from the mainland . However , the problems increased , and by September the tunnel was leaking 600 liters ( 130 imp gal ; 160 U.S. gal ) per minute , which was 50 % more than estimated . This caused extra work to be done on the exterior to the tunnel , and costs had increased by several tens of millions of kroner . In particular , a different type of rock had been struck , and 60 tonnes ( 59 long tons ; 66 short tons ) of concrete had been injected without this giving the desired effects .

On 30 September , Selmer stopped construction from the Bjorøy side , although it continued from the mainland . About 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) from the Bjorøy side , the construction found a section of sandstone , the upper Jurassic Bjorøy formation , a condition that had never been encountered during subsea tunnel construction before . Geological engineers stated that there was no known solution to overcoming the problem , and that if the contractor had blasted into the area , the tunnel would have been filled with sand and water within minutes .

On a meeting on 10 October , O. T. Blindheim , a geological consulting company , and Selmer presented three alternatives : continued injection of cement , recommended by Blindheim ; freezing , recommended by Selmer because it was the cheapest , but would take more time ; and use of a water @-@ tight shield . A technical committee was established , and on 16 December they recommended the use of cement injection combined with a ring of drainage holes around the tunnel before blasting . The method was to be continually tested , and if it was insufficient , freezing could be used . As the tunnel advanced , the hole was to be continuously secured using carbon fibre @-@ reinforced carbon gunite , self @-@ boring bolts , steel ribs and full pouring . Work was taken up after a meeting on 27 March 1995 , and on 16 August the final blast was made . Representatives from Selmer stated that the method they had chosen had resulted in international interest for the tunnel , and they had demonstrated it to several international delegations .

= = = Tolls and auxiliary roads = = =

The grants were only given for the tunnel to Bjorøy , and not for the necessary roads that would connect Tyssøy to Bjorøy . This caused local controversy , as some people on Bjorøy disagreed that the tolls on the Bjorøy Tunnel should pay for the Tyssøy Bridge . On 13 May 1993 , the costs of the connection to Tyssøy were estimated at NOK 5 million . The issue was not resolved when the construction of the tunnel started . The original costs for the bridge were for NOK 11 @.@ 4 million , including a 20 metres ( 66 ft ) long bridge with a clearance of 10 meters ( 33 ft ) . This was later reduced to 10 metres ( 33 ft ) length and 5 meters ( 16 ft ) , which reduced the costs to NOK 9 @.@ 4 million . Of this , the county paid NOK 4 million , while the two municipalities had advanced the transporting earthwork from the tunnel to the sound . On 22 January 1996 , the tunnel company agreed to advance the construction costs and collect it from the tolls , with Sund Municipality guaranteeing for the debt .

On 2 February 1996 , the tunnel company had an agreement with Bru og Tunnelskelskapet , which operates the Bergen Toll Ring , to collect the tolls in the tunnel using the Autopass automatic toll collection system . A manual collection system was estimated to cost NOK 1 @.@ 4 million per year , while an automated system was estimated at NOK 0 @.@ 4 million . The tunnel opened on 7 May 1996 , the same day the last ferry ran . Originally the plan was to charge tolls similar to the ferry . With a manual system , it would not be possible to charge for two @-@ wheeled vehicles and passengers , so the fares for other vehicles were raised slightly . In 1995 , it had cost NOK 44 for a single passing with a car on the ferry . The tolls were set to NOK 120 for all types of vehicles , except two @-@ wheelers , and NOK 72 was charged per travel with pre @-@ paid ticket books . Bus riders had to pay for two extra zones . The toll plaza was open a few hour each week to allow people to purchase discounted tickets .

The contract for the construction of the bridge to Tyssøy was announced on 20 August 1996 , and was won by NCC Eeg @-@ Henriksen Anlegg , who wanted NOK 8 @.@ 5 million for the job . The link opened on 27 September 1997 . In 2000 , a public meeting was held in which it was proposed to reduce the rates and instead prolong the collection time , but this was rejected . In 1999 , the Norwegian Public Roads Administration reported that the Bjorøy Tunnel had the cheapest administration costs per passing , at NOK 7 @.@ 32 , of all small toll companies . The tolls were removed on 29 January 2005 , after eight years and eight months , almost half the stipulated time .

On 19 January 2004 , the freight ship Rocknes ran aground on the unmarked underwater bank of Revskolt in Vatlestraumen , located above the tunnel . The accident cost 18 people their lives and was the most extensive and costly oil spill in Norwegian history . In an attempt to avoid similar incidents occurring again , the Norwegian Coastal Administration started in May 2012 to blast away the bank , increasing the depth from 9 to 14 meters ( 30 to 46 ft ) . This allows the sailing width though Vatlestraumen to increase by 250 meters ( 820 ft ) . The work required the tarp covering the tunnel to be removed , causing increased leaks in the tunnel during the work period . The project was highly controversial amongst the islanders and the plans were approved by only a single decisive vote in the municipal council . Islanders were especially concerned that the work might damage the tunnel . Calculations conducted by the Coastal Administration conclude that there is no chance of this occurring , as the blasting is taking place 65 meters ( 213 ft ) above the tunnel .

= Smedley Butler =

Smedley Darlington Butler ( July 30 , 1881 – June 21 , 1940 ) was a United States Marine Corps major general , the highest rank authorized at that time , and at the time of his death the most decorated Marine in U.S. history . During his 34 @-@ year career as a Marine , he participated in military actions in the Philippines , China , in Central America and the Caribbean during the Banana Wars , and France in World War I. Butler is well known for having later become an outspoken critic of U.S. wars and their consequences , as well as exposing the Business Plot , an alleged plan to overthrow the U.S. government .

By the end of his career , Butler had received 16 medals , five for heroism . He is one of 19 men to receive the Medal of Honor twice , one of three to be awarded both the Marine Corps Brevet Medal and the Medal of Honor , and the only Marine to be awarded the Brevet Medal and two Medals of Honor , all for separate actions .

In 1933 , he became involved in a controversy known as the Business Plot , when he told a congressional committee that a group of wealthy industrialists were planning a military coup to overthrow Franklin D. Roosevelt , with Butler selected to lead a march of veterans to become dictator , similar to other Fascist regimes at that time . The individuals involved all denied the existence of a plot and the media ridiculed the allegations . A final report by a special House of Representatives Committee confirmed some of Butler 's testimony .

In 1935 , Butler wrote a book entitled War Is a Racket , where he described and criticized the workings of the United States in its foreign actions and wars , such as those he was a part of , including the American corporations and other imperialist motivations behind them . After retiring from service , he became a popular activist , speaking at meetings organized by veterans , pacifists , and church groups in the 1930s .

= = Early life = =

Smedley Butler was born July 30 , 1881 , in West Chester , Pennsylvania , the eldest of three sons . His parents , Thomas and Maud ( née Darlington ) Butler , were descended from local Quaker families . Both of his parents were of entirely English ancestry , all of which had been in what is now the United States since the 1600s . His father was a lawyer , a judge and , for 31 years , a Congressman and chair of the House Naval Affairs Committee during the Harding and Coolidge administrations . His maternal grandfather was Smedley Darlington , a Republican Congressman from 1887 to 1891 .

Butler attended the West Chester Friends Graded High School , followed by The Haverford School , a secondary school popular with sons of upper @-@ class Philadelphia families . A Haverford athlete , he became captain of its baseball team and quarterback of its football team . Against the wishes of his father , he left school 38 days before his seventeenth birthday to enlist in the Marine Corps during the Spanish – American War . Nevertheless , Haverford awarded him his high school diploma on June 6 , 1898 , before the end of his final year ; his transcript stated he completed the Scientific Course " with Credit " .

= = Military career = =

= = = Spanish – American War = = =

In the anti @-@ Spanish war fervor of 1898 , Butler lied about his age to receive a direct commission as a Marine second lieutenant . He trained in Washington D.C. at the Marine Barracks on the corner of 8th and I Streets . In July 1898 , he went to Guantánamo Bay , Cuba , arriving shortly after its invasion and capture . His company soon returned to the U.S. and after a short break , he was assigned to the armored cruiser USS New York for four months . He came home to be mustered out of service in February 1899 , but on 8 April 1899 , he accepted a commission as a first lieutenant in the Marine Corps .

= = = Philippine – American War = = =

The Marine Corps sent him to Manila , Philippines . On garrison duty with little to do , Butler turned to alcohol to relieve the boredom . He once became drunk and was temporarily relieved of command after an unspecified incident in his room .

In October 1899 , he saw his first combat action when he led 300 Marines to take the town of Noveleta , from Filipino rebels known as Insurrectos . In the initial moments of the assault , his first sergeant was wounded . Butler briefly panicked , but quickly regained his composure and led his Marines in pursuit of the fleeing enemy . By noon the Marines had dispersed the rebels and taken the town . One Marine had been killed and ten were wounded . Another 50 Marines had been incapacitated by the humid tropical heat .

After the excitement of this combat , garrison duty again became routine . Butler had a very large Eagle , Globe , and Anchor tattoo made which started at his throat and extended to his waist . He also met Littleton Waller , a fellow Marine with whom he maintained a lifelong friendship . When Waller received command of a company in Guam , he was allowed to select five officers to take with him ; he chose Butler . Before they had departed , their orders were changed and they were sent to China aboard the USS Solace to help put down the Boxer Rebellion .

= = = Boxer Rebellion = = =

Once in China , Butler was initially deployed at Tientsin . He took part in the Battle of Tientsin on July 13 , 1900 and in the subsequent Gaselee Expedition , during which he saw the mutilated remains of Japanese soldiers . When he saw another Marine officer fall wounded , he climbed out of a trench to rescue him . Butler was then himself shot in the thigh . Another Marine helped him get to safety , but also was shot . Despite his leg wound , Butler assisted the wounded officer to the rear . Four enlisted men would receive the Medal of Honor in the battle . Butler 's commanding officer , Major Littleton W. T. Waller , personally commended him and wrote that " for such reward as you may deem proper the following officers : Lieutenant Smedley D. Butler , for the admirable control of his men in all the fights of the week , for saving a wounded man at the risk of his own life , and under a very severe fire . " Commissioned officers were not then eligible to receive the Medal of Honor , and Butler instead received a promotion to captain by brevet while he recovered in the hospital , two weeks before his nineteenth birthday .

He was eligible for the Marine Corps Brevet Medal when it was created in 1921 , and was one of only 20 Marines to receive it . His citation reads :

The Secretary of the Navy takes pleasure in transmitting to First Lieutenant Smedley Darlington Butler , United States Marine Corps , the Brevet Medal which is awarded in accordance with Marine Corps Order No. 26 ( 1921 ) , for distinguished conduct and public service in the presence of the enemy while serving with the Second Battalion of Marines , near Tientsin , China , on 13 July 1900 . On 28 March 1901 , First Lieutenant Butler is appointed Captain by brevet , to take rank from 13 July 1900 .

= = = The Banana Wars = = =

Butler participated in a series of occupations , police actions , and interventions by the United States in Central America and the Caribbean , commonly called the Banana Wars because their goal was to protect American commercial interests in the region , particularly those of the United Fruit Company . This company had significant financial stakes in the production of bananas , tobacco , sugar cane , and other products throughout the Caribbean , Central America and the northern portions of South America . The U.S. was also trying to advance its own political interests by maintaining its influence in the region and especially its control of the Panama Canal . These interventions started with the Spanish – American War in 1898 and ended with the withdrawal of troops from Haiti and President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Good Neighbor Policy in 1934 . After his retirement , Butler became an outspoken critic of the business interests in the Caribbean , criticizing the ways in which U.S. businesses and Wall Street bankers imposed their agenda on United States foreign policy during this period .

= = = = Honduras = = = =

In 1903 , Butler was stationed in Puerto Rico on Culebra Island . Hearing rumors of a Honduran revolt , the United States government ordered his unit and a supporting naval detachment to sail to Honduras , 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 414 km ) to the west , to defend the U.S. Consulate in Honduras . Using a converted banana boat renamed the Panther , Butler and several hundred Marines landed at the port town of Puerto Cortés . In a letter home , he described the action : they were " prepared to land and shoot everybody and everything that was breaking the peace " , but instead found a quiet town . The Marines re @-@ boarded the Panther and continued up the coast line looking for rebels at several towns , but found none .

When they arrived at Trujillo , however , they heard gunfire , and came upon a battle in progress that had been waged for 55 hours between rebels called Bonillista and Honduran government soldiers at a local fort . At the sight of the Marines , the fighting ceased and Butler led a detachment of Marines to the American consulate , where he found the consul , wrapped in an American flag , hiding among the floor beams . As soon as the Marines left the area with the shaken consul , the battle resumed and the Bonillistas soon controlled the government . During this expedition Butler earned the first of his nicknames , " Old Gimlet Eye " . It was attributed to his feverish , bloodshot eyes — he was suffering from some unnamed tropic fever at the time — which enhanced his penetrating and bellicose stare .

= = = = Marriage and business = = = =

After the Honduran campaign , Butler returned to Philadelphia . He married Ethel Conway Peters of Philadelphia in Bay Head , New Jersey , on June 30 , 1905 . His best man at the wedding was his former commanding officer in China , Lieutenant Colonel Littleton W. T. Waller . The couple eventually had three children : a daughter , Ethel Peters Butler ( Mrs. John Wehle ) , and two sons , Smedley Darlington , Jr. and Thomas Richard .

Butler was next assigned to garrison duty in the Philippines , where he once launched a resupply mission across the stormy waters of Subic Bay after his isolated outpost ran out of rations . In 1908 , he was diagnosed as having a nervous breakdown and received nine months sick leave which he spent at home . He successfully managed a coal mine in West Virginia , but returned to active duty in the Marine Corps at the first opportunity .

= = = = Central America = = = =

From 1909 to 1912 , Butler served in Nicaragua , enforcing U.S. policy , and once again led his battalion to the relief of a rebel @-@ besieged city , this time Granada , and again , with a 104 @-@ degree fever . In December 1909 , he commanded the 3d Battalion , 1st Marine Regiment , on the Isthmus of Panama . On August 11 , 1912 , he was temporarily detached to command an expeditionary battalion with which he participated in the Battle of Masaya on September 19 , 1912 and the bombardment , assault and capture of Coyotepe Hill , Nicaragua in October 1912 . He remained in Nicaragua until November 1912 , when he rejoined the Marines of 3d Battalion , 1st Marine Regiment , at Camp Elliott , Panama .

= = = = Veracruz , Mexico , and first Medal of Honor = = = =

Butler and his family were living in Panama in January 1914 when he was ordered to report as the Marine officer of a battleship squadron massing off the coast of Mexico , near Veracruz , to monitor a revolutionary movement . He did not like leaving his family and the home they had established in Panama and he intended to request orders home as soon as he determined he was not needed .

On March 1 , 1914 , Butler and Navy Lieutenant ( later Admiral ) Frank Fletcher went ashore in Veracruz and made their way to Jalapa , Mexico and back . A purpose of the trip was to allow Butler and Fletcher to discuss the details of a future expedition into Mexico . Fletcher 's plan required Butler to make his way into the country and develop a more detailed invasion plan while inside its borders . It was a spy mission and Butler was enthusiastic to get started . When Admiral Fletcher explained the plan to the commanders in Washington , D.C. , they agreed to it . Butler was given the go @-@ ahead . He entered Mexico and made his way to the U.S. Consulate in Mexico City , posing as a railroad official named " Mr. Johnson " . He and the chief railroad inspector scoured the city , saying they were searching for a lost railroad employee ; there was no lost employee , and in fact the employee they said was lost never existed . The ruse gave Butler access to various areas of the city . In the process of the so @-@ called search , they located weapons in use by the Mexican army , and determined the sizes of units and states of readiness . They updated maps and verified the railroad lines for use in an impending US invasion . On March 7 , 1914 , he returned to Veracruz with the information he had gathered and presented it to his commanders . The invasion plan was eventually scrapped when authorities loyal to Victoriano Huerta detained a small American naval landing party in Tampico , Mexico , which became known as the Tampico Affair .

When President Woodrow Wilson discovered that an arms shipment was about to arrive in Mexico , he sent a contingent of Marines and sailors to Veracruz to intercept it on April 21 , 1914 . Over the next few days , street fighting and sniper fire posed a threat to Butler 's force , but a door @-@ to @-@ door search rooted out most of the resistance . By April 26 , the landing force of 5 @,@ 800 Marines and sailors secured the city , which they held for the next six months . By the end of the conflict , the Americans reported 17 dead and 63 wounded and the Mexican forces had 126 dead and 195 wounded . After the actions at Veracruz , the United States decided to minimize the bloodshed and changed their plans from a full invasion of Mexico to simply maintaining the city of Veracruz . For his actions on April 22 , Butler was awarded his first Medal of Honor . The citation reads :

For distinguished conduct in battle , engagement of Vera Cruz , 22 April 1914 . Major Butler was eminent and conspicuous in command of his battalion . He exhibited courage and skill in leading his men through the action of the 22d and in the final occupation of the city .

After the occupation of Veracruz , many military personnel received the Medal of Honor , an unusually high number that diminished somewhat the prestige of the award . The Army presented one , nine went to Marines and 46 were bestowed upon Navy personnel . During World War I , Butler , then a major , attempted to return his Medal , explaining he had done nothing to deserve it . The medal was returned with orders to keep it and to wear it as well .

= = = = Haiti and second Medal of Honor = = = =

In 1915 , members of the populace killed the Haitian president Vilbrun Guillaume Sam . In response , the United States ordered the USS Connecticut to Haiti with Major Butler and a group of Marines on board . On October 24 , 1915 , an estimated 400 Cacos ambushed Butler 's patrol of 44 mounted Marines when they approached Fort Dipitie . Surrounded by Cacos the Marines maintained their perimeter throughout the night . The next morning , they charged the much larger enemy force by breaking out in three directions . The startled Haitians fled . In early November Butler and a force of 700 Marines and sailors returned to the mountains to clear the area . At their temporary headquarters base at Le Trou they fought off an attack by about 100 Cacos . After the Americans took several other forts and ramparts during the following days , only Fort Rivière , an old French @-@ built stronghold atop Montagne Noire , was left .

For the operation , Butler was given three companies of Marines and some sailors from the USS Connecticut , about 100 men . They encircled the fort , and gradually closed in on it . Butler reached the fort from the southern side with the 15th Company and found a small opening in the wall . The Marines entered through the opening and engaged the Cacos in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Butler and the Marines took the rebel stronghold on November 17 , 1915 , an action for which he received his second Medal of Honor , as well as the Haitian Medal of Honor . The entire battle lasted less than twenty minutes . Only one Marine was injured in the assault when he was struck by a rock and lost two teeth . All 51 Haitians in the Fort were killed . Butler 's exploits impressed Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt , who recommended the award based upon Butler 's performance during the engagement . Once the medal was approved and presented in 1917 , Butler achieved the distinction , shared with Dan Daly , of being the only Marines to receive the Medal of Honor twice for separate actions . The citation reads :

For extraordinary heroism in action as Commanding Officer of detachments from the 5th , 13th , 23d Companies and the Marine and sailor detachment from the U.S.S. Connecticut , Major Butler led the attack on Fort Rivière , Haiti , 17 November 1915 . Following a concentrated drive , several different detachments of Marines gradually closed in on the old French bastion fort in an effort to cut off all avenues of retreat for the Caco bandits . Reaching the fort on the southern side where there was a small opening in the wall , Major Butler gave the signal to attack and Marines from the 15th Company poured through the breach , engaged the Cacos in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , took the bastion and crushed the Caco resistance . Throughout this perilous action , Major Butler was conspicuous for his bravery and forceful leadership .

Subsequently , as the initial organizer and commanding officer of the Gendarmerie d 'Haïti , the native police force , Butler established a record as a capable administrator . Under his supervision , social order , administered by the dictatorship , was largely restored and many vital public works projects were successfully completed . He recalled later that , during his time in Haiti , he and his troops " hunted the Cacos like pigs . "

= = = World War I = = =

During World War I Butler was , to his disappointment , not assigned to a combat command on the Western Front . He made several requests for a posting in France , writing letters to his personal friend , Wendell Cushing Neville . While Butler 's superiors considered him brave and brilliant , they described him as " unreliable . "

In October 1918 , he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general at the age of 37 and placed in command of Camp Pontanezen at Brest , France , a debarkation depot that funneled troops of the American Expeditionary Force to the battlefields . The camp had been unsanitary , overcrowded and disorganized . U.S. Secretary of War Newton Baker sent novelist Mary Roberts Rinehart to report on the camp . She later described how Butler tackled the sanitation problems . Butler began by solving the problem of mud : " [ T ] he ground under the tents was nothing but mud , [ so ] he had raided the wharf at Brest of the duckboards no longer needed for the trenches , carted the first one himself up that four @-@ mile hill to the camp , and thus provided something in the way of protection for the men to sleep on . " General John J. Pershing authorized a duckboard shoulder patch for the units . This earned Butler another nickname , " Old Duckboard . " For his exemplary service he was awarded both the Army Distinguished Service Medal and Navy Distinguished Service Medal and the French Order of the Black Star . The citation for the Army Distinguished Service Medal states :

The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress , July 9 , 1918 , takes pleasure in presenting the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler , United States Marine Corps , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States , in a duty of great responsibility during World War I. Brigadier General Butler commanded with ability and energy Pontanezen Camp at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world . Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception , entertainment and departure of the large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through this camp , he has solved all with conspicuous success , performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces .

The citation for the Navy Distinguished Service Medal states :

The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Brigadier General Smedley Darlington Butler , United States Marine Corps , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services in France , during World War I. Brigadier General Butler organized , trained and commanded the 13th Regiment Marines ; also the 5th Brigade of Marines . He commanded with ability and energy Camp Pontanezen at Brest during the time in which it has developed into the largest embarkation camp in the world . Confronted with problems of extraordinary magnitude in supervising the reception , entertainment and departure of large numbers of officers and soldiers passing through the camp , he has solved all with conspicuous success , performing services of the highest character for the American Expeditionary Forces .

Following the war , he became Commanding General of the Marine Barracks at Marine Corps Base Quantico , Virginia . At Quantico , he transformed the wartime training camp into a permanent Marine post . During a training exercise in western Virginia in 1921 , he was told by a local farmer that Stonewall Jackson 's arm was buried nearby , to which he replied , " Bosh ! I will take a squad of Marines and dig up that spot to prove you wrong ! " Butler found the arm in a box . He later replaced the wooden box with a metal one , and reburied the arm . He left a plaque on the granite monument marking the burial place of Jackson 's arm ; the plaque is no longer on the marker but can be viewed at the Chancellorsville Battlefield visitor 's center .

= = = China and stateside service = = =

From 1927 to 1929 , Butler was commander of the Marine Expeditionary Force in China and , while there , cleverly parlayed his influence among various generals and warlords to the protection of U.S. interests , ultimately winning the public acclaim of contending Chinese leaders . When Butler returned to the United States in 1929 he was promoted to major general , becoming , at age 48 , the youngest major general of the Marine Corps . He directed the Quantico camp 's growth until it became the " showplace " of the Corps . Butler won national attention by taking thousands of his men on long field marches , many of which he led from the front , to Gettysburg and other Civil War battle sites , where they conducted large @-@ scale re @-@ enactments before crowds of distinguished spectators .

In 1931 , Butler violated diplomatic norms by publicly recounting gossip about Benito Mussolini in which the dictator allegedly struck and killed a child with his speeding automobile in a hit @-@ and @-@ run accident . The Italian government protested and President Hoover , who strongly disliked Butler , forced Secretary of the Navy Charles Francis Adams III to court @-@ martial him . Butler became the first general officer to be placed under arrest since the Civil War . He apologized to Secretary Adams and the court @-@ martial was canceled with only a reprimand .

= = Director of Public Safety = =

At the urging of Butler 's father , in 1924 , the newly elected mayor of Philadelphia W. Freeland Kendrick asked him to leave the Marines to become the Director of Public Safety , the official in charge of running the city 's police and fire departments . Philadelphia 's municipal government was notoriously corrupt and Butler initially refused . Kendrick asked President Calvin Coolidge to intervene . Coolidge contacted Butler and authorized him to take the necessary leave from the Corps . At the request of the President , Butler served in the post from January 1924 until December 1925 . He began his new job by assembling all 4 @,@ 000 of the city police into the Metropolitan Opera House in shifts to introduce himself and inform them that things would change while he was in charge . He replaced corrupt police officers and , in some cases , switched entire units from one part of the city to another , undermining local protection rackets and profiteering .

Within 48 hours of taking over , Butler organized raids on more than 900 speakeasies , ordering them padlocked and , in many cases , destroyed . In addition to raiding the speakeasies , he also attempted to eliminate other illegal activities : bootlegging , prostitution , gambling and police corruption . More zealous than he was political , he ordered crackdowns on the social elite 's favorite hangouts , such as the Ritz @-@ Carlton and the Union League , as well as on drinking establishments that served the working class . Although he was effective in reducing crime and police corruption , he was a controversial leader . In one instance he made a statement that he would promote the first officer to kill a bandit and stated , " I don 't believe there is a single bandit notch on a policeman 's guns [ sic ] in this city , go out and get some . " Although many of the local citizens and police felt that the raids were just a show , the raids continued for several weeks .

He implemented programs to improve city safety and security . He established policies and guidelines of administration , and developed a Philadelphia police uniform that resembled that of the Marine Corps . Other changes included military @-@ style checkpoints into the city , bandit chasing squads armed with sawed @-@ off shotguns , and armored police cars . The press began reporting on the good and the bad aspects of Butler 's personal war on crime . The reports praised the new uniforms , the new programs and the reductions in crime but they also reflected the public 's negative opinion of their new Public Safety director . Many felt that he was being too aggressive in his tactics and resented the reductions in their civil rights , such as the stopping of citizens at the city checkpoints . Butler frequently swore in his radio addresses , causing many citizens to suggest his behavior , particularly his language , was inappropriate for someone of his rank and stature . Some even suggested Butler acted like a military dictator , even charging that he wrongfully used active @-@ duty Marines in some of his raids . Major R. A. Haynes , the federal Prohibition commissioner , visited the city in 1924 , six months after Butler was appointed . He announced that " great progress " had been made in the city and attributed that success to Butler .

Eventually Butler 's leadership style and the directness of actions undermined his support within the community . His departure seemed imminent . Mayor Kendrick reported to the press , " I had the guts to bring General Butler to Philadelphia and I have the guts to fire him . " Feeling that his duties in Philadelphia were coming to an end , Butler contacted General Lejeune to prepare for his return to the Marine Corps . Not all of the city felt he was doing a bad job , though , and when the news started to break that he would be leaving , people began to gather at the Academy of Music . A group of 4 @,@ 000 supporters assembled and negotiated a truce between him and the mayor to keep him in Philadelphia for a while longer , and the President authorized a one @-@ year extension for him .

Butler devoted much of his second year to executing arrest warrants , cracking down on crooked police and enforcing prohibition . On January 1 , 1926 , his leave from the Marine Corps ended and the President declined a request for a second extension . Butler received orders to report to San Diego and he prepared his family and his belongings for the new assignment . In light of his pending departure , Butler began to defy the Mayor and other key city officials . On the eve of his departure , he had an article printed in the paper stating his intention to stay and " finish the job " . The mayor was surprised and furious when he read the press release the next morning and demanded his resignation . After almost two years in office , Butler resigned under pressure , stating later that " cleaning up Philadelphia was worse than any battle I was ever in . "

= = Military retirement = =

When Commandant of the Marine Corps Major General Wendell C. Neville died July 8 , 1930 , Butler , at that time the senior major general in the Corps , was a candidate for the position . Although he had significant support from many inside and outside the Corps , including John Lejeune and Josephus Daniels , two other Marine Corps generals were seriously considered , Ben H. Fuller and John H. Russell . Lejeune and others petitioned President Hoover , garnered support in the Senate and flooded Secretary of the Navy Charles Adams 's desk with more than 2 @,@ 500 letters of support . With the recent death of his influential father , however , Butler had lost much of his protection from his civilian superiors . The outspokenness that characterized his run @-@ ins with the Mayor of Philadelphia , the " unreliability " mentioned by his superiors when opposing a posting to the Western Front , and his comments about Benito Mussolini resurfaced . In the end , the position of Commandant went to Fuller , who had more years of commissioned service than Butler and was considered less controversial . Butler requested retirement and left active duty on October 1 , 1931 .

= = Later years = =

Even before retiring from the Corps , Butler began developing his post @-@ Corps career . In May 1931 , he took part in a commission established by Oregon Governor Julius L. Meier . The commission laid the foundations for the Oregon State Police . He began lecturing at events and conferences and after his retirement from the Marines in 1931 , he took this up full @-@ time . He donated much of his earnings from his lucrative lecture circuits to the Philadelphia unemployment relief . He toured the western United States , making 60 speeches before returning for his daughter 's marriage to Marine aviator Lieutenant John Wehle . Her wedding was the only time that he wore his dress blue uniform after he left the Marines .

= = = Senate campaign = = =

Butler announced his candidacy for the U.S. Senate in the Republican primary in Pennsylvania in March 1932 as a proponent of Prohibition , known as a " dry " . Butler allied with Gifford Pinchot , but was defeated in the April 26 , 1932 primary election with only 37 @.@ 5 % of the vote to incumbent Senator James J. Davis 's 60 % . A third candidate received the remainder of the votes . According to biographer Mark Strecker , Butler then moved politically to the far left , voting for Norman Thomas of the Socialist Party for president in 1936 .

= = = Bonus Army = = =

During his Senate campaign , Butler spoke out forcefully about the veterans bonus . Veterans of World War I , many of whom had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression , sought immediate cash payment of Service Certificates granted to them eight years earlier via the World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 . Each Service Certificate , issued to a qualified veteran soldier , bore a face value equal to the soldier 's promised payment , plus compound interest . The problem was that the certificates ( like bonds ) , matured 20 years from the date of original issuance , thus , under extant law , the Service Certificates could not be redeemed until 1945 . In June 1932 , approximately 43 @,@ 000 marchers — 17 @,@ 000 of whom were World War I veterans , their families , and affiliated groups — protested in Washington , D.C. The Bonus Expeditionary Force , also known as the " Bonus Army " , marched on Washington to advocate the passage of the " soldier 's bonus " for service during World War I. After Congress adjourned , bonus marchers remained in the city and became unruly . On July 28 , 1932 , two bonus marchers were shot by police , causing the entire mob to become hostile and riotous . The FBI , then known as the United States Bureau of Investigation , checked its fingerprint records to obtain the police records of individuals who had been arrested during the riots or who had participated in the bonus march .

The veterans made camp in the Anacostia flats while they awaited the congressional decision on whether or not to pay the bonus . The motion , known as the Patman bill , was decisively defeated , but the veterans stayed in their camp . Butler arrived with his young son Thomas , in mid @-@ July the day before the official eviction by the Hoover administration . He walked through the camp and spoke to the veterans ; he told them that they were fine soldiers and they had a right to lobby Congress just as much as any corporation . He and his son spent the night and ate with the men , and in the morning Butler gave a speech to the camping veterans . He instructed them to keep their sense of humor and cautioned them not to do anything that would cost public sympathy . On July 28 , army cavalry units led by General Douglas MacArthur dispersed the Bonus Army by riding through it and using gas . During the conflict several veterans were killed or injured and Butler declared himself a " Hoover @-@ for @-@ Ex @-@ President @-@ Republican " .

= = = Lectures = = =

He became widely known for his outspoken lectures against war profiteering , U.S. military adventurism , and what he viewed as nascent fascism in the United States .

In December 1933 , Butler toured the country with James E. Van Zandt to recruit members for the Veterans of Foreign Wars ( VFW ) . He described their effort as " trying to educate the soldiers out of the sucker class . " In his speeches he denounced the Economy Act of 1933 , called on veterans to organize politically to win their benefits , and condemned the FDR administration for its ties to big business . The VFW reprinted one of his speeches with the title " You Got to Get Mad " in its magazine Foreign Service . He said : " I believe in ... taking Wall St. by the throat and shaking it up . " He believed the rival veterans ' group the American Legion was controlled by banking interests . On December 8 , 1933 , he said : " I have never known one leader of the American Legion who had never sold them out — and I mean it . "

In addition to his speeches to pacifist groups , he served from 1935 to 1937 as a spokesman for the American League Against War and Fascism . In 1935 , he wrote the exposé War Is a Racket , a trenchant condemnation of the profit motive behind warfare . His views on the subject are summarized in the following passage from the November 1935 issue of the socialist magazine Common Sense :

I spent 33 years and four months in active military service and during that period I spent most of my time as a high class muscle man for Big Business , for Wall Street and the bankers . In short , I was a racketeer , a gangster for capitalism . I helped make Mexico and especially Tampico safe for American oil interests in 1914 . I helped make Haiti and Cuba a decent place for the National City Bank boys to collect revenues in . I helped in the raping of half a dozen Central American republics for the benefit of Wall Street . I helped purify Nicaragua for the International Banking House of Brown Brothers in 1902 – 1912 . I brought light to the Dominican Republic for the American sugar interests in 1916 . I helped make Honduras right for the American fruit companies in 1903 . In China in 1927 I helped see to it that Standard Oil went on its way unmolested . Looking back on it , I might have given Al Capone a few hints . The best he could do was to operate his racket in three districts . I operated on three continents .

= = = Business Plot = = =

In November 1934 , Butler claimed the existence of a political conspiracy by business leaders to overthrow President Roosevelt , a series of allegations that came to be known in the media as the Business Plot . A special committee of the House of Representatives headed by Representatives John W. McCormack of Massachusetts and Samuel Dickstein of New York , who was later alleged to have been a paid agent of the NKVD , heard his testimony in secret . The McCormack @-@ Dickstein committee was a precursor to the House Committee on Un @-@ American Activities .

In November 1934 , Butler told the committee that one Gerald P. MacGuire told him that a group of businessmen , supposedly backed by a private army of 500 @,@ 000 ex @-@ soldiers and others , intended to establish a fascist dictatorship . Butler had been asked to lead it , he said , by MacGuire , who was a bond salesman with Grayson M – P Murphy & Co . The New York Times reported that Butler had told friends that General Hugh S. Johnson , former head of the National Recovery Administration , was to be installed as dictator , and that the J.P. Morgan banking firm was behind the plot . Butler told Congress that MacGuire had told him the attempted coup was backed by three million dollars , and that the 500 @,@ 000 men were probably to be assembled in Washington , D.C. the following year . All the parties alleged to be involved publicly said there was no truth in the story , calling it a joke and a fantasy .

In its report , the committee stated that it was unable to confirm Butler 's statements other than the conversations with MacGuire . No prosecutions or further investigations followed , and historians have questioned whether or not a coup was actually contemplated . Historians have not reported any independent evidence apart from Butler 's report on what MacGuire told him . Schmidt says Maguire was an " inconsequential trickster . " The news media dismissed the plot , with a New York Times editorial characterizing it as a " gigantic hoax " . When the committee 's final report was released , the Times said the committee " purported to report that a two @-@ month investigation had convinced it that General Butler 's story of a Fascist march on Washington was alarmingly true " and " ... also alleged that definite proof had been found that the much publicized Fascist march on Washington , which was to have been led by Major . Gen. Smedley D. Butler , retired , according to testimony at a hearing , was actually contemplated " . The individuals involved all denied the existence of a plot , despite evidence to the contrary . The media ridiculed the allegations , although a final report by a special House of Representatives Committee confirmed some of Butler 's accusations

The McCormack @-@ Dickstein Committee confirmed some of Butler 's testimony in its final report . " In the last few weeks of the committee 's official life it received evidence showing that certain persons had made an attempt to establish a fascist organization in this country ... There is no question that these attempts were discussed , were planned , and might have been placed in execution when and if the financial backers deemed it expedient . "

= = Death = =

Upon his retirement , Butler bought a home in Newtown Square , Pennsylvania , where he lived with his wife . In June 1940 , he checked himself into the hospital after becoming sick a few weeks earlier . His doctor described his illness as an incurable condition of the upper gastro @-@ intestinal tract that was probably cancer . His family remained by his side , even bringing his new car so he could see it from the window . He never had a chance to drive it . On June 21 , 1940 , Smedley Butler died in the Naval Hospital in Philadelphia .

The funeral was held at his home , attended by friends and family as well as several politicians , members of the Philadelphia police force and officers of the Marine Corps . He was buried at Oaklands Cemetery near West Chester , Pennsylvania . Since his death in 1940 , his family has maintained his home as it was when he died , including a large quantity of memorabilia he had collected throughout his varied career .

= = Honors and awards = =

= = = Military awards = = =

In addition to the Medal of Honor and his other American military decorations , Butler received several awards from other countries including the Haitian National Order of Honour and Merit and the French Order of the Black Star .

= = = Other honors and recognition = = =

The USS Butler ( DD @-@ 636 ) , a Gleaves @-@ class destroyer , was named in his honor in 1942 . This vessel participated in the European and Pacific theaters of operations during the Second World War . She was later converted to a high speed minesweeper .

The Boston , Massachusetts , chapter of Veterans for Peace is called the Smedley D. Butler Brigade in his honor .

Butler was featured in the 2003 Canadian documentary film The Corporation .

In his book My First Days in the White House , Senator Huey Long of Louisiana stated that , if elected to the presidency , he would name Butler as his Secretary of War .

His childhood home at West Chester , The Butler House , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 .

= = Published works = =

Butler , Smedley ; Burks , Arthur J. ( 1927 ) . Walter Garvin in Mexico . Philadelphia : Dorrance . OCLC 3595275 .

— — ; de Ronde , Philip ( 1935 ) . Paraguay : A Gallant Little Nation : The Story of Paraguay 's War with Bolivia . OCLC 480786605 .

— — ( 1934 ) . Speech . Smedley Butler Talks on Black Shirts in America , Philadelphia . Hearst Vault Material , HVMc71r2 , 1447 .

— — ; Venzon , Anne Cipriano . The Papers of General Smedley Darlington Butler , USMC , 1915 – 1918 . OCLC 10958085 .

— — ; Murphy , William R. Letter to William R. Murphy , 1925 April 25 . OCLC 53437731 .

— — ; Venzon , Anne Cipriano ( 1992 ) . General Smedley Darlington Butler : The Letters of a Leatherneck , 1898 – 1931 . Praeger . ISBN 0 @-@ 275 @-@ 94141 @-@ 8 . Retrieved October 14 , 2007 .

— — ( July 1929 ) . " The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science " . American Marines in China . OCLC 479642987 .

— — ( 1933 ) . Old Gimlet Eye . New York : Farrar & Rinehart . ISBN 0 @-@ 940328 @-@ 01 @-@ 1 . OCLC 219896546 .

— — ; Lejeune , John Archer ; Miller , J. Michael ( 2002 ) . My Dear Smedley : Personal Correspondence of John A. LeJeune and Smedley D. Butler , 1927 – 1928 . Marine Corps Research Center .

— — ( 2003 ) [ 1935 ] . War Is a Racket . Los Angeles : Feral House . ISBN 0 @-@ 922915 @-@ 86 @-@ 5 .

= King vulture =

The king vulture ( Sarcoramphus papa ) is a large bird found in Central and South America . It is a member of the New World vulture family Cathartidae . This vulture lives predominantly in tropical lowland forests stretching from southern Mexico to northern Argentina . It is the only surviving member of the genus Sarcoramphus , although fossil members are known .

Large and predominantly white , the king vulture has gray to black ruff , flight , and tail feathers . The head and neck are bald , with the skin color varying , including yellow , orange , blue , purple , and red . The king vulture has a very noticeable yellow fleshy caruncle on its beak . This vulture is a scavenger and it often makes the initial cut into a fresh carcass . It also displaces smaller New World vulture species from a carcass . King vultures have been known to live for up to 30 years in captivity .

King vultures were popular figures in the Mayan codices as well as in local folklore and medicine . Although currently listed as least concern by the IUCN , they are decreasing in number , due primarily to habitat loss .

= = Taxonomy and systematics = =

The king vulture was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae as Vultur papa , the type specimen originally collected in Suriname . It was reassigned to the genus Sarcoramphus in 1805 by French zoologist André Marie Constant Duméril . The generic name is a New Latin compound formed from the Greek words σάρξ ( sarx , " flesh " , the combining form of which is σαρκο- ) and ῥάμφος ( rhamphos , " crooked beak of bird of prey " ) . The genus name is often misspelled as Sarcorhamphus , improperly retaining the Greek rough breathing despite agglutination with the previous word @-@ element . The bird was also assigned to the genus Gyparchus by Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger in 1841 , but this classification is not used in modern literature since Sarcoramphus has priority as the earlier name . The species name is derived from Latin word papa " bishop " , alluding the bird 's plumage resembling the clothing of one . The king vulture 's closest living relative is the Andean condor , Vultur gryphus . Some authors have even put these species in a separate subfamily from the other New World vultures , though most authors consider this subdivision unnecessary .

There are two theories on how the king vulture earned the " king " part of its common name . The first is that the name is a reference to its habit of displacing smaller vultures from a carcass and eating its fill while they wait . An alternative theory reports that the name is derived from Mayan legends , in which the bird was a king who served as a messenger between humans and the gods . This bird was also known as the " white crow " by the Spanish in Paraguay . It was called cozcacuauhtli in Nahuatl , derived from cozcatl " collar " and cuauhtli " bird of prey " .

The exact systematic placement of the king vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures remains unclear . Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles , the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world . Just how different the two are is currently under debate , with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks . More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order , Cathartiformes . The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis , but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible . Like other New World vultures , the king vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80 .

= = = Fossil record and evolution = = =

The genus Sarcoramphus , which today contains only the king vulture , had a wider distribution in the past . The Kern vulture ( Sarcoramphus kernense ) , lived in southwestern North America during the mid @-@ Pliocene ( Piacenzian ) , some 3 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 million years ago ) . It was a little @-@ known component of the Blancan / Delmontian faunal stages . The only material is a broken distal humerus fossil , found at Pozo Creek , Kern County , California . As per Loye H. Miller 's original description , " [ c ] ompared with [ S. papa ] the type conforms in general form and curvature except for its greater size and robustness . " The large span in time between the existence of the two species suggests that the Kern vulture might be distinct , but as the fossil is somewhat damaged and rather non @-@ diagnostic , even assignment to this genus is not completely certain . During the Late Pleistocene , another species probably assignable to the genus , Sarcoramphus fisheri , occurred in Peru . A supposed king vulture relative from Quaternary cave deposits on Cuba turned out to be bones of the eagle @-@ sized hawk Buteogallus borrasi ( formerly in Titanohierax ) .

Little can be said of the evolutionary history of the genus , mainly because remains of other Neogene New World vultures are usually younger or even more fragmentary . The teratorns held sway over the ecological niche of the extant group especially in North America . The Kern vulture seems to slightly precede the main bout of the Great American Interchange , and it is notable that the living diversity of New World vultures seems to have originated in Central America . The Kern vulture would therefore represent a northwards divergence possibly sister to the S. fisheri – S. papa lineage . The fossil record , though scant , supports the theory that the ancestral king vultures and South American condors separated at least some 5 mya .

= = = Bartram 's " painted vulture " = = =

A " painted vulture " ( " Sarcoramphus sacra " or " S. papa sacra " ) is described in William Bartram 's notes of his travels in Florida during the 1770s . This bird 's description matches the appearance of the king vulture except that it had a white , not black , tail . Bartram describes the bird as being relatively common and even claimed to have collected one . However , no other naturalists record the painted vulture in Florida and sixty years after the sighting its validity began to be questioned , leading to what John Cassin described as the most inviting problem in North American ornithology . An independent account and painting was made of a similar bird by Eleazar Albin in 1734 .

While most early ornithologists defended Bartram 's honesty , Joel Asaph Allen argued that the painted vulture was mythical and that Bartram mixed elements of different species to create this bird . Allen pointed out that the birds ' behavior , as recorded by Bartram , is in complete agreement with the caracara 's . For example , Bartram observed the birds following wildfires to scavenge for burned insects and box turtles . Such behavior is typical of caracaras , but the larger and shorter @-@ legged king vultures are not well adapted for walking . The northern crested caracara ( Caracara cheriway ) was believed to be common and conspicuous in Bartram 's days , but it is notably absent from Bartram 's notes if the painted vulture is accepted as a Sarcoramphus . However , Francis Harper argued that the bird could , as in the 1930s , have been rare in the area Bartram visited and could have been missed .

Harper noticed that Bartram 's notes were considerably altered and expanded in the printed edition , and the detail of the white tail appeared in print for the first time in this revised account . Harper believed that Bartram could have tried to fill in details of the bird from memory and got the tail coloration wrong . Harper and several other researchers have attempted to prove the former existence of a king vulture relative in Florida at this late date , suggesting that the population was in the process of extinction and finally disappeared during a cold spell . Additionally , William McAtee , noting the tendency of birds to form Floridian subspecies , suggested that the white tail could be a sign that the painted vulture was a subspecies of the king vulture .

= = Description = =

Excluding the two species of condors , the king vulture is the largest of the New World vultures . Its overall length ranges from 67 – 81 centimeters ( 27 – 32 in ) and its wingspan is 1 @.@ 2 – 2 meters ( 4 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . Its weight ranges from 2 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 6 – 10 lb ) . An imposing bird , the adult king vulture has predominantly white plumage , which has a slight rose @-@ yellow tinge to it . In stark contrast , the wing coverts , flight feathers and tail are dark grey to black , as is the prominent thick neck ruff . The head and neck are devoid of feathers , the skin shades of red and purple on the head , vivid orange on the neck and yellow on the throat . On the head , the skin is wrinkled and folded , and there is a highly noticeable irregular golden crest attached on the cere above its orange and black bill ; this caruncle does not fully form until the bird ’ s fourth year .

The king vulture has the largest skull and braincase , and strongest bill of the New World vultures . This bill has a hooked tip and a sharp cutting edge . The bird has broad wings and a short , broad , and square tail . The irises of its eyes are white and bordered by bright red sclera . Unlike some New World vultures , the king vulture lacks eyelashes . It also has gray legs and long , thick claws .

The vulture is minimally sexually dimorphic , with no difference in plumage and little in size between males and females . The juvenile vulture has a dark bill and eyes , and a downy , gray neck that soon begins to turn the orange of an adult . Younger vultures are a slate gray overall , and , while they look similar to the adult by the third year , they do not completely molt into adult plumage until they are around five or six years of age . Jack Eitniear of the Center for the Study of Tropical Birds in San Antonio , Texas reviewed the plumage of birds in captivity of various ages and found that ventral feathers were the first to begin turning white from two years of age onwards , followed by wing feathers , until the full adult plumage was achieved . The final immature stages being a scattered black feathers in the otherwise white lesser wing coverts .

The vulture 's head and neck are featherless as an adaptation for hygiene , though there are black bristles on parts of the head ; this lack of feathers prevents bacteria from the carrion it eats from ruining its feathers and exposes the skin to the sterilizing effects of the sun .

Dark @-@ plumaged immature birds may be confused with turkey vultures , but soar with flat wings , while the pale plumaged adults could feasibly be confused with the wood stork , although the latter 's long neck and legs allow for easy recognition from afar .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The king vulture inhabits an estimated 14 million km2 ( 5 @.@ 4 million mi2 ) between southern Mexico and northern Argentina . In South America , it does not live west of the Andes , except in western Ecuador , north @-@ western Colombia and far north @-@ western Venezuela . It primarily inhabits undisturbed tropical lowland forests as well as savannas and grasslands with these forests nearby . It is often seen near swamps or marshy places in the forests . This bird is often the most numerous or only vulture present in primary lowland forests in its range , but in the Amazon rainforest it is typically outnumbered by the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture , while typically outnumbered by the lesser yellow @-@ headed , turkey and American black vulture in more open habitats . King vultures generally do not live above 1500 m ( 5000 ft ) , although are found in places at 2500 m ( 8000 ft ) altitude east of the Andes , and have been rarely recorded up to 3300 m ( 10000 ft ) They inhabit the emergent forest level , or above the canopy . Pleistocene remains have been recovered from Buenos Aires Province in central Argentina , over 700 km ( 450 mi ) south of its current range , giving rise to speculation on the habitat there at the time which had not been thought to be suitable .

= = Ecology and behavior = =

The king vulture soars for hours effortlessly , only flapping its wings infrequently . While in flight , its wings are held flat with slightly raised tips , and from a distance the vulture can appear to be headless while in flight . Its wing beats are deep and strong . Birds have been observed engaging in tandem flight on two occasions in Venezuela by naturalist Marsha Schlee , who has proposed it could be a part of courtship behaviour .

Despite its size and gaudy coloration , this vulture is quite inconspicuous when it is perched in trees . While perched , it holds its head lowered and thrust forward . It is non @-@ migratory and , unlike the turkey , lesser yellow @-@ headed and American black vulture , it generally lives alone or in small family groups . Groups of up to 12 birds have been observed bathing and drinking in a pool above a waterfall in Belize . One or two birds generally descend to feed at a carcass , although occasionally up to ten or so may gather if there is significant amount of food . King vultures have lived up to 30 years in captivity , though their lifespan in the wild is unknown . This vulture uses urohidrosis , defecating on its legs , to lower its body temperature . Despite its bill and large size , it is relatively unaggressive at a kill . The king vulture lacks a voice box , although it can make low croaking noises and wheezing sounds in courtship , and bill @-@ snapping noises when threatened . Its only natural predators are snakes , which will prey upon the vulture 's eggs and young , and large cats such as jaguars , which may surprise and kill an adult vulture at a carcass .

= = = Diet = = =

The king vulture eats anything from cattle carcasses to beached fish and dead lizards . Principally a carrion eater , there are isolated reports of it killing and eating injured animals , newborn calves and small lizards .

Although it locates food by vision , the role smell has in how it specifically finds carrion has been debated . Consensus has been that it does not detect odours , and instead follows the smaller turkey and greater yellow @-@ headed vultures , which do have a sense of smell , to a carcass , but a 1991 study demonstrated that the king vulture could find carrion in the forest without the aid of other vultures , suggesting that it locates food using an olfactory sense . The king vulture primarily eats carrion found in the forest , though it is known to venture onto nearby savannas in search of food . Once it has found a carcass , the king vulture displaces the other vultures because of its large size and strong bill . However , when it is at the same kill as the larger Andean condor , the king vulture always defers to it . Using its bill to tear , it makes the initial cut in a fresh carcass . This allows the smaller , weaker @-@ beaked vultures , which can not open the hide of a carcass , access to the carcass after the king vulture has fed . The vulture ’ s tongue is rasp @-@ like , which allows it to pull flesh off of the carcass ’ s bones . Generally , it only eats the skin and harder parts of the tissue of its meal . The king vulture has also been recorded eating fallen fruit of the moriche palm when carrion is scarce in Bolívar state , Venezuela .

= = = Breeding = = =

The reproductive behaviour of the king vulture in the wild is poorly known , and much knowledge has been gained from observing birds in captivity , particularly at the Paris Menagerie . An adult king vulture sexually matures when it is about four or five years old , with females maturing slightly earlier than males . The birds mainly breed during the dry season . King vultures mate for life and generally lay a single unmarked white egg in its nest in a hollow in a tree . To ward off potential predators , the vultures keep their nests foul @-@ smelling . Both parents incubate the egg for the 52 to 58 days before it hatches . If the egg is lost , it will often be replaced after about six weeks . The parents share incubating and brooding duties until the chick is about a week old , after which they often stand guard rather than brood . The young are semi @-@ altricial — they are helpless when born but are covered in downy feathers ( truly altricial birds are born naked ) , and their eyes are open at birth . Developing quickly , the chicks are fully alert by their second day , and able to beg and wriggle around the nest , and preen themselves and peck by their third day . They start growing their second coat of white down by day 10 , and stand on their toes by day 20 . From one to three months of age , chicks walk around and explore the vicinity of the nest , and take their first flights at about three months of age .

= = Conservation = =

This bird is a species of least concern to the IUCN , with an estimated range of 14 million km2 ( 5 @.@ 4 million mi2 ) and between 10 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 wild individuals . However , there is evidence that suggests a decline in population , though it is not significant enough to cause it to be listed . This decline is due primarily to habitat destruction and poaching . Although distinctive , its habit of perching in tall trees and flying at altitude render it difficult to monitor .

= = Relationship with humans = =

The king vulture is one of the most common species of birds represented in the Mayan codices . Its glyph is easily distinguishable by the knob on the bird ’ s beak and by the concentric circles that make up the bird ’ s eyes . Sometimes the bird is portrayed as a god with a human body and a bird head . According to Mayan mythology , this god often carried messages between humans and the other gods . It is also used to represent Cozcacuauhtli , the thirteenth day of the month in the Mayan calendar ( 13 Reed ) . An ocellated turkey ( Meleagris ocellata ) was also considered to be the bird depicted , but the hooked bill and wattle point to the raptor .

The bird ’ s blood and feathers were also used to cure diseases . The king vulture is also a popular subject on the stamps of the countries within its range . It appeared on a stamp for El Salvador in 1963 , Belize in 1978 , Guatemala in 1979 , Honduras in 1997 , Bolivia in 1998 , and Nicaragua in 1999 .

Because of its large size and beauty , the king vulture is an attraction at zoos around the world . The king vulture is one of several bird species with an AZA studbook , which is kept by Shelly Collinsworth of the Fort Worth Zoo .

= William R. Purnell =

Rear Admiral William Reynolds Purnell ( 6 September 1886 – 3 March 1955 ) was an officer in the United States Navy who served in World War I and World War II . A 1908 graduate of the United States Naval Academy , he captained destroyers during World War I. He was awarded the Navy Cross for his role in protecting convoys against German submarines as commander of the USS Lamson .

He was promoted to rear admiral in November 1941 . During World War II , he was Chief of Staff of the ill @-@ fated Asiatic Fleet at the start of the Pacific War . He later served as Assistant Chief of Naval Operations for Materiel . He was the Navy representative on the Joint Committee on New Weapons and Equipment , and , from September 1942 , the Navy representative on the Military Policy Committee , the three @-@ man committee that oversaw the Manhattan Project . Purnell helped coordinate its activities with those of the Navy . In 1945 , he travelled to Tinian as the representative of the Military Policy Committee , and coordinated preparations for the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with senior Army and Navy commanders in the Pacific . He retired from the Navy in 1946 and died in 1955 .

= = Early life = =

William Reynolds Purnell was born in Bowling Green , Missouri , on 6 September 1886 . In 1908 , he graduated from the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . He was commissioned as an ensign in 1910 . During World War I , he commanded the destroyers USS Lamson , USS Patterson , USS Rowan , and USS Montgomery . For his services , he was awarded the Navy Cross . His citation read :

The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Lieutenant Commander William Reynolds Purnell , United States Navy , for distinguished service in the line of his profession as Commanding Officer of the USS Lamson , engaged in the important , exacting and hazardous duty of patrolling the waters infested with enemy submarines and mines , in escorting and protecting vitally important convoys of troops and supplies through these waters , and in offensive and defensive action , vigorously and unremittingly prosecuted against all forms of enemy naval activity during World War I.

In January 1917 , while he was serving on the Rowan , he married Ada Dodge Curtiss , the daughter of Walter Phelps Dodge and the ex @-@ wife of Gerald S. Curtiss . They had one son , William Reynolds Purnell , Jr .

After the war , he commanded the tanker USS Cuyama from 1934 to 1936 . Alternating duty afloat with service ashore , he then became secretary to the General Board . He commanded the cruiser USS New Orleans from January to December 1939 .

= = World War II = =

Purnell became Chief of Staff of Admiral Thomas C. Hart 's Asiatic Fleet . Purnell represented the United States at a planning conference in Singapore in April 1941 at which American , British , Dutch , Australian , and New Zealand commanders attempted to coordinate their plans for an increasingly likely war with Japan . He was promoted to rear admiral in November 1941 . On 7 December , Purnell played golf with Hart . War broke out the next morning . The Japanese advanced quickly and the Asiatic Fleet moved from the Philippines to Java in January . As the Japanese closed in on Java , Purnell flew to Broome on 25 February .

In Australia , Purnell became Chief of Staff to Vice Admiral William A. Glassford , the Commander , US Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific . When Glassford departed in May 1942 , Purnell took his place . He too left Australia in June 1942 , for duty in Washington , DC , in the Office of the Commander in Chief , United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest J. King . For his services , he was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :

The President of the United States of America , authorized by Act of Congress , July 9 , 1918 , takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Rear Admiral William Reynolds Purnell , United States Navy , for especially meritorious service as Chief of Staff to Commander in Chief , Asiatic Fleet , and Commander U.S. Forces , Southwest , Pacific , since the outbreak of war for duties involving great responsibility connected with formulation plans , counseling their application and aid in directing execution , especially of offensive missions of forces of this command which have resulted in substantial damage to the enemy together with skill and tact displayed in negotiating , conferring and dealing with Commanders of the Allied Forces during World War II .

Purnell became Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Materiel . He was also the Navy representative on the Joint Committee on New Weapons and Equipment , and , from September 1942 , the Navy representative on the Military Policy Committee , the three @-@ man committee that oversaw the Manhattan Project . Purnell helped coordinate the activities of the Manhattan Project with those of the Navy , particularly the navy 's thermal diffusion research , and he helped provide scientists and technicians from the Navy for the project .

In February 1945 , Purnell arranged for Commander Frederick Ashworth to go to Guam to brief Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz on the project . He provided Ashworth with a letter from King stressing the project 's importance and the need for secrecy . Ashworth selected a base site for the Manhattan Project 's operations . He inspected facilities on Guam and Tinian , and chose the latter .

Tinian 's harbor suffered from congestion due to extensive base development work , and ships sometimes took months to unload . The director of the Manhattan Project , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , went to Purnell , who arranged for an order from King to Nimitz stating that all shipments related to the Manhattan Project and the 509th Composite Group had to be unloaded immediately on arrival , regardless of the consequent disruption to the port 's operations .

Problems like this underlined the value of having high @-@ ranking officers on hand to deal with local commanders to make decisions on the spot if necessary . In drawing up an organization for command of the Manhattan Project 's operations , Groves and Purnell agreed that Purnell should to be present on Tinian as both the representative of the Military Policy Committee and the personal representative of Admiral King . He was joined by Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , the Manhattan Project 's Deputy for Operations , and the two shared responsibility for coordinating the Manhattan Project 's activities with the senior Army and Navy commanders in the Pacific . Along with Captain William S. Parsons , the director of Project Alberta , they formed what became informally known as the " Tinian Joint Chiefs " .

Purnell was the first proponent of the idea that two atomic attacks , one following quickly after the other , would be required to end the war . This was something that Groves and Purnell discussed a number of times . " I knew that with him and Farrell on the ground at Tinian , " Groves wrote . " There would be no unnecessary delay in exploiting our success " after the bombing of Hiroshima . The main difficulty with the second mission , then scheduled for 11 August , was the weather , which was predicted to be good until 9 August but bad for at least five days starting on 10 August . Parsons agreed to work the assembly team around the clock to get the Fat Man bomb ready by the evening of 8 August .

Before Major Charles Sweeney took off on the mission , Purnell took him aside and asked him if he knew how much the bomb cost . Sweeney did not know ; Purnell told him it was about $ 2 billion . He then asked if Sweeney knew how much his aircraft was worth . This Sweeney did know ; over half a million dollars . Purnell then told him : " I 'd suggest you keep those relative values in mind for this mission . "

= = Later life = =

After the war , Purnell served as a member of the Army @-@ Navy Evaluation Board during Operation Crossroads . He retired from the Navy in October 1946 , and moved to Palo Alto , California , where he died on 5 March 1955 . He was buried in Golden Gate National Cemetery . He was survived by his wife , Ada Dodge Purnell , and his son , William R. Purnell , Jr .

= Adam Air Flight 172 =

Adam Air Flight 172 refers to an accident suffered by a Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , when it landed in Surabaya at the end of a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Ngurah Rai Airport to Juanda Airport . On 21 February 2007 , the plane bent on landing , with the fuselage cracking in the middle of the passenger section . All six of Adam Air 's remaining 737s were immediately grounded , and five of them were back in regular service later that year . This incident caused further concerns regarding the safety of flights operated by Adam Air , which had received much criticism after the 1 January 2007 crash of Flight 574 .

= = Aircraft = =

The aircraft , a Boeing 737 @-@ 33A , registration PK @-@ KKV , was acquired by Adam Air in January 2007 , having previously been operated by Brazilian operator Varig . The aircraft was manufactured in 1994 .

= = Accident = =

The plane bent upon landing at Juanda International Airport , with the fuselage breaking in the middle of the passenger section . The landing was particularly hard , with baggage being ejected from cabin lockers into the cabin space . The tail section of the plane was bent down compared to the rest of the plane . Subsequent flights to the airport were diverted to alternate airports . Adam Air 's fleet of Boeing 737 @-@ 300s were grounded for safety inspections in the interim . Immediately after the accident , Adam Air repainted the aircraft , covering the original orange livery with a plain white exterior . This is legally permissible , so long as no evidence is destroyed . Also in the immediate aftermath , a large number of passengers cancelled their flights with Adam Air , saying they had " lost faith " in the airline . They were all refunded in full .

= = Grounding of Adam Air 's 737s = =

As a result of the incident , all six remaining Adam Air 737s were immediately grounded awaiting safety checks . Vice @-@ President of Indonesia , Jusuf Kalla , said that all Boeing 737 @-@ 300s should be checked . He eventually decided the entire Indonesian fleet of 737s should be checked , but did not ground any more aircraft . There were also suggestions that Adam Air should be suspended from all operations until the entire fleet could be checked , with MP Abdul Hakim saying " It will be good for the company and the government ... until the flight authorities can determine if Adam Air is still worthy as national aircraft company " .

The Indonesian Transport Ministry said that if the aircraft showed signs of problems , the checks would be expanded to cover all 737s operating in Indonesia . On 5 March , it was reported that five of the six aircraft had returned to normal operations , but the sixth was still undergoing a full maintenance overhaul at maintenance , repair and overhaul firm , GMF AeroAsia facility . Adam Air had resumed its normal schedule by 9 March 2007 .

= = Investigation = =

The accident was investigated by the National Transportation Safety Committee ( INTSC ) . Investigators compiled data from the Indonesian weather agency and from the air traffic control center in Surabaya in an attempt to determine the cause . Officials state the aircraft did pass safety checks prior to its departure . Boeing announced that they would also provide technical assistance to both the authorities and the airline during the course of the investigation .

The final report from the NTSC stated that the probable cause of the accident was an excessive sink rate upon touchdown , following an unstabilised approach . In the report , the INTSC noted that the approach was unstable below 200 feet ( 61 m ) , with a vertical speed occasionally greater than 2500 fpm . The vertical acceleration on landing was measured at 5 g . Additionally , the aircraft initially touched down with the right main gear approximately 4 metres ( 13 ft ) outside of the runway edge .

The investigation further revealed that there was no technical malfunction on the aircraft prior to touchdown .

The flight crew was criticised for not maintaining a sterile cockpit during the landing , with excessive non @-@ flight related discussion going on throughout the flight .

Unusually for an aircraft accident investigation , the investigative committee was not provided information as to the identities of the flight crew of the aircraft .

= = Maintenance concerns = =

The safety record of Adam Air was heavily criticised , especially in the aftermath of Flight 574 . Pilots reported repeated and deliberate breaches of international safety regulations , with aircraft being flown in non @-@ airworthy states for months at a time . They claimed that there had been such incidents as requests to sign documents to allow an aircraft to fly while not having the authority to and while knowing the plane to be not airworthy , flying a plane for several months with a damaged door handle , swapping parts between aircraft to avoid mandatory replacement deadlines , being ordered to fly aircraft after exceeding the take @-@ off limit of five times per pilot per day , flying an aircraft with a damaged window , using spare parts from other aircraft to keep planes in the air , and the ignoring of pilots ' requests not to take off due to unsafe aircraft . The Associated Press quoted one pilot as saying that " Every time you flew , you had to fight with the ground staff and the management about all the regulations you had to violate . " They also claim that if pilots confronted their seniors in the airline , they were grounded or docked pay .

= = Aftermath = =

The Indonesian government announced plans immediately after the accident to ban jets over ten years of age for any commercial purpose . The age limit had been 35 years or 70 @,@ 000 landings . Indonesia also announced plans to reshuffle the Transportation Ministry in response to this incident , Flight 574 and the loss of the ferries MV Senopati Nusantara and MV Levina 1 . Among those to be replaced were the directors of air and sea transports and the chairman of the National Committee for Transportation Safety . Indonesia also intended to introduce a new system of ranking airlines according to their safety record , with a level one ranking meaning the airline has no serious issues , a level two ranking meaning the airline must fix problems , and a level three rating forcing the airline to be shut down .

= Aonchotheca forresteri =

Aonchotheca forresteri is a parasitic nematode that infects the marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) in Florida . Occurring mainly in adults , it inhabits the stomach . It is much more common during the wet season , perhaps because its unknown intermediate host is an earthworm that only emerges when it rains . The worm was discovered in 1970 and formally described in 1987 . Originally classified in the genus Capillaria , it was reclassified in Aonchotheca in 1999 . A. forresteri is small and narrow @-@ bodied , with a length of 13 @.@ 8 to 19 @.@ 4 mm in females and 6 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 2 mm in males . Similar species such as A. putorii differ in features of the alae and spicule ( organs in the male ) , the size of the female , and the texture of the eggs .

= = Taxonomy = =

Aonchotheca forresteri was discovered during a survey of the endoparasites of Florida marsh rice rats ( Oryzomys palustris ) by John Kinsella from 1970 to 1972 , and is one of several new parasite species in this study , which was done because there were no previous comprehensive studies of the endoparasites of the species . Together with Danny Pence , Kinsella described the worm in a 1987 paper as Capillaria forresteri ; the specific name honors Donald J. Forrester of the College of Veterinary Medicine , University of Florida . Kinsella and Pence described it as one of many species of Capillaria , a large and taxonomically difficult genus . They suggested that it may be closest to some other small species that live in the digestive systems of mammals , such as the very similar C. putorii , which is found in a variety of carnivorans in North America and Europe . In 1982 , Moravec had placed Capillaria putorii and a number of related species in a separate genus , Aonchotheca , and in 1999 Pisanu and Bain transferred Capillaria forresteri and various other species to that genus from Capillaria . Thus , the species is now known as Aonchotheca forresteri .

= = Description = =

Aonchotheca forresteri is a small , narrow @-@ bodied worm . It is narrowest at the front and increases in width to about three fourths of its length . The cuticle , the surface layer , is smooth . Females are 13 @.@ 8 to 19 @.@ 4 mm long , averaging 16 @.@ 9 mm , which makes them substantially longer than female A. putorii , and 55 to 70 ( average 62 ) μm wide . The eggs are smooth , lacking the elaborate pattern on the surface seen in A. putorii , and are 53 to 58 ( 54 ) μm long and 21 to 24 ( 21 ) μm broad . The esophagus , the frontmost part of the digestive system , is 2 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 9 ( 3 @.@ 6 ) mm long and is lined by 36 to 45 ( 40 ) cells known as stichocytes . The vulva is located 66 to 105 ( 83 ) μm behind the end of the esophagus and the anus is near the end of the worm , which is rounded .

At 6 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 2 ( 7 @.@ 7 ) mm , males are only about half as long as females . Their maximum width is 34 to 42 ( 37 ) μm . The length of the esophagus is 2 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 0 ( 2 @.@ 6 ) mm , of which the muscular pharynx makes up 260 to 315 ( 273 ) μm , and is lined by 35 to 42 ( 37 ) stichocytes . The back region of the worm is 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 2 ( 5 @.@ 1 ) mm long . The back , or rectal , opening of the digestive tube is located near the end of the worm , and the length of the cloaca is 530 to 576 ( 550 ) μm . Near the back end , there are two alae ( ridges ) at the sides ( laterally ) , which are 40 to 55 ( 46 ) μm long ; these are located at 10 to 15 μm from another , small ala at the tip . In A. putorii , the lateral alae are much longer and reach the ala at the tip . The spicule , a spikelike structure that functions in reproduction , is curved at the tip and hardened and has a length of 380 to 426 ( 406 ) μm . It is smaller than that of the similar A. tamiasstriati from North American chipmunks and larger than that of A. murissylvatici from various North American and European small rodents , but about as long as that of A. putorii , which however lacks the curved tip .

= = Distribution and ecology = =

Marsh rice rats from Paynes Prairie , Alachua County ; Cedar Key , Levy County ; and Lake Istokpoga , Highlands County , all in Florida , have yielded A. forresteri . In Paynes Prairie , the type locality , 82 of 178 animals examined were infected with 1 to 50 ( average 10 ) worms , but in Cedar Key only a single rat contained one worm . The worms were found in the front part , or fundus , of the stomach , with their front ends in the fundal tissue and their back ends projecting into the inside .

In Paynes Prairie , there was no significant difference in rate of infection between males and females , but only 4 % of juveniles were infected , compared to 52 % of adults . Most species of Capillaria occur in multiple hosts , but A. forresteri has been found only in the marsh rice rat , even though several other small mammals ( the round @-@ tailed muskrat , Neofiber alleni ; cotton mouse , Peromyscus gossypinus ; hispid cotton rat , Sigmodon hispidus ; and marsh rabbit , Sylvilagus palustris ) occur in Paynes Prairie . The rice rat eats more animal food than any of those , and perhaps A. forresteri has an intermediate host that is not eaten by the other species . A. forresteri is markedly more prevalent in the wet season ( spring ) than the dry season ( autumn ) , perhaps because rainfall patterns influence the habits of the rice rat in some way . One possibility is that the intermediate host is an earthworm or other oligochaete worm that moves to the surface when it rains .

= Killswitch Engage =

Killswitch Engage is an American metalcore band from Westfield , Massachusetts , formed in 1999 after the disbanding of Overcast and Aftershock . Killswitch Engage 's current lineup consists of vocalist Jesse Leach , guitarists Joel Stroetzel and Adam Dutkiewicz , bassist Mike D 'Antonio , and drummer Justin Foley . The band has released seven studio albums and one DVD . Their latest album , Incarnate , was released on March 11 , 2016 .

Killswitch Engage rose to fame with its 2004 release The End of Heartache , which peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200 , and was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2007 for over 500 @,@ 000 shipments in the United States . The title track , " The End of Heartache " , was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2005 for Best Metal Performance , and a live DVD titled ( Set This ) World Ablaze was released in 2005 . Killswitch Engage has performed at festivals such as Soundwave Festival , Wacken Open Air , Reading and Leeds Festivals , Ozzfest , Download Festival , Rock on the Range , Rock Am Ring , Mayhem Festival , Monsters of Rock , Pointfest , Knotfest and Heavy MTL . The band has sold over four million records in the U.S. and has been considered notable within the New Wave of American Heavy Metal .

= = History = =

= = = Early years and debut album ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =

Killswitch Engage formed following the disbandment of metalcore bands Overcast and Aftershock in 1999 . After Overcast broke up in 1998 , bassist Mike D 'Antonio jammed with Aftershock guitarist Adam Dutkiewicz . Dutkiewicz , now playing drums , recruited guitarist Joel Stroetzel from Aftershock and vocalist Jesse Leach of the band Nothing Stays Gold ( who were signed to a record label owned by Dutkiewicz 's brother Tobias , who was also the vocalist in Aftershock ) to form a new band , Killswitch Engage . The band 's name is derived from an episode of the television series The X @-@ Files entitled " Kill Switch " , written by William Gibson , who gave the episode this title after meeting the industrial band Kill Switch ... Klick .

In 1999 , Killswitch Engage recorded a demo containing four tracks , including " Soilborn " , the first song written by the band . The demo was first released at the band 's first show , opening for melodic death metal act In Flames , in November 1999 . They released their self @-@ titled debut album the following year . Although initially the album was not a financial success and did not land on any charts , it attracted the interest of Carl Severson , who worked at Roadrunner Records at the time . Severson handed Killswitch Engage to several Roadrunner representatives . Mike Gitter , a talent agent of the company , contacted D 'Antonio , attended several of the band 's shows , and offered the band a recording contract with Roadrunner . Realizing that Roadrunner had the resources to promote and distribute Killswitch Engage releases , the band accepted his offer , declining several offers from smaller labels .

= = = Alive or Just Breathing ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = =

For a brief time in 2000 and 2001 , ex @-@ Overcast guitarist Pete Cortese joined Killswitch Engage , but left when he became a father . Killswitch Engage began writing new material for their second album in November 2001 . Mixed in January at Backstage Studios by producer Andy Sneap , the album was titled Alive or Just Breathing for lyrics in the song " Just Barely Breathing " . A music video for the single " My Last Serenade " increased the band 's exposure , and the album peaked at number 37 on the Top Heatseekers chart .

Following Alive or Just Breathing 's release , the album having been written and recorded for two guitarists , the band decided to expand and become a fivesome ; Dutkiewicz moved to guitar and former Aftershock drummer Tom Gomes filled in the vacant drummer position . After Leach was married on April 20 , 2002 and began touring again he fell into a depression . Leach left the band a few days before the band was meant to play a show and sent the band members an e @-@ mail telling them he had quit . D 'Antonio said in an interview that " after three years of hanging out with the dude , and considering him a brother , to just get an email was a little bit harsh . "

The band immediately started to search for a replacement vocalist and found Howard Jones of Blood Has Been Shed . Jones disliked the band 's sound when he first heard it . He commented , " I was like , ' Meh . ' I come from hardcore and dirtier metal , and Killswitch sounded so clean . But the more I listened to it , I realized there 's some really good songs here " . After hearing about Leach 's vocal problems , Jones contacted the band and was accepted as the replacement . Philip Labonte of All That Remains tried out for lead vocals but lost to Jones , who had to quickly memorize seven songs for his debut at the 2002 Hellfest .

The new lineup played on the Road Rage tour in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands in 2002 with 36 Crazyfists and Five Pointe O. Touring continued through the New Year 's Day , and in 2003 the first song to feature Jones , " When Darkness Falls " , appeared on the soundtrack of the 2003 horror film Freddy vs. Jason . Following the 2003 Ozzfest , drummer Gomes left the band because he wished to spend more time with his wife , to pursue his band Something of a Silhouette , and because he was tired of touring . He was replaced by Justin Foley of Blood Has Been Shed , and Foley 's first tour with the band was the MTV2 Headbangers Ball in 2003 .

= = = The End of Heartache ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = =

The End of Heartache was released on May 11 , 2004 , and peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200 with 38 @,@ 000 sales in its first week , and it also peaked at number 39 on the Australian Albums Chart . The album went on to sell more than 500 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S and was certified gold on December 7 , 2007 . The album received mostly positive reviews , with Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone calling the album a " stunning collection , retaining much of their signature musical brutality " . Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic commented " riffs upon riffs are piled sky @-@ high into each number that follows , it 's the unpredictable rhythmic shifts used to build and then relieve internal pressure that fuel the Killswitch Engage power source " .

" The End of Heartache " became the main single for the movie Resident Evil : Apocalypse , and in 2005 the song was nominated for Best Metal Performance for the 47th Grammy Awards . In late 2004 , The End of Heartache was re @-@ released as a special edition album , with a second disc featuring various live performances , a Japanese bonus track , and a re @-@ recorded version of " Irreversal " . During the summer of 2005 , the band returned for Ozzfest , and on November 1 , 2005 , Alive or Just Breathing was re @-@ released as part of Roadrunner Records ' 25th anniversary . On November 22 , 2005 , the live DVD ( Set This ) World Ablaze was released , which contained a live concert at the Palladium in Worcester , Massachusetts , an hour @-@ long documentary , and all the band 's music videos . The DVD was certified gold in the US on April 8 , 2006 .

= = = As Daylight Dies ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =

Killswitch Engage played the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2006 , having already played Australian dates without Dutkiewicz , who was suffering from back problems and needed corrective surgery . On May 23 , 2006 , the song " This Fire Burns " was released on the WWE Wreckless Intent album . The track was intended to be the new theme song for WWE wrestler Randy Orton ; however , it was scrapped and later became the theme song for the WWE Judgment Day 2006 pay @-@ per @-@ view . " This Fire Burns " was used as the entrance theme for WWE wrestler CM Punk ( along with his stables the Straight Edge Society and The New Nexus ) from 2006 until 2011 and was later re @-@ released as " This Fire " on the As Daylight Dies Special Edition .

Recorded in three months , As Daylight Dies was released on November 21 , 2006 and peaked at number 32 on the Billboard 200 chart with 60 @,@ 000 sales in its first week . " As Daylight Dies " proved to be one of their biggest albums yet . It also entered the Australian Albums Chart at number 29 . Mixed by Dutkiewicz , the album received mostly positive reviews — Thom Jurek of Allmusic called it " a Top Five metal candidate for 2006 for sure " . Decibel Magazine contributor Nick Terry said " To call As Daylight Dies addictive would be an understatement . That it outdoes its already impressive enough predecessor could almost go without saying " . Cosmo Lee of Stylus Magazine commented " the album is astonishingly badly sequenced " , though he praised the album as being " less emotionally heavy @-@ handed , and a lot more fun " . As of November 27 , 2007 , As Daylight Dies has sold more than 500 @,@ 000 units in the US .

The album 's first single , " My Curse " , peaked at number 21 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart , and is featured in the video games Sleeping Dogs , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , Burnout Dominator and Burnout Paradise and is available as downloadable content for the Rock Band series . " The Arms of Sorrow " peaked at number 31 on the same chart . The band 's cover of Dio 's " Holy Diver " , originally recorded for a Kerrang ! compilation album titled High Voltage , peaked at number 12 on the Mainstream Rock charts . Early in 2007 , the band had to cancel three of its European tour dates with The Haunted due to Dutkiewicz 's back problems . He required emergency back surgery and was replaced on the tour by Soilwork guitarist Peter Wichers .

Due to Dutkiewicz 's back problems in early 2007 , he was replaced by Damageplan and The Mercy Clinic frontman Patrick Lachman during the No Fear Tour . Dutkiewicz recovered and was able to finish the No Fear tour , and the band began filming its video for As Daylight Dies 's second single , " The Arms of Sorrow " . On August 6 , 2007 , Dutkiewicz was forced to leave the Warped Tour so he could fully recover from his back surgery and continue daily physical therapy . He was replaced by Killswitch 's guitar technician Josh Mihlek for select songs , until his return on August 14 , 2007 .

= = = Second self @-@ titled album ( 2007 – 2011 ) = = =

Killswitch Engage entered the studio in October 2008 to start recording their next album with Dutkiewicz and Brendan O 'Brien co @-@ producing the album . In mid @-@ February , bassist Mike D 'Antonio confirmed in an interview with Metal Hammer that " drums were finished " , and that he had " finished up the last few bass fixes " . He also stated that Howard [ Jones ] was in Atlanta finishing vocals , and that " it shouldn 't be too much longer now . " From March to May , Killswitch Engage was a part of Disturbed 's Music as a Weapon IV festival along with Lacuna Coil , Chimaira , Suicide Silence , Bury Your Dead and more . On April 14 , the band announced the name of their album as Killswitch Engage , the second time the band has self @-@ titled an album . The album was released on June 30 , 2009 , debuting at No. 7 on the Billboard 200 , marking the band 's highest chart position for an album . In July and August , Killswitch Engage took part in Mayhem Festival with headliners Marilyn Manson , Slayer , Bullet for My Valentine and others . In February 2010 , Killswitch Engage announced that vocalist Howard Jones would not be performing with Killswitch Engage during their winter tour with The Devil Wears Prada and Dark Tranquillity ; during the time , All That Remains vocalist Philip Labonte was substituting for Jones until he could return . At least one source speculated that Jones ' hiatus was due to back pain . On March 18 , 2010 , original vocalist Jesse Leach returned to the band for a series of songs . From then on , Leach and Labonte performed as substitute vocalists for the remainder of the tour .

In 2010 , the band contributed the track " My Obsession " to the God of War : Blood & Metal soundtrack . The band was later added as late replacement to 2010 's Download Festival in June , after original sub @-@ headliner , Wolfmother could not attend as scheduled . Afterward , Killswitch Engage took a break from the road , and its members pursued other interests . Adam Dutkiewicz formed the band Times of Grace with Leach and released the debut album " The Hymn of a Broken Man " on January 18 , 2011 . Along with Dutkiewicz and Leach , Times of Grace added Joel Stroetzel to their tour lineup . Justin Foley provided the drum tracking for the band Unearth on their album " Darkness in the Light " , released on July 5 , 2011 . Foley also traveled with the band for their 2011 summer tour . D 'Antonio started the hardcore band Death Ray Vision , with Shadows Fall vocalist Brian Fair and former Killswitch Engage guitarist Pete Cortese .

= = = Jones ' departure and Disarm the Descent ( 2011 – 2015 ) = = =

In an interview with FTC , Gun Shy Assassin , Mike D 'Antonio had stated that the band was currently in the works for a sixth studio album . D 'Antonio stated , " Currently , everyone is individually writing demos for the next Killswitch Engage record . There is no release date yet , but I would assume it will be out early 2012 . " Adam Dutkiewicz followed that up with a statement on the Killswitch Engage Facebook , saying " YO ! Its Adam D ! We 're about to begin writing our new record . Thanks to all of our fans for waiting so friggin ' patiently ... now let 's turn on the " riff faucet " and RAGE ! " On December 1 , 2011 , Mike D 'Antonio posted online that Killswitch Engage should be entering the studio around February / March 2012 to record their sixth album expected around summer 2012 . He also stated that the band had eight demos finished for the new record .

On January 4 , 2012 , the band announced via the band 's official website , along with their other official sources , that Howard Jones had left the band after his nine @-@ year membership with them . In the statement , the band did not disclose the reason for this decision out of respect for Jones , but simply thanked him for his nine years with the band and wished him well , as well as thanking the fans for their support as they began the search for a new lead singer . Soon after the announcement of Jones 's departure , rumors began that Phil Labonte of All That Remains would officially take over lead vocals due to his previous history with the band , although Labonte quickly dispelled the rumor . Many vocalists were considered in the search for a new one for the band . The band 's search for a new singer concluded in February with the announcement that original lead vocalist Jesse Leach would return to the band , as the band felt that Leach 's energy , as well as his overall comfort and command of both the old and new material , made him the clear choice during auditions . Following Leach 's return , the band continued to the process of recording their new album and touring . On April 22 , 2012 , the band performed Leach 's first show since 2002 at the New England Metal and Hardcore Fest .

On June 20 , 2012 , the demo version of a new song titled " This Is Confrontation " was leaked on YouTube . Not long after the song was leaked , the videos were soon deleted . Later , the band took part in Metal Hammer 's " Trespass America Festival " headlined by Five Finger Death Punch with additional support from God Forbid , Emmure , Pop Evil , Trivium and Battlecross . The band performed this song live , confirming the song 's title " No End in Sight " . Not long after the album was confirmed , the song was streamed publicly again . In October 2012 , with Jesse back at the helm , Killswitch Engage announced they would be celebrating the ten year anniversary of their seminal album , " Alive or Just Breathing " with a US Tour through November / December 2012 , in which they would be playing the album live , in its entirety . Support on the tour came from fellow Massachusetts natives Shadows Fall and Acaro .

The album Disarm the Descent was released April 1 , 2013 in the UK . The album debuted at # 15 in the UK charts while debuting at # 7 in the Billboard top 200 April 2 in the US . The first single " In Due Time " was released on February 5 , 2013 . The album has received critical acclaim from reviewers , and has been labeled as a " true standout " and " nothing short of amazing " . It was announced in December 2013 that " In Due Time " was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 2014 Grammy Awards , but lost to " God Is Dead ? " by Black Sabbath . A tour in May 2013 was done to promote the new album . With Miss May I , Darkest Hour , The Word Alive and Affiance as support . As I Lay Dying was originally supposed to be on the tour but dropped due to criminal charges from frontman Tim Lambesis . The band also did a co @-@ headliner with fellow Heavy Metal act Lamb of God in the October 2013 with Testament and Huntress as support for both bands . The band did a small headliner on the east coast for Halloween 2014 . With All That Remains , Death Ray Vision and City of Homes supporting .

= = = Incarnate ( 2015 – present ) = = =

In an interview with Wikimetal , Jesse Leach announced that the band will start demoing new material " in the coming months " .

On February 25 , 2015 the band released a 40 second snippet of a new single titled " Loyalty " . The track appears on the Catch The Throne : The Mixtape Volume 2 to promote the HBO TV series Game of Thrones . The mixtape also features appearances from various other metal and rap acts such as Anthrax and Snoop Dogg .

On March 30 , 2015 , Mike D 'Antonio stated that the band had completed demoing material for its next studio album .

Killswitch Engage took part in a summer tour in July 2015 , opening up for Rise Against with support from letlive .

On December 10 , 2015 the band premiered a new song entitled " Strength of the Mind " on Revolver .

The band also did a small Christmas 2015 tour on the East Coast with Unearth , Act of Defiance and 68 .

On December 16 , 2015 it was revealed that the band 's upcoming seventh album , released on March 11 , 2016 , would be titled Incarnate . With a tour being set to take part in March of this year , Memphis May Fire and 36 Crazyfists will be the support .

= = Musical style and lyrical themes = =

Killswitch Engage primarily play metalcore , combining sounds from extreme metal and hardcore . Like some modern metalcore bands , Killswitch Engage vocally combine singing , screaming vocals , and growls in their music .

Killswitch Engage 's music mixes " crushing " riffs , double bass drum patterns , power chords , dual @-@ guitar harmonies , often punctuated with pinch harmonic squeals in their music and breakdowns that one can expect from the metalcore genre . Their music is influenced by gothenburg metal scene , New York hardcore and thrash metal .

In 2009 , MTV , while naming " The Greatest Metal Bands of All Time " , said that Killswitch Engage have been " called one of the founders of metalcore " . Jason D. Taylor of Allmusic said Alive or Just Breathing is " a pure metal album that seemingly has ignored any fashionable trend and instead relies solely on skill and expertise to sculpt some of the meatiest heavy metal since the glory days of Metallica and Slayer . "

Both current vocalist Jesse Leach and former vocalist Howard Jones write lyrics that are considered positive . Jesse Leach stated on ( Set This ) World Ablaze , that the lyrics contain " unity , positivity , [ and ] love . " On the lyrical themes of Killswitch Engage , Ultimate Guitar reviewer Amy Sciarretto notes :

On Killswitch Engage 's 2009 self @-@ titled album , Howard Jones states the change in lyrical themes :

= = Members = =

Timeline

= = Discography = =

Killswitch Engage ( 2000 )

Alive or Just Breathing ( 2002 )

The End of Heartache ( 2004 )

As Daylight Dies ( 2006 )

Killswitch Engage ( 2009 )

Disarm the Descent ( 2013 )

Incarnate ( 2016 )

= = Accolades = =

Grammy Award

Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards

Boston Music Awards

Loudwire Music Awards

= Tomahawk ( album ) =

Tomahawk is the debut studio album by American experimental rock band Tomahawk . Recorded after a meeting between vocalist Mike Patton and guitarist Duane Denison , the album features members of Faith No More , The Jesus Lizard , Helmet and Melvins . The band toured with Tool in support of the record , but were not well received by Tool 's fans .

Released on October 30 , 2001 , through Patton 's record label Ipecac Recordings , Tomahawk has received positive attention from critics , with most appraisals drawing attention to the versatility of Patton 's vocals . The album charted in both Australia and the United States , reaching a peak of number 20 in the Billboard Independent Albums countdown .

= = Production = =

For Tomahawk , the band is composed of Mike Patton , vocalist for Faith No More and Mr. Bungle ; Duane Denison , guitarist for The Jesus Lizard ; Kevin Rutmanis , bass player for Melvins ; and John Stanier , drummer for Helmet . Patton and Denison met in 2000 at a Mr. Bungle concert in Nashville , Tennessee , and began exchanging music . From there , the two began to jam together with a view to releasing an album . Patton described the new group as " the closest thing to a rock band I 've been involved with for a while " .

The band hired Joe Funderburk to produce the album ; Funderburk had previously worked with Emmylou Harris and The Judds . The album was released through Ipecac Recordings , the record label owned by Patton and Greg Werckman . Ipecac is also home to Rutmanis ' band Melvins , whose vocalist and guitarist Buzz Osborne had previously collaborated with Patton as a member of Fantômas .

= = Release and reception = =

Tomahawk was released on October 30 , 2001 . The album was supported by a tour in which the band supported Tool ; however , Tools fans were unreceptive to Tomahawk and frequently booed their performances .

Writing for AllMusic , Blake Butler rated Tomahawk four stars out of five , describing the album as " moody , violent , beautiful , sarcastic , vomitive , silly [ and ] heartstopping " . Butler praised Patton 's versatility , calling the vocalist " a complete and utter musical visionary , and a mind @-@ blowing and standard @-@ warping genius " . Pitchfork 's Luke Buckman award the album a rating of 7 out of 10 , similarly highlighting Patton 's vocals as exemplary . Buckman called Patton " one of the greatest male vocalists around today " ; and felt that " Flashback " and " Cul de Sac " were among the album 's best songs . Mark Reed of Drowned in Sound rated the album 8 out of 10 , noting the " wit " and " style " of the songwriting . Reed felt that the album was among the most conventional of those recorded by Patton , but still described it as featuring " supercatchy , earstretching vocals , dark lyrics rich in black humour , swathes of crunchy guitars and some of the most unusual rhythms to be played by human hands since time began " .

Writing for the Boston Herald , Butch Lazorchak rated Tomahawk three stars out of four , finding that it " makes mincemeat out of the new @-@ metal Johnny @-@ come @-@ latelies " . Lazorchak described the album as having " an updated ' 70s hard rock approach that echoes Blue Öyster Cult at its sinister best " , and found the opening song " Flashback " to be a " head @-@ crushing pleasure " . Reviewing a leg of the album 's supporting tour for The Irish Times , Peter Crawley felt that " Sir Yes Sir " was a highlight of the album , due to Patton 's " dark utterings " and Rutmanis ' " drilling bassline " . Writing for CMJ New Music Monthly , Dana Buoniconti compared the album to the soundtracks of David Lynch 's film and television work — specifically likening " Honeymoon " and " Sweet Smell of Success " to the Twin Peaks theme . Buoniconti found Tomahawk to be " unsettling and unwholesome " , but " thoroughly appealing " .

= = Track listing = =

All songs written and composed by Tomahawk ( Mike Patton , Duane Denison , Kevin Rutmanis and John Stanier ) .

= = Personnel = =

= = Chart performance = =

Tomahawk reached its highest chart position on the United States Independent Albums chart , reaching a peak position of 20 and spending two weeks in that chart . It also reached a peak of 31 in that country 's Top Heatseekers chart . It spent one week in the Australian ARIA Charts , reaching number 37 .

= Pirates of the Caribbean ( film series ) =

Pirates of the Caribbean is a series of fantasy swashbuckler films produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and based on Walt Disney 's theme park ride of the same name . Directors of the series include Gore Verbinski ( 1 – 3 ) , Rob Marshall ( 4 ) , and Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg ( 5 ) . The series was most notably written by Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio ( 1 – 4 ) ; other writers include Stuart Beattie ( 1 ) , Jay Wolpert ( 1 ) , and Jeff Nathanson ( 5 ) . The stories followed the adventures of Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) , Hector Barbossa ( Geoffrey Rush ) , Joshamee Gibbs ( Kevin McNally ) , Will Turner ( Orlando Bloom ) , and Elizabeth Swann ( Keira Knightley ) . The films take place in a fictional historical setting ; a world ruled largely by alternative versions of the British Empire , the East India Company and the Spanish Empire , with pirates representing freedom from the ruling powers .

The film series started with their first release on the big screen in 2003 with Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl , which received positive reviews from the critics and grossed US $ 654 million worldwide . After the first film 's success , Walt Disney Pictures revealed that a trilogy was in the works . The franchise 's second film , subtitled Dead Man 's Chest , was released three years later in 2006 ; the sequel proved successful , breaking financial records worldwide the day of its premiere . Dead Man 's Chest ended up being the number one film of the year upon earning almost $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to @-@ date at the worldwide box office . The third film in the series , subtitled At World 's End , followed in 2007 , and Disney released a fourth film , subtitled On Stranger Tides , in 2011 in conventional 2D , Digital 3 @-@ D and IMAX 3D . On Stranger Tides succeeded in also grossing more than $ 1 billion , becoming the second film in the franchise and only the eighth film in history to achieve this .

So far , the film franchise has grossed $ 3 @.@ 73 billion worldwide ; it is the eleventh highest @-@ grossing film series of all @-@ time and it was the first franchise where more than one film grossed $ 1 billion worldwide .

A fifth film , subtitled Dead Men Tell No Tales , is set to be released on May 26 , 2017 .

= = Films = =

= = = The Curse of the Black Pearl ( 2003 ) = = =

Blacksmith Will Turner teams up with eccentric pirate Captain Jack Sparrow to save Turner 's love , Elizabeth Swann , from undead pirates led by Jack 's former mutinous first mate , Captain Barbossa . Jack wants revenge against Barbossa , who left him stranded on an island before stealing his ship , the Black Pearl , along with 882 pieces of cursed Aztec Gold .

= = = Dead Man 's Chest ( 2006 ) = = =

Lord Cutler Beckett of the East India Trading Company arrests Will and Elizabeth for aiding Captain Jack Sparrow in the previous film . Beckett offers clemency if Will agrees to search for Jack 's compass in a bid to find the Dead Man 's Chest – and inside , the heart of villainous Davy Jones – which would give Beckett control of the seas . However , Jack wants the Chest to escape from an unpaid debt with Jones , who raised the Black Pearl from the seabed ( after it was sunk by Beckett ) and made Jack captain for 13 years in exchange for 100 years of service aboard Jones ' ship .

= = = At World 's End ( 2007 ) = = =

Lord Beckett gains power over Davy Jones , and with the help of Jones ' ship , the Flying Dutchman , he is now executing his plans to extinguish piracy forever . To stand against the East India Trading Co . , Will , Elizabeth , Barbossa , and the crew of the Black Pearl set out to rescue Captain Jack Sparrow from Davy Jones ' Locker . As one of the Nine Pirate Lords , Jack is needed in order to summon an ancient goddess with the power to defeat Beckett 's forces .

= = = On Stranger Tides ( 2011 ) = = =

Captain Jack Sparrow is on a quest to find the fabled Fountain of Youth and crosses paths with a former lover , Angelica . She forces Jack aboard the Queen Anne 's Revenge , a ship captained by the infamous pirate Blackbeard , Angelica 's father . Both are also in search of the Fountain ; Angelica to save her father 's soul , Blackbeard to escape a prophecy of his demise at the hands of a one @-@ legged man . Joining the hunt is former pirate captain Barbossa , now a privateer in King George II 's Navy , who is in a race against the Spanish for the Fountain of Youth .

= = = Dead Men Tell No Tales ( 2017 ) = = =

" Thrust into an all @-@ new adventure , a down @-@ on @-@ his @-@ luck Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) finds the winds of ill @-@ fortune blowing even more strongly when deadly ghost pirates led by his old nemesis , the terrifying Captain Salazar ( Javier Bardem ) , escape from the Devil 's Triangle , determined to kill every pirate at sea , including him . Captain Jack 's only hope of survival lies in seeking out the legendary Trident of Poseidon , a powerful artifact that bestows upon its possessor total control over the seas . "

= = Short film = =

= = = Tales of the Code : Wedlocked ( 2008 ) = = =

Wenches Scarlett ( Lauren Maher ) and Giselle ( Vanessa Branch ) fix each other up for their wedding , in which they would each marry their groom . Upon realizing that both their grooms were the same man – Jack Sparrow – the two wenches find themselves in an auction led by the Auctioneer . The short film serves as a prequel to The Curse of the Black Pearl , explaining just why Jack Sparrow 's boat , the Jolly Mon , was seen sinking at the beginning of the whole story , and explaining why wenches Scarlett and Giselle were so upset with him , and it also implies how Cotton lost his tongue . The plot took inspiration from the " Auction scene " from the original ride .

The short was directed by James Ward Byrkit , and was only included as a special feature in the US 15 disc 3D Blu @-@ ray / 2D Blu @-@ ray / DVD + Digital Copy box set that includes Pirates 1 – 4 ; and in the similar UK 5 @-@ disc set .

= = Production = =

= = = First film = = =

In the early 1990s screenwriters Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio conceived a supernatural spin on the pirate genre after completing work on Aladdin , but there was no interest from any studio . Undeterred , the writing team refused to give up the dream , waiting for a studio to pick up their take on a pirate tale . Disney had Jay Wolpert write a script based on the Pirates of the Caribbean , which producer Jerry Bruckheimer rejected , feeling it was " a straight pirate movie " . Bruckheimer brought Stuart Beattie in to rewrite the script in March 2002 , due to his knowledge of piracy , and later that month Elliott and Rossio were brought in . Elliott and Rossio , inspired by the opening narration of the Pirates of the Caribbean ride , decided to give the film a supernatural edge . As the budget rose , Michael Eisner and Robert Iger threatened to cancel the film , though Bruckheimer changed their minds when he showed them concept art and animatics .

In June 2002 Gore Verbinski signed on to direct The Curse of the Black Pearl , and Johnny Depp and Geoffrey Rush signed on the following month to star . Verbinski was attracted to the idea of using modern technology to resurrect a genre , one that had disappeared after the Golden Age of Hollywood , and recalled his childhood memories of the ride , feeling the film was an opportunity to pay tribute to the " scary and funny " tone of it . Depp was attracted to the story as he found it quirky : rather than trying to find treasure , the crew of the Black Pearl were trying to return it in order to lift their curse ; also , the traditional mutiny had already taken place . Verbinski approached Rush for the role of Barbossa , as he knew he would not play it with attempts at complexity , but with a simple villainy that would suit the story 's tone . Orlando Bloom read the script after Rush , with whom he was working on Ned Kelly , suggested it to him . Keira Knightley came as a surprise to Verbinski : he had not seen her performance in Bend It Like Beckham and was impressed by her audition . Tom Wilkinson was negotiated with to play Governor Swann , but the role went to Jonathan Pryce , whom Depp idolized .

Shooting for The Curse of the Black Pearl began on October 9 , 2002 and wrapped by March 7 , 2003 . Before its release , many executives and journalists had expected the film to flop , as the pirate genre had not been successful for years , the film was based on a theme @-@ park ride , and Depp rarely made a big film . However , The Curse of the Black Pearl became both a critical and commercial success .

= = = Second and third films = = =

After seeing how well the first film was made , the cast and crew signed for two sequels to be shot back @-@ to @-@ back , a practical decision on Disney 's part to allow more time with the same cast and crew . Writers Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio knew that with an ensemble cast , they weren 't free to invent totally different situations and characters , as with the Indiana Jones and James Bond series , and so had to retroactively turn The Curse of the Black Pearl into the first of a trilogy . They wanted to explore the reality of what would happen after Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann 's embrace at the end of the first film , and initially considered the Fountain of Youth as the plot device . They settled on introducing Davy Jones , the Flying Dutchman and the Kraken , a mythology mentioned twice in the first film . They introduced the historical East India Trading Company ( also mentioned in the first film ) , which for them represented a counterpoint to the themes of personal freedom represented by pirates .

Filming for the sequels began on February 28 , 2005 , with Dead Man 's Chest finishing on March 1 , 2006 , and At World 's End on January 10 , 2007 . The second film was also the first Disney theatrical feature film with the computer @-@ generated Walt Disney Pictures logo .

= = = Fourth film = = =

Rossio and Elliot discovered the novel On Stranger Tides during production of Dead Man 's Chest and At World 's End and decided to use it as the basis for a fourth film . As Gore Verbinski was unavailable , Bruckheimer invited Rob Marshall to direct the film . Elliott and Rossio decided to do a stand @-@ alone film , with a story that would support new characters , and incorporate elements from the novel , such as Blackbeard , the Fountain of Youth and mermaids — the latter two having been already alluded to in the previous films . Depp , Rush , Greg Ellis and Kevin McNally returned to their roles , and the cast saw the additions of Ian McShane as Blackbeard and Penélope Cruz as Angelica , Blackbeard 's daughter and Jack Sparrow 's love interest . A further addition was Richard Griffiths as King George II of Great Britain . After the costly production of two simultaneous films , Disney tried to scale down the fourth installment , giving a lower budget , which led to cheaper locations and fewer scenes with special effects . It was also filmed in 3D , with cameras similar to the ones used in Avatar .

Filming for On Stranger Tides began June 14 , 2010 and ended on November 19 , 2010 . It was released in the United States on May 20 , 2011 . With a budget of $ 378 @.@ 5 million , On Stranger Tides holds the record for most expensive film ever made .

= = = Fifth film = = =

On January 14 , 2011 , it was confirmed that Terry Rossio would write the screenplay for the fifth installment , without his co @-@ writer Ted Elliott . On January 11 , 2013 , Jeff Nathanson signed on to write the script for the film . On May 29 , 2013 , it was announced that Norwegian directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg were selected to direct . On August 22 , 2013 , the two revealed that the title of the fifth film would be Dead Men Tell No Tales , alluding to the line well @-@ known from the Pirates of the Caribbean theme park attractions . They also confirmed that they were working on the film , speaking highly of Jeff Nathanson 's " funny and touching " script and that they are inspired by the first film , The Curse of the Black Pearl . On September 10 , 2013 , Disney pushed back the film 's initial 2015 release , with sources indicating that a Summer 2016 release is likely . Producer Jerry Bruckheimer revealed that script issues were behind the delay , and that Jeff Nathanson was at work on a second attempt based on a well @-@ received outline . While Disney originally announced a release on July 7 , 2017 , Dead Men Tell No Tales is now set to be released on May 26 , 2017 .

A spokesman for the Australian Arts Minister confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot in Australia after the government agreed to repurpose $ 20 million of tax incentives originally intended for the remake of 20 @,@ 000 Leagues Under the Sea . According to Australian film industry sources , pre @-@ production started in late September 2014 with filming expected to commence in February 2015 . This was officially confirmed by Disney and Ian Walker the Queensland Arts Minister on October 2 , 2014 , stating that filming will take place exclusively in Australia , being the largest production to ever shoot in the country . Village Roadshow Studios and Port Douglas were officially confirmed as filming locations . Production began in Australia on February 17 , 2015 and wrapped on July 9 , 2015 .

= = Principal cast = =

= = Crew and other = =

= = Reception = =

= = = Box office performance = = =

The Pirates of the Caribbean film series was successful at the box office , with each film grossing over $ 600 million , and all at some point ranking among the fifty highest @-@ grossing films of all time . It became the first ever series to own two billion @-@ dollar films , these being Dead Man 's Chest and On Stranger Tides , but other series have followed ( the Batman series , the Marvel Cinematic Universe and Transformers ) .

The Curse of the Black Pearl was the third highest @-@ grossing 2003 film in North America ( behind The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King and Finding Nemo ) and fourth worldwide ( behind The Return of the King , Finding Nemo and The Matrix Reloaded ) . Dead Man 's Chest was the most successful film of 2006 worldwide , and At World 's End led the worldwide grosses in 2007 , though being only fourth in North America ( behind Spider @-@ Man 3 , Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Shrek the Third ) . On Stranger Tides was the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 worldwide ( behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 and Transformers : Dark of the Moon ) and the fifth in North America . All of the sequels broke box office records upon release , of which the most notable are the opening @-@ weekend record in North America ( Dead Man 's Chest ) , the Memorial @-@ Day weekend record in North America ( At World 's End ) and the opening @-@ weekend record outside North America ( On Stranger Tides ) .

= = = Critical and public response = = =

The series is noted for its high quality of acting talent , and is one of the aspects of the films that is always praised . The visual and practical effects are considered some of the best ever done on film , so much so that audiences believed certain CGI elements of the films were real and done practically . The plot and story to the first three sequels received mixed reviews , with the general consensus that they were too bloated and convoluted to follow . Pirates of the Caribbean is noted for reinvigorating the pirates genre of film after decades of either no pirate films , or failed films . The success of the series saw Disney try to replicate Pirates ' success by launching films such as Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time and The Lone Ranger .

= = = Accolades = = =

= = = = Academy Awards = = = =

Together , all the first three films were nominated for a total of 11 Academy Awards , of which a single award was won .

= = = = Golden Globe Awards = = = =

Together , all the four films were nominated for a total of 2 Golden Globe Awards , of which neither were won .

= = = = MTV Movie Awards = = = =

Together , all the first three films were nominated for a total of 13 MTV Movie Awards , of which 4 were won .

= = = = Teen Choice Awards = = = =

Together , all the four films were nominated for a total of 25 Teen Choice Awards , of which 16 were won .

= California State Route 266 =

State Route 266 ( SR 266 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California . The route is a connector between Nevada State Route 264 and Nevada State Route 266 , intersecting SR 168 and thus providing a connection to the rest of the Owens Valley . Portions of the route were added to the state highway system in 1931 , and became part of SR 168 in the 1964 state highway renumbering . SR 266 was officially designated in 1968 .

= = Route description = =

State Route 266 begins at the western terminus of Nevada State Route 266 at the Nevada state line . The route travels west @-@ northwest , then turns to the west for another 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) before approaching Oasis , the only unincorporated community that the route passes through . At Oasis , SR 266 intersects SR 168 , which serves as the gateway into the Owens Valley from Nevada . Upon leaving Oasis , SR 266 continues to the west briefly , then turns north @-@ northwest . Within the last 7 miles ( 11 km ) , SR 266 slowly curves northwest as the route approaches the Nevada state line . The route ends at the state line at the southern terminus of Nevada State Route 264 .

The section of SR 266 from the western terminus to the junction with SR 168 is designated by the California State Legislature as eligible by law for the State Scenic Highway System ; however , it has not officially been designated by Caltrans as such . The entire route , consisting of two lanes for two @-@ way traffic , traverses on the flat land in the Fish Lake Valley east of the White Mountains , and it can serve as transportation of agricultural goods between California and Nevada via the route 's only junction State Route 168 . In the event that SR 168 is closed , SR 266 connects to Nevada State Route 264 , which intersects with U.S. Route 6 in order to provide an alternate access to California .

= = History = =

The segment of present @-@ day SR 266 from Oasis to the Nevada state line ( now Nevada State Route 264 ) was incorporated into the State Highway System in 1931 as Legislative Route 63 ; it had formed part of the Midland Trail , one of the first auto trails crossing the entire country . The route remained unchanged until 1965 , when in that year the route 's name was designated as Mono County Road 101 . In 1984 , the definition was modified to redesignate the segment as an extension of State Route 168 in order for that route to be connected to Nevada . Two years later , in 1986 , there was a construction of a new segment traveling east from Oasis and connecting to Nevada State Route 266 . When the extension was complete , the two segments – the SR 168 extension and the newly completed – were assigned SR 266 .

= = Major intersections = =

Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Mono County .

= Plasma ( physics ) =

Plasma ( from Greek πλάσμα , " anything formed " ) is one of the four fundamental states of matter , the others being solid , liquid , and gas . A plasma has properties unlike those of the other states .

A plasma can be created by heating a gas or subjecting it to a strong electromagnetic field , applied with a laser or microwave generator . This decreases or increases the number of electrons , creating positive or negative charged particles called ions , and is accompanied by the dissociation of molecular bonds , if present .

The presence of a significant number of charge carriers makes plasma electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields . Like gas , plasma does not have a definite shape or a definite volume unless enclosed in a container . Unlike gas , under the influence of a magnetic field , it may form structures such as filaments , beams and double layers .

Plasma is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the Universe ( of the forms proven to exist ; the more abundant dark matter is hypothetical and may or may not be explained by ordinary matter ) , most of which is in the rarefied intergalactic regions , particularly the intracluster medium , and in stars , including the Sun . A common form of plasma on Earth is produced in neon signs .

Much of the understanding of plasma has come from the pursuit of controlled nuclear fusion and fusion power , for which plasma physics provides the scientific foundation .

= = Properties and parameters = =

= = = Definition = = =

Plasma is an electrically neutral medium of unbound positive and negative particles ( i.e. the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero ) . It is important to note that although the particles are unbound , they are not ‘ free ’ in the sense of not experiencing forces . When a charged particle moves , it generates an electric current with magnetic fields ; in plasma , the movement of a charged particle affects and is affected by the general field created by the movement of other charges . This governs collective behavior with many degrees of variation . Three factors are listed in the definition of a plasma stream :

The plasma approximation : Charged particles must be close enough together that each particle influences many nearby charged particles , rather than just interacting with the closest particle ( these collective effects are a distinguishing feature of a plasma ) . The plasma approximation is valid when the number of charge carriers within the sphere of influence ( called the Debye sphere whose radius is the Debye screening length ) of a particular particle is higher than unity to provide collective behavior of the charged particles . The average number of particles in the Debye sphere is given by the plasma parameter , " Λ " ( the Greek uppercase letter Lambda ) .

Bulk interactions : The Debye screening length ( defined above ) is short compared to the physical size of the plasma . This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are more important than those at its edges , where boundary effects may take place . When this criterion is satisfied , the plasma is quasineutral .

Plasma frequency : The electron plasma frequency ( measuring plasma oscillations of the electrons ) is large compared to the electron @-@ neutral collision frequency ( measuring frequency of collisions between electrons and neutral particles ) . When this condition is valid , electrostatic interactions dominate over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics .

= = = Ranges of parameters = = =

The factors of a plasma stream can vary by many orders of magnitude , but the properties of plasmas with apparently disparate parameters may be very similar ( see plasma scaling ) . The following chart considers only conventional atomic plasmas and not exotic phenomena like quark gluon plasmas :

= = = Degree of ionization = = =

For plasma to exist , ionization is necessary . The term " plasma density " by itself usually refers to the " electron density " , that is , the number of free electrons per unit volume . The degree of ionization of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have lost or gained electrons , and is controlled mostly by the temperature . Even a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1 % of the particles are ionized can have the characteristics of a plasma ( i.e. , response to magnetic fields and high electrical conductivity ) . The degree of ionization , <formula> , is defined as <formula> , where <formula> is the number density of ions and <formula> is the number density of neutral atoms . The electron density is related to this by the average charge state <formula> of the ions through <formula> , where <formula> is the number density of electrons .

= = = Temperatures = = =

Plasma temperature is commonly measured in kelvins or electronvolts and is , informally , a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle . High temperatures are usually needed to sustain ionization , which is a defining feature of a plasma . The degree of plasma ionization is determined by the electron temperature relative to the ionization energy ( and more weakly by the density ) , in a relationship called the Saha equation . At low temperatures , ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound states — atoms — and the plasma will eventually become a gas .

In most cases the electrons are close enough to thermal equilibrium that their temperature is relatively well @-@ defined , even when there is a significant deviation from a Maxwellian energy distribution function , for example , due to UV radiation , energetic particles , or strong electric fields . Because of the large difference in mass , the electrons come to thermodynamic equilibrium amongst themselves much faster than they come into equilibrium with the ions or neutral atoms . For this reason , the ion temperature may be very different from ( usually lower than ) the electron temperature . This is especially common in weakly ionized technological plasmas , where the ions are often near the ambient temperature .

= = = = Thermal vs. nonthermal plasmas = = = =

Based on the relative temperatures of the electrons , ions and neutrals , plasmas are classified as " thermal " or " non @-@ thermal " . Thermal plasmas have electrons and the heavy particles at the same temperature , i.e. they are in thermal equilibrium with each other . Nonthermal plasmas on the other hand have the ions and neutrals at a much lower temperature ( sometimes room temperature ) , whereas electrons are much " hotter " ( <formula> ) .

= = = = Complete vs. incomplete ionization = = = =

A plasma is sometimes referred to as being " hot " if it is nearly fully ionized , or " cold " if only a small fraction ( for example 1 % ) of the gas molecules are ionized , but other definitions of the terms " hot plasma " and " cold plasma " are common . Even in a " cold " plasma , the electron temperature is still typically several thousand degrees Celsius . Plasmas utilized in " plasma technology " ( " technological plasmas " ) are usually cold plasmas in the sense that only a small fraction of the gas molecules are ionized .

= = = Plasma potential = = =

Since plasmas are very good electrical conductors , electric potentials play an important role . The potential as it exists on average in the space between charged particles , independent of the question of how it can be measured , is called the " plasma potential " , or the " space potential " . If an electrode is inserted into a plasma , its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a Debye sheath . The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small . This results in the important concept of " quasineutrality " , which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma ( <formula> ) , but on the scale of the Debye length there can be charge imbalance . In the special case that double layers are formed , the charge separation can extend some tens of Debye lengths .

The magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply finding the net charge density . A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy the Boltzmann relation :

<formula>

Differentiating this relation provides a means to calculate the electric field from the density :

<formula>

It is possible to produce a plasma that is not quasineutral . An electron beam , for example , has only negative charges . The density of a non @-@ neutral plasma must generally be very low , or it must be very small , otherwise it will be dissipated by the repulsive electrostatic force .

In astrophysical plasmas , Debye screening prevents electric fields from directly affecting the plasma over large distances , i.e. , greater than the Debye length . However , the existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate , and be affected by , magnetic fields . This can and does cause extremely complex behavior , such as the generation of plasma double layers , an object that separates charge over a few tens of Debye lengths . The dynamics of plasmas interacting with external and self @-@ generated magnetic fields are studied in the academic discipline of magnetohydrodynamics .

= = = Magnetization = = =

Plasma with a magnetic field strong enough to influence the motion of the charged particles is said to be magnetized . A common quantitative criterion is that a particle on average completes at least one gyration around the magnetic field before making a collision , i.e. , <formula> , where <formula> is the " electron gyrofrequency " and <formula> is the " electron collision rate " . It is often the case that the electrons are magnetized while the ions are not . Magnetized plasmas are anisotropic , meaning that their properties in the direction parallel to the magnetic field are different from those perpendicular to it . While electric fields in plasmas are usually small due to the high conductivity , the electric field associated with a plasma moving in a magnetic field is given by <formula> ( where <formula> is the electric field , <formula> is the velocity , and <formula> is the magnetic field ) , and is not affected by Debye shielding .

= = = Comparison of plasma and gas phases = = =

Plasma is often called the fourth state of matter after solid , liquids and gases , despite plasma typically being an ionized gas . It is distinct from these and other lower @-@ energy states of matter . Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume , it differs in a number of ways , including the following :

= = Common plasmas = =

Plasmas are by far the most common phase of ordinary matter in the universe , both by mass and by volume . Essentially , all of the visible light from space comes from stars , which are plasmas with a temperature such that they radiate strongly at visible wavelengths . Most of the ordinary ( or baryonic ) matter in the universe , however , is found in the intergalactic medium , which is also a plasma , but much hotter , so that it radiates primarily as X @-@ rays .

In 1937 , Hannes Alfvén argued that if plasma pervaded the universe , it could then carry electric currents capable of generating a galactic magnetic field . After winning the Nobel Prize , he emphasized that :

In order to understand the phenomena in a certain plasma region , it is necessary to map not only the magnetic but also the electric field and the electric currents . Space is filled with a network of currents which transfer energy and momentum over large or very large distances . The currents often pinch to filamentary or surface currents . The latter are likely to give space , as also interstellar and intergalactic space , a cellular structure .

By contrast the current scientific consensus is that about 96 % of the total energy density in the universe is not plasma or any other form of ordinary matter , but a combination of cold dark matter and dark energy . Our Sun , and all stars , are made of plasma , much of interstellar space is filled with a plasma , albeit a very sparse one , and intergalactic space too . Even black holes , which are not directly visible , are thought to be fuelled by accreting ionising matter ( i.e. plasma ) , and they are associated with astrophysical jets of luminous ejected plasma , such as M87 's jet that extends 5 @,@ 000 light @-@ years .

In our solar system , interplanetary space is filled with the plasma of the Solar Wind that extends from the Sun out to the heliopause . However , the density of ordinary matter is much higher than average and much higher than that of either dark matter or dark energy . The planet Jupiter accounts for most of the non @-@ plasma within the orbit of Pluto ( about 0 @.@ 1 % by mass , or 10 − 15 % by volume ) .

Dust and small grains within a plasma will also pick up a net negative charge , so that they in turn may act like a very heavy negative ion component of the plasma ( see dusty plasmas ) .

= = Complex plasma phenomena = =

Although the underlying equations governing plasmas are relatively simple , plasma behavior is extraordinarily varied and subtle : the emergence of unexpected behavior from a simple model is a typical feature of a complex system . Such systems lie in some sense on the boundary between ordered and disordered behavior and cannot typically be described either by simple , smooth , mathematical functions , or by pure randomness . The spontaneous formation of interesting spatial features on a wide range of length scales is one manifestation of plasma complexity . The features are interesting , for example , because they are very sharp , spatially intermittent ( the distance between features is much larger than the features themselves ) , or have a fractal form . Many of these features were first studied in the laboratory , and have subsequently been recognized throughout the universe . Examples of complexity and complex structures in plasmas include :

= = = Filamentation = = =

Striations or string @-@ like structures , also known as birkeland currents , are seen in many plasmas , like the plasma ball , the aurora , lightning , electric arcs , solar flares , and supernova remnants . They are sometimes associated with larger current densities , and the interaction with the magnetic field can form a magnetic rope structure . High power microwave breakdown at atmospheric pressure also leads to the formation of filamentary structures . ( See also Plasma pinch )

Filamentation also refers to the self @-@ focusing of a high power laser pulse . At high powers , the nonlinear part of the index of refraction becomes important and causes a higher index of refraction in the center of the laser beam , where the laser is brighter than at the edges , causing a feedback that focuses the laser even more . The tighter focused laser has a higher peak brightness ( irradiance ) that forms a plasma . The plasma has an index of refraction lower than one , and causes a defocusing of the laser beam . The interplay of the focusing index of refraction , and the defocusing plasma makes the formation of a long filament of plasma that can be micrometers to kilometers in length . One interesting aspect of the filamentation generated plasma is the relatively low ion density due to defocusing effects of the ionized electrons . ( See also Filament propagation )

= = = Shocks or double layers = = =

Plasma properties change rapidly ( within a few Debye lengths ) across a two @-@ dimensional sheet in the presence of a ( moving ) shock or ( stationary ) double layer . Double layers involve localized charge separation , which causes a large potential difference across the layer , but does not generate an electric field outside the layer . Double layers separate adjacent plasma regions with different physical characteristics , and are often found in current carrying plasmas . They accelerate both ions and electrons .

= = = Electric fields and circuits = = =

Quasineutrality of a plasma requires that plasma currents close on themselves in electric circuits . Such circuits follow Kirchhoff 's circuit laws and possess a resistance and inductance . These circuits must generally be treated as a strongly coupled system , with the behavior in each plasma region dependent on the entire circuit . It is this strong coupling between system elements , together with nonlinearity , which may lead to complex behavior . Electrical circuits in plasmas store inductive ( magnetic ) energy , and should the circuit be disrupted , for example , by a plasma instability , the inductive energy will be released as plasma heating and acceleration . This is a common explanation for the heating that takes place in the solar corona . Electric currents , and in particular , magnetic @-@ field @-@ aligned electric currents ( which are sometimes generically referred to as " Birkeland currents " ) , are also observed in the Earth 's aurora , and in plasma filaments .

= = = Cellular structure = = =

Narrow sheets with sharp gradients may separate regions with different properties such as magnetization , density and temperature , resulting in cell @-@ like regions . Examples include the magnetosphere , heliosphere , and heliospheric current sheet . Hannes Alfvén wrote : " From the cosmological point of view , the most important new space research discovery is probably the cellular structure of space . As has been seen in every region of space accessible to in situ measurements , there are a number of ' cell walls ' , sheets of electric currents , which divide space into compartments with different magnetization , temperature , density , etc . "

= = = Critical ionization velocity = = =

The critical ionization velocity is the relative velocity between an ionized plasma and a neutral gas , above which a runaway ionization process takes place . The critical ionization process is a quite general mechanism for the conversion of the kinetic energy of a rapidly streaming gas into ionization and plasma thermal energy . Critical phenomena in general are typical of complex systems , and may lead to sharp spatial or temporal features .

= = = Ultracold plasma = = =

Ultracold plasmas are created in a magneto @-@ optical trap ( MOT ) by trapping and cooling neutral atoms , to temperatures of 1 mK or lower , and then using another laser to ionize the atoms by giving each of the outermost electrons just enough energy to escape the electrical attraction of its parent ion .

One advantage of ultracold plasmas are their well characterized and tunable initial conditions , including their size and electron temperature . By adjusting the wavelength of the ionizing laser , the kinetic energy of the liberated electrons can be tuned as low as 0 @.@ 1 K , a limit set by the frequency bandwidth of the laser pulse . The ions inherit the millikelvin temperatures of the neutral atoms , but are quickly heated through a process known as disorder induced heating ( DIH ) . This type of non @-@ equilibrium ultracold plasma evolves rapidly , and displays many other interesting phenomena .

One of the metastable states of a strongly nonideal plasma is Rydberg matter , which forms upon condensation of excited atoms .

= = = Non @-@ neutral plasma = = =

The strength and range of the electric force and the good conductivity of plasmas usually ensure that the densities of positive and negative charges in any sizeable region are equal ( " quasineutrality " ) . A plasma with a significant excess of charge density , or , in the extreme case , is composed of a single species , is called a non @-@ neutral plasma . In such a plasma , electric fields play a dominant role . Examples are charged particle beams , an electron cloud in a Penning trap and positron plasmas .

= = = Dusty plasma / grain plasma = = =

A dusty plasma contains tiny charged particles of dust ( typically found in space ) . The dust particles acquire high charges and interact with each other . A plasma that contains larger particles is called grain plasma . Under laboratory conditions , dusty plasmas are also called complex plasmas .

= = = Impermeable plasma = = =

Impermeable plasma is a type of thermal plasma which acts like an impermeable solid with respect to gas or cold plasma and can be physically pushed . Interaction of cold gas and thermal plasma was briefly studied by a group led by Hannes Alfvén in 1960s and 1970s for its possible applications in insulation of fusion plasma from the reactor walls . However , later it was found that the external magnetic fields in this configuration could induce kink instabilities in the plasma and subsequently lead to an unexpectedly high heat loss to the walls . In 2013 , a group of materials scientists reported that they have successfully generated stable impermeable plasma with no magnetic confinement using only an ultrahigh @-@ pressure blanket of cold gas . While spectroscopic data on the characteristics of plasma were claimed to be difficult to obtain due to the high pressure , the passive effect of plasma on synthesis of different nanostructures clearly suggested the effective confinement . They also showed that upon maintaining the impermeability for a few tens of seconds , screening of ions at the plasma @-@ gas interface could give rise to a strong secondary mode of heating ( known as viscous heating ) leading to different kinetics of reactions and formation of complex nanomaterials .

= = Mathematical descriptions = =

To completely describe the state of a plasma , we would need to write down all the particle locations and velocities and describe the electromagnetic field in the plasma region . However , it is generally not practical or necessary to keep track of all the particles in a plasma . Therefore , plasma physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions , of which there are two main types :

= = = Fluid model = = =

Fluid models describe plasmas in terms of smoothed quantities , like density and averaged velocity around each position ( see Plasma parameters ) . One simple fluid model , magnetohydrodynamics , treats the plasma as a single fluid governed by a combination of Maxwell 's equations and the Navier – Stokes equations . A more general description is the two @-@ fluid plasma picture , where the ions and electrons are described separately . Fluid models are often accurate when collisionality is sufficiently high to keep the plasma velocity distribution close to a Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution . Because fluid models usually describe the plasma in terms of a single flow at a certain temperature at each spatial location , they can neither capture velocity space structures like beams or double layers , nor resolve wave @-@ particle effects .

= = = Kinetic model = = =

Kinetic models describe the particle velocity distribution function at each point in the plasma and therefore do not need to assume a Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution . A kinetic description is often necessary for collisionless plasmas . There are two common approaches to kinetic description of a plasma . One is based on representing the smoothed distribution function on a grid in velocity and position . The other , known as the particle @-@ in @-@ cell ( PIC ) technique , includes kinetic information by following the trajectories of a large number of individual particles . Kinetic models are generally more computationally intensive than fluid models . The Vlasov equation may be used to describe the dynamics of a system of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic field . In magnetized plasmas , a gyrokinetic approach can substantially reduce the computational expense of a fully kinetic simulation .

= = Artificial plasmas = =

Most artificial plasmas are generated by the application of electric and / or magnetic fields through a gas . Plasma generated in a laboratory setting and for industrial use can be generally categorized by :

The type of power source used to generate the plasma — DC , RF and microwave

The pressure they operate at — vacuum pressure ( < 10 mTorr or 1 Pa ) , moderate pressure ( ~ 1 Torr or 100 Pa ) , atmospheric pressure ( 760 Torr or 100 kPa )

The degree of ionization within the plasma — fully , partially , or weakly ionized

The temperature relationships within the plasma — thermal plasma ( <formula> ) , non @-@ thermal or " cold " plasma ( <formula> )

The electrode configuration used to generate the plasma

The magnetization of the particles within the plasma — magnetized ( both ion and electrons are trapped in Larmor orbits by the magnetic field ) , partially magnetized ( the electrons but not the ions are trapped by the magnetic field ) , non @-@ magnetized ( the magnetic field is too weak to trap the particles in orbits but may generate Lorentz forces )

= = = Generation of artificial plasma = = =

Just like the many uses of plasma , there are several means for its generation , however , one principle is common to all of them : there must be energy input to produce and sustain it . For this case , plasma is generated when an electric current is applied across a dielectric gas or fluid ( an electrically non @-@ conducting material ) as can be seen in the image to the right , which shows a discharge tube as a simple example ( DC used for simplicity ) .

The potential difference and subsequent electric field pull the bound electrons ( negative ) toward the anode ( positive electrode ) while the cathode ( negative electrode ) pulls the nucleus . As the voltage increases , the current stresses the material ( by electric polarization ) beyond its dielectric limit ( termed strength ) into a stage of electrical breakdown , marked by an electric spark , where the material transforms from being an insulator into a conductor ( as it becomes increasingly ionized ) . The underlying process is the Townsend avalanche , where collisions between electrons and neutral gas atoms create more ions and electrons ( as can be seen in the figure on the right ) . The first impact of an electron on an atom results in one ion and two electrons . Therefore , the number of charged particles increases rapidly ( in the millions ) only " after about 20 successive sets of collisions " , mainly due to a small mean free path ( average distance travelled between collisions ) .

= = = = Electric arc = = = =

With ample current density and ionization , this forms a luminous electric arc ( a continuous electric discharge similar to lightning ) between the electrodes . Electrical resistance along the continuous electric arc creates heat , which dissociates more gas molecules and ionizes the resulting atoms ( where degree of ionization is determined by temperature ) , and as per the sequence : solid @-@ liquid @-@ gas @-@ plasma , the gas is gradually turned into a thermal plasma . A thermal plasma is in thermal equilibrium , which is to say that the temperature is relatively homogeneous throughout the heavy particles ( i.e. atoms , molecules and ions ) and electrons . This is so because when thermal plasmas are generated , electrical energy is given to electrons , which , due to their great mobility and large numbers , are able to disperse it rapidly and by elastic collision ( without energy loss ) to the heavy particles .

= = = Examples of industrial / commercial plasma = = =

Because of their sizable temperature and density ranges , plasmas find applications in many fields of research , technology and industry . For example , in : industrial and extractive metallurgy , surface treatments such as plasma spraying ( coating ) , etching in microelectronics , metal cutting and welding ; as well as in everyday vehicle exhaust cleanup and fluorescent / luminescent lamps , while even playing a part in supersonic combustion engines for aerospace engineering .

= = = = Low @-@ pressure discharges = = = =

Glow discharge plasmas : non @-@ thermal plasmas generated by the application of DC or low frequency RF ( < 100 kHz ) electric field to the gap between two metal electrodes . Probably the most common plasma ; this is the type of plasma generated within fluorescent light tubes .

Capacitively coupled plasma ( CCP ) : similar to glow discharge plasmas , but generated with high frequency RF electric fields , typically 13 @.@ 56 MHz . These differ from glow discharges in that the sheaths are much less intense . These are widely used in the microfabrication and integrated circuit manufacturing industries for plasma etching and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition .

Cascaded Arc Plasma Source : a device to produce low temperature ( ~ 1eV ) high density plasmas ( HDP ) .

Inductively coupled plasma ( ICP ) : similar to a CCP and with similar applications but the electrode consists of a coil wrapped around the chamber where plasma is formed .

Wave heated plasma : similar to CCP and ICP in that it is typically RF ( or microwave ) . Examples include helicon discharge and electron cyclotron resonance ( ECR ) .

= = = = Atmospheric pressure = = = =

Arc discharge : this is a high power thermal discharge of very high temperature ( ~ 10 @,@ 000 K ) . It can be generated using various power supplies . It is commonly used in metallurgical processes . For example , it is used to smelt minerals containing Al2O3 to produce aluminium .

Corona discharge : this is a non @-@ thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltage to sharp electrode tips . It is commonly used in ozone generators and particle precipitators .

Dielectric barrier discharge ( DBD ) : this is a non @-@ thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltages across small gaps wherein a non @-@ conducting coating prevents the transition of the plasma discharge into an arc . It is often mislabeled ' Corona ' discharge in industry and has similar application to corona discharges . It is also widely used in the web treatment of fabrics . The application of the discharge to synthetic fabrics and plastics functionalizes the surface and allows for paints , glues and similar materials to adhere .

Capacitive discharge : this is a nonthermal plasma generated by the application of RF power ( e.g. , 13 @.@ 56 MHz ) to one powered electrode , with a grounded electrode held at a small separation distance on the order of 1 cm . Such discharges are commonly stabilized using a noble gas such as helium or argon .

" Piezoelectric direct discharge plasma : " is a nonthermal plasma generated at the high @-@ side of a piezoelectric transformer ( PT ) . This generation variant is particularly suited for high efficient and compact devices where a separate high voltage power supply is not desired .

= = History = =

Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube , and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 ( he called it " radiant matter " ) . The nature of the Crookes tube " cathode ray " matter was subsequently identified by British physicist Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897 . The term " plasma " was coined by Irving Langmuir in 1928 , perhaps because the glowing discharge molds itself to the shape of the Crookes tube ( Gr. πλάσμα – a thing moulded or formed ) . Langmuir described his observations as :

Except near the electrodes , where there are sheaths containing very few electrons , the ionized gas contains ions and electrons in about equal numbers so that the resultant space charge is very small . We shall use the name plasma to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions and electrons .

= = Research = =

Plasmas are the object of study of the academic field of plasma science or plasma physics , including sub @-@ disciplines such as space plasma physics . There are multiple journals devoted to the subject ( see list ) . It involves the following fields of active research ( see also list of articles ) :

= Neaira ( hetaera ) =

Neaira ( / nɪˈaɪrə / ; Greek : Νέαιρα ) , also Neaera ( / nɪˈɪərə / ) , was a hetaera who lived in the 4th century BC in ancient Greece . She was brought to trial between 343 and 340 BC , accused of marrying an Athenian citizen illegally and misrepresenting her daughter as an Athenian citizen .

The speech made against Neaira in this trial by Apollodorus is preserved as Demosthenes ' fifty @-@ ninth speech , though the speech is often attributed to Pseudo @-@ Demosthenes , who seems to have worked on many of the speeches given by Apollodorus . The speech provides more details than any other about prostitutes of antiquity , and consequently a great deal of information about sex trade in the ancient Greek city @-@ states ( poleis ) .

= = Speech Against Neaira = =

The speech Against Neaira is the source of most of the details of Neaira 's biography . It concerns a case brought against Neaira when she was about fifty by Apollodorus ' son @-@ in @-@ law Theomnestus , though apart from a brief introduction of the case given by Theomnestus , Apollodorus delivered the entirety of the speech . The case revolves around the accusation that Neaira , a foreigner , married an Athenian citizen , and that she was attempting to pass off her own children as Athenian citizens .

While the speech revolves around the life of Neaira , this is of little importance to the substance of the accusations . The details seem to be part of the speech in the hope that the salacious accusations will hide the weakness of Apollodorus ' case . The accuracy of the evidence given in the speech has been questioned , and is known to contain both lies and inaccuracies . Despite this , the speech tells us much about the life of an accomplished hetaera , and is extremely valuable to historians as a source on women 's lives in classical Greece . Indeed , it is our most reliable extant source on prostitution in the classical world , and one of our best sources on women 's lives and gender relations in general for the period .

= = Biography = =

= = = Life with Nikarete = = =

Neaira was probably born in the first decade of the fourth century BC . Her place of birth is unknown , and the earliest event in her life that we know of is her purchase when she was a young girl by Nikarete . Nikarete trained the girls she purchased to be hetaerae , calling them her daughters in order to increase the price her customers would pay , and lived with them in Corinth .

Neaira 's work as a prostitute started before she reached puberty . She is twice described by Apollodorus as having sex for money before she came of age , though possibly due to her age he implies that she was not yet a hetaera . During this time , the orator Lysias was a prominent guest in Nikarete 's brothel and a regular customer of Metaneira , another of Nikarete 's girls . In order to reward her for her services , he arranged for her to be initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries , and funded the journey . Neaira was at this time about twelve or thirteen , and Nikarete accompanied them . Neaira visited Athens again for the Great Panathenaea of 378 , this time accompanying Simus of Thessaly , a young aristocrat .

= = = Leaving Nikarete and Corinth = = =

Around 376 BC , Timanoridas of Corinth and Eukrates of Lefkada paid thirty minae to purchase Neaira from Nikarete , at the high end of prices for hetaerae . When the men married , they agreed to let Neaira buy her freedom for twenty minae , which , with the aid of gifts and loans from her former customers , she did . As part of this deal , Neaira agreed to no longer work as a prostitute in Corinth , and so left the city for Athens with Phrynion , who had helped her buy her freedom .

Neaira was certainly living with Phrynion in Athens by 373 BC , when he took her to a feast given by the general Chabrias to celebrate his victory in the Pythian Games . During this celebration , Apollodorus says , Neaira was sexually assaulted by the guests and slaves of Chabrias while she was drunk and asleep . Due to this and other mistreatment by Phrynion , in 372 BC Neaira left his household and went to Megara , taking with her her clothing and jewellery , two maids , and other possessions belonging to Phrynion .

= = = Life with Stephanus = = =

In Megara , Neaira continued to work as a hetaera , and in 371 met Stephanus . Stephanus offered to act as her patron if she returned with him to Athens . Apollodorus claims that with her she brought two sons and a daughter to Athens , but modern commentators have largely concluded that the sons in question were in fact those of Stephanus , by an Athenian woman . Indeed , Christopher Carey points out that one of the sons , at least , was probably a legitimate son of Stephanus , being named after his father , and John Buckler notes that Apollodorus contradicts himself on whether Neaira 's alleged sons were hers by another man , or hers by Stephanus .

Phrynion learnt that Neaira was back in Athens , and attempted to take her back from Stephanus . Stephanus resisted , claiming that as Neaira was a free woman he had no right ; a claim which Phrynion proceeded to challenge in court , though he was persuaded to settle the case by arbitration instead . The arbitrators decided that Neaira was indeed free , and that in addition to this she was her own kyria ( mistress ) ; this was an extremely unusual decision in a society where all citizen women , at least , had a kyrios ( master ) . Despite this unusual level of freedom , however , Neaira was compelled to split her time between the two men as they agreed , without any input herself .

= = = Trial = = =

Sometime between 343 and 340 BC , Neaira was brought to trial by Theomnestus on behalf of his father @-@ in @-@ law Apollodorus , accused of xenias ( representing herself as a citizen when in fact she was not ) . If she was convicted , the maximum penalty Neaira faced was being sold into slavery and having her property sold . Neaira herself would not have been permitted to speak at her trial , though she was probably present .

The only surviving record of the trial is the speech given by Theomnestus and Apollodorus against Neaira and Stephanus , and the outcome is unknown . No records of Neaira exist after the trial . Modern commentators have noted the weaknesses in Apollodorus ' arguments , though as the outcome of an Athenian trial depended heavily on what the parties involved could persuade the jury to accept , and how much of their dishonesty they could get away with , we cannot say for certain that the suit failed .

= Serranus Clinton Hastings =

Serranus Clinton Hastings ( November 22 , 1814 – February 18 , 1893 ) was a 19th @-@ century politician , rancher and a prominent lawyer in the United States . He studied law as a young man and moved to the Iowa District in 1837 to open a law office . Iowa became a territory a year later , and he was elected a member of the House of Representatives of the Iowa Territorial General Assembly . When the territory became the state of Iowa in 1846 , he won an election to represent the state in the United States House of Representatives . After his term ended , he became Chief Justice of the Iowa Supreme Court . He resigned after one year in office and moved to California . He was appointed to the California Supreme Court as Chief Justice a few months later . He won an election to be Attorney General of California , and assumed office shortly after his term as Chief Justice ended . He began practicing law again as Attorney General . He earned a small fortune with his law practice and used that fortune to finance his successful real estate venture . In 1878 , he founded the Hastings College of the Law with a donation of US $ 100 @,@ 000 .

= = Early life = =

Hastings was born in Watertown , Jefferson County , New York , on November 22 , 1814 to Robert Collins Hastings and Patience Brayton . Robert Collins Hastings was a good friend and supporter of DeWitt Clinton , whom Serranus gets his middle name from . When Robert died in 1824 , the family moved to St. Lawrence County , New York . He completed a six @-@ year course at Gouverneur Academy , and in 1834 , he became taught and became the principal at Norwich Academy , located in Chenango County , New York . He introduced the Hamiltonian system of instruction and the Angletean system of mathematics to the academy . In 1835 , he resigned from his position at the academy to study law .

Hastings began to study law with Charles Thorpe , Esq . , of Norwich . After a few months of study , he decided to move to Lawrenceburg , Indiana . He completed his legal studies there with Daniel S. Majors , Esq . He did not immediately enter the practice of law and instead became an editor of the Indiana Signal , where he supported Martin Van Buren in his presidential campaign . He moved to Terre Haute , Indiana , in December 1836 and underwent a legal examination by Judge Porters of the Circuit Court .

= = Career = =

In January 1837 , Hastings moved to the Iowa District , which was part of the Wisconsin Territory . He settled in Burlington for a short time and then moved to Bloomington , which would later become Muscatine , Iowa . He was examined by Judge Irwin , was admitted to the bar , and opened a law office . Shortly after this , he was commissioned Justice of the Peace by Wisconsin Territorial Governor Henry Dodge . He had jurisdiction over the 90 miles between Burlington , Iowa , and Davenport , Iowa , the western boundary was undefined . He only had one case to deal with : a man accused of stealing US $ 30 from a citizen and $ 3 from the court . He found the man guilty and sentenced him to be tied to an oak tree , receive 33 lashes across his back , be transported across the Mississippi River to Illinois , and be banished from the territory forever . When Iowa Territory was organized in 1838 , he won an election to represent Muscatine County , Louisa County , and Slaughter County in the House of Representatives of the Iowa Territorial General Assembly . He served from November 12 , 1838 , to January 25 , 1839 . He was reelected to that position in 1839 , this time representing Muscatine County and Johnson County from November 4 , 1839 , to January 14 , 1840 . In 1840 , a border conflict with Missouri called the Honey War took place . He received the military title of Major and helped capture a sheriff . No battle took place , and the two states compromised on the border issue .

Hastings married Azalea Brodt on June 10 , 1840 , in Muscatine , Iowa . They had two children while living in Muscatine , Marshall and Clara L. He was elected to the Legislative Council that year , representing Muscatine County and Johnson County again , and served from November 3 , 1840 to January 15 , 1841 . He was re @-@ elected the following year , and served from December 6 , 1841 to February 18 , 1842 . He was not elected to the Fifth and Sixth General Assemblies . He was elected President of the Legislative Council for the Seventh General Assembly , and also represented Muscatine County and Johnson County on the council . He served from May 5 , 1845 to June 11 , 1845 . He was elected to the council for the Eight General Assembly , which was also the final one since Iowa was to become a state on December 28 , 1846 . He represented the same counties he had previously , and served from December 1 , 1845 to January 19 , 1846 . During his time on the Legislative Council he helped compile the " Blue Book " of Iowa laws . It became known as the " Old Blue Book " and was the first legal code for the Iowa , Nebraska , Dakota , and Montana Territories .

In 1846 , Hastings was nominated to represent Iowa at large in the United States House of Representatives as a Democrat . On December 29 , 1846 , he was elected over the Whig candidate G. C. R. Mitchell . He was the second youngest member serving in Congress at that time . He served during the second session of the 29th United States Congress , which ended on March 3 , 1847 . Close to a year after his term ended as a member of the House of Representatives , Governor Ansel Briggs appointed him as the third Chief Justice of the Iowa Supreme Court . He started his term on January 26 , 1848 , and resigned on January 14 , 1849 to move to California , his family deciding to stay in Iowa .

Hastings settled in Benicia , California , and a few months later , California legislature selected him to be the first Chief Justice of the California Supreme Court . He started his term on December 20 , 1849 , but the court did not assemble until March 4 , 1850 . In 1851 , his family moved from Iowa to live with him in California . During his term as Chief Justice he ran for the office of Attorney General of California . Elections were held on September 3 , 1851 , and he won with 52 @.@ 2 % of the votes . The Whig candidate , William D. Fair , received the rest of the votes . His term as Chief Justice ended in December 1851 , and he assumed office as Attorney General on January 5 , 1852 . While serving as Attorney General , he could practice law as well , something he could not do as Chief Justice . The wealth he earned during this time became the foundation of the larger fortune he would later earn in real estate . He ended his two @-@ year term on January 2 , 1854 .

= = Later life = =

Hastings continued to practice law after his term as Attorney General ended , and also became a member of the Henley , Hastings & Co. bank firm located in Sacramento , California . The banking firm failed , with little loss to him though . Around 1857 , he left professional life , and started investing in real estate . He and his wife had seven more children after this : Charles Foster Dio . , Douglas , Uhler , Robert Paul , Flora Azalea , Ella , and Lillie . He gradually acquired around one hundred lots of real estate in San Francisco , and bought large tracts of land in Solano , Napa , Lake , and Sacramento counties . In 1861 , he put up many four @-@ room buildings in the south side of San Francisco for the poor with the money he earned in real estate . The rent was $ 10 a month , and as a business venture it was a success . By 1862 , he was worth $ 900 @,@ 000 , which was largely attributed to his real estate investments . In 1865 , he traveled to Europe ; four years later he accompanied William H. Seward to view the recently purchased territory of Alaska . Hastings College of Law , the law department of the University of California , was founded on March 28 , 1878 with his donation of $ 100 @,@ 000 . The college offered him the position of dean and he accepted the offer . He was professor of comparative jurisprudence at the college as well , a position he held until 1887 . He helped establish St. Catherine Academy in Benicia , California , with a donation of $ 6 @,@ 000 . He also helped publish two volumes of the botany of the Pacific coast . His contribution to botany would later be recognized by having the plant genus Hastingsia named after him .

Hastings died at the age of 78 on February 18 , 1893 in San Francisco , California . He was buried at St. Helena Public Cemetery in St. Helena , California .

= Datchet Bridge =

Datchet Bridge , also known as The Divided Bridge , was a road bridge which crossed the River Thames at Datchet from 1706 until it was demolished in 1848 . It was situated on the reach between Old Windsor Lock and Romney Lock and linked Windsor on the Berkshire bank to Datchet on the Buckinghamshire side . The bridge replaced a ferry service which had operated at the site since at least the middle of the 13th century .

The first Datchet Bridge was a wooden bridge commissioned by Queen Anne as the crossing was a convenient back @-@ way to Windsor Castle . Responsibility for the upkeep and maintenance of the crossing later passed to the counties of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire over whose boundary the bridge spanned . There followed many decades of dispute between the counties over who should pay for what . This culminated in 1836 with each county deciding to build their own half , in different materials and not touching in the middle . The resulting " crazy erection " , Buckinghamshire 's side in wood and Berkshire 's in iron , known as The Divided Bridge , was demolished in 1848 and is the only case on the Thames where an established bridge crossing site has completely disappeared .

= = Background = =

Datchet on the north bank of the River Thames has existed as a settlement since before 990 but the first recorded mention of a river crossing is in 1224 when Henry III gave John le Passir a " great oak " with which to make a boat for " passage of Datchet " . In 1278 Edward I paid for William of Eton to a build a " great barge " for Datchet Ferry . Although the Crown had provided for the vessels , the right to operate the ferry and collect tolls sat with the Lord of the Manor of Datchet . This continued until 1680 when the then Lord of the Manor , Colonel Andrew Pitcairn Wheeler , sold the Manor of Datchet to Budd Wase but kept back the ferry rights which he subsequently mortgaged for £ 1000 ( equivalent to £ 146 @,@ 000 today ) . In 1699 Wheeler wrote to William III complaining that a wall built by the King along the Windsor bank was adversely affecting the ferry trade . To settle the complaint the Crown purchased the ferry rights from Colonel Wheeler for £ 7000 ( equivalent to £ 883 @,@ 000 today ) .

The crossing was important to the Crown as the road through Datchet and across the Thames provided a convenient short route from London to Windsor Castle and the ferry was much used by Royalty and courtiers . Privy Purse records show two payments from Elizabeth of York to the Datchet ferryman in 1502 and similarly from Princess Mary in 1522 and her father Henry VIII between 1530 and 1532 . In Elias Ashmole 's account of the 1520 Procession of the order of the Garter he describes how Queen Catherine after watching the procession returned to Windsor Castle from Colnbrook by way of " the fery [ sic ] next way to the castle . " The ferry however did not always provide a quick and efficient service . In 1678 the ferryman , Matthew Hale , received a formal rebuke from Charles II 's Secretary of State , Henry Coventry , for unduly delaying a Royal Messenger . Coventry warned Hale in no uncertain terms :

Despite Coventry 's warning Royal dissatisfaction with the inefficient service provided by the Hale Family , who by 1706 had kept the ferry for over 150 years , continued to grow . This culminated in the decision by Queen Anne to provide a fixed bridge crossing on the site .

= = Queen Anne 's bridge = =

In 1706 a wooden bridge was built by order of Queen Anne to replace the ferry between Datchet , Buckinghamshire and Windsor , Berkshire . It was made of oak provided by the Surveyor General of Woods South of the Trent , Edward Wilcox , who was ordered to fell " sufficient non @-@ navy timber " from the Royal forest " for the better convenience of our passage from our Castle at Windsor " . The building work was supervised by the Surveyor General , Samuel Travers and the final cost was £ 1000 ( equivalent to £ 151 @,@ 000 today ) The better convenience of passage was further enhanced by Queen Anne 's intimate friend Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough and her husband the first Duke who then lived at Langley and who had a carriage drive built from their house , over the bridge and on to Windsor Castle .

Unlike the upstream toll bridges at Windsor and Maidenhead , the crossing at Datchet was toll @-@ free for both River and road and quickly became a popular crossing . Seeking compensation for loss of income on their bridges , the corporations of Windsor and Maidenhead made claims to the Treasury . In 1708 Windsor was granted an ex @-@ gratia payment of £ 55 ( equivalent to £ 8300 today ) plus £ 25 and £ 20 to two tenants ( equivalent to £ 3600 and £ 2900 respectively ) . Maidenhead 's complaint , not made until 1714 , was noted but no compensation paid .

The bridge was initially maintained by the Crown which paid £ 800 ( equivalent to £ 115 @,@ 000 today ) for repairs in 1737 and in 1770 replaced the original all @-@ wood structure with a bridge of ten wooden arches on stone piers . By 1794 the bridge was " absolutely dangerous for carriages to pass over it and a stone one [ was ] now in contemplation . " Later the same year the central arches of the new bridge collapsed during heavy flooding and King George III deciding that he did not wish to finance the rebuilding instead instated a temporary free ferry . There followed many years of wrangling between the Crown and the counties of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire over who should bear the cost of the building and maintenance of the bridge as the county boundary ran down the centre of the channel of the Thames thus cutting the bridge in half . The matter was forced by the intervention of John Richards , the Rector of Datchet who was also a lawyer ; Richards took legal action and the resulting judgement from the King 's Bench in 1809 was that the two counties must equally share the rebuilding costs , a total of £ 2 @,@ 375 each ( equivalent to £ 155 @,@ 400 today ) . The counties , forced to co @-@ operate , built a new wooden bridge on the old stone piers which was opened by Queen Charlotte and Princess Elizabeth on 4 December 1812 .

= = The Divided Bridge = =

The co @-@ operation was short @-@ lived and arguments over maintenance started again in 1834 when the Buckinghamshire side needed repairs and Berkshire refused to contribute . Lack of maintenance led to the bridge collapsing once more in 1836 and the counties came up with the unique solution of each building their own half . Buckinghamshire decided to rebuild with wooden railings whilst Berkshire built its half in iron suspended by chains . Kelly 's Directory of 1847 noted :

" Datchet is separated from Windsor by the river Thames , over which is a very singular bridge ; one half of it is kept in repair by the county of Bucks and the other half by Berks . The former has a wooden railing and the latter an iron one , suspended by chains , but neither the Bucks nor Berks sides touch each other . "

Even during the building the counties would not work together and had to be ordered by the Lord Chancellor to " proceed in such a manner as not to impede each other " . Consequently when the bridge was finished the two sides did not touch in the middle with Berkshire 's final span being cantilevered out from the last Berkshire stone pier thus needing no support from the Buckinghamshire side . The result was an unsatisfactory , ungainly structure , sarcastically noted on opening as having " scarce a bridge upon the River Thames which surpasses it " . The centre gap was apparent during the Divided Bridge 's whole lifetime and lacking structural integrity the " hideous monstrosity " quickly became unsafe :

" It was no wonder that when Wombwell took his caravans across the crazy erection , the elephant @-@ van broke through and the beast in it nearly came to an untimely end . "

The dispute between the counties was resolved once and for all in 1848 when the Windsor Improvement Act 1848 decreed the dismantling of the Divided Bridge and the building of two new road bridges , Victoria Bridge slightly upstream , and Albert Bridge slightly downstream . Both new bridges opened in 1851 . Once the Divided Bridge was demolished the old Windsor to Datchet road was rerouted over Victoria Bridge and the Berkshire side became part of the private grounds of Windsor Castle . This is the only case on the entire Thames where a main bridge crossing has completely disappeared .

= = Legacy = =

A small plaque erected by the Datchet Parish Council in 2000 is the only reminder of the Divided Bridge . Datchet High Street which once continued on over the bridge to Berkshire ends abruptly at the Thames and the bank on the Buckinghamshire side is now occupied by a marina car park . The Crown and Angel public house on the Berkshire bank depicted in many of the contemporary drawings of the bridge was demolished at the same time as the bridge ; a Victorian estate cottage now stands its place .

= M @-@ 137 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 137 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that serves as a spur route to the Interlochen Center for the Arts and Interlochen State Park . It starts at south of the park and runs north between two lakes in the area and through the community of Interlochen to US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) in Grand Traverse County . The highway was first shown without a number label on maps in 1930 and labelled after an extension the next year . The highway 's current routing was established in the 1950s .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 137 at the south of Interlochen State Park at an intersection with Vagabond Lane . Farther south , the roadway continues as County Road 137 ( CR 137 ) . The state highway is a two @-@ lane road that meanders north , connecting to the front gate of the state park and the Interlochen Center for the Arts . The road runs along the isthmus between Green and Duck lakes north of the Green Lake Airport . North of the school , the highway passes through a wooded section before entering the community of Interlochen itself near the Green Lake Township Hall . There M @-@ 137 runs almost due north , crossing a line of the Great Lakes Central Railroad before terminating at its connection with the rest of the state trunkline system at US 31 at Interlochen Corners . The roadway continues north of US 31 as South Long Lake Road after the M @-@ 137 designation ends .

M @-@ 137 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that 4 @,@ 868 vehicles used the highway daily . No section of M @-@ 137 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

A highway along the route of M @-@ 137 connecting US 31 south to the state park was added to the state highway system during the first half of 1930 , initially lacking a designation label on the state maps of the time . This routing was extended by 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) and labelled as M @-@ 137 on maps in 1931 . The former route through the campus of the Interlochen Center for the Arts was abandoned as a roadway on March 26 , 1956 , after M @-@ 137 was realigned to pass to the east of the school and extended further south through the state park area .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is in Grand Traverse County .

= Henry Burrell ( admiral ) =

Vice Admiral Sir Henry Mackay Burrell , KBE , CB ( 13 August 1904 – 9 February 1988 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) . He served as Chief of the Naval Staff ( CNS ) from 1959 to 1962 . Born in the Blue Mountains , Burrell entered the Royal Australian Naval College in 1918 as a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old cadet . His first posting at sea was aboard the cruiser HMAS Sydney . During the 1920s and 1930s , Burrell served for several years on exchange with the Royal Navy , specialising as a navigator . Following the outbreak of World War II , he filled a key liaison post with the US Navy , and later saw action as commander of the destroyer HMAS Norman , earning a mention in despatches .

Promoted captain in 1946 , Burrell played a major role in the formation of the RAN 's Fleet Air Arm , before commanding the flagship HMAS Australia in 1948 – 49 . He captained the light aircraft carrier HMAS Vengeance in 1953 – 54 , and was twice Flag Officer of the Australian Fleet , in 1955 – 56 and 1958 . Burrell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1955 and a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1959 . As CNS , he began a major program of acquisitions for the Navy , including new helicopters , minesweepers , submarines and guided @-@ missile destroyers . He also acted to reverse a plan by the government of the day to dismantle the Fleet Air Arm . Knighted in 1960 , Burrell retired to his farm near Canberra in 1962 and published his memoirs , Mermaids Do Exist , in 1986 . He died two years later , aged eighty @-@ three .

= = Early career = =

Henry Mackay Burrell was born at Wentworth Falls , in the Blue Mountains district of New South Wales . He was the third child and only son of schoolteacher Thomas Burrell and his wife Eliza . Henry 's father , who had emigrated from England , joined the Australian Imperial Force at the age of fifty @-@ five during World War I , seeing active service in Egypt . His grandfather and great @-@ grandfather had served in the Royal Navy . Henry attended Parramatta High School before entering the Royal Australian Naval College , Jervis Bay , on 1 January 1918 , at the age of thirteen . A keen sportsman , he competed in rugby union , tennis and hockey , winning colours for hockey . Burrell graduated from the college in 1921 and became a midshipman the next year . He went to sea first aboard the light cruiser HMAS Sydney and then the destroyer HMAS Stalwart . Posted to the United Kingdom for further training in 1924 , he served on the light cruiser HMS Caledon and the battleship HMS Malaya . In April 1925 , he was promoted to sub @-@ lieutenant , rising to lieutenant by July 1926 .

After attending a Royal Navy course in 1930 , Burrell became a specialist navigator , and saw service aboard the minesweeper HMS Pangbourne , destroyers HMAS Tattoo and Stuart , and cruiser HMAS Brisbane . He married Margaret MacKay at Scots ' Church , Melbourne , on 27 December 1933 . Burrell was promoted to lieutenant commander in July 1934 , and graduated from an advanced navigation course the following year .

Burrell served on exchange with the Royal Navy as navigator aboard the cruisers HMS Coventry and HMS Devonshire , the latter during her tour of duty in the Spanish Civil War . Described as being " egalitarian " and " approachable " , his familiarity with ratings earned him the criticism of Devonshire 's captain ; Burrell however believed that a close relationship between officers and men was necessary for the smooth running of a ship . After completing the Royal Navy 's staff course in 1938 , he returned to Australia and was appointed staff officer ( operations ) at the Navy Office , Melbourne , in March 1939 . It was Burrell 's first shore @-@ based position , and he spent the next four months bringing naval sections of the War Book ( preparations for war ) up to date .

= = World War II = =

Burrell was still based at the Navy Office when World War II broke out in September 1939 . A reorganisation of the headquarters in May 1940 saw him promoted to commander and given the new role of Director of Operations , overseeing troop convoys and their air cover , local defence , and staffing issues . Burrell 's " full knowledge of Australian naval plans and resources " led to Prime Minister Robert Menzies personally nominating him to participate in staff talks with representatives of the Royal Navy and US Navy in October . Soon after , he was posted as the first Australian naval attaché to Washington , D.C. , in an effort to improve communications with the US in light of the threat from Japan . Burrell was credited with helping to foster closer cooperation between the two navies in the Pacific region . He also warned the Australian government that Britain and the US would adopt a " Germany @-@ first " strategy in the event of war with Japan , and that the US was prepared to weaken its Pacific fleet to help secure the Atlantic .

Posted to Britain , Burrell was appointed commanding officer of the newly commissioned N @-@ class destroyer HMAS Norman on 15 September 1941 . The ship 's first operation was transporting a Trade Union Congress delegation led by Sir Walter Citrine to Archangel , Russia . After returning to Britain , she steamed to the Indian Ocean to join Admiral Sir James Somerville 's Eastern Fleet at Addu Atoll , Maldives , on 26 February 1942 . Following the Eastern Fleet 's withdrawal to Kilindini , Kenya , Norman took part in the capture of Diego Suarez on Madagascar on 7 May . Later that month , she was reassigned to the Mediterranean and in June was involved in Operation Vigorous , an unsuccessful attempt to resupply the besieged island of Malta . Transferred back to the Indian Ocean , Burrell led Norman in the second campaign of the Battle of Madagascar in September , and was mentioned in despatches on 19 February 1943 for his " bravery and resource " during the operation . By this time Norman was escorting convoys in the Pacific , before deploying to the South Atlantic for anti @-@ submarine duties in April – May .

On 23 June 1943 , Burrell relinquished command of Norman and returned to the Navy Office , Melbourne , as Director of Plans . Having been divorced from his first wife Margaret in November 1941 , he married mineralogist Ada Weller ( also known as Ada Coggan ) on 21 April 1944 ; the couple had a son and two daughters . Burrell took charge of the RAN 's latest Tribal @-@ class destroyer , HMAS Bataan , at her commissioning in Sydney on 25 May 1945 . Arriving on the scene too late to see action , the ship was deployed to Japan via the Philippines in July , docking in Tokyo on 31 August . There she participated in the formal surrender ceremonies that took place on 2 September aboard USS Missouri . Bataan remained in Japan as Australian Squadron representative until November , assisting with the repatriation of inmates from Japanese prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps . On a mission to one such camp at Sendai , Burrell located crewmen from the light cruiser HMAS Perth , which had been sunk in the early hours of 1 March 1942 during the Battle of Sunda Strait ; 320 of her complement of 680 survived the sinking , 105 dying in captivity .

= = Post @-@ war career = =

Burrell 's first appointment following the cessation of hostilities was as commander of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla . He was promoted captain in June 1946 , and became Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff ( DCNS ) that October . As DCNS , Burrell played a major role in establishing the Navy 's Fleet Air Arm and preparing for the introduction of carrier @-@ based aircraft . He was appointed an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Governor @-@ General William McKell in July 1947 . From October 1948 to the end of 1949 , Burrell served as commanding officer of the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia , flagship of the RAN . Posted to Britain in 1950 , he attended the Imperial Defence College , London , and spent two years as Assistant Australian Defence Representative . He took command of the light aircraft carrier HMAS Vengeance on 2 December 1952 , less than three weeks after she was commissioned into the RAN after transfer from the Royal Navy . The ship began working up for deployment to the Korean War in June 1953 , but in the end her place was taken by the carrier HMAS Sydney . Vengeance was involved in a collision with HMAS Bataan near the Cocos Islands on 5 April 1954 , while acting as part of the escort for the Royal Yacht of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip during their inaugural tour of Australia , but continued on duty .

Completing his tour as captain of Vengeance , Burrell briefly resumed the role of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff in August 1954 . The following month he was made an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Queen . Burrell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1955 New Year Honours . In February he became Flag Officer of the Australian Fleet , with the acting rank of rear admiral ; this was made substantive in July . On 12 May 1956 , he hoisted his standard aboard the recently arrived aircraft carrier HMAS Melbourne , marking her replacement of sister ship HMAS Sydney as flagship of the RAN . Burrell was posted soon afterwards to the Navy Office , Canberra , to redevelop the service 's officer structure , leading to a new General List of officers ' seniority . He served as Second Naval Member ( Personnel ) from September 1956 until January 1958 , when he again became Flag Officer of the Australian Fleet . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1959 New Years Honours , Burrell was raised to vice admiral on 24 February and became First Naval Member , the Chief of the Naval Staff ( CNS ) . He succeeded Vice Admiral Sir Roy Dowling .

As CNS , Vice Admiral Burrell had to contend with a threat by Defence Minister Athol Townley to disband the Navy 's fixed @-@ wing Fleet Air Arm capability by 1963 , but gained approval for a major vessel re @-@ equipment drive that was to include new submarines , destroyers , minesweepers , and auxiliaries . This led among other things to the procurement of British Oberon @-@ class submarines , selected by Burrell when his original preference for an Australian @-@ built craft proved too expensive , as well as Ton @-@ class minesweepers and the Navy 's first purpose @-@ designed hydrographic survey ship , HMAS Moresby . The re @-@ equipment program also resulted in augmentation of the RAN 's rotary @-@ wing assets with Westland Wessex anti @-@ submarine warfare helicopters . Most significant was the purchase of three Charles F. Adams @-@ class guided @-@ missile destroyers , a decision of " ingenuity and forethought " on the part of Burrell and Navy Minister John Gorton , according to historian Tom Frame . The CNS and his minister enjoyed a close working relationship ; Burrell declared that Gorton " deserves our thanks for his efforts " , and Gorton called Burrell " one of the most honest , sincere and most dedicated sailors " .

The purchase of the destroyers signalled a shift in reliance for equipment from Britain to the United States that was contrary to prevailing Australian defence policy at the time , particularly in what historian Jeffrey Grey described as " the most British of the Australian services , the RAN " , and provoked pressure from the Royal Navy and UK shipbuilders , which had lobbied for purchase of their County @-@ class destroyer . Burrell later declared that the superiority of the US weapons system was a key factor in his preference for the Adams design over the County class . On a mission overseas to discuss trends and acquisitions in January 1960 , he was rebuffed by Britain 's Chief of the Defence Staff , Admiral of the Fleet Lord Louis Mountbatten , who mistakenly thought him responsible for the imminent dissolution of the RAN 's Fleet Air Arm , but warmly welcomed by the US Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral Arleigh Burke . As it happened , Burrell would gain credit for maintaining the integrity of the FAA , and its fixed @-@ wing component remained viable until the early 1980s . He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours , gazetted on 3 June 1960 . In June 1961 , he met with his opposite numbers in the Army and Air Force at a Chiefs of Staff Committee conference to discuss the necessity of Australia acquiring nuclear weapons ; the chiefs agreed that the probability such a capability would be required was remote but that it should remain an option under certain circumstances , a position the defence forces maintained during the ensuing decade .

= = Retirement = =

Burrell made his farewell to the Australian Fleet aboard HMAS Melbourne at Jervis Bay on 8 February 1962 . He left the Navy on 23 February , and was succeeded as CNS by Vice Admiral Hastings Harrington . Burrell retired to Illogan Park , his property near Braidwood in the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales . His son Stuart followed him into the Royal Australian Naval College in 1963 . In retirement Burrell enjoyed horse racing both as a gambler and as the owner of several successful mounts . During the 1960s , he was also a member of the ACT Regional Selection Committee of the Winston Churchill Memorial Trusts .

Burrell suffered a serious heart attack in 1980 , having been diagnosed with cardiac problems shortly after his retirement from the Navy . His wife Ada died in August the following year . In 1986 , Burrell published his memoirs as Mermaids Do Exist : The Autobiography of Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Henry Burrell , reflecting on what he described as a " lucky " career , and offering his thoughts on maritime strategy . He died on 9 February 1988 in Woden Valley Hospital . Survived by his three children , Sir Henry Burrell was buried in Gungahlin , Australian Capital Territory , following a private funeral . The Burrell Cup doubles tennis trophy , established by the admiral in 1955 , completed its fifty @-@ eighth year of competition in March 2013 .

= British contribution to the Manhattan Project =

Britain contributed to the Manhattan Project by helping initiate the effort to build the first atomic bombs in the United States during World War II , and helped carry it through to completion in August 1945 by supplying crucial expertise . Following the discovery of nuclear fission in uranium , scientists Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch at the University of Birmingham calculated , in March 1940 , that the critical mass of a metallic sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 was as little as 1 to 10 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 to 22 @.@ 0 lb ) , and would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite . The Frisch – Peierls memorandum prompted Britain to create its own atomic bomb project , known as Tube Alloys . Mark Oliphant , an Australian physicist working in Britain , was instrumental in making the British results known in the United States , and this encouraged the expansion of the American Manhattan Project . Initially the British project was larger and more advanced , but after the United States entered the war , the American project soon outstripped and dwarfed its British counterpart . The British government then decided to shelve its own nuclear ambitions , and participate in the American project .

In August 1943 , the prime minister , Winston Churchill , and President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Quebec Agreement , which provided for cooperation between the two countries . The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust to coordinate the efforts of the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada . A British Mission led by Wallace Akers assisted in the development of gaseous diffusion technology in New York . Britain also produced the powdered nickel required by the gaseous diffusion process . Another mission , led by Oliphant who acted as deputy director at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory , assisted with the electromagnetic separation process . As head of the British Mission to the Los Alamos Laboratory , James Chadwick led a multinational team of distinguished scientists that included Sir Geoffrey Taylor , James Tuck , Niels Bohr , Peierls , Frisch , and Klaus Fuchs , who was later revealed to be a Soviet atomic spy . Four members of the British Mission became group leaders at Los Alamos . William Penney observed the bombing of Nagasaki and participated in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 .

Cooperation ended with the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , known as the McMahon Act , and Ernest Titterton , the last British government employee , left Los Alamos on 12 April 1947 . Britain then proceeded with its own nuclear weapons programme , and became the third country to test an independently developed nuclear weapon in October 1952 .

= = Origins = =

The 1938 discovery of nuclear fission in uranium , by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn , raised the possibility that an extremely powerful atomic bomb could be created . Refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries were particularly alarmed by the notion of a German nuclear weapon project . In the United States , three of them , Leo Szilard , Eugene Wigner and Albert Einstein , were moved to write the Einstein – Szilárd letter to United States President Roosevelt warning of the danger . This led to the President creating the Briggs Advisory Committee on Uranium . In Britain , Nobel Prize in Physics laureates George Paget Thomson and William Lawrence Bragg were sufficiently concerned to take up the matter . Their concerns reached the Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , Major General Hastings Ismay , who consulted with Sir Henry Tizard . Like many scientists , Tizard was sceptical of the likelihood of an atomic bomb being developed , reckoning the odds against success at 100 @,@ 000 to 1 .

Even at such long odds , the danger was sufficiently great to be taken seriously . Thomson , at Imperial College London , and Mark Oliphant , an Australian physicist at the University of Birmingham , were tasked with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium . By February 1940 , Thomson 's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium , and he had decided that it was not worth pursuing . But at Birmingham , Oliphant 's team had reached a strikingly different conclusion . Oliphant had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists , Rudolf Peierls and Otto Frisch , who could not work on the University 's radar project because they were enemy aliens and therefore lacked the necessary security clearance . They calculated the critical mass of a metallic sphere of pure uranium @-@ 235 , the only fissile isotope found in significant quantity in nature , and found that instead of tons , as everyone had assumed , as little as 1 to 10 kilograms ( 2 @.@ 2 to 22 @.@ 0 lb ) would suffice , which would explode with the power of thousands of tons of dynamite .

Oliphant took the Frisch – Peierls memorandum to Tizard , and the MAUD Committee was established to investigate further . It directed an intensive research effort , and in July 1941 , produced two comprehensive reports that reached the conclusion that an atomic bomb was not only technically feasible , but could be produced before the war ended , perhaps in as little as two years . The Committee unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb as a matter of urgency , although it recognised that the resources required might be beyond those available to Britain . A new directorate known as Tube Alloys was created to coordinate this effort . Sir John Anderson , the Lord President of the Council , became the minister responsible , and Wallace Akers from Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) was appointed the director of Tube Alloys .

= = Early Anglo @-@ American cooperation = =

In July 1940 , Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research , and the Tizard Mission 's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments . He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British , and not as far advanced . As part of the scientific exchange , the Maud Committee 's findings were conveyed to the United States . Oliphant , one of the Maud Committee 's members , flew to the United States in late August 1941 , and discovered that vital information had not reached key American physicists . He met the Uranium Committee , and visited Berkeley , California , where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence , who was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory . Lawrence in turn spoke to James B. Conant , Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram . Oliphant 's mission was a success ; key American physicists became aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb . Armed with British data , Vannevar Bush , the director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) , briefed Roosevelt and Vice President Henry A. Wallace in a meeting at the White House on 9 October 1941 .

The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information , but did not initially combine their efforts . British officials did not reply to an August 1941 offer by Bush and Conant to create a combined British and American project . In November 1941 , Frederick L. Hovde , the head of the London liaison office of OSRD , raised the issue of cooperation and exchange of information with Anderson and Lord Cherwell , who demurred , ostensibly over concerns about American security . Ironically , it was the British project that had already been penetrated by atomic spies for the Soviet Union .

Yet the United Kingdom did not have the manpower or resources of the United States , and despite its early and promising start , Tube Alloys fell behind its American counterpart and was dwarfed by it . Britain was spending around £ 430 @,@ 000 per year on research and development , and Metropolitan @-@ Vickers was building gaseous diffusion units for uranium enrichment worth £ 150 @,@ 000 ; but the Manhattan Project was spending £ 8 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 on research and development , and had let construction contracts worth £ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 at the fixed wartime rate of four dollars to the pound . On 30 July 1942 , Anderson advised the prime minister , Winston Churchill , that : " We must face the fact that ... [ our ] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that , unless we capitalise it quickly , we shall be outstripped . We now have a real contribution to make to a ' merger . ' Soon we shall have little or none . "

By then , the positions of the two countries had reversed from what they were in 1941 . The Americans had become suspicious that the British were seeking commercial advantages after the war , and Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , who took over command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942 , wanted to tighten security with a policy of strict compartmentalisation similar to the one that the British had imposed on radar . American officials decided that the United States no longer needed outside help . The Secretary of War , Henry L. Stimson , felt that since the United States was doing " ninety percent of the work " on the bomb , it would be " better for us to go along for the present without sharing anything more than we could help " . In December 1942 , Roosevelt agreed to restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war , even if doing so slowed down the American project . In retaliation , the British stopped sending information and scientists to America , and the Americans then stopped all information sharing .

The British considered how they would produce a bomb without American help . A gaseous diffusion plant to produce 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of weapons @-@ grade uranium per day was estimated to cost up to £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in research and development , and anything up to £ 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to build in wartime Britain . A nuclear reactor to produce 1 kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of plutonium per day would have to be built in Canada . It would take up to five years to build and cost £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The project would also require facilities for producing the required heavy water for the reactor costing between £ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and for producing uranium metal £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The project would need overwhelming priority , as it was estimated to require 20 @,@ 000 workers , many of them highly skilled , 500 @,@ 000 tons of steel , and 500 @,@ 000 kW of electricity . Disruption to other wartime projects would be inevitable , and it was unlikely to be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe . The unanimous response was that before embarking on this , another effort should be made to obtain American cooperation .

= = Cooperation resumes = =

By March 1943 Conant decided that British help would benefit some areas of the project . In particular , the Manhattan Project could benefit enough from assistance from James Chadwick , the discoverer of the neutron , and one or two other British scientists to warrant the risk of revealing weapon design secrets . Bush , Conant and Groves wanted Chadwick and Peierls to discuss bomb design with Robert Oppenheimer , and Kellogg still wanted British comments on the design of the gaseous diffusion plant .

Churchill took up the matter with Roosevelt at the Washington Conference on 25 May 1943 , and Churchill thought that Roosevelt gave the reassurances he sought ; but there was no follow @-@ up . Bush , Stimson and William Bundy met Churchill , Cherwell and Anderson at 10 Downing Street in London . None of them were aware that Roosevelt had already made his decision , writing to Bush on 20 July 1943 with instructions to " renew , in an inclusive manner , the full exchange with the British Government regarding Tube Alloys . "

Stimson , who had just finished a series of arguments with the British about the need for an invasion of France , was reluctant to appear to disagree with them about everything , and spoke in conciliatory terms about the need for good post @-@ war relations between the two countries . For his part , Churchill disavowed interest in the commercial applications of nuclear technology . The reason for British concern about the post @-@ war cooperation , Cherwell explained , was not commercial concerns , but so that Britain would have nuclear weapons after the war . Anderson then drafted an agreement for full interchange , which Churchill re @-@ worded " in more majestic language " . News arrived in London of Roosevelt 's decision on 27 July , and Anderson was dispatched to Washington with the draft agreement . Churchill and Roosevelt signed what became known as the Quebec Agreement at the Quebec Conference on 19 August 1943 .

The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States , United Kingdom and Canada . Stimson , Bush and Conant served as the American members of the Combined Policy Committee , Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members , and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member . Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell , who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States , Lord Halifax , in early 1945 . Dill died in Washington , D.C. , in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson .

Even before the Quebec Agreement was signed , Akers had already cabled London with instructions that Chadwick , Peierls , Oliphant and Francis Simon should leave immediately for North America . They arrived on 19 August , the day it was signed , expecting to be able to talk to American scientists , but were unable to do so . Two weeks would pass before American officials learnt of the contents of the Quebec Agreement . Over the next two years , the Combined Policy Committee met only eight times .

The first occasion was on 8 September 1943 , on the afternoon after Stimson discovered that he was the chairman . The first meeting established a Technical Subcommittee chaired by Major General Wilhelm D. Styer . Because the Americans did not want Akers on the Technical Subcommittee due to his ICI background , Llewellin nominated Chadwick , whom he also wanted to be Head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project . The other members were Richard C. Tolman , who was Groves 's scientific adviser , and C. J. Mackenzie , the president of the Canadian National Research Council . It was agreed that the Technical Committee could act without consulting the Combined Policy Committee whenever its decision was unanimous . The Technical Subcommittee held its first meeting on 10 September , but negotiations dragged on . The Combined Policy Committee ratified the proposals in December 1943 , by which time several British scientists had already commenced working on the Manhattan Project in the United States .

There remained the issue of cooperation between the Manhattan 's Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago and the Montreal Laboratory . At the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 17 February 1944 , Chadwick pressed for resources to build a nuclear reactor at what is now known as the Chalk River Laboratories . Britain and Canada agreed to pay the cost of this project , but the United States had to supply the heavy water . At that time , the United States controlled , by a supply contract , the only major production site on the continent , that of the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company at Trail , British Columbia . Given that it was unlikely to have any impact on the war , Conant in particular was cool about the proposal , but heavy water reactors were of great interest . Groves was willing to support the effort and supply the heavy water required , but with certain restrictions . The Montreal Laboratory would have access to data from the research reactors at Argonne and the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , but not from the production reactors at the Hanford Site ; nor would they be given any information about plutonium . This arrangement was formally approved by the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944 . The Canadian ZEEP ( Zero Energy Experimental Pile ) reactor went critical on 5 September 1945 .

Chadwick supported British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent , abandoning any hopes of a British project during the war . With Churchill 's backing , he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honoured . While the pace of research was easing as the war entered its final phase , these scientists were still in great demand , and it fell to Anderson , Cherwell and Sir Edward Appleton , the Permanent Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , which was responsible for Tube Alloys , to prise them away from the wartime projects in which they were invariably engaged .

The September 1944 Hyde Park Agreement extended both commercial and military cooperation into the post @-@ war period . Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent . In June 1945 , Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee .

= = Gaseous diffusion project = =

Tube Alloys made its greatest advances in gaseous diffusion technology , and Chadwick had originally hoped that the pilot plant at least would be built in Britain . Gaseous diffusion technology was devised by Simon and three expatriates , Nicholas Kurti from Hungary , Heinrich Kuhn from Germany , and Henry Arms from the United States , at the Clarendon Laboratory in 1940 . The prototype gaseous diffusion equipment , two two @-@ stage models and two ten @-@ stage models , was manufactured by Metropolitan @-@ Vickers at a cost of £ 150 @,@ 000 for the four units . Two single @-@ stage machines were later added . Delays in delivery meant that experiments with the single @-@ stage machine did not commence until June 1943 , and with the two @-@ stage machine until August 1943 . The two ten @-@ stage machines were delivered in August and November 1943 , but by this time the research programme they had been built for had been overtaken by events .

The Quebec Agreement allowed Simon and Peierls to meet with representatives of Kellex , who were designing and building K @-@ 25 , the American gaseous diffusion plant , Union Carbide and Carbon , who would operate it , and Harold Urey 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories at Columbia University , the Manhattan Project 's centre tasked with research and development of the process . The year 's loss of cooperation cost the Manhattan Project dearly . The corporations were committed to tight schedules , and the engineers were unable to incorporate British proposals that would involve major changes . Nor would it be possible to build a second plant . Nonetheless , the Americans were still eager for British assistance , and Groves asked for a British mission to be sent to assist the gaseous diffusion project . In the meantime , Simon and Peierls were attached to Kellex .

The British mission consisting of Akers and fifteen British experts arrived in December 1943 . This was a critical time . Severe problems had been encountered with the Norris @-@ Adler barrier . Nickel powder and electro @-@ deposited nickel mesh diffusion barriers were pioneered by American chemist Edward Adler and British interior decorator Edward Norris at the SAM Laboratories . A decision had to be made whether to persevere with it or switch to a powdered nickel barrier based upon British technology that had been developed by Kellex . Up to this point , both were under development . The SAM Laboratory had 700 people working on gaseous diffusion and Kellex had about 900 . The British experts conducted a thorough review , and agreed that the Kellex barrier was superior , but felt that it would be unlikely to be ready in time . Kellex 's technical director , Percival C. Keith , disagreed , arguing that his company could get it ready and produce it more quickly than the Norris @-@ Adler barrier . Groves listened to the British experts before he formally adopted the Kellex barrier on 5 January 1944 .

The United States Army assumed responsibility for procuring sufficient quantities of the right type of powdered nickel . In this , the British were able to help . The only company that manufactured it was the Mond Nickel Company at Clydach in Wales . By the end of June 1945 , it had supplied the Manhattan Project with 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) of nickel powder , paid for by the British government and supplied to the United States under Reverse Lend @-@ Lease .

The Americans planned to have the K @-@ 25 plant in full production by June or July 1945 . Having taken two years to get the prototype stages working , the British experts regarded this as incredibly optimistic , and felt that , barring a miracle , it would be unlikely to reach that point before the end of 1946 . This opinion offended their American counterparts and dampened the enthusiasm for cooperation , and the British mission returned to the United Kingdom in January 1944 . Armed with the British Mission 's report , Chadwick and Oliphant were able to persuade Groves to reduce K @-@ 25 's enrichment target ; the output of K @-@ 25 would be enriched to weapons grade by being fed into the electromagnetic plant . Despite the British Mission 's pessimistic forecasts , K @-@ 25 was producing enriched uranium in June 1945 .

After the rest of the mission departed , Peierls , Kurti and Fuchs remained in New York , where they worked with Kellex . They were joined there by Tony Skyrme and Frank Kearton , who arrived in March 1944 . Kurti returned to England in April 1944 and Kearton in September . Peierls moved on to the Los Alamos Laboratory in February 1944 ; Skyrme followed in July , and Fuchs in August .

= = Electromagnetic project = =

On 26 May 1943 , Oliphant wrote to Appleton to say that he had been considering the problem of electromagnetic isotope separation , and believed that he had devised a better method than Lawrence 's , one which would result in a five to tenfold improvement in efficiency , and make it more practical to use the process in Britain . His proposal was reviewed by Akers , Chadwick , Peierls and Simon , who agreed that it was sound . While the majority of scientific opinion in Britain favoured the gaseous diffusion method , there was still a possibility that electromagnetic separation might be useful as a final stage in the enrichment process , taking uranium that had already been enriched to 50 per cent by the gaseous process , and enriching it to pure uranium @-@ 235 . Accordingly , Oliphant was released from the radar project to work on Tube Alloys , conducting experiments on his method at the University of Birmingham .

Oliphant met Groves and Oppenheimer in Washington , D.C. , on 18 September 1943 , and they attempted to persuade him to join the Los Alamos Laboratory , but Oliphant felt that he would be of more use assisting Lawrence on the electromagnetic project . Accordingly , the Technical Subcommittee directed that Oliphant and six assistants would go to Berkeley , and later move on to Los Alamos . Oliphant found that he and Lawrence had quite different designs , and that the American one was frozen , but Lawrence , who had expressed a desire for Oliphant to join him on the electromagnetic project as early as 1942 , was eager for Oliphant 's assistance . Oliphant secured the services of a fellow Australian physicist , Harrie Massey , who had been working for the Admiralty on magnetic mines , along with James Stayers and Stanley Duke , who had worked with him on the cavity magnetron . This initial group set out for Berkeley in a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber in November 1943 . Oliphant found that Berkeley had shortages of key skills , particularly physicists , chemists and engineers . He prevailed on Sir David Rivett , the head of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Australia , to release Eric Burhop to work on the project . His requests for personnel were met , and the British mission at Berkeley grew in number to 35 , two of whom , Robin Williams and George Page , were New Zealanders .

Members of the British mission occupied several key positions in the electromagnetic project . Oliphant became Lawrence 's de facto deputy , and was in charge of the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory when Lawrence was absent . His enthusiasm for the electromagnetic project was rivalled only by Lawrence 's , and his involvement went beyond scientific problems , extending to policy questions such as whether to expand the electromagnetic plant , although in this he was unsuccessful . The British chemists made important contributions , particularly Harry Emeléus and Philip Baxter , a chemist who had been research manager at ICI , was sent to the Manhattan Project 's Clinton Engineering Works at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , in 1944 in response to a request for assistance with uranium chemistry , and became personal assistant to the general manager . His status as an ICI employee was of no concern to Groves . The British mission was given complete access to the electromagnetic project , both in Berkeley and at the Y @-@ 12 electromagnetic separation plant in Oak Ridge . While some of the British mission remained at Berkeley or Oak Ridge only for a few weeks , most stayed until the end of the war . Oliphant returned to Britain in March 1945 , and was replaced as head of the British mission in Berkeley by Massey .

= = Los Alamos Laboratory = =

When cooperation resumed in September 1943 , Groves and Oppenheimer revealed the existence of the Los Alamos Laboratory to Chadwick , Peierls and Oliphant . Oppenheimer wanted all three to proceed to Los Alamos as soon as possible , but it was decided that Oliphant would go to Berkeley to work on the electromagnetic process and Peierls would go to New York to work on the gaseous diffusion process . The task then fell to Chadwick . The original idea , favoured by Groves , was that the British scientists would work as a group under Chadwick , who would farm out work to them . This was soon discarded in favour of having the British Mission fully integrated into the laboratory . They worked in most of its divisions , only being excluded from plutonium chemistry and metallurgy .

First to arrive was Otto Frisch and Ernest Titterton and his wife Peggy , who reached Los Alamos on 13 December 1943 . At Los Alamos Frisch continued his work on critical mass studies , for which Titterton developed electronic circuitry for high voltage generators , X @-@ ray generators , timers and firing circuits . Peggy Titterton , a trained physics and metallurgy laboratory assistant , was one of the few women working at Los Alamos in a technical role . Chadwick arrived on 12 January 1944 , but only stayed for a few months before returning to Washington , D.C.

When Oppenheimer appointed Hans Bethe as the head of the laboratory 's prestigious Theoretical ( T ) Division , he offended Edward Teller , who was given his own group , tasked with investigating Teller 's " Super " bomb , and eventually assigned to Enrico Fermi 's F Division . Oppenheimer then wrote to Groves requesting that Peierls be sent to take Teller 's place in T Division . Peierls arrived from New York on 8 February 1944 , and subsequently succeeded Chadwick as head of the British Mission at Los Alamos . Egon Bretscher worked in Teller 's Super group , as did Anthony French , who later recalled that " never at any time did I have anything to do with the fission bomb once I went to Los Alamos . " Four members of the British Mission became group leaders : Bretscher ( Super Experimentation ) , Frisch ( Critical Assemblies and Nuclear Specifications ) , Peierls ( Implosion Hydrodynamics ) and George Placzek ( Composite Weapon ) .

Niels Bohr and his son Aage , a physicist who acted as his father 's assistant , arrived on 30 December on the first of several visits as a consultant . Bohr and his family had escaped from occupied Denmark to Sweden . A De Havilland Mosquito bomber brought him to England where he joined Tube Alloys . In America , he was able to visit Oak Ridge and Los Alamos , where he found many of his former students . Bohr acted as a critic , a facilitator and a role model for younger scientists . He arrived at a critical time , and several nuclear fission studies and experiments were conducted at his instigation . He played an important role in the development of the uranium tamper , and in the design and adoption of the modulated neutron initiator . His presence boosted morale , and helped improve the administration of the laboratory to strengthen ties with the Army .

Nuclear physicists knew about fission , but not the hydrodynamics of conventional explosions . As a result , there were two additions to the team that made significant contributions in this area of physics . First was James Tuck whose field of expertise was in shaped charges used in anti tank weapons for armour piercing . In terms of the plutonium bomb the scientists at Los Alamos were trying to wrestle with the idea of the implosion issue . Tuck was sent to Los Alamos in April 1944 and used a radical concept of explosive lensing which was then put into place . Tuck also designed the Urchin initiator for the bomb working closely with Seth Neddermeyer . This work was crucial to the success of the plutonium atomic bomb : Italian @-@ American scientist Bruno Rossi later stated that without Tuck 's work the plutonium bomb could not have exploded in August 1945 . The other was Sir Geoffrey Taylor , an important consultant who arrived a month later to also work on the issue . Taylor 's presence was desired so much at Los Alamos , Chadwick informed London , " that anything short of kidnapping would be justified " . He was sent , and provided crucial insights into the Rayleigh – Taylor instability . The acute need for scientists with an understanding of explosives also led Chadwick to obtain the release of William Penney from the Admiralty , and William Marley from the Road Research Laboratory . Peierls and Fuchs worked on the hydrodynamics of the explosive lenses . Bethe considered Fuchs " one of the most valuable men in my division " and " one of the best theoretical physicists we had . "

William Penney worked on means to assess the effects of a nuclear explosion , and wrote a paper on what height the bombs should be detonated at for maximum effect in attacks on Germany and Japan . He served as a member of the target committee established by Groves to select Japanese cities for atomic bombing , and on Tinian with Project Alberta as a special consultant . Along with Group Captain Leonard Cheshire , sent by Wilson as a British representative , he watched the bombing of Nagasaki from the observation plane Big Stink . He also formed part of the Manhattan Project 's post @-@ war scientific mission to Hiroshima and Nagasaki that assessed the extent of the damage caused by the bombs .

Bethe declared that :

For the work of the theoretical division of the Los Alamos Project during the war the collaboration of the British Mission was absolutely essential ... It is very difficult to say what would have happened under different conditions . However , at least , the work of the Theoretical Division would have been very much more difficult and very much less effective without the members of the British Mission , and it is not unlikely that our final weapon would have been considerably less efficient in this case .

From December 1945 on , members of the British Mission began returning home . Peierls left in January 1946 . At the request of Norris Bradbury , who had replaced Oppenheimer as laboratory director , Fuchs remained until 15 June 1946 . Eight British scientists , three from Los Alamos and five from the United Kingdom , participated in Operation Crossroads , the nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific . With the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , known as the McMahon Act , all British government employees had to leave . Titterton was granted a special dispensation , and remained until 12 April 1947 . The British Mission ended when he departed . Carson Mark remained , as he was a Canadian government employee . He remained at Los Alamos , becoming head of its Theoretical Division in 1947 , a position he held until he retired in 1973 . He became a United States citizen in the 1950s .

= = Feed materials = =

The Combined Development Trust was proposed by the Combined Policy Committee on 17 February 1944 . The declaration of trust was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt on 13 June 1944 . The trustees were approved at the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944 . The United States trustees were Groves , who was elected chairman , geologist Charles K. Leith , and George L. Harrison . The British trustees were Sir Charles Hambro , the head of the British Raw Materials Mission in Washington , D.C. , and Frank Lee from HM Treasury . Canada was represented by George C. Bateman , a deputy minister and member of the Canadian Combined Resources Board . Each of the three governments had its own raw materials resources staff , and the Combined Development Trust was a means of coordinating their efforts .

The role of the Combined Development Trust was to purchase or control the mineral resources needed by the Manhattan Project , and to avoid competition between the three . Britain had little need for uranium ores while the war continued , but was anxious to secure adequate supplies for its own nuclear weapons programme when it ended . Half the funding was to come from the United States and half from Britain and Canada . The initial $ 12 @.@ 5 million was transferred to Groves from an account in the office of the United States Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau , Jr . , that was not subject to the usual accounting auditing and oversight . By the time Groves resigned from the Trust at the end of 1947 , he had deposited $ 37 @.@ 5 million into an account he controlled at the Bankers Trust . Payments were then made from this account .

Britain took the lead in securing control of the world 's major source of ore in the Belgian Congo . They also negotiated deals with Swedish companies to acquire ore from there . Oliphant had approached the Australian High Commissioner in London , Sir Stanley Bruce , in August 1943 about uranium supplies from Australia , and Anderson made a direct request to the prime minister of Australia , John Curtin , during the latter 's visit to Britain in May 1944 to initiate mineral exploration in Australia in places where uranium deposits were believed to exist . As well as uranium , the Combined Development Trust secured supplies of thorium from Brazil , Netherlands East Indies , Sweden and Portugal . At the time uranium was believed to be a rare mineral , and the more abundant thorium was seen as a possible alternative , as it could be irradiated to produce uranium @-@ 233 , another isotope of uranium suitable for making atomic bombs .

= = Intelligence = =

In December 1943 , Groves sent Robert R. Furman to Britain to establish a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project to coordinate scientific intelligence with the British government . Groves selected the head of the Manhattan District 's security activities , Captain Horace K. Calvert , to head the London Liaison Office with the title of Assistant Military Attaché . He worked in cooperation with Lieutenant Commander Eric Welsh , the head of the Norwegian Section of MI6 , and Michael Perrin from Tube Alloys . An Anglo @-@ American intelligence committee was formed by Groves and Anderson in November 1944 , consisting of Perrin , Welsh , Calvert , Furman and R. V. Jones .

At the urging of Groves and Furman , the Alsos Mission was created on 4 April 1944 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Boris Pash to conduct intelligence in the field relating to the German nuclear energy project . The more experienced British considered creating a rival mission , but in the end agreed to participate in the Alsos Mission as a junior partner . In June 1945 , Welsh reported that the German nuclear physicists captured by the Alsos Mission were in danger of being executed by the Americans , and Jones arranged for them to be moved to Farm Hall , a country house in Huntingdonshire used for training by MI6 and the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) . The house was bugged , and the conversations of the scientists were recorded .

= = Results = =

Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists ' contributions to the Manhattan Project , but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them . He considered British assistance " helpful but not vital " , but at the same time , acknowledged that " without active and continuing British interest , there probably would have been no atomic bomb to drop on Hiroshima . " He considered Britain 's key contributions to have been encouragement and support at the intergovernmental level , scientific aid , the production of powdered nickel in Wales , and preliminary studies and laboratory work .

Cooperation did not long survive the war . Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945 , and the Hyde Park Agreement was not binding on subsequent administrations . In fact , it was physically lost . When Wilson raised the matter in a Combined Policy Committee meeting in June , the American copy could not be found . The British sent Stimson a photocopy on 18 July 1945 . Even then , Groves questioned the document 's authenticity until the American copy was located years later in the papers of Vice Admiral Wilson Brown , Jr . , Roosevelt 's naval aide , apparently misfiled by someone unaware of what Tube Alloys was , who thought it had something to do with naval guns .

Harry S. Truman , who had succeeded Roosevelt on the latter 's death , Clement Attlee , who had replaced Churchill as prime minister in July 1945 , Anderson and United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes conferred while on a boat cruise on the Potomac River , and agreed to revise the Quebec Agreement . On 15 November 1945 , Groves , Robert P. Patterson and George L. Harrison met a British delegation consisting of Anderson , Wilson , Malcolm MacDonald , Roger Makins and Denis Rickett to draw up a communiqué . They agreed to retain the Combined Policy Committee and the Combined Development Trust . The Quebec Agreement 's requirement for " mutual consent " before using nuclear weapons was replaced with one for " prior consultation " , and there was to be " full and effective cooperation in the field of atomic energy " , but in the longer Memorandum of Intention , signed by Groves and Anderson , this was only " in the field of basic scientific research " . Patterson took the communiqué to the White House , where Truman and Attlee signed it on 16 November 1945 .

The next meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 15 April 1946 produced no accord on collaboration , and resulted in an exchange of cables between Truman and Attlee . Truman cabled on 20 April that he did not see the communiqué he had signed as obligating the United States to assist Britain in designing , constructing and operating an atomic energy plant . Attlee 's response on 6 June 1946 " did not mince words nor conceal his displeasure behind the nuances of diplomatic language . " At issue was not just technical cooperation , which was fast disappearing , but the allocation of uranium ore . During the war this was of little concern , as Britain had not needed any ore , so all the production of the Congo mines and all the ore seized by the Alsos Mission had gone to the United States , but now it was also required by the British atomic project . Chadwick and Groves reached an agreement by which ore would be shared equally .

The McMahon Act , which was signed by Truman on 1 August 1946 , and went into effect at midnight on 1 January 1947 , ended technical cooperation . Its control of " restricted data " prevented the United States ' allies from receiving any information . The remaining scientists were denied access to papers that they had written just days before . The terms of the Quebec Agreement remained secret , but senior members of Congress were horrified when they discovered that it gave the British a veto over the use of nuclear weapons . The McMahon Act fuelled resentment from British scientists and officials alike , and led directly to the British decision in January 1947 to develop its own nuclear weapons . In January 1948 , Bush , James Fisk , Cockcroft and Mackenzie concluded an agreement known as the modus vivendi , that allowed for limited sharing of technical information between the United States , Britain and Canada .

As the Cold War set in , enthusiasm in the United States for an alliance with Britain cooled as well . A September 1949 poll found that 72 per cent of Americans agreed that the United States should not " share our atomic energy secrets with England " . The reputation of the British Mission to Los Alamos was tarnished by the 1950 revelation that Fuchs was a Soviet atomic spy . It damaged the relationship between the United States and Britain , and provided ammunition for Congressional opponents of cooperation like Senator Bourke B. Hickenlooper .

British wartime participation in the Manhattan Project provided a substantial body of expertise that was important to the subsequent success in October 1952 of the United Kingdom 's nuclear weapons programme , although it was not without important gaps , such as in the field of plutonium metallurgy . The development of the independent British nuclear deterrent led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958 , and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the 1958 US – UK Mutual Defence Agreement .

= John Lennon =

John Winston Ono Lennon , MBE ( born John Winston Lennon ; 9 October 1940 – 8 December 1980 ) was an English singer and songwriter who co @-@ founded the Beatles , the most commercially successful band in the history of popular music . With fellow member Paul McCartney , he formed a lucrative songwriting partnership .

Born and raised in Liverpool , Lennon became involved in the skiffle craze as a teenager ; his first band , the Quarrymen , evolved into the Beatles in 1960 . When the group disbanded in 1970 , Lennon embarked on a solo career that produced the albums John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band and Imagine , and songs such as " Give Peace a Chance " , " Working Class Hero " , and " Imagine " . After his marriage to Yoko Ono in 1969 , he changed his name to John Ono Lennon . Lennon disengaged himself from the music business in 1975 to raise his infant son Sean , but re @-@ emerged with Ono in 1980 with the new album Double Fantasy . He was murdered three weeks after its release .

Lennon revealed a rebellious nature and acerbic wit in his music , writing , drawings , on film and in interviews . Controversial through his political and peace activism , he moved to Manhattan in 1971 , where his criticism of the Vietnam War resulted in a lengthy attempt by Richard Nixon 's administration to deport him , while some of his songs were adopted as anthems by the anti @-@ war movement and the larger counterculture .

As of 2012 , Lennon 's solo album sales in the United States exceeded 14 million and , as writer , co @-@ writer , or performer , he is responsible for 25 number @-@ one singles on the US Hot 100 chart . In 2002 , a BBC poll on the 100 Greatest Britons voted him eighth and , in 2008 , Rolling Stone ranked him the fifth @-@ greatest singer of all time . He was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987 , and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice , as a member of the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 1994 .

= = Biography = =

= = = 1940 – 57 : Early years = = =

Lennon was born in war @-@ time England , on 9 October 1940 at Liverpool Maternity Hospital , to Julia ( née Stanley ) and Alfred Lennon , a merchant seaman of Irish descent , who was away at the time of his son 's birth . His parents named him John Winston Lennon after his paternal grandfather , John " Jack " Lennon , and then @-@ Prime Minister Winston Churchill . His father was often away from home but sent regular pay cheques to 9 Newcastle Road , Liverpool , where Lennon lived with his mother ; the cheques stopped when he went absent without leave in February 1944 . When he eventually came home six months later , he offered to look after the family , but Julia — by then pregnant with another man 's child — rejected the idea . After her sister , Mimi Smith , twice complained to Liverpool 's Social Services , Julia handed the care of Lennon over to her . In July 1946 Lennon 's father visited Smith and took his son to Blackpool , secretly intending to emigrate to New Zealand with him . Julia followed them — with her partner at the time , ' Bobby ' Dykins — and after a heated argument his father forced the five @-@ year @-@ old to choose between them . Lennon twice chose his father , but as his mother walked away , he began to cry and followed her . It would be 20 years before he had contact with his father again .

Throughout the rest of his childhood and adolescence he lived with his aunt and uncle , Mimi and George Smith , who had no children of their own , at Mendips , 251 Menlove Avenue , Woolton . His aunt purchased volumes of short stories for him , and his uncle , a dairyman at his family 's farm , bought him a mouth organ and engaged him in solving crossword puzzles . Julia visited Mendips on a regular basis , and when John was 11 years old he often visited her at 1 Blomfield Road , Liverpool , where she played him Elvis Presley records , taught him the banjo , and showed him how to play " Ain 't That a Shame " by Fats Domino . In September 1980 , Lennon commented about his family and his rebellious nature :

Part of me would like to be accepted by all facets of society and not be this loudmouthed lunatic poet / musician . But I cannot be what I am not ... I was the one who all the other boys ' parents — including Paul 's father — would say , ' Keep away from him ' ... The parents instinctively recognised I was a troublemaker , meaning I did not conform and I would influence their children , which I did . I did my best to disrupt every friend 's home ... Partly out of envy that I didn 't have this so @-@ called home ... but I did ... There were five women that were my family . Five strong , intelligent , beautiful women , five sisters . One happened to be my mother . [ She ] just couldn 't deal with life . She was the youngest and she had a husband who ran away to sea and the war was on and she couldn 't cope with me , and I ended up living with her elder sister . Now those women were fantastic ... And that was my first feminist education ... I would infiltrate the other boys minds . I could say , " Parents are not gods because I don 't live with mine and , therefore , I know.'

He regularly visited his cousin , Stanley Parkes , who lived in Fleetwood . Seven years Lennon 's senior , Parkes took him on trips and to local cinemas . During the school holidays , Parkes often visited Lennon with Leila Harvey , another cousin , often travelling to Blackpool two or three times a week to watch shows . They would visit the Blackpool Tower Circus and see artists such as Dickie Valentine , Arthur Askey , Max Bygraves and Joe Loss , with Parkes recalling that Lennon particularly liked George Formby . After Parkes 's family moved to Scotland , the three cousins often spent their school holidays together there . Parkes recalled , " John , cousin Leila and I were very close . From Edinburgh we would drive up to the family croft at Durness , which was from about the time John was nine years old until he was about 16 . " He was 14 years old when his uncle George died of a liver haemorrhage on 5 June 1955 ( aged 52 ) .

Lennon was raised as an Anglican and attended Dovedale Primary School . From September 1952 to 1957 , after passing his Eleven @-@ Plus exam , he attended Quarry Bank High School in Liverpool , and was described by Harvey at the time as , " A happy @-@ go @-@ lucky , good @-@ humoured , easy going , lively lad . " He often drew comical cartoons which appeared in his own self @-@ made school magazine called The Daily Howl , but despite his artistic talent , his school reports were damning : " Certainly on the road to failure ... hopeless ... rather a clown in class ... wasting other pupils ' time . "

His mother bought him his first guitar in 1956 , an inexpensive Gallotone Champion acoustic for which she " lent " her son five pounds and ten shillings on the condition that the guitar be delivered to her own house , and not Mimi 's , knowing well that her sister was not supportive of her son 's musical aspirations . As Mimi was sceptical of his claim that he would be famous one day , she hoped he would grow bored with music , often telling him , " The guitar 's all very well , John , but you 'll never make a living out of it " . On 15 July 1958 , when Lennon was 17 years old , his mother , walking home after visiting the Smiths ' house , was struck by a car and killed .

Lennon failed all his GCE O @-@ level examinations , and was accepted into the Liverpool College of Art only after his aunt and headmaster intervened . Once at the college , he started wearing Teddy Boy clothes and acquired a reputation for disrupting classes and ridiculing teachers . As a result , he was excluded from the painting class , then the graphic arts course , and was threatened with expulsion for his behaviour , which included sitting on a nude model 's lap during a life drawing class . He failed an annual exam , despite help from fellow student and future wife Cynthia Powell , and was " thrown out of the college before his final year " .

= = = 1957 – 70 : The Quarrymen to the Beatles = = =

= = = = 1957 – 66 : Formation , commercial break @-@ out and touring years = = = =

At age 15 , Lennon formed the skiffle group , the Quarrymen . Named after Quarry Bank High School , the group was established by him in September 1956 . By the summer of 1957 , the Quarrymen played a " spirited set of songs " made up of half skiffle and half rock and roll . Lennon first met Paul McCartney at the Quarrymen 's second performance , held in Woolton on 6 July at the St. Peter 's Church garden fête , after which he asked McCartney to join the band .

McCartney says that Aunt Mimi " was very aware that John 's friends were lower class " , and would often patronise him when he arrived to visit Lennon . According to Paul 's brother Mike , McCartney 's father was also disapproving , declaring Lennon would get his son " into trouble " , although he later allowed the fledgling band to rehearse in the McCartneys ' front room at 20 Forthlin Road . During this time , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Lennon wrote his first song , " Hello Little Girl " , a UK top 10 hit for The Fourmost nearly five years later .

McCartney suggested his friend George Harrison as the lead guitarist . Lennon thought Harrison ( then 14 years old ) was too young . McCartney engineered an audition on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus , where Harrison played " Raunchy " for Lennon and was asked to join . Stuart Sutcliffe , Lennon 's friend from art school , later joined as bassist . Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Sutcliffe became " The Beatles " in early 1960 . In August that year , the Beatles engaged for a 48 @-@ night residency in Hamburg , Germany , and desperately in need of a drummer , asked Pete Best to join them . Lennon was now 19 , and his aunt , horrified when he told her about the trip , pleaded with him to continue his art studies instead . After the first Hamburg residency , the band accepted another in April 1961 , and a third in April 1962 . Like the other band members , Lennon was introduced to Preludin while in Hamburg , and regularly took the drug , as well as amphetamines , as a stimulant during their long , overnight performances .

Brian Epstein , the Beatles ' manager from 1962 , had no prior experience of artist management , but had a strong influence on their early dress code and attitude on stage . Lennon initially resisted his attempts to encourage the band to present a professional appearance , but eventually complied , saying , " I 'll wear a bloody balloon if somebody 's going to pay me " . McCartney took over on bass after Sutcliffe decided to stay in Hamburg , and drummer Ringo Starr replaced Best , completing the four @-@ piece line @-@ up that would endure until the group 's break @-@ up in 1970 . The band 's first single , " Love Me Do " , was released in October 1962 and reached No. 17 on the British charts . They recorded their debut album , Please Please Me , in under 10 hours on 11 February 1963 , a day when Lennon was suffering the effects of a cold , which is evident in the vocal on the last song to be recorded that day , " Twist and Shout " . The Lennon – McCartney songwriting partnership yielded eight of its fourteen tracks . With few exceptions — one being the album title itself — Lennon had yet to bring his love of wordplay to bear on his song lyrics , saying : " We were just writing songs ... pop songs with no more thought of them than that — to create a sound . And the words were almost irrelevant " . In a 1987 interview , McCartney said that the other Beatles idolised John : " He was like our own little Elvis ... We all looked up to John . He was older and he was very much the leader ; he was the quickest wit and the smartest . "

The Beatles achieved mainstream success in the UK during the beginning of 1963 . Lennon was on tour when his first son , Julian , was born in April . During their Royal Variety Show performance , attended by the Queen Mother and other British royalty , Lennon poked fun at his audience : " For our next song , I 'd like to ask for your help . For the people in the cheaper seats , clap your hands ... and the rest of you , if you 'll just rattle your jewellery . " After a year of Beatlemania in the UK , the group 's historic February 1964 US debut appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show marked their breakthrough to international stardom . A two @-@ year period of constant touring , moviemaking , and songwriting followed , during which Lennon wrote two books , In His Own Write and A Spaniard in the Works . The Beatles received recognition from the British Establishment when they were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 1965 Queen 's Birthday Honours .

Lennon grew concerned that fans attending Beatles concerts were unable to hear the music above the screaming of fans , and that the band 's musicianship was beginning to suffer as a result . Lennon 's " Help ! " expressed his own feelings in 1965 : " I meant it ... It was me singing ' help ' " . He had put on weight ( he would later refer to this as his " Fat Elvis " period ) , and felt he was subconsciously seeking change . In March that year he was unknowingly introduced to LSD when a dentist , hosting a dinner party attended by Lennon , Harrison and their wives , spiked the guests ' coffee with the drug . When they wanted to leave , their host revealed what they had taken , and strongly advised them not to leave the house because of the likely effects . Later , in an elevator at a nightclub , they all believed it was on fire : " We were all screaming ... hot and hysterical . " In March 1966 , during an interview with Evening Standard reporter Maureen Cleave , Lennon remarked , " Christianity will go . It will vanish and shrink ... We 're more popular than Jesus now — I don 't know which will go first , rock and roll or Christianity . " The comment went virtually unnoticed in England but caused great offence in the US when quoted by a magazine there five months later . The furore that followed — burning of Beatles records , Ku Klux Klan activity and threats against Lennon — contributed to the band 's decision to stop touring .

= = = = 1967 – 70 : Studio years , break @-@ up and solo work = = = =

Deprived of the routine of live performances after their final commercial concert on 29 August 1966 , Lennon felt lost and considered leaving the band . Since his involuntary introduction to LSD , he had made increasing use of the drug , and was almost constantly under its influence for much of 1967 . According to biographer Ian MacDonald , Lennon 's continuous experience with LSD during the year brought him " close to erasing his identity " . 1967 saw the release of " Strawberry Fields Forever " , hailed by Time magazine for its " astonishing inventiveness " , and the group 's landmark album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , which revealed Lennon 's lyrics contrasting strongly with the simple love songs of the Lennon – McCartney 's early years .

In August , after having been introduced to the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi , the group attended a weekend of personal instruction at his Transcendental Meditation seminar in Bangor , Wales , and were informed of Epstein 's death during the seminar . " I knew we were in trouble then " , Lennon said later . " I didn 't have any misconceptions about our ability to do anything other than play music , and I was scared " . Led primarily by Harrison and Lennon 's interest in Eastern religion , the Beatles later travelled to Maharishi 's ashram in India for further guidance . While there , they composed most of the songs for The Beatles and Abbey Road .

The anti @-@ war , black comedy How I Won the War , featuring Lennon 's only appearance in a non – Beatles full @-@ length film , was shown in cinemas in October 1967 . McCartney organised the group 's first post @-@ Epstein project , the self @-@ written , -produced and -directed television film Magical Mystery Tour , released in December that year . While the film itself proved to be their first critical flop , its soundtrack release , featuring Lennon 's acclaimed , Lewis Carroll @-@ inspired " I Am the Walrus " , was a success . With Epstein gone , the band members became increasingly involved in business activities , and in February 1968 they formed Apple Corps , a multimedia corporation composed of Apple Records and several other subsidiary companies . Lennon described the venture as an attempt to achieve , " artistic freedom within a business structure " , but his increased drug experimentation and growing preoccupation with Yoko Ono , and McCartney 's own marriage plans , left Apple in need of professional management . Lennon asked Lord Beeching to take on the role , but he declined , advising Lennon to go back to making records . Lennon approached Allen Klein , who had managed The Rolling Stones and other bands during the British Invasion . Klein was appointed as Apple 's chief executive by Lennon , Harrison and Starr , but McCartney never signed the management contract .

At the end of 1968 , Lennon was featured in the film The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus ( not released until 1996 ) in the role of a Dirty Mac band member . The supergroup , composed of Lennon , Eric Clapton , Keith Richards and Mitch Mitchell , also backed a vocal performance by Ono in the film . Lennon and Ono were married on 20 March 1969 , and soon released a series of 14 lithographs called " Bag One " depicting scenes from their honeymoon , eight of which were deemed indecent and most of which were banned and confiscated . Lennon 's creative focus continued to move beyond the Beatles and between 1968 and 1969 he and Ono recorded three albums of experimental music together : Unfinished Music No.1 : Two Virgins ( known more for its cover than for its music ) , Unfinished Music No.2 : Life with the Lions and Wedding Album . In 1969 , they formed the Plastic Ono Band , releasing Live Peace in Toronto 1969 . Between 1969 and 1970 , Lennon released the singles " Give Peace a Chance " ( widely adopted as an anti @-@ Vietnam @-@ War anthem in 1969 ) , " Cold Turkey " ( documenting his withdrawal symptoms after he became addicted to heroin ) and " Instant Karma ! " In protest at Britain 's involvement in the Nigerian Civil War , its support of America in the Vietnam war and ( perhaps jokingly ) against " Cold Turkey " slipping down the charts , Lennon returned his MBE medal to the Queen , though this had no effect on his MBE status , which could not be renounced .

Lennon left the Beatles in September 1969 , and agreed not to inform the media while the group renegotiated their recording contract , but he was outraged that McCartney publicised his own departure on releasing his debut solo album in April 1970 . Lennon 's reaction was , " Jesus Christ ! He gets all the credit for it ! " He later wrote , " I started the band . I disbanded it . It 's as simple as that . " In later interviews with Rolling Stone magazine , he revealed his bitterness towards McCartney , saying , " I was a fool not to do what Paul did , which was use it to sell a record . " He spoke too of the hostility he perceived the other members had towards Ono , and of how he , Harrison , and Starr " got fed up with being sidemen for Paul ... After Brian Epstein died we collapsed . Paul took over and supposedly led us . But what is leading us when we went round in circles ? "

= = = 1970 – 80 : Solo career = = =

= = = = 1970 – 72 : Initial solo success and activism = = = =

In 1970 , Lennon and Ono went through primal therapy with Arthur Janov in Los Angeles , California . Designed to release emotional pain from early childhood , the therapy entailed two half @-@ days a week with Janov for four months ; he had wanted to treat the couple for longer , but they felt no need to continue and returned to London . Lennon 's emotional debut solo album , John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) , was received with high praise . Critic Greil Marcus remarked , " John 's singing in the last verse of ' God ' may be the finest in all of rock . " The album featured the songs " Mother " , in which Lennon confronted his feelings of childhood rejection , and the Dylanesque " Working Class Hero " , a bitter attack against the bourgeois social system which , due to the lyric " you 're still fucking peasants " , fell foul of broadcasters . The same year , Tariq Ali 's revolutionary political views , expressed when he interviewed Lennon , inspired the singer to write " Power to the People " . Lennon also became involved with Ali during a protest against Oz magazine 's prosecution for alleged obscenity . Lennon denounced the proceedings as " disgusting fascism " , and he and Ono ( as Elastic Oz Band ) released the single " God Save Us / Do the Oz " and joined marches in support of the magazine .

With Lennon 's next album , Imagine ( 1971 ) , critical response was more guarded . Rolling Stone reported that " it contains a substantial portion of good music " but warned of the possibility that " his posturings will soon seem not merely dull but irrelevant " . The album 's title track would become an anthem for anti @-@ war movements , while another , " How Do You Sleep ? " , was a musical attack on McCartney in response to lyrics from Ram that Lennon felt , and McCartney later confirmed , were directed at him and Ono . However , Lennon softened his stance in the mid @-@ 1970s and said he had written " How Do You Sleep ? " about himself . He said in 1980 : " I used my resentment against Paul … to create a song … not a terrible vicious horrible vendetta [ … ] I used my resentment and withdrawing from Paul and the Beatles , and the relationship with Paul , to write ' How Do You Sleep ' . I don 't really go ' round with those thoughts in my head all the time . "

Lennon and Ono moved to New York in August 1971 , and in December released " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " . The new year saw the Nixon administration take what it called a " strategic counter @-@ measure " against Lennon 's anti @-@ war and anti @-@ Nixon propaganda , embarking on what would be a four @-@ year attempt to deport him . In 1972 , Lennon and Ono attended a post @-@ election wake held in the New York home of activist Jerry Rubin after McGovern lost to Nixon . Embroiled in a continuing legal battle with the immigration authorities , Lennon was denied permanent residency in the US ( which wouldn 't be resolved until 1976 ) . Depressed , Lennon got intoxicated and had sex with a female guest , leaving Ono embarrassed . Her song " Death of Samantha " was inspired by the incident .

Recorded as a collaboration with Ono and with backing from the New York band Elephant 's Memory , Some Time in New York City was released in 1972 . Containing songs about women 's rights , race relations , Britain 's role in Northern Ireland and Lennon 's problems obtaining a green card , the album was poorly received — unlistenable , according to one critic . " Woman Is the Nigger of the World " , released as a US single from the album the same year , was televised on 11 May , on The Dick Cavett Show . Many radio stations refused to broadcast the song because of the word " nigger " . Lennon and Ono gave two benefit concerts with Elephant 's Memory and guests in New York in aid of patients at the Willowbrook State School mental facility . Staged at Madison Square Garden on 30 August 1972 , they were his last full @-@ length concert appearances .

= = = = 1973 – 75 : " Lost weekend " = = = =

While Lennon was recording Mind Games ( 1973 ) , he and Ono decided to separate . The ensuing 18 @-@ month period apart , which he later called his " lost weekend " , was spent in Los Angeles and New York in the company of May Pang . Mind Games , credited to the " Plastic U.F.Ono Band " , was released in November 1973 . Lennon also contributed " I 'm the Greatest " to Starr 's album Ringo ( 1973 ) , released the same month ( an alternate take , from the same 1973 Ringo sessions , with Lennon providing a guide vocal , appears on John Lennon Anthology ) .

In early 1974 , Lennon was drinking heavily and his alcohol @-@ fuelled antics with Harry Nilsson made headlines . Two widely publicised incidents occurred at The Troubadour club in March , the first when Lennon placed a menstrual pad on his forehead and scuffled with a waitress , and the second , two weeks later , when Lennon and Nilsson were ejected from the same club after heckling the Smothers Brothers . Lennon decided to produce Nilsson 's album Pussy Cats and Pang rented a Los Angeles beach house for all the musicians but after a month of further debauchery , with the recording sessions in chaos , Lennon moved to New York with Pang to finish work on the album . In April , Lennon had produced the Mick Jagger song " Too Many Cooks ( Spoil the Soup ) " which was , for contractual reasons , to remain unreleased for more than 30 years . Pang supplied the recording for its eventual inclusion on The Very Best of Mick Jagger ( 2007 ) .

Settled back in New York , Lennon recorded the album Walls and Bridges . Released in October 1974 , it included " Whatever Gets You thru the Night " , which featured Elton John on backing vocals and piano , and became Lennon 's only single as a solo artist to top the US Billboard Hot 100 chart during his lifetime.b A second single from the album , " # 9 Dream " , followed before the end of the year . Starr 's Goodnight Vienna ( 1974 ) again saw assistance from Lennon , who wrote the title track and played piano . On 28 November , Lennon made a surprise guest appearance at Elton John 's Thanksgiving concert at Madison Square Garden , in fulfilment of his promise to join the singer in a live show if " Whatever Gets You thru the Night " — a song whose commercial potential Lennon had doubted — reached number one . Lennon performed the song along with " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " and " I Saw Her Standing There " , which he introduced as " a song by an old estranged fiancée of mine called Paul " .

Lennon co @-@ wrote " Fame " , David Bowie 's first US number one , and provided guitar and backing vocals for the January 1975 recording . The same month , Elton John topped the charts with his cover of " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " , featuring Lennon on guitar and back @-@ up vocals ( Lennon is credited on the single under the moniker of " Dr. Winston O 'Boogie " ) . He and Ono were reunited shortly afterwards . Lennon released Rock ' n ' Roll ( 1975 ) , an album of cover songs , in February . " Stand by Me " , taken from the album and a US and UK hit , became his last single for five years . He made what would be his final stage appearance in the ATV special A Salute to Lew Grade , recorded on 18 April and televised in June . Playing acoustic guitar and backed by an eight @-@ piece band , Lennon performed two songs from Rock ' n ' Roll ( " Stand by Me " , which was not broadcast , and " Slippin ' and Slidin ' " ) followed by " Imagine " . The band , known as Etc . , wore masks behind their heads , a dig by Lennon who thought Grade was two @-@ faced .

= = = = 1975 – 80 : Retirement and return = = = =

With the birth of his second son Sean on 9 October 1975 , Lennon took on the role of househusband , beginning what would be a five @-@ year hiatus from the music industry during which he gave all his attention to his family . Within the month , he fulfilled his contractual obligation to EMI / Capitol for one more album by releasing Shaved Fish , a compilation album of previously recorded tracks . He devoted himself to Sean , rising at 6 am daily to plan and prepare his meals and to spend time with him . He wrote " Cookin ' ( In the Kitchen of Love ) " for Starr 's Ringo 's Rotogravure ( 1976 ) , performing on the track in June in what would be his last recording session until 1980 . He formally announced his break from music in Tokyo in 1977 , saying , " we have basically decided , without any great decision , to be with our baby as much as we can until we feel we can take time off to indulge ourselves in creating things outside of the family . " During his career break he created several series of drawings , and drafted a book containing a mix of autobiographical material and what he termed " mad stuff " , all of which would be published posthumously .

Lennon emerged from retirement in October 1980 with the single " ( Just Like ) Starting Over " , followed the next month by the album Double Fantasy , which contained songs written during a journey to Bermuda on a 43 @-@ foot sailing boat the previous June , that reflected his fulfilment in his new @-@ found stable family life . Sufficient additional material was recorded for a planned follow @-@ up album Milk and Honey ( released posthumously in 1984 ) . Released jointly by Lennon and Ono , Double Fantasy was not well received , drawing comments such as Melody Maker 's " indulgent sterility ... a godawful yawn " .

= = = 8 December 1980 : Death = = =

At around 10 : 50 p.m. ( EST ) on 8 December 1980 , as Lennon and Ono returned to their New York apartment in the Dakota , Mark David Chapman shot Lennon in the back four times at the entrance to the building . Lennon was taken to the emergency room of nearby Roosevelt Hospital and was pronounced dead on arrival at 11 : 00 p.m. ( EST ) . Earlier that evening , Lennon had autographed a copy of Double Fantasy for Chapman .

Ono issued a statement the next day , saying " There is no funeral for John " , ending it with the words , " John loved and prayed for the human race . Please pray the same for him . " His body was cremated at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , New York . Ono scattered his ashes in New York 's Central Park , where the Strawberry Fields memorial was later created . Chapman pleaded guilty to second @-@ degree murder and was sentenced to 20 @-@ years @-@ to @-@ life . As of 2016 , he remains in prison , having been denied parole eight times .

= = Personal relationships = =

= = = Cynthia Lennon = = =

Lennon and Cynthia Powell ( 1939 – 2015 ) met in 1957 as fellow students at the Liverpool College of Art . Although being scared of Lennon 's attitude and appearance , she heard that he was obsessed with French actress Brigitte Bardot , so she dyed her hair blonde . Lennon asked her out , but when she said that she was engaged , he screamed out , " I didn 't ask you to fuckin ' marry me , did I ? " She often accompanied him to Quarrymen gigs and travelled to Hamburg with McCartney 's girlfriend at the time to visit him . Lennon , jealous by nature , eventually grew possessive and often terrified Powell with his anger and physical violence . Lennon later said that until he met Ono , he had never questioned his chauvinistic attitude to women . The Beatles song " Getting Better " , he said , told his own story , " I used to be cruel to my woman , and physically — any woman . I was a hitter . I couldn 't express myself and I hit . I fought men and I hit women . That is why I am always on about peace " .

Recalling his reaction in July 1962 on learning that Cynthia was pregnant , Lennon said , " There 's only one thing for it Cyn . We 'll have to get married . " The couple were married on 23 August at the Mount Pleasant Register Office in Liverpool . His marriage began just as Beatlemania took hold across the UK . He performed on the evening of his wedding day , and would continue to do so almost daily from then on . Epstein , fearing that fans would be alienated by the idea of a married Beatle , asked the Lennons to keep their marriage secret . Julian was born on 8 April 1963 ; Lennon was on tour at the time and did not see his son until three days later .

Cynthia attributed the start of the marriage breakdown to LSD , and as a result , she felt that he slowly lost interest in her . When the group travelled by train to Bangor , Wales , in 1967 , for the Maharishi Yogi 's Transcendental Meditation seminar , a policeman did not recognise her and stopped her from boarding . She later recalled how the incident seemed to symbolise the ending of their marriage . After arriving home at Kenwood , and finding Lennon with Ono , Cynthia left the house to stay with friends . Alexis Mardas later claimed to have slept with her that night , and a few weeks later he informed her that Lennon was seeking a divorce and custody of Julian on grounds of her adultery with him . After negotiations , Lennon capitulated and agreed to her divorcing him on the same grounds . The case was settled out of court in November 1968 , with Lennon giving her £ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 240 @,@ 000 in US dollars at the time ) , a small annual payment and custody of Julian .

= = = Brian Epstein = = =

The Beatles were performing at Liverpool 's Cavern Club in November 1961 , when they were introduced to Epstein after a midday concert . Epstein was homosexual . According to biographer Philip Norman , one of his reasons for wanting to manage the group was that he was physically attracted to Lennon . Almost as soon as Julian was born , Lennon went on holiday to Spain with Epstein , leading to speculation about their relationship . Questioned about it later , Lennon said , " Well , it was almost a love affair , but not quite . It was never consummated . But it was a pretty intense relationship . It was my first experience with a homosexual that I was conscious was homosexual . We used to sit in a café in Torremolinos looking at all the boys and I 'd say , ' Do you like that one ? Do you like this one ? ' I was rather enjoying the experience , thinking like a writer all the time : I am experiencing this . " Soon after their return from Spain , at McCartney 's twenty @-@ first birthday party in June 1963 , Lennon physically attacked Cavern Club MC Bob Wooler for saying " How was your honeymoon , John ? " The MC , known for his wordplay and affectionate but cutting remarks , was making a joke , but ten months had passed since Lennon 's marriage , and the honeymoon , deferred , was still two months in the future . To Lennon , who was intoxicated with alcohol at the time , the matter was simple : " He called me a queer so I battered his bloody ribs in " .

Lennon delighted in mocking Epstein for his homosexuality and for the fact that he was Jewish . When Epstein invited suggestions for the title of his autobiography , Lennon offered Queer Jew ; on learning of the eventual title , A Cellarful of Noise , he parodied , " More like A Cellarful of Boys " . He demanded of a visitor to Epstein 's flat , " Have you come to blackmail him ? If not , you 're the only bugger in London who hasn 't . " During the recording of " Baby , You 're a Rich Man " , he sang altered choruses of " Baby , you 're a rich fag Jew " .

= = = Julian Lennon = = =

Lennon 's first son , Julian , was born as his commitments with the Beatles intensified at the height of Beatlemania during his marriage to Cynthia . Lennon was touring with the Beatles when Julian was born on 8 April 1963 . Julian 's birth , like his mother Cynthia 's marriage to Lennon , was kept secret because Epstein was convinced public knowledge of such things would threaten the Beatles ' commercial success . Julian recalls how some four years later , as a small child in Weybridge , " I was trundled home from school and came walking up with one of my watercolour paintings . It was just a bunch of stars and this blonde girl I knew at school . And Dad said , ' What 's this ? ' I said , ' It 's Lucy in the sky with diamonds . ' " Lennon used it as the title of a Beatles song , and though it was later reported to have been derived from the initials LSD , Lennon insisted , " It 's not an acid song . " McCartney corroborated Lennon 's explanation that Julian innocently came up with the name . Lennon was distant from Julian , who felt closer to McCartney than to his father . During a car journey to visit Cynthia and Julian during Lennon 's divorce , McCartney composed a song , " Hey Jules " , to comfort him . It would evolve into the Beatles song " Hey Jude " . Lennon later said , " That 's his best song . It started off as a song about my son Julian ... he turned it into ' Hey Jude ' . I always thought it was about me and Yoko but he said it wasn 't . "

Lennon 's relationship with Julian was already strained , and after Lennon and Ono 's 1971 move to New York , Julian would not see his father again until 1973 . With Pang 's encouragement , it was arranged for him ( and his mother ) to visit Lennon in Los Angeles , where they went to Disneyland . Julian started to see his father regularly , and Lennon gave him a drumming part on a Walls and Bridges track . He bought Julian a Gibson Les Paul guitar and other instruments , and encouraged his interest in music by demonstrating guitar chord techniques . Julian recalls that he and his father " got on a great deal better " during the time he spent in New York : " We had a lot of fun , laughed a lot and had a great time in general . "

In a Playboy interview with David Sheff shortly before his death , Lennon said , " Sean was a planned child , and therein lies the difference . I don 't love Julian any less as a child . He 's still my son , whether he came from a bottle of whiskey or because they didn 't have pills in those days . He 's here , he belongs to me , and he always will . " He said he was trying to re @-@ establish a connection with the then 17 @-@ year @-@ old , and confidently predicted , " Julian and I will have a relationship in the future . " After his death it was revealed that he had left Julian very little in his will .

= = = Yoko Ono = = =

Two versions exist of how Lennon met Ono . According to the first , told by the Lennons , on 9 November 1966 Lennon went to the Indica Gallery in London , where Ono was preparing her conceptual art exhibit , and they were introduced by gallery owner John Dunbar . Lennon was intrigued by Ono 's " Hammer A Nail " : patrons hammered a nail into a wooden board , creating the art piece . Although the exhibition had not yet begun , Lennon wanted to hammer a nail into the clean board , but Ono stopped him . Dunbar asked her , " Don 't you know who this is ? He 's a millionaire ! He might buy it . " Ono had supposedly not heard of the Beatles , but relented on condition that Lennon pay her five shillings , to which Lennon replied , " I 'll give you an imaginary five shillings and hammer an imaginary nail in . " The second version , told by McCartney , is that in late 1965 , Ono was in London compiling original musical scores for a book John Cage was working on , Notations , but McCartney declined to give her any of his own manuscripts for the book , suggesting that Lennon might oblige . When asked , Lennon gave Ono the original handwritten lyrics to " The Word " .

Ono began visiting and telephoning Lennon 's home and , when his wife asked for an explanation , Lennon explained that Ono was only trying to obtain money for her " avant @-@ garde bullshit " . In May 1968 , while his wife was on holiday in Greece , Lennon invited Ono to visit . They spent the night recording what would become the Two Virgins album , after which , he said , they " made love at dawn . " When Lennon 's wife returned home she found Ono wearing her bathrobe and drinking tea with Lennon who simply said , " Oh , hi . " Ono became pregnant in 1968 and miscarried a male child they named John Ono Lennon II on 21 November 1968 , a few weeks after Lennon 's divorce from Cynthia was granted .

During Lennon 's last two years in the Beatles , he and Ono began public protests against the Vietnam War . They were married in Gibraltar on 20 March 1969 , and spent their honeymoon at the Hilton Amsterdam campaigning with a week @-@ long Bed @-@ In for Peace . They planned another Bed @-@ In in the United States , but were denied entry , so held one instead at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal , where they recorded " Give Peace a Chance " . They often combined advocacy with performance art , as in their " Bagism " , first introduced during a Vienna press conference . Lennon detailed this period in the Beatles song " The Ballad of John and Yoko " . Lennon changed his name by deed poll on 22 April 1969 , adding " Ono " as a middle name . The brief ceremony took place on the roof of the Apple Corps building , made famous three months earlier by the Beatles ' Let It Be rooftop concert . Although he used the name John Ono Lennon thereafter , official documents referred to him as John Winston Ono Lennon , since he was not permitted to revoke a name given at birth . The couple settled at Tittenhurst Park at Sunninghill in Berkshire . After Ono was injured in a car accident , Lennon arranged for a king @-@ sized bed to be brought to the recording studio as he worked on the Beatles ' last album , Abbey Road . To escape the acrimony of the band 's break @-@ up , Ono suggested they move permanently to New York , which they did on 31 August 1971 .

They first lived in The St. Regis Hotel on 5th Avenue , East 55th Street , then moved to a street @-@ level flat at 105 Bank Street , Greenwich Village , on 16 October 1971 . After a robbery , they relocated to the more secure Dakota at 1 West 72nd Street , in 1973 .

= = = May Pang = = =

ABKCO Industries , formed in 1968 by Allen Klein as an umbrella company to ABKCO Records , recruited May Pang as a receptionist in 1969 . Through involvement in a project with ABKCO , Lennon and Ono met her the following year . She became their personal assistant . After she had been working with the couple for three years , Ono confided that she and Lennon were becoming estranged from one another . She went on to suggest that Pang should begin a physical relationship with Lennon , telling her , " He likes you a lot . " Pang , 22 , astounded by Ono 's proposition , eventually agreed to become Lennon 's companion . The pair soon moved to California , beginning an 18 @-@ month period he later called his " lost weekend " . In Los Angeles , Pang encouraged Lennon to develop regular contact with Julian , whom he had not seen for two years . He also rekindled friendships with Starr , McCartney , Beatles roadie Mal Evans , and Harry Nilsson . Whilst drinking with Nilsson , after misunderstanding something Pang said , Lennon attempted to strangle her , relenting only when physically restrained by Nilsson .

Upon returning to New York , they prepared a spare room in their newly rented apartment for Julian to visit . Lennon , hitherto inhibited by Ono in this regard , began to reestablish contact with other relatives and friends . By December he and Pang were considering a house purchase , and he was refusing to accept Ono 's telephone calls . In January 1975 , he agreed to meet Ono who claimed to have found a cure for smoking . But after the meeting he failed to return home or call Pang . When Pang telephoned the next day , Ono told her Lennon was unavailable , being exhausted after a hypnotherapy session . Two days later , Lennon reappeared at a joint dental appointment , stupefied and confused to such an extent that Pang believed he had been brainwashed . He told her his separation from Ono was now over , though Ono would allow him to continue seeing her as his mistress .

= = = Sean Lennon = = =

When Lennon and Ono were reunited , she became pregnant , but having previously suffered three miscarriages in her attempt to have a child with Lennon , she said she wanted an abortion . She agreed to allow the pregnancy to continue on condition that Lennon adopt the role of househusband ; this he agreed to do . Sean was born on 9 October 1975 , Lennon 's 35th birthday , delivered by Caesarean section . Lennon 's subsequent career break would span five years . He had a photographer take pictures of Sean every day of his first year , and created numerous drawings for him , posthumously published as Real Love : The Drawings for Sean . Lennon later proudly declared , " He didn 't come out of my belly but , by God , I made his bones , because I 've attended to every meal , and to how he sleeps , and to the fact that he swims like a fish . "

= = = Former Beatles = = =

Although his friendship with Starr remained consistently friendly during the years following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , Lennon 's relationships with McCartney and Harrison varied . He was close to Harrison initially , but the two drifted apart after Lennon moved to America . When Harrison was in New York for his December 1974 Dark Horse tour , Lennon agreed to join him on stage , but failed to appear after an argument over Lennon 's refusal to sign an agreement that would finally dissolve the Beatles ' legal partnership . ( Lennon eventually signed the papers while holidaying in Florida with Pang and Julian . ) Harrison offended Lennon in 1980 , when he published an autobiography that made little mention of him . Lennon told Playboy , " I was hurt by it . By glaring omission ... my influence on his life is absolutely zilch ... he remembers every two @-@ bit sax player or guitarist he met in subsequent years . I 'm not in the book . "

Lennon 's most intense feelings were reserved for McCartney . In addition to attacking him through the lyrics of " How Do You Sleep ? " , Lennon argued with him through the press for three years after the group split . The two later began to reestablish something of the close friendship they had once known , and in 1974 , they even played music together again before eventually growing apart once more . Lennon said that during McCartney 's final visit , in April 1976 , they watched the episode of Saturday Night Live in which Lorne Michaels made a $ 3 @,@ 000 cash offer to get the Beatles to reunite on the show . The pair considered going to the studio to make a joke appearance , attempting to claim their share of the money , but were too tired . Lennon summarised his feelings towards McCartney in an interview three days before his death : " Throughout my career , I 've selected to work with ... only two people : Paul McCartney and Yoko Ono ... That ain 't bad picking . "

Along with his estrangement from McCartney , Lennon always felt a musical competitiveness with him and kept an ear on his music . During his five @-@ year career break he was content to sit back so long as McCartney was producing what Lennon saw as mediocre material . When McCartney released " Coming Up " , in 1980 , the year Lennon returned to the studio and the last year of his life , he took notice . " It 's driving me crackers ! " he jokingly complained , because he could not get the tune out of his head . Asked the same year whether the group were dreaded enemies or the best of friends , he replied that they were neither , and that he had not seen any of them in a long time . But he also said , " I still love those guys . The Beatles are over , but John , Paul , George and Ringo go on . "

= = Political activism = =

Lennon and Ono used their honeymoon as what they termed a " Bed @-@ In for Peace " at the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel ; the March 1969 event attracted worldwide media ridicule . At a second Bed @-@ In three months later at the Queen Elizabeth Hotel in Montreal Lennon wrote and recorded " Give Peace a Chance " . Released as a single , it was quickly taken up as an anti @-@ war anthem and sung by a quarter of a million demonstrators against the Vietnam War in Washington , DC , on 15 November , the second Vietnam Moratorium Day . In December , they paid for billboards in 10 cities around the world which declared , in the national language , " War Is Over ! If You Want It " .

Later that year , Lennon and Ono supported efforts by the family of James Hanratty , hanged for murder in 1962 , to prove his innocence . Those who had condemned Hanratty were , according to Lennon , " the same people who are running guns to South Africa and killing blacks in the streets . ... The same bastards are in control , the same people are running everything , it 's the whole bullshit bourgeois scene . " In London , Lennon and Ono staged a " Britain Murdered Hanratty " banner march and a " Silent Protest For James Hanratty " , and produced a 40 @-@ minute documentary on the case . At an appeal hearing years later , Hanratty 's conviction was upheld after DNA evidence matched . His family continued to appeal in 2010 .

Lennon and Ono showed their solidarity with the Clydeside UCS workers ' work @-@ in of 1971 by sending a bouquet of red roses and a cheque for £ 5 @,@ 000 . On moving to New York City in August that year , they befriended two of the Chicago Seven , Yippie peace activists Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman . Another political activist , John Sinclair , poet and co @-@ founder of the White Panther Party , was serving ten years in prison for selling two joints of marijuana after previous convictions for possession of the drug . In December 1971 at Ann Arbor , Michigan , 15 @,@ 000 people attended the " John Sinclair Freedom Rally " , a protest and benefit concert with contributions from Lennon , Stevie Wonder , Bob Seger , Bobby Seale of the Black Panther Party , and others . Lennon and Ono , backed by David Peel and Rubin , performed an acoustic set of four songs from their forthcoming Some Time in New York City album including " John Sinclair " , whose lyrics called for his release . The day before the rally , the Michigan Senate passed a bill that significantly reduced the penalties for possession of marijuana and four days later Sinclair was released on an appeal bond . The performance was recorded and two of the tracks later appeared on John Lennon Anthology ( 1998 ) .

Following the Bloody Sunday incident in Northern Ireland in 1972 , in which 14 unarmed civil rights protesters were shot dead by the British Army , Lennon said that given the choice between the army and the IRA ( who were not involved in the incident ) he would side with the latter . Lennon and Ono wrote two songs protesting British presence and actions in Ireland for their Some Time in New York City album : " Luck of the Irish " and " Sunday Bloody Sunday " . In 2000 , David Shayler , a former member of Britain 's domestic security service MI5 , suggested that Lennon had given money to the IRA , though this was swiftly denied by Ono . Biographer Bill Harry records that following Bloody Sunday , Lennon and Ono financially supported the production of the film The Irish Tapes , a political documentary with a Republican slant .

According to FBI surveillance reports ( and confirmed by Tariq Ali in 2006 ) Lennon was sympathetic to the International Marxist Group , a Trotskyist group formed in Britain in 1968 . However , the FBI considered Lennon to have limited effectiveness as a revolutionary since he was " constantly under the influence of narcotics " .

In 1973 , Lennon contributed a limerick called " Why Make It Sad To Be Gay ? " to Len Richmond 's The Gay Liberation Book .

Lennon 's last act of political activism was a statement in support of the striking minority sanitation workers in San Francisco on 5 December 1980 . He and Ono planned to join the workers ' protest on 14 December . By this time , however , Lennon had also quietly renounced the counterculture views which he had helped promote during the 1960s and 1970s and became more aligned with conservatism , though whether he had actually aligned to a more conservative world view is disputed .

= = = Deportation attempt = = =

Following the impact of " Give Peace a Chance " and " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " , both strongly associated with the anti – Vietnam War movement , the Nixon administration , hearing rumours of Lennon 's involvement in a concert to be held in San Diego at the same time as the Republican National Convention , tried to have him deported . Nixon believed that Lennon 's anti @-@ war activities could cost him his re @-@ election ; Republican Senator Strom Thurmond suggested in a February 1972 memo that " deportation would be a strategic counter @-@ measure " against Lennon . The next month the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) began deportation proceedings , arguing that his 1968 misdemeanor conviction for cannabis possession in London had made him ineligible for admission to the United States . Lennon spent the next three and a half years in and out of deportation hearings until 8 October 1975 , when a court of appeals barred the deportation attempt , stating " ... the courts will not condone selective deportation based upon secret political grounds . " While the legal battle continued , Lennon attended rallies and made television appearances . Lennon and Ono co @-@ hosted The Mike Douglas Show for a week in February 1972 , introducing guests such as Jerry Rubin and Bobby Seale to mid @-@ America . In 1972 , Bob Dylan wrote a letter to the INS defending Lennon , stating :

John and Yoko add a great voice and drive to the country 's so @-@ called art institution . They inspire and transcend and stimulate and by doing so , only help others to see pure light and in doing that , put an end to this dull taste of petty commercialism which is being passed off as Artist Art by the overpowering mass media . Hurray for John and Yoko . Let them stay and live here and breathe . The country 's got plenty of room and space . Let John and Yoko stay !

On 23 March 1973 , Lennon was ordered to leave the US within 60 days . Ono , meanwhile , was granted permanent residence . In response , Lennon and Ono held a press conference on 1 April 1973 at the New York City Bar Association , where they announced the formation of the state of Nutopia ; a place with " no land , no boundaries , no passports , only people " . Waving the white flag of Nutopia ( two handkerchiefs ) , they asked for political asylum in the US . The press conference was filmed , and would later appear in the 2006 documentary The US vs. John Lennon . Lennon 's Mind Games ( 1973 ) included the track " Nutopian International Anthem " , which comprised three seconds of silence . Soon after the press conference , Nixon 's involvement in a political scandal came to light , and in June the Watergate hearings began in Washington , DC . They led to the president 's resignation 14 months later . Nixon 's successor , Gerald Ford , showed little interest in continuing the battle against Lennon , and the deportation order was overturned in 1975 . The following year , his US immigration status finally resolved , Lennon received his " green card " certifying his permanent residency , and when Jimmy Carter was inaugurated as president in January 1977 , Lennon and Ono attended the Inaugural Ball .

= = = FBI surveillance and declassified documents = = =

After Lennon 's death , historian Jon Wiener filed a Freedom of Information Act request for FBI files documenting the Bureau 's role in the deportation attempt . The FBI admitted it had 281 pages of files on Lennon , but refused to release most of them on the grounds that they contained national security information . In 1983 , Wiener sued the FBI with the help of the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California . It took 14 years of litigation to force the FBI to release the withheld pages . The ACLU , representing Wiener , won a favourable decision in their suit against the FBI in the Ninth Circuit in 1991 . The Justice Department appealed the decision to the Supreme Court in April 1992 , but the court declined to review the case . In 1997 , respecting President Bill Clinton 's newly instigated rule that documents should be withheld only if releasing them would involve " foreseeable harm " , the Justice Department settled most of the outstanding issues outside court by releasing all but 10 of the contested documents .

Wiener published the results of his 14 @-@ year campaign in January 2000 . Gimme Some Truth : The John Lennon FBI Files contained facsimiles of the documents , including " lengthy reports by confidential informants detailing the daily lives of anti @-@ war activists , memos to the White House , transcripts of TV shows on which Lennon appeared , and a proposal that Lennon be arrested by local police on drug charges " . The story is told in the documentary The US vs. John Lennon . The final 10 documents in Lennon 's FBI file , which reported on his ties with London anti @-@ war activists in 1971 and had been withheld as containing " national security information provided by a foreign government under an explicit promise of confidentiality " , were released in December 2006 . They contained no indication that the British government had regarded Lennon as a serious threat ; one example of the released material was a report that two prominent British leftists had hoped Lennon would finance a left @-@ wing bookshop and reading room .

= = Writing and art = =

Beatles biographer Bill Harry writes that Lennon began drawing and writing creatively at an early age with the encouragement of his uncle . He collected his stories , poetry , cartoons and caricatures in a Quarry Bank High School exercise book that he called the Daily Howl . The drawings were often of crippled people , and the writings satirical , and throughout the book was an abundance of wordplay . According to classmate Bill Turner , Lennon created the Daily Howl to amuse his best friend and later Quarrymen bandmate Pete Shotton , to whom he would show his work before he let anyone else see it . Turner said that Lennon " had an obsession for Wigan Pier . It kept cropping up " , and in Lennon 's story A Carrot in a Potato Mine , " the mine was at the end of Wigan Pier . " Turner described how one of Lennon 's cartoons depicted a bus stop sign annotated with the question , " Why ? " . Above was a flying pancake , and below , " a blind man wearing glasses leading along a blind dog — also wearing glasses " .

Lennon 's love of wordplay and nonsense with a twist found a wider audience when he was 24 . Harry writes that In His Own Write ( 1964 ) was published after " Some journalist who was hanging around the Beatles came to me and I ended up showing him the stuff . They said , ' Write a book ' and that 's how the first one came about " . Like the Daily Howl it contained a mix of formats including short stories , poetry , plays and drawings . One story , " Good Dog Nigel " , tells the tale of " a happy dog , urinating on a lamp post , barking , wagging his tail — until he suddenly hears a message that he will be killed at three o 'clock " . The Times Literary Supplement considered the poems and stories " remarkable ... also very funny ... the nonsense runs on , words and images prompting one another in a chain of pure fantasy " . Book Week reported , " This is nonsense writing , but one has only to review the literature of nonsense to see how well Lennon has brought it off . While some of his homonyms are gratuitous word play , many others have not only double meaning but a double edge . " Lennon was not only surprised by the positive reception , but that the book was reviewed at all , and suggested that readers " took the book more seriously than I did myself . It just began as a laugh for me " .

In combination with A Spaniard in the Works ( 1965 ) , In His Own Write formed the basis of the stage play The John Lennon Play : In His Own Write , co @-@ adapted by Victor Spinetti and Adrienne Kennedy . After negotiations between Lennon , Spinetti and the artistic director of the National Theatre , Sir Laurence Olivier , the play opened at The Old Vic in 1968 . Lennon and Ono attended the opening night performance , their second public appearance together . In 1969 , Lennon wrote " Four in Hand " ‍ — ‌ a skit based on his teenaged experiences of group masturbation ‍ — ‌ for Kenneth Tynan 's play Oh ! Calcutta ! . After Lennon 's death , further works were published , including Skywriting by Word of Mouth ( 1986 ) ; Ai : Japan Through John Lennon 's Eyes : A Personal Sketchbook ( 1992 ) , with Lennon 's illustrations of the definitions of Japanese words ; and Real Love : The Drawings for Sean ( 1999 ) . The Beatles Anthology ( 2000 ) also presented examples of his writings and drawings .

= = Musicianship = =

= = = Instruments played = = =

Lennon 's playing of a mouth organ during a bus journey to visit his cousin in Scotland caught the driver 's ear . Impressed , the driver told Lennon of a harmonica he could have if he came to Edinburgh the following day , where one had been stored in the bus depot since a passenger left it on a bus . The professional instrument quickly replaced Lennon 's toy . He would continue to play harmonica , often using the instrument during the Beatles ' Hamburg years , and it became a signature sound in the group 's early recordings . His mother taught him how to play the banjo , later buying him an acoustic guitar . At 16 , he played rhythm guitar with the Quarrymen .

As his career progressed , he played a variety of electric guitars , predominantly the Rickenbacker 325 , Epiphone Casino and Gibson J @-@ 160E , and , from the start of his solo career , the Gibson Les Paul Junior . Double Fantasy producer Jack Douglas claimed that since his Beatle days Lennon habitually tuned his D @-@ string slightly flat , so his Aunt Mimi could tell which guitar was his on recordings . Occasionally he played a six @-@ string bass guitar , the Fender Bass VI , providing bass on some Beatles numbers ( " Back in the U.S.S.R. " , " The Long and Winding Road " , " Helter Skelter " ) that occupied McCartney with another instrument . His other instrument of choice was the piano , on which he composed many songs , including " Imagine " , described as his best @-@ known solo work . His jamming on a piano with McCartney in 1963 led to the creation of the Beatles ' first US number one , " I Want to Hold Your Hand " . In 1964 , he became one of the first British musicians to acquire a Mellotron keyboard , though it was not heard on a Beatles recording until " Strawberry Fields Forever " in 1967 .

= = = Vocal style = = =

When the Beatles recorded " Twist and Shout " , the final track during the mammoth one @-@ day session that produced the band 's 1963 debut album , Please Please Me , Lennon 's voice , already compromised by a cold , came close to giving out . Lennon said , " I couldn 't sing the damn thing , I was just screaming . " In the words of biographer Barry Miles , " Lennon simply shredded his vocal cords in the interests of rock ' n ' roll . " The Beatles ' producer , George Martin , tells how Lennon " had an inborn dislike of his own voice which I could never understand . He was always saying to me : ' DO something with my voice ! ... put something on it ... Make it different . ' " Martin obliged , often using double @-@ tracking and other techniques .

As his Beatles era segued into his solo career , his singing voice found a widening range of expression . Biographer Chris Gregory writes of Lennon " tentatively beginning to expose his insecurities in a number of acoustic @-@ led ' confessional ' ballads , so beginning the process of ' public therapy ' that will eventually culminate in the primal screams of " Cold Turkey " and the cathartic John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band . " Music critic Robert Christgau calls this Lennon 's " greatest vocal performance ... from scream to whine , is modulated electronically ... echoed , filtered , and double tracked . " David Stuart Ryan notes Lennon 's vocal delivery to range from " extreme vulnerability , sensitivity and even naivety " to a hard " rasping " style . Wiener too describes contrasts , saying the singer 's voice can be " at first subdued ; soon it almost cracks with despair " . Music historian Ben Urish recalls hearing the Beatles ' Ed Sullivan Show performance of " This Boy " played on the radio a few days after Lennon 's murder : " As Lennon 's vocals reached their peak ... it hurt too much to hear him scream with such anguish and emotion . But it was my emotions I heard in his voice . Just like I always had . "

= = Legacy = =

Music historians Schinder and Schwartz , writing of the transformation in popular music styles that took place between the 1950s and the 1960s , say that the Beatles ' influence cannot be overstated : having " revolutionised the sound , style , and attitude of popular music and opened rock and roll 's doors to a tidal wave of British rock acts " , the group then " spent the rest of the 1960s expanding rock 's stylistic frontiers " . Liam Gallagher , his group Oasis among the many who acknowledge the band 's influence , identifies Lennon as a hero ; in 1999 he named his first child Lennon Gallagher in tribute . On National Poetry Day in 1999 , after conducting a poll to identify the UK 's favourite song lyric , the BBC announced " Imagine " the winner .

In a 2006 Guardian article , Jon Wiener wrote : " For young people in 1972 , it was thrilling to see Lennon 's courage in standing up to [ US President ] Nixon . That willingness to take risks with his career , and his life , is one reason why people still admire him today . " For music historians Urish and Bielen , Lennon 's most significant effort was " the self @-@ portraits ... in his songs [ which ] spoke to , for , and about , the human condition . "

In 2013 , Downtown Music Publishing signed a publishing administration agreement for the U.S. with Lenono Music and Ono Music , home to the song catalogs of John Lennon and Yoko Ono respectively . Under the terms of the agreement , Downtown represents Lennon 's solo works -- including " Imagine , " " Instant Karma ( We All Shine On ) , " " Power to the People , " " Happy X @-@ Mas ( War Is Over ) , " " Jealous Guy , " " ( Just Like ) Starting Over " and others .

Lennon continues to be mourned throughout the world and has been the subject of numerous memorials and tributes . In 2002 , the airport in Lennon 's home town was renamed the Liverpool John Lennon Airport . In 2010 , on what would have been Lennon 's 70th birthday , the John Lennon Peace Monument was unveiled in Chavasse Park , Liverpool , by Cynthia and Julian Lennon . The sculpture entitled ' Peace & Harmony ' exhibits peace symbols and carries the inscription " Peace on Earth for the Conservation of Life · In Honour of John Lennon 1940 – 1980 " .

In December 2013 the International Astronomical Union named one of the craters on Mercury after Lennon .

= = = Awards and sales = = =

The Lennon – McCartney songwriting partnership is regarded as one of the most influential and successful of the 20th century . As performer , writer or co @-@ writer Lennon has had 25 number one singles on the US Hot 100 chart.a His album sales in the US stand at 14 million units . Double Fantasy was his best @-@ selling solo album , at three million shipments in the US ; Released shortly before his death , it won the 1981 Grammy Award for Album of the Year . The following year , the BRIT Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music went to Lennon .

Participants in a 2002 BBC poll voted him eighth of " 100 Greatest Britons " . Between 2003 and 2008 , Rolling Stone recognised Lennon in several reviews of artists and music , ranking him fifth of " 100 Greatest Singers of All Time " and 38th of " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " , and his albums John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band and Imagine , 22nd and 76th respectively of " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) with the other Beatles in 1965 ( returned in 1969 ) . Lennon was posthumously inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1987 and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994 .

= = Discography = =

Unfinished Music No. 1 : Two Virgins ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1968 )

Unfinished Music No. 2 : Life with the Lions ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1969 )

Wedding Album ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1969 )

John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 )

Imagine ( 1971 )

Some Time in New York City ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1972 )

Mind Games ( 1973 )

Walls and Bridges ( 1974 )

Rock ' n ' Roll ( 1975 )

Double Fantasy ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1980 )

Milk and Honey ( with Yoko Ono ) ( 1984 )

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= 411th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =

The 411th Engineer Brigade ( Theater Army ) is a combat engineer brigade of the United States Army headquartered in New Windsor , New York . It is a major engineer command of the United States Army Reserve .

Tracing its lineage back to the 355th Engineer Regiment , the brigade assumed its predecessor 's campaign participation credit and honors , which were received fighting in the European Theater of World War II . The reserve brigade did not participate in any Cold War era fighting , and only saw periodic moves to various army bases around New York State . After the Cold War , however , the brigade saw several deployments to the Middle East in a supporting role for US @-@ led contingencies . These included Operation Desert Storm , Operation Joint Endeavor , Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom .

= = Organization = =

The 411th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of the 412th Engineer Command and its Headquarters and Headquarters Company is stationed at New Windsor , New York . It contains two subordinate battalions and separate companies which are also reserve units . The 479th Engineer Battalion ( Combat ) ( Mechanized ) headquartered at Watertown , New York and the 854th Engineer Battalion located at Saugerties , New York are the Brigade 's two principal components . Additionally , the Brigade commands the 306th Engineer Company in Farmingdale , New York and the 328th Engineer Company ( Combat ) ( Heavy ) of Northfield , New Jersey , and the 417th Engineer Company ( Combat ) ( Heavy ) in Bullville , New York .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

The 411th Engineer Brigade traces its lineage back to the 355th Engineer Regiment , which was first constituted on 15 October 1921 in the Organized Reserves . The regiment was organized in January 1922 with its headquarters at Chapel Hill , North Carolina .

It was ordered into active duty military service on 1 September 1942 at Camp White , Oregon in preparation for deployment to Europe during World War II . During World War II , the regiment saw action in the European Theater , undertaking numerous bridging and mobility missions in Normandy , Northern France , the Rhineland and the Ardennes area . The Regiment was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation for its service during the war . After the war was over in 1945 , the regiment remained in the country until it was inactivated on 17 June 1946 in Germany . A year later , on 27 May 1947 the regiment was reactivated with its Headquarters in Detroit , Michigan . It was again deactivated on 31 December 1948 in Detroit .

After the deactivation , the Regiment was broken up and its subordinate elements were redesignated . The regimental Headquarters and Headquarters Company and Service Company were reorganized on 25 February 1949 as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 411th Engineer Brigade , allowing them a larger staff with the ability to take command of more subordinate units . The regiment 's 1st Battalion was reorganized and redesignated on 25 February 1949 as the 928th Engineer Construction Battalion . The 2nd Battalion was reorganized and redesignated on 15 March 1949 as the 929th Engineer Construction Battalion . The 3rd Battalion disbanded on 9 July 1953 . The two separated battalions retained separate lineage from this point and the 355th Engineer Regiment ceased to exist .

= = = Cold War years = = =

The 411th Engineer Brigade was activated on 14 March 1949 at New York City . It was reorganized on 22 December 1950 as the 411th Engineer Aviation Brigade . A few years later , the Organized Reserve Corps itself was redesignated as the Army Reserve , and the brigade was delegated to Reserve status . On 1 January 1957 , the brigade was again redesignated as the 411th Engineer Brigade . On 31 January 1968 , the brigade headquarters was relocated to Fort Tilden , New York .

For most of its operational existence , the brigade remained in Reserve status except for a few brief activations in the Active Duty force . It was ordered into active military service on 24 March 1970 at Fort Tilden , New York , before being reverted to reserve status two days later . The brigade received its distinctive unit insignia on 28 January 1971 and its shoulder sleeve insignia on 20 December 1973 . On 3 January 1978 the brigade headquarters location was changed to Brooklyn , New York .

The brigade was again ordered into active duty to play a supporting role in the Gulf War in 1990 . It officially switched to active service on 6 December 1990 at Brooklyn , New York . It participated in Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm and earned two campaign streamers for participation in the conflict . On 11 March 1991 it was released from active military service and reverted to reserve status . The next day , while still in the country , the brigade was one of numerous units thought to have been exposed to chemical agents released during the Khamisiyah Pit demolition . Much of the NATO invasion force in the country at the time is suspected to have been exposed to these agents .

On 1 April 1996 , the brigade relocated to New Windsor , New York . It provided engineer Support to Operation Joint Endeavor in Bosnia and Kosovo by augmenting the staff of the 412th Engineer Command , and by deploying the 139th and 141st Transportation Company Detachments to the region which were under the brigade 's peacetime command and control .

= = = Iraq War = = =

The Brigade was alerted for deployment to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom in late 2005 . In the summer of 2006 , it trained for three months at Fort McCoy , Wisconsin to prepare . Its mission in Iraq was to integrate other smaller engineer units and provide engineer support to the other Army units operating in the country . The brigade headquarters took command of several other engineer battalions during this deployment . Among the units under brigade 's control was the 502nd Engineer Battalion based in Hanau , Germany which worked on bridges around Baghdad , as well as the 875th Engineer Battalion of the Arkansas Army National Guard based at Camp Striker and the active duty 92nd Engineer Battalion . Also attached to the brigade 's command was the Us Air Force 's 557th Expeditionary RED HORSE Squadron , a contingent of Air Force engineers .

The brigade arrived in Iraq in September 2006 . It assumed control of over 3 @,@ 000 engineers from the US Army , US Navy , US Air Force and US Marine Corps , having taken over the duty from the 130th Engineer Brigade which was departing following the end of its deployment . During the deployment , the brigade had five principle duties : route clearance and sanitation , rapid crater repair , engineer support to the 3rd Infantry Division and other combat units , planning , design and construction of contingency operating bases , and command of tactical bridging assets . The first major project of the brigade after arriving in country in September 2006 was to assist Iraqi engineers in repairing and operating the run down and damaged water treatment plant at Al Bakir which provided a major source of fresh water from the Tigris River . The brigade allowed Iraqi engineers to lead this operation and played a supporting role in evaluating their work . One of the brigade 's major projects was the construction of Forward Operating Base ( FOB ) Hammer , which was completed in just 45 days . The base required construction materials from all over the country as well as foreign materials brought to Camp Victory and Balad Air Base . The 411th Brigade 's attached B CO 92nd EN BN soldiers focused primarily on land work , perimeter fences and ground fortifications totaling over nine kilometers , with a detachment from the RED HORSE USAF focused on construction of buildings and other " vertical " projects . After completion , the FOB had space for 4 @,@ 000 soldiers , and was occupied by 3rd Brigade Combat Team , 3rd Infantry Division .

After the completion of the FOB , 411th Engineer Brigade soldiers commenced construction on other facilities throughout Camp Liberty for other incoming Army units . At the same time , other units in the brigade were responsible for route clearance in the areas of Logistics Support Area Anaconda along routes used for military supply as well as civilian traffic . The brigade 's soldiers used Buffalo mine protected vehicles to clear these routes of suspected Improvised Explosive Devices and other dangerous obstacles .

During this deployment , the brigade completed over 200 projects on every major Forward Operating Base in the country , and three major projects supporting the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 . It completed over 400 @,@ 000 kilometers of route clearance and blast hole repair using over 2 @,@ 800 pieces of major equipment . The brigade headquarters returned home to New York in fall of 2007 , after one year of deployment to Iraq .

= = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = =

In 2012 , the 411th Engineer Brigade was again activated and deployed to Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan to take command of theater @-@ wide engineer operations . The brigade formed a task force dubbed " Joint Task Force Empire " and remained deployed in Afghanistan until March 2013 when it returned home to New York and was reverted to reserve status .

= = Honors = =

= = = Unit decorations = = =

= = = Campaign streamers = = =

= Stanley Matthews =

Sir Stanley Matthews , CBE ( 1 February 1915 – 23 February 2000 ) was an English footballer . Often regarded as one of the greatest players of the English game , he is the only player to have been knighted while still playing , as well as being the first winner of both the European Footballer of the Year and the Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year awards . Matthews ' nicknames included " The Wizard of the Dribble " and " The Magician " .

Matthews kept fit enough to play at the top level until he was 50 years old . He was also the oldest player ever to play in England 's top football division and the oldest player ever to represent the country . He played his final competitive game in 1985 , at the age of 70 . Matthews was also an inaugural inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 to honour his contribution to the English game .

He spent 19 years with Stoke City , playing for the Potters from 1932 to 1947 , and again from 1961 to 1965 . He helped Stoke to the Second Division title in 1932 – 33 and 1962 – 63 . Between his two spells at Stoke he spent 14 years with Blackpool , where , after being on the losing side in the 1948 and 1951 FA Cup finals , he helped Blackpool to win the cup with a formidable personal performance in the " Matthews Final " of 1953 . Between 1934 and 1957 he won 54 caps for England , playing in the FIFA World Cup in 1950 and 1954 , and winning nine British Home Championship titles .

Following an unsuccessful stint as Port Vale 's general manager between 1965 and 1968 , he travelled around the world , coaching enthusiastic amateurs . The most notable of his coaching experiences came in 1975 in South Africa , where in spite of the harsh apartheid laws of the time he established an all @-@ black team in Soweto known as " Stan 's Men " .

= = Family and early life = =

Stanley Matthews was born on 1 February 1915 in a terraced house in Seymour Street , Hanley , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , Staffordshire . He was the third of four sons born to Jack Matthews , a local boxer who was also known as the " Fighting Barber of Hanley " . In the summer of 1921 , Jack Matthews took six @-@ year @-@ old Stanley to the Victoria Ground , home of the local club Stoke City , for an open race for boys under the age of 14 , with a staggered start according to age . His father placed a bet on his son winning , and he did . Matthews attended Hanley 's Wellington Road School , and later described himself as " in many respects a model pupil " . He also said the kickabout games the children played helped to improve his dribbling , and prepared the children for future life by giving them " a focus , a purpose , discipline , and in many respects an escape " . At home he also spent " countless hours " practising dribbling around kitchen chairs he placed in his backyard .

Though he would later become indelibly associated with Stoke City , Matthews grew up supporting that club 's local rivals Port Vale . His father wanted him to follow in his footsteps and become a boxer , but Stanley decided at the age of 13 that he wanted to be a footballer . After a rigorous training session that made Matthews vomit , his mother , Elizabeth , stood firm and made Jack realise that his son , who had one more year at school , should follow his passion of football . His father conceded that should he be picked for England Schoolboys then he could continue his footballing career ; around this time his school football master picked Matthews as an outside @-@ right , rather than as his then @-@ preferred position of centre @-@ half . Matthews played for England Schoolboys against Wales in 1929 , in front of around 20 @,@ 000 spectators at Dean Court , Bournemouth .

= = Playing career = =

= = = Stoke City = = =

Wolverhampton Wanderers , Birmingham City , Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion were all rumoured to be interested in Matthews in the wake of his appearance for England Schoolboys . The Stoke City manager Tom Mather persuaded Matthews ' father to allow Stanley to join his club 's staff as an office boy on his 15th birthday for pay of £ 1 a week . Matthews played for Stoke 's reserve team during the 1930 – 31 season , coming up first against Burnley . After the game his father gave his usual realist assessment : " I 've seen you play better and I 've seen you play worse " .

Matthews played 22 reserve games in 1931 – 32 , shunning the social scene to focus on improving his game . In one of these games , against Manchester City , he attempted to run at the left @-@ back and take him on with a deft swerve as the defender committed himself to a challenge , rather than follow the accepted wisdom of the day which was to first wait for the defender to run at the attacker – his new technique " worked a treat " . The national press were already predicting a bright future for the teenager , and though he could have then joined any club in the country , he signed as a professional with Stoke on his 17th birthday . Paid the maximum wage of £ 5 a week ( £ 3 in the summer break ) , he was on the same wage as seasoned professionals before he even kicked a ball . Despite this his father insisted that Matthews save this money , and only spend any winning bonus money he earned . He made his first team debut against Bury at Gigg Lane on 19 March 1932 ; the " Potters " won the game 1 – 0 and Matthews learned how physical and dirty opponents could be – and get away with it .

After spending the 1932 – 33 pre @-@ season training intensely by himself ( as opposed to playing golf with his teammates ) , Mather selected Matthews in 15 games , enough to earn him in a winners medal after Stoke were crowned Second Division champions , one point ahead of Tottenham Hotspur . On 4 March 1933 he scored his first senior goal in a 3 – 1 win over local rivals Port Vale at The Old Recreation Ground .

He played 29 First Division games in 1933 – 34 , as Stoke secured their top @-@ flight status with a 12th @-@ place finish . He continued to progress in the 1934 – 35 campaign , and was selected by The Football League for an Inter @-@ League game with the Irish League at The Oval , which finished 6 – 1 to the English . His England debut followed , and so did a further game for the Football League against the Scottish League . Stoke finished the season in 10th place .

In 1935 – 36 Matthews continued to improve , and he added the double body swerve technique to his increasing arsenal of tricks . Largely out of the international picture , he put in 45 games for the " Potters " as Stoke finished fourth under Bob McGrory – the club 's best ever finish . He played 42 games in 1936 – 37 , including the club 's record 10 – 3 win over West Brom at the Victoria Ground . At the end of the season he was paid a loyalty bonus of £ 650 , though the Stoke board initially insisted he was only due £ 500 as he had spent his first two years at the club as an amateur – this attitude left a sour taste in Matthew 's mouth .

Stoke slipped down the league in an extremely tight 1937 – 38 season , and , annoyed by rumours circulating the city of resentment in the dressing room against him for his England success , Matthews requested a transfer in February ; his request was denied . His request became public knowledge , and , disturbed by the attention and harassment he was receiving from Stoke supporters urging him to stay , Matthews decided to take a few days off from the club to relax in Blackpool . Finding no peace there either , Stoke chairman Albert Booth told Matthews he would not be allowed to leave the club , and 3 @,@ 000 City supporters organized a meeting to make their feelings known – they too demanded that he stay . Touched by their strength of feeling and worn out by the attention he was receiving , Matthews agreed to stay . Despite playing regularly for the national side , Matthews put in 38 games for Stoke in 1938 – 39 , helping them to a seventh @-@ place finish – there would not be another full season of Football League action until 1946 .

The war cost Matthews his professional career from the age of 24 to the age of 30 . He instead joined the Royal Air Force , and was based just outside Blackpool , with Ivor Powell his NCO . He rose to the rank of corporal , though he admitted to being one of the most lenient and easy @-@ going NCOs in the forces . He played 69 Wartime League and Cup games for Stoke , and also made 87 guest appearances for Blackpool . In addition to these , he also played a handful of games for Scottish sides Airdrieonians , Morton and Rangers , and also played for Arsenal against FC Dynamo Moscow in extremely thick fog . He also played 29 times for England , though no caps were awarded as these were unofficial games . One of the last games of the period was an FA Cup Sixth Round second @-@ leg tie clash between Stoke and Bolton Wanderers ; the match ended in tragedy in what would be known as the Burnden Park disaster – 33 people died and 500 were injured . Matthews sent £ 30 to the disaster fund and couldn 't bring himself to train for several days afterwards . Matthews ' father died in 1945 . From his deathbed he made his son promise him two things : to look after his mother , and to win an FA Cup Final .

The regular Football League returned in time for the 1946 – 47 season , during which Matthews played 23 league games and was a major contributor to 30 of the club 's 41 league goals . Stoke matched their record finish of fourth in the league , finishing just two points shy of champions Liverpool after losing to Sheffield United on the final day of the season . However , in February Matthews was returning from a knee injury when manager McGrory told him he was not in the first XI for the game against Arsenal ; the press reported this as a bust @-@ up . Relations between McGrory , the Stoke City board , and Matthews had indeed always been sour – though once again a story that the players sided against Matthews were untrue . Recalled against Brentford , only after the game did he find out that this was only because he was a last @-@ minute replacement for an injured Bert Mitchell . Matthews put in a second transfer request , which the Stoke board eventually accepted . He selected Blackpool as his next club as he still lived in the area following his service in the RAF ; the Stoke board sanctioned the move on the condition that the deal was to remain a secret until the end of the season , so as to not disrupt the club 's title bid . The secret was revealed in a matter of hours , as an unknown person informed the press .

= = = Blackpool = = =

On 10 May 1947 , immediately after a Great Britain versus Rest of Europe match in Glasgow ( Britain won 6 – 1 ) , he made the move for £ 11 @,@ 500 , at the age of 32 . The match itself raised £ 30 @,@ 000 for the four Home Nations Football Associations , and since the eleven British players received £ 14 each , Matthews questioned where exactly this money ended up – he doubted that much of it ended up as funding for grass @-@ roots football .

" You 're 32 , do you think you can make it for another couple of years ? " – Blackpool manager Joe Smith in 1947 .

Smith told Matthews " there are no shackles here ... express yourself ... play your own game and whatever you do on the pitch , do it in the knowledge that you have my full support . " He assembled a talented frontline in Matthews , Stan Mortensen , Jimmy McIntosh , and Alex Munro ; with an emphasis on entertaining football . The Seasiders finished in ninth place and reached the 1948 FA Cup Final . On 23 April 1948 , the eve of the final , Matthews won the inaugural Football Writers ' Association Footballer of the Year award . Despite taking the lead twice in the match , Blackpool lost out 4 – 2 to Matt Busby 's Manchester United in the final , with Matthews assisting Mortensen for Blackpool 's second .

Injury limited him to only 28 appearances in 1948 – 49 , as Blackpool struggled to a 16th @-@ place finish . He spent the summer touring theatres in a variety act with his brother Ronnie , though he was troubled by an ankle injury he picked up in a charity game . Blackpool finished seventh in 1949 – 50 , and though they were never title contenders vast crowds still turned out home and away to witness the entertaining football they displayed . At this time he received the maximum wage allowed for a professional player – £ 12 a week .

In 1950 – 51 Blackpool stormed to a third @-@ place finish , and Matthews played 44 games in league and cup . He cited his highlights of the season as a 2 – 0 win at Sunderland , a 4 – 4 draw at Arsenal , and a 4 – 2 defeat at Newcastle United . They also reached the 1951 FA Cup Final , where they were favourites to beat opponents Newcastle ; however Matthews ended up with a second runners @-@ up medal thanks to a brace from Jackie Milburn .

After picking up an ankle injury in November , he missed most of the 1951 – 52 campaign , and was forced to instead spent most of his time working at the hotel he and his wife ran . It was during this time that he cut red meat from his diet to begin his new near @-@ vegetarian diet . At this point new Stoke manager Frank Taylor enquired as to whether he might bring Matthews back to the club ; all parties agreed to the idea in principle until Joe Smith put his foot down to ensure he stayed , with an inspirational speech he promised Matthews that an FA Cup winners medal was still possible , telling him that " a lot of people think I 'm mad , but even though you 're 37 , I believe your best football is still to come . "

Despite spending some three months of the season out with a muscle injury , the 1952 – 53 campaign proved Smith 's words to be accurate , as a 38 @-@ year @-@ old Matthews won an FA Cup winners medal in a match which was , despite Mortensen 's hat @-@ trick , subsequently dubbed the " Matthews Final " . Bolton were leading 3 – 1 with 35 minutes to go , but Matthews had " the game of his life " in " the greatest ever FA Cup final " and spurred his team on to a last gasp 4 – 3 victory . He always credited the team and especially Mortensen for the victory , and never accepted the nickname of the " Matthews Final " .

He helped the Tangerines to record a sixth @-@ place finish in 1953 – 54 , though hopes of retaining their FA Cup title were ended with a defeat to Port Vale at Vale Park in the Fifth Round . Matthews missed just eight league games in 1954 – 55 , though journalists were keen to write him off with every occasional off @-@ performance and missed game – " it was all balderdash " , he replied . Despite his age , and more pertinently the media 's constant references to his age , Arsenal manager Tom Whittaker tried , unsuccessfully , to lure Matthews to Highbury with a lucrative , if somewhat illegal approach .

As Smith began to establish a new side with talents such as Jackie Mudie and Jimmy Armfield , Blackpool posted a second @-@ place finish in 1955 – 56 , though they ended up some 11 points behind champions Manchester United . Matthews believed that the performance he gave in a 3 – 1 win over Arsenal on the opening day of the season was the finest he ever gave . At the end of the campaign Matthews was made the inaugural winner of the European Footballer of the Year award , having narrowly defeated Alfredo Di Stéfano 47 to 44 in the poll .

Remaining a key first team member in 1956 – 57 , injury restricted him to 25 league appearances , though Blackpool claimed a creditable fourth @-@ place finish . Matthews scored his 18th and final goal for Blackpool in a 4 – 1 league victory over Tottenham Hotspur at Bloomfield Road on 3 September 1956 . Blackpool finished seventh in 1957 – 58 , after which Joe Smith left the club .

Smith 's replacement was Ron Suart , who wanted Matthews to stay out wide , and did not value his contribution in the way that Smith had done . Suart limited Matthews to 19 league appearances in 1958 – 59 . Matthews was then used just 15 times in 1959 – 60 , as Suart signed Arthur Kaye to take his place , and local lad Steve Hill also vied for the outside @-@ right position . He enjoyed more games in 1960 – 61 , playing 27 league games as the club narrowly avoiding relegation by the odd point .

He started the 1961 – 62 season behind Hill in the pecking order , only getting his place back in time for a 4 – 0 win over Chelsea after Hill picked up an injury . He made his 440th and final appearance in a Blackpool shirt in a 3 – 0 defeat at Arsenal on 7 October 1961 . It was a fitting final bow as he always enjoyed playing against Arsenal , and he had " so many wonderful memories " at Highbury . With former team @-@ mate and close friend Jackie Mudie at Stoke City , and with Tony Waddington keen to welcome Matthews back to the Victoria Ground , his return to his home @-@ town club was sealed . However Matthews was not impressed when the Blackpool board demanded a £ 3 @,@ 500 transfer fee , with one director being so bold as to tell him " You forget . As a player , we made you . " Having kept secret from Stoke a niggling knee injury Matthews had been carrying , Blackpool got their £ 3 @,@ 500 for the player .

= = = Return to Stoke = = =

At Stoke , Matthews found himself playing Second Division football for the first time in 28 years . Despite Stoke being strapped for cash , Tony Waddington gave him a two @-@ year contract at £ 50 a week – this was double the wages he received at Blackpool . The signing was broadcast live on Sportsweek , as Waddington whispered in his ear " Welcome home , Stan . For years this club has been going nowhere . Now we 're on our way " . Waddington delayed his return debut until 24 October 1961 , when Stoke played Huddersfield Town at the Victoria Ground , the attendance was 35 @,@ 974 – more than treble the previous home game – and Matthews set up one of City 's goals in a 3 – 0 win . He went on to score three goals in 21 games in the rest of the 1961 – 62 campaign .

Waddington signed hardman Eddie Clamp to protect Matthews in the 1962 – 63 season , and the two would also become close friends off the pitch . Along with veteran teammates Jackie Mudie , Jimmy O 'Neill , Eddie Stuart , Don Ratcliffe , Dennis Viollet , and Jimmy McIlroy , Stoke had the oldest team in the Football League . Matthews scored his only goal of the season in the final home game of the campaign , as Luton Town were beaten 2 – 0 , the result ensured Stoke gained promotion to the top flight . Stoke went up as Second Division champions , and Matthews was voted FWA Footballer of the Year for the second time in his career , 15 years after he was made the inaugural winner of the award .

After picking up an injury , he missed January onwards of the 1963 – 64 campaign , and thereby missed the 1964 Football League Cup Final defeat to Leicester City . Discovering that niggling injuries which would have cost him one day out of action now required more than two weeks worth of rest to recover from , Matthews decided to retire after one more season .

He spent the 1964 – 65 season playing for the reserve side . On 1 January 1965 he became the only footballer to ever be knighted ( for services to football ) whilst still an active professional player ; though he never thought himself worthy of such an honour . His only first team appearance of the season was also the last Football League game of his career ; it came on 6 February 1965 , just after his 50th birthday , and was necessitated by injuries to both Peter Dobing and Gerry Bridgwood . The opponents that day were Fulham , and Stoke won the game 3 – 1 . Though he felt he had retired too early , and could have carried on playing for another two years , this brought an end to his 35 @-@ year professional career .

Stoke City arranged a testimonial match in honour of Matthews ; it was much needed as he had spent most of his career constricted to the tight maximum wage that had been enforced upon the English game . The game was played at the Victoria Ground on 28 April 1965 , by which time Matthews had decided to retire as a player , and the pre @-@ match entertainment consisted of another match of two veteran teams featuring many legends of the game . Harry Johnston led out a team consisting of Bert Trautmann , Tim Ward , George Hardwick , Jimmy Hill , Neil Franklin , Don Revie , Stan Mortensen , Nat Lofthouse , Jimmy Hagan , Tom Finney and Frank Bowyer ( reserve ) . Walley Barnes led out an opposing team consisting of Jimmy O 'Neill , Jimmy Scoular , Danny Blanchflower , Jimmy Dickinson , Hughie Kelly , Bill McGarry , Jackie Mudie , Jackie Milburn , Jock Dodds , Ken Barnes , and Arthur Rowley ( reserve ) .

In the main game itself , two teams of legends were formed , a Stan 's XI ( consisting of Football League players ) and an International XI . The International side won 6 – 4 , and Matthews was carried shoulder @-@ high from the field at full time by Puskás and Yashin .

= = = England international career = = =

After playing for England Schoolboys , playing in a trial at Roker Park in front of the England selectors , and representing The Football League , Matthews was given his England debut at Ninian Park in 1934 . Matthews scored the third goal as England beat the Welsh 4 – 0 . His second game would be the infamous Battle of Highbury , where he set up Eric Brook for the first goal of a 3 – 2 win over world champions Italy . The Italians turned the match into a " bloodbath " , and it ended up as the most violent match that Matthews would ever be involved in .

His third cap came in a 3 – 0 over Germany at White Hart Lane on 4 December 1935 , after Ralph Birkett was unable to play due to injury ; Matthews was outplayed by his opposite number Reinhold Münzenberg in both attack and defence . Matthews was jeered by England supporters and condemned by the press .

He would have to wait until 17 April 1937 for another chance in an England shirt , when he was selected to play in front of 149 @,@ 000 spectators against the auld enemy at Scotland 's Hampden Park . He was physically sick before the match , as he would be before any big game . The " Hampden Roar " a big factor , the Scots won 3 – 1 despite a good English performance . After another game against Wales , Matthews scored a hat @-@ trick in a 5 – 4 win against Czechoslovakia .

In 1938 he played eight games for England , starting with defeat to a Scotland team containing a young Bill Shankly . He then travelled to Berlin for another encounter with Münzenberg , where pre @-@ match he witnessed first hand the foreboding devotion the people showed the Führer when his motorcade drove past a café the England team were dining in . The game became infamous as The FA , themselves under instruction from the British government , informed the England team that they had to perform the Nazi salute as part of the strategy of appeasement . England won 6 – 3 with Matthews himself getting on the scoreboard having got the better of Münzenberg this time . The next game was a shock 2 – 1 defeat to Switzerland , which in turn was followed by a 4 – 2 win over France in Paris . Following the conclusion of this summer tour of the continent , Matthews scored in a 4 – 2 defeat to Wales in Cardiff , and then played in England 's 3 – 0 win over a Europe XI at Highbury , their 4 – 0 win over Norway in Newcastle , and their 7 – 0 win over Ireland at Old Trafford .

On 15 April 1939 , he returned to a muddy Hampden Park with England to claim a 2 – 1 victory in front of 142 @,@ 000 rain @-@ soaked supporters ; he set up Tommy Lawton for the winner with seconds to spare . That summer was the last time the England would tour Europe before Hitler 's Nazis were defeated . The first game was against Italy , who gave the English a warm reception despite Benito Mussolini 's breast @-@ beating and the bad blood of five years previous . Again the World Champions , the Italians managed to salvage a 2 – 2 draw at the San Siro after scoring with a clear handball ; this time Matthews left the field with a chipped hip bone for his efforts . The next game was a 2 – 1 loss to Yugoslavia , with Matthews and captain Eddie Hapgood passengers in the game after picking up early injuries ; this injury forced him to sit out the following encounter with Romania .

Following the war , his return for England came against Scotland on 12 April 1947 at Wembley , in a match which finished as a 1 – 1 draw . In the summer he took part in England 's tour of Switzerland and Portugal . Following a surprise defeat to the Swiss , England cantered to a 10 – 0 win over the Portuguese , with Matthews scoring the 10th . In September , he put in one of his finest performances in an England shirt as he set up all of England 's five goals in a 5 – 2 victory over Belgium .

In April 1948 he once again travelled with England to Hampden Park , helping his country to a 2 – 0 victory ; however after the match he was the subject of an FA inquiry after he claimed tea and scones on his expenses ( at the cost of sixpence ) . Regardless of this treatment by the FA , the next month he helped England record a 4 – 0 victory over Italy in Turin . Folklore told that he beat Alberto Eliani only to have the audacity to then pull a comb from his shorts pocket and comb his hair ; the reality was that he simply used his hand to wipe his sweating brow in the beating Italian sun . However the legend would follow him around the world in later life , and spectators in the crowd were convinced that they had witnessed it . Later in the year he played in a goalless draw with Denmark , a 6 – 2 win over Northern Ireland , a 1 – 0 win over Wales , and a 6 – 0 triumph over Switzerland .

Manager Walter Winterbottom began to look for a more defensive winger , and so used Matthews just once in 1949 – a 3 – 1 defeat to Scotland in the British Home Championship . Only after impressing in an FA tour of Canada was he was named as a last minute inclusion in the England squad for the 1950 FIFA World Cup in Brazil . He did not play in the win over Chile or in the infamous defeat to the United States , but played just once , in the 1 – 0 defeat to Spain at the Estádio do Maracanã . The preparation was not ideal as the FA did not take the competition seriously , and the hotel had " unpalatable " food and no training facilities .

After playing only in two further games , a 4 – 4 draw with a Europe XI and a 3 – 1 win over Northern Ireland , he found himself back in the international scene following his heroics in the 1953 FA Cup Final . He was selected to play Hungary 's Golden Team on 25 November 1953 , in a 6 – 3 defeat that became known as the " Match of the Century " . He blamed the FA and the selectors for the heavy loss , though he had great admiration for the Hungarians , particularly Ferenc Puskás .

He did not play in the England 's 7 – 1 defeat to Hungary in Budapest in May 1954 . However he was in the squad for the 1954 FIFA World Cup in Switzerland . Matthews helped England to a 4 – 4 draw with Belgium , though was left out of a win over Switzerland , before he returned to the first XI as England crashed out of the competition with a 4 – 2 defeat to Uruguay at the St. Jakob Stadium after mistakes from goalkeeper Gil Merrick . His third match of the year was a 2 – 0 win over Northern Ireland at Windsor Park in the 1955 British Home Championship , though on the pitch he did not gel well with Don Revie . Matthews then put in a superb in a 2 – 0 win over the Welsh , before he helped England to record a 3 – 1 victory over World Champions West Germany , though only three of the Germans used at Wembley had been in the first XI in the World Cup Final .

England beat Scotland 7 – 2 in April 1955 , and this time Matthews linked up much better with Revie , and 40 @-@ year @-@ old Matthews was largely credited for the outstanding margin of victory . In this game Duncan Edwards was making his England debut ; when Matthews made his , Edwards had not even been born . Matthews went on England 's unsuccessful tour of the continent in 1955 , as the selectors erratic choices helped to ensure a 1 – 0 defeat to France , a 1 – 1 draw with Spain , and a 3 – 1 defeat to Portugal . Left out against Denmark , he was back in the team in October for a 1 – 1 draw with Wales .

Having been awarded the inaugural Ballon d 'Or in 1956 , that May he was recalled to the England front line for an encounter with Brazil ; Brazil would go on to lift the World Cup in 1958 , but Matthews helped the English to record a 4 – 1 victory . He then refused to take part in that summer 's European tour , having already committed himself to his second summer of coaching in South Africa . In his next international game , against Northern Ireland on 6 October 1956 , aged 41 years and 248 days , he became the oldest England player ever to score an international goal .

He played three of England four qualification games for the 1958 FIFA World Cup : a 5 – 1 victory over the Republic of Ireland , and the 5 – 2 and 4 – 1 wins over Denmark . On 15 May 1957 , Matthews became the oldest player ever to represent England , when at 42 years and 104 days old he turned out for the victory over the Danes in Copenhagen . Despite calls by the press for him to be included in the 1958 World Cup squad , this time the selectors did not bow to the pressure . Yet at 23 years , nobody would ever enjoy a longer career with the England team .

He was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1956 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at the BBC Television Theatre .

= = Style of play = =

Franz Beckenbauer said that the speed and skill Matthews possessed meant that " almost no one in the game could stop him " . John Charles noted that " he was the best crosser I 've ever seen – and he had to contend with the old heavy ball " . Johnny Giles said that " he had everything – good close control , great dribbling ability and he was lightning quick . He was also an intelligent player , who knew how to pass the ball " . Despite his great talents , he rarely tackled opponents and was not adept at heading the ball or using his left foot .

Before 1937 – 38 he had scored 43 goals in four seasons , and full @-@ backs began to mark him more tightly ; because of this he decided to drop deeper to collect the ball and aim to play pinpoint crosses as opposed to going for glory himself . Though he would never again score more than six goals in a season , this made him more an effective team player and a greater threat to the opposition .

When running along Blackpool 's beach , at 7 am , no matter the weather , Matthews wore shoes that contained lead , so that when he changed into his football boots , his feet felt light , giving himself the impression that he could run faster . Having trained to a level of fitness few other players would reach , by the mid @-@ 1950s he was able to cut back on his intense training as his level of fitness was by then ingrained in his body . He never smoked ; instead , he was very conscious of every item of food and drink he consumed , and he maintained a rigid daily training regime from childhood up until his old age . In an interview with the FA he said , " I had some very good advice and started to eat more salads and fruit , and every Monday I had no food . Just one day , on a Monday , but I felt better . " The only time he knowingly consumed alcohol was when drinking champagne out of the FA Cup in 1953 .

In addition to his attention to detail in diet and fitness , he also afforded close scrutiny to his kit . 1950 – 51 he struck a boot sponsorship deal with the Co @-@ op , though he instead began wearing a more lightweight pair of boots he had discovered on show at the World Cup – at the time they were not available to buy in England . He would wear the customized boots until his retirement , though they were so delicate that he got through countless pairs every season .

An avid student of the game , in the 1950 FIFA World Cup Matthews stayed on to watch teams such as Brazil and Uruguay compete in the tournament after England 's elimination – the English FA , manager and media all returned home to , as Matthews said , " bury their heads in the sand . " Matthews regularly condemned the " blazer brigade " at the FA in his autobiography , slating them as " conservative " and stressing that many of them were Old Etonians ; in his view they treated players and supporters poorly , demonstrated arrogance by ignoring competitions they did not control ( the World Cup and European domestic competitions ) , and viewed innovations with excessive suspicion ( for example the FA sanctioned only the use of floodlights in 1952 despite artificial lighting having been experimented with as far back as 1878 , and for years insisted on using outdated kit such as heavy " reinforced " boots ) . Writing about the fact that the FA allocated only 12 @,@ 000 of the 100 @,@ 000 available tickets for the 1953 FA Cup Final to Blackpool supporters , Matthews wrote : " I couldn 't make my mind up whether they were dunderheads or simply didn 't care about the genuine supporters who were the lifeblood of the game " .

He was never booked or sent off throughout his entire career , and teammate Jimmy Armfield noted that Matthews would never retaliate to the many extremely physical challenges opponents would often make to try and take him out of the game . Indeed , he ran the full gauntlet of emotions that all footballers run , but always retained a level head on the pitch , never losing his temper or allowing his emotions to affect his game .

= = Coaching and management career = =

Matthews was appointed general manager at Stoke 's rivals Port Vale in July 1965 , alongside good friend Jackie Mudie ; Matthews was unpaid , though was given expenses . The pair had a plan of bringing through talented schoolboys and selling one or two off every so often to improve the club 's bleak financial picture , whilst at the same time advancing through the leagues ; in his autobiography he said that what Dario Gradi later achieved at Crewe Alexandra is what he had in mind for the Vale . Matthews concentrated his search in North East England and Central Scotland , where he discovered talented striker Mick Cullerton , though overlooked a teenage Ray Kennedy .

Handed complete managerial control following Mudie 's resignation in May 1967 , Matthews couldn 't guide the club to success – instead , Port Vale were fined £ 4 @,@ 000 in February / March 1968 and expelled from the Football League for financial irregularities . He was forced to use his name to plead with the other Football League clubs to re @-@ elect the Vale , which they duly did . He stood down as manager in May 1968 , and despite being owed £ 9 @,@ 000 in salary and expenses , agreed to stay at Vale Park to continue his work with the youth team . A " final settlement " was reached in December 1970 , Matthews was given £ 3 @,@ 300 , with the other £ 7 @,@ 000 he was owed to be written off . Player Roy Sproson later said that " he [ Matthews ] trusted people who should never have been trusted and people took advantage of him . I am convinced a lot of people sponged off him and , all the while , the club were sliding . " The experience " left a sour taste " in his mouth , and was enough to convince him never to try his hand as management in English football again .

Matthews gave up his summers every year between 1953 and 1978 to coach poor children in South Africa , Nigeria , Ghana , Uganda and Tanzania . In South Africa in 1975 , he ignored apartheid to form a team of black schoolboys in Soweto called " Stan 's Men " . The members of his team told him that it was their dream to play in Brazil , so Matthews organised a trip there ; they were the first black team ever to tour outside of South Africa . He did not have the money to fund the trip himself , though used his connections ( for the only time other than when he used them to save Port Vale in 1968 ) to arrange sponsorship from Coca @-@ Cola and the Johannesburg Sunday Times newspaper . The South African authorities did not want to cause an international incident , so did not prevent Stan 's Men from getting on the plane to Rio de Janeiro , where they would meet legendary player Zico . It was on this trip that Matthews met Ronnie Biggs . On the way back from the trip , the Stan 's Men captain Gilbert Moiloa called Matthews " black man with the white face " .

He played his final game of football for an England Veterans XI against a Brazil Veterans XI in Brazil in 1985 at the age of 70 ; the English lost 6 – 1 to the likes of Amarildo , Tostão , and Jairzinho . He damaged his cartilage during the match : " a promising career cut tragically short " , he wrote in his autobiography .

= = Retirement and death = =

Having toured the world coaching in Australia , the United States , Canada and especially in Africa , Matthews returned to Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent with wife Mila in 1989 . He later served as president of Stoke City and honorary vice @-@ president of Blackpool .

Matthews died on 23 February 2000 , aged 85 , after falling ill while on holiday in Tenerife . Mila had died the previous year . It was a recurrence of an illness that he first suffered in 1997 . His death was announced on the radio just before the start of an England v Argentina friendly match . He was cremated following a funeral service in Stoke on 3 March 2000 . His funeral was attended by many of his fellow footballers , such as Bobby Charlton and Jack Charlton , Gordon Banks , Nat Lofthouse and Tom Finney . His ashes were buried beneath the centre circle of Stoke City 's Britannia Stadium , which he had officially opened in August 1997 . After his death , more than 100 @,@ 000 people lined the streets of Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent to pay tribute . As the cortège wound its way along the 12 @-@ mile route , employees downed tools and schoolchildren stood motionless to witness his final passing .

After his death , dozens of footballing legends paid tribute to him , and the epilogue to his autobiography contains several pages of quotations . Pelé said he was " the man who taught us the way football should be played " , and Brian Clough added that " he was a true gentleman and we shall never see his like again " . English goalkeeping legend Gordon Banks said that " I don 't think anyone since had a name so synonymous with football in England " , whilst World Cup winning German defender Berti Vogts commented that " It is not just in England where his name is famous . All over the world he is regarded as a true football genius " .

= = = Legacy = = =

Stanley Matthews was inducted into the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 1995 . Matthews was made an inaugural inductee of the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 in recognition of his talents . The International Federation of Football History & Statistics voted him the 11th greatest footballer of the 20th century . He was inducted into the Blackpool F.C. Hall of Fame at Bloomfield Road when it was officially opened by Jimmy Armfield in April 2006 . Organised by the Blackpool Supporters Association , Blackpool fans around the world voted on their all @-@ time heroes . Five players from each decade are inducted ; Matthews is in the 1950s . The West Stand at Blackpool 's Bloomfield Road is named in his honour . He was also inducted into the Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent Hall of Fame when it was opened in January 2011 . There is a statue of Matthews outside Stoke City 's Britannia Stadium and another in the centre of Hanley . The dedication on the former reads : " His name is symbolic of the beauty of the game , his fame timeless and international , his sportsmanship and modesty universally acclaimed . A magical player , of the people , for the people . "

The Stanley Matthews Collection is held by the National Football Museum . In February 2010 , the boots worn by Matthews in the 1953 FA Cup Final were auctioned at Bonhams in Chester for £ 38 @,@ 400 , to an undisclosed buyer . Sierra Leonean football club Mighty Blackpool F.C. , based in the capital city of Freetown , changed their name from Socro United in 1954 because of their admiration for Matthews . Ormiston Sir Stanley Matthews Academy is a secondary school in Blurton , Staffordshire named after him .

= = Personal life = =

In the summer of 1934 , Matthews married Betty Vallance , daughter of Stoke City trainer Jimmy Vallance , whom he first met on his 15th birthday in 1930 on his first day as office boy at the Victoria Ground . The couple had two children together : Jean ( born 1 January 1939 ) and Stanley Jr . ( born 20 November 1945 ) , who went on to become a tennis player under the tutelage of John Barrett . He became Wimbledon Boys ' Champion in 1962 , making him the last English player to do so . He never translated his success into the senior game , though , and instead moved to the United States to run the Four Seasons Racquet Club in Wilton , Connecticut . Jean married Robert Gough , whom she had met at their tennis club , in January 1963 ; she later said of her father that " He was a very good father and family man . He kept my brother and me out of the limelight , he was very protective . " In 1965 , Matthews became a grandfather after Jean gave birth to a son , Matthew Gough . She would have two other children — daughters Samantha and Amanda . Gough made Matthews a great @-@ grandfather in 1999 when he and his wife had a son , Cameron . Matthews had six other great @-@ grandchildren .

In 1967 , while on a tour of Czechoslovakia with Port Vale , Matthews met 40 @-@ year @-@ old Mila , who was the group 's interpreter for the trip . Matthews was still married to Betty , but as he was convinced he had found the true love of his life in Mila , he and Betty divorced . He and Mila spent the ensuing years living at various times in Malta ( specifically Marsaxlokk ) , South Africa and Canada . They also travelled extensively as Matthews 's coaching jobs and guest appearances dictated . After Mila died in 1999 at the age of 71 , according to Les Scott ( who helped Matthews write his autobiography ) , Matthews " was never the same person " .

" Self @-@ willed , strong @-@ minded , humorous , generous of spirit and , for all his fame as down to earth as the folk who once adorned the terraces in the hope of seeing him sparkle gold dust on to their harsh working lives . "

= = Statistics = =

a . ^ These three matches were played before competitive football was suspended due to the outbreak of the Second World War and are not included in the total .

b . ^ Domestic and international statistics listed in Matthew 's autobiography :

= = Honours = =

= = = Club = = =

Blackpool

FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1953

FA Cup runner @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1948 , 1951

Football League First Division runner @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1955 – 56

Stoke City

Football League Second Division ( 2 ) : 1932 – 33 , 1962 – 63

= = = Country = = =

England

British Home Championship ( 9 ) : 1935 , 1938 , 1939 , 1947 , 1948 , 1950 , 1952 , 1954 , 1955

a . ^ The Championship was shared with Scotland in 1935 , with Wales and Scotland in 1939 , and with Wales in 1952 .

= = = Individual = = =

FWA Footballer of the Year : 1948 , 1963

Ballon d 'Or : 1956

CBE : 1957

Knight Bachelor : 1965

Football League 100 Legends : 1966

English Football Hall of Fame : 2002

PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 @-@ 1976 ) : 2007

= = Autobiography = =

Matthews ' autobiography , The Way It Was , was released by Headline in 2000 . The book is dedicated to his wife Mila , who died the year before its publication . Matthews , then 84 , collaborated with Les Scott , his friend of 10 years , in the writing of the book over an 18 @-@ month period on an almost daily basis . " Stan , as he had been all his life , was an early riser , " wrote Scott in the epilogue . " Our collaborations were over by eleven in the morning and , without fail , took place in his den . He loved working on his book and , after I had left him , he would give the morning 's session more applied thought — more often than not ringing me at home to provide additional thoughts or anecdotes . "

= Choiseul pigeon =

The Choiseul pigeon ( Microgoura meeki ) is an extinct species of bird in the pigeon and dove family , Columbidae . It was endemic to the island of Choiseul in the Solomon Islands , although there are unsubstantiated reports that it may once have lived on several nearby islands . The last confirmed sighting was in 1904 . Other common names were Solomons crested pigeon , Solomon Islands crowned @-@ pigeon and Kuvojo .

The Choiseul pigeon was monotypic within the genus Microgoura and had no known subspecies . Its closest living relative is believed to be the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon , and some authors have suggested that the Choiseul pigeon may be a link between that species and the crowned pigeons . The adult pigeon was largely blue @-@ grey , with a buffy orange belly and a distinctive slaty @-@ blue crest . It is unknown how this crest was held by the bird in life . The bird 's head sported a blue frontal shield surrounded by black feathers and a bicoloured beak . The wings were brown and the short tail was a blackish purple . It was described as having a beautiful rising and falling whistling call .

As the bird became extinct before significant field observations could be made , not much is known about its behaviour . It is believed to have been a terrestrial species that laid a single egg in an unlined depression in the ground . It roosted in pairs or small groups of three or four in small shrubs and was reportedly very tame , allowing hunters to pick it up off its roost . The Choiseul pigeon lived in lowland forests , particularly in coastal swampy areas that lacked mangroves . It was only recorded by Albert Stewart Meek , who collected six adults and an egg from the northern part of the island in 1904 . Despite many subsequent searches , the bird has not been definitively reported since . It is believed to have been rare when Meek collected his specimens . The indigenous peoples reported that the species was driven to extinction due to the introduction of cats , as the pigeon had never previously confronted a carnivorous mammal on Choiseul . The last unconfirmed report of a Choiseul pigeon was in the early 1940s , and the species is considered extinct .

= = Taxonomy = =

The Choiseul pigeon was described by Walter Rothschild in 1904 on the basis of six skins — three male and three female — and an egg collected by Albert Stewart Meek earlier that year . It was placed in the monotypic genus Microgoura , whose name comes from the Ancient Greek word mikros " small " , and goura , a New Guinean aboriginal name for the similarly @-@ crested crowned pigeons of the genus Goura . Rothschild named the species after Meek , giving the bird the specific name meeki . Though its relationships are unclear , the Choiseul pigeon is believed to have been closest to the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon ( Trugon terrestris ) from Indonesia and Papua New Guinea , which has similar plumage . It has been suggested that the Choiseul pigeon was a link between the thick @-@ billed ground pigeon and the crowned pigeons ; however , other sources argue that it may not have been closely related to the crowned pigeons as its crest was quite different . Based on behavioural and morphological evidence , Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the Choiseul pigeon should be placed in the Gourinae subfamily along with the Groura pigeons , the dodo , the Rodrigues solitaire , and others . The Choiseul pigeon has no known subspecies .

Today , five skins and a partial skeleton are kept in the American Museum of Natural History , while a single skin and the egg are kept at the Natural History Museum at Tring . The Choiseul pigeon is also known as the Solomon crowned pigeon , Solomon Islands pigeon , Solomons crested pigeon , Solomon Islands crested pigeon , Choiseul crested pigeon , crested Choiseul pigeon , Meek 's pigeon , Meek 's ground pigeon , and dwarf goura . The indigenous peoples of Choiseul called the species either " kumku @-@ peka " or " kukuru @-@ ni @-@ lua , " which translates literally as " pigeon @-@ belong @-@ ground . "

= = Description = =

The Choiseul pigeon was about 31 cm ( 12 in ) long . The wing of the male was 195 – 197 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 8 in ) , the tail 100 – 105 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 1 in ) , the culmen 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) , and the tarsus was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . The wing of the female was 180 – 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , the culmen 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) , and the tarsus was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . Adult Choiseul pigeons of both sexes were blue @-@ grey overall with a buffy orange belly . The pigeon had a distinctive long , rounded crest that had a hairy texture . This crest , like the crown , was slaty @-@ blue and emerged from the bird 's hindcrown . Though many artists have speculated , it is unknown how the pigeon held its crest in life as Meek 's notes did not cover this subject . John Gerrard Keulemans ( who produced the illustration accompanying Rothschild 's original description ) , depicted the crest as being flat based on Meek 's specimens ; other artists have presented it as spread and scraggly like that of the crowned pigeons . It has been suggested that the crests of the museum specimens were flattened during preparation .

On the bird 's forehead was a naked and pale chalky @-@ blue frontal shield . This was surrounded by short , velvety black feathers that extended from the base of the bill to the area just below and in front of the eye , while the area below the eye was a pinkish wash . The bird 's chin and throat were sparsely covered with black , velvety feathers , while the neck was a slaty @-@ blue that transitioned into a brownish @-@ grey breast . The abdomen and undertail @-@ coverts were a rich orange , while the undertail was a blackish @-@ grey . The wing was slaty with a hint of brown at its base and became a warm , dark brown by the wingtips ; the underwing was brown . The back was grey and transitioned into a browner rump , while the uppertail @-@ coverts were a dark sooty @-@ grey with blackish tips . The tail , which was short and rounded , was a very dark indigo that had a slightly purple iridescent sheen . The bill was bicoloured ; the upper mandible was chalky @-@ blue with a black tip while the lower mandible was red . The plumage of the juvenile is unknown . The bird 's feet were a dull purplish @-@ red and unfeathered up to the heel , while the iris was a dark brown .

The bird 's voice was never recorded ; however , after it became extinct , the indigenous peoples described it as possessing a " beautiful rising and falling whistling call given from the roost site every evening . " Others described the call as a low " c @-@ r @-@ r @-@ ooo , " " cr @-@ ooo , " or " cr @-@ o @-@ o @-@ o . "

= = Behaviour and ecology = =

Not much is known about the species ' behaviour , as it became extinct before significant field observations could be made . It is likely that the Choiseul pigeon was a largely terrestrial species , feeding and nesting near the forest floor . The indigenous people of the town of Vundutura said that the pigeon would roost in pairs or small groups of three or four in small shrubs close to the ground . They claimed that the species was very tame , allowing local hunters to approach it and pick it up off of its perch by hand . They reported that the species had stones in its gizzard . It laid a single dark , cream @-@ coloured egg in an unlined depression on the ground . The egg was about 43 by 31 @.@ 3 mm ( 1 @.@ 69 by 1 @.@ 23 in ) in size , which is considered small in proportion to the bird .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The Choiseul pigeon was non @-@ migratory and is thought to have lived on the forest floor in lowland forests , including coastal swampy areas that lacked mangroves . The Choiseul pigeon is usually considered to have been endemic to the island of Choiseul in the Solomon Islands off the coast of New Guinea , where the only specimens were collected . The specimens Meek acquired were likely collected near Choiseul Bay in the northern part of the island . The last reports of the species from the indigenous population came from the Kolombangara River . It also reportedly lived on the neighboring islands of Santa Isabel and Malaita , and it is suspected that it may once have lived on Bougainville Island . However , these reports were never confirmed and must be considered anecdotal . It would be considered very unusual if the Choiseul pigeon were truly endemic to Choiseul as the island hosts no other endemic species , and the pigeon was never linked ecologically with another species on the island .

= = = Last sightings = = =

In January 1904 six specimens and an egg were collected by Albert Stewart Meek , a bird collector for Lord Walter Rothschild , near Choiseul Bay on Choiseul . Several local boys told Meek that the pigeon was also present on the nearby islands of Santa Isabel and Malaita . Though Meek did not travel to these islands , he did search for the Choiseul pigeon on the adjacent Bougainville Island , but did not find any evidence of its presence . No other specimens were ever collected or seen by Western scientists .

The Choiseul pigeon was not searched for again until briefly in 1927 and again in October 1929 , when five veteran collectors belonging to the Whitney South Seas Expedition dedicated three months to searching for the pigeon in multiple locations across Choiseul without success . The indigenous people interviewed by this expedition largely believed that the pigeon was extinct in 1929 . The last reported indigenous sighting was sometime in the early 1940s near Sasamungga by the Kolombangara River , although this sighting was never confirmed . Searches of the small , cat @-@ free islands of Rob Roy Island and Wagina off Choiseul 's southeast coast and Choiseul 's forested coastal swampland in the 1960s by British ornithologist Shane A. Parker did not discover any signs of the pigeon . American scientist Jared Diamond searched for the bird in 1974 without success .

= = Relationship with humans = =

This pigeon was a source of food for the local people , who would locate its roosting sites either due to the bird calling or by the droppings that had accumulated below its perches . It was well @-@ remembered by the indigenous peoples , and stories of the delicious ground @-@ dwelling pigeon were passed down by local elders after its extinction . One indigenous person implied that the gizzard stones of the pigeon may have had value locally . After the bird 's extinction , the indigenous people have occasionally confused the Choiseul pigeon with the arboreal crested cuckoo @-@ dove in modern folklore , and several claims of the pigeon 's continued existence turned out to be based on the cuckoo @-@ dove . After its discovery , several Western bird collections highly desired its skins ; the Whitney South Seas Expedition spent three months at high expense on Choiseul with the primary objective being the acquisition of the Choiseul pigeon . In 2012 the Choiseul pigeon was commemorated on a stamp from Mozambique along with several other extinct birds . The Choiseul pigeon is depicted on the flag of the Choiseul Province .

= = = Extinction = = =

The indigenous population believed that the pigeon became extinct due to predation by feral cats and , to a lesser extent , feral dogs . As Choiseul has no indigenous carnivorous mammals , the ground @-@ dwelling pigeon was particularly susceptible to the introduced cats . If the pigeon existed on islands that feral cats had never reached , it is believed that the clearance of its forest habitat would have led to its local extinction . As there have been no substantiated reports since 1904 despite multiple searches , the IUCN has declared it extinct . As several ornithologists had visited Choiseul and the nearby islands prior to Meek without noting any sign of the bird 's existence , it is likely that the Choiseul pigeon was already close to extinction in 1904 .

= Charles Boycott =

Charles Cunningham Boycott ( 12 March 1832 – 19 June 1897 ) was an English land agent whose ostracism by his local community in Ireland gave the English language the verb " to boycott " . He had served in the British Army 39th Foot , which brought him to Ireland . After retiring from the army , Boycott worked as a land agent for Lord Erne ( John Crichton , 3rd Earl Erne ) , a landowner in the Lough Mask area of County Mayo .

In 1880 , as part of its campaign for the Three Fs ( fair rent , fixity of tenure , and free sale ) and specifically in resistance to proposed evictions on the estate , local activists of the Irish Land League encouraged Boycott 's employees ( including the seasonal workers required to harvest the crops on Lord Erne 's estate ) to withdraw their labour , and began a campaign of isolation against Boycott in the local community . This campaign included shops in nearby Ballinrobe refusing to serve him , and the withdrawal of services . Some were threatened with violence to ensure compliance .

The campaign against Boycott became a cause célèbre in the British press after he wrote a letter to The Times . Newspapers sent correspondents to the West of Ireland to highlight what they viewed as the victimisation of a servant of a peer of the realm by Irish nationalists . Fifty Orangemen from County Cavan and County Monaghan travelled to Lord Erne 's estate to harvest the crops , while a regiment of the 19th Royal Hussars and more than 1 @,@ 000 men of the Royal Irish Constabulary were deployed to protect the harvesters . The episode was estimated to have cost the British government and others at least £ 10 @,@ 000 to harvest about £ 500 worth of crops .

Boycott left Ireland on 1 December 1880 , and in 1886 , became land agent for Hugh Adair 's Flixton estate in Suffolk . He died at the age of 65 on 19 June 1897 in his home in Flixton , after an illness earlier that year .

= = Early life and family = =

Charles Cunningham Boycott was born in 1832 to Reverend William Boycatt and his wife Georgiana . He grew up in the village of Burgh St Peter in Norfolk , England ; the Boycatt family had lived in Norfolk for almost 150 years . They were of Huguenot origin , and had fled from France in 1685 when Louis XIV revoked civil and religious liberties to French Protestants . Charles Boycott was named Boycatt in his baptismal records . The family changed the spelling of its name from Boycatt to Boycott in 1841 .

Boycott was educated at a boarding school in Blackheath , London . He was interested in the military — and in 1848 , entered the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , in hopes of serving in the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners . He was discharged from the academy in 1849 after failing a periodic exam , and the following year his family bought him a commission in the 39th Foot regiment for £ 450 .

Boycott 's regiment transferred to Belfast shortly after his arrival . Six months later , it was sent to Newry before marching to Dublin , where it remained for a year . In 1852 , Boycott married Anne Dunne in St Paul 's Church , Arran Quay , Dublin . He was ill between August 1851 and February 1852 and sold his commission the following year , but decided to remain in Ireland . He leased a farm in County Tipperary , where he acted as a landlord on a small scale .

= = Life on Achill Island = =

After receiving an inheritance , Boycott was persuaded by his friend , Murray McGregor Blacker , a local magistrate , to move to Achill Island , a large island off the coast of County Mayo . McGregor Blacker agreed to sublet 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) of land belonging to the Irish Church Mission Society on Achill to Boycott , who moved there in 1854 . According to Joyce Marlow in the book , Captain Boycott and the Irish , Boycott 's life on the island was difficult initially , and in Boycott 's own words it was only after " a long struggle against adverse circumstances " that he became prosperous . With money from another inheritance and profits from farming , he built a large house near Dooagh .

Boycott was involved in a number of disputes while on Achill . Two years after his arrival , he was unsuccessfully sued for assault by Thomas Clarke , a local man . Clarke said that he had gone to Boycott 's house because Boycott owed him money . He said that he had asked for repayment of the debt , and that Boycott had refused to pay him and told him to go away , which Clarke refused to do . Clarke alleged that Boycott approached him and said : " If you do not be off , I will make you . " Clarke later withdrew his allegations , and said that Boycott did not actually owe him any money .

Both Boycott and McGregor Blacker were involved in a protracted dispute with Mr Carr , the agent for the Achill Church Mission Estate , from whom McGregor Blacker leased the lands , and Mr O 'Donnell , Carr 's bailiff . The dispute began when Boycott and Carr supported different sets of candidates in elections for the Board of Guardians to the Church Mission Estate , and Boycott 's candidates won . Carr was also the local receiver of wrecks , which meant that he was entitled to collect the salvage from all shipwrecks in the area , and guard it until it was sold in a public auction . The local receiver had a right to a percentage of the sale and to keep whatever did not sell . In 1860 Carr wrote a letter to the Official Receiver of Wrecks stating that Boycott and his men had illegally broken up a wreck and moved the salvage to Boycott 's property . In response to this accusation , Boycott sued Carr for libel and claimed £ 500 in damages .

= = Life in Lough Mask before controversy = =

In 1873 , Boycott moved to Lough Mask House , owned by Lord Erne , four miles ( 6 km ) from Ballinrobe in County Mayo . Lord Erne , the third Earl of Erne , was a wealthy landowner who lived in Crom Castle in County Fermanagh . He owned 40 @,@ 386 acres ( 163 @.@ 44 km2 ) of land in Ireland , of which 31 @,@ 389 were in County Fermanagh , 4 @,@ 826 in County Donegal , 1 @,@ 996 in County Sligo , and 2 @,@ 184 in County Mayo . Lord Erne also owned properties in Dublin .

Boycott agreed to be Lord Erne 's agent for 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) he owned in County Mayo . One of Boycott 's responsibilities was to collect rents from tenant farmers on the land , for which he earned ten per cent of the total rent due to Lord Erne , which was £ 500 each year . In his roles as farmer and agent , Boycott employed numerous local people as labourers , grooms , coachmen , and house @-@ servants . Joyce Marlow wrote that Boycott had become set in his mode of thought , and that his twenty years on Achill had " ... strengthened his innate belief in the divine right of the masters , and the tendency to behave as he saw fit , without regard to other people 's point of view or feelings . "

During his time in Lough Mask before the controversy began , Boycott had become unpopular with the tenants . He had become a magistrate and was an Englishman , which may have contributed to his unpopularity , but according to Marlow it was due more to his personal temperament . While Boycott himself maintained that he was on good terms with his tenants , they said that he had laid down many petty restrictions , such as not allowing gates to be left open and not allowing hens to trespass on his property , and that he fined anyone who transgressed these restrictions . He had also withdrawn privileges from the tenants , such as collecting wood from the estate . In August 1880 , his labourers went on strike in a dispute over a wage increase .

= = Lough Mask affair = =

= = = Historical background = = =

In the nineteenth century , agriculture was the biggest industry in Ireland . In 1876 , the government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland commissioned a survey to find who owned the land in Ireland . The survey found that almost all land was the property of just 10 @,@ 000 people , or 0 @.@ 2 % of the population . The majority were small landlords , but the 750 richest landlords owned half of the country between them . Many of the richest were absentee landlords who lived in Britain or elsewhere in Ireland , and paid agents like Charles Boycott to manage their estates .

Landlords generally divided their estates into smaller farms that they rented to tenant farmers . Tenant farmers were generally on one @-@ year leases , and could be evicted even if they paid their rents . Some of the tenants were large farmers who farmed over 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) , but the majority were much smaller — on average between 15 and 50 acres ( 0 @.@ 06 – 0 @.@ 20 km2 ) . Many small farmers worked as labourers on the larger farms . The poorest agricultural workers were the landless labourers , who worked on the land of other farmers . Farmers were an important group politically , having more votes than any other sector of society .

In the 1850s , some tenant farmers formed associations to demand the three Fs : fair rent , fixity of tenure , and free sale . In the 1870s , the Fenians tried to organise the tenant farmers in County Mayo to resist eviction . They mounted a demonstration against a local landlord in Irishtown and succeeded in getting him to lower his rents .

Michael Davitt was the son of a small tenant farmer in County Mayo who became a journalist and joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood . He was arrested and given a 15 @-@ year sentence for gun @-@ running . Charles Stewart Parnell , then Member of Parliament for Meath and member of the Home Rule League , arranged to have Davitt released on probation . When Davitt returned to County Mayo , he was impressed by the Fenians ' attempts to organise farmers . He thought that the " land question " was the best way to get the support of the farmers for Irish independence .

In October 1879 , after forming the Land League of Mayo , Davitt formed the Irish National Land League . The Land League 's aims were to reduce rents and to stop evictions , and in the long term , to make tenant farmers owners of the land they farmed . Davitt asked Parnell to become the leader of the league . In 1880 , Parnell was also elected leader of the Home Rule Party .

= = = Parnell 's speech in Ennis = = =

On 19 September 1880 , Parnell gave a speech in Ennis , County Clare to a crowd of Land League members . He asked the crowd , " What do you do with a tenant who bids for a farm from which his neighbour has been evicted ? " The crowd responded , " kill him , " " shoot him . " Parnell replied :

I wish to point out to you a very much better way – a more Christian and charitable way , which will give the lost man an opportunity of repenting . When a man takes a farm from which another has been evicted , you must shun him on the roadside when you meet him – you must shun him in the streets of the town – you must shun him in the shop – you must shun him on the fair green and in the market place , and even in the place of worship , by leaving him alone , by putting him in moral Coventry , by isolating him from the rest of the country , as if he were the leper of old – you must show him your detestation of the crime he committed .

This speech set out the Land League 's powerful weapon of social ostracism , which was first used against Charles Boycott .

= = = Community action = = =

The Land League was very active in the Lough Mask area , and one of the local leaders , Father John O 'Malley , had been involved in the labourer 's strike in August 1880 . The following month Lord Erne 's tenants were due to pay their rents . He had agreed to a 10 per cent reduction owing to a poor harvest , but all except two of his tenants demanded a 25 per cent reduction . Boycott said that he had written to Lord Erne , and that Erne had refused to accede to the tenants ' demands . He then issued demands for the outstanding rents , and obtained eviction notices against eleven tenants .

Three days after Parnell 's speech in Ennis , a process server and seventeen members of the Royal Irish Constabulary began the attempt to serve Boycott 's eviction notices . Legally , they had to be delivered to the head of the household or his spouse within a certain time period . The process server successfully delivered notices to three of the tenants , but a fourth , Mrs Fitzmorris , refused to accept the notice and began waving a red flag to alert other tenants that the notices were being served . The women of the area descended on the process server and the constabulary , and began throwing stones , mud , and manure at them , succeeding in driving them away to seek refuge in Lough Mask House .

The process server tried unsuccessfully to serve the notices the following day . News soon spread to the nearby Ballinrobe , from where many people descended on Lough Mask House , where , according to journalist James Redpath , they advised Boycott 's servants and labourers to leave his employment immediately . Boycott said that many of his servants were forced to leave " ... under threat of ulterior consequences . " Martin Branigan , a labourer who subsequently sued Boycott for non @-@ payment of wages , claimed he left because he was afraid of the people who came into the field where he was working . Eventually , all Boycott 's employees left , forcing him to run the estate without help .

Within days , the blacksmith , postman , and laundress were persuaded or volunteered to stop serving Boycott . Boycott 's young nephew volunteered to act as postman , but he was intercepted en route between Ballinrobe and Lough Mask , and told that he would be in danger if he continued . Soon , shopkeepers in Ballinrobe stopped serving Boycott , and he had to bring food and other provisions by boat from Cong .

= = = Newspaper coverage = = =

Before October 1880 , Boycott 's situation was little known outside County Mayo . On 14 October of that year , Boycott wrote a letter to The Times about his situation :

THE STATE OF IRELAND

Sir , The following detail may be interesting to your readers as exemplifying the power of the Land League . On the 22nd September a process @-@ server , escorted by a police force of seventeen men , retreated to my house for protection , followed by a howling mob of people , who yelled and hooted at the members of my family . On the ensuing day , September 23rd , the people collected in crowds upon my farm , and some hundred or so came up to my house and ordered off , under threats of ulterior consequences , all my farm labourers , workmen , and stablemen , commanding them never to work for me again . My herd has been frightened by them into giving up his employment , though he has refused to give up the house he held from me as part of his emolument . Another herd on an off farm has also been compelled to resign his situation . My blacksmith has received a letter threatening him with murder if he does any more work for me , and my laundress has also been ordered to give up my washing . A little boy , twelve years of age , who carried my post @-@ bag to and from the neighbouring town of Ballinrobe , was struck and threatened on 27th September , and ordered to desist from his work ; since which time I have sent my little nephew for my letters and even he , on 2nd October , was stopped on the road and threatened if he continued to act as my messenger . The shopkeepers have been warned to stop all supplies to my house , and I have just received a message from the post mistress to say that the telegraph messenger was stopped and threatened on the road when bringing out a message to me and that she does not think it safe to send any telegrams which may come for me in the future for fear they should be abstracted and the messenger injured . My farm is public property ; the people wander over it with impunity . My crops are trampled upon , carried away in quantities , and destroyed wholesale . The locks on my gates are smashed , the gates thrown open , the walls thrown down , and the stock driven out on the roads . I can get no workmen to do anything , and my ruin is openly avowed as the object of the Land League unless I throw up everything and leave the country . I say nothing about the danger to my own life , which is apparent to anybody who knows the country .

CHARLES C. BOYCOTT

Lough Mask House , County Mayo , 14 October

After the publication of this letter , Bernard Becker , special correspondent of the Daily News , traveled to Ireland to cover Boycott 's situation . On 24 October , he wrote a dispatch from Westport that contained an interview with Boycott . He reported that Boycott had £ 500 worth of crops that would rot if help could not be found to harvest them . According to Becker , " Personally he is protected , but no woman in Ballinrobe would dream of washing him a cravat or making him a loaf . All the people have to say is that they are sorry , but that they ' dare not . ' " Boycott had been advised to leave , but he told Becker that " I can hardly desert Lord Erne , and , moreover , my own property is sunk in this place . " Becker 's report was reprinted in the Belfast News @-@ Letter and the Dublin Daily Express . On 29 October , the Dublin Daily Express published a letter proposing a fund to finance a party of men to go to County Mayo to save Boycott 's crops . Between them , the Daily Express , Daily Telegraph , Daily News , and News Letter raised £ 2 @,@ 000 to fund the relief expedition .

= = = Saving the crops = = =

In Belfast in early November 1880 , The Boycott Relief Fund was established to arrange an armed expedition to Lough Mask . Plans soon gained momentum , and within days , the fund had received many subscriptions . The committee had arranged with the Midland Great Western Railway for special trains to transport the expedition from Ulster to County Mayo . Many nationalists viewed the expedition as an invasion . The Freeman 's Journal denounced the organisers of the expedition , and asked , " How is it that this Government do not consider it necessary to prosecute the promoters of these warlike expeditions ? "

William Edward Forster , Chief Secretary for Ireland made it clear in a communication with the proprietor of the Dublin Daily Express that he would not allow an armed expedition of hundreds of men , as the committee was planning , and that 50 unarmed men would be sufficient to harvest the crops . He said that the government would consider it their duty to protect this group . On 10 November 1880 , the relief expedition consisting of one contingent from County Cavan and one from County Monaghan left for County Mayo . Additional troops had already arrived in County Mayo to protect the expedition . Boycott himself said that he did not want such a large number of Ulstermen , as he had saved the grain harvest himself , and that only ten or fifteen labourers were needed to save the root crops . He feared that a large number of Ulstermen would lead to sectarian violence . While local Land League leaders said that there would be no trouble from them if the aim was simply to harvest the crops , more extreme sections of the local population did threaten violence against the expedition and the troops .

The expedition experienced hostile protests on their route through County Mayo , but there was no violence , and they harvested the crops without incident . Rumours spread amongst the Ulstermen that an attack was being planned on the farm , but none materialised .

= = = Aftermath = = =

On 27 November 1880 , Boycott , his family and a local magistrate were escorted from Lough Mask House by members of the 19th Hussars . A carriage had been hired for the family , but no driver could be found for it , and an army ambulance and driver had to be used . The ambulance was escorted to Claremorris railway station , where Boycott and his family boarded a train to Dublin , where Boycott was received with some hostility . The hotel he stayed in received letters saying that it would be boycotted if Boycott remained . He had intended to stay in Dublin for a week , but Boycott was advised to cut his stay short . He left Dublin for England on the Holyhead mail boat on 1 December .

The cost to the government of harvesting Boycott 's crops was estimated at £ 10 @,@ 000 : in Parnell 's words , " ... one shilling for every turnip dug from Boycott 's land . " In a letter requesting compensation to William Ewart Gladstone , then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Boycott said that he had lost £ 6 @,@ 000 of his investment in the estate .

Boycotting had strengthened the power of the peasants , and by the end of 1880 there were reports of boycotting from all over Ireland . The events at Lough Mask had also increased the power of the Land League , and the popularity of Parnell as a leader .

On 28 December 1880 , Parnell and other Land League leaders were put on trial on charges of conspiracy to prevent the payment of rent . The trial attracted thousands of people onto the streets outside the court . A Daily Express reporter wrote that the court reminded him " ... more of the stalls of the theatre on opera night . " On 24 January 1881 , the judge dismissed the jury , it having been hung ten to two in favour of acquittal . Parnell and Davitt received this news as a victory .

After the boycotting , Gladstone discussed the issue of land reform , writing in an 1880 letter , " The subject of the land weighs greatly on my mind and I am working on it to the best of my ability . " In December 1880 , the Bessborough Commission , headed by Frederick Ponsonby , 6th Earl of Bessborough , recommended major land reforms , including the three Fs .

William Edward Forster argued that a Coercion Act — which would punish those participated in events like those at Lough Mask , and would include the suspension of Habeas Corpus — should be introduced before any Land Act . Gladstone eventually accepted this argument . When Forster attempted to introduce the Protection of Person and Property Act 1881 , Parnell and other Land League MP 's attempted to obstruct its passage with tactics such as filibustering . One such filibuster lasted for 41 hours . Eventually , the Speaker of the house intervened , and a measure was introduced whereby the Speaker could control the house if there was a three to one majority in favour of the business being urgent . This was the first time that a check was placed on a debate in a British parliament . The act was passed on 28 February 1881 . There was a negative reaction to the passing of the act in both England and Ireland . In England , the Anti @-@ Coercion Association was established , which was a precursor to the Labour Party .

In April 1881 , Gladstone introduced the Land Law ( Ireland ) Act 1881 , in which the principle of the dual ownership of the land between landlords and tenants was established , and the three Fs introduced . The act set up the Irish Land Commission , a judicial body that would fix rents for a period of 15 years and guarantee fixity of tenure . According to The Annual Register , the act was " ... probably the most important measure introduced into the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bill . "

= = = The word " boycott " = = =

According to James Redpath , the verb " to boycott " was coined by Father O 'Malley in a discussion between them on 23 September 1880 . The following is Redpath 's account :

I said , " I 'm bothered about a word . "

" What is it ? " asked Father John .

" Well , " I said , " When the people ostracise a land @-@ grabber we call it social excommunication , but we ought to have an entirely different word to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or land @-@ agent like Boycott . Ostracism won 't do – the peasantry would not know the meaning of the word – and I can 't think of any other . "

" No , " said Father John , " ostracism wouldn 't do "

He looked down , tapped his big forehead , and said : " How would it do to call it to Boycott him ? "

According to Joyce Marlow , the word was first used in print by Redpath in the Inter @-@ Ocean on 12 October 1880 . The coining of the word , and its first use in print , came before Boycott and his situation was widely known outside County Mayo . In November 1880 , an article in the Birmingham Daily Post referred to the word as a local term in connection to the boycotting of a Ballinrobe merchant . Still in 1880 , The Illustrated London News described how " To ' Boycott ' has already become a verb active , signifying to ' ratten ' , to intimidate , to ' send to Coventry ' , and to ' taboo ' " . In 1888 , the word was included in the first volume of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles ( later known as the Oxford English Dictionary ) . According to Gary Minda in his book , Boycott in America : how imagination and ideology shape the legal mind , " Apparently there was no other word in the English language to describe this dispute . " The word also entered the lexicon of languages other than English , such as Dutch , French , German , Polish and Russian .

= = Later life = =

After leaving Ireland , Boycott and his family visited the United States . His arrival in New York generated a great deal of media interest ; the New York Tribune said that , " The arrival of Captain Boycott , who has involuntarily added a new word to the language , is an event of something like international interest . " The New York Times said , " For private reasons the visitor made the voyage incognito , being registered simply as ' Charles Cunningham . ' " The purpose of the visit was to see friends in Virginia , including Murray McGregor Blacker , a friend from his time on Achill Island who had settled in the United States . Boycott returned to England after some months .

In 1886 , Boycott became a land agent for Hugh Adair 's Flixton estate in Suffolk , England . He had a passion for horses and racing , and became secretary of the Bungay race committee . Boycott continued to spend holidays in Ireland , and according to Joyce Marlow , he left Ireland without bitterness .

In early 1897 , Boycott 's health became very poor . In an attempt to improve his health , he and his wife went on a cruise to Malta . In Brindisi , he became seriously ill , and had to return to England . His health continued to deteriorate , and on 19 June 1897 he died at his home in Flixton , aged 65 . His funeral took place in the church at Burgh St Peter , conducted by his nephew Arthur St John Boycott , who was at Lough Mask during the first boycott . Charles Boycott 's widow , Annie , was subsequently sued over the funeral expenses and other debts , and had to sell some assets . A number of London newspapers , including The Times , published obituaries .

= = In popular culture = =

Charles Boycott and the events that led to his name entering the English language have been the subject of several works of fiction . The first was Captain Boycott , a 1946 romantic novel by Phillip Rooney . This was the basis for the 1947 film Captain Boycott — directed by Frank Lauder and starred Stewart Granger , Kathleen Ryan , Alastair Sim , and Cecil Parker as Charles Boycott . More recently the story was the subject of the 2012 novel Boycott , by Colin C. Murphy .

= Neighbours =

Neighbours is an Australian television soap opera . It was first broadcast on the Seven Network on 18 March 1985 . It was created by TV executive Reg Watson , who proposed the idea of making a show that focused on realistic stories and portrayed adults and teenagers who talk openly and solve their problems together . Seven decided to commission the show following the success of Watson 's Sons and Daughters , which aired on the network . Although successful in Melbourne , Neighbours underperformed in the Sydney market and struggled for months before Seven cancelled it . The show was immediately bought by rival network Ten . After taking over production of the show , the new network had to build replica sets because Seven destroyed the originals to prevent its rival from obtaining them . Ten began screening Neighbours on 20 January 1986 , taking off where the previous series left off and commencing with episode 171 . Neighbours has since become the longest running drama series in Australian television and in 2005 , it was inducted collectively into the Logie Hall of Fame . On 11 January 2011 , Neighbours moved to Ten 's digital channel , Eleven .

The show 's storylines concern the domestic and professional lives of the people who live and work in Erinsborough , a fictional suburb of Melbourne , Victoria . The series primarily centres on the residents of Ramsay Street , a short cul @-@ de @-@ sac , and its neighbouring area , the Lassiters complex , which includes a bar , hotel , cafe , police station , lawyers ' office and park . Neighbours began with three families created by Watson – the Ramsays , the Robinsons and the Clarkes . Watson said that he wanted to show three families who are friends living in a small street . The Robinsons and the Ramsays had a long history and were involved in an ongoing rivalry . Pin Oak Court , in Vermont South , is the real cul @-@ de @-@ sac that has doubled for Ramsay Street since 1985 . All of the houses featured are real and the residents allow the production to shoot external scenes in their yards . The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill .

Through its entire run in Australia , Neighbours has been screened as a twenty @-@ two @-@ minute episode each week night in an early @-@ evening slot . In Australia it is currently broadcast each weeknight at 6 : 30 pm on Eleven . The show is produced by FremantleMedia and has been sold to over sixty countries around the world , making it one of Australia 's most successful media exports . Neighbours was first screened in the United Kingdom in October 1986 on BBC1 where it achieved huge popularity among British audiences in the late 1980s and 1990s . In 2008 , it moved to the UK 's Channel 5 .

= = History = =

Neighbours was created in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1980s by Australian TV executive Reg Watson . Watson decided to create a soap opera after working on Crossroads and seeing how successful it and Coronation Street were in Britain . He had already created such successful Australian made soap operas as The Young Doctors , Prisoner and Sons and Daughters . Watson proposed the idea of making a show that would focus on more realistic stories and portray teens and adults who talk openly to each other and solve their problems together . Watson , who worked for the Grundy production company , decided to make his show appeal to both Australia and Britain . In 2005 , Darren Devlyn and Caroline Frost from the Herald Sun reported that Watson then took his idea to the Nine Network in 1982 , but it was rejected . Former Network Nine chief executive Ian Johnson commented that it was one of the " biggest missed opportunities " in his twenty @-@ four years at the network . He added " I remember it being discussed , but I 'm not exactly sure what went against it . It may have had something to do with the fact we 'd picked up Sale of the Century with Tony Barber in 1980 and it was doing huge business , so we didn 't have a pressing need for a five @-@ night @-@ a @-@ week show . " Watson then took his idea to the Seven Network , who commissioned the show , following the success of his other Seven Network soap opera , Sons and Daughters . Several titles for the show were discussed , including People Like Us , One Way Street , No Through Road and Living Together until the network programmers voted on Neighbours . The first episode was broadcast on 18 March 1985 and reviews for the show were favourable . However , the Melbourne @-@ produced programme underperformed in the Sydney market and after a meeting of the general managers , Seven decided to drop the show in October 1985 . Seven 's Melbourne programme boss , Gary Fenton said Sydney chief Ted Thomas told the other general managers that Seven could not afford three dramas and argued that the Sydney @-@ based A Country Practice and Sons and Daughters be retained .

Neighbours was immediately bought by Seven 's rival Network Ten . The new network had to build replica sets when it took over production after Seven destroyed the original sets to prevent the rival network obtaining them . Ten began screening the series with episode 171 on 20 January 1986 . In 1986 , the series was bought by the BBC as part of their new daytime schedule in the United Kingdom . Neighbours made its debut on BBC1 on 27 October 1986 starting with the pilot episode . It soon gained a loyal audience and the show became very popular within the student market and was watched by 16 million viewers . In 1988 Neighbours became the only television show to have its entire cast flown over to the UK to make an appearance at the Royal Variety Performance in front of the Queen . Neighbours has since become the longest running drama series in Australian television and the seventh longest running serial drama still on the air in the world . In 2005 , Neighbours celebrated its 20th anniversary and over twenty former cast members returned for a special episode , which saw them sitting down to watch a documentary about Ramsay Street . At the Logie Award ceremony that year , the show was inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame .

2007 saw the show undergo a revamp , which included a switch to recording in HDTV , the introduction of a new family , the departure of several existing characters and a new version of the show 's familiar theme song and opening titles . In addition , episode titles were abandoned , having been in use for the previous three years . Daniel Bennett , the new head of drama at Network Ten , announced that the crux of the Ramsay Street story would go " back to basics " and follow a less sensational path than of late with the emphasis on family relations and suburban reality . Executive producer Ric Pellizzeri said new writers , actors and sets would bring the soap back to its glory days . He added " We moved too far into event @-@ driven stories rather than the character @-@ driven stories that made Neighbours what it is " . The relaunch failed to attract more viewers in Australia . Pellizzeri left the series at the end of 2007 and former Neighbours scriptwriter , Susan Bower , became the new executive producer . In 2008 , Neighbours was branded " too white " by black and Asian viewers in Britain and in Australia there was talk of a " White Australia policy " when it came to casting actors for soaps . In response to the criticism , Bower made a decision to add more ethnically diverse extras , small walk on roles and speaking parts , as well as introducing the character of Sunny Lee ( played by Hany Lee ) an exchange student from South Korea .

On 18 March 2010 , Neighbours celebrated its 25th anniversary . In April , Channel 5 in the UK launched a search to find a female actress to play the part of Poppy Rogers . The search was similar to the Dolly magazine competition in Australia . August saw Neighbours air its 6000th episode . Digital Spy revealed that the week @-@ long 6000th episode celebrations would see the wedding of regular characters , Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) and Ringo Brown ( Sam Clark ) . It was later announced that an attempt on the life of long term regular , Paul Robinson ( Stefan Dennis ) would be the focus of the actual 6000th episode . Bower said " Last week I saw episode 6 @,@ 000 . This marks Australian television history . The 6,000th episode falls on a Friday so the whole week is a special one . As Stefan Dennis – Paul Robinson – was in the first episode 25 years ago , it was decided that his character play a most important role in this very special event " .

In late 2010 , TV Tonight reported that Neighbours would reduce crew operations in 2011 so production could be upgraded . The changes meant that the location manager and catering team were no longer required , studio shoots would be reduced from three cameras to two , and location shots will be mainly confined to the Ramsay Street and Lassiter 's complex sets , with occasional filming in one @-@ off places . Of the changes , FremantleMedia said " Neighbours is undergoing a work flow upgrade to accommodate advances in technology and production techniques to ensure we are at the forefront of professionalism and efficiency . " They added that the show 's production model had been in place since 1985 and that it was time to evolve it . On 14 March 2011 , The Australian reported that Neighbours has become the first television show available to watch on a free iPhone application . Viewers are able to watch whole episodes within three hours of them airing on Eleven . Nick Spooner , the head of Ten digital media said " This is part of what we call our ' three @-@ screen approach ' – broadcast , online and mobile – and it is intended to build viewer engagement with a show and our brand . This is a way for us to stay in touch with our audience and to keep them coming back . " To celebrate the wedding of Prince William of Wales and Kate Middleton , Neighbours filmed a specially commissioned scene for the UK episode airing on the same day as the wedding . The episode , which had already aired in Australia , marked the first time an Australian show recorded extra scenes for a UK broadcaster .

On 25 October 2011 , it was announced Bower would be leaving Neighbours in December 2011 to move into a new international role with FremantleMedia . Of her departure , Bower told Colin Vickery of the Herald Sun , " I love Neighbours , it is a wonderful show and because of this I felt it was important that fresh eyes and brains take over to keep this Australian icon contemporary . Having said that , I 'm really excited about the new role and thank FremantleMedia for this wonderful opportunity . " Former City Homicide producer , Richard Jasek , took over Bower 's role , while Alan Hardy took over the role of producer . On 4 December 2013 , it was confirmed that Jasek would be leaving Neighbours and Jason Herbison had been promoted to series producer . FremantleMedia 's head of drama Jo Porter became executive producer , while Laurence Wilson is the associate producer . In March 2015 , Neighbours celebrated its 30th anniversary and twelve former cast members returned for the anniversary episodes that revolved around an Erinsborough Festival . Network Ten and Channel 5 aired a documentary special titled Neighbours 30th : The Stars Reunite , which featured interviews with current and former cast members , including Kylie Minogue , Jason Donovan and Guy Pearce , reflecting on their time on the show .

= = Setting = =

Neighbours ' main focus is the fictional Ramsay Street , a residential cul @-@ de @-@ sac in the fictional Melbourne suburb of Erinsborough . The street was named after the grandfather of original character Max Ramsay ( Francis Bell ) . Other locations include Erinsborough High School and the Lassiter 's complex , which contains the Lassiter 's Hotel , Waterhole bar , Harold 's Store cafe , the lawyers office Rebecchi Law , and the police station . Ahead of the 25th anniversary the Erinsborough village set underwent a makeover . The cafe and bar remained the same , but the centre of the complex was upgraded . Lassiter 's Hotel was given a new logo and gained a second floor with outdoor seating area . Erinsborough Hospital and the police station received new facades , a used car lot was created near the garage and a new university set was created .

Pin Oak Court , in Vermont South , is the real cul @-@ de @-@ sac that doubles for Ramsay Street . All of the houses featured in the show are real and the residents allow Neighbours to shoot external scenes in their front and back yards and on occasions , in their garages . Neighbours has been filmed in Pin Oak Court since the series began in 1985 and it has since become popular with tourists . Tours to the cul @-@ de @-@ sac run throughout the year . The interior scenes are filmed at the Global Television studios in Forest Hill , the adjoining suburb in which Pin Oak Court is located .

Through much of the show 's run , it was not stated in which Australian city Erinsborough was located . The rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne meant that scripts did not mention that Erinsborough was a suburb of the latter city , until 1994 . Since the 2000s , it has been explicitly stated that Erinsborough is a suburb of Melbourne . Other Australian locations mentioned and sometimes seen in the series include the fictitious suburbs of West Waratah , Eden Hills , and Anson 's Corner . Real @-@ life Australian towns in the state of Victoria such as Colac , Frankston and Shepparton are sometimes referred to . Oakey in Queensland is also mentioned and sometimes seen . On 27 August 2010 , Neighbours filmed scenes in Sydney 's Darling Harbour and on board a cruise ship . The episodes marked only the third time that the show has filmed scenes outside of Victoria . In October 2011 , Neighbours filmed scenes in Port Douglas , Queensland and around the Great Barrier Reef region . The show filmed scenes in Geelong in 2016 .

Filming locations outside of Australia have included Kenya , the United States and the UK , which has seen Neighbours episodes filmed there on three occasions . In February 1990 , Lyme Park in Cheshire doubled as the Ledgerwood estate set in Yorkshire . Derek Nimmo guest @-@ starred as the fictitious Lord Ledgerwood in two of the episodes . In November 1992 , the characters Rick Alessi ( Dan Falzon ) and Debbie Martin ( Marnie Reece @-@ Wilmore ) visited London to attend a Michael Jackson concert . The second London @-@ based storyline was broadcast in late March 2007 , when Susan ( Jackie Woodburne ) and Karl Kennedy ( Alan Fletcher ) were seen taking a ride on the London Eye and being married on a boat on the River Thames .

= = Broadcasting = =

Through its entire run in Australia , Neighbours has been screened as a 21 @-@ minute episode each weeknight in an early @-@ evening slot . Neighbours is on air for approximately forty @-@ four weeks per year . It is broadcast from early January to early December and goes off air for around four to five weeks during the Christmas and New Year period . The show currently airs at 6 : 30 pm . The last five aired episodes shown are available to watch on the Neighbours official Australian website , as a part of Network Ten 's Catch Up TV service .

When the show began in 1985 , the first season was broadcast on the Seven Network , at 5 : 30 pm in Sydney , at 6 : 00 pm in Melbourne and Adelaide and at 7 : 00 pm in Brisbane . The show 's transmission in other areas was varied and many regional channels declined to purchase the series . When the show debuted on Network Ten in 1986 it screened at 7 : 00 pm . In 1992 the show moved to 6 : 30 pm to avoid direct competition from rival soap opera Home and Away on the Seven Network . Repeat episodes of Neighbours episodes from the 1988 – 1991 period were broadcast between 2000 and June 2003 on Network Ten . These episodes were seen at 3 : 30 pm , before moving to 11 : 30 am . During 2008 Ten HD broadcast the previous week 's episodes in an omnibus edition each Sunday . These omnibus editions did not return in 2009 as Ten HD was replaced by One HD from March 2009 .

In August 2010 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Neighbours would be moving to Ten 's new digital channel , to make way for a new current affairs show . They said " It 's part of a re @-@ branding of Ten 's free @-@ to @-@ air channel , targeting the older demographic . The ' younger ' shows , like Neighbours , will go on to one of Ten 's digital channels " . It was later confirmed that the show would be moving to digital channel , Eleven . Network Ten 's programmer , David Mott said " We believe Neighbours is perfectly suited to Eleven 's audience strategy and will find a successful and enduring home on Eleven " . Neighbours moved to Eleven on 11 January 2011 , the channel 's launch day . An encore of the previous day 's episode is broadcast at 7 : 00 am weekdays on Network Ten . Eleven also broadcast the last five aired episodes shown in an omnibus edition each Sunday . Repeat episodes of Neighbours from the 2007 period , titled Old School Neighbours , were broadcast in 2013 on Eleven . These episodes were seen during weekdays at 9 : 30 am , before moving to 11 : 00 am .

= = = International = = =

Neighbours has been sold to over 60 countries around the world and is one of Australia 's most successful media exports .

Neighbours has proved to be more popular in the United Kingdom than in Australia . It was screened on BBC One from 1986 until 2008 . The series started airing on 27 October 1986 , as part of BBC1 's revamped daytime schedules . Neighbours went out twice a day , with an earlier morning omnibus and then a showing at lunchtime . Michael Grade , the channel 's then controller , was advised by his daughter to move the series to 5 : 35 pm , as she and her friends kept missing it due to being at school , which took place from January 1988 . The show then started attracting larger audiences , peaking in 1990 at over 21 million . Towards the late 2000s , Neighbours was normally attracting an average of 3 million viewers for its lunchtime showing and 2 @.@ 6 million viewers for its early @-@ evening repeat . It was frequently the highest @-@ rating daytime programme in the UK , outside of news bulletins .

In 2008 , the UK broadcast moved to rival channel Channel 5 following the BBC 's decision not to keep the show after being asked to pay £ 300m over eight years by FremantleMedia ( three times the show 's usual fee ) . Both Channel 5 and FremantleMedia were owned at that time by the German RTL Group . The first episode to be shown on Channel 5 in February 2008 was watched by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers ( an audience share of 14 @.@ 2 % ) , a drop of 300 @,@ 000 from the BBC 's average . However , the move boosted Channel 5 's usual share for the 5 @.@ 30 pm slot by three and a half times . On 4 February 2009 , Neighbours ' 5 : 30 pm showing was seen by 1 @.@ 94 million viewers and by 2012 , the teatime showing had averaged 1 million viewers . UK viewers are able to catch up with episodes with Channel 5 's video catch up service , Demand 5 , similar to the catch up service in Australia . Channel 5 also have a deal with YouTube , allowing viewers to watch episodes for free on the video sharing site after they have been transmitted .

From 4 January 2016 , Channel 5 began broadcasting episodes on the same day as Australia . Channel 5 's commissioning editor Greg Barnett explained that closing the transmission gap would reduce spoilers and the amount of viewers watching the show illegally online . From mid @-@ 2016 , the show also began airing every week @-@ night on Nickelodeon as part of their Nick at Nite programming block , broadcasting the same episode that was earlier seen on Channel 5 .

In New Zealand , Neighbours is broadcast on TV2 at 6 : 30 pm weekdays . In October 2010 , it began airing episodes at the same pace as Australia . The show was initially broadcast by TVNZ in 1988 , but by 1996 it was removed from the schedule . TV4 ( now C4 ) picked the show up and began broadcasting it from 1997 . They dropped it in 2000 and it returned to TV2 in 2002 . Repeats of the previous day 's episode of Neighbours were formerly shown at 2 : 30 pm weekdays and are now shown at 11 @.@ 00 am weekdays . The show moved to 5 : 25 pm weeknights on TV One in late 2007 . After a couple of months , the show moved to 3 : 50 pm weekdays . The show eventually moved back to TV2 . The TV2 website offers viewers the chance to watch episodes online with its OnDemand service . In Ireland , Neighbours is broadcast on RTÉ Television at 1 : 55 pm on RTÉ One and repeated on RTÉ Two at 5 : 35 pm each weekday . FremantleMedia secured a long term deal with RTÉ in 2007 for them to transmit the show after the BBC pulled out of negotiations . In Kenya , Neighbours is broadcast on the KTN network Monday to Friday at 12 : 30 pm with an omnibus on Sunday mornings . In Barbados , Neighbours is broadcast on the CBC8 channel at 1 : 00 pm Monday to Friday . In Canada , CFMT @-@ TV in Toronto broadcast Neighbours on weeknights at 11 : 00 pm , starting in September 1990 . From 20 May 1991 , CFMT moved the show to 4 : 00 pm . After announcing its cancellation , CFMT decided to keep Neighbours on its schedule throughout September 1994 , following numerous letters and telephone calls . In Belgium Neighbours airs Monday till Friday at 5.35pm. ( episodes are 7 months behind Australia ) After 27 years on air , it is still the most popular foreign soap in Belgium .

In the United States , Neighbours premiered on KCOP @-@ TV in Los Angeles on 3 June 1991 at 5 : 30 pm weekdays . KCOP planned on cancelling the show by the end of the month due to low ratings , but brought it back due to viewer demand at a 9 : 30 am daily time slot from 1 July to 30 August 1991 . New York City station WWOR @-@ TV showed Neighbours weekdays 5 : 30 pm from 17 June to 17 September 1991 . In April 2004 , the show began broadcasting nationally on the television channel Oxygen . A spokeswomen from the channel said " Now our viewers can join in on the good , the bad and the endlessly entertaining lives of our Aussie neighbours . " The episodes started from the Scully family 's arrival in 1999 and were aired for a six @-@ week trial basis . The show was broadcast in the afternoon with two episodes being shown back to back at 1 : 00 pm and 2 : 00 pm . After a couple of weeks , the show was moved to a late @-@ night time slot and it eventually left the air . On 7 July 2014 , Todd Spangler from Variety reported that FremantleMedia International had signed a deal with U.S. subscription service Hulu giving it exclusive rights to the most recent season of Neighbours . The soap began airing from 14 July , with new episodes airing daily from Monday through to Friday , on Hulu and Hulu Plus services . The episodes were four weeks behind the Australian broadcast . All past and current episodes of Neighbours were removed from Hulu on 19 September 2015 , stating they had lost the rights .

= = Popularity and viewership = =

= = = 1985 – 1990s = = =

Neighbours initially aired on Seven Network where it struggled to attract high ratings leading to its cancellation by the network four months after it premiered . The series was then picked up by Network Ten . After the usual break in broadcast over the summer non ratings period the series made its debut on Ten in 1986 . Ten revamped the show , adding several new , younger cast members including Jason Donovan as Scott Robinson and Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell . When the show began on Ten it initially attracted low ratings , so the Network worked hard to publicise the series . Ten 's publicity drive was designed to promote the show in a star @-@ focused campaign recalling that of the Hollywood star system where stars were packaged to feed into a fan culture . This paid off and by the end of 1987 ratings had improved for the show . The episode featuring Scott and Charlene 's wedding achieved the highest ever ratings for Neighbours and it became one of the highest rating soap episodes ever in Australia . The same episode attracted 20 million viewers when it was aired in the United Kingdom . By the early 1990s , Australian audiences had decreased although viewing figures had recovered slightly by the end of the decade . In 1994 , Network Ten told TV Week that they would be introducing a " younger , livelier look with six regular characters under the age of 18 " in a bid to generate interest . It was then that they introduced the characters of Stonefish Rebecchi played by Anthony Engelman and Serendipity Gottlieb played by Raelee Hill .

In 1996 , Kimberley Davies , who played Annalise Hartman , quit the series . Then Caroline Gillmer fell ill and her character Cheryl Stark was temporarily recast with former Prisoner actress Colette Mann . This made producers nervous that viewing figures might decrease , so they implemented a series of plots to keep viewers interested . These included a cameo from Clive James and an explosion , which destroyed the doctor 's surgery in the Lassiter 's complex .

= = = 2000s = = =

In the 2000s , rival soap opera Home and Away emerged as more popular than Neighbours in Australia . As of 2004 , Neighbours was regularly attracting just under a million viewers per episode . In 2007 , Home and Away was averaging 1 @.@ 4 million viewers in Australia to Neighbours ' 700 @,@ 000 . During the revamp of 2007 , the episode broadcast on 23 July 2007 saw the introduction of a new family , updated sets , new theme music and graphics . Ratings for that episode averaged 1 @.@ 05 million viewers in the 6 : 30 pm. slot . It was the first time the programme 's viewing figures had topped 1 million in 2007 . By the end of 2007 it was reported that producers had hoped the Neighbours revamp would push the ratings up to between 900 @,@ 000 to 1 million an episode . It had , however , resulted in a more modest boost , with ratings hovering at about 800 @,@ 000 a night . The same viewing period had shown an increase in ratings for Home and Away , which was now averaging 1 @.@ 4 million viewers every night .

In February 2008 , new executive producer , Susan Bower , announced that she would be implementing further changes to the programme . Bower promised to retain the return to traditional Neighbours values , but with an injection of drama that remains recognisable and relevant . Ratings rose to almost 900 @,@ 000 in mid @-@ 2008 , but generally ratings begin to fall towards the end of each year , usually averaging around 700 @,@ 000 . On 17 July 2009 , during the aftermath of the Parker family 's car accident and the dramatic death of Bridget Parker ( Eloise Mignon ) , Neighbours achieved higher ratings than Home And Away . Neighbours achieved 998 @,@ 000 viewers and placed 6th for the night , Home And Away placed 7th .

= = = 2010s = = =

In January 2010 , Neighbours returned to Australian screens to an audience of 563 @,@ 000 . On 20 January , the ratings fell to a low of 426 @,@ 000 , making it one of the programme 's lowest ever ratings in Australia . A July 2010 report showed figures had dropped 20 % , from having 1 @.@ 2 million viewers in 1991 to a low of 618 @,@ 000 in 2010 . A Network Ten spokesperson commented " Most of the show 's budget is covered by its UK deal with Channel 5 and the 50 @-@ odd other countries it is seen in , so it 's not a financial problem for Ten despite the low ratings . And Ten needs the show to score the Australian content and drama points required for it to hold on to a broadcasting licence " . On 29 October 2010 , Neighbours ' ratings dropped to a low figure of 386 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewing numbers for Network Ten that night were down across all programmes . The show 's highest figure of the week was 590 @,@ 000 on 25 October 2010 .

Following its move to digital multichannel Eleven , Neighbours attracted 254 @,@ 000 viewers for the first episode broadcast on 11 January 2011 . This was half the number of viewers that watched it on Network Ten ; the Herald Sun reported that it was a good result as " bosses were only expecting 133 @,@ 000 . " Neighbours became Eleven 's most @-@ watched show and the third highest rating show on digital multichannels that night . Programming chief , David Mott stated " Last night 's strong result for Neighbours already suggests the audience will follow the folks from Ramsay Street to their brand new neighbourhood on Eleven . " On 24 January 2011 , Neighbours achieved 330 @,@ 000 viewers and three days later 355 @,@ 000 viewers tuned in , becoming the show 's highest rating yet on Eleven . The show had more viewers than the Ten Evening News in the 16 – 39 and 18 – 49 demographic . On 13 June 2011 , Neighbours was watched by 455 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the highest rating show on digital multichannels that night and breaking its previous ratings record on the channel . On 27 May 2013 , episode 6651 of Neighbours was watched by an audience of 405 @,@ 000 viewers , which was the highest rating the series had achieved in nearly two years . Neighbours has traditionally rated between 250 @,@ 000 and 350 @,@ 000 since moving to Eleven in January 2011 .

= = Storylines = =

Neighbours storylines frequently focus on family problems , intergenerational clashes , school problems , romances and domestic issues . Despite the restrictive 6 : 30 pm time slot , Neighbours has also covered many serious problems such as teenage pregnancy , marital breakdown , imprisonment , career problems , financial problems , pregnancy , abortion , eating disorders , alcoholism , adultery , drug use and drug trafficking , robbery , stalking , kidnapping , accidental death , hit @-@ and @-@ runs , murder , shootings , and incest . In the 2000s , the show dealt with controversial issues such as sexuality , gambling , prostitution , and surrogacy . Health issues were also focused on , including multiple sclerosis , bipolar disorder , epilepsy , amnesia , congenital diaphragmatic hernia , and alzheimer 's disease . In September 2014 , the show featured a natural disaster storyline , in which a tornado descended on Erinsborough and Ramsay Street .

= = Characters = =

In 1985 , Neighbours started out with three families created by Watson – the Ramsays , the Robinsons and the Clarkes . Watson said that he wanted to show three families living in a small street , who are friends . Max Ramsay ( Francis Bell ) , his wife Maria ( Dasha Blahova ) and their sons Shane ( Peter O 'Brien ) and Danny ( David Clencie ) lived at No.24 Ramsay Street . Single father , Jim Robinson ( Alan Dale ) lived next door with his children , Paul ( Stefan Dennis ) , Julie ( Vikki Blanche ) , Scott ( Darius Perkins ) and Lucy ( Kylie Flinker ) . His mother @-@ in @-@ law , Helen Daniels ( Anne Haddy ) also lived with him . Bachelor Des Clarke ( Paul Keane ) invited Daphne Lawrence ( Elaine Smith ) to live at No. 28 with him and they were later married . The Robinsons and the Ramsays had a long history in the street and they were often involved in an ongoing rivalry . When Network Ten picked up the show and revamped it , they brought in new and younger actors including Kylie Minogue as Charlene Mitchell and Jason Donovan , who replaced Darius Perkins as Scott Robinson . Many families , including the Alessi , Bishop , Hancock , Hoyland , Rebecchi , Scullys , Timmins ' and Willises have moved in and out of the street over the years .

When storylines for certain characters become tired , the scriptwriters simply move one family out and replace it with a new one . Ramsay Street is now a mixture of older characters like Lou Carpenter ( Tom Oliver ) , Toadfish Rebecchi ( Ryan Moloney ) , Karl ( Alan Fletcher ) and Susan Kennedy ( Jackie Woodburne ) , as well as newer characters such as the Canning and Turner families . Watson originally wanted to show young people communicating with older people , which means that the cast is a mix of young actors in their teens or early 20s and older , more experienced hands . The last remaining original character , Helen Daniels , departed the show in 1997 due to the ill @-@ health of Anne Haddy . In 2004 , original cast member Stefan Dennis returned to Neighbours full @-@ time as Paul Robinson . Paul is currently the only remaining original character in the series . In February 2009 , it was announced that producers would be introducing a new generation of the Ramsay family to the show , over a decade after the family had last appeared . Kate ( Ashleigh Brewer ) , Harry ( Will Moore ) and Sophie Ramsay ( Kaiya Jones ) made their first appearances in May 2009 .

= = = Celebrity guest appearances = = =

Throughout its run , Neighbours has featured several guest appearances from celebrities playing themselves or characters . Early cameos included former Skyhooks musician Red Symons , Warwick Capper , Molly Meldrum , Chris Lowe of Pet Shop Boys , and Clive James . During the 2000s and 2010s , the series featured appearances from The Wiggles , Shane Warne , former Spice Girls singer Emma Bunton , Little Britain 's Matt Lucas and David Walliams , The Veronicas , André Rieu , wrestler Dave Batista , Lily Allen and Paula Abdul .

= = Theme tune = =

The theme tune to Neighbours was composed by Tony Hatch whose then wife , Jackie Trent , wrote the lyrics . Since 1985 , there have been eight versions of the theme tune . The song has been voted the world 's most recognised television theme song and the lyrics were quoted by John Smith , then British Shadow Chancellor , in a House of Commons debate on Government economic policy . From 2007 , the theme tune to Neighbours was sung by Sandra de Jong . In February 2013 , Network Ten and FremantleMedia announced that they were searching across Australia and the United Kingdom for a singer to record a new version of the theme tune . The competition resulted in a tie and the new theme was sung as a duet by Daniel Boys and Stephanie Angelini . That version of the theme tune began airing from 15 April 2013 . A new retro @-@ inspired theme tune sung by Garth Ploog debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show 's 30th anniversary celebrations .

= = Titles = =

Since Neighbours began in 1985 , it has used its opening titles sequence to introduce the major characters which currently feature in the show . The sequences often feature the characters in family or domestic groups . Each episode 's titles sequence was preceded by a recap of events from recent episodes featuring the characters who were to appear in the new episode .

In 2002 , Neighbours debuted an all new style of titles with a remixed version of the theme tune . The titles showed characters together in groups according to gender , a change from the previous ones which were taken outside . 2007 saw Neighbours debut an updated theme , a new logo and new " optimistic , contemporary " titles . A photo booth montage was played and characters were seen rowing boats , walking along piers and eating outside . The sequence also contained shots of upcoming scenes . In August 2009 , Neighbours introduced a new titles format . The first episode of each week begins with a trailer previewing the week 's events . The usual recap of storylines switched to after the opening titles of each episode for the first time since 1998 . The end of episode teasers returned and are now made in @-@ house by the Neighbours production team .

In September 2009 , Susan Bower announced that Neighbours would introduce new opening titles for the 25th anniversary and they would feature a bit of " bling " . The titles were created by Visual Playground , who shot a series of scenes featuring the cast in settings familiar to viewers . The titles made their debut on 18 March 2010 . A new set of opening titles made their debut on 15 April 2013 , along with a new version of the theme tune . Visual Playground once again created and produced the titles . The titles depict the Ramsay Street residents gathering outside their houses for a street party . A writer for Visual Playground explained that they " invented a bokeh graphic device that uses the play of light in a formation to locate the houses in the cul @-@ de @-@ sac . Six overlapping circles represent the six houses of Ramsay St and the off street cast members . All the circles together reinforce the sense of community that makes up Neighbours . " A new retro @-@ inspired logo , theme tune and opening titles debuted on 5 January 2015 as part of the show 's 30th anniversary celebrations . The new logo is a reimagined contemporary version of the original Neighbours logo from 1985 . The titles show characters in a variety of familiar settings around Erinsborough and ends with a look at Ramsay Street from above .

= = Awards and nominations = =

Neighbours has received a wide variety of awards and nominations throughout its run . The show has received 81 Logie Award nominations , of which it has won 30 . It has also been nominated for " Most Popular Daytime Programme " at the UK 's National Television Awards in five of the six years from 2000 to 2006 . In 1997 , the show won an award for Best Episode in A Television Drama Serial at the Australian Film Institute Awards . Two Neighbours actors have been nominated for Rose D 'Or awards , once in 2004 for Ryan Moloney and again in 2005 for Jackie Woodburne . Neighbours has also won three Australian Writers ' Guild awards .

= = Home media and spin @-@ offs = =

Since the show 's inception , several spin @-@ offs have been produced , including books , music , DVDs and internet webisodes . In 1991 , an officially licensed video game of Neighbours was created by Ian Copeland and developed by Zeppelin Games under their Impulze label for the ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 , Atari ST , and Amiga ; it was re @-@ released by Zeppelin in 1992 on budget price . In the game , the player took on the role of Scott Robinson and had to skateboard around four whole courses .

Episodes of Neighbours have been released on several DVDs . Neighbours : Defining Moments was the first DVD box set released in 2002 . It is a compilation of fifteen classic episodes and a photo gallery . The Neighbours : The Iconic Episodes Volume 1 DVD box set was released in 2008 and contains twenty @-@ three episodes , the 1000th episode party celebration special and a photo gallery . Neighbours : The Iconic Episodes Volume Two contains twenty @-@ four episodes over three discs . One disc is dedicated to the character of Charlene . In 2012 , early episodes of Neighbours were released on three DVD box sets in Germany . From April 2012 , Shock Entertainment began releasing DVD box sets of Neighbours episodes in broadcast order from the beginning . As of October 2014 , five box sets have been released .

Neighbours has released three internet webisode series via their YouTube channel . The first series was titled Steph in Prison and coincided with Stephanie Scully 's ( Carla Bonner ) return to Neighbours in April 2013 . The following year , Brennan on the Run focusing on Mark Brennan 's ( Scott McGregor ) time in witness protection was released . Neighbours vs Zombies was launched in October 2014 and featured the returns of many former characters who had previously died in the show .

= Francis Harvey =

Major Francis John William Harvey , VC ( 29 April 1873 – 31 May 1916 ) was an officer of the British Royal Marine Light Infantry during the First World War . Harvey was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest military award for gallantry in the face of the enemy given to British and Commonwealth forces , for his actions at the height of the Battle of Jutland . A long serving Royal Marine officer descended of a military family , during his career Harvey became a specialist in naval artillery , serving on many large warships as gunnery training officer and gun commander . Specially requested for HMS Lion , the flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet , Harvey fought at the battles of Heligoland Bight , Dogger Bank and Jutland .

At Jutland , Harvey , although mortally wounded by German shellfire , ordered the magazine of Q turret on the battlecruiser Lion to be flooded . This action prevented the tons of cordite stored there from catastrophically detonating in an explosion that would have destroyed the vessel and all aboard her . Although he succumbed to his injuries seconds later , his dying act may have saved over a thousand lives and prompted Winston Churchill to later comment : " In the long , rough , glorious history of the Royal Marines there is no name and no deed which in its character and consequences ranks above this " .

= = Gunnery expert = =

Harvey was born in Upper Sydenham , Kent , the son of Commander John William Francis Harvey , RN and Elizabeth Edwards Lavington Harvey née Penny . At age 11 in 1884 , Harvey moved with his family to Southsea and he attended Portsmouth Grammar School , achieving excellent academic results and showing proficiency in languages and debating . Harvey was descended from a military family ; his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather John Harvey had been killed in the Glorious First of June in 1794 and his great @-@ grandfather Admiral Sir Edward Harvey , GCB , RN and grandfather Captain John Harvey of the 9th Regiment of Foot were also prominent military figures .

After leaving school , Harvey chose a military career and was accepted by both the Royal Military College , Sandhurst and the Royal Naval College , Greenwich for officer training . Choosing the latter school as a Royal Marines officer cadet , Harvey graduated in 1892 and the following year was made a full lieutenant , joining HMS Wildfire for his first seagoing commission . After just a year at sea , Harvey was back on shore attending gunnery courses at HMS Excellent , qualifying in 1896 as an instructor first class in naval gunnery . Harvey was appointed to the cruiser HMS Phaeton when she was commissioned at Devonport on 8 June 1897 for service on the Pacific Station . In 1898 , whilst on the Phaëton , he was reprimanded by the Admiralty for an unfavourable report he released on San Diego Harbour . Returning home the same year , Harvey was given the position of Assistant Instructor for Gunnery at Plymouth Division . During this period , Harvey married Ethel Edye and had one son , John .

Between 1898 and 1904 Harvey spent much of his time attached to the Channel Fleet , aboard HMS Edgar and HMS Diadem , practising and instructing in gunnery . On 28 January 1900 he was promoted to captain . In 1903 he was posted aboard HMS Royal Sovereign , the first of a string of big ship appointments teaching gunnery to the heavy units of the Channel Fleet . By 1909 , Harvey had served on HMS Duke of Edinburgh , HMS St George and the new battlecruiser HMS Inflexible . In 1910 Harvey became Instructor of Gunnery at Chatham Dockyard and the following year was promoted to major , a report on the gunnery school commenting " Degree of efficiency in Gunnery Establishment at Chatham is very high both as regards general training and attention to detail . Great credit is due all concerned particularly to Major F.J.W. Harvey , the I of G " .

The strength of this report subsequently gained Harvey a position as senior marine officer aboard HMS Lion , the 27 @,@ 000 ton flagship of the British battlecruiser fleet . Lion had eight 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and Harvey was stationed in an office under Q turret directing their operation and fire . Under her new commander , Admiral David Beatty , Harvey served as the senior marine officer on board into the First World War , his first military campaign .

= = First World War = =

Harvey did not have to wait long to see action , seeing combat for the first time at the Battle of Heligoland Bight just weeks into the war . On 28 August 1914 , Lion and her squadron of HMS Queen Mary and HMS Princess Royal , swept into the Heligoland Bight where German and British cruiser forces were already engaged in a bitter struggle . One German cruiser had already been sunk by the time Beatty 's force arrived , but the German flagship SMS Cöln and cruiser SMS Ariadne were surprised in the fog and destroyed by heavy calibre shells from Beatty 's battlecruisers . German Admiral Leberecht Maass and over 1 @,@ 000 of his sailors were killed , Harvey 's guns scoring several hits on the cruisers .

Six months later , Harvey 's guns again caused severe damage to a German force at the Battle of Dogger Bank . Over the previous months , a German battlecruiser squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Hipper had crossed the North Sea and bombarded British coastal towns on several occasions . On 24 January 1915 another attempt was made , but this time British signals analysts had detected the German movement and using this information the Admiralty dispatched Beatty 's force to intercept and destroy them . Beatty and Hipper 's squadrons collided at 09 : 00 and during the engagement that followed , Lion was left exposed by mis @-@ communication between the ships , which led to HMS Tiger engaging the wrong ship , leaving SMS Moltke uncovered and so able to fire more accurately . The British flagship was hard pressed until one of Lion 's shots penetrated one of Seydlitz 's turrets . A huge explosion destroyed the neighbouring turret as well and killed 160 men , the German flagship only surviving due to the actions of sailor Wilhelm Heidkamp , who wrenched open the water valves to the magazines despite them glowing red hot .

Lion was badly damaged in the action by shells from the passing SMS Derfflinger and with her engines failing , dropped back to engage the already sinking SMS Blücher . Misread signals resulted in the rest of the British fleet returning to support Lion in this task , allowing the rest of the battered German fleet to retire as the British destroyed the hapless Blücher and 792 of her crew . Following the battle , Harvey remained aboard Lion at Rosyth for the whole of 1915 and the first five months of 1916 , continuing his gunnery training and preparations for major fleet action . His preparations came to fruition on the last day of May , when the British fleet sailed to engage the main body of the German High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland .

Just after Dogger Bank , Harvey had written to a fellow RMLI officer in HMS Orion describing his experiences :

= = = Jutland = = =

Beatty 's battlecruisers led the British fleet in its attack , casting south into the North Sea to find the enemy during the afternoon of 31 May 1916 . At 14 : 15 , scouting cruisers spotted the German vanguard and Beatty closed to attack the enemy with his main force . Given time to prepare , Hipper was ready for Beatty with his battlecruisers in line to face Beatty 's approaching ships with their full broadsides . Hipper was also encouraged by the main German battleship fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Reinhard Scheer , which was steaming northwards close behind him . At 15 : 45 Beatty came within range of the German fleet and the vanguards engaged one another with their opening fusillades . As the two squadrons closed , the Germans found the range better and faster than the British , who were silhouetted against the sun . As a result , German shells pounded the British ships while the German ships remained untouched for the first 10 minutes of the engagement . During this stage of the battle Lion was hit by nine shells from SMS Lützow . One shell at 16 : 00 struck the right upper corner of the left hand gun port at the junction of the face plate and the roof , and punched a piece of the 9 @-@ inch face plate into the turret before detonating , blowing off the armoured roof of the turret and starting a fire , which a damage control party working from outside the turret fought to put out .

The initial explosion killed or wounded everyone stationed in the gun house itself . Harvey , despite severe wounds and burns , realised that the shell hoist leading to the ship 's main forward magazine was jammed open . With the hatch open , the flash fire would rapidly travel down to the main magazine resulting in an explosion that would tear the ship in two and kill everyone on board . Staggering across the wreckage of the turret , Harvey gave orders down the voice pipe for the magazine doors to be closed and the magazine compartments to be flooded , an action which would prevent the cordite in the magazines detonating . Turning to his sergeant , the one man still standing , Harvey instructed him to proceed to the bridge and give a full report to the ship 's captain Ernle Chatfield ( a standard drill in damage exercises ) . Seconds later , Harvey collapsed and died from his wounds . The sergeant went immediately to the bridge and notified the captain of Harvey 's actions before being taken below to have his wounds dressed .

As soon as the turret had been hit the captain had ordered Q magazine doors closed and the magazine flooded , the order passing to the Transmitting Station below the armoured deck where Stoker 1st Class William Yeo was entrusted with passing the order on . The magazine was consequently flooded and locked up within minutes of the hit . However the cordite charges which had fallen down from gun house after the hit were not removed to safety , and there were still ready charges in the working chamber . A large number of crewmen still remained in the shell room , magazine handing room and working chamber . The fire which was thought to have been put out after the hit on the turret gained strength and ignited the remaining cordite charges , setting off a large explosion at 16 : 28 which killed the turret crewmen , the flame of the explosion reaching as high as the top of the ship 's masts . Even with the precautions taken in hand , the magazine doors were later found to be severely buckled – only the seawater in the magazine behind it prevented the blast reaching inside . Other ships of the battlecruiser fleet were less lucky ; at about the same time as Harvey 's death , HMS Indefatigable was torn to pieces by a series of magazine explosions that claimed 1 @,@ 013 lives and just minutes after that HMS Queen Mary exploded " like a puffball " in one huge column of grey smoke , killing 1 @,@ 275 sailors . Hours later during the main battlefleet engagement , Admiral Horace Hood 's flagship HMS Invincible was destroyed with 1 @,@ 032 lives . All three ships were lost as the result of magazine explosions similar to the one narrowly avoided on Lion .

= = Remembrance = =

Harvey 's charred corpse was taken from the wreckage of Q turret in the aftermath of battle and buried at sea with full honours alongside the other 98 fatal casualties Lion had suffered . His bravery in the face of certain death did not go unnoticed ; he was mentioned by name in Admiral Jellicoe 's post @-@ battle dispatch and he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross . Harvey 's widow Ethel was presented with the award at Buckingham Palace by King George V on 15 September 1916 . His medal group was later loaned to the Royal Marines Museum , Eastney Barracks by his son Lieutenant @-@ Colonel John Malcolm Harvey of the King 's Regiment in 1973 . Harvey 's name is inscribed on the Chatham Naval Memorial to those with no known grave , administered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission .

= = = Victoria Cross citation = = =

= DayZ ( mod ) =

DayZ is a multiplayer open world survival third @-@ person shooter modification designed by Dean Hall for the 2009 tactical shooter video game ARMA 2 and its 2010 expansion pack , ARMA 2 : Operation Arrowhead . The mod places the player in the fictional post @-@ Soviet state of Chernarus , where a mysterious plague has infected most of the population , turning people into violent zombies . As a survivor with limited supplies , the player must scavenge the world for supplies such as food , water , weapons and medicine , while killing or avoiding both zombies and other players , and sometimes non @-@ player characters , in an effort to survive the zombie apocalypse .

DayZ has been praised for its innovative design elements . The mod reached one million players in its first four months on August 6 , 2012 , with hundreds of thousands of people purchasing ARMA 2 just to play it . The mod version of DayZ remains in continued development by its community , where as the standalone game was developed by ARMA 2 creators Bohemia Interactive .

During the alpha , designer Dean Hall became part of Bohemia Interactive , and the mod , retitled to Arma II : DayZ Mod , was officially released on February 21 , 2013 .

= = Gameplay = =

DayZ attempts to portray a realistic scenario within the gameplay , with the environment having different effects on the player . A character may receive bone fractures from damage to their legs , go into shock from bullet wounds or zombie bites , receive infections from zombies or diseased players , or faint due to low blood pressure . Thirst and hunger must be kept under control by finding sustenance in either cities or the wilderness , with body temperature playing a key part in the character 's survival . The game focuses on surviving and the human elements of a zombie apocalypse by forcing the player to acknowledge basic human needs like thirst , hunger and shelter . These mechanics require the player to focus on immediate goals before they can consider long @-@ term strategies .

DayZ is praised for its level of emergent gameplay . BuzzFeed author Russell Brandom suggested that the mod has spawned the first photojournalist in a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game , creating articles that are not only about a game world but journalism told from within it . Brandom claimed that DayZ is a unique example of the massively multiplayer online game genre in giving players the freedom to harm or murder each other , whilst adding no restrictions on how or why they may do it , quoting a player who described it as " the story of people " . The mod has been compared by Kotaku to The Walking Dead and its focus on interactions between the characters when faced with desperate situations . The players in DayZ are forced to deal with dilemmas in similar ways as portrayed in both the comics and TV series for The Walking Dead .

It has been proposed that DayZ provides some insight into people 's motivations and behaviors when reacting to real crisis events , mirroring controlled experiments of a similar nature . However , some critics of this theory argue that participants do not react as they would in a real world situation in which their life is truly threatened . Despite the game being biased towards self @-@ interested , hostile competition , many players enter the game with their own perceptions and priorities . These varied approaches and experiences within the game suggest that even in a system that should theoretically promote rational behaviour , people act in unexpected ways . It has been proposed that this dispels the idea that chaos is an objective and defining feature of the system , rather it is what players make of it .

= = Development = =

Dean Hall created the concept while he was a soldier in the New Zealand Army , as a suggestion for training soldiers through exposure to situations provoking emotion and relevant thought processes . He has stated he was inspired by experiences during jungle training while on exchange with the Singapore Armed Forces in Brunei , where he was badly injured in a survival skills exercise . Hall has stated that what he had endured then directly affected the development of DayZ , and the creation of immersion through forcing the player to experience emotion and tension as part of gameplay . Hall believed that early rapid success of the mod was largely due to social media and consumers ' desire for games that provided significant challenge . Hall has described the mod as something of an " anti @-@ game " as it broke what he felt were generally considered to be basic rules of game design such as balance and not frustrating users .

First requiring manual installation , DayZ now uses two third @-@ party programs called Six Updater Suite and DayZ Commander to facilitate its installation . On August 7 , 2012 , Dean Hall announced on the game 's development blog that the mod was going to be made into its own game , with Bohemia Interactive as the developer , and himself as the project leader . On October 29 , 2012 , development of the mod officially transferred to a largely community driven effort with the release of version 1 @.@ 7 @.@ 3 .

= = Reception = =

DayZ acquired a large user base due to its unique gameplay . By August 2012 , three months after release , the mod had registered more than one million unique users . IGN called it one of the most popular PC games in the world " right now " four months after release . It was credited for over 300 @,@ 000 unit sales of ARMA 2 within two months of the mod 's release , putting this three @-@ year @-@ old title in the top seller charts on Steam for over seven weeks , much of this time as the top selling game .

Marek Španěl , CEO of ARMA 2 developer Bohemia Interactive , said the mod was directly driving sales of the game and applauded it for an addictive and thrilling experience , saying that it could stand as a gaming experience on its own . The mod was also praised by video game developers not involved with the series . Kristoffer Touborg from CCP ( EVE @-@ Online ) said it was the best game he has played in several months and called it particularly innovative given the first @-@ person shooter genre , which he considered to be one of gaming 's least innovative genres . Game designers Erik Wolpaw and Tim Schafer stated at PAX Prime 2012 that they believe that player @-@ driven experiences such as DayZ are the future of gaming , commenting on what the title achieved without having a driving narrative .

= = = Media reception = = =

The mod received widespread media acclaim . Edge called DayZ the mod of the year . Wired UK 's Quitin Smith said it could be the most terrifying game of 2012 , and Rock Paper Shotgun 's Jim Rossignol called it the best game he had played so far in 2012 . PC Gamer stated the game was one of the most important things to happen to PC gaming in 2012 and included it in their 2012 list of the top five scariest PC games of all time . Metro called it one of the best games to ever to come out of PC modding and one of the single most impressive experiences available on the system . Eurogamer called it the best zombie game ever made and the break out phenomenon of PC gaming in 2012 . Kotaku called it possibly the greatest zombie game of all time and the most interesting PC game of 2012 . PC PowerPlay said DayZ was the most important thing to happen to PC gaming in 2012 .

Eurogamer 's Stace Harman suggested that the mod 's designer Dean Hall might be responsible for some of the most emotive stories to come from playing a video game . Chris Pereiraa of 1UP.com called it a " shining example of PC gaming at its finest " , stating the tension from interacting with other players leads to an experience unlike anything else he had experienced in gaming apart from making love in Heavy Rain , and cited the game as an example that PC gaming is not in decline , as the creation of such a mod is something that is only possible on a computer ( as opposed to video game consoles ) . According to bit @-@ tech 's Joe Martin , no other game in the genre has offered so compelling take on a zombie apocalypse and its impact of the mod on the industry might be similar to that of Defense of the Ancients and Counter @-@ Strike .

= = = Awards = = =

The mod was nominated for the " Online Innovation " category at the Game Developers Conference Online Awards 2012 .

PC Gamer gave DayZ the " Mod of the Year " 2012 award , calling it " one of the least @-@ forgiving and most intimidating games of the year . "

Good Game gave DayZ the " Quiet Achiever " award for 2012 .

PC PowerPlay gave DayZ the " Game of the Year 2012 " and named it number five on their list of top 100 games of all time .

= = Standalone game = =

The standalone title , also called DayZ , carries over many of the core gameplay mechanisms of the ARMA 2 mod . DayZ has enhanced graphics , enhanced UI , and AI compared to the mod . DayZ is planned to launch on 8th generation consoles ( PlayStation 4 and Xbox One ) once the game is fully complete .

= Ted Bundy =

Theodore Robert Bundy ( born Theodore Robert Cowell ; November 24 , 1946 – January 24 , 1989 ) was an American serial killer , kidnapper , rapist , and necrophile who assaulted and murdered numerous young women and girls during the 1970s and possibly earlier . Shortly before his execution , after more than a decade of denials , he confessed to 30 homicides committed in seven states between 1974 and 1978 . The true victim count remains unknown , and could be much higher .

Bundy was regarded as handsome and charismatic by many of his young female victims , traits he exploited to win their trust . He typically approached them in public places , feigning injury or disability , or impersonating an authority figure , before overpowering and assaulting them at more secluded locations . He sometimes revisited his secondary crime scenes for hours at a time , grooming and performing sexual acts with the decomposing corpses until putrefaction and destruction by wild animals made further interaction impossible . He decapitated at least 12 of his victims , and kept some of the severed heads in his apartment for a period of time as mementos . On a few occasions , he simply broke into dwellings at night and bludgeoned his victims as they slept .

Initially incarcerated in Utah in 1975 for aggravated kidnapping and attempted criminal assault , Bundy became a suspect in a progressively longer list of unsolved homicides in multiple states . Facing murder charges in Colorado , he engineered two dramatic escapes and committed further assaults , including three murders , before his ultimate recapture in Florida in 1978 . He received three death sentences in two separate trials for the Florida homicides .

Ted Bundy died in the electric chair at Raiford Prison in Starke , Florida , on January 24 , 1989 . Biographer Ann Rule described him as " ... a sadistic sociopath who took pleasure from another human 's pain and the control he had over his victims , to the point of death , and even after . " He once called himself " ... the most cold @-@ hearted son of a bitch you 'll ever meet . " Attorney Polly Nelson , a member of his last defense team , agreed . " Ted " , she wrote , " was the very definition of heartless evil . "

= = Early life = =

= = = Childhood = = =

Bundy was born Theodore Robert Cowell at the Elizabeth Lund Home for Unwed Mothers ( now the Lund Family Center ) in Burlington , Vermont on November 24 , 1946 to Eleanor Louise Cowell ( 1924 – 2012 ; known for most of her life as Louise ) . His father 's identity has never been determined with certainty . His birth certificate assigns paternity to a salesman and Air Force veteran named Lloyd Marshall , but Louise later claimed that she had been seduced by " a sailor " whose name may have been Jack Worthington . ( Years later , investigators would find no record of anyone by that name in Navy or Merchant Marine archives . ) Some family members expressed suspicions that Bundy might have been fathered by Louise 's own violent , abusive father , Samuel Cowell , but no material evidence has ever been cited to support or refute this .

For the first three years of his life Bundy lived in the Philadelphia home of his maternal grandparents , Samuel and Eleanor Cowell , who raised him as their son to avoid the social stigma that accompanied birth outside wedlock at the time . Family , friends , and even young Ted were told that his grandparents were his parents and that his mother was his older sister . Eventually he discovered the truth ; he told his girlfriend that a cousin showed him a copy of his birth certificate after calling him a " bastard " , but he told biographers Stephen Michaud and Hugh Aynesworth that he found the certificate himself . Biographer and true crime writer Ann Rule , who knew Bundy personally , believes that he located his original birth record in Vermont in 1969 . Bundy expressed a lifelong resentment toward his mother for lying about his true parentage and leaving him to discover it for himself .

Bundy spoke warmly of his grandparents in some interviews , and told Rule that he " identified with " , " respected " , and " clung to " his grandfather ; but he and other family members told attorneys in 1987 that Samuel Cowell was a tyrannical bully and a bigot who hated blacks , Italians , Catholics , and Jews , beat his wife and the family dog , and swung neighborhood cats by their tails . He once threw Louise 's younger sister Julia down a flight of stairs for oversleeping . He sometimes spoke aloud to unseen presences , and at least once he flew into a violent rage when the question of Ted 's paternity was raised . Bundy described his grandmother as a timid and obedient woman who periodically underwent electroconvulsive therapy for depression and feared leaving their house toward the end of her life . Ted occasionally exhibited disturbing behavior , even at that early age . Julia recalled awakening one day from a nap to find herself surrounded by knives from the Cowell kitchen ; her three @-@ year @-@ old nephew was standing by the bed , smiling .

In 1950 Louise abruptly changed her surname from Cowell to Nelson , and at the urging of multiple family members , left Philadelphia with her son to live with cousins Alan and Jane Scott in Tacoma , Washington . In 1951 Louise met Johnny Culpepper Bundy , a hospital cook , at an adult singles night at Tacoma 's First Methodist Church . They married later that year and Johnny Bundy formally adopted Ted . Johnny and Louise conceived four children of their own , and although Johnny tried to include his adoptive son in camping trips and other family activities , Ted remained distant . He later complained to his girlfriend that Johnny wasn 't his real father , " wasn 't very bright " , and " didn 't make much money . "

Bundy 's Tacoma recollections varied from biographer to biographer : To Michaud and Aynesworth he described roaming his neighborhood , picking through trash barrels in search of pictures of naked women . To Polly Nelson he spoke of perusing detective magazines , crime novels , and true crime documentaries for stories involving sexual violence , particularly when illustrated with pictures of dead or maimed bodies ; yet in a letter to Rule he asserted that he " ... never , ever read fact @-@ detective magazines , and shuddered at the thought [ that anyone would ] " . To Michaud , he described consuming large quantities of alcohol and " canvass [ ing ] the community " late at night in search of undraped windows where he could observe women undressing , or " whatever [ else ] could be seen . "

Accounts of his social life also varied : He told Michaud and Aynesworth that he " chose to be alone " as an adolescent because he was unable to understand interpersonal relationships . He claimed that he had no natural sense of how to develop friendships . " I didn 't know what made people want to be friends , " he said . " I didn 't know what underlay social interactions . " Classmates from Woodrow Wilson High School told Rule , however , that Bundy was " well known and well liked " there , " a medium @-@ sized fish in a large pond " .

Bundy 's only significant athletic avocation was snow skiing , which he pursued enthusiastically using stolen equipment and forged lift tickets . During high school he was arrested at least twice on suspicion of burglary and auto theft . When he reached age 18 the details of the incidents were expunged from his record , as is customary in Washington and most other states .

= = = University years = = =

After graduating from high school in 1965 Bundy spent a year at the University of Puget Sound ( UPS ) before transferring to the University of Washington ( UW ) in 1966 to study Chinese . In 1967 he became romantically involved with a UW classmate who is identified in Bundy biographies by several pseudonyms , most commonly Stephanie Brooks . In early 1968 he dropped out of college and worked at a series of minimum @-@ wage jobs . He also volunteered at the Seattle office of Nelson Rockefeller 's presidential campaign , and in August , attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami as a Rockefeller delegate . Shortly thereafter Brooks ended their relationship and returned to her family home in California , frustrated by what she described as Bundy 's immaturity and lack of ambition . Psychiatrist Dorothy Lewis would later pinpoint this crisis as " ... probably the pivotal time in his development . " Devastated by Brooks 's rejection , Bundy traveled to Colorado and then farther east , visiting relatives in Arkansas and Philadelphia , and enrolling for one semester at Temple University . It was at this time in early 1969 , Rule believes , that Bundy visited the office of birth records in Burlington and confirmed his true parentage .

Back in Washington in the fall of 1969 , he met Elizabeth Kloepfer ( identified in Bundy literature as Meg Anders , Beth Archer , or Liz Kendall ) , a divorcée from Ogden , Utah , who worked as a secretary at the University of Washington School of Medicine . Their stormy relationship would continue well past his initial incarceration in Utah in 1976 . In mid @-@ 1970 , now focused and goal @-@ oriented , he re @-@ enrolled at UW , this time as a psychology major . He became an honor student , well @-@ regarded by his professors . In 1971 he took a job at Seattle 's Suicide Hotline crisis center . There he met and worked alongside Rule , a former Seattle police officer and aspiring crime writer who would later write one of the definitive Bundy biographies , The Stranger Beside Me . Rule saw nothing disturbing in Bundy 's personality at the time , describing him as " kind , solicitous , and empathetic " .

After graduating from UW in 1972 Bundy joined Governor Daniel J. Evans 's reelection campaign . Posing as a college student , he shadowed Evans 's opponent , former governor Albert Rosellini , recording his stump speeches for analysis by Evans 's team . After Evans 's reelection he was hired as an assistant to Ross Davis , Chairman of the Washington State Republican Party . Davis thought well of Bundy , describing him as " smart , aggressive ... and a believer in the system . " In early 1973 , despite mediocre Law School Admission Test scores , Bundy was accepted into the law schools of UPS and the University of Utah on the strength of letters of recommendation from Evans , Davis , and several UW psychology professors .

During a trip to California on Republican Party business in the summer of 1973 Bundy rekindled his relationship with Brooks , who marveled at his transformation into a serious , dedicated professional , seemingly on the cusp of a distinguished legal and political career . He continued to date Kloepfer as well , though neither woman was aware of the other 's existence . In the fall of 1973 Bundy matriculated at UPS Law School and continued courting Brooks , who flew to Seattle several times to stay with him . They discussed marriage ; at one point he introduced her to Davis as his fiancée . In January 1974 , however , he abruptly broke off all contact ; her phone calls and letters went unreturned . Finally reaching him by phone a month later , Brooks demanded to know why Bundy had unilaterally ended their relationship without explanation . In a flat , calm voice , he replied , " Stephanie , I have no idea what you mean ... " and hung up . She never heard from him again . Later he explained , " I just wanted to prove to myself that I could have married her . " At about the same time Bundy began skipping classes at law school , and by April he had stopped attending entirely , as young women began to disappear in the Pacific Northwest .

= = First two series of murders = =

= = = Washington , Oregon = = =

There is no consensus on when or where Bundy began killing women . He told different stories to different people , and refused to divulge the specifics of his earliest crimes , even as he confessed in graphic detail to dozens of later murders in the days preceding his execution . He told Nelson that he attempted his first kidnapping in 1969 in Ocean City , New Jersey , but did not kill anyone until sometime in 1971 in Seattle . He told psychologist Art Norman that he killed two women in Atlantic City in 1969 while visiting family in Philadelphia . To homicide detective Robert D. Keppel he hinted at a murder in Seattle in 1972 , and another in 1973 involving a hitchhiker near Tumwater , Washington , but refused to elaborate . Rule and Keppel both believe that he may have started killing as a teenager . Circumstantial evidence suggests that he abducted and killed 8 @-@ year @-@ old Ann Marie Burr of Tacoma in 1961 when he was 14 , an allegation he denied repeatedly . His earliest documented homicides were committed in 1974 when he was 27 years old . By then he had ( by his own admission ) mastered the skills needed — in the era before DNA profiling — to leave minimal incriminating evidence at a crime scene .

Shortly after midnight on January 4 , 1974 — around the time that he terminated his relationship with Brooks — Bundy entered the basement apartment of 18 @-@ year @-@ old Karen Sparks ( identified as Joni Lenz or Terri Caldwell by various sources ) , a dancer and student at UW . After bludgeoning the sleeping woman with a metal rod from her bed frame he sexually assaulted her with a speculum , causing extensive internal injuries . She remained unconscious for 10 days but survived , with permanent brain damage . Less than a month later , in the early morning hours of February 1 , Bundy broke into the basement room of Lynda Ann Healy , a UW undergraduate who broadcast morning radio weather reports for skiers . He beat her unconscious , dressed her in blue jeans , a white blouse , and boots , and carried her away .

Female college students continued disappearing at the rate of about one per month . On March 12 , Donna Gail Manson , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old student at The Evergreen State College in Olympia , 60 miles ( 97 km ) southwest of Seattle , left her dormitory for a jazz concert on campus but never arrived . On April 17 , Susan Elaine Rancourt disappeared while on her way to a movie after an evening advisors ' meeting at Central Washington State College ( now Central Washington University ) in Ellensburg , 110 miles ( 180 km ) southeast of Seattle . Two female Central Washington students later came forward to report encounters — one on the night of Rancourt 's disappearance , the other three nights earlier — with a man wearing an arm sling , asking for help carrying a load of books to his brown or tan Volkswagen Beetle . On May 6 Roberta Kathleen Parks left her dormitory at Oregon State University in Corvallis , 260 miles ( 420 km ) south of Seattle , to have coffee with friends at the Student Union Building , but never arrived .

Detectives from the King County Sheriff 's Office and the Seattle Police Department grew increasingly concerned . There was no significant physical evidence , and the missing women had little in common , apart from being young , attractive , white college students with long hair parted in the middle . On June 1 , Brenda Carol Ball , 22 , disappeared after leaving the Flame Tavern in Burien , Washington near Seattle – Tacoma International Airport . She was last seen talking in the parking lot to a brown @-@ haired man with his arm in a sling . In the early hours of June 11 , UW student Georgann Hawkins vanished while walking down the brightly lit alley between her boyfriend 's dormitory residence and her sorority house . The next morning three Seattle homicide detectives and a criminalist combed the entire alleyway on their hands and knees , finding nothing . After Hawkins 's disappearance was publicized , witnesses came forward to report seeing a man that night in the alley behind a nearby dormitory , on crutches with a leg cast , struggling to carry a briefcase . One woman recalled that the man asked her to help him carry the case to his car , a light @-@ brown Volkswagen Beetle .

During this period Bundy was working at the Washington State Department of Emergency Services ( DES ) in Olympia , a government agency involved in the search for the missing women . There he met and dated Carole Ann Boone , a twice @-@ divorced mother of two who , six years later , would play an important role in the final phase of his life .

Reports of the six missing women and Sparks 's brutal beating appeared prominently in newspapers and on television throughout Washington and Oregon . Fear spread among the population ; hitchhiking by young women dropped sharply . While pressure mounted on law enforcement agencies , the paucity of physical evidence severely hampered them . Police could not provide reporters with the little information that was available for fear of compromising the investigation . Further similarities between the victims were noted : The disappearances all took place at night , usually near ongoing construction work , within a week of midterm or final exams ; all of the victims were wearing slacks or blue jeans ; and at most crime scenes there were sightings of a man wearing a cast or a sling , and driving a brown or tan Volkswagen Beetle .

The Pacific Northwest murders culminated on Sunday , July 14 with the broad @-@ daylight abductions of two women from a crowded beach at Lake Sammamish State Park in Issaquah , 20 miles ( 32 km ) east of Seattle . Five female witnesses described an attractive young man wearing a white tennis outfit with his left arm in a sling , speaking with a light accent , perhaps Canadian or British . Introducing himself as " Ted " , he asked their help in unloading a sailboat from his tan- or bronze @-@ colored Volkswagen Beetle . Four refused ; one accompanied him as far as his car , saw that there was no sailboat , and fled . Three additional witnesses saw him approach Janice Anne Ott , 23 , a probation case worker at the King County Juvenile Court , with the sailboat story , and watched her leave the beach in his company . About four hours later Denise Naslund , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman who was studying to become a computer programmer , left a picnic to go to the restroom and never returned . While Bundy later told Stephen Michaud that Ott was still alive when he returned with Naslund — and that one was forced to watch as the other was murdered — he retracted that detail on the eve of his execution .

King County police , finally armed with a detailed description of their suspect as well as his car , posted fliers throughout the Seattle area . A composite sketch was printed in regional newspapers and broadcast on local television stations . Elizabeth Kloepfer , Ann Rule , a DES employee , and a UW psychology professor all recognized the profile , the sketch , and the car , and reported Ted Bundy as a possible suspect ; but detectives — who were receiving up to 200 tips per day — thought it unlikely that a clean @-@ cut law student with no adult criminal record could be the perpetrator .

On September 6 two grouse hunters stumbled across the skeletal remains of Ott and Naslund near a service road in Issaquah , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Lake Sammamish State Park . An extra femur and several vertebrae found at the site were later identified by Bundy as Georgann Hawkins 's . Six months later , forestry students from Green River Community College discovered the skulls and mandibles of Healy , Rancourt , Parks , and Ball on Taylor Mountain , where Bundy frequently hiked , just east of Issaquah . Manson 's remains were never recovered .

= = = Idaho , Utah , Colorado = = =

In August 1974 Bundy received a second acceptance from the University of Utah Law School and moved to Salt Lake City , leaving Kloepfer in Seattle . While he called Kloepfer often , he dated " at least a dozen " other women . As he studied the first @-@ year law curriculum a second time , " he was devastated to find out that the other students had something , some intellectual capacity , that he did not . He found the classes completely incomprehensible . ' It was a great disappointment to me , ' he said . "

A new string of homicides began the following month with two that went undiscovered until Bundy confessed to them shortly before his execution . On September 2 he raped and strangled a still @-@ unidentified hitchhiker in Idaho , then either disposed of the corpse immediately in a nearby river or returned the next day to photograph and dismember the victim . On October 2 he seized 16 @-@ year @-@ old Nancy Wilcox in Holladay , a suburb of Salt Lake City , and dragged her into a wooded area , intending to " de @-@ escalate " his pathological urges , he said , by raping and releasing her . However , he strangled her — by accident , he claimed — in the process of trying to silence her . Wilcox was buried , he said , near Capitol Reef National Park , some 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of Holladay , but her remains were never found .

On October 18 Melissa Smith , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of the police chief of Midvale , another Salt Lake City suburb , disappeared after leaving a pizza parlor . Her nude body was found in a nearby mountainous area nine days later . Postmortem examination indicated that she may have remained alive for up to seven days following her disappearance . On October 31 , 25 miles ( 40 km ) south in Lehi , Laura Ann Aime , also 17 , disappeared after leaving a café just after midnight . Her naked body was found by hikers 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the northeast in American Fork Canyon on Thanksgiving Day . Both women had been beaten , raped , sodomized , and strangled with nylon stockings . Years later Bundy described his postmortem rituals with Smith 's and Aime 's remains , including hair shampooing and application of makeup .

In the late afternoon of November 8 , Bundy approached 18 @-@ year @-@ old telephone operator Carol DaRonch at Fashion Place Mall in Murray , Utah , less than a mile from the Midvale restaurant where Melissa Smith was last seen . He identified himself as " Officer Roseland " of the Murray Police Department , told DaRonch that someone had attempted to break into her car , and asked her to accompany him to the station to file a complaint . When DaRonch pointed out that Bundy was driving on a road that did not lead to the police station , he immediately pulled to the shoulder and attempted to handcuff her . During their struggle he inadvertently fastened both handcuffs to the same wrist , and DaRonch was able to open the car door and escape . Later that evening Debra Kent , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old student at Viewmont High School in Bountiful , 19 miles ( 31 km ) north of Murray , disappeared after leaving a theater production at the school to pick up her brother . The school 's drama teacher and a student told police that " a stranger " had asked each of them to come out to the parking lot to identify a car . Another student later saw the same man pacing in the rear of the auditorium , and the drama teacher spotted him again shortly before the end of the play . Outside the auditorium , investigators found a key that unlocked the handcuffs removed from Carol DaRonch 's wrist .

In November Elizabeth Kloepfer , having read that young women were disappearing in towns surrounding Salt Lake City , called King County police a second time . Detective Randy Hergesheimer of the Major Crimes division interviewed her in detail . By then , Bundy had risen considerably on the King County hierarchy of suspicion , but the Lake Sammamish witness considered most reliable by detectives failed to pick him from a photo lineup . In December , Kloepfer called the Salt Lake County Sheriff 's Office and repeated her suspicions . Bundy 's name was added to their list of suspects , but at that time no credible evidence linked him to the Utah crimes . In January 1975 Bundy returned to Seattle after his final exams and spent a week with Kloepfer , who did not tell him that she had reported him three separate times to police . She made plans to visit him in Salt Lake City in August .

In 1975 Bundy shifted much of his criminal activity eastward to Colorado from his base in Utah . On January 12 , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old registered nurse named Caryn Campbell disappeared while walking down a well @-@ lit hallway between the elevator and her room at the Wildwood Inn ( now the Wildwood Lodge ) in Snowmass Village , 400 miles ( 640 km ) southeast of Salt Lake City . Her nude body was found a month later next to a dirt road just outside the resort . She had been killed by blows to her head from a blunt instrument that left distinctive linear grooved depressions on her skull ; her body also had deep cuts from a sharp weapon . A hundred miles ( 160 km ) northeast of Snowmass on March 15 , Vail ski instructor Julie Cunningham , 26 , disappeared while walking from her apartment to a dinner date with a friend . Bundy later told Colorado investigators that he approached her on crutches and asked that she help carry his ski boots to his car , where he clubbed and handcuffed her , then assaulted and strangled her at a remote secondary site near Rifle , Colorado , 90 miles ( 140 km ) west of Vail . Weeks later he made the six @-@ hour drive from Salt Lake City to revisit her remains . Denise Oliverson , 25 , disappeared near the Utah – Colorado border in Grand Junction on April 6 while riding her bicycle to her parents ' house ; her bike and sandals were found under a viaduct near a railroad bridge . On May 6 Bundy lured 12 @-@ year @-@ old Lynette Culver from Alameda Junior High School in Pocatello , Idaho , 160 miles ( 260 km ) north of Salt Lake City . He drowned and then sexually assaulted her in his hotel room , then disposed of her body in a river north of Pocatello ( possibly the Snake ) .

In mid @-@ May three of Bundy 's Washington State DES coworkers , including Carole Ann Boone , visited him in Salt Lake City and stayed for a week in his apartment . Bundy spent a week in Seattle with Kloepfer in early June and they discussed getting married the following Christmas . Again , Kloepfer made no mention of her discussions with the King County Police and Salt Lake County Sheriff 's Office , and Bundy disclosed neither his ongoing relationship with Boone nor a concurrent romance with a Utah law student known in various accounts as Kim Andrews or Sharon Auer .

On June 28 Susan Curtis vanished from the campus of Brigham Young University in Provo , 45 miles ( 72 km ) south of Salt Lake City . Curtis 's murder became Bundy 's last confession , tape @-@ recorded moments before he entered the execution chamber . The bodies of Wilcox , Kent , Cunningham , Culver , Curtis , and Oliverson were never recovered .

In August or September 1975 he was baptized into The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints , although he was not an active participant in services and ignored most church restrictions . He would later be excommunicated by the LDS Church following his 1976 kidnapping conviction . ( When asked his religious preference after his arrest , Bundy answered " Methodist " , the religion of his childhood . )

In Washington state , investigators were still struggling to analyze the Pacific Northwest murder spree that had ended as abruptly as it had begun . In an effort to make sense of an overwhelming mass of data , they resorted to the then @-@ innovative strategy of compiling a database . They used the King County payroll computer , a " huge , primitive machine " by contemporary standards , but the only one available for their use . After inputting the many lists they had compiled — classmates and acquaintances of each victim , Volkswagen owners named " Ted " , known sex offenders , and so on — they queried the computer for coincidences . Out of thousands of names , 26 turned up on four separate lists ; one was Ted Bundy . Detectives also manually compiled a list of their 100 " best " suspects , and Bundy was on that list as well . He was " literally at the top of the pile " of suspects when word came from Utah of his arrest .

= = Arrest and first trial = =

Bundy was arrested in August 1975 by a Utah Highway Patrol officer in Granger , another Salt Lake City suburb , after he failed to pull over for a routine traffic stop . The officer , noting that the Volkswagen 's front passenger seat was missing , searched his car ; he found a ski mask , a second mask fashioned from pantyhose , a crowbar , handcuffs , trash bags , a coil of rope , an ice pick , and other items initially assumed to be burglary tools . Bundy explained that the ski mask was for skiing , he had found the handcuffs in a dumpster , and the rest were common household items . However , Detective Jerry Thompson remembered a similar suspect and car description from the November 1974 DaRonch kidnapping , and Bundy 's name from Kloepfer 's December 1974 phone call . In a search of Bundy 's apartment police found a guide to Colorado ski resorts with a checkmark by the Wildwood Inn , and a brochure advertising the Viewmont High School play in Bountiful ( where Debra Kent had disappeared ) , but nothing sufficiently incriminating to hold him . He was released on his own recognizance . ( Bundy later said that searchers missed a collection of Polaroid photographs of his victims hidden in the utility room , which he destroyed after he was released . )

Salt Lake City police placed Bundy on 24 @-@ hour surveillance , and Thompson flew to Seattle with two other detectives to interview Kloepfer . She told them that in the year prior to Bundy 's move to Utah she had discovered objects she " couldn 't understand " in her house and in Bundy 's apartment : a set of crutches ; a bag of plaster of Paris that he admitted stealing from a medical supply house ; a meat cleaver , never used for cooking , that he packed when he moved to Utah ; surgical gloves ; an Oriental knife in a wooden case that he kept in his glove compartment ; and a sack full of women 's clothing . Bundy was perpetually in debt to everyone , and Kloepfer suspected he had stolen almost everything of significant value that he owned . Once , when she confronted him over a new TV and stereo , he warned her , " If you tell anyone , I 'll break your fucking neck . " She said Bundy became " very upset " whenever she considered cutting her hair — which was long and parted in the middle . She would sometimes awaken in the middle of the night to find him under the bed covers with a flashlight , examining her body . He kept a lug wrench , taped halfway up the handle , in the trunk of her car ( she too owned a Volkswagen Beetle , which Ted often borrowed ) " for protection " . The detectives confirmed that Bundy had not been with Kloepfer on any of the nights during which the Pacific Northwest victims had vanished , nor on the day Ott and Naslund were abducted . Shortly thereafter , Kloepfer was interviewed by Seattle homicide detective Kathy McChesney and learned of the existence of Stephanie Brooks and her brief engagement to Bundy around Christmas 1973 .

In September Bundy sold his Volkswagen Beetle to a Midvale teenager . Utah police impounded it , and FBI technicians dismantled and searched it . They found hairs matching samples obtained from Caryn Campbell 's body . Later , they also identified hair strands " microscopically indistinguishable " from those of Melissa Smith and Carol DaRonch . FBI lab specialist Robert Neill concluded that the presence of hair strands in one car matching three different victims who had never met one another would be " a coincidence of mind @-@ boggling rarity " .

On October 2 , detectives put Bundy in a lineup before DaRonch , who immediately identified him as " Officer Roseland " . Witnesses from Bountiful picked him from the same lineup as the stranger lurking about the high school auditorium . There was insufficient evidence linking him to Debra Kent ( whose body was never found ) , but more than enough to charge him with aggravated kidnapping and attempted criminal assault in the DaRonch case . He was freed on $ 15 @,@ 000 bail , paid by his parents , and spent most of the time between indictment and trial in Seattle , living in Kloepfer 's house . Seattle police had insufficient evidence to charge him in the Pacific Northwest murders , but kept him under close surveillance . " When Ted and I stepped out on the porch to go somewhere , " Kloepfer wrote , " so many unmarked police cars started up that it sounded like the beginning of the Indy 500 . "

In November , the three principal Bundy investigators — Jerry Thompson from Utah , Robert Keppel from Washington , and Michael Fisher from Colorado — met and exchanged information with 30 detectives and prosecutors from five states in Aspen , Colorado . While officials left the meeting ( later known as the Aspen Summit ) convinced that Bundy was the murderer they sought , they agreed that more hard evidence would be needed before he could be charged with any of the murders .

On February 23 , 1976 , Bundy stood trial for the DaRonch kidnapping , waiving his right to a jury on the advice of his attorney , John O 'Connell , due to the publicity surrounding the case . On March 1 , after a four @-@ day trial and a weekend of deliberation , Judge Stewart Hanson Jr. found him guilty of kidnapping and assault . He was sentenced to 1 to 15 years in the Utah State Prison on June 30 . In October he was found hiding in bushes in the prison yard carrying an " escape kit " — road maps , airline schedules , and a social security card — and spent several weeks in solitary confinement . Later that month , Colorado authorities charged him with Caryn Campbell 's murder . After a period of resistance , he waived extradition proceedings and was transferred to Aspen in January 1977 .

= = Escapes = =

On June 7 , 1977 , Bundy was transported 40 miles ( 64 km ) from the Garfield County jail in Glenwood Springs to Pitkin County Courthouse in Aspen for a preliminary hearing . He had elected to serve as his own attorney and as such was excused by the judge from wearing handcuffs or leg shackles . During a recess he asked to visit the courthouse 's law library to research his case . Concealed behind a bookcase , he opened a window and jumped from the second story , spraining his right ankle as he landed . After shedding an outer layer of clothing he walked through Aspen as roadblocks were being set up on its outskirts , then hiked southward onto Aspen Mountain . Near its summit he broke into a hunting cabin and stole food , clothing , and a rifle . The following day he left the cabin and continued south toward the town of Crested Butte , but became lost in the forest . For two days he wandered aimlessly on the mountain , missing two trails that led downward to his intended destination . On June 10 Bundy broke into a camping trailer on Maroon Lake , 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Aspen , taking food and a ski parka ; but instead of continuing southward he walked back north toward Aspen , eluding roadblocks and search parties . Three days later he stole a car at the edge of Aspen Golf Course . Cold , sleep @-@ deprived , and in constant pain from his sprained ankle , he drove back into Aspen , where two police officers noticed his car weaving in and out of its lane and pulled him over . He had been a fugitive for six days . In the car were maps of the mountain area around Aspen that prosecutors were using to demonstrate the location of Caryn Campbell 's body ( as his own attorney , Bundy had rights of discovery ) , indicating that his escape had been planned .

Back in jail in Glenwood Springs , Bundy ignored the advice of friends and legal advisors to stay put . The case against him , already weak at best , was deteriorating steadily as pretrial motions consistently resolved in his favor and significant bits of evidence were ruled inadmissible . " A more rational defendant might have realized that he stood a good chance of acquittal , and that beating the murder charge in Colorado would probably have dissuaded other prosecutors ... with as little as a year and a half to serve on the DaRonch conviction , had Ted persevered , he could have been a free man . " Instead , Bundy devised a new escape plan . He acquired a detailed floor plan of the jail and a hacksaw blade from other inmates and accumulated $ 500 in cash , smuggled in over a six @-@ month period , he later said , by visitors — Carole Ann Boone in particular . During the evenings , while other prisoners were showering , he sawed a hole about one foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) square between the steel reinforcing bars in his cell 's ceiling and , after losing 35 pounds ( 16 kg ) , was able to wriggle through it into the crawl space above . In the weeks that followed he made a series of practice runs , exploring the space . Multiple reports from an informant of movement within the ceiling during the night were not investigated .

By late 1977 , Bundy 's impending trial had become a cause célèbre in the small town of Aspen , and Bundy filed a motion for a change of venue to Denver . On December 23 the Aspen trial judge granted the request — but to Colorado Springs , where juries had historically been hostile to murder suspects . On the night of December 30 , with most of the jail staff on Christmas break and nonviolent prisoners on furlough with their families , Bundy piled books and files in his bed , covered them with a blanket to simulate his sleeping body , and climbed into the crawlspace . He broke through the ceiling into the apartment of the chief jailer — who was out for the evening with his wife — changed into street clothes from the jailer 's closet , and walked out the front door to freedom .

After stealing a car , Bundy drove eastward out of Glenwood Springs , but the car soon broke down in the mountains on Interstate 70 . A passing motorist gave him a ride into Vail , 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the east . From there he caught a bus to Denver , where he boarded a flight to Chicago . In Glenwood Springs , the jail 's skeleton crew did not discover the escape until noon on December 31 , more than 17 hours later . By then Bundy was already in Chicago .

= = Florida = =

From Chicago , Bundy traveled by train to Ann Arbor , Michigan . There , on January 2 in a local tavern , he watched his alma mater UW defeat Michigan in the Rose Bowl . Five days later he stole a car and drove to Atlanta , where he boarded a bus and arrived in Tallahassee , Florida , on January 8 . He rented a room under the alias Chris Hagen at a boarding house near the Florida State University ( FSU ) campus . Bundy later said that he initially resolved to find legitimate employment and refrain from further criminal activity , knowing he could probably remain free and undetected in Florida indefinitely as long as he did not attract the attention of police ; but his lone job application , at a construction site , had to be abandoned when he was asked to produce identification . He reverted to his old habits of shoplifting and stealing credit cards from women 's wallets left in shopping carts .

Sometime during the evening of January 14 or the early hours of January 15 , 1978 — one week after his arrival in Tallahassee — Bundy entered FSU 's Chi Omega sorority house through a rear door with a faulty lock . Beginning at about 2 : 45 am he bludgeoned Margaret Bowman , 21 , with a piece of oak firewood as she slept , then garroted her with a nylon stocking . He then entered the bedroom of 20 @-@ year @-@ old Lisa Levy and beat her unconscious , strangled her , tore one of her nipples , bit deeply into her left buttock , and sexually assaulted her with a hair mist bottle . In an adjoining bedroom he attacked Kathy Kleiner , breaking her jaw and deeply lacerating her shoulder ; and Karen Chandler , who suffered a concussion , broken jaw , loss of teeth , and a crushed finger . Tallahassee detectives later determined that the four attacks took place in a total of less than 15 minutes , within earshot of more than 30 witnesses who heard nothing . After leaving the sorority house Bundy broke into a basement apartment eight blocks away and attacked FSU student Cheryl Thomas , dislocating her shoulder and fracturing her jaw and skull in five places . She was left with permanent deafness , and equilibrium damage that ended her dance career . On Thomas 's bed police found a semen stain and a pantyhose " mask " containing two hairs " similar to Bundy 's in class and characteristic " .

On February 8 Bundy drove 150 miles ( 240 km ) east to Jacksonville in a stolen FSU van . In a parking lot he approached 14 @-@ year @-@ old Leslie Parmenter , the daughter of Jacksonville Police Department 's Chief of Detectives , identifying himself as " Richard Burton , Fire Department " , but retreated when Parmenter 's older brother arrived . That afternoon he backtracked 60 miles ( 97 km ) westward to Lake City . At Lake City Junior High School the following morning , 12 @-@ year @-@ old Kimberly Diane Leach was summoned to her homeroom by a teacher to retrieve a forgotten purse ; she never returned to class . Seven weeks later , after an intensive search , her partially mummified remains were found in a pig farrowing shed near Suwannee River State Park , 35 miles ( 56 km ) northwest of Lake City .

On February 12 , with insufficient cash to pay his overdue rent and a growing suspicion that police were closing in on him , Bundy stole a car and fled Tallahassee , driving westward across the Florida Panhandle . Three days later at around 1 : 00 a.m. , he was stopped by Pensacola police officer David Lee near the Alabama state line after a " wants and warrants " check showed his Volkswagen Beetle as stolen . When told he was under arrest , Bundy kicked Lee 's legs out from under him and took off running . Lee fired a warning shot and then a second round , gave chase , and tackled him . The two struggled over Lee 's gun before the officer finally subdued and arrested Bundy . In the stolen vehicle were three sets of IDs belonging to female FSU students , 21 stolen credit cards , and a stolen television set . Also found were a pair of dark @-@ rimmed non @-@ prescription glasses and a pair of plaid slacks , later identified as the disguise worn in Jacksonville . As Lee transported his suspect to jail , unaware that he had just arrested one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives , he heard Bundy say , " I wish you had killed me . "

= = Florida trials , marriage = =

Following a change of venue to Miami , Bundy stood trial for the Chi Omega homicides and assaults in June 1979 . The trial was covered by 250 reporters from five continents , and was the first to be televised nationally in the United States . Despite the presence of five court @-@ appointed attorneys , Bundy again handled much of his own defense . From the beginning , he " sabotaged the entire defense effort out of spite , distrust , and grandiose delusion " , Nelson later wrote . " Ted [ was ] facing murder charges , with a possible death sentence , and all that mattered to him apparently was that he be in charge . "

According to Mike Minerva , a Tallahassee public defender and member of the defense team , a pre @-@ trial plea bargain was negotiated in which Bundy would plead guilty to killing Levy , Bowman , and Leach in exchange for a firm 75 @-@ year prison sentence . Prosecutors were amenable to a deal , by one account , because " prospects of losing at trial were very good . " Bundy , on the other hand , saw the plea deal not only as a means of avoiding the death penalty , but also as a " tactical move " : He could enter his plea , then wait a few years for evidence to disintegrate or become lost , and for witnesses to die , move on , or retract their testimony . Once the case against him had deteriorated beyond repair , he could file a post @-@ conviction motion to set aside the plea and secure an acquittal . At the last minute , however , Bundy refused the deal . " It made him realize he was going to have to stand up in front of the whole world and say he was guilty " , Minerva said . " He just couldn 't do it . "

At trial , crucial testimony came from Chi Omega members Connie Hastings , who placed Bundy in the vicinity of Chi Omega House that evening ; and Nita Neary , who saw him leaving the sorority house clutching the oak murder weapon . Incriminating physical evidence included the bite impressions Bundy left in Levy 's left buttock , which forensic odontologists Richard Souviron and Lowell Levine matched to castings of Bundy 's teeth . The jury deliberated less than seven hours before convicting him on July 24 , 1979 of the two murders , three counts of attempted first degree murder , and two counts of burglary . Trial judge Edward Cowart imposed death sentences for the murder convictions .

Six months later , a second trial took place in Orlando for the abduction and murder of Kimberly Leach . Bundy was found guilty once again , after less than eight hours ' deliberation , due principally to the testimony of an eyewitness who saw him leading Leach from the schoolyard to his stolen van . Important material evidence included clothing fibers with an unusual manufacturing error , found in the van and on Leach 's body , which matched fibers from the jacket Bundy was wearing when he was arrested .

During the penalty phase of the trial , Bundy took advantage of an obscure Florida law providing that a marriage declaration in court , in the presence of a judge , constituted a legal marriage . As he was questioning former Washington State DES coworker Carole Ann Boone — who had moved to Florida to be near Bundy , had testified on his behalf during both trials , and was again testifying on his behalf as a character witness — he asked her to marry him . She accepted , and Bundy declared to the court that they were legally married .

On February 10 , 1980 , Bundy was sentenced to death by electrocution for a third time . As the sentence was announced , he reportedly stood and shouted , " Tell the jury they were wrong ! " This third death sentence would be the one ultimately carried out nearly nine years later .

In October 1982 , Boone gave birth to a daughter and named Bundy as the father . While conjugal visits were not allowed at Raiford Prison , inmates were known to pool their money to bribe guards to allow them intimate time alone with their female visitors .

= = Death row , confessions , and execution = =

Shortly after the conclusion of the Leach trial and the beginning of the long appeals process that followed , Bundy initiated a series of interviews with Stephen Michaud and Hugh Aynesworth . Speaking mostly in third person to avoid " the stigma of confession " , he began for the first time to divulge details of his crimes and thought processes .

He recounted his career as a thief , confirming Kloepfer 's long @-@ time suspicion that he had shoplifted virtually everything of substance that he owned . " The big payoff for me , " he said , " was actually possessing whatever it was I had stolen . I really enjoyed having something ... that I had wanted and gone out and taken . " Possession proved to be an important motive for rape and murder as well . Sexual assault , he said , fulfilled his need to " totally possess " his victims . At first he killed the women " as a matter of expediency ... to eliminate the possibility of [ being ] caught " ; but later , murder became part of the " adventure " . " The ultimate possession was , in fact , the taking of the life " , he said . " And then ... the physical possession of the remains . "

Bundy also confided in Special Agent William Hagmaier of the FBI Behavioral Analysis Unit . Hagmaier was struck by the " deep , almost mystical satisfaction " that Bundy took in murder . " He said that after a while , murder is not just a crime of lust or violence " , Hagmaier related . " It becomes possession . They are part of you ... [ the victim ] becomes a part of you , and you [ two ] are forever one ... and the grounds where you kill them or leave them become sacred to you , and you will always be drawn back to them . " Bundy told Hagmaier he considered himself an " amateur " , an " impulsive " killer in his early years , before moving into what he called his " prime " or " predator " phase at about the time of Lynda Healy 's murder in 1974 . This implied that he began killing well before 1974 — though he never explicitly admitted doing so .

In July 1984 Raiford guards found two hacksaw blades hidden in Bundy 's cell . A steel bar in one of its windows had been sawed completely through at the top and bottom and glued back in place with a homemade soap @-@ based adhesive . Several months later his cell was changed again after guards found a mirror .

Sometime during this period Bundy was attacked by a group of his fellow death row inmates . Though he denied having been assaulted , a number of inmates confessed to the crime , characterized by one source as a " gang rape " . Shortly thereafter he was charged with a disciplinary infraction for unauthorized correspondence with another high @-@ profile criminal , John Hinckley , Jr . In October 1984 Bundy , who by then considered himself an expert on serial killers , contacted Robert Keppel and offered to share his self @-@ proclaimed expertise in the ongoing hunt for his successor in Washington , the Green River Killer . Keppel and Green River Task Force detective Dave Reichert interviewed Bundy , but Gary Leon Ridgway remained at large for a further 17 years . Keppel published a detailed documentation of the Green River interviews , and later collaborated with Michaud on another examination of the interview material .

In early 1986 an execution date ( March 4 ) was set on the Chi Omega convictions ; the Supreme Court issued a brief stay , but the execution was quickly rescheduled . In April , shortly after the new date ( July 2 ) was announced , Bundy confessed to Hagmaier and Nelson what they believed was the full range of his depredations , including details of what he did to some victims after their deaths . He told them that he revisited Taylor Mountain , Issaquah , and other secondary crime scenes , often several times , to lie with his victims and perform sexual acts with their decomposing bodies until putrefaction forced him to stop . In some cases he drove several hours each way and remained the entire night . In Utah he applied makeup to Melissa Smith 's lifeless face , and he repeatedly washed Laura Aime 's hair . " If you 've got time , " he told Hagmaier , " they can be anything you want them to be . " He decapitated approximately twelve of his victims with a hacksaw , and kept at least one group of severed heads — probably the four later found on Taylor Mountain ( Rancourt , Parks , Ball , and Healy ) — in his apartment for a period of time before disposing of them .

Less than 15 hours before the scheduled July 2 execution , the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals stayed it indefinitely and remanded the Chi Omega case for review of multiple technicalities — including Bundy 's mental competency to stand trial , and an erroneous instruction by the trial judge during the penalty phase requiring the jury to break a 6 – 6 tie between life imprisonment and the death penalty — that , ultimately , were never resolved . A new date ( November 18 , 1986 ) was then set to carry out the Leach sentence ; the Eleventh Circuit Court issued a stay on November 17 . In mid @-@ 1988 the Eleventh Circuit ruled against Bundy , and in December the Supreme Court denied a motion to review the ruling . Within hours of that final denial a firm execution date of January 24 , 1989 was announced . Bundy 's journey through the appeals courts had been unusually rapid for a capital murder case : " Contrary to popular belief , the courts moved Bundy as fast as they could ... Even the prosecutors acknowledged that Bundy 's lawyers never employed delaying tactics . Though people everywhere seethed at the apparent delay in executing the archdemon , Ted Bundy was actually on the fast track . "

With all appeal avenues exhausted and no further motivation to deny his crimes , Bundy agreed to speak frankly with investigators . To Keppel , he confessed to all eight of the Washington and Oregon homicides for which he was the prime suspect . He described three additional previously unknown victims in Washington and two in Oregon whom he declined to identify ( if indeed he ever knew their identities ) . He said he left a fifth corpse — Donna Manson 's — on Taylor Mountain , but incinerated her head in Kloepfer 's fireplace . ( " Of all the things I did to [ Kloepfer ] , " he told Keppel , " this is probably the one she is least likely to forgive me for . Poor Liz . " )

He described in detail his abduction of Georgann Hawkins from the brightly lit UW alley — how he lured her to his car , clubbed and handcuffed her , drove her to Issaquah and strangled her , spent the entire night with her body , and revisited her corpse on three later occasions . He also admitted , for the first time , that he returned the following morning to the UW alley . There , in the very midst of a major crime scene investigation , he located and gathered Hawkins 's earrings and one of her shoes where he had left them in the adjoining parking lot and departed , unobserved . " It was a feat so brazen , " wrote Keppel , " that it astonishes police even today . "

" He described the Issaquah crime scene [ where the bones of Ott , Naslund , and Hawkins were found ] , and it was almost like he was just there " , Keppel said . " Like he was seeing everything . He was infatuated with the idea because he spent so much time there . He is just totally consumed with murder all the time . " Nelson 's impressions were similar : " It was the absolute misogyny of his crimes that stunned me , " she wrote , " his manifest rage against women . He had no compassion at all ... he was totally engrossed in the details . His murders were his life 's accomplishments . "

To detectives from Idaho , Utah , and Colorado , Bundy confessed to numerous additional homicides , including several that police had been unaware of . He explained that in Utah he could bring his victims back to his apartment , " where he could reenact scenarios depicted on the covers of detective magazines . " A new ulterior strategy quickly became apparent : He withheld many details , hoping to parlay the incomplete information into yet another stay of execution . " There are other buried remains in Colorado " , he admitted , but refused to elaborate . The new strategy — immediately dubbed " Ted 's bones @-@ for @-@ time scheme " — served only to deepen the resolve of authorities to see Bundy executed on schedule , and yielded little new detailed information . In cases where he did give details , nothing was found . Colorado detective Matt Lindvall interpreted this as a conflict between his desire to postpone his execution by divulging information and his need to remain in " total possession — the only person who knew his victims ' true resting places . "

When it became clear that no further stays would be forthcoming from the courts , Bundy supporters began lobbying for the only remaining option , executive clemency . Diana Weiner , a young Florida attorney and Bundy 's last purported love interest , asked the families of several Colorado and Utah victims to petition Florida Governor Bob Martinez for a postponement to give Bundy time to reveal more information . All refused . " The families already believed that the victims were dead and that Ted had killed them " , wrote Nelson . " They didn 't need his confession . " Martinez made it clear that he would not agree to further delays in any case . " We are not going to have the system manipulated " , he told reporters . " For him to be negotiating for his life over the bodies of victims is despicable . "

Carole Ann Boone , who had championed Bundy 's innocence throughout all of his trials , felt " deeply betrayed " by his admission that he was , in fact , guilty . She moved back to Washington with her daughter and refused to accept his final , pre @-@ execution phone call . " She was hurt by his relationship with Diana [ Wiener ] , " Nelson wrote , " and devastated by his sudden wholesale confessions in his last days . "

Hagmaier was present during Bundy 's final interviews with investigators . On the eve of his execution , he talked of suicide . " He did not want to give the state the satisfaction of watching him die " , Hagmaier said . Ted Bundy died in the Raiford electric chair at 7 : 16 a.m. EST on January 24 , 1989 ; he was 42 years old . Hundreds of revelers — including 20 off @-@ duty police officers , by one account — sang , danced , and set off fireworks in a pasture across the street from the prison as the execution was carried out , then cheered loudly as the white hearse containing Bundy 's corpse departed the prison . His remains were cremated in Gainesville and the ashes scattered at an undisclosed location in the Cascade Range of Washington State in accordance with his will .

= = Modus operandi and victim profiles = =

Bundy was an unusually organized and calculating criminal who used his extensive knowledge of law enforcement methodologies to elude identification and capture for years . His crime scenes were distributed over large geographic areas ; his victim count had risen to at least 20 before it became clear that numerous investigators in widely disparate jurisdictions were hunting the same man . His assault methods of choice were blunt trauma and strangulation , two relatively silent techniques that could be accomplished with common household items . He deliberately avoided firearms due to the noise they made and the ballistic evidence they left behind . He was a " meticulous researcher " who explored his surroundings in minute detail , looking for safe sites to seize and dispose of victims . He was unusually skilled at minimizing physical evidence . His fingerprints were never found at a crime scene , nor was any other incontrovertible evidence of his guilt , a fact he repeated often during the years in which he attempted to maintain his innocence .

Other significant obstacles for law enforcement were Bundy 's generic , essentially anonymous physical features , and a curious chameleon @-@ like ability to change his appearance almost at will . Early on , police complained of the futility of showing his photograph to witnesses ; he looked different in virtually every photo ever taken of him . In person , " ... his expression would so change his whole appearance that there were moments that you weren 't even sure you were looking at the same person " , said Stewart Hanson , Jr . , the judge in the DaRonch trial . " He [ was ] really a changeling . " Bundy was well aware of this unusual quality and he exploited it , using subtle modifications of facial hair or hairstyle to significantly alter his appearance as necessary . He concealed his one distinctive identifying mark , a dark mole on his neck , with turtleneck shirts and sweaters . Even his Volkswagen Beetle proved difficult to pin down ; its color was variously described by witnesses as metallic or non @-@ metallic , tan or bronze , light brown or dark brown .

Bundy 's modus operandi evolved in organization and sophistication over time , as is typical of serial murderers , according to FBI experts . Early on , it consisted of forcible late @-@ night entry followed by a violent attack with a blunt weapon on a sleeping victim . Some victims were sexually assaulted with inert objects ; all except Healy were left as they lay , unconscious or dead . As his methodology evolved Bundy became progressively more organized in his choice of victims and crime scenes . He would employ various ruses designed to lure his victim to the vicinity of his vehicle where he had pre @-@ positioned a weapon , usually a crowbar . In many cases he wore a plaster cast on one leg or a sling on one arm , and sometimes hobbled on crutches , then requested assistance in carrying something to his vehicle . Bundy was regarded as handsome and charismatic by many of his victims , traits he exploited to win their confidence . " Ted lured females " , Michaud wrote , " the way a lifeless silk flower can dupe a honey bee . " Once near or inside his vehicle the victim would be overpowered , bludgeoned , and restrained with handcuffs . Most were sexually assaulted and strangled , either at the primary crime scene or ( more commonly ) after transport to a pre @-@ selected secondary site , often a considerable distance away . In situations where his looks and charm were not useful , he invoked authority by identifying himself as a police officer or firefighter . Toward the end of his spree , in Florida , perhaps under the stress of being a fugitive , he regressed to indiscriminate attacks on sleeping victims .

At secondary sites he would remove and later burn the victim 's clothing , or in at least one case ( Cunningham 's ) deposit them in a Goodwill Industries collection bin . Bundy explained that the clothing removal was ritualistic , but also a practical matter , as it minimized the chance of leaving trace evidence at the crime scene that could implicate him . ( A manufacturing error in fibers from his own clothing , ironically , provided a crucial incriminating link to Kimberly Leach . ) He often revisited his secondary crime scenes to engage in acts of necrophilia , and to groom or dress up the cadavers . Some victims were found wearing articles of clothing they had never worn , or nail polish that family members had never seen . He took Polaroid photos of many of his victims . " When you work hard to do something right , " he told Hagmaier , " you don 't want to forget it . " Consumption of large quantities of alcohol was an " essential component " , he told Keppel , and later Michaud ; he needed to be " extremely drunk " while on the prowl in order to " significantly diminish " his inhibitions and to " sedate " the " dominant personality " that he feared might prevent his inner " entity " from acting on his impulses .

All of Bundy 's known victims were white females , most of middle @-@ class backgrounds . Almost all were between the ages of 15 and 25 and most were college students . He apparently never approached anyone he might have met before . ( In their last conversation before his execution , Bundy told Kloepfer he had purposely stayed away from her " when he felt the power of his sickness building in him . " ) Rule noted that most of the identified victims had long straight hair , parted in the middle — like Stephanie Brooks , the woman who rejected him , and to whom he later became engaged and then rejected in return . Rule speculated that Bundy 's animosity toward his first girlfriend triggered his protracted rampage and caused him to target victims who resembled her . Bundy dismissed this hypothesis : " [ T ] hey ... just fit the general criteria of being young and attractive " , he told Hugh Aynesworth . " Too many people have bought this crap that all the girls were similar ... [ but ] almost everything was dissimilar ... physically , they were almost all different . " He did concede that youth and beauty were " absolutely indispensable criteria " in his choice of victims .

= = Pathology = =

Bundy underwent multiple psychiatric examinations ; the experts ' conclusions varied . Dorothy Otnow Lewis , Professor of Psychiatry at the New York University School of Medicine and an authority on violent behavior , initially made a diagnosis of bipolar disorder , but later changed her impression more than once . She also suggested the possibility of a multiple personality disorder , based on behaviors described in interviews and court testimony : A great @-@ aunt witnessed an episode during which Bundy " ... seemed to turn into another , unrecognizable person ... [ she ] suddenly , inexplicably found herself afraid of her favorite nephew as they waited together at a dusk @-@ darkened train station . He had turned into a stranger . " Lewis recounted a prison official in Tallahassee describing a similar transformation : " He said , ' He became weird on me . ' He did a metamorphosis , a body and facial change , and he felt there was almost an odor emitting from him . He said , ' Almost a complete change of personality ... that was the day I was afraid of him . ' " Narcissistic personality disorder ( NPD ) has also been proposed in at least one subsequent retrospective analysis .

While experts found Bundy 's precise diagnosis elusive , the majority of evidence pointed away from bipolar disorder or other psychoses , and toward antisocial personality disorder ( ASPD ) . ASPD patients — frequently identified as " sociopaths " or " psychopaths " — are often outwardly charming , even charismatic ; but beneath the facade there is little true personality or genuine insight . Most sociopaths are not demonstrably psychotic ; they can readily distinguish right from wrong , but such ability has minimal effect on their behavior . They are devoid of feelings of guilt or remorse , a point readily admitted by Bundy himself . " Guilt doesn 't solve anything , really " , he said in 1981 . " It hurts you ... I guess I am in the enviable position of not having to deal with guilt . " Other hallmarks include narcissism , poor judgment , and manipulative behavior . " Sociopaths " , prosecutor George Dekle wrote , " are egotistical manipulators who think they can con anybody . " " Sometimes he manipulates even me " , admitted one psychiatrist . In the end , Lewis agreed with the majority : " I always tell my graduate students that if they can find me a real , true psychopath , I 'll buy them dinner " , she told Nelson . " I never thought they existed ... but I think Ted may have been one , a true psychopath , without any remorse or empathy at all . "

On the afternoon before he was executed Bundy granted an interview to James Dobson , a psychologist and founder of the Christian evangelical organization Focus on the Family . He used the opportunity to make new statements about violence in the media and the pornographic " roots " of his crimes . " It happened in stages , gradually " , he said . " My experience with ... pornography that deals on a violent level with sexuality , is once you become addicted to it ... I would keep looking for more potent , more explicit , more graphic kinds of material . Until you reach a point where the pornography only goes so far ... where you begin to wonder if maybe actually doing it would give that which is beyond just reading it or looking at it . " Violence in the media , he said , " particularly sexualized violence " , sent boys " down the road to being Ted Bundys . " The FBI , he suggested , should stake out adult movie houses and follow patrons as they leave . " You are going to kill me , " he said , " and that will protect society from me . But out there are many , many more people who are addicted to pornography , and you are doing nothing about that . "

Multiple biographers , researchers , and other observers have concluded that Bundy 's sudden condemnation of pornography was one last manipulative attempt to shift blame by catering to Dobson 's agenda as a longtime anti @-@ pornography advocate , telling him precisely what he wanted to hear . While he asserted in the Dobson interview that detective magazines and other reading material had " corrupted " him and " fueled [ his ] fantasies ... to the point of becoming a serial killer " , in a 1977 letter to Ann Rule he wrote , " Who in the world reads these publications ? ... I have never purchased such a magazine , and [ on only ] two or three occasions have I ever picked one up . " He told Michaud and Aynsworth in 1980 , and Hagmaier the night before he spoke to Dobson , that pornography played a negligible role in his development as a serial killer . " The problem wasn 't pornography " , wrote Dekle . " The problem was Bundy . " Nelson expressed the minority view , that Bundy 's concern about the dangers of violent pornography was genuine .

Rule and Aynesworth both noted that , for Bundy , the fault always lay with someone or something else . While he eventually confessed to 30 murders , he never accepted responsibility for any of them , even when offered that opportunity prior to the Chi Omega trial — which would have averted the death penalty . He deflected blame onto a wide variety of scapegoats , including his abusive grandfather , the absence of his biological father , the concealment of his true parentage , alcohol , the media , the police ( whom he accused of planting evidence ) , " society " in general , violence on television , and ultimately , true crime periodicals and pornography . He blamed television programming — which he watched mostly on sets that he had stolen — for " brainwashing " him into stealing credit cards . On at least one occasion he even tried to blame his victims : " I have known people who ... radiate vulnerability " , he wrote in a 1977 letter to Kloepfer . " Their facial expressions say ' I am afraid of you . ' These people invite abuse ... By expecting to be hurt , do they subtly encourage it ? "

A significant element of delusion permeated his thinking :

Bundy was always surprised when anyone noticed that one of his victims was missing , because he imagined America to be a place where everyone is invisible except to themselves . And he was always astounded when people testified that they had seen him in incriminating places , because Bundy did not believe people noticed each other .

" I don 't know why everyone is out to get me " , he complained to Lewis . " He really and truly did not have any sense of the enormity of what he had done , " she said . " A long @-@ term serial killer erects powerful barriers to his guilt , " Keppel wrote , " walls of denial that can sometimes never be breached . " Nelson agreed . " Each time he was forced to make an actual confession , " she wrote , " he had to leap a steep barrier he had built inside himself long ago . "

= = Victims = =

Bundy confessed to 30 homicides , but the true total remains unknown . Published estimates have run as high as 100 or more , and Bundy occasionally made cryptic comments to encourage that speculation . He told Hugh Aynesworth in 1980 that for every murder " publicized " , there " could be one that was not . " When FBI agents proposed a total tally of 36 , Bundy responded , " Add one digit to that , and you 'll have it . " Years later he told attorney Polly Nelson that the common estimate of 35 was accurate , but Robert Keppel wrote that " [ Ted ] and I both knew [ the total ] was much higher . " " I don 't think even he knew ... how many he killed , or why he killed them " , said Rev. Fred Lawrence , the Methodist clergyman who administered Bundy 's last rites . " That was my impression , my strong impression . "

On the evening before his execution , Bundy reviewed his victim tally with Bill Hagmaier on a state @-@ by @-@ state basis :

in Washington , 11 ( including Parks , abducted in Oregon but killed in Washington ; and including 3 unidentified )

in Utah , 8 ( 3 unidentified )

in Colorado , 3

in Florida , 3

in Oregon , 2 ( both unidentified )

in Idaho , 2 ( 1 unidentified )

in California , 1 ( unidentified )

The following is a chronological summary of the 20 identified victims and 5 identified survivors :

= = = 1974 = = =

= = = = Washington , Oregon = = = =

January 4 : Karen Sparks ( often identified as Joni Lenz in Bundy literature ) ( age 18 ) : Bludgeoned and sexually assaulted in her bed as she slept ; survived

February 1 : Lynda Ann Healy ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned while asleep and abducted ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site

March 12 : Donna Gail Manson ( 19 ) : Abducted while walking to a concert at The Evergreen State College ; body left ( according to Bundy ) at Taylor Mountain site , but never found

April 17 : Susan Elaine Rancourt ( 18 ) : Disappeared after attending an evening advisors ' meeting at Central Washington State College ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site

May 6 : Roberta Kathleen Parks ( 22 ) : Vanished from Oregon State University in Corvallis ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site

June 1 : Brenda Carol Ball ( 22 ) : Disappeared after leaving the Flame Tavern in Burien ; skull and mandible recovered at Taylor Mountain site

June 11 : Georgann ( often misspelled " Georgeann " ) Hawkins ( 18 ) : Abducted from an alley behind her sorority house , UW ; skeletal remains identified by Bundy as Hawkins 's recovered at Issaquah site

July 14 : Janice Ann Ott ( 23 ) : Abducted from Lake Sammamish State Park in broad daylight ; skeletal remains recovered at Issaquah site

July 14 : Denise Marie Naslund ( 19 ) : Abducted four hours after Ott from the same park ; skeletal remains recovered at Issaquah site

= = = = Utah , Colorado , Idaho = = = =

October 2 : Nancy Wilcox ( 16 ) : Ambushed , assaulted , and strangled in Holladay , Utah ; body buried ( according to Bundy ) near Capitol Reef National Park , 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of Salt Lake City , but never found

October 18 : Melissa Anne Smith ( 17 ) : Vanished from Midvale , Utah ; body found in nearby mountainous area

October 31 : Laura Ann Aime ( 17 ) : Disappeared from Lehi , Utah ; body discovered by hikers in American Fork Canyon

November 8 : Carol DaRonch ( 18 ) : Attempted abduction in Murray , Utah ; escaped from Bundy 's car and survived

November 8 : Debra Kent ( 17 ) : Vanished after leaving a school play in Bountiful , Utah ; body left ( according to Bundy ) near Fairview , Utah , 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of Bountiful ; minimal skeletal remains ( one patella ) found , but never positively identified as Kent 's

= = = 1975 = = =

January 12 : Caryn Campbell ( 23 ) : Disappeared from hotel hallway in Snowmass , Colorado ; body discovered on a dirt road near the hotel

March 15 : Julie Cunningham ( 26 ) : Disappeared on the way to a tavern in Vail , Colorado ; body buried ( according to Bundy ) near Rifle , 90 miles ( 140 km ) west of Vail , but never found

April 6 : Denise Oliverson ( 25 ) : Abducted while bicycling to her parents ' house in Grand Junction , Colorado ; body thrown ( according to Bundy ) into the Colorado River 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Grand Junction , but never found

May 6 : Lynette Culver ( 12 ) : Abducted from Alameda Junior High School in Pocatello , Idaho ; body thrown ( according to Bundy ) into what authorities believe to be the Snake River , but never found

June 28 : Susan Curtis ( 15 ) : Disappeared during a youth conference at Brigham Young University ; body buried ( according to Bundy ) near Price , Utah , 75 miles ( 121 km ) southeast of Provo , but never found

= = = 1978 = = =

= = = = Florida = = = =

January 15 : Margaret Bowman ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned and then strangled as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ( no secondary crime scene )

January 15 : Lisa Levy ( 20 ) : Bludgeoned , strangled and sexually assaulted as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ( no secondary crime scene )

January 15 : Karen Chandler ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ; survived

January 15 : Kathy Kleiner ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned as she slept , Chi Omega sorority , FSU ; survived

January 15 : Cheryl Thomas ( 21 ) : Bludgeoned as she slept , eight blocks from Chi Omega ; survived

February 9 : Kimberly Diane Leach ( 12 ) : Abducted from her junior high school in Lake City , Florida ; skeletal remains found near Suwannee River State Park , 43 miles ( 69 km ) west of Lake City

= = = Other possible victims = = =

Bundy remains a suspect in several unsolved homicides , and is likely responsible for others that may never be identified ; in 1987 he confided to Keppel that there were " some murders " that he would " never talk about " , because they were committed " too close to home " , " too close to family " , or involved " victims who were very young " .

Ann Marie Burr , age 8 , vanished from her Tacoma home on August 31 , 1961 when Bundy was 14 . The Burr house was on Bundy 's newspaper delivery route . The victim 's father was certain that he saw Bundy in a ditch at a construction site on the nearby UPS campus the morning his daughter disappeared . Other circumstantial evidence implicates him as well , but detectives familiar with the case have never agreed on the likelihood of his involvement . Bundy repeatedly denied culpability and wrote a letter of denial to the Burr family in 1986 ; but Keppel has observed that Burr fits all three of Bundy 's " no discussion " categories of " too close to home " , " too close to family " , and " very young " . Forensic testing of material evidence from the Burr crime scene , in 2011 , yielded insufficient intact DNA sequences for comparison with Bundy 's .

Flight attendants Lisa E. Wick and Lonnie Trumbull , both 20 , were bludgeoned with a piece of lumber as they slept in their basement apartment in Seattle 's Queen Anne Hill district on June 23 , 1966 near the Safeway store where Bundy worked at the time , and where the women regularly shopped . Trumbull died . In retrospect , Keppel noted many similarities to the Chi Omega crime scene . Wick , who suffered permanent memory loss as a result of the attack , later contacted Ann Rule : " I know that it was Ted Bundy who did that to us , " she wrote , " but I can 't tell you how I know . " In the absence of incriminating evidence , Bundy 's involvement remains speculative .

Vacationing college friends Susan Davis and Elizabeth Perry , both 19 , were stabbed to death on May 30 , 1969 . Their car was found that day abandoned beside the Garden State Parkway outside Somers Point , New Jersey , near Atlantic City , 60 miles ( 97 km ) south of Philadelphia ; and their bodies — one nude , one fully clothed — were found in nearby woods three days later . Bundy attended Temple University from January through May , 1969 and apparently did not move west until after Memorial Day weekend . While Bundy 's accounts of his earliest crimes varied considerably between interviews , he told forensic psychologist Art Norman that his first murder victims were two women in the Philadelphia area . Biographer Richard Larsen believed that Bundy committed the murders using his feigned @-@ injury ruse , based on an investigator 's interview with Julia , Bundy 's aunt : Ted , she said , was wearing a leg cast due to an automobile accident on the weekend of the homicides , and therefore could not have traveled from Philadelphia to the Jersey Shore ; there is no official record of any such accident . Bundy is considered a " strong suspect " , but the case remains open .

Rita Curran , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old elementary school teacher and part @-@ time motel maid , was murdered in her basement apartment on July 19 , 1971 in Burlington , Vermont ; she had been strangled , bludgeoned and raped . The location of the motel where she worked ( adjacent to Bundy 's birthplace , the Elizabeth Lund Home for Unwed Mothers ) and similarities to known Bundy crime scenes led retired FBI agent John Bassett to propose him as a suspect . No evidence firmly places Bundy in Burlington on that date , but municipal records note that a person named " Bundy " was bitten by a dog that week , and long stretches of Bundy 's time — including the summer of 1971 — remain unaccounted for . Curran 's murder officially remains unsolved .

Joyce LePage , 21 , was last seen on July 22 , 1971 on the campus of Washington State University , where she was an undergraduate . Nine months later her skeletal remains were found wrapped in carpeting and military blankets , bound with rope , in a deep ravine south of Pullman , Washington . Multiple suspects — including Bundy — have " never been cleared " , according to investigators . Whitman County authorities have said that Bundy remains a suspect .

Rita Lorraine Jolly , 17 , disappeared from West Linn , Oregon on June 29 , 1973 ; Vicki Lynn Hollar , 24 , disappeared from Eugene , Oregon on August 20 , 1973 . Bundy confessed to two homicides in Oregon without identifying the victims . Oregon detectives suspected that they were Jolly and Hollar , but were unable to obtain interview time with Bundy to confirm it . Both women remain classified as missing .

Katherine Merry Devine , 14 , was abducted on November 25 , 1973 , and her body was found the next month in the Capitol State Forest near Olympia , Washington . Brenda Joy Baker , 14 , was seen hitchhiking near Puyallup , Washington on May 27 , 1974 ; her body was found in Millersylvania State Park a month later . Though Bundy was widely believed responsible for both murders , he told Keppel that he had no knowledge of either case . DNA analysis led to the arrest and conviction of William E. Cosden for Devine 's murder in 2002 . The Baker homicide remains unsolved .

Sandra Jean Weaver , 19 , a Wisconsin native who had been living in Tooele , Utah , was last seen in Salt Lake City on July 1 , 1974 ; her nude body was discovered the following day near Grand Junction , Colorado . Sources conflict on whether Bundy mentioned Weaver 's name during the death row interviews . Her murder remains unsolved .

Carol L. Valenzuela , 20 , was last seen hitchhiking near Vancouver , Washington , on August 2 , 1974 . Her remains were discovered two months later in a shallow grave south of Olympia , along with those of another female later identified as Martha Morrison , 17 ( last seen in Eugene , Oregon on September 1 , 1974 ) . Both victims had long hair parted in the middle . In August 1974 Bundy drove from Seattle to Salt Lake City and could have passed through Vancouver and Eugene en route , but there is no evidence that he did . Both cases remain open .

Melanie Suzanne " Suzy " Cooley , 18 , disappeared on April 15 , 1975 , after leaving Nederland High School in Nederland , Colorado , 50 miles ( 80 km ) northwest of Denver . Her bludgeoned and strangled corpse was discovered by road maintenance workers two weeks later in Coal Creek Canyon , 20 miles ( 32 km ) away . While gas receipts place Bundy in nearby Golden on the day Cooley disappeared , and Cooley is included on the list of Bundy victims in most Bundy literature , Jefferson County authorities say the evidence is inconclusive and continue to treat her homicide as a cold case .

Shelly ( or Shelley ) Kay Robertson , 24 , failed to show up for work in Golden , Colorado on July 1 , 1975 . Her nude , decomposed body was found in August , 500 feet ( 150 m ) inside a mine on Berthoud Pass near Winter Park Resort by two mining students . Gas station receipts place Bundy in the area at the time , but there is no direct evidence of his involvement ; the case remains open .

Nancy Perry Baird , 23 , disappeared from the service station where she worked in Farmington , Utah , 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Salt Lake City , on July 4 , 1975 and remains classified as a missing person . Bundy specifically denied involvement in this case during the death row interviews .

Debbie Smith , 17 , was last seen in Salt Lake City in early February 1976 , shortly before the DaRonch trial began ; her body was found near the Salt Lake City International Airport on April 1 , 1976 . Though listed as a Bundy victim by some sources , her murder remains officially unsolved .

Minutes before his execution , Hagmaier queried Bundy about unsolved homicides in New Jersey , Illinois , Vermont ( the Curran case ) , Texas , and Miami , Florida . Bundy provided directions — later proven inaccurate — to Susan Curtis 's burial site in Utah , but denied involvement in any of the open cases .

= = Artifacts = =

Bundy 's 1968 Volkswagen Beetle was displayed in the lobby of the National Museum of Crime and Punishment in Washington DC until its closure in 2015 . It is presently on exhibit at the Alcatraz East Crime Museum in Pigeon Forge , Tennessee .

= = In media = =

= = = Film = = =

The Deliberate Stranger ( 1986 ) , starring Mark Harmon

Ted Bundy ( 2002 ) , starring Michael Reilly Burke

The Stranger Beside Me ( 2003 ) , starring Billy Campbell

Bundy : A Legacy of Evil ( 2008 ) , starring Corin Nemec

= Lovely ( Desperate Housewives ) =

" Lovely " is the fifteenth episode of the sixth season of the American comedy @-@ drama series , Desperate Housewives , and the 126th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on ABC in the United States on February 21 , 2010 . In the episode , former stripper Robin Gallagher ( Julie Benz ) interacts with each of the women of Wisteria Lane , drastically affecting their lives . She grows particularly close to Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) , with whom she shares a kiss during a bar outing .

The episode was written by David Schladweiler and directed by David Warren . It included the second in a string of guest appearances by Benz , who had recently departed as a regular from the Showtime drama series , Dexter . " Lovely " introduced an ongoing storyline of Katherine exploring her sexuality , a subplot which was met with enthusiasm by actress Delany . The pairing between Robin and Katherine was the first lesbian relationship in Desperate Housewives .

" Lovely " received generally mixed reviews , with detractors criticizing it for failing to advance the show 's plotlines . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was seen by 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , and matched the series low rating from the previous episode , " The Glamorous Life " , although the subsequent episode , " The Chase " , drew even poorer ratings . Viewership for " Lovely " suffered because of competition from the 2010 Winter Olympics .

= = Plot = =

= = = Back story = = =

Desperate Housewives focuses on the lives of several residents on the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane . In recent episodes , Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) has encouraged a stripper Robin Gallagher ( Julie Benz ) to quit her job and turn her life around . Susan invited Robin to move into her house until she gets back on her feet . Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) has been admitted to a psychiatric hospital after suffering a mental breakdown stemming from the breakup of her relationship with Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) , who has since married Susan . Orson Hodge ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has recently learned that his wife , Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) , was having an affair with Susan 's ex @-@ husband Karl Mayer ( Richard Burgi ) . Orson has been using a wheelchair since Christmas , as a result of a small passenger plane crash landing into a building he and Karl were inside ; Karl died as a result of the accident . Angie ( Drea de Matteo ) and Nick Bolen ( Jeffrey Nordling ) recently moved onto Wisteria Lane to escape circumstances that are yet to be fully explained ; however , Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria ) and Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) overheard the Bolens arguing about their circumstances , and have grown concerned about their niece Ana ( Maiara Walsh ) dating the Bolens ' son , Danny ( Beau Mirchoff ) .

= = = Episode = = =

As Robin becomes integrated into Wisteria Lane , she gradually begins to affect the lives of several of her new neighbors .

Lynette Scavo ( Felicity Huffman ) , who is in the middle of celebrating her wedding anniversary with Tom ( Doug Savant ) , grows angry when she learns her son Parker ( Joshua Logan Moore ) is spying on Robin while she showers next door . Lynette rudely confronts Robin , who tells Lynette that Parker offered her money to have sex with him . Later , Parker tells his parents he is the only one of his friends who have not had sex . Tom assures him it will happen when the time is right , and Lynette apologizes to Robin .

Later , Robin learns Bree has had trouble connecting with Orson due to her recent affair . Robin suggests Bree restart their sex life , prompting Bree to later try giving Orson a lap @-@ dance . The dance proves awkward , especially when Bree falls over and Orson runs over her foot with the wheelchair . Bree explains she wants to become intimate with her husband again , and the two share a romantic moment .

Meanwhile , Gabrielle and Carlos plot to break up Ana and Danny . Gabrielle arranges for an old photographer friend in New York City to help Ana with her modeling career , but she turns down the offer because of her relationship with Danny . After Robin tells Gabrielle that she gave up a career in ballet for a boy in her youth , only for the boy to break up with her two months later , and that she then got in a car crash ruining her chances of a future in ballet , Gabrielle convinces Robin to tell the story to Ana . Ana breaks up with Danny and leaves for New York , but after Robin realizes she has been used , she speaks to Danny , who secretly leaves town in a taxi to chase after Ana .

Susan grows jealous when Robin starts giving Mike massages to ease his sore back . Susan tries to give Mike a massage , but being the klutz that Susan is , ends up putting him in the hospital . Susan confesses her jealousy to Robin , who decides to preserve their friendship by moving out .

Robin becomes a roommate to Katherine , who is still feeling depressed after her recent stint in a mental hospital . Robin encourages Katherine to go out to a bar , and the two have a great time . When two men hit on Robin and show no interest in Katherine , Robin shows them up by kissing Katherine on the lips . Katherine initially laughs at the funny moment , but later learns Robin really is a lesbian . Katherine insists she is not interested in women when Robin suggests she explores the possibility , but later it appears that Katherine may be intrigued by the idea .

= = Production = =

" Lovely " was written by David Schladweiler and directed by David Warren . It marked the second in a string of at least four guest appearances by actress Julie Benz as Robin Gallagher , a former stripper seeking a new life . Benz joined the show soon after her departure as a regular cast member from the Showtime drama series Dexter , where her character Rita Morgan was killed in the fourth season finale , " The Getaway " . Benz said of her role in Desperate Housewives , " I love the show so much , and I am honored to be part of the whole [ world ] of Wisteria Lane . And to work with all these great , amazing women ! I 've done a lot of male @-@ dominated movies and television shows , so it 's so amazing for me to be a part of a show that is female @-@ dominated . "

" Lovely " introduced an ongoing storyline of Katherine Mayfair exploring her sexuality . Actress Dana Delany , who previously played a lesbian character in the Showtime series The L Word , said she felt the subplot was an excellent idea : " A lot of the ladies on the set have said , ' Why has this not happened before ? ' I think everybody wanted to be the one who got to do it . " In an interview with E ! Online , actress Marcia Cross jokingly said of the kiss scene , " I 'm a little jealous that I 'm not involved . What is going on ? " Delany said she did not know if the character would become a lesbian permanently , because the story lines change so often in Desperate Housewives , but that series creator Marc Cherry " is interested in playing the complexity of that " . The pairing between Robin and Katherine was the first lesbian relationship in Desperate Housewives .

Delany compared Katherine 's new realizations to that of actress Meredith Baxter , who realized she was a lesbian late in her life after entering into a relationship with a woman . Delany said she believed her character would be taken by surprise by the new feelings she is experiencing : " I think that she ’ s still so emotionally vulnerable from getting out of the loony bin , and I think she and Robin connect on a kind of wounded , emotional level . And I think if anything , she ’ s feeling this kind of emotional solace with her , and that draws her to Robin in a physical way , and that ’ s confusing to her . " Delany and Benz were both sick when they filmed their kiss scene . Benz said of the scene , " Dana 's a great kisser . " Delany said more male crew members were present for the filming of the lesbian kiss scene than usual due to the sensuality of the scene .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast on February 21 , 2010 , " Lovely " was seen by 10 @.@ 9 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , which is 20 percent below the season average . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 9 share ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing . This rating matched the previous episode , " The Glamorous Life " , for the lowest rating for an individual episode of Desperate Housewives in series history . However , it held that distinction only two weeks before " The Glamorous Life " , and the subsequent episode " The Chase " , received even lower ratings . " Lovely " continued a downward trend in the ratings : " The Glamorous Life " was seen by 11 @.@ 82 million viewers , and the previous episode , " How About a Friendly Shrink ? " , was seen by 11 @.@ 2 million viewers and achieved the lowest rating of the series at the time . " Lovely " suffered in the ratings partially due to competition from the NBC broadcast of the 2010 Winter Olympics . The day " Lovely " was originally broadcast , the 2010 Winter Olympics drew an average of 24 @.@ 67 million viewers during the episode 's 9 p.m. timeslot . Desperate Housewives was also outperformed by the CBS reality series Undercover Boss which , in its third episode , drew 13 @.@ 6 million viewers .

" Lovely " received generally mixed reviews . Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times said he was initially skeptical of the Robin and Katherine romance subplot , but said he liked how it was presented . " It wasn ’ t contrived like other girl @-@ on @-@ girl scenes on television that we see . ... I just hate it when it ’ s used to seem ' edgy ' or to sell an episode , and I hope that isn 't the case here . " Kennedy said the Bree and Orson scenes led to " a tender moment " , but said Susan was annoying and the Lynette plotline was somewhat insulting toward women . Isabelle Carreau of TV Squad said he was surprised Robin 's back story was fleshed out so quickly , and speculated it could lead to a permanent role in the series . Carreau said the pairing of Robin and Katherine could be " very interesting " , and that the best part of the episode was the comical conversation between Robin and Karen McCluskey ( Kathryn Joosten ) at the end .

Entertainment Weekly writer Tanner Stransky criticized " Lovely " for stringing together several uninteresting and unfunny segments rather than advancing existing plotlines or introducing new ones . He was particularly critical of the Susan and Lynette segments , but said the introduction of Katherine 's possible lesbianism was " intriguing for the moment " . Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC also criticized the episode for failing to advance the plot , and sarcastically wrote of the Katherine development , " Oh , because lesbian storylines have worked so well on this show in the past , except , never . " Cooper said the segment involving Robin and Bree was the only one that didn 't feel " stilted and sad " .

= Hurricane Blanca ( 2015 ) =

Hurricane Blanca was the earliest recorded tropical cyclone to make landfall in Baja California in any given year . Forming as a tropical depression on May 31 , Blanca initially struggled to organize due to strong wind shear . However , once this abated , the system took advantage of high sea surface temperatures and ample moisture . After becoming a tropical storm on June 1 , Blanca rapidly intensified on June 2 – 3 , becoming a powerful Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ; maximum sustained winds reached 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) at this time . The hurricane 's slow motion resulted in tremendous upwelling of cooler water , resulting in a period of weakening . Blanca gradually recovered from this and briefly regained Category 4 status on June 6 as it moved generally northwest toward the Baja California peninsula . Cooler waters and increased shear again prompted weakening on June 7 and the system struck Baja California Sur on June 8 as a weak tropical storm . It quickly degraded to a depression and dissipated early the next day .

Although Blanca remained far from Jalisco , large swells and rip currents produced by the hurricane claimed four lives . In Northwestern Mexico , watches and warnings were raised prior to the storm 's landfall . Blanca caused generally light damage in the region , consisting of downed trees and power lines . Remnant moisture from the system spread across the Southwestern United States , resulting in several days of scattered thunderstorms . Flash flooding occurred in multiple states , washing out roads and damaging homes , though the overall effects were limited .

= = Meteorological history = =

On May 26 , 2015 , a tropical wave traversed Central America and entered the Eastern Pacific . Little development occurred over the following few days as the system drifted westward . Convective activity finally blossomed on May 30 and following the consolidation of a surface low , it was classified as a tropical depression by 12 : 00 UTC on May 31 . At this time , the depression was situated 370 mi ( 595 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . The system initially drifted northwest along the edge of a weak ridge ; however , steering currents soon collapsed and left the depression to meander in the same general region for four days . Strong wind shear stemming from the nearby Hurricane Andres precluded intensification of the nascent depression . Other factors , including a moist atmosphere and sea surface temperatures of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) presented favorable conditions for development once the shear relaxed . Formation of a central dense overcast on June 1 marked the transition into a tropical storm , at which time the system was assigned the name Blanca . As shear steadily relaxed , conditions became exceptionally favorable for rapid intensification . Accordingly the Statistical Hurricane Intensity Prediction Scheme showed a 90 percent chance of winds increasing by 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) in 24 hours , among the highest probabilities seen by National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) forecaster Michael Brennan .

The upper @-@ level environment became even more favorable during the overnight of June 1 – 2 as anticyclonic outflow developed above Blanca , providing necessary ventilation for intensification . Turning south along an erratic , drifting course , an eye feature developed within the storm 's convective mass on June 2 . Blanca reached hurricane strength by 18 : 00 UTC and underwent rapid intensification thereafter . A small , pinhole eye soon appeared on visible and infrared satellite imagery . Reaching major hurricane intensity by 12 : 00 UTC on June 3 , Blanca marked the earliest occurrence of a season 's second such storm on record . The system featured a small , well @-@ defined eye surrounded by intense convection . Hours later , at 18 : 00 UTC , the hurricane achieved its estimated peak strength as a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 936 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 64 inHg ) . Given continued favorable conditions , forecasters at the NHC predicted Blanca to achieve Category 5 status — the highest ranking on the scale , indicating winds in excess of 156 mph ( 251 km / h ) .

Contrary to forecasts , the still quasi @-@ stationary Blanca soon degraded . The hurricane 's persistence over the same location for several days resulted in tremendous upwelling of cooler waters , with temperatures underneath the storm falling from 30 to 21 ° C ( 86 to 70 ° F ) . Compounding the effects of cooler water was an eyewall replacement cycle . This resulted in rapid weakening , with Blanca 's winds falling to 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) by 12 : 00 UTC on June 5 . The previously small core of Blanca dramatically expanded to 65 mi ( 100 km ) across , with convection asymmetrically wrapping around it . During this period , a mid @-@ level ridge north of the hurricane moved east and allowed Blanca to acquire a steady northwest track . Re @-@ intensification ensued on June 6 as the hurricane moved away from its cold wake and traversed an area of warmer water .

Throughout June 6 , Blanca 's convective structure became more symmetric as it completed its eyewall replacement cycle . Aided by impressive outflow , the hurricane regained Category 4 status by 12 : 00 UTC , marking its secondary peak intensity with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Soon thereafter , Blanca moved back over cooler waters and began weakening . A turn to the north @-@ northwest also occurred at this time as it rounded a mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico . The hurricane passed roughly 30 mi ( 45 km ) northeast of Socorro Island on June 7 . An automated weather station there recorded sustained winds of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) , with a peak gust of 101 mph ( 163 km / h ) , before it ceased reporting . Additionally , a pressure of 977 @.@ 3 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 86 inHg ) was observed . Deep convection steadily weakened and the hurricane 's eye filled as the winds decreased .

Increasing wind shear accelerated the rate of weakening , causing Blanca 's mid- and low @-@ level circulation centers to decouple . By 18 : 00 UTC on June 7 , the hurricane degraded to a tropical storm . Around 10 : 30 UTC on June 8 , Blanca made landfall over Isla Santa Margarita off the coast of Baja California Sur before striking the mainland , near Puerto Argudin , at 11 : 15 UTC . This marked the earliest known landfall in the state , and peninsula , on record during a calendar year . It surpassed the previous earliest — Tropical Storm Calvin on July 8 , 1993 — by a month . Turning back to the northwest , the system briefly emerged back over the Pacific Ocean before weakening to a tropical depression . Blanca made its third and final landfall near El Patrocinio around 20 : 30 UTC . With deep convection no longer present , the depression degraded into a remnant low early on June 9 over the central Baja California peninsula before dissipating hours later .

= = Preparations and impact = =

= = = Mexico = = =

On June 3 , precautionary alerts were raised across the southern Baja California Peninsula and much of Western Mexico , due to potential impacts from the hurricane . Two days later , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for parts of Baja California Sur before upgrading it to a warning on June 6 . Warnings ultimately extended northward to Punta Abreojos . A hurricane watch was temporarily in place ; however , Blanca 's abrupt weakening on June 7 prompted its discontinuation . All schools were closed in Baja California Sur on June 8 . A collective 3 @,@ 300 troops from the Mexican Army and Navy were deployed to Baja California Sur to ensure the safety of residents . Under the threat of 16 ft ( 5 m ) waves , the port of Los Cabos suspended operations . Within Sonora , all schools in the Empalme , Guaymas , and Hermosillo municipalities were canceled for June 8 .

Waves up to 16 ft ( 5 m ) damaged coastal installations in Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco . A surfer was pulled out by rip currents near Villa Obregón and required rescue ; however , the rescuer was also overcome and both drowned . Two fishermen ignored warnings to remain at port and died amid rough seas from the hurricane . Striking Baja California Sur on June 8 , Blanca brought tropical storm @-@ force winds and heavy rain to the region . The highest sustained winds were observed at Cabo San Lucas International Airport , reaching 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) while gusts were measured at 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) in San Juanico . Across the state , high winds downed power lines and left 104 @,@ 106 residents without electricity . However , around 90 percent of the outages were fixed within 12 hours of the storm . The winds also broke a few windows . Sinaloa experienced similar effects , with strong winds downing many trees and tearing apart billboards , primarily in Los Mochis and Guasave .

= = = United States = = =

The remnants of Blanca , aided by an unusually late @-@ season coastal low , later brought several days of scattered thunderstorms to the Southwestern United States . Effects in California were primarily concentrated across the Mojave Desert and southern Great Basin . Daily rainfall records were broken in several areas , though accumulations were generally less than 1 in ( 25 mm ) . Maricopa and Taft received 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) of rain in 30 minutes , triggering flash flooding that stranded vehicles and prompted the temporary closure of State Route 166 . Flooding and mud flows covered parts of State Route 190 in Inyo County , resulting in an accident that injured two people . Thunderstorm winds downed several trees , two of which fell on mobile homes . Hail up to 1 in ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) in diameter was observed in Ford City . Some flooding took place in Santa Barbara County . Damage across the state amounted to $ 67 @,@ 000 .

Record rainfall was observed in parts of Arizona , with Yuma recording measurable precipitation for only the seventeenth time in June since records began in 1876 . Rainfall amounted to 0 @.@ 31 in ( 7 @.@ 9 mm ) in the city , and 0 @.@ 21 in ( 5 @.@ 3 mm ) fell in Tucson . In Six Mile Canyon in Nevada , near the border of Lyon and Storey counties , 1 @.@ 13 in ( 29 mm ) of rain fell in an hour , resulting in flash flooding . Damage was primarily to landscaping with minor effects to homes . The normally dry Pine Nut Creek in Dresslerville rose 4 to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) in a short period of time , inundating nine homes and covering low water crossings . Multiple roads across Esmeralda , Eureka , and Lander counties were subjected to flooding . Damage across Nevada was $ 46 @,@ 000 .

Following above @-@ average rainfall since April , renewed precipitation in New Mexico led to flash flooding . Roads were washed away near Conchas Dam and minor flooding took place near Pojoaque . A strong thunderstorm over the Navajo Nation in New Mexico spawned a brief EF0 tornado near Napi Headquarters . Hail up to 1 @.@ 75 in ( 4 @.@ 4 cm ) in diameter was observed and rainfall caused the Animas River to overflow . Damage in the state reached $ 20 @,@ 000 . Flash flooding also took place in Utah , including along the Paria River ; a stream gauge observed a peak flow of 1 @,@ 160 ft3 ( 32 @.@ 8 m3 ) per second . A peak wind gust of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) was observed on Flattop Mountain in Emery County .

= Coral Springs , Florida =

Coral Springs , officially the City of Coral Springs , is a city in Broward County , Florida , approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) northwest of Fort Lauderdale . As of the 2010 United States Census , the city had a population of 121 @,@ 096 . The city is part of the Miami metropolitan area , which was home to 5 @,@ 564 @,@ 635 people in 2010 .

The city , officially chartered on July 10 , 1963 , was master @-@ planned and primarily developed by WCI Communities , then known as Coral Ridge Properties , a division of Westinghouse . The city 's name is derived from the company 's name , and was selected after several earlier proposals had been considered and rejected . Despite the name , there are no springs in the city ; Florida 's springs are found in the central and northern portions of the state .

During the 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s the young city grew rapidly , adding over 35 @,@ 000 residents each decade . Coral Springs has notably strict building codes , which are designed to maintain the city 's distinctive aesthetic appeal . The city government 's effective fiscal management has maintained high bond ratings , and the city has won accolades for its overall livability , its low crime rate , and its family @-@ friendly orientation .

= = History = =

Coral Springs is a planned community . Prior to its incorporation as a city in July 1963 , the area which is now Coral Springs was part of 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) of marshy lands bought by Henry Lyons between 1911 and 1939 . After several floods in 1947 , Florida created the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control District ( now the South Florida Water Management District ) . Canals and levees drained much of the area upon which Coral Springs was built . After the land was drained and cleared , most of the area was used as a bean farm . After Lyons ' death in 1952 , his heirs changed the focus to cattle .

A post @-@ World War II real estate boom in South Florida attracted the interest of developers . Coral Ridge Properties , which already had several developments in Broward County , bought 3 @,@ 869 acres ( 16 km2 ) of land from the Lyons family on December 14 , 1961 for $ 1 million . The City of Coral Springs was chartered on July 10 , 1963 . Other names that were considered for the new city included " Curran Village , " " Pompano Springs " and " Quartermore " . By 1964 , the company had developed a master plan for a city of 50 @,@ 000 residents . On July 22 , 1964 , the first sale of 536 building lots netted $ 1 @.@ 6 million . The landmark covered bridge was built that same year to promote the town . In 1965 , Coral Ridge Properties bought an additional 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) from the Lyons family , increasing the city 's land area to 16 square miles ( 41 km2 ) . The first city government elections were held in 1967 .

The city added nineteen public schools , a regional mall , shopping centers and parks during the last three decades of the twentieth century in response to rapid population growth . The construction of the Sawgrass Expressway in 1986 brought even more growth . A museum and a theater opened in the 1990s . The city reached residential build @-@ out in 2003 and is very close to a commercial build @-@ out .

The city 's historically low crime rate was marred in the early 1990s , when teen gang violence made headlines , with fights and murders reported . The violence subsided and the city returned to its previously peaceful state in 1995 .

Coral Springs was ranked as the 27th best city in the United States in which to live by Money Magazine in 2006 ; was named the 10th safest city in the US by Morgan Quitno in 2007 ; and was a multiple recipient of America 's Promise " 100 Best Cities for Young People " award , identified by the group as a three @-@ time winner in 2008 . In 2007 , Coral Springs became the first state or local government in the nation to receive the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award .

In 2010 , CNNMoney.com listed Coral Springs as the 44th best place to live in the United States .

= = Geography and climate = =

Coral Springs is located at 26 ° 16 ′ 14 ″ N 80 ° 15 ′ 33 ″ W. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 24 @.@ 0 square miles ( 62 @.@ 1 km2 ) , 23 @.@ 8 square miles ( 61 @.@ 6 km2 ) of which is land and 0 @.@ 19 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) of which is water ( 0 @.@ 83 % ) . Coral Springs is bordered by the cities of Parkland to the north , Coconut Creek to the east , Margate and North Lauderdale to the southeast and Tamarac to the south . To the west lies The Everglades .

= = = Cityscape = = =

Coral Springs is a sprawling city , with few tall or prominent structures . The tallest building in the city is a 12 story condominium ( Country Club Tower ) , with five more buildings topping out at 10 stories , including three office buildings lining University Drive , one of the city 's main roads . Buildings include Preferred Exchange Tower ( originally the Bank of Coral Springs Building ) , 210 Tower , Bank of America Center and the Briarwood Towers .

Coral Ridge Properties established strict landscaping and sign laws for the city — a question in the original version of Trivial Pursuit noted that the city hosted the first McDonald 's without the distinctive Golden Arches sign . Restrictions on commercial signs , exterior paint colors , roofing materials , recreational vehicle and boat storage , and landscaping specifications are all strictly enforced ; consequently , real estate values in the city are significantly higher than the county as a whole . In 2006 , the median price of a single family home in Coral Springs was US $ 415 @,@ 000 , while the median price county @-@ wide was US $ 323 @,@ 000 .

The city 's downtown is the focus of an extensive redevelopment plan , estimated to cost close to US $ 700 million . The plan to revitalize the city 's core started with an open @-@ air shopping and entertainment center — " The Walk " — and progressed with the construction of " One Charter Place , " opened April 2007 . When completed , the redeveloped downtown area will offer office , retail , and a new government center , encompassing approximately three million square feet of floor space , in addition to approximately 1 @,@ 000 residential units and a new hotel .

The City of Coral Springs ' Parks and Recreation Department operates over 50 municipal parks , including a water park and a skate park , encompassing over 675 acres ( 2 @.@ 7 km2 ) . Coral Springs ' largest park is Mullins Park ( 70 acres ) . Of the four conservation areas in the city , Sandy Ridge Sanctuary is the biggest , at 38 acres ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) .

= = = Climate = = =

Average monthly rainfall is higher from April to September , with January and February as the driest months . The average monthly rainfall ranges from 2 @.@ 8 inches ( 7 cm ) in January and February to 7 @.@ 3 inches ( 19 cm ) in June . The hurricane season is from June to November , with September as the month during which hurricanes are most likely to occur . The most powerful hurricane to strike Coral Springs since its incorporation was Wilma in 2005 ; the eye of the hurricane passed directly over the city . The city estimated that " as a result of the numerous hurricanes and storms that hit Coral Springs in 2004 / 2005 , and especially as a result of Hurricane Wilma , the tree canopy coverage throughout the city has been reduced by about one third " .

= = Demographics = =

As of 2010 , there were 45 @,@ 433 households , with 8 @.@ 1 % being vacant . As of 2000 , 19 @,@ 151 ( 43 @.@ 2 % ) households had children under the age of 18 living with them , 26 @,@ 875 ( 60 @.@ 6 % ) were married couples living together , 7 @,@ 663 ( 17 @.@ 3 % ) had a female householder with no husband present , and 8 @,@ 387 ( 18 @.@ 9 % ) were non @-@ families . 5 @,@ 922 of all households ( 13 @.@ 4 % ) were made up of individuals and 1 @,@ 408 ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 3 @.@ 11 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 45 .

In 2000 , the city 's age distribution was as follows : 38 @,@ 335 residents ( 27 @.@ 8 % ) under the age of 18 , 14 @,@ 560 ( 10 @.@ 5 % ) from 18 to 24 , 35 @,@ 927 ( 26 @.@ 0 % ) from 25 to 44 , 39 @,@ 821 ( 28 @.@ 8 % ) from 45 to 64 , and 9 @,@ 358 ( 6 @.@ 8 % ) who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 35 @.@ 7 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 5 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 85 @.@ 7 males .

In 2000 , the median income for a household in the city was US $ 69 @,@ 808 , and the median income for a family was $ 76 @,@ 106 . Males had a median income of $ 47 @,@ 427 versus $ 34 @,@ 920 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 29 @,@ 285 . About 5 @.@ 8 % of families and 7 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 11 @.@ 1 % of those under age 18 and 2 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .

As of 2000 , those who spoke only English at home accounted for 74 @.@ 6 % of residents . Other languages spoken at home included Spanish ( 15 @.@ 0 % ) , French Creole ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) , Portuguese ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) , French ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) , and Italian ( 0 @.@ 8 % . )

As of 2000 , 2 @.@ 1 % of the city 's population was from Haiti , 2 @.@ 1 % of the population was from Colombia , and 1 @.@ 7 % of the population was from Cuba .

= = Government and infrastructure = =

Coral Springs uses the commission @-@ manager form of municipal government , with all governmental powers resting in a legislative body called a commission . Coral Springs ' commission is composed of five elected commissioners , one of whom is the mayor of the city and another of whom is the vice @-@ mayor . The mayor and vice @-@ mayor serve a two @-@ year term ; the commissioners serve four @-@ year terms . The offices are non @-@ partisan ; no candidate is allowed to declare a party affiliation . The role of the commission is to pass ordinances and resolutions , adopt regulations , and appoint city officials , including the city manager . While the mayor serves as a presiding officer of the commission , the city manager is the administrative head of the municipal government , and is responsible for the administration of all departments . The city commission holds its regular meetings biweekly . As of 2014 , the Mayor is Walter " Skip " Campbell . The Vice @-@ Mayor is Larry Vignola , the other commissioners are Joy Carter , Lou Cimaglia & Dan Daley . The City Manager is Erdal Donmez .

In @-@ city buses are provided free of charge by the local government . Regional transportation is provided by Broward County Transit . The closest passenger airport to Coral Springs is Fort Lauderdale @-@ Hollywood International Airport , located 27 miles ( 43 km ) southeast . The only limited @-@ access highway in Coral Springs is the Sawgrass Expressway ( State Road 869 ) , which borders the city on its northern and western edges . Major roads in the city include Atlantic Boulevard , University Drive , and Sample Road .

Coral Springs is served by Broward Health , and is home to the 200 @-@ bed Coral Springs Medical Center . The hospital received a 99 ( out of 100 ) from the Joint Commission , ranking in the top 2 % of over 9 @,@ 000 surveyed hospitals .

Coral Springs ' water supply comes from the Biscayne Aquifer , South Florida 's primary source of drinking water . There are four different water districts within the city ; the providers are the City of Coral Springs Water District , Coral Springs Improvement District , North Springs Improvement District and Royal Utilities . The South Florida Water Management District provides flood control protection and water supply protection to local residents , controls all water shortage management efforts and assigns water restrictions when necessary . Collection and disposal of city 's trash or garbage is provided by Waste Pro . Electric power service is distributed by Florida Power & Light .

= = Economy = =

Of residents aged 16 years and over , 72 @.@ 6 % were in the labor force , 95 % were employed and 5 % unemployed . 39 @.@ 5 % of the population worked in management , professional , and related occupations ; 32 @.@ 9 % in sales and office occupations ; 12 @.@ 8 % in service occupations ; 7 @.@ 6 % in construction , extraction , and maintenance occupations ; 7 % in production , transportation , and material moving occupations ; and 0 @.@ 1 % in farming , fishing , and forestry occupations . The industries for which Coral Springs inhabitants worked were 17 @.@ 6 % educational , health and social services ; 16 @.@ 1 % retail trade ; 12 @.@ 9 % professional , scientific , management , administrative , and waste management services ; 10 @.@ 1 % finance , insurance , real estate , and rental and leasing ; 8 @.@ 2 % arts , entertainment , recreation , accommodation and food services ; 7 @.@ 0 % manufacturing ; 6 @.@ 6 % construction ; 5 @.@ 0 % wholesale trade ; 4 % transportation , warehousing , and utilities ; , 4 @.@ 9 % other services ( except public administration ) ; 3 @.@ 7 % information ; 3 @.@ 6 % public administration ; and 0 @.@ 2 % agriculture , forestry , fishing and hunting , and mining . 85 @.@ 2 % of workers worked in the private sector , 9 @.@ 6 % in government , 5 % self @-@ employed in unincorporated businesses , and 0 @.@ 3 % as unpaid family workers . The predominant method of commuting was driving alone in own car , accounting for 81 @.@ 5 % of commuting trips , followed by 11 @.@ 2 % who were carpoolers and 7 @.@ 4 % who used other methods or worked from home .

Fitch , Moody 's , and Standard & Poor 's rate Coral Springs bonds as " AAA " . Standard & Poor 's , in a 2004 report , noted that Coral Springs had a " vibrant regional economy with above @-@ average wealth levels and consistently low unemployment " and praised the city administration . In 2004 , the city 's industrial and commercial base represented 24 % of the city valuation — 50 % higher than the previous decade . The city 's tax rate of 3 @.@ 8715 mils is the lowest in Broward County of cities with more than 70 @,@ 000 people . The city has twice received the Florida Sterling Award for excellence in administration . First Data and Alliance Entertainment are the largest companies that have offices in the Corporate Park of Coral Springs . ABB Asea Brown Boveri and Royal Plastics Group have subsidiaries headquartered in the city as well . The biggest shopping mall in the city is Coral Square , which opened in October 1984 with 945 @,@ 000 square feet ( 87 @,@ 800 m2 ) of retail space and more than 120 stores . Preferred Exchange Tower is the largest office building in the city — it has 10 floors and 203 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 18 @,@ 900 m2 ) .

= = Education = =

According to the 2005 American Community Survey ( conducted by the US Census Bureau ) , 39 @.@ 2 % of all adults over the age of 25 in Coral Springs have obtained a bachelor 's degree , as compared to a national average of 27 @.@ 2 % of adults over 25 , and 91 @.@ 7 % of Coral Springs residents over the age of 25 have earned a high school diploma , as compared to the national average of 84 @.@ 2 % . Coral Springs had approximately 29 @,@ 900 students in 2006 . Three charter schools offer both primary and secondary education . Higher education is offered by Barry University , Nova Southeastern University and Broward College through a partnership with Coral Springs Charter School .

Public primary and secondary education is handled by the Broward County Public Schools District ( BCPS ) . BCPS operates 3 high schools , 4 middle schools and 12 elementary schools within the city limits . Ramblewood Elementary School received a Florida Sterling Award for its efforts in 2006 . In 2008 the Florida Department of Education awarded all public schools in the city , with the exception of Coral Springs High School , " A " grades based on their performance on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test . In 2008 , Coral Springs High School received a " B , " and in 2010 the school received its first " A. " In 2009 , all public elementary , middle , and charter schools in the city received " A 's , " except for Broward Community Charter School West , which received a " B. "

North Broward Preparatory School maintains a satellite campus in Coral Springs . The Coral Springs campus has boarding facilities , a playground , and a gymnasium . The school 's main campus is in Coconut Creek .

= = Sports = =

Coral Springs does not have any professional sports teams , but has more than 25 amateur sports leagues . Coral Springs Youth Soccer had more than 3300 players in their 2006 season , playing for 284 teams in 20 separate leagues , divided by age group and sex . The Honda Classic golf tournament was played at the TPC at Eagle Trace from 1984 to 1991 and 1996 and then at the TPC at Heron Bay from 1997 to 2002 . The short @-@ lived professional soccer team Coral Springs Kicks ( USISL ) was based in the city .

The regional Sportsplex has a jogging path , an aquatic center , tennis courts , ice rinks and a dog park . The NHL 's Florida Panthers call the Saveology.com Iceplex , part of the Sportsplex , their official home and conduct much of their training there . The International Tennis Championships — an ATP International Series men 's tennis tournament was held at the Sportsplex from 1993 to 1998 .

A number of professional athletes are from Coral Springs : MLS soccer player Stephen Herdsman , Latvian Higher League soccer player Nate Weiss , NFL football players Dan Morgan , Todd Weiner , Darius Butler , Steve Hutchinson , Cody Brown and Sam Young , and Major League Baseball player Anthony Rizzo of the Chicago Cubs .

Pro golfer Lexi Thompson , youngest winner ever of a LPGA tour event at 16 , was born in Coral Springs .

Several athletes who participated in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing are from or currently living in Coral Springs , including beach volleyball gold medalist Misty May @-@ Treanor , swimming silver medalist Dara Torres ( who resides in neighboring Parkland , Florida but trains in Coral Springs ) , and track @-@ and @-@ field bronze medalist Walter Dix .

= = Media and culture = =

Coral Springs is a part of the Miami @-@ Fort Lauderdale @-@ Hollywood media market , which is the twelfth largest radio market and the seventeenth largest television market in the United States . Its primary daily newspapers are the South Florida @-@ Sun Sentinel and The Miami Herald , and their Spanish @-@ language counterparts El Sentinel and El Nuevo Herald .

The city is home to two local weekly newspapers , the Coral Springs Forum and Our Town News . Both publications focus on local issues and human interest stories . The Coral Springs Forum was founded in 1971 by local high school students , the publication was sold after their graduation to local residents . Later the company became a subsidiary of the Tribune Company , the South Florida @-@ Sun Sentinel publisher .

The Coral Springs Center for the Arts opened in 1990 . Originally planned to be a gymnasium , a US $ 4 million renovation in 1996 added a 1 @,@ 471 seat theater . The theater presents a program of popular shows and a yearly Broadway series . The 8 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 700 m2 ) Coral Springs Museum of Art has a small number of exhibits and focuses on art classes and programs for the local community . There is currently one public library in the city , the Northwest Regional Library , affiliated with the county @-@ wide Broward County Library system . The band New Found Glory hails from Coral Springs and was formed in the city .

The " Our Town " Festival has been continuously held since 1979 , first sponsored by the Coral Springs Chamber of Commerce , and promoted by a non @-@ profit organization since 1997 . The event has a car show , a beauty pageant and carnival rides . The festival attracted more than 100 @,@ 000 attendees in 1984 , and the city estimated 200 @,@ 000 visitors at the 1990 event . A parade was added to the event in 1985 ; since 1994 , the parade has been run as a separate event during the Christmas season . Several other festivals are held throughout the year , such as " Fiesta Coral Springs " , a Hispanic culture celebration , and the Festival of the Arts . At Coral Springs ' 25th Anniversary Party , the Guinness World Record for " Largest Hamburger and Milkshake " was broken on July 10 , 1988 . The hamburger measured 26 feet ( 8 m ) in diameter and weighed 5063 pounds . The record stood for just over a year .

Coral Springs has two designated Florida Heritage sites . The Coral Springs Covered Bridge was the first structure built in the city , in 1964 . The steel bridge , 40 feet ( 12 m ) in length , is the only covered bridge in Florida in the public right @-@ of @-@ way . The American Snuff Company provided two historical designs for the bridge sides , to make the structure appear aged . The Covered Bridge is depicted in Coral Springs ' seal . The Museum of Coral Springs History started as a real estate office . Built outside the city limits , the single @-@ room wooden structure was moved to Coral Springs and became its first administration building . Later it was used as the first police station , and as a Jaycees clubhouse ; it was moved to the city dump in 1976 , where it was used as a fire department training site for smoke drills . After it was inadvertently set on fire , public outcry prompted the building 's relocation to Mullins Park for restoration . Since 1978 , it has housed the city 's history museum . The exhibits in the museum are historic items and city models .

Coral Springs is a sister city of Paraíso , Costa Rica .

= Young Blood ( Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor song ) =

" Young Blood " is a song by English recording artist Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor from her fifth studio album Wanderlust ( 2014 ) . The song was released as the album 's lead single on 21 November 2013 . It was co @-@ written by Ed Harcourt and Ellis @-@ Bextor ; the former also produced it . The song is a chamber pop piano ballad , which features instrumentation from subdued drums and various string instruments . In the track , Ellis @-@ Bextor sings with restrain , incorporating a low register in the verses and hitting her highest note in the chorus . A demo version of the track was offered online in March 2013 .

" Young Blood " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who complimented Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals and the song 's tenderness . The song became her first single to enter the UK Singles Chart since her 2011 single " Bittersweet " . On its component UK Indie chart , the track peaked within the top five . Sophie Muller was commissioned to direct its video , which shows Ellis @-@ Bextor on a pier and inside a living room . The song was performed on some television programmes in the United Kingdom .

= = Composition = =

As with the rest of Wanderlust , " Young Blood " was composed by the English musician Ed Harcourt , with additional songwriting from Ellis @-@ Bextor . It was recorded at the State of the Ark studios , mixed and engineered by Richard Woodcruft , and mastered by Miles Showell . It is a chamber pop piano ballad , with a viola , a violin , muffled drums , a cello and a double bass .

According to the sheet music published by Universal Music , it is set in a tempo of 60 beats per minute . It is written in the key of F major , and its verses follow the chord progression B ♭ mai7 — F. The song begins with a gentle piano melody , transitioning into Ellis @-@ Bextor 's sung section . During the verses of the song , she sings in a low register , reaching her lowest note of F4 ; conversely , in the chorus , her voice reaches C6 and trembles . Throughout the song , her vocals are restrained and incorporate the melisma technique . The bridge of the song features " choral harmonies " . The song 's lyrics are written in first and second @-@ person narrative , following the common verse – chorus form . According to Ludovic Hunter @-@ Tilney from Financial Times , the track discusses " the joys of growing old with one 's spouse " .

= = Reception = =

For Time Out magazine , Clare Considine described " Young Blood " as a " delicate love song " and opined that the strings and piano melodies effectively complement Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals . Michael Cragg of The Guardian stated that the song 's sonority " fits [ Ellis @-@ Bextor ] like a glove " , and also deemed its melody " gorgeous " . James Gareth from Clash characterised the song as " sincerely beautiful " , and Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey agreed , calling it " doe @-@ eyed " and " fantastically pretty " . From Virgin Media , Matthew Horton called the track " heart @-@ stinging " , while Hermoine Hoby , writing for The Observer considered that the song is " surprisingly successfully " similar to the works of Adele . Sam Lansky of Idolator complimented the song for being " beautiful " and " timeless " . Louise Bruton from The Irish Times wrote that Ellis @-@ Bextor 's " icy vocals forgive [ d ] " the " blunders " of Wanderlust , while musicOMH 's Kate Bennett provided a polarized review for the song . Although she praised Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocals , Bennett described the track as " heroine @-@ gazing @-@ forlornly @-@ into @-@ the @-@ distance " due to its instrumentation . David Farrell , writing on behalf of PopMatters , commented that " Young Blood " was the best of the album and highlighted Ellis @-@ Bextor 's vocal performance .

The song only charted in the United Kingdom . Reaching number 34 on its singles chart , the song became Ellis @-@ Bextor 's first to enter the chart since " Bittersweet " , which was released in 2010 and peaked at 25 . " Young Blood " spent three weeks on the chart , and as of January 2014 , it is her fifteenth best @-@ selling song in the country . On the UK Indie chart , the track reached number 3 .

= = Release and promotion = =

A demo version of " Young Blood " was released on 27 March 2013 , as a complimentary download on Ellis @-@ Bextor 's website . Selected as the lead single of Wanderlust , the song was released as a standalone digital download on 21 November of that year . A CD single of the track was sent to radio stations in that month , including the album version of it as well as a radio edit ; the song was eventually playlisted by hot adult contemporary UK station BBC Radio 2 . Ellis @-@ Bextor revealed that she chose " Young Blood " as the first single from Wanderlust because she found it representative of the album 's sound .

The official music video of " Young Blood " was filmed by Sophie Muller , and released on 25 November 2013 . It mostly depicts Ellis @-@ Bextor , dressed in a striped dress , lip @-@ synching the song 's lyrics , walking through an abandoned pier " in terrible weather " . Those scenes are interspersed with clips of her sat on a red sofa , wearing a " buttoned up , Victorian @-@ styled lace dress " inside a lounge room . Writing for Idolator , Mike Wass characterised the visual as " simple " , noting that it is adequate for the song 's tone . On 9 April 2014 , Ellis @-@ Bextor performed " Young Blood " on ITV 's morning programme Daybreak ; fifteen days later , she sang it on the first episode of the channel 's Weekend , aired on 26 April 2014 . She performed the song in an unplugged setting on ZDF Morgenmagazin , a programme of German channel ZDF , on 23 January 2014 .

= = Track listing = =

Promotional CD single

Details adapted from the liner notes of the " Young Blood " promotional CD single .

" Young Blood " ( Radio edit ) – 3 : 45

" Young Blood " – 4 : 28

Digital download

" Young Blood " – 4 : 28

= = Credits and personnel = =

= = Weekly charts = =

= = Release history = =

= University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill =

The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , also known as UNC , or simply Carolina , is a public research university located in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , United States . After being chartered in 1789 , the university first began enrolling students in 1795 , which also allows it to be one of three schools to claim the title of the oldest public university in the United States . North Carolina is one of the original eight Public Ivy schools .

The first public institution of higher education in North Carolina , the school opened its doors to students on February 12 , 1795 . The university offers degrees in over 70 courses of study through fourteen colleges and the College of Arts and Sciences . All undergraduates receive a liberal arts education and have the option to pursue a major within the professional schools of the university or within the College of Arts and Sciences from the time they obtain junior status . Under the leadership of President Kemp Plummer Battle , in 1877 North Carolina became coeducational and began the process of desegregation in 1951 when African @-@ American graduate students were admitted under Chancellor Robert Burton House . In 1952 , North Carolina opened its own hospital , UNC Health Care , for research and treatment , and has since specialized in cancer care . The school 's students , alumni , and sports teams are known as " Tar Heels " .

The campus of North Carolina is located in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , a university town . The campus covers 729 acres ( 3 km2 ) over Chapel Hill 's downtown area , encompassing places like the Morehead Planetarium and the many stores and shops located on Franklin Street . Students can participate in over 550 officially recognized student organizations . The student @-@ run newspaper The Daily Tar Heel has won national awards for collegiate media , while the student radio station WXYC provided the world 's first internet radio broadcast . North Carolina is one of the charter members of the Atlantic Coast Conference , which was founded on June 14 , 1953 . Competing athletically as the Tar Heels , North Carolina has achieved great success in sports , most notably in men 's basketball , women 's soccer , and women 's field hockey .

= = History = =

Chartered by the North Carolina General Assembly on December 11 , 1789 , the university 's cornerstone was laid on October 12 , 1793 , near the ruins of a chapel , chosen because of its central location within the state . The first public university chartered under the US Constitution , The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is the oldest public university in the United States and the only such institution to confer degrees in the eighteenth century .

During the Civil War , North Carolina Governor David Lowry Swain persuaded Confederate President Jefferson Davis to exempt some students from the draft , so the university was one of the few in the Confederacy that managed to stay open . However , Chapel Hill suffered the loss of more of its population during the war than any village in the South , and when student numbers did not recover , the university was forced to close during Reconstruction from December 1 , 1870 until September 6 , 1875 .

Despite initial skepticism from university President Frank Porter Graham , on March 27 , 1931 , legislation was passed to group the University of North Carolina with the State College of Agriculture and Engineering and Woman 's College of the University of North Carolina to form the Consolidated University of North Carolina . In 1963 , the consolidated university was made fully coeducational , although most women still attended Woman 's College for their first two years , transferring to Chapel Hill as juniors , since freshmen were required to live on campus and there was only one women 's dorm . As a result , Woman 's College was renamed the " University of North Carolina at Greensboro " , and the University of North Carolina became the " University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . " In 1955 , UNC Chapel Hill officially desegregated its undergraduate divisions .

During World War II , UNC Chapel Hill was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission .

During the 1960s , the campus was the location of significant political protest . Prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , protests about local racial segregation which began quietly in Franklin Street restaurants led to mass demonstrations and disturbance . The climate of civil unrest prompted the 1963 Speaker Ban Law prohibiting speeches by communists on state campuses in North Carolina . The law was immediately criticized by university Chancellor William Brantley Aycock and university President William Friday , but was not reviewed by the North Carolina General Assembly until 1965 . Small amendments to allow " infrequent " visits failed to placate the student body , especially when the university 's board of trustees overruled new Chancellor Paul Frederick Sharp 's decision to allow speaking invitations to Marxist speaker Herbert Aptheker and civil liberties activist Frank Wilkinson ; however , the two speakers came to Chapel Hill anyway . Wilkinson spoke off campus , while more than 1 @,@ 500 students viewed Aptheker 's speech across a low campus wall at the edge of campus , christened " Dan Moore 's Wall " by The Daily Tar Heel for Governor Dan K. Moore . A group of UNC Chapel Hill students , led by Student Body President Paul Dickson , filed a lawsuit in U.S. federal court , and on February 20 , 1968 , the Speaker Ban Law was struck down . In 1969 , campus food workers of Lenoir Hall went on strike protesting perceived racial injustices that impacted their employment , garnering the support of student groups and members of the University and Chapel Hill community .

From the late 1990s and onward , UNC Chapel Hill expanded rapidly with a 15 % increase in total student population to more than 28 @,@ 000 by 2007 . This was accompanied by the construction of new facilities , funded in part by the " Carolina First " fundraising campaign and an endowment that increased fourfold to more than $ 2 billion in just ten years . Professor Oliver Smithies was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2007 for his work in genetics . Additionally , Aziz Sancar was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2015 for his work in understanding the molecular repair mechanisms of DNA .

Notable leaders of the university include the 26th Governor of North Carolina , David Lowry Swain ( president 1835 – 1868 ) ; and Edwin Anderson Alderman ( 1896 – 1900 ) , who was also president of Tulane University and the University of Virginia . The current chancellor is Carol Folt , the first woman to hold the post .

= = Campus = =

UNC Chapel Hill 's 729 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 0 km2 ) campus is dominated by two central quads : Polk Place and McCorkle Place . Polk Place is named after North Carolina native and university alumnus President James K. Polk , and McCorkle Place is named in honor of Samuel Eusebius McCorkle , the original author of the bill requesting the university 's charter . Adjacent to Polk Place is a sunken brick courtyard known as the Pit where students will gather , often engaging in lively debate with speakers such as the Pit Preacher . The Morehead – Patterson Bell Tower , located in the heart of campus , tolls the quarter @-@ hour . In 1999 , UNC Chapel Hill was one of sixteen recipients of the American Society of Landscape Architects Medallion Awards and was identified as one of 50 college or university " works of art " by T.A. Gaines in his book The Campus as a Work of Art .

The university 's campus is informally divided into three regions , usually referred to as " north campus , " " middle campus , " and " south campus . " North campus includes the two quads along with the Pit , Frank Porter Graham Student Union , and the Davis , House , and Wilson libraries . Almost all classrooms are located in north campus along with several undergraduate residence halls . Middle campus includes Fetzer Field and Woollen Gymnasium along with the Student Recreation Center , Kenan Memorial Stadium , Irwin Belk outdoor track , Eddie Smith Field House , Boshamer Stadium , Carmichael Auditorium , the Sonja Haynes Stone Center for Black Culture and History , School of Government , School of Law , George Watts Hill Alumni Center , Ram 's Head complex ( with a dining hall , parking garage , grocery store , and gymnasium ) , and various residence halls . South campus includes the Dean Smith Center for men 's basketball , Koury Natatorium , School of Medicine , UNC Hospitals , Kenan – Flagler Business School , and the newest student residence halls .

A new satellite campus , Carolina North , to be built on the site of Horace Williams Airport was approved in 2007 . This is planned to be primarily a research park with expanded science facilities , but will also add classrooms and residence halls to cope with future increases in student population .

= = = Sustainability = = =

The principles of sustainability have been integrated throughout much of UNC Chapel Hill . In the area of green building , the university requires that all new projects meet the requirements for LEED Silver certification and is in the process of building the first building in North Carolina to receive LEED Platinum status . UNC Chapel Hill 's award @-@ winning co @-@ generation facility produces one @-@ fourth of the electricity and all of the steam used on campus . In 2006 , the university and the Town of Chapel Hill jointly agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions 60 % by 2050 , becoming the first town @-@ gown partnership in the country to do so . Through these efforts , the university achieved a " A − " grade on the Sustainable Endowment Institute 's College Sustainability Report Card 2010 . Only 14 out of 300 universities received a higher score than this .

= = = Old Well and McCorkle Place = = =

The most enduring symbol of the university is the Old Well , a small neoclassical rotunda based on the Temple of Love in the Gardens of Versailles , in the same location as the original well that provided water for the school . The well stands at the south end of McCorkle Place , the northern quad , between two of the campus 's oldest buildings , Old East , and Old West . Also located in McCorkle Place is the Davie Poplar tree under which the university 's founder , William Richardson Davie , supposedly selected the location for the university . The legend of the Davie Poplar says that if the tree falls , so will UNC Chapel Hill . Because of the tree 's questionable health from damage caused by severe weather such as Hurricane Fran in 1996 , the university has planted two genetic clones nearby called Davie Poplar Jr. and Davie Poplar III . The second clone , Davie Poplar III , was planted in conjunction with the university 's bicentennial celebration in 1993 by President Bill Clinton .

Another university landmark is the Confederate monument , known to students as Silent Sam , erected to commemorate UNC Chapel Hill students who died fighting for the Confederacy . The statue has at times been dogged by controversy , some critics claiming that the monument invokes memories of racism and slavery , while others counter that " Silent Sam " is simply historical and a part of the rich heritage of the South . The statue depicts a soldier armed with a rifle , but lacking a cartridge box . Thus , Silent Sam does not carry any ammunition and is a " benign " soldier . The statue was erected in 1913 by the United Daughters of the Confederacy to honor the school 's Confederate heroes . The student members of the university 's Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies are not allowed to walk on the grass of McCorkle Place out of respect for the unknown resting place of Joseph Caldwell , the university 's first president .

The Morehead – Patterson bell tower was commissioned by John Motley Morehead III , the benefactor of the prestigious Morehead Scholarship . The hedge and surrounding landscape was designed by William C. Coker , botany professor and creator of the campus arboretum . Traditionally , seniors have the opportunity to climb the tower a few days prior to May commencement .

The historic Playmakers Theatre is located on Cameron Avenue between McCorkle Place and Polk Place . It was designed by Alexander Jackson Davis , the same architect who renovated the northern façade of Old East in 1844 . The east @-@ facing building was completed in 1851 and initially served as a library and as a ballroom . It was originally named Smith Hall after North Carolina Governor General Benjamin Smith , who was a special aide to George Washington during the American Revolutionary War and was an early benefactor to the university . When the library moved to Hill Hall in 1907 , the School of Law occupied Smith Hall until 1923 . In 1925 , the structure was renovated and used as a stage by the university theater group , the Carolina Playmakers . It has remained a theater to the present day . Louis Round Wilson wrote in 1957 that Playmakers Theatre is the " architectural gem of the campus . " Playmakers Theatre was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1973 . Today , the building is a venue for student drama productions , concerts , and events sponsored by academic departments . In 2006 , the university began a renovation of Playmakers Theatre , which has included an exterior paint job and interior remodeling . The renovation is expected to be complete by the end of 2010 .

= = Academics = =

= = = Curriculum = = =

UNC Chapel Hill offers 71 bachelor 's , 107 master 's and 74 doctoral degree programs . The university enrolls more than 28 @,@ 000 students from all 100 North Carolina counties , the other 49 states , and 47 other countries . It is the second largest university in North Carolina . State law requires that the percentage of students from North Carolina in each freshman class meet or exceed 82 % . The student body consists of 17 @,@ 981 undergraduate students and 10 @,@ 935 graduate and professional students ( as of Fall 2009 ) . Minorities comprise 30 @.@ 8 % of UNC Chapel Hill 's undergraduate population and applications from international students have more than doubled in the last five years ( from 702 in 2004 to 1 @,@ 629 in 2009 ) . Eighty @-@ nine percent of enrolling first year students in 2009 reported a GPA of 4 @.@ 0 or higher on a weighted 4 @.@ 0 scale . UNC Chapel Hill students are strong competitors for national and international scholarships . In 2009 , two UNC Chapel Hill seniors won Rhodes Scholarships . The most popular majors at UNC Chapel Hill are Biology , Business Administration , Psychology , Media and Journalism , and Political Science . UNC Chapel Hill also offers 300 study abroad programs in 70 countries .

At the undergraduate level , all students must fulfill a number of general education requirements as part of the Making Connections curriculum , which was introduced in 2006 . English , social science , history , foreign language , mathematics , and natural science courses are required of all students , ensuring that they receive a broad liberal arts education . The university also offers a wide range of first year seminars for incoming freshmen . After their second year , students move on to the College of Arts and Sciences , or choose an undergraduate professional school program within the schools of medicine , nursing , business , education , pharmacy , information and library science , public health , or media and journalism . Undergraduates are held to an eight @-@ semester limit of study .

= = = Undergraduate admissions = = =

UNC Chapel Hill 's admissions process is " most selective " according to U.S. News & World Report . State law requires that the percentage of in @-@ state students per freshman class be at least 82 % , making out @-@ of @-@ state admissions very selective . For freshmen entering Fall 2015 , 9 @,@ 510 were accepted out of 31 @,@ 953 applicants , a 30 % acceptance rate , and 4 @,@ 076 enrolled . Women constituted 59 % of the incoming class ; men 41 % .

Among freshman students who enrolled in fall 2015 , SAT scores for the middle 50 % ranged from 600 @-@ 710 for critical reading , 620 @-@ 720 for math , and 590 @-@ 700 for writing . ACT composite scores for the middle 50 % ranged from 28 – 33 . In terms of class rank , 77 % of enrolled freshmen were in the top 10 % of their high school classes .

= = = Department of Public Policy = = =

The UNC Chapel Hill Department of Public Policy , established in 2001 , is a public policy program offering specializations in areas such as global health policy , education policy , tax policy , and social justice .

Established in 1979 , the Curriculum in Public Policy Analysis was one of the first undergraduate degree programs in public policy , and a charter member of the national Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management . It was augmented in 1991 by an interdisciplinary PhD Curriculum in Public Policy Analysis . In 1995 the two curricula were combined and began recruiting their own core faculty . In 2001 the combined curriculum became the present Department of Public Policy .

= = = Honor Code = = =

The university has a longstanding Honor Code known as the " Instrument of Student Judicial Governance , " supplemented by an entirely student @-@ run Honor System to resolve issues with students accused of academic and conduct offenses against the university community . The Honor System is divided into three branches : the Student Attorney General Staff , the Honor Court , and the Honor System Outreach . The Student Attorney General is appointed by the Student Body President to investigate all reports of Honor Code violations and determine whether or not to bring charges against the student as detailed in the " Instrument . " The Attorney General is supported by a select staff of around 40 students . The Honor Court is led by the Chair , who is appointed by the Student Body President , and supported by Vice Chairs who adjudicate all students ' hearings . The Honor Court as a whole is made up of some 80 selected students . The Honor System Outreach is a branch of the System solely devoted to promoting honor and integrity in the university community . UNC Chapel Hill is the only public university , with the exception of the military academies , that has a completely student @-@ run system from the beginning to the end of the process .

= = = Libraries = = =

UNC Chapel Hill 's library system includes a number of individual libraries housed throughout the campus and holds more than 7 @.@ 0 million volumes in total . UNC Chapel Hill 's North Carolina Collection ( NCC ) is the largest and most comprehensive collection of holdings about any single state nationwide . The unparalleled assemblage of literary , visual , and artifactual materials documents four centuries of North Carolina history and culture . The North Carolina Collection is housed in Wilson Library , named after Louis Round Wilson , along with the Southern Historical Collection , the Rare Books Collection , and the Southern Folklife Collection . The university is home to ibiblio , one of the world 's largest collections of freely available information including software , music , literature , art , history , science , politics , and cultural studies .

The Davis Library , situated near the Pit , is the main library and the largest academic facility and state @-@ owned building in North Carolina . It was named after North Carolina philanthropist Walter Royal Davis and opened on February 6 , 1984 . The first book checked out of Davis Library was George Orwell 's 1984 . The R.B. House Undergraduate Library is located between the Pit area and Wilson Library . It is named after Robert B. House , the Chancellor of UNC Chapel Hill from 1945 to 1957 , and it opened in 1968 . In 2001 , the R.B. House Undergraduate Library underwent a $ 9 @.@ 9 million renovation that modernized the furnishings , equipment , and infrastructure of the building . Prior to the construction of Davis , Wilson Library was the university 's main library , but now Wilson hosts special events and houses special collections , rare books , and temporary exhibits .

= = = Rankings and reputation = = =

In 2015 , U.S. News & World Report ranked UNC Chapel Hill 5th among the top public colleges and universities in the United States .

The university was named a Public Ivy by Richard Moll in his 1985 book The Public Ivies : A Guide to America 's Best Public Undergraduate Colleges and Universities , and in later guides by Howard and Matthew Greene . Many of UNC Chapel Hill 's professional schools have achieved high rankings in publications such as Forbes magazine , as well as annual U.S. News & World Report surveys . In 2016 , U.S. News & World Report ranked UNC Chapel Hill business school 's MBA program as the 16th best in the nation . In the 2011 edition , U.S. News & World Report ranked the UNC Chapel Hill Gillings School of Global Public Health as the top public school of public health in the United States , and the second ranked school of public health in the U.S. ( behind the top ranked school , Johns Hopkins and ahead of the third ranked school , Harvard ) . The UNC Chapel Hill Eshelman School of Pharmacy was ranked second among pharmacy schools in the United States in 2012 by U.S. News & World Report . In 2005 , Business Week ranked UNC Chapel Hill business school 's Executive MBA program as the 5th best in the United States . Other highly ranked schools include journalism and mass communication , law , library and information science , medicine , dentistry , and city and regional planning . Nationally , UNC Chapel Hill is in the top ten public universities for research . Internationally , the 2015 QS World University Rankings ranked North Carolina 79th in the world ( in 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings ) .

UNC Chapel Hill 's undergraduate program is ranked 30th in the United States by U.S. News & World Report and is consistently ranked among the nation 's top five public universities , just behind UC Berkeley , University of Virginia , UCLA , and the University of Michigan . Kiplinger 's Personal Finance in 2015 ranked UNC Chapel Hill as the number one " best value " public college in the country . The university also topped The Princeton Review 's list of the Best Value Colleges in 2014 . Similarly , the university is first among public universities and ninth overall in " Great Schools , Great Prices " , on the basis of academic quality , net cost of attendance and average student debt . Along with one of the nation 's most acclaimed undergraduate honors programs in a public institution , UNC Chapel Hill also has the highest percentage of undergraduates studying abroad for any public institution .

The University is also a large recipient of National Institute of Health grants and funds . For fiscal year 2014 , the university received $ 247 @,@ 555 @,@ 416 in NIH funds for research . This amount makes Chapel Hill the 7th overall recipient to research funds in the nation by the NIH .

= = = Scholarships = = =

For decades UNC Chapel Hill has offered an undergraduate merit scholarship known as the Morehead @-@ Cain Scholarship . Recipients receive tuition , room and board , books , and funds for summer study for four years . Since the inception of the Morehead scholarship program , 29 alumni of the program have been named Rhodes Scholars . North Carolina also boasts the Robertson Scholars Program , a scholarship granting recipients the opportunity to attend both UNC Chapel Hill and neighboring Duke University . Additionally , the university provides merit @-@ based scholarships , including the Carolina , Colonel Robinson , and Pogue Scholars programs , which offer full scholarships for out @-@ of @-@ state students .

In 2003 , Chancellor James Moeser announced the Carolina Covenant , which provides a debt free education to low @-@ income students who are academically qualified to attend the university . The program was the second in the nation ( following Princeton ) and the first of its kind at a public university . About 80 other universities have since followed suit .

North Carolina is tied for the largest number of Rhodes Scholars among public universities ( 47 since 1902 ) with the University of Virginia . Additionally , many students have won Truman , Goldwater , Mitchell , Churchill , Fulbright , Marshall , Udall , and Mellon scholarships .

= = = Academic @-@ athletic scandal = = =

From 1993 to 2011 UNC Chapel Hill offered independent study courses within the Department of African and Afro @-@ American Studies that consistently awarded high grades regardless of the quality of the work submitted . The final research papers generally received only a cursory review by an administrator without faculty oversight . During the 18 @-@ year period the courses saw 3 @,@ 100 enrollees , of which slightly fewer than half were athletes . A report released in October 2014 by former federal prosecutor Kenneth L. Wainstein showed that a number of faculty and administrators , including some members of the athletic support department and the director of the Parr Center for Ethics , had varying levels of knowledge about the nature of the courses . Members of the athletic support staff raised concerns with the College of Arts and Sciences on multiple occasions , but they were repeatedly rebuffed by an Associate Dean , who claimed that professors are free to run their classes as they see fit ; nine employees were eventually terminated or placed under disciplinary review for their role in the classes . In June 2015 , the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools ' Commission on Colleges put UNC Chapel Hill on one year of probation .

= = Athletics = =

North Carolina 's athletic teams are known as the Tar Heels . They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I level ( Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) sub @-@ level for football ) , primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) for all sports since the 1953 – 54 season . Men 's sports include baseball , basketball , cross country , fencing , football , golf , lacrosse , soccer , swimming & diving , tennis , track & field and Wrestling ; while women 's sports include basketball , cross country , fencing , field hockey , golf , gymnastics , lacrosse , rowing , soccer , softball , swimming and diving , tennis , track & field and volleyball .

The NCAA refers to UNC Chapel Hill as the " University of North Carolina " for athletics . As of Fall 2011 , the university had won 40 NCAA team championships in six different sports , eighth all @-@ time . These include twenty one NCAA championships in women 's soccer , six in women 's field hockey , four in men 's lacrosse , five in men 's basketball , one in women 's basketball , and two in men 's soccer . The Men 's basketball team won its 5th NCAA basketball championship in 2009 , the second for Coach Roy Williams since he took the job as head coach . Other recent successes include the 2011 College Cup in men 's soccer , and four consecutive College World Series appearances by the baseball team from 2006 to 2009 . In 1994 , the university 's athletic programs won the Sears Directors Cup " all @-@ sports national championship " awarded for cumulative performance in NCAA competition . Consensus collegiate national athletes of the year from North Carolina include Rachel Dawson in field hockey ; Phil Ford , Tyler Hansbrough , Antawn Jamison , Vince Carter , James Worthy and Michael Jordan in men 's basketball ; and Mia Hamm ( twice ) , Shannon Higgins , Kristine Lilly , and Tisha Venturini in women 's soccer .

= = = Mascot and nickname = = =

The university 's teams are nicknamed the " Tar Heels , " in reference to the state 's eighteenth century prominence as a tar and pitch producer . The nickname 's cultural relevance , however , has a complex history that includes anecdotal tales from both the American Civil War and the American Revolution . The mascot is a live Dorset ram named Rameses , a tradition that dates back to 1924 , when the team manager brought a ram to the annual game against Virginia Military Institute , inspired by the play of former football player Jack " The Battering Ram " Merrit . The kicker rubbed his head for good luck before a game @-@ winning field goal , and the ram stayed . There is also an anthropomorphic ram mascot who appears at games . The modern Rameses is depicted in a sailor 's hat , a reference to a United States Navy flight training program that was attached to the university during World War II .

= = = The Carolina Way = = =

Dean Smith was widely known for his idea of " The Carolina Way " , in which he challenged his players to , " Play hard , play smart , play together . " " The Carolina Way " was an idea of excellence in the classroom , as well as on the court . In Coach Smith 's book , The Carolina Way , former player Scott Williams said , regarding Dean Smith , " Winning was very important at Carolina , and there was much pressure to win , but Coach cared more about our getting a sound education and turning into good citizens than he did about winning . "

The October 22 , 2014 release of the Wainstein Report alleging institutionalized academic fraud that involved over 3 @,@ 100 students and student athletes , over an 18 @-@ year period from 1993 to 2011 that began during the final years of the Dean Smith era , marred " The Carolina Way " image . The report alleged that at least 54 players during the Dean Smith era were enrolled in what came to be known as " paper classes . " In response to the allegations of the Wainstein report , the NCAA launched their own investigation and on June 5 , 2015 accused the institution of five major violations ( including lack of institutional control ) . Sports Illustrated has since gone on to say , " The Carolina Way " is no longer shorthand for all that is admirable and salutary in college sports . "

= = = Rivalries = = =

The South 's Oldest Rivalry between North Carolina and its first opponent , the University of Virginia , was prominent throughout the first third of the twentieth century . The 119th meeting in football between two of the top public universities in the east occurred in October 2014 .

One of the fiercest rivalries is with Durham 's Duke University . Located only eight miles from each other , the schools regularly compete in both athletics and academics . The Carolina @-@ Duke rivalry is most intense , however , in basketball . With a combined ten national championships in men 's basketball , both teams have been frequent contenders for the national championship for the past thirty years . The rivalry has been the focus of several books , including Will Blythe 's To Hate Like This Is to Be Happy Forever and was the focus of the HBO documentary Battle for Tobacco Road : Duke vs Carolina . Duke was Carolina 's biggest rival from the 1930 's until the early 1960 's , when Duke 's declining athletic program shifted Carolina 's rival focus to North Carolina State .

Carolina holds an in @-@ state rivalry with fellow Tobacco Road school , North Carolina State University . Attention shifted back to Duke following a decline in NC State 's basketball program since the mid @-@ 1970 's ( and the resurgence of Duke 's basketball program ) , but the rivalry is sometimes still considered the most bitter in the state . Combined , the two schools hold seven NCAA Championships and 27 ACC Championships in basketball . Students from each school often exchange pranks before basketball and football games .

= = = Rushing Franklin = = =

While students previously held " Beat Duke " parades on Franklin Street before sporting events , today students and sports fans have been known to spill out of bars and dormitories upon the victory of one of Carolina 's sports teams . In most cases , a Franklin Street " bonfire " celebration is due to a victory by the men 's basketball team , although other Franklin Street celebrations have stemmed from wins by the women 's basketball team and women 's soccer team . The first known student celebration on Franklin Street came after the 1957 men 's basketball team capped their perfect season with a National Championship victory over the Kansas Jayhawks . From then on , students have flooded the street after important victories . After a Final Four victory in 1981 and the men 's basketball team won the 1982 NCAA Championship , Franklin Street was painted blue by the fans who had rushed the street . This event has led local vendors to stop selling Carolina blue paint as the Tar Heels near the national championship .

= = = School colors = = =

Since the beginning of intercollegiate athletics at UNC Chapel Hill in the late nineteenth century , the school 's colors have been Carolina blue and white . The colors were chosen years before by the Dialectic ( blue ) and Philanthropic ( white ) Societies , the oldest student organization at the university . The school had required participation in one of the clubs , and traditionally the " Di " s were from the western part of North Carolina while the " Phi " s were from the eastern part of the state .

Society members would wear a blue or white ribbon at university functions , and blue or white ribbons were attached to their diplomas at graduation . On public occasions , both groups were equally represented , and eventually both colors were used by processional leaders to signify the unity of both groups as part of the university . When football became a popular collegiate sport in the 1880s , the Carolina football team adopted the light blue and white of the Di @-@ Phi Societies as the school colors .

= = = School songs = = =

Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement , convocation , and athletic games are the university fight songs " I 'm a Tar Heel Born " and " Here Comes Carolina " . The fight songs are often played by the bell tower near the center of campus , as well as after major victories . " I 'm a Tar Heel Born " originated in the late 1920s as a tag to the school 's alma mater , " Hark The Sound " . " Hark the Sound " was usually played at the end of games , but as of late it has been played at the beginning of games as well .

The Institute of Folk Music at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill was founded by Lamar Stringfield in 1930 , followed by the founding of the North Carolina Symphony in 1932 .

= = Student life = =

= = = Organizations and activities = = =

Most student organizations at UNC Chapel Hill are officially recognized and provided with assistance by the Carolina Union , an administrative unit of the university . Funding is derived from the student government student activity fee , which is allocated at the discretion of the student congress .

The largest student fundraiser , the UNC Chapel Hill Dance Marathon , involves thousands of students , faculty , and community members in raising funds for the North Carolina Children 's Hospital . The organization conducts fundraising and volunteer activities throughout the year and , as of 2008 , had donated $ 1 @.@ 4 million since its inception in 1999 .

The university is also noted for its Campus Y , the social justice hub on campus that houses many service and internationally focused organizations . The Campus Y was founded in 1859 , and is noted as a " leader in on @-@ campus discussion and dialogue and off @-@ campus service and activism " . The Campus Y was at the center of many progressive movements within the university , including the racial integration of the student body , the effort to improve wages and working conditions for University employees , and the establishment of the Sonja Haynes Stones Center for Black Culture and History . The Y is a collection of many UNC Chapel Hill specific and outside organizations , such as Carolina Kickoff , STAND , Nourish International , Carolina Microfinance Initiative , Homeless Outreach & Poverty Eradication ( HOPE ) , and Project Literacy .

The student @-@ run newspaper The Daily Tar Heel is ranked highly by The Princeton Review , and received the 2004 – 5 National Pacemaker Award from the Associated Collegiate Press . Founded in 1977 , WXYC 89 @.@ 3 FM is UNC Chapel Hill 's student radio station that broadcasts 24 hours a day , 365 days a year . Programming is left up to student DJs . WXYC typically plays little heard music from a wide range of genres and eras . On November 7 , 1994 , WXYC became the first radio station in the world to broadcast its signal over the internet . A student @-@ run television station , STV , airs on the campus cable and throughout the Chapel Hill Time Warner Cable system . Founded in 1948 as successor to the Carolina Magazine , the Carolina Quarterly , edited by graduate students , has published the works of numerous authors , including Wendell Berry , Raymond Carver , Don DeLillo , Annie Dillard , Joyce Carol Oates , and John Edgar Wideman . Works appearing in the Quarterly have been anthologized in Best American Short Stories and New Stories from the South and have won the Pushcart and O. Henry Prizes .

The Clef Hangers ( also known as the Clefs ) are the university 's oldest a cappella group , founded by Barry Saunders in 1977 . The group has since won several Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards ( CARAs ) , including Best Soloist in the song Easy , featured on the 2003 album Breeze . They have won two more CARAs for Best Male Collegiate Songs for My Love on Time Out ( 2008 ) , and for Ain 't Nothing Wrong on Twist ( 2009 ) . Members have included Brendan James , who graduated in 2002 , and Anoop Desai , who graduated in 2008 . Since the spring of 2002 , the Clef Hangers have sung each year at Commencement . They hold fall and spring concerts , sometimes featuring special guests .

The Residence Hall Association , the school 's third @-@ largest student @-@ run organization , is dedicated to enhancing the experience of students living in residence halls . This includes putting on social , educational , and philanthropic programs for residents ; recognizing outstanding residents and members ; and helping residents develop into successful leaders . The organization is run by 8 student executive officers ; 16 student governors that represent each residence hall community ; and numerous community government members . RHA is the campus organization of NACURH , the largest student organization in the world . In 2010 the organization won the national RHA Building Block Award , which is awarded to the school with the most improved RHA organization .

The athletic teams at the university are supported by the Marching Tar Heels , the university 's marching band . The entire 275 @-@ member volunteer band is present at every home football game , and smaller pep bands play at all home basketball games . Each member of the band is also required to play in at least one of five pep bands that play at athletic events of the 26 other sports .

UNC Chapel Hill has a regional theater company in residence , the Playmakers Repertory Company , and hosts regular dance , drama , and music performances on campus . The school has an outdoor stone amphitheatre known as Forest Theatre used for weddings and drama productions . Forest Theatre is dedicated to Professor Frederick Koch , the founder of the Carolina Playmakers and the father American folk drama .

Many fraternities and sororities on campus belong to the National Panhellenic Conference ( NPC ) , Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) , Greek Alliance Council , and National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) . As of spring 2010 , eighteen percent of undergraduates were Greek ( 1146 men and 1693 women out of 17 @,@ 160 total ) . The total number of community service hours completed for the 2010 spring semester by fraternities and sororities was 51 @,@ 819 hours ( average of 31 hours / person ) . UNC Chapel Hill also offers professional and service fraternities that do not have houses but are still recognized by the school . Some of the campus honor societies include : the Order of the Golden Fleece , the Order of the Grail @-@ Valkyries , the Order of the Old Well , the Order of the Bell Tower , and the Frank Porter Graham Honor Society .

Student government at Carolina is composed of an executive branch headed by the student body president , a legislative branch composed of a student @-@ elected student congress , and a judicial branch which includes the honor court and student supreme court . The Judicial Reform Committee created the Instrument of Student Judicial Governance , which outlined the current Honor Code and its means for enforcement in 1974 . Currently , Carolina boasts one of the only student @-@ run judicial systems in the nation . All academic and most conduct violations are handled by the student @-@ run Honor System . Prior to that time , the Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies along with other campus organizations supported student concerns .

= = = Dining = = =

Lenoir Dining Hall was completed in 1939 and opened for service to students when they returned from Christmas holidays in January 1940 . The building was named for General William Lenoir , first chairman of the Board of Trustees of the university in 1790 . The new Rams Head Dining Hall seats 1 @,@ 300 people and has a capacity for serving 10 @,@ 000 meals per day . It has one large dining area , two medium size dining areas , food service staff offices , kitchen , food preparation areas , storage and a Starbucks coffee shop .

Rams Head Dining Center was opened to the students in March 2005 . It includes the Rams Head Dining Hall , Starbucks , and the Rams Head Market . It was opened to offer more food service options to the students living on south campus . In addition the dining hall 's hours were extended to include the 9 pm – 12 am period , a time referred to as " Late Night " by students .

= = = Housing = = =

On campus , the Department of Housing and Residential Education manages thirty @-@ two residence halls , grouped into thirteen communities . These communities range from Olde Campus Upper Quad Community which includes Old East Residence Hall , the oldest building of the university , to modern communities such as Manning West , completed in 2002 . In addition to residence halls , the university oversees an additional eight apartment complexes organized into three communities , Ram Village , Odum Village , and Baity Hill Student Family Housing . Along with themed housing focusing on foreign languages and substance @-@ free living , there are also " living @-@ learning communities " which have been formed for specific social , gender @-@ related , or academic needs . An example is UNITAS , sponsored by the Department of Anthropology , where residents are assigned roommates on the basis of cultural or racial differences rather than similarities . Three apartment complexes offer housing for families , graduate students , and some upperclassmen . Along with the rest of campus , all residence halls , apartments , and their surrounding grounds are smoke @-@ free . As of 2008 , 46 % of all undergraduates live in university @-@ provided housing .

= = Alumni = =

With over 300 @,@ 000 living former students , North Carolina has one of the largest and most active alumni groups in America . Many Tar Heels have attained local , national , and international prominence . James K. Polk served as President of the United States for a single term , William R. King was the thirteenth Vice President of the United States . North Carolina has produced many United States Senators including Paul Wellstone and Thomas Lanier Clingman , along with multiple House Representatives such as Virginia Foxx and Ike Franklin Andrews . Algenon L. Marbley and Thomas Settle have received positions of federal judgeship . Former Secretary of War and Secretary of the Army Kenneth Claiborne Royall and the fifth White House Press Secretary Jonathan W. Daniels were graduates of North Carolina . Peaches Golding was appointed by HM Queen Elizabeth II as High Sheriff of the City and County of Bristol 2010 @-@ 2011 , the first Black female High Sheriff and second only black High Sheriff in over 1 @,@ 000 years .

Tar Heels have also made a mark on pop culture . Andy Griffith and John Forsythe became successful actors . Stuart Scott , Woody Durham , and Mick Mixon have become sportscasters . Civil War historian and writer Shelby Foote , sportswriter Peter Gammons , and Pulitzer Prize winner Lenoir Chambers all graduated from North Carolina . Other notable writers who have attended UNC Chapel Hill include Thomas Wolfe , who has a memorial on campus ; National Book Award winners Walker Percy , Hayden Carruth , and Charles Frazier ; Dos Passos Prize winner Russell Banks ; National Book Critics Circle Award winner Ben Fountain ; Pulitzer Prize finalist Lydia Millet ; New Yorker columnist Joseph Mitchell ; National Geographic writer John Patric ; Armistead Maupin ; and the notable poets Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Bollingen Prize winner Edgar Bowers.Television journalist Charles Kuralt , honored with three Peabody Awards , is a UNC Chapel Hill graduate . Three @-@ time Pulitzer Prize winner , political cartoonist Jeff MacNelly graduated from Carolina . Caleb Bradham , the inventor of the popular soft drink Pepsi @-@ Cola , was a member of the Philanthropic Society and the class of 1890 .

Tar Heels have made their mark on the basketball court with Southern Methodist University head coach Larry Brown , title winning coach Roy Williams , Los Angeles Lakers general manager Mitch Kupchak , college player of the year award winners George Glamack , Lennie Rosenbluth , Antawn Jamison , and Tyler Hansbrough , Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Michael Jordan , Billy Cunningham , and Robert McAdoo , great defender Bobby Jones , and NBA All @-@ Star Vince Carter . Other notable Tar Heels include football players Lawrence Taylor and Dré Bly , soccer stars Mia Hamm , Ashlyn Harris , Heather O 'Reilly , Meghan Klingenberg , Whitney Engen , Allie Long , Lori Chalupny and Tobin Heath , baseball standouts Dustin Ackley and B.J. Surhoff , and Olympians April Heinrichs and Vikas Gowda .

Many Tar Heels have become business leaders . The leaders include Jason Kilar , former CEO of Hulu ; Howard R. Levine , chairman of the board and CEO of Family Dollar ; Paul Kolton , chairman of the American Stock Exchange ; Julian Robertson , founder of Tiger Management Corp. ; Bill Ruger , founder of Sturm , Ruger ; Warren Grice Elliott , former president of Atlantic Coast Line Railroad ; Allen B. Morgan , Jr . , founder and former CEO of Morgan Keegan & Company ; Ken Thompson , former chairman and CEO of Wachovia ; Hugh McColl , former CEO of Bank of America ; Sallie Krawcheck , former CFO of Citigroup Inc. and William Johnson , the current president and CEO of Progress Energy , and John A. Allison IV , former CEO of BB & T.

= = Criticism = =

= = = UNC tuition increase = = =

In July 2011 , the public universities in North Carolina had to share a budget cut of $ 414 million , of which the Chapel Hill campus lost more than $ 100 million in 2011 . This followed state budget cuts that trimmed university spending by $ 231million since 2007 ; Provost Bruce Carney said more than 130 faculty members have left UNC since 2009 . , with poor staff retention .

On November 17 , 2011 , the Board of Trustees for UNC @-@ CH recommended a 15 @.@ 6 percent increase in tuition tuition increase , a historically larges increase . The budget cuts in 2011 greatly affected the university and set this increased tuition plan in motion

UNC students angrily protested on November 17 , with the slogan " Strike the Hikes " . They believe that the university should dip into its $ 2 @.@ 2 billion endowment , but UNC officials noted that they endowments are restricted for specific uses , such as scholarships and other financial aid . Mary Cooper ( Student Body President ) , the lone student representative , was the only trustee to vote against the proposal .

On February 10 , 2012 , the UNC Board of Governors approved tuition and fee increases of 8 @.@ 8 percent for in @-@ state undergraduates across all 16 campuses

= Ames Project =

The Ames Project was a research and development project that was part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs during World War II . It was founded by Frank Spedding from Iowa State College in Ames , Iowa as an offshoot of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago devoted to chemistry and metallurgy , but became a separate project in its own right . The Ames Project developed the Ames Process , a method for preparing pure uranium metal that the Manhattan Project needed for its atomic bombs and nuclear reactors . Between 1942 and 1945 , it produced over 1 @,@ 000 short tons ( 910 t ) of uranium metal . It also developed methods of preparing and casting thorium , cerium and beryllium . In October 1945 Iowa State College received the Army @-@ Navy " E " Award for Excellence in Production , an award usually only given to industrial organisations . In 1947 it became the Ames Laboratory , a national laboratory under the Atomic Energy Commission .

= = Background = =

The discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 , followed by that of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , and its theoretical explanation ( and naming ) by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch soon after , opened up the possibility of a controlled nuclear chain reaction with uranium . On 20 December , soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that brought the United States into World War II , the Nobel Prize @-@ winning physicist Arthur H. Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project , objective of which was to produce reactors to convert uranium into plutonium , to find ways to chemically separate plutonium from the uranium , and ultimately to design and build an atomic bomb . This became the Manhattan Project . Although a successful reactor had not yet been built , the scientists had already produced several different but promising design concepts .

Compton established its Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago in February 1942 . Its mission was to build nuclear reactors to create plutonium that would be used in atomic bombs . For advice on assembling the laboratory 's Chemistry Division , Compton , a physicist , turned to Herbert McCoy , who had considerable experience with isotopes and radioactive elements . McCoy recommended Frank Spedding from Iowa State College in Ames , Iowa , as an expert on the rare earth elements , which were chemically similar to the actinide series that included uranium and plutonium . Compton asked Spedding to become the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's Chemistry Division .

Due to lack of space at the University of Chicago , Spedding proposed to organise part of the Chemistry Division at Iowa State College , where he had colleagues who were willing to help . It was agreed that Spedding would spend half of each week in Ames , and half in Chicago . The intention was that staff at Ames would eventually move to Chicago when space became available , but this never happened . The success of the Ames Project ensured that it became a separate laboratory within the Manhattan Project .

= = Organization = =

Spedding started by recruiting two fellow scientists at Iowa State College to become his associate directors ; Harley A. Wilhelm , an expert in spectrochemistry , as the head of the Ames Project 's Metallurgy Division , and Iral B. Johns as the head of the Plutonium Division . Under them were eight section chiefs . The Ames Project grew to over 90 scientific staff . The total number of staff eventually exceeded 500 . Senior staff would meet on Sunday mornings to review the previous week 's work and set goals for the week ahead , a process that came to be called " Speddinars " . At first Spedding had to depart for Chicago soon after the meeting , but in early 1943 he was succeeded as head of the chemistry division at the Metallurgical Laboratory by James Franck , allowing Spedding to spend more times at Ames . He remained an associate director at the Metallurgical Laboratory .

Spedding was fortunate in having the full support of Charles E. Friley , the president of Iowa State College , even though the nature of the work could not at first be disclosed to him until security checks were complete . Once this was complete , Friley brought in Harold V. Gaskill , the Dean of Science , as the Ames Project 's administrator . The United States Army Corps of Engineers took control of the Manhattan Project in June 1942 , and the Ames Project in late 1942 .

= = Uranium = =

= = = Ames Process = = =

The first item on the agenda was to find uranium for the nuclear reactor that Enrico Fermi was proposing to build . Uranium ore was readily available . Some 1 @,@ 200 short tons ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) of high @-@ grade ore from the Belgian Congo was in storage in a warehouse at Port Richmond on Staten Island . About 300 short tons ( 270 t ) per annum was being mined at the Eldorado Mine at Port Radium on the Great Bear Lake near the Arctic Circle in Canada 's Northwest Territories . The Eldorado company also operated a refinery at Port Hope , Ontario , where Canadian and Belgian ore was refined . The Manhattan Project 's estimated requirements for 1942 were 200 short tons ( 180 t ) , of which Compton required just 45 short tons ( 41 t ) for his proposed nuclear reactor .

The major problem was impurities in the uranium oxide , which could act as neutron poisons and prevent a nuclear chain reaction . Due to the presence of impurities , references published before 1942 typically listed its melting point at around 1 @,@ 700 ° C ( 3 @,@ 090 ° F ) when pure uranium metal actually melts at 1 @,@ 132 ° C ( 2 @,@ 070 ° F ) . Peter P. Alexander , at Metal Hybrides Incorporated , gave in 1938 the first indications that the melting point of uranium was " as low as 1 @,@ 100 ° C ( 2 @,@ 010 ° F ) and even somewhat lower " .

The most effective way to purify uranium oxide in a laboratory was to take advantage of the fact that uranium nitrate is soluble in ether . Scaling this process up for industrial production was a dangerous proposition ; ether was explosive , and a factory using large quantities was likely to blow up or burn down . Compton and Spedding turned to Mallinckrodt in Saint Louis , Missouri , which had experience with ether . Spedding went over the details with Mallinckrodt 's chemical engineers , Henry V. Farr and John R. Ruhoff , on 17 April 1942 . Within a few months , sixty tons of highly pure uranium oxide was produced .

The only uranium metal available commercially was produced by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company , using a photochemical process . Uranium oxide was reacted with potassium fluoride in large vats on the roof of Westinghouse 's plant in Bloomfield , New Jersey . This produced ingots the size of a quarter that were sold for around $ 20 per gram . But Edward Creutz , the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's group responsible for fabricating the uranium , wanted a metal sphere the size of an orange for his experiments . With Westinghouse 's process , it would have cost $ 200 @,@ 000 and taken a year to produce . The hydride or " hydramet " process , developed by Peter P. Alexander used calcium hydride as the reducing agent for the conversion of uranium ore to metal . By this means the Metal Hydrides plant in Beverly , Massachusetts , managed to produce a few pounds of uranium metal . Unfortunately , the calcium hydride contained unacceptable amounts of boron , a neutron poison , making the metal unsuitable for use in a reactor . Some months would pass before Clement J. Rodden from the National Bureau of Standards and Union Carbide figured out a means to produce sufficiently pure calcium hydride .

Spedding and Wilhelm began looking for ways to create the uranium metal . At the time , it was produced in the form of a powder , and was highly pyrophoric . It could be pressed and sintered and stored in cans , but to be useful , it needed to be melted and cast . Casting presented difficulty because uranium corroded crucibles of beryllium , magnesia and graphite . To produce uranium metal , they tried reducing uranium oxide with hydrogen , but this did not work . While most of the neighboring elements on the periodic table can be reduced to form pure metal and slag , uranium did not behave this way . In June 1942 they then tried reducing the uranium with carbon in a hydrogen atmosphere , with only moderate success . They then tried aluminum , magnesium and calcium , all of which were unsuccessful . The following month the Ames team found that molten uranium could be cast in a graphite container . Although graphite was known to react with uranium , this could be managed because the carbide formed only where the two touched .

Around this time , someone from the Manhattan Project 's Berkeley Radiation Laboratory brought a 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) cube of uranium tetrafluoride — the uranium compound being used in the calutrons — to the Metallurgical Laboratory to discuss the possibility of using it rather than uranium oxide in the reactor . Spedding began wondering whether it would be possible to produce uranium metal from this salt , bypassing the problems with oxygen . He took the cube back to Ames , and asked Wilhelm to investigate . The task was assigned to an associate , Wayne H. Keller . He investigated a process ( now known as the Ames process ) originally developed by J. C. Goggins and others at the University of New Hampshire in 1926 . This involved mixing uranium tetrachloride and calcium metal in a calcium oxide @-@ lined steel pressure vessel ( known as a " bomb " ) and heating it . Keller was able to reproduce Goggin 's results on 3 August 1942 , creating a 20 @-@ gram ( 0 @.@ 71 oz ) button of very pure uranium metal . The process was then scaled up . By September , bombs were being prepared in a 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) steel pipes 15 inches ( 38 cm ) long , lined with lime to prevent corrosion , and containing up to 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) of uranium tetrafluoride . C. F. Gray took these ingots and cast them into a 4 @,@ 980 @-@ gram ( 10 @.@ 98 lb ) 5 @-@ by @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 by 5 @.@ 1 cm ) billet of pure uranium .

= = = Production = = =

On 24 September 1942 , Wilhelm took the ingot to Spedding at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago and presented it to Compton , whose first reaction was of disbelief . He thought it must be hollow . Spedding had the ingot cut open . It was not hollow . A few days later , the Metallurgical Laboratory 's director , Richard L. Doan , went to Ames , where he drew up an Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) contract for the Ames Project to produce 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of pure uranium metal a day . This would be a pilot plant , with the process eventually being transferred to industry . The OSRD contract was superseded by a Manhattan Project contract in November 1942 . The initial contract was for $ 50 @,@ 000 . By 31 December 1945 , the face value of contracts let to the Ames Project totalled $ 6 @,@ 907 @,@ 000 ; but the work was carried out for $ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .

Spedding and Wilhelm found an old wooden building on the southeastern edge of the campus . It had been a home economics building until 1926 , and then had served as a women 's gymnasium until a new one was built in 1941 ; by 1942 it was mainly used for storage . The building was handed over to the Ames Project , and the wooden floor replaced with a concrete one , much to the disappointment of the university architect , who had been trying for some years to get the place torn down . The building officially became known as the Physical Chemistry Annex ; local people called it " Little Ankeny " , after the nearby town of Ankeny , Iowa , where there was an ordnance plant . Looking for machine tools , Wilhelm found a machine shop for sale in Ames . The owner , Bill Maitland , had once made gardening tools , but could no longer obtain the metal he needed due to wartime rationing . Wilhelm bought it for $ 8 @,@ 000 . The Metallurgical Laboratory supplied two large 40 @,@ 000 W reduction furnaces .

The Ames Project supplied two tons of uranium metal to the Metallurgical Laboratory for the construction of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the world 's first nuclear reactor , which achieved criticality on 2 December 1942 . The Ames Project would later supply over 90 percent of the uranium for the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . The Ames Project was producing a ton of highly pure uranium metal a day . Production rose from 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) per day in December 1942 to 550 pounds ( 250 kg ) per day by the middle of January .

For production , the process was changed to use magnesium instead of calcium ; magnesium was cheaper , more readily available , and purer . But it was also harder to start the reaction with magnesium than calcium , requiring more heating . The uranium tetrafluoride , known as green salt because of its characteristic color , was supplied by Mallinckrodt , DuPont and Harshaw Chemical , and was ground up on arrival , as was the magnesium . Bombs were normally 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) pipes , 36 @-@ inch ( 91 cm ) long , although 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) , 42 @-@ inch ( 110 cm ) long pipes could be used to produce 125 @-@ pound ( 57 kg ) ingots . They were heated to 650 ° C ( 1 @,@ 202 ° F ) for 40 to 60 minutes , after which the mixture spontaneously reacted , reaching temperatures of 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 ° C ( 2 @,@ 730 to 3 @,@ 630 ° F ) . A microphone was used to detect the ignition , and the bomb would be moved to a spray chamber to cool . If everything worked , uranium metal biscuit and magnesium fluoride slag would be produced . After the bomb cooled , it would be opened and hammered until the two separated . The resulting biscuit would be stamped , and sent off to be cast .

Casting re @-@ shaped the uranium into ingots and removed impurities . The metal biscuits were melted in a graphite crucible and poured into a mold . This produced rods between 1 @.@ 5 and 5 @.@ 0 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 and 12 @.@ 7 cm ) in diameter and 20 to 30 inches ( 51 to 76 cm ) long . The rods were stamped with a number and placed in wooden boxes for shipping to the Metallurgical Laboratory . From there they were sent to the Oak Ridge or the Hanford Site . By July 1943 , the Ames Project was producing 130 @,@ 000 pounds ( 59 @,@ 000 kg ) of uranium metal per month . The cost of a pound of uranium metal fell from $ 1 @,@ 000 to around one dollar . Starting in July 1943 , Mallinckrodt , Electromet , and DuPont began producing uranium by the Ames process , and Ames phased out its own production by early 1945 .

The Ames Project began a program of recovering uranium metal from scrap . A new building , known as Physical Chemistry Annex 2 , was constructed for the purpose in 1944 . Uranium turnings were washed , dried , passed through a magnet to remove iron impurities , and pressed into briquettes . They were then send to be remelted . The job was handed over to Metal Hydrides and a recovery plant at the Hanford Site in December 1945 , by which time the Ames Project had recovered 600 @,@ 000 pounds ( 270 t ) of scrap metal . In all , the Ames Project produced over 1 @,@ 000 short tons ( 910 t ) of uranium metal . All production ceased on 5 August 1945 , as did that at Metal Hydrides and DuPont , leaving Mallinckrodt as the only producer of uranium metal in the early post @-@ war period .

= = Other metals = =

Beginning in 1942 , along with uranium production operations , the Ames Project conducted a variety of metallurgical research related to the separation and purification of thorium , beryllium and rare earth metals , such as cerium .

= = = Thorium = = =

In 1942 , Glenn T. Seaborg established that when thorium was bombarded with neutrons , it could be transformed into fissile uranium @-@ 233 . This was another possible route to an atomic bomb , especially if it turned out that uranium @-@ 233 could be more easily separated from thorium than plutonium from uranium . It was not pursued further because uranium @-@ 233 production would have required a complete redesign of the Hanford reactors ; but in April 1944 the Metallurgical Laboratory 's Thorfin R. Rogness calculated that a nuclear reactor containing thorium could produce enough uranium @-@ 233 to sustain its reaction without adding anything but more thorium . This was very interesting , because at the time it was thought that uranium might be scarce , whereas thorium was at least ten times more plentiful .

In July and August 1943 , the Ames Project attempted to create thorium metal using something similar to the Ames Process . This was unsuccessful , because thorium has a much higher melting point than uranium . Efforts continued into 1944 , and it was found that with a zinc chloride booster they could produce a zinc @-@ thorium alloy . Heating to 1 @,@ 300 ° C ( 2 @,@ 370 ° F ) in a graphite crucible could then melt the zinc , which could be drawn off . This left the thorium , which was cast into 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) ingots in beryllia crucibles . Some 4 @,@ 500 pounds ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) was produced by 31 December 1945 . Thorium sold for $ 3 a gram before the war ; by its end , the Ames Project was producing it for less than 5 ¢ a gram .

= = = Beryllium = = =

Beryllium was used by the Manhattan Project as a neutron reflector , and as a component of modulated neutron initiators . Only one firm produced it commercially in the United States , Brush Beryllium in Lorain , Ohio . The Ames Project began working on a production process in December 1943 , reducing beryllium fluoride in a bomb with metallic magnesium and a sulphur booster . The main difficulty with working with beryllium was its high toxicity . A closed bomb was used to minimise the possibility of producing toxic beryllium dust . The process worked , but the high temperatures and pressures created by the magnesium sulphide meant that it was potentially explosive . An alternative was then developed using beryllium fluoride in a bomb with metallic calcium and a lead chloride booster . The metal was cast in a vacuum . Research was still ongoing when the war ended .

= = = Cerium = = =

In mid @-@ 1944 , the Ames Project was asked to produce cerium . This was being used by the laboratories at Berkeley and Los Alamos for cerium sulphide , which was used in crucibles to cast plutonium . Again , the bomb method was used , this time to reduce anhydrous cerium chloride with calcium using an iodine booster . A special " dry room " was constructed for drying out the cerium chloride using hydrogen chloride gas . The resulting metal contained calcium and magnesium impurity , so it had to be recast to remove them . The opportunity was taken to make it into 0 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 19 mm ) diameter rods 4 inches ( 100 mm ) long , the desired shape . Because cerium is so reactive , the remelting was done in a vacuum , using a calcium oxide or magnesium oxide crucible . The first shipment of cerium metal was made in August 1944 . The Ames Laboratory produced 437 pounds ( 198 kg ) of extremely ( more than 99 % ) pure cerium by August 1945 , when production ended .

= = Alloys = =

Since uranium metal had been so scarce before the war , little was known about its metallurgy , but with uranium being used in the reactors , the Manhattan Project became keenly interested in its properties . In particular , with water being used for cooling , there was speculation about alloys with high thermal conductivity and resistance to corrosion . The Ames Project produced and tested uranium carbide , which had a potential to be used as a fuel in reactors instead of metallic uranium . So too was bismuth , because of its low neutron capture cross section , so the Ames Project produced and tested uranium @-@ bismuth alloys .

At one point a proposal was on the table to protect the uranium in a reactor from corrosion by jacketing it with copper . The Ames Project therefore studied uranium @-@ copper alloys , which would occur at the interface . In practice , the uranium was canned in aluminum ; this too was studied , as were alloys with tin , which was used to solder the cans . Tests were also carried out with alloys of uranium with beryllium , calcium , cobalt , magnesium , manganese and thorium , which were being produced or in use elsewhere in the Ames Project . Attempts were made to separate plutonium from uranium through metallurgy , exploiting plutonium 's greater affinity with gold and silver , but the Manhattan Project chose to use the Bismuth phosphate process , a chemical separation method , instead .

The Ames Project also studied thorium , alloying it with bismuth , carbon , chromium , iron , manganese , molybdenum , nickel , oxygen , tin , tungsten and uranium , and alloyed beryllium with bismuth , lead , thorium , uranium and zinc .

= = Chemistry = =

The chemistry of uranium was the focus of multiple studies by the Ames Project . The properties of the various uranium oxides and uranium hydride were investigated . The latter of was particular interest because at one point the Los Alamos Laboratory considered using it in an atomic bomb instead of metallic uranium , but the idea was found to be inefficient , and was shelved . A process was developed to recovery depleted uranium metal from the uranium tetrafluoride left over from the electromagnetic isotope separation process and uranium hexafluoride left over from the gaseous diffusion process . This was operated as a pilot plant that produced kilogram quantities , before being turned over to the Manhattan Project 's SAM Laboratories for implementation on an industrial scale at Oak Ridge .

If the chemistry and metallurgy of uranium was poorly understood , that of plutonium was practically unknown , as it had only existed in microscopic amounts . Samples began arriving from the reactors in 1943 , and although the locus of the Manhattan Project 's investigations into plutonium chemistry was at the Metallurgical Laboratory , the Ames Project investigated methods of separating plutonium metal from uranium and fission products .

= = Post @-@ war = =

Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , visited Iowa State College on 12 October 1945 , and presented the Army @-@ Navy " E " Award for Excellence in Production for its part in producing uranium for the Manhattan Project . It was unprecedented for a college or university to receive this award , which was usually given to industrial organisations . The award came in the form of a banner sporting four white stars , representing two and a half years of service to the war effort . As of 2011 , the award was on display at Iowa State University in Spedding Hall .

The Iowa State Board of Education created the Institute of Atomic Research ( IAR ) as a coordinating body for research throughout the Midwestern United States on 1 November 1945 , with Spedding as its director . The Manhattan Project continued to fund the activities of the Ames Project , but with the passage of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 , responsibility passed to the newly @-@ created Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) on 1 January 1947 .

On 17 May 1947 , the AEC awarded the contract to run the Ames Laboratory , which now had the status of a national laboratory , to Iowa State College . The laboratory remained on the Iowa State College campus , and its faculty and graduate students made up most the staff . Spedding remained its director until he retired in 1968 . Administration was delegated to IAR . Permanent buildings were constructed that were opened in 1948 and 1950 , and subsequently named Wilhelm Hall and Spedding Hall . The Ames Laboratory retained a focus on chemistry and metallurgy , particularly of the rare earth metals .

= Vildanden ( airline ) =

Vildanden AS ( " The Wild Duck " ) was a virtual , regional airline based at Skien Airport , Geiteryggen in Norway , where it was the only airline . With operations starting in 2005 , it flew to Bergen , Trondheim and Stavanger using a Jetstream 32 and an ATR 42 , which is wet leased from Danish Air Transport ( DAT ) and Helitrans . Previously , the airline has also served Stockholm and Molde , and has also operated Saab 340 aircraft , operated by Coast Air , Air Aurora and Avitrans . The airline hadbeen in conflict with Coast Air about terminating the wet lease agreement . The company has had to be bailed out several times , including by the municipality , until it managed to make its first profit in 2009 . It ceased operations and filed for bankruptcy in January 2011 .

= = Operation = =

The airline was based at Skien Airport , Geiteryggen . It provides twenty weekly trips to Bergen and weekly trips to Stavanger . In 2009 , 50 @,@ 000 people traveled with Vildanden . The company has one ATR 42 , which seats 48 passengers and is operated by Danish Air Transport , and one Jetstream 32 , which seats 19 and is operated by Helitrans . The airline used Sandefjord Airport , Torp as its reserve airport in case of bad weather . The airline is named after the play The Wild Duck ( Norwegian : Vildanden ) written by Henrik Ibsen , who was born in Skien . The slogan " The shortest path between Ibsen and Grieg " is a pun on the Bergen composer Edvard Grieg 's and Ibsen 's names . The largest owner is Magne Forland , who owns 70 % .

= = Destinations = =

The following list shows all current and former destinations , including the city served , the country , the airport ( with IATA airport codes and ICAO airport codes ) , and the begin and end year of the service .

= = History = =

= = = Establishment = = =

Vildanden was founded on 23 November 2004 by 18 local investors who wanted to start commercial scheduled flights from Skien Airport , Geiteryggen . For a long period , there had been a public debate about closing the airport . Owned by the municipality , the airport was receiving annual subsidies of NOK 2 @.@ 5 million from the municipality , and NOK 3 @.@ 8 million from the state . It was decided to operate Vildanden as a virtual airline ( one that owns none of its equipment , leasing everything from others ) , and wet lease operations from other companies . Initial plans had been started in 2003 to cooperate with Dutch airline Denim Air , with a 50 @-@ seater aircraft , but these plans did not work out .

In October 2004 , a contract was signed with Haugesund @-@ based Coast Air , who would operate Jetstream 31 aircraft between Skien and Bergen . The owner of Coast Air , Kystfly , also bought 20 % of Vildanden . Coast Air had previously operated routes from Skien to Western Norway , but had withdrawn in 1999 . Following the announcement from Vildanden and Coast Air , the municipality decided to not close the airport , and cover the estimated NOK 300 @,@ 000 annual deficit , as well as upgrade the control tower for NOK 700 @,@ 000 . The airport had been closed since 2002 , following the increased domestic and international traffic from near @-@ by Sandefjord Airport , Torp .

Initial service would have 16 weekly departures to Bergen Airport , Flesland . The main market segment is the offshore petroleum industry , and the departure times were designed to mesh with helicopter routes to offshore installations . The company estimated that one @-@ quarter of travellers would be people commuting to the North Sea . Norsk Hydro , who have a lot of employees in the Grenland area , stated that they could not start using Vildanden because they had an agreement with SAS Braathens ' services from Sandefjord . The first scheduled service flew on 24 January 2005 , carrying eight passengers . This first month , 972 passengers took the plane , and Vildanden announced that they would try to also start a route to Stavanger Airport , Sola , as well as potentially to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .

= = = DAT in , Coast Air out = = =

On 19 April , a new Jetstream 32 aircraft was taken into service . This allowed capacity to increase from 12 to 19 passengers , and at the same time travel time was reduced from 47 to 39 minutes . By September , the most popular departures were being booked full , and Vildanden asked Coast Air for a larger aircraft , with about 30 seats . In addition to allowing more passengers , larger planes would give higher comfort , and allow a more flexible ticket pricing scheme . An agreement with Danish Air Transport ( DAT ) to operate an ATR 42 , with a capacity of 48 seats , was signed in mid @-@ October .

To be able to breach the agreement with Coast Air — who still had a wet leasing contract , but were not able to put into operation a larger aircraft — the company Skien Lufttransport AS was created , and it purchased all the revenue and passenger rights from Vildanden . At the same time , it became the legal counterpart for DAT . The new aircraft was put into service on 31 October , branded with the Vildanden logo . Coast Air chose to continue operating the route between Bergen and Skien in their own name , and used the same aircraft and slot times . At Skien Airport , the Vildanden passengers were given the choice between Coast Air and Vildanden , and all nineteen chose Vildanden . On the return flight , three passengers chose each airline . Both aircraft flew to Skien , but due to heavy rain , only the aircraft from DAT was able to land . The passengers who had taken the Coast Air aircraft , were forced to land at Sandefjord Airport instead .

The following day , Coast Air terminated their flights , but stated that they still had an agreement with Vildanden . Skien Lufttransport on their hand stated that Vildanden was now a sleeping company , and that the contract therefore was terminated . Both companies considered the incident a legal matter . In December , the two companies settled outside court .

At the same time , the municipal council was considering the future of the airport . The city engineer estimated it would need a subsidy of NOK 2 million in 2006 , and the politicians , who wanted the airport to run without subsidies , demanded that Vildanden guarantee for the deficit . This was rejected by Vildanden — on the contrary , the company was in dire need for more capital , and issued a private placement for NOK 4 million in December 2005 . The company had since the start been losing money , and needed extra capital to get through the rough until it could make an operating profit . After the placement , 15 % of the company was owned by DAT , while Coast Air sold their shares . In 2005 , Vildanden had a revenue of NOK 15 million .

= = = More operators = = =

During 2006 , the ridership increased , and Vildanden started becoming more aggressive against Widerøe , which was flying to Bergen from Sandefjord Airport . Vildanden stated that they aimed to outperform Widerøe on price to Bergen . The ATR @-@ 42 turned out to be too large ; from 1 July , operations was taken over by the Czech company Air Aurora , with a smaller 30 @-@ seater Saab 340 . This reduced the monthly leasing costs from NOK 700 @,@ 000 to NOK 550 @,@ 000 . DAT remained responsible for the booking system .

In October , an agreement was signed with the Avitrans of Sweden to take over operations . This also included a second aircraft , so the airline could start operations to Stavanger and Molde in 2007 . From 18 March , Vildanden also started three weekly departures from Skien to Stockholm @-@ Skavsta Airport . The route was necessary to transport personnel from Avitrans ' hub at Bromma to Skien .

= = = Troubled times = = =

By October 2007 , Vildanden was in severe financial distress . An agreement was made with the municipal council , where the latter gave a credit loan to the airline . The route to Molde had given large deficits , and the company was forced to close it down . NOK 2 @.@ 3 million , equal to the airlines debt to the airport , was granted to the municipal @-@ owned airport operator , and the company allowed to make an agreement where half the debt was deleted , and the other half made interest and principal @-@ free for two years . At the same time , the management of Vildanden had to raise new capital equal to at least half the companies accounts payable , which was NOK 8 million . The case raised local debate about whether it was the municipality 's job to subsidize the airport and the airline . The Federation of Norwegian Aviation Industries announced that they would consider reporting the subsidies to the EFTA Surveillance Authority ( ESA ) for violation of the European Community competition law .

The fiscal year 2007 gave a revenue of NOK 61 million , and a deficit of NOK 13 million . During the airport strike in May 2008 — which closed Bergen Airport — Vildanden had full planes since they could land them on the short runway at near @-@ by Stord Airport , Sørstokken . In 2008 , 50 @,@ 000 people used Skien Airport , most of whom flew with Vildanden .

On 19 June 2008 , the municipal council voted to not give further subsidies to the airport . Upgrades for NOK 8 million were needed to meed safety standard . The airport operator had debt of NOK 12 million , and no realizeable assets . Vildanden was under certain conditions willing to pay some of the capital needed to perform the upgrades . The municipal council changed their opinion and voted — with a single decisive vote — to keep the airport running in July . The financial risk would be taken over by the municipal @-@ owned Kontorbygg , who operate a range of offices and commercial buildings in Skien . The proposal was supported by the right @-@ winged parties , and opposed by the socialist parties , as well as the chair of Kontorbygg . As a response , the Federation of Norwegian Aviation Industries reported the municipality to ESA , and demanded that NOK 20 million in illegal subsidies be repaid by Vildanden and the airport operator .

The company had a loss of NOK 3 @.@ 4 million in 2008 . In April 2009 , Vildanden terminated its agreement with Aviatrans with the intention of using larger aircraft . In July , an agreement was made with DAT to operate an ATR @-@ 42 on the Bergen route . From 1 August , the Stockholm route was terminated . The company stated that they had been considering having a stop @-@ over at Moss Airport , Rygge on the Stockholm flights , but instead decided to terminate the route .

During the winter of 2008 – 09 , Vildanden was forced to land at Sandefjord Airport 50 times due to weather closing Geiteryggen . In March , Widerøe started a marketing campaign to attract people from Grenland to use their routes at Torp . Local Liberal Party politician Gustav Søvde stated that he was opposed to Widerøe advertising in the Telemark press for their services . At the same time , Asbjørn Anthonisen , previous chief of operations in Malmö Aviation , was hired as new CEO .

Magne Forland increased his ownership in the company to 70 % in August , after he had previously given NOK 10 @.@ 5 million in interest @-@ free loans to the company . On 11 November 2009 , the German pilots on a flight from Skien to Bergen announced that only 28 of the passengers , without baggage , could take the ride . The reason was bad weather , which was described as " normal Norwegian rain " by the airline afterwards . This caused several commuters to miss their connecting flights on helicopters to offshore installations . The airline later stated that it was caused by the pilots not being aware of the safety equipment installed at Geiteryggen .

In December 2009 , Vildanden announced it plans to operate routes to Trondheim Airport , Værnes , but lacks financial maneuverability to commence operations . By October 2009 , Vildanden owed Kontorbygg , the operator of Geiteryggen , NOK 1 @.@ 5 million in airport fees . Kontorbygg stated that if Vildanden did not pay , the airport would have to file for bankruptcy . Innovation Norway rejected to give Vildanden a loan for NOK 3 @.@ 5 million in December 2009 . Kontorbygg stated that the operation of Geiteryggen had cost the municipality NOK 50 million in the course of the five years Vildanden had been operating from it . In February 2010 , the Municipality of Skien announced that it required Vildanden to pay back the NOK 3 @.@ 1 million , plus NOK 200 @,@ 000 in interest , that they borrowed in 2007 . The loan was renewed in March , after Vildanden paid NOK 385 @,@ 000 . From 16 August , Helitrans took over as the operator , using an ATR 42 . From 6 September , the company started with flights to Trondheim . The company ceased operations after its last flight on 14 January 2011 .

= Your Love ( Nicki Minaj song ) =

" Your Love " is a song by Trinidadian @-@ born recording artist Nicki Minaj , taken from her debut studio album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) . It was released on June 1 , 2010 by Young Money , Cash Money , and Universal Motown as the lead single of the album . The song was written by Minaj , Joseph Hughes , David Freedman , and Andrew " Pop " Wansel , and was produced by the latter . Minaj originally intended to release " Massive Attack " as the lead single from Pink Friday , though its release was scrapped after an underwhelming commercial performance .

Described as a " rap ballad " , the song is a change of tempo compared to Minaj 's previous work , and according to Mariel Concepcion of Billboard , the song contains a " new brand of hood majesty . " The song heavily samples Annie Lennox 's 1995 cover version of the song " No More I Love You 's " ( 1986 ) by The Lover Speaks , using its background vocals with additional bass , hip @-@ hop backbeats and drum loops added .

The song peaked at numbers 14 and four on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts , respectively .

= = Background = =

The first version of " Your Love " appeared on Minaj 's unofficial mixtape Barbie World ( 2010 ) , with different lyrics included in the pre @-@ chorus along with a faster pace . Another version was later stolen and leaked online . The song underwent minor lyrical adjustments and mixing before being sent to mainstream radio , as the first official single from Minaj 's debut album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) . In an interview with Hot 93 @.@ 7 radio , Minaj spoke about the leak of the song , saying " That was a leak and I was so upset they put it out ' cause I recorded that song like two years ago . Next thing you know , people started falling in love with it . " Whilst on set on the music video for " Your Love " , Minaj further explain about the song 's theft and leak , saying ,

" I was not planning on putting the song out at all . But then I heard it one day , somebody told me it was online . And I was like , ' No way , no way in the world that song is out . ' I went and listened to it and was really upset . It wasn 't mixed , it wasn 't finished , it wasn 't anything — I wasn 't gonna use it at all . But then radio started playing it . "

Rap @-@ Up posted cover art featuring a close up of Minaj smirking to her right , however for unknown reasons the art work was changed . The new cover features a cartoon version of Minaj , made by illustrator Asia Kendrick @-@ Horton who posted it for Minaj on Twitter .

= = Composition = =

" Your Love " is a mid @-@ tempo song with the heavy use of Auto @-@ Tune in the chorus . It samples the instrumentals and background vocals of Annie Lennox 's cover version of " No More I Love You 's " by the Lover Speaks , with the addition of additional bass , drum @-@ loops and hip @-@ hop backbeats . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Your Love " is set in common time with a metronome of 94 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E major with Minaj 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of B3 to the high @-@ note of C ♯ 5 .

Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog described the song as a " rap / singing mash @-@ up . " Coined as a " new brand of hood majesty , " the song is accompanied by a simple beat , which includes finger snaps and " xylophone clings . " Lean Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly commented : " Rap 's spitfire explores her softer side , sampling Annie Lennox on her honey @-@ tongued ode to a good man . " Greenblatt went on to compare the song to Jay @-@ Z 's " kindred " " Young Forever . " Minaj makes several references in her lines to well known people , which includes Bruce Willis in Die Hard , as well as Adam and Eve . Minaj makes several connections to Superman including in the pre @-@ chorus , " ' S ' on my chest , let me get my cape on . " The official remix featuring Cash Money labelmate Jay Sean was leaked via @-@ internet on August 2 , 2010 , and later made available for purchase in Australia via iTunes . American rapper Flo Rida released an unofficial remix to the song , in which he adds a verse . Reggae recording artist Sean Paul also did a remix to the song where he ad @-@ libs his verse throughout the original and later adds his own verse . Other remixes to the song include those done by American rapper Rick Ross and American R & B singer Chris Brown .

= = Critical reception = =

Rap @-@ Up stated that Minaj " slows down her rapid @-@ fire verses on the sticky and sweet " Your Love " ... with a sprinkling of Auto @-@ Tune to top it off . Young Money ’ s First Lady even exercises her vocal chops . We demand another helping . " Robbie Daw of Idolator gave the song a positive review , while complimented Minaj 's dual rapping and singing , as well as the use of the sample . Backy Bain also of Idolator additionally gave the song a positive review stating " We were a bit worried that Harujuku Barbie would forever be the garnish on other people ’ s tracks instead of the main dish , but this sweet song proves otherwise . " Mariel Concepcion of Billboard commented on Minaj toning it down stating , " the Young Money rap princess puts the sleazy talk aside and finds herself smitten with a young man ... Minaj proves that even the wildest ones can be tamed . " While reviewing the music video , Brad Wete also of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the song positively , stating that Minaj was " [ .. ] slicing the competition to pieces with her second try . " David Jeffries of AllMusic deemed the song an album highlight , additionally adding that the song , " waltzes out of the speakers . In 2014 , Pitchfork named it the best Nicki Minaj single . "

= = Chart performance = =

" Your Love " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at 51 , becoming Minaj 's first song to chart on the Hot 100 as a solo artist . It eventually peaked at No. 14 , becoming her first Top 20 in the country . It debuted at No. 23 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and peaked at number four . Your Love " peaked at No. 1 on the US Rap Songs chart for eight consecutive weeks . Minaj became the first female rapper to top the chart since Lil ' Kim 's " Magic Stick " , featuring 50 Cent . Minaj also became the first artist to lead the chart with a song without any features since Missy Elliott in 2003 with " Work It " . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) denoting sales of over one million copies . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the song peaked at 43 . " Your Love " also charted in the United Kingdom , at a peak of 71 on the UK Singles Chart and at a peak of 22 on the UK R & B Chart . The song peaked at number 32 on the Australian Urban Singles chart .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

A music video for the song was directed by Lil X on the weekend of July 4 , 2010 in Los Angeles . Minaj took to her Twitter , asking fans who they would like to see portray her love interest in the video . Minaj was interviewed on the set of " Your Love " by MTV News while wearing a pink and purple kimono as a geisha for the video . In the interview , Minaj said , " We wanted to have geisha themes , samurai themes , stuff like that . I wanted to tell a love story . It 's just kinda liking a guy , where he 's not really for you to like — the forbidden fruit — and me and this other girl happen to like him and we go to war . " The video premiered July 21 , 2010 on MTV.com. Actor Michael Jai White portrays Minaj 's love interest in the video .

= = = Synopsis = = =

The video is set to tell the story of a samurai @-@ in @-@ training , who falls in love with her master while a jealous peer fights for his affection . The video begins with Minaj delivering her lines over a red flowing fabric backdrop wearing a brown coat and a geisha costume with a blue flowing fabric backdrop , while White teaches a martial arts class . As Minaj and the instructor ( White ) begin to fall for one another , a student , who also has feelings for the instructor sees this and is jealous . This is intercut with scenes with Minaj donning a blonde wig and black bodysuit and in front of a green flowing backdrop . After seeing Minaj and White embrace each other on a bridge over blue @-@ fabric " water " , Minaj and her peer rival have a confrontation , which results in a duel . According to MTV News , the scenes pay homage to Uma Thurman as The Bride and Lucy Liu as Cottonmouth in Kill Bill . Minaj loses and her rival walks away as Minaj bleeds a red fabric and White walks up and grieves over her body .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Robbie Daw of Idolator appreciated the plot twist of the video , commenting , " We really expected Nicki to waste that other warrior @-@ in @-@ training hater . The fact that she dies — and does so in such a beautiful way here — kind of makes us love her all the more . " Daw also inferred that the fancy attire from the " No More I Love You 's " video inspired Minaj 's in the " Your Love " video . Nicole Sia of MTV Buzzworthy stated that the video resembles Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon in its fight scene . Sia also commented on Minaj 's appearance stating " the camera cuts to Ms. Young Money soloing in front of billowing one @-@ million @-@ thread @-@ count satin sheets , just to remind us how damn FINE she is . " Tray Hova of Vibe gave a list of the best and worst parts of the music video , stating the best were Minaj chopped through the blocks of cement , her crazy faces , silk sheets and headgear , and that the worst part was the " melodramatic ending " and " the return of those Freddy Krueger fingers . "

= = Credits and personnel = =

Songwriting – Onika Maraj , Warren " Oak " Felder , Andrew " Pop " Wansel , David Freeman , Joseph Patrick Hughes

Recording / Mixing – Ariel Chobaz , assisted by Lyttleton " Cartwheel " Carter

Mixing – Neal Pogue

Production – Pop Wansel , Oak

Credits are taken from Pink Friday liner notes .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = Radio dates and release history = =

= Miles Copeland ( Home and Away ) =

Miles Copeland is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Josh Quong Tart . He debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 30 November 2007 . Ryley Mickle and Jackson Edwards played Miles in flashback sequences , showing him at ages three and eight years old respectively . During the early years of Home and Away , Sally Fletcher ( Kate Ritchie ) often spoke of an imaginary friend she called " Milco " . When Ritchie announced her departure from the soap , producers decided to introduce the real Milco , as regular character Miles Copeland . The development was described by the media as a " legacy storyline . " Quong Tart announced his departure from Home and Away in October 2011 . Miles departed on 23 November 2011 .

Miles is characterised as being charming and quick witted . His clothes often consist of board shorts and crumpled shirts , with his long hair , this gives him a trademark " beachy " look . Miles ' style changed in 2010 following Quong Tart 's break from the show . Upon returning to Home and Away , the actor had lost weight , grown a beard and cut his hair short . Producers were impressed with the changes and wrote them into the scripts . Miles is often seen consuming large amounts of food , which stems from his time spent living hungry on the streets . This was a character trait created by Quong Tart . Some viewers have written to Home and Away to complain about Miles ' eating habits .

Miles ' storylines have often centred on his friendships and romantic relationships with other characters . He has become a surrogate father to several teenagers , including Jai Fernandez ( Jordan Rodrigues ) and Melody Jones ( Celeste Dodwell ) . Miles and Kirsty Sutherland ( Christie Hayes ) had a long relationship together , during which they lost an unborn child . Kirsty eventually left town , ending their relationship . After sharing a long friendship , Miles and Leah Patterson @-@ Baker ( Ada Nicodemou ) entered into a romantic relationship in 2011 . Leah becomes pregnant and Miles proposes to her . Miles has earned a generally positive reception , while Quong Tart has been nominated for three Inside Soap Awards .

= = Creation and casting = =

The character of Miles was introduced to Home and Away in 2007 , as Sally Fletcher 's ( Kate Ritchie ) brother , whom she had always referred to as " Milco " . For twenty years , viewers had been led to assume Milco was just Sally 's imaginary friend . Channel Seven ran an on @-@ air promotion campaign , which promised viewers " a 20 @-@ year @-@ old mystery " would be solved . In the 2007 season finale , Miles mysteriously arrives in Summer Bay and writes " Milco " in the sand on the beach . Quong Tart was cast in the role of Miles . He previously starred in the Home and Away spin @-@ off headLand as Will Monk . In 2010 , Miles was briefly written out of the serial , while Quong Tart took a break from filming to rehearse for a play at the Sydney Opera House .

In October 2011 , Quong Tart announced his departure from Home and Away . Of his time in the show , Quong Tart told TV Week , " I couldn 't have imagined how much fun I would have and the friends I would make on Home and Away . Playing Miles was a gift . " Rebecca Davies from Digital Spy reported the actor had already filmed his final scenes , while TV Week said the way in which Miles leaves the Bay was being kept secret . Miles departed on 23 November 2011 .

= = Character development = =

= = = Characterisation and career = = =

Quong Tart told Channel 5 that he liked the way Miles looks at the world and revealed that he shared similarities with the character 's personality . Miles is often shown consuming large amounts of food on @-@ screen . Miles enjoys his food because of his time spent living hungry on the streets . This was a character choice made by Quong Tart . He thought it was important that viewers see his eating habits , staying true to " representing human beings . " However , Quong Tart stated that it sometimes reached a " point where it might not be very pleasant to watch . " Viewers had written letters to Quong Tart requesting that Miles should stop " pigging out on television . "

In 2011 , Miles returns to Home and Away with a new look . Miles had lost weight , cut his hair short and grew a beard . Off @-@ screen Quong Tart had such a busy schedule that he lost weight . When he revealed his new look to producers , they were so impressed they decided to change Miles ' image , because it suited the storyline .

Miles secures employment as a teacher at Summer Bay High . One of his students , Ruby Buckton ( Rebecca Breeds ) , develops romantic feelings for him . Breeds said it was a " genuine teenage infatuation " and Ruby was drawn to Miles ' maturity rather than his physical appearance . Quong Tart said Miles was " taken back " when he was faced with accusations of kissing Ruby . He manages to prove they are false .

= = = Relationship with Kirsty Sutherland = = =

One of Miles ' first relationships is with Kirsty Sutherland ( Christie Hayes ) , which develops from a friendship . Miles is left upset over his foster child Jai Fernandez ( Jordan Rodrigues ) . His emotional state has an effect on Kirsty and she kisses him . Hayes told TV Week that as Kirsty 's feelings " take over in the moment " , Miles is left surprised because he had been harbouring feelings for her too . Hayes also said Miles did not want to scare Kirsty away and they agree to take their relationship slowly . Hayes later said that Miles and Kirsty 's relationship worked so well because " they talk about things and they 're mature about their relationship . " Kirsty decides that she needs to raise money for her husband Kane Phillips ' ( Sam Atwell ) trial . She secretly begins work as an escort behind Miles ' back . Hayes ' explained Kirsty was " terrified " that Miles would find out and hated lying to him , but " has no choice . " When Miles discovers the truth about Kirsty 's escorting , he feels " totally betrayed " and ends their relationship . However , when Kirsty nearly sleeps with a client , Miles comes to her aid . At this point Leah Patterson @-@ Baker ( Ada Nicodemou ) tries to kiss Miles , as the two previously shared a connection . However , Miles defends Kirsty when he learns Leah had argued with Kirsty over her deceit . The state of their relationship remained troubled , though Hayes correctly predicted the couple would reunite .

In 2009 Hayes quit the serial and her exit storyline played out the same year . It was initially left unclear what impact her departure would have on Miles ' . Their relationship deteriorates after Kirsty miscarries their unborn baby . Kirsty is left distraught and feels she has to move with her life without Miles . However , Kirsty does not tell Miles she is leaving and leaves him a goodbye letter . Speaking of the scenes , Hayes said " I don 't agree with what she did or how she did it but Kirsty in her warped , grieving mind thinks it 's best for everybody . " She felt that Kirsty 's actions were " horrible and selfish . " She also described her as " emotionally detached " and Miles would have tried to talk her out of leaving if he had been made aware of her departure . Viewers were not shown the full content of the goodbye letter . Hayes said it was good because she wrote a private goodbye letter to Quong Tart , and noted the personal element was best left between the two . After Miles chances of a family are again ruined , Miles loses control . He starts drinking and on one occasion he tries to kiss Leah . Producers decided to introduce a character named Rabbit ( Mitzi Ruhlmann ) , who " brings a little fun back into Miles ' life . " Though Rabbit later turns out to be his dead daughter and a figment of Miles ' imagination .

= = = Relationship with Leah Patterson @-@ Baker = = =

In 2008 , Miles and Leah develop feelings for one another . Nicodemou who plays Leah said her character becomes " freaked out " when she realises they share a connection . At this point in the series Leah was still grieving for her late husband Dan Baker ( Tim Campbell ) . Leah is so ashamed of herself she " cuts Miles off " . Nicodemou added that the characters " bonded straight away " because Miles understands Leah and has supported her when she needed help . However , Miles " cannot deny the attraction " which sends Leah further into denial . She decides she is not ready to move on , Nicodemou said this was to respect Dan 's memory . Though , she concluded that Leah sees Miles as an " old sock you just feel comfortable with . "

In January 2011 , Quong Tart revealed Miles was set to have a new love interest . The actor said he found his character 's new romance intriguing and explained Miles is " more surprised than anyone that it happens . " A few months later , the Daily Star reported Miles would confess his love to Leah , who is shocked by the declaration . Miles is left wondering whether he has ruined their friendship by revealing his feelings to her . An insider told the paper , " Miles and Leah have both been unlucky in love so if they could find happiness together it would be pretty special . Leah is shocked but once the confession starts to sink in she wonders whether they could work as a couple . She begins to consider making a go of it with him . " Nicodemou explained that Leah and Miles have tried to get together in the past , but the timing has never been right for them . She later told RTÉ TEN that she thinks Miles and Leah are well suited and hoped they find happiness with each other . Miles and Leah discuss their situation and Leah decides to take the first step and kisses Miles to see if they have any chemistry . Nicodemou said once Leah realises she and Miles have chemistry , she decides to go for it and they begin dating .

In August 2011 , Leah discovers she is pregnant . She realises that she does not want a baby as she previously had a miscarriage , which made her decide not to have children again . Of the impact the storyline would have on Miles and Leah , Nicodemou said " It 's a really interesting storyline for them . It makes everything serious because things have been quite light , so it 's good to see that side of them . There are some rocky times ahead for them because there are differences of opinion . " A week later it was announced Miles would propose to Leah in a bid to " solidify " their relationship . Miles confides in Alf Stewart ( Ray Meagher ) about his plans and Quong Tart said Alf is very excited and encourages Miles . Of Miles ' decision to propose to Leah , Quong Tart said " They 've dated for a while and they know each other so well , and I think it 's just one of those things that makes sense . "

= = = Other relationships = = =

Miles starts a relationship with Shandi Palmer ( Samantha Tolj ) , TV Week described them as a " kooky " pairing . However their relationship was short @-@ lived , lasting only a number of weeks . Quong Tart said " It came and went like every romance in his life . " Miles " couldn 't believe his luck " with Shandi because of her attractive appearance . They were compatible because she was " beachy and hippy " and like Miles enjoyed to talk about the meaning of life . Miles drunkenly sleeps with Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) , the next morning she reacts badly . A Home and Away spokesperson said Miles was one of the " nicest blokes in the Bay " and felt like a humiliated " idiot " .

In various storylines Miles has taken in teenagers without homes . Jai Fernandez ( Jordan Rodrigues ) is the first to be taken into Miles ' care . Miles knew Jai from the Boxing Day Tsunami in which they both lost their families . Rodrigues said that Jai is " angry at the world " because Miles " ditched " him in Phuket . Miles tries to help Jai because he realises that he is having a tough time at the refuge . Off @-@ screen Quong Tart mentored Rodrigues to improve his acting skill . He later takes in Melody Jones ( Celeste Dodwell ) , though she makes life hard for Miles by causing chaos at the school formal and running away to Melbourne . In the latter storyline Miles and Charlie Buckton ( Esther Anderson ) travel to Melbourne to search for Melody . The episodes marked the first time the cast had filmed in Melbourne . Location shoots took place at Queen Victoria Market , Docklands Studios Melbourne and St Kilda . Anderson told Inside Soap that " It 's a nice self @-@ contained little storyline " and described it as a treat for British and Irish viewers . She added that Melody ends up on the streets and Charlie and Miles fail to locate her straightaway . The situation leaves them feeling " vulnerable " and they kiss . Anderson opined the kiss was " a rebound thing " and they feel " awkward the following morning . "

Miles lets teenagers Nicole Franklin ( Tessa James ) and Romeo Smith ( Luke Mitchell ) , and adult character Marilyn Chambers ( Emily Symons ) move in with him . Together they form a new character unit , Meagher who plays Alf praised the dynamic . He said as none of them have external relationships at the time , there was a " genuine caring for the well @-@ being of the other people in the house . "

= = Storylines = =

= = = Backstory = = =

Miles and his twin Sally initially lived together with their alcoholic father Aaron ( Timothy Walter ) and mother Diana . Aaron used to beat Diana , so she left him and took Sally with her . When Miles was eight years old , Aaron read that Diana and her new husband Derek Wilson had been killed in a boating accident . Aaron and Miles went to find Sally , but after seeing Sally was better off with the Fletcher family , they left . In the serial Sally constantly insisted her imaginary friend Milco was real , it was actually Miles she was thinking about , but no one believed Sally and her bullying foster brother Brian " Dodge " Forbes ( Kelly Dingwall ) eventually stopped her believing in him . Aaron died of alcohol @-@ related illness , so Miles became an English teacher . He married a woman called Louise and they had a daughter called Amber . They both died in the Boxing Day Tsunami whilst on holiday in Phuket . He then went on a downward spiral and became a homeless drifter .

= = = 2007 – 11 = = =

Miles turns up in Summer Bay and decides to stick around after he thinks it is a familiar setting . He has nowhere to live and is starving . Irene Roberts ( Lynne McGranger ) becomes annoyed with him for stealing food out of the bins , but Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) takes pity on him and feeds him . He sees Sally on the beach and writes Milco in the sand . They later become friends and she feels like she has a close connection . He reveals his family 's death to be the reason why he became a drifter . He eventually reveals the truth to Sally , that he is Milco and her twin brother . After it sinks in she is delighted with this and they become close . Miles stays with her and one night forgets to lock the door . Johnny Cooper ( Callan Mulvey ) enters the house and stabs Sally , however she survives but he blames himself . He decides to get his life back on track and becomes an English teacher at the school . Aden Jefferies ( Todd Lasance ) initially gives him a hard time , but he is well liked after he and Ric Dalby ( Mark Furze ) arrange a leaving party for Sally , who has decided to move away . At the party Steven Matheson ( Adam Willits ) and Carly Morris ( Sharyn Hodgson ) are startled to meet the person they heard so much about whilst growing up .

Miles becomes the new owner of the caravan park . He becomes good friends with Leah and falls in love with her . She feels it is to soon after husband Dan 's death and does not feel the same , leaving him upset . Morag Bellingham ( Cornelia Frances ) then helps him track down Jai , a boy from Phuket whom he told he would help , but never did . He comes to live with Miles , their relationship is strained by Jai 's reluctance to trust him , eventually they become close . Religious Christine Jones ( Elizabeth Alexander ) later starts a campaign to have Miles removed from his job when she does not agree with his choice of book used for teaching . Morag later helps rid of Christine and saves his career . He lets Melody Jones stay with him , but she rebells and causes trouble for him with her new @-@ found bad attitude . He then has a brief relationship with Jazz Curtis ( Rachel Gordon ) .

He gives Kirsty a place to stay . They start a relationship and he falls in love with her , however he finds out she has been working as an escort to raise money for husband Kane Phillips ' ( Sam Atwell ) trial and throws her out . Melody becomes more wild and runaway from home , he tracks her down with the help of Charlie , who he shares a kiss with . He lets Melody leave to live in New Zealand with her mother . Kirsty returns with Kane who attacks him and he has to admit they were never together . After Trey Palmer ( Luke Bracey ) makes advances on Kirsty and Miles supports her , they reconcile . Trey tries to attack Kirsty , but Miles pushes him over , Miles is then under investigation for assault , later Trey drops the charges . Whilst out fishing Miles falls overboard and is nearly eaten by a shark , he discovers Lou De Bono 's ( David Roberts ) body in the process . He promises to look after Nicole after Roman is sent to prison . Miles then decides he wants to try for a baby with Kirsty , she agrees but he is angry when he sees her taking the pill . She says he thought he would leave her , he reassures her this is not the case . Kirsty starts university studying teaching . He resents her for spending time at university with her new friends , he suspects she is having affair . Upon confrontation she admits she is actually pregnant . She is unhappy about it , but agrees to keep the baby . He breaks his promise of keeping the pregnancy a secret , Kirsty starts to feel more at ease about the baby . Kirsty has a series of fits causing her to miscarry . Their relationship becomes strained and Kirsty 's mother Shelley ( Paula Forrest ) convinces her to run away to the city with her . Miles is devastated she has left and becomes withdrawn from everyone .

After VJ Patterson ( Felix Dean ) is bullied by Riley Radcliffe ( Tani Edgecombe ) he goes to see his father Ian ( Ben Simpson ) but he laughs it off . Miles is attacked and beaten and presumes it was Ian . He later finds out it was in fact Riley and his friends . He tries to drag Riley to the police station but he breaks his wrist . Miles is arrested for assault . Ian blackmails him saying he will drop the charges for money , the police find out Ian was responsible for the injuries . However the newspapers published an article on Miles branding him a thug . Miles destroys a classroom and Gina Austin ( Sonia Todd ) forces him to take leave . He starts drinking heavily again , makes a pass at Leah and sleeps on the beach . Miles begins having visions of a girl called Rabbit , who tells him about future events . She convinces him to do good deeds . Miles becomes good friends with Elijah Johnson ( Jay Laga 'aia ) and he goes to Africa with him . On his return he is assaulted by Heath Braxton ( Daniel Ewing ) . He then gets drunk and kisses Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) and wakes up next to her in the morning . He later confesses his love to Leah and they start a relationship . Elijah is initially annoyed , but they repair their friendship . Leah learns she is pregnant , which delights Miles . Leah is initially hesitant about going ahead with the pregnancy , but she and Miles talk and she decides to keep the baby . Miles proposes to Leah , but she turns him down , saying they are not ready . She later asks him to move in with her and VJ . Leah suffers a miscarriage , which devastates Miles . The couple struggle with their grief and Miles moves out . He and Leah later break up . Miles learns Elijah is still in love with Leah . Miles tells Marilyn that Sally has got him a teaching job in Thailand and he leaves the Summer Bay .

= = Reception = =

For his portrayal of Miles , Quong Tart was nominated for " Best Newcomer " at the 2008 Inside Soap Awards . The following year he received a nomination for " Best Actor " . At the 2011 Inside Soap Awards he was nominated for " Best Daytime Star " . The episode where Miles conquers his fear of water to save Jai Fernandez who feigns drowning earned Writer Sean Nash an Australian Writer 's Guild award nomination for " Best Television Serial " in 2009 . The episode featuring Miles finally letting go of his visions of Rabbit won the Australian Writers ' Guild Award in the same category the following year and was presented to the episode 's writer , Sam Meikle .

The week ahead of the serial 's airing , Mark Patrick of the Sun @-@ Herald said Milko , " an imaginary friend of one of the brats " was his favorite character . Michael Idato writing for The Sydney Morning Herald said Milco being not being imaginary seemed " ludicrous " . He said that Milco being revealed to be Miles , was Home and Away delivering a " plot twist equal to the genre 's best . " He opined that Miles ' " timely " arrival softened the blow of Sally 's departure . They said it was " a tender baton change that evokes memories of the iconic ' 80s soap Sons And Daughters " Idato later said Miles and Sally 's story was an example of " strong legacy storylines " Home and Away creates .

Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture placed Miles at number nine on her best characters of February 2009 list . In July 2010 , she placed Miles second on her list of best soap characters . She spoke about how " ridiculous storylines " turn out to be great onscreen and referred to Miles 's visions of Rabbit , which she went on to praise . She said " Miles 's grief , his visions of Rabbit and his torment at everyone telling him she wasn 't real were devastating to watch , and this was a really interesting avenue to take one of the soap 's best @-@ loved characters down that could have spectacularly backfired , but instead , had people bawling their eyes out . " Holy Soap have said that Miles 's most memorable moment is " When he found student Trey trying to kiss Kirsty , Miles pushed him and found his job as a teacher in jeopardy " . The website also named Miles as one their Summer Bay hunks . In 2010 , the Daily Record said that " poor old Miles " had a so many problems that " he was probably happier when everybody thought he was just sister Sally 's friend " . After Miles became involved with Shandi , they stated that true love " never ran smoothly in Summer Bay " and that with Shandi ; Miles got " a lot more than he first bargained for " . Australian television website Throng , said Miles looked completely different after Quong Tart lost weight . They said he looks " a lot older , thinner , has a new hair style and is sporting a dark beard ! "

Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail criticised Home and Away for the amount of car accidents it features . When Miles nearly crashed his car , she asked if anyone in Summer Bay is capable of " sitting atop four wheels " without nearly getting killed . Stephen was not a fan of Miles ' long hair . When he returned in 2011 , she said " we can only hope that he ’ s seen a hairdresser since his departure . " When he left the series , Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap said that Home and Away " won 't be the same without Miles ' shaggy barnet " . Laura Morgan of All About Soap said that she and her colleagues were " in mourning " over Miles ' exit . She added that they " sorely missed " him .

= Bristol Britannia =

The Bristol Type 175 Britannia was a British medium @-@ to @-@ long @-@ range airliner built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1952 to fly across the British Empire . During development two prototypes were lost and the turboprop engines proved susceptible to inlet icing which delayed entry into service while solutions were sought .

By the time development was completed , " pure " jet airliners from France , United Kingdom and the United States were about to enter service , and consequently , only 85 Britannias were built before production ended in 1960 . Nevertheless , the Britannia is considered one of the landmarks in turboprop @-@ powered airliner design and was popular with passengers . It became known by the title of " The Whispering Giant " for its quiet exterior noise and smooth flying , although the passenger interior remained less tranquil .

Canadair purchased a licence to build the Britannia in Canada , adding another 72 variants . These were the stretched Canadair CL @-@ 44 / Canadair CC @-@ 106 Yukon , and the greatly modified Canadair CP @-@ 107 Argus patrol aircraft .

= = Design and development = =

= = = Origins = = =

In 1942 , during the Second World War , Allied aircraft construction saw the UK of necessity concentrating on heavy bombers , leaving the production of transport aircraft to the USA . This would have left the UK with little experience in transport construction at the end of the war , so in 1943 , a committee under Lord Brabazon of Tara investigated the future of the British civilian airliner market . The Brabazon Committee called for several different aircraft to be developed to specifications composed by the committee for roles felt to fulfil Britain 's civilian aviation needs .

Bristol won the Type I and Type III contracts , delivering their Type I design , the Bristol Brabazon in 1949 . The requirement for the 1946 British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) Medium Range Empire ( MRE ) Requirements coincided with the Type III , Specification C.2 / 47 , issued in April 1947 by the Minister of Supply . The specifications called for an airliner capable of carrying 48 passengers and powered with Bristol Centaurus radial engines or Napier Nomad turbo @-@ compound diesel engine . Turboprop options were also considered , but they were so new that Bristol could not guarantee the performance specifications .

Although in @-@ company Proposals " X " for conversions of Lockheed Constellations to Centaurus 662 powerplants or " Y " for licence production of the Constellation were considered in late 1946 , BOAC decided that an entirely new design was preferred . After wrangling between the Ministry of Supply and BOAC over costs , the go @-@ ahead for the project assigned the company designation Model 175 was given in July 1948 . Three prototypes were ordered as Mk 1 ( Centaurus 662 ) , with the second and third prototypes designated the Mk 2 ( to be convertible to Bristol Proteus turboprops , then under development ) .

In October 1947 , with work already underway , Bristol had settled on a Centaurus @-@ powered design , with an all @-@ up weight of 103 @,@ 000 lb ( 47 @,@ 000 kg ) and a payload of 13 @,@ 300 lb ( 6 @,@ 000 kg ) . The anticipated Karachi @-@ Cairo run necessitated a 48 @-@ seat limit with a requirement for sufficient fuel for the lengthy stage . On 5 July 1949 , the Ministry of Supply ordered five prototypes to this specification with the understanding that BOAC would contract for an additional 25 production examples . BOAC purchased options for 25 aircraft on 28 July , to be powered initially with the Bristol Centaurus engine but to be re @-@ fitted with the Bristol Proteus when available . In November 1948 , the Type 175 design was revised again to accommodate 74 passengers and a longer span wing in a contemplated long @-@ range version aimed at long @-@ haul Empire and transatlantic routes rather than the medium @-@ haul Empire routes originally planned . On reflection , BOAC decided that only a Proteus @-@ engined aircraft was worth working on , necessitating a further redesign with Bristol eliminating the Centaurus option . Senior figures within BOAC such as the Deputy Chairman Whitney Straight , however , considered the Proteus engine to be " an obsolete contraption " . Despite BOAC 's desire to have a turboprop engine , the Type 175 project was contingent on the Proteus passing a 150 @-@ hour Type Test .

= = = Prototypes and production = = =

The name , " Britannia " was chosen in April 1950 with Britannia 101 the designation for first two prototypes powered by the early series Proteus 625 , the follow @-@ up from the 600 series engine that had successfully completed its type trials . The first prototype , registered G @-@ ALBO , with Bristol Chief Test Pilot A.J. " Bill " Pegg at the controls , flew for the first time on 16 August 1952 at Filton Aerodrome . The maiden flight was eventful as the over @-@ sensitive flying controls led to a wild pitching before Pegg restored control . During the landing approach , smoke filled the cockpit and the main undercarriage bogie was stuck in its cycle , only fully deploying seconds before landing . The " snags " proved to be minor and by September , the prototype was cleared to perform at the 1952 SBAC Display at Farnborough where spectators commented on the " quietness " of the giant airliner . In November 1952 , Popular Science reported that by 1954 BOAC would have 25 of these aircraft on routes such as London @-@ to @-@ Tokyo over the Arctic and North Pole . However , in 1953 and 1954 , three de Havilland Comets crashed without explanation , and the Air Ministry demanded the Britannia undergo lengthy tests . Further delays were attributed to teething problems with the engine resulting in the loss in December 1953 of the second prototype , G @-@ ALRX , caused by a failed reduction gear that led to an engine fire and the aircraft landing on the mudflats of the Severn Estuary . Resolving easily avoidable inlet icing issues - by selecting a slightly different cruising height than that specified - which were exaggerated by BOAC destroying the Britannia 's sales prospects and delaying the Britannia 's introduction by two years , also took time . The first prototype G @-@ ALBO was subsequently modified to more closely approximate a production standard but was retained by the company to undergo engine testing and development .

Bristol revised the design into a larger transatlantic airliner for BOAC , resulting in the Series 200 and 300 , with the Britannia 300LR ( Long @-@ Range ) seen as " eminently suitable " for BOAC 's services between London and Sydney . Qantas had been considering purchasing a fleet of Britannia aircraft , but the extended development time had worn away the advantage the aircraft would hold until newer aircraft such as the Douglas DC @-@ 8 and de Havilland Comet 4 came onto the market . Route @-@ proving trials continued through 1955 , although orders were on the books from El Al and Canadian Pacific Air Lines as well as BOAC 's standing order .

The purchase price paid by BOAC for each Britannia 100 @-@ series aircraft agreed on in 1955 was £ 768 @,@ 000 .

During the first eight months of operational trials , a total of 16 in @-@ flight engine failures and 49 unscheduled engine changes punctuated the ongoing engine dilemma and delayed the in @-@ service date until February 1957 , roughly two years late . The Britannia received a fair amount of attention in both the popular press and the British House of Commons , especially when it was revealed that BOAC had contemplated fitting Rolls @-@ Royce Tynes to their fleet of Douglas DC @-@ 7s as an interim measure until the Britannia was cleared for service .

Aviation historian Peter Pigott summarised the impact of the delays :

= = = Related development = = =

In 1954 , a licence was issued to Canadair to build the derivative Canadair CL @-@ 28 / CP @-@ 107 Argus , and the Canadair CL @-@ 44 / Canadair CC @-@ 106 Yukon . Based on the Britannia , the design of the Argus maritime patrol and anti @-@ submarine warfare aircraft was optimised for endurance on long @-@ range patrol , not speed , and used four Wright R @-@ 3350 @-@ 32W Turbo @-@ Compound engines that used less fuel at low altitude . Unlike its Britannia forebear , the Argus was a hybrid using the Britannia wings , tail surfaces and landing gear matched to a " purpose @-@ built " , unpressurised fuselage . Another significant departure was being " Americanized " , substituting North American materials and standard parts for the British ones . The interior was well equipped with the tools to conduct anti @-@ submarine warfare : navigation , communication and tactical electronic equipment along with weapon loads that included bombs , torpedoes , mines and depth charges . A total of 33 Argus aircraft were built in two series ( Mk 1 and Mk 2 ) , serving the Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) and Canadian Forces from 1957 to 1982 .

Canadair also built 37 turboprop Rolls Royce Tyne @-@ powered CL @-@ 44 passenger / cargo variants for the civil market , most of which were used as freighters . Four were built as CL @-@ 44Js with lengthened fuselages for service with the Icelandic " budget " airline Loftleiðir . Four CL @-@ 44D4s were also built with swing @-@ tails to allow straight @-@ in cargo loading and served with a variety of carriers , most notably Flying Tiger Line . The similar CC @-@ 106 Yukon was used by the RCAF in a solely passenger configuration . A final unique " one @-@ off " development was the Conroy Skymonster , nicknamed Guppy , based on a Canadair CL @-@ 44D4 N447T . The most prominent modification was an enlarged fuselage , like the Mini Guppy which was produced by Jack Conroy 's previous company , Aero Spacelines . After a long operational career as a freighter , the Guppy was stored at Bournemouth Airport in 2003 and has recently been sold .

= = Operational history = =

Following a long period of uneventful development flying trials and the fitting of a modified Proteus 765 series engine that greatly reduced breakdowns , a full Certificate of Airworthiness was awarded at the end of 1955 . The first two Model 102s were delivered to BOAC on 30 December 1955 for crew training . The Model 102 began scheduled service on 1 February 1957 with a BOAC flight from London to Johannesburg , flights to Sydney following in March and to Tokyo in July . By August 1957 , the first 15 Model 102 aircraft had been delivered to BOAC . The last 10 aircraft of the order were built as Series 300 aircraft for transatlantic flights . In April 1959 , a Model 102 Britannia was leased by BOAC to Ghana Airways for flights between Accra and London , and several more Britannias were purchased by the airline in the early 1960s . The Model 102 was eventually made available to other BOAC associates , including Cathay Pacific , Central Africa , East African , Nigeria and Malayan airlines .

The next production series was based on the long @-@ range , mixed passenger / freight Model 200 series that was intended for civil airline use but ultimately Bristol offered the series to the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) instead . The production series of three Model 252 and 20 Model 253 aircraft were purchased by RAF Transport Command in 1959 , assigned the designation Britannia C.2 ( first Model 252 series ) and C.1 ( Model 253 series ) . Those in RAF service were allocated the names of stars , such as " Arcturus " , " Sirius " and " Vega " . On retirement from the RAF in 1975 , many Model 200 series were subsequently used by independent civil operators for cargo operations , harkening back to their original intended role .

Although the Bristol Model 302 was built first as part of the original BOAC order , BOAC released this series to other airlines ; Aeronaves de Mexico took two Model 302s which entered service in December 1957 . The 18 Bristol Britannia 312s for BOAC were delivered from September 1957 with its service introduction on the first @-@ ever non @-@ stop flight from London to Canada on 19 December 1957 . In late December 1957 BOAC began regular Britannia flights from London to New York . Other airlines , such as Israel 's El Al , used the Britannia on transatlantic routes . In 1959 BOAC started flying the Britannia across the Pacific to Tokyo and Hong Kong , thus extending their network round the world . The westbound routing in 1959 for these intercontinental BOAC Britannia flights between the U.K. and Asia was London @-@ New York @-@ San Francisco @-@ Honolulu @-@ Wake Island @-@ Tokyo @-@ Hong Kong .

On 1 April 1958 Canadian Pacific Air Lines took delivery of the first of six Model 314 Britannias , with an additional two Model 324s ( built to a 320 standard ) arriving later and sold to Cathay Pacific in 1961 . BOAC ordered seven Model 302s but never took delivery , instead they were taken on by airlines including Aeronaves de México and Ghana Airways . The main long @-@ range series were the 310s , of which BOAC took 18 and , after deliveries began in September 1957 , put them into service between London and New York ; in March 1964 BOAC owned 50 aircraft , 10 being Britannia 312s . BOAC 's last scheduled Britannia flight was April 1965 .

The 310 series ( the Model 318 ) also saw transatlantic service with Cubana de Aviación starting in 1958 , in spite of the Cuban Revolution the airline had a special accord with British aircraft manufacturers to maintain this model of aircraft . In 1975 Cuban Britannias were used to transport hundreds of soldiers of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces to Angola in Operation Carlota , a proxy war . Cubana de Aviación continued using various Britannias until March 1990 .

Most aircraft were built by Bristol at Filton but 30 were built at Belfast by Short Brothers and Harland . Due to the extended development instead of a projected production of 180 Britannias , only 80 were sold . The negative experience with the development of the Britannia caused BOAC to be more cautious towards other British @-@ made aircraft such as the Vickers VC @-@ 10 . Throughout the Britannia 's lifespan , the engine icing condition remained a " continual potential hazard " that flight crews ultimately learned to manage with a " high @-@ lo " flight regime that minimized the danger , although the problems of the Britannia can mainly be linked to that of a manufacturer undertaking an innovative airframe design matched to an unproven engine , a design syndrome that remained particularly daunting . Squadron Leader David Berry who had 5 @,@ 000 hours on the type characterised his experiences as flying " Beauty and the Beast . " A more fitting epitaph was recently proffered by the editors of Aeroplane as the " 100 Great British Aircraft " ( 2008 ) were analysed with the Bristol Britannia counted among the " greats " .

Following purchase of remaining spare parts from Royal Aircraft Establishment and Cubana , Zaïrois airlines continued to operate Bristol Britannia into the early 1990s on regular cargo flights from N 'djili Airport to various destinations within the country .

= = Variants = =

= = = Bristol Model 175 = = =

Mk 1

Prototype powered by Bristol Centaurus 662 , fuselage length of 114 ft ( 35m ) , span 120 ft ( 36 @.@ 5 m ) , seating for 48 passengers , not built

Mk 2

Two prototypes powered by either Bristol Centaurus 662 or Bristol Proteus 600 ; with the Proteus , the fuselage length of 114 ft ( 35m ) was fitted with a longer wingspan 140 ft ( 43 m ) and reduced seating for 36 passengers , two prototypes planned , none built .

= = = Series 100 = = =

Seventy @-@ four passenger airliner with 114 ft ( 35m ) fuselage and powered by four Bristol Proteus 705

101

Prototypes , two initially powered by Proteus 625 and soon after re @-@ engined with the Proteus 755 , later the first prototype G @-@ ALBO was used for development testing of the Bristol Orion in 1956 and the Proteus 765 in 1957 .

102

Production aircraft for BOAC , 25 ordered with the last 10 cancelled in favour of the 300 series , 15 built .

= = = Series 200 = = =

All cargo variant with a 124 ft 3 in ( 38 m ) fuselage , BOAC option for five was cancelled , none built .

= = = Series 250 = = =

Similar to the 200 series , but mixed passenger and freight .

252

Originally ordered by the Ministry of Supply for intended lease to charter operators , but delivered to the Royal Air Force , as the Britannia C2 . Fitted with a heavy @-@ duty floor in forward area of fuselage and cargo door , three built .

253

Passenger / freight variant for the Royal Air Force , designated Britannia C1 . Fitted with full length heavy @-@ duty floor and provision for rearwards @-@ facing seats as preferred by the RAF . Capacity for 115 troops or equivalent in cargo , 20 built . Aircraft later sold on the civil market as freighters designated Series 253F .

= = = Series 300 = = =

Passenger only " stretched " version of the 200 series , incorporating 123 inches ( 3 @.@ 1 m ) longer fuselage , capable of carrying up to 139 ( originally 99 ) passengers , medium @-@ fuel capacity .

301

One Filton @-@ built company prototype , used the same wing and fuel capacity of the Model 100 ; first flew : 31 July 1956 .

302

Belfast @-@ built production , 10 ordered by BOAC but cancelled in favour of 305 ; seven were begun to this standard with two delivered to Aeronaves de Mexico .

305

Five Belfast @-@ built 302s modified for longer @-@ range but with limited takeoff weight due to thinner fuselage skin and lighter landing gear . Originally ordered by Capital Airlines which were cancelled and then for Northeast Airlines which also cancelled . All modified to other variants .

306

One former Series 305 leased to El Al pending delivery of last Series 315 . Later converted to Series 307 .

307

Two of the ex @-@ BOAC Northeast 305 order ( one formerly the El AL Series 307 ) to Air Charter Limited September 1958 and March 1959 , with a new designation : Model 307 . Later to British United Airways .

307F

1960 's conversion of 307 to freighter ( both converted ) .

308

Two former 305s ordered by Transcontinental SA of Argentina in 104 @-@ passenger configuration .

308F

1960 's conversion of 308 to freighter for British Eagle ( both converted ) .

309

One former 305 ( leased to Ghana Airways ) .

= = = Series 310 = = =

As 305 series , but with strengthened fuselage skin and undercarriage . Long @-@ range fuel capacity and was originally known as 300LR .

311

One prototype originally known as a 300LR .

312

Production aircraft for BOAC , 18 built .

312F

1960s conversion of 312 to freighter ( five converted ) .

313

Production aircraft for El Al , four built .

314

Production aircraft for Canadian Pacific Air Lines , six built .

317

Production aircraft for Hunting @-@ Clan Air Transport in 124 passenger trooping configuration , two built .

318

Production aircraft for Cubana de Aviación , four built . Delivery taking place on 15 December 1958 , later one leased to Cunard Eagle in 1960 – 1961 and this same airliner leased to CSA in 1962 .

319

Last production Britannia sold to Ghana Airways , modified from original Model 310 / 311 series .

320

Variant for North American market , order for Trans World Airlines not concluded , two built were completed as Series 324s .

324

Two Series 320s built for Canadian Pacific Air Lines , later purchased by Cunard Eagle Airways in 1961 .

= = Operators = =

= = = Civilian operators = = =

Argentina

Aerotransportes Entre Rios

Transcontinental SA

Australia

Southern Cross International ( leased )

Belgium

Young Cargo

Burundi

Centre Air Afrique

Canada

Canadian Pacific Air Lines

Cuba

Aerocaribbean

Cubana de Aviación

Czechoslovakia

CSA leased two aircraft from Cubana de Aviación ( 1961 – 1964 and 1963 – 1969 ) .

Dubai

Air Faisal

Ghana

Ghana Airways

Gemini Air Transport

Indonesia

Indonesian Ankasa Civil Air Transport

Ireland

Aer Turas

Interconair

Israel

El Al - An El Al Bristol Britannia was used by Israel to fly Adolf Eichmann out of Argentina after his kidnap in 1960 .

Kenya

African Cargo Airlines

African Safari Airways

Liberia

Liberia World Airways

Mexico

Aeronaves de México

Spain

Air Spain

Switzerland

Globe Air operated two former El Al 313s between 1964 and 1967 .

United Arab Emirates

Gaylan Air Cargo ( United Arab Emirates )

United Kingdom

Air Charter

BKS Air Transport

BOAC

Britannia Airways

British Eagle

British United Airways

Caledonian Airways

Cathay Pacific

Cunard Eagle Airways

Donaldson International Airways

Hunting @-@ Clan Air Transport

International Air Services

Invicta International Airlines

Lloyd International Airways

Monarch Airlines

Redcoat Air Cargo

Transglobe Airways

Zaire

Domaine de Katale

Katale Air Transport

Lukum Air Services

Transair Cargo

= = = Military operators = = =

United Kingdom

Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment

Royal Air Force

No. 99 Squadron RAF

No. 511 Squadron RAF

Cuba

Cuban Air Force

= = Accidents and incidents = =

Fourteen Britannias were lost with a total of 365 fatalities between 1954 and 1980 . The worst accident was the 1967 Nicosia Britannia disaster with a loss of life totalling 126 .

On 4 February 1954 , the second Britannia prototype crashed at Severn Beach , Gloucestershire . During the test flight , beginning with a loss of oil pressure , the No. 3 engine was shut down and restarted with a fire breaking out that could not be contained , consequently , No. 4 was shut down as a precaution . On approach to Filton Airport , there was concern that the uncontrolled fire would lead to a failure of the main spar , the pilot , William " Bill " Pegg , electing to make an emergency landing on the mudflats of the Severn Estuary . There were no fatalities .

On 6 November 1957 , the 300 series prototype crashed during a test flight , killing the 15 occupants .

On 24 December 1958 , a BOAC Britannia 312 on a test flight crashed at Winkton , killing nine of the passengers and crew on board .

On 12 October 1967 , " Sirius " a Royal Air Force C1 was damaged beyond repair after over @-@ running the runway at RAF Khormaksar , Aden .

On 22 July 1962 , a Canadian Pacific Air Lines Flight 301 a Britannia 314 was destroyed during an attempted " go @-@ around " following a three @-@ engined approach at Honolulu Airport , Hawaii .

On 29 February 1964 , British Eagle International Airlines Flight 802 crashed into the Glungezer mountain near Innsbruck killing all 83 people aboard .

On 1 September 1966 , a Britannia Airways Flight 105 crashed while landing at Ljubljana , Yugoslavia , resulting in a total of 98 fatalities out of 117 passengers and crew . The probable cause was the flight crew having failed to set their altimeter to QFE instead of QNH , creating a 980 feet ( 300 m ) error in indicated altitude .

On 20 April 1967 , a Globe Air Britannia 313 was on a flight from Bangkok to Basel with intermediate stops at Colombo , Mumbai ( Bombay ) and Cairo . The crew didn 't fly to Cairo , but elected to fly to Nicosia instead , where a missed approach and subsequent low circuit ended in impact near the airport perimeter .

On 30 September 1977 , an Interconair Britannia 253G was on a ferry flight , on approach to Shannon Airport severe vibration was experienced at an height of 300 feet . The approach to runway 24 was abandoned and an overshoot was commenced . The aircraft continued to sink and collided with the ground short and to the right of the runway . The Britannia aircraft bounced , the right wing broke off . The aircraft then skidded and caught fire .

On 16 February 1980 , a Britannia 253F of Redcoat Air Cargo crashed at Billerica , Massachusetts , shortly after taking off from Boston . The probable cause of the accident was degraded aerodynamic performance beyond the flight capabilities of the aircraft resulting from an accumulation of ice and snow on the airframe before takeoff and a further accumulation of ice when the aircraft was flown into moderate to severe icing conditions following takeoff . Contributing to the cause of the accident were encounters with wind shear , downdrafts , and turbulence during the climb . Of eight crew and passengers on board , there were seven fatalities with one seriously injured .

= = Survivors = =

Britannia 101 ( G @-@ ALRX )

Forward fuselage is with the Bristol Aero Collection This is the second prototype aircraft , destroyed in the Severn Estuary crash .

Britannia 308F ( G @-@ ANCF )

Removed from Kemble , and reassembled in early 2007 in Liverpool , England . Under restoration on the former airside apron behind the Crowne Plaza Liverpool John Lennon Airport Hotel , which was the original terminal building of Liverpool Speke Airport .

Britannia 312 ( G @-@ AOVF )

On display at the Royal Air Force Museum , RAF Cosford , England , in Royal Air Force Air Support Command colours as XM497 " Schedar " .

Britannia 312F ( G @-@ AOVS )

Derelict fuselage on the fire training dump at London Luton Airport , Luton , England , in Redcoat Air Cargo colours as G @-@ AOVS " Christian " . Is visible from the Wigmore Valley Park playing fields .

Britannia 312 ( G @-@ AOVT )

On display at the Imperial War Museum Duxford , England , in Monarch Airlines colours .

Britannia C.1 ( XM496 ) Regulus

On display at Kemble Airfield , England , in RAF colours .

Britannia 307F ( 5Y @-@ AYR )

Cockpit preserved in Burnham on Sea , Somerset , England .

= = Notable appearances in media = =

An Aeronaves de Mexico Model 302 Britannia was the aircraft in the 1959 movie Jet Over the Atlantic ; the audience is informed that the aircraft is a turboprop .

= = Specifications ( Series 310 ) = =

Data from Britannia ... Last of the Bristol Line

General characteristics

Crew : 4 @-@ 7

Capacity : 139 passengers ( coach class )

Length : 124 ft 3 in ( 37 @.@ 88 m )

Wingspan : 142 ft 3 in ( 43 @.@ 36 m )

Height : 37 ft 6 in ( 11 @.@ 43 m )

Wing area : 2 @,@ 075 ft ² ( 192 @.@ 8 m ² )

Empty weight : 86 @,@ 400 lb ( 38 @,@ 500 kg )

Max. takeoff weight : 185 @,@ 000 lb ( 84 @,@ 000 kg )

Powerplant : 4 × Bristol Proteus 765 turboprops , 4 @,@ 450 ehp ( 3 @,@ 320 kW ) each

Performance

Maximum speed : 397 mph ( 345 knots , 639 km / h )

Cruise speed : 357 mph ( 310 kn , 575 km / h ) at 22 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 700 m )

Range : 4 @,@ 430 mi ( 3 @,@ 852 nmi , 7 @,@ 129 km )

Service ceiling : 24 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 300 m )

Avionics

EKCO E120 weather radar

= Tales ( series ) =

The Tales series , known in Japan as the Tales of series ( 「 テイルズ オブ 」 シリーズ , " Teiruzu Obu " Shirīzu ) , is a franchise of fantasy Japanese role @-@ playing video games published by Bandai Namco Entertainment ( formerly Namco ) , and developed by its subsidiary , Namco Tales Studio until 2011 and presently by Bandai Namco . First begun in 1995 with the development and release of Tales of Phantasia for the Super Famicom , the series currently spans sixteen main titles , multiple spin @-@ off games and supplementary media in the form of manga series , anime series , and audio dramas .

While entries in the series generally stand independent of each other with different characters and stories , they are commonly linked by their gameplay , themes and high fantasy settings . The series is characterized by its art style , which draws from Japanese manga and anime , and its action @-@ based fighting system called the " Linear Motion Battle System " . Multiple people have become linked with the series , including character designers Kōsuke Fujishima and Mutsumi Inomata , producers Hideo Baba and Makoto Yoshizumi , and composer Motoi Sakuraba . The series was created by Yoshiharu Gotanda .

Most of the main Tales games have been localized for North America and Europe , although almost all of the spinoff titles have not been released abroad . While generally seen as a niche series in English speaking regions , Tales is considered a high @-@ profile property in Japan , just behind other series such as Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest . The series has been gaining popularity in the West since the release of Tales of Symphonia , which is still considered one of its most popular titles . As of December 2013 , the series has sold 16 million units worldwide .

= = Titles = =

= = = Games = = =

Since the first installment was released in 1995 , the Tales series has grown to include the main entries and multiple spin @-@ offs that derive multiple gameplay and narrative elements from the main entries . Except when indicated by naming , the main Tales entries are separate from each other apart from gameplay mechanics and themes . While Tales titles are often ported to new consoles after their original release , these remakes are rarely localized . The 2007 Nintendo DS game Tales of the Tempest was originally seen as a main entry in the series , but in 2007 was classified as a spin @-@ off .

= = = = Main series = = = =

The series debuted on the Super Famicom with Tales of Phantasia in 1995 , and introduced multiple elements that would become staples of the Tales series . It was released in the west on the Game Boy Advance in 2006 . It was also ported to the PlayStation , PlayStation Portable and iOS . The PlayStation received two original Tales games : Tales of Destiny in 1997 , which was the first title to be released in North America , and Tales of Eternia in 2000 , which was released in North America as Tales of Destiny 2 in 2001 .

Five titles have been released on the PlayStation 2 . The true direct sequel to Destiny , Tales of Destiny 2 , was released on the PlayStation 2 in 2001 across Asian territories , and ported to the PlayStation Portable in Japan in 2007 ; both versions have yet to receive a western release . Tales of Symphonia was released in Japan on the PS2 and Nintendo GameCube . The GameCube version was also released North America and Europe . It was the first entry to feature 3D graphics for its characters and environments and the first to be released in Europe . Tales of Rebirth was released in 2004 , ported to the PlayStation Portable in 2008 , and has yet to receive a western localization . Tales of Legendia and Tales of the Abyss were both released in Japan in 2005 , with both being released in North America the following year . Legendia was the first and only Tales game developed by Namco internal development team " Project Melfes " , while Abyss was developed by the same team that developed Symphonia , and used its same graphics engine . Abyss was later ported to the Nintendo 3DS , and released in Japan , North America and Europe .

Tales of Innocence was released in Japan on the Nintendo DS in 2007 . A remake of the game , Innocence R was released on the PlayStation Vita in 2012 . Neither version has been released in the west . The first release on seventh @-@ generation consoles , Tales of Vesperia for Xbox 360 , was released in Japan and North America in 2008 and in Europe in 2009 . A Japan @-@ exclusive PlayStation 3 port was released in 2009 as well . Tales of Hearts was released on the Nintendo DS in 2008 . A remake , Hearts R , was released in 2013 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe .

The twelfth entry , Tales of Graces , released on the Wii in Japan in 2009 . A PlayStation 3 port , Graces f , was released in 2009 in Japan , and in 2012 in North America and Europe . Tales of Xillia , the series ' 15th anniversary title , was released in Japan for PlayStation 3 in 2011 , and in North America and Europe in 2013 . Xillia 's direct sequel and the fourteenth main title , Tales of Xillia 2 , was released in 2012 in Japan and 2014 in North America and Europe . The fifteenth main title , Tales of Zestiria , was released in January 2015 in Japan and it was released in North America on October 20 , 2015 . The sixteenth main title , Tales of Berseria , is in production for PS3 and PlayStation 4 .

= = = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = = =

The series has received a small number of sequels , and a large amount of spin @-@ off titles and subseries . With the exception of Tempest , worked on by multiple staff from the main series and treated a precursor to Innocence , they are derivative rather than original works . Three direct sequels have been produced : Destiny 2 , Xillia 2 and Tales of Symphonia : Dawn of the New World . Eternia received an MMORPG spin @-@ off for PC platforms titled Tales of Eternia Online . Multiple crossover games have been made for mobile platforms , including Tales of Link , the Tales of Mobile series , Tales of Card Evolve , Tales of Kizna and Tales of Asteria . Two titles for the PlayStation Portable have been released in Japan : Tales of VS. in 2009 , and Tales of the Heroes : Twin Brave in 2012 . The main spin @-@ off subseries is Tales of the World , which has grown to include ten games beginning with Tales of Phantasia : Narikiri Dungeon , released in Japan on the Game Boy Color in 2000 . Only Tales of the World : Radiant Mythology has been released in the west . A second subseries , Tales of Fandom , includes two games released respectively for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2 in 2002 and 2007 .

= = = Related media = = =

The Tales series has expanded into other media , including CD dramas , manga and anime . Multiple Tales games have been adapted into anime OAVs and TV series . The Symphonia OAV was released in three parts between 2007 and 2011 , and released as a single collection in 2013 . Abyss was adapted into a 26 @-@ episode TV series between October 2008 and March 2009 . Phantasia and Eternia have also received anime adaptations . The series ' first theatrical film , a prequel to Vesperia called Tales of Vesperia : The First Strike , was released in 2009 in Japan and 2012 in North America . A made @-@ for @-@ television anime based on the opening sections of Zestiria , Dawn of the Shepard , was produced as part of the 20th anniversary celebrations related to the title . It was also released on the game disc . A full series based on Zestiria will air in 2016 .

Books and audio dramas have also been made . Phantasia received multiple CD dramas , including four collected into anthologies in January and March 2000 @.@  and a stand @-@ alone drama in December 2001 . Symphonia received seven audio dramas following the game 's plot . Two CD dramas for Legendia were respectively released in August and September 2005 . A manga of Phantasia was written and serialized in 2008 and 2009 , while Abyss received three manga adaptations in the years after its release . Symphonia was adapted in both novelizations and a manga serial . Others to receive adaptations of these kinds are Destiny , Graces and Xillia .

= = Common elements = =

= = = Gameplay = = =

The Tales series is classified as a role @-@ playing video game series . Multiple gameplay elements carry over from entry to entry . The main unifying element is the combat system , the Linear Motion Battle System ( LMBS for short ) . Considered as one of the mainstays and building blocks for every main entry in the series , it undergoes multiple incremental changes and alterations from one installment to the next . Introduced in Phantasia , it is a real @-@ time fighting system similar to a brawler , as opposed to the majority of RPGs at the time of Phantasia 's release which primarily used turn @-@ based battle systems .

Some features introduced in certain games have proven popular enough to remain in future installments like " Free Running " ( the ability for a character to freely roam the battlefield ) . Elements of turn @-@ based combat are also present , though to a lesser degree : an example of this is Destiny 's " Chain Capacity " feature ( the number of skills a character can perform ) , which appears in later games in the series . The battle system for Legendia was deliberately designed to be similar to a brawler : the stated reason was that the team wished to combine brawler combat with the story and leveling mechanics of a Tales game . Characters generally use Artes , which are special attacks characters can perform in battle . Players can usually only control one character , though a multiplayer option was implemented for Destiny and has reappeared in later Tales games .

The battle system 's name for each installment is augmented with descriptive titles representative of features of that game 's battle system : examples are the " Style Shift " system from Graces ( characters shifting between two types of Artes ) and the " Fusionic @-@ Chain " system from Zestiria ( a human character merging with a magical character for a brief period to deal greater damage ) . Characters are awarded with " Titles " , nicknames which sometimes grant boons to them in battle when assigned to them . In the majority of Tales games , when navigating the overworld or environment and encountering an enemy , combat took place on a separate battle screen . For Zestiria , combat took place in the same space as exploration .

Most Tales games have skits , side conversations between different characters that can be both dramatic and comedic in nature . They are commonly portrayed as character portraits or profiles , with text along the bottom of the screen . They were first introduced in Tales of Destiny , though the majority were cut from the English release . In the original English GameCube release of Symphonia , the voice track for the skits was removed , but for its HD re @-@ release , the Japanese voice track , and consequently the skit voice tracks , were included . The first English release to include fully voiced skits was Vesperia : they had been planned for Abyss , but were cut due to space issues . Another recurring feature is the Cooking system , where characters learn and prepare dishes to restore health and forms of experience points .

= = = Themes , plots and characters = = =

The prominent narrative theme of the Tales series is the issue of coexistence between different races . A particular example of this is Tales of Rebirth , which extensively explores themes of racism . Scenario writer Hiramatsu Masaki was inspired by the ethnic conflicts seen in Yugoslavia . Another recurring feature is the plot and characters , which are often rooted in and revolve around themes such as justice or faith . The theme for each entry in the series is decided by the series producer based on current world events . The chosen theme helps dictate what the game will be called : once the theme is decided , the team search through various languages to find a suitable representative word . The narratives of each story were described by Gamasutra as " very typical " during a 2008 interview with staff members , although it was not elaborated upon by the interviewer . The interviewees suggested that this point of view was based on the fact that western fans were not generally experienced in Japanese culture , and so would see the stories in each entry as similar . The writers for each game are hired on a per @-@ project basis , with both freelancers and in @-@ house story writers being involved . Two of the recurring writers are Takumi Miyajima ( Symphonia and Abyss ) , and Naoki Yamamoto ( Hearts , Xillia , Zestiria ) . There are very few mainline games that share a setting : Symphonia takes place along the same " time axis " as Phantasia , while Zestiria and Berseria take place on the same world at different time periods .

The settings for the stories are primarily high fantasy worlds , with the producers opting not to use a dark or science fiction @-@ based setting . An exception is Xillia 2 , which mostly took place in a modern setting , and explored darker themes than usual . This direction was confirmed as a one @-@ off experiment for the series . The main characters play a key role in the Tales games , as it is partially through them that the main theme of each entry is depicted . For Abyss , it was decided to take a risk and create an unorthodox protagonist that would be initially unlikable . For Vesperia , the team opted to raise the age limit of the target audience , showing this in the game by making the main protagonist a more mature type . A female main protagonist was included for the first time in Xillia in the form of Milla Maxwell alongside male protagonist Jude Mathis , although at the time it was stated that there were no solid plans to create a game with a single female protagonist . A sole female character , called Velvet , was eventually included in Berseria . The way the characters interact with each other during the narrative forms one of the core aspects of designing each game . Another main priority is for players to see a part of themselves in the characters .

= = = Terminology = = =

Unique terminology is used when referring to games within the series . In 2007 , Yoshizumi announced two classes of Tales games , " Mothership Titles " and " Escort Titles " . " Mothership " essentially means " Main series " , where as " Escort " essentially means " Spinoff " . One of the recurring differences between the two game types internally is that " Escort " titles don 't supply inspiration for main entries in the series , but draw the most popular elements from them . The games are also frequently given what is called a " Characteristic Genre Name " , which is essentially a short subtitle or phrase that outlines the game 's overall theme . The main reason for this , as stated by Yoshizumi , was that the series was not seen as a role @-@ playing series by the development team , but rather " Character Playing Game " , with the player learning about the game 's characters and watching them grow rather than using them as avatars : the genre names are meant to distinguish them from other role @-@ playing games . The terms , however , are largely removed from the English localized versions . There are also terms that are used in remakes or ports of games : " R " stands for " remake " or " Re @-@ imagination " ( as in Hearts R ) , while " F " in Graces f stood for " future " , in reference to the game 's extra story content .

= = Development = =

= = = History = = =

The Tales series originated when Phantasia began production , based on an unpublished novel titled Tale Phantasia ( テイルファンタジア , Teiru Fantajia ) , written by the game 's scenario writer and lead programmer Yoshiharu Gotanda . During the story development process , several elements of the original novel were dropped or changed . The game was developed by Wolf Team , an independent game development studio founded in 1986 . Due to bad experiences at Telenet Japan , the previous employer of multiple Wolf Team members , the staff sought an independent publisher for the game . After an unsuccessful pitch to Enix , they entered a publishing contract with Bandai Namco ( then Namco ) . Phantasia had a troubled development cycle for the original Super Famicom version , with many creative disagreements between Wolf Team and Namco . The disagreements led to most of the Wolf Team staff leaving after the game in order to start a new company , tri @-@ Ace , which would go on to make the Star Ocean series . Remaining members would continue to develop games in the Tales series .

The studio remained independent until 2003 , when it was acquired by Bandai Namco and renamed Namco Tales Studio . The studio 's shares were divided between Bandai Namco , Telenet Japan and series director Eiji Kikuchi . In 2006 , Namco bought Telenet 's shares , then later Kikuchi 's , giving them full control over the studio . In mid 2011 , a financial report indicated that Namco Tales was in serious financial trouble , having a debt of 21 million dollars and posting a loss for the previous financial year . The studio 's absorption into its parent company was formally announced in November of that year . After the absorption of Namco Tales , former series brand manager Hideo Baba was appointed as series producer . He had previously been the producer of the original version of Hearts . Alongside Baba , the chief series producer is Makoto Yoshizumi , who had produced multiple titles including Destiny and Innocence .

= = = Art design = = =

The series is distinguished by its art style , which emulates manga and anime . According to Baba , the character designs are created once the main character 's story , personality , and environment are determined by the rest of the production team . Beyond that , the artist is allowed to use their imagination , though they can be asked to alter things like costume details , and facial expressions . One of the main designers for the series is manga artist Kōsuke Fujishima . He was first brought in to design the characters for Phantasia , and has since designed for multiple entries including Abyss and Xillia . Another designer , Mutsumi Inomata , first designed for the series with Destiny , and has contributed designs for multiple entries including Eternia , Rebirth and Xillia . A third regular artist is Daigo Okumura , who designed characters for Vesperia and Xillia 2 , as well as Dawn of the New World . Other designers to work on the series include Kazuto Nakazawa ( Legendia ) , Kouichi Kimura ( Xillia 2 ) , and Minoru Iwamoto ( Zestiria ) . The art design for each game 's world and characters has ranged between a cel @-@ shaded anime style ( Vesperia ) to a more realistic style ( Xillia 2 ) . Skit character images are also directly inspired by anime art . The art style for each title is determined by the theme and story decided upon by the developers .

Anime cutscenes are included in each game , and are a primary focus for the production team as they help make the first impression on players . The series aims to avoid standard anime tropes and common narrative elements with each installment . The first game to feature such cutscenes was Destiny . The cutscenes were animated by Production I.G , which has provided cutscenes for the series until Xillia . For Xillia , aiming to demonstrate a new artistic direction for the series , production of the anime cutscenes was given to Ufotable . For the Nintendo DS release of Hearts , two identical versions of the game were released as an experiment by the production team , with one featuring traditional anime animation by Production I.G. , and one featuring computer @-@ generated cutscenes by Shirogumi Ltd . The CGI cutscenes proved less popular with fans than the established anime style .

= = = Technology and development teams = = =

The engines for the games are generally developed in @-@ house : the cited reasons for this included problems with outsourced development . Until Vesperia , the team worked on a by @-@ project basis , creating new development tools and engines for each installment . Due to cost increases , the development process was altered and streamlined as more user @-@ friendly software engines became available . The studio was divided into two teams : Team Destiny worked on 2D Tales titles such as Tales of Destiny , while Team Symphonia developed 3D titles . In @-@ house , major distinctions were made between the two studios except for some core staff Namco Tales produced the majority of the mainline Tales games until its absorption in 2011 . The notable exceptions are Legendia , which was developed by an internal staff group at Bandai Namco , and Innocence , which was developed by Alfa System . Alfa System also developed many of the portable spin @-@ off titles . After the absorption of Namco Tales by Bandai Namco , the teams and staff transferred to the new in @-@ house development studio called Bandai Namco Studios . The size of the teams was reduced and the previous studio 's main divisions were merged . This allowed production to be streamlined , but also meant that the team could only focus on one game at a time , rather than working on two games simultaneously as they had done before .

= = = Music = = =

The regular main composer for the Tales series is Motoi Sakuraba . His first work on the series was for Phantasia , and has since contributed to nearly every main entry since there in the capacity of a freelance composer . Sakuraba has become noted for his signature musical style , which is present in the majority of his Tales scores . He also frequently collaborates with Shinji Tamura . The entries Sakuraba has not worked on are Legendia , which was composed by Go Shiina , an in @-@ house composer , and Innocence , whose composer was Kazuhiro Nakamura . Sakuraba and Shiina had collaborated on the score for Zestiria . Multiple titles in the series use licensed theme songs by multiple Japanese artists : among the artists are Garnat Crow ( Eternia ) , Deen ( Destiny / Hearts ) , Kokia ( Innocence ) and Ayumi Hamasaki ( Xillia / Xillia 2 ) . One recurring aspect of many earlier localizations was the removal of the Japanese theme song , such as with Symphonia , which had its theme song replaced with an orchestral version . The first western release of a Tales title to feature the theme song used in Japan was Vesperia .

= = = Localization = = =

Multiple Tales titles , the majority of which are spin @-@ offs , have not been localized for the west or have only been released in North America : two examples of the former case for entries in the main series are Rebirth and Innocence , while an example of the latter is Legendia . Speaking in 2013 , Baba explained that the main priority for localizations was for the main series rather than spin @-@ offs . In addition to this , he stated that their localization team was limited and they needed to " pick and choose " which game to bring to the west . For its western release , Eternia 's name was changed to " Destiny 2 " : this was due to a possible trademark conflict and the wish to exploit the popularity of Destiny . The 2006 PSP port of Eternia retained its original title . With Zestiria , Bandai Namco planned to attempt releasing the game in the west in the same year it was released in Japan . The deciding factor in this resolution was the delayed release of Xillia and its sequel , and the reaction of western fans to this . Fan localizations have also been created , such as for the original versions of Phantasia and Innocence . While the option of the Japanese voice tracks have been heavily requested for western releases by fans , licensing issues have mostly prevented Bandai Namco from implementing it . Localization for mobile titles is also a low priority due to them being co @-@ developed by Japan @-@ based mobile developers .

= = Reception and legacy = =

The series has generally sold well during its lifetime . The series ' strongest sales base has been Japan : in 2007 , sales distribution was 87 % in Japan , 8 % in North America , 3 % in Europe and 2 % in mainland Asia . The best @-@ selling titles of the series at the time were Symphonia ( 953 @,@ 000 copies for the GameCube , 486 @,@ 000 for PlayStation 2 ) , Destiny ( 1 @.@ 1 million copies for PlayStation ) , Xillia ( 1 million copies for PlayStation 3 ) and Destiny 2 ( 977 @,@ 000 copies for PlayStation 2 ) . The sales data did not include mobile and online games . The success of entries has also been linked with the consoles they are released on : Vesperia 's release on the Xbox 360 caused the console to sell out for the first time in Japan , while Namco decided to release Zestiria on the PlayStation 3 due to the low sales prospects for next @-@ gen consoles in their target audience . As of December 2013 , the series has shipped 16 million units worldwide across 100 different countries .

While keeping a lower profile in English @-@ speaking regions , in Japan , it is regarded as one of the biggest role @-@ playing video game series . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish , speaking in 2001 , referred to it as the third biggest RPG series in Japan behind Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest . Gamasutra 's Brandon Sheffield echoed these sentiments , stating that " While the series doesn 't have quite the cultural cache of Final Fantasy in the West or Dragon Quest in Japan , it 's still a very popular brand worldwide " . IGN 's Anoop Gantayat additionally referred to it as the third biggest Japanese role @-@ playing series in regards to sales . Multiple entries in the series , notably Destiny and Legendia have been favorably compared with fighting games and brawlers , especially the Street Fighter series . GameTrailers ranked the Linear Motion Battle System , with particular reference to Graces , as one of the top five JRPG battle systems . Their stories and characters have generally received a more mixed response from western critics : opinions on entries such as Legendia , Abyss , Xillia were mixed to positive , while others such as Symphonia , Graces and Xillia 2 were criticized . The main criticism for these games and Legendia was that the story was either predictable or cliché . The in @-@ game graphics have also drawn mixed responses for several games in the series , including Destiny , Eternia , Graces and Xillia .

In 2013 , leading up to the release of Tales of Symphonia Chronicles , Baba called Symphonia the most successful title in the series in the west thus far , although the series ' main target audience was still in Japan . In an earlier interview , Baba commented that the team behind the series put a large amount of effort and development in keeping the series fresh while retaining the base elements across each installment . The positive reaction of gamers in the US to Symphonia influenced the way the various teams developed titles after that point . Speaking in 2014 , production manager Denis Lee said that , since Symphonia 's release , the popularity of the series has grown . In response , Bandai Namco have focused on getting more entries out in western territories . Much of their research about what titles to release or develop in the future revolves around direct conversation with Tales series fans at gaming conventions and special events .

= Zimbabwe women 's national field hockey team at the 1980 Summer Olympics =

The 1980 Zimbabwe women 's national field hockey team won the gold medal in women 's field hockey at that year 's Summer Olympics in Moscow , the capital of the Soviet Union . The squad of 16 women , all from Zimbabwe 's white minority , was assembled less than a month before the Olympics began to help fill the gaps the American @-@ led Olympic boycott created in the women 's hockey competition . Zimbabwe 's subsequent victory in the round @-@ robin tournament with three wins and two draws was regarded as a huge upset , particularly considering the team 's lack of preparation and experience ; it has been called an " irresistible fairy story " . Won at a time of great political transition in Zimbabwe , the gold medal was the country 's first Olympic medal of any colour .

The 1980 Olympics were first to feature women 's hockey , and the first to include Zimbabwe under that name — barred from the last three Olympics for political reasons , the country had last competed as Rhodesia in 1964 . The women 's hockey matches , held between 25 and 31 July , were all played on artificial turf , which none of the Zimbabwean team members had ever seen ; they had also never played together until that month . After beating Poland and the USSR and drawing with Czechoslovakia and India , the Zimbabweans won the competition on the final day with a 4 – 1 victory over Austria . Dubbed the " Golden Girls " by the media of Zimbabwe , they were met by cheering crowds on their return home , and were briefly national celebrities . Zimbabwe did not win another Olympic medal until 2004 .

= = Invitation and team selection = =

The 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , the capital of the Soviet Union , were the first to include a competition in women 's field hockey . Pre @-@ tournament favourites included Australia , the Netherlands and West Germany , but the American @-@ led Western boycott of the Moscow Olympics led to these teams and others withdrawing , leaving only the Soviets in the women 's hockey event . The Soviet and international Olympic authorities filled the gaps by inviting teams from countries that had not qualified . Among the nations invited was Zimbabwe , which had become an internationally recognised country in April 1980 following seven years of civil war . Moscow marked the southern African nation 's return to the Olympics after 16 years ; as Rhodesia it had been excluded from the 1968 , 1972 and 1976 Games for political reasons following the mostly white government 's declaration of independence from Britain in 1965 . The Zimbabwe Olympic Committee received the invitation to send men 's and women 's hockey squads to Moscow on 14 June 1980 , 35 days before the Olympics were due to start . They were taken totally by surprise — they had not prepared hockey teams for the Games — but nevertheless agreed to send a women 's squad . No women 's hockey team representing the country had ever played overseas before .

A squad of 16 members , built around the core of the former Rhodesia team , was hastily assembled by Liz Dreyer , the president of the national women 's hockey association , who became the team 's manager . Every player and official was white . Ann Grant , the team 's 25 @-@ year @-@ old sweeper , was appointed captain . Anthea Stewart , who had played for South Africa 25 times before retiring in 1974 , both coached the squad and played herself . Liz Chase , the only other team member with international experience ( having also represented South Africa ) was made vice @-@ captain . At 35 years old , Stewart was the team 's oldest player , while Arlene Boxall , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old reserve goalkeeper , was the youngest . The squad included twin sisters in Sandy Chick and Sonia Robertson .

Entirely amateur , the team mostly comprised players with professions unrelated to sport — Grant , for example , was a bookkeeper , while Boxall was an operations clerk in the Air Force of Zimbabwe . Several had sporting relatives , most prominently Grant , whose brother was the international cricketer Duncan Fletcher . Audrey Palmer , a seasoned hockey official and referee who had played for Rhodesia from 1953 to 1961 , travelled with the team as a medic , trainer and general supervisor . The squad left on 7 July , travelling first to the Zambian capital Lusaka and then to Luanda in Angola , from where they flew to Moscow on an aircraft usually used for freighting meat . " The stench was terrible " , Grant later said . " There were no seats , so we all sat on the floor , strapped in and set off into the unknown . We didn 't even have the right shoes to play on the artificial hockey surface . "

= = Tournament = =

The event was organised as a round @-@ robin tournament in which each of the six teams would play each other once between 25 and 31 July . Two points were awarded for a win and one for a draw ; the team with the most points at the end would be the winner . The other competitors were Austria , Czechoslovakia , India , Poland and the USSR ; apart from the Soviets , all of these teams were competing as a result of the boycott , having failed to qualify initially . All of the matches were played at Dynamo Minor Arena in Moscow . Zimbabwe arrived two weeks before the hockey tournament was due to start , and warmed up with a number of matches against local teams . The players ' lack of preparation and unfamiliarity with artificial turf — " none of us had ever seen it before " , Chick recalled — were offset by what several members of the squad have described as a very strong team spirit . They considered themselves serious underdogs and did not expect to win a medal .

Zimbabwe played in the first women 's Olympic hockey match , facing Poland on 25 July . Pat McKillop scored the first goal to put Zimbabwe ahead before Pat Davies , Linda Watson and Chase each added one more to round off a 4 – 0 victory . On 27 July , Zimbabwe and Czechoslovakia drew 2 – 2 ; McKillop and Chase scored . The next day , the Zimbabweans beat the Soviets 2 – 0 , McKillop scoring both goals . A 1 – 1 draw with India on 30 July put Zimbabwe in first place before the final round of matches on the 31st . Zimbabwe had to beat Austria to be sure of winning the gold .

Stewart declared the team 's first @-@ choice white @-@ and @-@ blue outfit " lucky " on the basis that both Zimbabwe 's victories had been won wearing it ( as opposed to the two draws wearing green ) , and expressed joy that they would again be wearing white and blue in the deciding match . According to Glen Byrom , covering the event for the Herald newspaper , the Zimbabweans appeared nervous during the opening stages of the game , and were fortunate not to go behind after 15 minutes , when Austria missed a clear chance . Chick opened the scoring after 28 minutes , receiving the ball from a corner before cleanly stroking it into the net . Austria 's Brigitte Kindler equalised two minutes later from a penalty stroke , flicking the ball beyond Zimbabwean goalkeeper Sarah English into the top @-@ left corner of the goal . With the score 1 – 1 at half time , Brenda Phillips replaced Christine Prinsloo at right @-@ half .

Urged on by a small but loud group of fellow Zimbabwean Olympians , the Zimbabweans improved after the break and , according to Byrom , " ke [ pt ] the Austrian goal under siege " throughout the second half . With 50 of the match 's 70 minutes gone , McKillop powerfully stroked a short corner that deflected off an opposing player 's stick and flew high into the net to give Zimbabwe the lead . Now appearing supremely confident , Byrom reported , the Zimbabweans " simply overran Austria with a splendid display of fast , attacking hockey " , forcing eight short corners and four long corners during the second period to Austria 's one long corner . Gillian Cowley made it 3 – 1 on 60 minutes , following up to score after Sandy Chick 's free hit was blocked . McKillop rounded up the win four minutes later , collecting a through pass from Chase and smashing the ball home . Byrom reported " incredible scenes of unrestrained joy " at the final buzzer — " the Zimbabweans , tears streaming from their eyes , danced about the field hugging and kissing each other " . Finally they hoisted Grant onto their shoulders and carried her off the field .

A few hours later , the Zimbabwean players returned to the field wearing their blue skirts and blue Zimbabwe Olympic blazers for the medals ceremony . After the third @-@ placed Soviets and second @-@ placed Czechoslovakians had received their medals , Grant led the team up to the podium to receive the first ever Olympic gold medal for women 's hockey . It was their country 's first Olympic medal of any colour . All 16 players received medals ; they then led the Czechoslovakian and Soviet teams on a walking lap of honour around the field .

Zimbabwe finished the tournament undefeated , having scored the most goals and conceded the fewest of any team . The six goals from Pat McKillop , a housewife from Bulawayo , made her the competition 's joint top scorer with the USSR 's Natella Krasnikova . Chase , despite nursing a knee injury , played in all five matches and scored three goals . All of the Zimbabwean squad members played at least one match except for Boxall , who never came off the bench , but still received a gold medal .

= = Reactions and legacy = =

The victorious hockey players were immediately dubbed the " Golden Girls " by Zimbabwean reporters . They were greeted by huge crowds on their return to Zimbabwe and briefly became national celebrities . Prime Minister Robert Mugabe welcomed them home at an official function . Each member of the team was promised an ox by the Prime Minister 's wife Sally , but ultimately received a polystyrene package of meat instead at a ceremony hosted by Mrs Mugabe . Many of the players emigrated over the following years , mostly to South Africa . Their victory continues to be celebrated in Zimbabwe today . The country did not win another Olympic medal until Kirsty Coventry won three swimming medals in Athens in 2004 . Robert Mugabe promptly applied the " golden girl " nickname to her on her return home .

The Zimbabwean hockey team 's victory at the 1980 Olympics was widely considered a great upset . Sports historians have called it a " fairytale " and an " irresistible fairy story " . While the Zimbabweans were overjoyed by their unlikely status as the first ever Olympic gold medallists in women 's hockey , some , including Robert Sullivan of Sports Illustrated , felt that the Zimbabwean victory epitomised how the Western boycott had lowered competitive standards and , in their opinion , " ruined " the 1980 Olympics . While acknowledging this to an extent , Cathy Harris asserted in her 2008 retrospective on the team , published in The Sunday Times , that the victory still deserved to be recognised as a great achievement . " They freely acknowledge that they won the gold medal without competing against the best in the world " , she concludes , " but , like many athletes in Moscow in 1980 , they seized their chance . "

= Air Greenland =

Air Greenland A / S is the flag carrier airline of Greenland , a subsidiary of the SAS Group , owned by the SAS Group , The Greenlandic Government and The Danish Government . It operates a fleet of 32 aircraft , including 1 airliner used for transatlantic and charter flights , 9 fixed @-@ wing aircraft primarily serving the domestic network , and 22 helicopters feeding passengers from the smaller communities into the domestic airport network . Flights to heliports in the remote settlements are operated on contract with the government of Greenland .

Founded in 1960 as Grønlandsfly , the airline started its first services with Catalina water planes and within the decade expanded to include DHC @-@ 3 Otters as well as Sikorsky S @-@ 61 helicopters , some of which remain in active service . The majority of operations were based on helicopters until the newly established Greenland Home Rule began investing in a network of short takeoff and landing airfields . These were very expensive to construct and Greenland 's airport fees are still among the highest in the world ; they also required a new fleet : DHC @-@ 7 turboprops uniquely suited to the harsh terrain and weather conditions in Greenland . The reliability of connections improved as the domestic airport network expanded in the 1990s : increasing use of the Dash 7s made the airline less restricted by inclement weather . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , Air Greenland acquired a Boeing 757 and an Airbus A330 , allowing it to open connections to Copenhagen , until then operated by SAS which also competed mid to late 2000s . In the 21st century , it competes with Air Iceland for international connections and small charter services domestically .

Besides running scheduled services and government @-@ contracted flights to most villages in the country , the airline also supports remote research stations , provides charter services for tourists and Greenland 's energy and mineral @-@ resource industries , and permits medivac during emergencies . Air Greenland has seven subsidiaries , an airline , hotels , tour operators , a travel agency specialized in Greenlandic tourism and the Arctic Umiaq Line , an unprofitable but government @-@ subsidized ferry service .

= = History = =

= = = 1960s = = =

The airline was established on 7 November 1960 as Grønlandsfly A / S by the Scandinavian Airlines System ( now SAS ) and Kryolitselskabet Øresund , a Danish mining company involved with the cryolite operations at Ivittuut to provide transport and logistics for four American radar bases in Greenland . In 1962 , interests in the firm were acquired by the Provincial Council ( now the Greenland Home Rule Government ) and the Royal Greenland Trade Department ( now KNI ) .

The first flights serving the American bases in Greenland operated lightweight DHC @-@ 3 Otters and Sikorsky S @-@ 55 helicopters chartered from Canada . After a crash in 1961 , Grønlandsfly used PBY Catalina water planes and DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otters on domestic routes . One of the Catalinas then crashed in 1962 . In 1965 , the Douglas DC @-@ 4 became the line 's first larger airplane . It was followed by Sikorsky S @-@ 61 helicopters , which have remained in use : in 2010 , they still served the communities of Kujalleq municipality in southern Greenland year @-@ round and those of Disko Bay during the winter .

= = = 1970s = = =

During the 1970s , Grønlandsfly upgraded its DC @-@ 4 to the newer DC @-@ 6 , but principally focused on expanding its helicopter fleet , purchasing five more S @-@ 61s . By 1972 , it opened up service to east Greenland with a helicopter based in Tasiilaq , and established Greenlandair Charter . Mining at Maamorilik in the Uummannaq Fjord required still more helicopters , and the airline purchased Bell 206s for the route . Grønlandsfly also picked up a Danish government contract to fly reconnaissance missions regarding the sea ice around Greenland .

By the end of 1979 , the number of Grønlandsfly passengers served annually exceeded 60 @,@ 000 , more than the population of Greenland . That year , the airline 's first international route was also opened , running between Greenland 's capital Nuuk and the town of Iqaluit in northern Canada . The route connected Greenland 's Kalaallit with Canada 's Inuit and was operated in conjunction with the Canadian First Air line , but the planes were generally run empty and the route was shuttered 13 years later .

= = = 1980s = = =

The establishment of the Greenland Home Rule Government in 1979 led to investment in a regional network of true airports , with short take @-@ off and landing ( STOL ) airfields constructed in Nuuk , Ilulissat ( 1984 ) , and Kulusuk . ( These early airports were built without de @-@ icing equipment , a situation which has proven problematic during Greenland 's winters and continues to cause delays and losses for the airline . ) The decade also saw the company train and hire its first native Kalaallit pilots .

To service the enlarged network , Grønlandsfly began acquiring DHC @-@ 7s , planes particularly suited to the often severe weather conditions in Greenland . The first was delivered on 29 September 1979 , followed by more over the next decade . These planes remain in active service , serving every airport except Nerlerit Inaat near Ittoqqortoormiit , whose operation is handled by Air Iceland under contract with Greenland Home Rule .

In 1981 , Grønlandsfly opened its first route to Iceland , linking Reykjavík Airport to its main hub at Kangerlussuaq via Kulusuk . In 1986 , a route to Keflavík allowed the company to break SAS 's monopoly on flights between Greenland and Denmark via a Keflavík @-@ Copenhagen leg operated by Icelandair . By 1989 , the airline employed more than 400 Greenlanders and carried more than 100 @,@ 000 passengers annually .

= = = 1990s = = =

The company saw its activity curtailed as the mines at Ivittuut ( 1987 ) and Maamorilik ( 1990 ) closed operation , leading to a recession in the Greenlandic economy .

As the situation improved , the network of regional STOL airports was extended with Sisimiut Airport , Maniitsoq Airport , and Aasiaat Airport built in mid @-@ western Greenland and Qaarsut Airport and Upernavik Airport built in northwestern Greenland . With the purchase of a fifth Dash 7 , Grønlandsfly was – for the first time since its inception – able to provide plane services to all major towns in Greenland . ( Uummannaq is served by Qaarsut Airport in conjunction with its heliport . )

Grønlandsfly also purchased its first jet aircraft , a Boeing 757 – 200 which began operation in May 1998 . The airliner was named Kunuunnguaq in honor of the Greenlandic explorer and ethnologist Knud Rasmussen , whose bust decorates in the terminal of Kangerlussuaq hub . The airliner allowed the company to run the profitable Kangerlussuaq – Copenhagen route directly , without affiliates or a layover in Iceland . Thus , in 1999 , the airline served 282 @,@ 000 passengers , nearly triple the number at the end of the previous decade .

= = = 2000s = = =

Around the turn of the millennium , the airline renewed its aging fleet , retiring several of its S @-@ 61 and 206 helicopters and replacing them with Bell 212s and Eurocopter AS350s . The company also sacked its CEO Peter Fich , who had proven unable to balance Greenland Home Rule 's demands for local Greenlander service with the board 's for expanded tourism , lower fares , and higher profits . Under his replacement Finn Øelund , Grønlandsfly initially posted a DKK 30 million loss as contractual obligations maintained unprofitable service while a strike ruined the summer tourist season and Post Greenland relocated a lucrative mail contract to the Danish @-@ owned Air Alpha Greenland . In response , the company successfully pushed back against Greenland Home Rule 's large demands , high fees , and low subsidies and rebranded itself , anglicizing its name to Air Greenland and adopting a new logo and livery on 18 April 2002 .

In 2003 , Finn Øelund left to head Maersk Air and was replaced as CEO by Flemming Knudson . Air Greenland opened a route from Copenhagen to Akureyri in Iceland ; the service lasted for six years before finally being deemed unprofitable and ended . Also in 2003 , SAS abandoned its Greenland service , leading Air Greenland to purchase its second airliner , an Airbus A330 @-@ 200 named Norsaq . ( SAS briefly revived the service during the peak season in 2007 before dropping it again in January 2009 . ) Owing to SAS 's withdrawal from the market , Air Greenland received its contract with the U.S. Air Force for passenger service to and from Thule Air Base . Running from February 2004 , the contract was renewed for another five @-@ year period in 2008 despite SAS 's brief return to the market .

The first takeover of another airline took place on 28 July 2006 : Air Greenland acquired the Danish carrier Air Alpha 's Greenland subsidiary . Air Alpha Greenland had operated helicopter flights in Disko Bay and in eastern Greenland . Since the takeover , the acquired Bell 222 helicopters have been used for passenger transfers between Nerlerit Inaat Airport and Ittoqqortoormiit Heliport .

In 2007 , Flemming Knudson was moved to head the Royal Greenland fishing concern and current CEO Michael Binzer was hired with a mandate to lead the company towards greater commercialization and self @-@ sufficiency under the Qarsoq 2012 ( " Arrow 2012 " ) plan . On 13 June , SAS announced its intention to sell its stake in Air Greenland , a move later incorporated into its restructuring program , but as of 2012 it has not found any buyers . On 1 October , the airline introduced its e @-@ ticket system . Also in 2007 , Air Greenland began direct service with Baltimore / Washington International Airport in the United States of America . After sixty American visitors were stranded by a strike of Air Greenland employees and the company refused to make alternate arrangements for their return , ticket sales slumped and the route was closed in March 2008 .

In 2009 , the airline carried 399 @,@ 000 passengers .

= = = 2010s = = =

In the 2010s , Air Greenland has curtailed some services . On 1 January 2010 , Air Greenland suspended its participation in SAS 's EuroBonus frequent @-@ flyer program . In 2011 , nonstop service from Narsarsuaq to Copenhagen was suspended .

However , some expansion is planned . In order to compete with Air Iceland , which operates service from Reykjavik Airport to Nuuk , Narsarsuaq , Ilulissat , and the east coast of Greenland and now controls about 15 % the market in Greenland @-@ bound travel , Air Greenland may open a nonstop route between Nuuk and Keflavík International Airport in Iceland . Also , owing to improved technology and higher commodity prices , the Maarmorilik mines were due to reopen in November 2010 with zinc and iron ore reserves projected to last 50 years . As in the 1970s , the mine 's supply flights to the mine will be operated by Air Greenland , using Bell helicopters ( 212s ) based out of the Uummannaq Heliport .

Air Greenland 's last remaining Twin Otter was sold in 2011 to Norlandair in exchange for cash and a one @-@ fourth interest in the Icelandic company .

Reopening the connection to Iqaluit , now the capital of Nunavut , was considered by Air Greenland in late 2009 , but finally happened in 2012 . However , this service ceased in 2015 .

= = Destinations = =

Air Greenland 's domestic airport network includes all 13 civilian airports within Greenland . Outside Greenland , the airline currently operates transatlantic flights to Keflavík International Airport in Iceland , Copenhagen Airport in Denmark , and Iqaluit Airport in Canada .

Two international airports capable of serving large airliners – Kangerlussuaq Airport and Narsarsuaq Airport – were constructed as U.S. Air Force military bases during World War II and continue to be used for transatlantic flights . All other regional airports are STOL @-@ capable and are served with Dash 7 and Dash 8 fixed @-@ wing aircraft .

Smaller communities are served via heliports which connect with hubs located at Upernavik Airport in the Upernavik Archipelago in northwestern Greenland ; at Uummannaq Heliport in the Uummannaq Fjord region in northwestern Greenland ; at Ilulissat and Aasiaat Airports in the Disko Bay region in western Greenland ; at Qaqortoq and Nanortalik Heliports in southern Greenland ; and at Tasiilaq Heliport in southeastern Greenland . Of the 45 heliports in use , 8 are primary and equipt with a tarmac , a terminal building , and permanent staff . The other heliports are helistops with either a gravel or grass landing area . Often helicopters need to make more than one flight for each connection to a fixed @-@ wing flight because of passenger capacity , causing longer total travel time .

Air Greenland also performs charter flights within Europe on behalf of European travel agencies using its Airbus A330 .

= = = Interline agreements = = =

The agreement makes it again possible to combine a trip , in one ticket .

Air Greenland has interline agreements with the following airlines :

DAT ( Denmark )

Icelandair ( International )

SAS ( Scandinavia / Europe / International )

= = Fleet = =

As of April 2015 , the Air Greenland fleet includes the following active aircraft :

= = = Fixed @-@ wing fleet = = =

The Bombardier Dash 8 Q200 is the airline 's primary aircraft , operating on all domestic airport @-@ to @-@ airport routes . In 2010 , the airline acquired its first Dash 8 aircraft .

As of 5 March 2015 there are one outstanding aircraft order , with the airline operating the following fleet :

= = = Helicopter fleet = = =

The Bell 212 is the primary helicopter used for flights to district villages . The older Sikorsky S @-@ 61N machines are stationed in Ilulissat Airport and Qaqortoq Heliport . With a capacity to seat 25 passengers , the S @-@ 61 based in southern Greenland was used to shuttle passengers arriving from Copenhagen at Narsarsuaq Airport . The sale of the Boeing 757 in April 2010 contributed to the long @-@ term decline of the airport , with the airline planning to remove the old helicopter from the fleet . Three of the Bell 222 helicopters are taken out of active service and remain stationed in Kangerlussuaq Airport having been put up for sale .

= = = Historical Fleet = = =

In the past , Air Greenland ( Grønlandsfly ) also used the following aircraft :

= = Management and structure = =

The Greenlandic Government and the SAS Group are the largest shareholders of the airline , owning a 37 @.@ 5 % stake each . The Danish Government owns the remaining 25 % of the stock . The Ministry of Housing , Infrastructure , and Transport oversees the development of the transport industry in Greenland and controls Mittarfeqarfiit , the airport authority in Greenland . Between them , they control mandatory services , airport taxes , pricing policies , maritime connections , and tourism development , effectively allowing Greenland Home Rule to control the company in spite of the other stakeholders .

The board of directors , chaired by Julia Pars of Greenland Home Rule , includes representatives of all three shareholders and the airline employees . Michael Binzer , previously heading the airline 's marketing and sales department , has been holding the position of chief executive officer since June 2007 .

Headquartered in Nuuk , the airline had 668 employees in December 2009 . The airline 's technical base is located at Nuuk Airport .

= = = Charter = = =

The charter unit within Air Greenland is led by Hans Peter Hansen and employs 8 people , with 13 helicopters and 3 fixed @-@ wing aircraft at its disposal . Excess capacity of airplanes is used for regular charters to tourist destinations in Europe , Asia , and Africa .

The helicopters , primarily the AS350 , are used for special flights , such as search and rescue , air ambulance , charter flights to the Thule Air Base on contract with the U.S. Air Force , geological exploration , and supply flights to the mining sites and the research stations on the Greenland ice sheet . During the peak summer season , the helicopter crew is supplemented by freelance pilots from Norway and Sweden .

Other charter flights include heliskiing shuttles , services for the energy industry such as facilitating oil exploration or surveying for hydroelectric stations , and environmental research counting polar bears and tracking other large Arctic fauna .

= = = Subsidiary companies = = =

= = = = Arctic Umiaq Line = = = =

Air Greenland co @-@ owns the Arctic Umiaq Line jointly ( 50 % each ) with Royal Arctic , Greenland 's government @-@ owned shipping line . Arctic Umiaq runs the ferry M / S Sarfaq Ittuk among Greenland 's coastal communities from Ilulissat in the north to Narsaq in the south .

The ferry has been unprofitable since its founding in 2006 , but Greenland Home Rule provided the owners with a loss guarantee through 2011 , allowing the subsidiary to break even . The deficit was DKK 8 @.@ 1 million for 2011 and , on 16 March 2010 , Air Greenland announced plans to divest its stock . Greenland Home Rule avoided this by undertaking to continue the guarantee at least through 2016 .

= = = = Tourism = = = =

Air Greenland wholly owns Hotel Arctic A / S , a hotel and travel agency based in Ilulissat . Hotel Arctic in turn partially owns World of Greenland , an outfitter company also based in Ilulissat . The airline also owns Greenland Travel , a package @-@ tour travel agency based in Copenhagen .

= = Service = =

= = = In @-@ flight service = = =

= = = = Economy class = = = =

Air Greenland offers flexible and restricted economy class on all flights operated with fixed @-@ wing aircraft , with complimentary snacks and drinks . On transatlantic flights to Copenhagen , both economy class and business class seats are available , with in @-@ flight meals served in all classes . Air Greenland publishes a quarterly Suluk ( Kalaallisut : " Wing " ) in @-@ flight magazine , with general information about current political and cultural events in Greenland and with news from the airline .

= = = = Business class = = = =

A flexible business class – named " Business @-@ Class " – is offered by Air Greenland on transatlantic flights aboard Norsaq , its Airbus A330 @-@ 200 . The service includes a personal video screen , an in @-@ seat power source , an amenity kit , blankets , and a selection of newspapers . Passengers travelling on this class are eligible to use the Novia Business Class Lounge at Copenhagen Airport .

= = = Settlement flights = = =

Air Greenland operates helicopter flights to most settlements in Greenland ( " settlement flights " ) on contract with the government of Greenland , with the destination network subsidized and coordinated by the Ministry of Housing , Infrastructure , and Transport . Settlement flights are not featured in the company 's timetable , although they can be pre @-@ booked .

Departure times for these flights as specified during booking are by definition approximate , with the settlement service optimized on the fly depending on local demand for a given day . Settlement flights in the Disko Bay region are unique in that they are operated only during winter and spring . During summer and autumn , transportation between settlements is only by sea , with services operated by Diskoline , a government @-@ contracted ferry service based in Ilulissat .

= = Accidents and incidents = =

On 29 August 1961 , a DHC @-@ 3 Otter ( registration CF @-@ MEX ) crashed 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) from Kangerlussuaq . The aircraft was a non @-@ scheduled service en route from Kangerlussuaq Airport to Aasiaat Airport when a fuel leak caused an in @-@ flight fire . One of the pilots was killed , while the other pilot and the four passengers survived .

On 12 May 1962 , a PBY Catalina flying boat ( registration CF @-@ IHA ) crashed during landing at Nuuk Airport . The accident was caused by a mechanical malfunction in the nose wheel doors preventing them from closing during landing on water , resulting in the aircraft sinking . The accident killed 15 of the 21 people on board .

On 25 October 1973 , the Akigssek ( " Grouse " ) , an Air Greenland S @-@ 61N ( registration OY @-@ HAI ) , crashed about 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) south of Nuuk , resulting in the loss of 15 lives . It was en route to Paamiut from Nuuk . The same helicopter had had an emergency landing on the Kangerlussuaq fjord 2 years earlier , due to a double flameout on both engines because of ice in its intake .

On 7 June 2008 , a Eurocopter AS350 crashed on the runway at Nuuk Airport . There were no injuries , but the helicopter was damaged beyond repair .

On 29 January 2014 , the Paartoq an Air Greenland Dash 8 @-@ Q202 ( registration OY @-@ GRI ) , was involved in a runway excursion accident at Ilulissat Airport ( BGJN ) , Greenland . Flight GL3205 originated in Kangerlussuaq Airport ( BGSF ) , Greenland. four passengers were taken to the hospital for observation , there were no fatalities or serious injuries . Evidence available so far indicates that the airplane landed on runway 07 at the time of the accident . It then went off the left side of the runway . It then went down a 10 – 15 m dropoff and came to rest on rocky terrain approximately abeam the runway 25 threshold . The weather at the time of the incident was reported : Wind 110 degrees at 29 knots , gusting at 40 knots

= Murali Kartik =

Murali Kartik ( Tamil : முரளி கார ் த ் திக ் pronunciation , born 11 September 1976 ) is an Indian cricketer who sporadically represented the India national cricket team from 2000 to 2007 . He is a specialist slow left arm orthodox bowler known for his loopy trajectory and ability to spin and bounce , but has found international selection blocked during his prime years by the presence of Anil Kumble and Harbhajan Singh . He is also a left @-@ handed batsman , and although he has had some success with the bat at first @-@ class level with 19 half @-@ centuries , he has not been able to repeat this at international level .

After starting out in the Delhi junior system , Kartik moved through the age group ranks at Railways , was selected for the Indian Under @-@ 19 team . He made his first @-@ class debut in 1996 – 97 and after a few productive seasons at domestic level , made his Test debut in early @-@ 2000 as Kumble 's bowling partner . However , he ran into disciplinary problems and was expelled from the National Cricket Academy in the same year , while new national captain Sourav Ganguly was reluctant to entrust him with responsibility . Ganguly called for off spinner Harbhajan to be recalled in 2001 , and was rewarded with a series @-@ winning performance against Australia . This entrenched the off spinner in the team and left Kartik on the outer .

For the next four years , Kartik was on the fringes of selection . He made his ODI debut in 2002 and had a short stint before being dropped and missing the 2003 Cricket World Cup because of mediocre performance . He was recalled in late @-@ 2003 for limited overs matches and played in around half of India 's matches for a six @-@ month period , as well as one Test after Harbhajan suffered a serious injury . In late @-@ 2004 Kartik played in three Tests as India fielded three spinners , and claimed his only man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match award in Tests against Australia in Mumbai , but was again dropped two matches later . In late @-@ 2005 , Kartik became a regular member of the ODI team for a few months when the International Cricket Council introduced an experimental rule that allowed one substitute to be used , opening an extra vacancy in the national team . However , Kartik was unable to secure his position in the team and the rule was later revoked . In late @-@ 2007 , Kartik broke back into the ODI team and took 6 / 27 in one victory over Australia , but lost form soon after and was again dropped . He has not represented India since then . Aside from domestic cricket , Kartik plays for Royal Challengers Bangalore in the Indian Premier League and has been in demand in English county cricket as an overseas player , representing Lancashire , Middlesex , Somerset and Surrey .

= = Early years = =

Born in chennai Murali Karthik wanted to be a genetic engineer , he was a medium pacer in his early years , before switching to a left arm finger spinner in the classical mould , Kartik grew up trying to emulate past Indian orthodox spinners Bishen Singh Bedi , Maninder Singh and Venkatapathy Raju . He also garnered attention for what was perceived to be a fiery attitude , but took pride in coach Kapil Dev saying of him " I have never seen a player with such an attitude towards the game in my 20 years of international cricket " .

Kartik started out in the junior system at Delhi . He broke into their Under @-@ 16 team in December 1992 , and took a match total of 10 / 74 on debut against Himachal Pradesh , as well as scoring 52 not out in an innings victory . He took 2 / 91 in the next match against Haryana , but could no longer play in the Under @-@ 16s because of his advancing age . He could not break into the Under @-@ 19s at Delhi , and played no further youth domestic matches for two years , when he transferred to Railways and broke into their Under @-@ 19 team .

In five matches for his new team during the 1994 – 95 , he took 24 wickets at 14 @.@ 58 including a haul of 5 / 28 against Vidarbha . He was rewarded with selection in the Under @-@ 19 Central Zone team for the zonal one @-@ day tournament , taking five wickets at 25 @.@ 00 in four matches . He had little success with the bat , scoring 47 on one occasion during the season , but otherwise only aggregating nine runs in six innings .

The following season in 1995 – 96 , Kartik had a more successful season for Railways Under @-@ 19s . He started with 5 / 73 and 5 / 55 against Madhya Pradesh and made it three five @-@ wicket hauls in a row with 5 / 42 against Vidarbha . He took another five @-@ wicket haul later in the season against Rajasthan and ended the competition with 38 wickets at 18 @.@ 94 in seven matches . Railways made the final , where they faced Punjab . Kartik was Railways ' most effective bowler , taking 4 / 57 in Punjab 's first innings of 310 . He then made 14 not out as Railways ceded a first innings lead , which was enough to give Punjab the title as the match ended in a draw . Kartik took 3 / 138 in the second innings . After the final , newly crowned champions took on the Rest of India , and Kartik took 2 / 25 and 4 / 89 to help his team to a six @-@ wicket victory . Kartik had a less successful time in the zonal one @-@ dayers for Central , taking only one wicket in three matches . He also improved his batting marginally , scoring 57 and three other double @-@ digit scores .

As a result of his performances during the season , Kartik was called up to the Indian Under @-@ 19 team for an international series against their counterparts from South Africa . In the youth Test , he took 4 / 40 as India dismissed South Africa for 159 to take a 19 @-@ run lead . In the second innings , he took 3 / 30 as South Africa fell for 107 in pursuit of 277 . In two youth one @-@ day internationals that followed , Kartik was prominent in the Indian victories , taking 3 / 23 and 3 / 33 respectively .

= = Senior domestic debut = =

The following season , 1996 – 97 , Kartik was promoted into the senior ranks of major cricket . In his first match , a List A fixture against Madhya Pradesh , Kartik took 2 / 27 from his allotment of ten overs but was unable to prevent a four @-@ wicket loss . He made his first @-@ class debut the next day against the same team and sent down 16 overs taking a total of 1 / 18 in a drawn match . In a close @-@ run match , Madhya Pradesh were 8 / 89 , 17 runs short with two wickets in hand when time ran out . Kartik had scored a rearguard 47 in the second innings , without which Madhya Pradesh would have won . In his next first @-@ class match , against Vidarbha , he took a hat trick in the first innings , ending with 6 / 28 , helping to bowl Vidarbha out for 130 . He then took 3 / 27 in the second innings as Vidarbha made only 95 to cede victory to Railways . He ended the season with 16 wickets at 19 @.@ 37 , and 185 runs at 20 @.@ 55 including a 74 against Bengal , but was overlooked for the Central Zone selection for the Duleep Trophy after taking only six wickets in his last four matches for the season . In four one @-@ dayers for Railways , Kartik took seven wickets at 12 @.@ 42 , including a match @-@ winning 4 / 13 against Rajasthan .

The following season he managed 14 wickets at 18 @.@ 42 in four matches , but was dropped in the later stages of the tournament . After taking a match total of 7 / 74 in helping to orchestrate an innings victory over Rajasthan in his third match of the season , Kartik went wicketless in the next match against Madhya Pradesh , and was dropped . He scored 70 runs at 23 @.@ 33 during the tournament . In four one @-@ dayers for Railways , he took four wickets at 29 @.@ 75 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 30 . Despite being dropped by Railways , Kartik was called up to make his senior debut for Central Zone . He took two wickets at 63 @.@ 00 in two first @-@ class matches , and then took three wickets at 43 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 30 in three matches .

Despite the modest returns during the season , Kartik was selected for an India A tour of Pakistan in February and March 1998 . In four first @-@ class matches , which were persistently curtailed by the weather , Kartik bowled only 31 overs , and only two in the two matches against Pakistan A. He finished with four wickets at 27 @.@ 50 . In the two one @-@ dayers , he proved expensive , taking 1 / 53 and 0 / 73 from ten overs each , as Pakistan won both matches easily .

At the start of the 1998 – 99 season , Kartik took 23 wickets for Vijay Cricket Club in the Chennai League . He played more regularly in the 1998 – 99 Ranji Trophy , taking 29 wickets in seven matches at 19 @.@ 3 to be the 13th highest wicket @-@ taker . This included a 3 / 8 and 4 / 62 in an innings win over Rajasthan , and 5 / 84 and 5 / 55 in the last two matches of the campaign against Tamil Nadu and Delhi . He also added 29 and 53 with the bat against Tamil Nadu to help stave off a defeat after his team had trailed by over 200 on the first innings .

He was rewarded with selection for Central Zone and after taking 4 / 133 against North Zone , claimed 5 / 73 and 2 / 22 in the final to help them defeat West Zone by 112 runs in Aurangabad to claim the Duleep Trophy , and was the leading wicket @-@ taker during the tournament . He scored a total of 183 runs at 18 @.@ 30 for the entire Indian first @-@ class season . He took five wickets at 26 @.@ 60 in four zonal one @-@ dayers , and tasted victory in all four fixtures .

= = Early international career = =

Kartik had a truncated but productive 1999 – 2000 Indian season . After taking a solitary wicket in a truncated match for India A against the touring New Zealand , Kartik snared 6 / 62 and 6 / 31 against Vidarbha , He then went on an India A tour to the West Indies , so his only other first @-@ class match was a Ranji Trophy encounter against Rajasthan in which he took 4 / 53 . In four first @-@ class matches in the Caribbean , Kartik took 18 wickets at 16 @.@ 38 . This included two matches against West Indies A , in which he took 6 / 75 before claiming 3 / 64 and 5 / 73 in the second match , although he was unable to force a victory in either . In two one @-@ day matches against their West Indian counterparts , Kartik took two wickets at 26 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 46 . Returning to India , he took 12 wickets at 13 @.@ 08 in five matches for Railways and the Indian Board president 's XI , before playing in the zonal one @-@ dayers with less success , managing only two wickets at 91 @.@ 50 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 57 . Despite these struggles , he was selected for the India A team for the Challenger Trophy , where he took four wickets at 38 @.@ 00 at the expensive economy rate of 5 @.@ 84 .

Despite the downturn in his limited overs fortunes towards the end of the season , Kartik 's form was enough to earn him selection in the Indian Board president 's XI for the tour match against the visiting South Africans before the Tests . He had a match total of 2 / 122 , which was enough for him to secure national selection , playing in both Tests against South Africa in early 2000 at Mumbai and Bangalore as India sought a second spinner to accompany Anil Kumble , after Harbhajan Singh 's performance in the role in the previous season had been deemed inadequate . Kartik scored 14 before being bowled by Shaun Pollock as India batted first and made 225 . He then took 2 / 28 from 18 overs as the Indians restricted the tourists to 176 , before collapsing to be all out for 113 in the second innings , Kartik scoring only two before Pollock had him caught behind . Kartik took 1 / 50 in the second innings as South Africa ground their way to the target of 163 with four wickets in hand . In the Second Test , Kartik took 3 / 123 and scored a duck and two as India were crushed by an innings . Overall , Kartik performed steadily , taking six wickets at 33 @.@ 50 .

Kartik was selected in 2000 for the first intake of the National Cricket Academy in Bangalore , after earlier having made his Test debut in early 2000 in a home series against South Africa . However , his stay was cut short along with that of Harbhajan , when they were expelled by the director Hanumant Singh over disciplinary issues .

In the 2000 – 01 season , Kartik started in fine form as he set out to maintain a Test position . In the Irani Trophy , the traditional season opener between the reigning Ranji champions — Mumbai — and the Rest of India , Kartik orchestrated the demise of the title @-@ holders . After taking 4 / 73 in Mumbai 's 260 , Kartik scored 22 in the Rest of India 's 389 . He then took 9 / 70 to cut down Mumbai for 184 , and his batting colleagues accumulated the 55 needed for victory without loss . Kartik then took 3 / 82 and 1 / 45 against Madhya Pradesh to secure his spot in the Test team .

Kartik then played in one Test against Bangladesh and Zimbabwe respectively in India , taking match totals of 1 / 42 and 2 / 66 . He scored 43 in the nine @-@ wicket win over Bangladesh but was not required to bat in the seven @-@ wicket win over Zimbabwe . New captain Sourav Ganguly — who had taken over after Sachin Tendulkar resigned following the South African whitewash — did not show much confidence in him , by only affording him frequent but short spells . Kartik was dropped from the team after the First Test against Zimbabwe , and did not have an opportunity to immediately prove his captain wrong , as the one @-@ day domestic circuit was in progress at the time . Kartik took nine wickets at 25 @.@ 22 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 02 , and then had a chance to stake his claims for a Test recall in the Duleep Trophy .

Kartik struggled , taking 2 / 129 against East and then 0 / 178 in the first innings as North Zone accumulated 8 / 690 declared . He then had to endure the humiliation of not being trusted to bowl in the second innings as North reached 8 / 233 . In the last match against South , Kartik could only aggregate 1 / 87 . Although Kartik had scored 45 and 27 in his two innings , he totalled only three Duleep Trophy wickets at an average of 131 @.@ 33 . The selectors were unsatisfied by these performances , and despite a shoulder injury to Kumble , Kartik was discarded as India hosted Australia in the 2001 Border Gavaskar Trophy . Harbhajan was recalled and took 32 wickets at 17 to engineer an Indian series win and permanently establish himself as India 's leading spinner alongside Kumble . Kartik played in one more match for Railways at the end of the season , and his poor season continued , managing only a total of 2 / 152 , although he did score 79 with the bat .

Kartik started the new 2001 – 02 season well , taking 20 wickets at 15 @.@ 40 in the first four first @-@ class matches of the season , including five @-@ wicket hauls against Rajasthan and Vidarbha , and 3 / 84 against the touring English Test team for a Board president 's XI , but this was not enough to force the selectors to recall him for the Tests . He continued his form for Railways in the one @-@ dayers , taking seven wickets at 20 @.@ 57 in four matches at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 00 , before suffering a serious back injury that forced him to travel to Adelaide for treatment , which was funded by the Board of Control for Cricket in India . He made a successful comeback in January after a month @-@ long layoff , and ended as fourth @-@ highest wicket taker in the Ranji Trophy , with 34 at an average of 17 , taking 5 / 51 and 3 / 7 , and scoring 69 in his final match of the season to secure a win over Baroda . He batted well in the second half of the season , also scoring 42 and 58 . He also performed well in the Challenger Trophy and zonal one @-@ dayers after his surgery , taking ten wickets at 21 @.@ 70 in seven matches . At the end of the season , Kartik was rewarded with his debut in One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) ; he was punished by the Zimbabwean batsmen , conceding 47 runs without taking a wicket from eight overs , but India still won by five wickets .

= = Fringe player = =

Since then , Kartik was India 's third choice Test spinner behind Kumble and Harbhajan for most of the decade , only playing due to their injuries or when India selected three spinners . At the end of the 2001 – 02 season , Kartik was selected for an India A tour of South Africa . He struggled in the first two first @-@ class matches , before taking 6 / 101 and scoring 59 in the second match against South Africa A to end the three games with ten wickets at 32 @.@ 50 . He had more success in the one @-@ dayers , taking four wickets at 17 @.@ 50 at an economy rate of 2 @.@ 50 in three matches .

The West Indies toured India at the start of the 2002 – 03 season and Kartik had a chance to press his claims for Test selection in two tour matches against the visitors . However , he had little impact , taking 2 / 92 for the Board president 's XI and 0 / 117 for Railways against the Caribbean tourists , although he scored 72 with the bat in the latter match . He then took a total of 2 / 135 as Railways , the reigning Ranji Trophy holders , defeated the Rest of India in the Irani Trophy . With these lean returns , Kartik was overlooked for the Tests .

Kartik had opportunities in the ODI format following his strong form in domestic limited overs matches , playing in four consecutive matches against the West Indies . After going wicketless in the first of these matches , he broke through in the next match to take his maiden ODI wicket in his third appearance . Kartik then took 3 / 36 in the next match as India scraped home by three wickets , but he was punished in his fourth outing of the series , conceding 69 runs in nine overs without success , after which he was dropped . He had taken four wickets at 47 @.@ 25 , at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 84 .

Kartik was called into the Test squad to tour New Zealand in late 2002 after Kumble withdrew , but in the warm @-@ up match he bowled one only over , in which he was hammered for 23 runs . He then watched from the sidelines as India only fielded one spin bowler — Harbhajan — in the Tests , held on green , pace @-@ friendly surfaces . Kartik returned to India and was ineffective in the zonal one @-@ dayers , taking a total of 1 / 148 from 24 overs in three matches , conceding more than a run a ball . Combined with his results against the West Indies , the poor returns saw him left out of the 2003 Cricket World Cup squad , with Harbhajan and Kumble preferred .

While the World Cup was in progress , Kartik toured the West Indies with India A , playing against the domestic teams in five first @-@ class matches . He took 14 wickets at 30 @.@ 50 including a 5 / 105 against Barbados and 4 / 57 against Trinidad and Tobago . India A then toured England during the northern hemisphere summer and Kartik took 10 wickets at 40 @.@ 00 and scored 79 runs at 26 @.@ 33 including a 50 in four first @-@ class matches , and three wickets at 44 @.@ 33 in one @-@ dayers .

At the start of the 2003 – 04 season , Kartik took 2 / 118 and 2 / 41 for India A in a match against the touring New Zealanders , and was overlooked for the Test series against the visitors . He managed only a total of 1 / 84 from 18 overs in the Challenger Trophy but was called into the ODI team and gained semi @-@ regular appearances during the TVS Trophy against New Zealand and Australia , competing with Kumble and Harbhajan for a regular position in the team . In four matches during the competition , he was economical although not very penetrative , taking four wickets at 38 @.@ 25 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 82 .

= = Occasional international appearances in 2004 and 2005 = =

After taking match figures of 6 / 117 and 5 / 140 for India A against Sri Lanka A , Kartik made his first overseas appearance for India , replacing the injured Harbhajan midway through the 2003 – 04 tour of Australia . He had little success in his first tour match , taking 1 / 64 and 1 / 53 against Australian A. He played in the final Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground when India fielded two spinners for the only time in the series . He was punished by the Australian batsmen , taking a total of1 / 211 from 45 overs , a run rate of 4 @.@ 68 , in a high @-@ scoring draw .

Kartik then made sporadic appearances in the VB triangular ODI series , playing in four of India 's ten matches , as he and Kumble were brought in and out of the team in an attempt to challenge the Australian superiority . He continued to be punished by the Australian batsmen , taking a total of 1 / 178 from 26 overs , an economy rate of 6 @.@ 84 . However , he did manage to resist the Australians with the bat ; in his only two innings he made 32 not out and 23 as the Indian batting was dismissed for only 203 and 151 respectively .

Despite these performances , Kartik was retained for the ODI tour of Pakistan with Harbhajan still injured , taking five wickets at 32 @.@ 80 at an economy of 5 @.@ 46 . He played in three of the five matches and India won all of these . Kartik was also in the Test squad , but saw not action as India opted to field only Kumble and took the series 2 – 1 .

Kartik started the 2004 – 05 season by scoring 56 and 16 and taking 2 / 42 and 2 / 49 as the Rest of India defeated Mumbai in the Irani Trophy , but it was not enough to prevent Harbhajan from resuming his position in the team for the home Test series against Australia . He got an opportunity in the Third Test in Nagpur , when Harbhajan was ill , taking 3 / 57 and 2 / 74 as India were 342 runs to lose their first home series to Australia since 1969 – 70 . Kartik held his place when Harbhajan returned for the final Test in Mumbai as India fielded three spinners , and took 4 / 44 and 3 / 32 in a man of the match performance which saw India win by 13 runs . Both of these performances occurred under the captaincy of Rahul Dravid with Ganguly injured , in which Kartik netted his wickets at an average of 17 @.@ 50 compared to 51 @.@ 08 under Ganguly 's leadership . Kartik played the last of his eight Tests in a subsequent opening match against South Africa in Kanpur , taking a total of 2 / 93 under Ganguly 's command , being dropped after India chose to only use two spinners in subsequent matches . Kartik spent the next month watching from the sidelines as the reserve slow bowler , as only Kumble and Harbhajan played during the tour of Bangladesh . During this campaign , he was allowed to play in the second ODI , taking 2 / 43 as India lost to Bangladesh for the first time . Kartik returned to India and took seven wickets at 35 @.@ 42 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 69 in the zonal one @-@ dayers and Challenger Trophy , and then played four first @-@ class matches to end the season , taking 10 wickets at 19 @.@ 10 . At the end of the season , he took 2 / 54 in a home ODI against Pakistan , who scored 7 / 319 to overhaul the target .

He enjoyed more opportunities in the ODI arena in 2005 , when Kumble was dropped by newly appointed coach Greg Chappell due to his lack of athleticism , as well as the introduction of the experimental rules which allowed the use of one substitute , thus opening an extra position in the team . Kartik had a modest start under the new regime , taking 1 / 52 from nine overs in a win over a depleted host Zimbabwe team . He returned to India and started the new season in fine all @-@ round form . After taking 2 / 34 in the first innings , he scored his highest first @-@ class score of 96 to guide Railways to 311 , giving them a first @-@ innings lead of 88 runs over the Rest of India in the Irani Trophy . He then took 3 / 28 to dismiss the Rest of India for 137 in their second innings , setting up a nine @-@ wciket win . He then took seven wickets at 16 @.@ 85 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 56 in three matches for India Seniors in the Challenger Trophy , including a match @-@ winning 5 / 29 in the final against India B.

Kartik was thus selected in the Indian ODI team for the home summer , and played in ten of the twelve ODIs that India hosted in late @-@ 2005 . He started well with 3 / 48 in a 152 @-@ run crushing of Sri Lanka in Nagpur , and went on to finish the series with eight wickets at 30 @.@ 25 , playing in six of the seven matches . However , his form dissipated and he went wicketless in the South African series , conceding 126 runs in 28 overs , and giving away more than a run a ball in the last two matches . Kumble remained in favour for the Tests along with Harbhajan , and Kartik returned to Ranji competition while they bowled against Sri Lanka in the five @-@ dayers . Kartik took 5 / 95 against Mumbai and then 8 / 40 against Delhi , and in three Ranji Trophy matches took 17 wickets at 19 @.@ 94 .

Despite his ineffectiveness against South Africa , Kartik was retained in the ODI squad , but after conceding 64 runs from nine overs in the first ODI loss against Pakistan , he was replaced in early @-@ 2006 in the Test and ODI squad by 17 @-@ year @-@ old legspinner Piyush Chawla and off @-@ spinner Ramesh Powar respectively .

= = Discarded again = =

In late @-@ 2006 , India 's ODI team began to hit rocky waters . After losing a bilateral series in the West Indies , they were knocked out of a triangular tournament in Malaysia ahead of the finals , and were eliminated in the first round of the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy on home soil . Kartik took four wickets at 34 @.@ 00 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 36 in the Challenger Trophy and could not earn a recall . He had a steady domestic first @-@ class season , taking 26 wickets at 25 @.@ 53 in nine matches , never taking more than five wickets in a match . He took 13 wickets at 27 @.@ 92 in eight one @-@ day matches for the season , and was overlooked as Kumble and Harbhajan were the spinners selected for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . India were knocked out in the first round after losing to Bangladesh , and Harbhajan was dropped while Kumble retired from ODIs , but Kartik did not do enough to persuade the selectors to hand him a recall .

In 2004 , Kartik played in the Lancashire League with Ramsbottom as their professional . In 19 games , he took 80 wickets at 9 @.@ 92 and scored 464 runs at 25 @.@ 77 . He scored three fifties with a best of 83 against Colne and took nine five @-@ wicket innings hauls including a best of 9 / 30 against Enfield in addition to two other matches in which he took seven wickets .

In 2005 , he returned to Ramsbottom as their professional for a second season , with more effect . He took 83 wickets at 9 @.@ 19 and scored 519 runs at 37 @.@ 07 in 20 matches . He scored five fifties including a best of 66 , and took eight five @-@ wicket innings hauls including a best of 9 / 47 against Church as well as 7 / 27 against Lowerhouse . These performances earned him notice , and in late @-@ 2005 , he appeared as a late @-@ season overseas player substitute for Lancashire , and became the first overseas Lancashire player to take ten wickets on their debut , with 10 / 168 against Essex . This 5 / 93 and 5 / 75 helped Lancashire to an eight @-@ wicket win , and in his only other first @-@ class match , he took 4 / 43 and 2 / 49 was not enough as the Roses went down to Leicestershire by four runs . His sixteen wickets at 16 @.@ 25 placed him second on the season 's bowling averages , and helped the team to be promoted from Second Division . In two one @-@ day games , Kartik took five wickets at 13 @.@ 40 .

Despite these performances , he was not initially offered a contract for 2006 . Eventually in August 2006 , he was again signed as a late @-@ season overseas player for Lancashire just in time to appear in the C & G Trophy final against Sussex , taking 2 / 28 and scoring a duck in a 15 @-@ run defeat . He took eight wickets at 17 @.@ 25 in four one @-@ dayers , and six wickets at 39 @.@ 00 in three first @-@ class matches with a best of 3 / 89 , as well a 40 with the bat against Hampshire .

In 2007 , he joined Middlesex as an overseas registration . He made his debut as the county club 's 700th first @-@ class cricketer against Somerset at Taunton in April 2007 . He took 51 wickets at 24 @.@ 96 in 12 matches and agreed to sign on for a further season in 2008 . A highlight of Kartik 's stint was a haul of 6 / 21 and 3 / 52 that helped set up an innings win over Glamorgan , and 6 / 85 and 3 / 83 that secured a 38 @-@ run win over Leicestershire . A third five @-@ wicket haul , 5 / 38 against Derbyshire , was not enough to prevent a 15 @-@ run defeat . With the bat , Kartik contributed 209 runs at 19 @.@ 00 with a best of 35 . Kartik was also prolific for his new county in the one @-@ dayers , taking 21 wickets at 23 @.@ 52 in 15 matches , taking three wickets in a match twice , both of which resulted in wins . During the T20 tournament , Kartik took nine wickets at 10 @.@ 77 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 70 , including a haul of 5 / 13 in a vain attempt to halt an Essex run @-@ chase .

= = Brief international return and later career = =

In late @-@ 2007 , Kartik was recalled to the ODI team in place of the struggling Powar mid @-@ way through the series against Australia . He played his first ODI in 18 months when he returned for the fourth match at Mohali . He took 1 / 48 , and conceded only two runs in the 48th over as Australia stumbled in a tight run chase to give India their first win of the series .

Kartik took only one wicket in the next two matches , which Australia won . In the seventh and final match , Kartik took a career best of 6 / 27 from 10 overs at the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai to bowl Australia out for 193 . The tourists had reached 2 / 117 after 19 @.@ 4 overs , scoring at over six runs and over before Kartik removed Brad Hodge and Andrew Symonds from consecutive balls . He failed to get his hat @-@ trick , but in the 32nd over he removed Brad Haddin from the first ball , and then Brad Hogg and Brett Lee from the fourth and fifth balls . Again Kartik missed the hat @-@ trick opportunity , but returned to claim his six wicket . In reply , India had fallen to 8 / 143 before Kartik chipped in with an unbeaten 21 from 34 balls in an unbroken 52 @-@ run stand with Zaheer Khan , guiding India to a two @-@ wicket victory . Kartik was recognised by being selected as the man of the match . Kartik then made his T20 international debut , taking 0 / 27 from four overs in an Indian win over Australia .

In the following series against Pakistan , Kartik was only selected in the first , third and fifth matches , and took two wickets at an average of 68 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 23 . As a result , Kartik was omitted from the ODI tour of Australia in favour of Chawla .

Due to his international commitments , Kartik made only sporadic appearances during the Indian domestic scene in 2007 – 08 . He took nine wickets at 44 @.@ 22 and scored 77 runs at 19 @.@ 25 in three first @-@ class fixtures . After being dropped from India 's limited @-@ overs team , Kartik continued his strong one @-@ day form at domestic level , taking six wickets at 25 @.@ 33 at an economy rate of only 3 @.@ 16 in six matches .

Kartik was purchased by the Kolkata Knight Riders in the inaugural 2008 Indian Premier League . He played in six matches , taking three wickets at 42 @.@ 33 , but was dropped because his economy rate was beyond eight runs an over . All of these came in one match in which he took 3 / 17 .

Kartik was part of the Middlesex team that won the 2008 Twenty20 Cup in England , their first domestic title for 15 years . He played in 11 matches and took 14 wickets at 20 @.@ 14 at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 71 , claiming at least one wicket in all but one of the matches . Kartik represented Middlesex in the Stanford competition in October , taking two wickets at 25 @.@ 50 at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 37 .

His second first @-@ class season with Middlesex was much less successful than the first ; Kartik took only 16 wickets at 34 @.@ 06 in seven matches , with a best of 4 / 101 against Derbyshire . He scored 161 runs at 20 @.@ 12 with a best of 44 against Warwickshire . His one @-@ day form was also lean , yielding six wickets at 33 @.@ 00 in six matches .

Kartik returned to India and took 16 wickets at 32 @.@ 75 in six matches for Railways in the Ranji Trophy . After taking 5 / 85 in the first innings of the season opener against Karnataka , his performances fell away and he managed only four wickets in his last three matches . Nevertheless , he was selected for Central Zone in the Duleep Trophy and took a total of 2 / 98 as they lost on first innings to South and were eliminated after one match . Kartik made some contributions with the bat , scoring 197 runs at 24 @.@ 62 for the season , including a score of 56 against Maharashtra and two other efforts of 30 . Playing for both Railways and Central , Kartik took 12 wickets at 23 @.@ 50 in the one @-@ day matches for the season . He also scored 65 runs at 13 @.@ 00 .

During the 2009 IPL season , which was held in South Africa , Kartik played in ten matches and took four wickets at 50 @.@ 25 , but he was one of the most economical bowlers , conceding only 5 @.@ 91 runs per over . Kolkata were wracked by infighting and came last . Kartik also scored 21 runs without being dismissed . In the 2009 English season , Kartik resumed service for Middlesex , and as in the IPL he was most effective as a stock bowler , taking only four wickets at 51 @.@ 50 in eight T20 fixtures at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 86 , never taking multiple wickets in a match . Middlesex , who had won the domestic title the previous year , only tasted victory in two of the Twenty20 matches that Kartik played in .

Kartik played in ten first @-@ class matches for Middlesex , taking 33 wickets at 22 @.@ 87 . He took his season 's innings best of 5 / 65 and then 2 / 26 in the season opener against cross @-@ London rivals Surrey , and then took 3 / 32 and 4 / 53 in a hard @-@ fought 47 @-@ run win over Kent , and a total of 6 / 139 in the next match against Essex , but his season fell away at the end , managing only six wickets in the last three matches . With the bat , he made 336 runs at 24 @.@ 00 , the most prolific season of his career with the willow , including 62 against Essex and 57 not out against Gloucestershire . He played in a solitary one @-@ dayer , taking 2 / 19 against Northamptonshire .

At the end of the 2009 season , it was announced that Kartik would join Somerset as their overseas player for the 2010 season .

During the 2009 – 10 Indian season , Kartik played in seven matches for Railways in the Ranji Trophy , taking 17 wickets at 25 @.@ 05 including a best of 5 / 81 against Mumbai . He also scored 44 against the team and ended with 97 runs at 12 @.@ 12 for the season . However his figures were not enough to gain selection for Central Zone in the Duleep Trophy .

= = Environment Concerns = =

Murali Kartik has done many advertisement for the PETA India , including the ' Save Your Chicks ' campaign , which aimed for awareness against flesh farming of poultry .

= 2001 Gator Bowl =

The 2001 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Clemson Tigers at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on January 1 , 2001 . The game was the final contest of the 2000 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 41 – 20 victory for Virginia Tech .

Virginia Tech entered the game headed by star quarterback Michael Vick , who led the Hokies to a 10 – 1 regular @-@ season record despite being injured for a part of the season . Clemson entered the game with a regular @-@ season record of 9 – 2 under the command of head coach Tommy Bowden , who was in the second year of his tenure . The contest featured two high @-@ scoring offenses that emphasized different aspects of the game . These aspects were exemplified in the game , which saw Clemson pass for more yards than Virginia Tech , while the Hokies ran for more yards than the Tigers .

Virginia Tech jumped out to an early lead and maintained it throughout the game . Vick had a 23 @-@ yard touchdown run on the game 's opening drive , then helped the Hokies expand their lead to 14 – 0 by the end of the first quarter . The Tigers narrowed Tech 's lead to 14 – 10 in the second quarter , but the Hokies scored another touchdown before halftime and went into the second half with a 21 – 10 lead . Injuries knocked Clemson 's two leading running backs out of the game , and starting Clemson quarterback Woodrow Dantzler was removed from the game after he proved ineffective against the Virginia Tech defense . Despite these changes , the Tigers were unable to reduce Virginia Tech 's lead , which stood at 34 – 13 at the end of the third quarter . A late Clemson touchdown moved the Tigers within two touchdowns , but Virginia Tech answered with a touchdown of its own , making the final score 41 – 20 .

In recognition of his performance in leading his team to a victory , Vick was named the game 's most valuable player . It was his final collegiate game , and four months after the Gator Bowl , he was selected with the first overall selection in the 2001 NFL Draft . A handful of other players who participated in the Gator Bowl also were selected in the draft .

= = Team selection = =

For the 2000 – 2001 college football season , the Gator Bowl had the right to select the No. 2 bowl @-@ eligible team from both the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) and the Big East Conference . The bowl game 's administrators also had a contract to include Notre Dame if that school met certain entry requirements . The conference champions of the ACC and Big East were guaranteed a spot in a Bowl Championship Series game , and there also was the possibility of an at @-@ large BCS selection for any team in each conference if it finished high enough in the BCS Poll but did not win the conference championship .

= = = Virginia Tech = = =

During the 1999 – 2000 college football season , Virginia Tech went undefeated during the regular season but lost to Florida State in the 2000 BCS National Championship Game . In the offseason following the championship @-@ game loss , Tech fans and pundits anticipated a possible repeat of the Hokies ' undefeated regular season and national championship run . In the annual preseason poll of media members covering Big East Conference football , Virginia Tech was picked to finish second ; Tech received nine first @-@ place votes to Miami 's 15 . In the preseason Associated Press college football poll , Virginia Tech was 11th .

When games for the 2001 college football season were scheduled , Virginia Tech was picked to host the annual Black Coaches & Administrators Classic , the opening game of the national Division I @-@ A season . Georgia Tech was picked as the opponent , but on the day of the game , severe lightning storms hit the Blacksburg , Virginia area . ESPN commentator Lee Corso 's rental car was struck by lightning , and the game was postponed due to severe weather . It was never rescheduled and eventually was canceled .

After the BCA Classic was canceled , Virginia Tech opened the regular season with a 52 – 23 blowout win over Akron . This was followed by a 45 – 28 win over East Carolina and a 49 – 0 shutout of Rutgers . The three wins typified the early part of Virginia Tech 's schedule , which also featured wins against Boston College , Temple , West Virginia , Syracuse , and Pittsburgh . By virtue of winning its first eight games of the season , Tech rose to a No. 2 national ranking prior to facing No. 3 Miami on November 4 .

Virginia Tech star quarterback Michael Vick suffered a severely sprained ankle in the game against Pittsburgh , and strong @-@ performing wide receiver Andre Davis was temporarily crippled by bursitis in his left foot . Despite these injuries , commentators predicted a high @-@ scoring game that was sometimes referred to as " the Big East 's game of the year " . It was predicted that the winner likely would be a shoo @-@ in for that year 's national championship game . With Vick injured , backup quarterback Dave Meyer started the game for the Hokies , who fell behind 14 – 0 in the first quarter . In desperation , Vick tried to play despite his injury , but he participated in only 19 plays before leaving the game for good . Miami quarterback Ken Dorsey threw three long touchdown passes , and Miami won the game , 41 – 21 .

The loss knocked Tech out of contention for the national championship and the conference championship , since Miami was a fellow member of the Big East . The Hokies also fell to No. 8 in the AP Poll during the week after the game . In that week , they rebounded by beating the University of Central Florida , 44 – 21 . Ranked No. 6 after the win , Tech defeated in @-@ state rival Virginia , 42 – 21 , in the annual battle for the Commonwealth Cup .

Though the loss to Miami knocked the Hokies out of contention for the Big East championship and its accompanying automatic BCS bid , there was the possibility that Tech could receive an at @-@ large BCS game bid if it scored high enough in the final BCS poll and the administrators of a BCS game wanted to invite the Hokies . Tech was considered a long shot due to the availability of Oregon State and Notre Dame , two teams with large followings that would attract greater television revenue and ticket sales . Gator Bowl officials made plans based on different possibilities . If Virginia Tech was selected for a BCS bowl but Notre Dame was not , the Fighting Irish would play in the Gator Bowl . If both were selected , Big East No. 3 Pittsburgh would be given the nod for the Gator Bowl . On December 3 , the BCS selections were announced : The Fiesta Bowl selected No. 5 Oregon State and No. 10 Notre Dame instead of No. 6 Virginia Tech . This left the Hokies available for the Gator Bowl , which picked them on the next day .

= = = Clemson = = =

The Clemson Tigers entered the 2000 – 2001 college football season after a 6 – 6 season in 1999 under first @-@ year head coach Tommy Bowden . Fans and college football analysts predicted Bowden would continue Clemson 's resurgence from a 3 – 8 season during the year before Bowden was hired . Some pointed to Bowden 's undefeated season in the second year after assuming the head coaching job at Tulane University as a sign of what to expect from Clemson . Most analysts , however , anticipated a more moderate improvement over the previous year . In the annual preseason poll of media who covered Atlantic Coast Conference football , Clemson tied for second with Georgia Tech . Both teams were far behind perennial favorite Florida State , however . Nationally , Clemson debuted at No. 17 in the preseason AP Poll and No. 20 in the preseason coaches ' poll .

The Tigers opened their season against Division I @-@ AA opponent The Citadel , whom they beat handily , 38 – 0 . That victory was followed by two blowout wins : 62 – 9 against Missouri and 55 – 7 against ACC opponent Wake Forest . Those three games were typical of Clemson 's first eight , which the Tigers won in succession . After the win against Wake Forest , Clemson beat Virginia , Duke , North Carolina State , Maryland , and North Carolina . In the final win of that streak , starting quarterback Woodrow Dantzler was replaced by backup Willie Simmons in the second quarter due to an injury to Dantzler .

With an 8 – 0 record and a No. 5 national ranking , Clemson hosted Georgia Tech . In the game , the Yellow Jackets posted a school @-@ record offensive effort in an upset victory over the Tigers . Clemson took a 28 – 24 lead with 1 : 52 remaining in the game , but the Yellow Jackets drove 80 yards in 11 plays before ending with a one @-@ handed catch for a touchdown , giving Clemson its first loss of the season . The defeat eliminated the Tigers from national championship contention , but they still had a chance to win the conference championship if they defeated Florida State the following week .

The Florida State Seminoles are coached by Bobby Bowden , father of Tommy Bowden . Their 2001 matchup marked only the second time that a father and son had faced each other as opposing head football coaches . The only other meeting had been the previous year , when Tommy lost by three points to his father . In the 2001 meeting , No. 4 Florida State dominated No. 10 Clemson from the start of the game . In an effort to impress BCS voters , Florida State ran up the score and the game ended with the Seminoles on top , 52 – 7 . The Seminoles ' win gave them the ACC football championship and dropped Clemson to a No. 16 ranking . With its spot as the No. 2 ACC team assured , Clemson accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl on November 14 , prior to its annual in @-@ state rivalry game against South Carolina . In that game , South Carolina took a one @-@ point lead with 59 seconds remaining , but Clemson drove the length of the field and kicked a field goal as time expired , giving the Tigers a 16 – 14 win to end the regular season .

= = Pregame buildup = =

In the weeks before the Gator Bowl , media and fan attention focused on Virginia Tech 's possible disappointment at not being selected for a BCS game , the coaching situations at the two schools , and the issue of whether or not Tech quarterback Michael Vick would return for another year of collegiate football . After the Virginia Tech @-@ Clemson matchup was announced for the Gator Bowl , spread bettors favored Virginia Tech to win by 6 @.@ 5 points . The betting line remained there throughout the month of December and until the game began . There were almost no off @-@ field incidents involving players from either team : The only notable event involved two backup players from Clemson who were indicted for money counterfeiting and were suspended for the Gator Bowl . In exchange for appearing in the game , the teams were guaranteed to split a payout of $ 3 @,@ 313 @,@ 610 .

= = = Virginia Tech disappointment = = =

Immediately after the Fiesta Bowl bypassed Virginia Tech in favor of lower @-@ ranked Notre Dame , protests from Tech fans and opponents of the BCS system erupted . Some said the selection was " unfair " , that Virginia Tech was " hosed " , or that the pick of Notre Dame was a " snub " of the Hokies . In an interview immediately after the selection , Vick said the Gator Bowl bid provided motivation to win the Gator Bowl . " We 're going to go out there and make a statement , play a great game and show the nation , " he said . Clemson , on the other hand , was enthusiastic about the Gator Bowl bid . A win in the game would have given the Tigers their first 10 @-@ win season since 1990 , and the Gator Bowl appearance marked a continued improvement over its showing the previous year . Clemson players viewed the game as a reward for a successful season , while Virginia Tech players perceived it from a more workmanlike point of view . Due to revenue @-@ sharing agreements among Big East schools , Virginia Tech 's selection by the Gator Bowl resulted in a payment of $ 1 @.@ 7 million less than if it had been selected by a BCS bowl game . Instead of receiving about $ 3 @.@ 5 million from the revenue agreement and bowl payout , Tech received about $ 1 @.@ 8 million .

= = = Coaching changes = = =

Both Virginia Tech and Clemson endured questions about their coaching staffs in the weeks and months prior to the Gator Bowl . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer was interviewed by North Carolina prior to the end of the regular season , and he debated whether or not to accept that school 's head football coaching job . On November 27 , one week before Tech 's selection by the Gator Bowl , Beamer announced that he would not be departing for North Carolina or any other school . Beamer also was considered for the vacant head @-@ coaching position with the NFL 's Washington Redskins , but he also declined that position . Other Virginia Tech football coaches were targeted by teams to fill vacant head @-@ coaching positions . Virginia Tech offensive coordinator Rickey Bustle was interviewed for a job at Toledo , but he declined the position . Virginia Tech defensive coordinator Bud Foster was interviewed for the head @-@ coaching job at Virginia , but he likewise declined the job .

Tech 's situation was not reflected at Clemson , where offensive coordinator Rich Rodriguez announced that he was leaving the team for the head football coach job at West Virginia University , where he competed as a player in the 1980s . Rodriguez did not participate in Clemson 's practices prior to the Gator Bowl , and he did not coach during the game . Replacing Rodriguez as temporary offensive coordinator was Brad Scott . Joining him in the press box during the Gator Bowl was Mike O 'Cain , who was hired as Clemson 's new quarterbacks coach . In an effort to prevent further defections , Clemson awarded head coach Tommy Bowden a seven @-@ year contract extension worth $ 1 @.@ 1 million annually plus incentives .

= = = Michael Vick debate = = =

Throughout the regular season , a constant question hanging over the Virginia Tech Hokies football team was whether or not star quarterback Michael Vick would return for another year at the school . The National Football League requires that players be at least three years out of high school before they are eligible for the NFL Draft . Vick , who had not played during his freshman year at the school , would be three years out of high school in the spring following the Gator Bowl .

Vick attempted to defuse the discussion when he announced on December 15 that he would be returning for his fourth year with the team . But in late December , Vick wavered on that decision when it became clear that if he left the team , he would be selected as the No. 1 overall pick in the draft . Heading into the Gator Bowl , his decision was still up in the air .

= = = Clemson offense = = =

During the regular season , Clemson was No. 10 in rushing yards , averaging 236 @.@ 4 per game . Its passing offense was somewhat weaker , ranked No. 63 and averaging 210 @.@ 1 yards per game . In total , however , Clemson 's offense ranked No. 10 when the two amounts were added together . In scoring offense , the Tigers averaged 36 @.@ 0 points per game , good enough for No. 14 in the country in that category .

Clemson 's offense was led by quarterback Woodrow Dantzler , who finished the regular season having completed 58 percent of his passes for 1 @,@ 691 yards , 10 touchdowns , and six interceptions . He also ran the ball extremely successfully , gaining 947 yards and 13 touchdowns on the ground . In the running game , Dantzler had the second @-@ most yards on the team . No. 1 was running back Travis Zachery , who ran 201 times for 1 @,@ 012 yards and 13 touchdowns . Zachery also was one of Dantzler 's favorite passing targets . He caught 27 passes for 288 yards and four touchdowns during the regular season .

Wide receivers Rod Gardner and Jackie Robinson were the No. 1 and No. 3 recipients , respectively , of Dantzler 's passes . Gardner caught 51 passes for 956 yards and six touchdowns . Robinson , unrelated to the baseball player of the same name , caught 24 passes for 276 yards and three touchdowns .

= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =

Virginia Tech 's offense was No. 5 nationally in rushing yards , averaging 270 @.@ 5 per game . Their passing offense was abysmal , however . The Hokies were ranked No. 100 in that category after averaging 155 @.@ 9 yards per game during the regular season . Combined , Tech was ranked No. 20 in total offense . In scoring offense , they found success comparable to their rushing game . After averaging 40 @.@ 3 points per game , they were ranked No. 5 .

Virginia Tech 's offense was led by quarterback Michael Vick , who carried the ball 104 times for 617 yards and eight touchdowns despite an ankle injury that limited his mobility in the final six games of the regular season . Tech also had two successful running backs : Lee Suggs and Andre Kendrick . Suggs had 222 carries for 1 @,@ 207 yards and 27 touchdowns during the regular season , while Kendrick had 102 rushes for 547 yards and three touchdowns . Suggs was the No. 1 rusher in the Big East in terms of touchdowns and rushing yards . In recognition of his accomplishments , he was given the Dudley Award , which recognizes the top college football player in Virginia .

One of Vick 's favorite targets in the limited Tech passing attack was wide receiver Andre Davis , who caught 24 passes for 318 yards and two touchdowns . Davis was limited by the fact that he played in only nine of Tech 's 11 games , but he still finished as the Hokies ' No. 2 receiver in terms of yardage . Tech 's No. 1 receiver was Emmett Johnson , who caught 34 passes for 574 yards and three touchdowns .

= = = Clemson defense = = =

Clemson 's defense was strongest against the rush . During the regular season , the Tigers allowed an average of 101 @.@ 8 yards per game on the ground , good enough for No. 18 nationally . Their passing defense was not nearly as successful . On average , the Tigers allowed 238 @.@ 6 yards per game through the air , making their pass defense the 97th best in division I @-@ A football during the regular season . With both categories combined , the defense was ranked No. 37 . In terms of points allowed , rather than yardage , the Tigers were ranked No. 23 after giving up an average of 19 @.@ 3 yards per game .

Linebacker Chad Carson was the team 's defensive leader . He had 146 tackles ( the most on the team ) , two pass breakups , and one forced fumble during the regular season . Fellow linebacker Keith Adams was No. 2 on the team in tackles with 138 , including five sacks . He also had one interception , three forced fumbles , and three pass breakups . In pass defense , the Tigers ' highest achiever was cornerback Alex Ardley , who led the team in interceptions with five . He also had seven pass breakups .

One notable absence from the Tigers ' defense during the Gator Bowl was defensive end Nick Eason , who led the team in sacks but suffered a torn Achilles tendon during a mid @-@ December practice . Backup defensive end Marcus Lewis also missed the game due to injury . He tore an anterior cruciate ligament in a pregame practice .

= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =

Virginia Tech 's defense likewise was more successful against opponents ' rushing offense than their passing attack . Tech permitted an average of 99 @.@ 3 yards per game on the ground ( 16th ) , but allowed 224 @.@ 4 yards per game through the air ( 79th ) . In total , Tech was ranked the No. 27 defense in the country — slightly better than Clemson . In scoring defense , the Hokies allowed 22 @.@ 6 points per game on average , good enough for No. 45 . In this category , they were worse than the Tigers .

Linebacker Ben Taylor was the Hokies ' defensive leader . He was No. 1 on the team in tackles with 103 . That figure included 1 @.@ 5 sacks . He also had two interceptions , five pass breakups , and one forced fumble . Four year starting linebacker Jake Houseright was the team 's No. 2 tackler . He had 75 , including five tackles for loss . He also had five pass breakups and recovered one fumble . Free safety Willie Pile , who was in his first year as a starter on the defense , was Tech 's leading performer in pass coverage . He had six interceptions — the most on the team — broke up 10 passes , forced one fumble , and recovered one fumble .

= = Game summary = =

The 2001 Gator Bowl kicked off on January 1 , 2001 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . At kickoff , the weather was partly cloudy at 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) degrees , with 41 percent humidity and a 6 miles per hour ( 10 km / h ) wind from the northwest . Virginia Tech won the traditional pregame coin toss to determine first possession and elected to kick off to Clemson to begin the game .

= = = First quarter = = =

Clemson fielded the opening kickoff at the two @-@ yard line and returned it to their 25 @-@ yard line , where the Tigers ' offense performed the game 's first offensive play , a one @-@ yard scramble by Dantzler . A subsequent running play and an incomplete pass caused Clemson to go three @-@ and @-@ out before punting . Clemson punter Jamie Somaini mishandled the ball , however , and Virginia Tech 's defense tackled him at the Tigers ' 23 @-@ yard line . On Tech 's first play after the turnover , quarterback Michael Vick completed a 23 @-@ yard pass to Jared Ferguson for a touchdown . The extra point kick by Carter Warley was successful , and Virginia Tech had a 7 – 0 lead with 13 : 23 remaining in the first quarter .

Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was downed at the Clemson 26 @-@ yard line , where the Tigers began their second offensive possession . It began no better than the first , as Dantzler was tackled for a three @-@ yard loss by defensive tackle Lamar Cobb . A rush for no gain and a short pass forced Clemson to again punt before gaining a first down . Somaini 's second punt was kicked cleanly , and the Hokies returned the punt to their 42 @-@ yard line . Two rushes and a pass to the 50 @-@ yard line were not enough for a first down , and Tech punted to the Clemson 17 @-@ yard line .

The Tigers ' third possession didn 't produce anything more than their first two possessions did . A running play was stopped for no gain , Dantzler was sacked for a loss of three yards by David Pugh , and a scramble by Dantzler gained only four yards . Clemson 's punt was downed at the Tech 41 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies had another chance on offense . On the first play of the drive , Vick scrambled for a nine @-@ yard gain . On the next play , Tech gained a first down on a run by backup running back Andre Kendrick to the Clemson 46 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass , Vick completed a six @-@ yard toss to Kendrick . A five @-@ yard offsides penalty gave Tech a first down at the Clemson 35 @-@ yard line , then Vick completed a six @-@ yard throw to wide receiver Emmett Johnson . This was followed by Vick scrambling for a first down at the Clemson 19 @-@ yard line . A reverse run by Johnson picked up five yards , then a run up the middle gained a first down at the Clemson nine @-@ yard line . Two rushes by Kendrick failed to reach the five @-@ yard line , then Vick ran six yards for Tech 's second touchdown of the game . The extra point was good , and Tech extended its lead to 14 – 0 with 1 : 08 remaining in the quarter .

Virginia Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Clemson 26 @-@ yard line , and the drive began with an incomplete pass from Dantzler . After that , the Tigers gained their first down of the game with a pass from Dantzler to wide receiver Rod Gardner at the 38 @-@ yard line . A run by Dantzler gained three yards , then Zachery gained five more with a run to the left side . Zachery 's run ran the final seconds off the clock in the first quarter , which ended with Virginia Tech leading , 14 – 0 .

= = = Second quarter = = =

The second quarter began with Clemson in possession of the ball and facing third and two at its 46 @-@ yard line . The Tigers gained a first down with the first play of the quarter , a four @-@ yard rush by Zachery . From midfield , Dantzler threw an incomplete pass then ran for no gain . On third down , Dantzler completed a long pass to Justin Watts , who gained a first down at the Tech 23 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Dantzler completed a pass to Zachery , who ran into the end zone for Clemson 's first points of the game . During the play , Zachery broke his foot and was kept out of the rest of the game . The extra point was good , and the Tigers narrowed Tech 's lead to 14 – 7 with 13 : 34 remaining in the first half .

Clemson 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was bobbled by kick returner Andre Kendrick at the Tech one @-@ yard line , but Kendrick broke free of the Clemson defense for a 34 @-@ yard return to the 35 @-@ yard line . Tech 's first play after the return was an 11 @-@ yard run by Lee Suggs up the right side of the field . After the first down , Suggs ran straight ahead for a short gain , then Vick scrambled to the Clemson 37 @-@ yard line and another first down . Suggs then gained 18 yards on a run to the left side of the field . At the Clemson 19 @-@ yard line , Suggs was stopped for a loss of one yard , then Vick was sacked for a loss of five yards . The third @-@ down play was an incomplete pass , and Carter Warley entered the game to attempt a 42 @-@ yard field goal . The kick bounced off the field goal crossbar but did not cross it , thus denying the Hokies three points . With 10 : 33 remaining in the half , Tech still had a 14 – 7 lead .

Following the missed field goal , Clemson 's offense started at its 25 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the drive , Dantzler completed a pass to wide receiver Rod Gardner , who ran for 25 yards and a first down at the 50 @-@ yard line . A nine @-@ yard shovel pass play was followed by a run up the middle for a first down at the Tech 37 @-@ yard line . Dantzler completed an eight @-@ yard pass , then a running play was stopped short of the first @-@ down marker . On third down , Dantzler faked a quarterback sneak in order to attempt a long pass downfield . Dantzler was unable to pass , however , and was sacked for a four @-@ yard loss . Rather than attempt a field goal or punt the ball , Clemson coach Tommy Bowden had his team attempt to gain a first down . Dantzler scrambled forward , but didn 't gain the five yards needed . The Tigers thus turned the ball over on downs at the Tech 28 @-@ yard line .

Tech began its drive with an incomplete pass , which was followed by a short run . On third down , Vick prepared to throw the ball , but he was hit by Clemson defender Keith Adams and fumbled the ball . Fellow Clemson defender Terry Jolly recovered the loose football and returned it to the Tech 14 @-@ yard line before he was tackled . Following the turnover , Dantzler was stopped on a short run then threw two incomplete passes . Rather than again attempt to convert a fourth down , Bowden sent in kicker Aaron Hunt to attempt a 28 @-@ yard field goal . The kick soared through the uprights , and Clemson narrowed Virginia Tech 's lead to 14 – 10 with 5 : 45 remaining in the quarter .

Kendrick returned Clemson 's post @-@ score kickoff to the Tech 23 @-@ yard line . A two @-@ yard run by Suggs was followed by a pass to Davis at the Tech 39 @-@ yard line for a first down . Two running plays set up third down and two , then Vick completed a 50 @-@ yard pass to Kendrick , who picked up a first down at the Clemson four @-@ yard line . From there , it took Suggs two rushes to pass the goal line for Virginia Tech 's third touchdown of the game . The extra point was good , and Tech extended its lead to 21 – 10 with 2 : 26 before halftime .

Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff bounced to the Clemson two @-@ yard line before it was returned to the Clemson 12 @-@ yard line . An incomplete pass on first down was followed by a first @-@ down pass to Gardner at the 22 @-@ yard line . Dantzler then completed a pass to Watts at the 34 @-@ yard line for another first down . After an incomplete pass , Dantzler scrambled for a first down at the Clemson 47 @-@ yard line , where he completed a 17 @-@ yard pass to Robinson as time ticked below one minute remaining . From the Tech 36 @-@ yard line , Dantzler completed a pass to Gardner at the Tech 29 @-@ yard line . After a time out with 33 seconds remaining , Dantzler threw an incomplete pass . This was followed by another incomplete pass , and Clemson converted the first down with a pass to the Tech 24 @-@ yard line . An incomplete pass on first down was followed by another on second down . Following the play , there was only eight seconds left on the clock , and coach Bowden ordered Hunt into the game to attempt a 41 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was short and to the right , and Clemson turned the ball over with two seconds remaining . Vick took a knee to run the final seconds off the clock , and Virginia Tech entered halftime with a 21 – 10 lead .

= = = Third quarter = = =

Because Clemson received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Kendrick received the kickoff at the Tech goal line and returned it to the 20 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies started the first possession of the second half . On the first play , Virginia Tech committed a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty . Suggs gained five yards with a run up the middle , then Vick completed a pass to tight end Browning Wynn at the 28 @-@ yard line . On third down , the Hokies were stopped short of the first down marker and punted for only the second time in the game . During the kick , Clemson committed a 15 @-@ yard roughing the kicker penalty . The penalty allowed the Hokies to retain the football and gave them a first down at their 44 @-@ yard line . On the first play after the penalty , Vick completed a 55 @-@ yard pass to Davis at the Clemson one @-@ yard line . After the pass , Suggs ran straight ahead for his second touchdown of the game . The extra point was missed by Warley , but Tech still extended its lead to 27 – 10 with 12 : 19 remaining in the quarter .

Virginia Tech 's kickoff was recovered and Clemson 's kick returner ran out of bounds at the Tigers ' 12 @-@ yard line . Dantzler scrambled for two yards , but Virginia Tech linebacker Jake Houseright was injured during the play and left the game . After a delay while the injured Houseright was helped off the field , Dantzler scrambled for six yards . Bernard Rambert gained a first down with a two @-@ yard run , then he gained five yards on a run up the middle . Dantzler followed the gain with a 13 @-@ yard run of his own and a first down at the Clemson 40 @-@ yard line . Rambert caught a five @-@ yard pass from Dantzler , then he ran for one yard up the left side of the field . During the play , Rambert was injured and had to be helped off the field . He was replaced by third @-@ string freshman running back Keith Kelly . Dantzler threw an incomplete pass on third down , then Somaini punted the ball to Virginia Tech . The kick bounced off the chest of the Virginia Tech kick returner , and the loose ball was scooped up by Robert Carswell of Clemson . Following the turnover , Clemson 's offense had a first down at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line with 8 : 44 remaining in the quarter .

Kelly gained one yard on first down , then Dantzler picked up 11 yards and a first down on a run up the middle of the field . An incomplete pass was followed by a run for no gain and another incomplete pass . Facing fourth and goal at the eight @-@ yard line , Bowden sent in his field @-@ goal kicker . After the Tigers called a time out , Hunt completed a 27 @-@ yard field goal attempt and cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 27 – 13 with 7 : 19 remaining in the quarter .

Clemson 's post @-@ score kickoff was fielded at the five @-@ yard line by Kendrick and returned to the Tech 25 @-@ yard line . The first play of the drive was an option run with Vick and Kendrick , who broke free of the Clemson defense for a 45 @-@ yard run and a first down at the Clemson 29 @-@ yard line . Two short rushes were followed by a pass to fullback Cullen Hawkins at the 10 @-@ yard line for a first down . Clemson committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , then Ferguson ran straight ahead for a touchdown . The extra point kick was good , and Tech took a 34 – 13 lead with 5 : 14 left in the quarter .

The post @-@ touchdown kickoff was returned to the Clemson 30 @-@ yard line , where it was fumbled . The loose football jetted forward and was recovered by a Clemson player at the 34 @-@ yard line , where the Tigers ' offense began another drive . The first play of the possession was a nine @-@ yard pass from Dantzler to Kelly , and it was followed by a shovel pass to Kelly , who gained a first down at the Tech 47 @-@ yard line . From there , Kantzler ran straight ahead for 27 yards and a first down at the Tech 20 @-@ yard line . After two incomplete passes , Clemson completed a five @-@ yard false @-@ start penalty . A one @-@ yard run by Dantzler was followed by an unsuccessful fourth @-@ down conversion attempt . Dantzler attempted a pass downfield , but the ball was intercepted by Ronyell Whitaker , who returned the ball to the Tech 32 @-@ yard line .

In possession of the ball and a large lead , Virginia Tech proceeded to start running out the clock by executing running plays , which do not halt the game clock at their conclusion as do incomplete passing plays . Suggs gained nine yards on a run up the middle , then Ferguson was tackled for a loss after an incomplete pass by Vick . Tech punted , and the ball was downed at the 26 @-@ yard line . Following the punt , Clemson put backup quarterback Willie Simmons into the game . On his first play , Simmons was sacked by Jim Davis for a five @-@ yard loss . The second play was a repeat of the first , as Davis again sacked Simmons , this time for an 11 @-@ yard loss . On third down , Simmons threw an incomplete pass , and Clemson punted after going three and out .

The kick bounced out of bounds at the Clemson 44 @-@ yard line , and Virginia Tech 's offense returned to the field . On the first play , Vick attempted a pass into the end zone . The throw was intercepted by Clemson defender Robert Carswell , who downed the ball in the end zone for a touchback . The interception was the final play of the third quarter , which ended with Virginia Tech in the lead , 34 – 13 .

= = = Fourth quarter = = =

The fourth quarter began with Clemson in possession of the ball and starting a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line following a touchback . On the first play of the drive , Simmons threw an interception to Virginia Tech defender Willie Pile at the 50 @-@ yard line . Following the turnover , the Hokies continued running out the clock with rushing plays up the middle of the field . A short gain by Suggs was followed by a five @-@ yard offsides penalty against Clemson , which advanced the Hokies to the Clemson 45 @-@ yard line . Ferguson then gained a first down on a run to the 32 @-@ yard line . On first down , Vick was slightly injured after attempting to pitch the ball forward . He left the game and was replaced by backup quarterback Dave Meyer . Tech advanced the ball on short runs , setting up fourth down and seven . Tech coach Frank Beamer called a time out , allowing Vick to re @-@ enter the game . The fourth @-@ down play was an incomplete pass , and Tech turned the ball over on downs with 11 : 49 remaining in the game .

Following the turnover , Clemson received the ball at its 28 @-@ yard line . Simmons ran the ball straight ahead for an eight @-@ yard gain , gained one yard on a run , then Kelly ran for a first down at the 40 @-@ yard line . On first down , Simmons completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Gardner at the Tech 42 @-@ yard line . Simmons then completed a six @-@ yard pass before throwing a shovel pass to Kelly for a first down at the Tech 32 @-@ yard line . An incomplete pass was followed by six @-@ yard toss and a pass to Watts at the 12 @-@ yard line . Simmons ran out of bounds for a two @-@ yard loss , then completed a touchdown pass to Gardner . The extra point kick was good , and Clemson closed Virginia Tech 's lead to 34 – 20 with 7 : 19 remaining .

With limited time remaining , Clemson attempted an onside kick in an effort to retain possession and have a chance to make up some of the scoring deficit . The kick was recovered by Virginia Tech , however , and the Vick @-@ led Tech offense returned to the field at the Clemson 44 @-@ yard line . Suggs was stopped for no gain on a run up the middle , Vick threw an incomplete pass , then he completed a 14 @-@ yard pass to Wynn for a first down at the Clemson 30 @-@ yard line . After the first down , Ferguson gained a few yards on a run up the middle , then Suggs advanced the ball to just short of the first @-@ down marker . On third down , Suggs gained the first down with a run up the middle . Following the first down , Clemson defender Alex Ardley was called for a personal foul and ejected from the game . The penalty gave Virginia Tech a first down at the Clemson 10 @-@ yard line . From there , Clemson was called for a five @-@ yard offsides penalty . On the first play after the consecutive penalties , Vick pitched the ball to Suggs , who ran into the end zone untouched . The extra point kick was good , and Virginia Tech extended its lead to 41 – 20 with 3 : 41 remaining in the game .

Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was returned to the 23 @-@ yard line , and Clemson went three and out after Simmons threw three incomplete passes . The Tigers ' punt was returned to the Tech 30 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began another possession . Vick was again replaced by Meyer at the quarterback position , and running back Dwayne Ward ran up the middle of the field for a short gain . Third @-@ string running back Keith Burnell gained more yardage with a run up the middle , then Ward picked up a first down with a run up the left side of the field . During the play , Tech committed a 10 @-@ yard penalty , but the resulting yardage was still enough for a first down . Tech proceeded to run out the remaining seconds on the clock , and the Virginia Tech Hokies earned a 41 – 20 victory .

= = Statistical summary = =

In recognition of his success in leading the Hokies to a bowl game win , Virginia Tech quarterback Michael Vick was named the most valuable player of the winning team . Vick finished the game having completed 10 of 18 passes for 205 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Vick also ran the ball nine times for a gain of 21 yards and a touchdown . He was sacked twice , resulting in a loss of two yards . On the opposite side of the ball , Clemson wide receiver Rod Gardner was named the MVP of the losing team . He caught seven passes for 94 yards and a touchdown during the game .

Virginia Tech outgained Clemson on the ground by a nearly 3 : 1 margin . Tech running back Lee Suggs carried the ball 20 times for 73 yards and three touchdowns . At the time , Suggs ' three touchdowns were a Virginia Tech bowl game record and tied the Gator Bowl record for most touchdowns by a player . Fellow running backs Andre Kendrick and Jarrett Ferguson gained 52 yards and 26 yards , respectively . Suggs ' scores and the two by Ferguson also marked the first time the Hokies had two players with two or more touchdowns in a bowl game .

On the other side of the ball , Clemson 's 44 pass attempts and 21 pass completions were the most allowed by Virginia Tech in any bowl game to that point . The Tigers outgained Virginia Tech through the air by almost 40 yards , and Clemson 's two quarterbacks performed consistently throughout the game . Dantzler completed 15 of 32 passes for one touchdown and 180 yards , while Simmons completed six of 12 passes for 63 yards , one touchdown , and two interceptions . On the ground , Dantzler led all rushers with 18 carries for 81 yards . Clemson 's No. 2 rusher was Zachery , who had five carries for 15 yards .

Defensively , Virginia Tech intercepted two Clemson passes and sacked Clemson quarterbacks six times for a loss of 28 yards . The Tech defense held Clemson without a first down and to -2 yards of total offense until less than two minutes were left in the first quarter . Clemson 's defense sacked Vick twice for a total loss of two yards .

= = Postgame effects = =

Virginia Tech 's win brought it to a final record of 11 – 1 , while Clemson 's loss lowered it to a final record of 9 – 3 . Despite the Hokies ' win , they did not advance in either the Associated Press or Coaches ' polls . Tech ended the year ranked No. 6 in both polls and No. 5 in the BCS . Clemson also remained relatively stationary in the polls . The Tigers remained at No. 16 in the Associated Press poll and dropped from No. 13 to No. 14 in the Coaches ' Poll . The victory was the first in three bowl trips for the Hokies . The loss was Clemson 's fifth straight in a bowl game and fourth in eight trips to the Gator Bowl at that point .

= = = Michael Vick = = =

Immediately after the conclusion of the Gator Bowl , Vick was asked by an NBC broadcaster if he intended to return to Virginia Tech for another year of collegiate football . He responded that he would discuss matters with his family and Tech head coach Frank Beamer before making a decision . That announcement sparked a fresh round of speculation from sports pundits and fans wondering if Vick would choose to return to school or enter the 2001 NFL Draft . Virginia Tech , through its football coaching staff , began an intensive lobbying campaign in an effort to convince Vick to stay . On January 11 , 2001 , Vick held a press conference to announce that he would be forgoing his final two years of collegiate eligibility to enter the NFL Draft . Immediately after the announcement , he was predicted to be the No. 1 pick in the draft , a hypothesis realized on April 21 , when he was selected by the Atlanta Falcons , who had traded draft picks in order to have the right to select Vick .

= = = 2001 NFL Draft = = =

Vick was not the only player for whom the 2001 Gator Bowl was the final collegiate contest . Virginia Tech had two other players selected in the draft , and Clemson had three . From the Hokies , defensive back Cory Bird was selected with the 91st pick and center Matt Lehr was taken with the 137th selection . Clemson 's first NFL draft selection was wide receiver Rod Gardner , who was taken 15th . Also picked was defensive back Robert Carswell ( 244th ) .

= Invisible Circles =

Invisible Circles is the third studio album by Dutch symphonic metal band After Forever . It was released on 25 March 2004 , by the small Dutch label Transmission Records . It is After Forever 's first full @-@ length album since the dismissal of guitarist and composer Mark Jansen , whose musical tastes had strongly influenced the sound of their first work Prison of Desire ( 2000 ) and their successful second offering Decipher ( 2001 ) . In this work After Forever choose a new musical direction , mostly revolving around elements of progressive metal instead of the gothic and symphonic metal of previous albums . The creative process for Invisible Circles took more than a year and required the use of three recording studios in the Netherlands and Germany . A long tour to support the album brought the band to some of the most important European rock festivals and to Central and South America .

Invisible Circles is a concept album about the dynamics of quarrelsome families and psychological child abuse . The theme was inspired by guitarist Sander Gommans ' work as an art teacher , in direct contact with dysfunctional families and teen @-@ age problems . It is also a metal opera , with a storyline that follows the lives of an abused child and her parents since her conception to adulthood . The album was received with mixed reviews , but entered the charts in the Netherlands and Belgium .

= = Background = =

By the end of 2001 , After Forever appeared as rising stars on the dynamic scene of Dutch metal , which included bands like The Gathering , Within Temptation , Gorefest and Ayreon . Their second album Decipher ( 2001 ) had received very positive reviews and their name was well known in the underground scene of the Netherlands . Critics were impressed by the remarkable musicianship of the young members of the band and in particular by Floor Jansen ’ s vocals , both in studio and in live performances . In contrast with these premises for a bright future , the relationships within the band were not so idyllic . Soon after the release of Decipher , After Forever faced a strong creative contrast between founding member and guitarist Mark Jansen and the rest of the band . Mark Jansen had been the main composer of the band together with Sander Gommans and his love for movie soundtracks and classical music had had a strong influence on the musical style of After Forever ’ s first two albums , Prison of Desire ( 2000 ) and Decipher . Moreover , his interest for religious and moral themes had characterized his lyrics for many songs , often collected under a common title ( e.g. The Embrace That Smothers and My Pledge of Allegiance ) . In the next album , Mark Jansen meant to further explore complex interactions between classical instruments , choruses in Latin and death metal elements , while Gommans and the others preferred a more direct and aggressive approach to music , retaining some elements that made the sound of the band recognizable , but expanding it in new and different directions . These musical differences led to Mark Jansen leaving the band , in what he felt as an actual dismissal .

He quickly formed another band called Sahara Dust , which later developed into the symphonic metal band Epica . His place was taken by Bas Maas , who had been the guitar technician for After Forever during the tours of 2001 and 2002 . August and September 2002 were dedicated to a European tour , supporting Finnish act Nightwish and attending some rock festivals , which exposed the band to larger audiences and gained them even more favourable press . Further media exposure came from Floor Jansen 's collaboration with Dutch multi @-@ instrumentalist and composer Arjen Anthony Lucassen , for the recording of Star One 's album Space Metal and the subsequent tour in late 2002 . Jansen 's activities , as well as the regular jobs and studies of the After Forever band members , reduced the band 's live performances for the rest of 2002 and half of 2003 . It was known that the band was working at a new album from the beginning of 2003 , but their first release was the EP Exordium in October 2003 , containing an instrumental track , three new songs and two covers . In Jansen ’ s words " the EP Exordium was like an introduction to this new full length album and the subjects of the lyrics are already connected to the concept ( ... ) meaning they are also dealing with modern , social problems " .

The reviewers noticed some musical changes in the new work , but some of them suspended their judgement , waiting for a full album to express their opinions about the new course of After Forever .

= = Concept and storyline = =

The concept of Invisible Circles was shaped by After Forever 's singer and lyricist Floor Jansen , taking inspiration from Sander Gommans ' job as an art teacher . His daily contact with children with social and family problems had given him the desire to make people aware of these problems by incorporating their stories into songs . He had also realized that those children 's problems often stemmed from the psychological traumas that their parents had experienced in their past . Gommans described the title and the concept of the album in these terms : " Invisible Circles describes the paths of life that someone can follow . Life consists of several circles that you can follow ; many times you will come back at the beginning of a circle , although you have tried to get out of that particular circle . "

The plot revolves around a dysfunctional family , comprising a father , a mother , their daughter and the father 's mother . The story begins with two lovers , whose relationship is running dry . They decide to have a child , which the woman believes may save their relationship ( " Between Love and Fire " ) . The birth of a baby girl destroys in the mother her hopes for a brilliant professional career and smothers her passion . On the other hand , the newborn child causes in the father a stiffening of his feelings and the refusal to compromise his career for a " spoilt brat " ( " Sins of Idealism " ) . The girl , perceived in the family as an unwanted burden , tries to adapt to the psychological abuse she receives , but she is the object of frequent quarrels and grows sad and depressed ( " Beautiful Emptiness " ) . She searches for quietness and strength in her inner fantasy world , and friendship and love on the internet , becoming ever more detached from the real world and eccentric in the eyes of her schoolmates and parents ( " Eccentric " , " Digital Deceit " , " Through Square Eyes " ) . The line of pain that connects the child to her parents appears indestructible and the situation gets worse when the father thinks of leaving ( " Blind Pain " , " Two Sides " ) . The intervention of the girl 's grandmother reveals that the father was himself a neglected child and a victim of his family ( " Victim of Choices " ) . The father 's anger is a reaction to his abuse as a child and this realization seems to soften the girl 's pain , bringing her out of her defensive shell ( " Reflections " ) . In conclusion , the grown @-@ up daughter , now a mother herself , faces the same dilemmas of her parents and is bound to repeat her parents ' mistakes , closing the invisible circle that endures from one generation to another ( " Life 's Vortex " ) .

= = Production = =

Sander Gommans started the composition of the basic melodies for Invisible Circles at the beginning of 2003 in his home studio in Reuver , working at the same time on new songs for the EP Exordium . This part of the creative process had been shared with Mark Jansen for the previous albums and it would be shared with keyboard player Joost van den Broek for the following ones . Gommans wrote the songs for the new album with the precise idea of pushing the music of the band closer to progressive metal , reducing the gothic atmospheres of the previous releases to a minimum and adopting as many different musical styles as he felt necessary to the convey the message of the songs . Meanwhile , his fiancée Floor Jansen was writing the lyrics and shaping the plot for the concept album .

The band reunited at Excess Studios in Rotterdam in July 2003 , a few weeks after recording Exordium , to arrange the new songs and to record the instrumental tracks , under supervision of producer Hans Pieters and sound engineer Dennis Leidelmeijer . Every member of the band contributed to the music , which is credited for the most part to all six musicians . When the instrumental tracks were ready , the band moved in August 2003 to Gate Studio in Wolfsburg , Germany , where all solo vocal parts were arranged by the band , under supervision of American singer and producer Amanda Somerville . She also contributed , along with Jay Lansford , the recited parts that connect the songs to each other and explain parts of the plot . The solo vocals of Jansen , Gommans and Bas Maas were recorded separately by producers Sascha Paeth and Michael “ Miro ” Rodenberg . Female soprano vocals , grunts and clean male vocals represent in the songs different feelings and behaviours of the characters . The final stage of the recording process was executed at Arts Music Recording studio in Rhoon from 20 to 24 October 2003 , under supervision of Peter Arts . The orchestra and choir parts were arranged there by Cees ’ Kieboom , who also contributed some additional keyboards to smooth the transition between the different instrumental parts . The final mixing of all the parts was executed by Sascha Paeth at The Pathway Studio in Wolfsburg , Germany in November and December 2003 , except the instrumental introduction " Childhood in Minor " mixed by Sander Gommans . The album was mastered at Sound Factory by Peter van ' t Riet for a release in early 2004 .

Invisible Circles was released by Transmission Records on 25 March 2004 . " Digital Deceit " was the only single issued from the album and released on 20 May 2004 . A high tech video clip was produced for the song by D 'iMages , the same company that had done the video clip for the 2003 single " My Choice " , extracted from Exordium . The video was aired on Dutch MTV and on local musical TV stations .

= = Packaging = =

The artwork for the album was created by German designer Carsten Drescher and his graphics company Media Logistics . Drescher was responsible for the After Forever logo and the cover concepts of every After Forever album and single since then . The girl he photographed is in fact his daughter Aimee Drescher , who also appeared in the video clip for the song " Digital Diceit " . He inserted the photos in a dark urban landscape tinted blue , completing the front cover artwork with the digital overlay of circles in the water to evoke the title of the album . The same circles were extensively used in the CD booklet and in every other artwork related to the album . Together with the dominant blue colour the circles were also present in the live show scenography .

The photos of the band were taken by Dutch photographer Angelique van Woerkom in November 2003 and each member dressed in a tight black and blue suit with a lightning motif , the same colors of the CD sleeve . The same suits were used for the video clip of the single " Digital Deceit " and sometimes appeared in live shows during the following tour .

= = Tour = =

The Invisible Circles tour started in February 2004 , just before the album release , in Mexico , home of the independent label Raw Metal Records , which distributed After Forever albums for all the American continent . An intensive European tour followed , touching the Netherlands , Germany and France .

Two months after the release of the album , keyboard player Lando van Gils left the band on amicable terms . He played his last gig with the band at The Bosuil , Weert , on 14 May 2004 . He was replaced by keyboard player Joost van der Broek , coming from the Dutch progressive rock band Sun Caged , who completed the rest of the tour . Van den Broek had played with Floor Jansen during the Star One tour of 2002 , where he also met Gommans . The tour brought the band to play at the important Graspop , Pinkpop and Dynamo festivals in Belgium and the Netherlands . The Pinkpop Festival performance on 30 May 2004 , was televised for a Dutch TV station . The first leg of the tour culminated with the performance at the Wacken Open Air festival , on 7 August 2004 .

New dates of the tour were added at the end of the year , but some shows were cancelled when drummer André Borgman was admitted to a hospital and diagnosed with lung cancer at an initial stage . The official site of the band reported the news of Borgman ’ s illness and confirmed some shows , with Ayreon , Star One and Gorefest drummer Ed Warby standing @-@ in for Borgman . The band spent the first half of 2005 concentrating on the material for the new album Remagine , while Borgman received intensive treatment to cure his cancer . Luckily , the cures were successful and Borgman was back behind his drum kit for the final leg of the Invisible Circles tour in South America in August 2005 .

= = Critical and commercial reception = =

After the almost unanimous praise received by the album Decipher and the perplexities raised by the new musical direction of the EP Exordium , there were great expectations for the new album by fans and specialized press alike . The complexity of the music and concept of Invisible Circles produced mixed reviews , ranging from highest praise to complete failure , even in the same publication . The bold move of making a concept album about such a controversial matter was generally appreciated but , as Eduardo Rivadavia said in his AllMusic review , this could be a " slightly overambitious creation " . The Maximum Metal reviewer states that " concept albums are always hard to pull off and not many bands can do it well " and " here is another failed attempt " . It was the general opinion of most reviewers that Floor Jansen 's lead vocals are at her best and " her performance here is powerful , dramatic and very impressive overall , no matter how she chooses to sing " . However , her lyrics were sometimes considered a weak point of the album , despite the fact that the band " placed as much emphasis " on them " as they did on the music " . Sam Grant of Sonic Cathedral Webzine considered them " trite " and " disappointing " . In particular , the spoken dialogue by Somerville and Lansford was generally considered badly acted and detrimental to the music which , on the contrary , was generally considered the strong point of the album . The change of musical direction , with the introduction of progressive metal elements , and the many variations of style adopted in the songs were generally praised , to the point that a Metal Storm reviewer compares After Forever to " Symphony X with Floor Jansen on vocals " . Only a few reviewers remained nostalgic of the gothic and symphonic sound of Decipher and denounced a " lack of direction " and " too much confusion " in the music of the album .

The album sold enough in the Benelux to remain in the Dutch Mega Album Top 100 chart for eleven weeks and in the Belgian Ultratop 50 Albums chart for two .

It reached position No. 24 in the Netherlands and position No. 74 in Belgium . The single " Digital Deceit " reached position No. 41 in the Single Top 100 chart in the Netherlands .

= = Track listing = =

All music by After Forever , except " Childhood in Minor " by Sander Gommans and " Eccentric " by Lando van Gils and Floor Jansen . All lyrics by Jansen .

" Childhood in Minor " ( instrumental ) – 1 : 20

" Beautiful Emptiness " – 5 : 25

" Between Love and Fire " – 4 : 56

" Sins of Idealism " – 5 : 22

" Eccentric " – 4 : 10

" Digital Deceit " – 5 : 38

" Through Square Eyes " – 6 : 23

" Blind Pain " – 6 : 47

" Two Sides " – 4 : 34

" Victim of Choices " – 3 : 21

" Reflections " – 5 : 11

" Life 's Vortex " – 5 : 53

= = Personnel = =

= Halifax Central Library =

The Halifax Central Library is a public library in Halifax , Nova Scotia on the corner of Spring Garden Road and Queen Street . It serves as the flagship library of the Halifax Public Libraries , replacing the Spring Garden Road Memorial Library .

A new central library was discussed by library administrators for several decades and approved by the regional council in 2008 . The architects , a joint venture between local firm Fowler Bauld and Mitchell and Schmidt Hammer Lassen of Denmark , were chosen in 2010 through an international design competition . Construction began later that year on a prominent downtown site that had been a parking lot for half a century .

The new library opened in December 2014 and has become a highly popular gathering place . In addition to a book collection significantly larger than that of the former library , the new building houses a wide range of amenities including cafés , an auditorium , and community rooms . The striking architecture is characterised by the fifth floor 's cantilever over the entrance plaza , a central atrium criss @-@ crossed by staircases , and the building 's transparency and relationship to the urban context . The library won a Lieutenant Governor ’ s Design Award in Architecture for 2014 .

= = History = =

= = = Planning = = =

The Spring Garden Road main library , opened in 1951 , had been considered inadequate by library administrators for several decades . The first report mentioning a replacement building was published in 1971 . An expansion built in 1974 was quickly outgrown . A 1987 assessment noted that the spaces within were " self @-@ contained and inflexible " and that " study space and comfortable reading areas are presently the focus of serious public complaint ... services are cramped and over crowded . "

In the mid @-@ 1990s the municipalities of Halifax , Dartmouth , Bedford , and Halifax County were amalgamated , and a new regional library board was created . In 1995 , the Joint Amalgamation Committee of the merged libraries " agreed that a new central library would be needed to serve the new Halifax Regional Library system and that the site should remain in the present downtown area . " They cited numerous problems with the original building . In addition to its small size ( 3 @,@ 594 square metres [ 38 @,@ 690 sq ft ] ) , technological improvements were hampered by poor wiring and difficulty laying cable in mid @-@ floor locations . Accessibility was poor due to the numerous stairs , levels , and an undersized elevator . Other problems with the building included leaks , asbestos , inoperable windows , the lack of a sprinkler system , inadequate climate control , ceilings as low as 1 @.@ 95 m ( 6 ft 5 in ) , and the lack of numerous services found at other modern libraries .

Following the merger , the new library board undertook extensive planning for a new facility in the hope that a new central library might be part of the 1999 commemoration of the 250th anniversary of the city . The library board commissioned an architectural study , released in 1997 , recommending a new central library of approximately 8 @,@ 800 square metres ( 95 @,@ 000 sq ft ) after concluding a renovation of the existing library would " not result in significant cost savings " and would lead to a less efficient building . Furthermore , it recommended building the new library on a different site in order to avoid costly temporary relocation . This study considered six different sites for the new library and recommended the lot at Queen and Clyde Streets , then a municipal parking lot . The projected cost of construction was just short of $ 24 million at 1997 prices .

The recommendation for a new library was echoed in a 2004 needs assessment and master plan study for the overall library system . The central library was identified as the " first priority " for the library board in terms of capital development , with implementation recommended by 2009 . The study found agreement among survey respondents that the library should be located in downtown Halifax , being the core of the region and an anticipated area of growth in the regional plan .

Following the 2004 demolition of the nearby former Halifax Infirmary , planning and public consultation began , as part of the Spring Garden Road & Queen Street Joint Public Lands Study , in order to determine the future of the glut of vacant public lands in the area . The lot directly on this prime intersection was closely considered as the site of either a new central library or a justice centre , consolidating other courthouse facilities around the city . The site had been occupied by Bellevue House , the army commandant 's house from the 19th century until it was demolished in 1955 . It had then remained a parking lot into the 21st century . In June 2007 , regional council voted to approve " in principle , designation of the property at the corner of Spring Garden Road and Queen Street as the site of the Central Library " and to initiate negotiations for the acquisition of that land from the province . These negotiations , concluded in January 2010 , resulted in a land swap : the municipality acquired the Queen and Spring Garden site from the province in exchange for the former Queen Elizabeth High School and Birk 's ( Barrington and George streets ) lands , plus $ 1 @.@ 9 million " in recognition of the higher value of the provincially owned land . "

On 12 August 2008 , regional council voted to approve the library project in principle and direct municipal staff to develop a financial plan for the project . On 28 April 2009 , the council passed a motion to advance the library as a project under the Building Canada Fund , a federal fund that financed projects jointly with local governments from 2007 to 2014 . This resulted in an $ 18 @.@ 3 million contribution from the federal government .

= = = Architect selection and public consultations = = =

The architects for the new library were chosen through an international competition for a design contract worth C $ 4 @.@ 3 million . Four architectural teams were shortlisted , each a partnership between a local and a non @-@ local firm . The winning scheme , a joint venture by Danish firm Schmidt Hammer Lassen and Fowler Bauld & Mitchell of Halifax , was selected in March 2010 . The other shortlisted teams were Lydon Lynch with HOK , Barrie and Langille with Moriyama and Teshima , and Shore Tilbe Irwin + Partners with John K. Dobbs .

The library governance stated they sought to " involve as many people as possible in the public consultation process for the new central library . " It was suggested in The Coast , a weekly newspaper , that this emphasis on public involvement was a reaction to a negative public response toward a proposed redesign of Point Pleasant Park after its partial destruction in Hurricane Juan . Early planning was undertaken in three public consultation phases during 2008 . Five more public meetings and workshops were held in 2010 following the selection of the design architects . The final design was unveiled by the architects during the fifth of these meetings on 4 November 2010 . A final public event was held at Pier 21 on 14 November 2012 .

= = = War memorial issue = = =

The Spring Garden Road Memorial Library was named after its status as a war memorial and displays several commemorative artefacts , including two Books of Remembrance containing the names of thousands of Halifax County residents who gave their lives in the First World War , Second World War , and Korean War . A page is turned in each book every Remembrance Day . A Silver Cross is also on display . The building contains a plaque reading , " This building was erected in memory of those who gave their lives in defence of their Country , 1914 – 1918 ; 1939 – 1945 . For their Faith , for their Courage , for their Sacrifice , We Will Remember Them . "

Some residents voiced concern that with the closure of the former building the war memorial will effectively disappear . Local author and historian Blair Beed questioned why the term " memorial " was not carried over to the new building , and proposed that " Halifax Memorial Library " would be a more appropriate name lest wartime sacrifices be pushed aside and forgotten . He also worried about the fate of the historical artefacts on display . Another resident suggested that such concerns were not given serious consideration during the public consultation process .

Library management responded that the war commemoration would be incorporated into the local history section of the library , and that the two remembrance books would be joined by a third recognizing those who died in conflicts following the Korean War . They also stated that a " few elements of the existing wartime display such as the Silver Cross , flags and standards " would be transferred to the Maritime Command Museum at Admiralty House , CFB Halifax . The three Books of Remembrance are now on display in a glass case next to the local history room .

= = = Construction and opening = = =

Before construction began , an archaeological dig was undertaken to evaluate the remains of Bellevue House . The land was originally purchased in 1800 by the Duke of Kent , who was based in the city in order to command British forces in North America . Subsequent British commanders took residence in the house , built 1801 and described as an " almost palatial residence " that hosted members of the Royal Family during visits to the colony . It was destroyed in a 1885 fire , but rebuilt . The British left in the early 20th century and the structure was demolished after it was acquired by the Nova Scotia Technical College in 1955 . The site then remained a parking lot for over half a century , meaning the foundation of older structures was preserved under the asphalt . This stands in contrast to the site of the former infirmary next door , where the deep foundation rendered the site archaeologically insignificant . In addition to the foundation of the residence , the archaeological dig uncovered numerous small artefacts including china , cutlery and an 1860 Nova Scotia penny .

Construction of the library by EllisDon began shortly thereafter . Following excavation and blasting for the underground car park , the foundation was poured in 2012 . In May 2014 , the library hosted a tour for journalists and officials from all levels of government . Halifax mayor Mike Savage stated that the new library is " not simply something that ’ s nice to have . It is important and critical to the future of our city . Because more than ever , for a city to succeed , we need to be invested in the knowledge economy . We need to ensure that our citizens have access to all forms of learning . ”

The total cost of the building was $ 57 @.@ 6 million , of which $ 18 @.@ 3 million came from the federal government via the Building Canada Fund , $ 13 million from the provincial government , and the remainder ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million ) from the municipality . The municipal contribution was primarily generated from the sale of the empty lots around the library site .

The library was completed in late 2014 following the transfer of materials from the former library across the street , which closed on 30 August . It opened to the public on Saturday , 13 December 2014 to an estimated 12 @,@ 000 visitors who enjoyed a day of performances and festivities . The first six weeks of operation saw 272 @,@ 000 visitors , who collectively checked out over 167 @,@ 700 items .

= = Design and reception = =

The library is a five @-@ storey structure comprising about 11 @,@ 000 square metres ( 120 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of space , and was designed to accommodate a book collection 50 per cent larger than that of the former Spring Garden Memorial Library . A skylighted atrium , criss @-@ crossed by stairs and walkways , spans the interior height of the structure . The main lobby and children 's collection are concentrated on the lower floors , while much of the upper floors are designated as quiet areas . A rooftop terrace with seating offers a broad view of Downtown , the South End , and Halifax Harbour .

The design , said to resemble a stack of books , has garnered international attention and was featured by CNN as one of ten " eye @-@ popping " new buildings of 2014 . The building topped a list of " high @-@ design libraries " compiled by enRoute and was covered on numerous architecture websites . In the 2014 " Best of Halifax " awards , ranked annually by readers of The Coast , the library was voted the " Best Thing To Happen In Halifax In The Past Year " and the " Best Effort To Improve Halifax " . SNC @-@ Lavalin , the structural and civil engineer , was awarded the " Engineering a Better Canada Award " by the Association of Canadian Engineering Companies for their work on the library . The building was also shortlisted for the World Building of the Year Award in the Civic and Community category at the 2015 World Architecture Festival in Singapore .

The Nova Scotia Association of Architects selected the library to receive the Award of Merit at the Lieutenant Governor ’ s Design Awards in Architecture . The award was presented in 2015 by Brigadier @-@ General J.J. Grant . The awards jury commented : " Without doubt , the new Halifax Central Library has done more to transform the discussion of contemporary architecture in Halifax than any building in the past 40 years . The Halifax Central Library was a real catalyst of local , public and architectural conversation in Halifax ; its program and location has reconstructed the way locals and visitors interact with a building filled with knowledge . "

An architect from Fowler , Bauld & Mitchell stated that the library now sees an average of 6 @,@ 000 visitors daily , a " huge increase " in patronage over the former Spring Garden Road Memorial Library .

= = Programme = =

The library is fully wheelchair @-@ accessible , with multiple elevators . There are public use touchscreen computers , a dedicated computer lab , wireless internet , and conference and community rooms . An automatic conveyor belt system links the book drops to a dedicated sorting room . It handled 80 @,@ 000 books in July 2015 .

The library 's open design and central location enables it to host community events and festivals . In the first year of operation it has served as a venue for major annual Halifax events including Nocturne and The Word on the Street . It hosted the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award ceremony in November 2015 attended by Prince Edward .

= = = Cafés = = =

The building houses two café spaces , one at ground level and one on the fifth floor . Patrons of the latter café have access to a rooftop patio area as well as the " Halifax Living Room " housed in the cantilevered portion of the building overlooking Spring Garden Road . The Living Room was designed as an airy , indoor public space with views of both Citadel Hill and Halifax Harbour as well as the civic square below . The ground floor café , in the corner of the building nearest the intersection , opens earlier than the rest of the library . The concession to operate from both spaces was won by Pavia Gallery Espresso Bar and Café of Herring Cove , who beat out Second Cup and Uncommon Grounds . Pavia holds a ten @-@ year contract with an option for an additional seven years .

The ground floor space is the " main café " with the same offerings as Pavia 's Herring Cove location , while the smaller upstairs café serves light refreshments only . Pavia plans to hold three art @-@ related panel discussions at the library each year .

= = = Artwork = = =

Following a request for proposals seeking a " signature public artwork " to be incorporated into the new library , painter and NSCAD alumnus Cliff Eyland was awarded the $ 430 @,@ 000 commission for his proposal to produce 5 @,@ 000 miniature paintings on medium @-@ density fibreboard cut to the size of old library catalog index cards .

Eyland , who also worked as a curator at the former Technical University of Nova Scotia next door ( now Dalhousie University 's School of Architecture and Planning ) , ended up producing a total of 6 @,@ 000 paintings divided into two installations . At the ground floor , Library Cards comprises 5 @,@ 000 paintings behind the main reception . A further 1 @,@ 000 paintings , " eye @-@ popping , two @-@ colour abstracts of books leaning against each other " , decorate the Living Room in the fifth floor cantilever . This smaller installation is titled Book Shelf Paintings .

The Library Cards paintings cover a variety of themes and subjects , including landscapes , portraits , abstract pieces , and musings on history and libraries . The artist joked , " there are grey landscapes to remind you about why you stay indoors in Nova Scotia to read " and said that portraits of staff at the Spring Garden Road and Halifax North Memorial libraries , photographed by Mary Ann Archibald , were painted and had subsequently been recognized by some of their subjects . He also stated that the library commission is the biggest installation he has done to date .

= = = Auditorium = = =

The ground floor houses a 300 @-@ seat auditorium which also serves as a reading space when not in use for performances . Library CEO Judith Hare stated that the space would complement a recording studio , geared toward young people , planned elsewhere in the library : " people can make their own music ... but also they ’ ll have a place to perform as well . " In 2012 the auditorium was named Paul O ’ Regan Hall following a $ 1 million donation by the O ’ Regan family in honour of the late businessman and philanthropist . Government funding only covered the cost of the building , so donations will go toward expanding the book collection and purchasing new computers and special equipment . The hall is fitted with stowable seats , acoustic ceiling baffles , a video screen , and professional sound and lighting installations .

The hall boasts a $ 62 @,@ 000 Yamaha grand piano donated by local philanthropist and musician Peggy Corkum in May 2015 .

= = = Environmental sustainability = = =

The building design aims to achieve LEED Gold certification from the Canada Green Building Council , in part by incorporating energy and water saving design features such as rainwater harvesting for flushing water , computerized building management , use of local species in landscape design , and automatic lighting control . Low @-@ emission interior finishes have been used to improve indoor air quality , and a green housekeeping policy seeks to reduce exposure of occupants to contaminants .

The library supports the use of public transportation and active transportation by virtue of its central location in a dense , walkable district served by numerous bus routes , and by providing onsite bike parking .

= = = Programming by floor = = =

= = Transportation = =

The library is accessible by public bus transit , as it is located on Spring Garden Road . It is served by numerous Halifax Transit bus routes . Routes 1 , 10 , 14 , 20 and 80 provide service from 6 : 00 am until midnight daily . Route 1 provides service to Dartmouth and Mumford Terminal at 10 @-@ minute headways .

= Bombardment of Papeete =

The Bombardment of Papeete occurred in French Polynesia when German warships attacked on 22 September 1914 , during World War I. The German armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau entered the port of Papeete on the island of Tahiti and sank the French gunboat Zélée and freighter Walkure before bombarding the town 's fortifications . French shore batteries and a gunboat resisted the German intrusion , but were greatly outgunned . The main German objective was to seize the coal piles stored on the island , but these were destroyed by the French at the start of the action .

The German vessels were largely undamaged but the French lost their gunboat . Several of Papeete 's buildings were destroyed and the town 's economy was severely disrupted . The main strategic consequence of the engagement was the disclosure of the cruisers ' positions to the British Admiralty , which led to the Battle of Coronel where the entire German East Asia Squadron defeated a Royal Navy squadron . The depletion of Scharnhorst 's and Gneisenau 's ammunition at Papeete also contributed to their subsequent destruction at the Battle of the Falklands .

= = Background = =

Word of war reached Admiral Maximilian von Spee — of the German East Asia Squadron — while at Ponape ( 17 July – 6 August ) . He concentrated the majority of his squadron at Pagan Island in the nearby Mariana Islands , and then steamed off into the Pacific with the Scharnhorst @-@ class armored cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , the Königsberg @-@ class light cruiser SMS Nürnberg , the auxiliary cruiser SMS Titania , and several colliers at his disposal . Nürnberg and Titania were sent to gather intelligence at Hawaii and raid the cable station at Fanning Island . Von Spee then learned that Australian and New Zealand forces had captured German Samoa , and he sailed off in his flagship Scharnhorst — along with her sister ship Gneisenau — to engage what Allied forces they could find there . Failing to catch the Samoa Expeditionary Force at Apia and having seen no action at all since leaving Pagan Island , the men of Admiral von Spee 's armored cruisers were eager to meet the enemy in battle .

Von Spee decided to raid Papeete in Tahiti on his way to rendezvous with the rest of his squadron at Easter Island . The French held over 5 @,@ 000 t ( 5 @,@ 500 short tons ) of high @-@ quality Cardiff coal at the port , and von Spee hoped to seize the coal piles to replenish his squadron 's supply . Additionally , von Spee aimed at destroying what allied shipping he could find in the harbour , and thought the raid might help raise his men 's morale . Von Spee intended to coal at Suwarrow Atoll before sailing to Papeete , but was prevented by foul weather . Instead , von Spee decided to take Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and attempt to resupply at Bora Bora while Nürnberg and Titania were dispatched to Nukuhiva to guard the fleet 's colliers . The German admiral intended to keep his vessels ' identities secret by disguising them as French ships , flying French flags , and only allowing French- and English @-@ speaking members of his crew contact with the Frenchmen present there . Von Spee managed to replenish his food stores using gold seized by Titania and Nürnberg during their raid of Fanning , and was able to discover the strength of the French military in the region as well as the exact size and positions of the coal piles at Papeete .

The French had no heavy defenses at Papeete but had been warned that von Spee 's squadron might raid Tahiti and that a German squadron had been sighted off Samoa . Although Papeete was the capital of the French Settlements in Oceania , by 1914 it had become a colonial backwater , lacking a wireless station and having a garrison of only 25 colonial infantry and 20 gendarmes . In order to bolster the town 's defenses , Lieutenant Maxime Destremau — commander of the old wooden gunboat Zélée and the ranking officer at Papeete — had his ship 's 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) stern gun and all of her 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) and 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns removed from his vessel and placed ashore to be used in place of Papeete 's antiquated land batteries . Several Ford trucks were turned into impromptu armored cars by mounting them with Zélée 's 37 @-@ mm guns and 160 sailors and marines drilled in preparation to repel any German attempt at landing . Zélée retained only her 100 @-@ mm bow gun and 10 men under the ship 's second in command . In addition to the gunboat and harbor fortifications , the French also had at Papeete the unarmed German freighter Walkure , which had been captured by Zélée at the start of the war . Despite the French preparations , the two German cruisers were more than a match for the forces Destremau commanded at Papeete . Both Scharnhorst and Gneisenau heavily outgunned Zélée , each being armed with eight 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns , six 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , eighteen 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and four torpedo tubes . Von Spee 's forces also outnumbered the French with over 1 @,@ 500 sailors aboard their vessels , more than enough to form a landing party and overwhelm the forces Destremau had to oppose them .

= = Battle = =

At 07 : 00 on 22 September 1914 , the French sighted two unidentified cruisers approaching the harbor of Papeete . The alarm was raised , the harbor 's signal beacons destroyed , and three warning shots were fired by the French batteries to signal the approaching cruisers that they must identify themselves . The cruisers replied with a shot of their own and raised the German colors , signaling the town to surrender . The French refused the German demands , and von Spee 's vessels began to shell the shore batteries and town from a distance of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 yd ) . The land batteries and the gunboat in the harbor returned fire , but scored no hits on the armored cruisers . Having difficulty in discovering the exact position of the French batteries , the German cruisers soon turned their attention to the French shipping in the harbor .

The French commander — Destremau — had ordered the coal piles burned at the start of the action and now smoke began billowing over the town . Zélée and Walkure were sighted and fired upon by the Germans . The French had begun to scuttle their vessels when the action had begun , but both were still afloat when Scharnhorst and Gneisenau began firing upon them and finished the two ships off . By now , most of the Papeete 's inhabitants had fled and the town had caught fire from the German shelling , with two blocks of Papeete set alight . With the coal piles destroyed and the threat of mines in the harbor , von Spee saw no meaningful purpose in making a landing . Accordingly , the German admiral withdrew his ships from Papeete 's harbor by 11 : 00 . After leaving Papeete , the ships steamed out towards Nuku Hiva to meet Nürnberg , Titania , and colliers waiting there .

= = Aftermath = =

By the time von Spee withdrew his ships , large portions of the town had been destroyed . Two entire blocks of Papeete had burnt to the ground before the fires were finally put out . A copra store , a market , and several other buildings and residences were among those destroyed by the shellfire and resulting inferno . While the majority of Papeete 's civilians fled to the interior of the island as soon as the fighting began , a Japanese civilian and a Polynesian boy were both killed by German shellfire . Although the two French vessels in the harbor had been sunk , there were no military casualties on either side and the German vessels took no damage . Overall , the bombardment was estimated in 1915 to have caused over 2 million francs ' worth of property damage , some of which was recouped through the seizure of a German store on the island . In addition to the seizure of their property , several local Germans were interned and forced to repair the damage von Spee 's squadron had caused . Perhaps the most lasting effect of the bombardment on the French was the dramatic fall of copra prices in the region , as local suppliers had previously sold a majority of their produce to German merchants in the area who were now interned . Further havoc and distress spread throughout the island 18 days after von Spee 's squadron had left , when rumors started to spread that a second German bombardment was about to begin .

After withdrawing , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau rendezvoused with Nürnberg and Titania at Nuku Hiva , where they resupplied and their crews took shore leave before moving on to meet the rest of the squadron at Easter Island . Although the Germans had destroyed the shipping at Papeete and wreaked havoc in the town , they had been denied their primary objective of seizing the French coal piles and replenishing their own stocks . Von Spee 's raid allowed the British Admiralty to receive word on his position and heading , allowing them to inform Rear Admiral Christopher Cradock of the German intentions thus leading to the Battle of Coronel . Another effect was the reduction of ammunition available to the two German cruisers . The hundreds of shells fired by von Spee 's ships at Papeete were irreplaceable . The depletion of ammunition as a result of the action at Papeete contributed to the German East Asia Squadron 's failure to adequately defend itself at the Battle of the Falkland Islands against British battlecruisers . Lieutenant Destremau was chastised by his misinformed superior officer for his actions during the defense of Papeete and for the loss of the gunboat Zélée . He was summoned back to Toulon under arrest to be court @-@ martialled , but died of illness in 1915 before the trial . In 1918 , Destremau was finally recognized for his actions at Papeete and was posthumously awarded the Légion d 'honneur .

= Forbes Field =

Forbes Field was a baseball park in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , from 1909 to June 28 , 1970 . It was the third home of the Pittsburgh Pirates Major League Baseball ( MLB ) team , and the first home of the Pittsburgh Steelers , the city 's National Football League ( NFL ) franchise . The stadium also served as the home football field for the University of Pittsburgh " Pitt " Panthers from 1909 to 1924 . The stadium was named after British general John Forbes , who fought in the French and Indian War , and named the city in 1758 .

The US $ 1 million ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million today ) project was initiated by Pittsburgh Pirates ' owner Barney Dreyfuss , with the goal of replacing his franchise 's then @-@ current home , Exposition Park . The stadium was made of concrete and steel ( one of the first of its kind ) in order to increase its lifespan . The Pirates opened Forbes Field on June 30 , 1909 against the Chicago Cubs , and would play the final game that was also against the Cubs on June 28 , 1970 . The field itself featured a large playing surface , with the batting cage placed in the deepest part of center field during games . Seating was altered multiple times throughout the stadium 's life ; at times fans were permitted to sit on the grass in the outfield during overflow crowds . The Pirates won three World Series while at Forbes Field and the other original tenant , the Pittsburgh Panthers football team had five undefeated seasons before moving in 1924 .

Some remnants of the ballpark still stand , surrounded by the campus of the University of Pittsburgh . Fans gather on the site annually on the anniversary of Bill Mazeroski 's World Series winning home run , in what author Jim O 'Brien writes is " one of the most unique expressions of a love of the game to be found in a major league city " .

= = History = =

= = = Planning and design = = =

In 1903 , Pittsburgh Pirates ' owner Barney Dreyfuss began to look for ground to build a larger capacity replacement for the team 's then @-@ current home , Exposition Park . Dreyfuss purchased seven acres of land near the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh , adjacent to Schenley Park , with assistance from his friend , industrialist Andrew Carnegie . The low @-@ priced land was selected so Dreyfuss could spend more on the stadium itself . Dreyfuss signed a contract that he would " make the ballpark ... of a design that would harmonize with the other structures in the Schenley Park district . " The site was initially labeled " Dreyfuss 's Folly " due to its long distance — a 10 @-@ minute trolley ride — from downtown Pittsburgh , but the land around the park developed and criticisms were dropped . Official Pirates ' records show that Forbes Field cost US $ 1 million for site acquisition and construction , however some estimates place the cost at twice that amount .

Dreyfuss announced that unlike established wooden ballparks such as the Polo Grounds , he would build a three @-@ tiered stadium out of steel and concrete to increase longevity — the first of its kind in the nation . Charles Wellford Leavitt , Jr. was contracted to design the stadium 's grandstand . A civil engineer , Leavitt had founded an engineering and landscape architecture firm in 1897 . He had gained experience in steel and concrete constructs while designing the Belmont and Saratoga racetracks . Based on Dreyfuss ' architectural requirements , Leavitt presented a plan for Forbes Field — the only ballpark he would design . Pirates ' manager Fred Clarke also had input into the stadium 's design , giving groundskeepers advice on the field , in addition to designing and patenting a device to spread and remove a canvas tarpaulin over the infield in case of rain .

Initial work on the land began on January 1 , 1909 , but ground was not officially broken until March 1 . Nicola Building Company built the stadium in 122 days and play began less than four months after ground was broken , on June 30 . Though the scoreboard was operated by hand , the ballpark featured multiple innovations such as ramps and elevators to assist fan movement throughout the park , a room for the umpires , and a visiting team clubhouse similar to the Pirates ' . The facade of the stadium featured " buff @-@ colored terra cotta " spelling out " PAC " for the Pittsburgh Athletic Company . The light green steelwork contrasted with the red slate of the roof . Some members of the press urged Dreyfuss to name the stadium after himself . However , the owner decided on Forbes Field , in honor of General John Forbes , who captured Fort Duquesne from the French in 1758 and rebuilt a new " Fort Pitt " at the site . In 1935 , after Dreyfuss ' death , there was renewed media interest in renaming the stadium " Dreyfuss Field " . His widow , Florence , resisted . However , a monument to Dreyfuss was placed in center field just in front of the wall .

= = = Opening = = =

On June 29 , 1909 , the Pittsburgh Pirates defeated the Chicago Cubs , 8 – 1 at Exposition Park . The two teams opened Forbes Field the following day . Fans began to arrive at the stadium six and one @-@ half hours early for the 3 : 30 pm game . The game started at 3 : 30 p.m. Weather conditions were reported as clear skies with a temperature around 80 ° . Of the crowd , the Pittsburgh Press wrote , " the ceremonies were witnessed by the largest throng that ever attended an event of this kind in this or any other city in the country ... Forbes Field is so immense — so far beyond anything else in America in the way of a baseball park — that old experts , accustomed to judging crowds at a glance , were at a loss for reasonable figures . " Records show that the first game was attended by a standing @-@ room only crowd of 30 @,@ 338 . Various National League officials and owners were present for the opening pre @-@ game ceremonies , including league president Harry Pulliam , Civil War veteran and manager of Pittsburgh 's first professional baseball team Al Pratt , and American League president Ban Johnson . Pittsburgh Mayor William A. Magee threw out the stadium 's ceremonial first pitch . The Chicago Cubs won the first game , 3 – 2 . Dreyfuss declared , " This is indeed the happiest day of my life . " The stadium was widely considered the best in the league .

It is more accurate to say Mayor Magee threw out the first ball . He was in the second tier and threw the ball to John M. Morin , Director of Public Safety , on the field below . Morin then went to the mound and threw the first pitch to the Pirate catcher .

Pictures depict the flag at Forbes Field at half staff on opening day . This occurred to honor recently deceased presidents of the Philadelphia Phillies and the Boston Doves .

The first batter at Forbes Field was future Hall of Famer Johnny Evers , the Cubs second baseman and lead off batter . He was hit by a pitch and later in the inning scored the first run . The first hit by a Pirate was by catcher George Gibson , who eventually became a Pirate manager .

= = = Playing field = = =

Barney Dreyfuss " hated cheap home runs and vowed he 'd have none in his park " , which led him to design a large playing field for Forbes Field . The original distances to the outfield fence in left , center , and right field were 360 feet ( 110 m ) , 462 feet ( 141 m ) and 376 feet ( 115 m ) , respectively .

In 1925 , the right field grandstand was extended into the corner and into fair territory , reducing the foul line distance from 376 feet ( 115 m ) to 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Due to the reduced distance , Dreyfuss erected a 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) high screen to limit home runs .

Even at this long distance from home plate , the wall stood 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in height all around the field , with the right field wall reduced to 9 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) following the 1925 construction ( topped by the screen ) . The backstop was set at 110 feet ( 34 m ) behind home plate , larger than the average of 60 feet ( 18 m ) in most stadiums of the time . Additional seating eventually cut down the plate @-@ to @-@ screen distance to a still larger @-@ than @-@ average 75 feet ( 23 m ) .

With such a large outfield space , triples and inside @-@ the @-@ park home runs were common . The Pirates hit a record eight triples in a single game , on May 30 , 1925 . Conversely , the stadium was one of the most difficult to hit over @-@ the @-@ fence home runs . The closeness of the right field line from 1925 onward was the only area that compromised Dreyfuss ' original design concept . Even at that , the right field wall angled sharply out to 375 feet ( 114 m ) , a typical distance for a major league power alley . The final three home runs of Babe Ruth 's career were hit in Forbes Field on May 25 , 1935 ; the third of these cleared the 89 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) right field roof and was considered the longest home run in the park 's history .

Although Forbes Field developed a reputation as a " pitcher @-@ friendly " ballpark , there was never a no @-@ hitter thrown in the more than 4 @,@ 700 games at the stadium .

The field itself consisted of natural grass grown in Crestline , Ohio .

The batting cage was placed just to the left of the 457 @-@ foot ( 139 m ) center field " Death Valley " marker during games , because it was believed impossible to hit the ball that far . The open part of the cage faced the wall , the back of the cage effectively serving as a convex fence . In right- and left @-@ center fields , light towers stood on the field , and like the batting cage and flagpole in center field , were in @-@ play .

In 1947 , well after Dreyfuss ' death , and upon the arrival of veteran slugger Hank Greenberg , the bullpens were moved from foul territory to the base of the scoreboard in left field and were fenced in , cutting 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from the left field area , from 365 feet ( 111 m ) to 335 feet ( 102 m ) down the line and 406 feet ( 124 m ) to 376 feet ( 115 m ) in left @-@ center field . These were not abnormal major league outfield distances , but the obvious attempt to take advantage of Greenberg 's bat led the media to dub the area " Greenberg Gardens " . Greenberg retired after the season , but by then Ralph Kiner was an established slugger with the Pirates , and the bullpen was redubbed " Kiner 's Korner " . Kiner was traded after the 1953 season , and the field was restored to its previous configuration in time for the 1954 season .

The final posted dimensions of the ballpark were left field line 365 feet ( 111 m ) , left @-@ center field 406 feet ( 124 m ) , deepest left @-@ center 457 feet ( 139 m ) , deep right @-@ center 436 feet ( 133 m ) , right @-@ center field 375 feet ( 114 m ) , and right field line 300 feet ( 91 m ) . The only marker in exact straightaway center field was the Barney Dreyfuss monument , which sat on the playing field just in front of the wall .

Forbes Field 's ivy @-@ covered walls featured no advertising , except a 32 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) United States Marine Corps billboard during the 1943 season .

The infield developed a " rock @-@ hard " surface throughout the stadium 's history . During the final game of the 1960 World Series , Yankees shortstop Tony Kubek was struck in the neck with a ball that bounced off the hard dirt surface , breaking up a potentially rally @-@ killing double play and causing Kubek to exit the game . Pittsburgh went on to win the game and the championship . Groundskeepers burned gasoline on the mound to dry it off . Because of the bounces , Pirates ' play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Bob Prince nicknamed the ballpark , The House of Thrills .

= = = Seating and tickets = = =

Forbes Field had an original capacity of 25 @,@ 000 , the largest in the league at the time . Seating at the stadium was remodeled numerous times , peaking at a capacity of 41 @,@ 000 in 1925 and closing in 1970 at 35 @,@ 000 seats . On opening day , ticket prices ranged from $ 1 @.@ 25 ( equal to $ 32 @.@ 92 today ) for box seats and $ 1 ( equal to $ 26 @.@ 34 today ) for reserved grand stand sections ; temporary bleachers were set up for the occasion and cost $ 0 @.@ 50 . Ticket prices were considered high for the day and steel pillars supporting the roof occasionally blocked fans ' views of the field . 2 @,@ 000 bleachers were situated along the left field side , tickets were sold for a maximum of $ 1 . When winning streaks would attract high attendance to games , fans were permitted to sit on the grass in right field , provided they would agree to allow a player to catch any ball hit in the area . The lowest season of attendance came in 1914 when 139 @,@ 620 people attended games ; the highest at the stadium came in 1960 , when 1 @,@ 705 @,@ 828 people watched the Pirates play . On September 23 , 1956 , the stadium 's largest crowd , 44 @,@ 932 , gathered to see the home team play the Brooklyn Dodgers . The game was cut short in the top of the ninth inning , after a rain delay forced it past the Pennsylvania Sunday curfew . The Dodgers won the game 8 – 2 the following day . At 200 people , June 10 , 1938 marked the smallest crowd to ever attend a Pirates game . On September 30 , 1962 , a crowd of 40 @,@ 916 people saw the Steelers defeated by the New York Giants , at the Steelers ' highest @-@ attended game at the stadium .

= = = Closing and demolition = = =

Though Forbes Field was praised upon its opening , it began to show its age after 60 years of use . The park was the second oldest baseball field in the league at the time – only Shibe Park in Philadelphia was older ( it too was replaced in 1971 by Veterans Stadium ) . The location of the park , which was initially criticized for not being developed , grew into a " bustling business district " which led to a lack of parking space . One sportswriter wrote that The House of Thrills had become " as joyless as a prison exercise yard " . Following a plan to expand their adjacent campus , the University of Pittsburgh purchased Forbes Field in 1958 , with an agreement to lease the stadium to the Pirates until a replacement could be built . A proposal for a new sports stadium in Pittsburgh was first made in 1948 , but plans did not attract much attention until the late 1950s . Construction began on Three Rivers Stadium on April 25 , 1968 . The Pittsburgh Pirates and the Chicago Cubs played a double @-@ header on June 28 , 1970 . Pittsburgh won the first game 3 – 2 . In the later game Al Oliver hit the last home run in the park , and Matty Alou drove in two runs as the Pirates closed the 62 @-@ year @-@ old stadium with a 4 – 1 victory . The 40 @,@ 918 spectators in attendance stood and cheered as Dave Giusti retired Willie Smith for the final out at the stadium . Pirates Hall of Famer Roberto Clemente played 15 seasons at Forbes Field . He was emotional during the last game saying , " I spent half my life there . " After the game , home plate was dug up and taken by helicopter to Three Rivers Stadium to be installed in the artificial turf .

A community group attempted to rescue the structure from demolition , proposing such things as a stage , apartments and a farmers market for the site and comparing it to the Eiffel Tower in significance .

The abandoned structure suffered two separate fires that damaged the park , on December 24 , 1970 and July 17 , 1971 . 11 days after the second fire , demolition began , and the site was cleared for use by the University of Pittsburgh .

= = = Memorials = = =

In 1955 , a statue of Honus Wagner was dedicated in Schenley Plaza adjacent to Forbes Field . Several thousand fans attended the dedication as well as Wagner himself . His failing health caused him to never leave his open convertible in which he arrived ( Wagner died near the end of that year ) . The 1 @,@ 800 pound statue was moved to Three Rivers Stadium in 1970 . Today , the statue stands at the home plate entrance of PNC Park .

The portion of the left field wall over which Bill Mazeroski hit his walk @-@ off home run to end the 1960 World Series , between the scoreboard and the " 406 FT " sign , no longer stands at its original location . A portion of that wall , including the distance marker , had been sliced off and moved to the Allegheny Club at Three Rivers Stadium . Before the Three Rivers demolition , the section of the wall was salvaged , and in 2009 it was restored and placed on the Riverwalk outside of PNC Park .

Meanwhile , the original location of that wall is outlined by bricks extending from the left @-@ center field wall across Roberto Clemente Drive and into the sidewalk . A plaque embedded in the sidewalk marks the spot where Mazeroski 's home run cleared the wall . The left @-@ center and center field brick wall with " 457 FT " and " 436 FT " painted on it still stands at its original location , along with the stadium 's flagpole , adjacent to the University of Pittsburgh 's Mervis and Posvar Halls . Despite not technically being the correct section of wall where Mazeroski 's famous home run cleared , it is often locally referred to as " Mazeroski 's Wall . " This portion of the wall remained after Forbes Field was torn down , and was refurbished in 2006 in time for the All @-@ Star Game hosted in Pittsburgh . In addition , a wooden replica of an entrance to the stadium , including a ticket window and players entrance , was constructed and placed near the remaining wall in 2006 . The home plate used in the stadium 's final game remains preserved in the University of Pittsburgh 's Posvar Hall . However , its location has been altered ; author John McCollister wrote , " Had architects placed home plate in its precise spot about half of the Pirates fans could not view it . The reason : it would have to be on display in the fifth stall of the ladies ' restroom . " However , the original location of the home plate has been more recently determined by others to be approximately 81 feet away from its current display , just inside the GSPIA / Economics Library , and not in a restroom as has been popularly believed .

A ceremony is held each October 13 at the outfield wall in Oakland to listen to a taped broadcast of the final game of the 1960 World Series . The tradition was started by Squirrel Hill resident Saul Finkelstein , who at 1 : 05 pm on October 13 , 1985 , sat alone at the base of the flagpole and listened to the NBC radio broadcast of Chuck Thompson and Jack Quinlan . Finkelstein continued the tradition for eight more years , until word spread and other people began attending in 1993 . On October 13 , 2000 — the game 's 40th anniversary — over 600 people attended to listen to the broadcast , including Mazeroski himself . For the 50th anniversary , on October 13 , 2010 , a plaque honoring Mazeroski was dedicated and more than 1 @,@ 000 attended the broadcast , including Mazeroski and several other former Pirates .

= = Events = =

= = = Baseball = = =

In 1909 , Forbes Field 's opening season , the Pirates beat the Detroit Tigers in the World Series . It would be the only meeting of eventual Hall of Famers Honus Wagner and Ty Cobb .

On October 2 , 1920 , Forbes Field hosted the last triple @-@ header in MLB history .

On August 5 , 1921 , Forbes Field was the site of the first live radio broadcast of a Major League Baseball game in the United States . Harold W. Arlin announced the play @-@ by @-@ play action between the Pittsburgh Pirates and the Philadelphia Phillies over KDKA from a box seat next to the first @-@ base dugout . Regular broadcasts began in 1936 by A. K. ′ ′ Rosey ′ ′ Rowswell , a local humorist and friend of owner Bill Benswanger . Rowswell is quoted as describing his broadcasting with , " It 's not just play @-@ by @-@ play that matters . It 's what you say in between the pitches that counts . " His style influenced junior partner Bob Prince , who began broadcasting in 1948 . Rowswell broadcast games at Forbes Field until his death in 1955 .

In 1925 , the Pirates became the first team to come back from a three @-@ game to one deficit to defeat the Washington Senators and win the World Series . Pittsburgh 's third and final World Series championship while they played at Forbes Field came in 1960 . Bill Mazeroski hit the first home run to end a World Series and as of 2015 , the only walk @-@ off home run in World Series Game 7 history .

Two unassisted triple plays were turned at Forbes Field . The first took place on May 7 , 1925 , when Pittsburgh 's Glenn Wright achieved the feat . Two seasons later , in 1927 , Jimmy Cooney — who had been a victim of the first triple play — also acquired three outs by himself .

On May 25 , 1935 , at Forbes Field , Babe Ruth hit the last three home runs of his career as his Boston Braves lost to the Pirates , 11 @-@ 7 . His last home run cleared the right field stands roofline , making him the first player to ever do so .

On October 8 , 1946 , 6 months before his major league debut Jackie Robinson played with his African American all @-@ stars against Honus Wagner 's all @-@ stars .

Most of the game @-@ action scenes from the 1951 film Angels in the Outfield were filmed at the stadium .

On May 28 , 1956 , Dale Long of the Pirates took what one author has stated was the first @-@ ever curtain call in baseball history , after hitting home runs in eight consecutive games caused fans to cheer for five minutes .

The Homestead Grays of the Negro leagues played all home games at Forbes Field from 1922 to 1939 . Grays owner Cumberland Posey became friends with Dreyfuss , who rarely missed a Grays game . In 1930 , Josh Gibson made his premiere for the Grays at Forbes Field . Also in 1930 , the Grays and the Kansas City Monarchs played the first baseball game at night in Pittsburgh on July 18 , 1930 . A crowd of over 15 @,@ 000 was expected . Floodlights were installed the day before the game after they were transported from Cleveland , where the Grays and Monarchs had played on July 16 . Six members of the Grays ' 1936 team have been inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame . Beginning in 1937 , the Grays won nine consecutive Negro National League championships .

The University of Pittsburgh 's baseball team would also often use Forbes Field for home games .

= = = Football = = =

The University of Pittsburgh 's football team moved from Exposition Park into Forbes Field upon its opening in 1909 and played there until 1924 when it moved into the larger Pitt Stadium only a few blocks away . In their first game at Forbes Field on October 16 , 1909 , the Panthers defeated Bucknell University 18 – 6 . In 1910 , Pitt 's second year at Forbes Field , the Panthers went undefeated without allowing a single point . The Panthers had several successful seasons while playing at Forbes Field , including five in which they went undefeated and were awarded national championship titles in 1910 , 1915 , 1916 , 1917 , and 1918 . During their years at Forbes Field , Pitt 's teams were led by Hall of Fame coaches Joe Thompson , Glenn " Pop " Warner and Jock Sutherland . Forbes Field was the site of yet another broadcasting first when on October 8 , 1921 , Harold W. Arlin announced live play @-@ by @-@ play action of the Pitt @-@ West Virginia football game on radio station KDKA , the first live radio broadcast of a college football game in the United States .

Pittsburgh native , Art Rooney founded his NFL team under the name the Pittsburgh Pirates , on July 8 , 1933 , for $ 2 @,@ 500 ( $ 45 @,@ 701 in present @-@ day terms ) . The franchise 's first game , against the New York Giants , was held on September 20 , 1933 , at Forbes Field . The Giants won the game 23 – 2 in front of 25 @,@ 000 people . Rooney wrote of the game , " The Giants won . Our team looks terrible . The fans didn 't get their money 's worth . " The Pirates would rebound to gain their first ever franchise victory a week later at Forbes Field , against the Chicago Cardinals . The NFL 's Pirates were renamed the Steelers in 1940 , and otherwise struggled during much of their three @-@ decades of tenancy at Forbes . The club achieved its first winning record in 1942 ; its tenth season of existence . On November 30 , 1952 , the Steelers met the New York Giants at Forbes Field for a snowy afternoon game . Pittsburgh entered the game with a 3 – 6 record , but went on to set multiple team records , including scoring nine touchdowns , to win the game 63 – 7 . Excited by their team 's play , the 15 @,@ 140 spectators ran onto the field and began to tear the field goal posts out of the ground . The University of Pittsburgh 's acquisition of Forbes Field in 1958 gave the Steelers some options , and they began transferring some of their home games to the much larger Pitt Stadium that year . The Steelers played their final game at Forbes Field on December 1 , 1963 . The franchise would move to Pitt Stadium exclusively the following season .

= = = Boxing and other events = = =

Boxing bouts were held at Forbes Field from the 1910s to the 1950s , attracting crowds of over 15 @,@ 000 people . On June 23 , 1919 , Harry " The Pittsburgh Windmill " Greb — the only boxer to beat Gene Tunney — defeated Mike Gibbons in a ten round bout at Forbes Field . On July 18 , 1951 , the heavyweight boxing championship was held at the stadium . In seven rounds , Ezzard Charles was knocked out by Jersey Joe Walcott . Another bout on September 25 , 1939 , was attended by 17 @,@ 000 people including Art Rooney and Pie Traynor . Pittsburgh native Billy Conn defended his light heavyweight title against Melio Bettina , whom he had beaten months earlier . Conn won the bout by decision in 15 rounds . Two years later , on June 18 , 1941 , Conn fought Joe Louis at New York City 's Polo Grounds , in an attempt to become the world heavyweight champion . The Pirates and the New York Giants , who were playing at Forbes Field , were called into their dugouts while the 24 @,@ 738 fans in attendance listened to the radio broadcast of the hour @-@ long bout . Conn led the bout into the final round , but fought for the knockout and was knocked out himself .

On Sunday , October 17 , 1909 at 3 : 00 p.m. a Communion Service was held at Forbes Field as the culmination of the International Centennial Celebration and Conventions of the Disciples of Christ marking the 100th anniversary of the signing of the " Declaration and Address " by Thomas Campbell in September 1809 . Campbell was a founding father of the American Restoration Movement ( Disciples of Christ , Christian Church , Churches of Christ ) . Delegates and members of churches from all over the world were present .

The Mine Safety and Health Administration hosted a mine rescue and safety demonstration at Forbes on October 30 , 1911 . The event included first @-@ aid and rescue demonstrations . Around 15 @,@ 000 attended the event , including President William H. Taft . Forbes Field also hosted circuses and concerts .

= = Seating capacity = =

The seating capacity for baseball :

23 @,@ 000 ( 1909 – 1914 )

25 @,@ 000 ( 1915 – 1924 )

41 @,@ 000 ( 1925 – 1937 )

40 @,@ 000 ( 1938 )

33 @,@ 537 ( 1939 – 1941 )

33 @,@ 467 ( 1942 – 1946 )

33 @,@ 730 ( 1947 – 1952 )

34 @,@ 249 ( 1953 – 1959 )

35 @,@ 000 ( 1960 – 1970 )

= = Gallery : 1910s Panorama = =

Forbes Field in the early 1910s from the Library of Congress , intended to form a panorama .

= Mark Stimson =

Mark Nicholas Stimson ( born 27 December 1967 ) is an English former footballer and is currently manager of Thurrock . He signed his first professional contract with Tottenham Hotspur in 1985 , but was unable to gain a regular place in the team . In 1989 , he moved on to Newcastle United , where he made over 80 appearances in the Football League . He later played for Portsmouth , Southend United and Leyton Orient before dropping into non @-@ League football .

He was appointed manager of Grays Athletic in 2002 and remained in charge until 2006 when he took over as manager of Stevenage Borough . He led Grays to victory in the Final of the FA Trophy in 2005 and 2006 , and repeated the feat with Stevenage in 2007 . In November 2007 , he became manager of a Football League team for the first time when he took over at one of his former clubs , Gillingham , but he was unable to prevent the club 's relegation from League One at the end of the 2007 – 08 season . He led Gillingham back into League One the following season via the League Two play @-@ off Final , but his contract was terminated after the team were relegated back to League Two the following season . On 1 June 2010 , Stimson was appointed as the new manager of League Two club Barnet , but he was sacked on New Year 's Day 2011 with the club near the bottom of the table . He later had a spell as manager with Conference club Kettering Town .

= = Playing career = =

Born in Plaistow in east London , Stimson played for the Essex county representative football team and was on the books of Queens Park Rangers , before joining Tottenham Hotspur on an apprenticeship in July 1984 . A year later , he signed his first professional contract , at the age of 17 . He made his Football League debut against Everton in May 1987 , but struggled to gain a place in the first team , and was sent to Leyton Orient on loan in March 1988 , where he played ten times . During the following season , he was loaned out again , this time to Gillingham , whose manager , Keith Burkinshaw , had worked with him at Tottenham . Stimson made 18 appearances for the Kent @-@ based club and , although he was unable to help the team avoid relegation from the Third Division , his contribution impressed the fans , who voted him into second place in the club 's player of the year ballot .

At the end of the 1988 – 89 season , Stimson was transferred to Newcastle United , then in the Second Division , for a fee of £ 200 @,@ 000 . He spent four years with the club and finally gained a regular first team place , making over 80 appearances . After Kevin Keegan took over as manager , however , Stimson found himself out of favour and he had a short spell on loan to Portsmouth in December 1992 , which led to a £ 100 @,@ 000 transfer at the end of that season . He made over fifty appearances for Portsmouth but was also loaned out again , this time to Barnet during the early part of the 1995 – 96 season . In March 1996 , he was transferred to Southend United for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 . His first season at the club was affected by a long lay @-@ off due to injury , meaning that he did not play between August and November , but he ultimately made over 50 Football League appearances for the club . During his time at Roots Hall the club suffered two consecutive relegations , dropping from the First Division into the Second Division in 1997 and from there into the Third Division in 1998 . In March 1999 , having not played for Southend since the previous November , he returned to former club Leyton Orient on a free transfer . He played for the club in the semi @-@ finals of the play @-@ offs , but was restricted to an appearance as an unused substitute in the final , which Orient lost .

Prior to the 1999 – 2000 season , Stimson spent a short period on trial at another of his former clubs , Gillingham , but manager Peter Taylor decided against offering him a contract and he instead joined Isthmian League club Canvey Island . He helped the " Gulls " win the FA Trophy in the 2000 – 01 season , setting up the only goal and winning the man of the match award in Canvey 's 1 – 0 defeat of Forest Green Rovers in the final . He was also selected to play for the England National Game XI , the national team for semi @-@ professional players , earning one cap against an equivalent team from the United States . He left Canvey in May 2002 to join Grays Athletic as player @-@ coach .

= = Managerial career = =

In September 2002 , Stimson took over as manager of Grays after the sacking of Craig Edwards , initially as caretaker manager , but after leading the team to its first victory of the season , he was quickly given the job on an ongoing basis . Despite the signing of a number of former top @-@ level players , such as Carl Leaburn and Jason Dozzell , the team escaped relegation by only one point . The following season , however , boosted by a switch to full @-@ time professional status and helped by the goals of Freddy Eastwood , Grays finished in 6th place , sufficient to gain a place in the newly formed Conference South for the 2004 – 05 season . Grays won the Conference South at the first attempt by a margin of 23 points , thus achieving promotion to the Conference National , the top level of non @-@ league football , for the first time in their history . In the same season , Stimson also led Grays to the FA Trophy Final , where the team beat Hucknall Town in a penalty shoot @-@ out . Grays reached the FA Trophy Final again in the following season , and claimed a second successive win after a 2 – 0 victory over Woking at Upton Park . In the Conference , Grays finished in third place and qualified for the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Football League , but lost to Halifax Town in the semi @-@ finals .

Citing his disappointment at failing to gain promotion , Stimson resigned from his post at Grays on 16 May 2006 . He stated that at the time he had received no firm job offers from other clubs , and acknowledged that he was taking a gamble with his career , but said that if he was unable to find a new job as a manager he would move into youth coaching or open his own football school . He was linked with the managerial vacancy at League Two Peterborough United , but eventually took over as manager of Stevenage Borough on 28 May , and led the club to an eighth @-@ place finish in the Conference National in his first season in charge . Stevenage also defeated Stimson 's former club Grays to reach the FA Trophy final , and beat Kidderminster Harriers 3 – 2 at the new Wembley Stadium in the final , giving Stimson a third consecutive Trophy win as a manager .

In the early part of the 2007 – 08 season , speculation began to mount that Stimson would be approached to take over as manager of a Football League club , with Gillingham , Port Vale and Millwall all alleged to be interested in his services . He was offered a new contract by Stevenage on 16 October 2007 , but resigned the following day . On 1 November , he was appointed as the new manager of Gillingham , and quickly moved to sign a number of Stevenage players , including Adam Miller and John Nutter . He was unable to recreate his previous success , however , and at the end of the 2007 – 08 season Gillingham were relegated from League One . He was also criticised by departing player Aaron Brown , who acknowledged that Stimson had strong coaching skills but described his man @-@ management as " shocking " . The following season the Gills finished fifth in League Two and beat Shrewsbury Town 1 – 0 in the play @-@ off Final at Wembley Stadium to gain promotion , but in the 2009 – 10 season Gillingham were relegated back to League Two , after which Stimson 's contract was terminated " by mutual consent " on 10 May 2010 .

On 1 June , Stimson was appointed as the new manager of League Two club Barnet , but was sacked seven months later on 1 January 2011 due to a bad string of results which left the club near the bottom of the table . Towards the latter stages of the 2010 – 11 season , Stimson accepted a coaching role at Dagenham & Redbridge . After a brief spell at Dagenham , he was appointed manager of Conference National club Kettering Town on 7 September 2011 . On 4 January 2012 , Stimson left Kettering with the team placed in the Conference relegation places . Four months later he was appointed manager of Thurrock following the club 's relegation to the Isthmian League .

= = = Managerial statistics = = =

As of 4 January 2012 .

= = Honours = =

= = = As a player = = =

2000 – 01 : FA Trophy winner – Canvey Island

= = = As a manager = = =

2004 – 05 : Conference South champions – Grays Athletic

2004 – 05 : FA Trophy winners – Grays Athletic

2005 – 06 : FA Trophy winners – Grays Athletic

2006 – 07 : FA Trophy winners – Stevenage Borough

2008 – 09 : League Two play @-@ off winners – Gillingham

= = Personal life = =

Stimson is married , and when he returned to former club Grays Athletic as manager of Stevenage Borough in 2007 , he and his wife were praised for visiting the clubhouse after the game to chat to home supporters . He has three children , including a son , Charlie , who in 2008 joined Gillingham 's youth team , but turned down the offer of a professional contract in 2010 after his father 's dismissal from the manager 's job . In 2000 , Stimson presented his Essex Senior Cup winner 's medal to a disabled Canvey Island fan , saying " it 's easy to forget the fans who come along and support us , often in pouring rain . "

= Steve Fossett =

James Stephen " Steve " Fossett ( April 22 , 1944 – c . September 3 , 2007 ) was an American businessman and a record @-@ setting aviator , sailor , and adventurer . He was the first person to fly solo nonstop around the world in a balloon . He made his fortune in the financial services industry and was best known for many world records , including five nonstop circumnavigations of the Earth : as a long @-@ distance solo balloonist , as a sailor , and as a solo flight fixed @-@ wing aircraft pilot .

A fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Explorers Club , Fossett set more than a hundred records in five different sports , sixty of which still stood at the time of his death .

Fossett disappeared on September 3 , 2007 , while flying a light aircraft over the Great Basin Desert , between Nevada and California . Extensive searches proved unsuccessful , and he was declared legally dead in February of the following year .

In September 2008 , a hiker found Fossett 's identification cards in the Sierra Nevada Mountains , California , leading shortly after to the discovery of the plane 's wreckage . Fossett 's only remains , two large bones presumably scattered by wild animals , were found half a mile from the crash site .

= = Early years = =

Fossett was born in Jackson , Tennessee and grew up in Garden Grove , California , where he graduated from Garden Grove High School .

Fossett 's interest in adventure began early . As a Boy Scout , he grew up climbing the mountains of California , beginning with the San Jacinto Mountains . " When I was 12 years old I climbed my first mountain , and I just kept going , taking on more diverse and grander projects . " Fossett said that he did not have a natural gift for athletics or team sports , so he focused on activities that required persistence and endurance . His father , an Eagle Scout , encouraged Fossett to pursue these types of adventures and encouraged him to become involved with the Boy Scouts early . He became an active member of Troop 170 in Orange , California . At age 13 , Fossett earned the Boy Scouts ' highest rank of Eagle Scout . He was a Vigil Honor member of the Order of the Arrow , the Boy Scouts ' honor society , where he served as lodge chief . He also worked as a Ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in New Mexico during the summer of 1961 . Fossett said in 2006 that Scouting was the most important activity of his youth .

In college at Stanford University , Fossett was already known as an adventurer ; his Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity brothers convinced him to swim to Alcatraz and raise a banner that read " Beat Cal " on the wall of the prison , closed two years previously . He made the swim , but was thwarted by a security guard when he arrived . While at Stanford , Fossett was a student body officer and served as the president of a few clubs . In 1966 , Fossett graduated from Stanford with a degree in economics . Fossett spent the following summer in Europe climbing mountains and swimming the Dardanelles .

= = Business career = =

In 1968 , Fossett received an MBA from the Olin School of Business at Washington University in St. Louis , Missouri , where he was later a longtime member of the Board of Trustees . Fossett 's first job out of business school was with IBM ; he then served as a consultant for Deloitte and Touche , and later accepted a job with Marshall Field 's . Fossett later said , " For the first five years of my business career , I was distracted by being in computer systems , and then I became interested in financial markets . That 's where I thrived . "

Fossett then became a successful commodities salesman in Chicago , first for Merrill Lynch in 1973 , where he proved a highly successful producer of commission revenue for himself and that firm . He began working in 1976 for Drexel Burnham , which assigned him one of its memberships on the Chicago Board of Trade and permitted him to market the services of the firm from a phone on the floor of that exchange . In 1980 , Fossett began the process that eventually produced his enduring prosperity : renting exchange memberships to would @-@ be floor traders , first on the Chicago Board Options Exchange .

After fifteen years of working for other companies , Fossett founded his own firms , Marathon Securities and Lakota Trading , from which he made millions renting exchange memberships . He founded Lakota Trading for that purpose in 1980 . In the early 1980s , he founded Marathon Securities and extended that successful formula to memberships on the New York stock exchanges . He earned millions renting floor trading privileges ( exchange memberships ) to hopeful new floor traders , who would also pay clearing fees to Fossett 's clearing firms in proportion to the trading activity of those renting the memberships . In 1997 , the trading volume of its rented memberships was larger than any other clearing firm on the Chicago exchange . Lakota Trading replicated that same business plan on many exchanges in the United States and also in London . Fossett would later use those revenues to finance his adventures . Fossett said , " As a floor trader , I was very aggressive and worked hard . Those same traits help me in adventure sports . "

Fossett said he did not participate in any of the " interesting things " he had done in college during his time in exchange @-@ related activities : " There was a period of time where I wasn 't doing anything except working for a living . I became very frustrated with that and finally made up my mind to start getting back into things . " He began to take six weeks a year off to spend time on sports and moved to Beaver Creek , Colorado in 1990 . Fossett later sold most of his business interests , although he maintained an office in Chicago until 2006 .

= = Personal life = =

In 1968 Fossett married Peggy Fossett ( née Viehland ) , who was originally from Richmond Heights , Missouri . They had no children . The Fossetts had homes in Beaver Creek , Colorado and Chicago , and a vacation home in Carmel , California .

Fossett became well known in the United Kingdom for his friendship with billionaire Richard Branson , whose Virgin Group sponsored some of Fossett 's adventures .

= = Records = =

= = = Overview = = =

Steve Fossett was well known for his world records and adventures in balloons , sailboats , gliders , and powered aircraft . He was an aviator of exceptional breadth of experience . He wanted to become the first person to achieve a solo balloon flight around the world ( finally succeeding on his sixth attempt , in 2002 , becoming the first person to complete an uninterrupted and unrefueled solo circumnavigation of the world in any kind of aircraft ) . He set , with co @-@ pilot Terry Delore , 10 of the 21 Glider Open records , including the first 2 @,@ 000 km Out @-@ and @-@ Return , the first 1 @,@ 500 km Triangle and the longest Straight Distance flights . His achievements as a jet pilot in a Cessna Citation X include records for U.S. Transcontinental , Australia Transcontinental , and Round @-@ the @-@ World westbound non @-@ supersonic flights . Prior to Fossett 's aviation records , no pilot had held world records in more than one class of aircraft ; Fossett held them in four classes .

In 2005 Fossett made the first solo , nonstop unrefueled circumnavigation of the world in an airplane , in 67 hours in the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer , a single @-@ engine jet aircraft .

In 2006 , he again circumnavigated the globe nonstop and unrefueled in 76 hours , 45 minutes in the GlobalFlyer , setting the record for the longest flight by any aircraft in history with a distance of 25 @,@ 766 statute miles ( 41 @,@ 467 km ) .

He set 91 aviation world records ratified by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale , of which 36 stand , plus 23 sailing world records ratified by the World Sailing Speed Record Council .

On August 29 , 2006 , he set the world altitude record for gliders over El Calafate , Argentina at 15 @,@ 460 metres ( 50 @,@ 720 ft ) .

Management and sponsorship of the majority of his projects was handled by UK based sports marketing agency Project 100 Communications Ltd for whom Fossett had first driven at Le Mans in 1992 .

= = = Balloon pilot = = =

On February 21 , 1995 , Fossett landed in Leader , Saskatchewan , Canada , after taking off from South Korea , becoming the first person to make a solo flight across the Pacific Ocean in a balloon .

In 2002 , he became the first person to fly around the world alone , nonstop in any kind of aircraft . He launched the 10 @-@ story high balloon Spirit of Freedom from Northam , Western Australia on June 19 , 2002 and returned to Australia on July 3 , 2002 , subsequently landing in Queensland . Duration and distance of this solo balloon flight was 13 days , 8 hours , 33 minutes ( 14 days 19 hours 50 minutes to landing ) , 20 @,@ 626 @.@ 48 statute miles ( 33 @,@ 195 @.@ 10 km ) . The balloon dragged him along the ground for 20 minutes at the end of the flight . The control center for the mission was in Brookings Hall at Washington University in St. Louis . Fossett 's top speed during the flight was 186 miles per hour ( 299 km / h ) over the Indian Ocean . Only the capsule survived the landing ; it was taken to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , DC , where it was displayed . The trip set a number of records for ballooning : Fastest ( 200 miles per hour ( 320 km / h ) , breaking his own previous record of 166 miles per hour ( 270 km / h ) ) , Fastest Around the World ( 13 @.@ 5 days ) , Longest Distance Flown Solo in a Balloon ( 20 @,@ 482 @.@ 26 miles ( 32 @,@ 963 @.@ 00 km ) ) , and 24 @-@ Hour Balloon Distance ( 3 @,@ 186 @.@ 80 miles ( 5 @,@ 128 @.@ 66 km ) on July 1 ) .

While Fossett had financed five previous tries himself , his successful record @-@ setting flight was sponsored by Bud Light . In the end , Fossett actually made money on all his balloon flights . He bought a contingency insurance policy for $ 500 @,@ 000 that would pay him $ 3 million if he succeeded in the flight . Along with sponsorship , that payout meant that in the end Fossett did not have to spend any of his money other than for initial expenses .

= = = Sailor = = =

Fossett was one of the world 's most accomplished sailors . Speed sailing was his specialty and from 1993 to 2004 he dominated the record sheets , setting 23 official world records and nine distance race records . He is recognized by the World Sailing Speed Record Council as " the world 's most accomplished speed sailor . "

On the maxi @-@ catamaran Cheyenne ( formerly named PlayStation ) , Fossett twice set the prestigious 24 Hour Record of Sailing . In October 2001 , Fossett and his crew set a transatlantic record of 4 days 17 hours , shattering the previous record by 43 hours 35 minutes — an increase in average speed of nearly seven knots .

In early 2004 , Fossett , as skipper , set the Around the world sailing record of 58 days , 9 hours in Cheyenne with a crew of 13 . In 2007 , Fossett held the world record for crossing the Pacific Ocean in his 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) sailboat , the PlayStation , which he accomplished on his fourth try .

At the time of his death , a submarine , DeepFlight Challenger , was under construction to let him be the first solo submariner to reach the Challenger Deep .

= = = Airship pilot = = =

Fossett set the Absolute World Speed Record for airships on October 27 , 2004 . The new record for fastest flight was accomplished with a Zeppelin NT , at a recorded average speed of 62 @.@ 2 knots ( 115 @.@ 2 km / h ; 71 @.@ 6 mph ) . The previous record was 50 @.@ 1 knots ( 92 @.@ 8 km / h ; 57 @.@ 7 mph ) set in 2001 in a Virgin airship . In 2006 , Fossett was one of only 17 pilots in the world licensed to fly the Zeppelin .

= = = Fixed @-@ wing aircraft pilot = = =

= = = = GlobalFlyer = = = =

Fossett made the first solo nonstop unrefueled fixed @-@ wing aircraft flight around the world between February 28 and March 3 , 2005 . He took off from Salina , Kansas , where he was assisted by faculty members and students from Kansas State University , and flew eastbound with the prevailing winds , returning to Salina after 67 hours , 1 minute , 10 seconds , without refueling or making intermediate landings . His average speed of 342 @.@ 2 mph ( 550 @.@ 7 km / h ) was also the absolute world record for " speed around the world , nonstop and non @-@ refueled . " His aircraft , the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer , had a carbon fiber reinforced plastic airframe with a single Williams FJ44 turbofan engine . It was designed and built by Burt Rutan and his company , Scaled Composites , for long @-@ distance solo flight . The fuel fraction , the weight of the fuel divided by the weight of the aircraft at take @-@ off , was 83 percent .

On February 11 , 2006 , Fossett set the absolute world record for " distance without landing " by flying from the Kennedy Space Center , Florida , around the world eastbound , then upon returning to Florida continuing across the Atlantic a second time to land in Bournemouth , England . The official distance was 25 @,@ 766 statute miles ( 41 @,@ 467 km ) and the duration was 76 hours 45 minutes .

The next month , Fossett made a third flight around the world in order to break the absolute record for " Distance over a closed circuit without landing " ( with takeoff and landing at the same airport ) . He took off from Salina , Kansas on March 14 , 2006 and returned on March 17 , 2006 after flying 25 @,@ 262 statute miles ( 40 @,@ 655 km ) .

There are only seven absolute world records for fixed @-@ wing aircraft recognized by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale and Fossett broke three of them in the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer . All three records were previously held by Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager from their flight in the Voyager in 1986 . Fossett contributed the GlobalFlyer to the Smithsonian Institution 's permanent collection . It is on display at the Udvar @-@ Hazy Center of the Smithsonian 's National Air and Space Museum . Fossett flew the plane to the Center and taxied the plane to the front door .

= = = = Transcontinental aircraft records = = = =

Fossett set two U.S. transcontinental fixed @-@ wing aircraft records in the same day . On February 5 , 2003 , Fossett and co @-@ pilot Doug Travis flew his Cessna Citation X jet from San Diego , California to Charleston , South Carolina in 2 hours , 56 minutes , 20 seconds , at an average speed of 726 @.@ 83 mph ( 1 @,@ 169 @.@ 72 km / h ) to smash the transcontinental record for non @-@ supersonic jets .

He returned to San Diego , then flew the same course as co @-@ pilot for fellow adventurer Joe Ritchie in Ritchie 's turboprop Piaggio Avanti . Their time was 3 hours , 51 minutes , 52 seconds , an average speed of 546 @.@ 44 mph ( 879 @.@ 41 km / h ) , which broke the previous turboprop transcontinental record held by Chuck Yeager and Renald Davenport .

Fossett also set the east @-@ to @-@ west transcontinental record for non @-@ supersonic fixed @-@ wing aircraft on September 17 , 2000 . He flew from Jacksonville , Florida to San Diego , California in 3 hours , 29 minutes , at an average speed of 591 @.@ 96 mph ( 952 @.@ 67 km / h ) .

= = = = First trans @-@ Atlantic flight re @-@ enactment = = = =

On July 2 , 2005 , Fossett and co @-@ pilot Mark Rebholz recreated the first nonstop crossing of the Atlantic which was made by the British team of John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown in June 1919 in a Vickers Vimy biplane . Their flight from St. John 's , Newfoundland , Canada to Clifden , County Galway , Ireland in the open cockpit Vickers Vimy replica took 18 hours 25 minutes with 13 hours flown in instrument flight conditions . Because there was no airport in Clifden , Fossett and Rebholz landed on the 8th fairway of the Connemara Golf Links .

= = = = Glider records = = = =

The team of Steve Fossett and Terry Delore ( NZ ) set ten official world records in gliders while flying in three major locations : New Zealand , Argentina , and Nevada , United States . An asterisk ( * ) indicates records subsequently broken by other pilots .

Distance ( Free ) World Record 2 @,@ 192 @.@ 9 km , December 4 , 2004 .

Triangle Distance ( Free ) World Record * 1 @,@ 509 @.@ 7 km , December 13 , 2003 .

Out and Return Distance ( Free ) World Record * 2 @,@ 002 @.@ 44 km , November 14 , 2003 .

1 @,@ 500 Kilometer Triangle World Record 119 @.@ 11 km / h ( 74 @.@ 01 mph ) , December 13 , 2003 .

1 @,@ 250 Kilometer Triangle U.S. National Record 143 @.@ 48 km / h ( 89 @.@ 15 mph ) . Exceeded world record by 0 @.@ 01 km / h , July 30 , 2003 .

750 Kilometer Triangle World Record * 171 @.@ 29 km / h ( 106 @.@ 43 mph ) , July 29 , 2003 .

500 Kilometer Triangle World Record * 187 @.@ 12 km / h ( 116 @.@ 27 mph ) , November 15 , 2003 .

1 @,@ 000 km Out @-@ and @-@ Return World Record * 166 @.@ 46 km / h ( 103 @.@ 43 mph ) , December 12 , 2002 .

1 @,@ 500 km Out @-@ and @-@ Return World Record * 156 @.@ 61 km / h ( 97 @.@ 31 mph ) , November 14 , 2003 .

Triangle Distance ( Declared ) World Record * 1 @,@ 502 @.@ 6 km , December 13 , 2003 .

Out @-@ and @-@ Return Distance ( Declared ) World Record * 1 @,@ 804 @.@ 7 km , November 14 , 2003 .

Fossett and co @-@ pilot Einar Enevoldson flew a glider into the stratosphere on August 29 , 2006 . The flight set the Absolute Altitude Record for gliders at 15 @,@ 460 metres ( 50 @,@ 720 ft ) . Since the glider cockpit was unpressurized , the pilots wore full pressure suits ( similar to space suits ) so that they would be able to fly to altitudes above 45 @,@ 000 feet ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Fossett and Enevoldson had made previous attempts in three countries over a period of five years before finally succeeding with this record flight . This endeavor is known as the Perlan Project .

= = = Cross @-@ country skiing = = =

As a young adventurer , Fossett was one of the first participants in the Worldloppet , a series of cross country ski marathons around the world . While he had little experience as a skier , he was in the first group of ' citizen athletes ' to participate in the series debut in 1979 . And in 1980 , he became the eighth skier to complete all 10 of the long distance races , earning a Worldloppet medallion . He has also set cross @-@ country skiing records in Colorado , setting an Aspen to Vail record of 59 h , 53 min , 30 s in February 1998 , and an Aspen to Eagle record of 12 hr , 29 min in February 2001 .

= = = Mountain climbing = = =

Fossett was a lifelong mountain climber and had climbed the highest peaks on six of the seven continents . In the 1980s , he became friends with Patrick Morrow , who was attempting to climb the highest peaks on all seven continents for the " Seven Summits " world record , which Morrow achieved in 1985 . Fossett accompanied Morrow for his last three peaks , including Vinson Massif in Antarctica , Carstensz Pyramid in Oceania , and Elbrus in Europe . While Fossett went on to climb almost all of the Seven Summits peaks himself , he declined to climb Mount Everest in 1992 due to asthma . He later returned to Antarctica to climb again .

= = = Other accomplishments = = =

Fossett competed in and completed premier endurance sports events , including the 1 @,@ 165 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 875 km ) Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race , in which he finished 47th on his second try in 1992 after training for five years . He became the 270th person to swim across the English Channel on his fourth try in September 1985 with a time of 22 hours , 15 minutes . Although Fossett said he was not a good enough swimmer " to make the varsity swim team " , he found that he could swim for long periods . Fossett competed in the Ironman Triathlon in Hawaii ( finishing in 1996 in 15 : 53 : 10 ) , the Boston Marathon , and the Leadville Trail 100 , a 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) Colorado ultramarathon which involves running up elevations of more than 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) in the Rocky Mountains .

Fossett raced cars in the mid @-@ 1970s and later returned to the sport in the 1990s . He competed in the 24 hours of Le Mans road race in 1993 and in 1996 , along with the Paris to Dakar Rally .

= = = Previous attempts at records = = =

Fossett tried six times over seven years for the first solo balloon circumnavigation . His fifth attempt cost him $ 1 @.@ 25 million of his own money ; his sixth and successful attempt was commercially sponsored . Two of the attempts were launched from Busch Memorial Stadium in St. Louis , Missouri . Washington University in St. Louis served as control center for four of the six flights , including the record @-@ breaking one .

In 1998 , one of the unsuccessful attempts at the ballooning record ended with a five @-@ mile ( 8 km ) plummet into the Coral Sea off the coast of Australia that nearly killed Fossett ; he waited 72 hours to be rescued , at a cost of $ 500 @,@ 000 . The first attempt began in the Black Hills of South Dakota and ended outside Hampton , New Brunswick 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) later . The second attempt , launched from Busch Stadium , cost $ 300 @,@ 000 and lasted 9 @,@ 600 miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ) before being downed halfway in a tree in India ; the trip set records at the time for duration and distance of flight ( with Fossett doubling his own previous record ) and was called Solo Spirit after Lindbergh 's Spirit of St. Louis . Fossett slept an average of two hours a night for the six @-@ day journey , conducted in below @-@ zero temperatures . After taking too much fuel to cross the Atlantic Ocean and circling Libya for 12 hours while officials decided whether or not to allow him into their airspace , Fossett did not have enough fuel to finish the flight . That year , Fossett flew farther for less money than better @-@ financed expeditions ( including one supported by Richard Branson ) in part due to his ability to fly in an unpressurized capsule , a result of his heavy physical training at high altitudes . The Solo Spirit capsule was put on display at the Smithsonian 's National Air and Space Museum across from the Apollo 11 command module .

= = Scouting = =

Fossett grew up in Garden Grove , California and earned the Eagle Scout award in 1957 . He credited his experience in Scouting as a foundation for much of his later success . " As a Scout , I learned how to set goals and achieve them , " he once said . " Being a Scout also taught me leadership at a young age when there are few opportunities to be a leader . Scouting values have remained with me throughout my life , in my business career , and now as I take on new challenges . " In his later years , he was described as a " legend " by fellow Scouts . As a national BSA volunteer , he served as Chairman of the Northern Tier High Adventure Committee , Chairman of the Venturing Committee , member of the Philmont Ranch Committee , and member of the National Advisory Council . He later became a member of the BSA National Executive Board , and in 2007 , Fossett succeeded Secretary of Defense Robert Gates as president of the National Eagle Scout Association . Fossett previously had served on the World Scout Committee .

Fossett was honored with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in 1992 . In 1999 he received the Silver Buffalo Award , BSA 's highest recognition of service to youth .

= = Awards and honors = =

In 2002 , Fossett received aviation 's highest award , the Gold Medal of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) and in July 2007 , he was inducted into the Aviation Hall of Fame . He was presented at the ceremony by Dick Rutan .

In 1997 , Fossett was inducted into the Balloon and Airship Hall of Fame . In February 2002 , Fossett was named America 's Rolex Yachtsman of the Year by the American Sailing Association at the New York Yacht Club . He was the oldest recipient of the award in its 41 @-@ year history , and the only recipient to fly himself to the ceremony in his own plane .

He received the Explorers Medal from the Explorers Club following his solo balloon circumnavigation . He was given the Diplôme de Montgolfier by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in 1996 . He received the Harmon Trophy , given annually " to the world 's outstanding aviator and aeronaut " , in 1998 and 2002 . He received the Grande Médaille of the Aéro @-@ Club de France , and the British Royal Aero Club 's Gold Medal in 2002 . He received the Order of Magellan and the French Republic 's Médaille de l 'Aéronautique in 2003 .

The Scaled Composites White Knight Two VMS Spirit of Steve Fossett , was named in Fossett 's honor by his friend Richard Branson , in 2007 . Following his disappearance , Peggy Fossett and Dick Rutan accepted the Spread Wings Award in Steve Fossett 's behalf at the 2007 Spreading Wings Gala , Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum , Denver , Colorado .

= = Death = =

= = = Disappearance and search = = =

At 8 : 45 am on the morning of Monday , September 3 , 2007 ( Labor Day ) , Fossett took off in a single @-@ engine Super Decathlon light aircraft from the Flying @-@ M Ranch private airstrip ( 38 ° 36 ′ 13 ″ N 119 ° 00 ′ 11 ″ W ) , near Smith Valley , Nevada .

After failing to return , searches were launched about six hours later . The aircraft had tail number N240R registered to the " Flying M Hunting Club , Inc . " There was no signal from the plane 's emergency locator transmitter ( ELT ) designed to be automatically activated in the event of a crash , but it was of an older type notorious for failing to operate after a crash .

It was first thought that Fossett may have also been wearing a Breitling Emergency watch with a manually operated ELT that had a range of up to 90 miles ( 140 km ) , but no signal was received from it . On September 13 , Fossett 's wife , Peggy , issued a statement clarifying that he owned such a watch but was not wearing it when he took off for the Labor Day flight .

Fossett took off with enough fuel for four to five hours of flight , according to spokesperson Major Cynthia S. Ryan , Public Information Officer with the Civil Air Patrol ( CAP ) . Searchers with CAP were told that Fossett had gone out for a short flight over favorite territory , possibly including the areas of Lucky Boy Pass and Walker Lake . At one point it was suggested that he might have been out scouting for potential sites to conduct a planned land speed run . A Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) spokesperson noted that Fossett apparently did not file a flight plan and was not required to do so . On the second day , Civil Air Patrol aircraft searched but found no trace of wreckage after initiating a complex and expanding search of what would later evolve into a nearly 20 @,@ 000 square miles ( 52 @,@ 000 km2 ) area of some of the most rugged terrain in North America . The search presented a severe challenge from the standpoint of safely flying hundreds of hours in very difficult conditions . On the first day of CAP searching , operations were suspended by mid @-@ day due to high winds , according to Ryan . By the fourth day , the CAP was using fourteen aircraft in the search effort , including one equipped with the ARCHER system that could automatically scan detailed imaging for a given signature of the missing aircraft . By September 10 , search crews had found eight previously uncharted crash sites , some of which were decades old , but none related to Fossett 's disappearance . The urgency of what was still regarded as a rescue mission meant that minimal immediate effort was made to identify the aircraft in the uncharted crash sites , although some had speculated that one could have belonged to Charles Clifford Ogle , missing since 1964 . All told , about two dozen aircraft were involved in the massive search , operating from the primary search base at Minden , Nevada , with a secondary search base located at Bishop , California . CAP searchers came from Wings across the United States , including Nevada , Utah , California , Arizona , New Mexico , Idaho , Oregon , Pennsylvania and Texas .

On September 7 , Google Inc. helped the search for the aviator through its connections to contractors that provide satellite imagery for its Google Earth software . Richard Branson , a British billionaire and friend of Fossett , said he and others were coordinating efforts with Google to see if any of the high @-@ resolution images might include Fossett 's aircraft .

On September 8 , the first of a series of new high @-@ resolution imagery from DigitalGlobe was made available via the Amazon Mechanical Turk beta website so that users could flag potential areas of interest for searching , in what is known as crowdsourcing . By September 11 , up to 50 @,@ 000 people had joined the effort , scrutinizing more than 300 @,@ 000 278 @-@ square @-@ foot squares of the imagery . Peter Cohen of Amazon believed that by September 11 , the entire search area had been covered at least once . Amazon 's search effort was shut down the week of October 29 , without any measurable success . Major Cynthia Ryan later said it had been more of a hindrance than a help . She said that persons purporting to have seen the aircraft on the Mechanical Turk or have special knowledge clogged her email during critical days of the search , and for even months afterward . Many of the ostensible sightings proved to be images of CAP aircraft flying search grids , or simply mistaken artifacts of old images . Psychics flooded the search base in Minden with predictions of where the aviator could be found . Ryan got the majority of these calls personally , often at her home , in the middle of the night . One man from Canada was particularly persistent with daily calls to Ryan , interfering with her press briefings . Ryan asked her Incident Commander to issue a cease and desist order , backed up by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) if necessary . Ryan noted that every message , letter , or phone call was taken seriously – which swamped the USAF specialists assigned the task of reviewing every one of them without regard to apparent plausibility . In retrospect , the crowdsource effort was " not ready for prime time , " according to Ryan .

On September 12 , survival experts speculated that Fossett was likely to be dead .

On September 17 , the Nevada Wing of the Civil Air Patrol said it was suspending all flights in connection with its search operations , but National Guard search flights , private search flights and ground searches continued .

The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) began a preliminary investigation into the likely crash of the plane that Fossett was flying . The preliminary report originally stated that Fossett was " presumed fatally injured and the aircraft substantially damaged " , but was subsequently revised to remove that assumption . Fossett 's friend and fellow explorer , Sir Richard Branson , made similar public statements .

On September 19 , 2007 , authorities confirmed they would stop actively looking for Fossett in the Nevada Desert , but would keep air crews on standby to fly to possible crash sites . " Nobody is giving up on this man " , said department spokesman . " The search is going to continue . It 's just going to be scaled back " , he said . On September 30 it was announced that after further analysis of radar data from the day of his disappearance , ground teams and two aircraft had resumed the search .

On October 2 , 2007 , the Civil Air Patrol announced it had called off its search operation Ryan later noted that the search was the largest , most complex peacetime search for an individual in U.S. history .

On August 23 , 2008 , almost a year after Fossett went missing , twenty @-@ eight friends and admirers conducted a foot search based on new clues gathered by the team . That search concluded on September 10 .

= = = Search and rescue costs = = =

On May 1 , 2008 , the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal attributed to Nevada State Governor Jim Gibbons 's spokesman , Ben Kieckhefer , the Governor 's decision to direct the state to charge Steve Fossett 's family for the $ 687 @,@ 000 expense of the search for Fossett . Kieckhefer later played that early report down , when he told the Tahoe Daily Tribune that Nevada did not intend to demand an involuntary payment from Fossett 's widow , but that such a payment would be voluntary : " We are going to request that they help offset some of these expenses , considering the scope of the search , the overall cost as well as our ongoing budget difficulties . " Hotelier Barron Hilton , from whose ranch Fossett had departed on the day he went missing , had previously volunteered $ 200 @,@ 000 to help pay for the search costs .

In his later comments to the Tahoe Daily Tribune , Kieckhefer denied outright that a bill for the family was being prepared , and he said , " It will probably be in the form of a letter " , which Kieckhefer indicated would include a financial outline of the steps taken by the state , the associated costs , and a mention of the state 's ongoing budget difficulties .

Days prior to this announcement , state Emergency Management Director Frank Siracusa noted that " there is no precedent where government will go after people for costs just because they have money to pay for it . You get lost , and we look for you . It is a service your taxpayer dollars pay for " , although he conceded that legally any decision would rest with Gibbons . At an April 10 , 2008 Legislature 's Interim Finance Committee hearing , Siracusa indicated that he had hired an independent auditor to review costs incurred by the state in searching for Fossett , but added , " We are doing an audit but not because we are critical of anybody or suspect something was done wrong " . Chairman Morse Arberry queried Siracusa as to why , since they lacked funds , had the state not billed the Fossett family for its search costs , to which Siracusa did not directly respond . In his later interview with the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal , he stated that his comments to the Committee may have given the false impression that he had hired an auditor for the purpose of later challenging the state 's financial burden incurred on its behalf by the National Guard during the search operation . Upon interview regarding reports that the state would seek payment , Arberry was recorded as stating that he was glad to hear steps were being taken to try to recoup some of the costs .

The Nevada search cost $ 1 @.@ 6 million , " the largest search and rescue effort ever conducted for a person within the U.S. " Jim Gibbons asked Fossett 's estate to shoulder $ 487 @,@ 000 but it declined , saying Fossett 's wife had already spent $ 1 million on private searching .

= = = Recovery of wreckage and remains = = =

On September 29 , 2008 , a hiker found three crumpled identification cards in the Eastern Sierra Nevada in California about 65 miles ( 100 km ) south ( 186 degrees ) of Fossett 's take @-@ off site . The items were confirmed as belonging to Fossett and included an FAA @-@ issued card , his Soaring Society of America membership card and $ 1 @,@ 005 in cash .

On October 1 , late in the day , air search teams spotted wreckage on the ground at coordinates 37 ° 40 ′ 2 @.@ 8 ″ N 119 ° 08 ′ 0 ″ W at an elevation of 10 @,@ 100 feet ( 3 @,@ 100 m ) and about 750 yards ( 690 m ) from where the personal items had been found . Later that evening the teams confirmed identification of the tail number of Fossett 's plane . The crash site is on a slope beneath the southwest side of a ridge line ( 600 feet ( 180 m ) lower than the top of the ridge ) in the Ansel Adams Wilderness in Madera County , California . Other named places near the crash site include Minaret Mine ( 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 600 m ) west ) , Emily Lake ( 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) northeast ) , Minaret Lake ( 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) west @-@ southwest ) , the Minaret peaks ( 3 miles ( 5 km ) west ) , Devils Postpile National Monument ( 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) southeast ) , and the town of Mammoth Lakes ( the nearest populated place , 9 miles ( 14 km ) east @-@ southeast ) . The site is 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of Yosemite National Park .

Over the next two days , ground searchers found four bone fragments that were about 2 by 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 5 by 4 cm ) in size . However , DNA tests subsequently showed that these fragments were not human .

On October 29 , search teams recovered two large human bones that they suspected might belong to Fossett . These bones were found 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) east of the crash site . Tennis shoes with animal bite marks on them were also recovered . On November 3 , California police coroners said that DNA profiling of the two bones by a California Department of Justice forensics laboratory confirmed a match to Fossett 's DNA . Madera County Sheriff John Anderson said Fossett would have died on impact in such a crash , and that it was not unusual for animals to drag remains away .

= = = NTSB report and findings = = =

On March 5 , 2009 , the NTSB issued its report and findings . It states that the plane crashed at an elevation of about 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , 300 feet ( 90 m ) below the crest of the ridge . The elevation of peaks in the area exceeded 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) . However , the density altitude in the area at the time and place of the crash was estimated to be 12 @,@ 700 feet ( 3 @,@ 900 m ) . The aircraft , a tandem two @-@ seater , was nearly 30 years old and Fossett had flown approximately 40 hours in this type . The plane 's operating manual says that at an altitude of 13 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) the rate of climb would be 300 feet per minute ( about 1 @.@ 5 m / s ) . The NTSB report says that " a meteorologist from Salinas provided a numerical simulation of the conditions in the accident area using the WRF @-@ ARW ( Advanced Research Weather Research and Forecasting ) numerical model . At 0930 [ the approximate time of the crash ] the model displayed downdrafts in that area of approximately 300 feet per minute . " There was no evidence of equipment failure . The report stated that a postmortem examination of the skeletal fragments had been performed under the auspices of the Madera County Sheriff 's Department . The cause of death was determined to be multiple traumatic injuries .

On July 9 , 2009 , the NTSB declared the probable cause of the crash as " the pilot 's inadvertent encounter with downdrafts that exceeded the climb capability of the airplane . Contributing to the accident were the downdrafts , high density altitude , and mountainous terrain . "

= WCLG ( AM ) =

WCLG ( 1300 AM ) is an oldies and classic hits @-@ formatted broadcast radio station licensed to Morgantown , West Virginia , serving Morgantown and Monongalia County , West Virginia . WCLG is owned and operated by Bowers Broadcasting Corporation .

Launched on December 27 , 1954 , WCLG broadcast a " music @-@ news " format . The station was originally intended to be a part of a statewide network of stations . Over the years , the station was subject to an equal @-@ time rule complaint and was awarded for its coverage of the Farmington Number 9 mine disaster . Many different formats were heard on WCLG during the 1970s and 1980s , with its current format launched in 1991 . WCLG carries Cumulus Media Networks ' satellite @-@ fed Classic Hits network .

A planned 2013 sale of WCLG ( and its sister @-@ station WCLG @-@ FM ) was halted by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) due to a complaint that the company buying the stations , AJG Corporation , has close connections with another local broadcaster , West Virginia Radio Corporation .

= = History = =

= = = Pre @-@ broadcast = = =

Martinsburg , West Virginia , businessman C. Leslie Golliday filed the initial application for the station with the FCC on September 1 , 1954 . In the application , Golliday estimated construction costs at $ 13 @,@ 608 , with a first year operation cost of $ 36 @,@ 000 . Golliday estimated an initial revenue of $ 60 @,@ 000 .

WCLG began testing equipment during the week of December 19 , 1954 , and filed its construction permit application two days later . WCLG broadcast for the first time on December 27 , 1954 . The station initially had a " music @-@ news " format , using the Associated Press news service .

In its early days , WCLG was a daytime @-@ only broadcaster , with a power of 500 watts . Owner C. Leslie Golliday used his initials for the station 's call sign . Golliday , who also owned Martinsburg 's WEPM , envisioned a network of stations across the state of West Virginia .

WCLG was officially granted its broadcast license by the FCC on January 18 , 1955 . Throughout its existence , WCLG 's studios have been at 343 High Street in Morgantown .

= = = History since launch = = =

On March 10 , 1955 , WCLG filed an application to increase its power to 1 @,@ 000 watts , proposing to continue daytime @-@ only broadcasts . The application was granted on September 28 , 1955 . In 1958 , future owner Garry L. Bowers joined the station as an announcer . WCLG was bought by Freed Broadcasting Corporation for $ 67 @,@ 000 on December 19 , 1959 .

In May 1960 , Stanley R. Cox , a candidate in the Republican primary election for the House of Representatives , filed a equal @-@ time rule complaint against WCLG . Cox objected that the station gave his opponent , Sheriff Charles Whiston , a five @-@ minute long segment called " Sheriff 's Office Calling " . In the show " arrests and other activities of interest are recited " ; it ended with a 30 @-@ second " thought for the day " . Cox had been refused equal @-@ time by the station " on the ground that the program is a public service feature . " The FCC upheld the complaint , deciding the content of the program was " determined by Sheriff Whiston and not by the station " and that remarks made by the sheriff were of an editorial nature . Whiston would go on to win the primary over Cox by about 300 votes .

The station 's coverage of the explosion at the Farmington Number 9 mine , which killed 78 , earned the station an the Associated Press Radio @-@ Television Association ( APRTA ) in early 1969 . The station earned another APRTA award for " Outstanding News Coverage " the following year .

Sister station WCLG @-@ FM began broadcasting on September 28 , 1974 . Also during 1974 , WCLG began a Top 40 format . Another change in format took place in 1978 , with middle of the road ( MOR ) music taking the place of Top 40 . WCLG became part of the NBC Radio Network on October 2 , 1978 . In 1979 , Bowers became the station 's general manager .

WCLG applied for another broadcasting power increase on November 4 , 1980 , to 2 @,@ 500 watts , but remained a daytime @-@ only station . The station added oldies to its MOR music format in 1983 .

In 1985 , WCLG switched formats to a soft adult contemporary playlist . On March 15 of that year , Freed Broadcasting Corporation sold WCLG @-@ FM and sister station WCLG to Bowers Broadcasting Corporation , owned by Garry Bowers , for $ 715 @,@ 000 .

The station changed formats again in 1988 , this time to classic hits . Two years later , WCLG began broadcasting during the nighttime with 44 watts of power , enough to cover the city of Morgantown . Another format change took place in 1991 , when the station switched to golden oldies using the " Pure Gold " format from Satellite Music Network ( now Cumulus Media Networks ) .

Bowers Broadcasting Corporation owner Garry L. Bowers died on December 24 , 2011 . On September 25 , 2013 , control of the company was transferred to Bowers ' widow , Linda K. Bowers .

= = = Sale = = =

On September 26 , 2013 , Linda Bowers entered into an agreement to sell WCLG and sister station WCLG @-@ FM to AJG Corporation , for $ 1 @.@ 8 million . Bowers also entered into a time brokerage agreement , allowing AJG to operate the station prior to the close of the sale .

The Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) rescinded the transfer @-@ of @-@ ownership application on October 21 , 2013 , after an objection by Joe Potter , Senior Vice President of IMG Sports . Potter contended there were " very close connections and operational control " between AJG Corporation and West Virginia Radio Corporation and AJG 's purchase of WCLG @-@ AM / FM would " possibly in violation of FCC regulations . " The co @-@ directors of West Virginia Radio Corporation , John and David Raese , operate AJG Corporation as a trust for their descendents .

Potter 's complaint went on to say that " IMG was close to finalizing a contract to air WVU sports " but was " prevented by the terms of AJG 's purchase agreement " , which barred Bowers Broadcasting Corporation from " ' entering into any contract or agreement ' without the consent of AJG " .

West Virginia Radio Corporation previously held the rights to West Virginia University sports before losing them to IMG Sports . West Virginia Radio Corporation filed a lawsuit against West Virginia University and IMG Sports to retain the broadcast rights , which it lost in late August 2013 .

= = Notable former staff = =

Jim Slade , a Morgantown native , was hired as news director when the station launched in 1954 . Slade was later heard on WOWO and WIND , covering the assassinations of Martin Luther King , Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy on the latter station . He is best known , though , for his reporting on the Mutual Broadcasting System and at ABC News , where he covered space @-@ related stories .

Country music radio and stage performer Charlie Arnett hosted the " Old Trading Post " program on WCLG in 1959 . Arnett 's later career took him to the CBS Radio program " Renfro Valley Folks " and to Tampa , Florida , station WDAE .

Eugene Cottilli started as sports director at WCLG , before becoming the press secretary to Senator Howard Metzenbaum of Ohio . As of 2013 , Cottilli is the Congressional Media Liaison for the United States Department of Commerce .

= = Programming = =

As of 2014 , WCLG carries programming from Cumulus Media Networks ' satellite @-@ fed Classic Hits network . Every Sunday morning , WCLG broadcasts services live from Star City 's St. Mary Roman Catholic Church at 8 : 30 a.m. and Morgantown 's Spruce Street United Methodist Church at 10 : 45 a.m. The station also carries the Living the Country Life show , the radio companion to the Living the Country Life magazine .

= Edward Elric =

Edward Elric ( エドワード ・ エルリック , Edowādo Erurikku ) , commonly nicknamed Ed ( エド , Edo ) , is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Fullmetal Alchemist manga series created by Hiromu Arakawa . Edward , titled " Fullmetal Alchemist " ( 鋼の錬金術師 , Hagane no Renkinjutsushi , lit . " Alchemist of Steel " ) , is the youngest State Alchemist in the history of the fictional country of Amestris . His left leg was divinely severed in a failed attempt to resurrect his dead mother , and then his right arm was taken in exchange for his brother 's soul . His missing limbs have been replaced with sophisticated prosthetics called automail ( 機械鎧 ( オートメイル ) , ōtomeiru ) . He and his younger brother , Alphonse , who lost his entire body and is spiritually bound to a suit of armor , scour the world in search of the Philosopher 's Stone in the hopes of restoring their bodies . Ed has appeared in other media from the series , including video games , original video animations ( OVAs ) and light novels .

Numerous publications in various media have been written on the subject of Edward 's character . Reviewers praised Edward as a balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona . Additionally , his comedic moments have been celebrated as some of the best moments in the series . His Japanese and English voice actors , Romi Park and Vic Mignogna , have both been praised for their performances as Edward Elric and have won several awards for their work . Numerous pieces of merchandise have been released bearing Edward 's likeness , including key chains and action figures .

= = Appearances = =

Edward Elric is the youngest State Alchemist to be selected by the State Military of the country , receiving the title of " Fullmetal Alchemist " shortly thereafter from the military head , King Bradley . He and his younger brother , Alphonse , seek to obtain the legendary Philosopher 's Stone in order to restore their bodies after a disastrous failed attempt to bring their mother back to life through alchemy . Edward was born in a small town named Resembool , where he lived with Alphonse and his parents , Trisha Elric and Van Hohenheim . After Hohenheim left the family on a journey early in his sons ' lives , and Trisha died of an illness years later , the two young boys concentrated on studying alchemy in the hopes of bringing their mother back to life , and trained with a skilled alchemist named Izumi Curtis . They attempt to revive their mother and failed , costing Edward his left leg , and Alphonse his entire body.During this first transmutation , Edward sees the Truth ( 真理 , Shinri ) , thus gaining great knowledge as well as the prodigious ability to perform transmutations just by clapping his hands together . Edward then performed a second transmutation , sacrificing his own right arm to bind Alphonse 's soul to a nearby suit of armor . In order to move with his lost limbs , Edward has had prosthetic " automail " limbs designed and implemented by his childhood friend , Winry Rockbell . Winry is often kept busy repairing Edward 's automail , as he regularly breaks and damages the machines during heavy bouts . As the series continues , the two progressively develop a romantic relationship , eventually confessing their feelings to each other by the series ' end .

Edward 's motivation stems from a love for his brother , Alphonse , whom he is desperately seeking to restore to human form after their mistake . He is extremely idealistic , and strongly believes in the alchemical concept of " Equivalent Exchange , " which states that every outcome requires an equal payment . Edward also behaves in a childish manner when confronted about his short height , tending to overreact to any negative comment regarding the subject , usually attacking people in a fit of rage . Unlike regular alchemists who use transmutation circles , Edward has the ability to create alchemical currents in his body simply by connecting his hands as a result of his failed human transmutation which gave him such trait . In addition to this , Edward is a formidable fighter as a result of his training with Izumi , who had extensively trained both brothers in martial arts .

During their search for the Stone , they become targets of Scar , a vengeful Ishbalan , and the immortal creatures known as the homunculi . When Edward and Alphonse discover that the homunculi and the Philosopher 's Stone are related , they work together with their comrades in order to find them . However , after the Elric brothers meet the homunculi 's creator , " Father , " they are forced to keep working with the military by high @-@ ranking officials who are secretly using their friends from Resembool as hostages . Unable to protect their friends , the Elrics travel to the northern area of the country in order to request help from General Olivier Mira Armstrong . Shortly after their arrival , the State Alchemist Solf J. Kimblee takes Winry to the north as a hostage , unknown to Winry , in order to force Edward to continue his work . When the brothers are ordered to capture Scar , they end up using his help to move Winry to a safe place . Upon their success , Edward learns when Father plans to make a human transmutation circle out of the entire country . Edward , Alphonse , and their allies thus unite in an effort to bring down Father . They make their way into the underground complex where Edward is to be used as a sacrifice for Father 's transmutation . While battling Father , Edward loses his automail arm , rendering him unable to perform alchemy . Alphonse transmutes his soul in order to restore Edward 's original flesh @-@ and @-@ blood arm . After defeating Father , Edward manages to restore Alphonse to his original body by sacrificing his own ability to use alchemy . Giving up on alchemy forever , they return to their hometown to live normal lives . Two years later , Edward decides to research alchemy by heading out west . In the epilogue he and Winry get married and have a son and daughter together .

= = = First anime series = = =

Although Edward has the same background and characteristics in the manga and anime , Edward meets different people and fights against variable enemies . In the first anime , Edward learns the secret to destroying a homunculus during his encounter with Greed , whom he kills in an effort to save Alphonse . When he learns of Scar 's creation of a Philosopher 's Stone within Alphonse , Edward saves the people of Lior from being sacrificed for its creation . During his battle against the homunculi , Edward is killed by Envy , but Alphonse trades himself for his brothers ' revival . In doing so , however , Alphonse 's armor with the philosopher 's stone within it is used up and he disappears . After being revived , Edward sacrifices his own life to bring back his brother in exchange . As a result , Edward finds himself on the other side of the Gate , a parallel world , while Alphonse recovers his original body . Determined to return to Alphonse , Edward becomes involved in rocketry research in Germany , with the intention of using that technology to return to his home world . In the feature film , Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa , set two years after the end of the anime , Edward has been living in Germany and looks for a way to return to his world . At the film 's end , he decides to stay in the parallel world along with Alphonse so that they may try to protect both worlds .

= = = In other media = = =

Edward also appears in almost all the Fullmetal Alchemist original video animations ( OVAs ) . In the first OVA he appears as a super deformed version of himself at the movie 's wrap @-@ up party ; in the second , he appears shortly as an old man living in modern @-@ day Tokyo ; and in the third OVA , he plays a part in the battle against the first anime 's homunculi . As the series ' titular character , Edward is playable in all Fullmetal Alchemist video games . The three games for the PlayStation 2 – Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel , Curse of the Crimson Elixir and Kami o Tsugu Shōjo – feature exclusive stories in which the Elrics keep searching for the Philosopher 's Stone . In the Nintendo DS game , Fullmetal Alchemist Dual Sympathy , he and Alphonse replay the first anime series . He is also featured in the Fullmetal Alchemist Trading Card Game . There are two character CDs featuring tracks based on Edward 's character . The first is named Hagaren Song File – Edward Elric ( Hagaren Song File – エドワード ・ エルリック ) and the second Theme of Edward Elric . Both albums were performed by Ed 's Japanese voice actress , Romi Park . He also appears in each light novel written by Makoto Inoue which continue Ed and Al 's search for the Philosopher 's Stone and at the same time feature different stories from the ones appearing the manga and the anime .

= = Creation and conception = =

Author Hiromu Arakawa integrated several social problems into the plot , such as the way Edward and Alphonse live as brothers after the death of their mother , Trisha . She also looks at how the brothers help people all over the country to gain an understanding of the meaning of family . When describing the character 's personality , Arakawa comments that after his father 's departure from home and his mother 's death , Edward tried to replace the role of the man for the Elric family . As a result , Van Hohenheim 's reappearance caused a shocking and terrified reaction in the character . Arakawa has noted that Edward is one of her favorite characters from the series , although she denied having the same personality as him when one of her assistants mentioned it .

When comparing the two brothers during the time Alphonse obtained the ability to use alchemy without a circle like Edward , Arakawa stated nobody was better at alchemy as the two had different preferences in the same way as other alchemist appearing in the series . Although she claims she has not thought of the characters ' birthdates , Arakawa noted that she decided Edward 's birthdate during the series ' serialization . During a chapter in which it was mentioned that Edward was about to be 16 , winter was about to begin in Hokkaido , Arakawa 's birthplace , so it was decided Edward 's birthdate would be in winter . In a common slapstick gag from the series , Edward is often struck by Winry Rockbell 's wrench . While commenting that Edward has an ability easily dodge her , Arakawa comments that he gets hit on purpose as a result of his personality . The director of the first anime series , Seiji Mizushima , says that in the development of the story Edward " evolves and devolves " ; Mizushima comments that Edward is continuously overcoming inner struggles in order to determine how to grow up . The appearance of his automail in the anime is used to symbolize the intangibles of his character , making viewers note that Edward lost something important .

In a prototype from the series , Edward was an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old teenager travelling alongside his father whose soul sealed in a flying squirrel . Edward 's prototype had an average height , but retained his automail . In order to fit with the readers from the manga magazine Monthly Shonen Gangan , Edward 's traits were further modified , leaving his current one . His height was reduced in order to contrast with Alphonse 's huge armor . In the design of the character , Arakawa is often worried about not making his automail too bulky to avoid balancing it by increasing Edward 's muscles , making his appearance unsuitable for his age . She has also often drawn the character in full body length , but at one point noticed she made it too tall . As the manga continued serialization , Arakawa found that she drew Edward half naked several times even more than Alex Louis Armstrong who tends to show his torso . While stating that this was because she wanted to draw Edward 's automail , she commented that it was common for men to walk in underwear at their homes .

In the Japanese version of Fullmetal Alchemist 's anime adaptations , Edward has been voiced by Romi Park . In the English version , the role has been played by Vic Mignogna . Mignogna has stated that performing Edward may be his biggest voice acting achievement since fans do not compare him with Park , noting that their voices are not similar and that he did not plan to sound like her . Additionally , in the upcoming live @-@ action of the series , Edward will be portrayed by Ryosuke Yamada .

= = Reception = =

Edward 's character is well received by manga readers ; in each of the popularity polls made by Monthly Shōnen Gangan he has ranked first . Edward also won the Twenty @-@ sixth Annual Animage Readers ' Poll , Anime Grand Prix , in the " Favorite Male Character " ; Romi Park , who voices Edward in Japanese , won in the " Favorite Seiyu " category . Edward maintained a high place in the next year 's poll in the same category . In the July 2009 issue of Newtype , Edward ranked at the top of the survey Male Character Rankings . In the August 2009 issue his rank changed to fourth . In a Newtype poll from March 2010 , Edward was voted as the fourth most popular male anime character from the 2000s . In the Anime Awards 2006 from About.com , Edward won in the category " Best Lead Character – Male " . He was also seventh in IGN 's 2009 Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time with writer Chris Mackenzie saying , " [ Edward ] and his kid brother Al make one of the best action @-@ comedy teams in recent memory " . In 2014 , IGN ranked him as the eighth greatest anime character of all time , saying that " In Edward we had a character who was truly multidimensional . He could be comedic and pull off wild takes and sight gags . He could be placed in the most tragic circumstances and portray the deepest kind of sadness . He could be a complete badass , but he could also be the nicest guy on the planet . " Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Edward 's likeness , including plush toys , action figures , and key @-@ chains . Vic Mignogna , who performs the voice of Edward in the English dub , was the winner in American Anime Awards in the category " Best Actor " for voicing Edward .

Several publications for manga , anime , and other pop culture media have provided both praise and criticism on Edward 's character . IGN writer Hilary Goldstein praises Edward as the perfect balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona , explaining that this allows the character to " float between comical moments and underlying drama without seeming false . " Additionally , Melissa Harper from Anime News Network praises Edward 's facial expressions as some of the most humorous highlights of the series , including also the moments in which he reacts quite violently to comments about his small stature . They also praise him for not being a stereotypical shōnen character as it is noted that he has " very real skills , relationships , and personality " . Samuel Arbogast from T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews also comments that the interaction between the Elric brothers as they travel is interesting , and praises their humor scenes as they help to balance the dark parts of the series . Similarly , Mania Entertainment 's Jarred Pine liked the dynamic between the Elrics brothers as while Edward is often faced with following " dark paths " in the same way as villains with the series , he is always supported by Alphonse who makes sure he is okay . Judge Joel Pearce from DVD Verdict commented on Edward 's journey , considering it very complex morally because he is trying to do good within a morally questionable organization . Lydia Hojnacki listed Ed as one of the reasons she likes Fullmetal Alchemist , noting the progression of the character 's personality throughout the series , from simple maturity to a deeper sensitivity . The character was noted to go through a notable development in the manga after meeting his father by Holly Ellingwood from Active Anime as it made him decide to see the investigate from the human he and Alphonse created as children which led him to find a clue about how to recover his brother 's body . On the other hand , Maria Lin from Animefringe criticized Edward 's development in the first animated adaptation of Fullmetal Alchemist , as in the series ' finale he once again attempted to resurrect a human .

= Picardy Spaniel =

The Picardy Spaniel is a breed of dog developed in France for use as a gundog . It is related to the Blue Picardy Spaniel , and still has many similarities , but the Picardy Spaniel is the older of the two breeds . It is thought to be one of the two oldest continental spaniel breeds and was favoured by the French nobility , remaining popular for hunting after the French Revolution due to its weather resistant coat that enabled it to hunt in a variety of conditions and terrain . However its popularity waned following the influx of English hunting breeds in the early 20th century . Slightly smaller than an English Setter but larger than most of its spaniel cousins , it has no major health issues although as with many breeds with pendulous ears , it can be prone to ear infections .

= = History = =

The French Spaniel and the Picardy Spaniel are considered to be the two oldest continental breeds of spaniel . Both breeds are speculated to have stemmed from the Chien d ' Oysel described in the writings of Gaston Phoebus . Hunting during this period in France was one of the favourite sports of the nobility and the French type of Spaniel became the favourite hunting dog of the French Royalty . The breed can be seen in paintings dating from this period by artists Alexandre @-@ François Desportes and Jean @-@ Baptiste Oudry . They were also the first breed of dog to be admitted into salons .

The breed became more popular still following the French Revolution and the aftermath in which hunting was no longer restricted to the nobility . Although spread throughout France , a large concentration was located in the north west where the weather resistant coat of the breed made it ideal for the wooded and swampy conditions . During the early 19th century , British hunters crossed the channel to hunt in the grounds of north west France . The British brought their own hunting dogs , and this resulted in a change of preference as French hunters switched to English breeds and caused a major blow to the existence of the Picardy Spaniel . In addition the infusion of blood from the English Setter into the local spaniel population created the Blue Picardy Spaniel .

= = = Recognition = = =

The Epagneul Picard Club was formed in 1921 and was merged with the Club of Blue Picardy Spaniel on 28 July 1937 . A further merger took place on 21 May 1980 when these clubs merged with the Pont @-@ Audemer Club to form the Club des Epagneuls Picards , Bleus de Picardie & Pont Audemer .

The Picardy Spaniel is recognised by a variety of Kennel Clubs and associations including the North American Kennel Club , American Rare Breed Association , United Kennel Club , and the Fédération Cynologique Internationale . All four associations use the standard as set by the FCI . It is also recognised by the Continental Kennel Club , but unlike the closely related Blue Picardy Spaniel , it is not recognised by the Canadian Kennel Club .

= = Description = =

= = = Appearance = = =

Typical examples of the breed measure between 22 – 24 inches ( 56 – 61 cm ) at the withers , with the average weight between 20 – 25 kilograms ( 44 – 55 lb ) . The breed is similar in size to the English Setter , although is slightly smaller . Of the Spaniel type breeds , only the Large Münsterländer and Drentse Patrijshond are recognised as possibly growing to larger sizes , with the Drentse measuring 21 @.@ 5 – 25 @.@ 5 in ( 55 – 65 cm ) , and the Münsterländer slightly smaller with a narrower range at 23 – 25 in ( 58 – 64 cm ) .

The breed has a squarely built muscular body and an oval shaped head with a long muzzle and long ears that hang fairly low . Its coat can vary in colours from chocolate , chestnut brown and white with sandy coloured markings on the head and white or grey spots on the legs . Its hair is abundant with a slight wave , enabling it to work in dense cover and even in water .

= = = Temperament = = =

The Picardy Spaniel is a docile breed of dog and is fond of playing with children and bonds well with their master . It is described as having a gentle sociable nature , possessing a good character and being relatively easy to train . In France , the breed is used for hunting in wooded areas for Pheasants , and in swamps for Snipes . However it can also be used for hunting ducks , hares and rabbits . The breed excels at hunting in marshes and will not hesitate to jump into water . It can also adequately serve as a retriever should it be required . The dog is content with a small amount of space and could suit life in the city , but also loves open spaces .

= = Health = =

The Picardy Spaniel has no known hereditary health problems , and has an average lifespan of 14 years . However being a hunting spaniel , the breed is prone to ear infections . These infections are common among dogs with pendulous ears , including Basset Hounds and other breeds of spaniel . Overfeeding a Picardy Spaniel may lead to overweight .

= U @-@ Drop Inn =

The U @-@ Drop Inn , also known as Tower Station and U @-@ Drop Inn and Tower Café , was built in 1936 in Shamrock , Texas along the historic Route 66 highway . Inspired by the image of a nail stuck in soil , the building was designed by J. C. Berry . An unusual example of art deco architecture applied to a gas station and restaurant , the building features two flared towers with geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , glazed ceramic tile walls , and neon light accents . It has traditionally held two separate business : " Tower Station " , a gas station on the western side , and the " U @-@ Drop Inn " , a café on the eastern side . Though it has passed hands several times in its history , the building has consistently housed the same types of businesses it was originally constructed for .

Once considered a beautiful and impressive example of Route 66 architecture in Texas , the U @-@ Drop Inn fell into disrepair with the decommissioning of Route 66 . It closed for business in the late 1990s . After it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in September 1997 , the building was purchased by the First National Bank of Shamrock , which then gave it to the city . Primarily funded by a US $ 1 @.@ 7 million federal grant , the city hired a firm specializing in historical renovation to restore the building to its original glory and adapt it into a museum , visitors ' center , gift shop , and the city 's chamber of commerce . In 2006 animated film Cars , the cartoon village of Radiator Springs was based on multiple real U.S. Route 66 landmarks from Peach Springs to Baxter Springs ; the U @-@ Drop Inn 's distinctive architecture appears as Ramone 's automotive body and paint shop .

On St. Patrick 's Day 2014 , a Tesla high power electric vehicle charging station , known commonly as a supercharger , was opened on site .

= = History = =

= = = Early days = = =

Opened on April 1 , 1936 , the U @-@ Drop Inn was built by J.M. Tindall using a design created by his friend , John Nunn , who scratched the design on a patch of dirt in the driveway of a nearby motel . Tindall had Pampa architect J.C. Berry draw up the blueprints for the art deco structure , and construction began at the busy intersection of Route 66 and U.S. Route 83 . Nunn , whose family owned and ran the business , sponsored a contest to decide the name of the new building . An eight @-@ year @-@ old boy won a week 's worth of waitressing pay ( approximately $ 50 @.@ 00 at the time ) with his entry of " U @-@ Drop Inn " . In addition to a café , the building housed a gas station that sold Conoco brand fuel and a store . The store was never actually opened as a store , and became a ballroom and overflow dining area for the café .

When the business opened , the local newspaper called it " the most up @-@ to @-@ date edifice of its kind on U.S. Highway 66 between Oklahoma City and Amarillo " , with the café considered " the swankiest of the swank eating places " . At the time of opening , the U @-@ Drop was the only café within 100 miles ( 160 km ) of Shamrock , enjoying brisk business and becoming a successful establishment . Nunn sold the Inn after several years , but purchased it back in 1950 and renamed it Nunn 's Café . In 1957 , John Nunn died and his wife Bebe sold the café to Grace Brunner who again renamed it , this time to Tower Café , and added a Greyhound bus station .

= = = Decline = = =

After Nunn 's death , the building passed through the hands of a few more owners and the station sold gasoline from various other companies . In the 1970s , Fina took over the building , painting it red , white , and blue . In the early 1980s , James R. Tindall , Sr. purchased the building , the construction of which his father had originally financed , repainted it to its original colors , and changed the name back to the original name of U @-@ Drop Inn . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the building was repossessed by the bank and closed completely in 1997 . Up through its closing , the café at the U @-@ Drop was praised for its low @-@ priced and tasty " home cooking " .

With signing of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 , Route 66 fell into decline , with segments being bypassed via turnpikes and newer highways . With the opening of Interstate 40 , Shamrock became one of the bypassed towns and the U @-@ Drop Inn , which once served thousands of travelers fell into disrepair due to neglect . In 1984 , Route 66 was decommissioned by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials , seeming to seal the fate of the town and the U @-@ Drop Inn . In 1990 , several state and local historical associations began efforts to preserve the architectural landmarks along the old route , particularly the many derelict or abandoned motels .

= = = Restoration = = =

Called " one of the most impressive examples " of Route 66 architecture by the Texas Historical Commission , the U @-@ Drop Inn was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 18 , 1997 . In May 1999 , the First National Bank of Shamrock purchased the U @-@ Drop Inn , then gave it to the city of Shamrock .

The city of Shamrock began taking measures to revive the neglected structure as a tourist attraction . In 2000 , the city hired Phillips Swager Associates of Dallas and Architexas , a firm specializing in historical preservation , to begin implementing a phased restoration plan .

The company adapted the old gas station and café to act as the community 's chamber of commerce and visitor center while preserving the building 's architectural features and historical authenticity . Old photographs and interviews with residents were used to aid the company in uncovering the buildings original details . They peeled away decades of paint layers and fabric to find the original interior and exterior colors . One of the more difficult aspects was in restoring the neon accents . While historical photographs showed where neon existed , they had all been taken during the daytime when the neon lights were off , making it difficult to determine what color the lights originally were .

The restoration also included turning the building into a museum of its own history , giving it the authentic appearance of a working 1940 gas station . With $ 1 @.@ 7 million in funding by the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century , the restoration was completed in July 2003 .

In May 2013 , the neon lighting of the restored U @-@ Drop Inn was damaged by a hailstorm ; the damaged elements were replaced by LEDs in February 2014 . The café will serve fountain drinks , coffee and floats in 2014 after many years with no food or beverage service .

= = Architecture = =

With its glazed brick , " zigzag " motif , strong vertical elements , and the decorative structure , particularly the metal " tulip " , the building is considered to be an excellent example of the Art Deco style . Art Deco was most commonly seen in large commercial and public buildings , so its use in a gas station and roadside restaurant was a rare sight . The U @-@ Drop is one of the few Art Deco cafés built in the 1930s , and it stands out architecturally from its peers , as most depression @-@ era cafés had simpler and similar wood @-@ frame and clapboard designs or followed the Streamline Moderne offshoot of Art Deco .

The original building was designed by John Nunn and architect J. C. Berry . The 1 @-@ story concrete and brick building has a modified rectangular layout with a flat roof . It features a flared tower over the gas station , and two canopies , one facing Route 66 and one facing Highway 83 over the front of the gas station office . In the rear , a second , shorter tower contained the restaurant . The main buildings were built of structural clay tile with terra @-@ cotta glazed brick . The two towers are clad in stucco with decorative green and gold glazed terra @-@ cotta tiles and cast concrete stepped forms . Designed to attract the attention of the passing motorists , the towers also feature geometric detailing , curvilinear massing , and are outlined with neon lighting added additional character and uniqueness to the building 's design .

Historically , the U @-@ Drop Inn held two separate businesses that shared a single interior wall . The west side , commonly called " Tower Station " " is dominated by a large four @-@ sided obelisk rising from the flat roof and topped by a metal " tulip " . " The tower displayed the station name , Conoco , in all capital letters on each side , with neon lighting on the corners . Vertical @-@ rubbed detailing goes along the base of both towers , as well as two canopies that extend south and west from the western tower . The posts of the canopies were originally encased in decorative glazed tile and vintage metal signs . Between the canopy posts are fuel islands designed to hold three fuel pumps each . 1960s @-@ vintage pumps are situated on the islands , with three on the western canopy and two on the southern . A chamfered corner separates the two canopies . Multiple @-@ pane windows surround the glass doors of the office station , as well as dominating much of the southern side of the building . Situated between the office and the café are two service station bays with roll @-@ up style overhead doors .

The east side of the building , commonly called the " U @-@ Drop Inn café " has a similarly designed , three @-@ sided , shorter version of the main tower . Mirroring the " Conoco " wording , it has " Café " written in the same green paint with drop shadowed lettering , and a small ornamental metal sphere perched at its top . Just below the tower , an outstretched metal and wooden sign , added in 1950 , displays the name of the building and points towards the recessed entrance . This side mirrors the tiled detail found in the station side , and once had a neon " starburst " around the sign and entryway . Inside the café , the eastern and southern interior walls are lined with booths . The northern wall holds two small restrooms , with the kitchen once located in the northeastern corner . On the southern wall , a recessed doorway flanked by large single @-@ paned windows led into the café 's main dining room . The building 's exterior is pained beige with dark green accents . On the northern facade , the original brick remains unpainted .

= = In popular culture = =

The 2006 Pixar computer @-@ animated film Cars is set in the cartoon village of Radiator Springs , which was created as a composite of real landmarks and personalities encountered by Pixar artists on multiple research trips on 1 @,@ 200 miles ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of the former U.S. Route 66 . Among the buildings and structures based on Route 66 landmarks is a version of Tower Station . U @-@ Drop Inn 's unique design and architecture is portrayed as an automotive body shop owned by the character Ramone , a Chevrolet Impala lowrider .

= They Don 't Care About Us =

" They Don 't Care About Us " is the fourth single from Michael Jackson 's album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , released on March 31 , 1996 . The song remains one of the most controversial pieces Jackson ever composed . In the US , media scrutiny surrounding allegations of antisemitic lyrics were the catalyst for Jackson issuing multiple apologies and re @-@ recording the song with altered lyrics . The singer countered allegations of antisemitism , arguing that reviews had misinterpreted the context of the song , either unintentionally or deliberately . The song was also covered by Christian alternative metal band P.O.D. in 1998 as a bonus track on the special edition version of their album , The Fundamental Elements of Southtown . The album contains an uncensored version of the song . Christian stores removed the album when the special edition came out because of the controversial lyrics including " Jew me " and " Kike me . "

The song was accompanied by two music videos directed by Spike Lee . The first was shot in two locations in Brazil , in Pelourinho , the historic city centre of Salvador , and in a favela of Rio de Janeiro called Dona Marta , where the state authorities had tried to ban all production over fears the video would damage their image , the area and prospects of Rio de Janeiro staging the 2004 Olympics . Still , the residents of the area were happy to see the singer , hoping their problems would be made visible to a wider audience . The second video was shot in a prison and contained video footage of multiple references to human rights abuses .

Commercially , the song became a top ten hit in all European countries and number one in Germany for three weeks . In the US , radio stations were reluctant to play the controversial composition ; it , however , managed to peak at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 .

The song was remixed with parts of songs such as " Privacy " ( from the album Invincible ) and " Tabloid Junkie " , and released on the Immortal album , in November , 2011 .

The song was performed during Jackson 's third and final concert series , the HIStory World Tour which ran from 1996 to 1997 as part of a medley with " Scream " and " In the Closet " . The song was set to be performed on Jackson 's This Is It comeback concert series at The O2 Arena in London from July 2009 to March 2010 but the shows were ultimately cancelled due to his sudden death on June 25 , 2009 .

= = Music and other commentary = =

The song begins with a child chanting , " Enough is enough of this garbage ! " and someone else helps sing the chorus — " All I wanna say is that they don 't really care about us " . According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing " They Don 't Care About Us " is played in the key of D minor and the track 's time signature is common time . The song , which is cited as being a pop song , has a moderately slow tempo of 88 beats per minute . Instruments used include a piano and guitar . Jon Pareles stated that Jackson was calling himself " a victim of police brutality " and a " victim of hate " . He continued , " A listener might wonder just who ' Us ' is supposed to be ... To make the songs lodge in the ear , Jackson uses elementary singsong melodies – a ' nyah , nyah ' two @-@ note motif in ' They Don 't Care About Us ' ... and he comes up with all kinds of surprises in the arrangements " .

James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine noted that musically , Jackson was no longer trying to hide any eccentricities he had , he expressed the opinion that in " They Don 't Care About Us " , the pop musician sounded more embattled than ever . Jim Farber of New York Daily News said that Jackson " snarled " while singing , that the song " clicked " and has an " original clattering rhythm " . The review of HIStory in The Washington Times noted of " They Don 't Care About Us " : " [ it ] follows fast , inviting more pathos – and more controversy . With haunting clapping and a police scanner in the background " . The Sacramento Bee described it as a " looped reggae @-@ lite dance beat " .

The song gained renewed attention and relevance due to its use during Black Lives Matter protests in 2014 and 2015 .

= = Chart performance = =

In the UK , it peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for three months . The song found particular success in Europe , peaking within the top ten in all countries . European highlights came in Austria , Switzerland , France , Belgium and Sweden , in these countries the song became a top five hit and stayed in their respective charts for a minimum of 21 weeks . The song reached the top of the charts for three weeks in Germany and stayed a full 30 weeks in the survey . It is the longest consecutive chart run of a Michael Jackson song in the German charts . The lyrical controversy surrounding " They Don 't Care About Us " brought partial commercial disappointment in the US ; radio stations were reluctant to play the song . It peaked at number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , falling short of the record breaking success of the two previous singles " Scream / Childhood " and " You Are Not Alone " , yet the song peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Hot R & B Singles chart .

= = Music videos = =

Producing the first video proved to be a difficult task for Jackson . State authorities unsuccessfully tried to ban the singer filming in Salvador ( Pelourinho ) and in Rio de Janeiro . Officials in the state of Rio feared images of poverty might affect tourism and accused Jackson of exploiting the poor . Ronaldo Cezar Coelho , the state secretary for Industry , Commerce and Tourism demanded editing rights over the finished product , stating , " I don 't see why we should have to facilitate films that will contribute nothing to all our efforts to rehabilitate Rio 's image " . Some were concerned that scenes of poverty and human rights abuses would affect their chances of hosting the Olympics in 2004 . Others supported Jackson 's wish to highlight the problems of the region , arguing that the government were embarrassed by their own failings .

A judge banned all filming but this ruling was overturned by an injunction . Although officials were angry , the residents were not and Jackson was surrounded by crowds of enthusiastic onlookers during filming . One woman managed to push through security to hug Jackson who continued dancing while hugging her . Another woman appeared and hugged him from behind . He then fell to the ground as police pulled the two women off him and escorted them away . After the director helped Jackson get up off the street , he continued to sing and dance . This incident made it into the music video . 1 @,@ 500 policemen and 50 residents acting as security guards effectively sealed off the Dona Marta favela . Some residents and officials found it offensive that Jackson 's production team had negotiated with drug dealers in order to gain permission to film in one of the city 's shantytowns .

The music video was directed by Spike Lee . Asked why he chose Lee to direct the video , Jackson responded , " ' They Don 't Care About Us ' has an edge , and Spike Lee had approached me . It 's a public awareness song and that 's what he is all about . It 's a protest kind of song ... and I think he was perfect for it " .

Jackson also collaborated with 200 members of the cultural group Olodum , who " swayed to the heavy beat of Salvador 's ' samba @-@ reggae ' music " . The media interest surrounding the music video exposed Olodum to 140 countries around the world . It brought them worldwide fame and increased their credibility in Brazil . At the beginning of the video , a Brazilian woman says " Michael , eles não ligam pra gente " which means " Michael , they don 't care about us " .

Speaking of the music video , in The New Brazilian Cinema , Lúcia Nagib observed :

When Michael Jackson decided to shoot his new music video in a favela of Rio de Janeiro ... he used the favela people as extras in a visual super @-@ spectacle ... All the while there is a vaguely political appeal in there ... The interesting aspect of Michael Jackson 's strategy is the efficiency with which it gives visibility to poverty and social problems in countries like Brazil without resorting to traditional political discourse . The problematic aspect is that it does not entail a real intervention in that poverty .

In 2009 , Billboard described the area as " now a model for social development " and claimed that Jackson 's influence was partially responsible for this improvement .

For the first time in his career , Jackson made a second music video for a single . This second version was filmed in a prison with cell mates ; in the video Jackson is seen handcuffed . It also contains real footage of police attacking African Americans , the military crackdown of the protest in the Tiananmen Square , the Ku Klux Klan , war crimes , genocide , execution , martial law , and other human rights abuses .

The first music video of the song appears on the box set Visionary : The Video Singles , and the video albums HIStory on Film , Volume II and Vision ; the latter additionally includes the prison version .

The voice intro , " Michael , Michael , eles não ligam pra gente " ( portuguese for " they don 't care about us " ) , was recorded by Angélica Vieira , producer of Manhattan Connection .

= = Cover versions = =

In 2009 , Northern Kings covered the song as bonus track for on their 2008 album Rethroned .

In 2012 , Italian jazz trumpeter Enrico Rava released a version on his tribute album Rava on the Dance Floor .

In 2014 , 2Cellos released a cover of the song on their album Celloverse .

In 2014 , a Nigerian , King A @-@ Maz , used the song to protest the Nigerian government 's nonchalance concerning the Boko Haram carnage going on at that time . The single was uploaded to YouTube , along with amateur footage , which caused a lot of controversy due to the newspaper clippings used in the footage .

The Tupac Shakur album entitled Better Dayz ( 2002 ) features a song named " They Don 't Give a Fuck About Us " . With different lyrics , the song contained a similar theme and musical composition style . Tupac discusses the trials and tribulations of the black and working class communities , referring to " they " as the middle class , media , U.S. that did not understand him .

= = 2009 rehearsal footage = =

A short video clip released after Jackson 's death of the June 23 , 2009 rehearsal for the This Is It concert series shows Jackson performing the song as the main song in a medley with parts of " HIStory " song as well as " Why You Wanna Trip On Me " and " She Drives Me Wild " from Dangerous .

= = Dispute regarding lyrics and context = =

The New York Times reported the song contained racist and anti @-@ Semitic content on June 15 , 1995 , just a day before the album 's release . The publication highlighted the lyrics , " Jew me , sue me , everybody do me / Kick me , kike me , don 't you black or white me . " Jackson responded directly to the publication , stating :

When questioned further about the lyrics on the ABC News program Prime Time Live , Jackson stated , " It 's not anti @-@ Semitic because I 'm not a racist person ... I could never be a racist . I love all races . " The singer also claimed that some of his closest employees and friends were Jewish . That same day , Jackson received support from his manager and record label , who described the lyrics as " brilliant " , that they were about opposition to prejudice and taken out of context . The following day , two leading members of the Jewish community stated that Jackson 's attempt to make a song critical of discrimination had backfired . They expressed the opinion that the lyrics used were unsuitable for a teenage audience that might not understand the song 's context , adding that the song was too ambiguous for some listeners to understand . They accepted that Jackson meant well and suggested that the entertainer write an explanation in the album booklet .

On June 17 , Jackson issued another public apology for his choice of words . He promised that future copies of the album would include an apology . By this point , however , two million copies of the record had already been shipped . The singer concluded , " I just want you all to know how strongly I am committed to tolerance , peace and love , and I apologize to anyone who might have been hurt . " The next day , in his review of HIStory , Jon Pareles of The New York Times alleged , " In ... ' They Don 't Care About Us ' , he gives the lie to his entire catalogue of brotherhood anthems with a burst of anti @-@ Semitism . "

On June 21 , Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times criticized Jackson , stating , " He may have lived a sheltered life , but there really is no excuse for using terms like ' Jew me ' and ' kike ' in a pop song , unless you make it clear you are denouncing such terms , and do so in an artful way . " Two days later , Jackson decided , despite the cost incurred , he would return to the studio and alter the offending wording on future copies of the album ; " Jew me " and " Kike me " would be substituted with " do me " and " strike me " . The music video and some copies of the album still carry the original words , but with loud , abstract noises partially drowning them out . He reiterated his acceptance that the song was offensive to some . Spike Lee claimed there was some kind of double standard in the music industry . " While the New York Times asserted the use of racial slurs in " They Don 't Care About Us " , they were silent on other racial slurs in the album . The Notorious B.I.G. says " nigga " on " This Time Around , " another song on the HIStory album , but it did not attract media attention , as well as , many years before , use in lyrics of word " nigger " by John Lennon .

= = Charts = =

= = = Certifications = = =

= = = Chart procession and succession = = =

= = Track listing = =

= = = U.S. and Japan maxi single = = =

= = = U.S. CD Single = = =

= = = UK single = = =

= = = Visionary single = = =

CD side

" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) – 4 : 10

" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Love to Infinity 's Walk in the Park Mix ) – 7 : 19

DVD side

" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) – 4 : 10

" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Love to Infinity 's Walk in the Park Mix ) – 7 : 19

" They Don 't Care About Us " ( Music Video # 1 – in Brazil with Olodum music group ) ( Video ) – 7 : 09

= = = US 7 " Inch Single : Epic – 34 78264 = = =

" They Don 't Care About Us " - 4 : 43

" Rock With You " ( Frankie Knuckles Radio Mix ) - 3 : 47

= = Personnel = =

Michael Jackson : written by , solo vocals , percussion

Trevor Rabin : guitar ( background )

= Benzodiazepine =

Benzodiazepines ( BZD , BZs ) , sometimes called " benzos " , are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring . The first such drug , chlordiazepoxide ( Librium ) , was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955 , and made available in 1960 by Hoffmann – La Roche , which , since 1963 , has also marketed the benzodiazepine diazepam ( Valium ) . In 1977 benzodiazepines were globally the most prescribed medications .

Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) at the GABAA receptor , resulting in sedative , hypnotic ( sleep @-@ inducing ) , anxiolytic ( anti @-@ anxiety ) , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant properties . High doses of many shorter @-@ acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and dissociation . These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety , insomnia , agitation , seizures , muscle spasms , alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures . Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short- , intermediate- , or long @-@ acting . Short- and intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia ; longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety .

Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for short @-@ term use , although cognitive impairment and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur . A minority of people can have paradoxical reactions such as worsened agitation or panic . Long @-@ term use is controversial because of concerns about adverse psychological and physical effects , decreasing effectiveness , and physical dependence and withdrawal . As a result of adverse effects associated with the long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines , withdrawal from benzodiazepines , in general , leads to improved physical and mental health . The elderly are at an increased risk of suffering from both short- and long @-@ term adverse effects , and as a result , all benzodiazepines are listed in the Beers List of inappropriate medications for older adults .

There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy . While they are not major teratogens , uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure ; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn . Benzodiazepines can be taken in overdoses and can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness . However , they are much less toxic than their predecessors , the barbiturates , and death rarely results when a benzodiazepine is the only drug taken ; however , when combined with other central nervous system ( CNS ) depressants such as ethanol and opioids , the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases . Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse .

= = Medical uses = =

Benzodiazepines possess sedative , hypnotic , anxiolytic , anticonvulsant , muscle relaxant , and amnesic actions , which are useful in a variety of indications such as alcohol dependence , seizures , anxiety , panic , agitation , and insomnia . Most are administered orally ; however , they can also be given intravenously , intramuscularly , or rectally . In general , benzodiazepines are well @-@ tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the short term for a wide range of conditions . Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of dependence , and upon discontinuation a withdrawal syndrome may occur . These factors , combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor , cognitive , or memory impairments , limit their long @-@ term applicability . The effects of long @-@ term use or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen cognitive deficits , depression , and anxiety .

= = = Panic disorder = = =

Because of their effectiveness , tolerability , and rapid onset of anxiolytic action , benzodiazepines are frequently used for the treatment of anxiety associated with panic disorder . However , there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder . The views range from those that hold that benzodiazepines are not effective long @-@ term and that they should be reserved for treatment @-@ resistant cases to that they are as effective in the long term as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors .

The American Psychiatric Association ( APA ) guidelines note that , in general , benzodiazepines are well tolerated , and their use for the initial treatment for panic disorder is strongly supported by numerous controlled trials . APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another . The choice of treatment between benzodiazepines , SSRIs , serotonin – norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors , tricyclic antidepressants , and psychotherapy should be based on the patient 's history , preference , and other individual characteristics . Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are likely to be the best choice of pharmacotherapy for many patients with panic disorder , but benzodiazepines are also often used , and some studies suggest that these medications are still used with greater frequency than the SSRIs . One advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much faster than antidepressants , and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical . However , this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing benzodiazepine dependence . APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of substance abuse . The APA guidelines state that , in general , pharmacotherapy of panic disorder should be continued for at least a year , and that clinical experience support continuing benzodiazepine treatment to prevent recurrence . Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised , there is no evidence for significant dose escalation in patients using benzodiazepines long @-@ term . For many such patients stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years .

Guidelines issued by the UK @-@ based National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) , carried out a systematic review using different methodology and came to a different conclusion . They questioned the accuracy of studies that were not placebo @-@ controlled . And , based on the findings of placebo @-@ controlled studies , they do not recommend use of benzodiazepines beyond two to four weeks , as tolerance and physical dependence develop rapidly , with withdrawal symptoms including rebound anxiety occurring after six weeks or more of use . Nevertheless , benzodiazepines continue to be prescribed for the long @-@ term treatment of anxiety disorders , although specific antidepressants and psychological therapies are recommended as the first @-@ line treatment options with the anticonvulsant drug pregabalin indicated as a second- or third @-@ line treatment and suitable for long @-@ term use . NICE stated that long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia is an unlicensed indication , does not have long @-@ term efficacy , and is , therefore , not recommended by clinical guidelines . Psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy are recommended as a first @-@ line therapy for panic disorder ; benzodiazepine use has been found to interfere with therapeutic gains from these therapies .

Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally ; however , very occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of panic attacks .

= = = Generalized anxiety disorder = = =

Benzodiazepines have robust efficacy in the short @-@ term management of generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) , but were not shown to be effective in producing long @-@ term improvement overall . According to National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) , benzodiazepines can be used in the immediate management of GAD , if necessary . However , they should not usually be given for longer than 2 – 4 weeks . The only medications NICE recommends for the longer term management of GAD are antidepressants .

Likewise , Canadian Psychiatric Association ( CPA ) recommends benzodiazepines alprazolam , bromazepam , lorazepam , and diazepam only as a second @-@ line choice , if the treatment with two different antidepressants was unsuccessful . Although they are second @-@ line agents , benzodiazepines can be used for a limited time to relieve severe anxiety and agitation . CPA guidelines note that after 4 – 6 weeks the effect of benzodiazepines may decrease to the level of placebo , and that benzodiazepines are less effective than antidepressants in alleviating ruminative worry , the core symptom of GAD . However , in some cases , a prolonged treatment with benzodiazepines as the add @-@ on to an antidepressant may be justified .

A 2015 review found a larger effect with medications than talk therapy . Medications with benefit include serotonin @-@ noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors , benzodiazepines , and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors .

= = = Insomnia = = =

Benzodiazepines can be useful for short @-@ term treatment of insomnia . Their use beyond 2 to 4 weeks is not recommended due to the risk of dependence . It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently and at the lowest effective dose . They improve sleep @-@ related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep , prolonging the sleep time , and , in general , reducing wakefulness . However , they worsen sleep quality by increasing light sleep and decreasing deep sleep . Other drawbacks of hypnotics , including benzodiazepines , are possible tolerance to their effects , rebound insomnia , and reduced slow @-@ wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation .

The list of benzodiazepines approved for the treatment of insomnia is fairly similar among most countries , but which benzodiazepines are officially designated as first @-@ line hypnotics prescribed for the treatment of insomnia can vary distinctly between countries . Longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines such as nitrazepam and diazepam have residual effects that may persist into the next day and are , in general , not recommended .

Since the release of nonbenzodiazepines in 1992 in response to safety concerns , individuals with insomnia and other sleep disorders have increasingly been prescribed nonbenzodiazepines ( 2 @.@ 3 % in 1993 to 13 @.@ 7 % of Americans in 2010 ) , less often prescribed benzodiazepines ( 23 @.@ 5 % in 1993 to 10 @.@ 8 % in 2010 ) . It is not clear as to whether the new nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics ( Z @-@ drugs ) are better than the short @-@ acting benzodiazepines . The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar . According to the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality , indirect comparison indicates that side @-@ effects from benzodiazepines may be about twice as frequent as from nonbenzodiazepines . Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first @-@ line long @-@ term treatment of insomnia . However , the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence did not find any convincing evidence in favor of Z @-@ drugs . NICE review pointed out that short @-@ acting Z @-@ drugs were inappropriately compared in clinical trials with long @-@ acting benzodiazepines . There have been no trials comparing short @-@ acting Z @-@ drugs with appropriate doses of short @-@ acting benzodiazepines . Based on this , NICE recommended choosing the hypnotic based on cost and the patient 's preference .

Older adults should not use benzodiazepines to treat insomnia unless other treatments have failed to be effective . When benzodiazepines are used , patients , their caretakers , and their physician should discuss the increased risk of harms , including evidence which shows twice the incidence of traffic collisions among driving patients as well as falls and hip fracture for all older patients .

= = = Seizures = = =

Prolonged convulsive epileptic seizures are a medical emergency that can usually be dealt with effectively by administering fast @-@ acting benzodiazepines , which are potent anticonvulsants . In a hospital environment , intravenous clonazepam , lorazepam , and diazepam are first @-@ line choices , clonazepam due to its stronger and more potent anticonvulsant action , diazepam due to its faster onset and lorazepam for its longer duration of action . In the community , intravenous administration is not practical and so rectal diazepam or ( more recently ) buccal midazolam are used , with a preference for midazolam as its administration is easier and more socially acceptable .

When benzodiazepines were first introduced , they were enthusiastically adopted for treating all forms of epilepsy . However , drowsiness and tolerance become problems with continued use and none are now considered first @-@ line choices for long @-@ term epilepsy therapy . Clobazam is widely used by specialist epilepsy clinics worldwide and clonazepam is popular in the Netherlands , Belgium and France . Clobazam was approved for use in the United States in 2011 . In the UK , both clobazam and clonazepam are second @-@ line choices for treating many forms of epilepsy . Clobazam also has a useful role for very short @-@ term seizure prophylaxis and in catamenial epilepsy . Discontinuation after long @-@ term use in epilepsy requires additional caution because of the risks of rebound seizures . Therefore , the dose is slowly tapered over a period of up to six months or longer .

= = = Alcohol withdrawal = = =

Chlordiazepoxide is the most commonly used benzodiazepine for alcohol detoxification , but diazepam may be used as an alternative . Both are used in the detoxification of individuals who are motivated to stop drinking , and are prescribed for a short period of time to reduce the risks of developing tolerance and dependence to the benzodiazepine medication itself . The benzodiazepines with a longer half @-@ life make detoxification more tolerable , and dangerous ( and potentially lethal ) alcohol withdrawal effects are less likely to occur . On the other hand , short @-@ acting benzodiazepines may lead to breakthrough seizures , and are , therefore , not recommended for detoxification in an outpatient setting . Oxazepam and lorazepam are often used in patients at risk of drug accumulation , in particular , the elderly and those with cirrhosis , because they are metabolized differently from other benzodiazepines , through conjugation .

Benzodiazepines are the preferred choice in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome , in particular , for the prevention and treatment of the dangerous complication of seizures and in subduing severe delirium . Lorazepam is the only benzodiazepine with predictable intramuscular absorption and it is the most effective in preventing and controlling acute seizures .

= = = Anxiety = = =

Benzodiazepines are sometimes used in the treatment of acute anxiety , as they bring about rapid and marked or moderate relief of symptoms in most individuals ; however , they are not recommended beyond 2 – 4 weeks of use due to risks of tolerance and dependence and a lack of long @-@ term effectiveness . As for insomnia , they may also be used on an irregular / " as @-@ needed " basis , such as in cases where said anxiety is at its worst . Compared to other pharmacological treatments , benzodiazepines are twice as likely to lead to a relapse of the underlying condition upon discontinuation . Psychological therapies and other pharmacological therapies are recommended for the long @-@ term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder . Antidepressants have higher remission rates and are , in general , safe and effective in the short and long term .

= = = Other indications = = =

Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for a wide range of conditions :

They can be very useful in intensive care to sedate patients receiving mechanical ventilation or those in extreme distress . Caution is exercised in this situation due to the occasional occurrence of respiratory depression , and it is recommended that benzodiazepine overdose treatment facilities should be available .

Benzodiazepines are effective as medication given a couple of hours before surgery to relieve anxiety . They also produce amnesia , which can be useful , as patients will not be able to remember any unpleasantness from the procedure . They are also used in patients with dental phobia as well as some ophthalmic procedures like refractive surgery ; although such use is controversial and only recommended for those who are very anxious . Midazolam is the most commonly prescribed for this use because of its strong sedative actions and fast recovery time , as well as its water solubility , which reduces pain upon injection . Diazepam and lorazepam are sometimes used . Lorazepam has particularly marked amnesic properties that may make it more effective when amnesia is the desired effect .

Benzodiazepines are well known for their strong muscle @-@ relaxing properties and can be useful in the treatment of muscle spasms , although tolerance often develops to their muscle relaxant effects . Baclofen or tizanidine are sometimes used as an alternative to benzodiazepines . Tizanidine has been found to have superior tolerability compared to diazepam and baclofen .

Benzodiazepines are also used to treat the acute panic caused by hallucinogen intoxication . Benzodiazepines are also used to calm the acutely agitated individual and can , if required , be given via an intramuscular injection . They can sometimes be effective in the short @-@ term treatment of psychiatric emergencies such as acute psychosis as in schizophrenia or mania , bringing about rapid tranquillization and sedation until the effects of lithium or neuroleptics ( antipsychotics ) take effect . Lorazepam is most commonly used but clonazepam is sometimes prescribed for acute psychosis or mania ; their long @-@ term use is not recommended due to risks of dependence .

Clonazepam , a benzodiazepine is used to treat many forms of parasomnia . Rapid eye movement behavior disorder responds well to low doses of clonazepam . Restless legs syndrome can be treated using clonazepam as a third line treatment option as the use of clonazepam is still investigational .

Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , although they are generally believed to be ineffective for this indication ; effectiveness was , however , found in one small study . Benzodiazepines can be considered as a treatment option in treatment resistant cases .

Antipsychotics are generally a first @-@ line treatment for delirium ; however , when delirium is caused by alcohol or sedative hypnotic withdrawal , benzodiazepines are a first @-@ line treatment .

There is some evidence that low doses of benzodiazepines reduce adverse effects of electroconvulsive therapy .

= = Contraindications = =

Because of their muscle relaxant action , benzodiazepines may cause respiratory depression in susceptible individuals . For that reason , they are contraindicated in people with myasthenia gravis , sleep apnea , bronchitis , and COPD . Caution is required when benzodiazepines are used in people with personality disorders or intellectual disability because of frequent paradoxical reactions . In major depression , they may precipitate suicidal tendencies and are sometimes used for suicidal overdoses . Individuals with a history of alcohol , opioid and barbiturate abuse should avoid benzodiazepines , as there is a risk of life @-@ threatening interactions with these drugs .

= = = Pregnancy = = =

In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration has categorized benzodiazepines into either category D or X meaning potential for harm in the unborn has been demonstrated .

Exposure to benzodiazepines during pregnancy has been associated with a slightly increased ( from 0 @.@ 06 to 0 @.@ 07 % ) risk of cleft palate in newborns , a controversial conclusion as some studies find no association between benzodiazepines and cleft palate . Their use by expectant mothers shortly before the delivery may result in a floppy infant syndrome , with the newborns suffering from hypotonia , hypothermia , lethargy , and breathing and feeding difficulties . Cases of neonatal withdrawal syndrome have been described in infants chronically exposed to benzodiazepines in utero . This syndrome may be hard to recognize , as it starts several days after delivery , for example , as late as 21 day for chlordiazepoxide . The symptoms include tremors , hypertonia , hyperreflexia , hyperactivity , and vomiting and may last for up to three to six months . Tapering down the dose during pregnancy may lessen its severity . If used in pregnancy , those benzodiazepines with a better and longer safety record , such as diazepam or chlordiazepoxide , are recommended over potentially more harmful benzodiazepines , such as temazepam or triazolam . Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time minimizes the risks to the unborn child .

= = = Elderly = = =

The benefits of benzodiazepines are least and the risks are greatest in the elderly . The elderly are at an increased risk of dependence and are more sensitive to the adverse effects such as memory problems , daytime sedation , impaired motor coordination , and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls , and an increased risk of hip fractures . The long @-@ term effects of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine dependence in the elderly can resemble dementia , depression , or anxiety syndromes , and progressively worsens over time . Adverse effects on cognition can be mistaken for the effects of old age . The benefits of withdrawal include improved cognition , alertness , mobility , reduced risk incontinence , and a reduced risk of falls and fractures . The success of gradual @-@ tapering benzodiazepines is as great in the elderly as in younger people . Benzodiazepines should be prescribed to the elderly only with caution and only for a short period at low doses . Short to intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines are preferred in the elderly such as oxazepam and temazepam . The high potency benzodiazepines alprazolam and triazolam and long @-@ acting benzodiazepines are not recommended in the elderly due to increased adverse effects . Nonbenzodiazepines such as zaleplon and zolpidem and low doses of sedating antidepressants are sometimes used as alternatives to benzodiazepines .

Long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines has been associated with increased risk of cognitive impairment , but its relationship with dementia remains inconclusive . The association of a past history of benzodiazepine use and cognitive decline is unclear , with some studies reporting a lower risk of cognitive decline in former users , some finding no association and some indicating an increased risk of cognitive decline .

Benzodiazepines are sometimes prescribed to treat behavioral symptoms of dementia . However , like antidepressants , they have little evidence of effectiveness , although antipsychotics have shown some benefit . Cognitive impairing effects of benzodiazepines that occur frequently in the elderly can also worsen dementia .

= = Adverse effects = =

The most common side @-@ effects of benzodiazepines are related to their sedating and muscle @-@ relaxing action . They include drowsiness , dizziness , and decreased alertness and concentration . Lack of coordination may result in falls and injuries , in particular , in the elderly . Another result is impairment of driving skills and increased likelihood of road traffic accidents . Decreased libido and erection problems are a common side effect . Depression and disinhibition may emerge . Hypotension and suppressed breathing ( hypoventilation ) may be encountered with intravenous use . Less common side effects include nausea and changes in appetite , blurred vision , confusion , euphoria , depersonalization and nightmares . Cases of liver toxicity have been described but are very rare .

The long @-@ term effects of benzodiazepine use can include cognitive impairment as well as affective and behavioural problems . Feelings of turmoil , difficulty in thinking constructively , loss of sex @-@ drive , agoraphobia and social phobia , increasing anxiety and depression , loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests , and an inability to experience or express feelings can also occur . Not everyone , however , experiences problems with long @-@ term use . Additionally an altered perception of self , environment and relationships may occur .

= = = Cognitive effects = = =

The short @-@ term use of benzodiazepines adversely affects multiple areas of cognition , the most notable one being that it interferes with the formation and consolidation of memories of new material and may induce complete anterograde amnesia . However , researchers hold contrary opinions regarding the effects of long @-@ term administration . One view is that many of the short @-@ term effects continue into the long @-@ term and may even worsen , and are not resolved after stopping benzodiazepine usage . Another view maintains that cognitive deficits in chronic benzodiazepine users occur only for a short period after the dose , or that the anxiety disorder is the cause of these deficits .

While the definitive studies are lacking , the former view received support from a 2004 meta @-@ analysis of 13 small studies . This meta @-@ analysis found that long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines was associated with moderate to large adverse effects on all areas of cognition , with visuospatial memory being the most commonly detected impairment . Some of the other impairments reported were decreased IQ , visiomotor coordination , information processing , verbal learning and concentration . The authors of the meta @-@ analysis and a later reviewer noted that the applicability of this meta @-@ analysis is limited because the subjects were taken mostly from withdrawal clinics ; the coexisting drug , alcohol use , and psychiatric disorders were not defined ; and several of the included studies conducted the cognitive measurements during the withdrawal period .

= = = Paradoxical effects = = =

Paradoxical reactions , such as increased seizures in epileptics , aggression , violence , impulsivity , irritability and suicidal behavior sometimes occur . These reactions have been explained as consequences of disinhibition and the subsequent loss of control over socially unacceptable behavior . Paradoxical reactions are rare in the general population , with an incidence rate below 1 % and similar to placebo . However , they occur with greater frequency in recreational abusers , individuals with borderline personality disorder , children , and patients on high @-@ dosage regimes . In these groups , impulse control problems are perhaps the most important risk factor for disinhibition ; learning disabilities and neurological disorders are also significant risks . Most reports of disinhibition involve high doses of high @-@ potency benzodiazepines . Paradoxical effects may also appear after chronic use of benzodiazepines .

= = = Long @-@ term worsening of psychiatric symptoms = = =

While benzodizapines may have short @-@ term benefits for anxiety , sleep and agitation in some patients , long @-@ term ( i.e. , greater than 2 – 4 weeks ) use can result in a worsening of the very symptoms the medications are meant to treat . Potential explanations include exacerbating cognitive problems that are already common in anxiety disorders , causing or worsening depression and suicidality , disrupting sleep architecture by inhibiting deep stage sleep , withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms in between doses mimicking or exacerbating underlying anxiety or sleep disorders , inhibiting the benefits of psychotherapy by inhibiting memory consolidation and reducing fear extinction , and reducing coping with trauma / stress and increasing vulnerability to future stress . Anxiety , insomnia and irritability may be temporarily exacerbated during withdrawal , but psychiatric symptoms after discontinuation are usually less than even while taking benzodiazepines . Fortunately , for those with benzodiazepine @-@ induced problems , functioning significantly improves within 1 year of discontinuation .

= = = Reinforcement disorders = = =

= = = = Tolerance = = = =

The main problem of the chronic use of benzodiazepines is the development of tolerance and dependence . Tolerance manifests itself as diminished pharmacological effect and develops relatively quickly to the sedative , hypnotic , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant actions of benzodiazepines . Tolerance to anti @-@ anxiety effects develops more slowly with little evidence of continued effectiveness beyond four to six months of continued use . In general , tolerance to the amnesic effects does not occur . However , controversy exists as to tolerance to the anxiolytic effects with some evidence that benzodiazepines retain efficacy and opposing evidence from a systematic review of the literature that tolerance frequently occurs and some evidence that anxiety may worsen with long @-@ term use . The question of tolerance to the amnesic effects of benzodiazepines is , likewise , unclear . Some evidence suggests that partial tolerance does develop , and that , " memory impairment is limited to a narrow window within 90 minutes after each dose " .

A major disadvantage of benzodiazepines that tolerance to therapeutic effects develops relatively quickly while many adverse effects persist . Tolerance develops to hypnotic and myorelexant effects within days to weeks , and to anticonvulsant and anxiolytic effects within weeks to months . Therefore , benzodiazepines are unlikely to be effective long @-@ term treatments for sleep and anxiety . While BZD therapeutic effects disappear with tolerance , depression and impulsivity with high suicidal risk commonly persist . Several studies have confirmed that long @-@ term benzodiazepines are not significantly different from placebo for sleep or anxiety . This may explain why patients commonly increase doses over time and many eventually take more than one type of benzodiazepine after the first loses effectiveness . Additionally , because tolerance to benzodiazepine sedating effects develops more quickly than does tolerance to brainstem depressant effects , those taking more benzodiazepines to achieve desired effects may suffer sudden respiratory depression , hypotension or death . Most patients with anxiety disorders and PTSD have symptoms which persist for at least several months , making tolerance to therapeutic effects a distinct problem for them and necessitating the need for more effective long @-@ term treatment ( e.g. , psychotherapy , serotonergic antidepressants ) .

= = = = Withdrawal symptoms and management = = = =

Discontinuation of benzodiazepines or abrupt reduction of the dose , even after a relatively short course of treatment ( three to four weeks ) , may result in two groups of symptoms — rebound and withdrawal . Rebound symptoms are the return of the symptoms for which the patient was treated but worse than before . Withdrawal symptoms are the new symptoms that occur when the benzodiazepine is stopped . They are the main sign of physical dependence .

The most frequent symptoms of withdrawal from benzodiazepines are insomnia , gastric problems , tremors , agitation , fearfulness , and muscle spasms . The less frequent effects are irritability , sweating , depersonalization , derealization , hypersensitivity to stimuli , depression , suicidal behavior , psychosis , seizures , and delirium tremens . Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt or over @-@ rapid withdrawal . Abrupt withdrawal can be dangerous , therefore a gradual reduction regimen is recommended .

Symptoms may also occur during a gradual dosage reduction , but are typically less severe and may persist as part of a protracted withdrawal syndrome for months after cessation of benzodiazepines . Approximately 10 % of patients will experience a notable protracted withdrawal syndrome , which can persist for many months or in some cases a year or longer . Protracted symptoms tend to resemble those seen during the first couple of months of withdrawal but usually are of a sub @-@ acute level of severity . Such symptoms do gradually lessen over time , eventually disappearing altogether .

Benzodiazepines have a reputation with patients and doctors for causing a severe and traumatic withdrawal ; however , this is in large part due to the withdrawal process being poorly managed . Over @-@ rapid withdrawal from benzodiazepines increases the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and increases the failure rate . A slow and gradual withdrawal customised to the individual and , if indicated , psychological support is the most effective way of managing the withdrawal . Opinion as to the time needed to complete withdrawal ranges from four weeks to several years . A goal of less than six months has been suggested , but due to factors such as dosage and type of benzodiazepine , reasons for prescription , lifestyle , personality , environmental stresses , and amount of available support , a year or more may be needed to withdraw .

Withdrawal is best managed by transferring the physically dependent patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam because it has the longest half @-@ life of all of the benzodiazepines , is metabolised into long @-@ acting active metabolites and is available in low @-@ potency tablets , which can be quartered for smaller doses . A further benefit is that it is available in liquid form , which allows for even smaller reductions . Chlordiazepoxide , which also has a long half @-@ life and long @-@ acting active metabolites , can be used as an alternative .

Nonbenzodiazepines are contraindicated during benzodiazepine withdrawal as they are cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and can induce dependence . Alcohol is also cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and more toxic and thus caution is needed to avoid replacing one dependence with another . During withdrawal , fluoroquinolone @-@ based antibiotics are best avoided if possible ; they displace benzodiazepines from their binding site and reduce GABA function and , thus , may aggravate withdrawal symptoms . Antipsychotics are not recommended for benzodiazepine withdrawal ( or other CNS depressant withdrawal states ) especially clozapine , olanzapine or low potency phenothiazines e.g. chlorpromazine as they lower the seizure threshold and can worsen withdrawal effects ; if used extreme caution is required .

Withdrawal from long term benzodiazepines is beneficial for most individuals . Withdrawal of benzodiazepines from long @-@ term users , in general , leads to improved physical and mental health particularly in the elderly ; although some long term users report continued benefit from taking benzodiazepines , this may be the result of suppression of withdrawal effects .

= = Overdose = =

Although benzodiazepines are much safer in overdose than their predecessors , the barbiturates , they can still cause problems in overdose . Taken alone , they rarely cause severe complications in overdose ; statistics in England showed that benzodiazepines were responsible for 3 @.@ 8 % of all deaths by poisoning from a single drug . However , combining these drugs with alcohol , opiates or tricyclic antidepressants markedly raises the toxicity . The elderly are more sensitive to the side effects of benzodiazepines , and poisoning may even occur from their long @-@ term use . The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity ; temazepam appears to be most toxic in overdose and when used with other drugs . The symptoms of a benzodiazepine overdose may include ; drowsiness , slurred speech , nystagmus , hypotension , ataxia , coma , respiratory depression , and cardiorespiratory arrest .

A reversal agent for benzodiazepines exists , flumazenil ( Anexate ) . Its use as an antidote is not routinely recommended because of the high risk of resedation and seizures . In a double @-@ blind , placebo @-@ controlled trial of 326 patients , 4 patients suffered serious adverse events and 61 % became resedated following the use of flumazenil . Numerous contraindications to its use exist . It is contraindicated in patients with a history of long @-@ term use of benzodiazepines , those having ingested a substance that lowers the seizure threshold or may cause an arrhythmia , and in those with abnormal vital signs . One study found that only 10 % of the patient population presenting with a benzodiazepine overdose are suitable candidates for treatment with flumazenil .

= = Interactions = =

Individual benzodiazepines may have different interactions with certain drugs . Depending on their metabolism pathway , benzodiazepines can be divided roughly into two groups . The largest group consists of those that are metabolized by cytochrome P450 ( CYP450 ) enzymes and possess significant potential for interactions with other drugs . The other group comprises those that are metabolized through glucuronidation , such as lorazepam , oxazepam , and temazepam , and , in general , have few drug interactions .

Many drugs , including oral contraceptives , some antibiotics , antidepressants , and antifungal agents , inhibit cytochrome enzymes in the liver . They reduce the rate of elimination of the benzodiazepines that are metabolized by CYP450 , leading to possibly excessive drug accumulation and increased side @-@ effects . In contrast , drugs that induce cytochrome P450 enzymes , such as St John 's wort , the antibiotic rifampicin , and the anticonvulsants carbamazepine and phenytoin , accelerate elimination of many benzodiazepines and decrease their action . Taking benzodiazepines with alcohol , opioids and other central nervous system depressants potentiates their action . This often results in increased sedation , impaired motor coordination , suppressed breathing , and other adverse effects that have potential to be lethal . Antacids can slow down absorption of some benzodiazepines ; however , this effect is marginal and inconsistent .

= = Pharmacology = =

= = = Mechanism of action = = =

Benzodiazepines work by increasing the efficiency of a natural brain chemical , GABA , to decrease the excitability of neurons . This reduces the communication between neurons and , therefore , has a calming effect on many of the functions of the brain .

GABA controls the excitability of neurons by binding to the GABAA receptor . The GABAA receptor is a protein complex located in the synapses of neurons . All GABAA receptors contain an ion channel that conducts chloride ions across neuronal cell membranes and two binding sites for the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) , while a subset of GABAA receptor complexes also contain a single binding site for benzodiazepines . Binding of benzodiazepines to this receptor complex does not alter binding of GABA . Unlike other positive allosteric modulators that increases ligand binding , benzodiazepine binding acts as a positive allosteric modulator by increasing the total conduction of chloride ions across the neuronal cell membrane when GABA is already bound to its receptor . This increased chloride ion influx hyperpolarizes the neuron 's membrane potential . As a result , the difference between resting potential and threshold potential is increased and firing is less likely . Different GABAA receptor subtypes have varying distributions within different regions of the brain and , therefore , control distinct neuronal circuits . Hence , activation of different GABAA receptor subtypes by benzodiazepines may result in distinct pharmacological actions . In terms of the mechanism of action of benzodiazepines , their similarities are too great to separate them into individual categories such as anxiolytic or hypnotic . For example , a hypnotic administered in low doses will produce anxiety @-@ relieving effects , whereas a benzodiazepine marketed as an anti @-@ anxiety drug will at higher doses induce sleep .

The subset of GABAA receptors that also bind benzodiazepines are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors ( BzR ) . The GABAA receptor is a heteromer composed of five subunits , the most common ones being two αs , two βs , and one γ ( α2β2γ ) . For each subunit , many subtypes exist ( α1 – 6 , β1 – 3 , and γ1 – 3 ) . GABAA receptors that are made up of different combinations of subunit subtypes have different properties , different distributions in the brain and different activities relative to pharmacological and clinical effects . Benzodiazepines bind at the interface of the α and γ subunits on the GABAA receptor . Binding also requires that alpha subunits contain a histidine amino acid residue , ( i.e. , α1 , α2 , α3 , and α5 containing GABAA receptors ) . For this reason , benzodiazepines show no affinity for GABAA receptors containing α4 and α6 subunits with an arginine instead of a histidine residue . Once bound to the benzodiazepine receptor , the benzodiazepine ligand locks the benzodiazepine receptor into a conformation in which it has a greater affinity for the GABA neurotransmitter . This increases the frequency of the opening of the associated chloride ion channel and hyperpolarizes the membrane of the associated neuron . The inhibitory effect of the available GABA is potentiated , leading to sedatory and anxiolytic effects . For instance , those ligands with high activity at the α1 are associated with stronger hypnotic effects , whereas those with higher affinity for GABAA receptors containing α2 and / or α3 subunits have good anti @-@ anxiety activity .

The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with peripheral benzodiazepine receptors . Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are present in peripheral nervous system tissues , glial cells , and to a lesser extent the central nervous system . These peripheral receptors are not structurally related or coupled to GABAA receptors . They modulate the immune system and are involved in the body response to injury . Benzodiazepines also function as weak adenosine reuptake inhibitors . It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant , anxiolytic , and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action .

= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =

A benzodiazepine can be placed into one of three groups by its elimination half @-@ life , or time it takes for the body to eliminate half of the dose . Some benzodiazepines have long @-@ acting active metabolites , such as diazepam and chlordiazepoxide , which are metabolised into desmethyldiazepam . Desmethyldiazepam has a half @-@ life of 36 – 200 hours , and flurazepam , with the main active metabolite of desalkylflurazepam , with a half @-@ life of 40 – 250 hours . These long @-@ acting metabolites are partial agonists .

Short @-@ acting compounds have a median half @-@ life of 1 – 12 hours . They have few residual effects if taken before bedtime , rebound insomnia may occur upon discontinuation , and they might cause daytime withdrawal symptoms such as next day rebound anxiety with prolonged usage . Examples are brotizolam , midazolam , and triazolam .

Intermediate @-@ acting compounds have a median half @-@ life of 12 – 40 hours . They may have some residual effects in the first half of the day if used as a hypnotic . Rebound insomnia , however , is more common upon discontinuation of intermediate @-@ acting benzodiazepines than longer @-@ acting benzodiazepines . Examples are alprazolam , estazolam , flunitrazepam , clonazepam , lormetazepam , lorazepam , nitrazepam , and temazepam .

Long @-@ acting compounds have a half @-@ life of 40 – 250 hours . They have a risk of accumulation in the elderly and in individuals with severely impaired liver function , but they have a reduced severity of rebound effects and withdrawal . Examples are diazepam , clorazepate , chlordiazepoxide , and flurazepam .

= = Physical and chemical properties = =

Benzodiazepines share a similar chemical structure , and their effects in humans are mainly produced by the allosteric modification of a specific kind of neurotransmitter receptor , the GABAA receptor , which increases the overall conductance of these inhibitory channels ; this results in the various therapeutic effects as well as adverse effects of benzodiazepines . Other less important mechanisms of action are also known .

= = = Chemistry = = =

The term benzodiazepine is the chemical name for the heterocyclic ring system ( see figure to the right ) , which is a fusion between the benzene and diazepine ring systems . Under Hantzsch – Widman nomenclature , a diazepine is a heterocycle with two nitrogen atoms , five carbon atom and the maximum possible number of cumulative double bonds . The " benzo " prefix indicates the benzene ring fused onto the diazepine ring .

Benzodiazepine drugs are substituted 1 @,@ 4 @-@ benzodiazepines , although the chemical term can refer to many other compounds that do not have useful pharmacological properties . Different benzodiazepine drugs have different side groups attached to this central structure . The different side groups affect the binding of the molecule to the GABAA receptor and so modulate the pharmacological properties . Many of the pharmacologically active " classical " benzodiazepine drugs contain the 5 @-@ phenyl @-@ 1H @-@ benzo [ e ] [ 1 @,@ 4 ] diazepin @-@ 2 ( 3H ) -one substructure ( see figure to the right ) . Benzodiazepines have been found to mimic protein reverse turns structurally which enable them with their biological activity in many cases .

Nonbenzodiazepines also bind to the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABAA receptor and possess similar pharmacological properties . While the nonbenzodiazepines are by definition structurally unrelated to the benzodiazepines , both classes of drugs possess a common pharmacophore ( see figure to the lower @-@ right ) , which explains their binding to a common receptor site .

= = = Common types = = =

2 @-@ keto compounds :

clorazepate , diazepam , flurazepam , halazepam , prazepam , and others .

3 @-@ hydroxy compounds :

lorazepam , lormetazepam , oxazepam , temazepam

7 @-@ nitro compounds :

clonazepam , flunitrazepam , nimetazepam , nitrazepam

Triazolo compounds :

adinazolam , alprazolam , estazolam , triazolam

Imidazo compounds

climazolam , loprazolam , midazolam

= = History = =

The first benzodiazepine , chlordiazepoxide ( Librium ) , was synthesized in 1955 by Leo Sternbach while working at Hoffmann – La Roche on the development of tranquilizers . The pharmacological properties of the compounds prepared initially were disappointing , and Sternbach abandoned the project . Two years later , in April 1957 , co @-@ worker Earl Reeder noticed a " nicely crystalline " compound left over from the discontinued project while spring @-@ cleaning in the lab . This compound , later named chlordiazepoxide , had not been tested in 1955 because of Sternbach 's focus on other issues . Expecting the pharmacology results to be negative and hoping to publish the chemistry @-@ related findings , researchers submitted it for a standard battery of animal tests . However , the compound showed very strong sedative , anticonvulsant , and muscle relaxant effects . These impressive clinical findings led to its speedy introduction throughout the world in 1960 under the brand name Librium . Following chlordiazepoxide , diazepam marketed by Hoffmann – La Roche under the brand name Valium in 1963 , and for a while the two were the most commercially successful drugs . The introduction of benzodiazepines led to a decrease in the prescription of barbiturates , and by the 1970s they had largely replaced the older drugs for sedative and hypnotic uses .

The new group of drugs was initially greeted with optimism by the medical profession , but gradually concerns arose ; in particular , the risk of dependence became evident in the 1980s . Benzodiazepines have a unique history in that they were responsible for the largest @-@ ever class @-@ action lawsuit against drug manufacturers in the United Kingdom , involving 14 @,@ 000 patients and 1 @,@ 800 law firms that alleged the manufacturers knew of the dependence potential but intentionally withheld this information from doctors . At the same time , 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities were sued by patients to recover damages for the harmful effects of dependence and withdrawal . This led some doctors to require a signed consent form from their patients and to recommend that all patients be adequately warned of the risks of dependence and withdrawal before starting treatment with benzodiazepines . The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached a verdict ; legal aid had been withdrawn and there were allegations that the consultant psychiatrists , the expert witnesses , had a conflict of interest . This litigation led to changes in the British law , making class action lawsuits more difficult .

Although antidepressants with anxiolytic properties have been introduced , and there is increasing awareness of the adverse effects of benzodiazepines , prescriptions for short @-@ term anxiety relief have not significantly dropped . For treatment of insomnia , benzodiazepines are now less popular than nonbenzodiazepines , which include zolpidem , zaleplon and eszopiclone . Nonbenzodiazepines are molecularly distinct , but nonetheless , they work on the same benzodiazepine receptors and produce similar sedative effects .

= = Society and culture = =

= = = Legal status = = =

In the United States , benzodiazepines are Schedule IV drugs under the Federal Controlled Substances Act , even when not on the market ( for example , nitrazepam and bromazepam ) . Flunitrazepam is subject to more stringent regulations in certain states and temazepam prescriptions require specially coded pads in certain states .

In Canada , possession of benzodiazepines is legal for personal use . All benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act .

In the United Kingdom , the benzodiazepines are schedule 4 controlled drugs , except for flunitrazepam , temazepam and midazolam , which are schedule 3 controlled drugs and carry stronger penalties for possession and trafficking .

In the Netherlands , since October 1993 , benzodiazepines , including formulations containing less than 20 mg of temazepam , are all placed on List 2 of the Opium Law . A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines . Temazepam formulations containing 20 mg or greater of the drug are placed on List 1 , thus requiring prescriptions to be written in the List 1 format .

In East Asia and Southeast Asia , temazepam and nimetazepam are often heavily controlled and restricted . In certain countries , triazolam , flunitrazepam , flutoprazepam and midazolam are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees . In Hong Kong , all benzodiazepines are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong 's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance . Previously only brotizolam , flunitrazepam and triazolam were classed as dangerous drugs .

Internationally , benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs , apart from flunitrazepam which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances .

= = = Recreational use = = =

Benzodiazepines are considered to be major drugs of abuse . Benzodiazepine abuse is mostly limited to individuals who abuse other drugs , i.e. , poly @-@ drug abusers . On the international scene , benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs by the INCB , apart from flunitrazepam which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances . Some variation in drug scheduling exists in individual countries ; for example , in the United Kingdom , midazolam and temazepam are Schedule III controlled drugs . British law requires temazepam ( but not midazolam ) to be stored in safe custody . Safe custody requirements ensures that pharmacists and doctors holding stock of temazepam must store it in securely fixed double @-@ locked steel safety cabinets and maintain a written register , which must be bound and contain separate entries for temazepam and must be written in ink with no use of correction fluid ( although a written register is not required for temazepam in the United Kingdom ) . Disposal of expired stock must be witnessed by a designated inspector ( either a local drug @-@ enforcement police officer or official from health authority ) . Benzodiazepine abuse ranges from occasional binges on large doses , to chronic and compulsive drug abuse of high doses .

Benzodiazepines are used recreationally and by problematic drug misusers . Mortality is higher among poly @-@ drug misusers that also use benzodiazepines . Heavy alcohol use also increases mortality among poly @-@ drug users . Dependence and tolerance , often coupled with dosage escalation , to benzodiazepines can develop rapidly among drug misusers ; withdrawal syndrome may appear after as little as three weeks of continuous use . Long @-@ term use has the potential to cause both physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms such as depression , anxiety ( often to the point of panic attacks ) , and agoraphobia . Benzodiazepines and , in particular , temazepam are sometimes used intravenously , which , if done incorrectly or in an unsterile manner , can lead to medical complications including abscesses , cellulitis , thrombophlebitis , arterial puncture , deep vein thrombosis , and gangrene . Sharing syringes and needles for this purpose also brings up the possibility of transmission of hepatitis , HIV , and other diseases . Benzodiazepines are also misused intranasally , which may have additional health consequences . Once benzodiazepine dependence has been established , a clinician usually converts the patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam before beginning a gradual reduction program .

A 1999 – 2005 Australian police survey of detainees reported preliminary findings that self @-@ reported users of benzodiazepines were less likely than non @-@ user detainees to work full @-@ time and more likely to receive government benefits , use methamphetamine or heroin , and be arrested or imprisoned . Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for criminal purposes ; they serve to incapacitate a victim in cases of drug assisted rape or robbery .

Overall , anecdotal evidence suggests that temazepam may be the most psychologically habit @-@ forming ( addictive ) benzodiazepine . Temazepam abuse reached epidemic proportions in some parts of the world , in particular , in Europe and Australia , and is a major drug of abuse in many Southeast Asian countries . This led authorities of various countries to place temazepam under a more restrictive legal status . Some countries , such as Sweden , banned the drug outright . Temazepam also has certain pharmacokinetic properties of absorption , distribution , elimination , and clearance that make it more apt to abuse compared to many other benzodiazepines .

= = Veterinary use = =

Benzodiazepines are used in veterinary practice in the treatment of various disorders and conditions . As in humans , they are used in the first @-@ line management of seizures , status epilepticus , and tetanus , and as maintenance therapy in epilepsy ( in particular , in cats ) . They are widely used in small and large animals ( including horses , swine , cattle and exotic and wild animals ) for their anxiolytic and sedative effects , as pre @-@ medication before surgery , for induction of anesthesia and as adjuncts to anesthesia .

= Claire Underwood =

Claire Hale Underwood is a fictional character in House of Cards , played by Robin Wright . She is the wife of the show 's protagonist Francis J. " Frank " Underwood . She is a lobbyist and runs an environmental nonprofit organization , but in later seasons ascends to the position of Second Lady of the United States , and finally First Lady of the United States and the United States Ambassador to the United Nations . Underwood made her first appearance in the series ' pilot episode , " Chapter 1 " . The character is based on Elizabeth Urquhart , a character from the British miniseries from which the current series is derived . Unlike the original character , however , Claire has her own storylines .

The role has been critically acclaimed . Wright won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for this role at the 71st Golden Globe Awards , becoming the first actress to win a Golden Globe Award for a web television online @-@ only role in a series . She was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for this role at the 65th , 66th and 67th Primetime Emmy Awards .

= = Character overview = =

Claire Hale Underwood is originally from the exclusive Highland Park enclave of Dallas , Texas . Her late father was a major Texas Republican . While at Radcliffe College in Cambridge , she met a Harvard Law student from South Carolina . That student was Francis J. Underwood . She is of wealthy background and the show characterizes her as a " Dallas Debutante " and " Lily White " . She recounts her father taking her to Dealey Plaza , where John F. Kennedy was assassinated , and that she felt “ so sad , so angry . ” She has a difficult relationship with her mother , Elizabeth Hale ( Ellen Burstyn ) , who despises Frank and is disappointed in Claire for marrying him .

Brian Stelter of The New York Times described her as Frank Underwood 's conniving wife and described the Underwoods as " the scheming husband and wife at the center of ' House of Cards ' " . She is a woman " who will stop at nothing to conquer everything " . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an " ice @-@ queen wife " . The Independent 's Sarah Hughes echoes this description , saying she is so dedicated to the couple 's schemes that it is clear she will execute them herself if Frank wavers . Following season 4 , Robin Wright stated that she felt Claire Underwood was the equal of Frank Underwood and demanded equal pay for her performance . Netflix acquiesced .

= = = Relationship with Frank = = =

While Frank is Machiavellian , Claire presents a woman urging on her husband 's assertion of power in the image of Lady Macbeth . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weaknesses , saying " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " This gives a credibility to their symbiosis .

Willimon notes that , " What 's extraordinary about Frank and Claire is there is deep love and mutual respect , but the way they achieve this is by operating on a completely different set of rules than the rest of us typically do . "

Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes Claire as " a short @-@ haired blonde who manages to be masculine and demasculinizing at the same time . " Smith describes their relationship as pivotal to the show : " Benign though they may seem — and their harmless air is what makes the Underwoods so effective as political plotters — this is a power couple with the same malignant chemistry as pairs of serial killers , where each needs the other in order to become lethal " .

Upon viewing a four episode preview of season 2 , Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter says the series " ... sells husband and wife power @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs couple Frank ( Kevin Spacey ) and Claire ( Robin Wright ) Underwood as a little too oily and reptilian for anyone 's good . " Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara makes the case that House of Cards is a love story on many levels but most importantly between Frank and Claire .

In season 3 , when the Underwoods are President and First Lady of the United States , Claire 's marriage to Frank begins to falter , and she ultimately decides he is no longer " enough " for her . She leaves him in the season finale , but comes back in the fourth season , treating their marriage as a purely political arrangement to further her own career . When he is shot during a campaign event , Claire privately admits that she feels nothing for him . Throughout the season , she works behind the scenes to undermine Frank 's election campaign , before finally joining forces with him in order to become his vice president . She also has an affair with her speechwriter Tom Yates ( Paul Sparks ) , with Frank 's approval .

= = Fictional character biography = =

= = = Season 1 = = =

Claire is a lobbyist who runs an environmental group while serving as her husband 's primary accomplice . After President Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) goes back on his promise to make Frank Secretary of State , Frank enlists Claire to help him get revenge and propel them both to positions of power . She and Frank scheme nightly over a cigarette , and together they maneuver their way into Walker 's inner circle . Frank says of Claire : " I love that woman , I love her more than sharks love blood . "

Claire is aware of Frank 's sexual relationship with reporter Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , and approves of it as long as it achieves their ends . She herself has an affair with an old boyfriend , Adam Galloway ( Ben Daniels ) .

By the end of the season , Walker appoints Frank the Vice President of the United States , making Claire the Second Lady of the United States .

= = = Season 2 = = =

Claire 's main storyline in season 2 is her advocacy , as Second Lady , for a sexual assault prevention bill . During her campaign for the bill , a skeleton from her college days emerges : During a nationally televised interview , she admits that she was raped in college , and that her rapist , Dalton McGinnis ( Peter Bradbury ) , is now a high @-@ ranking general . ( She had earlier had an uncomfortable encounter with McGinnis at a White House dinner , during which she had told Frank what the general had done to her . ) She also admits to having aborted a pregnancy that she claims was the result of the rape ; it is later revealed that she in fact aborted Frank 's child , with his consent . She then converts the focus on that issue into political support that becomes critical to the Underwoods ' ascension to the Oval Office .

Claire becomes increasingly ruthless as the season progresses . When Galloway leaks an intimate photo of Claire to appease his jealous fiancee , Claire intimidates him into publicly stating that he fabricated the picture , ruining his reputation . When Gillian Cole ( Sandrine Holt ) , a pregnant former employee , returns to demand health care as part of her severance , Claire says , " I am willing to let your child wither and die inside you , if that ’ s what ’ s required , ... Am I really the sort of enemy you want to make ? " Claire also manipulates First Lady Patricia Walker ( Joanna Going ) into believing that her husband is having an affair in order to distract President Walker from Frank 's machinations . She shows remorse for her actions only once . When another of McGinnis ' victims , Megan Hennessy ( Libby Woodbridge ) , comes forward , Claire uses her as the poster girl for the sexual assault bill , leaving the fragile young woman open to public scrutiny and reprisals from the bill 's opponents . Before she can testify about her ordeal before Congress , however , Megan suffers a breakdown and attempts suicide . Upon realizing what she has caused Megan to go through , Claire bursts into tears .

In the season finale , she urges Frank to humble himself before President Walker , with whom he has fallen out of favor , in order to complete the plan : " Cut out your heart and put it in his fucking hands . " The gambit works : Walker keeps Frank as his Vice President , allowing Frank to succeed him when he resigns . Frank is now President of the United States , with Claire as the First Lady of the United States .

According to Drew Grant of The New York Observer , Claire 's season @-@ long storyline was similar to the real life efforts of United States Senator Kirsten Gillibrand 's to legislate an end to military sexual assault . Based upon the 4 @-@ episode preview , Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times says that in season 2 Claire " is still ruthlessly pursuing her own agenda as well as her husband ’ s . She remains an enigma even as she reveals more and more disturbing secrets from her past . " Claire remains composed and stylish with or without her husband and plays the press with aplomb .

= = = Season 3 = = =

In Season 3 , Claire feels the need to be something more " significant " than the First Lady , and asks Frank to nominate her to a United Nations post . He nominates her , but the Senate rejects her after a rocky hearing . Frank gives her the job anyway in a recess appointment , but her tenure is brief ; she ruins a treaty between the U.S. and Russia by publicly confronting Russian President Viktor Petrov ( Lars Mikkelsen ) about his anti @-@ gay policies , and is forced to resign when Petrov uses her as a bargaining chip during a diplomatic crisis .

During Frank 's election campaign , Claire begins to question whether she still loves him . In the season finale , she and Frank get into an ugly fight in which she says he is not enough for her ; Frank replies that without him , she is nothing . Season three ends with Claire leaving Frank as he prepares to go to the New Hampshire primary .

= = = Season 4 = = =

After leaving Frank , Claire goes back to Texas , where she has a tense reunion with her mother , who is dying of lymphoma . She sets her sights on running for a House of Representatives seat in Texas , with help from political consultant LeAnn Harvey ( Neve Campbell ) . Frank persuades her to resume public appearances with him by promising to support her run . However , he sandbags her prospective candidacy by endorsing a political ally 's daughter , in order to keep Claire focused on his campaign . Claire retaliates on the day the South Carolina primary by covertly leaking a photo of Frank 's father with a Klansman , imperiling Frank 's candidacy . Frank figures out that she was behind the leak and confronts her . Claire calmly admits what she did , and proposes that she join him in the ticket as his vice president . Frank rejects the idea .

Shortly thereafter , Frank is shot by Lucas Goodwin in an assassination attempt , and falls into a coma . While Frank is in surgery , Claire helps guide Frank 's vice @-@ president Donald Blythe through diplomatic oil crisis with Russia . While Frank is receiving a liver transplant , she declines going to the hospital in favor of negotiating a treaty with Petrov , and strong @-@ arms him into accepting the U.S. ' terms . When Frank recovers from surgery , he agrees to let Claire be his vice president . He and Claire advocate for a controversial gun control bill for the sole purpose of creating an atmosphere divisive enough to pick off the potential running mates . In the ensuing open convention , they publicly endorse Secretary of State Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) for the job , while working behind the scenes to undermine her and ensure that Claire wins enough delegates to be nominated . Meanwhile , she reluctantly honors her mother 's request to help her die . She and Frank then use the public sympathy from Elizabeth 's death to win the nomination ; they are now running mates .

When a group of homegrown ICO terrorists take an American family hostage , Claire negotiates with their imprisoned leader , Yusuf Al Ahmadi ( Farshad Farahat ) , who agrees to tell his followers to release the hostages . Al Ahmadi reneges on the deal , however , and tells them to kill the hostages . At the same time , Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) publishes an investigative news story detailing Frank 's crimes . Claire gives Frank the idea to declare war on the terrorists and allow the public to see the hostage die in order to distract from the scandal and create an atmosphere of widespread fear that they can exploit .

= = Reception = =

Wright 's performance is described as " nuanced and compelling " . Claire has " chilly poise " but the " coolly regal doyenne " softens over the course of the first season according to New Republic 's Laura Bennet . Wright plays the role with " an almost terrifying froideur " . As a couple Frank and Claire are said to " reverberate with tension and wit " . Michael Dobbs , who wrote the trilogy of novels upon which the British miniseries is based , compares the compelling nature of the relationship between Frank and Claire favorably to the original characters in House of Cards and likens them to Macbeth and Lady Macbeth . He is not alone . In season 2 , she remains " equally steely " . Despite suggestions to the contrary , Wright insists that the character is not based on Hillary Clinton .

= = = Awards and nominations = = =

On July 18 , 2013 , Netflix earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Three of its web series , Arrested Development , Hemlock Grove , and House of Cards , earned nominations . Among those nominations was Wright 's portrayal of Claire Underwood for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series as well as Kevin Spacey 's portrayal of Frank Underwood for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Jason Bateman 's portrayal of Michael Bluth in Arrested Development for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series , making these three roles the first three leading roles to be Primetime Emmy Award @-@ nominated from a web television series . The role has also earned Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama award at the 71st Golden Globe Awards on January 12 , 2014 . In so doing she became the first actress to win a Golden Globe Award for an online @-@ only web television series .

For season 2 , Wright earned a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series nomination at the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Awards . Wright was again nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards and Best Actress – Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards . She was nominated for both Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards .

In season 3 , she was nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series at the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards , Best Actress – Television Series Drama at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards , as well as both Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards .

The season 4 performance earned a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actreaa in a Drama Series at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards .

= The Utility of Force =

The Utility of Force : The Art of War in the Modern World is a treatise on modern warfare written by General Sir Rupert Smith and published in 2005 . Smith is a retired general who spent 40 years in the British Army ; he commanded the 1st Armoured Division in the First Gulf War and served as General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland at the end of the Troubles . He was motivated to write the book by his experiences in the Balkans . He commanded the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) in Bosnia from 1995 to 1996 , during which time the Srebrenica massacre occurred and the capital , Sarajevo , was under siege by Serb forces . Smith was instrumental in the lifting of the siege by arranging for NATO air strikes and an artillery barrage . This enabled a ground assault by Bosnian and Croatian forces that ended the siege and led to the Dayton Agreement . Smith 's second involvement with the Balkans was in 1999 during the Kosovo War , when he was serving as NATO 's Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe , overseeing air strikes against Serb targets .

Smith 's thesis , and the central theme of The Utility of Force , is that the world entered a new paradigm of conflict at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries , which he calls " war amongst the people " , and that Western , industrialised armies are ill @-@ suited to the new style of warfare . The defining characteristics of " war amongst the people " are that conflicts tend to be timeless , more political in nature , and fought between parties that are part of , and in amongst , the civilian population rather than between uniformed armies on a battlefield . To prove his theory , Smith provides a detailed history starting with Napoleon , who invented what Smith calls " industrial warfare " — the paradigm in which the entire resources of the nation were mustered and which culminated in the two world wars . In the second half of the book , Smith states that the advent of nuclear weapons rendered industrial warfare obsolete , but that Western governments and generals refused to acknowledge the new paradigm , which led to several significant defeats in the second half of the 20th century . He provides six themes which characterise modern conflicts and proceeds to analyse each in detail , before dedicating his final chapter to his reflections on his command in Bosnia . He concedes that he did not foresee the Srebenica massacre , but criticises UNPROFOR , believing that it was not in a position to act even had the massacre been foreseen and that it had no strategy for effectively intervening in the war . In his conclusion , Smith argues that military force is only part of the solution in modern conflicts , and that it must be combined with political initiatives which together will subdue but not necessarily end the conflict .

The Utility of Force was broadly praised by reviewers on both sides of the Atlantic . It was compared favourably with Carl von Clausewitz 's treatise On War and American reviewers felt that it contained important lessons for the United States military . Smith was criticised for over @-@ emphasising the paradigm shift , with several reviewers observing that conventional wars are still fought and that the threat of such wars still exists , and for drawing too clear a distinction between " war amongst the people " and conventional war , particularly with his opening sentence " war no longer exists " . Reviewers also felt that Smith under @-@ emphasised the extent to which " war amongst the people " has always existed . Nonetheless , reviewers praised Smith 's analysis of modern war and recommended that The Utility of Force ought to be read by politicians and military officers .

= = Background = =

General Sir Rupert Smith is a retired career military officer who served in the British Army for 40 years . At the height of his career , Smith held several significant commands in both conventional conflicts and " wars amongst the people " . As a major general , he commanded the 1st Armoured Division during the first Gulf War ( 1990 – 91 ) . He went on to serve as Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff for operations and security from 1992 to 1995 , during which time he came to the conclusion that military force could only achieve one of four things when used to intervene in a political conflict : " ameliorate , contain , deter or coerce , and destroy " .

Smith 's decision to write The Utility of Force was prompted by his experience in the Balkans . In late January 1995 , Smith was appointed to command the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) , sent to intervene in the Bosnian War . Smith was based in the Bosnian capital , Sarajevo , where he devised a strategy for the multi @-@ national UN force that had been deployed effectively to carry out mainly humanitarian tasks but without a plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion . At the time of Smith 's deployment , Sarajevo was in the middle of a siege , which Smith was instrumental in lifting after arranging for NATO air strikes and an artillery barrage against Serb forces commanded by Ratko Mladic . A ground campaign by Bosnian and Croatian forces eventually led to the Dayton Agreement , which brought the war to an end . It was also during Smith 's command of UNPROFOR that the Srebrenica massacre — recognised by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia as an act of genocide — took place . Historian Niall Ferguson was adamant that Smith bore no responsibility for the events at Srebrenica and was indeed one of the few British officials " to emerge with distinction " from the intervention in Bosnia ; nonetheless , Ferguson believed that the experience illuminates Smith 's theoretical writings .

After UNPROFOR , Smith served as General Officer Commanding Northern Ireland from 1996 to 1998 towards the conclusion of the Troubles . In 1999 , during the Kosovo War , Smith was NATO 's Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe . NATO commenced air strikes against Serb forces led by Slobodan Milošević , again lacking defined objectives , while Smith worked to incorporate the bombing raids into an overall strategy .

= = Narrative = =

= = = Industrial war = = =

The book opens with the statement that " war no longer exists " ; that is , war as " battle in a field between men and machinery " or " a massive deciding event in a dispute in international affairs " is unlikely to happen again . The premise of the book is that the world is experiencing a new paradigm of war in the late 20th and early 21st centuries , which Smith dubs " war amongst the people " , in which nebulous , open @-@ ended conflicts have become the norm . Smith believes that Western , industrialised armies struggle to win in " wars amongst the people " because their opponents are not uniformed armies . He uses the term " rhizomatic " to describe terrorist and guerrilla movements ; he states his belief that such fighters can adapt much more easily than state institutions , and that they exhibit a greater understanding of the utility of force . Rather than being part of a recognisable army , the fighters are part of the civilian population , and their objectives are more political than military — they seek to " win hearts and minds " rather than take or hold territory . As a consequence , wars are no longer confined to a battlefield , but the theatre of operations is fluid , and commanders now operate inside the theatre .

To prove his theory , Smith provides a detailed history of modern warfare , using examples from history to illustrate his contentions . Throughout the book , Smith analyses the use of force in each of the examples , and how it was used to achieve particular aims . The discussion of history begins with Napoleon , who invented the paradigm of industrial warfare . Prior to Napoleon , wars were mostly fought for territory rather than ideology , and did not substantially alter the balance of power between nations . Napoleon 's concept of war involved using the entire resources of the nation with the aim of comprehensively defeating his opponent and replacing the political order ; in order to meet the new challenge , the Prussian Army undertook sweeping reforms . Napoleon 's strategy and the Prussian response influenced Prussian general Carl von Clausewitz in writing his treatise On War ( published posthumously in 1832 ) . Throughout the narrative , Smith analyses how armies applied force in order to achieve their objectives . He also discusses the emergence of guerrilla forces during the Peninsular War , which Smith believes was the first " war amongst the people " — irregular forces with no clear leadership structure conducting hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on Napoleon 's forces , fighting to preserve the ideology of Spanish independence rather than for a battlefield victory . The concept of industrial war culminated in the early 20th century with the two world wars .

= = = War amongst the people = = =

In the second half of the book , Smith states that the advent of the atomic bomb rendered industrial warfare obsolete , but that governments clung to the concept throughout the Cold War era — the Cold War itself being the last act of the old @-@ style industrial war . The belief in industrial war tactics and institutions continued into the post @-@ Cold War era , and Smith believes that political and military leaders refused to acknowledge the new paradigm of " war amongst the people " , which resulted in significant defeats , such as for France in Algeria , the United States in Vietnam , and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan , and caused problems for NATO operations in the Balkans , and later for the Western coalitions in Iraq and Afghanistan . Smith also notes that , in the new paradigm , soldiers are frequently being asked to undertake new tasks — such as humanitarian operations — while still equipped and trained for old @-@ paradigm conflicts between massed armies .

In the final third of the book , Smith uses six themes to describe the new paradigm of war :

The ends for which we fight are changing from the hard objectives that decide a political outcome to those of establishing conditions in which the outcome may be decided

We fight amongst the people , not on the battlefield

Our conflicts tend to be timeless , even unending

We fight so as to preserve the force rather than risking all to gain the objective

On each occasion new uses are found for old weapons and organizations which are the products of industrial war

The sides are mostly non @-@ state , comprising some form of multinational grouping against some non @-@ state party or parties .

Smith then proceeds to discuss each of the six themes in detail . Smith discusses modern guerrilla and insurgency campaigns , including various civil wars and ethnic conflicts in the Balkans , the Middle East , and Africa . The conflicts he discusses in the second half are almost all " wars amongst the people " and appear intractable to conventional forces . Smith analyses situations in which countries have adapted their tactics in order to respond to " war amongst the people " , such as those used by Israeli forces in response to the Palestinian Intifada , in which the Israelis resorted to targeted searches when superior firepower proved ineffective . He points out that modern wars are rarely fought between individual nations , but the parties often consist of supranational coalitions or sub @-@ state entities , and that Western governments in particular fight in such a way as to keep casualties and material losses to a minimum . Smith is critical of the conduct of the American @-@ led coalition in the Iraq War during the insurgency which followed the initial invasion and occupation of Iraq in 2003 ; he opines that the soldiers undertaking the counter @-@ insurgency operations did not have the proper skills or equipment for the task . He believes that the commanders were working at a tactical rather than a strategic level , and that operations were not sufficiently guided by intelligence — relying too heavily on battlefield strength and assessments of the insurgents ' technical capabilities , rather than their political objectives .

Smith includes various anecdotes and personal reflections from his own career , and the final chapter of the book is dedicated to Smith 's reflections on his command of UNPROFOR in Bosnia . Ferguson describes Smith as " candid " in admitting that he did not foresee the events at Srebenica in the summer of 1995 , but Smith suggests that , even had the genocide been foreseen , UNPROFOR was not in any position to prevent it . He described the force as " reinforced camps of international troops attempting to defend the delivery of humanitarian aid , and often themselves " . Smith 's belief was that none of the governments that contributed soldiers to UNPROFOR had any intention of committing them to fight — that they had decided " to deploy forces with no intention to employ their force " , having been scared into inaction by inaccurate reporting and a lack of understanding of the war .

In his conclusion , Smith states his belief that modern politicians and military leaders use force where it has no utility and commit military forces without fully defined political and strategic objectives . He believes that politicians and generals remain in the mindset of industrial war , which leads them to prepare for a decisive confrontation that never happens , and he condemns them for failing to recognise the shift in the way wars are fought . Discussing humanitarian interventions , such as those in the Balkans , Smith does not argue against intervention , but believes that the intervention must be based on a full understanding of the conflict and a clear strategy with defined objectives . According to Smith , " no act of force will ever be decisive " because the aim of modern conflicts is to win the will of the people , which will not be achieved by battlefield victory alone . He argues that whereas , in the industrial war paradigm , war led to victory and thus to peace , in the modern paradigm confrontation leads to conflict , which then reverts to confrontation . He asserts that force is only part of the solution to modern conflicts ; they require complex political and military solutions , which will subdue but not necessarily permanently end the conflict .

= = Release and critical reception = =

The Utility of Force was published in November 2005 by Allen Lane , an imprint of Penguin Books .

William Grimes , writing in the New York Times , described The Utility of Force as " a closely argued , searching textbook on strategy and the efficient use of military power in the post @-@ Cold War era " . Grimes also described it as a " difficult , challenging book " , saying " you can almost hear the pointer hit the blackboard as he works his way rigorously through each argument and sub @-@ arguments A , B and C , before proceeding to the next step . At times the history lecture becomes a forced march over very familiar terrain , but patient readers will discover that there is indeed a final destination " . In a second review for the New York Times in 2007 , Niall Ferguson , a history professor at Harvard University , described The Utility of Force as an update of Clausewitz 's On War " for our times " . Ferguson went on to criticise Smith for drawing too clear a distinction between " war amongst the people " and " war between peoples " , pointing out that in several conflicts there was no single , homogeneous " people " and that wars amongst the people can easily transform into wars between people , citing Bosnia as an example . Ferguson was underwhelmed by Smith 's recommendations for the future — Smith believes that new equipment and strategies are required in order for armies to be effective in the new paradigm , but does not offer any suggestions . Ferguson 's final criticism was what he described as the book 's " limited historical perspective " ; Smith argues that " war amongst the people " emerged in the second half of the 20th century during the proxy wars and de @-@ colonisation campaigns of the Cold War era , but Ferguson gave examples of similar campaigns which pre @-@ dated the Cold War , including the First Boer War ( 1880 – 81 ) and campaigns fought in Eastern Europe during the Second World War . Nonetheless , Ferguson concludes that The Utility of Force is " an impressive and absorbing work " , and described Smith as " the Clausewitz of low @-@ intensity conflict and peacekeeping operations " .

Academic Eliot A. Cohen , professor of strategic studies at Johns Hopkins University wrote for The Washington Post that the British Army had " a higher quotient of sophisticated leaders who have thought hard about the profession of arms " than was found in other armed forces , including the US military , which he believed explained why it " produces generals who write [ ... ] serious , important books " such as the Utility of Force . Cohen wrote that Smith 's thesis , that the world has entered a new era of conflict , is of " central importance " for the United States military , which Cohen believed would have to undergo significant adaptation if Smith was correct . Cohen criticised the book for its limited historical perspective , noting that conventional wars are still fought ( for example the Kargil War in 1999 ) and that several confrontations in Asia threatened to spill over into conventional warfare . Nevertheless , Cohen concluded " Smith has clearly written one of the most important books on modern warfare in the last decade . We would be better off if the United States had a few more generals like him " .

The Guardian 's Martin Woollacott reviewed the book along with sociologist Martin Shaw 's The New Western Way of War : Risk @-@ Transfer War and its Crisis in Iraq , which he believes makes similar arguments to Smith 's , though the two reach slightly different conclusions — Smith that force should only be used as part of a wider political strategy , Shaw that war should be avoided where at all possible but that use of force is sometimes inevitable . Woollacott described Smith as " a soldier trying to wrest some continuing purpose for his profession " , and described both books as " very worthwhile efforts to map difficult ground " .

Sir Adam Roberts , professor of international relations at the University of Oxford , was more critical in reviewing The Utility of Force for The Independent . Roberts believed that Smith over @-@ stated the transformation into the new paradigm of war by playing down the extent to which there have always been wars amongst the people , over @-@ emphasised the role of technology in the shift from industrial warfare , and downplayed the continuation of industrial war . By way of example , Roberts points to the Iran – Iraq War and the role of precision bombing used by the United States in its campaigns since the end of the 20th century . In conclusion , Roberts states that " it is possible to quibble over many details " , but that " such quibbles miss the essential point of the book : that involvement in today 's crises , in the attempt to stop atrocities and bring wars to an end , requires a capacity for clear thought , a sensitivity to situation , and a talent for acting , that armed forces and their officers have not always possessed – and now badly need " .

Writing in the journal of the Royal United Services Institute ( RUSI ) , Christopher Coker , professor of international relations at London School of Economics , gave a detailed analysis of Smith 's opening sentence , " war no longer exists " . He concluded that war had metastasised , but that war was not over , and that Smith 's " eye @-@ catching quote detracts from the force of his own argument " . Nevertheless , Coker praises Smith for the latter 's criticism of those who failed to recognise the shift in the paradigm of war , and of the lack of strategy in the military campaigns of the late 20th and early 21st centuries . Coker concludes with the statement : " [ Smith 's ] experience , distilled in a book sometimes too controversial for its own good , should become standard reading in every military academy " .

In 2013 , General David Richards , then Chief of the Defence Staff , included The Utility of Force on a list of publications that he recommended to officers wishing to improve their leadership skills .

= Fighter Squadron RAAF =

Fighter Squadron was a flying unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in the early 1930s . It operated Bristol Bulldog single @-@ seat fighters . Along with Seaplane Squadron , Fighter Squadron was a component of No. 1 Flying Training School , based at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . As well as participating in training exercises , Fighter Squadron was frequently employed for aerobatic displays and flag @-@ waving duties .

= = History = =

Although the first entry in Fighter Squadron records is dated 12 February 1934 , the official history of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between the wars refers to the unit as having been established for the specific purpose of operating Australia 's eight Bristol Bulldog fighters , which began entering service in May 1930 . Fighter Squadron was one of two formations raised at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , under the auspices of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , the other being Seaplane Squadron , which operated Supermarine Southamptons among other types . No. 1 FTS had been the first unit to be formed as part of the new Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 ( the prefix " Royal " was added in August that year ) . The single @-@ seat Bulldogs were procured to give the RAAF a dedicated air defence capability following the retirement of the Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 fighter in 1928 . Although only a " token " combat force according to the official history , the Bulldogs represented the latest technology available and gave Fighter Squadron the aura of an elite formation .

On 15 May 1930 , barely two weeks after delivery , one of the Bulldogs crashed due to structural failure while performing an inverted loop ; the pilot parachuted to safety , the first time an RAAF member had done so in an emergency . In September 1931 , Fighter Squadron began flight testing the prototype Wackett Warrigal general @-@ purpose biplane ; testing was still under way when the aircraft 's undercarriage collapsed during landing , putting off its service trials until the following January .

As well as participating in training exercises , Fighter Squadron was often employed for aerobatic displays and flag @-@ waving duties . The young Air Force was keen to show off its skills and equipment to the public , leading to regular participation in aerial pageants and races as far afield as Western Australia and Tasmania ; this had the added benefit of providing exposure to a variety of conditions on long @-@ distance flights , as pilots were required to fly their aircraft to and from displays in remote areas . The commanding officer of Fighter Squadron , Squadron Leader Johnny Summers , considered that it gave personnel " most useful experience in the handling and maintenance of their aircraft under adverse conditions " . One of No. 1 FTS 's leading instructors during the early 1930s , Flight Lieutenant Frederick Scherger , was also a flight commander in Fighter Squadron . In October 1931 , during a flight to Adelaide to take part in an aero club pageant , Scherger had to land at Nhill , Victoria , in strong winds ; his Bulldog finished up on its nose but the damage was slight , allowing him to complete the journey and win his air race with a top speed of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) .

Fighter Squadron 's public displays often involved mock dogfights and simulated dive bombing , sometimes at night . On 12 February 1934 , Summers , Scherger and another pilot demonstrated night @-@ time combat tactics over the Exhibition Ground in Melbourne , the sky being lit with searchlights . In October and November that year , the Bulldogs took part in several aerial displays in Victoria to commemorate the visit of Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . The following month , Fighter Squadron aircraft escorted the Duke on his visit to Brisbane aboard HMAS Australia . The Bulldogs were also occasionally detailed for meteorological and photographic survey work . Throughout their existence , Fighter and Seaplane Squadrons remained under the control of No. 1 FTS and were " really little more than flights " , in the words of the official history . Fighter Squadron was dissolved in December 1935 when its six surviving Bulldogs were re @-@ designated as fighter @-@ bombers and transferred from Point Cook to nearby RAAF Laverton , where they joined the Hawker Demons of No. 1 Squadron . During its service with Fighter Squadron , the Bulldog had been the only single @-@ seat fighter in the RAAF 's inventory , and no specialist fighter type took its place for the remainder of the decade .

= One Times Square =

One Times Square , also known as 1475 Broadway , the New York Times Building , the New York Times Tower , or simply as the Times Tower , is a 25 story , 363 @-@ foot ( 111 @-@ metre ) -high skyscraper , designed by Cyrus L. W. Eidlitz ( HLW International ) , located at 42nd Street and Broadway in New York City . The tower was originally built to serve as the headquarters of the local newspaper , The New York Times ( which also gave its name to the area as a whole , known as Times Square ) ; however , the Times stayed in the building for less than 10 years before moving to a new building on 229 West 43rd Street .

Despite the Times leaving the building , One Times Square remained a major focal point of Times Square due to its annual New Year 's Eve " ball drop " festivities ( the ball itself has remained atop the tower year @-@ round since 2009 ) , and the introduction of an electronic news ticker at street @-@ level in 1928 . Following its sale to Lehman Brothers in 1995 , One Times Square was re @-@ purposed as an advertising location to take advantage of its prime location within the square . Most of the building 's interior remains vacant ( aside from its only major tenant , a Walgreens pharmacy which occupies its lower levels ) , while its exterior features a large number of traditional and electronic billboards . Due to the large amount of revenue that its ads pull , One Times Square is considered one of the most valuable advertising locations in the world .

= = Building history = =

The building , on the site of the Pabst Hotel , was originally completed in 1904 to serve as the new headquarters of The New York Times , which officially moved into the building in January 1905 . The paper 's owner , Adolph Ochs , also successfully persuaded the city to rename the surrounding area ( then known as Longacre Square ) after the newspaper , becoming Times Square . To help promote the new headquarters , the Times held a New Year 's Eve event on December 31 , 1903 , welcoming the year of 1904 with a fireworks display set off from the roof of the building at midnight . The event was a success , attracting 200 @,@ 000 spectators , and was continued annually until 1907 . For 1908 , Ochs replaced the display with what he thought would be a more spectacular event — the lowering of a lit ball down the building 's flagpole at midnight , patterned off the use of time balls to indicate a certain time of day ( the " ball drop " is still held on One Times Square to this day , attracting an average of one million spectators yearly ) .

In 1913 , only eight years after it moved to One Times Square , the Times moved its corporate headquarters to 229 West 43rd Street , which served as its home from 1913 to 2007 . The Times has since moved to The New York Times Building on nearby Eighth Avenue . After leaving One Times Square , the Times still maintained ownership of the tower .

On November 6 , 1928 , an electronic news ticker known as the Motograph News Bulletin ( colloquially known as the " zipper " ) was introduced near the base of the building . The zipper originally consisted of 14 @,@ 800 light bulbs , with the display controlled by a chain conveyor system inside the building ; individual letter elements ( a form of movable type ) were loaded into frames to spell out news headlines . As the frames moved along the conveyor , the letters themselves triggered electrical contacts which lit the external bulbs ( the zipper has since been upgraded to use modern LED technology ) . The first headline displayed on the zipper announced Herbert Hoover 's victory in that day 's presidential election . The zipper was used to display other major news headlines of the era , and its content later expanded to include sports and weather updates as well . On the evening of August 14 , 1945 , the zipper was famously used to announce Japan 's surrender from World War II to a packed crowd in Times Square .

The Times sold the building to advertising executive and sign designer Douglas Leigh in 1961 . Leigh then sold the building to Allied Chemical in 1963 . Allied Chemical greatly modified the building 's facade in a $ 10 million renovation , replacing intricate granite and terracotta elements with marble facing . In 1974 , the building was sold to investor Alex Parker for $ 6 @.@ 25 million , and then to the Swiss @-@ based investment group Kemekod . Kemekod later sold the tower to an investment group led by Lawrence I. Linksman in 1982 . Linksman promised further renovations to the building , including the possibility of using its north face for signage displays . Following the sale of the building by the Times , the zipper was operated on an inconsistent basis by various news outlets , and was shut off entirely between 1961 and 1965 , and again from 1977 to 1986 . In 1986 , the ticker was revived by Newsday , which operated it until December 31 , 1994 . The newspaper declined to renew its lease on the ticker , believing that they " [ didn 't ] get very much out of that sign " financially . Publishing company Pearson PLC operated the zipper for a period beginning on December 31 , 1994 , until ceding its role to Dow Jones & Company in June 1995 .

From 1990 to 1996 , Sony operated a Jumbotron on the exterior of the tower . Alongside its use for advertising and news , it was also frequently used by the producers of the late @-@ night talk show Late Show with David Letterman , who could display a live feed from its studio on the screen as well . As a cost @-@ saving measure , Sony declined to renew its lease of the space , leading to the subsequent removal of the Jumbotron in June 1996 . Due to its frequent use by Late Show , its producer Rob Burnett jokingly considered the removal of the Jumbotron to be " a sad , sad day for New York . "

= = Billboards = =

In 1992 , the owners of One Times Square filed for bankruptcy protection . In March 1995 , One Times Square was sold to the financial services firm Lehman Brothers for $ 27 @.@ 5 million . The new owners felt that it would not be cost @-@ effective to house new tenants in the tower due to the cost of the extensive renovation required in order to make it suitable for tenants as compared to the relatively small rental revenue that its limited floor space would have brought in . Instead , they decided to market the tower as a location for advertising to capitalize on its prominent location within the Square . The entire exterior of One Times Square above the ticker was modified to add a grid frame for mounting billboard signs . Throughout 1996 , One Times Square 's first electronic billboards were installed , such as , a Cup Noodles billboard with steam effects was added to the front of the tower , later accompanied by an animated Budweiser sign . In October , a new 55 @-@ foot video screen sponsored by ITT Corporation was introduced to the top of the tower , which would feature video advertisements and community service announcements . In December 1996 , a new Panasonic display operated by NBC known as Astrovision was introduced as a replacement for Sony 's Jumbotron at the base of the tower .

Lehman Brothers sold One Times Square in 1997 to the Jamestown , L.P. for $ 117 million . Filings related to the sale revealed that the billboards on the tower had been generating a net revenue of $ 7 million yearly , representing a 300 % profit . With growing tourism and high traffic in the Times Square area ( with a yearly average of over 100 million pedestrians — alongside its prominence in media coverage of New Year 's festivities , seen by a wide audience yearly ) , annual revenue from the signs grew to over $ 23 million by the year 2012 — rivaling London 's Piccadilly Circus as the most valuable public advertising space in the world .

Despite becoming primarily used for advertising , One Times Square continued to house tenants in its ground @-@ level floors : in the late 1990s , a Warner Bros. retail store filled the first three floors . In early 2006 , the floors were occupied by a J. C. Penney pop @-@ up store known as The J C. Penney Experience . In November 2008 , pharmacy chain Walgreens opened a new flagship store in the space , renting it in a lease valued at $ 4 million yearly . Walgreens also introduced a new digital sign to the building as part of its grand opening : designed by Gilmore Group and constructed by D3 LED , the 17 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) sign runs diagonally up both sides of the building and contains 12 million LEDs , surpassing the nearby NASDAQ sign as the largest LED sign in Times Square . The former electrical room in the tower 's basement currently serves as a " vault " for the storage of items relating to New Year 's Eve celebrations at Times Square , including the ball itself ( prior to 2009 ) , spare parts , numeral signage and other memorabilia .

= = = Advertisers = = =

From 1996 to 2006 , Nissin Foods operated a Cup Noodles billboard with smoke effects ( an effect that had also been famously used by other Times Square billboards , such as the Camel Cigarettes sign ) . The Cup Noodles billboard was replaced in 2006 by a General Motors billboard featuring a Chevrolet branded clock ; however , as a part of cutbacks resulting from GM 's bankruptcy and re @-@ organization , the Chevrolet Clock was removed in 2009 and eventually replaced by the current Dunkin ' Donuts display .

On August 19 , 1998 , Discover Card replaced ITT Corporation as the operator and sponsor of the top @-@ most screen on One Times Square as part of a ten @-@ year deal . The deal came alongside the announcement that Discover Card would be an official sponsor of Times Square 's New Year 's Eve 2000 festivities .

In 2006 , News Corporation ( now 21st Century Fox ) replaced NBC as the operator and sponsor of the Astrovision screen . In 2010 , Sony returned to One Times Square by replacing the News Corp. Panasonic screen with a new high @-@ definition LED display .

In December 2007 , Toshiba took over sponsorship of the top @-@ most screen of One Times Square from Discover Card in a 10 @-@ year lease . Throughout 2008 , upgrades began to be made to the upper portion of One Times Square ; including the installation of new Toshiba high definition LED displays ( known as ToshibaVision ) , and the redesign of its roof to accommodate a larger New Year 's Eve ball , which became a year @-@ round fixture of the building beginning in 2009 .

As of 2012 , advertising displays on the front of One Times Square currently include an Anheuser @-@ Busch display , a Dunkin ' Donuts display featuring photos posted by users on Facebook and Twitter , a TDK display , and the ToshibaVision screens at the top of the tower . Toshiba 's Contract to display Toshiba Vision in Times Sqaure expires in 2018 .

= USS Henry R. Mallory ( ID @-@ 1280 ) =

USS Henry R. Mallory ( ID @-@ 1280 ) was a transport for the United States Navy during World War I. She was also sometimes referred to as USS H. R. Mallory or as USS Mallory . Before her Navy service she was USAT Henry R. Mallory as a United States Army transport ship . From her 1916 launch , and after her World War I military service , she was known as SS Henry R. Mallory for the Mallory Lines . Pressed into service as a troopship in World War II by the War Shipping Administration , she was torpedoed by the German submarine U @-@ 402 in the North Atlantic ocean and sank with the loss of 272 men — over half of those on board .

= = World War I = =

SS Henry R. Mallory was built by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co. of Newport News , Virginia ( yard no . 193 ) , and delivered to the Mallory Steamship Line on 21 October 1916 . Named for Mallory Lines president Henry R. Mallory , she operated on a New Orleans – New York route , carrying passengers and freight .

= = = U.S. Army service = = =

After the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , the United States Army , needing transports to get its men and materiel to France , had a select committee of shipping executives pore over registries of American shipping . The committee selected Henry R. Mallory and thirteen other American @-@ flagged ships that were sufficiently fast , could carry enough fuel in their bunkers for transatlantic crossings , and , most importantly , were in port or not far at sea . After Henry R. Mallory discharged her last load of passengers and cargo , she was officially handed over to the Army on 24 May , one of the first three ships acquired .

Before any troop transportation could be undertaken , all of the ships were hastily refitted . Of the fourteen ships , ten , including Henry R. Mallory , were designated to carry human passengers ; the other four were designated as animal ships . The ten ships designated to carry troops had all of their second- and third @-@ class accommodations ripped out and replaced with berths for troops . Cooking and toilet facilities were greatly expanded to handle the large numbers of men aboard . Gun platforms were installed on each ship before docking at the Brooklyn Navy Yard to have the guns themselves installed . All the ships were manned by merchant officers and crews but carried two U.S. Navy officers , Navy gun crews , quartermasters , signalmen , and wireless operators . The senior Navy officer on board would take control if a ship came under attack .

The American convoy carrying the first units of the American Expeditionary Force was broken into four groups ; Henry R. Mallory was in the third group with San Jacinto and Finland , and escorts consisting of cruiser Charleston , armed collier Cyclops , and destroyers Allen , Preston , and McCall . Henry R. Mallory departed with her group on 14 June for Brest , France , steaming at a 13 @-@ knot ( 24 km / h ) pace . A thwarted submarine attack on the first convoy group , and reports of heavy submarine activity off of Brest resulted in a change in the convoy 's destination to Saint @-@ Nazaire .

After her return from France , Henry R. Mallory sailed again in the 5th convoy on 31 July , the 7th convoy on 8 September , and the 12th convoy on 26 November , all of which sailed from the New York embarkation point in Hoboken , New Jersey . In January 1918 , Henry R. Mallory became the first transport to sail from the Newport News embarkation port , when — loaded with eight aero squadrons — she sailed on 17 January . Departing again from Hoboken on 14 March in the 24th convoy , Henry R. Mallory began her last journey under Army charter . After arriving in France on 26 March and landing her troops , Henry R. Mallory began her return to the United States with Army transport Tenadores and Navy transport Mercury . At 11 : 45 on 4 April , a German submarine fired torpedoes at the group . Through evasive maneuvers , none of the ships were hit , and with timely gunfire targeting the sub , no more was seen of the threat . Arriving back in the United States on 13 April , Henry R. Mallory was handed over to the U.S. Navy .

= = = U.S. Navy transport duties = = =

After problems with crew discipline aboard Army transports Antilles and Finland when they were torpedoed , the U.S. Navy , led by the recommendations of Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves , insisted that all troop transports be manned entirely by Navy personnel . This was accomplished soon after so as to avoid the need for what Gleaves called " ignorant and unreliable men " who were " the sweepings of the docks " . Accordingly , Henry R. Mallory was handed over to the Navy on 13 April 1918 and commissioned on 17 April .

Other than the official change command of the vessel , little else change for Henry R. Mallory . She sailed in her first convoy under Navy command on 23 April , and continued carrying troops to France , making five additional trips before the Armistice in November 1918 . In all , Henry R. Mallory carried 9 @,@ 756 troops to France .

With the fighting at an end , the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . Henry R. Mallory did her part by carrying home 14 @,@ 514 healthy and wounded men in seven roundtrips . Henry R. Mallory returned from her last Navy voyage on 29 August 1919 , and was returned to the Mallory Lines the following day .

= = World War II = =

In the early stages of World War II for the United States , the War Shipping Administration requisitioned Henry R. Mallory for use as a civilian @-@ manned troopship in July 1942 . Remaining under the operation of her owners , Agwilines , Inc . , she began operation on U.S. Army schedules in July 1942 , when she sailed from New York to Belfast . After her return to New York in August , she made way to Boston from whence she sailed to Saint John , Wabana , Newfoundland ; Sydney , Nova Scotia ; and Halifax , before returning to New York in October .

After first sailing to Boston and Newport , Rhode Island , Henry R. Mallory departed New York as a part of Convoy SC @-@ 118 headed for Liverpool via Halifax on 24 January 1943 . The crew on board Henry R. Mallory consisted of 9 officers , 68 crewmen , and 34 Naval Armed Guards ( who manned the 11 guns on deck ) . Also on board were 383 passengers , consisting of 2 civilians , 136 from the U.S. Army , 72 from the U.S. Marine Corps , and 173 from the U.S. Navy . As the convoy , which consisted of 60 ships and 26 escorts , sailed near Iceland , a " wolfpack " of Kriegsmarine U @-@ Boats attacked the convoy repeatedly over a four @-@ day period . Some 20 U @-@ boats participated , ultimately sinking 12 Allied ships , including Henry R. Mallory ; three U @-@ boats were lost .

It was at 06 : 59 on 7 February 1943 when , traveling in station 33 of the convoy , Henry R. Mallory was hit by one torpedo launched from German submarine U @-@ 402 ( 2 ) around 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south @-@ southwest of Iceland . Hit in the number three hold on the starboard side , the ship began settling by the stern and listing to port , and sank at about 07 : 30 . Of Henry R. Mallory 's ten lifeboats , only three were successfully launched , holding 175 men . Many other men jumped overboard for rafts in the water .

None of the other ships in the convoy were aware of the Mallory 's predicament . American destroyer Schenck — searching for survivors from the convoy 's sunken rescue ship , SS Toward , sunk three hours earlier , also by U @-@ 402 — saw lights but was denied permission to investigate . Only when survivors were found by U.S. Coast Guard cutter Bibb some four hours later was the fate of Henry R. Mallory made clear . Bibb rescued 205 men , 3 of whom later died . Another Coast Guard cutter , Ingham , rescued a further 22 , of whom 2 later died . Among the 272 dead was the ship 's master , 48 crewmen , 15 armed guards , and 208 passengers .

= Italian ironclad Francesco Morosini =

Francesco Morosini was an ironclad battleship built in the 1880s and 1890s for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . The ship , named for Francesco Morosini , the 17th @-@ century Doge of Venice , was the second of three ships in the Ruggiero di Lauria class , along with Ruggiero di Lauria and Andrea Doria . She was armed with a main battery of four 17 @-@ inch ( 432 mm ) guns , was protected with 17 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 451 mm ) thick belt armor , and was capable of a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) .

The ship 's construction period was very lengthy , beginning in August 1881 and completing in February 1888 . She was quickly rendered obsolescent by the new pre @-@ dreadnought battleships being laid down , and as a result , her career was limited . She spent her career alternating between the Active and Reserve Squadrons , where she took part in training exercises each year with the rest of the fleet . The ship was stricken from the naval register in August 1909 ; the following month , she was expended as a target ship for experiments with torpedoes .

= = Design = =

Francesco Morosini was 105 @.@ 9 meters ( 347 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 19 @.@ 84 m ( 65 @.@ 1 ft ) and an average draft of 8 @.@ 37 m ( 27 @.@ 5 ft ) . She displaced 9 @,@ 886 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 730 long tons ) normally and up to 11 @,@ 145 t ( 10 @,@ 969 long tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight coal @-@ fired , oval boilers . Her engines produced a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) at 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) . She could steam for 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 507 – 509 officers and men .

Francesco Morosini was armed with a main battery of four 17 in ( 432 mm ) 27 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two pairs en echelon in a central barbette . She carried a secondary battery of two 6 in ( 152 mm ) 32 @-@ cal. guns , one at the bow and the other at the stern , and four 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 32 @-@ cal. guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried five 14 in ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She was protected by steel armor ; her armored belt was 17 @.@ 75 in ( 451 mm ) thick , and her armored deck was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick . Her conning tower was armored with 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) of steel plate , and the barbette had 14 @.@ 2 in ( 361 mm ) thick sides .

= = Service history = =

Francesco Morosini was under construction for nearly eight years . She was laid down at the Venetian Arsenal on 4 December 1881 and launched on 30 July 1885 . She was not completed for another four years , her construction finally being finished on 21 August 1889 . Because of the rapid pace of naval technological development in the late 19th century , her lengthy construction period meant that she was an obsolete design by the time she entered service . The year she entered service , the British began building the Royal Sovereign class ; these ships marked a significant advance over previous types of capital ships and set the standard for future vessels , which became known as pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . In addition , technological progress , particularly in armor production techniques — first Harvey armor and then Krupp armor — rapidly rendered older vessels like Francesco Morosini obsolete .

Francesco Morosini took part in the annual fleet maneuvers of 1894 in 2nd Division of the Active Squadron , along with the protected cruiser Ettore Fieramosca , the torpedo cruiser Tripoli , and four torpedo boats . She remained in the 2nd Division the following year , which now included the protected cruiser Etruria and the torpedo cruisers Euridice and Calatafimi . The Squadron was based at La Spezia at the time . The following year , she cruised off Crete as the flagship of the 2nd Division , under Rear Admiral E. Gaulterio . During that year 's summer maneuvers , held in July , Francesco Morosini continued as Gaulterio 's flagship ; the 2nd Division also included her sister Andrea Doria and the protected cruiser Giovanni Bausan . The 1st and 2nd Divisions of the Active Squadron were tasked with defending against a hostile fleet , simulated by older ships in reserve .

In 1898 , Francesco Morosini was transferred to the Reserve Squadron , along with Ruggiero di Lauria and the ironclad Lepanto and five cruisers . The following year , Francesco Morosini and her two sisters returned to the Active Squadron , which was kept in service for eight months of the year , with the remainder spent with reduced crews . The Squadron also included the ironclads Re Umberto , Sicilia , and Lepanto . In 1900 , Francesco Morosini and her sisters were significantly modified and received a large number of small guns for defense against torpedo boats . These included a pair of 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , ten 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 40 @-@ caliber guns , twelve 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , five 37 mm revolver cannon , and two machine guns .

In 1905 , Francesco Morosini and her two sisters were joined in the Reserve Squadron by the three Re Umberto @-@ class ironclads and Enrico Dandolo , three cruisers , and sixteen torpedo boats . This squadron only entered active service for two months of the year for training maneuvers , and the rest of the year was spent with reduced crews . In 1908 , the Italian Navy decided to discard Francesco Morosini and her sister Ruggiero di Lauria . She was formally stricken from the naval register in August 1909 , and was thereafter used as a target ship for a torpedo experiment . On 15 September , she was sunk at La Spezia ; the experiment was conducted to test the effect of a torpedo hit in order to develop more a more effective hull design . The explosion tore a 50 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 540 sq ft ) hole in the hull , causing her to list severely and sink on her side . Her wreck was later scrapped .

= Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit =

Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit is a steel roller coaster at Universal Studios Florida in Orlando , Florida . With a height of 167 feet ( 51 m ) , a length of 3 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , and a top speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) , it is the largest X @-@ Coaster ever built by German manufacturer Maurer Söhne . It was announced on March 19 , 2008 and officially opened on August 19 , 2009 though originally planned to open in the spring of that year . Some of the special features are that riders are recorded during the entire 1 minute and 37 second ride and can choose one of thirty songs to listen to during the experience .

= = History = =

During the second week of January 2008 , Universal Parks & Resorts filed a Notice of Commencement with Orange County , Florida indicating that they were to construct a ride system that they had code @-@ named " Project Rumble . " The notice also stated that the contractor was " Maurer Rides GmbH , " located in Munich , Germany .

After months of rumours , the new attraction was announced by Universal officials on March 19 , 2008 . Unlike usual announcements , officials did not reveal the specifications of the entire roller coaster . In the original press release , it stated that the roller coaster 's vertical lift hill would be 167 feet ( 51 m ) tall , and that the trains would reach a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . The press release also mentioned that each train would be equipped with a multi @-@ media package , LED lights , built in video recorders , and the option for riders to choose a song from a list to be played during the course of the ride . The ride would also include six near miss encounters . At the time , the new roller coaster was scheduled to open in Spring 2009 . Also , in the months after the announcement , Universal surveyed guests on what songs they think should be included in the roller coaster . Some of the artists that guests could choose from were : The Black Eyed Peas , Bee Gees , The Beach Boys , and Johnny Cash .

Construction began in May 2008 with preliminary land clearing . The first track pieces were installed during the week of December 7 , 2008 . In February 2009 , Universal launched a website for the attraction , which included a construction blog and photographs chronicling progress of the attraction 's construction . The track layout was completed at the end of April 2009 with the crowning of the lift hill .

In April 2009 , Universal confirmed that the roller coaster would not open as originally planned and said it would open in the summer . Though Universal has never mentioned what the exact problem with the roller coaster was , it is believed by newspapers that issues with the anti @-@ rollback devices on the lift hill that were not working correctly caused the delay .

After the issues with the ride were resolved , Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit began public previews in mid @-@ August 2009 . On August 19 , 2009 , Universal Studios Florida officially opened the attraction .

= = Ride experience = =

= = = Queue = = =

Guest first enter into one of two queues ; either the main queue , or the single rider queue . In both queue lines , there are several large screen displays that explain how to pick a song to play during the ride and important safety instructions . In the video , characters called " Video DJ 's " are used as demonstrators to provide a visual explanation .

= = = Ride = = =

The station for the roller coaster is quite different than traditional stations . As the train enters , it slows down but does not stop . There is a moving sidewalk on both sides of the station moving at the same speed as the train so riders can load and unload . Riders have about 45 seconds to take their seat , lower the lap @-@ bar and make their song choice . After the restraints are checked , the train immediately begins to climb the 167 @-@ foot ( 51 m ) vertical chain lift and the song that the rider picked begins to play while the on @-@ ride video recorder begins recording . When the train reaches the top of the lift , it drops back to the ground reaching a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . Following the drop , the train goes through a non @-@ inverting loop ( meaning that the train doesn 't go through an inversion ) , which is nicknamed " The Double Take " . Then the train makes an upward right turn into one of the several mid @-@ course brakes . It then drops back down going through a hole in a wall before entering a left upward helix . This section of the coaster is nicknamed " The Treble Clef " . Next the train enters a quick element nicknamed , " The Jump Cut " which is similar to a non @-@ inverting corkscrew . The train then drops back down before climbing back up into the second mid @-@ course brakes . Following a small drop to the left , it travels straight before making a right turn , followed by a left , and then another right leading into the third set of mid @-@ course brakes . Another drop is followed by the brakes leading into an s @-@ bend / turn . The train then travels into an inclined loop , then the train enters the fourth set of brakes after going back up . Finally , the train drops back down , and goes over a small hill before entering the final brake run where the train enters the station and the riders song ends .

= = = Track = = =

The steel track of Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit is 3 @,@ 800 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) long in length , and the height of the lift is approximately 167 feet ( 51 m ) . Because the lift hill is vertical , a special evacuation system is used in the event that a train stalls on the lift . Also , the track is filled with sand and gravel to reduce the noise when a train is on the track . Throughout the layout of the roller coaster , there are 5 sets of brakes to control the speed of the trains .

= = = Trains = = =

The roller coaster operates with seven stadium @-@ style seating X @-@ Car trains . Each train has two cars that can hold six riders each for a total of twelve riders per train . On the head rest of each seat there are two speakers that play music during the ride . The speakers have been designed so that only the rider 's selected music track will be audible . On the restraint is a small touch screen where riders can choose which song they want to listen to during the ride . Additionally , the trains are equipped with multi @-@ coloured lights that can be seen during the night .

= = Musical selections = =

The initial announcement just said that there would be 5 categories of songs . The full track list was not released until July 6 , 2009 , with Universal Studios Florida unveiling thirty songs ( 6 in each category ) that can be played during the ride .

After riders board the train and lower their restraint , attached to the restraint is a small screen containing the logo of the ride and five categories of songs the rider can pick from . The song that the rider picked begins as the train climbs the vertical lift hill . Depending on the song , it may not begin at the beginning and end early as the total cycle time of the roller coaster is 1 minute and 39 seconds .

= = = Hidden Song Selections = = =

In addition to these 30 songs , Universal Studios Florida also provided additional " hidden " songs that are available to riders , but are not included in the queue video .

To access these songs , after lowering the restraint , on the screen , riders must push and hold the logo of the ride for approximately ten seconds . When they release their finger , a number pad will then show up . Entering a three digit code will allow the rider to listen to the song that the code corresponds to .

= = = Awards = = =

= Doreen Valiente =

Doreen Edith Dominy Valiente ( 4 January 1922 – 1 September 1999 ) was an English Wiccan who was responsible for writing much of the early religious liturgy within the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca . An author and poet , she also published five books dealing with Wicca and related esoteric subjects .

Born to a middle @-@ class family in Surrey , Valiente began practicing magic while a teenager . Working as a translator at Bletchley Park during the Second World War , she also married twice in this period . Developing her interest in occultism after the war , she began practicing ceremonial magic with a friend while living in Bournemouth . Learning of Wicca , in 1953 she was initiated into the Gardnerian tradition by its founder , Gerald Gardner . Soon becoming the High Priestess of Gardner 's Bricket Wood coven , she helped him to produce or adapt many important scriptural texts for Wicca , such as The Witches Rune and the Charge of the Goddess , which were incorporated into the early Gardnerian Book of Shadows . In 1957 , a schism resulted in Valiente and her followers leaving Gardner to form their own short @-@ lived coven . After investigating the Wiccan tradition of Charles Cardell , in 1953 she was initiated into Raymond Howard 's Coven of Atho . In 1964 she then went to work with Robert Cochrane in his coven , the Clan of Tubal Cain , although she later broke from this group .

Eager to promote and defend her religion , she played a leading role in both the Witchcraft Research Association and then the Pagan Front during the 1960s and 1970s . That latter decade also saw her briefly involve herself in far right politics as well as becoming a keen ley hunter and proponent of Earth mysteries . As well as regularly writing articles on esoteric topics for various magazines , from the 1960s onward she authored a number of books on the subject of Wicca , as well as contributing to the publication of works by Wiccan friends Stewart Farrar , Janet Farrar , and Evan John Jones . In these works also she became an early advocate of the idea that anyone could practice Wicca without requiring initiation by a pre @-@ existing Wiccan , while also contributing to and encouraging research into the religion 's early history . Living in Brighton during these years , she worked with both her partner and initiate Ron Cook and was a member of the Silver Malkin coven . In her final years she served as patron of the Sussex @-@ based Centre for Pagan Studies prior to her death from pancreatic cancer .

Valiente 's magical artefacts and papers were bequeathed to her friend John Belham @-@ Payne , who entrusted them to a charitable trust , the Doreen Valiente Foundation , in 2011 . Having had a significant influence in the history of Wicca , she is widely revered in the Wiccan community as " the Mother of Modern Witchcraft " , and has been the subject of two biographies .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life : 1922 – 52 = = =

Valiente was born Doreen Edith Dominy on 4 January 1922 at Colliers Wood in the Southern English town of Mitcham , Surrey . Her father , Harry Dominy , was a civil engineer , and he lived with her mother Edith in Colliers Wood . Harry came from a Methodist background and Edith from a Congregationalist one , however Doreen was never baptised , as was the custom of the time , due to an argument that Edith had had with the local vicar . Doreen later claimed that she had not had a close or affectionate relationship with her parents , whom she characterised as highly conventional and heavily focused on social climbing . During her childhood they moved to Horley in Surrey , and it was there – according to her later account – that she had an early spiritual experience while staring at the moon . From there , her family moved to the West Country and then to the New Forest . In either late 1934 or 1935 , Doreen 's mother left her father and took her to live with maternal relatives in Southampton . Valiente first began practicing magic aged 13 , performing a spell to prevent her mother being harassed by a co @-@ worker ; she came to believe that it had worked . Her early knowledge of magical practices may have derived from books that she found in the local library . Her parents were concerned by this behaviour and sent her to a convent school . She despised the school and left it at the age of 15 , refusing to return . She had wanted to go to art school , but instead gained employment in a factory , before moving on to work as a clerk and typist at the Unemployment Assistance Board .

During the Second World War , she became a Foreign Office Civilian Temporary Senior Assistant Officer , in this capacity working as a translator at Bletchley Park . In relation to this work , she was also sent to South Wales , and it was there , in the town of Barry , that she met Joanis Vlachopolous , a Greek seaman in the Merchant Navy . Entering a relationship , they were married in East Glamorgan on 31 January 1941 . However , in June 1941 he was serving aboard the Pandias when it was sunk by a U @-@ boat off of the West African coast ; he was declared missing in action and presumed deceased . Widowed , during 1942 and 1943 Valiente had a number of short @-@ term jobs in Wales , which were possibly a cover for intelligence work .

After October 1943 she was transferred to the intelligence service 's offices in Berkeley Street in the Mayfair area of London , where she was involved in message decryption . In London she met and entered into a relationship with Casimiro Valiente , a Spaniard who had fled from the Spanish Civil War , where he had fought on the side of the Spanish Republican Army before later joining the French Foreign Legion , where he was wounded at the Battle of Narvik and evacuated to England . They were married on 29 May 1944 at St Pancras Registry Office . The couple moved to Bournemouth – where Doreen 's mother was then living – and here Casimiro worked as a chef . Valiente would later say that both she and her husband suffered racism after the war because of their foreign associations .

Developing an interest in occultism , she began practicing ceremonial magic with a friend , " Zerki " , at his flat . She had obtained the magical regalia and notebooks of a recently deceased doctor , who had been a member of the Alpha et Omega , a splinter group of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , and attempted to learn Hebrew , a language with uses in various forms of ceremonial magic . It was at this point that she selected " Ameth " as her magical name . She was particularly interested by John Symonds ' book The Great Beast , which was a biography of the occultist Aleister Crowley , who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904 , and following this she avidly read a copy of Crowley 's Magick in Theory and Practice which she found in a local library . Alongside these , she also had some practical experience with the esoteric religions of Spiritualism and Theosophy , having attended the services of a local Christian Spiritualist church in Charminster .

= = = Gerald Gardner and the Bricket Wood Coven : 1952 – 57 = = =

She had also become familiar with the idea of a pre @-@ Christian witch @-@ cult surviving into the modern period through the works of Charles Godfrey Leland , Margaret Murray , and Robert Graves , although believed that the religion was extinct . It was in autumn 1952 that she read an article by the reporter Allen Andrews in Illustrated magazine titled " Witchcraft in Britain " . Discussing the recent opening of the Folklore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft in Castletown on the Isle of Man , it mentioned the museum 's director , Cecil Williamson , and its " resident witch " , Gerald Gardner .

Intrigued by the article , Valiente wrote a letter to Williamson in 1952 , who in turn put her in contact with Gardner . Valiente and Gardner wrote several letters back @-@ and @-@ forth , with the latter eventually suggesting that she meet him at the home of his friend and fellow Wiccan Edith Woodford @-@ Grimes ( " Dafo " ) , who lived not far from Bournemouth , in the Christchurch area . Before she left the meeting , Gardner gave her a copy of his 1949 novel , High Magic 's Aid , in which he describes a fictionalised account of Wiccan initiates in the Middle Ages ; he allegedly did so in order to gauge her opinion on ritual nudity and scourging , both of which were present in his tradition of Gardnerian Wicca .

On Midsummer 1953 Gardner invited Valiente again to Woodford @-@ Grimes 's house , and it was here that he initiated her into Wicca in a ritual during which they stood before an altar and he read from his Book of Shadows . The three of them then set off to the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge in Wiltshire , where they witnessed the Druids performing a ritual there . Gardner had lent a ritual sword which he owned to the Druids , who placed it within the monument 's Heel Stone during their rite . Valiente told her husband and mother about the visit to Stonehenge , but not about her initiation , of which , she feared , they would not have approved .

Later in the year , Gardner invited Valiente to visit him at his flat in Shepherd 's Bush , West London , and it was there that she met the eight to ten members of his Bricket Wood coven , which met near St. Albans , north of London . She soon rose to become the coven 's High Priestess . The historian Ronald Hutton later commented that in doing so , she formed " the second great creative partnership of [ Gardner 's ] life " after that with Woodford @-@ Grimes . Valiente recognised how much of the material in Gardner 's Book of Shadows was taken not from ancient sources as Gardner had initially claimed , but from the works of Crowley . She confronted Gardner with this , who claimed that the text he had received from the New Forest coven had been fragmentary and he had had to fill much of it using various sources . She took the Book of Shadows , and with Gardner 's permission , rewrote much of it , cutting out a lot of sections that had come from Crowley , fearing that his infamous reputation would sully Wicca . In 1953 she wrote " Queen of the Moon , Queen of the Stars " , an invocation for use in a Yule ritual which was inspired by a Hebridean song found in the Carmina Gadelica . With Gardner she also wrote " The Witches Rune " , a chant for use while dancing in a circle . She rewrote much of the Charge of the Goddess , with Hutton characterising this act as " her greatest single contribution to Wicca " , for her version of the Charge became " the principle expression of Wiccan spirituality " in coming years .

Gardner spent his summers at the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft on the Isle of Man , and thus often relied on Valiente to deal with his affairs in Southern England . He sent her to meet with the occult artist Austin Osman Spare when he wanted some talismans produced by the latter . Spare subsequently described Valiente as " a myopic stalky nymph ... harmless and a little tiresome " in a letter that he wrote to Kenneth Grant . At Gardner 's prompting , she also met with the occultist Gerald Yorke , who was interested in learning about Wicca ; Gardner insisted that she lie to Yorke by informing him that she was from a longstanding family of hereditary Wiccan practitioners . She also aided him in preparing his second non @-@ fiction book about Wicca , The Meaning of Witchcraft , focusing in particular on those sections refuting the sensationalist accusations of the tabloid press .

However Gardner 's increasing desire for publicity , much of it ending up negative , caused conflict with Valiente and other members of his coven like Ned Grove and Derek Boothby . She felt that in repeatedly communicating with the press , he was compromising the coven 's security . She was also not enthusiastic about two young people whom Gardner brought into the coven , Jack L. Bracelin and his girlfriend ' Dayonis ' , stating that " a more qualid pair of spivs it would be hard to find indeed " . Two factions emerged within the coven ; Valiente led a broadly anti @-@ publicity group , while Gardner led a pro @-@ publicity one . In 1957 , Valiente and Grove drew up a list of " Proposed Rules of the Craft " which were partly designed to curtail Gardner 's publicity seeking . From his home in the Isle of Man , he responded that this was not necessary as a series of rules already existed , at which point he produced the Wiccan Laws . These laws limited the control of the High Priestess , which angered Valiente , who later realised that Gardner had simply made them up in response to her own Proposed Laws . In summer 1957 , the coven split . According to Valiente , she and her followers " had had enough of the Gospel according to St. Gerald ; but we still believed that the real traditional witchcraft lived " . According to Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White , " Wicca had experienced its first great schism " .

= = = Robert Cochrane and Where Witchcraft Lives : 1957 – 69 = = =

After breaking from Gardner 's Bricket Wood coven , Valiente formed her own coven with Grove as High Priest , still following the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca , albeit without the Wiccan laws , which she believed to be entirely an invention of Gardner 's . This coven however failed to last , breaking up amid arguments between its founders . In 1956 , Valiente , along with her husband and her mother , moved into a basement flat in Lewes Crescent , Kemptown , in the southern coastal town of Brighton , although in 1968 they moved into a flat nearer to the town centre . She befriended another Kemptown resident , the journalist Leslie Roberts , who shared her interest in the supernatural . He attracted much attention to himself in the local press through his claims that practitioners of black magic were also operating in the area . Valiente remained a good friend to Roberts until his death from heart disease in 1966 . She also got back in touch with Gardner , and mended their friendship , remaining on good terms until his death in 1964 , when he left her £ 200 in his will . During the early 1960s she also developed a correspondence with two Gardnerian initiates in Sheffield , Patricia Crowther and her husband Arnold Crowther , finally meeting them when the latter couple visited Brighton in 1965 .

After her mother 's death in August 1962 , Valiente felt that she could be more open about being a Wiccan herself . Eager to spread information about Wicca throughout Britain , she also began to interact with press , sending a 1962 letter to the Spiritualist newspaper Psychic News , and in 1964 being interviewed for her involvement with Wicca by Brighton 's Evening Argus . During the 1960s , she began producing articles about Wicca and other esoteric subjects on a regular basis , for such esoteric magazines as Light , Fate , and Prediction . In this capacity , she also began to make appearances on television and radio . She also involved herself in the newly formed Witchcraft Research Association ( WRA ) , becoming its second President after the resignation of Sybil Leek . Valiente 's letter of welcome was included in the first issue of the WRA 's newsletter , Pentagram , published in August 1964 , while she also gave a speech at the WRA 's Halloween dinner in October . It was at the speech that Valiente proclaimed the Wiccan Rede ; this was its first public appearance in a recognisable form , with Doyle White arguing that it was Valiente herself who both created and named the Rede . It was through the WRA that Valiente came to communicate with the journalist Justine Glass , who was then conducting research for her book Witchcraft , the Sixth Sense , and Us .

Valiente began visiting local libraries and archives in order to investigate the history of witchcraft in Sussex . On the basis of this research , the esoteric press Aquarian published her first book , Where Witchcraft Lives , in 1962 . Just as Gardner had done in his book Witchcraft Today , here Valiente did not identify as a practicing Wiccan , but as an interested scholar of witchcraft . It contained her own research into the history and folklore of witchcraft in her county of Sussex , which she had collected both from archival research and from the published work of the historian L 'Estrange Ewen . It interpreted this evidence in light of the discredited theories of Margaret Murray , which claimed that a pre @-@ Christian religious movement had survived to the present , when it had emerged as Wicca . Hutton later related that it was " one of the first three books to be published on the subject " of Wicca , and that the " remarkable feature of the book is that it remains , until this date [ 2010 ] , the only one produced by a prominent modern witch that embodies actual original research into the records of the trials of people accused of the crime of witchcraft during the early modern period . " In 1966 , Valiente then produced a manuscript for a book titled I am a Witch ! , a collection of poems with a biographical introduction , however it was never published , with publishers not believing that it would be commercially viable .

Valiente learned of the non @-@ Gardnerian Wiccan Charles Cardell from a 1958 article , and subsequently struck up a correspondence with him . Cardell suggested that they pool their respective traditions together , but Valiente declined the offer , expressing some scepticism regarding Cardell 's motives and conduct . In 1962 , Valiente began a correspondence course run by Raymond Howard , a former associate of Cardell 's ; this course instructed her in a Wiccan tradition known as the Coven of Atho . At Halloween 1963 she was then initiated into the Coven of Atho in a ritual overseen by Howard , entering the lowest rank of the course , that of ' Sarsen ' , and beginning to copy the teachings that she received into notebooks , where she was able to identify many of the sources from which Howard had drawn upon in fashioning his tradition .

In 1964 , Valiente was introduced to the Pagan witch Robert Cochrane by a mutual friend , the ceremonial magician William G. Gray , who had met him at a gathering at Glastonbury Tor held by the Brotherhood of the Essenes . Although sceptical of Cochrane 's claims to have come from a hereditary family of witches , she was impressed by his charisma , his desire to avoid publicity , and his emphasis on working outdoors . Valiente was invited to join Cochrane 's coven , the Clan of Tubal Cain , becoming its sixth member . However , she became dissatisfied with Cochrane , who was openly committing adultery and constantly insulting Gardnerians , even at one point calling for " a Night of the Long Knives of the Gardnerians " , at which point Valiente openly criticised him and then left his Clan . In her own words , she " rose up and challenged him in the presence of the rest of the coven . I told him that I was fed up with listening to all this senseless malice , and that , if a ' Night of the Long Knives ' was what his sick little soul craved , he could get on with it , but he could get on with it alone , because I had better things to do " . Shortly after , Cochrane committed ritual suicide on Midsummer 1966 ; she authored the poem " Elegy for a Dead Witch " in his memory . She remained in contact with his widow and other members of the Clan , as well as with Gray , and proceeded to work on occasion with The Regency , a group founded by former members of the Clan .

= = = The Pagan Front , National Front , and further publications : 1970 – 84 = = =

Living in Brighton , Valiente took up employment in a branch of the Boots pharmacist . In 1971 she appeared on the BBC documentary , Power of the Witch , which was devoted to Wicca and also featured the prominent Wiccan Alex Sanders . That same year , she was involved in the founding of the Pagan Front , a British pressure group that campaigned for the religious rights of Wiccans and other Pagans . In November 1970 she developed a full moon inauguration ritual for local branches of the Front to use and on May Day 1971 she chaired its first national meeting , held at Chiswick , West London . It was she who developed the three principles that came to be central to the Pagan Front 's interpretation of their religion : adherence to the Wiccan Rede , a belief in reincarnation , and a sense of kinship with nature .

In April 1972 her husband Casimiro died ; he had never taken an interest in Wicca or esotericism and Valiente later claimed that theirs had been an unhappy relationship . Newly widowed , she soon had to move as the local council decided that her home was unfit for human habitation ; she was relocated into council accommodation in the mid @-@ 1960s tower block of Tyson Place in Grosvenor Square , Brighton . Her flat was described by visitors as cramped , being filled with thousands of books . It was there that she met Ronald Cooke , a member of the apartment block 's residents ' committee ; they entered into a relationship and she initiated him into Wicca , where he became her working partner . Together they regularly explored the Sussex countryside , and went on several holidays to Glastonbury , further considering moving there . She also joined a coven that was operating in the local area , Silver Malkin , after it was established by the Wiccan High Priestess Sally Griffyn .

During the early 1970s , Valiente became a member of a far right white nationalist political party , the National Front , for about eighteen months , during which she designed a banner for her local branch . Valiente 's biographer Philip Heselton suggested that the party 's nationalistic outlook may have appealed to her strongly patriotic values and that she might have hoped that the Front would serve as a political equivalent to the Pagan movement . At the same time she also became a member of another , more extreme far right group , the Northern League . However , she allowed her membership of the National Front to lapse , sending a letter to her local branch stating that although she respected its leader John Tyndall and had made friends within the group , she was critical of the party 's opposition to women 's liberation , gay rights , and sex education , all of which she lauded as progressive causes . Heselton has also suggested that Valiente may have joined these groups in order to investigate them before reporting back to Britain 's intelligence agencies .

It was also in the early 1970s that she read John Michell 's The View Over Atlantis and was heavily influenced by it , embracing Michell 's view that there were ley lines across the British landscape that channelled earth energies . Inspired , she began searching for ley lines in the area around Brighton . She also began subscribing to The Ley Hunter magazine , for which she authored several articles and book reviews . Valiente came to see the public emergence of Wicca as a sign of the Age of Aquarius , arguing that the religion should ally with the feminist and environmentalist movements in order to establish a better future for the planet .

In 1973 , the publishing company Robert Hale brought out Valiente 's second book , An ABC of Witchcraft , in which she provided an encyclopaedic overview of various topics related to Wicca and esotericism . In 1975 , Hale published Valiente 's Natural Magic , a discussion of what she believed to be the magical usages and associations of the weather , stones , plants , and other elements of the natural world . In 1978 Hale then published Witchcraft for Tomorrow , in which Valiente proclaimed her belief that Wicca was ideal for the dawning Age of Aquarius and espoused James Lovelock 's Gaia hypothesis . It also explained to the reader how they could initiate themselves into Wicca and establish their own coven . In 1978 she offered a book of poetry to Hale , although they declined to publish it , believing that there would not be sufficient market for such a publication . In 1982 she then submitted a book of short stories , The Witch Ball , to Hale , but again they declined to publish it .

In 1978 , Valiente struck up a friendship with the Alexandrian Wiccans Stewart Farrar and Janet Farrar , who were then living in Ireland . With the Farrars , she agreed to publish the original contents of the Gardnerian Book of Shadows , in order to combat the garbled variants that had been released by Cardell and Lady Sheba . The original Gardnerian material appeared in the Farrars ' two books , Eight Sabbats for Witches and The Witches ' Way ( 1984 ) , both published with Hale at Valiente 's recommendation . In these works , Valiente and the Farrars identified differences between early recensions of the Book and identified many of the older sources that it drew upon . Hutton believed that later scholars such as himself had to be " profoundly grateful " to the trio for undertaking this task , while Doyle White opined that these publications , alongside Witchcraft for Tomorrow , helped contribute to " the democratisation of Wicca " by enabling any reader to set themselves up as a Wiccan practitioner . As an appendix to The Witches ' Way she also published the result of her investigations into " Old Dorothy " , the woman whom Gardner had claimed had been involved with the New Forest coven . The academic historian Jeffrey Burton Russell had recently suggested that Gardner invented " Old Dorothy " as an attempt to hide the fact that he had invented Wicca himself . Valiente sought to disprove this , discovering that " Old Dorothy " was a real person : Dorothy Clutterbuck . Valiente biographer Jonathan Tapsell described it as " one of Doreen 's greatest known moments " .

= = = Autobiography and final years : 1985 – 1999 = = =

In the mid @-@ 1980s , Valiente began writing an autobiography in which she focused on her own place within Wiccan history . It would be published by Hale in 1989 as The Rebirth of Witchcraft . In this work she did not dismiss the Murrayite witch @-@ cult theory , but she did undermine the belief that Wicca was the survival of it by highlighting the various false claims made by Gardner , Cochrane , and Sanders , instead emphasising what she perceived as the religion 's value for the modern era . She also provided a foreword for Witchcraft : A Tradition Renewed , a book published in 1990 by Hale . It had been written by Evan John Jones , a former member of the Clan of Tubal Cain who also lived in Brighton . Heselton has expressed the view that Valiente likely did more than this , and that she wrote a number of the chapters herself . As Valiente became better known , she came to correspond with a wide range of people within the Pagan and esoteric communities . Through this , she met the American Wiccan Starhawk – whom she greatly admired – on one of the latter 's visits to Britain . She also communicated with the American Wiccan and scholar of Pagan studies Aidan A. Kelly during his investigations into the early Gardnerian liturgies . She disagreed with Kelly that there had been no New Forest coven and that Gardner had therefore invented Wicca , instead insisting that Gardner had stumbled on a coven of the Murrayite witch @-@ cult .

In 1997 Valiente discovered the Centre for Pagan Studies ( CPS ) , a Pagan organisation based in the Sussex hamlet of Maresfield that had been established in 1995 . Befriending its founders , John Belham @-@ Payne and his wife Julie , she became the Centre 's patron and gave several lectures for the group . In 1997 Cooke died , leaving Valiente grief @-@ stricken . Her final public speech was at the Pagan Federation 's annual conference , held at Croydon 's Fairfield Halls in November 1997 ; here she praised the work of early twentieth @-@ century occultist Dion Fortune and urged the Wiccan community to accept homosexuals . Valiente 's health was deteriorating as she was diagnosed first with diabetes and then terminal pancreatic cancer ; increasingly debilitated , John Belham @-@ Payne and two of her friends became her primary carers . In her last few days she was moved to the Sackville Nursing Home , there requesting that Belham @-@ Payne publish an anthology of her poems after her death . She died on 1 September 1999 , with Belham @-@ Payne at her side .

Valiente 's body was kept at the CPS ' barn in Maresfield , where an all @-@ night vigil was held ; those invited included Ralph Harvey , Janet Farrar , Gavin Bone , and Hutton . After this Pagan rite was completed , her coffin was cremated at Brighton 's Woodvale crematorium , in an intentionally low @-@ key affair with no media publicity . As per her wishes , Valiente 's ashes were scattered in Sussex woodland . Her magical artifacts and manuscripts , including her Book of Shadows , were bequeathed to the Centre , although there was nevertheless public disagreement over her will . Her book of poems was published posthumously in 2000 , followed by an enlarged second edition in 2014 .

= = Personality = =

Hutton characterised Valiente as " a handsome woman of striking , dark @-@ haired , aquiline looks , possessed of a strong , enquiring , candid , and independent personality , and a gift for poetry and ritual " . Belham @-@ Payne noted that Valiente was " very tall , rather reserved and preferred to be in the background " , while Valiente 's friend Ashley Mortimer described her as " sensible , practical , decent , honest and , perhaps most importantly , pragmatic " . The writer Leo Ruickbie described her as " a plain , owlishly bespectacled woman with a slight stoop and a friendly twinkle in her eye " . Throughout her life , Valiente remained a believer in the Murrayite Witch @-@ Cult theory despite the fact that it had been academically discredited by the 1970s .

Valiente had a strong dislike of unexpected visitors , and would often refuse to answer the door to those who knocked unannounced . Valiente was an avid fan of football , and closely followed the World Cup , refusing to open the door to any visitors while she was watching the competition on television . She also enjoyed betting on horse races . Her favourite foods included cucumber sandwiches , cauliflower cheese , and baked potatoes .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Within the occult community , Valiente has become internationally known as the " Mother of Modern Witchcraft " , although she herself disliked this moniker . Heselton believed that Valiente 's influence on Wicca was " profound and far @-@ reaching " , while Ruickbie characterised her as Gardner 's " most gifted acolyte " . In 2016 , Heselton expressed the view that Valiente was best known for her books , which are " still some of the most readable on the subject " of Wicca , further highlighting that they often appeared on Wiccan reading lists . The ritual liturgies that Valiente composed also proved highly influential within the Wiccan religion and constitute a core element of her legacy .

Kelly asserted that Valiente " deserves credit for having helped transform the Craft from being the hobby of a handful of eccentric Brits into being an international religious movement " . Describing her as " a major personality in the development " of Wicca , Hutton also expressed the view that " her enduring greatness lay in the very fact that she was so completely and strong @-@ mindedly dedicated to finding and declaring her own truth , in a world in which the signposts to it were themselves in a state of almost complete confusion " .

= = = Events and organisations = = =

In 2009 , the CPS organised " A Day for Doreen " , an event in central London dedicated to Valiente . Sixteen speakers from within the Wiccan and Pagan community came to talk at the event , which was a sell @-@ out .

Following Valiente 's death , Belham @-@ Payne received offers of substantial amounts of money from buyers seeking to purchase parts of her collection . In 2011 he entrusted the collection of artefacts that he had inherited from Valiente to the newly established Doreen Valiente Foundation . A charitable trust , the Foundation was designed to prevent the collection being broken up and sold , moreover allowing for future Wiccans and researchers to start " delving into it , protecting it , making it accessible and available for people to research , learn from and enjoy . " Belham @-@ Payne became the group 's chairman , while Ashley Mortimer , Brian Botham , and Trish Botham were appointed as trustees .

On 21 June 2013 the CPS unveiled a blue plaque at the Tyson Place tower block , Valiente 's final home . At the ceremony , a speech was given by Denise Cobb , the Mayor of Brighton . It had been preceded by an open solstice ritual in Brighton 's Steine Gardens , led by Ralph Harvey .

= Lung cancer =

Lung cancer , also known as lung carcinoma , is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung . If left untreated , this growth can spread beyond the lung by the process of metastasis into nearby tissue or other parts of the body . Most cancers that start in the lung , known as primary lung cancers , are carcinomas . The two main types are small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) and non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) . The most common symptoms are coughing ( including coughing up blood ) , weight loss , shortness of breath , and chest pains .

The vast majority ( 85 % ) of cases of lung cancer are due to long @-@ term tobacco smoking . About 10 – 15 % of cases occur in people who have never smoked . These cases are often caused by a combination of genetic factors and exposure to radon gas , asbestos , second @-@ hand smoke , or other forms of air pollution . Lung cancer may be seen on chest radiographs and computed tomography ( CT ) scans . The diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy which is usually performed by bronchoscopy or CT @-@ guidance .

Prevention is by avoiding risk factors including smoking and air pollution . Treatment and long @-@ term outcomes depend on the type of cancer , the stage ( degree of spread ) , and the person 's overall health . Most cases are not curable . Common treatments include surgery , chemotherapy , and radiotherapy . NSCLC is sometimes treated with surgery , whereas SCLC usually responds better to chemotherapy and radiotherapy .

Worldwide in 2012 , lung cancer occurred in 1 @.@ 8 million people and resulted in 1 @.@ 6 million deaths . This makes it the most common cause of cancer @-@ related death in men and second most common in women after breast cancer . The most common age at diagnosis is 70 years . Overall , 17 @.@ 4 % of people in the United States diagnosed with lung cancer survive five years after the diagnosis , while outcomes on average are worse in the developing world .

= = Signs and symptoms = =

Signs and symptoms which may suggest lung cancer include :

Respiratory symptoms : coughing , coughing up blood , wheezing , or shortness of breath

Systemic symptoms : weight loss , weakness , fever , or clubbing of the fingernails

Symptoms due to the cancer mass pressing on adjacent structures : chest pain , bone pain , superior vena cava obstruction , or difficulty swallowing

If the cancer grows in the airways , it may obstruct airflow , causing breathing difficulties . The obstruction can lead to accumulation of secretions behind the blockage , and predispose to pneumonia .

Depending on the type of tumor , paraneoplastic phenomena — symptoms not due to the local presence of cancer — may initially attract attention to the disease . In lung cancer , these phenomena may include hypercalcemia , syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone ( SIADH , abnormally concentrated urine and diluted blood ) , ectopic ACTH production , or Lambert – Eaton myasthenic syndrome ( muscle weakness due to autoantibodies ) . Tumors in the top of the lung , known as Pancoast tumors , may invade the local part of the sympathetic nervous system , leading to Horner 's syndrome ( dropping of the eyelid and a small pupil on that side ) , as well as damage to the brachial plexus .

Many of the symptoms of lung cancer ( poor appetite , weight loss , fever , fatigue ) are not specific . In many people , the cancer has already spread beyond the original site by the time they have symptoms and seek medical attention . Symptoms that suggest the presence of metastatic disease include weight loss , bone pain and neurological symptoms ( headaches , fainting , convulsions , or limb weakness ) . Common sites of spread include the brain , bone , adrenal glands , opposite lung , liver , pericardium , and kidneys . About 10 % of people with lung cancer do not have symptoms at diagnosis ; these cancers are incidentally found on routine chest radiography .

= = Causes = =

Cancer develops following genetic damage to DNA and epigenetic changes . These changes affect the normal functions of the cell , including cell proliferation , programmed cell death ( apoptosis ) and DNA repair . As more damage accumulates , the risk of cancer increases .

= = = Smoking = = =

Smoking , particularly of cigarettes , is by far the main contributor to lung cancer . Cigarette smoke contains at least 73 known carcinogens , including benzo [ a ] pyrene , NNK , 1 @,@ 3 @-@ butadiene and a radioactive isotope of polonium , polonium @-@ 210 . Across the developed world , 90 % of lung cancer deaths in men during the year 2000 were attributed to smoking ( 70 % for women ) . Smoking accounts for about 85 % of lung cancer cases .

Passive smoking — the inhalation of smoke from another 's smoking — is a cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers . A passive smoker can be defined as someone living or working with a smoker . Studies from the US , Europe and the UK have consistently shown a significantly increased risk among those exposed to passive smoke . Those who live with someone who smokes have a 20 – 30 % increase in risk while those who work in an environment with secondhand smoke have a 16 – 19 % increase in risk . Investigations of sidestream smoke suggest it is more dangerous than direct smoke . Passive smoking causes about 3 @,@ 400 deaths from lung cancer each year in the USA .

Marijuana smoke contains many of the same carcinogens as those in tobacco smoke . However , the effect of smoking cannabis on lung cancer risk is not clear . A 2013 review did not find an increased risk from light to moderate use . A 2014 review found that smoking cannabis doubled the risk of lung cancer .

= = = Radon gas = = =

Radon is a colourless and odorless gas generated by the breakdown of radioactive radium , which in turn is the decay product of uranium , found in the Earth 's crust . The radiation decay products ionize genetic material , causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous . Radon is the second @-@ most common cause of lung cancer in the USA , causing about 21 @,@ 000 deaths each year . The risk increases 8 – 16 % for every 100 Bq / m ³ increase in the radon concentration . Radon gas levels vary by locality and the composition of the underlying soil and rocks . About one in 15 homes in the US has radon levels above the recommended guideline of 4 picocuries per liter ( pCi / l ) ( 148 Bq / m ³ ) .

= = = Asbestos = = =

Asbestos can cause a variety of lung diseases , including lung cancer . Tobacco smoking and asbestos have a synergistic effect on the formation of lung cancer . In smokers who work with asbestos , the risk of lung cancer is increased 45 @-@ fold compared to the general population . Asbestos can also cause cancer of the pleura , called mesothelioma ( which is different from lung cancer ) .

= = = Air pollution = = =

Outdoor air pollution has a small effect on increasing the risk of lung cancer . Fine particulates ( PM2.5 ) and sulfate aerosols , which may be released in traffic exhaust fumes , are associated with slightly increased risk . For nitrogen dioxide , an incremental increase of 10 parts per billion increases the risk of lung cancer by 14 % . Outdoor air pollution is estimated to account for 1 – 2 % of lung cancers .

Tentative evidence supports an increased risk of lung cancer from indoor air pollution related to the burning of wood , charcoal , dung or crop residue for cooking and heating . Women who are exposed to indoor coal smoke have about twice the risk and a number of the by @-@ products of burning biomass are known or suspected carcinogens . This risk affects about 2 @.@ 4 billion people globally , and is believed to account for 1 @.@ 5 % of lung cancer deaths .

= = = Genetics = = =

About 8 % of lung cancer is due to inherited factors . In relatives of people with lung cancer , the risk is doubled . This is likely due to a combination of genes . Polymorphisms on chromosomes 5 , 6 and 15 are known to affect the risk of lung cancer .

= = = Other causes = = =

Numerous other substances , occupations , and environmental exposures have been linked to lung cancer . The International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) states there is " sufficient evidence " to show the following are carcinogenic in the lungs :

Some metals ( aluminum production , cadmium and cadmium compounds , chromium ( VI ) compounds , beryllium and beryllium compounds , iron and steel founding , nickel compounds , arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds , underground hematite mining )

Some products of combustion ( incomplete combustion , coal ( indoor emissions from household coal burning ) , coal gasification , coal @-@ tar pitch , coke production , soot , diesel engine exhaust )

Ionizing radiation ( X @-@ radiation , gamma radiation , plutonium )

Some toxic gases ( methyl ether ( technical grade ) , Bis- ( chloromethyl ) ether , sulfur mustard , MOPP ( vincristine @-@ prednisone @-@ nitrogen mustard @-@ procarbazine mixture ) , fumes from painting )

Rubber production and crystalline silica dust

= = Pathogenesis = =

Similar to many other cancers , lung cancer is initiated by activation of oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes . Carcinogens cause mutations in these genes which induce the development of cancer .

Mutations in the K @-@ ras proto @-@ oncogene are responsible for 10 – 30 % of lung adenocarcinomas . About 4 % of non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinomas involve an EML4 @-@ ALK tyrosine kinase fusion gene .

Epigenetic changes — such as alteration of DNA methylation , histone tail modification , or microRNA regulation — may lead to inactivation of tumor suppressor genes .

The epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) regulates cell proliferation , apoptosis , angiogenesis , and tumor invasion . Mutations and amplification of EGFR are common in non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma and provide the basis for treatment with EGFR @-@ inhibitors . Her2 / neu is affected less frequently . Other genes that are often mutated or amplified are c @-@ MET , NKX2 @-@ 1 , LKB1 , PIK3CA , and BRAF .

The cell lines of origin are not fully understood . The mechanism may involve abnormal activation of stem cells . In the proximal airways , stem cells that express keratin 5 are more likely to be affected , typically leading to squamous @-@ cell lung carcinoma . In the middle airways , implicated stem cells include club cells and neuroepithelial cells that express club cell secretory protein . Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma may be derived from these cell lines or neuroendocrine cells , and may express CD44 .

Metastasis of lung cancer requires transition from epithelial to mesenchymal cell type . This may occur through activation of signaling pathways such as Akt / GSK3Beta , MEK @-@ ERK , Fas , and Par6 .

= = Diagnosis = =

Performing a chest radiograph is one of the first investigative steps if a person reports symptoms that may suggest lung cancer . This may reveal an obvious mass , widening of the mediastinum ( suggestive of spread to lymph nodes there ) , atelectasis ( collapse ) , consolidation ( pneumonia ) or pleural effusion . CT imaging is typically used to provide more information about the type and extent of disease . Bronchoscopy or CT @-@ guided biopsy is often used to sample the tumor for histopathology .

Lung cancer often appears as a solitary pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph . However , the differential diagnosis is wide . Many other diseases can also give this appearance , including metastatic cancer , hamartomas , and infectious granulomas such as tuberculosis , histoplasmosis and coccidioidomycosis . Lung cancer can also be an incidental finding , as a solitary pulmonary nodule on a chest radiograph or CT scan done for an unrelated reason . The definitive diagnosis of lung cancer is based on histological examination of the suspicious tissue in the context of the clinical and radiological features .

Clinical practice guidelines recommend frequencies for pulmonary nodule surveillance . CT imaging should not be used for longer or more frequently than indicated as extended surveillance exposes people to increased radiation .

= = = Classification = = =

Lung cancers are classified according to histological type . This classification is important for determining management and predicting outcomes of the disease . Lung cancers are carcinomas — malignancies that arise from epithelial cells . Lung carcinomas are categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a microscope . For therapeutic purposes , two broad classes are distinguished : non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma and small @-@ cell lung carcinoma .

= = = = Non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma = = = =

The three main subtypes of NSCLC are adenocarcinoma , squamous @-@ cell carcinoma and large @-@ cell carcinoma .

Nearly 40 % of lung cancers are adenocarcinoma , which usually originates in peripheral lung tissue . Although most cases of adenocarcinoma are associated with smoking , adenocarcinoma is also the most common form of lung cancer among people who have smoked fewer than 100 cigarettes in their lifetimes ( " never @-@ smokers " ) and ex @-@ smokers with a modest smoking history . A subtype of adenocarcinoma , the bronchioloalveolar carcinoma , is more common in female never @-@ smokers , and may have a better long @-@ term survival .

Squamous @-@ cell carcinoma accounts for about 30 % of lung cancers . They typically occur close to large airways . A hollow cavity and associated cell death are commonly found at the centre of the tumor . About 9 % of lung cancers are large @-@ cell carcinoma . These are so named because the cancer cells are large , with excess cytoplasm , large nuclei and conspicuous nucleoli .

= = = = Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma = = = =

In small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) , the cells contain dense neurosecretory granules ( vesicles containing neuroendocrine hormones ) , which give this tumor an endocrine / paraneoplastic syndrome association . Most cases arise in the larger airways ( primary and secondary bronchi ) . Sixty to seventy percent have extensive disease ( which cannot be targeted within a single radiation therapy field ) at presentation .

= = = = Others = = = =

Four main histological subtypes are recognised , although some cancers may contain a combination of different subtypes , such as adenosquamous carcinoma . Rare subtypes include carcinoid tumors , bronchial gland carcinomas and sarcomatoid carcinomas .

= = = Metastasis = = =

The lung is a common place for the spread of tumors from other parts of the body . Secondary cancers are classified by the site of origin ; e.g. , breast cancer that has spread to the lung is called metastatic breast cancer . Metastases often have a characteristic round appearance on chest radiograph .

Primary lung cancers themselves most commonly metastasize to the brain , bones , liver and adrenal glands . Immunostaining of a biopsy is often helpful to determine the original source . The presence of Napsin @-@ A , TTF @-@ 1 , CK7 and CK20 are helpful in confirming the subtype of lung carcinoma . SCLC derived from neuroendocrine cells may express CD56 , neural cell adhesion molecule , synaptophysin or chromogranin .

= = = Staging = = =

Lung cancer staging is an assessment of the degree of spread of the cancer from its original source . It is one of the factors affecting the prognosis and potential treatment of lung cancer .

The evaluation of non @-@ small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) staging uses the TNM classification . This is based on the size of the primary tumor , lymph node involvement , and distant metastasis .

Using the TNM descriptors , a group is assigned , ranging from occult cancer , through stages 0 , IA ( one @-@ A ) , IB , IIA , IIB , IIIA , IIIB and IV ( four ) . This stage group assists with the choice of treatment and estimation of prognosis .

Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) has traditionally been classified as " limited stage " ( confined to one half of the chest and within the scope of a single tolerable radiotherapy field ) or " extensive stage " ( more widespread disease ) . However , the TNM classification and grouping are useful in estimating prognosis .

For both NSCLC and SCLC , the two general types of staging evaluations are clinical staging and surgical staging . Clinical staging is performed prior to definitive surgery . It is based on the results of imaging studies ( such as CT scans and PET scans ) and biopsy results . Surgical staging is evaluated either during or after the operation , and is based on the combined results of surgical and clinical findings , including surgical sampling of thoracic lymph nodes .

Diagrams of main features of staging

= = Prevention = =

Smoking prevention and smoking cessation are effective ways of preventing the development of lung cancer .

= = = Smoking ban = = =

While in most countries industrial and domestic carcinogens have been identified and banned , tobacco smoking is still widespread . Eliminating tobacco smoking is a primary goal in the prevention of lung cancer , and smoking cessation is an important preventive tool in this process .

Policy interventions to decrease passive smoking in public areas such as restaurants and workplaces have become more common in many Western countries . Bhutan has had a complete smoking ban since 2005 while India introduced a ban on smoking in public in October 2008 . The World Health Organization has called for governments to institute a total ban on tobacco advertising to prevent young people from taking up smoking . They assess that such bans have reduced tobacco consumption by 16 % where instituted .

= = = Screening = = =

Cancer screening uses medical tests to detect disease in large groups of people who have no symptoms . For individuals with high risk of developing lung cancer , computed tomography ( CT ) screening can detect cancer and give a person options to respond to it in a way that prolongs life . This form of screening reduces the chance of death from lung cancer by an absolute amount of 0 @.@ 3 % ( relative amount of 20 % ) . High risk people are those age 55 @-@ 74 who have smoked equivalent amount of a pack of cigarettes daily for 30 years including time within the past 15 years .

CT screening is associated with a high rate of falsely positive tests which may result in unneeded treatment . For each true positive scan there are about 19 falsely positives scans . Other concerns include radiation exposure and the cost of testing along with follow up . Research has not found two other available tests — sputum cytology or chest radiograph ( CXR ) screening tests — to have any benefit .

The U.S. Preventative Services Task Force ( USPSTF ) recommends yearly screening using low @-@ dose computed tomography in those who have a total smoking history of 30 pack @-@ years and are between 55 and 80 years old until a person has not been smoking for more than 15 years . Screening should not be done in those with other health problems that would make treatment of lung cancer if found not an option . The English National Health Service was in 2014 re @-@ examining the evidence for screening .

= = = Other prevention strategies = = =

The long @-@ term use of supplemental vitamin A , vitamin C , vitamin D or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of lung cancer . Some studies suggest that people who eat diets with a higher proportion of vegetables and fruit tend to have a lower risk , but this may be due to confounding — with the lower risk actually due to the association of a high fruit / vegetables diet with less smoking . More rigorous studies have not demonstrated a clear association between diet and lung cancer risk .

= = Management = =

Treatment for lung cancer depends on the cancer 's specific cell type , how far it has spread , and the person 's performance status . Common treatments include palliative care , surgery , chemotherapy , and radiation therapy . Targeted therapy of lung cancer is growing in importance for advanced lung cancer .

= = = Surgery = = =

If investigations confirm NSCLC , the stage is assessed to determine whether the disease is localized and amenable to surgery or if it has spread to the point where it cannot be cured surgically . CT scan and positron emission tomography are used for this determination . If mediastinal lymph node involvement is suspected , the nodes may be sampled to assist staging . Techniques used for this include transthoracic needle aspiration , transbronchial needle aspiration ( with or without endobronchial ultrasound ) , endoscopic ultrasound with needle aspiration , mediastinoscopy , and thoracoscopy . Blood tests and pulmonary function testing are used to assess whether a person is well enough for surgery . If pulmonary function tests reveal poor respiratory reserve , surgery may not be possible .

In most cases of early @-@ stage NSCLC , removal of a lobe of lung ( lobectomy ) is the surgical treatment of choice . In people who are unfit for a full lobectomy , a smaller sublobar excision ( wedge resection ) may be performed . However , wedge resection has a higher risk of recurrence than lobectomy . Radioactive iodine brachytherapy at the margins of wedge excision may reduce the risk of recurrence . Rarely , removal of a whole lung ( pneumonectomy ) is performed . Video @-@ assisted thoracoscopic surgery ( VATS ) and VATS lobectomy use a minimally invasive approach to lung cancer surgery . VATS lobectomy is equally effective compared to conventional open lobectomy , with less postoperative illness .

In SCLC , chemotherapy and / or radiotherapy is typically used . However the role of surgery in SCLC is being reconsidered . Surgery might improve outcomes when added to chemotherapy and radiation in early stage SCLC .

= = = Radiotherapy = = =

Radiotherapy is often given together with chemotherapy , and may be used with curative intent in people with NSCLC who are not eligible for surgery . This form of high @-@ intensity radiotherapy is called radical radiotherapy . A refinement of this technique is continuous hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy ( CHART ) , in which a high dose of radiotherapy is given in a short time period . Postoperative thoracic radiotherapy generally should not be used after curative intent surgery for NSCLC . Some people with mediastinal N2 lymph node involvement might benefit from post @-@ operative radiotherapy .

For potentially curable SCLC cases , chest radiotherapy is often recommended in addition to chemotherapy .

If cancer growth blocks a short section of bronchus , brachytherapy ( localized radiotherapy ) may be given directly inside the airway to open the passage . Compared to external beam radiotherapy , brachytherapy allows a reduction in treatment time and reduced radiation exposure to healthcare staff . Evidence for brachytherapy , however , is less than that for external beam radiotherapy .

Prophylactic cranial irradiation ( PCI ) is a type of radiotherapy to the brain , used to reduce the risk of metastasis . PCI is most useful in SCLC . In limited @-@ stage disease , PCI increases three @-@ year survival from 15 % to 20 % ; in extensive disease , one @-@ year survival increases from 13 % to 27 % .

Recent improvements in targeting and imaging have led to the development of stereotactic radiation in the treatment of early @-@ stage lung cancer . In this form of radiotherapy , high doses are delivered over a number of sessions using stereotactic targeting techniques . Its use is primarily in patients who are not surgical candidates due to medical comorbidities .

For both NSCLC and SCLC patients , smaller doses of radiation to the chest may be used for symptom control ( palliative radiotherapy ) .

= = = Chemotherapy = = =

The chemotherapy regimen depends on the tumor type . Small @-@ cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) , even relatively early stage disease , is treated primarily with chemotherapy and radiation . In SCLC , cisplatin and etoposide are most commonly used . Combinations with carboplatin , gemcitabine , paclitaxel , vinorelbine , topotecan , and irinotecan are also used . In advanced non @-@ small cell lung carcinoma ( NSCLC ) , chemotherapy improves survival and is used as first @-@ line treatment , provided the person is well enough for the treatment . Typically , two drugs are used , of which one is often platinum @-@ based ( either cisplatin or carboplatin ) . Other commonly used drugs are gemcitabine , paclitaxel , docetaxel , pemetrexed , etoposide or vinorelbine .

Adjuvant chemotherapy refers to the use of chemotherapy after apparently curative surgery to improve the outcome . In NSCLC , samples are taken of nearby lymph nodes during surgery to assist staging . If stage II or III disease is confirmed , adjuvant chemotherapy improves survival by 5 % at five years . The combination of vinorelbine and cisplatin is more effective than older regimens . Adjuvant chemotherapy for people with stage IB cancer is controversial , as clinical trials have not clearly demonstrated a survival benefit . Chemotherapy before surgery in NSCLC that can be removed surgically also appears to improve outcomes .

Chemotherapy may be combined with palliative care in the treatment of the NSCLC . In advanced cases , appropriate chemotherapy improves average survival over supportive care alone , as well as improving quality of life . With adequate physical fitness maintaining chemotherapy during lung cancer palliation offers 1 @.@ 5 to 3 months of prolongation of survival , symptomatic relief , and an improvement in quality of life , with better results seen with modern agents . The NSCLC Meta @-@ Analyses Collaborative Group recommends if the recipient wants and can tolerate treatment , then chemotherapy should be considered in advanced NSCLC .

= = = = Targeted therapy = = = =

Several drugs that target molecular pathways in lung cancer are available , especially for the treatment of advanced disease . Erlotinib , gefitinib and afatinib inhibit tyrosine kinase at the epidermal growth factor receptor . Denosumab is a monoclonal antibody directed against receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa @-@ B ligand . It may be useful in the treatment of bone metastases .

= = = Bronchoscopy = = =

Several treatments can be administered via bronchoscopy for the management of airway obstruction or bleeding . If an airway becomes obstructed by cancer growth , options include rigid bronchoscopy , balloon bronchoplasty , stenting , and microdebridement . Laser photosection involves the delivery of laser light inside the airway via a bronchoscope to remove the obstructing tumor .

= = = Palliative care = = =

Palliative care when added to usual cancer care benefits people even when they are still receiving chemotherapy . These approaches allow additional discussion of treatment options and provide opportunities to arrive at well @-@ considered decisions . Palliative care may avoid unhelpful but expensive care not only at the end of life , but also throughout the course of the illness . For individuals who have more advanced disease , hospice care may also be appropriate .

= = Prognosis = =

Of all people with lung cancer in the US , 16 @.@ 8 % survive for at least five years after diagnosis . In England , between 2005 and 2009 , overall five @-@ year survival for lung cancer was less than 10 % . Outcomes are generally worse in the developing world . Stage is often advanced at the time of diagnosis . At presentation , 30 – 40 % of cases of NSCLC are stage IV , and 60 % of SCLC are stage IV . Survival for lung cancer falls as the stage at diagnosis becomes more advanced : the English data suggest that around 70 % of patients survive at least a year when diagnosed at the earliest stage , but this falls to just 14 % for those diagnosed with the most advanced disease .

Prognostic factors in NSCLC include presence of pulmonary symptoms , large tumor size ( > 3 cm ) , nonsquamous cell type ( histology ) , degree of spread ( stage ) and metastases to multiple lymph nodes , and vascular invasion . For people with inoperable disease , outcomes are worse in those with poor performance status and weight loss of more than 10 % . Prognostic factors in small cell lung cancer include performance status , gender , stage of disease , and involvement of the central nervous system or liver at the time of diagnosis .

For NSCLC , the best prognosis is achieved with complete surgical resection of stage IA disease , with up to 70 % five @-@ year survival . People with extensive @-@ stage SCLC have an average five @-@ year survival rate of less than 1 % . The average survival time for limited @-@ stage disease is 20 months , with a five @-@ year survival rate of 20 % .

According to data provided by the National Cancer Institute , the median age at diagnosis of lung cancer in the United States is 70 years , and the median age at death is 72 years . In the US , people with medical insurance are more likely to have a better outcome .

= = Epidemiology = =

Worldwide , lung cancer is the most common cancer among men in terms of both incidence and mortality , and among women has the third highest incidence , and is second after breast cancer in mortality . In 2012 , there were 1 @.@ 82 million new cases globally , and 1 @.@ 56 million deaths due to lung cancer , representing 19 @.@ 4 % of all deaths from cancer . The highest rates are in North America , Europe and East Asia , with over a third of new cases in 2012 in China . Rates in Africa and South Asia are much lower .

The population segment most likely to develop lung cancer is people aged over 50 who have a history of smoking . In contrast to the mortality rate in men , which began declining more than 20 years ago , women 's lung cancer mortality rates have been rising over the last decades , and are just recently beginning to stabilize . In the USA , the lifetime risk of developing lung cancer is 8 % in men and 6 % in women .

For every 3 – 4 million cigarettes smoked , one lung cancer death occurs . The influence of " Big Tobacco " plays a significant role in the smoking culture . Young nonsmokers who see tobacco advertisements are more likely to take up smoking . The role of passive smoking is increasingly being recognized as a risk factor for lung cancer , leading to policy interventions to decrease undesired exposure of nonsmokers to others ' tobacco smoke . Emissions from automobiles , factories , and power plants also pose potential risks .

In the United States , black men and women have a higher incidence . Lung cancer rates are currently lower in developing countries . With increased smoking in developing countries , the rates are expected to increase in the next few years , notably in China and India .

In the United States military veterans have a 25 @-@ 50 % higher rate of lung cancer primarily due to higher rates of smoking . During World War Two and the Korean War asbestos also played a part and Agent Orange may have caused some problems during the Vietnam War .

Lung cancer is the second most common cancer in the UK ( around 43 @,@ 500 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 ) , and it is the most common cause of cancer death ( around 35 @,@ 400 people died in 2012 ) .

From the 1960s , the rates of lung adenocarcinoma started to rise relative to other types of lung cancer . This is partly due to the introduction of filter cigarettes . The use of filters removes larger particles from tobacco smoke , thus reducing deposition in larger airways . However , the smoker has to inhale more deeply to receive the same amount of nicotine , increasing particle deposition in small airways where adenocarcinoma tends to arise . The incidence of lung adenocarcinoma continues to rise .

= = History = =

Lung cancer was uncommon before the advent of cigarette smoking ; it was not even recognized as a distinct disease until 1761 . Different aspects of lung cancer were described further in 1810 . Malignant lung tumors made up only 1 % of all cancers seen at autopsy in 1878 , but had risen to 10 – 15 % by the early 1900s . Case reports in the medical literature numbered only 374 worldwide in 1912 , but a review of autopsies showed the incidence of lung cancer had increased from 0 @.@ 3 % in 1852 to 5 @.@ 66 % in 1952 . In Germany in 1929 , physician Fritz Lickint recognized the link between smoking and lung cancer , which led to an aggressive antismoking campaign . The British Doctors ' Study , published in the 1950s , was the first solid epidemiological evidence of the link between lung cancer and smoking . As a result , in 1964 the Surgeon General of the United States recommended smokers should stop smoking .

The connection with radon gas was first recognized among miners in the Ore Mountains near Schneeberg , Saxony . Silver has been mined there since 1470 , and these mines are rich in uranium , with its accompanying radium and radon gas . Miners developed a disproportionate amount of lung disease , eventually recognized as lung cancer in the 1870s . Despite this discovery , mining continued into the 1950s , due to the USSR 's demand for uranium . Radon was confirmed as a cause of lung cancer in the 1960s .

The first successful pneumonectomy for lung cancer was performed in 1933 . Palliative radiotherapy has been used since the 1940s . Radical radiotherapy , initially used in the 1950s , was an attempt to use larger radiation doses in patients with relatively early @-@ stage lung cancer , but who were otherwise unfit for surgery . In 1997 , continuous hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy was seen as an improvement over conventional radical radiotherapy . With small @-@ cell lung carcinoma , initial attempts in the 1960s at surgical resection and radical radiotherapy were unsuccessful . In the 1970s , successful chemotherapy regimens were developed .

= = Research directions = =

Current research directions for lung cancer treatment include immunotherapy , which encourages the body 's immune system to attack the tumor cells , epigenetics , and new combinations of chemotherapy and radiotherapy , both on their own and together . Many of these new treatments work through immune checkpoint blockade , disrupting cancer 's ability to evade the immune system .

Ipilimumab blocks signaling through a receptor on T cells known as CTLA @-@ 4 which dampens down the immune system . It has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for treatment of melanoma and is undergoing clinical trials for both non @-@ small cell lung cancer ( NSCLC ) and small cell lung cancer ( SCLC ) .

Other immunotherapy treatments interfere with the binding of programmed cell death 1 ( PD @-@ 1 ) protein with its ligand PD @-@ 1 ligand 1 ( PD @-@ L1 ) . Signaling through PD @-@ 1 inactivates T cells . Some cancer cells appear to exploit this by expressing PD @-@ L1 in order to switch off T cells that might recognise them as a threat . Monoclonal antibodies targeting both PD @-@ 1 and PD @-@ L1 , such as pembrolizumab and nivolumab are currently in clinical trials for treatment for lung cancer .

Epigenetics is the study of small , usually heritable , molecular modifications — or " tags " — that bind DNA and modify gene expression levels . Targeting these tags with drugs can kill cancer cells . Early @-@ stage research in NSCLC using drugs aimed at epigenetic modifications shows that blocking more than one of these tags can kill cancer cells with fewer side effects . Studies also show that giving patients these drugs before standard treatment can improve its effectiveness . Clinical trials are underway to evaluate how well these drugs kill lung cancer cells in humans . Several drugs that target epigenetic mechanisms are in development . Histone deacetylase inhibitors in development include valproic acid , vorinostat , belinostat , panobinostat , entinostat , and romidepsin . DNA methyltransferase inhibitors in development include decitabine , azacytidine , and hydralazine .

The TRACERx project is looking at how NSCLC develops and evolves , and how these tumors become resistant to treatment . The project will look at tumor samples from 850 NSCLC patients at various stages including diagnosis , after first treatment , post @-@ treatment , and relapse . By studying samples at different points of tumor development , the researchers hope to identify the changes that drive tumor growth and resistance to treatment . The results of this project will help scientists and doctors gain a better understanding of NSCLC and potentially lead to the development of new treatments against the disease .

For lung cancer cases that develop resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ) and anaplastic lymphoma kinase ( ALK ) tyrosine kinase inhibitors , new drugs are in development . New EGFR inhibitors include afatinib and dacomitinib . An alternative signaling pathway , c @-@ Met , can be inhibited by tivantinib and onartuzumab . New ALK inhibitors include crizotinib and ceritinib .

= Canadians =

Canadians ( French : Canadiens ) are the people who are identified with the country of Canada . This connection may be residential , legal , historical , or cultural . For most Canadians , several ( or all ) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian .

Canada is a bilingual and multicultural society home to people of many different ethnic , religious and national origins , with the majority of the population made up of Old World immigrants and their descendants . Following the initial period of French and then the much larger British colonization , different waves ( or peaks ) of immigration and settlement of non @-@ aboriginal peoples took place over the course of nearly two centuries and continue today . Elements of Aboriginal , French , British and more recent immigrant customs , languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada and thus a Canadian identity . Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic , geographic and economic neighbour , the United States .

Canadian independence from Britain grew gradually over the course of many years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867 . World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a fully @-@ fledged sovereign state with a distinct citizenship . Legislative independence was established with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931 , the Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 took effect on January 1 , 1947 , and full sovereignty was achieved with the patriation of the constitution in 1982 . Canada 's nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom . Legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians ' commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development .

= = Population = =

As of 2010 , Canadians make up 0 @.@ 5 % of the world 's total population , having relied upon immigration for population growth and social development . Approximately 41 % of current Canadians are first- or second @-@ generation immigrants , and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country . Statistics Canada projects that , by 2031 , nearly one @-@ half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign @-@ born or have one foreign @-@ born parent . Aboriginal peoples , according to the 2011 Canadian Census , numbered at 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 685 or 4 @.@ 3 % of the country 's 33 @,@ 476 @,@ 688 population .

= = = Immigration = = =

The French originally settled New France , in present @-@ day Quebec and Ontario ; and Acadia , in present @-@ day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , during the early part of the 17th century . Approximately 100 Irish @-@ born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700 , assimilating into the Canadien population and culture . During the 18th and 19th century ; immigration westward ( to the area known as Rupert 's Land ) was carried out by " Voyageurs " ; French settlers working for the North West Company ; and by British settlers ( English and Scottish ) representing the Hudson 's Bay Company , coupled with independent entrepreneurial woodsman called " Coureur des bois " . This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis , an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nations parentage .

The British conquest of New France was preceded by a small number of Germans and Swedes who settled alongside the Scottish in Port Royal , Nova Scotia , while some Irish immigrated to the Colony of Newfoundland . In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , approximately 60 @,@ 000 United Empire Loyalist fled to British North America , a large portion of whom migrated to New Brunswick . After the War of 1812 , British ( including British army regulars ) , Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Rupert 's Land , Upper Canada and Lower Canada .

Between 1815 and 1850 , some 800 @,@ 000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America , mainly from the British Isles as part of the great migration of Canada . These new arrivals included some Gaelic @-@ speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia . The Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada , with over 35 @,@ 000 distressed individuals landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848 . Beginning in the late 1850s , the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush . The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants , in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway .

The population of Canada has consistently risen , doubling approximately every 40 years , since the establishment of the Canadian Confederation in 1867 . From the mid- to late 19th century , Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe , including an estimated 100 @,@ 000 unwanted " Home Children " from Britain . Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves . Canada was now receiving a large number of European immigrants , predominantly Italians , Germans , Scandinavians , Dutch , Poles , and Ukrainians . Legislative restrictions on immigration ( such as the Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act ) that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s , opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world . While the 1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans , by the 1970s , immigrants were increasingly Chinese , Indian , Vietnamese , Jamaican and Haitian . During the late 1960s and early 1970s , Canada received many American Vietnam War draft dissenters . Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s , Canada 's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx of South Asians , who tended to settle in British Columbia . Immigrants of all backgrounds tend to settle in the major urban centres . The Canadian public as @-@ well as the major political parties support immigration .

The majority of illegal immigrants come from the southern provinces of the People 's Republic of China , with Asia as a whole , Eastern Europe , Caribbean , Africa and the Middle East all contributing to the illegal population . Estimates of numbers of illegal immigrants range between 35 @,@ 000 and 120 @,@ 000 . A 2008 report by the Auditor General of Canada Sheila Fraser stated that Canada has lost track of approximately 41 @,@ 000 illegal immigrants whose visas have expired .

= = = Citizenship and diaspora = = =

Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada or by birth or adoption abroad when at least one biological parent or adoptive parent is a Canadian citizen who was born in Canada or naturalized in Canada ( and did not receive citizenship by being born outside of Canada to a Canadian citizen ) . It can also be granted to a permanent resident who lives in Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements . Canada established its own nationality law in 1946 with the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act which took effect on January 1 , 1947 . The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act , was passed by the Parliament of Canada in 2001 as Bill C @-@ 11 , which replaced the Immigration Act of 1976 as the primary federal legislation regulating immigration . Prior to the conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship , Canada 's naturalization laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with the Immigration Act of 1910 .

According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada , there are three main classifications for immigrants : Family class ( persons closely related to Canadian residents ) , Economic class ( admitted on the basis of a point system that accounts for age , health and labour @-@ market skills required for cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada 's labour market ) and Refugee class ( those seeking protection by applying to remain in the country by way of the Canadian immigration and refugee law ) . In 2008 , there were 65 @,@ 567 immigrants in the family class , 21 @,@ 860 refugees , and 149 @,@ 072 economic immigrants amongst the 247 @,@ 243 total immigrants to the country . Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world ’ s refugees and has one of the highest per @-@ capita immigration rates in the world .

As of a 2010 report by the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada , there were 2 @.@ 8 million Canadian citizens abroad . This represents about 8 % of the total Canadian population . Of those living abroad , the United States , Hong Kong , the United Kingdom , Taiwan , China , Lebanon , United Arab Emirates and Australia have the largest Canadian diaspora . Canadians in the United States constitute the greatest single expatriate community at over 1 million in 2009 , representing 35 @.@ 8 % of all Canadians abroad . Under current Canadian law , Canada does not restrict dual citizenship but Passport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on their Canadian passport , so they can access Canadian consular services .

= = = Ethnic ancestry = = =

Canada has 34 ethnic groups with at least 100 @,@ 000 members each , of which 11 have over 1 million people and numerous others are represented in smaller amounts . According to the 2006 census , the largest self @-@ reported ethnic origin is " Canadian " ( 32 % ) , followed by English ( 21 % ) , French ( 15 @.@ 8 % ) , Scottish ( 15 @.@ 1 % ) , Irish ( 13 @.@ 9 % ) , German ( 10 @.@ 2 % ) , Italian ( 4 @.@ 6 % ) , Chinese ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) , North American Indian ( 4 @.@ 0 % ) , Ukrainian ( 3 @.@ 9 % ) , and Dutch ( Netherlands ) ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . In the 2006 census , over five million Canadians identified themselves as a member of a visible minority . Together , they make up 16 @.@ 2 % of the total population : most numerous among these are South Asian ( 4 @.@ 0 % ) , Black ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) , and Filipino ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) . Aboriginal peoples are not considered a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act , and this is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses .

For a complete list see : Canadian ethnic groups

= = Culture = =

Canada 's culture is a product of its ethnicities , languages , religions , political and legal system ( s ) . Canada has been shaped by waves of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of art , cuisine , literature , humour and music . Today , Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation . In Quebec , cultural identity is strong , and many French @-@ speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture distinct from English Canadian culture . However , as a whole , Canada is a cultural mosaic : a collection of several regional , aboriginal , and ethnic subcultures .

Canadian government policies such as official bilingualism ; publicly funded health care ; higher and more progressive taxation ; outlawing capital punishment ; strong efforts to eliminate poverty ; strict gun control ; leniency in regard to drug use , and , most recently , legalizing same @-@ sex marriage are social indicators of Canada 's political and cultural values . American media and entertainment are popular , if not dominant , in English Canada ; conversely , many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide . The Government of Canada has also influenced culture with programs , laws and institutions . It has created Crown corporations to promote Canadian culture through media and has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content .

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by Aboriginal , French and British cultures and traditions . Most of Canada 's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas , with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers , trappers , and traders were important in the early development of the Canadian identity . First Nations played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada , particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade . The British conquest of New France in the mid @-@ 1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial rule , creating a need for compromise and accommodation . The new British rulers left alone much of the religious , political , and social culture of the French @-@ speaking habitants , guaranteeing through the Quebec Act of 1774 the right of the Canadiens to practise the Catholic faith and to use French civil law ( now Quebec law ) .

The Constitution Act of 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of Canadians for autonomy from British rule , while avoiding the overly strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States . The compromises made by the Fathers of Confederation set Canadians on a path to bilingualism , and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity .

The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism , however in 1917 and 1944 conscription crisis ' highlighted the considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones . As a result of the First and Second World Wars , the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority . With the gradual loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of Canadian immigration policies , 20th @-@ century immigrants with African , Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture . The multiple @-@ origins immigration pattern continues today with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non @-@ British or non @-@ French backgrounds .

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the government during the premiership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s . The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration . Multiculturalism is administered by the Department of Citizenship and Immigration and reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms .

= = = Religion = = =

Canada as a nation is religiously diverse , encompassing a wide range of groups , beliefs and customs . The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms references " God " , and the monarch carries the title of " Defender of the Faith " . However Canada has no official religion , and support for religious pluralism ( Freedom of religion in Canada ) is an important part of Canada 's political culture . With the role of Christianity in decline , having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life ; commentators have suggested that Canada has come to enter a post @-@ Christian period in a secular state , with irreligion in Canada on the rise . The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives , but still believe in God . The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and within the state .

The 2011 Canadian census reported that 67 @.@ 3 % of Canadians identify as being Christians ; of this number , Catholics make up the largest group , accounting for 38 @.@ 7 percent of the population . The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada ( accounting for 6 @.@ 1 % of Canadians ) ; followed by Anglicans ( 5 @.@ 0 % ) , and Baptists ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) . About 23 @.@ 9 % of Canadians declare no religious affiliation , including agnostics , atheists , humanists , and other groups . The remaining are affiliated with non @-@ Christian religions , the largest of which is Islam ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) , followed by Hinduism ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) , Sikhism ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) , Buddhism ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) , and Judaism ( 1 @.@ 0 % ) .

Before the arrival of European colonists and explorers , First Nations followed a wide array of mostly animistic religions . During the colonial period , the French settled along the shores of the Saint Lawrence River , specifically Latin Rite Roman Catholics , including a number of Jesuits dedicated to converting Aboriginals ; an effort that eventually proved successful . The first large Protestant communities were formed in the Maritimes after the British conquest of New France , followed by American Protestant settlers displaced by the American Revolution . The late nineteenth century saw the beginning of a substantive shift in Canadian immigration patterns . Large numbers of Irish and Southern Europeans immigrants were creating new Roman Catholic communities in English Canada . The settlement of the west brought significant Eastern Orthodox immigrants from Eastern Europe and Mormon and Pentecostal immigrants from the United States .

The earliest documentation of Jewish presence in Canada occurs in the 1754 British Army records from the French and Indian War . In 1760 , General Jeffrey Amherst , 1st Baron Amherst attacked and won Montreal for the British . In his regiment there were several Jews , including four among his officer corps , most notably Lieutenant Aaron Hart who is considered the father of Canadian Jewry . The Islamic , Jains , Sikh , Hindu and Buddhist communities , although small , are as old as the nation itself . The 1871 Canadian Census ( first " Canadian " national census ) indicated thirteen Muslims among the populace , with approximately 5000 Sikh by 1908 . The first Canadian mosque was constructed in Edmonton , in 1938 , when there were approximately 700 Muslims in Canada . Buddhism first arrived in Canada when Japanese immigrated during the late 19th century . The first Japanese Buddhist temple in Canada was built in Vancouver in 1905 . The influx of immigrants in the late 20th century , with Sri Lankan , Japanese , Indian and Southeast Asian customs , has contributed to the recent expansion of the Jain , Sikh , Hindu and Buddhist communities .

= = = Languages = = =

A multitude of languages are used by 35 million Canadians , with English and French ( the official languages ) being the mother tongues of approximately 60 % and 20 % of Canadians respectively . In 2011 , nearly 6 @.@ 8 million Canadians listed a non @-@ official language as their mother tongue . Some of the most common non @-@ official first languages include Chinese ( mainly Cantonese ; 1 @,@ 072 @,@ 555 first @-@ language speakers ) , Punjabi ( 430 @,@ 705 ) , Spanish ( 410 @,@ 670 ) , German ( 409 @,@ 200 ) , and Italian ( 407 @,@ 490 ) . Less than one percent of Canadians ( just over 250 @,@ 000 individuals ) can speak an aboriginal language . About half this number ( 129 @,@ 865 ) reported using an aboriginal language on a daily basis . Additionally , Canadians speak several sign languages ; it is unknown the number of speakers of the most spoken languages , ASL and LSQ , nor of Maritime Sign Language or of Plains Sign Talk . There are only 47 speakers of the Inuit language Inuiuuk .

English and French are recognized by the Constitution of Canada as official languages . Thus all federal government laws are enacted in both English and French with government services available in both languages . Two of Canada 's territories give official status to indigenous languages . In Nunavut , Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French , and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government . In the Northwest Territories , the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages : Chipewyan , Cree , English , French , Gwich ’ in , Inuinnaqtun , Inuktitut , Inuvialuktun , North Slavey , South Slavey and Tłįchǫ . Multicultural media are widely accessible across the county and offer specialty television channels , newspapers and other publications in many minority languages .

In Canada , as elsewhere in the world of European colonies , the frontier of European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse and fluid place , as cultures using different languages met and interacted . The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade , and ( in some cases ) intermarriage , led to the development of Mixed languages . Languages like Michif , Chinook Jargon and Bungi creole tended to be highly localized and were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently capable of speaking another language . Reaching across Canada , the United States and into Mexico existed Plains Sign Talk which functioned originally as a trade language used to communicate internationally and across linguistic borders .

= SMS Prinzregent Luitpold =

SMS Prinzregent Luitpold was the fifth and final vessel of the Kaiser class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . Prinzregent Luitpold 's keel was laid in October 1910 at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel . She was launched on 17 February 1912 and was commissioned into the navy on 19 August 1913 . The ship was equipped with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets , and had a top speed of 21 @.@ 7 knots ( 40 @.@ 2 km / h ; 25 @.@ 0 mph ) .

Prinzregent Luitpold was assigned to the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career ; in December 1916 , she was transferred to the IV Battle Squadron . Along with her four sister ships , Kaiser , Friedrich der Grosse , Kaiserin , and König Albert , Prinzregent Luitpold participated in all of the major fleet operations of World War I , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The ship was also involved in Operation Albion , an amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 .

After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Prinzregent Luitpold and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Prinzregent Luitpold was raised in July 1931 and subsequently broken up for scrap in 1933 .

= = Construction = =

Prinzregent Luitpold was 172 @.@ 4 m ( 565 ft 7 in ) long overall and displaced a maximum of 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 26 @,@ 570 long tons ) . She had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 1 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 8 m ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft . She had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 043 enlisted men . Prinzregent Luitpold was powered by two sets of Parsons steam turbines , supplied with steam by 14 coal @-@ fired boilers . Unlike her four sisters , the ship was intended to use a diesel engine on the center shaft , but this was not ready by the time work on the ship was completed . The engine was never installed , and so Prinzregent Luitpold was slightly slower than her sisters , which were equipped with a third turbine on the center shaft . The powerplant produced a top speed of 21 @.@ 7 knots ( 40 @.@ 2 km / h ; 25 @.@ 0 mph ) . She carried 3 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 540 long tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 630 km ; 9 @,@ 090 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .

Prinzregent Luitpold was armed with a main battery of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . The ship dispensed with the inefficient hexagonal turret arrangement of previous German battleships ; instead , three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline , one forward and two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships , such that both could fire on the broadside . The ship was also armed with fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates amidships , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates and four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's armament was rounded out by five 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the hull ; one was in the bow , and the other four were on the broadside .

= = Service history = =

Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Odin as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship Odin , Prinzregent Luitpold was laid down at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel in October 1910 . She was launched on 17 February 1912 and christened by Princess Theresa of Bavaria ; Ludwig III , the last king of Bavaria and the son of the ship 's namesake , Luitpold , Prince Regent of Bavaria , gave a speech . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 19 August 1913 . Prinzregent Luitpold was equipped with facilities for a squadron commander , and became the flagship of the III Battle Squadron upon commissioning .

Directly after commissioning , Prinzregent Luitpold took part in the annual autumn maneuvers , which followed the fleet cruise to Norway . The exercises lasted from 31 August to 9 September . Unit drills and individual ship training were conducted in October and November . In early 1914 , Prinzregent Luitpold participated in additional ship and unit training . The annual spring maneuvers were conducted in the North Sea at the end of March . Further fleet exercises followed in April and May in the Baltic and North Seas . The ship went to Kiel Week that year . Despite the rising international tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June , the High Seas Fleet began its summer cruise to Norway on 13 July . During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy , the fleet conducted drills off Skagen before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July . The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany , as a result of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia . On the 27th , the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skadenes before returning to port , where they remained at a heightened state of readiness . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out the following day , and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict .

Prinzregent Luitpold was present during the first sortie by the German fleet into the North Sea , which took place on 2 – 3 November 1914 . No British forces were encountered during the operation . A second operation followed on 15 – 16 December . This sortie was the initiation of a strategy adopted by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet . He intended to use the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group to raid British coastal towns to lure out portions of the British Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . Early on 15 December the fleet left port to raid the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby . That evening , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Prinzregent Luitpold and her four sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .

Prinzregent Luitpold went into the Baltic for squadron training from 23 to 29 January 1916 . While on the maneuvers , the newer battleship König became the III Squadron flagship . Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the commander of III Squadron , lowered his flag on 24 January and transferred it to König . The Kaiser removed von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February , following the loss of the armored cruiser SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank the month before . Admiral Hugo von Pohl succeeded him as the commander of the fleet . Pohl continued the policy of sweeps into the North Sea to destroy isolated British formations . On 24 April , Prinzregent Luitpold ran aground in the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , though she was freed without causing significant damage . A series of advances into the North Sea were conducted throughout the rest of 1915 ; Prinzregent Luitpold was present for the sweeps on 17 – 18 May , 29 – 30 May , 10 August , 11 – 12 September , and 23 – 24 October . The III Squadron completed the year with another round of unit training in the Baltic on 5 – 20 December .

Pohl 's tenure as fleet commander was brief ; by January 1916 hepatic cancer had weakened him to the point where he was no longer able to carry out his duties . He was replaced by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer in January . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Prinzregent Luitpold was also present during an advance to the Amrun Bank on 2 – 3 April . Another sortie was conducted on 21 – 22 April .

= = = Battle of Jutland = = =

Prinzregent Luitpold was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . During the operation , Prinzregent Luitpold was the third ship in the VI Division of III Squadron and the seventh ship in the line , directly astern of Kaiserin and ahead of Friedrich der Grosse . The VI Division was behind only the V Division , consisting of the four König @-@ class battleships . The eight Helgoland- and Nassau @-@ class battleships of the I and II Divisions in I Squadron followed the VI Division . The six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the III and IV Divisions in II Battle Squadron formed the rear of the formation .

Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , the crew of the leading German battleship , König , spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .

Prinzregent Luitpold engaged the nearest target her gunners could make out , one of the Lion @-@ class battlecruisers , at a range of some 22 @,@ 300 yd ( 20 @,@ 400 m ) , though her shots fell short . Beatty 's ships increased speed and at 17 : 51 veered away to further increase the distance to the III Squadron battleships . At 18 : 08 , Prinzregent Luitpold shifted her fire to the battleship Malaya at a range of 19 @,@ 100 yd ( 17 @,@ 500 m ) , though without any success . By 18 : 38 , Malaya disappeared in the haze and Prinzregent Luitpold was forced to cease fire . The British destroyers Nestor and Nomad , which had been disabled earlier in the engagement , lay directly in the path of the advancing High Seas Fleet . Prinzregent Luitpold and her three sisters destroyed Nomad with their secondary guns while the I Squadron battleships dispatched Nestor . At around 19 : 00 , the German battle line came into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Prinzregent Luitpold fired two salvos from her main battery at an unidentified four @-@ funneled cruiser at 19 : 03 but made no hits .

Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to maneuver the III Squadron to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The eight III Squadron battleships fired on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers . The armored cruisers Defence , Warrior , and Black Prince joined in the attack on the crippled Wiesbaden . Between 19 : 14 and 19 : 17 , several German battleships and battlecruisers opened fire on Defence and Warrior . Instead of joining the fire on the much closer cruisers , Prinzregent Luitpold engaged the leading battleships of the British line , firing a total of 21 salvos . The gunners reported ranges of 17 @,@ 500 to 18 @,@ 800 yd ( 16 @,@ 000 to 17 @,@ 200 m ) , though this was an overestimation that caused the ship 's salvos to fall past their intended target .

By 20 : 00 , the German line was ordered to complete a 180 @-@ degree turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet . The maneuver , conducted under heavy fire , caused disorganization in the German fleet . Kaiserin had come too close to Prinzregent Luitpold and was forced to haul out of line to starboard to avoid a collision . Prinzregent Luitpold came up alongside Kaiserin at high speed , which forced Kaiserin to remain out of line temporarily . The turn reversed the order of the German line ; Prinzregent Luitpold was now the eighth ship from the rear of the German line , leading the III Squadron . At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night @-@ cruising formation . Kaiserin was the eleventh ship , in the center of the 24 @-@ ship line .

After a series of night engagements between the leading battleships and British destroyers , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later ; the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead , and Prinzregent Luitpold , Kaiserin , Kaiser , and Kronprinz stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven . The remainder of the battleships and battlecruisers entered Wilhelmshaven , where those that were still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition . In the course of the battle , Prinzregent Luitpold fired one @-@ hundred and sixty @-@ nine 30 @.@ 5 cm shells and one @-@ hundred and six 15 cm rounds . She and her crew emerged from the battle completely unscathed .

= = = Subsequent operations = = =

In early August , Prinzregent Luitpold and the rest of the operational III Squadron units conducted divisional training in the Baltic . On 18 August , Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation ; the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Prinzregent Luitpold , would trail behind and provide cover . During the operation , Prinzregent Luitpold carried the Commander of U @-@ boats . On the approach to the English coast , Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .

Another fleet advance followed on 18 – 20 October , though it ended without encountering any British units . Two weeks later , on 4 November , Prinzregent Luitpold took part in an expedition to the western coast of Denmark to assist two U @-@ boats — U @-@ 20 and U @-@ 30 — that had become stranded there . The fleet was reorganized on 1 December ; the four König @-@ class battleships remained in III Squadron , along with the newly commissioned Bayern , while the five Kaiser @-@ class ships , including Prinzregent Luitpold , were transferred to IV Squadron . Prinzregent Luitpold became the flagship of the new squadron . In the Wilhelmshaven Roads on 20 January 1917 , the ship struck a steel hawser that became entangled in the ship 's starboard propeller . In March , Friedrich der Grosse was replaced as the fleet flagship by the newly commissioned battleship Baden . Friedrich der Grosse in turn replaced Prinzregent Luitpold as the flagship of IV Squadron . Steadily decreasing morale and discontent with rations provoked a series of small mutinies in the fleet . On 6 June and 19 July , stokers protested the low quality of the food they were given , and on 2 August , some 800 men went on a hunger strike . The ship 's officers relented and agreed to form a Menagekommission , a council that gave the enlisted men a voice in their ration selection and preparation . One of the ringleaders of the protests , however , was arrested and executed on 5 September .

= = = Operation Albion = = =

In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .

The operation began on the morning of 12 October , when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while Prinzregent Luitpold and the rest of IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel . Prinzregent Luitpold , along with Kaiser and Kaiserin , were tasked with silencing the Russian guns at Hundsort which had taken Moltke under fire . The ships opened fire at 05 : 44 , and by 07 : 45 , Russian firing had ceased and German troops were moving ashore . Two days later , Vice Admiral Wilhelm Souchon left Tagga Bay with Prinzregent Luitpold , Friedrich der Grosse , and Kaiserin to support German ground forces advancing on the Sworbe Peninsula . By 20 October , the fighting on the islands was winding down ; Moon , Ösel , and Dagö were in German possession . The previous day , the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible . On the 24th , Prinzregent Luitpold was detached from the task force and returned to Kiel .

After arriving in Kiel , Prinzregent Luitpold went into drydock for periodic maintenance , from which she emerged on 21 December . She then proceeded on to Wilhelmshaven , where she resumed guard duty in the Bight . On 17 March 1918 , the ship steamed to the Baltic for training exercises , and the following day the battlecruiser Derfflinger rammed her outside Kiel . The accident caused no serious damage , however . The ship participated in the fruitless advance to Norway on 23 – 25 April 1918 , after which she resumed guard duties in the German Bight .

= = = Fate = = =

Prinzregent Luitpold and her four sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to improve Germany 's bargaining position , despite the expected casualties . But many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt that the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy " .

Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , was interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any circumstances . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and men per ship .

The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Prinzregent Luitpold sank at 13 : 30 ; she was subsequently raised on 9 July 1931 and broken up by 1933 in Rosyth .

= Michèle Mouton =

Michèle Mouton ( born 23 June 1951 ) is a French former rally driver . Competing in the World Rally Championship for the Audi factory team , she took four victories and finished runner @-@ up in the drivers ' world championship in 1982 . She is still the last woman to compete in top @-@ level rallying .

Mouton debuted in rallying as a co @-@ driver but quickly moved to the driver 's seat , steering an Alpine @-@ Renault A110 in national rallies . In 1975 , she competed in circuit racing and won the two @-@ litre prototype class in the 24 Hours of Le Mans . After being signed by Fiat France for 1977 , Mouton finished runner @-@ up to Bernard Darniche in the European Rally Championship . She went on to win the 1978 Tour de France Automobile and record consistent results in her home events in the WRC ; the Tour de Corse and the Monte Carlo Rally . For 1981 , Audi Sport signed Mouton to partner Hannu Mikkola . In her first year with the Audi Quattro , she took a surprise victory at the Rallye Sanremo .

In the 1982 season , Mouton finished a close second overall to Walter Röhrl , after wins in Portugal , Brazil and Greece , and helped Audi to its first manufacturers ' title . Her campaign the following year resulted in fifth place . With the team having four top drivers for 1984 , Mouton 's participation on world championship level became part @-@ time . In 1985 , she won the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in the United States , setting a record time in the process . In 1986 , she moved to Peugeot and won the German Rally Championship as the first female driver to win a major championship in rallying . Soon after securing the title , Mouton retired from rallying due to the ban of Group B supercars . In 1988 , she co @-@ founded the international motorsport event Race of Champions in memory of her former rival Henri Toivonen . Mouton became the first president of the FIA 's Women & Motor Sport Commission in 2010 and the FIA 's manager in the World Rally Championship in 2011 .

= = Career = =

= = = Early life and career = = =

Michèle Mouton was born 23 June 1951 in Grasse , a town on the French Riviera known for its perfume industry , close to the mountain stages famously featured in French rallies . Her parents grew roses and jasmine on their large property . After graduating from high school , Mouton began law studies , but would soon drop out and concentrate on a career in rallying . Although Mouton began driving her father 's Citroën 2CV when she was 14 years old , she did not turn her interest to rallying until 1972 , when her friend Jean Taibi asked her to practise the Tour de Corse with him . Mouton later co @-@ drove for him in the 1973 Monte Carlo Rally , the first @-@ ever World Rally Championship ( WRC ) event . After a few more rallies , Mouton 's father suggested a switch to driving if she wanted to continue in rallying , and promised to buy her a car and give her one @-@ year to prove herself . Driving an Alpine @-@ Renault A110 , she debuted at the Critérium Féminin Paris @-@ Saint @-@ Raphaël and then tackled the Tour de France Automobile . In the Île de Beauté , a complementary event to the Tour de Corse at the end of 1973 , Mouton finished eighth overall .

In the World Rally Championship , Mouton made her driver debut in 1974 , finishing 12th in the Tour de Corse in an Alpine A110 . It was rumoured her good performances were the result of a special engine , however her car passed inspection by WRC scrutineers . At the end of the year , Mouton was crowned both French and European ladies ' champion . Re @-@ entering the Tour de Corse the following season , she took seventh place . Mouton successfully defended her ladies ' titles , and also competed in circuit racing : In an all @-@ female team with Christine Dacremont and Marianne Hoepfner , she won the two @-@ litre prototype category of the 1975 24 Hours of Le Mans . Recalling the race in 2008 , Mouton said : " It started to rain I remember , and I started to pass everybody . I was running on slicks . In the pits they were saying ' Michele you must stop ' , but I did not want to because I was passing everyone . " Her results attracted a major sponsor in the form of the French oil company Elf . In 1976 , Mouton drove the A110 to 11th place in Monte Carlo and retired at the Rallye Sanremo . At the Tour de Corse , her debut in the newer A310 also ended in retirement .

= = = Fiat = = =

For the 1977 season , Fiat France signed Mouton to partner Jean @-@ Claude Andruet . She was not impressed by the handling of the Fiat 131 Abarth , stating it was " like a big truck , not a car " and " terrible to drive " . However , the car would prove successful and Mouton put in very consistent results , finishing eighth in the Tour de Corse in 1977 and fifth three years in a row from 1978 to 1980 . In 1980 , she had been running as high as second before her engine died for a time . In Monte Carlo , she drove the car to seventh place in 1979 and 1980 , equalling the result she had achieved in the event in a Lancia Stratos HF in 1978 .

Outside the World Rally Championship , Mouton drove a Porsche Carrera RS to victory in the 1977 RACE Rallye de España and to second place in the 1977 Tour de France Automobile . She also finished runner @-@ up to Bernard Darniche in the overall European Rally Championship ( ERC ) . Mouton went on to win the Tour de France with the 131 Abarth the following year . At the Rallye d 'Antibes , she finished third behind the Stratos drivers Darniche and Attilio Bettega . She placed fifth in the ERC standings and fourth in the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) Cup for Drivers , the predecessor to the drivers ' world championship . In 1979 , Mouton finished second in the French Rally Championship , behind Porsche 911 SC driver Bernard Béguin .

= = = Audi = = =

= = = = 1980 = = = =

In 1980 , Audi Sport , Audi 's new factory team , called Mouton and signed her for a World Rally Championship programme for the 1981 season . Mouton described Audi 's call as " a complete shock " . Audi 's decision to nominate her instead of established male rivals attracted a great deal of publicity . As the Audi Quattro , the first rally car to have over 300 bhp and both a turbocharger and four @-@ wheel @-@ drive , had not yet gained FIA homologation , Audi could only enter rallies as zero cars and not as competitive entries . Hannu Mikkola debuted the car in the Algarve Rally in October , and would have won by about thirty minutes had his times been officially registered . Mouton joined Freddy Kottulinsky for the final round of the Finnish Rally Championship , the Northern Lights , and also showed encouraging pace on the slippery surfaces . Mouton initially found the car understeering , but became more comfortable after switching to left @-@ foot braking , as advised by Mikkola who was in charge of developing the car . Audi announced their participation in eight events in 1981 , although Mouton would not be entered in the Swedish Rally due to her lack of experience on driving on ice and snow .

= = = = 1981 = = = =

Mouton 's first competitive run in the Quattro in Monte Carlo ended before it had even begun . She withdrew from the event before the start due to apparent engine problems . The team later discovered that dirt had got into the fuel system . At the Rally Portugal , she started her long partnership with the Italian co @-@ driver Fabrizia Pons . Mouton won seven stages and took a career @-@ best fourth place , despite suffering from electronic problems . This ended criticism of Audi for signing a female driver . After a retirement due to a broken camshaft in the Tour de Corse , Mouton set several fastest times at the Acropolis Rally in Greece . While Mikkola was leading and Mouton fifth , the stewards excluded the Quattros citing homologation infractions . Although Audi protested , the stewards upheld the decision . In her debut in the high @-@ speed 1000 Lakes Rally in Finland , Mouton found it hard to get used to the rhythm changes . She recorded a few top @-@ ten stage times and finished 13th . She was satisfied with her performance , and the local newspaper Keskisuomalainen described her debut as successful . At the Rallye Sanremo in Italy , a mixed surface event with tarmac and gravel , Mouton took the lead when the local star Michele Cinotto crashed and held off Henri Toivonen and Ari Vatanen to take the victory . This marked the first time a female driver had won a world championship event in rallying . Mouton 's male rivals were left speechless . Earlier during the weekend , Vatanen had been confident : " Never can nor will I lose to a woman . " Mouton recalled her debut win in a 2008 interview for RallySport Magazine :

I remember not just because it was a win , but also because it was a big fight right into the last night . Fabrizia reminded me the other night that we had a problem with the brake pads , so we lost a lot of time . We finished three days rallying ( with one day to go ) , night and day , 32 seconds in front of Ari Vatanen . We drove the last special stage for the night , came back to the hotel and I could not sleep at all , four hours in front of me and no sleep . Then I arrive at the special stage , it 's about 42km long , and I look at Fabrizia and I said " OK , we forget everything , and we are at the first stage of the rally again , because one of us will crash . " And so Ari hit a rock , and we won the rally .

In the season @-@ ending RAC Rally in Great Britain , Mouton continued her good performances by running third at half distance , despite having been uncomfortable about competing in a rally where pacenotes and practice are not allowed . However , her Quattro later incurred gearbox problems and she retired from fifth place after sliding off the road into a snow @-@ filled ditch . Mouton would later state : " For me , rallying is England . No pacenotes – just you in the car having to do the fastest time . This , to me , is rallying . OK , it was not easy for me because I did not have experience there of the British championship , but it is really rallying . I like it very much . " Mouton finished the season in eighth place in the drivers ' championship , while Audi was fifth in the manufacturers ' standings .

= = = = 1982 = = = =

Mouton 's 1982 season started with a big accident at the Monte Carlo Rally . On stage twelve in the small town Briançonnet in Provence , she missed a patch of ice and slid off the road , crashing into the stone wall of a large house at 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Mouton injured her knee while Pons suffered a concussion . She had been in third place , and had set the fastest time for the difficult Col de Turini mountain pass . The pair 's injuries were not serious and Mouton went on to make her debut in the Swedish Rally . She was running third when she slid into a snow bank , and crashed into the Quattro of teammate Hannu Mikkola who had gone off at the same place . She eventually finished fifth . In Portugal , Mouton recorded 18 stage wins on her way to a clear victory ahead of Toyota 's Per Eklund . She once admitted that to be competitive in the rally , she tried to think of the large crowds right by the side of the route as trees . At the Tour de Corse , she could not match the pace of the leaders and finished seventh . At the Acropolis Rally , Mouton won ahead of the Opel duo Walter Röhrl and Henri Toivonen , and closed to within 20 points of the championship leader Röhrl . The event was overshadowed by two serious accidents , one of which killed a spectator . Mouton had commented : " I 'm afraid that something might break in my car and I can no longer avoid hitting a spectator . "

In New Zealand , Mouton continued her good performances and traded the lead with Mikkola , Röhrl and Björn Waldegård . Soon after regaining the lead on stage twelve , she retired with a broken oil pump . After seven rounds , Mouton was second in the championship , 32 points behind Röhrl and 12 ahead of Eklund . The Rally of Brazil was marred by the fatal accident of Brazilian driver Thomas Fuchs , and featured chaotic conditions as parts of the course were not successfully closed for competition . Although only five teams made it to the finish , Mouton improved her title hopes by winning her duel with Röhrl after the German lost a wheel on the last day . At the 1000 Lakes , she clocked in the eighth fastest time for the famous Ouninpohja stage and placed seventh after the first day . On the following leg , Mouton drove too fast into a jump and damaged her Quattro while landing . After the next jump , her front wheels locked up and she rolled the car . Mouton was next locked in a tight battle for the win in Sanremo . Although she recorded nine stage wins and Audi took a one @-@ two , she had to settle for fourth behind Röhrl .

Audi had not originally planned to participate in the African marathon events , but now found it necessary to enter the penultimate round , the Rallye Côte d 'Ivoire , due to their title battles with Opel . Just before the start of the event , Mouton received news that her father had succumbed to cancer in his house in Nice . His last wish was that Mouton start the rally . After a first day of over 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 miles ) of racing in temperatures over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , she was eight minutes clear of Mikkola and nearly half an hour ahead of title rival Röhrl . Mikkola said that he had never been in such a hot car , and Röhrl estimated that the temperature inside his car reached an " almost unbearable " 70 ° C. With just over half of the 5 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 100 mi ) behind , Mouton led from Röhrl by over an hour despite losing 25 minutes due to transmission problems . On the third day , both Mouton and Röhrl struggled with several reliability issues and her lead over Röhrl shrank to 18 minutes . The Toyota Celica GT2000s of Eklund and Waldegård were still over two hours behind . Should Mouton go on to hold off Röhrl , she would reduce Röhrl 's lead in the championship to just two points . As a driver 's seven best results counted towards the championship at the time , Mouton would only need a third place in the RAC Rally to take the title even if Röhrl would win . On the final day , she continued to suffer from mechanical problems and had the complete fuel injection system changed . For the next time control , Röhrl and Mouton arrived almost simultaneously . With only 600 km to go , Mouton went off the road and rolled her car . She drove the severely damaged Quattro for five more kilometres before giving up .

Röhrl inherited the win and became the first two @-@ time world champion in rallying . Having lost her father , Mouton did not dwell on losing the title . Röhrl had earlier conceded that he " would have accepted second place in the championship to Mikkola " , but not to Mouton : " This is not because I doubt her capabilities as a driver , but because she is a woman . " He believed that defeat would have devalued his performances . At the RAC , Mouton edged out Toivonen to take second place behind Mikkola . This result made Audi the first German marque to win the manufacturers ' world title . At the inaugural Autosport Awards gala , Mouton won the International Rally Driver of the Year award .

= = = = 1983 = = = =

The 1983 season started the Group B era of the WRC and Mouton was now at the wheel of the Audi Quattro A1 . She also had a new teammate ; Audi had signed Stig Blomqvist as their third regular driver . For the third year in a row , Mouton had a bad start to her season in Monte Carlo . She went off the road on a stage not far from her home town , and again hit a stone wall at over 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The car was destroyed , but Mouton and Pons were unharmed . Mouton explained to her team boss Roland Gumpert , later of Gumpert supercar fame , that she had had to dodge a photographer . Mouton went on to record successive points finishes . She finished fourth in Sweden in a quadruple win for Audi , after an early driving error that had sent her Quattro into a snow bank . In Portugal , Mouton finished second to Mikkola , ahead of Lancia 's Röhrl and Markku Alén . After the first section of the Safari Rally , totaling over 1 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 000 mi ) , Mouton arrived to the finish on three wheels and said she was " totally exhausted " from the effort . She eventually placed third behind Opel 's Ari Vatanen and her teammate Mikkola . After four events , Mikkola and Mouton were first and second in the drivers ' championship .

At the Tour de Corse , Audi debuted the Quattro A2 , which was 70 kg ( 155 lb ) lighter and had an engine producing 30 more horsepower . Mouton 's rally ended when her engine caught on fire . On the first stage in Greece , she rolled her car on a hairpin turn 18 km ( 11 mi ) from the start . Rally New Zealand was for Mouton a repetition of the previous year ; she took the lead on the seventh stage and held on to it until her A2 's engine failed , with only six of the 33 stages to go . The three retirements in a row dropped Mouton to fifth place in the championship . She then finished third behind Mikkola and Blomqvist at the Rally Argentina , but this would remain her last podium finish of the season . At the 1000 Lakes in Finland , Mouton finished the first day in seventh place after setting two top @-@ five stage times . Her car later caught on fire , but she was able to continue in the event by following Mikkola 's advice and driving into a lake . With a string of top @-@ ten times , she eventually finished 16th . In the Rallye Sanremo , the tarmac stages were dominated by the Lancia 037 and Mouton finished seventh after suffering from fuel injection problems . In the season @-@ ending RAC Rally , she started well and held second place after the first twelve stages . An Audi mechanic later accidentally refilled Mouton 's fuel tank with pure water which resulted in time @-@ consuming repairs . She eventually retired after crashing out , and placed fifth overall in the drivers ' championship . Although Mikkola beat Lancia 's Röhrl and Alén to the drivers ' title , Audi had lost the manufacturers ' title to Lancia after the latter 's triple win in Sanremo .

= = = = 1984 = = = =

For the 1984 season , Audi added two @-@ time world champion Walter Röhrl to their star line @-@ up and Mouton now had a part @-@ time role , competing in five WRC events . For the first time in nine years , she did not enter the Monte Carlo Rally . However , Mouton signed up to commentate the event for Radio Monte Carlo . She started her year well by finishing second at the Swedish Rally behind teammate and home favourite Blomqvist . Mouton later stated that " finishing second was fantastic . When you are out rallying on ice or snow in country like that it is like dancing . From one side to the other side . My dancing background helped my rallying . As soon as I started on gravel I liked it because of that . It was so nice to feel and move the car like that . Sweden , in ice and snow , like ballet ! " This would remain her last podium position in the World Rally Championship .

In the Safari Rally , a rotor arm in Mouton 's Quattro failed and caused the turbo to break down as well . She retired after falling victim to the team 's ranking order ; as the repairs were expected to take too long , Gumpert ordered championship leader Blomqvist 's Quattro to be fixed by using Mouton 's sister car as spares . Her debut in the new Sport Quattro at the Acropolis Rally ended with engine overheating problems . In the 1000 Lakes , Mouton placed ninth after the short first day . She later crashed and continued without a windscreen , but the damage to her Quattro could not be repaired in service . Mouton retired and left Finland pointless for the fourth year in a row . In late October , she signed a contract extension with Audi . At the RAC Rally , a slight mistake led to a puncture and Mouton dropped from third to fifth . She went on to narrowly lose the final podium spot to Toyota 's Per Eklund . Mouton 's results placed her 12th in the drivers ' world championship , a point behind Röhrl . Outside the WRC , Mouton debuted in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in the United States , driving an Audi Sport Quattro together with her usual co @-@ driver Fabrizia Pons . After her main opponent Martin Schanche got hampered by a flat right front tyre she won the open rally category ( now known as unlimited ) in a record time and placed second overall , leaving behind several specialised V8 single @-@ seaters that had normally dominated the race .

= = = = 1985 = = = =

Audi 's WRC programme was limited for the 1985 season due to the recent defeats to Peugeot Talbot Sport , Peugeot 's factory team headed by Jean Todt . Mouton and Mikkola were assigned to testing and development duties . She drove both the Sport Quattro and its follower , the Quattro S1 ( Sport E2 ) . Mouton considered the S1 the most difficult rally car she had driven : " For rallying on asphalt , I agree the limit had gone too far . We did not have the reflexes to control it properly . It was tough to drive the car , but not the short Quattro before . "

Although Mouton competed in only one world championship event during the season , she contested a full six @-@ round British Rally Championship . Her campaign was plagued by reliability problems and she recorded only one finish . In the National Breakdown Rally , Mouton stopped after damaging her Quattro in a jump . After technical problems led to an early retirement at the Circuit of Ireland , she finished second at the Welsh Rally behind Malcolm Wilson in another Quattro . At the Scottish Rally , Mouton had been closing in on the leading Wilson until a transmission problem forced her to retire . At the Ulster Rally , she set the fastest time for the first stage but then dropped out with a mechanical failure . In the season @-@ ending Manx International Rally , Mouton struggled to start her Quattro and then crashed out five stages later .

Mouton 's only WRC event of the year was the long @-@ distance Rallye Côte d 'Ivoire . She was co @-@ driven by Arne Hertz as Pons was ill at the time of the start . Mouton started well and tied the lead with Toyota 's Juha Kankkunen after the first day . Her Quattro incurred severe engine problems on the next day , but was seemingly repaired by Audi mechanics off the route in the jungle . At the same time , the Sport Quattro " chase car " , a high @-@ speed service car , retired and Audi faced accusations of swapping the cars . The team withdrew Mouton just before the finish and the controversy remains unresolved ; the stewards did not find proof but the media published evidence afterwards . Although her rallying year was a disappointment , Mouton made a successful return to the Pikes Peak , winning the event overall in her Sport Quattro . Despite slippery conditions caused by a hailstorm , she broke Al Unser , Jr . ' s 1982 record by about thirteen seconds . The Frenchwoman 's win irritated some of her male rivals . Bobby Unser was reputedly quite vocal about his loss , to which Mouton is said to have replied : " If you have the balls you can try to race me back down as well . "

= = = Peugeot = = =

Mouton broke off her contract with Audi in late 1985 to join Peugeot for the coming season . She contested the German Rally Championship and two WRC events in a Peugeot 205 Turbo 16 , with which the marque had captured last year 's world titles . To replace the newly @-@ wed Pons , Mouton recruited Terry Harryman who had been left jobless after Ari Vatanen 's accident . Mouton , nicknamed " der schwarze Vulkan " ( The Black Volcano ) due to her temperament and long black hair , won six of the eight events in the German championship , including the Rallye Deutschland . Although the Hessen Rallye was stopped after the severe accident of Formula One driver Marc Surer , which claimed the life of his co @-@ driver Michel Wyder , Mouton was declared the winner . She secured the German national title on the seventh and penultimate round , the Sachs Baltic , after taking her fifth win of the season . She became the first female driver to win a major championship in rallying .

Mouton 's WRC outings were her home events : Monte Carlo Rally and Tour de Corse . In Monte Carlo , she was running in eighth place after eleven stages , but soon retired with oil pump problems . For the Tour de Corse in May , Mouton was given the second evolution of the car . She quickly showed good pace and held third place behind Lancia 's Henri Toivonen and teammate Bruno Saby . However , she ran into gearbox trouble on the tenth stage and was forced to retire . During the next day , Toivonen and his co @-@ driver Sergio Cresto crashed out from the lead and died in their seats . Mouton was still in Corsica and remarked to her boyfriend that " if they stop the Group B now , it will be the end for me . " Within days , FISA announced new regulations and banned the Group B supercars for the following year .

In October , two weeks after securing the German Rally Championship title , Mouton announced her retirement from rallying . She cited the end of the Group B era as the reason behind the decision , and stated that it was " a good time to stop . " Later in the same month , Mouton crowned her career by winning the last event of the German championship , the Drei @-@ Städte @-@ Rallye ( Three Cities Rally ) , ahead of Armin Schwarz 's MG Metro 6R4 .

= = = Later career = = =

In 1988 , Mouton co @-@ founded the international motorsport event Race of Champions with Fredrik Johnsson , in memory of Toivonen and to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the world championship for rally drivers . The event originally included the world 's top rally drivers , but now features stars also from other disciplines , such as Formula One , NASCAR , Le Mans and MotoGP , competing against each other in identical cars .

In 1988 and 1989 , Mouton participated in rally raids as part of Peugeot 's service team for Ari Vatanen and Jacky Ickx . At the 1988 Rally of Tunisia , Mouton drove a 205 T16 Grand Raid chase car and transported spare parts for Vatanen and Henri Pescarolo , but also classified sixth overall . She later took part in the Dakar Rally as a press driver in 2004 and 2009 . In 2000 , Mouton finished second in the London – Sydney Marathon driving a Porsche 911 , behind former teammate Stig Blomqvist . After 22 years , Mouton and Fabrizia Pons reunited to compete in the 2008 Otago Classic Rally in New Zealand . In 2010 , Mouton competed with a 911 in the Rallye du Maroc and finished second to Grégoire De Mévius .

In 2010 , Mouton became the first president of the FIA 's Women & Motor Sport Commission . She stated that " for many years people have asked me why there have been no women following in my footsteps . I really hope the Commission can help answer that question and that we can attract and support women in all areas of our sport . " Having already headed a working group on the future of rallying , Mouton was appointed FIA 's manager in the World Rally Championship in 2011 . Mouton also serves in the nomination committee of the Rally Hall of Fame . In March 2012 , she recused herself after becoming a candidate for nomination . Mouton was inducted into the Hall of Fame along with two @-@ time world champion Carlos Sainz .

= = Personal life and legacy = =

While announcing her retirement from rallying , Mouton stated her intention to start a family with Corsican sports journalist Claude Guarnieri . She had her daughter Jessie ( Jessica ) in 1987 . Mouton credited her father Pierre 's support as the secret for her success : " He loved driving . He loved fast cars . And I think he would have loved to do what I did . He was a prisoner of war for five years and when he came back he never had the opportunity to compete . But he came to all the rallies I did . And my mother came , too . "

Mouton states that in her mind she did not try to beat her male rivals , but to be at their level . She noted that in rallying the time is the most important thing . David Evans of Autosport described her as " motorsport 's most successful ever female driver . " Rally journalist and historian Graham Robson credits Mouton , along with Pat Moss , as " the driver by whom all other females measure their skills and achievements . " Mouton and Moss were of different eras and did not compete directly against each other , although they both appeared at the 1973 Monte Carlo Rally where Mouton co @-@ drove . In 1985 , they swapped cars in a private test session with Moss driving the Quattro and Mouton an Austin @-@ Healey 3000 . Stirling Moss regarded Mouton as " one of the best " , and Niki Lauda described her as a " superwoman " .

In 2011 , Mouton was made knight of the Legion of Honour ( Légion d 'honneur ) by French President Nicolas Sarkozy .

= = Complete WRC results = =

= Dan Borislow =

Daniel Marc Borislow ( September 21 , 1961 – July 21 , 2014 ) was an American entrepreneur , sports team owner , inventor , and thoroughbred horse breeder . Originating in the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania area , Borislow attended Widener University and worked in cable construction and landscaping before going into the telephone business . He founded Tel @-@ Save , Inc. to resell access to AT & T long @-@ distance lines in 1989 . Borislow took the company public in 1995 , and two years later brokered a $ 100 million deal with AOL that made it the exclusive telephone service of its users . At its peak in early 1998 , Tel @-@ Save had sales of $ 300 million and was valued by Wall Street investors at $ 2 billion . However , due to the financial strain of paying off the AOL deal , Tel @-@ Save lost $ 221 million in 1999 , and Borislow sold his stock for a reported $ 200 to $ 300 million and retired .

In his brief retirement , he focused on his horse racing career , sending Talk is Money to the 2001 Kentucky Derby although the thoroughbred did not complete the race . Borislow 's most successful horse yet has been Toccet , who won four graded stakes , among which are the Champagne and Hollywood Futurity in 2002 . After selling most of his horses in 2004 , Borislow set forth plans for a new voice @-@ over @-@ IP business which became the magicJack . Invented in 2007 , the magicJack is a small product which can be plugged into a computer 's USB port and allows for unlimited calling from regular telephones . In 2010 , YMAX , the company behind the magicJack , merged with an Israeli company and became a publicly traded corporation .

In 2011 , Borislow purchased a controlling share of the Washington Freedom women 's professional soccer team . He had a brief turbulent relationship with other owners and the players which ended in a battle of law suits and the termination of the soccer team and league . Borislow and his family lived in Palm Beach County , Florida , where , through D & K Charitable Foundation , Borislow issued grants to charitable causes .

Borislow died from an apparent heart attack or myocardial infarction on July 21 , 2014 .

= = Business career = =

= = = Tel @-@ Save = = =

In 1989 , Borislow founded Tel @-@ Save when he was in his 20s to resell access to AT & T long @-@ distance lines . The company was based in New Hope , Pennsylvania , and its primary market was toward small and medium @-@ sized businesses . Borislow took the company public in 1995 and had an initial public offering of three million shares . He then invested in his own long distance network by deploying five Lucent 5ESS @-@ 2000 switches throughout the United States . By 1997 , Tel @-@ Save was making $ 20 million a year .

In 1997 , Borislow negotiated a three @-@ year deal with America Online that granted Tel @-@ Save exclusive marketing rights to sell long @-@ distance service to AOL users . AOL users , meanwhile , would now be billed online for their local , long distance , cellular , and internet services . His original asking price was $ 50 million , but after negotiations , the figure increased to $ 100 million , in addition to half of future profits and 15 percent of the company 's stock . Having rescued a reeling AOL from Chapter 11 , Borislow was compared to Ted Turner for his vision and marketing abilities by Bob Pittman , president of AOL . This deal with Borislow skyrocketed AOL 's stock prices 231 % over the next year and catapulted them to be the dominant online provider with no runner up in sight . In December of that year , Borislow was behind the merger of Tel @-@ Save and STF , a similar company that provided telecommunications services to office buildings .

At its peak in early 1998 , Tel @-@ Save had sales of $ 300 million and was valued by Wall Street investors at $ 2 billion . His personal stock in the company was $ 500 million . Borislow 's America Online deal was the catalyst for other " portal deals " with AOL . The company 's fortunes turned due to the financial strain of the AOL deal , and following an annual loss of $ 221 million in 1998 , he resigned as CEO of the company on January 1 , 1999 . Gabriel Battista was named CEO in his absence . Tel @-@ Save is now known as Talk America .

= = = magicJack = = =

In 2005 , after retiring from business to focus on his horse racing career , Borislow set forth plans for a new voice @-@ over @-@ IP business , with an initial name of Talk4free . He created YMAX Communications Corporation in April 2006 as a communications and equipment service . YMAX 's profits come from the production of the magicJack , a small device which can be plugged into a computer 's USB port and allows for unlimited calling from regular telephones .

CEO Borislow invented the product in 2007 and had applied for patents from the U.S. government while he and Donald Burns shared the payment of $ 25 million to start up the company .

Before Borislow launched a widespread television campaign in January 2008 , the company sold less than 1 @,@ 000 magicJacks per day . By June , he was selling 8 @,@ 000 @-@ 9 @,@ 000 per day and had roughly 500 @,@ 000 subscribers in total . Borislow attributes its success to its pricing , at $ 40 in the first year of service and $ 20 each year thereafter . Although its voice quality has been criticized , Ted Kritsonis of The Globe and Mail said the " MagicJack was still better than most cell phones I 've tried . "

In 2009 , Florida Attorney General Bill McCollum investigated a claim that Borislow falsely marketed the magicJack as having a free 30 @-@ day trial of the product . In reality , the customer must specifically cancel the trial prior to the 30 @-@ day mark , otherwise the credit card would be automatically billed . While Borislow maintained that his company 's actions were not illegal , he reached a settlement on April 15 , agreeing to pay the state of Florida $ 125 @,@ 000 for the cost of the investigation . He said the company resolved over 500 complaints and added a disclaimer on the website clarifying the misconception .

VocalTec , an Israeli telephone company , acquired YMAX in July 2010 . Since Borislow and other YMAX businessmen contributed most of the equity , they essentially run the merged business , which kept the " YMAX " moniker . VocalTec was a publicly traded company , so YMAX went on Nasdaq following the merger . In 2010 , YMAX had a market capitalization of $ 300 million and is expected to make $ 110 million to $ 125 million in sales .

= = Horse racing career = =

After watching horse races at Philadelphia Park for some time , Borislow decided to go into the business in 1991 . He frequently wagered on trainer John Scanlan 's horses , so he requested Scanlan to be the conditioner for his horses . Among Borislow 's first acquisitions was broodmare Beautiful Bid , who gave birth to Breeders ' Cup Distaff winner and Eclipse champion Beautiful Pleasure . In 2000 , he sold Beautiful Bid for $ 2 @.@ 6 million .

Borislow bought a $ 1 @.@ 8 million yearling in September 1999 that he named Talk Is Money . The thoroughbred was named after Tel @-@ Save , with Borislow saying , " Every time someone was talking on the phone , I made money . " Talk Is Money 's best finish came at the Tesio Stakes in April 2001 , where the horse placed second . This qualified him for the 2001 Kentucky Derby , and Borislow hired jockey Jerry Bailey , who won the 2000 Breeders Cup Juvenile with Macho Uno . At 47 @-@ 1 odds , Talk Is Money came in last in the Derby and did not finish the race .

Borislow 's most successful horse was Toccet , who won four graded stakes , including the Champagne and Hollywood Futurity in 2002 . Toccet 's name is a misspelled tribute to former National Hockey League ( NHL ) player Rick Tocchet . The horse was named runner @-@ up to Vindication for the American Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Colt in 2002 , a part of the Eclipse Award . Once a favorite to enter the 2003 Kentucky Derby , Toccet was derailed by ankle injuries early in the year . He won one listed stakes after his juvenile season out of 15 starts and now stands at Castleton Lyons .

After a dispute with the Internal Revenue Service , Borislow sold a majority of his horses at the Fasig Tipton November sale in 2004 . In February 2005 , he was in a partnership with baseball manager Joe Torre and hockey player Keith Jones to buy Wild Desert . In June of that year , Wild Desert won the Queen 's Plate off a layoff of over 10 weeks .

On 5 / 25 / 2014 , Borislow hit the Gulfstream Park Rainbow Six paying $ 6 @.@ 6 million . His winning Rainbow 6 ticket of all / all / all / 1 @,@ 4 / all / all cost $ 7 @,@ 603 @.@ 20 . He played two other similar tickets with a total cost of $ 22 @,@ 809 @.@ 60 .

= = Women 's Professional Soccer = =

In 2011 , Borislow bought Women 's Professional Soccer franchise Washington Freedom , moved it to South Florida , and renamed it magicJack . Borislow attracted stars of the United States national women 's soccer team such as Abby Wambach and Hope Solo with salaries well above the league average of $ 25 @,@ 000 per year . Borislow was criticized for discriminatory treatment of lesser @-@ known players . Cat Whitehill , a former player and sports broadcaster said , " There are so few superstars that the majority of players can be easily intimidated " She added that the stars " never deliberately meant for the other players on the roster to be treated badly . But it does appear that they didn 't consider what standing up to Borislow would mean for the rest of the team . "

On 8 July 2011 , the non @-@ National Team members of magicJack voted to file a grievance through their Player 's Union against Borislow . The grievance alleged that Borislow had violated the Standard Player Contract Provision , the FIFA Code of Ethics , WPS Media Policy and U.S. Soccer Federation Coaching Requirements . The suit alleged Borislow 's " practice of bullying and threatening players , and his creation of a hostile , oppressive , and intimidating work environment which adversely affects players ’ ability ( to ) perform " .

The only individual player to speak out publicly about Borislow was Ella Masar . Masar told of a team meeting in which Borislow demanded that the grievance be dropped or he would terminate the players and the magicJack season .

Borislow also had problems with WPS staff and owners of other teams . In response to ongoing conflicts with Borislow , in June 2011 WPS moved to terminate his franchise at the end of the season for breach of contractual obligations . Borislow subsequently filed an injunction that would force the league into arbitration rather than settling the matter with the league ’ s Board of Governors . On October 25 , 2011 , the WPS voted to terminate the franchise , accusing Borislow of violations ranging from " unprofessional and disparaging treatment of his players to failure to pay his bills . " WPS also stated , " Mr. Borislow 's actions have been calculated to tarnish the reputation of the league and damage the league 's business relationships . " The team was disbanded on October 28 , 2011 . The ongoing legal battle with the WPS led to the cancelling of the 2012 season for " pending legal issues " on January 1 , 2012 and the magicJack soccer franchise ceased to exist .

= = Philanthropy = =

D & K Charitable Foundation was established by Borislow in 1997 with a $ 21 million stock donation . In the first two years , he tried to use the charity to buy and preserve a tract of land in New Hope , Pennsylvania . This venture failed in 1998 when the property owner declined Borislow 's offer . Following this , D & K made donations to the Clearwater Endoscopy Center and the Center for Digestive Healthcare in Clearwater , Florida until 2001 . Since then , it has issued varied grants to causes Borislow supported , such as $ 2 @.@ 75 million to two yeshivas and $ 173 @,@ 450 to a West Palm Beach , Florida private school . Tax records indicate that Borislow and George Farley , the chief financial officer of the non @-@ profit , split approximately $ 2 @.@ 1 million in profits from 2001 @-@ 2005 , while $ 1 @.@ 6 million went to charitable causes . Borislow drew criticism in 2007 when he paid himself $ 1 @.@ 7 million through the charity .

= = Personal life = =

Borislow lived with his wife , Michele , and two children , Danny and Kylie , in Palm Beach County , Florida . The Borislows own three dogs , Magic , Jack , and Teddy . He also maintained a home in Brigantine , New Jersey .

In his free time , he enjoyed playing soccer , watching sports , and deep sea fishing . Borislow 's yacht , dubbed The Triple Crown , has three bedrooms , nine flat screen televisions , and golden fixtures .

On May 25 , 2014 , he won $ 6 @,@ 678 @,@ 939 @.@ 12 with the only ticket to have the winners of the final six races on Gulfstream 's card . The winner of the biggest payoff in American racing history invested $ 7 @,@ 603 @.@ 20 on the bet , which has a 20 @-@ cent base wager . He covered the full fields in all but the sixth race , in which he had only the Nos. 1 and 4 . Borislow made 2 other similar bets on the race , total investment was $ 22 @,@ 809 @.@ 60 .

Borislow died from a heart attack ( myocardial infarction ) in Jupiter , Florida on July 21 , 2014 , reportedly after playing in an adult league soccer match . On July 25 , 2014 , more than 500 mourners attended a memorial service at the Kravis Center in West Palm Beach .

= Sarus crane =

The sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) is a large non @-@ migratory crane found in parts of the Indian Subcontinent , Southeast Asia and Australia . The tallest of the flying birds , standing at a height of up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 ft 11 in ) , they are conspicuous and iconic species of open wetlands . The sarus crane is easily distinguished from other cranes in the region by the overall grey colour and the contrasting red head and upper neck . They forage on marshes and shallow wetlands for roots , tubers , insects , crustaceans and small vertebrate prey . Like other cranes , they form long @-@ lasting pair @-@ bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays that include loud trumpeting , leaps and dance @-@ like movements . In India they are considered symbols of marital fidelity , believed to mate for life and pine the loss of their mates even to the point of starving to death . The main breeding season is during the rainy season , when the pair builds an enormous nest " island " , a circular platform of reeds and grasses nearly two metres in diameter and high enough to stay above the shallow water surrounding it . Sarus crane numbers have declined greatly in the last century and it has been estimated that the current population is a tenth or less ( perhaps 2 @.@ 5 % ) of the numbers that existed in the 1850s . The stronghold of the species is in India , where it is traditionally revered and lives in agricultural lands in close proximity to humans . Elsewhere , the species has been extirpated in many parts of its former range .

= = Description = =

The adult sarus crane is very large with grey wings and body ; a bare red head and part of the upper neck ; a greyish crown ; and a long greenish @-@ grey pointed bill . In flight , the long neck is held straight , unlike that of an heron , which folds it back , and the black wing tips can be seen ; the crane 's long pink legs trail behind them . This bird has a grey ear covert patch , an orange @-@ red iris and a greenish @-@ grey bill . Juveniles have a yellowish base to the bill and the brown @-@ grey head is fully feathered .

The bare red skin of the adult 's head and neck is brighter during the breeding season . This skin is rough and covered by papillae , and a narrow area around and behind the head is covered by black bristly feathers . The sexes do not differ in plumage although males are on average larger than females ; male sarus of the Indian population can attain a maximum height of about 180 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) making them the world 's tallest extant flying bird . The weight of nominate race individuals is 6 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 8 kg ( 15 – 17 lb ) , while five adult sharpii averaged 8 @.@ 4 kg ( 19 lb ) . Across the distribution range , the weight can vary from 5 to 12 kg ( 11 to 26 lb ) , height typically from 115 to 167 cm ( 45 @.@ 5 to 65 @.@ 5 in ) and the wingspan from 220 to 250 cm ( 86 @.@ 5 to 98 @.@ 5 in ) .

While the northern populations are amongst the heaviest cranes , alongside the red @-@ crowned and wattled cranes , and the largest in their range , birds from Australia tend to be smaller . In Australia , the sarus can easily be mistaken for the more widespread brolga . The brolga has the red colouring confined to the head and not extending into the neck . Body mass in Australian sarus cranes was found to average 6 @.@ 68 kg ( 14 @.@ 7 lb ) in males and 5 @.@ 25 kg ( 11 @.@ 6 lb ) in females , with a range for both sexes of 5 to 6 @.@ 9 kg ( 11 to 15 lb ) . Thus , Australian sarus average about 25 % lighter than the northern counterparts and are marginally lighter on average than brolgas .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The species has historically been widely distributed on the lowlands of India along the Gangetic plains , extending south to the Godavari River , west to coastal Gujarat , the Tharparkar District of Pakistan , and east to West Bengal and Assam . The species no longer breeds in Punjab , though it winters regularly . Sarus cranes are rare and occur in very low numbers in West Bengal and Assam , and are no longer found in the state of Bihar . In Nepal , its distribution is restricted to the western lowland plains , with most of the population occurring in Rupandehi , Kapilvastu , and Nawalparasi districts .

There are two distinct populations of sarus cranes in South @-@ east Asia : the northern population in China and Burma , and the southern population in Cambodia and Vietnam . The sarus used to extend to Thailand and further east into the Philippines , but may now be extinct in both these countries . In 2011 , 24 captive bred cranes raised from five original founders were reintroduced into Thailand . In Australia they are found only in the northern parts , and are partly migratory in some areas . The global range has shrunk and the largest occupied area is now in India . With marshlands largely destroyed , these cranes are increasingly dependent on wet paddy fields in India . Although now found mainly at a low elevation on the plains , there are some historical records from highland marshes further north in Harkit Sar and Kahag in Kashmir . The sarus crane breeds in some high elevation regions such as near the Pong Dam in Himachal Pradesh , where populations may be growing in response to increasing rice cultivation along the reservoir . In rice @-@ dominated districts of Uttar Pradesh , sarus crane abundance ( estimated as occupancy ) was highest in the western districts , intermediate in the central districts , and minimal in the eastern districts . Sarus crane abundance was positively associated with percentage of wetlands on the landscape , and negatively with the percentage of area under rice cultivation .

Two isolated populations exists in Australia , one from the western Kimberley region east to Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and another population from Burketown eastwards and as far south as Townsville . Sarus cranes are not found on the Cape York Peninsula north of Weipa . They are commonly seen in Kakadu National Park , where the species is often hard to find among the more numerous brolga , and on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland .

Sarus cranes preferentially use wetlands or uncultivated patches amid flooded rice paddies ( locally called khet @-@ taavadi ) for nesting in India . Breeding pairs are territorial and prefer to forage in natural wetlands , though wet crops like rice and wheat are also frequented . In south @-@ western Uttar Pradesh , sarus crane numbers increased with wetland size , though they were found in wetlands of all sizes despite extensive use of wetlands by humans .

= = Taxonomy and systematics = =

This species was described by Linnaeus in 1758 and placed in the genus Ardea that included the larger herons . Edward Blyth published a monograph on the cranes in 1881 in which he considered the " sarus crane " of India to be made up of two species , Grus collaris and Grus antigone . Most modern authors recognise one species with three disjunct populations that have been treated as subspecies , although the status of one extinct population from the Philippines is uncertain . The nominate subspecies from India is the largest , and in the east from Myanmar is replaced by race sharpii that extends into the Southeast Asian islands . The nominate form from the Indian subcontinent is well marked and differentiated by having a white collar below the bare head and upper neck , and white tertiary remiges . Some authors consider antigone and sharpii as representatives of a formerly continuous population that varied clinally . The race in Australia , initially placed in sharpii ( sometimes spelt sharpei but amended to conform to the rules of Latin grammar ) has been separated and named as the race gilliae ( sometimes spelt gillae or even gilli ) . The Australian race was designated only in 1988 , with the species itself first noticed in Australia in 1969 and regarded as a recent immigrant . Native Australians , however , differentiated the sarus and the brolga and called the sarus " the crane that dips its head in blood " . The Australian race has a distinctively darker plumage and a larger grey patch of ear coverts . This population shows the most recent divergence from the ancestral form with an estimated 3000 generations of breeding within Australia . An additional subspecies luzonica has been suggested for the population once found , but now extinct , in the Philippines . No distinctive character is known and it may be synonymous with either gilliae or sharpii .

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA , from a limited number of specimens , suggested that there was gene flow within the continental Asian populations until the 20th century reductions in range , and that Australia was colonized only in the Late Pleistocene , some 35000 years ago . This has been corroborated by nDNA microsatellite analyses with four times the sample size . This study further suggests that the Australian population is quite inbred . As there exists the possibility of ( limited ) hybridization with the genetically distinct brolga , the Australian sarus crane can be expected to be an incipient species .

= = = Etymology = = =

The common name of sarus is from the Hindi name ( " sāras " ) for the species . The Hindi word is derived from the Sanskrit word sarasa for the " lake bird " , ( sometimes corrupted to sārhans ) . While Indians held the species in veneration , British soldiers in colonial India hunted the bird , calling it the serious or even cyrus . The specific name of antigone — after the daughter of Oedipus , who hanged herself — may relate to the bare skin of the head and neck .

= = Ecology and behaviour = =

Unlike many other cranes that make long migrations , sarus cranes are largely non @-@ migratory ; they may however make short @-@ distance movements in response to rain or dry @-@ weather conditions . The only migratory population is in South @-@ east Asia . Breeding pairs maintain territories that are defended from other cranes using a large repertoire of calls and displays . In Uttar Pradesh , less than a tenth of the breeding pairs maintain territories at wetlands and most pairs are scattered well away from the major wetlands . Non @-@ breeding birds occur as flocks of various sizes that vary from 1 – 430 birds . In semi @-@ arid areas , breeding pairs and successfully fledged juveniles depart from territories in the dry season and join non @-@ breeding flocks . In areas with perennial water supply , like in the western plains of Uttar Pradesh , breeding pairs maintain perennial territories . The largest known flocks are from the 29 km2 Keoladeo National Park – as many as 430 birds , and from wetlands in Etawah and Mainpuri districts in Uttar Pradesh , ranging from 245 – 412 birds . Flocks of over 100 birds are also regularly reported from Gujarat and Australia . During the breeding season , breeding pairs displace non @-@ breeding birds from some wetland sites , and local populations can appear to decline . Sarus crane populations in Keoladeo National Park have been noted to reduce from over 400 birds in summer to just 20 birds during the monsoon . In areas with perennial wetlands in the landscape such as western Uttar Pradesh , numbers of nonbreeding sarus cranes in flocks can be relatively stable throughout the year . In Etawah @-@ Mainpuri districts , nonbreeding sarus cranes form up to 65 % of the regional population .

They roost in shallow water , where they may be safe from some ground predators . Adult birds do not moult their feathers annually and instead feathers are replaced once every two or three years .

= = = Feeding = = =

Sarus cranes forage in shallow water ( usually with less than 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) depth of water ) or in fields , frequently probing in mud with their long bills . They are omnivorous , eating insects ( especially grasshoppers ) , aquatic plants , fish ( perhaps only in captivity ) , frogs , crustaceans and seeds . Occasionally tackling larger vertebrate prey such as water snakes ( Xenochrophis piscator ) , sarus cranes may in rare cases feed on the eggs of birds and turtles . Plant matter eaten includes tubers , corms of aquatic plants , grass shoots as well as seeds and grains from cultivated crops such as groundnuts and cereal crops such as rice .

= = = Courtship and breeding = = =

Sarus cranes have loud trumpeting calls . These calls are , as in other cranes , produced by the elongated trachea that form coils within the sternal region . Pairs may indulge in spectacular displays of calling in unison and posturing . These include " dancing " movements that are performed both during and outside the breeding season and involve a short series of jumping and bowing movements made as one of the pair circles around the other . Dancing may also be a displacement activity when the nest or young are threatened . The cranes breed mainly during the monsoons in India ( from July to October although there may be a second brood ) , and there are records of breeding in all the months . They build large nests , platforms made of reeds and vegetation in wet marshes or paddy fields . The nest is constructed within shallow water by piling up rushes , straw , grasses with their roots and mud so that the platform rises above the level of the water to form a little island . The nest is unconcealed and conspicuous , being visible from afar .

The nests can be more than two metres ( six feet ) in diameter and nearly a metre ( three feet ) high . Pairs shows high fidelity to the nest site , often refurbishing and reusing nests for as many as five breeding seasons . The clutch is one or two eggs ( rarely three or four ) which are incubated by both sexes for about 31 days ( range 26 – 35 days ) . Eggs are chalky white and weigh about 240 grams . When disturbed from the nest , parents may sometimes attempt to conceal the eggs by attempting to cover them with material from the edge of the nest . The eggshells are removed by the parents after the chicks hatch either by carrying away the fragments or by swallowing them . Approximately 30 % of all breeding pairs succeed in raising chicks in any year , and most of the successful pairs raise one or two chicks each , with brood sizes of three being rare . The chicks are fed by the parents for the first few days , but are able to feed independently after that and follow their parents for food . When alarmed , the parent cranes use a low korr @-@ rr call that signals chicks to freeze and lie still . Young birds stay with their parents until the subsequent breeding season . In captivity , birds breed only after their fifth year . The sarus is widely believed to pair for life , however cases of " divorce " and mate replacement have been recorded .

= = = Mortality factors = = =

Eggs are often destroyed at the nest by jungle ( Corvus macrorhynchos ) and house crows ( C. splendens ) . In Australia , predators of young birds include the dingo ( Canis dingo ) and fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) while brahminy kites ( Haliastur indus ) have been known to take eggs . Removal of eggs by farmers ( to reduce crop damage ) or children ( in play ) , or by migrant labourers for food or opportunistic egg collection during trips to collect forest resources are prominent causes of egg mortality . Between 31 and 100 % of nests with eggs can fail to hatch eggs for these reasons . Chicks are also prone to predation ( estimated at about 8 % ) and collection at the nest , but more than 30 % die of unknown reasons . Breeding success ( percentage of eggs hatching and surviving to fledging stage ) has been estimated at about 20 % in Gujarat and 51 – 58 % in south @-@ western Uttar Pradesh . In areas where farmers are tolerant , nests in flooded rice fields and those in wetlands have similar rates of survival . Pairs that nest later in the season have a lower chance of raising chicks successfully , but this improves when territories have more wetlands . Nest success for 96 sarus nests that were protected by locals during 2009 – 2011 via a payment @-@ for @-@ conservation program was 87 % . More pairs are able to raise chicks in years with higher total rainfall , and when territory quality was undisturbed due to increased farming or development . Permanent removal of pairs from the population due to developmental activities caused reduced population viability , and was a far more important factor relative to breeding success due to changes in total annual rainfall .

Little is known about the diseases and parasites of the sarus crane , and their effects on wild bird populations . A study conducted at the Rome zoo noted that these birds were resistant to anthrax . Endoparasites that have been described include a trematode , Opisthorhis dendriticus from the liver of a captive crane at the London zoo and a Cyclocoelid ( Allopyge antigones ) from an Australian bird . Like most birds , they have bird lice and the species recorded include Heleonomus laveryi and Esthiopterum indicum .

In captivity , sarus cranes have been known to live for as long as 42 years . Premature adult mortality is often the result of human actions . Accidental poisoning by monocrotophos , chlorpyrifos and dieldrin @-@ treated seeds used in agricultural areas has been noted . Adults have been known to fly into power lines and die of electrocution , this is responsible for killing about 1 % of the local population each year .

= = Conservation status = =

There were about an estimated 15 – 20 @,@ 000 mature sarus cranes left in the wild in 2009 . The Indian population is less than 10 @,@ 000 , but of the three subspecies , is the healthiest in terms of numbers . They are considered sacred and the birds are traditionally left unharmed , and in many areas they are unafraid of humans . They used to be found on occasion in Pakistan , but have not been seen there since the late 1980s . The population in India has however declined . Estimates of the global population suggest that the population in 2000 was at best about 10 % and at the worst just 2 @.@ 5 % of the numbers that existed in 1850 . Many farmers in India believe that these cranes damage standing crops , particularly rice , although studies show that direct feeding on rice grains resulted in losses amounting to less than one percent and trampling could account for grain loss of about 0 @.@ 4 – 15 kilograms ( 0 @.@ 88 – 33 @.@ 07 lb ) . The attitude of farmers tends to be positive in spite of these damages , and this has helped in conserving the species within agricultural areas . The role of rice paddies may be particularly important for the birds ' conservation , since natural wetlands are increasingly threatened by human activity . The conversion of wetlands to farmland , and farmland to more urban uses are major causes for habitat loss and long @-@ term population decline . Compensating farmers for crop losses has been suggested as a measure that may help . The Australian population is greater than 5 @,@ 000 birds and may be increasing , however , the Southeast Asian subspecies has been decimated by war and habitat change ( such as intensive agriculture and draining of wetlands ) and by the mid @-@ 20th century had disappeared from large parts of its range which once stretched up to southern China ; some 1500 – 2000 birds are left in several fragmented subpopulations . Payment to locals to guard nests and help increase breeding success has been attempted in northern Cambodia . Nest success of protected nests was significantly higher than that of unprotected nests , and positive population @-@ level impacts were apparent . However , the program also caused local jealousies leading to deliberate disturbance of nests , and did nothing to alleviate larger @-@ scale and more permanent threats due to habitat losses reading to the conclusion that such payment @-@ for @-@ conservation programs are at best a complement and not a substitute to more permanent interventions that include habitat preservation and local management of resources . The little @-@ known Philippine population became extinct in the late 1960s .

The sarus crane is classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List . Threats include habitat destruction and / or degradation , hunting and collecting , as well as environmental pollution and possibly diseases or competing species . The effects of inbreeding in the Australian population may need to be studied .

The species has been extirpated in Malaysia , the Philippines and Thailand . Reintroduction programs planned in Thailand have made use of birds from Cambodia .

= = In culture = =

The species is venerated in India and legend has it that the poet Valmiki cursed a hunter for killing a sarus crane and was then inspired to write the epic Ramayana . The species was a close contender to the Indian peafowl as the national bird of India . Among the Gondi people , the tribes classified as " five @-@ god worshippers " consider the sarus crane as sacred . The meat of the sarus was considered taboo in ancient Hindu scriptures . It is widely believed that the sarus pairs for life and that death of one partner leads to the other pining to death . They are a symbol of marital virtue and in parts of Gujarat , it is a custom to take a newly wed couple to see a pair of sarus cranes . Being ubiquitous in the flood plains of the Ganges , observations on their biology had been made by the Mughal emperor , Jahangir around AD 1607 . He noted , for instance , that the species always laid two eggs with an interval of 48 hours between them and that the incubation period was 34 days .

Although venerated and protected by Indians , these birds were hunted during the colonial period . It was noted that killing a bird would lead to its surviving partner trumpeting for many days and it was traditionally believed that the other would starve to death . Even sport hunting guides discouraged shooting these birds . According to 19th @-@ century British zoologist Thomas C. Jerdon , young birds were good to eat , while older ones were " worthless for the table " . Eggs of the sarus crane are however used in folk remedies in some parts of India .

Young birds were often captured and kept in menageries both in India and in Europe in former times . They were also successfully bred in captivity early in the 17th century by Emperor Jehangir and in Europe and the United States in the early 1930s .

... The young birds are easily reared by hand , and become very tame and attached to the person who feeds them , following him like a dog . They are very amusing birds , going through the most grotesque dances and antics , and are well worth keeping in captivity . One which I kept , when bread and milk was given to him , would take the bread out of the milk , and wash it in his pan of water before eating it . This bird , which was taken out of the King 's palace at Lucknow , was very fierce towards strangers and dogs , especially if they were afraid of him . He was very noisy — the only bad habit he possessed

The Indian state of Uttar Pradesh uses the sarus crane as its official bird symbol . An Indian 14 @-@ seater propeller aircraft , the Saras , is named after this crane .

= = Other sources = =

Matthiessen , Peter & Bateman , Robert ( 2001 ) . The Birds of Heaven : Travels with Cranes . North Point Press , New York . ISBN 0 @-@ 374 @-@ 19944 @-@ 2

Weitzman , Martin L. ( 1993 ) . " What to preserve ? An application of diversity theory to crane conservation " . The Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 ( 1 ) : 157 – 183 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2118499 . ISSN 0033 @-@ 5533 . JSTOR 2118499 .

Haigh , J. C. & Holt , P. E. ( 1976 ) . " The use of the anaesthetic " CT1341 " in a Sarus crane " . Can Vet J. 17 ( 11 ) : 291 – 292 . PMC 1697384 . PMID 974983 .

Duan , W. & Fuerst , P. A. ( 2001 ) . " Isolation of a sex @-@ Linked DNA sequence in cranes " . J. Hered . 92 ( 5 ) : 392 – 397 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / jhered / 92 @.@ 5 @.@ 392 . PMID 11773245 .

Menon , G. K. , R. V. Shah , and M. B. Jani . ( 1980 ) . " Observations on integumentary modifications and feathering on head and neck of the Sarus Crane , Grus antigone antigone " . Pavo 18 : 10 – 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )

Sundar , K. S. G. ( 2006 ) . " Flock size , density and habitat selection of four large waterbirds species in an agricultural landscape in Uttar Pradesh , India : implications for management " . Waterbirds 29 ( 3 ) : 365 – 374 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1675 / 1524 @-@ 4695 ( 2006 ) 29 [ 365 : fsdahs ] 2.0.co ; 2 .

= United Nations Parliamentary Assembly =

A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly ( UNPA ) is a proposed addition to the United Nations System that would allow for participation of member nations ' legislators and , eventually , direct election of United Nations ( UN ) parliament members by citizens worldwide . The idea was raised at the founding of the League of Nations in the 1920s and again following the end of World War II in 1945 , but remained dormant throughout the Cold War . In the 1990s and 2000s , the rise of global trade and the power of world organizations that govern it led to calls for a parliamentary assembly to scrutinize their activity . The Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly was formed in 2007 to coordinate pro @-@ UNPA efforts , which as of July 2013 has received the support of over 800 Members of Parliament from over 100 countries worldwide and is supported by over 5 @,@ 000 people . The Commission on Global Security , Justice and Governance , chaired by former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright and former Nigerian Foreign Minister Ibrahim Gambari , has called for the creation of a United Nations Parliamentary Network " to raise greater awareness and participation by strengthening the voices of legislators in global institutions . " The Commission proposes that this Network " would be similar in initial composition to the Parliamentary Network on the World Bank and International Monetary Fund and the Parliamentary Conference on the World Trade Organization " .

Supporters have set forth possible UNPA implementations , including promulgation of a new treaty ; creation of a UNPA as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly ; and evolution of a UNPA from the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union or another non @-@ governmental organization . Several proposals for apportionment of votes have been raised to address disparities in UN members ' population and economic power . CEUNPA advocates initially giving the UNPA advisory powers and gradually increasing its authority over the UN system . Opponents cite issues such as funding , voter turnout , and undemocratic UN member nations as reasons for abandoning the project altogether .

= = History = =

Proposals for a parliamentary assembly in the global organization of nations date back to at least the 1920s , when League of Nations founders considered ( and rejected ) plans to include a people 's assembly as part of the League 's structure . League and UN founding documents include few mechanisms for direct participation by citizens or legislators , aside from Article 71 provision allowing ECOSOC to grant consultative status to certain organizations , and the Chapter XVIII and XIX requirements that ratification and amendments be approved by member states " in accordance with their respective constitutional processes " which typically involve legislative and / or public input . In 1945 , a people 's world assembly was proposed by British politician Ernest Bevin , who said in the House of Commons that " There should be a study of a house directly elected by the people of the world to whom the nations are accountable . "

On 16 October 1945 , before the UN Charter had even entered into force , retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Owen J. Roberts and former New Hampshire Governor Robert P. Bass held a conference in Dublin , New Hampshire , which passed the Dublin Declaration . It stated that the UN Charter was inadequate to preserve peace and proposed the transformation of the U.N. General Assembly into a world legislature , opining , " Such a government should be based upon a constitution under which all peoples and nations will participate upon a basis of balanced representation which will take account of natural and industrial resources and other factors as well as population . It cannot be based on treaties ... in which the states ... act and vote as states " . It called for " limited but definite and adequate power for the prevention of war . " Grenville Clark and other participants in the Dublin conference went on to become active in the United World Federalists ( UWF ) and the global World Federalist Movement . UWF enjoyed some success in the postwar period , as 23 state legislatures passed bills supporting the organization ’ s goals , but McCarthyism prompted many prominent members to resign lest Senator Joseph McCarthy ruin their careers . In the United States , internationalism came to be associated with communism .

In the post @-@ Cold War era , several factors contributed to a more favorable environment for UNPA proposals . A Trilateral Commission report notes that the shift from a world led by the two rival Soviet- and U.S.-led blocs meant a general diffusion of power . Growth of economic interdependence , proliferation of transnational actors , nationalism in weak states , spread of technology , and increasing numbers of issues ( such as global environmental problems and weapons of mass destruction containment ) that are both domestic and international generated stronger incentive to develop international cooperation than ever before . Democracy in general had spread ; in 2003 , Freedom House counted 121 electoral democracies , compared to 66 in 1987 and 30 in 1975 ( although by the mid @-@ 2000s , the trend appeared to have stagnated ) . The rapidly integrating European Union , a unique supranational body whose European Parliament was gradually growing in power , provided an example to the world of how a multi @-@ nation parliament can evolve and function . The World Trade Organization and similar organizations generated great concern as they seemed to be gaining more influence and control over trade disputes , yet were not accountable to the people ; U.S. President Bill Clinton argued , " We must insist that international trade organizations be open to public scrutiny instead of mysterious , secret things subject to wild criticism . " A " new diplomacy " seemed to be taking shape in which NGOs and governments cooperated to create new global institutions such as the International Criminal Court . U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy Chairman Harold C. Pachios of Preti , Flaherty , Beliveau & Pachios noted :

In early 1993 , the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on External Affairs and International Trade presented a report stating , " By way of building the public and political constituency for the United Nations , the Committee recommends that Canada support the development of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . " The Campaign for a Democratic United Nations ( CAMDUN ) , the International Network for a United Nations Second Assembly ( INFUSA ) , and the Global People 's Assembly Movement ( GPAM ) , began circulating UNPA proposals around 1995 , and other organizations , such as One World Trust , began publishing analyses of how to proceed in the current political situation . On 8 February 2005 , on the initiative of the Committee for a Democratic UN , 108 Swiss Parliamentarians signed an open letter to the Secretary @-@ General calling for the establishment of just such a body . On 14 May 2005 , the Congress of the Liberal International issued a resolution stating that " the Liberal International calls on the member states of the United Nations to enter into deliberations on the establishment of a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations . " On 9 June 2005 , the European Parliament issued a resolution that contained an item stating that Europarl " calls for the establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly ( UNPA ) within the UN System , which would increase the democratic profile and internal democratic process of the organisation and allow world civil society to be directly associated in the decision @-@ making process ; states that the Parliamentary Assembly should be vested with genuine rights of information , participation and control , and should be able to adopt recommendations directed at the UN General Assembly ; [ ... ] " In 2006 , Citizens for a United Nations People 's Assembly circulated a petition to UN Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan to " convene a High Level Panel to determine the steps required for the establishment of a Peoples ' Parliamentary Assembly within the United Nations Organization "

In April 2007 , international NGOs launched the International Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly , the principal current movement for the establishment of a UNPA . Its Secretariat is led by the Committee for a Democratic U.N. Over 150 civil society groups and more than 550 parliamentarians from all over the world are taking part in the Campaign . As of November 2008 , CEUNPA 's appeal was endorsed by around 2400 signatories from over 120 countries , among them hundreds of parliamentarians , civil society leaders , leading academics and distinguished individuals such as former UN Secretary @-@ General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , the President of the Pan @-@ African Parliament , Gertrude Mongella , Academy Award winner Emma Thompson , SF @-@ author Sir Arthur C. Clarke and Edgar Mitchell , former NASA astronaut and sixth human being to walk on the moon . On 25 September 2007 , the statement by H.E. Mr. José Sócrates , Prime Minister of Portugal , on behalf of the European Union , at the United Nations 62nd Session of the General Assembly , General Debate , stated , " We remain committed to the reform of its main bodies in order to enhance the Organization 's representativity , transparency and effectiveness . " On 24 October 2007 , the Pan African Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution calling for the establishment of a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations , noting , " in contrast to regional international bodies such as the African Union , the European Union , the Council of Europe , or Mercosur , the United Nations and its specialized organizations is one of the last international fora lacking an integrated and institutionalized Parliamentary Assembly . " So far , four international conferences of CEUNPA have taken place .

One of the most influential and well @-@ known pro @-@ UN organizations , UNA @-@ USA has been on both sides of the issue . In 2003 , UNA @-@ USA 's executive director of policy studies , Jeffrey Laurenti , wrote an article , An Idea Whose Time Has Not Come , arguing that there were important unresolved issues of inclusivity , authority , and efficiency with the UNPA . UNA 's position seemed to reverse in November 2006 , when the 38th plenary session of the World Federation of United Nations Associations issued a resolution stating that it " Supports the establishment of a United Nations parliamentary Assembly as a consultative body within the United Nations system as a voice of the citizens ; Calls upon the governments of the United Nations member states , parliamentarians and civil society representatives to jointly examine possible steps and options to create a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . "

According to Stefan Marschal , the post @-@ World War II years , particularly the 1980s and 1990s , saw tremendous growth in parliamentary assemblies , with more than 40 established since 1949 . About 42 % of the world 's parliamentary assemblies are formally affiliated with an intergovernmental organization ; 32 % are informally affiliated ; and 26 % are unaffiliated . The spread in parliamentary assemblies was spurred by acceptance of parliamentarism as a means of legitimizing decisions ; initiatives for intergovernmental cooperation reaching a point at which stronger parliamentary backing was needed ; and regional integration . However , many global organizations , such as the UN and WTO , still lack a parliamentary assembly and " have been heavily criticized for what is supposed to be an institutional deficit . "

On 9 February 2010 , a resolution of an international conference of sitting and former judges of the supreme courts of over 30 countries that took place in Lucknow , India , called for a revision of the United Nations Charter and for the establishment of a world parliament .

= = Implementation = =

There are five main options for creating a U.N. Parliamentary Assembly , according to various assessments .

Amending the UN Charter , possibly through a Charter Review Conference under Article 109 of the UN Charter , is a commonly cited possibility . This is difficult because it requires ratification by two @-@ thirds of UN members , including all five permanent members of the Security Council . There have been only five amendments to the UN Charter since 1945 , and none of them were done through the Article 109 process . Louis Sohn and Grenville Clark , in their 1958 book World Peace Through World Law , proposed establishing a UN Parliamentary Assembly through this method .

Another possibility is establishing the UNPA as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly . The General Assembly has authority to do this under Article 22 of the UN Charter . Erskine Childers and Sir Brian Urquhart endorsed this approach in their 1994 book , Renewing the United Nations System . The Committee for a Democratic UN also recommended the establishment of UNPA by Article 22 or by transformation of the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union in its report , Developing International Democracy . In 2006 , the Council of Europe passed a resolution noting , " A decisive step towards the development of a UN parliamentary dimension could be the establishment of an experimental parliamentary committee with consultative functions for General Assembly committees . "

Yet another option is to create the UNPA as a nongovernmental organization of democratically elected legislators . This would have the advantage of not requiring the cooperation of ( sometimes dictatorial ) national governments or world parliamentary organizations with dictatorial members , so only democratic legislators , parliaments and countries would be represented . The World Constitution and Parliament Association and other NGOs have attempted to set up workable parliaments . Dieter Heinrich critiqued this approach by saying , " If it did succeed on any scale , it would divert resources from pressuring governments on thousands of specific issues , which citizens are good at , into the operation of a pan @-@ global institutional structure , which citizens ' groups are ill equipped to do ... And the resulting assembly would always be of doubtful legitimacy ( who does it really represent ? ) and of unlikely value as an evolutionary starting point for a real world parliament . "

A UNPA could be created through a stand @-@ alone treaty . This would have the advantage that as few as 20 or 30 economically and geographically diverse countries could establish a UNPA , and it could expand as more countries ratified the treaty . Strauss notes that this is the method by which most international bodies , such the World Health Organization , International Labour Organization , and International Criminal Court , were founded . The way to get started presumably would be to hold a conference of plenipotentiaries to draft the treaty ; then the ratification process would begin .

It might also be possible to use and / or transform the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union ( IPU ) , which was granted observer status in 2002 . The IPU 's Second World Conference of Speakers of Parliament adopted a resolution stating , " We would greatly welcome more substantive interaction and coordination with the United Nations , and call upon the world body to resort more frequently to the political and technical expertise which the IPU together with its Member Parliaments can provide . " Moreover , a 2005 article by IPU Secretary @-@ General Anders B. Johnsson stated that , " It makes little practical or political sense to set up a separate parliamentary assembly alongside the existing governmental General Assembly . " Indeed , the Inter @-@ Parliamentary Union seems to favor a reformed IPU as a substitute for a UNPA , saying , " The Union had the necessary experience , and further bureaucracy should be avoided . " Many national parliaments , however , are currently not members of the IPU .

= = Powers = =

The CEUNPA proposes that the UNPA 's begin as a consultative body whose powers could be augmented as it evolved into a directly elected assembly : " Step by step , it should be provided with genuine rights of information , participation and control vis @-@ à @-@ vis the UN and the organizations of the UN system . " An article in the Asian @-@ Pacific Law & Policy Journal notes that precedents for this idea include the British Parliament , French Estates @-@ General , U.S. Congress , and Europarl , which are all systems in which , over time , power shifted to directly elected officials : " In the past , fledgling democracy has always had to compromise with the realities of power and evolve step @-@ by @-@ step , where possible . This is often accomplished in the form of a ' non @-@ democratic ' additional house in the parliamentary structure . Thus , in Britain , the necessity of compromise of the ' common people ' with the powers and interests of the armed and titled nobility necessitated a bicameral system incorporating the House of Lords , as well as the House of Commons . The French Estates @-@ General included similar power blocs as ' estates ' or functional separate houses , and the United States Senate reflected a necessary compromise of the interests of less populous states hesitant to subject themselves to ' democratic inundation ' by the more populous states . "

World federalists often point out that a democratic union of peoples , rather than governments , is suggested by the opening words of the Preamble to the United Nations Charter , " We the peoples ... " This sentiment was expressed by Theo van Boven , who said , " A more democratic United Nations as envisaged by the campaign for a UN Parliament will strengthen the legitimacy of We the peoples of the United Nations in whose name the UN Charter was proclaimed . " According to the Committee for a Democratic UN , " The UNPA concept is the a first step towards a democratic world parliament " . World federalists typically view an empowered democratic assembly as a means of preventing war by providing everyone a peaceful means of pursuing their political objectives . Walter Cronkite , for instance , said , " Within the next few years , we must change the basic structure of our global community from the present anarchic system of war and ever more destructive weaponry to a new system governed by a democratic U.N. federation . "

But there is some opposition to the idea of an empowered global parliament . A 2007 BBC poll of approximately 12 @,@ 000 respondents asked , " How likely would you be to support a Global Parliament , where votes are based on country population sizes , and the global parliament is able to make binding policies ? " Of those polled , 19 @.@ 1 % responded " Very unlikely – it is a bad idea " ; 14 @.@ 9 % responded " Quite unlikely – but it might work " ; 23 @.@ 1 % said " Quite likely – but with reservations " ; and 14 @.@ 4 % said " Very likely – it is a good idea " . The poll was broken out by country , and the U.S. and Australia showed the strongest opposition . Potential challenge to the UNPA are political organizations such as the U.S. Constitution Party , and politicians such as 2008 U.S. presidential candidate Ron Paul , which favor withdrawal from the United Nations and other multilateral organizations altogether due to sovereignty concerns . Canadian Action Party leader Connie Fogal also opposes the UNPA , saying , " It is very revealing to see the NDP and the Greens as part of and promoting this ... Further , the European assembly has proven to be a rubber stamping mechanism of bureaucratic decisions . This is not democracy . " In addition , a Civicus article warns , " With an unexpected backlash against civil society in the offing ( despite the good efforts of the UN General Assembly President , Jan Eliasson , to reverse the trend ) , citizen participation at the UN is diminishing quickly . It would be safe to assume that Member States as a whole are not in the mood to consider a Parliamentary Assembly at this time . "

Herbert W. Briggs points out that while a UNPA could be established as a UNGA subsidiary body without any changes to international law , granting it the power to pass binding legislation would require UN Charter amendment or a new treaty . The UNGA plays a role in admitting , suspending and expelling UN members , approving the budget , and electing members to other UN bodies , but its powers as set forth in Chapter IV of the UN Charter are mostly advisory in nature . These include the power to " discuss , " " make recommendations , " " consider , " " call the attention of the Security Council to situations , " " initiate studies , " " receive ... reports , " etc . , as well as " establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions . " The Charter contains no provision allowing the UNGA to delegate any powers it does not itself possess . And while Article 25 states , " The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council , " there is no requirement that members abide by the recommendations of the UNGA . On the other hand , Article 13 ( 1 ) ( a ) of the Charter tasks the UNGA with " encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification . "

According to Oscar Schachter , there is some question as to whether the traditional international lawmaking process of state @-@ by @-@ state treaty ratification is adequate today : " The traditional case @-@ by @-@ case process of customary law cannot meet the necessity for common action to deal with the numerous problems raised by technological developments , demographic and environmental impacts , changing attitudes as to social justice , or the many requirements of international business . While all of these matters can be dealt with by multilateral treaties , the treaty processes are often complicated and slow , whereas UN resolutions can be more readily attained . " The Law of the Sea is an example of an agreement that has taken decades to pass in the U.S. ( although the Cato Institute views the delay as a good thing . ) George Monbiot argues , " The absence of an international legislature undermines the authority of an international judiciary ( such as the proposed criminal court ) . Judges presiding over the war @-@ crimes tribunals at the Hague and in Arusha have been forced , in effect , to make up the law as they go along . "

Proposals to give the UNGA legislative power – including the " binding triad " idea which would have made UNGA resolutions binding if passed by countries constituting a supermajority of the world 's states , population , and economic production – have made little headway . According to Heinrich , once the UNPA is established , it will be easier to gather support for empowering it . The assembly 's own members can be expected to play a major role in pushing for its evolution by seeking a UN Charter amendment to make it a " principal organ " in parallel with the General Assembly . With their political know @-@ how , their access to the highest levels of their national governments , and their credibility with the world public and the media , the politicians in the UN Parliamentary Assembly can be expected to become a strong and persistent political force for organizing the assembly 's eventual transformation .

= = Legitimacy and accountability = =

One of the main purposes for the creation of a UNPA is enhancing UN accountability and legitimacy . The United Nations System spent more than $ 1 @.@ 8 billion of public money in 2005 and its own auditors have pointed out that it lacks adequate internal controls to protect against waste , fraud and mismanagement . By holding hearings , issuing reports , and passing resolutions , the UNPA could exercise oversight over other UN bodies . In a September 2007 press release , MEP Graham Watson expressed his hope that " in an era where the UN 's mandate has grown exponentially the UNPA would act as a watch @-@ dog on its activities , monitoring its decision @-@ making deadlines , its accountability and transparency " . London Mayor Ken Livingstone promised that , " a more democratic United Nations as envisaged by this campaign will strengthen the accountability and legitimacy of the UN . " The Pan African Parliament 's resolution mirrored this sentiment : " If democratization is a major means to legitimize and improve national governance , it is also the most reliable way to legitimize and improve international organization , making it more open and responsive by increasing participation . "

Canadian Senator Douglas Roche , O.C. , argues in The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly that even an indirectly elected UNPA consisting of delegates appointed by national parliaments could create additional checks and balances by providing for oversight by a parliamentary body that would be independent of member nations ' executive branches . It would open up the global policymaking process to a larger group of elected officials by shifting some power from the relatively small executive branches of countries to the larger legislative branches . According to Roche , globalization has tended to increase the power of the executive branch while marginalizing the legislative branch ; for instance , U.S. Presidents since George H. W. Bush have been given fast track authority to negotiate trade agreements , subject to a " yea or nay " scrutiny by the U.S. Congress on the negotiated deal . A Property and Environment Research Center report argues that changes in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development are another example of how international regulation removes checks and balances between the branches of government : " The OECD was created by a 1961 treaty , ratified by the U.S. Senate , to help achieve economic growth . In April 1998 , a ministerial meeting reinterpreted the treaty , adding social and environmental considerations to the economic ones . The United States executive branch agreed to the changes , but the Senate had no opportunity to debate this treaty , even though it was significantly different from the 1961 treaty . The executive branch had essentially negotiated a new deal without Senate approval . " World Federalist Canada Briefing Paper No. 30 , however , suggests that UNPA proposals may spark opposition from the executive branches that stand to lose power : " Experience has shown that civil servants and diplomats working in national foreign ministries are less likely to support or see the need for a UNPA . They view the UN as a forum for discussion among sovereign states ; whatever action the UN takes is a result of bargaining and compromise among member states " .

A significant practical obstacle to a completely democratically elected and representative UNPA is that , in contrast to the situation in which the European Parliament functions , a significant number of UN members , including populous countries such as China are not electoral democracies . In the past , bodies such as the United Nations Commission on Human Rights were criticized for being dominated by abusive regimes . If UNPA representatives were to be drawn from member nations ' parliaments , it could create legitimacy concerns since some national legislatures are regarded as a rubber stamp for the rulers ' decrees . Some global parliament proponents , such as Prof. Lucio Levi , propose starting a federation limited to democracies : " Though the democratization of states all over the world hasn ’ t been completed , this does not preclude starting the democratization of the UN . Six Western European countries founded the European Community , starting its democratization without waiting for the democratization of the institutions of all the European states . " UNA @-@ USA 's Jeff Laurenti notes the problems associated with excluding undemocratic countries from membership : " It is one thing to deny membership to a few small " rogue " dictatorships . It is quite another to exclude China , the vast majority of Arab countries , and two @-@ thirds of Africa , and imagine that the resulting body can have a formal consultative or oversight role with United Nations agencies , be part of UN @-@ sponsored negotiations on multilateral conventions ( the real work of international legislating ) , or pass on the resolutions of UN political bodies . "

UNPA proponents frequently counter by pointing out that most of the world 's countries are democratic .

= = Funding = =

Heinrich argues , " It is essential that the salary and travel costs of UN parliamentarians should be paid by the institution of the UN Parliamentary Assembly from its own budget ( which would be part of the UN budget ) , and not by the national governments individually . This is both to assure the independence of the UNPA politicians in their service to the UN and to assure equality of participation . " Article 17 of the UN Charter stipulates , " The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly . " Thus , unless funded by private donors ( as the land for UN headquarters was in 1946 ) , presumably the UNPA would be funded like the rest of the UN system , with larger economies such as the U.S. paying larger shares of the contributions . This disparity might be offset by weighting members ' votes according to their gross national product or their contributions to the UN system . A Vancouver Sun article notes , " Another point of opposition would involve the notion of adding bureaucracy and complexity to the UN . Estimated cost of the new outfit runs $ 140 million to $ 280 million a year . "

A 1993 Parliamentarians for Global Action survey showed that a strong majority of parliamentary respondents thought that the public would support the idea of a UN Parliamentary Assembly , but they were less sure the public would be prepared to finance it . The analysis pointed out , " The possibility of a greater financial burden to support an enlarged UN is unlikely to evoke support unless it can be demonstrated that the return on investment is significant . Citizens are often known to express lofty globalist sentiments when questioned on general principles , and to surrender them when costs or trade offs are concerned . " A 1995 United Nations University report claimed , " it is difficult to see how the Parliamentary Assembly would be able to pay for the salaries and travel of what could be over 1 @,@ 000 representatives ; this proposal could increase the duplication and waste that already exist within multilateral bodies . "

CEUNPA 's response to this objection is that " it is true that a Parliamentary Assembly at the United Nations would be another player in the diplomatic scenery which governments and their executives in international organizations would have to take into account to a certain degree . On the other hand , being composed of elected parliamentarians , the assembly would be closer to the citizens and as such it would lend more credibility and legitimacy to international decisions in which it is involved . In this way , the parliamentary assembly actually would contribute to an increased efficiency of international action . "

= = Direct election vs. appointment by national parliaments = =

A UNPA might begin as an inter @-@ parliamentary institution – an assembly of parliamentarians from their respective countries ' legislatures – and then change to a directly elected body . This would be similar to the evolution of the European Parliament . Beginning with the European Common Assembly 's founding in 1952 , MEPs were appointed by each of the Member States ' national parliaments ; in 1979 , direct election was instituted . Sen. Douglas Roche , O.C. , in The Case for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly , analyzes the tradeoffs between the two choices . A UNPA based on existing parliamentarians may be easier to establish , because it avoids several hurdles , such as decisions on electoral cycles , a universally acceptable electoral body , legitimacy of elections , and so on : " A body comprising national parliamentarians has the ' stamp of approval ' built @-@ in . National parliamentarians can claim electoral legitimacy in their own right . Admittedly , the credibility of domestic franchised can be called into question , but the trend toward democracy has been strengthening rapidly . "

National parliamentarians also generally have staff and money , which could ease the funding issues associated with forming a new world parliamentary assembly . Delegates to a directly elected UNPA , on the other hand , would have more time to devote to the global assembly , since its members would not be occupied with duties relating to their membership in their national legislature . Heinrich points out strategic advantages of an indirectly elected UNPA : " Another advantage to basing representation in a UN Parliamentary Assembly on national parliaments is that it may engage parliamentarians as allies in the cause of getting the assembly established , and , later , helping to build the political will for its evolution . The experience of being a UN parliamentarian will galvanize many of these politicians into going home as advocates for the UN , including the need for strengthening and democratizing the UN Parliamentary Assembly itself . "

Heinrich also notes the possibility that national parliaments could appoint citizen representatives to the UNPA , similarly to how the U.S. Electoral College officially selects the President . This would be a stopgap solution until direct election became possible . Yet it would still ensure that citizens would be electing citizens ( albeit indirectly ) , rather than the executive appointing officials , to the UNPA .

= = Apportionment of votes = =

A global parliamentary assembly could be structured to give populous states greater influence . The one state , one vote rule of the UN General Assembly gives small states a disproportionate amount of influence over the UN system . In Entitlement quotients as a vehicle for United Nations reform , University of Minnesota professor emeritus Joseph E. Schwartzberg notes , " The sixty @-@ four least populous members – enough to block a two @-@ thirds majority vote – comprise less than one percent of the world 's total population , and in theory , the 127 least populous members , accounting for barely eight percent of humanity , are enough to provide the two @-@ thirds majority needed to pass a substantive resolution . " He continues this point in his essay , Overcoming Practical Difficulties in Creating a World Parliamentary Assembly :

There are several alternate proposals for apportionment of votes among member nations :

Schwartzberg 's weighted voting formula takes into account population ( the democratic / demographic principle ) , contribution to the UN budget ( the economic principle ) , and share of the total membership . The idea of weighting countries ' votes according to their financial contribution to the organization is not unprecedented , as the World Bank , International Monetary Fund and other Bretton Woods institutions use this method .

The Provisional People 's Assembly 's methodology gives each nation Population Seats based on a calculation that combines the Penrose method , which takes the square root of the millions of inhabitants of each country , Economic Seats equal to its portion of the world 's total gross domestic product , and classification as Free , Partially Free , or Unfree by Freedom House .

Under one person , one vote , each country 's number of votes is directly proportional to its population . This would be similar to how U.S. states are represented in the United States House of Representatives . In The Future of Sovereignty - Rethinking a Key Concept of International Relations , Hasenclever et al. sum up the advantages and disadvantages of this system : " In a strict meaning of democracy based on individuals as subjects , every person 's vote would have to have exactly the same weight . None of the known proposals , however , supports such a strict interpretation , because the inequality among the states ' voting powers would be extreme with only four countries - China , India , the United States and the former USSR - disposing of an absolute majority . " A way to resolve the disparity in population between countries would be to apportion representation to regions instead of nations . This would , for example , place Suriname and Brazil , the least and most populated South American countries , in a single South American voting bloc of approximately 400 million people , preserving the one person , one vote system while eliminating extreme disparities in population . This approach , however , is dependent upon elected officials being entrusted to represent said regions and not just their home countries , and could potentially leave some less populated countries with no representatives from their country if they are either outvoted by people in more populated countries in their assigned region or if the people in less populated countries vote in large numbers for candidates or political parties from other countries .

= = Election standards = =

A directly elected UNPA might have common election standards if it follows the example of European Parliament ( EP ) . The European Parliament has adopted certain minimum requirements , such as proportional representation , that each member country must abide by to be represented . Schwartzberg proposes a professional election commission " to ensure that assembly elections are carried out , to the maximum extent , on a level playing field " . Under Schwartzberg 's proposal , the commission would have several powers , including the authority to establish rules of fairness , determine in advance whether fairness criteria were being met , and foreclose polling where those criteria were not met . He proposes criteria that an election must meet to be considered valid , such as minimum participation rates that initially could be set as low as 20 % , and gradually increased .

= Dave Stamper =

Dave Stamper ( November 10 , 1883 – September 18 , 1963 ) was an American songwriter of the Tin Pan Alley and vaudeville eras , a contributor to twenty @-@ one editions of the Ziegfeld Follies , writer for the Fox Film Corporation , and composer of more than one thousand songs , in spite of never learning to read or write traditional music notation . He may have written " Shine On Harvest Moon " , a claim supported by vaudeville performer and writer Eddie Cantor . He was also a charter member of the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers or ASCAP .

= = Biography = =

Stamper was born in New York City on November 10 , 1883 , and took up piano at age ten . At seventeen , he left school and became a pianist at a Coney Island dance hall for two years before becoming a " song @-@ plugger " for publisher F. A. Mills . Stamper was twenty when he met singer Nora Bayes and her husband Jack Norworth becoming her accompanist and touring widely for the next four years . After Stamper left Bayes ' employment , he resumed working as a song @-@ plugger and vaudeville pianist . In 1910 he met Gene Buck , an artist who painted cover images for sheet music . The two started collaborating , with Buck providing lyrics for Stamper 's melodies . Their first published songs were In the Cool of the Evening , Daddy Has a Sweetheart ( and Mother Is Her Name ) and Some Boy .

Stamper 's first marriage to Gertrude Springer ended in divorce after the birth of two children , Maurice and Regina Stamper . On 16 July 1926 he married " vaudeville and revue comedienne " Edna Leedom who had performed in the Follies of 1923 , 1924 and 1925 . The marriage ended within two years . On 16 August . 1928 he married Agnes White , a Follies performer who was in Stamper and Buck 's musical Take The Air ( 1927 ) . The couple were married for 40 years and produced one daughter , Susan Stamper , a dancer . One of their grandchildren is singer / songwriter Happy Rhodes .

Stamper did not learn to read or write traditional musical notation , creating his own numerical notation .

= = Career = =

= = = The Ziegfeld years = = =

In 1912 Stamper began writing songs for the Ziegfeld Follies of 1913 , contributing Just You and I and The Moon , Without You and Everybody Sometime Must Love Somebody . He is credited as " additional music " for the Follies of 1914 and 1915 , but he wrote the majority of the music for the Follies of 1916 @.@  and was on an equal billing with Louis A. Hirsch , Jerome Kern , and Irving Berlin . The music of the Follies of 1917 was written by Stamper and Raymond Hubbell and he was described as " an old hand " for his work with Louis A. Hirsch by the Follies of 1918 . In addition to his 1918 Follies work , he wrote all the music for Ziegfeld Midnight Frolic with Gene Buck , a series that also had editions in 1919 , 1920 and 1921 .

The Follies of 1919 found Stamper branching out into writing lyrics as well as writing comic sketches . 1919 was a very busy year , with Stamper writing songs for the Follies as well as the Midnight Frolic and the Ziegfeld Nine O 'Clock Review both of which appeared in a theater on the roof of the New Amsterdam theater .

Stamper continued as principal songwriter for the Follies of 1920 through 1925 , with an additional summer edition in 1923 . He returned for the Follies of 1931 , the last edition produced by Florenz Ziegfeld himself .

= = = Other musicals = = =

While his work with Ziegfeld encompassed the majority of his working life , Stamper and Gene Buck worked for other producers as well . He had songs in two plays - When Claudia Smiles ( 1914 ) and Broadway and Buttermilk ( 1916 ) prior to traveling to London with Buck to write songs for Zig Zag ! which ran for 648 performances at the London Hippodrome . Stamper returned to London in 1918 to write songs for another review Box O ' Tricks with Frederick Chapelle , which ran for 625 performances . During his first trip to London , Buck befriended a man who turned out to be a German spy . Two results of this event were fellow passenger Eddie Rickenbacker deciding to enlist to fly , and Dave Stamper having to prove to British police and a Judge that his pages covered with numbers were sheet music rather than a code .

Stamper was fully occupied with work for Ziegfeld until 1927 , when Gene Buck hired Stamper to write the music for Take The Air ( 1927 ) . He also worked for the Schubert organization on Lovely Lady ( 1927 ) before returning to Ziegfeld for the 1931 Follies .

He finished out his work on Broadway with Provincetown Follies ( 1935 ) which only ran for 63 performances and Orchids Preferred ( 1937 ) which closed in a week .

= = = Hollywood = = =

In 1928 , Stamper was signed by Fox Film Corporation as a staff composer , remaining there until 1930 . He contributed Dance Away the Night and Peasant Love Song to the film Married in Hollywood ( 1929 ) often called the first filmed operetta . The film Words and Music ( 1929 ) featured The Hunting Song , Take a Little Tip and Too Wonderful for Words all written with lyricist Harlan Thompson . In 1930 , he contributed Only One and The Gay Heart written with Clare Kummer and Once In A While written with Clare Kummer and Cecil Arnold to the " singing cowboy " movie One Mad Kiss. and the Bela Lugosi film Such Men Are Dangerous .

= = = Shine On , Harvest Moon = = =

Stamper claimed to have written " Shine On , Harvest Moon " , while the writers of record were his former employers Nora Bayes and Jack Norworth . Stamper 's claim was supported by vaudeville comic Eddie Cantor in his 1934 book Ziegfeld , The Great Glorifier and David Ewen 's All the Years of American Popular Music .

Stamper was working as a pianist rather than as a songwriter at the time the song appeared but never learned how to read or write using traditional music notation thus he would have not been able submit the song for copyright , or produce sheet music to prove his claim . Bayes and Norworth compelled Stamper at one point to wear stage make @-@ up to appear Japanese , apparently to keep him from being interviewed by reporters .

= = In popular culture = =

Stamper 's caricature was on the wall at Sardi 's restaurant .

Stamper and Buck 's song The Shakespearian Rag appears in T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land :

But

O O O O that Shakespeherian Rag — It 's so elegant

So intelligent

Ring Lardner and George S. Kaufman mentioned Stamper in their play June Moon :

Paul : Did I tell you what Dave Stamper said about it ?

Lucille : Yes ! Paul : He said it was another " Paprika " . Wait till you hear it played . Dave Stamper says it 's sure fire .

John Hyams played Stamper in the 1936 film The Great Ziegfeld starring William Powell , which won the Academy Award for Best Motion Picture . His songwriting partner Gene Buck was played by William Demarest , best known as " Uncle Charley " on the TV show My Three Sons .

= Advanced Gemini =

Advanced Gemini is a number of proposals that would have extended the Gemini program by the addition of various missions , including manned low Earth orbit , circumlunar and lunar landing missions . Gemini was the second manned spaceflight program operated by NASA , and consisted of a two @-@ seat spacecraft capable of maneuvering in orbit , docking with unmanned spacecraft such as Agena Target Vehicles , and allowing the crew to perform tethered extra @-@ vehicular activities .

A range of applications were considered for Advanced Gemini missions , including military flights , space station crew and logistics delivery , and lunar flights . The Lunar proposals ranged from reusing the docking systems developed for the Agena target vehicle on more powerful upper stages such as the Centaur , which could propel the spacecraft to the Moon , to complete modifications of the Gemini to enable it to land on the Lunar surface . Its applications would have ranged from manned lunar flybys before Apollo was ready , to providing emergency shelters or rescue for stranded Apollo crews , or even replacing the Apollo program .

Some of the Advanced Gemini proposals used " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " Gemini spacecraft , unmodified from the original program , whilst others featured modifications to allow the spacecraft to carry more crew , dock with space stations , visit the Moon , and perform other mission objectives . Other modifications considered included the addition of wings or a parasail to the spacecraft , in order to enable it to make a horizontal landing .

= = Background = =

Gemini was the second American manned orbital spaceflight program , after Mercury . It was intended to demonstrate technologies and techniques required for the Apollo program , such as extra @-@ vehicular activities , rendezvous and docking , maneuvering in orbit and long duration flight .

The Gemini spacecraft , which was built by McDonnell Aircraft , was derived from the earlier Mercury spacecraft , but modified to accommodate two astronauts . It was also equipped with a larger equipment module , allowing it to support longer missions , and maneuver in orbit . It was launched by the Titan II rocket flying from Launch Complex 19 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . In total , twelve missions were launched , ten of which were manned . Following two unmanned test flights , the first manned flight , Gemini 3 , was launched on 23 March 1965 . The program concluded on 15 November 1966 , with the successful recovery of Gemini 12 .

Many other applications were envisaged for the Gemini spacecraft at various stages before , during , and after the two years in which it was used by NASA for manned spaceflight . Although none of these proposals ever made it into operation , many were considered seriously , and in some cases flight hardware was constructed prior to cancellation . In the case of the Manned Orbital Laboratory , a Gemini spacecraft was launched on a suborbital demonstration flight in support of the program . In some cases technology developed in the Advanced Gemini program has been reintegrated into other programs , such as components from the Titan IIIM , which was to have launched MOL , being used to upgrade other Titan rockets .

= = Military applications = =

The United States Air Force intended to use the Gemini spacecraft to transport astronauts to its proposed space stations , the Manned Orbital Development System and later the Manned Orbital Laboratory ( MOL ) . These stations would have been launched by Titan IIIM rockets , with a Gemini spacecraft atop , eliminating the need for rendezvous and docking maneuvers . For this purpose , several modifications were made to the Gemini capsule , including the installation of a hatch in the heat shield to allow access to the space station .

In order to give its astronauts experience before these programs started , the Blue Gemini program was proposed , which would have seen USAF astronauts fly on NASA missions in order to practice various techniques required for their own missions . This would have first seen cooperative missions between NASA and the US Air Force , with two missions flying with crews composed of one astronaut from NASA , and one from the USAF , followed by two missions with all @-@ USAF crews , but performing missions for NASA . After these flights , the US Air Force would have flown a number of missions of its own . Firstly , it would have flown a two @-@ man Agena rendezvous and docking mission , followed by two one @-@ man scientific or technology research missions . Other proposed missions included tests of the Astronaut Mobility Unit which was designed to assist with EVAs , inertial navigation systems , and flying a radar imaging system .

MOL Launches would have been conducted from Launch Complex 40 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and Space Launch Complex 6 at Vandenberg Air Force Base . In 1966 , a test flight was launched from LC @-@ 40 , using a Titan IIIC . It consisted of the Gemini B spacecraft , built from the spacecraft used for the Gemini 2 test flight , atop OPS 0855 , a boilerplate MOL space station . Gemini B was released on a suborbital trajectory , and descended to Earth to test modifications made to the heat shield , and ensure that the access hatch would not affect its performance . OPS 0855 continued on to orbit . Early MOL stations would have only been manned by a single crew , launched with the station . Later stations would have been designed to be resupplied , and support multiple crews , delivered by additional Gemini spacecraft , or derivatives .

The MOL program was cancelled on 10 June 1969 , in favour of unmanned reconnaissance satellites . Some systems developed for the program were later used on unmanned missions , while the space suits which were under development were transferred to NASA . The Titan IIIM rocket which was to launch MOL never flew , however some of the upgrades that were built into it were later used to upgrade other Titan rockets — the stretched first and second stages became the Titan 34 , which was used as the core of some later Titan IIIB flights , and on the Titan 34D . The seven @-@ segment solid rocket boosters were later introduced on the Titan IVA .

= = Gemini Ferry = =

Several Gemini Ferry spacecraft were proposed to provide transportation of crews and cargo to NASA and USAF space stations in low Earth orbit . NASA contracted McDonnell to conduct a study into what modifications would be needed to allow the Gemini spacecraft to support this . Three spacecraft were envisioned ; a manned spacecraft to transport crew to the stations , a manned spacecraft with a cargo module for both crew and cargo delivery , and a dedicated unmanned spacecraft to resupply the station every three or four months .

The studies looked at minimizing required modifications to the Gemini spacecraft . Three docking methods were considered . The first was use of the existing docking system used on Gemini @-@ Agena missions . This would have allowed the mission to be accomplished with little modification to the Gemini spacecraft needed , however crew transfer could only have been accomplished by means of an Extra @-@ vehicular activity ( EVA ) . Changes that would have been required included strengthening the nose , installing two solid rockets to be used for a separation burn , adding the necessary equipment to perform the transfer EVA , and providing provisions for flight to and from the station . The number of retro @-@ rockets would have been increased from four to six . A second method would have seen the spacecraft dock in the same way , but after docking , the spacecraft would be swung round and attached to the side of the space station . A tunnel would then have been placed over the Gemini 's hatches , allowing the crew to transfer to the station without performing an EVA . Some modifications to the hatches would have been required . The final proposed docking method was to use a port mounted on the rear of the equipment module , which would have allowed the crew to transfer directly between the spacecraft and space station , through the docking port .

A modified version of the spacecraft was proposed , which would have included a cargo module attached to the back of a modified equipment module . The spacecraft would have approached the station , and docked backwards using a port on the rear of the cargo module . If one of the forward docking configurations had been used for the Gemini itself , the docking would have been controlled remotely from the station , with the Gemini then separating from the cargo module and flying around the station to dock normally on a different port . The rear @-@ docking Gemini would have simply remained attached to the cargo module , with the crew boarding the station through it . Its docking would have been controlled by its own crew , from a station at the back of the cargo module .

Two Gemini @-@ derived spacecraft were considered for unmanned resupply flights . The first of these would have involved a Gemini spacecraft , with all systems for manned flight , re @-@ entry and landing removed . The spacecraft would have docked using a port at the front of the spacecraft . Cargo would have been transferred through the nose of the spacecraft , where the re @-@ entry attitude control system was located on the manned spacecraft . The spacecraft was equipped with a liquid propellant engine to perform rendezvous , and to reboost the space station . The other proposal was for a new spacecraft to be built for unmanned missions , but re @-@ using as many Gemini systems as possible . It would have had a higher cargo capacity than the stripped @-@ down version of the Gemini spacecraft .

Crew @-@ only or cargo @-@ only supply missions would have been launched aboard a Titan II , and the Saturn I or Saturn IB would have been used for the combined crew and cargo spacecraft . Because of the increased power of the Saturn I , the Gemini spacecraft 's ejection seats would not have been able to propel the crew far enough in the event of an explosion , so a launch escape tower was proposed , based on the one used on the Mercury spacecraft . The Titan IIIM was also considered to launch the heavier spacecraft .

= = Big Gemini = =

Big Gemini , or Big G , grew out of a 1963 proposal called Gemini Transport , to develop an enlarged Gemini spacecraft with docking capability , which would take advantage of the increased capacity offered by the Saturn IB and Titan IIIM rockets . It was designed to transport between nine and twelve astronauts into space , and to be able to dock with space stations , in support of Apollo Applications and MOL missions . It would have been launched by a Heavy lift launch vehicle ; either a Titan IIIG or Saturn INT @-@ 20 , the former being intended for use on US Air Force missions and the latter being intended for NASA missions . The Titan IIIM was also considered , which would have launched a smaller version of the spacecraft due to its lower capacity , to resupply MOL space stations later in the program . NASA also proposed several Saturn IB derivatives with solid first stages as alternatives to the INT @-@ 20 , offering similar payload capacity .

The shape and mass of the spacecraft would have varied depending on the rocket that was to launch it . The Saturn @-@ launched version had a short , conical cargo module , and a total mass of 47 @,@ 300 kilograms ( 104 @,@ 300 lb ) whereas the Titan IIIG @-@ launched version featured a longer , cylindrical module , with a total mass of 59 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 130 @,@ 000 lb ) . The Titan IIIM version would have been much shorter and lighter , with a mass of 15 @,@ 600 kilograms ( 34 @,@ 400 lb ) , as that rocket had less payload capacity than the Titan IIIG or Saturn . The IIIG variant would have carried twelve crew , whilst the others had a maximum capacity of nine . Use of the NASA variant with the Apollo Service Module was also considered .

Once in orbit , Big G would have docked with space stations using an Apollo docking probe mounted on the rear of the cargo module , which was in turn mounted on the rear of the re @-@ entry module . The re @-@ entry module itself would have been enlarged to accommodate the larger crew , and the modifications made to the spacecraft for the MOL program would have been incorporated , including the hatch in the heat shield , which would have been used to provide access to the cargo module . In the event of a launch failure , the launch escape system developed for the Apollo spacecraft would have been used to propel the re @-@ entry module clear of the rocket .

Big G would have made landings on land , using a parasail or paraglider to guide it onto a runway or dry lake , such as the one at Edwards Air Force Base . It would have landed using skids derived from the North American X @-@ 15 .

= = Lunar exploration = =

= = = Circumlunar missions = = =

A number of studies investigated sending a Gemini spacecraft onto a circumlunar trajectory . Many of the proposals made for this involved a two launch architecture , with the Gemini spacecraft rendezvousing with an upper stage in orbit . Upper stages that were considered included the Transtage , the second stage of a Titan II , four different types of Centaur , including the S @-@ V variant developed for the Saturn I , the Agena @-@ D , an enlarged Agena , and two Agenas burning in parallel . Either a Titan or Saturn IB would have been used to launch the upper stage , whilst the Gemini would launch on the Titan II , as it had in the Gemini program .

Other proposals involved launching the Gemini spacecraft on a Titan IIIC , and refueling in low Earth orbit before proceeding to the Moon , and a single launch architecture using a three @-@ stage variant of the Saturn IB .

The Gemini @-@ Centaur proposal was predicted to have been able to achieve a 72 @-@ hour circumlunar flight . The Centaur would have performed trans @-@ lunar injection , before separating from the Gemini spacecraft .

Some concerns were raised that the Gemini spacecraft 's heat shield would not have been able to protect it during the higher speed ballistic reentry associated with the trajectory that would have been required . NASA proposed using a thicker heat shield and more insulation to protect the spacecraft . This and several other modifications made the spacecraft too heavy to be launched by the Titan II rocket which was used for the original twelve Gemini missions , so several solid rocket motors would have been added to allow this additional mass to be flown .

= = = Lunar orbit missions = = =

The Gemini spacecraft would have rendezvoused with stacked Centaur and Agena upper stages in low Earth orbit . The Centaur would have placed the Gemini and Agena onto a circumlunar trajectory , along which they would coast until they reached the Moon . The Agena would then have been used to perform Lunar orbit insertion . Following the completion of activities in Lunar orbit , the Agena would have been fired again for trans @-@ Earth injection .

This architecture would have used a Titan II to launch the Gemini spacecraft , with a Saturn IB launching the upper stages .

= = = Lunar landing = = =

Using the Gemini spacecraft for a manned Lunar landing was considered as early as the original Mercury Mark II proposal which led to the Gemini program . The initial proposal was for a Lunar orbit rendezvous mission , using a Gemini spacecraft and a lightweight , open cockpit lander , launched by a Saturn C @-@ 3 rocket . It was the first time that Lunar orbit rendezvous was proposed as part of a lunar landing concept . The spacecraft would have been tested in Low Earth orbit before the Lunar missions , using two Titan II launches . The lander , which was designed by NASA 's Langley Research Center , would have had a mass of no more than 4 @,@ 372 kilograms ( 9 @,@ 639 lb ) . Some of the proposals had a mass as low as 1 @,@ 460 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 220 lb ) , with cryogenic propellants being used in place of heavier hypergolic propellant . The proposal was intended to provide a faster and lower @-@ cost alternative to the Apollo program , which was at that time proposing a direct ascent landing .

Another proposal would have used a Saturn V to achieve a direct ascent mission profile . The spacecraft consisted of four modules . The Retrograde Module would have been powered by an RL10 engine , and used to propel the spacecraft during the trans @-@ lunar coast . During landing , it would be used for the initial phases of powered descent . At an altitude of 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above the Lunar surface , the RM would have been jettisoned , and a second module , the Terminal Landing Module , would have performed the final descent . After landing , the spacecraft would have stayed on the Moon for a day , before it was propelled back to Earth . Launch from the Lunar Surface and trans @-@ Earth injection would have been performed by the Service Module , which would also have contained components of the life support system , and other systems which were located in the Equipment Module of the Earth orbit Gemini spacecraft . The Reentry Module was based on the Gemini capsule , but would have been modified to allow it to reenter the atmosphere at the higher velocity that would have been required by a Lunar flight . It was seen as the last effort by NASA managers and engineers who still advocated the direct ascent mission profile , and was intended to be cheaper , faster and safer than the Apollo lunar orbit rendezvous technique .

= = = Apollo rescue = = =

Due to the risks associated with the Lunar landing , a number of rescue spacecraft were proposed , to be used to allow the crew of an Apollo mission to return to Earth safely in the event of a problem . Many of these designs were based around the Gemini spacecraft .

One of these proposals was the Gemini Lunar Orbit Rescue Vehicle , which was designed to retrieve the crew of an Apollo spacecraft stranded in orbit around the Moon . It was to have used a stretched reentry module to accommodate the three astronauts who would have been aboard the Apollo . This would have been attached to a modified Equipment Module . The Equipment Module contained engines which would be used for Lunar orbit insertion and trans @-@ Earth injection , as well as life support equipment to keep the crew alive until they returned to Earth . Launch and trans @-@ Lunar injection would have been performed by a Saturn V. Once the spacecraft was in Lunar orbit , the Apollo crew would have boarded it by means of an EVA .

Another proposed spacecraft , the Gemini Lunar Surface Survival Shelter , was designed to be sent to the Moon ahead of an Apollo mission . It would have landed close to the planned Apollo landing site , and if the Apollo Lunar Module 's ascent stage failed to ignite , the crew would have performed an EVA to transfer to the LSSS . The shelter was not designed to take off again after landing , so an LSRS or another Apollo mission would then be sent to collect the crew , whilst the Command Module Pilot of the original Apollo mission would have returned to Earth alone aboard his spacecraft . It consisted of a Gemini Reentry Module , which would have housed the astronauts whilst they awaited rescue , and a descent stage containing life support systems , consumables , and the engine and propellant used to land the spacecraft .

The Gemini Lunar Surface Rescue Spacecraft was intended to fly a direct ascent mission , launched by a Saturn V. Descent stages , built from either the descent stage of the Apollo Lunar Module , or from the Apollo Service Module , would have reduced the spacecraft 's velocity as it approached the Moon . One configuration used two Service Modules and one LEM descent stage , with the LEM descent stage performing the final landing , and then being reused for ascent from the Lunar surface and trans @-@ Earth injection . The other configuration used three LEM descent stages , with the second being used for landing and the third for ascent and TEI . The LSRS would have landed close to the Apollo Lunar Module on the Moon , and the Apollo crew would have transferred to it by EVA .

Following the Apollo 1 fire in January 1967 , NASA conducted a safety review of the Apollo program . In response to this review , McDonnell proposed the Universal Lunar Rescue Vehicle , a repackaged version of the Lunar Surface Rescue Spacecraft with an enlarged capsule to make room for the three astronauts who were being rescued . It was intended to rescue an Apollo crew at almost any point whilst they were at the Moon , should an anomaly occur . Some ULRV designs included five seats , with two astronauts piloting it to the Moon . The proposal was considered , but rejected due to lack of funds .

= = Other proposals = =

A number of other applications were considered for the Gemini spacecraft .

= = = Manned Orbital Telescope = = =

The Manned Orbital Telescope was a proposal for a manned spacecraft for astronomical or solar observation . It would have used the larger reentry module which was also proposed for the Big Gemini spacecraft , and would have been launched on a Saturn IB . The enlarged reentry module was also considered for a spacecraft proposed at the same time , which would have been used to rescue the crews of manned spacecraft that were stranded in low Earth orbit . It would have launched atop a Titan IIIC , once in orbit it would have maneuvered by means of a Transtage integrated into the equipment module . The larger capsule would have been used to accommodate the crew of the spacecraft which required rescuing .

= = = Rendezvous with a Pegasus satellite = = =

Another proposed mission would have seen a Gemini spacecraft rendezvous with a Pegasus satellite in low Earth orbit . The spacecraft would have either been launched directly into an orbit to rendezvous with the Pegasus , or into a lower orbit , subsequently docking with an Agena , and using that to raise its orbit . The Gemini would have flown around the Pegasus , and then one of the crew would have performed an EVA to recover a piece of one of the spacecraft 's micrometeoroid detection panels . This mission would have been used to prove that rendezvous could be accomplished with any spacecraft , to collect data on the satellite 's exposure to micrometeoroids — supporting data that the satellite had returned itself , and to demonstrate technology for military flights to inspect hostile satellites .

= = = Gemini Paraglider = = =

Several missions were proposed to demonstrate methods of landing the Gemini spacecraft on land . The spacecraft had originally been designed to land using a paraglider and a set of skis or wheels , however this was abandoned in favor of splashdowns under parachutes due to delays in development and failures during testing . As the proposed Big Gemini spacecraft would have landed this way , McDonnell Aircraft asked NASA to consider flying standard Gemini spacecraft with the paraglider in order to test the system before it would be required operationally .

= = = Winged Gemini = = =

Another alternative landing concept was the US Air Force 's proposal to attach wings to the spacecraft . This proposal arose soon after the cancellation of the X @-@ 20 Dyna @-@ Soar , and would have seen a Gemini spacecraft attached to a set of wings developed during the ASSET program . This would have been launched by a Titan II rocket , and would have been unable to maneuver in orbit . Another proposal saw the spacecraft being launched by a Titan IIIA or IIIC , using the Transtage for maneuvering . Once the mission was complete , the spacecraft would have been deorbited by means of five solid rocket motors .

= = = Long @-@ duration missions = = =

There were also proposals to use the Gemini spacecraft to conduct long @-@ duration missions to small , purpose @-@ built space stations in low @-@ Earth orbit . One proposal saw a space station based on the Agena , which would have been used to provide propulsion and attitude control for the station . A pressurized module between the Agena and the docking adapter would have been used by the crew for accommodation and to conduct experiments . The crew would have boarded the Agena by means of an inflatable tunnel between the hatches and its airlock . The Pecan spacecraft was a similar proposal .

= MacPaint =

MacPaint is a bitmap @-@ based graphics painting software program developed by Apple Computer and released with the original Macintosh personal computer on January 24 , 1984 . It was sold separately for US $ 195 with its word processor counterpart , MacWrite . MacPaint was notable because it could generate graphics that could be used by other applications . Using the mouse , and the clipboard and QuickDraw picture language , pictures could be cut from MacPaint and pasted into MacWrite documents . Pictures could also be cut from MacPaint and pasted into the resource fork of any application via ResEdit , allowing application internationalization .

The original MacPaint was developed by Bill Atkinson , a member of Apple 's original Macintosh development team . Early development versions of MacPaint were called MacSketch , still retaining part of the name of its roots , LisaSketch . It was later developed by Claris , the software subsidiary of Apple which was formed in 1987 . The last version of MacPaint was version 2 @.@ 0 , released in 1988 . It was discontinued by Claris in 1998 because of diminishing sales .

= = Development = =

MacPaint was written by Bill Atkinson , a member of Apple 's original Macintosh development team . The original MacPaint consisted of 5 @,@ 804 lines of Pascal computer code , augmented by another 2 @,@ 738 lines of 68000 assembly language . MacPaint 's user interface was designed by Susan Kare , also a member of the Macintosh team . Kare also beta @-@ tested MacPaint before release .

MacPaint uses two offscreen memory buffers to avoid flicker when dragging shapes or images across the screen . One of these buffers contained the existing pixels of a document , and the other contained the pixels of its previous state . The second buffer was used as the basis of the software 's undo feature . In April 1983 , the software 's name was changed from MacSketch to MacPaint . The original MacPaint was programmed as a single @-@ document interface . The palette positions and sizes were unalterable , as was the document window . This was different from other Macintosh software at the time , which allowed the users to move windows and resize them .

The original MacPaint did not incorporate a zoom function . Instead of a zoom function , a special magnification mode called FatBits was used . FatBits showed each pixel as a clickable rectangle with a white border . The FatBits editing mode set the standard for many future editors . MacPaint included a " Goodies " menu which included the FatBits tool . This menu was named the " Aids " menu in prerelease versions , but was renamed " Goodies " as public awareness of the AIDS epidemic grew in the summer of 1983 .

= = Release and version history = =

MacPaint was first advertised in an 18 @-@ page brochure in December 1983 , following the earlier announcement of the Macintosh 128K . The Macintosh was released on January 24 , 1984 with two applications , MacPaint and MacWrite . For a special post @-@ election edition of Newsweek in November 1984 , Apple spent more than US $ 2 @.@ 5 million to buy all 39 of the advertising pages in the issue . The Newsweek advertisement included many pages dedicated to explaining how MacWrite and MacPaint worked together . After launch , a New York Times reviewer noted how MacPaint unfolded numerous graphic possibilities for the personal computer ; he went further to say " it is better than anything else of its kind offered on personal computers by a factor of 10 . "

MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was released on January 11 , 1988 by Claris . It added many improvements to the software , including the capability to open and use up to nine documents simultaneously . The original MacPaint operated as a single @-@ document application with a non @-@ movable window . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 eliminated this limitation , introducing a fully functioning document window , which could be sized up to 8 x 10 " . Several other features were introduced , such as a Zoom tool , MagicEraser tool for undo actions and stationary documents . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was developed by David Ramsey , a developer at Claris . MacPaint 2 @.@ 0 was sold for US $ 125 , with a US $ 25 upgrade available for existing users of MacPaint . Claris discontinued technical support for the original MacPaint in 1989 . Claris stopped selling MacPaint in early 1998 because of diminishing sales . There has been an unofficial update called MacPaint X which is 3 @.@ 0 beta , mainly for people who wished to be able to use the program .

Since 2010 MacPaint 1 @.@ 3 's source code ( written in a combination of Assembly and Pascal ) is available through the Computer History Museum , along with the QuickDraw source code , a library to draw bitmapped graphics , due to the support of Steve Jobs .

MacPaint inspired other companies to release similar products for other platforms ; within a year a half @-@ dozen clones existed for the Apple II and IBM PC . Some of these included Broderbund 's Dazzle Draw for the Apple II , Mouse Systems ' PC Paint for the PC , and IBM 's Color Paint for the IBM PCjr .

= = Version history = =

= Night Out ( The Office ) =

" Night Out " is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixty @-@ eighth episode overall . The episode was written by Mindy Kaling and directed by Ken Whittingham . It first aired in the United States on April 24 , 2008 on NBC . " Night Out " was viewed by a measured audience of over 7 @.@ 5 million people , bringing in the lowest number of estimated viewers that The Office received among 12 episodes . " Night Out " received mixed reviews from critics .

In the episode , Michael and Dwight travel to New York City to party with Ryan . Ryan starts acting erratically , and it is revealed that he is under the influence of drugs . Meanwhile , the remaining employees are going to be forced to work on a Saturday . Jim proposes that they work late on Friday , so they do not have to come in the next day . Once Jim and his co @-@ workers finish working , they find that they are locked in , and everyone quickly places the blame on Jim .

= = Plot = =

Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) arrives at the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the Dunder Mifflin Paper Company and is noticeably friendlier than on his previous visits . The employees , by now fed up with Ryan 's new website , angrily ask him questions about the website and their clients . Ryan shows the staff at the branch the new Dunder Mifflin website , " Dunder Mifflin Infinity 2 @.@ 0 " , the previous version of which was shut down because sexual predators had invaded the social networking component of the site . As Ryan leaves , he tells Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) of the women he meets in clubs in New York City . Michael and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) subsequently decide to go to New York , locate Ryan , attend parties with him , and try to meet women while doing so .

In New York , Michael and Dwight locate Ryan after discovering which club Ryan frequents ; Ryan is thrilled to see them but appears to be under the influence of drugs though Michael and Dwight do not notice . Later , Michael , Dwight , Ryan and Ryan 's colleague , Troy Undercook ( Noel Petok ) ( who Dwight is certain is a Hobbit due to his short stature ) wait outside another club , but fail to get in because they do not have dates . Dwight comes to the rescue when he manages to pair each of them with members of a women 's basketball team , who are also waiting in line . Inside the club , Ryan 's dancing becomes erratic and aggressive , and he accidentally hits a girl , prompting her friends to attack Ryan . Dwight and Michael escort him out of the club , and after Troy advises them not to take Ryan to a hospital , he runs off . Michael and Dwight bring Ryan back to his apartment , where he tells them that he thinks his " friend Troy " has a drug problem , and asks what he should do about it . Michael , oblivious to the fact that Ryan is obviously referring to his own drug addiction , gives him hypothetical advice involving a wiretap and snitching on a drug dealer . He then tells the camera that he has been watching The Wire but does not understand what is going on in the show .

Back in Scranton , the rest of the employees are going to be forced to work on a Saturday to record their own sales as the website 's sales , which is , according to Ryan , " a temporary procedure to increase the legitimacy of the website . " With no one eager to participate , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) decides to ask everyone to stay in the office late instead of coming in for the Saturday . They all agree to the plan , and after working until 9 : 00 pm , they are shocked to find the parking lot gates locked . Jim had forgotten to tell the security guard that they were staying late . They are unable to return to the office because Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) locked the door from the inside , and Dwight , miles away in New York , has both the spare and master keys . Jim repeatedly calls Hank the security guard ( Hugh Dane ) . Pam accidentally injures Meredith by hitting her head with a football that was found in the parking lot . Sitting in the lobby area waiting for the security guard to arrive , the employees are clearly frustrated with Jim , and even vote by a show of hands that Andy and Angela are a better couple than Jim and Pam .

During a moment of levity , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) affectionately places his hand on Pam 's knee . After an awkward silence , Toby proclaims that he is moving to Costa Rica ; he then hops the parking lot fence and runs away . The cleaning staff arrives and lets the group out ( with help from Oscar , who speaks Spanish ) .

At the end of the episode , Hank finally shows up but is upset because everyone but the cleaning staff is gone .

= = Production = =

" Night Out " was the seventh episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham . It was written by Mindy Kaling , who also acts in the show as customer @-@ service representative Kelly Kapoor . The episode was the eighth of the series to be written by Kaling . " Night Out " was the third new episode of The Office to be broadcast since the episode " The Deposition " on November 15 , 2007 , due to the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Filming of The Office immediately halted on that date , because many members of the cast including Carell , Novak , Kaling , and Lieberstein are members of the WGA and refused to cross WGA picket lines . If not for the writers ' strike , this episode would have most likely been filmed in November 2007 .

Most of " Night Out " was shot during the night . The scene that has Toby putting his hand on Pam 's knee was shot at 2 : 30 am on a Friday . The scene was shot about eight times because according to Kaling , " everyone kept breaking because Toby was so vulnerable and awkward . " Kate Flannery did her stunts in the scene where Pam throws a football and hits Customer and Supplier Relations worker Meredith Palmer ( Flannery ) in the face . Flannery had a stunt double on the set , but she was never needed for the scene . Kate recalls that she " didn 't get a scratch in all 14 takes that we shot . " Lieberstein on the other hand used a stunt double for the scene in which Toby climbs over the fence . Although Lieberstein offered to do the stunt himself , executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels decided against it .

When casting " Tall Girl # 1 " ( the woman who would kiss with Dwight ) , the show was looking for a girl 6 ' 1' ' or taller . Actress Cassie Fliegel , who is 5 ' 11 ' ' , auditioned for the part anyway . After getting a callback , Fliegel went to a gym to work out , attempting to gain muscle to look more like a basketball player . On the day of the callbacks , Fliegel remembers being next to a girl who was 6 ' 8' ' . Despite her size , Fliegel , a former basketball player herself , was cast for the part . Initially , she did not know that her character was going to make out with Dwight . Fliegel recalls that when she first heard about kissing Dwight she " was like , I don 't think so " . However , after finding out that she had her own trailer , Fliegel warmed up to the idea . The music in the club was chosen by Novak , Kaling 's then @-@ boyfriend Benjamin Nugent , and Daniel Chun . When filming Ryan dancing in the club , the girl that Ryan hit was actually a stunt woman . Pads had been placed on the floor so Novak could fall down safely . The German lullaby that Dwight sang to Ryan was script supervisor Veda Semarne 's idea . Semarne 's Austrian grandmother sang the same song to her when she was a child .

= = Reception = =

" Night Out " received 4 @.@ 0 / 10 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that four percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 56 million viewers . " Night Out " did not do as well as " Chair Model " did the week before , losing 20 percent of the previous episode 's viewers . Some attribute the loss of viewers to a lack of Grey 's Anatomy and a repeat of CSI the previous week . With 7 @.@ 69 million , " Night Out " had fewer viewers than any other episode of The Office from the fourth season , except for " Job Fair " , which garnered only 7 @.@ 16 million viewers .

Reviews for " Night Out " were mixed . Zap2It 's Rick Porter thought that although it wasn 't " as sublime in its Needy Michael @-@ ness as last week 's ( episode ) " and " in some ways , though , it was maybe even a little sadder " , " Night Out " was " still pretty darn funny " . Porter went on to praise the acting work of both B.J. Novak and Paul Lieberstein , as well as the writing of Mindy Kaling . TV Squad 's Jay Black said that Michael summed up " Night Out " perfectly when he said " Best . Night . Ever . " Black went on to praise both of the storylines , and the ability of the show to achieve success both in as well as out of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton building . Similar to Black 's statements , Gretchen Hansen of Entertainment Weekly stated that " ' Best . Night . Ever . ' Oh , so true , Michael . " She also stated that " I guess I knew it was going to be a good episode of The Office when I had two pages of scribbled notes before the first commercial break . " Hansen went on to praise both the acting and the writing of the episode as points that contributed to the success of the episode . Rachel Cericola , of TV Fodder , praised the writing of the episode by Mindy Kaling . She also praised the storyline of the episode that didn 't involve Michael and Dwight , saying " The second plotline was its usual funny filler . However , it was Toby 's revelation that made it all worthwhile . "

Travis Fickett of IGN said that the episode was " still satisfying , even when it 's not one of the show 's funnier episodes " , but " it 's a bit of a shame this episode wasn 't a home run , because having Dwight and Michael hit the clubs is a funny idea . " Fickett went on to praise the episode 's awkward moment between Toby and Pam , when Toby placed his hand on Pam 's leg , and Toby 's subsequent escape by hopping the fence . Fickett stated that , for Toby 's growing love of Pam , and growing jealousy of Jim , " this is pretty great pay off " . Claire Zulkey , a writer for the Los Angeles Times , was not as pleased with the episode . Zulkey wrote " that when it 's at its zaniest , The Office is at its worst " , and the episode was " just too silly to be funny " . Zulkey did say that " it was hilarious to see him ( Toby ) let his hand more @-@ than @-@ linger on her knee and then abruptly flee the premises by jumping over the fence and running home . " In a poll done by Office fansite OfficeTally.com , viewers ranked " Night Out " as the 13th @-@ most popular episode out of the 14 episodes of season four .

= Raining Men ( Rihanna song ) =

" Raining Men " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna from her fifth studio album , Loud ( 2010 ) . Written by Melvin Hough II , Rivelino Wouter , Timothy Thomas , Theron Thomas and Onika Maraj , and produced by Mel & Mus , the song was sent to urban radio on December 7 , 2010 , as the album 's third single in the United States , and was re @-@ sent to urban radio on January 25 , 2011 . A hip hop song , it features rap vocals by Nicki Minaj and instrumentation consisting of sirens and bass . The song 's lyrics revolve around how there is an endless supply of men available in the world . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics ; some praised the chemistry between Rihanna and Minaj , while others commented that it bore strong resemblances to Beyoncé 's song " Diva " with regard to its composition , and were critical of the notion .

Upon the release of Loud , " Raining Men " charted on the singles charts in South Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States on the strength of digital download sales . In South Korea , the song peaked at number 41 , while in the United Kingdom it peaked at number 142 on the UK Singles Chart and number 31 on the UK R & B Chart . In the United States , it peaked at number 11 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , making this Rihanna 's third single that failed to reach the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ( " We Ride " , " Wait Your Turn " ) . Following the song 's release to US urban radio , " Raining Men " peaked at number 48 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . No music video was shot for the song , and it received no televised performances as part of promotion . The song was included on the set list of the Loud Tour ( 2011 ) . The performance featured Rihanna in a camouflage inspired outfit , accompanied by dancers in the same attire who held pink rifles .

= = Recording and production = =

" Raining Men " was written by Melvin Hough II , Rivelino Wouter , Timothy Thomas , Theron Thomas and Nicki Minaj ( credited as Onika Maraj ) , with instrumental production of the song done by Mel & Mus . It features rap vocals by Minaj ; Rihanna 's and Minaj 's vocals were recorded by Kuk Harrell , Josh Gudwin , Marcos Tovar and Aerial Chobaz at Platinum Sound Recording Studios ; Manhattan , New York City ; Electric Lady Studios , Greenwich Village , New York City and Glenwood Recording Studios , Burbank , California . Koby Hassi served as the assistant vocal recorder . The song 's music was recorded by Dana Nielsen , and was mixed by Jaycen Joshua . Jesus Garnica served as the mixing assistant .

= = Conception and development = =

" Raining Men " marked the second collaboration between Rihanna 's and Minaj , the first being Minaj 's song " Fly " , from her album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) , on which Rihanna appeared as a guest vocalist . During an interview with Capital FM radio station in London , England , Rihanna revealed that herself and Minaj had written songs together , specifically ballads , for possible inclusion on the formers fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) , however none of the songs made the final track listing . Rihanna concluded her statement by saying that she could not wait to collaborate with the rapper again for her fifth studio album , the at the time unreleased and unnamed Loud . When questioned about what " Raining Men " was like , the singer stated that it is " a really fun song . Nothing like the original . It 's quite uptempo but kind of quirky and funny . "

In the same interview , Rihanna explained why she liked to collaborate with Minaj , saying " She has a great buzz and she has a ' thing ' to her . She is a star and that 's why people love her . She 's also really entertaining with her visual as well as her lyrics , and she has a great melody . " The singer continued to reveal how she was impressed with Minaj 's songwriting abilities , saying " I 'm really amazed that she can write like that . [ Nicki ] not only raps but she can write songs too ... It was really easy actually . We were going back and forth with the texts on how we were going to get to do it because we were in two different places and had two opposite schedules . " In an interview with DJ Semtex for BBC Radio , Minaj explained how the concept for her rap verse developed , revealing " I just wanted to be crazy , I wrote that track in bed actually . I had an off day , they sent me a record and said they needed it back in 24 hours and I wrote . " With regard to the original , " It 's Raining Men " , Minaj stated that she wanted to make " Raining Men " " more melodic and crazy . " " Raining Men " was sent for urban radio adds as the third single from Loud on December 7 , 2010 . On January 25 , 2011 , the song was re @-@ released for urban radio adds .

= = Composition = =

" Raining Men " is a hip hop song , with a " shiny trap beat " . that lasts for a duration of 3 : 44 ( 3 minutes , 44 seconds ) . The song is not a cover of The Weather Girls song " It 's Raining Men " , composed by Paul Jabara and Paul Shaffer , however it is based on it with regard to its lyrical content and does sample it . Instrumentation consists of sirens and " mind @-@ melting " bass . The song is written in the key of B ♭ major and is set in simple time with a moderated hip @-@ hop groove , with a metronome of 80 beats per minute . " Raining Men " ' s composition was likened to the work of M.I.A. by Emily McKay for NME . Stacey Anderson for Spin commented on Minaj 's vocal stylizaion of the word " really , " writing that she projects the word as a " breathless contortion into its own fully demented sideshow , " with regard to the fast speed in which Minaj raps . James Reed for The Boston Globe described Minaj 's verse as a " manic guest rhyme " . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of B ♭ 4 . According to Jon Pareles for The New York Times , the songs lyrics revolve around Rihanna and Minaj " singing and rapping about an endless supply of available men . " Lyrically , Kevin O 'Donnell of Spin described the song as Rihanna and Minaj 's own " female empowerment anthem .

= = Critical reception = =

The song was met with mixed reviews from music critics . Jon Pareles and Jon Caramanica of The New York Times commented that " Rihanna shares the mechanized , chattering beat of " Raining Men " with Nicki Minaj , singing and rapping about an endless supply of available men " . Stacey Anderson of Spin commented that the song is the highlight of the album , calling it " a gloriously eccentric collaboration with Nicki Minaj that entwines their minor @-@ key hyperventilating , air sirens dissolving into mind @-@ melting bass , and the scene @-@ stealing Minaj 's breathless contortion of the simple word ' really ' into its own fully demented sideshow " . BBC Music also commended Minaj 's presence on the song , saying that " Nicki Minaj makes for a superb partner in crime on Raining Men , her wild , kinetic flow complementing Rihanna ’ s steely delivery to wicked effect " . Jim Farber for New York Daily News said that " Rihanna pairs just as well with Nicki Minaj , on a complete tear @-@ down on the old Weather Girls disco standard ' It 's Raining Men . ' Here it 's not a gay song of lust but a statement of assurance that no man should incite too much worry , considering their sheer numbers " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post said that " Nicki Minaj , a quick @-@ witted rapper able to assume the voices of a dozen characters in a single song , fails to impart any wisdom on her colleague with " Raining Men " . Emily Mackay of NME said that " Raining Men " is a bold collaboration between Rihanna and Minaj , which plays to both of their strengths in the " hip @-@ pop " collaboration .

August Brown for Los Angeles Times said that " ' Cheers ( Drink to That ) ' and ' Raining Men , ' as foamy and spunky as they may be , are such a dogleg turn from Rated R that they come off as little more than image recalibration . That 's her prerogative as an artist , and it 's certainly earned . But it underscores the one thing we 've always wondered about Rihanna — what is she really feeling ? " . Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media was more critical of the song , commenting that " Raining Men is a shameless Beyoncé rip @-@ off that would be quickly dismissed if not for the fact that it 's a pretty @-@ damn @-@ good Beyoncé rip off with a characteristically scene @-@ stealing guest verse from Nicki Minaj " . James Reed of The Boston Globe also noticed the similarity between the song 's composition and the work of American R & B recording artist Beyoncé Knowles , saying " ' Raining Men ' , borrowing a digitized riff from Beyoncé 's ' Diva ' , features rising rapper Nicki Minaj on a typically manic guest rhyme . The song 's message doubles as the album 's mantra : Some cats really do have nine lives " . Idolator reviewer Becky Bain praised Minaj 's " infectious and energetic verse " and felt the song 's rhythm " fits Nicki 's quirkiness perfectly " .

= = Chart performance = =

Upon the release of Loud , " Raining Men " charted in South Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States on the strength of digital download sales . The song debuted at number 41 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart on November 14 , 2010 , and fell to number 85 the following week before dropping out of the chart . It debuted and peaked at number 142 on the UK Singles Chart on November 27 , 2010 . The song was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it peaked at number 30 in the same chart issue . " Raining Men " peaked at number 11 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , a component chart which represents the 25 songs which failed to make an impact on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song debuted at number 69 US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for the week of December 25 , 2010 . It peaked at number 48 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .

= = Live performances = =

" Raining Men " was included on the set list of the Loud Tour in 2011 . The performance featured Rihanna in a camouflage inspired outfit , and was accompanied by dancers in the same attire who held pink rifles . The set included a pink tank which was also present on the Rated R supported tour , Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 / 11 ) . It began with Rihanna appearing on stage sitting on the pink tank as it was wheeled from the back of the stage to the front while Minaj 's rap verse played ; Rihanna then concluded the song with her vocals . " Raining Men " was preceded by " Hard " and " Breakin ' Dishes " , and featured the singer wearing the same outfit and set design . Minaj has also performed her verse on her Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Loud , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .

Management

SESAC / ASCAP / BMI

Mel & Mus appears on behalf of Wall Street Ent .

Kuk Harrell appears on behalf of Suga Wuga Music , Inc .

Jaycen Joshua appears on behalf of the Penua Project / Innersound Management

Nicki Minaj appears courtesy of Young Money / Universal Motown

Recording

Vocal recording – Platinum Sound Recording Studios ( New York City , NY ) ; Electric Lady Recording Studios ( New York City , NY ) ; Glenwood Studios ( Burbank , CA )

Music recording – Cahuenga Pass Studio ( Los Angeles , CA )

Mixing – Larrabee Sound Studios ( Los Angeles , CA )

Personnel

= = Charts = =

= = Radio history = =

= Brooks Laich =

Evan Brooks Laich ( / ˈlaɪk / ; born June 23 , 1983 ) is a Canadian ice hockey player currently playing for the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .

Laich was originally drafted by the Ottawa Senators in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft , and was later traded to the Washington Capitals as part of the package for Peter Bondra . Before playing professionally , Laich spent time in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) playing with the Moose Jaw Warriors and Seattle Thunderbirds . He has represented Canada internationally , capturing a silver medal at the 2003 World Junior Championships , and playing for Canada again at the 2010 World Hockey Championships .

= = Hockey career = =

= = = Minor = = =

Laich started playing minor hockey in his hometown of Wawota , Saskatchewan . During the 1999 – 2000 season , he was the top scorer and most valuable player for the midget AAA Tisdale Trojans . He was the runner up for league MVP .

= = = Junior = = =

Laich started his junior hockey career with the Moose Jaw Warriors of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) during the 2000 – 01 season . He played in 71 games with the Warriors , scoring nine goals and adding 21 assists . Laich was a dedicated student in Moose Jaw , being awarded the club 's Scholastic Player of the Year for the 2000 – 01 season . After the season , he was drafted by the Ottawa Senators in the sixth round , 193rd overall , of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft . He started the 2001 – 02 season with the Warriors , but was traded to the Seattle Thunderbirds along with Tomáš Mojžíš for Craig Olynick and Stas Avksentiev . The deal was unpopular with Warriors fans , as Olynick left the club and Avksentiev never reported .

Laich spent the rest of his junior career with the Thunderbirds . He started to develop more of an offensive game , finishing off the 2001 – 02 season with 58 points in the 47 games he played in Seattle . Laich has said that getting traded to Seattle was a good move for him , with coach Dean Chynoweth providing ample opportunities for him to display his skills . He was named the team 's Most Dedicated Player after the 2001 – 02 season . His offensive game flourished further in his first full season with the Thunderbirds ( 2002 – 03 ) , as he finished the season with 41 goals and 53 assists , leading the team . These stats placed him sixth overall in the WHL points race . He was named the WHL 's Western Conference MVP . He was also named to the WHL 's Western Conference First All @-@ Star Team , and the Canadian Hockey League 's Third All @-@ Star Team .

= = = Professional = = =

Laich attended the Ottawa Senators training camp before the 2002 – 03 season . He played his first professional game in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) for the Binghamton Senators in 2003 . He made his National Hockey League ( NHL ) debut with the Senators on February 3 , 2003 , against the New Jersey Devils . Later in the season , Laich was traded to the Washington Capitals , along with a second round draft pick , for Peter Bondra , a deal which ended Bondra 's 14 @-@ year career with the Capitals . After the trade , he reported to the Capitals ' AHL affiliate , the Portland Pirates , making his debut with the Capitals on March 12 , 2003 , against the Chicago Blackhawks . He finished the season playing with the Pirates , appearing in six playoff games . The NHL lockout saw Laich spend the entire 2004 – 05 season with the Pirates , playing in 68 games , finishing eighth on the team in scoring with 16 goals and 10 assists .

During the 2005 – 06 season , Laich played in 104 regular season and playoff games between the Capitals and their new AHL affiliate , the Hershey Bears ; this tied him for the most games played in the organization with Boyd Gordon . After training camp , he started the season in the AHL , but was optimistic about his chances to play in the NHL , saying , " You 've just got to work hard . There 's spots up there , guys could go down with an injury , you want to be the first guy called up . " He spent most of the season at the NHL level , playing in 73 games and recording 21 points . After the Capitals ' season was over , Laich rejoined the Bears for their playoff run and scored eight goals in 21 games while helping the team capture the Calder Cup . Laich played the entire 2006 – 07 season with the Capitals , scoring eight goals and adding ten assists . After the season , Laich and the Capitals went to salary arbitration , where he was awarded a one @-@ year contract worth $ 725 @,@ 000 .

Laich played in all 82 games for the Capitals during the 2007 – 08 season , and set career highs in goals , assists and points . His 21 goals ranked third overall on the team . He led the Capitals with two short handed goals , and played in his 200th career regular season game . After a two @-@ goal game against the Atlanta Thrashers , Laich summed up his philosophy towards scoring : " If you want money , go to the bank . If you want bread , go to the bakery . If you want goals , go to the net . " During the playoffs , Laich had a five @-@ game point streak in the Eastern Conference quarter @-@ finals against the Philadelphia Flyers . This tied him for the longest point streak during the first round of the playoffs . As a restricted free agent after the season , Laich signed a three @-@ year deal with the team on July 9 , 2008 .

The 2008 – 09 season saw Laich play in all 82 games for the Capitals again , where he set new career highs in goals , assists and points ; he scored 23 goals and added 30 assists , breaking the 50 @-@ point plateau for the first time in his career . During the Capitals ' playoff run , Laich played in 14 games and added seven points . He assisted on the overtime winning goal in Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Semi @-@ Final against the eventual Stanley Cup champions Pittsburgh Penguins .

Laich 's streak of consecutive games played was broken in the 2009 – 10 season , when he missed four games with a cheekbone injury in February 2010 . He still managed to set new career highs in both goals ( 25 ) and assists ( 34 ) . On February 10 , shortly after returning from injury , Laich recorded his first career NHL hat trick , against the Montreal Canadiens . During the playoffs , Laich scored the last goal of the Capitals season during Game 7 against the Montreal Canadiens .

During the 2010 – 11 season , the Capitals participated in the 2011 NHL Winter Classic against the Pittsburgh Penguins at Heinz Field , Pittsburgh . Leading up to the game , both teams were featured on HBO 's 24 / 7 , which offered a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at both teams as they prepared . Laich refused to blame the presence of the cameras for the team 's losing streak , saying , " There 's no using the HBO cameras as a crutch or an annoyance or anything like that . There 's no excuse . I don 't think HBO has played any bit of an ounce in how things have gone the last two weeks . " Laich was appreciative of the opportunities afforded by the outdoor game , and was happy to be able to share time with his family and friends on the outdoor rink set up at Heinz Field .

On June 28 , 2011 , Laich signed a six @-@ year , $ 27 million contract extension worth $ 4 @.@ 5 million per season .

As the player representative for the Washington Capitals during the 2012 NHL @-@ NHLPA CBA negotiations , Laich stated in support of the National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) that , " At some point you have to dig your heels in and fight . If we don ’ t this time , then what happens next ? Appeasement only makes the aggressor more aggressive , and the players really understand that . We believe in our cause and our leadership and I believe we ’ re more unified this time and ready for a fight . "

Prior to the start of the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 @-@ 2013 playing season , Laich played for the Kloten Flyers of Switzerland 's National League . In 35 games for the Flyers , Laich posted 17 goals and a total of 38 points . He also reportedly suffered a groin injury , which limited his play upon his return stateside with the NHL . When play resumed for the 2012 – 13 season , Laich was limited to nine games .

On March 17 , 2014 , the Capitals announced via Twitter that Laich " underwent a successful procedure to release a tight adductor , " a part of the groin muscle . He is expected to miss the rest of the season with a recovery time of four @-@ to @-@ six weeks .

Except for a minor shoulder injury resulting in him missing 16 games , Laich returned to full health in 2014 @-@ 15 . He finished with seven goals and 20 points in 66 games played .

In the 2015 – 16 season , Laich 's offensive production rapidly declined , while his $ 4 @.@ 5 million cap hit stuck out as one of the only adverse aspects of a league @-@ leading Capitals squad . On February 27 , 2016 , the Capitals placed Laich on waivers for the purpose of sending him to the Hershey Bears of the AHL . The following day , on the eve of the trade deadline , Laich , along with Connor Carrick and a second round selection in the 2016 draft , were traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Daniel Winnik and a fifth round pick in the 2016 draft . The purpose of the trade was to give the Capitals salary cap relief to use toward younger core player contracts that needed re @-@ signing the following off @-@ season . Capitals GM Brian Maclellan called the trade , when asked , the hardest thing he had done as General Manager of the team . Laich had been the longest tenured active professional Washington @-@ area athlete at the time of the trade , concluding his service of 12 years with the franchise . In what easily stands as the most emotional trade in Capitals history since Laich was dealt to Washington in a package for Peter Bondra , one journalist wrote " It 's ironic that money is what ultimately forced the Caps to move Laich . This is a guy who loves the game so much , he 'd probably play for free . "

Laich 's play improved significantly in Toronto , recording identical numbers to what he scored in Washington while playing in a third of the games .

= = International play = =

Laich debuted with Team Canada at the 2003 World Junior Championships , which were held in Halifax , Nova Scotia . In a game against Sweden , Laich scored Canada 's first goal of the tournament . He scored two goals and added four assists in six games at the tournament , where Canada won a silver medal . According to his father , Harold , his son had always dreamed of playing for Canada . Laich 's next experience with Team Canada came at the 2010 World Championships . He scored one goal in seven games as Canada finished seventh . During the tournament in a game against Russia , Laich raised the ire of his Capitals ' teammate Semyon Varlamov for slashing and cross @-@ checking Alexander Ovechkin . Varlamov said of Laich 's play , " ... Brooks Laich was constantly trying to slash and cross @-@ check him ( Ovechkin ) as painful [ sic ] as possible . After the game he certainly wished me luck and victory at the world championship , but the unpleasant impression still remains . "

= = Playing style = =

In 2009 , Capitals ' Head Coach Bruce Boudreau believed that Laich had not yet reached his full potential , saying , " ... I still don 't think we 've seen the best of Brooks . I think he 's going to be a 25- , 30 @-@ goal scorer in this league and become a staple for a while . " Boudreau also said Laich is considered one of the hardest working players on the Capitals ' roster by his coaches and teammates . Part of Laich 's inspiration comes from his father , who , during a 34 @-@ year tenure as a high school principal , only missed three days of work . Laich plays on the Capitals power play and kills penalties in addition to his ice time at even strength . Superstar Alexander Ovechkin is the Capitals current captain , but Laich has been lauded for his leadership and was considered for a more formal role in the team 's leadership structure in 2009 .

Laich is a hard worker , and dedicated to his team , saying , " If I asked you about your family , you would talk about them forever because it 's something you love . That 's the way I feel about this team . This team is my life , and I love playing here and I 'm passionate about playing hockey . So it 's easy for me to talk about it . " Boudreau has said , " You are never going to find a guy that cares more than Brooks Laich . " Laich spends time in the off @-@ season with a power skating instructor , which he feels is key to a long career .

= = Personal life = =

Laich has two siblings , an older sister and younger brother . His father worked as a high school teacher and principal . In his free time , he plays guitar and golfs . Colorado Avalanche star Joe Sakic was Laich 's favorite player growing up . He is actively involved in charity work , supporting charities related to multiple sclerosis and Athletes Against Autism . While still playing junior hockey , Laich helped his hometown of Wawota raise money to purchase a Zamboni for the local arena .

Laich received national media attention when he stopped to help two stranded Capitals fans change their flat tire after a Game 7 loss in the 2010 playoffs . When he came across the woman and her teenaged daughter stranded on the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge , Laich stopped to install their spare and apologized for the club 's early loss in the playoffs . For his efforts , Laich was hockey analyst Michael Farber 's nominee for the 2010 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year . When asked about the incident , Laich responded , " It 's not a big deal . It was just a tire . The lady was stranded on the side of the road , I saw that it was just a lady and her daughter , and I figured my tire expertise outweighed hers . "

In February 2014 , it was revealed that he started dating professional dancer and actress Julianne Hough . On August 18 , 2015 Laich officially announced via Instagram that he and Hough were engaged .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =

Statistics source

= = = International = = =

Statistics source

= Tempus Fugit ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Tempus Fugit " is the seventeenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 16 , 1997 . It was directed by Rob Bowman , and written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter . " Tempus Fugit " featured guest appearances by Joe Spano , Tom O 'Brien and Brendan Beiser , and saw the return of Scott Bellis as alien abductee Max Fenig . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Tempus Fugit " earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 9 , being watched by 18 @.@ 85 million people in its initial broadcast . The title translates from Latin as " time flies . "

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Max Fenig — an old acquaintance of Mulder — is found dead following an airplane crash , which Mulder believes to have been caused by a UFO attempting to abduct Fenig . " Tempus Fugit " is a two @-@ part episode , with the plot continuing in the next episode , " Max " .

" Tempus Fugit " was conceived when the series ' special effects supervisor Dave Gauthier constructed an elaborate rig capable of simulating a crashing airplane . Carter and Spotnitz expanded upon the idea of a crash to bring back the character of Fenig , who had last been seen in season one 's " Fallen Angel " . " Tempus Fugit " received mixed to positive critical reception , and earned the production crew two Emmy Award nominations , including a win for Outstanding Sound Editing For A Series .

= = Plot = =

Max Fenig ( Scott Bellis ) , last seen in Fallen Angel , is traveling on an airplane , Flight 549 , which flies over upstate New York . He watches another man on the plane who seems to be following him . The man heads to the plane 's bathroom , where he assembles a zip gun . However , when he comes back out , the airplane begins shaking and a bright light flashes outside , showing that the plane is encountering a UFO . The emergency door next to Max 's seat is opened .

Elsewhere , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) celebrate Scully 's birthday . They are approached by a woman named Sharon Graffia , who claims to be Max 's sister ; she tells them that Max planned to deliver something to Mulder , but that his flight to Washington has crashed . The agents head to the crash site in Northville , New York , and attend an NTSB meeting where Flight 549 's final transmissions are shown . Mulder theorizes that the plane was forced down by aliens attempting to abduct Max ; the NTSB team , led by chief investigator Mike Millar ( Joe Spano ) , dismisses his claims .

When Mulder and Scully survey the crash site , they realize that there is a nine @-@ minute disparity between the crash and the time on the victims ' wristwatches , indicating missing time . Mulder believes that Max was abducted from the plane and that his body will not be found . Meanwhile , Scott Garrett , a Man in Black posing as an NTSB investigator , steals the zip gun from the assassin 's body and erases his face and fingerprints with acid . Larold Rehbun , a passenger who sat next to Max , is found alive . His injuries indicate exposure to radiation .

Upon being confronted by Scully , Sharon denies that Max brought a radioactive substance aboard the plane , but divulges that she is not actually Max 's sister . She also gives up details about his underground life . Scully subsequently tells Mulder that Max worked at an environmental energy plant in Colorado under an alias , and believes that he may have caused the crash after bringing plutonium on board ; Mulder , however , believes that Max was taken off the plane by a UFO , and that Rehbun 's injuries were caused by exposure to the craft . Scully informs Mulder that Max 's body has already been pulled from the crash site . Meanwhile , Sharon is abducted from her hotel room .

After identifying Max 's body , Mulder finds that the wristwatches have been stolen from the other victims . He refutes the NTSB 's official explanation of malfunction as a cause of the crash , and is doubtful that the true cause will be found unless they discern what happened during the nine minutes of missing time . The agents visit Sergeant Louis Frish ( Tom O 'Brien ) , an air traffic controller from the U.S. Air Force who was on duty during the crash . Frish denies anything unusual happened . However , after the agents leave , Frish and a colleague argue over whether to reveal the " truth " about Flight 549 's demise .

After finding Sharon 's trashed hotel room , Mulder meets with Millar , who tells him that the door was pulled off the plane from the outside while it was in flight . Later , Frish finds his colleague dead from a faked suicide . A group of commandos arrive to capture Frish , but he escapes . Frish goes to see Mulder and Scully , telling them that he lied before and that his commanding officer had ordered him to track the plane 's coordinates as it was being intercepted by a second aircraft . Seconds later , there was an explosion and the plane disappeared from his radar . Mulder believes that a third aircraft , a UFO , approached the plane and was destroyed by the second aircraft , also causing the Flight 549 crash . The agents leave with Frish and are soon chased by the commandos . Meanwhile , Millar returns to the crash site and encounters a UFO . He finds Sharon nearby , having just been returned by her abductors .

Scully returns to Washington with Frish while Mulder heads to Great Sacandaga Lake , searching for the crashed UFO . Scully brings Frish to a local bar where they run into fellow FBI agent Pendrell ( Brendan Beiser ) . The Man in Black soon enters the bar seeking to kill Frish , accidentally shooting Pendrell instead . Meanwhile , Mulder arrives at the lake where he finds a team of men already searching for the crashed UFO . He dives underwater and finds the craft , including an alien body .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

During the production of the third season , special effects supervisor Dave Gauthier constructed an elaborate mock @-@ up of a Boeing 737 airplane in order to be able to simulate a crash . Series creator Chris Carter decided to make use of this rig during the fourth season . When conceiving of the episode , the desire to add to Fox Mulder 's emotional involvement by having someone he knew on board led to the writers bringing back the character of Max Fenig to be that person .

Scott Bellis , who had previously portrayed Fenig in the first season episode " Fallen Angel " , had auditioned for other roles on the show in the interim , but had always been rejected by the producers because his character was felt to be too memorable . Bellis met series star David Duchovny at a gym several times , and learnt from him that the character of Max was being considered for a two @-@ part episode . The episode 's co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz did not want to have Fenig 's appearance " milked " or do something the show had already done . As such he came up with the idea to kill off Fenig in the first part of the episode , which he felt was " a bold choice " .

= = = Filming = = =

Gauthier 's 737 rig — which required 400 U.S. gallons ( 1 @,@ 500 L ) of hydraulic fluid to construct — was designed to move across multiple axes in order to better simulate turbulence ; it could rotate 22 degrees each way about its length , and move four feet to either side . The fuselage could be opened up at intervals every 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to better allow cameras to record inside it . The show 's producers wanted the plane crash site and investigation to be as authentic as possible , so they used a National Transportation Safety Board official to act as their technical advisor on the episode to ensure that everything was properly recreated . The NTSB officials noted that the site was authentic in every way " except for the smell " ; Carter has noted that this level of verisimilitude left some of the crew members " frightened by their work " . Director Rob Bowman admitted that the episode exceeded its given budget , noting that Carter would often defend him from Fox studio officials angry at his production costs . Bellis ' abduction scene , in which his character is levitated through the door of the airplane , was achieved by pulling the actor out of the airplane rig with a harness ; additional coverage was achieved by repeating this with a stuntman , who Bellis notes was pulled out of the rig " a lot harder " .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Tempus Fugit " premiered on the Fox network on March 16 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 14 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 9 with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 18 @.@ 85 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .

The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , rated " Tempus Fugit " an A − . Handlen praised the effectiveness of the cold open , and noted the episode highlighted how " particularly ruthless " the series was with its recurring cast , noting " the mortality rate helps to create a mood of ever @-@ encroaching doom , as if the darkness that seems about to swallow Mulder and Scully in so many scenes ... is as much symbolic as it is literal " . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Tempus Fugit " two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , describing it as " gripping " with " lots of action " . However , Vitaris felt that the fleeting use of guest star Scott Bellis was " a waste " , and that the discovery of an alien corpse towards the end " robs this story of any ambiguity " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , calling it " the best conspiracy episode we 've seen in nearly two years " . Shearman and Peason felt that " Tempus Fugit " was " told very clearly , with remarkably little baggage " , and praised the acting of guests Tom O 'Brien and Joe Spano . Twelve members of the show 's post @-@ production crew won the 1997 Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Editing For A Series for their work on this episode ; while four others received a nomination for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series .

= Pain in My Heart =

Pain in My Heart is the debut album of soul singer @-@ songwriter Otis Redding . Redding recorded for Volt Records , a subsidiary of Stax Records , based in Memphis , Tennessee . Volt LPs were initially issued on the Atco label , which released this album ( the singles were issued on the Volt label ) .

The album includes four successful singles , released in 1962 and 1963 : " These Arms of Mine " , " That 's What My Heart Needs " , " Security " , and the title track . Since Billboard did not publish an R & B singles chart from late 1963 to early 1965 , the R & B chart peaks of the latter two singles are unknown .

= = Biography = =

As a member of the Pat T. Cake and the Mighty Panthers , Redding toured in the Southern United States , mostly on the chitlin ' circuit , a string of nightclubs and dance halls hospitable to African @-@ American musicians when racial segregation of performance venues was prevalent . Guitarist Johnny Jenkins , who helped Redding win a talent contest at the Hillview Springs Social Club 15 times in row and also at the talent show " The Teenage Party " , left the band to become a featured artist with the Pinetoppers . Around this time , Redding met Phil Walden , the future founder of the recording company Phil Walden and Associates ( even though without an associate ) , and later Bobby Smith , who ran Confederate Records , a small label . He signed with Confederate and recorded his second single , " Shout Bamalama " ( a rewrite of his " Gamma Lamma " ) , with his band Otis and the Shooters . Wayne Cochran , the only solo artist signed to Confederate , became the Pinetoppers ' bass guitarist .

At the same time , Walden started to look for a record label . Atlantic Records representative Joe Galkin was interested in working with Jenkins and around 1962 proposed to send him to the Stax studio in Memphis . On the way to a Pinetoppers studio session , Redding drove for Jenkins , as the latter did not have a driver 's license . Jenkins performed with Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , and when the session ended early , Redding received the opportunity to perform two songs . The first was " Hey Hey Baby " , but studio chief Jim Stewart thought it sounded too much like Little Richard . Next , he sang " These Arms of Mine " , which became his first single for Stax . After that performance , Redding was signed by Stax .

= = Recording and release = =

Pain in My Heart includes songs from Redding 's 1962 – 1963 sessions . Stewart signed Redding for Stax and released Redding 's debut single , " These Arms of Mine " , with " Hey Hey Baby " on the B @-@ side . " These Arms of Mine " was released by Volt , a subsidiary of Stax , in October 1962 , and charted in March the following year . It was one of his most successful songs , selling more than 800 @,@ 000 copies .

In the 1963 session , " That 's What My Heart Needs " and " Mary 's Little Lamb " were recorded and cut in June 1963 ; the latter became one of the worst @-@ selling singles by Redding . Rob Bowman , in his book Soulsville , U.S.A. : The Story of Stax Records , wrote that in these two songs " Otis sings with a harsh , impassioned gospel voice reminiscent of Archie Brownlee of the Five Blind Boys of Mississippi " and further reckoned the ending of the first would have made Redding " a suberb gospel singer had he chosen to record in that idiom . " " That 's What My Heart Needs " became Redding 's second single on Stax .

The title track , recorded on September , the next year , sparked some copyright issues , as it sounded like Irma Thomas 's " Ruler of My Heart " . After a few months , " Pain in My Heart " , with the B @-@ side " Something Is Worrying Me " , peaked at number 60 on Billboard 's Hot 100 chart . Rob Bowman observed that " with ' Pain in My Heart , ' Otis 's dynamic control is front and center as he uses his voice as a horn , swelling and decreasing in volume , swallowing syllables and worrying the word ' heart . ' ... It was Otis 's most successful effort to date , commercially and aesthetically . "

The last single , " Security " , was released in April 1964 and reached number 97 on Billboard 's Hot 100 chart . According to Matthew Greenwald of Allmusic , the song is " a stinging , up @-@ tempo groover " and " showed Otis Redding stretching his funky rock & roll roots . Aided by the usual gang of Stax musicians , it 's one of his tightest early records .... [ T ] he song could have easily succeeded as an instrumental . "

The other tracks on the album are covers of popular songs , including " The Dog " , by Rufus Thomas ; " Louie Louie " , by Richard Berry ; " Lucille " , by Little Richard ; and " Stand by Me " , by Ben E. King .

Despite the alleged copyright infringement , Pain in My Heart was released on Atlantic Records ' subsidiary Atco Records on January 1 , 1964 , and peaked at number 20 on Billboard 's R & B chart and at number 85 on Billboard 's Hot 100 .

= = Reception = =

Pain in My Heart received positive critical reception . Bruce Eder of Allmusic gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , reckoning that the album " was practically a road map to Mick Jagger and any number of other would @-@ be white soul shouters in the UK " , and finding elements of hard rock in " Hey Hey Baby " . He praised Redding 's version of " You Send Me " , considering it " the least stylized of any of his renditions of [ Sam ] Cooke 's songs " , but criticized Redding 's restraint , compared to future recordings , and the " somewhat less than memorable " writing , except on " Security " , " These Arms of Mine " and " That 's What My Heart Needs " . The reviewer concluded by saying " Redding exudes astonishing power , energy and boldness " .

A review of several albums by Redding in Rolling Stone magazine observed that " [ t ] he title track on [ Pain in My Heart ] set the pattern for all his ballads to come — Otis triumphed at rendering agony . Signs of the singer 's virtuosity are already apparent in the almost teasing way he lingers over some lyrics and spits out others ; virtually never would he sing a line the same way twice " . The review gave the album 4 out of 5 stars .

When Redding performed " These Arms of Mine " during his first session at Stax , witth Jenkins on guitar and Steve Cropper on piano , producer Jim Stewart praised his performance and noted , " Everybody was fixin ' to go home , but Joe Galkin insisted we give Otis a listen . There was something different about [ the ballad ] . He really poured his soul into it . "

= = Track listing = =

= = Musicians = =

Otis Redding - vocals

Booker T. Jones - keyboards , organ , piano

Isaac Hayes - keyboards , piano

Steve Cropper - guitar , keyboards , piano

Donald Dunn - bass

Al Jackson , Jr . - drums

Johnny Jenkins - guitar

Lewis Steinberg - bass

Wayne Jackson - trumpet

Charles Axton - tenor sax

Floyd Newman - baritone sax

= = Charts = =

= Southampton town walls =

Southampton 's town walls are a sequence of defensive structures built around the town in southern England . Although earlier Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon settlements around Southampton had been fortified with walls or ditches , the later walls originate with the move of the town to the current site in the 10th century . This new town was defended by banks , ditches and the natural curve of the river and coastline . The Normans built a castle in Southampton but made no attempts to improve the wider defences of the town until the early 13th century , when Southampton 's growing prosperity as a trading centre and conflict with France encouraged the construction of a number of gatehouses and stone walls to the north and east sides of the settlement .

In 1338 Southampton was raided by French forces ; the town 's defences proved inadequate , particularly along the quays on the west and south of the city . Edward III ordered some immediate improvements to Southampton 's town walls but it was not until the 1360s that substantial work began . Over the coming decades the town was entirely enclosed by a 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ) long stone wall , with 29 towers and eight gates . With the advent of gunpowder weapons in the 1360s and 1370s , Southampton was one of the first towns in England to install the new technology to existing fortifications and to build new towers specifically to house cannon .

Southampton 's town walls remained an important defensive feature during the 15th century , the gatehouses sometimes being used as important civic facilities , including acting as the town 's guildhall and housing the town 's gaol . From the end of the 17th century their importance steadily declined and the walls were slowly demolished or adapted for other uses throughout the 18th and 19th centuries . This process continued into the early 20th century until , in the post @-@ war years , the walls were recognised as an important historical feature of Southampton . Conservation projects have since occurred and the walls are now promoted as a tourist attraction .

= = History = =

= = = 1st – 10th centuries = = =

Several earlier settlements were built near modern Southampton featuring protective town walls . Following the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43 the fortress settlement of Clausentum was established . It was an important trading port and a defensive outpost for the town of Winchester , located on the site of Bitterne Manor , today a suburb of modern Southampton . Clausentum was defended on its eastern , landwards side by a flint stone wall and two ditches . After the fall of the Roman Empire , in the 7th and 8th centuries the Anglo @-@ Saxons built a planned settlement called Hamwic , close to the current location of Southampton , approximately on the location of the later St Mary 's church . At least some parts of this burh town had a ditch dug around it , 3 m ( 10 feet ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 feet ) deep , and possibly was defended by a bank of earth . In the 10th century , Viking raids prompted the settlement of Southampton to move to its current location .

= = = 11th – 13th centuries = = =

By the time that the Normans conquered England in 1066 , the town of Southampton occupied a rectangular area overlooking the mouth of the River Test , an important medieval waterway . It was protected by water on most sides and by protective ditches and banks to the north and east . Southampton at this time was a relatively large town , but not as significant as in the later medieval period . The Normans built a castle within the town on the site of a probable large English hall , and considerable damage was caused to the surrounding local buildings as space was opened up for the new fortification .

During the years of the Anarchy , in which the Empress Matilda and Stephen fought for control of England , Southampton was held by William le Gros , the Bishop of Winchester and a supporter of Stephen . When Henry II came to the throne in 1153 , he took back Southampton and carried out improvements to the castle , as part of his attempt to improve the general standard of security in the south . By the second half of the 12th century , Southampton was increasingly important for coastal defence and as a base for operations on the continent . Following the threat of French invasion in the 1170s , Henry II invested modest additional resources in the castle , but no efforts were undertaken to improve the town 's ditches and banks .

By the 12th century , Southampton was an important trading port with trade routes to Normandy , the Levant and Gascony . Both the town and castle played an important role in this trade , in part forming a warehouse for the king 's imports , this process being managed by a Crown Bailiff . The former castle hall was turned into a subterranean vault in the 13th century , probably for storing wine . Stone houses , often combining accommodation and storage facilities , began to be built in Southampton by the wealthiest merchants , particularly in the prosperous western and southern parts of the town , but these properties could not be easily defended against attack .

The English Channel was contested militarily between England and France during the 13th century , and Southampton was both an important base for naval operations and a tempting target for raiders . At the start of the 13th century additional work was therefore conducted to improve the town 's defences ; the king granted £ 100 in 1202 and again in 1203 to help develop the earth banks around the town . By 1217 East Gate had been built , probably of stone . In 1260 a murage grant was given to Southampton by Edward I , allowing the town to tax selected imports to build and maintain new stone walls ; these initial murage grants ran from 1260 to 1275 and were then renewed between 1282 and 1285 and from 1286 to 1291 . By the end of this work , many of the earth banks in the north and east of the town had been converted to stone . There appears to have been little interest in defending the west and south quays , however , probably because doing so would have hampered Southampton 's merchants when they moved their trading goods in and out of the town .

= = = 14th century = = =

By 1300 , Southampton was a major port and a large provincial town , with a population of around 5 @,@ 000 . The raising of money through murage grants began again in 1321 , possibly paying for the stone towers of the Bargate and some of the semi @-@ circular wall towers . Work also appears to have begun on some stone walling to the south and west of the town , construction may have begun at the South Gate and a wooden barbican was constructed near the western docks . Later investigations by the Crown would suggest that some of the monies raised in these murage grants had been misspent , however , contributing to the poor standard of town defences , which included large gaps in the walled circuit .

In 1338 there was a successful French attack on Southampton : the town 's defences , particularly in the west , proved quite inadequate and the French succeeded in burning numerous buildings down , particularly along the western quays , and damaging the castle . Edward III responded to the raid by taking immediate steps to shore up Southampton 's defences and ordering the town to be fully enclosed by stone walls . In 1339 the sheriff conscripted workmen and specialists to improve the defences , and money to pay for the building materials was raised by commuting the prison sentence of a senior official in Southampton to a fine . Murage grants were reinstated in 1345 , but the economy of Southampton had been temporarily devastated by the raids and indeed never fully recovered . The king 's instructions to fully enclose the town with walls could not be carried out . Nonetheless , by the 1350s , Southampton had mounted mangonel and springald siege engines on the existing walls .

In 1360 the king conducted an inquiry into Southampton 's defences and in 1363 he established a wider commission to examine how best to improve them . The commission came to a number of conclusions : the town walls should be better maintained and kept clear of housing and other obstructions ; the number of gateways in the walls should be reduced ; and a water @-@ filled ditch should be built to further reinforce the walls on the west . The enquiry also concluded that the outer doors and ground floor windows of properties facing the sea should be filled in to form a more defensible line .

The resulting work on Southampton 's defences resulted in considerable improvements : by the late 14th century , the town was completely encircled by 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 miles ) of stone walls . Some existing buildings , including a dovecote , were reinforced and pressed into service as part of the defences . South Gate was built to protect the southern quays , with a wide archway , complete with parapets and machicolations . The building work proved very expensive , however , and despite the mayor and bailiffs enforcing contributions and assistance from the citizens , Parliament had to be asked several times in the 1370s to assist by remitting arrears of taxes owed by Southampton .

In 1370 the French made a successful attack on Portsmouth , commencing a new sequence of raids along the English coast . In due course first Edward , then Richard II , responded by improving the defences in the south of England . Part of this involved improving the condition of Southampton Castle , where , owing in part to the theft of building materials , including stone and lead , by the citizens of the town , the defences were in a poor condition . Henry Yevele , who oversaw the improvements to the castle , probably also constructed the Arcades along the western walls in 1380 : this involved adopting the 1360 proposal to block up the properties along the western quay to form a solid wall , and adding three towers and gunports . Sir John Sondes and John Polymond were appointed by the king in 1386 to further improve the town walls , working with Sir John Arundel , the castle governor – Polymond and Arundel Towers were probably named after these men around this time .

One of the major changes from the 1370s onwards was the adaptation of the town walls to mount gunpowder weapons . At this time cannon were still unreliable , only capable of reaching relatively short ranges and required the construction of specialist gunports . Cannons fired stone cannonballs , which did relatively little damage to stronger stone walls , and so were primarily used in defence of fortifications rather than as an offensive weapon by besiegers . The first gunports in Britain were installed in the 1360s on the Isle of Wight , but Southampton was not far behind . Around 1378 to 1379 the ongoing French threat led to gunports for handguns being built into the western Arcade wall , and by 1382 the town bought its own gun . God 's House Tower was built to defend the southern quays around 1417 and the sluices that controlled the level of the town 's moats , and equipped with numerous gunports rooftop firing points , and by 1439 Catchcold tower had also been constructed , again designed to accommodate gunpowder weapons .

Another change in the 1370s was the formalisation of the process of guarding and maintaining the walls . During the invasion scare of 1377 , Edward instructed the mayor to review these processes ; it appears that the four wards of the town were surveyed , and each property was assigned a piece of the wall to maintain , varying according to the size of the property . For these purposes , the walls were measured out in units called loupes , or embrasures . The four wards were also responsible for the security and policing of the town .

= = = 15th – 16th centuries = = =

The threat of French attack continued throughout the 15th century . Instead of relying on murage grants , more funds for the town walls were directly granted by the king in 1400 , including an ongoing annual grant of £ 100 . Concerns increased significantly after the invasion scare of 1457 , when French troops successfully attacked the town of Sandwich on the south coast . Indeed , the guns on Southampton 's walls were fired at French raiding ships the same year . The walls continued to be maintained for the rest of the century , with £ 40 being allocated annually between 1478 and 1485 for this purpose . By contrast , the castle fell into a rapid decline and its inner bailey became used first as a rubbish tip , then for small @-@ scale agriculture .

Nonetheless , a report on the quality of the walls around 1460 noted that on the north and east sides of Southampton , the walls were still too thin to block a cannon shot or for a man to stand on them ; a wood and earth wall @-@ walk had been built behind the walls , but this was proving very expensive to maintain . This contemporary assessment of the weakness of the eastern walls has been confirmed by modern archaeological excavation – in places it was only 0 @.@ 76 m ( 2 @.@ 49 feet ) thick , compared to a typical thickness in other English town walls of around 1 m ( 3 @.@ 28 feet ) .

A survey in 1454 , undertaken against the background of another French invasion scare , shows that the 1377 system for maintaining the walls was still in operation . A town gunner had also been appointed by the 15th century , earning the highest salary of any local official and was responsible for maintaining the guns and manufacturing gunpowder . As late as the mid @-@ 16th century , additional improved rectangular gunports , similar to those on the Device Forts along the Channel , were added to the West Gate by the quays .

Several of the gatehouses played an important part in the administration of the town in the 15th century . South Gate formed the main administrative centre for the port during the period , housing the Clerk of the King 's Ships and collecting customs revenue . It was expanded in the 1430s and 1440s , but was in poor condition again by the 1480s , resulting in fresh construction work around the site . Bargate was partially used as a prison from the 15th century , in a similar fashion to many other towns . The first floor of the building had been used as the town 's guildhall from at least 1441 onwards , and the treasury was kept in one of the towers . Elaborate feasts were served there on special occasions .

= = = 17th – 20th centuries = = =

The town walls became less important for defence in the 17th century , although in 1633 , a footpath was built around the inside of the wall to help the watch and other law officers better pursue vagrants and criminals . The walls fared better than Southampton Castle , which was sold off to property speculators in 1618 , but they played no part in the English Civil War . Some of the masonry from the castle was reused to strengthen the town walls in 1650 during the Third English Civil War .

In the 18th century onwards the town walls were often adapted for new uses or simply demolished . As early as 1641 , the chapel above East Gate had been leased out to private tenants . By 1707 , part of God 's House tower was being used as a prison ; from 1786 it became the official town gaol . As the century progressed , East Gate was demolished in 1774 , South Gate was mostly demolished in 1803 and Biddles Gate shortly afterwards , along with large sections of adjacent wall .

As the 19th century progressed , the destruction and remodelling of the town walls continued . The upper stories of Polymond Tower were demolished in the 1820s , to be rebuilt by 1846 as a shorter , two @-@ storey tower . The remains of the South Gate were turned into a hotel . God 's House tower continued to be used as a gaol , but was criticised by inspectors . An 1823 report described it as an " old and very awkward " facility , containing around a dozen prisoners in damp conditions , and where it was hard to separate the male and female prisoners in an appropriate fashion . In 1855 its role as a gaol was concluded , and the building fell into disuse .

In other areas , civic improvements were attempted . In 1853 the " Forty Steps " were built down the side of the west walls to make access to the town easier . Parts of the Arcades were blocked up to prevent homeless people from sleeping under the arches and disturbing the neighbourhood . The Bargate ceased to be used as the guildhall in 1888 and was heavily restored by the town in what was felt to be a more consistent medieval style .

The urban growth of Southampton , as in many English walled towns and cities , put considerable pressure on the older fortifications . In 1898 to 1899 , for example , parts of the wall west of Biddles Gate , including a square tower , were demolished to create the Western Esplanade road . By the second half of the century , the Bargate and the surrounding walls were creating serious traffic congestion ; various options were considered to relieve this including demolition , but it was not until the 1930s that the decision was made to retain the gatehouse , but to destroy the walls on either side .

Some parts of the Southampton walls were used to mount searchlights and machineguns on during the Second World War ; the walls escaped damage , unlike many other areas of the medieval city . In the post @-@ war period the historic importance of the town walls was recognised and considerable conservation work has been conducted on the walls , including reversing the Victorian alterations to the Arcades . The town walls became seen as an important part of Southampton 's tourist industry ; health and safety concerns , however , prohibit tourists walking along most of the circuit . God 's House tower reopened in 1961 opened as Southampton 's Museum of Archaeology . Today the walls are protected as grade I listed buildings and as a scheduled monument .

= = Architecture = =

Around half the length of the 2 km ( 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ) long medieval town walls still survives in the 21st century , mainly on the north and west sides of Southampton , together with 13 of the 29 defensive towers and six out of the eight gates . The towers are a combination of circular and square designs , with many showing an " open @-@ gorged " design , similar to those built in North Wales , that could be isolated from the rest of the walls by removing small wooden bridges . In general the town walls at Southampton were poorly built in a somewhat chaotic fashion over several years . By contrast , the surviving gatehouses are sophisticated and well designed , probably as a result of their civic importance . Historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham describe the surviving walls as " extremely well preserved " and containing " unique survivals in a British context " .

In the south @-@ east corner of the walls is God 's House tower . This is architecturally important as it was one of the first urban buildings to be built to hold gunpowder artillery – in this respect , it closely resembles Cow Tower in Norwich . The tower was built alongside God 's House Gate and is three storeys high . The gunports designed for handcannon can be seen on the outside , and the roof was designed to hold larger cannon . Adjacent to the tower is God 's House Gate , a two @-@ storey building also equipped with a gun @-@ port .

Little remains of the eastern walls , but in the north @-@ east corner several towers still remain largely intact , including Polymond tower , a powerful drum tower largely reconstructed during the Victorian period . Further west is the Bargate ; this was originally a simple archway but was expanded with drum towers and arrow slits in the early 14th century , and then expanded again in the early 15th century with battlements and parapets , before being heavily restored in the 19th century . The Bargate remains an elaborate building , taking military symbolism and combining it with rich civic heraldry and decoration above the gateway .

At the north @-@ west corner of the walls stands Arundel tower , another large drum tower that originally overlooked a small cliff . South of this is Catchcold tower . Catchcold tower was designed to be defended with guns and has three gunports ; the need to support cannon leaves it much heavier in appearance than the other circular towers on the walls . The remains of machine gun mountings fitted to the tower in 1941 can still be seen . The Arcades form part of the surviving west walls and are a unique feature in England ; their closest architectural equivalent are in Rouen , France . The West Gate still stands three storeys high and was originally defended by two portcullises ; the windows on the west side of the gate are the original medieval designs . Along the south side of the walls one of the twin towers protecting the South Gate still stands , largely intact .

= Peter 's Two Dads =

" Peter 's Two Dads " is the tenth episode of the fifth season of Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox on February 11 , 2007 . The plot follows Peter traveling to Ireland to find his biological father , after he accidentally kills his stepfather at his daughter 's birthday party . Meanwhile , Stewie undergoes a phase of selfishness , believing everything belongs to him . This results in Lois spanking him , which makes him realize he is a masochist . Also , Meg turns 17 in the episode .

The episode was written by Danny Smith and directed by Cyndi Tang , with Greg Lovell as co @-@ director . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Dan Conroy , Phyllis Diller , Charles Durning and Fred Tatasciore . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics , for the episode 's song entitled " Drunken Irish Dad " , at the 59th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards .

= = Plot = =

Meg asks Lois and Peter if she can have a birthday party , preferably a teenager @-@ type party with a band playing at her house . Unfortunately , Peter and Lois don 't even know how old Meg is going to be . They have bought sixteen candles , but Meg overreacts when telling them that she is turning seventeen years old , and calls them jerks . Meg notices that her birthday party is kiddie @-@ type , with games such as Pin the Tail on the Donkey . At the party , Peter dresses up as " Pee Pants the Inebriated Hobo Clown " , " an adorable tramp who wears found clothing and eats out of your garbage can " . Peter then tells Meg that he got her a scarf for her birthday . Meg declines , while Peter then says he got her " a dozen scarves " which Peter then proceeds to regurgitate as one long scarf , as he has actually tied and swallowed them ( which Lois says he was not supposed to do ) . This causes him to cough and vomit . Peter hands Meg the long scarf from his tongue , but Meg refuses to hold it . Peter then urges Meg to hold them , and then asks if his long johns are tied to the end of them . When Meg says they are not , Peter then says " Oh , god " and regurgitates them as well , and then crouches in pain following the ordeal . Meg asks Lois if she can open her gifts , and Meg notices Stewie opening most of them . Peter gets drunk , and attempts to ride a unicycle down the steps , but falls off and crushes his father , Francis , who later dies in the hospital from the accident . Just before Francis dies , he calls Peter " a fat stinking drunk " .

Peter is disappointed since Francis did not care about him – so he gives up drinking and does crack instead . Brian notices this , and tells Peter that crack is not a good substitute for drinking . As a result , Peter sees a hypnotherapist , who helps him discover that Francis was not his biological father . When Peter goes to his mom , Thelma Griffin , about it , she reveals that she had an affair with Irish man named Mickey McFinnigan and that Mickey is Peter 's biological father .

Brian and Peter travel to a village in Ireland to find Mickey , who they discover is the town drunk . At first horrified , Peter finds out it is considered an honorable position in Ireland by the locals . Mickey refuses to believe that Peter is his son and mocks him . When Peter sees the ghosts of Yoda , Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Francis and Hayden Christensen , the first three call him a " fat stinking drunk " , Francis ' last words to Peter , which gives him an idea . In an attempt to persuade him , Peter challenges Mickey to a drinking contest , which Peter wins . During the contest , Peter and Mickey talk about American looks and diet in a drunk language . After the contest Mickey finally believes that Peter is his son , feeling that nobody but a member of his own family could beat him in something like a drinking contest . Although Peter 's excited to have formed a bond with his real father , Brian points out that while Francis may not have been Peter 's real father ( and obviously wasn 't the nicest person ever ) , he did raise Peter like he was his own son , showing that deep down , Francis really did love Peter . After Mickey says " So what ? " to Peter 's statement , " You knocked up my mom and never called her again . " Peter says " So what ? So let 's dance ! " . Peter , Mickey and the Irish crowd enter dancing and singing to " Drunken Irish Dad . " During the last few seconds of the dance , Mickey states that the Irish do not tan well .

= = = Subplot = = =

Lois spanks Stewie while going through his " it 's mine " phase , claiming everything in the house as his own . At first he is traumatized by the ordeal , but he soon comes to realize that he likes the adrenaline rush that he gets from them , and starts deliberately misbehaving in the hope that Lois will hurt him again , but fails yet realizing he has a problem .

= = Production = =

This episode marks the third appearance of Francis Griffin . As of now , episode writer and series co @-@ executive producer Danny Smith has written all Family Guy episodes to date to feature Francis when he was alive . Show creator Seth MacFarlane comments that the episode came together and played great from start to finish . Prior to the making of the episode , there had been several different ideas and disagreements for Peter 's father 's appearance . MacFarlane comments that he had always pictured Peter 's father to be a fat , drunk leprechaun . The negativity of Francis was becoming " dull to write for " , hence the storyline of Peter finding his biological father . MacFarlane also mentions not having ideas to write for Kevin , Joe Swanson 's son , who was mentioned in a later episode that he died in the war of Iraq ( Stew @-@ Roids ) . A deleted scene showed Peter pretending to quit drinking , but continuing quietly was one of several scenes that was removed from airing as it and the others were described by the producers to be " not going anywhere . "

The scene with Peter in the hypnotherapist 's office was censored from television , as Peter discusses his genitals and reproductive organs . When Peter comes to the realization that Francis is not his real father and when Stewie dreams about being tortured by Lois , a harp sound can be heard ; MacFarlane comments that even small things like that take a lot of work to produce . The alcohol bottles being pushed by the airplane that Peter and Brian are traveling on were animated by computer , as is the taxi driving along the street . On the DVD commentary , MacFarlane notes that the scene would not have looked good without computer aid . He said it makes the animations seem more realistic than without a computer . The two men circling each other for fifty years and waiting for the other to throw the first punch was not broadcast for television .

In addition to the regular cast , actor Dan Conroy , actress Phyllis Diller , actor Charles Durning , and voice actor Fred Tatasciore guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alex Breckenridge , Chris Cox , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances .

= = Cultural references = =

Stewie draws a picture of David Tua on the wall to try to get Lois to hit him . It also mocks the main character 's decisions in Pet Sematary when Peter buried Francis ' body at the same cemetery to resurrect him , but decided against it after Francis , as a zombie , jumped out of the grave in a jump scare , remarking " Okay , maybe I 'll bury him in a regular cemetery . " Peter briefly transforms into Wonder Woman after discovering his biological father is not Francis : this is a reference to Wonder Woman , and although the show could not receive rights to reproduce the original music , the scene was still broadcast . Before Peter and Brian leave to Ireland , Meg tells Peter she loves him , in which he replies , " That 'll do pig , that 'll do " , which is a reference to the film Babe . When Francis showed up as a ghost along with Yoda and Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Hayden Christensen said " And I 'm Hayden Christensen " , as a reference to the ending of Return of the Jedi in the remastered DVD . The song Chris and Herbert sing at the party and up in a tree is " Friends and Lovers " by Gloria Loring and Carl Anderson .

= = Reception = =

In a significant decrease from the previous week , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 2 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , being slightly edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! .

A reviewer from Boxxet commented that " when I checked the schedule and saw the title of this episode was ' Peter 's Two Dads ' , I was a little torn . First , the Peter @-@ centric episodes generally have a much higher chance of going off the rails , " following on to comment that " the episode that we did see still left me with something of a mixed reaction . " concluding with a positive comment that the episode " was well constructed . "

IGN 's Ahsan Haque noted that " despite a couple of underdeveloped plotlines and an overabundance of offensive and uncomfortable jokes , this week 's episode of Family Guy somehow manages to succeed with just enough truly hilarious moments and actual story elements . " MacFarlane has said that this is one of his favorite episodes , alongside " PTV " and " Road to Rhode Island . "

= Black mamba =

The black mamba ( Dendroaspis polylepis ) is a large and extremely venomous snake endemic to parts of sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Specimens vary in color from grey to dark brown , but not black . Juvenile black mambas tend to be lighter in color than adults and darken with age . It is the longest species of venomous snake indigenous to the African continent ; mature specimens generally exceed 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and commonly attain 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Specimens of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ) have been reported .

Although most mamba species are tree @-@ dwelling snakes , the black mamba is not generally arboreal , preferring lairs in terrestrial habitats in a range of terrains . These include savannah , woodlands , rocky slopes and in some regions dense forest . It is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator , known to prey on hyrax , bushbabies and other small mammals as well as birds . It is also a pursuit predator ; in this it resembles some other long , speedy , highly @-@ venomous species with well @-@ developed vision . Over suitable surfaces it is possibly the speediest species of snake , capable of at least 11 km / h ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) over short distances . Adult mambas have few natural predators .

In a threat display , the mamba usually opens its inky black mouth , spreads its narrow neck @-@ flap and sometimes hisses . It is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession . Its venom is primarily composed of potent neurotoxins which may cause fast onset of symptoms . Despite its reputation for being formidable and highly aggressive , like most snakes , it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered . Not being proximal to humans , bites from the black mamba are not frequent .

= = Taxonomy = =

The black mamba is the species Dendroaspis polylepis in the genus Dendroaspis of the family Elapidae . The first formal description was by Albert Günther in 1864 . Although it had been known previously to missionaries and residents by the name " mamba " . Which was already established in the vernacular , presumably borrowed from the Zulu language . In 1873 , Wilhelm Peters described two subspecies : the nominotypical D.polylepis polylepis and also D.polylepis antinorii . However , these are no longer held to be distinct . In 1896 , Boulenger combined the species ( Dendroaspis polylepis ) as a whole with the eastern green mamba ( Dendroaspis angusticeps ) , a lumping diagnosis that remained in force until 1946 , when FitzSimons split them into separate species again .

The generic name , Dendroaspis , derives from Ancient Greek dendro ( δένδρο ) , meaning " tree " , and aspis ( ασπίς ) , which is understood to mean " shield " , but also denotes " cobra " or simply " snake " , in particular " snake with hood ( shield ) " . Via Latin aspis , it is the source of the English word " asp " . In ancient texts , aspis or asp often referred to the Egyptian cobra ( Naja haje ) , in reference to its shield @-@ like hood . Thus , " Dendroaspis " literally means tree asp , reflecting the arboreal nature of most of the species within the genus .

The specific epithet polylepis is derived from the Ancient Greek poly meaning " many " and lepis meaning " scale " . It apparently refers to the scale count of this species , which is higher than some other species in the genus .

= = Description = =

Dendroaspis polylepis is a large , round @-@ bodied , slender , but powerful snake . It tapers smoothly towards the tail , but is of markedly more robust build than its distinctly gracile congeners Dendroaspis angusticeps and Dendroaspis viridis . The head is often said to be " coffin @-@ shaped " with a somewhat pronounced brow ridge and a medium @-@ sized eye . It is a highly proteroglyphous snake , with fangs up to 6 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) in length located at the front of the maxilla . The adult snake 's length ranges from 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) to 3 meters ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) routinely but , according to some sources , specimens have grown to lengths of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 14 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 8 ft ) . Black mambas weigh about 1 @.@ 6 kilograms ( 3 @.@ 5 lb ) on average . A specimen of 1 @.@ 41 meters ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) was found to have weighed 651 @.@ 7 g ( 1 @.@ 437 lb ) . Dendroaspis polylepis is the second longest venomous snake species , exceeded in length only by the king cobra .

In spite of its common name , the black mamba is not actually black ; in fact the interior of the snake 's mouth is its only conspicuously black feature . Specimens vary considerably in color ; some are olive @-@ brown to khaki , many are grey , and some individuals display dark mottling towards the posterior . Such mottling may appear in the form of oblique bars . The underbody is often pale yellow or cream colored and the eyes are dark brown to black with a silver or pale yellow corona surrounding the pupil . Juvenile snakes are lighter in color than adults , typically grey or olive green in appearance , and they darken with age .

The " black " mamba has been said to take its name from the color of the inside of its mouth , but this claim is an urban legend , a factoid that lacks objective or historical support . In particular , it was referred to as the " black mamba " decades before knowledge of the color of its oral mucosa was in common circulation . Common names for mambas are to be taken no more seriously than any other common names , and we find for example that attempts to impose the more logical common name " common mamba " for the " black mamba " , which after all is not black , have been abandoned in favor of applying " common mamba " to the Eastern green mamba , Dendroaspis angusticeps . In the mean time , since the late twentieth century , some authors have unquestioningly copied the claim that the name derived from the color of its open mouth .

= = = Scalation = = =

Like most Elapidae , the scales of the black mamba are smooth and flat , without keels . Most specimens feature 23 – 25 rows of scales , but rarely as few as 21 .

The head , body and tail scalation of the black mamba :

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The black mamba has a wide and fragmented range within sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Specifically , it has been observed in : north east Democratic Republic of the Congo , south western Sudan to Ethiopia , Eritrea , Somalia , Kenya , eastern Uganda , Tanzania , Burundi , Rwanda , southwards to Mozambique , Swaziland , Malawi , Zambia , Zimbabwe and Botswana to KwaZulu @-@ Natal in South Africa , and Namibia ; then north easterly through Angola to south eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo . The black mamba 's distribution contains gaps within the Central African Republic , Chad , Nigeria and Mali . These gaps may lead physicians to misidentify black mamba bites and administer an inappropriate antivenom .

The black mamba was also recorded in 1954 in West Africa , in the Dakar region of Senegal . However , this observation , and a subsequent observation that identified a second specimen in the region in 1956 , has not been confirmed and thus the snake 's distribution in this area is inconclusive . The black mamba is not commonly found at altitudes above 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , although its distribution does reach 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in Kenya and 1 @,@ 650 metres ( 5 @,@ 410 ft ) in Zambia .

The black mamba is primarily terrestrial , but occasionally arboreal , especially where it occurs in forest . Typically it inhabits neglected areas of scrub , termite mounds , abandoned burrows and rock crevices . It is adapted to terrain ranging from savannah and woodland to rocky slopes and dense forests . The black mamba prefers moderately dry environments such as light woodland and scrub , rocky outcrops , and semi @-@ arid dry savannah , to dense forest or arid desert .

= = Behaviour and ecology = =

The black mamba is graceful but skittish and often unpredictable . It is agile and can move quickly . It is shy and secretive by nature and , like most snakes , avoids threats . In the wild , a black mamba seldom tolerates humans approaching more closely than about 40 meters . When confronted it can display great truculence and is likely to gape in a threat display , exposing its black mouth and flicking its tongue . It also is likely to form a hood by spreading its neck @-@ flap as cobras do . The mamba 's hood however , is narrower than that of a typical cobra . The threat display may be accompanied by audible hissing .

During the threat display , any sudden movement by the intruder may provoke the mamba into a series of rapid strikes leading to severe envenomation . Also , the size of the black mamba , plus its ability to raise its head well off the ground , enable it to launch as much as 40 % of its body length upwards , so that mamba bites in humans quite often are on the upper body , and correspondingly are likely to be difficult to treat . This behaviour also permits the snake to land a strike at unexpectedly long range . The black mamba 's reputed readiness to attack is often much exaggerated and usually is provoked by perceived threats , such as blocking its intended retreat , accidentally or otherwise .

= = = Speed = = =

For its slender body , the black mamba is deceptively powerful ; it is the fastest moving snake indigenous to Africa , and perhaps the fastest anywhere . It does however , move rather clumsily over soft sand , a surface to which it is not adapted . There have been many unrealistic stories concerning the black mamba 's speed , perhaps partly because the slender body exaggerates the impression of speed . These stories include the myth that it can outrun a galloping horse or a running human . On 23 April 1906 , on the Serengeti Plains , an intentionally provoked black mamba was recorded at a speed of 11 km / h ( 6 @.@ 8 mph ) , over a distance of 43 m ( 141 ft ) . A black mamba would almost certainly not be able to exceed 16 km / h ( 9 @.@ 9 mph ) , and like most reptiles it can maintain such relatively high speeds only for short distances .

= = = Diet = = =

The black mamba is diurnal and chiefly an ambush predator , though it has been recorded as hunting partly by pursuit , such as catching pigeons at a watering hole before they can gain sufficient height to escape . It usually goes hunting from a permanent lair , to which it will regularly return to providing that the hunting is good and it is not disturbed . It hunts mainly by sight and in doing so it commonly will raise much of its length well off the ground . The black mamba does not typically hold onto prey after biting , instead releasing its quarry and waiting for it to succumb to paralysis and die . This however depends on the type of prey ; for example , it typically will hold onto a bird till it stops struggling to escape . If prey attempts to escape or defend itself , the black mamba often may follow up its initial bite with a rapid series of strikes to incapacitate and quickly kill its prey . The snake has been known to prey on hyrax and rock hyrax , bushbabies , and bats . The black mamba has a potent digestive system and has been observed to digest prey fully within eight to ten hours .

= = = Predators = = =

Not many predators challenge an adult black mamba although it does face a few threats such as birds of prey , particularly snake eagles . Although all species of snake eagle commonly prey on snakes , there are two species in particular that do so with high frequency , including preying on black mambas . These are the black @-@ chested snake eagle ( Circaetus pectoralis ) and the brown snake eagle ( Circaetus cinereus ) . The Cape file snake ( Mehelya capensis ) , which is apparently immune to all African snake venoms and preys on other snakes including venomous ones , is a common predator of black mambas ( limited only by the size it can swallow ) . Mongooses which also are partially immune to venom , and are often quick enough to evade a bite , will sometimes tackle a black mamba for prey . Humans do not usually consume black mambas , but they often kill them out of fear .

= = = Reproduction = = =

Black mambas breed annually and mating occurs in the early spring , when male mambas locate a female by following her scent trail . After finding a potential mate the male will inspect the female by flicking his tongue over her entire body . As in other species of snakes and many other reptiles , fertilization is internal and the intromittent organs of the males are in the form of hemipenes . Females lay clutches of eggs with an incubation period of some 80 to 90 days . Like most snakes female mambas are both oviparous and iteroparous . Egg @-@ laying typically occurs during the middle of summer and egg clutches range from 6 to 17 eggs .

During the mating season rival males may compete by wrestling , not by biting . Opponents attempt to subdue each other by intertwining their bodies and raising their heads high off the ground . Observers have on occasion mistaken such wrestling for mating .

Black mambas are generally solitary , but not strictly so ; as a rule they interact very little except in male rivalry during the mating season . However , black mambas are well known to share retreats occasionally , either with other mambas , or sometimes with other species of snakes .

In hatching , mambas break though the egg shell with an egg tooth and are born with fully developed venom glands ; capable of inflicting a potentially lethal bite minutes after birth . The body of the newly hatched snake contains the residues of the egg yolk , and assimilates them to sustain the young snake until it finds its first prey .

= = = Lifespan = = =

There is little information available concerning the lifespan of wild black mambas , but the longest surviving captive example had a recorded lifespan of 11 years . It is possible that wild snakes may live significantly longer than this .

= = Venom = =

The venom of the black mamba is extremely toxic , commonly causing collapse in humans within 45 minutes or less from a single bite . Without effective antivenom therapy , death typically occurs in 7 – 15 hours . The venom is chiefly composed of neurotoxins , specifically dendrotoxin . The black mamba is capable of striking at considerable range and occasionally may deliver a series of bites in rapid succession . Despite its reputation for being highly aggressive , like most snakes , it usually attempts to flee from humans unless threatened or cornered .

The black mamba 's venom is composed of neurotoxins ( dendrotoxin ) and cardiotoxins as well as other toxins such as fasciculins . In an experiment , the most abundant toxin found in black mamba venom was observed to be able to kill a mouse in as little as 4 @.@ 5 minutes . Based on the murine median lethal dose ( LD50 ) values , the black mamba 's toxicity from all published sources is as follows :

( SC ) subcutaneous ( most applicable to real bites ) : 0 @.@ 32 mg / kg , 0 @.@ 28 mg / kg .

( IV ) intravenous : 0 @.@ 25 mg / kg , 0 @.@ 011 mg / kg .

( IP ) intraperitoneal : 0 @.@ 30 mg / kg ( average ) , 0 @.@ 941 mg / kg . 0 @.@ 05 mg / kg ( the last quote doesn 't make it clear if is either intravenous or intraperitoneal ) .

Its bites can deliver about 100 – 120 mg of venom on average and the maximum dose recorded is 400 mg . It is reported that before antivenom was widely available , the mortality rate from a bite was nearly 100 % . The bite of a black mamba can potentially cause collapse in humans within 45 minutes , or less . Without effective antivenom therapy , death typically occurs in 7 – 15 hours . Presently , there is a polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research to treat black mamba bites from many localities .

A bite from a black mamba causes initial neurological and neuromuscular symptoms which may commonly include headache and a metallic taste in the mouth , which may be accompanied by a triad of paresthesias , profuse perspiration and salivation . Other symptoms may include ptosis and gradual bulbar palsy . Localised pain or numbness around the bite site is common but not typically severe ; therefore , application of a tourniquet proximal to the bite site is feasible and may assist in slowing the onset of prominent neurotoxicity . Without appropriate treatment , symptoms typically progress to more severe reactions such as tachydysrhythmias and neurogenic shock , leading to death by asphyxiation , cardiovascular collapse , or respiratory failure .

= = Attacks on humans = =

The black mamba is popularly regarded as the most dangerous and feared snake in Africa ; to South African locals the black mamba 's bite is known as the " kiss of death " . However , attacks on humans by black mambas are rare , as they usually try to avoid confrontation , and their occurrence in highly populated areas is not very common compared with some other species . Additionally , the ocellated carpet viper is responsible for more human fatalities due to snakebite than all other African species combined . A survey of snakebites in South Africa from 1957 to 1963 recorded over 900 venomous snakebites , but only seven of these were confirmed black mamba bites , at a time when effective antivenom was not widely available . Out of more than 900 bites , only 21 ended in fatalities , including all seven black mamba bites .

= = = Reported bite cases = = =

In 1998 , Danie Pienaar , now head of South African National Parks Scientific Services , survived the bite of a black mamba without antivenom . Although no antivenom was administered , Pienaar was in serious condition , despite the fact the hospital physicians declared it a " moderate " black mamba envenomation . At one point , Pienaar lapsed into a coma and his prognosis was declared " poor " . Upon arrival at hospital Pienaar was immediately intubated , given supportive drug therapy , put on mechanical ventilation and was placed on life support for three days , until the toxins were flushed out of his system . He was released from hospital on the fifth day . Pienaar believes he survived for a number of reasons . In an article in Kruger Park Times he said : " Firstly , it was not my time to go . " The article went on to state , " The fact that he stayed calmed and moved slowly definitely helped . The tourniquet was also essential . "

In another case , 28 @-@ year @-@ old British student Nathan Layton was bitten by a black mamba and died of a heart attack in less than an hour in March 2008 . The black mamba had been found near a classroom at the Southern African Wildlife College in Hoedspruit , where Layton was training to be a safari guide . Layton was bitten by the snake on his index finger while it was being put into a jar , but he didn 't realize he 'd been bitten . He thought the snake had only brushed his hand . Approximately 30 minutes after being bitten Layton complained of blurred vision . He collapsed and died of a heart attack , nearly an hour after being bitten . Attempts to revive him failed , and he was pronounced dead at the scene .

In 2013 , in a rare case of survival without treatment , American professional photographer Mark Laita was bitten on the leg by a black mamba during a photo @-@ shoot of a black mamba at a facility in Central America . The bite ruptured an artery in his calf , and he was gushing blood profusely . Laita did not go to the doctor or the hospital , and except for the swollen fang marks giving him intense pain during the night , he was not affected and was fine physically . This led him to believe that the snake either gave him a " dry bite " ( meaning without injecting venom ) or that the heavy bleeding pushed the venom out . Some commenters to the story suggested that it was a venomoid snake ( in which the venom glands are surgically removed ) . Laita responded that it was not the case . Only later , Laita found that he had captured the snake biting his leg in a photograph .

= Civil War token =

Civil War tokens are token coins that were privately minted and distributed in the United States between 1861 and 1864 . They were used mainly in the Northeast and Midwest . The widespread use of the tokens was a result of the scarcity of government @-@ issued cents during the Civil War .

Civil War tokens became illegal after the United States Congress passed a law on April 22 , 1864 prohibiting the issue of any one or two @-@ cent coins , tokens or devices for use as currency . On June 8 , 1864 an additional law was passed that forbade all private coinage .

Civil War tokens are divided into three types — store cards , patriotic tokens , and sutler tokens . All three types were utilized as currency , and are differentiated by their designs . The collectible value of the tokens is determined chiefly by their rarity .

= = History = =

By 1862 , the second year of the Civil War , government @-@ issued coinage began vanishing from circulation . American citizens hoarded all coins with gold and silver , and eventually began hoarding copper @-@ nickel cents as well . This made it extremely difficult for businesses to conduct transactions . In response , many merchants turned to private minters to fill the void left by the hoarded coins . The first of these privately minted tokens appeared in the autumn of 1862 , by H. A. Ratterman , in Cincinnati , Ohio . New York issues followed in the spring of 1863 , first with Lindenmueller currency store card tokens issued by New York barkeep Gustavus Lindenmueller and then with Knickerbocker currency patriotic tokens issued by William H. Bridgens . It is estimated that by 1864 , there were 25 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Civil War tokens ( nearly all redeemable for one cent ) in circulation , consisting of approximately 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 varieties .

Lindenmueller currency , or " Lindenmueller tokens , " are one of the best @-@ known and commonly struck types were store cards . Lindenmueller had more than one million of his one @-@ cent tokens struck and placed into circulation in 1863 . One of the common uses for the token was for streetcar fare . The Third Avenue Railroad company of New York , which had willingly accepted a large quantity of the Lindenmueller tokens in lieu of actual currency , asked Lindenmueller to redeem them . He refused , and the railroad had no legal recourse . Incidents such as these eventually forced the government to intervene .

On April 22 , 1864 , Congress enacted the Coinage Act of 1864 . While the act is most remembered for the introduction of the phrase " In God We Trust " on the newly created two @-@ cent piece , it also effectively ended the usage of Civil War tokens . In addition to authorizing the minting of the two @-@ cent piece , the act changed the composition of the one @-@ cent piece from a copper @-@ nickel alloy ( weighing 4 @.@ 67 grams ) to a lighter , less thick piece composed of 95 % copper ( weighing 3 @.@ 11 grams ) . The new one @-@ cent piece was much closer in weight to the Civil War tokens , and found greater acceptance among the public .

While the Coinage Act made Civil War tokens impractical , the issue of their legality was decided on June 8 , 1864 , when Congress enacted 18 U.S.C. § 486 , which made the minting and usage of non @-@ government issued coins punishable by a fine of up to $ 2 @,@ 000 , a prison term of up to five years , or both . ( Chapter 25 of Title 18 deals specifically with counterfeit and forgery ) . It did not make it illegal to own Civil War tokens , however , and evidence exists that the tokens were viewed as collectibles as early as 1863 , when the first known listings of Civil War tokens were published .

= = Types = =

= = = Patriotic tokens = = =

Patriotic Civil War tokens typically displayed a patriotic slogan or image on one or both sides . Since the majority of these tokens were minted in Union states , the slogans and images were decidedly pro @-@ Union . Some common examples of slogans found on patriotic tokens are " The Union Must and Shall Be Preserved , " " Union For Ever , " and " Old Glory " . Some of the images found on patriotic tokens were the flag of the United States , a 19th @-@ century cannon , and the USS Monitor .

Among the best @-@ known varieties of patriotic tokens are the so @-@ called " Dix tokens . " They are named for John Adams Dix , who served as Secretary of the Treasury in 1861 . In a letter from Dix to a revenue cutter captain , Lieutenant Caldwell , he orders Caldwell to relieve another cutter captain of his command for refusing an order to transfer from New Orleans to New York . The letter ends with the following sentence : " If any one attempts to haul down the American flag , shoot him on the spot . " The quote found its way to a number of patriotic tokens , albeit with a slightly modified wording ( " haul down " is usually replaced by " tear it down " ) .

= = = Store cards = = =

Civil War store cards differ from patriotic tokens in that one or both sides displays the name and / or location of a privately owned business . Businesses that could afford it had two custom dies made , with both advertising the business . Otherwise , only one side displayed the business 's information .

= = = Sutler tokens = = =

Sutler tokens are similar to store cards . Rather than listing the name of a private business , however , these tokens bore the name of a particular army unit ( usually a regiment ) and the name of the sutler who conducted transactions with the regiment . Of the three types of Civil War tokens , sutler tokens are by far the rarest .

= = Collectible value = =

There are several factors that determine the collectible value of Civil War tokens . The main factor is rarity , which is measured on a scale from 1 to 10 ( 1 being the most common type ) . The scale was developed by noted numismatic dealer and writer George Fuld .

The material used to mint Civil War tokens can also affect collectibility . Civil war tokens were minted using a variety of materials , copper being a common choice ( often actually bronze ) . Other materials used for minting were nickel , tin , German silver , white metal , and silver . Examples of tokens minted using rubber are also known to exist .

= = = Fuld rarity scale = = =

R @-@ 1 : Greater than 5 @,@ 000

R @-@ 2 : Between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000

R @-@ 3 : Between 500 and 2 @,@ 000

R @-@ 4 : Between 200 and 500

R @-@ 5 : Between 76 and 200

R @-@ 6 : Between 21 and 75

R @-@ 7 : Between 11 and 20

R @-@ 8 : Between 5 and 10

R @-@ 9 : Between 2 and 4

R @-@ 10 : Unique ( one known example )

= Gulf Oil =

Gulf Oil was a major global oil company from the 1900s to the 1980s . The eighth @-@ largest American manufacturing company in 1941 and the ninth @-@ largest in 1979 , Gulf Oil was one of the so @-@ called Seven Sisters oil companies . Prior to its merger with Standard Oil of California , Gulf was one of the chief instruments of the Mellon family fortune ; both Gulf and Mellon Financial had their headquarters in Pittsburgh .

Gulf 's former headquarters , originally referred to as " the Gulf Building " ( now the Gulf Tower office condos ) , is an art @-@ deco skyscraper . The tallest building in Pittsburgh until 1970 , when it was eclipsed by the U.S. Steel Tower , it is capped by a step pyramid structure several stories high . Until the late 1970s , the entire top was illuminated , changing color with changes in barometric pressure to provide a weather indicator that could be seen for many miles .

Gulf Oil Corporation ( GOC ) ceased to exist as an independent company in 1985 , when it merged with Standard Oil of California ( SOCAL ) , with both re @-@ branding as Chevron in the United States . Gulf Canada , Gulf 's main Canadian subsidiary , was sold the same year with retail outlets to Ultramar and Petro Canada and what became Gulf Canada Resources to Olympia & York . However , the Gulf brand name and a number of the constituent business divisions of GOC survived . Gulf has experienced a significant revival since 1990 , emerging as a flexible network of allied business interests based on partnerships , franchises and agencies .

Gulf , in its present incarnation , is a " new economy " business . It employs very few people directly and its assets are mainly in the form of intellectual property : brands , product specifications and scientific expertise . The rights to the brand in the United States are owned by Gulf Oil Limited Partnership ( GOLC ) , which operates over 2 @,@ 100 service stations and several petroleum terminals ; it is headquartered in Framingham , Massachusetts . The corporate vehicle at the center of the Gulf network outside the United States , Spain and Portugal is Gulf Oil International , a company owned by the Hinduja Group . The company 's focus is primarily in the provision of downstream products and services to a mass market through joint ventures , strategic alliances , licensing agreements , and distribution arrangements . Gulf Oil International has its head office in the City of Westminster , London .

= = History = =

= = = 1901 – 82 = = =

The business that became Gulf Oil started in 1901 with the discovery of oil at Spindletop near Beaumont , Texas . A group of investors came together to promote the development of a modern refinery at nearby Port Arthur to process the oil . The largest investor was William Larimer Mellon of the Pittsburgh Mellon banking family . Other investors included many of Mellon 's Pennsylvania clients as well as some Texas wildcatters . Mellon Bank and Gulf Oil remained closely associated thereafter . The Gulf Oil Corporation itself was formed in 1907 through the amalgamation of a number of oil businesses , principally the J.M. Guffey Petroleum and Gulf Refining companies of Texas . The name of the company refers to the Gulf of Mexico where Beaumont lies .

Output from Spindletop peaked at around 100 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 16 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) just after it was discovered and then started to decline . Later discoveries made 1927 the peak year of Spindletop production , but Spindletop 's early decline forced Gulf to seek alternative sources of supply to sustain its substantial investment in refining capacity . This was achieved by constructing the 400 @-@ mile ( 640 @-@ km ) Glenn Pool pipeline connecting oilfields in Oklahoma with Gulf 's refinery at Port Arthur . The pipeline opened in September 1907 . Gulf later built a network of pipelines and refineries in the eastern and southern United States , requiring heavy capital investment . Thus , Gulf Oil provided Mellon Bank with a secure vehicle for investing in the oil sector .

Gulf promoted the concept of branded product sales by selling gasoline in containers and from pumps marked with a distinctive orange disc logo . A customer buying Gulf @-@ branded gasoline could be assured of its quality and consistent standard . ( In the early 20th century , non @-@ branded gasoline in the United States was often contaminated or of unreliable quality ) .

Gulf Oil grew steadily in the inter @-@ war years , with its activities mainly confined to the United States . The company was characterized by its vertically integrated business activities , and was active across the whole spectrum of the oil industry : exploration , production , transport , refining and marketing . It also involved itself in associated industries such as petrochemicals and automobile component manufacturing . It introduced significant commercial and technical innovations , including the first drive @-@ in service station ( 1913 ) , complimentary road maps , drilling over water at Ferry Lake , and the catalytic cracking refining process ( Gulf installed the world 's first commercial catalytic cracking unit at its Port Arthur , Texas , refinery complex in 1951 ) . Gulf also established the model for the integrated , international " oil major , " which refers to one of a group of very large companies that assumed influential and sensitive positions in the countries in which they operated .

In Colombia , Gulf purchased the Barco oil concession in 1926 . The government of Colombia revoked the concession the same year , but after much negotiation Gulf won it back in 1931 . However , during a period of over @-@ capacity , Gulf was more interested in holding the reserve than developing it . In 1936 Gulf sold Barco to the Texas Corporation , now Texaco .

Gulf had extensive exploration and production operations in the Gulf of Mexico , Canada , and Kuwait . The company played a major role in the early development of oil production in Kuwait , and through the 1950s and ' 60s apparently enjoyed a " special relationship " with the Kuwaiti government . This special relationship attracted unfavourable attention since it was associated with " political contributions " ( see below ) and support for anti @-@ democratic politics , as evidenced by papers taken from the body of a Gulf executive killed in the crash of a TWA aircraft at Cairo in 1950 .

In 1934 , the Kuwait Oil Company ( KOC ) was formed as a joint venture by British Petroleum and Gulf . Both British Petroleum and Gulf held equal shares in the venture . KOC pioneered the exploration for oil in Kuwait during the late 1930s . Oil was discovered at Burgan in 1938 but it was not until 1946 that the first crude oil was shipped . Oil production started from Rawdhatain in 1955 and Minagish in 1959 . KOC started gas production in 1964 . It was the cheap oil and gas being shipped from Kuwait that formed the economic basis for Gulf 's diverse petroleum sector operations in Europe , the Mediterranean , Africa , and the Indian subcontinent . These last operations were coordinated by Gulf Oil Company , Eastern Hemisphere Ltd ( GOCEH ) from their offices at 2 Portman Street in London W1 .

Gulf expanded on a worldwide basis from the end of the Second World War . The company leveraged its international drilling experience to other areas of the world , and by mid @-@ 1943 had established a presence in the oil fields of Venezuela as Mene Grande Oil Company . Much of the company 's retail sales expansion was through the acquisition of privately owned chains of filling stations in various countries , allowing Gulf outlets to sell product ( sometimes through ' matching ' arrangements ) from the oil that it was " lifting " in Canada , the Gulf of Mexico , Kuwait , and Venezuela . Some of these acquisitions were to prove less than resilient in the face of economic and political developments from the 1970s on . Gulf invested heavily in product technology and developed many speciality products , particularly for application in the maritime and aviation engineering sectors . It was particularly noted for its range of lubricants and greases .

Gulf Oil reached the peak of its development around 1970 . In that year , the company processed 1 @.@ 3 million barrels ( 210 @,@ 000 m3 ) of crude daily , held assets worth $ 6 @.@ 5 billion ( $ 39 @.@ 61 billion today ) , employed 58 @,@ 000 employees worldwide , and was owned by 163 @,@ 000 shareholders . In addition to its petroleum marketing interests , Gulf was a major producer of petrochemicals , plastics , and agricultural chemicals . Through its subsidiary , Gulf General Atomic Inc . , it was also active in the nuclear energy sector . Gulf abandoned its involvement in the nuclear sector after a failed deal to build atomic power plants in Romania in the mid @-@ 1970s .

In 1974 , the Kuwait National Assembly took a 60 percent stake in the equity of KOC with the remaining 40 percent divided equally between BP and Gulf . The Kuwaitis took over the rest of the equity in 1975 , giving them full ownership of KOC . This meant that Gulf ( EH ) had to start supplying its downstream operations in Europe with crude bought on the world market at commercial prices . The whole GOC ( EH ) edifice now became highly marginal in an economic sense . Many of the marketing companies that Gulf had established in Europe were never truly viable on a stand @-@ alone basis .

Gulf was at the forefront of various projects in the late 1960s intended to adjust the world oil industry to developments of the time including closure of the Suez Canal after the 1967 war . In particular , Gulf undertook the construction of deep water terminals at Bantry Bay in Ireland and Okinawa in Japan capable of handling Ultra Large Crude Carrier ( ULCC ) vessels serving the European and Asian markets respectively . In 1968 , the Universe Ireland was added to Gulf 's tanker fleet . At 312 @,@ 000 long tons deadweight ( DWT ) , this was the largest vessel in the world and incapable of berthing at most normal ports .

Gulf also participated in a partnership with other majors , including Texaco , to build the Pembroke Catalytic Cracker refinery at Milford Haven and the associated Mainline Pipelines fuel distribution network . The eventual reopening of the Suez canal and upgrading of the older European oil terminals ( Europoort and Marchwood ) meant that the financial return from these projects was not all that had been hoped for . The Bantry terminal was devastated by the explosion of a Total tanker , the Betelgeuse , in January 1979 ( Whiddy Island Disaster ) and it was never fully reopened . The Irish government took over ownership of the terminal in 1986 and held its strategic oil reserve there .

In the 1970s , Gulf participated in the development of new oilfields in the UK North Sea and in Cabinda , although these were high @-@ cost operations that never compensated for the loss of Gulf 's interest in Kuwait . A mercenary army had to be raised to protect the oil installations in Cabinda during the Angolan civil war . The Angolan connection was another " special relationship " that attracted comment . In the late 1970s , Gulf was effectively funding a Soviet bloc regime in Africa while the US government was attempting to overthrow that regime by supporting the UNITA rebels led by Jonas Savimbi .

In 1975 , several senior Gulf executives , including chairman Bob Dorsey , were implicated in the making of illegal " political contributions " and were forced to step down from their positions . This loss of senior personnel at a critical time in Gulf 's fortunes may have had a bearing on the events that followed .

Gulf 's operations worldwide were struggling financially in the recession of the early 1980s , so Gulf 's management devised the " Big Jobber " strategic realignment in 1981 ( along with a program of selective divestments ) to maintain viability . The Big Jobber strategy recognized that the day of the integrated , multi @-@ national oil major might be over , since it involved concentrating on those parts of the supply chain where Gulf had a competitive advantage .

= = = Marketing and promotions = = =

In the late 1930s , Gulf 's aviation manager , Maj. Alford J. Williams , had the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation construct two modified biplanes , cleaned @-@ up versions of the Grumman F3F Navy fighter , for promotional use by the company . Wearing Gulf Oil company colors and logos , the Grumman G @-@ 22 " Gulfhawk II " , registered NR1050 , was delivered in December 1936 , and in 1938 Maj. Williams flew it on a tour of Europe . A second scavenger pump and five drain lines were added to the engine installation that allowed the aircraft to be flown inverted for up to thirty minutes . This aircraft is now preserved in the National Air and Space Museum in Washington , D.C. A second airplane , the Grumman G @-@ 32 " Gulfhawk III " , registered NC1051 , was delivered on May 6 , 1938 . Impressed by the Army Air Force in November 1942 for use as a VIP transport and designated a UC @-@ 103 , it crashed in the southern Florida Everglades in early 1943 .

Gulf Oil was the primary sponsor for NBC News special events coverage in the 1960s , notably for coverage of the U.S. space program . The company used the connection to its advantage by offering giveaway or promotional items at its stations , including sticker sheets of space mission logos , a paper punch @-@ out lunar module model kit , and a book titled " We Came in Peace , " containing pictures of the Apollo 11 moon landing . Gulf was also a major sponsor of Walt Disney 's Wonderful World of Color , which also aired on NBC . Disney magazines and activity books were often given away with a gas fill @-@ up . Gulf was also noted for its " Tourgide " road maps .

One particularly memorable Gulf advertisement carried by NBC during their coverage of the Apollo missions showed aerial and onboard views of the Universe Ireland with Tommy Makem and the Clancy Brothers singing " Bringin ' Home the Oil " – a tribute to the opening of Gulf 's operations in Bantry Bay .

Gulf Oil was most synonymous for its association with auto racing , as it famously sponsored the John Wyer Automotive team in the 1960s and early ' 70s . The signature light blue and orange color scheme associated with its Ford GT40 and Porsche 917 is one of the most famous corporate racing colors and has been replicated by other racing teams sponsored by Gulf . Much of its popularity is attributed to the fact that in the 1971 film Le Mans , Steve McQueen 's character , Michael Delaney , drives for the Gulf team . As a result of McQueen 's increasing popularity following his death and the increasing popularity of the Heuer Monaco which he wore in the film , TAG Heuer released a limited edition of the watch with the Gulf logo and trademark color scheme . In the same era , Gulf Oil also sponsored Team McLaren during the Bruce McLaren days , which used a papaya orange color scheme with Gulf blue for lettering .

From 1963 to 1980 , Gulf Oil had a formal agreement with Holiday Inn , the world 's largest lodging chain , for which Holiday Inns in the U.S. and Canada would accept Gulf credit cards for food and lodging . In return , Gulf placed service stations on the premises of many Holiday Inn properties along major U.S. highways to provide one @-@ stop availability for gasoline , auto service , food and lodging . Many older Holiday Inns still have those original Gulf stations on their properties , some in operation and some closed , but few operate today as Gulf stations .

Gulf No @-@ Nox gasoline was promoted with a bucking horse leaving an imprint of two horseshoes . Several promotions centered on the two horseshoes . In 1966 bright orange 3 @-@ D plastic self @-@ adhesive horseshoes for car bumpers were given away . Another popular giveaway was during the 1968 election season , gold horseshoe lapel pins featuring either a Democratic donkey or a Republican elephant .

= = Demise = =

By 1980 , Gulf exhibited many of the characteristics of a giant corporation that had lost its way . It had a huge but poorly performing asset portfolio , associated with a depressed share price . The stock market value of Gulf started to drop below the break @-@ up value of its assets . Such a situation was bound to attract the interest of corporate raiders , although a corporation in the top 100 of the Fortune 500 was in the early 1980s thought immune to takeover risk .

Its undoing as an independent company began in 1982 when T. Boone Pickens , an Amarillo , Texas oilman and corporate raider ( or greenmailer ) , and owner of Mesa Petroleum , made an offer for the comparatively larger ( but still considered " non @-@ major " oil company ) Cities Service Company ( more generally known by the name Citgo ) from Tulsa , Oklahoma , which was then trading in the low 20s . Pickens first privately offered $ 45 a share for a friendly takeover and then later made a $ 50 a share public offer when Cities ' CEO rejected the friendly offer . Gulf forestalled Mesa 's takeover attempt by offering $ 63 a share in a friendly offer which Cities ( by then trading at $ 37 ) accepted . Cities then bought out Pickens for $ 55 a share . Once Pickens was gone , Gulf reneged on its buyout offer , supposedly over a dispute regarding accuracy of Cities Service 's reserves , and the stock price of Cities plunged , triggering stockholder lawsuits as well as distrust for Gulf 's management on Wall Street and among financing investment banks who bet big in assisting Gulf to defeat Mesa only to be left broke when Gulf backed out . Cities Service was ultimately sold to Occidental Petroleum , and the retail operations were resold to Southland Corporation , the operators of 7 @-@ Eleven stores . Gulf 's termination of the Cities Service acquisition resulted in more than 15 years of shareholder litigation against Gulf ( and later Chevron ) .

With declining margins in the industry and left without Citgo 's reserves , Mesa and its investor partners kept hunting for a takeover target , only to discover while fighting Gulf for Citgo how increasingly top @-@ heavy its portfolio and declining reserves were undervaluing its overall assets . They subtly but quickly acquired 4 @.@ 9 percent of Gulf Oil 's stock by early fall 1983 , just shy of having to declare themselves and their intent at 5 percent to the SEC . In the ten days allowed to prepare the SEC filing , Mesa and its investor partners accelerated buying to 11 percent of the company 's stock , larger than the founding Mellon family 's share , by October 1983 . Gulf responded to Mesa 's interest by calling a shareholders ' meeting for late November 1983 and subsequently engaged in a proxy war on changing the corporation 's by @-@ laws to minimize arbitrage . Pickens made loud criticisms of the existing Gulf management and offered an alternative business plan intended to release shareholder value through a royalty trust that management argued would " slim down " Gulf 's market share . Pickens had acquired the reputation of being a corporate raider whose skill lay in making profits out of bidding for companies but without actually acquiring them . During the early 1980s alone , he made failed bids for Cities Service , General American Oil , Gulf , Phillips Petroleum and Unocal . The process of making such bids would promote a frenzy of asset divestiture and debt reduction in the target companies . This is a standard defensive tactic calculated to boost the current share price , although possibly at the expense of long @-@ term strategic advantage . The target shares would rise sharply in price , at which point Pickens would dispose of his interest at a substantial profit .

Gulf management and directors took the view that the Mesa bid represented an undervaluation of the Gulf business as a long @-@ term going concern and that it was not in the interest of Gulf shareholders . James Lee , Gulf 's CEO and chairman , even claimed during the November 1983 shareholders meeting to address the Mesa ownership that Pickens ' royalty trust idea was nothing more than a " get @-@ rich @-@ quick scheme " that would undermine the corporation 's profit potential in the coming decades . Gulf , therefore , sought to resist Pickens by various means , including refiling as a Delaware corporation , voiding the ability of shareholders to cumulatively vote ( fearing that Pickens would use his shares to gain control of the board ) and listening to offers from Ashland Oil ( which would double Gulf 's price from its pre @-@ Mesa level ) , General Electric ( two years before it took over the media company NBC / RKO ) and finally Chevron to act as its white knight in late 1984 . Gulf divested many of its worldwide operating subsidiaries and then merged with Chevron by the spring of 1985 . The Mesa group of investors was reported to have made a profit of $ 760 million ( $ 1 @,@ 672 @.@ 1 million today ) when it assigned its Gulf shares to Chevron . Pickens has claimed that after realizing a more than doubling of stock appreciation for Gulf shareholders ( as well as its management that fought him at every turn ) , Mesa 's shares were the last to be paid out by Chevron .

The forced merger of Gulf and Chevron was controversial , with the U.S. Senate considering legislation to freeze oil industry mergers for a year — before the Reagan administration made it known it opposed government intervention in the matter and would veto any bill . However , Pickens and Lee ( Gulf 's CEO ) were summoned to testify before the Senate months before the merger was hammered out and the matter was referred to the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) . The FTC only approved the deal subject to strict conditions . Never before had a " small operator " successfully taken apart a Fortune 500 corporation , or in Gulf 's case a " Fortune 10 " corporation . The merger sent even deeper shock waves through the long @-@ time exclusive " Seven Sisters " club of major integrated oil companies that defined themselves as elevated from the " non @-@ major independents " . A board member of Exxon even admitted in the mid @-@ 1980s that " mostly all we talk about in board meetings anymore is T. Boone Pickens " . Chevron , to settle with the government antitrust requirements , sold some Gulf stations and a refinery in the eastern United States to British Petroleum ( BP ) and Cumberland Farms in 1985 as well as some of the international operations .

The effect on the Pittsburgh area was severe as close to 900 PhD and research jobs and 600 headquarters ( accounting , law , clerical ) jobs were transferred to California or cut , a payroll of $ 54 million ( $ 123 million today ) and corporate charity to 50 Western Pennsylvania organizations worth $ 2 million / year ( $ 4 @.@ 6 million / year today ) . These losses were mitigated some with the donation of Gulf Labs in suburban north Pittsburgh to the University of Pittsburgh to be used as a research business incubator along with $ 5 million ( $ 11 million today ) in maintenance and seed money . The " Gulf Labs " research complex consisted of 55 multi @-@ story buildings with 800 @,@ 000 square feet ( 74 @,@ 000 m2 ) on 85 acres ( 34 ha ) and including several chemical labs , petroleum production and refining areas and even a nuclear laboratory complete with reactor in 1985 and employed close to 2 @,@ 000 engineers and scientists operating with a $ 100 million budget ( $ 227 @.@ 8 million today ) from Gulf / Chevron . After its donation , it was renamed the University of Pittsburgh Applied Research Center or U @-@ PARC and opened to small technology , computer and engineering firms as well as graduate level research .

= = Aftermath = =

BP , Chevron , Cumberland Farms and other companies that acquired former Gulf operations continued to use the Gulf name through the early 1990s . This caused consumer confusion in the US retail market as the parent companies would not accept each other 's credit cards . All former Gulf stations franchised by BP and Chevron in the United States have since been converted to those names . Gulf Oil Limited Partnership ( GOLP ) , based in Framingham , Massachusetts , has bought a license for North American rights to the Gulf brand from Chevron . Chevron still owned the Gulf brand , but was making almost no direct use of it . In January 2010 , GOLP bought the entire brand from Chevron and began a nationwide expansion campaign . GOLP operates a distribution network reaching from Maine to Ohio . Most Gulf @-@ branded filling stations in North America are owned by Cumberland Farms of Framingham , which owns a two @-@ thirds interest in GOLP . In addition there are some independently owned franchises still operating under the Gulf brand within North America , such as the American Refining Group , which is licensed by Chevron to blend and distribute Gulf @-@ branded lubricants .

Gulf Oil International ( GOI ) : [ 1 ] owns the rights to the Gulf brand outside the United States , Spain & Portugal . It is now owned by the Hinduja Group . After they acquired a large share from the Taher family , a major Saudi Arabian family lead by Dr. Abdulhadi H. Taher ( former governor of the Saudi Petroleum and Mineral organization and board member of Aramco ) . GOI trades mainly in lubricants , oils , and greases . GOI is also involved in franchising the Gulf brand to operators in the petroleum and automotive sectors ; Gulf @-@ branded filling stations can be found in several countries including the UK , Belgium , Germany , Ireland , the Slovak & Czech Republics , the Netherlands , Jordan , Finland and Turkey . GOI has direct and indirect interests in a number of businesses that use the Gulf brand under license .

The Canadian exploration , production , and distribution arm of Gulf Oil was sold to Olympia and York in 1985 . From 1992 it continued as an independent oil company ( Gulf Canada Resources ) until its acquisition by Conoco in 2002 .

Most Gulf downstream operations in Europe were sold to the Kuwait Petroleum Corporation in early 1983 . The associated Gulf filling stations were converted to trade under the Q8 brand by 1988 . However , attempts to sell Gulf Oil ( Great Britain ) to KPC failed because of irrevocable GOC guarantees given earlier in regard to bonds issued to finance the construction of refinery facilities in the UK . GO ( GB ) was taken over by Chevron and its stations continued to use the Gulf brand name and insignia until 1997 when the network was sold to Shell , although by this stage a fairly large proportion of Gulf stations were supplied by jobbers rather than Gulf Oil ( GB ) . Gulf completely withdrew from the UK in 1997 . This represented the end of the last major " downstream " use of the Gulf brand by Chevron .

= = Revival = =

GOI and GOLP continue to sell Gulf @-@ branded lubricants worldwide through a network of official licensed companies , joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiary companies . Many of these official Gulf distributors carry out local marketing and sponsorship which help to raise the profile of the brand . Of these wholly owned subsidiaries Gulf Oil Corporation India has raised the market profile of the Gulf brand in the Middle East . GOCL have emerged as one of leading lubricants brands in India and run many marketing sponsorships targeted at the ever @-@ growing youth sector in the country .

GOI licenses the Gulf brand and logo in the UK to the Bayford group , one of the largest independent fuel distributors . Starting in 2001 , a new Gulf network of independent stations is slowly reappearing across the UK . At present , many of these stations are notable for offering genuine leaded four @-@ star petrol , for which Bayford has a special dispensation to sell . At the same time , Gulf Lubricants ( UK ) Ltd was set up to market Gulf products ( mostly manufactured by the Gulf Netherlands operation ) in the UK . This return by Gulf to the UK after a four @-@ year absence used the slogan " The Return of the Legend . " The post @-@ 2001 Gulf presence in the UK is a wholly network @-@ based operation . It involves almost no direct Gulf investment in fixed assets , corporate infrastructure , or manufacturing capability . This is a complete contrast to the pre @-@ 1997 presence .

In January 2010 , after using the name since 1986 , GOLP acquired all right , title and interest in the Gulf brand name in the United States and announced plans to expand the use of the Gulf brand beyond its parent company 's Northeastern United States base . Its promotions have included sponsorship of major sporting events in the area with advertisements for Gulf in New York City , Boston , Philadelphia , and Pittsburgh . To take one case as an illustrative example of the Gulf revival , after Texaco 's 2001 merger with Chevron , many former Texaco stations in Pittsburgh switched to Gulf since Chevron does not service the Greater Pittsburgh area . As a result , the Texaco brand name disappeared from the area in June 2004 when the nonexclusive rights agreement with Shell expired , with Shell itself expanding in the area by means other than Texaco but , on June 2006 Chevron gave exclusive rights to the Texaco brand name in the U.S. and sold some BP gas stations in the southeast which were Gulf gas stations . In New England , former Exxon stations have been rebranded as Gulf , in accordance with the consent decree that allowed the merger of Exxon and Mobil . Many of the former Exxon stations feature a rectangular logo that fit into the existing sign standards used by Exxon . Gulf refers to the look as its " sunrise " imaging .

The Gulf logo is still used around the world by various businesses . GOI uses it for their marketing activities to focus on the sponsorship of Le Mans race teams ( with the current team being Aston Martin Racing team ) This sponsorship is used across the world by Gulf distributors , alongside local activity demonstrating the GOI company ethos of " your local global brand " . In 2009 , the clothing store chain Old Navy began selling T @-@ shirts bearing the old Gulf logo , along with the former logos of Standard Oil and Chevron .

Between 1980 and 2000 , Gulf moved from being a monolithic , vertically integrated multinational corporation to being more of a network of allied business interests . This has given the entire Gulf enterprise a high degree of strategic and operational flexibility . It is a move that reflects fundamental change in the economics of international business .

Alliances represent yet another shift in the organization of economic transactions from organizational hierarchies to networks ; from mass to flexible production ; from large , vertically integrated organizations to disintegration and horizontal networks of economic units ; from " Fordist " to " post @-@ Fordist " companies .

In March 2016 Gulf MX Announced that will put their own Filling Stations in Mexico , its planned to begin operations on July of the Same Year to Compete with the Local company ( PEMEX ) ( as a Result of the Recent changes in the local laws in matter of Energy and Oil resources ) As said by Sergio De La Vega ( CEO of Gulf Mexico ) in order to improve a better service Gulf will make fidelity programs and dedicated Smartphone Apps. for customers ( improving fuel payment into the same , Fuel Administration and better experience with fidelity programs as another additional benefits benefits ) adding to modern Service Stations with more quality added services .

Adding to that , Gulf will offer franchises to the existing filling station owners to convert them into Gulf Trademark .

= = Case studies in current use of the Gulf brand = =

= = = Independent filling stations in the UK = = =

In 1970 , there were nearly 25 @,@ 000 filling stations in the UK , of which 10 @,@ 000 were ' independents ' ( typically , privately owned and supplied by a major or jobber while using a brand under license ) . By the end of 1999 , the number of filling stations had dropped to 13 @,@ 700 and to 9 @,@ 700 at the end of 2005 . In recent years , filling stations have been closing at a rate of 50 per month . Many of the smaller and independent stations have succumbed to competition from out @-@ of @-@ town supermarkets that undercut local enterprises through sheer volume of sales and shared overheads .

The Gulf brand in the UK is licensed by GOI to the Bayford group which specializes in operating service stations on minor trunk roads in rural areas . Bayford supplies about 185 Gulf @-@ branded filling stations in the UK , all of which are independently owned . The Gulf filling stations provide outlets for Gulf @-@ branded oils and lubricants .

The illustration shows a typical Bayford / Gulf filling station in the UK , still associated with a service garage , restaurant and retailing facilities . It is in an isolated location , five miles ( 8 km ) south of Wooler in the Cheviot Hills , catering to both local residents and passing tourist traffic . It is not vulnerable to competition from supermarkets and provides something of a local community center .

= = = Pennsylvania Turnpike = = =

For decades , Gulf operated filling stations on the Pennsylvania Turnpike toll highway system alongside the Howard Johnson 's restaurants at the Turnpike 's travel plazas ( which correspond to European motorway service areas ) . This began in 1950 with the opening of the Philadelphia Extension , and Gulf added more filling stations as the system was extended . The Standard Oil Company of Pennsylvania ( now part of Exxon ) had exclusive rights to provide filling station services on the sections of the system that opened prior to 1950 , principally the Irwin @-@ to @-@ Carlisle section .

In the 1980s , Sunoco was awarded the franchise to operate the filling stations at the Sideling Hill and now @-@ closed Hempfield travel plazas . This led to a bidding war among three of Pennsylvania 's most recognizable gasoline brands each time a travel plaza franchise came up for renewal .

Gulf had the opportunity to become the exclusive provider of filling stations at travel plazas along the Pennsylvania Turnpike after Exxon withdrew from the Turnpike in 1990 . Cumberland Farms ( owner of the Gulf brand in the northeastern U.S. ) was awarded a new contract with the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission , but the contract was sold to Sunoco two years later as part of the company 's bankruptcy proceedings . In June 1992 , all of the former Gulf filling stations on the Turnpike ( as with the Exxon ones before it ) converted to Sunoco . All of the travel plazas continue to sell Sunoco fuel today .

= = Gulf products = =

Most filling stations in Europe sell three types of fuel : unleaded , LRP , and diesel . Although these products lack any real brand differentiation , this has not always been the case . Until well into the 1970s , Gulf ( in common with other oil companies ) sold distinctive brands of petrol / gasoline including subregular Gulftane , Good Gulf regular , Gulf No @-@ Nox premium , and Gulf Super Unleaded ( aka Gulfcrest ) . Gulf petrol was sold using the slogans " Good Gulf Gasoline , " and " Gulf – the Gas with Guts . " Gulf service stations often supplied customers with pens and key rings bearing these slogans . For a few years , beginning in 1966 , Gulf stations in the U.S. gave away orange plastic " Extra Kick Horseshoes " to customers who filled their tanks with Gulf 's No @-@ Nox premium gasoline ( the novelty items were commonly mounted on bumpers ) .

GOI still produces and sells a wide range of branded oil based products including lubricants and greases of all kinds . These include products for a variety of applications ranging from metal working oils to refrigeration oils . Car engine oils include the Gulf Formula , Gulf MAX , and Gulf TEC ranges . Heavy duty diesel engine lubricants include the Gulf Supreme and Gulf Superfleet ranges .

In the Summer of 2013 , Gulf Oil licensed the " Gulf " name for racing fuels in a return to the American racing scene for the 2014 competition season . [ 2 ] The fuels were announced at the Performance Racing Industry Show in Indianapolis , Indiana in December 2013 . The racing fuels support the World Racing League and the Formula Atlantic Championship in the United States .

= = CEOs = =

S.A. Swensrud 1953 ?

Robert Rawls Dorsey 1969 ? -January 14 , 1976 ( resigned with 3 years on his contract )

Jerry McAfee January 14 , 1976 – December 1 , 1981

James E. Lee December 1 , 1981 – 1985

Sahibzada Muhammad Farooq Nizami December 21 , 2014 – present ( Yanbu , KSA )

= ILoo =

The iLoo ( short for Internet loo ) was a cancelled Microsoft project to develop a Wi @-@ Fi Internet @-@ enabled portable toilet . The iLoo , which was to debut at British summer festivals , was described as being a portable toilet with wireless broadband Internet , an adjustable plasma screen , a membrane wireless keyboard , a six @-@ channel speaker system , and toilet paper embossed with popular web site addresses . The iLoo was also to have an extra screen and keyboard on the outside , and was to be guarded . It was intended as the next in a series of successful initiatives by MSN UK which sought to introduce the internet in unusual locations , including MSN Street , MSN Park Bench and MSN Deckchair .

The project was announced by MSN UK on April 30 , 2003 , and was widely ridiculed before being declared a hoax by Microsoft on May 12 . On May 13 , another Microsoft press release stated that although the project had not been a hoax , it had been cancelled because it would do little to promote the MSN brand . There has since been speculation as to whether the project was cancelled for fear of being sued by Andrew Cubitt , who had invented the similarly named product " i @-@ Loo " . The iLoo was described as a public relations " debacle " by Online Journalism Review .

= = Description = =

The iLoo was designed to be a Wi @-@ Fi Internet @-@ enabled portable toilet that would allow users to surf the internet while using the loo . Internally , the facility would have a broadband connection via wireless 802.11b , a wireless waterproof keyboard , a swivel plasma screen running Windows XP Professional , a 6 @-@ channel surround @-@ sound system beneath the sink , toilet paper embossed with popular URLs , and a suction toilet . Externally , the facility would feature an MSN logo and have a " Hotmail station " with an additional plasma screen and keyboard for waiting consumers . A security guard was to be stationed near the unit to ensure that it was being properly used and to prevent the unit from being stolen . The iLoo was to debut " at a majority of the summer season festivals " . The iLoo was to be deployed only in Britain .

= = Public relations timeline = =

The project was announced on April 30 , 2003 in press release by MSN UK , MSN 's British subsidiary , as part of a " series of MSN.co.uk initiatives which look at the changing nature of how we use the web as it constantly evolves " . The press release stated that :

The UK ’ s most popular website msn.co.uk is creating the world ’ s first ‘ Internet Loo ’ . The iLoo will be mobile and is part of MSN ’ s mission to allow instant logging on ‘ anytime and any place ’ . In time for the summer festival season , MSN is in the process of converting a portable loo to create a unique experience for surfers looking for an alternative to the bog @-@ standard festival loo experience . Users will be able to sit down , undock a wireless keyboard and conveniently access the first ever WWW.C.

The press release also stated that " MSN is also in talks with toilet paper manufacturers to produce special web paper for those in need of URL inspiration " .

News of the iLoo was widely circulated amongst mainstream media . The story became the most @-@ emailed story on Yahoo ! News on May 1 , 2003 , being emailed over 4000 times . The iLoo was widely derided and press coverage subjected MSN and Microsoft to heavy criticism . On May 10 , The Inquirer published a story in which Andrew Cubitt alleged that " Microsoft stole his iLoo idea " from his i @-@ Loo invention . On May 12 , Microsoft announced that the iLoo was a " hoax perpetrated by its British division " calling it an " April Fool 's joke " and issued an apology for the confusion . The Associated Press , however , stated that they had previously received confirmation of the project from two of Microsoft 's PR firms : Waggener Edstrom Worldwide and Red Consultancy . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer also stated that it received confirmation from Waggener Edstrom and was even provided with a schematic drawing . Furthermore , April Fools was almost a month before , and Microsoft had never before released a fake press release .

On May 13 , 2003 , Microsoft retracted the denial , stating that the iLoo had been a legitimate demonstration project that was to be released in Britain for summer music festivals , but had been terminated by Microsoft executives in Redmond , Washington who believed the iLoo was inappropriate with the final decision made by MSN senior vice president David Cole . MSN product manager Lisa Gurry stated that the project " didn 't really map to our global branding objectives " . Microsoft again apologized for the miscommunication stating " the confusion over the legitimacy of this effort was caused by people moving too quickly and who misspoke before gathering all of the relevant information " . Prior to the cancellation , an iLoo prototype was in the " early stages of construction " . MSN allows regional units to design their own marketing campaigns , and the UK division had developed a reputation for innovative campaigns , in this case involving British toilet humour . The iLoo which was designed for the UK as part of a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek marketing initiative " was " intended to be the next in line of a number of clever initiatives in the UK involving introducing the internet in interesting locations , including MSN Street , MSN Park Bench and MSN Deckchair " . The previous initiatives were well received . Microsoft stated that no employees were disciplined as a result of the debacle , although the company stated that it would conduct " internal discussions " .

= = Reaction = =

Although the product was not publicly released , many questioned whether " Microsoft had lost its senses " and the product was widely derided . Critics contended that the product was a waste of money and doomed to fail . Concerns were raised about how the iLoo would serve to extend waiting lines , how hygienic it would be to share keyboards in a public loo , and what would happen if the keyboard were to be urinated upon . Critics also questioned whether users would spend enough time in the loo to make use of the internet facilities , noting that " most port @-@ a @-@ potty users stay only long enough to relieve themselves without having to inhale . "

The iLoo , given its toiletry @-@ related nature , subjected MSN and Microsoft to puns and jokes especially since Microsoft 's marketing slogan at the time was " where do you want to go today ? " with the PC being dubbed Pee @-@ C. The Herald Sun wrote that the " iLoo is , unquestionably , very good news – mainly to journalists with a bottomless pit of laboured bum jokes " while the Seattle Times wrote " now the company has a credibility problem as well as a red face . " Other newspapers issued humorous headlines : Microsoft technology headed for toilet from the San Francisco Chronicle , Toilet mixes zeroes with ones and twos from the Washington Post , and Microsoft 's Gone Potty from The Daily Mirror .

The product has since been studied as an example of a public relations disaster and an example of an internet hoax . Microsoft 's public relations response to the debacle is also considered to be one of the poorest in the company 's history , given Microsoft 's reputation for micro @-@ managing news releases , interviews and promotional events .

The iLoo 's negative publicity drowned out the launch of MSN Radio Plus on May 12 , 2003 . It has since inspired a number of spoofs .

= = i @-@ Loo controversy = =

After reading an article about the iLoo , Andrew Cubitt , inventor of the similarly named i @-@ Loo , wrote to The Inquirer stating that iLoo " sounds remarkably similar ... it now seems that the clever people at Microsoft have cottoned onto the idea and even call it the i @-@ Loo , the same as mine ! " Cubitt went on to say that " mine did everything that the Microsoft one is meant to do , but additionally printed information on toilet paper and didn 't use a keyboard for the interface due to hygiene reasons " . The i @-@ Loo was prototyped by Cubitt as part of his thesis for his 2001 university degree in Product Design and Engineering at Brunel University . In an interview with The Inquirer , he noted " As it was designed at the university , they own the partial rights to the product so they will be watching the Microsoft ' invention ' very closely . "

Microsoft never formally commented on Cubitt 's allegations and instead initially stated the iLoo was an April 's fool joke . As a result , Cubitt questioned whether this was " a very calculated ploy to destroy competition in its early stages , or is admitting they don 't even know what time of the month it is less embarrassing and ridding them of a potentially expensive situation ! " Cubitt went on to state that " as they have now discredited my idea as a joke , I will never be able to produce the idea " and as such was " consulting my law books now on defamatory statements " . Neither Cubitt , nor Brunel University have taken public legal action against Microsoft pertaining to the i @-@ Loo .

The i @-@ Loo was described as :

The i @-@ Loo internet toilet roll browser is a novel and unique product designed to make best use of the time you spend on the loo ! The product allows you to search the internet whilst sitting on the toilet and print out any web pages you are interested in on your toilet paper. i @-@ Loo brings a whole new meaning to the word downloading . The unit is fixed in front of a toilet on the cubical [ sic ] wall . The product provides up to date information about new products , daily news and lottery results through an easy to navigate software package . Normal operation of the toilet and paper dispenser is evident .

The i @-@ Loo internet toilet roll browser was featured at the 2003 Daily Mail Ideal Home Show as part of the Future Concepts exhibition in Earls Court , London , where it was nominated for the MFI Bright Sparks 2003 awards . The i @-@ Loo , which was sponsored by Epson Printers , received significant press coverage , and was featured on GMTV as well as various radio shows .

= = Annotations = =

= William C. Chase =

Major General William Curtis Chase ( 9 March 1895 – 21 August 1986 ) was an American soldier and General in the first half of the 20th century . He is best known for his service in the South West Pacific Area during World War II and in the Occupation of Japan .

A graduate of Brown University , Chase enlisted in the Rhode Island National Guard in 1913 and served on the Mexican Border . Commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry in January 1917 , he served on the Western Front in World War I and in the Occupation of the Rhineland . Between the wars , he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , later returning as an instructor .

Chase was promoted to Brigadier General in March 1943 on assuming command of the 1st Brigade , 1st Cavalry Division . He was chosen to lead the assault on the Admiralty Islands in February 1944 . He resisted the temptation to swiftly overrun the island , and thereby overextend his forces , and formed a defensive perimeter that made good use of the terrain . From this position , he was able to defeat a series of counterattacks by the numerically superior Japanese garrison .

In February 1945 , Chase 's columns pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila , liberating some 3 @,@ 700 internees at the University of Santo Tomas which had been turned into an internment camp . He took over command of the 38th Infantry Division , which was confronted by enemy fortifications at Zig @-@ Zag Pass on the Bataan Peninsula that took a week of hard fighting to reduce . Chase assumed command of the 1st Cavalry Division on 1 August 1945 . He remained with it in the Occupation of Japan until he returned to the United States in January 1949 . Later , he was chief of staff of the Third Army at Fort McPherson and head of the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Taiwan . Retiring from the Army , he earned a Master of Arts degree in history from Trinity University and taught political science at the University of Houston .

= = Education and early life = =

William Curtis Chase was born in Providence , Rhode Island , on 9 March 1896 , the son of William Beecher Chase and his wife , Doris Evelyn née Curtis . He attended Brown University , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts with a Phi Beta Kappa Society key in 1916 . While at Brown , Chase enlisted in Battery A , 1st Rhode Island Volunteer Artillery of the Rhode Island National Guard ( later Battery A , 103rd Field Artillery ) in 1913 .

= = World War I = =

On the afternoon of his graduation from Brown in 1916 , Chase , now a sergeant , joined A Battery at Quonset Point , Rhode Island , where it was mobilised for duty on the Mexican Border . The unit remained in the El Paso , Texas , area for a time , but saw no action . While there , Chase passed an examination for commissions in Regular Army . Chase was posted to Fort Leavenworth in January 1917 for a three month course for newly commissioned officers before being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry .

Chase was assigned to the 3rd Cavalry , then based at Fort Sam Houston . Shortly after the United States declared war on Germany , he was promoted to first lieutenant and posted to the 6th Cavalry on the Mexican frontier .

Chase attended a machine gun course at Fort Sill , after which he was posted to the 11th Machine Gun Battalion , part of the 4th Division , in April 1918 . He served on the Western Front with the 4th Division , participating in the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel , but came down with jaundice and missed all but the last days of the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive . He participated in the Occupation of the Rhineland before the 4th Division returned to the United States in July 1919 .

= = Inter @-@ war years = =

On return , Chase was posted to the 16th Cavalry , then in the Rio Grande Valley , although it soon returned to Fort Sam Houston . In 1921 he was posted to Michigan State College for duty with the Reserve Officers ' Training Corps . There he met Dorothea Marie Wetherbee . They were married in 1921 . They never had children .

Chase attended the United States Army Cavalry School and United States Army Infantry School , followed by duty with the 14th Cavalry at Fort Sheridan , Illinois , from 1927 to 1929 . He then attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth . From 1931 to 1934 he served overseas with the 26th Cavalry ( Philippine Scouts ) at Fort Stotsenburg in the Philippines . Returning to the United States , he was posted as an Instructor in Tactics , first at the Cavalry School at Fort Riley and then , from 1938 to 1940 , at the Command and General Staff College .

= = World War II = =

In 1941 Chase , now a lieutenant colonel , was posted to VIII Corps , then commanded by Major General Walter Krueger . As such , he participated in the Louisiana Maneuvers . In December 1941 , he was posted to the Amphibious Force , Atlantic Fleet , then under the command of Major General Holland Smith . Based at Marine Corps Base Quantico , the Amphibious Force practiced Amphibious warfare tactics on Chesapeake Bay .

In 1942 , Chase assumed command of the 113th Cavalry , an Iowa National Guard unit . Initially a horse @-@ mechanized unit , the 113th Cavalry soon became fully mechanized . It moved from its original station at Fort Clark , Texas , to Camp Bowie and then to Fort Hood , where it provided school troops for the Tank Destroyer Center .

Chase was promoted to Brigadier General in March 1943 on assuming command of the 1st Brigade , 1st Cavalry Division . The division was then stationed at Fort Bliss but was already preparing to move to the South West Pacific . The 1st Cavalry Division had therefore been dismounted , but the division and brigade commanders and their staffs were still on horseback . The 1st Cavalry Division staged at Camp Stoneman . Chase departed from San Francisco on 3 July on the transport USAT George Washington .

The 1st Cavalry Division arrived in Australia and continued its training at Strathpine , Queensland . Training there was more vigorous than at Fort Bliss , and Chase broke his heel bone in a training accident . In December 1943 , the 1st Cavalry Division sailed for Oro Bay , where it staged for its next operation , the Admiralty Islands campaign . Chase was chosen to lead the assault . Here , his tactical expertise came to the fore . He resisted the temptation to overrun the island of Los Negros , and thereby overextend his forces , and instead formed a defensive perimeter that made good use of the terrain . From this position , he was able to defeat a series of counterattacks by the numerically superior Japanese garrison . The crisis passed , Chase 's force was reinforced by the rest of the division , and the 1st Cavalry Division was then able to overrun the islands . Chase was awarded the Bronze Star for his role in the campaign .

The 1st Cavalry Division remained in the Admiralty Islands until October , when it boarded ships there for the invasion of Leyte , which it assaulted on 20 October 1944 . Chase 's 1st Brigade 's initial mission was to reconnoiter the hills on the west side of the Tacloban Valley and establish observation posts from which it could command the entrances to the valley . In November , he was ordered to cover the flank of X Corps ' advance up the Leyte Valley , and later into the Ormoc Valley . Chase had to move his brigade across mountainous , roadless , uncharted jungle in frequently appalling wet weather . The advance made slow progress against Japanese troops that fought tenaciously all the way .

The 1st Cavalry Division was down to half strength when it was withdrawn from the front line on Leyte for a brief rest in January 1945 , but few reinforcements arrived before it was ordered to move to Luzon , where it disembarked over the beaches at San Fabian on 27 January 1945 . General of the Army Douglas MacArthur ordered the 1st Cavalry Division 's commander , Major General Vern D. Mudge , to conduct a rapid advance on Manila . For this , Mudge formed three flying columns . Initially , Chase 's 1st Brigade 's mission was to follow one of the columns but on 1 February he was relieved of responsibility for the main body of the 1st Brigade and placed in command of all three flying columns .

On 3 February , Chase 's columns pushed into the northern outskirts of Manila and seized a vital bridge over the Tuliahan River , which separated them from the city proper . Chase , controlling his columns by radio , suffered slight burns to his hands when a Japanese truck exploded . A squadron of the 8th Cavalry , guided by two Filipino guerrillas reached the sprawling campus of the University of Santo Tomas which had been turned into an internment camp , liberating some 3 @,@ 700 internees .

A Japanese raiding party destroyed the bridge over Tuliahan River ; Chase 's security was not good enough . This prevented the main body of the 1st Cavalry Division from linking up with Chase 's force in Manila . Supplies were dispatched through the 37th Infantry Division 's zone until engineers could build a new bridge . For his advance on Manila , Chase was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . He was also awarded the Purple Heart for the burns to his hands .

On 7 February 1945 , Chase took over command of the 38th Infantry Division , which was then confronted by enemy fortifications at Zig @-@ Zag Pass on the Bataan Peninsula . It took Chase a week of hard fighting to reduce this position . A battalion of the 151st Infantry under Chase 's personal command landed at Mariveles on the southern tip of Bataan on 14 February . The 38th Infantry Division participated in the final actions on Corregidor . Units of the 38th Infantry Division assaulted and captured Caballo Island on 27 March , Fort Drum on El Fraile Island on 13 April , and Carabao Island on 16 April . Meanwhile , other elements of the 38th Infantry Division engaged enemy forces in the mountainous Fort Stotsenburg area . In the midst of these operations , Chase was promoted to Major General in March .

In late April 1945 , the 38th Infantry Division moved to the area east of Manila where it relieved the 6th Infantry Division . On 1 May , it began a series of probing attacks prior to an attack on 4 May aimed at capturing the Wawa Dam , an important part of Manila 's water supply . Chase had to reduce a series of strongly held Japanese positions . By the end of the month , the dam was secure and the Japanese Kobayashi Force was broken .

Chase assumed command of the 1st Cavalry Division on 1 August 1945 . At this time , the division was in the Lucena City area but slated for Operation Downfall , in which it would assault Ariake , Kagoshima . The end of the war precluded this . Instead , the 1st Cavalry Division participated in the Occupation of Japan . It embarked from Batangas on 25 August and disembarked in Tokyo Bay on 2 September , becoming the first US division in Tokyo .

= = Later life = =

Chase remained with the 1st Cavalry Division on occupation duties until December 1948 , when he temporarily assumed command of IX Corps . He finally returned to the United States in January 1949 , and became chief of staff of the Third Army at Fort McPherson in April 1949 . From 1951 to 1955 he headed the Military Assistance Advisory Group in Taiwan . He retired from the Army on 31 July 1955 .

Chase earned a Master of Arts degree in history from Trinity University . From 1957 to 1965 , he taught political science at the University of Houston . His wife Dorothea died in 1957 . In 1961 he married Mrs Hallie Barlow Olcott . Chase retired in 1965 , having reached the state of Texas ' mandatory retirement age . In 1974 , Chase joined a party of retired generals associated with General MacArthur on a visit to Australia as guests of Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring and Dame Mary Herring . In addition to Chase , Leif J. Sverdrup , Hugh John Casey , and LeGrande A. Diller and their wives also made the trip . Chase published his memoirs , entitled Front Line General : The Commands of Maj. Gen. Wm . C. Chase , in 1975 . He died on 21 August 1986 and was buried at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery .

= Tracheobronchial injury =

Tracheobronchial injury ( TBI ) is damage to the tracheobronchial tree ( the airway structure involving the trachea and bronchi ) . It can result from blunt or penetrating trauma to the neck or chest , inhalation of harmful fumes or smoke , or aspiration of liquids or objects .

Though rare , TBI is a serious condition ; it may cause obstruction of the airway with resulting life @-@ threatening respiratory insufficiency . Other injuries accompany TBI in about half of cases . Of those people with TBI who die , most do so before receiving emergency care , either from airway obstruction , exsanguination , or from injuries to other vital organs . Of those who do reach a hospital , the mortality rate may be as high as 30 % .

TBI is frequently difficult to diagnose and treat . Early diagnosis is important to prevent complications , which include stenosis ( narrowing ) of the airway , respiratory tract infection , and damage to the lung tissue . Diagnosis involves procedures such as bronchoscopy , radiography , and x @-@ ray computed tomography to visualize the tracheobronchial tree . Signs and symptoms vary based on the location and severity of the injury ; they commonly include dyspnea ( difficulty breathing ) , dysphonia ( a condition where the voice can be hoarse , weak , or excessively breathy ) , coughing , and abnormal breath sounds . In the emergency setting , tracheal intubation can be used to ensure that the airway remains open . In severe cases , surgery may be necessary to repair a TBI .

= = Anatomy = =

The trachea and bronchi form the tracheobronchial tree . The trachea is situated between the lower end of the larynx and the center of the chest , where it splits into the two bronchi at a ridge called the carina . The trachea is stabilized and kept open by rings made of cartilage that surround the front and sides of the structure ; these rings are not closed and do not surround the back , which is made of membrane . The bronchi split into smaller branches and then to bronchioles that supply air to the alveoli , the tiny air @-@ filled sacs in the lungs responsible for absorbing oxygen . An arbitrary division can be made between the intrathoracic and cervical trachea at the thoracic inlet , an opening at the top of the thoracic cavity . Anatomical structures that surround and protect the tracheobronchial tree include the lungs , the esophagus , large blood vessels , the rib cage , the thoracic spine , and the sternum . Children have softer tracheas and a more elastic tracheobronchial trees than adults ; this elasticity , which helps protect the structures from injury when they are compressed , may contribute to the lower incidence of TBI in children .

= = Classification = =

Lesions can be transverse , occurring between the rings of the trachea , longitudinal or spiral . They may occur along the membranous part of the trachea , the main bronchi , or both . In 8 % of ruptures , lesions are complex , occurring in more than one location , with more than one type of lesion , or on both of the main bronchi and the trachea . Transverse tears are more common than longitudinal or complex ones . The laceration may completely transect the airway or it may go only partway around . Partial tears that do not go all the way around the circumference of the airway do not allow a lacerated airway to become completely detached ; tears that encircle the whole airway can allow separation to occur . Lacerations may also be classified as complete or incomplete . In an incomplete lesion , a layer of tissue surrounding the bronchus remains intact and can keep the air in the airway , preventing it from leaking into the areas surrounding the airways . Incomplete lacerations may require closer scrutiny to detect and may not be diagnosed right away .

Bronchial injuries are divided into those that are accompanied by a disruption of the pleura and those that are not ; in the former , air can leak from the hole in the airway and a pneumothorax can form . The latter type is associated with more minor signs ; pneumothorax is small if it occurs at all , and although function is lost in the part of the lung supplied by the injured bronchus , unaffected parts of the lungs may be able to compensate .

Most TBI that results from blunt trauma occurs within the chest . The most common tracheal injury is a tear near the carina or in the membranous wall of the trachea . In blunt chest trauma , TBI occurs within 2 @.@ 5 cm of the carina 40 – 80 % of the time . The injury is more common in the right main bronchus than the left , possibly because the former is near vertebrae , which may injure it . Also , the aorta and other tissues in the mid chest that surround the left main bronchus may protect it . Another possibility is that people with left main bronchus injuries are more likely to also have other deadly injuries and therefore die before reaching hospital , making them less likely to be included in studies that determine rates of injuries .

= = Signs and symptoms = =

Signs and symptoms vary depending on what part of the tracheobronchial tree is injured and how severely it is damaged . There are no direct signs of TBI , but certain signs suggest the injury and raise a clinician 's suspicion that it has occurred . Many of the signs and symptoms are also present in injuries with similar injury mechanisms such as pneumothorax . Dyspnea and respiratory distress are found in 76 – 100 % of people with TBI , and coughing up blood has been found in up to 25 % . However , isolated TBI does not usually cause profuse bleeding ; if such bleeding is observed it is likely to be due to another injury such as a ruptured large blood vessel . The patient may exhibit dysphonia or have diminished breath sounds , and rapid breathing is common . Coughing may be present , and stridor , an abnormal , high @-@ pitched breath sound indicating obstruction of the upper airway can also occur .

Damage to the airways can cause subcutaneous emphysema ( air trapped in the subcutaneous tissue of the skin ) in the abdomen , chest , neck , and head . Subcutaneous emphysema , present in up to 85 % of people with TBI , is particularly indicative of the injury when it is only in the neck . Air is trapped in the chest cavity outside the lungs ( pneumothorax ) in about 70 % of TBI . Especially strong evidence that TBI has occurred is failure of a pneumothorax to resolve even when a chest tube is placed to rid the chest cavity of the air ; it shows that air is continually leaking into the chest cavity from the site of the tear . Air can also be trapped in the mediastinum , the center of the chest cavity ( pneumomediastinum ) . If air escapes from a penetrating injury to the neck , a definite diagnosis of TBI can be made . Hamman 's sign , a sound of crackling that occurs in time with the heartbeat , may also accompany TBI .

= = Causes = =

Injuries to the tracheobronchial tree within the chest may occur due to penetrating forces such as gunshot wounds , but are more often the result of blunt trauma . TBI due blunt forces usually results from high @-@ energy impacts such as falls from height and motor vehicle accidents ; the injury is rare in low @-@ impact mechanisms . Injuries of the trachea cause about 1 % of traffic @-@ related deaths . Other potential causes are falls from high places and injuries in which the chest is crushed . Explosions are another cause .

Gunshot wounds are the commonest form of penetrating trauma that cause TBI . Less commonly , knife wounds and shrapnel from motor vehicle accidents can also penetrate the airways . Most injuries to the trachea occur in the neck , because the airways within the chest are deep and therefore well protected ; however , up to a quarter of TBI resulting from penetrating trauma occurs within the chest . Injury to the cervical trachea usually affects the anterior ( front ) part of the trachea .

Certain medical procedures can also injure the airways ; these include tracheal intubation , bronchoscopy , and tracheotomy . The back of the trachea may be damaged during tracheotomy . TBI resulting from tracheal intubation ( insertion of a tube into the trachea ) is rare , and the mechanism by which it occurs is unclear . However , one likely mechanism involves an endotracheal tube catching in a fold of membrane and tearing it as it is advanced downward through the airway . When an endotracheal tube tears the trachea , it typically does so at the posterior ( back ) membranous wall . Unlike TBI that results from blunt trauma , most iatrogenic injuries to the airway involve longitudinal tears to the back of the trachea or tears on the side that pull the membranous part of the trachea away from the cartilage . Excessive pressure from the cuff of an endotracheal tube can reduce blood supply to the tissues of the trachea , leading to ischemia and potentially causing it to become ulcerated , infected , and , later , narrowed .

The mucosal lining of the trachea may also be injured by inhalation of hot gases or harmful fumes such as chlorine gas . This can lead to edema ( swelling ) , necrosis ( death of the tissue ) , scar formation , and ultimately stenosis . However , TBI due to inhalation , foreign body aspiration , and medical procedures is uncommon .

= = Mechanism = =

The structures in the tracheobronchial tree are well protected , so it normally takes a large amount of force to injure them . In blunt trauma , TBI is usually the result of violent compression of the chest . Rapid hyperextension of the neck , usually resulting from vehicle crashes , can also injure the trachea , and trauma to the neck can crush the trachea against the vertebrae . A crush injury of the larynx or cervical trachea can occur in head @-@ on collisions when the neck is hyperextended and strikes the steering wheel or dashboard ; this has been called a " dashboard injury " . The larynx and cervical trachea may also be injured in front @-@ on collisions by the seat belt .

Although the mechanism is not well understood , TBI due to blunt trauma is widely thought to be caused by any combination of three possible mechanisms : an increase in pressure within the airways , shearing , and pulling apart . The first type of injury , sometimes called an " explosive rupture " , may occur when the chest is violently compressed , for example when a driver strikes the steering wheel in a vehicle accident or when the chest is crushed . The pressure in the airways , especially the larger airways ( the trachea and bronchi ) , quickly rises as a result of the compression , because the glottis reflexively closes off the airways . When this pressure exceeds the elasticity of the tissues , they burst ; thus the membranous part of the trachea is more commonly affected by this mechanism of injury than cartilaginous portions .

The second mechanism may occur when the chest is suddenly decelerated , as occurs in vehicle accidents , producing a shearing force . The lungs are mobile in the chest cavity but their movement is more restricted near the hilum . Areas near the cricoid cartilage and carina are fixed to the thyroid cartilage and the pericardium respectively ; thus if the airways move , they can tear at these points of fixation .

The third mechanism occurs when the chest is compressed from front to back , causing it to widen from side to side . The lungs adhere to the chest wall because of the negative pressure between them and the pleural membranes lining the inside of the chest cavity ; thus when the chest widens , they are pulled apart . This creates tension at the carina ; the airway tears if this tensile force exceeds its elasticity . This mechanism may be the cause of injury when the chest is crushed . Most TBI are probably due to a combination of these three mechanisms .

When airways are damaged , air can escape from them and be trapped in the surrounding tissues in the neck ( subcutaneous emphysema ) and mediastinum ( pneumomediastinum ) ; if it builds up to high enough pressures there , it can compress the airways . Massive air leaks from a ruptured airway can also compromise the circulation by preventing blood from returning to the heart from the head and lower body ; this causes a potentially deadly reduction in the amount of blood the heart is able to pump out . Blood and other fluids can build up in the airways , and the injury can interfere with the patency of the airway and interfere with its continuity . However , even if the trachea is completely transected , the tissues surrounding it may hold it together enough for adequate air exchange to occur , at least at first .

= = Diagnosis = =

Rapid diagnosis and treatment are important in the care of TBI ; if the injury is not diagnosed shortly after the injury , the risk of complications is higher . Bronchoscopy is the most effective method to diagnose , locate , and determine the severity of TBI , and it is usually the only method that allows a definitive diagnosis . Diagnosis with a flexible bronchoscope , which allows the injury to be visualized directly , is the fastest and most reliable technique . In people with TBI , bronchoscopy may reveal that the airway is torn , or that the airways are blocked by blood , or that a bronchus has collapsed , obscuring more distal ( lower ) bronchi from view .

Chest x @-@ ray is the initial imaging technique used to diagnose TBI . The film may not have any signs in an otherwise asymptomatic patient . Indications of TBI seen on radiographs include deformity in the trachea or a defect in the tracheal wall . Radiography may also show cervical emphysema , air in the tissues of the neck . X @-@ rays may also show accompanying injuries and signs such as fractures and subcutaneous emphysema . If subcutaneous emphysema occurs and the hyoid bone appears in an X @-@ ray to be sitting unusually high in the throat , it may be an indication that the trachea has been severed . TBI is also suspected if an endotracheal tube appears in an X @-@ ray to be out of place , or if its cuff appears to be more full than normal or to protrude through a tear in the airway . If a bronchus is torn all the way around , the lung may collapse outward toward the chest wall ( rather than inward , as it usually does in pneumothorax ) because it loses the attachment to the bronchus which normally holds it toward the center . In a person lying face @-@ up , the lung collapses toward the diaphragm and the back . This sign , described in 1969 , is called fallen lung sign and is pathognomonic of TBI ( that is , it is diagnostic for TBI because it does not occur in other conditions ) ; however it occurs only rarely . In as many as one in five cases , people with blunt trauma and TBI have no signs of the injury on chest X @-@ ray . CT scanning detects over 90 % of TBI resulting from blunt trauma , but neither X @-@ ray nor CT are a replacement for bronchoscopy .

At least 30 % of TBI are not discovered at first ; this number may be as high as 50 % . In about 10 % of cases , TBI has no specific signs either clinically or on chest radiography , and its detection may be further complicated by concurrent injuries , since TBI tends to occur after high @-@ energy accidents . Weeks or months may go by before the injury is diagnosed , even though the injury is better known than it was in the past .

= = Prevention = =

Vehicle occupants who wear seat belts have a lower incidence of TBI after a motor vehicle accident . However , if the strap is situated across the front of the neck ( instead of the chest ) , this increases the risk of tracheal injury . Design of medical instruments can be modified to prevent iatrogenic TBI , and medical practitioners can use techniques that reduce the risk of injury with procedures such as tracheotomy .

= = Treatment = =

Treatment of TBI varies based on the location and severity of injury and whether the patient is stable or having trouble breathing , but ensuring that the airway is patent so that the patient can breathe is always of paramount importance . Ensuring an open airway and adequate ventilation may be difficult in people with TBI . Intubation , one method to secure the airway , may be used to bypass a disruption in the airway in order to send air to the lungs . If necessary , a tube can be placed into the uninjured bronchus , and a single lung can be ventilated . If there is a penetrating injury to the neck through which air is escaping , the trachea may be intubated through the wound . Multiple unsuccessful attempts at conventional ( direct ) laryngoscopy may threaten the airway , so alternative techniques to visualize the airway , such as fiberoptic or video laryngoscopy , may be employed to facilitate tracheal intubation . If the upper trachea is injured , an incision can be made in the trachea ( tracheotomy ) or the cricothyroid membrane ( cricothyrotomy , or cricothyroidotomy ) in order to ensure an open airway . However , cricothyrotomy may not be useful if the trachea is lacerated below the site of the artificial airway . Tracheotomy is used sparingly because it can cause complications such as infections and narrowing of the trachea and larynx . When it is impossible to establish a sufficient airway , or when complicated surgery must be performed , cardiopulmonary bypass may be used — blood is pumped out of the body , oxygenated by a machine , and pumped back in . If a pneumothorax occurs , a chest tube may be inserted into the pleural cavity to remove the air .

People with TBI are provided with supplemental oxygen and may need mechanical ventilation . Employment of certain measures such as Positive end @-@ expiratory pressure ( PEEP ) and ventilation at higher @-@ than @-@ normal pressures may be helpful in maintaining adequate oxygenation . However , such measures can also increase leakage of air through a tear , and can stress the sutures in a tear that has been surgically repaired ; therefore the lowest possible airway pressures that still maintain oxygenation are typically used . Mechanical ventilation can also cause pulmonary barotrauma when high pressure is required to ventilate the lungs . Techniques such as pulmonary toilet ( removal of secretions ) , fluid management , and treatment of pneumonia are employed to improve pulmonary compliance ( the elasticity of the lungs ) .

While TBI may be managed without surgery , surgical repair of the tear is considered standard in the treatment of most TBI . It is required if a tear interferes with ventilation ; if mediastinitis ( inflammation of the tissues in the mid @-@ chest ) occurs ; or if subcutaneous or mediastinal emphysema progresses rapidly ; or if air leak or large pneumothorax is persistent despite chest tube placement . Other indications for surgery are a tear more than one third the circumference of the airway , tears with loss of tissue , and a need for positive pressure ventilation . Damaged tissue around a rupture ( e.g. torn or scarred tissue ) may be removed in order to obtain clean edges that can be surgically repaired . Debridement of damaged tissue can shorten the trachea by as much as 50 % . Repair of extensive tears can include sewing a flap of tissue taken from the membranes surrounding the heart or lungs ( the pericardium and pleura , respectively ) over the sutures to protect them . When lung tissue is destroyed as a result of TBI complications , pneumonectomy or lobectomy ( removal of a lung or of one lobe , respectively ) may be required . Pneumonectomy is avoided whenever possible due to the high rate of death associated with the procedure . Surgery to repair a tear in the tracheobronchial tree can be successful even when it is performed months after the trauma , as can occur if the diagnosis of TBI is delayed . When airway stenosis results after delayed diagnosis , surgery is similar to that performed after early diagnosis : the stenotic section is removed and the cut airway is repaired .

= = Prognosis and complications = =

Most people with TBI who die do so within minutes of the injury , due to complications such as pneumothorax and insufficient airway and to other injuries that occurred at the same time . Most late deaths that occur in TBI are attributed to sepsis or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome ( MODS ) . If the condition is not recognized and treated early , serious complications are more likely to occur ; for example , pneumonia and bronchiectasis may occur as late complications . Years can pass before the condition is recognized . Some TBI are so small that they do not have significant clinical manifestations ; they may never be noticed or diagnosed and may heal without intervention .

If granulation tissue grows over the injured site , it can cause stenosis of the airway , after a week to a month . The granulation tissue must be surgically excised . Delayed diagnosis of a bronchial rupture increases risk of infection and lengthens hospital stay . People with a narrowed airway may suffer dyspnea , coughing , wheezing , respiratory tract infection , and difficulty with clearing secretions . If the bronchiole is completely obstructed , atelectasis occurs : the alveoli of the lung collapse . Lung tissue distal to a completely obstructed bronchiole often does not become infected . Because it is filled with mucus , this tissue remains functional . When the secretions are removed , the affected portion of the lung is commonly able to function almost normally . However , infection is common in lungs distal to a partially obstructed bronchiole . Infected lung tissue distal to a stricture can be damaged , and wheezing and coughing may develop due to the narrowing . In addition to pneumonia , the stenosis may cause bronchiectasis , in which bronchi are dilated , to develop . Even after an airway with a stricture is restored to normal , the resulting loss of lung function may be permanent .

Complications may also occur with treatment ; for example a granuloma can form at the suture site . Also , the sutured wound can tear again , as occurs when there is excessive pressure in the airways from ventilation . However , for people who do receive surgery soon after the injury to repair the lesion , outcome is usually good ; the long @-@ term outcome is good for over 90 % of people who have TBI surgically repaired early in treatment . Even when surgery is performed years after the injury , the outlook is good , with low rates of death and disability and good chances of preserving lung function .

= = Epidemiology = =

Rupture of the trachea or bronchus is the most common type of blunt injury to the airway . It is difficult to determine the incidence of TBI : in as many as 30 – 80 % of cases , death occurs before the person reaches a hospital , and these people may not be included in studies . On the other hand , some TBI are so small that they do not cause significant symptoms and are therefore never noticed . In addition , the injury sometimes is not associated with symptoms until complications develop later , further hindering estimation of the true incidence . However , autopsy studies have revealed TBI in 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 2 % of people who died after trauma . Of all neck and chest traumas , including people that died immediately , TBI is estimated to occur in 0 @.@ 5 – 2 % . An estimated 0 @.@ 5 % of polytrauma patients treated in trauma centers have TBI . The incidence is estimated at 2 % in blunt chest and neck trauma and 1 – 2 % in penetrating chest trauma . Laryngotracheal injuries occur in 8 % of patients with penetrating injury to the neck , and TBI occurs in 2 @.@ 8 % of blunt chest trauma deaths . In people with blunt trauma who do reach a hospital alive , reports have found incidences of 2 @.@ 1 % and 5 @.@ 3 % . Another study of blunt chest trauma revealed an incidence of only 0 @.@ 3 % , but a mortality rate of 67 % ( possibly due in part to associated injuries ) . The incidence of iatrogenic TBI ( that caused by medical procedures ) is rising , and the risk may be higher for women and the elderly . TBI results about once every 20 @,@ 000 times someone is intubated through the mouth , but when intubation is performed emergently , the incidence may be as high as 15 % .

The mortality rate for people who reach a hospital alive was estimated at 30 % in 1966 ; more recent estimates place this number at 9 % . The number of people reaching a hospital alive has increased , perhaps due to improved prehospital care or specialized treatment centers . Of those who reach the hospital alive but then die , most do so within the first two hours of arrival . The sooner a TBI is diagnosed , the higher the mortality rate ; this is likely due to other accompanying injuries that prove fatal .

Accompanying injuries often play a key role in the outcome . Injuries that may accompany TBI include pulmonary contusion and laceration ; and fractures of the sternum , ribs and clavicles . Spinal cord injury , facial trauma , traumatic aortic rupture , injuries to the abdomen , lung , and head are present in 40 – 100 % . The most common accompanying injury is esophageal perforation or rupture ( known as Boerhaave syndrome ) , which occurs in as many as 43 % of the penetrating injuries to the neck that cause tracheal injury .

= = History = =

Throughout most of history the mortality rate of TBI was thought to be 100 % . However , in 1871 a healed TBI was noted in a duck that had been killed by a hunter , thus demonstrating that the injury could be survived , at least in the general sense . This report , made by Winslow , was the first record in the medical literature of a bronchus injury . In 1873 , Seuvre made one of the earliest reports of TBI in the medical literature : a 74 @-@ year @-@ old woman whose chest was crushed by a wagon wheel was found on autopsy to have an avulsion of the right bronchus . Long @-@ term survival of the injury was unknown in humans until a report was made of a person who survived in 1927 . In 1931 , a report made by Nissen described successful removal of a lung in a 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl who had had narrowing of the bronchus due to the injury . Repair of TBI was probably first attempted in 1945 , when the first documented case of a successful suturing of a lacerated bronchus was made . Prior to 1950 , the mortality rate was 36 % ; it had fallen to 9 % by 2001 ; this improvement was likely due to improvements in treatments and surgical techniques , including those for injuries commonly associated with TBI .

= Word of God Speak =

" Word of God Speak " is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written by Bart Millard and Pete Kipley , " Word of God Speak " uses sparse instrumentation , featuring only piano and strings to accompany Millard 's vocals . The lyrics to " Word of God Speak " reflect on the idea that it is impossible to speak of an infinite God with a limited vocabulary .

Released as the second single from MercyMe 's 2002 album Spoken For , Billboard magazine ranked the song at the top spot on their 2000s decade @-@ end Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts . " Word of God Speak " spent 23 weeks atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart , a record for that chart ; it spent a total of 76 weeks on that chart altogether . It also topped the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and the Radio & Records Christian AC and INSPO charts , and peaked at No. 25 on the Christian CHR chart . " Word of God Speak " also won the Dove Awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards .

= = Background = =

MercyMe 's lead singer Bart Millard wrote " Word of God Speak " while touring in support of their single " I Can Only Imagine " . The travel was exhausting , and Millard commented in an interview that , on one of the nights on tour , he " went to bed just really frustrated ... It started feeling like everything I was saying was the same . I just thought , I have nothing else to say . So I went to bed with that on my mind " . After falling asleep , Millard woke up early in the morning and wrote several lines to the song in his journal before going back to sleep . Several weeks later , he was searching through his journal and found the notes again ; when he went to the band 's studio , he showed the notes to his producer , Pete Kipley . The two finished the lyrics to the song in less than thirty minutes , and recorded the piano track the same night ; they also brought in someone to compose a string track for the song . Millard wanted " Word of God Speak " to contain only piano , avoiding the big production that could assure the song success on the radio , as he felt the simple production would mirror the lyrics .

" Word of God Speak " was written by Bart Millard and Pete Kipley ; it was also produced by Kipley . It was recorded at several locations ; Luminous Sound in Dallas , Texas , The Sound Kitchen in Franklin , Tennessee , Indigo Room in Franklin , Tennessee , HydeAway Sound Lab in Jeckyll Island , Georgia , The Scwoodio in Greenville , Texas , Mountain View Recorders in Glorieta , New Mexico , and Playground Recording in Wylie , Texas . It was mastered by Richard Dodd at Vital Recordings , and mixed by Salvo at Salvo Mix .

= = Composition = =

" Word of God Speak " is a contemporary Christian song with a length of three minutes and seven seconds . It is set in the key of C major and has a tempo of 69 beats per minute , with Millard 's vocal range spanning from C4 @-@ F5 .

The music to " Word of God Speak " is stripped down , featuring piano and vocals ; a string track is also present . The simple production was intended to mirror the lyrics of the song , which reflect on the concept that it is impossible to speak of an infinite God with the limited vocabulary of humanity . A critic , Russ Breimier , also noted the song reminds that " prayer and worship are not flowery orations " .

= = Critical reception = =

On his review of Spoken For , Russ Breimeier commented that " I particularly liked the brief " Word of God Speak , " which simply reminds us that prayer and worship aren 't about flowery orations ... This song is to prayer what " Heart of Worship " is to worship " .

" Word of God Speak " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards .

= = Chart performance = =

" Word of God Speak " peaked at number one on the Billboard Christian Songs chart , and spent a record 23 weeks at the top of the chart , and a total of 76 weeks on the chart . On the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart , the song spent 21 weeks atop the chart , and spent 61 weeks on it in total . On the Radio & Records Christian AC chart , " Word of God Speak " spent 10 weeks at the top , and stayed on the chart for 46 weeks in total ; on the Radio & Records INSPO chart , the song spent nine weeks atop the chart , and spent 21 weeks on it in total . Additionally , the song peaked at No. 25 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart , and spent 12 weeks on that chart in total .

" Word of God Speak " ranked at No. 5 on the 2004 year @-@ end Billboard Hot Christian Singles & Tracks Titles chart , and at No. 9 on the 2004 year @-@ end Billboard Hot Christian Adult Contemporary Titles chart . It ranked at No. 1 on both the 2000s decade @-@ end Christian Songs chart and the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart .

= = Cover versions = =

" Word of God Speak " has been covered by several artists . In 2005 , actress Kristin Chenoweth covered the song on her album As I Am , and Christian rock band Kutless recorded a version of the song on their 2005 album Strong Tower . In 2004 , contemporary Christian band Big Daddy Weave recorded a version of the song that was included on the compilation album WOW Worship : Red .

= = Track listing = =

CD release

" I Can Only Imagine " – 4 : 08 ( Bart Millard )

" Word of God Speak " – 3 : 07 ( Peter Kipley , Millard )

= = Charts = =

= = Personnel = =

( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )

MercyMe

Bart Millard – lead vocals

Jim Bryson – keys , recording

Additional performers

Roy G. Biv String Vibe - strings

Technical / Misc .

Csaba Petozz - recording

J. R. McNeely - recording

Lee Bridges - recording

Richard Dodd - mastering

Salvo - mixing

= James Bowie =

James " Jim " Bowie ( pronounced / ˈbuːiː / BOO @-@ ee ) ( c . 1796 – March 6 , 1836 ) was a 19th @-@ century American pioneer , who played a prominent role in the Texas Revolution , culminating in his death at the Battle of the Alamo . Stories of him as a fighter and frontiersman , both real and fictitious , have made him a legendary figure in Texas history and a folk hero of American culture .

Born in Kentucky , Bowie spent most of his life in Louisiana , where he was raised and where he later worked as a land speculator . His rise to fame began in 1827 on reports of the Sandbar Fight . What began as a duel between two other men deteriorated into a melée in which Bowie , having been shot and stabbed , killed the sheriff of Rapides Parish with a large knife . This , and other stories of Bowie 's prowess with a knife , led to the widespread popularity of the Bowie knife .

Bowie 's reputation was cemented by his role in the Texas Revolution . After moving to Texas in 1830 , Bowie became a Mexican citizen and married Ursula Veramendi , the daughter of the Mexican vice governor of the province . His fame in Texas grew following his failed expedition to find the lost San Saba mine , during which his small party repelled an attack by a large Indian raiding party . At the outbreak of the Texas Revolution , Bowie joined the Texas militia , leading forces at the Battle of Concepción and the Grass Fight . In January 1836 , he arrived at the Alamo , where he commanded the volunteer forces until an illness left him bedridden . Bowie died with the other Alamo defenders on March 6 . Despite conflicting accounts of the manner of his death , the " most popular , and probably the most accurate " accounts maintain that he died in his bed after emptying his pistols into several Mexican soldiers .

= = Early years = =

According to his older brother John , James Bowie was born in Logan County , Kentucky , on March 10 , 1796 ( Historical marker : 36 ° 46 ' 25 " N 86 ° 42 ' 10 " W ) . Historian Raymond Thorp gave his birth date as April 10 , but Thorp did not provide any documentation for that date . Bowie 's surname was pronounced to rhyme with the French " Louis " ( / ˈbuːiː / BOO @-@ ee ) . ( Although some works refer to the alternate pronunciation / ˈboʊ.i / BO @-@ ee . )

Bowie was the ninth of ten children born to Elve Ap @-@ Catesby Jones and John Bowie . His father had been wounded while fighting in the American Revolution , and in 1782 married the young woman who had nursed him back to health . The Bowies moved frequently , first settling in Georgia , before moving to Kentucky . At the time of Bowie 's birth , his father owned eight slaves , eleven head of cattle , seven horses , and one stud horse . The following year the family acquired 200 acres ( 80 ha ) along the Red River . They sold that property in 1800 and relocated to Missouri , before moving to Spanish Louisiana in 1802 , where they settled on Bushley Bayou in Rapides Parish .

The family moved again in 1809 , settling on Bayou Teche in Louisiana before finding a permanent home in Opelousas in 1812 . The Bowie children were raised on the frontier and even as small children were expected to help clear the land and plant crops . All the children learned to read and write in English , but James and his elder brother Rezin could also read , write , and speak Spanish and French fluently . The children learned to survive on the frontier and how to fish and run a farm and plantation . James Bowie became proficient with pistol , rifle , and knife , and had a reputation for fearlessness . When he was a boy , one of his Indian friends even taught him to rope alligators .

In response to Andrew Jackson 's plea for volunteers to fight the British in the War of 1812 , James and Rezin enlisted in the Louisiana militia in late 1814 . The Bowie brothers arrived in New Orleans too late to participate in the fighting . After mustering out of the militia , Bowie settled in Rapides Parish , where he supported himself by sawing planks and lumber and floating them down the bayou for sale . In June 1819 , he joined the Long expedition , an effort to liberate Texas from Spanish rule . The group encountered little resistance and , after capturing Nacogdoches , declared Texas an independent republic . The extent of Bowie 's participation is unclear , but he returned to Louisiana before the invasion was repelled by Spanish troops .

= = Land speculator = =

Shortly before the senior Bowie died in 1818 or 1819 , he gave ten slaves as well as horses and cattle to both James and Rezin . For the next seven years , the brothers worked together to develop several large estates in Lafourche Parish and Opelousas . Louisiana 's population was growing rapidly , and the brothers hoped to take advantage of its rising land prices through speculation . Without the capital required to buy large tracts , they entered into a partnership with pirate Jean Lafitte in 1818 to raise money . By then , the United States had outlawed the importation of slaves , and most southern states allowed anyone who informed on a slave trader to receive half of what the imported slaves would earn at auction as a reward . Bowie made three trips to Lafitte 's compound on Galveston Island . On each occasion , he bought smuggled slaves and took them directly to a customhouse to inform on his own actions . When the customs officers offered the slaves for auction , Bowie purchased them and received back half the price he had paid , as allowed by the state laws . He then could legally transport the slaves and resell them at a greater market value in New Orleans or areas farther up the Mississippi River . Using this scheme , the brothers collected $ 65 @,@ 000 to be used for their land speculation .

In 1825 , the two brothers joined with their younger brother Stephen to buy Acadia , a plantation near Alexandria . Within two years , they had established the first steam mill in Louisiana to be used for grinding sugar cane . The plantation became known as a model estate , but on February 12 , 1831 , they sold it and 65 slaves for $ 90 @,@ 000 . With their profits , James and Rezin bought a plantation in Arkansas .

Bowie and his brother John were involved in a major court case in the late 1820s over land speculation . When the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory in 1803 , it promised to honor all former land grant claims , and for the next 20 years efforts were made to establish who owned what land . In May 1824 , Congress authorized the superior courts of each territory to hear suits from those who claimed they had been overlooked . The Arkansas Superior Court received 126 claims in late 1827 from residents who claimed to have purchased land in former Spanish grants from the Bowie brothers . Although the Superior Court originally confirmed most of those claims , the decisions were reversed in February 1831 after further research showed that the land had never belonged to the Bowies and that the original land grant documentation had been forged . The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the reversal in 1833 . When the disgruntled purchasers considered suing the Bowies , they discovered that the documents in the case had been removed from the court ; left without evidence , they declined to pursue a case .

= = Bowie knife = =

Bowie became internationally famous as a result of a feud with Norris Wright , the sheriff of Rapides Parish . Bowie had supported Wright 's opponent in the race for sheriff , and Wright , a bank director , had been instrumental in turning down a Bowie loan application . After a confrontation in Alexandria one afternoon , Wright fired a shot at Bowie , after which Bowie resolved to carry his hunting knife at all times . The knife he carried had a blade that was 9 @.@ 25 inches ( 23 @.@ 5 cm ) long and 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) wide .

The following year , on September 19 , 1827 , Bowie and Wright attended a duel on a sandbar outside of Natchez , Mississippi . Bowie supported duellist Samuel Levi Wells III , while Wright supported Wells 's opponent , Dr. Thomas Harris Maddox . The duellists each fired two shots and , as neither man had been injured , resolved their duel with a handshake . Other members of the groups , who had various reasons for disliking each other , began fighting . Bowie was shot in the hip ; after regaining his feet he drew a knife , described as a butcher knife , and charged his attacker , who hit Bowie over the head with his empty pistol , breaking the pistol and knocking Bowie to the ground . Wright shot at and missed the prone Bowie , who returned fire and possibly hit Wright . Wright then drew his sword cane and impaled Bowie . When Wright attempted to retrieve his blade by placing his foot on Bowie 's chest and tugging , Bowie pulled him down and disemboweled Wright with his large knife . Wright died instantly , and Bowie , with Wright 's sword still protruding from his chest , was shot again and stabbed by another member of the group . The doctors who had been present for the duel removed the bullets and patched Bowie 's other wounds .

Newspapers picked up the story , which became known as the Sandbar Fight , and described in detail Bowie 's fighting prowess and his unusual knife . Witness accounts agreed that Bowie did not attack first , and the others had focused their attack on Bowie because " they considered him the most dangerous man among their opposition . " The incident cemented Bowie 's reputation across the South as a superb knife fighter .

There is disagreement among scholars as to whether the knife used in this fight was the same as what is now known as a Bowie knife , also called an Arkansas Toothpick . Multiple accounts exist of who designed and built the first Bowie knife . Some claim that Bowie designed it , while others attribute the design to noted knife makers of the time . In a letter to The Planter 's Advocate , Rezin Bowie claimed to have invented the knife , however , and many Bowie family members as well as " most authorities on the Bowie knife tend to believe it was invented by " Rezin . Rezin Bowie 's grandchildren , however , claimed that Rezin merely supervised his blacksmith , who was the creator of the knife .

After the Sandbar Fight and subsequent battles in which Bowie used his knife to defend himself , the Bowie knife became very popular . Many craftsmen and manufacturers made their own versions , and major cities of the Old Southwest had " Bowie knife schools " that taught " the art of cut , thrust , and parry . " His fame , and that of his knife , spread to England , and by the early 1830s many British manufacturers were producing Bowie knives for shipment to the United States . The design of the knife continued to evolve , but today a Bowie knife generally is considered to have a blade 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 cm ) long and 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 cm ) wide , with a curved point , a " sharp false edge cut from both sides " , and a cross @-@ guard to protect the user 's hands .

= = Establishment in Texas = =

In 1828 , after recovering from wounds suffered in the Sandbar Fight , Bowie decided to move to Coahuila y Texas , at that time a state in the Mexican federation . The 1824 Constitution of Mexico banned religions other than Roman Catholicism and gave preference to Mexican citizens in receiving land . Bowie was baptized into the Roman Catholic faith in San Antonio on April 28 , 1828 , sponsored by the alcalde ( chief administrator ) of the town , Juan Martín de Veramendi , and the wife of the administrator , Josefa Navarro . For the next 18 months , Bowie traveled through Louisiana and Mississippi . In 1829 , he became engaged to Cecilia Wells , who died in Alexandria , on September 29 , two weeks before they were to be married .

On January 1 , 1830 , Bowie left Louisiana for permanent residency in Texas . He stopped at Nacogdoches , at Jared E. Groce 's farm on the Brazos River , and in San Felipe , where Bowie presented a letter of introduction to Stephen F. Austin from Thomas F. McKinney , one of the Old Three Hundred colonists . On February 20 , Bowie took an oath of allegiance to Mexico and then proceeded to San Antonio de Bexar . At the time , the city was known as Bexar and had a population of 2500 , mostly of Mexican descent , and Bowie 's fluency in Spanish helped him establish himself in the area . Bowie was elected a commander , with the rank of colonel , of the Texas Rangers later that year . Although the Rangers would not be organized officially until 1835 , Stephen F. Austin had founded the group by employing 30 men to keep the peace and protect the colonists from attacks by hostile Indians . Other areas assembled similar volunteer militias , and Bowie commanded a group of the volunteers .

Bowie renounced his American citizenship and became a Mexican citizen on September 30 , 1830 , after promising to establish textile mills in the state of Coahuila y Tejas . To fulfill his promise , Bowie entered into partnership with Veramendi to build cotton and wool mills in Saltillo . With his citizenship assured , Bowie now had the right to buy up to 11 leagues of public land . He convinced 14 or 15 other citizens to apply for land in order to turn it over to him , giving him 700 @,@ 000 acres ( 280 @,@ 000 ha ) for speculation . Bowie may have been the first to induce settlers to apply for empresario grants , which could then be sold in bulk to speculators as Bowie had . The Mexican government passed laws in 1834 and 1835 that stopped much of the land speculation .

On April 25 , 1831 , Bowie married nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Maria Ursula de Veramendi , the daughter of his business partner , who had become the vice governor of the province . Several days before the ceremony , he signed a dowry contract promising to pay his new bride 15 @,@ 000 pesos ( approximately $ 15 @,@ 000 then , or $ 333 @,@ 000 today ) in cash or property within two years of the marriage . At the time , Bowie claimed to have a net worth of $ 223 @,@ 000 ( $ 4 @,@ 960 @,@ 000 today ) , mostly in land of questionable title . Bowie also lied about his age , claiming to be 30 rather than 35 . The couple built a house in San Antonio on land Veramendi had given them near the San José Mission . After a short time , however , they moved into the Veramendi Palace , living with Ursula 's parents , who supplied them with spending money . The couple had two children , Marie Elve ( b . March 20 , 1832 ) and James Veramendi ( b . July 18 , 1833 ) .

Maria Ursula , her parents , and both children died in September 1833 from cholera .

= = Los Almagres Mine = =

Shortly after his marriage Bowie became fascinated with the story of the " lost " Los Almagres Mine ( also known as the lost San Saba Mine and the lost Bowie Mine ) , said to be northwest of San Antonio near the ruin of the Spanish Mission Santa Cruz de San Saba . According to legend , the mine had been operated by local Indians before being seized by the Spanish . After Mexico won independence from Spain , government interest in the mining potential waned . A number of native groups roamed the area , including Comanche , Lipan Apache , Tawakoni , and Tonkawa . Without government troops to keep hostile natives at bay , mining and mineral exploration were impossible . Some believed that after the Mexican citizens left the area , the Lipan took over the mine .

After obtaining permission from the Mexican government to mount an expedition into Indian territory to search for the legendary silver mine , Bowie , his brother Rezin , and ten others set out for San Saba on November 2 , 1831 . Six miles ( 10 km ) from their goal , the group stopped to negotiate with a large raiding party of Indians — reportedly more than 120 Tawakoni and Waco , plus another 40 Caddo . The attempts at parley failed and Bowie and his group fought for their lives for the next 13 hours . When the Indians finally retreated , Bowie reportedly had lost only one man , while more than 40 Indians had been killed and 30 were wounded . In the meantime , a party of friendly Comanche rode into San Antonio bringing word of the raiding party , which outnumbered the Bowie expedition by 14 to 1 . The citizens of San Antonio believed the members of the Bowie expedition must have perished , and Ursula Bowie began wearing widow 's weeds .

To the surprise of the town , the surviving members of the group returned to San Antonio on December 6 . Bowie 's report of the expedition , written in Spanish , was printed in several newspapers , further establishing his reputation . He set out again with a larger force the following month , but returned home empty @-@ handed after two and a half months of searching .

Bowie never talked of his exploits despite his increasing fame . Captain William Y. Lacey , who spent eight months living in the wilderness with Bowie , described him as a humble man who never used profanity or vulgarities .

= = Texas Revolution = =

= = = Texan rumblings = = =

Between 1830 and 1832 the Mexican Congress passed a series of laws that seemed to discriminate against Anglo colonists in the province of Coahuila y Tejas , increasing tension between the Anglo citizenry and Mexican officials . In response to the rumblings , Mexican troops established military posts in several locations within the province , including San Antonio de Béxar . Although much of the military supported the administration of President Anastasio Bustamante , Antonio López de Santa Anna led an insurrection against him in 1832 . Anglo colonists in Texas supported Santa Anna and General José Antonio Mexía , who led soldiers into Texas to oust commanders loyal to Bustamante .

After hearing that the Mexican army commander in Nacogdoches , José de las Piedras , had demanded that all residents in his area surrender their arms , Bowie cut short a visit to Natchez in July 1832 to return to Texas . On August 2 , 1832 , he joined a group of other Texans and marched into Nacogdoches to " present their demands " to Piedras . Before the group reached the building housing the town officials , they were attacked by a force of 100 Mexican cavalry . The Texans returned fire and the Battle of Nacogdoches began . After the cavalry retreated , they initiated a siege of the garrison . After a second battle , in which Piedras lost 33 men , the Mexican army evacuated during the night . Bowie and 18 companions ambushed the fleeing army and , after Piedras fled , marched the soldiers back to Nacogdoches . Bowie later served as a delegate to the Convention of 1833 , which formally requested that Texas become its own state within the Mexican federation .

Several months later , a cholera epidemic struck Texas . Fearing the disease would reach San Antonio , Bowie sent his pregnant wife and their daughter to the family estate in Monclova in the company of her parents and brother . The cholera epidemic instead struck Monclova , and between September 6 and September 14 , Ursula , their children , her brother , and her parents all died of the disease . Bowie , on business in Natchez , heard of his family 's deaths in November . From then on , he drank heavily and became " careless in his dress . "

The following year , the Mexican government passed new laws allowing land sale in Texas , and Bowie returned to land speculation . He was appointed a land commissioner and tasked with promoting settlement in the area purchased by John T. Mason . His appointment ended in May 1835 when President Antonio López de Santa Anna abolished the Coahuila y Tejas government and ordered the arrest of all Texans ( including Bowie ) doing business in Monclova . Bowie was forced to flee Monclova and return to the Anglo areas of Texas .

The Anglos in Texas began agitating for war against Santa Anna , and Bowie worked with William B. Travis , the leader of the War Party , to gain support . Bowie visited several Indian villages in East Texas in an attempt to persuade the reluctant tribes to fight against the Mexican government . Santa Anna responded to the rumblings by ordering large numbers of Mexican troops to Texas .

= = = Battle of Concepción = = =

The Texas Revolution began on October 2 , 1835 , with the Battle of Gonzales . Stephen F. Austin formed an army of 500 men to march on the Mexican forces in San Antonio with the cannon that had precipitated the fight . The name " Texian Army " sometimes is applied to this militia . On October 22 , Austin asked Bowie , now a colonel in the volunteer militia , and James W. Fannin to scout the area around the missions of San Francisco de la Espada and San José y San Miguel de Aguayo to find supplies for the volunteer forces . The scouting party left with 92 men , many of them members of the New Orleans Grays who had just arrived in Texas . After discovering a good defensive position near Mission Concepción , the group requested that Austin 's army join them .

On the foggy morning of October 28 , Mexican General Domingo Ugartechea led a force of 300 infantry and cavalry soldiers and two small cannons against the Texian forces . Although the Mexican army was able to get within 200 yards ( 183 m ) , the Texian defensive position protected them from fire . As the Mexicans stopped to reload their cannon , the Texians climbed a bluff and picked off some of the soldiers . The stalemate ended shortly after Bowie led a charge to seize one of the Mexican cannons , at that time only 80 yards ( 73 m ) away . Ugartechea retreated with his troops , ending the Battle of Concepción . One Texian and ten Mexican troops had been killed . One of the men under Bowie 's command during the battle later praised him " as a born leader , never needlessly spending a bullet or imperiling a life , who repeatedly admonished ... Keep under cover boys , and reserve your fire ; we haven 't a man to spare . "

= = = Grass Fight and commission difficulties = = =

An hour after the battle ended , Austin arrived with the rest of the Texian army to begin a siege of San Antonio de Béxar , where General Martín Perfecto de Cós , the overall commander of Mexican forces in Texas , and his troops were garrisoned . Two days later , Bowie resigned from Austin 's army because he did not have an official commission in the army , and he disliked the " minor tasks of scouting and spying " .

On November 3 , 1835 , Texas declared itself an independent state , and a provisional government was formed with Henry Smith of Brazoria elected provisional governor . Austin requested to be relieved of his command of the army , and Sam Houston was named army chief . Edward Burleson was chosen as temporary commander of the troops in San Antonio . Bowie appeared before the council at some point and spoke for an hour , asking for a commission . The council refused Bowie 's request , likely because of lingering animosity over his land dealings .

Houston offered Bowie a commission as an officer on his staff , but Bowie rejected the opportunity , explaining that he wanted to be in the midst of the fighting . Instead , Bowie enlisted in the army as a private under Fannin . He distinguished himself again in the Grass Fight on November 26 . Cós had sent approximately 187 men to cut grass for his horses . As they returned to San Antonio , Bowie took 60 mounted men to intercept the party , which they believed carried valuable cargo . The Mexican troops quickened their pace in the hopes of reaching the safety of the city , but Bowie and his cavalry chased them . At the end of the fight , the Texians had two wounded men , but had captured many horses and mules .

Shortly after Bowie left San Antonio , Ben Milam led an assault on the city . In the ensuing fighting , the Texians suffered only a few casualties , while the Mexican army lost many troops to death and desertion . Cós surrendered and returned to Mexico , taking with him the last Mexican troops in Texas . Believing the war was over , many of the Texian volunteers left the army and returned to their families . In early January 1836 , Bowie went to San Felipe and asked the council to allow him to recruit a regiment . He again was turned down as he " was not an officer of the government nor army . "

= = = Battle at the Alamo = = =

After Houston received word that Santa Anna was leading a large force to San Antonio , Bowie offered to lead volunteers to defend the Alamo from the expected attack . He arrived with 30 men on January 19 , where they found a force of 104 men with a few weapons and a few cannons , but not many supplies and little gunpowder . Houston knew that there were not enough men to hold the fort in an attack and had given Bowie authority to remove the artillery and blow up the fortification . Bowie and the Alamo commander , James C. Neill , decided they did not have enough oxen to move the artillery , and they did not want to destroy the fortress . On January 26 , one of Bowie 's men , James Bonham , organized a rally which passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo . Bonham signed the resolution first , with Bowie 's signature second .

Through Bowie 's connections because of his marriage and his fluency in Spanish , the predominantly Mexican population of San Antonio often furnished him with information about the movements of the Mexican army . After learning that Santa Anna had 4 @,@ 500 troops and was heading for the city , Bowie wrote several letters to the provisional government asking for help in defending the Alamo , especially " men , money , rifles , and cannon powder " . In another letter , to Governor Smith , he reiterated his view that " the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy . It serves as the frontier picquet guard , and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna , there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine . " The letter to Smith ended , " Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy . "

On February 3 , Davy Crockett appeared with thirty Tennesseans . Neill went on furlough on February 11 to visit his sick family , leaving Travis , a member of the regular army , in command . Bowie was older than Travis with a better reputation and considered himself a colonel , thus outranking Travis , a lieutenant colonel . He refused to answer to Travis , who called an election for the men to choose their own commander . They chose Bowie , infuriating Travis . Bowie celebrated his appointment by getting very drunk and causing havoc in San Antonio , releasing all prisoners in the local jails and harassing citizens . Travis was disgusted , but two days later the men agreed to a joint command ; Bowie would command the volunteers , and Travis would command the regular army and the volunteer cavalry .

On February 23 , the bells of San Fernando sounded the alarm of the approach of the Mexicans . Travis ordered all the Texan forces into the Alamo . James Bowie hurried to gather provisions and herd cattle into the Alamo compound . Fearing for the safety of his wife 's relatives in San Antonio , Bowie invited her cousins Getrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury , as well as Alsbury 's 18 @-@ month @-@ old son , Alijo Perez Jr . , to stay inside the walls of the Alamo . Bowie also brought several black servants , some of whom worked at the Veramendi Palace , into the security of the Alamo fortress . Bowie had been ill , and two doctors , including the fort surgeon , were unable to diagnose his illness . Travis became the sole commander of the forces when Bowie was confined to bed . Santa Anna and his army began a siege of the Alamo on February 24 . The Mexican army raised a red flag to warn the defenders that no quarter would be given .

Bowie and Travis began sending out couriers with pleas for provisions and assistance . Travis sent Juan Seguin on Bowie 's horse , to recruit reinforcements on February 25 , and 32 additional men arrived . On February 26 , David Crockett reported that Bowie , though suffering from his affliction , continued to crawl from his bed around noon every day and presented himself to the Alamo 's inhabitants , which much boosted the morale of his comrades . Thirty @-@ five years after the Alamo fell , a reporter identified Louis " Moses " Rose as the only man to have " deserted " the Texian forces at the Alamo . According to the reporter 's version of Rose 's account , when Travis realized that the Mexican army would likely prevail , he drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the cause to cross the line . At Bowie 's request Crockett and several others carried the cot over the line , leaving Rose alone on the other side . After its publication , several other eyewitnesses confirmed the account , but as Rose was deceased the story can only be authenticated by the word of the reporter , who admitted to embellishing other articles , " and thus many historians refuse to believe it . "

Bowie perished with the rest of the Alamo defenders on March 6 , when the Mexicans attacked . Most of the noncombatants in the fort , including Bowie 's relatives , survived . Santa Anna ordered the alcalde of San Antonio , Francisco Antonio Ruiz , to confirm the identities of Bowie , Travis , and Crockett . After first ordering that Bowie be buried , as he was too brave a man to be burned like a dog , Santa Anna later had Bowie 's body placed with those of the other Texians on the funeral pyre .

When Bowie 's mother was informed of his death , she calmly stated , " I 'll wager no wounds were found in his back . " Various eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of Bowie 's death . A newspaper article claimed that a Mexican soldier saw Bowie carried from his room on his cot , alive , after the conclusion of the battle . The soldier maintained that Bowie verbally castigated a Mexican officer in fluent Spanish , and the officer ordered Bowie 's tongue cut out and his still @-@ breathing body thrown onto the funeral pyre . This account has been disputed by numerous other witnesses , and it is thought to have been invented by the reporter . Other witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie 's room , bayonet him , and carry him , alive , from the room . Various other stories circulated , with some witnesses claiming that Bowie shot himself and others saying he was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head . Alcalde Ruiz said that Bowie was found " dead in his bed . " According to Wallace O Chariton , The " most popular , and probably the most accurate " version is that Bowie died on his cot , " back braced against the wall , and using his pistols and his famous knife . " One year after the battle , Juan Seguin returned to the Alamo and gathered the remaining ashes from the funeral pyre . He placed these in a coffin inscribed with the names of Bowie , Travis , and Crockett . The ashes were interred at the Cathedral of San Fernando .

= = Legacy = =

Despite his continual pronouncements of wealth , Bowie 's estate was found to be very small . His possessions were auctioned for only $ 99 @.@ 50 . His larger legacy is his position as " one of the legendary characters of the American frontier . " Bowie left a " frustratingly sparse paper trail " of his life , and for many " where history failed , the legends prevailed . " Although Bowie 's name and knife were well known during his lifetime , his legend grew after October 1852 , when DeBow 's Review published an article written by his brother John Jones Bowie called , " Early Life in the Southwest — The Bowies . " The article focused primarily on the exploits of Jim Bowie . Beginning with that article , " romanticized stories " about Bowie began appearing in national press . In many cases , " these stories were pure melodrama , with Bowie rescuing some naïve planter 's son or damsel in distress . "

Jim Bowie was inducted posthumously into the Blade Magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the 1988 Blade Show in Atlanta , Georgia , in recognition of the impact that his eponymous design made upon generations of knife makers and cutlery companies .

A number of films have depicted the events of the Battle of the Alamo , and Bowie has appeared as a character in each .

From 1956 to 1958 , Bowie was the subject of a CBS television series , The Adventures of Jim Bowie , which was primarily set in 1830s Louisiana , although later episodes ventured into the Mexican province of Texas . The show , which starred Scott Forbes as Jim Bowie , was based on the 1946 novel Tempered Blade .

Bowie also is the namesake of rock star David Bowie , who was born David Robert Hayward @-@ Jones . Jones changed his name in the 1960s because he feared his name was too similar to Davy Jones , a member of the already famous The Monkees . He chose the surname Bowie because he admired James Bowie and the Bowie knife , although his pronunciation uses the BO @-@ ee ( / ˈboʊ.i / ) variant .

Bowie County in northeast Texas , and the city of Bowie in Montague County , Texas , were both named in honor of James Bowie .

= Hygrophorus agathosmus =

Hygrophorus agathosmus , commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap or the almond woodwax , is a species of fungus in the Hygrophoraceae family . It was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1815 ; Fries gave it its current name in 1838 . A widespread species , it is distributed in the United States , Europe , Africa , and India , and can be found growing under spruce and pine in mixed forests . The fruit bodies are characterized by a light grayish cap that measures up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , waxy gills , a dry stem , and the distinct odor of bitter almonds . An edible but bland @-@ tasting mushroom , extracts of the fruit bodies have been shown in laboratory tests to have antimicrobial activity against various bacteria that are pathogenic to humans .

= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =

The species was originally named Agaricus agathosmus by Swedish mycologist Elias Fries in 1815 ; he later moved it into the genus Hygrophorus in 1838 . In the interim , English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley named the species Agaricus cerasinus in 1836 , although he too would later transfer the species to Hygrophorus in 1860 . In 1948 , Richard Dennis examined the type material , and concluded that the two names referred to the same species . Additional historical synonyms include Limacium pustulatum var. agathosmum ( Kummer , 1871 ) , and Limacium agathosmum ( Wünsch , 1877 ) .

In their 1963 monograph of the Hygrophorus of North America , American mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith classified H. agathosmus in the subsection Camarophylli , a grouping of related species characterized by a dry stem , and the absence of a gelatinous outer veil .

The specific epithet agathosmus is derived from the Greek word agathos meaning “ good ” , and osme meaning “ scent ” . Hygrophorus agathosmus is commonly known as the gray almond waxy cap , or the almond woodwax .

= = Description = =

The cap is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter , and initially convex with the edges rolled inwards . As it ages and the cap expands , it becomes flat , sometimes with the center slightly depressed , or sometimes with a slight central elevation . The color is a dull ashy gray , and when moist , the cap surface is sticky or tacky to the touch . It is smooth , although the edges can have a layer of minute , soft hairs . The flesh is soft , and whitish or watery gray . Hygrophorus agathosmus has a pronounced fragrant odor resembling cherry pits or bitter almonds ( occasionally the odor is weak ) .

The gills have an adnate attachment to the stem , but in maturity the attachment becomes adnate @-@ decurrent , meaning the gills start to extend down the length of the stem . The gills are white , but become grayish in maturity , close to distant ( 40 – 50 reach the stem ) , moderately narrow , rather thin . The stem is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , whitish at first , and colored pale ashy in age . It is the same thickness throughout or somewhat narrowed toward the base . It is solid , dry or moist but has no gelatinous universal veil present . When young , the stem surface is evenly covered with tiny fibrils and a fine whitish powder ; over time it loses the hairs and the powder and becomes smooth .

= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =

When viewed in mass , such as with a spore print , the spores appear to be white . Viewed with a light microscope , the basidiospores are 8 – 10 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm , ellipsoid , smooth , and yellowish in Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are four @-@ spored and measure 48 – 65 long by 6 – 8 µm thick . Pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia ( specialized cystidia found on the gill faces and edges , respectively ) are absent in this species . The pileipellis ( cap cuticle ) is made of a broad ( 175 – 350 µm ) gelatinous zone , composed of loosely interwoven , slender ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 µm ) hyphae ; the surface hyphae are a fuscous — a dark brownish @-@ gray color . This hyphal arrangement is called an ixocutis , in which the hyphal walls swell up and gelatinize , giving a translucence to the layer that stands out in contrast to the underlying flesh . The layer of gelatizined hyphae is tenacious , and may be peeled off the cap as a film . Although clamp connections are found on the hyphae that make up the flesh of the gill , none are found in the cap flesh nor in the pileipellis .

= = = Edibility and antimicrobial activity = = =

Hygrophorus agathosmus is edible , but considered bland . A study of the antioxidant capacity of the mushroom was composed of at least five organic acids : oxalic , citric , malic , quinic , and fumaric acids . Using a standard laboratory test to determine antimicrobial activity , Hygrophorus agathosmus was shown to inhibit the growth of various pathogenic bacteria , including Escherichia coli , Enterobacter aerogenes , Salmonella typhimurium , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Staphylococcus aureus , Staphylococcus epidermidis , and Bacillus subtilis ; it also inhibits the growth of the yeast Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae .

= = = Similar species = = =

Hygrophorus pustulatus resembles H. agathosmus and has a similar almond odor . However , the fruit bodies of H. pustulatus are smaller , and it produces larger spores ( 11 – 14 µm long ) . Hygrophorus occidentalis , which grows under conifers or oak , has a sticky stem and less pronounced almond odor . Hygrophorus marzuolus is also similar in appearance , but it lacks a distinctive odor , and has smaller spores than H. agathamosus .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Hygrophorus agathosmus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus , and it has been isolated , cultivated , and maintained as pure cultures of vegetative fungal inocula for artificial mycorrhization of planting stock in forest nurseries . Fruiting bodies are found scattered under spruce and pine and in mixed woods in the United States . The fungus is also found in Europe ( Czech Republic , Poland , Russia , Turkey , and the United Kingdom ) , Africa , and India .

= Could 've Been You =

" Could 've Been You " is a rock song first performed by American rock singer Bob Halligan and later popularized by American singer @-@ actress Cher . The song was written by Halligan and Arnie Roman for Halligan 's 1991 album , Window In The Wall . Cher 's cover version was produced by Peter Asher and released exclusively for the European market in early 1992 as the fourth single from Cher 's twenty @-@ first studio album , Love Hurts . Lyrically , " Could 've Been You " is a message from the song 's protagonist to his or her ex .

Cher 's version of " Could 've Been You " received positive reviews from critics and peaked at number thirty @-@ one on the UK Singles Chart . Cher promoted the song through appearances at Top of the Pops and Aspel and Company .

= = Background = =

In 1991 , Bob Halligan released his album Window In The Wall under Atco Records . The only single released from the album was its lead track , " Could 've Been You " , which Halligan had co @-@ written with Arnie Roman . According to Halligan , Atco Records had been going through a " political upheaval " that year and his record " was one of several recordings that was allowed to slip gently into the night " . Halligan " dryly notes , ' [ " Could 've Been You " ] lasted three weeks at radio . It came out to the sound of one hand clapping ' " .

Later the same year , Cher covered " Could 've Been You " for her album Love Hurts . Her version was produced by Peter Asher , who had previously worked with Cher on her 1991 UK number one hit " The Shoop Shoop Song ( It 's in His Kiss ) " . The B @-@ side of the first UK 7 " single release was " One Small Step " , a duet with American singer @-@ songwriter Richard Page , while the B @-@ side of the second UK 7 " single was " Love and Understanding " . The second UK 7 " single and the Germany Maxi @-@ single were both released with the same cover , an image of Cher in a baby doll dress , while the first UK 7 " was released with the same photo cut to show only Cher 's legs . The whole photo was later reused for the cover of the Love Hurts tourbook . The UK 12 " single was the last released ; its cover has a transparent vinyl and shows Cher in a long , smooth black wig . In 1993 , " Could 've Been You " was rereleased as the B @-@ side of Cher 's " Whenever You 're Near " UK 7 " single .

Cher promoted " Could 've Been You " with a live performance on Top of the Pops on April 9 , 1992 , six days before the beginning of her first European tour , the Love Hurts Tour in Berlin , Germany . For the performance Cher wore a curly red wig and a suit with the jacket open to show a leather bra . On April 11 , 1992 , Cher appeared on the Aspel and Company show to perform the song and be interviewed by Michael Aspel .

= = Critical reception = =

" Could 've Been You " received positive reviews from critics . Rock critic Jim Farber of Entertainment Weekly said of the album that " [ i ] t 's that much more fun in numbers like ' Could 've Been You ' , in which , seeking revenge , she gets to reach between the jerk 's legs and squeeze . " David Wild of the Guilford County , North Carolina News & Record called " Love and Understanding " , " Save Up All Your Tears " and " Could 've Been You " " strong tracks " that " show that she is still an effective pop singer " . The review of the Worcester , Massachusetts Telegram & Gazette newspaper noted " Cher attempts to display her sexual prowess on the song , ... a great vehicle for her , an ' in @-@ your @-@ face ' song directed to a former lover " .

= = Chart performance = =

The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ two on the week of April 18 , 1992 . In its second week it peaked at number thirty @-@ one , dropping the next week to number forty @-@ three and then to number sixty in its fourth and final week on the chart . The song also entered the German Singles Chart in late May 1992 , spending seven weeks on the chart and peaked at number seventy @-@ five .

= = Track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Artwork – Kevin Reagan

Management – Bill Sammeth , John Kalodner

Photography – Herb Ritts

Producer – Peter Asher

Recorded and mixed by – Frank Wolf

= = Charts = =

= Battle of Kalavrye =

The Battle of Kalavrye ( also Kalavryai or Kalavryta ) was fought in 1078 between the Byzantine imperial forces of general ( and future emperor ) Alexios Komnenos and the rebellious governor of Dyrrhachium , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder . Bryennios had rebelled against Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) and had won over the allegiance of the Byzantine army 's regular regiments in the Balkans . Even after Doukas 's overthrow by Nikephoros III Botaneiates ( r . 1078 – 81 ) , Bryennios continued his revolt , and threatened Constantinople . After failed negotiations , Botaneiates sent the young general Alexios Komnenos with whatever forces he could gather to confront him .

The two armies clashed at Kalavrye on the Halmyros river in what is now European Turkey . Alexios Komnenos , whose army was considerably smaller and far less experienced , tried to ambush Bryennios 's army . The ambush failed , and the wings of his own army were driven back by the rebels . Alexios barely managed to break through with his personal retinue , but succeeded in regrouping his scattered men . At the same time , and despite having seemingly won the battle , Bryennios 's army fell into disorder after its own Pecheneg allies attacked its camp . Reinforced by Turkish mercenaries , Alexios lured the troops of Bryennios into another ambush through a feigned retreat . The rebel army broke and Bryennios was captured .

The battle is known through two detailed accounts , Anna Komnene 's Alexiad , and her husband Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger 's Material for History , on which Anna 's own account relies to a large degree . It is one of the few Byzantine battles described in detail , and hence a valuable source for studying the tactics of the Byzantine army of the late 11th century .

= = Background = =

After the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 against the Seljuk Turks and the overthrow of Romanos IV Diogenes ( r . 1068 – 71 ) , the Byzantine Empire experienced a decade of near @-@ continuous internal turmoil and rebellions . The constant warfare depleted the Empire 's armies , devastated Asia Minor and left it defenceless against the increasing encroachment of the Turks . In the Balkans , invasions by the Pechenegs and the Cumans devastated Bulgaria , and the Serbian princes renounced their allegiance to the Empire .

The government of Michael VII Doukas ( r . 1071 – 78 ) failed to deal with the situation effectively , and rapidly lost support among the military aristocracy . In late 1077 , two of the Empire 's leading generals , Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder , the doux of Dyrrhachium in the western Balkans , and Nikephoros Botaneiates , the strategos of the Anatolic Theme in central Asia Minor , were proclaimed emperors by their troops . Bryennios set out from Dyrrhachium towards the imperial capital Constantinople , winning widespread support along the way and the loyalty of most of the Empire 's Balkan field army . He preferred to negotiate at first , but his offers were rebuffed by Michael VII . Bryennios then sent his brother John to lay siege to Constantinople . Unable to overcome its fortifications , the rebel forces soon retired . This failure led the capital 's nobility to turn to Botaneiates instead : in March 1078 Michael VII was forced to abdicate and retire as a monk , and Nikephoros Botaneiates was accepted into the city as emperor .

At first , Botaneiates lacked enough troops to oppose Bryennios , who in the meantime had consolidated his control over his native Thrace , effectively isolating the capital from the remaining imperial territory in the Balkans . Botaneiates sent an embassy under the proedros Constantine Choirosphaktes , a veteran diplomat , to conduct negotiations with Bryennios . At the same time he appointed the young Alexios Komnenos as his Domestic of the Schools ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) , and sought aid from the Seljuk Sultan Suleyman , who sent 2 @,@ 000 warriors and promised even more . In his message to Bryennios , the aged Botaneiates ( 76 years old at his accession ) offered him the rank of Caesar and his nomination as heir to the throne . Bryennios agreed in principle , but added a few conditions of his own , and sent the ambassadors back to Constantinople for confirmation . Botaneiates , who likely had initiated negotiations only to gain time , rejected Bryennios 's conditions , and ordered Alexios Komnenos to campaign against the rebel .

= = Prelude = =

Bryennios had camped at the plain of Kedoktos ( a name deriving from the Latin aquaeductus ) on the road to Constantinople . His army comprised 12 @,@ 000 mostly seasoned men from the regiments ( tagmata ) of Thessaly , Macedonia and Thrace , as well as Frankish mercenaries and the elite tagma of the Hetaireia . Alexios 's forces included 2 @,@ 000 Turkish horse @-@ archers , 2 @,@ 000 Chomatenoi from Asia Minor , a few hundred Frankish knights from Italy , and the newly raised regiment of the Immortals , which had been created by Michael VII 's chief minister Nikephoritzes and was intended to form the nucleus of a new army . Estimates of Alexios 's total force vary from 5 @,@ 500 – 6 @,@ 500 ( Haldon ) to some 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 ( Birkenmeier ) , but it is clear that he was at a considerable disadvantage against Bryennios ; not only was his force considerably smaller , but also far less experienced than Bryennios 's veterans .

Alexios 's forces set forth from Constantinople and camped on the shore of the river Halmyros — a small stream between Herakleia ( modern Marmara Ereğlisi ) and Selymbria ( modern Silivri ) , modern Kalivri Dere — near the fort of Kalavrye ( Greek : Καλαβρύη , modern Yolçatı ) . Curiously , and against established practice , he did not fortify his camp , perhaps so as not to fatigue or dishearten his men with an implicit admission of weakness . He then sent his Turkish allies to scout out Bryennios 's disposition , strength and intentions . Alexios 's spies easily accomplished their tasks , but on the eve of the battle some were captured and Bryennios too was informed of Alexios 's strength .

= = Battle = =

= = = Initial dispositions and plans = = =

Bryennios arranged his army in the typical three divisions , each in two lines , as prescribed by the Byzantine military manuals . The right wing , under his brother John , was 5 @,@ 000 strong and comprised his Frankish mercenaries , Thessalian cavalry , the Hetaireia , and the Maniakatai regiment ( descendants of the veterans of George Maniakes 's campaign in Sicily and Italy ) . His left wing , 3 @,@ 000 men from Thrace and Macedonia , was placed under Katakalon Tarchaneiotes , and the centre , under Bryennios himself , comprised 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men from Thessaly , Thrace and Macedonia . Again , according to standard doctrine , on his far left , about half a kilometer ( " two stadia " ) from the main force , he had stationed an outflanking detachment ( hyperkerastai ) of Pechenegs .

Alexios deployed his smaller army in waiting near Bryennios 's camp , and divided it in two commands . The left , which confronted Bryennios 's strongest division , was commanded by himself and contained the Frankish knights to the right and the Immortals to the Franks ' left . The right command was under Constantine Katakalon , and comprised the Chomatenoi and the Turks . The latter , according to the Alexiad , were given the role of flank guard ( plagiophylakes ) and tasked with observing and countering the Pechenegs . Conversely , on the extreme left Alexios formed his own flanking detachment ( apparently drawn from among the Immortals ) , concealed from enemy view inside a hollow . Given his inferiority , Alexios was forced to remain on the defensive . His only chance at success was that his out @-@ flankers , concealed by the broken terrain , would surprise and create enough confusion among Bryennios 's men for him and his strong left wing to break through their lines .

= = = Alexios 's army collapses = = =

As the rebel forces advanced towards his enemy 's line , Alexios 's flankers sprung their ambush . Their attack did indeed cause some initial confusion , but Bryennios ( or , according to the Alexiad , his brother John , who commanded the right wing ) rallied his men and led forth the second line . This counter @-@ attack broke Alexios 's flankers ; as they retreated in panic , they fell upon the Immortals , who also panicked and fled , abandoning their posts . Although they suffered some casualties from Bryennios 's pursuing men , most managed to escape well to the rear of Alexios 's army .

Alexios , who was fighting with his retinue alongside the Franks , did not immediately realize that his left wing had collapsed . In the meantime , on his right wing , the Chomatenoi , engaged with Tarchaneiotes 's men , were outflanked and attacked in the rear by the Pechenegs , who had somehow evaded Alexios 's Turkish flank @-@ guards . The Chomatenoi too broke and fled , and Alexios 's fate seemed sealed . At this point the Pechenegs failed to follow up their success , and instead turned back and began looting Bryennios 's own camp . After gathering what plunder they could , they left the battle and made for their homes .

Nevertheless , Bryennios 's victory seemed certain , for his wings began to envelop Alexios 's Franks in the centre . Realizing his position and despairing in the face of defeat ( and , as Bryennios the Younger records , because he had disobeyed imperial orders to wait for more Turkish reinforcements and feared punishment from Botaneiates ) , Alexios at first resolved to attempt an all @-@ or @-@ nothing attack on Bryennios himself to decapitate the enemy army , but was dissuaded by his servant . With only six of his men around him , he then managed to break through the surrounding enemy soldiers . Confusion reigned behind their lines as a result of the Pecheneg attack on the rebel camp , and in this tumult Alexios saw Bryennios 's imperial parade horse , with his two swords of state , being driven away to safety . Alexios and his men charged the escort , seized the horse , and rode away with it from the battlefield .

Having reached a hill behind his army 's original position , Alexios began to regroup his army from the units that had broken . He sent out messengers to rally his scattered men with news that Bryennios had been killed , showing his parade horse as evidence . At the same time , the promised Turkish reinforcements began arriving at the scene , lifting his men 's morale . All the while , on the battlefield , Bryennios 's army had closed around Alexios 's Franks , who dismounted and offered to surrender . In the process the rebel army had become totally disordered , with units mixed and their formations disordered . Bryennios 's reserves had been thrown in confusion by the Pecheneg attack , while his front lines relaxed , thinking that the battle was over .

= = = Alexios 's counter @-@ attack = = =

Having restored his surviving forces to order , and aware of the confusion in Bryennios 's forces , Alexios decided to counter @-@ attack . The plan he laid out made far greater use of the particular skills of his Turkish horse @-@ archers . He divided his force into three commands , of which two were left behind in ambush . The other , formed from the Immortals and the Chomatenoi under Alexios 's own command , was not arrayed in one continuous line , but broken up in small groups , intermingled with other groups of Turkish horse @-@ archers . This command would advance on the rebels , attack them , then feign retreat and draw them into the ambush .

The attack of Alexios 's division initially caught Bryennios 's men off guard , but , being veteran troops , they soon recovered and once again began to push it back . Retreating , Alexios 's troops , and especially the Turks , employed skirmishing tactics , attacking the enemy line and then withdrawing swiftly , thus keeping their opponents at bay and weakening the coherence of their line . Some among Alexios 's men chose to attack Bryennios , and the rebel general had to defend against several attacks himself .

When the battle reached the place of the ambush , Alexios 's wings , likened in the Alexiad to a " swarm of wasps " , attacked the rebel army on the flanks firing arrows and shouting loudly , spreading panic and confusion among Bryennios 's men . Despite the attempts of Bryennios and his brother John to rally them , their army broke and fled , and other units , which were following behind , did likewise . The two brothers tried to put up a rear @-@ guard defence , but they were overcome and captured .

= = Aftermath = =

The battle marked the end of Bryennios 's revolt , although Nikephoros Basilakes gathered up much of Bryennios 's defeated army and attempted to claim the throne for himself . He too was defeated by Alexios Komnenos , who then proceeded to expel the Pechenegs from Thrace . The elder Bryennios was blinded on Botaneiates 's orders , but the emperor later took pity on him and restored him his titles and his fortune . After Alexios Komnenos seized the throne himself in 1081 , Bryennios was further honoured with high dignities . He even held command during Alexios 's campaigns against the Pechenegs , and defended Adrianople from a rebel attack in 1095 . His son or grandson , Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger , was married to Alexios 's daughter Anna Komnene . He became a prominent general of Alexios 's reign , eventually raised to the rank of Caesar , and a historian .

= Down to Earth ( Justin Bieber song ) =

" Down to Earth " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber , included as a track on his debut release , My World , released on November 17 , 2009 . It was written by Bieber , who was assisted by Carlos and Steven Battey of The Jackie Boyz , as well as the song 's producers , Mason " MdL " Levy , and Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia . " Down to Earth " is a teen pop song , with lyrics that were inspired by the divorce of Bieber 's parents . It also contains lyrical content about growing up . The song received positive reviews from critics , who embraced the song as a shift in the puppy love content of the album . After the release of My World , due to digital sales , the song charted in the lower regions of charts in the United States , Canada , and the United Kingdom .

= = Background and composition = =

" Down to Earth " was written by Bieber , Mason " MdL " Levy , Carlos and Steven Battey of The Jackie Boyz , and Kevin Risto and Waynne Nugent of Midi Mafia . It was recorded at Icon Studios in Atlanta , Georgia , and it was mixed at Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood , California . The track was one of three songs on the standard edition of My World that Bieber co @-@ wrote . In an interview in the November 14 , 2009 issue of Billboard , Bieber explained the meaning behind the song stating ,

" It 's a ballad about the feelings I had when my parents split up and how I helped my family get through it . I think a lot of kids have had their parents split up , and they should know that it wasn 't because of something they did . I hope people can relate to it . "

" Down to Earth " is a down @-@ tempo pop song with a length of four minutes and five seconds , which includes influences of teen pop . Written in common time , with a tempo of 80 beats per minute , the song is composed in the key of D major . Bieber 's vocals span from the low note of B3 to the high note of D5 . It follows a simple chord progression of G @-@ D @-@ A @-@ Bm . Monica Herrera of Billboard noted that lines such as " So we fight through the hurt , and we cry and cry and cry and cry / Then we live and we learn , and we try " revealed a " deeper side " to the singer . Bieber performed the song while accompanying Taylor Swift on the United Kingdom leg of the Fearless Tour , as well as his own My World Tour . During the latter performance , Bieber sits on a stool , accompanied by only a piano background .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

Mark Hirsh of The Boston Globe noted " Down to Earth " was the essential track from My World . Allison Stewart of the Washington Post listed the song was one of her recommended tracks from the album . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that " Down to Earth " and " One Less Lonely Girl " were " uncomplicately beautiful and earnest . " Although Ashante Infantry of Toronto Star said a turn @-@ off of the song was the " Mafia " tag by the production team , Midi Mafia , at the beginning of the song , she called " Down to Earth " one of the best tracks on the album . After praising Bieber 's delivery of " poignant lines " in the song , Monica Herrera of Billboard said " it 's hardly a stretch to imagine Bieber racking up more hits in the next decade to come . "

= = = Chart performance = = =

On the week ending December 5 , 2009 , due to digital sales after the release of My World , " Down to Earth " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 . The song debuted at number forty @-@ three on the Hot Digital Songs chart in the US , and therefore consecutively appeared at number seventy @-@ nine on the Hot 100 . In Canada , it debuted at number sixty @-@ one . It dropped off both charts the following week . In both territories it was also the highest non @-@ previously released song from My World to appear on the charts . In the United Kingdom , after the release of My World , " Down to Earth " appeared at number 149 on the UK Singles Chart .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Songwriting - Justin Bieber , Kevin Risto , Waynne Nugent , Mason Levy , Carlos Battey , Steven Battey

Production - Midi Mafia , MdL

Vocal recording - Chris Krauss

Vocal production - Kevin Risto

Guitar - Tim Stewart

Mixing - Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pensado , assisted by Giancarlo Lino .

Source

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .

= Paddy Moran ( ice hockey ) =

Patrick Joseph Alexander " Paddy " Moran ( March 11 , 1877 – January 14 , 1966 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . Moran played all but one of his 16 seasons for the Quebec Hockey Club , from 1901 to 1917 ; in the 1909 – 10 season , Moran played for the All @-@ Montreal and the Haileybury Comets . Moran was noted for protecting the area in front of his net by aggressively using his stick , and expectorating at opposing players while chewing tobacco . He won two Stanley Cups with Quebec in 1912 and 1913 . Moran was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958 .

= = Early life = =

Moran began playing ice hockey at the age of 15 , with a local Quebec team . At age 17 , Moran changed schools as his school was one of the few in Quebec City not to have an ice hockey team . At the age of 19 , Moran helped his new club , the Crescents , win the Intermediate Championship .

= = Playing career = =

Moran began his playing career with the Quebec Hockey Club in the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) . Over four seasons , Moran appeared in 30 games , winning 19 of them . For the 1905 – 06 season , the Quebec Hockey Club joined the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) . Over the next four years , Moran appeared in 38 games , but won only 11 of them , while his lowest goals @-@ against average in a season during that span was 6 @.@ 79 . In the 1909 – 10 season , Moran joined the Montreal All @-@ Stars from the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) and as the league folded , he then joined the Haileybury Comets of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . In his only season with the Comets , Moran posted a 3 – 8 record over 11 games , letting in 79 goals .

For the 1910 – 11 season , Moran rejoined Quebec . That year , Quebec finished last in the league , winning only four games , and letting in 97 goals against . In the 1911 – 12 season , Moran went 10 – 8 over 18 games , with a 4 @.@ 26 goals @-@ against average . They won the O 'Brien Cup and the Stanley Cup after finishing with the best record in the league . In the Stanley Cup challenge against the Moncton Victorias of the Maritime Professional Hockey League ( MPHL ) , Quebec won the first game 9 – 3 , and the second game 8 – 0 . Moran finished with a 1 @.@ 50 goals @-@ against average , while Jack McDonald and Joe Malone combined for 14 out of the 17 Quebec goals as Quebec won the Stanley Cup .

The next season , Moran went 16 – 4 in the regular season in 20 games , with one shutout and a 3 @.@ 70 goals @-@ against average . Quebec repeated as O 'Brien Cup winners , and had a Stanley Cup challenge once more , playing against the Sydney Miners of the MPHL . Quebec repeated as champions , winning the three @-@ game series 2 – 0 . In the first game , Quebec won 14 – 3 , as Malone scored nine goals , while in the second one , Quebec emerged with a slimmer margin of victory , winning 6 – 2 .

Moran finished his career with the Bulldogs , retiring after the NHA 's last season . He played four more seasons , during which he played 69 games , winning 34 of them . Over his career , Moran 's teams often had losing records , or they had a winning percentage barely over 50 % . Some hockey legends often recalls that he was the best goaltender of them all . He was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1958 , with the help of Senator Chubby Power , once a teammate . He is still the earliest goaltender in HHOF , starting his senior hockey venture in 1901 .

= = Playing style = =

Moran was a stand @-@ up style goaltender . At 5 ft 11 in ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) and 180 lb ( 82 kg / 12 st 12 lb ) , he was considered a big goaltender for his era . In Moran 's era , goaltenders were not allowed to drop down to the ice to make saves , so his style suited him well . Moran was especially noted for his aggressive defense of the area in front of his net . He used his stick to slash opposing players within reach . Moran often chewed tobacco while on the ice , and another favorite tactic of his was to expectorate at opposing players . Moran 's stick work was described as attempts to " slash [ other players ' ] heads off with lightning strokes of his blade " . Moran often wore oversized sweaters , claiming that they kept him warm in the cold arenas ; however , he kept it unbuttoned , and often used it to catch shots .

= = Post @-@ retirement = =

Moran retired after the 1916 – 17 season , at the age of 39 . He was proud to have built his own house with his ice hockey earnings , which cost CAN $ 4 @,@ 000 . In 1919 , Moran became a custom house builder , and continued in this career for at least 35 years . In 1944 at age 66 , Moran was interviewed about his playing days , along with contemporary goaltender Percy LeSueur , who is noted for his Stanley Cup wins in 1909 and 1911 with the Ottawa Senators . Later in his life , Moran became an avid follower of the Quebec Aces . He was inducted into the Quebec Hockey Hall of Fame . In 1958 , Moran was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . He died on January 14 , 1966 .

= = Statistics = =

= = = Regular season = = =

= = = Stanley Cup Finals = = =

= Typhoon Halong ( 2002 ) =

Typhoon Halong , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Inday , passed just south of Guam one week after Typhoon Chataan struck the island and left heavy damage . The seventh named storm of the season , Halong developed near the same location as Chataan on July 5 near the Marshall Islands . For much of its duration , the storm moved toward the northwest , gradually intensifying . Early on July 10 , Halong passed just south of Guam as a tropical storm , producing high waves and gusty winds on the island . The storm disrupted relief efforts from Chataan , causing additional power outages but little damage .

After affecting Guam , Halong quickly strengthened and reached its peak winds on July 12 . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , while the Japan Meteorological Agency estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Subsequently , the typhoon weakened greatly while curving to the northeast , although it still passed near Okinawa with strong winds that left widespread power outages . Halong struck southeastern Japan , dropping heavy rainfall and producing strong winds that left $ 89 @.@ 8 million ( ¥ 10 @.@ 3 billion 2002 JPY ) in damage . There was one death in the country and nine injuries . Halong became extratropical on July 16 and dissipated the next day . The typhoon influenced the monsoon trough in the Philippines , contributing to flooding and deaths in the country .

= = Meteorological history = =

In early July , a circulation with an area of convection developed along the monsoon trough near Enewetak Atoll . The system remained nearly stationary , tracking slowly to the southwest . Gradually organizing , the system developed into a tropical depression on July 6 over the Marshall Islands . Without having issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 10W at 0000 UTC on July 7 . Late that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Halong near the island of Chuuk in the Federated States of Micronesia . By that time , the storm was moving west @-@ northwestward , steered by a ridge to the north . Halong slowly intensified , although it continued to develop deep convection that wrapped into the center . Early on July 9 , the JMA upgraded the storm to a severe tropical storm . At 1200 UTC that day , the JTWC upgraded Halong to typhoon status about 405 km ( 250 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Guam .

While moving toward Guam , Halong became better organized , developing an eye and well @-@ defined rainbands . After a brief turn more toward the west , the storm passed about 140 km ( 85 mi ) south of the southern tip of Guam at 0200 UTC on July 10 ; at the time , the JTWC estimated 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , although the JMA had maintained Halong as a tropical storm until upgrading to a typhoon at 1800 UTC that day . An approaching trough increased shear over Halong , and a weak ridge to the north restricted outflow ; this briefly prevented significant intensification after the convection decreased . Late on July 11 , the thunderstorms increased , and restrengthening resumed . Late on July 12 , the JMA assessed Halong as reaching peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Around that time , the typhoon entered the area of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) , which gave it the local name Typhoon Inday . Early on July 13 , the JTWC upgraded Halong to a super typhoon after the storm developed a well @-@ defined eye 63 km ( 39 mi ) in diameter . Shortly thereafter , the agency estimated peak 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) .

At its peak intensity , Typhoon Halong had gale @-@ force winds that extended 415 km ( 260 mi ) northeast of the center . It was continuing to the northwest toward Okinawa , and threatened to strike the island at near peak intensity . However , the typhoon began rapidly weakening due to increasing wind shear , and the eye quickly deteriorated . At around 1200 UTC on July 14 , Halong made landfall on Okinawa with 10 ‑ minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Around that time , the typhoon moved through a weakness in the ridge , turning to the north and later accelerating to the northeast . The combination of cool , dry air , and the persistent wind shear removed the convection from the center by early on July 15 , weakening Halong to tropical storm status . Later that day , the JTWC discontinued advisories while the storm was approaching Japan , and the agency classified Halong as extratropical . The JMA continued tracking the storm , and Halong struck both the Izu and Bōsō peninsulas along Honshu . Late on July 16 , the JMA classified Halong as extratropical , and shortly thereafter the storm dissipated over the Kuril Islands . The extratropical remnants of Halong moved out of the basin late on July 19 , just prior dissipating .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Only a week after Typhoon Chataan struck Guam and left $ 60 million in damage , Typhoon Halong also threatened the island , although it veered to the south in the day before it would have struck . Due to the storm , all flights were canceled in Guam and the Northern Marianas Islands , and officials advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate . While passing to the south , Halong produced waves as high as 6 m ( 20 ft ) in Inarajan . The waves left beach erosion along Guam 's southern coast , and were higher than during Chataan 's passage . The typhoon produced peak sustained winds of 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) , with gusts to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) ; both observations were recorded at Guam 's National Weather Service . Damage on the island was estimated at $ 40 @,@ 000 . The storm disrupted work to repair damage from Chataan . Portions of the island , including Guam Memorial Hospital , had their power restored after Chataan , only to lose electricity during Halong . The additional damage caused by Halong contributed to Governor Carl T.C. Gutierrez declaring the island as a state of emergency on July 22 , which activated the Guam National Guard .

While passing northeast of the Philippines , Halong enhanced the monsoon , and combined with the effects from previous typhoons Rammasun and Chataan , as well as Severe Tropical Storm Nakri , there were 85 deaths , with 45 people injured in the Philippines . About ten of the deaths were estimated to have been caused by Halong . The combined damage in the country totaled $ 10 @.@ 3 million ( ₱ 522 million 2002 PHP ) .

In Japan , Halong dropped heavy rainfall that peaked at 362 mm ( 14 @.@ 3 in ) in Nagano Prefecture . The highest rainfall in Okinawa was 258 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) . Near Tokyo , a station recorded winds of 112 km / h ( 69 mph ) , although winds gusted to 183 km / h ( 114 mph ) at Kadena Air Base on Okinawa . In the Ryukyu Islands of Japan , including Okinawa , Halong left more than 48 @,@ 800 houses without power due to the strong winds . Officials canceled bus service in Naze , Kagoshima during the storm . Throughout the country , the typhoon destroyed six houses and damaged 223 others to varying degrees . Halong also flooded 301 houses , forcing about 4 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes , many along rivers . Officials canceled 54 airline flights , 10 of them international , and due to the storm , 171 schools were closed . In Sendai , Halong damaged roads in 550 locations and railroads in seven locations . Nine levees were breached , and there were at least 270 landslides . Damage totaled $ 89 @.@ 8 million ( ¥ 10 @.@ 3 billion 2002 JPY ) across the country , mostly from agriculture . During its passage , the typhoon injured nine people , one of them severely , and there was one death .

= Typhoon Nancy ( 1982 ) =

Typhoon Nancy , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Weling , was a destructive typhoon that moved through Vietnam and the Philippines during October 1982 . The typhoon originated from an area of convection and was first classified as a tropical cyclone on October 10 . The system attained gale @-@ force winds the next day , and slowly deepened thereafter . Although Nancy initially moved west , the system maintained a general westward course for much of its duration , striking Luzon on October 14 at peak intensity of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . It weakened to tropical storm strength overland , but re @-@ intensified to typhoon intensity over the South China Sea . Nancy hit northern Vietnam on the October 18 , and weakened almost immediately thereafter , before dissipating on October 20 inland over Vietnam .

In the Philippines , damage was the worst in Cagayan and Isabela . In the former , 4 @,@ 378 homes were destroyed while 2 @,@ 250 houses were destroyed in the latter . Nationwide , 96 people were killed and 30 others were listed as missing . Additionally , 186 were injured . A total of 12 @,@ 464 homes were destroyed while 34 @,@ 111 others were damaged . Moreover , 301 @,@ 431 persons were " affected " by the storm , or 51 @,@ 532 families . Damage totaled to $ 56 million ( 1982 USD ) , including $ 18 million from infrastructure and $ 26 million from agriculture . While strking Vietnam , the typhoon killed 30 people . Around 72 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , leaving 125 @,@ 000 people homeless . Throughout the country , 450 @,@ 000 acres ( 182 @,@ 110 ha ) of rice were destroyed .

= = Meteorological history = =

Typhoon Nancy originated from a large area of convection situated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean , which began to consolidate on October 8 within a favorable environment aloft . The convection separated from an upper @-@ level low embedded within a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) . Later that day , the area of convection degenerated into a " random area of cloudiness . " The TUTT drifted west while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that a tropical depression formed within the area of convection that was now located south of the TUTT . Early on October 10 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the system . At 0730 UTC , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was issued by the JTWC while located 370 km ( 230 mi ) north of Guam .

Following an increase in reorganization , a Hurricane Hunter flight indicated winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) early on October 11 . Later that morning , the JMA upgraded the cyclone into a tropical storm . Following Hurricane Hunter reports , which indicated winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Based on this , the JTWC upgraded the depression into a tropical storm and named it Nancy . Initially , the JTWC expected the system to track northwards and eventually re @-@ curve , but this did not occur . Nancy maintained its intensity for 24 hours while tracking westward before rapidly turning west due to a change in steering patterns . Meanwhile , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Weling . Midday on October 12 , the JMA upgraded Nancy into a severe tropical storm . At 0000 UTC on October 13 , the same agency classified Nancy into a typhoon . Later that day , the JTWC followed suit . By midday on October 14 , the JTWC predicted Nancy to turn northwest into China due to the anticipation of a mid @-@ latitude trough south of South Korea deepening . At 0600 UTC , the JMA reported that Nancy reached its peak intensity of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) . Meanwhile , the JTWC reported peak intensity of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , a Category 4 hurricane equivalent on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . Six hours later , Typhoon Nancy moved ashore in northern Luzon while still at peak intensity .

The storm rapidly weakened over land . Although the JTWC downgraded Nancy to a tropical storm , the JMA kept the storm at typhoon intensity throughout landfall . After entering the South China Sea , the JTWC upped Nancy to typhoon status as it entered an area with favorable mid- to upper @-@ level winds . Continuing to gain strength , the JMA raised the intensity of Nancy to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) on October 16 . Shortly thereafter , Nancy crossed Hainan Island . After weakening slightly overland , the storm resumed strengthening once offshore . According to the JMA , Nancy attained a secondary peak , with winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) at 0600 UTC on October 17 . The tropical cyclone moved on a slow northwesterly track along the southern periphery of the ridge . While passing slightly north of the Paracel Islands , the JTWC estimated winds of 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) , equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane on the SSHWS . Late on October 18 , Nancy made landfall along the coast of Vietnam , just north of Vinh . At the time of landfall , both agencies estimated that Nancy was a typhoon . Within hours , the convection ceased , though the JMA kept monitoring the system until October 20 , when it finally dissipated .

= = Impact = =

= = = Philippines = = =

Prior to the arrival of Nancy , typhoon warnings were issued for much of Luzon . Many residents left for shelter prior to landfall . Typhoon Nancy passed through 10 provinces in the Philippines , resulting in widespread destruction . Damage was the worst in Cagayan and Isabela , where 56 people were hurt . In the former , 4 @,@ 378 dwellings were destroyed . In Isabela , 2 @,@ 250 houses were destroyed , displacing 35 @,@ 744 residents . Along a river in Isabela , ten bodies were found . Elsewhere , 800 homes were destroyed in Tuguegarao , leaving 1 @,@ 000 homeless and two injured . In Kalinga @-@ Apayao , four fatalities occurred . Throughout the nation , many roads were closed due to mudslides . Mass destruction was reported in rice fields , as well as tobacco and cotton plantations . However , this total was later revised upwards to $ 56 million ( 1982 USD ) , which includes $ 18 million from infrastructure and $ 26 million from agriculture . A total of 96 people died ; 81 of the fatalities were from just three provinces . Most of the deaths were by drowning . Thirty others were rendered as missing and 186 people were injured . A total of 12 @,@ 464 dwellings were destroyed while 34 @,@ 111 others were damaged . Furthermore , 301 @,@ 431 people were " affected " by the storm , or 51 @,@ 532 families .

= = = Vietnam = = =

While making landfall in central Vietnam , winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) were measured due to the typhoon . A total of 30 persons perished . Around 72 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . Moreover , 125 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in Vinh . In all , 450 @,@ 000 acres ( 182 @,@ 110 ha ) of rice were destroyed ; approximately 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 60 @,@ 705 ha ) of rice were submerged in the Thanh Hóa province alone . In addition , many houses were submerged in Nghe Tinhe . Bình Trị Thiên was also affected by Nancy , but no casualties occurred there .

= RAF Uxbridge =

RAF Uxbridge was a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) station in Uxbridge , within the London Borough of Hillingdon , occupying a 44 @.@ 6 @-@ hectare ( 110 @-@ acre ) site that originally belonged to the Hillingdon House estate . The British Government purchased the estate in 1915 , three years before the founding of the RAF . Until the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , the station was open to the public .

The station is best known as the headquarters of No. 11 Group RAF , which was responsible for the aerial defence of London and the south @-@ east of England during the Battle of Britain . Hillingdon House served as the group 's headquarters . A bunker , subsequently known as the Battle of Britain Bunker , was built nearby to house the 11 Group Operations Room , which controlled fighter squadrons operating within the group . The Operations Room was also responsible for providing air support during the evacuation of Dunkirk in May 1940 ( Operation Dynamo ) and the D @-@ Day landings ( Operation Overlord ) . It was here that Winston Churchill first said , " Never was so much owed by so many to so few " , which he repeated in a speech to Parliament four days later .

RAF Uxbridge closed on 31 March 2010 as part of a reduction in the number of Ministry of Defence properties in the Greater London area . Many of its remaining military units were relocated to nearby RAF Northolt the following day . Plans for redevelopment , consisting of a mixture of new residential and commercial properties and the retention of all listed buildings , were approved in January 2011 . A small part of the station incorporating the Battle of Britain Bunker retains the RAF Uxbridge name and is maintained by RAF Northolt .

The River Pinn runs through the site from north to south , passing Hillingdon House and the Battle of Britain Bunker . The land around the river is mainly wooded and designated as greenbelt , and Hillingdon Golf Course borders the south of the station . A footpath through the site that had closed in 1988 was reopened in 2011 .

= = History = =

= = = Early years = = =

The area that became RAF Uxbridge was originally part of the estate of Hillingdon House , built as a hunting lodge in 1717 by the Duke of Schomberg , who staged regular hunts in the grounds . He was a German @-@ born general serving under William of Orange ( later King William III ) , knighted for his part in the 1690 Battle of the Boyne .

The Marchioness of Rockingham , widow of Prime Minister Charles Watson @-@ Wentworth , 2nd Marquess of Rockingham , bought the house in 1786 for £ 9 @,@ 000 following her husband 's death and lived there until her own death in 1804 . She left the estate to her stepsister Elizabeth , widow of William Weddell MP , who sold it to Josias Du Pré Porcher in 1805 .

In 1810 the estate was sold to Richard Henry Cox , grandson of Richard Cox , founder of the travel company Cox & Kings . Cox & Co , as the company was then known , was formed after Richard Cox was appointed agent to the Foot Guards ( later the Grenadier Guards ) , and provided banking services for many regiments of the British Army by the end of the 18th century . The mansion was completely rebuilt after it burnt down in 1844 and later received a Grade II listing .

= = = First World War = = =

In 1914 the mansion was put on the market by the estate of Frederick Cox , Richard Henry Cox 's grandson . It was described as " a brick and stone building , partly stuccoed , with extensive outbuildings and ornamental gardens . " The house and gardens , together with the surrounding parkland and an artificial lake created by damming a section of the River Pinn , amounted to over 81 ha ( 200 acres ) .

The British Government purchased the estate in 1915 , with the intention of establishing a prisoner of war camp . The local population strongly opposed the plan , causing the government to relent , and the site instead became the Canadian Convalescent Hospital to care for troops evacuated from the front line during the First World War . The hospital opened on 20 September 1915 and was joined on 19 November 1917 by the Royal Flying Corps Armament School which moved into Hillingdon House with 114 officers and 1156 men , making a donation of £ 2289 , 12s and 9d to the Canadian Red Cross . The RFC used parts of the estate not required by the Canadians , and established firing ranges for the training of recruits in ground gunnery . A total of eight of these ranges were built along the River Pinn ; one remains today . The hospital closed on 12 December 1917 .

On 1 April 1918 , the Uxbridge site came under control of the Royal Air Force , which had been formed that day by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service . The following month it became the first RAF station to receive a royal visit , from King George V.

= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =

The Recruits Training Depot and a detachment of the RAF Depot from RAF Halton arrived in August 1919 , merging to form No. 1 Depot , RAF Uxbridge . The station itself was designated RAF Central Depot , Uxbridge . The site was then split to form two new RAF stations , the area to the east of the River Pinn heading uphill to Hillingdon House becoming RAF Hillingdon and the remainder RAF Uxbridge . That year , the building that became the station cinema was opened , designed by Lieutenant J.G.N. Clift of the Royal Engineers , and served as a lecture hall for new recruits . The RAF School of Music moved to RAF Uxbridge from Hampstead in September 1919 . Headquarters Southern Area , Southern Area Medical Headquarters , Southern Area Barrack Stores , and the Southern Area and South Eastern Area Headquarters of the Air Construction Service moved into Hillingdon House in October 1919 . T. E. Lawrence , better known as " Lawrence of Arabia " , underwent initial training at the Uxbridge Depot in 1922 after enlisting in the RAF under the assumed name John Hume @-@ Ross . He recounted his experiences in The Mint .

Uxbridge Football Club was provided with the use of the station stadium from 1923 and played evening matches there . Ten barrack blocks designed by A. Gilpin were built around the parade ground in 1925 , as was the RAF officers ' hospital and the original Operations Room , controlled by the Fighting Area of Air Defence of Great Britain ( ADGB ) . The Air Ministry chose RAF Uxbridge as the new base for ADGB on 14 January 1926 owing to its proximity to Whitehall . The site had the added advantage of lying on the fringes of London and therefore difficult for an enemy to locate and bomb . Having also housed a gymnasium , the lecture hall building became the station cinema in 1927 , initially for the use of station personnel only but soon opened to the general public . On 1 March 1929 , the headquarters of the Royal Observer Corps ( ROC ) was established at Hillingdon House ; Air Commodore Edward Masterman was appointed as its first commandant . The Observer Corps remained at RAF Uxbridge until 1 March 1936 , when it transferred to RAF Bentley Priory .

Owing to its wooden construction the original Operations Room could only be used during the summer months ; maintenance of the signalling and communications equipment became difficult under damp winter conditions . A memo dated 16 January 1933 , sent to the senior Air Staff Officer , Wing Commander Modin , stated :

Uxbridge Royal Air Force buildings would provide an easy bombing target from all points of view , I feel that our Operations Room at least must go underground ... and the sooner it is put there the better , as not only will the re @-@ installation of communications and apparatus generally take time , but if that machinery is to function smoothly in a sudden emergency , installation must have been completed and the whole layout repeatedly worked and tried out before the danger of such emergency arises .

Douglas Bader arrived at the military hospital in 1932 to recover from the amputation of his legs following an air crash . During his stay Bader met the Desoutter brothers , who were beginning to make lightweight artificial legs from aluminium . Once fitted with artificial legs , Bader fought hard to regain his former abilities and in time his efforts paid off . He was able to drive a specially modified car , play golf and even dance . During his convalescence , Bader met his future wife Thelma Edwards , a waitress at a nearby pub called the Pantiles .

Formed on 1 May 1936 , No. 11 Group RAF was headquartered at RAF Uxbridge under the command of Air Vice Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , who was succeeded by Sir Ernest Gossage in January 1937 . The ADGB was reorganised on 13 July 1936 , with control of fighter aircraft passing to the newly established RAF Fighter Command , which moved to RAF Bentley Priory . The following day the remaining elements of ADGB became RAF Bomber Command , headquartered in Hillingdon House .

Planning for the new No. 11 Group Operations Room ( within what became known as the Battle of Britain Bunker ) began in August 1937 . Initially it was to be buried 66 feet ( 20 m ) below ground , but problems with the local London Clay on the site meant it was eventually built by Sir Robert McAlpine at a depth of 60 feet ( 18 m ) , although it was still able to withstand being hit by a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb . The bunker was designed by Bob Creer of the Air Ministry . Work began in February 1939 and finished in August , ten days before the outbreak of the Second World War . The original Operations Room on the surface remained as a back @-@ up , but was not required for that purpose and was subsequently renamed Building 76 . Also in August 1939 , Bomber Command moved to Iver and on 2 September the new Operations Room and RAF Uxbridge reached operational war readiness . The station closed to the public on the outbreak of war , and the football club was required to suspend its use of the stadium .

= = = Second World War = = =

During the war RAF Uxbridge was tasked with despatching personnel to and from training and operational units in Northern France . It also housed the RAF Uxbridge Language School , where Polish Air Force pilots were taught key RAF codewords . Pilots practised formation flying on the station football pitch , using tricycles fitted with radios , compasses and speed indicators . British Expeditionary Force troops returning from Dunkirk were processed at Uxbridge . In mid @-@ 1940 , staff at the station processed an average of 2 @,@ 500 recruits and experienced troops per week .

During the Battle of Britain , between July and October 1940 , RAF Fighter Command at RAF Bentley Priory received air threat warnings that it filtered to remove duplication , doubt and confusion . These were then forwarded to the Operations Room at RAF Uxbridge , which allocated appropriate defence resources and passed orders on to No. 11 Group sector airfields . No. 11 Group personnel doubled to 20 @,@ 000 between April and November 1940 . The RAF officers ' hospital was converted to the Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) hospital early in 1940 .

While overseeing the operations at RAF Uxbridge , Air Vice Marshal Park stayed in a house opposite the entrance to the bunker . He used a small door to reach the bunker from the house each day . The house , named after the war in Park 's honour , was demolished in 1996 to make way for newly constructed married quarters ; only the garden wall and door were retained . Wing Commander Willoughby de Broke received the Air Force Cross on 11 July 1940 for his service as a Senior Operations Officer for No. 11 Group , working within the Operations Room . Prime Minister Winston Churchill visited the station on 16 August 1940 , to monitor the battle from the Operations Room . He subsequently made his well @-@ known comment , " Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few " to General Ismay as they got into their car to leave . Churchill repeated the quote in a speech to Parliament four days later . King George VI and Queen Elizabeth visited the station on 6 September . Churchill was again present at RAF Uxbridge on the fiercest day of fighting of the entire battle : Battle of Britain Day , 15 September 1940 . As the last squadrons were sent into battle , Churchill asked Air Vice Marshal Sir Keith Park , " How many reserves have we ? " Park answered " There are none " .

A delayed @-@ action landmine fell on the station on 26 September 1940 , between the police school and WAAF Quarters , where it remained until it was defused the following day . On 28 September a bomb fell into a tree 50 yards ( 46 m ) from the Operations Room and was later defused in Harefield . A Junkers Ju 88 attacked the station on 6 October 1940 , dropping a bomb beside the Navy , Army and Air Force Institutes ( NAAFI ) grocery shop . The device damaged water and gas mains but caused no casualties . Few bombs fell on the station ; Luftwaffe pilots may have mistaken the glass greenhouses at the Lowe & Shawyer plant nursery west of the station for a large body of water not on their maps .

The king and queen returned on 1 November 1941 , by which time a " Royal Box " had been installed in the Operations Room to allow them to observe the plotting activities . During 1942 , General Charles de Gaulle , Sir Anthony Eden and Lord Mountbatten all visited the 11 Group Operations Room . The actors Rex Harrison ( then a squadron leader liaising with Bomber Command ) , Cyril Raymond and Ronald Adam all served within the Operations Room during the war .

In 1941 , a division of the Meteorological Office was established at RAF Uxbridge as part of the Intelligence Branch . On 1 July that year the station Sick Quarters were merged with the WAAF hospital to create the RAF Station Hospital . No. 11 Group was involved in providing air support for the Dieppe Raid ( Operation Jubilee ) on 19 August 1942 . Air Marshal Trafford Leigh @-@ Mallory commanded participating Allied air forces from the 11 Group Operation Room . The air operations section of Operation Overlord , the 6 June 1944 Normandy landings ( D @-@ Day ) , was also controlled from RAF Uxbridge . Orders from the station were the only ones issued to Allied air units on the day . The headquarters of the 2nd Tactical Air Force and 9th Tactical Air Force of the USAAF were stationed at Uxbridge while preparations were made for the invasion . On D @-@ Day , the 11 Group Controller was responsible for ensuring sufficient air patrols of the United Kingdom , the main shipping routes , and the beach landing areas .

= = = Post @-@ war years = = =

RAF Uxbridge served as an athlete 's village for the male competitors in the 1948 Summer Olympics . Swimmers trained at nearby Uxbridge Lido , and female athletes were housed at RAF West Drayton . Personnel from RAF Uxbridge were moved out to RAF Stanmore Park and transported back to the station daily for their shifts . In 1949 , the RAF Cricket Association opened on Vine Lane on the western boundary of the station . Also moving into the stations grounds in October of that year were the 14F squadron or the Air Training Corps , their access also being via Vine Lane.The station 's crest was approved in April 1953 , incorporating a drill sergeant 's pace stick to symbolise the training of recruits , and a bugle to represent the Central Band of the RAF ; Uxbridge was the first RAF station in Middlesex to have a crest approved .

The ceremonial entrance to the north @-@ west of the station , St Andrew 's Gate , was officially opened on 16 December 1957 to mark the link between Uxbridge and the Royal Air Force . A memorial to the personnel of No. 11 Group , made of Cornish granite , was placed in the ground above the Operations Room in 1957 . No. 11 Group moved to RAF Martlesham Heath on 14 April 1958 and the room was soon sealed in its original condition . The memorial was unveiled by Air Chief Marshal Lord Dowding on 23 April 1958 in a ceremony attended by Group Captain Douglas Bader and Wing Commander Lord Willoughby de Broke , among others , and marked by a flypast of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight . Control of RAF Hillingdon passed from Fighter Command to Technical Training Command that year , at which time the entire site became known as RAF Uxbridge . The RAF School of Education moved into Hillingdon House from RAF Spitalgate on 10 November 1958 , and the station was subsequently merged with No. 22 Group RAF .

The station was granted the Freedom of the London Borough of Hillingdon on 19 March 1960 , an honour allowing the station 's personnel to march throughout the borough in uniform . On 1 November that year , the Queen 's Colour Squadron of the RAF Regiment moved to Uxbridge and the Southern Region Air Traffic Services headquarters moved into Hillingdon House . After the war , the station was already home to the London Area Control Centre , renamed the London Air Traffic Control Centre in 1948 and the Uxbridge Air Traffic Control Centre in 1957 . This eventually transferred to RAF West Drayton but remained under the parentage of RAF Uxbridge .

The 11 Group Operations Room was extensively surveyed in order for a replica to be built at Pinewood Studios for the 1969 film Battle of Britain . Scenes for the 1996 television miniseries Over Here and an episode of Richard Holmes ' War Walks were filmed in the Operations Room itself . The reinforced Uniter building was built on the site in the 1970s to house communications equipment . Although no longer used for this purpose , the building contains two fuel storage tanks . The main entrance to the station was moved in 1972 from beside the station cinema to its present location roughly 50 yards ( 46 m ) south .

Over nine months in 1975 , the 11 Group Operations Room was restored by No. 9 Signals Unit . The original map was repaired and returned to the table by the RAF Cartography unit , and the board detailing the readiness and activities of each sector squadron was rebuilt to resemble its status on 15 September 1940 . In 1985 a museum was created within the bunker by Warrant Officer " Chris " Wren and the Operations Room opened for group visits .

In January 1981 , the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) planted a bomb in the Suvla barrack block at RAF Uxbridge . The device was discovered and the 35 RAF musicians and 15 airmen living there were evacuated before it exploded . Following the incident , an enquiry began and security at all RAF stations was reviewed . The following year , many RAF personnel from the station were deployed during the Falklands War . The station went on to celebrate its 70th anniversary in 1987 by staging several events that raised £ 30 @,@ 000 for the RAF Benevolent Fund .

RAF Uxbridge also became involved in Operation Granby following the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 . Personnel at Uxbridge were prepared for service in the Gulf at that time , and deployed that year in December . During the aerial assault on Iraq in January 1991 , support group meetings began at the station for the families of service personnel serving during the Gulf War . Prince Edward , Earl of Wessex , visited one of these groups in February 1991 .

The station church , St Luke 's , became structurally unsound on 21 November 1990 after the foundations failed . The building dated back to 1933 and had been constructed of wood ; the walls were pushed out and the floor rose by 4 inches ( 100 mm ) . In March 1993 , the Leigh @-@ Mallory bridge was opened across the River Pinn , and the church moved into a new permanent home , Building 231 , in March 1995 . Jim Bolger , then Prime Minister of New Zealand , visited the station in May , and in October , the station 's new sports centre opened .

RAF Uxbridge personnel were once more prepared for action in the Gulf in 2003 in readiness for Operation Telic in Iraq . A support network for the families of service personnel sent into action was again established at the station . In March 2003 the Under @-@ Secretary of State for Defence was briefed at Uxbridge as part of preparations for a visit to the Gulf .

Personnel paraded through Uxbridge town centre on 28 November 2007 , exercising the freedom of the borough granted to the station in 1960 . RAF Uxbridge became a satellite station of RAF Northolt on 1 April 2008 , in preparation for the eventual closure . In the final years of RAF ownership , the Service Prosecuting Authority and Civil Aviation Authority 's UK Airprox Board ( investigating air proximity incidents ) was based in Hillingdon House . The final of the national Carnegie Champions schools rugby tournament was held at the station in August 2008 . The link between RAF Uxbridge and the Royal Observer Corps was renewed in 2008 with the closure of RAF Bentley Priory and the relocation to Uxbridge of ROC memorabilia from the Priory Officers ' Mess for safekeeping and display . The Royal Observer Corps had been stood down from operational duties in December 1995 .

The Queen 's Colour Squadron returned from a six @-@ month tour of duty in Afghanistan in 2009 , marked by a homecoming parade through Uxbridge town centre held on 5 August 2009 . More than 20 @,@ 000 people watched the parade , which started from Uxbridge Magistrates Court , passing along the town 's High Street to the RAF station .

= = RAF units = =

Sources : RAF Uxbridge 90th Anniversary 1917 – 2007 , RAF Uxbridge – A Fond Farewell , and Ministry of Defence .

= = Closure and redevelopment = =

Prior to the closure of RAF Uxbridge , Queen Elizabeth II sent a message to the station in February 2010 , via her equerry , Wing Commander A.D. Calame , who had served as Officer Commanding the Queen 's Colour Squadron between 10 August 2005 and 16 July 2007 :

Her Majesty was interested to hear that , in this anniversary year , the historic Number 11 Group Operations Rooms Bunker has been listed and will be preserved as a Royal Air Force asset . Hopefully , the facility will continue as a permanent reminder of those who fought and won the Battle of Britain .

Her Majesty hopes that the relocation to Royal Air Force Northolt will continue to progress well , and wishes all personnel at Uxbridge best wishes for the future .

The station closed on 31 March 2010 as part of the Ministry of Defence 's Project MoDEL , a programme to reduce the number of defence sites in Greater London in favour of a core site at RAF Northolt . The closure ceremony was overseen by the Mayor of Hillingdon and included parades and the final lowering of the Royal Air Force Ensign over the parade ground . A Supermarine Spitfire conducted a flypast of the station . The final units marched to their new station at RAF Northolt the following day . The station , which had received the Freedom of the Borough of Hillingdon , returned the award to the London Borough of Hillingdon as part of the ceremony , though this was returned on 4 September to be stored in the museum of the Battle of Britain Bunker . A commemorative blue plaque dedicated to Douglas Bader was unveiled by the Mayor of Hillingdon at the entrance to the Officers ' Mess .

The Middlesex Wing Headquarters of the Air Training Corps ( ATC ) had been based at the station together with No. 1083 Squadron ATC , which met on Mondays and Thursdays for parade nights . As part of the closing ceremony , personnel of No. 1083 Squadron were presented with the station crest to adopt as their own . The squadron continued to meet at the station until July 2010 , when a newly refurbished building at the TA Centre on Honeycroft Hill became available .

The Grade I listed Battle of Britain Bunker is now preserved as a museum open to the public , while the Grade II listed Hillingdon House will be partially converted into a restaurant . The station cinema is also Grade II listed . The Battle of Britain War Memorial is a scheduled protected monument . Although not listed , several other buildings on the site were identified within the plans for possible retention : the Sick Quarters , the Officers ' Mess , the original gymnasium , the carpenters ' block in the grounds of Hillingdon House and a building near the Battle of Britain Bunker . St. Andrew 's Gate will be retained , as will the Mons barrack block adjacent to the parade ground .

Plans to develop the remaining 44 @.@ 6 hectares ( 110 acres ) of the site were approved by the London Borough of Hillingdon in January 2011 for 1 @,@ 340 homes , shops , a theatre and a primary school to be built over 10 years . The council intends the development to become an extension of Uxbridge town centre . Early suggestions from the Leader of Hillingdon Council included a theatre with a statue of T.E. Lawrence outside , and a new museum built around the Battle of Britain Bunker . MP for Uxbridge John Randall called in 2009 for Hillingdon Hospital to be relocated to the site as an alternative to a planned rebuilding project on its existing site . The hospital trust ruled out such a move due to the projected costs .

The area around the Battle of Britain Bunker , including the No. 11 Group memorial , will retain the RAF Uxbridge name and be maintained by RAF Northolt as an exclave . The Royal Air Force Ensign was moved to the area , together with the Supermarine Spitfire gate guardian , a fibreglass replica of aircraft BR600 . The Spitfire was refurbished and painted in the D @-@ Day invasion colours of No. 33 Squadron as aircraft BS239 , funded by the London Borough of Hillingdon . Uxbridge 's first gate guardian was a real Supermarine Spitfire which was unveiled on 23 May 1973 . This was sold to a collector for restoration and replaced by the current guardian in 1988 . At a service commemorating the Battle of Britain in September 2010 , a new Hawker Hurricane gate guardian in the markings of No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron was unveiled , also near the bunker . The guardian is a fibreglass replica of the aircraft flown by Witold Urbanowicz during the Battle of Britain .

The South Hillingdon branch of the St. John Ambulance service was based at RAF Uxbridge until the closure in 2010 led to a period of uncertainty over its relocation . Eventually , RAF Northolt provided the charity with new premises , which were available from January 2011 .

In June 2011 , it was announced that the public right of way from St Andrew 's Gate in the north @-@ west to Vine Lane in the north @-@ east would be reopened , after work to fence off the pathway was completed . The path , 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long , was the subject of a petition submitted to Hillingdon Council in 2010 and had been closed since 1988 . The path was reopened in early August 2011 .

Since closing , the site has been used extensively for filming . Most recently , scenes for the television drama Endeavour , set in the 1960s , were filmed there .

In April 2012 , VSM Estates announced it would be completing the purchase of the site from the MoD , with a view to commencing building work by the end of the year . VSM were provided with a £ 60 million five @-@ year loan by HSBC , together with funding from joint parent companies , St. Modwen Properties and Vinci plc . Persimmon will develop 8 @.@ 9 hectares ( 22 acres ) of the site with 500 homes under an existing joint venture agreement with St Modwen . Demolition of the site in phases began in October 2012 . The site will be developed under the St Andrew 's Park name .

A wood commemorating the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II was planted within the site in May 2012 . Each school in the London Borough of Hillingdon was invited to plant a tree , and the Station Commander of RAF Northolt , Group Captain Tim O 'Brien , also planted one on behalf of the RAF . The wood was officially dedicated by the London Borough of Hillingdon 's Representative Deputy Lieutenant , Wing Commander Edna Partridge , on 19 July 2012 .

A ground @-@ breaking ceremony was held on 2 July 2013 on the site , attended by the Mayor of Hillingdon and cabinet members of Hillingdon Council . The development is due to be completed within seven years .

A new primary school , built on the site of the former sports ground and gym , opened in September 2014 . Named the John Locke Academy , the school will have 630 primary places and 90 nursery places when fully subscribed .

An additional planning application for the construction of office buildings was submitted by St. Modwen in June 2015 .

= Audrey Pauley =

" Audrey Pauley " is the eleventh episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It originally aired on the Fox network on March 17 , 2002 . It was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 8 , being watched by 8 million viewers . It has generally received positive reviews from television critics .

The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , after being in a car accident , Reyes awakens in a surreal hospital . Doggett and a comatose Reyes struggle to prevent her organ donor card from being acted upon . The two , however , soon discover a unique woman , Audrey Pauley , who has the ability to communicate with both those conscious and unconscious .

" Audrey Pauley " guest starred Tracey Ellis as the title character ; she had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode " Oubliette " . Gish has called the episode one of her favorites to film . In addition , it contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences , many of which were created in unique manners .

= = Plot = =

After driving home from work , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) is struck by a drunk driver and transported to a hospital , where she is examined by Dr. Preijers ( Jack Blessing ) and Nurse Edwards ; she soon slips into a coma . Reyes , however , wakes up moments later in the same room all alone . Running to the door , she discovers that the hospital is floating in a dark void . She soon finds two other patients , Stephen Murdoch ( Stan Shaw ) , and Mr. Barreiro ( Del Zamora ) . They assume that they are dead . Reyes , however , maintains that they are still alive .

Meanwhile , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) tells John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) that Reyes is braindead , a fact that Doggett refuses to believe . Preijers informs Doggett and Scully that , since Reyes was an organ donor , in a few days her life @-@ support will be pulled and the hospital will harvest her remains . In the floating hospital , Reyes sees a woman ( Tracey Ellis ) standing in the hallway , but she disappears . At that moment , Barreiro begins screaming and is engulfed in blue electricity before disappearing . In the real world , it is revealed that Barreiro , a fellow comatose patient , has had his life support removed by Preijers . Nearby stands the mystery woman that Reyes encountered : Audrey Pauley .

Doggett begins looking into ways to save Reyes , noting an anomaly in her electrocardiograph that suggests stifled brain activity . While visiting her room , Doggett runs into Audrey who tells her that Reyes ' soul is not gone yet . Audrey walks to her room in the basement , where a model of the hospital has been built . By concentrating her mind , she is able to move into the floating hospital where Reyes is trapped . Once there , she finds Reyes and asks her to tell Doggett that he 's a " dog person " , a reference to a conversation the two had before Reyes ' crash . After relaying the message , Doggett is determined that Reyes is not gone and , following Audrey , learns about her hospital model .

Meanwhile , Nurse Edwards ( Vernee Watson @-@ Johnson ) confronts Preijers about an injection she saw him give Reyes ; he kills Edwards to cover his tracks . Later , in the floating hospital , Stephen collapses and disappears when he too is pulled off of life support . After Doggett is spotted with Audrey in the basement by Preijers , he begins to worry that she could expose what he is doing . He injects the same drug he used to kill Edwards , but Audrey is able to concentrate and move into the floating hospital one last time . She informs Reyes that her only way out is to jump into the void . Reyes does so and wakes up in her hospital bed moments before her organs are to be harvested . Doggett runs down to Audrey 's room only to find that Preijers has killed her . Doggett manages to capture Preijers before he can escape .

= = Production = =

" Audrey Pauley " was written by Steven Maeda and directed by Kim Manners . The entry was Maeda 's second ninth season entry after " 4 @-@ D " . The episode features guest star Tracey Ellis as the titular Audrey Pauley . Ellis had previously appeared as a major character in the third season episode " Oubliette " . Annabeth Gish later noted that the episode , along with " 4 @-@ D " , were her " two favorite episodes " because they " are stand @-@ alone episodes about Reyes and Doggett . Wonderful acting challenges , and the stories were fantastic . " Robert Patrick , whose friend Ted Demme had recently died , was worried about bringing too much emotion onto the set . He later noted , " I was kind of raw . I remember being a little worried about bringing too much emotion to it . I felt safe with Kim ; he knew I was going through a tough time . "

The episode contained several elaborate stunts and effect sequences . Gish performed all of her stunts in the episode , including one shot when she jumped from a thirty foot descender . She later called the sequence " the biggest stunt of my career . " For several of the special effect shots , Manners was forced to compromise on his original decision . One specific shot , wherein Audrey Pauley had to disappear after appearing in front of Gish , was originally going to be done via CGI . Eventually , Manners decided to " tie the two actresses [ Gish and Ellis ] together [ ... ] and then you [ cut ] to Annabeth and in her face there 's an ' oh shit ' reaction , and then [ pan ] straight up on a crane , all right , and see that she 's completely alone . " He called effects like these " creative ways to trim [ the ] budget . " To create the floating hospital scene , a small door set was merged with a CGI hospital . Initially , the scene used a straight flat " piece of cement " as the bottom of the building . The effects team tried adding a " big piece of earth " under the building , but Paul Rabwin felt it looked too much like The Little Prince , so the piece of earth was removed . The final result also removed the cement @-@ like base .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Audrey Pauley " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 17 , 2002 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on January 26 , 2003 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 1 million households , 8 million viewers , and ranked as the sixty @-@ eighth most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 17 . " Audrey Pauley " earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 8 , meaning that roughly 4 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , were tuned in to the episode .

The episode has generally received positive reviews from television critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a glowing review and rated it five stars out of five . The two noted that " this is what The X @-@ Files should be doing now " and that " this would have been the template on which to have built a series starring Doggett and Reyes . " Furthermore , they noted that the script was " written and directed with so much restraint " , that is makes many of the emotional scenes " more affecting " . Shearman and Pearson ultimately called the end result " clever , thoughtful , [ … ] very moving " and " beautiful " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this was a strong episode , with a lot of wonderful character exploration and an interesting concept . However , there were some weaknesses throughout , typical of Steve Maeda ’ s episodes , and that detracted from the episode in some places . Still , another winner in this underrated final season . " Lionel Green from Sand Mountain Reporter named the episode one of his " 13 all @-@ time favorite episodes " of The X @-@ Files , ranking it at number three . He wrote that the episode was " powerful " due to its themes of " faith , love and sacrifice . " He concluded that it was " the best one starring the new agents , Doggett and Reyes . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , praised the performances of Robert Patrick and Annabeth Gish while stating that the visuals in the dream sequences were " pitch @-@ perfect " .

Jessica Morgan , however , from Television Without Pity , gave the episode a more mixed review . She criticized the character of Monica Reyes and called her " Moronica " . She ultimately gave the episode a C + grade . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk called the entry " borderline weird " and used it as evidence that " the ninth season [ is ] arguably the worst season of the series . " The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen was generally unenthused writing " It ’ s not a bad episode , exactly , but there doesn ’ t seem to be a lot of point to it . ... it makes for a forgettable hour . "

= Pedra Branca dispute =

The Pedra Branca dispute [ 2008 ] ICJ 2 was a territorial dispute between Singapore and Malaysia over several islets at the eastern entrance to the Singapore Strait , namely Pedra Branca ( previously called Pulau Batu Puteh and now Batu Puteh by Malaysia ) , Middle Rocks and South Ledge . The dispute began in 1979 and was largely resolved by the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) in 2008 , which opined that Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore and Middle Rocks belonged to Malaysia .

In early 1980 , Singapore lodged a formal protest with Malaysia in response to a map published by Malaysia in 1979 claiming Pedra Branca . In 1989 Singapore proposed submitting the dispute to the ICJ . Malaysia agreed to this in 1994 . In 1993 , Singapore also claimed the nearby islets Middle Rocks and South Ledge . In 1998 the two countries agreed on the text of a Special Agreement that was needed to submit the dispute to the ICJ . The Special Agreement was signed in February 2003 , and the ICJ formally notified of the Agreement in July that year . The hearing before the ICJ was held over three weeks in November 2007 under the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) .

Singapore argued that Pedra Branca was terra nullius , and that there was no evidence the island had ever been under the sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate . In the event the Court did not accept this argument , Singapore contended that sovereignty over the island had passed to Singapore due to the consistent exercise of authority over the island by Singapore and its predecessor , the United Kingdom . The actions taken included selecting Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and constructing the lighthouse , requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island to obtain permits , installing a military rebroadcast station on the island , and studying the feasibility of reclaiming land around the island . Malaysia had remained silent in the face of these activities . In addition , it had confirmed in a 1953 letter that Johor did not claim ownership of the island , and had published official reports and maps indicating that it regarded Pedra Branca as Singapore territory . Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be regarded as dependencies of Pedra Branca .

Malaysia 's case was that Johor had original title to Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge . Johor had not ceded Pedra Branca to the United Kingdom , but had merely granted permission for the lighthouse to be built and maintained on it . The actions of the United Kingdom and Singapore in respect of the Horsburgh Lighthouse and the waters surrounding the island were not actions of the island 's sovereign . Further , the 1953 letter had been unauthorised and the official reports and maps it had issued were either irrelevant or inconclusive .

On 23 May 2008 , the Court ruled that Pedra Branca is under Singapore 's sovereignty , while Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia . As regards South Ledge , the Court noted that it falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by mainland Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . As it is a maritime feature visible only at low tide , it belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located . Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge .

= = Dispute = =

Pedra Branca is a small granite outcrop located 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) east of Singapore and 7 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ; 8 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Johor , Malaysia , where the Singapore Strait meets the South China Sea . There are two maritime features near the island : Middle Rocks , 0 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ; 0 @.@ 69 mi ) south of Pedra Branca , which consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) apart ; and South Ledge , 2 @.@ 2 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 1 km ; 2 @.@ 5 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Pedra Branca , which is visible only at low tide .

Singapore has been administering Pedra Branca since Horsburgh Lighthouse was built on the island by its predecessor , the United Kingdom , between 1850 and 1851 . Singapore was ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and Temenggung Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah of Johor to the British East India Company under a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August 1824 ( the Crawfurd Treaty ) , and became part of the Straits Settlements in 1826 . At the time when the lighthouse on the island was constructed , the Straits Settlements were under British rule through the Government of India .

On 21 December 1979 , the Director of National Mapping of Malaysia published a map entitled Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia showing Pedra Branca to be within its territorial waters . Singapore rejected this " claim " in a diplomatic note of 14 February 1980 and asked for the map to be corrected . In the late 1980s , Attorney @-@ General of Singapore Tan Boon Teik was despatched by the Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew to disclose the documentary evidence which Singapore had to the Malaysian Attorney @-@ General , to demonstrate the strength of Singapore 's case . However , the dispute was not resolved by an exchange of correspondence and intergovernmental talks in 1993 and 1994 . In the first round of talks in February 1993 the issue of sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised . Malaysia and Singapore therefore agreed to submit the dispute to the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) .

= = Procedural matters = =

Singapore first suggested submitting the territorial dispute to the ICJ in 1989 . The suggestion was accepted by Malaysia in 1994 . In 1998 , the text of a Special Agreement to bring the matter before the ICJ was agreed , and the Agreement was signed by the two countries at Putrajaya , Malaysia , on 6 February 2003 . It was notified to the Court in July 2003 . The case was assigned the name Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) .

Following directions issued by the Court , the parties exchanged memorials on 25 March 2004 , counter @-@ memorials on 25 January 2005 , and replies on 25 November 2005 . As the parties informed the Court by a letter dated 23 January 2006 that rejoinders were unnecessary , the written proceedings were closed . The Court determined by drawing lots that Singapore would present its case first . Public hearings were held between 6 and 23 November 2007 , with Singapore presenting its case from 6 to 9 November , and Malaysia doing the same from 13 to 16 November 2007 . Each country was then given two days to respond , with 19 and 20 November allocated to Singapore , and 22 and 23 November allocated to Malaysia . The persons who spoke for the parties were :

For Singapore : Tommy Koh , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large , Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) ; Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore ( acting as Singapore 's Agent ) ;

Chao Hick Tin , Attorney @-@ General of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;

Chan Sek Keong , Chief Justice of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;

Alain Pellet , Professor at the Paris X University Nanterre ; member and former Chairman of the United Nations International Law Commission ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;

Ian Brownlie , C.B.E. , Q.C. , F.B.A. ; member of the English Bar ; Chairman of the UN International Law Commission ; Emeritus Chichele Professor of Public International Law , University of Oxford ; member of the Institut de Droit International ; Distinguished Fellow , All Souls College , Oxford ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;

Rodman R. Bundy , avocat à la Cour d 'Appel de Paris ; member of the New York State Bar Association ; Frere Cholmeley / Eversheds , Paris ( Counsel and Advocate ) ;

Loretta Malintoppi , avocat à la Cour d 'Appel de Paris ; member of the Rome Bar ; Frere Cholmeley / Eversheds , Paris ( Counsel and Advocate ) ; and

S. Jayakumar , Deputy Prime Minister ; Co @-@ ordinating Minister for National Security and Minister for Law ; Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore ( Counsel and Advocate ) .

For Malaysia : Abdul Kadir Mohamad , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large , Ministry of Foreign Affairs , Malaysia ; Adviser for Foreign Affairs to the Prime Minister ( Malaysia 's Agent ) ;

Farida Ariffin , Ambassador of Malaysia to the Netherlands ( Co @-@ Agent ) ;

Abdul Gani Patail , Attorney @-@ General of Malaysia ( Counsel ) ;

Elihu Lauterpacht , C.B.E. , Q.C. , Honorary Professor of International Law , University of Cambridge ; member of the Institut de Droit International ; member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration ( Counsel ) ;

James Crawford , S.C. , F.B.A. , Whewell Professor of International Law , University of Cambridge ; member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ;

Nicolaas Jan Schrijver , Professor of Public International Law , Leiden University ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ;

Marcelo G. Kohen , Professor of International Law , Graduate Institute of International Studies , Geneva ; associate member of the Institut de Droit International ( Counsel ) ; and

Penelope Nevill , college lecturer , Downing College , Cambridge .

The case was presided over by ICJ Vice @-@ President Judge Awn Shawkat Al @-@ Khasawneh , alongside 13 other judges and two ad hoc judges appointed by the two countries . The judges were Raymond Ranjeva from Madagascar , Shi Jiuyong from the People 's Republic of China , Abdul G. Koroma from Sierra Leone , Gonzalo Parra Aranguren from Venezuela , Thomas Buergenthal from the United States , Hisashi Owada from Japan , Bruno Simma from Germany , Peter Tomka from Slovakia , Ronny Abraham from France , Kenneth Keith from New Zealand , Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor from Mexico , Mohamed Bennouna from Morocco and Leonid Skotnikov from Russia . As the Bench of the Court did not include any judges of the nationality of either party , the parties exercised their right to choose judges ad hoc to sit in the case . Singapore appointed Pemmaraju Sreenivasa Rao from India , and Malaysia Christopher John Robert Dugard from South Africa .

= = Singapore 's case = =

= = = Pedra Branca terra nullius = = =

Singapore argued that in 1847 Pedra Branca was terra nullius ( Latin for " land belonging to no one " ) as it had never been the subject of a prior claim or manifestation of sovereignty by any sovereign entity . It denied Malaysia 's claim that the island had been under Johor 's sovereignty . It contended there was no evidence that the Johor Sultanate had claimed or exercised authority over Pedra Branca between 1512 and 1641 . This period began with the fall of the Malacca Sultanate to the Portuguese in 1512 , who continued to harass the Johor Sultanate during this time , as did the Aceh Sultanate . Similarly , there was no evidence of Johor 's sovereignty over Pedra Branca between 1641 and 1699 , when Johor 's power and influence were at their height ; between 1699 and 1784 when the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah II in 1699 without a clear heir led to instability , during which many vassals broke away from the Sultanate ; and between 1784 and 1824 when , according to a 1949 annual report of the Johor government , the Sultanate was in a " state of dissolution " by the beginning of the 19th century .

To support its assertion that the Sultan of Johor did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , Singapore contended that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory . Thus , the only reliable way to determine whether a particular territory belonged to a ruler was to find out whether the inhabitants pledged allegiance to that ruler . This was difficult to do with respect to Pedra Branca since it was isolated and uninhabited , and Malaysia had not provided clear evidence of a direct claim to or actual exercise of sovereign authority over the island .

In addition , Singapore claimed that the old Johor Sultanate , which controlled a maritime Malay empire from a capital on the Johor River , was not the same as the new Johor Sultanate occupying only the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula that came into existence after the signing of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty of 1824 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . In its view , the Anglo – Dutch Treaty did not divide up the Singapore Strait , in which Pedra Branca is situated , between the new Johor Sultanate under the British sphere of influence and the Riau @-@ Lingga Sultanate under Dutch influence . Instead , both Britain and the Netherlands could access the Strait freely . Therefore , there was a legal vacuum with regard to sovereignty over the island , enabling the British to lawfully take possession of it between 1847 and 1851 .

Following the death of Sultan Mahmud Shah III of Johor in 1812 , his two sons Hussein and Abdul Rahman vied for the throne of the Johor Sultanate . The United Kingdom recognised the elder son Hussein , who was based in Singapore , as the rightful heir , while the Netherlands recognised the younger son Abdul Rahman who was based in Riau ( now Bintan , Indonesia ) . A year after the Anglo – Dutch Treaty , Abdul Rahman sent a letter dated 25 June 1825 to Hussein . In it he stated that , " in complete agreement with the spirit and the content of the treaty concluded between their Majesties , the Kings of the Netherlands and Great Britain " , he donated to his older brother " [ t ] he part of the lands assigned to [ Great Britain ] " :

Your territory , thus , extends over Johor and Pahang on the mainland or on the Malay Peninsula . The territory of Your Brother [ Abdul Rahman ] extends out over the islands of Lingga , Bintan , Galang , Bulan , Karimon and all other islands . Whatsoever may be in the sea , this is the territory of Your Brother , and whatever is situated on the mainland is yours .

On the basis of this letter , Singapore argued that Abdul Rahman had only donated the mainland territories to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea . Pedra Branca therefore never became a part of Johor .

= = = Lawful taking of ownership = = =

In the event that the Court rejected the argument that Pedra Branca was terra nullius in 1847 , Singapore contended that the selection of Pedra Branca as the site for Horsburgh Lighthouse and the construction of the lighthouse between 1847 and 1851 constituted a taking of possession of the island à titre de souverain ( with the title of a sovereign ) . The British Crown obtained title over the island in accordance with legal principles governing the acquisition of territory at that time . This title was maintained by the United Kingdom and its lawful successor , the Republic of Singapore .

Singapore claimed that it and its predecessor the United Kingdom had demonstrated a consistent exercise of authority over the island through various acts since 1847 . For instance , during the ceremony for the laying of the foundation stone of the lighthouse on 24 May 1850 , Pedra Branca was described as a " dependency of Singapore " in the presence of the Governor of the Straits Settlements – the most senior British official in Singapore – and other British and foreign officials . The attribution of sovereignty was widely reported in local newspapers , but drew no response from the Johor authorities . Other significant acts included the following :

Singapore had investigated shipwrecks in the waters around the island between 1920 and 1979 .

It had exercised exclusive control over the use of the island and visits to the island , including requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island for scientific surveys to obtain permits .

It had displayed British and Singapore ensigns from Horsburgh Lighthouse . Furthermore , it had acceded to a request by Malaysia in 1968 to remove the Singapore flag from another island , Pulau Pisang , which is under Malaysian sovereignty . Malaysia had made no such request in respect of Pedra Branca .

On 30 May 1977 , the Port of Singapore Authority ( PSA ) allowed the Republic of Singapore Navy to install a military rebroadcast station on the island .

On the direction of the Government of Singapore , in 1972 , 1973 , 1974 and 1978 the PSA studied the feasibility of reclaiming 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of land around the island . Tenders for the project were sought through newspaper advertisements , though eventually the project was not proceeded with .

In addition , Singapore had on two occasions claimed the sea around Pedra Branca as its territorial waters . The first occasion was in July 1952 when the Chief Surveyor expressed the opinion that Singapore should claim a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) limit around the island . Subsequently in 1967 , the Singapore Government 's Marine Department also stated in an official memorandum to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) that the waters within three miles of Pedra Branca might be considered Singapore territorial waters .

= = = Malaysia 's inaction and acceptance of Singapore 's sovereignty = = =

It was also Singapore 's case that for over 130 years since 1847 , Malaysia had been silent over Singapore 's activities and exercise of sovereignty over Pedra Branca . No other state had challenged Singapore 's claims , and she had done so without having to seek approval from any other state . During the hearing , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large Tommy Koh highlighted this by saying :

A key feature of this case is the constant stream of Singapore 's acts of administration in relation to Pedra Branca , contrasted with the complete absence of Malaysian activities on Pedra Branca or within its territorial waters , and with Malaysia 's silence in the face of all these state activities of Singapore ... Such silence on Malaysia 's part is significant and must be taken to mean that Malaysia never regarded Pedra Branca as her territory .

On 12 June 1953 , when Singapore was a Crown Colony , its Colonial Secretary J. D. Higham wrote to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor to clarify the status of Pedra Branca . He noted that the rock was outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and the Temenggung with the island of Singapore under the 1824 Crawfurd Treaty they had entered into with the East India Company . However , the Colonial Government had been maintaining the lighthouse built on it , and " [ t ] his by international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on the Colony " . He therefore asked if " there is any document showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way disposed of " . The Acting State Secretary of Johor , M. Seth bin Saaid , replied on 21 September that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " . Singapore contended that this reply confirmed Singapore 's sovereignty over the island and that Johor had no title , historic or otherwise , to it .

The Colony of Singapore became a self @-@ governing state in 1959 , and left the British Empire to join the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 . Two years later , in 1965 , Singapore became a fully independent republic . In 1959 , in an official publication regarding meteorological information collected on Pedra Branca , Malaya listed Horsburgh Lighthouse as a " Singapore " station together with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles Lighthouses . The lighthouse on Pedra Branca was described in the same way in a joint Malaysian and Singaporean publication in 1966 , the year after Singapore left the Federation . In 1967 , when the two countries began reporting meteorological information separately , Malaysia ceased referring to Horsburgh Lighthouse . In maps published by the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of General Mapping in 1962 , 1965 , 1970 , 1974 and 1975 , the island was indicated with the word " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " under it . The same designation was used for an island that was unquestionably under Singapore 's sovereignty . On the other hand , the designation was not used for Pulau Pisang , an island under Malaysian sovereignty on which Singapore operated a lighthouse .

At a news conference in May 1980 attended by Malaysia 's former Prime Minister Tun Hussein Onn and Singapore 's then Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew , the Malaysian leader admitted that the question of sovereignty over Pedra Branca was " not very clear " to Malaysia .

On 19 November 2007 , Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar refuted Malaysia 's claim that Singapore was attempting to subvert the status quo by claiming sovereignty of Pedra Branca . He said Singapore was " an honest , law @-@ abiding state that has never and will never do anything to endanger navigational safety , security arrangements or the Singapore Strait 's environment " . Rather , it was Malaysia that had sought to alter the status quo by publishing a map in 1979 that altered maritime boundaries with seven neighbouring countries . This was evidenced by a telegram that the Malaysian Government had sent to its overseas missions in December 1979 , notifying them that the map would " affect " Brunei , China , Indonesia , the Philippines , Thailand , Singapore and Vietnam .

= = = Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge one entity = = =

Singapore took the position that Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge should be considered a single group of maritime features as Middle Rocks and South Ledge were dependencies of Pedra Branca . It relied , among others , on the Island of Palmas Case ( 1932 ) : " As regards a group of islands , it is possible that a group may under certain circumstances be regarded as in law a unit , and that the fate of the principal part may involve the rest . " It argued that the three maritime features were geomorphologically the same , as rock samples showed that they were all composed of a light , coarse @-@ grained biotite granite . Additionally , Malaysia had not shown any exercise of sovereignty over the uninhabited reefs of Middle Rocks and South Ledge while Singapore had consistently exercised sovereign authority in the surrounding waters . Since sovereignty over Pedra Branca belonged to Singapore , so did sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge as they were within Pedra Branca 's territorial waters .

= = Malaysia 's case = =

= = = Pedra Branca not terra nullius = = =

Malaysia 's case was that it had original title to Pedra Branca " from time immemorial " . The island could not at any relevant time have been terra nullius as it is and had always been part of Johor , which is now a state of Malaysia . Nothing that the United Kingdom or Singapore had done had displaced its sovereignty over it . Contrary to what Singapore had claimed , there had been no break between the old Sultanate of Johor and the new Johor Sultanate ruled by Sultan Hussein that came into existence after the signing of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty . The Treaty had the effect of leaving the islands south of the Singapore Strait within the Dutch sphere of influence ( the Riau – Lingga Sultanate ) , while the territory and islands in the Strait and to its north were within the British sphere of influence ( the new Johor Sultanate ) . A few months after the conclusion of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty , the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor entered into the Crawfurd Treaty with the East India Company on 2 August 1824 . Article II of the Crawfurd Treaty stated :

Their Highnesses the Sultan Hussein Mahomed Shah and Datu Tumungong Abdul Rahman Sri Maharajah hereby cede in full sovereignty and property to the Honourable the English East India Company , their heirs and successors for ever , the Island of Singapore situated in the Straits of Malacca , together with the adjacent seas , straits , and islets , to the extent of ten geographical miles , from the coast of the said main island of Singapore .

Since Johor could not have ceded Singapore island and the islets in its vicinity to the British if it lacked title to them , this was evidence that the United Kingdom recognised the prior and continuing sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate over all islands in and around the Singapore Strait .

Malaysia challenged Singapore 's contention that Pedra Branca never became part of the new Johor Sultanate because 25 June 1825 letter from Sultan Abdul Rahman of Riau – Lingga to Sultan Hussain showed that Abdul Rahman had only donated territories on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula to Hussein and had retained sovereignty over all the islands in the sea . Malaysia submitted Abdul Rahman 's statement that his territory " extends out over the islands of Lingga , Bintan , Galang , Bulan , Karimon and all other islands " had to be read in the context of Article XII of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty , which guaranteed that no " British Establishment " would be made " on the Carimon Isles , or on the Island of Bantam , Bintang , Lingin , or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore " . Three of the islands mentioned by Abdul Rahman – Bintan , Karimun and Lingga – were islands that the British had agreed were not within their sphere of influence , while the other two – Bulan and Galang – lay south of the Singapore Strait . Therefore , the phrase " all other islands " in Abdul Rahman 's letter referred only to islands lying within the Dutch sphere of influence . The letter was simply formal recognition that Abdul Rahman did not claim sovereignty over Johor .

The Johor Sultanate 's title to the island was also confirmed by ties of loyalty that existed between the Sultanate and the Orang Laut , a nomadic sea people who in the past had inhabited the maritime areas of the Singapore Strait , carrying out fishing and piracy , and had visited Pedra Branca quite frequently . This was evidenced by three 19th @-@ century letters written by British officials , including one dated November 1850 by John Turnbull Thomson , the Government Surveyor of Singapore , which had reported on the need to exclude the Orang Laut from Pedra Branca where Horsburgh Lighthouse was being built . Thomson noted that they " frequently visit the rock so their visits should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them ... In the straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives are taken by these people . "

Malaysia rejected Singapore 's argument that the traditional Malay concept of sovereignty was based mainly on control over people and not over territory . It stated that authority in states throughout the world is based on a combination of control over people and territory , and that this applies to the Malay States as it does to any other state . Since the Johor Sultanate was established in the 16th century , it always had rulers who were recognised as such and who thus commanded people 's allegiance and therefore controlled the territory where those people lived .

= = = Actions of United Kingdom and Singapore those of lighthouse operator = = =

Malaysia averred that the actions of the United Kingdom and its successor Singapore in constructing and maintaining Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca were actions of the operator of the lighthouse and not the sovereign of the island . Johor had at no time ceded the island to the United Kingdom , but instead had merely granted permission for the lighthouse to be built and maintained on it .

Captain James Horsburgh , a Scottish hydrographer to the British East India Company who had prepared many charts and sailing instructions for the East Indies , China , New Holland , the Cape of Good Hope and other intermediate ports , died in May 1836 . Merchants and mariners felt that the building of one or more lighthouses would be a fitting tribute to him , and in as early as November 1836 Pedra Branca was proposed as one of the preferred sites . By 1844 , preference had been expressed for Romania Outer Island , or Peak Rock . Some time in November 1844 , the Governor of the Straits Settlements , William John Butterworth , wrote to the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor regarding the matter . His letters have not been found , but English translations of the replies , dated 25 November 1844 , exist . The Sultan said :

I have received my friend 's letter , and in reply desire to acquaint my friend , that I perfectly understand his wishes , and I am exceedingly pleased at the intention expressed therein , as it ( a Light House ) will enable Traders and others to enter and leave this Port with greater Confidence .

The Temenggung responded thus :

I have duly received my friend 's communication , and understand the contents . My friend is desirous of erecting a Light House near Point Romania . I can have no possible objection to such a measure , indeed I am much pleased that such an undertaking is in contemplation . I wish to be guided in all matters by the Government , so much so , that the [ East India ] company are at full liberty to put up a Light House there , or any spot deemed eligible .

Myself and family for many years have derived support from Singapore , our dependence is wholly on the English Government , and we hope to merit the protection of , and be favoured by the Company on all occasions consistent with propriety .

Three days later , on 28 November 1844 , the Governor wrote to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the lighthouse be sited on Peak Rock . Among other things , he said that " [ t ] his Rock is part of the Territories of the Rajah of Johore , who with the Tamongong ... have willingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company " , and enclosed the replies received from the Sultan and Temenggung . Nonetheless , Malaysia argued that the Sultan and Temenggung 's letters amounted to no more than permission to the United Kingdom to build and operate a lighthouse on Peak Rock or some other suitable location .

On 13 November , Malaysia 's Agent , Ambassador @-@ at @-@ Large Abdul Kadir Mohamad , alleged that Singapore was trying to " subvert " a 150 @-@ year @-@ old arrangement under which Singapore operated Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca , which was Malaysia 's territory . He also suggested that if permitted to do so , Singapore would upset the peace and stability of the area where the island is located . He said that if Singapore reclaimed land around Pedra Branca , " [ q ] uite apart from the possible effects on the environment and navigation in the Strait , this could lead to potentially serious changes to the security arrangements in the eastern entrance of the Strait " . According to Malaysian Attorney @-@ General Abdul Gani Patail , Singapore had first raised the issue of sovereignty over Pedra Branca on 13 April 1978 during a meeting between officials , saying it had " incontrovertible legal evidence " of its sovereignty over the island though it had never produced any documents in support . Prior to that , the sovereignty of the island had never been disputed . The 1980 statement by the then Malaysian Prime Minister Tun Hussein Onn concerning the " unclear " position of the island had also been premised on these documents which former Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew had claimed were in Singapore 's possession . The statement was therefore merely a friendly and respectful statement of a visiting prime minister at a press conference which had no probative value in court . All Hussein Onn had meant was that the matter required further discussion between the two countries .

= = = = 1953 letter by Acting State Secretary of Johor unauthorised = = = =

Concerning the letter of 21 September 1953 in which the Acting State Secretary of Johor informed the Colonial Secretary of Singapore that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " , Malaysia submitted that the Colonial Secretary 's enquiry of 12 June 1953 about the status of Pedra Branca showed that the Singapore authorities had no conviction that the island was part of its territory .

Further , the Acting State Secretary " was definitely not authorized " and did not have " the legal capacity to write the 1953 letter , or to renounce , disclaim , or confirm title of any part of the territories of Johor " . Under two treaties of 21 January 1948 , the Johor Agreement between the British Crown and the Sultan of Johor and the Federation of Malaya Agreement between the British Crown and nine Malay States including Johor , Johor transferred all its rights , power and jurisdiction on matters relating to defence and external affairs to the United Kingdom . These powers were exercisable by the Federal High Commissioner appointed by the United Kingdom and not by the Johor State Secretary . The Acting State Secretary had improperly taken it upon himself to reply to the Colonial Secretary 's letter and had not submitted a copy of it to the Chief Secretary of Johor . There was no evidence that the Chief Secretary or the High Commissioner was aware of its contents .

= = = = Singapore 's actions in respect of Pedra Branca not as sovereign = = = =

Regarding Singapore 's contentions that it had exercised sovereign authority over Pedra Branca in various ways , Malaysia responded as indicated below :

Investigation of shipwrecks in vicinity of Pedra Branca . Singapore had duties to investigate hazards to navigational safety and to publish information about such hazards in its capacity as a lighthouse operator , and under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea . Therefore , by investigating and reporting on shipwrecks and maritime hazards within Pedra Branca 's territorial waters Singapore had acted in accordance with best practice and not à titre de souverain . The circumstances of the particular investigations also meant that Singapore 's ability to carry them out was not based on its sovereignty over the island .

Display of British and Singapore ensigns on island . Ensigns , associated with maritime matters , are marks of nationality and not sovereignty . Singapore had also not demonstrated any sovereign intent in the flying of the British and Singapore ensigns from Horsburgh Lighthouse . The Pulau Pisang incident was not an acknowledgement by Malaysia of Singapore 's sovereignty over Pedra Branca ; it had been a matter of domestic political sensibility – Pulau Pisang is much larger than Pedra Branca and has a small local population .

Installation of military communications equipment and plans to reclaim land . Malaysia alleged that Singapore 's installation of military communications equipment on Pedra Branca was done secretly , and that it had only learned about this when it received Singapore 's memorial in the case . As regards Singapore 's plans to reclaim land around the island , Malaysia said it could not have reacted to some of the documents as they had been secret .

= = = = Meteorological reports irrelevant ; maps inconclusive = = = =

In response to Singapore 's contention in respect of meteorological reports published by Malaysia that had indicated Pedra Branca as a Singapore station , Malaysia said the fact that it recognised Horsburgh Lighthouse as a Singapore rainfall station did not amount an acknowledgement of sovereignty . The six maps that it had published between 1962 and 1975 which had printed the word " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " beneath the island were inconclusive . This was because the annotating could be assessed differently , the maps contained disclaimers stating they could not be considered an authority on the delimitation of international or other boundaries , and maps do not create title and cannot amount to admissions unless incorporated into treaties or used in inter @-@ state negotiations .

= = = Middle Rocks and South Ledge belong to Malaysia = = =

Malaysia contended that Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge were not a single identifiable entity . The historical record showed that the three maritime features were never formally described as a single island with appurtenant islands , or as a group of islands . Middle Rocks and South Ledge were therefore under Johor sovereignty at the time of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty and fell within the British sphere of influence under the Treaty . Malaysia had exercised consistent acts of sovereignty over them within the limits of their character . For instance , in 1968 the Malaysian Government used and granted petroleum concessions which extended to the area of Middle Rocks and South Ledge . Also , an internal confidential document dated 16 July 1968 entitled " Letter of Promulgation " by the Chief of the Royal Malaysian Navy included charts showing that Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge were within Malaysia 's territorial waters , and the features were included within Malaysian fisheries waters in the Fisheries Act 1985 . Singapore had neither protested against these manifestations of sovereignty , nor advanced any claims over Middle Rocks and South Ledge in 1980 when it began claiming that Pedra Branca belonged to it .

= = Controversies = =

= = = Reliability of Malaysia 's photograph of Pedra Branca = = =

In the course of the hearing , to demonstrate Pedra Branca 's proximity to the Johor mainland , Malaysia produced a photograph taken of Pedra Branca with Point Romania and a hill named Mount Berbukit , both in Johor , in the background . However , on 19 November 2007 Singapore produced another photograph taken using a camera that approximated what the human eye sees , and pointed out that in it Mount Berbukit appeared much smaller . It alleged that Malaysia 's photograph had been taken using a telephoto lens , which had exaggerated the height of Mount Berbukit by about seven times . Singapore 's then Attorney @-@ General Chao Hick Tin said that the photograph had been " an attempt to convey a subliminal message of proximity between Pedra Branca and the coast of Johor " , but it was not an accurate reflection of what visitors to Pedra Branca would see if they were looking towards Johor .

Malaysia claimed its photograph was obtained from an online blog , Singapore called the blog " most unusual " , noting that it had been created only a month earlier ; that the photograph had only been uploaded on 2 November , four days before the oral proceedings in the case had commenced ; and that there was no information on the blogger 's identity .

In its rebuttal on 24 November , Malaysia said that the difference between the photographs was " all a question of perspective " and that the matter was not worth discussing .

= = = Missing 1844 letters = = =

A key thrust of Malaysia 's case was that the British had received explicit permission from Johor to build a lighthouse on Pedra Branca , which proved that the British had recognised Johor 's sovereignty over the island . It submitted that this was evidenced by the November 1844 letters that Governor Butterworth had written to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor regarding the construction of the lighthouse . Malaysia said it had written to Singapore asking for copies of the letters , because if the letters still existed they were probably in Singapore 's archives in a file entitled " Letters to Native Rulers " . However , Singapore had never replied .

Singapore 's response was that it did not have copies of the letters . Its archives were incomplete , and searches for them in other archives had been in vain . Furthermore , the letters were more likely to be in Malaysia 's possession as the Governor had sent them to the Johor rulers . In his rebuttal of Malaysia 's case on 19 November 2007 , Singapore 's Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Law S. Jayakumar expressed disappointment with Malaysia 's insinuation that Singapore had concealed the letters from the Court , which he termed " most disturbing " , " baseless " and " distracting " .

Malaysia did not mention the matter further in its rebuttal on 24 November .

= = ICJ decision = =

The ICJ rendered its decision on 23 May 2008 . It held by 12 votes to four that sovereignty over Pedra Branca belongs to Singapore . It further held , by 15 votes to one , that sovereignty over Middle Rocks belongs to Malaysia , and sovereignty over South Ledge belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located .

= = = Pedra Branca originally under sovereignty of Johor Sultanate = = =

The Court agreed with Malaysia that the Johor Sultanate had original title to Pedra Branca , rejecting Singapore 's argument that the island was terra nullius . It found it was not disputed that Johor had established itself as a sovereign state with a certain territorial domain in Southeast Asia since it came into existence in 1512 . As Pedra Branca had always been known as a navigational hazard in the Singapore Strait , which was a vital channel for international navigation in east @-@ west trade between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea , it was inconceivable that the island had remained undiscovered by the local community . It was therefore reasonable to infer that Pedra Branca lay within the general geographical scope of the Johor Sultanate . Further , during the existence of the old Johor Sultanate , there was no evidence of any competing claims over the islands in the Singapore Strait . It also agreed with Malaysia 's submission that descriptions of the relationship between the Sultan of Johor and the Orang Laut in 19th @-@ century official British reports proved that the Sultan exercised sovereign authority over the Orang Laut . Since the Orang Laut made the islands in the Singapore Strait their habitat , this confirmed the " ancient original title " of the Johor Sultanate to those islands , including Pedra Branca . As regards Singapore 's argument that the traditional concept of Malay sovereignty was based on control over people rather than territory , the Court observed that sovereignty comprises control over both persons and territory . However , it was not necessary to deal with the point further as it had already found that Johor had territorial sovereignty over Pedra Branca .

The purpose of the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty was to finally settle the disputes that had arisen between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands relating to their territorial possessions and commercial interests in the East Indies . It was thus most unlikely that the parties had left the maritime features in the Singapore Straits outside their spheres of influence , as Singapore had contended . Under Article XII of the Treaty , Britain had agreed that " no British Establishment shall be made on the Carimon Isles , or on the Island of Bantam , Bintang , Lingin , or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore ... " The islands and islets within the Straits therefore fell within the British sphere of influence . This included Pedra Branca , which remained part of the territorial domain of the new Johor Sultanate . That this was the British understanding of the Treaty was confirmed by a letter dated 4 March 1825 from the Government of India to John Crawfurd , the British Resident in Singapore , which read : " [ O ] ur acquisition of these Islets [ under the Crawfurd Treaty ] is not at variance with the obligations of the Treaty concluded at London in March last [ the 1824 Anglo – Dutch Treaty ] as they are all situated North of the Southern limits of the Straights of Singapore ... " [ Emphasis added . ] Therefore , Britain 's position was that every island north of the southern limits of the Singapore Strait fell within its sphere of influence . The Court 's reading of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty was reinforced by letter of 25 June 1825 from Sultan Abdul Rahman to his brother Sultan Hussain , which did not have the effect Singapore attributed to it .

Contrary to Malaysia 's submission , the Court found that the Crawfurd Treaty did not show that Britain recognised Johor 's sovereignty over all the islands in and around the Singapore Strait . Article II only referred to the cession by the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor of " the Island of Singapore ... together with the adjacent seas , straits , and islets to the extent of ten geographical miles " to the British , and could not be read as an acknowledgement by the United Kingdom that Johor sovereignty over any other territory .

= = = Sovereignty over Pedra Branca passed to Singapore = = =

The ICJ noted that under certain circumstances , sovereignty over territory may pass due to the failure of the state which has sovereignty to respond to the other state 's conduct à titre de souverain , that is , concrete manifestations of the display of territorial sovereignty by the other state .

Because there was no written agreement relating to Horsburgh Lighthouse and Pedra Branca , the Court was unable to determine whether the November 1844 replies by the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor to Governor Butterworth 's query amounted to a cession of the place that would be chosen for the site of the lighthouse or was merely a permission to build , maintain and operate a lighthouse there . Although the Governor had indicated in his 28 November 1844 letter to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the replies amounted to a gratuitous cession to the East India Company , this understanding was not communicated to the Sultan and Temenggung . Similarly , the fact that Britain had not informed Johor about its decision to site the lighthouse on Pedra Branca might be seen either as recognition that Britain only had consent to build and operate it , or that Johor no longer had rights over the island . On the evidence adduced , the Court was unable to reach a conclusion on the issue . It also did not draw any conclusions about the construction and commissioning of the lighthouse , stating only that it saw the events as " bearing on the issue of the evolving views of the authorities in Johor and Singapore about sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh " . It noted , though , that apart from a two @-@ day visit by the Temenggung and his followers to the island in early June 1850 , Johor had no involvement in the project .

The Court declined to accept Malaysia 's argument that the Singapore Colonial Secretary 's query about the status of Pedra Branca in 1953 indicated that the United Kingdom had no conviction that the island was part of its territory . It felt the letter of inquiry showed the Singapore authorities were not clear about events that had occurred over a century earlier and that they were unsure their records were complete , which was understandable in the circumstances . It also disagreed that the Acting State Secretary of Johor , who had stated in his letter of reply that Johor did not claim ownership of the island , had acted without authority . The Johor Agreement was irrelevant – as the Colonial Secretary was a representative of the United Kingdom government which was not a foreign state in relation to Johor at the time , there was no question of the United Kingdom having to consent to Johor issuing the reply . The Federation of Malaya Agreement also did not assist Malaysia because the action of responding to a request for information was not an " exercise " of " executive authority " . Further , since Malaysia had not invoked this argument in its negotiations with Singapore and in the ICJ proceedings until late in the oral phase , Singapore was entitled to presume that the Acting State Secretary had acted within his authority . The meaning of the reply was clear – as of 1953 , Johor understood it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , and thus the Singapore authorities had no reason to doubt that the island belonged to the United Kingdom .

The Court regarded as conduct à titre de souverain Singapore 's investigation of six shipwrecks in the vicinity of Pedra Branca between 1920 and 1993 , its exclusive control over visits to the island , the installation of the military rebroadcast station on the island in 1977 , and the proposed reclamation of land around it . Malaysia was correct in asserting that the flying of an ensign was not normally a manifestation of sovereignty , and that the difference in size between Pulau Pisang and Pedra Branca had to be recognised . Nonetheless , some weight could be given to the fact that Malaysia had not requested for the Singapore ensign flying at Horsburgh Lighthouse to be taken down . The fact that Malaysia had referred to the lighthouse as a Singapore station in the 1959 and 1966 meteorological reports and had omitted it from the 1967 Malaysian report favoured Singapore 's case .

The maps published by Malaysia between 1962 and 1975 tended to confirm that it considered Pedra Branca to fall under Singapore sovereignty . The " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " annotations on the maps in respect of the island were clear and supported Singapore 's case . The maps gave a good indication of Malaysia 's official position on the matter , and could amount to an admission . Finally , Malaysia could not rely on the disclaimers on the maps as the present matter did not concern a boundary but a distinct island . In any case , the maps were statements of geographical fact , particularly since Malaysia had itself produced and disseminated it against its own interest .

In view of the above , the Court held that by 1980 sovereignty over Pedra Branca had passed from Malaysia to Singapore .

= = = Sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge = = =

None of the conduct by the United Kingdom and Singapore that led to the ICJ to conclude that Singapore had gained sovereignty over Pedra Branca applied to Middle Rocks . Since Johor held the ancient original title to Middle Rocks , the Court held that this title remains with Malaysia as the successor to the Johor Sultanate .

South Ledge falls within the apparently overlapping territorial waters generated by the mainland of Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . Although in the Special Agreement and in their final submissions Malaysia and Singapore had asked the Court to decide which state had sovereignty over Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge , the Court had not been mandated to delimit the extent of the territorial waters of the two states in the area in question . Therefore , it simply held that South Ledge , as a low @-@ tide elevation , belongs to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located .

= = Reactions and further developments = =

= = = Reactions = = =

On 23 May 2008 , Malaysian Foreign Minister Rais Yatim described the ICJ decision as creating a " win @-@ win " situation and that both countries would " forge ahead " in their bilateral relationship . Deputy Prime Minister Najib Tun Razak called the judgment a " balanced decision " as Malaysia had been " partly successful " in its territorial claims . Interviewed by journalists at The Hague , Singapore Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar said : " We are pleased with the judgment because the court has awarded sovereignty over Pedra Branca , which is the main feature in dispute , to Singapore . " Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Hsien Loong said he was pleased with the result , and commented that bringing the dispute to the ICJ was " a good way for [ Malaysia and Singapore ] to resolve disagreements or problems while maintaining good relations with each other " .

= = = = Malaysia = = = =

On the day the ICJ released its judgment , Rais Yatim asserted that since South Ledge was within the territorial waters of Middle Rocks , " Malaysia appears to be the sovereign holder " . A week later , the Foreign Ministry of Malaysia asked the Malaysian media to cease using the Malay word Pulau ( " Island " ) for Pedra Branca and to refer to it as " Batu Puteh " or " Pedra Branca " .

The ICJ 's decision is final and not subject to appeal . Nevertheless , in June 2008 Rais Yatim stated that Malaysia had renewed its search for the letter written by Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor seeking permission to build Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca . He noted that the rules of the ICJ allowed a case to be reviewed within ten years if new evidence was adduced . In response , Singapore 's Law Minister K. Shanmugam said that the city @-@ state would wait to see what new evidence the Malaysian government could come up with .

Several Malaysian Members of Parliament have urged the Federal Government to assert sovereignty over Pulau Pisang which also has a lighthouse on it that is operated by Singapore , or to take over administration of the lighthouse . Concerns were also expressed for Pulau Merambong near the western boundary of Malaysia and Singapore . The Menteri Besar of Johor , Abdul Ghani Othman , assured the public that Pulau Pisang belongs to Johor under a 1900 agreement between Sultan Ibrahim of Johor and British administrators in colonial Singapore . Nonetheless , Malaysian agencies have taken up efforts to stake claims over a hundred islands , reefs , rocks and other features in the South China Sea , Malacca Straits , and off Sabahan waters that Malaysia could lose to China , Indonesia and Vietnam . Two of these islands are Pulau Unarang off eastern Sabah near the Indonesian border , and Pulau Perak to the west of Penang .

At the opening of Johor 's 12th State Assembly in June 2008 , Sultan Iskandar of Johor pledged to reclaim the island " whatever it takes " . Speaking impromptu at the end of a prepared speech , the Sultan said in Malay : " Let us be reminded that I do not forget Pulau Batu Puteh . Pulau Batu Puteh is not Singapore 's , but it belongs to Johor . It does not matter how long it may take , I will find the way to get back the island , which belongs to Johor . " The Menteri Besar of Johor said the state government had " clearly heard " what the Sultan said , but did not elaborate .

On 3 September 2008 , Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah , a Kelantan prince and MP from the state , sent a letter to Rais Yatim claiming that Johor 's interests had not been raised before the ICJ . He alleged that the seas surrounding Pedra Branca had always been in Johor 's hands and had never been surrendered to the British or to Singapore , and by accepting the ICJ decision and participating in technical discussions with Singapore the Malaysian government had infringed Johor 's constitutional rights . Responding , Rais said the letter seemed designed for " political mileage " and that Johor had been fully involved in the proceedings . He told the Straits Times , " Everybody has his opinion on such matters but I , as Foreign Minister , have to abide by the dictate of the law . I have to see the letter first but it 's rather late in the day to express disappointment . "

= = = = Singapore = = = =

On 21 July 2008 , in response to questions from Singapore Members of Parliament about Pedra Branca , the Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs Balaji Sadasivan stated that the maritime territory around the island included a territorial sea of up to 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) and an Exclusive Economic Zone . This was condemned by Malaysia 's Foreign Minister Rais Yatim as " against the spirit of Asean and the legal structure " as the claim was " unacceptable and unreasonable and contradicts the principles of international law " . In response , a Singapore Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman said that Singapore first stated its claim to a territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone on 15 September 1980 , and reiterated this claim on 23 May 2008 following the ICJ 's judgment . Both statements had made clear that if the limits of Singapore 's territorial sea or Exclusive Economic Zone overlapped with the claims of neighbouring countries , Singapore would negotiate with those countries to arrive at agreed delimitations in accordance with international law . In August 2008 , Rais said Malaysia took the view that Singapore was not entitled to claim an Exclusive Economic Zone around Pedra Branca as it considered that the maritime feature did not meet internationally recognised criteria for an island , that is , land inhabited by humans that had economic activity .

At the launch of S. Jayakumar and Tommy Koh 's book Pedra Branca : The Road to the World Court on 19 December 2008 , Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong commented : " The Pedra Branca case is likely to be a unique event in the history of Singapore as it is unlikely that Singapore will ever again need to seek confirmation of her title to territory under international law . "

= = = Resolution of outstanding issues = = =

Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge . Following a meeting on 3 June 2008 , the Committee agreed that a technical sub @-@ committee would be established to oversee the conduct of joint survey works to prepare the way for talks on maritime issues in and around the area . If any incident occurred in and around the waters of Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge , either side would provide humanitarian assistance to the vessels involved . Finally , both Malaysian and Singaporean fishermen could continue traditional fishing activities in those waters . In September 2008 , the Joint Technical Committee reported that its Sub @-@ Committee on Joint Survey Works was finalising technical preparations for a hydrographic survey that would provide data for future delimitation discussions . A Sub @-@ Committee on Maritime and Airspace Management and Fisheries had also been formed , and after a meeting on 20 August 2008 it decided that traditional fishing activities by both countries should continue in waters beyond 0 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 0 @.@ 9 km ; 0 @.@ 6 mi ) off Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge .

= = = Articles = = =

Abdul Ghafur Hamid ( Khin Maung Sein ) ( 2011 ) , " Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pulau Batu Puteh : A Critical Analysis of its Legal Implications " , Malayan Law Journal 3 : 30 – 61 .

Abdul Ghafur Hamid ( Khin Maung Sein ) ( 2011 ) , " Pedra Branca Judgment and Beyond : Issues and Challenges in its Implementation by Malaysia and Singapore " , International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 26 ( 2 ) : 335 – 342 .

Beckman , Robert ; Schofield , Clive ( 2009 ) , " Moving beyond Disputes over Island Sovereignty : ICJ Decision Sets Stage for Maritime Boundary Delimitation in the Singapore Strait " , Ocean Development & International Law 40 ( 1 ) : 1 – 35 , doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 00908320802631551 .

Colson , David A. ; Vohrer , Brian J. ( 2008 ) , " International Court of Justice : Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia / Singapore ) – Introductory Note " , International Legal Materials ( 5 ) : 833 – 835 .

Kopela , Sophia ( 2010 ) , " Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia v. Singapore ) , Judgment of 23 May 2008 " , International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 25 ( 1 ) : 93 – 113 , doi : 10 @.@ 1163 / 157180810X487811 .

Lathrop , Coalter G. ( 2008 ) , " Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia / Singapore ) " , American Journal of International Law 102 ( 4 ) : 828 – 834 , doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 20456682 , JSTOR 20456682 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 July 2009 .

Li , Chenyang ; Shao , Jianping ( 2009 ) , 论白礁岛主权争端及其对新马关系和东盟发展的影响 [ Study on the Pedra Branca Dispute and Its Influence on Relations between Singapore and Malaysia and ASEAN 's Development ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 1 – 12 .

Mills , Alex ( 2008 ) , " The Formalism of State Sovereignty in Territorial and Maritime Disputes " , Cambridge Law Journal 67 ( 3 ) : 443 – 447 , doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0008197308000639 .

Mohamed Faizal ; Quek , Evangeline ( 2004 ) , " The Repercussions of the Similarities between Sipadan / Litigan and Pedra Branca Disputes " , Singapore Law Review 24 : 52 – 65 .

O 'Keefe , Roger ( 2011 ) , " Legal Title versus Effectivités : Prescription and the Promise and Problems of Private Law Analogies " , International Community Law Review 13 ( 1 – 2 ) : 147 – 188 , doi : 10 @.@ 1163 / 187197311X555223 .

Tan , Hsien @-@ Li ( 2008 ) , " Case Concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca / Pulau Batu Puteh , Middle Rocks and South Ledge ( Malaysia / Singapore ) " , Singapore Year Book of International Law 12 : 257 – 262 , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 14 April 2010 .

Tanaka , Yoshifumi ( 2008 ) , Passing of Sovereignty : The Malaysia / Singapore Territorial Dispute before the ICJ , The Hague Justice Portal , archived from the original ( PDF ) on 21 January 2012 .

Wan Siti Adibah Wan Dahalan ; Adina Kamarudin ; Mahmud Zuhdi Mohd Nor ( 2009 ) , " Article 121 of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention and the Maritime Delimitation in the Straits of Singapore " , Jurnal Undang @-@ undang dan Masyarakat : 13 .

Wang , Xiumei ( 2009 ) , 白礁岛 、 中岩礁和南礁案的国际法解读 [ An Interpretation of the Case of Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge from the Perspective of International Law ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 19 – 25 .

Wang , Zichang ( 2009 ) , 新马岛屿争端之判决 : 依据与启示 [ The Judgment of the International Court of Justice on Territorial Disputes between Singapore and Malaysia and Its Inspirations ] ( PDF ) , Southeast Asian Studies ( in Chinese ) ( 1 ) : 13 – 18 .

= = = News reports = = =

" KL 's claim of original title a mirage : Jaya " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Malaysian Bar website ) , 10 November 2007 , archived from the original on 10 January 2008 , retrieved 30 September 2008 .

" All the pieces in Singapore 's case ' fit perfectly together ' " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( Singapore ) website ) , 21 November 2007 , retrieved 30 September 2008 .

Andy Ho ( 28 November 2007 ) , " The evidence of words : The Pedra Branca case may really just turn on two treaties of 1824 " , The Straits Times .

Jessica Cheam ( 24 May 2008 ) , " A good ruling , for both [ editorial ] " , The Straits Times ( reproduced at AsiaOne ) .

Zakir Hussain ( 20 December 2008 ) , " Pedra Branca story told in a book : Jayakumar and Tommy Koh give behind @-@ the @-@ scenes account of 30 @-@ year saga " , The Straits Times ( reproduced on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs website ) , p . A4 .

= = = Books = = =

Haller @-@ Trost , Renate ( 1993 ) , Historical Legal Claims : A Study of Disputed Sovereignty over Pulau Batu Puteh ( Pedra Branca ) [ Maritime briefing ; vol . 1 , no . 1 ] , Durham : International Boundaries Research Unit , Department of Geography , University of Durham , pp. 1 – 36 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 897643 @-@ 04 @-@ 4 .

Jayakumar , S. ; Koh , Tommy ( 2008 ) , Pedra Branca : The Road to the World Court , Singapore : NUS Press in association with MFA Diplomatic Academy , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 474 @-@ 6 ( hbk . ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 9971 @-@ 69 @-@ 457 @-@ 9 ( pbk . ) .

= 1994 Fairchild Air Force Base B @-@ 52 crash =

On Friday , 24 June 1994 , a United States Air Force ( USAF ) Boeing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress crashed at Fairchild Air Force Base , Washington , United States , after the pilot , Lt Col Arthur " Bud " Holland , maneuvered the bomber beyond its operational limits and lost control . The aircraft stalled , fell to the ground and exploded , killing Holland and the other three USAF officers aboard . The crash was captured on video and was shown repeatedly on news broadcasts throughout the world .

The subsequent investigation concluded that the crash was attributable primarily to three factors : Holland 's personality and behavior , USAF leaders ' delayed or inadequate reactions to earlier incidents involving Holland , and the sequence of events during the aircraft 's final flight . The crash is now used in military and civilian aviation environments as a case study in teaching crew resource management . It is also often used by the U.S. Armed Forces during aviation safety training as an example of the importance of compliance with safety regulations and correcting the behavior of anyone who violates safety procedures .

= = Crash = =

At 07 : 30 local time ( Pacific Time Zone ) on 24 June 1994 , a USAF B @-@ 52H bomber crew stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base prepared to practice an aircraft demonstration flight for an airshow . The crew consisted of pilots Lt Col Arthur " Bud " Holland ( 46 years old ) , Lt Col Mark McGeehan ( 38 ) , Col Robert Wolff ( 46 ) , and weapon systems officer / radar navigator Lt Col Ken Huston ( 41 ) . Holland was the designated command pilot for the flight , with McGeehan as the copilot and Wolff as a safety observer . Holland was the chief of the 92nd Bomb Wing 's Standardization and Evaluation branch , McGeehan was the commander of the 325th Bomb Squadron , Wolff was the vice commander of the 92nd Bomb Wing , and Huston was the 325th Bomb Squadron 's operations officer .

The mission plan for the flight called for a demanding series of low @-@ altitude passes , 60 ° banked turns , a steep climb , and a touch @-@ and @-@ go landing on Fairchild 's runway 23 . The flight was also Wolff 's " fini flight " – a common tradition in which a retiring USAF aircrew member is met shortly after landing on his or her final flight at the airfield by relatives , friends and coworkers , and doused with water . Thus , Wolff 's wife and many of his close friends were at the airfield to watch the flight and participate in the post @-@ flight ceremony . McGeehan 's wife and two youngest sons watched the flight from the backyard of McGeehan 's living quarters , located nearby .

The B @-@ 52 aircraft , callsign Czar 52 , took off at 13 : 58 and completed most of the mission 's elements without incident . Upon preparing to execute the touch @-@ and @-@ go on Runway 23 at the end of the practice profile , the aircraft was instructed to go around because a KC @-@ 135 aircraft had just landed and was on the runway . Maintaining an altitude of about 250 feet ( 75 m ) above ground level ( AGL ) , Holland radioed the control tower and asked for permission to execute a 360 ° left turn , which was immediately granted by the tower controller . The B @-@ 52 then began the 360 ° left turn around the tower starting from about the midfield point of the runway . Located just behind the tower was an area of restricted airspace , reportedly because of a nuclear weapons storage facility . Apparently to avoid flying through the restricted airspace , Holland flew the aircraft in an extremely tight , steeply banked turn while maintaining the low , 250 @-@ foot ( 75 m ) AGL altitude . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the way around the turn , at 14 : 16 , the aircraft banked past 90 ° , descended rapidly , clipped power lines and hit the ground , exploding and killing the four crew members . McGeehan was seated in an ejection seat , but according to the medical statement , he had only " partially ejected at the time of impact " ; it does not state whether or not he cleared the aircraft . Huston was also seated in an ejection seat and the medical statement indicated that he had not initiated the ejection sequence . Wolff 's seat was not ejection @-@ capable . No one on the ground was injured .

= = Investigation = =

The USAF immediately convened a safety investigation under the direction of the USAF 's Chief of Safety , Brigadier General Orin L. Godsey . The safety investigation board released the report of its investigation into the crash on 10 August 1994 . A final evaluation of the safety investigation was released on 31 January 1995 . The USAF safety report was distributed only to U.S. Department of Defense personnel and not to the general public . An accident investigation board , called an " AFR 110 @-@ 14 Investigation , " released a separate report in 1995 . Unlike the USAF safety investigation , the AFR 110 @-@ 14 report was released to the general public .

The AFR 110 @-@ 14 investigation identified several factors which contributed to the crash , including the actual crash sequence , the personality and earlier behavior of Bud Holland , previous supervision and lack of corrective action exercised by USAF officers over Bud Holland , mission planning and execution , and other environmental and human factors .

= = = Crash sequence = = =

The investigation found that as the B @-@ 52 entered its final turn sequence around the tower , its indicated airspeed ( IAS ) was 182 knots ( 337 km / h ; 209 mph ) . Although Holland increased the engine power after starting the turn , his input came too late to maintain the aircraft 's airspeed , as the B @-@ 52 turbofan engines take up to eight seconds to respond to throttle commands . Even though the airspeed indicator was available to all four aircrew members , the aircraft 's airspeed was allowed to continue to decrease . Eight seconds before impact , the aircraft 's IAS had deteriorated to 145 knots ( 269 km / h ; 167 mph ) and the aircraft 's bank angle increased past 60 ° . At this time Holland or McGeehan applied full right spoiler , right rudder , and nose @-@ up elevator , and the aircraft entered a turning flight stall ( also called accelerated stall ) . This phenomenon is a stall that occurs at a higher airspeed than the design stall speed – which always refers to straight and level flight – because of the fact that the aircraft is turning . Due to the bank of 60 ° or more , the stall speed for the aircraft at that moment was 147 knots ( 272 km / h ; 169 mph ) . Thus , flying 2 knots slower , the aircraft stalled , without having sufficient altitude to recover before striking the ground .

= = = Holland 's previous behavior and USAF leaders ' reactions = = =

The accident board stated that Bud Holland 's personality significantly influenced the crash sequence . USAF personnel testified that Holland had developed a reputation as an aggressive pilot who often broke flight safety and other rules . The rule @-@ breaking included flying below minimum clearance altitudes and exceeding bank angle limitations and climb rates .

An earlier incident occurred in 1991 when a B @-@ 52 piloted by Holland performed a circle above a softball game in which Holland 's daughter was participating . Beginning at 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) AGL , Holland 's aircraft executed the circle at 65 ° of bank . In a maneuver described by one witness as a " death spiral , " the nose of the aircraft continued to drop and the bank angle increased to 80 ° . After losing 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of altitude , Holland was able to regain control of the aircraft .

During a 19 May 1991 air show at Fairchild , Holland was the command pilot of the B @-@ 52 aerial demonstration flight . During the demonstration , Holland 's aircraft violated several safety regulations , including exceeding bank and pitch limits , flying directly over the air show spectators , and possibly violating altitude restrictions . The base and wing commander , Colonel Arne Weinman , along with his staff , observed the demonstration , but apparently took no action .

On 12 July 1991 , Holland commanded a B @-@ 52 for a " flyover " during a change of command ceremony for the 325th Bomb Squadron at Fairchild . During both the practice and the actual flyover , Holland 's aircraft flew at altitudes below 100 feet ( 30 m ) – well below the established minimum altitude – flew steeply banked turns in excess of 45 ° , exceeded pitch angle limits and executed a wingover . The wingover was not specifically prohibited but was not recommended because it could damage the aircraft . After witnessing the flyover , Colonel Weinman and his deputy commander for operations ( DO ) , Colonel Julich , orally reprimanded Holland , but took no formal action .

During the 17 May 1992 Fairchild air show , Holland was again the command pilot of the B @-@ 52 aerial demonstration flight . During the demonstration , Holland 's aircraft again violated several safety regulations , including several low altitude steep turns in excess of 45 ° of bank and a high pitch angle climb , estimated at over 60 ° nose high which Holland finished with a wingover maneuver . The new wing commander , Colonel Michael G. Ruotsala , apparently took no action . One week later , the new DO , Colonel Capotosti , on his own initiative warned Holland that if he violated any more safety regulations , Capotosti would ground him ( remove him from flying status ) . Capotosti did not document his warning to Holland or take any other kind of formal action .

On 14 and 15 April 1993 , Holland was the mission commander of a two @-@ ship training mission to a bombing range near Guam in the Pacific Ocean . During the mission , Holland flew his B @-@ 52 closer to the other B @-@ 52 than regulations allowed . Holland also asked his navigator to videotape the bombs falling from the aircraft from inside the bomb bay , also against regulations . Holland 's navigator later brought the video to the attention of three Fairchild USAF officers . The first , Lieutenant Colonel Bullock , the current 325th Bomb Squadron commander , did not do anything about it and may have even tried to use the videotape as leverage to coerce the navigator into accepting a position as mission scheduler for the wing . The second , the deputy operations group commander , Lieutenant Colonel Harper , told the crew member to conceal the evidence . The third , the DO , allegedly responded to reports of the video by stating , " Okay , I don 't want to know anything about that video — I don 't care . "

At the 8 August 1993 Fairchild air show , Holland once again commanded the B @-@ 52 demonstration flight . The demonstration profile once again included bank angles greater than 45 ° , low altitude passes , and another high pitch climbing maneuver , this time in excess of 80 ° nose high . The climb was so steep that fuel flowed out of the vent holes from the aircraft 's wing tanks . The new wing commander , Brigadier General James M. Richards , and the new DO , Colonel William E. Pellerin , both witnessed the demonstration , but neither took any action .

On 10 March 1994 , Holland commanded a single @-@ aircraft training mission to the Yakima Bombing Range to provide an authorized photographer an opportunity to document the aircraft as it dropped training munitions . The minimum aircraft altitude permitted for that area was 500 feet ( 150 m ) AGL . During the mission , Holland 's aircraft was filmed crossing one ridgeline about 30 feet ( 10 m ) above the ground . Fearing for their safety , the photography crew ceased filming and took cover as Holland 's aircraft again passed low over the ground , this time estimated as clearing the ridgeline by only three feet ( 1 m ) . The co @-@ pilot on Holland 's aircraft testified that he grabbed the controls to prevent Holland from flying the aircraft into the ridge while the aircraft 's other two aircrew members repeatedly screamed at Holland : " Climb ! Climb ! " Holland responded by laughing and calling one of the crew members " a pussy " .

After that mission , the crew decided that they would never again fly with Holland and reported the incident to the bomb squadron leadership . The squadron commander , Lieutenant Colonel Mark McGeehan , reported the incident to Pellerin and recommended that Holland be removed from flying duty . Pellerin consulted with Holland and gave him an oral reprimand and warning not to repeat the behavior , but refused to take him off flying duty . Pellerin also did not document the incident or the reprimand or notify his superiors , who remained unaware of the incident . McGeehan then decided that in order to protect his aircrews , he ( McGeehan ) would be the co @-@ pilot on any future missions in which Holland was the command pilot . Evidence suggests that after this incident , " considerable animosity " existed between Holland and McGeehan .

In preparation for the 1994 Fairchild air show , Holland was again selected as the command pilot for the B @-@ 52 demonstration flight . On 15 June 1994 , Holland briefed the new wing commander , Colonel William Brooks , on the proposed flight plan . The demonstration profile as briefed by Holland included numerous violations of regulations , including steep bank angles , low altitude passes , and steep pitch attitudes . Brooks ordered Holland not to exceed 45 ° bank angles or 25 ° pitch attitude during the demonstration . During the first practice session , on 17 June , Holland repeatedly violated these orders . Brooks witnessed this , but took no action . Pellerin flew with Holland on that flight and reported to Brooks that , " the profile looks good to him ; looks very safe , well within parameters . " The next practice flight on 24 June ended with the crash .

= = = Other factors = = =

The demonstration profile as designed by Holland included a 360 ° turn around Fairchild 's air traffic control tower . Holland had not attempted this maneuver in previous air show demonstrations . During the final flight , Holland performed a series of 60 ° banked turns and a 68 ° pitch climb in violation of Brooks ' orders . No evidence exists that McGeehan or Wolff attempted to intervene as Holland executed the maneuvers .

Pellerin was originally scheduled to fly in this mission , as he had done on the 17 June flight . Pellerin was unavailable for the flight on 24 June and Wolff was selected as the replacement aircrew member . Due to the short notice of his assignment to the mission , Wolff did not participate in the pre @-@ flight briefing and boarded the aircraft after the engines were started . Thus , Wolff was not aware of the planned mission profile and did not have an opportunity to raise any objections before take @-@ off .

All of the aircrew involved in the crash had only limited flying time in the months before the crash . The B @-@ 52 's aircrew were apparently unaware that the aircraft had stalled until shortly before impact , indicated by a failure to apply standard recovery techniques to the aircraft once it entered the stall . The investigation reported that , even if the proper stall recovery techniques had been applied , the aircraft was likely too low to recover before hitting the ground .

Four days before the accident , on 20 June , Dean Mellberg , an emotionally disturbed ex @-@ USAF serviceman , entered Fairchild 's hospital and shot and killed five people and wounded many more before being killed by an Air Force Security Policeman . The crime was a major distraction for personnel stationed at Fairchild for some time afterwards .

= = = Conclusions = = =

The accident investigation concluded that the crash was primarily attributable to Holland 's personality and behavior , USAF leaders ' inadequate reactions to the previous incidents involving Holland , and the sequence of events and aircrew response during the final flight of the aircraft . Holland 's disregard for procedures governing the safe operation of the B @-@ 52 aircraft that he commanded and the absence of firm and consistent corrective action by his superior officers allowed Holland to believe that he could conduct his flight in an unsafe manner , culminating with the slow , steeply banked , 360 ° turn around the control tower .

The other environmental factors involved , including the addition of a new maneuver ( the 360 ° turn around the tower ) , inadequate pre @-@ flight involvement of Colonel Wolff , and the distractions from the base shooting four days prior , combined with Holland 's unsafe and risk @-@ taking piloting behavior to produce conditions favorable for the crash to occur . The final factor , according to the USAF investigation report , was the 10 @-@ knot ( 19 km / h ) wind and its effect on the maneuvers required to achieve the intended flightpath in relation to the ground .

= = Aftermath = =

On 19 May 1995 , Pellerin pleaded guilty at a USAF court @-@ martial proceeding to two counts of dereliction of duty for his actions , or lack thereof , that contributed to the crash . He was sentenced to forfeit $ 1 @,@ 500 of salary a month for five months and received a written reprimand . The USAF did not reveal whether any other officer involved in the chain of events leading to the crash received any type of administrative or disciplinary action . Critics of USAF 's safety record stated that this crash was an example of a pattern of problems related to enforcement of safety procedures within USAF .

Although the accident investigation found that procedures and policies were supposedly already in place to prevent such a crash from occurring again , the fact that this crash occurred showed that in at least one instance , the existing safety policies and their enforcement had been grievously inadequate . To re @-@ emphasize the importance of adherence to existing safety policies and correcting the actions of anyone violating them at any time , the USAF quickly distributed the findings of the accident investigation throughout the service . These measures failed to prevent – sixteen years later – the occurrence in almost identical circumstances of another accident , when a C @-@ 17 transport aircraft crashed shortly after taking off from Elmendorf Air Force Base , Alaska , on an aerial display practice flight .

Today , the Fairchild crash is used in both military and civilian aviation environments as a training aid in teaching crew resource management and to show the importance of enforcing safety regulations .

Footage of the Fairchild crash was used in the making of the 2015 film Project Almanac , depicting an airline accident , which sparked public anger among relatives of Wolff and McGeehan . After an initial claim by Paramount Pictures that the video in question was of a 2009 Tokyo crash , producer Michael Bay issued an apology to the families , and the footage was removed from the film 's theatrical release and associated trailers at Bay 's request .

= = = Printed media = = =

Diehl , Alan E. ( 2003 ) . Silent Knights : Blowing the Whistle on Military Accidents and Their Cover @-@ Ups . Potomac Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 544 @-@ 8 .

Kern , Tony T. ( 1999 ) . Darker Shades of Blue : The Rogue Pilot . McGraw @-@ Hill Professional Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 034927 @-@ 4 .

Piper , Joan L. ( 2001 ) . Chain of Events : The Government Cover @-@ up of the Black Hawk Incident and the Friendly @-@ fire Death of Lt. Laura Piper . Brassey 's . ISBN 1 @-@ 57488 @-@ 344 @-@ 5 .

United States Air Force ( USAF ) ( 1994 ) . Summary of AFR 110 @-@ 14 USAF Accident Investigation Board Report .

= = = Web = = =

" Brigadier General Orin L. Godsey " . Air Force Link . 1996 . Archived from the original on 15 February 2007 . Retrieved 16 February 2007 . – Biography of the USAF Chief of Safety who led the initial investigation into the mishap .

" Brigadier General James M. Richards " . Air Force Link . 1996 . Archived from the original on 15 February 2007 . Retrieved 16 February 2007 . – Biography of the Commander , 92nd Bomb Wing , Fairchild Air Force Base from August 1992 – August 1993

" The Crash of ' Czar 52 ' " . Check @-@ Six.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007 . Retrieved 30 June 2013 . – Contains video footage of the crash .

Kern , Tony ( 1995 ) . " Darker Shades of Blue : A Case Study of Failed Leadership " . Neil Krey 's CRM Developers Forum . Archived from the original on 16 February 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .

" Lt. Col. Mark C. McGeehan " . Lou Holtz / Upper Ohio Valley Hall of Fame . 2000 . Archived from the original on 12 March 2007 . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .

Thompson , Mark ( 29 May 1995 ) . " Way , Way Off in the Wild Blue Yonder " . Time . Retrieved 1 March 2007 .

" B @-@ 52 Bomber Crash Fairchild Air Force Base " . 24 June 1994 . Retrieved 15 June 2015 . – Video of the crash

" Nuclear Storage Site Linked to Plane Crash " . The New York Times . 27 April 1995 . Retrieved 7 January 2008 .

" B @-@ 52crash.kml " . 5 January 2008 . Retrieved 30 January 2014 . - KML file of Czar 52 flight path just before crash

= Miles Fisher =

James Leslie Miles Fisher ( born June 23 , 1983 ) is an American film and television actor and musician .

He had a role in the 1997 CBS adaptation of the book True Women and had a starring role in the 2000 film Lone Star Struck . In 2001 , he won Best Actor at the International Teen Movie Festival ( ITMF ) in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada for his role in his short film Head Shot . He also received praise in 2001 in an article in Newsday , and this helped further his career . He appeared as a member of the First Regiment of Virginia Volunteers in the 2003 Civil War film Gods and Generals , which starred Robert Duvall . Fisher parodied actor Tom Cruise in the 2008 film Superhero Movie ; a clip of Fisher from the film became popular on the Internet . He had a recurring role as a rookie police officer in 2008 on the television series The Cleaner on A & E Network . Fisher appeared in 2009 on Gossip Girl . On the third season of the television series Mad Men , Fisher portrayed a friend of character Paul Kinsey .

= = Family and education = =

Miles Fisher is the son of Richard W. Fisher , who was formerly the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas . His mother , Nancy , serves on the national board of the American Film Institute ( AFI ) . His maternal grandfather was Representative James Collins . He was raised in Dallas , Texas , where he attended the St. Mark 's School of Texas . After his family moved to Washington , D.C. , he attended the St. Albans School .

Fisher graduated from Harvard University , where he was an English major . At Harvard , he was a member of the Porcellian Club , the Hasty Pudding Club and the a cappella singing group the Krokodiloes . Fisher served as the Krokodiloes tour manager , and planned events for the group in 24 countries . He was one of the two students chosen to deliver a Harvard Oration at the 2006 Harvard graduation ceremony . His undergraduate thesis , which won the LeBaron Russell Briggs prize at Harvard , was a " screenplay about a Harvard graduate who avoided the Vietnam draft by teaching in a military prep school " . Fisher has described film as his passion and said that after graduation he intended to move to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the film industry . In 2009 Fisher resided in Los Angeles , California .

He married Lucette Blodgett , daughter of late actor and writer , Michael Blodgett , on June 28 , 2014 . They were introduced by Willow Bay .

= = Acting career = =

= = = 1997 – 2008 = = =

Fisher appeared in the 1997 CBS television movie adaptation of the book True Women as " Travis " , and had a starring role in the 2000 film Lone Star Struck . He received the Best Actor award at the 2001 International Teen Movie Festival ( ITMF ) in Vaughan , Ontario , Canada , for his own short film titled : Head Shot , which was among 10 @,@ 000 other entries at the festival .

In a 2001 article in Newsday titled : " Miles Fisher , ' It ' Boy " , columnist Liz Smith referred to Fisher as " wunderkind " and " the next Tom Cruise " . Smith 's comparison of Fisher to Tom Cruise led to meetings with influential managers and agents , and he signed with the talent agency Endeavor Talent Agency in 2002 . Fisher appeared in the 2003 Civil War film Gods and Generals with Robert Duvall . Director Ron Maxwell picked Fisher to portray a heroic member of the First Regiment of Virginia Volunteers in the film ; Duvall played Robert E. Lee .

He parodied actor Tom Cruise in the 2008 film Superhero Movie . Fisher 's role in the film was popularized on the Internet on sites including Defamer , as well as on television on Entertainment Tonight and the CNN program Showbiz Tonight . The clip of Fisher was viewed on the Internet over 10 million times . A critic for The Baltimore Sun commented that Fisher 's appearance in Superhero Movie was the highlight of the film , and wrote : " Actor Miles Fisher replicates Tom Cruise 's ' I am the Way , the Thetan , the Light ' Scientology recruiting video of last year to hilarious effect . " He had a recurring role on A & E Network 's television series The Cleaner , portraying a rookie police officer named Kenneth Herman .

= = = 2009 – present = = =

Fisher wrote and produced a short film called Heatshot in 2009 with Evan Nichols ; the film was selected to be screened at the AFI Dallas International Film Festival . Alan Peppard of The Dallas Morning News reported in March 2009 that Fisher had been cast in the pilot of a television show set in 1983 in Southern California ; a spinoff of Gossip Girl . He portrayed a " sleazy " coke dealer on the television series of the same name .

On the third season of the television series Mad Men , Fisher portrayed Geoff Graves , a friend of character Paul Kinsey . Jessica Gelt of the Los Angeles Times described his character as a " preppy drug dealer " . In 2010 , Fisher was cast in the film Final Destination 5 . In an interview with Collider.com , Fisher revealed that the film was set in a workplace environment , and was a 3 @-@ D film . Fisher appeared in Clint Eastwood 's J. Edgar Hoover biopic , J. Edgar , playing Agent Garrison , an FBI employee who interviews Leonardo DiCaprio 's Hoover throughout the film .

= = Music career = =

In July 2009 , Fisher released an independently produced self @-@ titled EP , Miles Fisher , as well as a music video for his cover of the Talking Heads song " This Must Be The Place . " The video is an homage to the 2000 film American Psycho , with Fisher imitating Christian Bale 's performance as Patrick Bateman . Students from the American Film Institute helped film the video , which was shot in Los Angeles . The video was posted on YouTube and various other web sites , and received 200 @,@ 000 hits on Break.com alone within the first 24 hours . Darrell Hartman of Interview called the usage of the Talking Heads song with the American Psycho theme " a brilliant combo " , and noted that Fisher " created a viral hit " . Fisher released the song " New Romance " in video and MP3 form on iTunes and on his personal website on July 19 , 2011 . The video parodies the Final Destination series and Saved By the Bell . On May 22 , 2013 , a music video for " Finish What We Started " through AboveAverageNetwork on YouTube was posted . The music video featuring Lance Bass has yet to release a single for the song , and a subsequent album has been released , dubbed " Video Music . " The music video has been posted to Fisher 's personal website .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Films = = =

= = = Television = = =

= = Discography = =

= = = Albums = = =

Video Music ( 2013 )

= = = EPs = = =

Miles Fisher ( 2009 )

= = = Singles = = =

" This Must Be the Place ( Naive Melody ) " ( 2009 ) ( cover of the Talking Heads song )

" New Romance " ( 2011 )

" Don 't Let Go " ( 2011 )

" Finish What We Started " ( 2013 ) ( written by Miles Fisher , Robert Schwartzman , Joe Jonas , John Lloyd Taylor )

" Finish What We Started ( Andrew Maury Remix ) " ( feat . Joe Jonas ) ( 2013 ) ( written by Miles Fisher , Robert Schwartzman , Joe Jonas and John Lloyd Taylor )

= = = Music videos = = =

= = Awards and nominations = =

= Pilot ( Once Upon a Time ) =

" Pilot " is the series premiere of the American Fairy Tale / Drama television series Once Upon a Time . It introduces each of the main characters , as well as establishes the basic premises of the series , which details the beginnings of a curse placed upon the Enchanted Forest and the start of a destiny for its only survivor , a present @-@ day woman who can break the curse .

The episode was co @-@ written by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz , and was directed by Mark Mylod . Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write new perspectives of familiar characters , and featured the themes of hope , family , and motherhood . " Pilot " sets the template for the rest of the series , as it jumps between their curses selves in Storybrooke , Maine and their original lives in the Enchanted Forest . Every actor first approached for the series accepted after being sent a script ; this included Ginnifer Goodwin as Snow White and Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan .

Before it made its debut , ABC allowed viewers in the United States to see the pilot on the Internet Movie Database 's website several days before it aired . It premiered in the United States on ABC on October 23 , 2011 . In Canada , CTV broadcast the series an hour ahead of ABC 's debut , airing it at 7 pm in most regions . The episode received mostly positive reviews and was watched by 12 @.@ 93 million viewers , scoring a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 11 % share in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , ranking first in its timeslot . It was ABC 's most watched pilot since the first episode of Ugly Betty .

= = Plot = =

= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =

Prince Charming ( Joshua Dallas ) rides to the rescue of Snow White ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) , who is comatose after eating a poisoned apple that was given to her by the Evil Queen ( Lana Parrilla ) . Doc informs Charming that he is too late , but Charming kisses Snow regardless , breaking the curse . On the wedding day of Snow White and Prince Charming , the Evil Queen arrives and delivers an ominous threat about a powerful curse she intends to release upon them . Some time later , a pregnant Snow White is worried about the curse and visits Rumplestiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) , who issues a prophecy that the Queen 's curse will take them all someplace terrible where there will be no happy endings . He also reveals that Snow White 's unborn daughter , Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) , will return when she is 28 years old to rescue them , thus beginning a crucial battle with the Queen . Following the Blue Fairy 's ( Keegan Connor Tracy ) advice , Geppetto ( Tony Amendola ) and Pinocchio ( Jakob Davies ) fashion a wardrobe from a magical tree which will allow one person to escape the Queen 's curse . On the day Snow White gives birth to her daughter , the Queen 's curse strikes . Prince Charming places their daughter in the magic wardrobe , but is mortally wounded battling the Queen 's henchmen . The Queen stands triumphantly over Snow White and Prince Charming , as the Curse takes them " somewhere horrible . "

= = = In Storybrooke = = =

In Present @-@ day Boston , Emma Swan ( Morrison ) lives a lonely existence working as a bail bondsman and bounty hunter . She is approached by a ten @-@ year @-@ old boy , Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) , who identifies himself as her son , whom she had given up for adoption as a teenager . Not wanting a relationship with him , Emma agrees to drive him back to his home in Storybrooke , Maine . Along the way , Henry shows her a large book of fairy tales he has , insisting that all of the stories in it are real . When they arrive in Storybrooke , Henry informs her that everyone in town is in reality a fairy tale character , exiled by the curse and with no memory of their real identities . This includes his therapist Archie Hopper ( Raphael Sbarge ) , who is really Jiminy Cricket , and his teacher Mary Margaret Blanchard ( Goodwin ) , who is really Snow White . Henry claims that time is frozen in Storybrooke and the people are unable to leave , but that the curse will be broken by Emma . A skeptical Emma returns Henry to his adopted mother , the town Mayor , Regina ( Parrilla ) , who is really the Evil Queen . Emma attempts to leave but after having drunk apple cider given to her by the Mayor and nearly hitting a wolf she has a car accident where she is knocked out . She is arrested and taken to Storybrooke Jail . When Henry runs away again , Emma makes a deal with the Mayor and Sheriff Graham ( Jamie Dornan ) : if they release her , she will find him . After exhausting all possibilities she speaks with Mary Margaret , who tells Emma to " Check his castle . " After finding Henry at a wooden jungle gym ( which bears a resemblance to Prince Charming 's castle ) , they talk and Emma decides to stay in Storybrooke temporarily , especially after Regina warns her to leave town . This leads Emma to be suspicious of the mayor 's motives .

Shortly after her conversation with Emma , Mary Margaret Blanchard volunteers at Storybrooke Hospital , placing flowers at the bedside of patients . She stops in the ICU where a John Doe ( Dallas ) , Prince Charming , is sleeping in a coma . Mary Margaret is unaware of who he is . Meanwhile , at the Mayor 's home , Regina takes the book from Henry 's room and goes downstairs to look at her mirror , with an expression that seems to acknowledge she is aware of her fairy tale existence .

As Emma arrives at Granny 's Bed & Breakfast , she is given a key to her room by the elderly proprietor ( Beverley Elliot ) , who is actually Granny from Little Red Riding Hood . She comes downstairs after yelling at Ruby ( Meghan Ory ) , her granddaughter , followed by a man who came to collect money : Mr. Gold ( Carlyle ) , Rumpelstiltskin who also helped build and owns the entire town . When Emma mentions her name , Mr. Gold pauses as if he knew something about her . Emma 's decision to stay in Storybrooke causes the hands of the town clock , previously frozen at 8 : 15 , to begin moving again .

= = Production = =

= = = Pre @-@ production = = =

On February 1 , 2011 , ABC ordered six new pilots for their 2011 – 2012 television schedule , which included Once Upon a Time . The premiere episode was co @-@ written by series co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz , and was directed by Mark Mylod . Mylod , a veteran of the Showtime drama Shameless , signed on to direct in mid @-@ February 2011 . The network picked up Once Upon a Time and six other drama series on May 13 , 2011 .

= = = Writing = = =

Eight years previous to the Once Upon a Time pilot ( the two had just completed their work on Felicity , in 2002 ) , Kitsis and Horowitz became inspired to write fairytales out of a love of " mystery and excitement of exploring lots of different worlds . " They presented the premise to networks , but were refused because of its fantastical nature . The two learned from their time on Lost to look at the story in a different way , that " character has to trump mythology " ; they expanded , " as people , you 've got to see what the void in their heart or in their lives is to care about them ... For us , this was as much about the character journeys and seeing what was ripped from them in coming to Storybrooke – going at it that way as opposed to making it the ' break @-@ the @-@ curse show . ' " Despite the comparisons and similarities to Lost , the writers intend them to be very different shows . To them , Lost concerned itself with redemption , while Once Upon a Time is about " hope " . Lost co @-@ creator Damon Lindelof aided in the development of the series as a consultant , but had no official credit for the pilot .

To differentiate the storytelling from what the audience already knew , the writing staff decided to begin the pilot with the end of the typical Snow White fairytale . Themes concerning family and motherhood were emphasized , in contrast to the focus on fatherhood in Lost . Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write strong female characters , rather than the classic damsel in distress . Horowitz stated their desire to approach each character the same way , asking themselves , " How do we make these icons real , make them relatable ? "

The pilot is meant to be the " template of the series " . Kitsis confirmed that every week will contain flashbacks between both worlds , as they " love the idea of going back and forth and informing what the character is missing in their life . " The writers ' desire to present a " mash up " of many small characters can be seen in a scene of the pilot , in which there is a war council featuring Geppetto , Pinocchio , and Grumpy . Horowitz elaborated , " One of the fun things for us coming up with these stories is thinking of ways these different characters can interact in ways they never have before . "

= = = Casting = = =

Horowitz stated that everyone they initially wanted cast in the series accepted their offered role after being sent a script . Ginnifer Goodwin was cast as Snow White , who appreciated that she would be playing a strong character that was fleshed out for the audience . The actress had just completed her work on the series Big Love , and was looking for a new project ; she turned to television after film scripts failed to interest her . Having said previously in interviews that she would love to play Snow White , Goodwin called her acceptance of the role " a no @-@ brainer . " Both Kitsis and Horowitz are self @-@ described big fans of Big Love , and wrote the part of Snow White with Goodwin in mind .

Joshua Dallas , who plays Prince Charming , was pleased the writers took " some dramatic license " with his character , believing the prince had become more real . He explained , " Prince Charming just happens to be a name . He 's still a man with the same emotions as any other man . He 's a Prince , but he 's a Prince of the people . He gets his hands dirty . He 's got a kingdom to run . He has a family to protect . He has an epic , epic love for Snow White . He 's like everybody else . He 's human . " Jennifer Morrison was hired for the part of Emma Swan . The actress explained her character as someone who " help [ s ] this kid who seems like he 's a little bit emotionally dysfunctional , " but noted that Emma does not yet believe there is a fairytale universe . Ten @-@ year @-@ old Jared Gilmore , known for his work on Mad Men , took the role of her son , Henry .

The role of the Evil Queen / Regina went to Lana Parrilla . She explained the character , " There 's always two stories being told when playing Regina . There 's the threat of her knowing she 's an evil queen and then there 's just the pure simple fact that the biological mother has stepped into her world and the threat of losing her son is just enormous . That 's a fear that I think any adopted mother would have . I think that 's going to really help the audience relate to Regina in some level . " The role of Rumpelstiltskin was given to Robert Carlyle ; it was written with Carlyle in mind , though the writers initially thought he would never accept the part . Horowitz recalled Carlyle 's prison sequence , which was the actor 's first day on the set as " mind @-@ blowing ... You could see Ginny actually jump , the first time he did that character . It was fantastic ! " The writers offered the part of the Blue Fairy to recording artist Lady Gaga , but never heard back from her management staff .

= = = Visual effects = = =

Executive producer Steve Pearlman referred to Once Upon a Time as " an effects @-@ heavy show , " but in ways that are not meant to be obvious to viewers . Zoic Studios provided the visual effects seen in the pilot , building virtual sets for the fairy tale sequences and using F / X for action scenes . Production and visual effects staff collaborated under a difficult schedule and limited budget . The studio has used the technology Zoic 's Environmental Unification System ( Z.E.U.S. ) for real time camera tracking , allowing for creative flexibility among the cast and crew , who work on a green screen stage . Andrew Orloff , Zoic 's Executive Creative Director , commented " Once Upon A Time is an amazing creative opportunity for Zoic . The highly detailed environments and imaginative characters of the series ' fairy tale world have challenged us to expand and fine @-@ tune both our Z.E.U.S. and animation pipelines for television . "

Zoic Studios digitally reproduced the war room and ballroom castle interiors based on concept designs created by Art Director Mark Worthington . For the wedding scene , Zoic staff extended columns , added stained glass windows , and completed the wedding party with additions of digital guests . The effect of the Evil Queen disappearing from Charming 's flying sword cost ABC a reported $ 12 @,@ 000 . Kitsis has commented that because the network has been very supportive , they are not worried about losing the " fantastical feel " of the series ' flashback sequences . He explained , " We can ’ t show this pilot and then have a cheap show after it , so it ’ s our goal to maintain this level of production values throughout . " Zoic visual effects will continue to be used for future episodes .

= = = Marketing = = =

On October 14 , 2011 – nine days before the national broadcast date – Kitsis and Horowitz presented an early screening of the pilot episode at a New York Comic Con panel and answered questions from fans . Later , viewers were able to stream the entire pilot episode from the Internet Movie Database in advance of its broadcast .

The pilot episode aired in October rather than September , which was a month after new fall season shows normally premiered . Pearlman was pleased with the later broadcast date , believing that " it creates a second wave of anticipation for an audience , too . I work in the business and I couldn 't even tell you the names of a third of the new shows this season because we were bombarded with all the messaging . "

The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .

= = Cultural references = =

The pilot contained a number of popular culture references noted by viewers and television critics . There were several references to Lost , another series scripted by episode writers Kitsis and Horowitz . The street address of Regina 's home is 108 , the town clock is stuck at 8 : 15 ( the same number as the doomed airline flight in the aforementioned series ) , there is a Geranimo Jackson bumper sticker on Emma 's car , the smoke monster engulfing the Enchanted Forest , and Emma 's eye @-@ opening after she wakes up . Kitsis noted of the references , " [ Lost co @-@ creator ] Damon [ Lindelof ] has been a godfather to us . His name is not on the show , but he is in the DNA of it . " Horowitz also stated their intention to continue making Lost references in the future .

Snow White and Prince Charming use a powerfully magical wardrobe to transport their new @-@ born baby to a different universe ( our own " real world " ) . In The Lion , The Witch and The Wardrobe , the first volume of C. S. Lewis 's Narnia series , a similarly powerful magical wardrobe transports the main characters between the real world and the magical universe of Narnia .

Another cultural reference appeared in a scene when Emma hears Leroy ( who is actually Grumpy ) whistling Whistle While You Work ( the song used in the 1937 film version of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ) , indicating its acknowledged ties to Disney , whose subsidiary ABC Studios also happens to be the production company behind Once Upon a Time , since Disney has allowed them access to their fairy tale characters and properties for use in the series . " They 've given us license , " Kitsis said . " I could be wrong , but I think this is the first time anyone 's shown Snow White with a sword , or pregnant . " Other Disney references include the blue star candle Emma wishes on , nodding to the scene in the 1940 film version of Pinocchio where Pinocchio wishes on a blue star and his wish is granted by the Blue Fairy ( both of whom also make a brief appearance alongside Jiminy Cricket in this episode ) .

The Black Keys ' song " Howlin ' for You " is featured in Emma 's introduction scene .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

Premiering out of its 8 : 00 pm timeslot after America 's Funniest Videos , the pilot was viewed by an estimated 12 @.@ 93 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 0 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . As a result , It was the season 's highest rated drama debut among adults 18 @-@ 49 and ABC 's biggest debut in five years . It competed against The World Series Pre @-@ Game on FOX , Football Night In America on NBC and The Amazing Race on CBS . It also competed against some of Sunday Night Football . Including DVR ratings , the episode totaled 15 @.@ 48 million viewers and a 5 @.@ 2 18 @-@ 49 rating .

In Canada , CTV debuted the series an hour ahead of ABC 's debut , airing it at 7 pm in all regions except in Saskatchewan and Winnipeg , where it debuted at 10 pm . The pilot was watched by 1 @.@ 764 million viewers , placing 14th for the week . In the UK , the pilot aired on Channel 5 on a 9 pm slot and pulled in 2 @.@ 36 million viewers , the highest throughout the week of April 9 , 2012 for the channel .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Pilot " received mostly positive reviews from television critics .

In a review from Zap2it , Rick Porter gave the pilot praise for bringing together the central theme , saying " No other new show this fall is attempting to tell a bigger story , and we 're hoping the rough patches smooth out and it fulfills the potential that 's there in its very strong cast and premise . " It also cited Jennifer Morrison and Jared Gilmore 's performances when they appear in scenes together : " As such it falls to Morrison to move the story along in this world , and fortunately for the audience she 's able to pull it off . She gives a confident , grounded performance that helps keep the show from feeling too fantastical , and her rapport with Gilmore is a big plus too . " He also notes the writers and producers have put together a great premise and expects they 'll have more as the series progresses : " Given the cast and the people involved behind the scenes ... we 're more optimistic than not that Once Upon a Time will find its way . But if it doesn 't , at least it will go down swinging . "

The New York Times writer Mike Hale compared Once Upon a Time with the similarly premised series Grimm , believing that the former has a " richer premise and more interesting characters . " Hale in particular praised Goodwin and Morrison 's performances , but concluded , " Watching the pilot again , though , it became harder to ignore the soap opera underpinnings and the twee sentimentality . " IGN 's Amy Ratcliffe gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 rating , praising the casting , acting , and writing . While acknowledging there were " a few cheesy " moments , she expressed hope that the series would remain focused on its story rather than on too many special effects .

TV Fanatic 's Christine Orlando gave the episode 4 @.@ 4 out of 5 stars , calling it " a beautiful , stunning , magical journey " and saying that she was " hooked from the opening scene . " She complimented the whole cast , but especially Robert Carlyle , saying that he made " a perfectly creepy Rumpelstiltskin . " She praised the character of Henry , saying , " He 's spunky , intelligent and has just the right amount of persistence , and faith in fantasy to make you want to believe . " She concluded by simply stating that it was " very , very good . "

= Paul Butterfield =

Paul Vaughn Butterfield ( December 17 , 1942 – May 4 , 1987 ) was an American blues harmonica player and singer . After early training as a classical flautist , he developed an interest in blues harmonica . He explored the blues scene in his native Chicago , where he met Muddy Waters and other blues greats , who provided encouragement and opportunities for him to join in jam sessions . He soon began performing with fellow blues enthusiasts Nick Gravenites and Elvin Bishop .

In 1963 , he formed the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , which recorded several successful albums and were popular on the late @-@ 1960s concert and festival circuit , with performances at the Fillmore West , in San Francisco ; the Fillmore East , in New York City ; the Monterey Pop Festival ; and Woodstock . The band was known for combining electric Chicago blues with a rock urgency and for their pioneering jazz fusion performances and recordings . After the breakup of the group in 1971 , Butterfield continued to tour and record with the band Paul Butterfield 's Better Days , with his mentor Muddy Waters , and with members of the roots @-@ rock group the Band . While still recording and performing , Butterfield died in 1987 at age 44 of a heroin overdose .

Music critics have acknowledged his development of an original approach that places him among the best @-@ known blues harp players . In 2006 , he was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame . Butterfield and the early members of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2015 . Both panels noted his harmonica skills and his contributions to bringing blues music to a younger and broader audience .

= = Career = =

Butterfield was born in Chicago and raised in the city 's Hyde Park neighborhood . The son of a lawyer and a painter , he attended the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools , a private school associated with the University of Chicago . Exposed to music at an early age , he studied classical flute with Walfrid Kujala , of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . Butterfield was also athletic and was offered a track scholarship to Brown University . However , a knee injury and a growing interest in blues music sent him in a different direction . He developed a love for blues harmonica and a friendship with guitarist and singer @-@ songwriter Nick Gravenites , who shared an interest in authentic blues music . By the late 1950s , they were visiting blues clubs in Chicago , where they met musicians such as Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , Little Walter , and Otis Rush , who encouraged them and occasionally let them sit in on jam sessions . The pair were soon performing as Nick and Paul in college @-@ area coffee houses .

In the early 1960s , Butterfield attended the University of Chicago , where he met aspiring blues guitarist Elvin Bishop . Both began devoting more time to music than studies and soon became full @-@ time musicians . Eventually , Butterfield , who sang and played harmonica , and Bishop , accompanying him on guitar , were offered a regular gig at Big John 's , a folk club in the Old Town district on Chicago 's North Side . With this booking , they persuaded bassist Jerome Arnold and drummer Sam Lay ( both from Howlin ' Wolf 's touring band ) to form a group with them in 1963 . Their engagement at the club was highly successful and brought the group to the attention of record producer Paul A. Rothchild .

= = = Butterfield Blues Band with Bloomfield = = =

During their engagement at Big John 's , Butterfield met and occasionally sat in with guitarist Mike Bloomfield , who was also playing at the club . By chance , producer Rothchild witnessed one of their performances and was impressed by the chemistry between the two . He persuaded Butterfield to bring Bloomfield into the band , and they were signed to Elektra Records . Their first attempt to record an album , in December 1964 , did not meet Rothchild 's expectations , although an early version of " Born in Chicago " , written by Gravenites , was included on the 1965 Elektra sampler Folksong ' 65 and created interest in the band ( additional early recordings were released on the Elektra compilation What 's Shakin ' in 1966 and The Original Lost Elektra Sessions in 1995 ) . In order to better capture their sound , Rothchild convinced Elektra president Jac Holzman to record a live album . In the spring of 1965 , the Butterfield Blues Band was recorded at the Cafe Au Go Go in New York City . These recordings also failed to satisfy Rothchild , but the group 's appearances at the club brought them to the attention of the East Coast music community . Rothchild persuaded Holzman to agree to a third attempt at recording an album .

In these recording sessions , Rothchild had assumed the role of group manager and used his folk contacts to secure the band more and more engagements outside of Chicago . At the last minute , the band was booked to perform at the Newport Folk Festival in July 1965 . They were scheduled as the opening act the first night when the gates opened and again the next afternoon in an urban blues workshop at the festival . Despite limited exposure on the first night and a dismissive introduction the following day by the folklorist and blues researcher Alan Lomax , the band was able to attract an unusually large audience for a workshop performance . Maria Muldaur , with her husband , Geoff , who later toured and recorded with Butterfield , recalled the group 's performance as stunning – it was the first time that many of the mostly folk @-@ music fans had heard a high @-@ powered electric blues combo . Among those who took notice was festival regular Bob Dylan , who invited the band to back him for his first live electric performance . With little rehearsal , Dylan performed a short , four @-@ song set the next day with Bloomfield , Arnold , and Lay ( along with Al Kooper and Barry Goldberg ) . The performance was not well received by some and generated a controversy , but it was a watershed event and brought the band to the attention of a much larger audience .

The band added keyboardist Mark Naftalin , and its debut album , The Paul Butterfield Blues Band , was finally successfully recorded in mid @-@ 1965 and released later that year . The opening song , a newer recording of the previously released " Born in Chicago " , is an upbeat blues rocker and set the tone for the album , which included a mix of blues standards , such as " Shake Your Moneymaker " , " Blues with a Feeling " , and " Look Over Yonders Wall " , and compositions by the band . The album , described as a " hard @-@ driving blues album that , in a word , rocked " , reached number 123 in the Billboard 200 album chart in 1966 , but its influence was felt beyond its sales figures .

Jazz drummer Billy Davenport was invited to replace Lay , who was ailing . In July 1966 , the sextet recorded their second album , East @-@ West , which was released a month later . The album consists of more varied material , with the band 's interpretations of blues ( Robert Johnson 's " Walkin ' Blues " ) , rock ( Michael Nesmith 's " Mary , Mary " ) , R & B ( Allen Toussaint 's " Get Out of My Life , Woman " ) , and jazz selections ( Nat Adderley 's " Work Song " ) . East @-@ West reached number 65 in the album chart .

The thirteen @-@ minute instrumental track " East @-@ West " incorporates Indian raga influences and some of the earliest jazz @-@ fusion and blues rock excursions , with extended solos by Butterfield and guitarists Mike Bloomfield and Elvin Bishop . It has been described as " the first of its kind and ... the root from which the acid rock tradition emerged " . Live versions of the song sometimes lasted nearly an hour , and performances at the San Francisco Fillmore Auditorium " were a huge influence on the city 's jam bands " . Bishop recalled , " Quicksilver , Big Brother , and the Dead – those guys were just chopping chords . They had been folk musicians and weren 't particularly proficient playing electric guitar – [ Bloomfield ] could play all these scales and arpeggios and fast time @-@ signatures ... He just destroyed them . " Several live versions of " East @-@ West " from this period were later released on East @-@ West Live in 1996 .

In England in November 1966 , Butterfield recorded several songs with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , who had recently finished the album A Hard Road . Butterfield and Mayall contributed vocals , and Butterfield 's Chicago @-@ style blues harp was featured . Four songs were released in the UK on a 45 @-@ rpm EP , John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers with Paul Butterfield , in January 1967 .

= = = Later Butterfield Blues Band = = =

In spite of its success , the Butterfield Blues Band soon changed its lineup . Arnold and Davenport left the band , and Bloomfield went on to form his own group , Electric Flag . With Bishop and Naftalin remaining on guitar and keyboards , the band added bassist Bugsy Maugh , drummer Phillip Wilson , and saxophonists David Sanborn and Gene Dinwiddie . This lineup recorded the band 's third album , The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw , in 1967 . The album cut back on extended instrumental jams and went in a more rhythm and blues @-@ influenced horn @-@ driven direction , with songs such as Charles Brown 's " Driftin ' Blues " ( retitled " Driftin ' and Driftin ' " ) , Otis Rush 's " Double Trouble " , and Junior Parker 's " Driving Wheel " . The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw was Butterfield 's highest @-@ charting album , reaching number 52 on the album chart . Most of this lineup performed at the seminal Monterey Pop Festival on June 17 , 1967 .

On its next album , In My Own Dream , released in 1968 , the band continued to move away from its roots in Chicago blues towards a more soul @-@ influenced , horn @-@ based sound . With Butterfield singing only three songs , the album featured more band contributions It reached number 79 in the Billboard album chart . By the end of 1968 , both Bishop and Naftalin had left the band . In April 1969 , Butterfield took part in a concert at Chicago 's Auditorium Theater and a subsequent recording session organized by record producer Norman Dayron , featuring Muddy Waters backed by Otis Spann , Mike Bloomfield , Sam Lay , Donald " Duck " Dunn , and Buddy Miles . Such Waters warhorses as " Forty Days and Forty Nights " , " I 'm Ready " , " Baby , Please Don 't Go " , and " Got My Mojo Working " were recorded and later released on the album Fathers and Sons . Waters commented , " We did a lot of the things over we did with Little Walter and Jimmy Rogers and Elgin [ Evans ] on drums [ an early configuration of Waters 's band ] ... It 's about as close as I 've been [ to that feel ] since I first recorded it " . To one reviewer , these recordings represent Paul Butterfield 's best performances .

The Butterfield Blues Band was invited to perform at the Woodstock Festival on August 18 , 1969 . The band performed seven songs , and although its performance did not appear in the film Woodstock , one song , " Love March " , was included on the album Woodstock : Music from the Original Soundtrack and More , released in 1970 . In 2009 , Butterfield was included in the expanded 40th Anniversary Edition Woodstock video , and an additional two songs appeared on the box set Woodstock : 40 Years On : Back to Yasgur 's Farm .

The album Keep On Moving , with only Butterfield remaining from the original lineup , was released in 1969 . It was produced by veteran R & B producer and songwriter Jerry Ragovoy , reportedly brought in by Elektra to turn out a " breakout commercial hit " . The album was not embraced by critics or long @-@ time fans ; however , it reached number 102 in the Billboard album chart .

A live double album by the Butterfield Blues Band , Live , was recorded March 21 – 22 , 1970 , at the The Troubadour , in West Hollywood , California . By this time , the band included a four @-@ piece horn section in what has been described as a " big @-@ band Chicago blues with a jazz base " . Live provides perhaps the best showcase for this unique " blues @-@ jazz @-@ rock @-@ R & B hybrid sound " . After the release of another soul @-@ influenced album , Sometimes I Just Feel Like Smilin ' in 1971 , the Paul Butterfield Blues Band disbanded . In 1972 , a retrospective or their career , Golden Butter : The Best of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , was released by Elektra .

= = = Better Days and solo = = =

After the breakup of the Butterfield Blues Band and no longer under contract with Elektra , Butterfield retreated to Woodstock , New York , where he eventually formed his next band , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days , with drummer Chris Parker , guitarist Amos Garrett , singer Geoff Muldaur , pianist Ronnie Barron and bassist Billy Rich . In 1972 – 1973 , the group recorded the albums Paul Butterfield 's Better Days and It All Comes Back , released by Albert Grossman 's Bearsville Records . The albums reflected the influence of the participants and explored more roots- and folk @-@ based styles . Although without an easily defined commercial style , both reached the album chart . The band did not last to record a third studio album , but its album Live at Winterland Ballroom , recorded in 1973 , was released in 1999 .

Butterfield next pursued a solo career and appeared as a sideman in several different musical settings . In 1975 , he again joined Muddy Waters to record Waters 's last album for Chess Records , The Muddy Waters Woodstock Album . The album was recorded at Levon Helm 's Woodstock studio with Garth Hudson and members of Waters 's touring band . In 1976 , Butterfield performed at the Band 's final concert , " The Last Waltz " , accompanying the Band on the song " Mystery Train " and backing Muddy Waters on " Mannish Boy " . Butterfield kept up his association with former members of the Band , touring and recording with Levon Helm and the RCO All Stars in 1977 and touring with Rick Danko in 1979 . A 1984 live performance with Danko and Richard Manuel was recorded and released as Live at the Lonestar in 2011 .

As a solo act with backing musicians , Butterfield continued to tour and recorded the misguided and overproduced Put It in Your Ear in 1976 and North South in 1981 , with strings , synthesizers , and pale funk arrangements . In 1986 , he released his final studio album , The Legendary Paul Butterfield Rides Again , which again was a poor attempt at a comeback with an updated rock sound . On April 15 , 1987 , he participated in the concert " B.B. King & Friends " , with Eric Clapton , Etta James , Albert King , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and others .

= = Legacy = =

Aside from " rank [ ing ] among the most influential harp players in the Blues " , Butterfield has also been seen as pointing blues @-@ based music in new , innovative directions . AllMusic critic Steve Huey commented ,

It 's impossible to overestimate the importance of the doors Butterfield opened : before he came to prominence , white American musicians treated the blues with cautious respect , afraid of coming off as inauthentic . Not only did Butterfield clear the way for white musicians to build upon blues tradition ( instead of merely replicating it ) , but his storming sound was a major catalyst in bringing electric Chicago blues to white audiences who 'd previously considered acoustic Delta blues the only really genuine article .

In 2006 , Butterfield was inducted into the Blues Foundation 's Blues Hall of Fame , which noted that " the albums released by the Butterfield Blues Band brought Chicago Blues to a generation of Rock fans during the 1960s and paved the way for late 1960s electric groups like Cream " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducted the Paul Butterfield Blues Band in 2015 . The induction biography commented that " the Butterfield Band converted the country @-@ blues purists and turned on the Fillmore generation to the pleasures of Muddy Waters , Howlin ' Wolf , Little Walter , Willie Dixon and Elmore James " .

= = Harmonica style = =

Like many Chicago blues harp players , Butterfield approached the instrument like a horn , preferring single notes to chords , and used it for soloing . His style has been described as " always intense , understated , concise , and serious " , and he was " known for purity and intensity of his tone , his sustained breath control , and his unique ability to bend notes to his will " . In his choice of notes he has been compared to Big Walter Horton , but he was never seen as an imitator of any particular harp player . Rather , he developed " a style original and powerful enough to place him in the pantheon of true blues greats " .

Butterfield played Hohner harmonicas ( and endorsed them ) . He preferred the diatonic ten @-@ hole Marine Band model . He wrote a harmonica instruction book , Paul Butterfield Teaches Blues Harmonica Master Class , a few years before his death ( it was not published until 1997 ) . In it , he explains various techniques , demonstrated on an accompanying CD . Butterfield played mainly in cross @-@ harp , or second position . He occasionally used a chromatic harmonica . Reportedly left @-@ handed , he held the harmonica in a manner opposite that of a right @-@ handed player , i.e. , in his right hand , upside down ( with the low notes to the right ) , using his left hand for muting effects .

Also like other electric Chicago blues harp players , Butterfield frequently used amplification to achieve his sound . Producer Rothchild noted that Butterfield favored an Altec harp microphone run through an early model Fender tweed amplifier . Beginning with album The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw , he began using an acoustic harmonica style , following his shift to a more R & B @-@ based approach .

= = Personal life = =

By all accounts , Paul Butterfield was absorbed in his music . According to his brother Peter ,

He listened to records and went places , but he also spent an awful lot of time , by himself , playing [ harmonica ] . He 'd play outdoors . There 's a place called the Point in Hyde Park [ Chicago ] , a promontory of land that sticks out into Lake Michigan , and I can remember him out there for hours playing . He was just playing all the time ... It was a very solitary effort . It was all internal , like he had a particular sound he wanted to get and he just worked to get it .

Producer Norman Dayron recalled the young Butterfield as " very quiet and defensive and hard @-@ edged . He was this tough Irish Catholic , kind of a hard guy . He would walk around in black shirts and sunglasses , dark shades and dark jackets ... Paul was hard to be friends with . " Although they later became close , Michael Bloomfield commented on his first impressions of Butterfield : " He was a bad guy . He carried pistols . He was down there on the South Side , holding his own . I was scared to death of that cat " . Writer and AllMusic founder Michael Erlewine , who knew Butterfield early in his recording career , described him as " always intense , somewhat remote , and even , on occasion , downright unfriendly " . He remembered Butterfield as " not much interested in other people " .

Paul married his first wife ( and high school friend of many years ) , Virginia McEwan , at Chicago City Hall on November 16 , 1964 . Together , they had Paul 's first son , Gabriel Butterfield , born September , 1965 . The couple remained married until 1969 . It was also Virginia McEwan who wrote and delivered the eulogy at Paul 's funeral .

By 1971 , Butterfield had purchased his first house , in rural Woodstock , New York , and began enjoying family life with his second wife , Kathy , and their infant son , Lee . According to Maria Muldaur , she and her husband were frequent dinner guests , which usually involved sitting around a piano and singing songs . She doubted her abilities , but " it was Butter that first encouraged me to let loose and just sing the blues [ and ] not to worry about singing pretty or hitting all the right notes ... He loosened all the levels of self @-@ consciousness and doubt out of me ... And he 'll forever live in my heart for that and for respecting me as a fellow musician . "

= = Death = =

Beginning in 1980 , Paul Butterfield underwent several surgical procedures to relieve his peritonitis , a serious and painful inflammation of the intestines . Although he had been opposed to hard drugs as a bandleader , he began using painkillers , including heroin , which led to an addiction . These problems and the drug @-@ related death of his friend and one @-@ time musical partner Mike Bloomfield weighed heavily on him . On May 4 , 1987 at age 44 , Paul Butterfield died at his apartment in the North Hollywood district of Los Angeles . An autopsy by the county coroner concluded that he was the victim of an accidental drug overdose , with " significant levels of morphine ( heroin ) " .

By the time of his death , Paul Butterfield was out of the commercial mainstream . Although for some , he was very much the bluesman , Maria Muldaur commented " he had the whole sensibility and musicality and approach down pat ... He just went for it and took it all in , and he embodied the essence of what the blues was all about . Unfortunately , he lived that way a little too much " .

= = Discography = =

In 1964 , Butterfield began his association with Elektra Records and eventually recorded seven albums for the label . After the breakup of the Butterfield Blues Band in 1971 , he recorded four albums for manager Albert Grossman 's Bearsville Records – two with Paul Butterfield 's Better Days and two solo . His last solo album was released by Amherst Records .

After his death in 1987 , his former record companies released a number of live albums and compilations . Except where noted , the following albums are listed as " The Paul Butterfield Blues Band " .

= = = Studio albums = = =

= = = = The Butterfield Blues Band = = = =

The Paul Butterfield Blues Band ( 1965 )

East @-@ West ( 1966 )

The Resurrection of Pigboy Crabshaw ( 1967 )

In My Own Dream ( 1968 )

Keep On Moving ( 1969 )

Sometimes I Just Feel Like Smilin ' ( 1971 )

= = = = Paul Butterfield = = = =

Better Days ( 1973 ) ( by Paul Butterfield 's Better Days )

It All Comes Back ( 1973 ) ( by Paul Butterfield 's Better Days )

Put It in Your Ear ( 1976 )

North @-@ South ( 1981 )

The Legendary Paul Butterfield Rides Again ( 1986 )

= = = Live albums = = =

Live ( 1970 , reissued 2005 with bonus tracks )

Strawberry Jam ( 1996 , recorded 1966 – 1968 )

East @-@ West Live ( 1996 , recorded 1966 – 1967 )

Live at Unicorn Coffee House ( released with several titles and dates , bootleg recorded 1966 )

Live at Winterland Ballroom , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days ( 1999 , recorded 1973 )

Rockpalast : Blues Rock Legends , Vol . 2 , Paul Butterfield Band ( 2008 , recorded 1978 )

Live at the Lone Star , Rick Danko , Richard Manuel & Paul Butterfield ( 2011 , recorded 1984 )

= = = Butterfield compilation albums = = =

Golden Butter : The Best of the Butterfield Blues Band ( 1972 )

The Original Lost Elektra Sessions ( 1995 , recorded 1964 )

An Anthology : The Elektra Years ( 2 CDs , 1997 )

Paul Butterfield 's Better Days : Bearsville Anthology , Paul Butterfield 's Better Days ( 2000 )

Hi @-@ Five : The Paul Butterfield Blues Band ( EP , 2006 )

= = = Compilation albums and videos with various artists = = =

Folksongs ' 65 ( 1965 )

What 's Shakin ' ( 1966 )

Festival ( 1967 film , including 1965 appearance with Dylan )

You Are What You Eat ( 1968 film soundtrack )

Woodstock : Music from the Original Soundtrack and More ( 1970 , recorded 1969 )

Woodstock 2 ( 1971 , recorded 1969 )

An Offer You Can 't Refuse ( 1972 , recorded 1963 )

Woodstock ' 79 ( 1991 video , filmed 1979 )

Woodstock : Three Days of Peace and Music ( 1994 , recorded 1969 )

The Monterey International Pop Festival June 16 – 17 – 18 30th Anniversary Box Set ( 1997 , recorded 1967 )

The Complete Monterey Pop Festival ( 2002 video , filmed 1967 )

Woodstock : 40 Years On : Back to Yasgur 's Farm ( 2009 , recorded 1969 )

Woodstock : 40th Anniversary Ultimate Collector 's Edition ( 2009 video , filmed 1969 )

= = = As accompanist = = =

John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers with Paul Butterfield , John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers ( EP , 1967 )

Blues at Midnight ( released with several titles and dates ) , Jimi Hendrix , B.B. King , and others ( bootleg of jam recorded 1968 )

Fathers and Sons , Muddy Waters ( 1969 , reissued 2001 with bonus tracks )

Give It Up , Bonnie Raitt ( 1972 )

Steelyard Blues , Mike Bloomfield , Nick Gravenites , Maria Muldaur , and others ( 1973 film soundtrack )

That 's Enough for Me , Peter Yarrow ( 1973 )

Woodstock Album , Muddy Waters ( 1975 )

Levon Helm & the RCO All @-@ Stars ( 1977 )

The Last Waltz , the Band ( 1978 )

Elizabeth Barraclough , Elizabeth Barraclough ( 1978 )

Hi ! , Elizabeth Barraclough ( 1979 )

B.B. King & Friends ( released with various titles and dates ) , B.B King , Eric Clapton , Stevie Ray Vaughan , and others ( bootleg video of television special filmed 1987 )

Heart Attack , Little Mike & the Tornados ( 1990 , recorded 1986 )

= = = Tribute albums = = =

A Tribute to Paul Butterfield ' , Robben Ford and the Ford Blues Band ( 2001 )

The Butterfield / Bloomfield Concert , the Ford Blues Band , with Robben Ford and Chris Cain ( 2006 )

= Timothy Everest =

Timothy Everest , MBE ( born 1961 ) is a Welsh bespoke tailor and designer who has , according to Vogue , " dressed some of the world 's most famous people " . Born in Haverfordwest , Wales , he moved to London in his early twenties to work with innovative Savile Row tailor Tommy Nutter , where he learned the art of bespoke . Everest was one of the leaders of the New Bespoke Movement , which brought designer attitudes to the traditional skills of Savile Row tailoring .

Everest has been running his own tailoring business in the East End of London since 1989 . Based at his Spitalfields atelier since 1993 , he opened a West End store off Bond Street , near Savile Row , in 2008 . As well as collaborating on projects with designers and brands such as Brooks England , DAKS , Kim Jones , Levi 's , Rapha and Rocawear , as costume designer Everest has dressed the stars of films including Mission Impossible ( One and M : i @-@ 2 ) , Eyes Wide Shut , Atonement and Mamma Mia ! . He has been associated with the British high street retailer Marks and Spencer since 1999 , and has been a contributor to men 's magazine The Rake since 2008 . Everest is at the forefront of the bespoke casual movement .

= = Early life = =

Everest was born and brought up in Haverfordwest , Pembrokeshire , west Wales ; most of his family remain in the area . His parents were restaurateurs . He had aspired to become a racing driver . But , his ambition unfulfilled , he took a job with his uncle when he was 17 , working as a sales assistant at Hepworths , Milford Haven ; a high street tailor that would form the foundation of the Next retail empire . In the early 1980s , he became interested in the club scene , often driving to London , where he mixed with New Romantics such as Boy George at The Blitz ; a trendy London nightclub run by Steve Strange of the group Visage .

Determined to become part of the fashion industry , but unable to make a breakthrough , Everest decided to use his knowledge of tailoring . He answered an advertisement placed in the London Evening Standard , in 1982 , by Tommy Nutter ; ' Boy wanted in Savile Row ' . He pestered Nutter for weeks , until he was given the job . Nutter 's client base included rock stars , celebrities , politicians and businessmen ; he famously dressed The Beatles and The Stones . Everest also mixed with future celebrities of the fashion world . John Galliano , who had been studying at the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design , passed on some design skills to Everest , while on work placement with Nutter . Everest met his future wife Catherine ( now an actress and film producer ) at this time , while she was also working with Nutter . The couple have two daughters . Everest 's time under Nutter , a Savile Row revolutionary in the 1960s , inspired him to experiment with tone and pattern in his own designs . In 1986 , after nearly five years as Nutter 's apprentice , Everest was persuaded to move on to work for Malcolm Levene . He had become disillusioned with Savile Row , particularly with their lack of appreciation for Nutter 's more modern approach . Everest found that working with Levene , a small menswear retailer based away from Savile Row , on Chiltern Street , provided a welcome change . During Everest 's first year there , Levene 's turnover doubled .

= = Career = =

= = = Setting out on his own = = =

Leaving Levene in the late 1980s to become a freelance stylist in television advertising , MTV and film , Everest began styling bands and pop stars such as George Michael . He recognised a shift in perception of the male fashion industry ; men had become more label conscious . This had coincided with the increased awareness of top @-@ end fashion designers , like Hugo Boss and Armani , highlighted by men 's lifestyle magazines ; such as Arena and The Face . He said , " I thought that if we could demystify bespoke tailoring and make it more accessible , as well as really understanding what was going on in ready @-@ to @-@ wear fashion and being directional with it , there was possibly a market there . " Having decided to create the Timothy Everest brand as an alternative to ' designer ' ready @-@ to @-@ wear , he searched for a suitable location away from " the stuffiness of Savile Row " . Everest opened his first premises in 1989 ; in Princelet Street , Spitalfields , just outside the City of London , in the East End . He said , " We started in one room of a house . We had one rail with four garments on and a telephone , no chairs , no furniture . " To begin with , business was slow . Moving premises in 1993 , he chose a three @-@ storey , early Georgian townhouse ( built in 1724 ) , just north of Old Spitalfields Market in nearby Elder Street – the former home of artist Mark Gertler ( 1891 – 1939 ) – converting it to an atelier over seven weeks . He dressed Tom Cruise for the 1996 film Mission : Impossible . Cruise liked the suits so much that he kept them , and commissioned Everest to make him some more .

= = = New Bespoke Movement = = =

Everest became one of the " Cool Britannia " tailoring generation of the mid @-@ 1990s , identified by James Sherwood ( author of Savile Row : The Master Tailors of British Bespoke ) as having begun with the publication of Vanity Fair 's " Cool Britania " issue in 1997 . Sensing a change in consumer attitudes , away from the more traditional styling of Savile Row , he sought to revitalise bespoke suiting , which he believed had been in danger of disappearing . With contemporaries Ozwald Boateng and Richard James , he launched the New Bespoke Movement , which brought a fashion designer approach to Savile Row craftsmanship . He launched the brand 's first ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection in 1999 . His long @-@ standing association with Marks and Spencer began that year . He dressed Tom Cruise again , for his reprised role in the 2000 film Mission : Impossible II , and at the Oscars that year , when he also dressed Robin Williams and Burt Bacharach . By 2000 , he had 3 @,@ 500 bespoke clients . Everest joined DAKS Simpson as design consultant in May 2000 . He was appointed to the board as Group Creative Director in 2002 , leaving in 2003 . One of the lines he designed for DAKS was an affordable suiting range aimed at teenagers , launched in August 2001 ; called DAKS E1 , after the postal district of his atelier .

= = = Bespoke casual = = =

Everest is at the forefront of the bespoke casual movement which , as the name suggests , provides individually tailored casual clothing of Savile Row quality , including : casual shirts ; smart @-@ casual jackets ; T @-@ shirts ; and jeans . In collaboration with Levi 's in 2004 , he designed a tailored @-@ denim suit , sold in Japanese retailer Oki @-@ Ni 's stores . Expanding the bespoke casual concept , he offered a bespoke denim tailoring service dressing celebrities from sports , Hollywood and rock music , such as David Beckham , Kevin Bacon and Ricky Wilson of the Kaiser Chiefs . Everest designed a suit collection in 2004 / 05 in collaboration with Rocawear , the fashion clothing company founded by American hip hop artists Damon Dash and Jay @-@ Z. The advertising campaign was fronted by Dash 's friends Kevin Bacon and Naomi Campbell . He teamed up with British casual and sportswear designer Kim Jones during 2005 and 2006 . The collaboration produced tailoring collections for four seasons that were shown on the catwalk at Paris fashion week . For his next collaboration , in 2006 Everest showed a limited collection of menswear with New York hair salon Bumble and bumble , including a fully bespoke denim line , which retailed at around US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Marketed as a ' destination location ' , the retail space on the store 's 8th floor , in the fashionable Meatpacking District of Manhattan , also featured a barbershop , a café and a teahouse . In autumn 2007 , the Timothy Everest ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection was available in shops for the first time , including Flannels , Liberty and John Lewis . The range included suits , shirts and trousers . He was costume designer for the 2008 film Mamma Mia ! , dressing its stars , including Pierce Brosnan and Colin Firth . He opened a West End store in 2008 , at Bruton Street , Mayfair , off Bond Street ; less than five minutes walk from Savile Row . He has been a creative contributor and Sartorial Advisor to men 's magazine The Rake since 2008 .

= = = Bespoke active wear = = =

A keen cyclist , in 2009 Everest collaborated with cyclewear brand Rapha to develop a bespoke suit that could be worn while cycling ; what he called " bespoke active wear " . Priced at £ 3 @,@ 500 , the three @-@ piece suit was made of blended wool , using nanotechnology to repel water and dirt . It combined the functionality of classic cycling clothing with the elegance of bespoke tailoring . Its features included a high button fastening to keep the jacket closely fitted to the body , a lapel pocket for an MP3 player and pleats at the shoulders and center back to allow extra fabric when the rider was bent over the bicycle . The jacket design was incorporated into Rapha 's ready @-@ to @-@ wear collection in 2010 . In collaboration with bicycle saddle manufacturer Brooks England during 2010 , he developed a cycling jacket ; under Brooks ' John Boultbee clothing label . The resulting ' Criterion Mk.1 cycling jacket ' , which used water and sweat @-@ resistant materials , was shown at the Bread and Butter street and urban fashion fair , Berlin , in January 2011 .

Everest received an MBE in the 2010 New Year 's Honours list for his " services to the British fashion industry " . Having receiving the award from Queen Elizabeth at Buckingham Palace on Saint David 's Day 2010 , with his wife and two daughters watching , he described the award as a " great honour , not only for me but my business and all who have been involved " . He is quoted as saying that he would like " to be remembered as someone who made people take British clothing seriously " .

= = = The brand = = =

The Timothy Everest brand has three levels of tailoring . ' Bespoke ' is aimed at young professionals with the means to purchase bespoke tailoring , but not necessarily the desire to visit Savile Row . Each customer is measured for an individual pattern to be hand @-@ cut , from which their chosen cloth is cut and sewn by hand . Although still hand made , ' Made @-@ to @-@ measure ' garments use existing ' house ' patterns , adapted to the customer 's measurements . The ' Ready @-@ to @-@ wear ' collection is sold in @-@ house , at Everest 's Mayfair branch , and in Japan . Emphasising his Savile Row background , Everest said , " We are tailors who design , not designers who discovered tailoring " .

= = Marks and Spencer = =

UK department store retailer Debenhams ' collaboration with designers , launched in 1993 under their Designers at Debenhams range , was a success . Hoping to recapture some of their lost market share , Marks and Spencer ( M & S ) asked Everest to review their menswear range . As Creative Consultant , he designed the Sartorial suiting line for their menswear collection . In October 2000 , he designed the Autograph suiting line . Noting that the M & S range consisted of Italian @-@ style suiting , he aimed to achieve a more ' British ' look from the cut , fit and styling and by using different fabrics and colours . He also has responsibility for their Luxury collection . During M & S advertising campaigns , his designs for the Autograph range have been modelled by several British celebrities , including David Beckham , Bryan Ferry , Jimmy Carr , Martin Freeman , Bob Mortimer and Take That . In 2007 , M & S were selected by The Football Association as ' Official Tailor to the England football team ' and Everest designed the team 's official suits for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa .

= = Clientele = =

Everest has , according to Vogue , dressed " some of the world 's most famous people " . He has clients worldwide and travels regularly for fittings in New York , Los Angeles and Japan . Closer to home , Everest 's bespoke atelier in Spitalfields has a diverse client base that includes politicians ( including British Prime Ministers past and present ) , and sports and Hollywood personalities . Of his suit worn to the Oscars , Tom Cruise commented : " Of course it fits ; it 's a Timothy Everest " .

He has been costume designer on several films , including Mission Impossible ( One and M : i @-@ 2 ) , Tube Tales , Eyes Wide Shut , Appaloosa , Atonement , The Accidental Husband and Mamma Mia ! . Among his celebrity clients are : Kevin Bacon ; David Beckham ; Matthew Broderick ; Gordon Brown ; Pierce Brosnan ; David Cameron ; Jarvis Cocker ; Jeremy Irons ; Jay @-@ Z ; Mick Jagger ; and James McAvoy .

= Symphony in White , No. 3 =

Symphony in White , No. 3 , is a painting by James Abbott McNeill Whistler . The work shows two women dressed in white , one sitting on a sofa and the other resting on the floor . The model on the sofa is Joanna Heffernan , the artist 's mistress . By calling the painting Symphony in White , No. 3 , Whistler intended to emphasise his artistic philosophy of corresponding arts , inspired by the poet Charles Baudelaire . The presence of a fan on the floor shows the influence of Japonisme , which was a popular artistic trend in European art at the time . Whistler was also greatly influenced by his colleague and friend Albert Joseph Moore , and their works show considerable similarities .

Though Whistler started on the painting in 1865 , he was not ready to exhibit it publicly until 1867 , when it went on display at the Royal Academy . His colleagues were impressed by the painting , but not all critics fully understood the connection between the painting and its title . One review in particular questioned the presence of other colours in addition to white , a criticism which prompted Whistler to respond with a scathing and sarcastic letter . Years later , Whistler 's former student Walter Sickert criticized the painting as " the low @-@ water mark of the old manner , before the birth of the new . "

= = Background = =

James Abbott McNeill Whistler was born in the United States in 1834 , the son of George Washington Whistler , a railway engineer . In 1843 , his father relocated the family to Saint Petersburg , Russia , where James received training in painting . After a stay in England , he returned to America to attend the US Military Academy at West Point in 1851 . In 1855 , he made his way back to Europe , determined to dedicate himself to painting . Here he settled in Paris at first , but in 1859 moved to London , where he would spend most of the remainder of his life . There he met Dante Gabriel Rossetti and other members of the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood , who would have a profound influence on Whistler .

It was also in London that Whistler met Joanna Heffernan , the model who would become his lover . By 1865 , Whistler had already used her as a model for other paintings , among these Symphony in White , No. 1 and Symphony in White , No. 2 . Heffernan supposedly had a strong influence over Whistler ; his brother @-@ in @-@ law Francis Seymour Haden refused a dinner invitation in the winter of 1863 – 64 due to her dominant presence in the household . In January 1864 , Whistler 's mother Anna – later depicted in the painting Arrangement in Grey and Black – arrived to stay with her son in London . As a result , Heffernan had to move out of the apartment , and only visited as a model . Still , Heffernan 's presence displeased Whistler 's mother , and his relationship with both women became strained .

= = Creation and reception = =

Whistler started on Symphony in White , No. 3 perhaps as early as July 1865 . It was the last of his paintings for which Heffernan was a model . He used Milly Jones , the wife of an actor friend , as the second model for the painting . By the middle of August , he had a complete sketch ready , and he continued work on the painting into September . Whistler kept reworking it , however , and it was not until 1867 that he considered it finished . He painted over the final " 5 " in the date , and replaced it with a " 7 " , to mark the changes it had undergone . In March 1867 , William Michael Rossetti wrote of seeing the painting in Whistler 's studio , and mentioned that it was previously called The Two Little White Girls . It then went on display at the Royal Academy .

The work was greatly admired by Whistler 's colleagues , including Henri Fantin @-@ Latour , Alfred Stevens , James Tissot and Edgar Degas . For Degas , the painting served as an inspiration for his own portrait of Eugénie Fiocre in the ballet La Source . Some critics , however , were confused by the title . Philip Hamerton , writing for the Saturday Review on 1 June 1867 , remarked :

In the " Symphony in White No . III . " by Mr. Whistler there are many dainty varieties of tint , but it is not precisely a symphony in white . One lady has a yellowish dress and brown hair and a bit of blue ribbon , the other has a red fan , and there are flowers and green leaves . There is a girl in white on a white sofa , but even this girl has reddish hair ; and of course there is the flesh colour of the complexions .

Whistler was always belligerent in his response to critics . He wrote a letter to the editor that the newspaper would not print , but was later reprinted by Whistler himself in his book The Gentle Art of Making Enemies :

How pleasing that such profound prattle should inevitably find its place in print ! ... Bon Dieu ! did this wise person expect white hair and chalked faces ? And does he then , in his astounding consequence , believe that a symphony in F contains no other note , but shall be a continued repetition of F , F , F ? . . . Fool !

The painting was originally bought by the wealthy art collector Louis Huth , who later also commissioned Whistler to paint a portrait of his wife . It is currently in the ownership of the Barber Institute of Fine Arts , in Birmingham , England .

= = Composition and interpretation = =

Symphony in White , No. 3 shows Heffernan reclining on a sofa with her head rested on her hand , while Jones is seated on the floor , leaning against the sofa . There is a fan on the floor , and a plant bearing white flowers on the right . The fan is an oriental element , and an expression of the artistic trend known as Japonisme which was then prevalent in European art . At the time , Whistler was greatly influenced by his friend and colleague Albert Joseph Moore . The painting bears close resemblances to Moore 's roughly contemporary painting A Musician , though at the time the two were working so closely together that it is hard to ascertain exactly who influenced whom .

The painter Walter Sickert – a student of Whistler – later described the painting in unflattering terms . In December 1908 , five years after Whistler 's death , he wrote in the Fortnightly Review :

In ' Symphony in White , No. 3 , ' we get the culbute . A bad picture , lâchons le mot , badly composed , badly drawn , badly painted , the low @-@ water mark of the old manner , before the birth of the new . Folds of drapery are expressed by ribbons of paint in the direction of the folds themselves , with hard edges to them . Only painters can quite understand the depth of technical infamy confessed in this last description . It means that the drapery is no longer painted , but intended .

To Whistler himself , however , the painting was not old @-@ fashioned , but rather an expression of something new and innovative . By naming it Symphony in White , No. 3 , Whistler highlighted his emphasis on composition , rather than subject matter . The use of a musical title was also an expression of the theory of corresponding arts , which was an idea developed by the French poet Charles Baudelaire . These tendencies became more and more dominant in Whistler 's art over time . His two earlier paintings Symphony in White , No. 1 and Symphony in White , No. 2 had originally been titled The White Girl and The Little White Girl respectively , and later been renamed by the artist . Whistler had originally intended to call this work Two Little White Girls , but the development of his artistic philosophy made him change his mind , and from the time of its first exhibition it has been called by its musical title .

= 2 Become 1 =

" 2 Become 1 " is a song by the English girl group the Spice Girls . Written by the group members , Matt Rowe and Richard Stannard during the group 's first professional songwriting session , it was produced by Rowe and Stannard for the group 's debut album Spice ( 1996 ) . It was inspired by the special relationship that was developing between Geri Halliwell and Rowe during the writing session .

" 2 Become 1 " is a Pop , Pop rock , Soft rock , Easy listening , and Romance ( music ) song that features instrumentation from a guitar , an electronic keyboard , and string instruments . The lyrics focus on the bonding of two lovers , and also address the importance of contraception . Its Big TV ! -directed music video , which features the group performing against time @-@ lapse footage of Times Square in New York City , was completely shot against a green screen at a studio in London . The backdrop was later superimposed .

Released as the group 's third single on 16 December 1996 , it was generally well received by music critics and was a commercial success . It topped the UK Singles Chart for three weeks , becoming the group 's third consecutive chart @-@ topper , their second million @-@ selling single , and their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom . In July 1997 , the song was released in the United States , peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and receiving a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It performed similarly internationally , peaking inside the top ten on the majority of the charts that it entered .

= = Background = =

In December 1994 , the Spice Girls persuaded their former managers — father @-@ and @-@ son team Bob and Chris Herbert — to set up a showcase in front of industry writers , producers and A & R men at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd 's Bush , London . Producer Richard Stannard was originally at the studio to meet pop star Jason Donovan , but he ended up in the showcase after hearing Melanie Brown , as she went charging across the corridor . Stannard recalls :

More than anything , they just made me laugh . I couldn 't believe I 'd walked into this situation . You didn 't care if they were in time with the dance steps or whether one was overweight or one wasn 't as good as the others . It was something more . It just made you feel happy . Like great pop records .

Stannard stayed after everyone had left the showcase to talk to the group , he then reported back to his songwriter partner Matt Rowe , that he had found the pop group of their dreams . In January 1995 , Chris Herbert booked the group 's first professional songwriting session with the producers at the Strongroom in Curtain Road , East London . Rowe remember feeling similarly to Stannard when he first met the group , " I love them . Immediately . [ ... ] They were like no one I 'd met before , really . " The session was productive as the duo seemed to get along with the group , together they discussed about the songwriting process and what they wanted to do with the record . In her autobiography , Brown recalled that the duo instinctively understood their point of view and knew how to incorporate " the spirit of five loud girls into great pop music " .

= = Writing and inspiration = =

" 2 Become 1 " was co @-@ written by the Spice Girls along with partners Richard Stannard and Matthew Rowe . Stannard and Rowe also co @-@ produced the track . After writing more uptempo dance @-@ based songs , such as " Wannabe " , the group and the two producers decided to write a slow ballad . But as the group were writing the song , they realised that it was a bit too slushy , so it was decided to address the importance of contraception with the lyrics : " Be a little bit wiser baby . Put it on , put it on " .

The song was inspired by the special relationship that was developing between Geri Halliwell and Rowe . Brown hinted at this development in her autobiography commenting : " When he [ Rowe ] and Geri started making eyes at each other I knew what was going on , even though they denied it . I knew them both too well for it to be a secret for me . " Stannard commented about the fondness between Halliwell and Rowe : " I don 't want to get into the side of things . They were very close . They clicked . And I think the lyrics in " 2 Become 1 " came from that , especially the first verse , which they wrote together . "

= = = Spanish version = = =

The group recorded a Spanish version of the song , written by them , Rowe , Stannard , and N. Maño . The title was " 2 Become 1 " ( Spanish Version ) , although the title is loosely translated in one line of the song , " Seremos Uno Los Dos " . It was released as the eleventh track of their debut album Spice , in Latin America , South Africa , in a special re @-@ edition of the album in Spain , and as one of the tracks of the " 2 Become 1 " maxi @-@ single in the US . A Spanglish edit that traded verses between the English and Spanish versions was created by DJ Mike Rizzo and production director Bill Schultz for New York @-@ based radio WKTU .

= = Composition = =

" 2 Become 1 " is a pop ballad , written in the key of F ♯ major ; it is set in the time signature of common time and moves at a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute . The song is constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , and its instrumentation comes from a guitar , an electronic keyboard , and string instruments . The song opens with an instrumental introduction , with a chord progression of E ♭ m add9 – D ♭ / F – G ♭ – A ♭ m7 sus4 , that is also used during the first part of the verses . The last two lines of each verse changes the progression to C ♭ – B ♭ m7 – A ♭ m7 – D ♭ 11 , and changes again during each chorus to G ♭ – D ♭ – C ♭ – D ♭ . It closes with a string outro that uses the chord progression F ♭ – G ♭ – B ♭ ♭ – C ♭ , which is arranged by Scottish composer Craig Armstrong .

In 1995 the Spice Girls recorded the demo version of 2 Become 1 . The first three verses sang by Chisholm , Beckham and Bunton respectively . The second three verses were sung by Chisholm , Halliwell and Bunton respectively . The final verse sang by Bunton and the bridges sang by Brown . In the final versions of the song Brown sang the second verse instead of Beckham for unknown reasons . The first and third lines of the chorus are sung by Bunton and Halliwell together and the second and fourth lines are sung by Chisholm and Beckham . After Halliwell 's departure in 1998 , Beckham replaced Halliwell singing the first and third lines of the chorus along with Bunton , while Brown replaced Beckham singing the second and fourth lines of the chorus along with Chisholm .

The lyrics focus on how the bonding of two lovers can become so strong that they practically become one entity , through the act of sexual intercourse . Apart from the sexual connotations , there is an aspirational undercurrent to the lyrics , and like many of their subsequent songs , desire is explicitly linked to ambition – " Free your mind of doubt and danger / Be for real don 't be a stranger / We can achieve it / We can achieve it " .

Two different versions of the song , each with different lyrics , were recorded : in the album version , the second line of the second verse , " Any deal that we endeavor / Boys and girls go good together " , was changed in the single version to : " Once again if we endeavour / Love will bring us back together " . Victoria Beckham sings on the single version , while Halliwell sings on the album version , after Halliwell confessed that she had a hard time singing on that particular key . The single version appears in the music video , and on stage the girls always performed the single version before and after Halliwell 's departure .

= = Release = =

" 2 Become 1 " was released in the United Kingdom on 16 December 1996 , in three single versions . The first one , a maxi single that included the single version of the track , an orchestral take , the Junior Vasquez remix of " Wannabe " , and " One of These Girls " , a song written by the group with Paul Wilson and Andy Watkins — the songwriters and production duo known as Absolute . The second version was the special Christmas pack , a standard CD single in a cardboard case that included a signed postcard with a Christmas message from the group . This version contained the single version , the Dave Way remix , and their own version of Leroy Anderson 's " Sleigh Ride " . The third version was a two @-@ track cassette single , featuring the single version and the orchestral take of the song . The same track listing was also used for the release of the European CD single .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

The song was generally well received by music critics . In a review of the group 's debut album Spice , Dev Sherlock of Yahoo ! Music Radio called it a " glossy ballad that would do Mariah Carey proud " . Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly said that the song is " too slow , and the lyrics appear to have been written by a safe @-@ sex @-@ loving unicorn " , adding that " it 's almost impossible to identify the individual Spice Girls by their voices here , so airbrushed are the proceedings " . Larry Flick of Billboard magazine said that " they are surprisingly adept at weaving warm and romantic imagery over a sweet melody " adding that " [ Everyone ] will delight in the track 's arrangement of soft harmonies and delicate acoustic guitar riffs " . Time magazine 's Christopher John Farley called it a " slumberous ballad [ ... ] [ that ] seem [ s ] designed to amuse , titillate , ingratiate " .

Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called the song a " perfect adult contemporary confection " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that their first album " is a compendium of slick secondhand urban pop encompassing [ ... ] G @-@ funk synths on ' Say You 'll Be There ' [ ... ] and Babyface 's guitar and strings balladry on ' 2 Become 1 ' " . In a review of the group 's 2007 compilation album Greatest Hits , Talia Kraines of BBC Music called it " shimmering " adding that " only a cold heart could fail to love their first festive # 1 " . Digital Spy 's Nick Levine said that the group 's slower songs were " probably their strongest suit " , and thought that " ' 2 Become 1 ' manages to combine every element of the perfect Christmas ballad – a touch of elegance , a hint of romance , a soupcon of sexiness and a generous sprinkling of sparkle – and still finds time for a coy safe sex message " .

= = = Chart performance = = =

" 2 Become 1 " was originally going to be released in the UK on 9 December 1996 , but the release date was delayed to let Dunblane 's " Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door " — a tribute to the children killed at the Dunblane Primary School in Scotland — to stay at the top of the UK Singles Chart . The single was released the next week , debuting at the top , becoming the group 's third chart @-@ topper and their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the UK . It sold 209 @,@ 000 copies in the first three days of release and 430 @,@ 000 in the first week , becoming the tenth best @-@ selling single of the year . " 2 Become 1 " sold 1 @.@ 12 million copies in total , giving the Spice Girls their second and final million @-@ selling single in the UK .

In Ireland , " 2 Become 1 " was the group 's second number @-@ one single , and their first to debut at the top of the Irish Singles Chart . It stayed at the top position for six weeks , and became their first Christmas number @-@ one single in the country . " 2 Become 1 " peaked at No. 3 on the Eurochart Hot 100 , and performed similarly across the rest of Europe , topping the singles chart in Spain , peaking inside the top ten in Austria , Denmark , Finland , France , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland , and inside the top fifteen in Belgium and Germany . It was also commercially successful in Australia and New Zealand , peaking inside the top three on both countries .

In July 1997 , " 2 Become 1 " debuted on the Canadian RPM singles chart at No. 87 , peaked at No. 3 on its fifth week , and ended at No. 25 on the year @-@ end chart . On the Adult Contemporary chart it peaked at No. 4 , and ended at No. 27 on the year @-@ end chart . In the United States , the song debuted on 16 August 1997 at No. 6 , reaching a peak of No. 4 in its fourth week , becoming the group 's third consecutive top five in the country . The song peaked at No. 6 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart and at No. 8 on the Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , selling 700 @,@ 000 copies as of December 1997 . It peaked at four on the Mainstream Top 40 , and had crossover success , peaking at four on the Rhythmic Top 40 and at eight on the Adult Contemporary chart .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " 2 Become 1 " was directed on 22 November 1996 by Big TV ! , in a two @-@ day shoot located at a studio in Old Compton Street , London . Cinematographer Stephen Keith @-@ Roach — who worked in other music videos such as Jamiroquai 's " Virtual Insanity " and U2 's " Discotheque " — was in charge of the photography . The shoot involved the group dressed in winter coats , wandering around the studio against a green screen , interspersed with close @-@ up camera angles , so that the backdrop could be superimposed later . To achieve the effect of the wind blowing slowly through their hairs , the group was required to lip @-@ synch the song in double time while wind machines were on them .

The music video features the group in Times Square in New York City with fast moving cars appearing around multi @-@ coloured lights , appearing in various places around the city , either alone , with one other member , or as a quintet . The video is intercut with scenes of lovers experiencing moments of togetherness and closes with a deer wandering the streets . Such a scene , according to the group 's first official book Girl Power ! , gave them a running gag all throughout the shoot — " Whenever anyone made a mistake it was , ' Oh , deer ' . " Sometimes , the closing scene would not be shown on television , due to the song fading out to an instrumental , which lasts for 40 seconds .

In the same book , Victoria Beckham wrote about the shoot : " I think ' 2 Become 1 ' is my favorite video . [ ... ] It was really different to the other videos – shot entirely in the studio , with high technology and loads of effects . It was really weird having to sing passionately into the camera , I was feeling a right mug in front of all those people singing ' wanna make love to ya baby ' . "

= = Live performances = =

The song was performed many times on television , including the Bravo Supershow , GMTV , Live & Kicking , Noel 's House Party , and Top of the Pops . In October 1997 , the group performed " 2 Become 1 " as the eighth song of their first live concert at the Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . The performance was broadcast on Showtime in a pay @-@ per @-@ view event titled Spice Girls In Concert Wild ! , and was later included in the VHS and DVD release Girl Power ! Live in Istanbul . In December 2007 , the group performed the song on the finale of the fifth season of the British television show Strictly Come Dancing . They wore floor @-@ length gowns and used microphones covered in glitter , while professional dancers did a choreography in front of them .

The Spice Girls have performed the song on their three tours , the Spiceworld Tour , the Christmas In Spiceworld Tour , and the Return of the Spice Girls . The performance at the Spiceworld Tour 's final concert can be found on the video : Spice Girls Live at Wembley Stadium , filmed in London , on 20 September 1998 . For the Return of the Spice Girls Tour , the group performed it during the second segment of the show . After the " Too Much " performance , each of the girls emerged from a cocoon of oversized swan wings and danced around a set of barber ’ s poles while singing the song .

= = Cover versions = =

" 2 Become 1 " has been covered both in albums and live performances . In 1998 , The Countdown Singers recorded a sound @-@ alike version of the song for their album Today 's Love Songs . Lester Bowie 's Brass Fantasy did an instrumental jazz cover for the 1999 album The Odyssey Of Funk & Popular Music . American guitarist Paul Gilbert covered the song for his fourth album Alligator Farm . Wildside recorded a dance remake for the 1997 album Mega Hits Dance Party , Vol . 1 , and was later included on the 2005 album Let 's Hear It for the 90 's , Vol . 1 . Filipino bossa nova singer , Sitti Navarro , recorded a cover of the song for her second album My Bossa Nova . During her solo career , Emma Bunton has performed live covers of the song on television programmes such as CD : UK and Popworld , and it was also included as part of her setlist for the Pepsi Silver Clef Concert . She performed the song as a duet twice with her former band mate Melanie C on November 9 , 2013 as part of the Oxford Street Lights Switch On and on January 11 , 2014 for Sporty 's Forty at 02 Shepherd 's Bush Empire .

= = Formats and track listings = =

These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " 2 Become 1 " :

= = Credits and personnel = =

Published by Windswept Pacific Music Ltd . / PolyGram Music Publishing Ltd .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= Crimes Act of 1790 =

The Crimes Act of 1790 ( or the Federal Criminal Code of 1790 ) , formally titled An Act for the Punishment of Certain Crimes Against the United States , defined some of the first federal crimes in the United States and expanded on the criminal procedure provisions of the Judiciary Act of 1789 . The Crimes Act was a " comprehensive statute defining an impressive variety of federal crimes . "

As an enactment of the First Congress , the Crimes Act is often regarded as a quasi @-@ constitutional text . The punishment of treason , piracy , counterfeiting , as well as crimes committed on the high seas or against the law of nations , followed from relatively explicit constitutional authority . The creation of crimes within areas under exclusive federal jurisdiction followed from the plenary power of Congress over the " Seat of the Government , " federal enclaves , and federal territories . The creation of crimes involving the integrity of the judicial process derived from Congress 's authority to establish such courts .

The Crimes Act also established a statute of limitations for federal crimes , provided for criminal venue , ensured procedural protections for treason and capital defendants , simplified the pleading requirements for perjury , and broadened the constitutional protection against " corruption of blood . " Further , the act provided for punitive dissection of murderers and codified diplomatic immunity .

= = Background = =

Even after the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789 , " the definition of crimes and the establishment of punishments " remained a " missing link of the criminal system . " The Judiciary Act of 1789 divided original jurisdiction for the trial of federal crimes between the district courts and the circuit courts . The district courts were given jurisdiction over all federal crimes " where no other punishment than whipping , not exceeding thirty stripes , a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars , or a term of imprisonment not exceeding six months , is to be inflicted . " The circuit courts were given concurrent jurisdiction over these crimes , and exclusive jurisdiction over all other federal crimes . The circuit courts also exercised appellate jurisdiction over the district courts , but only in civil cases .

The Judiciary Act of 1789 also placed the responsibility for prosecuting federal crimes in the United States Attorney for each federal judicial district . The Act provided that " there shall be appointed in each district " a " person learned in the law to act as attorney for the United States in such district , who shall be sworn or affirmed to the faithful execution of his office , whose duty it shall be to prosecute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences , cognizable under the authority of the United States . "

Prior to the Crimes Act , Congress had passed very few federal crimes . Among Congress 's earlier criminal statutes were :

The renewal of the Northwest Ordinance , which authorized the executive to adopt state law within the Northwest Territory ; and

A prohibition on unloading ships in the dark or without a license , as well as customs bribery and false statements ; and

A prohibition on census takers failing to report their findings .

= = Drafting = =

The Senate passed an act to define a variety of federal crimes on August 31 , 1789 , but the House did not act on that bill .

Like the Judiciary Act of 1789 and the Process Act of 1789 , the Crimes Act was primarily authored by Senator ( and future Chief Justice ) Oliver Ellsworth as the chair of the Senate committee . The committee examined the state criminal laws of Massachusetts , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Virginia , and South Carolina at the beginning of the drafting process . The Crimes Act generated " little reported debate " on the floor of Congress . The act was passed on April 30 , 1790 .

= = Crimes established = =

Due to the seriousness of the authorized sentences , under the Judiciary Act of 1789 , original jurisdiction for the trial of all of the crimes created by the Crimes Act would have rested with the circuit courts ; none of the crimes created could have been tried in the district courts .

= = = Treason = = =

Article Three provides that : " Treason against the United States , shall consist only in levying War against them , or in adhering to their Enemies , giving them Aid and Comfort . No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act , or on Confession in open Court . The Congress shall have power to declare the Punishment of Treason , but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood , or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted . "

As to misprision of treason , according to David P. Currie , because " [ t ] he Constitution said nothing of this offense , " " the legislators must have interpreted the narrow definition of treason in Article III not to preclude it from creating lesser related offenses that might otherwise fall within federal purview — although nothing in the misprision provision suggested that Congress had yet considered the possible impact of the Treason Clause on its efforts to punish seditious expression . "

= = = Piracy and the high seas = = =

Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas . " Five sections in the Crimes Act " were devoted to the subject . " Currie notes that the various piracy offenses " take an exceedingly broad view of what constituted piracy , " but that " [ f ] rom a constitutional standpoint no harm was done , since all of the acts punished were felonious and Congress 's power extended to all felonies on the high seas . "

" The principal provisions with respect to piracy were incorporated in section 8 . " Section 8 applied not only to the " high Seas , " but also to " any river , haven , basin , or bay , out of the jurisdiction of any particular State . " Currie notes a variety of constitutional theories which Congress might have espoused in order to justify this provision : " Whether Congress thought authority over such places included within the ostensibly narrower term ' high Seas , " necessary and proper to the regulation of commerce or to the exercise of admiralty jurisdiction , or implicit in a central government responsible for external affairs is not clear . "

Currie also argues that the phrase " offence , which , if committed within the body of a county , would , by laws of the United States , be punishable with death " is vague . He suggests that it could refer to any federal law , to any state or federal law , or only to federal laws applicable to places under exclusive federal jurisdiction .

= = = Counterfeiting = = =

Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States . " Currie argues that section 14 's somewhat broad reading of the word " Securities " is fair enough . Currie suggests that " [ n ] othing was said of counterfeiting coins " because the United States Mint had not yet been established .

Some members of the House , including Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts , spoke against the prescribing death penalty for counterfeiting , viewing it as too harsh .

= = = Crimes against the law of nations = = =

Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o define and punish . . . Offenses against the Law of Nations . " According to Currie : " No reliance on inherent on implied powers over foreign affairs was necessary to justify " sections 26 and 28 as each " plausibly described " offenses against the law of nations . Congress had also created a civil offense against the law of nations in the Alien Tort Statute of the Judiciary Act of 1789 .

= = = Exclusive federal jurisdiction = = =

Several offenses were limited to acts committed in places " under the sole and exclusive jurisdiction of the United States . " Such regulations would have applied in the " Seat of the Government , " federal enclaves , and federal territories .

Article One provides that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever , over such District ( not exceeding ten Miles square ) as may , by Cession of particular States , and the acceptance of Congress , become the Seat of the Government of the United States , and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be , for the Erection of Forts , Magazines , Arsenals , dock @-@ Yards , and other needful Buildings . " And Article Four provides that " Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory . . . . "

With reference to the " arms , ordnance , munition , shot , powder , or habiliments of war belonging to the United States " provision of section 16 , Currie argues that it could have been justified under Congress 's Article One power to " raise and support armies " or Congress 's Article Four power to make needful rules respecting " property belonging to the United States . "

In United States v. Bevans ( 1818 ) , although the defendant had only been charged under § 8 of the Crimes Act , Chief Justice Marshall proceeded to consider whether the offense would have been cognizable under § 3 . Following the canon of noscitur a sociis , Marshall interpreted the jurisdictional phrase " any fort , arsenal , dockyard , magazine , or in any other place , or district of country " to be limited to places that are " fixed and territorial " ( i.e. not to include a navy vessel ) .

Crimes against persons

Crimes against property

Misprision

= = = Integrity of the judicial process = = =

The constitutional authorization of these crimes was less explicit , but Article One does provide that Congress shall have the power " [ t ] o constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court . " According to Currie :

This is the point at which explicit constitutional authority for the creation of federal crimes runs out . But the statute went on to define additional crimes : theft or falsification of court records , perjury , bribery of federal judges , interference with judicial process , and liberation of federal prisoners . All of these were plainly necessary and proper to the operation of the federal courts ; Marshall was to cite the perjury section as precedent for the existence of implicit powers in M 'Culloch v. Maryland .

According to Stacy and Dayton , these provision are " compelling evidence that the founders did not intend the national role in criminal law to be limited to crimes expressly mentioned in the Constitution . "

= = Criminal procedure = =

= = = Statute of limitations = = =

Section 32 provided for the following statutes of limitations : no statute of limitations for wilfull murder or forgery ; no statute of limitations for fugitives from justice ; three ( 3 ) years for capital offenses ( other than wilfull murder and forgery ) ; two ( 2 ) years for non @-@ capital offenses . In United States v. Cook ( 1872 ) , the Court held that indictments need not plead facts establishing that these limitations periods have not run .

= = = Venue = = =

Section 8 provided that " the trial of crimes committed on the high seas , or in any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular State , shall be in the district where the offender is apprehended , or into which he may first be brought . " Thus , section 8 was an exercise of Congress 's authority under Article Three to define criminal venue for all crimes " not committed within any State . " But , the Supreme Court did not interpret section 8 as exercising the full extent of Congress 's authority under Article Three . In Ex parte Bollman ( 1807 ) , the Court held that the statutory term " any place out of the jurisdiction of any particular state " applied only to " any river , haven , bason or bay , not within the jurisdiction of any particular state , " and only in " those cases there is no court which has particular cognizance of the crime . "

= = = Treason and capital cases = = =

The Crimes Act prescribed death as the exclusive punishment for the crimes of treason , counterfeiting , wilfull murder , and aiding the escape of a death row prisoner , as well as piracy , murder , and robbery on the high seas . Section 29 provided treason and capital defendants a right to a copy of the indictment , a list of the jury ( and , in treason cases , witnesses ) , appointed counsel , and compulsory process :

[ A ] ny person who shall be accused and indicted of treason , shall have a copy of the indictment , and a list of the jury and witnesses , to be produced on the trial for proving the said indictment , mentioning the names and places of abode of such witnesses and jurors , delivered unto him at least three entire days before he shall be tried for the same ; and in other capital offences , shall have such copy of the indictment and list of the jury two entire days at least before the trial : And that every person so accused and indicted for any of the crimes aforesaid , shall also be allowed and admitted to make his full defence by counsel learned in the law ; and the court before whom such person shall be tried , or some judge thereof , shall , and they are hereby authorized and required immediately upon his request to assign to such person such counsel , not exceeding two , as such person shall desire , to whom such counsel shall have free at all reasonable hours ; and every such person or persons accused or indicted of the crimes aforesaid , shall be allowed and admitted in his said defence to make any proof that he or they can produce , by lawful witness or witnesses , and shall have the like process of the court where he or they shall be tried , to compel his or their witnesses to appear at his or their trial , as is usually granted to compel witnesses to appear on the prosecution against them .

Most of the provisions of section 29 are plainly similar to those of the Sixth Amendment , namely the Information Clause , the Assistance of Counsel Clause , and the Compulsory Process Clause . The Sixth Amendment ( and the remainder of the Bill of Rights ) had not yet been ratified at the time of the Crimes Act 's passage .

Section 30 provided treason and capital defendants with peremptory challenges and provided for a plea of not guilty in the case that the defendant refused to enter a plea :

if any person or persons be indicted of treason against the United States , and shall stand mute or refuse to plead , or shall challenge peremptorily above the number of thirty @-@ five of the jury ; or if any person or persons be indicted of other of the offences herein for which the punishment is declared to be death , if he or they shall also stand mute or will not answer to the indictment , or challenge peremptorily above the number of twenty persons of the jury ; the court , in any of the cases aforesaid , shall notwithstanding proceed to the trial of the person or persons so standing mute or challenging , as if he or they had pleaded not guilty , and render judgment thereon accordingly .

In United States v. Shackleford ( 1855 ) , the Court held that the section 30 's allocation of peremptory challenges controlled , rather than an 1840 statute that required federal jury selection to generally follow state law ( and , thus , the prosecutor was given no peremptory challenges in such cases ) . Ten years later , Congress abrogated Shackleford , granting prosecutors five peremptory challenges in treason and capital cases ( and two in non @-@ capital felony cases ) ; the 1865 act left the defendant 's number of peremptory challenges unchanged .

Section 31 eliminated the benefit of clergy for capital crimes . Section 33 designated the means of execution as " hanging . . . by the neck until dead . "

= = = Perjury indictments = = =

Section 19 , applicable to perjury prosecutions under section 18 , provided that

in every presentment or indictment to be prosecuted against any person for wilful and corrupt perjury , it shall be sufficient to set forth the substance of the offence charged upon the defendant , and by what court , or before whom the oath or affirmation was taken , ( averring such court , or person or persons to have a competent authority to administer the same ) together with the proper averment or averments to falsify the matter or matters wherein the perjury or perjuries is or are assigned ; without setting forth the bill , answer , information , indictment , declaration , or any part of any record or proceeding , either in law or equity , other than as aforesaid , and without setting forth the commission or authority of the court , or person or persons before whom the perjury was committed .

and section 20 provided that

in every presentment or indictment for subornation of perjury , or for corrupt bargaining or contracting with others to commit wilful and corrupt perjury , it shall be sufficient to set forth the substance of the offence charged upon the defendant , without setting forth the bill , answer , information , indictment , declaration , or any part of any record or proceeding , either in law or equity , and without setting forth the commmsion or authority of the court , or person or persons before whom the perjttry was committed , or was agreed or promised to be committed .

= = = Sentencing = = =

Section 24 provided that " no conviction or judgment of any of the offences aforesaid , shall work corruption of blood , or any forfeiture of estate . " This generalized the guarantee of Article Three that " no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood , or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted . "

The Crimes Act made no provision for the creation of federal prisons . Instead , a September 21 , 1789 concurrent resolution asked the state legislatures to authorize their prisons to imprison federal prisoners . The first federal prison was not opened until 1894 at Fort Leavenworth .

= = Other provisions = =

= = = Dissection = = =

Section 4 authorized a court to order the post @-@ execution dissection of the corpse of convicted murderers . According to David P. Currie , this was the " most controversial provision of the entire statute . " Dissection @-@ as @-@ punishment had its roots in a 1789 New York statute and a 1752 English law . Rep. Michael J. Stone of Maryland argued against the inclusion of this provision as cruel . Currie argues that Congress was on a firm constitutional footing in enacting this provision in relation to murders committed in areas under exclusive federal jurisdiction , but perhaps less so for murders committed on the high seas .

= = = Diplomatic immunity = = =

Section 25 provided :

[ I ] f any writ or process shall at any time hereafter be sued forth or prosecuted by any person or persons , in any of the courts of the United States , or in any of the courts of a particular state , or by any judge or justice therein respectively , whereby the person of any ambassador or other public minister of any foreign prince or state , authorized and received as such by the President of the United States , or any domestic or domestic servant of any much ambassador or other public minister , may be arrested or imprisoned , or his or their goods or chattels be distrained , seized or attached , such writ or process shall be deemed and adjudged to be utterly null and void to all intents , construction and purposes whatsoever .

Section 27 provided a limited exception for private debts contracted by ambassadors prior to the passage of the act .

= = Prosecutions = =

Between 1790 and 1797 , only 147 criminal cases were brought in the circuit courts , and more than half of those cases were brought in the Pennsylvania circuit court concerning the Whiskey Rebellion . And , between 1790 and 1801 , only 426 criminal cases were brought in all federal courts ( the district courts and the circuit courts combined ) .

= = Amendments and repeals = =

Section 1 was supplemented by an omnibus treason law during the Civil War , which , inter alia , provided for punishments other than death and additional lesser offenses . The offense of treason , and the punishment thereof , were codified in consecutive sections of the Revised Statutes . Both were repealed and replaced by the Criminal Code of 1909 . During the 1948 re @-@ codification of the Criminal Code , the treason offense was amended and moved to 18 U.S.C. § 2381 , where it remains . It was amended in 1994 .

Section 2 was codified in the Revised Statutes , and re @-@ codified by the Criminal Code of 1909 , and the 1948 re @-@ codification . It was amended in 1994 .

Section 3 was amended by § 4 of the Crimes Act of 1825 and codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 4 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 5 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 6 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 7 was amended in 1857 and 1875 and codified in the Revised States .

Section 8 was amended in 1820 , 1835 , and 1846 and codified in five sections of the Revised Statutes . Further , § 8 was supplemented by additional prohibitions in § 5 of an 1819 act and § 3 of an 1820 act . Despite the similarity of the provisions , all three were all separately codified in the Revised Statutes in 1874 . Section 8 was repealed by the Criminal Code of 1909 . Section 8 's venue provision was re @-@ enacted by § 14 of the Crimes Act of 1825 , with minor changes .

Section 9 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 10 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 11 was codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .

Section 12 was amended in 1835 and codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .

Section 13 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 14 was repealed by § 17 of the Crimes Act of 1825 , which broadened the offense of counterfeiting and reduced authorized the punishment from death to 10 years hard labor and a $ 5000 fine . Sections 18 through 21 of the 1825 Act created additional counterfeiting offenses .

Section 15 was amended in 1874 and codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 16 was amended in 1842 and codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 17 was amended by § 8 of the Crimes Act of 1825 and codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 18 was amended by § 13 of the Crimes Act of 1825 — which defined the term " perjury " and increased the authorized punishment to 5 years hard labor and a $ 3000 fine — and further amended in 1874 and 1876 . Perjury and subornation were separately codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 19 was codified in three sections of the Revised Statutes .

Section 21 was codified in two sections of the Revised Statutes .

Section 22 was amended in 1866 and codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 23 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 24 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Sections 25 through 29 were not codified in Title LXX of the Revised Statutes .

Section 30 , with regard to peremptory challenges , was re @-@ enacted and supplemented in 1865 . Section 30 , with regard to a defendant 's failure to enter a plea , was extended from capital to all crimes by § 14 of the Crimes Act of 1825 .

Section 31 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

Section 33 was codified in the Revised Statutes .

= = Constitutionality = =

According to Taylor : " Like the Judiciary Act of 1789 , the Process Act of 1789 and the Crimes Act of 1790 , having been passed by the First Congress , are perhaps the statutes most informative of an original understanding of Congress 's constitutional power over the federal judiciary . "

According to Kurland , " for the most part , Congress enacted statutes that closely tracked the specific constitutional grants of federal criminal authority . However , Congress continued to venture slightly , but significantly , into areas outside the specific constitutional grants . " As examples in the later category , Kurland cites the provisions concerning the integrity of the federal criminal process , bribery , misprison of treason , and the revenue provisions .

Currie notes that the Crimes Act " resolved a number of interesting constitutional questions . " For example , with reference to the punishments of " stripes " and disqualification from office , Currie argues that : " These provisions suggest not only that Congress viewed neither of these punishments as cruel and unusual , but also that they did not understand impeachment to be the sole avenue for the future disqualification of current officeholders . " Taylor goes further in arguing the disqualification provision was not merely prospective : " The Crimes Act of 1790 indicates that , beyond its plenary power over federal court jurisdiction and procedure , the First Congress believed it had the constitutional power to make conviction by a court an alternative means of removing a federal judge , outside the impeachment context , and it sheds light on the First Congress 's understanding of its own powers to discipline federal judges . "

Similarly , the Supreme Court and individual justices have cited the Crimes Act 's authorization of the death penalty as evidence that the founders believed it was constitutional .

= Witch trials in early modern Scotland =

Witch trials in early modern Scotland were the judicial proceedings in Scotland between the early sixteenth century and the mid @-@ eighteenth century concerned with crimes of witchcraft . In the late Middle Ages there were a handful of prosecutions for harm done through witchcraft , but the passing of the Witchcraft Act 1563 made witchcraft , or consulting with witches , capital crimes . The first major series of trials under the new act were the North Berwick witch trials , beginning in 1589 , in which James VI played a major part as " victim " and investigator . He became interested in witchcraft and published a defence of witch @-@ hunting in the Daemonologie in 1597 , but he appears to have become increasingly sceptical and eventually took steps to limit prosecutions .

An estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 people , mostly from the Scottish Lowlands , were tried for witchcraft in this period ; a much higher rate than for neighbouring England . There were major series of trials in 1590 – 91 , 1597 , 1628 – 31 , 1649 – 50 and 1661 – 62 . Seventy @-@ five per cent of the accused were women . Modern estimates indicate that over 1 @,@ 500 persons were executed . Most of those executed were strangled and then burnt . The hunts subsided under English occupation after the Civil Wars during the period of the Commonwealth led by Oliver Cromwell . In the 1650s and returned after the Restoration in 1660 , causing some alarm and leading to the Privy Council of Scotland limiting arrests , prosecutions and torture . There was also growing scepticism in the later seventeenth century , while some of the factors that may have contributed to the trials , such as economic distress , subsided . Although there were occasional local outbreaks of witch @-@ hunting , the last recorded executions were in 1706 and the last trial in 1727 . The Scottish and English parliaments merged in 1707 , and the unified British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736 .

Many causes have been suggested for the hunts , including economic distress , changing attitudes to women , the rise of a " godly state " , the inquisitorial Scottish judicial system , the widespread use of judicial torture , the role of the local kirk , decentralised justice and the prevalence of the idea of the diabolic pact . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch @-@ hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .

= = Origins = =

= = = Legal origins = = =

For late Medieval Scotland there is evidence of occasional prosecutions of individuals for causing harm through witchcraft . High @-@ profile political cases included the action against John Stewart , Earl of Mar for allegedly using sorcery against his brother King James III in 1479 . Evidence of these political cases indicates that they were becoming rarer in the first half of the sixteenth century however . Popular belief in magic was widespread in the Middle Ages , but theologians had been generally sceptical , and lawyers only interested in prosecuting cases in which harm from magic was evident . From the late fifteenth century attitudes began to change , and witches were seen as deriving powers from the Devil , with the result that witchcraft was seen as a form of heresy . These ideas were widely accepted by both Catholics and Protestants in the sixteenth century . In the aftermath of the initial Reformation settlement of 1560 , Parliament passed the Witchcraft Act 1563 , one of a series of laws underpinning Biblical laws and similar to that passed in England a year earlier , which made the practice of witchcraft itself , and consulting with witches , capital crimes . The first witch @-@ hunt under the act was in the east of the country in 1568 – 69 in Angus and the Mearns , where there were unsuccessful attempts to introduce elements of the diabolic pact and the hunt collapsed .

= = = Role of James VI = = =

James VI 's visit to Denmark in 1589 , where witch @-@ hunts were already common , may have encouraged an interest in the study of witchcraft , and he came to see the storms he encountered on his voyage as the result of magic . After his return to Scotland , he attended the North Berwick witch trials , the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the 1563 Act and the first known to successfully involve the diabolic pact . Several people , most notably Agnes Sampson and the schoolmaster John Fian , were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James ' ship . James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches . He subsequently believed that a nobleman , Francis Stewart , 5th Earl of Bothwell , was a witch , and after the latter fled in fear of his life , he was outlawed as a traitor . The king subsequently set up royal commissions to hunt down witches in his realm , recommending torture in dealing with suspects . James is known to have personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches . Inspired by his personal involvement , in 1597 he wrote the Daemonologie , a tract that opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare 's Tragedy of Macbeth , which contains probably the most famous literary depiction of Scottish witches . James imported continental explanations of witchcraft . His goal was to divert suspicion away from male homosociality among the elite , and focus fear on female communities and large gatherings of women . He thought they threatened his political power so he laid the foundation for witchcraft and occultism policies , especially in Scotland . The point was that a widespread belief in the conspiracy of witches and a witches ' Sabbath with the devil deprived women of political influence . Occult power was supposedly a womanly trait because women were weaker and more susceptible to the devil . However , after the publication of Daemonologie his views became more sceptical , and in the same year he revoked the standing commissions on witchcraft , limiting prosecutions by the central courts .

= = Nature of the trials = =

Despite the fact that Scotland probably had about one quarter of the population of England , it had three times the number of witchcraft prosecutions , at an estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 over the entire period . This was about four times the European average . The overwhelming majority were in the Lowlands , where the Kirk had more control , despite the evidence that basic magical beliefs were very widespread in the Highlands . Large series of trials included those in 1590 – 91 and the Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1597 , which took place across Scotland from March to October . At least 400 people were put on trial for various forms of diabolism . The exact number of those executed as a result of these trials is unknown , but is believed to be about 200 . Later major trials included hunts in 1628 – 31 and 1649 – 50 . Probably the most intense witch @-@ hunt was in 1661 – 62 , which involved some 664 named witches in four counties .

Most of the accused , some 75 per cent , were women . Modern estimated indicate that over 1 @,@ 500 persons were executed . Most of these were older women , with some younger women and men accused because they were related to an accused witch , usually as daughters and husbands . Some men were accused because they were folk healers , who were felt to have misused their powers , although folk healers as a group were not targeted . Most were not vagrants or beggars , but settled members of their communities . Most had built a reputation for witchcraft over years , which resulted in prosecution when a " victim " suffered ill fortune , particularly after a curse had been issued . The use of curses by some women as a means of acquiring social power may have made this process more likely to occur .

Almost all witchcraft prosecutions took place in secular courts under the provisions of the 1563 Act . In 1649 the religiously radical Covenanter regime passed a new witchcraft act that ratified the existing act and extended it to deal with consulters of " Devils and familiar spirits " , who would now be punished with death . There were three main types of court in which accused witches could be tried . First was the Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh , which took cases from all over Scotland , with a heavy bias to the local region . Next were the circuit courts , presided over by judges from the central courts and held in the various shires of the country . Finally , there were a series of ad hoc local courts , held under commissions by the Privy Council or Parliament and staffed by local landholders and gentlemen to try witches in the places where they were accused . Based on known outcomes , the execution rates for the local courts was much higher than the courts run by professional lawyers , with the local courts executing some 90 per cent of the accused , the Judiciary Court 55 per cent , but the circuit courts only 16 per cent . After the revocation of the standing commissions in 1597 , the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by kirk sessions , disciplinary committees run by the parish elite , and was often used to attack " superstitious " and Catholic practices . The central courts only launched a trial when the Privy Council issued a commission , although the council did not have full control over prosecutions in the Court of Judiciary .

Scottish witchcraft trials were notable for their use of pricking , in which a suspect 's skin was pieced with needles , pins and bodkins as it was believed that they would possess a Devil 's mark through which they could not feel pain . Professional prickers included John Kincaid and John Dick , whose actions helped set off the outbreak of witch @-@ hunting in 1661 – 62 , and whose exposure as frauds , and subsequent imprisonment , helped end the trials . Judicial torture was used in some high @-@ profile cases , like that of John Fine , one of the witches accused of plotting the death of the king in 1590 , whose feet were crushed in a shin press , known as the boots . However , these cases were relatively rare . Confessions , considered the best evidence for conviction , were more usually extracted by " waking " the witch , keeping the suspect sleep deprived . After about three days individuals tend to hallucinate , and this provided some exotic detail in witchcraft trials . In Scotland , convicted witches were usually strangled at the stake before having their bodies burned , although there are instances where they were burned alive .

= = Witch beliefs = =

The belief that witches could cure and cause harm was common among all social groups in early modern Scotland . In 1701 in Anstruther , Elizabeth Dick had been turned away from the local mill when begging . She cursed the mill and several witnesses testified that the grain in the mill turned red . Only when one of the people who had refused her help ran after her and gave her alms did she bless the mill and everything returned to normal . About half of accused witches had already gained a reputation for causing harm over a long period of time . The fact that only four per cent of recorded accused witches were involved in folk healing seems to indicate that healing was not seen as a major element of witchcraft . The Aberdeenshire trials of 1596 reveal that spells could be purchased from witches for success at fishing , to ensure a happy marriage , to prolong life and to affect the weather . Many accusations included gender and sexual fears . Margaret Bain , a midwife , it was claimed , could transfer the pains of childbirth to a woman 's husband and Helen Gray cast a spell on a man that gave him a permanent erection . Witches could also carry out divinations . These included by reading the marks on the shoulder blade of a slaughtered animal , measuring a person 's sleeve or waist to see if they were suffering from a fever , or being able to find answers based on which way a sieve suspended from scissors or shears swung , as Margaret Mungo was accused of doing before the kirk session of Dingwall in 1649 .

It has often been stated that Scottish witchcraft was particularly concerned with the demonic pact . In the high court , Katherine Sands , who was one of four women accused of witchcraft at Culross in 1675 , admitted to renouncing her baptism , receiving the Devil 's mark and having sex with the Devil , but in local trials these demonic elements were rarer . Stuart MacDonald notes that in trials from Fife the Devil was a relatively insignificant and indistinct figure and that a number of instances of covens meeting look like fairy revels , where the dancing fairies traditionally disappeared when a human broke the ring , rather than satanic gatherings . Fairies were an important part of magical beliefs in Scotland . Isobel Gowdie , the young wife of a cottar from near Auldearn , who was tried for witchcraft in 1662 , left four depositions , gained without torture , that provide one of the most detailed insights into magical beliefs in Britain . She stated that her coven met on nearby Downie Hill , that they could transform themselves into hares and that she had been entertained by the Queen of the Fairies in her home under the hill . J. A. MacCulloch argued that there was a " mingling of beliefs " in Scotland , between popular belief in fairies and elite Christian ideas of demonic action .

= = Decline = =

In the seventeenth century there was growing scepticism about the reality of witchcraft among the educated elite . Scotland was defeated in the Civil Wars by the forces of the English parliament led by Oliver Cromwell and occupied . In 1652 Scotland was declared part of a Commonwealth with England and Ireland and the Privy Council and courts ceased to exist . The English judges who replaced them were hostile to the use of torture and often sceptical of the evidence it produced , resulting in a decline in prosecutions . In an attempt to gain support among the landholding orders , Sheriff 's courts were re @-@ established and Justices of the Peace returned in 1656 . The result was a wave of witchcraft cases , with 102 in the period 1657 – 59 . The limitations on prosecutions were fully reversed with the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , and there was a flood of over 600 cases that alarmed the restored Privy Council , leading it to insist on the necessity of its commission for an arrest or prosecution , and banning judicial torture .

Prosecutions began to decline as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government , torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised . The exposure of prickers as frauds in 1662 removed a major form of evidence . The Lord Advocate George Mackenzie made efforts to make prosecutions ineffective . There may also have been a growing popular scepticism , and , with relative peace and stability , the economic and social tensions that may have contributed to accusations were reduced , although there were occasional local outbreaks , like those in East Lothian in 1678 and in Paisley in 1697 . The last executions in the records of the central courts were in 1706 . The last trial was held in the court of a sheriff @-@ depute at Dornoch in 1727 , and was of questionable legality . The British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736 , making the legal pursuit of witches impossible . Nevertheless , basic magical beliefs persisted , particularly in the Highlands and Islands .

= = Causes = =

Various reasons for the Scottish witch @-@ hunt , and its more intense nature than that in England , have been advanced by historians . Older theories , that there was a widespread pagan cult that was persecuted in this period and that the witch @-@ hunts were the result of a rising medical profession eliminating folk healers , have been discredited among professional historians . Most of the major periods of prosecution coincided with periods of intense economic distress , and some accusations may have followed the withdrawal of charity from marginal figures , particularly the single women that made up many of the accused . The reformed Kirk that emerged from 1560 was heavily influenced by Calvinism and Presbyterianism , and may have perceived women as more of a moral threat . As a result the witch @-@ hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women . Christina Larner suggested that the outbreak of the hunt in the mid @-@ sixteenth century was tied to the rise of a " godly state " , where the reformed Kirk was closely linked to an increasingly intrusive Scottish crown and legal system .

It has been suggested that the intensity of Scottish witch @-@ hunting was due to an inquisitorial judicial system and the widespread use of judicial torture . However , B. P. Levak argues that the Scottish system was only partly inquisitorial and that use of judicial torture was extremely limited , similar to the situation in England . A relatively high level of acquittal in Scottish trials may have been due to the employment of defence lawyers in Scottish courts , a benefit not given accused witches in England . The close involvement of the Scottish Kirk in trials and the decentralised nature of Scottish courts , where local magistrates heard many cases ( in contrast to England where most were before a small number of circuit judges ) , may have contributed to higher rates of prosecution . The diabolic pact is often stated as a major difference between Scottish and English witchcraft cases , but Stuart Maxwell argues that the iconography of Satan may be an imposition of central government beliefs on local traditions , particularly those concerned with fairies , which were more persistent in Scotland than in England . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch @-@ hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .

= Loboc Church =

The San Pedro Apostol Parish Church ( also Saint Peter the Apostle Parish Church , Spanish : Iglesia Parroquial de San Pedro Apóstol ) , commonly known as Loboc Church , is a Roman Catholic church in the municipality of Loboc , Bohol , Philippines , within the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tagbilaran .

After the Jesuits established the Christian community in Baclayon , they moved to Loboc and established a second Christian settlement in Bohol . The parish was established in 1602 , and the present coral stone church was completed in 1734 . Because of its strategic location , it became the center of the Jesuit mission in the Bohol area . In 1768 , upon the expulsion of the Jesuits , the town was transferred to the Augustinian Recollects .

The church is classified as a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines and a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines . It was considered for the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines as a member of two categories , the Baroque Churches of the Philippines ( Extension ) and the Jesuit Churches of the Philippines .

It was severely damaged when a 7 @.@ 2 magnitude earthquake struck Bohol and other parts of Central Visayas on October 15 , 2013 .

= = Church history = =

After the establishment of the Jesuit mission in Bohol , Father Juan de Torres , SJ , moved to the community along the Loboc River in late 1596 to establish a second mission station . The first church , made of wood , was built by the people of the area on a site called Calvario , Sawang , near the location of the present @-@ day church . It was dedicated under the patronage of Saint Michael the Archangel . Loboc officially became a Catholic parish in 1602 . Due to pirate attacks on Baclayon and the strategic position of Loboc , the Jesuits chose Loboc to become the center of their mission . The Jesuit superior of Bohol later resided in Loboc until the Jesuits ' expulsion in 1768 . A boarding school for boys , the Seminario de los Indios , was established at Loboc in 1605 .

Fire destroyed the original wooden church in 1638 ; it was later reconstructed by the Jesuit priest Jose Sanchez . A larger church was built in 1670 , on the site of the present day convent . The present coral stone church was finished in 1734 . After the Jesuits were expelled from the country in May 1768 , the Augustinian Recollects assumed the administration of the parish and the church that November .

= = = Historical and cultural designations = = =

In 1998 , Loboc Church was declared a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Institute , now the National Historical Commission of the Philippines . It was also listed as a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines .

The church complex was a candidate for UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines , under two distinct categories . The Jesuit Churches of the Philippines nomination includes the churches of Maragondon in Cavite , Baclayon in Bohol and Guiuan in Eastern Samar . The Baroque Churches of the Philippines ( Extension ) nomination , nominates Loboc Church along with the churches of Patrocinio de Maria in Boljoon , Cebu , La Inmaculada Concepcion in Guiuan , Eastern Samar , San Matias in Tumauini , Isabela , and San Isidro Labrador in Lazi , Siquijor . However , due to its total destruction , it was removed from the roster of nominated sites .

= = Architecture = =

The church is built along the banks of the Loboc River . The coral stone church follows a cruciform plan , with a sunken pyramidal roof on its crossing . As a church built by the Jesuits , exterior walls of the church have the Jesuit insignia and icons of an angel 's wing and head . Major renovations were undertaken by Augustinian priest Father Aquilino Bon , including the addition of a portico to the façade ( 1863 – 1866 ) and re @-@ roofing with tiles ( 1873 ) . Father José Sánchez , OAR , added stone buttresses to the walls ( 1891 – 1893 ) and side porticoes ( 1895 – 1896 ) . Because of frequent flooding , its wooden flooring was changed to cement tiles in 1895 and was elevated in 1969 .

= = = Interior = = =

The interior of the church is adorned with ceiling paintings by Canuto Avila and his sons , Ricardo and Ray Francia , created from May 1926 to July 1927 , and retouched by Cris Naparota in 1995 . A mural of Our Lady of Guadalupe , secondary patron of Loboc , painted by Max Aya @-@ ay in 1930 at the center of the nave depicts the Virgin saving Loboc from floods . The church also has a separate cantilevered organ loft , hosting a large pipe organ believed to be connected with Father Diego Cera , maker of the Las Piñas Bamboo organ .

= = = = Façade = = = =

The inner baroque façade , which is part of the 1734 church built by the Jesuits , is decorated with pilasters , capitals , blind niches and volutes . It is patterned after the San Ignacio Church in Intramuros , with two levels , a triangular pediment , and two narrow octagonal bell towers on each side . The neoclassical portico houses niches for Saint Peter and Saint Paul . Along the pediment is a wooden bas @-@ relief on galvanized iron of the papal tiara over crossed keys ( the symbol of Saint Peter ) on the center and medallions carrying the icons of the Augustinians and Saint Peter on both ends .

= = = = Altars = = = =

The church has five retablos ( reredos ) . The central retablo ( or retablo mayor ) at the altar houses images of Saint Peter , the patron , paired with Saint Paul on the uppermost niche . On the lowest level are images of Our Lady of Guadalupe , a secondary patron , in the center . Also on the lowest level were statues of Saint Lucy , patron against typhoons and Saint Francis Xavier , patron against floods and alligators . Both Saint Lucy and Saint Francis were elected patrons in 1697 . Behind the walls of the retablo mayor are the remains of the former Jesuit altarpiece , a bas @-@ relief of Saint Ignatius Loyola and St Francis Xavier dressed as a pilgrim .

= = = = = Epistle retablo = = = = =

On the right side of the altar are two retablos . The larger altar on the right side currently houses the image of St. Francis Xavier as preacher on the topmost level . On the middle level of the same retablo are images of Saint Vincent Ferrer in the center , and Saint Augustine and Saint Monica on the left and right niches , respectively . The lowest level contains images of the Nuestra Señora de la Consolacion in the center , Saint Anne to the right and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux ( originally St Joachim ) on the left . The smaller altar has two levels of baroque and neoclassical style , respectively , with images of the crucified Christ on the lower level and the Holy Infant on the upper . The tomb of Father Aquilino Bon and other Recollect priests who served Loboc are also on this side of the church . The remains of Jesuit priest Alonso de Humanes were formerly interred in this area before the transfer of his remains to San Ignacio in Intramuros . An apocryphal account tells of a fire in a former Loboc church stopping at the foot of Humanes ' tomb ; this story spread across the people of the Loboc and nearby towns , which drew pilgrims to light candles in memory of Humanes .

= = = = = Gospel retablo = = = = =

On the left side of the altar are also two retablos . The larger altar , which is a twin of the altar opposite it , houses an image of a unidentified saint on the topmost level , presumably Michael the Archangel , and the crucified Christ ( originally Madonna and Child ) in the center , Saint Anthony of Padua on the middle @-@ left , and Saint Nicholas of Tolentino on the middle @-@ right niches . The original images on the lowest level have been replaced . The smaller retablo , also of the same style , houses the images of Saint Joseph with the child Jesus , and St Isidore the Laborer on the lower and upper level , respectively . In the sacristy is another retablo , with a crucifix in its central niche . On the doorframes of the sacristy are two bas @-@ reliefs depicting Saint Ignatius and the first Jesuits before Mary and the child Jesus and of St. Ignatius holding a book ( in stucco ) .

= = = Outbuildings = = =

= = = = Sacristy and Convent = = = =

The convent , which was built around 1854 , was used as the central residence of Jesuit missionaries in Bohol . It was built parallel to the transept and was an unusual three @-@ storey structure , with a two @-@ storey outdoor gallery ( called a volada ) and thick walls . It is the only convent in the Philippines with three storeys . An extension perpendicular to the convent was built in the middle of the 19th century . The convent was also adorned with paintings on its walls and ceilings , and with colored glass on its windows and cornices on the kitchen . The roof was replaced with galvanized iron in 1888 . The third floor of the convent is now used as an ecclesiastical museum ( known as Loboc Museum ) , containing several religious artifacts , such as a 1786 silver missal and 18th century wooden Santo Niño .

= = = = Belltower = = = =

A detached four @-@ storey bell tower was built near the riverbanks by the first Augustinian Recollect priest of Loboc . It has seven bells , with the 1863 bell being the oldest and the 1937 bell , named for Father Cayetano Bastes , being the largest . It also has a large wooden ratchet , installed in 1899 , used during Holy Week , and a clock made by the Altonaga Company , installed in 1893 .

= = = = Mortuary chapel = = = =

A hexagonal mortuary is located on the left side of the façade . It was built by Father Bon between 1867 and 1868 . Inside is a baroque retablo , similar to the altars inside the church . It is now used as an adoration chapel .

= = 2013 Bohol earthquake = =

The island of Bohol experienced a strong earthquake on October 15 , 2013 . The center of the M7.2 earthquake was near Sagbayan , Bohol . Centuries @-@ old churches in Bohol , including Loboc and several other churches designated as National Cultural Treasures , were heavily damaged . The church of Loboc suffered major damage to its structure , particularly its façade and tower , which both partially collapsed .

Loboc Church after the 2013 Bohol Earthquake

The Diocese of Tagbilaran plans to restore the church of Loboc and all other churches destroyed by the earthquake . While waiting for the complete restoration and rehabilitation of the old church , the people of Loboc inaugurated an alternate church on October 12 , 2014 .

= Robert A. Little =

Robert Alexander Little , DSO & Bar , DSC & Bar ( 19 July 1895 – 27 May 1918 ) , a World War I fighter pilot , is generally regarded as the most successful Australian flying ace , with an official tally of forty @-@ seven victories . Born in Victoria , he travelled to England in 1915 and learned to fly at his own expense before joining the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . Posted to the Western Front in June 1916 , he flew Sopwith Pups , Triplanes and Camels with No. 8 Squadron RNAS , achieving thirty @-@ eight victories within a year and earning the Distinguished Service Order and Bar , the Distinguished Service Cross and Bar , and the French Croix de Guerre . Rested in July 1917 , he volunteered to return to the front in March 1918 and scored a further nine victories with No. 3 Squadron RNAS ( later No. 203 Squadron RAF ) before he was killed in action on the night of 27 May , aged twenty @-@ two .

= = Early life = =

Little was born on 19 July 1895 at Hawthorn , a suburb of Melbourne , to Canadian James Little , a seller of medical and surgical books , and his Victorian @-@ born wife Susan . His family heritage was Scottish , and he was educated at Camberwell Grammar School and Scotch College , Melbourne , where he was a swimming medallist . He entered his father 's business as a travelling salesman , and was living with his family at Windsor when World War I broke out in August 1914 .

= = World War I = =

Long interested in aviation , Little decided to apply for pilot training at the Australian Army 's Central Flying School in Point Cook , but with only four vacancies , he was rejected along with hundreds of others . He then decided to sail for England in July 1915 and become a qualified pilot at his own expense . Gaining his flying certificate with the Royal Aero Club at Hendon in October , he joined the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) as a probationary flight sub @-@ lieutenant on 14 January 1916 . He suffered badly from air sickness early on , most likely brought on by fumes from castor oil that was employed as an engine lubricant in the aircraft he flew in England .

Little arrived in France in June 1916 for service with No. 1 ( Naval ) Wing at Dunkirk , where he initially flew Sopwith 1 ½ Strutters in bombing raids . He married Vera Gertrude Field at the Congregational Church , Dover , on 16 September . The next month he was posted to No. 8 Squadron RNAS ( " Naval Eight " ) flying Sopwith Pups on the Western Front , under fellow Australian Stanley Goble . Little scored his first aerial victory on 23 November , destroying an enemy two @-@ seater north @-@ east of La Bassée . By the following February , he had four victories to his credit and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) for " conspicuous bravery in successfully attacking and bringing down hostile machines " . In one action on 4 December , Little and Goble " fought like mad " against a large formation of German fighters , each claiming a Halberstadt ; Little did not return to base with Goble and was thought lost , but had only landed near Allied lines to clear his jammed gun before taking off again to continue the fight .

On 24 April 1917 , Little engaged a DFW C.V , forcing it to land . He then followed the German aircraft down to claim it as captured and personally take its crew prisoner at gunpoint . The Australian flipped his own plane in a ditch after touching down , however , prompting the surrendering enemy pilot to suggest : " It looks as if I have brought you down , not you me , doesn 't it ? " Naval Eight 's conversion to the Sopwith Triplane in April saw Little begin to score heavily , eventually registering twenty @-@ four victories on the type to bring his total up to twenty @-@ eight by 10 July , including twin victories in a day on four occasions . He was the squadron 's top scorer with the Triplane , mostly in one particular airframe , N5493 , that he christened " Blymp " , which also became the nickname of his baby son . The unit then began flying Sopwith Camels , in which he scored a further ten kills in July to make fourteen all @-@ up for the month . When he subsequently rotated back to England for rest , he was ranked Flight Lieutenant and credited with a total of thirty @-@ eight victories , including fifteen destroyed or captured . A bar to his DSC had been gazetted on 29 June , for " exceptional daring and skill in aerial fighting on many occasions " , and he received the French Croix de Guerre on 11 July , becoming — along with fellow Australian RNAS ace Roderic ( Stan ) Dallas — one of the first three British Empire pilots to be so decorated . In August , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order " for exceptional skill and daring " , followed by a bar to the decoration in September for " remarkable courage and boldness in attacking enemy machines " . He was mentioned in despatches on 11 December , and promoted to flight commander the following month .

Despite Little 's prowess in combat , as an aviator he was ordinary at best , enduring a number of crash @-@ landings . What gave him his edge as a fighter pilot was his keen eye , excellent marksmanship , and willingness to single @-@ handedly take on entire enemy formations and close in on his prey — down to twenty @-@ five yards on occasion — before opening fire . Fellow No. 8 Squadron member Reggie Soar recalled , " Although not a polished pilot , he was one of the most aggressive ... an outstanding shot with both revolver and rifle ... " , while ace Robert Comptson described Little as " not so much a leader as a brilliant lone hand ... Small in stature , with face set grimly , he seemed the epitome of deadliness " . His squadron nicknamed him " Rikki " , after the mongoose " Rikki @-@ Tikki @-@ Tavi " , which outstrikes cobras in the story of the same name by Rudyard Kipling . Many who knew him saw a sensitive side , however , Soar noting that in addition to his skill with guns , Little was " also a collector of wild flowers " , and his wife contending that his appearance in photographs belied his sense of humour . Squadron commander Raymond Collishaw , who would finish the war as the RNAS ' top @-@ scoring ace , summed up Little as " an outstanding character , bold , aggressive and courageous , yet he was gentle and kindly . A resolute and brave man . "

Following a period of rest in England , Little turned down a desk assignment and volunteered to return to action on the Western Front , joining Lieutenant Colonel Collishaw 's No. 3 Squadron RNAS in March 1918 . The unit evolved into No. 203 Squadron of the new Royal Air Force on 1 April , formed after the merger of the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps . Now ranked captain , and again flying Sopwith Camels , Little gained a further nine successes , beginning with a Fokker Triplane on 1 April , and concluding with two kills in one day on 22 May , an Albatros and a DFW . During this stretch of victories , on 21 April 1918 , he was brought down unharmed by Friedrich Ehmann . On 27 May , Little received reports of German Gotha bombers in the vicinity , and took off on a moonlit evening to intercept the raiders . As he closed with one of the bombers , his plane was caught in a searchlight beam and he was struck by a bullet that passed through both his thighs . He crash @-@ landed in a field near Nœux , and bled to death before he was discovered the following morning by a passing gendarme . Little 's skull and ankle had also been fractured in the impact ; his body was identified by his friend and fellow ace , Charles Dawson Booker . Collishaw launched an investigation but it was never established whether the single bullet that hit Little had come from a gunner in the Gotha or from the ground .

= = Legacy = =

Little was buried in the village cemetery at Nœux , before his body was moved to Wavans British Cemetery in the Pas de Calais . Aged twenty @-@ two , he left a widow and a son ; in accordance with her husband 's wishes , Vera travelled back to Australia to raise the boy . Of Little 's forty @-@ seven confirmed victories , twenty were credited as destroyed , two as captured , and twenty @-@ five as " out of control " ; he was believed to be responsible for many others driven down or forced to land , which were not counted in his official total . As well as the eighth most successful Commonwealth ace of World War I , and the ranking RNAS ace , this score made him the most prolific Australian ace of all time , ahead of Stan Dallas with an official score of thirty @-@ nine , although modern research also credits Dallas with a tally numbering in the fifties .

The propeller blade from Little 's Sopwith Triplane was fitted with a clock in its hub by his fellow officers , who presented it to his widow ; she transported it back to Australia in three pieces and it later went on display at the Australian War Memorial , along with his awards and the wooden cross of his original burial place at Nœux . The Sopwith Pup he flew with No. 8 Squadron RNAS , N5182 , was rebuilt to flying standard and in October 1976 led a flypast to commemorate the squadron 's Diamond Jubilee , before going on permanent display at the Royal Air Force Museum , Hendon . One of the buildings of the Australian Defence Force Academy ( ADFA ) in Canberra , opened in 1986 , was named in Little 's honour .

= Winnebago War =

The Winnebago War was a brief conflict that took place in 1827 in the Upper Mississippi River region of the United States , primarily in what is now the state of Wisconsin . Not quite a war , the hostilities were limited to a few attacks on American civilians by a portion of the Winnebago ( or Ho @-@ Chunk ) Native American tribe . The Ho @-@ Chunks were reacting to a wave of lead miners trespassing on their lands , and to false rumors that the United States had sent two Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners to a rival tribe for execution .

Most Native Americans in the region decided against joining the uprising , and so the conflict ended after U.S. officials responded with a show of military force . Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs surrendered eight men who had participated in the violence , including Red Bird , who American officials believed to be the ringleader . Red Bird died in prison in 1828 while awaiting trial ; two other men convicted of murder were pardoned by President John Quincy Adams and released .

As a result of the war , the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe was compelled to cede the lead mining region to the United States . The Americans also increased their military presence on the frontier , building Fort Winnebago and reoccupying two other abandoned forts . The conflict convinced some officials that Americans and Indians could not live peaceably together , and that the Natives should be compelled to move westward , a policy known as Indian removal . The Winnebago War preceded the larger Black Hawk War of 1832 , which involved many of the same people and concerned similar issues .

= = Background = =

Following the War of 1812 , the United States pursued a policy of trying to prevent wars among Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region . This was not strictly for humanitarian reasons : intertribal warfare made it more difficult for the United States to acquire Indian land and move the tribes to the West , a policy known as Indian removal , which had become the primary goal by the late 1820s . On August 19 , 1825 , U.S. officials finalized a multi @-@ tribal treaty at Prairie du Chien , which defined the boundaries of the region 's tribes .

By that time , however , white Americans had begun to trespass on Ho @-@ Chunk ( or Winnebago ) lands in large numbers , drawn by the promise of easy lead mining along the Fever ( later Galena ) River . Native Americans had mined this region for thousands of years , and exporting lead had become an important part of the Ho @-@ Chunk economy . Ho @-@ Chunks tried to drive away the trespassers , but they often suffered abuse at the hands of aggressive miners . Some U.S. officials , concerned that Ho @-@ Chunk mining would delay what they saw as the inevitable American possession of the mining region , worked " to dissuade the Indians from their mining plans " .

= = = Methode family murder = = =

In March 1826 , a French @-@ Canadian man named Methode , his Native American wife , and their children were gathering maple syrup in present @-@ day Iowa , about twelve miles north of Prairie du Chien , when they were murdered , apparently by a Ho @-@ Chunk raiding party that had been passing through . The murderers evidently had no specific grievance with the victims , who were targets of opportunity . Two Ho @-@ Chunk suspects were arrested by Prairie du Chien militiamen and taken to Fort Crawford . After they escaped , U.S. Army Lieutenant Colonel Willoughby Morgan seized two Ho @-@ Chunk hostages and demanded that the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe turn over the murderers .

On July 4 , 1826 , the Ho @-@ Chunks delivered six men to Morgan at Fort Crawford . In accordance with Ho @-@ Chunk custom , writes historian Martin Zanger , the six men were not all involved in the murders ; they were surrendered to appease American anger and deflect punishment away from the tribe as a whole . The Americans , however , wanted to punish those personally responsible for the killings . Colonel Morgan was unable to determine who was guilty , and so he detained all six and demanded that the Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs identify the killers . Colonel Josiah Snelling , commander of the 5th Infantry Regiment , reinforced the fort amid rumors that the Ho @-@ Chunks were going to attempt to free the prisoners . Eventually , two Ho @-@ Chunks , Wau @-@ koo @-@ kau ( or Waukookah ) and Man @-@ ne @-@ tah @-@ peh @-@ keh ( or Mahnaatapakah ) , were turned over to the Americans and indicted for the murders .

= = = Evacuation and rumors = = =

The rumored Ho @-@ Chunk attack on Fort Crawford never came , and so in October 1826 , Colonel Snelling moved the garrison to Fort Snelling , where he hoped to reduce hostilities between the Dakotas ( Sioux ) and the Ojibwes ( Chippewas ) . The two Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners were also moved to Fort Snelling . In May 1827 , after Dakotas attacked an Ojibwe party near Fort Snelling , Colonel Snelling arrested four of the Dakotas and turned them over to the Ojibwes , who killed them . This angered some Dakotas , who encouraged the Ho @-@ Chunks to help them strike at the Americans , falsely telling them that the Ho @-@ Chunks prisoners had also been turned over to the Ojibwes for execution .

The false story of the execution of the Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners , along with the incessant American trespassing , convinced some Ho @-@ Chunks to take up arms against the United States . The timing seemed right , since the evacuation of Fort Crawford appeared to be a sign of American weakness . Another grievance was the news that some Ho @-@ Chunk women had been sexually assaulted by American riverboat crews along the Mississippi River , although this story , like the one about the executions , may have been a false rumor . The Ho @-@ Chunks broke off diplomatic relations with the United States by not showing up for a scheduled treaty conference , and prepared for war .

= = Hostilities = =

In late June 1827 , a Ho @-@ Chunk leader named Red Bird , along with Wekau ( or Wa @-@ ni @-@ ga , The Sun ) and Chickhonsic ( or Chic @-@ hong @-@ sic , Little Buffalo ) , went to Prairie du Chien to seek revenge for what they believed were the executions of the Ho @-@ Chunk prisoners . Unable to locate their intended victim , they instead targeted the cabin of Registre Gagnier , the son of an esteemed African @-@ American nurse and midwife named Aunt Mary Ann . Gagnier welcomed the three Ho @-@ Chunks into his home for a meal . What happened inside varies according to sources . According to one account , Red Bird shot and killed Gagnier , while Chickhonsic shot and killed Solomon Lipcap , a hired man or friend of the family . Wekau tried to shoot Gagnier 's wife , but she wrestled his gun away before escaping with her young son . Wekau had to settle for stabbing and scalping Gagnier 's infant daughter , who survived the attack . Another account says that only Red Bird committed the murders . Red Bird and his companions returned with the three scalps to their village at Prairie La Crosse , where a celebration was held .

On June 30 , 1827 , the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks struck again . About 150 Ho @-@ Chunks , with a few Dakota allies , attacked two American keelboats on the Mississippi , near the mouth of the Bad Axe River . Two Americans were killed and four were wounded in the skirmish ; about seven Ho @-@ Chunks died in the attack or later from their wounds . According to historian Patrick Jung , " The attack , while relatively small , was significant because it was the first act of war committed against the United States by Indians in the region since the War of 1812 . "

In their nascent war against the Americans , the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks sought to recruit allies among the Dakotas , Potawatomis , and other Ho @-@ Chunk bands . Most leaders of these tribes , while sympathetic to Ho @-@ Chunk grievances , urged neutrality . Some Potawatomis participated by killing some American livestock , but Potawatomi leaders Billy Caldwell , Alexander Robinson , and Shaubena rode among the Potawatomi settlements and urged people to stay out of the war ; they would do the same five years later during the Black Hawk War . Many Ho @-@ Chunks also distanced themselves from the actions of Red Bird and the Prairie La Crosse Ho @-@ Chunks . Without allies , the effort to ignite a widespread war was doomed . By mid @-@ July , writes historian Martin Zanger , " for all practical purposes the ' Red Bird Uprising ' was over " .

= = American response = =

The attacks created panic among the American population of the area . Settlers , fearing the outbreak of a wider Indian war , fled to towns such as Galena and Chicago , or sought sanctuary in the abandoned Fort Crawford .

Lewis Cass , the governor of Michigan Territory , and Thomas McKenney , the Superintendent of Indian Affairs , were hosting a treaty conference near Green Bay when they learned of the attacks . To discourage the spread of the uprising , Cass promptly invited Native Americans in the region to come to the treaty grounds to receive gifts and food ; more than 2 @,@ 000 people eventually arrived . McKenney warned the Ho @-@ Chunk chiefs in attendance that the only way to avoid an American military invasion of their homeland was to surrender those responsible for the attacks . Other American officials met with other Native leaders , including Keokuk and Wabokieshiek , and urged them to stay out of the war .

Meanwhile , American officials scrambled to mobilize troops . Cass hurried to Prairie du Chien , where he organized the local militia . Colonel Snelling arrived at Prairie du Chien on July 10 , bringing about 200 regulars from Fort Snelling to reoccupy Fort Crawford . He was joined there on July 29 by Brigadier General Henry Atkinson , who brought 500 men upriver by steamboat from Jefferson Barracks . Several days later , Henry Dodge arrived at Fort Crawford with 130 mounted militiamen , mostly miners . Governor Ninian Edwards of Illinois sent 600 mounted militiamen north to Wisconsin .

To the east , McKenney and Major William Whistler organized another force . Whistler had about 100 regulars from Fort Howard , along with 50 mostly métis militiamen from Green Bay , 60 New York Indians , and 120 Menominees . On August 29 , Atkinson 's force began moving up the Wisconsin River towards Portage , Wisconsin , where the hostile Ho @-@ Chunks had concentrated , while Whistler 's force converged on the same location from the north .

On September 1 , 1827 , McKenney and Whistler 's force arrived at the Portage . On September 3 , two Ho @-@ Chunk leaders , Waukon Decorah and Carymaunee , surrendered Red Bird and Wekau to the Americans . Carymaunee asked the Americans not to put irons on Red Bird and Wekau ; this request was granted . He then offered to give the Americans twenty horses in exchange for the prisoners , but this was declined . The Ho @-@ Chunks turned in four more men involved in the uprising in the following weeks .

= = Aftermath = =

In diplomatic talks with the Ho @-@ Chunks at the close of the war , General Atkinson promised that the U.S. government would look into their grievances in the lead mining region . Thomas McKenney requested military aid to evict American miners who were trespassing on Ho @-@ Chunk land , but after the war , settlers poured into the region in unprecedented numbers , and U.S. officials proved to be unable or unwilling to stem the tide . By January 1828 , there were as many as 10 @,@ 000 illegal settlers on Ho @-@ Chunk land , including militia general Henry Dodge , who established a mining camp after the war and boasted that the U.S. Army could not make him leave . Having no other options , on August 25 , 1828 , the Ho @-@ Chunks signed a provisional treaty with the United States , agreeing to sell the land occupied by the miners in a more formal treaty to be held later .

Eight Ho @-@ Chunks were detained by the U.S. government at Fort Crawford for trial after the war . American officials most wanted to convict Red Bird , believing that he had been the leader of the uprising . This belief , according to historian Martin Zanger , was based on an American failure to understand the decentralized nature of Ho @-@ Chunk society . " Because Red Bird was well known to the white frontiersmen , " writes Zanger , " they focused their resentment on him , mistakenly attributing to him a leadership role he did not deserve . " Red Bird was never tried ; he contracted dysentery and died in prison on February 16 , 1828 , before his trial got underway .

The trials were delayed due to the difficulties in bringing together witnesses , prosecutors , defense attorneys , and interpreters . The proceedings finally began in August 1828 , with Judge James Duane Doty presiding . Wau @-@ koo @-@ kau and Man @-@ ne @-@ tah @-@ peh @-@ keh , the two warriors imprisoned for the 1826 murders of the Methode family , were released due to a lack of witnesses , as were three Ho @-@ Chunks held for the attack on the keelboats . Only two men , Wekau and Chickhonsic , were prosecuted . According to historian Patrick Jung , it became clear during the trial that Red Bird had committed the murders at the Gagnier cabin , and that there was not enough evidence to convict Wekau and Chickhonsic . Despite this , the white and métis jury found them guilty . Judge Doty sentenced them to hang , as he was required to do by law . Their lawyer filed a motion for a new trial , arguing that the jury had ignored the evidence , and so Doty suspended the death sentences .

On November 3 , 1828 , President John Quincy Adams , having been told that the executions would likely spark another uprising , pardoned the prisoners in exchange for a land cession . In July and August 1829 , in treaties signed at Prairie du Chien , the Ho @-@ Chunks and the Three Fires Confederacy formally ceded the lead mining region to the United States for annual payments of $ 16 @,@ 000 and $ 18 @,@ 000 respectively .

Hoping to prevent further uprisings , the United States decided to strengthen its military presence in the region after the Winnebago War . Fort Crawford was reoccupied , as was Fort Dearborn in Chicago , which had been abandoned in 1823 . A new outpost , Fort Winnebago , was built in October 1828 at the portage between the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers .

The conflict also helped to promote a change in U.S. policy regarding Native Americans . Previously , many Americans had argued that Indians should be " civilized " and assimilated into white American society . But for some , the Winnebago War discredited the idea that Indians and Americans could live peaceably together . In his State of the Union Address of December 2 , 1828 , outgoing President Adams announced that the " civilization " policy had been a failure , and that Indian removal — moving the tribes to the West — was the policy of the future . That policy would be taken up by Adams 's successor , Andrew Jackson .

= The Modern Cook =

The Modern Cook was the first cookery book by the Anglo @-@ Italian cook Charles Elmé Francatelli ( 1805 – 1876 ) . It was first published in 1846 . It was popular for half a century in the Victorian era , running through 29 London editions by 1896 . It was also published in America .

The book offered elaborate dishes , described with French terminology such as bisque , entrées , entremets , vol @-@ au @-@ vent , timbale and soufflé . It included bills of fare for meals for up to 300 people , and for a series of eight- or nine @-@ course dinners served to Queen Victoria ; one exceptional royal dinner in 1841 had sixteen entrées and sixteen entremets , including truffles in Champagne .

The Modern Cook was the first to mention filling wafer cones with ice cream . The book , written for upper middle @-@ class housewives , is illustrated with 60 engravings , often showing how to present carefully @-@ decorated centrepiece dishes such as " Salmon a la Chambord " for large dinner parties .

The book influenced households in Britain and America to aspire to more complex , French @-@ style dinners in imitation of the Queen , and resulted in a change in eating habits , including the modern two @-@ course approach for both lunch and dinner .

= = Context = =

Charles Elmé Francatelli , from an Italian family , was born in London in 1805 , and learnt cookery in France . Coming to England , he worked for various aristocrats before becoming chief chef of Crockford 's club and then chief cook to Queen Victoria in 1840 . He went on to work at Crockford 's again , at the Coventry House and Reform Clubs , St James 's Hotel , and for the Prince and Princess of Wales . This made him a celebrity cook of his time .

= = Book = =

= = = Approach = = =

Apart from the preface and Francatelli 's advice on serving wine , the body of the book consists almost entirely of recipes without any kind of introduction . There is no guidance on choice of kitchenware or advice on the layout of the kitchen .

The recipes are presented entirely as instructions , generally without illustration . Quantities , where stated , are incorporated in the text ; ingredients are never listed explicitly . Quantities are sometimes named , as in the " Cream Bechamel Sauce " , which begins " Put six ounces of fresh butter into a middle @-@ sized stewpan ; add four ounces of sifted flour , some nutmeg , a few peppercorns , and a little salt ; " . In other cases only the relative proportions are indicated , as for the " Salmis of Partridges with Aspic Jelly " , where the only hint of quantity in the recipe is " must be mixed with one @-@ third of its quantity of aspic jelly " . This recipe also indicates the style of cross @-@ referencing , with the starting instruction " Prepare the salmis as directed in No. 1078 " .

The Modern Cook is the first published record in England of filling wafer cornets , which Francatelli called gauffres , with ice cream . He used them to garnish his iced puddings .

= = = Contents = = =

The following apply to the 28th edition of 1886 . The Table of Contents did not have page numbers .

= = = Illustrations = = =

The 28th edition is illustrated with 60 , mostly small , engravings . There is a full @-@ page frontispiece of the author , drawn by Auguste Hervieu and engraved by Samuel Freeman ( 1773 – 1857 ) . Freeman is known for working mainly in stipple , and the portrait here is no exception .

All the other engravings are of completed dishes , showing the serving @-@ plate with the food arranged on it and often elaborately garnished . The artists and engravers of the food illustrations are not identified .

= = = Bills of fare = = =

Francatelli provides " A Series of Bills of Fare for Every Month Throughout the Year " , including dinners variously for 6 , 8 , 10 , 12 , 14 16 , 18 , 20 , 24 , 28 and 36 persons ( though not all of these in every month ) . The bills of fare for dinners for 6 persons thus represent the simplest menus in the book . All the dinners are divided into a first and a second " Course " , but each course was divided in turn into three or four servings , in most cases with a choice of two or more dishes . Thus there might be one or two soups , two fishes , two " removes " of meat , and two savoury " entrées " in the first " Course " , with a second " Course " of one kind of game , followed by a choice of three " entremets " which included both savouries , generally vegetables , and desserts .

There is a single bill of fare for a " Ball Supper for 300 Persons " , and one for a " Public Dinner " for the same number .

There are 13 bills of fare for " Her Majesty 's Dinner " , each with an exact date in 1841 and the words " ( Under the control of C. Francatelli . ) " . Each of the royal dinners has either eight or nine courses ( including a buffet or sideboard ) , except for that of 30 June which is divided into two " Services " and has 11 courses .

The royal dinners are described almost entirely in French , with the exception of the heading , the phrase " Side Board " , and a few specifically British dishes such as " Roast Mutton " and " Haunch of Venison " . There are usually two soups , two fishes , two removes , six entrées , two roasts , two more removes , six entremets , and between two and seven dishes on the sideboard . The exceptional royal dinner of 30 June 1841 had sixteen entrées and sixteen entremets . Some of these entremets used the most costly ingredients including truffles in Champagne .

= = = Publication = = =

The Modern Cook was first published in 1846 . It reached its 29th edition in 1896 . Francatelli presented a copy of the 8th edition to Queen Victoria on 4 June 1853 .

Editions included :

1846 , First edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .

1846 , Lea and Blanchard , Philadelphia .

c . 1855 , T.B. Peterson and Brothers , Philadelphia .

1858 , 11th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .

1859 , from 9th London edition . Thomas L. White , New Orleans .

1880 , 13th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .

1886 , 28th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .

1895 , from 26th London edition . D. McKay , Philadelphia .

1896 , 29th edition . Richard Bentley & Son , London .

1911 , Reprint of 1st edition . Macmillan , London .

1973 , Reprint of 1880 edition ( T.B. Peterson and Brothers , Philadelphia ) . Dover , New York

= = Reception = =

= = = Contemporary = = =

Kettner 's Book of the Table of 1877 , describing Francatelli as " a type of all the great French cooks " , asserted that he " gives a most elaborate recipe for aspic jelly ; and he is so satisfied with it that , having to prepare a cold supper for 300 people , he works it up in every one of his 56 dishes which are neither sweet nor hot . The book further argues that " this is the result of science — this the height of art . It produces , with such elaborate forms and majestic ceremonies , an aspic jelly without aspic , that , exhausted in the effort , it can proceed no further , and seems to think that here at last , in this supreme sauce , we have a sure resting @-@ place — the true blessedness — the ewigkeit . "

George H. Ellwanger wrote in his Pleasures of the Table in 1902 that Francatelli 's Modern Cook was " still a superior treatise , and although little adapted to the average household , it will well repay careful study on the part of the expert amateur . ' The palate is as capable and nearly as worthy of education as the eye and the ear , ' says Francatelli — a statement which his volume abundantly bears out . " He added that " one sees , accordingly , an ornate observance of decoration in his grand army of side @-@ dishes . These are excellent throughout , but generally very elaborate , while his sauces and recipes for pastry are especially good . The same may be said of his quenelles and timbales . A competent hand will find his work a valuable guide from which to obtain ideas ; it is not a practical book for the majority . "

The New Zealand Herald of 1912 commented that Francatelli was " an earnest and gifted worker in the cause of gastronomy " and that The Modern Cook faithfully reflected Victorian dining habits . " Everything was good and solid of its kind , even if tending towards complication rather than simplicity . " The review opined that the great joints of meat " decorated with their silver hatelet skewers bearing cock 's combs and trufflets , were attended by the most appetizing ragouts and garnishes . " Despite the gloss , there was " nothing meretricious or deceptive in the savoury promises held out by Victorian comestibles . " The reviewer notes , however , that even while Francatelli was describing this elaborate fare , the " excessive meat @-@ eating " was being replaced by a diet richer in vegetables , and meals were becoming simpler , so that " now , in the 20th century , much that Francatelli wrote about ... is no longer needed . "

= = = Modern = = =

M. F. K. Fisher , writing in The New York Times , stated that millions of American women in the 19th century organised " every aspect of their lives .. as much as possible in imitation of the Queen " , and that The Modern Cook sold almost as well in America as it did in England . Admitting that few American kitchens could " follow all its directions for the light Gallic dainties Francatelli introduced to counteract the basic heaviness of royal dining habits " , she argued that all the same his two @-@ course approach eventually shaped the way Americans now eat both lunch and dinner . She observed that at Windsor Castle , Francatelli and other royal chefs were assisted by 24 assistant chefs and two " Yeomen of the Kitchen " , not to mention a multitude of " servers and lackeys " . This did not deter American housewives " as far west as Iowa and then beyond " from doing their best to follow his instructions .

The Historic Food website notes that Francatelli provides two recipes for mincemeat , one with roast beef , the other containing lemons but no meat .

C. Anne Wilson , introducing Women and Victorian Values , 1837 @-@ 1910 . Advice Books , Manuals and Journals for Women , states that Francatelli was writing for the " upper middle @-@ class housewife " in The Modern Cook , explaining to her how to serve the " socially important " dinner in English , French and " à la Russe " styles . In contrast , his 1861 Cook 's Guide is for " more ordinary " households , advocating " traditional two @-@ course dinners " .

Nick Baines writes on LoveFood that Francatelli included " a whole collection of lavish pies " in the book .

Panikos Panayi , in his book Spicing Up Britain , writes that Francatelli 's book for the middle classes definitely recognised differences between British and foreign foods , even in its full title which ran " ... Comprising , in Addition to English Cookery , the Most Advanced and Recherché Systems of French , Italian and German Cookery " . Panayi notes that Francatelli 's preface to the first edition was scathing about ignorant " English writers on gastronomy " , comparing them unfavourably to the " great Professors " of cuisine in France . Panayi observes further that while most of Francatelli 's chapters are not grouped by national origin , he does distinguish English , Foreign , and Italian soups . He notes that it would have taken years to eat all the dishes listed , and that it is impossible to tell how often middle class families may have eaten " fillets of haddocks , à la royale " . He considers it likely that only the wealthiest could have aspired to eat the sort of food described by Francatelli , but concedes that his bills of fare for dinners for six persons ( by month ) do indicate that the middle classes could afford the best meat and vegetables , and indeed that they had domestic staff able to prepare dinners of that complexity described in Francatelli 's French terminology . Panayi concludes that Francatelli represents " perhaps the most extreme example " of the nineteeth century British habit of giving dishes French descriptions .

= Ted Petoskey =

Frederick Lee " Ted " Petoskey ( January 5 , 1911 – November 30 , 1996 ) was a three @-@ sport athlete at the University of Michigan , a Major League Baseball player , a collegiate coach in three sports and an athletic director .

At the University of Michigan , Petoskey received eight varsity letters in three sports . In American football , he was a two @-@ time All @-@ American end for the undefeated Michigan Wolverines football teams that won back @-@ to @-@ back college football national championships in 1932 and 1933 . He was also a guard and captain of Michigan 's basketball team in the 1933 – 34 season . As a baseball player in 1934 , Petoskey led the Big Ten Conference with a .452 batting average .

Petoskey played parts of the 1934 and 1935 Major League Baseball seasons as an outfielder for the Cincinnati Reds and played minor league baseball until 1944 . Petoskey also served in a variety of collegiate coaching positions , including head coach of the University of South Carolina 's basketball team ( 1935 – 1940 ) , athletic director and football coach at Wofford College , and head baseball coach at the University of South Carolina ( 1940 – 42 , 1948 – 56 ) .

= = High school athlete = =

Petoskey was raised in St. Charles , Michigan and attended nearby Saginaw Eastern High School . On October 22 , 1926 , Petoskey became the first receiver in Michigan High School Athletic Association history to garner five receiving touchdowns in a high school football game . As of August 2002 , the record had not been surpassed . While playing for Saginaw , Petoskey was an all @-@ state end two years and an all @-@ state fullback another . He once played in a game with University of Michigan head coach Fielding H. Yost in the stands . Petoskey ran back the opening kickoff for 87 yards and a touchdown , and after hearing that Yost was in the stands ran back another kickoff in the second half for 92 yards and a touchdown .

= = University of Michigan athlete = =

Petoskey was a three @-@ sport player for the Michigan Wolverines . While enrolled at Michigan , he earned eight varsity letters — three in football , three in baseball and two in basketball .

= = = 1931 and 1932 football seasons = = =

In Petoskey 's three years as a varsity football player , the Wolverines had a combined record of 23 – 1 – 2 and won two national championships . As a sophomore in 1931 , Petoskey was touted as " a second Bennie Oosterbaan , " and earned a spot on the United Press All @-@ Big Ten Conference second team .

In his junior year , Petoskey was one of the favorite pass receivers for quarterback Harry Newman , who won the Douglas Fairbanks trophy as the Most Valuable Player in college football . Coach Harry Kipke shifted Petoskey to fullback mid @-@ way through the 1932 season , and he scored two touchdowns in a 32 – 0 win over Illinois . The United Press noted : " A running attack which featured Ted Petoskey , converted from an end to a fullback in the last week by Coach Harry Kipke dovetailed nicely with the Wolverine aerial play to produce the touchdowns . With Petoskey plunging the line and sweeping inside the ends for many sizeable gains , the Michigan eleven showed power through the line for the first time this season . " An Associated Press writer warned opponents to watch out for Petoskey : " It is about time for grid foeman to wake up when Ted Petoskey , end and fullback on the University of Michigan football team , gets to dreaming . Petoskey 's dreams have a habit of coming true , and happily for Petoskey , most of his dreams are good ones . "

Petoskey was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ American in 1932 by the All @-@ American Football Board , a second @-@ team All @-@ American by the New York Sun , and a third @-@ team All @-@ American by the United Press . After the 1932 team compiled a perfect 8 – 0 record ( outscoring opponents 123 – 13 ) and won the national championship , the press credited the squad 's " esprit de corps " as a key to their success . As an example of Wolverine teamwork , a United Press story pointed to a fumble in the Minnesota game . " Michigan recovered , with both Ted Petoskey , end , and Charles Bernard , center , at the bottom of the heap . Bernard credited Petoskey . Petoskey said Bernard recovered . "

= = = 1933 football season = = =

During his senior year , Petoskey started all eight games at left end for the 1933 Michigan Wolverines football team , as Michigan won its second consecutive national championship , and Petoskey was again named an All @-@ American . Although Petoskey was principally an end , Coach Kipke played Petoskey at fullback in some games in 1933 . An October 1933 newspaper story reported on his versatility : " Ted Petoskey , Michigan 's brilliant right end was moved into the backfield for last night 's practice ... This is the second time Petoskey has figured in such a shift . Last fall he was converted into a fullback before the Illinois game and proved a capable ground gainer . Monday he was given a trial as a forward passer , and made an impressive showing . " In his final game for the Michigan football team , Petoskey also kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal against Northwestern , representing the final points scored for Michigan in its 1933 championship season .

After the 1933 season , Petoskey was chosen as a first @-@ team All @-@ American in the Central Press Association poll of team captains , and for the second @-@ team by Grantland Rice . Petoskey also finished third in the voting for the Associated Press 1933 Big Ten Athlete of the Year award . In choosing Petoskey for his All @-@ American team , football writer Lawrence Perry said : " Ted Petoskey of Michigan is one of the finest ends who ever played the game . A former halfback , he is superb as an end @-@ around runner . He receives forward passes with great accuracy and when he catches the ball he is difficult to bring down . "

Coach Kipke credited the play of halfback , Herman Everhardus , and his ends for the undefeated season : " Our ends , Ward and Petoskey , were near perfection . " The 1934 University of Michigan yearbook , called the Michiganensian , described Petoskey 's contributions as follows : " After three years of Varsity football , Petoskey is recognized as one of Michigan 's greatest all @-@ time ends . At the end of his junior year , he was chosen All American , and recognized as one of the greatest defense players in the country . He was alert , followed every play , and opponents found it almost impossible to gain around his end . " In 1955 , Kipke rated Petoskey as one of the six best players he ever coached : " If I had to name the best player I ever coached , it would have to be among Harry Newman , Francis Wistert , Otto Pommerening , Ted Petoskey and Maynard Morrison . "

When the Associated Press picked Petoskey as only a second @-@ team All @-@ American in 1933 , ten @-@ year @-@ old Mary Lee Grossman from Saginaw , Michigan protested in a letter to AP sports editor , Alan Gould , that he had " chosen wrong " in leaving Petoskey and Whitey Wistert off the first @-@ team . To avoid any appearance of bias , the Saginaw native noted : " You may think I am a friend of these boys but I do not know either of them . I hope you change your mind . " Gould responded to Miss Grossman in his column : " You may be right , Mary Lee , but it 's too late now to change our mind . "

= = = Other sports = = =

Petoskey was also the captain of the 1933 – 34 Wolverines basketball team . For the versatile Petoskey , baseball was his best sport . In May 1933 , the Wolverines baseball team swept the Ohio State Buckeyes , as All @-@ American football players Whitey Wistert pitched a complete game , and Petoskey hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run . Petoskey led the Big Ten Conference in batting in 1934 , with 19 hits in 42 at bats for a .452 batting average .

= = Professional baseball = =

Immediately after graduating , Petoskey and Michigan teammate Whitey Wistert both signed with the Cincinnati Reds , reporting to the team in early June 1934 . Petoskey made his major league debut on September 9 , 1934 , and Wistert made his debut two days later . Petoskey played in six games in 1934 , where he went hitless and struck out five times in seven at bats . On the last day of the 1934 regular season , Petoskey was a strikeout victim of Dizzy Dean in the ninth inning of Dean 's 30th win of the year . When the baseball season ended , Petoskey and Wistert both returned to Ann Arbor , Michigan in early October , where they were given coaching assignments helping Ray Fisher teach fundamentals and offering personal tutoring to the freshman football team .

Petoskey returned to the Reds in 1935 , but after spring training he was assigned to the minor leagues . He played for the Wilmington Pirates in the Piedmont League for most of the 1935 season , where he was hitting .426 to lead the league in early June . The Reds called up Petoskey in June , and one newspaper noted that when he was called up , Petoskey was " batting above the .400 mark , leading the ( Piedmont ) league in home runs , runs driven in and practically everything else . " He was two @-@ for @-@ five with a stolen base and a .400 batting average in four games for the 1935 Reds , but he played his last game for the Reds on June 20 , 1935 .

Petoskey played for the Durham Bulls in the Piedmont League in 1936 , where he was hitting .428 in late May . He played for the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1937 , where he was leading the International League in base hits in mid @-@ June . He continued to play with the Leafs in 1938 and 1939 , before being sold to the Toledo Mud Hens in July 1939 . He was released by Toledo in March 1940 .

= = Coaching career = =

= = = Basketball coach at South Carolina = = =

During the off @-@ season from his summer job as a minor league baseball player , Petoskey coached the University of South Carolina basketball team from 1935 to 1940 . In five seasons as the Gamecocks ' head coach , the team had a record of 36 – 67 .

= = = South Carolina and Wofford ( 1940 – 47 ) = = =

Until 1940 , Petoskey had been coaching in the offseason , while still playing baseball in the summers . In August 1940 , he announced his retirement as a player to take a full @-@ time position as the head baseball coach at South Carolina , a position he held from 1940 to 1942 .

In August 1942 , Petoskey was hired by Wofford College as its head football coach and director of physical education . At the time , Petoskey had been playing for the Columbia Reds in the Sally League . Petoskey remained at Wofford through 1947 , taking time off at times to revive his baseball career . In 1944 , Petoskey was a player and manager for the Birmingham Barons of the Southern Association in 1944 . In 1945 , he left Wofford for the summer to play for the Buffalo Bisons in the International League . He returned to Wofford after World War II . Wofford had suspended its football and basketball programs in 1943 and 1944 , but Petoskey announced that the school would bring both programs back in the 1945 – 46 school year . He also served as coach of the Wofford football team .

= = = Baseball coach at South Carolina ( 1948 – 56 ) = = =

In 1948 , Petoskey returned to the University of South Carolina where he was the head coach of the baseball team until 1956 . He also served as an ends coach for the South Carolina football team . In twelve seasons as South Carolina 's head baseball coach , Petoskey compiled a record of 113 – 120 . Petoskey 's baseball players remembered his love of playing poker and his bringing the team home hungry after a tough loss to Duke . In what team members remembered as the " hunger game , " an angry Coach Petoskey told the players to " get on the bus , " and the team rode from Durham , North Carolina to Columbia , South Carolina ( 236 miles ) without having eaten . Another time against Furman University , the Gamecocks blew an 11 – 2 lead in the 8th inning to lose 12 – 11 . On the bus , Petoskey had " that look , " and the driver figured the team would receive a tongue @-@ lashing . " He said , ' I don 't want to hear a word out of you guys , and that goes for you , too , Bussie . ' "

= = Later years = =

In December 1956 , Petoskey announced he was leaving the University of South Carolina to work for the New York Yankees , as a baseball scout for the Georgia , North Carolina , South Carolina and eastern Tennessee territory . As a Yankees ' scout , he signed Duke catcher Steve Crihfield to a contract . And in 1959 , when the Yankees moved spring training for their farm system to Columbia , South Carolina , Petoskey was responsible for the logistics and preparing Capital City Park . He served in the mid @-@ 1960s as the director of recreation for the South Carolina Department of Corrections . Petoskey died in Elgin , South Carolina at age 85 in 1996 .

His son Ted Petoskey , Jr . , followed his father playing end in American football . Ted , Jr . , was chosen to play end for the South Carolina high school team in the 1959 Shrine Bowl against the North Carolina team , and was named South Carolina high school AAA Lineman of the Year . He went on to play end for the Clemson Tigers football team from 1962 to 1964 .

= = Head coaching record = =

= = = College football = = =

= = = College basketball = = =

= = = College baseball = = =

= Psilocybe hispanica =

Psilocybe hispanica is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae . It produces small brown mushrooms with conical to convex caps up to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter and stems 16 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 to 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick . Reported as new to science in 2000 , it is only known from the Pyrenees mountain range in northern Spain and southwestern France , where it grows on horse dung in grass fields at elevations of 1 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 300 m ( 5 @,@ 600 to 7 @,@ 500 ft ) . The mushroom contains the psychoactive compound psilocybin . The possible depiction of this species in the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Selva Pascuala rock art suggests that it might have been used in ancient religious rituals — the oldest evidence of such usage in prehistoric Europe .

= = Taxonomy = =

The species was described by Mexican mycologist Gastón Guzmán in a 2000 publication , based on specimens collected by Ignacio Seral Bozal near Huesca in northern Spain in 1995 . Psilocybe hispanica is classified in the section Semilanceata of the genus Psilocybe because of its thick @-@ walled spores and fruit body that bruises blue with handling . The specific epithet hispanica is Latin for " Spanish " .

= = Description = =

The cap ranges in shape from somewhat conical to convex , and reaches diameters of 5 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) . Its surface is smooth , somewhat sticky to dry , and brown to brownish @-@ yellow . The gills are somewhat adnate , and brown @-@ violaceous with whitish edges . The stem is 16 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 to 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick , cylindrical , and slightly bulbous at the base . It is whitish @-@ yellow , with vinaceous or blue @-@ green to blackish tones towards the base . Mature specimens do not have a veil on the stem . The flesh is whitish , but like most psilocybin @-@ containing species , stains blue when injured .

The spores are ellipsoid and measure 12 – 14 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 – 8 μm . They have a brownish @-@ yellow wall greater than 1 μm thick and a broad apical germ pore with an acute hilar appendix at the base ( a region where the spore was once attached to the sterigma ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 32 – 44 by 8 – 12 μm . The cap cuticle is made of a layer 130 – 150 μm thick , with hyaline , thin @-@ walled gelatinized hyphae measuring 1 @.@ 5 – 4 μm broad . The hypodermium ( the tissue layer directly under the pileipellis ) is made of thin @-@ walled , hyaline hyphae , 2 @.@ 5 – 8 μm broad , with a brownish incrusting pigment . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .

= = = Similar species = = =

Psilocybe semilanceata is roughly similar in appearance to P. hispanica , but may distinguished by its mycenoid ( Mycena @-@ like ) appearance and acute umbonate cap . Although the grassland habitat of the two species is similar , P. semilanceata does not grow directly on dung ; rather , it is a saprobic species that grows on decaying grass roots . P. fimetaria also resembles P. hispanica , but it also has a mycenoid appearance and has a ring on the stem . In terms of microscopic characteristics , P. fimetaria has larger cheilocystidia that measure 20 – 32 by 4 – 8 μm . P. hispanica differs from P. liniformans var. liniformans in that it lacks a gelatinous gill edge . P. liniformans var. americana has larger cheilocystidia , measuring 22 – 33 by 5 @.@ 5 – 9 μm , and it is known to grow only on soil around herbs , in the Northwest and Northeast USA and Chile . Deconica coprophila ( formerly known as Psilocybe coprophila ) is a small brownish mushroom that also grows on dung , but it does not contain psilocybin and does not have a bluing stem .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Psilocybe hispanica is a coprophilous fungus ( dung @-@ loving ) , and produces fruit bodies that grow solitarily or in dense groups on horse dung ; sometimes more than 25 fruit bodies can arise from the same dung . In Guzmán 's original report , they were found in a Pyrenean meadow in Aragon , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) . In 2003 , the species was reported from Tramacastillo de Tena , a small village in the Pyrenees ; it was also reported to have " penetrated the French part of the Pyrenees " . Within its restricted range , the mushroom is " very common " at altitudes of 1 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 300 m ( 5 @,@ 600 to 7 @,@ 500 ft ) .

= = Uses = =

The mushroom is consumed recreationally by Spanish youths for its mind @-@ altering effects ; other mushrooms used recreationally in Spain include P. semilanceata and P. gallaeciae . Guzmán and Castro report that a 17th @-@ century medallion found in Tena Valley in the southern Pyrenees had images of a devil and mushrooms carved on it . The mushrooms — possibly either P. semilanceata or P. hispanica , according to Guzmán and Castro — were used in witchcraft , a common practice in the valley during the Middle Ages .

It has been argued that prehistoric rock art at a site known as Selva Pascuala near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo offers evidence that P. hispanica was used in religious rituals 6 @,@ 000 years ago . The rock shelter at Selva Pascuala was discovered in the early 20th century ; in the early 21st century it was noticed that objects in one of the murals , which previously had been described as " mushrooms " , matched the general morphology of P. hispanica : the mural depicts a row of 13 mushroom @-@ like objects with convex to conical caps , and ringless stems that vary from straight to sinuous ( wavy ) . Additionally , the mural shows a bull , which suggests an association with the coprophilic P. hispanica . Although the hallucinogenic species P. semilanceata is also widespread in the area where the mural was found , its differing shape ( narrowly conical and acutely papillate ) and its habitat on soil instead of dung suggests it is not the species represented in the mural . If the interpretation is correct , the mural represents the oldest evidence of psychedelic fungi use in Europe , and the third reported instance of rock art suggesting prehistoric usage of neurotropic fungi . The only older example is from Tassili n 'Ajjer , in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria . In 1992 , the Italian ethnobotanist Giorgio Samorini reported finding a painted mural dated 7000 to 9000 BCE portraying mushrooms , later tentatively identified as Psilocybe mairei , a species known from Algeria and Morocco .

= Valhalla =

In Norse mythology , Valhalla ( from Old Norse Valhöll " hall of the slain " ) is a majestic , enormous hall located in Asgard , ruled over by the god Odin . Chosen by Odin , half of those who die in combat travel to Valhalla upon death , led by valkyries , while the other half go to the goddess Freyja 's field Fólkvangr . In Valhalla , the dead join the masses of those who have died in combat known as Einherjar , as well as various legendary Germanic heroes and kings , as they prepare to aid Odin during the events of Ragnarök . Before the hall stands the golden tree Glasir , and the hall 's ceiling is thatched with golden shields . Various creatures live around Valhalla , such as the stag Eikþyrnir and the goat Heiðrún , both described as standing atop Valhalla and consuming the foliage of the tree Læraðr .

Valhalla is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , Heimskringla , also written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in stanzas of an anonymous 10th century poem commemorating the death of Eric Bloodaxe known as Eiríksmál as compiled in Fagrskinna . Valhalla has inspired various works of art , publication titles , popular culture references , and has become a term synonymous with a martial ( or otherwise ) hall of the chosen dead .

= = Attestations = =

= = = Poetic Edda = = =

Valhalla is referenced at length in the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , and Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , while Valhalla receives lesser direct references in stanza 33 of the Völuspá , where the god Baldr 's death is referred to as the " woe of Valhalla " , and in stanzas 1 to 3 of Hyndluljóð , where the goddess Freyja states her intention of riding to Valhalla with Hyndla , in an effort to help Óttar , as well as in stanzas 6 through 7 , where Valhalla is mentioned again during a dispute between the two .

= = = = Grímnismál = = = =

In stanzas 8 to 10 of Grímnismál , the god Odin ( in the guise of Grímnir ) states that Valhalla is located in the realm of Glaðsheimr . Odin describes Valhalla as shining and golden , and that it " rises peacefully " when seen from afar . From Valhalla , every day Odin chooses from those who have died in combat . Valhalla has spear @-@ shafts for rafters , a roof thatched with shields , coats of mail are strewn over its benches , a wolf hangs in front of its west doors , and an eagle hovers above it .

From stanzas 22 to 24 , more details are given by Odin about Valhalla : the holy doors of the ancient gate Valgrind stand before Valhalla , Valhalla has five hundred and forty doors that eight hundred men can exit from at once ( from which the einherjar will flow forth to engage the wolf Fenrir at Ragnarök ) . Within Valhalla exists Thor 's hall Bilskirnir , and within it exist five hundred and forty rooms , and of all the halls within Valhalla , Odin states that he thinks his son 's may be greatest . In stanzas 25 through 26 , Odin states that the goat Heiðrún and the hart Eikþyrnir stand on top of Valhalla and graze on the branches of the tree Læraðr . Heiðrún produces vats of mead that liquor cannot be compared to , and from Eikþyrnir 's antlers drip liquid into the spring Hvergelmir from which flows forth all waters .

= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana II = = = =

In stanza 38 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II , the hero Helgi Hundingsbane dies and goes to Valhalla . In stanza 38 , Helgi 's glory there is described :

So was Helgi beside the chieftains

like the bright @-@ growing ash beside the thorn @-@ bush

and the young stag , drenched in dew ,

who surpasses all other animals

and whose horns glow against the sky itself .

Prose follows after this stanza , stating that a burial @-@ mound was made for Helgi , and that when Helgi arrived in Valhalla , he was asked by Odin to manage things with him . In stanza 39 , Helgi , now in Valhalla , has his former enemy Hunding — also in Valhalla — do menial tasks ; fetching foot @-@ baths for all of the men there , kindling fire , tying dogs , keeping watch of horses , and feeding the pigs before he can get any sleep . In stanzas 40 to 42 , Helgi has returned to Midgard from Valhalla with a host of men . An unnamed maid of Sigrún , Helgi 's valkyrie wife , sees Helgi and his large host of men riding into the mound . The maid asks if she is experiencing a delusion , if Ragnarök has begun , or if Helgi and his men have been allowed to return .

In the stanzas that follow , Helgi responds that none of these things have occurred , and so Sigrún 's maid goes home to Sigrún . The maid tells Sigrún that the burial mound has opened up , and that Sigrún should go to Helgi there , as Helgi has asked her to come and tend his wounds , which have opened up and are bleeding . Sigrún goes into the mound , and finds that Helgi is drenched in gore , his hair is thick with frost . Filled with joy at the reunion , Sigrún kisses him before he can remove his coat of mail , and asks how she can heal him . Sigrún makes a bed there , and the two sleep together in the enclosed burial mound . Helgi awakens , stating that he must " ride along the blood @-@ red roads , to set the pale horse to tread the path of the sky , " and return before the rooster Salgófnir crows . Helgi and the host of men ride away , and Sigrún and her servant go back to their house . Sigrún has her maid wait for him by the mound the next night , but when she arrives at dawn , she finds that he has not returned . The prose narrative at the end of the poem relates that Sigrún dies of sadness , but that the two are thought to have been reborn as Helgi Haddingjaskati and the valkyrie Kára .

= = = Prose Edda = = =

Valhalla is referenced in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál .

= = = = Gylfaginning = = = =

Valhalla is first mentioned in chapter 2 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , where it is described partially in euhemerized form . In the chapter , King Gylfi sets out to Asgard in the guise of an old man going by the name of Gangleri to find the source of the power of the gods . The narrative states that the Æsir foresaw his arrival and had prepared grand illusions for him , so that when Gangerli enters the fortress , he sees a hall of such a height that he has trouble seeing over it , and notices that the roof of the hall is covered in golden shields , as if they were shingles . Snorri then quotes a stanza by the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir ( c . 900 ) . As he continues , Gangleri sees a man in the doorway of the hall juggling short swords , and keeping seven in the air at once . Among other things , the man says that the hall belongs to his king , and adds that he can take Gangleri to the king . Gangleri follows him , and the door closes behind him . All around him he sees many living areas , and throngs of people , some of which are playing games , some are drinking , and others are fighting with weapons . Gangleri sees three thrones , and three figures sitting upon them : High sitting on the lowest throne , Just @-@ As @-@ High sitting on the next highest throne , and Third sitting on the highest . The man guiding Gangleri tells him that High is the king of the hall .

In chapter 20 , Third states that Odin mans Valhalla with the Einherjar : the dead who fall in battle and become Odin 's adopted sons . In chapter 36 , High states that valkyries serve drinks and see to the tables in Valhalla , and Grímnismál stanzas 40 to 41 are then quoted in reference to this . High continues that the valkyries are sent by Odin to every battle , where they choose who is to die , and determine victory .

In chapter 38 , Gangleri says : " You say that all men who have fallen in battle from the beginning of the world are now with Odin in Valhalla . With what does he feed them ? I should think the crowd there is large . " High responds that this is indeed true , that a huge amount are already in Valhalla , but yet this amount will seem to be too few when " the wolf comes . " High describes that there are never too many to feed in Valhalla , for they feast from Sæhrímnir ( here described as a boar ) , and that this beast is cooked every day and is again whole every night . Grímnismál stanza 18 is then recounted . Gangleri asks if Odin himself eats the same food as the Einherjar , and High responds that Odin needs nothing to eat — Odin only consumes wine — and he gives his food to his wolves Geri and Freki . Grímnismál stanza 19 is then recounted . High additionally states that at sunrise , Odin sends his ravens Huginn and Muninn from Valhalla to fly throughout the entire world , and they return in time for the first meal there .

In chapter 39 , Gangleri asks about the food and drinks the Einherjar consume , and asks if only water is available there . High replies that , of course , Valhalla has food and drinks fit for kings and jarls , for the mead consumed in Valhalla is produced from the udders of the goat Heiðrún , who in turn feeds on the leaves of the " famous tree " Læraðr . The goat produces so much mead in a day that it fills a massive vat large enough for all of the Einherjar in Valhalla to satisfy their thirst from it . High further states that the stag Eikþyrnir stands atop Valhalla and chews on the branches of Læraðr . So much moisture drips from his horns that it falls down to the well Hvelgelmir , resulting in numerous rivers .

In chapter 40 , Gangleri muses that Valhalla must be quite crowded , to which High responds by stating that Valhalla is massive and remains roomy despite the large amount of inhabitants , and then quotes Grímnismál stanza 23 . In chapter 41 , Gangleri says that Odin seems to be quite a powerful lord , as he controls quite a big army , but he yet wonders how the Einherjar keep themselves busy when they are not drinking . High replies that daily , after they 've dressed and put on their war gear , they go out to the courtyard and battle one another in one @-@ on @-@ one combat for sport . Then , when mealtime comes , they ride home to Valhalla and drink . High then quotes Vafþrúðnismál stanza 41 . In chapter 42 , High describes that , " right at the beginning , when the gods were settling " they had established Asgard and then built Valhalla . The death of the god Baldr is recounted in chapter 49 , where the mistletoe that is used to kill Baldr is described as growing west of Valhalla .

= = = = Skáldskaparmál = = = =

At the beginning of Skáldskaparmál , a partially euhemerized account is given of Ægir visiting the gods in Asgard and shimmering swords are brought out and used as their sole source of light as they drink . There , numerous gods feast , they have plenty of strong mead , and the hall has wall @-@ panels covered with attractive shields . This location is confirmed as Valhalla in chapter 33 .

In chapter 2 , a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem Eiríksmál is provided ( see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail and another translation from another source ) :

What sort of dream is that , Odin ? I dreamed I rose up before dawn to clear up Val @-@ hall for slain people . I aroused the Einheriar , bade them get up to strew the benches , clean the beer @-@ cups , the valkyries to serve wine for the arrival of a prince .

In chapter 17 of Skáldskaparmál , the jötunn Hrungnir is in a rage and , while attempting to catch up and attack Odin on his steed Sleipnir , ends up at the doors to Valhalla . There , the Æsir invite him in for a drink . Hrungnir goes in , demands a drink , and becomes drunk and belligerent , stating that he will remove Valhalla and take it to the land of the jötunn , Jötunheimr , among various other things . Eventually , the gods tire of his boasting and invoke Thor , who arrives . Hrungnir states that Thor is under their protection , and subsequently he can 't be harmed while in Valhalla . After an exchange of words , Hrungnir challenges Thor to a duel at the location of Griotunagardar , resulting in Hrungnir 's death .

In chapter 34 , the tree Glasir is stated as located in front of the doors of Valhalla . The tree is described as having foliage of red gold and being the most beautiful tree among both gods and men . A quote from a work by the 9th century skald Bragi Boddason is presented that confirms the description .

= = = Heimskringla = = =

Valhalla is mentioned in euhemerized form and as an element of remaining Norse pagan belief in Heimskringla . In chapter 8 of Ynglinga saga , the " historical " Odin is described as ordaining burial laws over his country . These laws include that all the dead are to be burned on a pyre on a burial mound with their possessions , and their ashes are to be brought out to sea or buried in the earth . The dead would then arrive in Valhalla with everything that one had on their pyre , and whatever one had hidden in the ground . Valhalla is additionally referenced in the phrase " visiting Odin " in a work by the 10th century skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir describing that , upon his death , King Vanlandi went to Valhalla .

In chapter 32 of Hákonar saga Góða , Haakon I of Norway is given a pagan burial , which is described as sending him on his way to Valhalla . Verses from Hákonarmál are then quoted in support , themselves containing references to Valhalla .

= = = Fagrskinna = = =

In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna , a prose narrative states that , after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe , Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him . The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál , and describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death . The poem begins with comments by Odin ( as Old Norse Óðinn ) :

'What kind of a dream is it , ' said Óðinn ,

in which just before daybreak ,

I thought I cleared Valhǫll ,

for coming of slain men ?

I waked the Einherjar ,

bade valkyries rise up ,

to strew the bench ,

and scour the beakers ,

wine to carry ,

as for a king 's coming ,

here to me I expect

heroes ' coming from the world ,

certain great ones ,

so glad is my heart .

The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from , and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking — as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla — and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand . Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe , who will soon arrive in Valhalla . Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall , if it is indeed he .

Sigmund asks Odin why he would expect Eric more than any other king , to which Odin responds that Eric has reddened his gore @-@ drenched sword with many other lands . Eric arrives , and Sigmund greets him , tells him that he is welcome to come into the hall , and asks him what other lords he has brought with him to Valhalla . Eric says that with him are five kings , that he will tell them the name of them all , and that he , himself , is the sixth .

= = Locations = =

Multiple places have been named after Valhalla . These include :

the Walhalla temple built by Leo von Klenze for Ludwig I of Bavaria between 1830 – 1847 near Regensburg , Germany , and

the Tresco Abbey Gardens Valhalla museum built by August Smith around 1830 to house ship figureheads from shipwrecks that occurred at the Isles of Scilly , England , where the museum is located .

A crater , Valhalla , located on the planet Jupiter 's moon Callisto , is named after the hall .

Valhalla Borgen in Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen , Denmark

Valhalla in Pleasure Beach Blackpool in Blackpool , England

Locations named after Valhalla also exist :

North America :

Valhalla , New York

Valhalla Centre , Alberta

Valhalla Golf Club in Louisville , Kentucky

Lake Valhalla in Washington

Mt . Valhalla in Chequamegon @-@ Nicolet National Forest , Bayfield County , Wisconsin

Walhalla , Michigan

Walhalla , North Dakota

Walhalla , South Carolina

and Walhalla , Texas

Walhalla , Victoria

Valhalla , Pretoria

= NSB Di 3 =

NSB Di 3 is a class of 35 diesel @-@ electric locomotives built by NOHAB for the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . The class was built between 1954 and 1969 , and delivered in two series , Di 3a and Di 3b . They are based on the Electro @-@ Motive Division F7 and are equipped with EMD 567 engines . They have a distinct bulldog nose and were numbered 602 – 633 ( a @-@ series ) and 641 – 643 ( b @-@ series ) . The locomotives had a prime mover that gives a power output of 1 @,@ 305 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 750 hp ) . The a @-@ series has a Co 'Co ' wheel arrangement , while the b @-@ series has ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' . The b @-@ series has higher top speed , but lower tractive effort .

The class was the dominant locomotive on NSB 's unelectrified lines . It was ordered as part of the company 's dieselization of services during the 1950s and 1960s , and was initially used on the three mainline routes of the Bergen , Dovre and Nordland Lines . In the 1960s the Bergen and Dovre Lines were electrified and the Di 3 units transferred to smaller lines , such as the Meråker , Valdres , Røros , Solør and Rauma Lines . They remained in service with NSB until 2001 , five years later than planned due to NSB returning their successor , the Di 6 . The units are still in use by the private operator Ofotbanen , the Kosovo Railways , an operator in Sicily , and the Norwegian Railway Museum . The class is similar to the DSB Class MY and MÁV M61 .

= = Construction = =

The first diesel locomotive used by NSB was a single Di 1 unit delivered in 1942 . It was more cost @-@ efficient than the steam locomotives used on the non @-@ electrified lines , and in 1945 , NSB decided that it would not order more steam locomotives . General Motors ' Electro Motive Division ( EMD ) made a bid to deliver twelve units based on their F7 , and NSB agreed to lease a single unit for trial . The body and mechanical components were built by NOHAB , the motors by ASEA and prime mover by EMD . While under production in 1954 , GM shipped a G12 for trial in Norway and Sweden . It was tested on the express train on the Dovre Line on 7 August , but proved to have insufficient power , causing the train to be 20 minutes late .

The trial unit from NOHAB was delivered on 17 September 1954 . The first test runs in scheduled service were on the Nordland Line between Trondheim and Mo i Rana in October . There were no technical faults until 22 December , when a grounding error caused the locomotive to be grounded until 17 January . In March the unit was sent back to NOHAB and went on a marketing tour that would eventually reach Ankara , Turkey in 1955 .

The locomotive returned to Norway on 1 July 1955 , where it was numbered 602 and put into service on the Nordland Line . The trials were successful , with much higher regularity than the steam locomotives . The Di 3 was used eight days in a row , and then spent a single day in the depot . NSB signed an agreement with NOHAB for delivery of five further locomotives . This caused a public debate , because the domestic supplier Thune had offered to build a similar locomotive in cooperation with American Locomotive Company . The first delivery was made on 25 April 1957 , and the order completed by July . In March 1957 NSB received permission to buy another eight locomotives . Delivery started in October and was completed on 1 June 1958 . The order was supplemented with another six trains , with delivery in 1958 .

The Finnish State Railways ( VR ) ordered five units in 1959 , but these were cancelled for political reasons . The units were offered to NSB for a reduced price . Three were designated Di 3b because they had a slight specification variation , with a ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' wheel arrangement and higher top speed . Two units had come short enough in the production process that they could be given the same specifications as the other Di 3a units , but received a slightly longer body . The Di 3b were given the numbers 641 – 643 . For part of 1960 , no . 623 was leased by NOHAB and sent on a demonstration tour in Eastern Europe . This resulted in an order from the Hungarian State Railways , where it became the MAV M61 . The Røros Line was upgraded and the Bergen Line units transferred to Trondheim in 1960 , but increased need for hauling forced NSB to not use the units on the Røros Line until the delivery of the next batch of six units in 1965 . The final delivery , of four units , was made in 1969 .

= = Operation = =

The initial use for the Di 3 was to operate the three non @-@ electrified long @-@ distance lines of NSB : the Bergen Line , the Dovre Line and the Nordland Line . Following the delivery of the first batch in 1957 , they were from 2 June used on the Dovre Line , north of Otta to Trondheim , and further north along the Nordland Line to Mo i Rana . The stock was sufficient to replace all steam locomotives on the Nordland Line , and reduced travel time by one hour . From Hamar to Otta , the track did not have sufficient permitted axle load . From the second batch of eight units , five were put into service on the Bergen Line , the rest on the Dovre and Nordland Lines . Necessary upgrades of the permitted axle load had been made to the Dovre Line and Nordland Line , and the locomotives were in use from Hamar to Saltdal . On 30 November , the Nordland Line was completed to Fauske , and the full length operated with Di 3 .

The first section of the Bergen Line , the Gjøvik Line and the Roa – Hønefoss Line , was electrified in February 1961 . This allowed diesel and electric locomotives to haul all trains from Oslo to Bergen . In 1962 the Nordland Line was completed to Bodø , but the increased need for locomotives was more than compensated by the electrification of the Bergen Line being extended to Ål . The first Di 3 ran on the Røros Line in 1964 , that had previously been denied due to bridges with insufficient axle load permits . In 1965 , the Bergen Line was electrified , and all but one Di 3 was transferred to Trondheim . A single unit , usually no . 610 , was stationed at Finse Station as a snowplow . Along with additional deliveries , there were sufficient Di 3 units to terminate most steam operations .

After the Bergen Line was electrified , the work continued on the Dovre Line . The section from Hamar to Otta was finished in 1967 , and the following year to Dombås . This allowed the locomotives to be transferred to secondary lines . With the final delivery of the last units in 1969 and the completion of the electrification of the Dovre Line in 1970 , the final steam locomotive was taken out of service . During the last half of the 1960s , the Di 3 was put into service on the Rauma Line , the Røros Line , the Solør Line , the Valdres Line and the Meråker Line .

In November 1970 , the Dovre Line was electrified , and the last steam locomotives were retired . A long @-@ term plan to electrify half the lines was finished , and for two decades , NSB 's operations were very stable with no major investments to infrastructure or closing of lines . NSB had slightly less diesel locomotives than they needed , but plans to order additional Di 3 was never fulfilled . In 1981 , NSB took delivery of five Di 4 to supplement the older units . They were mainly used on the Nordland Line , and Di 3 units were predominantly used on the other lines , although they continued to operate som trains on the Nordland Line . On 1 April 1987 , a Di 3 612 caught on fire ; the damage was small enough that it could have been repaired , but NSB instead decided to put aside the unit . At the time NSB planned to order additional Di 4 , but these plans were put on hold . In 1988 , the Valdres Line was closed ; this was the only time a line with Di 3 in regular service was closed .

During the 1980s , NSB started leasing SJ T44 @-@ locomotives from Sweden to supplement the Di 3 . In 1992 , the decision was made to order 12 Di 6 and 20 Di 8 to replace the Di 3 . The former was based on the Di 4 and had twice the power of the Di 3 . The Di 8 was slightly more powerful than the Di 3 , and were intended for freight trains . Both series were put into service in 1996 , but the Di 6 proved to have so many technical problems that they were returned to Siemens in 1998 . The Di 3 units had been set aside and some had been scrapped , but the return of the Di 6 forced NSB to put the units back into service .

During the mid @-@ 1990s , NSB had initiated a program to replace the traditional locomotive and carriage trains with new , tilting multiple units . This had led to the order of sixteen Class 73 four @-@ car units for the three mainline routes on the Bergen Line , Dovre Line and Sørland Line . To supplement this , the board of NSB decided on 14 November 1996 to purchase seven tilting diesel multiple units for the Røros and Rauma Lines . The choice fell on Class 93 , with fifteen units eventually delivered . This allowed all passenger trains on diselized lines to either be operated with Class 93 be hauled by the Di 4 . The last Di 3 @-@ hauled train ran on 7 January 2001 .

= = = Post @-@ NSB = = =

With the delivery of Class 93 , NSB started to retire or sell the Di 3 . In November 2001 , five units were sold for NOK 250 @,@ 000 each — well under market price — to the new private operator Ofotbanen . The purchase raised controversy , because the potential operator Banetransport had offered full market price for the trains . One year after delivery , six of eleven Class 93 @-@ locomotives were out of order . To solve the problem , NSB had to rent back used Di 3 locomotives from Ofotbanen . NSB had chosen to sell the old locomotives for less than market price , but Ofotbanen demanded that NSB pay the entire purchase price for the short @-@ term rental back .

Four units ( 619 , 633 , 641 and 643 ) were sold to the United Nations and was put into service in Kosovo , in what has since become the Kosovo Railways . Four units ( 622 , 626 , 630 and 631 ) were sold to an operator in Sicily , Italy . The Norwegian National Rail Administration bought one unit ( 628 ) for maintenance , and has painted it yellow . The Norwegian Railway Museum in Hamar has preserved three units , of which two ( 602 and 616 ) were operated by GM @-@ Gruppen and one ( 615 ) is kept for spare parts . NSB has kept one unit as reserve at Ål Station . The remaining units have been scrapped , put aside or sold as spare part units .

= = Specifications = =

The Di 3 was built by Nydquist och Holm of Trollhätten , Sweden , as part of a series of GM EMD AA16 locomotives in Europe . They are technically similar to the DSB Class MY of Denmark and the MAV M61 of Hungary . The locomotives are powered by a 16 @-@ cylinder EMD 16 @.@ 567 C or E engine that has a power output of 1 @,@ 305 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 750 horsepower ) at 835 revolutions per minute ( rpm ) . The engines power an EMD D32 or D12 generator that feeds six ASEA LJB76 or LJB84 motors on a Di 3a . The Di 3b is equipped with four EMD D40 or D77B motors . This gives a tractive effort of 265 kilonewtons ( 60 @,@ 000 lbf ) for the a @-@ series and 176 @.@ 5 kilonewtons ( 39 @,@ 700 pounds @-@ force ) for the b @-@ series . The motors have a power output of 1 @,@ 100 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 500 horsepower ) . The maximum speed is 105 kilometres per hour ( 65 mph ) for the a @-@ series and 143 kilometres per hour ( 89 miles per hour ) for the b @-@ series .

The steel bodies are 18 @.@ 60 or 18 @.@ 90 metres ( 61 @.@ 0 or 62 @.@ 0 ft ) long . The longer length is for the three b @-@ series units and the two a @-@ series locomotives that were made in the batch , originally intended for VR . The a @-@ series has a Co 'Co ' wheel arrangement , while the b @-@ series has a ( A1A ) ' ( A1A ) ' arrangement , where the center of the three axles on each bogie is unpowered . The wheels have a 1 @,@ 016 millimetres ( 3 ft 4 @.@ 0 in ) wheel diameter and the locomotives have a weight of 102 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 100 @.@ 4 long tons ; 112 @.@ 4 short tons ) for the a @-@ series and 103 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 101 @.@ 4 long tons ; 113 @.@ 5 short tons ) for the b @-@ series . The trains can be run in multiple with the Di 4 , Di 6 and Di 8 . All the Di 3 engines featured a bulldog nose , the only locomotive type in Norway to do so . The locomotives were at first delivered in a dark green livery , but during the 1960s this was changed to red , and the last delivered units never had a green scheme .

= Queen Vic Fire Week =

" Queen Vic Fire Week " is a group of four episodes of the BBC soap opera EastEnders , broadcast between 6 and 10 September 2010 on BBC One . The episodes included a fire at The Queen Victoria public house , also known as The Queen Vic or The Vic , and the departure of the character Peggy Mitchell , portrayed by Barbara Windsor , who left the series after sixteen years in the role . During the episodes , Peggy — the pub landlady — has her crack cocaine @-@ addicted son Phil ( Steve McFadden ) imprisoned in The Queen Victoria , forcing him to go cold turkey . She later learns that her deceased husband Archie ( Larry Lamb ) was murdered by local resident Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) . Before she can report Stacey to the police , Phil escapes and sets the pub on fire . Stacey and her infant daughter Lily are trapped inside , but are rescued by Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) , prompting Stacey to reveal to him that he is Lily 's father . The pub destroyed , Peggy decides against reporting Stacey for Lily 's sake . She plans to make a fresh start , bidding her family goodbye and leaving Walford .

The episodes were directed by Lee Salisbury and produced by Bryan Kirkwood . The first was written by Daran Little and the remainder by Simon Ashdown . Kirkwood intended to give Windsor an " epic and poignant " departure , as befitting her status as the ultimate EastEnders matriarch . The fire storyline was created for her exit , and to facilitate a refurbishment of The Queen Victoria set for the transition to high @-@ definition television broadcasting . The episodes were filmed over seventeen days , more than twice the series ' typical filming duration , with the interior set rebuilt on the George Lucas Stage in Elstree for the fire . A special version of the theme tune , called " Peggy 's Theme " , was created for Windsor 's final episode . It was released as an EP , available for download following the episode , and features as the lead track on composer Simon May 's album The Simon May Collection . The episodes were accompanied by two documentaries on BBC Three , one following the filming of the fire , and the other examining ten of Peggy 's most iconic moments in EastEnders .

Viewership ranged from 8 @.@ 60 – 10 @.@ 09 million , with no episode watched by less than a third of the total viewing audience . They were the most watched programmes on BBC One in the week of broadcast , and the Friday episode was the second @-@ most watched show across all channels . The episodes received a mixed response from critics . Several highlighted inaccuracies and implausibilities in the storyline , including the lack of fire alarms and sprinklers in the pub . Others focussed on Peggy 's departure , with James McCarthy of the Western Mail writing that it would " doubtless remain the stuff of EastEnders ' legend for years to come , " and Jim Shelley calling it " a good way to go . " In contrast , the Daily Mirror 's Polly Hudson found Peggy 's exit a nonsensical " non event " , and Gareth McLean of The Guardian deemed it " suitably sentimental " , but several years overdue . The fire was nominated in the " Best Stunt " category at the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards .

= = Plot = =

= = = 6 September 2010 = = =

Peggy Mitchell ( Barbara Windsor ) , who has just regained her status as landlady of The Queen Victoria public house , decides to throw a wedding reception for Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) and Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) to let everyone know the pub is hers again . Peggy 's friend Pat Evans ( Pam St. Clement ) arranges a hen party for Janine at the R & R nightclub , but Janine feels betrayed by Pat when Peggy reveals that she said Janine 's marriage would not last . Janine meets a man named Richard Monroe ( Andrew Hall ) , who settles her bill . Impressed by his car , Janine leaves with him . Worried about her son Phil ( Steve McFadden ) because of his addiction to the drug crack cocaine , Peggy enlists the help of Minty Peterson ( Cliff Parisi ) and Billy Mitchell ( Perry Fenwick ) to abduct him from the flat he is living in . They bring him back to The Queen Victoria , locking him in the living room upstairs , where the windows have been boarded up to stop him from escaping . Stacey Branning ( Lacey Turner ) reveals to Dot Branning ( June Brown ) that her deceased husband Bradley ( Charlie Clements ) is not the father of her baby Lily .

= = = 7 September 2010 = = =

Stacey explains to Dot that Bradley knew he was not Lily 's father . Dot informs Bradley 's father Max ( Jake Wood ) , who tells her he already knows . Concerned by Stacey telling people her secrets , he wonders if she has ceased taking medication for her bipolar disorder . He tells her that she needs to keep the truth about Lily 's father and the fact that she killed Peggy 's husband Archie ( Larry Lamb ) several months previously to herself . Phil tries to convince various people to let him out as he is suffering withdrawal symptoms , but nobody will . Janine awakens in Richard 's flat and gets dressed , though they did not have sex . She returns home and tells Pat that she feels guilty , and Pat tells her not to inform Ryan . Janine fears that she is not good enough for Ryan , but he reassures her and they marry . Stacey attends their wedding reception in The Queen Victoria , leaving Lily in a bedroom upstairs . She is surprised by a photograph of Peggy and Archie , and is frightened to hear Phil making noises in the living room . Stacey tells Peggy that she thinks Archie is alive and locked upstairs . Peggy assures Stacey that Archie is dead , telling her that Bradley killed him , as he was posthumously found guilty of the murder . Stacey then confesses that she killed Archie .

= = = 9 September 2010 = = =

Peggy demands that Stacey leave the pub and Stacey pleads with her not to call the police for Lily 's sake . She attempts to tell Ryan that he is Lily 's father , but is interrupted by Pat , who thinks Stacey is trying to seduce him and slaps her . Phil smashes through the door using a crowbar that was left in the room . He starts taking cash and drinking alcohol , and interrupts Peggy before she can call the police about Stacey . They argue , with Phil accusing Peggy of loving the pub more than she loves him and throwing a match to the alcohol @-@ soaked floor to start a fire . It spreads quickly , causing an explosion . The customers flee the pub , Syed Masood ( Marc Elliott ) is knocked to the ground and trampled in the process but is rescued by his father Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) and brother Tamwar ( Himesh Patel ) .

Peggy tries in vain to extinguish the flames , but is forced out by her friends and family . Stacey , unaware of the events , heads upstairs to Lily and becomes trapped . She uses the crowbar to smash a boarded @-@ up window and hands Lily over to Ryan , who has climbed a ladder . Peggy realises Phil is still inside and returns to the building with Billy . They find him trapped beneath a wooden beam , and are able to drag him out to safety . Ryan goes back up the ladder and carries an unconscious Stacey out . Stacey regains consciousness and sees that Lily is safe , and tells Ryan that Lily is his daughter . Peggy stares at the pub as it is completely destroyed .

= = = 10 September 2010 = = =

The next day , Peggy visits Stacey in hospital and asks her to confess to burning the pub , as a sentence for arson would be less than one for murder , but Stacey refuses . Peggy realises that Stacey needs to look after her daughter so she leaves . Ryan confronts Stacey at the hospital , shocked with her confession , refuses to acknowledge his daughter , and goes on his honeymoon with Janine . Peggy goes into the pub and looks around as she remembers events from her time there . She then tells Billy she wants to take Phil away to make a fresh start and to protect him . Her niece Ronnie ( Samantha Womack ) tells Peggy she is five months pregnant and asks Peggy not to leave as she is like a mother to her . Peggy tells Ronnie to give her real mother , Glenda ( Glynis Barber ) , another chance . Peggy 's daughter Sam ( Danniella Westbrook ) does not want her to leave as Peggy promised to look after Sam 's baby Richard for her , however , Peggy says she is old now and the baby needs a strong mother . Peggy gives her jewellery to Sam to sell so she has some money . Peggy speaks to Phil , accepting responsibility for making him the way he is and offering to help him get off the drugs . He says she needs him more than he needs her and that she suffocates him . Realising that he is right , Peggy asks the rest of her family to look after him , saying emotional goodbyes . Though Phil claims not to have meant what he said , Peggy says she has to leave for his sake . As she leaves the house , Phil begins to follow her , but she sends him back inside . She looks at the pub and walks out of Walford .

= = Background = =

In October 2009 , actress Barbara Windsor 's decision to leave EastEnders after sixteen years of portraying the character Peggy Mitchell was announced . The show 's executive producer , Bryan Kirkwood , said it was a massive honour for him to be responsible for the character 's exit , but explained that as she has become the " quintessential matriarch of the show " , they had to get the exit storyline right , which he said would be " both epic and poignant " . Windsor gave one year 's notice of leaving , giving the production team time to come up with a storyline , and was asked to keep her decision a secret until the announcement was made . Kirkwood looked at Windsor 's first episode and decided her exit should be about Peggy and her son Phil , as Peggy 's arrival came at a time when Phil needed her most , and since then , she had believed that Phil still needed her . Peggy 's exit came when she realised his mother was not what Phil needed . Windsor did not want to know in advance how her character would leave , but hoped she would not be killed off . She commented : " My exit was beautifully written and I really couldn ’ t have asked for a better send @-@ off for Peggy . "

In June 2010 , it was announced that The Queen Victoria would be destroyed in a fire to tie in with EastEnders ' transition to high definition so the set could be completely refurbished . It was reported that the fire could tie in with the departure of Peggy or one of the several other characters whose departure had previously been announced . Director Lee Salisbury said the fire , as well as Peggy 's departure , would have a huge effect on several characters , especially the Mitchell family , of which Peggy is the matriarch . Kirkwood said the fire was " one of the most spectacular stunts that EastEnders has ever seen , and it 's very exciting . "

= = Production = =

= = = Filming = = =

All four episodes were directed by Lee Salisbury , who learned three weeks before filming that he would be working on the episodes , and said he was " a bit dumbstruck " to discover he would be directing the fire episodes and Windsor 's departure , but that he was proud to do so . He said his main aim for the fire was to show the fear , panic and pandemonium that comes when a fire starts and quickly spreads . He wanted the story to be character @-@ led rather than led by the fire , saying that the fire " almost becomes a backdrop " . Salisbury said it was hard to make the fire look real because " you can 't actually set fire to stuff " . As the fire lasted for some time , characters ' scenes could be divided up into small sections . Salisbury commented : " Bryan Kirkwood , the writer [ Ashdown ] and myself also wanted it to be an episode where things kept happening and the audience would keep thinking , ' Wow , that must have been the explosion ' or ' That must have been the stunt ' . But more things keep happening and happening , and I think that 's what people will find really shocking . " The production team had several production meetings for the weeks ' worth of episodes , whereas there is usually just one .

The episodes took seventeen days to film , where normally crew are given eight days to film a week 's worth of episodes . Between forty and forty @-@ five members of crew were required for filming the fire episode , including assistant directors , a design department , cameras , lighting , sound , make up , costume , visual effects , fire safety officers and a stunt team consisting of a stunt co @-@ ordinator and stunt doubles . Filming was done with four television cameras , a steadicam and a dolly . The exterior fire scenes were filmed first , in five night shoots lasting until 4 a.m. , and the real exterior set was burnt . Safety was the top priority for the fire scenes , and fire safety advisors ensured all cast and crew were protected . Stunt doubles wore flame @-@ proof gel on their faces and for the scene where Ryan and Stacey fall from the ladder , several layers of cardboard boxes were stacked on the ground for the stunt doubles to fall onto . For filming the final explosion scene , all the actors whose characters were involved were filmed separately for their reactions . The explosion had to be delayed due to a power failure at Elstree Studios , two minutes before the explosion was due to be set off , which also affected a live broadcast of Big Brother . The power cut lasted two hours and filming was further delayed due to rain . The explosion was completed in a third take . Despite the delay , the scenes were completed on schedule . Salisbury noted that the demise of such an iconic set as The Queen Victoria left several cast members in tears .

The interior set of The Queen Victoria pub was taken apart and rebuilt exactly to scale on the George Lucas Stage , a fire stage at Elstree Film Studios , for interior scenes , filmed over four days . The interior set took seven weeks to build and two weeks to get into the studio . Controlled gas pipes were used to shoot jets of flames and a header was specially built to collapse on Phil . Salisbury had to ensure that the fire for the interior scenes matched that of the already @-@ filmed exterior scenes . Producers decided to extend the 10 September episode featuring Peggy 's departure by ten minutes , meaning it would clash with rival soap opera Coronation Street .

In 2016 , Windsor said that the Queen Vic fire was her favourite stunt to film since joining the cast in 1994 . She called it her " Joan of Arc moment " and revealed that when the explosion happened , she " was actually blown off my feet and landed on Steve McFadden who ended up with bruised ribs " .

= = = Theme music = = =

Windsor 's final episode on 10 September 2010 did not end with the usual EastEnders theme tune . Instead the occasionally used " Julia 's Theme " , a piano version of the theme , was reworked specially for the broadcast , and given the name " Peggy 's Theme " . The theme was created by the original theme tune composer , Simon May , who was reportedly thrilled to write the theme tune for Windsor . He added more piano to the theme and gave it a " more melancholy feel " . May composed the theme not knowing what would happen on screen , but when Kirkwood brought a rough edit of the episode , May noted that the music fitted perfectly first time , saying it was " remarkable and very moving . " The theme features as the lead track on the album The Simon May Collection and was also released as an EP available to download immediately after the episode . He revealed : " All the actors and crew had made a really special couple of shows . My main purpose was to bring something to the table , and I didn 't think it would be a single . [ ... ] But when everybody heard the track they said ' you 've got to release that as the single because it 's something special ' . "

= = = Related media = = =

A number of trailers were released to television in August 2010 to promote Peggy 's departure from the series , and a section on the official EastEnders website was dedicated to the character , allowing fans to " heart Peggy " . The 10 September episode was followed by a twenty @-@ minute episode of documentary programme EastEnders Revealed titled " Peggy Mitchell : Queen of the Vic " . Narrated by Shane Richie , the documentary looked at ten moments from Peggy 's time in the show that made her a British icon . According to overnight figures , it received ratings of 4 @.@ 49 million viewers . Official ratings raised the figure to 4 @.@ 62 million . A documentary looking at the filming of the fire was broadcast on 24 September 2010 on BBC Three . It received 800 @,@ 000 viewers .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

The 6 September episode , featuring Janine 's hen party , attracted 9 @.@ 54 million viewers on BBC One . It was watched by 36 @.@ 1 % of television viewers during its original broadcast . The later BBC Three repeat was viewed by 840 @,@ 000 people , attaining a 3 @.@ 9 % share of the audience during broadcast . The 7 September episode , in which Stacey confessed to Peggy that she killed Archie , was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million people on BBC One and 990 @,@ 000 on BBC Three , with audience shares of 34 @.@ 9 % and 4 @.@ 7 % respectively . The fire episode on 9 September received 9 @.@ 40 million viewers and a 41 % share of the audience , and the BBC Three repeat saw 1 @.@ 59 million viewers ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) tuning in . Peggy 's departure on 10 September received 10 @.@ 09 million viewers for BBC One , a 38 @.@ 1 % share during broadcast , and the later BBC Three repeat was watched by 1 @.@ 16 million viewers , attaining a 5 @.@ 3 % share . Additionally , the four episodes were the most @-@ watched programmes on BBC One that week and the Friday episode was the second most @-@ watched on all channels .

= = = Critical response = = =

The fire and Peggy 's exit episodes garnered a mixed reception by critics . Liam Tucker , founder of website Watch With Mothers , compared the fire episode to the film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and admired the special effects and performances of the episode , but said that it seemed unlikely that everyone would have escaped safely , especially Stacey and her baby . Roz Laws from the Sunday Mercury wondered if the fire episode was inaccurate due to the lack of fire alarms , sprinklers and emergency lighting in the pub , but noted that the episode 's use of the song " Murder on the Dancefloor " , featuring the line " Gonna burn this god damn house right down " , was " clever " . A writer for Heat said " We knew the Vic fire was coming , but actually seeing it was quite another thing , and knowing that it also marked the end of an era with the departure of Barbra [ sic ] Windsor made it that much more emotional . " A reporter for the Nottingham Evening Post wrote " Never in the history of soap fires , of which there have of course been legion , have so many hilariously overindulgent explosions been captured on camera . " The Mail on Sunday picked the fire episode as the " Soap of the Day " , while The People deemed the lack of deaths " a wasted opportunity . " Ally Ross wrote in his column in The Sun that the fire episode was " twenty minutes of shouting " , questioned why one character was seen flouting the smoking ban and Phil was boarded up behind an inward @-@ opening door , and opined that he was glad to see Peggy leave as she had become " increasingly psychotic " and " vile " .

Writing for entertainment news website Digital Spy , Daniel Kilkelly said Peggy 's final episode featured " plenty of poignant moments [ ... ] — not least the scene which saw Peggy standing in the destroyed Queen Vic and appearing completely devastated . " Gareth McLean from The Guardian said the use of " Peggy 's Theme " was a " suitably sentimental sendoff " for the character , but said that " in hindsight , Peggy should have left Walford three or four years ago , her character trapped in a cycle of increasingly samey stories that reduced her to a parody of her former self " , describing her efforts to put out the flames as " like a very sooty clockwork mouse " . James McCarthy of Welsh newspaper Western Mail said Windsor 's " final emotional scene will doubtless remain the stuff of EastEnders ' legend for years to come , " and Jim Shelley from the Daily Mirror said " It was a good way to go . " However , Shelley 's colleague Polly Hudson said Peggy 's exit was a " non event " , as " Peggy just left , nonsensically and at complete odds with everything we 've learnt about her character over the last 15 years . "

In February 2011 , the fire was nominated for ' Best Stunt ' at the 2011 All About Soap Bubble Awards . In May , it was nominated for ' Spectacular Scene of the Year ' at the 2011 British Soap Awards . In 2015 , Inside Soap listed the Queen Vic fire as their 9th favourite soap opera stunt of all time , saying it was " just smoke and mirrors — we wanted proper carnage ! "

= = = Impact = = =

The London Fire Brigade used the " dramatic and distressing " events of EastEnders to publicly highlight the devastation a real fire can cause , urging viewers to be more aware of how to protect themselves .

= Cyclone Kate ( 2006 ) =

Tropical Cyclone Kate was a short @-@ lived Category 2 cyclone that remained nearly stationary for its entire existence in the northwestern Coral Sea in February 2006 . Forming out of a monsoonal trough on 22 February , Kate rapidly intensified throughout the day . By 23 February , the system attained its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 985 hPa ( mbar ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear caused the storm to quickly weaken . By 24 February , the system dissipated over open waters near Queensland , Australia . Although Kate did not directly affect land , large swells produced by the storm impaced beaches in Papua New Guinea and Queensland . The waves injured six people in Australia , although no property damage was reported .

= = Meteorological history = =

Cyclone Kate originated from an area of low pressure that was first identified on 22 February 2006 , within a monsoonal trough . The system rapidly intensified throughout the day , with the Australian Bureau of Meteorology issuing their first advisory on the system that evening . Upon being classified , the system was immediately declared Tropical Cyclone Kate , skipping tropical low status . At the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also began issuing advisories on the system , designating it as Tropical Cyclone 13P . The storm had developed well @-@ defined , upper @-@ level outflow enhanced by diffluence over the system .

The system remained nearly stationary over the northwestern Coral Sea . Early on 23 February , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 985 hPa ( mbar ) . However , the JTWC assessed the system to have been slightly weaker , attaining peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Further intensification was anticipated as Kate slowly tracked towards Queensland , Australia . However , Kate stalled shortly thereafter and began to weaken due to increasing wind shear . Rapid weakening took place throughout the day , and JTWC declared the system dissipated early on 24 February . The Bureau of Meteorology downgraded Kate to a tropical low around the same time , although they continued to monitor the storm for several more hours before reporting that it had dissipated over open waters .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Upon the cyclone 's formation , the Bureau of Meteorology warned vessels to avoid the storm in anticipation of rough seas and winds gusting to 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) . Although the storm did not pose much of a threat to Queensland , officials urged residents to ensure their disaster kits were ready and that preparations for a moderate storm , such as storing lose outdoor objects and clearing gutters , had been completed .

While the storm had no direct impact on land , large swells affected most of the Queensland coastline . In the Shire of Noosa , six surfers sustained serious injuries after wading into turbulent waters . Waves up to 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) tossed the six surfers , leaving them with injuries ranging from broken noses and fractured ankles to head wounds from surfboards . The waves also caused additional beach erosion to parts of Papua New Guinea previously impacted by Cyclone Ingrid in March 2005 .

= Metal Gear Solid =

Metal Gear Solid is an action @-@ adventure stealth video game developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and first published by Konami for the PlayStation in 1998 . The game was directed , produced , and co @-@ written by series creator Hideo Kojima , and serves as a sequel to the MSX2 video games Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake , which Kojima also wrote and directed .

Metal Gear Solid follows Solid Snake , a soldier who infiltrates a nuclear weapons facility to neutralize the terrorist threat from FOXHOUND , a renegade special forces unit . Snake must liberate two hostages , the head of DARPA and the president of a major arms manufacturer , confront the terrorists , and stop them from launching a nuclear strike . Cinematic cutscenes were rendered using the in @-@ game engine and graphics , and voice acting was used throughout the entire game .

Metal Gear Solid was well received , shipping more than six million copies , and scoring an average of 94 / 100 on the aggregate website Metacritic . It is regarded as one of the greatest and most important games of all time , and is often seen as the game which helped popularize the stealth genre . The commercial success of the title prompted the release of an expanded version for the PlayStation and PC , titled Metal Gear Solid : Integral ; and a remake , Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes was later released for the GameCube . The game has also spawned numerous sequels , prequels and spin @-@ offs , including several games , a radio drama , comics , and novels .

= = Gameplay = =

Despite a transition to 3D , the gameplay of Metal Gear Solid remains similar to its 2D MSX2 predecessor Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake . The player must navigate the protagonist , Solid Snake , through the game 's areas without being detected by enemies . Detection is triggered by the player moving into an enemy 's field of vision and sets off an alarm that draws armed enemies to his location . This also triggers " alert mode " and the player must then hide and remain undetected , at which point “ evasion mode ” begins and once the counter reaches zero the game returns to " infiltration mode " where enemies are not suspicious of Snake ’ s presence . The radar cannot be used in alert or evasion mode .

To remain undetected , the player can perform techniques which make use of both Solid Snake 's abilities and the environment , such as crawling under objects , using boxes as cover , ducking or hiding around walls , and making noise to distract enemies . These are carried out using the third @-@ person camera , which often changes its angle to give the player the best view of the area possible , and an on @-@ screen radar , which displays enemies and their field of vision . Snake can also make use of many items and gadgets , such as infra @-@ red goggles or a cardboard box disguise . The emphasis on stealth promotes a less violent form of gameplay , as fights against large groups of enemies will often result in serious damage for the player .

The game 's progress is punctuated by cutscenes and codec , as well as encounters with bosses . To progress , players must discover the weaknesses of each boss and defeat them . Play controls and strategies can also be accessed via the Codec radio , where advice is delivered from Snake 's support team ; for example , the support team may chastise Snake for not saving his progress often enough , or explain his combat moves in terms of which buttons to press on the gamepad . The Codec is also used to provide exposition on the game 's backstory . Completion of the title provides the player with a statistical summary of their performance , and a " code name " based upon it , typically the name of a common animal .

In a first for the Metal Gear series , a training mode , called VR Mode , is available in which players can practice hiding techniques , weapon use , and sneaking . In addition to the stealth gameplay , there are set piece sequences that entail firefights between the player and enemies from the third @-@ person and first @-@ person perspectives .

= = Characters = =

The protagonist of Metal Gear Solid is Solid Snake , a legendary infiltrator and saboteur . During the mission , Snake receives support and advice via codec radio . Colonel Roy Campbell , Solid Snake 's former commanding officer , supports Snake with advice and tactics . While he initially keeps a number of secrets from Snake , he gradually reveals them . He is joined by Naomi Hunter , who gives medical advice ; Nastasha Romanenko , who provides item and weapon tips ; Master Miller , a former drill instructor and survival coach ; and Mei Ling , who invented the soliton radar system used in the mission and is also in charge of mission data ; the player can call her to save the game .

The main antagonist of the game is Liquid Snake , leader of a now @-@ terrorist splinter cell of the organization FOXHOUND , and genetic counterpart to Solid Snake . An elite special forces unit , FOXHOUND contains experts specializing in unique tasks . Members are Revolver Ocelot , a Western @-@ style gunslinger and expert interrogator whose weapon of choice is the Colt Single Action Army ; Sniper Wolf , a preternatural sniper ; Vulcan Raven , a hulking Alaskan shaman armed with an M61 Vulcan torn from a downed F @-@ 16 ; Psycho Mantis , a psychic profiler and psychokinesis expert ; and Decoy Octopus , a master of disguise .

Other characters include Meryl Silverburgh , Colonel Campbell 's niece and a rookie soldier stationed in Shadow Moses who did not join the revolt ; Dr. Hal Emmerich , the lead developer of Metal Gear REX ; and the " Ninja " , a mysterious cybernetically enhanced agent who is neither an ally nor an enemy of Snake but does oppose FOXHOUND .

= = Plot = =

The year is 2005 , six years after the downfall of Zanzibarland . A renegade genetically @-@ enhanced special forces unit , FOXHOUND , has seized a remote island in Alaska 's Fox Archipelago codenamed " Shadow Moses " , the site of a nuclear weapons disposal facility . FOXHOUND threatens to use the nuclear @-@ capable mecha , Metal Gear REX , against the U.S. government if they do not receive the remains of Big Boss and the ransom of $ 1 billion within 24 hours . Solid Snake is forced out of retirement by Colonel Roy Campbell to infiltrate the island and neutralize the threat .

Snake enters the facility via an air vent and locates the first hostage , DARPA Chief Donald Anderson . Anderson reveals that Metal Gear REX can be deactivated with a secret detonation override code , but dies of a heart attack . Colonel Campbell 's niece Meryl Silverburgh , held hostage in an adjoining cell , helps Snake escape . Snake locates another hostage , ArmsTech president Kenneth Baker , but is confronted by FOXHOUND member Revolver Ocelot . Their gunfight is interrupted by a mysterious cyborg ninja who cuts off Ocelot 's right hand . Baker briefs Snake on the Metal Gear project and advises him to contact Meryl , whom he gave a PAL card that might prevent the launch , but he too dies of a sudden heart attack .

Over Codec , Meryl agrees to meet in the warhead disposal area on the condition that Snake contacts Metal Gear 's designer , Dr. Hal " Otacon " Emmerich . En route , Snake receives an anonymous codec call warning him of a tank ambush . Snake fends off the attack from Vulcan Raven and proceeds to the rendezvous , where he locates Otacon . The ninja reappears and Snake realizes it is his former ally Gray Fox , believed dead . Otacon agrees to aid Snake remotely using special camouflage to procure information and supplies .

Snake meets Meryl and receives the PAL card . As they head for the underground base , Meryl is possessed by psychic Psycho Mantis and pulls her gun on Snake . He disarms her and defeats Mantis , who informs Snake that he has " a large place " in her heart . After they reach the underground passageway , Sniper Wolf ambushes them , wounds Meryl , and captures Snake . Liquid confirms Snake 's suspicion that they are twin brothers . After being tortured by Ocelot , Snake is confused to discover Anderson 's body in his cell , seemingly dead for days . He escapes , makes his way up the communications tower , and fends off a helicopter attack from Liquid . As he emerges onto a snowfield , he is confronted again by Sniper Wolf . He kills her , devastating Otacon , who was infatuated with her .

Snake continues to REX 's hangar and is ambushed again by Raven . After Snake defeats him , Raven tells Snake that " Anderson " was in fact FOXHOUND disguise artist Decoy Octopus Infiltrating Metal Gear 's hangar , Snake overhears Liquid and Ocelot preparing the REX launch sequence and uses the PAL card , but this unexpectedly activates REX . Liquid reveals that he has been impersonating Snake 's advisor Master Miller and that FOXHOUND has used Snake to facilitate REX 's launch . He and Snake are the product of the Les Enfants Terribles project , a 1970s government program to clone Big Boss . He also reveals to Snake the government 's true reason for sending him : Snake is unknowingly carrying a weaponized " FoxDie " virus that causes cardiac arrest in FOXHOUND members on contact , allowing the government to retrieve REX undamaged .

As Liquid , in REX , battles Snake , Gray Fox appears , destroys REX 's radome , and is killed . Snake destroys REX and defeats Liquid , then escapes with Meryl or Otacon via an underground tunnel , pursued by Liquid in a Jeep . After their vehicles crash , Liquid pulls a gun on Snake but dies from FoxDie . Colonel Campbell , briefly ousted from command , calls off a nuclear strike to destroy evidence of the operation , and has Snake registered as killed in action to stop the US government searching for him . Naomi Hunter , who injected Snake with the FoxDie virus , tells him that he has an indeterminate amount of time before it kills him . Ocelot calls the U.S. President ; he was a double agent whose mission was to steal Baker 's disk of Metal Gear specifications .

= = Development = =

Kojima initially planned the third Metal Gear game in 1994 , originally titled Metal Gear 3 , and to release it for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer in 1994 . Conceptual artwork , by illustrator Yoji Shinkawa , of the characters Solid Snake , Meryl Silverburgh , who was also a character in the adventure game Policenauts , and the FOXHOUND team , were included in the Policenauts : Pilot Disk preceding the release of the full version of the 3DO game in 1995 . However , due to the discontinuation of the 3DO from the market , development of the game shifted to the PlayStation shortly after Policenauts was released .

Kojima retitled the game Metal Gear Solid , choosing this over the working title Metal Gear 3 . This was due to the fact that he believed that the first two MSX2 games were not well known at the time due to their lack of worldwide releases . He used the word ' Solid ' which was chosen due to the game being the third installment in the series , and because it uses 3D computer graphics , as well as being in reference to Solid Snake , the game 's protagonist . Sequels to this game also use the Metal Gear Solid title , and generally follow a numeral progression .

The development for Metal Gear Solid began in mid @-@ 1995 with the intention of creating the " best PlayStation game ever " . Developers aimed for accuracy and realism while making the game enjoyable and tense . In the early stages of development , the Huntington Beach SWAT team educated the creators with a demonstration of vehicles , weapons and explosives . Weapons expert Motosada Mori was also tapped as technical adviser in the research , which included visits to Fort Irwin and firing sessions at Stembridge Gun Rentals . Kojima stated that " if the player isn 't tricked into believing that the world is real , then there 's no point in making the game " . To fulfill this , adjustments were made to every detail , such as individually designed desks .

Hideo Kojima created the characters of Metal Gear Solid . Modifications and mechanics were made by conceptual artist Yoji Shinkawa . According to Shinkawa , Solid Snake 's physique in this particular installment was based on Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme , while his facial appearance was based on Christopher Walken . The characters were completed by polygonal artists using brush drawings and clay models by Shinkawa . Kojima wanted greater interaction with objects and the environment , such as allowing the player to hide bodies in a storage compartment . Additionally , he wanted " a full orchestra right next to the player " ; a system which made modifications such as tempo and texture to the currently playing track , instead of switching to another pre @-@ recorded track . Although these features could not be achieved , they were implemented in Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty .

Metal Gear Solid was shown to the public at E3 1997 as a short video . It was later playable for the first time at the Tokyo Game Show in 1998 and officially released the same year in Japan with an extensive promotional campaign . Television and magazine advertisements , in @-@ store samples , and demo give @-@ aways contributed to a total of $ 8 million in promotional costs . An estimated 12 million demos for the game were distributed during 1998 .

= = = Music = = =

The musical score of Metal Gear Solid was composed by Konami 's in @-@ house musicians , including Kazuki Muraoka , Hiroyuki Togo , Takanari Ishiyama , Lee Jeon Myung , and Maki Kirioka . Composer and lyricist Rika Muranaka provided a song called " The Best is Yet To Come " for the game 's ending credits sequence . The song is performed in Irish by Aoife Ní Fhearraigh . The main theme was composed by Tappi Iwase from the Konami Kukeiha Club .

Music played in @-@ game has a synthetic feel with increased pace and introduction of strings during tense moments , with a looping style endemic to video games . Overtly cinematic music , with stronger orchestral and choral elements , appears in cutscenes . The soundtrack was released on September 23 , 1998 , under the King Records label .

= = Releases = =

= = = Original version = = =

The English version of Metal Gear Solid , translated by Jeremy Blaustein , who localized the Sega CD version of Snatcher , contains minor refinements made during localization , such as a choice of three difficulty settings when starting a new game ( with a fourth unlockable setting available if a completed file is present ) , an alternate tuxedo outfit for Snake ( which the character wears on every third successive playthrough on the same save file ) , and a " demo theater " where the player views every cutscene and radio conversations relevant to the main story . Changes to the English script include the addition of Western sources and authors to Mei @-@ Ling 's motivational quotes ( originally the character only cited Chinese proverbs ) and the games detected by Psycho Mantis when he reads the player 's memory card ( due to certain titles such as Policenauts and the Tokimeki Memorial series not being released for the foreign market ) . Versions of the game dubbed in Spanish , German , French and Italian were released throughout Europe in addition to the English @-@ dubbed version released in America . A premium package was released in Japan and Asia containing the game , a T @-@ shirt , dog tags , a music CD featuring the soundtracks of the MSX2 games , and a booklet with information about the game 's production and plot . A European version of the package was also produced , featuring different content from the Japanese version .

The Japanese PlayStation version of Metal Gear Solid , as well as Integral , had been reissued twice : once under The Best range and second time as a PS one Books title . Likewise , the American and European versions of Metal Gear Solid were reissued under the " Greatest Hits " and " Platinum " ranges respectively . The game is included in the Japanese Metal Gear Solid : 20th Anniversary Collection set and in the American Essential Collection set . The original Metal Gear Solid was released on the PlayStation Store for download on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable in 2008 in Japan and in 2009 in North America and Europe .

= = = Integral = = =

Released on June 25 , 1999 for the PlayStation in Japan , Metal Gear Solid : Integral ( メタルギアソリッド インテグラル , Metaru Gia Soriddo : Integuraru ) is an expanded edition that features the additional content from the American and European versions of the original game . Integral replaces the Japanese voices from the original version with the English dub , while offering a choice between Japanese and English subtitles ( item descriptions , mission logs and other text are still in Japanese ) . Further additional content to the main game include an alternate " sneaking suit " outfit for Meryl ( which she wears after the player unlocks the tuxedo for Snake ) , a " Very Easy " difficulty setting where the player starts the mission armed with a suppressor @-@ equipped MP5 sub @-@ machine gun with infinite ammo ( which substitutes the FAMAS rifle in the player 's inventory ) , an eight Codec frequency featuring written staff commentary ( in Japanese only ) on every area and boss encounter , hidden music tracks , an alternate game mode where the player controls Snake from a first @-@ person perspective , an option for alternate patrol routes for enemies , and a downloadable PocketStation minigame . The Torture Event was also made easier on higher difficulty levels , reducing the number of rounds to three per session in all settings .

In addition to the main game , Integral includes a third disc of additional content called the " VR Disc . " The VR Disc features 300 VR training missions testing the player 's sneaking and fighting skills , as well as less conventional tests , such as murder mysteries , battling giant genome soldiers , and three missions where the player controls the Cyborg Ninja . Other content include preview trailers and a " photoshoot " mode where the player takes pictures of Mei Ling and Naomi . Completing all 300 missions will unlock a concept artwork of the Metal Gear RAY mech that would later appear in Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty . Famitsu magazine rated Metal Gear Solid : Integral a 34 out of 40 .

The third disc from Integral was released as a stand @-@ alone game in North America under the title of Metal Gear Solid : VR Missions on September 23 , 1999 . While the content of VR Missions are virtually identical to the VR Disc , the unlocking requirements for the Ninja missions and the photoshoot mode were changed accordingly so that they no longer required save data from the main story mission .

The VR Disc was also released in the PAL region as an expansion pack titled Metal Gear Solid : Special Missions on October 29 , 1999 . Unlike the Japanese and American versions , Special Missions requires a PAL copy of the original Metal Gear Solid in order to be played . This change was done since the original Metal Gear Solid was released in multiple languages in Europe and Special Missions determines the language it uses based on which version of the original game the player owns . When the Special Missions disc is loaded into the PlayStation console , the game will ask the player to switch the disc with the first disc from Metal Gear Solid in order to load voice and language data before asking the player to switch back to the Special Missions disc . This requirement renders Special Missions incompatible with PlayStation 2 consoles made prior to the SCPH @-@ 70000 model .

= = = PC version = = =

The PC version of Metal Gear Solid was released in North America , Europe and Asia in late 2000 . This version was published by Microsoft Game Studios and developed by Digital Dialect . It supports the use of a keyboard or a USB game controller with at least six buttons ( with the manual recommending the Sidewinder Game Pad Pro ) . The PC version is simply labelled Metal Gear Solid on the packaging , but the actual game uses the Metal Gear Solid : Integral logo , although it has some differences as well from the PlayStation version of Integral and lacks some of its content . The biggest change was reducing the number of discs from three to two , which was done by giving each disc two separate executable files , one for the main game ( mgsi.exe ) and the other for the VR training portion ( mgsvr.exe ) , thus eliminating the need for a stand @-@ alone third disc .

One notable omission was the removal of the cutscene prior to the Psycho Mantis battle in which he reads the player 's memory card and activates the vibration function of the player 's controller if a DualShock is being used , as this scene involved the use of PlayStation @-@ specific peripherals . The method for defeating Mantis was also changed from using the second controller to simply using the keyboard ( regardless of whether the player was using a game controller or not up to that point ) . Other omissions include the removal of the eighth Codec frequency ( 140 @.@ 07 ) , which featured written commentaries by the developers , Meryl 's alternate sneaking suit outfit , and the mission logs when loading a save file . However , the PC version adds the option to toggle moving and shooting in first @-@ person view mode at any time regardless of difficulty setting , and players can now save their progress at any point without contacting Mei @-@ Ling through the use of quick saves . On the VR training portion , all 300 missions , as well as the photoshoot mode , are available from the start , although the three unlockable preview trailers from the PlayStation version have been removed .

Scoring 83 in Metacritic 's aggregate , the game was criticized for " graphic glitches " , the aged nature of the port , and being essentially identical to the PlayStation version .

= = = The Twin Snakes = = =

A remake of Metal Gear Solid , titled Metal Gear Solid : The Twin Snakes , was developed by Silicon Knights under the supervision of Hideo Kojima and released for the GameCube in North America , Japan , and Europe in March 2004 . While Twin Snakes was largely developed at Silicon Knights , its cutscenes were developed in @-@ house at Konami and directed by Japanese film director Ryuhei Kitamura , reflecting his dynamic signature style , utilizing bullet time photography and choreographed gunplay extensively . While the storyline and settings of the game were unchanged ( although a select few lines of dialog were re @-@ written more closely resembling the original Japanese version ) , a variety of gameplay features from Sons of Liberty were added such as the first person aiming and hanging from bars on walls . Another change in the English voice acting was the reduction of Mei Ling 's , Naomi 's and Nastasha 's accents , as well as the recasting of Gray Fox from Greg Eagles , who still reprise the role of the DARPA chief , to Rob Paulsen . The graphics were also updated to match those of Metal Gear Solid 2 .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Metal Gear Solid was a commercial success , shipping over six million copies worldwide . It became one of the most rented games and topped sales charts in the United Kingdom .

The game was critically acclaimed , gaining a 93 @.@ 24 % and 94 / 100 aggregate at ratings websites GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . The review in PlayStation Magazine declared it " the best game ever made . Unputdownable and unforgettable . " The review by IGN opined Metal Gear Solid came " closer to perfection than any other game in PlayStation 's action genre " and called it " beautiful , engrossing , and innovative ... in every conceivable category . " NGamer compared it to " playing a big budget action blockbuster , only better . " GamePro called it " this season 's top offering [ game ] and one game no self @-@ respecting gamer should be without , " but criticized the frame rate that " occasionally stalls the eye @-@ catching graphics " . GameSpot was critical of how easy it is for the player to avoid being seen , as well as the game 's short length , calling it " more of a work of art than ... an actual game . " Metal Gear Solid received an Excellence Award for Interactive Art at the 1998 Japan Media Arts Festival .

= = = Retrospective = = =

Metal Gear Solid is often recognized as one of the key titles involved in popularizing the stealth game genre . The idea of the player being unarmed and having to avoid being seen by enemies rather than fight them has been used in many games since . It is also sometimes acclaimed as being a film as much as a game due to the lengthy cut scenes and complicated storyline . GameTrailers claimed that Metal Gear Solid " invented the stealth game " and IGN called it " the founder of the stealth genre " . Entertainment Weekly said it " broke new ground with ... movie @-@ style production ... and stealth @-@ driven gameplay . " The game is often considered one of the best games for the PlayStation , and was featured in best video games lists by Computer and Video Games in 2000 , by Electronic Gaming Monthly and Game Informer in 2001 , by Retro Gamer in 2004 , by GameFAQs and GamePro in 2005 , and by Famitsu , and by Entertainment Weekly and GameTrailers in 2006 .

In 2002 , IGN ranked it as the best PlayStation game ever , stating that just the demo for the game had " more gameplay [ in it ] than in most finished titles . " IGN also gave it the " Best Ending " and " Best Villain " awards . In 2005 , in placing it 19th on their list of " Top 100 Games " , they said that it was " a game that truly felt like a movie . " Guinness World Records awarded Metal Gear Solid with a record for the " Most Innovative Use of a Video Game Controller " for the boss fight with Psycho Mantis in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition 2008 edition . In 2010 , PC Magazine ranked it as seventh in the list of most influential video games of all time , citing its influence on " such stealthy titles as Assassin 's Creed and Splinter Cell . " In 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time and G4tv ranked it as the 45th top video game of all time . According to 1UP.com , Metal Gear Solid 's cinematic style continues to influence modern action games such as Call of Duty . Metal Gear Solid , along with its sequel , Metal Gear Solid 2 , was featured in the Smithsonian American Art Museum 's exhibition The Art of Video Games in 2012 . In September 2015 , Metal Gear Solid was voted the best original PlayStation game of all time by users .

= = Related media = =

A Japanese radio drama version of Metal Gear Solid , directed by Shuyo Murata and written by Motosada Mori , was produced shortly after the release of the original PlayStation game . 12 episodes were aired , from 1998 to 1999 on Konami 's CLUB db program . The series was later released on CD as a two volume set . Set after the events of the PlayStation game , Snake , Meryl , Campbell and Mei Ling ( all portrayed by their original Japanese voice actors ) pursue missions in hostile third world nations as FOXHOUND . The new characters introduced include Sgt. Allen Iishiba ( voiced by Toshio Furukawa ) , a Delta Force operative who assists Snake and Meryl , Col. Mark Cortez ( v.b. Osamu Saka ) , an old friend of Campbell who commands the fictional Esteria Army Special Forces , and Capt. Sergei Ivanovich ( v.b. Kazuhiro Nakata ) , a former war buddy of Revolver Ocelot from his SVR days .

In September 2004 , IDW Publications began publishing a series of Metal Gear Solid comics , written by Kris Oprisko and illustrated by Ashley Wood . As of 2006 , 12 issues have been published , fully covering the Metal Gear Solid storyline . The comic was adapted into a PlayStation Portable game titled Metal Gear Solid : Digital Graphic Novel ( Metal Gear Solid : Bande Dessinée in Japan ) . It features visual enhancements and two interactive modes designed to give further insight into the publication . Upon viewing the pages , the player can open a " scanning " interface to search for characters and items in a three dimensional view . Discoveries are added to a database which can be traded with other players via Wi @-@ Fi . The " mission mode " allows the player to add collected information into a library . This information must be properly connected to complete a mission . Metal Gear Solid : Digital Graphic Novel was released in North America on June 13 , 2006 , Japan on September 21 and the PAL region on September 22 . In 2006 , the game received IGN 's award for Best Use of Sound on the PSP . A DVD @-@ Video version is included with its sequel ( Metal Gear Solid 2 : Bande Dessinée ) , which was released in Japan on June 12 , 2008 . The DVD version features full voice acting .

A novelization based on the original Metal Gear Solid was written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey . The American paperback edition was published on May 27 , 2008 , and the British Edition on June 5 , 2008 .

= = = Film adaptation = = =

Director Hideo Kojima confirmed in 2006 that a film adaptation of Metal Gear Solid was in development . He also hinted that the movie may be set in Alaska , the original setting for the game . Despite pitching his ideas regarding the movie , the voice of Solid Snake , David Hayter , will not be writing the final script , appearing in the movie or directing the film . However , a petition has been started by fans to get Hayter involved in writing the script . The movie 's producers hoped to invite Kurt Wimmer to write the movie , but the final decision has not yet been announced , but producer Michael DeLuca dismissed the claim . According to an interview in Nuts magazine actor Christian Bale is interested in playing Solid Snake in the film . In late August 2012 , Konami issued a press release stating that a live @-@ action film was in pre @-@ production . The film is being produced by Avi Arad and Ari Arad , with their production company Arad Productions as well as Columbia Pictures . Distribution and production will be handled by Sony Pictures Entertainment .

= Delaware Route 26 =

Delaware Route 26 ( DE 26 ) is a state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . The route 's western terminus is at an intersection with Maryland Route 353 ( MD 353 ) and DE / MD 54 at the Maryland border south of Gumboro and its eastern terminus is at a dead end on the Atlantic Ocean in Bethany Beach , even though signage ends at the DE 1 intersection . The route passes through rural areas of southeastern Sussex County along with the communities of Dagsboro , Millville , Ocean View and Bethany Beach . DE 26 intersects DE 30 and DE 54 in the Gumboro area , U.S. Route 113 ( US 113 ) and DE 20 in Dagsboro , and DE 17 west of Millville . The road was built as a state highway in various stages during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , DE 26 was assigned onto its current alignment .

= = Route description = =

DE 26 begins at the Maryland border at an intersection where DE / MD 54 runs west along the state line and MD 353 continues south into Maryland . From the state line , DE 26 heads northeast on two @-@ lane undivided Millsboro Highway concurrent with DE 54 . The two routes pass through agricultural areas with some woods and homes , intersecting DE 30 . At this point , DE 30 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 26 / DE 54 . The road curves north and heads into the residential community of Gumboro , where DE 54 turns to the east . DE 26 / DE 30 leaves Gumboro and continues back into areas of farms and forests with occasional residences .

In Shaft Ox Corner , DE 26 splits from DE 30 by turning east onto Nine Foot Road . The route continues east through rural land to an intersection with US 113 . Past this intersection , the road becomes Clayton Street and enters Dagsboro , passing homes and businesses and crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . In the center of Dagsboro , DE 26 comes to an intersection with DE 20 , at which point it turns south to form a concurrency with DE 20 on Main Street . The two routes curve east and leave town on Vines Creek Road .

Upon leaving Dagsboro , the road passes to the south of Prince George 's Chapel and DE 20 splits from DE 26 by heading southeast on Armory Road . DE 26 continues east on Vines Creek Road , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with some residential and commercial development . The route turns southeast and comes to the community of Clarksville , where it turns east onto Atlantic Avenue . Farther along , the road comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 17 . After the DE 17 junction , DE 26 continues into Millville and runs through residential and commercial areas . The road continues east through Ocean View before it crosses the Assawoman Canal into Bethany Beach and becomes Garfield Parkway . The road gains a center left @-@ turn lane and intersects DE 54 Alt. before coming to a junction with DE 1 , at which point DE 26 signage ends . DE 26 officially continues east on four @-@ lane divided Garfield Parkway through the commercial center of Bethany Beach , ending at a dead end at the Atlantic Ocean .

DE 26 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 16 @,@ 225 vehicles at Central Avenue intersection in Ocean View to a low of 3 @,@ 837 vehicles at the west end of the DE 20 concurrency in Dagsboro . None of DE 26 is part of the National Highway System .

= = History = =

By 1920 , what is now DE 26 existed as an unimproved county road . The route was upgraded to a state highway between present @-@ day US 113 and Dagsboro and from Millville to just west of the Assawoman Canal by 1924 . A year later , the road was completed as a state highway between Gumboro and Mission and between Dagsboro and Vines Creek , with the route between the Maryland border and Gumboro and the incomplete sections between Dagsboro and Bethany Beach proposed as a state highway . The proposed segments were completed by 1931 . In 1932 , the state highway between Shaft Ox Corner and Dagsboro was completed . DE 26 was assigned to its current alignment between the Maryland border south of Gumboro and Bethany Beach , where it intersected the southern terminus of DE 14 ( now part of DE 1 ) , by 1936 . In 2014 , work began to widen DE 26 between Clarksville and the Assawoman Canal from a two @-@ lane road to a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane and bike lanes in order to reduce traffic congestion . The widening project , which is to cost $ 57 million , is expected to be finished in 2017 .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Sussex County .

= The Stripped Mixes =

The Stripped Mixes ( released on CD for a limited time as The Motown 50 Mixes ) , is a collection of American recording artist and former Jackson 5 member Michael Jackson 's classic songs . The songs featured on the album are mainly from Jackson 's career as a member of the Jackson 5 from the 1960s to the 1980s ; songs credited to Jackson as a solo artist are from his albums during his Motown @-@ era . Other songs included on the album are " stripped " mixes of Jackson material , meaning the songs are of a quieter tone and most of the drums have been removed .

Following a surge in Jackson 's popularity after his death in June 2009 , it was confirmed on July 7 , that The Stripped Mixes would be released . The album was made available as a digital download on July 7 , 2009 , and as a CD on July 28 . A remixed song , entitled " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " , was released on iTunes to promote the album on June 9 , 2009 , prior to Jackson 's death . The Stripped Mixes was the second Jackson compilation album to be posthumously released , the first being The Collection ; which was released over two weeks prior . The Stripped Mixes received mixed reviews from music critics . The album was a moderate commercial success worldwide and had a better chart performance internationally than in the United States .

= = Concept = =

Due to the high popularity of a State Farm Insurance commercial featuring an acoustic version of the hit " I 'll Be There " , Motown released " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " via iTunes on June 9 , 2009 , as a prelude to The Stripped Mixes . " I 'll Be There ( Minus Mix ) " did not chart on any music charts . Shortly after Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music experienced a surge in popularity , leading to re @-@ issues of his music . Less than an hour after the memorial service for Jackson at the Staples Center on July 7 , 2009 , Universal Music Group announced The Stripped Mixes , a collection of Jackson 's classic songs , would be released . The album features " stripped " mixes of Jackson 's classic Motown @-@ era songs as well as songs recorded while he was a member of The Jackson 5 from the 1960s to the 1980s . The songs that are " stripped " on the album have backing instruments and some studio engineering removed to make the songs have a more acoustic sound . The Stripped Mixes was made available as a digital download on July 7 , and as a compact disc on July 28 , 2009 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Commercial performance = = =

The Stripped Mixes charted at a peak position of # 95 on the Billboard 200 in its debut week with sales of less than five thousand units . It charted at # 43 on the R & B Albums Chart in 2009 , and moved up to # 21 in 2010 . Internationally , The Stripped Mixes was more successful commercially . The album charted within the top fifty in Belgium Flanders and Belgium Wallonia , peaking at # 43 and # 47 for five and seven weeks , respectively . The Stripped Mixes also charted at # 75 in Mexico for one week before dropping out of the top 100 .

= = = Critical analysis = = =

The Stripped Mixes received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . Writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave The Stripped Mixes two out of five stars , stating that he felt that " the logic of what is left behind doesn 't quite make sense " , pointing out that " I Want You Back " and " ABC " have no drums and " feel a little tipsy and top @-@ heavy " ; " Ben " and " With a Child 's Heart " have echoes of strings in the background , making it hard to identify the songs as being " stripped " . He added that since the genius lies in the arrangements , " having so much of the arrangement absent " means that the music " just sounds awkward and incomplete , as if it was waiting for the final round of mixing and overdubs . " Erlewine 's overall opinion on the album was " if the purpose of this disc is to draw attention to Michael 's vocals , The Stripped Mixes does its job , but just because his voice is pushed front and center does not mean that this is the best place to appreciate his genius . "

A writer for PR Newswire praised the album , describing it as " showcasing " Jackson 's vocal talent and viewed The Stripped Mixes as shining a " bright , fresh light " on Jackson 's early career as both a solo artist and with his brothers in The Jackson 5 . Natalie Salvo of TheDwarf.com.au commented that the mix of " Ain 't No Sunshine " made the album " personally " worth buying . She added that " the music does what it 's supposed to do " , which was " evoking the right mood but not being overly showy . " Despite the praise , she did state that the album could be clinically looked at as an " element of bad taste " from a " greedy record company " and noted that it was " difficult " to " stop yourself being overcome with cynicism towards this album " . Jeff Dorgay of Tone Publications described all of the album 's tracks as being " quite strong " and added that " regardless of your interest in Michael Jackson " the The Stripped Mixes is a disc " you should have in your collection " because it offers a " rare look " at " classic " material by Jackson when he was just beginning his career .

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= = Personnel = =

Credits adapted from AllMusic .

= Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming , 4th Baronet =

Sir William Alexander Gordon Gordon @-@ Cumming , 4th Baronet ( 20 July 1848 – 20 May 1930 ) was a Scottish landowner , soldier , adventurer and socialite . A notorious womaniser , he is best known for being the central figure in the royal baccarat scandal of 1891 . After inheriting a baronetcy he joined the Army and saw service in South Africa , Egypt and the Sudan ; he served with distinction and rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel . Something of an adventurer , he also spent time hunting in the US and India .

A friend of Edward , Prince of Wales for over 20 years , in 1891 he attended a house party at Tranby Croft , Yorkshire , where he took part in a game of baccarat at the behest of the prince . During the course of two nights ' play he was accused of cheating , which he denied vehemently . After news of the affair leaked out , he sued five members of the host family for slander , with the Prince of Wales called as a witness during the ensuing trial . The case was a public spectacle , widely reported in the UK and abroad . Knowledgeable commentators of the day , and subsequently , sided with Gordon @-@ Cumming , but the judgement went against him and he was ostracized from polite society .

A handsome , arrogant man , Gordon @-@ Cumming was a womanizer , particularly with married women . After the court case he married an American heiress ; the couple had five children , but it was an unhappy relationship . He was the grandfather of the writers Katie Fforde and Jane Gordon @-@ Cumming .

= = Early life = =

William Gordon Gordon @-@ Cumming was born on 20 July 1848 at Sanquhar House , near Forres , Morayshire . His parents were Alexander Penrose Gordon @-@ Cumming and his wife Anne Pitcairn née Campbell ( died 1888 ) . The big @-@ game hunter Roualeyn George Gordon @-@ Cumming was his uncle ; and the travel writer Constance Gordon @-@ Cumming was his aunt . He was educated at Eton and Wellington colleges .

At the age of eighteen he inherited the baronetcy and became chief of the Clan Cumming ; his line had been traced from the fourth century , through Charlemagne . His inheritance included three Morayshire estates : Altyre near Forres , Gordonstoun near Elgin and Dallas . Though the estates totalled 38 @,@ 500 acres ( 156 km2 ) , they yielded poor revenues ; the annual income from the estates in around 1890 has been described as either £ 60 @,@ 000 or £ 80 @,@ 000 .

= = Professional career = =

Although Gordon @-@ Cumming suffered from asthma and was blind in one eye , he purchased an ensign 's commission in the Scots Fusilier Guards ( later the Scots Guards ) in 1868 ( dated from 25 December 1867 ) . He was promoted to regimental lieutenant and to the rank of captain in the army by purchase on 17 May 1871 , the last year commissions were allowed to be purchased . He volunteered for service in South Africa in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War , where he served gallantly , and was the first man to enter Cetshwayo 's kraal after the Battle of Ulundi ( 1879 ) . That year he conveyed the condolences of the army to the Empress Eugénie on the death of her son , Napoléon , Prince Imperial .

Gordon @-@ Cumming was promoted to the regimental rank of captain and the army rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel on 28 July 1880 . He went on to serve in Egypt , in the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War ( 1882 ) and in the Sudan in the Mahdist War ( 1884 – 85 ) , the last of which was with the Guards Camel Regiment in the Desert Column . He was promoted to regimental major on 23 May 1888 .

He also found time for independent adventure , hunting in the Rocky Mountains in the U.S. and in India , where he would stalk tigers on foot ; in 1871 he published an account of his travels in India , Wild Men & Wild Beasts . Scenes in camp and jungle .

= = Royal baccarat scandal = =

In September 1890 Gordon @-@ Cumming was invited , along with Edward , Prince of Wales , to a house party at Tranby Croft in Yorkshire . There he was accused of cheating at baccarat by placing additional counters onto his stake after the hand had finished , but before the stake had been paid — a method of cheating known in casinos as la poussette . Gordon @-@ Cumming insisted they had been mistaken , and explained that he played the coup de trois system of betting , in which if he won a hand with a £ 5 stake , he would add his winnings to the stake , together with another £ 5 , as the stake for the next hand .

In order to avoid a scandal involving the prince , he gave way to pressure from the attendant royal courtiers to sign a statement undertaking never to play cards again in return for a pledge that no @-@ one present would speak of the incident again .

" In consideration of the promise made by the gentlemen whose names are subscribed to preserve my silence with reference to an accusation which has been made in regard to my conduct at baccarat on the nights of Monday and Tuesday the 8th and 9th at Tranby Croft , I will on my part solemnly undertake never to play cards again as long as I live . "

Despite the pledge of silence , rumours of the incident began to circulate and were brought to Gordon @-@ Cumming 's attention . In an attempt to scotch the rumours , he demanded a retraction from five of the house party ; when that was not forthcoming , with no withdrawal forthcoming , on 6 February 1891 , Gordon @-@ Cumming issued writs for slander against the five , claiming £ 5 @,@ 000 against each of them .

The trial opened on 1 June 1891 and entry to the court was by ticket only . The Prince of Wales was present , and sat on a red leather chair on a raised platform between the judge and the witness box ; his appearance was the first time since 1411 that an heir to the throne had appeared involuntarily in court .

The trial closed the following week , after the judge 's summing up " had been unacceptably biased " , according to Tomes . The jury deliberated for only 13 minutes before finding in favour of the defendants ; their decision was greeted by prolonged hissing from some members of the galleries . The day after judgement was passed , the leader in The Times stated that " He is ... condemned by the verdict of the jury to social extinction . His brilliant record is wiped out and he must , so to speak , begin life again . Such is the inexorable social rule ... He has committed a mortal offence . Society can know him no more . "

Gordon @-@ Cumming 's senior counsel , the Solicitor General Sir Edward Clarke , remained convinced in his client and , in his 1918 memoirs , wrote that " I believe the verdict was wrong , and that Sir William Gordon @-@ Cumming was innocent " .

= = Aftermath = =

As a result of the scandal , Gordon @-@ Cumming was dismissed from the army the day after the trial , and he resigned his membership of his four London clubs , the Carlton , Guards ' , Marlborough and Turf .

The same day he married his American fiancée , the heiress Florence Garner , who had stood by him throughout the trial despite Gordon @-@ Cumming twice offering to break off their engagement because of the scandal . The service took place at the Holy Trinity church in Chelsea with only a small congregation . When the couple returned to Scotland a few days later the locals from near his estate had decorated the station and pulled the carriage through the streets by hand . According to the former Lord Chancellor , Michael Havers , the lawyer Edward Grayson and the historian Peter Shankland , " That the prince and society considered him a social outcast mattered not at all to his people " . The prince was determined Gordon @-@ Cumming should remain ostracised and he " declined to meet anyone who henceforth acknowledged the Scottish baronet " .

= = Later life = =

Gordon @-@ Cumming remained outside high society for the remainder of his life . He later told his daughter that " among a host of acquaintances I thought I had perhaps twenty friends . Not one of them ever spoke to me again " . Others of his friends only relented after the death of the prince , who was by that stage King Edward VII .

Gordon @-@ Cumming and his wife had three sons and two daughters between 1892 and 1904 . In 1905 Florence 's fortune slumped and the couple were compelled to let or close up the houses on the Scottish estates and to move to Bridge House , Dawlish , Devon with a reduced household . Gordon @-@ Cumming managed to disguise his contempt for the middle class society to which he was now limited so that he could continue to indulge himself in golf , croquet , billiards , cricket , bridge and collecting post marks . He also enjoyed his own company , and that of his dogs and pet monkey . He hated Dawlish and considered his wife a " fat little frump " , unapologetically engaging in chronic infidelity . Florence lost no opportunity to remind him who funded their life but eventually herself resorted to alcohol abuse ; the couple had effectively separated before she died in 1922 .

In 1916 Gordon @-@ Cumming ensured that the Labour Party politician Ramsay MacDonald had his membership rescinded from the Moray Golf Club because of the latter 's opposition to the First World War .

Gordon @-@ Cumming died on 20 May 1930 at his Altyre home at the age of 81 . He was succeeded in his title by his eldest son , Major Alexander Penrose Gordon @-@ Cumming , MC .

= = Private life = =

Gordon @-@ Cumming 's biographer , Jason Tomes , thought that his subject possessed " audacity and wit [ and ] gloried in the sobriquet of the most arrogant man in London " , while Sporting Life described him as " possibly the most handsome man in London , and certainly the rudest " . Gordon @-@ Cumming also owned a house in Belgravia , London ; he was a friend of the Prince of Wales , and would lend the premises to the prince for assignations with the royal mistresses .

Gordon @-@ Cumming was a womaniser , and stated that his aim was to " perforate " members of " the sex " . His preference was for uncomplicated relationships with married women , and he admitted that " all the married women try me " ; his liaisons included Lillie Langtry , Sarah Bernhardt and Lady Randolph Churchill . In 1890 , three days before the events at Tranby Croft , the Prince of Wales returned early from travelling in Europe ; he visited Harriet Street where he found his mistress , Daisy , Lady Brooke " in Gordon @-@ Cumming 's arms " , which soured the relationship between the two men .

After Gordon @-@ Cumming 's death in 1930 , his house at Gordonstoun was obtained by Kurt Hahn , who turned it into the eponymous school . It has been attended by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , and his three sons , Charles , Andrew and Edward .

Two of Gordon @-@ Cumming 's granddaughters , Katie Fforde and Jane Gordon @-@ Cumming , became writers .

= Lycoperdon echinatum =

Lycoperdon echinatum , commonly known as the spiny puffball or the spring puffball , is a type of puffball mushroom in the genus Lycoperdon . The saprobic species has been found in Africa , Europe , Central America , and North America , where it grows on soil in deciduous woods , glades , and pastures . It has been proposed that North American specimens be considered a separate species , Lycoperdon americanum , but this suggestion has not been followed by most authors . Molecular analysis indicates that L. echinatum is closely related to the puffball genus Handkea .

The fruit bodies of L. echinatum are 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall , supported by a small base , and densely covered with spines that are up to 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . The spines can fall off in maturity , leaving a net @-@ like pattern of scars on the underlying surface . Initially white in color , the puffballs turn a dark brown as they mature , at the same time changing from nearly round to somewhat flattened . Young specimens of L. echinatum resemble another edible spiny puffball , Lycoperdon pulcherrimum , but the latter species does not turn brown as it ages . The fruit bodies are edible when young , when the interior is white and firm and before it has turned into a powdery brown mass of spores . Laboratory tests have shown that extracts of the fruit bodies can inhibit the growth of several bacteria that are pathogenic to humans .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The species was first described by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797 . It was later reduced to a variety of Lycoperdon gemmatum ( as L. gemmatum var. echinatum ; L. gemmatum is now known as Lycoperdon perlatum ) by Elias Magnus Fries , but American mycologist Charles Horton Peck , who extensively studied the North American distribution of the genus , raised it again to species level in 1879 . He thought it worthy of status as a species distinct from L. gemmatum because of the different character of its warts , its much spinier appearance , and the smoother surface of the peridium underneath the spines . Miles Joseph Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome wrote of the fungus in 1871 , but believed their specimen , collected from Reading , Berkshire , by Hoyle , represented a new species , which they called Lycoperdon Hoylei . They wrote that their specimen agreed " exactly with an authentic specimen of Persoon 's L. echinatum externally , who could , however , scarcely have overlooked the lilac spores . " Despite the apparent difference in spore color , L. Hoylei is currently considered synonymous with L. echinatum . Utraria echinata , named by Lucien Quélet in 1873 , is another synonym for L. echinatum .

In 1972 , Vincent Demoulin described the species Lycoperdon americanum on the basis of a specimen found in North Carolina . Although he believed it to be a unique species , several authors consider it synonymous with L. echinatum . Phylogenetic analysis of the sequence and secondary structure of the ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) genes coding for the internal transcribed spacer units suggests that Lycoperdon echinatum forms a clade with the puffball genus Handkea , separate from the type species of Lycoperdon , Lycoperdon perlatum . In previous analyses that used only the rRNA sequences for phylogenetic comparison , L. echinatum formed a clade with L. mammiforme , L. foetidum , and Bovistella radicata ( now known as Lycoperdon radicatum ) , but separate from L. pyriforme .

The species is commonly known as the " spiny puffball " or the " spring puffball " ; Peck referred to the species as the " echinate puff @-@ ball " . The specific epithet echinatum is derived from the Greek word echinos ( εχινος ) meaning " hedgehog " or " sea @-@ urchin " .

= = Description = =

The fruit bodies of L. echinatum are 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall , and are roughly spherical , or pear @-@ shaped . The exterior surface is crowded with spines that may be up to 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) long . According to Curtis Gates Lloyd , American specimens have more slender spines than European ones . Initially white and becoming dark brown in maturity , the spines are often joined at the tips in groups of three or four . In this form the puffballs resemble acorn caps of burr oak , with which they may readily be confused . The spines slough off in age , revealing a somewhat net @-@ like or reticulated surface . The fruit body has a small base that is an off @-@ white or purple @-@ gray color , and it may be attached to the growing surface by thin white cords ( rhizomorphs ) . The internal contents of the puffball contain the gleba , a mass of spores and associated spore @-@ producing cells . In young specimens the gleba is white and firm , but as the puffball ages , it turns yellowish and then brown to purple @-@ brown and powdery . Mature specimens develop a pore at the top of the fruit body through which spores are released when hit by falling raindrops .

The spores of L. echinatum , roughly spherical with warts on the surface , have diameters between 4 and 6 µm . The capillitia ( coarse thick @-@ walled hyphae in the gleba ) are elastic , brown in color , contain small pores , and are 5 – 8 µm thick . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) may be attached to two to four spores , and the sterigmata ( tapered spine @-@ like projections from the basidia that attach the spores ) are up to 5 µm long .

Like most other puffball species , L. echinatum is edible when still young and while the gleba is still white and firm . Consumption of older specimens with a non @-@ white gleba , or where the gleba has turned into a powdery spore mass , may cause stomach upsets . This species has a mild taste , and no distinguishable odor , although one source describes the smell of dried fruit bodies as similar to " old ham " . One source notes that it is " well flavoured and tender when cooked " , while another describes the texture ( of edible puffballs in general ) as " somewhat like French toast " . Antonio Carluccio recommends sautéeing puffballs with other mushrooms . To avoid possible confusion with potentially deadly Amanita species , it is recommended to slice young puffballs with a longitudinal cut to ensure that the flesh is devoid of any internal structures .

= = Similar species = =

Lycoperdon pulcherrimum closely resembles L. echinatum , but its spines are stouter , do not turn brown in age , and the surface of the fruit body underneath the spines is smooth , not pitted . Alexander H. Smith noted that in youth , they are " difficult if not impossible to distinguish from each other , but this will cause no inconvenience to those collecting for the table , since both are edible . " In some areas the two species appear to intergrade , as specimens may be found whose spines turn brown but do not fall off . Young specimens of L. pedicellatum may also be difficult to distinguish from L. echinatum , but the former has a smooth outer surface when mature , and has spores attached to a pedicel ( a narrow extension of the basidium on which the sterigmata and spores are formed ) that is about 4 – 5 times as long as the spore . Lycoperdon compactum , found only in New Zealand , also resembles L. echinatum in appearance , but differs in having smaller spores , capillitia that are hyaline ( translucent ) and septate ( with partitions that divide the capillitia into compartments ) .

= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =

Lycoperdon echinatum can be found either solitary or in small groups . It typically grows on the ground in deciduous forests and grassy areas , glades and pastures , on moss , humus , or woody debris . The fungus has been noted to have a preference for beech woods . Fruit bodies may make their appearance anytime from the late spring to autumn . Older specimens are more likely to be overlooked , as their brown color blends into the surrounding environment of dead leaves and dead wood . The puffball is used by various species of scuttle flies ( family Phoridae ) as larval food .

This species has been collected from eastern central Africa , China , Costa Rica , Iran , Japan , and Europe ( including Britain , Bulgaria , the Czech Republic , Finland , Germany , Italy , Slovakia , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland ) . In North America , it is " locally frequent " east of the Rocky Mountains .

It is considered a threatened species in the Åland Islands of Finland . A study of the species ' distribution in Sweden reported that in the 1940s and 50s , it grew in beech woods with broad @-@ leaved grasses and herbs in topsoils with soil pH levels between 5 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 6 , but the populations have since decreased owing to soil acidification during the last several decades . Fruit bodies collected near arsenic @-@ contaminated sites have been shown to bioaccumulate arsenic , largely in the form of arsenobetaine .

= = Antimicrobial activity = =

Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility , methanol @-@ based extracts of Lycoperdon umbrinum fruit bodies were shown in a 2005 study to have " significant " antibacterial activity against various human pathogenic bacteria , including Bacillus subtilis , Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium , Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , and Mycobacterium smegmatis . An earlier study ( 2000 ) had identified weak antibacterial activity against Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus aureus . Although the specific compounds responsible for the antimicrobial activity have not been identified , chemical analysis confirms the presence of terpenoids , a class of widely occurring organic chemicals that are being investigated for their potential use as antimicrobial drugs .

= Speak Now ( song ) =

" Speak Now " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song , written and produced by Swift with Nathan Chapman , was released as a promotional single on October 5 , 2010 , by Big Machine Records from her 2010 album of the same name . Swift wrote the song about interrupting a wedding , after conversing with her friend , whose ex @-@ boyfriend would soon wed to someone else , and having a dream about one of her own ex @-@ boyfriends marrying another girl . The song relies on acoustic guitar and is a narration from the perspective of a person who crashes her former love 's wedding in attempt to win him back .

The song opened to critical acclaim for its lyrical detail . " Speak Now " had successful commercial outcomes in Canada and the United States , debuting and peaking at number eight on both the Canadian Hot 100 and the Billboard Hot 100 . Its appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 marked Swift 's sixth top ten debut , which made her the artist with the most top ten debuts in the history of the chart . " Speak Now " also managed to garner enough airplay to chart on the Hot Country Songs chart .

= = Background = =

" Speak Now " was written by Swift , as were all the tracks for the album . The song was inspired by the story of her friend and her high school boyfriend . The couple went their separate ways after high school – with the idea that they would get back together . One day , Swift 's friend informed Swift that her high school boyfriend would soon wed . " He had met this girl who 's just this horrible , mean person who made him completely stop talking to all of his friends , cut off his family . She had him so completely isolated , " said Swift . She asked her friend if she would " speak now . " Perplexed , her friend asked for an explanation , and she answered , " You know , storm the church . ' Speak now or forever hold your peace . ' I 'll go with you . I 'll play guitar . It 'd be great . " Swift 's friend found this to be humorous , laughing at the idea .

After speaking with her friend , Swift became deeply fixated on the idea of how tragic it would be for the person one loved to wed someone else . That night , Swift experienced a dream where one of her own ex @-@ boyfriends married another girl . To her , this signaled that she had to compose a song about interrupting a wedding . In retrospect , she concluded , " For me , I like to think of it as good versus evil . And this girl is just completely – just the evil one . " Swift entitled the album after " Speak Now " because it fit the album 's concept , with each song being a different confession to a person . " It 's called Speak Now , and that pertains to the album as a concept and as an entire theme of the record more than I can even tell you , " she said . The song was released as a promotional single on October 5 , 2010 , as part of Countdown to Speak Now , an exclusive campaign launched by the iTunes Store . During the opening week of Speak Now , Swift performed " Speak Now " on the Late Show with David Letterman .

= = Composition = =

" Speak Now " is a country pop track with a length of four minutes and two seconds . It has a predominant pop music composition , intertwined with various country elements . The song is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G major and Swift 's vocals span two octaves , from A3 to D5 . Swift 's vocals begin in a hushed tone , gradually turn grow , and at one point belt the song 's title . The song features different twangy , up @-@ and @-@ down vocal hooks might , in similarity to " You Belong with Me " . It follows the chord progression G – D – Am – C. The song 's instrumentation is based on acoustic guitar ; it eventually has its own gentle solo .

In the lyrics of " Speak Now " , Swift narrates about crashing her former love 's wedding in attempt to win him back . The opening lines acknowledge that , although out of character , Swift is still in love with her ex @-@ boyfriend and wants to make sure he does not marry the wrong girl . Throughout the song 's verses , Swift sneaks in the wedding and describes her observations , such as the bride @-@ to @-@ be 's bearing of a poofy wedding gown , her cumulative family , and an organist playing " Bridal Chorus " . In " Speak Now " ' s refrains , Swift pleads her ex @-@ boyfriend to not say his vows in order to run away with her . The bridge has Swift responding to the priest 's calling of " Speak now or forever hold your peace " before repeating the opening lines . The last refrain is altered , with Swift narrating from the groom 's perspective and inform Swift they will indeed run away together .

= = Critical reception = =

The song opened to critical acclaim . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly deemed " Speak Now " one of Swift 's best songs yet . He also said , " Her expressive delivery of the lyrics makes up for any shortcomings as a technical vocalist " and that it was " expertly catchy " . He concluded that he was unable to stop playing the song after he heard it . Bill Lamb of About.com said the song was " brilliant " . He continued , " The song is sweet , funny , bratty , and edgy all at the same time . Taylor Swift remains one of our most gifted young lyricists . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine thought that " Speak Now " exemplified Swift 's inability to " write authoritatively about anything other than how great boys are or how much boys suck or how dreams about boys will take her somewhere better than where she is now . "

= = Chart performance = =

" Speak Now " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number eight due to the sales of 217 @,@ 000 digital downloads . With that week 's appearance on the chart , " Speak Now " became Swift 's sixth top ten debut and , therefore , set the mark that made Swift the artist with most top ten debuts in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 , surpassing the five top ten entries earned by Mariah Carey from 1995 to 1998 . Elsewhere in North America , the track debuted at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 . In Australia , " Speak Now " debuted at number twenty .

= = Live performances = =

The song is performed on the Speak Now World Tour . Clips of the performance can be seen in the music video for Swift 's single " Sparks Fly " . In the clips we see a bride wearing " a gown shaped like a pastry " as she walks up the stairs to the groom and preacher . Swift can be seen in the background making a scene during this clip . Other clips show the bridesmaids waving , the bride getting onto them while the groom is clapping and the groom running off with Swift . According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV.com , the performance is " a very theatrical moment " in which " Swift acted out crashing a wedding . She eventually stole the groom away , as she sings in the song , and the pair ran through the crowd together . "

= = Covers = =

Speak Now was covered by Seohyun of Girls ' Generation as a solo stage at the Romantic Fantasy concert on 1 January 2013 . Prior to this , she played a part of the song on the 21 September 2011 episode of the Big Brother TV program as an example of a song which she enjoyed when practicing the guitar and the English language .

= = Track listing = =

Digital Download

" Speak Now " – 4 : 02

= = Charts = =

= American Water Spaniel =

The American Water Spaniel , ( often abbreviated to AWS ) , is a breed of spaniel which is one of a small number of breeds originating in the United States . Developed in the state of Wisconsin during the 19th century from a number of other breeds , including the Irish and English Water Spaniels . The breed was saved by Dr. Fred J. Pfeifer , who set up the breed club and standard , and whose work led to recognition for the breed by the United Kennel Club , and later , the American Kennel Club . While they are the state dog of Wisconsin , they remain a rare breed .

They are medium @-@ sized dog , and have a double layered coat , which comes in a variety of brown related shades . A versatile hunting dog , they are also suitable for apartment life due to work by breeders to develop a breed with an even temperament . The AWS may have been involved in the development of the Boykin Spaniel .

= = History = =

Developed in the United States , the American Water Spaniel is the Wisconsin state dog . The breed originated in the areas along the Fox River and its tributary the Wolf River during the early 19th century . Hunters needed a dog that could work on both land and water , a versatile hunter skilled at bringing in a variety of game . Hunters also wanted a hunting dog compact enough to be transported in a small skiff , one that was able to withstand Wisconsin 's cold water temperatures . Breeds involved in the creation of the American Water Spaniel are thought to have included the English Water Spaniel , Irish Water Spaniel , Curly Coated Retriever , native Indian Dogs , the Poodle , and either the Sussex Spaniel or another type of field spaniel .

This little brown dog created was known at the time as the American Brown Spaniel , and weighed around 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) . It had a thick curly coat that protected it from the cold temperatures of the water and winter . It was used to hunt waterfowl , Ruffed Grouse , Greater Prairie Chicken and a variety of fur – bearing animals .

Over the years the numbers of the breed began to dwindle due both to a reduction in the duck population through those valley areas , and because of a switch in hunting – from a means to gather food for survival to that of recreation . Additionally , following World War II , new types of dogs became available in Wisconsin such as setters , pointers and other spaniels , allowing additional specialization in hunting .

Dr. Fred J. Pfeifer , from New London , Wisconsin , set up Wolf River Kennels in order to save the breed . Numbers held by the kennel fluctuated but at times went up to 132 dogs . He advertised the dogs widely across the country , selling male dogs for $ 25 and females dogs for $ 20 . Part of a sales pitch that Pfeifer mailed to prospective dog owners read , " The American Brown Spaniel is distinctively an American production . Hunters have known this type for years and it was through their efforts that this dog was propagated .... For years we have bred only selective stock , breeding for gameness , stability , courage , intelligence , and beauty . They are dogs to admire and trust under all conditions whether in the home circle or in the field with the outdoor man . "

Due to Pfeifer 's work , the breed was recognized by the United Kennel Club ( UKC ) as the American Water Spaniel in 1920 , and by the Field Dog Stud Book in 1938 . Dr. Pfeifer 's own dog , named " Curly Pfeifer " was the first American Water Spaniel to be registered with UKC . John Scofield of Missouri and Thomas Brogdan of Rush Lake , Wisconsin worked together with the American Water Spaniel Club ( AWSC ) , gaining the breed recognition with the American Kennel Club ( AKC ) in 1940 . Prior to recognition by the AKC , the breed had not been shown in the show ring before .

The breed has links to the Boykin Spaniel , and is thought to have been the main breed used to develop the Boykin . The differences between the Boykin and the AWS are negligible with some dog historians suggesting that the original Boykin , called " Dumpy " , who was found on the streets of Spartanburg , South Carolina , was actually an American Water Spaniel who had been misplaced in transit . However the breed clubs for the Boykin do not agree with this account .

The breed was made the state dog of Wisconsin in 1985 . The American Water Spaniel remains a rare breed . During 1998 only 233 puppies were registered with the AKC , with an estimated 3 @,@ 000 dogs in existence mostly around the Midwestern United States , in particular in Wisconsin , Minnesota and Michigan . In 2010 , the breed was ranked 143rd most popular breed in the United States , out of 167 breeds . This is a decrease since 2000 , when the breed was ranked 125th . The dogs are not classified specifically as either retrievers or as spaniels and so may not compete in AKC field trials , but may compete in AKC hunt tests ( spaniel and retriever tests ) and retriever hunting tests sponsored by the AWSC , the breed club in the United States . The American Water Spaniel Field Association was set up in 1993 by breed enthusiasts supporting AKC Spaniel classification and looking to provide field training opportunities to owners of the breed . In a vote held of members of the AWSC in 1999 , they chose to keep the breed unclassified .

= = Appearance = =

The limited popularity of the American Water Spaniel restricted development , resulting in the breed being relatively unchanged since its origins in the 19th century . They are a medium @-@ sized dog , with a curly liver , brown , or chocolate colored coat . The average height at the withers for the breed is 15 – 18 inches ( 38 – 46 cm ) , and their weight around 25 – 45 pounds ( 11 – 20 kg ) . They have similar features to the Irish Water Spaniel , but the Irish breed is larger at between 21 – 24 inches ( 53 – 61 cm ) and weighing 55 – 65 pounds ( 25 – 29 kg ) . The coat of the American Water Spaniel can fall in two different patterns , either tightly curled or in the " marcel pattern " where the fur falls in waves . Working and show lines have not diverged as with some other breeds of spaniel , and both appear the same , with show dogs of this breed being rare .

The coat has a coarse outside layer which keeps water away and protects the dog from foliage such as briers . The inside layer provides insulation to keep the dog warm . The coat has an oily feel to it , which gives off a " doggy smell " . The breed standard specifies color of the eyes should harmonize with the color of the coat , and should never be yellow . The skull is broad , and carries long , wide ears . The tail is not typically docked .

= = Temperament = =

In the field , the AWS is less exuberant than the English Springer Spaniel , but it is as skilled in retrieval as Labrador or Golden Retriever . It is versatile regardless of the type of terrain , and in the water it is not the fastest swimmer but has a high level of endurance . The breed is also good at agility and flyball , with the first of the breed receiving a flyball championship title in 1993 .

Members of the breed enjoy being the center of attention , and can be quite vocal at times . It is a one family dog , and will often bond with one particular individual . For many years the breed was " pack bred " , where they were allowed to live in a group . Since these times , breeders have been working to breed even tempered dogs that are suitable for both hunting and family life .

The AWS has a mind of its own at times and reaches peak performance with the owner who is dedicated to teaching the dog just what is expected of it . The breed takes well to training , and especially excels at training that offers some variety rather than routine training drills . However , members of the breed can may have issues with food possessiveness . They can be stubborn , and mentally are slow to mature from puppyhood . Some lines of the breed still retain dominant and aggressive temperaments ; other than these lines , the AWS gets on well with children and enjoys playing with them . Even though they were originally bred to hunt , due to their size , they are suitable for apartment living as long as they receive enough exercise .

= = Health = =

Pack breeding early in its development led to a level of genetic variation , so the hereditary conditions of more popular breeds are not common in the AWS . The breed however is known to suffer from eye issues including cataracts and progressive retinal atrophy . Inheritance is suspected in both conditions , with the average age of cataract onset at under one year old .

Additional concerns are hypothyroidism , allergies , epilepsy , diabeties and glandular disorders which may cause baldness . The hair loss occurs at around six months of age , affecting the neck , thighs and tail ; however the frequency has been reduced through work conducted by the breed clubs . Hip dysplasia is seen in around 8 @.@ 3 % of the breed , according to surveys conducted by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals over a twenty five @-@ year period between 1974 and 1999 . This was one of the lower results of the sporting breeds , with Greyhounds coming lowest with 3 @.@ 4 % , and the related Boykin Spaniel coming in second highest at 47 % . There was no evidence of elbow dysplasia found . The breed has an average life span of 10 – 13 years .

= Arniston ( East Indiaman ) =

Arniston was an East Indiaman that made eight voyages for the British East India Company ( EIC ) . She was wrecked on 30 May 1815 during a storm at Waenhuiskrans , near Cape Agulhas , South Africa , with the loss of 372 lives – only six on board survived . She had been requisitioned as a troopship and was underway from Ceylon to England on a journey to repatriate wounded soldiers from the Kandyan Wars .

Controversially , the ship did not have a marine chronometer on board , a comparatively new and expensive navigational instrument that would have enabled her to determine her longitude accurately . Instead , she was forced to navigate through the heavy storm and strong currents using older , less reliable navigational aids and dead reckoning . Navigational difficulties and a lack of headway led to an incorrect assumption that Cape Agulhas was Cape Point . Consequently , the ship was wrecked when the captain headed north for St Helena with the incorrect belief the ship had already passed Cape Point .

= = Overview = =

East Indiamen operated under charter or licence to the Honourable East India Company , which held a monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth I of England for all English trade between the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn . Arniston was built at the Barnard yard at Deptford on the Thames and launched in 1794 .

Arniston was heavily armed , with her fifty @-@ eight guns making her the equivalent of a Royal Navy fourth @-@ rate ship of the line . A classification of " ship of the line " – a class of ship that later evolved into the battleship – meant that a ship was powerful enough to stand in a line of battle and explained why these ships of commerce were sometimes mistaken for men @-@ o @-@ war . The armament was necessary for the ship to protect herself and her valuable cargo from pirates and commerce raiders of other nations during long voyages between Europe and the Far East . Arniston , like other East Indiamen , was slow and unmanoeuvrable , but able to carry a large quantity of cargo .

= = Voyages ( 1794 – 1812 ) = =

Arniston sailed from Great Britain to the Far East eight times before her last voyage . On one of her homeward journeys from China , she struck an uncharted rock at 5 ° 46 ′ 8 ″ S 105 ° 16 ′ 43 ″ E , near the island of Pulo Goondy ( modern day Pulau Legundi ) , located just south of Sumatra . She did not suffer any ill effects as a result of this incident however , which is mentioned in journals of the time only for its noteworthiness as a navigation hazard to other shipping .

Apart from this and another incident in 1800 , Arniston 's first eight voyages were uneventful .

= = = Voyage # 1 : St Helena , Madras , and China ( 1795 @-@ 97 ) = = =

Captain Campbell Marjoribanks :

3 April 1795 : Portsmouth

14 April : Tenerife

2 June : St Helena

9 August : Cape of Good Hope

27 September : Madras

14 November : Penang

3 December : Malacca

11 March 1796 : Whampoa

23 April : Second Bar

29 June : Macau

20 November : St Helena

1 March 1797 : Deptford

While Arniston was at St Helena on her outward journey , she undertook to transport troops from there to join Lord Elphinstone , who was undertaking an expedition to capture Cape Colony from the Dutch . On 10 July George Vancouver arrived in HMS Discovery . Vancouver was returning to England after his four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year long voyage of exploration . He transferred to Arniston four field guns that he had been carrying , together with what ammunition he had left for them , for onward transmission to Elphinstone . Discovery 's boats also helped in the ferrying of troops from shore to Arniston .

Arniston was to ferry nine field pieces , as well as a company of artillery and three of infantry ( 393 men in all ) , to Elphinstone .

= = = Voyage # 2 : China ( 1797 @-@ 98 ) = = =

On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain William Macnamara , and dated 13 May 1797 . Her itinerary was :

5 June 1797 : Portsmouth

29 August : Cape of Good Hope

9 December : Whampoa

14 February 1798 : Second Bar

26 March : Macau

5 August : St Helena

23 October : Long Reach

= = = Voyage # 3 : St Helena , Benkulen , and China ( 1800 @-@ 01 ) = = =

On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Campbell Marjoribanks , and dated 29 November 1799 . Her itinerary was :

7 January 1800 : Portsmouth

4 April : St Helena

27 June : Benkulen

29 July : Penang

27 August : Malacca

21 September : Whampoa

29 November : Second Bar

18 January 1801 : Macau

15 April : St Helena

17 June : Long Reach

During this voyage Arniston had just anchored at Benkulen on 27 June 1800 , when the 26 @-@ gun French privateer Confiance attacked her . Arniston cut her anchor and gave chase , firing several broadsides into the other ship , but the faster French ship was able to make an escape . On 9 October 1800 , the East Indiaman Kent would be less fortunate ; Confiance would capture Kent after a two @-@ hour engagement .

= = = Voyage # 4 : St Helena , Benkulen , and China ( 1801 @-@ 03 ) = = =

Captain Campbell Marjoribanks :

31 December 1801 : Downs

9 March 1802 : St Helena

10 June : Benkulen

12 July : Penang

31 August : Whampoa

24 October : Second Bar

11 February 1803 : St Helena

26 April : Long Reach

= = = Voyage # 5 : China ( 1804 @-@ 05 ) = = =

On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain James Jameson , and dated 24 March 1804 . Her itinerary was :

9 June 1804 : Portsmouth

17 August : Rio de Janeiro

14 January 1805 : Whampoa

14 February : Second Bar

21 March : Malacca

30 June : St Helena

15 September : Long Reach

This journey included a passage through the Bass Strait to improve an earlier nautical chart of the route .

= = = Voyage # 6 : China ( 1806 @-@ 07 ) = = =

On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Peter Wedderburn , and dated 20 March 1806 . Her itinerary was :

14 May 1806 : Portsmouth

7 August : Cape of Good Hope

10 October : Penang

21 January 1807 : Whampoa

4 May : off Lintin Island

1 July : Penang

17 July : Acheh

19 September : Cape of Good Hope

13 October : St Helena

6 January 1808 : Lower Hope

= = = Voyage # 7 : Bombay and China ( 1810 @-@ 11 ) = = =

Captain Samuel Landon :

21 January 1810 : Portsmouth

9 April : Cape of Good Hope

26 May : Bombay

1 September : Penang

12 October : Whampoa

29 December : Second Bar

28 May 1811 : St Helena

13 August : Long Reach

= = = Voyage # 8 : Bombay and China ( 1812 @-@ 13 ) = = =

On this voyage Arniston sailed under a letter of marque in the name of Captain Walter Campbell . Her itinerary was :

4 January 1812 : Torbay

5 April : Johanna

7 May : Bombay

11 September : Whampoa

4 January 1813 : Macau

27 March : St Helena

7 June : Long Reach

The British government then chartered Arniston as a troop transport to the Cape and India .

= = = Voyage # 9 : Madeira , Cape , and Ceylon ( 1814 @-@ 1815 ) = = =

Captain George Simpson left England on 8 June 1814 . At Ceylon , Arniston embarked soldiers of the 73rd Regiment , who were wounded in the Kandyan Wars in Ceylon , to repatriate them to England .

= = Wreck ( 1815 ) = =

Critically , the ship did not have a chronometer for this voyage , a comparatively new and expensive navigational instrument at the time . Captain George Simpson could not afford the 60 – 100 guineas for one , and the ship 's owners were also unwilling to purchase one , even threatening to replace him with another captain if he refused to set sail without one .

Arniston sailed from Port de Galle on 4 April 1815 in a convoy of six other East Indiamen , under the escort of HMS Africaine and HMS Victor . Among her 378 passengers were many invalid soldiers and sailors , plus 14 women and 25 children .

During the passage from Ceylon , at one o 'clock every day , the ships signalled each other their longitude that they calculated using their chronometers . In this way , the ships were able to compare their respective instruments , and the master of the Arniston was able to learn his longitude too , as long as he remained in the convoy .

On 26 May , while rounding the southern tip of Africa , Arniston separated from the convoy in bad weather after her sails were damaged . Without accurate daily longitudinal information from the other ships , Arniston had to rely instead on older , less accurate navigation methods . Navigation via dead reckoning proved particularly difficult as there were strong ocean currents combined with inclement weather that prevented a fix being obtained for several days via celestial navigation .

On 29 May , land was sighted to the north at 7 am , and given the dead reckoning estimates , was presumed to be the Cape of Good Hope . The ship sailed west until 4 : 30 pm on 29 May , then turned north to run for St Helena . However the land sighted had in fact been Cape Agulhas ( then known as " Cape L 'Agullas " ) and the ship had also not made good headway against the current since this sighting . Compounding these navigational errors , the master had not taken any depth soundings ( which would have confirmed his location over the Agulhas Bank ) , before heading north . Consequently , instead of being 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of the Cape of Good Hope as presumed , the ship was closing on the reef at Waenhuiskrans near Cape Agulhas . The anchors were unable to hold the heavy ship in the storm , so on 30 May near 4 pm , Lieutenant Brice advised Captain Simpson to ground the ship to save the lives of those aboard . Eight minutes later , at about 8 pm , the ship struck rocks half a mile offshore and heeled into the wind . The guns on the opposite side were cut away in a failed attempt to level the ship , which soon started to break up in the waves .

Only six men of the 378 people on board survived , after reaching the shore only with great difficulty through the high surf . The following morning the sternpost was the only part of the vessel still visible . The ship and her passengers had been lost for the price of a chronometer , or as an officer from the same convoy later wrote :

[ T ] his valuable ship , and all the lives on board of her , were actually sacrificed to a piece of short @-@ sighted economy . That they might have been saved , had she been supplied with the worst chronometer that was ever sent to sea , is also quite obvious .

= = Aftermath = =

The six survivors buried the bodies found on the beach , then travelled east along the beach , expecting to reach Cape Town . However , after four and a half days , they realised their error and returned to the site of the wreck . Here they subsisted off a cask of oatmeal , while trying to effect repairs to the ship 's pinnace , which had been washed ashore . They were discovered six days later on 14 June by a farmer 's son , who was out hunting .

Among the victims were : Captain George Simpson , Lieutenant Brice , Lord and Lady Molesworth .

The six survivors were : Dr. Gunter ( boatswain ) , John Barrett ( carpenter ) , Charles Stewart Scott ( carpenter 's mate ) , William Grung ( second class ) , Gibbs ( third class ) , Robinson ( fourth class ) .

A memorial , a replica of which can be seen today , was erected on the beach by the wife of Colonel Giels , whose four children were lost in the tragedy on their homeward journey , having visited him in Ceylon . The memorial bears the following inscription :

Erected by their disconsolate parents to the memory of Thomas , aged 13 years , William Noble , aged 10 , Andrew , aged 8 and Alexander McGregor Murray , aged 7 ( the four eldest sons of Lieut Colonel Andrew Giels of H.M. 73rd Regiment ) who , with Lord and Lady Molesworth unfortunately perished in the Arniston Transport , wrecked on this shore on 3rd May , 1815 .

Over time , the seaside village of Waenhuiskrans has become so associated with the wreck , that it now is also known as Arniston . The nearby town of Bredasdorp has a museum dedicated to the wreck . The wreck had a direct influence on the decision to build a lighthouse at Cape Agulhas to the west in 1847 – 1848 .

Thirty seven years later , the 73rd Regiment once again suffered hundreds of casualties on this coast when HMS Birkenhead was wrecked only 50 miles ( 80 km ) away at Gansbaai .

= = Archaeological excavation = =

The wreck , which lies in about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) of water , was surveyed by an archaeological team from the University of Cape Town ( UCT ) in 1982 . The National Monuments Council issued a permit to UCT student Jim Jobling to conduct an underwater survey of the site , as well as a limited excavation . A number of artefacts were recovered , which were donated to the Bredasdorp Shipwreck Museum .

= United States Capitol shooting incident ( 1998 ) =

The United States Capitol shooting incident of 1998 was an attack on July 24 , 1998 , which led to the death of two United States Capitol Police officers . Detective John Gibson and Officer Jacob Chestnut were killed when Russell Eugene Weston , Jr . , entered the Capitol and opened fire . Chestnut was killed instantly and Gibson died during surgery at George Washington University Hospital . Weston 's exact motives are unknown , but he has a mental disorder and maintains a strong distrust of the federal government . He remains in a mental institution due to paranoid schizophrenia and has yet to be tried in court .

= = The shooting = =

On the day of shooting , Officer Chestnut and another officer were assigned to operate the X @-@ ray machine and magnetometer at the Document Door entrance located on the East Front of the Capitol , which was open only to Members of Congress and their staff . Detective Gibson was assigned to the dignitary protection detail of Rep. Tom DeLay ( R @-@ TX ) and was in his suite of offices near this door . Weston , armed with a .38 caliber Smith & Wesson six @-@ shot revolver , entered the Document Door at 3 : 40 p.m. At the same time , Officer Chestnut was providing directions to a tourist and his son while his partner escorted another tourist towards the restroom . Weston reportedly walked around the metal detector just inside the entrance ; Chestnut requested he go back through the detector . Weston suddenly produced the gun and without warning , shot Chestnut in the back of the head at point @-@ blank range . According to witnesses , he turned down a short corridor and pushed through a door which leads to a group of offices used by senior Republican representatives including then Majority Whip Tom DeLay and Representative Dennis Hastert , future Speaker of the House and a close protégé of then Speaker Newt Gingrich .

Detective Gibson , who was in plainclothes , was shot after the suspect entered DeLay 's office . Despite being mortally wounded , Detective Gibson was able to return fire and wound the suspect , who was apprehended in that office . A female tourist was grazed by bullets on her shoulder and face . She was treated for her injuries and released . Also injured was USCP Officer Douglas McMillian . Future Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist , R @-@ Tennessee , a heart surgeon who had been presiding on the Senate floor just before the shooting , resuscitated the gunman and accompanied him to D.C. General Hospital .

= = After the shooting = =

Officers Chestnut and Gibson were the two people killed in the attack . Following the shooting , both officers received the tribute of lying in honor in the United States Capitol rotunda . They were the first police officers , and Chestnut was the first African American , to receive the honor .

In 1999 , Weston was found incompetent to stand trial due to mental illness as he was a man with schizophrenia who stopped taking his medication . A judge of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia ordered that he be treated with antipsychotic medication without his consent in 2001 , and the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit upheld the decision . In 2004 , the court determined that Weston still was not competent to be tried , despite ongoing treatment , and suspended but did not dismiss the criminal charges against him . Weston was known to the United States Secret Service prior to the incident as a person who had threatened the President of the United States .

The shooting led to the creation of the United States Capitol Police Memorial Fund , a nonprofit organization managed by the Capitol Police Board which provides funds for the families of Chestnut and Gibson . In November 2005 , the fund was expanded to include the family of Sgt. Christopher Eney , a USCP officer killed during a training accident in 1984 . The shooting was cited as one reason for the development of the Capitol Visitors Center . The legislation authorizing the construction of the facility was introduced by Washington , D.C. Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton and was entitled the Jacob Joseph Chestnut @-@ John Michael Gibson United States Capitol Visitor Center Act of 1998 . The door where Weston entered was renamed in honor of the two officers , from the Document Door to the Chestnut @-@ Gibson Memorial Door .

On March 6 , 2008 , Weston filed a motion requesting a hearing on his mental status . The hearing was held on May 6 with Weston appearing via teleconference from the Federal Medical Center , Butner with his public defender Jane Pierce and two witnesses he selected , a psychologist and vocational rehabilitation specialist . Federal judge Earl Britt denied Weston 's request to be released from the federal facility , arguing that he failed to present enough evidence that he no longer needed to be committed . During the hearing defense psychologist Holly Rogers stated that , " sometimes there are individuals who simply do not respond to medication " , implying that Weston was not ready for release . Had Weston been released from the facility , it would have made it possible for him to be taken to Washington , D.C. to stand trial for the murders of Gibson and Chestnut .

= = The officers = =

Detective John Michael Gibson ( March 29 , 1956 – July 24 , 1998 ) was a United States Capitol Police officer assigned to the dignitary protection detail of Congressman Tom DeLay . He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery after lying in honor with Chestnut in the Capitol rotunda . Detective Gibson had served with the agency for 18 years . He was a native of Massachusetts who married the niece of Representative Joe Moakley , Democrat of Massachusetts . He had three children , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter and two boys , ages 15 and 14 . Growing up in New England , Det . Gibson was a lifelong Boston Red Sox fan , and on August 11 , 1998 , his beloved team had a moment of silence in his honor prior to a game with the Kansas City Royals .

Officer Jacob Joseph Chestnut ( April 28 , 1940 – July 24 , 1998 ) , was the first African American to lie in honor at the Capitol . Chestnut is buried in Arlington National Cemetery . His funeral included a speech by President Bill Clinton and a fly @-@ over by military jets in a missing man formation . A United States Post Office located in Fort Washington , Maryland has been renamed in their honor .

= = The suspect = =

Russell Eugene Weston , Jr . ( born December 28 , 1956 ) , also known as Rusty , grew up in Valmeyer , Illinois . Weston attended Valmeyer High School , the only high school in a town of 900 people . Shortly after graduating high school in 1974 , Weston moved to Rimini , Montana , rarely returning to Valmeyer . The only attempt his high school classmates made at inviting him to a class reunion was returned with obscenities written across it . Many of Weston 's Montana neighbors had disliked him , and often ignored him . They considered him to be unusual , and sometimes eccentric . Weston had once thought that his neighbor was using his television satellite dish to spy on his actions and believed Navy SEALs were hiding in his cornfield .

He was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia six years before the shooting and spent fifty @-@ three days in a mental hospital after threatening a Montana resident . He was released after testing as being of no danger to himself or anyone else . Eighteen months before the shooting , he moved back to Valmeyer from Montana . Once home , he was known to compulsively hack at trees which filled his back yard following the Mississippi River floods of 1993 . There was so much downed timber on his family 's homestead that they had to ask him to stop cutting at trees . Two days prior to the Capitol shooting , at his grandmother 's insistence to do something about nearby cats which were becoming a nuisance , Weston shot and killed 14 cats with a single @-@ barreled shotgun , leaving several in a bucket and burying the rest .

Following the Capitol shooting , Weston was transferred to a psychiatric center at Butner Federal Correctional Institution in Butner , North Carolina . In an interview with a court @-@ appointed psychiatrist he explained that he stormed the Capitol to prevent the United States from being annihilated by disease and legions of cannibals .

He has never been charged with any crime due to apparent mental inculpability . One contentious issue of Weston 's incarceration is that of forced medication . Weston has thus far refused to take any medications voluntarily . His lawyers helped enable this , in order to protect him from the death penalty . In May 2001 , a federal judge authorized doctors to treat Weston involuntarily . A panel from a federal appeals court ruled in July 2001 that Weston could be forced to take the drugs which he was forced to do for 120 days . He remains in the Butner facility indefinitely .

= Hurricane Kathleen ( 1976 ) =

Hurricane Kathleen was a tropical cyclone that caused destructive impacts in California . On September 7 , 1976 , a tropical depression formed ; two days later it accelerated north towards the Baja California Peninsula . Kathleen brushed the Pacific coast of the peninsula as a hurricane on September 9 and made landfall as a fast @-@ moving tropical storm the next day . With its circulation intact and still a tropical storm , Kathleen headed north into the United States and affected California and Arizona . Kathleen finally dissipated late on September 11 .

Damage in the United States was considerable . California received record rainfall , with over a foot of rain falling in some areas . Flooding caused catastrophic destruction to Ocotillo , and six people drowned . Flooding extended west ; railway tracks were destroyed in Palm Desert and high winds and severe flooding were recorded in Arizona . Overall , the damage total was $ 160 million ( 1976 USD ) and 12 deaths were attributed to the storm .

= = Background = =

Tropical cyclones do not typically bring high winds to the southwestern United States . Most Pacific hurricanes are embedded in easterly winds south of the subtropical ridge , and thus move westward — away from large land masses — until they dissipate over cold waters . However , during early autumn , tropical cyclones generally form closer to the Mexican shoreline than average , making them more likely to recurve , or to curve again , northwards under the influence of an approaching trough . These troughs tend to extend farther to the south during the latter part of the Pacific hurricane season , in the period between late August and early October . They also produce a synoptic @-@ scale flow that is conducive to steering hurricanes towards the southwestern United States . However , many hurricanes that approach the southwestern United States tend to be undergoing extratropical transition as they encounter increased wind shear and markedly cooler sea surface temperatures , and as they interact with the deep troughs that caused them to recurve . Kathleen is one of only six recorded tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific Ocean known to have brought gale @-@ force or hurricane @-@ force winds to the Continental United States .

= = Meteorological history = =

A large area of thunderstorms , with a diameter of about 500 mi ( 800 km ) , formed 270 mi ( 430 km ) southwest of Acapulco . Moving rapidly west @-@ northwest , a tropical depression formed on September 7 . While briefly moving towards the east , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kathleen . Moving above 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) sea surface temperatures , Kathleen quickly strengthened . Before passing 40 mi ( 64 km ) east of Socorro Island , Kathleen reached its secondary peak with winds of 65 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Kathleen then weakened considerably , and by 0600 UTC September 9 , Tropical Storm Kathleen was barely a tropical storm . At this time , the system was located at 55 mi ( 89 km ) north of the island . Shortly thereafter , Kathleen turned north @-@ northeast into warmer waters .

Subsequently , the tropical storm began to re @-@ strengthen . Despite moving rapidly north , the cyclone strengthened into Hurricane Kathleen . The hurricane passed near several ships , and was intercepted by a Hurricane Hunter aircraft early on September 10 . It is estimated that the storm peaked in intensity around that time , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mb ( 986 hPa ) . However , Kathleen never developed an eye . About an hour after the first flight reached Kathleen , a second flight suggested that Kathleen had weakened back into a tropical storm . With precipitation falling in the United States , some 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) north of the cyclone 's atmospheric circulation , Kathleen 's motion accelerated to speeds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) -38 mph ( 61 km / h ) .

After crossing the Point Eugenia peninsula ( the cyclones first landfall ) later on the morning of September 10 , Kathleen made its second landfall 120 mi ( 190 km ) north of Ensenada at 1130 UTC the same day . Unlike most tropical cyclones , Kathleen weakened slowly over California . Tropical Storm Kathleen weakened further into a depression over southern California and shortly thereafter , moved across Death Valley . On September 11 , Kathleen entered western Nevada . Finally , the center became difficult to locate , and the depression dissipated later on September 11 . After undergoing a Fujiwhara @-@ like interaction , where two circulations interact with each other , with a low @-@ pressure area stalled off the Pacific coast , moisture later spread into the northwestern part of the United States . After the stalled low was pulled inland , Kathleen combined with the low to produce additional rainfall over parts of California .

= = Impact = =

= = = Mexico = = =

The bulk of the rainfall from the tropical cyclone fell over Baja California Norte and Baja California Sur , to the east of its track . The highest amount reported was 6 @.@ 52 in ( 166 mm ) in San Antonio .

= = = Arizona = = =

On September 10 – 11 , gale @-@ force winds caused considerable damage to the city of Yuma . For a time , the sustained winds exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , with gusts up to 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) . The National Weather Service 's forecast office in Tucson estimates that tropical storm @-@ force winds extended as far east as Pima County , and as far north as Lake Havasu . Rains caused severe flash @-@ flooding in Mohave County . One man was killed when the wind blew a palm tree onto his mobile home and 13 people across the state were hurt . The Tucson metropolitan area was particularly hard hit with flash flooding , with golf @-@ ball size hail . On Mount Lemmon , the hail reached a depth of 5 in ( 13 cm ) . While most of the rainfall from Tropical Storm Kathleen fell in California , 2 @.@ 87 inches ( 7 @.@ 3 cm ) fell at the Davis Dam on the Colorado River .

= = = California = = =

The state received record rainfall , with 14 @.@ 76 in ( 37 @.@ 5 cm ) falling on the southern slopes of Mount San Gorgonio , and 10 @.@ 13 in ( 25 @.@ 7 cm ) accumulated on Mount Laguna . Because the village is situated atop an alluvial fan , a 40 ft ( 12 m ) wall of water exited a mountain canyon . Ocotillo was flooded with 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) -6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of water ; subsequently , half the town was destroyed . Six people drowned in the mud and waters in the town and two people were initially reported missing , though they were later found by officials . Overall , Ocotllio was 70 % – 80 % destroyed . Officials evacuated 175 people from the flooded area of Ocotillo and the nearby communities that surround the Salton Sea ; the sea rose 6 in ( 150 mm ) -8 in ( 200 mm ) . A quarter mile of interstate and a 60 @-@ foot bridge were destroyed by the flood , which also washed away mobile homes , trucks , and cars .

In Los Angeles , two people died of injuries suffered from slippery roads . One man drowned in El Centro. and two people drowned when their cars tumbled into the water near the city . Record flood stage was attained at numerous streams near the Coachella Valley . Widespread property damage was recorded on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada as well as the nearby desert . Across the San Joaquin Valley , 2 / 3 of the $ 150 million raisin crop was threatened . Crops including cotton , lettuce , and hay were damaged .

Homeowners in Palm Desert suffered $ 4 million in damage from the storm ; the town received more than a year 's worth of rainfall in a matter of days . No serious injuries were reported throughout the desert city , though two agricultural dikes broke .

Several miles of railway track , including three trestles that belonged to the San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway , were destroyed and five others were damaged . At more than 50 other locations , tracks were buried by mudslides or had the ground under them washed away . After assessing the damage from Kathleen , the Southern Pacific Transportation Company decided in 1977 to abandon most of the railroad . A 700 ft ( 210 m ) section of Interstate 8 from Yuma to San Diego was destroyed .

Overall , hundreds of homes were damaged or destroyed ; Tropical Storm Kathleen was described as a one @-@ in- 160 @-@ year event . Total damage was $ 160 million , making Kathleen one of the costliest tropical storms in state history . Parts of California were declared a disaster area , and flash flood watches were issued throughout Southern California , including the desert and mountains . Flash flood warnings were also issued for parts of California , as well as nearby states Nevada and Arizona , but were dropped as the rain tampered off on September 11 .

= = = Rest of the United States = = =

In Wyoming , the cyclone is credited for the first known sighting of a white ibis in the state 's history . In Montana , Kathleen dropped locally heavy rainfall approaching 2 inches ( 51 mm ) in localized spots , enough to become the wettest known tropical cyclone in state history . The remnants of the storm also affected Oregon and Idaho .

= Mamoru Miyano =

Mamoru Miyano ( 宮野 真守 , Miyano Mamoru , born Wednesday , June 8 , 1983 ) is a Japanese voice actor , actor , and singer from Saitama Prefecture . He is best known for his roles on Ouran High School Host Club , Vampire Knight , Death Note , Soul Eater , Tokyo Ghoul , Free ! , Mobile Suit Gundam 00 , Kōtetsu Sangokushi , Steins ; Gate , Nobunaga the Fool , and Uta no Prince @-@ sama . At the 2007 Seiyu Awards he was nominated for two awards for his role as Light Yagami in Death Note , and in 2008 , he won the " Best Voice Actor " award at the 2008 Tokyo International Anime Fair . At the 2008 Seiyu Awards , Miyano won " Best Lead Actor Award " for his role as Setsuna F Seiei in Mobile Suit Gundam 00 , and as Hakugen Rikuson in Kōtetsu Sangokushi .

Miyano began his career as a musician in 2007 . He released his debut single , " Kuon " ( 久遠 , lit . Eternity ) , in May on the King Records label . In March 2009 , his debut album Break was released .

= = Acting career = =

Miyano started his acting career in 1990 and provides the voice of Riku in the Japanese version of the PlayStation 2 video game Kingdom Hearts . He then voiced Kiba , the main character of anime series Wolf 's Rain . He returned as the voice for Riku in the 2004 Game Boy Advance game Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , as well as Kingdom Hearts II in 2005 , and in Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories in 2007 .

In 2006 , Miyano voiced Light Yagami for the anime version of the manga Death Note . In 2007 , for his role as Light Yagami , he was nominated for two awards at the first Seiyu Awards : " Best Lead Actor Award " and " Best New Actor Awards " . Also in 2007 , Miyano went on to provide the voice of Setsuna F Seiei , the main character of Mobile Suit Gundam 00 . He won his first award , " Best Voice Actor " , at the 2008 Tokyo International Anime Fair for his portrayal of Light Yagami and Setsuna F Seiei . In 2008 , Miyano took on the role as Setsuna F Seiei again for the second season of Mobile Suit Gundam 00 . He won his first Seiyu award for the roles of Setsuna F Seiei and of Hakugen Rikuson in Kōtetsu Sangokushi . He has also voiced Zero Kiryu from the series Vampire Knight and Vampire Knight Guilty , as well as Death The Kid in the anime Soul Eater . He also provided the voice of Tamaki Suoh in the anime version of Ouran High School Host Club , Okabe Rintarō from Steins ; Gate , Ling Yao from Fullmetal Alchemist Brotherhood , Oda Nobunaga from Nobunaga the Fool , and Rin Matsuoka from Free ! Iwatobi Swim Club and Free ! Eternal Summer .

In addition to voice acting , Miyano has also appeared on camera . His first acting job was in 1992 in Tokusou Exceedraft , where he appeared in a flashback as a child in a yakuza member 's past . In 2003 , Miyano joined the cast of The Prince of Tennis Musical playing Tetsu Ishida ( 石田 鉄 , Ishida Tetsu ) . He made his film debut in 2006 's The Prince of Tennis . He also made a guest appearance in the drama The Quiz Show in 2008 . In 2009 , he has voiced Ultraman Zero from the new movie , Mega Monster Battle : Ultra Galaxy Legend The Movie .

In 2010 , he began voicing Dent in the popular Pokémon anime series . In the same year he starred with fashion model and actress Ayumi Uehara and fellow voice actors Tomokazu Sugita , Tomokazu Seki , Rikiya Koyama , Yuka Hirata , Showtaro Morikubo and Yūko Kaida in the film , Wonderful World , directed by Daisuke Namikawa . Later , he voiced Ultraman Zero again in the movie , Ultraman Zero : The Revenge of Belial . In 2012 , he continued to voice Ultraman Zero in Ultraman Saga , in 2015 in Ultraman Ginga S : Showdown ! Ultra 10 Warriors ! ! , as well as in the new movie , Ultraman X : Here It Comes ! Our Ultraman in 2016 .

= = Musical career = =

On May 28 , 2007 on the King Records label , Miyano debuted as a singer with the single " Kuon " ( 久遠 , Eternity ) . " Kuon " debuted at number 47 on the Oricon charts and was used as the ending theme song for anime series Kōtetsu Sangokushi . On June 13 , 2007 , with fellow voice actress Romi Park , the duo released a collaboration single titled " Fight " , which debuted on the Oricon chart at number 73 . On June 4 , 2008 he released his second single , " Discovery " , which was the intro song for PlayStation 2 video game Fushigi Yūgi : Suzaku Ibun . The song debuted at number 24 on the chart .

In August 2008 , Miyano released the character single " Soup / Hakosora " , under the name Mamoru Miyano comes across Setsuna F Seiei ( 宮野真守 come across 刹那 ・ F ・ セイエイ ) ; it debuted at number 18 . In December he released his third single , " ... Kimi e " ( … 君へ , ... To You ) , which also debuted at number 18 . On March 11 , 2009 Miyano released his debut album , Break , which debuted at number 20 . On April 11 , 2009 , a month after the release of his album , Miyano went on his first tour , 1st Live Tour 2009 : Breaking .

In 2010 , Miyano released his second album , Wonder . The album charted at number 20 on the Oricon Weekly Albums chart . Following the album 's release , Miyano went on his second tour , Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2010 : Wondering . In April 2012 , Miyano released his third album , Fantasista . The album charted at number 4 on the Oricon Weekly Albums chart .

In 2013 , Miyano made his first appearance in on NHK 's music variety show Music Japan .

In May 2014 , Miyano went on his 6th live tour ~ Wakening ! ~ where he traveled around Japan . The DVD was released January 28 , 2015 .

= = Personal life = =

Miyano married in late 2008 . He and his wife have a son together .

= = Discography = =

= = = Albums = = =

= = = Singles = = =

= = = Promotional singles = = =

= = = Video releases = = =

Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2009 : Smile & Break ( 2010 )

Mamoru Miyano Live Tour 2010 : Wondering ( 2011 )

Mamoru Miyano Live 2011 – 12 : Fight & Stand ( 2012 )

Mamoru Miyano Live 2012 – 13 : Beginning ( 2013 )

Mamoru Miyano Special Live 2013 : Traveling ! ( 2014 )

Mamoru Miyano Live 2014 : WAKENING ! ( 2015 )

Mamoru Miyano Live 2015 : AMAZING ( 2015 )

Mamoru Miyano Live 2015 – 16 : GENERATING ( 2016 )

= = Filmography = =

= = = Television anime = = =

= = = Tokusatsu = = =

Special Rescue Exceedraft ( 1992 ) – Child

Zyuden Sentai Kyoryuger ( 2013 ) – Ferocious Knight D

Ultraman Retsuden ( 2011 ) - Ultraman Zero ( Voice ) , Singer ( Ep . 72 cameo ; actor )

New Ultraman Retsuden ( 2013 ) Ultraman Zero

Ultraman X ( 2015 ) - Ultraman Zero ( Ep.5 )

= = = Original video animation ( OVA ) = = =

= = = Films = = =

= = = Video games = = =

= = = Dubbing = = =

= = = = Live @-@ action = = = =

Caitlin 's Way ( Griffen Lowe ( Jeremy Foley ) )

Charlie and the Chocolate Factory ( Willy Wonka ( Johnny Depp ) )

Halloweentown High ( Dylan Cromwell ( Joey Zimmerman ) )

Hannah Montana : The Movie ( Travis Brody ( Lucas Till ) )

Harry Potter film series ( Percy Weasley ( Chris Rankin ) )

The Musketeers ( d 'Artagnan ( Luke Pasqualino ) )

Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( Percy Jackson ( Logan Lerman ) )

Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters ( Percy Jackson ( Logan Lerman ) )

The Spy Next Door ( Larry ( Lucas Till ) )

Upside Down ( Adam Kirk ( Jim Sturgess ) )

= = = = Animation = = = =

Bionicle : Mask of Light ( Takua Takanuva )

Despicable Me 2 ( Antonio Pérez )

The Lorax ( Ted Wiggins )

Minions ( Herb )

My Little Pony : Friendship Is Magic ( Shining Armor )

The Secret Life of Pets ( Tiberius )

X @-@ Men Origins : Wolverine ( Scott Summers )

= = = Drama CD = = =

Dolls ( Seiju Shikibu )

Free ! ( Rin Matsuoka )

Karneval ( Yogi )

Mobile Suit Gundam 00 ( Setsuna F Seiei )

Ouran High School Host Club ( Tamaki Suoh )

Soul Eater ( Death the Kid )

Starry Sky ( Shiki Kagurazaka )

Steins ; Gate ( Rintaro Okabe )

Uta no Prince @-@ sama ( Tokiya Ichinose )

Vampire Knight ( Zero Kiryu and Ichiru Kiryu )

Fate / Stay Night : Garden of Avalon- glorious afterimage ( Bedivere )

= = = Comics = = =

Strobe Edge ( Ren Ichinose )

= Japanese ironclad Hiei =

Hiei ( 比叡 , Hiei ) was the second and last vessel of the Kongō @-@ class ironclad corvettes built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1870s . They were built in the United Kingdom because the Japanese were unable to build ironclad warships in Japan . She became a training ship in 1887 and made training cruises to the Mediterranean and to countries on the edge of the Pacific Ocean . The ship returned to active duty during the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where she was damaged during the Battle of the Yalu River . Hiei also participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei and the invasion of Formosa in 1895 . The ship resumed her training duties after the war , although she played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . She was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 and was sold for scrap in 1912 .

= = Design and description = =

During the brief Japanese occupation of Taiwan in 1874 , tensions heightened between China and Japan , and the possibility of war caused the Japanese government to realize that it needed to reinforce its navy . The following year the government placed an order for the armored frigate Fusō and two Kongō @-@ class ships , designed by the British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , from British shipyards as no Japanese shipyard was able to build a ship of this size .

Hiei was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) . She had a forward draft of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and drew 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) aft . The ship displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 22 officers and 212 enlisted men . Her hull was of composite construction with an iron framework planked with wood .

= = = Propulsion = = =

The ship had a single two @-@ cylinder , double @-@ expansion , horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine , driving a single propeller using steam from six cylindrical boilers . The engine was designed to produce 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) to give the Kongō @-@ class ironclads a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) . During her sea trials on 7 December 1877 , the ship reached a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 92 knots ( 25 @.@ 78 km / h ; 16 @.@ 02 mph ) . She carried enough coal to steam 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ironclad was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 14 @,@ 036 square feet ( 1 @,@ 304 m2 ) . The ship was reboilered at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in 1889 with two steel cylindrical boilers ; the new boilers proved to be less powerful during sea trials . Hiei reached a maximum speed of 10 @.@ 34 knots ( 19 @.@ 15 km / h ; 11 @.@ 90 mph ) from 1 @,@ 279 ihp ( 954 kW ) . Her topmasts were removed in 1895 .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

Hiei was fitted with three 172 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and six RBL 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) Krupp guns . All of the 172 @-@ millimeter guns were positioned as chase guns , two forward and one aft . The 152 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted on the broadside . The ship also carried two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns for use ashore or mounted on the ship 's boats .

During the 1880s , the armament of the ship was reinforced with the addition of four quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt and two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns for defense against torpedo boats . Around the same time she also received two 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes . The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was again reinforced in 1897 by the addition of a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . After the end of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Hiei 's armament was reduced to six ex @-@ Russian 12 @-@ pounder guns and six 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounders .

The Kongō @-@ class corvettes had a wrought @-@ iron armor waterline belt 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) at the ends of the ship .

= = History = =

The contract for Hiei was awarded to Milford Haven Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. in Pembroke Dock , Wales , on 24 September 1875 for the price of £ 119 @,@ 600 , exclusive of armament . Japanese sources universally give the date for Hiei 's keel @-@ laying as 24 September 1875 — the same as that for the awarding of the contract — but historian Hans Langerer describes this as improbable , arguing that no shipyard would order enough material to begin construction without cash in hand . She was launched on 12 June 1877 ; Reed 's daughter smashed a bottle of champagne on the ship 's bow in the traditional Western style . The ship was named for Mount Hiei . Completed in February 1878 , Hiei sailed for Japan on 22 March under the command of a British captain and with a British crew because the IJN was not yet ready for such a long voyage . One of the passengers aboard her was the future admiral Togo Heihachiro , who had just completed six years of study in the United Kingdom . She arrived in Yokohama on 22 May and was assigned to the Tokai Naval District a month later . On 10 July a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama for the receipt of the ship that was attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ship was opened for tours by the nobility , their families and invited guests for three days after the ceremony . On 14 July , the general public was allowed to tour the ship for a week .

During 1880 , Hiei visited ports in India , Persia , the Persian Gulf and various ports in Southeast Asia . The ship made annual port visits to Jinsen in Korea in 1881 through 1883 . She was assigned to the Small Standing Fleet in 1886 and became a training ship in 1887 the following year . Together with her sister ship Kongō , Hiei sailed from Shinagawa , Tokyo on 13 August 1889 on a training cruise to the Mediterranean with cadets from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy , returning on 2 February 1890 . On 5 October the sisters departed Shinagawa for Kobe to pick up the 69 survivors of the wrecked Ottoman frigate Ertuğrul and continued on to Constantinople , Turkey to return them to their homeland . They arrived on 2 January 1891 , and the ships ' officers were received by Sultan Abdul Hamid II . The ships also carried a class of naval cadets . On the return voyage , they made a port visit at Piraeus where they were visited by King George I of Greece and his son , Crown Prince Constantine . Making stops at Alexandria , Port Said , Aden , Colombo , Singapore and Hong Kong , the sisters arrived at Shinagawa on 10 May .

Hiei began another cadet cruise on 30 September 1891 and visited Australia and Manila before returning to Shinagawa on 10 April 1892 . The ship was not in service in 1893 , but she was recommissioned before the beginning of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1894 . Hiei was assigned to the Standing Fleet on 2 July . She was the last ship in the Japanese line during the Battle of the Yalu River in September and was heavily damaged when her captain decided to pass through the Chinese fleet rather than try to keep up with the faster Main Squadron . The ship became the target of most of the Chinese ships and was forced to disengage to prevent further damage . Hiei was transferred to the West @-@ Sea Fleet on 14 October , and the sisters were assigned to the Second Raiding Unit in December for operations against the Chinese port of Weihaiwei . The ships were present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in January – February 1895 , although neither saw any significant combat . Hiei took part in the invasion of Formosa in 1895 , and participated in the bombardment of the Chinese coastal forts at Takow ( Kaohsiung ) on 13 October 1895 .

After the war , Hiei alternated her training cruises with Kongō , making the 1897 cruise to the West Coast of North America and Hawaii from 13 April to 20 September and repeating the same cruise from 14 December 1898 to 28 August 1899 . During that cruise , on 21 March 1898 , the ship was re @-@ designated as a 3rd @-@ class coast defense ship , although she retained her training duties . Both ships made the 1902 cruise , their last , to Manila and Australia from 19 February to 25 August . Hiei played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War before she was reclassified as a survey ship in 1906 . Hiei was stricken from the Navy List on 1 April 1911 and ordered to be sold on 21 December . The exact date of her sale is not known , although Maizuru Naval District reported her sale on 25 March 1912 .

= Moncton =

Moncton / ˈmʌŋktən / is a city located in Westmorland County in the southeastern portion of the province of New Brunswick , Canada . Situated in the Petitcodiac River Valley , Moncton lies at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces . The city has earned the nickname " Hub City " due to its central location in the region and its history as a railway and land transportation hub for the Maritimes .

The city proper has a population of 69 @,@ 074 ( 2011 ) and has a land area of 142 km2 ( 55 sq mi ) . The Moncton CMA has a population of 138 @,@ 644 ( 2011 ) , making it the largest CMA in New Brunswick , the second @-@ largest CMA in the Maritime Provinces , and the third @-@ largest CMA in Atlantic Canada . The CMA includes the neighbouring city of Dieppe and the town of Riverview , as well as adjacent suburban areas in Westmorland and Albert counties .

Although the Moncton area was originally settled in 1733 , Moncton is considered to have been officially founded in 1766 with the arrival of Pennsylvania Dutch immigrants from Philadelphia . Initially an agricultural settlement , Moncton was not incorporated until 1855 . The city was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton , the British officer who had captured nearby Fort Beauséjour a century earlier . A significant wooden shipbuilding industry had developed in the community by the mid @-@ 1840s , allowing for the civic incorporation in 1855 , but the shipbuilding economy collapsed in the 1860s , causing the town to lose its civic charter in 1862 . Moncton regained its charter in 1875 after the community 's economy rebounded , mainly due to a growing railway industry . In 1871 , the Intercolonial Railway of Canada had chosen Moncton to be its headquarters , and Moncton remained a railroad town for well over a century until the closure of the Canadian National Railway ( CNR ) locomotive shops in the late 1980s . Although the economy of Moncton was traumatized twice — by the collapse of the shipbuilding industry in the 1860s and by the closure of the CNR locomotive shops in the 1980s — the city was able to rebound strongly on both occasions . The city adopted the motto Resurgo after its rebirth as a railway town . At present , the city 's economy is stable and diversified , primarily based on its traditional transportation , distribution , retailing , and commercial heritage , and supplemented by strength in the educational , health care , financial , information technology , and insurance sectors . The strength of Moncton 's economy has received national recognition and the local unemployment rate is consistently less than the national average .

= = History = =

Acadians first settled the head of the Bay of Fundy in the 1670s . The first reference to the " Petcoucoyer River " was on the De Meulles map of 1686 . Settlement of the Petitcodiac and Memramcook river valleys began about 1700 , gradually extending inland and reaching the site of present @-@ day Moncton in 1733 . The first Acadian settlers in the Moncton area established a marshland farming community and chose to name their settlement Le Coude ( The Elbow ) , an allusion to the 90 ° bend in the river near the site of the settlement .

In 1755 , nearby Fort Beausejour was captured by English forces under the command of Lt. Col. Robert Monckton . The Beaubassin region including the Memramcook and Petitcodiac river valleys subsequently fell under English control .

Later that year , Governor Charles Lawrence issued a decree ordering the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia ( including recently captured areas of Acadia such as le Coude ) . This action came to be known as the " Great Upheaval " .

The reaches of the upper Petitcodiac River valley then came under the control of the Philadelphia Land Company ( one of the principals of which was Benjamin Franklin ) and in 1766 Pennsylvania Dutch settlers arrived to re @-@ establish the pre @-@ existing farming community at Le Coude . The Settlers consisted of eight families ; Heinrick Stief ( Steeves ) , Jacob Treitz ( Trites ) , Matthias Sommer ( Somers ) , Jacob Reicker ( Ricker ) , Charles Jones ( Schantz ) , George Wortmann ( Wortman ) , Michael Lutz ( Lutes ) , and George Koppel ( Copple ) . There is a plaque dedicated in their honor at the mouth of Hall 's Creek . They renamed the settlement " The Bend " . The Bend remained an agricultural settlement for nearly 80 more years . Even by 1836 , there were only 20 households in the community . At this time , the Westmorland Road became open to year round travel and a regular mail coach service was established between Saint John and Halifax . The Bend became an important transfer and rest station along the route . Over the next decade , lumbering and then shipbuilding would become important industries in the area .

The turning point for the community was when Joseph Salter took over ( and expanded ) a shipyard at The Bend in 1847 . The expanded shipyard ultimately grew to employ about 400 workers . The Bend subsequently developed a service @-@ based economy to support the shipyard and gradually began to acquire all the amenities of a growing town . The prosperity engendered by the wooden shipbuilding industry allowed The Bend to incorporate as the town of Moncton in 1855 . The town was named for Lt. Col. Robert Monckton , but a clerical error at the time the town was incorporated resulted in the misspelling of the community 's name , which has been perpetuated to the present day . The first mayor of Moncton was the shipbuilder Joseph Salter .

Two years later , in 1857 , the European and North American Railway opened its line from Moncton to nearby Shediac ; this was followed by a line from Moncton to Saint John opening in 1859 . At about the time of the arrival of the railway , the popularity of steam @-@ powered ships forced an end to the era of wooden shipbuilding . The Salter shipyard closed in 1858 . The resulting industrial collapse caused Moncton to surrender its civic charter in 1862 .

Moncton 's economic depression did not last long and a second era of prosperity came to the area in 1871 when Moncton was selected to be the headquarters of the Intercolonial Railway of Canada ( ICR ) . The arrival of the ICR in Moncton was a seminal event for the community . For the next 120 years , the history of the city would be firmly linked with that of the railway . In 1875 , Moncton was able to reincorporate as a town and adopted the motto " Resurgo " ( Latin for I rise again ) . One year later , the ICR line to Quebec was opened . The railway boom that emanated from this and the associated employment growth allowed Moncton to achieve city status on 23 April 1890 .

Moncton grew rapidly during the early 20th century , particularly after provincial lobbying helped the city become the eastern terminus of the massive National Transcontinental Railway project in 1912 . In 1918 , the ICR and NTR were merged by the federal government into the newly formed Canadian National Railways ( CNR ) system . The ICR shops would become CNR 's major locomotive repair facility for the Maritimes and Moncton became the headquarters for CNR 's Maritime division . The T. Eaton Company 's catalogue warehouse moved to the city in the early 1920s , employing over seven hundred people . Transportation and distribution became increasingly important to the Moncton economy throughout the middle part of the 20th century . The Moncton Airport opened in 1929 and quickly became an important fixture in the community . During the Second World War the Canadian Army built a large military supply base in the city to service the Maritime military establishment . The CNR continued to dominate the economy of the city with railway employment in Moncton peaked at nearly six thousand workers in the 1950s before beginning a slow decline .

Moncton was placed on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway network in the early 1960s after Route 2 was built along the northern perimeter of the city . Subsequent development saw Route 15 built between the city and Shediac . At the same time , the Petitcodiac River Causeway was constructed . The Université de Moncton was founded in 1963 . This institution became an important resource in the development of Acadian culture in the area .

The late 1970s and the 1980s again saw a period of economic hardship hit the city as several major employers closed or restructured . The Eatons catalogue division , CNR 's locomotive shops facility and CFB Moncton were all closed during this time throwing thousands of citizens out of work .

Diversification in the early 1990s saw the rise of information technology , led by call centres which made use of the city 's bilingual workforce . By the late 1990s , retail , manufacturing and service expansion began to occur in all sectors and within a decade of the closure of the CNR locomotive shops Moncton had more than made up for its employment losses . This dramatic turnaround in the fortunes of the city has been termed the " Moncton Miracle " .

The growth of the community has continued unabated since the 1990s and has actually been accelerating . The confidence of the community has been bolstered by its ability to host major events such as the Francophonie Summit in 1999 , a Rolling Stones concert in 2005 , the Memorial Cup in 2006 and both the IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics and a neutral site regular season CFL football game in 2010 . Recent positive developments include the Atlantic Baptist University ( later renamed Crandall University ) achieving full university status and relocating to a new campus in 1996 , the Greater Moncton Airport opening a new terminal building and becoming a designated international airport in 2002 , and the opening of the new Gunningsville Bridge to Riverview in 2005 . In 2002 , Moncton became Canada 's first officially bilingual city . In the 2006 census , Moncton was officially designated a Census Metropolitan Area and became the largest metropolitan area in the province of New Brunswick .

= = Geography = =

Moncton lies in southeastern New Brunswick , at the geographic centre of the Maritime Provinces . The city is located along the north bank of the Petitcodiac River at a point where the river bends acutely from a west − east to north − south flow . This geographical feature has contributed significantly to historical names given to the community .

Petitcodiac in the Mi 'kmaq language has been translated as meaning " bends like a bow " . The early Acadian settlers in the region named their community Le Coude which means " the elbow " . Subsequent English immigrants changed the name of the settlement to The Bend of the Petitcodiac ( or simply The Bend ) .

The Petitcodiac river valley at Moncton is broad and relatively flat , bounded by a long ridge to the north ( Lutes Mountain ) and by the rugged Caledonia Highlands to the south . Moncton lies at the original head of navigation on the river , however a causeway to Riverview ( constructed in 1968 ) resulted in extensive sedimentation of the river channel downstream and rendered the Moncton area of the waterway unnavigable . On 14 April 2010 , the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt @-@ laden river .

= = = Tidal bore = = =

The Petitcodiac River exhibits one of North America 's few tidal bores : a regularly occurring wave that travels up the river on the leading edge of the incoming tide . The bore is as a result of the extreme tides of the Bay of Fundy . Originally , the bore was very impressive , sometimes between 1 and 2 metres ( 3 ft 3 in and 6 ft 7 in ) in height and extending across the 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) width of the Petitcodiac River in the Moncton area . This wave would occur twice a day at high tide , travelling at an average speed of 13 km / h ( 8 @.@ 1 mph ) and producing an audible roar . Unsurprisingly , the " bore " became a very popular early tourist attraction for the city , but when the Petitcodiac causeway was built in the 1960s , the river channel quickly silted in and reduced the bore so that it rarely exceeds 15 to 20 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) in height . On 14 April 2010 , the causeway gates were opened in an effort to restore the silt @-@ laden river . A recent tidal bore since the opening of the causeway gates measured a 2 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) wave , unseen for many years .

= = = Nearby natural features = = =

There are many natural attractions near Moncton . Two major national parks , Fundy National Park and Kouchibouguac National Park , are within a one @-@ hour drive of the city . The warmest salt water beaches north of Virginia can be found on the Northumberland Strait , only 15 minutes away at Parlee Beach in the nearby town of Shediac . New Brunswick 's signature natural attraction , the Hopewell Rocks , are a half @-@ hour 's drive down the Petitcodiac river valley . Cape Enrage , located near Alma , includes a historic lighthouse , fossil cliffs , scenic vistas , and adventure tourism . The Sackville Waterfowl Park includes nature trails and a boardwalk over a freshwater marsh as well as waterfowl viewing platforms . Other nearby attractions ( within one hour of the city ) include The Cape Jourimain National Wildlife Preserve , La Dune de Bouctouche Eco @-@ Centre , ( an ecotourism site and beach ) and the Joggins Fossil Cliffs in Nova Scotia ; a UNESCO world heritage site .

= = Climate = =

Despite being less than 50 km ( 31 mi ) from the Bay of Fundy and less than 30 km ( 19 mi ) from the Northumberland Strait , the climate tends to be more continental than maritime during the summer and winter seasons , with maritime influences somewhat tempering the transitional seasons of spring and autumn .

Moncton has a warm summer continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with uniform precipitation distribution . Winter days are typically cold but generally sunny with solar radiation generating some warmth . Daytime high temperatures usually range a few degrees below the freezing point . Major snowfalls can result from nor 'easter ocean storms moving up the east coast of North America . These major snowfalls typically average 20 – 30 cm ( 8 – 12 in ) and are frequently mixed with rain or freezing rain . Spring is frequently delayed because the sea ice that forms in the nearby Gulf of St. Lawrence during the previous winter requires time to melt , and this will cool onshore winds , which can extend inland as far as Moncton . The ice burden in the gulf has diminished considerably over the course of the last decade ( which may be a consequence of global warming ) , and the springtime cooling effect has weakened as a result . Daytime temperatures above freezing are typical by late February . Trees are usually in full leaf by late May . Summers are hot and humid due to the seasonal prevailing westerly winds strengthening the continental tendencies of the local climate . Daytime highs sometimes reach more than 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Rainfall is generally modest , especially in late July and August , and periods of drought are not uncommon . Autumn daytime temperatures remain mild until late October . First snowfalls usually do not occur until late November and consistent snow cover on the ground does not happen until late December . The Fundy coast of New Brunswick occasionally experiences the effects of post @-@ tropical storms . The stormiest weather of the year , with the greatest precipitation and the strongest winds , usually occurs during the fall / winter transition ( November to mid @-@ January ) .

= = Cityscape = =

Moncton generally remains a " low rise " city . The city 's skyline however encompasses many buildings and structures with varying architectural styles from many periods . The most dominant structure in the city is the Bell Aliant Tower , a 127 metres ( 417 ft ) microwave communications tower built in 1971 . When it was constructed , it was the tallest microwave communications tower of its kind in North America . It remains the tallest structure in Moncton , dwarfing the neighbouring Place L ’ Assomption by 46 metres ( 151 ft ) . Indeed , the Bell Aliant Tower is also the tallest free @-@ standing structure in all four Atlantic provinces . Assumption Place is a 20 @-@ story office building and is the headquarters of Assumption Mutual Life Insurance . This building is 81 metres ( 266 ft ) in height and is tied with Brunswick Square ( Saint John ) as the tallest building in the province . The Blue Cross Centre is a large nine @-@ story building in Downtown Moncton . Although only nine stories tall , the building is architecturally distinctive , encompasses a full city block , and is the largest office building in the city in terms of square footage . It is the home of Medavie Blue Cross and the Moncton Public Library . There are about a half dozen other buildings in Moncton that range between eight and twelve stories in height , including the Delta Beausejour and Brunswick Crowne Plaza Hotels and the Terminal Plaza office complex .

= = Urban parks = =

The most popular park in the area is Centennial Park , which contains an artificial beach , lighted cross country skiing and hiking trails , the city 's largest playground , lawn bowling and tennis facilities , a boating pond , a treetop adventure course , and Rocky Stone Field , a city owned 2 @,@ 500 seat football stadium with artificial turf , and home to the Moncton Minor Football Association . The city 's other main parks are Mapleton Park in the city 's north end , Irishtown Nature Park ( one of the largest urban nature parks in Canada ) and St. Anselme Park ( located in Dieppe ) . The numerous neighbourhood parks throughout the metro Moncton area include Bore View Park ( which overlooks the Petitcodiac River ) , and the downtown Victoria Park , which features a bandshell , flower gardens , fountain , and the city 's cenotaph . There is an extensive system of hiking and biking trails in Metro Moncton . The Riverfront Trail is part of the Trans Canada Trail system , and various monuments and pavilions can be found along its length .

= = Demography = =

The population of Moncton is 69 @,@ 074 ( 2011 Census ) . Along with Fredericton and Halifax , Moncton is one of only three Maritime cities to register a population increase in recent years .

The majority of Moncton residents are native English speakers , but the city also has a substantial French @-@ speaking Acadian population ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) . Almost all Monctonians speak English ( 64 @.@ 6 % ) or French ( 31 @.@ 9 % ) as first languages ; 1 @.@ 6 % speak both languages as a first language , and 6 @.@ 9 % speak another language . About 46 % of the city population is bilingual and understands both English and French ; the only other Canadian cities that approach this level of linguistic duality are Ottawa , Sudbury , and Montreal . Moncton became the first officially bilingual city in the country in 2002 . The adjacent city of Dieppe is about 73 % Francophone and has benefited from an ongoing rural depopulation of the Acadian Peninsula and areas in northern and eastern New Brunswick . The town of Riverview meanwhile is heavily ( 95 % ) Anglophone .

The census metropolitan area ( CMA ) grew by 9 @.@ 7 % between 2006 and 2011 - the fastest such rate of any metropolitan area in Atlantic Canada . The census metropolitan area had a population of 138 @,@ 644 as of the 2011 national census , which makes it the largest metropolitan area in the province of New Brunswick and the second largest in the Maritime Provinces after Halifax . The 2015 estimated CMA population is 148 @,@ 000 . The CMA includes the city of Dieppe ( population 23 @,@ 310 ) , town of Riverview ( 19 @,@ 128 ) , Moncton Parish ( 9 @,@ 421 ) , Memramcook ( 4 @,@ 831 ) , Coverdale Parish ( 4 @,@ 401 ) , and Salisbury ( 2 @,@ 208 ) .

Migration is mostly from other areas of New Brunswick ( especially the north ) , Nova Scotia ( 13 % ) , and Ontario ( 9 % ) . 62 % of new arrivals to the city are Anglophone and 38 % are Francophone .

There are 2 @,@ 990 Aboriginal people living in Moncton , who make up 4 @.@ 3 % of the city 's population . There are 3 @,@ 305 visible minorities in Moncton . Blacks and South Asians are the largest visible minority groups , comprising 1 @.@ 7 % and 0 @.@ 7 % of the city 's population , respectively . There is also a growing Korean community in Moncton .

= = Economy = =

The underpinnings of the local economy are based on Moncton 's heritage as a commercial , distribution , transportation , and retailing centre . This is due to Moncton 's central location in the Maritimes : it has the largest catchment area in Atlantic Canada with 1 @.@ 6 million people living within a three @-@ hour drive of the city . The insurance , information technology , educational , and health care sectors also are major factors in the local economy with the city 's two hospitals alone employing over five thousand people .

Moncton has garnered national attention because of the strength of its economy . The local unemployment rate averages around 6 % , which is below the national average . In 2004 Canadian Business Magazine named it " The best city for business in Canada " , and in 2007 FDi magazine named it the fifth most business friendly small @-@ sized city in North America .

A number of nationally or regionally prominent corporations have their head offices in Moncton including Atlantic Lottery Corporation , Assumption Life Insurance , Medavie Blue Cross Insurance , Armour Transportation Systems , Imvescor , Major Drilling Group International , PropertyGuys.com , and Co @-@ op Atlantic .

There are 37 call centres in the city which employ over 5000 people . Some of the larger centres include Asurion , Numeris ( formerly BBM Canada ) , Exxon Mobil , Royal Bank of Canada , Tangerine Bank ( formerly ING Direct ) , UPS , Fairmont Hotels and Resorts , Rogers Communications , and Sitel . A growing high tech sector includes companies such as Gtech , Nanoptix , International Game Technology , OAO Technology Solutions , BMM Test Labs , TrustMe , and BelTek Systems Design .

Several arms of the Irving corporation have their head offices and / or major operations in greater Moncton . These include Midland Transport , Majesta / Royale Tissues , Irving Personal Care , Master Packaging , Brunswick News , and Cavendish Farms . Kent Building Supplies ( an Irving subsidiary ) opened their main distribution centre in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2014 . The Irving group of companies employs several thousand people in the Moncton region .

There are three large industrial parks in the metropolitan area . The Irving operations are concentrated in the Dieppe Industrial Park . The Moncton Industrial Park in the city 's west end has been expanded . Molson / Coors opened a brewery in the Caledonia Industrial Park in 2007 , its first new brewery in over fifty years . All three industrial parks also have large concentrations of warehousing and regional trucking facilities .

A new four @-@ lane Gunningsville Bridge was opened in 2005 , connecting downtown Riverview directly with downtown Moncton . On the Moncton side , the bridge connects with an extension of Vaughan Harvey Boulevard as well as to Assumption Boulevard and will serve as a catalyst for economic growth in the downtown area . This has become already evident as an expansion to the Blue Cross Centre was completed in 2006 and a Marriott Residence Inn opened in 2008 . The new regional law courts on Assumption Blvd opened in 2011 . Construction will begin on a new downtown 9 @,@ 000 seat multipurpose events centre and arena on the site of the former Highfield Square shopping centre in 2016 . On the Riverview side , the Gunningsville Bridge now connects to a new ring road around the town and is expected to serve as a catalyst for development in east Riverview .

The retail sector in Moncton has become one of the most important pillars of the local economy . Major retail projects such as Champlain Place in Dieppe and the Wheeler Park Power Centre on Trinity Drive have become major destinations for locals and for tourists alike .

Tourism is an important industry in Moncton and historically owes its origins to the presence of two natural attractions , the tidal bore of the Petitcodiac River ( see above ) and the optical illusion of Magnetic Hill . The tidal bore was the first phenomenon to become an attraction but the construction of the Petitcodiac causeway in the 1960s effectively extirpated the attraction . Magnetic Hill , on the city 's northwest outskirts , is the city 's most famous attraction . The Magnetic Hill area includes ( in addition to the phenomenon itself ) , a golf course , major water park , zoo , and an outdoor concert facility . A $ 90 million casino / hotel / entertainment complex opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010 .

= = Arts and culture = =

Moncton 's Capitol Theatre , an 800 @-@ seat restored 1920s @-@ era vaudeville house on Main Street , is the main centre for cultural entertainment for the city . The theatre hosts a performing arts series and provides a venue for various theatrical performances as well as Symphony New Brunswick and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada . The adjacent Empress Theatre offers space for smaller performances and recitals . The Molson Canadian Centre at Casino New Brunswick provides a 2 @,@ 000 seat venue for major touring artists and performing groups .

The Moncton @-@ based Atlantic Ballet Theatre tours mainly in Atlantic Canada but also tours nationally and internationally on occasion . Théâtre l 'Escaouette is a Francophone live theatre company which has its own auditorium and performance space on Botsford Street . The Anglophone Live Bait Theatre is based in the nearby university town of Sackville . There are several private dance and music academies in the metropolitan area , including the Capitol Theatre 's own performing arts school .

The Aberdeen Cultural Centre is a major Acadian cultural cooperative containing multiple studios and galleries . Among other tenants , the Centre houses the Galerie Sans Nom , the principal private art gallery in the city .

The city 's two main museums are the Moncton Museum at Resurgo Place on Mountain Road and the Musée acadien at Université de Moncton . The Moncton Museum reopened following major renovations and an expansion to include the Transportation Discovery Centre . The Discovery Centre includes many hands on exhibits highlighting the city 's transportation heritage . The city also has several recognized historical sites . The Free Meeting House was built in 1821 and is a New England @-@ style meeting house located adjacent to the Moncton Museum . The Thomas Williams House , a former home of a city industrialist built in 1883 , is now maintained in period style and serves as a genealogical research centre and is also home to several multicultural organizations . The Treitz Haus is located on the riverfront adjacent to Bore View Park and has been dated to 1769 both by architectural style and by dendrochronology . It is the only surviving building from the Pennsylvania Dutch era and is the oldest surviving building in the province of New Brunswick .

Moncton is home to the Frye Festival , an annual bilingual literary celebration held in honour of world @-@ renowned literary critic and favourite son Northrop Frye . This event attracts noted writers and poets from around the world and takes place in the month of April .

The Atlantic Nationals Automotive Extravaganza , held each July , is the largest annual gathering of classic cars in Canada . Other notable events include The Atlantic Seafood Festival in August , The HubCap Comedy Festival , and the World Wine Festival , both held in the spring .

= = Sports = =

= = = Facilities = = =

The Moncton Coliseum is a 6 @,@ 554 @-@ seat arena which serves as a venue for major concerts and trade shows and is the home of the Moncton Wildcats of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . The CN Sportplex is a major recreational facility which has been built on the former CN Shops property . It includes ten ballfields , six soccer fields , an indoor rink complex with four ice surfaces ( the Superior Propane Centre ) and the Hollis Wealth Sports Dome , an indoor air supported multi @-@ use building . The Sports Dome is large enough to allow for year @-@ round football , soccer and golf activities . A newly constructed YMCA near the CN Sportsplex has extensive cardio and weight training facilities , as well as three indoor pools . The CEPS at Université de Moncton contains an indoor track and a 37 @.@ 5 metres ( 123 ft ) swimming pool with diving towers . The new Moncton Stadium , also located at the U de M campus was built for the 2010 IAAF World Junior Track & Field Championships . It has a permanent seating for 10 @,@ 000 , but is expandable to a capacity of over 20 @,@ 000 for events such as professional Canadian football . The only velodrome in Atlantic Canada is in Dieppe . The metro area has a total of 12 indoor hockey rinks and three curling clubs . Other public sporting and recreational facilities are scattered throughout the metropolitan area , including a new $ 18 million aquatic centre in Dieppe opened in 2009 . A new 9 @,@ 200 seat downtown arena and events centre has been approved and is expected to open in 2018 .

Greater Moncton has many golfing facilities . There are nine 18 @-@ hole golf courses in the census metropolitan area , four of which are residential courses with courseside housing developments either existing or under construction . Both the Royal Oaks and Fox Creek golf clubs can be considered championship courses , with Royal Oaks being the first Rees Jones designed golf course in Canada . Other notable courses include the Moncton Golf & Country Club , Memramcook Valley Golf Club and the Mountain Woods Golf Club .

= = = Sports teams = = =

The Moncton Wildcats play major junior hockey in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . They won the President 's Cup , the QMJHL championship in both 2006 and 2010 . The Moncton Mets played baseball in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League and won the Canadian Senior Baseball Championship in 2006 . The Dieppe Commandos ( formerly known as the Moncton Beavers ) are a member of the Maritime Junior A Hockey League . The Universite de Moncton has a number of active CIS university sports programs including hockey , soccer , and volleyball . These teams are a part of the Canadian Interuniversity Sport program . Historically , Moncton was home to a professional American Hockey League franchise from 1978 to 1994 . The New Brunswick Hawks won the AHL Calder Cup by defeating the Binghamton Whalers in 1981 @-@ 1982 .

In 2011 , the Moncton Miracles began play as one of the seven charter franchises of the professional National Basketball League of Canada . In 2015 , the Moncton Fisher Cats began play in the New Brunswick Senior Baseball League . They were formed by a merger between the Moncton Mets and the Hub City Brewers of the NBSBL .

= = = Major events = = =

Moncton has hosted many large sporting events . The 2006 Memorial Cup was held in Moncton with the hometown Moncton Wildcats losing in the championship final to rival Quebec Remparts . Moncton hosted the Canadian Interuniversity Sports ( CIS ) Men 's University Hockey Championship in 2007 and 2008 . The World Men 's Curling Championship was held in Moncton in 2009 ; the second time this event has taken place in the city .

Moncton also hosted the 2010 IAAF World Junior Championships in Athletics . This was the largest sporting event ever held in Atlantic Canada , with athletes from over 170 countries in attendance . The new 10 @,@ 000 seat capacity Moncton Stadium was built for this event on the Université de Moncton campus . The construction of this new stadium led directly to Moncton being awarded a regular season neutral site CFL game between the Toronto Argonauts and the Edmonton Eskimos , which was held on 26 September 2010 . This was the first neutral site regular season game in the history of the Canadian Football League and was played before a capacity crowd of 20 @,@ 750 . Additional CFL regular season games were held in 2011 and 2013 .

Moncton was one of only six Canadian cities chosen to host the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup .

Major sporting events hosted by Moncton include :

= = Tourism , entertainment and shopping = =

Magnetic Hill is on the northwestern outskirts of Moncton and is now the city 's most famous attraction . It is a gravity hill optical illusion , where the local topography gives the impression that you are going uphill when in fact you are going downhill .

The " Magnetic Hill Illusion " is a popular tourism draw and both the city and province have built major tourism developments on the surrounding properties to capitalize on this . The complex includes The Magnetic Hill Zoo , a nationally accredited and award winning zoo with over 400 animals displayed in themed exhibit areas . It is the largest zoo in Atlantic Canada , has well @-@ developed and popular educational program , and was ranked as the fourth best zoo in Canada in 2007 . Also on site is Magic Mountain , the largest water park in Atlantic Canada , with a half dozen large water slides , a lazy river , wave pool , children 's splash pool , and a 36 @-@ hole mini @-@ golf course . An adjacent amusement park is now under construction and will be completed in 2017 . The Magnetic Hill Concert Site , a large outdoor concert facility which holds one or two large concerts every year is located nearby . The Rolling Stones performed there in 2005 in front of 85 @,@ 000 fans . The Eagles played there in the summer of 2008 in front of 55 @,@ 000 fans . AC / DC and Bon Jovi played at the hill in 2009 , with the crowd for the AC / DC concert exceeding 70 @,@ 000 . The Magnetic Hill Concert Site has developed a reputation for holding the largest concert productions in the entire country . U2 played the final concert of their worldwide U2 360 ° Tour at Magnetic Hill on 30 July 2011 . The Casino New Brunswick , which also encompasses a hotel and 2 @,@ 000 seat entertainment venue also opened at Magnetic Hill in 2010 . The performance space at the Casino New Brunswick has already hosted many top acts on the casino circuit .

At present , the major destinations for shopping enthusiasts in Greater Moncton are the Northwest Centre , and the Wheeler Park Power Centre in Moncton , and Champlain Place in Dieppe , which , at 816 @,@ 000 square feet ( 75 @,@ 800 m2 ) , is the largest shopping mall in Atlantic Canada and has over 160 stores and services . The Bass Pro Complex is adjacent to Champlain Place and is co @-@ managed by Cadillac Fairview . It includes a Chapters bookstore , multiplex cinema complex and includes a Bass Pro Shop .

= = Government = =

The municipal government consists of a mayor and ten city councillors elected to four @-@ year terms of office . The council is non @-@ partisan with the mayor serving as the chairman , casting a ballot only in cases of a tie vote . There are four wards electing two councillors each with an additional two councillors selected at large by the general electorate . Day @-@ to @-@ day operation of the city is under the control of a City Manager .

The greater Moncton area contains nine of New Brunswick 's 49 provincial electoral districts : Moncton Centre , Moncton East , Moncton South , Moncton Southwest , Moncton Northwest , Dieppe , Shediac Bay @-@ Dieppe , Riverview and Albert . Of the nine members of the Legislative Assembly that represent greater Moncton , five belong to the Liberal party and four belong to the Progressive Conservative party .

Moncton is in the federal riding of Moncton — Riverview — Dieppe . Portions of Dieppe are in the federal riding of Beauséjour , and portions of Riverview are in the riding of Fundy Royal . In the current federal parliament , all three members from the metropolitan area belong to the Liberal party .

The current federal MP for Moncton — Riverview — Dieppe is Ginette Petitpas Taylor ( Liberal ) , as of the 2015 federal election .

= = Education = =

Separate Anglophone and Francophone school boards administer greater Moncton 's 35 public primary and secondary schools . The Francophone South School Board administers ten schools in the Moncton area . The Anglophone East School Board administers 25 schools in Greater Moncton . There are four Anglophone high schools in the metro Moncton area ; Moncton High School , Harrison Trimble High School , Bernice MacNaughton High School , and Riverview High School . The area 's Francophone high schools are École Mathieu @-@ Martin and École L 'Odyssée .

Four universities have campuses in the greater Moncton region .

The Université de Moncton is a publicly funded provincial comprehensive university and is the largest French @-@ language university in Canada outside of Quebec . The Moncton campus enrolls over 4 @,@ 000 students and offers a variety of undergraduate and post @-@ graduate degree programs , including a School of Law as well as a number of health sciences disciplines including an MD degree program ( offered in conjunction with the Université de Sherbrooke ) .

Crandall University ( formerly Atlantic Baptist University ) is a private undergraduate liberal arts university affiliated with the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches that enrolls about 800 students . It offers degrees in arts , science , education , business , and religious studies . Crandall is partway through a $ 24 million expansion to the campus which began in 2009 and will see three new buildings constructed , allowing enrollment to increase to 1 @,@ 200 students .

The University of New Brunswick ( Moncton ) is a small satellite health sciences campus located at the Moncton Hospital that offers degrees in nursing and medical X @-@ ray technology to over 300 students . The Dalhousie NB Medical Training Program ( in conjunction with UNBSJ ) sees about 25 medical students and residents based at the Moncton Hospital as well .

Mount Allison University is a publicly funded principally undergraduate liberal arts university . Mount A is traditionally ranked by Maclean 's magazine as one of Canada 's top undergraduate universities , taking top honours in 18 out of the last 25 years . Mount Allison University is located about a half hour from downtown Moncton in nearby Sackville . Mount Allison enrolls nearly 2 @,@ 500 students and offers degrees in arts , fine arts , music , commerce , and science ( including master 's degrees in biology and chemistry ) . Mount Allison also provides first year and extension university courses in Moncton and has developed a formal affiliation with the Moncton Flight College to allow for a bachelor 's degree in aviation . As of 2014 , Mount Allison has produced 53 Rhodes Scholars , the most of any comparable university in the Commonwealth .

Moncton is home to two campuses of the New Brunswick Community College system .

The English @-@ language New Brunswick Community College - Moncton is the largest campus in the NBCC system with an enrollment of over 1600 full @-@ time students and also hundreds of part @-@ time students . It provides training in over 30 different trades and technology disciplines . A major $ 20 million expansion / refurbishment of the campus has recently been completed which , amongst other things has allowed construction of a new academic building for the business program .

The ( smaller ) French @-@ language Collège Communautaire du Nouveau Brunswick - Dieppe provides similar training for the trades and technology sectors .

Moncton has six private vocational schools that offer practical training in a variety of fields .

The Atlantic Business College offers a variety of business , paramedical and paralegal programs .

The Atlantic Paramedic Academy , operated by Medavie EMS is a Canadian Medical Association accredited school providing training in Primary and Advanced Care Paramedicine . It is also home to the Advanced Emergent Care ( AEC ) program of the Department of National Defence ( Canada ) .

Eastern College ( formerly known as CompuCollege ) has a campus in Moncton . Operating for over 25 years , they offer 40 different programs at seven different campuses in Atlantic Canada . Programs are offered in the areas of Business and Administration , Art and Design , Health Care , Social Sciences & Justice , Tourism & Hospitality , and Trades .

Moncton Flight College is one of Canada 's oldest , largest , and most prestigious flight schools .

McKenzie College is a visual arts institution specializing in graphic design , digital media , and animation .

Oulton College , New Brunswick 's oldest private college , provides training in a variety of business , paramedical , dental sciences , pharmacy , veterinary , youth care and paralegal programs . A new campus has just been constructed off of Vaughan Harvey Blvd in central Moncton .

= = Media = =

Moncton 's daily newspaper is the Times & Transcript , which has the highest circulation of any daily newspaper in New Brunswick . More than 60 percent of city households subscribe daily , and more than 90 percent of Moncton residents read the Times & Transcript at least once a week . The city 's other publications include L 'Acadie Nouvelle , a French newspaper published in Caraquet in northern New Brunswick .

There are 16 broadcast radio stations in the city covering a variety of genres and interests , all on the FM dial . Ten of these stations are English and six are French .

Rogers Cable has its provincial headquarters and main production facilities in Moncton and broadcasts on two community channels , Cable 9 in French and Cable 10 in English . The French @-@ language arm of the CBC , Radio @-@ Canada , maintains its Atlantic Canadian headquarters in Moncton . There are three other broadcast television stations in Moncton and these represent all of the major national networks .

= = Transportation = =

Air

Moncton is served by the Greater Moncton International Airport ( YQM ) . A new airport terminal with an international arrivals area was opened in 2002 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II . The GMIA handles about 677 @,@ 000 passengers per year , making it the second busiest airport in the Maritime provinces in terms of passenger volume . The GMIA is also the 10th busiest airport in Canada in terms of aircraft movements . Regular scheduled destinations include Halifax , Montreal , Ottawa , Toronto and Hamilton . Scheduled service providers include Air Canada , Air Canada Express , Westjet and Porter Airlines . Seasonal direct air service is provided to destinations in Cuba , Mexico , the Dominican Republic , Jamaica , and Florida , with operators including Sunwing Airlines , Air Transat , and Westjet . FedEx , UPS , and Purolator all have their Atlantic Canadian air cargo bases at the facility . The GMIA is the home of the Moncton Flight College ; the largest pilot training institution in Canada , and is also the base for the regional RCMP air service , the New Brunswick Air Ambulance Service and the regional Transport Canada hangar and depot .

There is a second smaller aerodrome near Elmwood Drive . McEwen Airfield ( CCG4 ) is a private airstrip used for general aviation . Skydive Moncton operates the province 's only nationally certified sports parachute club out of this facility .

The Moncton Area Control Centre is one of only seven regional air traffic control centres in Canada . This centre monitors over 430 @,@ 000 flights a year , 80 % of which are either entering or leaving North American airspace .

Railways

Freight rail transportation in Moncton is provided by Canadian National Railway . Although the presence of the CNR in Moncton has diminished greatly since the 1970s , the railway still maintains a large classification yard and intermodal facility in the west end of the city , and the regional headquarters for Atlantic Canada is still located here as well . Passenger rail transportation is provided by Via Rail Canada , with their train the Ocean serving the Moncton railway station three days per week to Halifax and to Montreal . The downtown Via station has been refurbished and also serves as the terminal for the Maritime Bus intercity bus service .

Highways

Moncton lies on Route 2 of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , which leads to Nova Scotia in the east and to Fredericton and Quebec in the west . Route 15 intersects Route 2 at the eastern outskirts of Moncton , heads northeast leading to Shediac and northern New Brunswick , Route 16 connects to route 15 at Shediac and leads to Port Elgin and Prince Edward Island . Route 1 intersects Route 2 approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) west of the city and leads to Saint John and the U.S. border . Wheeler Boulevard ( Route 15 ) serves as an internal ring road , extending from the Petitcodiac River Causeway to Dieppe before exiting the city and heading for Shediac . Inside the city it is an expressway bounded at either end by traffic circles .

Urban transit

The Metro Moncton Area is served by Codiac Transpo , which is operated by the City of Moncton . It operates 40 buses on 19 routes throughout Moncton , Dieppe , and Riverview .

Intercity Bus

Maritime Bus provides intercity service to the region . Moncton is the largest hub in the system . All other major centres in New Brunswick , as well as Charlottetown , Halifax , and Truro are served out of the Moncton terminal .

= = Military = =

Aside from locally formed militia units , the military did not have a significant presence in the Moncton area until the beginning of the Second World War . In 1940 , a large military supply base ( later known as CFB Moncton ) was constructed on a railway spur line north of downtown next to the CNR shops . This base served as the main supply depot for the large wartime military establishment in the Maritimes . In addition , two Commonwealth Air Training Plan bases were also built in the Moncton area during the war : No. 8 Service Flying Training School , RCAF , and No. 31 Personnel Depot , RAF . The RCAF also operated No. 5 Supply Depot in Moncton . A naval listening station was also constructed in Coverdale ( Riverview ) in 1941 to help in coordinating radar activities in the North Atlantic . Military flight training in the Moncton area terminated at the end of World War II and the naval listening station closed in 1971 . CFB Moncton remained open to supply the maritime military establishment until just after the end of the Cold War .

With the closure of CFB Moncton in the early 1990s , the military presence in Moncton has been significantly reduced . The northern portion of the former base property has been turned over to the Canada Lands Corporation and is slowly being redeveloped . The southern part of the former base remains an active DND property and is now termed the Moncton Garrison . It is affiliated with CFB Gagetown . Resident components of the garrison include the 1 Engineer Support Unit ( Regular force ) . The garrison also houses the 37 Canadian Brigade Group Headquarters ( reserve force ) and one of the 37 Brigades constituent units ; the 8th Canadian Hussars ( Princess Louise 's ) , which is an armoured reconnaissance regiment . 3 Area support unit Det Moncton , and 42 Canadian Forces Health Services Center Det Moncton provide logistical support for the base . In 2013 , the last regular forces units left the Moncton base , but the reserve units remain active and Moncton remains the 37 Canadian Brigade Unit headquarters .

= = Health facilities = =

There are two major regional referral and teaching hospitals in Moncton .

The Moncton Hospital has approximately 400 active treatment beds and is affiliated with Dalhousie University Medical School . It is home to the Northumberland family medicine residency training program and is a site for third and fourth year clinical training for medical students in the Dalhousie Medicine New Brunswick Training Program . The hospital hosts UNB degree programs in nursing and medical x @-@ ray technology and professional internships in fields such as dietetics . Specialized medical services at the hospital include neurosurgery , peripheral and neuro @-@ interventional radiology , vascular surgery , thoracic surgery , orthopedics , trauma , burn unit , medical oncology , neonatal intensive care , and adolescent psychiatry . A $ 48 million expansion to the hospital was completed in 2009 and contains a new laboratory , ambulatory care centre , and provincial level one trauma centre . A new oncology clinic was built at the hospital and opened in late 2014 . The Moncton Hospital is managed by the Horizon Health Network ( formerly the South East Regional Health Authority ) .

The Dr. Georges @-@ L.-Dumont University Hospital Centre has about 400 beds and hosts a medical training program through the local CFMNB and distant Université de Sherbrooke Medical School . There are also degree programs in nursing , medical x @-@ ray technology , medical laboratory technology and inhalotherapy which are administered by U de M. Specialized medical services include medical oncology , radiation oncology , orthopedics , vascular surgery , and nephrology . A cardiac cath lab is being studied for the hospital and a new PET / CT scanner has been installed . A future $ 75 million expansion for ambulatory care , expanded surgery suites , and medical training is also planned . The hospital is also the location of the Atlantic Cancer Research Institute . This hospital is managed by Vitalité Health Network .

Maclean 's magazine has stated that Moncton has the best health care facilities of any of the smaller sized regional cities in Canada .

= = Notable people = =

Moncton has been the home of a number of notable people , including National Hockey League Hall of Famer and NHL scoring champion Gordie Drillon , World and Olympic champion curler Russ Howard , distinguished literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye , former Governor @-@ General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc , and former Supreme Court Justice Ivan Cleveland Rand , developer of the Rand Formula and Canada 's representative on the UNSCOP commission . Robb Wells , the actor who plays Ricky on the Showcase hit comedy Trailer Park Boys hails from Moncton , along with Chris Lee , Jacques Daigle , Julie Doiron , an indie rock musician , and Holly Dignard the actress who plays Nicole Miller on the CTV series " Whistler " . Harry Currie , noted Canadian conductor , musician , educator , journalist and author was born in Moncton and graduated from MHS . Antonine Maillet , a francophone author , recipient of the Order of Canada and the " Prix Goncourt " , the highest honour in francophone literature , is also from Moncton . France Daigle , another acclaimed Acadian novelist and playwright , was born and resides in Moncton , and is noted for her pioneering use of chiac in Acadian literature , was the recipient of the 2012 Governor General 's Literary Prize in French Fiction , for her novel " Pour Sûr " ( translated into English as " For Sure " ) . Canadian hockey star Sidney Crosby graduated from Harrison Trimble High School in Moncton .

= Be Someone Else =

Be Someone Else is the second studio album by Portuguese singer @-@ songwriter Slimmy . Saul Davies was first set to be the producer of the album , however , such collaboration wasn 't possible and Slimmy started working on the album with his longtime producers Quico Serrano and Mark J Turner . Other musicians joined Slimmy for the recording of the album : Paulo Garim in the bass and Tó @-@ Zé in the drums , who already worked with slimmy in Beatsound Loverboy , and Gustavo Silva , in the keyboards and Daniel Santos in the guitar as guest musicians . He mentioned that all production process happened because of him and that he was the one with the " last word " on his projects , not the bands or producers that he worked with . Originally due for release on May 2010 , the album 's release was pushed back to 14 June 2010 . The album was released in three formats : the physical standard edition , the physical deluxe edition with 2 discs and the digital format featuring 10 tracks .

Slimmy defined the album as " freedom , with a bit of " teasing " and " sexual " , an album full of strong songs dedicated to his fans . The album is essentially a rock album , a completely opposite of Beatsound Loverboy , which features a more electronic sound , keeping , however , the same connection between rock and electro music . In an interview with JN Slimmy declared that the album feels more organic and less electronic because in Beatsound Loverboy , there was no one else to play the songs but him . While maintaining his irreverence , Slimmy guarantees , however , that what matters is to make music that people intending to sing and lyrics that people can understand . He also said that he already received criticism for not being a singer with a proper style , but " I try to provide different sensations to people .

Slimmy 's most significant promotion marked the beginning of " A Very Slimmy Tour " , starting on 18 February 2011 at the Kastrus River Klub in Esposende and ending on 30 April 2011 at the Pitch Club in Porto . Slimmy 's " Be Someone Else Tour " began on 6 May 2011 with its opening show at the Academy Week in Mirandela . Neither of the album 's singles , " Be Someone Else " and " The Games You Play " , were particularly successful , charting anywhere . Critical response to the album was generally favorable , with critics praising Quico Serrano and Mark Turner 's Be Someone Else 's polished production , calling the album more direct and humanized than Beatsound Loverboy . " Be Someone Else " was a commercial disappointment , the album didn 't managed to chart on any official chart company to date . Two music videos were released from the album : " The Games You Play " , produced by Ana Andrade , Carla Fardilha , Clara Araújo Teixeira and Helena Oliveira , premiered on 17 November 2009 on YouTube and " Be Someone Else " , produced by Riot Films and premiered on 27 June 2010 .

= = Background and development = =

= = = Production = = =

Slimmy started working on the album with his longtime producers Quico Serrano and Mark Turner by the third quarter of 2009 . Saul Davies was first set to be the producer of the album , however , Davies was on tour with the band James at the time , making such collaboration impossible . Other musicians joined Slimmy for the recording of the album : Paulo Garim in the bass and Tó @-@ Zé in the drums , who already worked with slimmy in Beatsound Loverboy , and Gustavo Silva , in the keyboards and Daniel Santos in the guitar as guest musicians . Slimmy commented that most songs on the album are re @-@ recordings which were recorded in Portugal in 2006 and 2007 , however , these suffered some changes during the recording sessions at the Wrong Planet Studios in the UK , to improve their sound quality .

In an interview with Susana Faria of JPN , Slimmy defined the album as " freedom , with a bit of " teasing " and " sexual " , an album full of strong songs dedicated to my fans " . During this same interview , Slimmy talked about the album :

= = = Concept and music = = =

The album is essentially a rock album , a completely opposite of Beatsound Loverboy , which features a more electronic sound , keeping , however , the same connection between rock and electro music . Slimmy has been influenced by rock artists such as Placebo , IAMX and Kings of Leon . Slimmy explained that Be Someone Else sounds different from Beatsound Loverboy because of its complex and structured production . Slimmy mentioned that Be Someone Else is less individualist than Beatsound Loverboy , he declares that this album is like " a message about being who you are " , while his previous album talked about his past experiences , specially about his experience in London . In an interview with Palco Principal , Slimmy was asked if he missed the " One Man Show " times . He declared that " Doesn 't matter how big the bands that play with me are , I will always feel like " one " , because , in this new record , I was the one who spent nights working on the album , not my band " . He also mentioned that all production process happened because of him and that he was the one with the " last word " on his projects , not the bands or producers that he worked with . During this same interview , Slimmy confessed that is always good to have someone with great ideas to work with , in this case , he was talking about him . He explained : " if there were five persons creating music , there would be a lot of mess , that 's why do it all and I 'm glad people trust in me for that " .

" I Can 't Live Without You In This Town " , an electro rock ballad , makes a markable difference from the other tracks , some critics called the chorus of the song memorable . The song is dedicated to a girl Slimmy met in Texas in 2004 . The album also features a song entitled " Together 4ever " remixed by DJ Ride . The song " Beatsound Loverboy " , included on the Beatsound Loverboy Remixes EP , was also remixed by DJ Ride .

In an interview with JN Slimmy declared that the album feels more organic and less electronic because in Beatsound Loverboy , there was no one else to play the songs but him . He explained that with the trio now completely formed , it is a whole different concept , everything sounds different , and their presence on stage is more energetic and trustful . Slimmy also declared that SLIMMY is no longer a solo project , but also belongs to those who follow it . In an interview with Jornal Metro , Slimmy said that the album reflects the maturity , greater stability in the mind . While maintaining his irreverence , Slimmy guarantees , however , that what matters is to " make music that people intending to sing and lyrics that people can understand . I do not do things to shock " , he also said that he already received criticism for not being a singer with a proper style , but " I try to provide different sensations to people . When I sing alive , I sound much more rock , but in this album , there are many different spirit moods " .

= = Release and promotion = =

Originally due for release on May 2010 , the album 's release was pushed back to 14 June 2010 . It was released in three formats : the physical standard edition , featuring 10 tracks ; the physical deluxe edition with 2 discs , the first disc featuring the standard 10 track listing plus a bonus remix of " Together 4ever " and the second disc , released in digipack format together with the other CD , featuring remixes of 8 songs from Beatsound Loverboy ; and the digital format featuring 10 tracks . Both standard and deluxe edition 's jewel case CD contained a booklet with alternative covers .

In an interview with Palco Principal , on March 23 , 2010 , Slimmy revealed the title of the album . He explained : " As a first resort , when I wrote the lyrics of the song [ " Be Someone Else " ] , I just wanted to warn those who not work , but still waiting for results . If you want to be somebody , you have to give much of yourself , is not enough to " give less and expect more " . However , over the years , I realized that music was also for the kind of people that bring us down . Life is not a race . We must be ourselves , open our eyes and always look forward . "

While being interviewed by Palco Principal , Slimmy declared he was bit " unsure " about the promotion process of the album , he affirmed that he already had shows to make in France and Germany , but his real intention was to tour Portugal intensively , because he felt he had no success in his country . The first promotional concert toke place at the Cidade do Porto Shopping on 26 March 2010 , where Slimmy sang a few songs from his album , including " The Games You Play " and " Be Someone Else " . Slimmy also promoted his album in Albufeira , at the Algarve Shopping 's Fnac on November 27 , 2010 . Slimmy 's next significant promotion marked the beginning of " A Very Slimmy Tour " , where Slimmy performed songs from his two albums . It started on 18 February 2011 at the Kastrus River Klub in Esposende and ended on 30 April 2011 at the Pitch Club in Porto . The first music video to be released was " The Games You Play " , produced by Ana Andrade , Carla Fardilha , Clara Araújo Teixeira and Helena Oliveira . It premiered on 17 November 2010 on YouTube . A music video was also made for " Be Someone Else " , produced by Riot Films . It premiered on 27 June 2010 on YouTube . Slimmy 's " Be Someone Else Tour " began on 6 May 2011 with its opening show at the Academy Week in Mirandela . Future show dates will be added on 1bigo 's Facebook page . Slimmy also performed at the Queima das Fitas in Viana do Castelo on 15 May 2011 .

= = = Singles = = =

" Be Someone Else " was unveiled as the album 's lead single . The song was written by Fernandes and produced by Quico Serrano and Mark Turner . It was released to MySpace on 1 January 2010 . " The Games You Play " , also written by Fernandes and produced by Quico Serrano and Mark Turner , was released as the second single of the album on 6 March 2010 on the iTunes Store . " The Games You Play " premiered on the Antena 3 radio station on 20 September 2009 and was released on Slimmy 's MySpace profile on 30 September 2009 as a promotional song . Neither of the album 's singles were particularly successful , charting anywhere . Despite not being released as a single , " I Can 't Live Without You in This Town " is available for digital purchase at Amazon since June 14 , 2010 . It charted at number 152 at the Metropolis Chart , and it was featured on the eighth season of the Portuguese soap opera Morangos com Açúcar .

= = Critical reception = =

Since its release , the album has received favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . A Trompa gave the album a favorable review , commenting that " [ the album is ] fast and oriented to be devoured in dance floors or other places of similar excitement and socializing " it " clearly evokes a modern rock that welcomes people to it " . A Trompa also praised Quico Serrano and Mark Turner 's polished production , calling the album more direct and humanized then Beatsound Loverboy . CDGO gave the album a positive review and commented that the album is more eclectic and that " it will surely satisfy the fans and other lovers of electronic music . Slimmy emphasizes again his unmistakable style , both musical and his image , proving to be one of the most promising musicians of the new generation of national music . " Ágata Ricca from Palco Principal also gave the album a favorable review and stated that " [ the album ] marks the difference with the previous one , due to Slimmy 's mature and reflective attitude " and that the album does not " change Slimmy 's past , it just emphasize it and strengthen it " . Ágata Ricca also praised the song " I Can 't Live Without You In This Town " for its markable difference from the other tracks , calling the chorus of the song memorable . She also said that some other tracks of the album are pretty " danceable " .

= = Track listing = =

All lyrics written by Paulo Fernandes , all music composed by Paulo Fernandes , Paulo Garim , Tó @-@ Zé , Gustavo Silva , Daniel Santos .

= = = Deluxe edition = = =

= = Personnel = =

Taken from iOnline .

Performance Credits

Technical credits

= = Charts = =

= = = Songs = = =

= = Release history = =

= Delichon =

Delichon is a small genus of passerine birds that belongs to the swallow family and contains three species named as house martins . These are chunky , bull @-@ headed and short @-@ tailed birds , blackish @-@ blue above with a contrasting white rump , and with white or grey underparts . They have feathering on the toes and tarsi that is characteristic of this genus . The house martins are closely related to other swallows that build mud nests , particularly the Hirundo barn swallows . They breed only in Europe , Asia and the mountains of North Africa . Two species , the common and Asian house martins , migrate south in winter , while the Nepal house martin is resident in the Himalayas year @-@ round .

The house martins nest in colonies on cliffs or buildings , constructing feather- or grass @-@ lined mud nests . The typical clutch is two or three white eggs ; both parents build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks . These martins are aerial hunters of small insects such as flies and aphids . Despite their flying skills the Delichon martins are sometimes caught by fast @-@ flying birds of prey . They may carry fleas or internal parasites . None of the species are considered threatened , although widespread reductions in common house martin numbers have been reported from central and northern Europe . This decline is due to factors including poor weather , poisoning by agricultural pesticides , lack of mud for nest building and competition with house sparrows for nest sites .

= = Taxonomy = =

The three Delichon species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Delichon species construct a closed mud nest and therefore belong to the latter group ; they appear to be intermediate between the Hirundo and Ptyonoprogne species that make open cup nests , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows , which have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel . The genetic evidence suggests a close relationship between Hirundo and Delichon , which is further supported by the frequency of interbreeding between two widespread species , the barn swallow and the common house martin , despite being their being in different genera . The suggested taxonomic sequence of the mud @-@ building swallows has been recommended by at least two European taxonomic committees .

The genus Delichon was created by American naturalist Thomas Horsfield and British entomologist Frederic Moore in 1854 to accommodate the Nepal house martin that was first described by Moore in the same year , and is therefore the type species for the genus . The two other house martins were moved to Delichon from the genus Chelidon in which they had been placed up to that time . The name of the new genus , " Delichon " , is an anagram of the Ancient Greek term χελιδον / chelidôn , meaning swallow .

The genus contains three similar species :

Common house martin ( Delichon urbicum ) originally described as Hirundo urbica by Linnaeus in 1758 .

Asian house martin ( Delichon dasypus ) described as Chelidon dasypus by Bonaparte in 1850 .

Nepal house martin ( Delichon nipalense ) described by Moore in 1854 .

The common and Asian house martins have sometimes been considered to be a single species , although both breed in the western Himalayas without hybridising . There is also limited DNA evidence that suggests a significant genetic distance between these two martins .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Delichon is an Old World genus with all three species breeding only in the Northern Hemisphere . The common house martin is a widespread migrant breeder across Europe , north Africa and all northern temperate Asia to Kamchatka . Its western subspecies D. u. urbicum winters in tropical Africa , and eastern D. u. lagopodum moves to southern China and Southeast Asia . The Asian house martin breeds further south than common house martin in the mountains of central and eastern Asia ; its nominate subspecies winters in Southeast Asia , but the races breeding in the Himalayan and Taiwan may just move from the high mountains to lower altitudes . The Nepal house martin is resident in the mountains of southern Asia .

The preferred habitat of the common house martin is open country with low vegetation , such as pasture , meadows and farmland , and preferably near water , although it is also found in mountains up to at least 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) altitude . As its name implies , it readily nests on man @-@ made buildings , and will breed even in city centres if the air is clean enough . The other two species favour mountainous country ( and sea cliffs in the case of Asian house martin ) ; they use buildings as nest sites less frequently than their northern relative . The wintering grounds of the two migrant species include a range of open country and hilly habitats .

= = Description = =

Delichon martins are 13 – 15 cm ( 5 – 6 in ) long , blackish blue above with a contrasting white rump , and with white or grey underparts . They are chunky , bull @-@ headed and short @-@ tailed birds , and have feathering on the toes and tarsi . The common house martin is the largest bird of the three , with an average weight of 18 @.@ 3 g ( 0 @.@ 65 oz ) , and has the most deeply forked tail ; the Nepalese species is the smallest ( 15 g , 0 @.@ 53 oz ) and has the squarest tail . Distinctive species plumage features are the black chin and black undertail coverts of the Nepal house martin , and the greyish wash to the underparts of the Asian house martin . As with other swallows and martins , the moult is slow and protracted because of the need to maintain efficient flight at all times to enable feeding . Moult normally starts on arrival at the wintering grounds , but overlaps with the breeding season for the non @-@ migratory Nepal house martin .

The Delichon martins have simple flight calls of one to three notes . In the two more widespread species these have a distinctive buzzing quality . The male 's song is a short simple ripple , perhaps less musical than that given by other swallows .

As a group , the house martins cannot easily be confused with any other swallows . Four species of the genus Tachycineta have white rumps and underparts , but they have bright metallic green or blue @-@ green upperparts , longer tails , and are restricted to Central and South America . The variable plumages of the South Asian species and a confused taxonomic history has left their distribution ranges in doubt .

= = Behaviour = =

= = = Breeding = = =

The Delichon martins were originally cliff nesters , breeding in colonies situated under an overhang on a vertical cliff . However , the house martin now largely uses human structures , as , to a lesser extent , does the Asian house martin . The typical nest is a grass or feather @-@ lined deep closed mud bowl with a small opening at the top , but many Asian house martins leave the top of the nest open .

David Winkler and Frederick Sheldon believe that evolutionary development in the mud @-@ building swallows , and individual species follow this order of construction . A retort builder like red @-@ rumped swallow starts with an open cup , closes it , and then builds the entrance tunnel . Winkler and Sheldon propose that the development of closed nests reduced competition between males for copulations with the females . Since mating occurs inside the nest , the difficulty of access means other males are excluded . This reduction in competition permits the dense breeding colonies typical of the Delichon martins .

The urban common house martin has to compete with house sparrows , which frequently attempt to take over the nest during construction , with the house martins rebuilding elsewhere if the sparrows are successful . The entrance at the top of the completed cup is so small that the sparrows cannot take over the nest once it is finished .

As with other swallows , pairing and copulation displays are normally brief , taking just a few minutes . The male calls to a female and attempts to lead her to the nest , where he lands and continues calling while posing with lowered head , dropped wings and ruffled throat . If he is successful , the female calls and allows him to mount her , usually in the nest . Three or four white eggs are the normal clutch and all three species are frequently double @-@ brooded . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks , although the female does most of the incubation , which normally lasts 14 – 16 days . The newly hatched chicks are altricial , and after a further 22 – 32 days , depending on weather , the chicks leave the nest . The fledged young stay with , and are fed by , the parents for about a week after leaving the nest . Occasionally , young birds from the first brood will assist in feeding the second brood .

A Scottish study showed that mortality in common house martins occurred mostly outside the breeding season and averaged 57 % . Females that had raised two clutches in a season had a higher mortality than those that were single @-@ brooded , but there was no such correlation for the males .

= = = Feeding = = =

The Delichon species typically feed higher in the air , and take smaller prey than other swallows . It is believed that this reduces inter @-@ specific food competition , particularly with the barn swallow which shares much of the breeding and wintering range of the martins . The insects eaten are mostly small flies , aphids and Hymenoptera such as winged ants . A wide range of other insects are caught , including Lepidoptera , beetles and lacewings . The Asian house martin appears to occasionally take terrestrial springtails and larvae and the common house martin also sometimes feeds on the ground . These martins are gregarious , feeding in flocks often with other aerial predators like swifts , or other hirundines such as the barn or striated swallows . In the case of at least the common house martin , the start of egg laying appears to be linked to the appearance of large numbers of flying aphids , which provide a stable and abundant food supply .

= = = Predators and parasites = = =

The main predators of the house martins are those birds of prey which are capable of catching these agile fliers , such as the hobby ( Falco subbuteo ) . Birds of the Delichon species are most vulnerable when collecting mud from the ground . This has therefore become a communal activity , with a group of these birds descending suddenly on a patch of mud . The generally insectivorous collared falconet has been recorded as hunting Nepal house martins .

The house martins are parasitised by fleas and mites , including the " house martin flea " , Ceratophyllus hirundinis and its relatives . A Polish study of the common house martin showed that nests typically contained more than 29 species of ectoparasite , with C. hirundinis and another swallow specialist , Oeciacus hirundinis , the most abundant . The genus also hosts endoparasites such as Haemoproteus prognei ( avian malaria ) , which are transmitted by blood @-@ sucking insects including mosquitoes .

More than 40 beetle species have been recorded in common house martin nests , but most are either typical of the locality or found in the nests of other birds . The typical number of individuals , around 200 , is relatively low compared to other bird species ( 1 @,@ 400 individual beetles for house sparrow , 2 @,@ 000 for sand martin ) . The beetles have no effect on the nesting birds , and the reason for their comparatively low numbers is unknown , although the numbers of specific parasites found in house martin 's nests is also quite small .

= = Conservation status = =

The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) is the organisation responsible for assessing the conservation status of species . A species is assessed as subject to varying levels of threat if it has a small , fragmented or declining range , or if the total population is less than 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , or if numbers have dropped rapidly ( by more than 10 % in ten years or three generations ) . None of the three Delichon species meets these criteria , and three genus house martins are therefore considered of least concern .

The numbers of the two Asian species are unknown , but both can be locally common or abundant , and the Asian house martin is extending its range in southern Siberia . The lowland breeding common house martin has greatly benefited from forest clearance , creating the open habitats it prefers , and from human habitation which has given it an abundance of safe man @-@ made nest sites , although widespread declines in its numbers have been reported from central and northern Europe since 1970 . This is due to factors including poor weather , poisoning by agricultural pesticides , lack of mud for nest building and competition with house sparrows for nest sites . Despite this , the huge geographical range and large numbers of the common house martin mean that its global status is secure .

= = Fossil record = =

Delichon polgardiensis ( late Miocene of Polgardi , Hungary )

Delichon pusillus ( Pliocene of Csarnota , Hungary )

Delichon major ( Pliocene of Beremend , Hungary )

= The Firefly ( Fringe ) =

" The Firefly " is the 10th episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 53rd episode overall . The episode centers on a chain of events created by Walter crossing over into the parallel universe in 1985 that has had subtle but significant effects in the present . Christopher Lloyd guest @-@ starred as retired rocker Roscoe Joyce .

As the first episode in its new Friday time slot , " The Firefly " aired on January 21 , 2011 in the United States to 4 @.@ 88 million viewers , outperforming the previous episode " Marionette " Thursday night viewership by 18 % . Time shifted viewership added 42 % in its ratings . It received generally positive reviews , with many praising the storyline as " elegant " and " beautiful . "

= = Plot = =

The Fringe team is brought to a nursing home , where Roscoe Joyce ( Christopher Lloyd ) , the former keyboardist of the band Violet Sedan Chair , was seen talking to his son Bobby ( Nick Ouellette ) who had died in 1985 , as well as evidence of an Observer . Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) , meeting his musical hero , requests to take Roscoe back to his lab to help Roscoe remember what his son said . Walter is able to help Roscoe remember much of his past since the loss of his son through therapy that includes helping Roscoe to recall his piano @-@ playing skills . Roscoe shortly recalls the conversation with his son , which was actually a message from the Observer September to Walter . September ( Michael Cerveris ) soon appears at the lab and requests to speak to Walter .

As they walk , September reminds Walter of the damage he did when he brought Peter from the parallel universe . September recounts the events of one such chain : in the prime universe , three months after Walter 's crossing , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) captured a firefly which set into motion a chain of events that eventually led to the death of a pedestrian in a car accident . September mysteriously departs when Walter answers a telephone call , but not before leaving him with a message : " give him the keys and save the girl . " Later , Walter returns Roscoe to the nursing home . Roscoe thanks him and explains that the recent events reminded him of the last phone call he had with his son , where Bobby said he had dreamed of meeting Roscoe in a nursing home in the future . Roscoe is remorseful that Bobby died shortly after that call when a car struck him while crossing the street , which led to the breakup of the band . Walter realizes that Roscoe 's son was the pedestrian that was previously alluded to by September .

Unbeknownst to the Fringe team , September has engineered several events in the last few days , including stopping an armed robbery to help the asthmatic female employee ( Olivia Cheng ) recover from an asthma attack , taking her inhaler . When Walter hears of this witness , he requests Peter and Agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) to bring her to his lab , believing her to be related to the Observer 's warning . Minutes from the lab , September rams the car in which the woman is being transported , initiating another asthma attack . September races from the scene , prompting Peter to follow him in Walter 's car , requesting Walter to " give me the keys and save the girl . " Walter realizes that September has been orchestrating the events leading up to this point and urges Peter not to go , believing that following the advice of the Observer might lead to Peter 's death . Walter eventually relents and returns to help the woman , creating a makeshift inhaler before emergency help arrives . Meanwhile , Peter and Olivia follow the Observer to a rooftop . Peter corners September , who says " It must be very difficult , being a father " , before he shoots Peter with an energy blast that knocks him off his feet . Olivia arrives in time to give chase to the Observer but September disappears from an adjacent rooftop .

While Walter and Agent Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) ensure that the witness is safe at the hospital , Olivia takes Peter back to the lab . Peter , suffering from a headache , takes an aspirin and drinks out of what he believes to be an ordinary bottle of milk from the fridge . In reality , the milk contains a serum developed by Walter in order to help him recover his full mental function . However , the serum was incorrectly prepared , which causes Peter to begin convulsing . Over the phone , Walter directs Olivia to inject Peter with the correct compounds in order to save his life . Walter realizes that the serum would have killed him if he had consumed it , and that this was another step in the Observer 's plot . Later that evening , September meets with another Observer , and identifies the fact that Walter was able to let Peter go , despite believing that he may not survive , and that when the time comes , they can expect Walter to do it again .

In a side plot , Olivia and Peter attempt to reorganize their relationship after Olivia receives a book ( If You Meet The Buddha On The Road , Kill Him ! by Sheldon Kopp ) from Peter that he had originally ordered for Olivia 's doppelgänger from the parallel universe .

= = Production = =

" The Firefly " was co @-@ written by co @-@ showrunners J.H. Wyman and Jeff Pinkner , while being directed by Supernatural veteran Charles Beeson . On October 20 , 2010 , TV Guide announced that Back to the Future star Christopher Lloyd had been cast in an upcoming episode as " Walter 's musical hero " . Noble explained Lloyd 's role : " We all know how much Walter loves music , right ? Well this fellow was one of his icons . He adored this man . So Walter gets to be a bit of a fanboy " . Lloyd began shooting the episode in late October . Soon before the episode aired , Lloyd told reporters " I was very excited for this role . My character is going through an experience he never expected to happen to him , and he 's adjusting to that . " Lloyd also added he felt welcomed in as a part of the ensemble cast . In a conference call interview with journalists , John Noble explained that " probably the best fun that I 've had [ on Fringe ] was doing the stuff with Chris Lloyd , because it was two crazy old guys just trying desperately to communicate with each other . We had a lot of laughs . There was a common thread of trying to find the music again , because Chris ' character had forgotten how to play the piano , so we go through this journey of bringing the music back to him , and [ it 's a ] thrill to Walter . This happens all the way through this very complicated episode " .

The band name of Lloyd 's character Roscoe Joyce , " Violet Sedan Chair , " is a fictional band that Walter Bishop had mentioned the previous season , in the episode Grey Matters . J.J. Abrams had also named @-@ dropped the fictional band two years earlier in an issue of Wired for which he had guest @-@ edited , alluding to the band 's album , Seven Suns , recorded in the 1970s . Several months prior to the broadcast of " The Firefly " , a number of vinyl records of Seven Suns were shipped to a select number of independent record stores across the United States , which have been discovered by some people . The album does contain twelve songs in the style of psychedelic and folk . The album itself has been briefly shown in the series .

As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " The Firefly " , with the intention of having " students learn about pharmacology and the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical functions . "

= = Cultural references = =

Walter explains that the red and blue sunglasses he uses in order to see Roscoe Joyce 's aura were sent to him by his friend , Doctor Jacoby from Washington State . This is a reference to the television series Twin Peaks , set in Washington State where Doctor Lawrence Jacoby is the local psychiatrist who also owns a pair of the same sunglasses . Reviewers also contrasted the casting of Christopher Lloyd , better known for his role of the scientist " Doc " Brown from the Back to the Future trilogy which took place in 1985 , to that of a character involved with time travel involving the year 1985 . Some journalists have speculated that the episode 's title was in reference to Joss Whedon 's Firefly series , which while critically acclaimed was cancelled mid @-@ season after being scheduled in the Friday night death slot . However , though " The Firefly " was the first Fringe episode to be first aired in the new Friday night slot , the producer had already selected the title of the episode prior to the Fox Network rescheduling .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In November 2010 , Fox announced that Fringe was being moved to Friday nights as a part of the network 's midseason overhaul , to air after the fourth season of their reality series Kitchen Nightmares . The move meant that Fringe would be airing against Supernatural , a show with a similar science fiction genre , though this competition did not begin until Fringe 's third Friday episode " Concentrate and Ask Again " . Fox 's popular reality series American Idol took Fringe 's timeslot , as it was shifted a day later to Wednesdays and Thursdays . Executive producer J.H. Wyman stated in an interview that they were excited and believed Friday nights are " open territory that can be conquered ... [ We believe ] we can actually deliver like The X @-@ Files did . ... I think we both agree it 's a good opportunity " . Wyman elaborated that the show 's high DVR numbers proved that though fans were watching the show , they did not want to do so on Thursdays . Co @-@ executive producer Jeff Pinkner felt that if the show " can build a fan base on and carve out some territory on Friday night , we can be there for years " .

The episode was originally going to air on January 28 until it was moved to a week earlier , on January 21 behind the season premiere of Kitchen Nightmares . " The Firefly " was the first Fringe episode to broadcast in its Friday slot , and many journalists considered the pending viewership numbers critical for the future of the show . The episode was the most watched show of the night , earning a 1 @.@ 9 / 6 share or about 4 @.@ 88 million viewers in the 18 – 49 age group . This figure was slightly higher than the average viewership for Fringe in the first half of the 2010 @-@ 2011 television season , and 18 % higher than the previous episode , " Marionette " . When time shifted viewership over the following three days is considered , the episode received a 42 % ratings increase with a 2 @.@ 7 rating share , and within 7 days after its airing , reported a total of 6 @.@ 7 million viewers with 2 @.@ 8 rating , representing a 37 % increase from the live broadcast . Fringe and its lead @-@ in show , Kitchen Nightmares , resulted in Fox 's highest rated Friday night with entertainment programs since 2008 .

= = = Reviews = = =

" The Firefly " was well received by critics who considered the episode to be backed by a strong script . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly considered " The Firefly " as one of the series ' " finest episodes " , calling on the show 's many qualities :

The pull of family ; the knotty complexity of romance ; the way sci @-@ fi can provide fresh metaphors for the most frequently explored ideas and emotions ; the way we encounter humor and surprise even in the midst of anguish and regret — this is the stuff of which Fringe is made .

The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an " A " in considering the " elegance " of the complicated Rube Goldberg @-@ like plot , and praised the " beautiful , beautiful writing " in the reveal of the connection between Walter 's actions and Roscoe 's loss . Time 's James Poniewozik also enjoyed the elegant plot , calling the episode " an impressive outing for the series to welcome back its fans with " ; Poniewozik also appreciated John Noble 's performance as he " made Walter 's regret , and the toll it has taken , real — while also pulling off an amusing turn as an overawed , elderly rock fanboy " .

Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times , though somewhat confused to the cause @-@ and @-@ effect of the Observer 's plot , he still found the show enjoyable , and called it " the Fringe version of the butterfly effect " , a trope often used in other shows to show the impact of small changes in the characters ' lives . IGN 's Ramsey Isler gave the episode a rating of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating that was " an important part of the setup for the second half of the season " with strong character development , but felt the pacing was slow and needed more action . Television Without Pity graded the episode a " B + " . The A.V. Club staff highlighted the episode in their review of the best television shows of 2011 .

= = = Awards and nomination = = =

At the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , John Noble submitted " The Firefly " , along with " Entrada " and " The Day We Died " , for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category , but did not receive a nomination .

= Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II =

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II is a platforming action @-@ adventure video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) developed by UK @-@ based company Zippo Games , a subsidiary of Rare Ltd. it was published by Acclaim and released in North America in December 1989 and in Europe on March 27 , 1991 . It is the sequel to Rare 's 1987 title Wizards & Warriors . In Ironsword , the player controls the knight warrior Kuros as he ventures in the land of Sindarin . He must defeat the evil wizard Malkil , who has assumed the elemental forms of Earth , Wind , Fire , and Water . Kuros must collect the parts of and assemble the legendary " IronSword " in order to defeat Malkil , who resides at the top of IceFire Mountain .

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was developed by Zippo Games ' founder Ste Pickford and was the first game that he developed for the NES . Steve Hughes also assisted in development , while Rare 's video game composer David Wise did the music and sound . Pickford wanted to expand on the previous Wizards & Warriors game . Having experience with developing computer games , Pickford used various animation and graphics techniques to try and show off the NES ' graphical capabilities . In addition , Acclaim hired Italian male model Fabio Lanzoni to pose as Kuros on the game 's cover .

The game was fairly well @-@ received , selling 500 @,@ 000 copies in North America and 50 @,@ 000 copies in Europe . Various video game magazines praised Ironsword for its size , graphics and sound , detailed characters and bosses , and gameplay . Other reviews criticized its lack of originality as compared to other games that were released at the time . The game led Zippo Games to develop additional games for Rare on the NES such as Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship and Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power . Ironsword won " Game Player 's NES Excellence Award " from Game Players magazine as one of the better NES titles of 1990 .

= = Gameplay = =

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II is a platforming video game where the player controls the renowned warrior Kuros as he explores the land of Sindarin to defeat the evil wizard Malkil . This time , Malkil has taken the form of the four " Elementals " , based on the Greek classical elements – Earth , Wind , Fire , and Water – to stop Kuros in his quest . The objective is to assemble the legendary " IronSword " — the only weapon that can defeat Malkil — and defeat the evil wizard who lies at the peak of IceFire Mountain . In the game , players can move Kuros left or right , or make him crouch with the control pad ; the buttons allow Kuros to jump , to use his sword or a magic spell to defeat enemies , to access the " Magic Spell Screen " , or to pause the game . Kuros has a life meter that decreases every time he sustains damage from an enemy or a dangerous projectile , or if he falls for too long a distance . Along the way , players can collect chicken and brew to replenish Kuros ' life meter . Kuros loses a life when his life meter runs out , and the game ends when he loses all his lives . However , players may continue and restart the game where they left off up to two times . The continue feature would normally be disabled after the player had completed the earth domain , but due to an in @-@ game bug , the player actually loses the continue function immediately upon merely setting foot in the domain .

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II consists of four levels called " domains , " each named after the four elementals . In each domain , Kuros must find a golden artifact that belongs to the domain 's " Animal King " and return it to him . Upon doing so , the path to the second part of the domain will appear . In the second part , Kuros must find the magic spell necessary to defeat the boss – the domain 's Elemental . Without the spell , it is impossible to damage the boss . Once the elemental in each stage has been destroyed , Kuros obtains a piece of the IronSword , which is needed for the final battle on Icefire Mountain . Throughout the game , players must collect items , spells , and money to progress . Money helps buy magic spells , more powerful weapons , shields , helmets , keys to open locked treasure chests , and additional food . Treasure chests — located throughout the game — can contain one of the following items : Additional money , magic spells , or weapon and armor upgrades . In each domain , players can visit inns where they can buy food , keys , or items ; they may also participate in a " Bonus chance " game where they may gamble their money to see which cup a bouncing skull will fall into .

In the game , magic spells help against enemies and Elemental bosses ; some are bought , while others must be found . Magic spells include " The Familiar Spell , " which turns enemies into money and helps retrieve golden objects , the " Dragon Tooth Spell , " which turns enemies into food , the " Asp Tongue Spell , " which slows down enemies , the " Silver Fleece Spell , " which makes Kuros temporarily invincible , and the " Water Spout Spell , " which creates an upward column of water that allows Kuros to reach high places . Each spell has a limited number of uses before it vanished from the player 's inventory . Other magic spells are necessary to defeat the Elemental bosses . These spells are found in each of the four domains , and include " Windbane , " " Blightwater , " " Firesmite " and " Earthscorch . " These spells can be used only in the corresponding levels in which they are obtained , and each consumes magic upon use. players can obtain additional magic by collecting small , floating , gold bubbles that appear randomly or are triggered by the player 's proximity to secret locations .

Players may also increase their score by defeating enemies or collecting items . Hidden along the way are the " Relics of Sindarin , " which are worth many points when collected . At the end of the game , players with a high enough of a score can place their names in the " IronSword Hall of Fame . " However , the list resets when the console is turned off . The game also includes a password feature in which players can obtain a password from the " Magic Spell Screen " to use to continue the game at a later time , even after the console has been turned off .

= = Development = =

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was developed by UK @-@ based computer game company Zippo Games , headed by Ste and John Pickford ; this was the first game Zippo developed for fellow UK @-@ based video game company Rare . At the time , Zippo Games had just completed a previous game titled Cosmic Pirate - a game that was published by Palace Software and released for the Commodore 64 , Atari ST , and Amiga in 1988 . New to the technical capabilities of the Nintendo Entertainment System , the Pickford brothers visited Rare and were pleased with their NES library , though they thought they were backtracking by deciding to develop games for the console . According to Ste Pickford : " The NES seemed primitive by comparison , sub @-@ Commodore 64 . But the games were ten times better than everything being released for home computers , which we appreciated , and we wanted to try to make games as good as that . " Rare decided to hire Zippo Games to develop this Wizards & Warriors sequel ; Pickford remarked : " Rare showed us Wizards & Warriors and asked us to develop the sequel , and pretty much left us to it . " Rare felt that Zippo Games was trustworthy enough to develop the sequel without much help from them .

Development started in early 1989 , when the Pickford brothers were still learning about the NES and what it could do . At the same time , as being new to developing console video games , they were also learning about the market aspects and Nintendo 's policies and restrictions on games . Feeling that the graphics in most of the games in the NES library were poor , they placed emphasis on the graphics and animation . Pickford was particularly pleased with the animation of the enemy eagles and their movement . Rare assisted with the sound , and all of the game 's background music was composed by video game composer David Wise , who Pickford said " did a fantastic job on IronSword " . As far as gameplay was concerned , they tried to expand upon its predecessor , introducing more adventure @-@ based gameplay and additional RPG elements such as magic , inns , and money .

= = = Graphics and animation = = =

Ste Pickford developed the gameplay map for Ironsword . According to him , he basically copied the map that was used in a conversion port of Ghosts ' n Goblins that he developed a couple of years earlier . Moreover , the Pickford brothers were trying to resemble Ghosts ' n Goblins and similar games by Capcom as part of their attempt to earn the rights to develop the game from Rare . For the map screen , Ste Pickford used specific character data in the ROM itself , used the font from elsewhere in the data that was inserted separately , and overlaid the Elementals ' floating heads over the top of the graphic . According to Pickford : " The job of graphic was always about 30 % drawing , and about 70 % fiddly technical stuff ( which was why so many terrible artists – people who couldn 't draw at all – made decent video game artists back then , if they could manage the technical side of things well enough ) . "

In developing the game 's graphics , Ste Pickford translated black and white sketches into the character maps in the game . For the bosses , the plan was to use the entire screen while involving as few moving sprites as possible " to fool the player into thinking the whole thing was alive " . The same was done with the " Dragon King " , which was not one of the game 's bosses ; the dragon 's head and neck were composed of sprites , while the rest of the body was considered part of the background . The dragon 's neck stretched out vertically due to NES hardware sprite limitations horizontally .

The animation of the eagle ( the " Eagle King " ) that transports Kuros to the Wind Elemental was one of Ste Pickford 's first graphics which he drew for the NES . It was done in Deluxe Paint for the Amiga with sketching done by mouse - without assistance from graphics tablets or other scanners . He took eagle drawings from a book on animals in motion by Eadweard Muybridge . Pickford wanted to show off the possible graphical capabilities of the NES ; he said , " I wanted to do something ' flashy ' early in the game , trying to show off my amazing graphic art skills on the rather primitive NES . We were working on Amiga and ST games at the same time , so were always trying to push the NES with bigger and better graphics , right from the start of our work on the machine . " The eagle consisted of only three colors and between 11 and 17 sprites per frame of animation . There was a smaller version of the same eagle , which was used as a regular enemy in that level .

Development of the game 's title screen was inspired by loading screens that were used in most computer games at the time ; the objective was to create a nice @-@ looking graphic while waiting for the game to load , even though the NES , more rooted in arcade traditions , did not require that . Pickford spent most of his character space on the title screen image ; he was limited in the number of available colors due to the more limited graphic capabilities of the NES ( as opposed to most home computers ) , as it was more designed for scrolling and animation and not for stationary graphics . The sword in the title screen used character sprites and used a different palette from the picture of Kuros himself ; the sword had to be vertical as the NES hardware did not allow for too many sprites horizontally . Pickford planned to use and completed an Ironsword logo of his own when Acclaim made him use their planned logo , which he said " was a bit more bland and blocky , with detail that didn 't work very well at such a low pixel resolution " .

= = = Release = = =

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was first unveiled in North America as part of the 1989 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , Nevada and was displayed with other games to be released later that year by Acclaim . It was mentioned as a future game in the May 1989 premiere issue of video gaming magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly . It was also covered in GamePro 's premiere issue in May 1989 . Finally , it was previewed by Nintendo Power in its July – August 1989 issue .

For the game 's cover , Acclaim hired Italian male model Fabio Lanzoni to pose as Kuros ; Fabio was presented on the cover bare @-@ chested and without armor . When Zippo Games saw the image of the cover a week prior to its release , they were perplexed . According to Ste Pickford , " Our jaws hit the floor when we first saw this image ( which was , being merely the developers , probably about a week before the game 's release ) . Why on earth did they choose a photograph of a bare @-@ chested barbarian to promote a game starring a knight in shining armour ? " . Pickford added that " We used it as an example of the lack of imagination of Americans " , while suggesting that having an actual suit or armor would be too costly to use for a photo shoot . Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was released by Acclaim for the NES in North America in December 1989 and in Europe and Australia in 1991 . It managed to sell about 500 @,@ 000 copies in North America and about 50 @,@ 000 copies in Europe . Following the game 's release , Zippo Games would proceed to develop its next game for Rare , Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship ; they would eventually also release the third installment in the Wizards & Warriors series , Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power .

The television advertisement consisted of a boy who is shown playing the first Wizards & Warriors game when a Conan the Barbarian @-@ lookalike enters his room after having defeated a monster and hands him a copy of Ironsword . After describing the brief plot and shortly showing clips of the game , the Conan @-@ lookalike leaves his room while exclaiming , " The fate of the world is in your hands ! Back vile beast ! " . At the end of the commercial , after briefly playing Ironsword , the boy opens the door in his room , only to find his dog , who now has smoke coming from his behind .

= = Reception = =

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was initially reviewed and received positive ratings in the June 1989 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly . Steve Harris said that the game was very large and expansive , noting that it " is so big , and has so much to offer , most of the competition pales by comparison " . Ed Semrad called the game " a worthy sequel that fortunately is better than the original " , similarly noting the game 's size as well as difficulty . Donn Nauert appreciated the game 's good graphics which complement the adventure theme , but he noted that some of the precise movements that are required in various areas may cause some frustration in gameplay . Jim Allee praised all the aspects of the game , saying " if you liked Wizards & Warriors , you 'll love Ironsword " . All four reviewers lauded the game 's involving gameplay and graphics .

The game would also be featured in the magazine 's September 1989 issue , in which it was named the magazine 's " Game of the Month " ; it also featured the game 's box art , with Fabio , on the cover . The reviewers , the U.S. National Video Game Team , noted that the game was superior to its predecessor as well as other games released at the time , noting that it was particularly better than Castlevania II : Simon 's Quest . They praised its well @-@ detailed and thought @-@ out graphics , the inclusion of well @-@ drawn out large bosses and supporting characters , the sound which " has an eerie tone that sets the mood for the whole game " , and additional features which expanded upon the game 's predecessor . They concluded that Ironsword was " one of the most welcome Nintendo Entertainment System games in a long time " . The game was also one of the featured games in the November – December 1989 issue of Nintendo Power , where it received six pages of coverage and featured a poster of the game . Game Players magazine awarded Ironsword the " Game Player 's NES Excellence Award " as one of the best games for the console in 1990 .

The game was also featured in UK @-@ based magazine Mean Machines in May 1991 . Matt Regan said that he was not impressed with the game , saying that similar platforming games such as DuckTales and Gremlins 2 : The New Batch were superior to Ironsword and had a more original approach in gameplay . He also criticized the fact that players cannot hit enemies while in mid @-@ air . However , he noted the game 's good gameplay . Julian Rignall also said that the game was fun , but it was not spectacular . However , just as Regan noted , Rignall said that the game did not offer anything special like with better titles such as Mega Man 2 or Super Mario Bros. 2 . However , he noted the game 's good graphics and challenge , though both noted that the backgrounds " are slightly bland " . Both reviewers said the game was well @-@ presented with good introductions and a password mode , easy controls , fair challenge , and " fairly good tunes and effects which fit the action well " . Overall , they said that Ironsword was " a fun but ultimately limited game that will appeal to platform fans " .

Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II was listed at # 64 in IGN 's list of " Top 100 NES Games " . Reviewer Sam Claiborn said that the game was more expansive than its predecessor and that it featured many of the good graphics , gameplay , and usage of Middle English . He also noted that " Fabio 's bare @-@ breasted likeness smoldering on IronSword 's cover art that made this game a smash hit with kids and moms alike " . Website GamesRadar praised the game 's music , especially the title theme ; Brett Elston said it set a serious tone for the game , saying " its heavy , droning beats mix with a fantasy @-@ minded melody that make it sound like a funeral dirge in the Shire " .

The game 's cover , which features Fabio , has received significant coverage from many gaming websites . IGN listed Ironsword as having one of the most notable covers in video game history , listing its cover as the 2nd best of all time behind Ninja Golf . Conversely , 1UP.com listed Ironsword as having one of the worst covers of all time , comparing it to the cover for Mega Man . GameSpy listed it as the 4th worst video game cover in history , saying that " thanks to the presence of Fabio on the cover , gamers got confused and thought they had accidentally picked up one of their mom 's romance novels " . In a retrospective of the NES for the console 's 25th anniversary , Nintendo Power wrote that " the game 's quality will be forever overshadowed by Acclaim 's choice of Fabio as the cover model " .

= Unas =

Unas / ˈjuːnəs / or Wenis , also spelled Unis ( hellenized form Oenas / ˈiːnəs / or Onnos ) , was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh , the ninth and last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period . Unas reigned for 15 to 30 years in the mid @-@ 24th century BC succeeding Djedkare Isesi , who might have been his father . Little is known of Unas ' activities during his reign , which was a time of economic decline . Egypt maintained trade relations with the Levantine coast and Nubia , and military action may have taken place in southern Canaan . The growth and decentralization of the administration in conjunction with the lessening of the king 's power continued under Unas , ultimately contributing to the collapse of the Old Kingdom some 200 years later .

Unas built a pyramid in Saqqara , the smallest of the royal pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom . The accompanying mortuary complex with its high and valley temples linked by a 750 m ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) long causeway was lavishly decorated with painted reliefs , whose quality and variety surpass the usual royal iconography . Furthermore , Unas was the first pharaoh to have the Pyramid Texts carved and painted on the walls of the chambers of his pyramid , a major innovation that was followed by his successors until the First Intermediate Period ( c . 2160 – c . 2050 BC ) . These texts identify the king with Ra and with Osiris , whose cult was on the rise in Unas ' time , and were meant to help the king reach the afterlife .

Unas had several daughters and possibly one or two sons who are believed to have predeceased him . Manetho , an Egyptian priest of the Ptolemaic period and author of the first history of Egypt , claims that with Unas ' death the Fifth Dynasty came to an end . Unas was succeeded by Teti , the first pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty , possibly after a short crisis . However the archaeological evidence suggests that the Egyptians at the time made no conscious break with the preceding dynasty and the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth dynasties might be illusory .

The funerary cult of Unas established at his death continued until the end of the Old Kingdom and may have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period . The cult was still in existence or revived during the later Middle Kingdom ( c . 2050 – c . 1650 BC ) . This did not prevent Amenemhat I and Senusret I ( c . 1990 – c . 1930 BC ) from partially dismantling the mortuary complex of Unas for its materials . In parallel to the official cult , Unas may have received popular veneration as a local god of the Saqqara necropolis until as late as the Late Period ( 664 – 332 BC ) , nearly 2000 years after his death .

= = Attestations = =

= = = Historical sources = = =

Unas is well attested by historical sources with three ancient Egyptian king lists dating to the New Kingdom period mentioning him . Unas occupies the 33rd entry of the Abydos King List , which was written during the reign of Seti I ( 1290 – 1279 BC ) . Unas ' name is also present on the Saqqara Tablet ( 32nd entry ) and on the Turin canon ( third column , 25th row ) , both of which were written during the reign of Ramses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) . The Turin canon further credits Unas with 30 years of reign . These sources all place Unas as the ninth and final ruler of the Fifth Dynasty , succeeding Djedkare Isesi and preceding Teti on the throne . This relative chronology is corroborated by archaeological evidence , for example in the tomb of officials serving under these kings .

In addition to these sources , Unas was also likely mentioned in the Aegyptiaca , a history of Egypt written in the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II ( 283 – 246 BC ) by the Egyptian priest Manetho . No copies of the Aegyptiaca have survived to this day and it is known to us only through later writings by Sextus Julius Africanus and Eusebius . Africanus relates that the Aegyptiaca mentioned a pharaoh " Onnos " reigning for 33 years at the end of the Fifth Dynasty . Onnos is believed to be the hellenized form for Unas , and Africanus ' 33 @-@ year figure fits well with the 30 years of reign given to Unas on the Turin canon .

= = = Contemporaneous sources = = =

The primary contemporaneous sources attesting to Unas ' activities are the many reliefs from his pyramid complex . Excluding these , surprisingly few documents dating to Unas ' reign have survived to this day , considering the 30 @-@ year length that later records give for his reign . Excavations at Abusir , the royal necropolis of the Fifth Dynasty , have produced only four dated inscriptions safely attributable to Unas . They explicitly mention his third , fourth , sixth and eighth years on the throne . Unas also left a rock inscription on the island of Elephantine , next to the First Cataract of the Nile in Nubia .

In addition , several alabaster vases bearing Unas ' cartouche are known . A complete vessel and additional fragments originating from Byblos on the Levantine coast are now in the National Museum of Beirut . A vase of unknown provenance is located in the National Archaeological Museum of Florence and reads " Horus Wadjtawy , living eternally , king of Upper and Lower Egypt , son of Ra , Unas , living eternally " . Another vessel , of unknown origins , is on display at the Louvre Museum . It is a 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) tall 13 @.@ 2 cm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) large globular alabaster vase finely decorated with a falcon with outstretched wings and two uraei , or rearing cobras , holding ankh signs surrounding Unas ' cartouche . An ointment jar bearing Unas ' cartouche and Horus name is in the Brooklyn Museum . Finally , a fragment of a calcite vase rim bearing two cartouches of Unas is on display in the Petrie Museum .

= = Reign = =

= = = Family = = =

Unas assumed the throne at the death of his predecessor Djedkare Isesi . Djedkare is thought to have been Unas ' father , in spite of the complete lack of evidence bearing on the question . The succession from Djedkare Isesi to Unas seems to have been smooth .

Unas had at least two queens , Nebet and Khenut , who were buried in a large double mastaba adjacent to their husband 's pyramid . Unas and Nebet possibly had a son , the " king 's son " , " royal chamberlain " , " priest of Maat " and " overseer of Upper Egypt " Unas @-@ Ankh , who died about 10 years into Unas ' reign . The filiation of Unas @-@ Ankh is indirectly hinted at by his name and titles and by the presence of his tomb near those of Nebet and Unas but is not universally accepted . Two other sons have been proposed , Nebkauhor and Shepsespuptah , but these filiations are conjectural and contested . Unas likely died without a male heir .

Unas had at least five daughters named Hemetre Hemi , Khentkaues , Neferut , Nefertkaues Iku , and Sesheshet Idut . The status of another possible daughter , Iput , is uncertain .

= = = Duration = = =

The duration of Unas ' reign is uncertain . As indicated above , historical sources credit him with 30 and 33 years on the throne , figures that have been adopted by many Egyptologists , including Flinders Petrie , William C. Hayes , Darrell Baker , Peter Munro , and Jaromir Malek . In favor of such a long reign are scenes of a Sed festival found in Unas ' mortuary temple . This festival was normally celebrated only after 30 years of reign and was meant to rejuvenate the pharaoh 's strength and power . Mere depictions of the festival do not necessarily imply a long reign however , for example a relief showing pharaoh Sahure in the tunic of the Sed festival has been found in his mortuary temple , although both historical sources and archeological evidence agree that he ruled Egypt for less than 14 full years .

Other Egyptologists suspect a reign of less than 30 years for Unas owing to the scarcity of artefacts datable to his reign as well as the lack of documents dated to beyond his eighth year on the throne . Hence , Jürgen von Beckerath believes that Unas ruled Egypt for 20 years while Rolf Krauss , David Warburton and Erik Hornung shortened this number to 15 years in their 2012 study of Egyptian chronology . Krauss and Miroslav Verner further question the credibility of the Turin canon concerning the Fourth and Fifth Dynasties , so that the 30 years figure credited to Unas by the canon might not be reliable .

Excavations of the tomb of Nikau @-@ Isesi under the direction of Naguib Kanawati at Saqqara have yielded evidence in support of a shorter reign . Nikau @-@ Isesi was an official who started his career during the reign of Djedkare Isesi , lived through that of Unas and died as overseer of Upper @-@ Egypt under Unas ' successor Teti . Nikau @-@ Isesi is known to have died on the year of the eleventh cattle count during Teti 's reign , an event consisting of counting the livestock throughout the country to evaluate the amount of taxes to be levied . It is traditionally believed that such counts occurred every two years during the Old Kingdom and every year during the later Middle Kingdom ( c.2055 – c.1650 BC ) . Thus Nikau @-@ Isesi would have lived for 22 years after Teti took the throne and together with the 30 years of reign credited to Unas , would have died past 70 years old . However , forensic examination of his mummy yielded an age at death of no more than 45 years old . This suggests that the cattle count occurred more than once every two years during Unas and Teti 's time , possibly irregularly . If so , Unas ' 30 years figure on the Turin canon , understood to mean 15 cattle counts , could translate into as little as 15 years , which together with just 11 years during Teti 's reign would account for Nikau @-@ Isesi 's death at around 40 – 45 years of age .

= = = Activities = = =

Trade and warfare

Owing to the scarcity of evidence dating to Unas ' reign , we know very little about his activities . Existing trade relations with foreign countries and cities , in particular Byblos , seem to have continued during Unas ' time on the throne . Reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex show two large seagoing ships coming back from an expedition to the Levantine coast with Syro @-@ Canaanite men , who were either the boat crews or slaves . Another relief depicts a military campaign , Egyptians armed with bows and daggers attacking Canaanite nomads called the Shasu . Similar reliefs have been found in preceding pyramid complexes , such as that of Sahure , and they may thus be standard themes rather than depictions of actual events . Other sources tend to confirm the accuracy of these depictions however , for example the autobiography of Weni relates many punitive raids against Canaanite nomads in the early Sixth Dynasty .

To the South of Egypt , inscriptions of Unas on Elephantine record a visit of the king to Lower Nubia , possibly to receive tribute from local chieftains or because of growing unrest in the region . In addition , a relief from the causeway of Unas leading to his pyramid shows a giraffe , suggesting trade relations with Nubia .

Domestic

Unas ' reign was a time of economic decline although , as the French Egyptologist Nicolas Grimal writes , it was " by no means a time of decadence " . Indeed , the Egyptian state was still capable of mounting important expeditions to provide building stones for the king 's pyramid complex . These expeditions are depicted on unique reliefs found in Unas ' causeway and are also referred to in the autobiographical stela of an administration official . This official reports the transport of 10 @.@ 40 m ( 34 @.@ 1 ft ) tall palmiform columns of red granite from Elephantine to Saqqara in only four days , a feat for which he was praised by the king . In addition to the important construction works undertaken in Saqqara for the construction of his pyramid complex , building activities also took place on Elephantine .

Until 1996 , the domestic situation during Unas ' reign was thought to have been disastrous , based on reliefs from the causeway of his pyramid complex showing emaciated people and thus suggesting times of famine . This changed when excavations at Abusir in 1996 yielded similar reliefs in the mortuary complex of Sahure , who reigned at a prosperous time in the early Fifth Dynasty . In addition , research showed that the starving people are likely to be desert dwellers , nomads distinguished by their specific hair @-@ style , rather than Egyptians . Thus , these reliefs are now understood to be standard representations of the generosity of the king towards the destitute and of the hardships of life in the desert regions bordering Egypt rather than referring to actual events .

= = = Death and end of a dynasty = = =

In his history of Egypt Manetho states that with the death of Unas the Fifth Dynasty came to an end . This may be because Unas died without a male heir , his probable son Unas @-@ Ankh having predeceased him . This might have caused a succession crisis hinted at by the personal name chosen by Teti upon his accession to the throne : " Seheteptawy " meaning " He who reconciles / pacifies the two lands " . Teti 's claim to the throne could have relied on his marriage to Iput , who may have been a daughter of Unas . This possibility is heavily debated , as the interpretation of Iput 's titles that would indicate that she was the daughter of a king is uncertain . Furthermore , the idea that Teti could legitimate his claim by marrying into the royal family is rejected by many Egyptologists , including Munro , Dobrev , Baud , Mertz , Pirenne , and Robin , who do not think that the right to the pharaonic throne passed through the female line .

In addition to Manetho 's statement , the Turin king list presents a special break point between Unas and his successor Teti . Although the king list is not organized in dynasties – which were invented by Manetho – the Egyptologist Jaromir Malek explains that " the criterion for such divisions in the Turin Canon invariably was the change of location of the capital and royal residence . " Malek thus suggests that the capital of Egypt , then known as Inbu @-@ Hedj , was indeed supplanted at the time by settlements located to the South , East of South Saqqara , where Unas ' palace may have been located . In the second millennium BC these cities finally merged and gave rise to Memphis .

Whatever the basis for Manetho 's choice to end the Fifth Dynasty with Unas , Egyptians living at the time probably perceived no particular change from one dynasty to the next . The administration of the state shows no evidence of disturbances , with many officials continuing their careers from Unas ' onto Teti 's reign . These include the viziers Mehu , Kagemni and Nikau @-@ Isesi and the overseer of the province of Edfu Isi . Given that the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom might not have conceived of dynasties , the distinction between the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties might be illusory .

= = Evolution of religion and kingship = =

The reigns of Djedkare Isesi and of Unas were a time of changes in Ancient Egyptian religion and in the ideology of kingship , changes that are first demonstrable under Unas . A statistical analysis of clay seal fragments bearing Horus names of pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty points to a marked decline of the cult of the king during Unas ' time on the throne . This continued under Unas ' successor Teti , for whom we know only two seals bearing his Horus name . This trend reflects the lessening of the king 's power in conjunction with the growth of the administration and priesthood .

Meanwhile , the cult of Osiris was becoming more important with this god replacing the king as the guarantor of life after death for the pharaoh 's subjects . The German Egyptologist Hartwig Altenmüller writes that for an Egyptian of the time " the [ ... ] afterlife no longer depends on the relationship between the individual mortal and the king , [ ... ] instead it is linked to his ethical position in direct relation to Osiris " . In contrast , the cult of the sun god Ra was in apparent decline , even though Ra was still the most important deity of the Egyptian pantheon . Thus , Djedkare Isesi and Unas did not build a sun temple in contrast with most of their Fifth Dynasty predecessors . In addition , the names of Menkauhor Kaiu and Unas do not incorporate any reference to Ra , in rupture with a tradition which held since the reign of Userkaf , about a century earlier . The Pyramid Texts found in Unas ' pyramid demonstrate the importance of Osiris and Ra in ancient Egyptian religion at the time . Both gods were believed to play the key roles in accessing the afterlife , with Ra as the source of life and Osiris as the force through which the next life would be attained .

= = Pyramid = =

Unas had a pyramid built for himself in North Saqqara , between the pyramid of Sekhemkhet and the southwestern corner of the pyramid complex of Djoser , in symmetry with the pyramid of Userkaf located at the northeastern corner . In the process , workers leveled and covered older tombs located in the area , most notably the tomb of the Second Dynasty pharaoh Hotepsekhemwy ( c . 2890 BC ) .

The original Egyptian name of the pyramid was " Nefer Isut Unas " , meaning " Beautiful are the places of Unas " . The pyramid of Unas is the smallest of the pyramids completed during the Old Kingdom , having a square base of 57 @.@ 7 m × 57 @.@ 7 m ( 189 ft × 189 ft ) for a height of 43 m ( 141 ft ) .

= = = Mortuary complex = = =

The pyramid of Unas is part of a larger mortuary complex built around it . It was approached via an ancient lake on the shores of which Unas ' valley temple was located . This temple received the provisions for the cult of the king and the offerings to be made were prepared there . At the back of the valley temple was the beginning of a 750 m ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) -long causeway , equaled only by that of Khufu , and leading to an upper temple adjacent to the pyramid . A thin slit in the roof of the causeway allowed the light to illuminate its walls covered for their entire length in painted reliefs . These depicted the Egyptian seasons , processions of people from the nomes of Egypt , craftsmen at work , offerings bearers , battle scenes and the transport of granite columns for the construction of the pyramid complex .

At the end of the causeway was a large hall leading to a pillared open court surrounded by magazine chambers . The court led into the mortuary temple proper which housed statues of the king and where the offerings to the deceased took place . This was immediately adjacent to the eastern side of the pyramid , which was surrounded by an enclosure wall defining the sacred space . At the southeast corner of the enclosure was a small satellite pyramid for the Ka of the king . The internal chambers of the pyramid were entered in 1881 by Gaston Maspero , who thus discovered the pyramid texts . The burial chamber housed nothing but a black basalt sarcophagus sunk into the floor and a canopic chest . The sarcophagus proved to contain scattered bones , which may belong to Unas .

= = = Pyramid Texts = = =

The main innovation of the pyramid of Unas is the first appearance of the Pyramid Texts , one of the oldest religious texts in Egypt to have survived to this day . In doing so , Unas initiated a tradition that would be followed in the pyramid of the kings and queens of the Sixth to Eighth Dynasties , until the end of the Old Kingdom circa 200 years later .

In total 283 magical spells , also known as utterances , were carved and the signs painted blue on the walls of the corridor , antechamber , and burial chamber of Unas ' pyramid . They constitute the most complete rendition of the Pyramid Texts existing today . These spells were intended to help the king in overcoming hostile forces and powers in the Underworld and thus join with the sun god Ra , his divine father in the afterlife . By writing the texts on the walls of the pyramid internal chambers , the architects of Unas ' pyramid ensured that the king would benefit from their potency even if the funerary cult was to cease . Hence , the Pyramid Texts of the pyramid of Unas incorporate instructions for ritual actions and words to be spoken , suggesting that they were precisely those performed and recited during the cult of the king in his mortuary temple .

The good preservation of the texts in Unas ' pyramid shows that they were arranged so as to be read by the Ba of Unas , as it arose from the sarcophagus thanks to resurrection utterances and surrounded by protective spells and ritual offerings . The Ba would then leave the burial chamber , which incorporates texts identifying the king with Osiris in the Duat , and would move to the antechamber symbolizing the Akhet . Included in the spells written on the walls of the antechamber of Unas are two utterances known as the Cannibal Hymn , which portrays the pharaoh as flying to heaven through a stormy sky and eating both gods and men . In doing so the king would receive the life force of the gods . At this point the Ba of Unas would face east , the direction of the sunrise , and beyond the pyramid masonry , the false door of the mortuary temple where funerary rituals were performed . Finally , turning left the Ba would join Ra in the sky by passing through the pyramid corridor .

An example of a spell from the pyramid of Unas is Utterance 217 :

Re @-@ Atum , this Unas comes to you

A spirit indestructible

Your son comes to you

This Unas comes to you

May you cross the sky united in the dark

May you rise in lightland , the place in which you shine !

= = Legacy = =

Unas ' most immediate legacy is his funerary cult , which continued at least until the end of the Old Kingdom . This cult is attested by the tombs at Saqqara of seven priests responsible for the religious duties to be performed in the funerary complex . Three of these tombs date to the early Sixth Dynasty in the time following the death of Pepi I. Three more tombs date to the reign of Pepi II and the last one dates to the very end of the Old Kingdom ( c . 2180 BC ) . The priests of the cult of Unas adopted basilophorous names , incorporating that of the king , possibly upon taking office .

Unas ' funerary cult appears to have survived during the chaotic First Intermediate Period until the Middle Kingdom . By the time of the 12th Dynasty ( c . 1990 – c . 1800 BC ) , the lector @-@ priest Unasemsaf and his family were involved in the cult of Unas . In spite of this , Unas ' funerary complex was partially dismantled and its materials reemployed for the construction of Amenemhat I and Senusret I own pyramid complexes .

In addition to his official cult , Unas was deified and became a local god of the Saqqara necropolis . Grimal attributes this directly to the grandeur of his funerary complex . Malek doubts the existence of a popular cult of Unas during the Old Kingdom but acknowledges it from the Middle Kingdom onwards . He attributes this Middle Kingdom revival to the geographic position of Unas ' complex making it a natural gateway to the Saqqara necropolis . The popular cult of the deified Unas continued for nearly 2000 years as shown by the numerous scarabs bearing Unas ' name found in Saqqara and dated from the New Kingdom ( c.1550 – c.1077 BC ) until the Late Period ( 664 – 332 BC ) . The epicenter of this cult was not the pyramid of Unas nor the associated mortuary temple but rather the statues of the king in the valley temple . This activity could explain why the pyramid complex of Unas was the object of restoration works under the impulse of Prince Khaemweset , a son of Ramesses II ( 1279 – 1213 BC ) .

= Bulldog Drummond =

Bulldog Drummond is a British fictional character , created by H. C. McNeile and published under his pen name " Sapper " . After an unsuccessful one @-@ off appearance as a policeman in The Strand Magazine , the character was reworked by McNeile into a gentleman adventurer for his 1920 novel Bulldog Drummond . McNeile went on to write ten Drummond novels , four short stories , four stage plays and a screenplay before his death in 1937 . The stories were continued by his friend Gerard Fairlie between 1938 and 1954 ; further books were published in the 1960s and one in 1983 .

Drummond is a First World War veteran , brutalised by his experiences in the trenches and bored with his post @-@ war lifestyle . He publishes an advertisement looking for adventure , and soon finds himself embroiled in a series of exploits , many of which involve Carl Peterson — who becomes his nemesis — and Peterson 's mistress , the femme fatale Irma . After his first adventure Drummond marries his client , Phyllis Benton ; in later episodes she becomes involved in Drummond 's exploits , often as the victim of kidnapping by Drummond 's enemies .

In 1921 an adaptation of the first novel was staged in London , with Gerald du Maurier playing the role of Drummond ; the play was further adapted and resulted in the 1922 silent film Bulldog Drummond , with Carlyle Blackwell in the lead role . Several other Drummond films have followed , either based on McNeile 's stories or with unique storylines .

= = Drummond = =

The Bulldog Drummond stories of H. C. McNeile follow Captain Hugh " Bulldog " Drummond , DSO , MC . Drummond is a member of " the Breed " , a class of Englishman who were patriotic , loyal and " physically and morally intrepid " . Drummond is a wealthy gentleman , formerly an officer in the fictional " Royal Loamshire Regiment " , who , after the First World War , spends his new @-@ found leisure time looking for adventure . McNeile first wrote the Drummond character as a detective for a short story in The Strand Magazine , but the portrayal was not successful and was changed for the novel Bull @-@ dog Drummond , which was a thriller . The character was an amalgam of McNeile 's friend Gerard Fairlie , and his idea of an English gentleman , although writer J.D. Bourn disputes Fairlie 's claim to be a model for the character , noting that " he was still at school when Sapper created his ... hero " . Drummond also had roots in the literary characters Sherlock Holmes , Sexton Blake , Richard Hannay and The Scarlet Pimpernel .

Drummond 's wartime experience had given him a series of abilities akin to that of a hunter : stealth — " he could move over ground without a single blade of grass rustling " — and the ability to incapacitate others — " he could kill a man with his bare hands in a second " . During his time on the Western Front he would take himself on solitary raids through no man 's land . Drummond was also proficient in jujutsu and boxing , was a crack shot , played cricket for the Free Foresters , and was an excellent poker player . In addition to Drummond 's physical attributes is his common sense , which allows him to equal and beat his opponents , even if they have a superior intellect .

Drummond is characterised as large , very strong , physically unattractive and an " apparently brainless hunk of a man " , He is six feet tall , weighs around 14 stone , and has a " cheerful type of ugliness which inspires immediate confidence in its owner " . Throughout his exploits , Drummond is joined by several of his ex @-@ army friends and colleagues , including Algy Longworth ( who would appear in many of the films , as Drummond 's sidekick ) , MC ; Toby Sinclair , VC ; Peter Darrell and Ted Jerningham . Dummond 's ex @-@ batman from his military days , James Denny , runs Drummond 's flat on Half @-@ Moon Street in Mayfair , London , along with Mrs Denny . ( Denny appeared as Drummond 's sidekick in the radio series , a version of the character named Tenny appeared in the films ) Drummond is a gentleman with a private income ; he is also be construed as " a brutalized ex @-@ officer whose thirst for excitement is also an attempt to reenact [ sic ] the war " , although the character was later described by Cecil Day @-@ Lewis as an " unspeakable public school bully " .

The novel Bulldog Drummond begins when Drummond places an advertisement in a newspaper looking for adventure to lift the ennui of his life in post @-@ war London . The response comes from Phyllis Benton , who is concerned for the health and well @-@ being of her father , over whom Henry Lakington and Carl Peterson have a hold . At the end of the novel Drummond and Phyllis marry , and remain married throughout the course of the McNeile and Fairlie series of books , in contrast to the films , which generally portray Drummond as unmarried . Phyllis becomes integral to the plot of some of the novels : she is kidnapped by Irma Peterson in several stories , including The Black Gang and The Female of the Species .

In the matter of his personal tastes , Drummond is a member of the fictional Junior Sports Club , a gentleman 's club on St. James 's Square , London . His preferred drink is beer although he also enjoys drinking martinis and is knowledgeable about wines . Drummond owns both a Rolls @-@ Royce and a Bentley .

Although Drummond 's actions are intended to maintain the conservative status quo of Britain , academic Hans Bertens considers that instead , he comes across as " a murderous exponent of a fierce competitive individualism " .

= = Carl and Irma Peterson = =

The first four books deal with Drummond against Carl Peterson , who becomes Drummond 's arch @-@ enemy . Peterson is also a master of disguise and uses several aliases . Peterson is killed in the fourth book , The Final Count , although Fairlie brings him back for his final novel , The Return of the Black Gang . Drummond forms a grudging respect for Peterson , and offers an honourable duel to the death at the end of The Third Round , instead of the usual summary justice that normally befalls members of Peterson 's gang . The writer Richard Usborne sees Peterson as " quite a sympathetic character . Almost , in fact , a hero " , and wrote that " authors ... fall in love with their big villains ... Sapper came to love Carl Peterson dearly , and so did Drummond " .

The title of the fifth Bulldog Dummond book , The Female of the Species refers to Rudyard Kipling 's line " the female of the species is more deadly than the male " . Irma is described by Jonathon Green as " the slinky epitome of a twenties ' vamp ' " , and by Lawrence Treadwell as dark , sexy and from an oriental background , " a true femme fatale " . After Carl Peterson 's death in The Final Count , Irma swears revenge on Drummond and kidnaps his wife — whom he had met in Bulldog Drummond — with the intent of killing him in the ensuing chase . Irma Peterson appears in six of McNeile 's books , and in a further five by Fairlie .

= = Reception = =

The Drummond series proved popular with contemporary audiences , with Bulldog Drummond selling 396 @,@ 302 copies between 1920 and 1939 , exceeding the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ copy benchmark for " best @-@ sellers " . At his peak in the 1920s , McNeile was the highest @-@ paid short story writer in the world , and it was estimated that in the last five years of his life he was earning around £ 10 @,@ 000 a year ; the Daily Mirror estimated that during his writing career he had earned £ 85 @,@ 000 .

When reviewing Bulldog Drummond Strikes Back for The New York Times , the critic observed that " if you like a good knock @-@ down @-@ and @-@ drag @-@ out yarn with excitement and violence on nearly every page , you can 't go wrong on Bulldog Drummond " ; for the novel Bulldog Drummond at Bay , the reviewer considered that " as a piece of fictional melodrama , the book is first rate " . In the British market , The Times Literary Supplement also characterised McNeile as a mass @-@ market thriller writer , which contrasted with its consideration of his earlier works .

Throughout the Drummond stories , much of the language used by McNeile relating to ethnic minorities or Jews is considered by the academic Joan DelFattore to be " intensely conservative by modern standards " ; Green observes that while the characters of other contemporary writers , such as Agatha Christie , " exhibit the inevitable xenophobia and anti @-@ semitism of the period , McNeile 's go far beyond the ' polite ' norms " . J.D. Bourn considers his language to be " rather distasteful " , while the academic Michael Denning observed that " Drummond is a bundle of chauvinisms , hating Jews , Germans , and most other foreigners " . The academic Ion Trewin comments that for the readers of the 1920s and ' 30s , McNeile was seen at the time as " simply an upstanding Tory who spoke for many of his countrymen " .

= = Influences = =

Drummond later became a model for other literary characters created in the 1940s and ' 50s : W. E. Johns used McNeile 's work as a model for his character Biggles , while Ian Fleming stated that James Bond was " Sapper from the waist up and Mickey Spillane below " .

= = Works = =

= = = Novels = = =

All were published through Hodder & Stoughton .

Drummond has also appeared in other works . In 1983 Jack Smithers wrote Combined Forces , and in 1990 Kim Newman — under the name Jack Smithers — wrote the short story " Pitbull Brittan " , which features Drummond . Drummond has also appeared in two graphic novels . In 2004 Moonstone Books released a Bulldog Drummond comic book written by William Messner @-@ Loebs and illustrated by Brett Barkley , while in The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen : Black Dossier , written by Alan Moore and illustrated by Kevin O 'Neill , a thinly disguised , elderly version of Drummond , called " Hugo Drummond " , is one of the three Secret Service agents tasked to hunt down the heroes of the piece .

= = = Stage adaptations = = =

McNeile and Gerald du Maurier adapted the first novel , Bulldog Drummond for the stage , where it was shown at Wyndham 's Theatre during the 1921 – 22 season. du Maurier played the title role in a run of 428 performances . Du Maurier again played the role on 8 November 1932 in a special charity performance at the Royal Adelphi Theatre attended by King George VI . The play also ran in New York during the same season , with A. E. Matthews as Drummond . McNeile also wrote The Way Out , which was staged at the Comedy Theatre , London in January 1930 with Ian Hunter as Drummond . A third Drummond play , Bulldog Drummond Hits Out , was co @-@ written by McNeile and Fairlie . It went on a tour of the UK in 1937 with Henry Edwards as Drummond , and opened on 21 December 1937 at the Savoy Theatre , London , where it had a short run . Fairlie later turned the storyline into the novel Bulldog Drummond on Dartmoor , published in 1938 .

In 1974 the play Bullshot Crummond , by Ron House , was staged with Alan Shearman as Crummond . The play was subsequently made into the 1983 film Bullshot .

= = = Short stories by McNeile = = =

= = = Films = = =

In 1933 Alfred Hitchcock was set to direct a Bulldog Drummond film with a screenplay by Charles Bennett entitled Bulldog Drummond 's Baby . The rights to the character of Drummond were then held by British International Pictures who would not sell the rights to use the character 's for Bennett 's screenplay . Bennett and Hitchcock turned the film into The Man Who Knew Too Much without Drummond .

= = = Radio and television = = =

A Bulldog Drummond radio series ran on the Mutual Broadcasting System from 13 April 1941 to 12 January 1949 . An attempt was made at a revival between 3 January and 28 March 1954 . Drummond was initially portrayed by George Coulouris , before being taken over by Santos Ortega and Ned Wever after 1942 ; Cedric Hardwicke took over in 1954 . A 30 @-@ minute episode of Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . , Presents featured Drummond in " The Ludlow Affair " , first broadcast on UK television on 16 December 1956 . Drummond was played by Robert Beatty ; he was aided by Kelly , played by Michael Ripper . A 1973 BBC documentary Omnibus , " The British Hero " , featured Christopher Cazenove playing Drummond , as well as a number of other such heroic characters , including Richard Hannay , Beau Geste and James Bond .

= Lydford Castle =

Lydford Castle is a medieval castle in the town of Lydford , Devon , England . The first castle in Lydford , sometimes termed the Norman fort , was a small ringwork built in a corner of the Anglo @-@ Saxon fortified burh in the years after the Norman conquest of England . It was intended to help control Devon following the widespread revolt against Norman rule in 1068 . The Norman fort was abandoned by the middle of the 12th century .

The second castle in Lydford was constructed in 1195 following a wave of law and order problems across England . It included a stone tower with a surrounding bailey , and rapidly became used as a prison and court to administer the laws in the Forest of Dartmoor and the Devon stannaries . The tower was rebuilt in the middle of the 13th century , probably in the 1260s by Richard , the Earl of Cornwall . It was redesigned to resemble a motte and bailey castle , an antiquated design for the period but one that was heavily symbolic of authority and power . In 1342 the castle , still being used as a prison and courtroom , passed to the Duchy of Cornwall , who owned it until the 20th century .

The condition of the castle varied considerably over time , and was repeatedly renovated and then left to deteriorate once again . Nonetheless , other than a period during the English Civil War and the Restoration in the 17th century , Lydford Castle played an important part in stannary and forest administration until the 19th century . The castle acquired a bad reputation for injustice in the 14th century , and complaints about " Lydford Law " persisted for centuries . In the early 19th century , however , Dartmoor Prison was constructed , and Lydford ceased to be the centre for legal administration . The castle fell into ruin by the middle of the century .

In 1932 , Lydford Castle passed into the hands of the state , and in the 21st century is run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction . Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant , being " the earliest example of a purpose @-@ built gaol " in England . The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are also open to the public .

= = History = =

= = = 1066 – 1150 = = =

The first castle at Lydford was built in the aftermath of the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . In 1068 William the Conqueror intervened in South @-@ West England to put down widespread Anglo @-@ Saxon revolts against Norman rule and set about pacifying the region . William had been responsible for building urban castles across England in the former centres of Anglo @-@ Saxon power and in Devon he constructed new urban castles at Exeter , Totnes , possibly Barnstaple and in the town of Lydford .

Lydford , then called Hlidan , was a type of fortified Anglo @-@ Saxon town called a burh . The castle , in the 21st century called the " Norman fort " , was built on the isolated south @-@ west corner of the burh , soon after 1068 . It had a ringwork design and was only 55 metres ( 180 ft ) by 60 metres ( 200 ft ) in size , protected in part by the existing defences of the burh . A similar pattern of castle building within existing Anglo @-@ Saxon burhs can be seen at Wallingford and Bedford castles . Most of the interior of the castle was used to store grain in large timber and earth buildings . It is uncertain whether these storage facilities were intended for supplying Norman troops or storing grain for wider economic purposes .

This first castle was used only briefly and seems to have been abandoned by the middle of the 12th century . The grain stores were destroyed by fire , but the reason for this is uncertain . By this period , the town of Lydford as a whole was also in serious economic decline .

= = = 1150 – 1239 = = =

= = = = Construction = = = =

In the late 12th century Richard I 's government attempted to promote the growth of Lydford , including revitalising trade in the town . Then , in 1195 , there were widespread problems with law and order across England , including the South @-@ West , and on the basis of this Richard 's government decided to build a fortification for holding royal prisoners in Lydford , further along the west side of the town from the old castle , in a prestigious location next to the town 's church . This fortification is referred to in contemporary documents variously as a firme domus and castelli de Lideford , a " strong house " and " Lydford Castle " respectively .

It is unclear why the decision was taken to build the new castle in a different location within the town . Lydford 's case is not unique , as a similar shift occurred at Canterbury and Gloucester ; generally , such changes in castle location are associated with the destruction of the older defence or changes in political leadership . Archaeologist Andrew Saunders suggests that the new site was chosen because the earlier castle at Lydford was not owned by the Crown in 1195 and was , in any case , in disrepair . £ 74 was spent on the construction of the castle , paid for by Crown revenues from both Devon and Cornwall .

The castle took the form of a stone tower with a surrounding bailey . The bailey was rectangular and in the 21st century measures 180 feet ( 55 m ) by 130 feet ( 40 m ) . The bailey was protected by ramparts and deep ditches on the south @-@ west and north @-@ east sides , with the north @-@ west side protected by the ramparts and valley of the original burh fortifications . The south @-@ east side of the bailey probably formed a small courtyard in front of the tower , in a space now occupied by part of the 13th century earthworks , and was probably the entrance to the original castle .

The tower was a square , free @-@ standing building , 52 feet ( 16 m ) by 52 feet ( 16 m ) and at least two storeys tall ; in the 12th century the tower sat on flat ground with no mound around it . The walls were roughly built from slate and granite , up to 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) thick , and pierced by arrow slits . The tower had a spine wall along the middle of the building , dividing each floor into two rooms . The entrance was probably on the first floor of the building . An internal water supply was installed , of which a decorated spout still survives .

= = = = Role in stannary and forest law = = = =

Lydford Castle does not seem to be primarily designed to have a military function , although in 1199 when King John succeeded to the throne he had the castle garrisoned and expensively equipped to prevent any potential unrest breaking out in the region . The castle lacked the usual military features of the time , such as external gatehouses , and its design seems to have been intended to evoke the authority of a traditional defensive fortification rather than to resist an actual attack . Instead , as well as helping to deal with the wider problems in 1195 , the castle appears to have been built with the intention of enforcing the stannary and forest law in Devon . It is possible that the Crown originally intended that the castle took over the stannary law across the whole of Cornwall and Devon , although in practice its role only extended only to governing the Devon stannaries .

Stannary law was a medieval English legal system for governing the tin industry . South @-@ West England , and in particular Devon , was a major producer of tin in the 12th century , produced by independent miners who worked the alluvial deposits across the region . The industry was regulated by the Crown , who taxed mining output and raised revenue from any fines imposed on those who broke the stannary laws . The laws also helped to manage the relationship between the miners and other local people , whose economic interests were often at odds . The output of tin increased from the end of the 12th century onwards , encouraging the Crown to extend its regulation and generate more revenue . In 1198 , William of Wrotham , who controlled Lydford Castle at the start of John 's reign , was appointed as the Warden of the Stannaries , a new office intended to provide additional rigour to the administration of the mining industry . Stannary courts were established in Devon , backed by a team of officials , and , with the creation of the Duchy of Cornwall in the 14th century , the administration of stannary law was delegated to the duchy . From 1198 onwards , Lydford Castle was designated as the prison for supporting the court and its processes .

Forests were special areas of land in medieval England , owned by the Crown and subject to forest law . They were often selected because of their natural resources , and were expected to provide the Crown with a flow of money or raw materials . In 1195 , the Forest of Dartmoor extended across all of Devon , but in 1204 John curtailed the extent of the royal forest , removing much of Devon from Forest Law and leaving the area known in the modern period as Dartmoor . This reduced forest was still subject to the Forest Laws , involving a specialised group of legal officials who met at Lydford Castle to impose fines and other punishments . Probably both Lydford Castle and the forest was given to the Sheriff of Devon , William Brewer , in 1216 . The arrangement changed under Henry III , when the estates were given to Richard , the Earl of Cornwall in 1239 . Legally , this meant that the Forest of Dartmoor was converted to a chase , although the Earls of Cornwall continued to hold law courts at Lydford Castle , enforcing chase laws that closely resembled the former Forest Laws .

= = = 1239 – 1278 = = =

Richard , Edward II 's second son , took possession of Lydford Castle in 1239 as the Earl of Cornwall . Richard took a close interest in developing the town of Lydford , creating an additional market and introducing a new fair in the 1260s . Around this time , the main tower at Lydford Castle was demolished and rebuilt , probably by Richard , possibly following a serious fire in the building . Richard was a wealthy politician and rebuilding the castle in this way would have provided him with an important status symbol in the region .

The previous tower was stripped back , the existing walls levelled off around 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) from the ground and the ground floor arrow slits filled in . Two more storeys were then built on top of the older walls , better executed with a higher proportion of granite stone and thinner , typically around 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick . Although the structure remained essentially the same , the new tower was slightly smaller , measuring around 48 feet ( 15 m ) by 47 feet ( 14 m ) . The first floor was only basically designed , with a sequence of rooms of different levels of comfort , and intended to function as the prison , and the second floor was better finished , with a hall and a chamber , and probably operated as the courtroom and provided accommodation for the keeper of the castle .

As part of the work , an earth mound , or motte , 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high , was piled up around the base of the tower . The original ground floor of the castle was now an underground cellar , probably used as a puteus , or pit , for detaining low status prisoners and reached by ladder from the first floor . Some infilling of the ground floor occurred in order to equalise the pressure on the walls from the mound . It is uncertain how many other towers or keeps have similar mounds , as excavation is usually required before the foundations can be examined , but Totnes and Farnham castles are known to have mottes build against the walls of the keep . The reason for building the mound is uncertain , but it was almost certainly not designed as a serious defensive feature . It was instead probably intended as to superficially imitate older motte and bailey designs , with the completed castle echoing these former symbols of power and reinforcing the current political status of its owner .

= = = 1278 – 1642 = = =

Richard 's son , Edmund took over the earldom in 1278 but had little interest in Lydford , preferring Restormel and Lostwithiel ; by his death in 1299 the castle had been left to decay and was in ruins . It reverted to the Crown , and when Edward II made his royal favourite , Piers Gaveston , the Earl of Cornwall in 1307 , Lydford Castle was passed to him . The castle was repaired at the start of the century and was in use once again as a prison . Edward II and Gaveston fell from power in 1327 and Thomas le Ercedekne was temporarily entrusted with the castle and Dartmoor by the new regime . In 1329 the castle was valued at a little over £ 11 . Piers Gaveston 's widow , Margaret de Clare , leased the property to Tavistock Abbey , and it continued to operate as a prison .

Edward , the Black Prince became Duke of Cornwall in 1337 and he acquired Lydford Castle on Margaret 's death in 1342 . Extensive repairs took place over the next three years , and the castle was considered to be well roofed and decorated inside . Over the next two centuries the condition of the castle fluctuated . Around 1390 the castle roof was stripped for its lead , to be used on castles in Cornwall . The castle well was possibly dug during the 15th century . After 1425 , the Crown let it to a range of individuals , including Sir Walter Hungerford and Sir Philip Courteney .

Lydford remained the centre of the forest administration through the 14th and 15th centuries . Despite complaints from non @-@ miners at the start of the 14th century that the prison regime at Lydford Castle was overly lax , by the end of the century the prison had a reputation for poor , grim conditions . The first known rhymes complaining about " Lydford Law " date from 1399 , and continued to be popular for several centuries . In 1510 , Richard Strode , a Member of Parliament campaigning for reform of the Stannary laws , was infamously arrested by Stannary officials and imprisoned in Lydford Castle . He later described how he was kept in an underground room in the keep , fed only bread and water , and encumbered with legcuffs until he paid the keeper to release him from the irons .

After 1485 , the Duchy took the castle back into direct control , and by 1546 it was in poor repair . Renovation work was carried out under Elizabeth I , but a report of 1618 suggested that the castle was unable to function as a prison because of its poor condition , and fresh repair work was carried out in the 1620s and 1630s under Charles I.

= = = 1642 – 1900 = = =

Lydford Castle was involved in the English Civil War that broke out in 1642 between the Royalist supporters of Charles I and Parliament . The castle was used by the Royalist commander Sir Richard Grenville as his main military prison in the region . It had a terrible reputation amongst Parliamentarians , who complained that it was used to summarily execute military prisoners and to extort money from innocent civilians , on fear of imprisonment . At the end of the civil war , the Lydford estate appears to have been sold off by Parliament The castle was assessed by their surveyors to be " almost totally ruined " in 1650 : the roof of the tower was still mostly intact , but the floors and their beams were collapsing , and the whole site , including the bailey , was only worth around £ 80 .

With the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 the castle and the forest were taken back to the ownership of the Duchy . Sir John Granville was made the Rider and Master Forester of Dartmoor and the Lydford Castle courts continued to be held to regulate the Forest . Repairs to the dilapidated building do not appear to have been carried out , however , and in 1704 a report was drawn up for the government , noting that the Stannary laws could not be enforced without a working prison .

Work was carried out between 1616 and 1733 , bringing the castle back into good order . As part of this , the spine wall was rebuilt properly , and the second floor windows enlarged . The courtroom featured a chair for the Stannary court judge , additional seating for the court officials and a railed , public section around the outside of the room . The courtroom also doubled as a hall for village dances and feasts . At the start of the 19th century , however , Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt , the Lord Warden of the Stannaries , began the construction of Dartmoor Prison at Princetown . Dartmoor Prison and Princetown grew increasingly important and courts began to be held there instead of Lydford Castle .

The castle declined once again , the courtroom became unsafe to use and by 1833 , the remaining judicial fittings had been stripped out . In the middle of the 19th century the Duchy of Cornwall rejected proposals to repair the castle in order to bring it back into service as being too expensive , but the castle site was enclosed to prevent injuries to children who might be tempted to play on the stonework . By the 1870s , the town of Lydford was vastly reduced in importance from the medieval period and the castle 's roofs and floors had either collapsed or been removed .

= = = 20th @-@ 21st centuries = = =

The Duchy of Cornwall continued to own Lydford Castle into the 20th century . Albert Richardson , the architect to the Duchy estate , proposed converting the property into a private house in 1912 , but the duchy turned down the project . In 1932 the Duchy gave the castle to the Office of Works . Repairs were carried out in the 1930s and the 1950s , and archaeological investigations were undertaken in the 1960s . In the 21st century , the castle is controlled by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction . Historian Andrew Saunders has described the castle as architecturally significant , being " the earliest example of a purpose @-@ built gaol " in England . The earthworks of the Norman fort are owned by the National Trust and are also open to the public . Both castle sites are protected under law as ancient monuments .

= Typhoon Cimaron ( 2006 ) =

Typhoon Cimaron , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Paeng , was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the Philippine island of Luzon since Typhoon Zeb in 1998 . Originating from a tropical depression on October 25 , Cimaron developed within an environment strongly favoring tropical cyclogenesis east of the Philippines . On October 28 , the system underwent rapid intensification , culminating in attaining its peak strength with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Estimates from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ranked the system as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , though this is argued to have underrepresented the typhoon 's strength . The system moved ashore near Casiguran , Aurora in northern Luzon at peak strength . Crossing the island , Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea where conditions allowed for temporary reorganization . After becoming nearly stationary on November 1 , the typhoon executed a tight anti @-@ cyclonic loop and rapidly weakened . The storm degraded to a tropical depression on November 4 before dissipating three days later off the coast of Vietnam .

Prior to impacting the Philippines , Public Storm Warning Signals # 3 and # 4 , the two highest levels , were raised for several provinces in Luzon . Thousands of residents were urged to evacuate while local authorities prepared services for quick recovery efforts . With Cimaron initially expected to strike Vietnam , officials planned to evacuate 218 @,@ 000 people ; however , Cimaron 's slow motion and demise over open waters resulted in these plans being suspended . Officials in Thailand and southern China also advised residents of possible effects from the storm .

In contrast to the typhoon 's extreme intensity , damage was somewhat limited in the Philippines due to the lower population density of the affected areas . Widespread flooding and landslides caused substantial disruptions to travel and isolated some communities . Thirty @-@ four people were killed in various incidents , mostly from flooding . Nearly 365 @,@ 000 people were affected by the storm and losses amounted to 1 @.@ 21 billion PHP ( US $ 31 million ) . Winds along the periphery of Cimaron fanned a large wildfire near Hong Kong , and moisture from it fueled record @-@ breaking rains in British Columbia , Canada . Relief efforts in the Philippines began soon after the storm 's passage ; however , two other storms struck the country in November , with one resulting in far greater damage . Following a request for international assistance in early December , more than US $ 10 million was provided in relief aid to the Philippines .

= = Meteorological history = =

On October 24 , 2006 , an area of disturbed weather , characterized by flaring convection around a low @-@ level circulation , developed approximately 595 km ( 370 mi ) east of Guam . Situated within a region favoring tropical cyclogenesis , the system consolidated as it tracked generally westward . Late on October 25 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the low as a tropical depression . With poleward outflow improving , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert the following day before initiating advisories on Tropical Depression 22W . Several hours later , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration assigned the storm the local name Paeng as was within their area of responsibility . Situated south of a strong subtropical ridge , the system maintained a general west @-@ northwest track . On October 27 , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was assigned the name Cimaron by the JMA . The small storm subsequently underwent a period of rapid intensification as dual outflow channels developed ; the storm reached typhoon status early on October 28 . At the end of this phase on October 29 , Cimaron attained its peak intensity with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 920 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) .

The JTWC estimated Cimaron to have been a stronger system , attaining its peak intensity as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon with one @-@ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . However , satellite estimates from forecasters within the agency itself , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Satellite Analysis Branch ( SAB ) , the Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) , and Dr. Karl Hoarau of Cergy @-@ Pontoise University stated Cimaron to have been an even stronger system . Using the Dvorak technique – a method of determining a tropical cyclone 's intensity based on satellite appearance – AFWA and SAB yielded a peak value of T7.5 , 285 km / h ( 180 mph ) , while advanced operational values from the JTWC peaked at T7.8 , 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) . Additionally , a forecaster at SAB noted that the lower estimates were likely due to restrictions on the Dvorak technique stemming from Cimaron 's rapid intensification . The forecaster also noted that a second type of estimate gave a maximum value of T8.0 , 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) , the highest rating on the scale .

While at its peak strength , Cimaron displayed two small concentric eyewalls , separated by a few kilometres . The storm later made landfall near Casiguran , Aurora in northern Luzon shortly after 1200 UTC on October 29 ; it became one of the strongest storms to ever hit the region . Interaction with the island 's mountainous terrain caused substantial weakening , though Cimaron maintained typhoon status during its 12 ‑ hour crossing . After emerging over the South China Sea on October 30 , the system initially maintained its west @-@ northwest course . However , the following day , a weakness developed within the ridge previously steering the typhoon , and Cimaron briefly turned north before essentially stalling . During this time , the system reorganized somewhat and reached a secondary peak intensity with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on November 2 . While executing a tight clockwise loop , increased wind shear and entrainment of dry air soon caused Cimaron to dramatically weaken . With a new ridge becoming established over China , the weakening system acquired a general southwestward track . Cimaron weakened to a tropical depression on November 4 and ultimately dissipated three days later just off the coast of southeastern Vietnam .

= = Preparations = =

By October 28 , Isabela , southern Cagayan , Quirino , and northern Aurora provinces were placed under Public Storm Warning Signal ( PSWS ) # 3 , the second @-@ highest level . More than 20 provinces overall were placed under varying PSWS levels . Residents living along the coast were urged to evacuate . Early on October 29 , several provinces along Luzon 's east coast were placed under PSWS # 4 , the highest level of alert . During a national radio broadcast President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo urged residents to heed warnings and not to venture out during the storm . Throughout Luzon , schools and government offices were closed on October 29 while residents in mountainous areas were urged to evacuate due to threat of mudslides . The National Transmission Corporation deployed power restoration crews across the region to allow for quick post @-@ storm response . Hospitals in Cimaron 's projected path requested employees to be present in anticipation of an influx of patients . Quick response teams from the Department of Social Welfare and Development were placed on standby for possible deployment . Within evacuation areas , the Philippine National Police was dispatched to prevent people from returning to these areas . Bus companies suspended all services north of Tarlac City and San Jose .

As Cimaron emerged over the South China Sea , officials in Vietnam began preparing for possible effects from the storm . Authorities began evacuating residents in flood @-@ prone areas along the coast from Quảng Bình Khánh Hòa , including 12 @,@ 500 in Thừa Thiên – Huế Province . Fishermen were urged to seek shelter at nearby ports until the storm subsided . The Vietnamese Government also requested the deployment of the nation 's Army , Coast Guard , and Navy to assist in evacuation efforts . Residents still recovering from Typhoon Xangsane in early October were forced to secure their homes and evacuate once again . An estimated 218 @,@ 000 people were planned to be relocated across Vietnam : 68 @,@ 000 in Quảng Nam , 60 @,@ 000 in Quảng Trị , 50 @,@ 000 in Thừa Thiên – Huế , and 40 @,@ 000 in Quảng Bình . Appeals were made to roughly 3 @,@ 500 vessels , with a collective crew count of 32 @,@ 285 , to return to port . The Navy deployed 42 ships for possible search and rescue missions . Following Cimaron 's change in course and cessation of movement , the Vietnamese Government suspended all evacuation plans on November 2 ; however , fishermen were urged to remain at port in fears of repeating the incidents during Typhoon Chanchu in May of that year where over 200 fishermen lost their lives .

Officials in Thailand also monitored the storm as a potential flood threat . Many reservoirs in the nation were above 80 percent capacity and further heavy rains would lead to a major flood event ; the main concerns were for the Bhumibol and Sirikit dams in Tak and Uttaradit provinces , respectively . Authorities in Hainan province , China , warned of possible effects from the storm as well beginning on October 31 . Heavy squalls , with winds of 50 to 100 km / h ( 31 to 62 mph ) were forecast for eastern areas of the island and areas offshore . By November 1 , approximately 20 @,@ 000 fishing vessels returned to port as conditions over the South China Sea deteriorated ; shipping over the Qiongzhou Strait remained unaffected .

= = Impact = =

= = = Philippines = = =

Typhoon Cimaron struck the Philippines with winds estimated at 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and gusts in excess of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . Along coastal Aurora Province , a mother and daughter were killed when strong winds destroyed their home . Numerous trees and power lines were felled by the winds as well , causing widespread blackouts in Luzon . The majority of Aurora and Isabela provinces were left without power and telecommunications for more than two weeks . Approximately 90 percent of the homes in Dinapigue were damaged . Heavy rains across the region swelled many rivers , flooding low @-@ lying areas along their banks . Several bridges became impassable and officials had to release water from two major dams to prevent them from overflowing . The most significant flooding occurred along the Allied @-@ Sinocalan and Tagamusing rivers in Pangasinan . Low @-@ lying areas along the Cagayan , Chico , Magat , Pinacanauan , Tuguegarao Pared rivers throughout Cagayan province were also affected by flooding . Numerous roads were blocked off by landslides or washed away by flooding , severely limiting travel . A landslide temporarily isolated four barangays in Nueva Vizcaya . A Provincial Disaster Coordinating Council search and rescue team was later deployed to Kasibu where at least four people were killed by flooding . Fatal landslides took place in Benguet and Kalinga provinces . A traffic accident blamed on the storm in La Union resulted in one death and seven injuries .

Throughout the Philippines , damage amounted to roughly 1 @.@ 21 billion PHP ( US $ 31 million ) , of which 664 million PHP ( US $ 17 million ) was attributed to agriculture . Approximately eight percent of the corn and rice harvest was destroyed . A total of 2 @,@ 605 homes were destroyed while another 18 @,@ 181 were damaged . Across seven provinces , 364 @,@ 733 people were affected by the typhoon , 65 @,@ 585 of whom were significantly impacted . A total of 34 people lost their lives as a result of Cimaron . Additionally , 65 people sustained injuries .

= = = Elsewhere = = =

Though the storm remained over open waters after moving over the South China Sea , strong winds stemming from it fanned a large wildfire in Tai Lam Country Park , Hong Kong . At least 136 fires ignited on October 30 during the Chung Yeung Festival . The Tai Lam fire grew to be the largest in over a decade , ultimately charring 450 hectares ( 1 @,@ 112 acres ) and 66 @,@ 000 trees . The storm 's winds coupled with seasonally low humidity made conditions difficult for firefighters trying to suppress the fire . Over the South China Sea , the 128 m ( 420 ft ) long Chinese cargo ship , Tongda 998 , became stranded amid 5 m ( 16 ft ) swells and 75 to 88 km / h ( 47 to 55 mph ) winds after its engine failed . All 18 crewmen were unharmed after the vessel was towed to port in Zhuhai by the rescue ship Dejin .

Moisture from the typhoon also fed an extratropical cyclone , in a process referred to as the Pineapple Express , that brought heavy rains to southern British Columbia , Canada , prompting flood watches for the region Southern areas of the province were deluged by the storm , with some areas receiving 250 to 300 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) of rain . The daily rainfall record for November 6 of 20 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 81 in ) at Victoria International Airport was shattered with 50 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 98 in ) falling . Widespread flooding occurred as rivers over @-@ topped their banks ; hundreds of homes were inundated , prompting numerous evacuations . The Vedder River reached a 25 @-@ year high and forced the evacuation 200 residences .

= = Aftermath = =

Damage assessments in the Philippines began on October 31 , with aerial surveys being utilized for isolated areas . With numerous roads blocked off or washed away , clearing operations were a priority . The Philippine Red Cross assisted in the immediate aftermath of Typhoon Cimaron , evacuating people in La Union and providing relief goods to more than 16 @,@ 000 people in Aurora . The majority of relief work was handled by local governments , though some assistance from the National Disaster Coordinating Council was received . By November 1 , the estimated cost of humanitarian assistance reached 3 @.@ 2 million PHP ( US $ 81 @,@ 000 ) . Teams from the Red Cross were already deployed in the Philippines due to Typhoon Xangsane in September and were able to quickly respond in Cimaron 's aftermath . Relief efforts for Cimaron were cut short as just two weeks later , Typhoon Chebi struck nearly the same areas . A weaker , though still powerful typhoon , damage from Chebi was relatively limited .

In late November , Typhoon Durian brought even greater devastation to the Philippines and prompted greater need for international assistance . On December 11 , President Arroyo declared a national state of calamity and released 1 billion PHP ( US $ 25 @.@ 6 million ) in relief and rehabilitation funds . Throughout 2006 as a whole , the Philippines was devastated by multiple natural disasters that collectively killed well over 1 @,@ 000 people and left more than US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion in damage . Consequently , the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs appealed for emergency assistance to the nation , in the form of US $ 46 million in funds for the most severely affected areas . The European Commission Humanitarian Aid department also provided € 2 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) in emergency funds in relation to the four major typhoons that struck the country , with a focus on areas affected by Typhoon Durian . The Red Cross ultimately provided US $ 9 @.@ 67 million in assistance to the nation in relation to the four typhoons as well as Typhoon Fengshen in June 2008 which struck while relief efforts from the 2006 storms were still ongoing .

= Big Inch =

The Big Inch and Little Big Inch , collectively known as the Inch pipelines , are petroleum pipelines extending from Texas to New Jersey , built between 1942 and 1944 as emergency war measures in the U.S. Before World War II , petroleum products were transported from the oil fields of Texas to the north @-@ eastern states by oil tanker . After the United States entered the war on 1 January 1942 , this vital link was attacked by German submarines in the Operation Paukenschlag , threatening both the oil supplies to the north @-@ east and its onward transshipment to Great Britain . The Secretary of the Interior , Harold Ickes , championed the pipeline project as a way of transporting petroleum by the more @-@ secure , interior route .

The pipelines were government financed and owned , but were built and operated by the War Emergency Pipelines company , a non @-@ profit corporation backed by a consortium of the largest American oil companies . It was the longest , biggest and heaviest project of its type then undertaken ; the Big and Little Big Inch pipelines were 1 @,@ 254 and 1 @,@ 475 miles long ( 2 @,@ 018 km and 2 @,@ 374 km ) respectively , with 35 pumping stations along their routes . The project required 16 @,@ 000 people and 725 @,@ 000 short tons ( 658 @,@ 000 t ) of materials . It was praised as an example of private @-@ public sector cooperation and featured extensively in US government propaganda .

After the end of the war there were extended arguments over how the pipelines should be used . In 1947 , the Texas East Transmission Corporation purchased the pipelines for $ 143 @,@ 127 @,@ 000 , the largest post @-@ war disposal of war @-@ surplus property . The corporation converted them to transport natural gas , transforming the energy market in the north @-@ east . The Little Big Inch was returned to carry oil in 1957 . The pipelines are owned by Spectra Energy Partners and Enterprise Products and remain in use .

= = Background = =

By the time that the United States entered World War II in 1941 , oil was a vital part of military operations around the world . The United States produced 60 percent of the world 's crude oil , with the state of Texas in the south @-@ west leading this production , producing more than twice as much crude as any other state . The industry comprised a handful of very large producers and more than 3 @,@ 500 smaller operators .

The north @-@ east coast of the United States depended on these supplies of oil , importing both crude and refined products . Across most of Texas , there had been little interest in building pipelines to transport oil , and petroleum was typically moved from the south @-@ west to the north @-@ east coast using a mixture of sea freight and railroad transport . In early 1941 , 70 @,@ 000 barrels of oil were moved on the railroads each day , but this method was expensive , and the bulk of the oil was moved using barges , some with a capacity of up to 15 @,@ 000 barrels , operating up and down the rivers and the Atlantic Coast .

With the outbreak of war , the eastern sea routes of the country were attacked by German U @-@ boat submarines . United States naval defence was very limited and largely obsolete ; between January and April 1942 , among other naval losses , 46 oil tankers were sunk and 16 damaged . The problem was made worse as 50 tankers had been sent to help the UK earlier in 1941 . Insurers began to refuse to underwrite the remaining vessels and the volume of crude oil reaching the north @-@ east from the Texas Gulf dropped .

In response , steps were taken to better protect the tankers from attack , but losses continued to mount until , in April 1942 , they were banned by the Navy from operating the north @-@ east sea routes . The government and industry took steps to maximise the use of the railroads , increasing the amount of oil carried on them more than ten @-@ fold , but there were shortages of rail tank cars , and the existing fleet of cars was in poor condition . Instead , the United States government began to examine options for the use of pipelines to fulfil the demand for petroleum in the north @-@ east .

= = Concept = =

Transporting petroleum by pipeline from the south @-@ west to the north @-@ east was a potentially attractive option for the government as it would be safe from submarine attack and could operate efficiently regardless of the weather . Pipelines had been in use in the industry since 1862 , but by the 1930s they were usually only 8 inches ( 200 mm ) wide , able to deliver 20 @,@ 000 barrels of oil a day ; larger pipes could be built , but due to structural weaknesses they could not operate at the regular pressures . Technologies to build high @-@ pressure pipes at sizes larger than 12 inches ( 300 mm ) began to emerge during the decade before the war , but their adoption was not commercially viable .

The concept of constructing such a pipeline was first proposed in 1940 by the Secretary of the Interior , Harold Ickes , who argued that " the building of a crude oil pipeline from Texas to the East might not be economically sound ; but that in the event of an emergency it might be absolutely necessary " . A consortium led by Standard Oil put forward a bid to build one in spring 1941 , but the plan failed , due to concerns over the amount of steel that would be required for such a project . In May 1941 , Ickes was appointed as the Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense , and in December 1942 became the administrator of the Petroleum Administration for War . New laws were passed to enable the building of pipelines necessary for the war effort , including the compulsory purchasing of land under the right of eminent domain .

Initial planning for the Inch pipelines began on May 15 , 1941 , when a meeting of Ickes and the oil industry commissioned an aerial survey of the possible route . A preliminary design was ready that September , and a consortium of major oil companies formed a new company , National Defense Pipelines , to build a pipeline along the route . The government Supply Priorities and Allocation Board , however , refused to approve the necessary steel , and the consortium 's plan was dissolved shortly before the outbreak of war . After the outbreak of fighting , and the consequent deterioration of the sea routes for transporting oil , industry representatives met in March 1942 to produce a new pipeline strategy , called the Tulsa Plan . This included the construction of the Inch pipelines , backed by the slogan " longlines are lifelines " , for which the steel was finally approved by the War Production Board on June 10 .

Once steel supplies had been agreed , an initial tranche of $ 35 million in funding was provided by the government Reconstruction Finance Corporation , which owned and manage the operation of the pipelines through its subsidiary organizations , the Defense Plants and the Defense Supplies corporations . In turn , the actual construction and operation of the pipelines would be carried out by the War Emergency Pipelines company ( WEP ) , a non @-@ profit corporation backed by a consortium of the largest oil companies in the United States : Atlantic Refining , Cities Service Oil , Consolidated Oil , Gulf Oil , Pan American Petroleum and Transportation , Standard Oil , Tidewater Associated Oil , Shell Oil , Socony @-@ Vacuum Oil , Sun Oil and the Texas Pipe Line Company . The WEP was led by W. Alton Jones and Burt Hull , both with extensive backgrounds in the industry , with Oscar Wolfe as its chief engineer . The company established its offices in Little Rock , Arkansas .

= = Construction = =

= = = Design and management = = =

The Inch pipelines comprised two systems , the Big Inch pipeline and the Little Big Inch pipeline . The Big Inch was a 24 @-@ inch ( 610 mm ) pipeline for crude oil ; it ran from the East Texas Oil Field at Longview , Texas , to Norris City , Illinois , and onto Phoenixville , Pennsylvania , from where it branched into 20 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 510 mm ) segments . One served New York and terminated at Linden , New Jersey , and the other served Philadelphia and terminated at Chester Junction , Pennsylvania . The Little Big Inch , a largely parallel 20 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 510 mm ) line intended for refined products , ran from Beaumont , Texas , to Little Rock , Arkansas , where it joined the path of the Big Inch , making use of the same pumping stations . From there it ran along the same right @-@ of @-@ way as the Big Inch to New Jersey and Pennsylvania .

The pipeline project was the longest , biggest and heaviest of its kind in the world . In total , the Big Inch pipeline was 1 @,@ 254 miles ( 2 @,@ 018 km ) long , with 222 miles ( 357 km ) of secondary distribution and feeder lines , and had 28 pumping stations along the route , approximately every 50 miles ( 80 km ) . The Little Big Inch was 1 @,@ 475 miles ( 2 @,@ 374 km ) long , with 239 miles ( 385 km ) of secondary lines , and had seven unique pumping stations along its southern leg .

Charles Cathers of the DPC directed the engineering project , with much of the work undertaken by Oscar Wolfe and , on the Little Inch pipeline , F. E. Richardson and L. F. Scherer . A meeting of all of the contractors for the build was held at the start of the July to kickstart the project ; overall , 82 different companies would take on the pipeline work on a " cost @-@ plus " basis , employing over 16 @,@ 000 staff . The construction required the government to acquire permission to build the pipeline across 7 @,@ 500 parcels of land ; of these , the right of eminent domain had to be exercised in 300 cases . Major Jubel Parten , a director in the Petroleum Administration for War , considered the Inch pipelines to be part of “ the most amazing Government @-@ industry cooperation ever achieved ” .

The pipelines were soon given the names " Big Inch " and " Little Big Inch " by the construction teams , on account of their unprecedented diameters . The construction project was extensively advertised , as part of the US government 's war @-@ time propaganda effort . Newsreels ran clips such as Pipeline Goes Through ! and Pipe Dream Comes True @-@ Oil ! , and short @-@ films were made about the construction work , including Pipeline . The pipelines also appeared in the RKO Pathé film Oil is Blood .

= = = Process = = =

The Big Inch pipeline was made from sections of seamless steel pipe up to 44 feet ( 13 m ) long , 3 ⁄ 8 inch ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) thick and 4 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 900 kg ) in weight . The Little Big Inch used both 5 ⁄ 16 inch ( 7 @.@ 9 mm ) thick seamless steel and electric weld pipe , and a small amount of 1 ⁄ 2 inch ( 13 mm ) thick seamless pipe . In total , 21 @,@ 185 railcar loads of steel piping were laid during the project , the Big Inch alone requiring 360 @,@ 700 short tons ( 327 @,@ 200 t ) of steel .

The pipe was laid in trenches 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide , dug out by a combination of ditching machines and manual labor . The pipes were then cleaned by pulling a workman through the inside of them with cloths , and welded together , using both the " stovepiping " method and the roll @-@ weld , or " firing line " , methods . Stovepiping was an older method , in which the welder worked his way around two pipes , which remained stationary ; the newer roll @-@ weld approach instead rotated the pipes , allowing the welder to remain in one position as he worked , with up to seven pipes being welded together at the same time .

Where it was necessary for the pipeline to curve to fit the route , the steel pipes were bent , using either a cold @-@ bending approach , in which tractors would pull and push the pipelines into position , or a hot @-@ bending method , with the pipe heated up by blow @-@ torches and pulled into place using a jig . A new , specialized piece of equipment for bending pipes , the Cummings bending jig , was invented during the Big Inch build , and used on the construction of the Little Big Inch pipeline . To protect the pipeline from corrosion , its outside was then cleaned by machine , and painted in first a layer of coal tar enamel , and then hot coal tar coating , before being wrapped in asbestos felt . Finally the pipeline was lowered into position , taking care not to damage the ends of the pipes ; the larger pipes were so heavy that they required a D @-@ 8 caterpillar tractor equipped with counter @-@ weights to lift them . The trench was then back @-@ filled , completing the process .

The Big Inch pipeline had to pass under 33 rivers and 200 creeks and lakes , as well as under 289 railroad and 626 highway intersections . Specially lined tunnels were bored to lay the pipe under the roads and railroad lines , and specialist trenches dug to lay the pipelines across on the riverbeds and lakes , weighing down the pipeline to stop it floating to the surface . Around 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of underwater piping was laid in total . In marshy areas , the soft ground was filled in to provide firm foundations for the pipeline to rest on .

The pumping stations for the pipelines were built on parcels of land between 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) and 44 acres ( 18 ha ) in size ; those with storage tanks were between 90 acres ( 36 ha ) and 131 acres ( 53 ha ) big . The plain , utilitarian buildings were initially prefabricated steel constructs , but as supplies grew scarce , wood was used instead . As much as 725 @,@ 000 short tons ( 658 @,@ 000 t ) of materials was needed for the total project .

= = = Completion = = =

Work on the Inch pipelines began immediately after the establishment of the WEP on June 26 , 1942 . They were built in three phases . The first part to be constructed was the Big Inch , its initial leg running to an interim terminal at Norris City , where oil was to be off @-@ loaded to the railroad network . Once this leg was complete , it was extended to its terminus at Phoenixville . When the Big Inch was complete , work began on the third phase of the project , the Little Big Inch .

The first purchase order , for 137 @,@ 500 short tons ( 124 @,@ 700 t ) of 24 @-@ inch @-@ diameter pipe , was placed on July 2 , 1942 . To meet a construction deadline of January 1 , 1943 , the laying of pipe began on August 3 , 1942 , near Little Rock . Other pipeline crews began work immediately on segments elsewhere in Arkansas and Texas . By September 10 all eight pipelaying crews , each consisting of between 300 and 400 men , were in the field working . The schedule called for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the Big Inch pipeline to be laid each day . But soon men were laying as much as 9 miles ( 14 km ) a day . In all , roughly 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 5 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material were excavated . Oil began flowing through the Big Inch Line between Texas and Illinois on New Year 's Eve 1942 . Work on the Little Big Inch then began in 1943 .

The first crude oil arrived at Phoenixville via the Big Inch on August 14 , 1943 , and the first refined product in the Little Big Inch arrived on March 2 , 1944 . The Big Inch carried up to 334 @,@ 456 barrels of crude oil a day , the Little Big Inch 239 @,@ 844 barrels of gasoline ; the lines were among the largest industrial consumers of electricity in the US , requiring 3 @.@ 89 million kilowatt hours a day to pump the oil along the pipes .

= = = Construction process , recorded by John Vachon = = =

= = Post @-@ war sale = =

By the end of the war , there was considerable debate over the future of the pipelines . The major oil companies , such as Standard Oil , campaigned for the conversion of the pipelines for the transfer of natural gas . Demand for natural gas was rising rapidly , and it was produced in large quantities in the Texas oilfields , but could not be got to market in the north @-@ east and was otherwise burnt off uselessly into the atmosphere . The railroad and coal companies , who saw this as likely to introduce additional competition for coal and coal gas , and therefore lower demand for their goods and services , argued against this move . The smaller oil companies proposed continuing to use the pipelines for oil in order to undermine the transport monopolies of the larger corporations .

A government inquiry was undertaken to determine the future use of the pipelines , and took evidence from the various stakeholders , most of whom presented the case that favored their companies or industry . The inquiry concluded that the pipelines should be sold for continued use in transporting petroleum . An auction for the pipelines was announced in 1946 , which was designed to give preference to bidders who intended to use them for moving petroleum . 16 bids were received , with the highest cash bidders being companies hoping to use the pipelines for natural gas . Assessing the different bids proved difficult and the discussions became enmeshed in national politics , with companies seeking support from various Washington politicians . Meanwhile , a threatened national coal strike raised concerns over the availability of natural gas , strengthening the arguments of the natural gas lobby .

A fresh inquiry was declared in November , voiding the previous competition and the Inch Lines were transferred to the War Assets Administration on December 2 , 1946 , for disposal . Pending any final decision on their sale , the lines were leased to the Tennessee Gas Company for use in shipping natural gas as far as Ohio and the Appalachians , but no further east , and only for 12 months . Tennessee Gas did not convert the pipelines in any way for their new role , and simply pumped the gas through the system under its own pressure , moving 138 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas a day in this way .

A second auction was held , with bids for natural gas given equal weight to those wishing to transfer crude oil , although any natural gas bidder would be obliged to maintain the oil pumping stations for use in a national emergency . Ten bids were received and on February 8 , 1947 , the Texas East Transmission Corporation ( TETCO ) was declared successful . Its bid of $ 143 @,@ 127 @,@ 000 would make the disposal the largest sale of war @-@ surplus property to the private sector following World War II .

= = Conversion by TETCO = =

TETCO was the brainchild of corporate lawyers Charles Francis and James Elkins , who convinced the construction specialists George and Herman Brown , and the fuel engineer E. Holley Poe , that buying the Big and Little Inch pipelines could be a lucrative opportunity . The corporation was established specifically for the purposes of the bid , and came to their bidding figure by estimating that the likely competition would bid at $ 130 million ; their own figure exceeded this by 10 percent , and added on $ 127 @,@ 000 to avoid a suspiciously round number . TETCO believed it could afford to make this offer because it intended to reuse the electric motors in the oil pumping mechanisms for moving the natural gas ; it also believed that the price of gas would rise considerably in the post @-@ war markets .

After winning the bidding , TETCO raised the money to pay the government through a combination of bonds and share issues . A further government enquiry was required before the sale was allowed to go through , which was complicated by the reluctance of the state of Pennsylvania to allow the pipelines to be used to pump gas east through its territory . The government of Pennsylvania was influenced by the coal industry , who feared they would lose sales , but it eventually relented and the sale of the pipelines to TETCO was finally completed on November 1 . The value of the company soared , and the original investors saw the value of their holdings increase 63 @-@ fold .

TETCO immediately began to convert the pipelines for permanent use as natural gas transmission lines , under the direction of Baxter Goodrich , their chief engineer . 24 compressor stations were constructed along the pipeline with centrifugal compressors , increasing the capacity of the system to 433 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 12 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas a day , and the old oil pumps were retained for reuse in a future crisis . Steel valves replaced the older , less reliable cast iron designs . Demand continued to increase , requiring additional compressor capability , and by January 1949 the pipelines were moving 508 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 14 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) a day .

The supply route undermined the local markets for manufactured gas , and the major cities of the north @-@ east rapidly converted to the use of natural gas ; historian David Waples describes how the pipelines contributed to " an extraordinary expansion of natural gas customers and gas company employees after World War II " . The Inch pipelines encouraged the development of further long distance pipelines in the US through the 1960s and 1970s .

= = Later use = =

In 1957 , the operation of the Little Big Inch , and its ownership south of Ohio , was transferred from TETCO to the subsidiary Texas Eastern Petroleum Products Corporation ( TEPPCO ) , and converted back to use for petroleum products . TEPPCO was purchased by Enterprise Products in 2010 . Around 1961 , there was discussion of converting the Big Inch pipeline back to petroleum use , but it continued in use as a gas pipeline . In 1989 , TETCO was taken over by the Panhandle Eastern Corporation , and in 1997 this company was merged with Duke Power , to form the Duke Energy Corporation ; in 2007 , the oil pipelines were spun off from Duke Energy , to form part of Spectra Energy Partners .

The Inch pipelines are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Along the western parts of the pipelines , around 90 percent of the pipes are the original installation , although in the east large parts have since been replaced , largely due to the absence of anti @-@ corrosion protective coatings on the original piping . 62 of the original buildings from 1942 and 1943 remain , including pump @-@ houses , offices , employee houses and garages . The best surviving examples of the original buildings are in Pennsylvania . A " Big Inch pipeline " construction playset was produced as a children 's toy in 1962 by the Marx company .

= = List of pumping stations = =

= = = Big Inch and northern Little Big Inch = = =

Station No. 1 : Longview , Texas

Station No. 2 : Atlanta , Texas

Station No. 3 : Hope , Arkansas

Station No. 4 : Donaldson , Arkansas

Station No. 5 : Little Rock , Arkansas

Station No. 6 : Bald Knob , Arkansas

Station No. 7 : Egypt , Arkansas

Station No. 8 : Fagus , Missouri

Station No. 9 @-@ a : Oran , Missouri

Station No. 9 @-@ b : Gale , Illinois

Station No. 10 : Lick Creek , Illinois

Station No. 11 : Norris City , Illinois

Station No. 12 : Princeton , Indiana

Station No. 13 : French Lick , Indiana

Station No. 14 : Seymour , Indiana

Station No. 15 : Oldenburg , Indiana

Station No. 16 : Lebanon , Ohio

Station No. 17 : Circleville , Ohio

Station No. 18 : Crooksville , Ohio

Station No. 19 : Sarahsville , Ohio

Station No. 20 : Wind Ridge , Pennsylvania

Station No. 21 : Connellsville , Pennsylvania

Station No. 22 : Rockwood , Pennsylvania

Station No. 23 : Chambersburg , Pennsylvania

Station No. 24 : Marietta , Pennsylvania

Station No. 25 : Phoenixville , Pennsylvania

Station No. 26 : Lambertville , New Jersey

Station No. 27 : Linden , New Jersey

= = = Southern part of the Little Big Inch = = =

Station A : Baytown , Texas

Station B : Beaumont , Texas

Station C : Newton , Texas

Station D : Many , Louisiana

Station E : Castor , Texas

Station F : El Dorado , Arkansas

Station G : Fordyce , Arkansas

= Horace Robertson =

Lieutenant General Sir Horace Clement Hugh Robertson , KBE , DSO ( 29 October 1894 – 28 April 1960 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army who served in the First World War , the Second World War and the Korean War . He was one of the first graduates of the Royal Military College , Duntroon , to reach the ranks of major general and lieutenant general .

During the First World War , Robertson served with the 10th Light Horse in the Gallipoli Campaign , including the disastrous Battle of the Nek , where much of his regiment was wiped out . He later participated in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , where he captured a Turkish Army general , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order .

During the Second World War , Robertson led the 19th Infantry Brigade at the Battle of Bardia and accepted the surrender of the Italian Navy at Benghazi . Later , he commanded the 1st Armoured Division in Western Australia . In the final weeks of the war he commanded troops in the closing stages of the New Britain Campaign and the Aitape – Wewak campaign . At the end of the war , he accepted the surrender of Japanese Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi .

Following the war , he commanded the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in the Occupation of Japan and the British Commonwealth Forces Korea in the Korean War . Robertson was a key figure in establishing the Australian Armoured Corps . Its headquarters in Darwin is named Robertson Barracks in his honour .

= = Early life = =

Horace Clement Hugh Robertson was born in Warrnambool , Victoria , on 29 October 1894 , the sixth child of John Robertson , a state school teacher , and his wife Anne née Grey . Horace was educated at a state school in Outtrim , from May 1905 to April 1910 , when he went to The Geelong College . Horace was nicknamed " Red Robbie " by his fellow schoolboys after his hair colour , in contrast to his older brother John , or " Black Robbie " .

In October 1911 Robertson took the entrance examination for the Royal Military College , Duntroon , and was accepted into the second intake of cadets in 1912 . His class was due to be commissioned on 1 January 1916 , but the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 caused it to be graduated early . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in both the Permanent Military Forces ( PMF ) and the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 3 November 1914 .

On 7 November 1914 , Robertson married Jessie Bonnar in a private service at a registry office in Collingwood . The ceremony was kept secret , because at the time junior officers required the Army 's permission to marry , and at age 20 Robertson would not have received it . Later they would claim that they had been married in 1916 . Their marriage produced no children .

= = First World War = =

Major General William Bridges decided that the Duntroon cadets , none of whom had yet finished their training , should be split up and posted to the various units of the AIF as regimental rather than staff officers . Robertson was posted to the 10th Light Horse as its machine @-@ gun officer . He was one of seven members of his class in the 3rd Light Horse Brigade . By the end of August 1915 , three of them would be dead .

The 10th Light Horse was concentrated at Claremont , Western Australia , before departing for the Middle East on the transport Mashobra in February 1915 . After arriving at Alexandria , Egypt , in March 1915 , the regiment moved to Mena Camp near Cairo . In May , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade began moving , without horses , to Gallipoli , preceded by the machine @-@ gun sections , which embarked at Alexandria on 8 May 1915 . At Gallipoli , the machine guns were brigaded together to provide additional firepower . Robertson 's machine guns were in support during the disastrous Battle of the Nek on 7 August 1915 , during which much of the 10th Light Horse became casualties . Afterwards , Robertson was promoted to captain and became second in command of A Squadron . He assumed command of C Squadron on 28 August , and led it in the fighting at Hill 60 the next day .

The 10th Light Horse was reorganised after returning to Egypt in January 1916 , and Robertson assumed command of B Squadron , with the AIF rank of major from May 1916 . This was as far as he could go , for Duntroon graduates could not be promoted above major in the AIF . This was the result of an AIF policy aimed at giving them a broad a range of experience , which would benefit the post @-@ war Army , while not allowing an accumulation of young officers of high rank , for whom the reduced post @-@ War Army would not have sufficient posts . His substantive rank remained that of lieutenant ; he would not be promoted to the substantive rank of captain in the PMF until 30 September 1920 , and promotion to major would not come until 1 July 1932 . At the Battle of Magdhaba , his colonel was wounded and Robertson took over command of the 10th Light Horse . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) for his actions during this battle . His citation read :

For distinguished and gallant service in the field . He led a mounted change and was the first officer to enter the enemy 's trenches . He is an officer of exceptional organising and training powers and thoroughly deserves reward .

Robertson 's men took many Turkish prisoners , including a senior officer of engineers who insisted that he would only surrender his sword to the Australian officer in charge . He was disappointed to discover that it was Robertson , a youthful major , but handed it over anyway .

In February 1917 Robertson was attached to the Desert Column as a staff officer . From there , he was sent to staff school in Egypt . However , on 7 March he suffered a broken leg in a riding accident and was hospitalised for two months . He returned to the staff school in May and finally graduated on 17 June . He was then posted to the newly formed Yeomanry Mounted Division as a General Staff Officer ( Grade 3 ) . In March 1918 , he was posted to Headquarters Delta Force in Cairo . This was disbanded in April and Robertson became Deputy Assistant Adjutant General ( DAAG ) at AIF Headquarters in Cairo . In January 1919 , he became Assistant Adjutant General ( AAG ) . He returned to Australia in July 1919 . In addition to his Distinguished Service Order , he was twice mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Order of the Nile ( 4th Class ) by the Sultan of Egypt .

= = Between the wars = =

On returning to Australia , Robertson became brigade major in the 7th Light Horse Brigade . In September 1920 he was posted to the staff of the 3rd Military District and then the 2nd Cavalry Division and the 3rd Division . In April 1922 he sat for and passed the entrance examination to the Staff College , Camberley , where his class included Majors Arthur Percival , John Smyth and Georges Vanier , and Lieutenant Colonel Harry Crerar . Robertson eventually became the first Australian to graduate with an A @-@ grade pass .

Afterwards , Robertson went on to attend a series of shorter training courses in Britain . He attended the School of Musketry at Hythe , Kent ; the Machine Gun School at Netheravon , Wiltshire ; the Artillery College at Woolwich ; the Anti @-@ Gas School at Porton Down ; the Anti @-@ Aircraft School at Westerham , Kent ; and the Royal Tank Corps School at Woolwich . He returned to Australia in 1925 to become Chief Instructor at the Small Arms School at Randwick , New South Wales in 1926 . Following the retirement of General Sir Harry Chauvel in 1930 , Robertson was posted to the 7th Infantry Brigade as its brigade major . In 1931 he became brigade major of the 1st Cavalry Brigade in Queensland . He returned to Sydney in February 1934 as General Staff Officer ( Grade 2 ) at the 2nd District Base . In June 1934 , he was appointed Director of Military Art at the Royal Military College , which had been transferred to Victoria Barracks , Sydney , as a cost @-@ cutting measure during the Great Depression . It returned to Canberra in 1937 , and Robertson returned with it .

Robertson was finally breveted as a lieutenant colonel in June 1936 . The rank became substantive in July 1937 . Like other regular officers , Robertson was opposed to the " Singapore strategy " , and therefore to the defence policy of the government of the day , and said so publicly in the British Army Quarterly . Robertson argued for a local defence of Australia by land and air units . The naval theorist , Admiral Sir Herbert Richmond , responding to Robertson 's arguments in an editorial , pointed out that local defence would fragment the British Empire 's defence effort and could not secure the sea lanes . However , in view of the weakness of the Royal Navy , Richmond was forced to concede that Robertson 's approach was not unreasonable .

= = Second World War = =

= = = Libya = = =

In March 1939 , Robertson was appointed commander of the 7th Military District , which encompassed the Northern Territory . It was his first command since the First World War . He was promoted to the temporary rank of colonel in August 1939 , and this became substantive in November . The job involved cooperation with the Royal Australian Navy and Royal Australian Air Force , and the administration of a company of regular soldiers known as the Darwin Mobile Force . After the Second World War began in September 1939 , Robertson became responsible for supplying the 7th Military District 's quota of volunteers for the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . A strike on the waterfront saw Robertson committing troops to help unload cargo .

On 4 April 1940 , Robertson joined the Second AIF himself , with the rank of brigadier , and was allocated the AIF service number VX20321 . He was appointed to command the 19th Infantry Brigade , which was then being formed from units made surplus by the reduction of the 6th Division from 12 infantry battalions to nine . All three of its battalions , the 2 / 4th , 2 / 8th and 2 / 11th Infantry Battalions , were initially commanded by over @-@ age officers , but the commander of the 2 / 4th was replaced by Ivan Dougherty in August . Initially , Dougherty received a cool reception from Robertson , who was disappointed at being unable to select his own battalion commanders , but Dougherty soon made such a good impression that when Robertson went on leave in October 1940 he recommended that Dougherty act as brigade commander , despite the fact that he was the youngest and most junior of Robertson 's battalion chiefs .

The Battle of Bardia brought to the fore the simmering hostility between regular officers and reservists . Frank Berryman , the 6th Division 's General Staff Officer ( Grade 1 ) , and Alan Vasey , the Deputy Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster General ( DA & QMG ) , were eager for Robertson to do well and show that Staff Corps officers could make good commanders , and if that could be done at the expense of an old @-@ style reservist like Stanley Savige , so much the better . They pushed for Robertson 's 19th Infantry Brigade , then in reserve , to be committed when the attack by Savige 's 17th Infantry Brigade slowed down . The abrupt manner in which this was done generated antipathy between Robertson and Savige .

The 19th Infantry Brigade then advanced on Tobruk . The attack on this fortified town proceeded along similar lines to that on Bardia , with the 16th Infantry effecting a break @-@ in of the position , but this time the 19th Infantry Brigade was to carry out the exploitation phase . Robertson 's contribution to the plan was to increase its tempo , so that the attack would be carried through without pause , the exploitation being carried out before the initial break @-@ in was complete . Robertson accepted the surrender of the fortress commander , Generale di Corpo d 'Armata Petassi Manella , and later Admiral Messimiliano Vietina , the Italian naval commander . Comments by " a sunburnt red @-@ headed Australian brigadier " made headlines in Britain , where senior officers rarely spoke to the media , but did not endear Robertson to his critics , who felt that his ego was out of control . Following the entry of the 19th Infantry Brigade to Benghazi on 7 February , Robertson declared " give me two stout ships and a bearing on Rome and we 'll dine in the hall of the caesars " .

For this campaign , Robertson was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) , but later that month he was hospitalised for varicose veins in the leg he had broken in 1917 . He was replaced as commander of the 19th Infantry Brigade by Alan Vasey . When Robertson recovered he was given responsibility for the training of AIF reinforcements in the Middle East . Robertson 's service in the field and his long experience in training troops made him an ideal candidate for the post . For his services , Robertson was mentioned in despatches a third time .

= = = Defence of Australia = = =

Around the time of the outbreak of war with Japan , many senior officers with distinguished records in the Middle East were recalled to Australia to lead militia formations and fill important staff posts . One of these was Robertson , who was recalled to take command of the 1st Cavalry Division in January 1942 . In March 1942 , an unusual event occurred . Major Generals Alan Vasey and Edmund Herring , and Brigadier Clive Steele , fearing that Gordon Bennett or John Lavarack was about to be appointed Commander in Chief , approached the Minister for the Army , Frank Forde , with a proposal that in view of the danger of an invasion of Australia , all officers over the age of 50 be immediately retired and Robertson be appointed Commander in Chief . This reflected an extraordinary endorsement of Robertson by his colleagues , but such favourable opinion was not universally held . Sydney Rowell later explained that :

Robbie , although in Sydney , was not unaware of what was going on . The thing that really riled me was Vasey 's saying that " perhaps Robbie 's vices in peace would be virtues in war , to which I replied that " if meanmindedness and disloyalty could be counted as virtues at any time I might be prepared to go along with him . "

The " revolt of the generals " collapsed with the welcome news that Blamey was returning from the Middle East to become Commander in Chief . In the reorganisation of the Army that followed , Robertson was appointed to command the 1st Armoured Division . Initially , the 1st Armoured Division had a key role in the defence of Australia as a mobile reserve , but it was only partly trained and equipped , representing another major challenge to Robertson as a trainer of troops . When the prospect of an invasion of Australia became remote , the 1st Armoured Division was sent to Western Australia in January 1943 , where it became part of Bennett 's III Corps . The area became a backwater and the 1st Armoured Division was slowly broken up and then disbanded . To recoup some of the nation 's investment in training for armoured warfare , Robertson arranged for 25 officers to be seconded to the British 7th Armoured Division in Europe . Following the disbandment of the 1st Armoured Division , Robertson took over command of the 2nd Division , the other division in Western Australia , and then , upon Bennett 's retirement , III Corps in April 1944 . This too was disbanded in June 1944 and Robertson took over Western Command .

Because the Army reached its greatest extent in 1942 and shrank in size thereafter , Blamey was faced with a limited number of senior appointments and more senior officers than he needed to fill them . He faced public and political criticism over " shelving " senior officers , including Robertson . That Robertson and Bennett , two troublesome potential rivals of Blamey 's , had been sent to Western Australia did not escape comment . However , it was always more likely that Robertson would be the one recalled . Nevertheless , Blamey had serious concerns about Robertson 's health , after the latter was hospitalised with internal haemorrhaging in July 1944 and sent to the eastern states to convalesce . While there he joined Vasey and Brigadier Bertrand Coombes , the Commandant of Duntroon , in conducting an inquiry into the future training and organisation of the Royal Military College . Their report , submitted to Blamey in January 1945 , called for a number of reforms , the most significant being that the postings of regular officers should alternate between staff and regimental duties .

= = = New Guinea = = =

In April 1945 , Robertson returned to the field , replacing Alan Ramsay as commander of the 5th Division , which was then engaged in the final stages of the New Britain Campaign . In July , Robertson became commander of the 6th Division , leading it through the final days of the Aitape – Wewak Campaign . On 13 September 1945 , Robertson accepted the surrender of Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , and his Japanese Eighteenth Army . In December 1945 , Robertson took over command of the First Army , becoming one of a select number of Australians to command such a formation , at least on paper , with the rank of lieutenant general . For the final campaigns , Robertson was mentioned in despatches a fourth time .

= = Post @-@ war career = =

= = = British Commonwealth Occupation Force = = =

Robertson returned to Australia in March 1946 to take over Southern Command . In June he was appointed to replace Lieutenant General John Northcott as commander of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in the occupation of Japan . Northcott had negotiated the Northcott @-@ MacArthur agreement in January 1946 with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur , which governed the terms and conditions under which the BCOF would occupy part of Japan . They agreed that the BCOF would serve under American command , with American policy being followed . It remained to make the occupation work . Robertson had a poor relationship with the British component commander , Major General David Tennant Cowan , who resented being placed under an Australian officer . " It did not occur to me " , Robertson later wrote , " that officers of the British and Indian armies looked upon us from Australia and New Zealand as they looked upon Indians , and were prepared to do anything to avoid being publicly commanded by us . "

The British government 's principal interest in Japan was to renew pre @-@ war trade concessions , and to secure new ones ; it was particularly interested in the port city of Kobe . The Americans blocked these attempts . Robertson clashed repeatedly with Lieutenant General Sir Charles Gairdner , the official representative of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Gairdner was nominally senior in rank to Robertson until March 1947 , when Robertson was promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general , backdated to January 1944 . Robertson resisted Gairdner 's requests for BCOF aircraft for personal purposes .

= = = Korean War = = =

By mid @-@ 1950 , the BCOF was winding down . All the contingents other than the Australians had departed , and the Australians were preparing to leave . For his services as commander of the BCOF , Robertson was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( Military Division ) ( KBE ) in the King 's Birthday Honours List . Robertson intended to travel to London to be invested by King George VI but his plans were disrupted by the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 . Robertson passed on to the Australian government requests from MacArthur for BCOF assistance , which were agreed to . He committed the frigate HMAS Shoalhaven and No. 77 Squadron RAAF but , although authorised to do so , he hesitated to deploy the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , as he considered the risks too great .

Robertson built up what became the British Commonwealth Forces Korea ( BCFK ) . While the British government had hoped to have the Americans supply all their logistic support , Robertson realised that this was impossible . The US Army was being stretched to its limit just supporting itself and the army of the Republic of Korea , and British Commonwealth equipment was different in many respects . The British Army then scrambled to meet its own logistic needs , creating ad hoc arrangements and requesting support from Robertson and MacArthur . The Chief of the General Staff , Sydney Rowell , sent a cable to his British counterpart , Field Marshal Sir William Slim , warning of " a bugger 's muddle in which the only people to suffer will be the soldiers " . Slim agreed ; a Maintenance Area was established in Korea to support Commonwealth forces there , which drew some resources from American sources , such as petrol , oil and lubricants , engineer stores , casualty evacuation and port operations , and the rest from BCOF in Japan .

Once again , the British government did not wish to entrust its interests in Japan to a foreign officer , so the British Chiefs of Staff appointed Air Vice Marshal Cecil Bouchier as their representative at MacArthur 's headquarters . His brief made it clear that he had no responsibility or authority over the BCOF or Commonwealth forces in Korea . After rashly ordering the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade to Pusan without transport or heavy equipment , much to Robertson 's annoyance , Bouchier did attempt to confine himself to acting solely as a liaison officer . Following the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur , Robertson held a press conference in which he defended the general and his conduct of the war . This constituted an implicit condemnation of the British government 's policy . Soon after , during the Battle of the Imjin River , Robertson was consulted by the Americans about the possible consequences of the loss of the 1st Battalion , the Gloucestershire Regiment , and he advised them not to endanger the rest of the I Corps line with a rescue attempt . For his services in the Korean War , he was awarded the American Legion of Merit , and the South Korean Order of Military Merit .

= = Later life = =

Robertson was recalled to Australia in November 1951 , replacing Sir Edmund Herring as Director General of Recruiting . In January 1953 , Robertson took over Southern Command again . This put him in uncomfortably close proximity to Rowell , however , and the two clashed over a number of minor issues . Robertson turned 60 on 29 October 1954 , and retired the next day , after racking up 3 @,@ 985 days of active service in 43 years in the Australian Army . From 1954 to 1960 , he was honorary colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment . In retirement Robertson served on the committee of the Metropolitan Golf Club and was president of the Victorian branch of the Royal Empire Society for a time . He commenced writing his memoirs , which he promised would be " the million pound libel " . Unfortunately , the fate of the papers he gathered for it and the unfinished manuscript itself is unknown .

On 28 April 1960 he suffered a ruptured aorta and died at the Repatriation General Hospital , Heidelberg . His sudden death came as a shock to many . A funeral with full military honours was held at Scots ' Church , Melbourne . For pall bearers , he had eight generals : Leslie Beavis , Allan Boase , Cyril Clowes , Hector Edgar , Ragnar Garrett , Edmund Herring , Sydney Rowell and Colin Simpson . Frank Kingsley Norris carried his decorations while the 2nd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment and 1st Armoured Regiment provided honour guards for the largest military funeral since Blamey 's in 1951 . Afterwards , he was buried with his wife , who had died in 1956 , at Springvale Botanical Cemetery . The Robertson Barracks was later named in his honour .

= Guilty ( Awake ) =

" Guilty " is the third episode of the American police procedural drama television series Awake . The episode first aired on March 15 , 2012 in the United States on NBC , and was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada . It was written by series executive producer and showrunner Howard Gordon and consulting producer Evan Katz , and was directed by Jeffrey Reiner . " Guilty " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines , noting the script to be interesting . The episode garnered 5 @.@ 12 million viewers in the United States and a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It ranked second in its timeslot of the night , behind Private Practice on ABC .

The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) , a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In this episode , John Copper ( Clifton Powell ) , a convict that Michael arrested 10 years ago , escapes from jail . Tara ( Michaela McManus ) and Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) go to tennis practice . Cooper hits the car Rex is in , incapacitates Tara , and kidnaps Rex . John kidnaps him for " justice " , claiming that he was innocent . Michael later finds out in the " red reality " , that Jim Mayhew ( William Russ ) had framed him for murder . He wears a wire to set him up , and obtains a confession . Meanwhile , Hannah 's ( Laura Allen ) friends organize a service for Rex 's death in the " red reality " . Michael can 't come because of the " green reality " .

= = Plot = =

The episode opens in the " green reality " ( where Rex is alive and Hannah isn 't ) , with John Cooper ( Clifton Powell ) , a convict that Michael arrested 10 years ago , who is transferred to a medical clinic for dialysis because he is missing a kidney , by Nancy ( Lolly Ward ) . As the guard takes Copper to the car to go back to prison , he complains that the prisoner is getting preferential treatment over his mother , who is on the waiting list . As they arrive at the van , Cooper uses a paralytic vial hidden in his bandages to knock one guard out . He takes his gun , and makes the other security guard shut the door . Cooper claims his has " nothing to lose " . Later , at home , while Rex 's tennis coach Tara ( Michaela McManus ) takes him to tennis practice , Michael gets a call from Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) , his partner , that Cooper had escaped . Rex and Tara are talking about Rex 's guilt about his father , when Cooper hits the car , and puts a chemical thing on Tara , and kidnaps Rex .

Michael and Bird investigate in the case , and Michael , with evidence , finds out where Rex is , and runs away . Meanwhile , Rex wakes up inside of a shed , handcuffed to the floor . He tries to dial 911 on the cell phone but Cooper comes in , interrupting him . Michael speaks to Nancy , who admits that she helped Cooper escape but didn ’ t know he would abduct anyone . She claims that she helped him because he claimed that he was innocent . Tara notes that Cooper had phoned Tara , and told him to go to a payphone near his police station . He goes there , and speaks to Cooper , who tells him to meet him at a warehouse . Cooper then apologizes to Rex , stating that " no son should pay for the sins of the fathers " , and walks out of the shack . Michael meets with him ; he claims that he met him for " justice " , and said that he was innocent . Cooper explains that Rex will die without him , confirming that he will die from dehydration possibly soon . He goes home and takes a sleeping pill , transferring to the " red reality " . Later , in the " red reality " ( where Hannah is alive and Rex isn 't ) , he speaks with Cooper at jail . He says that he didn 't do it , and asks if he knows who did . He claimed that Jim Mayhew , another cop , committed the crime and framed him .

Michael leaves the prison and calls Mayhew , and offers to come over for a beer . However , once Michael comes over , he reminds Mayhew that Bell had a million dollars but only $ 100 @,@ 000 ever turned up . He figures that Mayhew killed Bell , took the money , and planted the gun in Cooper 's house . When Michael demands his share of the stolen money , he kept stating that there was no money . However , as Michael leaves , Mayhew says that he has the remaining money for him . Michael leaves , Mayhew goes to the door , and finds out that the police are there . They arrest him . Michael 's partner in the " red reality " , Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) admits to Michael that he wasn 't sure if his partner had dreamed up the entire thing . Later in the " green reality " , Michael and the team head to the shed to get Rex , and take him to the hospital . In the shed , Rex had left a video message , which Michael had watched . Rex had said that he loved him . Michael wakes up in the " red reality " , and speaks to Hannah about their experiences .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by series executive producer and showrunner Howard Gordon and consulting producer Evan Katz , and was directed by Jeffrey Reiner . It marked both Gordon and Katz 's first writing credit in the series , and director Reiner 's second directing credit , with the last episode he directed being " The Little Guy " , the second episode aired on March 8 , 2012 . This is the first episode that was not written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States .

= = = Casting = = =

The episode featured guest performances from many actors including : Logan Miller , who was cast as Cole , Rex 's best friend . Daniela Bobadilla appeared as Emma , who is Rex 's girlfriend , currently . Bailey Chase , who played as David Walker . Clifton Powell as John Cooper , a man who was falsely accused of a crime ten years earlier . He was framed by Jim Mayhew , played by William Russ . Jim Cantafio appeared as an IA Officer . Lolly Ward as Nancy , a man who had helped Cooper escape from jail . David Pease as Doubting Cop . Enrique Almeida , who was cast as Perez . Kevin Jackson , who appeared as a Homeless Man , and Christopher Judd , who was cast as the Paramedic .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Guilty " was originally broadcast on March 15 , 2012 in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 pm and 11 : 00 pm , preceded by Up All Night . The episode garnered 5 @.@ 12 million viewers in its original airing the United States , and it ranked second in its timeslot despite airing simultaneously with Private Practice on ABC , and a live airing of the college basketball game , with teams New Mexico and Indiana playing . It acquired a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating @-@ share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode 's ratings had slightly improved over the previous episode , " The Little Guy " , which obtained 4 million viewers . It was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada , and was subsequently aired on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on May 18 , 2012 . The episode obtained 277 @,@ 000 million viewers in the United Kingdom on its original airing , making it the third most @-@ watched program for that week on the channel behind Game of Thrones and Blue Bloods . Its ratings had slightly dropped from the previous episode .

= = = Critical response = = =

" Guilty " was well received by most television commentators , who praised its storylines . Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode a complimentary review . He claimed that the episode " effectively ramped up the tension " . Fowler thought that it " might have been a bit too much to accept that poor Rex had to suffer through yet another near @-@ death ordeal " , and that " the episode itself was able to provide genuine thrills mixed with some incredible moments of tenderness " . Fowler noted that Michael fully took " advantage of his unique , tragic , situation by having him purposefully use one world as a source of information to help him solve a case " . Stating that the episode had " top @-@ tier entertainment " , Fowler concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 out of 10 " , classifying it as " great " . Nick McHatton from TV Fanatic mainly enjoyed this episode . McHatton claimed that Rex 's current behaviour and thoughts are " understandable " and " heart @-@ renching " . He concluded his review by giving the episode a " 4 @.@ 7 out of 5 " score . Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave praise in the episode . He thought the episode was " built around a gripping premise " . Preece wrote that the series is " still very odd " after the episode . HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall noted many parts of the episode . Sepinwall stated that there was a " notable change in feel or style " from other episodes , because of different writers for the episode . He noted that " the idea of the loved one getting kidnapped feels like a very big card to play this early " , and that " it does fit in with the theme of the show " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave less praise and enjoyment in the episode . In his " B- " review , he noted that the " premise has been established " . He stated that it is " a clever device " . He argued that the " plotting isn 't helping " the episode . The Voice of TV 's Mary Powers gave the episode a " A- " grade . She called the episode " fabulous " . Carl Cortez from Assignment X gave much praise in the episode . He called it a " twisty / turny adventure " . Cortez claimed that it " feels too early and convenient " for Rex to get kidnapped .

= Curiosity ( EP ) =

Curiosity is the first EP by Canadian recording artist Carly Rae Jepsen . It was released on February 14 , 2012 , by 604 Records . Initially planned as a full @-@ length album , Curiosity was cut down to a six @-@ song EP just days before its release . Musically , Curiosity is a pop album influenced by several genres such as dance @-@ pop and R & B , while its lyrical content is mostly about love .

Curiosity received generally positive reviews from contemporary music , with many praising the quality of the tracks and labeling it mainstream . Its lead single , " Call Me Maybe " , was a commercial success , topping the charts in several countries and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 18 million copies sold . The album peaked at number six on the Canadian Albums Chart .

= = Background = =

Jepsen 's second studio album was initially planned to be released on February 14 , 2012 ; however , she chose not to release it because she wanted to make sure she " got the second CD right . I think I got a little nervous about the idea of the sophomore being a little less @-@ than because it 's so rushed . So I wanted to give myself the time to not feel that pressure . " She then worked with songwriter Josh Ramsay and producer Ryan Stewart on most of the album 's tracks . Jepsen 's songwriting process was inspired by her life and friends . After the recording sessions were completed , Curiosity was announced as a full @-@ length album , with a digital release date confirmed for February 14 , 2012 . A few days before its official release , however , the label decided to change the format of the album , turning it into an extended play .

= = Composition = =

The EP opens with " Call Me Maybe " , an upbeat track that draws influences from dance @-@ pop and R & B. The clever lyrics of the song describes the " infatuation and inconvenience of a love at first sight , " as described by Bill Lamb of About.com. During the pre @-@ chorus , the singer states , " Ripped jeans , skin was showing / Hot night , wind was blowing / Where you think you ’ re going , baby ? " As the chorus begins , the background incorporates synthesized string chords , and she sings , " Hey , I just met you , And this is crazy , But here 's my number , So call me maybe . " Melody Lau of Rolling Stone wrote that " Call Me Maybe " is a " Taylor Swift meets Robyn " song . The title track , " Curiosity " , has a similar sound to " Call Me Maybe " , and features heavy dance beats and catchy hooks . In the song , Jepsen sings about being poorly treated by a bad boy , and begs for more of his love . " Picture " is a ballad that focuses on patience in a relationship . Critics noted that the song would work well during the climax of a motion picture due to its lyrical content . " Talk to Me " and " Just a Step Away " were both described as mid @-@ tempo pop songs that alludes to summer love , teen love and that first crush . Fiona Eadie of Cadence Canada noted that in both tracks , Carly is able to transcend the listener " to a porch swing or riding a bicycle along an old dirt road in the countryside ’ s summer sunshine . Her voice sings the highs and lows of love and everything that comes along with it . " The final song is a cover of Joni Mitchell 's " Both Sides Now " . Musically , the song is also an upbeat ballad , and differs from the original version in the sense that Jepsen 's version is " fresh and modern with her unique bubblegum twist . " Critics also added that Jepsen will be able to " attract a new generation to this widely recognized hit " with her " unique version . "

= = Critical reception = =

Curiosity received critical acclaim from contemporary critics . Bill Lamb of About.com began his review stating that it is always interesting to have new artists making music both familiar and fresh . He went to describe the six " electronic pop songs strong , almost too short to be satisfying but immensely repeatable . " Lamb also added that Jepsen 's " style is summery and bright without the emotional bogging down of [ Demi ] Lovato or the flat out drudgery of Jessie J " Allmusic critic Jon O 'Brien stated that , when compared to Jepsen 's previous effort Tug of War ( 2008 ) , the EP " unexpectedly abandons her previous singer / songwriter approach in favor of an unashamed bubblegum sound which harks back to the early 2000s pop princess glory days of Britney , Christina , Jessica , and Mandy . " Fiona Eadie of Cadence Canada described the musical style of the album as " pop . But not in the annoying , auto @-@ tune , and talentless way . Her perfectly pitched voice makes it clear that this girl has real talent . " Eadie summarized her review saying that Curiosity " is filled with music that dances . And it is your choice to listen to it with or without a hairbrush ( a.k.a. microphone ) in front of your bedroom mirror . Overall a great EP . I can ’ t wait to put the top down and blast her tunes all summer . " Jen Appel of idobi Radio commented that , overall , Curiosity is the kind of extended play that brings attention from the teenage public due to its mainstream songs , and added , " if you are looking for fun , lovable songs to make you smile , this is your go @-@ to mix . " Appel only criticized the lyrical content , noting that it is " very childish but seem to work with the music nonetheless . "

= = Singles = =

" Call Me Maybe " was released as the lead single from the EP on September 20 , 2011 . After pop singers Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez tweeted about the song , Jepsen gained international attention and was signed to Schoolboy Records , releasing her single in the United States through the label . The song received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics , who praised its composition and clever lyrical content , while deeming it as the perfect pop song . " Call Me Maybe " has attained commercial success worldwide , topping the charts in several countries , and is one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with over 18 million copies sold . An accompanying music video portrays Jepsen trying to gain attention from her attractive neighbor , who is revealed to be gay at the close of the story . To promote the song , Jepsen has performed on several live televised shows , including on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , where she made her US television debut , and at the MTV Europe Music Awards .

" Curiosity " was released as the second single on May 1 , 2012 . Jepsen shot a video for the song on June 5 , 2012 with director Colin Minihan . The music video was not released , and leaked on November 25 , 2012 . According to the description of the leak , " this video was shelved because it was " too sexy " for her new tween demographic . " On March 26 , 2012 , Jepsen visited WBBM @-@ FM 's Morning Show and performed the two singles . In the last week of January 2013 , the singer filmed an acoustic performance of the song in Tokyo exclusively for Billboard .

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= W. E. B. Du Bois =

William Edward Burghardt " W. E. B. " Du Bois ( pronounced / duːˈbɔɪz / doo @-@ BOYZ ; February 23 , 1868 – August 27 , 1963 ) was an American sociologist , historian , civil rights activist , Pan @-@ Africanist , author , and editor . Born in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community . After completing graduate work at the University of Berlin and Harvard , where he was the first African American to earn a doctorate , he became a professor of history , sociology and economics at Atlanta University . Du Bois was one of the co @-@ founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) in 1909 .

Du Bois rose to national prominence as the leader of the Niagara Movement , a group of African @-@ American activists who wanted equal rights for blacks . Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta compromise , an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provided that Southern blacks would work and submit to white political rule , while Southern whites guaranteed that blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities . Instead , Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation , which he believed would be brought about by the African @-@ American intellectual elite . He referred to this group as the Talented Tenth and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership .

Racism was the main target of Du Bois 's polemics , and he strongly protested against lynching , Jim Crow laws , and discrimination in education and employment . His cause included people of color everywhere , particularly Africans and Asians in colonies . He was a proponent of Pan @-@ Africanism and helped organize several Pan @-@ African Congresses to fight for independence of African colonies from European powers . Du Bois made several trips to Europe , Africa and Asia . After World War I , he surveyed the experiences of American black soldiers in France and documented widespread bigotry in the United States military .

Du Bois was a prolific author . His collection of essays , The Souls of Black Folk , was a seminal work in African @-@ American literature ; and his 1935 magnum opus Black Reconstruction in America challenged the prevailing orthodoxy that blacks were responsible for the failures of the Reconstruction Era . He wrote one of the first scientific treatises in the field of American sociology , and he published three autobiographies , each of which contains insightful essays on sociology , politics and history . In his role as editor of the NAACP 's journal The Crisis , he published many influential pieces . Du Bois believed that capitalism was a primary cause of racism , and he was generally sympathetic to socialist causes throughout his life . He was an ardent peace activist and advocated nuclear disarmament . The United States ' Civil Rights Act , embodying many of the reforms for which Du Bois had campaigned his entire life , was enacted a year after his death .

= = Early life = =

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born on February 23 , 1868 , in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , to Alfred and Mary Silvina ( née Burghardt ) Du Bois . Mary Silvina Burghardt 's family was part of the very small free black population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state . She was descended from Dutch , African and English ancestors . William Du Bois 's maternal great @-@ great @-@ grandfather was Tom Burghardt , a slave ( born in West Africa around 1730 ) , who was held by the Dutch colonist Conraed Burghardt . Tom briefly served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , which may have been how he gained his freedom during the 18th century . His son Jack Burghardt was the father of Othello Burghardt , who was the father of Mary Silvina Burghardt .

William Du Bois 's paternal great @-@ grandfather was James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie , New York , an ethnic French @-@ American who fathered several children with slave mistresses . One of James ' mixed @-@ race sons was Alexander . He traveled and worked in Haiti , where he fathered a son , Alfred , with a mistress . Alexander returned to Connecticut , leaving Alfred in Haiti with his mother .

Sometime before 1860 , Alfred Du Bois emigrated to the United States , settling in Massachusetts . He married Mary Silvina Burghardt on February 5 , 1867 , in Housatonic . Alfred left Mary in 1870 , two years after their son William was born . Mary Burghardt Du Bois moved with her son back to her parents ' house in Great Barrington until he was five . She worked to support her family ( receiving some assistance from her brother and neighbors ) , until she suffered a stroke in the early 1880s . She died in 1885 .

Great Barrington had a majority European American community , who treated Du Bois generally well . He attended the local integrated public school and played with white schoolmates . As an adult , he wrote about racism which he felt as a fatherless child and the experience of being a minority in the town . But , teachers recognized his ability and encouraged his intellectual pursuits , and his rewarding experience with academic studies led him to believe that he could use his knowledge to empower African Americans . Du Bois graduated from the town 's Searles High School . When Du Bois decided to attend college , the congregation of his childhood church , the First Congregational Church of Great Barrington , raised the money for his tuition .

= = = University education = = =

Relying on money donated by neighbors , Du Bois attended Fisk University , a historically black college in Nashville , Tennessee , from 1885 to 1888 . His travel to and residency in the South was Du Bois 's first experience with Southern racism , which at the time encompassed Jim Crow laws , bigotry , suppression of black voting , and lynchings ; the lattermost reached a peak in the next decade . After receiving a bachelor 's degree from Fisk , he attended Harvard College ( which did not accept course credits from Fisk ) from 1888 to 1890 , where he was strongly influenced by his professor William James , prominent in American philosophy . Du Bois paid his way through three years at Harvard with money from summer jobs , an inheritance , scholarships , and loans from friends . In 1890 , Harvard awarded Du Bois his second bachelor 's degree , cum laude , in history . In 1891 , Du Bois received a scholarship to attend the sociology graduate school at Harvard .

In 1892 , Du Bois received a fellowship from the John F. Slater Fund for the Education of Freedmen to attend the University of Berlin for graduate work . While a student in Berlin , he traveled extensively throughout Europe . He came of age intellectually in the German capital , while studying with some of that nation 's most prominent social scientists , including Gustav von Schmoller , Adolph Wagner , and Heinrich von Treitschke . After returning from Europe , Du Bois completed his graduate studies ; in 1895 he was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University .

= = = Wilberforce and Philadelphia = = =

In the summer of 1894 , Du Bois received several job offers , including one from the prestigious Tuskegee Institute ; he accepted a teaching job at Wilberforce University in Ohio . At Wilberforce , Du Bois was strongly influenced by Alexander Crummell , who believed that ideas and morals are necessary tools to effect social change . While at Wilberforce , Du Bois married Nina Gomer , one of his students , on May 12 , 1896 .

After two years at Wilberforce , Du Bois accepted a one @-@ year research job from the University of Pennsylvania as an " assistant in sociology " in the summer of 1896 . He performed sociological field research in Philadelphia 's African @-@ American neighborhoods , which formed the foundation for his landmark study , The Philadelphia Negro , published in 1899 while he was teaching at Atlanta University . It was the first case study of a black community in the United States . By the 1890s , Philadelphia 's black neighborhoods had a negative reputation in terms of crime , poverty , and mortality . Du Bois 's book undermined the stereotypes with experimental evidence , and shaped his approach to segregation and its negative impact on black lives and reputations . The results led Du Bois to realize that racial integration was the key to democratic equality in American cities .

While taking part in the American Negro Academy ( ANA ) in 1897 , Du Bois presented a paper in which he rejected Frederick Douglass 's plea for black Americans to integrate into white society . He wrote : " we are Negroes , members of a vast historic race that from the very dawn of creation has slept , but half awakening in the dark forests of its African fatherland " . In the August 1897 issue of Atlantic Monthly , Du Bois published " Strivings of the Negro People " , his first work aimed at the general public , in which he enlarged upon his thesis that African Americans should embrace their African heritage while contributing to American society .

= = Atlanta University = =

In July 1897 , Du Bois left Philadelphia and took a professorship in history and economics at the historically black Atlanta University in Georgia . His first major academic work was his book The Philadelphia Negro ( 1899 ) , a detailed and comprehensive sociological study of the African @-@ American people of Philadelphia , based on the field work he did in 1896 – 1897 . The work was a breakthrough in scholarship , because it was the first scientific study of African Americans and a major contribution to early scientific sociology in the U.S. In the study , Du Bois coined the phrase " the submerged tenth " to describe the black underclass . Later in 1903 he popularized the term , the " Talented Tenth " , applied to society 's elite class . Du Bois 's terminology reflected his opinion that the elite of a nation , both black and white , was critical to achievements in culture and progress . Du Bois wrote in this period in a dismissive way of the underclass , describing them as " lazy " or " unreliable " , but he – in contrast to other scholars – he attributed many of their societal problems to the ravages of slavery .

Du Bois 's output at Atlanta University was prodigious , in spite of a limited budget : He produced numerous social science papers and annually hosted the Atlanta Conference of Negro Problems . Du Bois also received grants from the U.S. government to prepare reports about African @-@ American workforce and culture . His students considered him to be a brilliant , but aloof and strict , teacher .

= = = First Pan @-@ African Conference = = =

In 1900 Du Bois attended the First Pan @-@ African Conference , held in London from July 23 to 25 . ( This was just prior to the Paris Exhibition of 1900 " in order to allow tourists of African descent to attend both events . " ) It was organized by men from the Caribbean : Haitians Anténor Firmin and Bénito Sylvain and Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams . Du Bois played a leading role , drafting a letter ( " Address to the Nations of the World " ) to European leaders appealing to them to struggle against racism , to grant colonies in Africa and the West Indies the right to self @-@ government and to demand political and other rights for African Americans . By this time , southern states were passing new laws and constitutions to disfranchise most African Americans , an exclusion from the political system that lasted into the 1960s .

At the conclusion of the conference , delegates unanimously adopted the " Address to the Nations of the World " , and sent it to various heads of state where people of African descent were living and suffering oppression . The address implored the United States and the imperial European nations to " acknowledge and protect the rights of people of African descent " and to respect the integrity and independence of " the free Negro States of Abyssinia , Liberia , Haiti , etc . " It was signed by Bishop Alexander Walters ( President of the Pan @-@ African Association ) , the Canadian Rev. Henry B. Brown ( Vice @-@ President ) , Williams ( General Secretary ) and Du Bois ( Chairman of the Committee on the Address ) . The address included Du Bois 's observation , " The problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the colour @-@ line . " He used this again three years later in the " Forethought " of his book , The Souls of Black Folk ( 1903 ) .

= = = Booker T. Washington and the Atlanta Compromise = = =

In the first decade of the new century , Du Bois emerged as a spokesperson for his race , second only to Booker T. Washington . Washington was the director of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama , and wielded tremendous influence within the African @-@ American and white communities . Washington was the architect of the Atlanta Compromise , an unwritten deal he struck in 1895 with Southern white leaders who dominated state governments after Reconstruction . Essentially the agreement provided that Southern blacks , who lived overwhelmingly in rural communities , would submit to the current discrimination , segregation , disenfranchisement , and non @-@ unionized employment ; that Southern whites would permit blacks to receive a basic education , some economic opportunities , and justice within the legal system ; and that Northern whites would invest in Southern enterprises and fund black educational charities .

Despite initially sending congratulations to Washington for his Atlanta Exposition Speech , Du Bois later came to oppose Washington 's plan , along with many other African Americans , including Archibald H. Grimke , Kelly Miller , James Weldon Johnson and Paul Laurence Dunbar – representatives of the class of educated blacks that Du Bois would later call the " talented tenth " . Du Bois felt that African Americans should fight for equal rights and higher opportunities , rather than passively submit to the segregation and discrimination of Washington 's Atlanta Compromise .

Du Bois was inspired to greater activism by the lynching of Sam Hose , which occurred near Atlanta in 1899 . Hose was tortured , burned and hung by a mob of two thousand whites . When walking through Atlanta to discuss the lynching with newspaper editor Joel Chandler Harris , Du Bois encountered Hose 's burned knuckles in a storefront display . The episode stunned Du Bois , and he resolved that " one could not be a calm cool , and detached scientist while Negroes were lynched , murdered , and starved . " Du Bois realized that " the cure wasn 't simply telling people the truth , it was inducing them to act on the truth . "

In 1901 , Du Bois wrote a review critical of Washington 's autobiography Up from Slavery , which he later expanded and published to a wider audience as the essay " Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others " in The Souls of Black Folk . Later in life , Du Bois regretted having been critical of Washington in those essays . One of the contrasts between the two leaders was their approach to education : Washington felt that African @-@ American schools should focus primarily on industrial education topics such as agricultural and mechanical skills , to prepare southern blacks for the opportunities in the rural areas where most lived . Du Bois felt that black schools should focus more on liberal arts and academic curriculum ( including the classics , arts , and humanities ) , because liberal arts were required to develop a leadership elite . However , as sociologist E. Franklin Frazier and economists Gunnar Myrdal and Thomas Sowell have argued , such disagreement over education was a minor point of difference between Washington and Du Bois ; both men acknowledged the importance of the form of education that the other emphasized . Sowell has also argued that , despite genuine disagreements between the two leaders , the supposed animosity between Washington and Du Bois actually formed among their followers , not between Washington and Du Bois themselves . Du Bois himself also made this observation in an interview published in the The Atlantic Monthly in November 1965 .

= = = Niagara Movement = = =

In 1905 , Du Bois and several other African @-@ American civil rights activists – including Fredrick L. McGhee , Jesse Max Barber and William Monroe Trotter – met in Canada , near Niagara Falls . There they wrote a declaration of principles opposing the Atlanta Compromise , and incorporated as the Niagara Movement in 1906 . Du Bois and the other " Niagarites " wanted to publicize their ideals to other African Americans , but most black periodicals were owned by publishers sympathetic to Washington . Du Bois bought a printing press and started publishing Moon Illustrated Weekly in December 1905 . It was the first African @-@ American illustrated weekly , and Du Bois used it to attack Washington 's positions , but the magazine lasted only for about eight months . Du Bois soon founded and edited another vehicle for his polemics , The Horizon : A Journal of the Color Line , which debuted in 1907 .

The Niagarites held a second conference in August 1906 , in celebration of the 100th anniversary of abolitionist John Brown 's birth , at the West Virginia site of Brown 's raid on Harper 's Ferry . Reverdy C. Ransom spoke and addressed the fact that Washington 's primary goal was to prepare blacks for employment in their current society : " Today , two classes of Negroes , [ ... ] are standing at the parting of the ways . The one counsels patient submission to our present humiliations and degradations ; [ ... ] The other class believe that it should not submit to being humiliated , degraded , and remanded to an inferior place [ ... ] it does not believe in bartering its manhood for the sake of gain . "

= = = The Souls of Black Folk = = =

In an effort to portray the genius and humanity of the black race , Du Bois published The Souls of Black Folk ( 1903 ) , a collection of 14 essays . James Weldon Johnson said the book 's effect on African Americans was comparable to that of Uncle Tom 's Cabin . The introduction famously proclaimed that " [ ... ] the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line . " Each chapter begins with two epigraphs – one from a white poet , and one from a black spiritual – to demonstrate intellectual and cultural parity between black and white cultures . A major theme of the work was the double consciousness faced by African Americans : Being both American and black . This was a unique identity which , according to Du Bois , had been a handicap in the past , but could be a strength in the future : " Henceforth , the destiny of the race could be conceived as leading neither to assimilation nor separatism but to proud , enduring hyphenation . "

Jonathon S. Kahn in Divine Discontent : The Religious Imagination of Du Bois shows how Du Bois in his The Souls of Black Folk , represents an exemplary text of pragmatic religious naturalism . On page 12 Kahn writes : " Du Bois needs to be understood as an African American pragmatic religious naturalist . By this I mean that , like Du Bois the American traditional pragmatic religious naturalism , which runs through William James , George Santayana and John Dewey , seeks religion without metaphysical foundations . " Kahn 's interpretation of religious naturalism is very broad but he relates it to specific thinkers . Du Bois 's anti @-@ metaphysical viewpoint places him in the sphere of religious naturalism as typified by William James and others .

= = = Racial violence = = =

Two calamities in the autumn of 1906 shocked African Americans , and contributed to strengthening support for Du Bois 's struggle for civil rights to prevail over Booker T. Washington 's accommodationism . First , President Teddy Roosevelt dishonorably discharged 167 black soldiers because they were accused of crimes as a result of the Brownsville Affair . Many of the discharged soldiers had served for 20 years and were near retirement . Second , in September , riots broke out in Atlanta , precipitated by unfounded allegations of black men assaulting white women . This was a catalyst for racial tensions based on a job shortage and employers playing black workers against white workers . Ten thousand whites rampaged through Atlanta , beating every black person they could find , resulting in over 25 deaths . In the aftermath of the 1906 violence , Du Bois urged blacks to withdraw their support from the Republican Party , because Republicans Roosevelt and William Howard Taft did not sufficiently support blacks . Most African Americans had been loyal to the Republican Party since the time of Abraham Lincoln .

Du Bois wrote the essay , " A Litany at Atlanta " , which asserted that the riot demonstrated that the Atlanta Compromise was a failure . Despite upholding their end of the bargain , blacks had failed to receive legal justice in the South . Historian David Lewis has written that the Compromise no longer held because white patrician planters , who took a paternalistic role , had been replaced by aggressive businessmen who were willing to pit blacks against whites . These two calamities were watershed events for the African @-@ American community , marking the ascendancy of Du Bois 's vision of equal rights .

= = = Academic work = = =

In addition to writing editorials , Du Bois continued to produce scholarly work at Atlanta University . In 1909 , after five years of effort , he published a biography of abolitionist John Brown . It contained many insights , but also contained some factual errors . The work was strongly criticized by The Nation , which was owned by Oswald Villard , who was writing his own , competing biography of John Brown . Du Bois 's work was largely ignored by white scholars . After publishing a piece in Collier 's magazine warning of the end of " white supremacy " , Du Bois had difficulty getting pieces accepted by major periodicals . But he did continue to publish columns regularly in The Horizon magazine .

Du Bois was the first African American invited by the American Historical Association ( AHA ) to present a paper at their annual conference . He read his paper , Reconstruction and Its Benefits , to an astounded audience at the AHA 's December 1909 conference . The paper went against the mainstream historical view , promoted by the Dunning School of scholars at Columbia University , that Reconstruction was a disaster , caused by the ineptitude and sloth of blacks . To the contrary , Du Bois asserted that the brief period of African @-@ American leadership in the South accomplished three important goals : democracy , free public schools , and new social welfare legislation . He asserted that it was the federal government 's failure to manage the Freedmen 's Bureau , to distribute land , and to establish an educational system , that doomed African @-@ American prospects in the South . When Du Bois submitted the paper for publication a few months later in the American Historical Review , he asked that the word Negro be capitalized . The editor , J. Franklin Jameson , refused , and published the paper without the capitalization . The paper was mostly ignored by white historians . Du Bois later developed his paper as his ground @-@ breaking 1935 book , Black Reconstruction , which marshaled extensive facts to support his assertions . The AHA did not invite another African @-@ American speaker until 1940 .

= = NAACP era = =

In May 1909 , Du Bois attended the National Negro Conference in New York . The meeting led to the creation of the National Negro Committee , chaired by Oswald Villard , and dedicated to campaigning for civil rights , equal voting rights , and equal educational opportunities . The following spring , in 1910 , at the second National Negro Conference , the attendees created the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . At Du Bois 's suggestion , the word " colored " , rather than " black " , was used to include " dark skinned people everywhere . " Dozens of civil rights supporters , black and white , participated in the founding , but most executive officers were white , including Mary Ovington , Charles Edward Russell , William English Walling , and its first president Moorfield Storey .

= = = The Crisis = = =

NAACP leaders offered Du Bois the position of Director of Publicity and Research . He accepted the job in the summer of 1910 , and moved to New York after resigning from Atlanta University . His primary duty was editing the NAACP 's monthly magazine , which he named The Crisis . The first issue appeared in November 1910 , and Du Bois pronounced that its aim was to set out " those facts and arguments which show the danger of race prejudice , particularly as manifested today toward colored people . " The journal was phenomenally successful , and its circulation would reach 100 @,@ 000 in 1920 . Typical articles in the early editions included one that inveighed against the dishonesty and parochialism of black churches , and one that discussed the Afrocentric origins of Egyptian civilization .

An important Du Bois editorial from 1911 helped initiate a nationwide push to induce the Federal government to outlaw lynching . Du Bois , employing the sarcasm he frequently used , commented on a lynching in Pennsylvania : " The point is he was black . Blackness must be punished . Blackness is the crime of crimes [ ... ] It is therefore necessary , as every white scoundrel in the nation knows , to let slip no opportunity of punishing this crime of crimes . Of course if possible , the pretext should be great and overwhelming – some awful stunning crime , made even more horrible by the reporters ' imagination . Failing this , mere murder , arson , barn burning or impudence may do . "

The Crisis carried editorials by Du Bois that supported the ideals of unionized labor but excoriated the racism demonstrated by its leaders , who systematically excluded blacks from membership . Du Bois also supported the principles of the Socialist Party ( he was briefly a member of the party from 1910 to 1912 ) , but he denounced the racism demonstrated by some socialist leaders . Frustrated by Republican president Taft 's failure to address widespread lynching , Du Bois endorsed Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential race , in exchange for Wilson 's promise to support black causes .

Throughout his writings , Du Bois supported women 's rights , but he found it difficult to publicly endorse the women 's right @-@ to @-@ vote movement because leaders of the suffragism movement refused to support his fight against racial injustice . A Crisis editorial from 1913 broached the taboo subject of interracial marriage : Although Du Bois generally expected persons to marry within their race , he viewed the problem as a women 's rights issue , because laws prohibited white men from marrying black women . Du Bois wrote " [ anti @-@ miscegenation ] laws leave the colored girls absolutely helpless for the lust of white men . It reduces colored women in the eyes of the law to the position of dogs . As low as the white girl falls , she can compel her seducer to marry her [ ... ] We must kill [ anti @-@ miscegenation laws ] not because we are anxious to marry the white men 's sisters , but because we are determined that white men will leave our sisters alone . "

During the years 1915 and 1916 , some leaders of the NAACP – disturbed by financial losses at The Crisis , and worried about the inflammatory rhetoric of some of its essays – attempted to oust Du Bois from his editorial position . Du Bois and his supporters prevailed , and he continued in his role as editor . In a 1919 column titled " The True Brownies " , he announced the creation of The Brownies ' Book , the first magazine published for African American children and youth , which he founded with Augustus Granville Dill and Jessie Redmon Fauset .

= = = Historian and author = = =

The 1910s were a productive time for Du Bois . In 1911 he attended the First Universal Races Congress in London and he published his first novel , The Quest of the Silver Fleece . Two years later , Du Bois wrote , produced , and directed a pageant for the stage , The Star of Ethiopia . In 1915 , Du Bois published The Negro , a general history of black Africans , and the first of its kind in English . The book rebutted claims of African inferiority , and would come to serve as the basis of much Afrocentric historiography in the 20th century . The Negro predicted unity and solidarity for colored people around the world , and it influenced many who supported the Pan @-@ African movement .

In 1915 , Atlantic Monthly carried an essay by Du Bois , " The African Roots of the War " , which consolidated Du Bois 's ideas on capitalism and race . In it , he argued that the scramble for Africa was at the root of World War I. He also anticipated later Communist doctrine , by suggesting that wealthy capitalists had pacified white workers by giving them just enough wealth to prevent them from revolting , and by threatening them with competition by the lower @-@ cost labor of colored workers .

= = = Combating racism = = =

Du Bois used his influential role in the NAACP to oppose a variety of racist incidents . When the silent film The Birth of a Nation premiered in 1915 , Du Bois and the NAACP led the fight to ban the movie , because of its racist portrayal of blacks as brutish and lustful . The fight was not successful , and possibly contributed to the film 's fame , but the publicity drew many new supporters to the NAACP .

The private sector was not the only source of racism : under President Wilson , the plight of African Americans in government jobs suffered . Many federal agencies adopted whites @-@ only employment practices , the Army excluded blacks from officer ranks , and the immigration service prohibited the immigration of persons of African ancestry . Du Bois wrote an editorial in 1914 deploring the dismissal of blacks from federal posts , and he supported William Monroe Trotter when Trotter brusquely confronted Wilson about Wilson 's failure to fulfill his campaign promise of justice for blacks .

The Crisis continued to wage a campaign against lynching . In 1915 , it published an article with a year @-@ by @-@ year tabulation of 2 @,@ 732 lynchings from 1884 to 1914 . The April 1916 edition covered the group lynching of six African Americans in Lee County , Georgia . Later in 1916 , the " Waco Horror " article covered the lynching of Jesse Washington , a mentally impaired 17 @-@ year @-@ old African American . The article broke new ground by utilizing undercover reporting to expose the conduct of local whites in Waco , Texas .

The early 20th century was the era of the Great Migration of blacks from the Southern United States to the Northeast , Midwest and West . Du Bois wrote an editorial supporting the Great Migration , because he felt it would help blacks escape Southern racism , find economic opportunities , and assimilate into American society .

Also in the 1910s the American eugenics movement was in its infancy , and many leading eugenicists were openly racist , defining Blacks as " a lower race " . Du Bois opposed this view as an unscientific aberration , but still maintained the basic principle of eugenics : That different persons have different inborn characteristics that make them more or less suited for specific kinds of employment , and that by encouraging the most talented members of all races to procreate would better the " stocks " of humanity .

= = = World War I = = =

As the United States prepared to enter World War I in 1917 , Du Bois 's colleague in the NAACP , Joel Spingarn , established a camp to train African Americans to serve as officers in the United States military . The camp was controversial , because some whites felt that blacks were not qualified to be officers , and some blacks felt that African Americans should not participate in what they considered a white man 's war . Du Bois supported Spingarn 's training camp , but was disappointed when the Army forcibly retired one of its few black officers , Charles Young , on a pretense of ill health . The Army agreed to create 1 @,@ 000 officer positions for blacks , but insisted that 250 come from enlisted men , conditioned to taking orders from whites , rather than from independent @-@ minded blacks that came from the camp . Over 700 @,@ 000 blacks enlisted on the first day of the draft , but were subject to discriminatory conditions which prompted vocal protests from Du Bois .

After the East St. Louis Riot occurred in the summer of 1917 , Du Bois traveled to St. Louis to report on the riots . Between 40 and 250 African Americans were massacred by whites , primarily due to resentment caused by St. Louis industry hiring blacks to replace striking white workers . Du Bois 's reporting resulted in an article " The Massacre of East St. Louis " , published in the September issue of The Crisis , which contained photographs and interviews detailing the violence . Historian David Levering Lewis concluded that Du Bois distorted some of the facts in order to increase the propaganda value of the article . To publicly demonstrate the black community 's outrage over the St Louis riot , Du Bois organized the Silent Parade , a march of around 9 @,@ 000 African Americans down New York 's Fifth avenue , the first parade of its kind in New York , and the second instance of blacks publicly demonstrating for civil rights .

The Houston riot of 1917 disturbed Du Bois and was a major setback to efforts to permit African Americans to become military officers . The riot began after Houston police arrested and beat two black soldiers ; in response , over 100 black soldiers took to the streets of Houston and killed 16 whites . A military court martial was held , and 19 of the soldiers were hung , and 67 others were imprisoned . In spite of the Houston riot , Du Bois and others successfully pressed the Army to accept the officers trained at Spingarn 's camp , resulting in over 600 black officers joining the Army in October 1917 .

Federal officials , concerned about subversive viewpoints expressed by NAACP leaders , attempted to frighten the NAACP by threatening it with investigations . Du Bois was not intimidated , and in 1918 he predicted that World War I would lead to an overthrow of the European colonial system and to the " liberation " of colored people world @-@ wide – in China , in India , and especially in America . NAACP chairman Joel Spingarn was enthusiastic about the war , and he persuaded Du Bois to consider an officer 's commission in the Army , contingent on Du Bois writing an editorial repudiating his anti @-@ war stance . Du Bois accepted this bargain and wrote the pro @-@ war " Close Ranks " editorial in June 1918 and soon thereafter he received a commission in the Army . Many black leaders , who wanted to leverage the war to gain civil rights for African Americans , criticized Du Bois for his sudden reversal . Southern officers in Du Bois 's unit objected to his presence , and his commission was withdrawn .

= = = After the war = = =

When the war ended , Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1919 to attend the first Pan @-@ African Congress and to interview African @-@ American soldiers for a planned book on their experiences in World War I. He was trailed by U.S. agents who were searching for evidence of treasonous activities . Du Bois discovered that the vast majority of black American soldiers were relegated to menial labor as stevedores and laborers . Some units were armed , and one in particular , the 92nd Division ( the Buffalo soldiers ) , engaged in combat . Du Bois discovered widespread racism in the Army , and concluded that the Army command discouraged African Americans from joining the Army , discredited the accomplishments of black soldiers , and promoted bigotry .

After returning from Europe , Du Bois was more determined than ever to gain equal rights for African Americans . Black soldiers returning from overseas felt a new sense of power and worth , and were representative of an emerging attitude referred to as the New Negro . In the editorial " Returning Soldiers " he wrote : " But , by the God of Heaven , we are cowards and jackasses if , now that the war is over , we do not marshal every ounce of our brain and brawn to fight a sterner , longer , more unbending battle against the forces of hell in our own land . " Many blacks moved to northern cities in search of work , and some northern white workers resented the competition . This labor strife was one of the causes of the Red Summer of 1919 , a horrific series of race riots across America , in which over 300 African Americans were killed in over 30 cities . Du Bois documented the atrocities in the pages of The Crisis , culminating in the December publication of a gruesome photograph of a lynching that occurred during the Omaha , Nebraska race riot .

The most egregious episode during the Red Summer was a vicious attack on blacks in Elaine , Arkansas , in which nearly 200 blacks were murdered . Reports coming out of the South blamed the blacks , alleging that they were conspiring to take over the government . Infuriated with the distortions , Du Bois published a letter in the New York World , claiming that the only crime the black sharecroppers had committed was daring to challenge their white landlords by hiring an attorney to investigate contractual irregularities . Over 60 of the surviving blacks were arrested and tried for conspiracy , in the case known as Moore v. Dempsey . Du Bois rallied blacks across America to raise funds for the legal defense , which , six years later , resulted in a Supreme Court victory authored by Oliver Wendell Holmes . Although the victory had little immediate impact on justice for blacks in the South , it marked the first time the Federal government used the 14th amendment guarantee of due process to prevent states from shielding mob violence .

In 1920 , Du Bois published Darkwater : Voices From Within the Veil , the first of three autobiographies he would write . The " veil " was that which covered colored people around the world . In the book , he hoped to lift the veil and show white readers what life was like behind the veil , and how it distorted the viewpoints of those looking through it – in both directions . The book contained Du Bois 's feminist essay , " The Damnation of Women " , which was a tribute to the dignity and worth of women , particularly black women .

Concerned that textbooks used by African @-@ American children ignored black history and culture , Du Bois created a monthly children 's magazine , The Brownies ' Book . Initially published in 1920 , it was aimed at black children , who Du Bois called " the children of the sun . "

= = = Pan @-@ Africanism and Marcus Garvey = = =

Du Bois traveled to Europe in 1921 to attend the second Pan @-@ African Congress . The assembled black leaders from around the world issued the London Resolutions and established a Pan @-@ African Association headquarters in Paris . Under Du Bois 's guidance , the resolutions insisted on racial equality , and that Africa be ruled by Africans ( not , as in the 1919 congress , with the consent of Africans ) . Du Bois restated the resolutions of the congress in his Manifesto To the League of Nations , which implored the newly formed League of Nations to address labor issues and to appoint Africans to key posts . The League took little action on the requests .

Another important African American leader of the 1920s was Marcus Garvey , promoter of the Back @-@ to @-@ Africa movement and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association ( UNIA ) . Garvey denounced Du Bois 's efforts to achieve equality through integration , and instead endorsed racial separatism . Du Bois initially supported the concept of Garvey 's Black Star Line , a shipping company that was intended to facilitate commerce within the African diaspora . But Du Bois later became concerned that Garvey was threatening the NAACP 's efforts , leading Du Bois to describe him as fraudulent and reckless . Responding to Garvey 's slogan " Africa for the Africans " slogan , Du Bois said that he supported that concept , but denounced Garvey 's intention that Africa be ruled by African Americans .

Du Bois wrote a series of articles in The Crisis between 1922 and 1924 , attacking Garvey 's movement , calling him the " most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and the world . " Du Bois and Garvey never made a serious attempt to collaborate , and their dispute was partly rooted in the desire of their respective organizations ( NAACP and UNIA ) to capture a larger portion of the available philanthropic funding .

Harvard 's decision to ban blacks from its dormitories in 1921 was decried by Du Bois as an instance of a broad effort in the U.S. to renew " the Anglo @-@ Saxon cult ; the worship of the Nordic totem , the disfranchisement of Negro , Jew , Irishman , Italian , Hungarian , Asiatic and South Sea Islander – the world rule of Nordic white through brute force . " When Du Bois sailed for Europe in 1923 for the third Pan @-@ African Congress , the circulation of The Crisis had declined to 60 @,@ 000 from its World War I high of 100 @,@ 000 , but it remained the preeminent periodical of the civil rights movement . President Coolidge designated Du Bois an " Envoy Extraordinary " to Liberia and – after the third congress concluded – Du Bois rode a German freighter from the Canary Islands to Africa , visiting Liberia , Sierra Leone and Senegal .

= = = Harlem Renaissance = = =

Du Bois frequently promoted African @-@ American artistic creativity in his writings , and when the Harlem Renaissance emerged in the mid @-@ 1920s , his article " A Negro Art Renaissance " celebrated the end of the long hiatus of blacks from creative endeavors . His enthusiasm for the Harlem Renaissance waned as he came to believe that many whites visited Harlem for voyeurism , not for genuine appreciation of black art . Du Bois insisted that artists recognize their moral responsibilities , writing that " a black artist is first of all a black artist . " He was also concerned that black artists were not using their art to promote black causes , saying " I do not care a damn for any art that is not used for propaganda . " By the end of 1926 , he stopped employing The Crisis to support the arts .

= = = Socialism = = =

When Du Bois became editor of the Crisis magazine in 1911 , he joined the Socialist Party of America on the advice of NAACP founders Mary Ovington , William English Walling and Charles Edward Russell . However , he supported the Democrat Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 presidential campaign , a breach of the rules , and was forced to resign from the Socialist Party . Du Bois remained : " convinced that socialism was an excellent way of life , but I thought it might be reached by various methods . "

Nine years after the 1917 Russian Revolution , Du Bois extended a trip to Europe to include a visit to the Soviet Union . Du Bois was struck by the poverty and disorganization he encountered in the Soviet Union , yet was impressed by the intense labors of the officials and by the recognition given to workers . Although Du Bois was not yet familiar with the communist theories of Karl Marx or Vladimir Lenin , he concluded that socialism may be a better path towards racial equality than capitalism .

Although Du Bois generally endorsed socialist principles , his politics were strictly pragmatic : In 1929 , Du Bois endorsed Democrat Jimmy Walker for mayor of New York , rather than the socialist Norman Thomas , believing that Walker could do more immediate good for blacks , even though Thomas ' platform was more consistent with Du Bois 's views . Throughout the 1920s , Du Bois and the NAACP shifted support back and forth between the Republican Party and the Democratic Party , induced by promises from the candidates to fight lynchings , improve working conditions , or support voting rights in the South ; invariably , the candidates failed to deliver on their promises .

A rivalry emerged in 1931 between the NAACP and the Communist Party , when the Communists responded quickly and effectively to support the Scottsboro Boys , nine African @-@ American youth arrested in 1931 in Alabama for rape . Du Bois and the NAACP felt that the case would not be beneficial to their cause , so they chose to let the Communist Party organize the defense efforts . Du Bois was impressed with the vast amount of publicity and funds the Communists devoted to the partially successful defense effort , and he came to suspect that the Communists were attempting to present their party to African Americans as a better solution than the NAACP . Responding to criticisms of the NAACP from the Communist Party , Du Bois wrote articles condemning the party , claiming that it unfairly attacked the NAACP , and that it failed to fully appreciate racism in the United States . The Communist leaders , in turn , accused Du Bois of being a " class enemy " , and claimed that the NAACP leadership was an isolated elite , disconnected from the working @-@ class blacks they ostensibly fought for .

= = Return to Atlanta = =

Du Bois did not have a good working relationship with Walter Francis White , president of the NAACP since 1931 . That conflict , combined with the financial stresses of the Great Depression , precipitated a power struggle over The Crisis . Du Bois , concerned that his position as editor would be eliminated , resigned his job at The Crisis and accepted an academic position at Atlanta University in early 1933 . The rift with the NAACP grew larger in 1934 when Du Bois reversed his stance on segregation , stating that " separate but equal " was an acceptable goal for African Americans . The NAACP leadership was stunned , and asked Du Bois to retract his statement , but he refused , and the dispute led to Du Bois 's resignation from the NAACP .

After arriving at his new professorship in Atlanta , Du Bois wrote a series of articles generally supportive of Marxism . He was not a strong proponent of labor unions or the Communist Party , but he felt that Marx 's scientific explanation of society and the economy were useful for explaining the situation of African Americans in the United States . Marx 's atheism also struck a chord with Du Bois , who routinely criticized black churches for dulling blacks ' sensitivity to racism . In his 1933 writings , Du Bois embraced socialism , but asserted that " [ c ] olored labor has no common ground with white labor " , a controversial position that was rooted in Du Bois 's dislike of American labor unions , which had systematically excluded blacks for decades . Du Bois did not support the Communist Party in the U.S. and did not vote for their candidate in the 1932 presidential election , in spite of an African American on their ticket .

= = = Black Reconstruction in America = = =

Back in the world of academia , Du Bois was able to resume his study of Reconstruction , the topic of the 1910 paper that he presented to the American Historical Association . In 1935 , he published his magnum opus , Black Reconstruction in America . The book presented the thesis , in the words of the historian David Levering Lewis , that " black people , suddenly admitted to citizenship in an environment of feral hostility , displayed admirable volition and intelligence as well as the indolence and ignorance inherent in three centuries of bondage . " Du Bois documented how black people were central figures in the American Civil War and Reconstruction , and also showed how they made alliances with white politicians . He provided evidence that the coalition governments established public education in the South , and many needed social service programs . The book also demonstrated the ways in which black emancipation – the crux of Reconstruction – promoted a radical restructuring of United States society , as well as how and why the country failed to continue support for civil rights for blacks in the aftermath of Reconstruction .

The book 's thesis ran counter to the orthodox interpretation of Reconstruction maintained by white historians , and the book was virtually ignored by mainstream historians until the 1960s . Thereafter , however , it ignited a " revisionist " trend in the historiography of Reconstruction , which emphasized black people 's search for freedom and the era 's radical policy changes . By the 21st century , Black Reconstruction was widely perceived as " the foundational text of revisionist African American historiography . "

In the final chapter of the book , " XIV . The Propaganda of History " , Du Bois evokes his efforts at writing an article for the Encyclopædia Britannica on the " history of the American Negro " . After the editors had cut all reference to Reconstruction , he insisted that the following note appear in the entry : " White historians have ascribed the faults and failures of Reconstruction to Negro ignorance and corruption . But the Negro insists that it was Negro loyalty and the Negro vote alone that restored the South to the Union ; established the new democracy , both for white and black , and instituted the public schools . " The editors refused and , so , Du Bois withdrew his article .

= = = Projected encyclopedia = = =

In 1932 , Du Bois was selected by several philanthropies – including the Phelps @-@ Stokes Fund , the Carnegie Corporation , and the General Education Board – to be the managing editor for a proposed Encyclopedia of the Negro , a work Du Bois had been contemplating for 30 years . After several years of planning and organizing , the philanthropies cancelled the project in 1938 , because some board members believed that Du Bois was too biased to produce an objective encyclopedia .

= = = Trip around the world = = =

Du Bois took a trip around the world in 1936 , which included visits to Nazi Germany , China and Japan . While in Germany , Du Bois remarked that he was treated with warmth and respect . After his return to the United States , he expressed his ambivalence about the Nazi regime . He admired how the Nazis had improved the German economy , but he was horrified by their treatment of the Jewish people , which he described as " an attack on civilization , comparable only to such horrors as the Spanish Inquisition and the African slave trade . "

Following the 1905 Japanese victory in the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Du Bois became impressed by the growing strength of Imperial Japan . He considered the victory of Japan over Tsarist Russia as an example of colored peoples defeating white peoples . A representative of Japan 's " Negro Propaganda Operations " traveled to the United States during the 1920s and 1930s , meeting with Du Bois and giving him a positive impression of Imperial Japan 's racial policies . In 1936 , the Japanese ambassador arranged a trip to Japan for Du Bois and a small group of academics .

= = = World War II = = =

Du Bois opposed the U.S. intervention in World War II , particularly in the Pacific , because he believed that China and Japan were emerging from the clutches of white imperialists . He felt that the European Allies waging war against Japan was an opportunity for whites to reestablish their influence in Asia . He was deeply disappointed by the US government 's plan for African Americans in the armed forces : Blacks were limited to 5 @.@ 8 % of the force , and there were to be no African @-@ American combat units – virtually the same restrictions as in World War I. With blacks threatening to shift their support to President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's Republican opponent in the 1940 election , Roosevelt appointed a few blacks to leadership posts in the military . Dusk of Dawn , Du Bois 's second autobiography , was published in 1940 . The title refers to Du Bois 's hope that African Americans were passing out of the darkness of racism into an era of greater equality . The work is part autobiography , part history , and part sociological treatise . Du Bois described the book as " the autobiography of a concept of race [ ... ] elucidated and magnified and doubtless distorted in the thoughts and deeds which were mine [ ... ] Thus for all time my life is significant for all lives of men . "

In 1943 , at age 76 , Du Bois was abruptly fired from his position at Atlanta University by college president Rufus Clement . Many scholars expressed outrage , prompting Atlanta University to provide Du Bois with a lifelong pension and the title of professor emeritus . Arthur Spingarn remarked that Du Bois spent his time in Atlanta " battering his life out against ignorance , bigotry , intolerance and slothfulness , projecting ideas nobody but he understands , and raising hopes for change which may be comprehended in a hundred years . "

Turning down job offers from Fisk and Howard , Du Bois re @-@ joined the NAACP as director of the Department of Special Research . Surprising many NAACP leaders , Du Bois jumped into the job with vigor and determination . During the 10 years while Du Bois was away from the NAACP , its income had increased fourfold , and its membership had soared to 325 @,@ 000 members .

= = Later life = =

= = = United Nations = = =

Du Bois was a member of the three @-@ person delegation from the NAACP that attended the 1945 conference in San Francisco at which the United Nations was established . The NAACP delegation wanted the United Nations to endorse racial equality and to bring an end to the colonial era . To push the United Nations in that direction , Du Bois drafted a proposal that pronounced " [ t ] he colonial system of government [ ... ] is undemocratic , socially dangerous and a main cause of wars " . The NAACP proposal received support from China , Russia and India , but it was virtually ignored by the other major powers , and the NAACP proposals were not included in the United Nations charter .

After the United Nations conference , Du Bois published Color and Democracy : Colonies and Peace , a book that attacked colonial empires and , in the words of one reviewer , " contains enough dynamite to blow up the whole vicious system whereby we have comforted our white souls and lined the pockets of generations of free @-@ booting capitalists . "

In late 1945 , Du Bois attended the fifth , and final , Pan @-@ African Congress , in Manchester , England . The congress was the most productive of the five congresses , and there Du Bois met Kwame Nkrumah , the future first president of Ghana who would later invite Du Bois to Africa .

Du Bois helped to submit petitions to the UN concerning discrimination against African Americans . These culminated in the report and petition called " We Charge Genocide " , submitted in 1951 with the Civil Rights Congress . " We Charge Genocide " accuses the US of systematically sanctioning murders and inflicting harm against African Americans and therefore committing genocide .

= = = Cold War = = =

When the Cold War commenced in the mid @-@ 1940s , the NAACP distanced itself from Communists , lest its funding or reputation suffer . The NAACP redoubled their efforts in 1947 after Life magazine published a piece by Arthur Schlesinger , Jr. claiming that the NAACP was heavily influenced by Communists . Ignoring the NAACP 's desires , Du Bois continued to fraternize with communist sympathizers such as Paul Robeson , Howard Fast and Shirley Graham ( his future second wife ) . Du Bois wrote " I am not a communist [ ... ] On the other hand , I [ ... ] believe [ ... ] that Karl Marx [ ... ] put his finger squarely upon our difficulties [ ... ] " . In 1946 , Du Bois wrote articles giving his assessment of the Soviet Union ; he did not embrace communism and he criticized its dictatorship . However , he felt that capitalism was responsible for poverty and racism , and felt that socialism was an alternative that might ameliorate those problems . The soviets explicitly rejected racial distinctions and class distinctions , leading Du Bois to conclude that the USSR was the " most hopeful country on earth . " Du Bois 's association with prominent communists made him a liability for the NAACP , especially since the FBI was starting to aggressively investigate communist sympathizers ; so – by mutual agreement – he resigned from the NAACP for the second time in late 1948 . After departing the NAACP , Du Bois started writing regularly for the leftist weekly newspaper the National Guardian , a relationship that would endure until 1961 .

= = = Peace activism = = =

Du Bois was a lifelong anti @-@ war activist , but his efforts became more pronounced after World War II . In 1949 , Du Bois spoke at the Scientific and Cultural Conference for World Peace in New York : " I tell you , people of America , the dark world is on the move ! It wants and will have Freedom , Autonomy and Equality . It will not be diverted in these fundamental rights by dialectical splitting of political hairs [ ... ] Whites may , if they will , arm themselves for suicide . But the vast majority of the world 's peoples will march on over them to freedom ! "

In the spring of 1949 , he spoke at World Congress of the Partisans of Peace in Paris , saying to the large crowd : " Leading this new colonial imperialism comes my own native land built by my father 's toil and blood , the United States . The United States is a great nation ; rich by grace of God and prosperous by the hard work of its humblest citizens [ ... ] Drunk with power we are leading the world to hell in a new colonialism with the same old human slavery which once ruined us ; and to a third World War which will ruin the world . " Du Bois affiliated himself with a leftist organization , the National Council of Arts , Sciences and Professions , and he traveled to Moscow as its representative to speak at the All @-@ Soviet Peace Conference in late 1949 .

= = = McCarthyism and Trial = = =

During the 1950s , the U.S. government 's anti @-@ communist McCarthyism campaign targeted Du Bois because of his socialist leanings . Historian Manning Marable characterizes the government 's treatment of Du Bois as " ruthless repression " and a " political assassination " .

The FBI began to compile a file on Du Bois in 1942 , but the most aggressive government attack against Du Bois occurred in the early 1950s , as a consequence of Du Bois 's opposition to nuclear weapons . In 1950 Du Bois became chairman of the newly created Peace Information Center ( PIC ) , which worked to publicize the Stockholm Peace Appeal in the United States . The primary purpose of the appeal was to gather signatures on a petition , asking governments around the world to ban all nuclear weapons .

The U.S. Justice department alleged that the PIC was acting as an agent of a foreign state , and thus required the PIC to register with the federal government . Du Bois and other PIC leaders refused , and they were indicted for failure to register . After the indictment , some of Du Bois 's associates distanced themselves from him , and the NAACP refused to issue a statement of support ; but many labor figures and leftists – including Langston Hughes – supported Du Bois .

He was finally tried in 1951 represented by civil rights attorney Vito Marcantonio . The case was dismissed before the jury rendered a verdict as soon as the defense attorney told the judge that " Dr. Albert Einstein has offered to appear as character witness for Dr. Du Bois " . Du Bois 's memoir of the trial is In Battle for Peace . Even though Du Bois was not convicted , the government confiscated Du Bois 's passport and withheld it for eight years .

= = = Communism = = =

Du Bois was bitterly disappointed that many of his colleagues – particularly the NAACP – did not support him during his 1951 PIC trial , whereas working class whites and blacks supported him enthusiastically . After the trial , Du Bois lived in Manhattan , writing and speaking , and continuing to associate primarily with leftist acquaintances . His primary concern was world peace , and he railed against military actions , such as the Korean War , which he viewed as efforts by imperialist whites to maintain colored people in a submissive state .

In 1950 , at the age of 82 , Du Bois ran for U.S. Senator from New York on the American Labor Party ticket and received about 200 @,@ 000 votes , or 4 % of the statewide total . Du Bois continued to believe that capitalism was the primary culprit responsible for the subjugation of colored people around the world , and therefore – although he recognized the faults of the Soviet Union – he continued to uphold communism as a possible solution to racial problems . In the words of biographer David Lewis , Du Bois did not endorse communism for its own sake , but did so because " the enemies of his enemies were his friends " . The same ambiguity characterized Du Bois 's opinions of Joseph Stalin : in 1940 he wrote disdainfully of the " Tyrant Stalin " , but when Stalin died in 1953 , Du Bois wrote a eulogy characterizing Stalin as " simple , calm and courageous " , and lauding him for being the " first [ to ] set Russia on the road to conquer race prejudice and make one nation out of its 140 groups without destroying their individuality " .

The U.S. government prevented Du Bois from attending the 1955 Bandung conference in Indonesia . The conference was the culmination of 40 years of Du Bois 's dreams – a meeting of 29 nations from Africa and Asia , many recently independent , representing most of the world 's colored peoples . The conference celebrated their independence , as the nations began to assert their power as non @-@ aligned nations during the cold war . In 1958 , Du Bois regained his passport , and with his second wife , Shirley Graham Du Bois , he traveled around the world , visiting Russia and China . In both countries he was celebrated and given guided tours of the best aspects of communism . Du Bois later wrote approvingly of the conditions in both countries . He was 90 years old .

Du Bois became incensed in 1961 when the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the 1950 McCarran Act , a key piece of McCarthyism legislation which required communists to register with the government . To demonstrate his outrage , he joined the Communist Party in October 1961 , at the age of 93 . Around that time , he wrote : " I believe in communism . I mean by communism , a planned way of life in the production of wealth and work designed for building a state whose object is the highest welfare of its people and not merely the profit of a part . "

= = = Death in Africa = = =

Ghana invited Du Bois to Africa to participate in their independence celebration in 1957 , but he was unable to attend because the U.S. government had confiscated his passport in 1951 . By 1960 – the " Year of Africa " – Du Bois had recovered his passport , and was able to cross the Atlantic and celebrate the creation of the Republic of Ghana . Du Bois returned to Africa in late 1960 to attend the inauguration of Nnamdi Azikiwe as the first African governor of Nigeria .

While visiting Ghana in 1960 , Du Bois spoke with its president about the creation of a new encyclopedia of the African diaspora , the Encyclopedia Africana . In early 1961 , Ghana notified Du Bois that they had appropriated funds to support the encyclopedia project , and they invited Du Bois to come to Ghana and manage the project there . In October 1961 , at the age of 93 , Du Bois and his wife traveled to Ghana to take up residence and commence work on the encyclopedia . In early 1963 , the United States refused to renew his passport , so he made the symbolic gesture of becoming a citizen of Ghana . While it is sometimes stated that he renounced his U.S. citizenship at that time , and he did state his intention to do so , Du Bois never actually did . His health declined during the two years he was in Ghana , and he died on August 27 , 1963 , in the capital of Accra at the age of 95 . Du Bois was buried in Accra near his home , which is now the Du Bois Memorial Centre . A day after his death , at the March on Washington , speaker Roy Wilkins asked the hundreds of thousands of marchers to honor Du Bois with a moment of silence . The Civil Rights Act of 1964 , embodying many of the reforms Du Bois had campaigned for his entire life , was enacted a year after his death .

= = Personal life = =

Du Bois was organized and disciplined : His lifelong regimen was to rise at 7 : 15 , work until 5 , eat dinner and read a newspaper until 7 , then read or socialize until he was in bed , invariably before 10 . He was a meticulous planner , and frequently mapped out his schedules and goals on large pieces of graph paper . Many acquaintances found him to be distant and aloof , and he insisted on being addressed as " Dr. Du Bois " . Although he was not gregarious , he formed several close friendships with associates such as Charles Young , Paul Laurence Dunbar , John Hope and Mary Ovington . His closest friend was Joel Spingarn – a white man – but Du Bois never accepted Spingarn 's offer to be on a first name basis . Du Bois was something of a dandy – he dressed formally , carried a walking stick , and walked with an air of confidence and dignity . He was relatively short 5 feet 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 166 cm ) and always maintained a well @-@ groomed mustache and goatee . He was a good singer and enjoyed playing tennis .

Du Bois was married twice , first to Nina Gomer ( m . 1896 , d . 1950 ) , with whom he had two children , a son Burghardt ( who died as an infant ) and a daughter Yolande , who married Countee Cullen . As a widower , he married Shirley Graham ( m . 1951 , d . 1977 ) , an author , playwright , composer and activist . She brought her son David Graham to the marriage . David grew close to Du Bois and took his stepfather 's name ; he also worked for African @-@ American causes . The historian David Levering Lewis wrote that Du Bois engaged in several extramarital relationships . But the historian Raymond Wolters cast doubt on this , based on the lack of corroboration from Du Bois 's alleged lovers .

= = Religion = =

Although Du Bois attended a New England Congregational church as a child , he abandoned organized religion while at Fisk College . As an adult , Du Bois described himself as agnostic or a freethinker , but at least one biographer concluded that Du Bois was virtually an atheist . However , another analyst of Du Bois 's writings concluded that he had a religious voice , albeit radically different from other African @-@ American religious voices of his era , and inaugurated a 20th @-@ century spirituality to which Ralph Ellison , Zora Neale Hurston , and James Baldwin also belong .

When asked to lead public prayers , Du Bois would refuse . In his autobiography , Du Bois wrote : " When I became head of a department at Atlanta , the engagement was held up because again I balked at leading in prayer [ ... ] I flatly refused again to join any church or sign any church creed . [ ... ] I think the greatest gift of the Soviet Union to modern civilization was the dethronement of the clergy and the refusal to let religion be taught in the public schools . " Du Bois accused American churches of being the most discriminatory of all institutions . He also provocatively linked African @-@ American Christianity to indigenous African religions . Du Bois occasionally acknowledged the beneficial role religion played in African @-@ America life – as the " basic rock " which served as an anchor for African @-@ American communities – but in general disparaged African @-@ American churches and clergy because he felt they did not support the goals of racial equality and hindered activists ' efforts .

Although Du Bois was not personally religious , he infused his writings with religious symbology , and many contemporaries viewed him as a prophet . His 1904 prose poem , " Credo " , was written in the style of a religious creed and widely read by the African @-@ American community . Moreover , Du Bois , both in his own fiction and in stories published in The Crisis , often analogized lynchings of African Americans to Christ 's crucifixion . Between 1920 and 1940 , Du Bois shifted from overt black messiah symbolism to more subtle messianic language .

= = Honors = =

The NAACP awarded the Spingarn Medal to Du Bois in 1920 .

Du Bois was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1959 .

The site of the house where Du Bois grew up in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976 .

In 1992 the United States Postal Service honored Du Bois with his portrait on a postage stamp . A second stamp of face value 32 ¢ was issued on February 3 , 1998 as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series .

In 1994 , the main library at the University of Massachusetts Amherst was named after Du Bois .

The Du Bois center at Northern Arizona University is named in his honor .

A dormitory was named after Du Bois at the University of Pennsylvania , where he conducted field research for his sociological study " The Philadelphia Negro " .

A dormitory is named after Du Bois at Hampton University .

Africana : The Encyclopedia of the African and African @-@ American Experience was inspired by and dedicated to Du Bois by its editors Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates , Jr .

Humboldt University in Berlin hosts a series of lectures named in Du Bois 's honor .

Scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Du Bois in his 2002 list of the 100 Greatest African Americans .

In 2005 , Du Bois was honored with a medallion in The Extra Mile , Washington DC 's memorial to important American volunteers .

The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church remembers Du Bois annually on August 3 .

Du Bois was appointed Honorary Emeritus Professor at the University of Pennsylvania in 2012 .

= = Selected works = =

= Sectionals =

" Sectionals " is the thirteenth episode of the American television series Glee . It premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 2009 . The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and serves as the mid @-@ season finale for the show 's first season . " Sectionals " sees the glee club win the sectionals round of competition , advancing on to regionals . Glee club member Finn ( Cory Monteith ) discovers he is not the father of his girlfriend Quinn 's ( Dianna Agron ) baby . Football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) plans his wedding with Emma ( Jayma Mays ) on the same day as the sectionals competition . Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is unable to take the students to sectionals and Emma offers to take them . The episode sees the return of Eve and Michael Hitchcock as rival glee club directors Grace Hitchens and Dalton Rumba .

The episode features covers of six songs , studio recordings of four of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " Sectionals " was watched by 8 @.@ 127 million U.S. viewers , and received mostly positive reviews from critics . The episode 's musical performances attracted praise , as did the development of Will and Emma 's relationship , though Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly suggested it may have been preferable to leave their romance unresolved . James Poniewozik of Time felt that by concluding the pregnancy storyline in " Sectionals " , Glee was able to " clear the decks for a second half of the season as the confident show it now is " .

= = Plot = =

As a result of a technicality in the show choir competition rules , glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is not allowed to accompany New Directions to sectionals . Guidance counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) postpones her own wedding by a few hours so that she can take the club in his place , although her fiancé , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , feels she is choosing Will over him .

Most of the glee club has learned that Puck ( Mark Salling ) , not Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , is the father of Quinn 's baby . They hide this fact from Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , believing that she will tell Finn . Emma takes over as faculty advisor of the club as they start working on their set list for sectionals . With two group songs selected , Rachel says that she 'll sing the solo ballad ; Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) strenuously objects to this , and sings " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " to wild applause . Rachel agrees that Mercedes deserves to sing the solo and the two hug . Meanwhile , Rachel has deduced that Puck impregnated Quinn and tells Finn ; he attacks Puck and confronts Quinn , who tearfully admits the truth . Angered by their betrayal , Finn quits the club on the eve of sectionals , and has to be replaced by school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) . New Directions arrive at the event to discover their competitors have received an advance copy of their set list , and are performing all three of their chosen songs . Emma calls Will , who convinces Finn to help his New Directions teammates . Will finds Finn in the locker room , and talks to him about how special he is and that the club needs him .

Emma confronts rival choir directors Grace Hitchens ( Eve ) and Dalton Rumba ( Michael Hitchcock ) , while New Directions chooses new performance pieces for their set list at the last minute . Rachel asks Mercedes to perform another ballad , but Mercedes insists , with the rest of the club agreeing , that Rachel is the best choice to perform " on the fly " . They also decide to include " Somebody to Love " as their closer , but are stuck for a third piece until Finn arrives with new sheet music for the group , ready to perform with them . Rachel gives a solo performance of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " , receiving a standing ovation after finishing . The group then performs " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " by the Rolling Stones , to the applause and cheers of the audience . After their performance , Grace attempts to confess her duplicity to the judges , but they have already unanimously decided that New Directions has won the competition .

Having previously discovered that his wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) was faking her pregnancy , Will tells her he no longer feels the same way he did when they first fell in love . He later attends Ken and Emma 's delayed wedding , only to find that Ken has ended the relationship as a result of Emma 's feelings for Will . She announces her intention to leave McKinley High School , explaining that it will be too painful for her to carry on working with Will and Ken . Back at school , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) suspends cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) for leaking the glee club 's set list , and has Will reinstated as the director of New Directions . The glee club members show Will their trophy and perform " My Life Would Suck Without You " for him . As Emma prepares to leave the school , Will chases after her and stops her with a kiss . Both are happy , but uncertain of what will happen next .

= = Production = =

Glee was originally commissioned by Fox for a thirteen episode run , culminating with " Sectionals " . On September 21 , 2009 , the network announced an extension of the first season , ordering a further nine episodes . " Sectionals " therefore serves as the mid @-@ season finale , with the remainder of the season airing from April 13 , 2010 . Events in " Sectionals " are influenced by the season 's eleventh episode " Hairography " , in which cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester gave New Directions ' competition set @-@ list to their rival glee clubs . Morrison explained that the clubs perform New Directions ' songs first , making it appear that they are copying them , so New Directions " have to do this impromptu thing and fly by the seat of [ their ] pants . " Morrison has called " Sectionals " " the best episode " of the series .

" Sectionals " was written and directed by series creator Brad Falchuk . Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) , Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) , football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) , school reporter Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) and local news anchor Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) . Anna Camp and Patricia Forte guest star as sectionals judges Candace Dykstra and Donna Landries , Peter Choi is the Emcee , and Thomasina Gross plays Perfect Engleberger , a member of the Jane Addams Academy glee club . " Sectionals " also sees the return of Eve and Michael Hitchcock as rival glee club directors Grace Hitchens and Dalton Rumba . Eve was offered the role of Grace after Whitney Houston declined to appear .

The episode features cover versions of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " by Barbra Streisand , " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " by The Rolling Stones , " My Life Would Suck Without You " by Kelly Clarkson , " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " from Dreamgirls , " Don 't Stop Believin ' " by Journey and " Proud Mary " by Creedence Clearwater Revival . Studio recordings of " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " , " Don 't Rain on My Parade " , " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " and " My Life Would Suck Without You " were released as singles in December 2009 , available for download . They are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " charted at number 85 in Canada and 94 in the US , while " Don 't Rain on My Parade " charted at number 59 in Canada and 53 in the US . " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " charted at number 51 in Canada and 71 in the US , and " My Life Would Suck Without You " charted at number 66 in Australia , 40 in Canada and 51 in the US . Jenna Ushkowitz named " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " one of her favorite songs on the album , deeming the original " a classic " and the Glee cover " emotional " as one of the final songs of the original run of episodes . The performance of " My Life Would Suck Without You " showcased choreography from numerous performances from earlier episodes .

= = Reception = =

The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 127 million US viewers . It was the show 's highest @-@ rated episode ever with teenagers , and its season high in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , with a rating / share of 3 @.@ 7 / 9 . In Canada , it was the tenth most watched show for the week of broadcast , attaining 1 @.@ 64 million viewers .

" Sectionals " received mostly positive reviews from critics . TV Guide 's Natalie Abrams felt it ended the beginning of the season on a " high note " , while Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal commented : " You couldn ’ t have asked for a better cliffhanger of a fall finale " . IGN 's Eric Goldman rated the episode 9 / 10 , calling it " very satisfying " , and Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times commended it as " fine television . " James Poniewozik of Time wrote : " I 'm not sure I expected or wanted a feel @-@ good ending out of the first half of Glee . But what we got from " Sectionals " left me feeling very good about where the show is going this spring . " In contrast , Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger , felt that the episode brought too many storylines to a head at once , " not allowing all to have as much impact as they might have had the big developments been spaced out " . Sepinwall commented , however , that the acting and especially singing performances were " uniformly strong . "

Musical performances in the episode attracted praise . Aly Semigran of MTV called Riley 's rendition of " And I Am Telling You I 'm Not Going " " goose bump @-@ inducing " , while Goldman commended : " Riley absolutely killed it as Mercedes belted out that song " . In contrast , Poniewozik wrote that it was the one song choice he didn 't like , feeling that it is overused , thus diminishing its impact . Abrams deemed Rachel 's solo performance at sectionals " amazing " , and Flandez recommended : " Watch it again if you ever want to take back three minutes of your life that you ’ ve wasted on something else . " Pardue called the group performance of " You Can 't Always Get What You Want " " energetic [ ... ] casual [ ... ] and very Glee " , but felt it " would have been nice " to feature different singers . Dan Snierson for Entertainment Weekly similarly noted that he would have preferred " more vocal interplay between all group members " . In December 2012 , TV Guide named the rendition of " Don 't Rain on My Parade " one of Glee 's best performances , commenting : " Glee has done Broadway many times , but rarely better than this . "

Critics also commented positively on the development of Will and Emma 's relationship , with Abrams noting that she had been waiting for them to kiss since the pilot episode , and Goldman deeming their coming together " very hard to not feel good about " . Snierson , however , wrote that although there was satisfaction in the episode ending on the kiss , it may have been " more intriguing " to conclude with Will finding Emma 's office empty , questioning whether it was too soon for the two of them to begin a relationship . The end of Quinn 's pregnancy secret was also well received . Poniewozik wrote that the pregnancy storyline had felt as though " the early Glee wasn 't confident that people would be interested in it without these over @-@ the @-@ top soap opera twists . " He noted that in concluding the pregnancy deception in " Sectionals " , Glee : " seemed to clear the decks for a second half of the season as the confident show it now is . "

= Theodore N. Kaufman =

Theodore Newman Kaufman ( February 22 , 1910 – April 1 , 1986 ) , sometimes given incorrectly as Theodore Nathan Kaufmann , was an American Jewish businessman and writer known for his eliminationist views on Germans .

In 1939 , he published pamphlets as chairman of the American Federation of Peace that argued that Americans should be sterilized so that their children will no longer have to fight in foreign wars .

In 1941 , he wrote and published Germany Must Perish ! which called for the sterilization of the German people and the distribution of the German lands . The text was used extensively in Nazi propaganda , often as a justification for the persecution of Jews and was specifically cited as a reason to round up the Jews of Hanover , Germany .

= = Early life = =

He was born in Manhattan , New York City on February 22 , 1910 to Anton Kaufman and Fannie Newman . His parents had married on March 14 , 1909 . His father had been a reporter for the Berliner Morgen @-@ Zeitung in Berlin , Germany before emigrating to the United States in 1905 . Theodore 's three brothers were Herbert , Julian , and Leonard .

He attended South Side High School in Newark , New Jersey and graduated around 1928 .

In 1934 he was arrested along with his father , Anton Kaufman , for the robbery of Sandor Alexander Balint of Budapest . Balint had developed a process to speed the aging of wine . The Kaufmans had purchased this formula from Balint , but later came to believe that the formula was " worthless " . Theodore Kaufman 's mother died in 1939 .

Kaufman traveled to the Sahara Desert and wrote : " you look at the horizon all day long and feel that you are staring at eternity . " In Biskra he met Clare Sheridan .

Kaufman became the owner of a small advertising agency and ticket agency in South Orange , New Jersey . He published the New Jersey Legal Record . Kaufman founded the Argyle Press of Newark , New Jersey to publish his political pamphlets .

= = Life during World War II = =

Kaufman was a radical intent on preventing American involvement in future wars in Europe . In 1939 , under the auspices of the " American Federation of Peace " , an unknown entity of which he was the president and probably only member , Kaufman produced several publications . One pamphlet , titled " Passive Purchase " advocated the establishment of a two @-@ week period during which Americans would curtail their spending in order to demonstrate public opposition to American intervention in European conflicts . In a section of the pamphlet on the American Federation of Peace 's beliefs , Kaufman advocated for " the strongest possible military defense of the United States " and stated that " by keeping absolutely aloof from foreign wars and entanglements the American People face a truly great future . " That same year , the group also issued publications with more contentious messages , one of which read :

" A possible plea to Congress . ... Have Us All Sterilized ! ... If You Plan On Sending Us To A Foreign War ... Spare Us Any Possibility Of Ever Bringing Children Into This World — Into This Country Of Ours ! "

Two years later he shifted his focus to the forced mass @-@ sterilization of all German men under 65 and the sterilization of most German women under 45 . This would eliminate " inbred Germanism , " he proposed , thus solving a great deal of humanity 's problems . He also promoted the distribution of Germany 's lands among the neighboring countries . His effort was spearheaded by the self @-@ publication of the book Germany Must Perish !

" Since Germans are the perennial disturbers of the world 's peace ... they must be dealt with like any homicidal criminals . But it is unnecessary to put the whole German nation to the sword . It is more humane to sterilize them . The army groups , as organized units , would be the easiest and quickest to deal with . ... The population of Germany , excluding conquered and annexed territories , is about 70 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , almost equally divided between male and female . To achieve the purpose of German extinction it would be necessary to only sterilize some 48 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 -- a figure which excludes , because of their limited power to procreate , males over 60 years of age , and females over 45 . ... Taking 20 @,@ 000 surgeons as an arbitrary number and on the assumption that each will perform a minimum of 25 operations daily , it would take no more than one month , at the maximum , to complete their sterilization . ... The balance of the male civilian population of Germany could be treated within three months . Inasmuch as sterilization of women needs somewhat more time , it may be computed that the entire female population of Germany could be sterilized within a period of three years or less . Complete sterilization of both sexes , and not only one , is to be considered necessary in view of the present German doctrine that so much as one drop of true German blood constitutes a German . Of course , after complete sterilization , there will cease to be a birth rate in Germany . At the normal death rate of 2 per cent per annum , German life will diminish at the rate of 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 yearly . Accordingly in the span of two generations that which cost millions of lives and centuries of useless effort , namely , the elimination of Germanism and its carriers , will have been an accomplished fact . By virtue of its loss of self @-@ perpetuation German Will will have atrophied and German power reduced to negligible importance . "

Although Kaufman 's book had a minimal impact in the United States , it achieved notoriety in Nazi Germany , where propagandists used it as evidence of an international Jewish plan to destroy the German people . On July 24 , 1941 , the Nazi Party 's newspaper , Völkischer Beobachter , published a front @-@ page article on the book titled : " The Product of Criminal Jewish Sadism : Roosevelt Demands the Sterilization of the German People . " The newspaper alleged that Kaufman was a close ally of Samuel Irving Rosenman , a well @-@ known advisor to Franklin Delano Roosevelt and that : " Given the close relationship of the writer to the White House , this monstrous war program can be seen as a synthesis of genuine Talmudic hatred and Roosevelt ’ s views on foreign policy . " At the time , the German leadership was engaged in a propaganda campaign designed to rally popular support for the German invasion of the Soviet Union . Antisemitism in general , and Kaufman 's ideas in particular , became a focus of this campaign .

Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels read the book in early August and immediately grasped its value , writing in his diary : " This Jew did a real service for the enemy [ German ] side . Had he written this book for us , he could not have made it any better . " Under Goebbels ' direction , Germany Must Perish ! continued to receive significant media attention in Germany . Portions of the book were read on national radio , and Goebbels ordered the printing of five million copies of a pamphlet that summarized Kaufman 's ideas .

Nazi propaganda often used Kaufman 's pamphlet as a justification for the persecution of Jews . When the Nazis required German Jews to wear a yellow badge on their clothing on September 1 , 1941 , they published a flyer explaining to the German people that those individuals wearing the star were conspiring to implement Kaufman 's plan for the destruction of Germany . When the Jews of Hanover were forced from their homes on September 8 , 1941 , German authorities cited Kaufman 's book as one of the reasons . Kaufman responded by saying :

" This is just a flimsy pretext for another of the innate cruelties of the German people ... I don 't think it was my book that prompted this barbarity . They employed every possible German cruelty against the Jews long before my book was published . "

The Nazi propaganda ministry continued to publish pamphlets , posters and flyers on Kaufman 's ideas through the end of the war , and also urged newspapers and public speakers to remind Germans of Kaufman 's book . Kaufman 's last major appearance in Nazi propaganda occurred in late 1944 , when a five @-@ page section on him was included in the widely published booklet Never ! , which described a number of alleged plots to destroy Germany . Randall Bytwerk , an historian of communications at Calvin College , concluded that " [ a ] German at the time could not have missed encountering " propaganda about Kaufman .

His final publication through Argyle Press was the March 1942 brochure titled " No More German Wars ! Being an outline for their permanent cessation " . It contained no more writing on the sterilization of Germans or discussion of German land distribution , but made very moderate proposals for democratic re @-@ education of the German population .

He enlisted in the US Army in New Mexico on April 24 , 1942 . His three brothers also served .

Few Americans have ever heard of a prominent fellow @-@ citizen named Kaufmann ... In Germany every child has known of him for a long time . Germans are so well informed about Mr. Kaufmann that the mere mention of his name recalls what he stands for . In one of his recent artlcles Dr. Goebbels wrote , " Thanks to the Jew Kaufmann , we Germans know only too well what to expect in case of defeat . "

= = Post @-@ war years and death = =

After World War II , Kaufman disappeared entirely from public life . One scholar , Berel Lang , a Visiting Professor of Philosophy and Letters at Wesleyan University , failed to locate Kaufman in the records of the city of Newark and in other sources .

He died in April 1986 in East Orange , New Jersey .

= = Writings = =

" Life Liberty Pursuit of Happiness - Where ? In The Graves of European Battle Fields ? " American Federation of Peace , Newark , NJ , ( circa 1938 @-@ 1942 )

A Will and Way to Peace : Passive Purchase Theodore N. Kaufman , American Federation of Peace , Newark , NJ , 1939 , 10 @-@ page pamphlet

Germany Must Perish ! , Argyle Press , Newark , NJ , 1941 , 104 @-@ page brochure

No More German Wars ! Being An Outline For Their Permanent Cessation Argyle Press , Newark , NJ , 1942 , 16 @-@ page brochure alternate link

= Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down =

Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down is the fourteenth studio album by American musician Ry Cooder . Following his 2008 album I , Flathead , Cooder pursued a more political direction with his songwriting , inspired by the late @-@ 2000s economic crisis and protest songs of the past . Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was written and produced by Cooder , who recorded its songs at Drive @-@ By Studios , Ocean Studios , and Wireland Studios in California . He played various instruments and worked with musicians such as Flaco Jiménez , Juliette Commagere , Robert Francis , and Jim Keltner .

Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down features topical songs with socio @-@ political subject matter about 21st @-@ century America , including economic disparity , social injustice , politics , war . Its music is rooted in Americana and incorporates traditional styles and musical language from historical sources such as country blues , tejano , and American roots music . The record has been noted by critics for its eclectic musical range , allegorical songs , working @-@ class perspective , and Cooder 's sardonic lyrics .

When Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was released by Nonesuch Records on August 30 , 2011 , it charted modestly in the United States but relatively higher in Europe . Cooder expressed disillusionment with the music industry in response to the record 's poor commercial performance . Critically , the album was a success , earning him widespread acclaim and comparisons to folk singer @-@ songwriter Woody Guthrie . According to Slant Magazine 's Joseph Jon Lanthier , " the orchestrated indignation of [ the album ] incorporated a protean Greek chorus of economic victims and beat Occupy Wall Street to the punch by several weeks . "

= = Background = =

After an 18 @-@ year hiatus from solo projects , Cooder returned with a trilogy of sociopolitical , Southern California @-@ themed albums , comprising Chávez Ravine ( 2005 ) , My Name Is Buddy ( 2007 ) , and I , Flathead ( 2008 ) . The albums examined various disenfranchised peoples through humorous , scholarly lyrics and esoteric musical styles . After completing the trilogy with I , Flathead in 2008 , Cooder worked on The Chieftains ' 2010 album San Patricio . Cooder became inspired to record Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down by the late @-@ 2000s economic crisis and past protest songs . In interviews prior to the album 's release , Cooder expressed strong anti @-@ Republican and anti @-@ banker sentiments in discussion about the political and economic climate . Before conceiving the album , he wrote and recorded the song " Quicksand " in 2010 , as a response to the controversy spurred by Arizona Senate Bill 1070 and other anti @-@ illegal immigration measures in the United States . In an interview for The Australian , Cooder said of his decision to pursue a more political direction with his songwriting :

I was still working on the Flathead record ; that was during [ George ] Bush 's time . I was looking at things and paying attention to events , politically . So I started trying to write political songs because it 's good to have something you can do other than just sit and fume about everything . After Barack Obama got elected I started thinking about other stories that might be good to do . It occurred to me that the social and political problems that we 've been having , well [ ... ] it 's deja vu all over again , as the man said .

In early 2011 , Cooder was inspired to write the song " No Banker Left Behind " , and subsequently the rest of the album , by a headline about bankers and other affluent people who had profited from the bank bailouts and resulting recession during the late @-@ 2000s . In an interview with Kai Ryssdal on Marketplace , Cooder cited the song as the starting point for writing the album and stated , " ' No Banker Left Behind ' originated with a line from Robert Scheer 's Truthdig blog . I read this pretty regularly , and when I saw this , this metric I thought ' no banker left behind . ' " He compared the album 's content to Woody Guthrie 's songs about the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression and said of his own songs , " What I like in the idea of these songs is if you follow the logic of each tune — this happened and this happened and you can see that at the end , this is the result , you just didn 't see it this way before , you never thought of Wall Street in terms of Jesse James and bilingual heft . "

Recording sessions for Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down took place at Drive @-@ By Studios in North Hollywood , Ocean Studios in Burbank , and Wireland Studios in Chatsworth , California . The album was written and produced entirely by Cooder , except " Lord Tell Me Why " , which was co @-@ written by session drummer Jim Keltner . Cooder also worked with vocalist Juliette Commagere , accordionist Flaco Jiménez , bassist Robert Francis , vocalist Arnold McCuller , and drummer Joachim Cooder , Cooder 's son . Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was mixed by Martin Pradler and mastered by recording engineer Bernie Grundman at his Hollywood studio Grundman Mastering . Most of the album was engineered in Pradler 's living room .

= = Music and lyrics = =

Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down 's music is rooted in Americana and draws on a number of styles , including blues , folk , ragtime , norteño , rock , and country music . For the songs , Cooder adapted musical language from historical sources and incorporated styles from both North and South American traditions . In his interview on Marketplace , he explained his stylistic approach for Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down , stating " to me , these musical styles and sounds are narratives as well . I mean everything about them — if it 's an accordion , horns , the banda horns for the immigrant tunes — they all are part of the story . And you can see it then , you can imagine the Arizona border that 's hot , 120 degrees in the shade , dusty . The banda horns are coming from some truck over there . " According to him , musical settings for certain songs were decided based on their respective compositions , such as when " the words would come to me in ¾ time , that meant corrido , that means accordion ; banda horns because they ’ re exciting . "

Cooder wanted the music of each song to complement the stories in his lyrics and to serve as homages to particular traditional styles . Cooder said that he did not want to " over @-@ think it " and said of his creative process for each song 's distinct style , " It ’ s taken a long time , but it becomes natural to combine an idea you have or a story you want to tell with whatever seems conducive . " Graham Reid of The New Zealand Herald writes that the music " refers to the dustbowl era , rural blues , Tex @-@ Mex ( with accordionist Flaco Jimenez ) and old @-@ time folk . " The Observer 's Neil Spencer comments that it is " grounded in the blues , folk and Tex @-@ Mex the guitarist explored in the 1970s , but its songs belong to modern times . "

Lyrically , the album focuses on socio @-@ political themes of power and its abuses , the struggle for democracy , the trials of the working class , and the goal of equality , with songs composed as either first @-@ person narratives or allegories . The songs deal with contemporary subject matter and topics such as immigration legislation , the emotional and physical effects of war , the dubiousness of politics , social class and race division , and white flight . Cooder 's songwriting is characterized by sardonic lyrics , satire , mordant humor , and wry observations on figures such as bankers , politicians , and militarists . Allmusic 's Thom Jurek characterizes it as " overtly political " and comments that " the depth of Cooder 's rage is quieter but more direct as the album draws to a close . " According to Bud Scoppa of Uncut , the album expands on Cooder 's previous trilogy of sociopolitical albums and their " scholarly but humour @-@ laced examinations " and " arcane musical modes " . Journalist Alec Wilkinson comments that " what [ the album ] shares with them is an indignation over the economic and ethical disparities of American life and the destructive and scoundrely meanness of the privileges given to the rich . "

Nick Cristiano of The Philadelphia Inquirer writes of the lyrics , " Cooder takes deadly aim at rapacious bankers , warmongers , land barons , and the like , showing the devastating impact of their actions on ordinary folk " , adding that " He does this in a manner that mixes the scrappy populism of Woody Guthrie with the first @-@ person narratives of Springsteen in Steinbeckian Ghost of Tom Joad mode . " Robin Denselow of The Guardian notes " bleak or thoughtful lyrics [ set ] against jaunty melodies " and " no elaborate narratives " in the songs , while interpreting the album 's motif to be that of " a broken , divided society and the gap between rich and poor , but with the anger matched against humour . " Neil Spencer of Uncut calls Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down " an impassioned portrait of 21st century America and its injustices " , adding that " like Guthrie , [ Cooder ] nails his targets with droll humour while empathising with society 's underdogs . "

Allmusic 's Steve Huey asserts that the album " reache [ s ] all the way back to his earliest recordings for musical inspiration while telling topical stories about corruption — political and social — the erasure and the rewriting of American history , and an emerging class war . " Peter Kane of Q compares it to Cooder 's 1971 album Into the Purple Valley , which featured Dust Bowl @-@ era songs , and writes that this album 's " protest songs for today 's messed @-@ up world " are " sly and humorous " . Philip Majorins of PopMatters compares the album to other songwriters ' " substantial statements " about the American zeitgeist , including Randy Newman 's Harps and Angels ( 2008 ) , Paul Simon 's So Beautiful or So What ( 2011 ) , and Bob Dylan 's Modern Times ( 2006 ) . However , he distinguishes Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down as " an attempt at the existential , providing an everyman 's view of struggle during economic downturn , class disparity , injustice , and abuse of power " , calling him " a direct voice of protest , both musically and lyrically , that will not be mistaken for being impressionistic . "

= = = Songs = = =

The opening track " No Banker Left Behind " references the financial bailout of 2007 and criticizes bankers and government . Alec Wilkinson of The New Yorker writes that the song " ridicules the considerations extended to the prosperous men and women who grabbed everything not nailed down during the last few years . " It features marching rhythms , mandolin and banjo riffs , and electric guitar . Cooder has described the song 's rhythm as " a kind of clog @-@ dance beat " . " El Corrido Jesse James " is played in waltz time with a horn section and accordion by Flaco Jiménez . The lyrics express a fictitious narrative by American outlaw Jessie James in Heaven , who claims to have never " turned a family from their house " when he was a bank robber . He asks God for his " trusty .44 " to persuade bankers to " put that bonus money back where it belongs " . Cooder discussed the character 's perspective in an interview on BBC Radio 4 's Today , stating :

[ T ] he point here is that Jesse James was a primitive white man from the 19th Century . And in those days the hero was a one @-@ man , one @-@ gun hero . It 's a very popular American myth . But what Jesse doesn 't realise [ in the song ] is that while he 's been up in heaven , the forces massed against him [ ... ] He can 't overcome the growth of the corporate , military @-@ industrial equation . He can 't walk down Wall Street and shoot up the place . No @-@ one would even pay attention to him . The hero is outnumbered and outgunned . The wagons are circling , but what 's he going to do ? What 's anyone going to do ?

" Quick Sand " is a shuffling rock song that addresses the plight of illegal immigrants to Arizona . It depicts six migrants travelling through extreme climates in the Sonoran Desert to reach Devil 's Highway in an attempt to cross the Mexico – United States border . They journey from Tamaulipas and through the mountains along Devil 's Highway . Partway into the journey , the migrants are abandoned by their coyote guide and subsequently lose one another one by one . They experience thirst , hunger , injury , and fear , culminating with the only two surviving migrants being turned away by a vigilante at the border . Cooder said of the route 's background and the narrative in an interview , " [ I ] t 's been a migrant trail for 200 years . People go out there and try to do it on foot , but if you make one mistake and go five minutes out of your way , you become disorientated and dehydrated . And they find these mummified bodies out there . The heat has just baked them through . And the people who live through it often refer to having a vision of the Virgin of Guadalupe flying overhead . This is a very common vision when the dehydration sets in . "

" Humpty Dumpty World " incorporates the marimba with light reggae and Mariachi influences . The song 's lyrics are sung from the perspective of God , who deplores the world He created . He makes note of incitive politicians and craven television commentators , and views it as " a ball of confusion " in the chorus line , " I thought I had built upon a solid rock / But it ’ s just a Humpty Dumpty World " . " Christmas Time This Year " is an anti @-@ war song with a Mexican polka style , with Flaco Jiménez on accordion and Cooder on bajo sexto . Composed as a corrido , the song is about wounded soldiers returning home for Christmas , with dismal lyrics set incongruously to an upbeat Mexican melody . Cooder wrote the song in response to the Walter Reed Army Medical Center neglect scandal and previous stories of neglected soldiers returning from the Iraq War . In " Baby Joined the Army " , a young man laments the departure of his girlfriend , who became uninterested in her town and enlisted in the army with the assurance that " If I get killed in battle , I still get paid . "

" Lord Tell Me Why " is a gospel song with a rolling funk groove , sung from the perspective of a lower class White man who has become disillusioned with the American dream . His ironic lyrics ask in the chorus , " Lord tell me why a white man / Ain 't worth nothin ' in this world no more . " The guitar @-@ based " I Want My Crown " was recorded with an 11 @-@ piece band and has an aggressive blues style , rumba @-@ rock groove , and growling vocals . The song is an indictment of politicians as " Judas men " who sided with oil barons and Republicans , and their greed that leads to war . " I Want My Crown " has been described by one writer as a " Mephistopheles @-@ as @-@ Right @-@ winger character study " .

" John Lee Hooker for President " is a blues song in which Cooder narrates as American blues musician John Lee Hooker visiting the White House . Adopting Hooker 's style and laconic vocal tone , he decides to run for the presidency after disliking what he observed in his visit , naming Jimmy Reed as Vice President , Little Johnny Taylor as Secretary of State , and proposing to have " nine fine @-@ lookin ' womens on the Supreme Court " . According to Cooder , the song was inspired by blues musician Gus Cannon 's 1927 song " Can You Blame the Colored Man " , a satirical piece about Booker T. Washington 's invitation to the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1901 .

" Simple Tools " is a Tex @-@ Mex ballad about the contentment of leading a simple lifestyle , with references to the decline in traditional manual skills and the view of automated work as unfulfilling . Featuring a resounding mix of mandolin and guitar , " If There Is a God " is a satirical narrative about an afterlife in which Heaven is restricted by a government bill to the wealthy . Its lyrics criticize redistricting and Republican Party legislature . The song references " The Bourgeois Blues " by blues and folk musician Lead Belly . In " No Hard Feelings " , Cooder sings from the perspective of a lowly prospector who scolds businessmen for dealing with land exclusively in business terms . He dismisses the rich and elite as " ripples " in history and is willing to tolerate them provided that they avoid conflict .

= = Release and reception = =

Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down was released by Nonesuch Records on August 30 , 2011 , in the United States . It was released in the United Kingdom on September 5 , and on September 9 in other European countries . Its vinyl LP release was on September 13 . The album 's lead single , " Quicksand " , had been released as a digital download on June 29 , 2010 . Cooder donated the proceeds from its sales to the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund . The single 's cover artwork , a piece called Nuthin ' to See Here , Keep on Movin ' ! , was designed by visual artist Vincent Valdez , a frequent collaborator with Cooder . Valdez contributed photography to the album 's liner booklet . Cooder performed with a 17 @-@ piece band at the Great American Music Hall in San Francisco , California on August 31 and September 1 , 2011 , to promote the album . He was not satisfied with the promotional aspect of the shows , however , and it contributed to his general disillusionment with the music industry , which he reflected on in an interview for The Australian :

We had a 16 @-@ piece band and we played great shows to 700 people a night . But none of them bought CDs . None of them . They had a good time but they weren 't motivated to buy CDs . I don 't understand it because I came up in the time of records . Back then the business ran . You still got the tunes out . It was a crooked business , you could get cheated and there could be crooked accounting , but I still prefer it to this new thing where there is no connection to the audience through radio or retail .

In the week of September 24 , 2011 , Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down debuted at number five on the US Billboard Top Folk Albums chart , on which it went on to spend seven weeks . The record also charted at number 123 on the Billboard 200 , number 28 on the Top Rock Albums , number 15 on the Tastemaker Albums , a chart that ranks top @-@ selling albums " based on an influential panel of indie stores and small regional chains . " In the United Kingdom , Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down debuted at number 26 on the UK Albums Chart , selling 6 @,@ 000 copies in its first week there ; it spent two weeks on the chart .

Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 92 , based on 14 reviews . It was called one of Cooder 's best records by Uncut magazine 's Nigel Williamson and Martin Chilton of The Daily Telegraph . AllMusic editor Thom Jurek deemed it Cooder 's " most overtly political album ... and one of his funniest , most musically compelling ones , too " , while Daniel Paton from musicOMH said much of the record was " highly satisfying satire ( although also often sensitive and affecting ) , combining Cooder ’ s transparent love for a wide range of roots music with his engagement with politics . " Andy Gill of The Independent was impressed by how Cooder used similar characters throughout the songs in new ways , calling the album his best since 2005 's Chávez Ravine . Cooder received comparisons to Woody Guthrie in reviews written by Phil Sutcliffe of Mojo , who found the lyrics sharply written , and Neil Spencer from The Observer , who called Cooder " a Woody Guthrie for our times " and the record " a fierce state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ nation album " . In the opinion of PopMatters critic Philip Majorins , the record would not have a significant impact because of the public 's predominantly commercial tastes and a " cynical " cultural climate , but concluded , " Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down could have tremendous cathartic power for [ those ] who are aware of history and its knack for repeating itself . For those who are willing , this is a good place to start an education . "

At the end of 2011 , Uncut named Pull Up Some Dust and Sit Down the year 's 20th best album , while Robert Christgau ranked it number 37 on his list for The Barnes & Noble Review . The record was also nominated for the 2012 Grammy Award for Best Americana Album , while Cooder was nominated in the category of Best Artist for the 2012 Songlines Music Awards .

= = Track listing = =

All songs written and composed by Ry Cooder .

= = Personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .

= = Charts = =

= Losing My Religion ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =

" Losing My Religion " is the twenty @-@ seventh and final episode of the second season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 36th episode overall . Written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Mark Tinker , the episode was originally broadcast with " Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response " , in a two @-@ hour season finale event on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on May 15 , 2006 . Grey 's Anatomy centers around a group of young doctors in training . In this episode , Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) and her fellow interns have to plan a prom for Dr. Richard Webber 's ( James Pickens , Jr . ) niece Camille Travis ( Tessa Thompson ) . Further storylines include Dr. Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) recovering from his gunshot wound and Denny Duquette 's ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) death following his seemingly successful heart transplant surgery .

The episode marked Sara Ramirez 's ( Dr. Callie Torres ) final appearance with recurring billing , as she would be upgraded to a series regular in season three . Morgan , Ramirez , Thompson , Brooke Smith , Sarah Utterback , Loretta Devine , and Chris O 'Donnell reprised their roles as guest stars , while Hallee Hirsh and Tiffany Hines made their first and only appearances . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from television critics , who disapproved of the storyline involving Grey and Shepherd and the show 's lack of repercussions for the interns , but lauded Dr. Cristina Yang 's ( Sandra Oh ) storyline along with Heigl 's performance . " Losing My Religion " was also included in several " best episodes " lists . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed 22 @.@ 50 million Americans , garnered an 8 @.@ 0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership , and registering as the week 's second highest @-@ rated drama .

= = Plot = =

Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) and Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) finish Dr. Preston Burke 's ( Isaiah Washington ) surgery to remove a pseudo @-@ aneurysm in the subclavian artery that threatened the functioning of his arm and which was caused by a gunshot wound . At the same time , Dr. Erica Hahn ( Brooke Smith ) successfully transplants a heart into Denny Duquette ( Jeffrey Dean Morgan ) . The interns face Webber , who orders them to plan a prom for his dying niece , Camille Travis ( Tessa Thompson ) , until the one who cut Duquette 's left ventricular assist device ( LVAD ) comes forward . With the instructions of Camille 's friends , Claire ( Hallee Hirsh ) and Natalie ( Tiffany Hines ) , they prepare the prom as they each struggle with their own personal problems . Trying to recover from his injury , Burke finds a tremor in his right hand .

Dr. Meredith Grey 's ( Ellen Pompeo ) love interest Dr. Finn Dandrige ( Chris O 'Donnell ) , the vet of Doc — the dog she shares with Shepherd — informs her that Doc has had several seizures due to his bone cancer and that she and Shepherd have to make a decision . Webber interrogates the interns individually about Duquette 's LVAD wire , but only learns about their personal problems instead . Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) finally accepts Duquette 's marriage proposal . At Dandridge 's office , Grey and Shepherd , joined by Dr. Addison Montgomery @-@ Shepherd ( Kate Walsh ) , decide to put Doc to sleep .

The hospital staff begins to arrive at the prom and Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) and Dr. George O 'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) discuss the status of their relationship , which leads to the former admitting her love and commitment . During the dance , Grey and Shepherd escape Dandridge and Montgomery to have a heated argument that leads to sexual intercourse . In the meantime , as Duquette waits for Stevens alone in his room , he experiences a sudden sense of pain , and unexpectedly dies . While Webber is sitting in the operating room gallery and reflecting on his career , Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) announces Duquette 's death .

News of the death spreads , and the interns hurry to his room to find a shocked Stevens , lying on the bed , clinging to his still form . As they each try to comfort her , the cause of his death is revealed to have been a blood clot that led to a fatal stroke . Stevens says that if she had taken less time to dress , she would have arrived at his room sooner and could have been with him while he died . Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) then talks to Stevens , picking her up and hugging her . Afterward , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , who did not know how to handle Burke 's situation , goes to his room and puts her hand on his to show him her support . As the episode ends , Stevens confesses to Webber that she was the one responsible for the LVAD wire cut , and claiming she cannot be a surgeon , quits the program . After everyone begins going their separate ways , Grey remains torn on who she should follow : Shepherd or Dandridge .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by filmmaker Mark Tinker , while Ed Ornelas edited it . It was the last episode to feature Sara Ramirez as a guest star , as she began receiving star billing in the season three premiere . Morgan , Ramirez , Thompson , Smith , Utterback , Devine , and O 'Donnell reprised their roles as Duquette , Torres , Travis , Hahn , Harper , Adele , and Dandridge , respectively , while Hirsh and Hines made their first and only appearances as Claire and Natalie , respectively . The soundtrack of the episode consisted of Pete Droge 's " Under the Waves " , Dressy Bessy 's " Side 2 " , Amos Lee 's " Colors " , Masha Qrella 's " Destination Vertical " , Kate Havnevik 's " Grace " , and Snow Patrol 's " Chasing Cars " . The American profile of Northern Irish band Snow Patrol increased after their single was used in this episode . Lead singer Gary Lightbody was initially uncertain about licensing a song for the soundtrack , but has since admitted that the publicity had a positive effect .

Rhimes entitled the episode " Losing My Religion " because she felt " that is what happens to each intern in this episode . Each intern lets go of the things they 've held onto all season . George lets go of loving Meredith . Cristina lets go of her well @-@ checked emotions . Izzie is forced to let go of her idealism . And that leads to her letting go of medicine . Alex lets go of his rage against Izzie . And Meredith ... well , Meredith just lets go . " The costumes were designed by Mimi Melgaard ; Rhimes noted that everyone was dressed in dark funeral colors to the prom , except Stevens who was dressed in pink . Stevens ' dress was an Amsale creation . Monologues done by the five main characters were used in this episode . Rhimes commented : " this was something we 'd never done and I wasn 't sure would work . But you place those pages into the hands of the actors and each and every one of them layered their characters ' souls right into the dialogue . " The episode 's theme was the prom ; Rhimes said she wanted to do it since the beginning of the season .

= = Reception = =

" Losing My Religion " was originally broadcast on May 15 , 2006 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , along with " Deterioration of the Fight or Flight Response " . The episodes were watched by a total of 22 @.@ 50 million Americans . It represents a slight decrease in comparison to the episode airing the previous night , " 17 Seconds " , which garnered 22 @.@ 60 million viewers . The episode received an 8 @.@ 0 / 22 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking fifth for the week in terms of viewership , and registering as the week 's second highest @-@ rated drama . The episode 's rating outranked CBS 's The New Adventures of Old Christine and CSI : Miami , the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) ' s The Apprentice , and the Fox Broadcasting Company 's 24 .

The episode received mixed to negative reviews among critics . Joel Keller of The Huffington Post expressed mixed opinions on the episode , putting the emphasis on Yang 's development , whom he deemed " transformed " by the end of the episode . He applauded Torres ' evolution throughout the episode , and also praised Heigl 's performance and dress . Keller criticized the non @-@ realism of the punishment the interns received , Grey and Shepherd 's storyline being tiresome , and the cliffhanger , calling it a " lame cliché " . Writing for the Chicago Tribune , Maureen Ryan gave a negative review of the episode , stating : " overall , the whole thing just fell a little flat . " Though Ryan appreciated the scene of Doc 's death , she was critical of Torres ' underdevelopment , the lack of chemistry with O 'Malley , and her prom dress . Abigail Chao of Television Without Pity was also critical of Torres ' dress , but liked Heigl 's pink dress . She also applauded Karev 's intervening to calm Stevens down , and agreed that Grey 's cliffhanger was not good .

Eyder Peralta of The Houston Chronicle criticized Stevens ' ethics for cutting Duquette 's LVAD wire , writing that she " should not be practising medicine " . Alan Sepinwall , a former television columnist for The Star @-@ Ledger , commented favorably on Karev " finally displaying some humanity " in the scene following Duquette 's death . He was critical of Shepherd 's arc , however , and on the absence of severe consequences for Stevens having cut the LVAD wire , an action he called " insane and dangerous " . This episode was included on the list for the " 25 Sexiest TV Shows on DVD " by magazine Entertainment Weekly . It was also listed in Entertainment Weekly 's " 20 Unforgettable Proms " and in Starpulse 's " Top Ten TV Proms " . AOL TV placed the hook @-@ up scene involving Grey and Shepherd on its Top 20 of TV 's Sexiest Scenes . In 2009 , TV Guide ranked " Losing My Religion " # 63 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes . In 2013 , the magazine named Duquette 's death one of TV 's Most Heartbreaking Deaths . In December 2011 , Wetpaint named " Losing My Religion " one of the five best episodes of the series .

= M @-@ 44 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 44 is a 37 @.@ 463 @-@ mile ( 60 @.@ 291 km ) state trunkline highway in the western region of the US state of Michigan . It runs northward from the intersection of M @-@ 11 ( 28th Street ) and M @-@ 37 toward the Rockford area . The highway then turns eastward to Belding , and it ends six miles ( 10 km ) north of Ionia at M @-@ 66 . M @-@ 44 is known in Grand Rapids as the " East Beltline " and intersects with its related highway , Connector M @-@ 44 , in Plainfield Township . This highway runs concurrently with M @-@ 37 between M @-@ 11 and Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) .

As a state highway , M @-@ 44 dates back to around July 1 , 1919 , and it was routed along a section of its modern route at that time . The eastern end was altered in the late 1920s , and the western end was extended to the Grand Rapids area in the 1970s . For over 20 years , M @-@ 44 was truncated to remove the M @-@ 37 concurrency . Since 2003 though , the highway has terminated at the intersection with 28th Street .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 44 starts at the intersection of 28th Street and East Beltline Avenue in Kentwood . M @-@ 11 runs east and west along 28th Street and M @-@ 37 runs south along Broadmoor Avenue as the continuation of East Beltline . M @-@ 44 and M @-@ 37 run together on East Beltline Avenue north from this intersection , which is also the location of the Woodland Mall in Kentwood . From here north , M @-@ 37 / M @-@ 44 runs along a four @-@ lane divided boulevard through the campus of Calvin College . East Beltline passes through suburban residential areas near the east end of Reeds Lake and M @-@ 21 's western terminus at Fulton Street . Just north of this intersection is an interchange with I @-@ 96 at exit 38 . M @-@ 37 leaves the roadway to run along I @-@ 96 while M @-@ 44 continues northward along East Beltline Avenue . All of M @-@ 44 to this point is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .

North of the interchange , M @-@ 44 passes the Frederik Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park and the campus of Cornerstone University . The area around the highway is mixed businesses and office parks north to Knapp Street , and then residential north of there . At Plainfield Avenue , M @-@ 44 meets Conn . M @-@ 44 and crosses the Grand River . M @-@ 44 turns eastward near the south side of Rockford and runs through suburban residential areas near Lake Bella Vista , Silver and Bostwick lakes . East of here , the environs transition to rural farmland and the highway crosses the Kent – Ionia county line between Grattan and Cooks Corners , where it meets M @-@ 91 west of Belding . The highway continues east through town , where it crosses the Flat River , and ends at M @-@ 66 north of Ionia .

= = History = =

M @-@ 44 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 beginning at M @-@ 13 ( later US 131 ) from Rockford to Belding . Near Orleans , M @-@ 44 turned south into town and ended at M @-@ 21 in Ionia . The segment near Orleans was realigned to end at M @-@ 14 ( now M @-@ 66 ) in Woods Corners in 1929 . M @-@ 44 was extended concurrently along US 131 to end at the intersection of the East Beltline and 28th Street near Grand Rapids . Two other highways were also routed on the East Beltline : M @-@ 21 south of Fulton Street and M @-@ 37 south of Cascade Road . The US 131 , M @-@ 21 and M @-@ 37 concurrencies only lasted until 1964 when M @-@ 21 was moved to I @-@ 196 and M @-@ 37 was shifted to the new US 131 freeway .

US 131 was moved to its freeway north of Grand Rapids in 1969 . The Northland Drive segment of US 131 / M @-@ 44 was redesignated as only M @-@ 44 , and the Plainfield Avenue segment became Conn . M @-@ 44 . M @-@ 37 was rerouted as well up East Beltline from M @-@ 11 concurrently with M @-@ 44 to I @-@ 96 . In 1977 , this junction at I @-@ 96 became the official western terminus of M @-@ 44 , with the M @-@ 44 signs along East Beltline Avenue removed . Then in 2003 , the signs along the East Beltline were restored and the route extended back to its former terminus .

= = Major intersections = =

= = Connector route = =

M @-@ 44 Connector , or Conn . M @-@ 44 , is a 4 @.@ 185 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 735 km ) connector route state trunkline highway running along Plainfield Avenue in the Grand Rapids area . It connects I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 near Lamberton Lake with M @-@ 44 running along East Beltline Avenue near the Grand River . In between , the highway passes through a commercial area . North of 5 Mile Road , Plainfield Avenue takes on a more suburban residential character . There are more business again at the northern end by Versluis Lake . Conn . M @-@ 44 was formed in 1969 when the US 131 freeway was completed from I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 to 14 Mile Road near Rockford . US 131 along Plainfield Avenue was redesignated as Conn . M @-@ 44 to connect I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 with M @-@ 44 .

= Road to Rhode Island =

" Road to Rhode Island " is the 13th episode of the second season and the first episode of the ' Road To ... ' series of the American animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 30 , 2000 . In the episode , Brian volunteers to bring Stewie home from his grandparents ' house in California , but the two miss their plane and must travel on foot for a cross @-@ country journey back home . Meanwhile , Peter becomes addicted to watching a collection of marriage counseling videos hosted by a pornstar .

The episode was directed by Dan Povenmire and was written by Gary Janetti . It guest starred Victoria Principal as Dr. Amanda Rebecca , Danny Smith and Wally Wingert as various characters . Series creator Seth MacFarlane conceived the idea for this episode , and was inspired by the 1940s Road to ... series of comedy films which starred Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . It was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Behind the Laughter " .

= = Plot = =

The episode begins with a flashback set seven years ago , where it is revealed that Brian was born in a puppy mill and taken from his mother . Back in the present , Brian tells his psychiatrist about the experience . Afterwards , Brian volunteers to pick up Stewie from his vacation at his grandparents ' summer home in Palm Springs , California , where Stewie frames a maid for stealing to amuse himself at dinner . At the airport bar , Brian gets very drunk and , when Stewie comes to retrieve him , their plane tickets are stolen . They stop at a rundown motel , where Stewie tries calling home , but fails because he believes his phone number is 867 @-@ 5309 . The next day , they have to escape and hotwire a car because their credit card was rejected . To get home , Stewie and Brian masquerade as crop dusters to steal a plane , which they immediately wreck . As the pair continue hitchhiking back to Quahog , they pass by a puppy mill near Austin , Texas , Brian 's birthplace . Upon arrival , they discover that Brian 's mother was taxidermied and turned into a table by the puppy mill owners as a memorial . With Stewie 's reluctant help , Brian gives his mother a proper burial . The pair eventually complete their journey home by riding in an open boxcar , where Brian attempts to apologize to Stewie for all of the trouble he has put both of them through , only to have Stewie reply that he actually enjoyed it . Reconciled , they perform a musical duet " Off On the Road to Rhode Island " as the train takes them home . When Stewie and Brian return home , Lois asks Stewie about the trip , and Stewie covers up for Brian by saying the trip was " Smooth sailing through calm seas " . Lois leaves and Brian tells Stewie that he is thankful to Stewie for covering for him , and asks Stewie if there 's anything he can do to repay him . At first it appears that Stewie wishes to make him his servant by providing an example with an episode of The Brady Bunch , although it turns out that Stewie wants Brian to tape that episode for him .

Meanwhile , Lois urges Peter to watch relationship videos with her , but the videos turn out to be pornography hosted by Dr. Amanda Rebecca , who strips after asking the women to leave the room . Peter becomes addicted to the videos , much to Lois ' chagrin . She gets herself on the end of one of the tapes in black lingerie and entices Peter . While kissing , Peter rewinds the tape , playing the part of Lois taking her robe off over and over .

= = Production = =

" Road to Rhode Island " was directed by Dan Povenmire and was written by Gary Janetti . It featured guest appearances from Victoria Principal as Dr. Amanda Rebecca , Danny Smith and Wally Wingert as various characters . This was the first episode directed by Povenmire . Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane granted Povenmire substantial creative freedom for directing episodes . Povenmire said that MacFarlane would tell him , " We 've got two minutes to fill . Give me some visual gags . Do whatever you want . I trust you . " Povenmire praised MacFarlane 's management style for letting him have fun . Several years after the episode was written , in DVD commentary for the eighth and ninth season of the show , Gary Janetti , the writer of the episode , recalled that the original title of the episode was intended to be simply " Brian & Stewie " , but was changed by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , who wanted there to be a " Road to " episode each season . The name of the episode was then changed to " Road to Rhode Island " , with the original name later being used for the landmark 150th episode of the show , also entitled " Brian & Stewie " , and written by Janetti .

This is the first episode of the " Road to " episodes of the series which air through various seasons of the show . The episodes are a parody of the seven " Road to " comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope , and Dorothy Lamour . MacFarlane , a fan of the film series , came up with the idea . The musical number in the episode is sung to the tune of " ( We 're Off on the ) Road to Morocco " from the film Road to Morocco .

= = = Edits = = =

During the airport section of the episode , there is a scene that has subsequently cut from some editions / airings of the show , involving Osama bin Laden . In the scene , Stewie , when approaching airport security , realizes that his bag is full of weapons . He then breaks into song , singing " On the Good Ship Lollipop " to distract the X @-@ ray scanners . He then says , " Let 's hope Osama bin Laden doesn 't know show tunes . " At that time , Osama is pictured in another line , distracting the scanners by singing " I hope I get it " from A Chorus Line . Even though the episode was made a year and a half before 9 / 11 , it was still controversial , and was left out of the original DVD release in the US . However , the scene was left intact on the " Freakin ' Sweet Collection . "

= = Reception = =

In his 2009 review , Ahsan Haque of IGN , rating the episode 10 / 10 , praised the episode , saying : " Great writing , hilarious jokes , a catchy musical , and a story that 's both hilarious and touching at the same time – Family Guy doesn 't get much better than this . " It is one of the only two Family Guy episodes that has ever been given a " Masterpiece " ( 10 / 10 ) rating by IGN , leading many to consider this episode as the greatest in Family Guy 's history . IGN also placed the episode at the top of their list of " Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures " .

The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) , but lost to The Simpsons episode " Behind the Laughter " .

= Pilot ( Millennium ) =

" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on October 25 , 1996 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by David Nutter . " Pilot " featured guest appearances by Paul Dillon , April Telek and Stephen J. Lang .

Offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group , retires to Seattle with his family after a breakdown caused him to quit working for the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Using his incredible profiling skills , Black helps in an effort to catch a vicious murderer who believes he is fulfilling apocalyptic prophecies .

" Pilot " was filmed over the course of a month in Vancouver , British Columbia , and was inspired by the writings of Nostradamus and William Butler Yeats . Airing in the timeslot previously occupied by Carter 's first series , The X @-@ Files , the episode received a high Nielsen household and syndication rating and was generally positively received by fans and critics alike .

= = Plot = =

In a strip club in downtown Seattle , an unnamed man known to the club workers as " The Frenchman " ( Paul Dillon ) is mumbling poetic phrases and hallucinating blood pouring over a blonde stripper , with a wall of fire surrounding her . Later that night , the stripper is murdered . Just arriving in Seattle is Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and his family . Frank spots a newspaper about the local murder , and immediately contacts his old colleague Bob Bletcher . Frank joins the investigation as an advisor of the Millennium Group , a private investigative group composed of retired law enforcement agents .

When he views the body , Frank gets various vivid visions of the crime . His knowledge of various details unknown to the others unsettles Bletcher . Frank and a fellow member of the Millennium Group named Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) officially join the investigation .

In the meantime , the killer is hunting for his next victim . While unknown to him , the murderer is trapped in a world of grotesque hallucinations . Later that night , local police officers spot his latest victim . Frank visits the crime scene , which gives him a vision of the crime , again startling his colleague Bletcher . Later on , Frank presents his finding to the local homicide department , saying that the murderer is obsessed with apocalyptic prophecies and maddened by twisted sexual guilt .

After Frank presents his finding , Bletcher demands Frank give him the stripper girl 's " rape & murder on VHS . " . Frank tells him he can see what the killer sees . After telling him , Frank rushes to hospital when his daughter , Jordan Black ( Brittany Tiplady ) is stricken with a high fever . Getting another vision , Frank leaves the hospital and gathers local law enforcement officers to another victim .

This follows with Frank tracking down the killer to the local police department 's own evidence lab . In a mad rage the killer attacks Frank , but Bletcher shows up and shoots the killer , saving Frank 's life . After clearing up the case with the local authorities , Frank returns home and opens up a newly arrived anonymous piece of mail containing pictures of his family .

= = Production = =

" Pilot " was written by series creator Chris Carter . Beyond creating the concept for Millennium , Carter would write a total of six other episodes for the series in addition to " Gehenna " — three in the first season , and a further three in the third season . Director David Nutter would also go on to direct several episodes in the first season of the series — " Gehenna " , " 522666 " and " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " .

" Pilot " was filmed over the course of a month , which was an unheard @-@ of length of time for a single television episode . The episode was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia in early spring to give it a " gray " and " bleak " look . The decision to film in Vancouver was to give the show the same dark feel as its sister show The X @-@ Files , which had also been created by Carter . The strip club , Ruby Tip , was inspired by a club in Seattle named the Lusty Lady , which is located on that city 's main street . Director David Nutter had been a long @-@ time staff member of The X @-@ Files crew . Carter said the episode was " directed beautifully by David Nutter who added to the project in so many ways , even as it came on , things that he saw visually that were able to actually change and make the script more concise " . Although " Pilot " did not open with a literary quote as the series would do from the next episode onwards , its plot heavily features the 1919 poem " The Second Coming " by Irish poet William Butler Yeats .

Carter called it a " pleasure " to cast Kate Luyben and April Telek , because they were " good " -looking , which he felt was a refreshing change from frequently casting " character actors " on The X @-@ Files . Luyben would later make an appearance on The X @-@ Files and played a prominent role on Harsh Realm . The idea behind the character " The Frenchman " came from a prophecy by Nostradamus . According to Carter , " the idea that there is something approaching at the millennium , this series being produced I think four years before the end of the century , that we were headed toward something grave and foreboding " . The name of recurring character Bob Bletcher came from an attorney Carter had worked with previously . Another name , Giebelhouse was another name Carter had gotten from his childhood years . Carter said " This idea of the hard @-@ boiled detective is a kind of cliché " . But felt that the characters came " very real to life " , when compared to real law enforcement personnel .

Millennium was given the Friday night timeslot previously occupied by The X @-@ Files , prompting Carter to quip that his earlier series was " being abducted " . However , Millennium received higher viewing figures during its first season than The X @-@ Files had done , while the latter show 's fourth season , the one airing concurrently to Millennium , saw its ratings reach their highest to that point .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Pilot " was first broadcast on the Fox network on October 25 , 1996 ; and gathered a total viewership of 17 @.@ 72 million in the United States . In the " adults 18 – 49 " demographic , the episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 , with a 27 share ; meaning it was viewed by nine percent of television @-@ equipped households and 27 percent of those actively watching television . The rating across all demographics was 11 @.@ 9 . The episode 's broadcast set the record at the time for the most @-@ watched program on Fox .

Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handeln rated the episode a B , finding it to be " weirdly prescient of the crime dramas we wallow in today " . Handlen felt that episode 's tone was so " overwrought " as to be " hilarious " , but still found the series to be " uncompromising " and " compelling " . Handlen also noted similarities to the films Manhunter and Seven in both the episode 's plot and the series ' premise . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 5 / 5 , calling it " perhaps the most perfect opening episode to a one @-@ hour suspense thriller ... ever conceived " . Gibron also praised the casting of Henriksen and O 'Quinn in the series . An Entertainment Weekly preview for the episode noted that some of its scenes were " the grimmest ... in prime @-@ time history " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , calling it " bleak and confrontational " though finding that its symbolism was " too boldly stated " . Comparing the series to its sister show , The X @-@ Files , Shearman and Pearson noted that Henriksen portrays his role " with a confidence that makes him immediately a more credible character than Mulder or Scully would be for an entire season " . Writing for The Register @-@ Guard , Renee Graham called the episode " as lurid a television show as you 're ever going to see " , adding that it seemed " just too horrific to be enjoyable " . However , Graham noted that the episode was " by far the superior show " compared to the similar series Profiler , which aired around the same time .

= Flag of Japan =

The national flag of Japan is a white rectangular flag with a large red disc representing the sun in the center . This flag is officially called Nisshōki ( 日章旗 , " sun @-@ mark flag " ) in Japanese , but is more commonly known as Hinomaru ( 日の丸 , " circle of the sun " ) .

The Nisshōki flag is designated as the national flag in the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem , which was promulgated and became effective on August 13 , 1999 . Although no earlier legislation had specified a national flag , the sun @-@ disc flag had already become the de facto national flag of Japan . Two proclamations issued in 1870 by the Daijō @-@ kan , the governmental body of the early Meiji period , each had a provision for a design of the national flag . A sun @-@ disc flag was adopted as the national flag for merchant ships under Proclamation No. 57 of Meiji 3 ( issued on February 27 , 1870 ) , and as the national flag used by the Navy under Proclamation No. 651 of Meiji 3 ( issued on October 27 , 1870 ) . Use of the Hinomaru was severely restricted during the early years of the American occupation after World War II ; these restrictions were later relaxed .

The sun plays an important role in Japanese mythology and religion as the Emperor is said to be the direct descendent of the sun goddess Amaterasu and the legitimacy of the ruling house rested on this divine appointment and descent from the chief deity of the predominant Shinto religion . The name of the country as well as the design of the flag reflect this central importance of the sun . The ancient history Shoku Nihongi says that Emperor Monmu used a flag representing the sun in his court in 701 , and this is the first recorded use of a sun @-@ motif flag in Japan . The oldest existing flag is preserved in Unpō @-@ ji temple , Kōshū , Yamanashi , which is older than the 16th century , and an ancient legend says that the flag was given to the temple by Emperor Go @-@ Reizei in the 11th century . During the Meiji Restoration , both the sun disc and the Rising Sun Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy became major symbols in the emerging Japanese Empire . Propaganda posters , textbooks , and films depicted the flag as a source of pride and patriotism . In Japanese homes , citizens were required to display the flag during national holidays , celebrations and other occasions as decreed by the government . Different tokens of devotion to Japan and its Emperor featuring the Hinomaru motif became popular during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and other conflicts . These tokens ranged from slogans written on the flag to clothing items and dishes that resembled the flag .

Public perception of the national flag varies . Historically , both Western and Japanese sources claimed the flag was a powerful and enduring symbol to the Japanese . Since the end of World War II ( the Pacific War ) , the use of the flag and the national anthem Kimigayo has been a contentious issue for Japan 's public schools . Disputes about their use have led to protests and lawsuits . The flag is not frequently displayed in Japan due to its association with ultranationalism . To Okinawans , the flag represents the events of World War II and the subsequent U.S. military presence there . For some nations that have been occupied by Japan , the flag is a symbol of aggression and imperialism . The Hinomaru was used as a tool against occupied nations for purposes of intimidation , asserting Japan 's dominance , or subjugation . Several military banners of Japan are based on the Hinomaru , including the sunrayed Naval Ensign . The Hinomaru also serves as a template for other Japanese flags in public and private use .

= = History = =

= = = Before 1900 = = =

The exact origin of the Hinomaru is unknown , but the rising sun seems to have had some symbolic meaning since the early 7th century ( the Japanese archipelago is east of the Asian mainland , and is thus where the sun " rises " ) . In 607 , an official correspondence that began with " from the Emperor of the rising sun " was sent to Chinese Emperor Yang of Sui . Japan is often referred to as " the land of the rising sun " . In the 12th @-@ century work , The Tale of the Heike , it was written that different samurai carried drawings of the sun on their fans . One legend related to the national flag is attributed to the Buddhist priest Nichiren . Supposedly , during a 13th @-@ century Mongolian invasion of Japan , Nichiren gave a sun banner to the shogun to carry into battle . The sun is also closely related to the Imperial family , as legend states the imperial throne was descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu .

One of Japan 's oldest flags is housed at the Unpo @-@ ji temple in Yamanashi Prefecture . Legend states it was given by Emperor Go @-@ Reizei to Minamoto no Yoshimitsu and has been treated as a family treasure by the Takeda clan for the past 1 @,@ 000 years , and at least it is older than 16th century .

The earliest recorded flags in Japan date from the unification period in the late 16th century . The flags belonged to each Daimyo and were used primarily in battle . Most of the flags were long banners usually charged with the mon ( family crest ) of the Daimyo lord . Members of the same family , such as a son , father , and brother , had different flags to carry into battle . The flags served as identification , and were displayed by soldiers on their backs and horses . Generals also had their own flags , most of which differed from soldiers ' flags due to their square shape .

In 1854 , during the Tokugawa shogunate , Japanese ships were ordered to hoist the Hinomaru to distinguish themselves from foreign ships . Before then , different types of Hinomaru flags were used on vessels that were trading with the Americans and Russians . The Hinomaru was decreed the merchant flag of Japan in 1870 and was the legal national flag from 1870 to 1885 , making it the first national flag Japan adopted .

While the idea of national symbols was strange to the Japanese , the Meiji Government needed them to communicate with the outside world . This became especially important after the landing of U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry in Yokohama Bay . Further Meiji Government implementations gave more identifications to Japan , including the anthem Kimigayo and the imperial seal . In 1885 , all previous laws not published in the Official Gazette of Japan were abolished . Because of this ruling by the new cabinet of Japan , the Hinomaru was the de facto national flag since no law was in place after the Meiji Restoration .

= = = Early conflicts and the Pacific War = = =

The use of the national flag grew as Japan sought to develop an empire , and the Hinomaru was present at celebrations after victories in the First Sino @-@ Japanese and Russo @-@ Japanese Wars . The flag was also used in war efforts throughout the country . A Japanese propaganda film in 1934 portrayed foreign national flags as incomplete or defective with their designs , while the Japanese flag is perfect in all forms . In 1937 , a group of girls from Hiroshima Prefecture showed solidarity with Japanese soldiers fighting in China during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , by eating " flag meals " that consisted of an umeboshi in the middle of a bed of rice . The Hinomaru bento became the main symbol of Japan 's war mobilization and solidarity with her soldiers until the 1940s .

Japan 's early victories in the Sino @-@ Japanese War resulted in the Hinomaru again being used for celebrations . It was seen in the hands of every Japanese during parades .

Textbooks during this period also had the Hinomaru printed with various slogans expressing devotion to the Emperor and the country . Patriotism was taught as a virtue to Japanese children . Expressions of patriotism , such as displaying the flag or worshiping the Emperor daily , were all part of being a " good Japanese . "

The flag was a tool of Japanese imperialism in the occupied Southeast Asian areas during Second World War : people had to use the flag , and schoolchildren sang Kimigayo in morning flag raising ceremonies . Local flags were allowed for some areas such as the Philippines , Indonesia , and Manchukuo . In Korea which was part of the Empire of Japan , the Hinomaru and other symbols were used to declare that the Koreans were subjects of the empire .

To the Japanese , the Hinomaru was the " Rising Sun flag that would light the darkness of the entire world . " To Westerners , it was one of the Japanese military 's most powerful symbols .

= = = U.S. occupation = = =

The Hinomaru was the de facto flag throughout World War II and the occupation period . During the occupation of Japan after World War II , permission from the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers ( SCAPJ ) was needed to fly the Hinomaru . Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the Hinomaru flag was restricted ; some use the term " banned ; " however , while the original restrictions were severe , they did not amount to an outright ban .

After World War II , an ensign was used by Japanese civil ships of the United States Naval Shipping Control Authority for Japanese Merchant Marines . Modified from the " E " signal code , the ensign was used from September 1945 until the U.S. occupation of Japan ceased . U.S. ships operating in Japanese waters used a modified " O " signal flag as their ensign .

On May 2 , 1947 , General Douglas MacArthur lifted the restrictions on displaying the Hinomaru in the grounds of the National Diet Building , on the Imperial Palace , on the Prime Minister 's residence and on the Supreme Court building with the ratification of the new Constitution of Japan . Those restrictions were further relaxed in 1948 , when people were allowed to fly the flag on national holidays . In January 1949 , the restrictions were abolished and anyone could fly the Hinomaru at any time without permission . As a result , schools and homes were encouraged to fly the Hinomaru until the early 1950s .

= = = Postwar to 1999 = = =

Since World War II , Japan 's flag has been criticized for its association with the country 's militaristic past . Similar objections have also been raised to the current national anthem of Japan , Kimigayo . The feelings about the Hinomaru and Kimigayo represented a general shift from a patriotic feeling about " Dai Nippon " – Great Japan – to the pacifist and anti @-@ militarist " Nihon " . Because of this ideological shift , the flag was used less often in Japan directly after the war even though restrictions were lifted by the SCAPJ in 1949 .

As Japan began to re @-@ establish itself diplomatically , the Hinomaru was used as a political weapon overseas . In a visit by the Emperor Hirohito and the Empress Kōjun to the Netherlands , the Hinomaru was burned by Dutch citizens who demanded that either he be sent home to Japan or tried for the deaths of Dutch prisoners of war during the Second World War . Domestically , the flag was not even used in protests against a new Status of Forces Agreement being negotiated between U.S. and Japan . The most common flag used by the trade unions and other protesters was the red flag of revolt .

An issue with the Hinomaru and national anthem was raised once again when Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympic Games . Before the Olympic Games , the size of the sun disc of the national flag was changed partly because the sun disc was not considered striking when it was being flown with other national flags . Tadamasa Fukiura , a color specialist , chose to set the sun disc at two thirds of the flag 's length . Fukiura also chose the flag colors for the 1964 as well as the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano .

In 1989 , the death of Emperor Hirohito once again raised moral issues about the national flag . Conservatives felt that if the flag could be used during the ceremonies without reopening old wounds , they might have a chance to propose that the Hinomaru become the national flag without being challenged about its meaning . During an official six @-@ day mourning period , flags were flown at half staff or draped in black bunting all across Japan . Despite reports of protesters vandalizing the Hinomaru on the day of the Emperor 's funeral , schools ' right to fly the Japanese flag at half @-@ staff without reservations brought success to the conservatives .

= = = Since 1999 = = =

The Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem was passed in 1999 , choosing both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo as Japan 's national symbols . The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of the principal of Sera High School in Sera , Hiroshima , Ishikawa Toshihiro , who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the Hinomaru and Kimigayo . The Act is one of the most controversial laws passed by the Diet since the 1992 " Law Concerning Cooperation for United Nations Peacekeeping Operations and Other Operations " , also known as the " International Peace Cooperation Law " .

Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi of the Liberal Democratic Party ( LDP ) decided to draft legislation to make the Hinomaru and Kimigayo official symbols of Japan in 2000 . His Chief Cabinet Secretary , Hiromu Nonaka , wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of Emperor Akihito 's enthronement . This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official . In 1974 , with the backdrop of the 1972 return of Okinawa to Japan and the 1973 oil crisis , Prime Minister Tanaka Kakuei hinted at a law being passed enshrining both symbols in the law of Japan . In addition to instructing the schools to teach and play Kimigayo , Kakuei wanted students to raise the Hinomaru flag in a ceremony every morning , and to adopt a moral curriculum based on certain elements of the Imperial Rescript on Education pronounced by the Meiji Emperor in 1890 . Kakuei was unsuccessful in passing the law through the Diet that year .

Main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the Komeito ( CGP ) , while the opposition included the Social Democratic Party ( SDPJ ) and Communist Party ( JCP ) , who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era . The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public . Meanwhile , the Democratic Party of Japan ( DPJ ) could not develop party consensus on it . DPJ President and future prime minister Naoto Kan stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan . Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister Yukio Hatoyama thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools . Hatoyama voted for the bill while Kan voted against it .

Before the vote , there were calls for the bills to be separated at the Diet . Waseda University professor Norihiro Kato stated that Kimigayo is a separate issue more complex than the Hinomaru flag . Attempts to designate only the Hinomaru as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet . The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22 , 1999 , by a 403 to 86 vote . The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9 . It was enacted into law on August 13 .

On August 8 , 2009 , a photograph was taken at a DPJ rally for the House of Representatives election showing a banner that was hanging from a ceiling . The banner was made of two Hinomaru flags cut and sewn together to form the shape of the DPJ logo . This infuriated the LDP and Prime Minister Tarō Asō , saying this act was unforgivable . In response , DPJ President Yukio Hatoyama ( who voted for the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem ) said that the banner was not the Hinomaru and should not be regarded as such .

= = Design = =

Passed in 1870 , the Prime Minister 's Proclamation No. 57 had two provisions related to the national flag . The first provision specified who flew the flag and how it was flown ; the second specified how the flag was made . The ratio was seven units width and ten units length ( 7 : 10 ) . The red disc , which represents the sun , was calculated to be three @-@ fifths of the hoist width . The law decreed the disc to be in the center , but it was usually placed one @-@ hundredth ( 1 ⁄ 100 ) towards the hoist . On October 3 of the same year , regulations about the design of the merchant ensign and other naval flags were passed . For the merchant flag , the ratio was two units width and three units length ( 2 : 3 ) . The size of the disc remained the same , however the sun disc was placed one @-@ twentieth ( 1 ⁄ 20 ) towards the hoist .

When the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem passed , the dimensions of the flag were slightly altered . The overall ratio of the flag was changed to two units width by three units length ( 2 : 3 ) . The red disc was shifted towards dead center , but the overall size of the disc stayed the same . The background of the flag is white and the sun disc is red ( 紅色 , beni iro ) , but the exact color shades were not defined in the 1999 law . The only hint given about the red color that it is a " deep " shade .

Issued by the Japan Defense Agency ( now the Ministry of Defense ) in 1973 ( Showa 48 ) , specifications list the red color of the flag as 5R 4 / 12 and the white as N9 in the Munsell color chart . The document was changed on March 21 , 2008 ( Heisei 20 ) to match the flag 's construction with current legislation and updated the Munsell colors . The document lists acrylic fiber and nylon as fibers that could be used in construction of flags used by the military . For acrylic , the red color is 5.7R 3 @.@ 7 / 15 @.@ 5 and white is N9.4 ; nylon has 6.2R 4 / 15 @.@ 2 for red and N9.2 for white . In a document issued by the Official Development Assistance ( ODA ) , the red color for the Hinomaru and the ODA logo is listed as DIC 156 and CMYK 0 @-@ 100 @-@ 90 @-@ 0 . During deliberations about the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem , there was a suggestion to either use a bright red ( 赤色 , aka iro ) shade or use one from the color pool of the Japanese Industrial Standards .

= = Use and customs = =

When the Hinomaru was first introduced , the government required citizens to greet the Emperor with the flag . There was some resentment among the Japanese over the flag , resulting in some protests . It took some time for the flag to gain acceptance among the people .

During World War II in Japanese culture , it was a popular custom for friends , classmates , and relatives of a deploying soldier to sign a Hinomaru and present it to him . The flag was also used as a good luck charm and a prayer to wish the soldier back safely from battle . One term for this kind of charm is Hinomaru Yosegaki ( 日の丸寄せ書き ) . One tradition is that no writing should touch the sun disc . After battles , these flags were often captured or later found on deceased Japanese soldiers . While these flags became souvenirs , there has been a growing trend of sending the signed flags back to the descendants of the soldier .

The tradition of signing the Hinomaru as a good luck charm still continues , though in a limited fashion . The Hinomaru Yosegaki could be shown at sporting events to give support to the Japanese national team . Another example is the hachimaki headband , which was white in color and had the red sun in the middle . During World War II , the phrases " Certain Victory " ( 必勝 , Hisshō ) or " Seven Lives " was written on the hachimaki and worn by kamikaze pilots . This denoted that the pilot was willing to die for his country .

Before World War II , all homes were required to display Hinomaru on national holidays . Since the war , the display of the flag of Japan is mostly limited to buildings attached to national and local governments such as city halls ; it is rarely seen at private homes or commercial buildings , but some people and companies have advocated displaying the flag on holidays . Although the government of Japan encourages citizens and residents to fly the Hinomaru during national holidays , they are not legally required to do so . Since the Emperor 's 80th Birthday on December 23 , 2002 , the Kyushu Railway Company has displayed the Hinomaru at 330 stations .

Starting in 1995 , the ODA has used the Hinomaru motif in their official logo . The design itself was not created by the government ( the logo was chosen from 5 @,@ 000 designs submitted by the public ) but the government was trying increase the visualization of the Hinomaru through their aid packages and development programs . According to the ODA , the use of the flag is the most effective way to symbolize aid provided by the Japanese people .

= = Culture and perception = =

According to polls conduced by mainstream media , most Japanese people had perceived the flag of Japan as the national flag even before the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and National Anthem in 1999 . Despite this , controversies surrounding the use of the flag in school events or media still remain . For example , liberal newspapers such as Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun often feature articles critical of the flag of Japan , reflecting their readerships ' political spectrum . To other Japanese , the flag represents the time where democracy was suppressed when Japan was an empire .

The display of the Hinomaru at homes and businesses is also debated in Japanese society . Because of the association of the Hinomaru with uyoku dantai ( right wing ) activists , reactionary politics , or hooliganism , some homes and businesses do not fly the flag . There is no requirement to fly the flag on any national holiday or special events . The town of Kanazawa , Ishikawa , has proposed plans in September 2012 to use government funds to buy flags with the purpose of encouraging citizens to fly the flag on national holidays . The Japanese Communist Party is vocally against the flag .

Negative perceptions of the Hinomaru exist in former colonies of Japan as well as within Japan itself , such as in Okinawa . In one notable example of this , on October 26 , 1987 , an Okinawan supermarket owner burned the Hinomaru before the start of the National Sports Festival of Japan . The flag burner , Shōichi Chibana , burned the Hinomaru not only to show opposition to atrocities committed by the Japanese army and the continued presence of U.S. forces , but also to prevent it from being displayed in public . Other incidents in Okinawa included the flag being torn down during school ceremonies and students refusing to honor the flag as it was being raised to the sounds of Kimigayo . In the capital city of Naha , Okinawa , the Hinomaru was raised for the first time since the return of Okinawa to Japan to celebrate the city 's 80th anniversary in 2001 . In the People 's Republic of China and South Korea , both of which had been occupied by the Empire of Japan , the 1999 formal adoption of the Hinomaru was met with reactions of Japan moving towards the right and also a step towards re @-@ militarization . The passage of the 1999 law also coincided with the debates about the status of the Yasukuni Shrine , US @-@ Japan military cooperation and the creation of a missile defense program . In other nations that Japan occupied , the 1999 law was met with mixed reactions or glossed over . In Singapore , the older generation still harbors ill feelings toward the flag while the younger generation does not hold similar views . The Philippines government not only believed that Japan was not going to revert to militarism , but the goal of the 1999 law was to formally establish two symbols ( the flag and anthem ) in law and every state has a right to create national symbols . Japan has no law criminalizing the burning of the Hinomaru , but foreign flags cannot be burned in Japan . Some people have humorously drawn an analogy between the Japanese flag and the appearance of a menstruation stain on a white bedsheet .

= = Protocol = =

According to protocol , the flag may fly from sunrise until sunset ; businesses and schools are permitted to fly the flag from opening to closing . When flying the flags of Japan and another country at the same time , the Japanese flag takes the position of honor and the flag of the guest country flies to its right . Both flags must be at the same height and of equal size . When more than one foreign flag is displayed , Japan 's flag is arranged in the alphabetical order prescribed by the United Nations . When the flag becomes unsuitable to use , it is customarily burned in private . The Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem does not specify on how the flag should be used , but different prefectures came up with their own regulations to use the Hinomaru and other prefectural flags .

= = = Mourning = = =

The Hinomaru flag has at least two mourning styles . One is to display the flag at half @-@ staff ( 半旗 , Han @-@ ki ) , as is common in many countries . The offices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs also hoist the flag at half @-@ staff when a funeral is performed for a foreign nation 's head of state .

An alternative mourning style is to wrap the spherical finial with black cloth and place a black ribbon , known as a mourning flag ( 弔旗 , Chō @-@ ki ) , above the flag . This style dates back to the death of Emperor Meiji on July 30 , 1912 , and the Cabinet issued an ordinance stipulating that the national flag should be raised in mourning when the Emperor dies . The Cabinet has the authority to announce the half @-@ staffing of the national flag .

= = = Public schools = = =

Since the end of World War II , the Ministry of Education has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the Hinomaru and Kimigayo at schools under their jurisdiction . The first of these statements was released in 1950 , stating that it was desirable , but not required , to use both symbols . This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education . In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines , the LDP @-@ controlled government first demanded that the flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to Kimigayo . Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms .

The 1999 curriculum guideline issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem decrees that " on entrance and graduation ceremonies , schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the " Kimigayo " ( national anthem ) , given the significance of the flag and the song . " Additionally , the ministry 's commentary on the 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that " given the advance of internationalization , along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese , it is important to nurture school children 's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and Kimigayo as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society . " The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols , then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations .

Schools have been the center of controversy over both the anthem and the national flag . The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both the anthem and flag at events under their jurisdiction . The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs . Some have protested that such rules violate the Constitution of Japan , but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies , their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens . As a sign of protest , schools refused to display the Hinomaru at school graduations and some parents ripped down the flag . Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor Shintarō Ishihara and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the Hinomaru and Kimigayo . After earlier opposition , the Japan Teachers Union accepts the use of both the flag and anthem ; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system .

= = Related flags = =

= = = Military flags = = =

The Japan Self @-@ Defense Forces ( JSDF ) and the Japan Ground Self @-@ Defense Force use a version of the sun disc design with eight red rays extending outward , called Hachijō @-@ Kyokujitsuki ( 八条旭日旗 ) . A gold border lies partially around the edge .

A well @-@ known variant of the sun disc design is the sun disc with 16 red rays in a Siemens star formation , which was also historically used by Japan 's military , particularly the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy . The ensign , known in Japanese as the Jyūrokujō @-@ Kyokujitsu @-@ ki ( 十六条旭日旗 ) , was first adopted as the War flag on May 15 , 1870 , and was used until the end of World War II in 1945 . It was re @-@ adopted on June 30 , 1954 , and is now used as the war flag and naval ensign of the Japan Ground Self @-@ Defense Force ( JGSDF ) and the Japan Maritime Self @-@ Defense Force ( JMSDF ) . In the surrounding Asian countries that were occupied by Japan , this flag still carries a negative connotation . The JMSDF also employs the use of a masthead pennant . First adopted in 1914 and readopted in 1965 , the masthead pennant contains a simplified version of the naval ensign at the hoist end , with the rest of the pennant colored white . The ratio of the pennant is between 1 : 40 and 1 : 90 .

The Japan Air Self @-@ Defense Force ( JASDF ) , established independently in 1952 , has only the plain sun disc as its emblem . This is the only branch of service with an emblem that does not invoke the rayed Imperial Standard . However , the branch does have an ensign to fly on bases and during parades . The ensign was created in 1972 , which was the third used by the JASDF since its creation . The ensign contains the emblem of the branch centered on a blue background .

Although not an official national flag , the Z signal flag played a major role in Japanese naval history . On May 27 , 1905 , Admiral Heihachirō Tōgō of the Mikasa was preparing to engage the Russian Baltic Fleet . Before the Battle of Tsushima began , Togo raised the Z flag on the Mikasa and engaged the Russian fleet , winning the battle for Japan . The raising of the flag said to the crew the following : " The fate of Imperial Japan hangs on this one battle ; all hands will exert themselves and do their best . " The Z flag was also raised on the aircraft carrier Akagi on the eve of the Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , in December 1941 .

= = = Imperial flags = = =

Starting in 1870 , flags were created for the Japanese Emperor ( then Emperor Meiji ) , the Empress , and for other members of the imperial family . At first , the Emperor 's flag was ornate , with a sun resting in the center of an artistic pattern . He had flags that were used on land , at sea , and when he was in a carriage . The imperial family was also granted flags to be used at sea and while on land ( one for use on foot and one carriage flag ) . The carriage flags were a monocolored chrysanthemum , with 16 petals , placed in the center of a monocolored background . These flags were discarded in 1889 when the Emperor decided to use the chrysanthemum on a red background as his flag . With minor changes in the color shades and proportions , the flags adopted in 1889 are still in use by the imperial family .

The current Emperor 's flag is a 16 @-@ petal chrysanthemum , colored in gold , centered on a red background with a 2 : 3 ratio . The Empress uses the same flag , except the shape is that of a swallow tail . The crown prince and the crown princess use the same flags , except with a smaller chrysanthemum and a white border in the middle of the flags . The chrysanthemum has been associated with the Imperial throne since the rule of Emperor Go @-@ Toba in the 12th century , but it did not become the exclusive symbol of the Imperial throne until 1868 .

= = = Subnational flags = = =

The 47 prefectures of Japan each have a flag resembling the national flag insofar as consisting of a symbol , called a mon , charged on a monocolored field ( with the exception of Ehime , which uses a symbol on a bicolor background ) . There are several prefecture flags , such as Hiroshima 's , that match their specifications to the national flag ( 2 : 3 ratio , mon placed in the center and is 3 ⁄ 5 the length of the flag ) . Some of the mon display the name of the prefecture in Japanese characters ; others are stylized depictions of the location or another special feature of the prefecture . An example of a prefectural flag is that of Nagano , where the orange katakana character ナ ( na ) appears in the center of a white disc . One interpretation of the mon is that the na symbol represents a mountain and the white disc , a lake . The orange color represents the sun while the white color represents the snow of the region .

Municipalities can also adopt flags of their own . The designs of the city flags are similar to the prefectural flags : a mon on a monocolored background . An example is the flag of Amakusa in Kumamoto Prefecture : the city symbol is composed of the Katakana character ア ( a ) and surrounded by waves . This symbol is centered on a white flag , with a ratio of 2 : 3 . Both the city emblem and the flag were adopted in 2006 .

= = = Derivatives = = =

In addition to the flags used by the military , several other flag designs were inspired by the national flag . The former Japan Post flag consisted of the Hinomaru with a red horizontal bar placed in the center of the flag . There was also a thin white ring around the red sun . It was later replaced by a flag that consisted of the 〒 postal mark in red on a white background .

Two recently designed national flags resemble the Japanese flag . In 1971 , Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan , and it adopted a national flag that had a green background , charged with an off @-@ centered red disc that contained a golden map of Bangladesh . The current flag , adopted in 1972 , dropped the golden map and kept everything else . The Government of Bangladesh officially calls the red disc a circle ; the red color symbolizes the blood that was shed to create their country . The island nation of Palau uses a flag of similar design , but the color scheme is completely different . While the Government of Palau does not cite the Japanese flag as an influence on their national flag , Japan did administer Palau from 1914 until 1944 . The flag of Palau is an off @-@ centered golden @-@ yellow full moon on a sky blue background . The moon stands for peace and a young nation while the blue background represents Palau 's transition to self @-@ government from 1981 to 1994 , when it achieved full independence .

The Japanese naval ensign also influenced other flag designs . One such flag design is used by the Asahi Shimbun . At the bottom hoist of the flag , one quarter of the sun is displayed . The kanji character 朝 is displayed on the flag , colored white , covering most of the sun . The rays extend from the sun , occurring in a red and white alternating order , culminating in 13 total stripes . The flag is commonly seen at the National High School Baseball Championship , as the Asahi Shimbun is a main sponsor of the tournament . The rank flags and ensigns of the Imperial Japanese Navy also based their designs on the naval ensign .

= = Similar flags = =

Australian Aboriginal Flag

Flag of Bangladesh

Flag of Greenland

Flag of Laos

Flag of Macedonia

Flag of Niger

Flag of Palau

Flag of Zaire

= = = Legislation = = =

= = = Japanese = = =

Flag protocol

Website on the standards of the Imperial family

= Construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System =

The construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System included over 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) of oil pipeline , 12 pump stations , and a new tanker port . Built largely on permafrost during 1975 – 77 between Prudhoe Bay and Valdez , Alaska , the $ 8 billion effort required tens of thousands of people , often working in extreme temperatures and conditions ; the invention of specialized construction techniques ; and the construction of a new road , the Dalton Highway .

The first section of pipe was laid in 1975 after more than five years of legal and political arguments . Allegations of faulty welds drew intense scrutiny from local and national observers . A culture grew around the unique working conditions involved in constructing the pipeline , and each union that worked on the project had a different function and stereotype . Thirty @-@ two Alyeska Pipeline Service Company employees and contract workers were killed during the project . The main construction effort lasted until 1977 ; the first barrel of oil was delivered on July 28 of that year . Several more pump stations , added as oil flow increased , were completed through 1980 .

= = Survey and design = =

Intensive geological sampling and survey work of the pipeline route started in spring 1970 . Aerial photograph were taken , examined , and a preliminary route was detailed . Small survey parties physically visited the route and hammered stakes into the ground . The work was difficult ; animal dangers forced the crews to be armed , and they also had to cope with the remote area and limited infrastructure . In places , the foliage was so dense that trees had to be cut down and progress was limited to 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) per day . The surveyed route passed through several mountain passes : Atigun Pass , Isabel Pass , Thompson Pass , and Keystone Canyon . In the latter location , surveyors had to rappel down cliffs in order to perform their work .

Surveyors and planners also had to deal with the Denali Fault , a major cause of earthquakes , and with large amounts of permafrost . In 1969 , the unincorporated Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System group drilled a series of core samples north of the Brooks Range that demonstrated how ubiquitous the permafrost was along the route . This forced the design of an elevated pipeline , which was tested in a 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) loop built near Barrow . This elevation required the pipeline to be insulated , since extreme cold temperatures caused the metal to become brittle , even when hot oil was being pumped through the pipeline .

After ecological objections forced subterranean pipeline crossings ( in order to allow caribou to cross ) , engineers developed a system by which the ground near the pipeline would be refrigerated by chilled brine . These refrigerated sections also would be placed in Styrofoam @-@ lined trenches and covered with gravel for their insulation value . Altogether , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) of the pipeline was designed to be built underground in this way . In other places , a lack of permafrost meant it could simply be placed underground without a special refrigeration plant . Large amounts of gravel were needed for all sections of the pipeline as insulation to keep the heat of above @-@ ground structures from melting the permafrost . Gravel also was needed to build the construction and maintenance road , and surveyors located 470 sites across Alaska where the needed 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gravel could be located .

The Pipeline Authorization Act required the pipeline to be able to withstand the maximum earthquake ever recorded in the area it was built . When crossing the Denali Fault , Teflon @-@ coated sliders were designed to allow the pipeline to move side @-@ to @-@ side in an earthquake . To protect against forward @-@ and @-@ backward shocks and to allow for thermal expansion , the pipeline wasn 't designed as a straight line . Instead , it was intended to be laid in an S @-@ shape , and the bends would allow for expansion and movement without breaking .

Because most of the pipeline was built above permafrost , each of the pipes holding up the raised sections of pipeline contained a sealed tube of ammonia . As the permafrost below the pipeline warms , the ammonia absorbs the heat and rises to a radiator on top of each stanchion . The ammonia is cooled by the outside air , condenses , and falls back to the bottom of the tube , where the process repeats .

The surveyed route crossed hundreds of streams and rivers . To cross these with the pipeline , engineers designed concrete " jackets " to surround the pipe and weight it down so it would sink to the bottom of the stream or river . Because oil is lighter than water , the pipeline would float without the concrete jackets . Dredging rivers and burying the pipeline in the streambed was not allowed due to environmental concerns . In several places — either out of fear of disturbing the river or because of the river 's characteristics — pipeline bridges were constructed . The most notable of these are over the Yukon River and the Tanana River . To protect against corrosion in these wet environments , the pipeline was designed with cathodic protection .

In terms of spill prevention , the pipeline was designed with one @-@ way valves ( so oil moving ahead could not leak out of a hole behind a certain point ) , computer @-@ aided leak detection , and other features . The pipeline was designed to be pressurized , so any leak would be instantly detected by a loss of pressure at one of the pump stations , which could sound an alarm and halt the flow of oil quickly .

When it was proposed , the pipeline was scheduled to start at a capacity of 0 @.@ 6 million barrels per day ( 95 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , with capacity to be expanded to 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per day ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) in two years , and to 2 million barrels per day ( 320 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) at an indeterminate time . The oil embargo scrapped these plans , and it was intended that the pipeline be built with an initial capacity of 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per day ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . This required eight pumping stations ( instead of five ) to be ready at startup , greatly increasing the manpower required .

= = = Valdez Marine Terminal = = =

The Valdez Marine Terminal , the southern end of the pipeline , was planned for a site across the Port Valdez fjord from Valdez proper . Initial studies predicted bedrock would be six feet below the surface of the ground , but when excavation began , it was discovered that bedrock actually was sixty feet down , requiring the removal of 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of overburden . The terminal itself was designed to be built with four tanker berths and space for a fifth , should it become necessary . Holding tanks were planned that had a capacity equal to that of the pipeline , allowing the whole pipeline to be emptied if required . As required by the Pipeline Authorization Act , a ballast @-@ water filtration system had to be designed as well . This system removes oil from tankers ' ballast water so it is not released into Prince William Sound — something fishermen feared when the pipeline was proposed .

= = Preparation = =

Shortly after the permit was signed , convoys of equipment on snow tractors began heading north , using hardened snow roads and an ice bridge over the Yukon River to reach the seven construction camps that had been dormant since 1970 . In the 83 days from mid @-@ January to the time the snow and ice melted in mid @-@ April , 680 workers moved 34 @,@ 000 short tons ( 31 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) to the seven camps , and built five more camps and five temporary airstrips .

In February , as the ice bridge and snow road were carrying tracked vehicles north , Alyeska awarded a contract to design the construction and maintenance road . Michael Baker , Jr . , Inc . , a firm in Pennsylvania , was awarded the contract . To cross the Yukon River , the state of Alaska designed a bridge and paid two @-@ thirds of its cost . The remaining third was paid by Alyeska , and the bridge was built by Manson @-@ Osberg @-@ Ghemm . On April 5 , the contracts to build the road were picked . In total , the new Dalton Highway cost $ 185 million to build , and four companies shared that cost . Construction of the Dalton Highway started on April 29 , and at the peak of the effort , Alyeska and the four subcontractors had more than 3 @,@ 400 workers deployed from the Yukon River to Prudhoe Bay . A massive airlift was created to supply the road construction effort ; more than 700 flights per day — 170 @,@ 000 in total — were required before the road was finished on September 29 . In just 154 days , a 360 @-@ mile gravel road had been built . Final grading had to be done and more than 20 small permanent bridges had to be built , but by November , the road was open to traffic crossing the Yukon River on another ice bridge .

= = = Management = = =

To supervise the construction of the pipeline , Alyeska appointed two construction management contractors to oversee all the other subcontractors in the project . Bechtel Corporation , from San Francisco , was named the management contractor for the pipeline itself . Fluor Alaska Inc . , a division of Fluor Corp. , was named the management contractor for the pumping stations and Valdez Marine Terminal , which was the most complex single section of the pipeline , since it involved the transfer of oil from the pipeline to seagoing oil tankers .

Neither of those two companies actually did the construction work . That job was handed off to a series of subcontractors , each of whom had responsibility on one ( or two ) of six sections of the pipeline ( seven , if the marine terminal is included ) . Bidding on the subcontracting jobs opened at the end of March , and the contracts were announced on June 12 , 1974 .

On Section One , which ran 153 miles ( 246 km ) from Valdez to the Sourdough pipeline camp , River Construction Corporation , a division of Morrison @-@ Knudsen , was given the contract . For Section Two , which covered 149 miles ( 240 km ) from Sourdough to north of Delta Junction , Perini Arctic Associates , a joint venture of Perini Corporation , Majestic Construction , Wiley Oilfield Hauling Ltd . , and McKinney Drilling Company . Section Three covered 144 miles ( 232 km ) from Delta Junction , past Fairbanks , and almost to the Yukon . The contract for this section was given to H.C. Price , a group formed by H.C. Price Company ( usually known as PPCO ) , R.B. Potashnick , Codell Construction Company , and Oman Construction Company .

Section Four was 143 miles ( 230 km ) from south of the Yukon to Coldfoot . It was contracted to Associated @-@ Green , a group formed by Associated Pipeline Contractors , Inc. and Green Construction Company . The group also was one of the main contractors for construction of the Dalton Highway . Section Five covered the distance from Coldfoot to Toolik pipeline camp , and Section Six went from Toolik to Prudhoe Bay . Together , the two sections covered 210 miles ( 340 km ) , and they both were under the supervision of Arctic Constructors , a venture of Brown & Root Inc . , Ingram Corporation , Peter Kiewit Sons Inc . , Williams Brothers Alaska , Inc . , and H.B. Zachry Company .

In Valdez , where Fluor had supervision , the work also was divided among several contractors . Site preparation work was done by Morrison @-@ Knudsen . Chicago Bridge & Iron Company built the tank farms , the tanker berths were built by Kiewest ( a venture of Peter Kiewit Sons and Willamette @-@ Western Corporation ) , and General Electric insulated the pipes . Fluor also had supervision of the construction of the pumping stations , which were generally built by the contractors working on a specific section of the pipeline .

= = = Pipeline camps = = =

When the contracts were announced , Alyeska already had 12 pipeline construction camps either built or under construction . These camps were all north of the Yukon , however , and camps had to be built along the entire length of the project . Alyeska planned for 29 construction camps , but 31 were created . Seven were built along the pipeline south of the Yukon , and one was built at each of the 12 pump stations along the length of the route .

The camps were built on thick beds of gravel laid down to insulate the underlying permafrost and to prevent pollution . At the conclusion of the construction project , the gravel was removed , theoretically removing oil leaks and other pollution with it . Atop the gravel were prefabricated modular buildings either flown to the site or trucked across the Dalton Highway . The standardized structures could house 28 people , and two typically were bolted together to create two " wings " . All were one @-@ story , except at Valdez and at the pump station camps , where modules were laid atop one another because of space concerns . In addition to the gravel insulation , both buildings and utility conduits were raised above the ground to avoid heating permafrost .

The camps housed from 250 people ( at each pump station ) to 3 @,@ 500 people ( at Valdez ) . A typical pump station camp cost $ 6 million to build , while the typical mainline camps cost about $ 10 million to build . The camps had beds for 16 @,@ 500 workers and were collectively referred to as " Skinny City " by workers . The name came from the fact that the " city " was 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) long , but only a few hundred feet wide .

Overall construction headquarters was at Fort Wainwright near Fairbanks , where Alyeska leased land and buildings from the U.S. Army . Vacant barracks were converted into housing , and vacant offices were given to oil workers . As air traffic increased , Alyeska arranged for the use of Fort Wainwright 's airfield to relieve the burden on Fairbanks International Airport . The camp at Wainwright was the only one that did not use prefabricated buildings .

= = Workers = =

The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System was built entirely with unionized labor . Because construction was slumping in the United States at large , the pipeline drew workers from across the country . These workers had to follow a strict hiring process based on union seniority and the labor that was needed . Priority was given to hiring Alaska residents and Alaska Natives , and no strikes were permitted by a labor agreement between Alyeska and the unions . In exchange for abiding by these restrictions , workers were paid extremely well and received fringe benefits . According to the labor contract , every worker was guaranteed 40 hours ' pay per week , even if weather made work impossible . In addition , subcontractors had cost @-@ plus contracts with Alyeska for staffing , so there was no incentive to keep staffing levels low . These factors often led to more people being assigned to a job than there was work to do in an attempt to make up time lost to weather delays . At the peak of construction in fall 1975 , more than 28 @,@ 000 people were working on the pipeline . Fourteen to 19 percent of the workers were minorities , and 5 to 10 percent were women . Because of the high turnover on the project , more than 70 @,@ 000 people worked on at least a part of the pipeline .

= = = Welders = = =

The welders who worked on the pipeline itself came from Pipeliners Local 798 out of Tulsa , Oklahoma , which specialized in providing welders for large @-@ scale pipeline projects . Members of the Plumbers and Steamfitters Union performed all welding that was not a part of the pipeline itself , including pump stations , feeder pipelines , and work at the Valdez Marine Terminal . The welders were the highest paid of all the workers on the pipeline , with a normal rate of $ 18 @.@ 25 per hour . To be hired on the pipeline project , welders had to go through an intensive certification process that involved a series of test welds . If a welder failed any of the test welds , he was not hired and was not allowed to try again for several weeks .

Most 798ers were characterized by a Southern accent , cowboy boots , and unique welder 's hats . They were the only people to weld the 48 @-@ inch ( 120 cm ) pipe of the main pipeline , and outside observers characterized them as arrogant and " redneck " . As a fellow welder stated at the time , " Take your typical 798 pipeline welder and feed him a few drinks , and he 'll probably tell you that he 's God 's greatest gift to welding . " This attitude generated resentment from other pipeline workers , and the conflict caused large @-@ scale brawls . In some instances , Alaska State Troopers had to be flown to pipeline camps in order to break up small riots . Toward the end of the pipeline project , a series of bumper stickers was produced with the slogan " Happiness is 10 @,@ 000 Okies going south with a Texan under each arm . "

= = = Teamsters = = =

The Teamsters Union was by far the largest and most notable contributor of workers to the pipeline project . Teamsters worked in the transportation and supply aspects of the project . All trucks were driven by Teamsters , supply warehouses were run by Teamsters , and the buses that transported workers from camps to job sites were run by Teamsters . Teamsters Local 959 , with more than 23 @,@ 000 employees at its peak , was by far the most dominant labor force on the pipeline project . There were frequent allegations of corruption by Teamsters on the project , and the Anchorage Daily News won a Pulitzer Prize for a 15 @-@ part series on the rise of Local 959 and its influence on state politics . Repeated allegations of links to organized crime were never backed up by evidence , but two Teamsters leaders were murdered in 1976 while investigating drug activity on the pipeline project . Teamsters workers strongly denied any involvement with organized crime , and pointed to the fact that 80 percent of the Teamsters in the project had college degrees or professional and management experience .

The Teamsters ' control of tools and equipment in warehouses they ran led to conflicts with other workers . In a few instances , Teamsters were assaulted by workers from other unions . In other instances , the Teamsters used their position to extract concessions from Alyeska and the subcontractors . Although they were forbidden from striking , they were allowed to halt work for safety meetings , and this excuse was used on a handful of occasions . The most notable of these was in February 1975 , after a series of serious truck accidents on the Elliott Highway , which connected to the newly built Dalton . The Elliott , which had not been upgraded , was a treacherous drive for trucks hauling 80 feet ( 24 m ) of pipe . After his attempts to get Alyeska to upgrade the road were rebuffed , Teamster leader Jesse Carr stopped all truck traffic in the state for four days of safety meetings . Alyeska and the state promised upgrades to the road , and the traffic resumed .

= = = Operators = = =

The International Union of Operating Engineers ( called Operators for short ) represented the men and women who sat at the controls of the heavy equipment used on the construction of the pipeline . This equipment included bulldozers , cranes , drilling rigs , and sidebooms — a cross between a bulldozer and a crane that could lay a section of pipe in a trench parallel to its tracks . Because most of the heavy equipment was unheated , six operators were typically assigned to each piece of equipment , allowing for frequent breaks . A popular joke on the pipeline was that the sole qualification to be an Operator was , " Must be able to sit on a sideboom at 40 below and not freeze up . " More seriously , one laborer wrote , was that there was nothing more terrifying than to be in a trench and have a drunken or unskilled Operator handling the pipe that was being laid in the trench .

= = = Laborers = = =

The Laborers International Union represented the bulk of the less @-@ skilled labor on the project . Laborers , as they were commonly known , did most of the odd jobs on the project : digging trenches in areas inaccessible by heavy equipment , drilling holes for the pipeline 's Vertical Support Members , spreading gravel , crushing rock , and moving supplies by hand . Laborers Local 942 out of Fairbanks was the most prominent Laborers group on the project , and because no special skills were required for the jobs it filled , the Laborers Union attracted most of the people who came to Alaska specifically for the pipeline project . As one Laborer put it , they were people " simply looking for the easiest way possible of getting through the day . "

Because the Laborers had more applicants than jobs available , the process for getting a job on the pipeline through Laborers Local 942 was a multi @-@ tiered process . There were multiple levels of eligibility , based on the amount of seniority a person had . A @-@ level members had the first pick of jobs , but they had to have worked at least 800 hours with the union in the previous year . B @-@ level members had to have worked between 100 and 800 hours with the union . C @-@ level members had to have at least two years of experience outside of Alaska or be an Alaska resident for at least one year . D @-@ level was for everyone else , and D @-@ level people rarely got jobs . That didn 't stop people from trying . At 11 a.m. on January 1 , 1974 , shortly before the pipeline right @-@ of @-@ way was signed , more than 100 people spent the night outside the Fairbanks office of the Laborers Union , waiting for the first choice of jobs when the office opened .

= = = Pipeline life = = =

Life during the pipeline construction project was characterized by long hours , poor conditions , and limited entertainment compensated by excellent benefits and pay . Each worker was handed a small booklet of 23 camp rules , but the rules ( including no alcohol or smoking ) were frequently broken and became the target of ribald humor .

Within the living quarters , the atmosphere resembled that of a college dormitory . Housekeeping and laundry services were provided , but the quarters were small and little entertainment was available . Television broadcasts were delayed two days because of the need to fly tapes from California , and most workers had to develop their own forms of entertainment . In the winter , some took to skiing or sightseeing ; in the summer , some went hiking . In general , however , little time was available for recreation because of the long hours worked by most people .

In the first years of the project , workers were regularly treated to prime rib , steak dinners , and other exotic fare due to a cost @-@ plus contract between the food preparers and the subcontractors . In later years , these cost @-@ plus contracts were replaced , and institutional cooking and box lunches became common , but the food on the project was prized by many workers . As soon as the haul road , later named the Dalton Highway , was built , the food and the overtime for some unions changed . The highway construction was charged to the federal and state governments and was supposed to be cost plus . There were no more steak nights one to two times a week and the Australian rock lobster tails disappeared . The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers ( IBEW ) LU 1547 was one union that had overtime on Sundays changed from double time to time @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half upon completion of the haul road .

In 1976 , workers ' pay averaged between $ 11 and $ 18 per hour , depending on the position . With workweeks averaging between 70 and 84 hours per week , the problem for many workers became what to do with so much extra money . Teamster Jerry Thornhill , a typical worker , wrote to Money magazine , asking for advice . Thornhill detailed a pay rate of $ 57 @,@ 000 per year at a time when members of Congress earned $ 42 @,@ 500 annually , professional football players averaged $ 40 @,@ 000 , and U.S. vice president Nelson Rockefeller earned $ 62 @,@ 500 . The large amounts of money in the pipeline camps and a lack of entertainment caused frequent gambling games that sometimes involved tens of thousands of dollars . Instead of gambling , other workers saved their money for monthlong vacations to Hawaii or other warm climates , then returned to work with no money remaining .

= = Laying pipe = =

The first section of the Trans @-@ Alaska pipeline was laid on March 27 , 1975 , in the Tonsina River . Several forty @-@ foot sections of pipe were welded together and coated in concrete prior to the ceremony . Twelve sidebooms ( bulldozers with side @-@ mounted cranes ) together lifted 1 @,@ 900 feet ( 580 m ) of pipe , which was laid in a trench dug perpendicular to the riverbed . Bulldozers filled in the exposed trench with gravel , restoring the river 's original contours . This process was repeated a few miles south , where the pipeline crossed the Little Tonsina River . By the end of April , the first 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) of elevated pipeline also was built in the same area .

In 1975 , the first year of pipelaying , Alyeska set a goal of completing 45 percent of the 800 @-@ mile route . This would not be laid in a straight line , since it was expected that river crossings would take longer to complete than portions of the pipeline on dry land . Work on the pumping stations and the Valdez Marine Terminal , which had begun in the fall of 1974 , also was expected to take longer than laying pipe . Conversely , work on those two projects could proceed during the winter , when pipelaying could not take place due to the frozen ground .

Laying pipe took several stages . First , the right of way had to be cleared with chainsaws , bulldozers , and scrapers who followed the rough route laid out by the initial surveyors . These crews were followed by another group of surveyors and engineers who determined whether the pipeline could be laid in the planned spot , or if it had to be moved because of permafrost , soft ground , or other considerations . State and federal surveillance officers , working with the engineers , could give the OK to move the path of the pipeline as much as 200 feet to the right or left in order to avoid obstacles .

After the path was finalized came the augers and drillers for the holes that served as foundations for the Vertical Support Members that held up the pipe . These holes were drilled and filled with a mix of water , gravel and dirt before a VSM was dropped into each hole . Because of the frozen ground , the gravel and dirt froze as hard as concrete , sealing the VSMs in place . The VSMs were laid in parallel , two at a time , and each had a semicircular rest for the pipeline segments . These were carried in 40 @-@ foot or 80 @-@ foot segments by crane or sideboom to the appropriate location , lowered into place , then welded together . The welds were then inspected via X @-@ ray by quality control engineers who followed the welders .

The construction progressed under the management of Frank Moolin , Jr . , an engineer who had worked on refinery projects in Singapore and the construction of the Bay Area Rapid Transit system prior to being named senior project manager . Moolin became known for his work ethic and his hard @-@ driving style . It was said that he was the first person in the office and the last to leave at the end of the day . The Engineering News @-@ Record reported " He demands total dedication , saying , ' Your wife had a baby ; so what ? ' " when it named him the construction industry 's Man of the Year in 1976 . To spur progress on the pipeline , he started the " Alyeska Sweepstakes , " in which each of the five contractors working on the pipeline were compared to each other based on how much of their share they completed on time . In his biggest decision , he canceled Bechtel 's contract as management contractor because he felt the company was adding too much bureaucracy between Alyeska and the pipeline contractors . A historian later called the decision " one of the most humiliating defeats " in the history of Bechtel .

In October , snow and cold weather brought most of the pipeline laying to a halt for the year . Employment rose from 12 @,@ 000 workers in the spring to more than 21 @,@ 000 in the summer and down to 7 @,@ 000 at Christmas . Alyeska estimated that the pipeline laying was about 50 percent complete : 390 miles ( 630 km ) of pipeline were welded and in place . But work on the pump stations and in Valdez lagged ; the project as a whole was only 35 percent complete when the pumps were factored in .

= = Speeding up construction = =

During the winter of 1975 – 1976 , Moolin pronounced himself dissatisfied with progress , but promised improvements . " We 've learned an awful lot . This year ( 1975 ) was a pull @-@ ourselves @-@ up @-@ by @-@ our @-@ bootstraps operation . We didn 't really have our organization set until July , and it wasn 't working at top effectiveness until October . " To take advantage of that " top effectiveness " , Moolin set an ambitious goal for 1976 construction : " We 're expecting to have all of the line installed , insulated , and hydro @-@ tested by November 1 , " he said in January . That goal was ambitious , because most of the work that had been done to that point was on floodplains and flat terrain . Still left to tackle were difficult construction projects in Atigun Pass and Keystone Canyon . " In some areas , we did eat our cake last year , " Moolin said .

Even though winter shut down all pipelaying on the right of way , work on the pump stations and in Valdez continued without stop . At Pump Station 1 , in Prudhoe Bay , temperatures reached lower than − 70 ° F ( − 57 ° C ) , but the work continued . Because the pump station was the origin point for the main pipeline , it also had to process the feeder lines coming from oil wells . The pump station camp had a population of 270 workers through the winter , and it would peak in the summer with 430 workers .

= = = Welding controversy = = =

As the weather warmed and work resumed on the main pipeline , Alyeska administrators were distracted by a controversy about pipeline welds that had been done the previous year . In September 1975 , a former employee of Ketchbaw Industries filed suit against the company , alleging that he had been laid off because he would not participate in a conspiracy to falsify quality control X @-@ Rays of pipeline welds . The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline was unique among pipeline projects to that point in that it required all welds of the main pipeline to be verified by X @-@ Ray . This was a time @-@ consuming process , and the quality @-@ control procedures continually lagged behind the welders .

At the end of 1975 , Alyeska terminated Ketchbaw 's contract and took responsibility for analyzing weld X @-@ Rays itself . The controversy continued , however , as Kelley 's lawsuit moved forward , a Ketchbaw manager was found dead of cyanide poisoning , and photographs of welds were stolen from a pump station construction camp . Alyeska began a review of all 30 @,@ 800 welds that had been done in 1975 , and submitted its report to the Interior Department in April 1976 . In May , it submitted its technical analysis and a report on repair work under way . The review produced a list of 3 @,@ 955 questionable welds — 10 percent of 1975 's work .

Alyeska reported that about half were too minor to affect the running of the pipeline , but questions lay with more than a thousand welds that might be dangerous . Re @-@ examining the welds would be extremely difficult , since those sections of pipeline were sealed ( and in many cases buried ) . By July , the U.S. Congress began holding hearings into the welding problems . President Gerald Ford sent a team to Alaska to oversee and examine Alyeska 's work . At the recommendations of this team and to avoid further investigations , Alyeska began repairing the welds on its own . By September , more than 3 @,@ 000 of the questionable welds had been redone or certified as safe . Alyeska asked for waivers on the remaining 612 welds , and more hearings resulted . By the end of November , only 34 welds were still at issue . The leader of Ford 's team ordered 31 of the welds to be dug up and re @-@ done . Waivers were granted for only three welds , all of which were buried 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) under the Koyukuk River south of the Brooks Range . Proof of the integrity of questionable welds were evaluated by a unique solution in Section Five north of the Brooks Range . On either side of the Sagavanirktok River , the above ground pipeline was cut upon and 48 inch fans installed to circulate air . Then a team of 12 men and inspectors riding on wheeled sleds pulled by a modified John Deere lawnmower entered the pipe . Welds were counted during the passage . After arriving at the questionable weld under the Sagavanirktok River , an ultrasound was taken on the inside of the pipe . Then the team exited the pipe on the opposite side and the ultrasound was taken back to camp for evaluation . Alyeska estimated the total cost of redoing the welds to be $ 55 million .

= = = Atigun , Keystone , and Sag River = = =

Many of the suspected faulty welds were in Section Five of the pipeline construction project — the northernmost 200 miles ( 320 km ) . This area also included two of the major problems encountered during the 1976 construction season : Atigun Pass and the Sagavanirktok River ( also known as Sag River ) . The pipeline had been laid in a trench beneath the river in the late fall of 1975 . Because it had been laid so late in the season , the trench fill material had frozen and it was impossible to fill the submerged trench containing the pipeline . Spring snowmelt flooded the river and battered the submerged portion of pipe . In June , the battered pipeline broke free of its moorings and a 1 @,@ 700 @-@ foot ( 518 m ) section of concrete @-@ coated pipe floated to the surface of the river . Because doing repair work would interfere with the migration of Arctic char , the Alaska Department of Fish and Game allowed only 24 hours for the project . After preparing the site , it took just four hours for a replacement trench to be dug , a pipe welded and laid in the trench , and the trench to be filled in .

At Atigun Pass , to the south of the Sag River , workers had to deal with a different set of challenges . In 1975 , surveyors discovered the pass was filled with permafrost and glacial soils . But because the pass is the site of frequent avalanches , an elevated pipeline was not possible . The solution was to design a reinforced , insulated ditch to lay the pipeline in . The result was a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 83 km ) long concrete box lined with 21 inches ( 53 cm ) of Styrofoam . The problem then became one of building it before the first snow started falling in October .

At the opposite end of the pipeline , just north of Valdez , engineers coped with the difficulties posed by Keystone Canyon . The canyon was the only route to Valdez , but it was occupied by the Richardson Highway and the Lowe River ; no room was available for the pipeline . The only solution was to avoid the canyon by building the pipeline through the Chugach Mountains and at the rim of the canyon . Winter work was made impossible by the more than 300 inches ( 760 cm ) of snow that fell in the winter of 1975 @-@ 1976 , and when the snow melted , construction workers had to figure out how to travel up a 60 percent grade , then lay the pipeline on it . A rock @-@ crushing plant was built at the canyon 's rim to avoid the need to carry gravel up the steep grade , but problems still persisted . Not even bulldozers could traverse the grade without a team of two helping each up the grade in turn . A bulldozer had to be modified to carry 80 @-@ foot ( 20 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ) sections of pipe up the grade , but even then , most of the sections and equipment had to be lifted by helicopter to the canyon rim . Similar techniques had to be used at nearby Thomson Pass , and both sections required the entire 1976 construction season to complete .

= = = Pump stations and marine terminal = = =

Work at the pump stations and marine terminal , which had not stopped during the winter , continued throughout the 1976 construction season . Pump Station 6 , just south of the Yukon River , had to be redesigned after excavation revealed ice @-@ rich permafrost below the site . Five pump stations needed at startup ( when throughput was lower ) received their pumps , turbines , and piping . As they were completed , the pump stations received hydrostatic testing , in which portions of pipe were filled with water and subjected to pressures in excess of the eventual operating conditions . Following this testing , the initial five pump stations were disconnected from the main pipeline and had oil run through them on a continuous loop . " It 's very similar to your new automobile , " one worker said . " You drive it around for ten days so that any components that are going to fail are given time to fail . " Work on additional pump stations , which would not be needed until the pipeline was brought to full capacity , was not pressed forward .

At Valdez , construction was two @-@ thirds complete by September as 4 @,@ 200 workers hurried to complete the marine terminal . Because of loose soil found at the job site , enormous retaining walls had to be constructed to secure the ground below some of the 58 structures that were completed by the end of the year . During the first week of November , the first ship docked at the newly built Valdez quays . It was not a tanker but a ship bringing more construction material . In December , the first signal was sent from the Valdez operations center — where two new control computers had been installed — to Pump Station 2 on the North Slope .

Although the project made strides toward completion in 1976 , it did not meet Moolin 's goal of having all pipe installed , insulated , and tested by winter . The final section of main pipeline was welded in place on December 6 , but not all of the pipeline was tested before winter set in . At the end of 1976 , the project was 92 percent complete . The pipeline was 97 @.@ 5 percent complete , the pump stations were 92 percent done , and the marine terminal stood at 83 percent . Because the terminal was the lagging portion of the project , its full work crew continued operations through the winter and into 1977 .

= = Finishing the line = =

Few tasks were left to complete when the 1977 construction season began . Most of the pump stations had been turned over to operating personnel by construction workers , and environmental mitigation and cleanup was in full swing as Alyeska repaired tundra damage caused by construction . Associated @-@ Green , which had performed its construction tasks well , was assigned the job of finishing the final touches on the main pipeline . The last 160 miles of hydrostatic testing were done , 33 remedial welds were completed , and 45 miles of pipe were insulated , among other tasks . Because the pace of construction was much slower than in 1976 , fewer workers were needed . Fewer than 11 @,@ 000 were employed at the peak of 1977 work , about half of 1976 's total . On May 31 , the final pipeline weld took place .

Additional tasks remained still to be completed , but the pipeline could be put into operation without them . The 2 @,@ 290 @-@ foot ( 700 m ) E. L. Patton Yukon River Bridge was not completed until October 1979 ; until then , traffic utilized a series of ferries across the river . Additional pump stations also were constructed between 1977 and 1980 , as oil flow increased .

= = = Camp cleanup = = =

As part of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act , Alyeska was required to remove most traces of the 31 pipeline construction camps . Seven camps closed in November 1976 , and six more closed before the 1977 construction season started . All told , 20 camps went up for sale . One was sold to the University of Alaska for use as an Arctic research facility , while another was converted for use as a truck stop and motel .

In addition to removing its camps , Alyeska also had to dispose of the heavy equipment used to build the pipeline . In January 1977 , Alyeska listed more than 20 @,@ 000 pieces of equipment for sale . The New York Times called the auction of surplus equipment " one of the biggest going @-@ out @-@ of @-@ business sales in history . "

= = Turning on TAPS = =

In April 1977 , Alyeska filed a notice that it intended to start filling the pipeline sometime between June 20 and July 1 . Engineers had to face several problems when filling the pipeline . First was the need to balance temperatures : Filled by air , the steel pipeline was about 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) degrees . The oil emerging from wells at Prudhoe Bay was more than 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) degrees , and there was a danger that if it was introduced before intermediate warming , the pipeline could crack because of thermal expansion . The second problem came when the pipeline needed to be purged of air in order to reduce the danger of fire or explosion . Usually , a pipeline is filled with water first , and the oil pushes the water ahead of it , purging the pipeline as it goes . In Alaska , there was a fear that the water would freeze in the pipeline , damaging it . This problem was solved when pressurized nitrogen was used instead of water .

On June 20 , 1977 , the first section of pipeline was pressurized with nitrogen , and oil was introduced behind it . Because of the cold temperature of the pipeline and the slow rate at which oil was introduced , it took 31 days for the first oil to travel from Prudhoe to Valdez . " As oil cools down , it becomes thicker , " explained one worker . " Our oil at first had a viscosity very similar to asphalt . Another problem was faced when the oil traveled downslope from Atigun Pass . To avoid a situation where the oil front could gain momentum from the downhill slope and rapidly crash into a pipeline section or pump and damage it , regulator valves were used to slow the rate at which the nitrogen ahead of the oil could move . This procedure was used at the other downhill slopes at startup .

As the oil advanced through the pipeline , it was paced by a series of inspectors who traveled along the pipeline route to ensure the weight of the oil did not cause the pipeline to settle or create problems on bridges as the unbalanced weight of the oil front passed over them . This first inspection crew was followed by a second , and others patrolled the pipeline regularly as the oil front passed down the line . The first oil arrived in Valdez on July 28 , 1977 , at 11 : 02 p.m. The oil was only 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) , but it gradually warmed as the system reached a thermal equilibrium . After the initial startup , the pipeline was intended to run continuously . Said an engineer : " We start up this pipeline once ... It will stay onstream then forever ... ' forever ' being the life of the oil field . "

The startup was not without incident . On July 4 , a nitrogen leak was detected at milepost 489 @.@ 2 . The flow of oil stopped for three days as workers repaired a pipe elbow that cracked because of the temperature difference between the pipe and the supercooled nitrogen . On July 8 , oil flowed through a shut @-@ off pump at Pump Station 8 as workers replaced a strainer . The resulting spray mixed with ambient air and was ignited by a stray spark . One worker was killed and five others were injured in the resulting explosion , which also shut down the station until March 1978 . On July 19 , a heavy equipment accident caused a pipeline break that leaked 1 @,@ 800 barrels per day ( 290 m3 / d ) of oil .

The startup process and construction as a whole came to an end on August 1 , 1977 when the tanker ARCO Juneau sailed out of Valdez with the first load of oil from the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System .

= = Cost = =

When the TAPS group initially proposed the pipeline in 1969 , the proposed cost was $ 900 million , and the pipeline would be completed by 1972 . By January 1970 , the projected cost had risen from $ 900 million to $ 2 billion . In October 1973 , Alyeska further refined its figures and anticipated a cost of between $ 3 @.@ 1 billion and $ 3 @.@ 5 billion , with the potential for a billion more . One year later , Alyeska released its most detailed cost estimate to that point : $ 5 @.@ 982 billion . By June 1975 , that figure had again risen to $ 6 @.@ 4 billion . At the time , it was estimated that $ 3 billion of the cost rise to that point was due to inflation , while another $ 2 billion was due to environmental costs . In July 1976 , amid the second year of construction , the project 's cost was raised to $ 7 @.@ 7 billion . The increase , Alyeska reported , was due to material and freight costs , repairs needed to poorly built sections of pipeline , and contingency estimates .

The final construction cost was tallied at $ 8 billion , but this figure does not include interest on investment loans or the cost of improvements and repairs after 1977 . The Valdez Marine Terminal alone cost $ 1 @.@ 4 billion . The percentage of the pipeline owned by various companies has changed over time , but as of 2009 , the primary owner was BP , which controls 46 @.@ 93 percent of the pipeline . Second is ConocoPhillips Transportation Alaska Inc. with 28 @.@ 29 percent , followed in order by ExxonMobil ( 20 @.@ 34 percent ) , Koch Alaska Pipeline Company ( 3 @.@ 08 percent ) , and Unocal Pipeline Company ( 1 @.@ 36 percent ) .

The pipeline also has had a human toll . Thirty @-@ two Alyeska or contract workers were killed during the construction project . That figure does not include common carrier fatalities . Since the pipeline began operating in 1977 , 10 people have been killed while working for Alyeska or one of its contractors .

= = Additional sources = =

Allen , Lawrence J. The Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline . Vol 1 : The Beginning . Vol 2 : South to Valdez . Seattle ; Scribe Publishing Co . 1975 and 1976 .

Alyeska Pipeline Service Co . Alyeska : A 30 @-@ Year Journey . Alyeska Pipeline Service Co . , 2007 .

Dobler , Bruce . The Last Rush North . Boston ; Little , Brown and Co . , 1976 .

Fineberg , Richard A. A Pipeline in Peril : A Status Report on the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline . Ester , Alaska ; Alaska Forum for Environmental Responsibility , 1996 .

Hanrahan , John and Gruenstein , Peter . Lost Frontier : The Marketing of Alaska . New York ; W.W. Norton , 1977 .

Kruse , John A. Fairbanks Community Survey . Fairbanks ; Institute of Social and Economic Research , 1976 .

Lenzner , Terry F. The Management , Planning and Construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System . Washington , D.C. ; Report to the Alaska Pipeline Commission .

McGinniss , Joe . Going to Extremes . New York ; Alfred A. Knopf , 1980 .

McPhee , John . Coming Into the Country . New York : Farrar , Straus and Giroux , 1976 .

Romer , John and Elizabeth . The Seven Wonders of the World : A History of the Modern Imagination . New York ; Henry Holt and Co . , 1995 .

= = = Video = = =

Armstrong , John . Pipeline Alaska . Pelican Films , 1977 .

Davis , Mark . The American Experience : The Alaska Pipeline . PBS , Season 18 , Episode 11 . April 24 , 2006 .

World 's Toughest Fixes : Alaska Oil Pipeline . National Geographic Channel . Season 2 , Episode 10 . August 20 , 2009 .

= Diolkos =

The Diolkos ( Δίολκος , from the Greek διά , dia " across " and ὁλκός , holkos " portage machine " ) was a paved trackway near Corinth in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth . The shortcut allowed ancient vessels to avoid the long and dangerous circumnavigation of the Peloponnese peninsula . The phrase " as fast as a Corinthian " , penned by the comic playwright Aristophanes , indicates that the trackway was common knowledge and had acquired a reputation for swiftness .

The main function of the Diolkos was the transfer of goods , although in times of war it also became a preferred means of speeding up naval campaigns . The 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) long roadway was a rudimentary form of railway , and operated from c . 600 BC until the middle of the 1st century AD . The scale on which the Diolkos combined the two principles of the railway and the overland transport of ships remained unique in antiquity .

= = Function = =

The Diolkos saved ships sailing from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean Sea a dangerous sea journey round the Peloponnese , whose three headlands had a reputation for gales , especially Cape Matapan and Cape Malea . By contrast , both the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf were relatively sheltered waters . In addition , the overland passage of the Isthmus , a neck of land 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) wide at its narrowest , offered a much shorter route to Athens for ships sailing to and from the Ionian coast of Greece .

= = History = =

Ancient literature is silent on the date of the construction of the Diolkos . For Thucydides ( 460 BC – 395 BC ) the Diolkos already seemed to be something ancient . Excavated letters and associated pottery found at the site indicate a construction date at the end of the 7th or beginning of the 6th century BC , that is around the time when Periander was tyrant of Corinth . The Diolkos remained reportedly in regular service until at least the middle of the 1st century AD , after which no more written references appear . Possibly the trackway was put out of use by Nero 's abortive canal works in 67 AD . Much later transports of warships across the Isthmus in the late 9th century and around 1150 are assumed to have used a route other than the Diolkos due to the extensive time lag .

= = = Role in warfare = = =

The Diolkos played an important role in ancient naval warfare . Greek historians note several occasions from the 5th to the 1st century BC when warships were hauled across the Isthmus in order to speed up naval campaigning . In 428 BC , the Spartans planned to transport their warships over the Diolkos to the Saronic Gulf to threaten Athens , while later in the Peloponnesian War , in 411 BC , they carted over a squadron heading quickly for operations at Chios . In 220 BC , Demetrius of Pharos had a fleet of about fifty vessels dragged across the Isthmus to the Bay of Corinth by his men . Three years later , a Macedonian fleet of 38 vessels was sent across by Philip V , while the larger warships sailed around Cape Malea . After his victory at Actium in 31 BC , Octavian advanced as fast as possible against Marc Antony by ordering part of his 260 Liburnians to be carried over the Isthmus . In 868 AD , the Byzantine admiral Niketas Oryphas had his whole fleet of one hundred dromons dragged across the Isthmus in a quickly executed operation , but this took place most likely on a different route .

= = = Role in commerce = = =

Despite the frequent mentioning of the Diolkos in connection with military operations , modern scholarship assumes that the prime purpose of the trackway must have been the transport of cargo , considering that warships cannot have needed transporting very often , and ancient historiography was always more interested in war than commerce . Comments by Pliny the Elder and Strabo , which described the Diolkos as being in regular service during times of peace , also imply a commercial use of the trackway . Coinciding with the rise of monumental architecture in Greece , the construction of the Diolkos may have initially served particularly for transporting heavy goods like marble , monoliths and timber to points west and east . It is not known what tolls Corinth could extract from the Diolkos on its territory , but the fact that the trackway was used and maintained long after its construction indicates that it remained for merchant ships an attractive alternative to the trip around Cape Malea for much of antiquity .

= = Structure = =

= = = Course = = =

The Diolkos ran across the narrowest part of the Isthmus , where the trackway followed the local topography in a curved course in order to avoid steeper gradients . The roadway passed the Isthmus ridge at c . 79 m ( 259 ft ) height with an average gradient of 1 : 70 , while the steepest sections rose up to 6 % . Its total length is estimated at 6 – 7 km ( 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , 8 km ( 5 mi ) or 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) depending on the number of supposed bends taken into account . A total of 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 609 ft ) has been archaeologically traced , mainly at its western end close to the Bay of Corinth . There the known trackway began at a mooring place south of the more recent canal and ran parallel to the waterway for a few hundred meters , after which it switched to the north side , running in a slight bend a similar distance along the canal . From there on , the Diolkos either followed in a straight line the course of the modern canal , or swung south in a wide arc . The roadway ended at the Saronic Gulf at the village Schoinos , modern @-@ day Kalamaki , described by Strabo as the trackway 's eastern terminal . Sections of the Diolkos have been destroyed by the 19th @-@ century Corinth Canal and other modern installations .

= = = Track and transport = = =

The Diolkos was a trackway paved with hard limestone with parallel grooves running about 1 @.@ 60 metres ( 63 in ) apart . The roadway was 3 @.@ 4 to 6 metres ( 11 to 20 ft ) wide . Since ancient sources tell little about how the ships were hauled across , the mode of ship transport has largely to be reconstructed from the archaeological evidence . The tracks indicate that transport on the Diolkos was done with some sort of wheeled vehicle . Either vessel and cargo were hauled across on separate vehicles , or only the cargo was taken across and reloaded on a different ship at the other side of the Isthmus . Although a technical analysis has shown that the transport of triremes ( 25 t , 35 metres ( 115 ft ) long , 5 metres ( 16 ft ) beam ) , albeit difficult , was technically feasible , it is assumed that the vessels were usually smaller boats rather than ships . To avoid damaging the keel during transport , hypozomata , thick ropes running from bow to stern , to reduce sagging and hogging of the hull , must have been used . Ship and cargo were presumably pulled by men and animals with ropes , tackles and possibly also capstans .

The scientist Tolley aimed to establish the manpower needed to haul the vessels over the isthmus ridge . Assuming that a trireme soaked with water weighed 38 tons including its trolley , and that a man can exert a force of 300 N over an extended period of time , the pulling teams — depending on the slope and the surface of the cart track — must have numbered between 112 and 142 people , with a combined exertion of force of 33 to 42 kN , or around 3 @.@ 8 tons weight . Bringing the trolley up to speed may have required as many as 180 men . Assuming a speed of 2 km per hour over an estimated length of 6 kilometres , the transfer from sea to sea would have taken three hours to complete .

Assuming less load and rolling friction , Raepsaet , in contrast , calculates a maximum pulling force of 27 kN , which would have needed a slightly smaller towing crew . Under these circumstances , the use of harnessed oxen — which has been refuted by Tolley on the basis of their relatively diminished pulling capabilities — would have become feasible . However , the necessary expenditure of energy at the Diolkos must be regarded in both scenarios as considerable .

= = = Ancient railway = = =

According to the British historian of science M.J.T. Lewis , the Diolkos represented a railway , in the basic sense of a prepared track which so guides the vehicles running on it that they cannot leave the track . Measuring between 6 km ( 4 mi ) and 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) , remaining in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years , and being open to all on payment , it constituted even a public railway , a concept which according to Lewis did not recur until c . 1800 . Also , its average gauge of around 160 cm ( 63 in ) is similar to modern standards .

However , a close examination of the excavated tracks may give a more differentiated picture . While there is agreement that the grooves in the eastern part were cut deliberately into the stone slabs to guide cart wheels , those in the western section are interpreted by some authors as a result of wear or do not appear at all . On the other hand , the marked cambers of this road section may point at deliberate tracks as well . Generally , varying forms of the grooves can also be explained by the long period of operation of the Diolkos , during which modifications and repairs must have significantly changed the appearance of the trackway .

= = = Modern exploration = = =

The chief engineer of the Corinth Canal , Béla Gerster , conducted extensive research on the topography of the Isthmus , but did not discover the Diolkos . Remains of the ship trackway were probably first identified by the German archaeologist Habbo Gerhard Lolling in the 1883 Baedeker edition . In 1913 , James George Frazer reported in his commentary on Pausanias on traces of an ancient trackway across the Isthmus , while parts of the western quay were discovered by Harold North Fowler in 1932 .

Systematic excavations were finally undertaken by the Greek archaeologist Nikolaos Verdelis between 1956 and 1962 , and these uncovered a nearly continuous stretch of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) and traced about 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) in all . Even though Verdelis ' excavation reports continue to provide the basis for modern interpretations , his premature death prevented full publication , leaving many open questions concerning the exact nature of the structure . Additional investigations in situ , meant to complement Verdelis ’ work , were later published by Georges Raepsaet and Walter Werner .

Today , erosion caused by ship movements on the nearby Canal has left considerable portions of the Diolkos in a poor state , particularly at its excavated western end . Critics who blame the Greek Ministry of Culture for continued inactivity have launched a petition to save and restore the registered archaeological site .

= = Ancient sources = =

The following ancient writers mention the transfer of ships across the Isthmus ( in chronological order ) :

Thucydides 3 @.@ 15 @.@ 1 , 8 @.@ 7 , 8 @.@ 8 @.@ 3 – 4

Aristophanes , Thesmophoriazusae 647 – 648

Polybius 4 @.@ 19 @.@ 7 – 9 [ 318 ] , 5 @.@ 101 @.@ 4 [ 484 ] , frag . 162 ( ed . M. Buettner @-@ Wolst )

Livy 42 @.@ 16 @.@ 6

Strabo 8 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 [ C.335 ] , 8 @.@ 6 @.@ 22 [ C.380 ] , 8 @.@ 6 @.@ 4 [ C.369 ]

Pliny the Elder , Natural History , 4 @.@ 9 – 11 , 18 @.@ 18

Cassius Dio 51 @.@ 5

Hesychius ( ed . Schmidt , I , p . 516 @.@ 80 )

Suidas 2 @.@ 92

George Sphrantzes 1 @.@ 33

al @-@ Idrisi ( Joubert , P.A. : Géographie d 'Édrisi 2 , Paris 1840 , p . 123 )

= = Other ship trackways = =

Apart from the Diolkos at Corinth , there is scant literary evidence for two more ship trackways by that name in antiquity , both in Roman Egypt : The physician Oribasius ( c . 320 – 400 AD ) records two passages from his 1st century AD colleague Xenocrates , in which the latter casually refers to a diolkos close to the harbor of Alexandria which may have been located at the southern tip of the island of Pharos . Another diolkos is mentioned by Ptolemy ( 90 – 168 AD ) in his book on geography ( IV , 5 , 10 ) as connecting a false mouth of a partly silted up Nile branch with the Mediterranean Sea . Neither Xenocrates nor Ptolemy offers any details on his trackway .

= Xue Susu =

Xue Susu ( Chinese : 薛素素 ; also known as Xue Wu , Xuesu , Sunjung among other pen names ) ( c.1564 – 1650 ? C.E. ) was a Chinese courtesan . Known as one of the " Eight Great Courtesans of the Ming Dynasty " , she was an accomplished painter and poet , and was noted for her skill at mounted archery . She was particularly noted for her figure paintings , which included many Buddhist subjects . Her works are held in a number of museums both in China and elsewhere . Her archery was commented upon by a number of contemporary writers , as were her masculine , martial tendencies ; these were regarded as an attractive feature by the literati of the period .

She lived in Eastern China , residing for most of her life in the Zhejiang and Jiangsu districts . After a career as a celebrated courtesan in Nanjing , Xue married several times , but none of these unions lasted . During her later life , she eventually opted for the life of a Buddhist recluse .

= = Biography = =

Xue was born in either Suzhou or Jiaxing ( contemporary sources disagree ) . According to the historian Qian Qianyi she spent at least some of her childhood in Beijing . She spent her professional life in the Qinhuai pleasure quarter of Nanjing in the 1580s , where she became something of a celebrity among the literati and government officials who frequented the " flower houses " there . She was highly selective in her clientele , accepting only learned and scholarly men as her lovers and declining to proffer her affections for mere financial gain ; suitors might spend thousands of taels on her to no avail .

In the 1590s she returned to Beijing , where the parties and literary gatherings that she hosted , as well as her archery demonstrations , further cemented her reputation . Xue referred to herself as " a female knight @-@ errant " , and took her name from a famous woman warrior from history ; she also chose the sobriquet Wulang 五郎 ( " fifth young gentleman " ) as a nickname . The " female knight @-@ errant " epithet was reiterated by both the bibliophile Hu Yinglin and Fan Yulin , Secretary to the Ministry of War . Apparently fond of martial causes , she was not above using her position to influence military affairs , on one occasion abandoning her lover Yuan Baode when he refused to fund an expedition against the Japanese in Korea .

At some point after 1605 her career as a courtesan came to an end when she married the playwright and bureaucrat Shen Defu . She was married several times ( making many of the proposals herself ) but none of these unions lasted . As well as Shen Defu , her husbands included General Li Hualong , art critic Li Rihua and , in later life , an unnamed ( but wealthy ) merchant from Suzhou . Although she wanted children , she was never able to have any .

In later life she converted to Buddhism and remained single thereafter , largely retiring from the world . Even in her eighties , however , she was still active in the literary world , entertaining female artists such as Huang Yuanjie and Yi Lin at her home on the West Lake after the collapse of the Ming Dynasty . With her Buddhist friend Yang Jiangzi ( the sister of Xue 's fellow courtesan Liu Yin ) , she made pilgrimages to sacred sites such as Mount Lu and Mount Emei . The date of her death is uncertain ; some sources suggest that she may have lived into the 1650s whilst others put her death in the late 1630s or early 1640s . Qian Qianyi mentions her death in a work published in 1652 , so it is evident that she must have died before this date .

= = Paintings = =

Already an accomplished painter in her teenage years , Xue was well known for her artistic talent . Her work was considered similar to that of Chen Chun . One of her paintings was considered " the most accomplished work of its kind in the whole of the Ming period " , and contemporary art critics regarded her as " a master of technique " . Hu Yinglin considered her to be at the pinnacle of contemporary painting , asking , " What famous painter with skilled hands can surpass her ? " and claiming that " ... [ she ] surpasses anyone in the painting of bamboo and orchids . " She was also keenly admired by eminent painter and art critic Dong Qichang , who was inspired to copy the entire Heart Sutra in response to Xue 's painting of the bodhisattva Guanyin ; he claimed that " None [ of Xue Susu 's works ] lacks an intention and spirit that approaches the divine . " Although she painted the standard subjects of landscapes , bamboo and blossoms ( being particularly fond of orchids ) , Xue was noted for her work in figure painting , which was a comparatively unusual artistic topic for courtesans to address . Examples of her paintings are displayed at the Honolulu Museum of Art and the San Francisco Asian Art Museum .

= = Poetry = =

Xue regularly accented her paintings with her own poems , and published two volumes of writing , only one of which is still extant . Hua suo shi Chinese : 花瑣事 ( Trifles about Flowers ) is a collection of short prose essays and anecdotes about various flowers , whilst Nan you cao Chinese : 南游草 ( Notes from a Journey to the South ) , which has been lost , apparently contained a selection of her poems regarding life as a courtesan . A number of these were collected in various anthologies from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties .

Hu Yinglin wrote that " Her poetry , although lacking in freedom , shows a talent rare among women . " Moving in literary circles , Xue also provided the subject matter for many contemporary poets . Xu Yuan , another female poet of the period , describes Xue 's allure :

Hu Yinglin wrote of Xue :

Xue 's own works deal with a variety of themes , from the mildy erotic :

to the romantic :

to the whimsically philosophical :

Xue often exchanged poems and paintings with her clientele , receiving their own artworks in exchange .

= = Archery = =

Whilst she excelled at poetry , painting and embroidery , the skill that set Xue apart from other courtesans and created a cult of celebrity around her was her talent for archery . Her mastery of a traditionally masculine art gave her an air of androgyny that was considered highly attractive by the literati of the time . Having practiced in Beijing as a child she furthered her skills during a sojourn in the company of a military officer in the outlying regions of China . The horsemen of the local tribes there were impressed with her shooting , and she became something of a local celebrity . Later in life she gave public demonstrations in Hangzhou , which drew large audiences . Hu Yinglin describes one such performance :

" She is able to shoot two balls from her crossbow one after another and make the second ball strike the first and break it in mid @-@ air . Another trick she can do is to place a ball on the ground , and , by pulling the bow backwards with her left hand , while her right hand draws the bow from behind her back , hit it . Out of a hundred shots , she does not miss a single one .

The poet Lu Bi recalls another trick shot performed by Xue : " When the servant girl takes a ball in her hand and places it on top of her head / She [ Xue ] turns around , hits it with another ball , and both balls fall to the ground . "

= 5th Avenue Theatre =

The 5th Avenue Theatre ( often referred to as 5th Avenue or the 5th ) is a landmark theatre building located in Seattle , Washington . It has hosted a variety of theatre productions and motion pictures since it opened in 1926 . The building and land is owned by the University of Washington and was once part of the original campus . It is operated as a venue for nationally touring Broadway and original shows by the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre Association . The theatre , located at 1308 Fifth Avenue in the historic Skinner Building , has been listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places since 1978 .

The 2 @,@ 130 @-@ seat theatre is the resident home to the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company , and employs over 600 actors , musicians , directors , choreographers , designers , technicians , stage hands , box office staff , and administrators , making it the largest theatre employer in the Puget Sound region . A non @-@ profit , the theatre company is supported by individual and corporate donations , government sources , and box office ticket sales .

The 5th 's subscriber season programming includes six to seven shows per year , a mix of locally produced revivals of musical theatre classics , and premieres of bound @-@ for @-@ Broadway shows , and national touring musicals . The 5th Avenue Theatre has established a tradition of being a " testing ground " for new musicals before they make their debut on Broadway , launching hits such as Jekyll & Hyde , Hairspray , and The Wedding Singer . The theatre also hosts a variety of special events , and offers education and outreach programs to school @-@ age children and adults reaching over 61 @,@ 000 students , professional performers , and audiences each year .

= = Architecture = =

Located in the Skinner Building , a historic office block ranging from five to eight stories with retail shops on the ground level , the theatre is surrounded on three sides , with its entry facing its namesake avenue . In addition to an auditorium with an original seating capacity of 3 @,@ 000 , the theatre contains a grand entry hall , and a mezzanine that once featured a tea room in addition to a waiting room and women 's lounge .

The interior design of the 5th Avenue Theatre was modeled to reproduce some of the features of historic and well @-@ known Beijing landmarks . The Norwegian artist Gustav Liljestrom executed the design based on his visit to China , and on Chinesische Architecktur , published in 1925 , an illustrated account of Ernst Boerschmann 's travels in China .

The ornate historical Chinese style of the theatre distinguishes itself from the Neo @-@ Renaissance exterior of the Skinner Building . Only at the street entry under the marquee does the viewer get a preview of the interior design . Here , adorning the ceiling are plaster representations of wood brackets , beams , and carved reliefs painted in a polychromatic scheme and decorated with stenciled dragons and flower patterns . Carved cloud shapes screen light fixtures to create an indirect lighting effect as the viewer approaches the wooden , brass knobbed entry doors . The original central free @-@ standing box office was replaced by the current box office located to the side of the entry as part of a 1979 renovation . The original Imperial guardian lions ( Ruì Shī ) , commonly called foo dogs or foo lions , originally located outside the entry were moved inside as part of the 1979 renovation .

The interior architecture of the theatre is an " excellent imitation of Chinese wooden temple construction " . The two story rectangular lobby features red , stenciled columns wrapped in plaster rising to a timbered roof structure of decoratively painted beams supporting a canopy of bamboo , also imitated in plaster . The original pair of guardian lions , both male , guard the stairway to a second level gallery that serves the theatre balcony . In addition to the Imperial guard lions , other original furnishings , light fixtures , and decoration remain intact .

The decorative details continue in the 2 @,@ 130 @-@ seat auditorium , but the highlight and focal decorative feature is the octagonal caisson from which a sculpted five @-@ toed Imperial Chinese dragon springs . A large chandelier of glass hangs from the dragon 's mouth , in reference to the Chinese symbol of a dragon disgorging flaming pearls . One claim puts the size of this caisson at twice the size of the model on which it was based in the throne room of the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City . The opening night program spoke effusively of it :

... Its most imposing feature is the great dome ... its symbolic themes borrowed from Chinese legends , its motifs from Chinese poetry . Coiled within an azure sphere and surrounded by glowing hues of cloud red , emblematic of calamity and welfare ; blue of rain ; green symbolic of plaque ; black of flood ; and gold of prosperity — is the Great Dragon , guardian genius of the place , his presence shadowed and multiplied in varying forms throughout the structure . On the huge beams surrounding and supporting the dome are five @-@ clawed dragons — the Emperor 's emblem — spitting fire in pursuit of the Jewel , rendered in the shape of a disc emitting effulgent rays , and symbolic of Omnipotence .

The dragon motif is repeated in the radial coffers of the caisson and the timbered coffers throughout the theatre . The Imperial dragon is accompanied by the symbol of the Empress , the Chinese phoenix ( Fèng huáng ) , sometimes called Ho @-@ Ho or Ho @-@ Oh Bird from the Japanese . This personal symbol of the Empress is also repeated throughout the theatre , but most prominently in relief as part of the grills above false balconies that once screened organ pipes . In addition to these symbols , orange blossoms , chrysanthemums , and lotus flowers appear throughout the theatre . The highly decorated proscenium arch and safety curtain maintain the Chinese design influence .

Beyond the decorative features of the building , the 5th Avenue Theatre also contained notable technical features when originally built . An ascending orchestra pit and independent Wurlitzer organ platform allowed the musicians to be raised up to main stage height or to orchestra pit level from the basement below . The ventilation system had thermostatic controls throughout the building , and allowed the air to be ' washed ' prior to its introduction into the venue at outlets under every third seat .

= = = Significance = = =

Preceding Grauman 's Chinese Theater in Hollywood , the 5th Avenue Theatre " has been called the largest and most authentic example of traditional Chinese timber architecture and decoration outside of Asia . " In addition , its association with architect Robert Reamer , whose other notable works include the nationally known Old Faithful Inn in Yellowstone National Park , as well as many important buildings in the Art Deco style add to its significance . The Fifth Avenue Theatre was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on November 28 , 1978 .

= = History = =

= = = Planning and construction = = =

The president and general manager of Pacific Northwest Theatres , Inc . , Harry C. Arthur , believed Seattle to be a place of growing importance in the motion picture industry in the mid @-@ 1920s , and consequently as the place to invest for the long term . Arthur 's company absorbed a competing chain of 40 theatres by 1926 , and sought further expansion . A large holder of the theatre company 's stock and debt was C. D. Stimson who sat on the board of directors of both Pacific Northwest Theatres and the Metropolitan Building Company , developer of what became known as the Metropolitan Tract . Stimson promoted the establishment of a theatre district like that which had developed around a theatre he had built in Los Angeles , California . The planned Skinner Building with a theatre owned by Arthur 's company would complete the Stimson development of the Metropolitan Tract .

The architect , Robert Reamer , had joined the Metropolitan Building Company after World War I and as their house architect designed the Skinner Building and the 5th Avenue Theatre . In creating the 5th Avenue Theatre , Reamer was joined by his colleague , Joseph Skoog , of Reamer 's office and Gustav Liljestrom , of the S. & G. Gump Company of San Francisco .

Construction began in October 1925 with construction taking 11 months and costing $ 1 @.@ 5 million .

= = = Grand opening = = =

The theatre celebrated its grand opening on September 24 , 1926 with an opening unit program that included both film and live vaudeville performances . The opening program included the silent film Young April , Fanchon and Marco 's stage presentation The Night Club , and Lipschultz and his Syncopated Soloists . Oliver Wallace , a popular local musician and composer , returned from Portland , Oregon to be the accompanying organist for opening night . Wallace had been the first theatre organist in a Seattle motion picture house .

Opening night was also marked by festivities outside the theatre . Seven blocks of downtown Seattle around the theatre were closed to street car and automobile traffic . Lured by free street car , bus , and taxicab rides , thousands of people packed Fifth Avenue between Seneca Street and Pike Street , University and Union Streets . The Seattle Times reported :

It is doubtful that any Friday night in Seattle 's history saw more people circulating through all the downtown streets than were there last night . The density in the center of the activities was such that street cars were diverted ...

In the street outside the theatre a street carnival took place . Living up to the moniker for the theater 's marquee , “ the Magic Sign of a Wonderful Time , ” spotlights scanned the night sky , banks of Klieg lights illuminated the streets outside the theater , and flares were shot from the roofs of nearby buildings . Additionally , dance bands were placed at the closed intersections to provide entertainment and , using giant screens to project the words , a sing @-@ along was orchestrated on Fifth Avenue in front of the theatre . An estimated crowd of between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 people participated in the events .

= = = Decline and restoration = = =

Following the grand opening , the theatre served as a venue for vaudeville and film , and following the decline of vaudeville as a movie palace until the 1970s . With the economic recession , the advent of television , and movie complex development in the suburbs , crowds dwindled and the theatre struggled to stay open . It was forced to close its doors in 1978 along with the nearby Orpheum theatre . A variety of re @-@ use possibilities were proposed for the theatre including a Chinese restaurant , a triplex movie theater , an office building , or a shopping center . The city of Seattle was unable to protect the theatre as a designated landmark because of its unique position on the site of the original territorial university grounds owned by the state of Washington .

In 1979 , 43 business leaders formed the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre Association and underwrote a US $ 2 @.@ 6 million loan to save the theatre . Among these was Ned Skinner of the shipbuilding family who was an active patron of the theatre . Architect Richard McCann oversaw the restoration efforts .

Several changes were made during the renovation . The vertical marquee which had marked the theatre 's presence from 1926 to 1980 , was removed , the orchestra pit and auditorium seating were rebuilt , the dressing rooms moved , and the technical systems updated . However , the furniture , fixtures and interior signage were retained . Even the paint was carefully restored to its original luster . The renovation made it suitable again for live performances and filled Seattle 's need for a touring Broadway musical venue . Renovation work was completed without federal , state , or local funds .

June 16 , 1980 marked the theater ’ s rebirth and a new chapter in Seattle ’ s arts community . At the Grand Opening Gala for the renovated theatre , actress Helen Hayes christened the stage with a kiss and declared the 5th “ a national treasure . ” Beginning on July 3 the 5th presented Annie , the first touring Broadway musical to appear at the theatre . The sold @-@ out show ran for 10 weeks with a total of 77 performances .

The 5th Avenue Theatre continues to thrive with the assistance of many generous donors and volunteers .

= = = Post @-@ 1980 history = = =

Since the renovation , the 5th Avenue Theatre has become one of Seattle 's most established theatres . In 1989 , The 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company was established as the resident non @-@ profit theatre company .

On February 28 , 2001 , the Nisqually earthquake rocked the 5th Avenue Theatre . At the time , actors were on stage rehearsing the musical 1776 . The theatre suffered minimal damages with no structural damage from the quake . Earthquake repairs included removal and replacement of 72 plaster ceiling supports and the repair of numerous cracks and damaged decorative plaster pieces in the ceiling . Contractors had to install scaffolding tall enough to reach the highest interior crevice in the ceiling eight stories up — the first time that area had been reached in 75 years . The chandeliers had to be lowered for repair and maintenance . As part of the repair work , Turner Construction provided services for seismic upgrades to the Skinner Building .

In November 2009 a new vertical marquee , similar to the sign that was removed as part of the 1980 renovation , was installed . The marquee was made possible through a donation from Christabel Gough , daughter of Broadway producer and early 5th Avenue promoter Roger L. Stevens . The new sign features a design inspired by both earlier marquees and the theatre 's interior , uses LED lights for energy conservation , and includes a revolving " 5th " sign at the marquee 's top .

= = The 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company = =

= = = Genesis = = =

From the renovation in 1980 until 1985 the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre successfully operated as a venue for touring Broadway shows . As the United States went through an economic downturn from 1985 to 1989 there was a shortage of touring shows for venues like the 5th . Consequently , many of the country 's Broadway houses went unused for extended periods of time . However , the 5th remained open during these years with a reduced staff and was used for community events and local promoters .

This situation forced the theatre to move beyond merely being a presenter of touring musicals . In 1989 , the non @-@ profit 5th Avenue Theatre established a resident theatre company , dubbed The 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company , to produce musicals locally . Since the theatre company 's establishment , the 5th 's yearly subscriber season programming has included 6 to 7 shows : national touring musicals , locally produced revivals of musical theatre classics , and premieres of bound @-@ for @-@ Broadway shows . With 150 musical theater performances each fall @-@ to @-@ spring subscriber season which attract over 30 @,@ 000 subscribers and average ticket sales of 300 @,@ 000 tickets annually , the 5th ranks among the nation 's largest musical theater companies .

The musical company employs over 600 actors , musicians , directors , choreographers , designers , technicians , stage hands , box office staff , and administrators , making the 5th the largest theatre employer in the Puget Sound region . A non @-@ profit , the theatre company is supported by individual and corporate donations , government sources , and box office ticket sales .

= = = TUTS partnership = = =

Frank M. Young was the first executive director of the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company . From 1989 to 1999 a collaborative partnership existed between the 5th and Houston 's Theatre Under the Stars ( TUTS ) where Young also served as executive director . This partnership produced 10 seasons of musical theater , including both national tours and self @-@ produced musicals . On October 17 , 1989 the first 5th Avenue / TUTS self @-@ produced musical was presented : Mame , starring Juliet Prowse . In 1995 , after premiering at the 5th , Jekyll & Hyde became the first 5th Avenue Theatre production to open on Broadway in April 1997 . The show was produced in cooperation with Houston 's Alley Theatre and TUTS .

In August 2000 the 5th ’ s partnership with TUTS ended as David Armstrong joined the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company becoming its first resident Producing Artistic Director launching a new era of collaboration with leading musical theater companies and producers across the country .

= = = Broadway " testing ground " = = =

Since the creation of the 5th Avenue Musical Theatre Company in 1989 , the 5th has established a tradition of being a " testing ground " for new musicals before they make their debut on Broadway . Since 2000 the 5th has produced one pre @-@ Broadway world premiere every 2 to 3 years .

We 've become a very sought @-@ after partner for developing Broadway musicals .

Some notable musicals shown to Seattle audiences at the 5th Avenue Theatre prior to their success on Broadway include : Jekyll & Hyde in 1995 which was nominated for 4 Tony Awards , Hairspray in 2002 which won 8 Tony Awards , and The Wedding Singer in 2006 which had 4 Tony Award nominations . The film adaptation of Hairspray premiered at the 5th on July 16 , 2007 ( 4 days prior to its nationwide release ) as an acknowledgement of the 5th 's role in the musical 's success on Broadway . The " testing ground " tradition continued in the 2008 – 2009 season with the pre @-@ Broadway world premieres of Shrek the Musical , and Memphis . Both went on to win Tony awards , Shrek winning one in 2009 and Memphis winning four , including Best Musical , in 2010 . In the 2009 – 2010 season , they premiered Catch Me If You Can , which premiered on Broadway in the spring of 2011 . In their 2010 – 2011 season , they premiered A Christmas Story : The Musical , based on the film of the same name , and more recently the premiere of Aladdin , based on the Disney film " Aladdin " .

Along with their successful pre @-@ Broadway tryouts , the 5th Avenue Theatre has also performed two musicals , Princesses in 2005 and Lone Star Love in 2007 , which were originally scheduled to go to Broadway , but did not due to poor reviews . They also announced the premiere of a musical adaptation of Cry @-@ Baby , in 2007 , but it was later replaced with Buddy : The Buddy Holly Story .

= = = Community outreach programs = = =

The theatre also hosts a variety of special events , and offers a number of education and outreach programs to school @-@ age children and adults reaching over 61 @,@ 000 students , professional performers , and audiences each year . One example of this is the 5th Avenue High School Musical Theatre Awards which evaluate and honor the performances of student actors and stage hands in Washington state high school productions . At the end of each school year , a Tony Awards @-@ style ceremony is held which includes high @-@ profile presenters , performances by nominees , and acceptance speeches by the award recipients . The awards ceremony has become a useful scouting event for colleges looking to recruit talent for their drama departments .

= = Productions by season = =

= Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) =

" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " is a song by Powderfinger from their sixth album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . It is the fourth single from the album and was released in Australia in March 2008 . The band 's publicist , Ms. Fanclub , announced on 27 February that the single would be released to radioplay in the following week , without specifying a date . In her announcement , she also noted that a music video will be released at about the same time . The music video was then released in mid @-@ March ; however , the single 's release was then announced as 31 March .

A music video was released for the song ; however , it features the live version of the song taken from the DVD for the Across the Great Divide tour , whereas the radio single for the song is a radio edit of the studio album version . The music video is directly taken from the DVD ; however , it is altered optically with filters and converted into black and white .

= = Background = =

" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) " was recorded by Powderfinger for their 2007 album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence at Sunset Sound Studio , Los Angeles , California , in early 2007 with producer Rob Schnapf . The part of the title " Featuring the Sound of Insanity " refers to a sound just after the bridge in which a sitar is played with synthesised effects overlaid . Prior to its release as a single , a live version of " Who Really Cares " appeared on the earlier Dream Days at the Hotel Existence single , " I Don 't Remember " . Another live version also appears on the group 's 2007 DVD Across the Great Divide tour .

= = Release = =

= = = Cover art = = =

Though the single was never a physical CD release , artwork was created for it . The artwork featured the headless man who is otherwise seen throughout the releases for other singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , however on this cover , the area where his head would be is a fireball , and he appears to be holding a briefcase while walking down the hallway of a hotel , another common theme throughout the artwork for the album . Unlike the last two singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , the artwork doesn 't follow the picture @-@ in @-@ picture theme .

= = = Music video = = =

The music video for " Who Really Cares " is a live performance of the song by Powderfinger for their Across the Great Divide tour in 2007 . The music video contains the performance featured on the DVD for the Across the Great Divide tour , filmed in Melbourne in 2007 . The performance features a piano solo by the pianist Lachlan Doley , who performed keyboards and piano throughout the tour . The music video , produced by PVC as part of the tour DVD , is completely in black and white and throughout features optical filters that warp and alter the visual display . These filters intensify from the bridge and continue until the end of the clip . The music is performed differently from the original studio recording , with improvised solos , including Ian Haug playing the sitar part on a double necked guitar with synthesised effects to emulate the sitar sound , and the performance of the song ends with a ritardando , where the tempo slows to an end .

= = Critical response = =

Prior to being released as a single , " Who Really Cares " received a mixed response by reviewers when commenting on Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . Melbourne based webzine TheScene.com.au reviewer Andrew Weaver comments on the song 's musical layering , coupling the song with " Wishing on the Same Moon " and comments that the layering in the two songs gives the music " genuine depth of sound and taking the veteran group to new places " . CitySearch Sydney also made reference to the likeness to " Wishing on the Same Moon " , but notes that what sets the two songs apart is " a serviceable fade @-@ out cacophony of keys and guitar " . Music journalist Chris Leonard of UK magazine Rock Louder praises the live performance of the song while Powderfinger performed in Glasgow on 11 December 2007 . J. Watson of Fasterlouder.com.au comments that the song , when performed live at The Sydney Opera House Forecourt for charity on 31 October 2007 , was " another highlight of the evening " . Fellow reviewer from Fasterlouder , ShahXerxes , comments on the song 's " sparse Pink Floyd @-@ esque sound which echoes through " Who Really Cares " , as clever a rock ballad as the band have ever written . " Andrew Ramadge of Mess + Noise echoed the comments of similarities to Pink Floyd , and also Neil Young , stating " where psych @-@ gospel organ and wailing guitar billow around Fanning ’ s vocals like a lost track from Dark Side of the Moon " . Though most of the critical response has been positive , the song has also received criticism from UK reviewer Matthias Scherer of Noize Makes Enemies . Scherer notes that the song 's title " Who Really Cares " is a question that " should have been asked before recording , not during " , though this comment refers both to the song itself , and the whole album of Dream Days at the Hotel Existence .

= = = Charts = = =

The song 's critical response has been mostly positive , though so too were the two prior singles from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , which both performed poorly in the charts . Like these two , " Who Really Cares " was released to radioplay and music video stations , but with little inclusion in circulation , leading speculators to believe the single will follow " I Don 't Remember " and " Nobody Sees " with poor charting performance . This speculation proved to be accurate , leading to " Who Really Cares " to be the first single by Powderfinger since their 2004 release " Bless My Soul " to fail to achieve a position on the ARIA Charts . Although B @-@ side " One More Kiss As You Fly Away " was the number 81 on the ARIA Charts .

= = Track listing = =

" Who Really Cares ( Featuring the Sound of Insanity ) "

" One More Kiss as You Fly Away "

= = Personnel = =

= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) =

SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was the lead ship of the Erzherzog Ferdinand Max class of broadside ironclads built for the Austrian Navy in the 1860s . She was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino , with her keel laying in October 1863 , launching in May 1865 , and commissioning in June 1866 at the outbreak of the Third Italian War of Independence and the Austro @-@ Prussian War , fought concurrently . The ship was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder guns , though the rifled guns originally intended , which had been ordered from Prussia , had to be replaced with old smoothbore guns until after the conflicts ended .

Stationed in the Adriatic Sea , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max served as the flagship of the Austrian fleet under Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff . She saw action at the Battle of Lissa in July 1866 , where she rammed and sank the Italian ironclad Re d 'Italia . Slightly damaged in the collision , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max had her bow repaired in Malta after the war . She remained in the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet for the next twenty years , but severely reduced naval budgets owing to Hungarian disinterest in naval matters led to an uneventful career . She was rearmed with newer guns in 1874 and again in 1882 . Stricken from the naval register in May 1886 , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was employed as a tender to the gunnery training school from 1889 to 1908 . She remained in the inventory until 1916 when she was broken up for scrap .

= = Design = =

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was 83 @.@ 75 meters ( 274 @.@ 8 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 96 m ( 52 @.@ 4 ft ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 14 m ( 23 @.@ 4 ft ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 130 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 050 long tons ; 5 @,@ 650 short tons ) . She had a crew of 511 . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine , manufactured by the Stabilimento Tecnico shipyard in Fiume , that drove a single screw propeller . The number and type of her coal @-@ fired boilers have not survived . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 54 knots ( 23 @.@ 22 km / h ; 14 @.@ 43 mph ) from 2 @,@ 925 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 181 kW ) .

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of sixteen 48 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns . She also carried several smaller guns , including four 8 @-@ pounder guns and two 3 @-@ pounders . The ship 's hull was sheathed with wrought iron armor that was 123 mm ( 5 in ) thick on the battery and reduced to 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) at the bow and stern .

= = Service history = =

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was laid down at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 6 May 1863 . She was launched on 24 May 1865 ; the builders were forced to complete fitting @-@ out work quickly , as tensions with neighboring Prussia and Italy erupted into the concurrent Austro @-@ Prussian War and the Third Italian War of Independence in June 1866 . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max 's rifled heavy guns were still on order from Krupp , and they could not be delivered due to the conflict with Prussia . Instead , the ship was armed with old smooth @-@ bore guns . Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff , the commander of the Austrian Fleet , immediately began to mobilize his fleet . As the ships became fully manned , they began to conduct training exercises in Fasana . With his flag aboard Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on 26 June in an attempt to draw out the Italians , but the Italian commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , refused to engage Tegetthoff . Tegetthoff made another sortie on 6 July , but again could not bring the Italian fleet to battle .

= = = Battle of Lissa = = =

On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet , with twelve ironclads , out of Ancona , bound for the island of Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . Persano then spent the next two days bombarding the Austrian defenses of the island and unsuccessfully attempting to force a landing . Tegetthoff received a series of telegrams between the 17 and 19 July notifying him of the Italian attack , which he initially believed to be a feint to draw the Austrian fleet away from its main bases at Pola and Venice . By the morning of the 19th , however , he was convinced that Lissa was in fact the Italian objective , and so he requested permission to attack . As Tegetthoff 's fleet arrived off Lissa on the morning of 20 July , Persano 's fleet was arrayed for another landing attempt . The latter 's ships were divided into three groups , with only the first two able to concentrate in time to meet the Austrians . Tegetthoff had arranged his ironclad ships into a wedge @-@ shaped formation , leading with Erzherzog Ferdinand Max at the center ; the wooden warships of the second and third divisions followed behind in the same formation .

While he was forming up his ships , Persano transferred from his flagship , Re d 'Italia to the turret ship Affondatore . This created a gap in the Italian line , and Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to divide the Italian fleet and create a melee . He made a pass through the gap , but failed to ram any of the Italian ships , forcing him to turn around and make another attempt . During the second attempt , Austrian gunfire had disabled Re d 'Italia 's rudder , leaving her incapable of maneuvering . Tegetthoff seized the opportunity to ram the Italian vessel , and ordered his ship to maximum speed . After two collisions that occurred at angles too oblique to inflict serious damage , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max struck the ship more directly . The Austrian ship 's ram tore a gaping hole in Re d 'Italia 's hull on the port side , though Erzherzog Ferdinand Max sustained no significant damage herself . Tegetthoff reversed course , allowing the Italian ironclad to lurch back to port and quickly sink . Tegetthoff initially ordered his crew to lower boats to pick up the Italians struggling in the water , but the Italian ironclad San Martino was approaching , and he could not allow his ship to become a stationary target . Instead , he ordered the aviso Kaiserin Elizabeth to remain behind and pick up the survivors while Erzherzog Ferdinand Max engaged San Martino . The other Italian ships , however , did not realize Kaiserin Elizabeth was attempting to pick up the Italian survivors , and so opened fire on her , driving her away from the men in the water .

By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk and the coastal defense ship Palestro was burning badly , soon to be destroyed by a magazine explosion . Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , he refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . In addition , the fleet was low on coal and ammunition . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; Tegetthoff , having gotten the better of the action , kept his distance so as not to risk his success . Additionally , the Austrian ships were slower than their Italian counterparts , and so they could not force a second engagement . As night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max had fired 156 shells in the course of the battle . She had kept boarding parties on her deck , ready to attack Italian vessels , but the opportunity had not presented itself in the engagement ; steam powered ships could simply reverse course and disengage before a boarding party could cross over . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was not significantly damaged by Italian fire or the ramming attempts . A few armor plates were slightly dislodged , the paint had been stripped from the hull where she had collided with Re d 'Italia , and she had a minor leak from the concussion , but she was otherwise unscathed .

= = = Later career = = =

After returning to Pola , Tegetthoff kept his fleet in the northern Adriatic , where it patrolled against a possible Italian attack . The Italian ships never came , and on 12 August , the two countries signed the Armistice of Cormons ; this ended the fighting and led to the Treaty of Vienna . Though Austria had defeated Italy at Lissa and on land at the Battle of Custoza , the Austrian army was decisively defeated by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz . With the war over , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max went into the British Royal Navy shipyard in Malta to have her bow repaired . As a result of Austria 's defeat , Kaiser Franz Joseph was forced to accede to Hungarian demands for greater autonomy , and the country became Austria @-@ Hungary in the Ausgleich of 1867 . The two halves of the Dual Monarchy held veto power over the other , and Hungarian disinterest in naval expansion led to severely reduced budgets for the fleet .

In 1869 , Kaiser Franz Joseph took a tour of the Mediterranean Sea in his imperial yacht Greif ; Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , her sister ship Habsburg , and a pair of paddle steamers escorted the Kaiser for the trip to Port Said at the mouth of the Suez Canal . The two ironclads remained in the Mediterranean while the other vessels passed through the Canal into the Red Sea in company with Empress Eugenie of France aboard her own yacht . The Austro @-@ Hungarian ships eventually returned to Trieste in December . In 1874 she was rearmed with a battery of fourteen 7 in ( 180 mm ) muzzle @-@ loading Armstrong guns and four light guns . Her battery was revised again in 1882 , with the addition of four 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) breech @-@ loader guns , two 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) breech @-@ loaders , a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) quick @-@ firing revolver guns , and three 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) auto @-@ cannons . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was stricken from the naval register on 19 May 1886 and her armament was reduced to eight 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The following year , these were removed and a single 26 cm ( 10 in ) gun and a 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun were installed . From 1889 to 1908 , she served as a tender to the gunnery training school . The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1916 during World War I.

= Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show =

The Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show is an annual fashion show sponsored by and featuring Victoria 's Secret , a brand of lingerie and sleepwear . Victoria 's Secret uses the show to promote and market its goods in high @-@ profile settings . The show features some of the world 's leading fashion models such as current Victoria 's Secret Angels Adriana Lima , Alessandra Ambrosio , Behati Prinsloo , Candice Swanepoel , and Lily Aldridge .

American network television broadcasts the show during prime time . The first few shows in the 1990s were held in the days preceding Valentine 's Day to promote the brand for this holiday . They were not aired on national television . In 1999 and 2000 the show was webcast . Beginning in 2001 , the shows were moved ahead of the Christmas holiday season . Also in 2001 , the show made its network television broadcast on ABC , though in all subsequent years , it has been broadcast on CBS . The show has been held at a variety of locations in different cities including Miami , Los Angeles , and Cannes . The first four shows were held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City , but since it has become a televised event it has most often been held at the 69th Regiment Armory in New York City .

The show is a lavish event with elaborate costumed lingerie , varying music by leading entertainers , and set design according to the different themes running within the show . The show attracts hundreds of celebrities and entertainers , with special performers and acts every year . Each year , twenty to forty of the world 's top fashion models are selected to perform in the fashion show . In a typical year , this includes about a half dozen women under contract to the company , known as Victoria 's Secret Angels , who help publicize the event . The giant angel wings worn by the models , as well as other wings of various forms and sizes such as butterfly , peacock , or devil wings , have become emblematic of the Victoria 's Secret brand .

= = History = =

The first fashion show extravaganza , introduced by Stephanie Seymour , was held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City in August 1995 . The show also featured Beverly Peele and Frederique van der Wal . This first fashion show occurred two months before The Limited , parent company of Victoria 's Secret owner Intimate Brands , sold an initial public offering of a 16 percent stake in the company and almost had Seymour make an appearance at the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) for the opening bell . She actually did ring the closing bell at the NYSE as part of the publicity campaign . The subsequent three annual shows were also held at the Plaza .

In 1999 , during Super Bowl XXXIII , Victoria 's Secret announced a 72 @-@ hour countdown to the Internet webcast of the Victoria 's Secret fashion show , which resulted in over 2 million internet viewers of the show . Parent company Intimate Brands bought a $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 2 @.@ 1 million today ) 30 @-@ second television advertisement during the Super Bowl broadcast and spent an additional $ 4 million ( $ 5 @.@ 7 million ) for subsequent international newspaper advertisements to publicize the event . The show , which was aired by Broadcast.com , featured Tyra Banks , Laetitia Casta , Heidi Klum , Karen Mulder , Daniela Pestova , Inés Rivero , and Seymour . In 1999 and 2000 , the show was broadcast live on the internet , but the 2000 show was moved for a year from the usual February event at the Plaza to a May event in concert with the Cannes Film Festival in France to raise money for the Cinema Against AIDS charity ; it raised $ 3 @.@ 5 million .

In 2001 , the show , which was hosted by Rupert Everett , returned to the New York City but at Bryant Park instead of the Plaza . That year , the show made its broadcast debut on ABC , drawing millions of viewers as well as some middle @-@ brow controversy ; the Federal Communications Commission received many complaints about the broadcast every year . The show has continued to be broadcast on network television every year since .

From 2002 through 2005 , it was held at the Lexington Avenue Armory in New York City . The 2004 show was canceled due to a widespread crackdown on perceived indecency in broadcasting stemming from the Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , in which Jackson encountered a breast @-@ revealing " wardrobe malfunction " . Before the 2005 show , Banks announced her retirement from modeling and embarkation on a television career with The Tyra Banks Show , making the 2005 show a farewell to her decade of fashion shows for the company .

In 2004 , instead of the annual fashion show , the Angels ( Tyra Banks , Heidi Klum , Gisele Bündchen , Adriana Lima , and Alessandra Ambrosio ) did an Angels Across America Tour , a grassroots campaign for the brand visiting four major cities : New York City , Miami , Las Vegas , and Los Angeles .

The 2006 and 2007 shows were held at the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles . On November 13 , 2007 , the Victoria 's Secret Angels were honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk Of Fame right outside the Kodak Theatre . The 2007 Angels honored in this celebration to mark Victoria 's Secret 's 25th anniversary on Hollywood Boulevard were Heidi Klum , Adriana Lima , Alessandra Ambrosio , Karolina Kurkova , Selita Ebanks , Izabel Goulart , Marisa Miller , and Miranda Kerr . The other models , who also appeared in that year 's fashion show , were in attendance that day . The 2008 show coincided with the grand re @-@ opening of the Fontainebleau Miami Beach hotel .

In 2006 , Victoria 's Secret sub @-@ brand PINK made its debut on the runway . Justin Timberlake opened the show with his popular song " Sexy Back " . This year fashion show was the final walk of Gisele Bündchen .

The 2007 show featured a performance by the Spice Girls and gained prominence as the first American TV debut of the band after their comeback . Kanye West was also scheduled to perform at the event , but cancelled his appearance due to his mother 's death. will.i.am was called to perform in his place .

The 2008 show was held at Fountainebleu Miami Beach , Florida . Usher was appeared on the show as well as opened it . Unlike the other shows , the runway was designed parallel with the audience seats .

In 2009 , the fashion show took place in New York City at the Lexington Avenue Armory , where it was last held in 2005 . The 2009 show was notable for featuring the results of a competition , called the Victoria 's Secret Model Search , to find a new Victoria 's Secret " runway Angel . " The winner was announced as Kylie Bisutti .

The 2010 Victoria 's Secret Fashion show aired on November 30 , 2010 on CBS , and featured performances by Katy Perry and Akon . A promotional ad featured a lipdub for Katy Perry 's " Firework " . As of 2010 , 152 models have walked the show .

In 2011 , Kanye West started his song " Stronger " with a tribute to his mother who had died before his scheduled performance four years before , saying : " In 2007 , I was supposed to perform this song on this show ... and I lost my superhero . Now she 's my super @-@ angel . "

In 2012 , an outfit worn by model Karlie Kloss , which was reminiscent of Native American attire , sparked controversy due to its alleged stereotypical depiction of Native Americans . Victoria 's Secret released a statement of apology shortly after , saying that they will remove it from future advertisements and the broadcast . Kloss apologized on her Twitter account for the outfit and expressed her support for the outfit 's removal in the broadcast .

In 2013 , the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift , A Great Big World , Neon Jungle and Fall Out Boy . Taylor Swift performed " I Knew You Were Trouble " , A Great Big World performed " Say Something " , UK 's Neon Jungle made their US television debut with " Trouble " , and Fall Out Boy performed with Taylor Swift in " My Songs Know What You Did In The Dark " and later performed " The Phoenix " .

In 2014 , the Victoria 's Secret Fashion show featured performances by Taylor Swift ; for the second year in a row , Ed Sheeran , Ariana Grande , and Hozier . Taylor Swift performed " Blank Space " and " Style " . Ed Sheeran performed " Thinking Out Loud " . Ariana Grande performed " Love Me Harder " , " Bang Bang " , " Break Free " , and " Problem " . Hozier performed " Take Me to Church " . During the show , Ariana Grande was performing and was hit by accident with an angel 's wings .

= = Critical review = =

The early webcasts were criticized for poor connection , and users that could connect were subjected to low video quality . One critic from The New York Times described the initial 20th @-@ century webcast experience as having felt like he was " watching a striptease through a keyhole " .

Some critics have described the 21st @-@ century televised editions of the show as pornographic , while others have described it as both " outright commercialism " and an infomercial . The Federal Communications Commission has received complaints regarding the broadcast , but no fines have been imposed , with the FCC , following the 2001 airing , citing the First Amendment and stating that " sexual or excretory activities or organs in a patently offensive manner as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium " were not broadcast . In the initial 2001 airing ABC blurred the screen on particularly sheer lingerie . This enabled the show to pass muster with its internal Broadcast Standards and Practices department and to achieve the TV @-@ 14 rating . In 2002 , the National Organization for Women protested the show calling it a " soft @-@ core porn infomercial . " They were joined in protest by the Parents Television Council and other watchdog organizations . CBS has given past shows TV @-@ 14 ratings , which is a warning that the show may contain material unsuitable for children age 14 and under . Nonetheless some affiliates have chosen not to air the show in past years including Fisher Broadcasting affiliates in Idaho . In 2009 , the American Decency Association organized email letters of protests to sponsors of the show including AT & T , Kentucky Fried Chicken , Netflix , Nikon , and Reebok . CBS has described the event to as " the Super Bowl of fashion " .

= = Summary table = =

= = Fantasy Bra = =

Typically , one model is chosen among the Angels to wear a bejeweled bra dubbed the " Fantasy Bra " . It was first advertised in the Victoria 's Secret catalog , but since 2001 has been worn in the Fashion Shows . Prior to each Fashion Show , Victoria 's Secret contracts a renowned jewelry designer to craft the bra to be used as a focal point for promoting the fashion show and as a centerpiece within it . The company offers the Fantasy Bra for sale as " the ultimate holiday " gift . However , only the centerpiece from the 2004 Heavenly " 70 " Fantasy Bra and the 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra and Gift Set have found a buyer . If not bought , the bras are dismantled after a year .

Heidi Klum and Adriana Lima have worn the Fantasy Bra in three different years . Gisele Bündchen , Tyra Banks , Karolina Kurkova , and Alessandra Ambrosio have each worn two Fantasy Bras .

The $ 15 million price tag for the 2000 bra worn by Gisele Bündchen earned a place in the Guinness World Records as the most expensive item of lingerie ever created . The $ 3 million 2009 Harlequin Fantasy Bra and the $ 2 million 2010 Bombshell Fantasy Bra were designed by Damiani . Listed below are the prices per set ( including accessories for the 2007 and 2013 editions , the 2013 bra alone is worth $ 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) . The 2012 Floral Fantasy Bra was accompanied by a $ 500 @,@ 000 perfume bottle .

In 2014 , for the first time , two fantasy bras were created . They were worn by Alessandra Ambrosio and Adriana Lima and were valued at $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 each .

= Boston Police Strike =

In the Boston Police Strike , Boston police officers went on strike on September 9 , 1919 . They sought recognition for their trade union and improvements in wages and working conditions . Police Commissioner Edwin Upton Curtis denied that police officers had any right to form a union , much less one affiliated with a larger organization like the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) . Attempts at reconciliation between the Commissioner and the police officers , particularly on the part of Boston 's Mayor Andrew James Peters , failed .

During the strike , Boston experienced several nights of lawlessness , although property damage was not extensive . Several thousand members of the State Guard , supported by volunteers , restored order . Press reaction both locally and nationally described the strike as Bolshevik @-@ inspired and directed at the destruction of civil society . The strikers were called " deserters " and " agents of Lenin . "

Samuel Gompers of the AFL recognized that the strike was damaging the cause of labor in the public mind and advised the strikers to return to work . Commissioner Curtis refused to re @-@ hire the striking policemen . He was supported by Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge , whose rebuke of Gompers earned him a national reputation . The strike proved a setback for labor unions , and the AFL discontinued its attempts to organize police officers for another two decades . Coolidge won the Republican nomination for vice @-@ president of the U.S. in the 1920 presidential election .

= = Background = =

In 1895 , the Massachusetts legislature transferred control of the Boston police department from Boston 's mayor to the governor of Massachusetts , whom it authorized to appoint a five @-@ person board of commissioners to manage the department . In 1906 , the legislature abolished that board and gave the governor the authority to name a single commissioner to a term of five years , subject to removal by the governor . The mayor and the city continued to have responsibility for the department 's expenses and the physical working conditions of its employees , but the commissioner controlled department operations and the hiring , training , and discipline of the police officers .

In 1918 , the salary for patrolmen was set at $ 1 @,@ 400 a year . Police officers had to buy their own uniforms and equipment which cost over $ 200 . New recruits received $ 730 during their first year , which increased annually to $ 821 @.@ 25 and $ 1000 , and to $ 1 @,@ 400 after six years . In the years following World War I , inflation dramatically eroded the value of a police officer 's salary . From 1913 to May 1919 , the cost of living rose by 76 % , while police wages rose just 18 % . Discontent and restiveness among the Boston police force grew as they compared their wages and found they were earning less than an unskilled steelworker , half as much as a carpenter or mechanic and 50 cents a day less than a streetcar conductor . Boston city laborers were earning a third more on an hourly basis .

Police officers had an extensive list of grievances . They worked ten @-@ hour shifts and typically recorded weekly totals between 75 and 90 hours . They were not paid for time spent on court appearances . They also objected to being required to perform such tasks as " delivering unpaid tax bills , surveying rooming houses , taking the census , or watching the polls at election " and checking the backgrounds of prospective jurors as well as serving as " errand boys " for their officers . They complained about having to share beds and the lack of sanitation , baths , and toilets at many of the 19 station houses where they were required to live , most of which dated to before the Civil War . The Court Street station had four toilets for 135 men , and one bathtub .

Boston 's police officers , acting with the sponsorship of the police department , had formed an association known as the Boston Social Club in 1906 . In 1917 , a committee of police officers representing the Social Club met with Commissioner Stephen O 'Meara to ask about a raise . He was sympathetic , but advised them to wait for a better time . They pressed the issue in the summer of 1918 and , near the end of the year , Mayor Andrew Peters offered salary increases that would affect about one @-@ fourth of the officers . O 'Meara died in December 1918 , and Governor Samuel McCall appointed Edwin Upton Curtis , former Mayor of Boston , as Commissioner of the Boston Police Department . After another meeting where representatives of the Social Club repeated their salary demands , Peters said : " while the word ' strike ' was not mentioned , the whole situation is far more serious than I realized . " He also made it clear to the rank and file that they were not entitled to form their own union . Curtis did not share his predecessor 's or the mayor 's sympathy for the police , but in February 1918 he offered a wage compromise that the police rejected . In May , Governor Coolidge announced raises , which were also rejected . When the Social Club 's representatives tried to raise grievances with him , Curtis set up his own grievance committee to handle management @-@ employee disputes , based on the election of representatives from each precinct house by secret ballot , and it met just once .

A few months later , in June 1919 , the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) , responding to repeated requests from local police organizations , began accepting police organizations into their membership . By September , it had granted charters to police unions in 37 cities , including Washington , D.C. , Los Angeles , Miami , and St. Paul , though not without protests from some city officials , who opposed the unionization of police , firefighters , and teachers .

= = Events leading to the strike = =

The Boston police decided to organize under an AFL charter in order to gain support from other unions in their negotiations and any strike that might ensue . On August 9 , 1919 , the Boston Social Club requested a charter from the AFL . On August 11 , Curtis issued a General Order forbidding police officers to join any " organization , club or body outside the department " , making an exception only for patriotic organizations such as the American Legion . His administration argued that such a rule was based on the conflict of interest between police officers ' duties and union membership :

It is or should be apparent to any thinking person that the police department of this or any other city cannot fulfill its duty to the entire public if its members are subject to the direction of an organization existing outside the department .... If troubles and disturbances arise where the interests of this organization and the interests of other elements and classes in the community conflict , the situation immediately arises which always arises when a man attempts to serve two masters , – he must fail either in his duty as a policeman , or in his obligation to the organization that controls him .

On August 15 , the police received their AFL charter . On August 17 , the Central Labor Union of Boston welcomed the police union and denounced Curtis for his assertions that the police had no right to unionize . Curtis refused to meet with the eight members of the police union 's committee . He suspended them and 11 others who held various union offices and scheduled trials to determine if they had violated his General Order . At this point , Curtis was a hero to business interests . Late in August , the New Hampshire Association of Manufacturers called him " the Ole Hanson of the east , " equating the events they anticipated in Boston with the earlier Seattle General Strike .

Mayor Peters sought to play an intermediary role by appointing a Citizen 's Committee to review the dispute about union representation . He chose a well @-@ known local reformer as its chair , James J. Storrow . Storrow 's group recommended that Curtis and the police agree to a police union without AFL ties and without the right to strike . Curtis in turn would recognize the police union and the union would agree to remain " independent and unaffiliated " . Storrow 's group also recommended that no action be taken against the 19 men whom Curtis had suspended . Four of Boston 's five newspapers backed the compromise , with only the Boston Transcript holding to a consistent anti @-@ union position . The Boston Chamber of Commerce backed it as well .

Curtis , with the backing of Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge , rejected the Storrow Commission 's proposal . He proceeded with department trials of the 19 and on September 8 found them guilty of union activity . Rather than dismiss them from the police force , he extended their suspensions . He later explained that he was giving them an opportunity to reconsider their actions and avoid discharges , which would have been irrevocable . The police union members responded that same day by voting 1134 to 2 in favor of a strike and scheduled it to start at evening roll call the next day . Their stated grounds omitted wages and working conditions . They said the strike 's rationale was to protest the Commissioner 's denial of their right to ally themselves with the AFL .

In anticipation of the strike , all of Boston 's newspapers called it " Bolshevistic , " pleaded with the police to reconsider and predicted dire consequences . One also warned the police that their eventual defeat was guaranteed , that they would lose because " behind Boston in this skirmish with Bolshevism stands Massachusetts , and behind Massachusetts stands America . "

= = Strike = =

On September 9 , Boston Police Department officers went on strike at 5 : 45 p.m. Of the force 's 1 @,@ 544 officers and men , 1 @,@ 117 ( 72 % ) failed to report for work . Coolidge assigned 100 members of the state 's Metropolitan Park Police Department to replace the striking officers , but 58 of them refused to participate and were suspended from their jobs . Despite assurances from Commissioner Curtis to Mayor Peters and Governor Coolidge , Boston had little police protection for the night of September 9 . Volunteer replacements were still being organized and due to report the next morning .

Over the night of September 9 – 10 , the city witnessed an outbreak of hooliganism and looting . Some was rowdy behavior that scared respectable citizens , such as youths throwing rocks at streetcars and overturning the carts of street vendors . More overtly criminal activity included the smashing of store windows and looting their displays or setting off false fire alarms . Such activity was restricted to certain parts of the city and , according to the New York Times , " throughout the greater part of the city the usual peace and quiet prevailed . " In the morning the Mayor asked the Governor to furnish a force of State Guards ; Coolidge promptly agreed and eventually provided almost 5 @,@ 000 men . Commissioner Curtis later praised the State Guards ' performance in his Annual Report : " The whole community is now aware of the effectiveness with which the Massachusetts State Guard worked when it came into the city . I cannot add anything to the universal chorus of commendation that has greeted their work . " The morning papers following the first night 's violence were full of loud complaints and derogatory terms for the police : " deserters " , " agents of Lenin . "

Violence peaked the next evening , the night of September 10 – 11 . Businesses were better prepared . Some had boarded up and others stayed open all night with armed guards visible to discourage thieves taking advantage of the strike . Gamblers played dice in open view , and women had their handbags snatched . But the Guard 's inexperience at handling crowds resulted in dangerous attempts to assert control . Gunfire in South Boston left two dead and others wounded . One person died in a riot at Scollay Square , a center of amusement halls and theaters . Whether the crowds were threatening property or making trouble because they were in sympathy with the strikers is unknown . The death total ultimately reached nine .

City life continued relatively normally , especially during daytime hours . Schools remained open . Later claims against the city for losses incurred during the two nights of disorder ran to $ 35 @,@ 000 , of which the city paid $ 34 @,@ 000 . Those figures represent a non @-@ partisan calculation of the costs of the strike to the Boston business community .

When Governor Coolidge called the strikers " deserters " and " traitors , " a mass meeting of the Boston Police Union responded :

When we were honorably discharged from the United States army , we were hailed as heroes and saviors of our country . We returned to our duties on the police force of Boston .

Now , though only a few months have passed , we are denounced as deserters , as traitors to our city and violators of our oath of office .

The first men to raise the cry were those who have always been opposed to giving to labor a living wage . It was taken up by the newspapers , who cared little for the real facts . You finally added your word of condemnation ....

Among us are men who have gone against spitting machine guns single @-@ handed , and captured them , volunteering for the job . Among us are men who have ridden with dispatches through shell fire so dense that four men fell and only the fifth got through .

Not one man of us ever disgraced the flag or his service . It is bitter to come home and be called deserters and traitors . We are the same men who were on the French front .

Some of us fought in the Spanish war of 1898 . Won 't you tell the people of Massachusetts in which war you served ?

On the evening of September 11 , the Central Labor Union met to consider calling a general strike in support of the striking police . Earlier it had expressed enthusiasm for a general strike , more likely as an expression of solidarity than a declaration of serious intent . It collected the votes of its constituent unions and on September 12 announced it was delaying a decision . Their statement explained their reasoning : " We are not to act in a manner that will give the prejudiced press and autocratic employers a chance to criticize us . "

On September 11 , Matthew Woll , an AFL vice @-@ president , said his organization discouraged strikes by government employees but defended their right to organize : " all wage earners have the right to associate with one another and collectively to improve their condition " . He blamed the strike on government managers who failed to recognize that right and put the Boston situation in the context of the broader union movement : " On the question of industrial democracy [ i.e. , unionization ] , we find still that group of employers , Bourbonic in character , who believe democracy means for them to ruin or rule industrially . They cannot conceive that works have any right in the management of industry . ... The time has past when any man can say that he is the ruler of the people in his employment . " AFL President Samuel Gompers , just returned from Europe , quickly assessed the situation and the strength of public sentiment . On September 12 , he urged the strikers to return to work , asking the city to agree to suspend judgment on whether to recognize the police union . In a telegram to Mayor Peters he cited the model of Washington , D.C. , which had , at the suggestion of President Wilson , suspended its regulation forbidding police officers to join a union affiliated with the AFL until a conference scheduled for October 6 . The police accepted Gompers ' recommendation immediately . Coolidge replied with a statement of support for Curtis ' hard line . Gompers telegraphed Coolidge again , this time blaming Curtis for the crisis . Coolidge dismissed the Commissioner 's behavior as irrelevant , because no provocation could justify the police walkout . His terse summation created his reputation on the national scene : " There is no right to strike against the public safety , anywhere , anytime . " Coolidge said he would continue to " defend the sovereignty of Massachusetts . "

By the weekend , the presence of the State Guards had become a curiosity . Larger than usual crowds strolled in the center of the city . Thousands attended a band concert on the Boston Common . " The shootings of the last few days for interference with guardsmen , " said the New York Times , " seem to have had a marked effect . "

Coolidge said he originally hoped to reinstate the officers , stating in a telegram to a labor convention , " I earnestly hope that circumstances may arise which will cause the police officers to be reinstated " . Over the objections of Mayor Peters , Commissioner Curtis announced on September 13 that he planned to recruit a new force . He fired roughly 1 @,@ 100 and hired 1 @,@ 574 replacement police officers from a pool of unemployed World War I veterans . Members of the United Garment Workers refused to sew uniforms for the new hires , who had to report for work in civilian clothing .

The new officers hired in the wake of the strike received higher salaries and more vacation days than the strikers had . They enjoyed a starting salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 along with a pension plan , and the department covered the cost of their uniforms and equipment . The population of Boston raised $ 472 @,@ 000 to help pay for the State Guards until new police officers could be recruited .

= = National reaction = =

In an editorial on the first morning of the strike , the New York Times supported the police commissioner and said that the strikers were " [ i ] nspired unconsciously by anti @-@ social ideals , or acting by ' suggestion ' of their London and Liverpool brethren " , which had recently seen similar strikes . It said :

A policeman has no more right to belong to a union than a soldier or a sailor . He must be ready to obey orders , the orders of his superiors , not those of any outside body . One of his duties is the maintenance of order in the case of strike violence . In such a case , if he is faithful to his union , he may have to be unfaithful to the public , which pays him to protect it . The situation is false and impossible .... It is the privilege of Boston policemen to resign if they are not satisfied with the conditions of their employment .... but it is intolerable that a city ... should be deserted by men who misunderstand their position and function as policemen , and who take their orders from outside .... [ I ] t is an imported , revolutionary idea that may spread to various cities . There should be plain and stern law against it . It is practically an analogue of military desertion ... [ I ] t ought to be punished suitably and repressed .

It later called the strike " this Boston essay in Bolshevism " and lamented the attempt of Mayor Peters and the Storrow Commission " to submit to compromise an issue that could not be compromised " . Newspaper accounts exaggerated the level of crime and violence that accompanied the strike , resulting in a national furor that shaped the political response . A Philadelphia paper viewed the Boston violence in the same light as other labor unrest and numerous race riots in 1919 : " Bolshevism in the United States is no longer a specter . Boston in chaos reveals its sinister substance . " President Woodrow Wilson , speaking from Montana , branded the walkout " a crime against civilization " that left the city " at the mercy of an army of thugs . " He said that " the obligation of a policeman is as sacred and direct as the obligation of a soldier . He is a public servant , not a private employee , and the whole honor of the community is in his hands . He has no right to prefer any private advantage to the public safety . " Elihu Root , a former Secretary of War and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize , told a Carnegie Hall audience on September 17 that the strike was an attack on constitutional government because it represented " the passing of power to enforce laws , the power to punish crime , the power to maintain order from the whole people of the United States " to the 3 % of the population represented by the AFL .

A report from Washington , D.C. included this headline : " Senators Think Effort to Sovietize the Government Is Started . " Senator Henry Cabot Lodge saw in the strike the dangers of the national labor movement : " If the American Federation of Labor succeeds in getting hold of the police in Boston it will go all over the country , and we shall be in measurable distance of Soviet government by labor unions . " The Ohio State Journal opposed any sympathetic treatment of the strikers : " When a policeman strikes , he should be debarred not only from resuming his office , but from citizenship as well . He has committed the unpardonable sin ; he has forfeited all his rights . "

= = Aftermath = =

In the police commissioner 's Annual Report for 1919 , Curtis presented his view of the strike . He argued that he could not have requested State Guards for the strike 's first night because the city remained quiet and he had reports that many policemen would not join the strike . By the end of the year the strikers had formed a new organization called the Association of Former Police of the City of Boston .

The strike gave momentum to Coolidge 's political career . In 1918 , he had narrowly been elected governor . In 1919 he won 62 % of the votes when running against an opponent who favored reinstating the strikers . He failed to carry Boston by just 5 @,@ 000 votes , an impressive showing for a Republican in a strongly Democratic city . The Boston Transcript reported :

Massachusetts is hailed today from Maine to California as the winner of a shining triumph for straight Americanism . The voting booths of the old Bay State were a battleground for the nation . The ancient faith was under fire . Law and order formed the line of cleavage . The Governor was the Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the people of the commonwealth were the invincible army , the issue was America , and in the triumph of that issue all America triumphs .

Coolidge himself later said , " No doubt it was the police strike in Boston that brought me into national prominence . " In a post @-@ election congratulatory telegram President Wilson wrote : " I congratulate you upon your election as a victory for law and order . When that is the issue , all Americans must stand together . " His role in the strike , however limited , became a prominent feature of his resume as he sought higher office . According to one obituary , " the Boston police strike of 1919 ... brought him national prominence and the nomination for the Vice Presidency " in 1920 . When he succeeded to the presidency in 1923 upon the death of Warren Harding , the New York Times headlined its biography : " Coolidge Firmness Won Recognition ; His Suppression of the Boston Police Strike Made Him a National Figure " . Coolidge 's political rivals interpreted his role differently . In 1925 , U.S. Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin said that Coolidge 's failure to intervene in that year 's coal strike mirrored his 1919 actions when he " persistently refused to act upon the requests of the Mayor of Boston for assistance until riot and bloodshed had aroused the entire State . Then when order had been restored by the efforts of Mayor Peters and the Storrow committee Coolidge sent in the militia and claimed full credit for restoring ' law and order ' . "

The strike heightened public fear of labor unrest and the possible radicalism that lay behind it . It contributed to the public anxiety of the period known as the Red Scare of 1919 – 1920 . The failure of this and other strikes in the years following World War I contributed to declining union membership in subsequent years . The American Federation of Labor responded to political pressure experienced during the strike and revoked the charters it had granted to police unions . That ended police unionism in the U.S. for two decades , as police would not try to organize until World War II .

In 1930 , a history of the Boston Transcript , the most resolutely anti @-@ union of Boston 's newspapers in 1919 , perpetuated its original account of urban chaos during the strike 's first nights . It described large crowds , including a number of sailors from docked naval ships , that took to the streets , smashing windows , committing robbery and stoning bystanders and cars . It said that the northern , southern , and western areas of the city were all taken over by armed gangs .

In 1931 , the Massachusetts legislature voted to allow the officers who had struck to be rehired . In 1937 , Massachusetts Governor Charles F. Hurley , after meeting with some of the 1919 strikers , backed the decision of Police Commissioner Joseph Timilty not to reinstate them .

The Boston Police Patrolman 's Association was formed in 1965 following the enactment of a state statute allowing state and municipal workers to organize for the sake of collective bargaining .

No police officers in the U.S. went out on strike until July 1974 , when some Baltimore police , estimated at 15 % to 50 % of the force , refused to report for work for several days as a demonstration of support for other striking municipal unions .

= = In popular culture = =

The Dropkick Murphys album Rock Against Bush Volume 2 includes the song " We Got the Power " about the Boston police strike .

Dennis Lehane 's novel The Given Day is partly set during the Boston police strike .

Issue number 7 of Alan Moore 's comic book series Providence is set on the backdrop of the Boston police strike .

= Charles Lloyd ( Australian general ) =

Major General Charles Edward Maurice Lloyd , CBE ( 2 February 1899 – 31 May 1956 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army . Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery and subsequently served in a range of staff and regimental positions in the inter @-@ war years . He later saw service in the Second World War , during which he held senior staff and administrative positions in the Middle East , the Netherlands East Indies , Papua and Australia . Later he worked as a newspaper executive , as chief of several United Nations agencies , and in private enterprise . Lloyd died in 1956 .

= = Early life = =

Charles Lloyd was born on 2 February 1899 at South Fremantle , Western Australia , the second and only surviving child of Thomas Edward Lloyd , a postmaster , and his wife Edith , née Lock . His parents separated in 1901 and two years later his father committed suicide . He was subsequently raised by his mother who worked as a telephone attendant at Coolgardie , and then in Fremantle from 1909 . Lloyd was educated at Beaconsfield , Fremantle Boys ' Central and Perth Modern schools .

= = Military career = =

Entering the Australian Army in 1915 , Lloyd graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon in December 1918 as a regular officer in the artillery , too late to see action during the First World War . Lloyd was nicknamed " Gaffer " by the other cadets due to his serious demeanor , and Gavin Long considered him among the " ablest " of the group of officers that joined the Staff Corps at that time . He was appointed as a lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force upon completing his training at Duntroon and embarked from Sydney in January 1919 , being sent to the United Kingdom and later posted to France . Returning to the Permanent Military Force as the AIF was demobilised , he later completed his training serving with the British Army in England and India in 1919 – 20 .

Lloyd married Sybil Drummond in Melbourne on 31 December 1921 . He subsequently held junior staff and regimental postings in Australia during the 1920s , at the same time studying law at the University of Sydney . His next postings included various adjutant and quartermaster roles at battery and brigade level in the 2nd and 3rd Military Districts . Later he attended Staff College , Camberley , in the United Kingdom during 1932 – 33 . Next he was appointed Brigade Major of the 4th Divisional Artillery in Melbourne in 1934 , and was promoted to major in 1937 . He was posted to the Directorate of Artillery at Army Headquarters in Melbourne from 1938 to 1939 .

Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Lloyd was seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for overseas service . He held administrative posts in the 6th Division and I Australian Corps in the Middle East during 1940 , but was transferred before the 6th Division went into combat for the first time . In December that year , ranked colonel , he was posted to the 9th Division as the senior operational officer , serving as chief of staff to Major General Sir Leslie Morshead . In March , the 9th Division moved into the Western Desert , where they were to finalise their training and prepare to join the British advance through Libya . The landing of German forces around Tripoli in April forced the British and Commonwealth armies into withdrawal from Benghazi as the Afrika Korps arrived to reinforce the Italians in North Africa . The Axis forces subsequently began to advance west towards the strategic port of Tobruk . During the Siege of Tobruk which followed , Lloyd saw action between April and October 1941 , until the Australian units were relieved by British forces . Following the evacuation of the 9th Division from Tobruk by sea , Lloyd then served as chief liaison officer at AIF Headquarters , Middle East .

Departing the Middle East in late January 1942 , Lloyd was promoted to brigadier and flew to Batavia in the Netherlands East Indies , where elements of the 2nd AIF had been diverted to whilst returning from the Middle East in order to meet the Japanese threat following their initial attacks against British Commonwealth and US forces in the Pacific in December 1941 . He subsequently filled a senior staff posting in General Sir Archibald Wavell 's ABDA Command during its brief existence , holding the position of Deputy Intendant @-@ General with the temporary rank of major general between January and February 1942 . Rising from major to major general in less than two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , he became the youngest general officer in the Australian Army at the age of 42 . In this role he acted as Wavell 's chief administrative officer ; however , he advocated to the Australian high command against British proposals for I Corps remain in Java , which he believed was unsound and likely result in its loss given the precarious tactical situation there , and that it should instead be returned to Australia to be concentrated for operations against the Japanese elsewhere . Ultimately while a few Australian units were landed in Java , where they were inevitably captured in the fighting that followed , the bulk of the 6th and 7th Divisions were returned to Australia following pressure from the Australian government .

Following the Netherlands East Indies campaign , Lloyd returned to Australia in April 1942 and reverted to the rank of brigadier . He was subsequently appointed Director of Staff Duties at Land Headquarters ( LHQ ) in July . In September he was briefly posted to I Corps in Papua as Brigadier General Staff under Lieutenant General Sir Sydney Rowell . In February 1943 , Lloyd was promoted again to major general and appointed Adjutant General at LHQ by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Thomas Blamey , remaining in this position until 1946 . Blamey had reportedly been " dissatisfied " with the performance of the previous Adjutant General , Major General Victor Stantke , and appointed Lloyd to rejuvenate the office . Leaving the full @-@ time army , he transferred to the inactive reserve in February 1946 . Described by Chester Wilmot as " one of the ablest staff officers and most colourful characters of the AIF " , and by Wavell as " a staff officer of great quality " , during his service Lloyd had been appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( 1941 ) and was mentioned in despatches three times ( 1941 – 42 ) .

= = Later life = =

In 1946 , Lloyd became a senior executive of the Argus & Australasian newspaper , before unsuccessfully seeking Liberal Party pre @-@ selection for a seat in Federal parliament the same year . In 1948 , he was appointed as a member of the government committee that reported on the administration of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . His later work included postings as chief of the United Nations Refugee Organisation in Australia and New Zealand ( 1948 – 51 ) , and Chief of Mission of the United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency ( 1951 – 53 ) . On return to Australia he took up a position as vice @-@ chairman of Navcot ( Aust . ) Pty Ltd , a private enterprise which was involved in shipping refugees from Europe as part of the post @-@ war immigration program . Whilst visiting relatives in Western Australia , Lloyd died of jaundice in the Repatriation General Hospital , in Hollywood , Perth , on 31 May 1956 and was buried in Karrakatta Cemetery . He was survived by his wife , daughter and two sons .

= Nonviolent Communication =

Nonviolent communication ( abbreviated NVC , also called compassionate communication or collaborative communication ) is a communication process developed by Marshall Rosenberg beginning in the 1960s . It focuses on three aspects of communication : self @-@ empathy ( defined as a deep and compassionate awareness of one 's own inner experience ) , empathy ( understanding and sharing an emotion expressed by another ) , and honest self @-@ expression ( defined as expressing oneself authentically in a way that is likely to inspire compassion in others ) .

Nonviolent communication is based on the idea that all human beings have the capacity for compassion and only resort to violence or behavior that harms others when they don 't recognize more effective strategies for meeting needs . Habits of thinking and speaking that lead to the use of violence ( psychological and physical ) are learned through culture . NVC theory supposes all human behavior stems from attempts to meet universal human needs and that these needs are never in conflict . Rather , conflict arises when strategies for meeting needs clash . NVC proposes that if people can identify their needs , the needs of others , and the feelings that surround these needs , harmony can be achieved .

While NVC is ostensibly taught as a process of communication designed to improve compassionate connection to others , it has also been interpreted as a spiritual practice , a set of values , a parenting technique , an educational method and a worldview .

= = Applications = =

NVC has been applied in organizational and business settings , in parenting , in education , in mediation , in psychotherapy , in healthcare , in addressing eating issues , in prisons , and as a basis for a children 's book , among other contexts .

Rosenberg says he has used Nonviolent Communication in peace programs in conflict zones including Rwanda , Burundi , Nigeria , Malaysia , Indonesia , Sri Lanka , Colombia , Serbia , Croatia , Ireland , and the Middle East including the Occupied Palestinian Territories .

= = History and development = =

According to a biography of Rosenberg on the Center for Nonviolent Communication ( CNVC ) website , Nonviolent Communication training evolved from his search for a way to rapidly disseminate peacemaking skills . CNVC says that NVC emerged from work he was doing with civil rights activists in the early 1960s , and that during this period he also mediated between rioting students and college administrators , and worked to peacefully desegregate public schools in long @-@ segregated regions .

An MA thesis by Marion Little ( 2008 ) says that the roots of the NVC model developed in the late 1960s , when Rosenberg was working on racial integration in schools and organizations in the Southern United States . The earliest version of the model ( observations , feelings , and action @-@ oriented wants ) was part of a training manual Rosenberg prepared in 1972 . The model had evolved to its present form ( observations , feelings , needs and requests ) by 1992 . The dialog between Rosenberg and NVC colleagues and trainers continued to influence the model , which by the late 2000s placed more importance on self @-@ empathy as a key to the model 's effectiveness . Another shift in emphasis , since 2000 , has been the reference to the model as a process . The focus is thus less on the " steps " themselves and more on the practitioner 's intentions in speaking ( " is the intent to get others to do what one wants , or to foster more meaningful relationships and mutual satisfaction ? " ) in listening ( " is the intent to prepare for what one has to say , or to extend heartfelt , respectful attentiveness to another ? " ) and the quality of connection experienced with others .

Also according to Little 's thesis , Rosenberg 's work with Carl Rogers on research to investigate the components of a helping relationship was central to the development of NVC . Rogers emphasized : 1 ) experiential learning , 2 ) " frankness about one ’ s emotional state , " 3 ) the satisfaction of hearing others " in a way that resonates for them , " 4 ) the enriching and encouraging experience of " creative , active , sensitive , accurate , empathic listening , " 5 ) the " deep value of congruence between one ’ s own inner experience , one ’ s conscious awareness , and one ’ s communication , " and , subsequently , 6 ) the enlivening experience of unconditionally receiving love or appreciation and extending the same .

Little says Rosenberg was Influenced by Erich Fromm , George Albee , and George Miller to adopt a community focus in his work , moving away from clinical psychological practice . The central ideas influencing this shift by Rosenberg were that : ( 1 ) individual mental health depends on the social structure of a community ( Fromm ) , ( 2 ) therapists alone are unable to meet the psychological needs of a community ( Albee ) , and ( 3 ) knowledge about human behavior will increase if psychology is freely given to the community ( Miller ) .

According to Little , Rosenberg ’ s early work with children with learning disabilities shows his interest in psycholinguistics and the power of language , as well as his emphasis on collaboration . In its initial development , the NVC model re @-@ structured the pupil @-@ teacher relationship to give students greater responsibility for , and decision @-@ making related to , their own learning . The model has evolved over the years to incorporate institutional power relationships ( i.e. , police @-@ citizen , boss @-@ employee ) and informal ones ( i.e. man @-@ woman , rich @-@ poor , adult @-@ youth , parent @-@ child ) . The ultimate aim is to develop societal relationships based on a restorative , " partnership " paradigm and mutual respect , rather than a retributive , fear @-@ based , " domination " paradigm .

Little also says Rosenberg identified Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration for the NVC model , and that Rosenberg ’ s goal was to develop a practical process for interaction rooted in the philosophy of Ahimsa , which Little translates as " the overflowing love that arises when all ill @-@ will , anger , and hate have subsided from the heart . "

In order to show the differences between communication styles , Rosenberg started to use two animals . The violent communication is represented by the carnivorous Jackal as a symbol of aggression and especially dominance . The herbivorous Giraffe on the other hand , represents his NVC strategy . The Giraffe was chosen as symbol for NVC as its long neck is supposed to show the clear @-@ sighted speaker , being aware of his fellow speakers ' reactions , and simply because the Giraffe is the land @-@ living mammal with the biggest heart , representing the compassionate side of NVC . In his courses he tends to use these animals in order to make the differences in communication clearer to the audience .

= = NVC theory = =

= = = Overview = = =

Nonviolent Communication holds that most conflicts between individuals or groups arise from miscommunication about their human needs , due to coercive or manipulative language that aims to induce fear , guilt , shame , etc . These " violent " modes of communication , when used during a conflict , divert the attention of the participants away from clarifying their needs , their feelings , their perceptions , and their requests , thus perpetuating the conflict .

Marshall Rosenberg , the founder of Nonviolent Communication , published numerous training materials to help in efforts to bring about radical social change . He was concerned with transforming the " gangs and domination structures " through the method he called " ask , ask , ask " . He suggested social change activists could focus on gaining access to those in power in order to " ask , ask , ask " for changes that will make life better for all including the powerful . He wrote about the need for the protective use of force , distinguishing it from the punitive use of force .

= = = Theories = = =

Two NVC trainers characterize the assumptions underlying NVC as follows :

All human beings share the same needs

Our world offers sufficient resources for meeting everyone 's basic needs

All actions are attempts to meet needs

Feelings point to needs being met or unmet

All human beings have the capacity for compassion

Human beings enjoy giving

Human beings meet needs through interdependent relationships

Human beings change

Choice is internal

The most direct path to peace is through self @-@ connection

= = = Intentions = = =

The trainers also say that practicing NVC involves having the following intentions :

Open @-@ Hearted Living

Self @-@ compassion

Expressing from the heart

Receiving with compassion

Prioritizing connection

Moving beyond " right " and " wrong " to using needs @-@ based assessments

Choice , Responsibility , Peace

Taking responsibility for our feelings

Taking responsibility for our actions

Living in peace with unmet needs

Increasing capacity for meeting needs

Increasing capacity for meeting the present moment

Sharing Power ( Partnership )

Caring equally for everyone ’ s needs

Using force minimally and to protect rather than to educate , punish , or get what we want without agreement

= = = Communication that blocks compassion = = =

Rosenberg says that certain ways of communicating tend to alienate people from the experience of compassion : ( ch.2 )

Moralistic judgments implying wrongness or badness on the part of people who don 't act in harmony with our values . Blame , insults , put @-@ downs , labels , criticisms , comparisons , and diagnoses are all said to be forms of judgment . ( Moralistic judgments are not to be confused with value judgments as to the qualities we value . ) The use of moralistic judgments is characterized as an impersonal way of expressing oneself that does not require one to reveal what is going on inside of oneself . This way of speaking is said to have the result that " Our attention is focused on classifying , analyzing , and determining levels of wrongness rather than on what we and others need and are not getting . "

Demands that implicitly or explicitly threaten listeners with blame or punishment if they fail to comply .

Denial of responsibility via language that obscures awareness of personal responsibility . It is said that we deny responsibility for our actions when we attribute their cause to : vague impersonal forces ( " I had to " ) ; our condition , diagnosis , personal or psychological history ; the actions of others ; the dictates of authority ; group pressure ; institutional policy , rules , and regulations ; gender roles , social roles , or age roles ; or uncontrollable impulses .

Making comparisons between people .

A premise of deserving , that certain actions merit reward while others merit punishment .

= = = Four components = = =

Rosenberg invites NVC practitioners to focus attention on four components :

Observation : the facts ( what we are seeing , hearing , or touching ) as distinct from our evaluation of meaning and significance . NVC discourages static generalizations . It is said that " When we combine observation with evaluation others are apt to hear criticism and resist what we are saying . " Instead , a focus on observations specific to time and context is recommended . ( ch.3 )

Feelings : emotions or sensations , free of thought and story . These are to be distinguished from thoughts ( e.g. , " I feel I didn 't get a fair deal " ) and from words colloquially used as feelings but which convey what we think we are ( e.g. , " inadequate " ) , how we think others are evaluating us ( e.g. , " unimportant " ) , or what we think others are doing to us ( e.g. , " misunderstood " , " ignored " ) . Feelings are said to reflect whether we are experiencing our needs as met or unmet . Identifying feelings is said to allow us to more easily connect with one another , and " Allowing ourselves to be vulnerable by expressing our feelings can help resolve conflicts . " ( ch.4 )

Needs : universal human needs , as distinct from particular strategies for meeting needs . It is posited that " Everything we do is in service of our needs . "

Request : request for a specific action , free of demand . Requests are distinguished from demands in that one is open to hearing a response of " no " without this triggering an attempt to force the matter . If one makes a request and receives a " no " it is recommended not that one give up , but that one empathize with what is preventing the other person from saying " yes , " before deciding how to continue the conversation . It is recommended that requests use clear , positive , concrete action language . ( ch.6 )

= = = Modes = = =

There are three primary modes of application of NVC :

Self @-@ empathy involves compassionately connecting with what is going on inside us . This may involve , without blame , noticing the thoughts and judgments we are having , noticing our feelings , and most critically , connecting to the needs that are affecting us . ( ch.4 )

Receiving empathically , in NVC , involves " connection with what 's alive in the other person and what would make life wonderful for them ... It 's not an understanding of the head where we just mentally understand what another person says ... Empathic connection is an understanding of the heart in which we see the beauty in the other person , the divine energy in the other person , the life that 's alive in them ... It doesn 't mean we have to feel the same feelings as the other person . That 's sympathy , when we feel sad that another person is upset . It doesn 't mean we have the same feelings ; it means we are with the other person ... If you 're mentally trying to understand the other person , you 're not present with them . " ( ch.5 ) Empathy involves " emptying the mind and listening with our whole being . " NVC suggests that however the other person expresses themselves , we focus on listening for the underlying observations , feelings , needs , and requests . It is suggested that it can be useful to reflect a paraphrase of what another person has said , highlighting the NVC components implicit in their message , such as the feelings and needs you guess they may be expressing . ( ch.7 )

Expressing honestly , in NVC , is likely to involve expressing an observation , feeling , need , and request . An observation may be omitted if the context of the conversation is clear . A feeling might be omitted if there is sufficient connection already , or the context is one where naming a feeling isn ’ t likely to contribute to connection . It is said that naming a need in addition to a feeling makes it less likely that people will think you are making them responsible for your feeling . Similarly , it is said that making a request in addition to naming a need makes it less likely that people will infer a vague demand that they address your need . The components are thought to work together synergistically . According to NVC trainer Bob Wentworth , " an observation sets the context , feelings support connection and getting out of our heads , needs support connection and identify what is important , and a request clarifies what sort of response you might enjoy . Using these components together minimizes the chances of people getting lost in potentially disconnecting speculation about what you want from them and why . "

= = Research = =

NVC lacks significant " longitudinal analytical research , " and few studies have evaluated the effectiveness of NVC training programs . To date , there has been little discussion of NVC in academic contexts . Most evidence for the effectiveness of NVC has been anecdotal or based on theoretical support .

Juncadella produced a systematic review of research related to the impact of NVC on the development of empathy . She found 13 studies which met her inclusion criteria ( three were published in peer reviewed journals ; ten were unpublished theses or researcher reports ) . Eleven of these suggested an increase in empathy subsequent to the application of NVC ( five of these with evidence of statistical significance ) and two did not . Juncadella notes several shortcomings of her review . None of the studies she included were randomized and only three used validated instruments . As a result she used a narrative synthesis review format , which , " lacks precision , " but allows the summarization of studies of different types , sizes , outcome measures and aims . She suggests the primary limitation of her review is that a number of relevant studies exist that could not be included due to lack of availability . She suggests these might have significantly altered her results . Finally , she includes the following caveat : " I must mention the inevitable subjectivity bias present throughout the whole review . In spite of the efforts made towards ‘ disciplined subjectivity ’ ... my decisions show a degree of uncertainty and inaccuracy born via the tension between the weak evidence of the studies and my own convictions about the NVC model . " Her overall assessment of the current research on NVC 's efficacy in promoting the development of empathy is that the results are promising , but " would need to be confirmed with further studies bearing stronger designs and more appropriate measures . " She notes that a major shortcoming of the existing research is the " mismatch between the constructs of the model and the validated empathy measures " and suggests that improved instruments need to be developed to adequately test NVC .

As of 2013 , eight Master 's theses and Doctoral dissertations are known to have tested the model on sample sizes of 108 or smaller and generally have found the model to be effective .

Allan Rohlfs , who first met Rosenberg in 1972 and was a founder of the Center for Nonviolent Communication , explains the paucity of academic literature as follows :

Virtually all conflict resolution programs have an academic setting as their foundation and therefore have empirical studies by graduate students assessing their efficacy . NVC is remarkable for its roots . Marshall Rosenberg , Ph.D. ( clinical psychology , U of Wisconsin ) comes from a full time private practice in clinical psychology and consultation , never an academic post . NVC , his creation , is entirely a grassroots organization and never had until recently any foundation nor grant monies , on the contrary funded 100 % from trainings which were offered in public workshops around the world . ... Empirical data is now coming slowly as independent researchers find their own funding to conduct and publish empirical studies with peer review .

Richard Bowers ’ thesis ( 2012 ) , updated to book form by Bowers and Moffett ( 2012 ) , asserts that NVC has been absent from academic programs due to a lack of research into the theoretical basis for the model and lack of research on the reliability of positive results . Bowers ’ thesis meets the first objection through an analysis of existing theories which provide solid support for each element of the NVC ( mediation ) model . Without this theoretical understanding , it would not be clear what aspects of the NVC model make it work or even if it can be effectively applied by anyone other than Marshall Rosenberg . This theoretical analysis can provide a foundation for further empirical research on the effectiveness and reliability of the model .

NVC has reportedly been an element of a bundle of interventions that produced dramatic changes in forensic psychiatric nursing settings in which a high level of violence is the norm . NVC was adopted , in combination with other interventions , in an effort to reduce violence . The interventions were said to reduce key violence indicators by 90 percent over a three @-@ year period in a medium security unit , and by around 50 percent in a single year in a maximum security unit .

A 2014 study examined the effects of combined NVC and mindfulness training on 885 male inmates of the Monroe Correctional Complex in Monroe , Washington . The training was found to reduce recidivism from 37 % to 21 % , and the training was estimated as having saved the state $ 5 million per year in reduced incarceration costs . The training was found to increase equanimity , decrease anger , and lead to abilities to take responsibility for one 's feelings , express empathy , and to make requests without imposing demands .

NVC has also been reported as effective in reducing domestic violence . Male participants who graduated from an NVC @-@ based batterer intervention program in California had zero percent recidivism within 5 years , according to the relevant District Attorneys ' offices . The news report contrasted this with a recidivism rate of 40 percent within 5 years as reported by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project for graduates of their batterer intervention program based on the Duluth Model , said to previously offer the lowest known domestic violence recidivism rate .

Some recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs .

Bowers and Moffett provide a thoughtful study of the important role of empathy and human needs in mediation through the development of a theoretical model to explain the effectiveness of NVC mediation . The authors present theories of human needs and the basis for a common core of needs . They discuss theories that explain the importance of understanding human needs in the context of conflict resolution . They clearly distinguish core human needs from interests ( strategies ) and how focusing on needs is a paradigm shift in the field of conflict resolution . Further , Bowers and Moffett present theories of empathy from the pioneering work of Carl Rogers , Heinz Kohut , and others . Empathy is distinguished from sympathy and active listening , pointing out how the word empathy is often confused in the literature by using it interchangeably with these other two terms . They also examine stage theories of the development of empathy as well as constructive @-@ developmental theories related to empathy .

= = Relationship to spirituality = =

As Theresa Latini notes , " Rosenberg understands NVC to be a fundamentally spiritual practice . " Marshall Rosenberg has , in fact , described the influence of his spiritual life on the development and practice of NVC :

" I think it is important that people see that spirituality is at the base of Nonviolent Communication , and that they learn the mechanics of the process with that in mind . It ’ s really a spiritual practice that I am trying to show as a way of life . Even though we don ’ t mention this , people get seduced by the practice . Even if they practice this as a mechanical technique , they start to experience things between themselves and other people they weren ’ t able to experience before . So eventually they come to the spirituality of the process . They begin to see that it ’ s more than a communication process and realize it ’ s really an attempt to manifest a certain spirituality . "

Rosenberg further states that he developed NVC as a way to " get conscious of " what he calls the " Beloved Divine Energy " .

Some Christians have found NVC to be complementary to their Christian faith . Many people have found Nonviolent Communication to be very complementary to Buddhism , both in theory and in manifesting Buddhist ideals in practice .

= = Relationship to other models = =

Marion Little examines theoretical frameworks related to NVC . The influential interest @-@ based model for conflict resolution , negotiation , and mediation developed by Fisher , Ury , and Patton at the Harvard Negotiation Project in the 1980s appears to have some conceptual overlap with NVC , although neither model references the other . Little suggests The Gordon Model for Effective Relationships ( 1970 ) as a likely precursor to both NVC and interest @-@ based negotiation , based on conceptual similarities , if not any direct evidence of a connection . Like Rosenberg , Gordon had worked with Carl Rogers , so the models ' similarities may reflect common influences .

Suzanne Jones sees a substantive difference between active listening as originated by Gordon and empathic listening as recommended by Rosenberg , insofar as active listening involves a specific step of reflecting what a speaker said to let them know you are listening , whereas empathic listening involves an ongoing process of listening with both heart and mind and being fully present to the other 's experience , with an aim of comprehending and empathizing with the needs of the other , the meaning of the experience for that person .

Gert Danielsen and Havva Kök both note an overlap between the premises of NVC and those of Human Needs Theory ( HNT ) , an academic model for understanding the sources of conflict and designing conflict resolution processes , with the idea that " Violence occurs when certain individuals or groups do not see any other way to meet their need , or when they need understanding , respect and consideration for their needs . "

Chapman Flack sees an overlap between what Rosenberg advocates and critical thinking , especially Bertrand Russell 's formulation uniting kindness and clear thinking .

Martha Lasley sees similarities with the Focused Conversation Method developed by the Institute of Cultural Affairs ( ICA ) , with NVC 's observations , feelings , needs , and requests components relating to FCM 's objective , reflective , interpretive , and decisional stages .

= = Responses = =

There is little published critique of NVC . Some researchers have noted that NVC lacks an evidence base beyond the copious anecdotal claims of effectiveness and similarly lacks discussion in the literature of the theoretical basis of the model .

Several researchers have attempted a thorough evaluation of criticisms and weaknesses of NVC and assessed significant challenges in its application . These span a range of potential problems , from the practical to the theoretical , and include concerns gathered from study participants and researchers .

The difficulty of using NVC as well as the dangers of misuse are common concerns . The NVC four step model is seen as problematic for a number of reasons :

the notion of unbiased observations has been criticized because multiple interpretations of events and behaviors are likely ;

people may not understand their own feelings and needs and therefore expressing them may be challenging , if not impossible ;

the model often causes people to feel awkward and requires more trust in others than is typically found in everyday interactions ;

the process of paraphrasing and attempting to guess the identity of people 's feelings can be off putting for some ;

the demands of successfully requesting positive actions using appropriate NVC language is daunting and requires a level of investment of time and reflection not typically available in most people 's interactions .

In addition , Bitschnau and Flack find a paradoxical potential for violence in the use of NVC , occasioned by its unskilled use . Bitschnau further suggests that the use of NVC is unlikely to allow everyone to express their feelings and have their needs met in real life as this would require inordinate time , patience and discipline . Those who are skilled in the use of NVC may become prejudiced against those who are not and prefer to converse only among themselves .

Oboth suggests that people might hide their feelings in the process of empathy , subverting the nonviolence of communication .

The massive investment of time and effort in learning to use NVC has been noted by a number of researchers .

Chapman Flack , in reviewing a training video by Rosenberg , finds the presentation of key ideas " spell @-@ binding " and the anecdotes " humbling and inspiring , " notes the " beauty of his work , " and his " adroitly doing fine attentive thinking " when interacting with his audience . Yet Flack wonders what to make of aspects of Rosenberg 's presentation , such as his apparent " dim view of the place for thinking " and his building on Walter Wink 's account of the origins of our way of thinking . To Flack , some elements of what Rosenberg says seem like pat answers at odds with the challenging and complex picture of human nature history , literature and art offer .

Flack notes a distinction between the " strong sense " of nonviolent communication as a virtue that is possible with care and attention , and the " weak sense , " a mimicry of this born of ego and haste . The strong sense offers a language to examine one 's thinking and actions , support understanding , bring one 's best to the community , and honor one 's emotions . In the weak sense , one may take the language as rules and use these to score debating points , label others for political gain , or insist that others express themselves in this way . Though concerned that some of what Rosenberg says could lead to the weak sense , Flack sees evidence confirming that Rosenberg understands the strong sense in practice . Rosenberg 's work with workshop attendees demonstrates " the real thing . " Yet Flack warns that " the temptation of the weak sense will not be absent . " As an antidote , Flack advises , " Be conservative in what you do , be liberal in what you accept from others , " ( also known as the robustness principle ) and guard against the " metamorphosis of nonviolent communication into subtle violence done in its name . "

Bowling Green State University Professor Ellen Gorsevski , assessing Rosenberg 's book , " Nonviolent Communication : A Language of Compassion " ( 1999 ) in the context of geopolitical rhetoric , states that " the relative strength of the individual is vastly overestimated while the key issue of structural violence is almost completely ignored . "

PuddleDancer Press reports that NVC has been endorsed by a variety of public figures .

Sven Hartenstein has created a series of cartoons spoofing NVC .

= = Organizations = =

The Center for Nonviolent Communication ( CNVC ) , founded by Marshall Rosenberg , has trademarked the terms NVC , Nonviolent Communication and Compassionate Communication , among other terms , for clarity and branding purposes .

CNVC certifies trainers who wish to teach NVC in a manner aligned with CNVC 's understanding of the NVC process . CNVC also offers trainings by certified trainers .

Some trainings in nonviolent communication are offered by trainers sponsored by organizations considered as allied with , but having no formal relationship with , the Center for Nonviolent Communication founded by Marshall Rosenberg . Some of these trainings are announced through CNVC . Numerous NVC organizations have sprung up around the world , many with regional focuses .

= = Articles about NVC = =

Atlee , T. " Thoughts on Nonviolent Communication and Social Change . " Co @-@ intelligence Institute .

Kabatznick , R. and M. Cullen ( 2004 ) " The Traveling Peacemaker : A Conversation with Marshall Rosenberg . " Inquiring Mind , Fall issue .

Moore , P. ( 2004 ) " NonViolent Communication as an Evolutionary Imperative @-@ The InnerView of Marshall Rosenberg " Alternatives , Issue 29 , Spring .

Simons , G. ( 2003 ) " Review of Nonviolent Communication " SIETAR Europa Newsletter , November .

Sauer , M. ( 2004 ) " Expert on conflict resolution believes nonviolence is in our nature " San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , October 14 , 2004 .

van Gelder , S. ( 1998 ) " The Language of Nonviolence " Yes Magazine , Summer 1998

= Who 's Your Neighbor ? =

Who 's Your Neighbor ? is a 1917 silent American propaganda and drama film directed by S. Rankin Drew . The film 's plot focuses around reformers who pass a law to force prostitutes , including Hattie Fenshaw , out of the red light district . Fenshaw becomes Bryant Harding 's mistress and lives in an apartment next door to a reformer , and continues to ply her trade . After Fenshaw becomes familiar with Harding , his son , daughter and the daughter 's fiance , the climax of the film occurs as the cast assembles at Fenshaw 's apartment . Harding returns and a fight breaks out that results in the reformers ' arrival and concludes with the presumption that Fenshaw returns to a place of " legalized vice " . The drama was written by Willard Mack and was his first foray into screen dramas . The film proved controversial , but is noted as a great success . The film originally debuted on June 15 , 1917 , but it was rejected by the National Board of Review and was later approved after a revision , but the film continued to be labeled as an immoral production . The film is presumed to be lost .

= = Plot = =

A group of reformers , led by Mrs. Bowers , moves to have the red light district closed and force the girls out . District Attorney Osborne , believes that it will turn out poorly for the town and tries to persuade the reforms that it would be like scattering smallpox . He fails to persuade them and the law is passed . The film focuses on one of the prostitutes , Hattie Fenshaw , who is forced out from her place of vice . According to H. D. Fretz 's review , Fenshaw is determined to let those at a prominent hotel know that " women such as she had better be left alone " , but is quickly recognized and evicted . At the hotel , Fenshaw makes an acquaintance of Bryant Harding who decides to keep her as his mistress and pays Fenshaw 's rent in an apartment next door to one of the reformers , Mrs. Osborne . Fenshaw also charms Dudley Carleton , who breaks off his engagement to Betty Hamlin , the daughter of Harding , who uses her divorced mother 's maiden name . Hamlin and Fenshaw meet through an introduction with Mrs. Bowers , and Hamlin , unaware of Fenshaw 's character is telephoned by Fenshaw to come and sew for her to earn some money . Hal Harding , a college student with a desire to see the city , is introduced to Fenshaw during his father 's absence . The cast assembles at Fenshaw 's apartment when Hamlin arrives and interrupts Fenshaw 's party with her ex @-@ fiance and her brother , Hal . She is then introduced to her brother under and assumed name and is in the apartment when Bryant Harding returns . A fight breaks out and Harding nearly kills Carleton and knocks Fenshaw unconscious and shoots at his daughter , but misses . Alerted by the shot , the District Attorney , Mrs. Bowers and her reformer friends arrive and learn of Hattie Fenshaw 's vice . Shorey 's film review concludes with the presumption that Fenshaw returns to a place of " legalized vice " with Mrs. Bowers ' permission .

= = Cast = =

Christine Mayo as Hattie Fenshaw

Anders Randolf as Bryant M. Harding ( Richard Harding in Fretz 's review )

Evelyn Brent as Betty Hamlin

Frank Morgan as Dudley Carlton

William Sherwood as Hal Harding

Gladys Fairbanks as Mrs. Bowers

Franklyn Hanna as District Attorney Osborne

Mabel Wright as Betty 's mother

George Majeroni ( Undetermined role )

Dean Raymond ( Undetermined role )

= = Production = =

Willard Mack had registered and copyrighted " Who 's Your Neighbor ? " on March 9 , 1917 . Speculation by Motography states that Mack 's " contribution to the screen drama was probably prompted by the distressing Ruth Cruger mystery , which was so cleverly solved by Mrs. Grace Humiston , and follows very closely many of the phases of drama in real life that shocked the world . " The April 17 , 1917 issue of Motography profiled the film , the first production of Master Drama Features , noting that it would be shown on a " stage @-@ right " basis after a New York City premier at a Broadway theater . H. D. Fretz noted that the majority of the scenes were shot indoors and described the photography as excellent . The film was described as breaking a record by Motoplay because of the use of a triple exposure . The brief note stated that it is a delicate and precise work that required perfect synchronization that " ( the film ) had to be taken twenty times before the result was satisfactory to Director S. Rankin Drew . " Who 's Your Neighbor ? was the first film produced by Edward Small . According to the American Film Institute , the film was edited by Frank Lawrence .

= = Release = =

The film debuted at the Broadway Theater on June 15 , 1917 . After its debut , the film received many bids from buyers for the film . The original film had seven reels , but the June 30 edition of The Moving Picture World stated that it was six reels for unknown reasons . Shortly after the film 's completion , S. Rankin Drew sailed for France to join the American Ambulance Corps . He was killed in action when his plane was shot down over France during the First World War on May 19 , 1918 .

The film was originally set for a winter release , and was the subject of speculation by Lynn Kear , author of Evelyn Brent : The Life and Films of Hollywood 's Lady Crook , the film was delayed because of the fears that World War I would hurt viewer attendance . Lynn also speculated that it may have been due to the film having received condemnation from the National Board of Review . Master Drama Features general manager Herman Becker told the media the film was held for a winter release , due to expectation of a decrease in viewership due to the ongoing war , but the film was released because the vaudeville theaters wanted new acts . Becker also noted the advertising greatly boosted sales of the film . While the film did initially get condemnation from the board , it was later given a full approval following a revision according to the September 1 publication of Motion Picture News . The film was also quick to sell the state rights as noted in the July 28 edition of Motography . Becker sold states rights to " California , Washington , Nevada , Arizona , New Mexico , Colorado , Utah , Wyoming , Montana , Oregon , Idaho and northern New Jersey . " This purchase of rights was made by F. E. Backer of Mammoth Film Corporation after seeing the film .

According to Kear , advertising for the film focused on Evelyn Brent and cited an ad that appeared in the Los Angeles Times on December 5 , 1917 . Though Exhibitor 's Herald cited that the advertising for the film would include " four kinds of one @-@ sheet , three @-@ sheet , six @-@ sheet and 24 @-@ sheet lithographs , newspaper cuts , slides , window cards , banners , heralds , throw aways and many other novelties never before seen . " For advertisement purposes , the Otis Lithograph Company was contracted by the studio 's director of publicity , Arthur M. Brilant . The description of the varied materials were noted in greater detail in a column in Motion Picture News .

Though the film had its debut on June 15 , the American Film Institute states that the film was released in October . This conflicts with a claim from the Paris Theater in Denver , Colorado , found in the September 29 issue of Motography , where the film was said to be popular . The Paris Theater would also run into legal troubles over the films showing , a fact reported in the October 6 edition of Motography . Newspaper accounts for a late October run begin in the San Francisco Chronicle with the Portola Theater debuting the film , originally for one week , starting on October 28 , 1917 . The film was popular enough to run a second week at the Portola . The film would be part of the vaudeville show at the Wigwam for four days starting on November 14 . The film was suggested for mature audiences by the Portola Theater and the Wigwam Theater , both did not allow children under the age of 16 to enter .

= = Reception = =

George N. Shorey 's review of the initial seven reel Broadway release declared it another masterpiece of Mack 's writing and notes that the film would be the best example to go before the courts to argue for " free speech " in films . Shorey notes that the propaganda film " is bold , clear , tremendous in the force of its convincing showing that to drive the scarlet woman from a restricted district into the hotels and apartment houses of a city is a worse crime than it seeks to cure . " The only complaint was found that it " does not sufficiently misrepresent the ease and luxury of the underworld . It shows a scarlet woman who finds the " easiest way " truly easy . She does not die , nor even suffer . The intended moral of the picture , that once abandoned to that life a woman finds it to her taste to remain in it and cannot be " reformed , " necessarily does include the above corollary to that proposition . " The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that the film " deals with a question that has perplexed the sages from the beginning of time and it traverses life 's scroll , writing with thought and deed certain actions of everyday application . There are tense dramatic scenes , and above all there is the question that must be faced , " Who 's Your Neighbor ? " "

The film was declared to be the " most satisfactory picture Denver has had in many months " by the Paris Theater in the September 29 issue of Motography . Though the October 6 edition of Motography noted that W. A. Roderick and F. O. Brown , officers of Paris Theater Company were charged for showing the film which violated a city ordinance on " immoral pictures " . The men rejected that claim , citing that it was not immoral , but was rejected by the censorship board because it was a propaganda film and not on the film 's morality . The city had threatened to file charges and prosecute them for each exhibition of the film .

Ben H. Grimm 's review in The Moving Picture World was completely negative and described it as " one of the most insidious , moral @-@ destroying pictures ever produced . It will lower to the level of a bawdy house any theater in which it is shown . It reeks of a filthy sex element that struts across the screen in the sheep 's clothing of alleged propaganda advocating the segregation of vice . " Grimm highlights how the film 's prostitute sells herself and finds not ill , but instead gets worldly gains . Grimm also notes that the production is based on the premise that a prostitute is a prostitute by choice , does not want reform and infers that she can not be reformed . Grimm 's review stated that the great production was even more detrimental with a metaphor that stated a well @-@ dressed criminal was less likely to be suspected than a poorly dressed criminal .

The film is believed to be lost .

= Sydney Rowell =

Lieutenant General Sir Sydney Fairbairn Rowell , KBE , CB ( 15 December 1894 – 12 April 1975 ) was an Australian soldier who served as Chief of the General Staff from 17 April 1950 to 15 December 1954 . As Vice Chief of the General Staff from 8 January 1946 to 16 April 1950 , he played a key role in the post @-@ Second World War reorganisation of the Army , and in the 1949 Australian coal strike . However , he is best known as the commander who was dismissed in the Kokoda Track campaign .

As a young officer , Rowell served at Gallipoli but was invalided back to Australia with typhoid fever in January 1916 . The end of the war found Rowell junior in rank to his contemporaries with more distinguished war records , but he managed to catch up in the post @-@ war period . Rowell spent five years with the British Army or at British staff colleges , establishing valuable contacts with his British counterparts . In 1939 he was appointed chief of staff of the 6th Division and later I Corps , serving in that capacity in the Battle of Greece and the Syria @-@ Lebanon campaign . In 1942 he commanded I Corps in the Kokoda Track campaign but was sacked . His subsequent rise to become Chief of the General Staff demonstrated that the circumstances of his dismissal in 1942 were indeed extraordinary .

= = Early life = =

Sydney Fairbairn Rowell was born on 15 December 1894 at Lockleys , South Australia , the fourth son of James Rowell , an English @-@ born soldier and orchardist who served as a senator from 1916 to 1922 , and his Australian @-@ born second wife Zella Jane née Williams . He acted as an ' unofficial batman ' to his father , who was colonel commanding the South Australian Brigade from 1907 to 1911 . Rowell was educated at Adelaide High School and was one of the first cadets to enter the Royal Military College , Duntroon when it opened in 1911 .

= = First World War = =

On 15 September 1914 Rowell and his classmates were commissioned as first lieutenants in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . At the time , Rowell 's class had not yet completed its military training . The AIF 's commander , Major General William Throsby Bridges , decided that regimental duty would rectify that deficiency , so he allotted the Duntroon cadets as regimental officers of the AIF , rather than as staff officers . The cost of this decision was high ; of the 134 commissioned in time to serve at the front , 42 were killed and 38 wounded . Cadets were posted to units being formed in their home states , so Rowell was posted to the 10th Infantry Battalion . When he discovered that the 3rd Light Horse Regiment was to be commanded by his cousin , Lieutenant Colonel F. M. Rowell , Sydney obtained permission to swap places with another member of his Duntroon class Lieutenant Eric Wilkes Talbot Smith . It was a fateful decision ; Smith was fatally wounded on Anzac Day .

Rowell contracted pneumonia and did not embark with the main body of the 3rd Light Horse Regiment . Instead , he left with its First Reinforcements on HMAT Thirty @-@ Six on 21 December 1914 . Rowell joined the regiment in Heliopolis in January . The next month he broke his left leg in a riding accident . For a time it looked like Rowell would again miss the embarkation of his regiment , but the intervention of his father ensured that he reached Anzac Cove with the 3rd Light Horse on 12 May 1915 . He was evacuated sick to Egypt and then Malta in July , and returned to his regiment at Quinn 's Post in August . Rowell was promoted to the temporary rank of captain on 9 September , briefly assuming command of a squadron before becoming the regimental adjutant three days later . In November Rowell was again evacuated to Egypt , this time with typhoid fever , the disease that had killed his cousin . On 20 January 1916 , Rowell was returned to Australia . Because of a policy that a regular officer , once invalided to Australia , could not again be posted overseas , Rowell 's period of active service was over . He was posted , along with several other Duntroon graduates who had been invalided home , to Duntroon , as an instructor at the Officers ' Training School . This was closed in June 1917 and Rowell was posted to the staff of the 4th Military District in Adelaide .

= = Between the wars = =

On 20 August 1919 at the Chalmers Church , North Terrace , Adelaide , Rowell married Blanche May Murison , the daughter of a Scottish engineer . Blanche had served in the Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps in Australia during the war . Due to his brief overseas service , the end of the war found Rowell still a lieutenant and thus junior in rank to his contemporaries but the snail @-@ like pace of promotions between the wars allowed him to gradually catch up . He was promoted to captain on 1 January 1920 , major on 1 January 1926 , and the brevet rank lieutenant colonel on 1 July 1935 , with substantive rank on 1 January 1936 . His inter @-@ war career consisted of a long series of staff postings , interspersed with training courses .

In 1924 , Rowell passed the staff college examination for one of the two Australian spots . Qualifying in first place gave him a choice between the Staff College , Camberley and its counterpart at Quetta , and Rowell chose the former , attending from 1925 to 1926 . At this time , the commandant was Major General Edmund Ironside ; the staff included Colonel J. F. C. Fuller and Lieutenant Colonels Alan Brooke and Bernard Montgomery . Fellow students included Captains Frank Messervy and Francis Tuker . From 1935 to 1937 , Rowell was on exchange to the British Army as a staff officer with the 44th ( Home Counties ) Infantry Division . He then attended the Imperial Defence College . The class was a distinguished one , including two Victoria Cross winners , Group Captain Frank McNamara from Australia and Lieutenant Colonel George Pearkes from Canada ; other students included Lieutenant Colonel William Slim and Wing Commander Keith Park . For his staff work , Rowell was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the King 's Birthday Honours in 1938 .

Rowell returned to Australia to become Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at Army Headquarters in Melbourne but in August 1938 he became staff officer to the Inspector General , Lieutenant General Ernest Squires , partly because Rowell was recognised as " one of the ablest of the early Duntroon graduates " but also because he had spent five of the previous thirteen years with the British Army or at British staff colleges . The government 's decision to appoint a British officer to produce an authoritative report into the Army was widely seen as demonstrating the government 's lack of confidence in its own officer corps . Squires ' first recommendation was to restructure the military districts into four " commands " . This required legislation amending the Defence Act and was not implemented until October 1939 . The second recommendation was the formation of a regular brigade . The death of Prime Minister Joseph Lyons in April 1939 and his subsequent replacement by Robert Menzies caused this to be shelved .

= = Second World War = =

= = = Libya = = =

When the 6th Division was formed in October 1939 , Sir Thomas Blamey appointed Rowell as its GSO1 ( chief of staff ) . Rowell joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and was given the AIF service number VX3 . Gavin Long described Rowell as " clear and incisive in thought , sensitive in feeling , frank and outspoken in approach to men and to problems . Five recent years of service either at English staff colleges or on exchange duty made it probable that wherever he went his opposite numbers in British formations would be men with whom he had previously worked and played . " Comparing him to the AA & QMG , Colonel George Alan Vasey , Long noted that both " were not only efficient soldiers but men of commanding temperament and talent " .

Rowell was promoted to colonel on 13 October 1939 , and when the government decided to form I Corps in April 1940 , Blamey was given the command and Rowell became brigadier , general staff ( BGS ) , with the rank of brigadier . Blamey and Rowell prepared I Corps for operations as best they could , completing the force 's structure and integrating new units as they arrived in the Middle East . Rowell strove to establish good relations with the British Army , while occasionally having to remind them that the AIF was answerable to its own commander in chief and its own government . Rowell 's efforts to create an administrative headquarters to free the I Corps staff for operational duties foundered on Blamey 's reluctance to delegate authority . The best that he could achieve was the creation of a Base and Line of Communications Units command under Brigadier Allan Boase but I Corps remained responsible for organisation and training .

I Corps ' part in the Western Desert Campaign was brief . Its headquarters opened near Benghazi on 15 February 1941 , replacing British XIII Corps . Rowell studied the prospects of an advance on Tripoli , but the headquarters was recalled to Egypt on 24 February to participate in the Battle of Greece . Nonetheless , for his part , Rowell was mentioned in despatches , and appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .

= = = Greece = = =

In Greece , I Corps was employed as such for the first time . The campaign was another short one , but very trying on the participants . Just three days after headquarters opened on 5 April 1941 , the Germans broke through and the corps was thrown into a retreat that eventually led to its re @-@ embarkation . Blamey and his staff worked under tremendous pressure ; the operational situation was precarious ; and German air attacks were frequent . Rowell later wrote :

What history should record is that , in the face of a desperate situation , HQ I Corps never lost control of the battle ; made sound tactical decisions with limited resources and succeeded finally in bringing its troops to the beaches with limited resources and with no loss of cohesion .

Tempers flared when I Corps headquarters was ordered to evacuate to Egypt . Blamey 's aide recalled :

We had now now come to our last hours in Greece . They were marked by tension and anger . When Rowell was told that he was to leave almost immediately to fly to Egypt with Blamey , his first reaction was to declare that he had no intention of leaving . The hostility in this exchange opened up a rift between the two men . Rowell had always been completely frank in putting his views to Blamey , but not defiant . On this occasion it took a sharp and direct order to remind Rowell who was in command .

If Rowell felt that Blamey had shown a lack of moral courage in failing to stand up to the political and military superiors who had directed the ill @-@ fated campaign , Blamey felt that the campaign had revealed flaws in Rowell 's character . He wrote to the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee :

Rowell has very great ability ; is quick in decision and sound in judgement . There can be no question of his personal courage , but he lacks the reserves of nervous energy over a period of long strain . I found him difficult in the last days in Greece and , as commander , had to exercise considerable tact . Rather a reverse of what it should be .

I was a little disappointed in both him and Bridgeford over their attitude in one or two matters . They were over @-@ impressed with the danger of the dive bomber and talked a little too freely about its effect on the men . However , a short rest fixed them both up and they are doing a great job in Syria .

For his part in the campaign in Greece , Rowell was mentioned in despatches a second time .

= = = Syria = = =

I Corps was alerted to take part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign although , Blamey having been promoted to Deputy Commander in Chief Middle East Command , it lacked a commanding officer . Apparently , General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson believed that I Corps ' loss of transport and signal equipment precluded it from participating in the campaign from the outset . Instead , Wilson attempted to exercise command from the King David Hotel . This proved to be a serious error , as his staff were preoccupied with political and administrative issues , and were too remote from the battlefields to exercise the close command required — something that Rowell foresaw . Following a series of reverses , Rowell predicted on 16 June that " it won 't be long now . " I Corps headquarters was sent for on 18 June , and Lieutenant General John Lavarack assumed command that day .

= = = Defence of Australia = = =

In August 1941 , Rowell returned to Australia to take up the post of Deputy Chief of the General Staff ( DCGS ) , with the rank of major general . He expected that his main task would be to support the AIF ; but it turned out the primary concern was the looming war with Japan , which broke out soon after . It was at this juncture that Rowell was approached by Major General George Vasey , who had a scheme to retire all officers over the age of fifty , and making Major General Horace Robertson Commander in Chief . Presumably Vasey expected Rowell , as a fellow Duntroon graduate , to be sympathetic . A heated argument ensued , ending with Rowell telling Vasey that " if he weren 't so bloody big , I 'd toss him out of the room " . Rowell immediately went to Sturdee , who had Lavarack with him , and told him what had transpired .

In Blamey 's subsequent shake @-@ up of higher command arrangements , Rowell was appointed to command I Corps . This was his first command since his three @-@ day stint in command of a light horse squadron at Gallipoli . He became the first Duntroon graduate to command a corps , and the first to be promoted to the rank of lieutenant general . The old I Corps headquarters was largely absorbed into Lavarack 's new First Army headquarters , so a new one was formed from Headquarters , Southern Command . Initially located in Melbourne , it soon moved to Esk , Queensland .

= = = Kokoda Track = = =

On 31 July 1942 , Blamey informed Rowell that I Corps headquarters would be sent to Port Moresby to control operations in New Guinea . Rowell arrived in Port Moresby on 13 August 1942 and assumed command of New Guinea Force from Major General Basil Morris . Rowell 's I Corps headquarters took over operational control from Morris 's , which became that of ANGAU . The only warning that Morris had of Rowell 's arrival was a message from the DCGS , Vasey , which simply said : " Syd is coming " . The situation was dire . Japanese were steadily advancing on Port Moresby along the Kokoda Trail and were also threatening Milne Bay and Wau . Rowell and his staff were all seasoned officers with combat experience in the Middle East and the Battle of Malaya and " brought to New Guinea skill and organisation that Morris and his staff had been unable to provide " . However , the main body of Rowell 's staff did not arrive until 17 August . Rowell turned down a suggestion from Blamey that he needed additional base staff to cope with his administrative problems , given that a corps headquarters was a tactical headquarters , intended to operate as part of an army , with the latter handling most of the administrative work . Rowell 's staff gradually discovered how enormous the task before them was ; they had few maps , the only transport aircraft were destroyed in a Japanese raid , and the supplies that had been forwarded by air to Kokoda could not be located .

Rowell refused to give General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) in Brisbane a " ball to ball " description of the action , sending only factual information at stated times . Failure to keep GHQ up to date could only lead to fears of the worst , which were confirmed when Major General George Kenney reported that in his opinion Port Moresby would soon fall unless something drastic was done , and Rowell was " defeatist " . On 17 September , the General MacArthur discussed the situation in New Guinea with Prime Minister John Curtin on the secraphone . He pointed out that while the Japanese faced all the same difficulties as the Australian troops fighting on the Kokoda Track , the Japanese were advancing and the Australians were retreating , and the whole situation seemed to MacArthur to be a lot like the Malaya . He recommended that General Blamey be sent up to New Guinea to take personal command of the situation .

" I 'm leaving for New Guinea in a few days , " Blamey told Burston , his Director General of Medical Services , on 18 September .

" Why ? " Burston asked . " Are you worried about New Guinea ? "

" No , " said Blamey , " But Canberra 's lost it ! "

They were talking in Blamey 's office in Victoria Barracks , Melbourne . Blamey had just had talks on the secraphone with both Curtin and MacArthur . Each of them had instructed him to go to Port Moresby . These were not recommendations or requests ; they were orders for every practical purpose . " I remember what happened to the Auk in the desert and I 'm off ! " Blamey told Burston .

Blamey took over command of New Guinea Force , but not I Corps . The difference was academic insofar as there was only one staff . Blamey wrote a letter to Rowell to explain the situation in advance of his arrival in Port Moresby on 23 September :

The powers that be have determined that I shall myself go to New Guinea for a while and operate from there ... I hope you will not be upset at this decision , and will not think that it implies any lack of confidence in yourself . I think it arises out of the fact that we have very inexperienced politicians who are inclined to panic on every possible occasion , and I think that the relationship between us personally is such that we can make the arrangement work without any difficulty .

Rowell took it very badly . He wrote to Major General Cyril Clowes at Milne Bay :

The plain fact is that he [ Blamey ] hasn 't enough moral courage to fight the Cabinet on an issue of confidence in me . Either I am fit to command the show or I am not . If the latter , then I should be pulled out . He comes here when the tide is on the turn and all is likely to be well . He cannot influence the local situation in any way , but he will get the kudos and it will be said , rather pityingly , that he came here to hold my hand and bolster me up . "

On 25 September , at MacArthur 's suggestion , Blamey flew to Milne Bay with Brigadier General Kenneth Walker and ordered Clowes to send a force by air to Wanigela . This would be an important step forward . Rowell , Kenney noted , was " not even consulted anymore " . Rowell was furious at Blamey bypassing him . Blamey reported back to Prime Minister Curtin that :

On arrival here I informed General Rowell of my instructions from the Prime Minister and the CinC SWPA [ MacArthur ] . He proved most difficult and recalcitrant considering himself very unjustly used . I permitted him to state his case with great frankness . It was mainly statement of grievances primarily against myself because he had received only one decoration for war services in Middle East where certain other officers had received two .

He charged me with having failed to safeguard his interests and he felt he was being made to eat dirt . All my persuasion could not make him see matters realistically .

On second evening I asked General Burston as an old friend of Rowell to endeavour to induce a proper frame of mind but Burston met with no success .

Instead of setting out full information here for me I have to search out details and feel a definite atmosphere of obstruction .

Urge that Herring be sent immediately by air as successor to Rowell . If Herring not approved , Mackay second choice but Herring much younger , this important in this climate .

Re disposal of Rowell if you decide to continue his services he could replace Herring in command of II Corps but events here make me doubtful of wisdom of allocating disgruntled officer to this appointment . In this connection Morshead now cables that he would be glad to accept Stevens as second in command AIF in Middle East . Rowell competent to fill Darwin which is a major general 's command . II Corps command could be operated by senior division commander temporarily and by General Eichelberger with a mixed American and Australian staff .

= = = Exile = = =

On further consideration , Blamey decided that he might need Stevens , " a first rate fighter " , and that it would be better to send Rowell to the Middle East , although such a move would involve Rowell being reduced in rank to major general so as to be junior to Morshead . Rowell paid a visit to MacArthur in Brisbane on his way south . MacArthur was unimpressed . He told the Prime Minister that " Rowell 's attitude to a superior officer in a theatre of active operations was quite unpardonable " and hoped for Rowell 's sake that there would be no enquiry into the matter . MacArthur was dissatisfied with the way that Rowell had prosecuted the campaign in Papua , and was opposed to Rowell returning to New Guinea . Curtin granted Rowell an interview on 3 October . He explained to Rowell that Blamey had gone to New Guinea on his orders and had expressed the fullest confidence in his commanders in New Guinea . Not until the end of January did the Prime Minister finally decide to send Rowell to the Middle East , as a major general .

By the time Rowell arrived in the Middle East , Morshead and most of the troops had departed . Rowell filed regular reports on the progress of the war in the Mediterranean , and processed Australian prisoners of war who had been liberated from the Italians . In December 1943 , Rowell took up the appointment as Director of Tactical Investigation at the War Office in London vice Lieutenant General Alfred Reade Godwin @-@ Austen at the instigation of Richard Casey . Despite the important sounding title and a " high powered staff " , the job was a sinecure . When Blamey and Curtin visited London in May 1944 , Rowell was on his " best behaviour " . For his services at the War Office , Rowell was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1946 New Year Honours .

= = Post war = =

Blamey 's appointment as Commander in Chief was terminated in November 1945 and the new Prime Minister Ben Chifley appointed Sturdee in his place . Rowell was recalled from Europe to assume the new post of Vice Chief of the General Staff . He dropped in on Chifley in Canberra at the Prime Minister 's invitation . " I hate bloody injustice ! " Chifley told him . Rowell presided over the Army 's transition to peacetime .

= = = Coal strike = = =

In June 1949 , while Rowell was acting Chief of the General Staff , the country was rocked by the 1949 Australian coal strike . The strike began when stocks of coal were already low , especially in New South Wales and rationing was introduced . The Chifley government turned to the Army to get the troops to mine coal . This became possible when the transport unions agreed to transport coal that was mined . Rowell delegated responsibility for planning and organising the effort to Lieutenant General Berryman , while Rowell flew " top cover " , liaising with the government ministers in Sydney . Rowell managed to get the government to pay a bonus to soldiers mining coal , and persuaded the government to allow soldiers to have beer in their canteens , although the local civilians had none . Soldiers began mining at Muswellbrook and Lithgow on 1 August and by 15 August , when the strike ended , some 4 @,@ 000 soldiers and airmen were employed . They continued work until production was fully restored .

= = = Chief of the General Staff = = =

Sturdee retired in April 1950 and Rowell became the first Duntroon graduate to become Chief of the General Staff , the post of Vice Chief disappearing for a generation . Within months , Australian troops would be committed to the Korean War . Rowell paid visits to Korea in 1952 and 1953 . He presided over the Korean War expansion of the Regular Army , the National Service Scheme , and the re @-@ establishment of the women 's services . Rowell , as Chief of the General Staff , was Army 's chief mourner at Blamey 's funeral in 1951 , also serving as one of the pallbearers along with Frank Berryman , William Bridgeford , Edmund Herring , Iven Mackay , Leslie Morshead , John Northcott , Stanley Savige , Vernon Sturdee , and Henry Wells . For his services as Chief of the General Staff , Rowell was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours in 1953 .

= = Later life = =

Rowell retired from the Army on 15 December 1954 , following a ceremony at Duntroon , where his career had begun over 43 years before . He turned to gardening , cricket , horse @-@ racing , reading , and crossword puzzles . He became a director of Smith , Elder & Co. in 1954 and of the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation in 1956 , serving as its chairman from 1957 to 1968 . From 1958 to 1968 he was chairman of the Australian Boy Scouts ' Association and a member of the Rhodes Scholarships Selection Committee for Victoria . He was offered but declined the post of Australian consul general in New York . In 1974 he published his memoirs , entitled Full Circle — the only Chief of the General Staff to have done so . Rowell died at his South Yarra home , twelve days before Lady Rowell , and was cremated . They were survived by their daughter . Sir Ivor Hele 's portrait of Rowell is held by the Australian War Memorial , as are his papers .

= Tatuidris =

Tatuidris , or armadillo ant , is a rare genus of ants consisting of a single species , Tatuidris tatusia . The ants are small in size and inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America , from Mexico to Brazil . Workers are ferruginous @-@ colored to dark red and present a distinctive morphology , consisting of a shield @-@ like head with a broad vertex , ventrally @-@ turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure , and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside @-@ down . Little is known about the biology of the ants , but they are likely nocturnal and specialist predators .

Tatuidris was first described in 1968 and initially placed in the myrmicine tribe Agroecomyrmecini , together with two fossil genera . Since the original description , the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate .

= = Taxonomy = =

Tatuidris tatusia is the only species in Tatuidris , a monotypic genus and one of only two extant genera in the subfamily Agroecomyrmecinae . A new species , T. kapasi , was described by Lacau & Groc in 2012 , but has now been relegated to a junior synonym under T. tatusia based on the extent of the morphological variability encountered throughout this broad geographic range . Analysis of DNA barcodes indicated a pattern of genetic isolation by distance , suggesting the presence of a single species undergoing allopatric differentiation .

It was first described by Brown & Kempf in 1968 based on two workers collected in a Berlese sample of humus in El Salvador . Due to morphological similarities , they considered it a very primitive ant and placed it in what was then a myrmicine tribe , the Agroecomyrmecini , together with ants known from Early Eocene Baltic amber ( Agroecomyrmex ) and late Eocene Florissant shale ( Eulithomyrmex ) .

It bears superficial resemblance to some extant genera ( Strumigenys , Ishakidris , Pilotrochus , and Phalacromyrmex ) but these similarities are considered to be due to convergent evolution . Due to similarities in the habitus , Brown & Kempf ( 1968 ) linked Tatuidris to the Dacetini genus Glamyromyrmex ( currently a junior synonym of Strumigenys ) and Phalacromyrmex . However they concluded : " analysis of these similarities indicates [ ... ] that they are mostly convergent and not based on close phylogenetic relationship " . Further work explored the similarities of Tatuidris with Ishakidris ( Bolton 1984 ) and Pilotrochus ( Brown 1977 ) . While these taxa share some characteristics , including an expanded head vertex , deep antennal scrobes and a compact mesosoma , the similarities were again deemed convergent .

Since the original description , the systematic status of the tribe has been the focus of debate . Bolton ( 2003 ) was the first to suggest the taxonomic instability of Tatuidris within Myrmicinae and raised the genus to the level of a new subfamily , the Agroecomyrmecinae , suggesting that Agroecomyrmecinae might be the sister taxon to Myrmicinae . The subfamily rank was re @-@ assessed by Baroni Urbani & de Andrade in 2007 , this was the first attempt to include Tatuidris as a terminal taxon in a morphological cladistic analysis . In their study , Baroni Urbani & de Andrade identified morphological synapomorphies shared between Tatuidris and the dacetines , justifying the inclusion of the genus within Myrmicinae . In addition , two autapomorphies ( a differently shaped petiolar tergum and sternum , and the eyes at or close to the apex of the antennal scrobe ) separated Tatuidris from all other extant ant genera included in their study .

Unlike phylogenetic studies based on morphological traits , molecular analyses of the internal phylogeny of the ants have given strong evidence that the armadillo ants are neither closely related to nor nested within the Myrmicinae . Brady et al . ( 2006 ) , Moreau et al . ( 2006 ) and Rabeling et al . ( 2008 ) reconstructed phylogenetic trees with the agroecomyrmecines inside the ' poneroid ' group of subfamilies , close to the Paraponerinae , and gave support for the exclusion of the genus from the Myrmicinae , a subfamily located inside the ' formicoid ' clade . Given the early appearance of the Agroecomyrmecinae in the geologic record , the similarities of armadillo ants to Myrmicinae were hypothesized to represent convergence and / or retention of plesiomorphic forms .

The name Tatuidris means " armadillo ant " , which is also the common name for this species ; tatu comes from the Tupi and Portuguese word for " armadillo " ; the specific epithet for the single described species , tatusia , is an old generic name for armadillo .

= = Distribution = =

Tatuidris is rare but broadly distributed . The ants inhabit the leaf litter of Neotropical forests in Central and South America , from Mexico to French Guiana , central Brazil , and Amazonian Peru . No collections are known from the Caribbean , Galápagos , or other islands . Most specimens and collections are currently known to occur in localities west of the Andes , with more collections tending to occur towards Central America and Mexico . Most collections come from mountainside ( pre @-@ montane ) areas at mid elevations ( usually 800 – 1200 meters of altitude ) . Collections from lowland Amazonia are few . Published records are few , but with the advent of litter sifting and Winkler extraction as a popular method of ant collecting , Tatuidris are not as rare as they used to seem . Although not very abundant , with frequent litter sifting they can be reliably found in Costa Rican wet forests .

= = Description = =

Workers of Tatuidris present a distinctive morphology , consisting of a shield @-@ like head with a broad vertex ( upper surface of the head ) , ventrally @-@ turned heavy mandibles which do not overlap at full closure , deep antennal scrobes ( an impression that receives parts of the antenna ) with eyes at or close to their apex , compact and fused mesosoma , 7 @-@ segmented antenna , first gastral segment ventrally directed , and unique among ants – an antenna socket apparatus sitting upside @-@ down on the roof of the expanded frontal lobe .

The body of a worker is short and compact , ferruginous @-@ colored to dark red , with thick and rigid integument ( external " skin " ) . The body is covered by hairs , which are variable in length and inclination . The head is pyriform ( pear @-@ shaped ) , broadest behind , with small eyes . Queens are similar to workers , but yellow @-@ colored and paler . Their wings are about 60 % longer than total body length . Males , also similar to workers ( except head ) , are darker and have wings about 50 % longer than the body . The eyes of the queens and males are larger than in workers .

= = = Size = = =

Specimens of Tatuidris are small , about 3 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 14 in ) in total length , but specimens can vary greatly in size , with larger specimens being twice as large as the smaller ones . Size variability within trap catches ( possibly same colonies ) may be considerable . For example , workers from one collection catch in Nicaragua varied 30 % in size . It is still unclear whether intra @-@ colony size variation is due to the presence of morphological worker castes ( e.g. minor and major castes ) or continuous size variability . Principal component analysis ( PCA ) revealed that most variability among specimens is related to size , with shape explaining little of total variation .

= = = Pilosity variability = = =

Four pilosity patterns ( patterns of hair @-@ like setae ) are known to occur within Tatuidris collections . Pilosity pattern A consists of a mix of both long flexuous and short appressed setae . This is the most common pilosity pattern and the one that most resembles the type specimens from El Salvador and the gyne from Otongachi , Ecuador . Pilosity pattern B is characterized by very short , fully appressed , and regular spaced setae arrayed homogeneously and equidistantly on the head , mesosoma , petiole , postpetiole and gaster . Pilosity pattern C is characterized by dense lanose @-@ looking setae . Pilosity pattern D consists of short and uniform decumbent ( strongly inclined but not fully appressed ) setae scattered throughout the body .

= = = Eyes = = =

The relative position of eyes is highly variable within the species . For example , eye location ranges from being completely within the antennal scrobes to completely outside the scrobes . In some cases the eye itself is located outside the antennal scrobe , but the eye 's fossa is well marked and confluent with the antennal scrobe . In most specimens , the antennal carina ( ridge extending along the dorsal antennal region ) bifurcates from the antennal scrobes and lies straight above the eyes . However , in specimens from Nicaragua , a strongly impressed antennal carina is present . In these specimens about 40 % of the eye 's area lies within the antennal scrobes . In the gyne , only ~ 1 / 6 of the eye lies within the antennal scrobes . A depression sometimes forms in the integument in the sides of the propodeum , below the propodeal spiracle and above the metapleural gland . The depth of this depression varies among specimens and tends to be deepest in larger specimens .

= = Biology = =

The biology is poorly known ; the male and female reproductive castes were described for the first time in 2012 . The genus is known mainly from isolated workers found in Winkler or Berlese samples . Tatuidris workers have peculiar mandibular brushes and a powerful sting , which led Brown & Kempf to speculate that Tatuidris might be specialist predators of active or slippery arthropod prey . Until 2011 , no observations of live specimens were registered . Details of a first collection event of a small live colony ( 3 workers and 4 gynes ) by Thibaut Delsinne in a mid @-@ elevation forest in southeastern Ecuador suggest that Tatuidris may well be a highly specialized predator , as colonies kept in captivity did not accept any food item offered to them . Food items rejected by the ants included live and dead termites , millipedes , mites , various insect parts , sugar water , tuna , biscuits , live and dead fruit flies ( Drosophila ) , live springtails , live myriapods ( Chilopoda and Diplopoda ) , live and dead Diplura , small live spiders , small live pseudoscorpions , one small snail , uncooked hen egg ( i.e. piece of cotton wool soaked with fresh whisked hen egg ) , ant larvae ( Gnamptogenys sp . ) , and live ant workers ( Cyphomyrmex sp . , Brachymyrmex sp . ) . Potential food items ( arthropods ) for Tatuidris were taken from soil samples and Winkler samples collected at the site where Tatuidris was a priori determined to be present .

Further observations suggest that Tatuidris may be a sit @-@ and @-@ wait predator . Delsinne observed that " both workers and gynes moved very slowly and were very clumsy . They often remained motionless during several tens of seconds or even several minutes when disturbed ( either by my handling or by the contact with another arthropod ) . " These observations were mainly performed at night , suggesting that Tatuidris may be nocturnal , a hypothesis also supported by collection patterns . For example , in the Río Toachi forest of Ecuador Tatuidris specimens tend to fall in pitfall traps , instead of Winkler sacs . Because pitfall traps usually work 24 @-@ h , but Winkler sacs generally uses litter sifted during the day , then ants with nocturnal habits may be underrepresented in Winkler samples . The small eyes of Tatudris species provide further support for this hypothesis .

= Go , Stewie , Go ! =

" Go , Stewie , Go ! " is the 13th episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 14 , 2010 . The episode features Stewie after he auditions , cross @-@ dressed under the pseudonym Karina Smirnoff , for a female role in the American version of Jolly Farm Revue , and eventually ends up falling in love with a female co @-@ star on the show . Meanwhile , Lois finds herself attracted to Meg 's surprisingly normal boyfriend , once Peter causes her to realize her advancing age .

The episode was written by Gary Janetti and directed by Greg Colton . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 72 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Stephen Bishop , Mo Collins , Colin Ford , Lucas Grabeel , Anne Hathaway , Nana Visitor and Mae Whitman , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Go , Stewie , Go ! " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .

= = Plot = =

Brian , walking in drunk , notices that Stewie has resumed watching Jolly Farm Revue , after previously swearing off the show in " Road to Europe " . Remembering a story he had seen in the local newspaper , Brian tells Stewie about upcoming auditions for an American version of the show . Jumping at the opportunity , the two show up to the auditions , but quickly learn that there is only one female role remaining . Determined to win a spot on the show , Stewie decides to cross @-@ dress as a woman , naming his new identity " Karina Smirnoff " . Beginning his audition , he starts by telling a completely fabricated story . Convincing the producers that he is telling a true tale , he wins the role . The next morning , on the first day of filming , Stewie as Karina introduces himself to the rest of the cast , and quickly falls in love with a female co @-@ star named Julie . Another co @-@ star , Randall , objects to the new role that Karina was cast to play , and takes Julie away from him to prevent their friendship . As they continue shooting , however , the two develop a friendly relationship , eventually deciding to hold a sleepover , where they become even closer . The next day , Julie professes her love for Karina by wishing that she was actually a boy , causing Stewie , as Karina , to come on to her . Julie insists that she is not a lesbian , so Stewie decides to unveil his true identity to the entire cast during a live taping of the show . Shocked that Karina was actually a boy , Julie 's mother refuses to let her speak to him , with Stewie left to regret his decision to come out as a cross @-@ dresser , and decides to go get ice cream with Brian , as he can no longer wear that dress .

Meanwhile , Peter begins to insult Lois about her advancing age , including her minor strands of gray hair . This makes her extremely self @-@ conscious , and soon Lois becomes aware of her lust for a younger man . After introducing her new boyfriend , Anthony , to the family , Meg goes on to make out with him on the family couch , with Lois watching over nearby . Jealous of her daughter 's new @-@ found love , she begins hitting on Anthony . Later that day , Lois sends Meg to pick up her grandfather , leaving her all alone with Anthony . The two then begin making out on the couch , but Meg returns to the house only a few moments later and discovers them . Angry at her mother for ruining her chance at having a normal boyfriend , Meg threatens Lois to lay off of him , pulling out one of her own teeth in frustration . Lois quickly agrees , but is still angry with Peter for continually insulting her . She confronts him about this , and he admits that he was actually embarrassed about his own advancing age , as well as his lack of fitness , and was only insulting Lois in order to distract her from the fact that she could be with a much better @-@ looking man . He apologizes for his behavior , and Lois forgives him .

= = Production and development = =

The episode was written by returning writer Gary Janetti , his first episode since the fourth season episode " Stewie B. Goode " . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Greg Colton , before the conclusion of the seventh production season . The episode was Colton 's second for the season , the first being the season premiere , " Road to the Multiverse " , which received high praise from critics . The episode saw the third re @-@ appearance , the first being an equally brief appearance in " Spies Reminiscent of Us " and the second in " Road to the Multiverse " , by former main cast member Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy , in order to star as the character in his own spin @-@ off , entitled The Cleveland Show .

" Go , Stewie , Go ! " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .

In addition to the regular cast , musician Stephen Bishop rerecorded his single " It Might Be You " , actress Mo Collins appeared as a little girl , voice actor Colin Ford appeared briefly as Randall , actress Anne Hathaway appeared as Mother Maggie , actor Lucas Grabeel appeared as Meg 's new boyfriend Anthony , voice actress Nana Visitor appeared briefly as the audition caller and voice actress Mae Whitman appeared as Julie . Recurring guest voice actors Ralph Garman , writer Gary Janetti , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , actress Jennifer Tilly and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .

= = Cultural references = =

Although never specifically referenced or mentioned in the episode itself , Stewie 's alter @-@ ego is named after well @-@ known ballroom dancer Karina Smirnoff , who had previously danced professionally on the American television reality show Dancing with the Stars . Most of the storyline following Stewie is a homage of the 1982 film Tootsie . The episode 's title is also a reference to the song " Go , Tootsie , Go " played during the photo @-@ shoot montage in the film . A similar scene featuring the song was slightly modified , replacing " Tootsie " with " Stewie , " in the lyrics to the song . Another song from the film , " It Might Be You " by Stephen Bishop , is played during the closing credit sequence .

As Stewie and Brian watch a recorded episode of Jolly Farm Revue , Stewie notes the introduction of several new characters to the show . The television screen is then shown , as Karina reveals the characters to his co @-@ star , Julie . The new characters include parodies of the Sesame Street characters Big Bird , who describes himself as a " big bird , " and a self @-@ described " grouch " named " Moody Green Garbage Creature " , who resembles Oscar the Grouch , and butch and femme versions of Bert and Ernie , who try to protect Karina and Julie from Oscar .

After sending Meg out on an errand to pick up her grandfather , Lois continues to seduce Anthony , having been interested in him since Peter had begun insulting her about her advancing age . Quickly returning after forgetting the car keys , Meg discovers her mother making out with her new boyfriend on the couch . The bass jingle used extensively in the long @-@ running NBC sitcom Seinfeld is then heard , with the scene pausing , before transitioning to the Jolly Farm studio . In a surprise visit to the Griffin family home , Julie unexpectedly appears when Stewie opens the front door . Expecting Julie to recognize him , he forgets that he is not dressed as Karina , causing him to hurriedly change clothing , while pretending to have an argument with his fabricated persona . A similar scene is featured in the 1993 film Mrs. Doubtfire , starring actor Robin Williams . Stewie and Jolly Farm make a reference to Pan Am Flight 103 , a Boeing 747 – 100 destroyed by a terrorist bomb over Lockerbie , Scotland , killing all 259 occupants . Large portions of the plane fell onto Lockerbie , which killed 11 people , escalating the death toll to 270 . A song features on Jolly Farm that explicitly describes debris from the newly disintegrated plane falling into Lockerbie , sung in the fashion of that of a nursery rhyme .

= = Reception = =

In an improvement over the previous two episodes , the episode was viewed in 6 @.@ 72 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , as well as the series premiere of Sons of Tucson , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership .

Reviews of the episode were mixed , calling the storyline a " [ good source of ] material in the long @-@ running dysfunctional yet affectionate relationship between Brian and Stewie , " while criticizing its multiple cultural references . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called the episode a " pleasant surprise , " enjoying Stewie 's storyline , while criticizing the subplot between Lois and Meg . Ramsey Isler of IGN was much more critical of the episode , however , saying that " while there [ were ] a couple of funny moments , there are more misses than hits , " giving the episode a 6 out of 10 . In a subsequent review of Family Guy 's eighth season , Isler listed " Go , Stewie , Go ! " as being " full of the lowest of the lowest @-@ common @-@ denominator " jokes " , with heavy reliance on toilet humor and the characteristic cutaway gags that have steadily gotten more random and less funny . " In contrast , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode , saying that it " [ offered ] an emotional glimpse into the characters . "

Naming the episode as its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for " strong sexual content , " the Parents Television Council called the episode a " nauseating new low , " criticizing multiple scenes , including Lois making out with a minor , as well as the confrontation between Brian and Karina at the bar . The PTC also criticized Seth MacFarlane for attempting to " elicit disgust " throughout the episode by " [ choosing ] incest and rape " in order to " provoke [ emotions ] . "

= Gettysburg ( The Office ) =

" Gettysburg " is the eighth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office . It was written by Robert Padnick and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 17 , 2011 . " Gettysburg " guest stars Lindsey Broad as Cathy Simms .

The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) takes some of the office staff on a field trip to Gettysburg for inspiration . Meanwhile , the rest of the office , under orders from Robert California ( James Spader ) , are tasked with coming up with a new business idea for Dunder Mifflin . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) proposes several vending machine ideas that capture California 's imagination .

" Gettysburg " would be the last episode to feature Jenna Fischer before she went on maternity leave . The episode received mixed reviews , with commentators mainly criticizing the episode for recycling jokes . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Gettysburg " drew 5 @.@ 50 million viewers , and ranked first in its time slot and was the highest @-@ rated NBC show of the night .

= = Plot = =

Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to motivate and inspire everyone by taking them on a field trip to Gettysburg . At Gettysburg , Andy is unhappy with the lack of morale and belief in his leadership and attempts to make an analogy between running a paper company and fighting in the Civil War . Andy starts to lead a haphazard tour , and eventually most of the office members sit down to rest . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) follow Andy after he presses on , and eventually tell him to stop trying to impress the office . They reinforce the fact that his co @-@ workers like him the way he is .

During the tour , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) argues with Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) about what he claims is the northernmost battle of the Civil War : the Battle of Schrute Farms . Dwight maintains that its absence from the history books is an example of re @-@ writing history , whereas Oscar maintains that the battle is a fictitious creation . After tracking down a historian , Dwight and Oscar learn that the Battle of Schrute Farms did in fact take place . However , the " battle " was really a code term . During the Civil War , Schrute Farms was a safe haven for artists and poets ( and , as heavily implied , homosexuals ) . Oscar finds this fascinating , whereas Dwight leaves in disgust . Meanwhile , Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) is sidetracked by another tour group who assume that he is an Abraham Lincoln impersonator . He acquiesces and delivers an improvised but applauded performance .

Meanwhile , at the office , half of the office opts to stay behind . Robert California ( James Spader ) makes a spontaneous visit and asks them to come up with Dunder Mifflin / Sabre 's next big idea . However , the office fails to impress Robert with their ideas . Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) details an idea he has about cookie placement in the vending machine , but Robert gets the impression that he is extremely clever and is speaking only in metaphors . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , who has been annoyed the entire day with Kevin being creative and Robert rejecting his ideas , later tricks Kevin into explaining an idea he has involving the Big Mac , and Robert realizes that there was no subtext to Kevin 's ideas .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by story editor Robert Padnick , his second writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff the previous season . It was directed by frequent director of The Office , Jeffrey Blitz . The episode also marks the second appearance of Lindsey Broad , who plays Cathy , Pam 's replacement during her maternity leave . She appeared in a recurring role for the season . Due to Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy , " Gettysburg " would be the last episode of 2011 to feature Pam . The episode was not filmed on location in Gettysburg , Pennsylvania . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt noted that the writers ' used Andy 's " overeager qualities " to have the office group skip the official tour , allowing for " some random California heritage site " to stand in for the real Gettysburg . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Andy preparing the office to go to Gettysburg , and Kevin discussing his new @-@ found approval by California .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original American broadcast on NBC on November 17 , 2011 , " Gettysburg " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 50 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode marked a three percent decrease in the ratings from the previous episode , " Pam 's Replacement " . Despite this , the episode ranked first in its timeslot , beating the Fox drama series , Bones which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 percent share , CBS drama , Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 percent share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) medical drama , Private Practice which received a 2 @.@ 6 rating / 7 percent share , although all three shows received more total viewers than " Gettysburg " .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Gettysburg " received mixed reviews from critics , ranging from negative to slightly positive . Hollywood writer Hannah Lawrence was heavily critical of the episode and wrote , " This episode seemed like a joke to me . I really didn 't like it . " What Culture ! reviewer Joseph Kratzer gave the episode three out of five stars and wrote , " While the episode was technically satisfactory , it didn 't carry much momentum . " McNutt referred to the " Battle of Schrute Farms " gag as a " payoff , " but was overall negative . He concluded that although " The Office is still capable of finding humor in [ ... ] situations [ but ] it doesn 't feel like the show is willing to explore that humor , instead content on making the same statements the show has been making for quite some time . " He ultimately gave it a " C – " .

Not all reviews were negative . IGN writer Cindy White awarded the episode 7 out of 10 , signifying a " good " episode . However , she heavily criticized the recycling of story lines , writing , " It may have been heartwarming in the premiere , but now it feels repetitive , and it 's still not funny . " M. Giant of Television without Pity gave the episode a " B – " . Chris Plante from New York wrote a generally positively review , saying " No episode has done the ensemble work better than “ Gettysburg , ” a kind of sitcom buffet , its many stories giving the audience a small taste of every personality . That isn 't to say every character has been fleshed out well . [ ... ] Andy and California seem off point . "

The episode 's opening , featuring Pam Halpert ( Fischer ) faking her water breaking , received mixed reviews . White called the sequence her " favorite part " and felt an empathetic connection to the character . Kratzer claimed that he enjoyed the scene . McNutt , however , wrote that the opening concludes that " Pam and Jim are basically total jerks " .

= John Deere House and Shop =

The John Deere House and Shop is located in the unincorporated village of Grand Detour , Illinois , near the Lee County city of Dixon . The site is known as the location where the first steel plow was invented by John Deere in 1837 . The site includes Deere 's house , a replica of his original blacksmith shop , a gift shop , and an archaeological exhibit showing the excavation site of his original blacksmith shop . The Deere House and Shop is listed on the National Register of Historic Places ; it joined that list in 1966 , the year the Register was established . Prior to that , it was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 19 , 1964 .

= = History = =

In 1836 , native Vermonter John Deere set out from Rutland , Vermont to Grand Detour , Illinois , founded by his friend and fellow Vermont native Leonard Andrus . The town lacked a local blacksmith , Deere 's trade , and within two days Deere had a forge and new business established . In Vermont , Deere produced plows made from cast @-@ iron and when he first arrived in Illinois he produced the same plows . Soil conditions in Illinois differ from those in Vermont . In Vermont the soil is sandy and falls easily away from the plow blade but in Illinois the soil is thicker and wetter ; it stuck to the plow and had to be scraped off by the farmer as he plowed .

There are varying tales as to the inspiration for Deere to create the invention he is famed for , the steel plow . In one version he recalled the way the polished steel pitchfork tines moved through hay and soil and thought that the same effect could be obtained for a plow . By early 1838 , Deere completed his first steel plow and sold it to a local farmer , Lewis Crandall . Crandall spread word of his success with Deere 's plow quickly , and two neighbors soon placed orders with Deere . By 1841 he was manufacturing 75 plows per year , and 100 plows per year in 1876 .

= = John Deere Historic Site = =

The John Deere Historic Site in Grand Detour , Illinois is operated by the John Deere Company and has five components . Outside of the perimeter , which is surrounded by a white , wooden fence , are 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) of prairie restoration . Inside of the fenced area is the replica blacksmith shop , the John Deere House and the visitor 's center which is a gift shop . Also on the grounds is a building which houses the 1960s archaeological dig site . The blacksmith shop is a replica of the original Deere Shop , unearthed during the 1960s dig . The shop recreates Deere 's shop and includes a demonstration by a modern blacksmith using antique tools of the trade and an open furnace . The visitor 's center is inside an 1843 home built by a Deere neighbor , it houses a gift shop which has an original Deere family wall clock on display . The home was originally owned by William Dana . The house is furnished with period items as well as the gift shop 's merchandise . The entire site is operated by John Deere Company employees .

Part of the John Deere Historic Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places along with being designated a National Historic Landmark . The only contributing property on the National Register listing for the site is the John Deere House . The house is also the only " property type " listed on the National Historic Landmarks ' online database entry for the site . The house obtained National Historic Landmark status on July 19 , 1964 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places soon after its inception on October 15 , 1966 .

= = House = =

The John Deere House was built in 1836 when Deere arrived in Grand Detour and the building was added onto as his family grew . It is furnished with period furniture and household objects that would have been common around the time the Deere family occupied the home . The house has two levels with four rooms on the main level and two rooms upstairs . Each of the upstairs rooms is accessible via a private staircase and it is believed one of the rooms was used by Deere 's apprentices while the other was used as a children 's bedroom .

The front entry leads into the living room where polished wood is found throughout as well as 19th century furnishings . The front room is part of the original building which consisted of one room . The room acted as the Deere 's kitchen , living room , bedrooms , essentially everything . Deere eventually added onto the house , including a bedroom and an upstairs loft . The first floor bedroom would have been used for John and his wife , and possibly a couple of the children while the upstairs room would was used for the rest of the children . The Deeres left the home in 1847 when they moved to Moline , Illinois .

= = Shop = =

The original blacksmith shop on the site is long gone , however , in 1962 an archaeological team made of students from the University of Illinois approached the Deere Company about excavating the site where the shop once stood . The team unearthed the location of the original Deere Blacksmith Shop where the first successful steel plow was developed in 1837 . The dig site is preserved beneath a building , known as the pavilion . The site is surrounded by museum exhibits which include artifacts , news clippings , and photographs .

A blacksmith shop does occupy the current John Deere Historic Site grounds . Archaeologists used a magnetometer to locate the position of the forge in the original blacksmith shop , thus , the current shop shares an interior which is an exact replica of the original . The exterior of the building has the same dimensions as the original as well .

= = Historic significance = =

The John Deere House and Shop is historically significant for its influence in the areas of commerce , agriculture , industry , and invention . The site was designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark on July 19 , 1964 . The Landmark designation was assigned by the U.S. Department of Interior because of the House and Shop 's association with John Deere , founder of the John Deere Company and inventor of the first steel plow . His invention was of significance to the entire United States and made large scale cultivation of areas in Illinois , Indiana and Ohio possible . When the U.S. National Register of Historic Places was established in 1966 the John Deere House and Shop was among the first properties to join that list . It was added to the National Register on October 15 , 1966 , the same day the National Register was established .

= Polygon ( website ) =

Polygon is an American video game website that publishes news , culture , reviews , and videos . It launched as Vox Media 's third property on October 24 , 2012 . The site was built over the course of ten months , and its 16 @-@ person founding staff included the editors @-@ in @-@ chief of the gaming sites Joystiq , Kotaku and The Escapist . Vox produced a documentary series about the founding of the site . The site sought to distinguish itself from competitors by focusing on the stories of the people behind the games instead of the games themselves . They also produced long @-@ form magazine @-@ style feature articles , invested in video content , and chose to allow their review scores to be updated as the game changed . The site was built to HTML5 responsive standards with a pink color scheme , and their advertisements focused on direct sponsorship of specific kinds of content .

= = History = =

The gaming blog Polygon was launched on October 24 , 2012 , as Vox Media 's third property . The site grew from technology blog The Verge , which was launched a year earlier as an outgrowth of sports blog network SB Nation before the Vox Media was formed . Vox Media CEO Jim Bankoff approached Joystiq editor @-@ in @-@ chief Christopher Grant in early 2011 about starting a video game website . Bankoff considered video games to be a logical vertical market for Vox , whose sites attracted an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . He also saw games to be an expanding market in consideration of mobile and social network game categories . Forbes described Bankoff 's offer as a " serious commitment to online journalism " in an age of content farms and disappearing print publications , but Grant did not trust the offer and declined . Upon seeing the effort that Vox put into The Verge , their Chorus content management system , and the quality of their content and sponsorships , Grant changed his mind and returned to pitch Bankoff . Grant wanted the new site to compete with top gaming websites GameSpot and IGN , but still be able to run longform " magazine @-@ style journalism " that could be of historic interest . As part of the site 's attempt to " redefine games journalism " , Vox made a 13 @-@ part documentary series of the site 's creation ( " Press Reset " ) that tracked the site 's creation from start to launch .

Forbes described Polygon 's original 16 @-@ person staff as " star @-@ studded " for including the editors @-@ in @-@ chief from three competing video game blogs . Grant left Joystiq in January 2012 and brought the editors @-@ in @-@ chief of Kotaku and The Escapist , Brian Crecente and Russ Pits . Other staff included Joystiq managing editor Justin McElroy and staff from UGO , IGN , MTV , Videogamer.com , and 1UP.com. Ben Kuchera joined the site after The Penny Arcade Report closed in November 2013 . The team works remotely from places including Philadelphia , New York , West Virginia , San Francisco , Sydney , London , and Austin , though Vox Media is headquartered in Washington , D.C. The site was developed over the course of ten months , where the staff chose the site 's name and set standards for their reporting and review score scale . Polygon staff published on The Verge as " Vox Games " beginning in February 2012 and ending with their October launch . The site 's name was announced at a PAX East panel in April . It refers to a polygon — " the basic visual building block of video games " .

In March 2016 , editors from Polygon and SB Nation launched a new Vox Media venture , The Rift Herald , which covers League of Legends esports .

= = Content = =

Polygon publishes video game news , entertainment , reviews , and video . They sought to set their content apart from other games journalism outlets by focusing on the people making and playing the games rather than the games alone . At the site 's outset , Polygon planned to run multiple longform feature articles weekly , which they intended to be comparable in intent to the cover stories of magazines . They also decided to allow their game review scores to be updated as the games were updated , so as to more adequately reflect games that had changed with downloadable content and updates since their original release . The site received criticism for its comparatively low review score given to The Last of Us , which was later increased with the game 's remastered edition . In consideration of games that may differ in quality before and after release , Polygon later began to mark pre @-@ release reviews as " provisional " to defer final scoring until after their public release .

After raising money in a second round of funding in late 2013 , Vox announced that they would be investing further in the site 's video product , such that it " feels as much like TV programming as magazine publishing " . The site announced in June 2014 that features editor Russ Pitts would be leaving Polygon along with their video director and video designer as the site planned to run fewer feature articles in the future . Polygon 's Minimap podcast was named among iTunes 's best of 2015 .

= = Design = =

The site uses a pink color palette and emulates the magazine @-@ style layout of The Verge . The site was programmed to use HTML 5 standards with a responsive design that adapts to the screen dimensions of laptops , tablets , and cell phones . This is partially to remove need for a separate mobile version . Their longform journalism was optimized for reading on tablets .

= = Business = =

The site uses a " direct content sponsorship " model of online advertising used by SB Nation and The Verge . For example , a video series sponsorship pairs brands with specific editorial content . Forbes wrote that Vox 's avoidance of content farm and news aggregator tactics , and interest shown in building communities is desirable to " magazine @-@ quality advertisers " . The site pitched its longform journalism to advertisers as an indicator of high @-@ quality content . The site 's founding sponsors included Geico , Sony , and Unilever .

As of June 2014 , Polygon ranks fourth among games sites by Comscore web traffic data : behind IGN , GameSpot , and Kotaku . The same month , Grant reported that the previous month had been their most highly popular .

= Hogwarts Express ( Universal Orlando Resort ) =

The Hogwarts Express is an 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 5 ft 10 7 ⁄ 8 in ) broad gauge funicular railway , people mover , and attraction within the Universal Orlando Resort in Orlando , Florida , United States . The route runs 676 metres ( 2 @,@ 218 ft ) between Hogsmeade station in the Islands of Adventure theme park and King 's Cross station in the London area of the Universal Studios Florida theme park . It provides a connection between the Diagon Alley and Hogsmeade areas which together form The Wizarding World of Harry Potter themed area , based on the Harry Potter film series .

The attraction , which was manufactured by the Doppelmayr Garaventa Group , is operated with two replicas of the Hogwarts Express . The two directions of travel provide two different experiences . Because the trains transport guests between stations in two separate theme parks , riders must have an admission pass valid for both theme parks , with ticket inspectors checking prior to boarding .

The Hogwarts Express soft @-@ opened to the public on 1 July 2014 before officially opening seven days later along with the rest of the Diagon Alley expansion on 8 July 2014 . Within one month of its opening , one million riders had travelled on the trains .

= = History = =

The idea of creating a Hogwarts Express @-@ related attraction came from Mark Woodbury , the president of Universal Creative . After the opening of the Hogsmeade attraction at the Islands of Adventure theme park in 2010 , Universal began considering how to keep attendance balanced between the adjacent parks . At first , the creative team considered putting Diagon Alley within Islands of Adventure . Eventually they decided that the London and Hogsmeade environments should not be visible between one another . As a result , Woodbury proposed building Diagon Alley in Universal Studios Florida and then connecting the two Harry Potter @-@ themed lands with the Hogwarts Express train .

Rumours that Universal Orlando was planning to expand The Wizarding World of Harry Potter began in early 2011 after construction surveying was spotted in the Lost Continent section of Islands of Adventure and the resort began asking visitors about a possible expansion . On 2 December 2011 , the resort announced the Jaws attraction would close on 2 January 2012 to make way for a future attraction . In the same month , speculation arose that an expansion would include the Hogwarts Express to connect Hogsmeade in Islands of Adventure and Diagon Alley in Universal Studios Florida . In June 2012 , theme park enthusiasts discovered that applications for permits had been submitted to the South Florida Water Management District and the City of Orlando suggesting that the resort was planning to build a track connecting the two theme parks , as well as one station building in each park . Almost a year later , WESH , a local news channel , reported that an elevated track system had been installed at Universal Orlando and that the track ran between Hogsmeade in Islands of Adventure and a construction area in Universal Studios Florida ; suggesting the rumours were true .

On 8 May 2013 , Universal Orlando announced the expansion of Wizarding World of Harry Potter , Diagon Alley , along with the Hogwarts Express attraction , to be located on the former site of the Jaws attraction . By the end of August 2013 , all six passenger cars and both tenders had been spotted in the backstage area , waiting to be assembled on the track . The first of the two trains was installed on the track on 24 October 2013 . By the beginning of December 2013 , the second train had been placed on the track . In January , the resort previewed the interior of the Hogwarts Express through a live cast . On 2 December 2013 , Orlando Attractions Magazine , an amusement park website , spotted one of the trains being tested for the first time . In mid @-@ March 2014 , Universal Orlando Resort released further information about the ride , including concept animations . On 24 June 2014 , the resort announced that the Diagon Alley expansion , including the Hogwarts Express , would officially open to the public on 8 July 2014 . A week later , Universal Orlando soft @-@ opened the Hogwarts Express , without any announcement . Within a month of the Hogwarts Express ' opening , one million riders had ridden the attraction . It had taken approximately two and a half years to develop .

= = Ride experience = =

Theme park guests may use the Hogwarts Express to travel between Hogsmeade and King 's Cross in London , close to Diagon Alley . They can travel in either direction as long as the guest has purchased a Park @-@ to @-@ Park ticket , which gives guests access to both of Universal Orlando 's theme parks within the same day . Two different experiences are provided depending on the destination of the train , both of which are approximately four minutes long .

= = = Hogsmeade to King 's Cross = = =

At the entrance of the queue , ticket inspectors check passengers ' tickets for Universal Studios . The queue then leads into a forested area which later leads into the Hogsmeade station building . Upon climbing a flight of steps , travellers reach the Hogsmeade station platform . Once the arriving passengers on the Hogwarts Express have left the platform , passengers waiting may then board the train and enter one of the twenty @-@ one passenger compartments within the train .

As the train departs towards King 's Cross , Rubeus Hagrid waves riders goodbye outside of the window . Shadows of Harry Potter , Ron Weasley , and Hermione Granger can also been seen walking down the train corridor , looking for an empty compartment . Following this , Buckbeak flies outside the window , while Hogwarts can be seen in the background . Shortly after , the train enters a forest where centaurs are running . Upon exiting the forest , Hogwarts can be seen once again in the background . Fred and George Weasley appear , flying broomsticks and playing with fireworks . The Hogwarts Express then enters a tunnel , after which riders find themselves in the middle of a storm and pass Malfoy Manor . The journey then enters a second tunnel ; Harry , Ron , and Hermione appear again in the train corridor . As a spider crawls up the compartment door , Ron eats it and the trio continue to walk on down the corridor . After the tunnel the journey continues into London passing by an industrial factory and then a residential area . The Knight Bus then appears ; squeezing between buildings and shrinking to pass under a bridge . As the bus drives away , the train enters King 's Cross station , where Alastor Moody greets passengers .

Passengers then disembark onto Platform 9 ¾ of King 's Cross and proceed down some stairs into a 2010 @-@ era King 's Cross Station , before arriving at the London waterfront area , adjacent to Diagon Alley .

= = = King 's Cross to Hogsmeade = = =

The King 's Cross station part of the attraction is built on a site that previously held the Jaws attraction . The entrance to the station , which is a quarter @-@ scale replica of the real London King 's Cross railway station , is located in the London area , close to Diagon Alley . Passengers enter the station building and have their admission ticket checked . They then enter a queue which takes them farther into the station building , under a split @-@ flap department board , and past London @-@ related advertisements , several stacks of suitcases and a shop selling food . After ascending a flight of stairs , passengers find themselves between signs for King 's Cross Platform 9 and Platform 10 . They can see those ahead of them walking through the " wall " forming the entrance to Platform 9 ¾ . This effect uses the Pepper 's ghost illusion . After continuing around several corners , guests arrive on Platform 9 ¾ itself to wait for the next train to arrive . After the Hogwarts Express has reversed into Platform 9 ¾ and the arriving passengers have disembarked , the next passengers enter one of the twenty @-@ one compartments in the three passenger carriages .

As the train departs King 's Cross , Hedwig the owl flies alongside while passing through the outskirts of London . Hedwig flies away and Dementors arrive from over the nearby buildings . At the same time Harry , Ron , and Hermione pass along the corridor side of the carriage looking for food . The journey enters a tunnel ; upon its exit , it passes by Malfoy Manor during a stormy night . Next , the train passes through a second tunnel and the lights in the compartments go out as a Dementor enters the train and passes along the corridor ; Harry Potter uses his magic to defeat the Dementor . After exiting the tunnel , riders are greeted by Hagrid flying on a motorbike with Hogwarts in the background . As the train enters a forest , the flying Ford Anglia appears and starts driving through the terrain . The car crashes soon after and the train leaves the forest , passing by Hogwarts once again before arriving at Hogsmeade Station with Hagrid greeting passengers .

Passengers then disembark the train , walk down a ramp past the front of the Hogwarts Express and follow a path leading to Hogsmeade .

= = Characteristics = =

= = = Track = = =

The track of the Hogwarts Express is a single @-@ track funicular elevated railway running over the backlot between the two theme parks , with a two @-@ track passing loop at the midpoint . It is 676 metres ( 2 @,@ 218 ft ) long and has a track gauge of 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 5 ft 10 7 ⁄ 8 in ) . On the track , there is a haul rope and a counter rope , each with a diameter of 46 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) . The cable winding motor is located at King 's Cross station and has a rated load of 215 kilowatts ( 300 hp ) and a peak power rating of 636 kilowatts ( 900 hp ) .

= = = Trains = = =

The Hogwarts Express uses two trains that can transport 168 passengers each , giving a total of 336 passengers per cycle . Each train is an articulated cable car formed of five sections : a replica of steam @-@ locomotive and its tender plus a set of three passenger vehicles . Originally each train was planned to have only two passenger carriages — this was increased following a survey that suggested potential passengers saw the connecting Hogwarts Express as an attraction instead of only as a means of transportation between the parks . The locomotive on the 70 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 230 ft ) trains weigh 13 tonnes ( 29 @,@ 000 lb ) , the tenders weigh 15 tonnes ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) , and each passenger carriage weighs 27 tonnes ( 60 @,@ 000 lb ) . Since the attraction is set up with a funicular track system , both trains depart and arrive at the end stations at the same time and travel at the same speed of 3 @.@ 4 metres per second ( 12 km / h ; 7 @.@ 6 mph ) .

On both trains , the locomotive faces towards Hogsmeade station ; it is not possible for the trains to face Kings Cross . The Hogwarts Express enters King 's Cross in reverse but forwards at Hogsmeade ; the train departs Kings Cross forwards and in reverse at Hogsmeade . As a result , the trains are only designed to be seen from one side as the locomotives ' false driving wheels and specific detailing only exist on one side .

The trains were built in Goldau , Switzerland . CWA Constructions designed both the exterior and interior of the trains to make them look as faithful as possible to the Hogwarts Express seen in the Harry Potter film franchise . They are based on the steam locomotive GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall ( as 5972 Hogwarts Castle ) and were built from aluminum and glass @-@ reinforced plastics . Afterwards , an artificial weathering process was applied to give the appearance of a historic train .

Frey AG was responsible for wiring the trains ; specifically for the video and sounds components . The company also installed other technical equipment that allow the trains to be controlled by a computer system .

= = = = Media = = = =

Each compartment has a curved screen where the window would be . There are two different experiences , depending on the destination of the train . The special effects in both video components were designed by Double Negative .

The London Symphony Orchestra recorded the music played throughout the journey at Abbey Road Studios on 25 March 2014 . The music for the northbound journey is called " Connector Train – Hogsmeade to London " .

= = Reception = =

The ride received mostly positive reviews upon its July 2014 opening . Lance Hart from Screamscape was impressed with the fact that the King 's Cross entrance was hidden from the rest of the Diagon Alley area . He also credited Universal for making the train look as realistic as possible : " Clearly they went to great lengths to create these cars to be replicas of what you see in the films , both on the outside as well as on the inside as you move down the hallway towards your cabin to take your seat " . In terms of the overall experience Hart said , " Universal has managed to turn what would simply be a method of transporting guests between their two parks into yet another must @-@ see attraction ... tying together the overall story and theme of visiting Hogwarts at Islands of Adventure and Diagon Alley inside Universal Studios Florida " .

Robert Niles from Theme Park Insider mentioned how the attraction " broke walls " ; including the separation of the Wizarding and Muggle worlds , how Universal made the audience the performers ( in the part of the King 's Cross queue where guests walk through the wall leading to Platform 9 ¾ ) , and how , " It 's become convention for theme park attractions to drop you off at or very near the same point where you boarded the ride , so it 's a bit disorienting when you exit the Hogwarts Express and find that you 're not only in a different train station — you 're in a different theme park . "

Arthur Levine from About.com was disappointed that Universal had not tried to re @-@ create the magical aspect of guests entering Platform 9 ¾ , " When it 's time to make their own way to the platform , however , it appears to would @-@ be wizards that they are merely entering a darkened corridor . Aside from an audible " whoosh " sound , there is , regrettably , no attempt to reproduce the magical , molecule @-@ shifting phenomenon " . He also found it awkward that the Hogwarts Express reverses into Platform 9 ¾ at King 's Cross — although in Hogsmeade the train arrives facing forwards . Overall Levine said that the attraction does more than just making it a ride , " By making it an integral and compelling part of The Wizarding World , most guests would want to ride it to get the complete Potter experience . By making it an inter @-@ park ride and requiring a two @-@ park ticket to board it , Universal will surely help up @-@ sell a lot more more customers to higher @-@ priced passes , encourage multi @-@ day visits , increase demand for its on @-@ property hotels , and drive business at its CityWalk dining / shopping / entertainment district " .

In 2014 , attendance at Universal Studios Florida increased to 8 @.@ 3 million visitors , compared to 7 @.@ 1 million in the previous year . However , attendance at Islands of Adventure did not change . According to vice president of AECOM 's economics , Brian Sands , the attendance increase at the Studios was likely due to the Diagon Alley expansion . Sands also mentioned attendance at Islands of Adventure remained the same since " visitors go to the new thing " , though the Hogwarts Express likely prevented attendance from decreasing at the park .

= 509th Composite Group =

The 509th Composite Group ( 509 CG ) was a unit of the United States Army Air Forces created during World War II and tasked with the operational deployment of nuclear weapons . It conducted the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Japan , in August 1945 .

The group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets . Because it contained flying squadrons equipped with Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers and C @-@ 47 Skytrain and C @-@ 54 Skymaster transport aircraft , the group was designated as a " composite " rather than a " bombardment " formation . It operated Silverplate B @-@ 29s , which were specially configured to enable them to carry nuclear weapons .

The 509th Composite Group began deploying to North Field on Tinian , Northern Mariana Islands , in May 1945 . In addition to the two nuclear bombing raids , it carried out 15 practice missions against Japanese @-@ held islands , and 12 combat missions against targets in Japan dropping high @-@ explosive pumpkin bombs .

In the postwar era , the 509th Composite Group was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command on 21 March 1946 and the only one equipped with Silverplate B @-@ 29 Superfortress aircraft capable of delivering atomic bombs . It was standardized as a bombardment group and redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy , on 10 July 1946 .

= = History = =

See the 509th Operations Group for additional group history and lineage .

= = = Organization , training , and security = = =

The 509th Composite Group was constituted on 9 December 1944 , and activated on 17 December 1944 , at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . It was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets , who received promotion to full colonel in January 1945 . It was initially assumed that the group would divide in two , with half going to Europe and half to the Pacific . In the first week of September Tibbets was assigned to organize a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon by airplane against targets in Germany and Japan , then command it in combat . Because the organization developed by Tibbets was self @-@ sustained , with flying squadrons of both Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers and transport aircraft , the group was designated as a " composite " rather than a " bombardment " unit .

On 8 September , working with Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . ' s Manhattan Project , Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend Army Air Field , Kansas , and Mountain Home Army Airfield , Idaho , because of its remoteness . On 14 September 1944 , the 393d Bombardment Squadron arrived at Wendover from its former base at Fairmont Army Air Base , Nebraska , where it had been in operational training ( OTU ) with the 504th Bombardment Group since 12 March . When its parent group deployed to the Marianas in early November 1944 , the squadron was assigned directly to the Second Air Force until creation of the 509th Composite Group . Originally consisting of twenty @-@ one crews , fifteen were selected to continue training , and were organized into three flights of five crews , lettered A , B , and C. The 393d Bombardment Squadron was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas J. Classen , who like Tibbets had combat experience in heavy bombers , commanding a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress with the 11th Bombardment Group .

The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron , the other flying unit of the 509th , came into being because of the highly secret work of the group . The organization that was to become the 509th required its own transports for the movement of both personnel and materiel , resulting in creation of an ad hoc unit nicknamed " The Green Hornet Line " . Crews for this unit were acquired from the five 393d crews not selected to continue B @-@ 29 training . All those qualified for positions with the 320th chose to remain with the 509th rather than be assigned to a replacement pool of the Second Air Force . They began using C @-@ 46 Commando and C @-@ 47 Skytrains already at Wendover , and in November 1944 acquired three C @-@ 54 Skymasters . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron originally consisted of three C @-@ 54 and four C @-@ 47 aircraft . In April 1945 the C @-@ 47s were transferred to the 216th AAF Base Unit and two additional C @-@ 54s acquired . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was constituted and activated on the same dates as the group .

Other support units were activated at Wendover from personnel already present and working with Project Alberta or in the 216th AAF Base Unit , both affiliated with the Manhattan project . Project Alberta was the part of the Manhattan Project at Site Y in Los Alamos , New Mexico responsible for the preparation and delivery of the nuclear weapons . It was commanded by U.S. Navy Captain William S. Parsons , who would accompany the Hiroshima mission as weaponeer .

The 390th Air Service Group was created as the command echelon for the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron , the 1027th Air Material Squadron , and its own Headquarters and Base Services Squadron , but when these units became independent operationally , it acted as the basic support unit for the entire 509th Composite Group in providing quarters , rations , medical care , postal service and other functions . The 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was unique in that it provided depot @-@ level B @-@ 29 maintenance in the field , obviating the necessity of sending aircraft back to the United States for major repairs . On Tinian the 603rd Air Engineering Squadron was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing 's " C " and " D " Service Centers , where it performed provided depot @-@ level ( " third echelon " ) maintenance for the entire 313th Bombardment Wing when it was not engaged in 509th activities . The 393d Bombardment Squadron 's maintenance section was re @-@ organized as a " combat line maintenance " section ( also called PLM , or " production line maintenance , " a technique developed by the Air Transport Command in India for " Hump " aircraft ) to maximize use of personnel for first and second echelon maintenance .

The 393d Bombardment Squadron conducted ground school training only until delivery of three modified Silverplate airplanes in mid @-@ October 1944 allowed resumption of flight training . These aircraft had extensive bomb bay modifications and a " weaponeer " station installed . Initial training operations identified numerous other modifications necessary to the mission , particularly in reducing the overall weight of the airplane to offset the heavy loads it would be required to carry . Five more Silverplates were delivered in November and six in December , giving the group 14 for its training operations . In January and February 1945 , 10 of the 15 crews under the command of the Group S @-@ 3 ( operations officer ) were assigned temporary duty at Batista Field , San Antonio de los Baños , Cuba , where they trained in long @-@ range over @-@ water navigation .

On 6 March 1945 , concurrent with the activation of Project Alberta , the 1st Ordnance Squadron , Special ( Aviation ) was activated at Wendover , again using Army Air Forces personnel on hand or already at Los Alamos . Its purpose was to provide " skilled machinists , welders and munitions workers " and special equipment to the group to enable it to assemble atomic weapons at its operating base , thereby allowing the weapons to be transported more safely in their component parts . A rigorous candidate selection process was used to recruit personnel , reportedly with an 80 % " washout " rate . Not until May 1945 did the 509th Composite Group reach full strength .

= = = Overseas movement = = =

With the addition of the 1st Ordnance Squadron to its roster , the 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1 @,@ 542 enlisted men , almost all of whom deployed to Tinian . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron kept its base of operations at Wendover . In addition to its authorized strength , the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel of Project Alberta , and two representatives from Washington , D.C. , the deputy director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee .

Two anecdotes illustrate the level of security affecting the 509th 's personnel and equipment . En route to Tinian on 4 June 1945 , the B @-@ 29 that became The Great Artiste made an intermediate stop at Mather Field , near Sacramento , California . The commanding general of the base allegedly attempted to enter the aircraft to inspect it and was warned by a plane guard who aimed his carbine at the general 's chest that he could not do so . A similar incident occurred to a Project Alberta courier , 2nd Lieutenant William A. King . King was escorting the plutonium core of the Fat Man implosion bomb to Tinian , strapped to the floor of one of the 509th 's C @-@ 54s . On 26 July 1945 it made a refueling stop at Hickam Field , Hawaii . The commander of a combat unit returning to the United States learned that the Skymaster had only one passenger and attempted to enter the C @-@ 54 to requisition it as transport for his men . He was prevented from doing so by King , who aimed a .45 caliber automatic pistol at the colonel .

The 509th transferred four of its 14 training Silverplate B @-@ 29s to the 216th AAF Base Unit in February 1945 . In April the third modification increment of Silverplates , which would be their combat aircraft , began coming off the Martin @-@ Omaha assembly line . These " fly @-@ away " aircraft were equipped with fuel @-@ injected engines , Curtiss Electric reversible @-@ pitch propellers , pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements . The remaining 17 Silverplate B @-@ 29s were placed in storage . Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert pumpkin bombs before Tibbets declared his group combat @-@ ready .

The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group , consisting of 44 officers and 815 enlisted men commanded by Major George W. Westcott of the Headquarters Squadron , received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington . On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas , while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area . An advance party of the air echelon , consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men commanded by Group Intelligence Officer ( S @-@ 2 ) Lieutenant Colonel Hazen Payette , flew by C @-@ 54 to North Field , Tinian , between 15 and 22 May . It was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945 , marking the group 's official change of station . Project Alberta 's " Destination Team " also sent most of its members to Tinian to supervise the assembly , loading , and dropping of the bombs under the administrative title of 1st Technical Services Detachment , Miscellaneous War Department Group .

= = = Equipment and crews = = =

The air echelon consisted of the members of the 393d Bombardment Squadron . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron remained at Wendover . It began deploying from Wendover 4 June 1945 , with the first B @-@ 29 arriving at North Field on 11 June . The group was assigned to the 313th Bombardment Wing , whose four groups had been flying missions against Japan since mid @-@ February , but for security reasons their permanent base area was near the runways on the island 's north tip , several miles away from the main installations in the center of Tinian . The 509th , after spending most of June in an area previously occupied by the Seabees of the 18th Naval Construction Battalion , took over the 13th Naval Construction Battalion Area just west of North Field 's Runway D , a self @-@ contained base with 89 Quonset huts , a huge storage warehouse , a consolidated mess hall , chapel , administrative area , theater , and other amenities .

Each crew was required to attend the 313th Bombardment Wing 's week @-@ long " Lead Crew Ground School " on its arrival . The ground school indoctrinated combat crews in procedures regarding air @-@ sea rescue , ditching and bailouts , survival , radar bombing , weather , wing and air force regulations , emergency procedures , camera operation , dinghy drills , and other topics related to combat operations . Two of the group 's bombers were not delivered by Martin @-@ Omaha until early July . They remained at Wendover until 27 July to act as transports for two of the Fat Man assemblies .

Because of their geographical isolation from the combat crews of other groups , rigidly enforced security measures , and exclusion from participation in regular bombing missions , crews of the 393d Bombardment Squadron were resented and ridiculed as " lacking in discipline " and having a " soft life " . The official history of the Army Air Forces characterized the ridicule as " epitomized in a satirical verse entitled Nobody Knows , with a recurring refrain , ' For the 509th is winning the war . ' "

The group was assigned tail markings of a circle outline ( denoting the 313th Wing ) around an arrowhead pointing forward , but at the beginning of August its B @-@ 29s were repainted with the tail markings of other XXI Bomber Command groups as a security measure , because it was feared that Japanese survivors on Tinian were reporting the 509th 's activities to Tokyo by clandestine radio . The Victor ( identification assigned by the squadron ) numbers previously assigned the 393d aircraft were changed to avoid confusion with B @-@ 29s of the groups from whom the tail identifiers were borrowed . Victor numbers 82 , 89 , 90 , and 91 ( including the Enola Gay ) carried the markings of the 6th Bombardment Group ( Circle R ) ; Victors 71 , 72 , 73 , and 84 those of the 497th Bombardment Group ( large " A " ) ; Victors 77 , 85 , 86 , and 88 those of the 444th Bombardment Group ( triangle N ) ; and Victors 83 , 94 , and 95 those of the 39th Bombardment Group ( square P ) .

* These airplane commanders and crews exchanged aircraft assignments on 9 August 1945

Although all of the B @-@ 29s were named as shown , the only nose art applied to the aircraft before the atomic bomb missions was that of Enola Gay . With the exceptions of Victors 71 and 94 , the others were applied some time in August 1945 . Luke the Spook was not named until November 1945 , and it is not known if nose art was ever applied to Jabit III .

= = = Combat operations = = =

After ground training for the combat crews , the 509th began operations on 30 June 1945 , with a calibration flight involving nine of the B @-@ 29s on hand . During the month of July and the first eight days of August the thirteen bombers of the 393d Bombardment Squadron flew an intensive training and mission rehearsal program that consisted of :

17 individual training sorties without ordnance ,

15 practice bombing missions between 1 and 22 July against airfields on Japanese @-@ held Truk , Marcus , Rota , and Guguan in which 90 B @-@ 29 sorties dropped 500- and 1000 @-@ pound bombs to practice radar and visual bombing procedures ,

12 combat missions between 20 and 29 July against targets in Japan dropping high @-@ explosive pumpkin bombs , in which 37 B @-@ 29 sorties delivered conventional @-@ bomb replications of the Fat Man : four on 20 July , three on 24 July , two on 26 July , and three on 29 July . Some 27 sorties were made visually and 10 by radar , striking 17 primary targets , 15 secondary targets , and five targets of opportunity . Two other aircraft did not drop their bombs : one jettisoned its pumpkin bomb into the sea near Iwo Jima , and the Strange Cargo 's bomb came loose from the bomb rack and plunged through the closed bomb bay doors while the bomber was still on the ground . One B @-@ 29 incurred minor battle damage in the attacks . Flying at 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) put them above the effective range of flak . Each pumpkin bomb mission was conducted by a formation of three aircraft in the hope of convincing the Japanese military that small groups of B @-@ 29s did not justify a strong response . This strategy proved successful , and Japanese fighters only occasionally attempted to intercept the 509th Composite Group 's aircraft .

7 component @-@ tests between 23 July and 8 August involving rehearsal drops of four inert Little Boy gun @-@ type fission weapons and three Fat Man assemblies , and

a practice mission on 29 July to Iwo Jima in which an inert Little Boy was unloaded and then reloaded to rehearse the contingency plan for using a back @-@ up bomber in an emergency .

While this training was taking place , the components of the first two atomic bombs were shipped to Tinian by various means . For the uranium bomb code @-@ named " Little Boy " , fissile components consisted of a cylindrical target and nine washer @-@ like rings that made up the hollow cylinder projectile . When the bomb detonated , these would be brought together to create a cylindrical core . The uranium @-@ 235 projectile and bomb pre @-@ assemblies ( partly assembled bombs without the fissile components ) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , California , on 16 July aboard the cruiser USS Indianapolis , arriving 26 July . The Little Boy pre @-@ assemblies were designated L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 3 , L @-@ 4 , L @-@ 5 , L @-@ 6 , L @-@ 7 and L @-@ 11 . L @-@ 1 , L @-@ 2 , L @-@ 5 and L @-@ 6 were expended in test drops . L @-@ 6 was used in the Iwo Jima dress rehearsal on 29 July . This was repeated on 31 July , but this time L @-@ 6 was test dropped near Tinian by Enola Gay . L @-@ 11 was the assembly used for the Hiroshima bomb . On 26 July three C @-@ 54s of the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron left Kirtland Army Air Field , each with three of the uranium @-@ 235 target rings , and landed at North Field on 28 July .

The components for the bomb code @-@ named the Fat Man arrived by air the same day . The bomb 's plutonium core ( encased in its insertion capsule ) and the beryllium @-@ polonium initiator were transported from Kirtland to Tinian by C @-@ 54 in the custody of Project Alberta couriers . Three Fat Man high explosive pre @-@ assemblies designated F31 , F32 , and F33 were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B @-@ 29s , two from the 509th and one from the 216th AAF Base Unit , and transported to North Field , arriving 2 August . The B @-@ 29s were Luke the Spook and Laggin ' Dragon of the 509th , and 42 @-@ 65386 , a phase 3 Silverplate of the 216th AAF Base Unit . F33 was expended during the final rehearsal on 8 August , and F31 was the bomb dropped on Nagasaki . F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal .

The final item of preparation for the operation came on 29 July 1945 . Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy , the acting Chief of Staff of the United States Army , since General of the Army George C. Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with the President . The order designated four targets : Hiroshima , Kokura , Niigata , and Nagasaki , and ordered the attack to be made " as soon as weather will permit after about 3 August . "

= = = Atomic bomb missions = = =

The mission profile for both atomic missions called for weather scouts to precede the strike force by an hour , reporting weather conditions in code over each proposed target . The strike force consisted of a bombing aircraft , with the aircraft commander responsible for all decisions in reaching the target and the bomb commander ( weaponeer ) responsible for all decisions regarding dropping of the bomb ; a blast instrumentation aircraft which would fly the wing of the strike aircraft and drop instruments by parachute into the target area ; and a camera ship , which would also carry scientific observers . Each mission had an additional " spare " aircraft pre @-@ positioned on Iwo Jima to take over carrying the bomb if the strike aircraft encountered mechanical problems . The six combat crews of the Hiroshima mission were briefed on their targets , operational flight data , and the effects of the bomb on 4 August 1945 . Their pre @-@ mission briefing on 5 August , under the terms of Operations Order No. 35 , covered details on weather and air @-@ sea rescue . The Order described the bomb to be used as " special " .

Special Mission 13 , attacking Hiroshima , was flown as planned and executed without significant problems or diversion from plan . Enola Gay took off at 02 : 45 , 7 @.@ 5 long tons ( 7 @.@ 6 t ) overweight and near maximum gross weight . Arming of the bomb began eight minutes into the flight and took 25 minutes . The three target @-@ area aircraft arrived over Iwo Jima approximately three hours into the mission and departed together at 06 : 07 . The safeties on the bomb were removed at 07 : 30 , 90 minutes before time over target , and 15 minutes later the B @-@ 29s began a climb to the 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) bombing altitude . The bomb run began at 09 : 12 , with the drop three minutes later , after which the B @-@ 29s immediately performed steep diving turns . The detonation followed 45 @.@ 5 seconds after the drop . Primary and " echo " shock waves overtook the B @-@ 29s a minute following the blast , and the smoke cloud was visible to the crews for 90 minutes , by which time they were almost 400 miles ( 640 km ) miles away . Enola Gay returned to Tinian at 14 : 58 .

Special Mission 16 was moved up two days from 11 August because of adverse weather forecasts . Weather also dictated a change in rendezvous to Yakushima , much closer to the target , and an initial cruise altitude of 17 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m ) instead of 9 @,@ 300 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) , both of which considerably increased fuel consumption . Pre @-@ flight inspection discovered an inoperative fuel transfer pump in the 625 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 370 l ) aft bomb bay fuel tank , but a decision was made to continue anyway . The plutonium bomb did not require arming in flight , but did have its safeties removed 30 minutes after the 03 : 45 takeoff ( all times Tinian ; Nagasaki times were one hour earlier ) when Bockscar reached 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of altitude . When the daylight rendezvous point was reached at 09 : 10 , the photo plane failed to appear . The weather planes reported both targets within the required visual attack parameters while Bockscar circled Yakushima waiting for the photo plane . Finally the mission proceeded without the photo plane , thirty minutes behind schedule . When Bockscar arrived at Kokura 30 minutes later , cloud cover had increased to 70 % of the area , and three bomb runs over the next 50 minutes were fruitless in bombing visually . The commanders decided to reduce power to conserve fuel and divert to Nagasaki , bombing by radar if necessary . The bomb run began at 11 : 58 . ( two hours behind schedule ) using radar ; but the Fat Man was dropped visually when a hole opened in the clouds at 12 : 01 . The photo plane arrived at Nagasaki in time to complete its mission , and the three aircraft diverted to Okinawa , where they arrived at 13 : 00 . Trying in vain for 20 minutes to contact the control tower at Yontan Airfield to obtain landing clearance , Bockscar nearly ran out of fuel .

While the Nagasaki mission was in progress , two B @-@ 29s of the 509th took off from Tinian to return to Wendover . The crews of Classen in the unnamed Victor 94 , and Captain John A. Wilson in Jabit III , together with ground support crews , were sent back to the United States to stage for the possibility of transporting further bomb pre @-@ assemblies to Tinian . Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for shipment on 13 August and use on 19 August , with three more available in September and a further three in October . Groves ordered that all shipments of material be stopped on 13 August , when the third bomb was still at Site Y.

= = = Post atomic bomb operations = = =

After each atomic mission the group conducted other combat operations , making a series of pumpkin bomb attacks on 8 and 14 August . Six B @-@ 29s visually attacked targets at Yokkaichi , Uwajima , Tsuruga , and Tokushima on 8 August , bombing two primary and three secondary targets with five bombs . Seven aircraft visually attacked Koroma and Nagoya on 14 August . Some Punkins ( Crew B @-@ 7 , Price ) is believed to have dropped the last bombs by the Twentieth Air Force in World War II . After the announcement of the Japanese surrender , the 509th Composite Group flew three further training missions involving 31 sorties on 18 , 20 and 22 August , then stood down from operations . The group made a total of 210 operational sorties from 30 June to 22 August , aborted four additional flights , and had only a single aircraft fail to take off . Altogether , 140 sorties involved the dropping of live ordnance . Some 60 flights were credited as combat missions : 49 pumpkin bomb and 11 atomic bomb sorties .

Three B @-@ 29s ( Full House , Straight Flush , and Top Secret ) flew six combat missions each . Crews A @-@ 1 ( Taylor ) and C @-@ 11 ( Eatherly ) flew the most combat missions , six ( including one atomic mission ) each , while six other crews each flew five . Only the late arrivals ( A @-@ 2 [ Costello ] and C @-@ 12 [ Zahn ] ) did not participate in any combat missions , although Costello 's B @-@ 29 was used by another crew for weather reconnaissance of Nagasaki on the second mission . Including training and test flights , crews B @-@ 8 ( McKnight ) and C @-@ 13 ( Bock ) flew the most missions , with 20 total ( 5 combat ) . Crew B @-@ 7 ( Price ) is the only crew to fly all of its missions ( 18 total , 5 combat ) in its normally assigned aircraft , Some Punkins .

The 509th Composite Group returned to the United States on 6 November 1945 , and was stationed at Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico . Colonel William H. Blanchard replaced Tibbets as group commander on 22 January 1946 , and also became the first commander of the 509th Bombardment Wing . It was one of the original ten bombardment groups assigned to Strategic Air Command when it was formed on 21 March 1946 . The 715th and 830th Bombardment Squadrons were assigned to the 509th on 6 May 1946 , and the group was redesignated the 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy on 10 July . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was inactivated on 19 August . At Roswell , the 509th became the nuclear strike and deterrence core of the Strategic Air Command , and was the only unit capable of delivery of nuclear weapons until June 1948 , when B @-@ 50 Superfortresses were initially deployed . The 509th itself converted to the B @-@ 50 in 1950 , and transferred its Silverplate B @-@ 29s to the squadrons of the 97th Bombardment Wing at Biggs Air Force Base , Texas .

= = Organization = =

¹ The 393d Bombardment Squadron was part of the 504th Bombardment Group ( VH ) from 12 March to 14 September 1944 .

¹ The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron was activated on 17 December 1944 , and ² disbanded 19 August 1946 .

= = Depictions = =

The training and operations of the 509th Composite Group were dramatized in a Hollywood film , Above and Beyond ( 1952 ) , with Robert Taylor cast in the role of Tibbets . The story was retold in a partly fictionalized made @-@ for @-@ television film Enola Gay : The Men , the Mission , the Atomic Bomb ( 1980 ) , with Patrick Duffy portraying Tibbets . The operations of the 509th Composite Group were treated to a lesser extent in the docudrama The Beginning or the End ( 1947 ) , with Barry Nelson as Tibbets .

= = Lineage = =

Established as 509th Composite Group on 9 December 1944

Activated on 17 December 1944

Redesignated : 509th Bombardment Group , Very Heavy , on 10 July 1946

Redesignated : 509th Bombardment Group , Medium , on 2 July 1948

Inactivated on 16 June 1952

Redesignated 509th Operations Group on 12 March 1993

Activated on 15 July 1993

Source : Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group ( ACC )

= = Assignments = =

Second Air Force , 17 December 1944 ;

315th Bombardment Wing , 18 December 1944 ;

313th Bombardment Wing , c . June 1945 ;

Second Air Force , 10 October 1945 ;

58th Bombardment Wing , 17 January 1946 ;

Fifteenth Air Force , 31 March 1946

Source : Fact Sheet – 509 Operations Group ( ACC )

= = Stations = =

Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , 17 December 1944

North Field , Tinian , 29 May 1945

Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico , 6 November 1945

Source : Maurer 1983 , p . 372

= = Campaigns = =

Air Combat , Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign

Air Offensive , Japan

Eastern Mandates

Western Pacific

Source : Maurer 1983 , p . 372

= = Honors = =

Department of the Air Force Special Order GB @-@ 294 , dated 2 September 1999 , awarded the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award ( with Valor ) to the 509th Composite Group for outstanding achievement in combat for the period 1 July 1945 to 14 August 1945 .

= Italian cruiser Giovanni Bausan =

Giovanni Bausan was a protected cruiser of the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) that was designed and built by Sir W G Armstrong Mitchell & Co . ' s Elswick Works in England in the mid @-@ 1880s . The finished ship entered service in May 1885 . She was the first ship of this type to be built for the Italian fleet , and she provided the basis for subsequent designs built in Italy , including the Etna class . Giovanni Bausan was intended to serve as a " battleship destroyer " , and was armed with a main battery of two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns to give her the ability to defeat heavy armor , but design flaws rendered her unfit for this role .

Giovanni Bausan frequently served abroad . She participated in the conquest of Eritrea in 1887 – 88 as the flagship of the Italian squadron during the campaign . She took part in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 alongside British and German warships . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , she provided gunfire support to Italian troops ashore in North Africa . By the outbreak of the First World War , Giovanni Bausan had been relegated to secondary duties , first as a distilling ship , and later as a depot ship for seaplanes . The ship was disarmed during the conflict and ultimately was sold to ship @-@ breakers in March 1920 .

= = Design = =

The design of Giovanni Bausan was based on that of Elswick 's earlier Esmeralda , built for Chile and designed by George Rendel , and was the first modern protected cruiser constructed for the Italian Navy . The new ship was ordered in 1882 by Guglielmo Acton , then the Minister for the Navy , and was named for Giovanni Bausan , a Neapolitan naval commander who fought in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . Referred to by some as a torpedo ram , she was one of the first ships of her type . Giovanni Bausan was intended for use as a " battleship destroyer " , but the low rate of fire of her guns and her lack of steadiness as a gun platform made her ineffective in this role . She nevertheless represented a temporary embrace of the theories of the Jeune École doctrine espoused by French naval architects and strategists .

= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =

Giovanni Bausan was 84 @.@ 12 meters ( 276 @.@ 0 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 89 @.@ 32 m ( 293 @.@ 0 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 12 @.@ 85 m ( 42 @.@ 2 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 98 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) . Giovanni Bausan was steel @-@ hulled , and had a crew of 295 officers and enlisted men , though later in her career this was reduced to 256 . The four Etna @-@ class cruisers were half @-@ sisters of Giovanni Bausan , built to a modified , slightly enlarged design . She was equipped with a ram bow and initially fitted with rigging as a schooner .

Giovanni Bausan was powered by two compound @-@ expansion steam engines that each drove a screw propeller . Steam was provided by four cylindrical Scotch boilers , which were trunked into two funnels on the centerline . On trials , the engines produced 6 @,@ 470 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 820 kW ) for a top speed of 17 @.@ 4 knots ( 32 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 0 mph ) . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , the ship could steam for 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) . The schooner rig was intended to provid an auxiliary method of propulsion if the ship 's engines broke down ; by the time Giovanni Bausan entered service in the mid @-@ 1880s , marine steam engines had become reliable enough that auxiliary sails were no longer necessary , and hers were later removed .

= = = Armament and armor = = =

Armament was heavy for her size , with the main battery consisting of a pair of 10 @-@ inch 30 @-@ caliber breech @-@ loading ( BL ) guns mounted in individual barbettes fore and aft , capable of training up to 30 degrees abaft of the beam . These were Pattern G models manufactured by Elswick Ordnance Company . Six BL 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) , 26 @-@ caliber secondary guns were mounted in sponsons , three on a side , comprised the secondary battery . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a tertiary battery of four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) ) 40 @-@ caliber guns and two QF 1 @-@ pounder ( 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) ) guns . She was also equipped with three 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside above water and one submerged tube in the bow .

She was fitted with an armored deck that ran from stem to stern . It was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) in thickness over the boilers and engines and reduced in thickness to .75 inches ( 19 mm ) fore and aft . The ship also had an " armor " belt of cork at her waterline , which was intended to swell through water absorption after being hit . This proved to be unsuccessful as hits would result in the destruction of the cork . Giovanni Bausan 's conning tower was protected with armor plating 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and the breeches of her main guns were also protected by 2 inches of armor .

= = Service history = =

Giovanni Bausan was laid down at the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard in Elswick in England on 21 August 1882 . Her completed hull was launched on 15 December 1883 . After her commissioning on 9 May 1885 , she departed from England on 21 May to join the Squada Permamente ( Permanent Squadron ) , and in 1887 – 1888 she participated in the conquest of Eritrea , where she acted as the flagship of the Italian Red Sea Squadron . Following the conclusion of the Eritrean campaign , Giovanni Bausan returned to Italy . In 1888 , she took part in the annual fleet maneuvers , along with four ironclads , three other protected cruisers , four torpedo cruisers , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Later that year , the ship was present during a naval review held for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II during a visit to Italy . On 5 July 1889 , she collided with the torpedo cruiser Folgore , badly damaging her . Giovanni Bausan thereafter spent much of her time in service overseas , particularly in the Americas . During this service , she made a port visit to New York City in 1892 , during which she was the first foreign warship to be repaired at the Brooklyn Navy Yard in 15 years . 1896 , she took part in the annual summer maneuvers in July as part of the Second Division of the Active Squadron , which also included the ironclads Francesco Morosini and Andrea Doria and the torpedo cruiser Tripoli . In 1899 , Giovanni Bausan had her 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch guns replaced by modern QF 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns .

In late 1902 , Giovanni Bausan was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . The Italian contingent also included the protected cruiser Elba and the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto . The following year , she and the protected cruisers Etna and Dogali represented Italy at the international naval review in New York , held at the start of the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . The Exposition marked the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in North America . Contingents from France , Germany , Britain , Spain , and several other nations also participated in the celebration . In 1904 , Giovanni Bausan returned to Italy , where she was assigned to the Reserve Division , and two of her 6 @-@ inch guns were removed , though she was slated to be replaced by the new armored cruiser Francesco Ferruccio , when she entered service in September 1905 .

From 1905 , Giovanni Bausan served as a training ship for stokers and mechanics until the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1912 . Returning to active duty as Flagship Cyrenaica , she served in the shore bombardment role until the end of the war , when she was again returned to second @-@ line service as a distilling ship . Fitted with four distillers and capable of producing 200 tons of fresh water every 24 hours , she was operating in this role at the start of the First World War . Because of the pressing need for artillery for service with the army , Giovanni Bausan was partially disarmed in 1915 , losing her 10 @-@ inch guns and two of the 6 @-@ inch pieces . Later in the war , the rest of her armament was removed . She was reassigned for service as a seaplane depot ship at Brindisi . Decommissioned in 1919 , she was sold for scrap in March 1920 and broken up soon after .

= Typhoon Karen =

Typhoon Karen was the most powerful tropical cyclone to strike the island of Guam , and has been regarded as one of the most destructive events in the island 's history . It was first identified as a tropical disturbance on November 6 , 1962 , well to the southeast of Truk . Over the following two days , the system tracked generally northward and quickly intensified . Karen became a tropical storm late on November 7 , and within two days it explosively intensified into a Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . Turning westward , the typhoon maintained its intensity and struck Guam with winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) on November 11 . Once clear of the island , it strengthened slightly and reached its peak intensity on November 13 with winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) . The storm then gradually turned northward as it weakened , brushing the Ryukyu Islands on November 15 , before moving east @-@ northeastward over the open waters of the Pacific . Karen continued to weaken and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on November 17 before losing its identity the following day between Alaska and Hawaii .

Karen devastated Guam with wind gusts estimated up to 280 km / h ( 185 mph ) . Ninety @-@ five percent of homes were damaged or destroyed , leaving at least 45 @,@ 000 people homeless . Communication and utilities were crippled , forcing officials to set up water distribution centers to prevent disease . Total losses on the island amounted to $ 250 million . Despite the severity of the damage , only 11 people were killed . In the wake of the storm , a massive relief operation evacuated thousands to California , Hawaii , and Wake Island . Thousands more were sheltered in public buildings , and later tent villages , for many months . More than $ 60 million in relief funds were sent to Guam over the following years to aid in rehabilitation . Though the storm was devastating , it spurred new building codes and a revitalized economy .

= = Meteorological history = =

On November 6 , 1962 , a tropical disturbance was identified over the Pacific Ocean several hundred miles south @-@ southeast of Truk , in the Federated States of Micronesia , by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . Tracking northwestward , the disturbance intensified and was classified as a tropical depression early on November 7 . Later that day , the system passed to the east of Truk and turned due north before attaining gale @-@ force winds . Around 18 : 00 UTC , the JTWC issued their first advisory on Tropical Storm Karen , the 27th named storm of the 1962 season . Several hours later , a reconnaissance mission into the storm revealed a partially closed 35 km ( 22 mi ) wide eye . Over the following 30 hours , Karen underwent a period of explosive intensification as its eye became small and increasingly defined . Between 00 : 00 UTC on November 8 and 03 : 40 UTC on November 9 , Karen 's barometric pressure plummeted from 990 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 24 inHg ) to 899 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 55 inHg ) , a drop of 91 mb ( hPa ; 2 @.@ 69 inHg ) . At the end of this phase , Karen featured an 8 to 10 km ( 5 to 6 mi ) wide eye and had estimated surface winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) , ranking it as a modern @-@ day Category 5 @-@ equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale .

After attaining this initial peak intensity on November 9 , Karen weakened somewhat as it gradually curved west @-@ northwestward . By 15 : 14 UTC , the storm began to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle as a larger secondary eyewall , approximately 64 km ( 40 mi ) in diameter , started developing . Although the storm 's winds failed to drop significantly , Karen 's central pressure rose to 919 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 14 inHg ) during this phase . Accelerating slightly , Karen tracked steadily west @-@ northwestward towards Guam . By November 11 , the system had regained a well @-@ defined eye and deepened once more . Between 12 : 10 and 12 : 35 UTC on November 11 , the 14 km ( 9 mi ) wide eye of Karen passed directly over southern Guam . At this time , the storm was estimated to have had winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , which would have made it the most intense typhoon to strike the island since 1900 . However , years of post @-@ storm analyses have indicated that it may have been somewhat weaker when it passed over Guam . At the Weather Bureau station at the north end of Guam , a pressure of 942 @.@ 4 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 83 inHg ) was measured . Farther south at Anderson Air Force Base , 939 @.@ 7 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 75 inHg ) was recorded . The lowest verified pressure was 931 @.@ 9 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 52 inHg ) at the Agana Naval Air Station . Closest to the eye was Naval Magazine where a pressure of 907 @.@ 6 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 80 inHg ) was estimated but never verified .

Continuing west @-@ northwestward , Karen attained its peak intensity on November 13 with a central pressure of 894 mb ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 40 inHg ) . Between November 13 and 14 , Karen gradually turned towards the north as it underwent another eyewall replacement cycle . During this time , Karen finally weakened below Category 5 status as its winds dropped below 251 km / h ( 156 mph ) . This marked the end of its near @-@ record 4 @.@ 25 @-@ day span as a storm of such intensity , second only to Typhoon Nancy of 1961 which maintained Category 5 status for 5 @.@ 5 days . Over the following days , the typhoon 's structure gradually became disorganized , with its eye no longer well @-@ defined by November 15 . By this time , Karen began accelerating northeastward and later east @-@ northeastward over the open ocean . The combination of its rapid movement and entrainment of cold air into the circulation ultimately caused the system to transition into an extratropical cyclone on November 17 . The remnants of Karen continued tracking east @-@ northeast and were last noted by the JTWC on November 18 roughly halfway between the southern Aleutian Islands and northern Hawaiian Islands .

= = Impact = =

= = = Guam = = =

Following the identification of a tropical disturbance on November 6 , a level four Typhoon Condition of Readiness ( TCOR ) , the lowest level of alert , was raised for Guam . By November 8 , three days prior to Karen 's arrival , this was raised to level three , prompting residents and military personnel to stock up on supplies . A public announcement was made that day as well , warning residents that the typhoon would likely strike the island . At 9 : 00 p.m. on November 10 ( 11 : 00 UTC ) , a level two TCOR was put in place for Guam and a typhoon emergency was declared . Buildings were boarded up and emergency supplies were distributed . By 8 : 00 a.m. ( 22 : 00 UTC on November 10 ) , this was raised to level one , the highest level of warning . At this time , the USS Haverfield , USS Brister , USS Wandank , and USS Banner sought refuge from the storm over open waters . All personnel on the island were ordered to evacuate to typhoon @-@ proof shelters and emergency rations were prepared . Strategic air command planes stationed on the island were relocated to avoid damage . Many residents on the island sought refuge in government buildings designed to withstand powerful storms while others evacuated to Wake Island . Roughly 24 hours after the typhoon 's passage , all warnings were discontinued .

Striking Guam as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Karen produced destructive winds across much of the island . With the eye passing over the southern tip of the territory , the most intense winds were felt over central areas . Wind gusts over the southern tip of Guam were estimated to have peaked around 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Due to the extreme nature of these winds , all anemometers on the island failed before the most intense portion of the storm arrived , and there were no measurements of the strongest winds ; however , post @-@ storm reports estimated that sustained winds reached 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) in some areas . The highest measured gust was 240 km / h ( 145 mph ) at a United States Navy anemometer on Nimitz Hill just before 11 : 00 UTC on November 11 , roughly two hours before the typhoon 's eye passed the station . Based on this measurement , a study in 1996 estimated that gusts peaked between 280 and 295 km / h ( 175 and 185 mph ) over southern areas of the island . Newspaper reports indicated that a gust of 272 km / h ( 169 mph ) was measured on the island before the anemometer was destroyed . There was also an unverified report of a 333 km / h ( 207 mph ) wind gust . Nearly all measurements of rainfall during the typhoon were lost ; the only known total is 197 mm ( 7 @.@ 76 in ) at the Weather Bureau station for the period of November 10 – 12 .

Surveys of damage revealed belt @-@ like damage patterns from the winds , with some homes being leveled and others nearby having only minor damage , akin to the impacts of tornadoes . The winds uprooted and snapped palm trees across the island and , in some instances , stripped the bark of tree trunks and branches as if they had been sandblasted . Vegetation was completely defoliated across central areas of the island . In some places , it was described as the aftermath of a forest fire . The winds also blew debris across the island . Metal roofing was found wrapped around trees . In one instance , a twin @-@ engine aircraft was carried 2 @.@ 4 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) from the hangar it was tied down in . A metal sign bolted into a warehouse was tossed 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) and found half @-@ buried in the ground . Elsewhere , a quonset hut was lofted and carried for 125 m ( 411 ft ) , intact , before being crushed on impact . Along the coast , the USS Arco was torn from her moorings , severing two anchors and shearing a cleat – tested for over 23 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 kg ( 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 lb ) , respectively – in the process . The ROK Han Ra San and RPS Negros Oriental sank in the inner harbor of Guam .

Karen is regarded as the worst typhoon to ever impact Guam . Acting governor Manuel Guerrero stated that " the entire territory was devastated . " Almost all structures , both civilian and military , were severely damaged or destroyed . Even reinforced concrete structures at Anderson Air Force Base sustained severe damage . Though these structures withstood the direct impact of winds , sudden drops in pressure caused windows to shatter in most structures , ultimately exposing the interior to water damage . Military structures suffered the most from this phenomenon as the buildings were designed in a way that pressure differences between the interior and exterior would not equal out . Debris from damaged or destroyed homes became projectiles during the storm that created further damage , like " shrapnel or artillery missiles . "

George Washington High and Tumon Junior High were both destroyed . Guam Memorial Hospital and the island 's public works department were extensively damaged . Downtown Hagåtña , Guam 's largest city , was flattened . Along the city 's main road , Marine Drive , 20 cm ( 8 in ) of sand accumulated from Karen 's storm surge . Overall , the city was 85 percent destroyed , while the villages of Yona and Inarajan were 97 and 90 percent destroyed , respectively . Additionally , Agana Heights and Sinajana were reportedly leveled . The communication network on the island was completely destroyed as antennas and transmission equipment were blown away . Approximately 30 percent of telephone poles between the island 's naval station and Nimitz Hill and 95 percent of civilian telephone poles were downed . The power grid was also destroyed . The Guam portion of the Pacific Scatter Communications System suffered extensive damage , with all four 61 m ( 200 ft ) antennas at Ritidian Point being reduced to a " mess of tangled , twisted steel and cable . " Losses from the antennas alone reached $ 1 million . All airstrips on the island were rendered inoperable , hampering initial relief efforts . Numerous roads across the island were also impassable , covered by downed trees and smashed vehicles . The wreckage left in the wake of the storm was described as a " massive junkyard " .

Throughout Guam , 95 percent of homes were destroyed , and those left standing were damaged . Nearly every non @-@ typhoon @-@ proof home was severely damaged or destroyed and a majority of typhoon @-@ proof buildings sustained extensive damage . Preliminary surveys by the Red Cross on November 15 indicated that at least 5 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and another 3 @,@ 000 were severely damaged . Approximately 45 @,@ 000 people , mostly Guamanians , were left homeless . A total of 11 people lost their lives and about 100 others were injured . At least four of the deaths were due to collapsed buildings , including three in one home that buckled due to pounding surf . Another death resulted from decapitation by airborne debris . Losses across the island amounted to $ 250 million ( 1962 USD ) . The damage across Guam was described as " ' much more serious " than it had been during the second Battle of Guam , when American troops retook the island from the Japanese . The U.S. Navy described the damage as equal to that of an indirect hit from a nuclear bomb . Guerrero said that the recovery effort of the previous 17 years had been " completely wiped out " .

= = = Elsewhere = = =

In the Mariana Islands , three ships under the command of Rear Admiral J. S. Coye Jr. sank ; however , the crew had been evacuated prior to the storm 's arrival .

On November 13 , a level three TCOR was issued for Okinawa . This prompted military personnel to begin securing the island and preparing planes without hangars for evacuation . Brushing the region as a Category 3 @-@ equivalent typhoon , Karen caused considerable disruptions to airlines , trains , shipping , and communications . No serious damage was reported in Okinawa , but the nearby Daiyumaru and another Japanese fishing vessel with a total of 26 crew went missing .

On November 15 , residents in Taiwan were urged to take precautions to minimize casualties . Prior to the storm 's arrival , the USS Duncan , the USS Kitty Hawk , and two other aircraft carriers sought refuge in the Taiwan Strait . Despite attempts to escape the storm , large swells exceeding 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) battered the vessels , causing them to pitch up to 59 degrees . At times , the waves crashed onto the deck of the USS Kitty Hawk . According to crewmen , waves up to 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) struck Taipei , leaving water marks on many buildings .

= = Aftermath = =

In the immediate aftermath of the typhoon , the Pacific Air Forces were on standby to deliver supplies to Guam , but were delayed by inoperable airstrips . Guam Memorial Hospital was damaged , but other civilian and military installations , including the Navy 's hospital , were able to handle injured persons . On November 12 , Manuel Guerrero made an urgent appeal to the Government of the United States requesting that aid be rushed to the territory . Additionally , he instituted an island @-@ wide curfew between 8 : 00 p.m. and 6 : 00 a.m. local time to limit looting . At schools , teachers were called in to guard supplies and equipment . The Federal Emergency Management Agency , under orders from United States President John F. Kennedy , declared Guam a major disaster area later that day , allowing residents to receive federal aid . Additionally , 15 United States Air Force communications technicians were deployed from Manila , Philippines carrying three plane @-@ loads of communication supplies . Guerrero estimated that it would take four months to complete repairs to utilities . It was also estimated that schools on the island would be closed for six months .

Initially , residents across Guam were critical of the delayed response by the U.S. government ; no aid had arrived within two days of the storm , but unsafe conditions at airports had prevented aircraft from landing . With the majority of homes destroyed across Guam , structures that remained standing were used as temporary shelter for those left homeless . Similarly , damaged military installations at Anderson Air Force Base were made available to all civilians . By November 14 , the USS Daniel I. Sultan arrived in Guam with 1 @,@ 100 troops to provide emergency power . A U.S. Air Force AC @-@ 130 landed on the island that day carrying the first package of relief supplies . About 400 troops and 80 public works employees were sent from Hawaii on November 14 . The Red Cross and civil defense offices were placed in charge of coordinating recovery efforts . Water distribution centers were set up across the island to provide residents with clean drinking water .

On November 15 , a massive evacuation of residents began to remove survivors from unsafe conditions . Two flights to California took place on the first day of evacuation , carrying a total of 154 people . Thousands of residents were also brought to Wake Island for shelter . Military Air Transport Service planes from the United States mainland , Japan , the Philippines , and Hawaii were called in for the operation . On November 16 , residents were warned of a possible typhoid epidemic and urged to get inoculations for the disease . Over a three @-@ day span , roughly 30 @,@ 000 people were given preventative shots for the disease . In contrast to their previous ban on alien workers , the Government of Guam requested 1 @,@ 500 carpenters , masons , and other building workers from the Philippines . By November 21 , the Navy Supply Depot planned to have enough supplies for the entire populous shipped until replenishment arrived . In order to shelter homeless , the United States Navy set up tent villages across the island . Military kitchens were also established to provide food . Due to continued rains in the wake of the typhoon , many were unable to get a full meal for Thanksgiving .

On November 21 , insurance payments for losses were expected to exceed $ 12 million . On January 1 , 1963 , a $ 2 million relief fund was authorized by President Kennedy . Another $ 5 @.@ 4 million in relief funds were provided by President Lyndon B. Johnson on February 15 , 1964 . The United States Congress provided Guam with $ 60 million , including $ 45 million through federal loans , mainly to help rebuild the territory and promote expansion of the economy . Additionally , the storm brought about the end of military security on the island , which in turn aided economic growth . Within five years of this decision , Japanese tourism to the island dramatically increased , prompting a major increase in the number of hotels . In the long term , Typhoon Karen , along with other destructive storms , shaped the development of the island 's infrastructure . It led to higher quality buildings and more efficient utilities that could withstand powerful typhoons . Since Karen , most buildings on the island have been constructed with concrete and steel .

On April 29 , 1963 , less than half a year after Karen , Typhoon Olive caused extensive damage in Guam and the Mariana Islands . With many residents living in tents , and debris from the storm still scattered about , severe damage was anticipated . Schools , churches , and other structures were opened as shelters in order to protect those without homes . Ultimately , Guam was spared the worst of the storm though much of Saipan was devastated . The island was again devastated in 1976 by Typhoon Pamela which buffeted the island with destructive winds for 36 hours . Though weaker than Karen , the longer lasting impact of Pamela was regarded as more destructive .

Due to the severity of damage caused by the typhoon in Guam , the name Karen was retired and replaced with Kim .

= Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy =

Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy ( Norwegian : Brønnøysund lufthavn , Brønnøy ; IATA : BNN , ICAO : ENBN ) is a regional airport located at the town of Brønnøysund , in the municipality of Brønnøy , Nordland county , Norway . The airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor and serves the southern part of Helgeland . It has a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 937 ft × 98 ft ) runway numbered 04 – 22 and is served by Widerøe , which operates their Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft to Oslo , Trondheim , Bodø , Bergen and other airports in Helgeland . The airport also serves offshore helicopter flights by CHC Helikopter Service to Norne and temporary oil rigs in the Norwegian Sea . In 2014 , the airport served 117 @,@ 471 passengers , making it the second @-@ busiest regional airport in Norway , after Florø Airport .

Brønnøysund received seaplane services in 1935 , at first operated by Norwegian Air Lines and later by Widerøe . Plans for short take @-@ off and landing airports in Northern Norway were launched in 1965 ; construction started in 1967 and Brønnøysund Airport opened along with three nearby airports on 1 June 1968 . Originally served using Twin Otter aircraft , Widerøe replaced them with Dash 7 aircraft in 1982 and Dash 8 aircraft in 1992 . Offshore helicopter traffic started in 1983 . The runway was originally 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) ; it was extended to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) in 1987 and to the current length in 1999 . A new control tower opened in 2000 and a new terminal in 2008 . There have been two major accidents connected with the airport : Widerøe Flight 710 in 1988 and Helikopter Service Flight 451 in 1997 .

= = History = =

The first aircraft to land in Brønnøysund was a Hansa @-@ Brandenburg seaplane of the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service on 23 July 1922 . It was piloted by Hjalmar Riiser @-@ Larsen and Finn Lützow @-@ Holm , en route from Horten to Kirkenes . The following thirteen years Brønnøysund only saw occasional landings , when Norwegian Air Lines started a service from Bergen to Tromsø on 7 June 1935 , which included a stop at the harbor in Brønnøysund . Passengers and mail would be rowed out to the waiting aircraft . The first season the route was flown using a single @-@ engine Junkers W 34 . The aircraft turned out to be too small and a larger Junkers Ju 52 was introduced the following season . Flights were dependent on good weather and were only operated during the summer . The route was taken over by Widerøe in 1938 . All civilian flights were terminated during World War II , although the town would see occasional military landings .

Seaplane routes resumed in 1947 using the Junkers Ju 52 . Construction of primary airports in Norway started in the 1950s based on building joint military and civilian airport with funding from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) . The alliance considered constructing an airport at Søndre Herøy in Herøy , an archipelago near Sandnesssjøen , but funding was never allocated to the project .

No primary airports had been built in Helgeland by the mid @-@ 1960s . The coastal parts of the region , such as at Brønnøysund , were without highways and railways . Although Widerøe operated a seaplane route , it remained a summer @-@ only service . Travel time to Sandnessjøen , where the closest hospital was located , took five hours . A committee , led by Erik Himle and later Preben Munthe , was appointed in 1962 to consider additional airports in Norway . The Sud Aviation Caravelle jet aircraft was about to be phased into use on the main domestic routes by Scandinavian Airlines System and the committee recommended in 1964 that nine new airports be built which could serve jetliners , including an airport in Sandnesssjøen .

Widerøe came with an alternative proposal and suggested that a network of smaller airports be built instead , which could be served using short take @-@ off and landing ( STOL ) aircraft . Smaller airports could be built and operated at lower costs than larger airports , but both airports and airlines would need subsidies to operate . Håkon Kyllingmark was appointed Minister of Transport and Communications in 1965 and was a proponent of the STOLport proposal . The political rationale was that , despite that the total operating costs would rise , that it would provide better services to rural areas and thus keep up their population . The regional airports were built in groups , and the first four were built in Namsos and Helgeland .

Planning started in 1966 and construction commenced the following year . Brønnøysund Airport cost NOK 2 @.@ 7 million plus costs for expropriation and navigational aids . NOK 1 @.@ 9 million was covered by the state , while the rest was covered by Brønnøy Municipality . The runway was originally 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) and was the only asphalted area in Brønnøysund . The airport was originally operated by the municipality , except the tower , which was operated by the Norwegian Telecommunications Administration . Brønnøysund was one of very few regional airport to receive a restaurant . The airport opened on 30 May 1968 , along with Mo i Rana Airport , Røssvoll , Namsos Airport , Høknesøra and Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka . Widerøe commenced flights to Bodø and Trondheim with their de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otters the following day .

The first year of operation saw 6 @,@ 157 passengers , dropping to 5 @,@ 543 in 1969 . Originally there were two southbound and two northbound flights per day in the summer and one per direction during winter . In 1969 this increased to two flights per direction all year . Trønderfly started an air ambulance service in the early 1970s . Widerøe introduced the de Havilland Canada Dash 7 in 1982 , resulting in the terminal being expanded . Offshore helicopter services began the following year . The runway was expanded to 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) in 1987 .

NATO showed interest in upgrading Brønnøysund Airport in 1991 . Specifically they intended to spend NOK 125 million in expanding the runway to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) and building a fuel depot . The airport was planned used as a relief military airbase without any permanently stationed aircraft . The plans were canceled in 1993 following cut @-@ backs in NATO . Widerøe introduced Dash 8 aircraft in 1992 , gradually replacing the Dash 7 . In 1996 , Brønnøysund and 25 other regional airports were taken over by the state and the Civil Aviation Administration ( later renamed Avinor ) . The runway was extended to 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 937 ft ) in 1999 ; 1 @,@ 440 meters ( 4 @,@ 724 ft ) including the safety zone at each end . While allowing for a direct service to Oslo , the service was terminated the following year . The same year a new control tower was opened and the old tower taken over by a motorcycle club .

Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 . This put a large strain on the terminal capacity and the terminal had to be expanded . Makeshift solutions were used , such as plywood boards to allocate people through the security check . In late 2004 , the airport started planning an all @-@ new terminal building , as the old terminal was deemed both too small and out of date . Construction of the NOK @-@ 115 @-@ million terminal started on 24 October 2006 . As the first airport in the world , Brønnøysund received SCAT @-@ I , a satellite @-@ based landing system , on 29 October 2007 . The new terminal opened on 26 May 2008 , which allowed the a restaurant to open at the airport , all vehicles to be stored indoors and included a new helicopter terminal . Thon Hotel Torghatten opened in October 2009 and an airport surveillance radar was installed in 2010 , making Brønnøysund the first regional airport in Norway to have one .

Widerøe reintroduced direct flights to Oslo on 10 May 2010 . Statoil started using scheduled services instead of their previous charter flights on 2 January 2011 . This caused Widerøe to increase the number of direct flights to Oslo to three per day on 1 April 2011 . Widerøe introduced irregular charter flights to Manchester in April 2012 , largely targeting English tourists traveling on holidays and Norwegian football patriots .

Avinor is working on plans to close the airports in Sandnessjøen , Mo i Rana and Mosjøen and replace them with a primary airport . Brønnøysund has stated that they wish to keep their airport and not be part of a central airport for the region . There have also been launched proposals by local politicians to extend the runway at Brønnøysund to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) . This proposal was later dismissed by the municipal council , who instead wanted a shorter extension to allow landing of Dash 8 Q400 aircraft .

= = Facilities = =

The airport is located 2 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) southeast of the town center of Brønnøysund . It consists of a combined passenger terminal and works building and includes a café . There is a separate helicopter terminal . The runway , numbered 04 – 22 , is 1 @,@ 200 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 937 ft × 98 ft ) ; when including the safety zones at each end the total length is 1 @,@ 440 meters ( 4 @,@ 724 ft ) . Brønnøysund Airport lacks an instrument landing system and instead uses the satellite @-@ based SCAT @-@ I. It is the only regional airport in Norway which has an airport surveillance radar installed . The airport had 117 @,@ 471 passengers , 10 @,@ 494 aircraft movements and 39 tonnes of cargo in 2014 .

Taxis , paid parking and car rental is available at the airport . Driving time to the town center is about five to seven minutes . There is a bus service operated by Torghatten Trafikkselskap form the airport to the town center ; onwards connection is available to several areas in Helgeland and Namdalen . Ferry and fast ferry services are also operated from the town center to nearby islands . The 44 @-@ room Thon Hotel Torghatten is located next to the airport .

= = Airlines and destinations = =

Widerøe is the only airline operating scheduled flights out of Brønnøysund , serving it with their Bombardier Dash 8 aircraft . The services to Bodø and Trondheim are subsidized through public service obligations with the Ministry of Transport and Communications .

CHC Helikopter Service operates flights to the offshore oil platform at Norne on contract with Statoil . The oil company flies an average 55 people to the airport with various scheduled services and onwards to the oil field . In addition , the helicopter operator flies to various temporary oil rigs . It has two Sikorsky S @-@ 92 helicopters stationed at Brønnøysund . In 2011 , there were 17 @,@ 229 offshore helicopter passengers which traveled through Brønnøysund Airport .

The Norwegian Air Ambulance operates both a helicopter and fixed @-@ wing air ambulance service out of Brønnøysund Airport . Aircraft operations are subcontracted to Lufttransport , which operates an AgustaWestland AW139 helicopter and a Beech King Air fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Both are manned by medical personnel from Helgeland Hospital Trust . In 2011 , the helicopter flew 465 missions and the fixed @-@ wing aircraft 1022 missions .

= = Accidents and incidents = =

Widerøe Flight 710 took place on 6 May 1988 when a Dash 7 crashed into nearby Torghatten mountain during a landing approach , killing all 36 aboard . It remains the worst accident involving a Dash 7 and is the fourth @-@ worst accident on Norwegian soil .

Helikopter Service Flight 451 took place on 8 September 1997 , when a Eurocopter Super Puma en route to Norne crashed into the Norwegian Sea 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) northwest of the airport , killing all 12 people on board .

= 1981 Atlantic hurricane season =

The 1981 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1981 , and lasted until November 30 , 1981 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The 1981 season was high in activity with 18 tropical depressions and twelve storms forming during the year . Nine of these systems made landfall . Cindy , Harvey , and Irene neither affected land directly nor indirectly .

Hurricane Dennis caused millions of dollars in damage in Dade County , Florida and produced the highest rainfall totals of any tropical cyclone this season . Tropical Depression Eight caused the most damage , due to flooding in Texas at the end of August , and led to most fatalities of any tropical cyclone this season ( five ) . Tropical Depressions Two and Eight caused a majority of the damage and fatalities this season , with both affecting Louisiana and Texas . Katrina was the only named storm with associated fatalities .

= = Seasonal activity = =

The 1981 season was high in activity with eighteen tropical depressions and twelve storms forming that year . The season began early , as Tropical Storm Arlene formed on May 6 . Arlene made landfall in Cuba , being absorbed by a low later . Tropical Depression Two moved out of the Gulf of Mexico into eastern Texas on June 5 , producing localized rainfall amounts of 12 inches ( 300 mm ) and numerous tornadoes over Louisiana before recurving across the Southeast United States . Tropical Storm Bret formed as a subtropical low in the open Atlantic Ocean , and made landfall in the Delmarva Peninsula .

Tropical Depression Four formed in the Gulf of Mexico on July 25 , moving into Mexico the next day , and causing heavy rains in west Texas , Oklahoma , and Arkansas when its remnants moved into the United States . Tropical Storm Cindy formed on August 2 in the open Atlantic and became an extratropical cyclone on August 5 . Hurricane Dennis formed on August 7 near South America . Dennis degenerated into a depression while making landfall in the Leeward Islands , but regained storm strength while over Cuba . Dennis moved near the southeast United States coastline from Florida to Virginia , briefly becoming a hurricane . Dennis weakened into a tropical storm and was declared an extratropical cyclone on August 22 .

Tropical Depression Seven formed in mid @-@ August and tracked through the Windward Islands before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea . Tropical Depression Eight led to a significant flooding event between San Antonio and Houston on August 30 and August 31 while recurving through Texas into Louisiana . Hurricane Emily formed on September 1 southeast of Bermuda . Emily made a cyclonic loop as a tropical storm . Emily strengthened into a hurricane out in the North Atlantic Ocean and by September 12 , was no longer identifiable . Hurricane Floyd was a Category 3 hurricane that grazed Bermuda , but no damage was reported . Hurricane Gert formed September 8 , strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane , and followed the same track as Floyd , dissipating near the Azores . Hurricane Harvey became the strongest storm of the season , reaching Category 4 strength . Harvey never affected land , but ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds . Tropical Depression Thirteen brought gusts of tropical storm force to Bermuda in mid @-@ to @-@ late September . Hurricane Irene also stayed out at sea , reaching Category 3 strength and was extratropical in early October . The extratropical Irene made landfall in France .

Tropical Depression Fifteen was small and well @-@ organized as it crossed the tropical Atlantic before weakening as it moved through the northeast Caribbean and southwest North Atlantic during late September and early October . Tropical Storm Jose was a short @-@ lived storm forming out in the open Atlantic in late October . Jose never affected land and dissipated on November 1 near the Azores . Hurricane Katrina formed in the Caribbean Sea , and made landfall in Cuba after reaching hurricane strength . Katrina was the only named storm with fatalities . The final storm of the season , Subtropical Storm Three , formed in the Atlantic Ocean on November 12 and moved north , making landfall in Nova Scotia and becoming extratropical soon after .

The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 100 , which is classified as " near normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .

= = Storms = =

= = = Tropical Storm Arlene = = =

Arlene was a very unusual tropical storm in 1981 . It formed on May 6 , well before the beginning of the normal hurricane season . It developed out of a disturbance that moved from the Pacific Ocean across Central America into the Caribbean Sea . As the disturbance tracked northeast across the western Caribbean , it became a tropical depression , then on May 7 reached tropical storm strength near the Cayman Islands . Arlene struck eastern Cuba on the night of May 7 , and the passage over land weakened it to a depression . It restrengthened briefly over the southeastern Bahamas , but weakened again and was absorbed by another system . Reported damage was minimal .

= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =

A tropical depression formed in the Bay of Campeche near Veracruz , Mexico , on June 3 . The system moved north @-@ northwest , lured by a cyclone over the southern Plains . Tropical Depression Two made landfall along the upper Texas coast on June 5 , spreading up to 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of rainfall northeast of the point of landfall . A total of nine tornadoes stuck the western Gulf coast , with eight touching down in Louisiana . Three people died ; two due to flooding and one from an associated tornado . The depression quickly recurved through the Mississippi Valley , and deepened as it moved off the coast of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states into the western subtropical Atlantic on June 7 . At least US $ 4 million in damage was caused by this depression .

= = = Tropical Storm Bret = = =

Bret formed out of a subtropical low roughly 150 miles ( 240 km ) off the coast of North Carolina . The storm moved west @-@ northwest , striking land in southern Maryland on July 1 . Bret weakened significantly just before landfall , and reported winds were below gale force . Rainfall amounts were light , with a narrow area of over one inch of rain reported near its track and within the central Appalachians . The highest rainfall amount reported was 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) at Big Meadows , Virginia . No significant damage was reported , but one fatality was reported at Nags Head , North Carolina due to riptides .

= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =

A tropical disturbance moved across the Caribbean sea between July 20 and July 24 before moving across the Yucatán peninsula . After emerging into the south @-@ central Gulf of Mexico , the disturbance organized into a tropical depression early on July 25 . The depression moved west @-@ northwest into northeast Mexico on July 26 before its surface circulation dissipated . Heavy rains fell across western Texas , Oklahoma , and Arkansas when the remains of this system interacted with a stationary front across the southern Plains between July 28 and July 30 .

= = = Tropical Storm Cindy = = =

A subtropical depression that developed along a cold front organized into Tropical Storm Cindy on August 2 , in the open Atlantic midway between Bermuda and Nova Scotia . Cindy tracked east @-@ northeast until it became extratropical on August 5 as it moved over colder water . The storm never affected land and caused no known damage .

= = = Hurricane Dennis = = =

Dennis began as Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes typically do . A tropical wave leaving the coast of Africa on August 5 developed into Tropical Storm Dennis on August 7 near Cape Verde . Unlike most such storms , Dennis degenerated to a tropical wave before reaching the Windward Islands on August 12 . This wave crossed the Caribbean , passing over Jamaica before reaching the southwestern coast of Cuba on August 15 .

Once near Cuba , the wave began rapid organization , restrengthening into a tropical storm . It crossed Cuba , then moved into southern Florida . Over Florida , steering currents weakened and the storm stalled . On August 19 , Tropical Storm Dennis reemerged over water , skimming the coasts of the Carolinas before accelerating out to sea . Dennis reached hurricane strength before becoming extratropical on August 22 .

Most damage associated with Dennis was from the heavy rainfall caused by its slow passage over Florida , although two tornadoes were also reported within Florida . The highest amount registered was near Homestead , Florida , where 25 @.@ 56 inches ( 649 mm ) of rain was measured . Agriculture damage in Dade County , Florida was estimated at $ 15 million ( 1981 USD ) . Coastal areas of the Carolinas were also affected by heavy rainfall , with spots seeing over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) , as well as minor beach erosion .

= = = Tropical Depression Seven = = =

This system developed across the tropical Atlantic ocean on August 18 , moving westward through the Windward islands into the eastern Caribbean Sea before dissipating on August 21 .

= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =

This tropical depression formed in the Bay of Campeche on August 26 and moved slowly northwest , moving ashore northeast Mexico on August 29 and into the United States on August 30 . As an ill @-@ defined surface low , a large thunderstorm complex formed near its center that day , unleashing heavy rainfall in a band 50 miles ( 80 km ) wide which stretched along a path 200 miles ( 320 km ) long from Seguin , Texas to north of Houston , Texas . The highest rainfall amount reported was from Pine Springs in Fayette County , Texas , where 21 inches ( 530 mm ) fell in the 24 ‑ hour period ending on the morning of August 31 . Five died in the town of Shiner , Texas due to the flood . Downtown Halletsville flooded to a depth of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . Significant flooding occurred along the Lavaca , Guadalupe , and Colorado rivers in Texas . The cyclone spawned 14 tornadoes as well , including one at Scholes Field in Galveston , Texas which produced winds as high as 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) at 7 : 15 pm on August 31 .

Its surface circulation remained ill @-@ defined as it produced another round of heavy rainfall across northwest Louisiana on September 1 . A large mesoscale convective system moved in from Oklahoma and northeast Texas , dissipating what was left of this tropical depression by September 2 . Paid losses by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) totaled nearly US $ 21 million ( 1981 dollars ) , with total damages exceeding US $ 26 million ( 1981 dollars ) .

= = = Hurricane Emily = = =

On September 1 , a subtropical storm became Tropical Storm Emily southwest of Bermuda . Emily moved northeast , crossing the island the next day , but measured winds were below tropical storm force . The storm continued generally northeast and strengthened into a hurricane . Hurricane Emily weakened over the north Atlantic and was no longer identifiable as a weather system by September 12 . Hurricane Emily caused beach erosion across the East Coast of the United States , but no other damage was reported .

= = = Hurricane Floyd = = =

Floyd was first tracked as a tropical depression on September 3 when it organized east of the Leeward Islands . As the depression moved northwest , it caused heavy rain . The highest rainfall reported was 5 @.@ 7 inches ( 140 mm ) at Antigua . It strengthened into a tropical storm , then reached hurricane strength on September 7 .

Floyd turned to the northeast , and passed just southeast of Bermuda as a weakening hurricane . As a tropical storm , Floyd moved east across the Atlantic until losing its identity on September 12 .

No damages are associated with Floyd . Although Bermuda was directly affected , the island experienced the weaker half of the storm .

= = = Hurricane Gert = = =

A tropical wave exited western Africa on September 1 , gradually developing a concentrated area of convection . Early on September 7 , it was estimated that Tropical Depression Eleven about 400 mi ( 640 km ) east of the Leeward Islands , based on satellite imagery . The next day , data from the Hurricane Hunters indicated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Gert . The newly upgraded storm passed between the islands of Dominica and Guadeloupe and continued to intensify , making landfall on southeastern Puerto Rico with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) late September 8 . After emerging into the Atlantic , Gert weakened while passing off the north coast of the Dominican Republic . It restrengthened while turning northward near the Bahamas , becoming a hurricane on September 10 . Midday on September 11 , Gert attained its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The hurricane turned northeastward and weakened over cooler waters , passing about 100 mi ( 160 km ) north of Bermuda on September 12 as a tropical storm . On September 14 , Gert weakened further to tropical depression status , dissipating the next day .

While passing through the Leeward Islands , Gert dropped moderate rainfall of 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 148 @.@ 5 mm ) on St. Thomas . Winds gusted to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on the island . In Puerto Rico , rainfall peaked at 6 @.@ 02 inches ( 153 mm ) in the Puerto Rican municipality of Maricao . Gale warnings were issued for the Turks and Caicos Islands and later the southeastern Bahamas , and light rainfall occurred in the region , reaching 3 @.@ 20 inches ( 81 @.@ 28 mm ) on the island of San Salvador . Winds were light in Bermuda .

= = = Hurricane Harvey = = =

Harvey formed in the central Atlantic , reaching hurricane strength only a few hours after first becoming a named system on September 12 . From its initial position several hundred miles east of the Leeward Islands , Harvey moved northwest . Its path began curving more to the north , and was considered a threat to Bermuda until the continuing curve took Harvey away from the island . Harvey 's track became more easterly , and the storm weakened and became extratropical as it approached the Azores . Harvey caused no reported damage , although several ships reported experiencing tropical storm force winds .

= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen = = =

The thirteenth tropical depression developed 275 mi ( 443 km ) southwest of Bermuda on September 22 , and was initially expected to intensify into a tropical storm . Although it failed to further intensify , Tropical Depression Thirteen brought squalls to Bermuda with winds gusts of tropical storm force as it passed west of the island on September 23 . Moving northward , the system merged with a developing extratropical cyclone south of Nova Scotia on September 24 .

= = = Hurricane Irene = = =

Irene became a named storm midway between the Windward Islands and Cape Verde on September 23 , and its track mimicked that of Hurricane Harvey . The storm tracked northwest , becoming a hurricane on September 25 . Its track then began curving to the east , eventually resulting in motion to the northeast .

The storm weakened and became extratropical in early October . The remaining extratropical storm moved over France on October 3 .

= = = Tropical Depression Fifteen = = =

This tropical depression formed southwest of the Cape Verde Islands on September 27 , and tracked through the deep tropics before weakening as it moved over the Leeward Islands late on September 30 . Heavy rains occurred at Guadeloupe as the system passed by the island . The depression then recurved to the south and east of Bermuda late on October 3 .

= = = Tropical Storm Jose = = =

Jose was a weak and short @-@ lived tropical storm that formed far from land on October 29 . It moved generally northeast before becoming subtropical and then dissipating on November 1 near the Azores .

= = = Hurricane Katrina = = =

A tropical depression formed on November 3 in the western Caribbean Sea about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of the Cayman Islands . The depression moved north , reaching tropical storm strength as it moved through the Caymans . Katrina continued to strengthen , reaching hurricane strength half a day before landfall in Cuba . A weakening Katrina moved across eastern Cuba on November 6 . After emerging over water , the storm accelerated northeast through the Bahamas . Katrina 's circulation fell apart , and the storm merged with a front on November 8 .

Hurricane Katrina is reported to have killed two and caused widespread flood damage in Cuba 's Camagüey province . Katrina was the only named storm responsible for fatalities in 1981 .

= = = Subtropical Storm Three = = =

A frontal low over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream organized into an subtropical storm on November 12 while 400 miles ( 640 km ) east of Jacksonville , Florida . After moving northeastward , it turned to the northwest , threatening the northeastern United States as an intensifying subtropical storm that was gradually developing tropical characteristics . A high pressure system turned it to the northeast , and after peaking at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) it became extratropical near Nova Scotia on November 17 . The storm produced significant beach erosion and coastal flooding .

= = Storm names = =

The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1981 . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1987 season . It was the first use for all of these names since the post @-@ 1978 naming change , except for Arlene , Cindy and Irene which had been previously used in 1959 , 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .

= = = Retirement = = =

Due to lack of major damage from the storms , the WMO did not retire any names in 1981 . They were used again in 1987 .

= = Season summary = =

= Günther Lützow =

Günther Lützow ( 4 September 1912 – 24 April 1945 ) was a German Luftwaffe aviator and fighter ace credited with 110 enemy aircraft shot down in over 300 combat missions . Apart from five victories during the Spanish Civil War , most of his claimed victories were over the Eastern Front in World War II . He also claimed 20 victories over the Western Front , including two victories — one of which was a four @-@ engined bomber — flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter .

Born in Kiel , Lützow volunteered for military service in the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic in 1931 . In parallel , he was accepted for flight training with the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule , a covert military @-@ training organization , and at the Lipetsk fighter @-@ pilot school . Following flight training , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader " Richthofen " ( Fighter Wing " Richthofen " ) in 1934 . In 1937 , he volunteered for service with the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War where he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) in Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) . From April to September 1937 , he claimed five aerial victories . For his service in Spain he was awarded the Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds , Germany 's highest decoration of the Spanish Civil War .

After an assignment as fighter pilot instructor , he was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) in Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) following the outbreak of World War II . He led the Gruppe through the Battle of France and claimed his first victory of World War II on 14 May 1940 . Lützow became Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 3 on 21 August 1940 . After 15 aerial victories during the Battle of Britain , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 September 1940 . Lützow commanded JG 3 in the aerial battles of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . There , after his 42nd aerial victory , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 20 July 1941 . Three months later , following his 92nd aerial victory of the war , Lützow was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 11 October 1941 . On 24 October , he claimed his 100th victory of the war , becoming the second fighter pilot after Werner Mölders to do so . From September to November 1941 , he also served as acting commander of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) , replacing Friedrich Beckh , who had been injured in combat , until the position was filled by Karl @-@ Gottfried Nordmann . After being instructed not to fly operations , he ignored the order , adding two more victories before being posted on 11 August 1942 to the staff of General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) Adolf Galland , serving as " Inspector of Day Fighters , East " .

In July 1943 , Lützow was tasked with commanding fighter operations in Italy . From September 1943 to March 1944 , he led the 1 . Jagd Division ( 1st Fighter Division ) , commanding all day- and night @-@ fighter operations in northwestern Germany , the Netherlands and Belgium . Lützow 's role in the " Fighter Pilots Revolt " was considered mutiny by Hermann Göring , who exiled Lützow to Italy . In April 1945 , he joined Galland 's Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 — 44th Fighter Detachment ) . He was reported missing in action flying the Me 262 on 24 April 1945 while attempting to intercept a U.S. Army Air Forces B @-@ 26 Marauder raid near Donauwörth . His body was never recovered .

= = Early life and career = =

Lützow was born on 4 September 1912 in Kiel , at the time the capital of the Province of Schleswig @-@ Holstein , a province of the Kingdom of Prussia . He was the third of five children of Friedrich Lützow , a naval officer , and his wife Hildegard , née Kinzel . He had an older brother , Werner , an older sister , Liselotte ( Elisabeth Charlotte ) , a younger sister , Hildegard , and a younger brother , Joachim . The family at the time lived at the Reventlouallee 23 on the west bank of the Kieler Förde . This was close to the German Imperial Naval Academy where his father attended a two @-@ year Admiralty Staff training course . Following the outbreak of World War I , his father was posted to the staff of the Führer der Unterseeboote ( Commander of Submarines ) Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Hermann Bauer , and the family had to move to Wilhelmshaven .

Lützow graduated with his Abitur ( university @-@ preparatory high school diploma ) on 31 March 1931 from the Schulpforta , a boarding school for academically gifted students . Unlike his brothers , who both pursued a naval career , Lützow joined the Reichswehr ( Army of the Weimar Republic ) following his graduation from school . This decision had been influenced by his mother 's youngest brother , Eberhard Kinzel , at the time an officer in the Reichswehr and later General der Infanterie ( General of the Infantry ) in the Heer ( German Army ) .

On 7 April 1931 Lützow began his pilot training at the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule ( DVS — German Air Transport School ) at Schleißheim . The DVS was headed by Karl Bolle , a World War I fighter pilot , and his flight instructor was Wilhelm Stör , another World War I fighter pilot . He and 29 other trainees were part of Kameradschaft 31 ( camaraderie of 1931 ) , abbreviated " K 31 " . Among the members of " K 31 " were future Luftwaffe staff officers Bernd von Brauchitsch , Wolfgang Falck , Günther Radusch and Hannes Trautloft . Lützow graduated from the DVS on 19 February 1932 . In late September 1931 , Lützow and three other students made a cross @-@ country flight from Schleißheim to Berlin . The flight was made in two 2 @-@ seater Klemm Kl 26 training aircraft . Lützow , as the best air navigation student of his class , flew in the navigator 's position . In the Luftstreitkräfte of World War I , the pilot was called " Emil " and the navigator was called " Franz " . From that point on , Lützow was nicknamed " Franz " or the diminutive " Franzl " ( little Franz ) . From " K 31 " , Lützow and nine others were recommended for Sonderausbildung ( special training ) at the Lipetsk fighter @-@ pilot school .

Following his return from flight training , Lützow joined 5 . ( Preußisches ) Infanterie @-@ Regiment ( 5th ( Prussian ) Infantry Regiment ) , at first in Greifswald ( 15 October 1932 – 31 January 1933 ) as a Offizieranwärter ( officer candidate ) . There he completed his basic training . From 1 February to 31 March 1933 , he served with 5 . ( Preußisches ) Infanterie @-@ Regiment in Stettin . He then attended the Kriegsschule ( war school ) in Dresden and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 October 1934 . In 1935 , he officially transferred to the newly formed Luftwaffe , at first serving as a fighter pilot instructor at Schleißheim ( 8 March 1935 – 31 March 1936 ) followed by a posting to II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of Sturzkampfgeschwader 162 ( StG 162 — 162nd Diver Bomber Wing ) at Lübeck @-@ Blankensee ( 1 April – 3 November 1936 ) . In parallel , from 1 May to 1 November 1936 , Lützow held the position of Staffeloffizier ( squadron officer ) with 4 . Staffel ( 4th squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 132 " Richthofen " ( JG 132 — 132nd Fighter Wing ) at Jüterbog @-@ Damm .

= = Spanish Civil War = =

During the Spanish Civil War , Lützow volunteered for service with the Condor Legion , a unit composed of volunteers from the Luftwaffe and from the Heer which served with the Nationalists . On 19 March 1937 , he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of Jagdgruppe 88 ( J / 88 — 88th Fighter Group ) .

From March to September 1937 , Lützow , now an Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) , claimed five victories , including the first ever recorded claim by a Messerschmitt Bf 109 pilot . Flying a Bf 109 B , he shot down an Polikarpov I @-@ 15 , a Soviet built biplane fighter aircraft , on 6 April 1937 . On 26 April 1937 , air elements of the Condor Legion targeted and bombed Guernica , an attack which has been characterised as a war crime by Wette and Ueberschär , but Lützow did not participate in the attack as he was on home leave from 8 – 29 April 1937 . After he returned , Lützow claimed three more I @-@ 15s shot down , one on 22 May , another on 28 May , and his last on 18 August 1937 . His final aerial victory in Spain was over a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 , a monoplane fighter aircraft , which he shot down on 22 August 1937 .

On 16 October 1937 , Lützow was assigned to the Reichsluftfahrtministerium ( RLM — Ministry of Aviation ) Sonderstab W. ( special staff " W " ) under the command of and named after General Helmuth Wilberg . Sonderstab W. was responsible for collecting and analyzing the tactical lessons of the Spanish Civil War . Lützow wrote up his report , Erfahrungsbericht Winterausbildung 1937 / 1938 , Jüterbog @-@ Damm , 5 . Staffel ( field report winter training 1937 / 1938 , Jüterbog @-@ Damm , 5th squadron ) documenting his Spanish experiences and tactical proposals . His report referred to the finger @-@ four formation as the clearly superior tactical formation for contemporary fighter operations . Lützow 's comrade Werner Mölders solved the problem of manoeuvring a finger @-@ four formation months later by introducing what is still known today as the " crossover turn " or " tac turn " . At RLM , Lützow received his promotion to Hauptmann ( captain ) on 20 November 1937 . For his achievements in Spain , Lützow was honored with the Spanish Medalla de la Campaña and Medalla Militar and the German Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( Spanienkreuz in Gold mit Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 6 June 1939 .

On 12 February 1938 , Lützow met his future wife Gisela von Priesdorff , the oldest daughter of military historian Kurt von Priesdorff , at a carnival party held at the Jagdfliegerschule 1 ( fighter pilot school ) at Werneuchen . On 19 July 1938 the two were officially engaged , and they married on 11 March 1939 at the Holy Trinity Church in Berlin . They had a son , Hans @-@ Ulrich , born 29 January 1940 , and a daughter , Carola , born 31 August 1942 . On 1 November 1938 , Lützow became a head flight instructor at Jagdfliegerschule 1 at Werneuchen , replacing Johannes Janke . At the time Jagdfliegerschule 1 , was under the command of Theo Osterkamp , a World War I fighter pilot .

= = World War II = =

World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . Lützow did not participate in this campaign . He was tasked with providing fighter protection for Berlin . From the Jagdfliegerschule in Werneuchen , he detached two squadrons and placed them under the command of Jagdgruppe 20 based at Strausberg . At the end of October 1939 , a change in command of I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) was announced . The former commander Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Otto @-@ Heinrich von Houwald was transferred to the Jagdfliegerschule in Werneuchen . Lützow joined I. Gruppe on 1 November 1939 , officially taking over command as Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) two days later .

= = = Battle of France = = =

On 10 May 1940 , the Wehrmacht began its offensive Operation Case Yellow ( Fall Gelb ) , the invasion of France and the neutral Low Countries . I. Gruppe of JG 3 participated in the offensive as a subordinated unit of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) . During the Battle of France , JG 77 was under control of I. Fliegerkorps ( 1st Air Corps ) , which formed the right wing of Luftflotte 3 ( 3rd Air Fleet ) in Belgium and the Netherlands .

On 14 May 1940 , Lützow claimed his first two aerial victories of World War II . Flying out of Hargimont , his flight was tasked with providing fighter cover in the area northwest of Dinant . At 8 : 00 pm , the flight encountered 15 to 20 Armée de l 'Air ( French Air Force ) Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk fighter aircraft . Without loss , I. Gruppe claimed seven Curtisses shot down , including two claimed by Lützow . The next day , he claimed another P @-@ 36 southeast of Charleroi , his third victory of the war . On 19 May in combat north of Arras , he claimed a Hawker Hurricane fighter aircraft . Lützow claimed his fifth and sixth victory of the war on 31 May 1940 , shooting down two Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 fighter aircraft south of Amiens . This was followed by another P @-@ 36 on 3 June . On 6 June , he claimed a Bristol Blenheim light bomber followed by another Blenheim shot down on 8 June . This latter Blenheim was shot down when Lützow was returning from a Junkers Ju 87 dive bomber escort mission . The Blenheim IV was flying alone unescorted and Lützow set it on fire . The bomber exploded in midair near Abbeville .

On 23 June 1940 , I. Gruppe was moved to a forward airfield at Grandvilliers in preparation for missions over the Channel Coast , but the following day , all Bf 109s were sent to Wiesbaden , via Brussels , for a thorough maintenance check . The overhaul detachment arrived in Wiesbaden in the late afternoon and the pilots were sent on home leave . The cease @-@ fire of the Armistice of 22 June 1940 went into effect on 25 June 1940 , ending the Battle of France . During the French campaign , Lützow flew 64 combat missions and claimed nine victories . Under his leadership , I. Gruppe was one of the most successful units in this campaign . It was credited with 88 aerial victories for the loss of six pilots killed and ten Bf 109s destroyed .

By 3 July 1940 , the majority of the Bf 109s had returned to Grandvilliers from maintenance overhaul . At the time , Lützow had 45 pilots and 33 Bf 109 Es for disposition , 28 of the aircraft being operational . I. Gruppe flew its first missions over the Channel Coast on the evening of 5 July 1940 . In the following days flight operations were impeded by a period of bad weather . On 1 August 1940 , I. Gruppe was moved to Colembert , the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) and the other two Gruppen were moved to airfields in the vicinity of Boulogne . In preparations for actions against Great Britain , JG 3 was put under the control of Luftflotte 2 ( 2nd Air Fleet ) , thus placing it under the command of Jagdfliegerführer 2 Oberst ( Colonel ) Osterkamp .

On 1 August 1940 , Adolf Hitler had issued Führer Directive no . 17 ( Weisung Nr. 17 ) ; the strategic objective of which was to engage and defeat the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) so as to achieve air superiority in preparation for Operation Sea Lion ( Unternehmen Seelöwe ) , the proposed amphibious invasion of Great Britain . Reichsmarschall ( Marshal of the Realm ) Hermann Göring , in his role as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Luftwaffe ordered an attack on RAF Fighter Command 's ground organization , code named Adlertag ( Operation Eagle Attack ) . On 13 August , 485 bomber and approximately 1 @,@ 000 fighter sorties were flown , targeting British airfields in southern England . Lützow claimed his first aerial victory in the Battle of Britain on 16 August 1940 , shooting down a Supermarine Spitfire over Kent .

= = = Wing commander of JG 3 = = =

At the height of the Battle of Britain on 21 August 1940 , it was announced that Lützow was to be appointed Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) of JG 3 . He officially took command of JG 3 on 25 August and was promoted to Major ( major ) on 30 August 1940 . On 25 August , command of I. Gruppe was handed over to Oberleutnant Lothar Keller who led the Gruppe until the new Gruppenkommandeur Hauptmann Hans von Hahn arrived at the end of August . Lützow 's former adjutant with I. Gruppe , Friedrich @-@ Franz von Cramon , joined him at the Geschwaderstab and continued to serve as his adjutant . Under Lützow 's command , the Geschwaderstab was based on the Channel Coast until 16 February 1941 , at first in Colembert , then in August 1940 it was moved to Wierre @-@ au @-@ Bois and at the end of September to Desvres . Lützow , as Geschwaderkommodore , claimed eight victories during the Battle of Britain , his 11th – 18th of the war .

On 26 August 1940 , Lützow claimed a pair of Boulton Paul Defiant fighters from No. 264 Squadron off the north Kent coast . On 27 August 1940 , Lützow , and other Geschwaderkommodore , were summoned to a meeting held by Jagdfliegerführer 2 , Generalmajor ( Major General ) Kurt @-@ Bertram von Döring in Wissant . This meeting was also attended by Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Albert Kesselring , and the commanding general of the II . Fliegerkorps Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Bruno Loerzer . The subject of the meeting was the perceived lack of fighter protection provided for the bomber arm by the Jagdwaffe ( fighter force ) . The bomber crews had demanded the fighter escorts fly closer to the bombers , within visual proximity , increasing perceived security of the bomber crews . The generals accused the Geschwaderkommodere of being overly interested in accumulating aerial victories and awards at the expense of exposing the bombers to enemy attacks . Lützow argued that a fighter aircraft , such as the Bf 109 , required speed and space to combat the fast and more agile RAF fighter aircraft . The discussion ended with a compromise , some of the fighters were ordered to fly close and at the same speed as the bombers , while other fighters were to fly 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 – 6 @,@ 600 feet ) above the main bomber force , clearing the airspace of enemy fighters in the direction the bomber force was flying .

In September 1940 , Lützow claimed three Hurricanes , one each on 7 , 9 and 15 September . In addition to the 15 aerial victories he had claimed since the start of the war , he was credited with three ground victories and one barrage balloon destroyed . Subsequently , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernes Kreuzes ) on 18 September 1940 . The presentation was made by Göring at the headquarters of the Befehlshaber der Wehrmachts in den Niederlanden ( Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht in the Netherlands ) , General der Flieger ( General of the Flyers ) Friedrich Christiansen , at Wassenaar near The Hague on 19 September . That day , both Lützow and Wolfgang Schellmann , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) , were so honored . Lützow was credited with three further victories against the RAF , two P @-@ 36s shot down on 5 October , and a Spitfire on 5 November 1940 . These were his last victories claimed over the Western Front until 1945 , taking his World War II score to 18 .

In spring 1941 , Geschwaderstab of JG 3 was transferred to Mannheim @-@ Sandhofen for a period of rest and conversion to the new Bf 109 F @-@ 2 . On 4 May 1941 , the Geschwaderstab was sent back into combat along the Channel Coast . On 7 May 1941 , Lützow 's Bf 109 F @-@ 2 ( Werknummer 8117 — factory number ) suffered minor damage in combat when his tail surfaces were shot up . Operating from Saint @-@ Pol @-@ Brias until 8 June , the Geschwaderstab flew missions over southern England and the English Channel without filing any claims or sustaining any losses .

= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =

In preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , the Geschwaderstab began heading east on 8 June 1941 . They stopped for several days at Breslau @-@ Gandau , the present day Wrocław – Copernicus Airport in Poland . On 18 June , the Geschwaderstab relocated to Hostynne , from where on 22 June 1941 , Lützow led JG 3 in combat against the Soviet Union . At the start of the campaign , JG 3 was subordinated to the V. Fliegerkorps ( 5th Air Corps ) , under command of General der Flieger Robert Ritter von Greim , which was part of Luftflotte 4 ( 4th Air Fleet ) , under command of Generaloberst Alexander Löhr . These air elements supported Generalfeldmarschall Gerd von Rundstedt 's Heeresgruppe Süd ( Army Group South ) , with the objective of capturing the Ukraine and its capital Kiev .

Lützow claimed nine aerial victories in his first week on the Eastern Front . The first victory , an I @-@ 18 fighter , a variant of the Polikarpov I @-@ 16 , was achieved on the opening day of Barbarossa . On the second day of Barbarossa , he accounted for two Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bombers . On 24 June , he filed a claim for a Polikarpov I @-@ 153 biplane fighter destroyed . Two days later , he destroyed three aircraft , two SB @-@ 2 bombers and a Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 ground attack aircraft . On 27 June , he shot down an Ilyushin DB @-@ 3 bomber followed by another Pe @-@ 2 on the following day , his last victory of June 1941 . Following a DB @-@ 3 bomber claimed on 7 July , Lützow was credited with four aerial victories on 10 July , consisting of one Vultee V @-@ 11 attack aircraft and three I @-@ 153s . The next day he claimed an II @-@ 16 . On 15 July he shot down two further I @-@ 16s and another DB @-@ 3 taking his total to 36 World War II victories .

On 16 July 1941 , Lützow claimed three further victories — a SB @-@ 2 , an I @-@ 16 and a DB @-@ 3 — and another DB @-@ 3 the next day . On 20 July , he claimed his 42nd aerial victory of the war , two V @-@ 11s . On the same day he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) , and was the 27th member of the Wehrmacht so honored .

Major Friedrich Beckh , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 51 ( JG 51 — 51st Fighter Wing ) at the time , was wounded in combat on 16 September . During Beckh 's convalescence , Lützow temporarily commanded both JG 51 and JG 3 until 21 December when Beckh returned . On 23 September , Lützow suffered combat damage to his radiator and had to make a forced landing behind Soviet lines near Krasnograd . He managed to return to the German lines unhurt . In October he claimed 29 victories , including five bombers shot down on 8 October . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) on 11 October 1941 at which point he had accumulated 92 aerial victories since 1 September 1939 . The presentation was made on 12 October 1941 by Hitler at the Führer Headquarter Wolfsschanze ( Wolf 's Lair ) in Rastenburg ( now Kętrzyn in Poland ) .

On 24 October 1941 , Lützow became the second fighter pilot , after Mölders , to amass 100 aerial victories in World War II . This event was also mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , a propaganda radio report , on 25 October 1941 . Fearing his loss in combat , Lützow was then grounded , an order he did not always obey . In early November , he led Stab JG 3 back to Germany to rest and re @-@ equip . During this period , Lützow participated in the honor guard for Generaloberst Ernst Udet . Udet had committed suicide on 17 November 1941 and on 1 December JG 3 received the honorary name " Udet " . In May 1942 Lützow and JG 3 commenced operations near Kharkov before moving into the Crimea and operating around Stalingrad . Lützow added one victory when he claimed a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 fighter on 21 May 1942 for his 107th kill . On 11 August , Lützow handed over command of JG 3 to Hauptmann Wolf @-@ Dietrich Wilcke .

According to Braatz , sometime in June 1942 ( most likely in Grakowo ) , Lützow was visited by two men from the SS . They were of lower rank . After Lützow asked them how he could be of assistance to them they responded by requesting as many of his men as possible to form up execution squads to liquidate Jews , Soviet Political Officers and other " scum " . Lützow was furious and ordered the entire Geschwader in full dress uniform to assemble and before the Jagdgeschwader he explained what the SS had requested and how he considered this act to be barbaric and criminal . He threatened to resign from command and take off his uniform if a single soldier volunteered . Braatz speculated whether this act got Lützow into trouble with the SS and the NSDAP .

= = = Luftwaffe commander = = =

In August 1942 , Lützow was posted to the staff of General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) Adolf Galland as Inspector of Day Fighters , Eastern Area . Braatz argues that Galland 's decision to appoint Lützow to this position may have been motivated by a desire to get him out of the " line of fire " from the SS and NSDAP . On 1 April 1943 , Lützow was promoted to Oberst ( colonel ) .

In July 1943 , Lützow became Inspector of Day Fighters , Italian Front , based in Naples . From September 1943 to March 1944 , he commanded the 1 . Jagd @-@ Division ( 1st Fighter Division ) in Defense of the Reich at Döberitz , where he assumed command for day- and night @-@ fighter operations in northwestern Germany , the Netherlands and Belgium . 1 . Jagd @-@ Division was under control of 1 . Jagd @-@ Korps ( 1st Fighter Corps ) commanded by Generalmajor Joseph Schmid . Lützow was relieved of this command on 16 March 1944 due to personal differences with Schmid . Following his dismissal , he was given command of the 4 . Flieger @-@ Schuldivision ( 4th Flyers Training Division ) .

= = = Dismissal and death = = =

Lützow became known as a central figure and spokesman behind the Fighter Pilots ' Mutiny which escalated in a meeting with Göring on 22 January 1945 . This was an attempt to reinstate Galland who had been dismissed for outspokenness regarding the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( Luftwaffe high command ) , and had been replaced by Oberst Gordon Gollob as General der Jagdflieger . The meeting was held at the Haus der Flieger in Berlin and was attended by a number of high @-@ ranking fighter pilot leaders which included Lützow , Hermann Graf , Gerhard Michalski , Helmut Bennemann , Kurt Bühligen , Erich Leie and Herbert Ihlefeld , and their antagonist Göring supported by his staff Brauchitsch and Karl Koller . The fighter pilots , with Lützow taking the lead as spokesman , criticized Göring and made him personally responsible for the decisions taken which effectively had led to the lost air war over Europe . This behavior , the fact that someone dared to criticize Göring in his leadership abilities , was regarded as mutiny by Göring , who relieved him of command and had him posted to Italy to take over Jagdfliegerführer Oberitalien ( Fighter Leader Northern Italy ) from Oberst Eduard Neumann . Göring exiled Lützow from Germany by placing him under " Reichsacht " ( lit . " Ban from the Reich " ) . He was not allowed to inform his secretary in Jüterbog nor his wife back home , he immediately had to leave Germany .

In early April 1945 , Lützow joined Galland 's Jagdverband 44 ( JV 44 — 44th Fighter Detachment ) at Munich @-@ Riem . JV 44 was equipped with the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter , an aircraft which was heavily armed and faster than any Allied fighter . Galland hoped that the Me 262 would compensate for the numerical superiority of the Allies . Lützow had been released from his position as fighter leader in Italy and Galland appointed him as his adjutant . Lützow was credited with two aerial victories flying the Me 262 .

Lützow was posted missing in action following combat on 24 April 1945 while attempting to intercept an attack by United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder medium bombers near Donauwörth . According to Stockert , an examination of U.S. records by Mr. Hirst indicates that Lützow 's Me 262 crashed near Schrobenhausen . The USAAF flew three attacks against the oil terminals at Schrobenhausen , south of Neuburg an der Donau , that day . On their second mission , 22 B @-@ 26 bombers escorted by 16 Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft , were just beginning their bomb run at 3 : 25 pm , when they came under attack by four Me 262s . Two P @-@ 47s came diving down from their top cover position to fend off the attacking jets . In this account , one Me 262 pilot noticed that he was about to come under attack and attempted to dive away . Unable to recover from this dive , the American pilots observed the Me 262 crashing into a small hill . This Me 262 may have been piloted by Lützow .

That day , Lützow had led a flight of six Me 262s of JV 44 against a force of 256 medium bombers of the 322nd and 344th Bombardment Group ( 344th BG ) . Lützow 's flight included Hauptmann Walter Krupinski and Oberleutnant Klaus Neumann . Two of the Me 262s had to abort the mission due to engine problems . The remaining four , of which at least Lützow 's and Neumann 's Me 262s were armed with the R4M air @-@ to @-@ air rockets , attacked elements of 344th BG . Following the first attack , at least three B @-@ 26 Marauder bombers were seen trailing smoke , when the Me 262s came under attack by P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft of the 365th Fighter Group . Blue Flight leader Captain Jerry G. Mast and his wingman , Second Lieutenant Byron Smith , went into full power dives to drive the attacking Me 262s away . Following the dive , Smith got separated from Mast and pursued an Me 262 . Mast and Second Lieutenant William H. Myers then jointly went after another Me 262 which went into an even steeper dive . The Me 262 was seen crashing into the ground and exploding . In Forsyth 's account , the Me 262 chased by Mast and Myers was Lützow 's and had been flying furthest to the south .

On 28 April 2015 , the Augsburger Allgemeine , a German regional daily newspaper , published an article stating that according to Erich Bäcker , Lützow attempted an emergency landing at Donaumünster / Erlingshofen and crashed into the Danube . Bäcker made his claim based on reports made by eye @-@ witnesses who saw a low flying Me 262 crashing into the Danube that day .

= = Aerial victory credits = =

Lützow was credited with 110 enemy aircraft shot down in 310 combat missions . He claimed five victories in Spain , and 105 during World War II . The majority of his World War II victories were claimed over the Eastern Front , although 20 were claimed over the Western Front , two of which were achieved while flying the Me 262 jet fighter . These included one four @-@ engined bomber .

This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Lützow an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates conflicting information regarding the date or type of the aerial victory .

= = Awards = =

Spanish Medalla de la Campaña

Spanish Medalla Militar

Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( 6 July 1939 )

Wound Badge in Black

Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 300 "

Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds

Iron Cross ( 1939 )

2nd Class ( 26 May 1940 )

1st Class ( 3 June 1940 )

Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords

Knight 's Cross on 18 September 1940 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3

27th Oak Leaves on 20 July 1941 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3

4th Swords on 11 October 1941 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 3

Mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht

= Imperator torosus =

Imperator torosus , commonly known as the brawny bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . It is native to southern Europe east to the Caucasus and Israel . It is generally associated with deciduous trees such as hornbeam , oak and beech in warm , dry locales . Although generally rare in Europe , it appears to be relatively common in Hungary . Appearing in summer and autumn on chalky soils , the stocky fruit bodies have an ochre cap up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) across , yellow pores on the cap underside , and a wine @-@ red to brown or blackish stipe up to 6 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 3 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . The pale yellow flesh changes to different colours when broken or bruised depending on age ; younger mushrooms become reddish , and older ones additionally take on bluish tones .

Elias Magnus Fries and Christopher Theodor Hök first described this species as Boletus torosus in 1835 , a name by which it was known for many years . Modern molecular phylogenetics shows that it is only distantly related to Boletus edulis — the type species of Boletus — and it was duly placed in the new genus Imperator in 2015 . Eating raw mushrooms of this species leads to vomiting and diarrhea . Gastrointestinal symptoms have also occurred after eating cooked specimens , though some people have eaten it without ill @-@ effects .

= = Taxonomy = =

Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan described the brawny bolete as Boletus pachypus in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse . Many of his names have been rejected for nomenclatural purposes because Secretan had a narrow species concept , dividing many taxa into multiple species that were not supported by other authorities , and his works did not use binomial nomenclature consistently . Swedish mycologists Elias Magnus Fries and Christopher Theodor Hök described Boletus torosus in 1835 based on Secretan 's B. pachypus — distinct from the B. pachypus described by Fries himself . Fries reported in his 1838 book Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum that he had not actually observed the species , and he did not designate a type specimen or illustration . The specific epithet torosus , which derives from Latin , means " muscular " . In the United Kingdom , it is known commonly as the " brawny bolete " . The German name Ochsen @-@ Röhrling means " oxen bolete " and the French bolet vigoureux is " strong bolete " .

French naturalist Lucien Quélet transferred the species to the now @-@ obsolete genus Dictyopus in 1886 , which resulted in the synonym Dictyopus torosus . Boletus xanthocyaneus , first described by Henri Romagnesi in 1948 as Boletus purpureus var. xanthocyaneus and classified as a species in 1976 , was considered by Italian mycologist Carlo Luciano Alessio to be synonymous with B. torosus . Others , however , regard this fungus a distinct species . In 2013 Italian mycologists Valerio Bertolini and Giampaolo Simonini observed that the brevity of the original species description meant that some subsequent papers used B. torosus for specimens that aligned more closely with descriptions of Boletus rhodopurpureus or B. luteocupreus ( both now placed in the genus Imperator ) . They did note that Swiss and French authors had adhered to a more detailed description by Quélet , and that this was the only description faithful to the original description with a grey cap and yellow pores that slowly turn red . They concluded the original description must have been based on specimens growing near the French @-@ Swiss border and hence selected a neotype specimen from this region .

Within the large genus Boletus , the brawny bolete was classified in the section Luridi , which included species producing medium to large fruit bodies with thick , swollen stipes , and minute pores . In 1996 , Czech mycologist Jiří Hlaváček further subdivided the section Luridi , defining and naming the subsection Torosi — for B. torosus — to contain boletes that strongly bruised blue @-@ black with handling .

In a molecular analysis of Boletaceae phylogeny , the brawny bolete was most closely related to Boletus luteocupreus ; these two species formed a clade that was sister to B. luridus . Genetic analysis published in 2013 showed that B. torosus and many ( but not all ) red @-@ pored boletes were part of a dupainii clade ( named for B. dupainii ) , well @-@ removed from the core group of Boletus edulis ( the type species of genus Boletus ) and relatives within the Boletineae . This indicated that the brawny bolete and its relatives needed to be placed in a new genus . It was made the type species of the new genus Imperator , becoming Imperator torosus , in 2015 .

= = Description = =

Quite heavy compared with other mushrooms of similar size , the stocky fruit body contains relatively high amounts of chitin . Holding the brawny bolete has been described as " having a stone in your hand " . The cap is 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter . Hemispherical when young , it extends and flattens into a convex and finally a flattish shape , sometimes forming a slight depression in the centre . Initially curled downward and inward , the cap margin gradually turns outward , eventually flattening in maturity , and sometimes protruding beyond the pored undersurface . The surface texture starts out slightly velvety , but becomes smoother and hairless with age ; in moist weather , the cap is slightly sticky . Changing over time , the colour of the cap is initially vivid yellow or golden yellow , then ochre , then darkening in age to brown . However , if the cap cuticle is bruised , or even touched , there are sudden changes in the colour that depend on the age of the mushroom : young , yellow caps become cherry @-@ red , while ochre @-@ brown cap tissue bruises to reddish @-@ purple . These colour changes soon give way to bluish or greyish tones , which , when combined , give the cap a variegated appearance .

The pores on the cap underside are round and small , the sulfur @-@ yellow colour of the pore surface becoming less intense with age . The squat stipe measures 6 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 3 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . Egg @-@ shaped when young , it lengthens somewhat as the mushroom grows , but is still bulbous in maturity ; a mature stipe is typically a little shorter than the diameter of the cap . It is initially roughly the same colour as the cap , but as it matures , develops a wine @-@ red colouration near the base and a dirty brown to bluish @-@ black colouration elsewhere . The surface has a mesh @-@ like pattern ( reticulation ) that has a colour development similar to that of the cap : initially yellow , then purplish , and finally dark brown . The flesh is thick and hard . It is yellow , except for the stipe base where it is deep red , or dark brownish in older mushrooms . The pores , stipe and flesh turn greenish @-@ blue with bruising or cutting . The smell is unpleasant , but the taste is mild .

The spore print is olive @-@ brown . The smooth oval spores measure 12 – 15 by 5 – 6 μm , and sometimes have an internal oil drop . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 22 – 34 by 8 – 9 μm . The fusiform ( fuse @-@ shaped ) cystidia are colourless with oil droplets , and have dimensions of 40 – 50 by 7 – 8 μm . Cap cuticle tissue is in the form of a trichoderm , where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface . These cylindrical , interwoven hyphae contain septa .

= = = Similar species = = =

The Mediterranean species Boletus poikilochromus somewhat resembles I. torosus , but can usually be distinguished by a smaller fruit body , a cylindrical stipe , and the lighter colours of younger mushrooms . Also , B. poikilochromus does not feature the colour change of the stipe base in mature fruit bodies that is seen in I. torosus . Imperator luteocupreus and Caloboletus radicans are also similar but the pores of the former are red and the flesh of latter has a bitter taste .

Several chemical tests can be used to distinguish I. torosus from other similar boletes , such as I. rhodopurpureus . I. torosus displays the following characteristic colour changes with tests performed on cut flesh less than 12 hours old : ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH ) – yellow centre bordered by a blue circular outer ring ; potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) – deep buff ( instantly ) ; ferrous sulphate ( FeS04 ) – no change ; Melzer 's reagent – dark blue ; phenol – blue green ( very slow ) ; formalin – mid blue ( slow ) .

= = Toxicity = =

Like many boletes , Imperator torosus causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain , diarrhoea and vomiting when eaten raw . These reactions can also happen to some people when the mushroom is eaten cooked , though others have consumed it with no ill effects . In a 1994 study , researchers Ulrich Kiwitt and Hartmut Laatsch looked for the antabuse @-@ like compound coprine in Suillellus luridus and similar species that had been suspected of inducing antabuse @-@ like reactions with alcohol . Coprine ingestion results in heat and flushing in the face , tingling in arms and legs , nausea and vomiting , and increased heart rate within five to ten minutes of consuming alcohol . They found none in the suspect species , but did find indications for it in Imperator torosus . They concluded that the most likely explanation for historical poisoning incidents was a misidentification of I. torosus with Suillellus luridus , though they could not rule out the latter species containing a hitherto unidentified compound causing alcohol @-@ related reactions . No clinical cases of alcohol @-@ related sensitivity have been recorded for I. torosus .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Imperator torosus is native to southern Europe east to the Caucasus and Israel . A mycorrhizal species , the fungus is generally associated with deciduous trees such as hornbeam ( Carpinus ) , oak ( Quercus ) and beech ( Fagus ) in warm , dry locales , and is generally rare in Europe . In the United Kingdom , it is listed as a " priority species " — a threatened species requiring conservation action under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan . Similarly , it is on the list of protected species of macrofungi in Montenegro . It appears to be relatively common in Hungary . It is found under Palestine oak ( Quercus calliprinos ) in the Bar 'am forest in Upper Galilee . Fruitings typically occur from July to September in calcareous ( chalky ) soil , with fruit bodies appearing either singly or in small groups .

= Kareena Kapoor =

Kareena Kapoor ( pronounced [ kəˈriːnaː kəˈpuːr ] ; born 21 September 1980 ) , also known by her married name Kareena Kapoor Khan , is an Indian actress who appears in Hindi films . She is the daughter of actors Randhir Kapoor and Babita , and the younger sister of actress Karisma Kapoor . Noted for playing a variety of characters in a range of film genres — from romantic comedies to crime dramas — Kapoor is the recipient of several awards , including six Filmfare Awards , and is one of Bollywood 's most popular and highest @-@ paid actresses .

After making her acting debut in the 2000 war film Refugee , Kapoor established herself in Hindi cinema with roles in the historical drama Aśoka , and the blockbuster melodrama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( both 2001 ) . This initial success was followed by a series of commercial failures and repetitive roles , which garnered her negative reviews . The year 2004 marked a turning point for Kapoor when she played against type in the role of a sex worker in the drama Chameli . She subsequently earned wide critical recognition for her portrayal of a riot victim in the 2004 drama Dev and a character based on William Shakespeare 's heroine Desdemona in the 2006 crime film Omkara . She went on to receive Filmfare Awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress for her performances in the 2007 romantic comedy Jab We Met and the 2010 drama We Are Family , respectively . Kapoor achieved further success by featuring as the female lead in four of India 's top @-@ grossing productions — the 2009 comedy @-@ drama 3 Idiots , the 2011 romantic drama Bodyguard , the 2011 science fiction Ra.One , and the 2015 social drama Bajrangi Bhaijaan — and received praise for her roles in the 2009 thriller Kurbaan and the 2012 drama Heroine .

Married to actor Saif Ali Khan , Kapoor 's off @-@ screen life is the subject of widespread coverage in India . She has a reputation for being outspoken and assertive , and is recognised for her contributions to the film industry through her fashion style and film roles . In addition to film acting , Kapoor is a stage performer and has contributed as a co @-@ author to three books : an autobiographical memoir and two nutrition guides . She has also launched her own clothing line in association with the retail chain Globus .

= = Early life and background = =

Born on 21 September 1980 in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) , Kapoor ( often informally referred to as ' Bebo ' ) is the younger daughter of Randhir Kapoor and Babita ( née Shivdasani ) ; her elder sister Karisma is also an actress . She is the paternal granddaughter of actor and filmmaker Raj Kapoor , maternal granddaughter of actor Hari Shivdasani , and niece of actor Rishi Kapoor . According to Kapoor , the name " Kareena " was derived from the book Anna Karenina , which her mother read while she was pregnant with her . She is of Punjabi descent on her father 's side , and on her mother 's side she is of Sindhi and British descent . As a child , Kapoor regularly practised Hinduism with her family , but was also exposed to Christianity from her mother .

Describing herself as a " very naughty [ and ] spoilt child " , Kapoor 's exposure to films from a young age kindled her interest in acting ; she was particularly inspired by the work of actresses Nargis and Meena Kumari . Despite her family background , her father disapproved of women entering films because he believed it conflicted with the traditional maternal duties and responsibility of women in the family . This led to a conflict between her parents , and they separated . She was then raised by her mother , who worked several jobs to support her daughters until Karisma debuted as an actress in 1991 . After living separately for several years , her parents reconciled in October 2007 . Kapoor remarked " My father is also an important factor in my life [ ... ] [ Al ] though we did not see him often in our initial years , we are a family now . "

Kapoor attended Jamnabai Narsee School in Mumbai , followed by Welham Girls ' School in Dehradun . She attended the institution primarily to satisfy her mother , though later admitted to liking the experience . According to Kapoor , she wasn 't inclined towards academics though received good grades in all her classes except mathematics . After graduating from Welham she studied commerce for two years at Mithibai College in Vile Parle ( Mumbai ) . Kapoor then registered for a three @-@ month summer course in microcomputers at Harvard University in the United States . She later developed an interest in law , and enrolled at the Government Law College , Mumbai ; during this period , she developed a long @-@ lasting passion for reading . However , after completing her first year , Kapoor decided to pursue her interest to become an actress . She began training at an acting institute in Mumbai mentored by Kishore Namit Kapoor , a member of the Film and Television Institute of India ( FTII ) .

= = Acting career = =

= = = 2000 – 03 : Career beginnings , breakthrough and setback = = =

While training at the institute , Kapoor was cast as the female lead in Rakesh Roshan 's Kaho Naa ... Pyaar Hai ( 2000 ) opposite his son , Hrithik Roshan . Several days into the filming , however , she abandoned the project ; Kapoor later explained that she had benefited by not doing the film since more prominence was given to the director 's son . She debuted later that year alongside Abhishek Bachchan in J. P. Dutta 's war drama Refugee . Set during the Indo @-@ Pakistani war of 1971 , the film centers on a man who illegally transports civilians back and forth across the border . Kapoor portrayed Naaz , a Bangladeshi girl who falls in love with Bachchan 's character while illegally migrating to Pakistan with her family . Her performance was acclaimed by critics ; Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama described her as " a natural performer " and noted " the ease with which she emotes the most difficult of scenes " , while India Today reported that Kapoor belonged to a new breed of Hindi film actors that breaks away from character stereotypes . On the experience of acting in her first film , Kapoor described it as " tough ... [ but ] also a great learning experience " . Refugee was a moderate box @-@ office success in India and Kapoor 's performance earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut .

For her second release , Kapoor was paired opposite Tusshar Kapoor in Satish Kaushik 's box @-@ office hit Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai ( 2001 ) . A review in The Hindu noted that based on her first two films , she was " definitely the actress to watch out for " . She next starred alongside Jackie Shroff and Hrithik Roshan in Subhash Ghai 's flop Yaadein , followed by Abbas @-@ Mustan 's moderately successful thriller Ajnabee , co @-@ starring Akshay Kumar , Bobby Deol and Bipasha Basu . Later that year , she appeared in Santosh Sivan 's period epic Aśoka , a partly fictionalized account of the life of the Indian emperor of the same name . Featured opposite Shah Rukh Khan , Kapoor found herself challenged playing the complex personality of her character Kaurwaki ( a Kalingan princess ) with whom Ashoka falls in love . Aśoka was screened at the Venice and 2001 Toronto International Film Festivals , and received generally positive reviews internationally but failed to do well in India , which was attributed by critics to the way Ashoka was portrayed . Jeff Vice of The Deseret News described Kapoor as " riveting " and commended her screen presence . Rediff.com , however , was more critical concluding that her presence in the film was primarily used for aesthetic purposes . At the 47th Filmfare Awards , Aśoka was nominated for five awards including a Best Actress nomination for Kapoor .

A key point in Kapoor 's career came when she was cast by Karan Johar as Pooja ( " Poo " , a good @-@ natured , superficial girl ) in the 2001 melodrama Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... alongside an ensemble cast . Filming the big @-@ budget production was a new experience for Kapoor , and she recalls it fondly : " [ I ] t was great fun doing [ the film and ] we had a blast . [ W ] orking with the unit and the six mega star set was a dream come true . " Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... was an immensely popular release , finishing as India 's second highest @-@ grossing film of the year and Kapoor 's highest @-@ grossing film to that point . It also became one of the biggest Bollywood success of all time in the overseas market , earning over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide . Taran Adarsh described Kapoor as " one of the main highlights of the film " , and she received her second Filmfare nomination for the role — her first for Best Supporting Actress — as well as nominations at the International Indian Academy ( IIFA ) and Screen Awards .

Box Office India reported that the success of Mujhe Kucch Kehna Hai and Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... established Kapoor as a leading actress of Hindi cinema , and Rediff.com published that with Aśoka she had become the highest @-@ paid Indian actress to that point earning ₹ 15 million ( US $ 220 @,@ 000 ) per film . During 2002 and 2003 , Kapoor continued to work in a number of projects but experienced a setback . All six films in which she starred — Mujhse Dosti Karoge ! , Jeena Sirf Merre Liye , Talaash : The Hunt Begins ... , Khushi , Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon , and the four @-@ hour war epic LOC Kargil — were critically and commercially unsuccessful . Critics described her performances in these films as " variations of the same character " she played in Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... , and expressed concern that she was becoming typecast .

= = = 2004 – 06 : Professional expansion = = =

By 2004 , Kapoor was keen on broadening her range as an actress and thus decided to portray more challenging roles . Under the direction of Sudhir Mishra , Kapoor played the role of a golden @-@ hearted prostitute in Chameli , a film relating the story of a young prostitute who meets with a widowed investment banker ( played by Rahul Bose ) . When Kapoor was initially offered the film she refused it , explaining that she would be uncomfortable in the role . She relented when Mishra approached her for the second time , and in preparation for the role , visited several of Mumbai 's red @-@ light districts at night to study the mannerisms of sex workers and the way they dressed . Chameli was well received by critics and the film marked a significant turning point in her career , earning Kapoor a special jury recognition at the 49th Filmfare Awards . Indiatimes praised her " intuitive brilliance " and stated that she had exceeded all expectations . Rediff.com , however , found her portrayal unconvincing and excessively stereotypical , describing her as " sounding more like a teenager playacting than a brash , hardened streetwalker " and comparing her mannerisms to a caricature .

Kapoor next co @-@ starred in Mani Ratnam 's bilingual project Yuva alongside Ajay Devgan , Abhishek Bachchan , Vivek Oberoi , Rani Mukerji and Esha Deol . The film , consisting of three chapters , tells the story of six individuals linked by a car accident . Kapoor is featured in the third chapter as Oberoi 's love interest ( Mira , a witty young woman ) . In a Times of India review film critic Subhash K. Jha described her role as " fey and insubstantial " , but further stated that " she turns these character traits to her own advantage to create a girl who is at once enigmatic and all @-@ there " . She then appeared alongside Amitabh Bachchan and Fardeen Khan in Govind Nihalani 's critically acclaimed film Dev , which revolved around the 2002 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots in the Indian state of Gujarat . Kapoor 's role was that of a Muslim victim named Aaliya , modelled after Zaheera Sheikh ( a key witness in Vadodara 's Best Bakery case ) . It earned her a Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress and nominations for Best Actress at various award ceremonies . Taran Adarsh described her as " first @-@ rate " and in particular noted her scene with Bachchan 's character .

Shortly afterwards , Kapoor was cast for the first time as a villain in the thriller Fida . Set against the backdrop of the Mumbai underworld , the film follows the story of an online heist in which her character , Neha Mehra , becomes involved . Although the film was unsuccessful at the box office , Kapoor received positive reviews for her performance , and some critics noted a distinct progression from her earlier roles . Her subsequent releases that year included Abbas @-@ Mustan 's thriller Aitraaz and Priyadarshan 's comedy Hulchul , both of which were successful at the Indian box office . Following the success of her last two releases , she was cast as the protagonist of the 2005 drama Bewafaa . The feature received mostly negative reviews , and Kapoor 's portrayal of Anjali Sahai ( an unfaithful woman ) was not well received . Nikhat Kazmi of Indiatimes believed that to become a serious actress Kapoor was embodying a maturer , more @-@ jaded character beyond her years in Bewafaa . That same year , she starred in the romantic dramas Kyon Ki and Dosti : Friends Forever , both of which underperformed at the box office ; however , Kapoor 's performance in Kyon Ki was generally well received by critics ( with the BBC describing her as " a pure natural " ) .

In 2006 , Kapoor appeared in three films . She first starred in the thriller 36 China Town , followed by the comedy Chup Chup Ke ; both were moderately successful . She next portrayed the character of Desdemona in Omkara — the Hindi adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Othello . The film ( directed by Vishal Bhardwaj ) is a tragedy of sexual jealousy set against the backdrop of the political system in Uttar Pradesh . Describing Bhardwaj as a " world @-@ class director [ with ] a unique style " , Kapoor was cast in the project after the director had seen her performance in Yuva , and was subsequently required to attend script @-@ reading sessions along with the entire cast . The feature premiered at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and was screened at the Cairo International Film Festival . Omkara was received positively by critics , and Kapoor 's portrayal earned her a fourth Filmfare Award and first Screen Award . In a 2010 retrospective of the " Top 80 Iconic Performances " of Hindi cinema , Filmfare wrote that she was " brilliant " and praised her ability to " effortless [ ly ] " convey the various emotions her character went through . Kapoor considered her role in Omkara as a " new benchmark " in her career , and compared her portrayal of Dolly with her own evolving maturity as a woman .

Following Omkara , Kapoor took a short break from acting , as she felt that " nothing [ was ] challenging enough for me to say yes " . In an interview with The Times of India Kapoor commented , " In my initial years in the industry , I pushed myself to do a lot of work because I was greedy . I did some films — which I now regret — purely for the money . Today , I want to do selective films . " Later that year , she appeared briefly in one of the year 's biggest hits , the Farhan Akhtar action @-@ thriller Don ( a remake of the 1978 film of the same name ) .

= = = 2007 – 11 : Rise to prominence = = =

Kapoor returned to film as the female protagonist Geet Dhillon , a vivacious Sikh girl with a zest for life , in the romantic comedy Jab We Met ( 2007 ) . Director Imtiaz Ali was not a well @-@ known figure before its production , with only one feature credit to his name , but Kapoor agreed to the film after being impressed with his " mind @-@ blowing " script . Featured opposite Shahid Kapoor , the film relates the story of two people with contrasting personalities who meet on a train and eventually fall in love . The film was received favourably by critics and became successful at the box office with gross earnings of ₹ 303 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) . Kapoor won several awards for her performance , including her second Screen Award and the Filmfare Award for Best Actress . Jaspreet Pandohar of the BBC commented that the role required a mixture of naivety and spontaneity , and was impressed with Kapoor 's effort . The critic Rajeev Masand labelled her the film 's " biggest strength , as she brings alive her character with not just those smart lines , but with the kind of candor actors seldom invest in their work . " While shooting for Jab We Met , Kapoor and Shahid ended their three @-@ year relationship . When asked by Mumbai Mirror , she stated " I hold him in utmost regard , and I hope one day we could be good friends . He is a great guy . "

The following year , Kapoor co @-@ starred in Vijay Krishna Acharya 's action @-@ thriller Tashan , where she met her future husband in actor Saif Ali Khan . Although a poll ( conducted by Bollywood Hungama ) named it the most anticipated release of the year , the film underperformed at the box office grossing ₹ 279 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 1 million ) in India . After providing her voice for the character of Laila , the love interest of a street dog named Romeo , in the Yash Raj Films and Walt Disney Pictures animated film Roadside Romeo , Kapoor played a mistrustful wife who believed her husband was unfaithful in Rohit Shetty 's comedy Golmaal Returns . A sequel to the 2006 film Golmaal : Fun Unlimited , the film had an ambivalent reception from critics , and Kapoor received mixed reviews . The Indian Express believed the screenplay was derivative , concluding : " There is nothing particularly new about a suspicious wife keeping tabs on her husband , and there is nothing particularly new in the way Kareena plays it . " Golmaal Returns was a financial success with global revenues of ₹ 793 million ( US $ 12 million ) .

In 2009 , Kapoor was cast as Simrita Rai ( a surgeon who moonlights as a model ) in Sabbir Khan 's battle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ sexes comedy Kambakkht Ishq , opposite Akshay Kumar . Set in Los Angeles , it was the first Indian film to be shot at Universal Studios and featured cameo appearances by Hollywood actors . The film was poorly received by critics but became an economic success , earning over ₹ 840 million ( US $ 12 million ) worldwide ; a review in Times of India described Kapoor 's performance as " a complete let @-@ down " and " unconvincing " . The box @-@ office flop Main Aurr Mrs Khanna came next , following which she played the leading lady in the dramatic thriller Kurbaan , alongside Saif Ali Khan and Vivek Oberoi . The film ( which marked the directorial debut of Rensil D 'Silva ) featured Kapoor as Avantika Ahuja , a woman who is confined to house arrest after discovering that her husband is a terrorist . Describing the film as " an emotionally draining experience " , Kapoor explained that it was difficult to disconnect from her character . The film was critically praised , and Kapoor received her fourth Filmfare Best Actress nomination . Gaurav Malani of The Economic Times commented that after a long time the actress was given " a role of substance that brings her performing potential to the fore " , while Subhash K. Jha described it as her " most consistently pitched performance to date " played " with splendid sensitivity " and " credib [ ility ] " .

Kapoor 's second Filmfare nomination that year came for Rajkumar Hirani 's National Film Award @-@ winning 3 Idiots , a film loosely based on the novel Five Point Someone by Chetan Bhagat . Co @-@ starring alongside Aamir Khan , R. Madhavan and Sharman Joshi , Kapoor played Pia ( a medical student and Khan 's love interest ) . Several actresses were considered for the role , though Kapoor was eventually cast under the recommendation of Khan . The film received critical acclaim and emerged as the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film of all time up until then , grossing ₹ 2 @.@ 03 billion ( US $ 30 million ) in India . It also did well internationally , earning over ₹ 1 @.@ 08 billion ( US $ 16 million ) , the second biggest Bollywood success ever in the overseas market . The Deccan Herald opined that Kapoor " brings a dollop of sunshine and feminine grace to an otherwise masculine tale . She is so spunky and spontaneous you wish there was room for more of her . " 3 Idiots received several Best Movie recognitions at major Indian award functions , and Kapoor was awarded the IIFA Award for Best Actress , among others .

In 2010 , Kapoor appeared in the romantic comedy Milenge Milenge , a production delayed since 2005 . The feature garnered negative reviews and poor box @-@ office returns . Kapoor 's role was small , and not well received . She next starred alongside Kajol and Arjun Rampal in We Are Family , an official adaptation of the Hollywood tearjerker Stepmom ( 1998 ) from director Siddharth Malhotra . Kapoor played the role of the career @-@ oriented Shreya Arora ( a character originally played by Julia Roberts ) and refrained from watching the film again so she could bring her own interpretation to it . Priyanka Roy of The Telegraph criticized the film for being " superficial and unnecessarily melodramatic " , but praised Kapoor for " breath [ ing ] life and a new @-@ found maturity into what is largely a uni @-@ dimensional character " . We Are Family emerged a moderate success and Kapoor was awarded the Best Supporting Actress at the 56th Filmfare Awards . At the end of the year , she reunited with director Rohit Shetty for Golmaal 3 , a sequel to Golmaal Returns . Like its predecessor , the film received mixed reviews though emerged as the most successful entry in the Golmaal series , earning more than ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) domestically . For her portrayal of the tomboy Daboo , Kapoor received Best Actress nominations at various award ceremonies including Filmfare .

Kapoor had further success in 2011 as the love interest of Salman Khan 's character in the romantic drama Bodyguard , a remake of the 2010 Malayalam film of the same name . The film was not well received by critics , though became a financial success , with a domestic total of ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) — India 's highest @-@ earning film of the year . A review in Mint dismissed Kapoor 's role as the " sacrificial , ornamental [ and ] submissive female " ; Mid Day referred to her as " bright " , arguing that she " actually manages to bring her caricature of a role alive " . She next appeared in Anubhav Sinha 's science fiction film Ra.One with Shah Rukh Khan and Arjun Rampal . Made on a budget of ₹ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 22 million ) — " India 's most expensive film " at the time — the film follows the story of a London @-@ based videogame designer creating a villainous character who escapes into the real world . Despite negative media coverage of the film 's box office performance , Ra.One became one of the biggest earners of the year with a worldwide total of over ₹ 2 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 36 million ) , and Kapoor 's fourth major commercial success in two consecutive years .

= = = 2012 – 15 : Marriage and decrease in workload = = =

Kapoor followed her success in Bodyguard and Ra.One with a role in Shakun Batra 's directorial debut Ek Main Aur Ekk Tu ( 2012 ) opposite Imran Khan . Set in Las Vegas , the romantic comedy follows the story of two strangers who get married one night after getting drunk . She played Riana Braganza , a carefree young woman , and was particularly drawn to the qualities of her character : " Riana knows what she is doing . Even though she does not have a house or a job , she is a positive person [ ... ] very similar to the way I am . " The film received positive reviews and was an economic success , grossing a total of ₹ 530 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 9 million ) in India and abroad . The Hollywood Reporter found her " endearingly natural " ; Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com asserted that " after doing ornamental roles in films like Bodyguard and Ra.One , it is nice to see the spunky actress in her element again since Jab We Met . " She next appeared in Agent Vinod , an espionage thriller directed by Sriram Raghavan . Kapoor was enthusiastic about the project , but it met with a tepid response and she was described as miscast . When asked why she had taken the role , Kapoor described it as an opportunity to attempt something she had never done before .

For her next feature , Kapoor was cast as the protagonist of Madhur Bhandarkar 's Heroine , a drama revolving around the Bollywood film industry . Originally the first choice for the role , Kapoor was hesitant to take on the project when Bhandarkar approached her with the film 's initial concept . With reservations about the criticism her character might evoke , she was replaced by Aishwarya Rai . Days after production began , Rai left the film ( due to her pregnancy ) and Bhandarkar re @-@ approached Kapoor with the film . When the director reinforced his faith in her , she agreed to do the film after having read the completed script . Kapoor ( who described her character of Mahi Arora — a fading star — as " bipolar and schizophrenic " ) refrained from taking on any other projects , since she found Heroine " very aggressive and tiring " . Reviewers found the film to be " drably monotonous " , but noted that it was watchable primarily due to Kapoor 's performance . Rajeev Masand described it as " a deliciously camp performance , " played " with utmost sincerity " . Bollywood Hungama opined that it was her best work to date and concluded that " [ t ] hough her character is inconsistent [ ... ] Kareena furnishes the heroine 's character with a rare vulnerability and an exceptional inner life . " At the annual Stardust Awards , Kapoor garnered the Editor 's Choice for Best Actress , and received additional nominations at Filmfare , IIFA , Producers Guild , Screen and Stardust .

On 16 October 2012 , Kapoor married actor Saif Ali Khan in a private ceremony in Bandra , Mumbai , and a reception was later held at The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel and the Lutyens Bungalow Zone in Mumbai and Delhi respectively . Kapoor stated that despite adding Khan to her name she would continue practising Hinduism after her marriage . At the end of the year , she co @-@ starred alongside Aamir Khan and Rani Mukerji as the " tantalisingly seductive prostitute " Rosie , in Reema Kagti 's crime mystery Talaash : The Answer Lies Within . Set against the backdrop of Mumbai 's red @-@ light districts , it follows the travails of its personnel and principal , Inspector Surjan Singh Shekhawat ( Khan ) who is assigned the duty of solving a mysterious car accident . Pratim D. Gupta of The Telegraph found Kapoor to be a standout among the ensemble , adding that " she brings an unseen mix of oomph and emotion that becomes the [ film 's ] centrepiece " . With global revenues of ₹ 1 @.@ 74 billion ( US $ 26 million ) , the film emerged as a box office hit , and earned Kapoor Best Actress nominations at the Screen , Stardust and Zee Cine award ceremonies .

In 2013 , Kapoor collaborated with Ajay Devgan for the fourth time ( alongside Amitabh Bachchan , Arjun Rampal , Manoj Bajpayee and Amrita Rao ) in Prakash Jha 's Satyagraha , an ensemble socio @-@ political drama loosely inspired by social activist Anna Hazare 's fight against corruption in 2011 . The film was highly anticipated by trade journalists due to its release coinciding with the Mumbai and Delhi gang rape public protests , and Kapoor hoped that the film would help inspire people to stop violence against women in India . Satyagraha received little praise from critics and underperformed at the box office earning ₹ 675 million ( US $ 10 million ) domestically . A review in the Daily News and Analysis noted that Kapoor 's role as reporter Yasmin Ahmed was " limited to mouthing a few ' important ' dialogues and being present in crucial scenes like any leading lady " .

Following an appearance in the poorly received romantic comedy Gori Tere Pyaar Mein ( 2013 ) , Kapoor decreased her workload for the next two years to focus on her marriage and family . She took on smaller parts where she played the love @-@ interest of Ajay Devgan and Salman Khan in the dramas Singham Returns ( 2014 ) and Bajrangi Bhaijaan ( 2015 ) respectively . Singham Returns served as a sequel to the 2011 film Singham and Kapoor 's role was written specifically for her by Rohit Shetty — the third time the pair collaborated . Reviews for the film were generally mixed with Kapoor being criticized for taking a role of minimal importance , but the film was a financial success with a revenue of over ₹ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 21 million ) . Kabir Khan 's Bajrangi Bhaijaan emerged as India 's highest @-@ earning film of the year grossing a total of ₹ 3 @.@ 20 billion ( US $ 48 million ) , and earned the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment at the 63rd National Film Awards .

= = = 2016 – present : Recent work = = =

The following year , Kapoor took on a starring role opposite Arjun Kapoor in Ki & Ka , a romantic comedy about gender stereotypes from the writer @-@ director R. Balki . She was cast as the ambitious and career @-@ oriented Kia , and was particularly drawn to the project for its relevance and novel concept . Upon release , critics were divided in their opinion of the film , but with a worldwide gross of over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) the film was a financial success . Meena Iyer of The Times of India mentioned Kapoor as " terrific " and Sukanya Verma considered the actress to be the film 's prime asset noting her ease at " smoothly transition [ ing ] between fragile and volatile to reveal a woman comfortable in her own skin , unapologetic about living life on her terms and never missing an occasion to mince words . "

Kapoor next played the role of Dr. Preet Sahni in Abhishek Chaubey 's critically acclaimed Udta Punjab ( 2016 ) , a crime drama that documents the substance abuse endemic in the Indian state of Punjab . Co @-@ starring alongside Shahid Kapoor , Alia Bhatt and Diljit Dosanjh , Kapoor was initially reluctant to do the film due to the length of her role , but agreed after having read the completed script and waived half of her fees to star in it . Udta Punjab generated controversy when the Central Board of Film Certification deemed that the film represented Punjab in a negative light and demanded extensive censorship before its theatrical release . The Bombay High Court later cleared the film for exhibition with one scene cut . In a highly positive review , Rediff.com stated that despite being " the narrative ’ s most conventional character , " the film " greatly relies on [ her ] for warmth and virtue " and Mehul S. Thakkar of The Deccan Chronicle wrote that she was successful in " deliver [ ing ] a strong and hard hitting performance . "

As of June 2016 , Kapoor has committed to play the lead role in Shashanka Ghosh 's Veere Di Wedding , a romantic comedy co @-@ starring Sonam Kapoor , Swara Bhaskar and Shikha Talsania about four girls who embark on a trip from Delhi to Europe .

= = Other ventures = =

= = = Clothing line and publication = = =

Alongside her acting work , Kapoor has established a career as a designer and an author . During her five @-@ year association with the retail chain Globus , Kapoor became the first Indian actress to launch her own line of clothing for women ; she described the collaboration as being " special " and " reflective of my personal sense of style " . Her collection made its debut several months later in stores across India , and was well received . Following the end of her contract with Globus , she expressed a desire to work with a design house to release her clothing line internationally , but later explained that those plans were on hold .

In 2009 , Kapoor collaborated with nutritionist Rujuta Diwekar on Don 't Lose Your Mind , Lose Your Weight , a book which focused on the principles of healthy eating habits . Published by Random House Publications , the book was well received by critics , and sold 10 @,@ 000 copies within its first twenty days . A follow @-@ up titled , Women and The Weight Loss Tamasha , was released two years later . It addressed the weight loss concerns and eating habits of women in various parts of their life , and featured Kapoor in a voice @-@ over for the audiobook . In February 2013 , Kapoor released her autobiographical memoir : The Style Diary of a Bollywood Diva . Co @-@ authored alongside Rochelle Pinto , it became the first book to be launched under the Shobhaa De imprint of Penguin Books — a set of series that included celebrity memoirs , guides and biographies . In a review published by Mint , Shefalee Vasudev criticised the writing style as " too @-@ breezy " but further stated that it is " a well @-@ produced book , reproducing chirpy little post @-@ it notes and diet charts , punctuated with Bebo 's stunning pictures from her private albums to fashion magazine covers . " Later that year , she collaborated with Diwekar for the third time on The Indian Food Wisdom and The Art of Eating Right , a documentary film about nutrition .

= = = Philanthropy = = =

During her years in the film industry , Kapoor has made public appearances to support various philanthropic endeavours , and has been actively involved in promoting children 's education and the safety of women . In November 2003 , she performed at a fundraiser for the World Youth Peace Summit and two years later she participated in a concert to raise money for victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami . In 2005 , she visited Indian jawans ( troops ) in Rajasthan , for a special Holi weekend episode of NDTV 's reality show Jai Jawaan . As part of the 2010 NDTV Greenathon Campaign , Kapoor adopted the village of Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh to provide the village with a regular supply of electricity , and also took part in the international campaign 1GOAL Education for All .

The following year , Kapoor was appointed ambassador for the Shakti Campaign — a project launched by NDTV to combat violence against women — in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of International Women 's Day . In December 2013 , Kapoor launched Channel V 's anti @-@ rape mobile app ' VithU ' ; she stated that with an increasing amount of violence against women in India , " [ i ] t [ was ] important for actors to stand up for issues because they can reach out to a lot of people . " Kapoor later attended a gala dinner at the Taj Mahal Hotel ( hosted by Valérie Trierweiler ) where she participated in a campaign to raise awareness on hunger and malnutrition in the world .

In 2014 , Kapoor began working with UNICEF to advocate the education of girls and increase quality based education in India . During the first year , Kapoor visited schools in the states of Rajasthan and Maharashtra where she interacted with students and participated in fundraising events hosted by the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya organization in the Jalna district . As part of a joint initiative by UNICEF and Groupon to help raise funds for promoting a higher @-@ quality learning environment in Indian schools , Kapoor gave an equivalent amount of the funds raised during the campaign , and later launched the ' Child @-@ Friendly School and Systems ' ( CFSS ) package . In 2015 , ( along with chief minister Raman Singh ) she awarded 31 students and 5 teachers for their contribution towards the field of education in Chhattisgarh at the concluding ceremony of Child Rights Protection week . Also that year , Kapoor provided a voice @-@ over for the documentary film Girl Rising : Woh Padhegi , Woh Udegi [ She will learn , she will fly ] for the organisation of the same name and made donations to the Kashmir flood relief .

= = = Stage performances = = =

Kapoor has participated in several stage shows and world tours since 2002 . Her first tour ( Heartthrobs : Live in Concert ( 2002 ) with Hrithik Roshan , Karisma Kapoor , Arjun Rampal and Aftab Shivdasani ) was successful in the United States and Canada . At the end of that year , she performed with several other Bollywood stars at Kings Park Stadium in Durban , South Africa in the show Now or Never .

Four years later , Kapoor returned to the stage with six other Bollywood celebrities in the successful Rockstars Concert world tour . The concert was originally scheduled to commence in April 2006 , but was postponed due to the arrest of Salman Khan . It later began the following month and was staged in 19 cities across the United Kingdom , the United States and Canada . In 2008 , Kapoor performed in Shah Rukh Khan 's Temptation Reloaded 2008 , a series of concerts in a number of countries . The show ( which also featured Arjun Rampal , Katrina Kaif , Ganesh Hegde , Javed Ali and Anusha Dandekar ) debuted at the Ahoy Rotterdam venue in Rotterdam , the Netherlands . Several months later she again joined Khan , Rampal and Kaif to perform for an audience of 15 @,@ 000 at Dubai 's Festival City Arena .

= = Public image and character = =

Known for her nonchalant relationship with the media , Kapoor has gained a reputation for discussing her private life with no reservations . As a child she regularly attended award ceremonies and events with her family , and would also accompany Karisma on @-@ set during filming . In an interview with Filmfare , she explained that growing up in a film family helped her develop a sense of professionalism and dedication towards her craft . Kapoor 's private life has been the subject of media attention in India , with frequent press coverage of her weight and relationship with actor Saif Ali Khan . The couple — dubbed " Saifeena " by the entertainment media — has been one of the country 's most @-@ reported celebrity stories since 2007 . In July 2016 , Khan confirmed to the media that they were expecting their first child , due in December 2016 .

While a segment of the press has described Kapoor as friendly and extremely close to her family , others have criticized her for being arrogant and vain — an image she gained in the wake of her superficial character , Poo , in Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham ... ( 2001 ) . She subsequently featured in films portraying similar characters , and this further established her off- and on @-@ screen personae . Before the release of Chameli ( 2004 ) ( in which she played a sex worker ) , Kapoor stated that " there is a certain image that people identify you with [ and ] [ i ] t always follows you whichever role you play . I am trying to transgress this image and become more screen @-@ friendly than image @-@ friendly . " Chameli helped Kapoor reinvent her on @-@ screen persona , and she later explained that her honesty and openness was often perceived by the media as arrogance .

Kapoor is also known for her assertive and moody nature , and her outspoken views and independence have been singled out for making major contributions to her career ; they " add to her superstar aura " . In an early interview , she confessed to being an " introvert , yet [ ... ] extremely candid and blunt " , reasoning : " Total faith and complete belief in myself is my attitude towards life , films and virtually everything else . I am all about doing what I feel is right . It is not easy to pin me down as I can be a bundle of contradictions . " Journalist Subhash K Jha explained that while this approach has sometimes been at the cost of professional opportunities , it " makes her such a favourite among the generation that believes in self regard being the highest form of creativity [ ... ] She lives for the moment and crams all her intensity into it , not sparing a single thought for what is gone and what is waiting around the corner . " Meanwhile , Anu Ahuja suggested that Kapoor 's demeanour is an act ; she is " cold and unapproachable so that no one will act funny with her " .

Today , Kapoor is considered as one of the most popular Bollywood celebrities in India . Her look and performances have established her as a style icon for young women . In a 2009 poll conducted by the newspaper Daily News and Analysis Kapoor was voted one of India 's most popular icons ; with her partner Saif Ali Khan , she was listed amongst the top celebrity endorsers for brands and products worldwide . She became the only Indian actress to be featured on CNNGo 's list of " Who Mattered Most in India " , and was later selected by Verve for its list of the country 's most powerful women from 2008 to 2013 . In June 2010 , Kapoor was named " India 's Most Beautiful Woman " by the Indian edition of People magazine ; Eastern Eye and Indian Maxim named her as " Asia 's Sexiest Woman " and " India 's Hottest Woman " in 2011 and 2012 respectively . The following year , she was selected by India Today for its list of the country 's most influential women . From 2012 – 15 , Kapoor has featured on Forbes India 's " Celebrity 100 , " a list based on the income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She ranked among the top 25 each year , peaking at the seventh position in 2012 with an estimated annual earning of ₹ 735 million ( US $ 11 million ) .

= = Performances : technique and analysis = =

According to media reports , Kapoor relies on her instincts and spontaneity as an actor . She is known to commit heavily to each role , and refrains from rehearsing for a project . Commenting on this , director Rajkumar Hirani said " I usually have a habit of conducting rehearsals for my actors , but she insisted on not having them as it would affect her spontaneity . She really surprised me with a couple of emotional scenes which we canned in just one take . " Karan Johar described Kapoor as a " natural " , explaining that " she has no craft , grammar or process attached to her acting [ ... ] It is a great sense of cinema that can keep her going . " According to Rensil D 'Silva ( who directed her in Kurbaan ) , " Kareena [ .. ] is instinctive and has emotional intelligence . She absorbs the situation and performs accordingly . Discussing the scene , in fact , harms her . "

While discussing her career highlights in a 2010 article , Rediff.com noted : " [ E ] ven though a lot of her starring roles have been forgettable , [ a ] look at her filmography now , however , would show a more thoughtful selection of roles [ ... ] playing to her strengths . " Her portrayal of a series of superficial characters at the start of her career were criticized ; film historian Gyan Prakash explained that these roles " tended to infantilise her , packaging her as daddy 's little girl , all bubble and no fizz " . Critics noted Chameli ( 2004 ) as her coming of age , claiming that " a new actor in her was discovered " . Following her portrayal of a variety of character types in Chameli , Dev ( 2004 ) , Omkara ( 2006 ) and Jab We Met ( 2007 ) , Kapoor was noted for her versatility . In 2010 , Filmfare Magazine included two of her performances — from Omkara and Jab We Met — in its list of " 80 Iconic Performances " . India Today labelled her " the most versatile female lead in the industry " , noting that she " play [ s ] her roles with trademark spunk " .

Manjula Sen of The Telegraph wrote that although she has " the worst success ratio among her contemporaries " , it does not affect her marketability . Sen further explained that Kapoor 's strength lies in her being versatile ; she is " effortlessly honest in her performances . It is a candour that spills over in her personal conduct . " Writing for CNN @-@ News18 , Rituparna Chatterjee spoke of her transformation to date : " [ A ] fter 40 films and 10 years of fighting off competition from some of the most versatile actors of her generation , Kareena has matured into a bankable actor reinventing herself with surprising ease . " In 2004 , Kapoor placed third on Rediff 's list of " Top Bollywood Female Stars " . She was later ranked seventh and fifth in 2005 and 2006 , respectively , and returned to third place in 2007 . In January 2011 , Kapoor placed fourth on Rediff 's list of " Top 10 Actresses of 2000 – 2010 " .

= = Filmography and awards = =

= = = Selected filmography = = =

= = = Awards and nominations = = =

Kapoor has received six Filmfare Awards out of ten nominations . For her role in Refugee , Kapoor was awarded the Best Female Debut in 2000 . She earned a special jury recognition for Chameli ( 2003 ) , and two Critics Award for Best Actress for Dev ( 2004 ) and Omkara ( 2006 ) . Kapoor later received the Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress for Jab We Met ( 2007 ) and We Are Family ( 2010 ) respectively .

= Ryan Hanigan =

Ryan Michael Hanigan ( born August 16 , 1980 ) is an American professional baseball catcher for the Boston Red Sox of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . After graduating from Andover High School in 1999 , Hanigan attended Rollins College , where he signed as an undrafted free agent with the Cincinnati Reds . He then spent the 2002 to 2006 seasons with Reds minor league baseball teams before making his MLB debut on September 9 , 2007 as a pinch hitter . He recorded his first major league hit in that at @-@ bat . He also played for the Tampa Bay Rays . He has caught two no hitters , both thrown by Homer Bailey .

= = Early life = =

Hanigan was born on August 16 , 1980 , in Washington , D.C. , to Mike and Helen Hanigan . He has an older sister named Hayley . He played American Legion Baseball for American Legion Post 8 in Andover . At Andover High School , Hanigan was a three @-@ year varsity starter , and was named an Eagle @-@ Tribune and Eastern Massachusetts All @-@ Star during his senior season , in which he hit .397 . From 1997 – 98 , the Andover team had a 38 – 9 record . He was teammates with future professional golfer Rob Oppenheim , and graduated from the school in 1999 .

= = College career = =

After graduating from high school , Hanigan had a difficult time finding a college that would let him play baseball . He attended Rollins College in Winter Park , Florida , where he played third base or left field because of an upperclassman at the catcher position . During the summer in 2001 , Hanigan played in the New England Collegiate Baseball League , where he hit .282 in 38 games . In his junior year , he hit .384 with 48 RBIs over 57 games for Rollins , as the team finished 41 – 16 and clinched a berth to the NCAA Division II Baseball Championship . Hanigan would have served as team captain his senior year ; when he left Rollins , Hanigan 's .359 career batting average was seventh best in school history .

He played summer baseball in the Cape Cod League for Orleans Cardinals , where he was named the Top New England Prospect and an All @-@ Star . In August 2002 , Hanigan was awarded the Charles F. Moore Sr. award for the most valuable player on the Cardinals team . John Brickley , a scout for the Reds , signed him as a free agent on August 23 , although six other teams " showed interest " in signing the catcher .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =

True fans of baseball understand that Hanigan is known for his extraordinarily competitive at @-@ bats . As early as T @-@ Ball--a league I 'm which it 's difficult to give away an AB-- " Hanny " as his teammates called him , was known for his patience and eye . " Every at @-@ bat is competitive with Ryan , " said then teammate Eric Derek . " This guy sets the rest of us up to crush that ball [ on the tee ] . " Hanigan continued commanding at @-@ bats all the way to the major leagues where his .190 average belies his mastery of the zone . " Watching him command an at @-@ bats isn 't unlike watching a ninja master command an inferior opponent , " said current teammate Dustin Pedroia . " I imagine . " In 2002 , Hanigan began his career with the Reds ' organization when he played in six minor league games for the Dayton Dragons of the Midwest League , batting .273 with three hits . On April 28 , 2003 , in a game against the Quad City River Bandits , he went 4 – 5 with three RBIs . Hanigan was named to the East squad in the Midwest League All @-@ Star Game , where he served as the reserve catcher . Later in July , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) with a high ankle sprain ; up until then , he was hitting .283 with 26 RBIs . Hanigan finished the season batting .277 with a home run and 31 RBIs , which earned him a promotion to the Triple @-@ A Louisville Bats . In one game for the Bats , he went 1 – 3 .

Hanigan spent the entire 2004 season with the Class A @-@ Advanced Potomac Cannons , where he served as the team 's catcher and designated hitter . From July 6 to July 29 , he had a 22 @-@ game hit streak , the longest in the Carolina League for the year . On August 24 , he hit in the game @-@ winning run against the Salem Avalanche with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning . For the season , Hanigan hit .296 with five home runs and 56 RBIs over 119 games as the Cannons made the Carolina League Northern Division playoffs for the first time since 1995 .

The following season , Hanigan played for the Double @-@ A Chattanooga Lookouts . On August 29 , 2005 , he hit a grand slam against the West Tennessee Diamond Jaxx as the Lookouts lost , 10 – 12 . After the season , he was selected by the Reds to represent the organization in the Arizona Fall League , and was a non @-@ roster invitee to the Reds 2006 spring training camp . In 2006 , Hanigan appeared in 56 games for the Lookouts as well as eight games for the Bats . During a July 13 , 2006 contest , Hanigan drove in the what would be the winning run with two outs in the seventh inning against the Birmingham Barons . For the season , he hit .246 for the Lookouts and .154 for the Bats .

Playing for the Lookouts , Hanigan was selected to the Southern League All @-@ Star Game in June 2007 . He was promoted to the Bats on June 28 , 2007 , after reaching base safely in 40 of his last 42 games for the Lookouts , including three four @-@ hit games . He was called up to the major @-@ league squad on September 1 . Hanigan made his MLB debut on September 9 against the Milwaukee Brewers . Pinch hitting for Kirk Saarloos , he doubled to left field off the first pitch from All @-@ Star Ben Sheets , and later scored a run on a wild pitch . For the MLB Reds , Hanigan hit .300 in five games played , with two RBIs and a double . During the off @-@ season , he played in the Dominican Professional Baseball League for the Leones del Escogido .

Playing for the Bats in 2008 , Hanigan was a mid @-@ season and postseason International League ( IL ) All @-@ Star , and was named the best defensive catcher in the IL by Baseball America . He was called up to the majors on August 10 , 2008 , after David Ross was designated for assignment by the Reds ; 18 days later , he hit a home run in the eighth inning to score what would be the winning run against the Houston Astros . After batting .271 in 31 games for the Reds , Hanigan was ranked as the 16th best prospect in the Reds minor league system by Baseball America .

Hanigan spent the entire 2009 season with the Reds except for five games with the Bats . He served as the backup catcher to Ramón Hernández until Hernández underwent knee surgery and was placed on the DL . Hanigan went on the DL after he was hit on the face mask by a foul tip and suffered a concussion ; he returned on August 8 , 2009 . For the season , Hanigan had the best fielding percentage as a catcher ( .998 ) , and the second best caught stealing percentage ( 42 @.@ 9 ) in the majors .

On March 14 , 2011 , Hanigan signed a three @-@ year , $ 4 million extension with the Reds , covering his first two arbitration @-@ eligible seasons . The contract also included up to $ 800 @,@ 000 in incentives based on playing time , split for the 2012 and 2013 seasons . The deal included a $ 300 @,@ 000 signing bonus .

On April 3 , 2011 , he set career records by hitting more than one home run and getting four hits in a single game . Against Chicago Cubs pitcher Sean Marshall , Hanigan drove in the tie @-@ breaking run in what was an 8 – 7 win for the Reds on August 7 . He finished the year batting .267 with an on @-@ base percentage of .356 and a career @-@ high of six home runs .

In 2012 and 2013 , Hanigan split time catching with Reds ' prospect Devin Mesoraco . Hanigan caught both of Homer Bailey 's no @-@ hitters , against the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 28 , 2012 , and against the San Francisco Giants on July 2 , 2013 .

= = = Tampa Bay Rays = = =

Hanigan was traded to the Tampa Bay Rays as part of a three @-@ team trade also involving the Arizona Diamondbacks on December 3 , 2013 . The Rays immediately signed him to a three @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 75 million contract through 2016 , with a team option for 2017 .

Playing as the Rays ' primary catcher , on April 4 he went 2 @-@ 5 with a three @-@ run homer in a win over the Texas Rangers . Two weeks later he hit two home runs with six RBIs in a 16 @-@ 1 win over the New York Yankees . In May , Hanigan , plagued for nearly two weeks by a strained hamstring , was finally placed on the 15 @-@ day DL on May 28 . On June 17 he had a home run and a walk against the Baltimore Orioles , but he then missed several more games due to neck stiffness and later with soreness in his left side .

= = = Boston Red Sox = = =

On December 19 , 2014 , the Rays traded Hanigan and Wil Myers to the San Diego Padres as part of a three @-@ team transaction , in which the Padres traded Jake Bauers , Burch Smith , and René Rivera to the Rays , the Padres trade Joe Ross and a player to be named later to the Washington Nationals , and Washington traded Steven Souza and Travis Ott to Tampa Bay . The Padres then traded him , later that same day , to the Boston Red Sox for Will Middlebrooks . On April 17 , 2015 , Hanigan hit his first home run in a Red Sox uniform off of Ubaldo Jiménez of the Baltimore Orioles . The two run shot tied the game that Boston eventually won in walk @-@ off fashion . On May 1 , 2015 , Hanigan left the game after a ball struck his hand after Mark Teixeira got struck in his hand first . The next day , X @-@ rays tested positive that Hanigan 's hand was fractured , placing him on the 15 @-@ day disabled list . The Red Sox projected that he was going to be out indefinitely but other sources projected that the injury did not end his 2015 year . On May 3 , 2015 , Hanigan was placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list .

= = Personal life = =

Hanigan currently resides in Lexington , Kentucky , where he also breeds horses . His Australian shepherd won a Best in Breed award at the 2014 Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show .

= SS Pennsylvanian =

SS Pennsylvanian was a cargo ship built in 1913 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was requisitioned by the United States Navy and commissioned as USS Pennsylvanian ( ID @-@ 3511 ) in September 1918 , and renamed two months later to USS Scranton . After her naval service , her original name of Pennsylvanian was restored .

Pennsylvanian was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened . Pennsylvanian was one of the first two steamships to travel eastbound through the canal when it opened in August 1914 . During World War I , as both SS Pennsylvanian and USS Scranton , the ship carried cargo and animals to France , and returned American troops after the Armistice in 1918 .

After her naval service ended in 1919 , she was returned to her original owners and resumed relatively uneventful cargo service over the next twenty years . Early in World War II , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration , and shipped cargo on New York – Caribbean routes and transatlantic routes . In mid @-@ July 1944 , Pennsylvanian was scuttled as part of the breakwater for one of the Mulberry artificial harbors built to support the Normandy Invasion .

= = Design and construction = =

In September 1911 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for four new cargo ships — Minnesotan , Dakotan , Montanan , and Pennsylvanian . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 each . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . Provisions of the deal allowed that some of the nine installments could be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Pennsylvanian , including financing costs , was $ 70 @.@ 35 per deadweight ton , which came out to just under $ 716 @,@ 000 .

Pennsylvanian ( Maryland Steel yard no . 127 ) was the final ship built under the original contract . She was launched on 29 March 1913 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian in June . Pennsylvanian was 6 @,@ 547 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 429 feet 2 inches ( 130 @.@ 81 m ) in length and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT and a storage capacity of 491 @,@ 084 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 906 @.@ 0 m3 ) . Pennsylvanian had a single quadruple expansion steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers that drove a single screw propeller . It could propel the ship at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . The engine had cylinders of 25 ½ inches ( 65 cm ) , 37 inches ( 94 cm ) , 53 ½ inches ( 136 cm ) and 78 inches ( 200 cm ) diameter by 54 inches ( 140 cm ) stroke . It was built by the Maryland Steel Company , Sparrows Point , Maryland .

= = Early career = =

When Pennsylvanian began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Pennsylvanian sailed in this service on the west side of North America .

After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access , coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return in late April to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route . Pennsylvanian , on the west side of the canal when it opened , was one of the first two eastbound steamers to traverse the canal during her trip to New York . In late August , American @-@ Hawaiian announced that Pennsylvanian would sail on a San Francisco – Panama Canal – Boston route , sailing opposite of Mexican , Honolulan , and sister ship Washingtonian . When landslides closed the canal in October 1915 , all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Pennsylvanian , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again .

Pennsylvanian 's exact movements during 1916 and 1917 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore . However , when the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , the entire American @-@ Hawaiian fleet , including Pennsylvanian , was requisitioned by the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , which then returned the ships for operation by American @-@ Hawaiian .

= = U.S. Navy service = =

On 13 September 1918 , Pennsylvanian was transferred to the U.S. Navy at New York and commissioned USS Pennsylvanian ( ID @-@ 3511 ) the same day . Assigned to the Navy 's Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) , Pennsylvanian loaded a general cargo and sailed for Brest , France , on 30 September . She arrived there on 15 October and sailed for La Pallice the next day , where she unloaded her cargo before departing for New York on 5 November .

Arriving at New York on 15 November , four days after the Armistice , Pennsylvanian was refitted as an animal transport ship , which , among other things , required the building of ramps and stalls for the animals . Sometime in November , probably during her refit , she was renamed USS Scranton , becoming the first U.S. Navy ship named in honor of the Pennsylvania city . Scranton sailed for France on 12 December , arriving at Saint @-@ Nazaire on 29 December , and returning to New York on 29 January 1919 .

On 5 February , Scranton was transferred from the NOTS to the Navy 's Cruiser and Transport Force , and began conversion to a troop transport to carry American personnel home from France . While sailing to France to begin her first troop @-@ carrying duties in late March , Scranton suffered damage to her rudder and was disabled 900 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km ) east of New York . Navy transport El Sol responded to Scranton 's distress call , and attempted to take Scranton under tow . During the day on 28 March , Scranton attempted to run a towline to El Sol by sending a launch in the rolling seas , but it capsized , drowning three men . El Sol stood by Scranton for over 40 hours until minesweeper Penguin arrived and took Scranton under tow . Penguin and Scranton arrived in New York on 3 April , where Scranton entered drydock to undergo repairs .

After repairs , Scranton made three roundtrips to France and carried some 6 @,@ 000 troops and passengers home to the United States before she was decommissioned on 19 July . The ship was handed over to the USSB for return to American @-@ Hawaiian , who restored her original name .

= = Interwar years = =

Pennsylvanian resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Pennsylvanian continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal in a relatively uneventful career . One incident of note occurred on 28 November 1930 , when Pennsylvanian hit a Southern Pacific ferry near Goat Island ( present @-@ day Yerba Buena Island ) in a dense fog in San Francisco Bay . Pennsylvanian hit the stern of the ferry and caused damage to the ferry 's superstructure and destroyed about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of the ferry 's railing . No one on either ship was injured .

Other hints of Pennsylvanian 's activities throughout the rest of her career can be found from contemporary newspaper reports . In October 1929 , the Los Angeles Times reported on a shipment that included 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 000 radio sets among Pennsylvanian 's 2 @,@ 300 long tons ( 2 @,@ 340 t ) of cargo . In March 1938 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that Pennsylvanian 's captain , C. M. Bamforth , had temporarily turned the deck of the cargo ship into a boatyard to build a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) catboat for his son in Swampscott , Massachusetts . Bamforth laid the keel while in San Francisco , bought copper rivets for the hull planking in Portland , Oregon , and began painting the boat after Pennsylvanian had traversed the Panama Canal . He expected to have the boat finished when Pennsylvanian arrived in Boston on 22 April .

In October the same year , Pennsylvanian delivered 325 long tons ( 330 t ) of steel parts for the Hale Telescope then under construction at the Palomar Observatory outside San Diego . The ship had picked up the $ 375 @,@ 000 cargo in Philadelphia before sailing for San Diego .

= = World War II = =

At some point after the United States entered World War II , Pennsylvanian was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) , and , as with her pre @-@ U.S. Navy service in World War I , she continued to be operated by American @-@ Hawaiian . From July to September 1942 , Pennsylvanian sailed between New York and Caribbean ports , calling at Trinidad , Key West , Hampton Roads , Guantánamo Bay , and Cristóbal . In January 1943 , Pennsylvanian called at Bandar Abbas , Iran , on the Persian Gulf , and returned to Caribbean sailings again by March 1943 .

Between May and September 1943 , Pennsylvanian made four transatlantic crossings between New York and Liverpool , making intermediate stops in Loch Ewe and Methil while in the United Kingdom . The cargo ship made two New York – Guantánamo Bay roundtrips between September and December before resuming transatlantic sailings . After two New York – Liverpool roundtrips between late December 1943 and April 1944 , Pennsylvanian left the United States for the final time on 19 May 1944 , arriving in Liverpool on 2 June . She called at the British ports of Methil , Loch Ewe , Clyde , and Milford Haven in late June and early July , and , sailing from Barry in mid July , Pennsylvanian arrived at Saint @-@ Laurent @-@ sur @-@ Mer , France . There she was scuttled as part of the breakwater for the Mulberry artificial harbor built to support the Normandy Invasion .

In March 1945 , the WSA offered a payment of $ 565 @,@ 910 to American @-@ Hawaiian for Pennsylvanian as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven requisitioned American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had either been sunk , scuttled , or were to be retained by the government .

= Cabell Breckinridge =

Joseph " Cabell " Breckinridge ( July 14 , 1788 – September 1 , 1823 ) was a lawyer and politician in the U.S. state of Kentucky . From 1816 to 1819 , he was a member of the Kentucky House of Representatives , serving as speaker from 1817 to 1819 . In 1820 , he was appointed Kentucky Secretary of State by Governor John Adair . A member of the Breckinridge political family , he was the son of U.S. Attorney General John Breckinridge and the father of U.S. Vice President John C. Breckinridge .

Born in Albemarle County , Virginia to John Breckinridge ( 1760 @-@ 1806 ) and Mary Hopkins Cabell Breckinridge ( 1769 @-@ 1858 ) , Breckinridge moved to Kentucky with his parents in 1793 . When John Breckinridge was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1801 , Cabell traveled with him to Washington , D.C. , and completed preparatory studies at New London Academy ( now Colby – Sawyer College ) . In 1806 , he enrolled in the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) . His studies were interrupted in 1807 when he participated in a student protest against the strict rules and rigorous curriculum at the institution , but after a year @-@ long break , he returned and completed his bachelor 's degree in 1810 . After graduation , he married Mary Clay Smith , daughter of Samuel Stanhope Smith , the university 's president .

Breckinridge intended to begin practicing law in Lexington , Kentucky , but he enlisted for service in the War of 1812 instead . After the war , he opened his practice and was elected to the Kentucky House , where he led an unsuccessful attempt to oust Gabriel Slaughter after he ascended to the governorship upon the death of George Madison . He served as Speaker of the House from 1817 to 1819 , and was appointed as Adair 's Secretary of State in 1820 . He moved to Frankfort , the state capital , so that he could attend to the duties of his office , but fell ill with a fever in August 1823 and died in office on September 1 .

= = Early life and family = =

Joseph Cabell Breckinridge was born in Albemarle County , Virginia , on July 14 , 1788 . He was the second child and first son of John and Mary Hopkins " Polly " ( née Cabell ) Breckinridge . He was named for his maternal grandfather , Joseph Cabell , of Virginia 's Cabell political family but was known as " Cabell " throughout his life .

In 1793 , the family moved to Lexington , Kentucky . Late in the year , a smallpox epidemic struck the city . Inoculations came too late , and Breckinridge , his mother , and three of his siblings were infected . Breckinridge , his mother , and his sister Letitia survived , but his sister Mary and brother Robert died . Other than this , historian Lowell H. Harrison wrote that " little is known of his boyhood " , although he speculates that he probably attended some local schools and read from his father 's extensive library .

In 1801 , when Breckinridge was 12 years old , his father was elected to the U.S. Senate . The family moved to Bedford County , Virginia , where they lived with relatives in order to be closer to the elder Breckinridge during the congressional session at Washington , D.C .. While there , Cabell Breckinridge attended New London Academy ( now Colby – Sawyer College ) . A case of measles prevented him from attending William and Mary College ( now College of William & Mary ) , his father 's alma mater , where his cousin , future Congressman James Breckinridge , was enrolled . In 1803 , he accompanied his father to the capital where he witnessed the debates over the Louisiana Purchase before returning to college in October . After Congress adjourned in March , John Breckinridge met his son in Virginia , and they arrived back at Cabell 's Dale , the family estate near Lexington , on April 18 , 1804 . He did not return to Virginia with his father in late 1804 , instead pursuing preparatory studies under Colonel Samuel Wilson in advance of his enrollment at the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) .

= = Studies at Princeton University = =

Breckinridge arrived in Princeton , New Jersey , in late December 1805 . He had completed his final exams by April 5 , but he declined his father 's offer to come to Washington because he needed to catch up on his studies in arithmetic . When the next term began in May , he joined the American Whig – Cliosophic Society , a debating society founded by James Madison , Philip Freneau , Aaron Burr , and Henry Lee in 1769 .

In mid @-@ 1806 , Cabell learned that his father was sick . Not long after , however , he received word that his father was improving and expected to meet him in Virginia en route to the capital . Although a rendezvous location had not been set , he assumed it would be in Lynchburg , where the Breckinridges had relatives . In October , he traveled to his uncle Lewis Breckinridge 's home to wait for his father , but he never came . Disappointed , he returned to Princeton for the beginning of the new term , unaware that his father 's recovery had been short @-@ lived . Later he learned that his father had attempted to leave Cabell 's Dale on October 22 but collapsed off his horse and returned to his sick bed ; he died December 14 , 1806 .

In January 1807 , travelers from Kentucky finally brought news of John Breckinridge 's death . Despite Cabell 's declaration to a relative that , " I consider my life dedicated to my mother 's ease " , Breckinridge continued his studies . John Breckinridge died intestate , complicating the settlement of his estate and creating financial difficulties for Cabell , who had been receiving support from his father . Desperate , he appealed to Alfred Grayson , his sister Letitia 's husband and son of Senator William Grayson , for assistance .

In March 1807 , about 125 students organized a protest against the college 's strict conduct policies and rigorous study requirements . The protest included signing a formal petition of protest ; college administrators subsequently suspended everyone who refused to withdraw his name from the petition . Breckinridge was required to apologize for his part in the protest in order to return to school , but he refused to do so . In May , he left Princeton for Cabell 's Dale , but in Philadelphia he found that there were no available stages heading west for two weeks . Unable to afford room and board for that long , he went to Fincastle , Virginia , to stay with relatives . He considered enrolling at the College of William and Mary for the fall term in 1807 , believing he could complete his studies in nine months but ultimately decided against it . Harrison surmises that the lack of correspondence between Breckinridge and his family in Kentucky between July 1807 to July 1808 indicated that he was at Cabell 's Dale during most or all of that period .

By July 1808 , Breckinridge had decided to return to Princeton in October to finish his studies . His roommate , James G. Birney , and the university president , Samuel Stanhope Smith , were both ardent abolitionists , and through their influence , he became convinced that slavery must be ended , but only by voluntary emancipation , not by government interference . He completed his bachelor 's degree in 1810 .

= = Marriage and law practice = =

While completing his degree , Breckinridge began courting Mary Clay Smith , the daughter the university president and granddaughter of John Witherspoon , a signer of the Declaration of Independence . After graduation , he journeyed home , but returned to Princeton where he and Smith were married on May 11 , 1811 . The couple had five children – Frances ( b . 1812 ) , Caroline ( b . 1813 ) , Mary Cabell ( b . 1815 ) , John Cabell ( b . 1821 ) , and Laetitia ( b . 1822 ) . John Cabell Breckinridge went on to represent Kentucky in both houses of Congress , was elected Vice President of the United States in 1856 , and was the fifth and final Confederate States Secretary of War .

After attending wedding celebrations with friends and relatives in Princeton , Philadelphia , and New York City , the couple moved in with Breckinridge 's widowed mother at Cabell 's Dale . Before Breckinridge could commence practice , the U.S. entered the War of 1812 . He was commissioned a major and served as aide @-@ de @-@ camp under Samuel Hopkins . He would later refer to the war as " a foolish and ineffectual brace of campaigns on the Illinois and Wabash " . After the war , Breckinridge returned to Kentucky , was admitted to the bar in 1814 , and opened a practice in Lexington . Concurrent with his practice , he served as a professor of religion . He also helped found the Second Presbyterian Church in Lexington and became one of its ruling elders . In 1815 , he purchased Thorn Hill , a home in Lexington , from John W. Hunt .

= = Political career = =

In 1816 , Breckinridge was elected as a Democratic @-@ Republican to represent Fayette Countyin the Kentucky House of Representatives , gaining the largest majority given to a candidate for office in that county to that point . Historian Lewis Collins notes that Breckinridge 's legislative career began during the national " Era of Good Feelings " , largely congruent with the presidency of James Monroe , when political disagreements were relatively few . Nevertheless , dissension erupted in Kentucky in October 1816 after the death of Governor George Madison just three weeks into his term . Lieutenant Governor Gabriel Slaughter , as acting governor , rescinded Madison 's appointment of Charles Stewart Todd as Secretary of State , replacing him with former Senator John Pope , who was unpopular because of his vote against declaring the War of 1812 . Slaughter followed this up by appointing Martin D. Hardin , widely regarded as a Federalist despite his nominal identification with the Democratic @-@ Republicans , to fill the Senate vacancy caused by the resignation of William T. Barry .

Both appointments were unpopular in the state , and on January 27 , 1817 , Breckinridge formed a coalition of legislators in the House that sponsored a bill to elect " a governor to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of " Madison , essentially an attempt to oust Slaughter from the governorship . The bill passed the House by a vote of 56 – 30 , but the Senate refused to concur . Madison 's death was the first time the lieutenant governor succeeded permanently to the governorship , establishing the precedent for future instances . Nevertheless , several anti @-@ Slaughter candidates were elected in the 1817 legislative elections . Breckinridge was re @-@ elected in both 1817 and 1818 and was chosen Speaker of the House both years .

In 1820 , Breckinridge 's friend , newly elected Governor John Adair , appointed him as Kentucky Secretary of State . Of this appointment , historian William C. Davis wrote , " It was a prestigious , albeit not too influential , position and would require his full @-@ time presence at the capital . " He remained in Lexington until the birth of his son in January 1821 ; in February , the family moved to the Governor 's Mansion in Frankfort to live with Adair . Although his mother opposed the move to Frankfort , he intended for it to be permanent ; an acquaintance wrote that " his plans were extensive and his hopes high " for his family 's life in the state capital . In addition to his duties as secretary of state , he continued to practice law .

= = Death = =

Throughout his term , Breckinridge 's health became increasingly fragile . When an illness described in contemporary accounts as " the prevailing fever " struck Lexington in 1823 , he took the children to Cabell 's Dale to prevent them from becoming ill . When he returned in late August , he contracted the fever . Despite the care of his brother , John , and the local doctors , he died on September 1 , 1823 , just over a week after falling ill . Originally buried on the grounds at Cabell 's Dale , he and several family members were re @-@ interred at Lexington Cemetery near the grave of his brother Robert Jefferson Breckinridge .

Breckinridge left behind $ 15 @,@ 000 in debts , and with the nation still in the throes of the Panic of 1819 , his assets were not enough to pay off the obligations . His wife , who also fell ill and was pregnant with the couple 's sixth child , was so depressed because of his death and her subsequent financial straits that she suffered a miscarriage . She and the children moved in with Cabell 's widowed mother at Cabell 's Dale . For several years , she was dependent upon her in @-@ laws for survival ; Breckinridge 's brother , Robert , assumed Cabell 's debts , which he paid in full in 1832 .

= Typhoon Oliwa =

Typhoon Oliwa was one of a record eleven super typhoons in the 1997 Pacific typhoon season . It formed in the central Pacific Ocean on September 2 to the southwest of Hawaii , but it became a typhoon in the western Pacific . Oliwa explosively deepened on September 8 , increasing its winds from 85 mph to 160 mph in a 24 ‑ hour period . Afterward , it slowly weakened , and after passing east of Okinawa , Oliwa turned northeast and struck Japan with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . There , it affected 30 @,@ 000 people and killed 13 ; thousands of houses were flooded , and some were destroyed . Offshore South Korea , the winds and waves wrecked 28 boats , while one boat went missing with a crew of 10 people . Typhoon Oliwa dissipated on September 19 in northern Pacific Ocean near the International Date Line .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Typhoon Oliwa were from an unusually eastward extension of the monsoon trough in late August 1997 . The tropical disturbance organized southwest of Hawaii , and slowly organized . On September 2 , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Two @-@ C about 590 miles ( 950 km ) southwest of Johnston Island , slightly east of the International Date Line . The depression quickly attained tropical storm status , and the CPHC gave it the name " Oliwa " , meaning " Oliver " in the Hawaiian language .

A moderately powerful ridge persisted north of Tropical Storm Oliwa , which caused a slow west to west @-@ northwest track . Water temperatures were slightly warmer than usual , and there was a favorable upper @-@ level environment for strengthening . Initially , however , Oliwa was somewhat disorganized on satellite imagery , and on September 4 , as it crossed the International Date Line , there may have been multiple circulations . Upon entering the western Pacific Ocean , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began issuing advisories on the system ( 9719 ) . Despite the favorable conditions , further intensification was slow , and it reached typhoon status - winds of at least 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) - on September 8 . Prior to that time , Oliwa co @-@ existed with a weak tropical cyclone that formed in a similar location in the south Pacific .

About twelve hours after reaching typhoon status , Oliwa began to undergo unexpected explosive deepening . In a 24 ‑ hour period , the JTWC assessed the typhoon as nearly doubling in intensity , from 85 to 160 mph ( 140 to 260 km / h 1 @-@ min winds ) , while the pressure dropped 69 mbar to a minimum of 898 mbar ; based on the estimated intensity , the JTWC classified Oliwa as a super typhoon . The JMA , which is the official agency of the western Pacific , assessed Oliwa as reaching a peak of 115 mph ( 185 km / h 10 @-@ min winds ) , with a pressure of 915 mbar . Around that time , satellite imagery indicated a possible eyewall mesovorticy , which is a small scale rotational feature found in the eyewall of an intense tropical cyclone . Additionally , concentric eyewalls developed in the center of Oliwa , which typically occur in strong typhoons .

After maintaining peak intensity for 36 hours , Oliwa gradually weakened as it continued to the west @-@ northwest , during which it passed through the Northern Marianas Islands . On September 14 , the typhoon slowed to the north of Okinawa , and it turned to the northeast toward Japan . As a weakened typhoon , Oliwa moved ashore on Makurazaki , Kagoshima , Kyushu with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) late on September 15 . It weakened to tropical storm strength while crossing Japan , and deteriorated further to tropical depression status on September 16 . On September 17 , the JTWC issued the final advisory on Oliwa while it was in the eastern portion of the Sea of Japan . The JMA maintained advisories as the storm crossed northern Japan , and it accelerated over the open Pacific Ocean . On September 19 , Oliwa dissipated near the International Date Line to the south of the Aleutian Islands .

= = Impact and records = =

While weakening after peaking in intensity , Oliwa passed about 60 miles ( 95 km ) north of Agrihan in the Northern Marianas Islands . Sustained winds on the island reached 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , with gusts to 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The winds downed two coconut trees onto a radio antenna , which left the island temporarily without contact to the outside world . On the Japanese island of Kyushu , where Oliwa made landfall as a weakened typhoon , thousands of homes were flooded , and dozens were destroyed . Its slow movement caused heavy rainfall that created a mudslide in Tashiro , Kagoshima , killing three people . Across Kagoshima Prefecture , officials issued evacuations due to flooding , although many did not heed the warnings . In the prefecture , the typhoon destroyed 131 buildings and damaged about 1 @,@ 700 more . Damage there was estimated at 14 million yen ( 1997 JPY , $ 150 @,@ 000 in 1997 USD ) . Across Japan , Typhoon Oliwa caused 12 fatalities and displaced a total of 30 @,@ 000 people . Total damage amounted to 4 @.@ 36 billion yen ( $ 50 @.@ 1 million USD ) . Offshore the South Korea coast , the winds and strong waves wrecked 28 vessels , and 10 people were reported missing from one ship .

Typhoon Oliwa was one of eleven super typhoons in the western Pacific , which is tied to the previous record of eleven ; a typical typhoon season has four super typhoons . The period of heightened activity was the result of one of the most powerful El Niño events on record . The track Oliwa was unusual , due to its origin as a cyclone from the central Pacific Ocean and its path over the Northern Marianas Islands and Japan . The typhoon was one of only two during the season to undergo explosive deepening , which is a decrease in barometric pressure of ≥ 2 @.@ 5 mbar per hour for a period of at least 12 hours . In 24 hours , the pressure dropped 69 mbar , which averages 2 @.@ 9 mbar per hour ; such values are usually estimated in the western Pacific using the Dvorak technique .

The name was not retired , although due to the low activity in the central Pacific Ocean , the name will not be used for several years .

= Tops in Science Fiction =

Tops in Science Fiction was a science fiction magazine which was launched in 1953 . The publisher , Love Romances Publishing , created it as a vehicle to reprint stories from Planet Stories . It was unsuccessful and only lasted for two issues . Although it contained no original stories , it did print some original artwork , including some of Kelly Freas 's early work . A British reprint edition appeared in the mid @-@ 1950s .

= = Publication history = =

The early 1950s saw dramatic changes in the world of U.S. science fiction publishing . At the start of 1949 , all but one of the major magazines in the field were in pulp format ; by the end of 1955 , almost all had either ceased publication or switched to digest format . Despite the rapid decline of the pulp market , several new science fiction magazines were launched in pulp format during these years ; Tops in Science Fiction was one of the last of these . The publisher , Love Romances Inc . , also published Planet Stories , and Malcolm Reiss , Planet 's editorial director , decided to try to take advantage of the backfile of stories and artwork from Planet 's 14 years of publication . He may have been inspired by the example of Fantastic Story Magazine , which was published by Standard Magazines as a vehicle to reprint their extensive backfile of science fiction . If so , he was evidently not aware that by 1953 Fantastic Story was not doing well financially .

The first issue was dated Spring 1953 , and was edited by Jack O 'Sullivan . The cover , by Alexander Leydenfrost , was reprinted from a 1942 issue of Planet Stories . The fiction included " Black Friar of the Flame " by Isaac Asimov , and " The Million Year Picnic " , by Ray Bradbury — the first of his " Martian Chronicles " stories . Interior art included some of Kelly Freas ' earliest work . The issue was only modestly successful , and on the advice of his distributor , who told Reiss that they were having trouble getting the magazine distributed , Reiss decided to switch to the digest format for the second issue : digests were starting to become more popular than the pulps , which would be almost completely gone from the market within only a couple more years . The second issue was dated Fall 1953 ; the cover , by Freas , illustrated " Lorelei of the Red Mist " , by Bradbury and Leigh Brackett . Freas also did the interior illustrations for the story , and later commented that he was delighted by the results but felt he was " never quite able to repeat it . A hex , of course . " Interior artists for the second issue also included Emsh ; the fiction included stories by Fredric Brown and Horace Gold . However , this issue received only limited distribution , and Reiss decided against continuing with the magazine .

= = Bibliographic details = =

Tops in Science Fiction 's two issues were dated Spring and Fall 1953 ; the first in pulp format , and the second a digest . There was a single volume of two numbers . The publisher was Love Romances Publishing , based in Stamford , Connecticut . The magazine was priced at 25 cents for the pulp issue , and 35 cents for the digest issue . Both issues were 128 pages long . The first issue was edited by Jack O 'Sullivan ; the second by Malcolm Reiss .

A British reprint edition appeared , with three 128 @-@ page digest editions published by Top Fiction Ltd . These were released in Autumn 1954 , Winter 1955 and Summer 1956 , though none of them were dated . The first two reprinted stories from the first U.S. issue ; the third reprinted material from the second U.S. issue . They were each priced at 1 / 6 .

= John Gardner ( British writer ) =

Not to be confused with John Gardner ( American writer )

John Edmund Gardner ( 20 November 1926 – 3 August 2007 ) was an English spy and thriller novelist , best known for his James Bond continuation novels , but also for his series of Boysie Oakes books and three continuation novels containing Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's fictional villain , Professor Moriarty .

Gardner , an ex @-@ Royal Marine commando , worked for a period as an Anglican priest , but he lost his faith and left the church after a short time . After a battle with alcohol addiction he wrote his first book , the autobiographical Spin the Bottle , published in 1964 .

Gardner went on to write over fifty works of fiction , including fourteen original James Bond novels , and the novel versions of two Bond films . He died from suspected heart failure on 3 August 2007 .

= = Early life = =

John Edmund Gardner was born on 20 November 1926 in Seaton Delaval , a small village in Northumberland . His parents were Cyril Gardner , a London @-@ born Anglican priest who had been ordained in Wallsend in 1921 , and Lena Henderson , a local girl ; the couple were married in 1925 . In 1933 the family moved to the market town of Wantage in what was then Berkshire , where Cyril took up the position of Chaplain at St Mary 's , Wantage and Gardner was educated at the local King Alfred 's School .

During the Second World War he joined the Home Guard , despite being only 13 at the time . Gardner subsequently served in the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm , before transferring to the Royal Marines 42 Commando for service in the Middle and Far East . Gardner considered himself " the worst commando in the world " and , despite being " a small @-@ arms expert ... [ who ] also knew a lot about explosives " , he admitted that " I bent an aeroplane I was learning to fly " .

After the war he went up to St John 's College , Cambridge , to study theology and was subsequently ordained as an Anglican priest in 1953 . He realised that he had lost his faith and made an error in his career ; he later admitted that during one sermon , " I didn 't believe a word I was saying " . He was released from the church in 1958 and took up a position as a drama critic with the Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon Herald . It was whilst at the Herald — aged 33 — that Gardner realised he was an alcoholic , drinking two bottles of gin a day . He overcame his addiction and produced his first book as part of his therapy : the autobiographical Spin the Bottle , published in 1964 . Critic and scholar John Sutherland says that of all the books Gardner published , " it 's the one that most deserves to survive . "

= = Writing career = =

In 1964 , Gardner began his novelist career with The Liquidator , in which he created the character Boysie Oakes who inadvertently is mistaken to be a tough , pitiless man of action and is thereupon recruited into a British spy agency . In fact , Oakes was a devout coward who was terrified of violence , suffered from airsickness and was afraid of heights and Gardner admitted of him that , " though I have denied it many times — he was of course a complete piss @-@ take of J. Bond " . The book appeared at the height of the fictional spy mania and , as a send @-@ up of the whole business , was an immediate success . Upon reviewing the novel in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher wrote , " Mr. Gardner succeeds in having it both ways : He has written a clever parody which is also a genuinely satisfactory thriller . " The book was made into a film of the same name by MGM and another seven light @-@ hearted novels and two short stories about the cowardly Oakes appeared over the next eleven years .

Following the success of his Oakes books , Gardner created new characters : Derek Torry — a Scotland Yard inspector of Italian descent — and Herbie Kruger , the latter of which appeared in a series of novels published simultaneously with his Bond works . In the mid @-@ 1970s Gardner also wrote the first of three novels using the character of Professor Moriarty from the Sherlock Holmes series , the last of which was published posthumously . The third of this series , titled simply Moriarty , was delayed due to a dispute with the publisher , but was finally released shortly after his death . Erik Lee Preminger bought the film rights to the first of the trilogy - The Return of Moriarty - and wrote a script . Edgar Bronfman , Jr . , for Sagittarius Entertainment and Nat Cohen , for EMI Productions were to produce . Donald Sutherland was to portray Moriarty . Funding however fell through shortly before filming was to begin .

In 1979 Glidrose Publications ( now Ian Fleming Publications ) approached Gardner and asked him to revive Ian Fleming 's James Bond series of novels . Between 1981 and 1996 , Gardner wrote fourteen James Bond novels , and the novelizations of two Bond films . Gardner stated that he wanted " to bring Mr Bond into the 1980s " , although he retained the ages of the characters as they were when Fleming had left them . Even though Gardner kept the ages the same , he made Bond grey at the temples as a nod to the passing of the years . With the influence of the American publishers , Putnam 's , the Gardner novels showed an increase in the number of Americanisms used in the book , such as a waiter wearing " pants " , rather than trousers , in The Man from Barbarossa . James Harker , writing in The Guardian , considered that the Gardner books were " dogged by silliness " , giving examples of Scorpius , where much of the action is set in Chippenham , and Win , Lose or Die , where " Bond gets chummy with an unconvincing Maggie Thatcher " . Whilst Gardner 's Bond novels received a mixed reaction from the critics , they were popular and a number appeared in The New York Times Best Seller list , bringing the author commercial success . Gardner had an ambivalent view on being the Bond author , once saying that " I 'm very grateful to have been selected to keep Bond alive . But I 'd much rather be remembered for my own work than I would for Bond " , while saying on another occasion that " I remain proud that my contribution to the Bond saga played a great part in its development " . In the mid @-@ 1990s , after discovering he had esophageal cancer , Gardner officially retired from writing Bond novels and Glidrose Publications quickly chose Raymond Benson to continue the literary stories of James Bond .

His break from writing lasted for five years , following the death of his wife , but after battling his illness he returned to print in 2000 with a new novel , Day of Absolution . Gardner also began a series of books with a new character , Suzie Mountford , a 1930s police detective .

The Globe and Mail crime critic Derrick Murdoch said , " John Gardner is technically a highly competent thriller novelist who never seems to be quite at ease unless he is writing in the same vein as another writer . ( He has worked John le Carré and Graham Greene this way , and it 's what makes him so well qualified to continue the James Bond saga . ) "

The Crime Writers ' Association short @-@ listed The Liquidator , The Dancing Dodo , The Nostradamus Traitor , and The Garden of Weapons for their annual Gold Dagger award .

= = Personal life = =

In 1952 Gardner married Margaret Mercer and the couple had two children , Simon and Alexis . Gardner also had another daughter , Miranda , the result of a long affair with Susan Wright , former PA to Peter Sellers . In 1989 , Gardner and his family moved to the US and it was in America that he was diagnosed with cancer ; firstly for the prostate and then , six years later , of the oesophagus . The subsequent medical treatment in the US left him near bankrupt and he returned to the UK in November 1996 . Shortly after his return , in February 1997 , Margaret died unexpectedly .

When Gardner returned to writing , his second book , Bottled Spider , introduced a new character , Detective Sergeant Suzie Mountford . Gardner took the surname from Patricia Mountford , an ex @-@ girlfriend to whom he 'd been engaged in 1949 . When she read the book Mountford contacted Gardner through his publishers and the two were subsequently engaged .

= = Death = =

Gardner died on Friday 3 August 2007 from suspected heart failure . He collapsed while shopping in Basingstoke ; he was later rushed to hospital , where he died .

= = Works = =

= = = Autobiography = = =

Spin the Bottle ( 1964 )

= = = Boysie Oakes novels = = =

The Liquidator ( 1964 )

Understrike ( 1965 )

Amber Nine ( 1966 )

Madrigal ( 1967 )

Founder Member ( 1969 )

Traitor 's Exit ( 1970 )

The Airline Pirates ( 1970 ) - published in the U.S. as Air Apparent

A Killer for a Song ( 1975 )

Two Boysie Oakes short stories appear in The Assassination File ( A Handful of Rice , Corkscrew ) .

Two Boysie Oakes short stories appear in Hideaway ( Boysie Oakes and The Explosive Device , Sunset At Paleokastritsa ) .

= = = Derek Torry novels = = =

A Complete State of Death ( 1969 ) - reissued in the U.S. as The Stone Killer

The Corner Men ( 1974 )

= = = Professor Moriarty novels = = =

The Return of Moriarty ( 1974 )

The Revenge of Moriarty ( 1975 )

Moriarty ( 2008 )

= = = Herbie Kruger novels = = =

The Nostradamus Traitor ( 1979 )

The Garden of Weapons ( 1980 )

The Quiet Dogs ( 1982 )

Maestro ( 1993 )

Confessor ( 1995 )

Herbie Kruger also appears in The Secret Houses and The Secret Families .

= = = The Railton family novels = = =

The Secret Generations ( 1985 )

The Secret Houses ( 1988 )

The Secret Families ( 1989 )

= = = James Bond novels = = =

Licence Renewed ( 1981 )

For Special Services ( 1982 )

Icebreaker ( 1983 )

Role of Honour ( 1984 )

Nobody Lives for Ever ( 1986 )

No Deals , Mr. Bond ( 1987 )

Scorpius ( 1988 )

Win , Lose or Die ( 1989 )

Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) – novelization of a film script

Brokenclaw ( 1990 )

The Man from Barbarossa ( 1991 )

Death is Forever ( 1992 )

Never Send Flowers ( 1993 )

SeaFire ( 1994 )

GoldenEye ( 1995 ) – novelization of a film script

Cold ( 1996 ) – published in the U.S. as Cold Fall

= = = Detective Sergeant Suzie Mountford novels = = =

Bottled Spider ( 2002 )

The Streets of Town ( 2003 )

Angels Dining at the Ritz ( 2004 )

Troubled Midnight ( 2005 )

No Human Enemy ( 2007 )

= = = Other novels = = =

The Censor ( 1970 )

Every Night 's a Bullfight ( 1971 ) ( Published in the U.S. in a bowdlerized edition as " Every Night 's a Festival " in 1972 . ) [ 1 ]

To Run a Little Faster ( 1976 )

The Werewolf Trace ( 1977 )

The Dancing Dodo ( 1978 )

Golgotha ( 1980 ) - published in the U.S. as The Last Trump

The Director ( 1982 ) ( A re @-@ working of his 1971 novel " Every Night 's a Bullfight " . )

Flamingo ( 1983 )

Blood of the Fathers ( 1992 ) ( as by " Edmund McCoy " . Later published under his own name in 2004 . )

Day of Absolution ( 2000 )

= = = Short story collections = = =

Hideaway ( 1968 ) ( Contains two Boysie Oakes stories . )

The Assassination File ( 1974 ) ( Contains two Boysie Oakes stories . )

= Jordan Kovacs =

Jordan David Kovacs ( born June 12 , 1990 ) is an American football safety who is currently a free agent . He was signed by the Dolphins as an undrafted free agent in 2013 . He played college football at Michigan . Kovacs has also been a member of the Philadelphia Eagles and Miami Dolphins .

He was a walk @-@ on who earned 2009 CollegeFootballNews.com Freshman All @-@ America second team recognition and 2009 Sporting News Freshman All @-@ Big Ten honors for the 2009 Wolverines while being the second @-@ leading tackler on the team . Granted a scholarship by the 2010 team for his second year , he was the second @-@ leading tackler in the Big Ten Conference and was selected as a 2010 All @-@ Conference honorable mention . He was also a 2011 All @-@ Big Ten honorable mention for the 2011 team . He served the 2012 team as captain and was also a 2012 All @-@ Big Ten second team selection and a 2012 Academic All @-@ Big Ten honoree .

= = Background = =

Kovacs , a Hungarian American , attended Clay High School , which is the rival high school of former Wolverine teammate Kevin Koger . In high school , he earned varsity letters in basketball as a sophomore and junior . He also earned All @-@ City recognition in track and field three times ( first team as a senior , second team as a junior and honorable mention as a sophomore ) and was a four @-@ year letterman . He qualified for the Ohio State championships in the 4x400 meter relay . He was a three @-@ year letterman in football , where he earned All @-@ Ohio academic honors and All @-@ district honors as both a wide receiver and defensive back .

He was not recruited by any Division I schools as a high school football player , but he was recruited by some Division II schools . Kovacs only had two campus visits : Division II Hillsdale and Toledo ( a school 13 miles from his high school ) . By the time he completed his college applications , even Hillsdale had lost interest in him . His father placed a call to Michigan Director of Football Operations Brad Labadie after Jordan was wait listed and got him to agree to review a homemade highlight reel . As his graduation neared , Kovacs shook hands with Andy Boyd , a Toledo coach , on a preferred walk @-@ on spot . That same afternoon in June 2008 , Labadie called to confirm that Kovacs had been admitted from the wait list . The admission came without an athletic scholarship . Labadie encouraged Jordan to attend walk @-@ on tryouts .

= = College career = =

= = = Redshirt ( 2008 ) = = =

Kovacs initially passed the walk @-@ on tryouts , but he had to pass the physical with Paul " Schmidty " Schmidt , who had been a trainer since Jordan 's father Lou had played and been on the coaching staff at Michigan . He had had surgery to repair cartilage damage in high school , but that did not alleviate his problems . When Jordan responded yes to a question about whether he had had any surgeries in the prior 12 months , it triggered a line of questioning about his senior season meniscus surgery . He did not make the 2008 Wolverines due to a knee problem , but was advised to try out again after his knee healed . After discovering a torn meniscus , he had a second knee surgery , which was successful . He attended every game that season in his family 's season ticket section .

= = = Freshman ( 2009 ) = = =

In 2009 , he was one of the most highly regarded walk @-@ ons in the nation , and emerged from a group of Michigan football players who referred to themselves as " The Walk @-@ On Nation " . His debut on September 5 against the Western Michigan was on special teams . The following week he registered 31 plays against Notre Dame after starting safety Michael Williams suffered leg cramps . He made his first start on September 26 against Indiana . On October 3 of that season , he had 17 tackles against Michigan State in the annual Paul Bunyan Trophy . He posted ten tackles and made his first career interception on November 14 against Wisconsin . That season he played free safety before being switched to strong safety . He started one game at free safety and seven at strong safety over the course of the season . He finished the season as the second leading tackler for the 2009 Wolverines . He earned 2009 CollegeFootballNews.com Freshman All @-@ America second team recognition and 2009 Sporting News Freshman All @-@ Big Ten honors . He was also a Rudy Award candidate .

= = = Sophomore ( 2010 ) = = =

Kovacs earned a scholarship at the beginning of the 2010 NCAA Division I FBS football season . In the second game of the season on September 11 against Notre Dame in the Michigan – Notre Dame football rivalry game , Kovacs recorded his first interception of the season and second of his career as part of a 10 @-@ tackle effort . On October 16 he recorded 2 @.@ 5 tackles for a loss against Iowa . After eight games in the 2010 season he ranked second in the Big Ten Conference in tackles . On November 18 , he was nominated for the Burlsworth Trophy , which was a newly created award for the most outstanding player to have begun his career as a walk on . On November 20 , he posted his first career quarterback sack during a season @-@ high twelve tackle performance against Wisconsin . With one week remaining on the conference schedule , the performance tied Kovacs for third @-@ overall in the Big Ten , gave Kovacs a wide lead among Big Ten underclassman ( 8 @.@ 64 vs. 7 @.@ 55 per game over the next highest performer ) and extended his lead among Big Ten defensive backs ( 8 @.@ 64 vs 8 @.@ 27 ) . In the final game of the regular season on November 27 against Ohio State in the annual Michigan – Ohio State football rivalry game , Kovacs recorded his second interception of the season and third of his career as part of a 17 @-@ tackle effort . He collected a career @-@ best 41 return yards following the interception . In The Game , Kovacs tied a career @-@ high with 17 total tackles including a new career @-@ high 9 solo tackles . Kovacs ended the 2010 Big Ten Conference football season ranked second in the conference to teammate Jonas Mouton in total tackles . However , he led the team in solo tackles . Following the Big Ten Conference season , he was selected as an honorable mention All @-@ Conference selection by the media .

= = = Junior ( 2011 ) = = =

When Brady Hoke took over as Michigan head coach for the 2011 NCAA Division I FBS football season , Kovacs impressed him quickly . Kovacs was one of the first five players named as a starter for the 2011 team . In the September 3 , 2011 season opener against Western Michigan at Michigan Stadium , Kovacs forced a fumble that was recovered and advanced for a touchdown . Although the game was ended by mutual agreement in the third quarter due to inclement weather , Kovacs recorded 10 tackles , including two sacks . He was named the Lott Trophy impact player of the week . At first , the stats for the game were considered official by the Big Ten Conference and the University of Michigan , but the NCAA has vacated the statistics for this game because three quarters were not completed . However , at the conclusion of the regular season , the NCAA reversed course and ruled that since the game is counting for win @-@ loss record , the statistics will be counted by the NCAA . On September 10 , against Notre Dame , during the first night game ever played at Michigan Stadium , he talied an interception , and eight tackles . When it became evident that the defense had improved markedly from the prior season , he and fellow safety Thomas Gordon were credited as being the " leaders of the defense " . On October 8 , against Northwestern , Kovacs posted two solo tackles for a loss , both on fourth down . Kovacs suffered a knee injury that sidelined him for the October 29 game against Purdue . Kovacs had been one of twenty quarterfinalists for the Lott impact player of the year . Kovacs was named as one of 10 semifinalists for the 2011 Burlsworth Trophy on November 22 . Following the 2011 Big Ten Conference football season , he earned All @-@ Big Ten Conference honorable mention recognition from the media and was selected as the Big Ten Sportsmanship Award recipient for the Michigan program . Kovacs earned 2011 Fall Academic All @-@ Big Ten recognition along with 10 teammates . In the January 3 , 2012 Sugar Bowl 23 – 20 overtime victory against Virginia Tech , he led the team with 11 tackles . Kovacs finished among the conference leaders in several statistics : sacks / game ( .33 , 17th ) , tackles / game ( 6 @.@ 2 , 30th ) and fumbles forced / game ( .17 , t @-@ 9th ) .

= = = Senior ( 2012 ) = = =

Kovacs was elected team captain . He was selected to the preseason watchlist for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ( best defensive player ) . At a ceremony on November 10 , Kovacs ' jersey number was changed from 32 to the previously retired number 11 which was recirculated as a " Michigan Football Legend " jersey in honor of Francis ( " Whitey ) , Albert and Alvin Wistert . He was interviewed as part of a 13 @-@ minute segment that appeared on the November 18 edition of 60 Minutes about the business of college football . Kovacs was a second team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and an honorable mention selection by the media . On November 27 , he was named a finalist for the Burlsworth Trophy . At the December 3 team banquet , Kovacs earned team MVP for the season . He earned Academic All @-@ Big Ten recognition in 2012 . Following the season , he participated in the February 2 , 2013 Texas vs. the Nation All @-@ Star Bowl .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Miami Dolphins = = =

Kovacs signed an undrafted free agent contract with the Miami Dolphins following the 2013 NFL Draft . Kovacs was assigned to the Dolphins ' practice squad to start the 2013 NFL season . Kovacs was promoted to the 53 @-@ man roster in week 5 of 2013 . Kovacs had a tackle in his debut against the Baltimore Ravens on October 6 .

He was released at the end of training camp in 2014 . He was signed to the Philadelphia Eagles practice squad on October 6 . On November 4 , he was signed off the Eagles practice squad by the Dolphins , and was placed on the active 53 man roster . He had seven tackles over the course of the season , including 5 in December 28 week 17 contest against the New York Jets .

On October 18 , 2015 , Kovacs recorded his first sack against Zach Mettenberger of the TennesseeTitans . Towards the season he was expected to be released by the Miami Dolphins with the expectation that he would be placed on the practice squad once he cleared waivers .

= = = Kansas City Chiefs = = =

Following the season 2015 season , he was signed to a futures contract by the Kansas City Chiefs . On May 10 , 2016 , he was released .

= = Personal = =

His father Louis , who was a walk @-@ on for Michigan coach Bo Schembechler , lettered for the 1982 Michigan Wolverines football team . He subsequently served two seasons as a graduate assistant for Schembechler . Lou is married to Susan Kovacs . Jordan wears # 32 , the reverse of his father 's # 23 . Kovacs has three siblings , and his older brother Aaron played his freshman season for the 2007 Toledo Rockets . His family regularly brought him to watch Michigan home games when he was growing up . The family regularly sat in Section 27 of Michigan Stadium , on the north side of the press box . Today the family sits underneath the scoreboard , since they have a son on the team . The first Michigan game Kovacs watched was Lloyd Carr 's first game as coach of Michigan Wolverines football for the 1995 Wolverines , which was a memorable 18 @-@ point comeback against Virginia .

= TNA X Division Championship =

The TNA X Division Championship is a professional wrestling championship owned by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) professional wrestling promotion . It is primarily defended in TNA and ( as per a talent exchange agreement ) also formerly in Wrestle @-@ 1 as well . It debuted on June 19 , 2002 at the taping of TNA 's second weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event .

Like most professional wrestling championships , the title is won as a result of a scripted match . There have been 68 reigns among 30 wrestlers . The title has previously been known as the NWA X Championship , the NWA – TNA X Championship , and the NWA – TNA X Division Championship .

= = History = =

= = = X Division = = =

The TNA X Division was established on June 19 , 2002 at Total Nonstop Action 's first weekly PPV event with a Six Man Tag Team match resulting in Jimmy Yang , Jorge Estrada , and Sonny Siaki — collectively known as The Flying Elvises — defeating A.J. Styles , Jerry Lynn , and Low Ki . Later that day at the taping of the next weekly PPV event , TNA introduced the X Division Championship — then known as the X Championship — to showcase the division more prominently . The division is described as wrestling reinvented , as it takes traditional wrestling and mixes it with the fast paced , high – risk style of wrestling incorporated in cruiserweight divisions and lucha libre . The division was until 2011 promoted under the motto " It is not about weight limits , it is about no limits " by commentator Mike Tenay . On the August 11 , 2011 , edition of TNA 's primary television program , Impact Wrestling , TNA authority figure Eric Bischoff announced that from that point onwards the X Division would have a weight limit of 225 lb ( 102 kg ) . Following Hulk Hogan becoming the new on @-@ screen General Manager in March 2012 , the weight limit was ignored on June 10 , 2012 , at Slammiversary when the 280 lb ( 130 kg ) Samoa Joe was allowed to challenge for the belt . On October 2012 , the weight limit was officially repealed when 237 lb ( 108 kg ) Rob Van Dam challenged for , and eventually won , the title at Bound for Glory . In March 2013 , the X Division was given a new set of rules , which meant all matches were wrestled in Triple Threat format , and a new weight limit of 230 lbs . This proved to be extremely unpopular with fans , and the rules and weight limit were repealed once again in August of that year .

= = = = Speciality matches = = = =

The Total Nonstop Action X Division has multiple styles of match types used to showcase the talent within the division and to defend the TNA X Division Championship in more marketable matches . Three of the matches used in TNA are the Ultimate X match , The Steel Asylum , and the Xscape match .

The Ultimate X match was introduced in 2003 . It involves multiple competitors racing to retrieve the X Division Championship or a giant red letter " X " , which is suspended above the ring by two cables . The cables are attached to posts that stand behind the turnbuckles of the ring . These cables intertwine to form an " X " over the center of the ring . This match has become successful in TNA ; it was featured in the 2008 DVD " TNA : Ultimate Matches " , released by TNA Home Video .

The Steel Asylum made its debut in May 2008 at TNA 's Sacrifice PPV event , under the name " The TerrorDome " . It was used once again in October 2008 at their Bound for Glory IV PPV event , under the new and current moniker " The Steel Asylum " . As of July 2016 , this match has only been used to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . The layout of the match involves the ring being surrounded by a giant red steel barred cage with a domed ceiling . The only way to achieve victory is to escape the cage through a hole in the center of the ceiling .

The Xscape match is the third specialty match primarily used in TNA . It is held annually at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event in April — an all – steel cage format PPV event . The first two Xscape matches were held to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship , while , since 2007 , it has been contested for the X Division Championship . The contest involves four to six participants . To win this match , two or more participants — depending on how many are involved in the encounter — must be eliminated by pinfall or submission leaving only two participants . These two men then race to see who escapes the cage first to claim victory .

= = = Creation = = =

The championship was created and debuted before the main event at the taping of TNA 's second weekly PPV event on June 19 , 2002 ; the event aired on June 26 , 2002 . Later , A.J. Styles defeated Low Ki , Jerry Lynn , and Psicosis in a Four Way Double Elimination match to be crowned the inaugural champion ; this match was announced as being for the NWA X Championship on the onscreen graphic while the ring announcer stated it was for the " NWA – TNA X Championship " . Afterwards , the title was renamed the NWA – TNA X Division Championship and then shortened to just the TNA X Division Championship . This is the oldest title in TNA .

= = = Option C = = =

Option C is a concept in which the current X Division Champion may voluntarily vacate the championship in exchange for a TNA World Heavyweight Championship match at that year 's Destination X event . It began in June 2012 when then @-@ champion Austin Aries said that he was not satisfied with being just the X Division Champion , which led to then @-@ General Manager Hulk Hogan offering him a match for the World Heavyweight Championship , but only if he first vacated the X Division Championship ( as Hogan didn 't want the same wrestler holding both titles ) . Aries agreed to Hogan 's terms , on the condition that the X Division Champion be given the same opportunity in future years . Aries would then relinquish the X Division Championship and successfully defeated Booby Roode for the World title .

The following year , Hogan asked then @-@ champion Chris Sabin if he wanted to vacate the championship and challenge for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , which Sabin accepted , and later defeated Bully Ray to win the title . On June 24 , 2014 , a mere five days after regaining the X Division Championship for his fifth reign , Austin Aries invoked Option C once again , but failed to defeat then champion Lashley . On May 10 , 2015 , one day after regaining the title for his second reign , Rockstar Spud invoked Option C , and was defeated by then champion Kurt Angle . On the July 5 , 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling , TNA World Heavyweight Champion Lashley offered a winner take all match to X Division Champion Eddie Edwards in lieu of Edwards invoking Option C. The match ended in a no @-@ contest after an interference from Mike Bennett and Edwards was attacked the debuting Moose .

= = Unifications and outside defenses = =

In July 2002 , the X Division Champion AJ Styles defended the title against Adam Jacobs and David Young at Ring of Honor 's Crowning a Champion , the first defense outside TNA . In May 2003 , before the professional wrestling promotion World Wrestling All @-@ Stars ' ( WWA ) foreclosure , then NWA – TNA X Division champion Chris Sabin defeated WWA International Cruiserweight Champion Jerry Lynn , Frankie Kazarian , and Johnny Swinger in a Four Corners championship unification match to unify the X Division Championship with the WWA International Cruiserweight Championship . On Winter 2004 , Petey Williams defended the title in various IWA @-@ Mid South events .

During Christopher Daniels ' first reign in mid @-@ 2005 , he defended the X Division Championship at several Pro Wrestling Guerrilla shows . The first defense happened at All Star Weekend - Night One on April 1 against Alex Shelley , while the second occurred at All Star Weekend – Night Two on April 2 against Chris Hero ; Daniels won both encounters retaining the championship . At Jason Takes PWG on May 13 , Daniels fought A.J. Styles for the X Division Championship and Styles ' PWG Championship to a one @-@ hour time @-@ limit draw . Daniels successfully defended the X Division Title two more times in PWG ; once at Guitarmageddon on June 11 against El Generico , while once at The 2nd Annual PWG Bicentennial Birthday Extravaganza - Night One on July 9 against fellow TNA wrestler Chris Sabin . In September 2005 at TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event , the TNA X Division Championship was defended in the main event for the first time at a monthly PPV event ; then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels defended the championship against A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe .

The title was once again defended in the main event of a monthly event at TNA 's August 2007 Hard Justice PPV event , where Kurt Angle defeated Samoa Joe to win the TNA X Division and the TNA World Tag Team Championship and retain the TNA World Heavyweight and IGF 's version of the IWGP World Heavyweight Championship . This win made Angle the only person in the history of TNA to hold every active championship at the same time ; TNA World , X Division , and World Tag Team .

On March 4 , 2014 , The title was defended in Japan as part of Kaisen : Outbreak - a supershow event promoted by Wrestle @-@ 1 in partnership with TNA - where the title was won by Wrestle @-@ 1 star Seiya Sanada . On March 22 , Sanada defended and successfully retained the title on a Wrestle @-@ 1 show .

= = Belt designs = =

In May 2007 , the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) ended their five @-@ year partnership with TNA , which allowed the NWA to regain control over the NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships that TNA had controlled since June 2002 . TNA then introduced a new TNA X Division Championship belt on the May 16 , 2007 edition of TNA 's online podcast TNA Today . Jeremy Borash and Management Director Jim Cornette , TNA 's on @-@ screen authority figure at the time , unveiled the new belt and awarded it to then @-@ champion Chris Sabin .

On July 19 , 2013 , TNA President Dixie Carter unveiled a new design for the championship , with blue accents to match the color scheme of the company .

On June 16 , 2015 , TNA tweaked the title 's design by recoloring its accents from blue to green .

= = Reigns = =

The inaugural champion was A.J. Styles , who won the championship by defeating Low Ki , Jerry Lynn , and Psicosis in a Four Way Double Elimination match on June 19 , 2002 at TNA 's second weekly PPV event . At 301 days , Austin Aries ' first reign holds the record for longest in the title 's history . At less than one day , Eric Young 's only reign , and Chris Sabin 's sixth reign and Rockstar Spud 's second reign are the shortest in the title 's history . Chris Sabin holds the record for most reigns with eight .

The current champion is Lashley . He defeated previous champion Eddie Edwards on July 13 , 2016 , in Orlando , Florida during the Impact Wrestling tapings .

= Andrianjaka =

Andrianjaka reigned over the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands region of Madagascar from around 1612 to 1630 . Despite being the younger of King Ralambo 's two sons , Andrianjaka succeeded to the throne on the basis of his strength of character and skill as a military tactician . The most celebrated accomplishment of his reign was the capture of the hill of Analamanga from a Vazimba king . There he established the fortified compound ( rova ) that would form the heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo . Upon his orders , the first structures within this fortified compound ( known as the Rova of Antananarivo ) were constructed : several traditional royal houses were built , and plans for a series of royal tombs were designed . These buildings took on an enduring political and spiritual significance , ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995 . Andrianjaka obtained a sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder , materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance and expand his rule over greater Imerina .

Many of the cultural practices that were to define Merina social and political life for centuries are credited to Andrianjaka . He designated the twelve sacred hills of Imerina that were to become the spiritual and political heartland of the Merina empire , contributing to the establishment of the kingdom 's traditional boundaries ; clans were assigned to specific regions within his kingdom , further defining the cultural landscape . He consolidated power through such measures as appropriating the folk tradition of sampy ( community talismans ) , thereby ensuring all the powers traditionally attributed to these idols were under the control of the sovereign alone . Merina traditions related to the burial and mourning of sovereigns are also traced back to Andrianjaka 's reign .

= = Early life = =

Andrianjaka was the second son of Ralambo , ruler of the Kingdom of Imerina in the central highlands of Madagascar . As a young man , Andrianjaka married Ravadifo , a daughter of Prince Andriampanarivomanjaka . The marriage produced one daughter and one son , Andriantsitakatrandriana , who would rule after his father from 1630 to 1650 . Andrianjaka was also actively involved in providing support to his father 's military campaigns to expand and defend Ralambo 's realm . Oral history describes an incident wherein Andrianjaka and Ralambo were engaged in the defense of Ralambo 's capital at Ambohidrabiby , which was threatened by the advance of Antsihanaka warriors . Andrianjaka reportedly suggested an innovative defensive tactic to annihilate the enemy by filling the town 's hadivory ( defensive trenches ) with cow dung and rice husks , lighting it on fire , and covering the smoldering embers with burnt rice stalks so that the area resembled a patch of land recently re @-@ cleared for planting through tavy ( slash and burn agriculture ) . The enemy troops reportedly marched into the trap , sinking into the embers and burning or suffocating to death .

Oral history provides two different accounts of Andrianjaka 's succession to the throne of the Kingdom of Imerina . According to popular legend , Ralambo devised a test to determine which of his two sons was most fit to rule : he would summon them both to join him at his capital in Ambohidrabiby , and whichever of his two sons reached him soonest would inherit his kingdom . In one account of this legend , Andrianjaka was reportedly engrossed in strategizing a win in a difficult game of fanorona and so refused to admit audience to the royal messenger until after the game was over . During this delay , his older brother Andriantompokoindrindra received his father 's message and rushed home ; he was thus awarded Ralambo 's title and kingdom . However , this tale continues , Andriantompokoindrindra 's claim to power was rejected by the public , and he was soon forced to cede the throne to Andrianjaka . In an alternate account of the succession tale , it is Andriantompokoindrindra ( not Andrianjaka ) who was said to be preoccupied with the fanorona game — a version in keeping with the oral tradition that credits him with the game 's invention and popularization at court — and his refusal to return to his father until after the game had finished led Ralambo to choose Andrianjaka as his successor . One source states that the summons was not a test , but rather occurred during the aforementioned incident when Ralambo was besieged in his capital by the Antsihanaka warriors and was genuinely in need of his sons ' assistance .

It is generally accepted by historians that Andrianjaka did indeed succeed to the throne around 1610 or 1612 after his older brother 's claim was rejected by the public . All speculation about fanorona and royal summons aside , Ralambo may have chosen Andrianjaka based on the simple fact that he was the son of Ralambo 's first wife . Ralambo 's father , Andriamanelo , had established rules of succession by which Ralambo 's first son by his first wife must rule after his father in order to fulfill a mandate established by his Vazimba antecedents Rafohy and Rangita . The passing over of Andriantompokoindrindra in favor of his younger brother was partially mitigated by the establishment of a royal tradition maintaining that all reigning descendants of Andrianjaka would henceforth be required to marry a princess directly descended from Andriantompokoindrindra , thereby preserving the royal status of descendants in both brothers ' bloodlines .

= = Reign = =

Andrianjaka moved his capital from Ambohidrabiby to Ambohimanga upon ascending to the throne around 1610 or 1612 . He was reportedly the first Merina leader to receive Europeans around 1620 and traded slaves in exchange for guns and other firearms to aid in the pacification of rival principalities , obtaining 50 guns and three barrels of gunpowder to equip his army . He unified the principalities on what he later designated as the twelve sacred hills of Imerina at Ambohitratrimo , Ambohimanga , Ilafy , Alasora , Antsahadita , Ambohimanambony , Analamanga , Ambohitrabiby , Namehana , Ambohidrapeto , Ambohijafy and Ambohimandranjaka . These hills became and remain the spiritual heart of Imerina , which was further expanded over a century later when Andrianampoinimerina redesignated the twelve sacred hills to include several different sites .

His policies and tactics highlighted and increased the separation between the king and his subjects . Andrianjaka transformed social divisions into spatial divisions by assigning each clan to a specific geographical region within his kingdom . He made a demonstration of royal power by appropriating the local tradition of sampy ( talismans ) , previously created by village chiefs and others for personal or local spiritual ends , restricting their number to twelve and declaring their creation a strictly royal prerogative . The king also imposed an intimidating change to the traditional form of justice , the trial by ordeal : Andrianjaka ordered that rather than administering tangena poison to an accused person 's rooster to determine their innocence by the creature 's survival , the poison would instead be ingested by the accused himself .

= = = Founding of Antananarivo = = =

Around 1610 or 1625 according to various estimations , Andrianjaka commanded a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 soldiers to seize the hill of Analamanga ( " Blue Forest " ) — at 1 @,@ 480 metres ( 4 @,@ 860 ft ) above sea level , then the highest and most strategically important in the region — from its Vazimba inhabitants . He constructed a royal fortified compound ( rova ) on the hilltop as the capitol of a new town at the site which he named Antananarivo ( " the city of the thousand " ) in honor of the thousand soldiers who aided in capturing and protecting the hill . He reportedly succeeded with minimal bloodshed : according to oral history , the encampment of his army at the foot of Analamanga was sufficient to secure the submission of the Vazimba . Andrianjaka made Antananarivo the capital of his realm . From his position atop Analamanga , he was well @-@ placed to exert control over the vast plains of Betsimitatatra below . Under his command the plains were gradually transformed into vast , surplus @-@ producing rice paddies . This feat was accomplished by mobilizing large numbers of his able @-@ bodied subjects to construct dikes that enabled the redirection of rainwater for controlled flooding of planted areas .

Andrianjaka 's fortified compound came to be known as the Rova of Antananarivo and constituted the heart of his newly founded city of Antananarivo . Prior to Andrianjaka 's rule , Merina sovereigns shifted their capital from one town to another , but with the establishment of the rova on the peak of Analamanga hill , Antananarivo was to become the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina ( and , ultimately , the 19th @-@ century Kingdom of Madagascar ) for generations of Merina sovereigns . The heart of the town was built in stages : first , the army cleared the forest covering the hill 's summit and constructed the rova compound to serve as an initial garrison enclosing a traditional @-@ style wooden house ( lapa ) that served as a residence for the king . Soon thereafter , two more houses were constructed ; Andrianjaka also designated the construction space and design for a row of royal tombs . In keeping with Merina aristocratic tradition , each structure in the compound was given a name . The row of tombs was named Fitomiandalana ( " Seven Aligned Tombs " ) , Andrianjaka 's own tomb being the first of these constructed . According to one account , the very first royal house constructed within the Rova of Antananarivo was named Besakana ( " Great Breadth " ) and served as the personal residence of Andrianjaka . This account is contradicted by another source that states the second and third houses were called Masoandrotsiroa and Besakana , with the latter again characterized as Andrianjaka 's personal residence , leaving the precise origins of Besakana unclear .

The Besakana , Masoandrotsiroa and Fitomiandalana structures at the Rova of Antananarivo were preserved and maintained over the centuries by successive generations of Merina sovereigns , imbuing the structures with deep symbolic and spiritual meaning . As Andrianjaka 's residence , the Besakana was particularly significant : the original building was torn down and reconstructed in the same design by Andriamasinavalona around 1680 , and again by Andrianampoinimerina in 1800 , each of whom inhabited the building in turn as their personal residence . King Radama I likewise inhabited the building for much of his time at the Rova , and in 1820 he designated the building as the first site to house what came to be known as the Palace School , the first formal European @-@ style school in Imerina . Sovereigns were enthroned in this building and their mortal remains were displayed here before burial , rendering Besakana " the official state room for civil affairs ... regarded as the throne of the kingdom . "

= = Death and succession = =

The rule of Andrianjaka continued uninterrupted until his death at the Rova of Antananarivo around 1630 . He was the first king to be buried on the grounds of the Rova , his tomb forming the first of the Fitomiandalana . To commemorate his greatness , his subjects erected a small wooden house called a trano masina on top of his tomb . Future Merina sovereigns and nobles continued to construct similar tomb houses on their tombs well into the 19th century . According to oral history , the institution of lengthy formal mourning periods for deceased sovereigns in Imerina may also have begun with the death of Andrianjaka . He was succeeded by his son , Andriantsitakatrandriana .

= No Way Out ( 2004 ) =

No Way Out ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on February 15 , 2004 , at the Cow Palace in San Francisco , California . It was presented by THQ 's MX Unleashed . It was the sixth event produced under the No Way Out name and starred wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand .

In the main event , Eddie Guerrero defeated WWE Champion Brock Lesnar to win the title - his sole World Championship before his death in 2005 . On the undercard Kurt Angle defeated The Big Show and John Cena in a Triple Threat match to earn a title match for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XX . Furthermore , Chavo Guerrero defeated Rey Mysterio .

No Way Out grossed over $ 450 @,@ 000 ticket sales from an attendance of approximately 11 @,@ 000 and received 350 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , and was instrumental in helping WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 11 @.@ 9 million compared to the previous year . Like the event , the DVD received favorable reviews .

= = Background = =

The event consisted of eight professional wrestling matches with wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to the SmackDown ! brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being Raw .

After winning a 15 @-@ man battle royal ( a match in which participants are eliminated until one person remains as the winner ) on the January 29 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , Eddie Guerrero earned the right to challenge for the WWE Championship at No Way Out against the champion , Brock Lesnar in a standard wrestling match , also known as a singles match . Outside the storyline with Guerrero , Lesnar was involved in a staged rivalry with Goldberg , a member of the Raw program . The feud between Lesnar and Goldberg began at the Royal Rumble , WWE 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event which involved both brands . Lesnar interfered in the Royal Rumble match , a 30 @-@ man battle royal , attacking and eliminating Goldberg from the match . On the week of January 26 , 2004 , Lesnar and Goldberg conducted promotional in @-@ ring segments on respective episodes of Raw and SmackDown ! , in which they insulted each other . The following week on an episode of Raw , as a result of the rivalry extending between the two programs , General Manager Steve Austin gave Goldberg the option of attending No Way Out by giving him a front @-@ row ticket . That Thursday on SmackDown ! , the storyline between Guerrero and Lesnar was enhanced when they began a brawl after an in @-@ ring interview segment .

On the February 5 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , The General Manager Paul Heyman scheduled a Triple Threat match between The Big Show , Kurt Angle and John Cena for No Way Out . The winner of that match would face the WWE Champion at WrestleMania XX for the title . The rivalry continued to develop the following week , when Angle was scheduled to team with Guerrero to face The Big Show and Lesnar , though the latter was portrayed as being unconscious backstage . Cena then replaced Angle in the match and defeated the opposition with Guerrero .

In February 2004 , WWE Cruiserweight Champion Rey Mysterio produced " Crossing Borders " , which was No Way Out 's official theme song . In this storyline , Chavo Guerrero became jealous of the attention Mysterio garnered as a result of recording the song . Therefore , Heyman promoted a match between the two at No Way Out for the WWE Cruiserweight title during the February 5 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! . The following week on SmackDown ! , Mysterio was accompanied by Jorge Páez , a professional boxer and childhood friend of Mysterio who appeared in his " Crossing Borders " music video , to his match against Tajiri . Mysterio defeated Tajiri but was attacked by Guerrero and Chavo Guerrero , Sr. after the match until Paez intervened and helped Mysterio .

= = Event = =

Before the event began and aired live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an episode of Sunday Night Heat , one of WWE 's secondary television programs , was taped live . In a six @-@ person tag team match , the team of Tajiri , Sakoda , and Akio defeated Último Dragón , Billy Kidman , and Paul London .

= = = Preliminary matches = = =

After Sunday Night Heat , the pay @-@ per @-@ view began with a handicap match - a tag team match in which a team of two wrestlers face a team of three . WWE Tag Team Champions Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty defended their titles against The Basham Brothers ( Doug and Danny Basham ) and Shaniqua . During the match Hotty attempted to hit Shaniqua , who was lying on her back , with a slap over her chest , but Shaniqua countered by hitting him with her forearm . The challengers had the advantage until Hotty hit both Basham brothers with his forearm , causing them to flip over the top ring rope and into ringside . Afterwards , Rikishi lifted Shaniqua over his shoulders before falling backwards in a Samoan drop . Rikishi then covered Shaniqua to pin her , a move that allowed Rikishi and Hotty to retain their championships . Next was a Singles match , in which Jamie Noble was blindfolded as he faced his storyline girlfriend Nidia . Nidia would take advantage of Noble 's inability to see by performing antics that caused him to fall . Eventually , Noble was able to apply the guillotine choke on Nidia . Noble won the match after he forced her to submit with this move .

The third contest was a tag team match , in which The World 's Greatest Tag Team ( Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas ) faced the APA ( Bradshaw and Faarooq ) . At one point , Bradshaw performed a high @-@ impact forearm " Clothesline from Hell " attack on Haas . Benjamin then hit Bradshaw with a superkick and pinned him to gain the win for his team . After the match , Goldberg was seen arriving at the arena and being escorted to his seat by arena security . In the ring , General Manager Paul Heyman gave a promotional in @-@ ring segment on how SmackDown ! was the better program over Raw . Lesnar would come down to the ring to promote his match and to insult Goldberg . As part of the storyline , Goldberg immediately jumped over the barricade into the ring , where Lesnar performed a spear , a running shoulder block to Goldberg 's stomach ; however he recuperated and lifted Lesnar vertically in the air before slamming him down to perform the Jackhammer . Goldberg was then escorted out of the arena by security . This altercation was followed by a singles match between Hardcore Holly and Rhyno . Before the match began , Holly and Rhyno brawled on the entrance ramp , before they entered the ring . Once there , Holly slammed Rhyno off the top rope with a superplex , though , as they recuperated , Rhyno hit Holly with a spear that caused Holly to roll out of the ring . Afterwards , Holly lifted Rhyno by his legs over his shoulders before throwing him down with an Alabama slam ; Holly covered Rhyno for a pinfall .

= = = Main event matches = = =

In the fifth match Rey Mysterio ( managed by Jorge Paez ) , defended his WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Chavo Guerrero ( managed by his father Chavo Guerrero , Sr. ) During the fight , Mysterio performed a 619 on Guerrero ( at the time positioned on the second ring rope ) and hit him in the face with both legs while using the ropes for leverage , leading to an attack by Paez on Guerrero , Sr. The referee ordered Paez backstage . Both fighters wrestled inconclusively until Mysterio hit a second 619 . During the second sequence of the move , Guerrero grabbed Mysterio 's legs and achieved a position with his shoulders spread so as to win both a pinfall and the WWE Cruiserweight title .

The following match was the Triple Threat between The Big Show , John Cena , and Kurt Angle fighting for the opportunity to face the WWE Champion at WrestleMania XX . For the duration of the match , The Big Show , who stood at 7 feet 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 18 m ) and weighed 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) , used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on , Cena and Angle . Thereafter , Cena lifted The Big Show over his shoulders and threw him down to execute the FU , while Angle lifted The Big Show by the side to throw him out of the ring . Angle then applied an ankle lock on Cena , forcing him to submit . As a result , Angle won a WWE Championship match at WrestleMania XX .

The main event was a singles match in which WWE Champion Brock Lesnar defended his title against Eddie Guerrero . Lesnar did not show any effect from the Jackhammer Goldberg performed on him earlier in the event ; similar to the prior match , Lesnar used his size advantage over Guerrero throughout the match . As Lesnar lifted Guerrero over his shoulders to slam his face down to perform an " F @-@ 5 " , he knocked down the referee . Lesnar then attempted to take advantage of the referee 's state , as he went to retrieve the WWE title belt to hit Guerrero . Meanwhile , Goldberg came down into the ring and hit a spear on Lesnar . Because the referee was incapacitated , Guerrero could not be disqualified for Goldberg 's interference . As Goldberg retreated , Guerrero countered Lesnar 's 2nd F5 into a DDT on the title belt while the referee regained consciousness . Guerrero kicked the belt out of the ring to prevent the referee from seeing it and performed his Frog splash to pin Lesnar and win the WWE Championship from him .

= = Aftermath = =

At WrestleMania XX , WWE Champion Eddie Guerrero defeated challenger Kurt Angle via pinfall and retained his title . John " Bradshaw " Layfield , portraying a new character after the semi @-@ retirement of his tag team partner Faarooq , challenged Guerrero for the WWE Championship and defeated him at The Great American Bash to win the title . Guerrero failed to recapture the title from Layfield in a steel cage match on SmackDown ! . After Guerrero 's death in November 2005 , WWE held Tribute Shows on Raw and SmackDown ! During these programs , No Way Out was the main highlight of Guerrero 's career , as it was where he won his only World Championship . John Cena began a rivalry with The Big Show over his WWE United States Championship and , at WrestleMania XX , Cena defeated Show to win the title . Goldberg and Lesnar continued their rivalry , leading to a match promoted at WrestleMania XX , in which Goldberg defeated Lesnar . After their match , Goldberg and Lesnar left the company , although Lesnar would make his return in April 2012 .

Rey Mysterio and Chavo Guerrero 's storyline over the WWE Cruiserweight Championship also continued , culminating in a battle royal match at WrestleMania XX involving other wrestlers . Guerrero last eliminated Mysterio to retain his title in this match . After the Draft Lottery , a mock sports draft lottery in which wrestlers switched programs , Rico was drafted to SmackDown ! , while Shelton Benjamin was drafted to Raw , in the process splitting up The World 's Greatest Tag Team . Afterward , Haas and Rico won the WWE Tag Team Championship from Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty on SmackDown !

= = = Reception = = =

The Cow Palace arena usually can accommodate 13 @,@ 000 , but the capacity was reduced for No Way Out 2004 . This event grossed over $ 450 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 11 @,@ 000 which was the maximum allowed . It also received 350 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . No Way Out helped World Wrestling Entertainment earn $ 43 @.@ 7 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 31 @.@ 8 million the previous year ; Linda McMahon , then CEO of WWE , confirmed this statement on June 21 , 2004 in a quarterly financial report . The event received mostly positive reviews . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section described the event as " Smackdown ! [ giving ] us our money 's worth last night but they also set up what 's probably going to be the best match at Wrestlemania . " Kevin Sowers from PWTorch described the main event between Eddie Guerrero and Brock Lesnar as " one to remember for a long time . " The event was released on DVD on March 16 , 2004 . After its release , the DVD received a rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 points by IGN .

= = Results = =

= Scout Taylor @-@ Compton =

Scout Taylor @-@ Compton ( born February 21 , 1989 ) is an American actress . She has appeared in numerous small television roles and in feature films that range from dramas to those in the horror genre giving her the reputation of a scream queen . Her most notable roles include Laurie Strode in the horror films Halloween ( 2007 ) and Halloween II ( 2009 ) , as well as Lita Ford in the film The Runaways ( 2010 ) .

In addition to taking vocal lessons and singing the theme song for her film Chicken Night ( 2001 ) , Taylor @-@ Compton is recording her debut rock album . Taylor @-@ Compton had also provided voice over work in other films , including The Core ( 2003 ) , and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement ( 2004 ) .

= = Personal life = =

Scout Taylor @-@ Compton was born Desariee Starr Compton in Long Beach , California , and is half Mexican American on her mother 's side . Her father is a mortician . Taylor @-@ Compton says she " grew up in that whole [ horror ] genre and visiting my dad at the mortuary . I have no problem with that stuff . Whether it was a coffin or my dad bringing his work home . " Andy Biersack from Black Veil Brides , her ex @-@ boyfriend whom she dated for six years , composed the song The Mortician 's Daughter about her . She has 8 tattoos and is known for her tomboy fashion .

Previous to acting , Taylor @-@ Compton had been a competitive swimmer and had plans to participate in the AAU Junior Olympics . She enjoys volleyball , cheerleading , dance , gymnastics and roller @-@ blading , and has several cats and dogs . Taylor @-@ Compton is a fan of horror films , especially those featuring Michael [ Myers ] , Jason [ Voorhees ] and Chucky . She also enjoys Thir13en Ghosts , Halloween 4 and Halloween 5 . She is a fan of the lead actress in the latter two films Danielle Harris ; the two later going on to appear together in the Halloween remake and its sequel . Compton also writes song lyrics .

= = Career = =

In 1998 , Taylor @-@ Compton began her acting career with an appearance in the film A.W.O.L. with David Morse , and later in the short film Thursday Afternoon . She went on to have small roles in both television and film including Ally McBeal , ER , Frasier , The Guardian and The Division . She appeared in several student films , commercials for Fuji Film and the Disney Cruise Line , and various skits on The Jay Leno Show . November 2000 saw Taylor @-@ Compton make her stage debut as the title character in a production of Annie Warbucks at The Grove Theatre in Upland , California , and a stage production of Footloose at the Simi Valley Cultural Arts Center .

In 2001 , she had a recurring role as Clara Forrester , the younger sister of Dean Forrester ( Jared Padalecki ) in the television series Gilmore Girls , appearing in a total of four episodes until 2004 . Taylor @-@ Compton was nominated for " Best Performance in a TV Series – Recurring Young Actress " for her portrayal of Clara . She made a comedic appearance in the film Four Fingers of the Dragon ( 2003 ) playing herself auditioning for a role in a fictional Kung Fu film . Later in 2004 , she appeared in the teen comedy Sleepover , which had been her first large Hollywood film role . The cast of the film was nominated for " Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast " at the Young Artists Award . Sleepover did poorly at the box office . Following Sleepover , she appeared in numerous television series including Hidden Howie , Unfabulous ( 2 episodes ) , Cold Case , That 's So Raven , Charmed ( appearing in 8 episodes between 2000 and 2006 as various Fairies ) , and Without a Trace ( in which she portrayed a runaway teenager ) .

In 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton joined the cast on ABC 'S Friday Night Live . That year as well , she starred in the drama Tomorrow is Today and the horror film Wicked Little Things . Tomorrow is Today features Taylor @-@ Compton as Julie Peterson , a girl who saves the life of and befriends a hapless drifter . The film won over six awards at various festivals which included the California Independent Film Festival , the Garden State Film Festival , Method Fest Independent Film Festival , and the Rhode Island International Film Festival . She won " Best Actress " for her performance in the film at the Method Fest Independent Film Festival . Wicked Little Things was one of the films featured in After Dark 's 8 Films to Die For and saw Taylor @-@ Compton star as Sarah Tunny . Following these films , she appeared in Standoff and Close to Home .

In 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton appeared in the film An American Crime which told the true story of suburban housewife Gertrude Baniszewski , who had kept a teenage girl locked in the basement of her Indiana home during the 1960s . After losing the lead role in the Pang Brothers film The Messengers to Kristen Stewart , Taylor @-@ Compton then returned to the horror genre as Laurie Strode in Rob Zombie 's remake of the classic Halloween . She endured a long audition process , but as director Zombie explains , " Scout was my first choice . There was just something about her ; she had a genuine quality . She didn 't seem actor @-@ y . " Halloween currently stands as the highest grossing overall film in the Halloween franchise .

She starred in the television movie Love 's Unfolding Dream which premiered on November 24 , 2007 . She stars in the horror film April Fool 's Day , a remake of the 1986 film of the same name , filmed in North Carolina with a March 25 , 2008 DVD release . Taylor @-@ Compton explains on the starring in the role of Torrance : " I 'll just be playing another wholesome ' good girl ' that screams a lot . " She has another horror film in production , the 2009 film Murder World in which she will have a cameo as Carrie Lain .

In an interview conducted in July 2007 , Taylor @-@ Compton reported that after completing April Fool 's Day , she wants to stay away from roles in the horror genre for her next film projects . Although she has received many horror film scripts , she believes that she " need [ s ] to move on from horror . Just drift away a little bit and do something else so I don 't get stuck in that " and although she " love [ s ] doing horror films " and are her " favorite " , she 'd " like to do other stuff in between . " She has recently been influenced by the career of Scarlett Johansson , wanting to choose scripts and roles based on personal interest as she views Johansson does . Taylor @-@ Compton went on to explain , " That 's what I kind of want to do . I love just being passionate about something rather than just caring about the money or who 's in the movie . 2009 saw Taylor @-@ Compton alongside Helen Mirren and Joe Pesci in Love Ranch . Then , she went on to star in the film Obsessed alongside Beyoncé Knowles . Her most recent film to hit theaters was Halloween II , Rob Zombie 's sequel to the 2007 remake . The film opened the same day as The Final Destination , another high profile horror film , and had disappointing box office returns as a result . In 2010 , she appeared in The Runaways where she plays Lita Ford , alongside Kristen Stewart , Dakota Fanning , and Stella Maeve .

= = = Other Work = = =

In 1998 , she appeared in The Adventures of Lily music video for " Femme Fatale " . In 2001 , Taylor Compton provided voice overs for I Am Sam , and continued with voice over work with appearances in The Core ( 2003 ) and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement ( 2004 ) . The next year , she provided voice over work for the teen hero comedy Sky High . She sang the theme song " Jet Set " for her film Chicken Night ( 2001 ) . 2002 saw Taylor @-@ Compton appearing briefly in the Will Smith music video for " Black Suits Comin ' ( Nod Ya Head ) " for the Men in Black II soundtrack . She appeared in the music video for " Sweet Valentine " by the band Born the Sky in 2007 .

In 2003 , Taylor @-@ Compton had taken vocal lessons with Diane Gillespie and Vocal Power Institute . She had taken guitar , drums , and keyboard lessons , and was member a theatre group called " Shenanigans , " where she performed and took weekly tap and jazz lessons . She attended the Hollywood Pop Academy for additional vocal training .

Taylor @-@ Compton is currently working on her debut rock / pop album , in which she will sing and play drums . She cites Cyndi Lauper , Gwen Stefani , Madonna , Kelly Osbourne and the band Green Day as musical influences . Taylor @-@ Compton has been working with ERA Productions and " with a very well known punk / pop singer " , Vitamin C.

While on the set filming Halloween ( 2007 ) , Taylor @-@ Compton had received " a few pointers " from director Rob Zombie , who had also fronted a band and continues his singing career . She has stated that singing is a side project and " is just a little talent that I have on the side , and if it does something then I 'll do that , but I 'm not gonna give up acting . "

Taylor @-@ Compton has five songs that can be streamed on her official Garageband.com profile . All songs were recorded and posted for listening in 2005 . The songs featured are " Bad Girl " , the first song she wrote with her ERA producers , " Waiting for the Heartbreak " and " Where Do We Go " , written with Vitamin C , " Freak Show " , written by Adam Alvermark and produced Taylor @-@ Compton along with ERA Productions , and " Words " . She did minor modeling for the teenage clothing brand Limited Too and the cellular phone service Sprint PCS .

= = Filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= Goin ' Home ( Archie Shepp and Horace Parlan album ) =

Goin ' Home is a studio album by American saxophonist Archie Shepp and pianist Horace Parlan . After their respective work in the avant @-@ garde jazz movement of the 1960s , Shepp and Parlan both faced career challenges as the jazz scene diverged stylistically . They left the United States for Europe during the 1970s and met each other in Denmark before recording the album on April 25 , 1977 , at Sweet Silence Studio in Copenhagen .

A jazz and gospel album , Goin ' Home features Shepp and Parlan 's interpretations of African @-@ American folk melodies and spirituals . Its title is an allusion to Shepp 's return to his African cultural roots . Shepp had never recorded spirituals before and was overcome with emotion during the album 's recording because of the historical and cultural context of the songs .

Although it surprised jazz listeners upon its release in 1977 , Goin ' Home was praised by music critics for its reverent tone and stylistic deviation from Shepp 's previous free jazz works . Shepp and Parlan were artistically satisfied with the album and subsequently recorded another album together , Trouble in Mind , in 1980 . Goin ' Home was reissued on CD by SteepleChase Records on May 3 , 1994 .

= = Background = =

After surging to the forefront of the avant @-@ garde jazz movement during the 1960s , both Archie Shepp and Horace Parlan faced career challenges during the 1970s after their style lost popularity in the jazz scene , which had split between artists who played either a tamer or a more experimental sound . Like Parlan , Shepp became a more mainstream performer , mostly playing hard bop , although he occasionally return to his free jazz sound . To support himself financially , he spent most of his time playing in Europe . In 1972 , Parlan also left the United States and eventually made his residence in Denmark , where Shepp had signed to SteepleChase Records .

Shepp became interested in recording gospel and , at the request of his producer at SteepleChase , recorded Goin ' Home with Parlan . They recorded the album on April 25 , 1977 , at Sweet Silence Studio in Copenhagen , Denmark . Shepp played tenor saxophone on six pieces and soprano saxophone on three others .

= = Music = =

According to music journalist Tom Moon , Goin ' Home is a reverent jazz and gospel album played with straightforward simplicity by Shepp and Parlan . They interpret nine traditional Negro spirituals , featuring African @-@ American folk melodies that originated from the 1920s and before . Along with Trouble in Mind and Looking at Bird in 1980 , Goin ' Home is part of a series of albums delineated in Shepp 's discography as " modular explorations of traditional musical styles " , which is itself in Shepp 's broader series of musical " portraits of the Diaspora " . The album 's title alludes to a return to African cultural roots .

Shepp viewed Goin ' Home as his attempt to cross the span of time and history between modern African Americans and the black slaves symbolized by the spirituals . In an interview for Down Beat , Shepp said that it was the first time he had recorded spirituals or made " any kind of serious statement about them " , and said that he started to cry when he started playing on the album due to " the strain , the spiritual weight of the moment " . He recalled being momentarily afraid that he would not be able to go through with the album 's recording because of his emotional state , which he explained :

The album has a melodic form , and employs pentatonic scales for melodic development , a practice common in African and African @-@ American folk music . Goin ' Home is mostly tempoless , as most of the pieces are performed in a rubato @-@ like free rhythm . Shepp and Parlan perform sudden accelerations and intended delays and halts , particularly at the end of bars , phrases , and sections in a piece . Most of the spirituals have a thirty @-@ two @-@ bar form , with the eight @-@ bar section comprising four two @-@ bar phrases wherein two choruses of the spiritual are played . Shepp and Parlan 's interpretations include few choruses from the original spirituals .

Eschewing common jazz practice , Shepp does not improvise new melodic lines within the spirituals ' harmonic framework , but plays short , impromptu passages around a melodic idea . Parlan plays piano solos on only two of the album 's pieces . Shepp contributes a tonal roughness to the songs with growled sounds , which he plays by singing or humming into his saxophone . He also uses harmonic overtones , breathy tonal weight , and expressive chromatic development of melody to add textural and timbral variety to the songs . Shepp and Parlan 's reverent takes on " Amazing Grace " and Go Down Moses " exhibit split tones and fortes .

= = Release and reception = =

Goin ' Home was released in 1977 by Danish record label SteepleChase Records . Jazz listeners were divided in their reaction to the album . According to Doug Ramsey of Texas Monthly , some listeners were surprised by Shepp 's stylistic change , while others viewed the record as a " fulfillment of promise " . Ramsey believed it revealed a " tenderness and humor " from Shepp that his 1960s work only hinted at , writing that it " disclosed an Archie Shepp that many had never known , warm rather than blistering hot , witty rather than contemptuously sardonic " . John Swenson , writing in The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide ( 1985 ) , praised Shepp 's work with Parlan and gave Goin ' Home a five @-@ star rating , finding it " particularly heartfelt . " Fernando Gonzalez of The Boston Globe called it " exquisite " , and C. Gerald Fraser of The New York Times wrote in 1987 that " this marriage of avant @-@ garde and soul " is " regarded as a classic . " Art Lange of CODA magazine praised Shepp 's " exquisite control " of his instrument , which he " quite literally " makes " able [ to ] talk " , and found the spirituals to have been " sung " rather than just performed . Lange added that the emotional aspect is more impressive than the technical skill and stated :

Both Shepp and Parlan were artistically satisfied with Goin ' Home and recorded another album together , the blues @-@ inspired Trouble in Mind , in 1980 . On May 3 , 1994 , the former album was reissued on CD by SteepleChase .

In The Rolling Stone Jazz Record Guide ( 1985 ) , Goin ' Home was given five stars and called " particularly heartfelt " . In a retrospective review for AllMusic , jazz critic Scott Yanow gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars and found the performances " compelling " . He said listeners who are " only familiar with Shepp 's earlier Fire Music " will see the album as a " revelation . " Moon believed its tempoless mood " gives the themes an extra shot of majesty " and found it " supremely melodic " , writing that both Shepp and Parlan " do whatever is necessary to bring the spirit to the forefront . " Richard Cook gave it four out of four stars in The Penguin Guide to Jazz ( 2002 ) . JazzTimes cited Goin ' Home as one of " the finest [ albums ] of his career " , and Tom Hull of The Village Voice cited it as SteepleChase 's best release . Phil Johnson of The Independent wrote that the album " can be listened to almost without cease . " Jazz historian Eric Nisenson called it " one of the most moving albums of the Seventies " , but qualified his praise by critiquing that Shepp , an iconic figure in free jazz , " was no longer the firebrand who had so frightened and unsettled some white critics and jazz fans . " Nisenson felt that , like Pharoah Sanders , Shepp 's " trial by fire at the heart of the Sixties avant @-@ garde had made him an unusually expressive musician , " and Goin ' Home showed that he was " finding inspiration in the entire black musical tradition . "

= = Track listing = =

All songs are traditional compositions , excepted where noted , and were arranged by Archie Shepp .

= = Personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .

Per Grunnet – design

Freddy Hansson – engineer

Horace Parlan – piano

Flemming Rasmussen – assistant engineer

Archie Shepp – arranger , soprano saxophone , tenor saxophone

Gorm Valentin – photography

Nils Winther – photographer , producer

= Hurricane Humberto ( 2007 ) =

Hurricane Humberto was a minimal hurricane that formed and intensified faster than any other North Atlantic tropical cyclone on record before landfall . Developing on September 12 , 2007 , in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico , the tropical cyclone rapidly strengthened and struck High Island , Texas , with winds of about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) early on September 13 . It steadily weakened after moving ashore , and on September 14 it began dissipating over northwestern Georgia as it interacted with an approaching cold front .

Damage was fairly light , estimated at approximately $ 50 million ( 2007 USD ) . Precipitation peaked at 14 @.@ 13 inches ( 358 @.@ 9 mm ) , while wind gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) were reported . The heavy rainfall caused widespread flooding , which damaged or destroyed dozens of homes , and closed several highways . Trees and power lines were downed , knocking out power to hundreds of thousands of customers . The hurricane caused one fatality in the State of Texas . Additionally , as the storm progressed inland , rainfall was reported throughout the Southeast United States .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of Humberto are from the remnants of a frontal trough — the same that spawned Tropical Storm Gabrielle — that moved offshore south Florida on September 5 . The combination of a weak surface trough and an upper @-@ level low pressure system produced disorganized showers and thunderstorms from western Cuba into the eastern Gulf of Mexico . Tracking slowly west @-@ northwestward , unfavorable wind shear initially inhibited tropical cyclone development . By late on September 11 , environmental conditions became more favorable , and the following morning convection increased over the disturbance . Tracking around the western periphery of a mid @-@ level ridge , the system turned on a slow northwest drift and quickly organized . Radar imagery reported loose banding features , and buoy data indicated the presence of a surface circulation ; based on the observations , the National Hurricane Center classified the system as Tropical Depression Nine , while located roughly 60 miles ( 100 km ) southeast of Matagorda , Texas .

Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was forecast to strengthen slowly to reach peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Within three hours of forming , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Humberto . A small cyclone , the storm continued to organize quickly as it turned north @-@ northeastward , while radar imagery suggested the formation of an eye by early on September 13 . Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , Humberto was upgraded to a hurricane at 0515 UTC on September 13 , while located about 15 miles ( 20 km ) off the coast of Texas . The hurricane made landfall a few miles to the east of High Island at around 0700 UTC . A well @-@ defined eye was maintained with strong convection around it , and Hurricane Hunters reported sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) about two hours after landfall . However , post @-@ storm analysis later determined that the winds were a bit stronger — about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) .

Based on operational estimates of a wind speed increase of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , the National Hurricane Center reported that " no tropical cyclone in the historic record has ever reached this intensity at a faster rate near landfall . " The path of the eye continued northeastward and passed over Port Arthur , Nederland , Port Neches , Groves , and Bridge City , Texas at Category 1 hurricane strength . This was the second time within two years ( following Hurricane Rita on September 24 , 2005 ) that these cities experienced a direct hit from a hurricane . By eight hours after landfall , Humberto weakened to a tropical storm as it crossed into southwestern Louisiana . Increased upper @-@ level wind shear caused the storm to weaken rapidly over land , and late on September 13 Humberto weakened to a tropical depression . Upon issuing its last advisory , the National Hurricane Center remarked on the potential for the remnants of the storm to turn southward into the Gulf of Mexico . However , the storm continued northeastward through the southeastern United States , and on September 14 , the storm began dissipating over northwestern Georgia , and shortly thereafter degenerated into a remnant low pressure area .

= = Preparations = =

Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , a tropical storm warning was issued from Port O 'Connor , Texas , to Cameron , Louisiana , and a tropical storm watch was posted from Cameron to Intracoastal City , Louisiana ; after Humberto became a tropical storm , the watch was upgraded to a warning . Upon reaching hurricane status , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning from High Island , Texas , to Cameron , Louisiana . An inland tropical storm warning was declared for several parishes in southwestern Louisiana . The National Weather Service Storm Prediction Center posted a tornado watch for southwestern coastal parishes .

Prior to moving ashore , officials in Calcasieu Parish , Louisiana , advised residents in low @-@ lying or flood @-@ prone areas to consider moving to a safer location . A shelter was opened in Lake Charles , where 29 people stayed during the storm . Flood watches and warnings were issued for portions of Mississippi and Louisiana as the storm tracked across the region . Texas Governor Rick Perry , prepared state resources for the potentially impacted areas , including the deployment of 200 Texas Military Forces soldiers and six Black Hawk helicopters and two water rescue teams for search and rescue missions . The Texas State Operations Center was activated shortly after the cyclone developed .

= = Impact = =

= = = Texas = = =

A few hours prior to its development , outer rainbands from the depression began moving over portions of the Texas coast . Heavy rainfall from intense thunderstorms caused minor flooding as they crossed the coastline during the subsequent days ; precipitation in the state peaked at 14 @.@ 13 inches ( 358 @.@ 9 mm ) at East Bay Bayou , the highest recorded rainfall total in association with the hurricane . Sustained winds peaked at 69 mph ( 112 km / h ) with gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) at Sea Rim State Park ; the National Weather Service estimates gusts exceeded 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) in southwestern Jefferson County and extreme southeastern Chambers County . In the Golden Pass Ship Channel , an unofficial report of a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) wind gust was relayed to the National Hurricane Center . Upon moving ashore , Humberto produced a minor storm surge in the state , peaking at 2 @.@ 86 feet ( 0 @.@ 87 m ) at Rollover Pass ; the combination of surge and waves resulted in light beach erosion .

Hurricane Humberto left 10 homes completely destroyed in Galveston County , with an additional 19 severely damaged in the county ; several homes received minor shingle damage , and road closures left about 5 @,@ 000 houses isolated in the county . The combination of saturated grounds and strong winds uprooted many trees and downed power lines across the path of the hurricane , with at least 50 high voltage transmission poles blown down or seriously damaged ; over 120 @,@ 000 power customers in Orange and Jefferson counties lost power , with 118 @,@ 000 Entergy customers in the state without electricity . Widespread flooding occurred in Jefferson and Orange counties , and at least 20 homes in Beaumont were flooded . Additionally , several roadways were flooded . The passage of the hurricane caused one fatality in the state ; a Bridge City man was killed when his carport crashed on him outside his house . Initially , press reports indicated that the storm wrought up to $ 500 million in damage ; however , final damage estimates were about $ 50 million .

Oil production was slowed as a result of Humberto , as at least four refineries — the Valero , ExxonMobil , Total SA and Motiva Enterprises LLC plants in Port Arthur — were halted due to the loss of power . Oil prices rose above $ 80 a barrel in intraday trading on September 12 as a result , ending the next day at a record high of $ 80 @.@ 09 a barrel . Natural gas futures rose 8 percent ahead of the storm , but lost most of those gains the next day .

According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , 1 @,@ 464 residences throughout Texas were affected by Hurricane Humberto . Of these , 25 were destroyed , 96 sustained major damage and 240 sustained minor damage . The cost of individual assistance for those impacted by Humberto would cost $ 4 @,@ 776 @,@ 334 ; the cost of debris removal and other public assistance amounted to $ 6 @,@ 682 @,@ 074 . In terms of per capita income , Jefferson County sustained the most impact , decreasing by $ 22 @.@ 38 .

= = = Louisiana = = =

Tracking through the state as a weakening tropical storm , Humberto produced light to moderate winds across southwestern Louisiana . Gusts officially peaked at 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) in the state , although an unofficial reading of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) was reported in Vinton . Heavy rainfall occurred across the area , reaching a peak of 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 210 mm ) in DeRidder . The rainfall triggered minor river flooding along the Vermilion River in Lafayette . Storm surge was minor in the state , peaking at 2 @.@ 13 feet ( 0 @.@ 65 m ) in Cypremont Point ; no beach erosion was reported .

Widespread freshwater flooding occurred in Beauregard Parish , leaving homes in DeRidder flooded . High water across the southwestern portion of the state resulted in the closure of several roadways , including U.S. Route 171 and various state highways . Isolated wind damage was reported , particularly near the Texas border , with some trees and power lines blown down . A total of about 13 @,@ 000 power customers lost electricity in southwestern Louisiana . One F1 tornado briefly touched down in Vermilion Parish , blowing the roof off one home and downing trees and power lines . Damage throughout Louisiana was estimated at $ 525 @,@ 000 .

= = = Southeast United States = = =

After the circulation dissipated , the remnants of Humberto brought moderate rainfall to the southeastern states and spawned several tornadoes across portions of South Carolina and North Carolina and caused widespread damage in some locations . Heavy rains in Mississippi led to flooding in low @-@ lying areas . In Hinds County , a small rail bridge was washed out , forcing all passengers Amtrak train to take a bus to their destinations . One person was injured after driving his car into a flooded street . In Alabama , rainfall up to 5 @.@ 06 in ( 129 mm ) caused minor ponding in low @-@ lying areas but aided in short @-@ term drought relief . In northern Georgia , locally heavy rainfall led to flash flooding , resulting in several road closures . Strong thunderstorms associated with the remnants of Humberto also produced winds up to 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) and penny @-@ sized hail . Throughout North Carolina , ten F0 tornadoes were confirmed , resulting in minor damage to homes , though none caused injuries or fatalities . Heavy rains associated with the system also triggered flash flooding along some roads , resulting in their closure . In South Carolina , one F1 tornado touched down in Laurens County , causing moderate damage to several homes before lifting .

= = Aftermath = =

Hours after Humberto made landfall , Rick Perry declared Galveston , Jefferson , and Orange counties as disaster areas , which allocated state resources to assist the affected residents . The governor applied for a presidential disaster declaration on September 21 . Four Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) teams assessed the hurricane damage in the three most affected counties . Following their assessment , they determined that the damage caused by Humberto was not significant enough to require a disaster declaration . As such , Governor Rick Perry 's request from FEMA was denied . Across the Bolivar Peninsula , an estimated 1 @,@ 500 cubic yards of structural debris and 3 @,@ 000 cubic yards of tree limbs were needed to be removed in the wake of the storm .

= Theoren Fleury =

Theoren Wallace " Theo " Fleury ( born June 29 , 1968 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player . Fleury played for the Calgary Flames , Colorado Avalanche , New York Rangers , and Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , Tappara of Finland 's SM @-@ liiga , and the Belfast Giants of the UK 's Elite Ice Hockey League . He was drafted by the Flames in the 8th round , 166th overall , at the 1987 NHL Entry Draft , and played over 1 @,@ 000 games in the NHL between 1989 and 2003 .

One of the smallest players of his generation , Fleury played a physical style that often led to altercations . As a junior , he was at the centre of the infamous Punch @-@ up in Piestany , a brawl that resulted in the disqualification of both Canada and the Soviet Union from the 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . Once considered unlikely to play in the NHL due to his small size , Fleury scored over 1 @,@ 000 points in his career and won the Stanley Cup in 1989 with the Flames . He twice represented Canada at the Winter Olympics , winning a gold medal in 2002 . Throughout his career , he battled drug and alcohol addictions that ultimately forced him out of the NHL in 2003 . He played one season in the British Elite Ice Hockey League in 2005 – 06 , and made two attempts to win the Allan Cup . After an unsuccessful NHL comeback attempt with the Flames , he retired in 2009 .

Outside of hockey , Fleury overcame his addictions , operated a concrete business in Calgary with his family , and filmed a pilot for a reality television show about it . He marketed his own brand of clothing , which led him to play two professional baseball games for the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League . In 1995 , he was diagnosed with Crohn 's disease , and his annual charity golf tournament has helped raise more than $ 1 million for the Crohn 's and Colitis Foundation of Canada .

Fleury co @-@ wrote Playing with Fire , a best @-@ selling autobiography released in October 2009 , in which he revealed that he had been sexually abused by former coach Graham James . Fleury filed a criminal complaint against James , who subsequently pleaded guilty to charges of sexual assault . Fleury has since become an advocate for sexual abuse victims and developed a career as a public speaker . He was a recipient of the Indspire Award in the sports category in 2013 .

= = Early life = =

Fleury was born on June 29 , 1968 , in Oxbow , Saskatchewan , the first of Wally and Donna Fleury 's three sons . Wally was a hockey player whose dreams of a professional career ended when he broke his leg playing baseball in the summer of 1963 ; the injury helped fuel a drinking problem . Donna was a quiet , religious woman who battled drug addiction for many years . Fleury is of Métis heritage , as his grandmother Mary was Cree . The Fleurys lived in Williams Lake , British Columbia , for four years , a period that saw Theo 's brother Ted born in 1970 , before settling in Russell , Manitoba , by 1973 , the year his youngest brother Travis was born . Wally worked as a truck driver and maintenance worker at the arena in Russell .

Always one of the smallest children in his class and without stable supervision at home , Fleury adopted an aggressive posture and later described himself as a bully . He turned to hockey as an outlet when he borrowed an old pair of skates and a broken stick to play his first game at the age of five . From that point on , he played hockey at every opportunity , often accompanying his father to the arena in Russell in the pre @-@ dawn hours . He was described by his teachers as a determined youth , who would repeat any activity he failed at until he got it right .

Although his mother was a Jehovah 's Witness , Fleury was raised as a Roman Catholic . He attended mass from age 6 to 12 , serving as an altar boy until the church 's priest died of a heart attack , depriving Fleury of one of his earliest positive influences . Always lacking money and a stable home , Fleury received support from the community , in particular the Peltz family in Russell , who ensured that he and his brothers were fed and bought them new clothes when required . In January 1982 , Fleury 's dreams of playing in the NHL nearly ended at the age of 13 when , during a game , he suffered a deep cut under his arm that severed his brachial artery . He missed nearly a year of contact hockey as a result . Five months after the incident , the community raised money to send him to the Andy Murray Hockey School in Brandon , Manitoba . It was there that Fleury met Graham James , who was working as a scout for the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . James told Fleury that he had the skill to play in the NHL despite his size , and promised to recruit him to play junior hockey for the Warriors when he was old enough .

= = Playing career = =

= = = Junior = = =

Fleury began his junior career in 1983 – 84 as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with the St. James Canadians of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League , scoring 33 goals and 64 points in 22 games , an incredible pace of nearly three points per game . In 1984 – 85 he moved to the Moose Jaw Warriors , who had just relocated from Winnipeg , scoring 29 goals and 75 points in 71 games as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old . He improved his totals in each of his four years in the WHL , culminating with a 68 @-@ goal , 92 @-@ assist season in 1987 – 88 . Fleury 's 160 points tied him for the league lead with Joe Sakic , and the two players shared the Bob Clarke Trophy as the WHL 's top scorers . Fleury 's 92 assists and 160 points remain team records ; he also holds the Warriors ' career records for goals ( 201 ) , assists ( 271 ) and points ( 472 ) . As of 2014 , he remains 10th all @-@ time in WHL scoring .

Always one of the smallest players in the game , Fleury learned early that he had to play an unpredictable style of game to survive against players much larger than he was . He found that the best way to protect himself was to intimidate his opponents by playing a feisty , physical game , which he said led to many retaliatory penalties and several arguments with his coaches . He recorded 235 minutes in penalties in his final year of junior , nearly 100 more than any of the other top 10 WHL scorers . Fleury retained this style of play throughout his hockey career , routinely surprising opponents who felt their size was an advantage .

Fleury twice represented Canada at the World Junior Hockey Championships . He first joined the team for the 1987 tournament in Piešťany , Czechoslovakia . The tournament is best remembered for the " Punch @-@ up in Piestany " on January 4 , 1987 , an infamous bench @-@ clearing brawl between the Canadians and the Soviet Union . Fleury scored the first goal of the game and , as part of his celebration , used his stick to mimic firing a machine gun at the Soviet bench , a move that was criticized by Canadian officials . The brawl began early in the second period with Canada leading 4 – 2 , when Pavel Kostichkin slashed Fleury , leading to a fight between the two . It quickly escalated into a line brawl involving all skaters on the ice , after which the Soviet players left their bench , followed closely by the Canadians . Both teams were disqualified from the tournament , costing Fleury and the Canadians a medal - – potentially the gold .

The International Ice Hockey Federation suspended all players involved in the brawl from participating in international tournaments for 18 months , though the bans were later reduced to 6 months on appeal . This reduction allowed Fleury to participate in the 1988 tournament in Moscow . He was named captain , finished second in team scoring with eight points in seven games , and was named a tournament all @-@ star as Canada won the gold medal .

Although he scored 129 points for the Warriors in 1986 – 87 , Fleury 's small stature led many teams to doubt that he could play in the NHL . The Calgary Flames drafted him in the 8th round , 166th overall , of the 1987 NHL Entry Draft . Upon completing his junior season in 1988 , Fleury signed his first professional contract , worth C $ 415 @,@ 000 , and joined the Flames ' International Hockey League ( IHL ) affiliate , the Salt Lake Golden Eagles . He scored seven points in two regular season games , then 16 more in eight playoff games as the Eagles won the Turner Cup championship .

= = = Calgary Flames = = =

Fleury arrived at the Flames ' 1988 training camp 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) overweight , and was assigned back to Salt Lake to begin the 1988 – 89 season . He averaged nearly two points per game , recording 37 goals and 37 assists to lead the IHL in scoring after 40 games . Mired in a slump , the Flames recalled Fleury on January 1 , 1989 , in the hope he could help their offence . He played his first NHL game against the Quebec Nordiques two nights later and recorded his first points – three assists – on January 5 against the Los Angeles Kings . He scored his first two NHL goals in a 7 – 2 victory over the Edmonton Oilers on January 7 . Fleury continued to score , and finished with 34 points in 36 games in his NHL rookie season . He added 11 points in the playoffs , helping the Flames to the first Stanley Cup championship in franchise history .

After improving to 33 goals in his first full season , Fleury broke out in 1990 – 91 , scoring 51 goals and 104 points to lead the Flames offensively . He played in the 1991 All @-@ Star Game , scoring a goal in an 11 – 5 victory by the Campbell Conference over the Wales Conference . Towards the end of the season , Fleury set a league record by scoring three shorthanded goals in one game against the St. Louis Blues . He shared the NHL Plus @-@ Minus Award with Marty McSorley , whom he tied for the league lead with + 48 . Fleury scored only two goals in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs , but after his overtime winner in game six against the Oilers he famously slid the entire length of the ice in jubilation before crashing into the boards as his teammates attempted to catch up to him . The Flames were defeated in game seven , which ended their season .

Fleury fell back to 33 goals in 1991 – 92 as the Flames missed the playoffs . That season , he made his second All @-@ Star Game appearance , recording a goal for the Campbell Conference . Fleury finished with over 100 points for the second time in his career in 1992 – 93 to lead the team in scoring , and set a franchise record by going + 9 in a 13 – 1 victory over the San Jose Sharks on February 10 , 1993 , in which he scored six points .

The 1994 – 95 NHL lockout reduced the season to 48 games from 84 . During the lockout , Fleury played for Tappara in Finland 's top league , the SM @-@ liiga . He recorded 17 points in ten games before the NHL 's labour dispute was resolved , bringing him back to Calgary . Late in the season , Fleury recorded two goals and an assist against the Oilers on March 31 , 1995 , to surpass 500 career points .

Lacking a contract prior to the 1995 – 96 season , Fleury staged a brief hold @-@ out during training camp before signing a five @-@ year , $ 12 million deal with the Flames . He agreed to take less money than he could have received on the open market out of loyalty to the franchise that had given him his NHL opportunity . He missed much of the pre @-@ season with a stomach ailment , but joined the team for the season opener . Although he felt like somebody was " stabbing a knife in [ his ] gut every five minutes " , Fleury had played every game for the Flames when he revealed in December 1995 that he had been diagnosed with Crohn 's Disease and doctors had finally found the correct medication to control it . Despite the ailment , Fleury led the team in goals , assists and points , and played in his third All @-@ Star Game , serving as Calgary 's only representative .

When Joe Nieuwendyk refused to report to the Flames prior to the 1995 season , they named Fleury interim captain . The title was made permanent when Nieuwendyk was traded in December . Fleury was reluctant to assume the captaincy , but did so out of loyalty to the team and because there was nobody else capable of taking on the role . He relinquished it two seasons later after deciding that it was harming his play and affecting his relationship with his teammates and coach Pierre Pagé .

The Flames struggled in 1996 – 97 , finishing last in the Pacific Division and missing the playoffs for only the second time since their arrival in Calgary in 1980 . Fleury again led the team in scoring , but his 29 goals were the fewest he had scored in a full season in the NHL . He was the Flames ' lone representative at the 1997 All @-@ Star Game . He scored only 27 goals in 1997 – 98 , but increased his point total from 67 to 78 while also leading the team with 197 penalties in minutes . On November 29 , 1997 , Fleury scored his 315th career goal , breaking Nieuwendyk 's franchise record . The same day , he was named to Team Canada for the 1998 Winter Olympics . Fleury participated in his fifth All @-@ Star Game that season , but the Flames again missed the playoffs .

On February 19 , 1999 , he surpassed Al MacInnis as the franchise scoring leader with his 823rd career point . He held the record for ten years until surpassed by Jarome Iginla in 2009 . The Flames , who had been struggling financially and were unable to sign Fleury to a new contract , chose to trade him less than two weeks after he broke the record rather than risk losing him to free agency . He was dealt to the Colorado Avalanche on February 28 for René Corbet , Wade Belak and Robyn Regehr . Although it was expected to a certain extent , the trade nonetheless stunned fans in Calgary . His popularity was such that during a game in 1999 , after Fleury was sent off the ice to change a bloody jersey , a fan threw his own souvenir jersey over the boards so that Fleury would not miss a shift . He put the jersey on before realizing it was autographed and handed it back .

The trade was viewed as another sign that small @-@ market Canadian teams could no longer compete in the NHL . The economics of hockey had changed such that the Flames felt that they had to deal their top player despite being just two points out of a playoff spot . Following the trade , Fleury said that any team looking to sign him to a new contract would have to pay him $ 7 million per year . In his autobiography , Playing with Fire , Fleury claims that he was offered $ 16 million over four years by the Flames before the trade , and countered with an offer of $ 25 million over five years .

= = = Colorado , New York , and Chicago = = =

Fleury made his debut for the Avalanche the day after the trade and was met with loud cheers from the Denver crowd . He scored a goal in a 4 – 3 loss to Edmonton , but also sprained his knee and missed the next two weeks . He had missed only seven games during his 11 @-@ year career in Calgary . He played in 15 regular @-@ season games for the Avalanche , scoring 10 goals and 14 assists , and another 5 goals and 12 assists in 18 playoff games before the Avalanche were eliminated by the Dallas Stars in the Western Conference Finals .

The Avalanche chose not to re @-@ sign Fleury , and he joined the New York Rangers on a three @-@ year contract worth $ 21 million that included a club option for a fourth year at $ 7 million . He touched off a wave of anger on signing with the Rangers when he claimed he was unappreciated in Calgary , comments he later stated were directed at the Flames ' owners and not the team 's fans , whom he said always supported him . Fleury 's first year in Manhattan was a disappointment . He scored only 15 goals in 1999 – 2000 , struggling under the pressure of trying to lead the Rangers into the playoffs and adapting to life in New York . After the season , he voluntarily entered a league @-@ operated program that treats substance abuse and emotional problems , though he denied that either had any effect on his play .

Fleury rebounded to score 30 goals in 2000 – 01 and participated in his seventh All @-@ Star Game . He scored his 400th NHL goal on November 4 , 2000 , in a 5 – 2 victory over the Montreal Canadiens . Fleury was leading his team , and was fourth in the league , with 74 points in 62 games , when the Rangers announced that he had again entered the league 's substance abuse program . The decision ended his season .

Prior to the 2001 – 02 season Fleury said that he continued to struggle with substance abuse and had difficulty adapting to life in Manhattan after growing up in a Canadian prairie town of 1 @,@ 500 . He played all 82 games in 2001 – 02 , but his problems affected his behavior on the ice . After receiving a major and game misconduct penalty in a game against the San Jose Sharks on December 28 , he wound up in a confrontation with the Sharks ' mascot , S.J. Sharkie , in a hallway of the HP Pavilion , reportedly breaking the rib of the mascot portrayer . Fleury himself later downplayed the incident , saying that he " nudged " Sharkie . Upon taking a penalty in a January 2002 game against the Pittsburgh Penguins , Fleury left the arena rather than skate to the penalty box . He later apologized to his teammates , claiming he was deeply stressed by family problems . Two weeks later , he was fined $ 1 @,@ 000 for making an obscene gesture to fans of the New York Islanders who had been taunting him over his drug use . Towards the end of February , he lashed out against the league 's officials . He claimed they were not judging him fairly , and threatened to retire . The league dismissed his complaints . He did achieve a personal milestone during the season , however : on October 27 , 2001 , Fleury assisted on a goal by Mike York , scoring the 1,000th point of his NHL career . The Rangers presented him with a silver stick in honour of the achievement .

Following the season , the Rangers did not exercise their option , and traded Fleury 's playing rights to the San Jose Sharks , which entitled the Sharks to a compensatory draft pick if Fleury signed elsewhere . He did so with a two @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract with the Chicago Blackhawks . Two days prior to the opening of the 2002 – 03 season , he was suspended by the NHL for violating the terms of the league 's substance abuse program . The Blackhawks hired one of Fleury 's friends , also a recovering alcoholic , to ensure that he attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings and abided by the terms of the NHL 's aftercare program .

Fleury missed the first two months of the season before being reinstated . While out with teammates in January 2003 , he was involved in a drunken brawl with bouncers at a strip club in Columbus , Ohio , that left him bloodied ; he has no memory of the night and described it as among the lowest points of his life . He was not suspended , but the incident contributed to a collapse in the standings by the Blackhawks , and they placed him on waivers in March . No team claimed him , and Fleury finished the season with the Blackhawks , recording 12 goals and 21 assists in 54 games . Following the season , in April 2003 , he was suspended again by the league for violations of its substance abuse program . The suspension ended his NHL career .

= = = Senior hockey and the Belfast Giants = = =

In January 2005 , Fleury announced that he had joined his cousin Todd Holt and former NHL players Gino Odjick , Sasha Lakovic and Dody Wood in playing for the Horse Lake Thunder of the North Peace Hockey League for the Allan Cup , Canada 's national senior amateur championship . He also hoped to serve as a role model for kids on the Horse Lake First Nation . Hockey Alberta initially ruled that he was ineligible to play senior hockey in 2004 – 05 because he had been signed to a professional contract during the 2003 – 04 season . Hockey Alberta denied an appeal , citing a new policy it had put in effect to prevent NHL players from joining senior teams during the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . It reversed its decision on a second appeal after the NHL and National Hockey League Players Association both agreed that Fleury was a free agent , and not a locked @-@ out player . Fleury played his first game for the Thunder on January 22 , 2005 , scoring a goal and two assists .

Fleury remained embroiled in controversy at the 2005 Allan Cup tournament . The Thunder were repeatedly accused of paying players despite being an amateur team , and Fleury angrily denied rumours that he was secretly being paid $ 100 @,@ 000 . Tournament fans were extremely hostile towards the Thunder , and after it was eliminated in the semi @-@ finals Fleury accused them of racism and threatened to return his 2002 Olympic gold medal : " The one thing that 's really bothered me through this whole thing is the prejudice , still , in this country when it comes to native people . I 've seen it first @-@ hand in every building we go into , how these people are treated , and it 's absolutely embarrassing to be a Canadian and know that stuff is still going on . "

Fleury was convinced by a friend to move to Northern Ireland to play with the Belfast Giants of the Elite Ice Hockey League ( EIHL ) for the 2005 – 06 season . He scored three goals and added four assists and a fight in his first game , against the Edinburgh Capitals . He scored 22 goals and 52 assists in 34 games , as Belfast won the regular season league title . Described as the " most talented " player ever to play in the United Kingdom , Fleury was named the EIHL 's Player of the Year and voted a first team All @-@ Star by the British Ice Hockey Writers Association . Fleury argued with visiting fans , as well as officials , which led him not to return to Belfast in 2006 – 07 .

In late 2008 , Fleury joined his brother Ted with the Steinbach North Stars in a second bid to win the Allan Cup . He played 13 league games , scoring eight goals and 19 assists . At the 2009 Allan Cup tournament , he recorded a goal and an assist to lead the host North Stars to a 5 – 0 win in their opening game , and finished tied for the lead in tournament scoring at seven points . The North Stars lost the semi @-@ finals to the South East Prairie Thunder , 4 – 2 .

= = = NHL comeback attempt = = =

Unhappy with how his NHL career ended , Fleury hired a personal trainer in February 2009 and began an attempt to return to the NHL . By August , he petitioned Commissioner Gary Bettman to lift his suspension . He was reinstated on September 10 following a meeting with Bettman , Deputy Commissioner Bill Daly and league doctors . Fleury then accepted a try @-@ out offer from the Flames . He said he wanted to prove to himself that he could still play at the NHL level , though his skeptics pointed to his child support payments and the failure of his concrete business , as well as the planned release of his autobiography , and argued Fleury 's comeback was financially motivated .

He made his return to the NHL in an exhibition game in Calgary against the New York Islanders on September 17 on a line with Daymond Langkow and Nigel Dawes . Fleury was met with loud cheers throughout the game , and scored the only goal in a shootout to give the Flames a 5 – 4 win . After the game , he saluted the crowd as the fans chanted " Theo ! Theo ! Theo ! " Three nights later , he scored a goal and an assist in a 5 – 2 victory over the Florida Panthers .

Fleury played four exhibition games , scoring four points , before being released by the Flames . General Manager Darryl Sutter expressed his pride in Fleury 's attempt and commended his effort , but decided he was not one of the top six wingers in camp , which Sutter and Fleury had agreed was a condition of the tryout continuing . On September 28 , 2009 , Fleury announced his retirement at a news conference at the Saddledome . He thanked the Flames for allowing him to attempt the comeback , and expressed satisfaction at how his career ended . " I get to retire a Calgary Flame . I HAD to retire a Calgary Flame . It ’ s been a long journey . It ’ s time to put down some roots . And there ’ s no better place than here , " said Fleury of his decision not to seek an offer from another team .

= = = International = = =

Fleury made his debut with the Canadian senior team at the 1990 World Hockey Championships , scoring 11 points in nine games for the fourth @-@ place Canadians . He returned the following year despite a knee injury , helping Canada win the silver medal at the 1991 tournament . His 51 @-@ goal NHL season in 1990 – 91 also earned Fleury a spot at the 1991 Canada Cup , where he scored a goal and four assists in seven games for the tournament champion Canadians . Five years later , he played in the 1996 World Cup of Hockey , the successor to the Canada Cup . He finished fourth in the tournament with four goals , but Canada finished in second place after giving up four goals in the final four minutes of the championship game against the American team .

National Hockey League players were first allowed to participate in the Olympic ice hockey tournament at the 1998 games . Invited to join Canada 's " Dream Team " , Fleury described his selection as a highlight of his life . He scored a goal for Canada , who lost their semi @-@ final match @-@ up against the Czech Republic in a shootout and failed to medal . Four years later , Fleury was invited by General Manager Wayne Gretzky to participate in Canada 's selection camp for the 2002 Olympics . The invitation was controversial , as his behavioural and substance abuse issues had become increasingly public in previous months . Fleury wanted to justify Gretzky 's support and , knowing that he would be removed from consideration if he failed , refrained from drinking or taking drugs during the 2001 – 02 NHL season , later describing himself as a " dry drunk " . He earned a spot on the team and recorded two assists in six games as the Canadian hockey team won its first Olympic gold medal in 50 years . Fleury considers the championship to be the pinnacle of his career .

= = Off the ice = =

Fleury continued to battle drug and alcohol addictions , revealing in a November 2004 interview that he had not overcome the problems that ended his NHL career a year and a half earlier . He credits his second wife , Jennifer , with turning his life around after they met when he was playing for Horse Lake in 2005 . Fleury feared that Jennifer 's frustration with his drug use would cost him the relationship , and , with her help , quit drugs and drinking on September 18 , 2005 . They were married one year later and have a daughter , Skylah . Fleury also has a son and daughter , Beaux and Tatym , from his relationship with his first wife , Veronica , and a son , Josh , born in 1987 to his high school girlfriend , Shannon .

In 1994 , Fleury joined a group that involved his former junior coach , Graham James , fellow NHL player Joe Sakic , and professional wrestler Bret Hart as a minority owner of the expansion Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League . He sold his share of the team to the Flames in 1997 in the aftermath of James ' conviction for sexually abusing Sheldon Kennedy and another player . After returning from Northern Ireland , he operated Fleury 's Concrete Coatings , a concrete sealing business he started with his wife Jennifer and brother Travis , until it closed in 2009 . He filmed a pilot episode in 2007 for a reality TV series based on his concrete business called Theoren Fleury : Rock Solid : " We want to show people that if you have a dream , anything is possible with a little ambition , " Fleury said of the show . It was not picked up by any network .

The 2008 launch of clothing line " FAKE " ( Fleury 's Artistic Kustom Enterprises ) led him to approach the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League in the hope of convincing them to use his brand of practice jerseys . The conversation led to talk of Fleury playing a game for the Vipers as a publicity stunt . He made his professional baseball debut on August 9 , 2008 , at the age of 40 , hitting a single in a pinch @-@ hit appearance against the Yuma Scorpions . He started the second game at left field and struck out twice before he was replaced . " I 've had so many things happen in my life already that I sometimes surprise myself with the things I 've done , the things I 've accomplished . This was just another one of those days , " Fleury said of his appearance with the Vipers .

Fleury has organized or participated in numerous charitable causes . He launched a hockey school in the mid @-@ 1990s that ran for seven years in Calgary and another eight in Russell , and donated the proceeds to minor hockey associations . Following his diagnosis with Crohn 's disease in 1995 , Fleury joined with the Crohn 's and Colitis Foundation of Canada to host an annual golf tournament in Calgary . The event has raised over $ 1 million , and is one of the organization 's largest fundraising events in the Calgary area . He participates in Flames Alumni events and volunteers with the Calgary Dream Centre , which helps people overcome addiction .

Fleury was a participant on the second season of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation figure skating reality show Battle of the Blades , aired in the fall of 2010 , and was donating his winnings to The Men 's Project , a charity that provides support for men abused in childhood . His partner was Jamie Salé and the pair finished 5th .

= = = Autobiography = = =

With the help of Kirstie McLellan Day , Fleury wrote his autobiography , Playing with Fire , which was released on October 16 , 2009 . In it , he alleged that he was sexually abused by Graham James over a period of two years . While he stated he " doesn 't want to become the poster boy for abuse by James " , Fleury hoped that speaking out might make it easier for other childhood sexual abuse victims to come forward . He blamed the abuse for turning him into a " raging , alcoholic lunatic " , and claimed to have placed a loaded gun in his mouth and contemplated suicide in 2004 . He revealed that he had spent most of his income on alcohol , drugs , gambling and women . Fleury also claimed that he failed 13 consecutive drug tests while playing for the Rangers , but that the league did not want to suspend him because he was a leading scorer . The league disputed this , and stated that its substance abuse program functioned appropriately .

Playing with Fire became the top seller on Amazon.ca within a week of its release , and Fleury stated that he had been contacted by several sexual abuse victims who were motivated by his book to seek help . He also revealed that he was contemplating a criminal complaint against James , and had begun volunteering with an organization dedicated to helping male sexual abuse victims . Fleury was surprised that his story became the top @-@ selling non @-@ fiction book in Canada ; without help , he and his wife were unable to keep up with the mail they were receiving . It is the second book about Fleury 's life , following Fury , released in 1997 , which did not discuss many of the problems he was facing at the time .

Sheldon Kennedy , who was also a victim of James , encouraged Fleury to press charges . Fleury met with Winnipeg police in January 2010 , who began an investigation when he formally filed a complaint . James ultimately pleaded guilty to charges stemming from his abuse of Fleury and his cousin Todd Holt . James was sentenced to two years in prison , a decision which sparked outrage across Canada for its perceived leniency . Fleury praised the response by Canadians and stated his desire to use it to press for changes to the legal system . Fleury is now a motivational speaker , hoping that sharing his story will encourage others to seek help for their problems .

McLellan Day adapted the autobiography into a one @-@ man play , entitled Playing with Fire : The Theo Fleury Story , which was produced by Alberta Theatre Projects in Calgary . The play made its world premiere May 1 , 2012 . Fleury and his autobiography were also the subject of a 2012 documentary by HBO Canada .

= = = Musical career = = =

In September 2015 it was announced through Fleury 's Twitter account he had been working on a Country music record to be released in the fall of 2015 . He released his first single titled " My Life 's Been a Country Song " and it reached over 20 @,@ 000 plays on Soundcloud within the first 24 hours of being released . His debut record I Am Who I Am was released on October 16 , 2015 through eOne Music Canada and has been well received by country music fanatics . The hockey star turned Country star transformation did not happen overnight as Fleury claims this project has been ongoing for the past six years with him receiving vocal and performance training from industry professionals . He collaborated with long @-@ time friends Phil Deschambault and Paddy McCallion and together they created over 30 songs worth of material that would be later cut to ten songs for the album .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =

= = = International = = =

= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =

= = Awards = =

= Carnotaurus =

Carnotaurus / ˌkɑːrnoʊˈtɔːrəs / is a genus of large theropod dinosaur that lived in South America during the Late Cretaceous period , between about 72 and 69 @.@ 9 million years ago . The only species is Carnotaurus sastrei . Known from a single well @-@ preserved skeleton , it is one of the best @-@ understood theropods from the Southern Hemisphere . The skeleton , found in 1984 , was uncovered in the Chubut Province of Argentina from rocks of the La Colonia Formation . Derived from the Latin carno [ carnis ] ( " flesh " ) and taurus ( " bull " ) , the name Carnotaurus means " meat @-@ eating bull " , alluding to its bull @-@ like horns . Carnotaurus is a derived member of the Abelisauridae , a group of large theropods that occupied the large predatorial niche in the southern Landmasses of Gondwana during the late Cretaceous . The phylogenetic relations of Carnotaurus are uncertain ; it may have been closer to either Majungasaurus or Aucasaurus .

Carnotaurus was a lightly built , bipedal predator , measuring 8 to 9 m ( 26 to 30 ft ) in length and weighing at least 1 @.@ 35 metric tons ( 1 @.@ 33 long tons ; 1 @.@ 49 short tons ) . As a theropod , Carnotaurus was highly specialized and distinctive . It had thick horns above the eyes , a feature unseen in all other carnivorous dinosaurs , and a very deep skull sitting on a muscular neck . Carnotaurus was further characterized by small , vestigial forelimbs and long and slender hindlimbs . The skeleton is preserved with extensive skin impressions , showing a mosaic of small , non @-@ overlapping scales measuring approximately 5 mm in diameter . The mosaic was interrupted by large bumps that lined the sides of the animal , and there are no hints of feathers .

The distinctive horns and the muscular neck may have been used in fighting conspecifics . According to separate studies , rivaling individuals may have combated each other with quick head blows , by slow pushes with the upper sides of their skulls , or by ramming each other head @-@ on , using their horns as shock absorbers . The feeding habits of Carnotaurus remain unclear : some studies suggest the animal was able to hunt down very large prey such as sauropods , while other studies find it preyed mainly on relatively small animals . Carnotaurus was well adapted for running and was possibly one of the fastest large theropods .

= = Description = =

Carnotaurus was a large but lightly built predator . The only known individual was about 8 – 9 metres ( 26 – 30 ft ) in length , making Carnotaurus one of the largest abelisaurids . Only Ekrixinatosaurus and possibly Abelisaurus may have been similar or larger in size , though the incomplete remains of these genera make size estimations imprecise . Its mass is estimated to have been 1 @,@ 350 kg ( 1 @.@ 33 long tons ; 1 @.@ 49 short tons ) 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 long tons ; 1 @.@ 7 short tons ) and 2 @,@ 100 kg ( 2 @.@ 1 long tons ; 2 @.@ 3 short tons ) in separate studies that used different estimation methods . Carnotaurus was a highly specialized theropod , as seen especially in characteristics of the skull , the vertebrae and the forelimbs . The pelvis and hindlimbs , on the other hand , remained relatively conservative , resembling those of the more basal Ceratosaurus . Both the pelvis and hindlimb bones were long and slender . The left thigh bone of the individual measures 103 cm in length , but shows an average diameter of only 11 cm .

= = = Skull = = =

The skull , measuring 59 @.@ 6 cm ( 23 @.@ 5 in ) in length , was proportionally shorter and deeper than in any other large carnivorous dinosaur . The snout was moderately broad , not as tapering as seen in more basal theropods like Ceratosaurus , and the jaws were curved upwards . As in other abelisaurids , the facial bones , especially the nasal bones , were sculptured with numerous small holes and spikes . In life , a wrinkled and possibly keratinous skin would have covered these bones . A prominent pair of horns protruded obliquely above the eyes . These horns , formed by the frontal bones , were thick , cone @-@ shaped but in cross @-@ section somewhat vertically flattened , and measured 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in length . In life , they would probably have formed the bony cores of much longer keratinous horns . The proportionally small eyes were situated in the upper part of the keyhole shaped orbita ( eye sockets ) . The upper part was slightly rotated forward , probably permitting some degree of binocular vision .

The teeth were long and slender , as opposed to the usually very short teeth seen in other abelisaurids . On each side of the upper jaws there were four premaxillary and twelve maxillary teeth , while the lower jaws were equipped with fifteen dentary teeth per side . In contrast to the robust @-@ looking skull , the lower jaw was shallow and weakly constructed , with the dentary ( the foremost jaw bone ) connected to the hindmost jaw bones by only two contact points . The lower jaw was found with hyoid bones , in the position they would be in if the animal was alive . These slender bones , supporting the tongue musculature and several other muscles , are rarely found in dinosaurs because they are not connected to other bones and therefore get lost easily .

= = = Vertebrae = = =

The vertebral column consisted of ten cervical ( neck ) , twelve dorsal , six fused sacral and an unknown number of caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The neck was nearly straight , rather than having the S @-@ curve seen in other theropods , and also unusually wide , especially towards its base . The top of the neck 's spinal column featured a double row of enlarged , upwardly directed bony processes called epipophyses , creating a smooth trough on the top of the neck vertebrae . These processes were the highest points of the spine , towering above the unusually low spinous processes . The epipophyses probably provided attachment areas for a markedly strong neck musculature . A similar double row was also present in the tail , formed there by highly modified caudal ribs , in front view protruding upwards in a V @-@ shape , their inner sides creating a smooth , flat , top surface of the front tail vertebrae . The end of each caudal rib was furnished with a forward projecting hook @-@ shaped expansion that connected to the caudal rib of the preceding vertebra .

= = = Forelimbs = = =

The forelimbs were proportionally shorter than in any other large carnivorous dinosaurs , including Tyrannosaurus . The forearm was only a quarter the size of the upper arm . There were no carpalia in the hand , so that the metacarpals articulated directly with the forearm . The hand showed four basic digits , though apparently only the middle two of these ended in finger bones , while the fourth consisted of a single splint @-@ like metacarpal that may have represented an external ' spur ' . The fingers themselves were fused and immobile , and may have lacked claws . Carnotaurus differed from all other abelisaurids in having proportionally shorter and more robust forelimbs , and in having the fourth , splint @-@ like metacarpal as the longest bone in the hand . A 2009 study suggests that the arms were vestigial in abelisaurids , because nerve fibers responsible for stimulus transmission were reduced to an extent seen in today 's emus and kiwis , which also have vestigial forelimbs .

= = = Skin = = =

Carnotaurus was the first theropod dinosaur discovered with comprehensive fossil skin impressions . These impressions , found beneath the skeleton 's right side , come from different body parts , including the lower jaw , the front of the neck , the shoulder girdle , and the rib cage . The largest patch of skin corresponds to the anterior part of the tail . Originally , the right side of the skull also was covered with large patches of skin — this was not recognized when the skull was prepared , and these patches were accidentally destroyed . Still , the surface texture of much of the right side of the skull is very different from that of the left side , and probably shows some features of the scalation pattern of the head .

The skin was built up of a mosaic of polygonal , non @-@ overlapping scales measuring approximately 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) in diameter . This mosaic was divided by thin , parallel grooves . Scalation was similar across different body parts with the exception of the head , which apparently showed a different , irregular pattern of scales . There is no evidence of feathers . Uniquely for theropods , there were large knob @-@ like bumps running along the sides of the neck , back and tail in irregular rows . Each bump showed a low ridge and measured 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter . They were set 8 to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) apart from each other and became larger towards the animal 's top . The bumps probably represent clusters of condensed scutes , similar to those seen on the soft frill running along the body midline in hadrosaurid ( " duck @-@ billed " ) dinosaurs . Stephen Czerkas ( 1997 ) suggested that these structures may have protected the animal 's sides while fighting members of the same species ( conspecifics ) and other theropods , arguing that similar structures can be found on the neck of the modern iguana where they provide limited protection in combat .

= = Classification = =

Carnotaurus is one of the best @-@ understood genera of the Abelisauridae , a family of large theropods restricted to the ancient southern supercontinent Gondwana . Abelisaurids were the dominant predators in the Late Cretaceous of Gondwana , replacing the carcharodontosaurids and occupying the ecological niche filled by the tyrannosaurids in the northern continents . Several notable traits that evolved within this family , including shortening of the skull and arms as well as peculiarities in the cervical and caudal vertebrae , were more pronounced in Carnotaurus than in any other abelisaurid .

Though relationships within the Abelisauridae are debated , Carnotaurus is consistently shown to be one of the most derived members of the family by cladistical analyses . Its nearest relative may have been either Aucasaurus or Majungasaurus ; this ambiguity is largely due to the incompleteness of the Aucasaurus skull material . A recent review suggests that Carnotaurus was not closely related with either Aucasaurus or Majungasaurus , and instead proposed Ilokelesia as its sister taxon .

Carnotaurus is eponymous for two subgroups of the Abelisauridae : the Carnotaurinae and the Carnotaurini . Paleontologists do not universally accept these groups . The Carnotaurinae was defined to include all derived abelisaurids with the exclusion of Abelisaurus , which is considered a basal member in most studies . However , a 2008 review suggested that Abelisaurus was a derived abelisaurid instead . Carnotaurini was proposed to name the clade formed by Carnotaurus and Aucasaurus ; only those paleontologists who consider Aucasaurus as the nearest relative of Carnotaurus use this group .

= = Discovery = =

The only skeleton ( holotype MACN @-@ CH 894 ) was unearthed in 1984 by an expedition led by Argentinian paleontologist José Bonaparte . This expedition also recovered the peculiar spiny sauropod Amargasaurus . It was the eighth expedition within the project named " Jurassic and Cretaceous Terrestrial Vertebrates of South America " , which started in 1976 and which was sponsored by the National Geographic Society . The skeleton is well @-@ preserved and articulated ( still connected together ) , with only the posterior two thirds of the tail , much of the lower leg , and the hind feet being destroyed by weathering . During fossilization , the skull and especially the muzzle were crushed laterally , while the premaxilla were pushed upwards onto the nasal bones . As a result , the upward curvature of the upper jaw is artificially exaggerated in the holotype . The skeleton belonged to an adult individual , as indicated by the fused sutures in the braincase . It was found lying on its right side , showing a typical death pose with the neck bent back over the torso . Unusually , it is preserved with extensive skin impressions . In view of the significance of these impressions , a second expedition was started to reinvestigate the original excavation site , leading to the recovery of several additional skin patches .

The skeleton was collected on a farm named " Pocho Sastre " near Bajada Moreno in the Telsen Department of Chubut Province , Argentina . Because it was embedded in a large hematite concretion , a very hard kind of rock , preparation was complicated and progressed slowly . In 1985 , Bonaparte published a note presenting Carnotaurus sastrei as a new genus and species and briefly describing the skull and lower jaw . The generic name ( Latin carno [ carnis ] – " flesh " and taurus – " bull " ) refers to the bull @-@ like horns , while the specific name sastrei honors Angel Sastre , the owner of the ranch where the skeleton was found . A comprehensive description of the whole skeleton followed in 1990 . After Abelisaurus , Carnotaurus was the second member of the family Abelisauridae that was discovered . For years , it was by far the best @-@ understood member of its family , and also the best @-@ understood theropod from the Southern Hemisphere . It was not until the 21st century that similar well @-@ preserved abelisaurids were described , including Aucasaurus , Majungasaurus and Skorpiovenator , allowing scientists to re @-@ evaluate certain aspects of the anatomy of Carnotaurus . The holotype skeleton is displayed in the Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences , Bernardino Rivadavia ; replicas can be seen in this and other museums around the world . Sculptors Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas manufactured a life @-@ sized sculpture of Carnotaurus that is now on display in the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County . This sculpture , ordered by the museum during the mid @-@ 1980s , is probably the first life restoration of a theropod showing accurate skin .

= = Age and paleoecology = =

Originally , the rocks in which Carnotaurus was found were assigned to the upper part of the Gorro Frigio Formation , which was considered to be approximately 100 million years old ( Albian or Cenomanian stage ) . Later they were realized to pertain to the much younger La Colonia Formation , dating 72 to 69 @.@ 9 million years ago ( Late Cretaceous , Lower Maastrichtian stage ) . Thus , Carnotaurus was the latest South American abelisaurid known . By the Late Cretaceous , South America was already isolated from both Africa and North America .

The La Colonia Formation is exposed over the southern slope of the North Patagonian Massif . Most vertebrate fossils , including Carnotaurus , come from the formation 's middle section ( called the middle facies association ) . This part likely represents the deposits of an environment of estuaries , tidal flats or coastal plains . The climate would have been seasonal with both dry and humid periods . The most common vertebrates collected include ceratodontid lungfish , turtles , crocodiles , plesiosaurs , dinosaurs , lizards , snakes and mammals . Some of the snakes that have been found belong to the families Boidae and Madtsoidae , such as Alamitophis argentinus . Turtles are represented by at least five taxa , four from Chelidae ( Pleurodira ) and one from Meiolaniidae ( Cryptodira ) . Among the marine reptiles is the plesiosaur Sulcusuchus erraini of the family Polycotylidae . Mammals are represented with Reigitherium bunodontum , which was considered the first record of a South American docodont , and Argentodites coloniensis , possibly of Multituberculata . In 2011 , the discovery of a new enantiornithine bird from the La Colonia Formation was announced .

= = Paleobiology = =

= = = Function of the horns = = =

Carnotaurus is the only known carnivorous bipedal animal with a pair of horns on the frontal bone . The use of these horns is not entirely clear ; several interpretations have revolved around use in fighting conspecifics , in display , or in killing prey .

Greg Paul ( 1988 ) proposed that the horns were butting weapons and that the small orbita would have minimized the possibility of hurting the eyes while fighting . Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 ) suggested that Carnotaurus used its horns in a way similar to rams . They calculated that the neck musculature was strong enough to absorb the force of two individuals colliding with their heads frontally at a speed of 5 @.@ 7 m / s each . Fernando Novas ( 2009 ) interpreted several skeletal features as adaptations for delivering blows with the head . He suggested that the shortness of the skull might have made head movements quicker by reducing the moment of inertia , while the muscular neck would have allowed strong head blows . He also noted an enhanced rigidity and strength of the spinal column that may have evolved to withstand shocks conducted by the head and neck .

Other studies suggest that rivaling Carnotaurus did not deliver rapid head blows , but pushed slowly against each other with the upper sides of their skulls . Thus , the horns may have been a device for the distribution of compression forces without damage to the brain . This is supported by the flattened upper sides of the horns , the strongly fused bones of the top of the skull , and the inability of the skull to survive rapid head blows .

Gerardo Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 ) propose that the horns might also have been used to injure or kill small prey . Though horn cores are blunt , they may have had a similar form to modern bovid horns if there was a keratinous covering . However , this would be the only reported example of horns being used as hunting weapons in animals .

= = = Jaw function and diet = = =

Analysis of the jaw design of Carnotaurus by Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 , 2004 , 2009 ) suggests that the animal was capable of quick bites , but not strong ones . Quick bites are more important than strong bites when capturing small prey , as shown by studies of modern @-@ day crocodiles . Furthermore , these researchers noted a high degree of flexibility ( kinesis ) within the skull and especially the lower jaw , somewhat similar to modern snakes . Elasticity of the jaw would have allowed Carnotaurus to swallow small prey items whole . In addition , the front part of the lower jaw was hinged , and thus able to move up and down . When pressed downwards , the teeth would have projected forward , allowing Carnotaurus to spike small prey items ; when the teeth were curved upwards , the now backward projecting teeth would have hindered the caught prey from escaping . Mazzetta and colleagues also found that the skull was able to withstand forces that appear when tugging on large prey items . Carnotaurus may therefore have fed mainly on relatively small prey , but also was able to hunt large dinosaurs .

This interpretation was questioned by François Therrien and colleagues ( 2005 ) , who found that the biting force of Carnotaurus was twice as high as that of the American alligator , which may have the strongest bite of any living tetrapod . These researchers also noted analogies with modern Komodo dragons : the flexural strength of the lower jaw decreases towards the tip linearly , indicating that the jaws were not suited for high precision catching of small prey but for delivering slashing wounds to weaken big prey . As a consequence , according to this study , Carnotaurus must have mainly preyed upon large animals , possibly by ambush .

Robert Bakker ( 1998 ) found that Carnotaurus mainly fed upon very large prey , especially sauropods . As he noted , several adaptations of the skull — the short snout , the relatively small teeth and the strong back of the skull ( occiput ) — had independently evolved in Allosaurus . These features suggest that the upper jaw was used like a serrated club to inflict wounds ; big sauropods would have been weakened by repeated attacks .

= = = Locomotion = = =

Mazzetta and colleagues ( 1998 , 1999 ) presumed that Carnotaurus was a swift runner , arguing that the thigh bone was adapted to withstand high bending moments while running . The ability of an animal 's leg to withstand those forces limits its top speed . The running adaptations of Carnotaurus would have been better than those of a human , although not nearly as good as those of an ostrich . Scientists calculate that Carnotaurus had a top speed of up to 48 – 56 km ( 30 – 35 mi ) per hour .

In dinosaurs , the most important locomotor muscle was located in the tail . This muscle , called caudofemoralis , attaches to the fourth trochanter , a prominent ridge on the thigh bone , and pulls the thigh bone backwards when contracted . Scott Persons and Phil Currie ( 2011 ) note that in the tail vertebrae of Carnotaurus the caudal ribs did not protrude horizontally ( " T @-@ shaped " ) , but were angled against the vertical axis of the vertebrae , forming a " V " . This would have provided additional space for a caudofemoralis muscle larger than in any other theropod — the muscle mass was calculated at 111 to 137 kilograms ( 245 to 302 lb ) per leg . Therefore , Carnotaurus could have been one of the fastest large theropods . While the caudofemoralis muscle was enlarged , the epaxial muscles situated above the caudal ribs would have been proportionally smaller . These muscles , called the longissimus and spinalis muscle , were responsible for tail movement and stability . To maintain tail stability in spite of reduction of these muscles , the caudal ribs bear forward projecting processes interlocking the vertebrae with each other and with the pelvis , stiffening the tail . As a consequence , the ability to make tight turns would have been diminished , because the hip and tail had to be turned simultaneously , unlike in other theropods .

= Go Missin ' =

" Go Missin ' " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Usher . It was produced by Diplo and was released on Valentine 's Day 2013 through SoundCloud as a free download . The year before , Usher released " Climax " on Valentine 's Day , the lead single from his seventh studio album , Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . Prior to its release , the singer tweeted that he had a " special delivery from the cloud " for his fans , who responded positively to the release of " Climax " on Valentine 's Day the preceding year .

" Go Missin ' " contains similar characteristics to " Climax " ; it is a quiet storm mid @-@ tempo R & B track , and incorporates heavy bass and synthesizers . Usher utilizes his falsetto range throughout , with Billboard writing that the song 's lyrics follow Usher attempting to " convince a stranded woman at a club to come home with him " . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised Diplo 's production and Usher 's vocals .

= = Background and release = =

On February 14 , 2013 , Valentine 's Day , Usher announced through his Twitter and Facebook the release of a new single . He wrote through Twitter " You loved what I gave you last Valentine 's # Climax So here is ' Special delivery from the cloud 'Happy [ sic ] Valentine 's Day ! " . " Go Missin ' " was released on the day of its announcement through SoundCloud as a free download . The song was produced by Diplo , who previously collaborated with Usher on the track " Climax " , which was released as the lead single from the latter 's seventh studio album , Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . " Go Missin ' " was later released to Italian radio on February 22 , 2013 .

= = Composition and lyrics = =

" Go Missin ' " has a running duration of three minutes and two seconds . It contains similar characteristics to " Climax " , in that it is a quiet storm R & B track , complimented by drum machine . It is built upon synthesizers , while incorporating bass . Usher utilizes his falsetto range throughout the song , shifting in arrangements . Billboard wrote that the song 's lyrics follow Usher attempting to " convince a stranded woman at a club to come home with him " . The Huffington Post 's Kia Makarechi described " Go Missin ' " as a " standard track " , and wrote that its lyrics contain " serial killer @-@ esque " undertones in the line : Conscience telling you you shouldn 't go , don 't listen / I 'mma take care of you for sure / Follow me right out that back door / Go missin .

= = Critical response = =

August Brown of Los Angeles Times commended the song 's production and Usher 's vocals . Brown described the track as to be " full of roiling snares and boomy bass kicks " while saying that Usher 's vocals are " so pristine " that they walk a line between " digital witch @-@ magic and the hair @-@ raising choral work of Ligeti . " About.com 's Mark Edward Nero described the collaboration as " innovative " , and thought that the track contained a " cinematic quality with delicate vocals laid over a moody , semi @-@ futuristic electronic beat " . Billboard 's David Greenwald compared " Go Missin ' " to the work of Canadian singer The Weeknd , while describing Usher 's vocals as " seductive " .

Marc Hogan of Spin wrote that despite the song not being as " immediately jaw @-@ dropping " compared to " Climax " , it still contains the same " Radiohead quiet storm style " as the latter song , with Usher utilizing his " hair @-@ raising falsetto " . Forrest Wickman of Slate magazine interpreted the song as different in terms of music and lyrics to the latter song . Wickman praised Usher 's vocals , describing them as " calculated " to make you feel " uneasy , swirling around in minor harmonies " . Rolling Stones 's Jon Dolan gave the song three out of five stars , writing that " Go Missin ' " is not as " subtle " as " Climax " , though he praised its implementation of synthesizers , saying that it gives the song a " nervous , predatory throb " .

= You Know What You Did =

" You Know What You Did " is the first episode of the third season of The Hills . It originally aired on MTV on August 13 , 2007 . In the episode , Lauren Conrad ends her friendship with former housemate Heidi Montag after suspecting that she and her boyfriend Spencer Pratt fabricated rumors of a sex tape involving herself and her ex @-@ boyfriend Jason Wahler . The ensuing feud between the women becomes a central focus of the series , and is carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appears .

" You Know What You Did " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Sara Mast , Andrew Perry , Jason Sands , Robyn Schnieders , Sean Travis , Michael " Spike " Van Briesen , and Rick Van Meter . The episode was met with generally favorable reviews from critics , who felt that the changed dynamic between Conrad and Montag was entertaining for television . It was additionally notable for Conrad 's delivery of the titular line " You know what you did ! " when speaking to Montag , which has since been recognized as an iconic moment from the series .

According to Nielsen ratings , " You Know What You Did " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers in its original airing . The episode was released on DVD on July 19 , 2008 , packaged with the third season set .

= = Plot = =

The third season of The Hills begins with Whitney Port becoming Lauren 's boss , after being promoted within Teen Vogue . On their first day returning to work , Lauren informs Whitney of false speculation regarding a sex tape involving herself and her ex @-@ boyfriend Jason Wahler . Lauren comments that she has not spoken with Heidi since she moved into an apartment with Spencer , and the women become suspicious of her possible involvement with the rumors . Meanwhile , Heidi and Spencer are planning their housewarming party ; Spencer plans on inviting several of his friends , while Heidi was only planning on inviting Lauren , Whitney , and Audrina Patridge . Visiting Audrina at Epic Records unannounced , she delivers invitations for Audrina and Lauren . Audrina accepts the invitations , although later tells her co @-@ worker that she believes that Heidi and Spencer were speaking badly of Lauren and were responsible for spreading the sex tape rumors .

Lauren and Whitney decline their invitations to the housewarming party , and instead plan an impromptu outing at the club Les Deux . Meanwhile , during the housewarming party , Jenn Bunney makes a brief appearance at the apartment , although Heidi is disappointed after realizing that Lauren will not be attending . Unaware that they will run into Heidi and Spencer , Lauren and Audrina attend a birthday party for their friend Frankie Delgado the following day . As Lauren leaves for the bathroom after Heidi gives her a letter , Heidi tells Audrina that she is unsure of the reason for the tension between them . Audrina finds Lauren in the bathroom and they read the letter together , which details Heidi 's interest in rekindling their friendship . Angered that Heidi will not acknowledge the sex tape rumors , Lauren decides to exit the club .

At the recommendation of Spencer , Heidi confronts Lauren before she is able to leave the club . Lauren and Audrina get into an argument with Heidi and Spencer outside of Les Deux , where Lauren delivers the now @-@ famous quote " You know what you did ! " , elaborating that " You started a sick little rumor about me ! You 're a sad , pathetic person . " The following morning , Heidi explains to her co @-@ worker Elodie Otto that she was unaware of said speculation , and still wants to reconcile with Lauren . Meanwhile , Lauren tells Whitney that she is saddened by the idea of losing her friend , although admits that she has benefited from their separation .

= = Production = =

" You Know What You Did " was produced by Tony DiSanto , Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Sara Mast , Andrew Perry , Jason Sands , Robyn Schnieders , Sean Travis , Michael " Spike " Van Briesen , and Rick Van Meter . Rumors of a sex tape involving Conrad and Wahler , in addition to stories alleging that she invaded his house to retrieve it , surfaced in April 2007 . Conrad adamantly denied both reports , commenting that " if I ever tried to get something back from Jason , it was probably just photo albums and stuff " and the producers " videotape my life five days out of the week . I don 't need additional footage , you know ? "

The president of entertainment for MTV , Brian Graden , commented that the series benefits from the media coverage it receives in between seasons , which he described as a " six @-@ month commercial for the show that doesn 't five away the narrative in full . " He elaborated that MTV wants " viewers to watch Lauren and the girls as the characters we know instead of in a show about being the stars of The Hills " ; the sex tape rumors were consequently presented like a personal conflict between the women , and was intentionally not addressed as a highly publicized controversy .

The ensuing feud between Conrad and Montag received extensive media attention since its beginning ; Conrad was doubtful of the possibility of a reconciliation , noting that " I can see us getting to not hating each other but I don 't think we would ever go back to being best friends . " When addressing speculation that the conflict was fabricated for television , Conrad stated that " I wouldn 't fight for the camera . If anything I would try not to . " In a separate interview , she revealed that she almost quit the program before the season began , stating " it wasn 't so much about the filming , but I didn 't want to do a show with the other people on it " , which was assumed to be alluding to Montag and Pratt .

= = Release and reception = =

" You Know What You Did " was met with generally favorable reviews from critics , who felt that the changed dynamic between Conrad and Montag was entertaining for television . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Jennifer Armstrong provided a favorable review ; she opined that the conflict between Conrad and Montag made for the " most mature season ever " and offered a disclaimer that the term " maturity " was " being relative here , of course . " A writer for The Hollywood Gossip stated that the episode " didn 't disappoint " , and felt that the storyline clearly categorized Patridge and Port as being part of " Team Lauren " and Pratt as being part of " Team Heidi " in the " epic war " .

Virginia Heffernan from The New York Times felt that the deterioration of Conrad and Montag 's friendship was " more convincing than Friends and just about any other comedy about female relationships because — as anyone who has ever been a young woman knows — undying friendships die . " Writing for Los Angeles Times , Denise Martin was complimentary of the fact that the conflict was " unsullied " despite the extensive media coverage it received before the season began , and added that it was " better than anything you 'd get on All My Children . " Furthemore , Conrad 's delivery of the titular line " You know what you did ! " when speaking to Montag has been recognized as an iconic moment from the series ; the staff from Us Weekly ranked the scene as the most memorable event from the program when recapping highlights from its six seasons in July 2010 .

In its original broadcast in the United States on August 13 , 2007 , " You Know What You Did " was watched by 3 @.@ 6 million viewers . Consequently , it became the series ' most @-@ viewed episode at the time of its first airing ; as August 2007 , the episode was the network 's highest @-@ rated broadcast that year . It was surpassed by " Paris Changes Everything " , which served as the premiere for the second half of the season , on March 17 , 2008 ; it attracted 4 @.@ 8 million viewers in its original airing . In the United States , the third season was released as a four @-@ disc DVD set on July 19 , 2008 .

= Early Winter =

" Early Winter " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her second solo studio album , The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . Written by Stefani and English pianist Tim Rice @-@ Oxley , the song was released in Europe as the album 's fifth and final single on January 18 , 2008 by Interscope Records . Musically , " Early Winter " is a soft rock and synthpop ballad with new wave influences . Critics found it similar to songs by English alternative rock band Keane . The lyrics of the song describe the nearing of the end of a relationship , and were speculated to be references to Stefani 's own relationship with husband Gavin Rossdale .

Upon its release , " Early Winter " received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom commended Stefani 's vocal delivery and the song 's emotional appeal . The song charted on only a few record charts , but performed well in Germany and Slovakia , where it peaked at number six on the singles and airplay chart , respectively . An accompanying music video for " Early Winter " was directed by Sophie Muller and was filmed in destinations like Budapest , Milan , and Prague . It contains scenes of Stefani in a palace @-@ like hall in various gowns and at railway stations . " Early Winter " was included in the setlist of The Sweet Escape Tour , and the performances featured a special coda section delivered by American musician and bassist Gail Ann Dorsey .

= = Background = =

" Early Winter " was written by Tim Rice @-@ Oxley , pianist of English alternative rock band Keane , and Gwen Stefani for the latter 's second solo studio album The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . The production of the song was handled by Nellee Hooper . Before working with Oxley in the studio , Stefani called him to discuss some of her ideas behind a potential song , saying " I wanted a ballad . I wanted to write ' Eyes Without a Face ' or ' Killing Me Softly ' or ' Time After Time , ' and he was like , ' OK , Cyndi Lauper , got it , ' like he was taking my order . " In the studio , Oxley played " Early Winter " on a piano , and after hearing the song , Stefani approved of it and commented that " It was so beautiful and addictive . I didn 't really attack it because it was kind of done , lyrics and everything . " After letting the song " sit with her for a bit " , she rewrote some of the lyrics .

Stefani was the first artist Oxley wrote a song for outside of Keane , and the singer remarked that " he 's like Clark Kent @-@ subtle , but Superman @-@ talented . I 'm lucky I was his first , because I 'm sure he 's going to go write with lots of girls after me . " Oxley would later collaborate with artists like Australian singer Kylie Minogue , and in an interview he talked about working with her and Stefani , saying " I 've been very lucky to work with people at the top of the industry . Both were very talented and more creative than I think they ’ re given credit for . They ’ re both very good writers and singers and they both work so hard , just grafting the whole time . Honing those pop sensibilities through writing with them was good fun " .

= = Composition and release = =

Musically , " Early Winter " is a " sleek , surging " soft rock and synthpop ballad . Similar to Stefani 's work with her band No Doubt , it is highly influenced by new wave music . Clark Collis from Entertainment Weekly termed it a " tortured and not un @-@ Keane @-@ like lament " . The lyrics of " Early Winter " are based on issues related to the end of a relationship , and Jennifer Vineyard from MTV described them to be " poignant lyrics about a couple recognizing the beginning of the end " . In the song , Stefani metaphorically compares the end of her relationship with her partner to falling leaves . It was speculated that the song was a reference to Stefani 's own relationship with English musician and husband Gavin Rossdale . " Early Winter " was chosen as the fifth and final single from The Sweet Escape , and was released in Europe as a CD single on January 25 , 2008 by Interscope Records . It was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store on January 18 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club praised Stefani 's vocal delivery , saying her " nasal voice suits the whiny sentiment of the subject matter " and opining that she " sounds most commanding in songs that flirt with blush @-@ making drippiness " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy rated " Early Winter " four out of five stars , and complimented its emotional nature , naming it a " forgotten classic from an eighties movie soundtrack " and deeming it " the most affecting moment of Stefani 's solo career to date " . John Murphy from MusicOMH called the song " rather nice " and appreciated its lyrical content , although he commented that " it does sound like Stefani covering a Keane song " . Alex Miller from NME complimented Oxley 's involvement in " Early Winter " and singled it out as " one of the few potential hits " from The Sweet Escape . Mark Pytlik from Pitchfork Media picked " Early Winter " as one of the highlights from the album and favoured Stefani 's vocal delivery , noting that the song " proves that Stefani still has the ability to elevate an otherwise ordinary rock song to another level " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine complimented " Early Winter " for being " less forced and much less self @-@ conscious " in comparison to the rest of the songs on The Sweet Escape , and felt that " it 's refreshing to hear Stefani in her more natural habitat " .

= = = Commercial performance = = =

" Early Winter " had limited chart success , and appeared on only a few charts . It narrowly missed charting inside the top twenty of the Austrian Singles Chart by peaking at number twenty @-@ two , although it stayed on the chart for nineteen weeks . " Early Winter " debuted and peaked at number six on the German Singles Chart , becoming Stefani 's second highest @-@ peaking single in the region , alongside " The Sweet Escape " ( 2006 ) . It spent fourteen weeks on the German chart . The song failed to chart on the Hungarian Singles Chart , but managed to peak at number seventeen on the airplay chart . " Early Winter " entered the Slovak Airplay Chart at number 95 and peaked at number six , and spent a total of thirty @-@ nine weeks on the chart . After debuting at number fifty @-@ two on the Swiss Singles Chart , it ascended to number twelve and spent a total of twenty weeks on the chart .

= = Promotion = =

An accompanying music video for " Early Winter " was directed by Stefani 's frequent collaborator Sophie Muller , who had previously directed the music videos of " Cool " and " Wind It Up " . Filming of the music video took place at destinations like Budapest , Milan , and Prague , where Stefani had been touring during The Sweet Escape Tour in 2007 . It opens with a black @-@ and @-@ white scene of Stefani lying on the ground in a long white gown . In the next scene , Stefani is shown walking on the street under red street lights and then holds her love interest , played by her tour backup dancer Steelo Vazquez , against the wall and talks to him . The scene then changes to Stefani walking on a street and later walking into the railway station . In the next scene , Stefani is seen singing under falling red @-@ coloured feathers in a huge palace @-@ type hall . Scenes of Stefani staring at herself in the mirror with her hair up and snow falling slowly down , with the lights turning on and off intermittently , are interspersed throughout the video . Stefani is also seen sitting on the ground and singing while crying . She is then shown at a railway station walking besides a moving train . The video ends with Stefani running out of the hall . Tamar Anitai from MTV Buzzworthy praised the video for being " acutely artful , immeasurably stylish " and commented that " Gwen ’ s managed to raise the bar on her own superlatively supreme style in her new video . "

" Early Winter " was included on the setlist of The Sweet Escape 's promotional tour of the same name . The performance of the song included a coda section , which was delivered by American musician and bassist Gail Ann Dorsey . Joan Anderman from The Boston Globe regarded " Early Winter " as a " winsome anthem " and Dorsey 's coda performance " thrilling " .

= = Track listing = =

CD single and digital download

" Early Winter " ( Album Version ) – 4 : 44

" Early Winter " ( Live ) – 6 : 53

= = Personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .

= = Charts = =

= Blue Dragon =

Blue Dragon ( Japanese : ブルードラゴン , Hepburn : Burū Doragon ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Mistwalker and Artoon and published by Microsoft Game Studios exclusively for the Xbox 360 . Blue Dragon is based on a design by Final Fantasy series creator Hironobu Sakaguchi , who also supervised development and wrote the plot . It is both Mistwalker 's debut title and the first title to be helmed by Sakaguchi outside of Square Enix . The game was released in Japan on December 7 , 2006 , where it was sold both as a standalone title and as part of a bundle with the Xbox 360 ( including the game , the Xbox 360 system itself , and a Blue Dragon console skin ) . Other regions received only the game itself , with a release in Europe on August 24 , 2007 , and in North America on August 28 , 2007 .

Taking place in a fictional open @-@ world environment , the story of Blue Dragon focuses on five friends ( Shu , Jiro , Kluke , Zola , and Marumaro ) as they travel across the world to confront Nene , the evil ruler of the Grand Kingdom . The setting inspired separate anime and manga adaptations , although these follow the story to different degrees and feature a different cast of characters . The game follows a traditional role @-@ playing design , based around exploration and turn @-@ based combat .

Blue Dragon is the first Xbox 360 title to make use of multiple discs , spanning three discs in total . Overall , the game has received a positive reception , with an average score of 77 @.@ 48 % on the review aggregator website Game Rankings . Blue Dragon was both applauded and criticized for its adaptation of the traditional elements of role @-@ playing games .

= = Gameplay = =

The gameplay of Blue Dragon uses turn @-@ based gameplay elements seen in older Japanese role @-@ playing video games . The game world contains two major types of areas : towns , in which the player can rest and purchase items , and dungeon @-@ like areas , with numerous foes to be defeated .

= = = Exploration = = =

Players are initially able to walk between locations on the overworld , and later gain the ability to teleport to previously visited locations . The player controls a party of characters , but only one is shown when exploring the overworld . The player is able to cast magic outside of combat situations based on each character 's respective abilities . When combat begins , the entire party appears for battle . Enemies are visible to the player while exploring the game world , and can be avoided . At the same time , players can choose to engage enemies by luring them close and them activating a circle which will allow players to fight multiple monsters at a time . In some cases , specific foes will block a path or desired treasure chest and must be defeated to proceed . Other foes will pursue the player 's character once the player is spotted , but players can elude them if they flee far enough . Frequently , a single enemy or monster displayed on the screen actually represents a number of different foes of potentially different types .

Combat begins differently depending on how the player avatar makes contact with the monster . If the avatar strikes an enemy from behind , they take the advantage in battle with a " Back Attack " . Similarly , if the avatar is struck from behind , the enemy takes the advantage in a " Surprise Attack " . Players can also choose to fight several groups of monsters at once , with each combat taking place immediately after the previous one . A player who successfully employs this tactic is rewarded with bonuses . Players may use " field skills " to aid in controlling enemy encounters , such as using bombs to paralyze enemies . In rare cases , two groups of monsters may be of rival species , in which case a " Monster Fight " will occur , with both monster groups appearing at once and focusing on each other before attacking the player .

= = = Shadows = = =

The core mechanic in Blue Dragon is the use of magical " shadows " , with each playable character having a distinct shadow modeled after either a dragon , a phoenix , a bat , a minotaur , or a saber @-@ toothed tiger . Each shadow can be assigned to a single character class ( from a number of such classes ) at a time , taking on the attributes and abilities of that class . Only the active class may earn Class levels or " ranks " , but players are free to change classes at any time except in combat , allowing the group 's shadows to be customized in order to achieve the desired combination of skills .

As shadows increase in rank in a given class , they learn new skills , which can then be assigned to a limited number of skill slots to be used in combat . Shadows can be assigned previously learned skills regardless of their current class . For example , if a shadow is currently set to be an " Assassin " , but has previously learned the ability to cast " Barrier Magic " while acting as a member of the Barrier Magic class , the Barrier Magic skill can be set as an active skill . This allows mixing or hybridization , with the player able to pick and choose from among the skills learned by a given shadow .

= = = Combat = = =

Although combat in the game follows a strictly turn @-@ based formula , the turn sequence of the characters you have are calculated based on the speed statistic of the character , and in some cases characters are allowed to strike before enemies can act if they possess sufficient speed . Different attacks can take varied periods of time to execute .

Another combat timing mechanic featured in the game is the " Charge Meter " , which allows players to increase the power of spells or attacks by spending additional time preparing them . This meter is always used for spell casting , as well as when using the " Charge Attack " skill used by the " Monk " class . Although players can choose to act immediately , an ability will become more powerful the longer that the player charges the attack . However , the greater the amount of time one charges attacks , the longer the charging character must wait before the next turn . As a result of this , players can choose to charge up an ability so that the ability triggers shortly before an enemy acts , or can instead aim for the " sweet spot " , a special red area on the charging bar , indicating a charge that allows for less time until the next attack , as well as a smaller mana cost . Overall , deciding on the correct amount of charge and letting go of the button at precisely that time can greatly influence the effectiveness of each character 's attacks during combat .

= = Plot = =

= = = Setting = = =

Blue Dragon takes place in a fictional open @-@ world environment where every year for the past ten years , purple clouds have mysteriously appeared in the sky , signaling misfortune and disaster for people across the world . For years , a terrifying beast dubbed the " Land Shark " , and other lost technologies , such as the " sea cube " came with the purple clouds , killing thousands of people and destroying a number of villages . The world is split up into climate regions , each containing multiple kingdoms and villages , a few of which are not on the main path , but hold small stories , such as the giants , and the sheep , as well as hidden dungeons . Around the environment are multiple sources of treasure

= = = Story = = =

On an unnamed world , the legendary purple clouds arrive in Talta Village which is the home of Shu , Kluke , and Jiro . While the other villagers seek shelter , Shu and Jiro slow down the Land Shark . After encountering troubles , Kluke saves them . Together , the three trap the Land Shark in a net , but the Land Shark breaks free and rushes away , with Shu , Jiro , and Kluke dangling from its back . The Land Shark stops in an ancient ruin that the three friends explore . They discover the Land Shark is really a machine — a " Mechat " . Without warning , the mechat comes to life , only this time sailing into the sky , again carrying the three with it .

The party arrives at a giant Mechat base in the clouds and are tossed into the throne room of Nene , the apparent leader . Nene explains to them how he enjoys hearing the screams of the dying victims of the Land Shark . The party battles Nene , but are easily defeated . They are thrown out of the base and start to fall to their deaths , but a beam of light from the base catches them , and brings them back to the base . The party find three small floating spheres in the middle of the room ; a mysterious voice commands them to swallow the spheres . The party refuses , and instead hold onto the spheres for safekeeping . As they try to reach another Mechat to escape the base , they are forced to fight a large army of Nene 's robots . When the battle seems it will never end , and with the unseen voice promising them knowledge of how to pilot the Mechat , the party members eat the spheres . As they consume the spheres , a strange transformation occurs to each , changing the forms of their shadows into powerful beings that are able to destroy the robot army . The party escapes the base and crash in a desert .

After becoming familiar with their new shadows , the party travels to Talta village , befriending Marumaro on the way , who also possesses a magical shadow . Finding that the villagers from Talta have started to head towards the capital city of Jibral , the party takes off after them . Just outside Jibral , the party finds the villagers attacked by Steel @-@ Eating Tigers . They are saved by the arrival of King Jibral and his forces , including Zola . Once the villagers are brought to Jibral , the King decides to implement a plan to destroy one of Nene 's bases near Jibral using Shu and his friends along with Zola . Together , the party works with the warriors of Talta Village the Jibral Kingdom to besiege Nene 's Mechat base . After the base is destroyed , the party heads north in search of Nene . Nene captures Kluke , and places a collar around her neck which Nene alleges will explode . After reaching Nene , Zola separates from the party to buy them time to attack Nene . When the party attempts to remove Kluke 's collar , Nene absorbs the party 's shadows by placing collars on all of them . After taking their powers and placing them in himself , he removes their collars and attempts to kill them before they recover . Shu , despite being drained of magical ability , unconsciously teleports the party to the distant Devour village .

In Devour Village , they find themselves unable to escape the village without their magic , because the community is surrounded by evil trees . Shu has an epiphany and finds himself able to summon his dragon shadow without his sphere . Shu destroys the Eat Yeet in Devour Village , and the party is finally able to leave . Eventually all the party are able to summon their shadows again .

At that point , the party reunites with Zola , who supplies a Mechat for them to pursue Nene . As the party goes after Nene in the Mechat , Nene initiates an ancient machine that splits the world into two hemispheres , with thousands of isolated cubes floating between the halves . The party follows Nene to the Primitive Cube at the core of the transformation . The party journeys through the cube eventually defeating General Szabo and ultimately engaging Nene . As the party weakens Nene , it is revealed that Zola was working for Nene all along , and she was the voice that told the others to swallow the spheres . When Zola was too weak to defend herself , Nene had given her a shadow and sent her to Jibral as a spy . Zola betrays and kills Nene choosing her friends over him .

Deathroy , the small creature that has been on Nene 's shoulder removes himself from his masters body and absorbs Nene 's remaining life force . Deathroy is revealed to be Destroy , the biomechanical weapon that destroyed the legendary ancients that once tried to bring peace to the world . The party defeats Destroy , melting him in lava . The party then quickly escapes from the melting cube to rejoin their families .

= = Development = =

Blue Dragon was first revealed on February 24 , 2005 as one of two unnamed role @-@ playing games in development by Mistwalker Studios for the console which later came to be known as the Xbox 360 . In an IGN interview following the unveiling , Peter Moore stressed the importance to Microsoft of having Japanese games available on the system , commenting " ... It 's a main priority for me in the next 12 – 18 months to ensure Japanese developers are our partners . " Contributors to Blue Dragon include a number of well known Japanese figures in the gaming industry . The title 's original story was written by Hironobu Sakaguchi , the game director of the first five Final Fantasy video games . It also features art from Akira Toriyama , the creator of Dragon Ball and visual character and monster designer and illustrator of both the Dragon Quest series and Chrono Trigger .

Much of the actual software development work on the game was done at Artoon , with Takuya Matsumoto serving as director and Manabu Kusonoki responsible for the game 's world view . Matsumoto previously worked as a designer on Blinx 2 : Masters of Time and Space , while Kusonoki is known for his work at Sega , including the world of Panzer Dragoon . Near the end of November 2005 , roughly a year before the title was released in Japan , Artoon 's Naoto Ohshima indicated that the game was around 40 % complete . He also pointed out that Artoon had previously been known primarily for action titles , so that responsibility for Blue Dragon was originally somewhat frightening . Following this , a relative lack of media information for most of 2006 resulted in speculation that the title would be delayed until 2007 , but Microsoft 's Takashi Sensui confirmed in August 2006 that the game would indeed see a year @-@ end 2006 release . Blue Dragon was eventually released on three full DVD discs , making it the first Xbox 360 game to span multiple discs .

In a November 2006 interview with IGN , Sakaguchi confirmed that the sequel , Blue Dragon 2 , was in the planning stages , and would presumably start development shortly thereafter . Later in an issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump , it was announced that Blue Dragon Plus was in the works for the Nintendo DS . It is a real @-@ time simulation RPG , featuring 2D sprite graphics , and was released on September 4 , 2008 in Japan and on February 19 , 2009 in North America . In 2009 , a second Blue Dragon title was released for the DS , Blue Dragon : Awakened Shadow . The latter is more action oriented , and follows a player @-@ created character , rather than Shu .

= = = Music = = =

Blue Dragon 's score was composed and produced by Nobuo Uematsu , who is better known for composing much of the music in the popular Final Fantasy series . One of the boss themes , " Eternity " , was composed by Uematsu , with lyrics by Hironobu Sakaguchi himself , and includes vocals by English singer Ian Gillan . Blue Dragon Original Soundtrack was released on December 13 , 2006 and was arranged by Satoshi Henmi and Hiroyuki Nakayama . Music from Blue Dragon was performed live at the Play ! A Video Game Symphony concerts in 2006 . IGN praised the track " Cave " as one of the " Top 10 Nobuo Uematsu Musical Moments " . Enter Shikari also made an instrumental song , " Enter Shikari vs. Blue Dragon " for the original soundtrack .

Blue Dragon Original Soundtrack track listing

= = Manga = =

On November 12 , 2006 , Shueisha announced that a manga adaptation of Blue Dragon would be produced . Known as Blue Dragon ST ( ブルードラゴン シークレットトリック , Burū Doragon Shīkuretto Torikku , " Blue Dragon : Secret Trick " ) , the manga was done by Ami Shibata and premiered in Monthly Shōnen Jump in January 2007 . The production was ended in July 2007 with the magazine 's cancellation .

A second manga was later produced under the name Blue Dragon Ral Ω Grad , also known as Ral Grad . This adaptation was done by Tsuneo Takano and Takeshi Obata , the illustrator of Death Note . Ral Grad began serialization in issue 1 , 2007 of Weekly Shōnen Jump . Viz Media later began releasing the manga as simply " Ral Grad " in February 2008 .

= = Anime = =

An anime adaptation directed by Yukihiro Matsushita , animated by Studio Pierrot and co @-@ produced by SKY Perfect Wellthink , TV Tokyo and Pierrot was announced in November 2006 . The anime began airing April 7 , 2007 , featuring a different vocal cast than that used for the game . It also ignored most of the game 's plot . It aired on TV Tokyo , and ran for 51 episodes . A second season of Blue Dragon — Blue Dragon : Trials of the Seven Shadows ( BLUE DRAGON 天界の七竜 , Burū Doragon : Tenkai no Shichiryū ) — premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5 , 2008 .

On April 16 , 2007 , Viz Media announced that it had licensed the anime for release in North America and Europe . An edited English language dub of the series premiered in the United States on Cartoon Network , on April 5 , 2008 , where it aired on Toonami Jetstream until Jetstream was cancelled on January 30 , 2009 . Since then it has been discovered that Viz Media did make an uncut version of the Blue Dragon anime in English . This uncut version released by Manga Entertainment has had the first 24 episodes released on DVD ( so far exclusively in the UK ) over three 2 disc DVD sets with the release date of the next DVD set to be announced . These uncut episodes unlike the US DVD releases fully restores the original Japanese opening and closing , all edited scenes from the Cartoon Network version are restored including the original music , as well as having the option to view the series in Japanese with English subtitles . On July 22 , 2011 , Viz Media started streaming Blue Dragon episodes on VizAnime and Hulu . At Otakon , Viz Media representative Amy Mar said that if the streaming numbers are good , they might release the uncut episodes on physical media .

= = Reception = =

Pre @-@ orders of Blue Dragon bundled with a limited edition Xbox 360 Core system were sold out in Japan well before the December 7 , 2006 release date . Microsoft and Mistwalker initially hoped to sell over 200 @,@ 000 copies , which would break their record for sales of an Xbox 360 game in Japan . The game did manage the goal , with almost exactly 200 @,@ 000 copies sold as of December 27 , 2007 . Creator Hironobu Sakaguchi was pleased the game sold as well as it did .

Reviews for Blue Dragon were somewhat mixed , though generally favorable . On the review aggregator Game Rankings , the game had an average score of 77 % based on 62 reviews . While many reviewers praised the game for its traditional approach , a few reviewers criticized it for that very reason , with one reviewer remarking , " In fact , there is very little you can point to in Blue Dragon that hasn 't been done multiple times over before " . The story also came under scrutiny from some reviewers for being too generic and too similar to existing Japanese RPGs , with slow pacing during the beginning of the game . Eurogamer stated that the apparent lack of effort put into the facial animations for each character resulted in a limited ability to express emotion . They also noted that the mouth movements are well timed , but that the rest of the characters ' facial movements are " static " .

Game Informer commented that Blue Dragon lacked " jaw dropping " moments and was missing a nebulous " key element " to make it perfect . 1UP.com also picked up on this , adding that Blue Dragon was missing " strong characters , gripping storytelling , and excellent pacing " . X @-@ Play said that the game was very visually pleasing , but indicated that it was like any other role @-@ playing game . Though most of the reviewers criticized the game in one way or another , they all complimented it for its excellent graphics and music . Specifically , Game Informer remarked that " the characters look like sculpted figurines wandering around a world built to scale " . GameSpy complimented the title 's music and graphics saying the game had " phenomenal music ; and magnificently rendered cutscenes " .

= Welsh cuisine =

Welsh cuisine encompasses the cooking traditions and practices of the country of Wales and the Welsh people . Whilst there are a large number of dishes that can be considered Welsh due to their ingredients and / or history , dishes such as cawl , Welsh rarebit , laverbread , Welsh cakes , bara brith and the Glamorgan sausage have all been regarded as symbols of Welsh food . There is some variation in dishes around Wales , but the most pronounced difference is in the Gower Peninsula , an isolated rural area which was heavily influenced by Somerset and Devon . There the dishes created included whitepot and often incorporated pumpkin .

While Wales has imported throughout the centuries some culinary practices and dishes from its British neighbors , uniquely Welsh cuisine grew largely from the lives of the Welsh working folk , such as farmers , shepherds , and peasants , as these Welsh working people tended to be more isolated from outside culinary influences . Welsh common folk were instead influenced by the food that they could produce based on what little ingredients they could produce or afford , all while having little or no contact with neighboring English cuisine and English society . Welsh Celts and their more recent Welsh descendants originally practiced transhumance , moving their cattle to higher elevations in the summer and back to their home base in the winter . Once they settled to homesteads , a family would have generally eaten meat from a pig primarily , keeping a cow for dairy products . Vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks were rare .

In Wales , beef and dairy cattle are raised widely . Sheep farming , however , is extensive in the country , and lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Wales . Other important produce includes seafood — especially close to the coast , where fishing culture is strong and fisheries are common . This is exemplified by the use of cockles and laverbread in Welsh cuisine . The leek , the country 's national vegetable , is also used frequently in Welsh cuisine . Since the 1970s , the rise of the gastropub and high @-@ end restaurants has given Wales five Michelin @-@ starred restaurants .

= = History = =

There are few written records of traditional Welsh foods ; recipes were instead held within families and passed down orally between the women of the family . The lack of records was highlighted by Mati Thomas in 1928 , who made a unique collection of 18th century " Welsh Culinary Recipes " as an award winning Eisteddfod entry .

Those with the skills and inclination to write Welsh recipes , the upper classes , conformed to English styles and therefore would not have run their houses with traditional Welsh cuisine . Upper @-@ class households would take on any English fashions , even adopting English names . The traditional cookery of Wales originates from the daily meals of peasant folk , unlike other cultures where meals often started in the kitchens of the gentry and would be adapted .

Historically the King of the Welsh people would travel , with his court , in a circuit , demanding tribute in the form of food from communities they visited as they went . The tribute was codified in the Laws of Hywel Dda , showing that people lived on beer , bread , meat and dairy products , with few vegetables beyond cabbages and leeks . The laws show how much value was put on different parts of Welsh life at the time , for example that wealth was measured in cattle ; they also show that the court included hunters , who would be restricted to seasonal hunting sessions .

Towards the start of the 11th century , Welsh society started to build settlements . Food would be cooked in a single cauldron over an open fire on the floor , it would likely be reheated and topped up with fresh ingredients over a number of days . Some dishes could be cooked on a bakestone , a flat stone which could be placed above a fire to heat it evenly .

Gerald of Wales , chaplain to Henry II , wrote after an 1188 tour of Wales , " The whole population lives almost entirely on oats and the produce of their herds , milk , chees and butter . You must not expect a variety of dishes from a Welsh kitchen , and there are no highly @-@ seasoned titbits to whet your appetite . " The medieval Welsh used thyme , savory , and mint in the kitchen , but in general herbs were much more likely to be used for medicinal purposes than culinary ones .

Towards the end of the 18th century , Welsh land owners divided up the land to allow for tenant @-@ based farming . Each small holding would include vegetable crops , as well as a cow , pigs and a few chickens . The 18th and 19th centuries were a time of unrest for the Welsh people . The Welsh food riots began in 1740 , when colliers blamed the lack of food on problems in the supply , and continued throughout Wales as a whole . The worst riots happened in the 1790s after a grain shortage , which coincided with political upheaval in the form of forced military service and high taxes on the roads , leaving farmers unable to make a profit . As a result of riots by colliers in the mid 1790s , magistrates in Glamorgan sold the rioters corn at a reduced price . At the same time they also requested military assistance from the government to stop further rioting . Due to the close @-@ knit nature of the poor communities , and the slightly higher status of the farmers above the labourers , the rioters generally blamed the farmers and corn merchants , rather than the gentry .

The majority of food riots had ended by 1801 , and there were certain political undertones to the actions , though lack of leadership meant that little came of it . By the 1870s , 60 % of Wales was owned by 570 families , most of whom did no farming . Instead , they employed workers , who were forced to vote Tory or lose their jobs .

Around the end of the 19th century , the increase in coal mining and steel works around Wales led to the immigration of Italian workers . The workers brought families who integrated their culture into Welsh society , bringing with them Italian ice cream and Italian cafes , now a staple of Welsh society .

In the 1960s , isolated communities were unable to access produce that the majority of Britain would such as peppers or aubergines . Artisan Welsh produce was limited or non @-@ existent , farms rarely made their own cheese , and Welsh wine was of poor quality . By the 1990s , historical Welsh foods were going through a revival . Farmers ' markets became more popular , Welsh organic vegetables and farm @-@ made cheese started to appear in supermarkets . Other modern Welsh characteristics are more subtle , such as supermarkets offering salty butters and laverbread or butchers labelling beef skirt as ' cawl meat ' .

Restaurants are promoting the quality of Welsh ingredients , encouraging people to purchase Welsh produce and creating new dishes using them . This has meant that Welsh products can find their way into the higher @-@ priced delicatessens of London or North America . However , the regular diet of Welsh people has been more influenced by India , China and America . The most popular dish is chicken tikka masala , followed by burgers or chow mein . As a result of the popularity of these sorts of foods , Wales has the highest fat consumption in Britain , and therefore the highest levels of obesity .

= = Regional variations = =

There are some variations in the foods that are eaten around the different areas of Wales . These variations trace their roots back to medieval cooking . Ingredients were historically limited by what could be grown ; the wetter climate in highland areas meant that crops were restricted to oats , whilst the more fertile lowland areas allowed the growth of barley or wheat . Coastal inhabitants were more likely to include seafood or seaweed in their meals , whilst those living inland would supplement their farmed cereals with the seeds of land weeds to ensure there was enough to eat .

The invasions of the Romans and Normans also had an effect on the fertile areas which were conquered . The people there learned more " sophisticated eating habits " . Conversely those who remained in wilder areas kept the traditional approaches to cooking ; tools such as the pot crane continued to be used as late as the 20th century .

The only region that has a significant difference from the rest of Wales is the Gower peninsula , whose lack of land transport links left it isolated . Instead it was strongly influenced by Somerset and Devon on the other side of the Bristol Channel . Dishes such as whitepot and ingredients such as pumpkin , rare elsewhere in Wales , became commonplace in Gower .

= = Produce = =

Welsh food can be better traced though the history of its foodstuffs than through the dishes themselves .

= = = Meat and fish = = =

There a number of local Welsh breeds of cow , including the Welsh Black , a breed which dates back to at least 1874 . Cattle farming accounts for the majority of agricultural output in Wales — in 1998 the production of beef contributed 23 % of Welsh agricultural output , whilst in 2002 25 % of agricultural output was in the production of dairy products . Welsh beef has a European Union Protected Geographical Indicator , so it must be wholly reared and slaughtered in Wales .

Pigs were the primary meat eaten by early Welsh folk , which could be preserved easily by salting . By 1700 , there were a number of different Welsh breeds of pig , with long snouts and thin backs , generally light coloured , but some were dark or spotted . Today , pigs in Wales are either farmed intensively , using the white Welsh pig or Landrace pig , or extensively , where Saddleback pig , Welsh pig or crossbreeds are farmed .

The Welsh uplands were most suited to grazing animals such as sheep and goats , and the animals became associated with Wales . Sheep @-@ farming on a large scale was introduced by Cistercian monks , largely for wool , but also for meat . By the start of the 16th century Welsh mutton was popular in the rest of the UK . Once modern synthetic fibres became more popular than wool , Welsh sheep were raised almost exclusively for meat . Towards the end of the 20th century , there were more than 11 million sheep in Wales . The most popular breed of sheep is the Welsh Mountain sheep which is notably smaller than other breeds but better @-@ suited to the Welsh landscape and only rears one lamb , rather than the lowland breeds which rear two or more ; the mountain sheep are regarded as having more flavoursome meat . Welsh farmers have started using scientific methods , such as artificial insemination or using ultrasound to scan a sheep 's depth of fat , to improve the quality of their meat .

Coastal areas of Wales , and those near rivers , produce many different forms of fish and shellfish . Traditional fishing methods , such as wade netting for salmon , remained in place for 2 @,@ 000 years . Welsh coracles , simple boats made of a willow frame and covered in animal hides , were noted by Romans and were still in use in the 20th century . Once landed , fish would generally be wind @-@ dryed and smoked , or cured with salt .

Herring , a fish which takes well to salting , became a well established catch ; the busiest harbour was Aberystwyth , which reportedly took up to 1 @,@ 000 barrels of herring in a single night in 1724 . Many other villages also fished for herring , generally between late August and December . Herring , along with mackerel , trout , salmon and sea trout , were the main fishes found in Welsh cuisine . Salmon was abundant and therefore a staple for the poor . Trout , which would dry out quickly when cooked , would be wrapped in leek leaves for cooking , or covered in bacon or oatmeal . Many fish would be served with fennel , which grew wild in abundance in Wales .

Lobster fishing was done on a small scale especially in Cardigan Bay , but was reserved almost exclusively for export . Welsh fisherman would be more likely to eat the less profitable crabs . Cockles have been harvested since Roman times and are still harvested in a traditional manner with a hand rake and scraper . Cockle picking still happens in the Gower peninsula , but due to the difficulty in getting licences and reduced yield , villages near the Carmarthen Bay no longer gather them .

= = = Dairy products = = =

As cattle were the basis of Celtic wealth , butter and cheese were generally made from cows ' milk . The Celts were amongst the earliest producers of butter in Britain , and for hundreds of years after the Romans left the country butter was the primary cooking medium and basis for sauces . Salt was an important ingredient in Welsh butter , but also in early Welsh cheeses , which would sit in brine during the cheesemaking process .

The Welsh were also early adopters of roasting cheese . An early incarnation of Welsh rarebit was being made in medieval times , and by the middle of the 15th century Rarebit was considered a national dish . The acid soil of Wales meant that the milk produced by their cattle created a soft cheese , which was not as good for roasting , so Welsh people would trade for harder cheeses such as Cheddar .

The best known Welsh cheese is Caerphilly , named in 1831 but made long before that . Originally a method for storing excess milk until it could be brought to market , it was a moist cheese that would not last very long . Production of the cheese was halted due to milk rationing after World War II , although it was still made in England . There , the cheese was produced very quickly and sold early in its maturation process , creating a dryer cheese . In the 1970s , production of Caerphilly returned to Wales and over the following few decades a variety of new cheeses have also been produced in Wales .

= = = Cereals = = =

As far back as the Iron Age , Welsh folk were using wild cereals to create a coarse bread . By the time the Romans invaded , Celtic skills with bread had progressed to the point that white or brown breads could be produced . The Roman invasion led to many Welsh people moving to the less hospitable uplands , where the only cereal crops which could be grown were oats , barley and rye . Oat and barley breads were the main breads eaten in Wales up until the 19th century , with rye bread created for medicinal purposes . Oats were used to bulk out meat or meat and vegetable stews , also known as pottage .

The Welsh also created a dish called Llymru , finely ground oatmeal soaked in water for a long time before boiling until it solidified . This blancmange styled dish became so popular outside Wales that it got a new name , flummery , as the English couldn 't pronounce the original . A similar dish , sucan , was made with less finely ground oatmeal , making a coarser product .

= = = Vegetables = = =

Celtic law made specific provision with regards to cabbages and leeks , stating that they should be enclosed by fences for protection against wandering cattle . The two green vegetables were the only ones mentioned specifically in the laws , though uncultivated plants were still likely to be used in their cooking . The leek went on to be so important to Welsh cuisine — found in many symbolic dishes including cawl and Glamorgan sausage — that it became the country 's national vegetable .

Potatoes were slow to be adopted amongst Welsh folk , despite being introduced to the UK in the 16th century ; only in the early 18th century did they become a Welsh staple , due to grain failures . Once the potato did become a staple , it was quickly found in Welsh dishes such as cawl , and traditions grew around their use . One tradition , which was still in place at the start of World War II , was that villagers could plant an 80 @-@ yard ( 73 @-@ metre ) row of potatoes in a neighbouring farmer 's field for each labourer the household could provide at the time of harvest .

= = Welsh dishes = =

Whilst there are a large number of dishes that can be considered Welsh due to their ingredients , there are some which are quintessentially Welsh . Dishes such as cawl , Welsh rarebit , laverbread , Welsh cakes , bara brith ( literally " speckled bread " ) or the Glamorgan sausage have all been regarded as symbols of Welsh food .

Cawl , pronounced in a similar way to the English word " cowl " , can be regarded as Wales ' national dish . Dating back to the 11th century , originally it was a simple broth of meat ( most likely bacon ) and vegetables , it could be cooked slowly over the course of the day whilst the family was out working the fields . It could be made in stages , over a number of days , first by making a meat stock , then by adding the vegetables on the following day . Once cooked , the fat could be skimmed from the top of the pot , then it would be served as two separate dishes , first as a soup , then as a stew . Leftovers could be topped up with fresh vegetables , sometimes over the course of weeks . During the 18th and 19th centuries , the amount of meat used in the broth was minimal ; instead it was bulked out with potatoes . Today , cawl would be much more likely to include beef or lamb for the meat , and may be served with plain oatmeal dumplings or currant dumplings known as trollies . Traditionally cawl would be eaten with a " specially @-@ carved wooden spoon " and eaten from a wooden bowl .

The predilection of the Welsh for roasted cheese led to the dish of Welsh rarebit , or Welsh rabbit , seasoned melted cheese poured over toasted bread . The cheese would need to be a harder one , such as chedder or similar . Referred to as Welsh rabbit as early as 1725 , the name is not similar to the Welsh term caws pobi . Welsh folk rarely ate rabbit due to the cost and as land owners would not allow rabbit hunting , so the term is more likely a slur on the Welsh . The name evolved from rabbit to rarebit , possibly to remove the slur from Welsh cuisine or due to simple reinterpretation of the word to make menus more pleasant .

Laverbread , or Bara Lawr , is a Welsh speciality . It is made by cooking porphyra seaweed slowly over the course of up to ten hours until it becomes a puree known as laver . The seaweed can also be cooked with oatmeal to make laverbread . It can be served with bacon and cockles as a breakfast dish , or fried in to small patties . Today , laverbread is commercially produced by washing in water , cooking for about 5 hours before chopping , salting and packaging .

The Glamorgan sausage is a Welsh vegetarian sausage . It contains no meat or skin , instead it is made with cheese , generally Caerphilly , but sometimes cheddar , along with leek or spring onion . This mixture is then coated in breadcrumbs and rolled into a sausage shape before cooking . Glamorgan sausages date back to at least the early 19th century , at which point the sausages would have contained pork fat .

Welsh cakes , or pice ar y maen meaning " cakes on the stone " , are small round spiced cakes , traditionally cooked on a bakestone , but more recently on a griddle . Once cooked , they can be eaten hot or cold , on their own or topped either with sugar or butter . The dough which is mixed with raisins , sultanas and sometimes currants , is similar to shortbread , meaning they can have the consistency of biscuits when cooked on the griddle , and slightly more like a cake when cooked in the oven .

Bara brith is a fruit loaf originating from rural Wales , where they used a mortar and pestle to grind the fresh sweet spices . Historically it was made with yeast and butter , though recently it is likely to be made with bicarbonate of soda and margarine . The fruit included would be dried raisins , currants and candied peel , which would be soaked in cold tea before cooking . Generally served sliced with butter during afternoon tea , it is often known as Welsh tea bread . Bara Brith translates to " speckled bread " , but it is also known as teisen dorth in South Wales , where sultanas are included in the recipe , or as torta negra when Welsh settlers brought it to Argentina .

= = Beverages = =

Wine and beer , especially of the home @-@ made varieties , were central to socialising in Wales , as they were in England . This remained the case even when tea gained popularity in England , supplanting the home @-@ made alcohol . Beer is now the national drink of Wales , although Welsh beers never gained the status of other British beers , such as stout or English ales . This was in part due to the breweries keeping promotion of their products to a minimum so as not to upset the temperance movement in Wales .

The temperance movement remained a strong influence though , and when new breweries were set up , the outcry led to the Welsh Sunday Closing Act in 1881 , an act that forced the closure of public houses in Wales on a Sunday . Wales ' passion for beer remained ; the Wrexham Lager Beer Company opened in 1881 , as the first lager producer in Britain . The Felinfoel Brewery made a deal with the local tin works and became the first brewery in Europe to put beer in cans .

The Welsh also have a history of producing whisky , in a similar manner to other Celtic people such as the Irish or Scottish but on a smaller scale . Distillation began for commercial purposes before 1750 , by families who went on to emigrate to America and help found the Kentucky Whiskey industry . Always a niche industry , by the late 19th century , the main whisky production in Wales was at Frongoch near Bala , Gwynedd . The distillery was bought by Scottish whisky companies and closed in 1910 when they were attempting to establish brands in England . In 1998 the Welsh Whisky Company , now known as Penderyn , was formed and whisky production began at Penderyn , Rhondda Cynon Taf in 2000 . Penderyn single malt whisky was the first whisky commercially produced in Wales for a century and went on sale in 2004 . The company also produces Merlyn Cream Liqueur , Five Vodka and Brecon Gin .

Welsh vineyards were first planted by Romans , but in the 1970s , modern vineyards were planted in South Wales with the intention of creating Welsh wine . Despite a slow start , by 2005 Wales had 20 vineyards , producing 100 @,@ 000 bottles a year , primarily white wines , but also a few reds . According to the Wine Standards Board , by September 2015 , there were 22 operational vineyards in Wales. and there were almost 40 hectares ( 99 acres ) of vines planted in Wales .

By 2005 the Welsh bottled water industry was worth as much as £ 100m . Popular brands include Brecon Carreg , Tŷ Nant , Princes Gate and Pant Du .

= = Eating out = =

The number of restaurants in Wales has significantly increased since the 1960s , when the country had very few notable places to eat out . Today , Wales is no longer considered a " gastronomic desert " ; as of 2016 , it has five Michelin starred restaurants and other award systems such as TripAdvisor and the AA have included Welsh restaurants in their lists . The most significant increase in restaurants has been at the high end , but there has been growth and improvement in quality across the whole range of Welsh eateries .

Many Welsh restaurants attempt to showcase their " Welshness " , but few include historic Welsh dishes besides cawl . Instead , they showcase their Welsh ingredients , creating new dishes from them . There has also been a rise in Asian cuisine in Wales , especially that of Indian , Chinese , Thai , Indonesian and Japanese , with a preference for spicier foods . Finally there has been a significant rise in " gastropubs " , as there has around the United Kingdom , with the first in the country credited as the The Walnut Tree in Llanddewi Skirrid .

= Tintin in America =

Tintin in America ( French : Tintin en Amérique ) is the third volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . Commissioned by the conservative Belgian newspaper Le Vingtième Siècle for its children 's supplement Le Petit Vingtième , it was serialised weekly from September 1931 to October 1932 before being published in a collected volume by Éditions du Petit Vingtième in 1932 . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy who travel to the United States , where Tintin reports on organised crime in Chicago . Pursuing a gangster across the country , he encounters a tribe of Blackfoot Native Americans before defeating the Chicago crime syndicate .

Following the publication of Tintin in the Congo , Hergé conducted research for a story set in the United States , desiring to reflect his concerns regarding the treatment of Native communities by the U.S. government . Bolstered by a publicity stunt , Tintin in America was a commercial success in Belgium and was soon republished in France . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Cigars of the Pharaoh , and the series became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . In 1945 , Tintin in America was re @-@ drawn and coloured in Hergé 's ligne @-@ claire style for republication by Casterman , with further alterations made at the request of his American publisher for a 1973 edition . The story was adapted for a 1991 episode of the Ellipse / Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin . Critical reception of the work has been mixed , with commentators on The Adventures of Tintin arguing that although it represents an improvement on the preceding two instalments , it still reflects many of the problems that were visible in them .

= = Synopsis = =

In 1931 , Tintin , a reporter for Le Petit Vingtième , goes with his dog Snowy on an assignment to Chicago , Illinois , to report on the city 's organised crime syndicate . He is kidnapped by gangsters and brought before mobster boss Al Capone , whose criminal enterprises in the Congo were previously thwarted by Tintin . With Snowy 's help , Tintin subdues his captors , but the police reject his claims , and the gangsters escape . After surviving attempts on his life , Tintin meets Capone 's rival Bobby Smiles , who heads the Gangsters Syndicate of Chicago . Tintin is unpersuaded by Smiles ' attempt to hire him , and after Tintin orchestrates the arrest of his gang , Smiles escapes and heads west .

Tintin pursues Smiles to the Midwestern town of Redskin City . Here , Smiles convinces a tribe of Blackfoot Native Americans that Tintin is their enemy , and when Tintin arrives , he is captured and threatened with execution . After escaping , Tintin discovers a source of underground petroleum . The U.S. army then forces the Natives off their land , and oil companies build a city on the site within 24 hours . Tintin evades a lynch mob and a wildfire before discovering Smiles ' remote hideaway cabin ; after a brief altercation , he captures the gangster .

Returning to Chicago with his prisoner , Tintin is praised as a hero , but gangsters kidnap Snowy and send Tintin a ransom note . Tracing the kidnappers to a local mansion , Tintin hides in a suit of armour and frees Snowy from the dungeon . The following day , Tintin is invited to a cannery , but it is a trap set by gangsters , who trick him into falling into the meat @-@ grinding machine . Tintin is saved when the machine workers go on strike and then apprehends the mobsters . In thanks , he is invited to a banquet in his honour , where he is kidnapped and thrown into Lake Michigan to drown . Tintin survives by floating to the surface , but gangsters posing as police capture him . He once again overwhelms them , and hands them over to the authorities . Finally , Tintin 's success against the gangsters is celebrated by a ticker @-@ tape parade , following which he returns to Europe .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

Georges Remi — best known under the pen name Hergé — was the editor and illustrator of Le Petit Vingtième ( " The Little Twentieth " ) , a children 's supplement to Le Vingtième Siècle ( " The Twentieth Century " ) , a conservative Belgian newspaper based in Hergé 's native Brussels . Run by the Abbé Norbert Wallez , the paper described itself as a " Catholic Newspaper for Doctrine and Information " and disseminated a far @-@ right , fascist viewpoint . According to Harry Thompson , such political ideas were common in 1930s Belgium , and Hergé 's milieu was permeated with conservative ideas revolving around " patriotism , Catholicism , strict morality , discipline , and naivety " .

In 1929 , Hergé began The Adventures of Tintin comic strip for Le Petit Vingtième , about the exploits of fictional young Belgian reporter Tintin . Having been fascinated with the outdoor world of Scouting and the way of life he called " Red Indians " since boyhood , Hergé wanted to set Tintin 's first adventure among the Native Americans in the United States . However , Wallez ordered him to set his first adventure in the Soviet Union as a piece of anti @-@ socialist propaganda for children ( Tintin in the Land of the Soviets ) and the second had been set in the Belgian Congo to encourage colonial sentiment ( Tintin in the Congo ) .

Tintin in America was the third story in the series . At the time , the Belgian far right was deeply critical of the United States , as it was of the Soviet Union . Wallez — and to a lesser degree Hergé — shared these opinions , viewing the country 's capitalism , consumerism , and mechanisation as a threat to traditional Belgian society . Wallez wanted Hergé to use the story to denounce American capitalism and had little interest in depicting Native Americans , which was Hergé 's primary desire . As a result , Tintin 's encounter with the natives took up only a sixth of the narrative . Hergé sought to demystify the " cruel savage " stereotype of the Natives that had been widely perpetuated in western films . His depiction of the Natives was broadly sympathetic , yet he also depicted them as gullible and naïve , much as he had depicted the Congolese in the previous Adventure .

= = = Research = = =

Hergé attempted greater research into the United States than he had done for the Belgian Congo or Soviet Union . To learn more about Native Americans , Hergé read Paul Coze and René Thévenin 's 1928 book Mœurs et histoire des Indiens Peaux @-@ Rouges ( " Customs and History of the Redskin Indians " ) and visited Brussels ' ethnographic museum . As a result , his depiction of the Blackfoot Native Americans was " essentially accurate " , with artefacts such as tipis and traditional costume copied from photographs . To learn about Chicago and its gangsters , he read Georges Duhamel 's 1930 book Scènes de la vie future ( " Scenes from Future Life " ) . Written in the context of the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , Duhamel 's work contained strong anti @-@ consumerist and anti @-@ modernist sentiment , criticising the U.S. ' s increased mechanisation and standardisation from a background of European conservatism ; this would have resonated with both Wallez and Hergé 's viewpoints . Many elements of Tintin in America , such as the abattoir scene , were adopted from Duhamel 's descriptions .

Hergé was also influenced by a special edition of radical anticonformist magazine Le Crapouillot ( The Mortar Shell ) that was published in October 1930 . Devoted to the United States , it contained a variety of photographs that influenced his depiction of the country . Hergé used its images of skyscrapers as a basis for his depiction of Chicago and adopted its account of Native Americans being evicted from their land when oil was discovered there . He was particularly interested in the articles in the magazine written by reporter Claude Blanchard , who had recently travelled the U.S. He reported on the situation in Chicago and New York City and met with Native Americans in New Mexico . Blanchard 's article discussed the gangster George Moran , whom literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès believed provided the basis for the character Bobby Smiles .

Hergé 's depiction of the country was also influenced by American cinema , and many of his illustrations were based on cinematic imagery . Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier thought that Tintin 's arrest of Smiles had been influenced by the Buffalo Bill stories , and that the idea of the gangsters taking Tintin away in their car came from Little Caesar .

One of the individuals that Hergé could have learned about through Blanchard 's article was the Chicago @-@ based American gangster Al Capone . In the preceding story , Tintin in the Congo , Capone had been introduced as a character within the series . There , he was responsible for running a diamond smuggling racket that Tintin exposed , setting up for further confrontation in Tintin in America . Capone was one of only two real @-@ life individuals to be named in The Adventures of Tintin , and was the only real @-@ life figure to appear as a character in the series . In the original version , Hergé avoided depicting him directly , either illustrating the back of his head , or hiding his face behind a scarf ; this was altered in the second version , in which Capone 's face was depicted . It is not known if Capone ever learned about his inclusion in the story , although during initial serialisation he would have been preoccupied with his trial and ensuing imprisonment .

= = = Original publication , 1931 – 32 = = =

Tintin 's in America began serialisation in Le Petit Vingtième on 3 September 1931 , under the title of Les Aventures de Tintin , reporter , à Chicago ( The Adventures of Tintin , Reporter , in Chicago ) . The use of " Chicago " over " America " reflected Wallez 's desire for the story to focus on a critique of American capitalism and crime , for which the city was internationally renowned . Part way through serialisation , as Tintin left Chicago and headed west , Hergé changed the title of the serial to Les Aventures de Tintin , reporter , en Amérique ( The Adventures of Tintin , Reporter , in America ) . The dog Snowy was given a diminished role in Tintin in America , which contained the last instance in the Adventures in which Tintin and Snowy have a conversation where they are able to understand each other . In the banquet scene , a reference is made to a famous actress named Mary Pikefort , an allusion to the real @-@ life actress Mary Pickford . That same scene also featured a prototype for the character of Rastapopoulos , who was properly introduced in the following Cigars of the Pharaoh story .

The strip 's serialisation coincided with the publication of another of Hergé 's comics set in the United States : Les aventures de " Tim " l 'écureuil au Far @-@ West ( The Adventures of Tim the Squirrel Out West ) , published in sixteen instalments by the Brussels department store L 'Innovation . Produced every Thursday , the series was reminiscent of Hergé 's earlier Totor series . Alongside these stories , Hergé was involved in producing his weekly Quick and Flupke comic strip and drawing front covers for Le Petit Vingtième , as well as providing illustrations for another of Le Vingtième Siècle 's supplements , Votre " Vingtième " Madame , and undertaking freelance work designing advertisements . In September 1931 , part way through the story 's serialisation , Hergé took a brief holiday in Spain with two friends , and in May 1932 was recalled to military service for two weeks . On 20 July 1932 , Hergé married Germaine Kieckens , who was Wallez 's secretary . Although neither of them were entirely happy with the union , they had been encouraged to do so by Wallez , who demanded that all his staff marry and who personally carried out the wedding ceremony . After a honeymoon in Vianden , Luxembourg , the couple moved into an apartment in the rue Knapen , Schaerbeek .

As he had done with the prior two Adventures , Wallez organised a publicity stunt to mark the culmination of Tintin in America , in which an actor portraying Tintin arrived in Brussels . It proved the most popular yet . In 1932 , the series was collected and published in a single volume by Les Éditions de Petit Vingtième , coinciding with their publication of the first collected volume of Quick and Flupke . A second edition was produced in France by Éditions Ogéo @-@ Cœurs @-@ Vaillants in 1934 , while that same year Casterman published an edition , the first of The Adventures of Tintin that they released . In 1936 , Casterman asked Hergé to add several new colour plates to a reprint of Tintin in America , which he agreed to . They also asked him to replace the cover with one depicting a car chase , but he refused .

= = = Second version , 1945 = = =

In the 1940s , when Hergé 's popularity had increased , he redrew many of the original black @-@ and @-@ white Tintin adventures in colour using the ligne claire ( " clear line " ) drawing style he had developed , so that they visually fitted in with the newer Tintin stories . Tintin in America was reformatted and coloured in 1945 and saw publication in 1946 .

Various changes were made in the second edition . Some of the social commentary regarding the poor treatment of Native Americans by the government was toned down . The name of the Native tribe was changed from the Orteils Ficelés ( " Tied Toes " ) to the Pieds Noirs ( " Black Feet " ) . Perhaps because Al Capone 's power had diminished in the intervening years , Hergé depicted Capone 's scarred face in the 1945 version . He removed the reference to Mary Pikeford from the ceremonial dinner scene and deleted two Chinese hoodlums who tried to eat Snowy . References to Belgium were also removed , allowing the story to have a greater international appeal .

= = = Later alterations and releases = = =

When the second version of the story was translated into English by Michael Turner and Leslie Lonsdale @-@ Cooper , they made a number of alterations to the text . For instance , Monsieur Tom Hawake , whose name was a pun on tomahawk , was renamed Mr. Maurice Oyle , and the Slift factory was renamed Grynd Corp. Other changes were made to render the story more culturally understandable to an Anglophone readership ; whereas the factory originally sold its mix of dogs , cats , and rats as hare pâté — a food uncommon in Britain — the English translation rendered the mix as salami . In another instance , garlic , pepper , and salt were added to the mixture in the French version , but this was changed to mustard , pepper , and salt for the English version , again reflecting British culinary tastes .

In 1957 , Hergé considered sending Tintin back to North America for another adventure featuring the indigenous people . He decided against it , instead producing Tintin in Tibet . Although Tintin in America and much of Hergé 's earlier work displayed anti @-@ American sentiment , he later grew more favourable to American culture , befriending one of the country 's most prominent artists , Andy Warhol . Hergé himself would first visit the United States in 1971 , accompanied by his second wife Fanny Rodwell , and meet Edgar Red Cloud , the great grandson of the warrior chief Red Cloud . With a letter of recommendation from his friend Father Gall , he was invited to indulge his childhood desire to meet with real " Red Indians " — members of the Oglala Lakota on their Pine Ridge reservation in South Dakota — and take part in a pow wow .

American publishers of Tintin in America were uneasy regarding the scene in which the Blackfoot Natives are forcibly removed from their land . Hergé nevertheless refused to remove it . For the 1973 edition published in the U.S. , the publishers made Hergé remove African @-@ American characters from the book , and redraw them as Caucasians or Hispanics , because they did not want to encourage racial integration among children . That same year , the original black @-@ and @-@ white version was republished in a French @-@ language collected volume with Tintin in the Land of the Soviets and Tintin in the Congo , the first part of the Archives Hergé collection . In 1983 , a facsimile of the original was published by Casterman .

= = Critical analysis = =

Jean @-@ Marc and Randy Lofficier opined that Hergé had made " another leap forward " with Tintin in America , noting that while it still " rambles on " , it is " more tightly plotted " than its predecessors . They believed that the illustrations showed " marked progress " and that for the first time , several of the frames could be seen as " individual pieces of art " . Believing that it was the first work with the " intangible epic quality " they thought characterised The Adventures of Tintin , they awarded it two out of five stars . They considered Bobby Smiles to be " the first great villain " of the series , and also thought that an incompetent hotel detective featured in the comic was an anticipation of Thomson and Thompson , while another character , the drunken sheriff , anticipated Captain Haddock . The Lofficiers believed that Hergé had successfully synthesised all of the " classic American myths " into a single narrative that " withstands comparison with the vision of America " presented in Gustave Le Rouge and Gustave Guitton 's La Conspiration Des Milliardaires ( The Billionaires ' Conspiracy ) . They were of the opinion that Hergé 's depiction of the exploitation of Native Americans was an " astonishing piece of narrative " .

Harry Thompson considered the story to be " little more than a tourist ramble " across the U.S. , describing it as only " marginally more sophisticated " than its predecessors . He nevertheless thought that it contained many indicators of " greater things " , remarking that Hergé 's sympathy for the Natives was " a revolutionary attitude " for 1931 . Thompson also opined that the book 's " highlight " was on page 29 of the 1945 version , in which oil is discovered on Native land , following which they are cleared off by the U.S. army , and a complete city is constructed on the site within 24 hours . Biographer Benoît Peeters praised the strip 's illustrations , feeling that they exhibited " a quality of lightness " and showed that Hergé was fascinated by the United States despite the anti @-@ Americanism of his milieu . He nevertheless considered it " in the same mode " as the earlier Adventures , calling it " a collection of clichés and snapshots of well @-@ known places " . Elsewhere , Peeters commented that throughout the story , Tintin rushes around the country seeing as much as possible , likening him to the stereotypical American tourist .

Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline believed Tintin in America to be " more developed and detailed " than the prior Adventures , representing the cartoonist 's " greatest success " in a " long time " . Opining that the illustrations were " superior " due to Hergé 's accumulated experience , he nevertheless criticised instances where the story exhibited directional problems ; for instance , in one scene , Tintin enters the underground tunnel , but Assouline notes that while he is supposed to be travelling downward , he is instead depicted climbing up stairs . Such directional problems were also criticised by Michael Farr , who nevertheless thought the story " action @-@ packed " , with a more developed sense of satire and therefore greater depth than Soviets or Congo . He considered the depiction of Tintin climbing along the ledge of the skyscraper on page 10 to be " one of the most remarkable " illustrations in the entire series , inducing a sense of vertigo in the reader . He also opined that the depiction of the Blackfoot Natives being forced from their land was the " strongest political statement " in the series , illustrating that Hergé had " an acute political conscience " and was not the advocate of racial superiority that he has been accused of being . Comparing the 1932 and 1945 versions of the comic , Farr believed that the latter was technically superior , but had lost the " freshness " of the original .

Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès of Stanford University thought that in Tintin in America , Hergé had intentionally depicted the wealthy industrialists as being very similar to the gangsters . He noted that this negative portrayal of capitalists continued into later Adventures of Tintin with characters such as Basil Barazov in The Broken Ear . He considered this indicative of " a more ambivalent stance " to the right @-@ wing agenda that Hergé had formerly adhered to . Another literary critic , Tom McCarthy , concurred , believing that Tintin in America exhibited Hergé 's " left @-@ wing counter tendency " through attacking the racism and capitalist mass production of the U.S. McCarthy believed that the work exposed social and political process as a " mere charade " , much as Hergé had previously done in Tintin in the Land of the Soviets .

= = Adaptations = =

Tintin in America was adapted into a 1991 episode of The Adventures of Tintin television series by French studio Ellipse and Canadian animation company Nelvana . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the character of Tintin was voiced by Thierry Wermuth .

In 2002 , French artist Jochen Gerner published a socio @-@ political satire based on Tintin in America titled TNT en Amérique . It consisted of a replica of Hergé 's book with most of the images blocked out with black ink ; the only images left visible are those depicting violence , commerce , or divinity . When interviewed as to this project , Gerner stated that his pervasive use of black was a reference to " the censure , to the night , the obscurity ( the evil ) , the mystery of things not entirely revealed " .

= Romney Literary Society =

The Romney Literary Society ( also known as the Literary Society of Romney ) existed from January 30 , 1819 , to February 15 , 1886 , in Romney , West Virginia . Established as the Polemic Society of Romney , it became the first organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . The society was founded by nine prominent men of Romney with the objectives of advancing literature and science , purchasing and maintaining a library , and improving educational opportunities .

The society debated an extensive range of scientific and social topics , often violating its own rules which banned religious and political subjects . Even though its membership was relatively small , its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout the Potomac Highlands region , and the organization greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas .

The society 's library began in 1819 with the acquisition of two books ; by 1861 , it had grown to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes on subjects such as literature , science , history , and art . The organization also sought to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community . " In 1820 , as a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . In 1846 , the society constructed a building which housed the Romney Classical Institute and its library , both of which fell under the society 's supervision . The institute was administered by noted Presbyterian Reverend William Henry Foote . Following a dispute with the society , Foote founded a rival school in Romney , known as the Potomac Seminary , in 1850 .

The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute continued to grow in influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . The contents of the society 's library were plundered by Union Army forces , and only 400 of the library 's volumes could be recovered following the war 's end in 1865 . Reorganized in 1869 , the society took a leading role in Romney 's civil development during Reconstruction . Between 1869 and 1870 , it completed construction of Literary Hall , where the society held meetings and reassembled its library . The organization used its influence to secure the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind for the town of Romney , and offered the school its former Romney Classical Institute campus . The schools opened on September 29 , 1870 . Interest in the society waned during its final years , and its last recorded meeting was held in 1886 .

= = Establishment = =

The Romney Literary Society was organized on January 30 , 1819 , by nine prominent men of Romney in the office of Dr. John Temple , a reputable physician in the community . The society was formed with the purpose " of taking into consideration the propriety of financing a Society , having for its object the advancement of Literature and Science , the purchase of a Library by and for the use of its members ; and their further improvement by discussing before the Society such questions as shall be selected under its directors . " With its establishment , the Romney Literary Society became the first organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . The nine men at the society 's first meeting were Thomas Blair , David Gibson , James P. Jack , Samuel Kercheval , Jr . , Nathaniel Kuykendall , Charles T. Magill , James M. Stephens , John Temple , and William C. Wodrow . According to historian Hu Maxwell , these men elected Kuykendall as chairman and Magill as secretary of a committee which was charged with the drafting of a constitution for the society .

On February 4 , 1819 , the committee delivered its draft of the constitution and the society adopted the document , which provided that the organization should be known as the Polemic Society of Romney . The society 's constitution also specified that the officers should consist of a president , secretary , and treasurer , each of whom was to be selected by a ballot vote . The constitution further stipulated that each member was to pay dues of 50 cents per month , and that the society had the authority to levy further financial contributions from its members as it deemed necessary . The funds collected were to cover the society 's operating costs , and the remaining funds were to be used in purchasing books for the library . Under the constitution , the society 's meetings were to be held weekly . Following each meeting 's business session , a debate or other literary exercises were to be held consisting of topics of general interest of the members . No political or religious discussions were to take place during the debates unless they were of an abstract nature or in general terms . Profane language and " spirituous liquors " were also forbidden from the society 's meetings , with each offense being punishable with a fine of one dollar . The society 's first elected officers were Charles T. Magill as president , William C. Wodrow as secretary , and John Temple as treasurer .

= = Early debates = =

The society 's next meeting was held on February 13 , 1819 in the old Hampshire County Courthouse , where the first matter for debate was " Resolved : That a representative should be governed by instructions from his constituents . " Following the debate , the decision was rendered in favor of the affirmative . The second meeting , which was held on February 19 of that year at the Romney Academy , debated the question , " Is an education acquired at the public school or [ is ] a private tutor to be preferred ? " and the society favored the public school . At this second meeting , the first money appropriated by the society was paid to the doorkeeper for a sum of 25 cents . Also at this second meeting , the treasurer was instructed to purchase a book for use by the secretary , three candlesticks , one pair of snuffers , and three pounds of candles . On February 26 , the society argued the question , " Is a system of banking advantageous to a community ? " The debate ended under the decision that a system of banking was advantageous . The following meeting on March 6 debated a question far more psychological in nature , which was an abstract question of religion : " Can the human mind , by its own reflection , arrive at the conclusion that the soul is immortal ? " The society decided in the negative . The society also debated and decided in the negative the question , " Is a protective tariff detrimental to the interests of the country ? "

One of the society 's more spirited debates occurred in May 1822 over the question , " Is it to the interest of the people of Hampshire to encourage the canalling of the Potomac ? " While no records of the arguments survive , the society decided that the canalling of the Potomac River would be detrimental to the interests of Hampshire County . The debate took place before the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal along the Maryland shore of the Potomac River to the north of Hampshire County . The society 's consensus was that a canal on the Potomac would destroy the business of teamsters who hauled merchandise from the east along the Northwestern Turnpike . For this reason , the society and local population of Romney also objected to the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . To ensure confidentiality , the society passed a bylaw that enforced a fine of five dollars on any member who published either his own or another member 's speeches delivered before the society . As a result of this bylaw , no speeches were ever published . The society adopted a new constitution in 1824 .

= = Growth and influence = =

Over the first ten years of the society 's existence , the organization grew in membership and held meetings at least twice a month , and usually four times a month . The society debated an extensive range of subjects including scientific , religious , political , and social topics , often violating the constitution 's rules banning religious and political subjects . The society 's debates were often acrimonious and regularly spilled beyond the confines of the meetings and into the community . Between January 30 , 1819 and January 22 , 1830 , the society 's membership rolls reached 52 members ; although as few as 15 members attended the bimonthly meetings , and no more than 17 members were ever present at a meeting .

Even though the Romney Literary Society 's membership was relatively small , its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout the Potomac Highlands region . For this reason , the society greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas . No records of the society 's proceedings , works , or membership enrollments spanning the period between January 22 , 1830 and 1861 are extant . During this period , the society counted among its members Angus William McDonald , John Baker White , and Robert White .

= = Library collection = =

In order to fulfill one of its primary purposes of establishing a library for its members , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to acquire volumes for such a use . The society 's library began with the April 23 , 1819 appropriation for the purchase of two books : Plutarch 's Parallel Lives and Emer de Vattel 's The Law of Nations . On July 2 , 1819 , the balance of available funds in the treasurer 's account was two dollars and forty @-@ six cents , but by October 23 , there were sufficient funds to purchase the following volumes : Charles Rollin 's Ancient History , Lewis ' Roman History , and William Robertson 's History of the Reign of Charles the Fifth .

No more volumes were purchased until the end of 1820 , when the society acquired the works of Livy , Tacitus , and John Marshall 's Life of Washington . Three months later , the society purchased a bookcase for its growing collection . In April 1821 , the society further expanded its library with the acquisitions of Nathaniel Hooke 's Roman History , from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth , the works of Herodotus , Travels in Greece , Modern Europe , David Ramsay 's History of the United States , and the works of Benjamin Franklin .

In 1821 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act incorporating the organization as the " Library Society of Romney . " The society found the assembly 's charter unsatisfactory , as it specified several changes to the organization that the society had not asked for , including the change in its name . The members regarded their society as a " literary " society and not a " library " one . The society requested that the assembly amend its charter , and after several delays and debates over the new charter , the Virginia General Assembly passed a new act on February 4 , 1823 , in which the organization was rebranded as " The Literary Society of Romney . " The society maintained this long form name throughout the duration of its existence , although it was locally known as the " Romney Literary Society . "

Within the span of ten years , the society 's small library grew to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes on literature , science , history , and art . These were bound in calfskin and stamped with the seal of the society . The minutes from the society 's bimonthly meetings listed the books purchased and the methods by which they were acquired . According to the Federal Writers ' Project in their Historic Romney 1762 – 1937 ( 1937 ) , the book selections and their acquisition " indicate that these men possessed real literary judgment and business ability . "

By resolutions of the society , the use of the library was for the society 's members , and was further extended to " ministers of the gospel of all denominations gratis . " Certain citizens of Romney were also granted access to the library , and enjoyed similar privileges as its members .

= = Academic patronage = =

From the organization 's foundation , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to recognize that the local subscription school systems provided only elementary and often fragmentary education and no longer satisfied the academic needs of the Romney community . The society periodically engaged in lengthy deliberations on which theories of educational advancement and popular education were preferable . Shortly after its establishment , the society commenced a movement to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community . " In 1820 , as a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . Under the guidance , leadership , and strict discipline of Dr. Henry Johnston , Romney Academy became widely renowned for its courses in " higher classics . " His successor and society member William Henry Foote introduced courses in theology , and the school 's enrollment grew to include students preparing for ministry . As the school became more renowned in the South Branch Potomac River valley , pupils came from further and further away . Thomas and Samuel Mulledy were among the early instructors at the academy , both of whom later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington , D.C.

By 1831 , Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities in the old stone school building behind the Hampshire County Courthouse . To remedy this , the society instituted a campaign to raise funds for a new school building . On January 6 , 1832 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized the society to raise an endowment of $ 20 @,@ 000 in a lottery for educational purposes . Following a ten @-@ year lapse , the society made arrangements with James Gregory of Jersey City and Daniel McIntyre of Philadelphia to finance a lottery " for raising a sum of money not exceeding twenty thousand dollars , for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for their accommodation , the purchase of library and Philosophical apparatus . " The lottery was to be conducted over a period of ten years , and sums of $ 750 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 500 were to be raised in semiannual installments . The society was successful in raising funds , and in 1845 the society solicited bids for the construction of a new building to house both the academy , the society , and the society 's library . The society also used the lottery funds to pay for books for the academy .

On February 12 , 1844 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act authorizing the society to denote the balance of the moneys raised by the lottery to the Romney Academy . The assembly further enacted another legislative act on December 12 , 1846 , authorizing the Romney Literary Society to " establish at or near the town of Romney a Seminary of Learning for the instruction of youth in various branches of science and literature ; and the Society map appropriate to the same such portion of the property which it now has or may acquire , as it may deem expedient . " That same year , a new brick neoclassical building was constructed east of Romney , and the society , its library , and Romney Academy relocated to the new facility . The second story of the new building was utilized by the society , with one hall for meetings and the other hall for the society 's library . According to Maxwell , " few schools in the state of Virginia at that time had access to better libraries . " The new institute building and grounds cost the society about $ 8 @,@ 000 . Following its move to the new building , the academy was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute and its activities fell under the supervision of the society . The institute was operated under the principalship of Foote from 1846 until 1849 .

In 1849 , the society presented a new code and system of bylaws for the government of the Romney Classical Institute , which reserved to the society the power to appoint assistant teachers , fix the amount of salaries , and provide the conditions and manners of payment and reimbursement . Foote differed with the society over these matters , and he ultimately declined to accept the new bylaws and resigned his leadership position in October 1849 ; in 1850 , he established a rival institution known as the Potomac Seminary . Rather than falling under the patronage of the society , Foote 's new institution fell under the control of the Presbyterian church . Following Foote 's departure , the society selected Professor E. J. Meany to head the Romney Classical Institute . Despite the schism , the society also provided financial support from the lottery to the Potomac Seminary .

According to a " catalogue of the members and library " published on June 1 , 1849 , there were 20 registered members on the rolls who paid $ 3 each per year to the society 's library fund ; there were also eight library members who were admitted under certain regulations of the society and who paid the same fees . Members who had use of the library were provided keys and were allowed access to the library at any time . The town 's clergymen and the principal of the Romney Classical Institute were the only non @-@ members who were extended privileges to the library . The 1849 " catalogue " listed Alfred P. White as the society 's librarian and E. J. Meany remained the principal of the institute . After 1853 , the society possessed a permanent fund of $ 12 @,@ 000 , which yielded $ 720 per year , one half of which was devoted to the support of the Romney Classical Institute .

= = American Civil War and hiatus = =

The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . Following the war 's outbreak , many of the society 's members and the institute 's professors and older students joined the Confederate States Army and marched to war . During the war , the society suffered extensive losses . The Romney Classical Institute building and its library were considered legitimate plunder by Union Army forces . The society 's library was emptied and three @-@ fourths of its volumes were either scattered or destroyed . The most valuable of these volumes were never recovered following the war 's end . Its records of proceedings between 1830 and 1861 , the period during which the society engaged in most of its notable literary and philanthropic works , were also destroyed during the war .

Following the war 's end , only 400 out of the library 's nearly 3 @,@ 000 volumes could be recovered , with only 200 of those books remaining on the library 's shelves . Between 10 and 20 of the library 's recovered volumes only contained three to four of their original books . The value of the recovered volumes was degraded , as many were damaged or broken . The society members that returned home to Romney were too war @-@ weary to revive the society when they discovered the ruins of the Romney Classical Institute and its library , which had been an expensive endeavor to accumulate and took almost a half @-@ century of labor to amass . The Romney Classical Institute was not restored and was in effect disestablished on account of the war .

= = Revival = =

Following the war , the residents of Romney set about repairing public buildings and reestablishing the town 's antebellum institutions , including the Romney Literary Society . The society remained on a hiatus until May 15 , 1869 when a meeting was held by nine members , as only nine original members had responded to the call for reorganization . These nine members tasked with rebuilding the society were James L. Armstrong , David Entler , William Harper , John C. Heiskell , Andrew Wodrow Kercheval , Samuel R. Lupton , James Parsons , Alfred P. White , and Robert White . These men sought to collect what remained of the library 's books and engaged in a campaign to recruit new members , which resulted in the enrollment of 20 younger men over a period of a few years . Many of the men who had been members in 1861 had died during the war , and the recruitment of new members was essential to the revival of the society . Among the new members elected between 1869 and 1886 were John Collins Covell , Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy , Henry Bell Gilkeson , Howard Hille Johnson , and Christian Streit White . The society , with renewed vigor , took a lead role in Romney 's civil development during the Reconstruction Era .

Between 1869 and 1870 , the society completed construction of a new two @-@ story brick building on Lot 56 at the corner of West Main and North High Streets known as Literary Hall , where it could hold its meetings and reassemble the remaining volumes from its original library . Literary Hall was built upon the former location of the shuttered Bank of the South Branch of the Potomac . In addition to the 400 volumes that were initially recovered following the war , the society recovered several more volumes from its original library , and set about purchasing new books ; the restored library was reopened with about 700 volumes .

= = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = =

Around the time of the society 's reorganization in 1869 , the state of West Virginia considered the establishment of a school for the deaf and the blind . The society resolved to secure the new state institution for Romney . On April 12 , 1870 , the society passed a resolution by which the members agreed to deed , free of cost , the buildings and grounds of the Romney Classical Institute .

On April 20 , 1870 , the society sent Andrew Wodrow Kercheval and Robert White as representatives to the then @-@ state capital Wheeling to present their formal offer of " the grounds and buildings of the Romney Classical Institute ... to the Board of Regents , free of debt , and in good repair " on the condition that the proposed school be located in Romney . Clarksburg and Parkersburg also made offers of potential campuses to the state . The offer was made to the Board of Regents of the West Virginia Institute for the Deaf , Dumb , and Blind , as it was then known , and the society 's proposal was accepted by the regents after a brief period of deliberation . The society 's offer was the only one that included a building upon the grounds .

It was discovered by the society that in order to follow through with their proposition , it was necessary to raise more than $ 1 @,@ 000 , which was ostensibly a difficult task during the Reconstruction Era in Romney . On July 11 , 1870 , the Board of Regents passed a resolution necessitating the subscription of between $ 1 @,@ 200 and $ 1 @,@ 300 to facilitate the transaction . One hundred and eighteen individuals and firms responded to the board 's request with a total subscription of $ 1 @,@ 383 @.@ 60 . To make good on its offer , the society also made an appropriation of $ 320 on July 11 for the purpose of repairing and restoring the former Romney Classical Institute and grounds so that they were satisfactory before they were transferred to the regents . Shortly thereafter , the old institute building and 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) of property were formally transferred to the state of West Virginia .

On September 29 , 1870 , the institute , which was later known as the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , opened its doors in the old Romney Classical Institute building with 25 deaf and five blind students . Following its disestablishment in 1916 , the adjacent Potomac Academy ( formerly Potomac Seminary ) grounds were also incorporated into the campus of the Schools for the Deaf and Blind .

= = Final years = =

During a period of ten years spanning from 1870 to 1880 , much of Romney 's intellectual life centered on Literary Hall . During this time , the society met only occasionally and there were no records of meetings between March 1872 and April 1878 . The post @-@ war period of revival was short @-@ lived , as the death of the older members caused interest in the society to wane . The society 's meetings occurred less often , and the last recorded meeting of the society was held on February 15 , 1886 . During the society 's second existence , Literary Hall was used as a meeting space by the Freemasons and the Order of the Eastern Star , and the organizations continued to inhabit the hall following the society 's disestablishment until its 1974 purchase by attorney Ralph Haines . Also a local historian , Haines restored Literary Hall and used it as his law office and museum . Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1979 and , as of 2004 , it is occasionally open to the public . The society 's remaining records , dating as early as 1819 , remain on display there .

= = Legacy = =

In describing the efforts of the Romney Literary Society , historian Hu Maxwell , in his History of Hampshire County , West Virginia From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present ( 1897 ) , stated that " the work accomplished by these few energetic citizens of Romney is astonishing . " Maxwell further asserted , " No other one thing in the history of the town has had such lasting results for good . " The society left many lasting impacts upon the town of Romney during its existence and beyond , which included the foundation of a library ; the academic and financial support and patronage of the Romney Academy , Romney Classical Institute , and the Potomac Seminary ; the civic leadership during the Reconstruction Era ; and the influence and assistance in securing the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . According to Maxwell , without the efforts of the society , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind could not have been secured for Romney , and would have likely been located elsewhere in the state .

= Bill Stein =

William Allen " Bill " Stein ( born January 21 , 1947 in Battle Creek , Michigan ) is a retired professional baseball player and manager . His playing career spanned 17 seasons , 14 of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) with the St. Louis Cardinals ( 1972 – 73 ) , the Chicago White Sox ( 1974 – 76 ) , the Seattle Mariners ( 1977 – 1980 ) , and the Texas Rangers ( 1981 – 85 ) . Over his career in the majors Stein batted .267 with 122 doubles , 18 triples , 44 home runs , and 311 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 959 games played . Stein played numerous fielding positions over his major league career , including third base , second base , first base , left field , right field , and shortstop . He also spent significant time as a pinch hitter .

= = Bio = =

Stein was drafted out of Southern Illinois University during the 1969 Major League Baseball draft by the St. Louis Cardinals . He made his professional debut that season in their minor league organization . On September 6 , 1972 , Stein made his MLB debut with the Cardinals . During the 1973 season , St. Louis traded him to the California Angels , who just a few months later , traded him to the Chicago White Sox . Stein was selected by the Seattle Mariners from the White Sox in the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft . He came to his final team , the Texas Rangers , by way of free agency . After his playing career , Stein managed in the New York Mets minor league organization for four seasons ( 1988 – 1991 ) . He managed the non @-@ affiliated Bend Bucks in 1991 , and joined the Clinton Giants in 1992 , who were minor league affiliates of the San Francisco Giants at the time . He also managed the independent league Tyler WildCatters in 1994 .

= = Early life = =

Stein was born on January 21 , 1947 , in Battle Creek , Michigan . Stein attended Brevard Community College when he was drafted by the Baltimore Orioles during the 33rd round of the 1968 Major League Baseball draft . Stein did not sign with the Orioles . He began attending Southern Illinois University in 1969 . As a member of the school 's baseball team , he batted .396 and was named an All @-@ American by the American Baseball Coaches Association . Stein was drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals during the fourth round of the 1969 Major League Baseball draft .

= = Playing career = =

= = = St. Louis Cardinals = = =

In 1969 , Stein began his professional baseball career in the St. Louis Cardinals minor league organization . The Cardinals assigned him to the Tulsa Oilers , who were their Triple @-@ A affiliates at the time . With the Oilers , Stein batted .295 with 24 runs scored , 54 hits , 11 doubles , five triples , one home run , and 20 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 62 games played . Defensively , Stein played 31 games at second base , 14 games at third base , and five games at shortstop . During the 1970 season , the Cardinals assigned Stein to the Double @-@ A level to play with the Arkansas Travelers of the Texas League . In 114 games played that year , he batted .289 with 124 hits , 21 doubles , two triples , and eight home runs . In the field , Stein played second base and outfield . In 1971 , Stein was promoted to the Triple @-@ A level . He spent the entire season with the Tulsa Oilers , where he batted .272 with 50 runs scored , 106 hits , 106 hits , 22 doubles , four triples , eight home runs , and 67 RBIs in 103 games played . Stein pitched a game that season , after Tulsa 's starting pitcher was ejected from the game after throwing the ball at the umpire . In six innings , he gave @-@ up eight hits , and three runs ( all earned ) . He played the majority of the season in the outfield , but also spent limited time at third base , first base , and shortstop .

To start the 1972 season , Stein was a member of the Triple @-@ A Tulsa Oilers . With Tulsa that year , he batted .278 with 100 hits , 26 doubles , four triples , five home runs , and 36 RBIs in 103 games played . Stein was a September call @-@ up for the St. Louis cardinals that year . He made his debut in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) on September 6 , 1972 , against the Philadelphia Phillies . He got his first hit in that game , which was a home run in the ninth inning . He played 14 games in the majors that year , batting .314 with two runs scored , 11 hits , one triple , two home runs , and three RBIs . Defensively in the majors , he was positioned at third base , left field , and right field .

During spring training in 1973 , the Sarasota Herald @-@ Tribune labeled Stein as the Cardinals candidate for pinch hitting off the bench . He made the Cardinals Opening Day roster that year . He made his season debut on April 6 as a pinch hitter , going hitless in one at @-@ bat against the Pittsburgh Pirates . His first hit of the season came on April 17 , against the Pirates . In August , Stein was sent down to the minor leagues and was replaced on the Cardinals major league roster by outfielder Héctor Cruz . In the minors , he played with the Triple @-@ A Tulsa Oilers , where he batted .289 with 23 hits , two doubles , and one triple in 21 games played . While in the majors that season , Stein compiled a .218 batting average with four runs scored , 12 hits , two doubles , and two RBIs in 32 games played . On defense with the Cardinals , he played right field , left field , third base , and first base .

= = = Chicago White Sox = = =

On September 25 , Stein was traded by the St. Louis Cardinals to the California Angels in exchange for Jerry DaVanon . California then traded Stein to the Chicago White Sox on April 3 , 1974 , before he made an appearance in the Angels organization . In return , the White Sox sent Steve Blateric to California . Stein started the 1974 season in the White Sox minor league system with the Triple @-@ A Iowa Oaks . In 135 games with Iowa , he batted .326 with 107 runs scored , 178 hits , 32 doubles , eight triples , 16 home runs , and 76 RBIs . Stein led the American Association in hits ; was second in runs scored , plate appearances ( 594 ) , at @-@ bats ( 554 ) , and doubles ; and was tied for second in triples . He was called up by Chicago in September . Stein made his season debut on September 13 , against the California Angels , getting no hits in four at @-@ bats . His first hit of the season came the day after , against California . In the majors that year , Stein batted .276 with five runs scored , 12 hits , one double , and five RBIs in 13 games played .

Stein spent his first full season in the majors during the 1975 season . His season debut came on April 16 , against the Texas Rangers , where in one at @-@ bat he went hitless . In June , Stein was named the starting third baseman after Bill Melton , who was Chicago 's regular third baseman , was benched for poor hitting . Stein also played back @-@ up for second baseman Jorge Orta over the season . On July 20 , in the second game of a doubleheader against the Milwaukee Brewers , Stein hit his first career grand slam . On the season , Stein batted .270 with 23 runs scored , 61 hits , seven doubles , one triple , three home runs , and 21 RBIs in 76 games played . In the field , he played 28 games at second base , 24 games at second base , and one game in left field . Stein also played 18 games that year at the designated hitter spot in the lineup .

Stein played his final season with the Chicago White Sox in 1976 . On August 17 , in the first game of a doubleheader against the Boston Red Sox , he hit a game @-@ winning single in the ninth inning to score Pat Kelly . In August , United Press International noted that it was the first time in his major leaue career that Stein was getting a chance to start regularly . During the season , he compiled a .268 batting average with 32 runs scored , 105 hits , 15 doubles , two triples , four home runs , and 36 RBIs in 117 games played . Stien played 58 games at second base , 58 games at third base , one game at first base , one game in right field , and one game at shortstop . He was also the designated hitter in one game during that season .

= = = Seattle Mariners = = =

During the 1976 Major League Baseball expansion draft , Stein was selected by the Seattle Mariners , who took him with their third pick in the draft . Stein stated he was " glad " that the Mariners drafted him , because he did not like playing at Comiskey Park , the home of his previous team , the Chicago White Sox . He was profiled by the Associated Press during spring training in 1977 , and was interviewed about his new team and his unique versatility in the field . Stein mentioned to the reporter that although he had played a wide verity of positions in the past , he hoped he would get a chance to be the Mariners starting third baseman . In a win against the Boston Red Sox on May 3 , Stein hit two home runs in the same game . In June , Stein commented on how he liked starting every day at third base for the Mariners . The Mariners manager , Darrell Johnson , Praised Stein for playing " good ball " with Seattle . On July 8 , in a game against the Minnesota Twins , Stein had another two @-@ home run performance , his second of the season . In early @-@ September , Stein got hit in the shoulder by a baseball , which was later revealed to have caused a hairline fracture . With the Mariners that year , he batted .259 with 53 runs scored , 144 hits , 26 doubles , five triples , 13 home runs , and 67 RBIs in 151 games played . Defensively , the vast majority of his games ( 147 ) were played at third base , but he also played limited time at shortstop . He led the American League in putouts by a third baseman with 146 . Stein was also fifth in the league in defensive games at third base .

Before the start of the 1978 season , Stein re @-@ signed with the Seattle Mariners . His contract meant he was now signed through the 1980 season . In May 1978 , he bruised his left hand , which caused him to miss some playing time . On August 25 , he broke up Dennis Martínez 's potential no @-@ hitter in the seventh inning of a game against the Baltimore Orioles . On August 28 , in a game against the Boston Red Sox , Stein had a season @-@ high four hits . On the season , he batted .261 with 41 runs scored , 105 hits , 24 doubles , four triples , four home runs , and 37 RBIs in 114 games played . In the field , Stein played 67 games at third base , 17 games at second base , and three games at shortstop . His 24 errors at third base was second in the American League .

Early into the 1979 season , Stein was placed on the disabled list after suffering a rib injury . Charlie Beamon , Jr. was called up from the minor leagues to replace Stein during his injury . In late June , the Mariners activated Stein from the disabled list . By the time he had returned , the Mariners had already positioned Dan Meyer at his position , so Stein filled in at second base during his first game back . That year , Stein batted .248 with 28 runs scored , 62 hits , nine doubles , two triples , seven home runs , and 27 RBIs in 88 games played . As a fielder , he played 67 games at third base , 17 games at second base , and three games at shortstop .

Stein 's final season with the Seattle Mariners would come in 1980 . On April 29 , against the Minnesota Twins , Stein had a season high four hit game . He matched that high on July 26 , against the Toronto Blue Jays . On July 28 , Stein broke up a no @-@ hit bid by Cleveland Indians pitcher Len Barker . In his final season with the Mariners , Stein batted .268 with 16 runs scored , 53 hits , five doubles , one triple , five home runs , and 27 RBIs in 67 games played . Defensively , he played 34 games at third base , 14 games at second base , and eight games at first base . He also played five games that season as Seattle 's designated hitter .

= = = Texas Rangers = = =

In December 1980 , Stein was signed as a free agent by the Texas Rangers . Stein made his Rangers debut on April 14 , 1981 , against the Cleveland Indians . In that game , he got one hit in two at @-@ bats . In May , Stein set an American League record by recording seven consecutive pinch hits . Through June , Stein had a .441 batting average . On the season , Stein batted .330 with 21 runs scored , 38 hits , six doubles , two home runs , and 22 RBIs in 53 games played . In the field , he played 20 games at first base , seven games at third base , seven games in left field , three games at second base , one game in right field , and one game at shortstop .

On April 16 , 1982 , in a game against the Milwaukee Brewers , Stein hit a game @-@ winning double in the top of the ninth inning . In June , while playing against his former team , the Seattle Mariners , Stein praised their pitching staff . In 85 games that year , Stein batted .239 , the lowest average of his career since the 1972 season where he played with the St. Louis Cardinals . He also compiled 14 runs scored , 44 hits , eight doubles , one home run , and 16 RBIs . In the field , he played 34 games at second base , 28 games at third base , six games at shortstop , two games at first base , and one game in left field . Stein also was the designated hitter during three games .

In March 1983 , Stein praised the Texas Rangers new manager , Doug Rader , for working on the game in a " serious " way . On May 18 , in a game against the Cleveland Indians , Stein was brought in as a pinch hitter during the 14th inning , and proceeded to get the game @-@ winning hit for the Rangers . With Texas that year , he batted .310 with 21 runs scored , 72 hits , 15 doubles , one triple , two home runs , and 33 RBIs in 78 games played . Stein played the majority of his games at second base , but also played first base and third base . He was used as the Rangers designated hitter in six contests that year . After the season , Stein spoke out against a transaction that the Rangers made , trading Jim Sundberg to the Milwaukee Brewers , calling him a " mainstay of the organization " .

In 1984 , the Associated Press stated that Stein was one of the American League 's best pinch hitters . Early into the season , he injured his wrist , which caused him to miss some playing time . In mid @-@ June , the Rangers activated him from the disabled list . On the season , Stein batted .279 with three runs scored , 12 hits , one double and three RBIs in 27 games played . Stein played 11 games at second base , three games at first base , and three games at third base . He also spent four games as the Rangers designated hitter .

Before the 1985 season , it was announced that the Texas Rangers had traded Stein to the Pittsburgh Pirates in exchange for a player to be named later , pending a physical . The Pirates later canceled the trade after team doctors discovered a " probable disc problem " in his back . Rumors then circulated that it was possible that Steins ' career would be ended by the injury . However , Stein did play 44 games with the Rangers that season , batting .253 with five runs scored , 20 hits , three doubles , one triple , one home run , and 12 RBIs . He played 11 games at third base , eight games at first base , three games at second base , and three games in right field . Stein was the team 's designated hitter in six games that year . In his final season in the majors , he earned a salary of $ 250 @,@ 000 ( $ 550 @,@ 046 inflation adjusted ) . At the end of the season , Texas announced that it would not re @-@ sign Stein . Through an agent , Stein commented that if he could not play for Texas in the upcoming season , he would retire .

= = Coaching career = =

In 1987 , Stein coached the Rockledge High School baseball team , leading them a district title with a 17 – 11 record . Stein was hired as the manager of the Class A @-@ Short Season Little Falls Mets of the New York – Penn League in 1988 . Little Falls were minor league affiliates of the New York Mets . In his first professional season as a manager , Stein led Little Falls to a 39 – 36 record . Stein commented that when he became a manager it was difficult to learn pitching after all the years of being a position player . In 1989 , the New York Mets fired Butch Hobson , the manager of the Class @-@ A Columbia Mets , and promoted Stein to that position . At the helm of Colombia that year , Stein led them to a 73 – 67 record . He also served as a player @-@ coach with the Orlando Juice of the Senior Professional Baseball Association in 1989 .

Stein continued to manage the Columbia Mets in 1990 , leading them to an 83 – 60 record . The Mets had the best record in the South Atlantic League that season . In 1991 , Stein was hired to be the manager of the Bend Bucks of the Northwest League . The non @-@ affiliated Bucks had a record of 30 – 46 with Stein as the manager . He was hired to be the manager of the Clinton Giants in 1992 . Clinton was the Class @-@ A affiliate of the San Francisco Giants at the time . Stein led Clinton to a 59 – 79 record that year . After considering taking a year off of baseball in 1994 , Stein eventually accepted the managerial position with the independent league Tyler WildCatters .

He recently relocated and lives in Palm Coast Florida , where he has been an outstanding infielder and intimidating hitter in the Flagler ( County ) Senior Softball League .

= Ranavalona I =

Ranavalona I ( born Rabodoandrianampoinimerina ; 1778 – August 16 , 1861 ) , also known as Ramavo and Ranavalo @-@ Manjaka I , was sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar from 1828 to 1861 . After positioning herself as queen following the death of her young husband and second cousin , Radama I , Ranavalona pursued a policy of isolationism and self @-@ sufficiency , reducing economic and political ties with European powers , repelling a French attack on the coastal town of Foulpointe , and taking vigorous measures to eradicate the small but growing Malagasy Christian movement initiated under Radama I by members of the London Missionary Society . She made heavy use of the traditional practice of fanompoana ( forced labor as tax payment ) to complete public works projects and develop a standing army of between 20 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 Merina soldiers , whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the realm . The combination of regular warfare , disease , difficult forced labor and harsh measures of justice resulted in a high mortality rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33 @-@ year reign .

Although greatly obstructed by Ranavalona 's policies , French and British political interests in Madagascar remained undiminished . Divisions between traditionalist and pro @-@ European factions at the queen 's court created opportunities that European intermediaries exploited in an attempt to hasten the succession of Ranavalona 's son , Radama II . The young prince disagreed with many of his mother 's policies and was amenable to French proposals for the exploitation of the island 's resources , as expressed in the Lambert Charter he concluded with a French representative in 1855 . These plans were never successful , however , and Radama II was not to take the throne until 1861 , when Ranavalona died aged 83 .

Ranavalona 's European contemporaries generally condemned her policies and characterized her as a tyrant at best and insane at worst . These negative characterizations persisted in foreign scholarly literature until the mid @-@ 1970s . Recent academic research has recast Ranavalona 's actions as those of a queen attempting to expand her empire while protecting Malagasy sovereignty against the encroachment of European cultural and political influence .

= = Early life = =

Princess Ramavo was born in 1778 at the royal residence at Ambatomanoina , about 16 kilometers ( 10 mi ) east of Antananarivo , to Prince Andriantsalamanjaka and Princess Rabodonandriantompo . When Ramavo was still a young girl , her father alerted King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) to an assassination plot planned by Andrianjafy , the king 's uncle , whom Andrianampoinimerina had forced from the throne at the royal city of Ambohimanga . In return for saving his life , Andrianampoinimerina betrothed Ramavo to his son , Prince Radama , whom the king designated as his heir . He furthermore declared that any child from this union would be first in the line of succession after Radama .

Despite her elevated rank among the royal wives , Ramavo was not the preferred wife of Radama and did not bear him any children . Upon Andrianampoinimerina 's death in 1810 , Radama succeeded his father as king and followed royal custom by executing a number of potential opponents among Ramavo 's relatives , an act that may have strained their relationship . Unable to find satisfaction in her loveless marriage , the neglected Ramavo and other court ladies spent most days socializing and drinking rum with David Griffiths and his fellow missionaries in Griffiths ' home . These visits established a deep friendship between Ramavo and Griffiths that would endure for three decades .

= = = Accession to the throne = = =

When Radama died without leaving any descendants on July 27 , 1828 , according to local custom , the rightful heir was Rakotobe , the eldest son of Radama 's eldest sister . An intelligent and amiable young man , Rakotobe was the first pupil to have studied at the first school established by the London Missionary Society in Antananarivo on the grounds of the royal palace . Radama died in the company of two trusted courtiers who were favorable to the succession of Rakotobe . However , they hesitated to report the news of Radama 's death for several days , fearing possible reprisals against them for having been involved in denouncing one of the king 's rivals , whose family had a stake in the succession after Radama . During this time , another courtier , a high @-@ ranking military officer named Andriamamba , discovered the truth and collaborated with other powerful officers - Andriamihaja , Rainijohary and Ravalontsalama - to support Ramavo 's claim to the throne .

These officers hid Ramavo and one of her friends in a safe location , then secured the support of several influential power brokers , including judges and the keepers of the sampy ( royal idols ) . The officers then rallied the army behind Ramavo , such that on August 11 , 1828 , when she declared herself the successor to Radama on the pretense that he himself had decreed it , there could be no immediate resistance . Ramavo took the throne name Ranavalona ( " folded " , " kept aside " ) , then followed royal custom by systematically capturing and putting to death her political rivals , including Rakotobe , his family and other members of Radama 's family , much as Radama had done to the queen 's own family upon his succession to the throne . Her coronation ceremony took place on June 12 , 1829 .

By succeeding her husband , Ranavalona became the first female sovereign of the Kingdom of Imerina since its founding in 1540 . Her rise to power occurred in a cultural milieu that favored men over women in the political sphere . In the traditional culture of Imerina , rulers were specially endowed with the power to innovate in circumvention of established norms and customs . Sovereigns often mobilized innovation through the creation of new forms of kinship , the traditional basis of the political order . Women , however , were associated with the household , a rigid kinship unit in opposition to the innovating role and power of the sovereign , and so were not viewed as suited to rule . Although female rulers had once been common among the Vazimba , described in oral histories as the original inhabitants of Madagascar , this tradition ended in the central highlands with the reign of Andriamanelo ( 1540 @-@ 1575 ) , founder of the Kingdom of Imerina and successor to his Vazimba mother , Queen Rafohy ( 1530 @-@ 1540 ) .

= = Reign = =

Ranavalona 's 33 @-@ year reign was characterized by her effort to strengthen the domestic authority of the Kingdom of Imerina over subjugated provinces and preserve the political and cultural sovereignty of Madagascar . These policies were enacted in a context of increasing European influence within her kingdom and competing French and English bids for domination over the island . Early in her reign , the queen took incremental steps to distance Madagascar from the purview of European powers , first putting an end to a friendship treaty with Britain , then placing increasing restrictions on the activities of the missionaries of the London Missionary Society , who operated schools where basic education and trade skills were taught in addition to the Christian religion . In 1835 she forbade the practice of Christianity among the Malagasy population , and within a year nearly all foreigners had left her territory .

Putting an end to most foreign trade relationships , the queen pursued a policy of self @-@ reliance , made possible through frequent use of the long @-@ standing tradition of fanompoana — forced labor in lieu of tax payments in money or goods . Ranavalona continued the wars of expansion conducted by her predecessor , Radama I , in an effort to extend her realm over the entire island , and imposed strict punishments on those who were judged as having acted in opposition to her will . Due in large part to loss of life throughout the years of military campaigns , high death rates among fanompoana workers , and harsh traditions of justice under her rule , the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2 @.@ 5 million between 1833 and 1839 , and from 750 @,@ 000 to 130 @,@ 000 between 1829 and 1842 in Imerina . These statistics have contributed to a strongly unfavorable view of Ranavalona 's rule in historical accounts .

= = = Government = = =

In the tradition of many of her royal Merina predecessors , the queen ruled from the royal Rova compound in Antananarivo . Between 1839 and 1842 , Jean Laborde built the queen a new residence called Manjakamiadana , which became the largest structure on the Rova grounds . The residence was made entirely from wood and bore most of the features of a traditional home of the Merina andriana ( aristocratic class ) , including a central pillar ( andry ) to support the roof . In other ways it showcased distinctly European innovations , as it contained three floors entirely surrounded by wooden verandas and incorporated dormers in the shingled roof . The palace would eventually be encased in stone in 1867 by James Cameron of the London Missionary Society during the reign of Ranavalona II . The original wooden palace of Ranavalona and virtually all other structures of the historic Rova compound were destroyed in a 1995 fire , leaving only the stone shell to mark where her palace had once stood .

In many respects , Ranavalona 's rule was a continuation of precedent established under Radama I. Both monarchs encouraged the introduction of new technologies and forms of knowledge from abroad , supported the establishment of an industrialized economy , and adopted measures to professionalize the army . Both viewed foreigners with ambivalence , establishing close personal relationships and drawing upon their expertise while enforcing restrictions on their activities to avert destabilizing changes to existing cultural and political systems . In addition , both contributed to the further development of a complex political bureaucracy that enabled the Merina court to govern remote provinces across an island larger than the Netherlands , Belgium and France combined .

Ranavalona maintained the tradition of ruling with the support of advisers drawn largely from the aristocratic class . The queen 's most powerful ministers were also her consorts . Her first chief adviser was a young army officer from Namehana named Andriamihaja , who served as First Minister from 1829 to 1830 . Major @-@ General Andriamihaja most likely fathered the queen 's only son , Prince Rakoto ( later King Radama II ) , who was born eleven months after the death of his official father , King Radama I. In the early years of Ranavalona 's reign , Andriamihaja was the leader of her court 's progressive faction , who favored maintaining the relations with Europe initiated under Radama . The conservative faction was led by the brothers Rainimaharo and Rainiharo , the latter being the official guardian of one of the most powerful royal sampy . These talismans were believed to embody and channel the supernatural powers of the kingship and had played a major role in the spiritual life of the Merina people since at least the 16th century reign of Ralambo . The conservative faction conspired to reduce Andriamahaja 's progressive influence over the queen , and in September 1830 they managed to persuade her while highly intoxicated to sign his death warrant for charges of witchcraft and treason . He was immediately captured in his home and killed .

Following Andriamihaja 's death , the influence of Radama 's old guard of progressives was eclipsed by that of conservative advisers at court , who grew ever closer to the queen , eventually resulting in Ranavalona 's marriage to sampy guardian and conservative figurehead Field Marshal Rainiharo ( also called Ravoninahitriniarivo ) of Ilafy in 1833 . Rainiharo gained initial access to the court through his father , Andriantsilavonandriana , a hova ( commoner ) who had exceptionally been accorded the privilege of joining King Andrianampoinimerina 's inner circle of noble advisers . Field Marshal Rainiharo served as the queen 's First Minister from 1830 to 1832 , then Prime Minister and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief from 1832 to 1852 . Upon Rainiharo 's death , the queen wed another conservative , Field Marshal Andrianisa ( also called Rainijohary ) , who remained Ranavalona 's husband until her death in 1861 . He served as Prime Minister from 1852 to 1862 before being exiled to the royal city of Ambohimanga for his part in a plot against the queen 's son , Radama II .

Traditionally , Merina sovereigns relied on the pronouncement of kabary ( oratory ) in public gatherings to communicate policy and reaffirm the relationship between sovereign and public . Due in part to her lack of experience in public speaking and politics , Ranavalona preferred to direct and inform her subordinates through letters that she dictated to missionary @-@ educated court scribes . She strengthened her relationship with the public through occasional kabary and fulfilled the traditional role of the Merina sovereign as bestower of hasina ( ancestral blessings ) by enacting traditional rituals , including the fandroana ( new year ritual of renewal ) , tributes to the royal idols , and offerings of vodiondry and jaka beef at customary occasions . Ranavalona innovated on these traditional rituals by increasing their complexity and symbolism to imbue them with added significance .

= = = Preservation and expansion of realm = = =

Queen Ranavalona continued the military incursions initiated under Radama I to pacify neighboring kingdoms and maintain their submission to Merina rule . These policies had a strongly negative effect on economic and population growth during her reign . Fanompoana labor among the population of Imerina could include conscription into the military , enabling the queen to raise a standing army that was estimated at 20 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 soldiers . This army , which was sent on repeated expeditions into neighboring provinces , exacted harsh penalties against communities resistant to Merina domination . Mass executions were common , and those who were spared their lives were commonly brought back to Imerina as slaves ( andevo ) and their valuables seized as booty to increase the wealth of the Crown . Approximately one million slaves entered Imerina from coastal areas between 1820 and 1853 , constituting one @-@ third of the total population in the central highlands and two @-@ thirds of all residents in Antananarivo .

According to Madagascar historian Gwyn Campbell , the number of non @-@ Merina who died in violent conflict during the military campaigns of Ranavalona and her predecessor Radama from 1816 to 1853 was estimated at about 60 @,@ 000 . Additionally , a considerable proportion of the population not killed in battle in the subjugated provinces eventually died from famine as a consequence of scorched earth policies . Deaths among the Merina soldiers engaged in military actions were also high , estimated at about 160 @,@ 000 for the period 1820 – 1853 . A further 25 – 50 % of the queen 's soldiers stationed in lowland areas were estimated to have died each year due to diseases such as malaria . Although prevalent in the coastal parts of the island , malaria was uncommon in the high @-@ altitude zone around Antananarivo , and Merina soldiers possessed little natural resistance against it . An average of 4 @,@ 500 soldiers died each year for the greater part of Ranavalona 's reign , contributing to severe depopulation in Imerina .

= = = = Tangena ordeal = = = =

One of the chief measures by which Ranavalona maintained order within her realm was through the traditional practice of trial by the ordeal of tangena . A poison was extracted from the nut of the native tangena ( Tanghinia venenifera ) shrub and ingested , with the outcome determining innocence or guilt . If nobles or freemen were compelled to undergo the ordeal , the poison was typically administered to the accused only after dog and rooster stand @-@ ins had already died from the poison 's effects , while among members of the slave class ( andevo ) , the ordeal required them to immediately ingest the poison themselves . The accused would be fed the poison along with three pieces of chicken skin : if all three pieces of skin were vomited up then innocence was declared , but death or a failure to regurgitate all three pieces of skin indicated guilt . According to 19th @-@ century Malagasy historian Raombana , in the eyes of the greater populace , the tangena ordeal was believed to represent a sort of celestial justice in which the public placed their unquestioning faith , even to the point of accepting a verdict of guilt in a case of innocence as a just but unknowable divine mystery .

Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes , including theft , Christianity and especially witchcraft , for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory . On average , an estimated 20 to 50 percent of those who underwent the ordeal died . In the 1820s , the tangena ordeal caused about 1 @,@ 000 deaths annually . This average rose to around 3 @,@ 000 annual deaths between 1828 and 1861 . In 1838 , it was estimated that as many as 100 @,@ 000 people in Imerina died as a result of the tangena ordeal , constituting roughly 20 percent of the population . Although outlawed in 1863 , the ordeal continued to be practiced secretly in Imerina and openly in other parts of the island .

= = = = Repression of Christianity = = = =

Following a visit by Radama I to Madagascar 's first formal school , established in Toamasina in 1818 by members of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) , the king invited the first Christian artisan missionaries to the capital city to share their knowledge . Beginning in December 1820 , LMS missionaries established workshops in Antananarivo to teach brick @-@ making , European carpentry and other practical skills , and developed a network of public schools where numeracy and English were taught alongside literacy using portions of the Malagasy language Bible . Despite high attendance at the schools , the LMS were initially unsuccessful in converting pupils to Christianity . Near the end of Radama 's reign , the king came to regard the few Malagasy who had been converted as irreverent toward royal authority . He forbade Malagasy people from being baptized or attending Christian services .

Ranavalona 's succession initially resulted in a relaxation of state control over Christianity . A printing press , which was imported by LMS missionaries at the end of Radama 's reign , was only effectively put into operation in 1828 . The press was in heaviest use during the first several years of Ranavalona 's reign , when thousands of hymnals and other materials were transcribed and printed . Translation of the New Testament was completed in the second year of her reign , and 3 @,@ 000 copies were printed and distributed between 1829 and 1830 . From the beginning of her reign , Ranavalona forbade the distribution of books within the military to prevent subversion and preserve discipline . She allowed missionaries free rein in operating the printing press , however , and exempted from military service all Malagasy personnel trained to operate the press . In 1835 , translation of the Old Testament was completed and the first copies were printed . The freedom allowed to LMS and Malagasy Christians to print religious materials and teach religion in the state schools during the first six years of Ranavalona 's reign allowed the religion to become firmly established among a small but growing group of converts in and around the capital . In 1831 Ranavalona authorized Malagasy attendance at church services , administration of the sacrament , and baptism of her subjects . Within a year , the first 100 Malagasy were baptized out of an estimated 200 practicing Christians total ; these converts were drawn from all social classes , including slaves , commoners , respected elders , court officials and even sampy guardians , who were considered the bulwarks of traditional culture .

The conversion of major religious , political and social leaders sparked a backlash that led Ranavalona to become increasingly wary of the political and cultural effects of Christianity , which she saw as leading the Malagasy to forsake the ancestors and their traditions . In October and November 1831 the queen enacted a ban on Christian marriages , church services and baptisms for soldiers and members of government studying in the Missionary schools , and in December extended the ban on church service attendance to all Malagasy . From 1832 to 1834 , baptisms and church services continued , increasingly in secret . During this time , several Christians each year were charged with witchcraft and exiled or made to undergo the tangena ordeal , and Ranavalona requested the departure of three missionaries , retaining only those whose particular technical skills she viewed as valuable to the state . In 1835 , the queen attempted to shut down the press without directly targeting the LMS by banning Malagasy personnel from working at the printing house . The LMS missionaries , capitalizing on the absence of legal decrees against their own work at the press , managed to continue independently printing and distributing materials .

In a kabary speech on February 26 , 1835 , Queen Ranavalona formally forbade the practice of Christianity among her subjects . In her discourse , she was careful to differentiate between her own people , for whom the new religion was forbidden and its practice a capital offense , and foreigners , to whom she permitted freedom of religion and conscience . She furthermore acknowledged the valuable intellectual and technological contributions that European missionaries had made to the advancement of her country , and invited them to continue working to that end on the condition that their proselytizing would cease :

" To the English or French strangers : I thank you for the good that you have done in my land and my kingdom , where you have made known European wisdom and knowledge . Do not worry yourselves — I will not change the customs and rites of our ancestors . Nevertheless , whoever breaks the laws of my kingdom will be put to death — whoever he may be . I welcome all wisdom and all knowledge which are good for this country . It would be a waste of time and effort to grab the customs and rites of my ancestors . Concerning religious practice — baptism or assemblies — it is forbidden for my people who inhabit this land to take part whether on Sunday or during the week . Concerning you , foreigners , you can practice according to your own manners and customs . Nevertheless , if skilled handiwork and other practical skills exist , which can profit our people , exercise these skills that good will come . These are my instructions which I make known to you . "

The majority of the London Missionary Society missionaries , whose primary activity was teaching Christian theology and literacy at their newly established schools using the Bible as the principal Malagasy @-@ language text , departed the island . James Cameron and other key missionaries preferred to leave rather than remain on the island without authorization to proselytize . The last two remaining missionaries chose to continue teaching practical skills in the hope that the restrictions might loosen , but one year later , after receiving indirect information that the government desired their departure , they shuttered the LMS mission and left Madagascar .

Pursuant to the February 26 decree , those who possessed a Bible , worshiped in congregation or continued to profess adherence to Christianity were fined , jailed , manacled , subjected to trial by ordeal , or executed . Lurid accounts of the execution and torture of Christians were reported by missionaries with informants on the island who placed emphasis on what they perceived as the savagery of the Queen 's actions . For instance , they reported the public execution of fifteen Christian leaders near the Queen 's palace who were dangled on ropes 150 feet above a rock @-@ filled ravine before the ropes were cut upon their refusal to renounce Christianity . The Andohalo cathedral was constructed on this outcropping to commemorate early Malagasy Christians martyred at the site . The precise number of Malagasy citizens put to death for religious reasons during Ranavalona 's reign is difficult to state with certainty . British missionary to Madagascar W.E. Cummins ( 1878 ) places the number executed at between sixty and eighty . Far more were required to undergo the tangena ordeal , condemned to hard labor or stripped of their land and property , and many of these died . Persecution of Christians intensified in 1840 , 1849 and 1857 ; in 1849 , deemed the worst of these years by Cummins , 1 @,@ 900 people were fined , jailed or otherwise punished for their Christian faith , of whom 18 were executed .

= = = Protection of sovereignty = = =

Ranavalona 's reign was marked by a struggle between France and Britain to secure control over Madagascar . The French , who held several small islands off Madagascar , were interested in gaining control over the main island but this move was opposed by the British who had an interest in maintaining a safe passage to India . Ranavalona pursued a policy of self @-@ reliance to limit the influence of these foreign powers .

Shortly after taking the throne , Ranavalona annulled the Anglo @-@ Merina treaty that had been concluded between Radama and British envoys , and refused to continue receiving annual payments from Britain in exchange for adherence to the stipulations of the treaty . The most significant of these conditions was the kingdom 's non @-@ participation in the international slave trade , which had historically been a major source of revenue for the kingdoms of Imerina , Betsimisaraka , Sakalava and others across the island . One consequence of the termination of the Anglo @-@ Merina friendship treaty was an end to the delivery of British weaponry , which rendered the queen vulnerable to designs against her from foreign powers and pockets of local resistance alike . This vulnerability was underscored in 1829 when a fleet of six French ships launched an unprovoked attack against the fort of Foulpointe and the nearby town of Ivondro on the eastern coast of Madagascar . The queen 's army successfully repelled the French at the next port , forcing the ships to Île Sainte @-@ Marie , where they engaged a diplomatic envoy sent from Antananarivo by Ranavalona . The protracted negotiations ensured the French suffered from the malaria prevalent in coastal areas , until the increasing casualties forced the ships ' withdrawal from Ranavalona 's territory .

It came to the Queen 's attention that Frenchman Jean Laborde , who had been shipwrecked off Madagascar in 1832 , was knowledgeable in the production of cannons , muskets and gunpowder . Ranavalona provided him with the labor and materials to establish factories that met the material needs of her army , thereby ending the kingdom 's dependence on Europe for modern weaponry .

= = = = Foreign plots = = = =

The French were eager to hasten Radama II 's succession in the interest of capitalizing on the Lambert Charter , an 1855 agreement between French representative Joseph @-@ François Lambert and Radama that could only come into effect upon the prince 's succession . The charter guaranteed Lambert and his business associates first rights to the exploitation of many of the island 's commodities and natural resources . According to a British account , Lambert conspired with Jean Laborde and local leaders to persuade Radama II to sign a document written in French — a language in which the prince was not fluent — which Lambert orally translated as containing only an account of the excessive pressures the Queen 's policies were placing on her subjects . Radama , who was sympathetic toward the commoners and interested in easing their burden but suspicious about the letter 's true purpose , reluctantly signed the document under intense pressure from the French . He was not told the letter included a request for French military intervention that could have potentially brought Madagascar under French rule . France did not however intend to take such an action without the accord of their ally , Britain , whose influence had been so well @-@ established on the island , and refused to intercede on behalf of the prince . In the meantime , Radama , who had been made to swear on the Bible not to speak of the letter to anyone , had grown concerned enough to contact a British diplomat , thereby revealing the true circumstances under which the letter had been signed . The British refused to cooperate in the French plot , and an attack was averted . According to Lambert , however , the prince had indeed been an enthusiastic partner in the bid to end Ranavalona 's reign , and his own true feelings about the endeavor had been deliberately misrepresented through a British campaign of propaganda .

Having failed to gain the backing of a European state power to place Radama on the throne and bring the treaty into effect , Lambert decided to instigate a coup d 'état independently . He traveled to Ranavalona 's court in May 1857 in the company of the celebrated 19th @-@ century Austrian globetrotter Ida Pfeiffer , who became an unwitting participant in the plot . She documented her perspective on these events in one of her late works . According to Pfeiffer , Radama and Lambert had planned to dethrone the queen on June 20 , when ministers and soldiers loyal to Radama would infiltrate the Rova grounds and declare loyalty to the prince and support for a political transition . Pfeiffer blamed the failure of the plot on Rainilaiarivony , then Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the army who reportedly had been unable to ensure the presence of soldiers in the courtyard who were loyal to Radama . According to a British account , however , Radama himself was credited with warning the queen of the plot , in which his cooperation was merely a ploy to entrap the conspirators . This British view claims that Ranavalona deliberately allowed the plot to unfold almost to its conclusion in order to ascertain the loyalties of her members of government . After the plot 's discovery , the Europeans were largely confined to their houses on the palace grounds and prohibited from receiving visitors , until an order was issued to immediately and permanently quit the queen 's territory in late July .

= = Succession and death = =

While the queen had designated her son , Radama II , as her successor , Rainimaharo and the conservative faction knew of his progressive leanings and tried instead to ensure the queen 's nephew , Ramboasalama , would come to power and maintain loyalties to them and their political agenda . The progressive brothers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony , who were the queen 's co @-@ prime minister and head of the army respectively at the time of her death , supported the succession of Radama and were able to exercise greater influence than Ramboasalama , particularly in ensuring the support of the army for the prince 's claim to the throne . As Ranavalona lay on her death bed , Radama took precautions to ensure his succession would be uncontested , surrounding his residence at the Rova of Antananarivo with several hundred soldiers and sending a member of Ramboasalama 's family to bring him to the Rova to swear a public oath of allegiance to the new king , to whom he submitted .

On August 16 , 1861 , Ranavalona died in her sleep at the Manjakamiadana palace in the Rova of Antananarivo . Twelve thousand zebu were slaughtered and their meat distributed to the populace in her honor , and the official mourning period lasted nine months . Her body was laid in a coffin made of silver piastres in a tomb at the royal city of Ambohimanga . During her funeral , a spark accidentally ignited a nearby barrel of gunpowder destined for use in the ceremony , causing an explosion and fire that killed a number of bystanders and destroyed three historic royal residences in the Nanjakana section of the compound where the event was held . In 1897 , French colonial authorities disinterred and moved the queen 's body and the remains of other Merina sovereigns to the tombs at the Rova of Antananarivo in an attempt to desanctify Ambohimanga . Her bones were placed within the tomb of Queen Rasoherina . Her son , Prince Rakoto , succeeded her as King Radama II .

= = Legacy = =

Ranavalona 's traditionalist policies were abruptly reversed under the reign of her son , King Radama II . A widespread epidemic of " spirit possession " throughout Imerina followed Radama 's public conversion to Christianity and was popularly attributed to the outraged spirit of Ranavalona I.

The queen 's foreign contemporaries strongly condemned her policies and viewed them as the actions of a tyrant or even a madwoman , a characterization that persisted in Western historical literature until the 1970s . Although Ranavalona has traditionally been depicted as a cruel and xenophobic tyrant , in more recent historical analyses she is commonly viewed as an astute politician who effectively protected the political and cultural sovereignty of her nation from European encroachment . In Madagascar today , the Malagasy of the central highlands hold complex and diverse views ranging across this spectrum . Most condemn her reign , in line with negative depictions of Ranavalona in current Malagasy history textbooks ; this view is most common among Malagasy Christians . Others admire her effort to preserve Malagasy traditions and independence . The majority , regardless of their feelings toward her domestic policies , consider her a remarkable figure in Malagasy history and commend her strength as a ruler in a period of tension with European powers .

A fictionalized account of Ranavalona and her court appears in the novel Flashman 's Lady by George MacDonald Fraser . The main character , an English soldier and agent named Harry Paget Flashman , becomes Ranavalona 's military adviser and lover .

= = Honours = =

= = = National honours = = =

Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Royal Hawk ( 1828 ) .

= = Ancestry = =

= Richard Buxton ( botanist ) =

Richard Buxton ( 15 January 1786 – 2 January 1865 ) was a British shoemaker and amateur botanist . Born in Prestwich , Lancashire , to a family who lived in humble circumstances , he taught himself to read , and learned the basic principles of botany . Although living as a pauper for most of his life , in 1849 he published A Botanical Guide to the Flowering Plants , Ferns , Mosses and Algæ , Found Indigenous Within Sixteen Miles of Manchester , which became one of the standard texts on the flora then commonly found in the Manchester area . According to his obituary in the Journal of Botany , British and Foreign , Buxton was one of " nature 's gentlemen " and " his true and correct pronunciation of scientific terms have caused many who heard him to believe he was an accomplished classical scholar " . He was acknowledged by the geologist Edward William Binney as " the most profound thinker of his class " .

= = Early life = =

The second of seven children , Richard Buxton was born on 15 January 1786 at Sedgley Hall Farm in the parish of Prestwich , near Manchester , Lancashire . His parents were John and Anne Buxton ( née Horton ) , both from Derbyshire . When he was two years old his family fell on hard times , left their farm and moved to Bond Street in Ancoats , Manchester . John Buxton worked as a labourer for the rest of his life .

Richard was a sickly child and his parents ' reduced circumstances meant that his education was somewhat sporadic . In his early years he wandered through the fields and brick yards where he lived , picking wildflowers . His favourites were Germander Speedwell , Creeping Tormentil and Common Chickweed . At the age of twelve he was apprenticed to a bat maker ( the maker of children 's small leather shoes ) named James Heap , in Port Street , Manchester . About 18 months later he went to work with James Hyde , with whom he stayed for a number of years .

= = Later life = =

At the age of 16 , Buxton was illiterate , but with the aid of The Common Spelling Book he taught himself to read . He was unable to understand or pronounce all words correctly and so procured a copy of Jones Pronouncing Dictionary . He read more books , such as A History of England and Goldsmith 's History of Greece and Rome . Reading occupied all his spare time , although when trade was good he had to work from 6 : 00 am until 9 : 00 pm . He earned about 14 to 15 shillings ( 70p @-@ 75p ) a week , a good wage for the time , but as cloth was superseding leather in making the tops of children shoes , this did not last .

When he was 18 , Buxton returned to work with his old master , James Heap , as a journeyman . Heap often took Buxton on country walks in his spare time . The two collected herbs for diet drinks , either for Heap 's use or to share with his neighbours . They often found plants of whose names they were ignorant , and so Buxton bought a copy of Culpeper 's Complete Herbal . However , as he found the supposedly medicinal properties of the plants fanciful and the descriptions inaccurate , he soon became dissatisfied with it . In 1808 he procured a copy of the superior Meyrick 's Herbal , from which he learned the first principles of the Linnaean system . Buxton soon outgrew this book , and began to borrow or buy as many books on botany as he could . Botanical practice at the time was to collect and dry plants , but as he disliked dead plants and preferred not to remove specimens that could be enjoyed by others , his botanical studies were confined to making observations .

From 1821 to 1826 the pressures of work took him away from his botanical rambles , but in spring 1826 he made more frequent excursions . In June that year he was " botanising " on Kersal Moor when he met John Horsefield , a handloom weaver from Whitefield , who was president of the Prestwich Botanical Society and president of the general botanical meetings held at a number of different places in Lancashire . Buxton had long wished to meet a man such as Horsefield , who was not merely a country herbalist but an excellent scientific botanist . At that time in Lancashire many amateur , working class , naturalists pursued their interests in their spare time , and a number of local societies had been formed . Horsefield introduced him to other local botanists such as James Percival , Thomas Heywood and John Shaw with whom , during the summer of 1826 , he made a number of excursions to Mere Clough in Prestwich , Clifton Moss and Baguley Moor .

For several years , for a variety of reasons , Buxton 's study of botany fell by the wayside , but in 1833 he attended a botanical meeting in Prestwich , where he met his old acquaintances . He became a regular attendee at local botanical meetings , including one at Blackley , where he met James Crowther . They became firm friends and , in search of plants , explored Chorlton , Withington , Didsbury and many other regions of Lancashire , Cheshire , Derbyshire , Yorkshire and Wales .

In 1839 Buxton was invited to join the natural history class at the Manchester Mechanics ' Institute where he helped compile the Flora Mancuniensis ( 1840 ) along with Leo Hartley Grindon , George Crozier and James Crowther under the editorship of John Bland Wood . He became an acknowledged expert on mosses , and William Hooker , director of the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew was so impressed with his skills that he hoped to employ him as a herbarium assistant . Although this never came about , Hooker gave Buxton a number of botanical books and , at some point , Buxton accepted the position of President of the Manchester Working Men 's Botanical Society .

In 1849 , aged 62 , he published a book : A Botanical Guide to the Flowering Plants , Ferns , Mosses and Algæ , Found Indigenous Within Sixteen Miles of Manchester , written with the help of other local botanists and geologist Edward William Binney . Peppered with snatches of poetry and including some autobiographical details , the book gives a complete description of all the plants then found in the area . It encourages other working @-@ class people to explore the " many delightful walks by pleasant streams and through green woods in summertime " and requests landowners " at least to preserve the old footpaths which cross their fields and woods if they should decline to allow fresh ones to be made " .

As Buxton 's trade fell into decline he tried to survive by working as a botanical collector and delivering newspapers , but eventually had to rely on a fund set up by Binney for ‘ the relief and encouragement of scientific men in humble life ’ . This situation was compounded when the proceeds from the second edition of his book , published in 1859 , were less than anticipated because of competition from Grindon 's Manchester Flora published in the same year .

= = Death = =

Buxton died on 2 January 1865 at Limekiln Lane , Ardwick , aged 78 and was buried at St Mary 's , Prestwich , on 5 January . In his obituary in the Manchester Courier , an unnamed " eminent man of science " described him as " probably one of the best British botanists , so far as flowering plants are concerned , that Lancashire has produced " .

= 2012 Formula One season =

The 2012 Formula One season was the 63rd season of FIA Formula One motor racing . It featured the 2012 FIA Formula One World Championship , a motor racing series for Formula One cars , recognised by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) — the governing body of motorsport — as the highest class of competition for open @-@ wheel racing cars . The championship was contested over twenty rounds , which started in Australia on 18 March and ended in Brazil on 25 November . The 2012 season saw the return of the United States Grand Prix , which was held at the Circuit of the Americas , a purpose @-@ built circuit in Austin , Texas . After being cancelled in 2011 due to civil protests , the Bahrain Grand Prix also returned to the calendar .

The early season was tumultuous , with seven different drivers winning the first seven races of the championship ; a record for the series . It was not until the European Grand Prix in June that a driver , Ferrari 's Fernando Alonso , won his second race of the year , and with it , emerged as a championship contender . Alonso maintained his hold on the championship lead for the next seven races , taking his third win in Germany and finishing on the podium in the United Kingdom , Italy and Singapore . However , costly first @-@ lap retirements in Belgium and Japan allowed his rivals to catch up , and defending World Champion Sebastian Vettel — like Alonso , a two @-@ time title winner — took the lead in the sixteenth race of the season . Vettel , too , encountered difficulties throughout the season ; contact with a backmarker left him to finish outside the points in Malaysia , while alternator failures at the European and Italian Grands Prix cost him valuable points and exclusion from qualifying in Abu Dhabi led him to start from the pit lane . Vettel entered the final race of the season with a thirteen @-@ point lead over Alonso . Alonso needed a podium finish to stand any chance of becoming World Drivers ' Champion , but in a race of attrition that finished under the safety car , Vettel finished in sixth place , scoring enough points to win his third consecutive championship , becoming just the third driver in the sport 's sixty @-@ three year history to do so . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Red Bull Racing secured their third consecutive title when Sebastian Vettel finished second at the United States Grand Prix .

In addition to seeing seven drivers win the first seven races , the 2012 season broke several records . The calendar for the season included twenty races , breaking the previous record of nineteen , which was first set in 2005 . Six current or former World Drivers ' Champions — Sebastian Vettel , Fernando Alonso , Jenson Button , Lewis Hamilton , Kimi Räikkönen , and Michael Schumacher — started the season , breaking the record of five established in 1970 .

= = Teams and drivers = =

The following twelve teams and twenty @-@ five race drivers competed in the 2012 Formula One World Championship . The FIA published a provisional entry list on 30 November 2011 , and the grid was finalised on 17 February .

= = = Team changes = = =

At the November 2011 meeting of the Formula One Commission in Geneva , several teams were given permission to change their constructor names — the name recognised by the FIA as the entity that effectively owns the team , and to which all results for that team are credited — with final approval from the World Motorsports Council granted in December of that year :

Lotus became known as Caterham , reflecting team principal Tony Fernandes 's purchase of Caterham Cars .

Renault changed its constructor name to Lotus after Lotus Cars expanded its title sponsorship program to include teams in Formula One and support series GP2 and GP3 .

Virgin became Marussia , following increased ownership of the team by Russian sports car manufacturer Marussia Motors .

As a result of the name changes , Team Lotus and Lotus Renault GP declared that their ongoing dispute over the use of the Lotus name was over after they had reached an " amicable conclusion " . Although the exact terms of the settlement were kept confidential , the joint statement detailed the transfer of the rights to the Lotus and Team Lotus names to Group Lotus 's ownership .

Williams announced that they would be using Renault engines for the 2012 and 2013 seasons , with an option to use Renault engines again in 2014 under the next generation of engine regulations . Renault had previously supplied engines to Williams from 1989 to 1997 , when the team won four World Drivers ' Championships and five World Constructors ' Championships . Following their worst season in their thirty @-@ year history — in which they finished ninth in the World Constructors ' Championship with just five points — the team underwent a technical review , employing former McLaren designer Mike Coughlan ( having served his suspension for his role in the 2007 Formula One espionage controversy ) as Chief Designer , and promoting Jason Somerville to Head of Aerodynamics . Likewise , Marussia ( then known as Virgin Racing ) underwent a restructuring , splitting with Wirth Research mid @-@ season after a technical review by Marussia Motors and the board of directors . The team also announced a technical partnership with McLaren that granted them access to McLaren 's testing facilities as well as the purchase of Wirth Research facilities .

In the week before the 2011 Indian Grand Prix , Force India announced that the Sahara Group had purchased a 42 @.@ 5 % stake in the team , valued at US $ 100 million . The investment gave the Sahara Group and team principal Vijay Mallya an equal stake in the team , with team director Michiel Mol controlling the remaining 15 % of the team . Under the terms of the sale , the Sahara Group became Force India 's naming @-@ rights sponsor . Mercedes GP also changed the name of their team , announcing that they were to become known as Mercedes AMG . The new name originates from AMG , Mercedes @-@ Benz 's performance and luxury road car brand .

HRT team principal Colin Kolles formally left his position , with the team citing the relocation of their headquarters to Spain as the reason for the separation . Former Minardi driver Luis Pérez @-@ Sala took Kolles 's place as team principal . In January 2012 , the team relocated to a new facility in Valencia before settling at a permanent facility in Caja Mágica , Madrid .

Peter Sauber formally stepped down from his position as team principal of Sauber F1 in the week before the Korean Grand Prix , appointing the team 's CEO , Monisha Kaltenborn as his successor . Kaltenborn 's appointment made her the first female team principal in the sport 's sixty @-@ three year history .

= = = Driver changes = = =

The 2012 season saw several driver changes . Lotus chose not to take up an option on Vitaly Petrov 's contract , and did not offer Bruno Senna a new contract . Petrov and Senna were replaced by 2007 World Drivers ' Champion Kimi Räikkönen — returning to the sport after two seasons competing in the World Rally Championship — and reigning GP2 Series champion Romain Grosjean , who also returned to the sport after a two @-@ year absence . Petrov later replaced Jarno Trulli at Caterham ; Trulli 's replacement meant that the opening race of the season would be the first race since the 1973 German Grand Prix to take place without an Italian driver on the grid . Senna joined Williams , the team having previously attempted to secure Räikkönen for the season . Senna replaced Rubens Barrichello , who left Formula One after a record @-@ breaking nineteen seasons . He later moved to IndyCar for the 2012 season , joining KV Racing Technology .

Like Räikkönen and Grosjean , Nico Hülkenberg also returned to Formula One , joining Force India alongside Paul di Resta . Adrian Sutil left the team , having spent six years with both Force India and its previous incarnations , Spyker and Midland . He initially sought a drive with Williams , before negotiations collapsed in December 2011 . Sutil was later the subject of criminal action , charged with grievous bodily harm after allegedly assaulting a senior Renault team member with a glass in a Shanghai nightclub following the 2011 Chinese Grand Prix . Sutil was found guilty , and was sentenced to an eighteen @-@ month suspended jail sentence and ordered to pay a € 200 @,@ 000 fine . Despite this , Sutil rejoined Force India for the 2013 season .

Scuderia Toro Rosso did not retain Jaime Alguersuari or Sébastien Buemi , instead choosing to replace them with Daniel Ricciardo and 2011 Formula Renault 3 @.@ 5 Series runner @-@ up Jean @-@ Éric Vergne . Ricciardo had previously served as the team 's test and reserve driver before being placed at HRT for the 2011 British Grand Prix , while Vergne had completed a limited testing schedule for the team in the second half of the 2011 season . Sébastien Buemi became Red Bull Racing 's testing and reserve driver and will contest the 24 Hours of Le Mans with Toyota , driving a TS030 Hybrid . Alguersuari was offered a seat at HRT , but turned it down and instead joined tyre supplier Pirelli as their test driver , developing tyre compounds for use in racing alongside former Virgin Racing driver Lucas di Grassi .

Pedro de la Rosa and Narain Karthikeyan returned to Formula One with HRT . De la Rosa had been without a full @-@ time drive since the 2010 Italian Grand Prix , having spent the majority of the 2011 season as a test driver for McLaren and making one appearance racing for Sauber ; Karthikeyan was dropped by the team before the 2011 British Grand Prix in favour of Ricciardo . He , too , made a one @-@ race appearance at the Indian Grand Prix , before leaving the team until the 2012 season began . Vitantonio Liuzzi , who drove for HRT in 2011 , joined the Indian i1 Super Series . The series was later postponed until 2013 , but Liuzzi was unable to retain his seat with the team . At the launch of the HRT F112 in March , Liuzzi was confirmed as one of the team 's testing and reserve drivers alongside both former GP2 Series driver Dani Clos and Ma Qinghua , the first ever Chinese driver to step into a Formula 1 car .

Jérôme d 'Ambrosio left Marussia ( then known as Virgin Racing ) after the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix . He later joined Lotus F1 as their third driver . Charles Pic — who placed fourth in the 2011 GP2 Series driving for Addax — joined Marussia , replacing d 'Ambrosio .

= = = = Mid @-@ season changes = = = =

The season only saw one driver change , which was brought about when Lotus driver Romain Grosjean was found by race stewards to be responsible for causing a multi @-@ car pile @-@ up at the start of the Belgian Grand Prix . He was given a one @-@ race ban and a € 50 @,@ 000 fine for his role in the collision , forcing him to miss the Italian Grand Prix . He was replaced by the team 's testing and reserve driver , Jérôme d 'Ambrosio . Grosjean returned to the team for the next round in Singapore .

= = Season calendar = =

= = = Calendar changes = = =

= = = = New and returning races = = = =

After the 2011 Bahrain Grand Prix was cancelled , the race was reinstated for the 2012 season with a provisional date in October . The final version of the calendar brought the race forward to April .

The German Grand Prix returned to Hockenheim after the 2011 German Grand Prix was held at the Nürburgring , in line with the event 's policy of alternating between venues .

In May 2010 , it was announced that Austin , Texas would host the return of the United States Grand Prix , the first since Indianapolis in 2007 . Known as the Circuit of the Americas , the venue will be a brand @-@ new , purpose @-@ built permanent circuit designed by event promoter Tavo Hellmund and 1993 Grand Prix Motorcycle World Champion Kevin Schwantz with the assistance of German architect and circuit designer Hermann Tilke . In November 2011 , Bernie Ecclestone expressed " minor " doubt over the race going ahead after what he described as " disagreements inside the [ management ] company " and gave the circuit owners and race organisers a deadline of 7 December – coinciding with the meeting of the FIA World Motorsports Council and the release of the final 2012 calendar – to sort out their differences or else risk losing the event entirely . The final calendar included the race , with Ecclestone confirming that a new arrangement had been made , and that the event organisers had paid their circuit sanctioning fees for 2012 . The race was originally scheduled to be held in June , but was moved back to become the penultimate event of the season in response to concerns over the heat of the Texas summer and its effects on teams , drivers and spectators , and the failure of race organisers to meet a key deadline for the race sanctioning fees .

= = = = Failed races = = = =

The Turkish Grand Prix was removed from the calendar after Formula One Management and the event organisers could not agree on a renewed contract . In August 2011 , organisers of the race revealed that they were negotiating with Bernie Ecclestone to resume their place on the calendar . However , the race was removed from the calendar later that month .

= = Changes = =

= = = Rule changes = = =

= = = = Technical regulations = = = =

The 2011 season saw teams running " off @-@ throttle blown diffusers " , which created downforce by forcing fuel through the engine to produce exhaust gases and directing it over the diffuser when the driver was not applying the throttle . This concept was originally banned in incremental phases , with increasingly restrictive rules on what teams could and could not do , with a full ban to be applied from the 2011 British Grand Prix onwards . However , the incremental ban was controversial , with several teams applying for and receiving permission to circumvent the total ban . After discussion between the FIA and engine manufacturers , the original regulations were restored , with the full ban delayed until 2012 . The regulations in 2012 governed the design of the exhaust with the teams agreeing to strict constraints on the position of the exhaust tailpipe . This resulted in the exhaust exiting the bodywork much higher up than in 2011 , and no longer in the vicinity of the diffuser . Several teams , including Williams and Mercedes used the Young Driver Tests in Abu Dhabi as an opportunity to test parts for the 2012 season in the face of the ban . In October 2011 , a clarification to the amended rules was issued , effectively banning " exotic " engine maps ; in November , further amendments were introduced , completely banning the practice of blowing exhaust gasses over parts of the car to improve downforce , following a bid by several teams to allow it under certain conditions . Further amendments were made in February 2012 when Mercedes alerted the FIA to a loophole in the regulations that would allow teams to continue using a partially blown diffuser . The FIA responded by re @-@ writing the software governing the engine 's Electronic Control Unit to close the loophole .

At the German Grand Prix in July , Red Bull Racing were referred to race stewards after FIA Technical Delegate Jo Bauer noted that their engine maps had the potential to violate the technical regulations . Red Bull stood accused of manipulating the relationship between the torque produced by the Red Bull RB8 and the degree to which the throttle was open — particularly in medium @-@ speed corners — thereby allowing more air to pass through the exhaust and over the diffuser , generating more downforce . Red Bull were cleared of wrongdoing , as , in the stewards ' words , they had not technically broken any rules , but the FIA announced plans to rewrite the regulations governing throttle mapping so as to outlaw the practice entirely ahead of the Hungarian Grand Prix one week later . The rule changes required teams to submit an engine map used during one of the first four races of the season , which became known as the " reference map " . Any subsequent changes to the throttle map would require the approval of the FIA , provided that the torque output above 6 @,@ 000 rpm was within two percent of the output specified on the reference map . Further changes would be allowed at races with " exceptional atmospheric conditions " , as designated by the FIA .

In January 2012 , the FIA banned the use of " reactive ride @-@ height " . The system , first proposed by Lotus in 2010 ( but not applied until 2012 ) , used hydraulic cylinders located in the brake calipers and suspension push @-@ rods to make minute adjustments to the ride height of the car , thereby keeping the ride height at an optimal level throughout the race and providing stability during braking . The FIA initially approved the device as being legal , and several teams , including Ferrari and Williams , submitted plans to the FIA for their own versions of the device before it was banned one week later . The FIA later confirmed that the reactive ride @-@ height systems violated Article 3 @.@ 15 of the technical regulations , which states that " any aerodynamic effect created by the suspension should be incidental to its primary function " and " any device that influences the car 's aerodynamics must remain immobile in relation to the sprung part of the car " and further noted that the system 's primary purpose was achieving aerodynamic gains as opposed to providing stability under braking , and that the use of reactive ride @-@ heights could also be challenged under Article 10 @.@ 2 of the technical regulations , which govern suspension systems .

Technical regulations for 2012 include the reprofiling of the car 's nose . The pre @-@ 2012 regulations allowed the nose to be as high as 62 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 24 @.@ 6 in ) above ground , but the revisions to the sporting code lowered the maximum allowable height to 55 centimetres ( 22 in ) 150mm ahead of the front bulkhead . This resulted in cars being launched with a " platypus " nose , as teams designed cars with a visible change in height along the nose assembly of the car . Mercedes AMG team principal Ross Brawn explained the distinctive nose shape as having come about from " several teams " wanting to use their 2011 chassis as the basis for their 2012 cars .

Drivers were no longer permitted to have a " joker " gearbox change . Prior to 2012 , drivers were entitled to change their gearboxes once over the course of the season without incurring a five @-@ place grid penalty . This system was abandoned in 2012 , with drivers only being allowed to change gearboxes once every five races .

Starting in 2012 , all cars were required to pass their mandatory FIA crash tests before being allowed to take part in pre @-@ season testing . Previously , passing the crash tests was only a requirement prior to the first race of the season . Crash tests for the 2012 season will also be more rigorous than in previous years .

At the meeting for the Formula One Commission in Geneva in November 2011 , the use of helium in air guns used to change tyres during pit stops was banned . Despite increasing the rotation speed of the air guns by up to 30 % , the practice of using helium was deemed to be too expensive to continue for the competitive gains it offered .

At the 2012 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix , the FIA banned the use of " trick brake " devices , which used a bi @-@ metallic strip that changed shape when heated by the brakes to open or close off braking ducts and improving braking efficiency under certain conditions . This was deemed to be in breach of Article 11 @.@ 4 of the Sporting Regulations , which states that the only permissible changes to the braking system while a car is moving must be directly controlled by the driver .

= = = = Sporting regulations = = = =

After being banned in 2009 , in @-@ season testing returned in 2012 , with a test held at Mugello on 1 May ahead of the European leg of the 2012 championship . As teams were only be permitted to do fifteen days of testing over the course of the season , the pre @-@ season winter testing schedule was cut back to accommodate the Mugello test .

At the September 2011 meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council , representatives of the member organisations voted to amend the rules for double @-@ waved yellow flags in all FIA @-@ sanctioned championships . The amendment means that double @-@ waved flags will be shown when a track marshal is working on or beside the circuit .

Tyre supplier Pirelli revised their tyre compounds for the 2012 season in an effort to encourage teams to use each of the compounds supplied for individual races . Pirelli predicted that the changes would translate into 0 @.@ 7 seconds ' difference per lap between the harder and softer compounds , down from 1 @.@ 5 seconds per lap in 2011 . According to Pirelli , the hardest tyre compound available is just 31 % harder than the softest compound on offer ; by comparison , the hardest tyres used in 2011 were 70 % harder than the softest .

Faced with several constructors applying for name changes , teams requested a clearer definition of what constitutes a " constructor " . Under the rules set out in the Sixth Concorde Agreement , several teams have been forced to compete under names that do not necessarily reflect their ownership – such as Sauber competing as " BMW Sauber " in 2010 , despite BMW withdrawing from the sport at the end of the 2009 season – in order to preserve their status as a current constructor and their claim to a share of the television rights paid to teams that placed in the top ten in the final World Constructors ' Championship standings .

At the final meeting of the World Motorsports Commission in December 2011 , a series of amendments to the sporting regulations were published . Chief among these is the re @-@ introduction of a rule that will allow all lapped traffic under the safety car ( which remained the Mercedes @-@ Benz SLS AMG introduced in 2010 . ) to be released from the queue before the car returns to pit lane , allowing the drivers to unlap themselves and to ensure a clean restart .

Drivers were not permitted to leave the confines of the circuit without a justifiable reason , following a spate of incidents in 2011 when drivers were sighted using access roads around the circuit to shorten their reconnaissance and in @-@ laps in order to preserve their fuel and tyres . Similarly , drivers will not be allowed to return to the normal racing line should they choose a defensive line going into a corner .

Races were run to a maximum four @-@ hour time limit to prevent the indefinite suspension of a race . This will stop the theoretical possibility of a race lasting more than eight hours . This rule was introduced in response to the rain @-@ interrupted 2011 Canadian Grand Prix , which set a record for the longest race in Formula One history , at four hours , four minutes and thirty @-@ nine seconds .

Any driver in the pit lane when a race is suspended was permitted to return to the circuit and take up the position on the grid that they were running in at the time of the suspension .

At the 2012 British Grand Prix in July , the FIA disabled the use of the Drag Reduction System ( DRS ) during a race while yellow flags were being shown in the same sector as the DRS zone . The move followed an incident at the European Grand Prix in which Michael Schumacher was observed to activate his DRS while yellow flags were being shown .

= = = Other changes = = =

In July 2011 , a joint broadcasting deal for Formula One in the United Kingdom was announced between Sky Sports and the BBC . The announcement was controversial , being met with highly negative reactions from fans and observers as it had previously been believed that the terms of the Concorde Agreement prevented Formula One from being broadcast exclusively on pay @-@ per @-@ view , but the Agreement did not prevent a shared broadcast such as the proposal made by Sky Sports and the BBC . The controversial nature of the broadcast deal led to the Culture , Media and Sport Committee of the House of Commons calling Bernie Ecclestone and " senior BBC figures " including director @-@ general Mark Thompson to answer questions over the details of the broadcasting arrangement .

In December 2011 , Red Bull Racing and Scuderia Ferrari exited FOTA , the Formula One Teams Association , following prolonged debate over the implementation of the controversial Resource Restriction Agreement , though Red Bull team principal Christian Horner reaffirmed his team 's commitment to cost @-@ cutting measures and highlighting the team 's concerns over certain loopholes in the Resource Restriction Agreement that they felt teams and manufacturers would willingly exploit . One week later , Sauber also left the organisation , though the Swiss team did not publicly give a reason for ending their membership . In February 2012 , Red Bull Racing 's sister team Scuderia Toro Rosso was also reported as having left the organisation since the first schism in December .

= = Race summaries = =

= = = Pre @-@ season testing — Jerez de la Frontera and Barcelona = = =

The 2012 season was preceded by three test sessions ; one at Jerez de la Frontera and two in Barcelona . These sessions gave the teams and drivers the opportunity to familiarise themselves with their cars , though the teams downplayed the accuracy of testing times as being representative of the running order for the season . At the second test in Barcelona , Lotus F1 discovered a critical fault in the build of their chassis that forced them to miss four days of running , while both HRT and Marussia were unable to complete any mileage with their 2012 cars after both the HRT F112 and Marussia MR01 failed their crash tests , though both teams were able to complete shakedowns of their cars .

= = = Round 1 – Australia = = =

The season began in Australia . Jenson Button took an early lead from pole @-@ sitter Lewis Hamilton and the Red Bull cars while the rest of the field was bottle @-@ necked by contact in the first corner . Button remained unchallenged throughout , even after a mid @-@ race safety car to retrieve the stricken Caterham of Vitaly Petrov . Button went on to take his third victory at the Melbourne circuit , ahead of Sebastian Vettel , who profited from the safety car to pass Hamilton . McLaren team principal Martin Whitmarsh later admitted that Button was " more than marginal " on fuel after the team made a mistake in calculating their fuel loads for the race , forcing Button to use a " severe fuel @-@ saving mode " from the eighth lap of the race . Hamilton came under threat from Mark Webber in the late stages of the race , but held on to secure third place . Webber finished fourth – his best result in his home Grand Prix – while Fernando Alonso finished fifth , having endured pressure from Pastor Maldonado for the last half of the race . Maldonado 's race ended when he crossed onto the astroturf on the final lap and spun into the wall . Kimi Räikkönen finished seventh after a poor qualifying session saw him start the race seventeenth , taking advantage of a chaotic final lap to make up two places , while Felipe Massa and Bruno Senna both retired after a bizarre collision that saw their cars tangled up in one another . HRT failed to qualify for the race for the second consecutive season after drivers Pedro de la Rosa and Narain Karthikeyan failed to set a lap time within 107 % of the fastest qualifying time .

= = = Round 2 – Malaysia = = =

McLaren locked out the front row of the grid for the second race in succession , with Lewis Hamilton once again on pole . Both HRT cars qualified for the race , but filled out the final row of the grid almost two seconds behind Marussia 's Charles Pic in twenty @-@ second position . In the race , Hamilton made a better start than Jenson Button , but his lead was short @-@ lived ; heavy rain interrupted the race , forcing the suspension of the Grand Prix . When the race restarted an hour later , Button was involved in contact with Narain Karthikeyan that forced him to make an unscheduled stop for a new front wing , while Hamilton had a slow pit stop and was held in the lane while other cars passed . Fernando Alonso inherited the lead , with Sauber 's Sergio Pérez a surprise second , having made an early stop for extreme wet weather tyres and then taking advantage of a rush to the pit lane to position himself in third at the restart . As the race wore on , Pérez began to quickly catch Alonso on a drying track . Daniel Ricciardo was the first driver to pit for dry @-@ weather tyres on lap 38 , triggering another round of stops . Sauber and Pérez initially looked as if they had left their stop too late when Pérez emerged from the pits five seconds behind Alonso , but he began catching the two @-@ time World Champion at the same rate as he had before . Pérez closed to within half a second with seven laps to go , but ran wide at turn 14 and lost five seconds , later admitting that it was his mistake . He was unable to close the gap , and Alonso went on to win the race by two seconds , the win giving him a five @-@ point lead in the championship . Pérez was second , taking his first podium and Sauber 's best ever result as an independent team . Hamilton finished third ahead of Mark Webber and Kimi Räikkönen , while Button had to settle for fourteenth . Bruno Senna finished in sixth , scoring more points in a single race than his team scored in 2011 . Sebastian Vettel finished outside the points after making contact with Karthikeyan and developing a puncture .

= = = Round 3 – China = = =

The championship resumed three weeks later in China , with the lead @-@ in period to the race marked by Lotus F1 protesting the legality of Mercedes 's rear wing design . The FIA rejected the protest , and with Mercedes allowed to continue racing with their car unchanged , Nico Rosberg took his — and the team 's — first pole position since their return to Formula One in 2010 , while a penalty to Lewis Hamilton for a gearbox change promoted Michael Schumacher to second on the grid . Schumacher would ultimately retire from the race after the first round of stops when it was discovered that one of his wheels had not been attached properly . Rosberg took an early lead in the race , and while his attempt to complete the race with only two pit stops came under threat from second @-@ placed Jenson Button , a mistake by Button 's pit crew during his final stop handed Rosberg a nineteen @-@ second advantage over Kimi Räikkönen . Räikkönen was attempting a similar two @-@ stop strategy , but his tyres wore out seven laps from the end of the race , and he lost eleven positions in a single lap . This forced Rosberg to drive conservatively to preserve his tyres while Button recovered from his disastrous pit stop to pass Sebastian Vettel for second . Button was held up by the incumbent World Champion long enough for Rosberg to preserve his tyres , and he became the 103rd person to win a Grand Prix . The result was also Mercedes 's first win as a constructor since Juan Manuel Fangio won the 1955 Italian Grand Prix . Button was second , with Hamilton scoring his third consecutive third place , giving him a two @-@ point championship lead over Button ; Fernando Alonso , who had been leading the championship before the race , finished ninth . After two retirements in the opening rounds of the championship , Romain Grosjean scored his first points in Formula One by finishing sixth .

= = = Round 4 – Bahrain = = =

In the face of ongoing media speculation and public pressure to cancel the race due to ongoing political instability in Bahrain , the FIA released a statement at the Chinese Grand Prix confirming that the Bahrain Grand Prix would go ahead as planned . The week preceding the Grand Prix saw a renewed wave of protests against the government 's attempts use the race to " tell the outside world that the whole thing is back to normal " , while human rights organisations including Amnesty International criticised the decision to hold the race amid the violent crackdowns . Three days before the race , a group of Force India mechanics travelling in an unmarked hire car were involved in a petrol bombing incident at an impromptu roadblock and were briefly exposed to tear gas fired by security forces . There were no injuries or damage , but two of the mechanics involved chose to leave the country . The team later announced their intentions to race despite the incident .

Sebastian Vettel qualified on pole , his first since the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix . Heikki Kovalainen qualified sixteenth , the second time Caterham ( and its predecessor , Team Lotus ) advanced beyond the first qualifying period in dry conditions . Vettel went on to win the race — becoming the fourth winner in as many races — after spending much of the race defending against Kimi Räikkönen . Having started eleventh , Räikkönen used an extra set of soft tyres to move up through the field . His team @-@ mate , Romain Grosjean , finished third . Grosjean had initially shown the pace to challenge Vettel 's lead , but unlike Räikkönen , he did not have an extra set of fresh tyres , and lost touch with the reigning World Champion after the first set of stops . Lewis Hamilton finished eighth , once again hampered by slow pit stops . He was later involved in an altercation with Nico Rosberg that saw Rosberg referred to the stewards for forcing Hamilton beyond the boundary of the circuit while defending his position , but he escaped without penalty . Hamilton went on to finish eighth , while team @-@ mate Jenson Button was forced to retire two laps from the end of the race after reporting an unusual vibration from the differential . Daniel Ricciardo was involved in early contact that saw the Australian driver slide down the order from sixth at the start to fifteenth by the end of the race , having spent most of the Grand Prix caught behind Vitaly Petrov . Vettel 's win gave him a four @-@ point lead in the championship over Hamilton , while Mark Webber 's fourth consecutive fourth place secured third overall . Red Bull Racing took the lead from McLaren in the World Constructors ' Championship , while Lotus 's double podium moved them into third overall .

The decision to hold the race despite the ongoing protests made it one of the most controversial Grands Prix in the sport 's sixty @-@ year history .

= = = Mid @-@ season test – Mugello = = =

Starting on 1 May , the teams conducted a three @-@ day test at the Mugello Circuit in Italy ahead of the Spanish Grand Prix . The test gave teams the opportunity to assess major aerodynamic upgrades before racing them . HRT elected not to take part in the test , instead choosing to concentrate on establishing themselves at their new headquarters in Madrid . Both Lotus 's trackside operations director Alan Permane and Red Bull Racing driver Mark Webber questioned the value of testing at the Mugello circuit as the characteristics of the circuit were unlike any of the circuits the championship was due to visit after the test , while Caterham driver Vitaly Petrov was critical of the choice of Mugello as a testing venue as he felt it was not safe enough for Formula One . Petrov 's comments came shortly after Fernando Alonso crashed on the final morning of the test . Red Bull Racing and Lotus team principals Christian Horner and Éric Boullier were also critical of the test as they felt that the costs of conducting in @-@ season testing outweighed any benefits , with Horner stating his opposition to continuing mid @-@ season testing in the future .

= = = Round 5 – Spain = = =

Following criticism over the sensitivity of their tyre compounds , tyre supplier Pirelli announced changes to their tyre allocation for the Spanish Grand Prix , making pit strategy the focal point of the Grand Prix . Pirelli would later diagnose the problems with the tyre compounds as originating from developing them on a testing chassis that was two years out @-@ of @-@ date at the time . Lewis Hamilton took his third pole of the season , edging out Williams driver Pastor Maldonado by half a second , while Maldonado 's team @-@ mate Bruno Senna was eliminated early when he spun . Hamilton was later excluded from the qualifying results after his car did not have enough fuel to return to the pits for scrutineering , promoting Maldonado to pole position and moving Hamilton to the back of the grid . Fernando Alonso took the lead of the race at the first corner , but Maldonado reclaimed it during the second round of pit stops , when his team forced Ferrari to pit early while Alonso was held up by the Marussia of Charles Pic . Maldonado maintained a lead of seven seconds over Alonso , but a mistake by his crew during the third pit stop cost him time and left him vulnerable to the Ferrari driver in the final stint of the race . Meanwhile , third @-@ placed Kimi Räikkönen moved to an ambitious strategy that would see him attempt to force Maldonado and Alonso to race beyond the life expectancy of their tyres , allowing him to swoop in at the last minute to steal first place . Räikkönen 's strategy failed as Maldonado withstood pressure from Alonso for fifteen laps , winning the race by three seconds . It was Williams 's first win in one hundred and thirty Grand Prix starts ; their previous race win was Juan Pablo Montoya 's victory at the 2004 Brazilian Grand Prix . Lewis Hamilton recovered from twenty @-@ fourth on the grid to finish eighth , while Sebastian Vettel overcame a drive @-@ through penalty and an unscheduled stop for a technical fault that forced his team to replace his front wing to make a late move on Nico Rosberg for sixth place that would preserve his championship lead .

= = = Round 6 – Monaco = = =

For the second consecutive race , the fastest driver in qualifying did not start the race from pole . Michael Schumacher set the fastest time , but a five @-@ place grid penalty left him sixth overall . Two hours before the race , protests against parts introduced onto the floor of the Red Bull RB8 left team principal Christian Horner with a choice : to change the offending parts and start both cars from the pit lane , guaranteeing that any result the team recorded would be preserved ; or to leave the parts on the car , allowing both drivers to start the race from the positions they qualified in , but risking a post @-@ race exclusion . Horner ultimately chose the latter option , and Mark Webber started from pole , establishing an early lead over Nico Rosberg as a first @-@ corner accident eliminated four cars . The race was run under the constant threat of rain , with drivers trying to extend the life of their tyres to avoid being forced to make an additional stop and falling down the order . The rain never materialised , though Jean @-@ Éric Vergne was observed using a set of intermediate tyres late in the race . The variety of strategies used by the front @-@ runners resulted in the last ten laps being contested with the top six cars running nose @-@ to @-@ tail . Webber visibly faded in the final laps , but held on when the following cars were momentarily pinned behind the slow @-@ moving Heikki Kovalainen . Webber won the race — his second on the streets of Monaco — with Rosberg second and Fernando Alonso third , the result giving Alonso a three @-@ point lead in the championship . Red Bull Racing maintained their lead in the Constructors ' Championship as rival teams chose not to follow through on the threat of their pre @-@ race protest , while Kovalainen finished thirteenth to see Caterham overtake Marussia for tenth place . Elsewhere , Spanish Grand Prix winner Pastor Maldonado was given a ten @-@ place grid penalty for an incident that saw him clip Sergio Pérez . Combined with a five @-@ place penalty for changing his gearbox , Maldonado started from the back row of the grid where he was eliminated in the first @-@ corner accident .

= = = Round 7 – Canada = = =

One week before the Canadian Grand Prix , the FIA declared the floor used by Red Bull in Monaco to be illegal , forcing the team to change the offending parts for the Canadian Grand Prix . Despite the ruling , the team 's results were kept intact . The team was also forced to change the design of their axles , after FIA Race Director Charlie Whiting felt that holes in the axles contravened the technical regulations . Nevertheless , Sebastian Vettel comfortably took pole position by three @-@ tenths of a second . Vettel controlled the early phase of the race , but was caught and passed by Lewis Hamilton before the first round of stops , while Fernando Alonso slipped through shortly afterwards . All three drivers were using a two @-@ stop strategy at the time , but as Hamilton made his second stop , both Alonso and Vettel shifted to a one @-@ stop strategy , with Alonso 's team resorting to discussing strategy options in his native Spanish to prevent their rivals from overhearing their plans . Hamilton had twenty laps to make up a twelve @-@ second deficit , and he easily reeled Vettel in ; in response , Red Bull pitted the reigning World Champion , and Vettel fell to fifth . Hamilton 's next target was Alonso , whose tyres lost all grip and he fell victim to Hamilton , Romain Grosjean , Sergio Pérez and Vettel in quick succession . Hamilton won the race , becoming the seventh winner in seven races and taking a two @-@ point lead in the championship . Grosjean 's second place saw Lotus take third place in the Constructors ' Championship from Ferrari . Both Grosjean and Pérez expressed surprise at finishing on the podium , while 2011 winner Jenson Button finished sixteenth in what he described as his " worst race in years " and Michael Schumacher suffered a hydraulics failure that left his drag reduction system ( DRS ) device jammed in the open position .

= = = Round 8 – Europe = = =

Fernando Alonso became the first man to win two races in 2012 at the European Grand Prix in Valencia , scoring his first home win since the 2006 Spanish Grand Prix . Starting eleventh , he was forced to navigate his way through traffic , narrowly avoiding early contact between Bruno Senna and Kamui Kobayashi as Sebastian Vettel broke free of the field to establish a twenty @-@ second lead by the first round of stops . Vettel 's lead was quashed when Heikki Kovalainen and Jean @-@ Éric Vergne made contact , triggering the deployment of the safety car to clear debris from the circuit . Alonso found himself third at the restart and pounced on a mistake by second @-@ placed Romain Grosjean to lead the chase against Vettel . Vettel pulled away once more , but his lead was short @-@ lived as he lost drive and his engine shut down on lap 33 . Grosjean attempted to challenge Alonso , but was forced out of the race with an alternator problem seven laps later , leaving Alonso in the lead , four seconds clear of Lewis Hamilton and Kimi Räikkönen . As the race entered the final laps , Räikkönen forced his way past Hamilton to secure second place , but Pastor Maldonado 's attempts to take third place ended with Hamilton in the barrier and a broken nose for the Williams driver . Maldonado finished tenth , but was given a post @-@ race drive @-@ through penalty and was classified twelfth . Meanwhile , Michael Schumacher and Mark Webber had started to carve their way through the field by virtue of a late pit stop and easily picked off the minor points positions and taking advantage of the Maldonado — Hamilton collision to finish third and fourth behind Alonso and Räikkönen . It was Schumacher 's first podium since the 2006 Chinese Grand Prix . Alonso 's win cemented a twenty @-@ point lead in the championship , whilst Vettel 's retirement relegated him to fourth overall , twenty @-@ six points behind Alonso .

= = = Round 9 – Great Britain = = =

Difficult conditions greeted the teams upon their arrival at the Silverstone Circuit , as parts of the Midlands received a month 's rainfall in the space of two days . The torrential rain lasted throughout the weekend , forcing qualifying to be suspended for ninety minutes , before race day dawned clear . The circuit was declared dry , allowing the drivers to start on the tyre compound of their choice , with Alonso on the harder tyre streaking away at the start while Paul di Resta crashed at Aintree on the first lap after making contact with Romain Grosjean . As the leaders settled into a rhythm , Pastor Maldonado and Sergio Pérez collided at Brooklands , prompting an angry response from the Mexican driver . Perez 's team mate Kamui Kobayashi also ran into trouble , locking his tyres as he entered his pit box and hitting three members of his pit crew , though none were seriously injured . The race was ultimately decided by the choice of tyre in the first stint as Alonso moved onto the softer option and Webber onto the harder prime for the final phase of the race . Webber caught Alonso with five laps to go , passing him on the Wellington Straight . Webber held on for his second win of the season , with Vettel third and Felipe Massa in fourth , his best result since achieving a podium in South Korea in 2010 . The result meant Webber closed to within thirteen points of Alonso 's championship lead , with both drivers breaking away from third @-@ placed Vettel . After showing early promise in the wet conditions , McLaren went backwards in the dry , losing second place in the Constructors ' Championship to Ferrari and third to Lotus .

= = = Round 10 – Germany = = =

Limited running in practice and a wet qualifying session meant that teams had to improvise their strategies at the Hockenheimring . Fernando Alonso controlled much of the race from pole position , only relinquishing the lead when he pitted , and he went on to take his third victory of the season . Lewis Hamilton 's one hundredth Grand Prix started with a disaster when he picked up a puncture on the third lap and spent most of the race at the tail end of the field before retiring on lap 56 with a suspension problem . Confusion briefly reigned when Hamilton , in seventeenth place at the time , began lapping faster than the leaders and sought to unlap himself . Sebastian Vettel later claimed that this was a ploy by McLaren to force both him and Alonso to drive defensively against Hamilton , slowing them down enough to allow team @-@ mate Jenson Button to leap @-@ frog them at the second round of stops ; Vettel lost a position to Button , but Alonso was unaffected , as Ferrari pitted him before Hamilton could interfere with his race . Button briefly looked as if he had the pace to pass Alonso for the race lead , but the race was deadlocked in the final twenty laps , and Button began to fade in the final five laps of the race . The race was marked by another technical dispute regarding Red Bull Racing , who were referred to the stewards by FIA Technical Delegate Jo Bauer for what he felt was an illegal engine map in use on the Red Bull RB8 . The stewards elected to take no action against Red Bull , stating that the team had not violated any of the technical regulations , but noted that they did not accept all of the arguments presented by the team when asked to explain . The stewards were less forgiving of Vettel , who ran wide at the hairpin while trying to pass Button and could only complete the pass outside the limits of the circuit . Vettel had twenty seconds added to his race time as a penalty , demoting him to fifth overall . With Button promoted to second , Kimi Räikkönen inherited third place and Kamui Kobayashi was classified a career @-@ best fourth .

= = = Round 11 – Hungary = = =

As the championship moved into the second half of the season , Fernando Alonso maintained a thirty @-@ four point lead over his nearest rival , Mark Webber , with Sebastian Vettel a further ten points behind . Alonso 's outlook for the race was dour , qualifying sixth and pinning his hopes on a wet race as Lewis Hamilton continued McLaren 's mid @-@ season resurgence , returning to pole position for the first time since the Malaysian Grand Prix . Following an aborted start triggered by Michael Schumacher lining up in the wrong grid position and then shutting his engine off in the confusion , Hamilton and Grosjean lead the field away . After prematurely moving Jenson Button onto a three @-@ stop strategy , McLaren gave Hamilton the order to hold position as the tight confines of the Hungaroring circuit forced the teams to try to make up positions in the pits . This was evidenced by Kimi Räikkönen , who inherited the lead after the first set of stops and produced a series of fast laps that allowed him to rejoin in second , coming dangerously close to team @-@ mate Grosjean under brakes as he emerged from the pit lane . Despite taking two seconds out of Hamilton 's lead within five laps of rejoining the race , Räikkönen was powerless to reel Hamilton in any further . Hamilton won the race , the nineteenth of his career , with Räikkönen second and Grosjean in third . Hamilton 's victory brought with it twenty @-@ five points that put him back in championship contention , while a late decision by Red Bull to move Mark Webber onto a three @-@ stop strategy saw the Australian slip further behind Fernando Alonso , as the Spaniard extended his championship lead to forty points .

= = = Round 12 – Belgium = = =

The championship resumed one month later in Belgium . Jenson Button qualified on pole and broke away at the start while a four @-@ car pile @-@ up started behind him when Romain Grosjean made contact with Lewis Hamilton and they both slammed into Fernando Alonso and Sergio Pérez , eliminating all four on the spot and triggering the safety car . Kamui Kobayashi 's car was also damaged , and Pastor Maldonado was spun around amidst the chaos . Grosjean was later given a one @-@ race ban for causing the collision , becoming the first driver in eighteen years to be banned from racing . Maldonado retired shortly after the restart with a broken front wing after making contact with Timo Glock , while Narain Karthikeyan spun off at Stavelot mid @-@ way through the race when his wheel came loose . Button controlled the race from the front and was unchallenged throughout , while Sebastian Vettel clawed his way up to second from tenth on the grid . Kimi Räikkönen started and finished third , let down by a conservative pit strategy that forced him to make a second stop late in the race in order to use both compounds of tyre as per the rules — even when it became apparent that Button and Vettel were racing on a one @-@ stop strategy — and Nico Hülkenberg finished in a career @-@ best fourth place . Button 's win allowed him to regain precious ground on the championship fight , while Alonso 's retirement from the race and Vettel 's second place moved the reigning World Champion to within twenty @-@ four points of the championship lead . Scuderia Toro Rosso scored their first points since the Malaysian Grand Prix , with Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and Daniel Ricciardo finishing eighth and ninth respectively . Further down the order , Caterham was summoned to the stewards on charges of an unsafe pit release when Heikki Kovalainen was released directly into the path of Karthikeyan and the team was given a € 10 @,@ 000 fine for the incident .

= = = Round 13 – Italy = = =

The final race in Europe took place at Monza . Ferrari 's early bid to put Fernando Alonso on pole position by way of using Felipe Massa to offer him a slipstream ended in disaster when Alonso 's rear anti @-@ roll bar failed in the final period of qualifying , leaving the championship leader marooned in tenth while Lewis Hamilton took pole . Hamilton asserted early control over the race , and while Ferrari made significant ground early on to be running second and third — despite losing the data uplink between their cars and the pit wall that provided them with telemetry — it was Sergio Pérez who proved to be Hamilton 's biggest challenge . Starting outside the top ten , Pérez elected to start on the harder compound tyres and complete one stop , producing fastest lap after fastest lap as McLaren 's confidence was broken when Jenson Button 's car was paralysed by a fuel pressure problem . Hamilton would ultimately prevail , but he was forced to push in the final few laps to maintain his lead , and won the race by four seconds as Pérez claimed his third podium of the season with second place . Alonso went on to finish third , benefiting from Button 's retirement and a drive @-@ through penalty for Sebastian Vettel when the reigning World Champion forced him so wide through the Curva Grande that Alonso was forced off the circuit . Bruno Senna later criticised the race stewards for not penalising Paul di Resta for a similar altercation on the approach to the Variante della Roggia early in the race . Meanwhile , with Romain Grosjean serving his suspension , Lotus enlisted former Marussia F1 driver Jérôme d 'Ambrosio as their second driver for the weekend . He qualified sixteenth , and went on to finish thirteenth overall .

Red Bull Racing suffered a double retirement , with Vettel falling victim to another alternator failure and Mark Webber spinning violently at the Ascari chicane , with the resultant damage to his tyres sending vibrations through the car that forced him to retire . This allowed Hamilton to leapfrog both drivers and Kimi Räikkönen — who finished the race fifth — to take second place in the World Drivers ' Championship , with the result enabling McLaren to close the gap to Red Bull in the World Constructors ' Championship .

= = = Round 14 – Singapore = = =

As the teams returned to Asia , the focus shifted to the championship race . Lewis Hamilton put himself in the ideal position to take the fight to Fernando Alonso , qualifying on pole whilst Alonso could only manage fifth place . In the physically most demanding race of the year , the teams jostled for position through the first phase of the Grand Prix , trying to position themselves for the final ten laps . Just as the drivers established a rhythm , Hamilton 's gearbox failed , forcing him out of the race and handing the lead to Sebastian Vettel . The race was shortened by two laps to fit the two @-@ hour time limit for a Grand Prix following a pair of lengthy safety car interventions ; first , Narain Karthikeyan understeered into the barriers under the grandstands on lap 30 , forcing the safety car to be deployed . The drivers had little opportunity to get comfortable on the restart , as Michael Schumacher misjudged his braking point at the end of the Esplanade Bridge , careening into the back of Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and triggering the safety car for the second time in an accident that was a near mirror @-@ image of his collision with Sergio Pérez in 2011 . He was later given a ten @-@ place grid penalty for the Japanese Grand Prix . Vettel controlled the race from the second restart , beating Jenson Button to the line , for his second win of the season and his first since the Bahrain Grand Prix five months previously . Alonso completed the podium , retaining his championship lead after defending from Paul di Resta late in the race . Elsewhere , a string of retirements — including a late engine problem for Bruno Senna , which left the Brazilian with minor burns to his back — and a series of altercations involving Mark Webber , Nico Hülkenberg , Kamui Kobayashi and Sergio Pérez as they fought over the minor points positions allowed Timo Glock to finish twelfth , the result seeing Marussia retake tenth position in the World Constructors ' Championship from Caterham .

= = = Round 15 – Japan = = =

Fernando Alonso 's luck finally ran out in Japan ; having spent most of the season profiting from poor results from his rivals when he needed them the most , Alonso was the victim of a dramatic first corner clash , spinning out when he made contact with Kimi Räikkönen and paving the way for his championship rivals to make considerable inroads into his twenty @-@ nine point championship lead . Mark Webber was also caught up in the opening lap melee when he was hit by Romain Grosjean ; Webber was forced to pit straight away , while Grosjean was given a ten @-@ second stop @-@ go penalty for causing yet another first lap incident . Bruno Senna also ran afoul of the stewards , hitting Nico Rosberg whilst trying to avoid Grosjean and Webber and earning a drive @-@ through penalty for his troubles while Rosberg retired on the spot . Sergio Pérez added his name to the growing list of early retirements when he slid off at the hairpin under brakes and into the gravel trap whilst trying to force his way past a struggling Lewis Hamilton . Sebastian Vettel won the race from pole position , having led every lap of the race and setting the fastest lap time in the process to complete his second Grand Chelem . Felipe Massa finished second , his first podium result since the 2010 Korean Grand Prix , whilst Kamui Kobayashi claimed the first podium of his career — and the first podium for a Japanese driver at the Suzuka Circuit since Aguri Suzuki finished third in 1990 — after withstanding late pressure from Jenson Button .

With Alonso retiring and Vettel taking a full twenty @-@ five points for victory , the championship fight became as close as it had been all season long .

= = = Round 16 – Korea = = =

Sebastian Vettel 's momentum continued one week later in Korea , winning his third consecutive race and taking a six @-@ point championship lead as Fernando Alonso finished third . Vettel overcame pole @-@ sitter Mark Webber at the start , and was aided in building up a lead by first @-@ lap contact between Jenson Button , Nico Rosberg and Kamui Kobayashi that saw Button and Rosberg retire with damage from the collision ; Rosberg pulled over on the approach to the third turn , forcing a protracted yellow flag period as marshalls attempted to retrieve his car . With the sporting regulations banning overtaking while yellow flags were shown , the field was effectively thinned out in the opening laps as drivers were unable to pass one another . Tyre management became the focus of the race , as drivers reported heavy graining , particularly on the right @-@ front tyre , which bore most of the load over a lap of the circuit . Vettel ignored six radio calls from his pit wall cautioning him that a tyre failure was imminent , only backing off just enough in the final few laps to secure victory over Webber by six seconds . The team later denied that there had ever been a problem with Vettel 's tyres . Further down the order , Scuderia Toro Rosso 's Jean @-@ Éric Vergne and Daniel Ricciardo fought their way from sixteenth and twenty @-@ first on the grid to finish eighth and ninth , while Romain Grosjean drove a conservative race to finish seventh , having been warned beforehand by the stewards that another first @-@ lap altercation would likely result in his disqualification from the race . Lewis Hamilton 's day went from bad to worse when an anti @-@ roll bar on his McLaren failed , while the car handled its tyres so poorly that he was forced to make an unscheduled stop in order to make it to the finish , only to tear up a length of astroturf that wreaked havoc on his downforce and he slid down to tenth place , narrowly fending off an opportunistic charge from Sergio Pérez to take the final World Championship point on offer . Button 's retirement and Hamilton 's single point meant that McLaren lost second place in the World Constructors ' Championship to Ferrari , and Hamilton admitted that his bid to be the 2012 World Drivers ' Champion was over .

= = = Round 17 – India = = =

Ferrari 's strategy for staying in the championship battle saw them introduce upgrades to the F2012 at every remaining race in the season , starting with an extensive revision for the Indian Grand Prix , but whatever advantage they offered was still not enough for Fernando Alonso to catch Sebastian Vettel . Vettel dominated the weekend , setting the fastest time in every practice session before qualifying on pole , and leading every lap of the sixty @-@ lap race , though he was denied his third Grand Chelem when Jenson Button set the fastest lap of the race on the final lap . Fernando Alonso finished second , conceding another seven championship points to Vettel . The Ferrari driver rounded up both McLaren drivers at the start of the race and proceeded to chase down Mark Webber for second , only overtaking the Australian on the long back straight when his car developed a KERS fault fifteen laps from the end that it never recovered from . Webber held off a late challenge from Lewis Hamilton to complete the podium . Further down the order , Kimi Räikkönen finished seventh after spending most of the race trapped behind Felipe Massa , and later claimed that mistakes on Saturday had robbed him of a podium on Sunday , while Pedro de la Rosa retired from the race when he suffered a brake failure that saw him spin into the barriers at Turn 4 . The race was marked by a series of explosive punctures after cars made light contact with one another ; Michael Schumacher 's right @-@ rear tyre deflated on the first lap when he made contact with Jean @-@ Éric Vergne at the first corner ; Sergio Pérez suffered a puncture under similar circumstances when he glanced Daniel Ricciardo 's front wing , with the loose rubber damaging the floor of Pérez 's car enough that he was forced into retirement ; and Pastor Maldonado also had a tyre punctured when he and Kamui Kobayashi touched at speed on the approach to Turn 5 , forcing the Venezuelan to run wide onto the tarmac run @-@ off , but suffering no lasting damage .

= = = Round 18 – Abu Dhabi = = =

Sebastian Vettel 's dominant run was derailed in Abu Dhabi when his car was found to have insufficient fuel after qualifying and he was subsequently moved to the back of the grid . As Lewis Hamilton led the race away from the start , Vettel started from pit lane and took advantage of a chaotic opening corner that saw Nico Hülkenberg , Paul di Resta , Romain Grosjean and Bruno Senna tangle ; Hülkenberg was forced out , while di Resta and Grosjean pitted with damage . Vettel began to round up the HRTs , Marussias and Caterhams , but his early progress came at the expense of his front wing endplate when he made contact with Senna at Turn 8 switchback . He chose not to pit for the time being , as the race was interrupted by the intervention of the safety car . Nico Rosberg , who had been forced to pit with damage to his front wing , was in the process of overtaking Narain Karthikeyan as Karthikeyan 's car began to fail and the Indian quickly slowed . Rosberg , caught unawares by Karthikeyan 's troubles , was launched over the back of the HRT and into the barrier . During the safety car period , Vettel was forced to pit when he swerved to avoid Daniel Ricciardo and crashed into the polystyrene bollard marking the start of the DRS zone , further damaging his wing . Red Bull Racing took the opportunity to pit him early , with the downside being that Vettel would have to do 42 laps on the soft tyre when supplier Pirelli predicted they could only do 36 . Meanwhile , Hamilton suffered another mechanical failure while leading the race , and was once again forced out , handing the lead to Kimi Räikkönen while Fernando Alonso inherited second . Vettel began to work his way through the field again , but was forced to make a second stop when his tyres started losing grip . He was saved by the second appearance of the safety car moments later , brought about when di Resta forced Sergio Pérez wide ; as Pérez rejoined the circuit , he cut back across the front of Grosjean and the two made contact , which in turn forced Grosjean into the path of Mark Webber . Grosjean and Webber retired , whilst Pérez was given a stop @-@ go penalty . When racing resumed , Räikkönen began to rebuild his lead over Alonso , who was being harried by Jenson Button ; Button himself was being harried by Vettel in fourth . Button and Vettel 's duel allowed Alonso to break free , and he started chasing down Räikkönen in the last five laps . Räikkönen held on to secure his — and Lotus F1 's — first victory of the season . Alonso was second , while Vettel caught and passed Button to complete the podium , keeping a ten @-@ point championship lead in the process . With both Alonso and Vettel finishing on the podium with him , Räikkönen 's win was not enough to keep him in contention for the World Drivers ' Championship , leaving the title to be fought out between Alonso and Vettel over the final two races of the season .

= = = Round 19 – United States = = =

Despite its troubled construction period , the Circuit of the Americas passed its final FIA inspection on 25 September , allowing the race to go ahead . Sebastian Vettel took his sixth pole position of the season , whilst Alonso struggled throughout qualifying to start the race ninth , which became eighth when Romain Grosjean received a grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change . Amid concerns that drivers starting from even @-@ numbered grid slots would suffer from a lack of grip as they were located off the racing line , Ferrari deliberately broke the seal on Felipe Massa 's gearbox , thereby giving him a five @-@ place grid penalty and promoting Alonso to seventh and the clean side of the grid . Ferrari 's fears were not without merit as the drivers starting from even @-@ number spaces fell behind at the start of the race . Vettel quickly converted pole position into a steady race lead as Lewis Hamilton fought to regain second place from Mark Webber . Moments after Hamilton caught him on lap 17 , the Australian suffered yet another alternator problem , and coasted to a halt . Red Bull Racing team principal Christian Horner later admitted that the team 's perpetual alternator problems were a serious concern with just one race left in the championship , a World Championship at stake and very little time to diagnose and correct the problem . With Webber now out of the running , Hamilton then turned his attentions on Vettel and steadily closed the gap to the lead , overtaking the World Championship leader on lap 42 when Vettel got caught behind Narain Karthikeyan in the meandering first sector , which allowed Hamilton to pass Vettel along the long back straight . Hamilton held onto the lead for the final fourteen laps , but with Vettel never more than a second and a half behind him , Hamilton could not afford to relax , and he won the race by just six tenths of a second . Alonso recovered from seventh to finish third — marking the first time that he , Hamilton and Vettel had stood on the podium together in the one hundred races all three had contested together — and forcing the title fight to extend to the final round in Brazil . Further down the order , Massa overcame his gearbox penalty to finish fourth , while Jenson Button fell from twelfth on the grid to sixteenth at the end of the first lap , using an alternative strategy to claw his way back up to fifth . Michael Schumacher , on the other hand , went backwards ; after qualifying fifth , his Mercedes chewed through its tyres , forcing him to make a second stop that sent him plummeting down the order to finish sixteenth , and a clutch problem during his stop deprived Kimi Räikkönen of the chance to compete with Alonso for the final podium place . Both Marussia drivers out @-@ qualified the Caterhams for the first time , only for Timo Glock and Charles Pic be out @-@ raced by Heikki Kovalainen and Vitaly Petrov , but the Russian team held onto tenth place in the World Constructors ' Championship . Despite losing Webber to an alternator failure , Red Bull collected enough points to secure their third consecutive World Constructors ' Championship title .

= = = Round 20 – Brazil = = =

The final race of the season was run in conditions that were never quite wet enough for drivers to use wet tyres , but never quite dry enough for slick tyres to provide enough grip . While Jenson Button and Lewis Hamilton fought over the race lead , Sebastian Vettel was involved in a first @-@ lap clash with Bruno Senna that damaged his exhaust and spun him around , relegating him to last place . Senna retired on the spot , as did Sergio Pérez , who was caught in the crossfire . The race was one of attrition , with Pastor Maldonado and Romain Grosjean also crashing out early . Button seized the lead from Hamilton , but soon found himself under pressure from Nico Hülkenberg and lost the lead to the German driver on lap 18 , and second place to Hamilton shortly thereafter . The field stabilised themselves after the first round of stops , with Vettel in the lower points and Fernando Alonso running fourth when he needed a podium to stand any chance of being champion . Hülkenberg spun on lap 48 and lost the lead to Hamilton , but caught the McLaren on lap 54 as they encountered lapped traffic . The two made contact in the first corner , forcing Hamilton out of the race and earning Hülkenberg a drive @-@ through penalty for causing an avoidable accident . In the wake of their collision , Button re @-@ took the lead and held on to the end of the race . Meanwhile , the rain intensified , prompting teams to scramble for tyres . Hülkenberg 's penalty and Hamilton 's retirement promoted Alonso to the podium , which became second place when team @-@ mate Felipe Massa yielded for him . A slow stop for Vettel relegated him to twelfth and swinging the balance of power in Alonso 's favour . In the last ten laps of the race , Vettel began to make his way back up the order until he was seventh , just enough to secure the title , but leaving him vulnerable if the damage he received on the first lap — which by now had left a long crack running along the floor of his car — got worse . Vettel 's seventh became sixth when Michael Schumacher moved aside to let Vettel through . Two laps from the end of the race , Paul di Resta crashed heavily as he came onto the main straight , forcing the deployment of the safety car . Button won the race , with Alonso second and Massa third , but Vettel 's sixth place was enough to secure his third consecutive World Drivers ' Championship . Kimi Räikkönen finished the season third overall , having benefited from Hamilton 's retirement to hold onto the place following a bizarre incident in which he left the circuit and attempted to rejoin by taking to the support paddock pit lane , only to find the way blocked and forcing him to double back and find another way onto the circuit . In his final race in Formula One , Schumacher 's seventh place saw him finish the season in thirteenth place overall ; his worst performance over a season since he contested six rounds during the 1991 season . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari secured second place from McLaren with two cars on the podium , while Kamui Kobayashi 's ninth place was not enough for Sauber to take sixth from Mercedes , and Marussia lost tenth place to Caterham when Vitaly Petrov secured the team 's best result of the season with eleventh place . Nikolai Fomenko , Marussia 's director of engineering , later claimed that Charles Pic had deliberately let Petrov through , as Pic had announced his move to Caterham for the 2013 season two days before the race ; however , no action was taken by the FIA in response to these claims .

= = = Post @-@ season controversy = = =

Three days after the Brazilian Grand Prix , reports began to surface suggesting that Sebastian Vettel 's championship was under threat and that Ferrari would be filing a formal protest against the race results . The challenge centred on a pass Vettel made on Jean @-@ Éric Vergne early in the race . At the time , the first sector of the circuit was under yellow flag conditions following the spin and retirement of Pastor Maldonado at Curva do Sol , the Interlagos circuit 's third corner , which feeds onto the back straight . Vettel overtook Vergne along the straight , which led to claims that the pass was illegal because of the yellow flags . Intense media speculation suggested that the challenge threatened Vettel 's championship because as the race finished behind the safety car , any post @-@ race penalty had the potential to demote him in the race standings , and Vettel would not have enough points to secure the title . Ferrari wrote to the FIA , requesting clarification on the matter . The FIA reviewed the incident and declared that Vettel 's pass was legal as a green flag was being shown by a marshal adjacent to the pit exit , meaning the track was green from that point onward ; the confusion had been caused by a digital board showing a yellow flag on the exit of Curva do Sol some one hundred metres before the marshalling post . Both Ferrari and Red Bull Racing announced that they were satisfied with the ruling , thereby preserving Vettel 's championship .

= = Results and standings = =

= = = Grands Prix = = =

= = = Drivers ' standings = = =

Points were awarded to the top 10 classified finishers .

Notes :

† – Drivers did not finish the Grand Prix , but were classified as they completed over 90 % of the race distance .

= = = Constructors ' standings = = =

Notes :

† – Cars did not finish the Grand Prix , but were classified as they completed over 90 % of the race distance .

Official FIA results for the Constructors ' Championship identified the constructors as " Red Bull Racing " , " Scuderia Ferrari " , " Vodafone McLaren Mercedes " , etc .

= Typhoon Shanshan ( 2006 ) =

Typhoon Shanshan , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Luis , was a strong typhoon that affected parts of East Asia in late September 2006 . The 13th named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season , Typhoon Shanshan was also the seventh typhoon of the year operationally recognised by the Japan Meteorological Agency . In post @-@ operational analysis Shanshan became the eighth typhoon of the year when Typhoon Maria was added to the list . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center considered Shanshan the 13th tropical storm and eighth typhoon of the season , a Category 4 @-@ equivalent typhoon in terms of 1 @-@ minute average wind speed . The name Shanshan was submitted to the naming list by Hong Kong and is a girls ' given name .

Shanshan wreaked havoc in Japan , with reports that it caused a tornado which derailed a train . It made landfall first in the Yaeyama Islands , where it caused heavy rains , and later in Kyūshū . The outer bands of Shanshan also affected South Korea . Shanshan also knocked power out to thousands of homes in the two countries , and killed at least eleven people . Damage amounted to $ 2 @.@ 5 billion ( 2006 USD ) , making Shanshan the sixth costliest disaster worldwide in 2006 .

= = Meteorological history = =

On September 9 , 2006 , the Japan Meteorological Agency identified a tropical depression with 25 @-@ knot 10 @-@ minute average sustained winds about 500 kilometres ( 300 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Yap , near latitude 14 @.@ 0 ° N longitude 139 @.@ 0 ° E. Later that day , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) picked up on the tropical depression and started issuing track forecasts for the system .

As the system continued to move northwestward , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 14W on the morning of September 10 . Later that day , the tropical depression moved into the PAGASA Area of Responsibility , and was named Luis . As the system continued to strengthen , the JMA upgraded the depression to a storm at 1200 UTC and named it Shanshan , a girls ' given name submitted by Hong Kong . The HKO did the same at the same time , upgrading the depression to a storm .

The storm quickly strengthened , being upgraded twice by the JMA on September 11 , at 0600 UTC to a severe tropical storm and at 1800 UTC to a typhoon , becoming the seventh official typhoon of the season . It then took on a more north @-@ northwesterly track , weakening while undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle on September 14 . However , it restrengthened , reaching its maximum intensity of 110 knots ( 205 km / h , 125 mph ) from the JMA and 120 knots ( 220 km / h , 140 mph ) from the JTWC before passing Iriomote on September 15 . Originally expected by the JTWC to pass to the east of Okinawa Island , a subtropical high @-@ pressure ridge south of the main Japanese islands forced the storm to take a more westward track , pushing it towards Taiwan . Shortly later , Shanshan passed directly over Iriomote .

PAGASA issued their final advisory later on September 16 . Peak intensity for Typhoon Luis as reported by PAGASA while it was in their area of responsibility was only 80 knots ( 150 km / h , 95 mph ) . Shanshan made landfall on September 17 on the island of Kyūshū . The HKO issued their final track forecast on the weakening typhoon later that day as it passed out of their area of responsibility , with the peak intensity while within HKO 's area of responsibility set at 185 km / h ( 115 mph , 100 kt ) . The JTWC declared the system extratropical shortly after .

The JMA downgraded the typhoon to a severe tropical storm at 0000 UTC September 18 . Just before crossing the island of Hokkaidō , according to the JMA 's best @-@ track graphic , Severe Tropical Storm Shanshan became extratropical . The extratropical storm was tracked by the JMA in their high seas marine warnings until September 22 .

= = Preparations = =

In anticipation of Typhoon Shanshan , the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau issued a marine warning for all ships in the areas around the north and the east coasts of the island and in the Bashi Channel . Tourists were also asked to avoid the areas due to fears over large waves . The Zhejiang provincial government in the People 's Republic of China also asked all fishermen to return to port and ordered local authorities to help with evacuations of people from areas threatened by the typhoon .

In Japan , the United States military and its navy took precautions against the approaching storm . Okinawa was put under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness ( TCCOR ) 1 @-@ E , which means that all outdoor activities are prohibited as there are sustained winds of at least 50 knots ( 95 km / h , 60 mph ) in force , on September 16 , with over 100 flights into and out of Naha International Airport on the island cancelled . Kadena Air Base moved various aircraft to other undisclosed locations in the Pacific . Sasebo Naval Base declared TCCOR 1 @-@ E on September 17 . The USS Harpers Ferry ( LSD @-@ 49 ) and USS Juneau ( LPD @-@ 10 ) both left the base , while the USS Patriot ( MCM @-@ 7 ) was moved to a wet berth . Only one vessel , the USS Tortuga ( LSD @-@ 46 ) remained in port for repairs , because authorities thought that the ship could withstand the storm . Elsewhere in Japan , some flights and Shinkansen bullet trains were delayed or cancelled . In Miyazaki and Hiroshima prefectures , evacuation orders were issued for almost 170 families . In Kyūshū , 10 @,@ 000 people voluntarily evacuated their houses for higher ground . The island 's seven main airports were closed , causing 41 @,@ 900 passengers to be stranded when 357 flights were cancelled . Ahead of an expected landfall on Hokkaidō , the JMA warned residents of the possibility of high winds .

Typhoon warnings were issued for Jeju and the southern and eastern coasts of South Korea ahead of the storm . Passenger ships normally serving Jeju Island remained in port . In Busan , ports were closed , and in Ulsan , 1 @,@ 600 ships remained in port . In South Gyeongsang Province , authorities banned departures from the port at Tongyeong , stranding over 16 @,@ 000 fishing boats . The Korean Coast Guard said that a total of 52 @,@ 000 ships remained at ports across the nation . Mount Jiri was also closed ahead of the storm 's passage through Korea , which was expected to bring up to 100 mm ( 4 inches ) of rain .

= = Impact = =

= = = South Korea = = =

In South Korea , Jeju Island reported 100 mm ( 4 inches ) of rain by September 16 , well before the typhoon hit , while Busan had reported 60 mm ( 2 inches ) . Shanshan knocked out electricity to nearly 4 @,@ 000 homes in southeastern South Korea . A ship off Ulleungdo sank , but no casualties were reported from that incident . A sailor died when trying to dock boats on Jeju @-@ do .

= = = Japan = = =

Shanshan 's effects on Japan and its outlying Pacific islands were widespread . On Iriomote , a peak gust of 69 @.@ 9 metres per second ( 251 km / h , 157 mph ) was recorded , the strongest ever on record since records started in 1972 . On Ishigaki , Okinawa , a peak gust of 67 @.@ 0 m / s ( 241 km / h , 150 mph ) was reported , with rainfall rates of up to 50 mm per hour ( 2 inches per hour ) reported . Over 25 @,@ 000 homes on Ishigaki lost power after 182 utility poles were downed by the storm , and at least 12 people on the island were injured . Eight vessels were reported to have capsized .

At Kadena Air Base , 2 inches ( 50 mm ) of rain were reported , with a maximum gust of 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) recorded . Naha International Airport on Okinawa reported a recorded maximum wind gust to 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) . In Motobu , Okinawa , high waves damaged the local port and swept 30 cargo containers to sea , while in Okinawa City , six injuries were reported . One building in the city suffered a wall collapse , and at least 70 houses were damaged .

Off Kyūshū , a Maldives @-@ registered car ferry capsized , killing one crew member . A train was derailed , possibly due to a tornado , injuring five people . On the island , an electrician in Fukuoka Prefecture died after an industrial container at his firm fell on top of him , crushing him . A glass entrance of a supermarket in Nobeoka broke on impact with flying debris , killing one person . Elsewhere in the prefecture , a 42 @-@ year @-@ old man died in his bedroom when it was crushed , while an elderly woman farmer died when she was hit by a fallen tree outside a greenhouse . Three other deaths were confirmed on the island .

Meanwhile , in Hiroshima Prefecture , a 50 @-@ year @-@ old firefighter was killed when he drowned after being swept away by rising flood waters . A journalist went missing in similar circumstances , and was found dead a few days later . In all , Typhoon Shanshan killed 11 people and injured over 260 others . Shanshan is also credited with US $ 4 @.@ 9 million worth of net losses in the third financial quarter for IPC Holdings , Ltd .

= Type II supernova =

A Type II supernova ( plural : supernovae or supernovas ) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star . A star must have at least 8 times , and no more than 40 – 50 times , the mass of the Sun ( M ☉ ) to undergo this type of explosion . It is distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in its spectrum . Type II supernovae are mainly observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions , but not in elliptical galaxies .

Stars generate energy by the nuclear fusion of elements . Unlike the Sun , massive stars possess the mass needed to fuse elements that have an atomic mass greater than hydrogen and helium , albeit at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures , causing increasingly shorter stellar life spans . The degeneracy pressure of electrons and the energy generated by these fusion reactions are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing , maintaining stellar equilibrium . The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements , starting with hydrogen and then helium , progressing up through the periodic table until a core of iron and nickel is produced . Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output , so no further fusion can take place , leaving the nickel @-@ iron core inert . Due to the lack of energy output creating outward pressure , equilibrium is broken and the core is compressed by the overlying mass of the star .

When the compacted mass of the inert core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , electron degeneracy is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational compression . A cataclysmic implosion of the core takes place within seconds . Without the support of the now @-@ imploded inner core , the outer core collapses inwards under gravity and reaches a velocity of up to 23 % of the speed of light and the sudden compression increases the temperature of the inner core to up to 100 billion kelvin . Neutrons and neutrinos are formed via reversed beta @-@ decay , releasing about 1046 joules ( 100 foe ) in a ten @-@ second burst . The collapse of the inner core is halted by neutron degeneracy , causing the implosion to rebound and bounce outward . The energy of this expanding shock wave is sufficient to disrupt the overlying stellar material and accelerate it to escape velocity , forming a supernova explosion . The shock wave and extremely high temperature and pressure rapidly dissipate but are present for long enough to allow for a brief period during which the production of elements heavier than iron occurs . Depending on initial size of the star , the remnants of the core form a neutron star or a black hole . Because of the underlying mechanism , the resulting nova is also described as a core @-@ collapse supernova .

There exist several categories of Type II supernova explosions , which are categorized based on the resulting light curve — a graph of luminosity versus time — following the explosion . Type II @-@ L supernovae show a steady ( linear ) decline of the light curve following the explosion , whereas Type II @-@ P display a period of slower decline ( a plateau ) in their light curve followed by a normal decay . Type Ib and Ic supernovae are a type of core @-@ collapse supernova for a massive star that has shed its outer envelope of hydrogen and ( for Type Ic ) helium . As a result , they appear to be lacking in these elements .

= = Formation = =

Stars far more massive than the sun evolve in more complex ways . In the core of the star , hydrogen is fused into helium , releasing thermal energy that heats the sun 's core and provides outward pressure that supports the sun 's layers against collapse in a process known as stellar or hydrostatic equilibrium . The helium produced in the core accumulates there since temperatures in the core are not yet high enough to cause it to fuse . Eventually , as the hydrogen at the core is exhausted , fusion starts to slow down , and gravity causes the core to contract . This contraction raises the temperature high enough to initiate a shorter phase of helium fusion , which accounts for less than 10 % of the star 's total lifetime . In stars with fewer than eight solar masses , the carbon produced by helium fusion does not fuse , and the star gradually cools to become a white dwarf . White dwarf stars , if they have a near companion , may then become Type Ia supernovae .

A much larger star , however , is massive enough to create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse when the star contracts at the end of the helium @-@ burning stage . The cores of these massive stars become layered like onions as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center , with an outermost layer of hydrogen gas , surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium , surrounding a layer of helium fusing into carbon via the triple @-@ alpha process , surrounding layers that fuse to progressively heavier elements . As a star this massive evolves , it undergoes repeated stages where fusion in the core stops , and the core collapses until the pressure and temperature are sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion , reigniting to halt collapse .

= = Core collapse = =

The factor limiting this process is the amount of energy that is released through fusion , which is dependent on the binding energy that holds together these atomic nuclei . Each additional step produces progressively heavier nuclei , which release progressively less energy when fusing . In addition , from carbon @-@ burning onwards , energy loss via neutrino production becomes significant , leading to a higher rate of reaction than would otherwise take place . This continues until nickel @-@ 56 is produced , which decays radioactively into cobalt @-@ 56 and then iron @-@ 56 over the course of a few months . As iron and nickel have the highest binding energy per nucleon of all the elements , energy cannot be produced at the core by fusion , and a nickel @-@ iron core grows . This core is under huge gravitational pressure . As there is no fusion to further raise the star 's temperature to support it against collapse , it is supported only by degeneracy pressure of electrons . In this state , matter is so dense that further compaction would require electrons to occupy the same energy states . However , this is forbidden for identical fermion particles , such as the electron – a phenomenon called the Pauli exclusion principle .

When the core 's mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1 @.@ 4 M ☉ , degeneracy pressure can no longer support it , and catastrophic collapse ensues . The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70 @,@ 000 km / s ( 23 % of the speed of light ) as it collapses toward the center of the star . The rapidly shrinking core heats up , producing high @-@ energy gamma rays that decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free neutrons via photodisintegration . As the core 's density increases , it becomes energetically favorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay , producing neutrons and elementary particles called neutrinos . Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter , they can escape from the core , carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse , which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds . As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star , some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star 's outer layers , beginning the supernova explosion .

For Type II supernovae , the collapse is eventually halted by short @-@ range repulsive neutron @-@ neutron interactions , mediated by the strong force , as well as by degeneracy pressure of neutrons , at a density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus . When the collapse stops , the infalling matter rebounds , producing a shock wave that propagates outward . The energy from this shock dissociates heavy elements within the core . This reduces the energy of the shock , which can stall the explosion within the outer core .

The core collapse phase is so dense and energetic that only neutrinos are able to escape . As the protons and electrons combine to form neutrons by means of electron capture , an electron neutrino is produced . In a typical Type II supernova , the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion Kelvin , 104 times the temperature of the sun 's core . Much of this thermal energy must be shed for a stable neutron star to form , otherwise the neutrons would " boil away " . This is accomplished by a further release of neutrinos . These ' thermal ' neutrinos form as neutrino @-@ antineutrino pairs of all flavors , and total several times the number of electron @-@ capture neutrinos . The two neutrino production mechanisms convert the gravitational potential energy of the collapse into a ten @-@ second neutrino burst , releasing about 1046 joules ( 100 foe ) .

Through a process that is not clearly understood , about 1 % , or 1044 joules ( 1 foe ) , of the energy released ( in the form of neutrinos ) is reabsorbed by the stalled shock , producing the supernova explosion . Neutrinos generated by a supernova were observed in the case of Supernova 1987A , leading astrophysicists to conclude that the core collapse picture is basically correct . The water @-@ based Kamiokande II and IMB instruments detected antineutrinos of thermal origin , while the gallium @-@ 71 @-@ based Baksan instrument detected neutrinos ( lepton number = 1 ) of either thermal or electron @-@ capture origin .

When the progenitor star is below about 20 M ☉ – depending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back – the degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star . Above this mass , the remnant collapses to form a black hole . The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about 40 – 50 M ☉ . Above that mass , a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion , although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain .

= = Theoretical models = =

The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter . This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions . The energy per particle in a supernova is typically one to one hundred and fifty picojoules ( tens to hundreds of MeV ) . The per @-@ particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct . But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model . In particular , Earth @-@ based particle accelerators can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae , but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles , and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects . The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the weak nuclear force , which is believed to be well understood . However , the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force , which is much less well understood .

The major unsolved problem with Type II supernovae is that it is not understood how the burst of neutrinos transfers its energy to the rest of the star producing the shock wave which causes the star to explode . From the above discussion , only one percent of the energy needs to be transferred to produce an explosion , but explaining how that one percent of transfer occurs has proven very difficult , even though the particle interactions involved are believed to be well understood . In the 1990s , one model for doing this involved convective overturn , which suggests that convection , either from neutrinos from below , or infalling matter from above , completes the process of destroying the progenitor star . Heavier elements than iron are formed during this explosion by neutron capture , and from the pressure of the neutrinos pressing into the boundary of the " neutrinosphere " , seeding the surrounding space with a cloud of gas and dust which is richer in heavy elements than the material from which the star originally formed .

Neutrino physics , which is modeled by the Standard Model , is crucial to the understanding of this process . The other crucial area of investigation is the hydrodynamics of the plasma that makes up the dying star ; how it behaves during the core collapse determines when and how the " shock wave " forms and when and how it " stalls " and is reenergized .

In fact , some theoretical models incorporate a hydrodynamical instability in the stalled shock known as the " Standing Accretion Shock Instability " ( SASI ) . This instability comes about as a consequence of non @-@ spherical perturbations oscillating the stalled shock thereby deforming it . The SASI is often used in tandem with neutrino theories in computer simulations for re @-@ energizing the stalled shock .

Computer models have been very successful at calculating the behavior of Type II supernovae when the shock has been formed . By ignoring the first second of the explosion , and assuming that an explosion is started , astrophysicists have been able to make detailed predictions about the elements produced by the supernova and of the expected light curve from the supernova .

= = Light curves for Type II @-@ L and Type II @-@ P supernovae = =

When the spectrum of a Type II supernova is examined , it normally displays Balmer absorption lines – reduced flux at the characteristic frequencies where hydrogen atoms absorb energy . The presence of these lines is used to distinguish this category of supernova from a Type I supernova .

When the luminosity of a Type II supernova is plotted over a period of time , it shows a characteristic rise to a peak brightness followed by a decline . These light curves have an average decay rate of 0 @.@ 008 magnitudes per day ; much lower than the decay rate for Type Ia supernovae . Type II are sub @-@ divided into two classes , depending on the shape of the light curve . The light curve for a Type II @-@ L supernova shows a steady ( linear ) decline following the peak brightness . By contrast , the light curve of a Type II @-@ P supernova has a distinctive flat stretch ( called a plateau ) during the decline ; representing a period where the luminosity decays at a slower rate . The net luminosity decay rate is lower , at 0 @.@ 0075 magnitudes per day for Type II @-@ P , compared to 0 @.@ 012 magnitudes per day for Type II @-@ L.

The difference in the shape of the light curves is believed to be caused , in the case of Type II @-@ L supernovae , by the expulsion of most of the hydrogen envelope of the progenitor star . The plateau phase in Type II @-@ P supernovae is due to a change in the opacity of the exterior layer . The shock wave ionizes the hydrogen in the outer envelope – stripping the electron from the hydrogen atom – resulting in a significant increase in the opacity . This prevents photons from the inner parts of the explosion from escaping . When the hydrogen cools sufficiently to recombine , the outer layer becomes transparent .

= = Type IIn supernovae = =

The " n " denotes narrow , which indicates the presence of intermediate or very narrow width H emission lines in the spectra . In the intermediate width case , the ejecta from the explosion may be interacting strongly with gas around the star – the circumstellar medium . The estimated circumstellar density required to explain the observational properties is much higher than that expected from the standard stellar evolution theory . It is generally assumed that the high circumstellar density is due to the high mass @-@ loss rates of the SN IIn progenitors . The estimated mass @-@ loss rates are typically higher than 10 − 3 M ⊙ yr − 1 . There are indications that they originate as stars similar to Luminous blue variables with large mass losses before exploding . SN 1998S and SN 2005gl are famous examples of Type IIn ; SN 2006gy , an extremely energetic supernova , may be another example .

= = Type IIb supernovae = =

A Type IIb supernova has a weak hydrogen line in its initial spectrum , which is why it is classified as a Type II . However , later on the H emission becomes undetectable , and there is also a second peak in the light curve that has a spectrum which more closely resembles a Type Ib supernova . The progenitor could have been a giant star which lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to interactions with a companion in a binary system , leaving behind the core that consisted almost entirely of helium . As the ejecta of a Type IIb expands , the hydrogen layer quickly becomes more transparent and reveals the deeper layers . The classic example of a Type IIb supernova is Supernova 1993J , while another example is Cassiopeia A. The IIb class was first introduced ( as a theoretical concept ) by Ensman & Woosley 1987 .

= = Hypernovae ( collapsars ) = =

Hypernovae are a rare type of supernova substantially more luminous and energetic than standard supernovae . Examples are 1997ef ( type Ic ) and 1997cy ( type IIn ) . Hypernovae are produced by more than one type of event : relativistic jets during formation of a black hole from fallback of material onto the neutron star core , the collapsar model ; interaction with a dense envelope of circumstellar material , the CSM model ; the highest mass pair instability supernovae ; possibly others such as binary and quark star model .

Stars with initial masses between about 25 and 90 times the sun develop cores large enough that after a supernova explosion , some material will fall back onto the neutron star core and create a black hole . In many cases this reduces the luminosity of the supernova , and above 90 M ☉ the star collapses directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion . However , if the progenitor is spinning quickly enough the infalling material generates relativistic jets that emit more energy than the original explosion . They may also be seen directly if beamed towards us , giving the impression of an even more luminous object . In some cases these can produce gamma @-@ ray bursts , although not all gamma @-@ ray bursts are from supernovae .

In some cases a type II supernova occurs when the star is surrounded by a very dense cloud of material , most likely expelled during luminous blue variable eruptions . This material is shocked by the explosion and becomes more luminous than a standard supernova . It is likely that there is a range of luminosities for these type IIn supernovae with only the brightest qualifying as a hypernova .

Pair instability supernovae occur when an oxygen core in an extremely massive star becomes hot enough that gamma rays spontaneously produce electron @-@ positron pairs . This causes the core to collapse , but where the collapse of an iron core causes endothermic fusion to heavier elements , the collapse of an oxygen core creates runaway exothermic fusion which completely unbinds the star . The total energy emitted depends on the initial mass , with much of the core being converted to 56Ni and ejected which then powers the supernova for many months . At the lower end stars of about 140 M ☉ produce supernovae that are long @-@ lived but otherwise typical , while the highest mass stars of around 250 M ☉ produce supernovae that are extremely luminous and also very long lived ; hypernovae . More massive stars die by photodisintegration . Only population III stars , with very low metallicity , can reach this stage . Stars with more heavy elements are more opaque and blow away their outer layers until they are small enough to explode as a normal type Ib / c supernova . It is thought that even in our own galaxy , mergers of old low metallicity stars may form massive stars capable of creating a pair instability supernova .

= Pulveroboletus ravenelii =

Pulveroboletus ravenelii , commonly known as Ravenel 's bolete or the powdery sulfur bolete , is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 1853 , the widely distributed species is known from Asia , Australia , North America , Central America , and South America . Mycorrhizal with oak , the fungus fruits on the ground singly , scattered , or in groups in woods . Fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have convex to flat , yellowish to brownish @-@ red caps up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter . On the cap underside , the pore surface is bright yellow before turning dingy yellow to grayish brown with age ; it stains greenish blue then grayish brown after injury . A cottony and powdery partial veil remains as a ring on the stipe . The mushrooms are edible , and have been used in traditional Chinese medicine and for mushroom dyeing .

= = Taxonomy = =

The species was first described as Boletus ravenelii by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis in 1853 . Specimens were sent to them by American botanist Henry William Ravenel , who collected them in South Carolina . They considered the bolete " a most splendid species closely allied to B. hemichrysus , and , like that , remarkable for the pulverulent veil . " The specific epithet honors Ravenel . William Alphonso Murrill transferred the fungus to the genus Pulveroboletus in 1909 , giving it the name by which it is known today . The mushroom is commonly known as " Ravenel 's bolete " or the " powdery sulfur bolete " .

= = Description = =

The cap is rounded to convex before flattening with age , and attains a diameter of 1 – 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) . Its margin is curved inward when young , and usually has hanging remnants of the partial veil . The surface is dry and initially coated with fine particles , while later it develops fine hairs or small scales that are pressed down flat on the surface ; in maturity the surface usually develops fine cracks or wrinkles . It is bright yellow , later turning to orange @-@ red to brownish red . The flesh is white to pale yellow , and , when cut , will slowly stain pale blue , then dingy yellow to pale brown . Its flesh has been described variously as indistinct , or bitter tasting with an odor of hickory leaves . The pore surface is bright yellow before turning dingy yellow to grayish brown with age . It stains greenish blue then grayish brown after being bruised or injured . The pores , which number about 1 – 3 per millimeter , are angular to almost circular . The tubes comprising the pore surface are 5 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) deep . The yellow stem measures 4 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and is roughly equal in width throughout or somewhat thicker near the base . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , and , above the level of the base , the surface is covered with minute hairs pressed flat against the surface . The partial veil , also bright yellow , is cottony and powdery , and remains as a ring on the upper portion of the stem , although in some specimens it merges gradually with the stipe surface and becomes inconspicuous . There is white mycelium at the stipe base .

Pulveroboletus ravenelii produces an olive @-@ grey to olive @-@ brown spore print . Spores are elliptical to oval , smooth , and measure 8 – 10 by 4 – 5 μm . The hyphal tissue in the hymenophore is inamyloid and bilateral , meaning it diverges downward from the flesh toward the edge of the hymenophore , away from a central strand . The tubes have scattered cystidia on the walls ( pleurocystidia ) and abundant cystidia on the edges ( cheilocystidia ) . The hyphae in the cap cuticle are arranged as an ixotrichodermium – long and typically multi @-@ celled , with erect hyphae embedded in a gelatinous matrix . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

The fruit bodies of Pulveroboletus ravenelii grow on the ground singly , scattered , or in groups in woods under conifers . Preferred mycorrhizal plant hosts include pine , hemlock , and rhododendron . Fruiting occurs from July to October . In North America , it is distributed from eastern Canada extending south to the Gulf of Mexico , and west to Texas , Michigan , and California . The bolete was reported from a Mexican beech ( Fagus mexicana ) forest in Hidalgo , Mexico in 2010 . It has also been recorded from Costa Rica and Colombia . In Asia , it has been found in Indonesia and China . It has also been recorded from northeast Australia .

= = Uses = =

Pulveroboletus ravenelii mushrooms are edible . They have been used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat lumbago , numbed limbs , and as an antihemorrhagic . Bioactive compounds that have been identified from the fruit bodies include pulveravin A , pulveravin B , vulpinic acid , and pulverolide . Mushrooms are also used in mushroom dyeing to produce the colors yellow , gold , greenish yellow , orange , or olive , depending on the mordant used .

= Johnny 's Theme =

" Johnny 's Theme " is an instrumental jazz song played as the opening theme of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson from the show 's inception in 1962 through its finale in 1992 . The piece was composed by Paul Anka and Johnny Carson , based on a previous composition by Anka . It was performed by The Tonight Show Band , which released an arrangement by Tommy Newsom in 1986 as part of its Grammy Award @-@ winning eponymous debut album . The single release also garnered a Grammy nomination .

" Johnny 's Theme " has since been released in cover versions and on compilation albums . It has appeared in several films , and been played live in concert by school bands and by amateur and professional musicians , including Doc Severinsen 's Big Band .

= = Development and evolution = =

= = = 1959 : Two songs = = =

" Johnny 's Theme " began life as " Toot Sweet " , a pop instrumental composed in 1959 by Paul Anka and recorded by Tutti 's Trumpets . It was released on Disney 's Buena Vista label as the B @-@ side to The Camarata Strings ' single " Lost In a Fog " .

" Tutti " Camarata , who was Annette Funicello 's producer at the time , asked Anka to write some songs for Funicello 's first album to follow her work on The Mickey Mouse Club . Anka added lyrics to " Toot Sweet " and published them under the title " It 's Really Love " , and the song was released as part of Annette Sings Anka . He recorded his own version of " It 's Really Love " that same year for the French film Faibles Femmes ; it was released on seven @-@ inch EPs in France , Italy and Spain .

= = = 1962 : Johnny Carson = = =

When Johnny Carson , a fan of jazz music , was preparing to take over as the permanent host of The Tonight Show starting in October 1962 , he recognized that he would need a theme song . Carson and Anka had worked together in England on the television special An Evening with Paul Anka in 1961 ; when they happened to meet up again in New York City the following year , Carson manager Al Bruno mentioned needing a theme .

Anka created a new instrumental arrangement for " It 's Really Love " and sent a demo to Carson and Ed McMahon , who were in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , making preparations for the show . McMahon said " it was the first time either one of us heard [ the song ] — and magic . "

= = = 1962 – 92 : The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson = = =

Shortly after sending the demo , Anka received a telephone call and was told that Tonight Show bandleader Skitch Henderson was angry because Carson wanted to use a theme song written by " a 20 @-@ year @-@ old kid " . Anka said he then offered to let Carson write and publish new lyrics in order to claim a songwriter 's credit , along with half of the royalties every time the song was played . Those lyrics were never used on the show . Anka estimated that " Johnny 's Theme " was played live on Carson 's Tonight Show more than 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 times over the course of 30 years . As its original composer , Anka also was paid each time the song was broadcast , earning each man an average of about US $ 200 @,@ 000 per year .

The song was retired along with Carson in 1992 ; his iteration of The Tonight Show was called " the last widely public big @-@ band forum " . Incoming bandleader Branford Marsalis composed a more " funky " theme for successor Jay Leno because " a swing tune doesn 't reflect Jay at all [ and ] jazz doesn 't come to mind either . "

= = Releases = =

Henry Mancini and his orchestra recorded a 2 : 44 arrangement of " Johnny 's Theme " in 1972 for the German EP Theme from Nicholas and Alexandra . A version also appeared as part of Mancini 's 2010 compilation Big Screen , Little Screen . Paul Anka produced a recording by Top Brass for Buddah Records in 1973 . Lawrence Welk and his orchestra performed the song for their 1976 album Nadia 's Theme .

Doc Severinsen and the band recorded " Johnny 's Theme " and 12 other tracks for their album The Tonight Show Band , released in 1986 . Amherst Records also released the track as a single , titled " Johnny 's Theme ( The Tonight Show Theme ) " , which debuted at # 27 on the Radio & Records Jazz Top 30 chart . The song has been released on compilations of television themes , the 1995 compilation 25 Years of Chrysalis Music , and The Very Best of Doc Severinsen ( 1998 ) .

= = Reception = =

" Johnny 's Theme " earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Instrumental Performance , losing to " Top Gun Anthem " at the awards presentation in 1987 . The Tonight Show Band was honored for Best Jazz Instrumental Performance , Big Band .

= = Legacy = =

In 2005 , Doc Severinsen , Carson 's bandleader starting in 1967 , said the song worked so well because it was " accessible . People could understand what it was , and it was associated with Johnny . " Larry King called it " one of the most familiar themes in American television history . " Paul Anka said the song was played for only a short time each night , " but everybody knows it . Simplicity is indeed royal . "

The Washington Post in 2008 said the days of the television theme song were fading into nostalgia , though they " used to abound " , with or without lyrics . For example , " Anka 's Tonight Show theme was inseparable from late night and Johnny Carson . "

" Johnny 's Theme " has been included in numerous films , including This Is My Life , Isn 't She Great and Talk to Me . The song has been performed live by musicians at varying skill levels , from student to professional . Iowa State Cyclones men 's basketball coach Johnny Orr came onto the court pumping his fist as the pep band played " Johnny 's Theme " before games at the Hilton Coliseum . Orr 's tenure ran from 1980 to 1994 .

Doc Severinsen has kept the song alive on tour . His Big Band opened its shows by playing the theme in its entirety , " just to let you know who we are . " Severinsen and The Roots played " Johnny 's Theme " during a 2015 episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon .

= Blue Velvet ( film ) =

Blue Velvet is a 1986 American mystery film , written and directed by David Lynch . Blending psychological horror with film noir , the film stars Kyle MacLachlan , Isabella Rossellini , Dennis Hopper and Laura Dern . The title is taken from Bobby Vinton 's 1963 song of the same name . Although initially receiving a divided critical response , the film is now widely acclaimed as one of the greatest films of the 1980s , and earned Lynch his second Academy Award nomination for Best Director . As an example of a director casting against the norm , Blue Velvet is also noted for re @-@ launching Hopper 's career and for providing Rossellini with a dramatic outlet beyond the work as a fashion model and a cosmetics spokeswoman , something for which she had until then been known .

After the commercial and critical failure of Lynch 's Dune ( 1984 ) , he made attempts at developing a more " personal story " , somewhat characteristic of the surrealist style he displayed in his debut Eraserhead ( 1977 ) . The screenplay of Blue Velvet had been passed around multiple times in the late 1970s and early 1980s , with many major studios declining it because of its strong sexual and violent content . The independent studio De Laurentiis Entertainment Group , owned at the time by Italian film producer Dino De Laurentiis , agreed to finance and produce the film .

Since its initial theatrical release , Blue Velvet has achieved cult status , generated significant academic attention with regard to its thematic symbolism and is widely regarded as one of Lynch 's best works . The film is consistently ranked among the greatest American films of all time by various publications , including Sight & Sound , Time Magazine , Entertainment Weekly and BBC Magazine . In 2008 , Blue Velvet was chosen by the American Film Institute as one of the greatest mystery films ever made .

= = Plot = =

Jeffrey Beaumont ( Kyle MacLachlan ) returns to his logging home town of Lumberton , North Carolina from Oak Lake College after his father suffers a near @-@ fatal stroke . While walking home from the hospital , he cuts through a vacant lot and discovers a severed ear . Jeffrey takes the ear to police detective John Williams ( George Dickerson ) and becomes reacquainted with the detective 's daughter , Sandy ( Laura Dern ) . She tells him details about the ear case and a suspicious woman , Dorothy Vallens ( Isabella Rossellini ) , who may be connected to the case . Increasingly curious , Jeffrey enters Dorothy 's apartment by posing as an exterminator , and while Dorothy is distracted by a man dressed in a yellow suit at her door ( whom Jeffrey later refers to as the Yellow Man ) , Jeffrey steals her spare key .

Jeffrey and Sandy attend Dorothy 's nightclub act , in which she sings " Blue Velvet " , and leave early so Jeffrey can sneak into her apartment to snoop . He hurriedly hides in a closet when she returns home . However , Dorothy , wielding a knife , discovers him and threatens to kill him . Believing his curiosity is merely sexual and aroused by his voyeurism , Dorothy makes Jeffrey undress at knifepoint and begins to fellate him before their encounter is interrupted by a knock at the door . Dorothy hides Jeffrey in the closet . From there he witnesses the visitor , Frank Booth ( Dennis Hopper ) , inflict his bizarre sexual proclivities — which include inhaling an unidentified gas ( possibly amyl nitrite ) , dry humping , and sadomasochism — upon Dorothy . Frank is an extremely foul @-@ mouthed , violent sociopath whose orgasmic climax is a fit of both pleasure and rage . He continually refers to her as " Mommy " and to himself as both the " Daddy " and the " Baby " , who " want to fuck . " Frank has kidnapped Dorothy 's husband and son to force her to perform sexual favors ; to " Do it for van Gogh . " When Frank leaves , a sad and desperate Dorothy tries to seduce Jeffrey again and demands that he hit her , but when he refuses , she tells him to leave . When Jeffrey moves to leave , she asks him to stay , though he leaves anyway .

Jeffrey relays his experience to Sandy , asking her why there are people like Frank . Sandy in turn tells him of a wonderful dream she had about robins that she interprets as a sign of hope for humanity . Jeffrey and Sandy find themselves attracted to each other , though Sandy has a boyfriend .

Jeffrey again visits Dorothy 's apartment and she tells him that although she knows nothing about him , she has been yearning for him . Jeffrey attends another of Dorothy 's performances at the club , where she sings the same song . At the club , Jeffrey spots Frank in the audience fondling a piece of blue velvet fabric he cut from Dorothy 's robe . Jeffrey follows Frank and spends the next few days spying on him . Shortly afterwards , two men that Jeffrey calls the Well @-@ Dressed Man and the Yellow Man exit an industrial building that Frank frequently visits . Jeffrey concludes the men are criminal associates of Frank , and tells his new findings to Sandy . The two briefly kiss , though she feels uncomfortable about going any further . Jeffrey immediately visits Dorothy again , and the two have sex . However , when he refuses to hit her , she pressures him , becoming more emotional . In a blind rage he knocks her backwards and is instantly horrified , but Dorothy derives pleasure from it .

Afterwards , Frank catches Dorothy and Jeffrey together and forces them both to accompany him to the apartment of Ben ( Dean Stockwell ) , his suave , effeminate partner in crime who is holding Dorothy 's son . Ben lip @-@ syncs a performance of Roy Orbison 's " In Dreams " , sending Frank into maudlin sadness , then rage . Frank takes Jeffrey to a lumber yard and when he molests Dorothy , Jeffrey stands up to Frank by punching him . Frank 's cronies drag Jeffrey out of the car and Frank kisses Jeffrey 's face , intimidates him , and then savagely beats him to the overture of " In Dreams " . Jeffrey wakes the next day at the same place and walks home , overcome with guilt and despair . He goes to the police station , where he notices that Sandy 's father 's partner is the Yellow Man — an officer named Lieutenant Detective Tom Gordon ( Fred Pickler ) . Later , at Sandy 's home , her father is amazed by Jeffrey 's story , but warns Jeffrey to stop his amateur sleuthing lest he endanger himself and the investigation . Jeffrey and Sandy go to a dance together and profess their love , only to be confronted by Sandy 's boyfriend . A confrontation is averted when the group finds Dorothy — naked , battered , and distressed — on Jeffrey 's front lawn . Barely conscious , Dorothy reveals her intimacy with Jeffrey , causing Sandy to become upset and to slap Jeffrey , although she later forgives him .

Jeffrey insists on returning to Dorothy 's apartment and tells Sandy to immediately send the police there , including her father . At Dorothy 's apartment , Jeffrey finds Dorothy 's husband ( Don Vallens ) , who is dead from a gunshot to the head and identifiable by his missing ear , as well as the Yellow Man ( Gordon ) , who bears a gruesome head wound and appears to have suffered a crude lobotomy . When Jeffrey tries to leave , he sees the Well @-@ Dressed Man coming up the stairs and recognizes him as Frank in disguise . Jeffrey talks to Detective Williams over the Yellow Man 's police radio , but lies about his location inside the apartment . Frank enters the apartment and brags about hearing Jeffrey 's location over his own police radio . While Frank searches for him in the wrong room , Jeffrey retrieves the Yellow Man 's gun and hides in the same closet in which he hid during his first visit to the apartment . Frank fires sporadically , knocking over the dead Yellow Man , who had still been standing up , and when he opens the closet door , Jeffrey fatally shoots him in the head . Detective Williams , gun drawn , enters with Sandy a moment later . Jeffrey and Sandy now go ahead with their relationship and note the unusual appearance of robins in their town . A montage sequence ends the film , which shows Dorothy and her son reunited .

= = Cast = =

= = Production = =

The film 's story originated from three ideas that crystallized in the filmmaker 's mind over a period of time starting as early as 1973 . The first idea was only " a feeling " and the title Blue Velvet , Lynch told Cineaste in 1987 . The second idea was an image of a severed , human ear lying in a field . " I don 't know why it had to be an ear . Except it needed to be an opening of a part of the body , a hole into something else ... The ear sits on the head and goes right into the mind so it felt perfect " , Lynch remarked in an interview . The third idea was Bobby Vinton 's classic rendition of the song Blue Velvet and " the mood that came with that song a mood , a time , and things that were of that time . " Lynch eventually spent two years writing two drafts , which , he stated , were not very good . The problem with them , Lynch has said , was that " there was maybe all the unpleasantness in the film but nothing else . A lot was not there . And so it went away for a while . "

After completing The Elephant Man ( 1980 ) , Lynch met producer Richard Roth over coffee . Roth had read and enjoyed Lynch 's Ronnie Rocket script , but did not think it was something he wanted to produce . He asked Lynch if the filmmaker had any other scripts , but the director only had ideas . " I told him I had always wanted to sneak into a girl 's room to watch her into the night and that , maybe , at one point or another , I would see something that would be the clue to a murder mystery . Roth loved the idea and asked me to write a treatment . I went home and thought of the ear in the field . " Production was announced in August 1984 . Lynch wrote two more drafts before he was satisfied with the script of the film . Conditions at this point were ideal for Lynch 's film : he had cut a deal with Dino De Laurentiis that gave him complete artistic freedom and final cut privileges , with the stipulation that the filmmaker take a cut in his salary and work with a budget of only $ 6 million . This deal meant that Blue Velvet was the smallest film on the De Laurentiis ' slate . Consequently , Lynch would be left mostly unsupervised during production . " After Dune I was down so far that anything was up ! So it was just a euphoria . And when you work with that kind of feeling , you can take chances . You can experiment . " Because the material was completely different from anything that would be considered mainstream at the time , Laurentiis had to start his own company to distribute it .

The cast of Blue Velvet included several then @-@ relatively unknown actors . Isabella Rossellini had gained some exposure before the film for her Lancôme ads in the early 1980s and for being the daughter of actress Ingrid Bergman and Italian film director Roberto Rossellini . Dennis Hopper was the biggest " name " in the film , having starred in Easy Rider ( 1969 ) , while Kyle MacLachlan had played the central role in Lynch 's critical and commercial failure Dune ( 1984 ) , a science fiction epic based on the novel . MacLachlan later became a recurring collaborator with Lynch , who remarked : " Kyle plays innocents who are interested in the mysteries of life . He 's the person you trust enough to go into a strange world with . " Dennis Hopper — said to be Lynch 's third choice — accepted the role , reportedly having exclaimed , " I 've got to play Frank ! I am Frank ! " as Hopper confirmed in the Blue Velvet " making @-@ of " documentary The Mysteries of Love , produced for the 2002 special edition . For the role of Dorothy Vallens , Lynch met Isabella Rossellini at a restaurant , and she accepted the role . Laura Dern , then just nineteen years old , was cast after various successful actresses at the time turned it down , including Molly Ringwald .

The scene in which Dorothy appears naked outside was inspired by a real @-@ life experience Lynch had during childhood when he and his brother saw a naked woman walking down a neighborhood street at night . The experience was so traumatic to the young Lynch that it made him cry , and he had never forgotten it . Principal photography of Blue Velvet began in February 1986 and completed in April . The film was shot at EUE / Screen Gems studio in Wilmington , North Carolina , which also provided the exterior scenes of Lumberton . The scene with a raped and battered Dorothy proved to be particularly challenging . Several townspeople arrived to watch the filming with picnic baskets and rugs , against the wishes of Rossellini and Lynch . However , they continued filming as normal , and when Lynch yelled cut , the townspeople had left . As a result , police told Lynch they were no longer permitted to shoot in any public areas of Wilmington .

Lynch 's original rough cut ran for approximately four hours . He was contractually obligated to deliver a two @-@ hour movie by De Laurentiis and cut many small subplots and character scenes . He also made cuts at the request of the MPAA . For example , when Frank slaps Dorothy after the first rape scene , the audience was supposed to see Frank actually hitting her . Instead , the film cuts away to Jeffrey in the closet , wincing at what he has just seen . This cut was made to satisfy the MPAA 's concerns about violence . Lynch thought that the change only made the scene more disturbing . Lynch announced in a radio interview on January 18 , 2011 , that footage from the deleted scenes , long thought lost , had been discovered . It later appeared on the 2011 special edition Blu @-@ ray disc release of the film . The final cut produced by Lynch runs for just under two hours .

= = Interpretation = =

Despite Blue Velvet 's initial appearance as a mystery , the film operates on a number of thematic levels . The film owes a large debt to 1950s film noir , containing and exploring such conventions as the femme fatale ( Dorothy Vallens ) , a seemingly unstoppable villain ( Frank Booth ) , and the questionable moral outlook of the hero ( Jeffrey Beaumont ) , as well as its unusual use of shadowy , sometimes dark cinematography . Blue Velvet represents and establishes Lynch 's famous " askew vision , " and introduces several common elements of Lynch 's work , some of which would later become his trademarks , including distorted characters , a polarized world , and debilitating damage to the skull or brain . Perhaps the most significant " Lynchian " trademark in the film is the depiction of unearthing a dark underbelly in a seemingly idealized small town ; Jeffrey even proclaims in the film that he is " seeing something that was always hidden " , alluding to the film 's plot central idea . Lynch 's characterization of films , symbols , and motifs have become well @-@ known , and his particular style , characterised largely in Blue Velvet for the first time , has been written about extensively using descriptions like " dreamlike " , " ultraweird " , " dark " , and " oddball " . Red curtains also show up in key scenes , specifically in Dorothy 's apartment , which have since become a Lynch trademark . The film has been compared to Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) because of its stark treatment of psychotic evil . The premise of both films is curiosity , leading to an investigation that draws the lead characters into a hidden , voyeuristic underworld of crime .

The film 's thematic framework hearkens back to Poe , James , and early gothic fiction , as well as films such as Shadow of a Doubt ( 1943 ) and The Night of the Hunter ( 1955 ) and the entire notion of film noir . Lynch has called it a " film about things that are hidden — within a small city and within people . " Like many other Lynch films , Blue Velvet is immersed in pop culture imagery , both from the 1950s and the 1960s , as well as the 1980s .

Feminist psychoanalytic film theorist Laura Mulvey argues that Blue Velvet establishes a metaphorical Oedipal family — " the child " , Jeffrey Beaumont , and his " parents " , Frank Booth and Dorothy Vallens — through deliberate references to film noir and its underlying Oedipal theme . The resulting violence , she claims , can be read as symbolic of domestic violence within real families . For instance , Frank 's violent acts can be seen to reflect the different types of abuse within families , and the control he has over Dorothy might represent the hold an abusive husband has over his wife . Michael Atkinson reads Jeffrey as an innocent youth who is both horrified by the violence inflicted by Frank , but also tempted by it as the means of possessing Dorothy for himself . Atkinson takes a Freudian approach to the film ; considering it to be an expression of the traumatised innocence which characterises Lynch 's work . He claims that " Dorothy represents the sexual force of the mother [ figure ] because she is forbidden and because she becomes the object of the unhealthy , infantile impulses at work in Jeffrey 's subconscious " .

= = = Symbolism = = =

Symbolism is used very heavily in Blue Velvet . The most consistent symbolism in the film is an insect motif introduced at the end of the first scene , when the camera zooms in on a well @-@ kept suburban lawn until it unearths a swarming underground nest of disgusting bugs . This is generally recognized as a metaphor for the seedy underworld that Jeffrey will soon discover under the surface of his own suburban , Reaganesque paradise . The severed ear he finds is being overrun by black ants . The bug motif is recurrent throughout the film , most notably in the bug @-@ like gas mask that Frank wears , but also the excuse that Jeffrey uses to gain access to Dorothy 's apartment : he claims to be an insect exterminator . One of Frank 's sinister accomplices is also consistently identified through the yellow jacket he wears , possibly reminiscent of the name of a type of wasp . Finally , a robin eating a bug on a fence becomes a topic of discussion in the last scene of the film . The robin , mentioned earlier by Sandy when she recounted her dream , represents love conquering evil .

The severed ear that Jeffrey discovers is also a key symbolic element , leading Jeffrey into danger . Indeed , just as Jeffrey 's troubles begin , the audience is treated to a nightmarish sequence in which the camera zooms into the canal of the severed , decomposing ear . Notably , the camera does not reemerge from the ear canal until the end of the film . When Jeffrey finally comes through his hellish ordeal unscathed , the ear canal shot is replayed , only in reverse , zooming out through Jeffrey 's own ear as he relaxes in his yard on a summer day .

= = Soundtrack = =

The Blue Velvet soundtrack was supervised by Angelo Badalamenti ( who makes a brief cameo appearance as the pianist at the Slow Club where Dorothy performs ) . The soundtrack makes heavy usage of vintage pop songs , such as Bobby Vinton 's " Blue Velvet " and Roy Orbison 's " In Dreams " , juxtaposed with an orchestral score inspired by Shostakovich . During filming , Lynch placed speakers on set and in streets and played Shostakovich to set the mood he wanted to convey . The score makes direct quotations from Shostakovich 's 15th Symphony , which Lynch had been listening to regularly while writing the screenplay . Lynch had originally opted to use " Song To The Siren " by This Mortal Coil during the scene in which Sandy and Jeffrey share a dance , however he could not obtain the rights for the song at the time . He would go onto use this song in Lost Highway , eleven years later .

Entertainment Weekly ranked Blue Velvet 's soundtrack on its list of the 100 Greatest Film Soundtracks , at the 100th position . Critic John Alexander wrote , " the haunting soundtrack accompanies the title credits , then weaves through the narrative , accentuating the noir mood of the film " . Lynch worked with music composer Angelo Badalamenti for the first time in this film and asked him to write a score that had to be " like Shostakovich , be very Russian , but make it the most beautiful thing but make it dark and a little bit scary " . Badalamenti 's success with Blue Velvet would lead him to contribute to all of Lynch 's future full @-@ length films until Inland Empire . Also included in the sound team was long time Lynch collaborator Alan Splet , a sound editor and designer who had won an Academy Award for his work on The Black Stallion ( 1979 ) , and been nominated for Never Cry Wolf ( 1983 ) .

= = Reception = =

= = = Box office = = =

Blue Velvet premiered in competition at the Montréal World Film Festival in August 1986 , and at the Toronto Film Festival on September 12 , 1986 , and a few days later in the United States . It debuted commercially in both countries on September 19 , 1986 , in 98 theatres across the United States . In its opening weekend , the film grossed a total of $ 789 @,@ 409 . It eventually expanded to another fifteen theatres , and domestically grossed a total of $ 8 @,@ 551 @,@ 228 . It was also released internationally , in Australia , most of West Germany , China , Canada , Hong Kong , and Japan , followed by subsequent video releases . The film performed well overseas , grossing $ 900 @,@ 000 in Australia , and $ 450 @,@ 139 in Hong Kong .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Blue Velvet received critical acclaim in the United States upon its release and currently has a " certified fresh " score of 94 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 62 reviews with an average rating of 8 @.@ 7 out of 10 . The critical consensus states " If audiences walk away from this subversive , surreal shocker not fully understanding the story , they might also walk away with a deeper perception of the potential of film storytelling . " The film also has a score of 75 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 critics indicating " Generally favorable reviews . "

Paul Attanasio of The Washington Post said " the film showcases a visual stylist utterly in command of his talents " and that Angelo Badalamenti " contributes an extraordinary score , slipping seamlessly from slinky jazz to violin figures to the romantic sweep of a classic Hollywood score " , but claimed that Lynch " isn 't interested in communicating , he 's interested in parading his personality . The movie doesn 't progress or deepen , it just gets weirder , and to no good end . " The New York Times critic Janet Maslin expressed her admiration for the film , and directed much praise toward the performances of Hopper and Rossellini : " Mr. Hopper and Miss Rossellini are so far outside the bounds of ordinary acting here that their performances are best understood in terms of sheer lack of inhibition ; both give themselves entirely over to the material , which seems to be exactly what 's called for . " She called it " an instant cult classic . " Maslin concluded by saying that Blue Velvet " is as fascinating as it is freakish . It confirms Mr. Lynch 's stature as an innovator , a superb technician , and someone best not encountered in a dark alley . " Sheila Benson of the Los Angeles Times called the film " the most brilliantly disturbing film ever to have its roots in small @-@ town American life . " She called it " shocking , visionary , rapturously controlled . "

Looking back in his Guardian / Observer review , critic Philip French wrote , " The film is wearing well and has attained a classic status without becoming respectable or losing its sense of danger . " Peter Travers , film critic for Rolling Stone , named Blue Velvet the best film of the 1980s , and referred to the film as an " American masterpiece . " Film critic Gene Siskel included Blue Velvet on his list of the best films of 1986 , at the fifth spot .

But Blue Velvet was not without its detractors . A general criticism from U.S. critics was the film 's often vulgar approach to sexuality and violence , which they claimed detracted from the film 's serious side . One of the film 's detractors , Roger Ebert , film critic of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , supported that view ; although he praised Isabella Rossellini 's performance as being " convincing and courageous " , he criticized how she was depicted in the film , even accusing David Lynch of misogyny : " degraded , slapped around , humiliated and undressed in front of the camera . And when you ask an actress to endure those experiences , you should keep your side of the bargain by putting her in an important film " . During an online Q & A session in 2007 , Ebert said he still had negativity regarding how Rossellini was depicted but said he should re @-@ visit Blue Velvet and that David Lynch was a good director . In a tweet honoring David Lynch 's birthday , Ebert later revealed though he views Lynch as a great director , his feelings remain unchanged about Blue Velvet .

= = = Accolades = = =

Lynch was nominated for a Best Director Oscar for the film . Isabella Rossellini won an Independent Spirit Award for the Best Female Lead in 1987 . David Lynch and Dennis Hopper won a Los Angeles Film Critics Association award in 1987 for Blue Velvet in categories Best Director ( Lynch ) and Best Supporting Actor ( Hopper ) . In 1987 , National Society of Film Critics awarded Best Film , Best Director ( David Lynch ) , Best Cinematography ( Frederick Elmes ) , and Best Supporting Actor ( Dennis Hopper ) awards .

= = Legacy = =

Although it initially gained a relatively small theatrical audience in North America and was met with controversy over its artistic merit , Blue Velvet soon became the center of a " national firestorm " in 1986 , and over time achieved status as an American classic . In the late 1980s , and early 1990s , after its release on videotape , the film became a widely known cult film , well known for its dark depiction of a suburban America . Followed by myriad VHS , Laserdisc and DVD releases , the film became increasingly well @-@ known among American audiences . It marked the entrance of David Lynch into the Hollywood mainstream and the comeback of Dennis Hopper after a significant hiatus from work . Hopper 's performance and the character of Frank Booth itself has left an imprint on popular culture , with countless tributes , cultural references and parodies . The success of the film alone has helped propel Hollywood mainstream toward more graphic displays of previously censored themes , a similar case to Psycho ( 1960 ) , to which Blue Velvet has been frequently compared . It has become one of the most significant , well @-@ recognized films of its era , spawning countless imitations and parodies in media . The film 's dark , stylish and erotic production design has served as a benchmark for a number of films , parodies and even Lynch 's own later work , notably Twin Peaks ( 1990 – 91 ) , and Mulholland Drive ( 2001 ) . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine cited it as one of the most " influential American films " , as did Michael Atkinson , who dedicated a book to the film 's themes and motifs .

Blue Velvet now frequently appears in various critical assessments of all @-@ time great films , also ranked as one of the greatest films of the 1980s , one of the best examples of American surrealism and one of the finest examples of David Lynch 's work . In a poll of two American critics ranking the " most outstanding films of the decade " , Blue Velvet was placed third and fourth , behind Raging Bull ( 1980 ) , E.T. The Extra Terrestrial ( 1982 ) and the German film Wings of Desire ( 1987 ) . An Entertainment Weekly book special released in 1999 ranked Blue Velvet at thirty @-@ seventh greatest films of all time . The film was ranked by The Guardian in its list of the 100 Greatest Films . Film Four 's ranked it on their list of 100 Greatest Films . In a 2007 poll of the online film community held by Variety , Blue Velvet came in at the ninety @-@ fifth greatest film of all time . Total Film ranked Blue Velvet as one of the all @-@ time best films in both a critics list and a public poll , in 2006 and 2007 , respectively . In December 2002 , a UK film critics poll in Sight & Sound ranked the film fifth on their list of the 10 Best Films of the Last 25 Years . In a special Entertainment Weekly issue , 100 new film classics were chosen from 1983 to 2008 : Blue Velvet was ranked at fourth .

In addition to Blue Velvet 's various " all @-@ time greatest films " rankings , the American Film Institute has awarded the film three honors in its lists : ninety @-@ sixth on 100 Years ... 100 Thrills in 2001 , selecting cinema 's most thrilling moments and ranked Frank Booth thirty @-@ sixth of the 50 greatest villains in 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains in 2003 . In June 2008 , the AFI revealed its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . Blue Velvet was acknowledged as the eighth best film in the mystery genre . Premiere magazine listed Frank Booth , played by Dennis Hopper , as the fifty @-@ fourth on its list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time , calling him one of " the most monstrously funny creations in cinema history " . The film was ranked eighty @-@ fourth on Bravo Television 's four @-@ hour program 100 Scariest Movie Moments ( 2004 ) . It is frequently sampled musically and an array of bands and solo artists have taken their names and inspiration from the film . In August 2012 , Sight & Sound unveiled their latest list of the 250 greatest films of all time , with Blue Velvet ranking at sixty @-@ ninth .

Blue Velvet was also nominated for the following AFI lists :

AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies

AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :

" In Dreams "

AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition )

Blue Velvet was released on Blu @-@ ray on November 8 , 2011 , in a special 25th anniversary edition featuring never @-@ before @-@ seen deleted scenes . The film had previously been released on DVD in 1999 and 2002 by MGM Home Entertainment . In early 2015 , it was announced that a feature @-@ length documentary film entitled " Blue Velvet Revisited " , made up exclusively of behind the scenes footage , was in production for Autumn 2015 release . The film is based on extensive unreleased footage shot on set in 1985 by German filmmaker Peter Braatz , at David Lynch 's invitation . Cult With No Name , Tuxedomoon and John Foxx were commissioned to provide the soundtrack for the film ( which was released in October 2015 ) , and a collection of previously unreleased photos is also to be published .

Inspired by the film , baroque pop singer Lana Del Rey recorded a cover version of Bobby Vinton 's classic rendition of the song " Blue Velvet " in 2012 . Used to endorse clothing line H & M , a music video accompanied the track and aired as a television commercial . Filmed in Post @-@ war Americana , the video drew influence from Lynch and Blue Velvet . In the video , Del Rey plays the role of Dorothy Vallens , performing a private concert similar to the scene where Ben ( Dean Stockwell ) pantomimes " In Dreams " for Frank Booth . Del Rey 's version , however , has her lip @-@ synching " Blue Velvet " when a little person dressed as Frank Sinatra approaches and unplugs a hidden victrola , revealing Del Rey as a fraud . When Lynch heard of the music video , he praised it , telling Artinfo : " Lana Del Rey , she 's got some fantastic charisma and — this is a very interesting thing — it 's like she 's born out of another time . She 's got something that 's very appealing to people . And I didn 't know she was influenced by me ! "

" Now It 's Dark " , a song by American heavy metal band Anthrax on their 1988 album State of Euphoria , was directly inspired by the film , and specifically the character of Frank Booth . The same phrase appeared in the liner notes of Rush 's album Roll the Bones , and drummer Neil Peart later explained that " The phrase occurs in David Lynch 's comedy classic Blue Velvet . "

= Is Google Making Us Stupid ? =

" Is Google Making Us Stupid ? What the Internet is doing to our brains " ( alternatively " Is Google Making Us Stoopid ? " ) is a magazine article by technology writer Nicholas G. Carr highly critical of the Internet 's effect on cognition . It was published in the July / August 2008 edition of The Atlantic magazine as a six @-@ page cover story . Carr 's main argument is that the Internet might have detrimental effects on cognition that diminish the capacity for concentration and contemplation . Despite the title , the article is not specifically targeted at Google , but more at the cognitive impact of the Internet and World Wide Web . Carr expanded his argument in The Shallows : What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains , a book published by W. W. Norton in June 2010 .

The essay was extensively discussed in the media and the blogosphere , with reactions to Carr 's argument being polarised . At the Britannica Blog , a part of the discussion focused on the apparent bias in Carr 's argument toward literary reading . In Carr 's view , reading on the Internet is generally of a shallower form in comparison with reading from printed books in which he believes a more intense and sustained form of reading is exercised . Elsewhere in the media , the Internet 's impact on memory retention was discussed ; and , at the online scientific magazine Edge , several argued that it was ultimately the responsibility of individuals to monitor their Internet usage so that it does not impact their cognition .

While long @-@ term psychological and neurological studies have yet to yield definitive results justifying Carr 's argument , a few studies have provided glimpses into the changing cognitive habits of Internet users . A UCLA study led some to wonder whether a breadth of brain activity — which was shown to occur while users performed Internet searches in the study 's functional MRI scans — actually facilitated reading and cognition or possibly overburdened the mind ; and what quality of thought could be determined by the additional presence of brain activity in regions known to control decision @-@ making and complex reasoning skills .

= = Background = =

Prior to the publication of Carr 's Atlantic essay , critics had long been concerned about the potential for electronic media to supplant literary reading . In 1994 , American academic Sven Birkerts published a book titled The Gutenberg Elegies : The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age , consisting of a collection of essays that declaimed against the declining influence of literary culture — the tastes in literature that are favored by a social group — with a central premise among the essays asserting that alternative delivery formats for the book are inferior to the paper incarnation . Birkerts was spurred to write the book after his experience with a class he taught in the fall of 1992 , where the students had little appreciation for the literature he had assigned them , stemming from , in his opinion , their inaptitude for the variety of skills involved in deep reading . In " Perseus Unbound " , an essay from the book , Birkerts presented several reservations toward the application of interactive technologies to educational instruction , cautioning that the " long @-@ term cognitive effects of these new processes of data absorption " were unknown and that they could yield " an expansion of the short @-@ term memory banks and a correlative atrophying of long @-@ term memory " .

In 2007 , developmental psychologist Maryanne Wolf took up the cause of defending reading and print culture in her book Proust and the Squid : The Story and Science of the Reading Brain , approaching the subject matter from a scientific angle in contrast to Birkerts ' cultural @-@ historical angle . A few reviewers were critical of Wolf for only touching upon the Internet 's potential impact on reading in her book ; however , in essays published concurrent with the book 's release she elaborated upon her worries . In an essay in The Boston Globe , Wolf expressed her grave concern that the development of knowledge in children who are heavy users of the Internet could produce mere " decoders of information who have neither the time nor the motivation to think beneath or beyond their googled universes " , and cautioned that the web 's " immediacy and volume of information should not be confused with true knowledge " . In an essay published by Powell 's Books , Wolf contended that some of the reading brain 's strengths could be lost in future generations " if children are not taught first to read , and to think deeply about their reading , and only then to e @-@ read " . Preferring to maintain an academic perspective , Wolf firmly asserted that her speculations have not yet been scientifically verified but deserved serious study .

In Carr 's 2008 book The Big Switch : Rewiring the World , From Edison to Google , the material in the final chapter , " iGod " , provided a basis for his later Atlantic magazine article titled " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " The inspiration to write " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " came from the difficulties Carr found he had in remaining engaged with not only books he had to read but even books that he found very interesting . This is sometimes called deep reading , a term coined by academic Sven Birkerts in his book The Gutenberg Elegies and later defined by developmental psychologist Maryanne Wolf with an added cognitive connotation .

= = Synopsis = =

At the start of the essay , Carr says that his recent difficulties with concentrating while reading books and long articles may be due to spending a lot of time on the Internet . He posits that regular Internet usage may have the effect of diminishing the capacity for concentration and contemplation . He prefaces his argument with a couple of anecdotes from bloggers on their changing reading habits , as well as the findings of a 2008 University College London study titled " Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future " which suggests the emergence of new types of reading . He cites Maryanne Wolf , an expert on reading , for her expertise on the role of media and technology in learning written languages . Carr raises the point that unlike speech , which is an innate ability hardwired into the human brain , the ability to read has to be taught in order for the brain to rearrange its original parts for the task of interpreting symbols into words . He acknowledges that his argument does not yet have the backing of long @-@ term neurological and psychological studies . Carr further draws on Wolf 's work , particularly her 2007 book Proust and the Squid , to relate his argument to the way in which neural circuits in the reading brain are specifically shaped by the demands particular to each written language , such as Chinese , Japanese , and alphabet @-@ based scripts . Therefore , Carr purports that the neural circuitry shaped by regular Internet usage can also be expected to be different from that shaped by the reading of books and other page @-@ based written material .

Carr begins his argument by reasoning how the capacity to concentrate may be weakened by regular Internet usage . He mentions a historical example involving Friedrich Nietzsche 's usage of a typewriter , a fairly new technology in the 1880s . According to German scholar Friedrich A. Kittler , Nietzsche 's prose style changed when he started using a typewriter , which he had adopted because of his developing difficulty with writing by hand due to failing eyesight . Carr proceeds to explain that scientific research in the field of neuroplasticity as of 2008 has demonstrated that the brain 's neural circuitry can in fact be rewired . In the humanities , sociologist Daniel Bell coined the term " intellectual technologies " to describe those technologies that extend the brain 's cognitive faculties , and Carr states that he believes that the human brain adopts the qualities of these intellectual technologies . In discussing the mechanical clock , Carr deliberates upon the benefits and losses that are characteristic of new technologies . Then , Carr ventures that the cognitive impact of the Internet may be far more encompassing than any other previous intellectual technology because the Internet is gradually performing the services of most intellectual technologies , thus replacing them . Carr finally contends that the prevalent style of presentation for much of the Internet 's content may significantly hinder the capacity to concentrate due to the many distractions that often surround the Internet 's content , in the form of ads and obtrusive notifications . Additionally , he claims that these detrimental effects on concentration are compounded by traditional media because they are gradually adopting a style of presentation for their content that mimics the Internet , in order to remain competitive as consumer expectations change .

Carr also theorizes that the capacity to contemplate may diminish as computer algorithms unburden an Internet user 's brain of much of the painstaking knowledge work — the manipulation of abstract information and knowledge — that was previously done manually . In comparing the Internet with Frederick Winslow Taylor 's management system for industrial efficiency , Carr makes the point that back then some workers complained that they felt they were becoming mere automatons due to the systemic application of Taylorism — a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflow processes , improving labor productivity . Carr selects Google as a prime example of a company in which computer engineers and software designers have applied Taylorism to the knowledge industry , delivering increasingly robust information that may have the effect of minimizing opportunities to ponder ambiguities . Additionally , he argues that the Internet 's dominant business model is one that thrives as companies either collect information on users or deliver them advertisements , therefore companies capitalize on users who move from link to link rather than those who engage in sustained thought .

Finally , Carr places his skepticism in a historical context , reflecting upon how previous detractors of technological advances have fared . While often correct , Carr points out that skepticisms such as Socrates ' concerns about written language and the 15th @-@ century Venetian editor Hieronimo Squarciafico 's concerns about printed works failed to anticipate the benefits that these technologies might hold for human knowledge . As an afterthought , a 2005 essay by playwright Richard Foreman is excerpted for its lament of the waning of the " highly educated and articulate personality " .

= = Reception = =

Carr 's essay was widely discussed in the media both critically and in passing . While English technology writer Bill Thompson observed that Carr 's argument had " succeeded in provoking a wide @-@ ranging debate " , Damon Darlin of The New York Times quipped that even though " [ everyone ] has been talking about [ the ] article in The Atlantic magazine " , only " [ s ] ome subset of that group has actually read the 4 @,@ 175 @-@ word article , by Nicholas Carr . " The controversial online responses to Carr 's essay were , according to Chicago Tribune critic Steve Johnson , partly the outcome of the essay 's title " Is Google Making Us Stupid ? " , a question that the article proper doesn 't actually pose and that he believed was " perfect fodder for a ' don 't @-@ be @-@ ridiculous ' blog post " ; Johnson challenged his readers to carefully consider their online responses in the interest of raising the quality of debate .

Many critics discussed the merits of Carr 's essay at great length in forums set up formally for this purpose at online hubs such as the Britannica Blog and publisher John Brockman 's online scientific magazine Edge , where the roster of names quickly took on the semblance of a Who 's Who of the day 's Internet critics . Calling it " the great digital literacy debate " , British @-@ American entrepreneur and author Andrew Keen judged the victor to be the American reader , who was blessed with a wide range of compelling writing from " all of America 's most articulate Internet luminaries " .

Book critic Scott Esposito pointed out that Chinese characters are incorrectly described as ideograms in Carr 's essay , an error that he believed undermined the essay 's argument . The myth that Chinese script is ideographic had been effectively debunked in scholar John DeFrancis ' 1984 book The Chinese Language : Fact and Fantasy ; DeFrancis classifies Chinese as a logosyllabic writing system . Carr acknowledged that there was a debate over the terminology of ' ideogram ' , but in a response to Esposito he explained that he had " decided to use the common term " and quoted The Oxford American Dictionary to demonstrate that they likewise define Chinese characters as instances of ideograms .

Writer and activist Seth Finkelstein noted that predictably several critics would label Carr 's argument as a Luddite one , and he was not to be disappointed when one critic later maintained that Carr 's " contrarian stance [ was ] slowly forcing him into a caricature of Luddism " . Then , journalist David Wolman , in a Wired magazine piece , described as " moronic " the assumption that the web " hurts us more than it helps " , a statement that was preceded by an overview of the many technologies that had been historically denounced ; Wolman concluded that the solution was " better schools as well as a renewed commitment to reason and scientific rigor so that people can distinguish knowledge from garbage " .

Several prominent scientists working in the field of neuroscience supported Carr 's argument as scientifically plausible . James Olds , a professor of computational neuroscience , who directs the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study at George Mason University , was quoted in Carr 's essay for his expertise , and upon the essay 's publication Olds wrote a letter to the editor of The Atlantic in which he reiterated that the brain was " very plastic " — referring to the changes that occur in the organization of the brain as a result of experience . It was Olds ' opinion that given the brain 's plasticity it was " not such a long stretch to Carr 's meme " . One of the pioneers in neuroplasticity research , Michael Merzenich , later added his own comment to the discussion , stating that he had given a talk at Google in 2008 in which he had asked the audience the same question that Carr asked in his essay . Merzenich believed that there was " absolutely no question that our brains are engaged less directly and more shallowly in the synthesis of information , when we use research strategies that are all about ' efficiency ' , ' secondary ( and out @-@ of @-@ context ) referencing ' , and ' once over , lightly ' " . Another neuroscientist , Gary Small , director of UCLA 's Memory & Aging Research Center , wrote a letter to the editor of The Atlantic in which he stated that he believed that " brains are developing circuitry for online social networking and are adapting to a new multitasking technology culture " .

= = = Testimonials and refutations = = =

In the media , there were many testimonials and refutations given by journalists for the first part of Carr 's argument regarding the capacity for concentration ; treatments of the second part of Carr 's argument regarding the capacity for contemplation , were , however , far rarer . Although columnist Andrew Sullivan noted that he had little leisure time at his disposal for contemplation compared with when he grew up , the anecdotes provided by journalists that indicated a deficiency in the capacity to contemplate were described only in the context of third parties , such as columnist Margaret Wente 's anecdote about how one consultant had found a growing tendency in her clients to provide ill @-@ considered descriptions for their technical problems .

Columnist Leonard Pitts of The Miami Herald described his difficulty sitting down to read a book , in which he felt like he " was getting away with something , like when you slip out of the office to catch a matinee " . Technology evangelist Jon Udell admitted that , in his " retreats " from the Internet , he sometimes struggled to settle into " books , particularly fiction , and particularly in printed form " . He found portable long @-@ form audio to be " transformative " , however , because he can easily achieve " sustained attention " , which makes him optimistic about the potential to " reactivate ancient traditions , like oral storytelling , and rediscover their powerful neural effects " .

Also writing in The Atlantic , a year after Carr , the futurist Jamais Cascio argued that human cognition has always evolved to meet environmental challenges , and that those posed by the internet are no different . He described the ' skimming ' referred to by Carr as a form of attention deficit caused by the immaturity of filter algorithms : " The trouble isn ’ t that we have too much information at our fingertips , but that our tools for managing it are still in their infancy ... many of the technologies that Carr worries about were developed precisely to help us get some control over a flood of data and ideas . Google isn ’ t the problem ; it ’ s the beginning of a solution . " . Cascio and Carr 's articles have been discussed together in several places . Pew Research used them to form a tension @-@ pair question survey that was distributed to noted academics . Most responded in detail ; concurring with the proposition " Carr was wrong : Google does not make us stupid " . In The Googlisation of Everything , Vaidhyanathan tended to side with Carr . However , he thought both arguments relied too much on determinism : Carr in thinking that an over @-@ reliance on internet tools will inevitably cause the brain to atrophy , and Cascio in thinking that getting smarter is the necessary outcome of the evolutionary pressures he describes . In From Gutenberg to Zuckerberg Naughton noted that , while many agreed Carr had hit on an important subject , his conclusions were not widely supported .

Firmly contesting Carr 's argument , journalist John Battelle praised the virtues of the web : " [ W ] hen I am deep in search for knowledge on the web , jumping from link to link , reading deeply in one moment , skimming hundreds of links the next , when I am pulling back to formulate and reformulate queries and devouring new connections as quickly as Google and the Web can serve them up , when I am performing bricolage in real time over the course of hours , I am ' feeling ' my brain light up , I and [ sic ] ' feeling ' like I 'm getting smarter " . Web journalist Scott Rosenberg reported that his reading habits are the same as they were when he " was a teenager plowing [ his ] way through a shelf of Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky " . In book critic Scott Esposito 's view , " responsible adults " have always had to deal with distractions , and , in his own case , he claimed to remain " fully able to turn down the noise " and read deeply .

= = Analysis = =

In critiquing the rise of Internet @-@ based computing , the philosophical question of whether or not a society can control technological progress was raised . At the online scientific magazine Edge , Wikipedia co @-@ founder Larry Sanger argued that individual will was all that was necessary to maintain the cognitive capacity to read a book all the way through , and computer scientist and writer Jaron Lanier rebuked the idea that technological progress is an " autonomous process that will proceed in its chosen direction independently of us " . Lanier echoed a view stated by American historian Lewis Mumford in his 1970 book The Pentagon of Power , in which Mumford suggested that the technological advances that shape a society could be controlled if the full might of a society 's free will were employed . Lanier believed that technology was significantly hindered by the idea that " there is only one axis of choice " which is either pro- or anti- when it comes to technology adoption . Yet Carr had stated in The Big Switch that he believed an individual 's personal choice toward a technology had little effect on technological progress . According to Carr , the view expressed by Mumford about technological progress was incorrect because it regarded technology solely as advances in science and engineering rather than as an influence on the costs of production and consumption . Economics were a more significant consideration in Carr 's opinion because in a competitive marketplace the most efficient methods of providing an important resource will prevail . As technological advances shape society , an individual might be able to resist the effects but his lifestyle will " always be lonely and in the end futile " ; despite a few holdouts , technology will nevertheless shape economics which , in turn , will shape society .

= = = A focus on literary reading = = =

The selection of one particular quote in Carr 's essay from pathologist Bruce Friedman , a member of the faculty of the University of Michigan Medical School , who commented on a developing difficulty reading books and long essays and specifically the novel War and Peace , was criticized for having a bias toward narrative literature . The quote failed to represent other types of literature , such as technical and scientific literature , which had , in contrast , become much more accessible and widely read with the advent of the Internet . At the Britannica Blog , writer Clay Shirky pugnaciously observed that War and Peace was " too long , and not so interesting " , further stating that " it would be hard to argue that the last ten years have seen a decrease in either the availability or comprehension of material on scientific or technical subjects " . Shirky 's comments on War and Peace were derided by several of his peers as verging on philistinism . In Shirky 's defense , inventor W. Daniel Hillis asserted that , although books " were created to serve a purpose " , that " same purpose can often be served by better means " . While Hillis considered the book to be " a fine and admirable device " , he imagined that clay tablets and scrolls of papyrus , in their time , " had charms of their own " . Wired magazine editor Kevin Kelly believed that the idea that " the book is the apex of human culture " should be resisted . And Birkerts differentiated online reading from literary reading , stating that in the latter the reader is directed within themselves and enters " an environment that is nothing at all like the open @-@ ended information zone that is cyberspace " in which he feels psychologically fragmented .

= = = Coping with abundance = = =

Several critics theorized about the effects of the shift from scarcity to abundance of written material in the media as a result of the technologies introduced by the Internet . This shift was examined for its potential to lead individuals to a superficial comprehension of many subjects rather than a deep comprehension of just a few subjects . According to Shirky , an individual 's ability to concentrate had been facilitated by the " relatively empty environment " which had ceased to exist when the wide availability of the web proliferated new media . Although Shirky acknowledged that the unprecedented quantity of written material available on the web might occasion a sacrifice of the cultural importance of many works , he believed that the solution was " to help make the sacrifice worth it " . In direct contrast , Sven Birkerts argued that " some deep comprehension of our inheritance [ was ] essential " , and called for " some consensus vision among those shapers of what our society and culture might be shaped toward " , warning against allowing the commercial marketplace to dictate the future standing of traditionally important cultural works . While Carr found solace in Shirky 's conceit that " new forms of expression " might emerge to suit the Internet , he considered this conceit to be one of faith rather than reason . In a later response , Shirky continued to expound upon his theme that " technologies that make writing abundant always require new social structures to accompany them " , explaining that Gutenberg 's printing press led to an abundance of cheap books which were met by " a host of inventions large and small " , such as the separation of fiction from non @-@ fiction , the recognition of talents , the listing of concepts by indexes , and the practice of noting editions .

= = = Impact of the web on memory retention = = =

As a result of the vast stores of information made accessible on the web , one hundred critics pointed to a decrease in the desire to recall certain types of information , indicating , they believed , a change in the process of recalling information , as well as the types of information that are recalled . According to Ben Worthen , a Wall Street Journal business technology blogger , the growing importance placed on the ability to access information instead of the capacity to recall information straight from memory would , in the long term , change the type of job skills that companies who are hiring new employees would find valuable . Due to an increased reliance on the Internet , Worthen speculated that before long " the guy who remembers every fact about a topic may not be as valuable as the guy who knows how to find all of these facts and many others " . Evan Ratliff of Salon.com wondered if the usage of gadgets to recall phone numbers , as well as geographical and historical information , had the effect of releasing certain cognitive resources that in turn strengthened other aspects of cognition . Drawing parallels with transactive memory — a process whereby people remember things in relationships and groups — Ratliff mused that perhaps the web was " like a spouse who is around all the time , with a particular knack for factual memory of all varieties " . Far from conclusive , these ruminations left the web 's impact on memory retention an open question .

= = Themes and motifs = =

= = = Effect of technology on the brain 's neural circuitry = = =

In the essay , Carr introduces the discussion of the scientific support for the idea that the brain 's neural circuitry can be rewired with an example in which philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche is said to have been influenced by technology . According to German scholar Friedrich A. Kittler in his book Gramophone , Film , Typewriter , Nietzsche 's writing style became more aphoristic after he started using a typewriter . Nietzsche began using a Malling @-@ Hansen Writing Ball because of his failing eyesight which had disabled his ability to write by hand . The idea that Nietzsche 's writing style had changed for better or worse when he adopted the typewriter was disputed by several critics . Kevin Kelly and Scott Esposito each offered alternate explanations for the apparent changes . Esposito believed that " the brain is so huge and amazing and enormously complex that it 's far , far off base to think that a few years of Internet media or the acquisition of a typewriter can fundamentally rewire it . " In a response to Esposito 's point , neuroscientist James Olds stated that recent brain research demonstrated that it was " pretty clear that the adult brain can re @-@ wire on the fly " . In The New York Times it was reported that several scientists believed that it was certainly plausible that the brain 's neural circuitry may be shaped differently by regular Internet usage compared with the reading of printed works .

Although there was a consensus in the scientific community about how it was possible for the brain 's neural circuitry to change through experience , the potential effect of web technologies on the brain 's neural circuitry was unknown . On the topic of the Internet 's effect on reading skills , Guinevere F. Eden , director of the Center for the Study of Learning at Georgetown University , remarked that the question was whether or not the Internet changed the brain in a way that was beneficial to an individual . Carr believed that the effect of the Internet on cognition was detrimental , weakening the ability to concentrate and contemplate . Olds cited the potential benefits of computer software that specifically targets learning disabilities , stating that among some neuroscientists there was a belief that neuroplasticity @-@ based software was beneficial in improving receptive language disorders . Olds mentioned neuroscientist Michael Merzenich , who had formed several companies with his peers in which neuroplasticity @-@ based computer programs had been developed to improve the cognitive functioning of kids , adults and the elderly . In 1996 , Merzenich and his peers had started a company called Scientific Learning in which neuroplastic research had been used to develop a computer training program called Fast ForWord that offered seven brain exercises that improved language impairments and learning disabilities in children . Feedback on Fast ForWord showed that these brain exercises even had benefits for autistic children , an unexpected spillover effect that Merzenich has attempted to harness by developing a modification of Fast ForWord specifically designed for autism . At a subsequent company that Merzenich started called Posit Science , Fast ForWord @-@ like brain exercises and other techniques were developed with the aim of sharpening the brains of elderly people by retaining the plasticity of their brains .

= = = HAL in 2001 : A Space Odyssey = = =

In Stanley Kubrick 's 1968 science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey , astronaut David Bowman slowly disassembles the mind of an artificial intelligence named HAL by sequentially unplugging its memory banks . Carr likened the emotions of despair expressed by HAL as its mind is disassembled to his own , at the time , cognitive difficulties in engaging with long texts . He felt as if someone was " tinkering with [ his ] brain , remapping the neural circuitry , reprogramming the memory " . HAL had also been used as a metaphor for the " ultimate search engine " in a PBS interview with Google co @-@ founder Sergey Brin as noted in Carr 's book The Big Switch , and also Brin 's TED talk . Brin was comparing Google 's ambitions of building an artificial intelligence to HAL , while dismissing the possibility that a bug like the one that led HAL to murder the occupants of the fictional spacecraft Discovery One could occur in a Google @-@ based artificial intelligence . Carr observed in his essay that throughout history technological advances have often necessitated new metaphors , such as the mechanical clock engendering the simile " like clockwork " and the age of the computer engendering the simile " like computers " . Carr concluded his essay with an explanation as to why he believed HAL was an appropriate metaphor for his essay 's argument . He observed that HAL showed genuine emotion as his mind was disassembled while , throughout the film , the humans onboard the space station appeared to be automatons , thinking and acting as if they were following the steps of an algorithm . Carr believed that the film 's prophetic message was that as individuals increasingly rely on computers for an understanding of their world their intelligence may become more machinelike than human .

= = Developing view of how Internet use affects cognition = =

After the publication of Carr 's essay , a developing view unfolded in the media as sociological and neurological studies surfaced that were relevant to determining the cognitive impact of regular Internet usage . Challenges to Carr 's argument were made frequently . As the two most outspoken detractors of electronic media , Carr and Birkerts were both appealed to by Kevin Kelly to each formulate a more precise definition of the faults they perceived regarding electronic media so that their beliefs could be scientifically verified . While Carr firmly believed that his skepticism about the Internet 's benefits to cognition was warranted , he cautioned in both his essay and his book The Big Switch that long @-@ term psychological and neurological studies were required to definitively ascertain how cognition develops under the influence of the Internet .

Scholars at University College London conducted a study titled " Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future " , the results of which suggested that students ' research habits tended towards skimming and scanning rather than in @-@ depth reading . The study provoked serious reflection among educators about the implications for educational instruction .

In October 2008 , new insights into the effect of Internet usage on cognition were gleaned from the results , reported in a press release , of a study conducted by UCLA 's Memory and Aging Research Center that had tested two groups of people between the ages of 55 and 76 years old ; only one group of which were experienced web users . While they had read books or performed assigned search tasks their brain activity had been monitored with functional MRI scans , which revealed that both reading and web search utilize the same language , reading , memory , and visual regions of the brain ; however , it was discovered that those searching the web stimulated additional decision @-@ making and complex reasoning regions of the brain , with a two @-@ fold increase in these regions in experienced web users compared with inexperienced web users . Gary Small , the director of the UCLA center and lead investigator of the UCLA study , concurrently released the book iBrain : Surviving the Technological Alteration of the Modern Mind , co @-@ authored with Gigi Vorgan , with the press release .

While one set of critics and bloggers used the UCLA study to dismiss the argument raised in Carr 's essay , another set took a closer look at the conclusions that could be drawn from the study concerning the effects of Internet usage . Among the reflections concerning the possible interpretations of the UCLA study were whether greater breadth of brain activity while using the Internet in comparison with reading a book improved or impaired the quality of a reading session ; and whether the decision @-@ making and complex reasoning skills that are apparently involved in Internet search , according to the study , suggest a high quality of thought or simply the use of puzzle solving skills . Thomas Claburn , in InformationWeek , observed that the study 's findings regarding the cognitive impact of regular Internet usage were inconclusive and stated that " it will take time before it 's clear whether we should mourn the old ways , celebrate the new , or learn to stop worrying and love the Net " .

= Jon Lieber =

Jonathan Ray Lieber ( born April 2 , 1970 ) is a former Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher . He stands 6 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) tall and weighs 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) . He played for the Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1994 – 1998 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 1999 – 2002 and 2008 ) , New York Yankees ( 2004 ) , and Philadelphia Phillies ( 2005 – 2007 ) . He batted left @-@ handed and threw right @-@ handed , and utilized a fastball , a slider , and a changeup for his pitches . In a 14 @-@ season career , Lieber compiled a 131 – 124 record with 1 @,@ 553 strikeouts and a 4 @.@ 27 ERA in 2 @,@ 198 innings pitched .

Lieber attended the University of South Alabama , helping them win the Sun Belt Conference Championship . He was drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the second round of the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft , but he was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates the following season before even throwing a pitch in the major leagues . He made his debut in 1994 and was named the Pirates ' Opening Day starter in 1995 , but it was not until 1997 that he became a full @-@ time major league starter . He was traded to the Chicago Cubs following the 1998 season . In 2000 , he led the National League ( NL ) with 251 innings pitched . He had his best season in 2001 , winning 20 games while losing just six . Lieber underwent Tommy John surgery in 2002 and missed the entire 2003 season . In 2004 , he pitched for the New York Yankees , reaching the playoffs for the only time in his career . He signed with the Philadelphia Phillies in 2005 and tied for fifth in the NL with 17 wins . Injuries cut into his playing time over the next three years ; he finished his career as a reliever with the Cubs in 2008 .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life = = =

Lieber was born in Council Bluffs , Iowa . He graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School in Council Bluffs in 1988 . Lieber initially attended Iowa Western Community College in 1989 and 1990 before transferring to the University of South Alabama . Over the next two years , Lieber experienced great success for South Alabama . He posted 12 – 5 records for them both of his years there , and he led the team in earned run average ( ERA ) and strikeouts both years . He was selected by the Chicago Cubs in the ninth round of the 1991 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft , but he did not sign . In 1992 , he helped South Alabama win the Sun Belt Conference Championship .

Lieber received several honors following his senior season . These included the Sun Belt Conference Player of the Year award , a third @-@ team All @-@ America selection by the American Baseball Coaches Association , an all @-@ region award , and an all @-@ league award ( his second ) . In 2013 , he was inducted into the Mobile Sports Hall of Fame . He was drafted by the Kansas City Royals in the second round of the 1992 draft , and this time , he signed .

= = = Minor Leagues ( 1992 – 94 ) = = =

Lieber began his professional career with the A short season Eugene Emeralds of the Northwest League . In five starts with the Emeralds , he had a 3 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 16 ERA , 23 strikeouts , 22 walks , and 26 hits allowed in 31 innings pitched . He also appeared in seven games ( six starts ) for the Baseball City Royals of the A @-@ Advanced Florida State League , posting a 3 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 65 ERA , 19 strikeouts , eight walks , and 45 hits allowed in 31 innings pitched .

In 1993 , the Royals switched their A @-@ Advanced affiliate to the Wilmington Blue Rocks of the Carolina League . Lieber began the season with Wilmington , posting a 9 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 67 ERA , 89 strikeouts , nine walks , 125 hits allowed , and 114 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched in 17 games ( 16 starts ) . He was promoted to the AA Memphis Chicks of the Southern League on July 11 , where he posted a 2 – 1 record and a 6 @.@ 86 ERA in four starts . On July 31 , seeking pitching help as they contended for the playoffs , the Royals traded Lieber and Dan Miceli to the Pittsburgh Pirates for their closer , Stan Belinda . The Pirates assigned Lieber to the Southern League 's Carolina Mudcats ; in six starts , he had a 4 – 2 record , a 3 @.@ 97 ERA , 28 strikeouts , 10 walks , and 39 hits allowed in 34 innings pitched .

Lieber made three starts with the Mudcats in 1994 , posting a 2 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 29 ERA , 21 strikeouts , two walks , and 13 hits allowed in 21 innings . He also made three starts for the Buffalo Bisons of the Triple @-@ A American Association , posting a 1 – 1 record , a 1 @.@ 69 ERA , 21 strikeouts , one walk , and 16 hits allowed in 21 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .

= = = Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1994 – 98 ) = = =

Lieber was called up by the Pirates in May 1994 to join their starting rotation . In his first major league start on May 15 , he gave up one run in six innings but took the loss as the Philadelphia Phillies defeated the Pirates 1 – 0 . He earned his first career win five days later , pitching eight shutout innings in a 6 – 0 victory over the Montreal Expos . In 17 starts with the Pirates , Lieber had a 6 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 73 ERA , 71 strikeouts , 25 walks , and 116 hits allowed in 108 2 ⁄ 3 innings .

Following Lieber 's rookie season , Pirates ' manager Jim Leyland named Lieber the team 's Opening Day starter for 1995 . Like many of the young Pirates ' pitchers that year , Lieber struggled ; he was optioned to the Calgary Cannons of the Triple @-@ A Pacific Coast League on June 18 after going 2 – 7 with a 7 @.@ 48 ERA . In 14 starts with Calgary , Lieber had a 1 – 5 record , a 7 @.@ 01 ERA , 34 strikeouts , 19 walks , and 122 hits allowed in 77 innings pitched . He was recalled by the Pirates on September 5 when rosters expanded but was used mostly as a relief pitcher for the rest of the year . In 21 games ( 12 starts ) , Lieber compiled a 4 – 7 record , a 6 @.@ 32 ERA , 45 strikeouts , 14 walks , and 103 hits allowed in 72 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .

Lieber remained in the bullpen to begin the 1996 season . In his first 34 games , he posted a 4 @.@ 21 ERA . In July , he returned to the starting rotation following the release of Zane Smith . As a starter , Lieber posted a 7 – 2 record with a 3 @.@ 91 ERA , emerging as the Pirates ' ace by the end of the year . In 51 games ( 15 starts ) in 1996 , Lieber posted a 9 – 5 record , a 3 @.@ 99 ERA , 94 strikeouts , 28 walks , and 156 hits allowed in 142 innings pitched .

Lieber became the Pirates ' Opening Day starter again in 1997 . On June 30 , he threw his only complete game of the year , striking out 10 while allowing one run on five hits in a 3 – 1 victory over the Chicago White Sox . Lieber was inconsistent in 1997 , amassing several winning streaks and several losing streaks during the season . In 33 games ( 32 starts ) , he had an 11 – 14 record , a 4 @.@ 49 ERA , 160 strikeouts , 51 walks , and 193 hits allowed in 188 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was third in the NL in losses ( behind Mark Leiter 's 17 and teammate Steve Cooke 's 15 ) ; however , he tied Mike Hampton for the most runs batted in by a major league pitcher with eight .

In 1998 , Lieber was the Pirates ' fourth starter . He had a 5 – 10 record over his first 17 starts , partly because he received 15 total runs of support in the losses over that time . Lieber had an 8 – 13 record with a 3 @.@ 90 ERA before getting placed on the disabled list ( DL ) for the first time in his career on August 21 due to a left oblique muscle strain . He returned from the DL on September 15 but posted a 10 @.@ 80 ERA over his last two starts . In 29 games ( 28 starts ) , Lieber posted an 8 – 14 record , a 4 @.@ 11 ERA , 138 strikeouts , 40 walks , and 182 hits allowed in 171 innings pitched . He was tied with seven other pitchers for fifth in the league in losses . Following the season , Lieber was traded to the Chicago Cubs for Brant Brown .

= = = Chicago Cubs ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =

Lieber began 1999 as the Cubs ' third starter . Prior to the All @-@ Star break , he had an 8 – 3 record with a 3 @.@ 26 ERA ( seventh @-@ best in the NL ) . From April 29 to May 8 , he was on the DL with a right eye contusion . He threw his first major league shutout on May 14 , striking out seven in a 9 – 0 victory over the Atlanta Braves . Lieber went 0 – 8 with a 5 @.@ 71 ERA in his first 13 starts following the All @-@ Star Break before earning wins in his final two starts of the year . In 31 starts , Lieber compiled a 10 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 07 ERA , and 46 walks in 203 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was tied for tenth in the league with 226 hits allowed ( along with teammate Steve Trachsel ) , but he finished eighth in the league with 186 strikeouts and tied with six other players for ninth in the league with three complete games .

In 2000 , Lieber was the Cubs ' Opening Day starter . From June 28 to August 14 , he won a career @-@ high six consecutive decisions . On July 3 , he threw a shutout , allowing two hits in a 3 – 0 victory over the Pirates . In his next start , on July 8 , he had 12 strikeouts and threw a complete game in a 9 – 2 win over the White Sox . Lieber was 12 – 7 with a 4 @.@ 12 ERA through his first 29 starts ; however , he went 0 – 4 in September with a 5 @.@ 88 ERA . In 35 starts ( tied for the NL lead with Randy Johnson , Kevin Millwood , Tom Glavine , and Greg Maddux ) , Lieber had a 12 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 41 ERA , and 54 walks . He tied Darryl Kile for ninth in the league with 192 strikeouts , he led the league with 251 innings pitched , he ranked third in the league with 248 hits allowed ( behind Liván Hernández 's 254 and José Lima 's 251 ) , and he tied Maddux for third with six complete games ( behind Johnson 's and Curt Schilling 's eight ) .

Lieber 's most productive season came in 2001 . On May 24 , he one @-@ hit the Cincinnati Reds , 3 – 0 , ending the team 's NL @-@ record streak of 208 games in a row without being shut out , throwing just 78 pitches . From June 16 to July 15 , he won six straight games . He was named an All @-@ Star for the first and only time in his career . In his final start of the season on October 3 , he allowed five runs in six innings but still earned his 20th win of the season as the Cubs beat the Reds 13 – 7 . In 34 starts , Lieber recorded a career @-@ high 20 victories to go with just six losses , posted a 3 @.@ 80 ERA , and struck out 148 as opposed to 41 walks . His 20 wins ranked fourth in the league ( behind Matt Morris 's and Schilling 's 22 and Johnson 's 21 ) , his 232 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched ranked fifth in the league , and his five complete games tied for second in the league with Javier Vázquez ( behind Johnson 's six ) . He finished fourth in the NL Cy Young Award vote , behind Johnson , Schilling , and Morris .

Lieber 's 2002 season was curtailed by right elbow problems , which plagued him all year . On August 1 , facing the San Diego Padres , Lieber allowed two runs in seven innings but received a no @-@ decision in an 8 – 7 Cubs ' victory . He was placed on the DL with right elbow tendinitis the next day , and he underwent Tommy John surgery on August 8 , ending his season . In 21 starts , Lieber compiled a 6 – 8 record , a 3 @.@ 70 ERA , 87 strikeouts , 12 walks , and 153 hits allowed in 141 innings pitched . He still managed to tie Randy Wolf , Brett Tomko , Pedro Astacio , and teammate Matt Clement for tenth in the league with three complete games . After the season , he became a free agent .

While on the Cubs , Lieber became the only Major League pitcher to give up a hit to a one handed player when he gave up not just one hit , but two to Jim Abbott , also allowing Abbott to drive in three RBIs .

= = = Other teams ( 2004 – 08 ) = = =

Lieber signed a two @-@ year contract with the New York Yankees following the 2002 season . He missed the 2003 season recovering from his injury , although he did make two minor league rehab appearances . Lieber began the 2004 season on the DL with a strained abductor muscle in his right thigh . He returned to the major leagues on May 1 , allowing three runs in seven innings in a 12 – 4 victory over the Kansas City Royals . Through August 1 , he had a 7 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 06 ERA . From then on , Lieber went 7 – 1 with a 3 @.@ 21 ERA . On September 14 , he took a no @-@ hitter into the seventh inning against the Boston Red Sox and allowed three runs in 8 1 ⁄ 3 innings in a 14 – 4 victory . In 27 starts , Lieber posted a 14 – 8 record , a 4 @.@ 33 ERA , 102 strikeouts , 18 walks , and 216 hits allowed in 176 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . His 14 wins tied with eight other pitchers for eighth in the American League ( AL ) and tied with Javier Vázquez for the most by a Yankee as well as being the largest win total by an ex @-@ 20 game winner returning from a full @-@ season layoff since 1946 .

Dave Caldwell of the New York Times wrote on September 3 that Lieber would " probably end up in the bullpen " in the playoffs , but less than a month later , Mark Feinsand of MLB.com wrote that Lieber " has suddenly become one of the most important cogs in the Yankees ' postseason machine " due an injury to Kevin Brown and late @-@ season struggles by Vázquez . Lieber started Game 2 of the AL Division Series against the Minnesota Twins . He allowed three runs over 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings and was in line for the win , but he received a no @-@ decision in a 12 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 Yankee victory . The Yankees won the series in four games . In Game 2 of the AL Championship Series against the Red Sox , Lieber allowed one run and three hits in seven innings , earning the win in a 3 – 1 victory . In Game 6 , he allowed four runs in 7 1 ⁄ 3 innings and took the loss in a 4 – 2 defeat . The Red Sox become the first MLB team in history to overcome a 3 – 0 series deficit , winning in seven games . 2004 would be Lieber 's only playoff experience , as well as his only stint in the AL .

Before the 2005 season , Lieber signed as a free agent with the Philadelphia Phillies for three years and $ 24 million with a team option for the fourth year . He was named the Phillies ' Opening Day starter in 2005 . He won his first four starts with the team . From May 12 through June 30 , Lieber had a 3 – 7 record and a 7 @.@ 48 ERA . 8 – 8 by the end of that stretch , he managed to post a 9 – 5 record and a 3 @.@ 32 ERA to finish the season . Lieber gave up one run in eight innings on July 21 but took the loss as the Los Angeles Dodgers defeated the Phillies 1 – 0 . On September 22 , he threw eight shutout innings in a 4 – 0 victory over the Braves . Lieber finished the season with a 17 – 13 record , a 4 @.@ 20 ERA , 149 strikeouts , 41 walks , and 223 hits allowed in 218 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Lieber led the team with 17 wins , which tied with Andy Pettitte for fifth in the league . He tied with six other pitchers for the league lead with 35 starts .

Lieber lost his first four starts of the season in 2006 for the first time in his career . On May 13 , he took a perfect game into the seventh inning against Cincinnati before allowing a two @-@ out single to Adam Dunn ; he threw 8 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in a 2 – 0 victory . He was on the DL from May 30 to July 6 with a groin injury . Before going on the DL , he had a 3 – 5 record and a 5 @.@ 79 ERA . He posted a 6 @.@ 75 ERA in his first five starts after returning from the DL , but he posted a 3 @.@ 38 in his final 11 starts . On August 16 , he threw his first shutout since 2001 against the New York Mets , allowing five hits in a 3 – 0 victory . In 27 starts , Lieber compiled a 9 – 11 record , a 4 @.@ 93 ERA , 100 strikeouts , 24 walks , and 196 hits allowed in 168 innings pitched .

Lieber began 2007 on the DL with a strained right oblique , and when he was activated on April 9 , he was placed in the bullpen . After two relief outings , he returned to the rotation on April 20 when Brett Myers was moved to the bullpen . On June 9 , he struck out 11 and allowed three hits in a 4 – 0 shutout of the Royals . At the time , he was 3 – 4 with a 3 @.@ 72 ERA , but he allowed 14 runs ( 13 earned ) over his next two starts , both losses . On June 23 , Lieber was placed on the DL with a ruptured tendon in his right foot , which ended his tenure with the Phillies . In 14 games ( 12 starts ) , he had a 3 – 6 record , a 4 @.@ 73 ERA , 54 strikeouts , 22 walks , and 91 hits allowed in 78 innings . The Phillies reached the playoffs , but Lieber was left off their postseason roster because of his injury .

On January 16 , 2008 , Lieber signed a one @-@ year contract with the Chicago Cubs . He competed for the starting rotation but failed to earn a spot and was placed in the bullpen as the Cubs ' long reliever . From July 18 to September 1 , he was on the DL with a right foot injury . He appeared in his final major league game on September 5 , giving up four runs in two innings in a 10 – 2 loss to Cincinnati . In 26 games ( one start ) , Lieber posted a 2 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 05 ERA , 27 strikeouts , six walks , and 59 hits allowed in 46 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . The Cubs reached the playoffs , but Lieber was left off the playoff roster for the second year in a row .

Lieber retired after the 2008 season wanting to spend more time with his family . In his 14 @-@ year career , Lieber had a 131 – 124 record , a 4 @.@ 27 ERA , 1 @,@ 553 strikeouts , 422 walks , 2 @,@ 388 hits allowed , and 2 @,@ 198 innings pitched in 401 games ( 327 starts ) . His strikeout @-@ to @-@ walk ratio of 3 @.@ 680 ranks 11th all @-@ time among major league pitchers as of 2013 .

= = = Pitching style = = =

Lieber threw three pitches : a fastball , a slider , and a changeup . The slider was the pitch Lieber often used to get outs and was most successful against right @-@ handed batters . The changeup darted away from batters . Lieber was not a hard thrower ( his fastball was in the low 90 mph range ) ; he relied on controlling his pitches to have success .

= = = Personal = = =

Lieber married Jessica Conway on September 18 , 1992 . The couple has one daughter : Jillian ( born October 22 , 1997 ) , and three sons : Jared ( born July 27 , 2000 ) , Justin ( born May 8 , 2003 ) , and Jonah ( born June 1 , 2007 ) . They live in Mobile , Alabama . Lieber enjoys hunting as a hobby .

= Destiny Fulfilled =

Destiny Fulfilled is the fifth and final studio album by American R & B trio Destiny 's Child . It was released on November 10 , 2004 in by Columbia Records and Sony Urban Music . A comeback release , it marked the return of Destiny 's Child after the group went into hiatus , which allowed each member to release solo albums . Unlike their previous material , this record saw each member equally contributing to the songwriting and production . Destiny 's Child further worked with frequent collaborators such as Rockwilder , Swizz Beatz and Rodney Jerkins as well as several new producers .

For the album 's theme , the members drew inspiration from the conversations they had during the first week of recording when they discussed about the happenings in their lives while being apart . Composed mostly of mid @-@ tempo songs and ballads that are subsequent continuations of each other , altogether telling one complete story , Destiny Fulfilled is an R & B album . It was released to generally mixed reviews among music critics who criticized its mid @-@ tempo ballads and lyrical content . The album was commercially successful ; it reached number two on the US Billboard 200 , and has since been certified triple platinum in that region . It was also successful in different countries worldwide receiving certifications in Australia , Canada , Germany and the United Kingdom among others .

As part of the album 's promotion , the group performed songs from it on numerous award ceremonies and televised appearances in the US and Europe . They further embarked on the tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in 2005 with 67 dates across four continents worldwide . Destiny Fulfilled spawned four singles — the lead single " Lose My Breath " , " Soldier " , " Girl " and " Cater 2 U " . After the tour , the band disbanded which made Destiny Fulfilled their last studio album .

= = Background = =

While recording their third studio album Survivor in late 2000 , Beyoncé announced that Destiny 's Child would be on a hiatus that would allow each member to release a solo album , which they hoped would further increase interest in the group . The idea of solo releases emanated from the group 's manager , Beyoncé 's father , Mathew Knowles . Kelly Rowland further explained in an interview that Destiny 's Child has been present in the media for a long time and they wanted to " give the public eye a rest from DC for a minute " . During that same interview , she acknowledged that the trio would return to the studio in fall 2003 to start with the work on a new album .

Two members of the group , Beyoncé and Rowland each released one album , while Michelle Williams released two . While each member achieved domestic success , Beyoncé 's had been regarded as the most successful with the release of Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) , which enjoyed international commercial success and acclaim . This , along with their other ongoing projects , led to speculation over the disbandment of Destiny 's Child . Amidst rumors and speculations , Rowland announced in 2004 their return to the studio to record what would become their fourth and final album . The group claimed that the reunion was destined to happen , and that their affinity to each other kept them together .

Right in the making of the album , they planned to part ways after their fourteen @-@ year career to facilitate their continued pursuit in individual aspirations . Beyoncé has noted that their destinies were already fulfilled ; however , Destiny 's Child claimed that naming the album Destiny Fulfilled was not a coincidence of sort . Beyoncé has said that " the group felt it still had something to offer musically " with the album before adding : " We did this record for ourselves , not to sell a million the first week out ... That doesn 't mean as much to us as just the fact that three friends got back together to do another record . That was our destiny . " . Rowland commented : " We were like , ' You know what , we 're getting older and we want to end on a high note . ' We want to give our fans a great final record " . Beyoncé , also commented regarding the finality of their career : " Who knows what will happen in three , five or 10 years ? The main thing is that we maintain our friendship and that we do it because we want to – not because it 's a good business move . "

= = Production and recording = =

Production of the album began in summer of 2004 with Destiny 's Child taking help from frequent collaborators including Rockwilder , Swizz Beatz and Rodney Jerkins . The group worked on the album within a period of three weeks . Jerkins , who had worked with Beyoncé for her solo album Dangerously in Love , concerned how he would manage the production , saying , " How is this going to work ? ' Cause Beyoncé , she blew up solo , so how 's it going to work in a group together ? " . He stated that once he got inside the studio , however , his skepticism vanished as he saw the group 's " excitement being back in the studio together " , calling the process " natural " . The members of the group stated that the first week of recording was spent solely on conversations about the happenings in their lives while being apart from each other as they hadn 't spent quaility time for a long period . This further inspired them to record the conversations and use it as the main theme of the record .

Differing from Survivor in that previously Beyoncé had taken an active role in writing and producing , Destiny Fulfilled saw each member contributing inputs culled from personal experiences and individual opinions and points of view not dependent from the others ' . In most cases , producers of the album would send them a CD containing a track that would be the group 's basis in the songwriting process ; without the producer 's supervision of which part to sing , that formed a new direction of their style different from their previous records . The traditional approach where each member sang one verse and chimed in the chorus was replaced ; in some songs in Destiny Fulfilled , their vocals were alternated in every line of the lyrics , a technique similar to hip hop artists . Destiny 's Child took the role of executive producing alongside their manager , Mathew Knowles . Beyoncé , who vocally produced the songs , commented that it was important for her to make sure their voices were audible and identifiable . Taking it as one of her goals , the group decided to focus on mid @-@ tempo songs and on few dance numbers and ballads — which they considered people cannot sing with . Beyoncé elaborated " We wanted to make sure that the songs would be something that we were proud of 10 years from now , 20 years from now . We wanted it to be something that people can really feel an emotion to . Up @-@ tempo songs can do that , but they more make you wanna dance . " As Rowland was recently engaged in the time of the writing of the album , it further influenced her songwriting . She also cited that being apart from the group had an impact on the album as well : " All of us have been in three different places ... so there 's a lot to talk about , a lot that 's gone on , personally . I think it 's important to talk about that on this new record , to put what we 've been going through separately into the new record . "

= = Composition = =

During an interview with MTV , Beyoncé stated that the songs put altogether tell a complete story and noted that each song was a subsequent continuation to the next one . She concluded , " [ The album continues with ] this whole journey of this group of women trying to find love . And truly they find it because they love themselves and find it in themselves . It 's friendship , it 's love , it 's maturity and growth , and it 's everything that we wanted it to be . " For the music of the album , the group tried challenging themselves , working with different arrangements , trying to create an original sound ; to succeed in this , they were influenced by The Emotions , Jodeci and SWV mixing elements of their music . Destiny Fulfilled is predominantly an R & B concept album tracing a woman 's relationship journey . Critics further found elements of soul music , dance and hip @-@ hop . The album is mostly composed of mid and slowtempo balladry following the opening two songs ; Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian felt that the ballads showcased " the girliness in the trio , musically and lyrically " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine found elements of middle of the road music in the ballads .

The album opens with the up @-@ tempo dance song " Lose My Breath " , a track detailing a man full of empty promises to a woman . It is musically complete with military , marching @-@ band drums and keyboard stabs and the backing track contains various sound effects . " Soldier " , the second track with T.I. and Lil Wayne , the only featured artists on the album , contains elements from Southern hip hop and Crunk & B. Unsatisfied and unfulfilled with the lover from the opening song , the protagonists ask for a decent soldier , further singing about finding a gangster . After finding the soldier , the third song , the R & B number " Cater 2 U " , lyrically is about submissively serving the man considered as such . Inspired by him , the protagonists sing about doing various things to make him happy musically accompanied by synthesizer as the song builds a crescendo .

The fourth song " T @-@ Shirt " is complete with inorganic drum sounds , guitar and backwards loop as the trio sings about sleeping in bed with their man 's T @-@ shirt , " craving his presence , and inhailing his scent " . " Is She the Reason " is an R & B ballad which was noted to have a similar chord progression to materials by The Beatles , which lyrically speaks on being in competition with another woman for her mans love & attention . It contains a trumpet @-@ laden sample from Melba Moore 's song " I Don 't Know No One Else to Turn To " . The next song , " Girl " was noted for its Motown influence and a theme talking about friendship . " If " , complete with strings , lyrically talks about men who don 't appreciate their female lovers until their relationship ends and they realize their mistakes . " Free " was described as a " soul classic from 1975 " with critics also noting elements of 1970s funk music , as the trio speaks on being " set free " after being in a relationship where her lover never tending to her desires like she does for him . The midtempo number " Through with Love " was noted for having an " angry " nature as it talks about a break @-@ up . It contains an undulating piano line as the members of the group sing with restrained vocals and later religious redemption with elements of gospel . In " Love " , " capital L kicks the daylights out of the forces of fear , doubt and disappointment " , as the group " thank [ s ] God for love " . They further sing about how people " can 't truly love another until [ they ] love God and then [ themselves ] " . They further proclaim that they have found love and are " madly in it " .

= = Release and promotion = =

The track listing of Destiny Fulfilled was revealed on October 15 , 2004 . The album was first released in Japan on November 10 , 2004 . It was released on November 16 , 2004 , in North America via Columbia Records . Although the original release was intended to be one day earlier , Columbia Records was concerned about " potential for Internet leaks and ' burned ' CD counterfeits " that could " lead consumers to experience inferior and incomplete versions of the album " which led to the postponement of Destiny Fulfilled .

The group performed " Lose My Breath " on ABC 's 2004 National Football League " Opening Kickoff " special after its online release on September 9 , 2004 , to break their yearlong hiatus . On October 25 , 2004 , they appeared at the Radio Music Awards in Las Vegas performing the song with an a cappella jazz opening . The following month they performed three songs from their previous albums and finished with " Lose My Breath " on The Oprah Winfrey Show where they also sat down for an interview with Oprah Winfrey . On November 8 , 2004 , the trio appeared on Total Request Live ( TRL ) and performed the song along with " Say My Name " . They went to the German entertainment TV show Wetten , dass .. ? on November 13 , 2004 , and performed " Lose My Breath " . At BET 's 106 & Park Destiny 's Child performed " Soldier " on November 15 , 2004 . They also performed the song on CBS 's The Early Show on December 8 , 2004 . In early February 2005 they gave another performance of " Soldier " at the British show Top of the Pops . At the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 , they sang both " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " . They performed the latter song again at the 2005 ESPY Awards on July 13 with the ceremony being aired on ESPN four days later . " Cater 2 U " was performed on June 28 during the 2005 BET Awards in Los Angeles .

When the advanced release date of the album was announced , the group confirmed the initial dates of their worldwide tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in connection with Destiny Fulfilled 's promotion . Promotions of the tour were aired over the radio and television across the United States and the group further collaborated with McDonald 's , which served as its sponsor . The tour 's set list included songs from Destiny Fulfilled as well as Destiny 's Child 's previous albums and songs from the solo albums of each member performed individually . Numerous costume changes occurred throughout the show ; the concert exhibited products from Beyoncé 's clothing line from the House of Deréon , a company she co @-@ founded with her mother Tina Knowles . A performance from the tour was filmed in Atlanta on July 15 , 2005 , and the DVD Destiny 's Child Live in Atlanta chronicling the concert was released on March 28 , 2006 .

= = Singles = =

The album 's lead single , " Lose My Breath " , premiered on AOL Music on September 9 , 2004 and it was released on September 21 . Its high @-@ mark debut at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 prior to its release gave the album an early boost . The single peaked at number three on the chart for the week ending November 6 , 2004 giving the group their ninth top ten single . " Lose My Breath " topped the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending January 8 , 2005 and was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 28 , 2005 selling 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was also successful across Europe , peaking at number one on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for the week ending December 4 , 2004 spending four consecutive weeks on top . It managed to top the charts in Belgium , Ireland , Italy and Switzerland and it further appeared in the top ten in almost every other chart . The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) used the song as the music for their introductory montage at the 2004 NBA Playoffs and through the first few weeks of the 2005 NBA Playoffs .

" Soldier " , released on December 7 , 2004 , peaked at the third position on the Billboard Hot 100 chart becoming the band 's tenth top ten single on that chart . It further became the second single from the album to top the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending February 26 , 2005 . The RIAA gave it a gold certification for selling 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . " Soldier " further peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart , number 3 on the ARIA Charts in Australia and appeared in the top 20 in many European countries . The third single from the album , " Girl " was released on May 2 , 2005 in the UK and on May 17 in the US . It was successful on the ARIA Chart peaking at number five and number six both on the UK Singles Chart and the New Zealand Singles Chart in addition to appearing in other European charts . In the US , it peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart becoming the lowest charting single there from the album . The fourth and final single from Destiny Fulfilled was " Cater 2 U " released in the US and Italy only beginning on June 14 , 2005 . It peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs further being certified gold by the RIAA .

= = Critical reception = =

Destiny Fulfilled received mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 52 based on 17 reviews . Dimitri Ehrlich of Vibe magazine complimented the production of the album , saying that it " showcases advanced production values " with " impressive " songwriting and vocal abilities and concluded that it " offers divine satisfaction " . A writer of Billboard felt that Destiny Fulfilled worked as " a testament to Beyoncé 's evolving multiple talents " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic praised Rowland 's and Williams ' abilities as vocalists and their contributions to the choruses , but felt that Beyoncé " steals every song on Destiny Fulfilled " further commending her for sounding " larger than life even when she 's quiet " ; however he concluded , " as a whole , the album winds up sounding too reserved and heavy @-@ handed , which makes it a disappointment " . Andy Battaglia of The A.V. Club wrote in his review that " Destiny Fulfilled sounds distant and detached " further criticizing its mid @-@ tempo ballads for sounding " uninterrupted at best , uninspired at worst " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times commented that it is " a surprisingly perfunctory disc that never quite justifies its existence " . Alan Ranta of Tiny Mix Tapes doubted Beyoncé 's lyrical sincerity , saying , " the success of this album depends once again on the complete suspension of die @-@ hard fans ' disbelief that Beyoncé ' Your Ad Here ' Knowles could ever actually truly love another human being as much as she loves herself and her possessions . "

Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian commented that the lead vocals of the songs were likely to be sung by each member equally , noting that it made the album a " democratic " one ; however she criticized them for squandering " the extent of their talents " on the album . Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly also noticed its " overall air of democracy at work " and noted that Destiny Fulfilled " often moves at a molasses @-@ like pace , weighted down with a preponderance of exquisitely executed but ultimately dull ballads " . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone magazine echoed his comments , saying , " In all but a couple of songs , the verses are divided into three sections , with Beyonce leading things off , followed by Rowland , then Williams " . She noted that after a couple of upbeat songs , " the album slumps into an endless string of overwrought R & B ballads where the only saving grace is ... these ladies can harmonize like nobody 's business . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine has commented that the ballads of the album build into " the same sort of standoffish sexual supply @-@ and @-@ demand bartering that has marred their worst tracks " . Most of the critics questioned why Beyoncé had to return to Destiny 's Child after achieving the most success among the members of the group . Henderson lambasted Beyoncé to performing again with the group with the " full intention " of taking advantage to bolster her " divette " status to superstardom . In May 2006 , Destiny Fulfilled was listed at number 24 on a list titled " The 50 Worst Albums Ever ! " complied by Q magazine .

= = = Accolades = = =

The album won in the category for Favorite Soul / R & B Album at the 2005 American Music Awards where Destiny 's Child also won the Favorite Soul / R & B Band award . At the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards Destiny Fulfilled received an award for Best R & B / Soul Album while " Soldier " received Best R & B / Soul Single . The album was nominated in the category for Best Contemporary R & B Album at the 48th Grammy Awards in 2006 but it lost to Mariah Carey 's The Emancipation of Mimi . Its singles " Soldier " and " Cater 2 U " further received nominations in three different categories at the same ceremony . The previous year , " Lose My Breath " was nominated in the category for Best R & B Vocal Performance by a Duo Or Group at the 47th Annual Grammy Awards .

= = Chart performance = =

In the United States , the album debuted at number 19 on the Billboard 200 for the week ending November 27 , 2004 for amassing sales of 61 @,@ 000 copies prior to a whole tracking week . In its first official week of sales , Destiny Fulfilled sold over 497 @,@ 000 copies , with an increase of 713 % compared to its early sales ; the album 's chart position rocketed to number two on the Billboard 200 for the week ending December 4 , 2004 . In the same week , it debuted at number one on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart becoming the group 's second chart topper following Survivor in 2001 . After being removed from the top position for three consecutive weeks , Destiny Fulfilled returned to number one for the week ending January 1 , 2005 . On January 14 , 2005 it was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . It emerged as the seventh best @-@ selling album and third best @-@ selling R & B album in 2005 . As of October 2009 , the album has sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan . It was ranked at number 133 on the decade @-@ end chart of the best @-@ selling albums in that country for the period between 2000 and 2009 . The album peaked at number 3 on the Canadian Albums Chart and was awarded platinum certification by Music Canada selling 100 @,@ 000 copies .

In the UK , Destiny Fulfilled debuted at number five on the UK Albums Chart on November 27 , 2004 which also became its peak position in that country . Having spent a total of 21 weeks on the chart , it became the group 's third album to enter the top ten in the UK until 2005 and the fourth one in their entire career . On November 19 , 2004 , the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it platinum for selling 300 @,@ 000 copies . On the Irish Albums Chart , Destiny Fulfilled debuted and peaked at number 6 on November 18 , 2004 becoming Destiny 's Child third consecutive top ten album in Ireland . It was also successful in other European countries , peaking at number 3 on the German Albums Chart , further being certified platinum in that region . In France , Destiny Fulfilled peaked at number nine in its first week on November 14 , 2004 . It was last seen on the country 's albums chart at number 163 on September 3 , 2005 .

On the Australian ARIA Albums Chart , Destiny Fulfilled debuted at number 11 on November 28 , 2004 , a position which later became its peak . Spending a total of 31 weeks through 2004 and 2005 ascending and descending the chart , the album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies in that region . In New Zealand , Destiny Fulfilled peaked at number 21 on April 25 , 2005 and the Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) awarded it with a gold certification for 7 @,@ 500 copies sold . In Japan , the album debuted and peaked at number four on the Oricon chart due to the success of " Lose My Breath " which reached number one on the singles chart there . The album has sold over 625 @,@ 000 copies there and was certified double platinum by Oricon making it Destiny 's Child 's biggest success there to date . It won in the category Rock / Pop Album of the Year International at the 19th Japan Gold Disc Award in 2005 organized by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Destiny Fulfilled was named the eighth best @-@ selling album of 2004 worldwide by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) .

= = Disbandment = =

In a visit at the Palau Sant Jordi in Barcelona , Spain on July 11 , 2005 , Rowland announced before 16 @,@ 000 spectators that Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It would be Destiny 's Child last tour together , revealing their formal disbandment . After their final North American leg , the group parted ways . In a statement released to MTV , the band said that the tour had provided them the opportunity to depart from Destiny 's Child on a " high note " . They also talked about the moment when the group started their musical endeavor and their realizations of pursuing individual careers after working together for several years . Destiny 's Child thanked fans for their support while not closing the chance of seeing them continuing each member 's goals in music , film , and television . In another interview they explained that their disbandment was planned during the making of the album . While in the studio , they discussed individual aspirations and realized that remaining as a group would prevent them in pursuing those interests . Rowland revealed that they wanted to break up while they were still successful and " friends [ with each other ] " . Beyoncé , however , emphasized that Destiny Fulfilled would not be their last album and disclosed the idea of a possible reunion .

= = Track listings = =

Wal @-@ Mart exclusive DVD

A Wal @-@ Mart exclusive DVD titled " Fan Pack " was released on November 9 , 2004 a week before the release of Destiny Fulfilled . It was available at Wal @-@ Mart only for a limited time .

Notes

" Is She the Reason " samples " I Don 't Know No One Else to Turn To " as performed by Melba Moore .

" Girl " samples " Ocean of Thoughts and Dreams " as written by Don Davis and Eddie Robinson and performed by The Dramatics .

" Game Over " samples " Flashback " as performed by Dee Dee Sharp .

" If " samples " Inseparable " as written by Chuck Jackson and Marvin Yancy and performed by Natalie Cole .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Destiny Fulfilled .

Production

Vocal producers : Sean Garrett , Solange Knowles , Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams

Vocal editing : Sam Thomas , Rommel Nino Villanueva

Mixing : Andrew Dawson , Vincent Dilorenzo , Tony Maserati , Dave Pensado , Dexter Simmons , Phil Tan

A & R : Theresa LaBarbera Whites , Huy Nguyen

Production coordination : Candice Childress

Design : Alice Butts , Ian Cuttler

Art direction : Alice Butts , Ian Cuttler

Photography : Fabrizio Ferri

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= = Certifications = =

= Moses Hardy =

Moses Hardy ( January 6 , 1894 – December 7 , 2006 ) was , at age 112 , the last surviving black veteran of World War I and one of the last surviving American veterans of that war . The son of former slaves , Hardy was born in 1894 and lived a religious and farming life until he signed up to serve overseas in World War I in July 1918 . He served in the segregated 805th infantry , which was assigned a variety of manual labor and support tasks . Hardy himself served as a scout , supplying the front line troops when necessary . Though Hardy did experience combat , he was never seriously injured and rarely discussed his experiences concerning the fighting . Instead , he preferred to recount stories about the food , the bravery of the soldiers and the weather in France .

After the war , he took on a variety of jobs including school bus driver , farmer , deacon and cosmetics salesman , the latter of which he performed well past his 100th birthday . He received the Victory Medal , a special medal from the Mississippi National Guard and the French Légion d 'honneur . In 1999 , the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi . At the time of his death , at the age of 112 , he was recognized as the oldest combat veteran ever , the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and the second @-@ oldest man and World War I veteran in the world .

= = Early life = =

Hardy was born in Aberdeen , Mississippi in 1894 . Hardy 's parents , Morris Hardy — born in the 1840s — and Nancy Hardy , were former slaves who after the Civil War had purchased 265 acres ( 1 @.@ 07 km2 ) of land in Mississippi from a Chickasaw Native American for a dollar . The Hardy family was a deeply religious one , and Moses would later recount that Exodus 20 : 12 , which instructed one to honor their parents , was his favorite Bible passage and one which he lived by . Hardy was married once , to a woman by the name of Fannie Marshall , with whom he would end up having eight children .

= = Military career = =

Hardy 's service in France lasted from July 1918 to July 1919 , and included thirty @-@ nine combat days . As an African American , he served in a segregated army unit , the 805th Pioneer Infantry , which was commanded by white officers . Although the unit 's purpose was to provide support for engineer regiments , it was also an infantry unit that was equipped to fight if necessary . The unit focused mainly of the tasks of stevedores , such as unloading cargo from ships , but also performed other manual labor tasks , such as cooking and organizing burials . Hardy 's outfit was armed solely with rifles , instead of standard @-@ issue machine guns . After the war , Hardy 's division was responsible for cleaning up the battlefields and removing the dead .

Hardy himself admitted to his family that he was " scared to death " when he first arrived overseas , but believed that the soldiers were fed something to make them brave , which he referred to as " brave pills " . After a short time in the military , he claimed that he was not afraid of anything that he experienced from then on . Even in the heat of battle , Hardy professed that he would get " wound up " at times , but never frightened . He recalled many strange experiences with food and drink , such as getting used to drinking green water from canteens and eating hardtacks , which he found to be surprisingly filling . To go with this , there was often little more than small tins of ham or chicken and occasionally coffee to drink and pudding or pie for dessert . Hardy also witnessed many of his friends get killed in action , and relied on his faith in God to get him through the toughest times .

Hardy often acted as a scout who would help bring supplies to troops on the front line . On September 25 , 1918 , he was present at the Meuse River during a mustard gas attack and , at some point during the war , he received an injury to his knee . Hardy rarely spoke about the fighting itself , and preferred to talk about France 's weather when asked about his experiences overseas .

= = Post @-@ World War I = =

Throughout the years , he received the Victory Medal , the Occupational Medal from the Mississippi Army National Guard , an honourable discharge ( which he had not received upon leaving the army ) and the French Légion d 'honneur . In 1999 , when he was 105 years old , the Mississippi Legislature adopted a resolution recognizing him as an outstanding citizen of Mississippi . At the time , he was known as the oldest living World War I veteran , as Emiliano Mercado del Toro had not yet been discovered . He was interviewed by Treehouse Productions in 2006 as part of their Living History Project , a radio tribute to the last surviving World War I veterans that was hosted by Walter Cronkite . Though he could not speak coherently , his son Haywood Hardy , himself 80 years old at the time , recalled some of the stories that his father had told him .

Hardy did not serve in World War II and instead drove a school bus , farmed and sold linaments and wigs for " Lucky Heart " cosmetics until his retirement . He reportedly continued to go door @-@ to @-@ door for several years past his centenary , even resorting to phone sales when his children hid the keys of his 1972 Chevrolet Caprice . The youngest of his eight children , Jean Dukes , was born in the late 1940s . He also served as a deacon and superintendent of a Sunday School class at Mount Olive Church for over 75 years . His son claimed that , until about four years before he died , his father was healthy enough to drive his car into town every day . Hardy 's longevity was also credited to a daily meal that consisted of cabbage , corn bread , butter milk , potatoes and Dr Pepper , and the fact that he never drank alcohol or smoked in his life . Until a few years before his death , it was claimed that Hardy had never had a seriously ill day in his life and that he never took medicine , as it only made him sick . Hardy lived on his own until 2004 when his legs weakened and he found it almost impossible to walk . He was placed in a rest home , but was still able to feed himself and pass the days watching The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Price Is Right .

At the time of his death , he was the oldest United States combat veteran ever , the oldest male ever recorded in Mississippi and had outlived at least three of his eight children . It was reported that he had several dozen grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren . He was also ranked as the sixth @-@ oldest living verified person in the world , the second @-@ oldest man and World War I veteran behind only del Toro and the last African American one . Although he suffered from mild dementia in his later years , he was reported to have been completely lucid through his final days and his death was attributed to natural causes .

= Fresh Blood ( Supernatural ) =

" Fresh Blood " is the seventh episode of the paranormal drama Supernatural 's third season on The CW , and is the show 's fifty @-@ first episode overall . The episode was written by Sera Gamble and directed by Kim Manners ; it was first broadcast on November 15 , 2007 . The narrative follows the series ' protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they have their final confrontation with hunter Gordon Walker ( Sterling K. Brown ) , who has been turned into a vampire .

It also features the demise of recurring antagonist Gordon Walker . Brown , who was forced to leave the show due to commitments to the Lifetime Television series Army Wives , was horrified at Gordon 's actions in the episode . Mercedes McNab of Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel fame made a cameo appearance , and was also busy filming the television series Reaper during the episode 's production .

The episode received ratings near the season average , and garnered generally positive reviews from critics . Brown 's performance was praised , as well as the twist in his character 's storyline . Also applauded were both Sam 's confrontation with Dean over his recent reckless behavior and the resulting reconciliation at the episode 's end . Many critics found the presence of character Bela Talbot ( Lauren Cohan ) in the episode to be pointless , while the critic for TV Guide enjoyed McNab 's cameo and wished it had been longer .

= = Plot = =

Hunter Gordon Walker ( Brown ) , who believes that Sam Winchester ( Padalecki ) will one day turn evil and become involved in a demonic war against humanity , escapes from prison . He tracks down Bela Talbot ( Cohan ) — a thief and frequent thorn in the Winchesters ' sides — and threatens to kill her unless she reveals the location of the brothers . She refuses at first , but eventually acquiesces in exchange for a priceless mojo bag . Meanwhile , Sam and Dean ( Ackles ) capture the vampire Lucy ( McNab ) , who has previously taken two victims . They interrogate her , and discover that another vampire named Dixon spiked her drink with his own blood at a club , transforming her . Dixon had taken her back to his home , but she escaped to feed . Lucy , still believing that she has only been drugged , is then killed by Dean , as there is no known cure for vampirism .

The brothers locate and confront Dixon , but are interrupted by Gordon and fellow hunter Kubrick . Sam and Dean escape , but in the mayhem , Dixon kidnaps Gordon . The vampire later explains to Gordon that hunters killed his nest , and now he wants to rebuild his family . Though Dixon had planned on using Gordon as food , the hunter 's continuous taunting prompts him to feed him his blood . When the brothers — having been informed by Bela of Gordon 's location , which she discovered via Ouija board — arrive at Dixon 's hideout , they discover that the vampiric Gordon has escaped . Elsewhere , Gordon returns to Kubrick . He requests that he be allowed to live long enough to deal with Sam . Despite this , Kubrick attempts to kill him , so Gordon retaliates by punching into his guts .

As night approaches , the brothers have not been able to find Gordon . Dean decides to go after Gordon while Sam stays hidden , but Sam refuses . He then confronts Dean about his reckless behavior since his deal with a Crossroads Demon , which left him only a year to live . Dean claims that he is not scared of his impending death , but Sam challenges this . Dean eventually relents , agreeing to behave more like his old self again . The two then prepare to wait out the night .

Gordon later calls Sam and Dean , threatening to kill a young woman if they do not meet him . They head to the location and find the woman , but Gordon uses a roller door to separate the brothers . The woman is revealed to be a vampire turned by Gordon , and Dean is forced to shoot her with the Colt — a mystical gun capable of killing anything . He then attempts to help Sam , but Gordon prepares to bite him . Sam prevents this and garrotes Gordon with a razor wire , decapitating the vampire . Sam and Dean later stop on the side of the road to check a rattling noise made by the Impala . Sam is confused when Dean starts explaining the engine 's problem . Dean , however , reasons that Sam should know how to fix the car when his remaining time runs out , and also notes that , as his older brother , he should be showing him the ropes .

= = Production = =

= = = Guest stars = = =

" Fresh Blood " featured the final guest appearance by Sterling K. Brown as the vampire hunter Gordon Walker . The character 's story arc for the season was intended to be longer , but Brown 's commitments to the Lifetime Television series Army Wives limited his return to only two appearances . The episode was " really hard " for the actor ; though he was fine with the character dying , the idea of Gordon turning an innocent girl into a vampire was " horrific " to him . Although Gordon 's actions in previous episodes were questionable , Brown had always believed the character to be " ultimately good " . On this change , Brown commented , " His endgame is to kill Sam , and anyone else who has to experience detrimental effects because of that is not a concern of his . That was tough for me to process and get on board with . " However , series creator Eric Kripke reasoned that the character was now a monster and should follow his instincts instead of logic . The writer of " Fresh Blood " , Sera Gamble , also penned Gordon 's initial episode and helped Kripke conceptualize the character . She felt that she " lucked out " in being able to write the character 's final appearance , and found there to be " something so satisfying about turning him into a vampire and chopping his head off with a razor wire " .

Mercedes McNab , well known for portraying the vampire Harmony Kendall on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel , guest starred as the recently turned vampire Lucy . Although hesitant to play another vampire , McNab came to realize that the character was less of a vampire and more of a " girl who woke up and was basically drugged or was changed and didn 't know what was going on " . The actress also noted that Harmony was generally used for comic relief , whereas Lucy was intended to be " serious and more dramatic " . Her previous experience with director Kim Manners on the television series The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr. also influenced her decision . Because many of her recent characters tended to die , McNab was delighted by Lucy 's offscreen death . The actress was also working on an episode of Reaper during the filming of " Fresh Blood " , and the Supernatural production staff was able to fit her into the shooting schedule . The actress found them to be " really helpful " in making sure that her scenes did not take too long to film . Her portion of the opening scene only took a few hours to shoot , allowing her to return to Reaper the next morning .

Michael Massee returned as the hunter Kubrick , who believes himself to be on a mission from God to kill Sam Winchester . Massee discussed his character with Brown beforehand , and envisioned him as a long @-@ time friend of Gordon who could be depended upon . Brown described Kubrick as a " well @-@ meaning ... sweet guy " , and noted that his wife had a " visceral response " to the character 's death when later viewing the episode . Matthew Humphreys portrayed the vampire Dixon , and considers him a " deeply misunderstood " character . The actor found it " easy to rationalize what he did " because Dixon was at odds with how to start his own family as a vampire , and he maintains that the character had no evil intentions behind his actions . Humphreys hopes to one day return to the role .

= = = Filming = = =

Principal photography took place in Vancouver , British Columbia . The opening sequence was filmed outside at night , though the subsequent scene — Lucy 's interrogation and execution — occurred in a motel set constructed on a sound stage . Atypical to the series , the motel room did not have a noticeable theme . Production designer John Marcynuk commented , " That motel room was essentially a killing floor for the boys ... and it was kind of a cold interrogation scene , so we tried to keep it not so friendly . When you walked through it , it definitely felt like a place [ where ] a murder had been committed . It wouldn 't have been the first time a murder had been committed in that room , either . It was the type of place where bad things happen . " Marcynuk took a different approach for Gordon 's death scene , utilizing green tones and a cool color palette to create a greater visual contrast with the blood .

= = = Effects = = =

To lend a strong air of realism to Gordon 's death , the scene was created by combining various special effects during filming with post @-@ production visual effects . Plastic razor wire with blood tubing aided in the initial phases of the decapitation ; it would slightly sink into Brown 's neck as pressure was applied , forcing out the fake blood . For the aftermath , Brown laid down on the floor , and the visual effects department removed his head from the shot and recreated it as a three @-@ dimensional model . The department decided to " push it a little bit farther " by having the head rocking into place and the mouth twitching , but Standards and Practices found it too graphic and forced them to remove the motion . Established in the first season episode " Dead Man 's Blood " were the shark @-@ like teeth of vampires , and the design has been subtly improved with each vampire episode . Though the special effects makeup department used molds of the actors ' mouths to create the fanged acrylic dentures , McNab noted that it was very difficult to speak while wearing them . Blood @-@ like makeup around the actors ' mouths helped to round out the vampiric visages .

= = = Music = = =

The synthesized orchestral score of the episode was written by Christopher Lennertz . He feels that " people associate the sound of violins with vampires " due to the " connection with Eastern Europe and counts " , and thus used a " very violin @-@ heavy " score for the episode , avoiding woodwinds , brass , and piano .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

In its original broadcast , " Fresh Blood " was viewed by an estimated 2 @.@ 88 million viewers . The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide praised the episode , commenting that " it was really nice to get an enjoyable episode high on intensity , brotherly interaction , blood and gore " . Although she had grown a " tad bit weary " of the character 's continuous attempts to kill Sam , she was still " really sorry to see Sterling and Gordy go " . Charles felt that his transformation was a " good twist " , and liked that his " black @-@ and @-@ white beliefs " remained the same even after becoming a vampire . She also enjoyed the character of Lucy and her " really sad " ending , and wished that McNab 's role had been larger . It was noted that the " brotherly interaction was front and center " , and Charles was " beyond happy " that Sam confronted Dean about is behavior . The " moment that [ she had ] been waiting for all season long " finally came to be when Dean took Sam seriously and actually listened to him instead of replying with sarcasm . Charles also deemed the final scene with the brothers to be " just heartbreaking " . Likewise , Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune not only gave the episode an A + , but ranked it as the sixth @-@ best episode of the 2007 @-@ 2008 television season . She praised writer Sera Gamble and director Kim Manners for " creating the best bonding scene we 've had all season " , and lauded Padalecki and Ackles for " making us care so much and believe so fully that a scene like this can leave us gasping " .

Brett Love of TV Squad posited that Gordon 's return in the " great " episode was " well worth the wait " . He noted that the revelation that Lucy was just an innocent girl was a " nice twist " , and deemed it a " great choice " to have Gordon turned into a vampire . Love was sad to see Gordon depart from the series , finding the " outstanding " Brown to be " so intense and committed " to the role . However , he considered Bela 's appearance to be unnecessary , and pointed out the implausibility of it being easier for Gordon to track down Bela than it would have been to just track down the Winchesters . Like Love , Julie Pyle of Airlock Alpha believed Bela 's appearance " [ felt ] forced " . She was saddened by the deaths of Gordon and Kubrick , and had hoped that their storylines would have been further explored . Pyle also criticized the episode 's lighting , commenting , " With the added gore this season , the show should seem darker . Instead , it 's like ' Supernatural Lite ' . " While Maureen Ryan of Chicago Tribune found the concept of Gordon hunting down Sam to be " inspired " , she noted that " ' Fresh Blood ' didn 't do much for [ her ] " .

= = = Analysis = = =

Recalling the demon Azazel 's comments about the recently resurrected Sam in the episode " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " — that what came back may not be " one hundred percent pure Sam " — Don Williams of BuddyTV questioned if something really is wrong with Sam . Williams added Gordon 's death to his list of Sam 's recent out @-@ of @-@ character actions , which already included Sam 's brutal execution of Jake Talley in " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " and his killing of the Crossroads Demon in " Bedtime Stories " . However , he did point out that both characters " kind of deserved to bite the dust " . Peterson , too , noted the " cold , dead look in Sam 's eyes " after the killing . On the other hand , Padalecki posited that the " darker side of Sam " was depicted when he killed Gordon " with pure hatred " , but reasoned that Sam was thinking , " He 's a vampire ! He 's killing people ; it 's time for him to go . "

= Spanish conquest of Guatemala =

The Spanish conquest of Guatemala was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas , in which Spanish colonisers gradually incorporated the territory that became the modern country of Guatemala into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain . Before the conquest , this territory contained a number of competing Mesoamerican kingdoms , the majority of which were Maya . Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as " infidels " who needed to be forcefully converted and pacified , disregarding the achievements of their civilization . The first contact between the Maya and European explorers came in the early 16th century when a Spanish ship sailing from Panama to Santo Domingo was wrecked on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1511 . Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519 , making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast . The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair ; the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries .

Pedro de Alvarado arrived in Guatemala from the newly conquered Mexico in early 1524 , commanding a mixed force of Spanish conquistadors and native allies , mostly from Tlaxcala and Cholula . Geographic features across Guatemala now bear Nahuatl placenames owing to the influence of these Mexican allies , who translated for the Spanish . The Kaqchikel Maya initially allied themselves with the Spanish , but soon rebelled against excessive demands for tribute and did not finally surrender until 1530 . In the meantime the other major highland Maya kingdoms had each been defeated in turn by the Spanish and allied warriors from Mexico and already subjugated Maya kingdoms in Guatemala . The Itza Maya and other lowland groups in the Petén Basin were first contacted by Hernán Cortés in 1525 , but remained independent and hostile to the encroaching Spanish until 1697 , when a concerted Spanish assault led by Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi finally defeated the last independent Maya kingdom .

Spanish and native tactics and technology differed greatly . The Spanish viewed the taking of prisoners as a hindrance to outright victory , whereas the Maya prioritised the capture of live prisoners and of booty . The indigenous peoples of Guatemala lacked key elements of Old World technology such as a functional wheel , horses , iron , steel , and gunpowder ; they were also extremely susceptible to Old World diseases , against which they had no resistance . The Maya preferred raiding and ambush to large @-@ scale warfare , using spears , arrows and wooden swords with inset obsidian blades ; the Xinca of the southern coastal plain used poison on their arrows . In response to the use of Spanish cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits and lining them with wooden stakes .

= = Historical sources = =

The sources describing the Spanish conquest of Guatemala include those written by the Spanish themselves , among them two of four letters written by conquistador Pedro de Alvarado to Hernán Cortés in 1524 , describing the initial campaign to subjugate the Guatemalan Highlands . These letters were despatched to Tenochtitlan , addressed to Cortés but with a royal audience in mind ; two of these letters are now lost . Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez was Pedro de Alvarado 's cousin ; he accompanied him on his first campaign in Guatemala and in 1525 he became the chief constable of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , the newly founded Spanish capital . Gonzalo wrote an account that mostly supports that of Pedro de Alvarado . Pedro de Alvarado 's brother Jorge wrote another account to the king of Spain that explained it was his own campaign of 1527 – 1529 that established the Spanish colony . Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote a lengthy account of the conquest of Mexico and neighbouring regions , the Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España ( " True History of the Conquest of New Spain " ) ; his account of the conquest of Guatemala generally agrees with that of the Alvarados . His account was finished around 1568 , some 40 years after the campaigns it describes . Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación , in which he details his crossing of what is now Guatemala 's Petén Department . Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote a highly critical account of the Spanish conquest of the Americas and included accounts of some incidents in Guatemala . The Brevísima Relación de la Destrucción de las Indias ( " Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies " ) was first published in 1552 in Seville .

The Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish who accompanied them in their invasion of Guatemala wrote their own accounts of the conquest ; these included a letter to the Spanish king protesting at their poor treatment once the campaign was over . Other accounts were in the form of questionnaires answered before colonial magistrates to protest and register a claim for recompense . Two pictorial accounts painted in the stylised indigenous pictographic tradition have survived ; these are the Lienzo de Quauhquechollan , which was probably painted in Ciudad Vieja in the 1530s , and the Lienzo de Tlaxcala , painted in Tlaxcala .

Accounts of the conquest as seen from the point of view of the defeated highland Maya kingdoms are included in a number of indigenous documents , including the Annals of the Kaqchikels , which includes the Xajil Chronicle describing the history of the Kaqchikel from their mythical creation down through the Spanish conquest and continuing to 1619 . A letter from the defeated Tz 'utujil Maya nobility of Santiago Atitlán to the Spanish king written in 1571 details the exploitation of the subjugated peoples .

Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán was a colonial Guatemalan historian of Spanish descent who wrote La Recordación Florida , also called Historia de Guatemala ( History of Guatemala ) . The book was written in 1690 and is regarded as one of the most important works of Guatemalan history , and is the first such book to have been written by a criollo author . Field investigation has tended to support the estimates of indigenous population and army sizes given by Fuentes y Guzmán .

= = Background to the conquest = =

Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile and Leon in 1492 . Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule . In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands , the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba . They heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west and , in 1519 , Hernán Cortés set sail with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast . By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish . A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas . Within three years of the fall of Tenochtitlan the Spanish had conquered a large part of Mexico , extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the king of Spain via the Council of the Indies . Hernán Cortés received reports of rich , populated lands to the south and dispatched Pedro de Alvarado to investigate the region .

= = = Preparations for conquest = = =

In the run up to the announcement that an invasion force was to be sent to Guatemala , 10 @,@ 000 Nahua warriors had already been assembled by the Aztec emperor Cuauhtémoc to accompany the Spanish expedition . Warriors were ordered to be gathered from each of the Mexica and Tlaxcaltec towns . The native warriors supplied their own weapons , including swords , clubs and bows and arrows . Alvarado 's army left Tenochtitlan at the beginning of the dry season , sometime between the second half of November and December 1523 . As Alvarado left the Aztec capital , he led about 400 Spanish and approximately 200 Tlaxcaltec and Cholultec warriors and 100 Mexica , meeting up with the gathered reinforcements on the way . When the army left the Basin of Mexico , it may have included as many as 20 @,@ 000 native warriors from various kingdoms although the exact numbers are disputed . By the time the army crossed the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , the massed native warriors included 800 from Tlaxcala , 400 from Huejotzingo , 1600 from Tepeaca plus many more from other former Aztec territories . Further Mesoamerican warriors were recruited from the Zapotec and Mixtec provinces , with the addition of more Nahuas from the Aztec garrison in Soconusco .

= = Guatemala before the conquest = =

In the early 16th century the territory that now makes up Guatemala was divided into various competing polities , each locked in continual struggle with its neighbours . The most important were the K 'iche ' , the Kaqchikel , the Tz 'utujil , the Chajoma , the Mam , the Poqomam and the Pipil . All were Maya groups except for the Pipil , who were a Nahua group related to the Aztecs ; the Pipil had a number of small city @-@ states along the Pacific coastal plain of southern Guatemala and El Salvador . The Pipil of Guatemala had their capital at Itzcuintepec . The Xinca were another non @-@ Maya group occupying the southeastern Pacific coastal area . The Maya had never been unified as a single empire , but by the time the Spanish arrived Maya civilization was thousands of years old and had already seen the rise and fall of great cities .

On the eve of the conquest the highlands of Guatemala were dominated by several powerful Maya states . In the centuries preceding the arrival of the Spanish the K 'iche ' had carved out a small empire covering a large part of the western Guatemalan Highlands and the neighbouring Pacific coastal plain . However , in the late 15th century the Kaqchikel rebelled against their former K 'iche ' allies and founded a new kingdom to the southeast with Iximche as its capital . In the decades before the Spanish invasion the Kaqchikel kingdom had been steadily eroding the kingdom of the K 'iche ' . Other highland groups included the Tz 'utujil around Lake Atitlán , the Mam in the western highlands and the Poqomam in the eastern highlands .

The kingdom of the Itza was the most powerful polity in the Petén lowlands of northern Guatemala , centred on their capital Nojpetén , on an island in Lake Petén Itzá . The second polity in importance was that of their hostile neighbours , the Kowoj . The Kowoj were located to the east of the Itza , around the eastern lakes : Lake Salpetén , Lake Macanché , Lake Yaxhá and Lake Sacnab . Other groups are less well known and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure ; among them were the Chinamita , the Kejache , the Icaiche , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Mopan , the Manche Ch 'ol and the Yalain . The Kejache occupied an area north of the lake on the route to Campeche , while the Mopan and the Chinamita had their polities in the southeastern Petén . The Manche territory was to the southwest of the Mopan . The Yalain had their territory immediately to the east of Lake Petén Itzá .

= = = Native weapons and tactics = = =

Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder . The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows , fire @-@ sharpened poles , flint @-@ headed spears and two @-@ handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian , similar to the Aztec macuahuitl . Pedro de Alvarado described how the Xinca of the Pacific coast attacked the Spanish with spears , stakes and poisoned arrows . Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it ; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish . The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic , and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans . In response to the use of cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads , lining them with fire @-@ hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds , a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses .

= = Conquistadors = =

The conquistadors were all volunteers , the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory , in the form of precious metals , land grants and provision of native labour . Many of the Spanish were already experienced soldiers who had previously campaigned in Europe . The initial incursion into Guatemala was led by Pedro de Alvarado , who earned the military title of Adelantado in 1527 ; he answered to the Spanish crown via Hernán Cortés in Mexico . Other early conquistadors included Pedro de Alvarado 's brothers Gómez de Alvarado , Jorge de Alvarado and Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras ; and his cousins Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez , Hernando de Alvarado and Diego de Alvarado . Pedro de Portocarrero was a nobleman who joined the initial invasion . Bernal Díaz del Castillo was a petty nobleman who accompanied Hernán Cortés when he crossed the northern lowlands , and Pedro de Alvarado on his invasion of the highlands . In addition to Spaniards , the invasion force probably included dozens of armed African slaves and freemen .

= = = Spanish weapons and tactics = = =

Spanish weaponry and tactics differed greatly from that of the indigenous peoples of Guatemala . This included the Spanish use of crossbows , firearms ( including muskets and cannon ) , war dogs and war horses . Among Mesoamerican peoples the capture of prisoners was a priority , while to the Spanish such taking of prisoners was a hindrance to outright victory . The inhabitants of Guatemala , for all their sophistication , lacked key elements of Old World technology , such as the use of iron and steel and functional wheels . The use of steel swords was perhaps the greatest technological advantage held by the Spanish , although the deployment of cavalry helped them to rout indigenous armies on occasion . The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armour of their Maya enemies that they adopted it in preference to their own steel armour . The conquistadors applied a more effective military organisation and strategic awareness than their opponents , allowing them to deploy troops and supplies in a way that increased the Spanish advantage .

In Guatemala the Spanish routinely fielded indigenous allies ; at first these were Nahua brought from the recently conquered Mexico , later they also included Maya . It is estimated that for every Spaniard on the field of battle , there were at least 10 native auxiliaries . Sometimes there were as many as 30 indigenous warriors for every Spaniard , and it was the participation of these Mesoamerican allies that was particularly decisive . In at least one case , encomienda rights were granted to one of the Tlaxcalan leaders who came as allies , and land grants and exemption from being given in encomienda were given to the Mexican allies as rewards for their participation in the conquest . In practice , such privileges were easily removed or sidestepped by the Spanish and the indigenous conquistadors were treated in a similar manner to the conquered natives .

The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns , or reducciones ( also known as congregaciones ) . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as mountains and forests .

= = Impact of Old World diseases = =

Epidemics accidentally introduced by the Spanish included smallpox , measles and influenza . These diseases , together with typhus and yellow fever , had a major impact on Maya populations . The Old World diseases brought with the Spanish and against which the indigenous New World peoples had no resistance were a deciding factor in the conquest ; the diseases crippled armies and decimated populations before battles were even fought . Their introduction was catastrophic in the Americas ; it is estimated that 90 % of the indigenous population had been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact .

In 1519 and 1520 , before the arrival of the Spanish in the region , a number of epidemics swept through southern Guatemala . At the same time as the Spanish were occupied with the overthrow of the Aztec empire , a devastating plague struck the Kaqchikel capital of Iximche , and the city of Q 'umarkaj , capital of the K 'iche ' , may also have suffered from the same epidemic . It is likely that the same combination of smallpox and a pulmonary plague swept across the entire Guatemalan Highlands . Modern knowledge of the impact of these diseases on populations with no prior exposure suggests that 33 – 50 % of the population of the highlands perished . Population levels in the Guatemalan Highlands did not recover to their pre @-@ conquest levels until the middle of the 20th century . In 1666 pestilence or murine typhus swept through what is now the department of Huehuetenango . Smallpox was reported in San Pedro Saloma , in 1795 . At the time of the fall of Nojpetén in 1697 , there are estimated to have been 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a large number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war .

= = Timeline of the conquest = =

= = Conquest of the highlands = =

The conquest of the highlands was made difficult by the many independent polities in the region , rather than one powerful enemy to be defeated as was the case in central Mexico . After the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish in 1521 , the Kaqchikel Maya of Iximche sent envoys to Hernán Cortés to declare their allegiance to the new ruler of Mexico , and the K 'iche ' Maya of Q 'umarkaj may also have sent a delegation . In 1522 Cortés sent Mexican allies to scout the Soconusco region of lowland Chiapas , where they met new delegations from Iximche and Q 'umarkaj at Tuxpán ; both of the powerful highland Maya kingdoms declared their loyalty to the king of Spain . But Cortés ' allies in Soconusco soon informed him that the K 'iche ' and the Kaqchikel were not loyal , and were instead harassing Spain 's allies in the region . Cortés decided to despatch Pedro de Alvarado with 180 cavalry , 300 infantry , crossbows , muskets , 4 cannons , large amounts of ammunition and gunpowder , and thousands of allied Mexican warriors from Tlaxcala , Cholula and other cities in central Mexico ; they arrived in Soconusco in 1523 . Pedro de Alvarado was infamous for the massacre of Aztec nobles in Tenochtitlan and , according to Bartolomé de las Casas , he committed further atrocities in the conquest of the Maya kingdoms in Guatemala . Some groups remained loyal to the Spanish once they had submitted to the conquest , such as the Tz 'utujil and the K 'iche ' of Quetzaltenango , and provided them with warriors to assist further conquest . Other groups soon rebelled however , and by 1526 numerous rebellions had engulfed the highlands .

= = = Subjugation of the K 'iche ' = = =

Pedro de Alvarado and his army advanced along the Pacific coast unopposed until they reached the Samalá River in western Guatemala . This region formed a part of the K 'iche ' kingdom , and a K 'iche ' army tried unsuccessfully to prevent the Spanish from crossing the river . Once across , the conquistadors ransacked nearby settlements in an effort to terrorise the K 'iche ' . On 8 February 1524 Alvarado 's army fought a battle at Xetulul , called Zapotitlán by his Mexican allies ( modern San Francisco Zapotitlán ) . Although suffering many injuries inflicted by defending K 'iche ' archers , the Spanish and their allies stormed the town and set up camp in the marketplace . Alvarado then turned to head upriver into the Sierra Madre mountains towards the K 'iche ' heartlands , crossing the pass into the fertile valley of Quetzaltenango . On 12 February 1524 Alvarado 's Mexican allies were ambushed in the pass and driven back by K 'iche ' warriors but the Spanish cavalry charge that followed was a shock for the K 'iche ' , who had never before seen horses . The cavalry scattered the K 'iche ' and the army crossed to the city of Xelaju ( modern Quetzaltenango ) only to find it deserted . Although the common view is that the K 'iche ' prince Tecun Uman died in the later battle near Olintepeque , the Spanish accounts are clear that at least one and possibly two of the lords of Q 'umarkaj died in the fierce battles upon the initial approach to Quetzaltenango . The death of Tecun Uman is said to have taken place in the battle of El Pinar , and local tradition has his death taking place on the Llanos de Urbina ( Plains of Urbina ) , upon the approach to Quetzaltenango near the modern village of Cantel . Pedro de Alvarado , in his third letter to Hernán Cortés , describes the death of one of the four lords of Q 'umarkaj upon the approach to Quetzaltenango . The letter was dated 11 April 1524 and was written during his stay at Q 'umarkaj . Almost a week later , on 18 February 1524 , a K 'iche ' army confronted the Spanish army in the Quetzaltenango valley and were comprehensively defeated ; many K 'iche ' nobles were among the dead . Such were the numbers of K 'iche ' dead that Olintepeque was given the name Xequiquel , roughly meaning " bathed in blood " . In the early 17th century , the grandson of the K 'iche ' king informed the alcalde mayor ( the highest colonial official at the time ) that the K 'iche ' army that had marched out of Q 'umarkaj to confront the invaders numbered 30 @,@ 000 warriors , a claim that is considered credible by modern scholars . This battle exhausted the K 'iche ' militarily and they asked for peace and offered tribute , inviting Pedro de Alvarado into their capital Q 'umarkaj , which was known as Tecpan Utatlan to the Nahuatl @-@ speaking allies of the Spanish . Alvarado was deeply suspicious of the K 'iche ' intentions but accepted the offer and marched to Q 'umarkaj with his army .

The day after the battle of Olintepeque , the Spanish army arrived at Tzakahá , which submitted peacefully . There the Spanish chaplains Juan Godinez and Juan Díaz conducted a Roman Catholic mass under a makeshift roof ; this site was chosen to build the first church in Guatemala , which was dedicated to Concepción La Conquistadora . Tzakahá was renamed as San Luis Salcajá . The first Easter mass held in Guatemala was celebrated in the new church , during which high @-@ ranking natives were baptised .

In March 1524 Pedro de Alvarado entered Q 'umarkaj at the invitation of the remaining lords of the K 'iche ' after their catastrophic defeat , fearing that he was entering a trap . He encamped on the plain outside the city rather than accepting lodgings inside . Fearing the great number of K 'iche ' warriors gathered outside the city and that his cavalry would not be able to manoeuvre in the narrow streets of Q 'umarkaj , he invited the leading lords of the city , Oxib @-@ Keh ( the ajpop , or king ) and Beleheb @-@ Tzy ( the ajpop k 'amha , or king elect ) to visit him in his camp . As soon as they did so , he seized them and kept them as prisoners in his camp . The K 'iche ' warriors , seeing their lords taken prisoner , attacked the Spaniards ' indigenous allies and managed to kill one of the Spanish soldiers . At this point Alvarado decided to have the captured K 'iche ' lords burnt to death , and then proceeded to burn the entire city . After the destruction of Q 'umarkaj and the execution of its rulers , Pedro de Alvarado sent messages to Iximche , capital of the Kaqchikel , proposing an alliance against the remaining K 'iche ' resistance . Alvarado wrote that they sent 4000 warriors to assist him , although the Kaqchikel recorded that they sent only 400 .

= = = San Marcos : Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón = = =

With the capitulation of the K 'iche ' kingdom , various non @-@ K 'iche ' peoples under K 'iche ' dominion also submitted to the Spanish . This included the Mam inhabitants of the area now within the modern department of San Marcos . Quetzaltenango and San Marcos were placed under the command of Juan de León y Cardona , who began the reduction of indigenous populations and the foundation of Spanish towns . The towns of San Marcos and San Pedro Sacatepéquez were founded soon after the conquest of western Guatemala . In 1533 Pedro de Alvarado ordered de León y Cardona to explore and conquer the area around the Tacaná , Tajumulco , Lacandón and San Antonio volcanoes ; in colonial times this area was referred to as the Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón . De León marched to a Maya city named Quezalli by his Nahuatl @-@ speaking allies with a force of fifty Spaniards ; his Mexican allies also referred to the city by the name Sacatepequez . De León renamed the city as San Pedro Sacatepéquez in honour of his friar , Pedro de Angulo . The Spanish founded a village nearby at Candacuchex in April that year , renaming it as San Marcos .

= = = Kaqchikel alliance = = =

On 14 April 1524 , soon after the defeat of the K 'iche ' , the Spanish were invited into Iximche and were well received by the lords Belehe Qat and Cahi Imox . The Kaqchikel kings provided native soldiers to assist the conquistadors against continuing K 'iche ' resistance and to help with the defeat of the neighbouring Tz 'utuhil kingdom . The Spanish only stayed briefly in Iximche before continuing through Atitlán , Escuintla and Cuscatlán . The Spanish returned to the Kaqchikel capital on 23 July 1524 and on 27 July ( 1 Q 'at in the Kaqchikel calendar ) Pedro de Alvarado declared Iximche as the first capital of Guatemala , Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( " St. James of the Knights of Guatemala " ) . Iximche was called Guatemala by the Spanish , from the Nahuatl Quauhtemallan meaning " forested land " . Since the Spanish conquistadors founded their first capital at Iximche , they took the name of the city used by their Nahuatl @-@ speaking Mexican allies and applied it to the new Spanish city and , by extension , to the kingdom . From this comes the modern name of the country . When Pedro de Alvarado moved his army to Iximche , he left the defeated K 'iche ' kingdom under the command of Juan de León y Cardona . Although de León y Cardona was given command of the western reaches of the new colony , he continued to take an active role in the continuing conquest , including the later assault on the Poqomam capital .

= = = Conquest of the Tz 'utujil = = =

The Kaqchikel appear to have entered into an alliance with the Spanish to defeat their enemies , the Tz 'utujil , whose capital was Tecpan Atitlan . Pedro de Alvarado sent two Kaqchikel messengers to Tecpan Atitlan at the request of the Kaqchikel lords , both of whom were killed by the Tz 'utujil . When news of the killing of the messengers reached the Spanish at Iximche , the conquistadors marched against the Tz 'utujil with their Kaqchikel allies . Pedro de Alvarado left Iximche just 5 days after he had arrived there , with 60 cavalry , 150 Spanish infantry and an unspecified number of Kaqchikel warriors . The Spanish and their allies arrived at the lakeshore after a day 's hard march , without encountering any opposition . Seeing the lack of resistance , Alvarado rode ahead with 30 cavalry along the lake shore . Opposite a populated island the Spanish at last encountered hostile Tz 'utujil warriors and charged among them , scattering and pursuing them to a narrow causeway across which the surviving Tz 'utujil fled . The causeway was too narrow for the horses , therefore the conquistadors dismounted and crossed to the island before the inhabitants could break the bridges . The rest of Alvarado 's army soon reinforced his party and they successfully stormed the island . The surviving Tz 'utujil fled into the lake and swam to safety on another island . The Spanish could not pursue the survivors further because 300 canoes sent by the Kaqchikels had not yet arrived . This battle took place on 18 April .

The following day the Spanish entered Tecpan Atitlan but found it deserted . Pedro de Alvarado camped in the centre of the city and sent out scouts to find the enemy . They managed to catch some locals and used them to send messages to the Tz 'utujil lords , ordering them to submit to the king of Spain . The Tz 'utujil leaders responded by surrendering to Pedro de Alvarado and swearing loyalty to Spain , at which point Alvarado considered them pacified and returned to Iximche . Three days after Pedro de Alvarado returned to Iximche , the lords of the Tz 'utujil arrived there to pledge their loyalty and offer tribute to the conquistadors . A short time afterwards a number of lords arrived from the Pacific lowlands to swear allegiance to the king of Spain , although Alvarado did not name them in his letters ; they confirmed Kaqchikel reports that further out on the Pacific plain was the kingdom called Izcuintepeque in Nahuatl , or Panatacat in Kaqchikel , whose inhabitants were warlike and hostile towards their neighbours .

= = = Kaqchikel rebellion = = =

Pedro de Alvarado rapidly began to demand gold in tribute from the Kaqchikels , souring the friendship between the two peoples . He demanded that their kings deliver 1000 gold leaves , each worth 15 pesos .

A Kaqchikel priest foretold that the Kaqchikel gods would destroy the Spanish , causing the Kaqchikel people to abandon their city and flee to the forests and hills on 28 August 1524 ( 7 Ahmak in the Kaqchikel calendar ) . Ten days later the Spanish declared war on the Kaqchikel . Two years later , on 9 February 1526 , a group of sixteen Spanish deserters burnt the palace of the Ahpo Xahil , sacked the temples and kidnapped a priest , acts that the Kaqchikel blamed on Pedro de Alvarado . Conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo recounted how in 1526 he returned to Iximche and spent the night in the " old city of Guatemala " together with Luis Marín and other members of Hernán Cortés 's expedition to Honduras . He reported that the houses of the city were still in excellent condition ; his account was the last description of the city while it was still inhabitable .

The Spanish founded a new town at nearby Tecpán Guatemala ; Tecpán is Nahuatl for " palace " , thus the name of the new town translated as " the palace among the trees " . The Spanish abandoned Tecpán in 1527 , because of the continuous Kaqchikel attacks , and moved to the Almolonga Valley to the east , refounding their capital on the site of today 's San Miguel Escobar district of Ciudad Vieja , near Antigua Guatemala . The Nahua and Oaxacan allies of the Spanish settled in what is now central Ciudad Vieja , then known as Almolonga ( not to be confused with Almolonga near Quetzaltenango ) ; Zapotec and Mixtec allies also settled San Gaspar Vivar about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) northeast of Almolonga , which they founded in 1530 .

The Kaqchikel kept up resistance against the Spanish for a number of years , but on 9 May 1530 , exhausted by the warfare that had seen the deaths of their best warriors and the enforced abandonment of their crops , the two kings of the most important clans returned from the wilds . A day later they were joined by many nobles and their families and many more people ; they then surrendered at the new Spanish capital at Ciudad Vieja . The former inhabitants of Iximche were dispersed ; some were moved to Tecpán , the rest to Sololá and other towns around Lake Atitlán .

= = = Siege of Zaculeu = = =

Although a state of hostilities existed between the Mam and the K 'iche ' of Q 'umarkaj after the rebellion of the Kaqchikel against their former K 'iche ' allies prior to European contact , when the conquistadors arrived there was a shift in the political landscape . Pedro de Alvarado described how the Mam king Kayb 'il B 'alam was received with great honour in Q 'umarkaj while he was there . The expedition against Zaculeu was apparently initiated after K 'iche ' bitterness at their failure to contain the Spanish at Q 'umarkaj , with the plan to trap the conquistadors in the city having been suggested to them by the Mam king , Kayb 'il B 'alam ; the resulting execution of the K 'iche ' kings was viewed as unjust . The K 'iche ' suggestion of marching on the Mam was quickly taken up by the Spanish .

At the time of the conquest , the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul ( also spelled Chinabjul ) , now the city of Huehuetenango , but Zaculeu 's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest . The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras , brother of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado , in 1525 , with 40 Spanish cavalry and 80 Spanish infantry , and some 2 @,@ 000 Mexican and K 'iche ' allies . Gonzalo de Alvarado left the Spanish camp at Tecpán Guatemala in July 1525 and marched to the town of Totonicapán , which he used as a supply base . From Totonicapán the expedition headed north to Momostenango , although it was delayed by heavy rains . Momostenango quickly fell to the Spanish after a four @-@ hour battle . The following day Gonzalo de Alvarado marched on Huehuetenango and was confronted by a Mam army of 5 @,@ 000 warriors from nearby Malacatán ( modern Malacatancito ) . The Mam army advanced across the plain in battle formation and was met by a Spanish cavalry charge that threw them into disarray , with the infantry mopping up those Mam that survived the cavalry . Gonzalo de Alvarado slew the Mam leader Canil Acab with his lance , at which point the Mam army 's resistance was broken , and the surviving warriors fled to the hills . Alvarado entered Malacatán unopposed to find it occupied only by the sick and the elderly . Messengers from the community 's leaders arrived from the hills and offered their unconditional surrender , which was accepted by Alvarado . The Spanish army rested for a few days , then continued onwards to Huehuetenango only to find it deserted . Kayb 'il B 'alam had received news of the Spanish advance and had withdrawn to his fortress at Zaculeu . Alvarado sent a message to Zaculeu proposing terms for the peaceful surrender of the Mam king , who chose not to answer .

Zaculeu was defended by Kayb 'il B 'alam commanding some 6 @,@ 000 warriors gathered from Huehuetenango , Zaculeu , Cuilco and Ixtahuacán . The fortress was surrounded on three sides by deep ravines and defended by a formidable system of walls and ditches . Gonzalo de Alvarado , although outnumbered two to one , decided to launch an assault on the weaker northern entrance . Mam warriors initially held the northern approaches against the Spanish infantry but fell back before repeated cavalry charges . The Mam defence was reinforced by an estimated 2 @,@ 000 warriors from within Zaculeu but was unable to push the Spanish back . Kayb 'il B 'alam , seeing that outright victory on an open battlefield was impossible , withdrew his army back within the safety of the walls . As Alvarado dug in and laid siege to the fortress , an army of approximately 8 @,@ 000 Mam warriors descended on Zaculeu from the Cuchumatanes mountains to the north , drawn from those towns allied with the city . Alvarado left Antonio de Salazar to supervise the siege and marched north to confront the Mam army . The Mam army was disorganised , and although it was a match for the Spanish and allied foot soldiers , it was vulnerable to the repeated charges of the experienced Spanish cavalry . The relief army was broken and annihilated , allowing Alvarado to return to reinforce the siege . After several months the Mam were reduced to starvation . Kayb 'il B 'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in the middle of October 1525 . When the Spanish entered the city they found 1 @,@ 800 dead Indians , and the survivors eating the corpses of the dead . After the fall of Zaculeu , a Spanish garrison was established at Huehuetenango under the command of Gonzalo de Solís ; Gonzalo de Alvarado returned to Tecpán Guatemala to report his victory to his brother .

= = = Conquest of the Poqomam = = =

In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) , the capital of the Poqomam . At the Spanish approach , the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city . The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses . Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back . The Poqomam then received reinforcements , possibly from Chinautla , and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city . The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry , forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw . The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river , allowing the inhabitants to come and go .

Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners , Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west , in single file owing to its narrowness , with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets , each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield . This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city . The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city , and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their allies . Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave , the survivors were captured and brought back to the city . The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city , Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco .

= = = Resettlement of the Chajoma = = =

There are no direct sources describing the conquest of the Chajoma by the Spanish but it appears to have been a drawn @-@ out campaign rather than a rapid victory . The only description of the conquest of the Chajoma is a secondary account appearing in the work of Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán in the 17th century , long after the event . After the conquest , the inhabitants of the eastern part of the kingdom were relocated by the conquerors to San Pedro Sacatepéquez , including some of the inhabitants of the archaeological site now known as Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) . The rest of the population of Mixco Viejo , together with the inhabitants of the western part of the kingdom , were moved to San Martín Jilotepeque . The Chajoma rebelled against the Spanish in 1526 , fighting a battle at Ukub 'il , an unidentified site somewhere near the modern towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez and San Pedro Sacatepéquez .

In the colonial period , most of the surviving Chajoma were forcibly settled in the towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez , San Pedro Sacatepéquez and San Martín Jilotepeque as a result of the Spanish policy of congregaciones ; the people were moved to whichever of the three towns was closest to their pre @-@ conquest land holdings . Some Iximche Kaqchikels seem also to have been relocated to the same towns . After their relocation some of the Chajoma drifted back to their pre @-@ conquest centres , creating informal settlements and provoking hostilities with the Poqomam of Mixco and Chinautla along the former border between the pre @-@ Columbian kingdoms . Some of these settlements eventually received official recognition , such as San Raimundo near Sacul .

= = = El Progreso and Zacapa = = =

The Spanish colonial corregimiento of San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán was established in 1551 with its seat in the town of that name , now in the eastern portion of the modern department of El Progreso . Acasaguastlán was one of few pre @-@ conquest centres of population in the middle Motagua River drainage , due to the arid climate . It covered a broad area that included Cubulco , Rabinal , and Salamá ( all in Baja Verapaz ) , San Agustín de la Real Corona ( modern San Agustín Acasaguastlán ) and La Magdalena in El Progreso , and Chimalapa , Gualán , Usumatlán and Zacapa , all in the department of Zacapa . Chimalapa , Gualán and Usumatlán were all satellite settlements of Acasaguastlán . San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán and the surrounding area were reduced into colonial settlements by friars of the Dominican Order ; at the time of the conquest the area was inhabited by Poqomchi ' Maya and by the Nahuatl @-@ speaking Pipil . In the 1520s , immediately after conquest , the inhabitants paid taxes to the Spanish Crown in the form of cacao , textiles , gold , silver and slaves . Within a few decades taxes were instead paid in beans , cotton and maize . Acasaguastlán was first given in encomienda to conquistador Diego Salvatierra in 1526 .

= = = Chiquimula = = =

Chiquimula de la Sierra ( " Chiquimula in the Highlands " ) , occupying the area of the modern department of Chiquimula to the east of the Poqomam and Chajoma , was inhabited by Ch 'orti ' Maya at the time of the conquest . The first Spanish reconnaissance of this region took place in 1524 by an expedition that included Hernando de Chávez , Juan Durán , Bartolomé Becerra and Cristóbal Salvatierra , amongst others . In 1526 three Spanish captains , Juan Pérez Dardón , Sancho de Barahona and Bartolomé Becerra , invaded Chiquimula on the orders of Pedro de Alvarado . The indigenous population soon rebelled against excessive Spanish demands , but the rebellion was quickly put down in April 1530 . However , the region was not considered fully conquered until a campaign by Jorge de Bocanegra in 1531 – 1532 that also took in parts of Jalapa . The afflictions of Old World diseases , war and overwork in the mines and encomiendas took a heavy toll on the inhabitants of eastern Guatemala , to the extent that indigenous population levels never recovered to their pre @-@ conquest levels .

= = = Campaigns in the Cuchumatanes = = =

In the ten years after the fall of Zaculeu various Spanish expeditions crossed into the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and engaged in the gradual and complex conquest of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al . The Spanish were attracted to the region in the hope of extracting gold , silver and other riches from the mountains but their remoteness , the difficult terrain and relatively low population made their conquest and exploitation extremely difficult . The population of the Cuchumatanes is estimated to have been 260 @,@ 000 before European contact . By the time the Spanish physically arrived in the region this had collapsed to 150 @,@ 000 because of the effects of the Old World diseases that had run ahead of them .

= = = = Uspantán and the Ixil = = = =

After the western portion of the Cuchumatanes fell to the Spanish , the Ixil and Uspantek Maya were sufficiently isolated to evade immediate Spanish attention . The Uspantek and the Ixil were allies and in 1529 , four years after the conquest of Huehuetenango , Uspantek warriors were harassing Spanish forces and Uspantán was trying to foment rebellion among the K 'iche ' . Uspantek activity became sufficiently troublesome that the Spanish decided that military action was necessary . Gaspar Arias , magistrate of Guatemala , penetrated the eastern Cuchumatanes with sixty Spanish infantry and three hundred allied indigenous warriors . By early September he had imposed temporary Spanish authority over the Ixil towns of Chajul and Nebaj . The Spanish army then marched east toward Uspantán itself ; Arias then received notice that the acting governor of Guatemala , Francisco de Orduña , had deposed him as magistrate . Arias handed command over to the inexperienced Pedro de Olmos and returned to confront de Orduña . Although his officers advised against it , Olmos launched a disastrous full @-@ scale frontal assault on the city . As soon as the Spanish began their assault they were ambushed from the rear by more than two thousand Uspantek warriors . The Spanish forces were routed with heavy losses ; many of their indigenous allies were slain , and many more were captured alive by the Uspantek warriors only to be sacrificed on the altar of their deity Exbalamquen . The survivors who managed to evade capture fought their way back to the Spanish garrison at Q 'umarkaj .

A year later Francisco de Castellanos set out from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( by now relocated to Ciudad Vieja ) on another expedition against the Ixil and Uspantek , leading eight corporals , thirty @-@ two cavalry , forty Spanish infantry and several hundred allied indigenous warriors . The expedition rested at Chichicastenango and recruited further forces before marching seven leagues northwards to Sacapulas and climbed the steep southern slopes of the Cuchumatanes . On the upper slopes they clashed with a force of between four and five thousand Ixil warriors from Nebaj and nearby settlements . A lengthy battle followed during which the Spanish cavalry managed to outflank the Ixil army and forced them to retreat to their mountaintop fortress at Nebaj . The Spanish force besieged the city , and their indigenous allies managed to scale the walls , penetrate the stronghold and set it on fire . Many defending Ixil warriors withdrew to fight the fire , which allowed the Spanish to storm the entrance and break the defences . The victorious Spanish rounded up the surviving defenders and the next day Castellanos ordered them all to be branded as slaves as punishment for their resistance . The inhabitants of Chajul immediately capitulated to the Spanish as soon as news of the battle reached them . The Spanish continued east towards Uspantán to find it defended by ten thousand warriors , including forces from Cotzal , Cunén , Sacapulas and Verapaz . The Spaniards were barely able to organise a defence before the defending army attacked . Although heavily outnumbered , the deployment of Spanish cavalry and the firearms of the Spanish infantry eventually decided the battle . The Spanish overran Uspantán and again branded all surviving warriors as slaves . The surrounding towns also surrendered , and December 1530 marked the end of the military stage of the conquest of the Cuchumatanes .

= = = = Reduction of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al = = = =

In 1529 the Chuj city of San Mateo Ixtatán ( then known by the name of Ystapalapán ) was given in encomienda to the conquistador Gonzalo de Ovalle , a companion of Pedro de Alvarado , together with Santa Eulalia and Jacaltenango . In 1549 , the first reduction ( reducción in Spanish ) of San Mateo Ixtatán took place , overseen by Dominican missionaries , in the same year the Q 'anjob 'al reducción settlement of Santa Eulalia was founded . Further Q 'anjob 'al reducciones were in place at San Pedro Soloma , San Juan Ixcoy and San Miguel Acatán by 1560 . Q 'anjob 'al resistance was largely passive , based on withdrawal to the inaccessible mountains and forests from the Spanish reducciones . In 1586 the Mercedarian Order built the first church in Santa Eulalia . The Chuj of San Mateo Ixtatán remained rebellious and resisted Spanish control for longer than their highland neighbours , resistance that was possible owing to their alliance with the lowland Lakandon Ch 'ol to the north . The continued resistance was so determined that the Chuj remained pacified only while the immediate effects of the Spanish expeditions lasted .

In the late 17th century , the Spanish missionary Fray Alonso de León reported that about eighty families in San Mateo Ixtatán did not pay tribute to the Spanish Crown or attend the Roman Catholic mass . He described the inhabitants as quarrelsome and complained that they had built a pagan shrine in the hills among the ruins of pre @-@ Columbian temples , where they burnt incense and offerings and sacrificed turkeys . He reported that every March they built bonfires around wooden crosses about two leagues from the town and set them on fire . Fray de León informed the colonial authorities that the practices of the natives were such that they were Christian in name only . Eventually , Fray de León was chased out of San Mateo Ixtatán by the locals .

In 1684 , a council led by Enrique Enríquez de Guzmán , the governor of Guatemala , decided on the reduction of San Mateo Ixtatán and nearby Santa Eulalia , both within the colonial administrative district of the Corregimiento of Huehuetenango .

On 29 January 1686 , Captain Melchor Rodríguez Mazariegos , acting under orders from the governor , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán , where he recruited indigenous warriors from the nearby villages , 61 from San Mateo itself . It was believed by the Spanish colonial authorities that the inhabitants of San Mateo Ixtatán were friendly towards the still unconquered and fiercely hostile inhabitants of the Lacandon region , which included parts of what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas and the western part of the Petén Basin . To prevent news of the Spanish advance reaching the inhabitants of the Lacandon area , the governor ordered the capture of three of San Mateo 's community leaders , named as Cristóbal Domingo , Alonso Delgado and Gaspar Jorge , and had them sent under guard to be imprisoned in Huehuetenango . The governor himself arrived in San Mateo Ixtatán on 3 February , where Captain Rodríguez Mazariegos was already awaiting him . The governor ordered the captain to remain in the village and use it as a base of operations for penetrating the Lacandon region . The Spanish missionaries Fray de Rivas and Fray Pedro de la Concepción also remained in the town . Governor Enriquez de Guzmán subsequently left San Mateo Ixtatán for Comitán in Chiapas , to enter the Lacandon region via Ocosingo .

In 1695 , a three @-@ way invasion of the Lacandon was launched simultaneously from San Mateo Ixtatán , Cobán and Ocosingo . Captain Rodriguez Mazariegos , accompanied by Fray de Rivas and 6 other missionaries together with 50 Spanish soldiers , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán . Following the same route used in 1686 , they managed on the way to recruit 200 indigenous Maya warriors from Santa Eulalia , San Juan Solomá and San Mateo itself . On 28 February 1695 , all three groups left their respective bases of operations to conquer the Lacandon . The San Mateo group headed northeast into the Lacandon Jungle .

= = Pacific lowlands : Pipil and Xinca = =

Before the arrival of the Spanish , the western portion of the Pacific plain was dominated by the K 'iche ' and Kaqchikel states , while the eastern portion was occupied by the Pipil and the Xinca . The Pipil inhabited the area of the modern department of Escuintla and a part of Jutiapa ; the main Xinca territory lay to the east of the main Pipil population in what is now Santa Rosa department ; there were also Xinca in Jutiapa .

In the half century preceding the arrival of the Spanish , the Kaqchikel were frequently at war with the Pipil of Izcuintepeque ( modern Escuintla ) . By March 1524 the K 'iche had been defeated , followed by a Spanish alliance with the Kaqchikel in April of the same year . On 8 May 1524 , soon after his arrival in Iximche and immediately following his subsequent conquest of the Tz 'utujil around Lake Atitlán , Pedro de Alvarado continued southwards to the Pacific coastal plain with an army numbering approximately 6000 , where he defeated the Pipil of Panacal or Panacaltepeque ( called Panatacat in the Annals of the Kaqchikels ) near Izcuintepeque on 9 May . Alvarado described the terrain approaching the town as very difficult , covered with dense vegetation and swampland that made the use of cavalry impossible ; instead he sent men with crossbows ahead . The Pipil withdrew their scouts because of the heavy rain , believing that the Spanish and their allies would not be able to reach the town that day . However , Pedro de Alvarado pressed ahead and when the Spanish entered the town the defenders were completely unprepared , with the Pipil warriors indoors sheltering from the torrential rain . In the battle that ensued , the Spanish and their indigenous allies suffered minor losses but the Pipil were able to flee into the forest , sheltered from Spanish pursuit by the weather and the vegetation . Pedro de Alvarado ordered the town to be burnt and sent messengers to the Pipil lords demanding their surrender , otherwise he would lay waste to their lands . According to Alvarado 's letter to Cortés , the Pipil came back to the town and submitted to him , accepting the king of Spain as their overlord . The Spanish force camped in the captured town for eight days . A few years later , in 1529 , Pedro de Alvarado was accused of using excessive brutality in his conquest of Izcuintepeque , amongst other atrocities .

In Guazacapán , now a municipality in Santa Rosa , Pedro de Alvardo described his encounter with people who were neither Maya nor Pipil , speaking a different language altogether ; these people were probably Xinca . At this point Alvarado 's force consisted of 250 Spanish infantry accompanied by 6 @,@ 000 indigenous allies , mostly Kaqchikel and Cholutec . Alvarado and his army defeated and occupied the most important Xinca city , named as Atiquipaque , usually considered to be in the Taxisco area . The defending warriors were described by Alvarado as engaging in fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat using spears , stakes and poisoned arrows . The battle took place on 26 May 1524 and resulted in a significant reduction of the Xinca population . Alvarado 's army continued eastwards from Atiquipaque , seizing several more Xinca cities . Tacuilula feigned a peaceful reception only to unsuccessfully raise arms against the conquistadors within an hour of their arrival . Taxisco and Nancintla fell soon afterwards . Because Alvarado and his allies could not understand the Xinca language , Alvarado took extra precautions on the march eastward by strengthening his vanguard and rearguard with ten cavalry apiece . In spite of these precautions the baggage train was ambushed by a Xinca army soon after leaving Taxisco . Many indigenous allies were killed and most of the baggage was lost , including all the crossbows and ironwork for the horses . This was a serious setback and Alvarado camped his army in Nancintla for eight days , during which time he sent two expeditions against the attacking army . Jorge de Alvarado led the first attempt with thirty to forty cavalry and although they routed the enemy they were unable to retrieve any of the lost baggage , much of which had been destroyed by the Xinca for use as trophies . Pedro de Portocarrero led the second attempt with a large infantry detachment but was unable to engage with the enemy due to the difficult mountain terrain , so returned to Nancintla . Alvarado sent out Xinca messengers to make contact with the enemy but they failed to return . Messengers from the city of Pazaco , in the modern department of Jutiapa , offered peace to the conquistadors but when Alvarado arrived there the next day the inhabitants were preparing for war . Alvarado 's troops encountered a sizeable quantity of gathered warriors and quickly routed them through the city 's streets . From Pazaco Alvarado crossed the Río Paz and entered what is now El Salvador .

After the conquest of the Pacific plain , the inhabitants paid tribute to the Spanish in the form of valuable products such as cacao , cotton , salt and vanilla , with an emphasis on cacao .

= = Northern lowlands = =

The Contact Period in Guatemala 's northern Petén lowlands lasted from 1525 through to 1700 . Superior Spanish weaponry and the use of cavalry , although decisive in the northern Yucatán , were ill @-@ suited to warfare in the dense forests of lowland Guatemala .

= = = Cortés in Petén = = =

In 1525 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras , but Cristóbal de Olid had set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory . Cortés had 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , a herd of pigs , artillery , munitions and other supplies . He also had with him 600 Chontal Maya carriers from Acalan . They arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 .

Cortés accepted an invitation from Aj Kan Ek ' , the king of the Itza , to visit Nojpetén ( also known as Tayasal ) , and crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore . On his departure from Nojpetén , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse . The Spanish did not officially contact the Itza again until the arrival of Franciscan priests in 1618 , when Cortés ' cross was said to still be standing at Nojpetén . From the lake , Cortés continued south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) , during which he lost more than two @-@ thirds of his horses . When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition , Cortés turned upstream to the Gracias a Dios rapids , which took two days to cross and cost him more horses .

On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz . With local guides they headed into the hills north of Lake Izabal , where their guides abandoned them to their fate . The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them out to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , perhaps Xocolo . He crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the course of the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .

= = = Land of War : Verapaz = = =

By 1537 the area immediately north of the new colony of Guatemala was being referred to as the Tierra de Guerra ( " Land of War " ) . Paradoxically , it was simultaneously known as Verapaz ( " True Peace " ) . The Land of War described an area that was undergoing conquest ; it was a region of dense forest that was difficult for the Spanish to penetrate militarily . Whenever the Spanish located a centre of population in this region , the inhabitants were moved and concentrated in a new colonial settlement near the edge of the jungle where the Spanish could more easily control them . This strategy resulted in the gradual depopulation of the forest , simultaneously converting it into a wilderness refuge for those fleeing Spanish domination , both for individual refugees and for entire communities , especially those congregaciones that were remote from centres of colonial authority . The Land of War , from the 16th century through to the start of the 18th century , included a vast area from Sacapulas in the west to Nito on the Caribbean coast and extended northwards from Rabinal and Salamá , and was an intermediate area between the highlands and the northern lowlands . It includes the modern departments of Baja Verapaz and Alta Verapaz , Izabal and Petén , as well as the eastern part of El Quiché and a part of the Mexican state of Chiapas . The western portion of this area was the territory of the Q 'eqchi ' Maya .

Pedro Orozco , the leader of the Sacatepéquez Mam of San Marcos department , lent willing help to the Dominicans in their campaign to peacefully subject the inhabitants of Verapaz . On 1 May 1543 Carlos V rewarded the Sacatepéquez Mam by issuing a royal order promising never to give them in encomienda .

Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas arrived in the colony of Guatemala in 1537 and immediately campaigned to replace violent military conquest with peaceful missionary work . Las Casas offered to achieve the conquest of the Land of War through the preaching of the Catholic faith . It was the Dominicans who promoted the use of the name Verapaz instead of the Land of War . Because of the fact that the land had not been possible to conquer by military means , the governor of Guatemala , Alonso de Maldonado , agreed to sign a contract promising he would not establish any new encomiendas in the area should Las Casas ' strategy succeed . Las Casas and a group of Dominican friars established themselves in Rabinal , Sacapulas and Cobán , and managed to convert several native chiefs using a strategy of teaching Christian songs to merchant Indian Christians who then ventured into the area .

In this way they congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal . Las Casas became instrumental in the introduction of the New Laws in 1542 , established by the Spanish Crown to control the excesses of the conquistadors and colonists against the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas . As a result , the Dominicans met substantial resistance from the Spanish colonists , who saw their own interests threatened by the New Laws ; this distracted the Dominicans from their efforts to establish peaceful control over the Land of War .

In 1543 the new colonial reducción of Santo Domingo de Cobán was founded at Chi Mon 'a to house the relocated Q 'eqchi ' from Chichen , Xucaneb and Al Run Tax Aj . Santo Tomás Apóstol was founded nearby the same year at Chi Nim Xol , it was used in 1560 as a reducción to resettle Ch 'ol communities from Topiltepeque and Lacandon in the Usumacinta Valley . In 1555 the Acala Ch 'ol and their Lacandon allies killed the Spanish friar Domingo de Vico . De Vico had established a small church among the inhabitants of San Marcos , a region that lay between the territories of the Lacandon and the Manche Ch 'ol ( an area unrelated to the department of San Marcos ) . De Vico had offended the local ruler by repeatedly scolding him for taking several wives . The indigenous leader shot the friar through the throat with an arrow ; the angry natives then seized him , cut open his chest and extracted his heart . His corpse was then decapitated ; the natives carried off his head , which was never recovered by the Spanish . In response a punitive expedition was launched , headed by Juan Matalbatz , a Q 'eqchi ' leader from Chamelco ; the independent Indians captured by the Q 'eqchi ' expedition were taken back to Cobán and resettled in Santo Tomás Apóstol .

= = = Lake Izabal and the lower Motagua River = = =

The Dominicans established themselves in Xocolo on the shore of Lake Izabal in the mid @-@ 16th century . Xocolo became infamous among the Dominican missionaries for the practice of witchcraft by its inhabitants . By 1574 it was the most important staging post for European expeditions into the interior , and it remained important in that role until as late as 1630 , although it was abandoned in 1631 .

In 1598 Alfonso Criado de Castilla became governor of the Captaincy General of Guatemala . Owing to the poor state of Puerto Caballos on the Honduran coast and its exposure to repeated pirate raids he sent a pilot to scout Lake Izabal . As a result of the survey , and after royal permission was granted , Criado de Castilla ordered the construction of a new port , named Santo Tomás de Castilla , at a favourable spot on the Amatique Bay not far from the lake . Work then began on building a highway from the port to the new capital of the colony , modern Antigua Guatemala , following the Motagua Valley into the highlands . Indigenous guides scouting the route from the highlands would not proceed further downriver than three leagues below Quiriguá , because the area was inhabited by the hostile Toquegua .

The leaders of Xocolo and Amatique , backed by the threat of Spanish action , persuaded a community of 190 Toquegua to settle on the Amatique coast in April 1604 . The new settlement immediately suffered a drop in population , but although the Amatique Toquegua were reported extinct before 1613 in some sources , Mercedarian friars were still attending to them in 1625 . In 1628 the towns of the Manche Ch 'ol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz , with Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head . Morán favoured a more robust approach to the conversion of the Manche and moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north . The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt , which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements . By 1699 the neighbouring Toquegua no longer existed as a separate people because of a combination of high mortality and intermarriage with the Amatique Indians . At around this time the Spanish decided on the reduction of the independent ( or " wild " from the Spanish point of view ) Mopan Maya living to the north of Lake Izabal . The north shore of the lake , although fertile , was by then largely depopulated , therefore the Spanish planned to bring the Mopan out of the forests to the north into an area where they could be more easily controlled .

During the campaign to conquer the Itza of Petén , the Spanish sent expeditions to harass and relocate the Mopan north of Lake Izabal and the Ch 'ol Maya of the Amatique forests to the east . They were resettled in the Colonial reducción of San Antonio de las Bodegas on the south shore of the lake and in San Pedro de Amatique . By the latter half of the 18th century the indigenous population of these towns had disappeared ; the local inhabitants now consisted entirely of Spaniards , mulattos and others of mixed race , all associated with the Castillo de San Felipe de Lara fort guarding the entrance to Lake Izabal . The main cause of the drastic depopulation of Lake Izabal and the Motagua Delta was the constant slave raids by the Miskito Sambu of the Caribbean coast that effectively ended the Maya population of the region ; the captured Maya were sold into slavery in the British colony of Jamaica .

= = = Conquest of Petén = = =

From 1527 onwards the Spanish were increasingly active in the Yucatán Peninsula , establishing a number of colonies and towns by 1544 , including Campeche and Valladolid in what is now Mexico . The Spanish impact on the northern Maya , encompassing invasion , epidemic diseases and the export of up to 50 @,@ 000 Maya slaves , caused many Maya to flee southwards to join the Itza around Lake Petén Itzá , within the modern borders of Guatemala . The Spanish were aware that the Itza Maya had become the centre of anti @-@ Spanish resistance and engaged in a policy of encircling their kingdom and cutting their trade routes over the course of almost two hundred years . The Itza resisted this steady encroachment by recruiting their neighbours as allies against the slow Spanish advance .

Dominican missionaries were active in Verapaz and the southern Petén from the late 16th century through the 17th century , attempting non @-@ violent conversion with limited success . In the 17th century the Franciscans came to the conclusion that the pacification and Christian conversion of the Maya would not be possible as long as the Itza held out at Lake Petén Itzá . The constant flow of escapees fleeing the Spanish @-@ held territories to find refuge with the Itza was a drain on the encomiendas . Fray Bartolomé de Fuensalida visited Nojpetén in 1618 and 1619 . The Franciscan missionaries attempted to use their own reinterpretation of the k 'atun prophecies when they visited Nojpetén at this time , to convince the current Aj Kan Ek ' and his Maya priesthood that the time for conversion had come . But the Itza priesthood interpreted the prophecies differently , and the missionaries were fortunate to escape with their lives . In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and Guatemalan soldiers conquered a number of Ch 'ol communities , the most important being Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River in eastern Chiapas , now in Mexico , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon . The Franciscan friar Andrés de Avendaño oversaw a second attempt to overcome the Itza in 1695 , convincing the Itza king that the K 'atun 8 Ajaw , a twenty @-@ year Maya calendrical cycle beginning in 1696 or 1697 , was the right time for the Itza to finally embrace Christianity and to accept the king of Spain as overlord . However the Itza had local Maya enemies who resisted this conversion , and in 1696 Avendaño was fortunate to escape with his life . The Itza 's continued resistance had become a major embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities , and soldiers were despatched from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all .

= = = = Fall of Nojpetén = = = =

Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers in February 1697 , and once there built a galeota , a large and heavily armed oar @-@ powered attack boat . The Itza capital fell in a bloody waterborne assault on 13 March 1697 . The Spanish bombardment caused heavy loss of life on the island ; many Itza Maya who fled to swim across the lake were killed in the water . After the battle the surviving defenders melted away into the forests , leaving the Spanish to occupy an abandoned Maya town . The Itza and Kowoj kings ( Ajaw Kan Ek ' and Aj Kowoj ) were soon captured , together with other Maya nobles and their families . With Nojpetén safely in the hands of the Spanish , Ursúa returned to Campeche ; he left a small garrison on the island , isolated amongst the hostile Itza and Kowoj who still dominated the mainland . Nojpetén was renamed by the Spanish as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( " Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul , Lake of the Itza " ) . The garrison was reinforced in 1699 by a military expedition from Guatemala , accompanied by mixed @-@ race ladino civilians who came to found their own town around the military camp . The settlers brought disease with them , which killed many soldiers and colonists and swept through the indigenous population . The Guatemalans stayed just three months before returning to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , taking the captive Itza king with them , together with his son and two of his cousins . The cousins died on the long journey to the colonial capital ; Ajaw Kan Ek ' and his son spent the rest of their lives under house arrest in the capital .

= = = Final years of conquest = = =

In the late 17th century the small population of Ch 'ol Maya in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly removed to Alta Verapaz , where the people were absorbed into the Q 'eqchi ' population . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century . Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702 – 1703 . Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in the new colonial towns by a mixture of persuasion and force . Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled against their Spanish overlords in 1704 , but although well @-@ planned , the rebellion was quickly crushed . Its leaders were executed and most of the mission towns were abandoned . By 1708 only about 6 @,@ 000 Maya remained in central Petén , compared to ten times that number in 1697 . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , Spanish expeditions and internecine warfare between indigenous groups also played their part .

= = Legacy of the Spanish conquest = =

The initial shock of the Spanish conquest was followed by decades of heavy exploitation of the indigenous peoples , allies and foes alike . Over the following two hundred years colonial rule gradually imposed Spanish cultural standards on the subjugated peoples . The Spanish reducciones created new nucleated settlements laid out in a grid pattern in the Spanish style , with a central plaza , a church and the town hall housing the civil government , known as the ayuntamiento . This style of settlement can still be seen in the villages and towns of the area . The civil government was either run directly by the Spanish and their descendents ( the criollos ) or was tightly controlled by them . The introduction of Catholicism was the main vehicle for cultural change , and resulted in religious syncretism . Old World cultural elements came to be thoroughly adopted by Maya groups , an example being the marimba , a musical instrument of African origin . The greatest change was the sweeping aside of the pre @-@ Columbian economic order and its replacement by European technology and livestock ; this included the introduction of iron and steel tools to replace Neolithic tools , and of cattle , pigs and chickens that largely replaced the consumption of game . New crops were also introduced ; however , sugarcane and coffee led to plantations that economically exploited native labour . Sixty per cent of the modern population of Guatemala is estimated to be Maya , concentrated in the central and western highlands . The eastern portion of the country was the object of intense Spanish migration and hispanicization . Guatemalan society is divided into a class system largely based on race , with Maya peasants and artisans at the bottom , the mixed @-@ race ladino salaried workers and bureaucrats forming the middle and lower class and above them the creole elite of pure European ancestry . Some indigenous elites such as the Xajil did manage to maintain a level of status into the colonial period ; a prominent Kaqchikel noble family , they chronicled the history of their region .

= 1994 Giro d 'Italia =

The 1994 Giro d 'Italia was the 77th edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro started off in Bologna on 22 May with a short 86 km ( 53 @.@ 4 mi ) stage . The race came to a close on 12 June with a flat stage that stretched 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi ) from Turin to Milan . Seventeen teams entered the race , which was won by Evgeni Berzin of the Gewiss – Ballan team . Second and third respectively were the Italian Marco Pantani and the Spanish rider , Miguel Indurain .

Berzin first gained the race lead after the fourth stage where he attacked on the final climb to win the day . The race 's overall classification was first headed by Endrio Leoni who won the Giro 's opening road stage . However , Leoni lost the lead later that day during the afternoon individual time trial to Armand de Las Cuevas . De Las Cuevas held the lead for a single stage before losing it to Moreno Argentin who won the race 's second stage . Argentin held the general classification lead for two stages , before Berzin took it after stage 4 . After gaining the lead , Berzin began to build upon his advantage after winning the stage 8 and 18 individual time trials and maintaining good form throughout the mountains .

Berzin became the first Russian to win the Giro d 'Italia . Berzin also won the young rider classification for the best rider aged 25 or under in the general classification . In the race 's other classifications , Swiss rider Pascal Richard won the mountains classification , and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov of Team Polti – Vaporetto was the winner of the points and intergiro classifications . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni finished as the winners of the team classification , which ranked each of the seventeen teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time . Team Polti – Vaporetto finished as the winners of the team points classification , where the teams ' riders are awarded points for placing within the top twenty in each stage .

= = Teams = =

A total of 18 teams were invited to participate in the 1994 Giro d 'Italia , of which 17 participated . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , so the Giro began with a peloton of 153 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager were introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place on 22 May , in the courtyard of the Bologna . Of the riders that started this edition of the Giro d 'Italia , a total of 99 riders made it to the finish in Milan .

The teams entering the race were :

= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =

The starting peloton did 1993 winner , Miguel Indurain , came into the race having only raced twenty days during the season according to author Bill McGann . In addition , there were reports surfacing before the race that Indurain 's knee was troubling him . The race did not feature Tony Rominger , who elected to ride the Vuelta a España instead . El País writer Carlos Arribas felt that Evgeni Berzin had a strong spring with his victory in Liège – Bastogne – Liège and second @-@ place finish in the Tour of the Basque Country . Arribas felt that Russian Pavel Tonkov , who had won the young rider classification the previous two years , would challenge for the victory as his normal team leader , Maurizio Fondriest , was absent from the race due to injury .

Avui 's Adrian R. Huber believed that Djamolidine Abdoujaparov , Adriano Baffi , and Fabio Baldato had a great chance to win a stage in the race . Notable sprinter Mario Cipollini did not participate in the race as he was still recovering from injuries sustained in the second stage at the Vuelta a España .

= = Route and stages = =

The route for the 1994 Giro d 'Italia was unveiled by race director Carmine Castellano on 13 November 13 , 1993 in Milan . The race route in its entireity was leaked to the press before Castellano held the official presentation . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were ten stages containing high mountains , of which three had summit finishes : stage 4 , to Campitello Matese ; stage 20 , to Les Deux Alpes ; and stage 21 , to Sestriere . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 18 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to the summit of the Passo dello Bocco . The organizers chose to include no rest days . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 28 km ( 17 mi ) longer , contained one less rest day , and one more stage . The race was televised in Italy by RAI TV .

There were five stages that began or ended outside of Italy . Stage 12 ended in the Slovenian city Kranj and served as the start for the race 's thirteenth stage . Stage 13 ended at Lienz in Austria , and the fourteenth began there . The Giro 's mountainous stage 20 ended on the slopes of Les Deux Alpes , and the penultimate stage began on the mountain the next day .

= = Race overview = =

This edition of the Giro began with a split stage , with the morning leg consisting of a 86 km ( 53 mi ) flat route and the afternoon part being a 7 km ( 4 mi ) flat individual time trial . Italian Endrio Leoni won the morning stage by means of a sprint finish where the speeds were so high the peloton split in the final kilometer . Armand de Las Cuevas won the afternoon time trial by two seconds over Evgeni Berzin and in the process took the overall lead away from Leoni . Stage two featured an uphill finish into the city of Osimo . Moreno Argentin attacked close to the line and was able to distance himself from the rest of the peloton and win the stage , while also taking the lead of the race . Gianni Bugno failed several times to get away from the peloton before finally breaking free on the climb into Loreto Amprutino to win the third stage .

Stage 4 featured the race 's first summit finish , with a final climb to the top of Campitello Matese . While on the climb , Evgeni Berzin attacked and made his way up to the top in first place . Due to his efforts , Berzin gained the overall lead of the race . The next two stages , 5 and 6 , both came down to sprint finishes that were won by Endrio Leoni and Marco Saligari , respectively . The race 's seventh stage saw the Spaniard Laudelino Cubino outsprint his fellow breakaway members for the stage victory . Stage 8 was a 44 km ( 27 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Grosseto to Follonica . The race leader Evgeni Berzin dominated the time trial as he won the stage by over a minute than the second @-@ place finisher , which also allowed him to extend his lead in the general classification .

The next three stages of the race were all primarily flat , had no real impact on the overall standings , and all concluded with a bunch sprint . Ján Svorada won stage nine and then stage eleven after dodging a crash that marred the stage 's finish . Djamolidine Abdoujaparov out @-@ sprinted the rest of the field to win the race 's tenth stage . The Giro 's twelfth stage featured a few categorized climbs as the race made its way into Slovenia for the stage 's finish in Kranj . Despite the climbs , the stage ended with a field sprint that was won by Andrea Ferrigato . Italian Michele Bartoli won the race 's undulating thirteenth stage by being a part of the stage 's initial breakaway and then attacking later on and soloing to the stage 's conclusion in Lienz , Austria .

As the Giro left Austria , the race began to enter the Dolomites during stage fourteen . The eventual stage winner Marco Pantani was in a chasing group on the final climb of the stage , the Passo di Monte Giovo . He attacked , bridged the gap to the leading group , and left them behind to claim his first professional victory of his career . The next stage saw Pantani win again after he rode away from the attack group on the last climb of the Valico di Santa Cristina and he then soloed to the finish in Stradella . Pantani 's efforts on the day moved him up to second overall in the race . The race 's sixteenth stage took a break from the mountains with the stage being primarily fled , which ultimately led to the sprint finish that was won by Italian Maximilian Sciandri . Ján Svorada won the next day 's stage after attacking from the breakaway group in the closing seconds .

The Giro 's eighteenth stage was a 35 km ( 22 mi ) individual time trial that stretched from Chiavari to the summit finish on the Passo del Bocco . The race leader Evgeni Berzin won the stage by twenty seconds over Miguel Indurain . Stage 19 saw the day of racing come down to a sprint finish that was won by Massimo Ghirotto . The twentieth stage saw the Giro race through the Alps and up to the summit of Les Deux Alpes for the stage finish . The lead group up Les Deux Alpes contained the likes of Evgeni Berzin , Marco Pantani , and Miguel Indurain who had attacked each other multiple times but to no avail . The trio was later joined by Vladimir Poulnikov and Nelson Rodriguez who both eventually left them to go on for the stage win . Poulkinov edged out Rodriguez to the stage win atop the mountain . The penultimate stage of the Giro saw a summit finish atop the Sestriere . The stage saw snow and chilling temperatures which led to the general classification contenders sticking together , while Pascal Richard went on to win the summit finish and solidify his lead atop the mountains classification . The Giro 's final stage came down to a sprint finish that was won by Stefano Zanini as Evgeni Berzin won the Giro d 'Italia .

Success in stages was limited to eleven of the competing teams , six of which achieved multiple stage victories , while four individual riders won multiple stages . The riders that won more than once were Endrio Leoni in stages 1a and 5 , Evgeni Berzin in stages 4 , 8 , and 18 , Ján Svorada in stages 9 , 11 , and 17 , and Marco Pantani in stages 14 and 15 . Jolly Componibili @-@ Cage won two stages with Leoni . Gewiss @-@ Ballan won multiple stages , with Moreno Argentin in stage 2 and three stages with Berzin . Team Polti – Vaporetto won two stages , with Gianni Bugno in stage 3 and Djamolidine Abdoujaparov in stage 10 . GB @-@ MG Maglificio won three stages , with Marco Saligari in stage 6 , Maximilian Sciandri in stage 16 , and Pascal Richard in stage 21 . Lampre – Panaria won three stages with Ján Svorada . ZG Mobili @-@ Selle Italia won two stages , with Andrea Ferrigato in stage 12 and Massimo Ghirotto in stage 19 . Carrera Jeans – Tassoni also won multiple stages , with Marco Pantani in winning two stages and Vladimir Poulnikov in stage 20 .

Castorama , Kelme – Avianca – Gios , Mercatone Uno – Medeghini , and Navigare – Blue Storm each won one stage apiece . Castorama rider Armand de Las Cuevas won stage 1b individual time trial , Kelme @-@ Avianca @-@ Gios 's Laudelino Cubino won stage 7 , Mercatone Uno @-@ Medeghini rider Michele Bartoli won stage 13 , and Navigare @-@ Blue Storm 's Stefano Zanini stage 22 by means of a sprint finish .

= = = Doping = = =

Despite not testing positive during the race or season , the Gewiss @-@ Ballan team has since been speculated to have executed a systematic doping program that utilized EPO throughout the 1994 season . The team achieved several victories in stage races and one @-@ day races during the year , including a sweep of the podium at La Flèche Wallonne weeks before the start of the Giro . Team doctor Michele Ferrari was banned for life from sports in 2012 by United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency for distribution of performance @-@ enhancing drugs to several of his clients .

= = Classification leadership = =

Five different jerseys were worn during the 1994 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . The time bonuses for the 1988 Giro were thirty seconds for first , twenty @-@ five for second , and decreasing by five seconds each place until five seconds for sixth place on the stage . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .

For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Passo dello Stelvio . The first rider to cross the Stelvio was Italian Franco Vona . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1970 were eligible for it . The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .

The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .

= = Final standings = =

= = = General classification = = =

= Riverton – Belvidere Bridge =

The Riverton – Belvidere Bridge is a bridge crossing the Delaware River . It connects Belvidere , New Jersey with Riverton , Pennsylvania , United States . There is no toll for crossing on either side , after tolls were abolished by the Joint Commission for the Elimination of Toll Bridges in 1929 . The bridge is 653 feet ( 199 m ) long , holding a load of 8 short tons ( 16 @,@ 000 lb ) of traffic from County Route 620 Spur ( Water Street ) in Belvidere to former Pennsylvania Route 709 on the Riverton side . The bridge was first constructed in 1836 , replacing the local ferry across the river . The board of freeholders in Warren County supported the replacement of the ferry with a bridge for safety of passengers . In 1832 , the state created the Belvidere Delaware Bridge Company , which was funded with the job of building a bridge from Riverton to Belvidere . The new covered bridge was built by Solon Chapin , a contractor from Easton , Pennsylvania . The bridge survived two large storms in 1836 and 1841 , although sustained major damage both times . In 1903 , the floods that destroyed bridges along the Delaware River Valley , including taking out the entire covered structure at Riverton and Belvidere . They rebuilt the structure in 1904 , using steel instead of wood , and the new span has remained since , with rehabilitations at certain points .

= = History = =

= = = The first bridge ( 1836 – 1903 ) = = =

Original reports indicate that a ferry , operated by a doctor who went by " Dr. Belvidere " , once ran along the alignment of the Riverton – Belvidere Bridge . This ferry , crossing one of the most dangerous parts of the Delaware , was reported to have opened as early as 1802 . On May 17 , 1825 , the Board of Chosen Freeholders of the ferry permitted raising the rate to cross the river via ferry . However , by 1832 , the ferry crossing was becoming dangerously busy , and required a bridge be constructed in its place . That year , the Belvidere Delaware Bridge Company was established by both the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania . However , in constructing the bridge , the company was only allowed $ 20 @,@ 000 ( 1832 USD ) to construct the bridge . The bridge company had the designs for the bridge run by Solon Chapin , a contractor from Easton , Pennsylvania . Chapin was also the construction contractor on the nearby Riegelsville Bridge as well .

Although things seemed to start off smoothly , when construction began on the bridge in 1834 , things went downhill . The bridge was constructed fast , and when completed in the spring of 1836 , it was a wooden covered bridge at a length of 654 feet ( 199 m ) . Within days of opening the bridge , on April 9 , 1836 , a storm blew through the valley , destroying two of the bridges three piers and rendered the new bridge unusable . After restarting construction later , the bridge was redone using the same piers and in 1839 , was completed and opened once again . However , in January 1841 , another storm , dubbed the Bridges Freshet of January 1841 , blew through the valley , destroying most of the bridges in the area , and causing major damage to the structure from Riverton to Belvidere . However , this time , the bridge survived the storm . A local historian stated that because of the constant repairwork on the bridge itself , the bridge company had never paid one dividend of money to its stockholders . Although , after society on both sides of the bridge began to live life with it , money started flowing into the accounts of the stockholders .

In 1903 , the demise of wooden covered bridge would be seen , as a storm , dubbed the Pumpkin Flood of 1903 , struck in October of that year . The storm struck both communities , and the bridge in between , causing the loss of many lives , and on October 17 , the toll collector on the bridge closed off the gate and did not allow any person to cross . At 6 : 40 that evening , a crash was heard , and seconds later , the bridge was no more , after tumbling into the Delaware River below . Remnants of the bridge were swept downstream , and smashed on the side of the new Northampton Street Bridge , constructed just a few years before . After the storm cleared , the community of Belvidere put a ferry to Riverton back in almost immediately .

= = = Construction of the current bridge ( 1904 ) = = =

After the 1903 destruction of the original wooden bridge at Belvidere , plans to construct another bridge started immediately . After the storm , the substructure of the crossing had survived the strong storm . The bridge corporation set a completion date , August 17 , 1904 , which was the day that the Farmer 's Picnic was held in Belvidere . However , the contractor of which they hired to reconstruct the bridge , the New Jersey Bridge Company of Manasquan , New Jersey , believed that the new bridge would need new abutments and piers to be completed by that time , instead of using the old wooden bridge 's piers . The three piers from the wooden bridge were used , and would require them to be heightened to be above any high flood waters . On June 3 , 1904 , the bridge construction began on a barge in the river , with promises to be complete by the set date of August 17 . On August 17 , the bridge was not complete , but usable , that when the Farmer 's Picnic ( the predecessor to the Warren County Fair , occurred , people were allowed to cross a majority of the bridge . The picnic itself was a complete success , attracting over 15 @,@ 000 people , most of which walked the bridge .

Although the bridge was usable , work still had to be completed on the new bridge . The contractor promised the bridge corporation that the bridge would be finished by Labor Day of 1904 , or September 5 , 1904 . The bridge corporation and a local group called The Red Men scheduled festivities and the official turnover of the bridge back to the corporation . On September 5 , 1904 , the day of the transfer , the chief executive of the contracting company , W.H. Keepers arrived , he found the bridge to be unacceptable . Bolts were missing in places of the bridge and paint was not completed , both of which were in violation of the contract . The festivities for the bridge were canceled , and visitors were disappointed . The Red Men held events , but the turnout was light . A high point of the events that day was done by a man named Murphy Jones , who as a stunt , jumped a 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) plunge into the Delaware River from the bridge . The festive stunt got Jones a total of $ 15 ( 1904 USD ) and the event became an annual one . Work finally came to a conclusion in 1904 , and the people were beginning to cross the new structure . However , since the turnover had never occurred , the bridge was free of charge .

= = = The current bridge ( 1904 – present ) = = =

On September 5 , 1904 , the bridge finally got its transfer to the bridge corporation , and a new toll @-@ taker was hired for the new bridge . After this , life went back to normal in both communities . In October 1928 , after the charter and opening of the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission , the bridge company was asked to sell the bridge to the commission for $ 60 @,@ 000 ( 1928 USD ) , and on June 14 , 1929 , the commission abolished tolls along the bridge , making it free to cross at either end . With the bridge now under the control of the toll bridge commission , extensive repairs began on the 25 @-@ year @-@ old structure . This construction included new beams for the bridge , new flooring , and an extensive repair to one bridge pier . Although the construction had only taken four months to complete , it still caused havoc in commuting across the structure . In 1940 , the Pennsylvania approach to the bridge was designated as Pennsylvania Route 709 , a designation that would last six years , being decommissioned in 1946 . The structure would face its most recent strength test in 1955 , after the massive flooding from Hurricane Diane wreaked havoc in the area . The structure received minor damage in the flood , and the traffic was only halted for a day or two afterward . The design in the 1904 plan worked , as the structure was not at flood level .

Starting in October 2006 , the Toll Bridge Commission began an $ 8 @.@ 8 @.@  million rehabilitation of the structure . The rehabilitation helped extend the life of the bridge for years rather than shutting the bridge down constantly for the next 15 years for major repairs . The Commission replaced the flooring , repairing or replacing of certain steel portions of the bridge , blast @-@ cleaning and repainted the structure .

= Cleeve Abbey =

Cleeve Abbey is a medieval monastery located near the village of Washford , in Somerset , England . It is a Grade I listed building and has been scheduled as an ancient monument .

The abbey was founded in the late twelfth century as a house for monks of the austere Cistercian order . Over its 350 @-@ year monastic history Cleeve was undistinguished amongst the abbeys of its order , frequently ill @-@ governed and often financially troubled . The sole member of the community to achieve prominence was John Hooper , who became a bishop during the Reformation .

In 1536 Cleeve was closed by Henry VIII in the course of the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the abbey was converted into a country house . Subsequently , the status of the site declined and the abbey was used as farm buildings until the latter half of the nineteenth century when steps were taken to conserve the remains . In the twentieth century Cleeve was taken into state care ; the abbey is now looked after by English Heritage and is open to the public . Today Cleeve Abbey is one of the best @-@ preserved medieval Cistercian monastic sites in Britain . While the church is no longer standing , the conventual buildings are still roofed and habitable and contain many features of particular interest including the ' angel ' roof in the refectory and the wall paintings in the painted chamber .

= = Foundation = =

The abbey was founded by William de Roumare , Earl of Lincoln in a grant of 1191 , on land he had been given by king Æthelred the Unready . On 25 June 1198 a colony of 12 monks led by Abbot Ralph arrived at the site from Revesby Abbey in Lincolnshire . The official name of the abbey was Vallis Florida , ( Latin : ' Flowering Valley ' ) but throughout its history it was generally known as Cleeve after the nearby village . The initial funding for the foundation was increased by land and money from the family of William de Mohun of Dunster , 1st Earl of Somerset and the Beckerolles family . In addition to various landholdings with produced rent for the abbey they held the Right of Wreck , which meant they could claim shipwrecks washed up on the shore of their lands .

= = Abbey buildings = =

Work immediately began on constructing the abbey church , a task that took many decades . It was a conservative design , heavily influenced by the thoughts of St. Bernard and the order 's early churches in its homeland of Burgundy . It was cruciform in shape with an aisled nave of seven bays , a short , square east end , and transepts each with two side chapels . The eastern parts of the church were built first , and were likely finished in 1232 , at which point the abbey received a royal donation of oak to build choir stalls . The remainder was probably completed by mid @-@ century .

To the south of the church a cloister was laid out , surrounded by the domestic buildings of the house . The east range , which was completed first ( probably by around 1250 ) , held the chapter house , sacristy , the monks ' dormitory , day room , and a 19 @.@ 7 metres ( 65 ft ) long reredorter ( latrine ) . The south range was built next , it contained the kitchens , warming house and refectory which projected south beyond the main body of the building , following the usual Cistercian plan .

It is suggested from the heraldry used in the tiled floors of the refectory that it was finished at the end of the thirteenth century . The Encaustic tiles , which are 23 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) square , include the arms of Henry III , Richard , 1st Earl of Cornwall and the Clare family . It is believed they were produced to celebrate the marriage of Edmund , 2nd Earl of Cornwall and Margaret de Clare in 1272 . The final part to be finished was the small west range , which was used for storage and quarters for the lay brothers . East of the core buildings , and linked to them , was a second cloister around which was the monastic infirmary .

The monastery , which is next to the River Washford , would have been surrounded by gardens , fishponds , orchards , barns , guesthouses , stables , a farmyard and industrial buildings . The abbey grounds were defended by a water filled moat and a gatehouse . Excavation has revealed that a large stone cross , like a market cross , stood just west of the main building .

Though Cleeve was by no means a wealthy house , the monks were able to make significant investment in remodelling their home so as to match the rising living standards of the later mediaeval period . In the fourteenth @-@ century elaborate polychrome tiled floors ( an expensive and high status product ) were laid throughout the abbey and in the mid @-@ fifteenth century radical works were undertaken . A wooden shelter was constructed over the tiled floor in 2016 . Abbot David Juyner ( r . 1435 – 87 ) commissioned a complete redesign of the south range of the monastery . He demolished the old refectory and built a new one parallel to the cloister on the first floor . This grand chamber with its wooden vaulted ceiling ( carved with angels ) was the equal of the hall of any contemporary secular lord . Beneath it he built several self @-@ contained apartments . These were probably used by corrodians , pensioners of the abbey . Juyner may also have been responsible for decorating the abbey with wall paintings of religious and allegorical subjects . Some of these wall paintings survive . As well as one depicting the Crucifixion , there is an arrangement of St Catherine and St Margaret on either side of , and facing , a man standing on a bridge : the bridge is over water full of fish , and the man has an angel on either side of his head , and is being attacked by a lion to his left on the bridge , and a dragon to his right . Work continued under Juyner 's successors to the eve of the Dissolution . The last building work to be completed was the remodelling of the gatehouse , performed after 1510 , though as late as 1534 the monks were engaged in a major project of renewing the cloister walks in the latest fashion . As at the neighbouring house of Forde Abbey , this was never completed , due to the dissolution of the abbey .

= = Monastic history = =

Like most of the smaller Cistercian houses , comparatively little is known about the internal history of the abbey . In its early years Cleeve received grants of land and property from local lords and the Crown to supplement its initial endowment and in the prosperous years of the thirteenth century grew steadily , reaching 26 monks in 1297 . The abbey held various local churches , including those at Cleeve , Queen Camel , Woolavington while also holding the rectory of Lundy . The abbey was also responsible for the chapel of Our Lady between Old Cleeve and what is now Blue Anchor ; however although this has since disappeared , the inn for pilgrims attending the chapel has been expanded into the present Chapel Cleeve Manor .

A major source of income was the export of wool . However , the fourteenth century saw a change in fortunes : the Black Death , a worsening economic climate and poor administration left the abbey ( like many others of its order ) with sharply declining numbers of monks and saddled with major debt . The internal discipline and morals of the community declined too : in 1400 – 01 it was reported to the government that the abbot of Cleeve and three other monks were leading a group of 200 bandits and attacking travellers in the region . However , things improved in the fifteenth century and despite the vast expense caused by the extravagant building projects of the last abbots , better management , access to new resources ( for instance from the profits from the right to hold markets granted by the crown ) and a general improvement in the circumstances facing the house meant that just prior to the dissolution Cleeve was enjoying an Indian Summer of comfortable stability .

= = Dissolution = =

In 1535 , the abbey 's income was only assessed at £ 155 in the Valor Ecclesiasticus , Henry VIII 's great survey of church finances . It meant the following year that it came under the terms of the first Suppression Act , Henry 's initial move in the Dissolution of the Monasteries . Abbot William Dovell and his 16 monks were forced to surrender the abbey on 6 September 1536 . There were proposals from local gentry and even some of the king 's officials for the Dissolution such as Sir Thomas Arundell that Cleeve should be granted a reprieve , as a number of others among the smaller monasteries were , however , it was not to be and the monks finally left in the spring of 1537 . Abbot William was given a pension of 40 marks per year , not large but certainly comfortable , which he was still drawing 20 years later . Most of the other monks were given pensions too . One former monk of Cleeve rose to prominence and came to a sticky end . This was John Hooper who became Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester and was killed in 1555 for his Protestant beliefs by Mary I.

= = Later history = =

Soon after Cleeve became Crown property , it was leased to Anthony Busterd for 21 years . In 1538 , the freehold of the site was granted to Robert Radcliffe , 1st Earl of Sussex . The church was demolished , save for the south wall which bounded the cloister , and the rest of the abbey converted into a mansion suitable for a gentleman . By the early seventeenth century , however , Cleeve had turned into a farm . The dormitory was now a large barn , the cloister was the farmyard and the rest of the buildings were used for agricultural purposes and a farm house . A red sandstone barn was built which abuts the south @-@ west corner of the abbey .

George Luttrell of Dunster Castle acquired the site in 1870 . The abbey stopped being used as a farm and extensive archaeological excavations took place . The farm house was converted into rental cottages , and the site became a tourist attraction , partly to bring traffic to the West Somerset Railway . Cleeva Clapp a local farmers daughter , who was named after the abbey , acted as a guide and described her nightly " communings " with the ghosts of the monks for a shilling a head .

Cleeve Abbey was passed back to the Crown in 1950 – 51 to pay Death Duties on the Luttrell estate and was managed by the Department for the Environment . Major restoration and archaeological work followed . In 1984 , English Heritage took over responsibility for Cleeve Abbey , carrying out excavations and earthwork surveys and continues to care for it today .

= = Present day = =

The church and infirmary have almost entirely vanished , but the site boasts some of the finest and best @-@ preserved monks ' living quarters still surviving in southern England . The buildings round the cloister are still roofed and habitable and many of the rooms retain their vaults . Among the most important preserved rooms are the chapter house , the refectory with its magnificent arch braced wooden vault and the painted chamber . Much of the abbey 's medieval tiled flooring remains . Other major survivals include the abbey gatehouse , which still provides entrance to the visitor , the moat and fishponds . Cleeve is open to the public .

The remains of the buildings have been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building , and it is listed as a Scheduled monument .

= = Cultural references = =

The Abbey was the original site on which ' Gracedieu ' , the setting for the Abbey Series of books by Elsie J. Oxenham , was based . Many of its features described by Oxenham , who visited Cleeve in the early years of the twentieth century , can be identified at the site today , although literary licence allowed her to add features from elsewhere or from her imagination .

The castle scenes in the children 's musical @-@ comedy television series Maid Marian and her Merry Men were filmed in Cleeve Abbey .

= Serbia – United States relations =

Serbian – American relations are bilateral relations between the governments of Serbia and the United States . They were first established in 1882 . From 1918 to 2006 the United States maintained relations with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , SFR Yugoslavia , and Serbia and Montenegro , of which Serbia is considered the legal successor state .

At the end of the 19th century , the United States sought to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire 's withdrawal from Eastern Europe by establishing diplomatic relations with newly emerged nations , among them Serbia . Serbia and the United States were both allies during World War I. After the first World War , Serbia united with the Kingdom of Montenegro and territories previously held by Austria @-@ Hungary . This unified state became known as Yugoslavia , with which the United States had diplomatic relations up to the beginning of World War II . In the front in Yugoslavia during World War II , the US ultimately supported Serbian royalists known as Chetniks . However , Josip Broz Tito , the leader of Yugoslav Partisans during the war , ended up governing Yugoslavia after World War II , which resulted in a period of cutoff between Yugoslavia and the United States in the late 1940s . The end of World War II also resulted in the mass emigration of refugees from Yugoslavia , many of which were Serbs who ended up moving to the United States . This helped create the first major Serbian diaspora in the United States . Some of the Serbian refugees who settled in the United States after World War II were anti @-@ communist exiles who attempted to undermine Tito during the Cold War , using the United States as a venue for their anti @-@ communist aims .

Through the breakup of Yugoslavia , the United States engaged in both combative and economic conflict , particularly with Serbia , known at the time as Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( successor of SFR Yugoslavia ) . The United States imposed sanctions and spearheaded a NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslavia in 1999 . Throughout the period of conflict during the 1990s , another wave of Serbian emigration ensued , and many Serbian refugees moved to the United States . In the 2000s , diplomatic relations between the United States and Yugoslavia were restored , but were changed when Montenegro seceded in 2006 , after which Serbia was the successor state to continue relations previously held by FR Yugoslavia . In 2008 Kosovo Assembly unilaterally declared independence from Serbia .

= = History = =

= = = Pre @-@ Yugoslavia = = =

Diplomatic relations between the then @-@ Kingdom of Serbia and the United States were established in the 19th century . In 1879 , the Serbian Consulate @-@ General in New York was opened . On February 3 , 1882 , the Serbian Parliament adopted a contract and Convention of diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Serbia and the United States , given by King Milan Obrenović . The United States Senate adopted both documents on July 5 , 1882 without debate or amendments . On November 10 , 1882 , Eugene Schuyler became the first United States ambassador in Serbia .

= = = US support of Serbian monarchists during World War II = = =

During World War II in Yugoslavia , the United States initially supported the royal government of Yugoslavia . When the Nazis invaded Yugoslavia in the spring of 1941 , the United States decisively supported the Chetniks in the first years of the war . This support took place in the form of extensive clandestine relations between the Office of Strategic Services and Chetniks with William Donovan 's administration . Such cooperation was highlighted by complex operations such as Operation Halyard , in which several hundred American pilots were rescued by Chetniks . However , OSS support for the Chetniks was compromised by the United Kingdom 's MI6 policy of favoring the Yugoslav Partisans over the Chetniks . In 1943 , the US government 's support for the Chetniks over the Yugoslav Partisans was such that president Franklin D. Roosevelt discussed with Winston Churchill in a private conversation that he imagined that Yugoslavia 's boundaries would be completely redrawn into three separate states , with Peter Karađorđević Jr. being the monarch of an independent Serbian kingdom at the end of the war . The USAF and the British RAF began bombing Belgrade indiscriminately in April 1944 when they thought that Nazi occupation could not be removed by home @-@ grown resistance alone . The United States intelligence circles gradually conceded its influence on Yugoslav guerrilla operations to the British . At the end of the war , President Harry S. Truman dedicated a Legion of Merit to Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović , but the award wasn 't revealed publicly until 2005 .

= = = Cold War relations ( 1945 – 1991 ) = = =

After the end of World War II , the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ( SFRJ ) was formed . One of the first diplomatic contacts made with the new communist government was the US Department of State 's request for the US Army to testify at the Mihailović trial . However , the request was shunned and early relations between the United States and the government of Josip Broz Tito became strained , as American diplomats were furious over Mihailović 's execution in 1946 . Relations degraded even further a month later , when two USAF C @-@ 47 Skytrain cargo aircraft were shot down over Yugoslavia in the space of two weeks . More USAF aircraft were shot down over Yugoslavia up to 1948 . As a result , U.S. senator Thomas Dodd staunchly opposed American financial aid to Tito 's government , even saying that " Tito had bloodied hands . " In one of Josip Broz Tito 's early visits to the United States , protesters in San Pedro drowned an effigy of him .

The communist governments in Europe deferred to Stalin and rejected Marshall Plan aid from the United States in 1947 . At first , Tito went along and rejected the Marshall plan . However , in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues , making Yugoslavia an independent communist state . Yugoslavia then requested American aid . American leaders were internally divided , but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949 , and on a much larger scale 1950 @-@ 53 . The American aid was not part of the Marshall Plan .

Yugoslavia began opening more diplomatic dialogue to western nations after the Tito – Stalin split , which assured that Yugoslavia was not to become a member of the Warsaw Pact . On January 1 , 1967 , Yugoslavia was the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements . Regular commercial air travel between the United States and Yugoslavia was introduced with Pan Am and JAT Yugoslav Airlines . Due to this , trade opportunities reopened between the United States and Yugoslavia , and American businesses began exporting to Yugoslavia . Likewise , by the 1980s Yugoslavia was even exporting many of its manufactured automobiles from Zastava Automobili 's assembly line in Kragujevac to the United States . U.S. president Jimmy Carter discussed issues regarding Palestine and Egypt with Tito and referred to him as a " great world leader " . Subsequently , the Reagan administration began targeting the Yugoslav economy in a Secret Sensitive 1984 National Security Decision Directive NSDD 133 . " U.S. Policy towards Yugoslavia . " A censored version declassified in 1990 elaborated on NSDD 54 on Eastern Europe , issued in 1982 . The latter advocated " expanded efforts to promote a ' quiet revolution ' to overthrow Communist governments and parties , " while reintegrating the countries of Eastern Europe into a market @-@ oriented economy .

= = = = Serbian radicals in the United States during the existence of Yugoslavia = = = =

For much of the socialist period , the United States was a haven for many Serbian anti @-@ communists living outside Yugoslavia . On 20 June 1979 , a Serbian nationalist named Nikola Kavaja hijacked American Airlines Flight 293 from New York City with the intention of crashing the Boeing 707 into League of Communists of Yugoslavia headquarters in Belgrade . The aircraft , however , landed in Shannon , Ireland , where Kavaja were arrested .

A group of six Serbian nationalists , among them Boško Radonjić , placed a home @-@ made bomb in the home of the Yugoslav consulate in Chicago in 1975 . Radonjić later became the leader of the Westies gang in New York City , where he participated in organized crime and racketeering . He eventually became one of the most feared gangsters in the New York City underworld , and developed extensive friendships with John Gotti and the Gambino family . After Sammy Gravano turned John Gotti in to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in December 1990 , Radonjić was highly suspected to have attempted to fix the trial on John Gotti 's behalf . As a result of this , Radonjić was arrested on December 1999 during a lockdown at Miami International Airport when he was tracked down by the FBI . He was arrested in the United States again in January 2000 for further investigation of the 1992 Gotti trial . Upon release in 2001 , he left the United States and moved back to Serbia where he lived until his death in 2011 . He was also an admirer and long @-@ time friend of Radovan Karadžić until the latter went into hiding in 1996 .

In the 1980s , Vojislav Šešelj taught political science at the University of Michigan after being expelled by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1981 . In June 1989 , he traveled to the United States again to meet with Momčilo Đujić in San Marcos , California , where Đujić named him Chetnik Vojvoda ( duke in Serbian ) . He went on to form the Serbian Radical Party in 1991 and was accused by the ICTY tribunal of leading the Beli Orlovi militants in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in war @-@ state Republic of Serbian Krajina . Radovan Karadžić pursued post @-@ graduate medical studies at Columbia University from 1974 to 1975 , but did so without any specific political agenda at the time being ; he later became the war @-@ time president of the Republika Srpska during the Bosnian War and subsequently went into hiding in Serbia until his capture in 2008 for ICTY charges of war crimes and genocide .

= = = Deteriorating relations and war with FR Yugoslavia ( 1991 – 2000 ) = = =

The first form of sanctions initiated by the US against Yugoslavia took place already from 1990 as the Nickels Amendment , which was sponsored by senators Don Nickles and Bob Dole . The amendment was passed due to concerns about Albanians being arrested in Kosovo . The amendment officially came into legal effect from May 6 , 1992 ; although it applied only to $ 5 million @-@ worth of US foreign aid , it was reported as instrumental in denying SFR Yugoslavia its last application for IMF loans before its breakup and hyperinflation episode .

The breakup of Yugoslavia began in 1992 , the territories consisting of Serbia , Montenegro , and Kosovo composed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In the midst of the Yugoslav Wars , the United States as well as an overwhelming majority of states from the United Nations severed economic ties and imposed sanctions on FR Yugoslavia on May 30 , 1992 .

= = = = The Panić – Ćosić – Milošević triangle and the United States = = = =

The Yugoslav government of the newly formed FR Yugoslavia ( successor to SFR Yugoslavia ) ended up having three ideologically @-@ opposed leaders occupying executive positions . From 1992 , while Slobodan Milošević was the president of the Federal Republic of Serbia , national theorist Dobrica Ćosić was named President of FR Yugoslavia . Meanwhile , Milan Panić , a business magnate based in Newport Beach , California , accepted Milošević 's invitation to be Prime Minister . Panić was subsequently elected as Prime Minister in the 1992 Yugoslav parliamentary elections . The United States did not revoke Panić 's citizenship even though his occupation of an executive position in the Yugoslav government clearly contradicted the United States Constitution . Nevertheless , Panić would become a person of interest in US diplomatic circles , given his business and residence backgrounds . At a CSCE meeting in Helsinki in July 1992 , US Secretary of State James Baker abruptly dismissed Panić 's appeal to reduce the sanctions to Yugoslavia , even after an agreement ( between Panić , Milošević , and Dušan Mitević ) was reached by which Milošević would resign in return for sanction @-@ relief . This ended up severely damaging Panić 's unique diplomatic position internationally , as well as his standing in Yugoslavia . The Los Angeles Times published an article which described Panić as a doubtful upholder of potential American @-@ Yugoslavian peacemaking , when in fact , many years later made to be known , Panić was actually invited by Baker in the first place rather than voluntarily coming to Helsinki .

Panić and former US ambassador to Yugoslavia John Douglas Scanlan cooperated on a deep level in a campaign to challenge conservative politicians which echoed Baker 's disapproval of giving Yugoslavia sanctions @-@ relief in return for Milošević 's planned resignation . One of Panić 's advisors , academic Ljubiša Rakić , was dispatched to explain to Larry Eagleburger that the H.W. Bush administration was mistaken in seeing Panić as a Milošević puppet . Eagleburger replied , " Don 't worry , we are going to do our own thing " .

The three @-@ pronged government lasted only from May to December 1992 , as Panić and Ćosić decided to challenge Milošević in institutionally @-@ revised elections in December that same year . The December election ended up as a failure for the opposition to Milošević , as Ćosić pulled out of the campaign in the last moment due to health problems . Multiple politicians of the opposition parties criticized the US @-@ instigated fossil @-@ fuel sanctions in the midst of a cold 1992 @-@ 93 winter , saying that they actually further helped sympathy for Milošević and not against him .

= = = = Post @-@ Dayton lull and US macroeconomic influence in Yugoslavia ( 1995 – 1998 ) = = = =

On November 21 , 1995 , Serbian president Slobodan Milošević travelled to the United States to sign the Dayton Peace Accords with Croatian president Franjo Tuđman and Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović near Dayton , Ohio . Months later , sanctions against Yugoslavia were finally lifted in October 1996 .

In 1997 , a group of 17 economists wrote a letter titled " Program Radikalnih Ekonomskih Reformi u Jugoslaviji " , advocating liberal macroeconomic policy by creating alarming predictions of the Yugoslav economy from 1998 to 2010 . Not by coincidence , the letter was first published by B92 , arguably the most West @-@ friendly media outlet in Yugoslavia at the time . This would be the base for what would become a highly controversial political party in Serbia , G17 Plus , which began as an NGO funded by the National Endowment for Democracy . The original writers of the 1997 letter subsequently divided , as some either shunned or even criticized G17 's fundamentals , whereas others would end up occupying positions in the post @-@ Milošević government from 2000 .

= = = = NATO bombing of Yugoslavia = = = =

The United States reinstated sanctions against Yugoslavia in March 1998 when the Kosovo War started . Shortly after the controversies at Račak and Rambouillet , American diplomat Richard Holbrooke traveled to Belgrade in March 1999 to deliver the final ultimatum requesting entry of UN forces into Kosovo . Milošević rejected the ultimatum , so the United States completely severed ties with Yugoslavia on March 23 , 1999 . Bill Clinton became the first president to declare war while bypassing a Congressional majority . The establishment of the bombing campaign was contested by one of the tightest votings ( 213 @-@ 213 ) in the entire history of the House of Representatives . The United States declared war on Yugoslavia on March 24 , 1999 to take part in Operation Allied Force led by U.S. general Wesley Clark . Out of all the territories in Yugoslavia at the time , Serbia was bombed the most due to its concentration of military targets . As a result of Slobodan Milošević granting entry to KFOR in Kosovo , the war against Yugoslavia ceased on June 10 , 1999 .

= = = Post @-@ war relations = = =

= = = = Bulldozer Revolution ( 2000 ) = = = =

A group named Otpor ! , originally formed by students in 1998 with the financial assistance of USAID , International Republican Institute , and NED , was one of multiple significant participants in the Bulldozer Revolution , from which Milošević was overthrown . USAID donated over $ 30 million for Otpor to " purchase cell phones and computers for DOS 's leadership and to recruit and train an army of 20 @,@ 000 election monitors " as well as to supplement them with " a sophisticated marketing campaign with posters , badges and T @-@ shirts . " After the Bulldozer Revolution on October 5 , 2000 , the United States reestablished a diplomatic presence in Belgrade . In 2013 , the Associated Press published an article which reported that a CIA operative , Francis Archibald , participated in the organization of the October 5 coup and that the overthrow was " regarded inside the CIA as a blueprint for running a successful peaceful covert action " .

= = = = Transition with DOS and its party remnants ( 2001 – 2008 ) = = = =

Sanctions against FR Yugoslavia were lifted in January 2001 . The United States under the Bush administration denied giving any aid to Yugoslavia even several months after UN sanctions were lifted before Vojislav Koštunica promised to cooperate with demands from The Hague regarding the Slobodan Milošević trial .

In March 2001 , American economist Joseph Stiglitz traveled to Belgrade to talk to a prominent Democratic Opposition leader , Zoran Đinđić , about the potential consequences of IMF @-@ sponsored austerity . On June 25 , 2001 , Stiglitz published a paper , " Serbia 's Advantages in Coming Late " , about the necessity for Serbia not to rush privatization and not to pursue " shock therapy " , which was the established macroeconomic advise of the Bretton Woods institutions . Đinđić , however , did not live long to analyze the advice of the Bretton Woods institutions or the anti @-@ austerity plan of Stiglitz , as he was assassinated on March 12 , 2003 . This accumulated to a crescendo when G17 Plus got into an intense standoff with the Serbian government , composed mostly by DOS , due to the fact that G17 Plus continuously lobbied for the dissolution of the state union of Serbia and Montenegro . Later , in May 2006 , Montenegro declared independence from the Serbo @-@ Montenegrin state union ; the United States immediately respected the results and urged the new government in Podgorica to keep close ties with Serbia . The United States recognized Serbia as the official successor state of the Serbia and Montenegro and the preceding Yugoslav state .

Outside of fiscal policy , American influence was evident in executive positions . In September 2002 , it was announced that the Military Court in Belgrade was to press charges against Momčilo Perišić , who was the vice president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia at the time , for espionage in the favour of the CIA . The trial never took place , although upon his release from The Hague on February 28 , 2013 , it was announced by Perišić 's lawyer Novak Lukić that his client was " ready to be judged " on the same 2002 accusations of espionage . As of 2015 no further investigation has taken place .

= = = = 2008 – 12 : Tadić era = = = =

On February 15 , 2008 , it was announced that the pro @-@ Western Boris Tadić won the 2008 Serbian presidential election . The 2008 elections were particularly important to Serbia 's relations with the United States , as the main challenging party which lost the election , SRS , disintegrated when Tomislav Nikolić split with Vojislav Šešelj over integration into the European Union . When Nikolić split from SRS and began pursuing a pro @-@ European profile ( a reversal from SRS 's eurosceptic position ) , he was being advised by American lobbying firm Quinn Gillespie & Associates .

Only a few days after this election result , the declaring of independence by Kosovo on February 17 , 2008 spurred off widespread unrest in Serbia , during which the embassy of the United States was evacuated and then torched by a mob . One man of Serbian nationality was killed inside of the embassy during the unrest . Serbia temporarily withdrew its ambassador from Washington , D.C. , but the U.S. embassy in Belgrade was closed only for several days . Ambassador Cameron Munter said that no degrading of relations were expected regardless of the unrest .

= = = = SNS @-@ era ( 2012 – ) = = = =

On April 19 , 2012 , shortly before the 2012 Serbian parliamentary election , former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani traveled to Belgrade to attend a news conference with Belgrade mayor candidate Aleksandar Vučić . The US Embassy to Serbia gave a statement that it did not support any specific candidate in the upcoming election . Belgrade mayor Dragan Đilas slammed the conference which Giuliani attended , telling press that " Giuliani should not speak about Belgrade 's future as a man who supported the bombing of Serbia . " After the 2012 presidential elections in Serbia , a large number of local news outlets and even some intellectuals interpreted Philip T. Reeker 's visit to Belgrade in July 2012 as an attempt to create a parliamentary coalition between the Demokratska Stranka and the Serbian Progressive Party as opposed to the Progressive @-@ SPS bloc which had been composed by the election results . The election ultimately gave SNS along with its partners a victory , while Demokratska Stranka was removed into the opposition . The newly elected government ultimately continued largely the same Euro @-@ Atlantic integration programs pursued by the Tadić administration . According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report , only 20 % of Serbs approved of U.S. leadership , with 57 % disapproving and 22 % uncertain , the fifth @-@ lowest rating for any surveyed European country that year .

= = Immigration , brain drain , and professionals from Serbia = =

There is a sizable Serbian American diaspora in the United States ; in 2007 a total of 172 @,@ 834 people of Serbian nationality or descent were recorded to be inhabiting the U.S. The first documented wave of Serbian immigrants to the United States was recorded in the 1970s when many Serbian factory workers emigrated to Detroit to manufacture automobiles for Ford . In 2011 , Serbia was ranked second in the world ( after Guinea Bissau ) in human capital flight according to USAID . Brain drain to the United States and Canada has been cited as a chronic phenomenon in Serbia , especially from 1990 to 2000 during the decade of UN sanctions and war .

= = Trade and investment = =

Serbia 's strongest exports to the United States include Fiat automobiles manufactured in Kragujevac . Fiat purchased Zastava Automobili in 2008 and subsequently managed the factory in Kragujevac so that it would produce new Fiat automobiles as opposed to Zastava models ( the last Zastavas were produced in 2008 ) ; in May 2013 alone , 3 @,@ 000 Fiat 500L units were shipped from Serbia to Baltimore for sale in the United States . The Fiat 500L is the first automobile to have been exported from Serbia to the United States since the Zastava Koral before 1992 , and is proving to be a popular model with a large amount of advertising in the United States . Serbia is also the largest exporter of raspberries in the world ( as of 2009 ) , and much of the raspberries consumed in the United States are grown in Šumadija . In 2015 , the two states discussed to find ways to increase investments in Serbia .

= M @-@ 221 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 221 is a short state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan that connects M @-@ 28 with the community of Brimley and Brimley State Park . The highway was originally part of M @-@ 28 until the 1940s when it was briefly a local road . It has been a state highway again since it was designated as M @-@ 221 in 1945 .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 221 runs for 2 @.@ 494 miles ( 4 @.@ 014 km ) north from M @-@ 28 into the unincorporated community of Brimley in Superior Township . The highway passes through rural fields and woods until it enters downtown . At the corner of Main Street and Lakeshore Drive , the signed portion of M @-@ 221 ends , but state maintenance continues on Lakeshore Drive across the Waiska River . The total length of the highway , including the unsigned segment , is 2 @.@ 545 miles ( 4 @.@ 096 km ) .

M @-@ 221 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2009 showed that the traffic levels along M @-@ 221 were 2 @,@ 940 vehicles daily north of the junction with 7 ½ Mile Road and 1 @,@ 476 vehicles per day south of the intersection ; along the whole highway , 26 trucks were recorded in the survey . No sections of M @-@ 221 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

M @-@ 221 was part of the original M @-@ 25 that ran through the eastern UP in 1919 . This specific segment of roadway ran north into Brimley and turned east onto 6 Mile Road to connect with US Highway 2 ( now H @-@ 63 / Mackinac Trail ) The trunkline became part of M @-@ 28 . In early 1942 , M @-@ 28 was rerouted on the current alignment south of Brimley and this highway was turned back to local control . In 1945 , M @-@ 221 was designated along a portion of the former M @-@ 28 .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is in Superior Township , Chippewa County .

= Juniper MX @-@ Series =

The Juniper MX @-@ Series is a family of ethernet routers and switches designed and manufactured by Juniper Networks . In 2006 , Juniper released the first of the MX @-@ series , the MX960 , MX240 , and MX480 . The second generation routers , called MX " 3D " , were first released in 2009 and featured a new Trio chipset and IPv6 support . In 2013 , the MX routers were improved to increase their bandwidth , and a virtualized MX 3D router , the vMX 3D , was released in 2014 . Utilizing the Juniper Extension Toolkit ( JET ) , third party software can be integrated into the routers .

= = History = =

= = = Early releases = = =

On October 18 , 2006 , the MX Series was publicly announced . Before its release , Ethernet aggregation was a missing component of Juniper 's edge network products , which was causing it to lose market @-@ share to Alcatel . The MX Series was late to market , but it was well received by analysts and customers . It was part of a trend at @-@ the @-@ time to incorporate additional software features in routers and switches .

The first product release of the MX series was the MX960 , a 14 @-@ slot , 480 Gbit / s switch and router . In late 2006 , Juniper introduced the MX240 and MX480 , which are smaller versions of the 960 . They had a throughput of 240 Gbit / s and 480 Gbit / s respectively .

= = = Further development = = =

In 2009 a new line of MX " 3D " products were introduced , using Juniper 's programmable Trio chipset . Trio is a proprietary semiconductor technology with custom network instructions . It provides a cross between network processing units and ASICs . IPv6 features were added and the MX80 , a smaller 80Gbit / s router , was introduced the following year .

In 2011 new switch fabric cards increased the capacity of MX 3D routers . In May 2011 Juniper introduced several new products including the MX5 , MX10 and MX40 3D routers , which have a throughput of 20 , 40 and 60 Gbit / s respectively and can each be upgraded to an MX80 . A collection of features called MobileNext was introduced in 2011 at Mobile World Congress , then discontinued in August 2013 . According to Network World , it allowed MX 3D products to serve as a mobile " gateway , an authentication and management control plan for 2G / 3G and LTE mobile packet cores and as a policy manager for subscriber management systems . "

In October 2012 , Juniper introduced the MX2020 and 2010 3D Universal Edge Routers , with throughputs of 80 Tbit / s and 40 Tbit / s respectively . Juniper also released a video caching system for the MX family and a suite of software applications that include parental control , firewall and traffic monitoring . New " Virtual Chassis " features allowed network operators to manage multiple boxes as though they were a single router or switch .

= = = Recent developments = = =

In 2013 , Juniper introduced new line cards for the MX series and a new switch fabric module , intended to upgrade the MX series ' for higher bandwidth needs and for software defined networking applications . The capacity of the MX240 , 480 and 960 were increased by double or more . A new Multiservice Modular Interface Card ( MS @-@ MIC ) was incorporated that supports up to 9 Gbit / s for services like tunneling software .

In March 2013 , Juniper released the EX9200 switch , which isn 't part of the MX Series , but uses the same software and Trio chipset . A virtualized MX series 3D router , the vMX 3D , was introduced in November 2014 . A suite of updates were announced in late 2015 . New MPC line cards were introduced , which have a throughput of up to 1 @.@ 6 Tbit / s . Simultaneously the Juniper Extension Toolkit ( JET ) was announced . JET is a programming interface for integrating third @-@ party applications that automate provisioning , maintenance and other tasks . The Junos Telemetry Interface was also announced at the same time . It reports data to applications and other equipment to automate changes to the network in response to faults or in order optimize performance .

= = Current products and specifications = =

According to Juniper 's website , Juniper 's current MX Series products include the following :

= Lord Howe Island =

Lord Howe Island ( / ˈhaʊ / , local / ˈhæɔː / ; formerly Lord Howe 's Island ) is an irregularly crescent @-@ shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand , 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) directly east of mainland Port Macquarie , and about 900 kilometres ( 560 mi ) south @-@ west of Norfolk Island . It is about 10 km long and between 2 @.@ 0 km and 0 @.@ 3 km wide with an area of 14 @.@ 55 km2 , though just 3 @.@ 98 km2 of that comprises the low @-@ lying developed part of the island . Along the west coast there is a sandy semi @-@ enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon . Most of the population lives in the north , while the south is dominated by forested hills rising to the highest point on the island , Mount Gower ( 875 m or 2 @,@ 871 ft ) . The Lord Howe Island Group comprises 28 islands , islets and rocks . Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the volcanic and uninhabited Ball 's Pyramid about 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Howe . To the north lies the Admiralty Group , a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands .

The first reported sighting of Lord Howe Island took place on 17 February 1788 , when Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball , commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply was en route from Botany Bay to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island . On the return journey Ball sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession . It subsequently became a provisioning port for the whaling industry , and was permanently settled in June 1834 . When whaling declined , the 1880s saw the beginning of the worldwide export of the endemic kentia palms , which remains a key component of the Island 's economy . The other continuing industry , tourism , began after World War II ended in 1945 .

The Lord Howe Island Group is part of the state of New South Wales and for legal purposes is regarded as an unincorporated area administered by the Lord Howe Island Board which reports to the New South Wales Minister for Environment and Heritage . The island 's standard time zone is UTC + 10 : 30 , or UTC + 11 when daylight saving time applies . The currency is the Australian dollar . Commuter airlines provide flights to Sydney , Brisbane , and Port Macquarie .

UNESCO records the Lord Howe Island Group as a World Heritage Site of global natural significance . Most of the island is virtually untouched forest , with many of the plants and animals found nowhere else in the world . Other natural attractions include the diversity of the landscapes , the variety of upper mantle and oceanic basalts , the world 's southernmost barrier coral reef , nesting seabirds , and the rich historical and cultural heritage . The Lord Howe Island Act of 1981 established a " Permanent Park Preserve " ( covering about 70 per cent of the island ) . The surrounding waters are a protected region designated the Lord Howe Island Marine Park .

= = History = =

= = = 1788 – 1834 : First European visits = = =

It appears that , prior to European discovery and settlement , Lord Howe Island was uninhabited , and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific . The first reported European sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball , commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply ( the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships ) , which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island . On the return journey of 13 March 1788 Ball observed Ball 's Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession . Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney . Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Balls Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe , First Earl Howe , who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time .

Many names on the island date from this time , and also from May of the same year when the island was visited by four ships of the First Fleet , HMS Supply , Charlotte , Lady Penrhyn and Scarborough when much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors like David Blackburn , Master of the Supply , and Arthur Bowes Smyth , surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn . Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen ( Gallirallus sylvestris ) , white gallinule ( Porphyrio albus ) , and Lord Howe pigeon ( Columba vitiensis godmanae ) , were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter . As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record . Over the next three years the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets . Between 1789 and 1791 the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago , then south into Australian and New Zealand waters . The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales ( Physeter macrocephalus ) and southern right whales ( Eubalaena australis ) .

The island was subsequently visited by many government and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific , including many from the American whaling fleet , so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement , some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors . Between July and October 1791 the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days the deckwork was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry . Whale oil was to become New Holland 's ( Australia ) most profitable export until the 1830s , and it was the whaling industry that shaped Lord Howe Island 's early history .

= = = 1834 – 1841 : Settlement = = =

Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834 when the British whaling barque Caroline , sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe , landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach . They left three men , George Ashdown , James Bishop and ( unknown ) Chapman , who were employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station . The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock . They landed with ( or acquired from a visiting ship ) their Maori wives and two Maori boys . Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement which had a supply of fresh water , and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach .

This was a cashless society ; the settlers bartered their stores of water , wood , vegetables , meat , fish and bird feathers for clothes , tea , sugar , tools , tobacco and other commodities not available on the island – but it was the whalers ’ valuation that had to be accepted . These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for £ 350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson ( later joined by John Foulis ) whose employees and others then settled on the island .

= = = 1842 – 1860 : Trading provisions = = =

The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides ( Vanuatu ) would also put into the island . Rover 's Bride , a small cutter , became the first regular trading vessel . Between 1839 and 1859 between five and twelve ships made landfall each year , occasionally closer to 20 with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef . In 1842 and 1844 the first children were born on the island . Then in 1847 Poole , Dawson and Foulis , bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales Government , abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained . One family , the Andrews , after finding some onions on the beach in 1848 , cultivated them as the " Lord Howe red onion " which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease .

In 1849 there were just 11 people living on the island but it was not long before the island farms expanded . In the 1850s gold was discovered on mainland Australia where crews would abandon their ships , preferring to dig for gold than to risk a life at sea . As a consequence many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade which peaked between 1855 and 1857 . In 1851 about 16 people were living on the island . Vegetable crops now included potatoes , carrots , maize , pumpkin , taro , watermelon – even grapes , passionfruit and coffee . Between 1851 and 1853 there were several aborted proposals by the NSW Government to establish a penal settlement on the island .

From 1851 to 1854 Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald , which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific ( 1852 – 1856 ) , completed the island 's first hydrographic survey . On board were three Scottish biologists , William Milne ( a gardener @-@ botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden ) , John Macgillivray ( naturalist ) who collected fish and plant specimens , and Assistant Surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald . Together these men established much basic information on the geology , flora and fauna of the island .

In about 1853 a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle , captained by Ichabod Handy . As well as George Campbell ( who died in 1856 ) and Jack Brian ( who left the island in 1854 ) , the third , Nathan Thompson , brought three women ( called Botanga , Bogoroo , and a girl named Bogue ) from the Gilbert Islands . When his first wife Botanga died he then married Bogue . Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach . Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue .

In 1855 the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act .

= = = 1861 – 1890 : Scientific expeditions = = =

From the early 1860s whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum , the onset of the Californian goldrush , and the American Civil War – with unfortunate consequences for the island . To explore alternative means of income Thompson , in 1867 , purchased the Sylph which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney ( mainly pigs and onions ) . It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph 's Hole off Old Settlement Beach , but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873 which added to the woes of the island at this time .

In 1869 the island was visited by a magistrate P. Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder . He was accompanied by Charles Moore , Director of the Botanic Gardens , Sydney and his assistant , William Carron who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne who , by 1875 , had catalogued and published 195 species . Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald a surveyor and Mr Masters from the Australian Museum . Together they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people , their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves . At about this time there began a downturn of trade with the demise of the whaling industry and sometimes six or twelve months passed without a vessel calling . With the provisions rotting in the storehouses the older families lost interest in market gardening .

From 1860 to 1872 forty @-@ three ships had collected provisions , but from 1873 to 1887 there were fewer than a dozen . This prompted some activity from the mainland . In 1876 a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year . He suggested that coffee be grown but the kentia palm was already catching world attention . In 1878 the island was declared a Forest Reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator . He encouraged schools , tree @-@ planting and the palm trade , dynamited the north passage to the lagoon , and built roads . He also managed to upset the residents , and parliamentarian John Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation . With Wilson was a team of scientists that included H. Wilkinson from the Mines Department , W. Condor from the Survey Department , J. Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens and A. Morton from the Australian Museum . J. Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the Island and its residents . A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit , published as " Lord Howe Island 1882 " , which recommended that Armstrong be replaced . Meanwhile , the population had increased considerably and included 29 children ; the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed . This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations , the Australian Museum , Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens .

= = = 1890 – 1999 = = =

In 1883 the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased . By 1932 , with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda , tourism became the second biggest source of external income after palm sales to Europe . Morinda was replaced by Makambo in 1932 , and she in turn by other vessels . The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie .

The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm ( Howea forsteriana ) was first exported to Britain , Europe and America but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 ( see below ) .

The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931 when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane . It was damaged there in an overnight storm but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney . After World War II , in 1947 , tourists arrived on Catalina and then four @-@ engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay , Sydney , and landing on the lagoon , the journey taking about 3 @.@ 5 hours . When the Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974 , the seaplanes were eventually replaced with Qantaslink twin @-@ engined turbo @-@ prop Dash 8 @-@ 200 aircraft .

= = = 21st century = = =

In 2002 , the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Nottingham struck Wolf Rock , a reef at Lord Howe Island , and almost sank . In recent times tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation .

On 17 October 2011 , a supply ship , M / V Island Trader with twenty tons of fuel ran aground in the lagoon . The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo .

= = Demographics = =

As at the 2011 census , the resident population was 360 people and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400 . Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations . Residents are now involved with the kentia palm industry , tourism , retail , some fishing and farming . In 1876 it was observed that on Sundays although there was a suspension of games and labour , there were no religious services . Nowadays , in an area known locally as ' Church Paddock ' , there are Anglican , Catholic and Adventist churches , the religious affiliations on the island being 30 % Anglican , 22 % no religion , 18 % Catholic and 12 % Seventh Day Adventist . There is about an equal division of the sexes with 47 % of the population in the age group 25 – 54 and 92 % holding Australian citizenship .

= = Governance and land tenure = =

Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855 , although until at least 1876 the islanders lived in " a relatively harmonious and self @-@ regulating community " . In 1878 Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a Forest Reserve . But as a result of ill feeling , and an enquiry , he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 ( he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present @-@ day Transit Hill ) . After his removal the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913 when a Sydney @-@ based Board was formed until 1948 when a resident superintendent was appointed . In 1913 the three @-@ man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established , mostly to regulate the palm seed industry , but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954 .

The Lord Howe Island Board is a NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act , 1953 , to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales . It reports directly to the state 's Minister for Environment and Heritage , and is responsible for the care , control and management of the island . Its duties include : the protection of World Heritage values ; the control of development ; the administration of Crown Land , including the island 's protected area ; provision of community services and infrastructure ; and regulating sustainable tourism . In 1981 the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five @-@ member Board . The Board also manages the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery which , together with tourism , provides the island 's only sources of external income . Under an amendment bill in 2004 the Board now comprises seven members , four of whom are elected from the islander community , thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy . The remaining three members are appointed by the Minister to represent the interests of business , tourism and conservation . The full Board meets on the island every three months while the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of the island are managed by the Board 's administration , with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988 .

Land tenure has been an issue since first settlement as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land . Original settlers were squatters . The granting of a 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints and a few short @-@ term leases ( Permissive Occupancies ) were granted . In 1913 , with the appointment of a Board of Control , permissive occupancies were revoked and the Board itself given permissive occupancy of the island . Then the Lord Howe Island Act of 1953 made all land the property of the Crown . Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks of up to 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) for residential purposes . Short @-@ term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture , so in 1955 , 55 perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted . The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more . There remains an active debate concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the Board of resident islanders in relation to long @-@ term planning for visitors , and issues relating to the environment , amenity and global heritage .

= = Economy = =

Trading vegetables , meat , fish and other perishables with visiting ships ceased in the 1870s when the whaling industry collapsed . With such a small population , Lord Howe Island 's economy is now extremely simple with external income derived from only two significant sources : tourism and the overseas sale of kentia palm seeds and seedlings .

= = = Kentia palm industry = = =

The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King , a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876 , who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens . Overseas trade began in the 1880s when it was found that one of the four palms endemic to the island , kentia palm ( Howea forsteriana ) , which grows naturally in the lowlands , was ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well @-@ to @-@ do in Britain , Europe and the United States , but the assistance of mainland magistrate Frank Farnell was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906 he became Director of a company , the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery , whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney @-@ based seed company . However , the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues .

The native kentia palm ( known locally as the thatch palm as it was used to thatch the houses of the early settlers ) is now the most popular decorative palm in the world . The mild climate of the island has evolved a palm which can tolerate low light , a dry atmosphere and lowish temperatures – ideal for indoor conditions . Up to the 1980s the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high quality seedlings . The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS / NZS ISO 9002 .

Seed is gathered from natural forest and plantations , most collectors being descendants of the original settlers . Seed is then germinated in soil @-@ less media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination . After testing they are picked , washed ( bare @-@ rooted ) , sanitised and certified then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export . They grow both indoors and out and are popular for hotels and motels world @-@ wide . Nursery profits are returned to enhance the island ecosystem . The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm and other native plants of special interest .

= = = Tourism = = =

Lord Howe Island is known for its geology , birds , plants , and marine life . Popular tourist activities include scuba diving , birdwatching , snorkelling , surfing , kayaking , and fishing . To relieve pressure on the small island environment only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time . The island is reached by plane from Sydney or Brisbane in less than two hours . The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a National Park .

= = = = Facilities = = = =

With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time , facilities are limited ; they include a bakery , butcher , general store , liquor store , restaurants , post office , museum and information centre , a police officer , a ranger , and an ATM at the bowling club . Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie . There is a small four @-@ bed hospital and dispensary . A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds . Diesel @-@ generated power is 240 V AC , as on the mainland . There is no public transport or mobile phone coverage , but there are public telephones , fax facilities and internet access as well as a local radio station and newsletter , The Signal .

Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units . The currency is the Australian dollar and there are two banks . There are no camping facilities on the island and remote @-@ area camping is not permitted . To protect the fragile environment of Balls Pyramid ( which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Howe Island stick insect ) , recreational climbing there is prohibited . No pets are allowed without permission from the Board . Islanders use tanked rainwater , supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes .

= = = = Activities = = = =

As distances to sites of interest are short , cycling is the main means of transport on the island . Tourist activities include golf ( 9 @-@ hole ) , lawn bowls , tennis , fishing ( including deep @-@ sea game fishing ) , yachting , windsurfing , kite surfing , kayaking , and boat trips ( including glass @-@ bottom tours of the lagoon ) . Swimming , snorkelling and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon , as well as off Tenth of June Island , a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops 36 metres to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls . Other diving sites are found off Ball 's Pyramid , 26 km away , where there are trenches , caves and volcanic drop @-@ offs .

Bushwalking , natural history tours , talks , and guided walks take place along the many tracks , the most challenging being the eight @-@ hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower . There are 11 beaches and hand @-@ feeding the metre @-@ long kingfish ( Seriola lalandi ) and large wrasse at Ned 's Beach is very popular . Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1 – 5 , they include – in the north : Transit Hill 2 hours return , 2 km ; Clear Place , 1 – 2 hours return ; Stevens Reserve ; North Bay , 4 hours return , 4 km ; Mount Eliza ; Old Gulch , 20 minutes return , 300 m ; Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout , 3 hours , or 5 hours return , 7 km and – in the south : Goat House Cave , 5 hours return , 6 km ; Mount Gower , 8 hours return , 14 km ; Rocky Run and Boat Harbour ; Intermediate Hill , 45 minutes return , 1 km ; Little Island , 40 minutes return , 3 km . Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board .

= = Geography = =

Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent @-@ shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean . Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand the island is 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) east of mainland Port Macquarie , 702 kilometres ( 436 mi ) northeast of Sydney , and about 772 kilometres ( 480 mi ) from Norfolk Island to its northeast . The island is about 10 km long and between 2 @.@ 0 km and 0 @.@ 3 km wide with an area of 14 @.@ 55 km2 . Along the west coast there is a semi @-@ enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand , the most accessible of the island 's eleven beaches . Both the north and south sections of the island are high ground of relatively untouched forest , in the south comprising two volcanic mountains , Mount Lidgbird ( 777 m or 2 @,@ 549 ft ) and Mount Gower which , rising to 875 m ( 2 @,@ 871 ft ) , is the highest point on the island . The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley . In the north , where most of the population live , high points are Malabar ( 209 m or 686 ft ) and Mount Eliza ( 147 m or 482 ft ) . Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming , the airstrip , and housing . The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands , islets and rocks . Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Ball 's Pyramid , a 551 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 1 @,@ 808 ft ) eroded volcano about 23 km to the south @-@ east , which is uninhabited but bird @-@ colonised . It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect , formerly thought to be extinct . To the north there is the Admiralty Group , a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands . Just off the east coast is 4 @.@ 5 ha Mutton Bird Island , and in the lagoon is 3 ha Blackburn ( Rabbit ) Island .

= = = Geological origins = = =

Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old shield volcano , the product of eruptions that lasted for about a half @-@ million years . It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf , the Lord Howe Rise , which is 3000 km long and 300 km wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin . The shelf is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent . The Lord Howe seamount chain is defined by coral @-@ capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for 1000 km ( 600 mi ) and including the Middleton 220 kilometres ( 140 mi ) and Elizabeth ( 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) away ) reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve . This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Indo @-@ Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of 6 cm per year ( see plate tectonics ) .

= = = Basalts and calcarenite = = =

Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island . The first about 6 @.@ 9 million years ago produced the northern and central hills while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6 @.@ 3 million years ago by successive basalt ( an extrusive igneous rock ) lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera ( crater ) and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs ( at Malabar and Mount Gower ) occasionally interspersed with dikes ( vertical lava intrusions ) . Geological pyroclastic remnants of volcanic eruption can be seen on 15 ha Roach Island ( where the oldest rocks occur ) and Boat Harbour as tuff ( ash ) , breccia ( with angular blocks ) , and agglomerate ( rounded ' bombs ' ) . Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise water depths reach 2000 m falling to 4000 m to the west of the rise . From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands it has been calculated that the island has eroded to one fortieth of its original size .

Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite , a coral sand , blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation . In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs , land and marine snails and the extinct endemic horned turtle ( Meiolania platyceps ) now thought to be an ancient relictual non @-@ swimming tortoise with relatives in South America . The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon , the barrier reef , at 31 ° S , is the most southerly in the world . Beach sands , rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite , as on the mainland , are made of fragments of shell , coral and coralline algae , together with basalt grains , and basaltic minerals like black diopside , and green olivine . The lowland consists of alluvial soils .

The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200 @,@ 000 years taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs .

= = = Climate = = =

Lord Howe Island has a subtropical climate . Under the Köppen climate classification , Lord Howe Island has a Humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) .

In general the summers are mild or warm with rainfall erratic but occasionally heavy while in winter it is cool with rainfall more or less uniform . There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa . Winds are frequent and salt @-@ laden being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter . July is the windiest month , and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds . The island has 67 @.@ 8 clear days , annually .

Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island . Rainfall records are maintained in the north where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud – shrouded mountains of the south . There can be wide variation in rainfall from year to year . July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures of about 13 ° C and no frost . Average maximum temperatures range from between 17 ° C and 20 ° C in the winter to between 24 ° C and 27 ° C in the summer . The humidity averages in the 60 % to 70 % range year round becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months .

= = Flora and fauna = =

= = = Plants = = =

Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests . It is part of the Australasia ecozone and shares many biotic affinities with Australia , New Guinea , and New Caledonia . Almost half of the island 's native plants are endemic and many of the island 's unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats from sealevel to the summits . One of the best known is Howea , an endemic genus of palms ( Arecaceae ) that are commonly known as kentia palms and make handsome houseplants . Annual exports provide a revenue of over A $ 2 million , providing the only major industry on the island apart from tourism .

= = = = Origin = = = =

In geological terms at 7 million years old Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent , its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea , carried by wind , water or birds , possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed , enabling island hopping . Nevertheless , it is far enough away and has had sufficient time to evolve endemic species . The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera : Negria , Lordhowea , Howea , Lepidorrhachis , and Hedyscepe . Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island , the two islands sharing some endemic species , for example , the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis . The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia . There is also a small but clear link with the plants of Vanuatu . The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical south @-@ eastern Queensland . A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species like the wedding lily ( Dietes robinsoniana ) whose only living relatives occur in South Africa .

The flora of the island is relatively untouched with a large number of rare plants , 44 % being endemic to the island . With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys , to ridges , plains and misty mountain tops there is habitat for a wide range of plant communities which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped . There are 57 species of fern of which 25 are endemic : they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island , especially the higher parts of Mount Gower , perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains .

= = = = Communities and special plants = = = =

Plant communities have been classified into nine categories : lowland subtropical rainforest , submontane rainforest , cloud @-@ forest and scrub , lowland swamp forest , mangrove scrub and seagrass , coastal scrub and cliff vegetation , inland scrub and herbland , offshore island vegetation , shoreline and beach vegetation , and disturbed vegetation .

Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor . Banyan ( Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris ) is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots : it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned 's Beach . Pandanus tree ( Pandanus forsteri ) has spectacular teepee @-@ like prop roots and pineapple @-@ like fruits that are orange @-@ red when mature , the tough leaves being used for basketry . It occurs in damp areas like creek beds and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track . There are ten species of orchid on the island , the most noticeable being the bush orchid ( Dendrobium macropus subsp. howeanum ) on lowland trees and rocks , bearing cream flowers from August to September . Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include , on the mountain slopes , the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose ( Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa ) , the massed small yellow flowers of corokia ( Corokia carpodetoides ) , orange plump flowers of pumpkin tree ( Negria rhabdothamnoides ) , and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree ( Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii ) . The kava bush has large , aromatic , heart @-@ shaped leaves . After heavy rain the endemic glowing mushrooms Mycena chlorophanos and Omphalotus nidiformis can be found in the palm forests .

It is the palms that are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places , the kentia being of special economic importance . All four species are endemic to the island , often occurring in dense pure stands , the one that has proved such a world @-@ wide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm ( Howea forsteriana ) . This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in ' hands ' of 3 – 5 while the curly palm ( Howea belmoreana ) , which occurs on slightly higher ground , has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary ' hands ' . Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and there is a mature specimen of one growing in the island nursery . On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m there is the big mountain palm ( Hedyscepe canterburyana ) ; it has large golf @-@ ball @-@ sized fruits while the little mountain palm ( Lepidorrhachis mooreana ) has marble @-@ sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits .

= = = = = Images of native flora = = = = =

= = = Animals = = =

There are no snakes , no venomous or stinging insects , animals or plants , and no dangerous daytime sharks off the beaches .

= = = = Birds = = = =

A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island . Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and there are many more migratory species that occur on the island and its adjacent islets , many tame enough that it is possible for humans to get quite close . The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Endemic Bird Area , and the Permanent Park Preserve as an Important Bird Area , because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens , most of the breeding population of providence petrels , over 1 % of the world population of another five seabird species , and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies .

Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island . Red @-@ tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs where they perform acrobatic courting rituals . Between August and May thousands of flesh @-@ footed and wedge @-@ tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day . From the Little Island Track between March and November one of the world 's rarest birds , the providence petrel also performs courtship displays during winter breeding and it is extremely tame . The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century ; though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island . The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews and the black @-@ winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971 ; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island .

The flesh @-@ footed shearwater , which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring @-@ autumn , used to have its chicks harvested for food by the islanders . The wedge @-@ tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets ; though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island . Breeding white @-@ bellied storm petrels were another discovery by Roy Bell . Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round . Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned 's and Middle Beaches , North Bay , and Blinkey Beach ; the most numerous of the island 's breeding seabirds , their eggs were formerly harvested for food . Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes , while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch , and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows .

Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler , Lord Howe silvereye and Lord Howe currawong . The iconic endemic rail , the flightless Lord Howe woodhen , is the only surviving member of its genus : its ancestors could fly but with no predators and plenty of food on the island this ability was lost . This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals and by the 1970s the population was less than 30 birds . From 1978 to 1984 feral animals were removed and birds raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild . The population is now relatively safe and stable .

= = = = Mammals , reptiles and amphibians = = = =

Only one native mammal remains on the islands , the large forest bat . The endemic Lord Howe long @-@ eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct , possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats .

Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group : the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko . Both are rare on the main island but more common on smaller islands offshore . The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland .

= = = = Invertebrates = = = =

The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the introduction of rats in 1918 . In 2001 a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball 's Pyramid , has been successfully bred in captivity , and is nearing re @-@ introduction to the main island . The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summer months . Another endemic invertebrate , the Lord Howe flax snail ( or Lord Howe Placostylus ) , has also been affected by the introduction of rats . Once common , the species is now endangered and a captive breeding program is under way to save the snail from extinction .

= = = = Marine life = = = =

Marine environments are near @-@ pristine with a mixtures of temperate , subtropical and tropical species derived from cool @-@ temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current , which flows from the Great Barrier Reef , in summer . Of the 490 fish species recorded 13 are endemic and 60 % are tropical . The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish while game fish include marlin , tuna and giant kingfish called " greenbacks " . Over 80 species of coral occur in the reefs surrounding the islands . Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island .

Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in vicinity , however very little about their biology in the area is known due to lack of studies and sighting efforts caused from locational conditions . Bottlenose dolphin is the most commonly observed and is the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents while some other dolphin species have also been observed . Humpback whales are the only of large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than that of those migrating along Australian continent .

Historically , migratory whales such as blue , fin , sei were very abundant in the island waters , but were severely reduced in numbers to near @-@ extinction by commercial and illegal hunts including the mass illegal hunts by Soviet Union and Japan in 1960s to 1970s . Southern right and sperm were most severely hunted among these , hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers . It is likely that these two were once seasonal residents around the island where right whales prefer sheltered , very shallow bays while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters .

= = = Conservation = = =

About 10 percent of Lord Howe Island 's forests have been cleared for agriculture , and another 20 percent has been disturbed , mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep , goats and pigs . As a result , 70 % of the island remains relatively untouched with a variety of plants and animals , many of which are endemic , some of which are rare or threatened . Two species of plants , nine terrestrial birds , one bat and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778 . Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea , Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis , a woody daisy Lordhowea , the tree Negria , the leech Quantenobdella howensis , three annelid worm genera ( Paraplutellus , Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella ) , an isopod shrimp Stigmops , a hemipteran bug Howeria and a cricket Howeta .

The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey ( published in 1974 ) , which has guided the island conservation program . In 1981 , the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a ' Permanent Park Preserve ' over the north and south ends of the island . Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service , which has a ranger stationed on the island . The Island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 .

Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park . This consists of a State Marine Park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to 3 nautical miles around the island and including Ball 's Pyramid . It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage . In total the Marine Park covers about 3 @,@ 005 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 160 sq mi ) .

= = = = Feral animals and plants = = = =

Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food in the early 1800s , the goats destroying shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs eating eggs and chicks and disturbing the land by nuzzling for food . Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans . The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule , white @-@ throated pigeon , red @-@ crowned parakeet and the Tasman booby , which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the nineteenth century either from overhunting for food or protection of crops . Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860 . In 1918 the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the SS Makambo which ran aground at Ned 's Beach . This triggered a second wave of extinctions , including the vinous @-@ tinted thrush , robust white @-@ eye , Lord Howe starling , Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and decimation of palm fruits . Bounties were offered for rat and pig tails and ' ratting ' became a popular pursuit . Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low . The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by , or competition with , the Tasmanian masked owls which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population . Stray dogs are also a threat as they could harm the native wood hen and other birds .

Invasive plants such as Crofton weed and Formosa lily occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated but others are currently being managed . In 1995 the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants of the island , chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper , but also cherry guava , Madeira vine , Cotoneaster , Ochna and Cestrum . This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000 . Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and revegetate some formerly cultivated areas . An Environmental Unit was created by the Board and it includes a Flora Management Officer and a permanent Weed Officer . Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place , supported by improved education and quarantine procedures .

Despite the large number of introduced species that harm Lord Howe 's native flora and fauna , feral pigs and cats were eradicated by the early 2000s . The goat population has been reduced to just a few animals , and there are ongoing efforts to control rodents and introduced plants . In July 2012 it was announced by the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker that the Australian and NSW Governments would each contribute 50 % of the estimated A $ 9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island , using aerial deployment of poison baits . The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial . A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000 , which is close to carrying capacity .

= = = = Climate change = = = =

According to an analysis by Tim Flannery , the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming , with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature . The Great Barrier Reef is specifically identified as being at risk to the effects of global warming on Australia , and the same analysis applies to the reefs of Lord Howe Island . Cool climate flora and fauna are at risk from rises in temperature , because there is limited scope for migration to higher altitudes .. The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate change solution occurred at Lord Howe island in 2011 , the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry .

= = In fiction = =

Improbable Rendezvous , a novel by Tom Ferry , 2013 ISBN 978 @-@ 192221954 @-@ 1

Virus , a 1999 sci @-@ fi horror film : the titular computer virus sets a course for Lord Howe Island to seize a British intelligence facility from which it can control the world 's military .

= Romance ( Luis Miguel album ) =

Romance is the eighth studio album by Mexican singer Luis Miguel . It was released by WEA Latina on 19 November 1991 . Although the production was originally intended as another collaboration with Juan Carlos Calderón , that plan was scrapped when Calderón was unable to compose songs for the album . Facing a new @-@ material deadline in his recording contract , at his manager 's suggestion Miguel chose bolero music for his next project . Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero was hired by WEA Latina to co @-@ produce the album with Miguel . Recording began in August 1991 at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood , California , with Bebu Silvetti the arranger .

On the album Miguel covers twelve boleros , originally recorded from 1944 to 1986 . The first two singles , " Inolvidable " and " No Sé Tú " , reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States and spent six months atop the Mexican charts . " Mucho Corazón " and " Cómo " were in the top five of the Hot Latin Songs chart , and " Usted " and " La Barca " received airplay throughout Latin America . Miguel promoted the record with a tour of the United States and Latin America . The album was generally well received by music critics , who praised Miguel 's singing and the record 's production . The singer received several accolades , including a Grammy nomination for Best Latin Pop Album .

Romance was a commercial success , selling over seven million copies worldwide . In the United States , it spent 32 weeks at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart , and was the first Spanish @-@ language album by a non @-@ crossover Latin artist to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) ; it was also certified gold in Brazil and Taiwan , firsts for a Spanish @-@ speaking artist . Romance is the third @-@ bestselling album of all time in Mexico , and the bestselling record in Argentina by a non @-@ native artist . The album was noted by critics as reviving interest in bolero music . Its success encouraged Miguel to release three more bolero records : Segundo Romance ( 1994 ) , Romances ( 1997 ) and Mis Romances ( 2001 ) .

= = Background and recording = =

Since Miguel signed with WEA Latina in 1986 , his albums Soy Como Quiero Ser ( 1987 ) , Busca una Mujer ( 1988 ) , and 20 Años ( 1990 ) have sold over three million copies cumulatively in Mexico . His early recordings consisted of soft rock and pop ballad tunes , which led to Miguel becoming a teen idol . On 14 January 1991 , WEA Latina announced a new album with longtime producer and composer Juan Carlos Calderón , who produced the three previous records by Miguel . Wanting to replicate the success of 20 Años , Calderón would compose pop songs and ballads and find tracks for Miguel to cover in Spanish . Production was scheduled to begin in April , with Italian- and English @-@ language studio albums to follow . The record label was unconvinced by Calderón 's pre @-@ selected songs ; he had to write more compositions , and production halted indefinitely . Ultimately , he was unable to compose songs for the album .

Miguel had a contractual deadline with his label to record new material , and considered recording boleros ( slow ballads " endowed with romantic lyrics " ) after meeting Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero during a televised interview . The singer had performed boleros ( including compositions recorded by Manzanero ) during his 1991 tour . At the suggestion of manager Hugo López , and realizing that he could appeal to an older audience , Miguel chose boleros for his next album and WEA Latina hired Manzanero to take over its production . Manzanero was enthusiastic , hoping that Miguel 's popularity would introduce the genre to young listeners . On 25 October 1991 , the album 's title was announced as a homage to boleros ; it was Miguel 's first as a producer .

Recording began on 24 August 1991 , at Ocean Way Recording in Hollywood , California . Miguel and Manzanero produced the album , with Bebu Silvetti arranging the strings with additional contributions from 32 violinists under the direction of American conductor Ezra Kliger . On Romance Miguel covers twelve boleros ( with each track being described as love numbers ) , which were selected by Manzanero from five hundred songs including his " Te Extraño " and " No Sé Tú " . Seven of the twelve tracks were recorded by 13 September when production was suspended the following day when Miguel was hospitalized with appendicitis . The album 's planned late @-@ October release was postponed until 19 November and recording resumed two weeks after Miguel was hospitalized .

= = Singles and promotion = =

" Inolvidable " was released as Romance 's lead single in November 1991 . It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States the week of 25 January 1992 , topping the chart for five weeks . Its second single , " No Sé Tú " , was released in February 1992 and reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart the week of 18 April , topping the chart for seven weeks . The music video for " No Sé Tú " was directed by Pedro Torres and filmed in Miami , it features Miguel and an orchestra performing in front of a building . The video premiered on 16 February on the Mexican variety show Siempre en Domingo . " Inolvidable " and " No Sé Tú " ended 1992 as the third- and second @-@ best @-@ performing Latin songs of the year , respectively , in the United States . In Mexico , the songs topped the charts for a total of six months . The album 's third single , " Contigo en la Distancia " , was released in Mexico in July 1992 ; its music video was also directed by Torres and filmed in Miami . " Mucho Corazón " peaked at number three on the Hot Latin Songs chart , with " Cómo " peaking at number four . " Usted " and " La Barca " received airplay throughout Latin America .

To promote the record , Miguel began his Romance Tour on 22 March 1992 at a sold out 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat National Auditorium in Mexico City . After performing throughout Latin America and the United States , he concluded the tour in Chile in December . In addition to touring , Miguel performed at the Seville Expo ' 92 in Spain . His set list consisted primarily of songs from his earlier career and boleros from Romance . In October 1992 WEA Latina released América & En Vivo , a live EP featuring a new track ( " America , America " ) and tour recordings of " Contigo en la Distancia " , " No Sé Tú " and " Inolvidable " . AllMusic gave the EP three stars out of five .

= = Critical reception = =

AllMusic editor Janet Rosen gave Romance three stars out of five , saying that it " features the usual smooth , well @-@ crafted pop ear candy from Luis Miguel , earnestly sung over strings and polite Latin rhythms " . However , she noted that the songs in the album booklet and the lack of liner notes made it difficult for listeners to know what " to make of this presentation " . Rosen concluded , " It doesn 't matter — the title of the release says it all . " Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune gave the record four stars out of four , praising Miguel 's refusal " to get campy , which gives the effort far more integrity than might have been imagined " and calling his take on boleros " vibrant and real . " Mark Holston reviewed the album positively in the magazine Américas , praising Miguel 's vocals , the choice of songs and Silvetti 's arrangements : " Romance is a reminder of the enduring quality of timeless music " .

At the 1992 Billboard Music Awards Miguel was the Top Pop Latin Artist and the Top Hot Latin Tracks Artist , and Romance was the Top Pop Latin Album . In Chile , Romance won the Laurel de Oro Award for best album of the year . The singer was the Best Artist From a Non @-@ English @-@ Speaking Country at the Korean International Music Awards . At the 1993 Grammy Awards , Romance was nominated for Best Latin Pop Album , which was awarded to Jon Secada for his album Otro Día Más Sin Verte . That year Romance was also nominated for Pop Album of the Year at the Lo Nuestro Awards , again losing to Secada for his self @-@ titled album . At the 1993 annual Premios Eres , Miguel won three awards : Best Album , Best Male Singer and Best Show ( for his tour ) . The record was the Best International Album and Miguel won the Best International Artist of the Year at the 1993 Ronda de Venezuela awards .

= = Commercial performance = =

Romance was released internationally on 19 November 1991 , and sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies in its first 10 days . In Mexico it was certified octuple platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipping two million copies , the country 's all @-@ time third @-@ bestselling album ( only Juan Gabriel and José José has sold more copies with Recuerdos , Vol . II and 20 Triunfadoras respectively ) . In the United States , Romance debuted at number ten on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart for the week of 14 December 1991 , and reached number one four weeks later . The record topped the chart for 32 consecutive weeks when it was displaced by Jon Secada 's eponymous album on the week of 22 August 1992 , ending 1992 and 1993 as the bestselling Latin pop album of the year in the country . It was the first record by a Spanish @-@ speaking artist to be certified gold in Brazil and Taiwan , and the first gold certification by a non @-@ crossover Latin artist in the United States ( later certified platinum in the U.S. by the RIAA for shipments of one million copies ) . In South America , Romance was certified platinum in Colombia and Venezuela , gold in Paraguay and double platinum in Peru . In Argentina the album was certified 16 × platinum for sales of over one million copies , the bestselling record by a non @-@ Argentine artist . It received a diamond award from the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) , and was certified quadruple platinum in Chile and double platinum in Spain . As of 2013 , Romance had sold over seven million copies worldwide and is Miguel 's bestselling record .

= = Legacy = =

Romance is considered by music critics to have renewed mainstream interest in bolero music . According to Chicago Tribune editor Monica Eng , " Just as Harry Connick , Jr. re @-@ popularized the sounds of Sinatra and Tony Bennett , Mexican platinum @-@ selling heartthrob Luis Miguel brought back an appreciation for the music of Mexico 's boleristas . " In The Wall Street Journal , Mary Talbot compared renewed interest in boleros to the revival of big band and swing music in the Anglo @-@ American market , previously dominated by rock music ( which had seized bolero 's popularity during the 1960s ) . Elena Kellner of the Los Angeles Times noted the album 's " introducing old favorites to younger audiences " and Miguel 's popularity with older listeners . In Latin Beat Magazine , Franz Reynold wrote that before Miguel , boleros were considered by young people the " music of the ancients , something to be feared , since it seemed to signal the advent of senility " . Mark Holston wrote in Américas magazine that the record 's " irresistible combination of classic songs , string @-@ laden arrangements , and subtle contemporary influences proved to be the perfect formula to reawaken the bolero 's slumbering passions once again . "

In his book , The Latin Beat : The Rhythms And Roots Of Latin Music From Bossa Nova To Salsa And Beyond , Ed Morales wrote that Miguel 's collaboration with Manzanero " brought light to an overlooked master of [ bolero ] " and " was a significant update of the genre " . Romance enhanced Silvetti 's reputation as an arranger and producer ; according to Leila Cobo of Billboard , the album " categorically redefined the interpretations of traditional boleros " and " sparked a torrent of work for Silvetti , including records with Vic Damone and Engelbert Humperdinck " . His arrangements became known as the " Silvetti Sound " , which Cobo described as " anchored in sweeping melodies , lush string arrangements , acoustic instrumentation , and above all , unabashed romanticism " . Romance 's success encouraged Linda Ronstadt , José Luis Rodríguez and Plácido Domingo to record modern versions of traditional boleros . According to Miguel 's former manager Mauricio Abaroa , although boleros were still recorded by traditional musicians at the time , " what made Luis Miguel so successful was that it was a young man singing them and that he sang them like modern ballads " . During the Billboard Hot Latin Songs Chart 's 25th anniversary in 2011 , Miguel was number one on the Hot Latin Songs Top Artists chart . Manzanero reflected on their partnership , saying that he " put in the mouths of his generation all of the great romantic songs that had a 30 @-@ year history " . In 2015 , Billboard listed Romance as one of the Essential Latin Albums of Past 50 Years , an editor writes : " What ’ s become so formulaic in Latin music these days -- the tribute album by a contemporary artist honoring a genius of another era -- started with Romance " .

The album 's success encouraged Miguel to record three more Romance records . Its follow @-@ up , Segundo Romance , was released in 1994 ; Manzanero , Calderón and Kiko Cibrian co @-@ produced with Miguel , and it won a Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Performance . In 1997 Romances was released , with Miguel and Manzanero co @-@ producing Silvetti 's arrangements ; it sold over 4 @.@ 5 million copies , winning another Grammy for Best Latin Pop Performance . A year later WEA Latina released Todos Los Romances , a three @-@ disc compilation of the romance @-@ themed records . The fourth record in the series , Mis Romances ( produced by Miguel ) , was released in 2001 . Although the singer had planned a ten @-@ album series , Mis Romances was critically and commercially unsuccessful . The following year saw the release of Mis Boleros Favoritos , with 13 previously @-@ recorded tracks from the Romance series and a new version of " Hasta Que Vuelvas " . According to AllMusic editor Iván Adaime , the record 's purpose was to " close this era " of the Romance series . In 2012 , Warner Music Latina reissued a commemorative Romance : 20th Anniversary set with a CD , the original LP record and three 45 rpm singles : " Inolvidable " , " No Sé Tú " and " Contigo en la Distancia " .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

The following credits are from AllMusic and from the Romance liner notes :

= = = Performance credits = = =

= = = Technical credits = = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Sora ( Kingdom Hearts ) =

Sora ( Japanese : ソラ ) is a fictional character and the protagonist of Square Enix 's Kingdom Hearts video game series . Introduced in the first Kingdom Hearts game in 2002 , Sora is portrayed as a cheerful teenager who lives in the Destiny Islands and has been best friends with Riku and Kairi since childhood . When they plan to go on a journey to see other worlds , they are separated by creatures known as the Heartless . While fighting against them , Sora obtains a weapon called the Keyblade . Donald Duck and Goofy then recruit him in their journey across various worlds to aid King Mickey while Sora searches for his friends . Along the way , the trio protects the worlds they visit from various villains . In Kingdom Hearts II , Sora searches for Riku and fights against Organization XIII who , like Ansem the Wise from the original game , are attempting to seize Kingdom Hearts for their own . Sora has also made supporting appearances in other games from the series , and reprised his role in manga and light novel adaptations of the games .

Sora was originally designed by Kingdom Hearts series director and character designer Tetsuya Nomura during a discussion between Disney and Square about who should be the protagonist of the series . Wanting an original character , Nomura made various sketches of Sora until the design met the approval of Disney . Nomura came to regard Sora as his favorite character that he had designed , and pushed for the character to have a leading role in the Kingdom Hearts story in spite of the character 's youth . Throughout the series , Sora has been voiced by Haley Joel Osment in the English version and Miyu Irino in the Japanese version . As a child , Sora was voiced by Takuto Yoshinaga and Luke Manriquez in Japanese and English , respectively . Sora 's character has received generally positive critical response due to his warm personality and adventurous spirit . His personal and martial growth in the series also received praise , especially in his appearance in Kingdom Hearts II . Additionally , Sora has ranked high on various video game character popularity polls .

= = Characteristics = =

Sora appears as a child with spiky brown @-@ hair who , when first introduced , wears a red shirt , red pants , and a white and blue jacket covered by keychains . Upon traveling to certain worlds , Sora 's appearance is altered by Donald Duck 's magic to adapt to different environments ; for example , he turns into a merman in underwater environments . After undergoing significant growth in Kingdom Hearts II , Sora is given a new outfit given by Flora , Fauna , and Merryweather similar to the previous one but mostly black . When battling , Sora 's outfit can change into other designs depending on the player 's choices . Sora 's Keyblade 's primary form is the Kingdom Key ( キングダムチェーン , Kingudamu Chēn , Kingdom Chain ) , resembling a classic skeleton key approximately 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) long , with a long , silver keychain extending from the hilt and a Mickey Mouse token on the end of the keychain . However , through the use of game items known as Keychains , the Kingdom Key can assume a variety of unique forms . During Kingdom Hearts II , Sora dual @-@ wields Keyblades , but their forms depend on the player 's use of Keychains .

Across the series , Sora is depicted as a cheerful teenager who cherishes his friendships and relies on them for his strength . As a result , several of Sora 's enemies use his friends as bait to use the Keyblade for their purposes . Although Sora was not chosen by the Keyblade to be its owner and the protector of worlds , his actions throughout the series cause the Keyblade to choose him over its original choice , Riku .

= = Appearances = =

At the beginning of Kingdom Hearts , Sora and his two best friends , Riku and Kairi , plan to leave their hometown , the Destiny Islands , to explore new worlds . However , they are separated when their world is attacked by a group of dark beings known as the Heartless with Sora drifting to a town known as Traverse Town where he learns the Keyblade chose him to eliminate the Heartless . Soon after , Sora meets Donald Duck and Goofy , who join forces in search of his friends while Sora helps Donald and Goofy look for King Mickey . They travel across worlds in their Gummi Ship , sealing the Keyholes of worlds along the way to protect them from being consumed by the darkness of the Heartless . They are opposed by an alliance of Disney villains led by Maleficent who seeks out the seven Princesses of Heart to unlock the Keyhole that leads to " Kingdom Hearts " , a repository of knowledge and power and the source of all hearts . To this end , Maleficent convinces Riku that Sora has betrayed him , and that while Riku searched for Sora , he replaced Riku with new friends . This causes Riku to fight with Sora on several occasions . The group travels to Maleficent 's headquarters in the Hollow Bastion and defeat her , but Sora then discovers that Riku is possessed by the spirit of Ansem , who reveals that Kairi 's heart has been hiding within Sora 's body . In order to return Kairi 's heart , Sora impales himself with Ansem 's Keyblade , briefly transforming him into a Heartless until Kairi brings him back to his human form . After taking Kairi to safety , Sora and company confront and defeat Ansem at the now open door to Kingdom Hearts . Beyond the doorway are Mickey and the now recovered Riku ; to seal it so that the darkness cannot take possession of Kingdom Hearts , Mickey and Sora use their Keyblades to lock the door . Despite being again separated , Sora , Donald , and Goofy continue their quest to reunite with Riku and Mickey .

In Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , Sora 's group stumbles onto a fortress known as Castle Oblivion , believing they will find Mickey and Riku inside . Upon entering , Sora 's memories are manipulated by a girl named Naminé who is being held captive by the group Organization XIII and forced to replace memories of Kairi with herself . However , as Sora travels upwards in the castle , he meets Naminé and learns the truth from her . Sora still wishes to protect Naminé and stop the Organization members in the castle . After the Organization members opposing him are defeated , Naminé helps him , Donald , and Goofy to restore their memories to their state prior to entering Castle Oblivion at the cost of losing their memories of the events in the castle . This requires them to sleep in the castle for the restoration of memories to be completed .

In Kingdom Hearts II , roughly one year after Chain of Memories , Sora reawakens along with Donald and Goofy in Twilight Town once his Nobody , Roxas , merges within him . They visit the King 's master , Yen Sid , from whom they learn about the existence of the Nobodies and Organization XIII . Sora sets out with Donald and Goofy to find Riku and King Mickey , traversing new and unfamiliar worlds where they encounter the remaining members of the Organization . Sora later encounters their leader , Xemnas , learning that the Organization now has Kairi captive to force Sora to gather more hearts for them . Eventually , with Mickey joining them , Sora 's group finds a way to the Organization 's main base in The World That Never Was . The group soon reunites with Kairi as well as Riku , and continue fighting the Organization . Sora and Riku are separated from Mickey , Goofy , Kairi and Donald as they finish Xemnas and find a way back to Destiny Islands where they reunite with all their friends .

In Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days , Sora is mostly in a state of sleep as his memories are being restored by Naminé , but is also playable in the game 's multiplayer mode . In Kingdom Hearts Coded Sora himself does not appear until the game 's final scene , in which he receives King Mickey 's letter and reads it with Riku and Kairi . A computer program created from Sora 's data serves as the primary protagonist of the game , finding out the truth behind a mysterious message found inside Jiminy 's journal . A young Sora and Riku briefly appear in Destiny Islands in the prequel to Kingdom Hearts , Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep . After Ventus , one of the protagonists , has his heart damaged following a confrontation with his dark side , Vanitas , his heart finds its way into Sora , entering the boy 's body . In the game 's secret ending , set after the events of Kingdom Hearts II Ansem the Wise tells Aqua about Sora 's adventures , and how he may help all the people connected to him . In the final scene , Sora decides to save them after reading Mickey 's letter .

In Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance , Sora is summoned with Riku to Yen Sid to undergo a Mark of Mastery exam in response to Xehanort 's coming return . The two are sent to the Dreaming Realm to awaken several worlds submerged in sleep following the defeat of Ansem , but once the task is complete , Sora 's heart is damaged by Xemnas whose companions plan to turn him into the last of Xehanort 's thirteen vessels . Riku and his comrades manage to rescue Sora from his fate and brings him back to Yen Sid 's tower , where he dives into Sora 's body and repairs his heart , awakening him from his coma . Once Sora wakes up , Yen Sid only names Riku as a Keyblade Master for gaining the power used to awaken Sora . Undaunted , Sora congratulates him and departs to continue his training elsewhere .

Sora is stated to return as a fully @-@ fledged Keyblade Master in Kingdom Hearts III , and will have his final showdown with Master Xehanort . A 2D cartoonish avatar version of Sora wearing his original outfit in Kingdom Hearts is also present in the online community @-@ based social gaming networking service , Kingdom Hearts Mobile . Sora also appears in the Shiro Amano 's manga and Tomoko Kanemaki 's novels in which he reprises his role in the video games .

= = Concept and creation = =

Sora was designed by Tetsuya Nomura as the protagonist of Kingdom Hearts . However , he was not originally slated to be the protagonist as Disney wanted Donald Duck to be the protagonist of the game while Square wanted to have Mickey Mouse as the protagonist . Nomura wanted neither as the protagonist of the game and went on to design his own protagonist with the concepts of the Disney characters in mind which resulted in the creation of Sora . Sora originally wielded a weapon resembling a chainsaw ; however , the weapon was not well received by Disney which led Nomura to redesign the weapon into a Keyblade . Sora 's original outfit in Kingdom Hearts was also designed with Mickey Mouse in mind with Mickey Mouse 's trademark white gloves , red shorts and giant yellow shoes due to Square 's original preference to have Mickey as the main character of the game . The tail was removed as the staff found his design to be similar to the one of the Final Fantasy IX protagonist Zidane Tribal who also had a tail . After a talk with the Disney staff , the design was further reworked , and Nomura finished it after a night 's work .

One of the main concepts of Sora 's character in the series is that , according to Nomura , he is a normal boy instead of a supernatural being even though he is deeply connected with other characters from the series . With Sora , Nomura wants to give players the message that even though they are not " important people " , they have the opportunity to accomplish great things . This was emphasized in Birth by Sleep 's secret ending , which Nomura hoped players would find because it showed Sora 's potential to influence everyone 's lives . In early versions of development of Birth by Sleep , Nomura thought that Ventus would actually be Sora before being reborn , but due to negative feedback from overseas , that plot line was discarded . Nomura has stated that Sora 's name can be interpreted as " sky " since the Japanese word sora ( 空 ) , means sky . This name was also chosen to symbolize Sora 's role and his personality . It was also chosen to show Sora 's close relationship with Riku and Kairi , making their three names together " Sky , Land , and Sea . " He was also described by Nomura as having an outgoing personality , which allows him to make friends throughout the series . Of all of the characters Nomura has designed , Sora is his favorite , calling him " special " after having worked to develop the character over many games .

Following the first Kingdom Hearts , Nomura was worried that players would be unhappy that Sora would start Kingdom Hearts II as a weak character with few powers who once again had to be leveled up like the first title . Therefore , Nomura developed the plot of Chain of Memories to explain how Sora loses his abilities in Castle Oblivion and then started anew . Additionally , with Chain of Memories a new mystery regarding Sora 's memories from Twilight Town was added and while Sora did not have any memories from such town , this fact would be explained in Kingdom Hearts II . The team in charge of Kingdom Hearts II expressed difficulties in animating Sora 's Drive Valor Form for having a completely different motion except in the part that Sora walks which is shared with his regular motion . After finishing Kingdom Hearts II , Nomura wanted to give Sora a rest from the series in order to focus the following games on other characters from the series . Moreover , the events from the endings of Kingdom Hearts coded and Birth by Sleep hinted a new mystery regarding Sora 's character which will be revealed in Kingdom Hearts III . Although Nomura stated in March 2010 that Sora will once again be the focus of the next Kingdom Hearts , he will share it with another character with a big importance . In response to rumors saying that Sora 's story would end in Kingdom Hearts III , Nomura answered that Sora is the protagonist of the series and that his role will end once the series ends . For this game , Nomura was interested in giving Sora a new costume , but was worried about doing so because of the popularity of the characters Kingdom Hearts II outfit . In the end he decided to create a new one as Kingdom Hearts III was a new numbered title .

= = Reception = =

Various types of merchandising have been released based on Sora 's character . There are several types of action figures which show Sora with a different appearance such as his original form , the Kingdom Hearts II design and others variants . Other accessories include plush , necklaces and phone charm straps .

In January 2010 , Famitsu featured Sora as its reader 's fifth most popular character of all time . They also featured him on its issue # 1105 cover , gaving him a tribute , showing his many appearances through the years . UGO Networks placed Sora nineteenth on their list of " Top 25 Japanese RPG Characters " calling him a " charismatic and visually interesting " character . Although he did not make to the top ten of Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Top Ten : List of Videogame Characters " , Sora was nevertheless noted for his growing popularity . In an ASCII Media Works poll in which fans voted selected whose video game or manga character would like to name their children after , Sora 's name was second in the male category . In a Famitsu poll from 2011 , Sora was voted as the most popular Kingdom Hearts character with his fight against Roxas from Kingdom Hearts II also being listed as the best scene from the series . He was also 15th in the Game Informer poll of best characters from the 2000s .

Overall , critics and fans have generally praised the character of Sora . When Sora 's character was first revealed in 2002 , GameSpot 's Giancarlo Varanini regarded him as " an appropriate amalgamation of the Square and Disney universes . " He also comically noted he " doesn 't look like much , but you know how it goes . " A 1UP.com writer called Sora " one of my all @-@ time favorite Square characters " , praising his cheerful personality . Gamasutra commented on Sora 's journey along the series in their feature " The Birth of Collecting : The Osiris Archetype In Games " by Jason Johnson ; while comparing Sora with Isis , Johnson found Sora 's adventure appealing . IGN praised Sora 's resilient character noting how such an ordinary " youngster " could face up to his challenges during his adventures for the sake of friendship , while RPGFan 's Nicole Monet Kirk labelled him as an " extremely likable hero " . Furthermore , in the book " Interactive Storytelling for Video Games : A Player @-@ Centered Approach to Creating Memorable Characters and Stories " it is noted that while Sora follows a " standard hero archetype " , his character becomes more believable and strong when worrying about his friends ' fates . Haley Joel Osment , Sora 's English voice actor , has also been praised by Gaming Target 's Matt Swidder who mentioned Osment " makes a perfect fit for Sora " . While remarking Osment 's work , Louis Bedigian from GameZone mentioned that " Sora had something rarely found in video @-@ game characters : depth " also praising his role in Kingdom Hearts . Game Informer 's Bryan Vore found that in Kingdom Hearts II , Osment has improved in voicing the character , praising his work . In their Super Smash Bros Brawl list , IGN described Sora as " ... the most active and evolved hero on this week 's list . " IGN listed him as a possible character in Super Smash Bros. Brawl ; though he was not chosen as the " reader 's choice " .

Sora 's transformations in the various Disney worlds in Kingdom Hearts II were commented to be entertaining by Julia Reges from AllGame due to how variated they are . Also reviewing Kingdom Hearts II , Greg Bemis from G4TV praised Sora 's development in the game , including his growth and the fact each of his attacks from the title are entertaining . Although Computer and Video Games also found an improvement in Sora 's movements due to sequences made with the Reaction Commands , they found them " fairly straightforward . " RPGamer 's Cortney Stone stated that Sora now moved " like an acrobatic honed fighter " in contrast to his " adolescent awkwardness " seen in the first Kingdom Hearts and remarked Sora 's transformation into a lion seen in the sequel as enjoyable . His new outfit was also well received by GameSpy who found an improvement from the original one that looked like " wardrobe from Mickey Mouse 's closet " . GamesRadar had similar opinions and particularly focused on Sora 's transformation and his new abilities . Game Informer viewed Sora 's Drive Forms as well as his combined techniques with other characters as one of the best additions to the gameplay . Although IGN also praised Sora 's growth in Kingdom Hearts II in their article " Kingdom Hearts III : The IGN Concept " , they stated that in order to make his role in a future sequel more entertaining , he would need more development making him " be confident , collected and committed to the tasks at hand " . Also commenting on his role in a future sequel , GamesRadar stated that having Sora 's character older would be necessary to make the story more mature .

On the other hand , Sora also received negative comments regarding his characterization . He was third in 1UP.com 's " Top 5 Most Irritating RPG Protagonists " with writer Bob Mackey commenting he is " a human version of Mickey Mouse " , criticizing his original outfit and relationship with Riku and Kairi , and finding him to be less popular than the Disney characters featured in the series . In January 2007 , Sora was listed the fourth " biggest dork " of 2006 by Game Informer , citing the Atlantica singing portions of the game .

= Dennis Johnson =

Dennis Wayne Johnson ( September 18 , 1954 – February 22 , 2007 ) , nicknamed " DJ " , was an American professional basketball player for the National Basketball Association 's ( NBA ) Seattle SuperSonics , Phoenix Suns and Boston Celtics and coach of the Los Angeles Clippers . He was an alumnus of Dominguez High School , Los Angeles Harbor College and Pepperdine University .

A prototypical late bloomer , Johnson overcame early struggles and had a successful NBA playing career . Drafted 29th overall in 1976 by the Seattle SuperSonics , Johnson began his professional career as a shooting guard . He eventually led the Sonics to their only NBA championship in 1979 , winning the Finals MVP Award . After a short stint with the Phoenix Suns , he became the starting point guard for the Boston Celtics , with whom he won two more championships . Johnson was voted into five All @-@ Star Teams , one All @-@ NBA First and one Second Team , and nine consecutive All @-@ Defensive First and Second Teams . Apart from his reputation as a defensive stopper , Johnson was known as a clutch player who made several decisive plays in NBA playoffs history .

The Celtics franchise has retired Johnson 's # 3 jersey , which hangs from the rafters of the TD Garden , the home arena of the team . On April 5 , 2010 , the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame officially announced that Johnson had been posthumously elected to the Hall . He was formally inducted on August 13 . He is considered by several sports journalists to be one of the most underrated players of all time .

= = Early years = =

Dennis Wayne Johnson was born the eighth of sixteen children , to a social worker and a bricklayer who lived in Compton , California , a suburb of Los Angeles . Originally a baseball fan and a Little Leaguer , Johnson learned basketball from his father , but seemed to have neither the size nor the talent to compete with his peers : as a teenager at Dominguez High School , Johnson measured just 5 ' 9 " and played only " a minute or two each game " . After high school , he worked several odd jobs , including a $ 2 @.@ 75 @-@ per @-@ hour job as a forklift driver , and played with his brothers in summer league games after work . During this period , Johnson grew to a height of 6 ' 3 " , and developed what some later described as " rocket launcher legs " , which enabled him to jump high to grab rebounds against taller opponents .

Jim White , the coach at Los Angeles Harbor College , had watched Johnson play street basketball ; feeling that Johnson excelled in defense , White asked him to enroll . Johnson gave up his jobs and developed into a promising young guard , averaging 18 @.@ 3 points and 12 @.@ 0 rebounds per game and leading Harbor to a college junior state title . However , the young guard lacked discipline , often clashed with White and was thrown off the team three times in two years .

At the end of his junior college career , two universities offered Johnson scholarships : Azusa Pacific University and Pepperdine University . Johnson chose the latter , and in his only year in college , he averaged 15 @.@ 7 points , 5 @.@ 8 rebounds and 3 @.@ 3 assists per game , and developed a reputation for tough defense . After that year , Johnson made himself eligible for the 1976 NBA Draft , but was skeptical that any team would take him . NBA teams were wary of drafting a player with character issues , and Johnson was known to be a troublemaker .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Seattle SuperSonics ( 1976 – 80 ) = = =

The Seattle SuperSonics took Johnson in the second round of the 1976 draft with the 29th pick and gave him a four @-@ year contract , with which he earned a salary of $ 45 @,@ 000 in the first year and $ 90 @,@ 000 in the last . In his rookie year , the 1976 – 77 NBA season , Johnson , playing backup to the experienced Sonics backcourt tandem of Slick Watts and Fred Brown , averaged 9 @.@ 2 points and 1 @.@ 5 assists per game . The Sonics finished with a 40 – 42 record and missed the 1977 NBA Playoffs , leading head coach Bill Russell to resign . In the following season , the team lost 17 of the first 22 games under Russell 's replacement Bob Hopkins , who was replaced by Hall of Fame coach Lenny Wilkens , who gave Johnson a starting spot and paired him with Gus Williams . Johnson revelled in this new role , improving his averages to 12 @.@ 7 points and 2 @.@ 8 assists per game . During this period Johnson played shooting guard and was known for his aggressive slam dunking , in contrast to the more cerebral roles he played later in his career . It was at this time that Johnson 's nickname " DJ " was coined by play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Bob Blackburn , to help distinguish him from teammates , John Johnson and Vinnie Johnson ( whom Blackburn referred to as " JJ " and " VJ " , respectively ) .

Finishing strongly , the Sonics ended the regular season with a 47 – 35 record and made the 1978 NBA Playoffs . After eliminating the Los Angeles Lakers , the defending champion Portland Trail Blazers , and the Denver Nuggets , they almost defeated the Washington Bullets by taking a 3 – 2 lead in the 1978 NBA Finals . In a 93 – 92 Game 3 victory , Johnson blocked seven shots — the most blocks in NBA Finals history for a guard . The Sonics lost in seven games , however , partly because of Johnson 's Game 7 scoring drought , in which the second @-@ year guard missed all of his 14 field goal attempts . Johnson later acknowledged that he simply " choked " ; he vowed never to repeat this again and credited this game as an important lesson to become a better player .

Johnson and the Sonics got their revenge in the 1978 – 79 season . After clinching the Pacific Division with a 52 – 30 record , the team met the Bullets again in the 1979 NBA Finals . After losing Game 1 , the Sonics won the next four games to take the finals series , helped by Johnson who averaged almost 23 points along with six rebounds and assists per game . He scored 32 points in a Game 4 overtime victory , and was named NBA Finals MVP . It was during this season that Johnson established himself as one of the best guards in the league ; he averaged 15 @.@ 9 points and 3 @.@ 5 assists per game , and made his first All @-@ Defensive First Team and All @-@ Star Game appearance .

During the following season , Johnson averaged 19 @.@ 0 points and 4 @.@ 1 assists , appeared in his second All @-@ Star Game and was named to the All @-@ Defensive First Team and All @-@ NBA Second Team . The Sonics , however , lost in the Western Conference Finals to the Lakers , who had Hall of Famers Jamaal Wilkes , Magic Johnson and Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar . Because of the abundance of talent on the Sonics team , Johnson later called this loss one of the worst disappointments of his professional career . Coach Wilkens grew tired of Johnson , who often clashed with him and was perceived as a growing liability to the team . At the end of the season , Johnson was traded to the Phoenix Suns for Paul Westphal and draft picks . The Sonics finished 22 games worse in the next season despite the addition of Westphal .

= = = Phoenix Suns ( 1980 – 83 ) = = =

Johnson further established himself as a quality player in Phoenix . In his three years as a Sun , Johnson averaged 14 – 20 points a game and provided tough defense . He played in two All @-@ Star Games , was voted into three consecutive All @-@ Defensive First Teams and earned his only All @-@ NBA First Team appearance . In this period Johnson , like in Seattle , played shooting guard and became the main scorer on the team , as opposed to being the second or third option as a Sonic .

In the first two years of Johnson 's stint , the Suns were fairly successful , reaching the Western Conference Semifinals both seasons . The Suns bowed out in the first round in Johnson 's last year . Johnson 's situation deteriorated towards the end of his career at Phoenix . Like in Seattle , he often clashed with his coach , John MacLeod , and finally was traded by general manager , Jerry Colangelo , to the Boston Celtics for Rick Robey and draft picks . Like Seattle after Johnson 's departure , the Suns finished 12 games worse in the next season despite the addition of Robey .

= = = Boston Celtics ( 1983 – 90 ) = = =

Between the 1979 – 80 season and 1981 – 82 season seasons , the Celtics had lost to the Philadelphia 76ers in the Eastern Confernce Finals 2 out of 3 times , mainly because physical Sixers guard Andrew Toney routinely caused problems for their defensively fragile backcourt . After subsequently getting swept by the Bucks in the 1982 @-@ 83 Eastern Conference Semifinals , Celtics general manager Red Auerbach added the perennial All @-@ Defensive Team member Johnson to his squad , hoping that it would help the Celtics fare better in the Eastern Conference playoffs , particular against the 76ers . Johnson joined a squad led by Hall of Fame forward Larry Bird , who played in the frontcourt with two fellow Hall of Famers , center Robert Parish and forward Kevin McHale , a combination often called the best frontcourt of all time by the NBA . Johnson described joining the Celtics as a " dream come true " and enjoyed the tutelage of highly successful general manager Auerbach , who was " living history " according to Johnson .

With the Celtics Johnson changed his playing style for the third time in his career : after being known as a slam dunking shooting guard with the Sonics , and an all @-@ around scorer with the Suns , he now established himself as a point guard who was defined more by playmaking than scoring . In his first year as a Celtic , he averaged 13 @.@ 2 points and 4 @.@ 2 assists and was elected to the All @-@ Defensive Second Team . The Celtics reached the 1984 NBA Finals , where they met the Los Angeles Lakers , their intense rivals since the 1960s . The Celtics won 4 – 3 , and Johnson took credit for playing smothering defense on Hall of Fame Lakers playmaker Earvin Johnson , limiting him to a sub @-@ average 17 points in the last four games , and being at least partly responsible for several of the Laker point guard 's game @-@ deciding errors in Games 2 , 4 and 7 . As a result , Magic Johnson was taunted as " Tragic Johnson " whenever the Lakers and Celtics played against each other .

In the 1984 – 85 season , Johnson continued playing smothering defense , earning his next All @-@ Defensive Second Team call @-@ up while averaging 16 @.@ 9 points and 7 @.@ 3 assists per game . The Celtics met the Lakers in the 1985 NBA Finals again . Johnson 's big moment came in Game 4 : when the score was tied at 105 , teammate Larry Bird had the ball in the last seconds . Being double @-@ teamed by Lakers Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Magic Johnson , Bird passed to the open Johnson , and the guard sank a 19 @-@ ft buzzer beater to win the game . The Lakers , however , took their revenge this time , winning the series in six games , powered by venerable 38 @-@ year @-@ old Finals MVP Abdul @-@ Jabbar . Johnson described this loss as one of the toughest in his career , because the Celtics were " close [ to winning the series ] " , but " could not get the job done " .

In the following season the Celtics made the playoffs , helped by the performance of Johnson , who made the All @-@ Defensive Second Team again while tallying 17 @.@ 8 points and 6 @.@ 7 assists per game . After defeating the Milwaukee Bucks in the Eastern Conference Finals , the Celtics reached the 1986 NBA Finals against the up @-@ and @-@ coming Houston Rockets , led by the " Twin Towers " of centers Ralph Sampson and Hakeem Olajuwon . Led by Finals MVP Larry Bird , the Celtics beat the Rockets 4 – 2 , and Johnson won his third title .

The Celtics were unable to repeat their title in 1987 despite several dramatic playoff victories . Johnson played strong defense again , earning yet another appearance on the All @-@ Defensive First Team , and the Celtics embarked on a nail @-@ biting playoff campaign . In the 1987 Eastern Conference Semifinals , the Celtics split the first six games against the Milwaukee Bucks . In the deciding Game 7 , which the Celtics won , Johnson had a spectacular play with 1 : 30 left in the game : a Celtics ball threatened to fly out of bounds , but Johnson dived for it and whipped it backwards in mid @-@ air against Bucks center Jack Sikma . The ball bounced off Sikma before going out of bounds , and the Celtics maintained possession .

In the next round the 1987 Eastern Conference Finals , the Celtics faced the Detroit Pistons . The series was described as a grudge match between two intense rivals , featuring a great level of personal animosity , sharp rhetoric , and several physical altercations . The center of this feud was Pistons pivot Bill Laimbeer , who brawled with Celtics players Bird and Parish . In Game 5 Johnson was involved in a crucial play : down 107 @-@ 106 , Larry Bird stole the in @-@ bounds pass by Pistons point guard Isiah Thomas with 5 seconds left and passed it to a sprinting Johnson , who converted a difficult layup with 1 second left in the game . This play caused Celtics broadcaster Johnny Most to shout out one of his most famous calls :

According to Johnson this was his favorite play of all @-@ time . Games 6 and 7 also featured a feud , this time between Pistons forward Dennis Rodman and Johnson . In Game 6 , which the Pistons won , Rodman taunted Johnson in the closing seconds by waving his right hand over his head . When the Celtics took Game 7 , Johnson went back at Rodman in the last moments of the game and mimicked his taunting gesture . In the 1987 NBA Finals , however , the Celtics succumbed to the Los Angeles Lakers 4 – 2 as Lakers playmaker and Finals MVP Magic Johnson put up a great performance , averaging 26 points and 13 assists throughout the series .

The next three seasons were disappointing for the aging Celtics . In the 1987 – 88 season , Johnson averaged 12 @.@ 6 points and 7 @.@ 8 assists , but in the 1988 Playoffs , the Celtics were unable to beat the Detroit Pistons in the Eastern Conference Finals . In the next season , Johnson ( who statistically declined to 10 @.@ 0 points and 6 @.@ 6 assists per game ) and his team made the 1989 NBA Playoffs on a meager 42 – 40 record ( largely due to the absence of star forward Larry Bird for almost the entire season ) , but were immediately eliminated in the first round ( again , largely due to the absence of the injured Larry Bird . ) The following 1989 – 90 NBA season was Johnson 's last . The now 35 @-@ year @-@ old playmaker relinquished his starting point guard role to younger John Bagley , but when Bagley dislocated his shoulder , Johnson returned with high level of performance and was lovingly called " our glue man " by coach Jimmy Rodgers . In that season , Johnson started in 65 of his 75 games , averaging 7 @.@ 1 points and 6 @.@ 5 assists , but the Celtics failed to survive the first round of the 1990 NBA Playoffs .

Johnson retired after the Celtics did not offer him a new contract at the beginning of the 1991 season . During his retirement ceremony , his perennial Los Angeles Lakers opponent Magic Johnson telegraphed him and lauded him as " the best backcourt defender of all @-@ time " . In addition Celtics colleague and triple NBA Most Valuable Player award winner Larry Bird called Johnson the best teammate he ever had .

= = = Post @-@ player career = = =

After retiring as a player , Johnson worked as a scout for the Celtics . In 1993 he became an assistant coach for the Celtics , a position he held until 1997 . After spending several years outside the limelight , he returned as an assistant coach for the Los Angeles Clippers in 2000 , and spent four seasons there . For 24 games toward the end of the 2002 – 03 season , Johnson served as interim head coach after the departure of Alvin Gentry . Johnson later worked as a scout for the Portland Trail Blazers , and in 2004 he was named head coach of the NBA Development League 's Florida Flame . He became head coach of the NBADL 's Austin Toros a year later , and held that position until his death two years later .

= = Head coaching record = =

= = Legacy = =

In 1 @,@ 100 games , Johnson scored 15 @,@ 535 points , grabbed 4 @,@ 249 rebounds and gave 5 @,@ 499 assists , translating to career averages of 14 @.@ 1 points , 3 @.@ 9 rebounds and 5 @.@ 0 assists per game . Known as a defensive stalwart , he was elected into nine straight All @-@ Defensive First or Second Teams . NBA legend George Gervin said in a podcast with journalist Bill Simmons that Johnson was the hardest defender he ever played against . Johnson is also acknowledged by the NBA as a " money player " who was clutch in decisive moments , such as scoring 32 points for his team in a Game 4 overtime victory in the 1979 NBA Finals , playing smothering defense on Magic Johnson in the 1984 NBA Finals , and converting a last @-@ second layup in Game 5 of the 1987 Eastern Conference Finals after a Larry Bird steal .

Furthermore , Johnson is lauded by the NBA as a versatile all @-@ around weapon who played with " contagious competitiveness " and was known for his durability : in 14 NBA seasons , he played in 1 @,@ 100 of a possible 1 @,@ 148 games and participated in 180 playoff games , the latter figure the 11th highest number of all time . At his retirement , Johnson was only the 11th NBA player to amass more than 15 @,@ 000 points and 5 @,@ 000 assists .

On December 13 , 1991 , the Celtics franchise retired his number 3 jersey . Johnson said he would always be a Boston Celtic , and remarked that seeing his number in the rafters gave him a " special feeling " . However , Johnson did not live to see an induction into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame , a fact that has been a considerable point of debate with sports journalists . Bill Simmons of ESPN called his Hall of Fame snub an " ongoing injustice " , stating that according to him , Joe Dumars – a Hall of Famer known for strong defense rather than spectacular scoring , like Johnson – was no better [ a basketball player ] than him . Colleague Ken Shouler called Johnson " one of the first guys I 'd give a Hall [ of Fame ] pass " . Contemporary Boston Celtics Hall of Fame forward Larry Bird gave Johnson ultimate praise , calling him the best teammate he ever had in his autobiography Drive , which is especially significant considering Bird 's teammates included Hall of Famers Kevin McHale , Robert Parish , Bill Walton , and Tiny Archibald . On April 3 , 2010 , ESPN Boston reported that Johnson was posthumously elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame . This was officially confirmed two days later when the Hall released the list of 2010 inductees .

On October 26 , 2007 , a learning center was dedicated in Johnson 's name in the Central Branch of the YMCA of Greater Boston . The center was made possible by the donations and effort of Larry Bird and M.L. Carr . Johnson 's family , Danny Ainge , Carr , and members of the YMCA and local community were present for the ribbon cutting ceremony . Donna Johnson said on behalf of her husband , " If Dennis were alive he would really appreciate the thought and love the idea of the Learning Center . "

The NBA D @-@ League Coach of the Year award is named after Johnson .

= = Personal life = =

Dennis Johnson was married to Donna , his wife of 31 years , and had three children named Dwayne , Denise , and Daniel . Johnson also was known for his appearance : he had freckles and reddish hair . Dennis 's brother , Joey , is a former Arizona State Sun Devils basketball star . And Dennis 's nephews , Nick , who was drafted by the Houston Rockets in the 2nd Round of the 2014 NBA Draft , and Chris Johnson who currently plays with the Arizona Wildcats , are well @-@ known basketball stars .

On October 20 , 1997 , he was arrested and detained overnight for allegedly holding a knife to his wife 's throat and threatening his 17 @-@ year @-@ old son . Johnson was later charged with aggravated assault and was ordered to stay away from his family . The prosecutors dropped the case several months later after his wife declined to press charges . Johnson reportedly went to counseling to repair his marriage .

= = = Death = = =

On February 22 , 2007 , at the Austin Convention Center , Johnson had a heart attack and collapsed at the end of the Toros ' practice . After being rushed to a nearby hospital , he could not be revived and was later pronounced dead . Johnson was survived by his wife and his children . Johnson 's death was met with shock throughout the NBA . Among others , contemporary Celtics colleague Danny Ainge called him one of " the most underrated players of all time [ ... ] and one of the greatest Celtics acquisitions " , and one @-@ time rival Bill Laimbeer called him " a great player on a great ballclub " .

= The World Before the Flood =

The World Before the Flood is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1828 and currently in the Southampton City Art Gallery . It depicts a scene from Paradise Lost in which , among a series of visions of the future shown to Adam , he sees the world immediately before the Great Flood . The painting illustrates the stages of courtship as described by Milton ; a group of men select wives from a group of dancing women , drag their chosen woman from the group , and settle down to married life . Behind the courting group , an oncoming storm looms , a symbol of the destruction which the dancers and lovers are about to bring upon themselves .

When first exhibited at the 1828 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition the painting attracted large crowds , and strongly divided critical opinion . It was greatly praised by many critics , who counted it among the finest works of art in the country . Other reviewers condemned it as crude , tasteless , offensive and poorly executed .

The painting was bought at the Summer Exhibition by the Marquess of Stafford , which greatly pleased Etty . It was sold in 1908 , long after Etty had fallen out of fashion , for a substantial loss , and sold again in 1937 for a further substantial loss to the Southampton City Art Gallery , where it remains . Another work by Etty , sold as A Bacchanalian Scene in 1830 and later renamed Landscape with Figures , was identified in 1953 as a preliminary oil sketch for The World Before the Flood and purchased by the York Art Gallery . The two paintings were exhibited together as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work in 2011 – 12 .

= = Background = =

William Etty was born in 1787 , the son of a York baker and miller . He began as an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship he moved at the age of 18 to London " with a few pieces of chalk crayons " , with the intention of becoming a history painter in the tradition of the Old Masters . Strongly influenced by the works of Titian and Rubens , he submitted paintings to the Royal Academy of Arts and the British Institution , all of which were either rejected or received scant attention when exhibited .

In 1821 the Royal Academy accepted and exhibited one of Etty 's works , The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia ( also known as The Triumph of Cleopatra ) . The painting was extremely well received , and many of Etty 's fellow artists greatly admired him . He was elected a full Royal Academician in 1828 , at that time the most prestigious honour available to an artist . He became well respected for his ability to capture flesh tones accurately in painting , and for his fascination with contrasts in skin tones . Following the exhibition of Cleopatra , over the next decade Etty tried to replicate its success by painting nude figures in biblical , literary and mythological settings .

While some nudes by foreign artists were held in private English collections , the country had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent , although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received .

= = Subject = =

The World Before the Flood illustrates lines 580 – 97 from Book XI of John Milton 's Paradise Lost . Among the visions of the future shown to Adam by the Archangel Michael , Michael shows Adam the world after the expulsion from the Garden of Eden but before the Great Flood . This section of Paradise Lost reflects a passage from the sixth chapter of the Book of Genesis : " That the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they were fair ; and they took them wives of all which they chose " , an act which would shortly cause God to regret creating humanity and to cleanse the earth in the Great Flood .

The World Before the Flood shows the stages of courtship as described by Milton , as men are seduced by women and pass from enjoying the company of other men into married life . Etty worked through a number of various configurations for the characters in the painting before settling on his final design .

= = Composition = =

The World Before the Flood is strongly influenced by A Bacchanalian Revel Before a Statue of Pan ( 1632 – 33 ) by Nicolas Poussin , whom Etty greatly admired and of whose works he had previously made several copies . Adam and Michael are not visible in the painting . Instead , the viewer sees the scene from Adam 's point of view . The painting is a Bacchanalian scene , centred on a group of six scantily @-@ clad women dancing , while a group of men watch . The women 's cheeks are flushed both with the exertion of their dancing and with their lustful attempts to seduce the watching men . The men " let their eyes rove without rein " , each choosing the woman he wants to be with .

At the left , five men eye the six dancing women , with " grave " expressions as described by Milton . Three of the men discuss their choice of women , while the other two watch the dancing group alone . A sixth man has made his choice , and lunges forward to grab the arms of a bare @-@ breasted dancing woman .

In the centre , the women dance . Their interlocked arms and hands create a pattern at the centre of the canvas , which acts as the focus of the painting . To the right of the central group of dancers a young man drags another woman away from the group of dancers , to join a pair of lovers who lie down together at the right of the painting .

Across the entire width of the background , a darkening sky and oncoming storm clouds presage the destruction that the dancers are unwittingly about to bring upon themselves .

In a preliminary study for the The World Before the Flood now in the York Art Gallery , while the broad structure of the piece is similar to that of the finished work the focus is more strongly on the central group of women . In early versions the right @-@ most of the dancing figures , wearing a green skirt , faces outward with her arms behind her back , forming a closed circle together with the central group of dancers . In the finished work , she gestures outwards from the circle , creating a clear narrative flow in the positions of the figures : from the single men on the left , to the man choosing a wife , to the group of dancing women , to the couple leaving the circle of dancers to join the reclining lovers on the far right .

As was the case with most of his works , Etty did not give the painting a title . It was initially exhibited as A Composition , taken from the Eleventh Book of Milton 's Paradise Lost , and was referred to by Etty himself as The Bevy of Fair Women and The Origin of Marriage .

= = Reception = =

Critical opinion concerning The World Before the Flood was divided when the painting , along with two other of Etty 's works , was exhibited at the 1828 Royal Academy Summer Exhibition . Some reviewers were intensely critical of the piece . A writer in the Literary Gazette called the painting a " deadly sin against good taste " , describing the background as " unnecessarily harsh and crude " with " much to blame and lament " and the dancing figures " outrageous " , complaining that the women reminded him not of Paradise Lost , but of the scantily clad witches in Robert Burns 's Tam o ' Shanter . An anonymous critic in the Monthly Magazine disparaged the " writhings and twinings " of the painting 's subjects , describing them as " as close to the unpardonable limits as anything that has lately appealed to the public eye " . This same writer disapproved of the dark skin tones of some of the figures , arguing that " the brown visage of the gipsey gives but a dingy image of the roses and lilies that , from time immemorial , have made the charm of British beauty " . The correspondent for The London Magazine felt that while the painting was " in many respects worthy of admiration ... [ there ] is a spirit , a boldness , and a startling effect " , the work was poorly executed overall . Its depiction of women drew particular ire : " the expression of the faces is vapid ; the features rather homely ; the limbs , though not ill @-@ drawn , have not that finish and play of the muscles , which alone give lightness and elasticity . They seem lifted up with difficulty , and ready to fall . " The review upbraided Etty as an artist who had " advanced half way on his road to classic excellence ; and there , when he should have proceeded with increased ardour and more careful exactness from being in view of his object , he has stopped short . " Etty 's fellow artist John Constable privately described the work as " a revel rout of Satyrs and lady bums as usual " .

Other critics offered a more positive impression of the piece . The Examiner celebrated Etty 's having " outdone his former self , and most of his contemporaries " . A reviewer in The Mirror of Literature , Amusement , and Instruction said that " few pictures have attracted or deserved more attention than this masterly production , " describing the figures as " graceful and elegant " . The Athanaeum considered it " decidedly the most attractive picture in the whole Exhibition " , noting that their review was delayed because in the opening week of the exhibition , " the crowds which continually stood in front of it rendered it quite impossible to get such a view of it as would enable us to do it justice " . Colburn 's New Monthly Magazine considered it " another instance of the rapid advances which this rising artist is making towards perfection . " The most effusive praise was offered in poetic form by John Taylor , who in September 1828 imagined that if Milton and Nicolas Poussin were both alive to see the painting , Milton would view it with " proud delight " , while Poussin would suffer an " envious thorn " with the realization that Etty 's abilities had surpassed his own .

= = Legacy = =

The World Before the Flood was bought at its 1828 exhibition by The Marquess of Stafford for 500 guineas ( about £ 39 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , to add to his private collection of nudes by Titian . Etty was delighted with his success at the exhibition , at which all three of the paintings he had exhibited were successfully sold to prestigious buyers .

I know you will rejoice with us all , when I tell you that the principal part of the cargo of the ship " William Etty " ( of whose arrival you had been advised ) , now landed at the Royal Academy Wharf , has been consigned to the Right Honourable the Marquis of Stafford , for five hundred guineas : the rest of the cargo being already owned by Lord Normanton and Digby Murray , Esq . ... After clearing out , we shall again put to sea and hope for equally favouring gales next voyage .

From 1832 onwards , needled by repeated attacks from the press on his supposed indecency and tastelessness , Etty often made a conscious effort to project a moral dimension into his work , although he continued to be a prominent painter of nudes . He died in 1849 , working and exhibiting up until his death despite consistently being regarded by many as a pornographer . Charles Robert Leslie observed shortly after Etty 's death that " [ Etty ] himself , thinking and meaning no evil , was not aware of the manner in which his works were regarded by grosser minds " . Interest in his work declined as new movements came to characterise painting in Britain , and by the end of the 19th century the cost of all his paintings had fallen below their original prices .

The World Before the Flood was sold to F. E. Sidney in 1908 for 230 guineas ( about £ 22 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , and sold on to the Southampton City Art Gallery in 1937 for 195 guineas ( about £ 11 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , where as of 2015 it remains . In addition to its initial exhibition in 1828 , the painting was exhibited at a number of significant exhibitions throughout the 19th century . Etty 's preliminary oil sketch entered the collection of Etty 's former mentor Sir Thomas Lawrence . Following Lawrence 's death in 1830 , it was sold as A Bacchanalian Scene for 27 guineas ( about £ 2 @,@ 200 in 2016 terms ) , and sold on as Landscape with Figures in 1908 . In 1953 it was identified as a study for The World Before the Flood , and purchased by the York Art Gallery , where as of 2015 it remains . Both versions of the painting were shown together as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .

= When Love Takes Over =

" When Love Takes Over " is a song by French DJ @-@ music producer David Guetta with vocals by Kelly Rowland from his fourth studio album , One Love . It was released as the lead single from the album on 21 April 2009 by Virgin Records ( EMI France ) . The song was conceived when Guetta played the instrumental version during one of his DJ sets in summer 2008 ; American recording artist Kelly Rowland , who fell in love with the track , convinced Guetta to allow her to take it so that she could write and record vocals for it . It was co @-@ written by Nervo .

According to Rowland , the song inspired her to pursue a more dance @-@ oriented sound for her album Here I Am ( 2011 ) , while Guetta noted " When Love Takes Over " for providing the framework for his future musical explorations and inspiring him to experiment with more urban sounds . Guetta and Frédéric Riesterer produced the song with piano riffs and a melodic backing track . Veronica Ferraro mixed the song , focussing primarily on giving Rowland 's vocals a magical and inspiring tone . Critics would later state that Rowland 's vocals on " When Love Take Over " helped to establish herself as a solo vocalist . The song 's lyrics carry a message of the euphoria one feels when in love with a significant other , while the production bears some similarities to Coldplay 's 2002 hit single , " Clocks " , particularly the opening riff .

" When Love Takes Over " has been praised by many critics . Most noted the addition of Rowland 's powerful and emotionally charged vocals which made the single the most memorable song from One Love . The production was praised for its lush production and euphoric sentiments . It achieved worldwide success by topping the charts in ten countries , including in the United Kingdom , Republic of Ireland , Italy and Switzerland . At the time of release , it became Guetta 's highest charting single on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and Rowland 's second number one single in the United Kingdom . " When Love Takes Over " ranked at number one on Billboard 's Best of 2009 Dance Club Songs chart . In 2013 , Billboard named " When Love Takes Over " its number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time , in addition to noting the lasting cultural impact that the collaboration would have on dance music and its indication of the emerging electronic dance music trend in America at its time of release .

In the song 's accompanying music video , Rowland and Guetta reminisce of how the song came together . It follows the duo as they prepare for a party before coming together for the final result . " When Love Takes Over " was promoted mainly at award shows , including the MTV Latin Music Video Awards , NRJ Music Awards and the World Music Awards . Guetta and Rowland reunited in late 2009 to perform " When Love Takes Over " for the annual Miss Universe competition . The single earned seven Platinum certifications as well as five Gold certificates , selling over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide . Additionally , it earned Guetta two Grammy Award nominations for " Best Dance Recording " and " Best Non @-@ Classical , Remixed Recording " , the latter of which Guetta won for his " Electro Extended Mix " of " When Love Takes Over " .

= = Background = =

Rowland has acknowledged on several occasions that although she loved dance music , it was not really the type of music she would record . While in Europe in 2008 , she met Guetta at one of his DJ shows in Southern France , and commented that " Listening to him was just crazy . " Guetta was playing the instrumental version of " When Love Takes Over " . Recalling that it brought tears to her eyes , Rowland remarked , " I felt so much emotion from the track ; something happened the first time I heard it , and it was just beautiful . And I remember thinking ' Why is this touching me like this ? ' You know , it was like there was a kinda soul @-@ tie to it ! " Upon meeting Guetta , she asked him for the song so she could write its lyrics . " So I met David and asked him for the track ... He gave it to me , and I brought it back here to London , UK and wrote the actual song " . At a writing session in a London hotel room , Rowland and songwriting duo Nervo wrote the lyrics and melody over Guetta 's backing track . Rowland later joined Guetta and Julie Terry Lefèvre @-@ Han in the recording studio to finish off the song .

Later in a 2010 interview , The Nervo Twins revealed that Rowland 's record label were not keen on the song despite their and Rowland 's enthusiasm . Consequently , " When Love Takes Over " was shelved until Guetta rediscovered the song when compiling his fourth studio album , One Love . The finished song with Rowland 's vocals and Guetta 's production was premiered in March 2009 at the Ultra Music Festival in Miami . A month later on 21 April 2009 , the single was released in Europe , and the United States . In the UK , the single 's release had to be brought forward to 11 June 2009 to combat an " inferior " cover version released on 9 May 2009 . Additionally , beginning in July / August 2009 , American TV channel Bravo licensed the song for a two @-@ month period , to use for in @-@ house advertising .

= = Recording and production = =

The recording and mixing of " When Love Takes Over " took place in summer and autumn of 2008 . After Rowland heard the instrumental of " When Love Takes Over " — a piano loop @-@ based melody with throbbing percussion — she asked Guetta if she could take the demo and several other tracks to work on . She wrote the lyrics and recorded the vocals in London , within a day . She was aided by Australian songwriters and producers Miriam and Olivia Nervo ( The Nervo Twins ) . However the song remained unfinished until Guetta rediscovered the track while compiling his One Love album . After getting selected for the album , " When Love Takes Over " was given to Frédéric Riesterer who , aside from producing the song with Guetta , was tasked the final audio mixing of the song . However Riesterer decided to give the track to French mixing engineer Veronica Ferraro , who would later go on to say that " Reisterer was supposed to mix it , but he wanted me to do it and see how it turned out . The first time I heard the track I immediately knew it would be a huge hit . " The track was mixed in September 2008 , at Ferraro 's Super Sonic Scale studio near Paris , the day after her birthday .

Before working on the song 's individual elements , Ferraro converted the recording sessions from a generic digital audio workstation system to her programme of choice , Pro Tools . Following this , she decided that she would focus primarily on Rowland 's vocals .

" Frédéric had the right sounds on the drums and the keyboards , so I did not change very much . I just did some standard things , with EQ and compression and things like that . After that my obsession was to get the vocals to sound as good as possible . When I 'm mixing a track , I want something to happen , something that takes the listener somewhere . You want the right things in the right place , but it 's not a technical issue . It 's actually an artistic issue to have everything in the right place – the mixing has to be magic . It was not difficult in this case , because I knew the song would be a hit , but I did my best to make the vocal sound magical , like an angel singing , so that the hit quality of the song was immediately obvious . I wanted to make sure that the voice takes you from the beginning to the end and doesn 't lose you . "

Ferraro told Sound On Sound that she did add a bass drum sample , as she felt that the kick was missing something . " Rather than equalise it , I added a little bit of my sample to make the BD track sound bigger " . However she did alter the two piano elements of the song , using the Flex Studio Tool to widen the sound of the piano element without the delay . Additionally , Ferraro used a number of French plug @-@ in software to amplify many of the track 's instruments , including the violin , strings and guitar samples . She then moved on to Rowland 's vocals , which " were extensively processed " , including equalization and de @-@ essing . Then upon completion of her work on the song , Ferraro sent " When Love Takes Over " to her husband , Bruno Gruel , and his Elektra Mastering Suite which is located in the same building as the Super Sonic Scale Studio . Gruel received the song in a standard Pro Tools format , 24 @-@ bit / 44 @.@ 1 kHz . He used several pieces of software to realign all of the elements of the song , particularly the bass drums and low synths .

= = Composition = =

" When Love Takes Over " is a synthpop and " uplifting floor @-@ filler " produced by Guetta and his associate Frédéric Riesterer . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard magazine described it as a " pop number built around a lush piano loop and throbbing percussion " with trance elements . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of F Mixolydian with a time signature of common time and a tempo of 130 beats per minute . The chord progression is Cm / F – Gm / F – F4 – F. The final recording and mixing took place at Gum Prod Studios in Paris . Some elements of the song were compared to the riff and piano opener in the song " Clocks " by Coldplay .

After gaining Guetta 's approval to write vocals for the song , Rowland took the instrumental version to London , where she wrote the bulk of the lyrics with The Nervo Twins ( Miriam and Olivia Nervo ) before sending the song back to Guetta , who added his own contributions with Frédéric Riesterer . Rowland uses a vocal range of F3 to D5 . Guetta said that " Kelly [ ' s vocals ] had this Whitney Houston vibe and nailed it . " Critics agreed , noting that often her vocals were " powerful " and " grand " . Others called them " a diva masterclass " and " emotionally charged " . Fraser McAlpine from BBC Online compared Rowland 's vocals to those by Madonna in " Ray of Light " , for their " hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air pop song " qualities .

= = Critical reception = =

The song received critical acclaim from music critics for both Guetta 's catchy production and Rowland 's strong vocals . It was called the strongest and most commercial single choice from Guetta 's album , One Love . Critics noted that the song 's opening piano riff was similar to that from Coldplay 's hit single " Clocks " ( 2002 ) . David Jefferes of Allmusic gave the song a thumbs up saying , calling " When Love Takes Over " one of the strongest songs from One Love and praising the " [ addition of ] the powerful voice of Kelly Rowland for one grand , uplifting floor @-@ filler . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly agreed calling the song the " most memorable from the album " and recalling " Clocks " by Coldplay to make " a showstopper starring Kelly Rowland . " Michael Hibbard of MusicOMH was impressed with both the production and vocal work on " When Love Takes Over " . He pointed out the rarity in the amount of promotion given to the song , referring to " When Love Takes Over " being given " its own poster on the Tube . " He also described the song as a " euphoric masterpiece " backed by " at least eight remixes " and the accompany vocals from " Destiny 's Child songbird Kelly Rowland on hand for a diva masterclass . " Also agreeing with these comments was Fraser McAlpine from BBC Online who awarded the song four out of five stars . " The genius ingredients include a thinly reworked go at the piano riff to ' Clocks ' by Coldplay and handclaps ... And the fairy dust is ... well ... it 's your standard dance @-@ pop production , actually . " However he noted that the production was " tastefully done to make sure that the good bits are not spoilt " . Other elements of the song such as the " bed of synthistrings , a skippy beat , a breakdown , some riffing glassy electronics and a dramatic , cinematic bottom end drone " were praised . McAlpine also praised Rowland 's appearance on the track , commenting who she sounded " entirely unlike herself , so that even SHE is all buffed up and shiny . " He described the marriage of Rowland 's vocals and Guetta 's production by stating that " [ Rowland 's ] got a spiralling , sky @-@ scraping melody to sing too . "

Erin Martin of PopMatters said that " When Love Takes Over " had euphoric properties . Martin said the song was " a classic , triumphant dance number , and Rowland 's powerhouse vocals ensure that this song has anthemic potential for years to come . This song just feels good to listen to " . She also noted that the song was central to the concept and " love @-@ spreading message [ that ] Guetta delivers on the album as a whole . " David Balls of Digital Spy agreed with the song 's anthem credentials . " [ It ] is further evidence that Rowland may no longer be resigned to living in Beyoncé [ Knowles ' ] shadow . Fusing classic dance beats with a heady , emotionally charged vocal , it 's a world away from the mid @-@ tempo R & B numbers with which she started her solo career . In fact , this packs a punch from the very first listen , meaning it could well become one of the summer anthems of 2009 . " However , Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times was less impressed than the other critics , simply noting the song as " a cheesy synthpop makeover of Coldplay 's ' Clocks ' . " Wood did however state that it was among Guetta 's best work and was an example of when the DJ is " most commercial " .

The song was nominated for the Best Dance Recording award at the 52nd Grammy Awards ceremony . It lost out to " Poker Face " by Lady Gaga . The song 's Electro Extended Remix was successful at the ceremony , winning Guetta his first Grammy Award for the Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical . In 2013 , Billboard named " When Love Takes Over " their number one dance @-@ pop collaboration of all time .

= = Chart performance = =

In Guetta 's native France , " When Love Takes Over " debuted on the French Digital Chart at number 14 on 25 April 2009 before subsequently peaking at number three on 18 July 2009 . On the French Singles Chart , it debuted and peaked at number two . In August 2009 , Guetta had two simultaneous top 10 singles on the chart , the other being " Sexy Bitch " featuring Akon . Following is strong run on the charts the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) awarded the single a Gold certification for selling 150 @,@ 000 + copies . In Rowland 's native country of the United States the single was successful , topping both the Hot Dance Airplay and Hot Dance Club Songs charts , as well as reaching number 76 on the Billboard Hot 100 . This became Guetta 's highest Hot 100 chart position at the time . It was Rowland 's highest Hot 100 Chart entry since her feature of Trina 's 2005 single , " Here We Go " . " When Love Takes Over " ranked at number one on the Best of 2009 Dance Club Songs chart and number thirty @-@ three on the End of Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) Dance Club Songs Chart .

" When Love Takes Over " also achieved success in Europe , topping charts in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Slovakia , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . It also reached the top 10 in most other regions apart from Brasil Canada and the United States . By the end of 2009 it reached the top 30 on most year @-@ end charts , most notably reaching number two in Switzlerand , number five in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , and six on the European Hot 100 . It was certified Platinum in nine countries .

In the United Kingdom , Guetta and Rowland 's original version debuted at number seven on the UK Singles Chart , having sold 25 @,@ 000 copies . The following week Guetta 's version peaked at number one , beating his previous best chart peak of number three with 2006 's " Love Don 't Let Me Go " . It gave Rowland her second number one single in Britain , the first being " Dilemma " alongside Nelly in October 2002 . " When Love Takes Over " was awarded a Platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry in July 2013 for shipping over 650 @,@ 000 copies . On The Official Charts Company 's official countdown of the Top 100 British Downloads of all time , " When Love Takes Over " ranks at number 58 , marking Rowland 's only entry on the chart . However it is Guetta 's second entry on the chart , behind " Sexy Bitch " ( with Akon ) which charted at number 27 . In total , the single has sold over 5 @,@ 5 million copies worldwide .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background and concept = = =

The music video was filmed on 19 May 2009 at Venice Beach , Los Angeles , directed by Jonas Åkerlund . Guetta revealed that the video 's story and concept were designed to mimic the story behind the song 's creation . He said , " you see Kelly doing her thing and then me on the other side doing mine . Eventually we come together just like how we recorded the song . It 's all about sharing the love from this record and making a big party " . These reflections and more behind the scenes footage were revealed in the video clip " Making of When Love Takes Over " which was uploaded to Guetta 's official YouTube channel on 1 June 2009 . The music video itself premiered on 8 June 2009 on Guetta 's YouTube channel . The video premiered after the European and United States digital release but just before the single 's UK digital release on 10 June 2009 .

= = = Synopsis and reception = = =

The video focuses on Rowland walking through the streets of Venice Beach while Guetta gathers his DJ equipment and pushes it towards the beach . Through the video a number of street performers join the gathering crowd , including a motocross bicycler , a skateboarder , and a BBoy Cloud . The last scene , sees Rowland and Guetta unite on the beach for a late night party which sees the duo performing together . Capital FM described the video as " lots of shots of people having fun in the sun " . Melinda Newman from Hitfix praised Rowland 's role in the clip saying that

" [ Rowland ] is fierce throughout and it clearly experiencing a bit of a career resurgence after a dip . [ She ] gives her best Beyoncé @-@ type stares straight into the camera ( but we 're sure that 's just a coincidence ) ... Guetta , who is relegated to a supporting role in his own video , shows up pushing his gear on a cart , looking basically like any other homeless guy hanging out in Venice . "

Some criticism did follow the video . Capital FM radio station felt that Guetta 's appearance in the clip was slightly disappointing . " Guetta looks a bit like a binman pushing his gear round the streets in some of the earlier shots in the video " . Newman said that the video 's director , Jonas Åkerlund , had removed something from the song . " The video could have built on the great beat that builds within the song and the feeling of abandon that falling in love can bring you , but , instead , we get a telegenic couple making out who seem to drop in from nowhere . "

= = Performances and promotion = =

Guetta premiered the completed version of " When Love Takes Over " on 23 March 2009 at the Ultra Music Festival . Promotion of the single began in the UK with an acoustic performance of the single at the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge on 10 May 2009 and then again on UK daytime show , This Morning , on 18 June 2009 . They also appeared at the Miss Universe 2009 contest in the Bahamas , where the duo performed the song live for the " Evening Gown " competition . Another major part of the promotion included appearances at the Loop Live 2009 music festival in Sofia , Bulgaria and Rowland 's appeared at the TAO Night Club in Las Vegas , where she hosted celebrations for " When Love Takes Over " reaching number one around the world . The duo returned to the UK to perform at Orange Rockcorps at London 's Royal Albert Hall in September 2009 , before performing at the 2009 MTV Latin America Music Video Awards on 15 October 2010 . It was by US TV channel , Bravo , during an internal advertising campaign . " When Love Takes Over " was still being promoted in 2010 when the pair performed at the French NRJ Music Awards on 24 January 2010 and at the 2010 World Music Awards on 5 June , one year after the song was released .

= = Cover versions = =

= = = Airi L version = = =

British dance music artist Airi L released a bootleg version of the song 9 May 2010 , several days before the Guetta and Rowland version was due to be released . EMI Music called Airi L 's version " inferior " and decided to combat her cover by releasing Guetta 's version on 11 June 2009 in the UK , earlier than originally planned . The cover debuted and peaked at number twenty @-@ two , selling 12 @,@ 000 copies whilst Guetta and Rowland 's version debuted at number seven with 25 @,@ 000 copies . According to Yahoo ! Music 's James Masterton , Rowland 's version would have debuted at a higher place had it not been for the " bootleg cover " . He said the single had to be rush released " when not one but two spoiler ( and indeed near @-@ identical ) cover versions started to race up the iTunes rankings and threatened to have a negatively impact on the ' official ' version . " The following week Guetta and Rowland 's version would debut at number one .

= = = Other cover versions = = =

British singer @-@ songwriter , Pixie Lott , covered the song for the re @-@ issue of her debut album , Turn It Up . Then in the second week of October 2010 , the song was covered twice by contestants on The X Factor . Matt Cardle performed his version on the opening show of the seventh series of the UK version , while Hayley Teal sang a version on the second series of the Australian version . Following Cardle 's performance , " When Love Takes Over " jumped twelve places on UK Dance Chart , to number seventeen . Baraa Qadoura performed his version on the third live show of the eighth season of the Danish version of X Factor .

In 2016 , American gospel singer Yolanda Adams covered the song for the US version of the musical The Passion .

= = Legacy = =

Rowland told MTV that " working with David is amazing . We have a great relationship , it 's so effortless . He 's such a talented individual . But most importantly he 's such a down to earth , nice guy and I really enjoy working with him . We have good musical chemistry together . " Guetta told Billboard that " the track with Kelly has made him experiment with a more American urban influence . Musically , it 's pure pop with a lot of detail . " Additionally British singer Cheryl Cole ( of Girls Aloud ) credited " When Love Takes Over " for inspiring her taste and preference in dance music , which in turn influenced her second solo single " 3 Words " ( featuring will.i.am ) .

Later in 2010 when recording her third album , Here I Am ( 2011 ) , Rowland credited both Guetta and the song for inspiring her to pursue a new sound . Rowland relates : " I spent about a year of my life in Europe really listening to a whole bunch of Europeans DJs and hearing dance music a lot on the radio and really loving it . ' When Love Takes Over ' it was my first introduction to dance music [ and ] it was a whole other monster . It 's really a culture and I love it . " In 2010 , following the success of " When Love Takes Over " and the duo 's musical chemistry , Guetta was asked to work on Rowland 's third studio album . He co @-@ produced a couple of the songs including the album 's first single , " Commander " .

Later in 2013 , Kerri Mason and Zel McCarthy compiled a list of the top @-@ ten dance @-@ pop collaborations of all time for Billboard magazine . In their article , the critics named " When Love Takes Over " at the top of the list , saying that the song " repositioned Kelly Rowland as a solo vocalist with chops on her own . " The duo also commented that subsequent collaborations between Guetta and Rowland were not as good as " When Love Takes Over " , also adding that Rowland 's vocal was firmly part of " dance music history " and were an indication of the growing electronic dance music ( EDM ) trend emerging in America at the time .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits = =

Recording

The instrumental for " When Love Takes Over " was recorded in 2008 at Gum Prod Studios , Paris .

The vocals were added in 2009 and the final version was mixed as Super Sonic Scale Studios .

Personnel

= = Charts and certificates = =

= = Release history = =

= Kepler @-@ 7 =

Kepler @-@ 7 is a star located in the constellation Lyra in the field of view of the Kepler Mission , a NASA operation in search of Earth @-@ like planets . It is home to the fourth of the first five planets that Kepler discovered ; this planet , a Jupiter @-@ size gas giant named Kepler @-@ 7b , is as light as styrofoam . The star itself is more massive than the Sun , and is nearly twice the Sun 's radius . It is also slightly metal @-@ rich , a major factor in the formation of planetary systems . Kepler @-@ 7 's planet was presented on January 4 , 2010 at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society .

= = Nomenclature and discovery = =

Kepler @-@ 7 received its name because it was the home to the seventh planetary system discovered by the NASA @-@ led Kepler Mission , a project aimed at detecting terrestrial planets that transit , or pass in front of , their host stars as seen from Earth . The planet orbiting Kepler @-@ 7 was the fourth planet to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; the first three planets combed from Kepler 's data had been previously discovered , and were used to verify the accuracy of Kepler 's measurements . Kepler @-@ 7b was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. along with Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 5b , Kepler @-@ 6b , and Kepler @-@ 8b . Kepler @-@ 7b was noted for its unusually and extremely low density .

The planet 's initial discovery by Kepler was verified by additional observations made at observatories in Hawaii , Texas , Arizona , California , and the Canary Islands .

= = Characteristics = =

Kepler @-@ 7 is a sunlike star that is 1 @.@ 347 Msun and 1 @.@ 843 Rsun . This means that the star is about 35 % more massive and 84 % wider than the Sun . The star is estimated to be 3 @.@ 5 ( ± 1 ) billion years old . It is also estimated to have a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 11 ( ± 0 @.@ 03 ) , meaning that Kepler @-@ 7 is approximately 30 % more metal @-@ rich than the Sun ; metallicity plays a significant role in the formation of planetary systems , as metal @-@ rich stars tend to be more likely to have planets in orbit . The star 's effective temperature is 5933 ( ± 44 ) K. In comparison , the 4 @.@ 6 billion @-@ year @-@ old Sun releases less heat , with an effective temperature of 5778 K.

The star has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 3 , meaning that it is extremely dim as seen from Earth . It cannot be seen with the naked eye . It is estimated to lie between 1000 and 1400 light years from the Solar System .

= = Planetary system = =

Kepler @-@ 7b is the only planet that has been discovered in Kepler @-@ 7 's orbit . It is .433 MJ and 1 @.@ 478 RJ , meaning it is 43 % the mass of planet Jupiter , but is nearly three halves its size . With a density of .166 grams / cc , the planet is approximately 17 % the density of water . This is comparable to styrofoam . At a distance of .06224 AU from its host star , Kepler @-@ 7b completes an orbit around Kepler @-@ 7 every 4 @.@ 8855 days . Planet Mercury , however , orbits the Sun at .3871 AU , and takes approximately 87 @.@ 97 days to complete one orbit . Kepler @-@ 7b 's eccentricity is assumed to be 0 , which would give Kepler @-@ 7b a circular orbit by definition .

= Church of Saint Oswald , King and Martyr , Oswaldkirk =

The Church of Saint Oswald , King and Martyr is a Church of England church serving the village and parish of Oswaldkirk , North Yorkshire , England . It is located along the main road passing through the village ( Oswaldkirk Main Street ) , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Ampleforth Abbey .

Dedicated to the Christian saint Saint Oswald , it is over 900 years old and run by the Church of England . It is part of a four @-@ parish benefice , and is in the archdeaconry of Cleveland , and the diocese of York . Notably , the future Archbishop of Canterbury and chaplain to King Charles II , John Tillotson , preached his first sermon at the church in 1661 . Major restoration work was done to the church in 1886 , and a large amount of the Chancel woodwork dates from this period . The church has been a Grade II * listed building since 1955 , and is the oldest building in the village by more than six centuries .

= = Etymology = =

The word " kirk " means church , so the village is literally called " Oswald 's church " , after the church , which is dedicated to Saint Oswald of Northumbria , a Christian king who spread Christianity throughout Northumbria in the 7th century AD .

= = History and architecture = =

Almost nothing of the original church — built on the site of a wooden Saxon church — remains , apart from unique examples of Celtic stonework , including a plait interweave and a bas @-@ relief of the Virgin and Child , which was carved around 1000 AD . The current building still has a quoin , which was probably a re @-@ cycled Anglo @-@ Saxon cross shaft . The stone southern entrance to the church still stands ; it was built in the 12th century and is a typical example of Norman stonework . The church was re @-@ consecrated in 1287 by the bishop of Candida Casa under the direction of John le Romeyn , Archbishop of York . The tall windows set in the church wall both north and south of the nave can be dated to approximately 1320 to 1330 , and in the top sections of two of the windows , small fragments of medieval glass can be found . A sideways orientated tombstone can be found under a low arch on the inside of the southern wall , generally believed to be that of Sir Richard Pickering ( d . 1441 ) , a member of the Pickering family who ruled the village of Oswaldkirk from the 14th century into the 16th century .

The church records include an unbroken list of rectors dating back to 1302 , during the reign of King Edward I. One notable rector was John Dee , who served from early 1568 until the year 1574 , although he was probably never a permanent resident . Dee , a noted mathematician , astrologer , alchemist and astronomer , was on friendly terms with the ruling monarch , Queen Elizabeth I , and had given her astrological advice for setting the date of her coronation .

The future Archbishop of Canterbury and chaplain to King Charles II , John Tillotson , preached his first sermon at the church of Saint Oswald in 1661 , because of his friendship with John Denton , who was rector of the church from 1658 until his expulsion in 1662 for non @-@ conformism .

Perhaps the most important event in the 17th century was the installation of two brand new bells , one bearing the inscription " Venite Exultemus Domino " , or " Come , let us rejoice in the Lord " ( dated 1684 ) , and the other bearing the inscription " Gloria in Altissimus Deo " , or " Glory to God in the highest " ( dated 1683 ) . These are still in use through bell @-@ ropes , which have been replaced several times in the intervening centuries and extend down to the floor next to the clock mechanism , which is dated 1898 and is wholly mechanical , powering a clock whose two faces can be seen on both the western and eastern sides of the bell tower .

There was major restoration work done to the church in 1886 , and a large amount of the Chancel woodwork dates from this period . During the restoration the east window was also replaced ; it now depicts the stylised form of Saint Oswald , flanked on either side by Saint Aidan , and Saint Cuthbert , both Christian saints of the same era , and who helped him in missionary work in the Kingdom of Northumbria . These windows are directly opposite the western window , above the font at the other end of the church , which depicts the queen at the time , Queen Victoria . Further modern additions to the church can be seen in the bell turret and organ chamber , as well as the south porch , which is currently the sole congregational entrance to the church . The church uses an electric organ during services . The church is a Grade II * listed building and has been so since 4 January 1955 .

= = Modern usage = =

St Oswald 's is part of a four @-@ church benefice , including the churches and parishes of Oswaldkirk , Ampleforth , Gilling , and Stonegrave . As of May 2012 , the vicar is the Reverend Susan Fraser Bond , who serves all four parishes , although services in the church occur weekly on Sunday and at other times during the week with the help of volunteers in the local community . There is also a " tea time club " , which is a club teaching Christian morals and biblical teachings to young people , as well as biblical role @-@ plays and " mini @-@ pilgrimages " . The church is host to a carol service each year on Christmas Eve , jointly undertaken by the Anglican congregation and that of Oswaldkirk 's Roman Catholic church , the church of Saint Aidan . The united churches of Oswaldkirk also have a harvest festival each year , hosted in the building of Saint Aidan 's church every other year , alternating with St Oswald 's church .

= = Gallery = =

= F @-@ Zero ( video game ) =

F @-@ Zero is a futuristic racing video game developed by Nintendo EAD and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) . The game was released in Japan on November 21 , 1990 , in North America in August 1991 , and in Europe in 1992 . F @-@ Zero is the first game of the F @-@ Zero series and was one of the two launch titles for the SNES in Japan , but was accompanied by additional initial titles in North America and Europe . It was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service on the Wii in late 2006 , the Wii U in early 2013 , and on the New Nintendo 3DS in early 2016 .

The game takes place in the year 2560 , where multi @-@ billionaires with lethargic lifestyles created a new form of entertainment based on the Formula One races called " F @-@ Zero " . The player can choose between one of four characters in the game , each with their respective hovercar . The player then can race against computer controlled characters in fifteen tracks divided into three leagues .

F @-@ Zero is acknowledged by critics to be the game that set a standard for the racing genre and the creation of the futuristic subgenre . Critics lauded F @-@ Zero for its fast and challenging gameplay , variety of tracks , and extensive use of the graphical mode called " Mode 7 " . This graphics @-@ rendering technique was an innovative technological achievement at the time that made racing games more realistic , the first of which was F @-@ Zero . As a result , IGN credited it for reinvigorating the genre and inspiring the future creation of numerous racing games . In retrospective reviews of the game critics agreed that it should have used a multiplayer mode .

= = Gameplay = =

F @-@ Zero is a futuristic racing game where players compete in a high @-@ speed racing tournament called " F @-@ Zero " . There are four F @-@ Zero characters that have their own selectable hovercar along with its unique performance abilities . The objective of the game is to beat opponents to the finish line while avoiding hazards such as slip zones and magnets that pull the vehicle off @-@ center in an effort to make the player damage their vehicle or fall completely off the track . Each machine has a power meter , which serves as a measurement of the machine 's durability ; it decreases when the machine collides with land mines , the side of the track or another vehicle . Energy can be replenished by driving over pit areas placed along the home straight or nearby .

A race in F @-@ Zero consists of five laps around the track . The player must complete each lap in a successively higher place to avoid disqualification from the race . For each lap completed , the player is rewarded with an approximate four @-@ second speed boost called the " Super Jet " and a number of points determined by place . An on @-@ screen display will be shaded green to indicate that a boost can be used ; however , the player is limited to saving up to three at a time . If a certain amount of points are accumulated , an extra " spare machine " is acquired that gives the player another chance to retry the course . Tracks may feature two methods for temporarily boosting speeds ; jump plates launch vehicles into the air thus providing additional acceleration for those not at full speed and dash zones greatly increases the racer 's speed on the ground . F @-@ Zero includes two modes of play . In the Grand Prix mode , the player chooses a league and races against other vehicles through each track in that league while avoiding disqualification . The Practice mode allows the player to practice seven of the courses from the Grand Prix mode .

F @-@ Zero has a total of fifteen tracks divided into three leagues ordered by increasing difficulty : Knight , Queen , and King . Furthermore , each league has four selectable difficulty levels : beginner , standard , expert , and master . The multiple courses of Death Wind , Port Town , and Red Canyon have a pathway that is not accessible unless the player is on another iteration of those tracks , which then in turn closes the path previously available . Unlike most F @-@ Zero games , there are three iterations of Mute City that shows it in either a day , evening , or night setting . In BS F @-@ Zero 2 , Mute City IV continued the theme with an early morning setting .

= = Setting = =

F @-@ Zero is set in the year 2560 , when humanity 's multiple encounters with alien life forms had resulted in the expansion of Earth 's social framework . This led to commercial , technological and cultural interchanges between planets . The multi @-@ billionaires who earned their wealth through intergalactic trade were mainly satisfied with their lifestyles , although most coveted more entertainment in their lives . This resulted in a new entertainment based on the Formula One races to be founded with vehicles that could hover one foot above the track . These Grand Prix races were soon named " F @-@ Zero " after a rise in popularity of the races . The game introduced the first set of F @-@ Zero racers : Captain Falcon , Dr. Stewart , Pico , and Samurai Goroh . IGN claimed Captain Falcon " was thrust into the limelight " in this game since he was the " star character " . An eight @-@ page comic was included in its SNES manual that carried the reader through one of Captain Falcon 's bounty missions .

= = Development and releases = =

The game was released alongside the SNES in Japan on November 21 , 1990 , in North America in August 1991 , and in Europe in 1992 . Only it and Super Mario World were initially available for the Japanese launch . In North America , Super Mario World shipped with the console , and other initial titles included F @-@ Zero , Pilotwings , SimCity , and Gradius III . The game was produced by Shigeru Miyamoto . It was downloadable over the Nintendo Power peripheral in Japan and was also released as a demo onto the Nintendo Super System in 1991 . Takaya Imamura , one of the art designers for the game , was surprised to be able to so freely design F @-@ Zero 's characters and courses as he wanted since it was his first game .

Mode 7 is a form of texture mapping available on the SNES which allows a raster graphical plane to be rotated and scaled freely , simulating the appearance of 3D environments without processing any polygons . The Mode 7 rendering applied in F @-@ Zero consists of a single @-@ layer which is scaled and rotated around the vehicle . This pseudo @-@ 3D capability of the SNES was designed to be represented by the game . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish stated that F @-@ Zero and Pilotwings " existed almost entirely for the sake of showing [ the system 's pseudo @-@ 3D capabilities ] off " as they outclassed the competition .

An F @-@ Zero jazz album was released on March 25 , 1992 in Japan by Tokuma Japan Communications . It features twelve songs from the game on a single disc composed by Yumiko Kanki and Naoto Ishida , and arranged by Robert Hill and Michiko Hill . The album also features Marc Russo ( saxophones ) of the Yellowjackets and Robben Ford ( electric guitar ) . The game was re @-@ released for the Virtual Console service on the Wii in late 2006 , then on the Wii U in February 2013 , followed by its New Nintendo 3DS release in March 2016 .

= = Reception = =

F @-@ Zero was widely lauded by game critics for its graphical realism , and has been called the fastest and most fluid pseudo @-@ 3D racing game of its time . This has been mostly credited to the development team 's pervasive use of the " Mode 7 " system . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell commented " this abundance of Mode 7 was unheard of " for the SNES . This graphics @-@ rendering technique was an innovative technological achievement at the time that made racing games more realistic , the first of which was F @-@ Zero . Jeremy Parish of Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote that the game 's use of Mode 7 created the " most convincing racetracks that had ever been seen on a home console " that gave " console gamers an experience even more visceral than could be found in the arcades . " 1UP.com editor Ravi Hiranand agreed , arguing F @-@ Zero 's combination of fast @-@ paced racing and free @-@ range of motion were superior compared to that of previous home console games . IGN 's Peer Schneider assured readers F @-@ Zero was one of the few 16 @-@ bit era video games to " perfectly combine presentation and functionality to create a completely new gaming experience " .

The game was praised for its variety of tracks , and steady increase in difficulty . GameSpy 's Jason D 'Aprile thought the game " was something of a finesse racer . It took lots of practice , good memorization skills , and a rather fine sense of control . " Matt Taylor of The Virginian @-@ Pilot commented that the game is more about " reflexes than realism " , and it lacked the ability to save progress between races . F @-@ Zero 's soundtrack was lauded .

In GameSpot 's retrospective review by Greg Kasavin , he praised F @-@ Zero 's controls , longevity and track design . Kasavin felt the title offered exceptional gameplay , with " a perfect balance of pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play accessibility and sheer depth " . Retrospective reviews agreed that the game should have used a multiplayer mode . IGN 's Lucas Thomas criticized the lack of a substantial plot and mentioned F @-@ Zero " doesn 't have the same impact these days " suggesting " the sequels on GBA very much pick up where this title left off " .

IGN ranked F @-@ Zero as the 91st best game ever in 2003 , discussing its originality at time of release and as the 97th best game ever in 2005 , describing it as still " respected as one of the all @-@ time top racers " . ScrewAttack placed it as the 18th best SNES game .

= = = Legacy = = =

F @-@ Zero has been credited with being the game that set a standard for the racing genre and inventing the " futuristic racing " subgenre of video gaming . IGN credits the game for having inspired the future creation of numerous racing games inside and out of the futuristic subgenre , including the Wipeout series and Daytona USA . Amusement Vision 's President , Toshihiro Nagoshi , stated in 2002 that F @-@ Zero " actually taught me what a game should be " and that it served as an influence for him to create Daytona USA and other racing games . Amusement Vision collaborated with Nintendo to develop F @-@ Zero GX and AX , with Nagoshi serving as one of the co @-@ producers for these games .

= = = Sequels = = =

Nintendo initially developed the sequel of the first F @-@ Zero game for the SNES , although it was broadcast in several versions on the St.GIGA subscription service for the Satellaview attachment of the Super Famicom instead . Using this add @-@ on , gamers could download titles via satellite and save it onto a flash ROM cartridge for temporary play . The sequel was released under the Japanese names of BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix and BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix 2 during the mid @-@ 1990s . There are tracks named as a follow @-@ on from F @-@ Zero — such as " Mute City IV " , since Mute City I @-@ III appeared in the original game . BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix contained a new track along with the original 15 tracks from the SNES game and four different playable vehicles . According to Nintendo Power , the game was under consideration for a North American release via Game Pak . IGN states BS F @-@ Zero Grand Prix 2 features one new league containing five tracks , a Grand Prix and a Practice mode .

Although the F @-@ Zero franchise made the transition to 3D graphics on the Nintendo 64 with the release of F @-@ Zero X in 1998 , Mode 7 graphical effects continued to be used for the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) installments Maximum Velocity and GP Legend . The third sequel F @-@ Zero : Maximum Velocity was released for the GBA in 2001 . This installment was described by GameSpy as a hard overhaul of F @-@ Zero and featured improvements to its graphical effects . F @-@ Zero GX and AX , were released for the Nintendo GameCube and the Triforce arcade system board respectively in 2003 , was the first significant video game collaboration between Nintendo and Sega . GX is the first F @-@ Zero game to include a story mode , while AX was called by GameSpot as the first to get a " proper arcade release " . The most recent installment in the series , F @-@ Zero Climax , was released for the GBA in 2004 and is the first F @-@ Zero game to have a built @-@ in track editor without the need for an expansion or add @-@ on .

= Richard Hutton Davies =

Major General Richard Hutton Davies CB ( 14 August 1861 – 9 May 1918 ) was an officer of the New Zealand Military Forces during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , the first New Zealander to command an independent force overseas and one of the most senior New Zealand officers during the First World War .

Born in London , he emigrated to New Zealand after leaving school , where he worked as a surveyor . He joined a volunteer militia unit in 1893 , and went to South Africa as an officer with the first New Zealand contingent sent to the Boer War in 1899 . He later commanded the third , fourth and eighth contingents , becoming the first New Zealand officer to command an independent unit on active service overseas . Following his return to New Zealand , he became inspector @-@ general of the New Zealand Military Forces , and in 1909 was attached to a British Army brigade to gain staff experience .

This led to him being offered command of 6th Brigade , a regular infantry brigade of British troops , in 1910 ; he was the first colonial officer to hold such a position . In the summer of 1914 the brigade was mobilised with the British Expeditionary Force , and he commanded it at the Battle of Mons and the First Battle of the Aisne before being invalided back to England due to exhaustion . He was given command of the newly formed 20th ( Light ) Division , which he took to France in 1915 , but was relieved of command early in 1916 . After a period in command of a reserve centre in Staffordshire , he was sent to hospital suffering from both mental and physical ill health , and committed suicide in May 1918 .

= = Early life and family = =

Davies was born in London , the son of a journalist , and was educated at Hurstpierpoint College . After leaving school , he emigrated to New Zealand , where he spent two years working for a relative before settling at Taranaki , setting up a farm and practising as a surveyor . He married Ida Mary Cornwall in February 1886 ; they had two sons and a daughter . One son , Henry Cornwall Davies , served with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force during the First World War , and , like his father , transferred to the British Army in 1915 , becoming a captain in the Royal Engineers . Ida died in pregnancy with their fourth child in December 1906 ; he remarried , to Ida 's sister Eileen Kathleen Cornwall , in May 1908 .

In October 1887 Davies became the surveyor to the Manganui Road Board . On 10 April 1893 , he joined the Hawera Mounted Rifle Volunteers , and was commissioned as a lieutenant in May 1895 ; he was quickly promoted to captain six weeks later , becoming the commander of the unit . He was also active in local government , and in February 1897 was elected a member of the New Plymouth Harbour Board , representing Taranaki North .

= = South Africa = =

On 3 October 1899 Davies transferred into the Permanent Force of the New Zealand Militia , where he was made responsible for the training of volunteer mounted units . The Boer War , however , was declared a week later ; Davies was quickly seconded to command a company of the volunteer First New Zealand Contingent being sent to the Cape . The contingent sailed on 21 October , arrived in late November , and was on active service within a week . Davies was promoted to Major in May 1900 , and in the same month was given temporary command of the Third New Zealand Contingent . He was transferred to the Rhodesian Field Force , where he commanded the Fourth New Zealand Contingent in August 1900 .

He established a high professional reputation commanding the unit , and was promoted to lieutenant colonel and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) , as well as winning the respect of his men – one described him as " not only liked but loved " . A soldier wrote home calling Davies , who stood five feet six inches tall , " a grand little chap " , whilst another noted with pleasure that Davies objected to " Imperial ideas of discipline " being forced upon his men .

After being mentioned in despatches in May 1901 he returned home to command the Auckland Military District , but was ordered back to South Africa in command of the eighth New Zealand Contingent , in February 1902 , with the brevet rank of colonel . The contingent operated as a single unit , unlike its predecessors , and Davies became the first officer from New Zealand to command an independent force on active service overseas .

= = Military reform = =

Returning to New Zealand in late 1902 , Davies resumed command of the Auckland military district . He held command until 1906 , when he was appointed inspector @-@ general of the New Zealand Military Forces and became a member of the Council of Defence , the body responsible for controlling the dominion 's military forces . The position of inspector @-@ general , newly created that year , was originally expected to go to an " Imperial " – that is , British – officer , but the government had announced it planned to rotate New Zealand officers in the role , on up to five @-@ year terms , so as to allow them to gain experience .

Davies threw himself into the role , travelling around the country and inspecting local units to gain an overall idea of their efficiency . Even under favourable circumstances , however , he found that only 54 % of the volunteers attended parades in 1906 ; at the annual camps , the proportion was as low as 45 % . He pressed for greater use of active day @-@ time tactical training rather than evening indoors drill , which he felt was key for a part @-@ time volunteer force , and for a greater emphasis on the training and standards of officers . By the end of his second year in office , he had organised local selection boards for appointing officers , and a central promotion board for senior field officers , as well as mandatory regular fitness and efficiency tests .

As a member of the Council of Defence , he strongly supported the movement for universal military training – not conventional conscription , but rather a form of basic military training on a part @-@ time basis for all adult men – arguing that it would mean " the flower of the nation would be the soldiers , not the weeds " .

= = British service = =

After three years as Inspector @-@ General , and in order to gain staff experience , Davies was attached as an observer to a number of units in the United Kingdom in 1909 – 10 . During this time , he also attended the Imperial Defence Conference and represented the New Zealand forces at the funeral of King Edward VII . At the end of the one @-@ year attachment , he had so impressed the British Army that they offered him an appointment as commander of 6th Brigade in October 1910 , with the temporary rank of brigadier general . As such , he became the first overseas officer to command a regular brigade , only eleven years after taking up a permanent military commission .

Davies ' tenure in command of 6th Brigade was due to expire in October 1914 , when he was to hand over command to John Keir , and it was rumoured in New Zealand that he might be appointed as General Officer Commanding the Home Forces in 1915 , succeeding Alexander Godley . However , with the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , his command was mobilised as part of 2nd Division in the British Expeditionary Force and sent to France . The brigade saw heavy combat at the Battle of Mons , where Davies was mentioned in despatches , but he was quickly worn down by his habit of always marching at the head of his brigade , which put him under heavy physical and mental strain , and from the lasting effects of an attack of pneumonia earlier in the year . One report described him as " much changed , full of nerves ... very jumpy " . He was relieved of command after the First Battle of the Aisne in September and ordered home , being replaced by Colonel Robert Fanshawe , formerly GSO 1 of 1st Division , on 20 September .

He was appointed a divisional commander , with the rank of temporary major general , on 19 October 1914 , and took command of the newly raised 20th ( Light ) Division at some point in September – October . This made him the first New Zealand officer to command a division in the war . On 18 February 1915 , he was formally transferred to the British Army , and promoted to major general . The 20th Division moved to France in July 1915 , and he commanded it during a minor operation in September , but handed over command on 8 March 1916 due to ill @-@ health . He was appointed to command a reserve centre at Cannock Chase , Staffordshire , where the arrival of elements of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade in September 1917 meant that he once again had the opportunity to command his own countrymen . He was relieved of command by General Robert Wanless O 'Gowan in March 1918 , and on 9 May 1918 , after a prolonged period of physical and mental ill health , he committed suicide at the Special Neurological Hospital for Officers , Kensington .

= Body Count ( album ) =

Body Count is the eponymous debut album of American heavy metal band Body Count . Released in 1992 , the album material focuses on various social and political issues ranging from police brutality to drug abuse . The album presents a turning point in the career of Ice @-@ T , who co @-@ wrote the album 's songs with lead guitarist Ernie C and performed as the band 's lead singer . Previously known only as a rapper , Ice @-@ T 's work with the band helped establish a crossover audience with rock music fans . The album produced one single , " There Goes the Neighborhood " .

Body Count is well known for the inclusion of the controversial song " Cop Killer " , which was the subject of much criticism from various political figures , although many defended the song on the basis of the group 's right to freedom of speech . Ice @-@ T eventually chose to remove the song from the album , although it continues to be performed live . It was voted the 31st best album of the year in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics poll , and is believed to have helped pave the way for the mainstream success of the rap metal genre , although the album itself does not feature rapping in any of its songs .

= = Conception = =

Ice @-@ T formed Body Count out of this interest . The band comprised musicians Ice @-@ T had known from Crenshaw High School . Ice @-@ T states that " I knew we didn 't want to form an R & B group . [ ... ] Where am I gonna get the rage and the anger to attack something with that ? [ ... ] We knew Body Count had to be a rock band . The name alone negates the band from being R & B. "

Ice @-@ T co @-@ wrote the band 's music and lyrics with lead guitarist Ernie C , and took on the duties of lead vocalist . Ice @-@ T states that " I knew I couldn 't sing , but then I thought , ' Who can sing in rock ' n ' roll ? ' " Aside from Ice @-@ T and Ernie C , the original line @-@ up consisted of Mooseman on bass , Beatmaster V on drums and D @-@ Roc on rhythm guitar . According to Ice @-@ T , " We named the group Body Count because every Sunday night in L.A. , I 'd watch the news , and the newscasters would tally up the youths killed in gang homicides that week and then just segue to sports . ' Is that all I am , ' I thought , ' a body count ? ' "

Ice @-@ T introduced the band at Lollapalooza in 1991 , devoting half of his set to his hip hop songs , and half to Body Count songs , increasing his appeal with both alternative rock fans and middle @-@ class teenagers . Many considered the Body Count performances to be the highlight of the tour . The group made its first album appearance on Ice @-@ T 's 1991 solo album O.G. Original Gangster . The song " Body Count " was preceded by a staged interview in which the performer referred to the group as a " black hardcore band , " stating that " as far as I 'm concerned , music is music . I don 't look at it as rock , R & B , or all that kind of stuff . I just look at it as music . [ ... ] I do what I like and I happen to like rock ' n ' roll , and I feel sorry for anybody who only listens to one form of music . "

Recording sessions for the group 's self @-@ titled debut took place from September to December 1991 . The album was released on March 31 , 1992 , on compact disc , vinyl , and audio cassette . Ice @-@ T states that Body Count was intentionally different from his solo hip hop albums in that " An Ice T album has intelligence , and at times it has ignorance . Sometimes it has anger , sometimes it has questions . But Body Count was intended to reflect straight anger . It was supposed to be the voice of the angry brother , without answers . [ ... ] If you took a kid and you put him in jail with a microphone and asked him how he feels , you 'd get Body Count : ' Fuck that . Fuck school . Fuck the police . ' You wouldn 't get intelligence or compassion . You 'd get raw anger . " From the album , " There Goes The Neighborhood " was released as a single , while " Body Count 's in the House " was featured in the film Universal Soldier .

= = Music and lyrics = =

Ernie C and Ice @-@ T conceived the album with the dark , ominous tone and Satanic lyrical themes of Black Sabbath in mind . However , Ice @-@ T felt that basing his lyrics in reality would be scarier than the fantasy basis in Black Sabbath 's lyrics ; the inner artwork depicts a man with a gun pointed at the viewer 's face . Ice @-@ T states , " To us that was the devil [ ... ] what 's more scary than [ ... ] some gangster with a gun pointed at you ? " Ice @-@ T defined the resulting mix of heavy metal and reality @-@ based lyrics as " a rock album with a rap mentality . " The album 's musical style is primarily described as speed metal , thrash metal and heavy metal . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that with Body Count , Ice @-@ T " has recognized a kinship between his gangster raps and post @-@ punk , hard @-@ core rock , both of which break taboos to titillate fans . But where rap 's core audience is presumably in the inner city , hard @-@ core appeals mostly to suburbanites seeking more gritty thrills than they can get from Nintendo or the local mall . "

Despite Ice @-@ T 's attempts to differentiate Body Count from his work in the hip hop genre , the press focused on the group 's rap image . Ice @-@ T felt that politicians had intentionally referred to the song " Cop Killer " as rap to provoke negative criticism . " There is absolutely no way to listen to the song ' Cop Killer ' and call it a rap record . It 's so far from rap . But , politically , they know by saying the word rap they can get a lot of people who think , ' Rap @-@ black @-@ rap @-@ black @-@ ghetto , ' and don 't like it . You say the word rock , people say , ' Oh , but I like Jefferson Airplane , I like Fleetwood Mac — that 's rock . ' They don 't want to use the word rock & roll to describe this song . " Body Count has since been credited for pioneering the rap metal genre popularized by groups such as Rage Against the Machine and Limp Bizkit , although Ice @-@ T does not rap on any of the album 's tracks . Ernie C stated that " A lot of rappers want to be in a rock band , but it has to be done sincerely . You can 't just get anybody on guitar and expect it to work . [ ... ] [ We ] really loved the music we were doing , and it showed . "

= = Lyrical themes = =

Like Ice @-@ T 's gangsta rap albums , Body Count 's material focused on various social and political issues , with songs focusing on topics ranging from police brutality to drug abuse . According to Ernie C , " Everybody writes about whatever they learned growing up , and we were no exception . Like The Beach Boys sing about the beach , we sing about the way we grew up . " Ice @-@ T states that " Body Count was an angry record . It was meant to be a protest record . I put my anger in it , while lacing it with dark humor . " The spoken introduction , " Smoked Pork " features Ice @-@ T taking on the roles of a gangster pretending to be seemingly stranded motorist and a police officer who refuses to aid . The track begins with Mooseman and Ice @-@ T driving their car towards a police car , and then Ice @-@ T asks for the gun Mooseman has and tells Mooseman to stay in the car , much to Mooseman 's chagrin , as Mooseman wanted to kill the cop in this round . Ice @-@ T then walks up to the policeman , pretending to be a stranded motorist , asking for help , but the policeman refuses , saying : " Nah , that 's not my job ! My job 's not to help your fuckin ' ass out ! " , then telling him that " my job is eatin ' these doughnuts " . When the officer recognizes Ice @-@ T , gunshots are heard . The final voice on the track is Ice @-@ T confirming his identity .

In the lyrics of " KKK Bitch , " Ice @-@ T describes a sexual encounter with a woman who he soon learns is the daughter of the Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan . The lyrics go on to describe a scenario in which members of Body Count " crash " a Klan meeting to " get buck wild with the white freaks " . Ice @-@ T makes humorous reference to " [ falling ] in love with Tipper Gore 's two twelve year old nieces " , and ponders the possibility of the Grand Wizard coming after him " when his grandson 's named little Ice @-@ T. " In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that " ' KKK Bitch ' was ironic because the sentiments were true . We 'd play Ku Klux Klan areas in the South and the girls would always come backstage and tell us how their brothers and fathers didn 't like black folks . [ ... ] We knew that ' KKK Bitch ' would totally piss off the Ku Klux Klan . There 's humor in the song , but it fucks with them . It 's on a punk tip . "

" Voodoo " describes a fictional encounter between Ice @-@ T and an old woman with a voodoo doll . " The Winner Loses " describes the downfall of a crack cocaine user . " There Goes the Neighborhood " is a sarcastic response to critics of Body Count , sung from the point of view of a racist white rocker who wonders " Don 't they know rock 's just for whites ? / Don 't they know the rules ? / Those niggers are too hardcore / This shit ain 't cool . " For the song 's music video , the word " nigger " was replaced with the phrase " black boys " . The music video ends with a black musician implanting an electric guitar into the ground and setting it on fire . The final image is similar to that of a burning cross .

" Evil Dick " focuses on male promiscuity . Its lyrics describe a married man who is led to seek strange women after his " evil dick " tells him " Don 't sleep alone , don 't sleep alone . " " Momma 's Gotta Die Tonight " follows the account of a black teenager who murders and dismembers his racist mother after she reacts negatively when he brings a white girl home . In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that the song 's lyrics are metaphorical , explaining that " Whoever is still perpetuating racism has got to die , not necessarily physically , but they have to kill off that part of their brain . From now on , consider it dead . The entire attitude is dead . "

Ice @-@ T referred to the album 's final track , " Cop Killer " as a protest song , stating that the song is " [ sung ] in the first person as a character who is fed up with police brutality . " The song was written in 1990 , and had been performed live several times , including at Lollapalooza , before it had been recorded in a studio . The album version mentions then @-@ Los Angeles police chief Daryl Gates and the black motorist Rodney King , whose beating by LAPD officers was recorded on videotape . In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck ? , Ice @-@ T wrote that the song " [ is ] a warning , not a threat — to authority that says , ' Yo , police : We 're human beings . Treat us accordingly . ' " In an interview for Rolling Stone , Ice @-@ T stated that " We just celebrated the fourth of July , which is really just national Fuck the Police Day [ ... ] I bet that during the Revolutionary War , there were songs similar to mine . "

= = Release and reception = =

Initial copies of the album were shipped out in black body bags , a promotional device that drew minor criticism . The album debuted at No. 32 on Billboard 's Top 50 albums , peaking at No. 26 on the Billboard 200 . By January 29 , 1993 , the album sold 480 @,@ 000 copies , according to Variety . However , according to the Recording Industry Association of America , Body Count was certified gold for sale shipments in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies , with a certification date back to August 4 , 1992 .

In a positive review for The Village Voice , music critic Robert Christgau said Ice @-@ T " takes rap 's art @-@ ain 't @-@ life defense over the top " on a heavy metal album which utilizes and parodies " the style 's whiteskin privilege " . He wrote that the music is " flat @-@ out hard rock , short on soloistic intricacy and fancy structures " , but that it is set apart from other metal by Ice @-@ T , who " describes racism in language metalheads can understand , kills several policemen , and cuts his mama into little pieces because she tells him to hate white people . This can be a very funny record . " Greg Kot , writing in the Chicago Tribune , felt the lyrics on some songs are pathologically flawed and off @-@ putting , but the band 's take on metal styles is impressive and , " on the stereotype @-@ bashing ' There Goes the Neighborhood , ' the humor , message and music coalesce brilliantly " . Don Kaye of Kerrang ! called Body Count a " noisy , relentless musical attack " .

In a less enthusiastic review for Rolling Stone , J. D. Considine wrote that " messages " are less important here than " the sort of sonic intensity parental groups fear even more than four @-@ letter words , " while AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called the album " a surprisingly tepid affair " partly because " all of Ice @-@ T 's half @-@ sung / half @-@ shouted lyrics fall far short of the standard he established on his hip @-@ hop albums . " In the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of prominent critics published by The Village Voice , Body Count was voted the 31st best album of 1992 . Christgau , the poll 's supervisor , ranked it 22nd on his own year @-@ end list .

= = Controversy = =

The album was originally set to be distributed under the title Cop Killer , named for the song of the same name , which criticizes violent police officers . During the production of the album , Warner Bros. executives were aware of the potential controversy that the album and song could cause , but supported it . At a Time @-@ Warner shareholders ' meeting , actor Charlton Heston stood and read lyrics from the song " KKK Bitch " to an astonished audience and demanded that the company take action . Sire responded by changing the title to Body Count , but did not remove the song . In an article for the Washington Post , Tipper Gore condemned Ice @-@ T for songs like " Cop Killer , " writing that " Cultural economics were a poor excuse for the South 's continuation of slavery . Ice @-@ T 's financial success cannot excuse the vileness of his message [ ... ] Hitler 's anti @-@ Semitism sold in Nazi Germany . That didn 't make it right . " The Dallas Police Association and the Combined Law Enforcement Association of Texas launched a campaign to force Warner Bros. Records to withdraw the album . CLEAT called for a boycott of all products by Time @-@ Warner in order to secure the removal of the song and album from stores . Within a week , they were joined by police organizations across the United States . Ice @-@ T asserted that the song was written from the point of view of a fictional character , and told reporters that " I ain 't never killed no cop . I felt like it a lot of times . But I never did it . If you believe that I 'm a cop killer , you believe David Bowie is an astronaut , " in reference to Bowie 's song " Space Oddity " .

The National Black Police Association opposed the boycott of Time @-@ Warner and the attacks on " Cop Killer , " identifying police brutality as the cause of much anti @-@ police sentiment , and proposed the creation of independent civilian review boards " to scrutinize the actions of our law enforcement officers " as a way of ending the provocations that caused artists such as Body Count " to respond to actions of police brutality and abuse through their music . [ ... ] Many individuals of the law enforcement profession do not want anyone to scrutinize their actions , but want to scrutinize the actions of others . " Critics argued that the song could cause crime and violence . Others defended the album on the basis of the group 's right to freedom of speech , and cited the fact that Ice @-@ T had portrayed a police officer in the film New Jack City . Ice @-@ T is quoted as saying that " I didn 't need people to come in and really back me on the First Amendment . I needed people to come in and say ' Ice @-@ T has grounds to make this record . ' I have the right to make it because the cops are killing my people . So fuck the First Amendment , let 's deal with the fact that I have the right to make it . "

Over the next month , controversy against the band grew . Vice President Dan Quayle branded " Cop Killer " as being " obscene , " and President George H.W. Bush publicly denounced any record company that would release such a product . Body Count was removed from the shelves of a retail store in Greensboro , North Carolina after local police had told the management that they would no longer respond to any emergency calls at the store if they continued to sell the album . In July 1992 , the New Zealand Police Commissioner unsuccessfully attempted to prevent an Ice @-@ T concert in Auckland , arguing that " Anyone who comes to this country preaching in obscene terms the killing of police , should not be welcome here , " before taking Body Count and Warner Bros. Records to the Indecent Publications Tribunal , in an effort to get it banned under New Zealand 's Indecent Publications Act . This was the first time in 20 years that a sound recording had come before the censorship body , and the first ever case involving popular music . After reviewing the various submissions , and listening carefully to the album , the Tribunal found the song " Cop Killer " to be " not exhortatory , " saw the album as displaying " an honest purpose , " and found Body Count not indecent . The controversy escalated to the point where death threats were sent to Time @-@ Warner executives , and stockholders threatened to pull out of the company . Finally , Ice @-@ T decided to remove " Cop Killer " from the album of his own volition , a decision which was met by criticism from other artists who derided Ice @-@ T for " caving in to external pressure . " In an interview , Ice @-@ T stated that " I didn 't want my band to get pigeon @-@ holed as that 's the only reason that record sold . It just got outta hand and I was just tired of hearing it . I said , ' fuck it , ' I mean they 're saying we did it for money , and we didn 't . I 'd gave the record away , ya know , let 's move on , let 's get back to real issues , not a record but the cops that are out there killing people . "

" Cop Killer " was replaced by a new version of " Freedom of Speech , " a song from Ice @-@ T 's 1989 solo album The Iceberg / Freedom of Speech ... Just Watch What You Say . The song was re @-@ edited and remixed to give it a more rock @-@ oriented sound , using a looped sample from the Jimi Hendrix song " Foxy Lady . " Alongside the album 's reissue , Warner Bros. issued " Cop Killer " as a single . Ice @-@ T left Warner Bros. Records the following year because of disputes over his solo album Home Invasion , taking Body Count with him . The studio version of " Cop Killer " has not been re @-@ released , although a live version of the song appears on Body Count 's 2005 release Live in L.A. According to Ernie C , the controversy over the song " still lingers for us , even now . I 'll try to book clubs and the guy I 'm talking to will mention it and I 'll think to myself ' Man , that was 17 years ago . ' But I meet a lot of bands who ask me about it too and I 'm real respected by other artists for it . But it 's a love / hate thing . Ice gets it too , even though he plays a cop on TV now on Law & Order SVU . "

In Australia , the track listings on copies of the new version of the album sold there ended at track 16 , omitting " Freedom of Speech " ( or " Cop Killer " and its spoken word intro , " Out in the Parking Lot " ) . This was likely because the track " Freedom of Speech " refers to the speech protections of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , which Australia does not have an equivalent to in its own Constitution , thus the track is not as relevant to Australian audiences .

= = Track listing = =

= = Personnel = =

Ice @-@ T – lead vocals

Ernie C. – lead , rhythm and acoustic guitars

Mooseman – bass

D @-@ Roc – rhythm guitar

Beatmaster " V " – drums

= Turtles All the Way Down =

" Turtles All the Way Down " is the thirteenth and final episode of the American television police procedural fantasy drama Awake . It premiered on May 23 , 2012 in Canada on Global , and on May 24 , 2012 in the United States on NBC . " Turtles All the Way Down " was scheduled to air on May 17 , 2012 , as part two of a two @-@ hour finale . NBC had changed the order , and moved it to the following week . The teleplay of the episode was written by series creator Kyle Killen , from a story by Killen , and staff writers Leonard Chang and Noelle Valdivia . It was directed by Miguel Sapochnik . " Turtles All the Way Down " was well received by television critics , who praised its storylines . Commentators noted that the script was well @-@ written . Upon airing , " Turtles All the Way Down " obtained 2 @.@ 87 million viewers in the United States and 0 @.@ 9 million in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .

The show centers on Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) a police detective living in two separate realities after a car accident . In the episode , Michael Britten finds out the truth about the car accident that caused his split realities , and seeks out those responsible for it . He finds out that Captain Tricia Harper ( Laura Innes ) caused the accident , alongside Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) and Captain Carl Kessel ( Mark Harelik ) .

= = Plot = =

In his " green reality " ( where his son is alive and his wife is dead ) , Detective Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) sits in a prison cell temporary for killing Detective Ed Hawkins ( Kevin Weisman ) , who caused Michael 's car accident . Meanwhile , his partner in the " green reality " , Detective Isaiah " Bird " Freeman ( Steve Harris ) finds heroin that Hawkins , under orders from Captain Kessel ( Mark Harelik ) , had placed in a self storage unit . Meanwhile , Captain Tricia Harper ( Laura Innes ) shoots Carl Kessel in a hotel room , making it look like a suicide to cover up her involvement in Michael 's accident . Michael is freed from the cell and Kessel 's body is found .

Michael regains consciousness ( after having passed out from a gunshot wound when Ed Hawkins was chasing after him ) near a dumpster in the " red reality " ( where his wife is alive and son is dead ) . The still @-@ alive Detective Hawkins takes Michael to his car , but Michael flees after attacking Hawkins and causes a car accident . Michael finds his therapist in the " red reality " , Dr. John Lee ( BD Wong ) , forces him to sew up the bullet wound , and takes him to the self @-@ storage unit to show him the heroin stash . Seeing no heroin , Michael then locks Lee in the containment center and contacts his partner in the " red reality " , detective Efrem Vega ( Wilmer Valderrama ) . Vega secretly takes Britten to his house but , upon returning to the police station , is convinced that Michael is unstable and allows Michael to be captured . Michael is first taken to the hospital to receive medical treatment and then goes to jail .

Harper visits Michael in jail . When Michael notices the caller ID of an incoming call matching Kessel 's hotel room pseudonym , he realizes Harper is part of the conspiracy and attempts to strangle her . Later , Michael is visited by himself from the " green reality " who leads him to the jail door . Past the door , Michael first witnesses Kessel 's murder and Detective Vega , in a penguin suit , shows Harper 's heel breaking in the process hinting that this can be used as hard evidence to place Harper at Kessel 's murder . Next Michael briefly meets his wife , Hannah ( Laura Allen ) in a restaurant before he finds his " green reality " self sleeping in his bedroom . He – his " red reality " self – lays down in bed as well and merges with his " green reality " self before waking up in said " green reality " .

In Harper 's office , Michael confronts her about her involvement in his accident , pulling out his gun to shoot her . However , he instead lets Bird and another detective arrest her . Later , Dr. Evans applauds Michael 's apparent rejection of the " red reality " and , when Michael suggests his fantastic experiences may have simply been a dream of the " red reality , " Dr. Evans warns him not to create a third reality . She suddenly goes still . Michael , confused , goes through her office door and finds himself in his bedroom . He goes downstairs and finds both his son , Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) , and wife alive . Concerned about Michael 's odd behavior , Hannah asks if he is okay . He replies , " I 'm perfect , " and closes his eyes .

= = Production = =

The episode 's teleplay was written by series creator and executive producer Kyle Killen , from a story by Killen , and staff writers Leonard Chang and Noelle Valdivia ; it was Killen 's seventh writing credit , and Chang and Valdivia 's third writing credit each . It was directed by Miguel Sapochnik , his first directing credit for the series .

In January 2012 , it was announced that Kevin Weisman would appear in multiple episodes of Awake . The actor was later cast as Ed Hawkins , a cop who took over Michael 's spot at the police department after his crash . This is his third appearance on the series , with the first being " Say Hello to My Little Friend " , the eleven episode . Other guest stars included Laura Innes as Tricia Harper and Mark Harelik as Carl Kessel . The episode is rated TV @-@ 14 on television in the United States .

The episode featured the song " Montana " by Youth Lagoon during the final scene . Many viewers wondered if the series creator had changed the ending for the last episode , due to the cancellation of the series . This caused series creator and executive producer Killen to assure viewers that the episode would have been " exactly the same " if it had been renewed for a second season . In a pre @-@ broadcast interview by Entertainment Weekly with Killen and actor Jason Isaacs , Isaacs claimed that he found it " strangely ironic and amusing " to be promoting the series finale of the Awake series . Killen claimed that " When we wrote the episode , we didn 't know it would be the end of the series " . He stated that it had a " satisfying conclusion " , " and I think it will be a satisfying way to leave the show " .

" Turtles All the Way Down " was scheduled to air as part two of the scheduled two @-@ hour finale . NBC had changed the order , and aired it the following week .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Turtles All the Way Down " first premiered a day early in Canada on May 23 , 2012 on Global between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. , due to the season premiere of the Canadian series Rookie Blue , which aired in Awake 's regular time slot on Thursdays at 10 : 00 p.m. The episode premiered on May 24 , 2012 in the United States on NBC between 10 : 00 p.m. and 11 : 00 p.m. Upon airing , " Turtles All the Way Down " obtained 2 @.@ 87 million viewers in the United States despite airing simultaneously with a rerun of The Mentalist on CBS and Rookie Blue on ABC . It acquired a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings , meaning that it was seen by 0 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . The episode marked the series ' highest ratings since the fifth episode " Oregon " which aired on March 29 , 2012 .

= = = Critical response = = =

" Turtles All the Way Down " was well received by television commentators . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode a positive review . He also noted that parts of the episode were " surprising " , and that " the show embraced some final insanity before the end , it ’ s more the illusion of depth than actual depth " . Handlen wrote that " it ’ s hard to ask for more from an hour of television " , despite noting that he was " glad the series got cancelled " . Handlen noted that he would " look forward to their next projects " . Handlen concluded his review by giving the episode a grade of " B " . Matt Fowler of IGN gave the episode a positive review and claimed that there were some " gut @-@ wrenching " scenes in the episode . Fowler also opined that the episode was " thrilling " , " frustrating " , " fascinating " , and " terrible " to see Hannah " crying over an arrested Britten " . Fowler wrote that he " love [ d ] the open ending " . Noting that Awake was " one of the good ones " , Fowler concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 " classifying it as " amazing " . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic gave the episode a positive review . He opined that Michael " has a unique ability to dream in a way that feels real , why not recreate what was once lost " . McHatton found it " fitting that the show ended with Michael closing his eyes . Despite the fact that he did not know what the phrase " turtles all the way down " meant , he concluded his review by giving the episode a score " 5 @.@ 0 out of 5 @.@ 0 " .

Ross Bonaime of Paste magazine gave the episode a complimentary review . He started by claiming that Awake was " the best drama to come out the 2011 – 12 season on television , and one of the finest NBC dramas in years " . He also wondered " what Awake would be like in a Michael Britten @-@ like alternate reality where the show lasted five seasons , or 10 , or even just one more year " , Could Awake maintain this story for long and still be compelling ? " Bonaime wrote that it was " better to have one great season and be remembered fondly " . Bonaime claimed that the " ending is quite smart , given that it never truly clarifies if Michael was dreaming the whole time , or if Dr. Lee was right and that he was on the verge of completely snapping , which makes much more sense " . He was also grateful that " Awake decided to just go completely nuts with the last half of this episode " . He claimed that the episode and series was " different , a rare move , especially on network television " . He claimed that " Once Awake arrives on Netflix and DVD , people will rush through in a matter of days and will say they enjoyed their experience with this short yet sweet treasure " . He claimed that works with Awake should be " rewarded " and " praised " . Bonaime concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 " .

Screen Rant 's Kevin Yeoman , gave much praise in the episode . Like Paste magazine and other critics reviews , Yeoman claimed that " there was certainly disappointment in finding out that Awake wouldn 't see a second season , and would instead be looked at as a 13 @-@ episode miniseries " . He claimed that the episode has the puzzling and high points that are similar to " That 's Not My Penguin " and " Say Hello to My Little Friend " . Again , Screen Crush 's Kevin Fitzpatrick was also disappointed that there would not be a second season . Verne Gay of Newsday gave the episode a complimenting review . He called it " promising " . He noted that he could see " why Awake was canceled " . He blessed " the show for at least trying " . He called it " challenging " and " original " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode " fascinating " , " puzzling " and " moving " . Carl Cortez of Assignment X , again , enjoyed the episode . In his " B + " grade review , he noted that " you can view it as another missed opportunity " . He claimed that parts of the episode were " confusing " . He stated that he would " prefer to have more questions than answers " . He argued that the episode felt more like a " Series Finale , than Season Finale " , which he called " a good thing " , " Too many good shows go off into the sunset without a single resolution and this one at least strives for something more " . He also argued that NBC should have " put a little more promotional push " . He called it " challenging " and " interesting " .

= Report about Case Srebrenica =

Report about Case Srebrenica ( the first part ) was a controversial official report on the July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina . It was prepared by Darko Trifunović and published by the Republika Srpska Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) .

The report denied that there had been a massacre at Srebrenica and accused the International Committee of the Red Cross of having " fabricated " its findings on the killings . Its claims were strongly criticised by the international community and the Bosniaks and were eventually disowned by the Republika Srpska government . In a judgment against Miroslav Deronjić , the Hague Tribunal judges described the report as " one of the worst examples of revisionism . " No " second part " has ever been published .

= = Background = =

In July 1995 , forces of the Army of the Republika Srpska ( VRS ) captured the town of Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia , which had been cut off and surrounded despite the presence of soldiers from the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) . Thousands of refugees had crowded into the town to escape the Serb advance . Following the Serb takeover of Srebrenica , an estimated 8 @,@ 000 Bosniak men and boys were systematically massacred by Serb forces between 11 – 15 July and another 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 were subjected to ethnic cleansing . It was the largest act of mass murder in Europe since World War II .

Successive governments of Republika Srpska ( and , for a while , Serbia ) sought to deny the massacre and other war crimes committed by the VRS during the war . It was against this background that , as the former United Nations trial attorney Mark B. Harmon commented , " the campaign of misinformation and deceit reached its apotheosis seven years after the crimes were committed with the publication of the Report About Case Srebrenica ( the first part ) . "

= = Contents of the report = =

The report was promoted as an effort " to present the whole truth about crimes committed in Srebrenica region regardless nationality of perpetrators of crimes and time when they were committed [ sic ] . " It asserted that no more than 2 @,@ 000 Bosniaks ( Bosnian Muslims ) had died at Srebrenica – all armed soldiers , not civilians – and that 1 @,@ 600 of them had died in combat or while trying to escape the enclave . It consistently referred to the " alleged massacre " , attributed the deaths of about 100 Bosniaks to " exhaustion " and concluded : " the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [ … ] would probably stand less than 100 . " The report dismissed as " mentally disturbed " a Bosnian Serb soldier who had admitted participating in the killings , and claimed that the survivors ' stories were a product of their imaginations : " To walk for almost 20 days in an area that might be full of landmines , without any food and water , under the fear of being shot from any direction was such a trauma that soldiers sometimes mixed reality with illusions . Having looked at dead bodies under such psychological [ pressure ] , some Muslim soldiers could have believed what they imagined . " It asserted that " this combat might have looked like a mass killing in the eyes of frightened Muslim soldiers , although they carried weapons and shot at Bosnian Serb soldiers randomly . "

The report also asserted that the findings of the International Committee of the Red Cross and other humanitarian organisations had been " manipulated " and " fabricated " . It characterised Serbs as the victims of Bosniak war crimes around Srebrenica , asserting that in 1992 and 1993 alone 1300 Serb civilians were killed . This figure has been shown to be inaccurate , and the true number " three to nine times smaller " , by the Research and Documentation Center in Sarajevo , a non @-@ partisan institution with a multi @-@ ethnic staff , whose data have been collected , processed , checked , compared and evaluated by an international team of experts . The instigator of the massacre , General Ratko Mladić , was mentioned only in the context of demanding the surrender of the town and evacuating civilians ; the report asserted that he had tried " discouraging Serbs to take their wild revenge . " The report claimed that " the Muslims inflated the number [ of deaths ] in order to accomplish what they wanted from the very beginning – to involve the international community in the conflict with Serbs . "

According to Dejan Miletić , whom Paddy Ashdown , the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina , removed in April 2004 from his post as Head of the Republika Srpska Secretariat for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal in The Hague and Research of War Crimes , the report " had based its conclusions on publications found on the Internet , reports from the United Nations and other sources . " It was intended to be sent to lawyers defending Bosnian Serbs on trial for war crimes .

= = ICTY verdict = =

The ICTY reviewed the " Report About Case Srebrenica " and concluded the following :

The Trial Chamber admitted into evidence a document which represents one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to the mass executions of Bosnian Muslims committed in Srebrenica in July 1995 . This document , titled “ Report about Case Srebrenica ( the First Part ) ” was prepared by the Documentation Centre of Republika Srpska , Bureau of Government of Republika Srpska for Relation with ICTY on 1 September 2002 . Throughout this report reference is made to the “ alleged massacre ” and this misrepresentation of the historical events culminates in the final conclusion of this report , which reads : [ … ] the number of Muslim soldiers who were executed by Bosnian Serb forces for personal revenge or for simple ignorance of international law [ … ] would probably stand less than 100 .

= = Reactions = =

After the report was published on 3 September 2002 , it was condemned by a wide variety of Bosnian and international figures . A spokesman for the ICTY told Radio Free Europe that " any claim that the number of victims after the fall of the Srebrenica enclave was around the 2 @,@ 000 mark , and most of those killed in battle , is an absolutely outrageous claim . It 's utterly false , and it flies in the face of all of the evidence painstakingly collected in the investigation into the tragedy . " He described the effort to minimise the number of victims as " frankly , disgusting . " Carla del Ponte , the chief prosecutor of the ICTY , described the report 's authors as " totally blind , profoundly insensitive and clearly willing to obstruct all efforts to find reconciliation , truth and justice . " Del Ponte 's legal adviser , Jean @-@ Jacques Joris , criticised the report as " a saddening example of revisionism and an element which certainly stands in the way of reconciliation in the region . " The ICTY prosecutors subsequently used the report as evidence in the trial in 2004 of Miroslav Deronjić ; in their verdict , the judges called it " one of the worst examples of revisionism in relation to [ the massacre ] " .

Paddy Ashdown , the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina , condemned it as " tendentious , preposterous and inflammatory " and " so far from the truth as to be almost not worth dignifying with a response . " His office issued a statement calling the report " an irresponsible attempt to deceive voters and to abuse the trauma of massacre survivors " . Ashdown 's spokesman , Julian Braithwaite , noted the report 's publication just before elections in the Republika Srpska : " The question for the RS government is why are they publishing this report now , at the time when it could be easily interpreted as irresponsible electioneering . If they are playing down the fact that civilians were massacred and that children are being exhumed from mass graves with their hands tied behind their backs , then that it is outrageous . " The European Union issued a statement calling on " all responsible people and institutions " to reject the study . The International Commission on Missing Persons issued a strongly worded statement calling the report a gross distortion of the facts :

Manipulation of the issue of the missing for political purposes , including the manipulation of numbers of missing , has been an ongoing practice within Bosnia and Herzegovina that only serves to cause further pain and suffering in a society that has already suffered so much . The study regarding the numbers of missing from the 1995 fall of Srebrenica made by the Republika Srpska 's Government Bureau for Relations with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) contains what ICMP believes to be serious inaccuracies .

The British Foreign Office minister Denis MacShane condemned the report as " an insult to the memory of those who died . The authors of this report belong in the same category as those who deny the Holocaust took place . " The United States embassy in Bosnia and Herzegovina urged the Republika Srpska government to withdraw the report , calling it " an attempt to manipulate and divide the public in this country . "

Bosnian media , political parties and Srebrenica survivors were likewise strongly critical . The Sarajevo @-@ based newspaper Dnevni Avaz described the report as an attempt by the Bosnian Serb government to deny that genocide had taken place . The Srebrenica and Zepa Mothers Association condemned the report as " false , shameful and utterly amoral . " The Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina denounced it as " yet another attempt by the Serb Republic authorities in an unscrupulous and brutal way to negate what probably is the worst crime in Europe after WW2 . " Alija Behmen , the Prime Minister of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , called it " a surprising forgery which is trying to delude the public and especially the Serbs in BiH . I honestly believe that this is the last attempt to enliven the policy which marked the tragic past of BiH . Negating the genocide cannot be a part of the election campaign . "

On the Bosnian Serb side , opinions of the report were initially favourable . The Bosnian Serb media largely supported the report , and Republika Srpska president Mirko Šarović ( who in October 2002 became the Serb member of the collective presidency ) said that the report " should not be dismissed out of hand but merits careful study " . A number of Bosnian Serb political figures made public statements denying that war crimes had happened and a government spokesman called the report a bid to promote " truth and reconciliation " . The Republika Srpska Socialist Party leader , Lazar Ristić , welcomed the report and accused the Bosniak side of having " hitherto presented only false reports , in which names were listed of persons who are still alive today . "

Nikola Špirić , the speaker of the National Assembly of Republika Srpska , called it " the worst election campaigning I have ever seen . " Milorad Dodik , who was later to become prime minister of Republika Srpska , castigated the report as having been " written by an amateur for the purpose of manipulating public opinion " in advance of the elections and said :

It is a political gaffe of the government , since one can see that the report was written several years ago by one man . The report had been written in 1996 and 1997 , which goes to show that it does not mention the report by the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation . [ ... ] The government shouldn 't have allowed itself to draft such a superficial , amateurish report which put Republika Srpska into such a difficult situation . Responsibility for the consequences of the report 's publication must be borne by those who produced it in such a superficial and amateurish way .

The Republika Srpska government was , however , more equivocal . Its prime minister , Mladen Ivanić , accused the media in the Federation entity of having " made [ a ] fuss over the report for their own purposes . " Nonetheless , the outcry from the international community forced the government of Republika Srpska to distance itself from the report , saying that it had not been fully analysed and endorsed :

The two studies , which the RS Government 's Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY compiled , are not made by the RS Government . They are part of the report that the RS Government ’ s Bureau for Cooperation with the ICTY submits to the RS Government every three months . The fact that the Srebrenica report had been condemned by the Office of the High Representative before the Bureau 's news conference was held comes as a surprise . The Bureau representatives clearly said at the news conference that the both reports are to be submitted to the RS Government , which tells us that the OHR based its condemnation on news reports from the BiH Federation media , which said that the Bureau reports are RS Government 's report . It also comes as a surprise the fact that the OHR representatives commented on a document , which they have not read . This is another confirmation that the OHR gives in to the pressures coming from the Sarajevo media and that the OHR creates its views by using their [ the Sarajevo media 's ] information and press releases , thus bringing its own [ the OHR 's ] impartiality in question .

The Republika Srpska government subsequently disowned the report with Prime Minister Ivanić saying that it was an " unfinished version " and " not an attitude of the government of Republika Srpska . " Two years later , after further pressure from the international community , the Bosnian Serb government issued an official apology for the massacre and admitted that " enormous crimes " had been " committed in the area of Srebrenica in July 1995 . "

= Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid , BWV 3 =

Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid ( Oh God , how much heartache ) , BWV 3 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the chorale cantata in Leipzig for the Second Sunday after Epiphany and first performed it on 14 January 1725 . It is based on the hymn published by Martin Moller in 1587 .

Bach composed the cantata in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig as part of cantata cycle of chorale cantatas , for the second Sunday after Epiphany . The work is based on a hymn without evident connection to the prescribed readings . It is a meditation on Jesus as a comforter in distress , based on a medieval model . An unknown librettist reworked the ideas of the 18 stanzas in six movements , retaining the words of stanzas 1 , 2 and 18 as movements 1 , 2 and 6 . Similarly , Bach retained the choral melody in three movements , set as a chorale fantasia in the opening chorus with the bass singing the cantus firmus , as a four @-@ part setting with interspersed recitatives in the second movement , and in the closing chorale . He scored the cantata for two oboes d 'amore , strings and continuo , with an added trobone to support the bass in the first movement , and a horn to support the soprano in the last movement .

= = History and words = =

Bach composed the cantata in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig as part of his second annual cycle , planned to consist only of chorale cantatas based on Lutheran hymns . He wrote the cantata for the second Sunday after Epiphany . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the Epistle to the Romans ( we have several gifts – Romans 12 : 6 – 16 ) and from the Gospel of John ( the Marriage at Cana – John 2 : 1 – 11 ) .

The cantata is a chorale cantata based on the hymn " Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid " in 18 stanzas attributed to Martin Moller ( 1587 ) . It is a paraphrase of the Latin " Jesu dulcis memoria " , a medieval hymn attributed to Bernard of Clairvaux , a meditation on Jesus as a comforter and helper in distress . The unknown librettist retained the words of stanzas 1 , 2 and 18 as movements 1 , 2 and 6 . In movement 2 , stanza 2 is expanded by paraphrases of stanzas 3 – 5 , while movement 3 is a paraphrase of stanza 6 ; movement 4 incorporates ideas from stanzas 7 – 14 , and movement 5 relies on stanzas 15 and 16.In movement 2 , stanza 2 is expanded by paraphrases of stanzas 3 – 5 . Movement 3 is a paraphrase of stanza 6 . Movement 4 incorporates ideas from stanzas 7 – 14 . Movement 5 relies on stanzas 15 and 16 . The poet did not relate his text to the reading from John 1 : 2 .

Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 14 January 1725 .

= = Scoring and structure = =

Bach structured the cantata in six movements . An opening chorus and a closing chorale frame a sequence of alternating recitatives and arias . The first recitative is unusual : the chorus sings one line of the hymn 's four lines , continued each time by a soloist in words of the poet . The last aria is a duet . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of horn ( Co ) to double the cantus firmus in the closing chorale , trombone ( Tb ) to reinforce the bass in the opening chorus , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo . The autograph score bears the title : " Dominica 2 post Epiphanias / Ach Gott ! Wie manches Hertzeleyd . / à / 4 Voci . / 2 Hautb : d 'Amour / 2 Violini / Viola . / e Continuo / di J. S. Bach " , which means " Sunday 2 after Epiphany ... for four voices , 2 oboes d 'amore , 2 violins , viola and continuo by J. S. Bach " .

In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown .

= = Music = =

Bach uses a melody of " Herr Jesu Christ , meins Lebens Licht " which appeared first in the Lochamer @-@ Liederbuch . The melody appears in the opening chorus , sung by the bass as a cantus firmus , in the second movement , as a four @-@ part setting with interspersed recitatives , and in the closing chorale .

= = = 1 = = =

In the opening chorus , " Ach Gott , wie manches Herzeleid " ( Ah , God , how much heartache ) , the cantus firmus is in the bass , which is doubled by the trombone , as in Ach Herr , mich armen Sünder , BWV 135 . Its mood of lamentation is supported by " elegiac sounds " of the oboes d 'amore , sighing motifs in the strings , and the upper voices reflecting the oboe motifs . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , notes that Bach used a repeated motif of six notes in chromatic descent , which is often used in chaconnes of the Baroque opera to express grief . The motif is used for the instrumental opening , each entry of a voice , interludes and conclusion .

= = = 2 = = =

The recitative , " Wie schwerlich läßt sich Fleisch und Blut " ( How difficult it is for flesh and blood ) , combines the hymn tune sung by the four @-@ part choir , with interpolated text sung by the soloists in turn . The lines of the hymn are separated by a joyful ostinato motif derived from the chorale tune . The musicologist Julian Mincham writes that the " hybrid recitative provides an excellent example of Bach 's experiments of investing long texts with sustained musical interest " .

= = = 3 = = =

The bass aria , " Empfind ich Höllenangst und Pein " ( Although I experience the fear and torment of Hell ) , is accompanied by the continuo . It expresses the contrast of Höllenangst ( hell 's anguish ) and Freudenhimmel ( heaven of joy ) , with inestimable sorrows ( unermessnen Schmerzen ) disappearing into light mist ( leichte Nebel ) .

= = = 4 = = =

A tenor recitative , " Es mag mir Leib und Geist verschmachten " ( My body and spirit might despair ) , expresses trust in Jesus to overcome despair .

= = = 5 = = =

In the duet for soprano and alto , " Wenn Sorgen auf mich dringen " ( When cares press upon me ) , in " bright E major " , as the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff writes , the voices are embedded in a " dense quartet texture " . He concludes that the movement " banishes human care by means of joyful singing " . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann notes that the obbligato motif , which is later picked up by the voices , is played by the oboes d 'amore and violin in unison , providing " a new and remarkable tone colour " . Bach refers to the Cross , as mentioned in the text , by using a cross @-@ motif in the melody and applying double sharp marked by a cross . The voices intensify words such as " dringen " ( press ) and " singen " ( sing ) by extended coloraturas .

= = = 6 = = =

The closing chorale , " Erhalt mein Herz im Glauben rein " ( If my heart remains pure in faith ) , is a four @-@ part setting . The choral melody , now in the soprano , is reinforced by a horn .

= = Recordings = =

The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website .

= Hastings Line =

The Hastings Line is a secondary railway line in Kent and East Sussex , England , linking Hastings with the main town of Tunbridge Wells , and from there into London via Tonbridge and Sevenoaks . Although primarily carrying passengers , the railway serves a gypsum mine which is a source of freight traffic . Southeastern operates passenger trains on the line .

The railway was constructed by the South Eastern Railway in the early 1850s across the difficult terrain of the High Weald . Supervision of the building of the line was lax , enabling contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . These deficiencies showed up after the railway had opened . Rectifications led to a restricted loading gauge along the line , requiring the use of dedicated rolling stock .

Served by steam locomotives from opening until the late 1950s , passenger services were then taken over by a fleet of diesel @-@ electric multiple units built to the line 's loading gauge . Diesel locomotives handled freight , also built to fit the loading gauge . The diesel @-@ electric multiple units served on the line until 1986 , when the line was electrified and the most severely affected tunnels were reduced from double track to single .

= = Background = =

The South Eastern Railway ( SER ) completed its main line from London to Dover , Kent in 1844 , branching off the rival London , Brighton and South Coast Railway 's ( LBSC ) line at Redhill . Construction of a single line branch from Tunbridge ( modern spelling " Tonbridge " [ Note 2 ] ) to Tunbridge Wells , a fashionable town where a chalybeate spring had been discovered in 1606 , began in July 1844 . At the time , Parliament had not given assent for the railway . The Act of Parliament enabling the construction of the line had its first reading in the House of Commons on 28 April 1845 . The bill completed its passage through the House of Commons and the House of Lords on 28 July , following which Royal Assent was granted on 31 July by Queen Victoria .

The engineer in charge of the construction was Peter W. Barlow and the contractors were Messrs. Hoof & Son . In April 1845 the SER decided that the branch would be double track . A 410 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 370 m ) tunnel was required 44 chains ( 890 m ) after leaving Tunbridge . This was named " Somerhill Tunnel " after the nearby mansion . A mile and 54 chains ( 2 @.@ 70 km ) after leaving Somerhill Tunnel , a 270 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 250 m ) viaduct was required . Southborough Viaduct stands 40 feet ( 12 m ) high and has 26 arches . A temporary station was built at Tunbridge Wells as the 823 yd ( 753 m ) Wells Tunnel was still under construction . It was 4 miles 7 chains ( 6 @.@ 58 km ) from Tunbridge . The temporary station subsequently became a goods station . The first train , comprising four locomotives and 26 carriages , arrived at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September . Trains from Tunbridge had to reverse before starting the climb to Somerhill Tunnel , as there was no facing junction at Tunbridge . This situation was to remain until 1857 , when a direct link was built at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 700 . The old link remained in use until c . 1913 .

The SER was granted permission to build a line from Ashford in Kent to St Leonards , East Sussex in 1845 . The LBSC reached St Leonards from Lewes the following year . This gave the LBSC a shorter route to Hastings than the SERs route , then still under construction . The SER sought permission to extend their branch from Tunbridge Wells across the High Weald to reach Hastings . Authorisation for the construction of a 25 @-@ mile @-@ 60 @-@ chain ( 41 @.@ 44 km ) line to Hastings was obtained on 18 June 1846 , Parliament deemed the line between Ashford and St Leonards to be of military strategic importance . Therefore , they stipulated that this line was to be completed before any extension was built from Tunbridge Wells . The extension into Tunbridge Wells opened on 25 November 1846 without any public ceremony . In 1847 , the SER unsuccessfully challenged the condition that the line between Ashford and St Leonards be completed first . That line was opened in 1851 , passing through Hastings and making an end @-@ on junction with the LBSC line from Lewes .

= = Construction = =

The Hastings Line is built over the difficult , forested , and hilly terrain across the High Weald and sandstone Hastings Beds , necessitating the construction of eight tunnels between Tonbridge and the south coast seaside resort of Hastings . The SER was anxious to construct the line as economically as possible , since it was in competition with the LBSC to obtain entry into Hastings and was not in a strong financial position in the mid 1840s .

The construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Robertsbridge was contracted to Messrs. Hoof & Wyths , subcontracted to Messrs. H. Warden . By March 1851 , the trackbed had been constructed as far as Whatlington , East Sussex , a distance of 19 miles ( 30 @.@ 58 km ) . All tunnels had been completed and a single line of railway had been laid for a distance of 10 miles 40 chains ( 16 @.@ 90 km ) from Tunbridge Wells . When the 15 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 24 @.@ 94 km ) section from Tunbridge Wells to Robertsbridge opened on 1 September , a single line of track extended a further 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 44 km ) to Whatlington . On the 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) section between Whatlington and St Leonards , 750 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 570 @,@ 000 m3 ) out of 827 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 632 @,@ 000 m3 ) had been excavated . Construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Bopeep Junction cost in excess of £ 500 @,@ 000 .

= = = Deficiencies in the construction of the tunnels = = =

Supervision of the construction was lax , which enabled the contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . This manifested itself in March 1855 when part of the brickwork of Mountfield Tunnel collapsed . An inspection of Grove Hill , Strawberry Hill and Wells tunnels revealed that they too had been constructed with too few layers of bricks . Grove Hill Tunnel had been built with just a single ring of bricks and no filling above the crown of the brickwork . The SER took the contractors to court and were awarded £ 3 @,@ 500 in damages . However , rectifying the situation cost the company £ 4 @,@ 700 . Although the contractors had charged for six rings of bricks , they had only used four . Due to the cost of reboring the tunnels , this had to be rectified by the addition of a further two rings of brickwork , reducing the width of the tunnels by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) . The result of this was that the loading gauge on the line was restricted , and special rolling stock had to be built , later becoming known as Restriction 0 rolling stock . This problem would affect the line until 1986 .

Wadhurst Tunnel collapsed in 1862 and it was discovered by the SER that the same situation existed there too . Rectification cost £ 10 @,@ 231 . By 1877 , only one train was permitted in Bopeep Tunnel at a time . The tunnel was partly widened in 1934 – 35 . In November 1949 , serious defects were discovered in the tunnel . Single @-@ line working was put in place on 19 November , but the tunnel had to be closed completely a week later . The tunnel was partially relined with cast iron segments . It reopened to traffic on 5 June 1950 . Mountfield Tunnel was underpinned in 1938 – 39 , remaining open with single @-@ line working in operation . It partially collapsed on 17 November 1974 , resulting in single @-@ line working until 31 January 1975 . The line was then closed until 17 March whilst the track was singled through the tunnel .

= = = Openings = = =

The line was opened by the SER in three main stages : From Tunbridge – Tunbridge Wells , Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge and Robertsbridge – Bopeep Junction . A temporary station was opened at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September 1845 while Wells Tunnel was completed . The temporary station later became the goods depot . Tunbridge Wells ( later Tunbridge Wells Central ) station opened on 25 November 1846 . The Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge section opened on 1 September 1851 , with the Robertsbridge – Battle section opening on 1 January 1852 . The Battle – Bopeep Junction section opened on 1 February 1852 .

= = = Description of the route = = =

The line climbs steeply out of the Medway Valley at gradients of between 1 in 47 [ Note 3 ] and 1 in 300 to a summit south of Tunbridge Wells , the line undulates as far as Wadhurst at gradients between 1 in 80 and 1 in 155 before descending into the Rother Valley , which it follows as far as Robertsbridge at gradients between 1 in 48 and 1 in 485 . The line then climbs at gradients between 1 in 86 and 1 in 170 before a dip where it crosses the River Brede . This is followed by a climb to Battle with gradients between 1 in 100 and 1 in 227 before the line falls to Hastings at gradients of between 1 in 100 and 1 in 945 .

Bopeep Junction is the junction of the Hastings Line with the East Coastway Line . It lies east of Bopeep Tunnel . There is a pub in Bulverhythe called The Bo Peep . The name was a nickname for Customs and Excise men .

= = = Tunnels = = =

There are eight tunnels between Tonbridge and Hastings . In order from north to south they are :

= = = Stations = = =

The original stations on the Tunbridge Wells to Hastings section of the line are mostly in the Gothic or Italianate styles . These were designed by William Tress . Frant , Wadhurst , Witherenden , Etchingham and Robertsbridge stations opened on 1 September 1851 . Other station openings are detailed below . Stations are listed under their original names .

Tunbridge

Tunbridge station had opened in May 1842 . Following the opening of the branch to Tunbridge Wells in 1845 , it was renamed Tunbridge Junction in January 1852 . The original station stood to the east of the road bridge , whereas the current station , opened in 1864 , stands to the west . Trains leaving Tunbridge had to reverse to reach Tunbridge Wells . This arrangement lasted until 1857 , when a new section of line was constructed enabling trains to reach the Hastings Line without reversal . The station is 29 miles 42 chains ( 47 @.@ 52 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .

Southborough

Southborough station opened on 1 March 1893 . It was renamed High Brooms on 21 September 1925 to avoid confusion with Southborough station on the Chatham Main Line , which had already been renamed Bickley . The station is 32 miles 70 chains ( 52 @.@ 91 km ) from Charing Cross .

Tunbridge Wells

The first station at Tunbridge Wells was temporary and was situated north of Wells Tunnel . It opened on 19 September 1845 and was replaced by the present Tunbridge Wells Station on 25 November 1846 . It subsequently became Tunbridge Wells Goods station , later renamed Tunbridge Wells Central Goods station . The goods station closed in 1980 , with a siding retained for engineers use . The original station was 44 miles 23 chains ( 71 @.@ 27 km ) from London Bridge via Redhill . [ Note 4 ]

The building on the up side of the station was built in the Italianate style . A new building by A. H. Blomfield was constructed on the down side in 1911 . The station was renamed Tunbridge Wells Central on 9 July 1923 with the ex @-@ LBSC station being renamed Tunbridge Wells West . Following the closure of the Tunbridge Wells – Eridge railway on 6 July 1985 , the name reverted to Tunbridge Wells . The station is 34 miles 32 chains ( 55 @.@ 36 km ) from Charing Cross .

Frant

Frant station is 36 miles 53 chains ( 59 @.@ 00 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is on the down side .

Wadhurst

Wadhurst station is 39 miles 23 chains ( 63 @.@ 23 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is in the Italianate style , with a later one @-@ bay extension . The 1893 @-@ built signal box , decommissioned on 20 April 1986 , was purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway .

Witherenden

Witherenden station is 43 miles 66 chains ( 70 @.@ 53 km ) from Charing Cross . It was renamed Ticehurst Road in December 1851 , and Stonegate on 16 June 1947 .

Etchingham

Etchingham station is 47 miles 34 chains ( 76 @.@ 32 km ) from Charing Cross . The building is on the up side .

Robertsbridge

Robertsbridge station is 49 miles 37 chains ( 79 @.@ 60 km ) from Charing Cross . On 26 March 1900 , it became a junction with the opening of the Rother Valley Railway to freight . The line opened to passengers on 2 April 1900 , and was renamed the Kent and East Sussex Railway in 1904 . The Kent and East Sussex Railway closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and to freight on 12 June 1962 , except for a short section serving a mill at Robertsbridge which closed on 1 January 1970 .

Mountfield Halt

Mountfield Halt opened in 1923 . It closed on 6 October 1969 . The platforms were built of sleepers and were demolished in the early 1970s . The station was 53 miles 37 chains ( 86 @.@ 04 km ) from Charing Cross .

Battle

Battle station opened on 1 September 1851 . The buildings are in the Gothic style and stand on the up side . The station is 55 miles 46 chains ( 89 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross .

Crowhurst

A siding had existed at Crowhurst from 1877 . The station opened on 1 June 1902 and was located at the junction for the Bexhill West Branch Line , which also opened the same day . Despite the line 's closure on 14 June 1964 , Crowhurst station remains open . The station is 57 miles 45 chains ( 92 @.@ 64 km ) from Charing Cross .

West St Leonards

West St Leonards station opened on 1 October 1887 . The buildings are wood framed and covered with weatherboards . The station is 60 miles 59 chains ( 97 @.@ 75 km ) from Charing Cross .

St Leonards Warrior Square

St Leonards Warrior Square station opened on 13 February 1851 along with a new section of line between Hastings and the LBSCs Hastings & St Leonards station . This gave the LBSC better access to Hastings . It lies between Bopeep Tunnel and Hastings Tunnel . The station is 61 miles 55 chains ( 99 @.@ 28 km ) from Charing Cross .

Hastings

Hastings station opened on 13 February 1851 along with the SER branch from Ashford . The station was rebuilt and enlarged by the SER in 1880 as it was then inadequate for the increasing seasonal traffic . In 1930 the station was rebuilt by the Southern Railway . This entailed closure of the engine sheds at Hastings , with locomotives being transferred to St Leonards . The original station building , by Tress , was demolished and a new Neo @-@ Georgian station building by J. R. Scott was erected . The rebuilt station was completed on 5 July 1931 . The station was rebuilt in 2003 by Railtrack . The 1931 @-@ built building was demolished and a new structure erected in its place . The station is 62 miles 33 chains ( 100 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .

= = = Links to other lines = = =

= = = = Built = = = =

In the late 1860s , a single track link was built between the SERs Tunbridge Wells station and the LBSCs Tunbridge Wells station , which had opened in 1866 . It was 1875 before powers were granted to run a passenger service over this section of line . The junction with the main line was Grove Junction . It was removed on 7 July 1985 , following closure of the Tunbridge Wells Central – Eridge line the previous day .

In 1900 , the Rother Valley Railway opened from Robertsbridge to Tenterden . It was extended in stages to Tenterden Town and Headcorn , which was reached in 1905 . The line closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and freight on 12 June 1961 , except for access to Hodson 's Mill closed in 1970 . The Rother Valley Railway heritage railway are rebuilding the line between Robertsbridge and Junction Road , with completion scheduled by 2018 . In 1902 , a branch line was built to Bexhill West , with a new station at the junction with the main line at Crowhurst . This line closed on 14 June 1964 .

= = = = Authorised = = = =

In 1903 , a railway was authorised to be built from Robertsbridge to Pevensey , East Sussex . The line was authorised under the Light Railways Act 1896 , but was not constructed .

= = = = Proposed = = = =

In 1856 , it was proposed to build a 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) long branch from Witherenden to Mayfield , East Sussex . [ Note 5 ] In 1882 , an 18 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 29 @.@ 77 km ) long railway was proposed from Ticehurst Road to Langney , East Sussex , giving access to Eastbourne . Stations were proposed at Burwash , Dallington , Bodle Street Green , Boreham Street , Pevensey and Langney .

= = = Planned electrification = = =

Electrification of the Hastings Line was first considered by the SER as early as 1903 . Lack of finance meant that no decision had been made by the time World War I broke out in 1914 . It was stated in 1921 that electrification was a long term aim . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the Southern Railway , which had been formed from the SER , LBSC , London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) and London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) in 1923 under the Railways Act 1921 , electrified a number of lines . The East Coastway Line was electrified in 1935 , with a depot being built at Ore , East Sussex . In 1937 , it was proposed to electrify the line between Sevenoaks and St Leonards Warrior Square at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The scheme was deferred , with another proposal in 1937 costing £ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 also failing to gain favour before World War II broke out . One of the main reasons that electrification was not given the go @-@ ahead was the fact that non @-@ standard rolling stock would be required . The Southern Railway had provided the line with 104 new carriages and six Pullman Cars between 1929 and 1934 . Two electric locomotives were ordered in 1937 . They were built to the Hastings Line loading gauge .

In October 1946 , the Southern Railway announced a programme to electrify all lines in Kent and East Sussex in three stages . The Hastings Line between Tonbridge and Bopeep Junction was to be part of the third stage . Track would have been slewed within the affected tunnels with only one train normally allowed in the tunnel . In an emergency , two trains would be allowed in the tunnel at the same time , but restricted to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) . Standard 9 feet 0 inches ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) wide stock would be used . Following the nationalisation of railways in the United Kingdom under the Transport Act 1947 , the Southern Region of British Railways shelved new electrification schemes , concentrating on the construction of new steam locomotives . In 1952 , the possibility of operating standard rolling stock on the line had been examined . The Operating Department objected to the use of single line sections through the various tunnels . The 1930s stock was refurbished with the aim of extending its service by a further ten years . The first two phases of the Southern Railways ' electrification scheme were revived in 1955 . This did not include the Hastings Line and it was announced in 1956 that a fleet of diesel @-@ electric trains would be constructed to operate the service until the line was electrified . At that time , the rolling stock built in the 1930s was overdue for replacement . The modernisation to the Hastings Line and the introduction of the diesel @-@ electric trains cost £ 797 @,@ 000 , of which £ 595 @,@ 000 was the cost of the first seven trains . A further thirteen trains cost £ 1 @,@ 178 @,@ 840 .

Electrification was finally carried out in the 1980s , as detailed below .

= = Operators = =

From 1845 , the line was operated by the SER . In 1899 , the SER and LCDR entered into a joint working partnership , the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) . On 1 January 1923 , the Railways Act 1921 came into force , resulting in the Grouping . The SECR became part of the Southern Railway ( SR ) . On 1 January 1948 , the Transport Act 1947 came into force , and the SR became part of British Railways , with the former SR lines becoming the Southern Region . British Railways was rebranded British Rail on 1 January 1965 . On 10 June 1986 , Network SouthEast branded trains began operating . On 1 January 1994 , the Railways Act 1993 came into force , privatising British Rail . Passenger services were taken over by Connex South Eastern on 13 October 1996 . On 27 June 2003 , Connex lost the franchise due to poor financial management . The Strategic Rail Authority took over the running of passenger trains from 9 November 2003 , using their South Eastern Trains train operating company . On 1 April 2006 , Southeastern took over the operation of passenger trains on the route .

= = Operation = =

= = = Steam era ( 1845 – 1957 ) = = =

From the opening of the line , passenger stock consisted of 4 @-@ wheel carriages . In 1845 , there were eight passenger trains a day from Tunbridge Wells to London , with half that number on Sundays . On 23 June 1849 , the Royal Train took Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to Tunbridge Wells to visit Queen Adelaide , the Queen Dowager . The train , consisting of the Royal Saloon , two first class carriages and a brake van made the journey from Bricklayers Arms to Tunbridge Wells in 75 minutes . It was driven by James Cudworth , the Locomotive Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 70 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line again on 18 December 1849 conveying Queen Victoria and Princess Alice from Windsor , Berkshire to Tunbridge Wells on a visit to Princess Louise . The journey via Waterloo took 100 minutes . The train was driven by William Jacomb , Resident Engineer of the LSWR , and Edgar Verringer , Superintendent of the LSWR . At Waterloo , driving of the train was taken over by John Shaw , General Manager of the SER and Mr. Cockburn , Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 105 minutes .

With the opening of the extension to Robertsbridge , there were three trains a day , with two on Sundays . These were augmented by an additional train daily when the extension to Bopeep Junction opened . In 1860 , there were seven up trains and six down trains daily ; Hastings to London via Redhill taking two hours . From 1861 , Cudworth 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 " Little Mail " class locomotives were introduced . In 1876 , the Sub @-@ Wealden Gypsum Co built a 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long line from a junction south of Mountfield Tunnel to a gypsum mine located in Great Wood , Mountfield . This line was still in operation as of 2007 . Bogie carriages entered service on the line in 1880 . In 1890 , the winter service was eleven trains each way , of which five were fast . [ Note 6 ] An additional two trains daily operated between Tunbridge Wells and Wadhurst . By 1910 , this had increased to twenty trains each way , of which twelve were fast , plus the extra two Wadhurst services . Four trains ran on Sundays . The service was reduced during World War I , but Sunday services had increased to seven by 1922 .

By the 1930s the line was worked by L and L1 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives . The Schools class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s were introduced in 1930 ; the width of these was 8 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 54 m ) measured across the cab , and 8 feet 6 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 604 m ) measured across the cylinders . The service was again reduced during World War II , with fourteen trains daily in 1942 , of which four were fast ; there were seven trains on Sundays . As built , it was envisaged that the West Country and Battle of Britain class locomotives would be able to work the line . Forty @-@ eight locomotives of the West Country and 22 of the Battle of Britain class were built with cabs that were 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) wide and paired with tenders of the same width . It was subsequently decided not to work these locomotives over the line . Locomotives from these two classes that were rebuilt gained a 9 @-@ foot @-@ 0 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) cab . Unrebuilt locomotives retained their narrow cab .

By 1948 , the service was sixteen trains , of which seven were fast . An additional three trains ran as far as Wadhurst . In 1957 , the service was eighteen trains daily , of which nine were fast . There were nine trains on Sundays . The Schools Class locomotives worked the line until 1957 when steam was withdrawn on the Hastings Line . Diesel @-@ electric multiple units of what became British Rail Class 201 , 202 and 203 ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route .

Under British Railways , classes D1 , E1 , H , N1 , M7 , Q , Q1 , Std 3 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 2T , Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T and U1 were permitted to work between Tonbridge and Grove junction . Freight trains from Tonbridge West Yard were not permitted to depart until the line was clear as far as Southborough Viaduct . Other classes of locomotive known to have worked over this section of line include C , and E4 .

= = = Diesel @-@ electric era ( 1957 – 86 ) = = =

Special narrow bodied diesel electric multiple units were introduced in 1957 – 58 to replace steam traction . British Rail Class 201 ( 6S ) , 202 ( 6L ) and 203 ( 6B ) ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route . These units were constructed of narrow rolling stock . They were delivered in six @-@ car formations ( the 6Bs including a buffet car ) and two units were often operated in multiple to form twelve @-@ car trains . In latter years some of the units were reduced to five , and later still , to four cars .

The 6S units were intended to be introduced into service in June 1957 . On 5 April a fire at Cannon Street signal box disabled all signalling equipment there . As a result , locomotive @-@ hauled trains were banned from the station . A temporary signal box was commissioned on 5 May and the 6S units were introduced on peak services the next day . Two units coupled together formed the 06 : 58 and 07 : 26 Hastings – Cannon Street services in the morning , and the 17 : 18 and 18 : 03 Cannon Street – Hastings services in the evening . From 17 June the 6S and 6L units were working services throughout the day . The 6B units entered service between May and August 1958 .

The Hastings Diesels had almost completely replaced steam by June 1958 . With the introduction of the Hastings Diesels , an hourly service was provided . This split at Tunbridge Wells , with the front portion running fast to Crowhurst and the rear portion stopping at all stations . The service ran every two hours on Sundays . The Hastings Diesels also worked services on the Bexhill West Branch Line until closure on 14 June 1964 . On 22 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central .

In 1962 , twelve Class 33 / 2 diesel locomotives , were also built with narrow bodies for the Hastings line . These enabled the last steam workings , overnight newspaper trains , to be withdrawn from the Hastings Line . Nineteen British Rail Class 207 ( 3D ) diesel electric multiple units were built in 1962 . They operated over the Tonbridge – Grove Junction section of the line as part of a Tonbridge – Eastbourne ( later Tonbridge – Eridge ) service . In 1963 , Frant , Stonegate , Wadhurst and Mountfield Halt were proposed to be closed under the Beeching Axe . One special working took place on 3 April 1966 when one of the ex @-@ Great Western Railway diesel railcars , W20W , was worked between Tonbridge and Robertsbridge as an out of gauge load . The railcar had been purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway for £ 415 including delivery to Robertsbridge . After trying to " wriggle out " of the deal , British Rail eventually found a solution . The vehicle was ballasted so that it leant away from the tunnel walls by some 3 inches ( 80 mm ) and was worked to Robertsbridge at a maximum of 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) . From 1977 , there were two trains an hour , one fast and one slow . In May 1980 , the buffet cars were withdrawn from the 6B units , which were recoded as 5L , but retaining the Class 203 designation . The fast trains were withdrawn in January 1981 , with trains now stopping at all stations .

= = = Electric era ( since 1986 ) = = =

On 28 October 1983 , it was announced that the Hastings Line was to be electrified . Reasons that decided the issue included a commitment by British Rail to eliminate asbestos from all stock in service by 1988 and the increasing cost of maintaining the then ageing Hastings Diesels . The scheme was to cost £ 23 @,@ 925 @,@ 000 . Electrification was finally completed in 1986 , the line was electrified using 750 V DC third rail using standard rolling stock , and the expedient of singling the track through the narrow tunnels . The tunnels either side of Tunbridge Wells Central station were not singled because the fact that the south portal of Wells Tunnel and north portal of Grove Hill Tunnel were at the ends of the platforms meant it was impossible to install pointwork without reducing the length of platform available . A speed restriction was imposed through Wells Tunnel . Parliamentary powers were sought in 1979 to bore a second Grove Hill Tunnel , but there was much opposition from local residents . This , and the high cost , caused the proposal to be abandoned . The track in Grove Hill Tunnel was relaid on a concrete base , allowing alignment to be precisely controlled .

The line was declared to conform to the standard C1 loading gauge on 14 March . The first passenger carrying train comprising C1 stock to use the line was a railtour on 15 March hauled by 50 025 Invincible . It was organised by the Southern Electric Group and ran from Paddington to Folkestone Harbour . A preview service of electric trains ran on 27 April 1986 and the full timetabled service commenced on 12 May 1986 . The next day , a wrong @-@ side failure occurred involving three signals between Tonbridge and Hastings . Contractors had made errors in the wiring of the signal heads . With the inauguration of electric services , a half @-@ hourly service was operated , with trains departing from Charing Cross at 15 and 45 minutes past the hour . Those departing at xx : 15 called at Waterloo East , Sevenoaks , Tonbridge , High Brooms , Tunbridge Wells , Wadhurst , Battle , St Leonards Warrior Square and Hastings , taking 84 minutes . Those departing at xx : 45 called at Waterloo East , London Bridge , Orpington , Sevenoaks , Hildenborough , Tonbridge and then all stations to Hastings , taking 99 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line on 6 May , conveying Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother . It was stabled at Wadhurst whilst she ate lunch . The train was hauled by a Class 73 diesel @-@ electric locomotive . Upon electrification , services were operated by 4CEP , 4CIG and 4VEP electric multiple units . Class 508 electric multiple units also operated services on the line . When these units were withdrawn in the mid @-@ 2000s , they were replaced by Class 375 Electrostar , Class 465 Networker and Class 466 Networker units .

Train services on the line are provided by Southeastern , and are mostly operated by Class 375 Electrostar , or occasionally Class 465 / 466 Networker units . The line still sees a freight service to and from British Gypsum 's sidings at Mountfield .

= = Accidents and incidents = =

A number of accidents have occurred on the Hastings Line , none of which have involved the death of a passenger .

On 4 October 1852 , a passenger train was derailed between Ticehurst Road and Etchingham when the formation was flooded and washed away . Both engine crew members were injured .

On 21 June 1856 , a passenger train derailed between Tunbridge Wells and Tunbridge Junction , killing the driver and injuring the fireman and a passenger .

On 30 September 1866 , the slip portion of a train , which was to be worked forwards to Hastings , failed to stop at Tunbridge due to an error by the slip guard . It crashed into a rake of empty carriages 262 yards ( 240 m ) east of the station . Eleven of the 40 passengers were injured .

On 22 February 1892 , a SER locomotive was run into by a LBSC passenger train at Hastings . The passenger train had overrun a danger signal . Both locomotives were damaged .

On 29 August 1896 , the locomotive of a Charing Cross to Hastings train was derailed near Etchingham when it collided with a traction engine and threshing machine using an occupation crossing .

On 29 April 1912 , SECR F1 class locomotive No. 216 was working an empty stock train when it suffered the failure of the firebox crown near Tunbridge Wells due to a lack of water in the boiler . Both engine crew were severely injured by escaping steam and jumping from the moving locomotive .

On 6 January 1930 , the rear carriages of a passenger train from Hastings to London were partially buried by a landslip near Wadhurst tunnel . The train was divided and the front part continued on to Tunbridge Wells , where it arrived 100 minutes late .

On 23 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central . Eighteen people were injured , with three of them admitted to hospital .

On 8 November 2010 , a passenger train operated by Class 375 unit 375 711 failed to stop at Stonegate station due to maintenance errors in respect of the train 's sanding apparatus . The train overran the station by 2 miles 36 chains ( 3 @.@ 94 km ) . Following the incident , Southeastern reduced the interval that the sand hoppers were to be refilled from seven days to five days . The company was fined £ 65 @,@ 000 and ordered to pay £ 22 @,@ 589 in costs .

On 23 December 2013 , a landslip at Wadhurst was the first in a series of landslips up to February 2014 which led the line between Wadhurst and St. Leonards Warrior Square being closed and reopened three times , with speed restrictions in place following repairs . The train service was replaced by buses during closures . Southeastern was criticised by Hastings and Rye MP Amber Rudd over poor customer service during this period . By 12 March , the section between Wadhurst and Robertsbridge had reopened , with full service being restored on 31 March .

= Music of Final Fantasy IV =

The music of the video game Final Fantasy IV was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . The Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by Square Co . / NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released by NTT Publishing . It was released in North America by Tokyopop as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack : Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles , with one additional track . It has since been re @-@ released multiple times with slight changes as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box and as Final Fantasy IV DS OST . An arranged album entitled Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon , containing a selection of musical tracks from the game performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach , was released by Square and later re @-@ released by NTT Publishing . Additionally , a collection of piano arrangements composed by Nobuo Uematsu and played by Toshiyuki Mori titled Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was released by NTT Publishing .

The music was overall well received ; reviewers have praised the quality of the original composition despite the limitations of the medium , and reacted favorably to the arranged soundtracks . Several tracks , especially " Theme of Love " , remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in orchestral concert series , as well as been published in arranged and compilation albums by Square as well as outside groups .

= = Concept and creation = =

Uematsu has noted that the process of composing was excruciating , involving trial and error and requiring the sound staff to spend several nights in sleeping bags at Square Co. headquarters . He blamed much of the problem on the fact that this was his first soundtrack to use the new Super Famicom hardware , as opposed to his previous soundtracks composed for the Famicom . The liner notes for the Final Fantasy IV OSV album were humorously signed as being written at 1 : 30 AM " in the office , naturally . " Uematsu has stated that , beginning with the soundtrack to Final Fantasy IV , he started to move away from the idea that the soundtrack had to be solely an orchestral score . In June 2007 , Square Enix held a casting for a vocalist to sing a version of Final Fantasy IV 's " Theme of Love " rearranged by Nobuo Uematsu . Megumi Ida was selected from approximately 800 applicants to perform the song , which was featured on the Japanese Nintendo DS remake of the game , as well as the accompanying soundtrack album .

= = Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version = =

Final Fantasy IV Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album containing the musical tracks from the game , composed , arranged , produced and performed by Nobuo Uematsu . It spans 44 tracks and covers a duration of 58 : 25 . It was first released on June 14 , 1991 , by Square Co . / NTT Publishing , and subsequently re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 , and October 1 , 2004 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number N23D @-@ 001 , and the re @-@ release bears the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5014 . After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Sony PlayStation as part of Final Fantasy Chronicles , the album was released in North America by Tokyopop on August 21 , 2001 as Final Fantasy IV Official Soundtrack : Music from Final Fantasy Chronicles . This is nearly the same release as Final Fantasy IV : Original Sound Version , some track titles were slightly changed , and a 45th track was added , " Theme of Love ( Arranged ) " , which had previously only been released as a piano version on the second track of Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV . This release has the catalog numbers TPCD 0210 @-@ 2 .

The GBA version was again released as part of the Final Fantasy Finest Box by Square Enix on March 28 , 2007 under the catalog number FFFB @-@ 0001 along with the OSTs of Final Fantasy V and Final Fantasy VI after the game was ported to the Game Boy Advance . This version included several tracks which were not included in the original album , such as the " Chocobo Forest " theme , the music for the dancing girl , the short intro to " Cry in Sorrow / Sorrow and Loss " , and various fanfares .

After the release of Final Fantasy IV for the Nintendo DS , a new version of the Soundtrack arranged by Junya Nakano and Kenichiro Fukui , respectively , was released in Japan in January 2008 as Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack . Most of the pieces are the same as on the original album , although they were reproduced for the sound hardware of the DS , with new synthesizer effects . A new version of " Theme of Love " was included , with lyrics sung by Megumi Ida . It was released as a two @-@ disk set with a bonus DVD containing the full motion video included in the re @-@ releases of Final Fantasy IV , and has the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10105 @-@ 7 . This version of " Theme of Love " was also released as a single , entitled Moonlight -Final Fantasy IV Theme of Love- . The single also includes the DS version of the song , the original track , and a karaoke version of the Megumi Ida rendition . It was released along with a bonus DVD containing a music video for the song on December 5 , 2007 with the catalog numbers of BVCR @-@ 19727 @-@ 8 and a duration of 16 : 21 .

Final Fantasy IV OSV was well received ; reviewers have praised the quality of the composition despite the limited medium . Soundtrack Central compared it favorably with Uematsu 's later works , especially the soundtrack for Final Fantasy VI , and termed it a " great CD " . However , the length of several tracks as well as of the album as a whole was criticized , with reviewers finding it " too short " and disapproving of the early fade @-@ out of some tracks . Reviewers found the expanded and remastered version found in the Finest Box to be comparable to the quality of the original album , with some tracks improving in their remake , becoming " deeper " or " sharper " as was appropriate .

A new edition of the soundtrack , Final Fantasy IV Original Soundtrack Remaster Version , was released by Square Enix on July 3 , 2013 . This version is expanded to two discs , allowing the tracks to play through two loops rather than just one , as well as the addition of a few short pieces that were left off of the original recording . Despite the name , the album features the original Super NES version of the music , rather than a more modern synthesizer sound . The album has the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10373 ~ 4 , and its 57 tracks have a duration of 1 : 32 : 40 . Joshua Bateman of RPGFan stated that while the remaster edition wasn 't strictly necessary , given that Square Enix still sold the original version online , the new edition was still a superior version and an important step in preserving classic video game music .

= = Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon = =

Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon is a selection of musical tracks from the game , arranged and performed in the style of Celtic music by Máire Breatnach . It spans 15 tracks and covers a duration of 52 : 36 . It was first released on October 28 , 1991 , in Japan , and subsequently re @-@ released on November 26 , 1994 , and on October 1 , 2004 , by NTT Publishing . The original release bears the catalog number N30D @-@ 006 , the first re @-@ release bears the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5017 , and the most recent re @-@ release has the catalog number NTCP @-@ 5017 .

Overall reception of Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon was also positive , though some reviewers felt that several of the tracks were of lesser quality than the rest of the album . Patrick Gann of RPGFan described it as " Awesome . Purely spectacular . " and Matt Brady of Final Fantasy Symphony concurred , saying that the " music quality for this soundtrack was spectacular . " Daniel Space of RPGFan , however , found the quality mixed , and said that " some of the pieces do not live up to the new orchestration , " although others " were a delight to hear . " He also found some of the instruments to be slightly out of tune , which he disliked , though Matt Brady felt it gave the pieces an " ethnic feel " .

= = Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV = =

Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV is a collection of Final Fantasy IV music composed by Nobuo Uematsu , arranged by Shiro Satou and played on piano by Toshiyuki Mori . It spans 14 tracks and covers a duration of 57 : 24 . It was first published by NTT Publishing on April 21 , 1992 , and subsequently re @-@ published on May 23 , 2001 . The original release bears the catalog number N38D @-@ 010 , and the reprint bears the catalog number NTCP @-@ 1001 .

Critical reception for Piano Collections Final Fantasy IV was positive , with reviewers terming the album " fantastic " . Damian Thomas of RPGFan said that the album was " a true gem " and said that despite his dislike of piano arrangements , he " truly appreciated " the album . Some reviewers felt that the pieces in the album were " simplistic " , especially in comparison to the piano collections for Final Fantasy V and Final Fantasy VI , but said that " its simplicity calls for a different feeling , and it is still great , " and that despite the lack of complexity , " all of the songs ... are extremely nicely done . "

= = Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album = =

Final Fantasy IV Minimum Album is a 6 track Mini CD EP released on September 5 , 1991 by NTT Publishing Co . It contains unreleased and arranged tracks from the original soundtrack . The catalog number is N09D @-@ 004 and it has a total playing time of 20 : 25 .

= = Legacy = =

The music of Final Fantasy IV has remained popular since its release , especially in Japan . The track " Theme of Love " has even been taught to Japanese school children as part of the music curriculum . Additionally , The Black Mages have arranged two pieces from Final Fantasy IV . These are " Battle with the Four Fiends " , an arrangement of " The Dreadful Fight " , and " Zeromus " , an arrangement of " The Final Battle " , both of which can be found on the album The Skies Above , published in 2004 . A lyrical version of " Theme of Love " , sung by Risa Ohki , appeared on Final Fantasy : Pray , a compilation album produced by Square . Additionally , lyrical versions of " Main Theme of FINAL FANTASY IV " and " Edward 's Harp " , sung by Risa Ohki and Ikuko Noguchi , appeared on Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow .

Uematsu continues to perform certain pieces in his Dear Friends : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . The music of Final Fantasy IV has also appeared in various official concerts and live albums , such as 20020220 music from FINAL FANTASY , a live recording of an orchestra performing music from the series including several pieces from the game . " Red Wings " , " Theme of Love " , and " Ending Theme " , were played by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra in their first Orchestral Game Concert in 1991 as part of a five concert tour , which was later released as a series of albums . Additionally , " Theme of Love " was performed by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra for the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy concert tour , as well as by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra in the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series . Independent but officially licensed releases of Final Fantasy IV music have been composed by such groups as Project Majestic Mix , which focuses on arranging video game music . Another popular album release was Echoes of Betrayal , Light of Redemption , an unofficial download @-@ only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on July 19 , 2009 containing 54 remixes over 4 " discs " . Selections also appear on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .

= Pool of Radiance =

Pool of Radiance is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Strategic Simulations , Inc ( SSI ) in 1988 . It was the first adaptation of TSR 's Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D or D & D ) fantasy role @-@ playing game for home computers , becoming the first episode in a four @-@ part series of D & D computer adventure games . The other games in the " Gold Box " series used the game engine pioneered in Pool of Radiance , as did later D & D titles such as the Neverwinter Nights online game . Pool of Radiance takes place in the Forgotten Realms fantasy setting , with the action centered in and around the port city of Phlan .

Just as in traditional D & D games , the player starts by building a party of up to six characters , deciding the race , sex , class and ability scores for each . The player 's party is enlisted to help the settled part of the city by clearing out the marauding inhabitants that have taken over the surroundings . The characters move on from one area to another , battling bands of enemies as they go and ultimately confronting the powerful leader of the evil forces . During play the player characters gain experience points , which allow them to increase their capabilities . The game primarily uses a first @-@ person perspective , with the screen divided into sections to display pertinent textual information . During combat sequences , the display switches to a top @-@ down " video game isometric " view .

Generally well received by the gaming press , Pool of Radiance won the Origins Award for " Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988 " . Some reviewers criticized the game 's similarities to other contemporary games and its slowness in places , but praised the game 's graphics and its role @-@ playing adventure and combat aspects . Also well @-@ regarded was the ability to export player characters from Pool of Radiance to subsequent SSI games in the series .

= = Gameplay = =

Pool of Radiance is based on the same game mechanics as the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rule set . As in many role @-@ playing games ( RPGs ) , each player character in Pool of Radiance has a character race and a character class , determined at the beginning of the game . Six races are offered , including elves and halflings , as well as four classes ( fighter , cleric , wizard , and thief ) . Non @-@ human characters have the option to become multi @-@ classed , which means they gain the capabilities of more than one class , but advance in levels more slowly . During character creation , the computer randomly generates statistics for each character , although the player can alter these attributes . The player also chooses each character 's alignment , or moral philosophy ; while the player controls each character 's actions , alignment can affect how NPCs view their actions . The player can then customize the appearance and colors of each character 's combat icon . Alternatively , the player can load a pre @-@ generated party to be used for introductory play . These characters are combined into a party of six or less , with two slots open for NPCs . Players create their own save @-@ game files , assuring character continuation regardless of events in the game . On an MS @-@ DOS computer , the game can be copied to the hard @-@ disk drive . Other computer systems , such as the Commodore 64 , require a separate save @-@ game disk .

The game 's " exploration " mode uses a three @-@ dimensional first @-@ person perspective , with a rectangle in the top left of the screen displaying the party 's current view ; the rest of the screen displays text information about the party and the area . During gameplay , the player accesses menus to allow characters to use objects ; trade items with other characters ; parley with enemies ; buy , sell , and pool the characters ' money ; cast spells , and learn new magic skills . Players can view characters ' movement from different angles , including an aerial view . The game uses three different versions of each sprite to indicate differences between short- , medium- , and long @-@ range encounters .

In combat mode , the screen changes to a top @-@ down mode with dimetric projection , where the player decides what actions the characters will take in each round . These actions are taken immediately , rather than after all commands have been issued as is standard in some RPGs . Optionally , the player can let the computer choose character moves for each round . Characters and monsters may make an extra attack on a retreating enemy that moves next to them . If a character 's hit points ( HP ) fall below zero , he or she must be bandaged by another character or the character will die . The game contains random encounters , and game reviewers for Dragon magazine observed that random encounters seem to follow standard patterns of encounter tables in pen and paper AD & D game manuals . They also observed that the depictions of monsters confronting the party " looked as though they had jumped from the pages of the Monster Manual . "

Different combat options are available to characters based on class . For example , fighters can wield melee or ranged weapons ; magic @-@ users can cast spells ; thieves have the option to " back @-@ stab " an opponent by strategically positioning themselves . As fighters progress in level , they can attack more than once in a round . Fighters also gain the ability to " sweep " enemies , effectively attacking each nearby low @-@ level creature in the same turn . Magic @-@ users and clerics are allowed to memorize and cast a set number of spells each day . Once cast , a spell must be memorized again before reuse . The process requires hours of inactivity for all characters , during which they rest in a camp ; this also restores lost hit points to damaged characters . This chore of memorizing spells each night significantly added to the amount of game management required by the player .

As characters defeat enemies , they gain experience points ( XP ) . After gaining enough XP , the characters " train up a level " to become more powerful . This training is purchased in special areas within the city walls . In addition to training , mages can learn new spells by transcribing them from scrolls found in the unsettled areas . Defeated enemies in these areas also contain items such as weapons and armor , which characters can sell to city stores .

= = Plot = =

= = = Setting = = =

Pool of Radiance takes place in the Forgotten Realms fantasy world , in and about the city of Phlan . This is located on the northern shore of the Moonsea along the Barren River , between Zhentil Keep and Melvaunt . The party begins in the civilized section of " New Phlan " that is governed by a council . This portion of the city hosts businesses , including shopkeepers who sell holy items for each temple 's worshipers , a jewelry shop , and retailers who provide arms and armor . A party can also contract with the clerk of the city council for various commissions ; proclamations fastened to the halls within City Hall offer bits of information to aid the party . These coded clues can be deciphered by using the Adventurer 's Journal , included with the game .

There are three temples within Phlan , each dedicated to different gods . Each temple can heal those who are wounded , poisoned , or afflicted , and can fully restore deceased comrades for a high price . The party can also visit the hiring hall and hire an experienced NPC adventurer to accompany the party . Encounters with NPCs in shops and taverns offer valuable information . Listening to gossip in taverns can be helpful to characters , although some tavern tales are false and lead characters into great danger .

= = = Plot summary = = =

The ancient trade city of Phlan has fallen into impoverished ruin . Now only a small portion of the city remains inhabited by humans , who are surrounded by evil creatures . To rebuild the city and clean up the Barren River , the city council of New Phlan has decided to recruit adventurers to drive the monsters from the neighboring ruins . Using bards and publications , they spread tales of the riches waiting to be recovered in Phlan , which draws the player 's party to these shores by ship .

At the start of the game , the adventurers ' ship lands in New Phlan , and they receive a brief but informative tour of the civilized area . They learn that the city is plagued with a history of invasions and wars and has been overtaken by a huge band of humanoids and other creatures . Characters hear rumors that a single controlling element is in charge of these forces . The characters begin a block @-@ by @-@ block quest to rid the ruins of monsters and evil spirits .

Beyond the ruins of old Phlan , the party enters the slum area — one of two quests immediately available to new parties . This quest requires the clearing of the slum block and allows a new party to quickly gain experience . The second quest is to clear out Sokol Keep , located on Thorn Island . This fortified area is inhabited by the undead , which can only be defeated with silver weapons and magic . The characters ' adventure is later expanded to encompass the outlying areas of the Moonsea region . Eventually , the player learns that an evil spirit named Tyranthraxus , who has possessed an ancient dragon , is at the root of Phlan 's problems . The characters fight Tyranthraxus the Flamed One in a climactic final battle .

= = History = =

= = = Development = = =

Pool of Radiance was the first official game based on the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . The scenario was created by TSR designers Jim Ward , David Cook , Steve Winter , and Mike Breault , and coded by programmers from Strategic Simulations , Inc 's Special Projects team . The section of the Forgotten Realms world in which Pool of Radiance takes place was intended to be developed only by SSI . The game was created on Apple II and Commodore 64 computers , taking one year with a team of thirty @-@ five people . This game was the first to use the game engine later used in other SSI D & D games known as the " Gold Box " series . The SSI team developing the game was led by Chuck Kroegel . Kroegel stated that the main challenge with the development was interpreting the AD & D rules to an exact format . Developers also worked to balance the graphics with gameplay to provide a faithful AD & D feel , given the restrictions of a home computer . In addition to the core AD & D manuals , the books Unearthed Arcana and Monster Manual II were also used during development . The images of monsters were adapted directly from the Monster Manual book . The game was originally programmed by Keith Brors and Brad Myers , and it was developed by George MacDonald . The game 's graphic arts were by Tom Wahl , Fred Butts , Darla Marasco , and Susan Halbleib .

Pool of Radiance was released in June 1988 ; it was initially available on the Commodore 64 , Apple II series and IBM PC compatible computers . A version for the Atari ST was also announced . The Macintosh version was released in 1989 . The Macintosh version featured a slightly different interface and was intended to work on black @-@ and @-@ white Macs like the Mac Plus and the Mac Classic . The screen was tiled into separate windows including the game screen , text console , and compass . Graphics were monochrome and the display window was relatively small compared to other versions . The Macintosh version featured sound , but no music . The game 's Amiga version was released two years later . The PC 9800 version 『 プール ・ オブ ・ レイディアンス 』 in Japan was fully translated ( like the Japanese Famicom version ) and featured full @-@ color graphics . The game was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System under the title Advanced Dungeons & Dragons : Pool of Radiance , released in April 1992 .

The original Pool of Radiance game shipped with a 28 @-@ page introductory booklet , which describes secrets relating to the game and the concepts behind it . The booklet guides players through the character creation process , explaining how to create a party . The game also included the 38 @-@ page Adventurer 's Journal , which provides the game 's background . The booklet features depictions of fliers , maps , and information that characters see in the game . The package also included a translation decoder wheel . After the title screen , a copy protection screen was displayed consisting of two pictures and a line . The player was required to use the decoder wheel to line up the pictures , then enter the word revealed on the decoder wheel . After three unsuccessful attempts , the game automatically shut down .

= = = Sequels and Legacy = = =

Pool of Radiance was the first in a four @-@ part series of computer D & D adventures set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting . The others were released by SSI one year apart : Curse of the Azure Bonds ( 1989 ) , Secret of the Silver Blades ( 1990 ) , and Pools of Darkness ( 1991 ) . The 1989 game Hillsfar was also created by SSI but was not a sequel to Pool of Radiance . Hillsfar is described instead , by the reviewers of Dragon , as " a value @-@ added adventure for those who would like to take a side trip while awaiting the sequel " . A player can import characters from Pool of Radiance into Hillsfar , although the characters are reduced to their basic levels and do not retain weapons or magical items . Original Hillsfar characters cannot be exported to Pool of Radiance , but they can be exported to Curse of the Azure Bonds . A review for Curse of the Azure Bonds in Computer Gaming World noted that " you can transfer your characters from Pool of Radiance and it 's a good idea to do so . It will give you a headstart in the game . "

GameSpot declared that Pool of Radiance , with its detailed art , wide variety of quests and treasure , and tactical combat system , and despite the availability of only four character classes and the low character level cap , " ultimately succeeded in its goal of bringing a standardized form of AD & D to the home computer , and laid the foundation for other future gold box AD & D role @-@ playing games " . Scott Battaglia of GameSpy said Pool of Radiance is " what many gamers consider to be the epitome of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons RPGs . These games were so great that people today are using MoSlo in droves to slow down their Pentium III @-@ 1000 MHz enough to play these gems . " In March 2008 , Dvice.com listed Pool of Radiance among its 13 best electronic versions of Dungeons & Dragons . The contributor felt that " The Pool of Radiance series set the stage for Dungeons & Dragons to make a major splash in the video game world . "

The 1988 Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing game module Ruins of Adventure was produced using the same adventure scenario as Pool of Radiance , using the same plot , background , setting , and many of the same characters as the computer game . The module thus contains useful clues to the successful completion of the computer missions . Ruins of Adventure contains four linked miniscenarios , which form the core of Pool of Radiance . According to the editors of Dragon magazine , Pool of Radiance was based on Ruins of Adventure , and not vice versa .

= = = Novelization = = =

In November 1989 a novelization of Pool of Radiance the video game , also called Pool of Radiance , was written by James Ward and Jane Cooper Hong , published by TSR . The novel is set in the Forgotten Realms setting based on the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . Dragon described the novel 's plot : " Five companions find themselves in the unenviable position of defending the soon @-@ to @-@ be ghost town against a rival possessing incredible power . " This book was the first in a trilogy , followed by Pools of Darkness and Pool of Twilight .

= = = Re @-@ release = = =

GOG.com released Pool of Radiance and many Gold Box series games digitally on August 20 , 2015 , as a part of " Forgotten Realms : The Archives - Collection Two " .

= = Reception = =

SSI sold 264 @,@ 536 copies of Pool of Radiance for computers in North America , three times that of Heroes of the Lance , an AD & D @-@ licensed action game SSI also released that year . It became by far the most successful game in the company 's history , and the best @-@ selling RPG created on an 8 @-@ bit computer platform ; even the hint book outsold any earlier SSI game .

In Computer Gaming World 's preview of Pool of Radiance in July 1988 , the writer noted a sense of deja vu . He described the similarity of the game 's screen to earlier computer RPGs . For example , the three @-@ dimensional maze view in the upper @-@ left window was similar to Might & Magic or Bard 's Tale , both released in the mid @-@ 1980s . The window with a listing of characters was featured in 1988 's Wasteland ; and the use of an active character to represent the party was part of Ultima V. The reviewer also noted that the design approach for game play was closer to SSI 's own Wizard 's Crown than to the other games in the genre .

Pool of Radiance received positive reviews . G.M. called the game 's graphics " good " and praised its role @-@ playing and combat aspects . They felt that " roleplayers will find Pools is an essential purchase , but people who are solely computer games oriented may hesitate before buying it [ ... ] it will be their loss " . Tony Dillon from Commodore User giving it a score of 9 out of 10 . The only complaint was a slightly slow disk access , but the reviewer was impressed with the game 's features , awarding it a Commodore User superstar and proclaiming it " the best RPG ever to grace the C64 , or indeed any other computer " . Issue # 84 of the British magazine Computer + Video Games rated the game highly , saying that " Pools is a game which no role player or adventurer should be without and people new to role playing should seriously consider buying as an introductory guide " . Another UK publication , The Games Machine , gave the game an 89 % rating . The reviewer noted that the third @-@ person arcade style combat view is a great improvement for SSI , as they had traditionally incorporated simplistic graphics in their role @-@ playing games . The reviewer was critical that Pool of Radiance was not original in its presentation and that the colors were a little drab , but concluded that the game is " classic Dungeons & Dragons which SSI have recreated excellently " . A review from Zzap was less positive , giving the game a score of 80 % . The reviewer felt that the game required too much " hacking , slicing and chopping " without enough emphasis on puzzle solving . The game was awarded 49 % for its puzzle factor .

Three reviewers for Computer Gaming World had conflicting reactions . Ken St. Andre - designer of the Tunnels & Trolls RPG - approved of the game despite his dislike of the D & D system , praising the art , the mixture of combat and puzzles , and surprises . He concluded , " take it from a ' rival ' designer , Pool of Radiance has my recommendation for every computer fantasy role @-@ playing gamer " . Tracie Forman Hicks , however , stated that over @-@ faithful use of the D & D system left it behind others like Ultima and Wizardry . She also disliked the game 's puzzles and lengthy combat sequences . Scorpia also disliked the amount of fighting in a game she otherwise described as a " well @-@ designed slicer / dicer " , concluding that " patience ( possibly of Job ) [ is ] required to get through this one " . Shay Addams from Compute ! stated that experienced role @-@ playing gamers " won 't find anything new here " , but recommended it to those who " love dungeons , dragons , and drama " . In their March 1989 " The Role of Computers " column in Dragon magazine # 143 , Hartley , Patricia , and Kirk Lesser ( often called " The Lessers " ) gave Pool of Radiance a three @-@ page review . The reviewers praised Pool of Radiance as " the first offering that truly follows AD & D game rules " , calling it a " great fantasy role @-@ playing game " that " falls into the must @-@ buy category for avid AD & D game players " . The reviewers advised readers to " rush out to your local dealer and buy Pool Of Radiance " . They considered it SSI 's flagship product , speculating that it would " undoubtedly bring thousands of computer enthusiasts into the adventure @-@ filled worlds of TSR " . The Dragon reviewers criticized the " notoriously slow " technology of the C64 / 128 system but added that the C64 / 128 version would become nearly unplayable without a software @-@ based fastloader utility which Strategic Simulations integrated into the game . Conversely , the reviewers felt that the MS @-@ DOS version was extremely fast , so much so that they had to slow the game operation down in order to read all the on @-@ screen messages . They found that the MS @-@ DOS version played at twice the speed of the C64 / 128 version when using the Enhanced Graphics Adapter ( EGA ) graphics mode .

Alex Simmons , Doug Johns , and Andy Mitchell reviewed the Amiga version of Pool of Radiance for Amiga Action magazine in 1990 , giving it a 79 % overall rating . Mitchell preferred the game Champions of Krynn , which had been released by the time the Amiga version of Pool of Radiance became available ; he felt that Pool of Radiance was " more of the same " when compared to Champions , but was less playable and with more limited actions for players . Simmons felt that Pool of Radiance looked primitive and seemed less polished when compared with Champions of Krynn ; he felt that although Pool was not up to the standard of Champions , he said it was still " a fine little game " . Johns , on the other hand , felt that Pool of Radiance was well worth the wait , considering it very user @-@ friendly despite being less polished than Champions of Krynn .

Pool of Radiance was well received by the gaming press and won the Origins Award for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1988 . For the second annual " Beastie Awards " in 1989 , Dragon 's readers voted Pool of Radiance the most popular fantasy role @-@ playing game of the year , with Ultima V as the runner @-@ up . The Apple II version was the most popular format , the PC DOS / MS @-@ DOS came in a close second , and the Commodore 64 / 128 got the fewest votes . The primary factor given for votes was the game 's faithfulness to the AD & D system as well as the game 's graphics and easy @-@ to @-@ use user interface to activate commands . Pool of Radiance was also selected for the RPGA @-@ sponsored Gamers ' Choice Awards for the Best Computer Game of 1989 . In 1990 the game received the fifth @-@ highest number of votes in a survey of Computer Gaming World readers ' " All @-@ Time Favorites " .

Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , concluded that although the game " certainly had its flaws ( horrendous load times , interface weirdness , and a low @-@ level cap among others ) , it was a huge , expansive adventure that laid a good foundation for every Gold Box game that followed " . Stan Stepanic of GameFreaks365 gave a highly positive , though somewhat reserved , review of the NES port of Pool of Radiance , scoring it at 8 / 10 . He commented , " ... it 's great to see a game like this on the NES because there really wasn 't anything of this caliber at the time , RPG or otherwise . Adults were rarely given anything since nearly every title was aimed at younger audiences , so this is one of the few cases where programmers were trying to appeal to an older audience ... if you 're a fan of a true RPG , this is the game for you , you 'll be thoroughly impressed and absorbed . "

= Elimination Chamber ( 2010 ) =

Elimination Chamber ( 2010 ) ( also known as No Way Out ( 2010 ) in Germany ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on February 21 , 2010 at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis , Missouri . It was the first event in the Elimination Chamber series . Six matches were aired on the broadcast and one dark match occurred prior to the live broadcast .

The concept of the event was that the two main event matches , one each for the World Heavyweight Championship and the WWE Championship , would occur in an Elimination Chamber . Each match featured six competitors : the defending champion and five challengers . Sheamus defended the WWE Championship against Triple H , Ted DiBiase , Randy Orton , John Cena , and Kofi Kingston in the Raw Elimination Chamber . In the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match , The Undertaker defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Chris Jericho , John Morrison , Rey Mysterio , CM Punk and R @-@ Truth . On the undercard , Drew McIntyre defended the WWE Intercontinental Championship against Kane , The Miz defended the WWE United States Championship against Montel Vontavious Porter , and Maryse and Gail Kim competed against LayCool ( Layla and Michelle McCool ) in an interbrand Divas tag team match .

The event received 285 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , an increase on the figure earned by the 2009 No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view . Despite the increased number of buys , the event received generally negative reviews , with reviewers criticising the undercard of the show as being " weak " and consisting of " filler " material .

= = Production and concept = =

In late 2009 , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) held a poll on their official website to allow fans to choose a name for their February pay @-@ per @-@ view . The choices included Elimination Chamber , Heavy Metal , Battle Chamber , Chamber of Conflict and No Way Out , which had been the name of the preceding Elimination Chamber @-@ based event . The name Elimination Chamber won , but the event was still promoted as No Way Out in Germany .

The concept of the show was that each main event match was to be contested as an Elimination Chamber match . The Elimination Chamber is a circular steel cage , consisting of chains and girders , that surrounds the ring . Four ' pods ' are enclosed within the chamber , one behind each ring post , which are on a steel platform surrounding the outside of the ring . Six wrestlers compete in the match ; four are enclosed within the pods and released at random at specific time intervals , and two start the match . Wrestlers can only be eliminated via pinfall or submission , and the last wrestler left is the winner . For the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view , both WWE world championships , the WWE Championship and the World Heavyweight Championship , were to be defended in separate Elimination Chamber matches .

= = = Pyrotechnics accident = = =

Just prior to the commencement of the World Heavyweight Championship Elimination Chamber match , The Undertaker was involved in a pyrotechnics accident during his ring entrance . He was temporarily engulfed in flames on three occasions when the pyrotechnics were mistimed , and his jacket briefly caught on fire . He suffered first- and second @-@ degree burns to his neck and chest , and according to a WWE spokesperson the injury " looked like a bad sunburn " . He was only allowed to participate in the match after being cleared by a ringside doctor and was given bottles of water throughout the match to douse himself with to alleviate the discomfort . Chris Jericho , who also competed in the match , has told on multiple occasions how the pyrotechnician responsible was relieved of his employment with WWE and escorted from the arena at the behest of The Undertaker .

= = Background = =

The professional wrestling matches at Elimination Chamber featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown with the Raw and SmackDown brands — storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs .

The main event matches for the Elimination Chamber event consisted of two Elimination Chamber matches , with Raw 's WWE Championship defended in one and SmackDown 's World Heavyweight Championship defended in the other . Qualifying matches were held on the February 1 episode of Raw to determine the five challengers who would face the WWE Champion Sheamus in Raw 's Elimination Chamber match . In qualifiers , John Cena defeated Cody Rhodes , Triple H defeated Jack Swagger , Randy Orton defeated Shawn Michaels , Ted DiBiase defeated Mark Henry , and Kofi Kingston defeated The Big Show by disqualification . In the weeks prior to Elimination Chamber the participants faced off in several matches , which included DiBiase vs. Cena ending in a no contest , Sheamus defeating Orton by disqualification , DiBiase defeating Kingston via pinfall , and Cena vs. Triple H ending in a no contest due to Sheamus interfering and attacking both participants . The February 5 episode of SmackDown saw the five wrestlers qualify to challenge The Undertaker for the World Heavyweight Championship in a similar fashion . John Morrison defeated Drew McIntyre and Kane in a triple threat match . Throughout the rest of the episode , this was followed by R @-@ Truth defeating Mike Knox , CM Punk defeating Batista via countout , Chris Jericho defeating Matt Hardy , and Rey Mysterio defeating Dolph Ziggler . In the following weeks , the six wrestlers faced off in different combinations in singles matches that saw Mysterio pin Punk , Morrison vs. R @-@ Truth end in a no contest due to Morrison suffering a storyline ankle injury , and Jericho defeating The Undertaker . On the February 19 episode of SmackDown , Morrison and R @-@ Truth teamed up to face CM Punk and his ' follower ' Luke Gallows in a tag team match , which Morrison and R @-@ Truth lost via referee stoppage .

In late December 2009 , WWE Divas Champion Melina tore her anterior cruciate ligament , and was forced to vacate the championship . As a result , it was announced in January 2010 that a single @-@ elimination tournament would be held to determine a new champion . The tournament began on the January 4 episode of Raw , when Maryse advanced to the semi @-@ finals by defeating Brie Bella . She was followed into the semi @-@ finals by Gail Kim , Alicia Fox , and Eve , who defeated Jillian Hall , Kelly Kelly , and Katie Lea Burchill respectively . In the semi @-@ finals , Maryse defeated Eve and Kim defeated Fox . It was then announced on the February 8 episode of Raw that Maryse and Kim would face one another in the final at the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view .

On the February 12 episode of SmackDown , the WWE Intercontinental Champion Drew McIntyre faced Kane in a non @-@ title match . After the match went to a double @-@ countout , Kane chokeslammed McIntyre . It was announced the following day on WWE 's official website that Kane and McIntyre would meet at Elimination Chamber for the Intercontinental Championship . The following week , on the February 19 episode of SmackDown , Kane defeated Dolph Ziggler in a singles match . Following the match , he was attacked by McIntyre , but Kane was able to fight back and fend off the attack .

= = Event = =

Prior to the live broadcast of the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Christian defeated Ezekiel Jackson in a singles match by pinfall .

= = = Preliminary matches = = =

The first match that aired on the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the Raw Elimination Chamber match , which involved Randy Orton , Triple H , Ted DiBiase , Kofi Kingston , John Cena , and the defending WWE Champion Sheamus . Sheamus and Kingston started the match , while the other four competitors were locked inside ' pods ' . One pod at a time opened during the match at intervals of five minutes , releasing a wrestler into the match . Triple H was the first wrestler released , followed by Randy Orton , Ted DiBiase , and finally Cena . After Cena entered the match , Cody Rhodes , an ally of both DiBiase and Orton went to ringside , and threw a steel pipe into the cage . DiBiase used the pipe to hit both Orton and Cena , and then covered Orton to eliminate him from the match after approximately 24 minutes . Kingston used his finishing move , " Trouble in Paradise " ( a 540 kick ) to eliminate DiBiase after 25 @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes . Immediately afterward , Sheamus eliminated Kingston by pinfall , before being eliminated himself by Triple H at approximately 29 minutes , leaving only Cena and Triple H in the match . Cena used a submission hold , the STF on Triple H to eliminate him from the match via submission . As a result , Cena won the WWE Championship for the sixth time , his eight world championship overall .

Immediately following the conclusion of the match , WWE Chairman Vince McMahon interrupted to cut a promo . He told Cena that he would be going to WrestleMania XXVI , only if he could beat Batista , and then ordered Cena to face Batista in a previously unannounced match for the WWE Championship . Batista speared Cena , and then performed a " Batista Bomb " ( a sitout powerbomb ) on him to earn a pinfall victory , making Batista the new WWE Champion .

The third match featured Drew McIntyre defending the WWE Intercontinental Championship against Kane . The match began with Kane taking the advantage over McIntyre by clotheslining him over the top rope to the floor . Towards the end of the match , McIntyre attempted to leave the arena and lose via countout , which would have allowed him to retain the championship , but Kane brought him back inside the ring . When re @-@ entering the ring , McIntyre poked him in the eye and then performed his " Future Shock DDT " ( a double underhook DDT ) to win the match by pinfall and remain the Intercontinental Champion .

= = = Main event matches = = =

The next match was scheduled to be the final of a tournament to determine a new Divas Champion after the championship was vacated . Maryse and Gail Kim had entered the ring when official consultant to the SmackDown General Manager , Vickie Guerrero interrupted . Guerrero stated that a result of the Raw Divas making disparaging remarks about the SmackDown Divas , she was changing the match to an interbrand Divas tag team match , with Raw Divas Kim and Maryse facing LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) from SmackDown . The story of the match was that Maryse and Kim could not work together , and Maryse attacked Kim , allowing McCool to hit her finishing move for the victory . Following the match , Maryse performed her " French Kiss DDT " on Kim . Following the match , The Miz was interviewed backstage by Josh Mathews about NXT , on which he was a mentor . He was interrupted by Montel Vontavious Porter , who informed The Miz that the two had a match next . This was followed by William Regal cutting an in @-@ ring promo about NXT . He was interrupted by the winner of the 2010 Royal Rumble match , Edge , who stated that he would be deciding which championship to challenge for at WrestleMania on the next episode of Raw . Edge then speared Regal .

The fifth match was a previously unannounced contest which saw The Miz defend his WWE United States Championship against Montel Vontavious Porter . The Miz was accompanied by his tag team partner , The Big Show , while Porter was accompanied by Mark Henry , with whom he had regularly teamed . Porter took the advantage at the beginning of the match , before The Miz was able to fight back with a swinging DDT . When he climbed to the top rope , however , Porter knocked him off to regain the advantage . The Big Show pulled The Miz out of the ring to safety , and then threw Henry into the security barricade at ringside . With the referee distracted by this , The Big Show used his " Knockout Punch " on Porter , and The Miz was able to pin him to retain his championship .

The main event of the pay @-@ per @-@ view was the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship , featuring the defending champion The Undertaker , CM Punk , Rey Mysterio , Chris Jericho , John Morrison , and R @-@ Truth . Mysterio , Morrison , and Jericho entered first and were locked into pods . The Undertaker was the fourth to make his way down to the ring , but an accident occurred during his entrance when his pyrotechnics were mistimed , resulting in him being momentarily engulfed in flames . He was cleared by a ringside doctor to wrestle , however , and was able to compete in the match . The final two , who were to start the match , were CM Punk , who was accompanied by his stable , the Straight Edge Society of Serena and Luke Gallows , and R @-@ Truth . Punk cut a promo on his way to the ring , but was interrupted by R @-@ Truth 's entrance . Punk was able to eliminate R @-@ Truth in approximately three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes , before any other competitor had entered the match , and finished his promo afterward . Mysterio entered after the first five minutes had passed , and eliminated Punk before the next competitor entered . The next entrant was revealed to be Jericho , and he and Mysterio wrestled for five minutes until Morrison was released . Morrison utilised his " Starship Pain " finisher ( a split @-@ legged corkscrew moonsault ) to pin Mysterio and eliminate him from the match . The final entrant into the match was the defending champion The Undertaker , who was able to eliminate Morrison following a chokeslam after approximately 28 minutes . Shawn Michaels , who had requested and been denied a match with The Undertaker for WrestleMania , snuck into the chamber , and performed his " Sweet Chin Music " superkick on The Undertaker . This allowed Jericho to pin The Undertaker to win the match and the World Heavyweight Championship for the third time .

= = Aftermath = =

Following his interference in the Elimination Chamber match to prevent The Undertaker from winning , Shawn Michaels cut a promo on the next episode of Raw , stating that he interfered so that The Undertaker would agree to a rematch at WrestleMania XXVI to get revenge . The Undertaker accepted the match on the condition that if Michaels lost , he would have to retire , to which Michaels agreed . Two weeks later , the pair agreed to make the match a no countout , no disqualification match .

Edge returned from injury at the Royal Rumble as a surprise entrant in the Royal Rumble match , which he won , earning a guaranteed match for any WWE world championship . Following Jericho 's victory in the Elimination Chamber , in which he won the World Heavyweight Championship , Edge speared him the following night on Raw and announced that he had elected to face Jericho at WrestleMania . Following this announcement , Edge began a campaign of surprise attacks on Jericho , spearing him on several occasions in an attempt to play mind games with Jericho . On the March 12 episode of SmackDown , Jericho hosted a special edition of his talk show segment , The Highlight Reel , with Edge as the guest . Edge attempted to spear Jericho again , but Jericho was able to avoid it and hit Edge with the World Heavyweight Championship belt instead .

After Batista won the WWE Championship from John Cena at Elimination Chamber , Cena requested a rematch . Mr. McMahon agreed , on the condition that Cena must defeat Batista in a non @-@ title match that night on Raw . Batista intentionally low @-@ blowed Cena during the match to get disqualified and set up their match at WrestleMania . To build up their match , Batista interfered in several of Cena 's matches in the weeks prior to WrestleMania , both attacking Cena or distracting him so that his opponent could gain the advantage .

Tension within The Legacy faction had been growing since Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase accidentally cost Randy Orton the WWE Championship at the Royal Rumble . After DiBiase eliminated Orton from the Elimination Chamber match , with the help of Rhodes , Orton turned on Rhodes and DiBiase , and attacked them during a six @-@ man tag team match causing The Legacy to lose . In the following weeks , Orton faced DiBiase in a singles match and DiBiase and Rhodes in a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match , until the guest host of Raw , Steve Austin , booked a triple threat match between Orton , Rhodes , and DiBiase for WrestleMania .

After being eliminated from the Elimination Chamber match by Triple H , Sheamus attacked him on the March 1 episode of Raw in retaliation . The following week , Sheamus challenged Triple H to a match at WrestleMania , which Triple H accepted . On the final episode of Raw before WrestleMania , Sheamus teamed up with Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase to defeat Triple H and Randy Orton in a two @-@ on @-@ three handicap match .

= = = Reception = = =

The event received generally negative reviews . Writing for The Sun , Rob McNichol criticised the majority of the show as being " filler " and stated that the Divas match was " poor fare " . Writing for Canadian Online Explorer 's wrestling section , Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk also slammed the Divas match , rating it 0 @.@ 5 out of 10 , and stating that it " was pretty much a complete waste of time " , a sentiment echoed by the Pro Wrestling Torch 's James Caldwell , who stated that the match was a " throwaway " . The non @-@ Elimination Chamber matches on the show were mostly derided as being unimportant , with The Baltimore Sun 's reviewer Kevin Eck stating that they " came off as filler " .

Despite the generally negative reviews , McNichol praised the unannounced championship match between Batista and Cena , stating that " it was good storytelling and played out Batista 's current character traits well " . He singled out John Morrison 's performance in the Elimination Chamber match as " impressive " . His praise was echoed by Caldwell , who stated that Morrison had " some standout moments " throughout the match . Wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer praised the United States Championship match between The Miz and Montel Vontavious Porter , stating that it was " good " . Eck agreed , stating that it was " the best of the three non @-@ chamber matches " .

Overall , Plummer and Tylwalk rated the event 5 out of 10 , stating that it was " a strangely paced , uneven affair that dragged between its pair of namesake matches " , but that it succeeded in building up matches for WrestleMania . McNichol agreed , praising the storyline developments in setting up WrestleMania matches , but ultimately calling the event " forgettable " . He awarded the event 7 out of 10 . Caldwell also criticised the pay @-@ per @-@ view heavily , stating that it was an " underwhelming overall PPV with a weak , weak mid @-@ card " .

17 @,@ 000 people attended Elimination Chamber at the Scottrade Center , drawing a gate of US $ 850 @,@ 000 . The event received 285 @,@ 000 buys on pay @-@ per @-@ view , an increase of 13 @,@ 000 compared to No Way Out 2009 's 272 @,@ 000 buys . The DVD of the event was released on March 23 , 2010 .

= = Results = =

= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations ( Raw ) = = =

= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations ( SmackDown ) = = =

= Mario Bros. =

Mario Bros. ( マリオブラザーズ , Mario Burazāzu ) is a platform game published and developed for arcades by Nintendo in 1983 . It was created by Shigeru Miyamoto . It has been featured as a minigame in the Super Mario Advance series and numerous other games . Mario Bros. has been re @-@ released for the Wii 's , Nintendo 3DS 's , and Wii U 's Virtual Console services in Japan , North America , Europe and Australia .

In the game , Mario is portrayed as an Italian @-@ American plumber who , along with his younger brother Luigi , has to defeat creatures that have been coming from the sewers below New York City . The gameplay focuses on Mario 's extermination of them by flipping them on their backs and kicking them away . The original versions of Mario Bros. — the arcade version and the Family Computer / Nintendo Entertainment System ( FC / NES ) version — were received positively by critics .

= = Gameplay = =

Mario Bros. features two plumbers , Mario and Luigi , having to investigate the sewers of New York after strange creatures have been appearing down there . The objective of the game is to defeat all of the enemies in each phase . The mechanics of Mario Bros. involve only running and jumping . Unlike future Mario games , players cannot jump on enemies and squash them , unless they were already turned on their back . Each phase is a series of platforms with pipes at each corner of the screen , along with an object called a " POW " block in the center . Phases use wraparound , meaning that enemies and players that go off to one side will reappear on the opposite side .

The player gains points by defeating multiple enemies consecutively and can participate in a bonus round to gain more points . Enemies are defeated by kicking them over once they have been flipped on their back . This is accomplished by hitting the platform the enemy is on directly beneath them . If the player allows too much time to pass after doing this , the enemy will flip itself back over , changing in color and increasing speed . Each phase has a certain number of enemies , with the final enemy immediately changing color and increasing its speed .

There are four enemies : the Shellcreeper , which simply walks around ; the Sidestepper , which requires two hits to flip over ; the Fighter Fly , which moves by jumping and can only be flipped when it is touching a platform ; and the Slipice , which turns platforms into slippery ice . When bumped from below , the Slipice dies immediately instead of flipping over .

The " POW " block flips all enemies touching a platform or the floor when a player hits it from below . It can be used three times before it disappears . In the Super Mario Bros. 3 in @-@ game Player @-@ Versus @-@ Player version of this minigame , each of the three uses causes the opponent to lose a card and all the enemies to be flipped over . Another feature in this small remake is that the pipes are straight , occasionally spitting out large fireballs at the two plumbers . Coins appear whenever enemies are defeated and may be collected for bonus points .

As the game progresses , elements are added to increase the difficulty . Fireballs either bounce around the screen or travel directly from one side to the other , and icicles form under the platforms and fall loose . Bonus rounds give the players a chance to score extra points and lives by collecting coins without having to deal with enemies ; the " POW " block regenerates itself on each of these screens .

= = Development = =

Mario Bros. was created by Shigeru Miyamoto and Gunpei Yokoi , two of the lead developers for the video game Donkey Kong . In Donkey Kong , Mario dies if he falls too far . Yokoi suggested to Miyamoto that he should be able to fall from any height , which Miyamoto was not sure of , thinking that it would make it " not much of a game . " He eventually agreed , thinking it would be okay for him to have some superhuman abilities . He designed a prototype that had Mario " jumping and bouncing around " , which he was satisfied with . The element of combating enemies from below was introduced after Yokoi suggested it , observing that it would work since there were multiple floors . However , it proved to be too easy to eliminate enemies this way , which the developers fixed by requiring players to touch the enemies after they 've been flipped to defeat them . This was also how they introduced the turtle as an enemy , which they conceived as an enemy that could only be hit from below . Because of Mario 's appearance in Donkey Kong with overalls , a hat , and a thick moustache , Shigeru Miyamoto thought that he should be a plumber as opposed to a carpenter , and designed this game to reflect that . Another contributing factor was the game 's setting : it was a large network of giant pipes , so they felt a change in occupation was necessary for him .

A popular story of how Mario went from Jumpman to Mario is that an Italian @-@ American landlord , Mario Segale , had barged in on Nintendo of America 's staff to demand rent , and they decided to name Jumpman after him . Miyamoto also felt that the best setting for this game was New York because of its " labyrinthine subterranean network of sewage pipes . " The pipes were inspired by several manga , which Miyamoto states feature waste grounds with pipes lying around . In this game , they were used in a way to allow the enemies to enter and exit the stage through them to avoid getting enemies piled up on the bottom of the stage . The green coloring of the pipes , which Nintendo late president Satoru Iwata called an uncommon color , came from Miyamoto having a limited color palette and wanting to keep things colorful . He added that green was the best because it worked well when two shades of it were combined .

Mario Bros. is one of the first platform games ever created , along with Donkey Kong . It also introduced Mario 's brother , Luigi , who was created for the multiplayer mode by doing a palette swap of Mario . The two @-@ player mode and several aspects of gameplay were inspired by an earlier video game called Joust . To date , Mario Bros. has been released for more than a dozen platforms . The first movement from Mozart 's Eine kleine Nachtmusik is used at the start of the game . This song has been used in later video games , including Dance Dance Revolution Mario Mix and Super Smash Bros. Brawl .

= = = Ports and follow @-@ ups = = =

Despite its innovations , Mario Bros. was not a major success in North America due to the video game crash in 1983 . It did however receive a number of home versions on the Apple II , Atari 2600 , Atari 5200 , Atari 8 @-@ bit computers , Atari 7800 , Amstrad CPC , and ZX Spectrum . The Commodore 64 had two versions : an Atarisoft port which was not commercially released and a 1986 version by Ocean Software . The Atari 8 @-@ bit computer version by Sculptured Software , as well as the Apple II port programmed by Jimmy Huey of Designer Software , were the only home versions of the game to feature the falling icicles ( the NES version omitted them due to space constraints on early NES cartridges ) . The latter conversion was not sold either . The game was also rereleased on the Virtual Console service in North America , Australia , Europe and Japan for the Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. It was also remade on copies of games in the Game Boy Advance 's Super Mario Advance series as well as Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga , and it was included as a mini @-@ game in Super Mario Bros. 3 . The Game Boy Advance version was included in the 10 free games given out by Nintendo in the 3DS ambassador program due to its inclusion on the cart for the GBA port of Yoshi 's Island which was one of the games on the list . Mario Bros. is also potentially slated for a second release , this time a 3D Classics remake , on the Nintendo 3DS , and may feature camera support , 3D support , or analog support . This release was featured among other games from the NES and SNES to be released for the 3DS on a tech demo called Classic Games at E3 2010 .

The NES version was included as a piece of furniture in Animal Crossing for the GameCube , along with many other NES games , though this one required the use of a Nintendo e @-@ Reader , a Game Boy Advance accessory , and a North America @-@ exclusive Animal Crossing e @-@ Card . This version was later re @-@ released in the second series of NES e @-@ Cards , and was even re @-@ released through the Famicom Mini series in Japan . An improved port called Kaette Kita Mario Bros. ( かえってきたマリオブラザーズ ) was released in Japan for the Family Computer Disk System , with added features and revisions to gameplay . It also featured cutscenes and even advertisements , being sponsored by the food company Nagatanien . Kaette Kita is very rare since it was only available as a Disk Writer promotion . A later NES port was released exclusively in Europe in 1993 , called Mario Bros. Classic ; this version had a more refined control and stage intermissions closer to the original arcade version .

In 1984 , Hudson Soft made two different games based on Mario Bros. The first was Mario Bros. Special ( マリオブラザーズスペシャル , Mario Burazāzu Supesharu ) , which was a re @-@ imagining of the original Mario Bros. with new phases , mechanics and gameplay . The second was Punch Ball Mario Bros. ( パンチボールマリオブラザーズ , Panchi Bōru Mario Burazāzu ) , which featured a new gameplay mechanic involving punching small balls to stun enemies . Both games were released for the PC @-@ 8801 , FM @-@ 7 , and X1 and have been described as average for the most part , neither the best or worst games in the series . Mario Clash , a game released in 1995 for the Virtual Boy , was developed as a straight remake of Mario Bros. , with the working title Mario Bros. VB . It was the first stereoscopic 3D Mario game . The objective of the game is to knock all the enemies in a particular phase off ledges . Instead of hitting them from below , like in Mario Bros. , the player must hit enemies using Koopa shells .

The Wii U game Super Mario 3D World contains Luigi Bros , a version of Mario Bros. starring Luigi . This game will be unlocked if the Wii U console contains save data from New Super Luigi U or the player completes World 8 .

= = Reception = =

Mario Bros. was only modestly successful in Japanese arcades . The arcade cabinets have since become mildly rare . To date in Japan , the NES version of Mario Bros. has sold more than 1 @.@ 63 million copies , and the Famicom Mini re @-@ release of the NES version has sold more than 90 @,@ 000 copies . Despite being released during the North American video game crash of 1983 , the arcade game , as well as the industry , were not affected . Video game author Dave Ellis considers it one of the more memorable classic games .

Opinions on the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) version of Mario Bros. have been mostly mixed , but does receive positive reviews from gamers . However , in a review of the Virtual Console game , GameSpot criticized the NES version for being a poor port of the arcade version . The Virtual Console version in particular was heavily criticized . GameSpot criticized it , saying that not only is it a port of an inferior version , but it retains all of the technical flaws found in this version . It also criticizes the Mario Bros. ports in general , saying that this is just one of many ports that have been made of it throughout Nintendo 's history.IGN complimented the Virtual Console version 's gameplay , even though it was critical of Nintendo 's decision to release an " inferior " NES port on the Virtual Console . IGN also agreed on the issue of the number of ports . They said that since most people have Mario Bros. on one of the Super Mario Advance games , this version is not worth 500 Wii Points . The Nintendo e @-@ Reader version of Mario Bros. was slightly more well received by IGN , who praised the gameplay , but criticized it for lack of multiplayer and for not being worth the purchase because of the Super Mario Advance versions .

The Super Mario Advance releases and Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga all featured the same version of Mario Bros. ( titled Mario Bros. Classic ) . The mode was first included in Super Mario Advance , and was praised for its simplicity and entertainment value . IGN called this mode fun in its review of Super Mario World : Super Mario Advance 2 , but complained that it would have been nice if the developers had come up with a new game to replace it . Their review of Yoshi 's Island : Super Mario Advance 3 criticizes it more so than in the review of Super Mario Advance 2 because Nintendo chose not to add multiplayer to any of the mini @-@ games found in that game , sticking instead with an identical version of the Mario Bros. game found in previous versions . GameSpot 's review of Super Mario Advance 4 : Super Mario Bros. 3 calls it a throwaway feature that could have simply been gutted . Other reviewers were not as negative on the feature 's use in later Super Mario Advance games . Despite its use being criticized in most Super Mario Advance games , a GameSpy review called the version found in Super Mario Advance 2 a blast to play in multi @-@ player because it only requires at least two Game Boy Advances , one copy of the game , and a link cable .

= Mary Isenhour =

Mary Isenhour is an American political strategist , campaign manager , and government official , currently serving as Chief of Staff for Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf . Prior to the Wolf administration , Isenhour served executive director of the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , was state director of Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , and assisted with the successful campaigns of U.S. Senator Bob Casey , Jr. and Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell .

Isenhour also previously worked as executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee , and started a political consulting firm with former state party chairman T.J. Rooney . In 2010 , PoliticsPA called her " one of the top consultants in the state " , and said , " few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does " .

Starting her career working on the Kansas House of Representatives staff , Isenhour eventually becoming chief of staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer , and then director of the Democratic Party 's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races . She worked as the national political director for the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee before starting her Pennsylvania political career in 1999 .

= = Early career = =

A Kansas native , Isenhour attended the University of Kansas . She began her political career as a staffer in the Kansas House of Representatives . In 1990 she worked as a legislative aide to House Minority Leader Marvin Barkis , and the following year was an administrative assistant to House Majority Leader Donna Whiteman . From 1991 to 1995 , Isenhour served as Chief of Staff to House Minority Leader Tom Sawyer , where she worked with Democratic and Republican lawmakers alike to advance legislation , served as a liaison between Sawyer and other officials , and worked with members of leadership and committees to develop legislative strategies and build coalitions . In 1992 , Isenhour was the director of the Democratic Party 's Kansas Coordinated Campaign for legislative races , both in the state House and Senate . Those races included more than three dozen candidates by July 1992 .

From 1995 to 1999 , Isenhour served as the Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee 's national political director , based in Washington D.C. In that capacity , she worked with legislative leaders and caucus campaign staff in more 15 states to help win or preserve Democratic majorities in state legislatures . In 1996 , she worked in Iowa to help orchestrate the Democratic legislative campaigns in that the Iowa General Assembly , partnering with Iowa Senate Majority Leader Wally Horn and other key legislative Democrats to improving the party 's position . She described it as an attempt to avoid a repeat of 1994 elections , in which Democrats suffered major losses in both federal and state offices during the Republican Revolution . Isenhour said of those elections :

Isenhour also managed Sawyer 's campaign for the bid for Kansas governor in 1998 . Sawyer won the Democratic nomination , but ultimately lost in a landslide to the popular Republican incumbent , Bill Graves .

= = Pennsylvania career = =

Isenhour began her Pennsylvania political career in 1999 , when she became executive director of the Pennsylvania House Democratic Campaign Committee , helping to get Democratic candidates elected to the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . She held the position until 2003 . Isenhour assisted with Bob Casey , Jr . ' s successful 2006 campaign against Republican incumbent Rick Santorum , served as political adviser to state House Democratic Leader Frank Dermody , and ran Governor Ed Rendell 's successful 2006 re @-@ election campaign against challenger Lynn Swann , after which she helped plan Rendell 's 2007 inauguration . Rendell appointed her to the Pennsylvania Community Service Advisory Board .

Isenhour worked for the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , serving as an aide and political adviser to T.J. Rooney , the state party chairman . In 2007 , she became executive director of the party , replacing Don Morabito , who took a position in the Rendell administration . The party enjoyed much success during her time there , controlling the Governor 's office , three of four statewide row offices , two U.S. Senators , a majority in the State House , and picking up five seats in the Congressional delegation . She served as director of PA Victory , a statewide coordinated campaign effort . Isenhour was also chosen as the Pennsylvania state director for Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , after Rendell recommended her for the position . There was talk of Isenhour continuing to work with the Clinton administration after the primary , but she instead returned to her position with the Pennsylvania Democratic Party .

In 2008 , Isenhour and Rooney met with MSNBC news commentator Chris Matthews to discuss the possibility of Matthews running against Republican U.S. Senator Arlen Specter , although he ultimately did not run . Also that year , Isenhour and her Republican counterpart Luke Bernstein , executive director of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania , together taught a class about presidential elections at the Dickinson College in Carlisle , Pennsylvania . Isenhour and Bernstein both believed it was the first class of its type , and said the two had a very cordial relationship despite representing opposite political parties . Isenhour also taught about electoral politics at other educational institutions , including the University of Pennsylvania , Central Penn College and The Washington Center .

In July 2010 , after more than seven years leading the Pennsylvania Democratic Party , Isenhour and Rooney started the political consulting firm Isenhour Rooney Strategies , which later became Isenhour Rooney and Carey . Also in 2010 , Isenhour was the only woman named to the PoliticsPA 's Pennsylvania Top 10 Influencers List by Campaigns and Elections , PoliticsPA also called her " one of the top consultants in the state " , and said " few can move between the strategy of campaigning and its mechanics with the ease that she does " . Among the candidates she advised was Rob Teplitz in his successful campaign for Pennsylvania State Senate in 2012 . Eisenhour served on the board of Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania .

= = Governor Wolf administration = =

Isenhour was an early supporter of Pennsylvania gubernatorial candidate Tom Wolf , and became Wolf 's senior campaign adviser during his 2014 campaign , at a time when state Representative Allyson Schwartz and state Treasurer Rob McCord were considered to have better chances of winning . Isenhour , who had long been acquainted with Wolf , had not intended to become involved with a lengthy and work @-@ intensive gubernatorial campaign , but said she was convinced to do so after an hour @-@ long phone conversation with Wolf in 2013 , after which she was convinced he was the right man for the job : " I 've been in politics 30 years and I 've never had a candidate like this . " Isenhour maintained other clients during his campaign , but said Wolf was " my main focus for the next year and a half " . After Wolf 's successful election , Isenhour co @-@ chaired his inaugural committee , then worked as his Secretary of Legislative Affairs , serving as a liaison during negotiating sessions at the Pennsylvania General Assembly , and providing key planning during the governor 's budget strategy . Political reporter John L. Micek wrote of Isenhour : " She is in the unique position of having to work with Republicans she once ran campaigns against . " Her annual salary in the position was $ 145 @,@ 018 . Isenhour developed a reputation for communicating and building relationships with legislative leaders and staff members from both parties .

In July 2015 , Isenhour replaced Kathleen McGinty as Wolf 's Chief of Staff , after McGinty resigned six months into her tenure to pursue a campaign for U.S. Senate . Wolf called Isenhour " one of my closest advisors " and " a valuable part of my administration " , and said she " really understands how the politics of this place actually works . " The selection was praised by both parties , including House and Senate Republicans , who expressed hope she would be less adversarial than McGinty . The Butler Eagle wrote an editorial criticizing the appointment due to her position on the Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania board , in light of a national controversy over undercover videos about the group 's alleged sale of aborted fetal body parts . Isenhour came into the Chief of Staff position more than three weeks into a budget impasse between Wolf and the Republican @-@ controlled General Assembly .

In October 2015 , four months into the state budget impasse , Isenhour issued a memo notifying Wolf 's administration of a hiring freeze and travel ban . On February 3 , 2016 , Isenhour notified the state Public Employee Retirement Commission that , under Wolf 's orders , all employment of its staff would be discontinued . State Representatives Stephen Bloom of Cumberland County and Seth Grove of York County have filed a lawsuit against Wolf challenging that action , arguing the governor lacks the power to dissolve the commission and acted contrary to the Pennsylvania Constitution .

= = Personal life = =

Isenhour is married to Bill Patton , former chief of staff to Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives Dennis M. O 'Brien . They reside in Harrisburg , Pennsylvania . She has a cat named Ralph and enjoys cooking .

= Isle of Portland =

The Isle of Portland is a limestone tied island , 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) long by 2 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) wide , in the English Channel . Portland is 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) south of the resort of Weymouth , forming the southernmost point of the county of Dorset , England . A barrier beach over which runs the A354 road connects it to Chesil Beach and the mainland . Portland and Weymouth together form the borough of Weymouth and Portland . The population of Portland is 12 @,@ 400 .

Portland is a central part of the Jurassic Coast , a World Heritage Site on the Dorset and east Devon coast , important for its geology and landforms . Its name is used for one of the British Sea Areas , and has been exported as the name of North American and Australian towns . Portland stone , famous for its use in British and world architecture , including St Paul 's Cathedral and the United Nations Headquarters , continues to be quarried .

Portland Harbour , in between Portland and Weymouth , is one of the largest man @-@ made harbours in the world . The harbour was made by the building of stone breakwaters between 1848 and 1905 . From its inception it was a Royal Navy base , and played prominent roles during the First and Second World Wars ; ships of the Royal Navy and NATO countries worked up and exercised in its waters until 1995 . The harbour is now a civilian port and popular recreation area , and was used for the 2012 Olympic Games .

= = History = =

Portland has been inhabited since at least the Mesolithic period ( the Middle Stone Age ) — there is archaeological evidence of Mesolithic inhabitants at the Culverwell Mesolithic Site , near Portland Bill , and of habitation since then . The Romans occupied Portland , reputedly calling it Vindelis . The Vikings first raid on England occurred in Portland in 787 AD , as recorded in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Three lost Viking ships landed at Portland Bill . The King 's reeve tried to collect taxes from them . They killed him and sailed on . They were Northmen from Hordaland ( the district around Hardanger fjord in west Norway ) . In 1539 King Henry VIII ordered the construction of Portland Castle for defence against attacks by the French ; the castle cost £ 4 @,@ 964 . It is one of the best preserved castles from this period , and is opened to the public by the custodians English Heritage .

In the 17th century , chief architect and Surveyor @-@ General to James I , Inigo Jones , surveyed the area and introduced the local Portland stone to London ; using it in his Banqueting House , Whitehall , and for repairs on St Paul 's Cathedral . His successor , Sir Christopher Wren , the architect and Member of Parliament for nearby Weymouth , used six million tons of white Portland limestone to rebuild destroyed parts of the capital after the Great Fire of London of 1666 . Well @-@ known buildings in the capital , including St Paul 's Cathedral and the eastern front of Buckingham Palace feature the stone . After the First World War , a quarry was opened by The Crown Estate to provide stone for the Cenotaph in Whitehall and half a million gravestones for war cemeteries , and after the Second World War hundreds of thousands of gravestones were hewn for soldiers who had fallen on the Western Front . Portland cement has nothing to do with Portland ; it was so named due to its similar colour to Portland stone when mixed with lime and sand .

There have been railways in Portland since the early 19th century . The Merchant 's Railway was the earliest — it opened in 1826 ( one year after the Stockton and Darlington railway ) and ran from the quarries at the north of Tophill to a pier at Castletown , from where the Portland stone was shipped around the country . The Weymouth and Portland Railway was laid in 1865 , and ran from a station in Melcombe Regis , across the Fleet and along the low isthmus behind Chesil Beach to a station at Victoria Square in Chiswell . At the end of the 19th century the line was extended to the top of the island as the Easton and Church Ope Railway , running through Castletown and ascending the cliffs at East Weares , to loop back north to a station in Easton . The line closed to passengers in 1952 , and the final goods train ( and two passenger ' specials ' ) ran in April 1965 .

The Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck stationed a lifeboat at Portland in 1826 , which was withdrawn in 1851 . Coastal flooding has affected Portland 's residents and transport for centuries — the only way off the island by land is along the causeway in the lee of Chesil Beach . At times of extreme floods ( about every 10 years ) this road link is cut by floods . The low @-@ lying village of Chiswell used to flood on average every 5 years . Chesil Beach occasionally faces severe storms and massive waves , which have a fetch across the Atlantic Ocean . Following two severe flood events in the 1970s , Weymouth and Portland Borough Council and Wessex Water decided to investigate the structure of the beach , and coastal management schemes that could be built to protect Chiswell and the beach road . In the 1980s it was agreed that a scheme to protect against a one @-@ in @-@ five @-@ year storm would be practicable ; it would reduce flood depth and duration in more severe storms . Hard engineering techniques were employed in the scheme , including a gabion running 550 metres ( 600 yd ) to the north of Chiswell , an extended sea wall in Chesil Cove , and a culvert running from inside the beach , underneath the beach road and into Portland Harbour , to divert flood water away from low @-@ lying areas .

At the start of the First World War , HMS Hood was sunk in the passage between the southern breakwaters to protect the harbour from torpedo and submarine attack . Portland Harbour was formed ( 1848 – 1905 ) by the construction of breakwaters , but before that the natural anchorage had hosted ships of the Royal Navy for more than 500 years . It was a centre for Admiralty research into asdic submarine detection and underwater weapons from 1917 to 1998 ; the shore base HMS Serepta was renamed HMS Osprey in 1927 . During the Second World War Portland was the target of heavy bombing , although most warships had moved north as Portland was within enemy striking range across the Channel . Portland was a major embarkation point for Allied forces on D @-@ Day in 1944 . Early helicopters were stationed at Portland in 1946 – 1948 , and in 1959 a shallow tidal flat , The Mere , was infilled , and sports fields taken to form a heliport . The station was formally commissioned as HMS Osprey , which then became the largest and busiest military helicopter station in Europe . The base was gradually improved with additional landing areas and one of England 's shortest runways , at 229 metres ( 751 ft ) . There are still two prisons on Portland : HMP The Verne , which until 1949 was a huge Victorian military fortress , and a Young Offenders ' Institution ( HMYOI ) on the Grove clifftop . This was the original prison built for convicts who quarried stone for the Portland Breakwaters from 1848 . For a few years until 2005 Britain 's only prison ship , HMP The Weare , was berthed in the harbour .

The naval base closed after the end of the Cold War in 1995 , and the Royal Naval Air Station closed in 1999 , although the runway remains in use for Her Majesty 's Coastguard Search and Rescue flights as MRCC Portland . MRCC Portland 's area of responsibility extends midway across the English Channel , and from Start Point in Devon to the Dorset / Hampshire border , covering an area of around 10 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The 12 Search and Rescue teams in the Portland area dealt with almost 1000 incidents in 2005 .

= = Governance = =

Portland is an ancient Royal Manor , and until the 19th century remained a separate liberty within Dorset for administration purposes . It was an urban district from 1894 to 1974 , until the borough of Weymouth and Portland formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 . This merged the borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis with Portland urban district . For local elections the borough is divided into 15 wards , and three of them cover Portland . Elections take place in a four @-@ year cycle ; one third of the councillors in all but three wards retire or seek re @-@ election in years one , two and three , and county council elections are held in year four .

The Mayor of Weymouth and Portland is Ray Banham ( Liberal Democrat ) , Kate Wheller ( Labour Party ) is Deputy Mayor . Weymouth , Portland and the Purbeck district are in the South Dorset parliamentary constituency , created in 1885 . The constituency elects one Member of Parliament ; the current MP is Richard Drax ( Conservative ) . South Dorset , the rest of the South West England , and Gibraltar are in the South West England constituency of the European Parliament .

Weymouth and Portland have been twinned with the town of Holzwickede in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany since 1986 , and the French town of Louviers , in the department of Eure in Normandy , since 1959 . The borough and nearby Chickerell have been a Fairtrade Zone since 2007 .

= = Geography = =

The Isle of Portland lies in the English Channel , 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south of Wyke Regis , and 200 km ( 120 mi ) west @-@ southwest of London , at 50 ° 33 ′ 0 ″ N 2 ° 26 ′ 24 ″ W ( 50 @.@ 55 , − 2 @.@ 44 ) . Portland is situated approximately halfway along the UNESCO Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site ; the site includes 153 kilometres ( 95 mi ) of the Dorset and east Devon coast that is important for its geology and landforms . The South West Coast Path runs around the coast ; it is the United Kingdom 's longest national trail at 1 @,@ 014 kilometres ( 630 mi ) . Portland is unusual as it is connected to the mainland at Abbotsbury by Chesil Beach , a tombolo which runs 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) north @-@ west to West Bay . Portland is sometimes defined incorrectly as a tombolo — in fact Portland is a tied island , and Chesil Beach is the tombolo ( a spit joined to land at both ends ) .

There are eight settlements on Portland , the largest being Fortuneswell in Underhill and Easton on Tophill . Castletown and Chiswell are the other villages in Underhill , and Weston , Southwell , Wakeham and the Grove are on the Tophill plateau . Many old buildings are built out of Portland Stone ; Several parts have been designated Conservation Areas to preserve the unique character the older settlements which date back hundreds of years . The architecture ; the natural and man @-@ made environment and the proximity to the sea give Portland overall character which is quite distinct .

The Isle of Portland has been designated by Natural England as National Character Area 137 . It is adjoined by the Weymouth Lowlands to the north .

= = = Geology = = =

Geologically , Portland is separated into two areas ; the steeply sloping land at its north end called Underhill , and the larger , gently sloping land to the south , called Tophill . Portland stone lies under Tophill ; the strata decline at a shallow angle of around 1 @.@ 5 degrees , from a height of 151 metres ( 495 ft ) near the Verne in the north , to just above sea level at Portland Bill . The geology of Underhill is different to Tophill ; Underhill lies on a steep escarpment composed of Portland Sand , lying above a thicker layer of Kimmeridge Clay , which extends to Chesil Beach and Portland Harbour . This Kimmeridge Clay has resulted in a series of landslides , forming West Weares and East Weares .

2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) underneath south Dorset lies a layer of Triassic rock salt , and Portland is one of four locations in the United Kingdom where the salt is thick enough to create stable cavities . Portland Gas applied to excavate 14 caverns to store 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 5 × 1010 cu ft ) of natural gas , which is one percent of the UK 's total annual demand . It was proposed that the caverns should be connected to the National gas grid at Mappowder via a 37 @-@ kilometre ( 23 mi ) pipeline . Plans had it that the surface facilities should be complete to store the first gas in 2011 , and the entire cavern space available for storage in winter 2013 . As part of the £ 350 million scheme , the Grade II listed former Old Engine Shed would be converted into a £ 1 @.@ 5 million educational centre with a café and an exhibition space about the geology of Portland . However , as of 2014 , these plans are on hold .

= = = Portland Bill = = =

Portland Bill is the southern tip of the island of Portland . The Bill has three lighthouse towers : The Higher Lighthouse is now a dwelling and holiday apartments ; the Lower Lighthouse is now a bird observatory and field centre which opened in 1961 . The white and red lighthouse on Bill Point replaced the Higher and Lower Lighthouses in 1906 . It is a prominent and much photographed feature ; an important landmark for ships passing the headland and its tidal race . The current lighthouse was refurbished in 1996 and became remotely controlled . It now contains a visitors ' centre giving information and guided tours of the lighthouse . As of June 2009 , the lighthouse uses a 1 kW metal @-@ halide US @-@ made lamp with an operational life of about 4000 hours , or 14 months . Two earlier lighthouses stand further inland : one is an important observatory used by ornithologists , providing records of bird migration and accommodation for visitors .

Portland Ledge ( the Shambles ) is an underwater extension of Portland Stone into the English Channel at a place where the depth of Channel is 20 to 40 metres ( about 10 to 20 fathoms ) . Tidal flow is disrupted by the feature ; at 10 metres ( about 5 fathoms ) deep and 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 nmi ) long , it causes a tidal race to the south of Portland Bill , the so @-@ called Portland Race . The current only stops for brief periods during the 12 ½ hour tidal cycle and can reach 4 metres per second ( 8 kn ) at the spring tide of 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) .

= = = Ecology = = =

Due to its isolated coastal location , the Isle of Portland has an extensive range of flora and fauna ; the coastline and disused quarries are designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest . Sea and migratory birds occupy the cliffs in different seasons , sometimes these include rare species which draw ornithologists from around the country . Rare visitors to the surrounding seas include dolphins , seals and basking sharks . Chesil Beach is one of only two sites in Britain where the Scaly Cricket can be found ; unlike any other cricket it is wingless and does not sing or hop . Ten British Primitive goats were introduced to the East Weares part of the island to control scrub in 2007 .

The comparatively warm and sunny climate allows species of plants to thrive which do not on the mainland . The limestone soil has low nutrient levels ; hence smaller species of wild flowers and grasses are able to grow in the absence of larger species . Portland Sea Lavender can be found on the higher sea cliffs — unique to Portland it is one of the United Kingdom 's rarest plants . The wild flowers and plants make an excellent habitat for butterflies ; over half of the British Isles ' 57 butterfly species can be seen on Portland , including varieties that migrate from mainland Europe . Species live on Portland that are rare in the United Kingdom , including the limestone race of the Silver Studded Blue .

= = = Climate = = =

The mild seas which almost surround the tied island produce a temperate climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures . The average annual mean temperature from 1981 to 2010 was 11 @.@ 2 ° C ( 52 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The warmest month is August , which has an average temperature range of 14 @.@ 5 to 19 @.@ 3 ° C ( 58 @.@ 1 to 66 @.@ 7 ° F ) , and the coolest is February , which has a range of 4 @.@ 0 to 8 @.@ 0 ° C ( 39 @.@ 2 to 46 @.@ 4 ° F ) . Maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year are above England 's average , and Portland is in AHS Heat zone 1 . Mean sea surface temperatures range from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in February to 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 63 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August ; the annual mean is 11 @.@ 8 ° C ( 53 @.@ 2 ° F ) .

The mild seas that surround Portland act to keep night @-@ time temperatures above freezing , making winter frost rare : on average 9 @.@ 6 days per year — this is far below the United Kingdom 's average annual total of 55 @.@ 6 days of frost . Days with snow lying are equally rare : on average zero to six days per year ; almost all winters have one day or less with snow lying . It may snow or sleet in winter , yet it almost never settles on the ground — coastal areas in South West England such as Portland experience the mildest winters in the UK . Portland is less affected by the Atlantic storms that Devon and Cornwall experience . The growing season lasts for more than 310 days per year , and the borough is in Hardiness zone 9b .

Weymouth and Portland , and the rest of the south coast , has the sunniest climate in the United Kingdom . Portland averaged 1798 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine annually between 1981 and 2010 , which is 41 % of the maximum possible , and 34 % above the United Kingdom average of 1339 @.@ 7 hours . December is the cloudiest month ( 59 @.@ 7 hours of sunshine ) , October and November the joint wettest ( 81 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) of rain ) and July is the sunniest and driest month ( 236 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine , 35 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) of rain ) . Sunshine totals in all months are well above the United Kingdom average , and monthly rainfall totals throughout the year are less than the UK average , particularly in summer ; this summer minimum of rainfall is not experienced away from the south coast of England . The average annual rainfall of 667 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) is well below the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 3 in ) .

= = Demography = =

The mid @-@ year population of Portland in 2010 was 12 @,@ 400 ; this figure has remained around twelve to thirteen thousand since the 1970s . In 2010 there were 5 @,@ 786 dwellings in an area of 11 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 840 acres ) , giving an approximate population density of 1100 people per km2 ( 4 @.@ 5 per acre ) . The population is almost entirely native to England — 94 @.@ 9 percent of residents are of white British ethnicity , well above the England and Wales average of 80 @.@ 5 percent . The average price of a detached house on Portland in 2010 was £ 194 @,@ 200 ; terraced houses are cheaper , at £ 149 @,@ 727 , and an apartment or maisonette costs £ 110 @,@ 500 .

Crime rates are below average — there were 5 @.@ 4 burglaries per 1000 households in 2009 and 2010 ; which is lower than South West England ( 7 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) and significantly lower than England and Wales ( 11 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) . Unemployment levels are very low , at 1 @.@ 9 percent in July 2011 , compared to the United Kingdom average of 7 @.@ 7 percent . The most common religious identity in Weymouth and Portland is Christianity , at 61 @.@ 0 percent , which is slightly above the England and Wales average of 59 @.@ 3 percent . The next @-@ largest sector is those with no religion , at 29 @.@ 3 percent , also slightly above the average of 25 @.@ 1 percent .

= = Transport = =

The A354 road is the only land access to Portland , via Ferry Bridge , connecting to Weymouth and to the wider road network at the A35 trunk road in Dorchester . It runs from Easton , splitting into a northbound section through Chiswell and a southbound section through Fortuneswell , then along Chesil Beach and across a bridge to the mainland in Wyke Regis . Formerly a branch line railway , connecting to the South West Main Line near Weymouth railway station , also crossed to the island . The corridor is now a cycle path connecting Fortuneswell with Weymouth and a wider network of traffic @-@ free cycle paths .

Local buses are run by FirstGroup , with services to Weymouth . Weymouth is the hub for south Dorset bus routes , with services to Dorchester and local villages . Weymouth is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by the Jurassic Coast Bus service , which runs for 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) from Exeter to Poole , through Sidford , Beer , Seaton , Lyme Regis , Charmouth , Bridport , Abbotsbury , Weymouth , Wool , and Wareham . Trains run from Weymouth to London , Southampton and Bristol , and ferries to the French port of St Malo and the Channel Islands of Guernsey and Jersey .

There is a short airstrip and heliport in Osprey Quay , just north of Fortuneswell .

= = Education = =

St George 's Community Primary School is located in Easton . The only other school on Portland is the Isle of Portland Aldridge Community Academy , an all @-@ through school and sixth form for pupils aged 3 to 19 based over 4 different sites . Isle of Portland Aldridge Community Academy was formed in 2012 by merging four primary schools and one secondary school .

Some students commute to Weymouth to study A @-@ Levels , or to attend other secondary schools nearby . Weymouth College in Melcombe Regis is the nearest further education college , which has around 7 @,@ 500 students from south west England and overseas , about 1500 studying A @-@ Level courses .

= = Culture = =

= = = Sport and recreation = = =

In 2000 , the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy was built in Osprey Quay in Underhill as a centre for sailing in the United Kingdom . Weymouth and Portland 's waters were credited by the Royal Yachting Association as the best in Northern Europe . Weymouth and Portland regularly host local , national and international sailing events in their waters ; these include the J / 24 World Championships in 2005 , trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics , the ISAF World Championship 2006 , the BUSA Fleet Racing Championships , and the RYA Youth National Championships .

In 2005 , the WPNSA was selected to host sailing events at the 2012 Olympic Games — mainly because the Academy had recently been built , so no new venue would have to be provided . However , as part of the South West of England Regional Development Agency 's plans to redevelop Osprey Quay , a new 600 @-@ berth marina and an extension with more on @-@ site facilities were built . Construction was scheduled between October 2007 and the end of 2008 , and with its completion and formal opening on 11 June 2009 , the venue became the first of the 2012 Olympic Games to be completed .

Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour are used for other water sports – the reliable wind is favourable for wind and kite @-@ surfing . Chesil Beach and Portland Harbour are used regularly for angling , diving to shipwrecks , snorkelling , canoeing , and swimming . The limestone cliffs and quarries are used for rock climbing ; Portland has areas for bouldering and deep water soloing , however sport climbing with bolt protection is the most common style . Since June 2003 the South West Coast Path National Trail has included 21 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 2 mi ) of coastal walking around the Isle of Portland , including following the A354 Portland Beach Road twice .

Isle of Portland has a Non @-@ League football club Portland United F.C. who play at Grove Corner . They also have a very successful youth set up called Portland United youth football Club who provide active team sport for over 170 children on the Island .

= = = Rabbits = = =

Rabbits have long been associated with bad luck on Portland ; use of the name is still taboo — the creatures are often referred to as " Underground Mutton " , " Long @-@ Eared Furry Things " or just " bunnies " . The origin of this superstition is obscure ( there is no record of it before the 1920s ) but it is believed to derive from quarry workers : they would see rabbits emerging from their burrows immediately before a rock fall and blame them for increasing the risk of dangerous , sometimes deadly , landslides . If a rabbit was seen in a quarry , the workers would pack up and go home for the day , until the safety of the area had been assured . Local fishermen too would refuse to go to sea if the word was mentioned .

Even today older Portland residents are ' offended ' ( sometimes for the benefit of tourists ) by the mention of rabbits ; this superstition came to national attention in October 2005 when a special batch of advertisement posters were made for the Wallace and Gromit film , The Curse of the Were @-@ Rabbit . In respect for local beliefs the adverts omitted the word ' rabbit ' and replaced the film 's title with the phrase " Something bunny is going on " .

= = = Literature = = =

Thomas Hardy described Portland as " the peninsular carved by Time out of a single stone " , and named it the Isle of Slingers and Isle of the Race in his Wessex novels ; it was the main setting of The Well @-@ Beloved ( 1897 ) , and was featured in The Trumpet @-@ Major ( 1880 ) . The cottage that now houses Portland Museum was the inspiration for the heroine 's house in The Well @-@ Beloved . Portlanders were expert stone @-@ throwers in the defence of their land , and Hardy 's Isle of Slingers is heavily based on Portland ; the Street of Wells representing Fortuneswell and The Beal Portland Bill . Hardy also called Portland the Gibraltar of the North , with reference to its similarities with Gibraltar ; its physical geography , isolation , comparatively mild climate , and Underhill 's winding streets .

Hilaire Belloc 's book The Cruise of the " Nona " is about sailing near Portland , and the reflections it occasions . He describes Portland Race as " the master terror of our world " , and says " ... if you were to make a list of all the things which Portland Race has swallowed up , it would rival Orcus " .

In Museums Without Walls , Jonathan Meades declares that " Portland is a bulky chunk of geological , social , topographical and demographic weirdness . It is the obverse of a beauty spot . ' Beauty ' in this construction implies the picturesque . Portland is gloriously bereft of this quality . It is awesome . There is nothing pretty about it . "

In The Warlord Chronicles ( 1995 – 97 ) , Bernard Cornwell makes Portland the Isle of the Dead , a place of internal exile , where the causeway was guarded to keep the ' dead ' ( people suffering insanity ) from crossing the Fleet and returning to the mainland . No historical evidence exists to support this idea .

The Portland Chronicles series of four children 's books , set on and around Portland and Weymouth and written by local author Carol Hunt , draw on local history to explore a seventeenth century world of smuggling , witchcraft , piracy and local intrigue .

= = = Vernacular = = =

Bunnies : ( see above ) .

Kimberlin : slang for any ' strangers ' who live on the island but are not from the Island .

Portland screw : fossil mollusc ( Aptyxiella portlandica ) with a long screw @-@ like shell or its cast .

= = Notable persons born here = =

Lead singer of rock band Art Brut , Eddie Argos .

Edgar F. Codd ( 23 August 1923 – 18 April 2003 ) , British computer scientist and inventor of the relational model for database management .

Former Premier League referee Paul Durkin .

Former Queensland , Australia , politician Pat Comben

= Craig McAllister =

Craig McAllister ( born 28 June 1980 ) is a Scottish semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a striker for National League South club Sutton United .

McAllister started his career with Eastleigh as a youth player . He moved to Basingstoke Town towards the end of 2001 – 02 , making his debut in March 2002 . McAllister spent three seasons there , making 112 appearances , scoring 66 goals before moving up the national league system to Conference National club Stevenage Borough where he made six appearances , having loan spells at Eastleigh in 2004 and Gravesend & Northfleet in 2004 – 05 . He joined Woking in 2005 , spending two full seasons there , and making over 100 appearances . He had a short spell with Grays Athletic , being sent out on loan to Rushden & Diamonds and then another short spell at Oxford United , all during the 2007 – 08 season . After leaving Oxford in 2008 , he took a step up to the Football League for the first time in his career , signing for Exeter City . He went on to score seven goals in his first season , but was loaned out to Barnet and Rotherham United in his second and was eventually released by the club in May 2010 . McAllister then dropped back down to non @-@ League football , joining Crawley Town where he played at Old Trafford ; his team was defeated 1 – 0 by Manchester United in their FA Cup fifth round tie . He rejected a new contract from Crawley at the end of the 2010 – 11 season , subsequently joining Newport County .

McAllister won his first major honour in 2011 , helping Crawley Town win the Conference Premier for the first time in their history .

= = Career = =

= = = Non @-@ League = = =

Born in Glasgow , McAllister started his career in non @-@ League football at Eastleigh in 2001 . He later moved to Basingstoke Town . He made his debut in March 2002 , scoring in a 1 – 1 draw with Hampton & Richmond Borough . He played ten games in the 2001 – 02 season , scoring three goals . He started the 2002 – 03 season with a goal on the opening day , as Basingstoke drew 2 – 2 with Aylesbury United . In November , McAllister scored two hat @-@ tricks in two games , the first of which helped Basingstoke to a 3 – 1 win over Bishops Stortford , and the second helped his side to a 3 – 0 win over Braintree Town . He finished 2002 – 03 with 35 goals from 47 games . McAllister 's success continued into 2003 – 04 , where he scored another 28 goals in 35 appearances . This success earned him a trial with Queens Park Rangers in the Football League Championship , just one level down from the Premier League .

After scoring 66 times in 112 games for Basingstoke Town , he moved to the Conference National outfit Stevenage on a bosman transfer in May 2004 . He made his debut for Stevenage as a substitute , as they beat Crawley Town , 1 – 0 . After struggling to get in the starting line @-@ up for Stevenage , he was sent out on loan to his former club , Eastleigh , where he scored six goals in four games . In December 2004 , he was loaned out for the second time in that season , moving to Gravesend & Northfleet , where he made debut in a 1 – 0 defeat by Hereford United . In the second minute of Gravesend 's 1 – 1 draw with Crawley Town , he scored the first goal of this loan . He scored his second and last goal of this loan just two days later , which helped his team to a 2 – 2 draw with Accrington Stanley , before he returned to his parent club , Stevenage , in January 2005 . At the end of 2004 – 05 , he left Stevenage having only played 11 games in all competitions , with one goal .

Before the start of 2005 – 06 he signed for Woking on a permanent deal . He made his debut in August 2005 , starting in a 2 – 1 defeat by Kidderminster Harriers . McAllister finished his debut season with thirteen goals , eight of which were in the league . McAllister scored his first brace for Woking in September 2006 , as he helped his side to overcome Forest Green Rovers , 3 – 2 , away from home . After scoring 18 goals in 2006 – 07 , he attracted interest from several Conference sides and in May 2007 he signed for Grays Athletic . After making his debut for Grays Athletic in a 0 – 0 draw with Torquay United in August 2007 , he played only another eight times , scoring one goal against Droylsden , before being sent out on loan to league rivals Rushden & Diamonds in October . He returned from the loan in January 2008 , having only scored one goal , against Oxford United , who he then signed for on his return to Grays . Having joined Oxford on a contract until the end of the 2007 – 08 season , McAllister made his debut for the club in a 4 – 0 win over Altrincham ; he scored 22 minutes into the game . He made another 16 appearances , scoring one more goal , before leaving at the end of the season .

= = = Exeter City = = =

He completed a move to Football League Two side Exeter City in summer 2008 , signing for the first time for a club in the Football League . He made his first team debut in August 2008 , in a home match against Southampton , in the League Cup . Exeter lost the game 3 – 1 . It took until December for McAllister to score his first competitive for the club , when he scored to help Exeter to a 2 – 1 win over Lincoln City . He then scored another two goals later that month , in a 4 – 1 win over north @-@ west club Rochdale . He added just another two goals to his tally in January 2009 , both in Exeter 's 2 – 1 win over Dagenham & Redbridge . The remainder of the 2008 – 09 season saw him only add two more goals , against Macclesfield Town and Darlington , both in the space of a month . After only making five appearances for Exeter in 2009 – 10 , he joined Barnet on loan in November 2009 . McAllister , still without a goal in 2009 – 10 , couldn 't get on the scoresheet in the three games he played for Barnet , and he returned to Exeter in January . In March , still having not played for Exeter since his return from Barnet , he signed an emergency one @-@ month loan deal at Rotherham United . He made his debut for Rotherham in their 1 – 0 away win over Dagenham & Redbridge . After another seven games and still no goals , he returned to Exeter only to be released in May , along with eight other team @-@ mates .

= = = Return to non @-@ League = = =

Following his release from Exeter City , McAllister moved back to non @-@ League , signing for Conference Premier outfit Crawley Town on a one @-@ year contract , in June 2008 . He made his debut in August , when his side lost 1 – 0 to Grimsby Town . Ten days later he scored his first goal in a Crawley shirt , scoring the second in a 2 – 1 win over newly promoted Bath City . Just four days later , he scored two goals as Crawley beat Hayes & Yeading United , 3 – 0 , away from home . In February 2011 , McAllister started in Crawley Town 's FA Cup fifth @-@ round tie against Manchester United at Old Trafford , which Crawley 1 – 0 . At the end of the 2010 – 11 season , after Crawley gained promotion to the Football League , McAllister was released after he rejected a new deal .

McAllister signed for Newport County in May 2011 , deciding to stay in non @-@ League football . He signed for Newport after their manager , Anthony Hudson , had earlier stated , " We are on the verge of two massive additions to the squad , who will take the club in the direction that we want to go . "

After failing to find the net in 26 games for Newport County he joined Conference rivals Luton Town on loan until the end of the 2011 – 12 season . He scored his first goal in over a year against Ebbsfleet United on 17 April 2012 . In June 2012 McAllister rejoined Eastleigh .

= = Style of play = =

McAllister plays as a striker , he is " an explosive front man " , and is described as a " targetman " because of his height . His time at Basingstoke Town was described as " prolific " due to the number of goals he scored . While at Exeter City , manager Paul Tisdale described him as " excellent " , and said that McAllister and fellow Exeter City striker Richard Logan had a good partnership together after McAllister scored a hat @-@ trick for the reserve team .

On signing for Luton Town manager Gary Brabin described McAllister as " adaptable in any role ... he works hard , he 's strong and he chips in with his fair share of goals . "

= = Personal life = =

After his move to Oxford United in January 2008 , he stated that the reason for the move was so that he could be closer to his family home in Southampton . On his arrival at Exeter City in July 2008 , he moved into a house with fellow Exeter forward , Ben Watson . McAllister stated that it would make a huge difference living near the training ground , instead of travelling long distances to get to training and matches .

= = Career statistics = =

As of 23 May 2012 .

= = Honours = =

Crawley Town

Conference Premier winner ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11

Eastleigh

Conference South : 2013 @-@ 14

Sutton United

National League South : 2015 @-@ 16

= Raskovnik =

The raskovnik or razkovniche ( Serbian Cyrillic and Macedonian : расковник , Bulgarian : разковниче , pronounced [ rɐsˈkɔvnitʃɛ ] , Russian : разрыв @-@ трава , Polish : rozryw ) is a magical herb in Slavic ( Bosnian , Bulgarian , Croatian , Macedonian , Montenegrin , Serbian , Slovene , Russian ) and Romanian ( iarba fiarelor ) mythology . According to lore , the raskovnik has the magical property to unlock or uncover anything that is locked or closed . However , legends claim it is notoriously difficult to recognize the herb , and reputedly only certain chthonic animals are able to identify it .

= = Names = =

The herb is known by a multitude of names among the South Slavs , and the names vary significantly by region . While razkovniche and raskovnik are the customary names in Bulgarian and Serbian respectively and the root is also preserved in the Leskovac dialect as raskov , in some parts of Macedonia it is known as ež trava ( " hedgehog grass " ) . In the vicinity of Bar ( southeastern Montenegro ) , the term is demir @-@ bozan , a Turkish borrowing meaning " iron breaker " . In Syrmia , the plant is referred to as špirgasta trava ( a hapax legomenon ) , in Slavonia it is known as zemaljski ključ ( " earth key " ) , and in Slovenia 's Savinja Valley as mavričin koren ( " rainbow root " ) .

= = Description and properties = =

Traditionally , it is considered that few people , if any , could actually recognize the herb . However , in Bulgarian sources the raskovnik is sometimes described as a grass resembling a four @-@ leaf clover . It grows in meadows and may be picked either while green and blooming or in hay , when it is already dry . While it is not necessarily rare , nor does it thrive only in remote locations , it is nevertheless impossible to recognize by the uninitiated . In the words of Serbian linguist and folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić , “ It is some ( may be imaginary ) grass for which it is thought that thanks to it ( when brushed by it ) every lock and every other closure would open by itself . ”

According to the legend , the raskovnik could unlock any gate or padlock , regardless of its size , material or key . It could also uncover treasures buried in the ground : in Bulgarian beliefs , it could split the ground at the place where a treasure lay so that people could locate it . In some regions of Serbia , the treasure itself was a black man in chains who requested that a raskovnik be brought to him . The raskovnik would break the chains and the man would disappear into the ground to be replaced by a cauldron filled with gold coins . Other supernatural properties attributed to the herb by Bulgarians include the alchemic ability to transmute iron into gold , the more general ability to make the one who picked it forever happy or wealthy . In some interpretations , the raskovnik is a wonderful plant that makes true whatever its owner desires .

= = Obtainment = =

The raskovnik is believed to have been sought after by treasure hunters , sorcerers and herbalists who desired its magic powers for personal benefit . In Serbia , it was believed that there exist certain treasures , such as the Treasure of Tsar Radovan , which could not be unlocked in any other way but employing a raskovnik .

As , according to Bulgarian mythology and some other traditions , tortoises were the only beings who knew the appearance of the herb and the location where it grows , such people would try to obtain the raskovnik by deceiving a tortoise . They would find a tortoise nesting site and hem it in with a fence while the tortoise is away . When it returns , the tortoise would be unable to access its eggs , so it would return with a raskovnik in order to breach the fence . Thus , the tortoise would reveal the herb and people would acquire it from the tortoise , which does not need it anymore .

While the tricking of a tortoise was the most popular method in Bulgarian mythology , in Dalmatia the legend refers to snakes , and among Serbs another version involves the locking of young hedgehogs in a box for their mother to unlock . In Serbia , one would also have to be quick to take the raskovnik , as the hedgehog would swallow it after use . In any case , turtles , snakes and hedgehogs are all animals with chthonic characteristics which were often variously associated with the underworld in South Slavic tradition .

Karadžić also mentions another Serbian method to obtain the raskovnik . He recorded a story from the town of Zemun about a merchant who desired to find the herb . The merchant locked an old woman into leg irons and let her wander in a field during the night ; if the irons unlocked by themselves at a certain place , that would be a place where the raskovnik grows .

= = Metaphoric use = =

The legendary herb has entered the modern Bulgarian vocabulary as a metaphor for a magic key or a panacea in the wider sense . The phrase “ to find the razkovniche ” ( „ да намериш разковничето “ „ da namerish razkovnicheto “ ) means to find the solution to a certain problem , usually a complex or difficult one . Razkovniche is also the common Bulgarian name for the plant European waterclover ( Marsilea quadrifolia ) which , in its appearance , has many similarities with the descriptions of the mythical raskovnik . In eastern Serbia , raskovnik also refers to a specific plant used in vernacular medicine , namely Laserpitium siler .

= Donovan Warren =

Donovan Jamelle Warren ( born January 31 , 1989 ) is an American football cornerback who is currently a free agent . Warren was signed by the New York Jets as an undrafted free agent following the 2010 NFL Draft and has also played with the Detroit Lions , Pittsburgh Steelers and Chicago Bears . He attended the University of Michigan through his junior year .

During his three years playing for the Michigan Wolverines football team , he started in 34 of 36 games . As a member of the 2009 Michigan Wolverines football team , whom he led in interceptions , he earned 2009 first team All @-@ Big Ten recognition from the media and second team recognition from the coaches . He had chosen Michigan over his hometown favorite University of Southern California because he believed that he would be able to play immediately there . Warren had played high school football at Long Beach Polytechnic High School in California .

= = Early years = =

A native of Long Beach , California , Warren attended Long Beach Polytechnic High School , where he tallied 114 tackles , 15 pass breakups , five interceptions and three fumble recoveries during his prep career . Considered a five @-@ star recruit by Rivals.com , Warren ranked third among cornerback prospects and twenty @-@ fifth overall in the nation . Scout.com ranked him fourth among cornerbacks , and ESPN ranked him eighth . He was named to the USA Today All @-@ USA second team and the EA Sports All @-@ American second @-@ team at cornerback . Warren participated in the 2007 U.S. Army All @-@ American Bowl . Warren ran a 10 @.@ 6 seconds time in the 100 meters in high school .

At the beginning of the recruiting process , Warren was considered very likely to play for the USC Trojans football team , since they had four players from his high school on the roster and his godfather , Mark Carrier , was a USC alumn . However , USC had a lot of depth at cornerback at the time and Warren ( as well as his father ) had a good relationship with Michigan assistant coach Ron English . When Warren made Michigan his final decision , he was noted as feeling that his heart wanted him to choose USC , which was the school he had grown up rooting for , but his head led him to Michigan where he could play immediately and work under the tutelage of English , who had developed many defensive backs who went on to the National Football League .

= = College career = =

As a true freshman at Michigan , Warren played in all 13 season games while starting 11 of them at cornerback . He recorded 52 tackles , 1 @.@ 5 tackles for loss , one sack , one forced fumble , two fumble recoveries , one interception and six pass breakups . In the September 15 , 2007 Michigan @-@ Notre Dame rivalry game , which Michigan won 38 – 0 , he forced and recovered a Jimmy Clausen fumble on the Notre Dame 21 @-@ yard line while the score was 3 – 0 . The fumble led to a Mike Hart touchdown five plays later . He was named Big Ten Defensive Freshman of the Year by The Sporting News and also made TSN ′ s and College Football News ′ Freshman All @-@ American second team .

As a sophomore , he started ten games at cornerback and one at safety . During the November 1 , 2008 game at Purdue , he recovered a fumble on Purdue 's opening possession that led to a Brandon Minor 45 – yard touchdown run on the next play .

As a junior , he started all 12 games at cornerback . That season , he led the Wolverines with four interceptions , which ranked tied for sixth in the Big Ten Conference and 49th in the nation . He recorded one in each of Michigan 's first three conference games during the 2009 Big Ten Conference football season , including a controversial one to seal the team 's fourth consecutive victory to start the season in their conference opener against the Indiana Hoosiers that withstood instant replay video review . He ran back the third of these interceptions for a 40 @-@ yard touchdown in the first minute of the third conference game against the Iowa Hawkeyes . At the conclusion of the season , he was selected as to the 2009 All @-@ Big Ten conference team by the media ( first @-@ team ) and coaches ( second @-@ team ) .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =

On December 20 , 2009 , Warren announced his decision to forgo his final season of collegiate eligibility and enter the 2010 NFL Draft . Warren stated that the NFL 's Draft Advisory Board advised him that if he entered the draft , he would be selected in the first three rounds . When Warren signed Drew Rosenhaus as his sports agent , he was projected as a first or second round draft choice . Warren was considered to be a man @-@ to @-@ man defense specialist who needed to develop his zone defense skills . Some sources , such as Todd McShay , who felt he was just a cut below the top five cornerbacks in the draft prior to the 2010 NFL Combine , had predicted that Warren could be selected in the second round . ESPN draft analyst Mel Kiper , Jr. predicted Warren would be drafted in the third or fourth round of the draft , describing him as “ a physical corner " who " likes going head to head on an island with the best receivers in the country , he ’ s never had an issue with that . Anticipation is good . Gambler , though . Gave up some big plays . ” Warren aggravated an ankle injury shortly before the NFL Combine , where he struggled in position drills and ran the 40 @-@ yard dash in 4 @.@ 59 seconds . His disappointing performance was cited as damaging his draft stock .

= = = New York Jets = = =

Despite earlier predictions , Warren was not selected in the draft . He signed as an undrafted free agent with the New York Jets immediately after the draft . Warren 's godfather , former Pro Bowl defensive back Mark Carrier , is an assistant coach with the Jets . The 2010 New York Jets have several cornerbacks on their roster , including Darrelle Revis , Antonio Cromartie , Dwight Lowery , Drew Coleman , Marquice Cole and first @-@ round pick Kyle Wilson . Some sources speculate that Warren would be converted to safety . Jets head coach Rex Ryan said that although Warren would be practicing at both cornerback and safety , he felt that Warren 's best shot was at safety . Warren , who was sidelined during most of the Jets training camp sessions with a concussion , was waived by New York on September 3 , 2010 . Warren would be signed to the team 's practice squad on September 6 , 2010 . Warren would later be released from the team 's practice squad on September 7 , 2010 .

= = = 2011 = = =

Warren signed a contract with the Pittsburgh Steelers on January 7 , 2011 . He was cut September 4 , 2011 . Warren then signed with the Detroit Lions a few days later and was placed on the practice squad . Warren was released from the Lions practice squad on September 20 , 2011 . On January 6 , 2012 , he signed a reserve / future contract with the Chicago Bears . On June 12 , 2012 , he was waived by the Bears .

= = Personal = =

Warren 's uncle Chuckie Miller played for the Indianapolis Colts and his father , Alvin , played football at New Mexico State . His godfather , Carrier , is an assistant coach for the Cincinnati Bengals .

= Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin =

Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin is a theme area at SeaWorld Orlando headlined by a first @-@ of @-@ its @-@ kind motion @-@ based , trackless dark ride . The attraction opened on May 24 , 2013 as the largest attraction at any SeaWorld Entertainment theme park . The area was generally well received by critics and the public at its opening .

= = History = =

= = = Rumors and announcement = = =

In August and September 2011 , SeaWorld Entertainment filed trademarks for " Antarctica " to be used for a theme area , and " Empire of the Penguins " to be used for an amusement ride . This led to rumors that SeaWorld Orlando would replace its " Penguin Encounter " exhibit with a dark ride . A report by the Orlando Sentinel in October 2011 confirmed these plans , citing " government filings and interviews with people familiar with various elements " . At the time , SeaWorld Orlando would not publicly reveal its plans .

On November 8 , 2011 SeaWorld Orlando announced a multi @-@ year expansion plan featuring the opening of Turtle Trek in 2012 and " Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin " in 2013 . Although details of the ride were not released , creative director Brian Morrow said that the ride would be the coldest attraction in the world and would follow the journey of a tiny penguin . On April 24 , 2012 , the park revealed further details about the attraction : guests would ride in eight @-@ person vehicles , choosing among two levels of intensity ( " Mild " or " Wild " ) . The surrounding area would also feature a new penguin habitat , restaurant and store .

= = = Construction = = =

To allow construction to begin , SeaWorld Orlando closed Penguin Encounter , Friends of the Wild and the Antarctic Market Restaurant on January 3 , 2012 . The former attractions were demolished during the first half of 2012 , with vertical construction beginning in July . Construction continued into 2013 , with construction walls coming down one week before the attraction 's opening . The cost of the attraction was reported to be in excess of $ 40 million .

= = = Opening = = =

On February 19 , 2013 , SeaWorld Orlando announced that " Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin " would open on May 24 . Unlike many attractions , the ride had no soft opening period ; instead , it was open to a select number of employees and their families , travel media and bloggers before its public opening .

On May 24 , 2013 , SeaWorld Orlando opened Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin to the public . The opening drew thousands of guests to the ride , with some waiting more than four hours to board . On May 25 , one of the penguins escaped the open @-@ air enclosure by leaping out of the water and into the public viewing area ; it was returned to the exhibit unharmed .

= = Ride experience and exhibit = =

Guests enter the queue from the Antarctica @-@ themed area of the park . Large groups of riders are admitted into a pre @-@ show room , where multiple projections of an Antarctic landscape are blended with 3D exhibits . In a narrated video , guests are introduced to a gentoo penguin colony in Antarctica featuring a newborn penguin named Puck . After the pre @-@ show guests follow a path to a junction , where they choose a " mild " or " wild " ride . They are then divided into groups of eight riders before boarding the ride vehicles at one of four stations . Riders are seated in two rows of four , and restrained by lap bars .

When the riders have boarded , the vehicle is dispatched . It travels around an indoor Antarctic environment , spinning to view a variety of scenery and projection screens . The story which began in the pre @-@ show continues , with Puck venturing out into the sea . When he is underwater , Puck is chased by a leopard seal before resurfacing on land . The ride 's theme song – " Antarctica : One World , One Family " by Lauren Alaina – is then played as guests watch a live penguin habitat behind glass before the vehicles return to a four @-@ platform unloading station .

Guests disembark in an open @-@ air penguin habitat with an air temperature of approximately 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) . This exhibit has minimal barriers between guests and inhabitants , and is designed so guests can hear sounds made by the penguins .

A total of 245 penguins live in the exhibit ; species include gentoo , king , Adélie and rockhopper penguins . Lighting in the exhibit allows the park to control the seasons for the penguins . A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) glass window allows guests to see them in their 45 ° F ( 7 ° C ) pool from an underwater viewing area . The entire experience takes about 25 minutes . To minimise odors in the open @-@ air environment , SeaWorld staff clean the exhibit several times daily and replace the 20 @,@ 000 pounds ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) of snow each day .

= = Theme area = =

The Antarctica @-@ themed area is spread across 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) inside SeaWorld Orlando . A 50 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 15 m ) entrance archway is adjacent to the Sea Lion & Otter Theater , and a smaller entrance is near the Journey to Atlantis ride . In addition to the Empire of the Penguin , the theme area is home to several other attractions . A looping 45 @-@ minute soundtrack is played throughout the area . A " South Pole " is in the center of the area , and penguin carvings decorate the surrounding walls . The Expedition Cafe , South Pole Beverages and Glacial Collections sell food , drinks and souvenirs .

= = Production = =

= = = Ride system = = =

Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin features a prototype , motion @-@ based , trackless dark @-@ ride system by Oceaneering International , producer of ride systems for The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man , Transformers : The Ride , and The Curse of DarKastle . The ride is the first of its kind in the world .

When Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin was announced in November 2011 , Oceaneering had already developed a working prototype of the ride vehicle . The first concept art for the attraction was released in April 2012 : a circular ride vehicle , seating eight riders in two rows of four . On May 11 , 2012 Oceaneering filed a patent application for the ride 's technology . At the November 2012 IAAPA Attractions Expo , SeaWorld Orlando and Oceaneering International revealed the trackless , motion simulator @-@ based ride vehicle to the public .

Each battery @-@ powered vehicle , or AGV , is made up of two platforms . Riders sit on the upper platform , which provides three degrees of freedom . A lower platform provides omnidirectional lateral movement . Unlike previous ride designs , the trackless system and the wheel and motor configurations allow movements diagonal to a rider 's perspective . The vehicles use a dead reckoning system developed by Frog AGV to navigate their way through the environment , allowing a vehicle to cross another 's path . Each vehicle features a built @-@ in controller , which wirelessly communicates with a central ride @-@ system controller . Movement commands are issued by the ride @-@ system controller , and executed by the vehicles ' controllers . A specially @-@ designed battery and charge system allow the vehicles to be quickly charged while docked at the loading and unloading platforms .

= = = Marketing = = =

SeaWorld Orlando announced Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin as part of the park 's largest expansion thus far . With 18 months between its announcement and its opening , the park wished to generate demand for the ride . As part of this campaign , SeaWorld released a promotional video in July 2012 and a series of videos ( Behind the Freeze ) featuring creative director Brian Morrow .

= = Reception = =

Dewayne Bevil of the Orlando Sentinel said that " the hottest attraction in Central Florida theme parks this week is also the coldest . " Bevil interviewed several park guests ; comments included " I thought it [ the ride ] was really cool " and " it 's beautiful " , and some described it as better than the attractions it replaced . Barbara Nefer of Examiner.com said that guests would love Puck , the ride 's central character . She preferred the wild version of the ride , describing it as " actually still very family friendly " and saying that the exhibit was a " huge highlight " of the attraction . Robert Niles of Theme Park Insider agreed that the highlight of the attraction was the penguin exhibit . Niles described the dispatch procedure as crucial to the ride : " if SeaWorld can dispatch a quartet of ride vehicles every minute or so , as designed , fans will find this a fun ride " . In a later article Niles highlighted some guests ' criticisms of the ride , describing it as " lacking an engaging story and not delivering enough on @-@ ride views of the attraction 's stars -- SeaWorld 's penguins " . However , he argues that SeaWorld 's promotions were too photorealistic creating " expectations for an experience that the ride did not deliver , perhaps setting up many of those visitors for disappointment " .

Lawrence Goldsmith of the Daily Mirror and Susan and Simon Veness of the Daily Mail , shared the sentiment of other reviewers : the penguins are the stars of the show . Goldsmith said that the ride options ( mild or wild ) allowed everyone , from children to thrill @-@ seekers , to " enjoy the experience equally " . Susan and Simon Veness described the ride section as thrilling , calling it " one of the highlights " of the attraction . Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride three out of five stars . Levine gave this moderate rating because he felt conflicted : the animations themselves were good , but the overall storyline was sparse ; the ride system was intriguing , yet it was under utilised . He concluded by applauding " SeaWorld for taking the bold initiative to build a major @-@ league attraction " , but stated " the ride feels rushed and too short " .

From a commercial perspective , the opening day of the area saw guests waiting in line for more than four hours to experience the flagship attraction ; SeaWorld had estimated queues of approximately half that time . Dennis Speigel of consulting firm International Theme Park Services expected attendance to increase between five and ten percent . Speigel speculated that this rise would be higher than if a single attraction were unveiled ; however , it would be less than the 36 @-@ percent increase for Islands of Adventure after the opening of The Wizarding World of Harry Potter .

In November 2013 , Oceaneering won a Thea Award from the Themed Entertainment Association for outstanding themed entertainment and experience design , for the trackless ride system developed for Antarctica : Empire of the Penguin .

= Smithfield , London =

Smithfield is a locality in the ward of Farringdon Without situated at the City of London 's northwest in central London , England . The principal street of the area is West Smithfield .

A number of valued City institutions are located in the area , such as St Bartholomew 's Hospital , the Charterhouse , and Livery Halls notably those of the Butchers ' and Haberdashers ' Companies , but Smithfield is best known for its ancient meat market , dating from the 10th century , which is now London 's only remaining wholesale market in continuous operation since medieval times . The area also contains London 's oldest surviving church , St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great , founded in 1123 AD .

Smithfield has borne witness to many bloody executions of heretics and political rebels over the centuries , including major historical figures such as Scottish patriot Sir William Wallace and Wat Tyler , leader of the Peasants ' Revolt , among many other religious reformers and dissenters .

Smithfield Market , a Grade II listed @-@ covered market building , was designed by Victorian architect Sir Horace Jones in the second half of the 19th century , and is the dominant architectural feature of the area . Some of its original market premises fell in to disuse in the late 20th century and faced the prospect of demolition . The Corporation of London 's public enquiry in 2012 drew widespread support for an urban regeneration plan intent upon preserving Smithfield 's historical identity .

= = Smithfield area = =

In the Middle Ages , it was a broad grassy area known as Smooth Field , located beyond London Wall stretching to the eastern bank of the River Fleet . Given its ease of access to grazing and water , Smithfield established itself as London 's livestock market , remaining so for almost 1 @,@ 000 years . Many local toponyms are associated with the livestock trade : while some street names ( such as " Cow Cross Street " and " Cock Lane " ) remain in use , many more ( such as " Chick Lane " , " Duck Lane " , " Cow Lane " , " Pheasant Court " , " Goose Alley " ) have disappeared from the map after the major redevelopment of the area in the Victorian era .

= = = Religious history = = =

In 1123 , the area near Aldersgate was granted by King Henry I for the foundation of St Bartholomew 's Priory at the request of Prior Rahere in thanks for his being nursed back to good health . The Priory exercised its right to enclose land between Aldersgate ( to the east ) , Long Lane ( to the north ) and modern @-@ day Newgate Street ( to the south ) , erecting its main western gate which opened onto Smithfield , and a postern on Long Lane . The Priory thereafter held the manorial rights to hold weekly fairs , which initially took place in its outer court on the site of present @-@ day Cloth Fair , leading to " Fair Gate " .

An additional annual celebration , the Bartholomew Fair , was established in 1133 by the Augustinian friars and this over time became one of London 's pre @-@ eminent summer fairs , opening each year on 24 August . A trading event for cloth and other goods as well as being a pleasure forum , the four @-@ day festival drew crowds from all strata of English society .

In 1855 , however , Bartholomew Fair was closed down by the City authorities after degenerating into a magnet for debauchery and public disorder .

In 1348 , Walter de Manny rented 13 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 05 km2 ) of land at Spital Croft , north of Long Lane , from the Master and Brethren of St Bartholomew 's Hospital for a graveyard and plague pit for victims of the Black Death . A chapel and hermitage were constructed , renamed New Church Haw ; but in 1371 , this land was granted for the foundation of the Charterhouse , originally a Carthusian monastery .

Nearby and to the north of this demesne , the Knights Hospitaller established a Commandery at Clerkenwell dedicated to St John in the mid @-@ 12th century , and in 1194 received a Charter from King Richard I granting the Order formal privileges . Later Augustinian canonesses established the Priory of St Mary , north of the Knights of St John property .

By the end of the 14th century , these religious houses were regarded by City traders as interlopers — occupying what had previously been public open space nearby one of the City gates . On numerous occasions vandals damaged the Charterhouse , eventually demolishing its buildings . By 1405 , a stout wall was built to protect the property and maintain the privacy of the Order , particularly its church where men and women alike came to worship .

The religious houses were dissolved in the Reformation , and their lands broken up . The Priory Church of St John remains , as does St John 's Gate , traditionally regarded as the boundary between Smithfield and Clerkenwell . John Houghton ( later canonized by Pope Paul VI as St John Houghton ) , Prior of Charterhouse , went to Thomas Cromwell accompanied by two other local priors seeking an oath of supremacy that would be acceptable to their communities . This resulted in their being flung into the Tower of London , and on 4 May 1535 , they were taken to Tyburn and hanged — becoming the first Catholic martyrs of the Reformation . On 29 May , the remaining twenty monks and eighteen lay brothers were forced to swear the oath of allegiance ; the ten who refused were taken to Newgate Prison and left to starve .

With the monks expelled , Charterhouse was requisitioned and remained as a private dwelling until its reestablishment by Thomas Sutton in 1611 as a charitable foundation forming the school named Charterhouse and almshouses known as Sutton 's Hospital in Charterhouse on its former site . Some of the property was damaged during The Blitz , but it remains largely intact , whilst the school was relocated to Godalming in 1872 ; part of the site is also now occupied by Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry . Until 1899 Charterhouse was extra @-@ parochial , when it became a civil parish incorporated in the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury .

From its inception , the Priory of St Bartholomew treated the sick . After the Reformation it was left with neither income nor monastic occupants , but following a petition by the City Corporation , Henry VIII refounded it in December 1546 , as the " House of the Poore in West Smithfield in the suburbs of the City of London of Henry VIII 's Foundation " . Letters Patent were presented to the City , granting property and income to the new foundation the following month . King Henry VIII 's sergeant @-@ surgeon , Thomas Vicary , was appointed as the hospital 's first superintendent The King Henry VIII Gate which opens onto West Smithfield was completed in 1702 and remains the hospital 's main entrance .

The Priory 's principal church , St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great , was reconfigured after the dissolution of the monasteries losing the western third of its nave . Reformed as an Anglican parish church , its parish boundaries were limited to the site of the ancient priory and a small tract of land between the church and Long Lane . The parish of St Bartholomew the Great was designated as a Liberty , responsible for the upkeep and security of its fabric and the land within its boundaries . With the advent of street lighting , mains water and sewerage during the Victorian era , maintenance of such an ancient parish with so few parishioners became increasingly uneconomical after the Industrial Revolution . Thus , in 1910 , it agreed to be incorporated by the Corporation of London which guaranteed financial support and security . Great St Barts ' present parish boundary includes just 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 048 m ) of Smithfield — possibly delineating a former right of way .

After the Reformation , a separate parish likewise dedicated to St Bartholomew was granted in favour of St Bartholomew 's Hospital — named St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Less , it remained under the hospital 's patronage , unique in the Church of England , until 1948 when the hospital was nationalized in the National Health Service . The church benefice is nowadays joined again with its ancient partner , the Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great .

Following the diminished influence of the ancient Priory , predecessor of the two parishes of St Bartholomew , disputes began to arise over rights to tithes and taxes payable by lay residents who claimed allegiance with the nearby and anciently associated parish of St Botolph Aldersgate — an unintended consequence and legacy of King Kenry VIII 's religious reforms .

Smithfield and its Market , mostly situated in the parish of St Sepulchre was founded in 1137 , and was endowed by Prior Rahere , who also founded St Barts . The ancient parish of St Sepulchre extended north to Turnmill Street , to St Paul 's Cathedral and Ludgate Hill in the south , and along the east bank of the Fleet ( now the route of Farringdon Street ) . St Sepulchre 's Tower contains the twelve " bells of Old Bailey " from the nursery rhyme Oranges and Lemons . Traditionally , the Great Bell was rung to announce the execution of a prisoner at Newgate .

= = = Civil history = = =

As a large open space close to the City , Smithfield was a popular place for public gatherings . In 1374 Edward III held a seven @-@ day tournament at Smithfield , for the amusement of his beloved Alice Perrers . Possibly the most famous medieval tournament at Smithfield was that commanded in 1390 by Richard II . Jean Froissart , in his fourth book of Chronicles , reported that sixty knights would come to London to tilt for two days , " accompanied by sixty noble ladies , richly ornamented and dressed " . The tournament was proclaimed by heralds throughout England , Scotland , Hainault , Germany , Flanders and France , so as to rival the jousts given by Charles of France at Paris a few years earlier , upon the arrival of his consort Isabel of Bavaria . Geoffrey Chaucer supervised preparations for the tournament as a clerk to the King .

Along with Tyburn , Smithfield was for centuries the main site for the public execution of heretics and dissidents in London . The Scottish nobleman Sir William Wallace was executed in 1305 at West Smithfield . The market was the meeting place prior to the Peasants ' Revolt and where the Revolt 's leader , Wat Tyler , was slain by Sir William Walworth , Lord Mayor of London on 15 June 1381 .

Religious dissenters ( Catholics as well as other Protestant denominations such as Anabaptists ) were sentenced to death in this area during the Crown 's changing course of religious orientation started by King Henry VIII . About fifty Protestants and religious reformers , known as the Marian martyrs , were executed at Smithfield during the reign of Mary I.

G.K. Chesterton observed ironically :

" It is foolish , generally speaking , for a philosopher to set fire to another philosopher in Smithfield Market because they do not agree in their theory of the universe . That was done very frequently in the last decadence of the Middle Ages , and it failed altogether in its object " .

-Heretics 1905

On 17 November 1558 , several Protestant heretics were saved by a Royal herald 's timely announcement that Queen Mary had died shortly before the wooden faggots were to be lit at the Smithfield Stake . Under English Law Death Warrants were commanded by Sign Manual ( the personal signature of the Monarch ) , invariably upon ministerial recommendation , which if unexercised by the time of a Sovereign 's death required renewed authority which , in this case , Elizabeth I did not give thereby freeing the Protestants . During the 16th century , Smithfield was also used to execute swindlers and coin forgers who were boiled to death in oil . However , by the 18th century the " Tyburn Tree " ( near the present @-@ day Marble Arch ) , became the main place for public executions in London . After 1785 , they were again moved , this time to the gates of Newgate prison — just to the south of Smithfield .

The Smithfield area was fortunate to emerge largely unscathed by the Great Fire of London in 1666 , which was abated near the Fortune of War Tavern , at the junction of Giltspur Street and Cock Lane , where the statue of the Golden Boy of Pye Corner is located . In the late 17th century , several residents of Smithfield emigrated to America where they founded the Town of Smithfield , Rhode Island .

= = = Today = = =

Since the late 1990s , Smithfield and neighbouring Farringdon have developed a reputation for being a cultural hub for up @-@ and @-@ coming professionals who enjoy its vast selection of bars , restaurants and night clubs .

Nightclubs such as Fabric and Turnmills pioneered the area 's reputation for trendy night life , attracting professionals from nearby Holborn , Clerkenwell and the City on weekdays and , at weekends , the clubs and bars in the area , having late licences , draw people into the area from outside London too .

Smithfield has also become a popular venue for sporting events . Until 2002 Smithfield hosted the midnight start of the annual Miglia Quadrato Car Rally , but with the increased night club activity around Smithfield the UHULMC ( a motoring club ) decided to move the event 's start to Finsbury Circus . Since 2007 , Smithfield has been the chosen location of an annual event dedicated to bike racing known as Smithfield Nocturne .

Number 1 , West Smithfield is Head Office of the Churches Conservation Trust .

= = Market = =

= = = Origins = = =

Meat has been traded at Smithfield Market for more than 800 years , making it one of the oldest markets in London . A livestock market occupied the site as early as the 10th century . In 1174 the site was described by William Fitzstephen as :

" a smooth field where every Friday there is a celebrated rendezvous of fine horses to be traded , and in another quarter are placed vendibles of the peasant , swine with their deep flanks , and cows and oxen of immense bulk . "

Costs , customs and rules were meticulously laid down . For instance , for an ox , a cow or a dozen sheep one could get 1 penny . The livestock market expanded over the centuries to meet demand from the growing population of the City . In 1710 , the market was surrounded by a wooden fence containing the livestock within the market ; and until its abolition , the Gate House at Cloth Fair ( " Fair Gate " ) employed a chain ( le cheyne ) on market days . Daniel Defoe referred to the livestock market in 1726 as being " without question , the greatest in the world " , and data available appear to corroborate his statement .

Between 1740 and 1750 the average yearly sales at Smithfield were reported to be around 74 @,@ 000 cattle and 570 @,@ 000 sheep . By the middle of the 19th century , in the course of a single year 220 @,@ 000 head of cattle and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 sheep would be " violently forced into an area of five acres , in the very heart of London , through its narrowest and most crowded thoroughfares " . The volume of cattle driven daily to Smithfield started to raise major concerns .

The Great North Road traditionally began at Smithfield Market and mileages were measured from here . The specific start was Hicks Hall , and its former location continued to be used for mileages even after it was demolished , soon after 1778 . The road followed St John Street , and continued north , eventually leading to Edinburgh . This ended in 1829 , with the establishment of the General Post Office at St Martin 's @-@ le @-@ Grand , which became the new starting point .

= = = Local campaigning against the cattle market = = =

In the Victorian period , pamphlets started circulating in favour of the removal of the livestock market and its relocation outside of the City , due to its extremely poor hygienic conditions as well as the brutal treatment of the cattle . The conditions at the market in the first half of the 19th century were often described as a major threat to public health :

Of all the horrid abominations with which London has been cursed , there is not one that can come up to that disgusting place , West Smithfield Market , for cruelty , filth , effluvia , pestilence , impiety , horrid language , danger , disgusting and shuddering sights , and every obnoxious item that can be imagined ; and this abomination is suffered to continue year after year , from generation to generation , in the very heart of the most Christian and most polished city in the world .

In 1843 , the Farmer 's Magazine published a petition signed by bankers , salesmen , butchers , aldermen and City residents against further expansion of the meat market , arguing that livestock markets had been systematically banned since the Middle Ages in other areas of London :

Our ancestors appear , in sanitary matters , to have been wiser than we are . There exists , amongst the Rolls of Parliament of the year 1380 , a petition from the citizens of London , praying - that , for the sake of the public health , meat should not be slaughtered nearer than " Knyghtsbrigg " , under penalty , not only of forfeiting such animals as might be killed in the " butcherie " , but of a year 's imprisonment . The prayer of this petition was granted , audits penalties were enforced during several reigns .

Thomas Hood wrote in 1830 an Ode to the Advocates for the Removal of Smithfield Market , applauding those " philanthropic men " who aim at removing to a distance the " vile Zoology " of the market and " routing that great nest of Hornithology " . Charles Dickens criticised locating a livestock market in the heart of the capital in his 1851 essay A Monument of French Folly drawing comparisons with the French market at Poissy outside Paris :

Of a great Institution like Smithfield , [ the French ] are unable to form the least conception . A Beast Market in the heart of Paris would be regarded an impossible nuisance . Nor have they any notion of slaughter @-@ houses in the midst of a city . One of these benighted frog @-@ eaters would scarcely understand your meaning , if you told him of the existence of such a British bulwark .

An Act of Parliament was passed in 1852 , under the provisions of which a new cattle market should be constructed at Copenhagen Fields , Islington . The Metropolitan Cattle Market opened in 1855 , leaving West Smithfield as waste ground for about ten years during the construction of the new market .

= = = Victorian Smithfield : meat and poultry market = = =

The present Smithfield meat market on Charterhouse Street was established by Act of Parliament : the 1860 Metropolitan Meat and Poultry Market Act . It is a large market with permanent buildings , designed by architect Sir Horace Jones , who also designed Billingsgate and Leadenhall Markets . Work on the Central Market , inspired by Italian architecture , began in 1866 and was completed in November 1868 at a cost of £ 993 @,@ 816 ( £ 81 million as of 2016 ) .

The Grade II listed main wings ( known as East and West Market ) are separated by the Grand Avenue , a wide roadway roofed by an elliptical arch with decorations in cast iron . At the two ends of the arcade , four prominent statues represent London , Edinburgh , Liverpool and Dublin depicting bronze dragons charged with the City 's armorial bearings . At the corners of the market four octagonal pavilion towers were built , each with a dome displaying carved stone griffins .

As the Market was being built , a cut and cover railway tunnel was constructed underground City street level to create a triangular junction with the railway between Blackfriars and Kings Cross through Snow Hill Tunnel — closed in 1916 , it has been revived and is now used for Thameslink rail services . The construction of extensive railway sidings , beneath Smithfield Park , facilitated the transfer of animal carcases to its Cold Store , and directly up to the Meat Market via lifts . These sidings closed in the 1960s , and are now used as a car park , accessed via a cobbled descent at the centre of Smithfield Park . Today , much of the meat is delivered to market by road .

The first extension of Smithfield 's meat market took place between 1873 and 1876 with the construction of the Poultry Market immediately west of the Central Market . A rotunda was built at the centre of the old Market Field ( now West Smithfield ) , comprising gardens , a fountain and a ramped carriageway to the station beneath the market building . Further buildings were subsequently added to the market . The General Market , built between 1879 and 1883 , was intended to replace the old Farringdon Market located nearby and established for the sale of fruit and vegetables when the earlier Fleet Market was cleared to enable the laying out of Farringdon Street between 1826 – 1830 .

A further block ( also known as Annexe Market or Triangular Block ) consisting of two separate structures ( the Fish Market and the Red House ) was built between 1886 and 1899 . The Fish Market , built by John Mowlem & Co . , was completed in 1888 , one year after Sir Horace Jones ' death . The Red House , with its imposing red brick and Portland stone façade , was built between 1898 and 1899 for the London Central Markets Cold Storage Co . Ltd .. It was one of the first cold stores to be built outside the London docks and continued to serve Smithfield Market until the mid @-@ 1970s .

= = = 20th century = = =

During World War II , a large underground cold store at Smithfield was the theatre of secret experiments led by Dr Max Perutz on pykrete , a mixture of ice and woodpulp , believed to be possibly tougher than steel . Perutz 's work , inspired by Geoffrey Pyke and part of Project Habakkuk , was meant to test the viability of pykrete as a material to construct floating airstrips in the Atlantic to allow refuelling of cargo planes in support of Admiral the Earl Mountbatten 's operations . The experiments were carried out by Perutz and his colleagues in a refrigerated meat locker in a Smithfield Market butcher 's basement , behind a protective screen of frozen animal carcasses . These experiments became obsolete with the development of longer range aircraft and the project was then abandoned .

At the end of World War II , a V @-@ 2 rocket struck at the north side of Charterhouse Street , near the junction with Farringdon Road ( 1945 ) . The explosion caused massive damage to the market buildings , impacting the railway tunnel structure below , with the loss of over 110 lives .

The original Poultry Market designed by Sir Horace Jones was destroyed by fire in 1958 . Its Grade II listed replacement building was designed by Sir Thomas Bennett in 1962 – 63 , with a reinforced concrete frame , and external cladding of dark blue brick . The main hall is covered by an enormous concrete dome , shaped as an elliptical paraboloid , spanning 225 feet ( 69 m ) by 125 feet ( 38 m ) and only 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) thick at the centre . The dome is believed to have been the largest concrete shell structure built at that time in Europe .

= = = Today = = =

Smithfield is London 's only major wholesale market ( Leadenhall Market nowadays attracting more tourist trade ) which has escaped relocation out of central London to cheaper land , better transport links and more modern facilities ( as have Covent Garden , Spitalfields and Billingsgate ) . The purpose of the market remains to supply inner City butchers , shops and restaurants with quality fresh meat , and so its main trading hours are 4 : 00 a.m. to 12 : 00 noon each weekday . Instead of moving away , Smithfield Market continues to modernise its existing site : its imposing Victorian buildings have had access points added for the loading and unloading of lorries .

The buildings stand above a warren of tunnels : previously , live animals were brought to market by hoof ( from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards they arrived by rail ) and were slaughtered on site . The former railway tunnels are now used for storage , parking and as basements . An impressive cobbled ramp spirals down around West Smithfield 's public garden , on the south side of the Market , providing access to part of this area . Some of the buildings on Charterhouse Street on Smithfield north side maintain access to the tunnels via their basements .

Some of the former meat market buildings have now changed use . For example , the former Central Cold Store , on Charterhouse Street is now , most unusually , a City centre cogeneration power station operated by Citigen . Other former cold storage warehousing ( The Metropolitan Cold Stores ) has been converted into the acclaimed nightclub Fabric .

Smithfield comprises the market as its central feature surrounded many old buildings on three sides and a public open space ( or Rotunda Garden ) at West Smithfield , beneath which there is a public car park . The south side is occupied by St Bartholomew 's Hospital ( known as Barts in common parlance ) , and on the east side by the Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great . The Church of St Bartholomew the Less is located next to the King Henry VIII Gate , the hospital 's main entrance . The north and south of the square are now closed to through traffic , as part of the City 's security and surveillance cordon known as the Ring of steel . Security for the market is provided by its market constabulary .

= = Demolition and development plans = =

Since 2005 , the General Market ( 1883 ) and the adjacent Fish Market and Red House buildings ( 1898 ) , part of the Victorian complex of the Smithfield Market , have been facing a threat of demolition . The City of London Corporation , ultimate owners of this property has been engaged in public consultation to assess how best to redevelop their disused property and regenerate the area . Former property developers Thornfield Properties had planned to demolish the historic site and build a seven @-@ storey office block , offering 350 @,@ 000 square feet ( 33 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space with a retail outlet on the ground floor .

Several campaigns , promoted by English Heritage and Save Britain 's Heritage among others , are being run to raise public awareness of this important part of London 's Victorian heritage . Grade II listed building protection was approved for the Red House Cold Store building in 2005 by then @-@ Culture Secretary Dame Tessa Jowell , on the basis of new historical evidence qualifying the complex as " the earliest existing example of a purpose @-@ built powered cold store " .

Whilst the Market continues to trade , its future remains unclear following Government Planning Minister Ruth Kelly 's instigating a major public inquiry in 2007 . The Public Inquiry for the demolition and redevelopment of the General Market Building took place between 6 November 2007 and 25 January 2008 . In August 2008 , Communities Secretary Hazel Blears announced that planning permission for the General Market 's redevelopment had been refused , stating that the threatened buildings made " a significant contribution " to the character and appearance of Farringdon and the surrounding area .

On 12 October 2012 , Henderson Group unveiled its £ 160 million @-@ plan for redeveloping the western side of the Central Market . Henderson proposed that the fish market , General Market and Red House buildings , all over a century @-@ old , make way for restaurants , retailers and office buildings while restoring and retaining much of the Market building 's original perimeter walls , with a new piazza being created in the General Market .

Some of the buildings on Lindsey Street opposite the East Market were demolished in 2010 to allow the construction of the new Crossrail Station at Farringdon . The demolished buildings include Smithfield House ( an early 20th @-@ century unlisted Hennebique concrete building ) , the Edmund Martin Ltd. shop ( an earlier building with alterations dating to the 1930s ) and two Victorian warehouses behind them . Redevelopment proposals are ongoing as of 2014 .

In the March of 2015 , the Museum of London revealed plans to vacate its Barbican site and move into the General Market Building . The cost of the move is estimated to be in the region of £ 70 million and , if funding can be achieved , would be complete by 2021 .

= = Gallery = =

= HMS Havelock ( H88 ) =

HMS Havelock was an H @-@ class destroyer that had originally been ordered by the Brazilian Navy with the name Jutahy in the late 1930s , but was bought by the Royal Navy after the beginning of the Second World War in September 1939 and later renamed . She participated in the Norwegian Campaign in May 1940 and was assigned to convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrols with the Western Approaches Command afterwards . The ship was briefly assigned to Force H in 1941 , but her anti @-@ aircraft armament was deemed too weak and she rejoined Western Approaches Command . Havelock became flotilla leader of Escort Group B @-@ 5 of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force in early 1942 and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic for the next two years . The ship was converted to an escort destroyer and sank one submarine during the war . After the end of the war , she escorted the ships carrying the Norwegian government in exile back to Norway and served as a target ship through mid @-@ 1946 . Havelock was scrapped beginning in late 1946 .

= = Description = =

Havelock displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Havelock carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 152 officers and enlisted men .

The vessel was designed for four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear , but ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Havelock had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were originally fitted , but this was increased to three sets of rails and eight throwers while fitting @-@ out . The ship 's load of depth charges was increased from 20 to 110 as well .

Havelock was completed without a director @-@ control tower ( DCT ) so the three remaining 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch low @-@ angle guns fired in local control using ranges provided by a rangefinder . She was fitted with an ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .

= = = Wartime modifications = = =

Havelock was fitted with a HF / DF radio direction finder before completion and she had her rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun by October 1940 . The ship 's short @-@ range AA armament was later augmented by two Oerlikon 20 mm guns on the wings of the ship 's bridge and the .50 @-@ calibre machine gun mounts were replaced by a pair of Oerlikons . It is uncertain if the ship 's director @-@ control tower was installed before a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge . At some point , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer . ' A ' gun was replaced by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . A Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted and the HF / DF installation was moved to a pole mainmast .

= = History = =

Jutahy was ordered by Brazil on 8 December 1937 from J. Samuel White , Cowes . The ship was laid down on 31 May 1938 and was purchased by the British on 5 September 1939 after the beginning of the Second World War and renamed HMS Havelock . She was launched on 16 October and commissioned on 10 February 1940 . After working up , the ship was assigned to the 9th Destroyer Flotilla of the Western Approaches Command . Havelock was detached to Home Fleet during the Norwegian Campaign and supported the Allied landings on 12 – 13 May at Bjerkvik during the Battle of Narvik . During the initial stages of this battle , she mounted a French mortar battery on her forecastle . She continued to provide fire support during the battle for the rest of the month . During the nights of 30 and 31 May , the ship helped to evacuate troops from Bodø to Harstad and Borkenes to await further evacuation . Havelock was one of the ships that escorted the troop ships evacuating the troops from the Narvik area on 7 and 8 June . She was commanded by Capt. E. Barry Stevens , DSC .

Later in June , the ship rejoined the 9th Destroyer Flotilla and spent most of the next two years escorting convoys . Late in 1940 the Flotilla was redesignated as the 9th Escort Group . Havelock was attached to Force H in Gibraltar to reinforce the escort during Operations Tiger in May 1941 . The ship returned to the Western Approaches command afterwards as her anti @-@ aircraft capability was believed by Admiral James Somerville to be too weak for operations in the Mediterranean .

In March 1942 , Havelock became flotilla leader of Escort Group B @-@ 5 team of the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force and continued to escort convoys in the North Atlantic until early 1944 . From 28 December to 14 January 1943 , the escort group defended Convoy TM 1 , a group of nine oil tankers sailing from Trinidad to Gibraltar . The convoy was attacked by several U @-@ boat wolfpacks en route and lost seven of its ships despite the best efforts of its escort . Havelock only managed to damage U @-@ 436 with depth charges whilst escorting this convoy . Havelock and her consorts escorted Convoy SC 122 through the largest convoy battle of the war some two months later . In mid @-@ 1943 , the escort group was deployed to the Bay of Biscay to attack U @-@ boats in cooperation with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) as they left their bases on the French Atlantic coast . In late September – early October , the group escorted ships carrying No. 247 Group RAF to the Azores to begin setting up airbases there .

In early 1944 , Havelock was transferred to the 14th Escort Group which was given the task of protecting the convoys supporting Operation Overlord , the impending invasion of Western Europe , in British coastal waters , captained by Earl H. Thomas . Together with the destroyers Fame and Inconstant , the ship sank U @-@ 767 on 18 June . She was refitted in Liverpool from July to September and rejoined the group upon completion . Havelock was under repair again in February – April 1945 , but they were completed by 30 April when the ship , together with her sister Hesperus , attacked the wreck of U @-@ 246 northwest of the island of Anglesey thinking that it was U @-@ 242 which had been spotted by a Short Sunderland flying boat earlier that day .

Two weeks later , Havelock and the 14th Escort Group escorted a group of surrendered German U @-@ boats from Loch Alsh to Lough Foyle . On 27 May , the ship , together with Hesperus , escorted the exiled Norwegian government back to Oslo and remained there until 1 June . Later that month , she began service as an aircraft target , a role that lasted for the next year . The ship was approved for scrapping on 18 February 1946 and was placed in Category C reserve on 2 August . Havelock was sold on 31 October and scrapped at Inverkeithing .

= Sunda slow loris =

The Sunda slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang ) or greater slow loris is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris native to Indonesia , western Malaysia , southern Thailand and Singapore . It measures 27 to 38 cm ( 11 to 15 in ) from head to tail and weighs between 599 and 685 g ( 21 @.@ 1 and 24 @.@ 2 oz ) . Like other slow lorises , it has a wet nose ( rhinarium ) , a round head , small ears hidden in thick fur , a flat face , large eyes and a vestigial tail .

The Sunda slow loris is nocturnal and arboreal , typically occurring in evergreen forests . It prefers rainforests with continuous dense canopies and has an extremely low metabolic rate compared to other mammals of its size . Its diet consists of sap , floral nectar , fruit and arthropods . It will feed on exudates such as gum and sap by licking wounds in trees . The species is generally solitary ; one study showed only 8 % of its active time was spent near other individuals . Social behavior makes up a very small part of the activity budget , though it has monogamous mating system with the offspring living with the parents . It sleeps during the day , rolled up in a ball in hidden parts of trees above the ground , often on branches , twigs , palm fronds , or lianas . The species is polyoestrous , usually giving birth to a single offspring after a gestation period of 192 days . The young disperses between 16 and 27 months , generally when it is sexually mature .

The species is listed as " Vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List . It is threatened with extinction due to a growing demand in the exotic pet trade , and has become one of the most abundant primate species on sale at Indonesian pet markets . Its teeth are often pulled out before being sold as pets which can result in infection and / or death , this process makes reintroduction to the wild impossible . It also suffers from habitat loss , which has been severe in the areas in which it is found .

= = Etymology = =

The common name , Sunda slow loris , refers to the Sunda Islands , a group of islands in the western part of the Malay archipelago where it is found . Another common name for the species is the Greater Slow Loris . The specific name , coucang , derives from kukang , its common name in Indonesia . It is commonly known as malu @-@ malu , meaning " shy " in Indonesian , and also as bukang or Kalamasan . It is sometimes called Kuskus , because local people do not distinguish between the slow loris and Cuscus , a group of Australasian possums . In Malaysia they are sometimes known as kongkang or kera duku ; kera is Malay for monkey while duku is the fruit @-@ bearing tree , Lansium parasiticum . In Thailand , it is called ling lom ( ลิงลม ) , which translates as " wind monkey " .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The Sunda slow loris was first described ( in part ) in 1785 by the Dutch physician and naturalist Pieter Boddaert under the name Tardigradus coucang . However , its discovery dates to 1770 , when the Dutchman Arnout Vosmaer ( 1720 – 1799 ) described a specimen of it as a type of sloth . Vosmaer gave it the French name " le paresseux pentadactyle du Bengale " ( " the five @-@ fingered sloth of Bengal " ) , but Boddaert later argued that it was more closely aligned with the lorises of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) and Bengal .

Between 1800 and 1907 , several other slow loris species were described , but in 1953 the primatologist William Charles Osman Hill , in his influential book , Primates : Comparative Anatomy and Taxonomy , consolidated all the slow lorises into a single species , N. coucang . In 1971 Colin Groves recognized the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) as a separate species , and divided N. coucang into four subspecies . In 2001 Groves opined that there were three species ( N. coucang , N. pygmaeus , and N. bengalensis ) , and that N. coucang itself had three subspecies ( Nycticebus coucang coucang , N. c. menagensis , and N. c. javanicus ) . These three subspecies were promoted in 2010 to species status — the Sunda slow loris , the Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) and Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) . Species differentiation was based largely on differences in morphology , such as size , fur color , and head markings . ( At the end of 2012 , the Bornean slow loris was itself divided into four distinct species . ) : 46

When Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire defined the genus Nycticebus in 1812 , he made the Sunda slow loris the type species . This was questioned in 1921 by British zoologist Oldfield Thomas , who noted that there was some confusion over which specimen was used as the type specimen . Instead , he suggested that the type specimen was actually the Bengal slow loris , Lori bengalensis Lacépède , 1800 . There was further confusion during the 1800s when Boddaert 's Tardigradus coucang was routinely mistaken for Carl Linnaeus ' Lemur tardigradus – a species he had described in the 10th edition of Systema Naturæ ( 1758 ) The fact that Lemur tardigradus was actually a slender loris remained obscured until 1902 , when mammalogists Witmer Stone and James A. G. Rehn finally cleared the air .

The species has 50 chromosomes ( 2n = 50 ) , and it genome size is 3 @.@ 58 pg . Of its chromosomes , 22 are metacentric , 26 are submetacentric , and none are acrocentric . Its X chromosome is submetacentric , and its Y chromosome is metacentric .

To help clarify species and subspecies boundaries , and to establish whether morphology @-@ based classifications were consistent with evolutionary relationships , the phylogenetic relationships within the genus Nycticebus have been investigated using DNA sequences derived from the mitochondrial markers D @-@ loop and cytochrome b . Although most of the recognized lineages of Nycticebus ( including the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) , Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) and the Javan slow loris ( N. javanicus ) ) were shown to be genetically distinct , the analysis suggested that DNA sequences from selected individuals of Sunda slow loris ( N. coucang ) and Bengal slow loris ( N. bengalensis ) shared a closer evolutionary relationship with each other than with other members of their own respective species . The authors suggest that this result may be explained by introgressive hybridization , as the tested individuals of these two taxa originated from a region of sympatry in southern Thailand ; the precise origin of one of the N. coucang individuals was not known . This hypothesis was corroborated by a 2007 study that compared the variations in mitochondrial DNA sequences between N. bengalensis and N. coucang , and suggested that there has indeed been gene flow between the two species .

= = Anatomy and physiology = =

The Sunda slow loris has dark rings around its large eyes , a white nose with a whitish strip that extends to the forehead and a dark stripe that stretches from the back of the head along the spine . Its soft , thick , woolly fur ranges from light brown to deep reddish brown , with a lighter underside . The species is distinct from the Bengal slow loris due to the dark inverse teardrop markings around the eyes which meet the dark dorsal stripe on the back of the head . It tends to have a much more distinct white stripe between the eyes , more distinct dark coloring around the eyes , and a browner coat than the Bengal slow loris which is larger , grayer , and shows less contrast . The Sunda slow loris has less white facial coloring than the much smaller pygmy slow loris . Local color variations are known to occur .

It measures between 27 and 38 centimetres ( 11 and 15 in ) and weighs 599 and 685 grams ( 21 @.@ 1 and 24 @.@ 2 oz ) . Unlike the Bengal slow loris , the Sunda slow loris does not show sexual dimorphism by weight . The vestigial tail , hidden beneath the fur , is reduced to a stump . It has a toothcomb , six forward @-@ facing teeth on the bottom jaw , which includes the lower incisors and the canine teeth . The structure is generally used for grooming in other strepsirhine primates , but lorises also use it to scrape off gum when foraging . It has a shortened second digit , and the hands have a strong grip . Like other lorises , it excretes a strong @-@ smelling liquid from glands beneath its arms which is used in communication .

One major distinguishing feature between all loris species is locomotion : the Sunda slow loris moves slowly through trees on all four limbs , typically with three limbs attached to a support at a time . Its movement has been described as unique ; similar to crawling , or as if it was climbing in every direction , the Sunda slow loris changes direction or moves between branches with little noise or change in speed . In captivity , about a quarter of its time is spent moving quadrupedally , a quarter suspended or hanging , a quarter climbing , and a quarter clasping multiple branches ( bridging ) . It may hang below a branch by one or both feet for long periods of time .

= = Behavior and ecology = =

Like other slow lorises , the Sunda slow loris is an arboreal and nocturnal primate , resting by day in the forks of trees , or in thick vegetation and feeding on fruit and insects by night . Unlike other loris species , it remains in trees most of its life : while the Bengal slow loris will often sleep on the ground , the Sunda slow loris sleeps in a ball in branches or foliage . It usually sleeps alone but has been observed to sleep with several conspecifics ( individuals of the same species ) , including other adults . Adults live in overlapping ranges of 0 @.@ 004 to 0 @.@ 25 km2 ( 0 @.@ 0015 to 0 @.@ 0965 sq mi ) .

Despite its slow metabolism rate , the Sunda slow loris has a high @-@ energy diet . Its slow lifestyle may be due to the energy costs of detoxifying certain secondary plant compounds in many genera of food plants their diets . The largest amount of time is spent eating phloem sap ( 34 @.@ 9 % ) , floral nectar and nectar @-@ producing plant parts ( 31 @.@ 7 % ) , and fruits ( 22 @.@ 5 % ) . It also consumes gums and arthropods such as spiders and insects . Gum is taken by licking wounds on trees . They are also known to feed on molluscs , including the giant land snail Achatina fulica , and birds ' eggs .

All slow loris species produce a toxin in glands on the insides of their elbows . This is spread across their bodies and those of their offspring using the toothcomb while grooming . When threatened with predators , the Sunda slow loris can bite , roll into a ball exposing its toxic saliva @-@ covered fur , or roll up and drop from the trees . However , the primary method of predator avoidance is crypsis , whereby it hides . The Asiatic reticulated python , the changeable hawk @-@ eagle and the Bornean orangutan have been recorded as predators of the Sunda slow loris .

= = = Social systems = = =

The Sunda slow loris may fit into the monogamous single male / single female social system , though are mainly known to be solitary . One study showed only 8 % of the species ' active time was spent near other individuals . Where home ranges overlap , spatial groups are formed . These groups consist of one male , one female and up to three younger individuals . The interactions between these individuals are largely friendly ; they include allogrooming , following , pant @-@ growling , and click @-@ calling , although social behaviors only make up around 3 % of the activity budget . When it comes into contact with conspecifics from other home ranges there is usually no reaction as home ranges are not defended . In captivity however , it can be aggressive with other individuals . Males have shown antagonistic behaviors such as attacks , pursuits , threats , assertion , fighting , and subordination . The fighting often results in serious injury . Despite this , they are known to be generally sociable in captivity , with allogrooming being the most common social behavior .

= = = Communication = = =

There are eight distinct call types made by Sunda slow loris adults , which can be divided into two categories : contact and contact @-@ seeking calls such as whistles and short keckers ( a social play and attention @-@ seeking call ) , and aggressive and defensive calls such as long keckers , screams , snarls and grunts . Because they rely on crypsis to avoid predators , they do not make alarm calls . Infants emits clicks and squeaks when disturbed . During estrus , females make whistle calls when in visual contact with a male . When exploring new environments and during handling , it makes ultrasonic vocalisations out of the human hearing range .

Olfactory communication is very important in this species . It has roles in alerting others of the identity , physical state and position of the individual . It is also important in reproduction . Like other slow lorises , the Sunda slow loris has glands on its elbows that exude oils . The gland is licked to spread scent and is thought to have evolved for communication , but it is toxic to humans . If the person is allergic to the animal they can go into shock and could even die . It also has glands on its anus and can signal conspecifics by perineal rubbing which deposits urine . When it locates the scent of another slow loris it may rub its face on the substrate where the scent was found . The Sunda slow loris may grin or bare its teeth . When stressed , infants may grin , while adults bear their teeth to show aggression or fear , but also during play .

= = = Reproduction = = =

Reproduction is one of the few times the Sunda slow loris aggregates with conspecifics , as it is largely solitary . One study recorded that the most slow lorises ever seen together was six ; this appeared to be a female in estrus and five males following her . This may suggest a more promiscuous mating system , where females mate with more than one male . Despite this , its testis size is small compared with similar sized promsimians , which is indicative of monogamy . In the wild the mating system of the Sunda slow loris is thought to vary between populations .

Sexual maturity is reached between the ages of 18 and 24 months in females , and can be reached by 17 months in males . It is polyestrous , having many periods of sexual receptivity during a year . In captivity however , there is a clear birth peak between March and May . It has been observed that reproductive patterns of captive prosimians in the northern hemisphere are altered . The estrus cycle lasts 29 – 45 days , with most copulations occurring on the same day .

Females in estrus are followed by males , with copulation initiated by the female . The female will hang from a branch and may vocalise . The male will hold the female and the branch and copulate with her . Urine @-@ marking and vocalising are also used by the female to solicit mating . The male may create a mating plug following copulation .

The gestation period averages 192 @.@ 2 days , after which one young is born , although twinning has been observed . Both males and females will disperse in the wild , this occurs between 16 and 27 months .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The Sunda slow loris is found in continuous canopy tropical rainforests . It is adaptable and will also live in other types of habitat . It is found in Indonesia , on the islands of Sumatra , Batam and Galang in the Riau Archipelago , and Pulau Tebingtinggi and Great Natuna ( Bunguran ) in the Natuna Islands ; in Malaysia on the Malay Peninsula and Pulau Tioman ; in the southern peninsular of Thailand ; and Singapore .

The Sunda slow loris is sympatric ( shares its range ) with the Bengal slow loris in Thailand and hybridisation has occurred .

= = Conservation = =

According to the 2008 International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) Red List assessment , the Sunda slow loris was evaluated as " Vulnerable " . In June 2007 it was transferred from CITES Appendix II to Appendix I , indicating a true concern about the state of international trade in this species , an act now forbidden by international law . It is also protected by Indonesian law , though the law does not seem to be strictly enforced . Its population size is unknown and further studies need to be carried out to confirm their conservation status .

The Sunda slow loris is greatly threatened by the pet trade , and is sold as an exotic pet throughout southeast Asia . The slow lorises are the most commonly traded protected primates in southeast Asia . When sold as a pet it often will have its teeth pulled out to prevent injury to the owner . This may cause dental infections which have up to a 90 % death rate . Once it has lost its teeth , reintroduction to the wild is impossible . Due to a very high mortality rate in captivity due to stress , improper nutrition and infection , the pet trade is inflated by replacements . With a greater purchasing power , the increasing human populations in the species ' range could have an even more serious impact .

The Sunda slow loris is further threatened by gathering for illegal traditional medicine . The fur is reported to heal wounds , the flesh to cure epilepsy , eyes are used in love potions , and the meat is reported to cure asthma and stomach problems . It is also killed as a crop pest . Severe habitat loss and degradation over large areas of its range have caused large population declines , even though the species is more adaptable to anthropogenic habitats than other primates in the region . The resulting fragmentation has restricted species dispersal as it depends on continuous canopy cover to move from tree to tree .

= Pichilemu =

Pichilemu ( Mapudungun : Small forest , pronounced : [ pitʃiˈlemu ] ) , originally known as Pichilemo , is a beach resort city and commune in central Chile , and capital of Cardenal Caro Province . The commune comprises an urban centre and twenty @-@ two villages , such as Ciruelos , Cáhuil , and Espinillo . It is located southwest of Santiago , the capital of Chile . Pichilemu had over 13 @,@ 000 residents as of 2012 .

The Pichilemu area was long populated by the indigenous Promaucaes . European @-@ Chilean development began in the mid @-@ sixteenth century , as conquistador Pedro de Valdivia gave Juan Gómez de Almagro the Topocalma encomienda ( which included the current territory of Pichilemu ) in January 1541 . Pichilemu was established as an " autonomous commune " on 22 December 1891 , by decree of the President Jorge Montt and Interior Minister Manuel José Irarrázabal . Agustín Ross Edwards , a Chilean politician and member of the Ross Edwards family , planned to develop it as a beach resort on the Pacific Ocean for upper @-@ class Chileans .

Pichilemu is home to five of the National Monuments of Chile : Agustín Ross Cultural Centre and Park ; the wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu ; El Árbol tunnel ; and the Caballo de Agua . Part of the city was declared a Zona Típica ( " Traditional Area " or " Heritage Site " ) by the National Monuments Council , in 2004 .

The city is part of District No. 35 and is in the ninth senatorial constituency of O 'Higgins Region electoral division . Pichilemu is home to the main beach in O 'Higgins Region . It is a tourist destination for surfing , windsurfing and funboarding .

Tourism is the main industry of the city , but forestry and handicrafts are also important . Pichilemu has many expansive dark sand beaches . Several surf championships take place in the city each year at Punta de Lobos , which according to Fodor 's is " widely considered the best surfing in South America all year @-@ round . "

= = History = =

Pichilemu was inhabited by Promaucaes , a pre @-@ Columbian tribal group , until the Spanish conquest of Chile . They were hunter @-@ gatherers and fishermen who lived primarily along the Cachapoal and Maule rivers . The remaining Promaucaes were assimilated into Chilean society through a process of hispanicisation and mestisation after the conquest of Chile .

Aureliano Oyarzún , professor of pathology at University of Chile , investigated pre @-@ Ceramic middens from Pichilemu and Cahuil . His book Crónicas de Pichilemu – Cáhuil ( Chronicles of Pichilemu – Cáhuil ) was published posthumously , in 1957 . Tomás Guevara published two volumes of Historia de Chile , Chile Prehispánico ( History of Chile , Pre @-@ Hispanic Chile ) in 1929 , which discusses the indigenous centre of Apalta , the Pichilemu middens , the Malloa petroglyphs , a stone cup from Nancagua , and pottery finds in Peralillo .

José Toribio Medina ( 1852 – 1930 ) , who was a writer and historiographer , spent most of his life in Colchagua Province , and completed his first archeological investigations in Pichilemu . In 1908 , he published Los Restos Indígenas de Pichilemu ( English : The Indigenous Remains of Pichilemu ) , in which he stated that the Indians that were inhabiting Pichilemu when the Spaniards arrived at Chile were Promaucaes , part of the Topocalma encomienda , given on 24 January 1544 , by Pedro de Valdivia to Juan Gómez de Almagro , therefore establishing Pichilemu .

During the colonial and Republican periods , agriculture was promoted by the government . Many Chilean haciendas ( estates ) were successful during this time , including the Pichileminian Hacienda San Antonio de Petrel . Part of the land where San Antonio de Petrel was created was given by the Captaincy General of Chile to Bartolomé de Rojas y Puebla in 1611 , who later acquired more lands in order to establish it . San Antonio de Petrel produced leather , jerky , soles , tallow , and cordovan , as well as other products which would later be exported to Peru , or sold in Santiago and Valparaíso . San Antonio de Petrel was bordered by properties of Lauriano Gaete and Ninfa Vargas , and Pedro Pavez Polanco .

The area around Pichilemu was very densely populated , especially in Cáhuil , where there are salt deposits that were exploited by natives . Pichilemu has had censuses taken since the 17th century .

In 1872 , President of Chile Aníbal Pinto commissioned the corvette captain Francisco Vidal Gormaz to perform a survey of the coast between Tumán Creek and Boca del Mataquito . He concluded that Pichilemu was the best place to construct a ferry . The family of Daniel Ortúzar , inheritors of the hacienda San Antonio de Petrel , constructed a dock in 1875 , which served as a fishing port for a few years , and would be decreed as a " minor dock " by President José Manuel Balmaceda in 1887 . Homes were built along the dock on what currently is the Daniel Ortúzar Avenue ( Avenida Daniel Ortúzar ) . The name Pichilemu comes from the Mapudungún words pichi ( little ) and lemu ( forest ) .

During the 1891 Chilean Civil War , Daniel Ortúzar and the priest of Alcones were transferred as prisoners from Pichilemu to Valparaíso via the dock , which was later burned . The dock was later reconstructed and used until 1912 , but it never reached " port " status .

The inheritors of Lauriano Gaete and Ninfa Vargas , who were proprietors of the land which is currently Central Pichilemu , founded the town in late 1891 after conceiving the design of the city with engineer Emilio Nichón . By decree of President Jorge Montt and his Interior Minister , Manuel José Irarrázabal , the city was officially established as an " autonomous commune " on 22 December 1891 . José María Caro Martínez became the first mayor of the city in 1894 , and regularised and improved the design of the city the same year . Caro Martínez held the mayor office until 1905 .

Agustín Ross Edwards , a Chilean writer , Member of Parliament , minister , and politician , bought a 300 @-@ hectare ( 740 @-@ acre ) tract of land , and named it La Posada , in 1885 . At the time , it was merely a set of thick @-@ walled barracks .

Agustín Ross turned Pichilemu into a summer resort town for affluent people from Santiago . He designed an urban setting that included a park and a forest of over 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) . He transformed La Posada into a hotel , named Gran Hotel Pichilemu , which has since been renamed to Hotel Agustín Ross . He built the Ross Casino ( currently a cultural centre ) , several chalets , terraces , embankments , stone walls , a balcony facing the beach , and several large homes with building materials and furniture imported from France and England . However , Ross was not able to build the dock he had planned for the city . He died in 1926 in Viña del Mar. Agustín Ross ' inheritors donated all of his construction ( streets , avenues , squares , seven hectares of forests , the park in front of the hotel , the perrons , the balcony , and the terraces ) to the Municipality of Pichilemu , on the condition that the municipality would hold them for recreation and public access . The Agustín Ross Casino , constructed in 1905 , and the Agustín Ross Park , constructed in 1885 , have since become an important part of the city , and have been declared Monumentos Históricos ( Historic Monuments ) by the National Monuments Council .

After the creation of the Cardenal Caro Province , by decree of General Augusto Pinochet on 3 October 1979 , Pichilemu became its capital . The province is named after the first Chilean Catholic Cardinal , José María Caro Rodríguez , who was born in Pichilemu .

Pichilemu was severely affected by the 2010 Chile earthquake and its subsequent tsunami , which caused massive destruction in the coastal zone . On 11 March 2010 , at 11 : 39 : 41 ( 14 : 39 : 41 UTC ) , a magnitude 6 @.@ 9 earthquake occurred 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) northwest of Pichilemu , killing one person .

= = Geography = =

Pichilemu is located 126 kilometres ( 78 mi ) west of San Fernando , in the westernmost area of the O 'Higgins Region , on the coast of the Pacific Ocean . It is within a three @-@ hour drive of the Andes Mountains . It is near the Cordillera de la Costa ( Coastal Mountain Range ) which rises to 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) in elevation .

The city is bordered by Litueche to the north , Paredones to the south , and Marchigüe and Pumanque to the east . To the west lies the Pacific Ocean . Pichilemu covers an area of 749 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 289 @.@ 2 sq mi ) .

Pichilemu is located close to a geological fault ( Pichilemu Fault ) , which is according to reports between the city and Vichuquén at 15 km depth , 40 km in length and 20 km wide . It is not known whether the fault was formed during the March 2010 earthquake or if it was just reactivated .

Although the majority of the forest areas around Pichilemu are covered with pine and eucalyptus plantations , a native forest ( now the Municipal Forest ) remains . It contains species such as Litres , Quillayes , Boldos , Espinos , and Peumos .

The city consists of an urban centre and twenty @-@ two rural villages : Alto Colorado , Alto Ramírez , Barrancas , Cáhuil , Cardonal de Panilonco , Ciruelos , Cóguil , El Maqui , El Guindo , Espinillo , Estación Larraín Alcalde , La Aguada , La Palmilla , La Villa , La Plaza , Las Comillas , Pueblo de Viudas , Quebrada del Nuevo Reino , Pañul , Rodeillo , San Antonio de Petrel , and Tanumé .

Nearby bodies of water ( apart from the Pacific Ocean ) include the Nilahue Estuary , which flows to Cáhuil Lagoon , Petrel Estuary , which flows to Petrel Lagoon , and El Barro , El Bajel , and El Ancho lagoons , the latter of which provides the city with drinking water .

Pichilemu experiences a Mediterranean climate , with winter rains which reach 700 millimetres ( 28 in ) . The rest of the year is dry , often windy , and sometimes with coastal fog . Occasionally the city receives winds as high as 150 kilometres per hour ( 93 mph ) .

= = Demographics = =

By the 17th century , Pichilemu had 1 @,@ 468 inhabitants . In 1787 , Pichilemu held 1 @,@ 688 inhabitants , and the population rose to 11 @,@ 829 by 1895 . From there onward , the city 's population progressively decreased : 7 @,@ 787 inhabitants in 1907 ; 7 @,@ 424 in 1920 ; 6 @,@ 929 in 1930 ; and 6 @,@ 570 in 1940 . In 1952 , the city 's population increased to 7 @,@ 150 inhabitants ; however , the 1960 census showed it decreased to 5 @,@ 724 inhabitants , and to 5 @,@ 459 in 1970 . The number of people in Pichilemu reached 8 @,@ 844 in 1982 , and in 1992 , 10 @,@ 510 . As of the 2002 census , the population comprised 12 @,@ 392 people , and 6 @,@ 228 households .

The 2002 census classified 9 @,@ 459 people ( 76 @.@ 3 % ) as living in an urban area and 2 @,@ 933 people ( 23 @.@ 7 % ) as living in a rural area , with 6 @,@ 440 men ( 52 @.@ 0 % ) and 5 @,@ 952 women ( 48 @.@ 0 % ) . According to the 2002 Casen survey , 544 inhabitants ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) of the population live in extreme poverty compared to the average in the greater O 'Higgins Region of 4 @.@ 5 % , and 1 @,@ 946 inhabitants ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) live in mild poverty , compared to the regional average of 16 @.@ 1 % .

The National Statistics Institute of Chile has estimated that , as of 2010 , 78 @.@ 96 % of the inhabitants in the city were living in an urban area and 21 @.@ 04 % were living in a rural area , with 52 @.@ 4 % men and 47 @.@ 5 % women ; the population density was estimated as 19 @.@ 09 per square mile . In the 2012 census , the population of Pichilemu was 13 @,@ 916 inhabitants ; although earlier estimates put it higher .

Most of the people from Pichilemu are Catholic , as of the 2002 census , 7 @,@ 611 persons ( 83 @.@ 44 % ) , well above the national and regional average ( 69 @.@ 96 % and 79 @.@ 08 % , respectively ) ; the evangelical population is considerably lower , at only 689 people ( 7 @.@ 55 % ) ; 361 ( 3 @.@ 96 % ) said they were Atheists or Agnostic individuals , while the remaining 460 ( 5 @.@ 04 % ) are part of other religions . Based on information from the Casen survey , twenty @-@ four persons living in Pichilemu declared themselves as Aymaras in 2006 , and in 2009 , 390 people said they were part of the Mapuche indigenous ethnic group ; the survey revealed no one living in Pichilemu claimed to be either of the Atacameños or of the Rapa Nui indigenous peoples .

= = Governance = =

Pichilemu , along with the communes of Placilla , Nancagua , Chépica , Santa Cruz , Pumanque , Palmilla , Peralillo , Navidad , Lolol , Litueche , La Estrella , Marchihue , and Paredones , is part of Electoral District No. 35 and belongs to the 9th Senatorial Constituency ( O 'Higgins ) of the electoral divisions of Chile .

Pichilemu is governed by the mayor ( alcalde ) , who manages the executive function . The City Council ( concejo municipal ) manages the legislative function . The mayors and the councilors are elected popularly every four years , with possibility of re @-@ election . Marcelo Cabrera Martínez was elected in 2008 as the new mayor with 42 @.@ 08 percent of the vote ; he served from May to August 2009 , when he was permanently banned from holding public office after being convicted for adulterating tickets . Then , the municipal council elected Roberto Córdova as new mayor on 9 September 2009 . Between 2007 and 2009 , Pichilemu had seven mayors , after Jorge Vargas González was removed from the office for committing the crime of bribery ; he was mayor for over 10 years , from 1996 to 2007 . Vargas was succeeded by Victor Rojas , who was later accused of the same crime and eventually removed from the office too . Roberto Córdova was popularly elected mayor for the first time in 2012 with 47 @.@ 9 percent . The current councilors of Pichilemu are Aldo Polanco Contreras , Andrea Aranda Escudero , Marta Urzúa Púa , Mario Morales Cárceles , Felipe Bustamante Olivares , and Hugo Toro Galaz . Both the mayor and the councilors took office on 6 December 2012 , and their term will expire on 6 December 2016 .

The Pichilemu Police , known in Spanish as Carabineros de Pichilemu , and officially Tercera Comisaría de Carabineros de Pichilemu , are commanded by Tomás Molina Meza . The police station is located in front of the former Pichilemu post office building , in Daniel Ortúzar avenue .

= = Economy = =

Tourism is the main industry of Pichilemu , especially in the urban centre and some rural areas such as Cáhuil and Ciruelos . Forestry , mainly pine and eucalyptus , is another major industry . The area is also known for handicrafts . Although fishing is not very important to O 'Higgins Region , due to unsuitable coastlines , it is common in Pichilemu , Bucalemu , and Navidad .

Pichilemu has a clay deposit in the Pañul area . According to archaeological investigations , pottery was first manufactured in the area around 300 BCE . It is still a stalwart today — Ciruelos and El Copao are well known for the pottery created there .

= = Landmarks = =

The Bosque Municipal ( Municipal Forest ) was donated by the Ross family in 1935 . The main access to the forest is in front of Ross Casino , near Paseo el Sol ; or by a road near the Colegio Preciosa Sangre . The forest has a footpath surrounded by palms , pines , and many other varieties of trees .

Conchal Indígena ( Indigenous Midden ) is an archaeological site of pre @-@ Hispanic times . It is located on the site of an ancient fishing village 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from Punta de Lobos and 0 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 19 mi ) south of Los Curas Lagoon . Laguna Los Curas ( Los Curas Lagoon ) is a natural area used for eco @-@ tourist activities such as fishing located 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Pichilemu . Another lagoon , the Laguna del Perro ( The Dog 's Lagoon ) is located 8 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Pichilemu . It is used for recreational activities .

Laguna El Alto ( El Alto Lagoon ) is a small , rain @-@ fed lagoon located at Chorrillos Beach that is often used for camping and picnics . The lagoon is an hour and a half drive from Pichilemu , traveling to the north by Chorrillos beach . Poza del Encanto is a lagoon located 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from Pichilemu . It is home to a large variety of native fauna . The Estero Nilahue ( Nilahue Lagoon ) is located 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from Pichilemu . It has several beaches , including El Bronce , El Maquí , and Laguna El Vado .

St. Andrew Church is located in Ciruelos , 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) from Pichilemu . It was constructed in 1779 , and its altar was built in the 1940s . It has a harmonium , confessional boxes , and ancient images of saints . Its original image of St. Andrew was made of papier mache . The old parish was created by Archbishop Rafael Valentín Valdivieso in 1864 . Cardinal José María Caro Rodríguez was baptized there . The feast day of St. Andrew is celebrated every November 30 at the church .

The Museo del Niño Rural ( the Rural Kid Museum ) was created as an initiative of teacher Carlos Leyton and his students . It is a modern building that utilises traditional architecture . Three rooms contain a collection of stone tools , arrowheads , and clay tools made by the indigenous people of the region . Also on display are domestic tools from early colonists .

El Copao is a hamlet located 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Pichilemu . Its main industry is domestic pottery production , using clay as a raw material . Pañul is a settlement located 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from Pichilemu . Its name in Mapudungun means " medicinal herb . " Pañul produces pottery made with locally obtained clay . Cáhuil is a small settlement located 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Pichilemu . Its name in Mapudungun means " parrot place " . Cahuil lagoon is used for fishing , swimming , and kayaking ; kiteboarding lessons are offered on the lagoon . The Cáhuil Bridge is open to motor traffic , and has a view of the Cahuil zone . The bridge provides access to Curicó , Lolol , Bucalemu , and other nearby places .

Pichilemu was declared a Typical Zone by the National Monuments Council of Chile , by decree No. 1097 on 22 December 2004 .

The city is home to five other National Monuments : Ross Park , Ross Casino , El Árbol Tunnel , the wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu , and Caballo de Agua .

= = = Agustín Ross Cultural Centre = = =

The current Cultural Centre , in front of Ross Park , is a three @-@ floor casino constructed with imported materials in the early 1900s by Agustín Ross . It originally housed a mail and telegraph service , with a large store . The first casino in Chile was opened in this building on 20 January 1906 . It operated until 1932 , when the Viña del Mar Casino was opened .

The building was renovated and reopened in 2009 as a cultural arts center . It currently houses several gallery spaces and the public library . During its restoration , workers found many historical artifacts , including a copy of Las Últimas Noticias from February 1941 when Ross Casino served as a hotel ; an American telephone battery dating from the period of 1909 to 1915 ; and a tile from the casino 's ceiling signed by workers during the building 's construction in 1914 .

Ross Park , created by Agustín Ross in 1885 , contains hundred @-@ year @-@ old native Chilean palms ( Phoenix canariensis ) and many green spaces . It was restored in December 1987 , and is now a popular walking destination . The former casino was named National Monuments in 1988 .

Ross hotel was created by Agustín Ross in 1885 , and originally named Great Hotel Pichilemu ( Gran Hotel Pichilemu ) . It is one of the oldest hotels in Chile . Although it is still partially open to guests , it is in a state of disrepair .

= = = Railway station = = =

The old wooden railway station , Estación Pichilemu , constructed around 1925 , is one of the National Monuments of Chile . In the O 'Higgins Region , 357 kilometres ( 222 mi ) of railway lines were constructed , but only 161 kilometres ( 100 mi ) still exist . The 119 kilometres ( 74 mi ) San Fernando – Pichilemu section was constructed between 1869 and 1926 . Passenger services operated on the line until 1986 and freight services were operational until 1995 . In 2006 , the Peralillo – Pichilemu section was removed completely .

It remained in operation until the 1990s , and became a National Monument on 16 September 1994 . It has since become an arts and culture centre and tourism information office . It exhibits decorative and practical objects from the 1920s , and features many old clothes .

= = = Beaches = = =

Pichilemu has several expansive dark sand beaches . The water is cool all year @-@ round , and many tourists choose to swim at the shore break during the summer months . Common activities include bodyboarding , surfing , windsurfing , and kitesurfing .

The northernmost of the beaches is Playa Las Terrazas or Playa Principal ( The Terraces Beach or Main Beach ) , which is in front of Ross Park . It is popular for surfing . Near the beach and at Ross Park , there are balustrades and long stairs dating from the early 1900s . There is a balcony over the rocks at the southern end of the beach . It is the busiest during the summer months . Several surf schools , such as La Ola Perfecta , and Lobos del Pacífico , are located nearby , as is the fish market at Fishermen Creek .

Located south of the town and around the other side of the Puntilla , Playa Infiernillo ( Little Hell Beach ) is rocky and has tide @-@ pools . This area is used for fishing . South of Infiernillo is Playa Hermosa ( Beautiful Beach ) , which is popular for walking and fishing .

Further south , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from Pichilemu , Punta de Lobos has a beach sheltered from the southern winds . It is an increasingly popular destination for tourists and surfers . Several surf contests are held there every year . The size of waves varies throughout the year . Large swells in fall and winter can reach heights of up to 15 metres ( 49 ft ) . It is widely considered one of the best beaches for surfing worldwide . In 2012 , it was named one of the " 50 most thrilling surf destinations " .

Pichilemu is regarded as the prime location for surfing in Chile , particularly at Punta de Lobos . Every October and December , an International Championship of Surf is held at La Puntilla Beach . Punta de Lobos hosts the Campeonato Nacional de Surf ( National Surfing Championship ) every summer .

= = Media = =

There are three local newspapers : El Expreso de la Costa ( " The Express of the Coast " ) is a monthly newspaper directed by Félix Calderón Vargas , first published on 30 June 2000 ; El Faro del Secano ( " The Dryland 's Lighthouse " ) was founded in November 2013 by local journalist Óscar Rojas Connell , and is distributed throughout the Cardenal Caro Province ; and La Voz de la Región ( " The Voice of the Region " ) , published every two weeks , first appeared on 2 January 2014 , and is directed by Patricio Flores Retamales .

Radio services come from Radio Entreolas , Radio Atardecer , Radio Somos Pichilemu ( directed by former Mayor Jorge Vargas González and his wife and current Councilor Andrea Aranda ) , Radio Isla , and Radio Corporación . A television channel , Canal 3 Pichilemu , also broadcasts in the area .

= = Education = =

Education establishments in Pichilemu include Liceo Agustín Ross Edwards ( Agustín Ross Edwards High School ) ; a secondary school in El Llano ; the primary and secondary school named Charly 's School , and the primary school Escuela Digna Camilo Aguilar ( Digna Camilo Aguilar School ) , both also located in El Llano ; Colegio Libertadores ( Liberators School ) , a primary school in Infiernillo ; Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre ( Precious Blood School ) , a primary and secondary school located near El Llano ; Colegio Divino Maestro ( Divine Master School ) , a primary school located near Cáhuil Avenue ; Escuela Pueblo de Viudas ( Pueblo de Viudas School ) , a primary school in Pueblo de Viudas ; and Jardín Amanecer ( Dawn Garden ) , a kindergarten school in El Llano .

Higher education first arrived at Pichilemu in 1970 , when the Centro Medio Profesional de Pichilemu ( Pichilemu Secondary @-@ Professional Centre ) was created ; however , it was discontinued the next year . In 2002 , thirty @-@ one years after the Centro Medio Profesional was discontinued , the Universidad Academia de Humanismo Cristiano ( Academy of Christian Humanism University ) began to give classes of Engineering in Public Gesture Management , and Engineering in Environment Gesture Management . The university worked at the dependencies of Liceo Agustín Ross Edwards until 2008 . At least ten people obtained their professional titles , while other ten are still in the process of obtaining their titles , as of December 2011 . In November 2011 , Governor of Cardenal Caro Province Julio Ibarra announced that an institute of higher education would be brought to the province , whose name , Instituto Profesional IPG ( IPG Professional Institute ) , was disclosed one month later . During the inauguration of the 2012 school year in Pichilemu , Education Regional Secretary Minister ( Seremi ) Pedro Larraín said IPEGE would work in the dependencies of Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre of Pichilemu .

= Amber Room =

The Amber Room ( Russian : Янтарная комната , German : Bernsteinzimmer , Polish : Bursztynowa komnata ) is a world @-@ famous chamber decorated in amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors , located in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg . Originally constructed in the 18th century in Prussia , the Amber Room disappeared during World War II and was recreated in 2003 . Before the room was lost , it was considered an " Eighth Wonder of the World " .

Construction of the Amber Room first took place around 1701 in Prussia . The room was designed by German baroque sculptor Andreas Schlüter and Danish amber craftsman Gottfried Wolfram . Schlüter and Wolfram worked on the room until 1707 , when work was continued by amber masters Gottfried Turau and Ernst Schacht from Danzig . The amber cabinet remained in the Berlin City Palace until 1716 when it was given by the Prussian King Frederick William I to his then ally , Tsar Peter the Great of the Russian Empire . In Russia , the room was expanded and after several renovations , it covered more than 55 square metres ( 590 sq ft ) and contained over 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) of amber .

The Amber Room was looted during World War II by Army Group North of Nazi Germany and brought to Königsberg for reconstruction and display . Its current whereabouts remain a mystery . In 1979 , efforts were undertaken to rebuild the Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo . In 2003 , after decades of work by Russian craftsmen and donations from Germany , the reconstructed Amber Room was inaugurated at the Catherine Palace near Saint Petersburg .

= = History = =

= = = Creation = = =

The Amber Room was begun in 1701 with the purpose of being installed at Charlottenburg Palace , the residence of Frederick , the first King of Prussia , at the urging of his second wife , Sophie Charlotte . The concept and design of the room was drafted by Andreas Schlüter . It was fabricated by Gottfried Wolfram , master craftsman to the Danish court of King Frederick IV of Denmark , with help from the amber masters Ernst Schacht and Gottfried Turau from Danzig .

Although originally intended for installation at Charlottenburg Palace , the complete panels were eventually installed at Berlin City Palace . The Amber Room did not , however , remain at Berlin City Palace for long . Peter the Great of Russia admired it during a visit and in 1716 , King Frederick I 's son Frederick William I presented the room to Peter as a gift , which forged a Russo @-@ Prussian alliance against Sweden .

The original Berlin design of the Amber Room was reworked in Russia in a joint effort by German and Russian craftsmen . It was Peter 's daughter Empress Elisabeth who decided the amber treasure should be installed at Catherine Palace , where the Russian Imperial family typically spent their summers . After several other 18th @-@ century renovations , the room covered more than 55 square metres ( 590 sq ft ) and contained over 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) of amber . The room took over ten years to construct .

= = = Evacuation during World War II = = =

Shortly after the beginning of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in World War II , the curators responsible for removing the art treasures in Leningrad tried to disassemble and remove the Amber Room . However , over the years the amber had dried out and became brittle , making it impossible to move the room without crumbling the amber . The Amber Room was therefore hidden behind mundane wallpaper , in an attempt to keep German forces from seizing it . Predictably , the attempt to hide such a well @-@ known piece of art failed .

German soldiers of Army Group North disassembled the Amber Room within 36 hours under the supervision of two experts . On 14 October 1941 , the priceless room reached Königsberg in East Prussia , for storage and display in the town 's castle . On 13 November 1941 , a Konigsberg newspaper announced an exhibition of the Amber Room at Königsberg Castle .

= = = Last days in Königsberg = = =

Orders given by Hitler on 21 and 24 January 1945 ordered the movement of looted possessions from Königsberg . This allowed Albert Speer , Reichminister of Armaments , and his administration team to transport cultural goods of priority . However , before the Amber Room could be moved , Erich Koch , who was in charge of civil administration in Königsberg during the final months of the war , abandoned his post and fled from the city , leaving General Otto Lasch in command .

In August 1944 , Königsberg was heavily fire bombed by the Royal Air Force . It suffered further extensive damage from artillery from the advancing Red Army before the final occupation on 9 April 1945 .

= = In popular culture = =

A fictional music box from the Amber Room is the macguffin plot device throughout the first two seasons of the USA television series White Collar

The Amber Room is also the central plot device in Steve Berry 's first novel The Amber Room ( 2003 ) .

= = Reconstruction = =

In 1979 , the Soviet government decided to construct a replica of the Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo , a process that was to last 24 years and require 40 Russian and German experts in amber craftsmanship . Using original drawings and old black @-@ and @-@ white photographs , every attempt was made to duplicate the original Amber Room . This included the 350 shades of amber in the original panels and fixtures that adorned the room . Another major problem was the lack of skilled workers , since amber carving was considered a nearly lost art form .

The financial difficulties that plagued the reconstruction project from the start were solved with the donation of $ 3 @.@ 5 million from the German company E.ON. By 2003 , the work of the Russian craftsmen was mostly completed . The new room was dedicated by Russian President Vladimir Putin and German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder at the 300th anniversary of the city of Saint Petersburg .

In Kleinmachnow , near Berlin , there is a miniature Amber Room , fabricated after the original . The Berlin miniature collector Ulla Klingbeil had this copy made of original East Prussian amber .

= = Architecture = =

The Amber Room is a priceless piece of art , with extraordinary architectural features such as gilding , carvings , 450 kg ( 990 lb ) amber panels , gold leaf , gemstones , and mirrors , all highlighted with candle light . Additional architectural and design features include statues of angels and children . Because of its unique features and singular beauty , the original Amber Room was sometimes dubbed the " Eighth Wonder of the World " . Modern estimates of the room 's value range from $ 142 million ( 2007 ) to over $ 500 million ( 2016 ) .

= = Disappearance and mysteries = =

After the war , the Amber Room was never seen in public again , though reports have occasionally surfaced stating that pieces of the Amber Room survived the war . Several eyewitnesses claimed to have spotted the famous room being loaded on board the Wilhelm Gustloff , which left Gdynia on 30 January 1945 , and was then promptly torpedoed and sunk by a Soviet submarine .

In 1997 , an Italian stone mosaic that was part of a set of four stones which had decorated the Amber Room was found in Germany , in the possession of the family of a soldier who claimed to have helped pack up the amber chamber . The mosaic came into the hands of the Russian authorities and was used in the reconstruction effort .

In 1998 , two separate teams , one German and one Lithuanian , announced they had located the Amber Room . The German team pointed to a silver mine while the Lithuanian team believed the amber treasure was buried in a lagoon ; neither of the two suggestions turned out to hold the Amber Room .

In 2004 , a lengthy investigation by British investigative journalists Catherine Scott @-@ Clark and Adrian Levy concluded that Amber Room was most likely destroyed when Königsberg Castle was heavily damaged , first during the bombing of Königsberg by the Royal Air Force in 1944 , when the castle completely burned down , and later by the Soviet shelling of the remaining walls . Documents from the Russian National Archives revealed this as the assessment of a Soviet report , written by Alexander Brusov , head of the Soviet team charged with locating the Amber Room following the war . The report stated :

These dates correspond with the end of the Battle of Konigsberg , which finished on 9 April with the surrender of the German garrison . A few years later , Brusov publicly voiced a contrary opinion ; this is believed to have been done due to pressure from Soviet authorities , who did not want to be seen as responsible for the loss of the Amber Room .

Among other information retrieved from the archives was the revelation that the remaining Italian stone mosaics were found in the burned debris of the castle . Scott @-@ Clark and Levy concluded in their report that the reason the Soviets conducted extensive searches for the Amber Room , even though their own experts had concluded that it was destroyed , was because they wanted to know if any of their own soldiers had been responsible for the destruction . Scott @-@ Clark and Levy also assessed that others in the Soviet government found the theft of the Amber Room a useful Cold War propaganda tool . Russian government officials have since denied these conclusions . Adelaida Yolkina , senior researcher at the Pavlovsk Palace , reportedly stated : " It is impossible to see the Red Army being so careless that they let the Amber Room be destroyed " .

After the report was made public , Leonid Arinshtein , who was a Lieutenant in the Red Army in charge of a rifle platoon during the Battle of Konigsberg , said : " I probably was one of the last people who saw the Amber Room " . At the same time , he explained that the whole city was burning due to artillery bombardments , but also denied allegations that the Red Army burned the city on purpose by saying : " What soldiers would burn the city where they will have to stay ? "

A variation of this theory by some present @-@ day residents of Kaliningrad ( formerly Königsberg ) , is that at least parts of the room were found in the Königsberg Castle cellars after World War II by the Red Army . The Amber Room was allegedly still in good condition ; this was not admitted at the time so the blame could fall upon the Nazis . To preserve this story , access to the ruins of the castle , which was allowed after World War II , was suddenly restricted to all , including historical and archaeological surveys .

Then in 1968 , despite academic protests worldwide , Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev ordered the destruction of Königsberg Castle , thus making any onsite research of the last known resting place of the Amber Room all but impossible . In more recent years , the search for the Amber Room has continued in different locations including near Wuppertal , Germany .

= = = Printed = = =

Denny , Isabel ( 2007 ) . The Fall of Hitler 's Fortress City : the Battle for Königsberg , 1945 . MBI Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1935149200 .

Khatri , Vikas ( 2012 ) . World Famous Treasures Lost and Found . Pustak Mahal Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 8122312744 .

Lucas , James ( 2000 ) . Last Days of the Reich : The Collapse of Nazi Germany , May 1945 . Cassell Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0304354481 .

Scott @-@ Clark , Catherine ; Levy , Adrian ( 2004 ) . The Amber Room : The Untold Story of the Greatest Hoax of the Twentieth Century . Atlantic Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 84354 @-@ 340 @-@ 0 .

Torney , Austin ( 2009 ) . The Guide to the All @-@ Embracing Realm of the Ultimate . Torney Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1448617272 .

Wermusch , Günter ( 1991 ) . Die Bernsteinzimmer Saga : Spuren , Irrwege , Rätsel ( in German ) . Yale University . ISBN 978 @-@ 3861530190 .

= = = Online = = =

" 60 @-@ year Hunt For Russian Czars ' Missing Amber Room May Be Over After Discovery in Germany " . Daily Mail . 2011 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" A Brief History of the Amber Room " . Smithsonian Institution . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Amber Room Hunt Makes Lake the Tsar Attraction " . Scotland on Sunday . 2006 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Amber Room Remnants Found ? — Discoveries Delight Russian Art Experts " . Seattle Times . 1997 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Catherine Palace " . St. Petersburg . 2001 . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .

" Erich Koch , Regarded as One of Cruelest of Hitler 's SS Men , Dies in Prison at 90 " . Los Angeles Times . 1986 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Greed , Glory and a Tsar 's Lost Treasure " . The Guardian . 2004 . Retrieved 22 February 2015 .

" Inside the £ 300 Million Room : Incredible Story of Amber and Gold Living Space That Once Belonged to Catherine the Great Revealed in BBC Documentary " . Daily Mail . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Mystery of the Amber Room Resurfaces " . ABC News . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Red Army , Not the Nazis , Destroyed Tsar 's Amber Room " . Telegraph . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Resurrecting Königsberg : Russian City Looks to German Roots " . Der Spiegel . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Restoration of the Amber Chamber is Coming to an End " . Pravda . 2007 . Retrieved 26 June 2007 .

" Russian Jeweller Recreates the Amber Room In His Workshop " . Russia Beyond the Headlines . 2013 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" Top 10 Famous Pieces of Art Stolen by the Nazis " . Toptenz . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" The Amber Room : History , Figures , Facts and Mysteries " ( in Russian ) . RIA Novosti . 2010 . Retrieved 25 February 2015 .

" The Amber Room : Long Lost Treasure " . AskMen . 2004 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

" The Amber Room " . About . 2014 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .

= Lipid =

Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats , waxes , sterols , fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( such as vitamins A , D , E , and K ) , monoglycerides , diglycerides , triglycerides , phospholipids , and others . The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy , signaling , and acting as structural components of cell membranes . Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology .

Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules ; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles , multilamellar / unilamellar liposomes , or membranes in an aqueous environment . Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or " building @-@ blocks " : ketoacyl and isoprene groups . Using this approach , lipids may be divided into eight categories : fatty acids , glycerolipids , glycerophospholipids , sphingolipids , saccharolipids , and polyketides ( derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits ) ; and sterol lipids and prenol lipids ( derived from condensation of isoprene subunits ) .

Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats , fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides . Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives ( including tri- , di- , monoglycerides , and phospholipids ) , as well as other sterol @-@ containing metabolites such as cholesterol . Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids , some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet .

= = Categories of lipids = =

= = = Fatty acids = = =

Fatty acids , or fatty acid residues when they are part of a lipid , are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain @-@ elongation of an acetyl @-@ CoA primer with malonyl @-@ CoA or methylmalonyl @-@ CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis . They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group ; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar , hydrophilic end , and a nonpolar , hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water . The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids , and is commonly used as a building @-@ block of more structurally complex lipids . The carbon chain , typically between four and 24 carbons long , may be saturated or unsaturated , and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen , halogens , nitrogen , and sulfur . If a fatty acid contains a double bond , there is the possibility of either a cis or trans geometric isomerism , which significantly affects the molecule 's configuration . Cis @-@ double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend , an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain . Three double bonds in 18 @-@ carbon linolenic acid , the most abundant fatty @-@ acyl chains of plant thylakoid membranes , render these membranes highly fluid despite environmental low @-@ temperatures , and also makes linolenic acid give dominating sharp peaks in high resolution 13 @-@ C NMR spectra of chloroplasts . This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes . Most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the cis configuration , although the trans form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils .

Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids , derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid , that include prostaglandins , leukotrienes , and thromboxanes . Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems , particularly with respect to sight . Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides . Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters , fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives , fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines . The fatty amides include N @-@ acyl ethanolamines , such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide .

= = = Glycerolipids = = =

Glycerolipids are composed of mono- , di- , and tri @-@ substituted glycerols , the best @-@ known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol , called triglycerides . The word " triacylglycerol " is sometimes used synonymously with " triglyceride " . In these compounds , the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified , typically by different fatty acids . Because they function as an energy store , these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues . The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat .

Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols , which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage . Examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells .

= = = Glycerophospholipids = = =

Glycerophospholipids , usually referred to as phospholipids , are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells , as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling . Neural tissue ( including the brain ) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids , and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders . Glycerophospholipids may be subdivided into distinct classes , based on the nature of the polar headgroup at the sn @-@ 3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubacteria , or the sn @-@ 1 position in the case of archaebacteria .

Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine ( also known as PC , GPCho or lecithin ) , phosphatidylethanolamine ( PE or GPEtn ) and phosphatidylserine ( PS or GPSer ) . In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins , some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells , such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or , themselves , membrane @-@ derived second messengers . Typically , one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long @-@ chain fatty acids , but there are also alkyl @-@ linked and 1Z @-@ alkenyl @-@ linked ( plasmalogen ) glycerophospholipids , as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria .

= = = Sphingolipids = = =

Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature , a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long @-@ chain fatty acyl CoA , then converted into ceramides , phosphosphingolipids , glycosphingolipids and other compounds . The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine . Ceramides ( N @-@ acyl @-@ sphingoid bases ) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide @-@ linked fatty acid . The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono @-@ unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms .

The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins ( ceramide phosphocholines ) , whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose @-@ containing headgroups . The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base . Examples of these are the simple and complex glycosphingolipids such as cerebrosides and gangliosides .

= = = Sterol lipids = = =

Sterol lipids , such as cholesterol and its derivatives , are an important component of membrane lipids , along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins . The steroids , all derived from the same fused four @-@ ring core structure , have different biological roles as hormones and signaling molecules . The eighteen @-@ carbon ( C18 ) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone . The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids . The secosteroids , comprising various forms of vitamin D , are characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure . Other examples of sterols are the bile acids and their conjugates , which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver . The plant equivalents are the phytosterols , such as β @-@ sitosterol , stigmasterol , and brassicasterol ; the latter compound is also used as a biomarker for algal growth . The predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol .

= = = Prenol lipids = = =

Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five @-@ carbon @-@ unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate that are produced mainly via the mevalonic acid ( MVA ) pathway . The simple isoprenoids ( linear alcohols , diphosphates , etc . ) are formed by the successive addition of C5 units , and are classified according to number of these terpene units . Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes . Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Another biologically important class of molecules is exemplified by the quinones and hydroquinones , which contain an isoprenoid tail attached to a quinonoid core of non @-@ isoprenoid origin . Vitamin E and vitamin K , as well as the ubiquinones , are examples of this class . Prokaryotes synthesize polyprenols ( called bactoprenols ) in which the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated , whereas in animal polyprenols ( dolichols ) the terminal isoprenoid is reduced .

= = = Saccharolipids = = =

Saccharolipids describe compounds in which fatty acids are linked directly to a sugar backbone , forming structures that are compatible with membrane bilayers . In the saccharolipids , a monosaccharide substitutes for the glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids . The most familiar saccharolipids are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the Lipid A component of the lipopolysaccharides in Gram @-@ negative bacteria . Typical lipid A molecules are disaccharides of glucosamine , which are derivatized with as many as seven fatty @-@ acyl chains . The minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth in E. coli is Kdo2 @-@ Lipid A , a hexa @-@ acylated disaccharide of glucosamine that is glycosylated with two 3 @-@ deoxy @-@ D @-@ manno @-@ octulosonic acid ( Kdo ) residues .

= = = Polyketides = = =

Polyketides are synthesized by polymerization of acetyl and propionyl subunits by classic enzymes as well as iterative and multimodular enzymes that share mechanistic features with the fatty acid synthases . They comprise a large number of secondary metabolites and natural products from animal , plant , bacterial , fungal and marine sources , and have great structural diversity . Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation , methylation , hydroxylation , oxidation , and / or other processes . Many commonly used anti @-@ microbial , anti @-@ parasitic , and anti @-@ cancer agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives , such as erythromycins , tetracyclines , avermectins , and antitumor epothilones .

= = Biological functions = =

= = = Membranes = = =

Eukaryotic cells feature compartmentalized membrane @-@ bound organelles that carry out different biological functions . The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes , such as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles ; in animal cells the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment . The glycerophospholipids are amphipathic molecules ( containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions ) that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid @-@ derived " tails " by ester linkages and to one " head " group by a phosphate ester linkage . While glycerophospholipids are the major component of biological membranes , other non @-@ glyceride lipid components such as sphingomyelin and sterols ( mainly cholesterol in animal cell membranes ) are also found in biological membranes . In plants and algae , the galactosyldiacylglycerols , and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol , which lack a phosphate group , are important components of membranes of chloroplasts and related organelles and are the most abundant lipids in photosynthetic tissues , including those of higher plants , algae and certain bacteria .

Plant thylakoid membranes have the largest lipid component of a non @-@ bilayer forming monogalactosyl diglyceride ( MGDG ) , and little phospholipids ; despite this unique lipid composition , chloroplast thylakoid membranes have been shown to contain a dynamic lipid @-@ bilayer matrix as revealed by magnetic resonance and electron microscope studies .

A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer . The formation of lipid bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous environment . This is known as the hydrophobic effect . In an aqueous system , the polar heads of lipids align towards the polar , aqueous environment , while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with water and tend to cluster together , forming a vesicle ; depending on the concentration of the lipid , this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles , liposomes , or lipid bilayers . Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the polymorphism of amphiphile ( lipid ) behavior . Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics and is the subject of current academic research . Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect . When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment , the polar molecules ( i.e. , water in an aqueous solution ) become more ordered around the dissolved lipophilic substance , since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the lipophilic areas of the amphiphile . So in an aqueous environment , the water molecules form an ordered " clathrate " cage around the dissolved lipophilic molecule .

The formation of lipids into protocell membranes represents a key step in models of abiogenesis , the origin of life .

= = = Energy storage = = =

Triglycerides , stored in adipose tissue , are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants . The adipocyte , or fat cell , is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals , with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone @-@ sensitive enzyme lipase . The complete oxidation of fatty acids provides high caloric content , about 9 kcal / g , compared with 4 kcal / g for the breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins . Migratory birds that must fly long distances without eating use stored energy of triglycerides to fuel their flights .

= = = Signaling = = =

In recent years , evidence has emerged showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell signaling . Lipid signaling may occur via activation of G protein @-@ coupled or nuclear receptors , and members of several different lipid categories have been identified as signaling molecules and cellular messengers . These include sphingosine @-@ 1 @-@ phosphate , a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization , cell growth , and apoptosis ; diacylglycerol ( DAG ) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates ( PIPs ) , involved in calcium @-@ mediated activation of protein kinase C ; the prostaglandins , which are one type of fatty @-@ acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity ; the steroid hormones such as estrogen , testosterone and cortisol , which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction , metabolism and blood pressure ; and the oxysterols such as 25 @-@ hydroxy @-@ cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists . Phosphatidylserine lipids are known to be involved in signaling for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and / or pieces of cells . They accomplish this by being exposed to the extracellular face of the cell membrane after the inactivation of flippases which place them exclusively on the cytosolic side and the activation of scramblases , which scramble the orientation of the phospholipids . After this occurs , other cells recognize the phosphatidylserines and phagocytosize the cells or cell fragments exposing them .

= = = Other functions = = =

The " fat @-@ soluble " vitamins ( A , D , E and K ) – which are isoprene @-@ based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues , with a diverse range of functions . Acyl @-@ carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria , where they undergo beta oxidation . Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles , in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes . Polyprenol phosphate sugars and polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra @-@ cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions , in extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis ( for instance , peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria ) , and in eukaryotic protein N @-@ glycosylation . Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups that are particularly abundant in the inner mitochondrial membrane . They are believed to activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation . Lipids also form the basis of steroid hormones .

= = Metabolism = =

The major dietary lipids for humans and other animals are animal and plant triglycerides , sterols , and membrane phospholipids . The process of lipid metabolism synthesizes and degrades the lipid stores and produces the structural and functional lipids characteristic of individual tissues .

= = = Biosynthesis = = =

In animals , when there is an oversupply of dietary carbohydrate , the excess carbohydrate is converted to triglycerides . This involves the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl @-@ CoA and the esterification of fatty acids in the production of triglycerides , a process called lipogenesis . Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl @-@ CoA units . The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acetyl group , reduce it to an alcohol , dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group . The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups , in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional protein , while in plant plastids and bacteria separate enzymes perform each step in the pathway . The fatty acids may be subsequently converted to triglycerides that are packaged in lipoproteins and secreted from the liver .

The synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids involves a desaturation reaction , whereby a double bond is introduced into the fatty acyl chain . For example , in humans , the desaturation of stearic acid by stearoyl @-@ CoA desaturase @-@ 1 produces oleic acid . The doubly unsaturated fatty acid linoleic acid as well as the triply unsaturated α @-@ linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in mammalian tissues , and are therefore essential fatty acids and must be obtained from the diet .

Triglyceride synthesis takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum by metabolic pathways in which acyl groups in fatty acyl @-@ CoAs are transferred to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol @-@ 3 @-@ phosphate and diacylglycerol .

Terpenes and isoprenoids , including the carotenoids , are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate . These precursors can be made in different ways . In animals and archaea , the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl @-@ CoA , while in plants and bacteria the non @-@ mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate as substrates . One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis . Here , the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol . Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol .

= = = Degradation = = =

Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria and / or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl @-@ CoA . For the most part , fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to , but not identical with , a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis . That is , two @-@ carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation , hydration , and oxidation to form a beta @-@ keto acid , which is split by thiolysis . The acetyl @-@ CoA is then ultimately converted into ATP , CO2 , and H2O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain . Hence the citric acid cycle can start at acetyl @-@ CoA when fat is being broken down for energy if there is little or no glucose available . The energy yield of the complete oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP . Unsaturated and odd @-@ chain fatty acids require additional enzymatic steps for degradation .

= = Nutrition and health = =

Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides , cholesterol , and phospholipids . Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( A , D , E , and K ) and carotenoids . Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids , such as linoleic acid ( an omega @-@ 6 fatty acid ) and alpha @-@ linolenic acid ( an omega @-@ 3 fatty acid ) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet . Both of these fatty acids are 18 @-@ carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds . Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid ( safflower , sunflower , and corn oils ) . Alpha @-@ linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants , and in selected seeds , nuts , and legumes ( in particular flax , rapeseed , walnut , and soy ) . Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer @-@ chain omega @-@ 3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . A large number of studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega @-@ 3 fatty acids on infant development , cancer , cardiovascular diseases , and various mental illnesses , such as depression , attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder , and dementia . In contrast , it is now well @-@ established that consumption of trans fats , such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils , are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease .

A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity and diabetes . However , a number of very large studies , including the Women 's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial , an eight @-@ year study of 49 @,@ 000 women , the Nurses ' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow @-@ up Study , revealed no such links . None of these studies suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of cancer , heart disease , or weight gain . The Nutrition Source , a website maintained by the Department of Nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health , summarizes the current evidence on the impact of dietary fat : " Detailed research — much of it done at Harvard — shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn 't really linked with weight or disease . "

= Don 't Wake Me Up ( song ) =

" Don 't Wake Me Up " is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown , taken from his fifth studio album , Fortune ( 2012 ) . It was written by Brown , Alain Whyte , Allessandro Benassi , Brian Kennedy , Jean @-@ Baptiste , Marco Benassi , Michael McHenry , Nick Marsh , Priscilla Hamilton , Ryan Buendia and William Orbit . The song was produced by Benny and Alle Benassi , Free School , Orbit and Kennedy , and was released digitally on May 18 , 2012 , as the fourth single from the album . " Don 't Wake Me Up " is an EDM song that features heavy bass and a repetitive chorus . The lyrics of the song describe a lost loved one who exists only in a dream .

" Don 't Wake Me Up " received generally positive reviews from critics , who complimented its production . The song was commercially successful , peaking at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , the single peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia , Austria , Hungary , Ireland , Japan , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom , and the top twenty of the charts in Denmark , France , Germany , Sweden , Switzerland and Belgium . The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley and depicts Brown in three different dreams , all of which involve a mysterious woman , played by model Araya Nicks . The video received a positive reception from critics for its visuals . Brown promoted the song with live performances on televised shows , including Today and the 2012 BET Awards .

= = Background and release = =

" Don 't Wake Me Up " was written by Alain Whyte , Allessandro Benassi , Brian Kennedy , Chris Brown , Jean @-@ Baptiste , Marco Benassi , Michael McHenry , Nick Marsh , Priscilla Hamilton , Ryan Buendia and William Orbit . It was produced by Benny and Alle Benassi , Free School , Orbit and Kennedy . " Don 't Wake Me Up " was originally intended for American pop singer Madonna 's twelfth studio album MDNA ( 2012 ) ; however , she could not record the song because of her tight schedule , and Orbit gave the song to Brown . After an unofficial version of " Don 't Wake Me Up " was leaked online in January 2012 , websites reported that the song was produced by David Guetta . However , Guetta said on his Facebook and Twitter accounts , " I 'm credited for ' Don 't Wake Me Up ' ... but I did not produce this record . Best to CB ! " .

On May 12 , 2012 , Brown announced on his Twitter account that he would release " Don 't Wake Me Up " as the next single from his fourth studio album Fortune . It was made available for download via iTunes Stores worldwide on May 18 , 2012 . The Free School / William Orbit remix of the song was released in some European countries on May 22 , 2012 . In the United States , " Don 't Wake Me Up " was sent to contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on June 12 , 2012 . On June 22 , 2012 , it was released as a CD single in Germany and as a Digital EP in the United Kingdom . The EP contains the album version , remix and Brown 's previous singles " Till I Die " and " Sweet Love " .

= = Composition and lyrics = =

" Don 't Wake Me Up " is an EDM song that features heavy bass ; it lasts for 3 minutes and 42 seconds . The instrumentation is provided by an acoustic guitar and synthesizers . Brown uses auto @-@ tune on the hook and breakdown . " Don 't Wake Me Up " is written in the key of B ♭ major and is set in common time with a tempo of 128 beats per minute . Brown 's vocal range spans from the note of G4 to the note of C6 . The song contains lyrics about a lost loved one who exists only in a dream , as stated by Brittany R. Villalva of The Christian Post . " Don 't Wake Me Up " begins with a spoken introduction by an unidentified woman saying , " Dearly Beloved , if this love only exists in my dreams , don 't wake me up " . Robbie Daw of Idolator compared her voice to that of Rihanna . The song 's chorus consists of the hook " Don 't wake me up " . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy wrote that the chorus " flourishes into a pulse @-@ racing mix of thundering beats and squiggly electronic swizzles " . HitFix 's Melinda Newman noted that the song " resembles the sweet bounciness of ' Forever ' " .

= = Critical reception = =

" Don 't Wake Me Up " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy called it " this summer 's biggest anthem " , awarding the song five stars out of five and writing that Brown delivers it " with effortless swagger " . JusMusic of Singersroom described " Don 't Wake Me Up " as a " fun and bubbly track " , while a writer for Rap @-@ Up labeled it as an " electrifying Top 40 record " . Robbie Daw of Idolator complimented the song 's production as a " strobe light thumper " and wrote that if listeners enjoy Brown 's auto @-@ tuned tracks , " then you won 't be disappointed " . Time 's Melissa Locker viewed " Don 't Wake Me Up " and " Turn Up the Music " as the only potential hits from Fortune .

Nick Levine of BBC Music called the song " a smash " . AOL Radio 's Phil Kukawinski noted that " Don 't Wake Me Up " has " a nice juxtaposition of calm and energetic " and that it " seems to be one of those songs that merges the two sounds in a perfect way " . James Reed of The Boston Globe called the song " a thumping club cut that 's irresistible " . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush described " Don 't Wake Me Up " as a " fist @-@ pumping club jam " but felt that it is " not as catchy as ' Beautiful People ' " . In a review of Fortune , Barry Walters of Spin magazine wrote that " Don 't Wake Me Up " , along with " Sweet Love " and " Till I Die " , contain " thin melodies and stock shock lyrics " that make Brown 's previous singles sound better . " Don 't Wake Me Up " was nominated for World 's Best Song at the 2013 World Music Awards .

= = Chart performance = =

In New Zealand , " Don 't Wake Me Up " debuted at number 34 on May 28 , 2012 , and peaked at number two in its eighth week on the chart . It was certified platinum by RIANZ , denoting sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . On June 4 , 2012 , the song entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number five , becoming the highest new entry that week and Brown 's tenth top @-@ ten single in that country . " Don 't Wake Me Up " peaked at number two in its fifth week on the chart , and number one in its eighth week on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart . The song was certified triple platinum by ARIA , denoting sales of 210 @,@ 000 copies . " Don 't Wake Me Up " reached the top ten in Hungary , Ireland , Japan and Norway , and the top twenty in Denmark , France , Germany , Sweden , Switzerland and both regions of Belgium . In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 89 in the issue dated June 9 , 2012 . " Don 't Wake Me Up " entered the top ten in the issue dated November 10 , 2012 at number 10 , where it peaked . It became Brown 's twelfth top @-@ ten single on the chart , and his second top @-@ ten single from Fortune , following " Turn Up the Music " . On the UK Singles Chart , " Don 't Wake Me Up " debuted at number three in the issue dated July 7 , 2012 , with sales of 89 @,@ 223 copies . The following week , the song peaked at number two with sales of 70 @,@ 702 copies . As of January 2013 , " Don 't Wake Me Up " has sold 416 @,@ 684 copies in the UK . In Austria , " Don 't Wake Me Up " reached number one on August 17 , 2012 , where it remained for one week , becoming Brown 's first number @-@ one single in that country .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

The accompanying music video for " Don 't Wake Me Up " was directed by Colin Tilley and filmed in a desert on May 14 , 2012 . Several images from the shoot , showing Brown posing shirtless against a vintage car , and images of Brown posing with model Araya Nicks , who plays his love interest in the video , were posted on the Internet the following day . The video premiered online on June 11 , 2012 . Later that day , Brown made a guest appearance on 106 & Park and discussed the video 's concept :

With this video , we wanted to go completely into the dream world . A lot of my videos from ' Turn Up the Music ' and other videos I 'm doing now are in a dream state of believing what you want to believe . So that 's what Fortune kinda encompasses . So it 's basically dreaming and accomplishing your dreams . This video is me dreaming and being taken into this whole kind of maze . I keep waking up within a dream within a dream , almost on some Inception type ... but I don 't want to bite that .

= = = Synopsis = = =

The video begins with Brown singing alone in a desert in front of a sunset backdrop . It then cuts to Brown waking up in a bedroom as he notices a mysterious woman ( played by Araya Nicks ) walking through the first of three doors behind him . Each door is labeled with hieroglyphics in gold . During the first chorus , Brown follows the woman through the door and enters a garden maze . This scene is intercut with scenes of Brown singing in the desert . He then returns to bed as the woman walks through the second door . Brown follows her again and appears in a city in the sky . This scene is also intercut with scenes of him in the desert . During the second chorus , Brown is hit by a tidal wave which sends him back to bed . He then enters the third door and appears driving a vintage car in the desert . Brown drives after the woman until he hits a sign that reads " Road Closed " , which causes him to drive off a cliff . The video then cuts to Brown and the woman lying in bed with electrodes attached to their heads .

= = = Reception = = =

Nicole Sia of Idolator called the clip Brown 's " Video of the Year " and complimented its " stunning dream imagery " . A writer for The Edge called it " another visually tantalising music video " from Brown , while Rap @-@ Up described it as surreal . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush described the video as " good visual fun " and wrote that it reminded him of the television series Day Break . He compared the ending to the 1999 film The Matrix . The video was nominated for World 's Best Video at the 2012 World Music Awards .

= = Live performances = =

On June 8 , 2012 , Brown performed " Don 't Wake Me Up " on Today as part of its Summer Concert Series , for which he wore a New York Yankees cap , a multicolored Snow Beach Polo jacket , black jeans and white sneakers . The set list also included " Turn Up the Music " , " Yeah 3x " and " Forever " . At the 2012 BET Awards ceremony on July 1 , 2012 , Brown performed " Don 't Wake Me Up " and " Turn Up the Music " , for which he appeared shirtless with half his body painted gray . Brown performed acrobatic moves with six backup dancers under triangle @-@ shaped beams as green and red flashing lights appeared throughout the stage . Georgette Cline of The Boombox wrote that Brown " put on an energetic show " and described his dance routines during the performance as " eye @-@ catching " .

= = Formats and track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes for Fortune

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Radio and release history = =

= Battle of Île Ronde =

The Battle of Île Ronde was a minor naval engagement between small French Navy and British Royal Navy squadrons off Île de France , now named Mauritius , in the early stages of the French Revolutionary Wars . The battle was fought over control of the waters around Île de France , which was under blockade from the British squadron as French warships and privateers operating from the island posed a significant threat to vital British trade routes connected to British India and China .

In an attempt to neutralise the island , the British commander in the region , Peter Rainier ordered the 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion and 44 @-@ gun HMS Diomede to institute a blockade , which began in October 1794 . Concerned by food shortages and a rebellious slave population the French naval commander Jean @-@ Marie Renaud led his small squadron comprising frigates Cybèle and Prudente and three smaller vessels to drive off the British squadron . On 22 October , the squadrons met off Île Ronde , an islet off northern Île de France .

The battle lasted two and a quarter hours , in which Centurion and Cybèle fought a close duel which left both ships badly damaged . Supported by the remainder of the squadron , Cybèle successfully withdrew under fire , but Centurion , without support from the distant Diomede was also forced to retire for repairs . Unable to continue the blockade the British force returned to India , allowing food supplies to reach Île de France . Due to the necessity for campaigns against Dutch Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies , the British blockade was not renewed , but the French were unable to take advantage due to increasing civil unrest among the island 's population .

= = Background = =

War between the French Republic and Great Britain began on 1 February 1793 , news arriving among the French and British East Indian colonies on 11 June 1793 . The strongest French positions in the Indian Ocean were the islands of Île de France and Réunion , which lay substantially to the west of the British bases at Bombay and Madras in British India . A small French frigate squadron , supported by smaller warships and privateers operated from the islands posing a considerable threat to British maritime trade in the Indian Ocean .

To counter the threat the British commander in the region , Captain Peter Rainier ordered two of his ships to blockade the island during the summer of 1794 . Rainer 's force comprised the 50 @-@ gun fourth rate ship 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion under Captain Samuel Osborne and the large 44 @-@ gun frigate HMS Diomede under Captain Matthew Smith . Together the ships sailed from Madras on 30 August 1794 , stopping at the allied port of Trincomalee in Dutch Ceylon and the undefended French @-@ controlled island of Rodrigues before arriving off Île de France in October .

Île de France had been in a state of turmoil since the French Revolution and in 1792 the republican party on the island seized control . In 1794 suspected royalists were arrested , including the naval commander Saint @-@ Félix , their executions forestalled by the arrival of news that the French Convention had abolished slavery . Only the intervention of Governor Malartic prevented unrest . The preoccupation of the naval authorities had prevented any offensive operations and the reduced squadron , now commanded by Captain Jean @-@ Marie Renaud , remained in Port Louis .

= = Battle = =

Despite the upheaval on shore , the arrival of the British blockade squadron provoked Renaud into taking action . Although the defences of Île de France were well prepared under Malartic 's orders , food supplies were running low , with only rice still available in quantity . The potential for famine and consequent social unrest among the slave population was severe and Renaud sailed immediately to intercept Centurion and Diomede . The French squadron comprised the 40 @-@ gun frigate Cybèle under Captain Pierre Tréhouart , the 36 @-@ gun Prudente under Renaud and the 14 @-@ gun brig Courier under Lieutenant Garreau . The force was accompanied by the 20 @-@ gun privateer corvettes Jean @-@ Bart and Rosalie was well as the aviso Sans @-@ Culottes . The ships ' crews were heavily augmented by volunteers , including a young Robert Surcouf on Cybèle , as well as a detachment of soldiers .

Renaud 's squadron sailed on 19 October , seeking the British to the north of the island . At 11 : 00 on 22 October , close to the uninhabited islet of Île Ronde northwest of Île de France the British ships were sighted . Osborne issued orders to advance on the French squadron , Renaud responding by forming his ships in a line of battle and advancing to meet Osborne . Prudente led the French line , closely followed by Cybèle , Jean @-@ Bart and Courier , Osborne focusing on the former and ordering Smith to engage the latter . Firing began at 15 : 29 when Prudente unleashed a close range broadside at Centurion , followed immediately by fire from the ships of both sides . Centurion was damaged in the opening exchanges and by 16 : 00 had most of her sails and rigging torn . At this Renaud ordered his squadron to pull back to leeward out of range , each firing on Centurion as they passed .

As Cybèle came within range of Centurion the frigate 's fire brought down the British ship 's mizen topmast and fore topgallantmast . Return fire from Centurion managed however to sufficiently damage the French ship that she was unable to retreat in the light winds and the two largely immobilised ships began a close range duel . For more than an hour the exchange continued , Renaud unable to intervene from leeward and Smith repeatedly refusing Osborne 's orders to support his ship , Diomede remaining at long range and contributing an intermittent and inaccurate fire on the distant Cybèle . At 17 : 15 a light breeze enabled Tréhouart to slowly pull his ship towards Renaud 's force despite the loss of the main topgallantmast . At 17 : 45 , with Prudente close by , the main topmast fell on Cybèle , which had 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water in the hold , but Osborne , outnumbered and with his ship damaged reluctantly withdrew . The threat lifted , Renaud was able to take Cybèle under tow and retire in the direction of Île de France , followed distantly and ineffectually by Diomede until night fell .

= = = Combatant summary = = =

In this table , " Guns " refers to all cannon carried by the ship , including the maindeck guns which were taken into consideration when calculating it 's rate , as well as any carronades carried aboard . Broadside weight records the combined weight of shot which could be fired in a single simultaneous discharge of an entire broadside .

= = Aftermath = =

The immediate result of the battle was inconclusive , both squadrons retiring with one ship damaged apiece . French losses had been heavy , with 15 killed and 20 wounded on Prudente , the latter including Renaud and 22 killed and 62 wounded on Cybèle . One sailor was killed and five wounded on Jean @-@ Bart and no casualties were reported on Courier . By contrast , Centurion had only three men killed and 23 wounded and Diomede none at all , but the damage to Osborne 's ship was more severe ; while Renaud could repair and resupply his ships in nearby Port Louis , repairs to Centurion could only be affected in India , several thousand miles away . Osborne was thus forced to abandon the blockade and retire , Centurion to Bombay and Diomede to Madras .

The action brought repercussions for Smith , whose failure to support Osborne was noted ; although Smith claimed that he was simply maintaining the line of battle , it subsequently emerged that the captains had engaged in a personal dispute in result of which Smith had decided to refuse Osborne 's orders . After his behaviour had featured in Osborne 's initial dispatch , Smith challenged his account and Osborne demanded a court @-@ martial held to investigate . This panel decided that Smith 's behaviour was unacceptable and he was dismissed from the Navy , by which time he had lost Diomede , wrecked on a rock in Trincomalee Bay on 2 August 1795 during the invasion of Ceylon . Although Smith appealed his sentence and was restored to the captain 's list in 1798 he was never again called to service and retired in 1806 .

British historians have considered that Smith 's refusal to participate probably cost Osborne the battle . William James wrote that his behaviour was " the principle reason that Cybèle , at least , was not made a prize of by the British " . C. Northcote Parkinson considers the action " indecisive " but concurs with James ' assessment that Smith 's intervention could have resulted in a British victory but instead that " the first encounter of the war between the French and English in the East Indies had resulted in what was tantamount to defeat for the latter " .

On Île de France the relief of the blockade meant that shipping , particularly American vessels laden with food supplies from Tamatave on Madagascar , could reach the island and the threatened famine was averted . French privateers were also again free to operate against British trade , particularly in the Bay of Bengal . With Renaud 's squadron still at Port Louis , Rainier considered renewing the blockade , but was dissuaded by the dangers of the monsoon season and a false report that a squadron of French ships of the line was soon due to arrive on Île de France . In 1795 he was distracted by the sudden need to guard against the Dutch East India colonies following the French conquest of the Netherlands , and he supervised the invasion of Ceylon and operations against the Dutch East Indies . By the time his attention turned once more to Île de France , it had been heavily reinforced in early 1796 by a frigate squadron commanded by Contre @-@ amiral Sercey .

= Jean @-@ Marie Defrance =

Jean @-@ Marie Defrance ( 1771 – 1855 ) was a French General of the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . He was also a member of the Council of Five Hundred ( the lower house of the legislative branch of the French government under The Directory ) , and a teacher at the military school of Rebais , Champagne .

Defrance had an extensive and successful military career in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . After the First Battle of Zurich , he refused a battlefield promotion to brigadier general , asking instead for a cavalry regiment ; he received command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval ( light cavalry ) as Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade , a rank equivalent to colonel . He led this brigade in the campaigns of 1799 – 1800 in southwestern Germany and northern Italy . By 1805 , he had been promoted to brigadier general . At the Battle of Austerlitz and the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt , he commanded a cavalry brigade of carabiniers in Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's First Division . By the Battle of Borodino in September 1812 , he had been promoted to general of division , commanding the 4th Cuirassier Division of Nansouty 's reserves , where they charged the Shevardino redoubt . He fought his way across Germany to the Rhine River after the French loss at Leipzig and participated in the Six Days Campaign .

In the Hundred Days , he commanded part of Jean Maximilien Lamarque 's Army of the West . At the second Bourbon Restoration , he retained his titles and honors and subsequently held several command posts until retirement in 1829 . He died in 1855 .

= = Family = =

Jean @-@ Marie Defrance was born on 21 September 1771 at Vassy , in the Champagne province and died 6 July 1855 . On his mother 's side , he was the grandson of the French writer Pierre Chompré ( 1698 – 1760 ) ; his father , Jean @-@ Claude Defrance , was the medical doctor at the Royal Military School of Rebais , in Champagne . Jean @-@ Marie Defrance married the daughter of the richest jeweler in Paris , by the name Foncier .

= = Military career = =

Defrance was stationed in Saint @-@ Domingue during the first Haitian revolt and served in the volunteers Cape Dragoons . On his return to France in 1792 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the cavalry regiment royal @-@ étranger . After serving in the Army of the North , he was appointed adjutant @-@ general brigadier in the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse . He also served in the Council of the Five Hundred .

Defrance also served in the Swiss Campaign of 1799 as divisional Chief of Staff of the 1st Division of Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's Army of the Danube ; after the losses at the battles of Ostrach and Stockach in March 1799 , the Army of the Danube was combined with the Army of Helvetia , under the command of Andre Massena . Defrance continued in his capacity as divisional chief of staff . At the First Battle of Zurich in June 1799 , he was appointed on the field as brigadier general , an honor which he declined , asking instead to be given command of a cavalry regiment . He received command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval . As Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade , the equivalent of colonel in France 's revolutionary @-@ era field army , Defrance went to Italy and participated in the actions leading up to the Battle of Marengo . During the winter of 1800 – 1801 , he campaigned in the Grisons in Switzerland and returned to France after the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 .

= = = Career during the Napoleonic Wars = = =

In 1803 , with Napoleon 's military reorganization , the title Chef @-@ de @-@ Brigade reverted to colonel ; Defrance retained his command of the 12th Regiment of Chasseurs @-@ a @-@ Cheval . He was named Officer of the Légion d 'honneur on 14 June 1804 . On 1 February 1805 , he accepted a promotion to brigadier general and commanded a brigade in the Danube campaign against Austria and Russia at the battles of Ulm and Austerlitz .

In 1806 , he campaigned against Kingdom of Prussia and Russia at the Battle of Jena @-@ Auerstadt . There , and at the Battle of Friedland on 14 June 1807 , he commanded a carabinier brigade — the first and second regiments — in Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty 's First Division . Napoleon raised him to Count of the Empire on 2 July 1808 . At the Battle of Wagram ( 1809 ) , he again commanded the carabinier brigade .

The confiscation of the Prussian cavalry and draft stock required supervision to integrate the acquisitions into the Grande Armée . After completing several terms as an inspector general of cavalry , Defrance was appointed general of division in August 1811 and joined Joachim Murat 's Cavalry in February 1812 for Napoleon 's Invasion of Russia . At the Battle of Borodino , he commanded 4th Cuirassier Division , which included three brigades and two horse artillery units of 12 guns . These were assigned to Nansouty 's Reserves and assaulted the Shevardino redoubt on 5 – 6 September .

During the Saxon campaign , Defrance was appointed Inspector General for the Grande Armée . He also commanded the 4th Heavy Cavalry Division at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 , and one of his brigades remained at Lindenau to cover a possible retreat .

In January 1814 , for the last few months of Napoleon 's rule , Defrance commanded four regiments of Imperial Guard and fought in the action of 11 February at Montmirail , during the Six Days Campaign . On 7 March , with much smaller force than his opponent , he repulsed the Russian assault at Rheims , but on 12 March was forced to relinquish the city as more Coalition troops arrived . The following day , he attacked the Russian cavalry , but was again forced to withdraw when faced with superior numbers .

= = Late military career = =

During the first Bourbon Restoration , Louis XVIII appointed Defrance as inspector general of cavalry . During the Hundred Days , Napoleon 's brief return to France , Jean @-@ Marie Defrance commanded part of the Armée de l 'Ouest . This Army of the West was also called the Army of the Vendée and the Army of the Loire . Under overall command of Jean Maximilien Lamarque , one of Napoleon 's fiercest supporters , it was formed to suppress potential Royalist insurrection in the Vendée region of France . Defrance did not participate in the Battle of Rocheserviere , in which Lemarque 's army brutally crushed the anticipated Vendéen uprising . He remained instead at his post of the 18th military division , inspecting the cavalry depots in the upper Loire . Defrance retained his rank after the second restoration and commanded the First Military Division in Paris from 1819 to 1822 . He also taught at the military school in Rebais .

Defrance 's name is engraved on the east side of the Arc de Triomphe .

= California Southern Railroad =

The California Southern Railroad was a subsidiary railroad of the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ( Santa Fe ) in Southern California . It was organized July 10 , 1880 , and chartered on October 23 , 1880 , to build a rail connection between what has become the city of Barstow and San Diego , California .

Construction began in National City , just south of San Diego , in 1881 , and proceeded northward to the present day city of Oceanside . From there , the line turned to the northeast through Temecula Canyon , then on to the present cities of Lake Elsinore , Perris and Riverside before a connection to the Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) in Colton . Following a frog war where the SP refused to let the California Southern cross its tracks , a dispute that was resolved by court order in favor of the California Southern , construction continued northward through Cajon Pass to the present day cities of Victorville and Barstow . The line , completed on November 9 , 1885 , formed the western end of Santa Fe 's transcontinental railroad connection to Chicago . Portions of the original line are still in use today as some of the busiest rail freight and passenger routes in the United States .

= = History = =

The California Southern was organized on July 10 , 1880 , as a means to connect San Diego to a connection with the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad at an as @-@ yet undetermined point . Among the organizers were Frank Kimball , a prominent landowner and rancher from San Diego who also represented the Chamber of Commerce and the Board of City Trustees of San Diego , Kidder , Peabody & Co . , one of the main financial investment companies involved in the Santa Fe , B.P. Cheney , L.G. Pratt , George B. Wilbur and Thomas Nickerson who was president of the Santa Fe . The organizers set a deadline of January 1 , 1884 , to complete the connection , a deadline that was later adjusted due to problems in the construction of the Atlantic and Pacific that forced it to stop at Needles , California .

The California Southern built its track northward from a point in National City , south of San Diego . The route , portions of which are still in use , connected the present day cities of National City , San Diego , Fallbrook , Temecula , Lake Elsinore , Perris , Riverside , San Bernardino , Colton , Cajon ( not to be confused with El Cajon ) , Victorville and Barstow .

In Barstow , then known as Waterman , the California Southern would connect to another Santa Fe subsidiary , the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad . The Atlantic and Pacific was chartered in 1866 to build a railroad connection westward from Springfield , Missouri , connecting Albuquerque , New Mexico , then along the 35th parallel to the Colorado River . From there , the railroad was to continue to the Pacific Ocean following whatever proved to be the best route . The route was scheduled to be completed by July 4 , 1878 . However , the Southern Pacific was able to get a clause favorable to their own interests inserted into the charter :

" ... the Southern Pacific Railroad ... is hereby authorized to connect with the said Atlantic and Pacific railroad formed under this act , at such point , near the boundary line of the State of California , as they shall deem most suitable for a railroad line to San Francisco . "

Southern Pacific had already established a connection to Mojave , so their crews built eastward from there through Barstow ( then called Waterman ) to Needles , California , completing the connection across the Colorado River on August 3 , 1883 . The California segment was leased to the Santa Fe in August 1884 , and fully acquired by the Santa Fe under foreclosure in 1897 .

= = = San Diego = = =

The California Southern began construction in National City on land originally acquired by Frank Kimball . The railroad 's main yards and locomotive maintenance shops were located here , and until the connection was made with Barstow , all tools and equipment ordered by the railroad arrived here by ship around Cape Horn from points in the eastern United States , while the wooden ties arrived by ship from Oregon . Surveys and construction between National City and San Diego were well underway by March 1881 . The railroad reached Fallbrook and opened between there and San Diego in January 1882 .

In 1881 and 1882 , the California Southern received ten locomotive shipments by sea at National City . The last three of these , delivered in November 1882 aboard the ship Anna Camp , have been identified as the last three locomotives ever delivered to the United States Pacific coast after traveling around Cape Horn .

= = = Temecula Canyon = = =

To connect to the Atlantic and Pacific line in the quickest way possible , surveyors and engineers for the California Southern pushed the route through Fallbrook and Temecula — bypassing what was , at the time , the pueblo of Los Angeles . The railroad , however , didn 't understand the nature of Southern California 's dry washes . Local inhabitants warned the railroad of the dangers of building through such an area , that it could become a raging torrent of water , but the railroad built through the canyon anyway .

Despite the warnings , track work through the canyon proceeded at a quick pace . They completed the line to Fallbrook on January 2 , 1882 , then to Temecula on March 27 , 1882 .

Many parts of the canyon had suffered storms . In February 1884 , a storm hit . The train was delayed and the canyon walls brought boulders crashing down on the rails . On February 3 , the train was unable to get through . A few days later , the wires were down . The train from Colton to San Diego could not get through . Disaster was averted because a local resident , Charlie Howell , hurried up the tracks from his family homestead near Willow Glen and managed to stop the train . A series of devastating washouts on the section through Temecula Canyon occurred amid heavy rain storms that flooded the area starting on February 16 , 1884 , just six months after the first trains operated the entire route between San Diego and San Bernardino . The storms brought more than 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain in a four @-@ week period . Two thirds of the mainline through the canyon were washed out with ties seen floating as far as 80 miles ( 129 km ) away in the ocean . Temporary track repairs were made after the first storms , but later in the month , additional rains and flooding washed out the entire route through the canyon . Repairs were estimated at nearly $ 320 @,@ 000 , a figure that could not be recouped effectively .

The canyon was finally bypassed completely with the completion of the Surf Line on August 12 , 1888 , and the line through the canyon was relegated to branch line status . By 1900 it had been abandoned by AT & SF . Finally , the 1928 construction of Railroad Canyon Dam submerged the section of track between Elsinore and Perris beneath Railroad Canyon Lake ( now known as Canyon Lake ) .

= = = The crossing at Colton = = =

Construction of the California Southern was repeatedly interrupted by Santa Fe 's rival , Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) . In one instance , the California Southern was set to build a level junction across the SP tracks in Colton , a move that would end Southern Pacific 's monopoly in Southern California .

The Colton Crossing was the site of one of the more notable frog wars in American railroad history . In the summer of 1882 , tensions reached their boiling point when construction of tracks for the California Southern reached Colton , California . In an attempt to forcibly prevent the California Southern Railroad crews from completing construction , the Southern Pacific ( SP ) parked and then slowly moved a locomotive and gondola along the SP track at the location of the planned crossing . In addition , the SP hired armed men , including the famous Virgil Earp , to guard the tracks . Before the violence could get out of hand , Governor Robert Waterman ordered San Bernardino County Sheriff J.B. Burkhart to enforce the state court order . Waterman personally ordered Earp and the crowd to comply with the court order . Earp backed down and told the SP engineer to move the locomotive . The crossing was built , ending the Southern Pacific 's monopoly in Southern California .

= = = Cajon Pass = = =

The first structure that the California Southern used as a depot in San Bernardino was a converted boxcar . Building north from San Bernardino , the California Southern was able to piggyback on the survey work done by the Los Angeles and Independence Railroad up to a point near Cajon .

The original grade of the line up the pass rose at a 2 @.@ 2 % slope between San Bernardino and Cajon , where the grade steepened to 3 % until reaching the summit 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) further . The route over Cajon Pass was completed with a " last spike " on November 9 , 1885 , and the first train to use the pass carried a load of rails southward from Barstow on November 12 to be installed near Riverside . The first through train from Chicago via Santa Fe lines arrived in San Diego on November 17 , 1885 .

Construction of the original route through Cajon Pass was overseen by Jacob Nash Victor , who by this time had become General Manager of the California Southern . He operated the first train through the pass in 1885 , proclaiming " No other railroad will ever have the nerve to build through these mountains . All who follow will prefer to rent trackage from us . " Victor 's assertion remained true for a while as the San Pedro , Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad ( which later became part of Union Pacific Railroad ) signed an agreement to operate over the California Southern track via trackage rights on April 26 , 1905 , but Victor was proven wrong eighty years later when SP built the Palmdale Cutoff in 1967 at a slightly higher elevation through the pass . In honor of his work through the pass , the city of Victorville was named after Victor .

= = = Consolidation = = =

To reach Los Angeles , the Santa Fe leased trackage rights over the Southern Pacific from San Bernardino on November 29 , 1885 , at $ 1 @,@ 200 per mile per year . Naturally , the Santa Fe sought ways to reduce the fees . On November 20 , 1886 , the Santa Fe incorporated the San Bernardino and Los Angeles Railway to build a rail connection between its namesake cities . California Southern track crews performed the construction work , and the first train on the new line arrived in Los Angeles on May 31 , 1887 .

During construction , Santa Fe officials worked to consolidate the many subsidiary railroads in Southern California to reduce costs . At a stockholder meeting on April 23 , the eight railroads and their prominent stockholders , minus the California Southern , voted in favor of consolidation , and the California Central Railway was formed as a result on May 20 , 1887 . After the consolidation , although the California Southern remained a separate subsidiary , the National City shops were downgraded and the services provided there were moved to the newly constructed shops in San Bernardino . One of the first official lists of stations on the California Southern and California Central railroads published on July 13 , 1887 , shows the California Southern divided operationally into two divisions : the San Diego division covered the territory between National City and Colton ; from there , the San Bernardino Division covered the route through Cajon Pass to Barstow .

The Santa Fe underwent a massive financial overhaul in 1889 . The major investors in Boston , Massachusetts , were mostly replaced by investors from New York and London at the annual meeting on May 9 . The investors replaced the company 's board of directors with a new board that included George C. Magoun ( who would later be linked with the company 's 1893 receivership ) . The new investors disliked the number of subsidiary companies and sought to further consolidate them . The California Southern , California Central and Redondo Beach Railway companies were consolidated into the Southern California Railway on November 7 , 1889 . The California Central had consolidated with the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad in 1887 , giving it ROW through the San Gabriel Valley . The Santa Fe finally purchased outright the holdings of the Southern California railroad on January 17 , 1906 , ending the railway 's subsidiary status and making it fully a part of the Santa Fe railroad .

= = Company officers = =

Presidents of the California Southern Railroad were :

Benjamin Kimball 1880

Thomas Nickerson 1880 @-@ 1885

George B. Wilbur 1885 @-@ 1887

George O. Manchester 1887- _ _

= = Visible remnants = =

Much of the right @-@ of @-@ way graded and used by the California Southern is still in use . Several structures built for or by the railroad , or in some cases their remains , can still be seen . Some of the buildings that remain are still in use in their primary purposes .

The two ends of the former railroad are still in use as of 2013 . The section between Barstow and Riverside through Cajon Pass , which includes the disputed crossing in Colton , remains one of the busiest rail freight corridors in the United States , seeing trains of BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad as well as Amtrak 's daily Southwest Chief passenger train . At Cajon the concrete pads that served as the foundations for the railroad 's station facilities and water tanks there remain long after the buildings atop them were removed . The Santa Fe realigned the track at several places during the 20th century to straighten curves along Cajon Creek ( between Cajon and San Bernardino ) , lower grades for eastbound trains with the 1913 addition of a separate track through what has come to be known as Sullivan 's Curve , and to reduce some curvature and lower the pass 's summit elevation by 50 ft ( 15 m ) .

The maintenance shops in San Bernardino are still in use by BNSF Railway , although not to the extent that they were used in the 20th century . The San Bernardino station that was opened by the California Southern was destroyed by fire on November 16 , 1916 . It was replaced in 1918 by the Santa Fe with the current structure that now serves Metrolink 's San Bernardino Line commuter trains on runs that terminate at Los Angeles Union Station . Until the introduction of weekend service on the 91 Line in July 2014 , limited service from San Bernardino to Riverside was provided by some San Bernardino Line trains , and the Metrolink Riverside Line terminates at the Riverside station although it reaches the station via a more southerly route . South of Riverside the track is still in place to Perris , where the Orange Empire Railway Museum has a connection to the mainline . This section is being rehabilitated to the Perris Valley Line , an extension of Metrolink 91 Line service to stations at Hunter Park , March Air Reserve Base , Perris , and South Perris .

At the southern end the section between San Diego and Oceanside also sees heavy use by Amtrak California 's Pacific Surfliner trains as well as those of the San Diego Coaster . As part of the Santa Fe 's rail network , it was part of what has come to be known as the Surf Line . As of January 2006 , this line is the second busiest passenger rail line in the United States .

Although San Diego 's Union Station replaced the railroad 's original station there in 1915 , the California Southern 's station and office building in National City has been preserved and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .

= Salt =

Common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride ( NaCl ) , a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts ; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite . Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater , where it is the main mineral constituent . The open ocean has about 35 grams ( 1 @.@ 2 oz ) of solids per litre , a salinity of 3 @.@ 5 % .

Salt is essential for human life , and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes . The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues . Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings , and salting is an important method of food preservation .

Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 8 @,@ 000 years ago , when people living in an area in what is now known as the country of Romania were boiling spring water to extract the salts ; a salt @-@ works in China dates to approximately the same period . Salt was prized by the ancient Hebrews , the Greeks , the Romans , the Byzantines , the Hittites and the Egyptians . Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea , along specially built salt roads , and across the Sahara in camel caravans . The scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over salt and use it to raise tax revenues . Salt is also used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural significance .

Salt is processed from salt mines , or by the evaporation of seawater ( sea salt ) or mineral @-@ rich spring water in shallow pools . Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine , and is used in many industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride , plastics , paper pulp and many other products . Of the annual global production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt , only about 6 % is used for human consumption . Other uses include water conditioning processes , deicing highways , and agricultural use . Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti @-@ caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency . As well as its use in cooking and at the table , salt is present in many processed foods .

Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute . Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases , such as hypertension , in children and adults . Such health effects of salt have long been studied . Accordingly , numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods . The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2 @,@ 000 mg of sodium , equivalent to 5 grams of salt per day .

= = History = =

Humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt , or where they can trade for it .

All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization . The word " salary " comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt , which was quite literally worth its weight in gold . In Britain , the suffix " -wich " in a placename means it was once a source of salt , as in Sandwich and Norwich . The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north , because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name , natron .

Even before this , what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata , in Bulgaria , which was a salt mine , providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5400 BC . Even the name Solnisata means " salt works " .

While people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred years or so , salt has been the best @-@ known food preservative , especially for meat , for many thousands of years . A very ancient salt @-@ works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca , Neamț County , Romania . Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt @-@ laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC . The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society 's population soon after its initial production began . The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi , China , dates back to at least 6000 BC , making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks .

There is more salt in animal tissues such as meat , blood and milk , than there is in plant tissues . Nomads who subsist on their flocks and herds do not eat salt with their food , but agriculturalists , feeding mainly on cereals and vegetable matter , need to supplement their diet with salt . With the spread of civilization , salt became one of the world 's main trading commodities . It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews , the Greeks , the Romans , the Byzantines , the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity . In the Middle East , salt was used to ceremonially seal an agreement , and the ancient Hebrews made a " covenant of salt " with God and sprinkled salt on their offerings to show their trust in him . An ancient practice in time of war was salting the earth : scattering salt around in a defeated city in order to prevent plant growth . The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem , and various texts claim that the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus Africanus ploughed over and sowed the city of Carthage with salt after it was defeated in the Third Punic War ( 146 BC ) .

Salt may have been used for barter in connection with the obsidian trade in Anatolia in the Neolithic Era . Herodotus described salt trading routes across Libya back in the 5th century BC . In the early years of the Roman Empire , roads such as the Via Salaria were built for the transportation of salt from the salt pans of Ostia to the capital . Salt was included among funeral offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC , as were salted birds , and salt fish . From about 2800 BC , the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar , glass and the dye Tyrian purple ; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire .

In Africa , salt was used as currency south of the Sahara , and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia . Moorish merchants in the 6th century traded salt for gold , weight for weight . The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai ( salt caravans ) . The caravans still cross the desert from southern Niger to Bilma , although much of the trade now takes place by truck . Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates .

Salzburg , Hallstatt , and Hallein lie within 17 km ( 11 mi ) of each other on the river Salzach in central Austria in an area with extensive salt deposits . Salzach literally means " salt river " and Salzburg " salt castle " , both taking their names from the German word Salz meaning salt and Hallstatt was the site of the world 's first salt mine . The town gave its name to the Hallstatt culture that began mining for salt in the area in about 800 BC . Around 400 BC , the townsfolk , who had previously used pickaxes and shovels , began open pan salt making . During the first millennium BC , Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries . The word salary originates from Latin : salarium which referred to the money paid to the Roman Army 's soldiers for the purchase of salt . The word salad literally means " salted " , and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables .

Wars have been fought over salt . Venice fought and won a war with Genoa over the product , and it played an important part in the American Revolution . Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties , and towns like Liverpool flourished on the export of salt extracted from the salt mines of Cheshire . Various governments have at different times imposed salt taxes on their peoples . The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain , and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution . After being repealed , this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars , and was not finally abolished until 1945 . In 1930 , Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100 @,@ 000 people on the " Dandi March " or " Salt Satyagraha " , in which protesters made their own salt from the sea thus defying British rule and avoiding paying the salt tax . This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people , and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist movement to a national struggle .

= = Chemistry = =

Salt is mostly sodium chloride , the ionic compound with the formula NaCl , representing equal proportions of sodium and chlorine . Sea salt and freshly mined salt ( much of which is sea salt from prehistoric seas ) also contain small amounts of trace elements ( which in these small amounts are generally good for plant and animal health ) . Mined salt is often refined in the production of table salt ; it is dissolved in water , purified via precipitation of other minerals out of solution , and re @-@ evaporated . During this same refining process it is often also iodized . Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape ; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge . The molar mass of salt is 58 @.@ 443 g / mol , its melting point is 801 ° C ( 1 @,@ 474 ° F ) and its boiling point 1 @,@ 465 ° C ( 2 @,@ 669 ° F ) . Its density is 2 @.@ 17 grams per cubic centimetre and it is readily soluble in water . When dissolved in water it separates into Na + and Cl − ions and the solubility is 359 grams per litre . From cold solutions , salt crystallises as the dihydrate NaCl · 2H2O . Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water ; the freezing point is − 21 @.@ 12 ° C ( − 6 @.@ 02 ° F ) for 23 @.@ 31 wt % of salt , and the boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108 @.@ 7 ° C ( 227 @.@ 7 ° F ) .

= = Edible salt = =

Salt is essential to the health of humans and animals , and is one of the five basic taste sensations .

Salt is used in many cuisines around the world , and is often found in salt shakers on diners ' eating tables for their personal use on food . Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs . Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride . Usually , anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free @-@ flowing . Iodized salt , containing potassium iodide , is widely available . Some people put a desiccant , such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker , in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form .

= = = Fortified table salt = = =

Some table salt sold for consumption contain additives which address a variety of health concerns , especially in the developing world . The identities and amounts of additives vary widely from country to country . Iodine is an important micronutrient for humans , and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine ( hypothyroidism ) and enlargement of the thyroid gland ( endemic goitre ) in adults or cretinism in children . Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1924 and consists of table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide , sodium iodide or sodium iodate . A small amount of dextrose may also be added to stabilize the iodine . Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people around the world and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation . Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used .

The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country . In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) recommends [ 21 CFR 101 @.@ 9 ( c ) ( 8 ) ( iv ) ] 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women . US iodized salt contains 46 – 77 ppm ( parts per million ) , whereas in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10 – 22 ppm .

Sodium ferrocyanide , also known as yellow prussiate of soda , is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent . The additive is considered safe for human consumption . Such anti @-@ caking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely . The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the Committee on Toxicity in 1988 . Other anticaking agents sometimes used include tricalcium phosphate , calcium or magnesium carbonates , fatty acid salts ( acid salts ) , magnesium oxide , silicon dioxide , calcium silicate , sodium aluminosilicate and calcium aluminosilicate . Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in the latter two compounds .

In " doubly fortified salt " , both iodide and iron salts are added . The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia , which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40 % of infants in the developing world . A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate . Another additive , especially important for pregnant women , is folic acid ( vitamin B9 ) , which gives the table salt a yellow color . Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia , which affect young mothers , especially in developing countries .

A lack of fluorine in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries . Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay , especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water . The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out . In France , 35 % of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride .

= = = Other kinds = = =

Unrefined sea salt contains small amounts of magnesium and calcium halides and sulfates , traces of algal products , salt @-@ resistant bacteria and sediment particles . The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone , and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic ( i.e. , it gradually absorbs moisture from air if stored uncovered ) . Algal products contribute a mildly " fishy " or " sea @-@ air " odour , the latter from organobromine compounds . Sediments , the proportion of which varies with the source , give the salt a dull grey appearance . Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations , sea salt may have a more complex flavor than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food . When salt is added during cooking however , these flavors would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients . The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases .

Different natural salts have different mineralities depending on their source , giving each one a unique flavour . Fleur de sel , a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans , has a unique flavour varying with the region from which it is produced . In traditional Korean cuisine , so @-@ called " bamboo salt " is prepared by roasting salt in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends . This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud , and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang ( a fermented bean paste ) .

Kosher salt , though refined , contains no iodine and has a much larger grain size than most refined salts . This can give it different properties when used in cooking , and can be useful for preparing kosher meat . Some kosher salt has been certified to meet kosher requirements by a hechsher , but this is not true for all products labelled as kosher salt .

Pickling salt is ultrafine to speed dissolving to make brine . Gourmet salts may be used for specific tastes .

= = = Salt in food = = =

Salt is present in most foods , but in naturally occurring foodstuffs such as meats , vegetables and fruit , it is present in very small quantities . It is often added to processed foods ( such as canned foods and especially salted foods , pickled foods , and snack foods or other convenience foods ) , where it functions as both a preservative and a flavoring . Dairy salt is used in the preparation of butter and cheese products . Before the advent of electrically powered refrigeration , salting was one of the main methods of food preservation . Thus , herring contains 67 mg sodium per 100 g , while kipper , its preserved form , contains 990 mg . Similarly , pork typically contains 63 mg while bacon contains 1 @,@ 480 mg , and potatoes contain 7 mg but potato crisps 800 mg per 100 g . The main sources of salt in the diet , apart from direct use of sodium chloride , are bread and cereal products , meat products and milk and dairy products .

In many East Asian cultures , salt is not traditionally used as a condiment . In its place , condiments such as soy sauce , fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures . They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments .

= = = Sodium consumption and health = = =

Table salt is made up of just under 40 % sodium by weight , so a 6 g serving ( 1 teaspoon ) contains about 2 @,@ 300 mg of sodium . Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body : via its role as an electrolyte , it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly , and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs ( fluid balance ) . Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt . The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day , and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia . The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed . In the United States , 75 % of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods , 11 % from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs .

Because consuming too much salt increases risk of cardiovascular diseases , health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt . High salt intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke , total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease . A reduction in sodium intake by 1 @,@ 000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent . In adults and children with no acute illness , a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure . A low salt diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension .

The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2 @,@ 000 mg of sodium ( which is contained in 5 g of salt ) per day . Guidelines by the United States recommend that people with hypertension , African Americans , and middle @-@ aged and older adults should limit consumption to no more than 1 @,@ 500 mg of sodium per day and meet the potassium recommendation of 4 @,@ 700 mg / day with a healthy diet of fruits and vegetables .

While reduction of salt intake to less than 2 @,@ 300 mg per day is recommended by developed countries , one review recommended that salt intake be no less than 1 @,@ 200 mg ( contained in 3 g ) per day , as it is an essential nutrient required from the diet . Another review indicated that reducing sodium intake to lower than 2 @,@ 300 mg per day may not be beneficial .

= = Non @-@ dietary uses = =

Only about 6 % of the salt manufactured in the world is used in food . Of the remainder , 12 % is used in water conditioning processes , 8 % goes for de @-@ icing highways and 6 % is used in agriculture . The rest ( 68 % ) is used for manufacturing and other industrial processes , and sodium chloride is one of the largest inorganic raw materials used by volume . Its major chemical products are caustic soda and chlorine , which are separated by the electrolysis of a pure brine solution . These are used in the manufacture of PVC , plastics , paper pulp and many other inorganic and organic compounds . Salt is also used as a flux in the production of aluminium . For this purpose , a layer of melted salt floats on top of the molten metal and removes iron and other metal contaminants . It is also used in the manufacture of soaps and glycerine , where it is added to the vat to precipitate out the saponified products . As an emulsifier , salt is used in the manufacture of synthetic rubber , and another use is in the firing of pottery , when salt added to the furnace vaporises before condensing onto the surface of the ceramic material , forming a strong glaze .

When drilling through loose materials such as sand or gravel , salt may be added to the drilling fluid to provide a stable " wall " to prevent the hole collapsing . There are many other processes in which salt is involved . These include its use as a mordant in textile dying , to regenerate resins in water softening , for the tanning of hides , the preservation of meat and fish and the canning of meat and vegetables .

= = Production = =

Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries ( 7 % in Europe ) , although worldwide , food uses account for 17 @.@ 5 % of total production .

In 2013 , total world production of salt was 264 million tonnes , the top five producers being China ( 71 million ) , the United States ( 40 million ) , India ( 18 million ) , Germany ( 12 million ) and Canada ( 11 million ) .

The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries . A major source of salt is seawater , which has a salinity of approximately 3 @.@ 5 % . This means that there are about 35 grams ( 1 @.@ 2 oz ) of dissolved salts , predominantly sodium ( Na + ) and chloride ( Cl − ) ions , per kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lbs ) of water . The world 's oceans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt , and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated . The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates . Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up . Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours , as some species of algae and other micro @-@ organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity .

Elsewhere , salt is extracted from the vast sedimentary deposits which have been laid down over the millennia from the evaporation of seas and lakes . These are either mined directly , producing rock salt , or are extracted in solution by pumping water into the deposit . In either case , the salt may be purified by mechanical evaporation of brine . Traditionally , this was done in shallow open pans which were heated to increase the rate of evaporation . More recently , the process is performed in pans under vacuum . The raw salt is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics . This usually involves recrystallization during which a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities ( largely magnesium and calcium salts ) . Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals , which are kiln @-@ dried . Some salt is produced using the Alberger process , which involves vacuum pan evaporation combined with the seeding of the solution with cubic crystals , and produces a grainy @-@ type flake . The Ayoreo , an indigenous group from the Paraguayan Chaco , obtain their salt from the ash produced by burning the timber of the Indian salt tree ( Maytenus vitis @-@ idaea ) and other trees .

One of the largest salt mining operations in the world is at the Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan . The mine has nineteen storeys , eleven of which are underground , and 400 km ( 250 mi ) of passages . The salt is dug out by the room and pillar method , where about half the material is left in place to support the upper levels . Extraction of Himalayan salt is expected to last 350 years at the present rate of extraction of around 385 @,@ 000 tons per annum .

= = Usage in religion = =

Salt has long held an important place in religion and culture . At the time of Brahmanic sacrifices , in Hittite rituals and during festivals held by Semites and Greeks at the time of the new moon , salt was thrown into a fire where it produced crackling noises . The ancient Egyptians , Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water and some people think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith . In Aztec mythology , Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water .

Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house @-@ warmings and weddings . In Jainism , devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion and salt is sprinkled on a person 's cremated remains before the ashes are buried . Salt is believed to ward off evil spirits in Mahayana Buddhist tradition , and when returning home from a funeral , a pinch of salt is thrown over the left shoulder as this prevents evil spirits from entering the house . In Shinto , salt is used for ritual purification of locations and people ( harae , specifically shubatsu ) , and small piles of salt are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the two @-@ fold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons .

In the Hebrew Bible , there are thirty @-@ five verses which mention salt . One of these is the story of Lot 's wife , who was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah ( Genesis 19 : 26 ) as they were destroyed . When the judge Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem , he is said to have " sown salt on it , " probably as a curse on anyone who would re @-@ inhabit it ( Judges 9 : 45 ) . The Book of Job contains the first mention of salt as a condiment . " Can that which is unsavoury be eaten without salt ? or is there any taste in the white of an egg ? " ( Job 6 : 6 ) . In the New Testament , six verses mention salt . In the Sermon on the Mount , Jesus referred to his followers as the " salt of the earth " . The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to " let your conversation be always full of grace , seasoned with salt " ( Colossians 4 : 6 ) . Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass . Salt is used in the third item ( which includes an Exorcism ) of the Celtic Consecration ( cf . Gallican Rite ) that is employed in the consecration of a church . Salt may be added to the water " where it is customary " in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water .

In Judaism , it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat . It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush . To preserve the covenant between their people and God , Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt . In Wicca , salt is symbolic of the element Earth . It is also believed to cleanse an area of harmful or negative energies . A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an altar , and salt is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies .

= = Books = =

Kurlansky , Mark ( 2002 ) . Salt : A World History . New York : Walker & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 8027 @-@ 1373 @-@ 4 . OCLC 48573453 .

Multhauf , Robert ( 1996 ) . Neptune 's Gift : A History of Common Salt . The Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0801854699 .

= SMS Heimdall =

SMS Heimdall was the fourth vessel of the six @-@ member Siegfried class of coastal defense ships ( Küstenpanzerschiffe ) built for the German Imperial Navy . Her sister ships were Siegfried , Beowulf , Frithjof , Hildebrand , and Hagen . Heimdall was built by the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven shipyard between 1891 and 1894 , and was armed with a main battery of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns . She served in the German fleet throughout the 1890s and was rebuilt in 1900 – 1902 . She served in the VI Battle Squadron after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but saw no action . Heimdall was demobilized in 1915 and used as a barracks ship thereafter . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1921 .

= = Design = =

Heimdall was 79 meters ( 259 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 @.@ 9 m ( 49 ft ) and a maximum draft of 5 @.@ 74 m ( 18 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 3 @,@ 741 long tons ( 3 @,@ 801 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 14 @.@ 6 kn ( 27 @.@ 0 km / h ; 16 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 1 @,@ 490 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 760 km ; 1 @,@ 710 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Heimdall had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men .

The ship was armed with three 24 cm K L / 35 guns mounted in three single gun turrets . Two were placed side by side forward , and the third was located aft of the main superstructure . They were supplied with a total of 204 rounds of ammunition . The ship was also equipped with eight 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts . Heimdall also carried four 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all in swivel mounts on the deck . One was at the bow , another at the stern , and two amidships . The ship was protected by an armored belt that was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) amidships , and an armored deck that was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides . Heimdall 's armor consisted of new Krupp steel , a more effective type of armor than the compound steel the other members of the class received .

= = Service history = =

Heimdall was laid down in 1891 at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was launched on 27 July 1892 , and completed on 7 April 1894 . In 1897 , Heimdall participated in the annual summer maneuvers in the IV Division , along with Frithjof and Hagen . Her other three sisters were assigned to the III Division . Heimdall participated in the 1900 summer maneuvers , where she and Siegfried , Hildebrand , and Ägir simulated the hostile fleet . She served on active duty with the fleet until 1901 , when she was taken into drydock at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel for an extensive reconstruction . The ship was lengthened to 86 @.@ 13 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) , which increased displacement to 4 @,@ 436 t ( 4 @,@ 366 long tons ; 4 @,@ 890 short tons ) . Her old boilers were replaced with eight new Marine type boilers , and a second funnel was added . Her secondary battery was increased to ten 8 @.@ 8 cm guns , and the 35 cm torpedo tubes were replaced with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) tubes . Work was completed by 1902 .

After emerging from her modernization , she returned to service with the fleet , assigned to the II Squadron , alongside Hildebrand , Hagen , and Beowulf . She remained in the fleet until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was mobilized into the VI Battle Squadron for coastal defense , along with her sister ships . On 31 August 1915 , the VI Battle Squadron was demobilized , and Heimdall 's crew was transferred to other warships . She was then used as a barracks ship in for U @-@ boat crews , along with crews for the coastal defense flotillas stationed on the Ems river . On 17 June 1919 , she was stricken from the naval register . The navy planned to convert Heimdall into a salvage ship , but the plan fell through and she was instead sold and broken up for scrap in 1921 in Rönnebeck .

= Thomas Bryan Martin =

Thomas Bryan Martin ( 1731 – 1798 ) was an 18th @-@ century English American land agent , justice , legislator , and planter in the colony ( and later U.S. state ) of Virginia and in present @-@ day West Virginia . Martin was the land agent of the Northern Neck Proprietary for his uncle Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1693 – 1781 ) and served two terms in the House of Burgesses .

Martin was born in Kent in 1731 , and was the grandson of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1657 – 1710 ) through his mother , Frances Fairfax Martin . Raised in humble surroundings in England , Martin relocated to Virginia in 1751 to assist his uncle , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( known as Lord Fairfax ) , in administering the Northern Neck Proprietary , which encompassed up to 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Martin resided with his uncle on their frontier Greenway Court estate in present @-@ day Clarke County , Virginia . He earned the affections of Lord Fairfax on account of his energetic nature and loyalty , and through Martin 's growing influence Lord Fairfax relocated the proprietary 's base of operations to Greenway Court in 1762 and made Martin steward and land agent of the proprietary .

Martin took an active role in political and civil affairs within the proprietary 's domain . He served as a vestryman for the Anglican Frederick Parish , and upon the creation of Hampshire County in 1754 , he presided as the county 's first justice and was further appointed the County Lieutenant . He later represented Hampshire County in the House of Burgesses from 1756 to 1758 and serving with George Washington , represented Fredrick County from 1758 until 1761 . Martin was appointed a trustee of the frontier towns of Winchester , Stephensburg ( present @-@ day Stephens City ) , and Bath ( present @-@ day Berkeley Springs ) . He was also appointed as the colonel of the Frederick County militia . Though not in the best of health , Martin was relied upon by the settlers of the proprietary to use his considerable resources in response to Native American attacks . Following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Martin refused reappointment by Governor Patrick Henry as a justice of the Frederick County Commission of Peace . Afterward , Martin retreated from civil service entirely , and retired to Greenway Court .

He maintained a low profile during the war , and his uncle Lord Fairfax was treated with respect and consideration despite being the only resident peer in the American colonies . Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , Martin 's brother Reverend Denny Martin Fairfax inherited the Northern Neck Proprietary , and Martin was given the Greenway Court estate . He took his uncle 's housekeeper Mrs. Crawford as his mistress and died unmarried in 1798 . Martin bequeathed his Greenway Court estate and an adjoining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) to his housekeeper Betsy Powers . Martin 's brother Denny Fairfax was unable to properly maintain the proprietary and conveyed the remaining lands in 1797 , thus terminating the Fairfax and Martin families ' interests in the proprietary before it was formally dissolved in 1806 . The city of Martinsburg , West Virginia , was named for Martin by his friend Adam Stephen .

= = Early life and family = =

Thomas Bryan Martin was born in Kent , England , in 1731 and was the son of Denny Martin ( 1695 – 1762 ) of Salts Manor and his wife Frances Fairfax Martin ( 1703 – 1791 ) . His father and mother married in Loose , Kent . Martin 's mother was the daughter of Thomas Fairfax , 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1657 – 1710 ) and his wife Catherine Colepeper Fairfax , and thus a sister of Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1693 – 1781 ) and Robert Fairfax , 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( 1707 – 1793 ) . His grandmother Catherine Colepeper Fairfax was the daughter of Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper and his wife Margaretta van Hesse , who was from a Dutch noble family . Martin was named in honor of his uncle Thomas . He was baptized into the Anglican faith as " Thomas Brian " in Loose on April 11 , 1731 . Martin and his siblings were raised amid humble surroundings in England . He had seven siblings , including four brothers and three sisters :

Edward Martin ( 1723 – 1775 )

John Martin ( 1724 – 1746 )

Reverend Denny Martin ( later Fairfax , 1725 – 1800 )

Frances Martin ( 1727 – 1813 )

Sibylla Martin ( 1729 – 1816 )

Philip Martin ( 1733 – 1821 )

Anna Susanna Martin ( 1736 – 1817 )

= = Northern Neck Proprietary administration = =

Martin 's uncle Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron ( known as Lord Fairfax ) owned the Northern Neck Proprietary land grant , which he had inherited from Martin 's great @-@ grandfather Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper in 1719 . The proprietary constituted up to 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Virginia 's Northern Neck and a vast area spanning west to the North Branch Potomac River headwaters . The Northern Neck Proprietary had been awarded by Charles II of England to seven of his supporters in 1649 , and again in 1688 by official patent . One of these seven supporters , Lord Colepeper , acquired the right to the entire proprietary in 1681 , and his grandson , Lord Fairfax , inherited the land grant upon his death . Lord Fairfax dispatched his first cousin William Fairfax ( 1691 – 1757 ) to replace Robert Carter I as the steward and land agent for the Northern Neck Proprietary , a position in which Fairfax served until his death in 1757 . In 1750 , Martin 's uncle Lord Fairfax established himself at his hunting plantation Greenway Court estate near present @-@ day White Post in Clarke County with the intention of administering the proprietary himself . Lord Fairfax had previously reserved this land as his private residence in 1747 , then known as " the Quarter " . With his cousin William Fairfax acting as land agent , Lord Fairfax sought additional assistance in managing the proprietary and scrutinized which of his family members from England would be up to the task . Lord Fairfax first considered his brother Robert , then his brother @-@ in @-@ law Denny Martin , and in 1751 , he finally decided upon enlisting the assistance of his twenty @-@ year @-@ old nephew and Denny Martin 's son , Thomas Bryan Martin .

Lord Fairfax sent for Martin , who arrived in Virginia from England aboard the Hatley on May 24 , 1751 , accompanied by William Fairfax , who had been seeking an appointment to a position in England . Martin and Fairfax arrived in Williamsburg , where they dined with Fairfax 's fellow Virginia Governor 's Council member John Blair , Sr. , and visited the Governor 's Palace and the Capitol before beginning their journey toward the Northern Neck on May 31 . Following his arrival at the Northern Neck Proprietary , Martin settled at Greenway Court with his uncle that autumn . Due to his humble upbringing , Martin quickly adapted to frontier life at Greenway Court . He soon earned the affections of Lord Fairfax on account of his energetic nature , his loyalty , and his good eyesight , which greatly assisted his myopic uncle . On May 21 , 1752 , shortly after Martin had come of age on his twenty @-@ first birthday , Lord Fairfax granted Greenway Court to his nephew , along with 8 @,@ 840 acres ( 35 @.@ 8 km2 ) of limestone lands on the west bank of the Shenandoah River across from Leeds Manor , which were " to be known and called by the name of the Manor of Greenway Court " and subject to an annual quit @-@ rent fee of " a good buck and doe " due on the feast day of Saint Michael the Archangel . Greenway Court had taken its name from the Culpeper family 's manor in Kent .

Desiring a larger role for himself in the proprietary 's administration , Martin sought to influence his uncle into reorganizing the management of the proprietary . At Martin 's suggestion , Lord Fairfax relocated the proprietary 's base of operations 56 miles ( 90 km ) northwest from Belvoir to an expressly built land office depository and archive at Greenway Court in 1762 . Prior to this move , a small land office had been in operation at Greenway Court . Following William Fairfax 's death in 1757 , his son George William Fairfax ( 1729 – 1787 ) had succeeded him as steward and land agent of the proprietary . Martin succeeded Fairfax as the steward and land agent of the proprietary in 1762 . Fairfax 's replacement by Martin , the transfer of the land office and Martin 's increased influence over Lord Fairfax caused bitter feelings from George William Fairfax , as evidenced by his letters during this period . Fairfax and his wife Sally Cary Fairfax returned to England in 1773 prior to the American Revolutionary War and did not return afterward .

While residing at Greenway Court , Martin would have preferred more comfortable quarters than the rustic estate , as their living situation there was originally supposed to have been only temporary until the construction of a grander estate . In 1767 , Martin wrote that plans for further construction and improvements at Greenway Court " remain in status quo and in quo state they are likely to remain , ... we are building castles , tho ' not on earth where one is greatly wanted , but castles in the air . " Martin 's uncle Robert Fairfax remarked on the primitive life at Greenway Court among " strange , brutish people ... past all conception " . For the next thirty years , until Lord Fairfax 's death in 1781 , Martin remained at Greenway Court and shared in the loneliness and solitude of his " self @-@ exiled " uncle . While established at Greenway Court , Martin engaged in agricultural pursuits . In 1768 , Martin described tobacco as the crop " which is our all " . Like many other planters and farmers in the Shenandoah Valley , Martin had transitioned to the farming of wheat by 1792 , at which time he wrote to his brother in England , " Are you all starving that you give such prices for our flour ; farming is now my object . "

= = Political and civic affairs = =

In addition to his management of the proprietary , Martin began taking an active role in political and civil affairs within his uncle 's domain . Following an act of the Virginia General Assembly in February 1752 , the Anglican Frederick Parish was authorized to hold an election for twelve parish vestrymen before June 15 of that year . Martin was elected as a vestryman , alongside his uncle Lord Fairfax and Gabriel Jones . Martin and his fellow vestrymen set about expanding and enlarging the Anglican presence within the parish .

In 1754 , upon the creation of Hampshire County , Martin presided as the inaugural justice of the county 's court . Under the act establishing the county , the first county court was to have been held in June 1754 ; however , the first court was not held until December 1757 . The first court to be held was , in addition to Martin , composed of justices James Simpson , William Miller , Solomon Hedges , and Nathaniel Kuykendall with Gabriel Jones serving as the Clerk of Court . In 1755 , Martin was further appointed as the County Lieutenant of Hampshire County . Martin was then elected alongside Thomas Walker to the House of Burgesses representing Hampshire County from 1768 to 1758 . In 1758 , Martin and George Washington challenged the incumbents and ran for election to represent Frederick County in the House of Burgesses against Hugh West and Thomas Swearingen . Martin and Washington received considerable support from Lord Fairfax , and the leading Anglican cleric in Frederick County , William Meldrum . Washington received the most votes with 310 , followed by Martin with 240 votes , 199 votes for West , and 45 votes for Swearingen . Martin and Washington served alongside one another representing Frederick County until 1761 . Martin chose not to run for reelection and retired from legislative politics in 1761 .

In September 1758 , the Virginia General Assembly appointed Martin as one of the trustees of Winchester . Martin was further appointed as a trustee of the town of Stephensburg ( present @-@ day Stephens City ) . His uncle Lord Fairfax , John Hite , Gabriel Jones , Robert Rutherford , Lewis Stephens , and James Wood were also appointed trustees of the towns alongside Martin . When the town of Bath ( present @-@ day Berkeley Springs ) received its charter from the Virginia General Assembly in October 1776 , Martin was appointed as a trustee alongside Bryan Fairfax , Philip Pendleton , Robert Rutherford , Samuel Washington , Warner Washington , Alexander White , and others .

Martin was also appointed as the colonel of the Frederick County militia . While Martin was not in the best of health , he could be relied upon by the settlers of the proprietary to use his considerable resources to act promptly during an emergency , especially in response to attacks by Native Americans .

By the outbreak of the American Revolution , Martin was serving as an appointed justice on the Commission of Peace for Frederick County . Martin was reappointed as a justice of the peace by Governor Patrick Henry , along with William Booth and Warner Washington , but all three men declined to serve another term . Martin did not swear in to the committee because he refused to serve under the new revolutionary regime , initially believing that American independence from Great Britain was a futile effort . The committee had also been actively arresting Loyalists , which may have influenced Martin 's decision to turn down his reappointment . Martin retreated from performing civil service entirely , and afterward retired to Greenway Court . Prior to his death , Martin became an active Freemason .

= = American Revolution and Lord Fairfax 's death = =

As a Loyalist , Martin maintained a low profile following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War . By 1778 , the Virginia General Assembly had abolished quit @-@ rents , but in recognition of Lord Fairfax 's loyalty , the Northern Neck Proprietary was made an exception . Lord Fairfax was treated with respect and consideration by the assembly , and despite being the only resident peer in the American colonies , he was accorded all the privileges of a Virginia citizen . Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , his will was recorded on March 5 , 1782 , and conveyed his title to the remnants of his American properties , including the Northern Neck Proprietary , to Martin 's elder brother Reverend Denny Martin , who then assumed the surname and coat of arms of Fairfax . Lord Fairfax devised his property and title to Denny Martin on the condition that he apply to the Parliament of Great Britain for an act to authorize him to inherit the title of Lord Fairfax of Cameron . Martin was appointed by his uncle , along with Gabriel Jones and Peter Hog , as an executor of his will and estate . Martin inherited the plantation Lord Fairfax had purchased from John Borden consisting of 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) . Martin was also bequeathed the Greenway Court estate and " all the stock of cattle , sheep , hogs , implements of husbandry , household goods and furniture " there . Martin and his brothers Denny and Philip also inherited all Lord Fairfax 's slaves . Martin 's uncle and Lord Fairfax 's brother Robert Fairfax appealed his claim to the title of Lord Fairfax of Cameron to Parliament , and succeeded as the 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron .

On account of his residency in England , Denny Fairfax appointed Martin and Jones as managers of the proprietary . Martin and Jones placed advertisements in newspapers petitioning proprietary tenants to bring their claims against the Lord Fairfax estate forward and prove them . The descendants of William Fairfax continued to assert back claims against the estates of Lord Fairfax , which had been rendered by William Fairfax prior to 1757 . In order to absolve himself of these back claims , Denny Fairfax renounced his appointments of Martin and Jones , and instead appointed Bryan Fairfax , 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron as the sole steward of the proprietary in an official transposition in London on September 21 , 1784 .

Because Denny Fairfax was a British subject residing in England , he had no legal rights under American jurisdiction ; thus , he and his British relatives were considered " alien enemies " and his landholdings were confiscated under escheat laws . In 1785 , the Virginia General Assembly ordered that all records , books , and documents pertaining to the proprietary 's lands be confiscated by the state of Virginia and removed to the Virginia State Land Registrar 's Office in Richmond . Virginia seized the remaining proprietary lands that had not yet been granted , and citizens that had already acquired grants from the proprietary were permitted to keep their land . Land values in the Northern Neck continued to increase in value , which Martin noted in a 1790 letter . The higher land prices caused many residents of the proprietary to sell their lands and relocate further into the frontier , which Martin commented : " The emigration of inhabitants is ... astonishing . "

= = Later life and death = =

Following the death of Lord Fairfax in 1781 , Martin took his uncle 's housekeeper Mrs. Crawford as his mistress , and fathered a daughter by her . Mrs. Crawford remained Martin 's mistress for several years until her death . Their daughter married British captain Francis Geldart ; however , she died without issue soon after their marriage , and Martin gave Geldart 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of Greenway Court and a number of slaves . Following the death of his daughter , Martin employed housekeeper Betsy Powers at Greenway Court . Martin died unmarried in 1798 , and his will dated July 24 , 1794 , was proved on October 1 , 1798 . In it , he bequeathed his Greenway Court estate and an adjoining 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) to his housekeeper Betsy Powers . Powers also inherited " all houses thereon , household goods ( except plate and watch ) , one half of stock of horses , cattle , sheep and hogs and choice of ten slaves " . Martin 's living sisters Frances , Sybilla , and Anna Susanna Martin received " all moneys , and remainder of personal property " not bequeathed to Powers . Each of the executors of Martin 's will received ten guineas . Martin bequeathed the remainder of his property and the 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) of Greenway Court , should Powers have predeceased him , to his will executors Gabriel Jones , Robert Mackey , and John Sherman Woodcock to divide into parcels and sell , the profits from which were to be given to Martin 's sisters . Powers also received a chariot , harness , and 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) in Stafford County near Falmouth . Following Martin 's death , Powers married W. Carnagy .

Due to his advanced age and his inability to relocate to America , Martin 's brother Denny Fairfax was unable to properly protect and maintain his American possessions and conveyed by deed on August 30 , 1797 , to James Markham Marshall " all and every of those divers tracts , pieces and parcels of land , being part and parcel of the proprietary of the Northern Neck of Va . , with all beneficial right and interest of whatsoever nature the same may be " . This conveyance thus terminated the Fairfax and Martin families ' interest in the proprietary . In 1799 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized Marshall as the legal titleholder of Fairfax 's remaining landholdings . The Northern Neck Proprietary was officially dissolved in 1806 when Virginia again became its legal owner .

The legality of Virginia 's confiscation of the Northern Neck Proprietary lands continued to be contested in state and federal courts long after Denny Martin Fairfax 's death in 1800 . The Virginia Supreme Court upheld the state 's confiscation and conveyance of the proprietary 's lands , arguing that the terms of the Jay Treaty with the Kingdom of Great Britain did not address the disputed proprietary . In 1813 , the United States Supreme Court reviewed the Virginia Supreme Court 's decision in Fairfax 's Devisee v. Hunter 's Lessee , 11 U.S. 603 , and ruled that the treaty did in fact cover the dispute , and remanded the case back to the state supreme court . The Virginia Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. Supreme Court did not have authority over cases originating in state courts . The state supreme court 's refusal to accept the U.S. Supreme Court 's mandate was appealed in 1816 in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee , 14 U.S. 304 . The U.S. Supreme Court reversed the state court 's decision on appeal and ruled that Article Three of the United States Constitution granted the U.S. Supreme Court jurisdiction and authority over state courts on matters involving federal law . Chief Justice John Marshall was forced to recuse himself from ruling in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee as he and his brother James had previously contracted with Denny Martin Fairfax to purchase the disputed proprietary lands .

= = Legacy = =

Proprietor Adam Stephen , a close personal friend of Martin , had the town of Martinsburg in Berkeley County formally established by the Virginia General Assembly in 1778 . Stephen named the town in honor of his friend Martin .

= John Maulbetsch =

John F. " Johnny " Maulbetsch ( June 20 , 1890 – September 14 , 1950 ) was an All @-@ American football halfback at Adrian College in 1911 and for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1914 to 1916 . He is also a member of the College Football Hall of Fame .

After playing with an independent football team in Ann Arbor and at Adrian College , Maulbetsch became one of the most famous American football players in 1914 while playing for the University of Michigan . Maulbetsch became known as the " Human Bullet " because of his unusual low , line @-@ plunging style of play , and was also known as the " Featherweight Fullback " because of his light weight and small size . After his performance against Harvard in 1914 , in which some reports indicated he gained more than 300 yards , eastern writers , including Damon Runyan , wrote articles touting Maulbetsch . Maulbetsch was also selected by Walter Camp to his All @-@ American team .

In 1915 , Maulbetsch underwent surgery for appendicitis and did not perform to the same level as he had in 1914 . He made a comeback as a senior in 1916 and was again one of the leading players in college football .

Between 1917 and 1920 , Maulbetsch was the head football coach at Phillips University . With Maulbetsch 's name recognition , he was able to recruit big name talent to Phillips , including future Pro Football Hall of Famer Steve Owen , and future United States Olympic Committee President Doug Roby . Maulbetsch quickly turned Phillips into one of the top programs in the southwest , as his teams beat Oklahoma and Texas and lost only one game in the 1918 and 1919 seasons . Maulbetsch was later the football coach at Oklahoma A & M ( later known as Oklahoma State ) and Marshall College in the 1920s . He has been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame , and the University of Michigan awards the John F. Maulbetsch Award each year to a freshman football player based on desire , character , and capacity for leadership and future success both on and off the football field .

= = Ann Arbor High School and the Independents = =

Maulbetsch was born and grew up in Ann Arbor , Michigan . He attended Ann Arbor High School where he led the football team to consecutive state championships in 1908 and 1909 . One account of the 1908 playoffs noted : " Ann Arbor 's smashing play in the first half was wholly due to Maulbetsch , Ann Arbor 's fullback , and his terrific line bucking . He clearly outshone his team mates . "

After graduating from high school , Maulbetsch joined the Ann Arbor Independents , a football team made up of Michigan " varsity eligibles " and " townies . " Maulbetsch was once reportedly called upon to drive across the goal line for the Independents in a game in which a large crowd , including a farmer with his plow @-@ horse , gathered in the end zone . " Head down and legs working like piston rods , Maulbetsch plowed ahead until head struck the plow horse amidships . Down went the horse Mauly on top of him . "

= = College football player = =

= = = Transfer from Adrian College = = =

Maulbetsch started his college football career at age 21 , leading Adrian College to an 8 – 0 record in 1911 , including a 15 – 0 win over the University of Michigan freshman team . Maulbetsch 's performance drew the attention of Michigan Coach Fielding H. Yost . After watching Maulbetsch dominate Michigan 's freshman team , Yost concluded : " If I could get that kid into Michigan and keep him up in his studies I ’ d make an All @-@ American place for him his first year . " Yost persuaded Maulbetsch to transfer , and he played with " the scrubs " in 1912 . Yost told the press at the time he had " another ( Willie ) Heston " in Maulbetsch .

= = = 1914 season = = =

Maulbetsch did not play for the varsity team until the fall of 1914 when he was 24 years old . Before the season began , Maulbetsch was " touted as one of the fastest halfbacks who ever donned moleskins . He weighs 155 pounds , is built low , has a powerful pair of shoulders and his dashes are characterized by lightning speed . " Another pre @-@ season account said he was " a wonder as a line plunger and a wizard in the open field . " From the outset , considerable attention was paid to his unusual running style . Observers noted " the peculiar manner in which he runs . . . . He has a corkscrew style of dashing , and even when tackled squarely has such a sturdy pair of legs that his assailant is usually carried back several yards . "

Michigan opened the season with a 58 – 0 win over DePauw , followed by a 69 – 0 victory over Case Institute of Technology . Maulbetsch was the offensive star against Case , as he twice " carried several would @-@ be tackles across the goal . " Playing Vanderbilt the following week , Maulbetsch had runs of 25 and 35 yards , scored two touchdowns , " was worked overtime and probably advanced the pigskin more than any two other players . " After starting the season 5 – 0 , Michigan lost three of four games against top eastern schools : Syracuse , Harvard , Penn , and Cornell .

= = = 1914 Harvard game = = =

Maulbetsch 's breakthrough came on October 31 , 1914 , in front of 30 @,@ 000 fans at Harvard . The game was one of the most anticipated matches of the year . A special train brought Michigan fans to Cambridge , Massachusetts , and hundreds of Michigan alumni from the East were on hand as " reinforcements . " Though Harvard prevailed , 7 – 0 , Maulbetsch was the big story in papers across the country . Writers from Ring Lardner to Damon Runyon told the story of Maulbetsch 's performance . Lardner said : " If anyone tells you the East plays the best brand of football , Maulbetsch shot that theory full of holes . " According to Runyon , the Wolverines used " the mighty Maulbetsch as their battering ram " , and he " gained enough ground against Harvard to bury a German army corps . " Football writer Frank G. Menke said : " No westerner ever created half the stir in the east as did this Michigander . . . His peculiar , baffling style of attack , backed by phenomenal strength almost always earned for him gains of 5 to 20 yards every time he was called upon to carry the ball . " Another writer noted Maulbetsch 's skill as a " line breaker " as he " carried the ball repeatedly through the Harvard line and into the secondary defense with bullet @-@ like rushes that upset tackler after tackler . " Maulbetsch was responsible for four @-@ fifths of Michigan 's ground gains , and on several occasions his dives reportedly " had so much power that he dove right through a double line of crimson players and went sprawling on the ground twelve to twenty feet clear of the double line . "

While every report indicates that Maulbetsch had a big day , the accounts vary dramatically as to exactly how many yards he gained . Frank Menke reported after the game that Maulbetsch gained 300 yards . A 1938 newspaper account said he " gained 350 yards from scrimmage . " Yet , his 1951 obituary indicated he gained 133 yards in 30 attempts .

Despite Maulbetsch 's efforts , Michigan was never able to punch the ball across the goal line . Many blamed Michigan 's quarterback who switched to another back every time after Maulbetsch " took the ball to the shadow of the Crimson goal posts . " In answer to the question why Michigan was unable to score , Frank Menke said : " Ask the fellow who quarterbacked for Michigan that day . His actions were too mystifying for the spectators to figure out . "

When Harvard reneged on an agreement to play a game in Ann Arbor in 1915 , sports writers concluded it was to avoid facing Maulbetsch again . Said one reporter : " When faih Hahvahd [ sic ] saw what Maulbetsch did in the first clash , it decided it cared to see no more of him . He was too rough . "

= = = " Human Bullet " = = =

Much of the attention on Maulbetsch focused on his diminutive size and unique running style . At 5 ft 7 in ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) , and 155 lb ( 70 kg ) , Maulbetsch was a small back , even by the standards of his day . And his running style saw him bend his torso and propel himself like a projectile into the opposing line . Indeed , he won several nicknames based on his size , running style , and fighting spirit , including the " Human Bullet , " " Mauly " , the " Human Shrapnel " , the " Featherweight Fullback " , the " Michigan Cannon Ball , " and the " German bullet . " Comparisons of Maulbetsch to military armaments were common . In addition to the " bullet " , " shrapnel " , and " cannonball " nicknames , the Syracuse Herald observed : " Standing up in front of a Krupp gun has its dangers , but it is not to be compared with the dangers of standing in front of Maulbetsch when he is going full speed ahead . "

Maulbetsch 's style was described as " line @-@ plunging . " A New York newspaper noted : " When the ball is snapped to him he almost doubles himself up , and , with his head aimed at the knees of the opposing line , he dives head first . Those who have seen Maulbetsch in action marvel at the great momentum he can get up in two or three steps . " Noted football writer Walter Eckersall said : " Mauly is a little fellow , being built close to the ground . They say that when he plunges at the line his head is almost on a level with his shoe tops – that he hits so low that it 's well nigh impossible to stop him . " An Iowa newspaper wondered how it was possible " for a man to smash into a line of human bodies with the force that Maulbetsch does and come out of the game without a broken neck . "

Maulbetsch was said to run " so low that he could dash under an ordinary table without losing his feet . " At a coaching conference in the 1920s , a coach doubted the table @-@ ducking story and challenged Maulbetsch . The doubter later recalled : " I began ribbing him about this table @-@ ducking stuff and finally offered to bet him he couldn ’ t do it . Well , we got a table up in a room , Johnny tucked a water pitcher under his arm and backed against the wall . Darned if he didn ’ t do it , the only thing , that water pitcher broke in a million pieces . " Asked about the incident , Maulbetsch said it was true , except one part . Maulbetsch insisted there wasn ’ t a nick on the pitcher .

= = = Maulbetsch makes All @-@ American = = =

After the loss to Harvard in 1914 , Michigan rebounded with a 34 – 3 win over Penn . Walter Eckersall reported that the Wolverines were " led by the redoubtable Johnny Maulbetsch . " Despite being " a marked man " by the Penn defense , he was not thrown for a loss in the entire game , and he scored three touchdowns . Before Michigan lost to Cornell in the final game of the season , a scandal arose when it was revealed that the owner of an Ann Arbor pool room , Joe Reinger , had written a letter intimating that he could buy Maulbetsch and Michigan 's quarterback to throw the Cornell game , and win US $ 50 @,@ 000 from students willing to bet on Michigan . The letter was turned in to the Michigan athletic officials , and Reinger went to the athletic office " to try to hush the matter up . " Reinger became abusive and was thrown out of the office by Coach Yost . The incident caused " the biggest stir of the season on the campus , " as students demolished Reinger 's pool room , and police had to guard Reinger 's residence against threatening demonstrations that continued to " a late hour . " Although Michigan did lose to Cornell , Maulbetsch was said to be " practically the only successful ground gainer for Michigan . " Over the course of the 1914 season , Maulbetsch was said to have scored about half of Michigan 's 252 points . A Wisconsin newspaper noted that , " when it comes time to write a resume of the 1914 football season " , Maulbetsch 's play " will live in the minds of men . . . for years to come . " As a reward for his efforts , Maulbetsch was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American at the end of the 1914 season .

= = = Pie and coffee diet = = =

As public attention focused on Maulbetsch as " the greatest line @-@ plunger of a decade , " the press could not get enough of Maulbetsch , even interviewing his family . His sister revealed that Maulbetsch had a fondness for home cooking and received permission from the team trainer to eat at his family 's Ann Arbor home . " Now , Johnny 's sister explains that each day his mother baked two pies for the athlete 's supper , and that in addition he had everything else his appetite craved , including coffee . " Confronted by reporters about the revelation , Maulbetsch replied : " The story was slightly exaggerated . I rarely ate more than one and one half pies for dinner . " Joking references to Maulbetsch 's diet continued when it was reported in 1915 that he was suffering from " acute indigestion . " One reporter quipped , " Those much advertised pies of his maw 's evidently aren ’ t as great training dope as they were cracked up to be . " It turned out that the indigestion was appendicitis , and Maulbetsch was hospitalized at St. Joseph 's Sanitarium in Ann Arbor in April 1915 , where he underwent an operation .

= = = 1915 season = = =

As the 1915 season was set to get underway , Coach Yost reported , " Johnny told me he was feeling fine when I saw him recently , although he doesn ’ t weigh as much as he used to . " Despite Yost 's hopes , Maulbetsch fell far short of the prior year 's performance in 1915 . He was several pounds lighter after the illness and surgery , and it was noted that " a few pounds means much to a man of Maulbetsch 's weight . " In the opening game against Lawrence , Maulbetsch scored three touchdowns , but he was " woefully weak on interference . " Playing against Mount Union , Maulbetsch made several big gains , including a 50 @-@ yard touchdown run in the third quarter . His difficulties returned in the season 's third game against Marietta , as " Maulbetsch was powerless to stop the Marietta forward pass , all of the successful ones being directed toward his side of the line . "

After The Michigan Daily criticized his performance following the Marietta game , Maulbetsch " threatened to desert the Michigan squad and give up football for good . " It reportedly took Yost several hours to coax Maulbetsch to report for practice again , and in the next game against Case , Maulbetsch did not play until the third quarter . In the season 's first big game , Michigan was soundly beaten by Michigan Agricultural College , 24 – 0 , and most of Maulbetsch 's runs " didn ’ t even get as far as his own line . " In the final four games of the season , matters got worse for Michigan and Maulbetsch , as the team went 0 – 3 – 1 , scoring only 14 points in four games .

In Maulbetsch 's defense , some writers noted the weakness of the Michigan line , often allowing rushers into the backfield before Maulbetsch even had the ball . But some of those same observers noted that " Mauly " was not carrying the ball " at his usual pace . " Sports writer Frank Menke described Maulbetsch 's 1915 performance this way : " [ The ] Wolverine halfback skidded from the heights of greatness to the level of mediocre . . . . The lines that he had crumpled like eggshells a year before stood up under his charges , often dumping him back for losses . The once ' unstoppable ' Maulbetsch not only was stopped but forced to retract . " Despite the subpar performance in 1915 , Michigan 's varsity letter @-@ winners elected him captain of the team for 1916 .

= = = 1916 comeback = = =

Maulbetsch made a strong comeback in 1916 . Instead of spending the summer recovering from appendicitis , he spent the summer working as an assistant barkeeper on a steamship plying between Chicago and St. Joseph , Michigan . Maulbetsch spent his afternoons swimming and running sprints up and down the beach . On one trip , a giant coal passer claimed to be the strongest man in the world , and Maulbetsch agreed to a wrestling match on the boat . " The coal passer rushed the stripling , who ducked , caught his opponent about the waist and crushed him to the deck . When the giant woke , he wanted to know if the boat hit a rock . " As the season started , The New York Times wrote : " Michigan 's come @-@ back football team , headed by Bullet Maulbetsch , is going to be an eleven to be reckoned with on the gridiron this Fall . " Maulbetsch returned to his prior form , and one of the writers who had criticized him in 1915 said " the great Michigander using the same method of attack , has repeatedly broken in fragments this year the lines that he couldn ’ t dent in 1915 . "

= = Professional football = =

After the 1916 football season ended , Maulbetsch considered his options . There was a report that he had been engaged as a high school football coach ( and math instructor ) in Toledo , Ohio . Even more prevalent were reports that he had signed to play for a professional football team . Professional football was still in its infancy in 1917 , and landing a well @-@ known star would have been a boost to any of the budding franchises . In January 1917 newspapers reported that Maulbetsch had signed a contract to play professional football for Detroit Tigers owner , Frank Navin . Navin was supporting efforts to organize a professional football league in all the important Midwestern cities , including a Detroit franchise to play at Navin Field . As late as November 1917 , newspapers reported Maulbetsch had played professional football after graduating and was offered " a handsome fee " to play with the Akron Burkhardts in November 1917 . Although professional football records prior to 1920 are scarce , it appears unlikely that Maulbetsch played professional football , as press accounts show he was working as a college football coach starting in 1917 .

= = Head football coach = =

= = = Building Phillips University into a football power ( 1917 – 1920 ) = = =

In June 1917 , Maulbetsch announced that he had accepted a position as the football coach ( and professor of chemistry ) at Phillips University in Enid , Oklahoma . Phillips was a small , private school without a well @-@ known athletic program . In the fall , Enid residents were " leaving their work every afternoon to watch [ Maulbetsch ] and his husky young Oklahoma youths work out on campus . " Within a year , Maulbetsch turned Phillips into one of the strongest teams in the southwest .

Maulbetsch landed his first big recruit before leaving Ann Arbor . While playing at Michigan , Maulbetsch became friends with Doug Roby , a football player at the Michigan Military Academy , and one of the state 's top recruits . Roby followed Maulbetsch to Phillips and later went on to become a member of the International Olympic Committee in the 1950s and 1960s and president of the United States Olympic Committee from 1965 to 1968 . Maulbetsch 's next find was future Pro Football Hall of Famer Steve Owen , who later spent 23 years with the New York Giants . Maulbetsch saw Owen watching football practice from under a tree and told him : " A fellow your size ought to be out for the squad . " Owen showed up the next day and , when Maulbetsch used him to illustrate blocking fundamentals , Owen threw a block into Maulbetsch that threw him five yards through the air . Maulbetsch was satisfied , and Owen had a spot on the team . Because Phillips was not part of a conference , it was not subject to any eligibility limitations , an advantage Maulbetsch was accused of exploiting . A third key player recruited by Maulbetsch was an Native American halfback named Levi , and dubbed " Big Chief " by Phillips fans .

Having recruited top talent to Enid , Maulbetsch 's teams lost only one game in 1918 and 1919 , including a 10 – 0 – 1 record in 1919 . In 1917 and 1918 , Phillips came into the limelight when they beat the Oklahoma Sooners and the Henry Kendricks College team that had swept the west without allowing another team to score . Maulbetsch arranged a game against the Texas Longhorns in 1919 , the first meeting between the schools . When the game was announced The San Antonio Light reported : " Phillips University has one of the strongest teams in the Southwest . The only team to beat them in the past two years is Oklahoma and last year Phillips beat the Sooners 13 – 7 . " The report credited Maulbetsch for securing success at an institution little known in athletics before he arrived . The University of Texas had not lost a game since 1917 when the Phillips " Haymakers " arrived in Austin , Texas on October 11 , 1919 . Maulbetsch 's team shocked the Longhorns , holding them scoreless and winning the contest , 10 – 0 . One Texas newspaper reported that Phillips had " whitewashed the Longhorns in their own corral . "

Others in Texas concluded that Phillips ’ success was the result of lax or non @-@ existent eligibility policies . The lack of eligibility rules almost certainly did play a part in Phillips ’ success . When Phillips joined the Southwest Conference in 1920 , it became bound by the conference 's eligibility rules , and the team was outscored 97 – 0 in conference play against Texas A & M ( 47 – 0 ) , Texas ( 27 – 0 ) , Arkansas ( 20 – 0 ) , and Texas Christian ( 3 – 0 ) . The Galveston Daily News noted that Maulbetsch 's 1920 team could not " compare with the strong team " he surprised Texas with in 1919 . At the end of the 1920 season , Phillips withdrew from the Southwest Conference , and Maulbetsch accepted a new position at Oklahoma A & M.

= = = Head coach at Oklahoma A & M ( 1921 – 1928 ) = = =

In January 1921 , Maulbetsch was hired as the head coach at Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College ( now Oklahoma State ) in Stillwater , Oklahoma . He served as the coach at Oklahoma A & M from 1921 to 1928 , where his teams posted a 28 – 37 – 6 ( .437 ) record . In 1924 , his team went 6 – 1 – 2 and shut out Oklahoma ( 6 – 0 ) , Arkansas ( 20 – 0 ) and Kansas ( 3 – 0 ) . Maulbetsch 's Aggies also shut out Phillips that year , 13 – 0 . After the season , attempts were made to lure him to Washington University in St. Louis , Missouri , but Maulbetsch said he was satisfied with his position in Stillwater .

Maulbetsch arranged a game in Ann Arbor against his alma mater to start the 1926 season . Michigan beat the Aggies , 42 – 3 . Despite an overall record of 3 – 4 – 1 , Oklahoma A & M won its first conference football championship by going 3 – 0 – 1 in games against Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association opponents . Maulbetsch also drew attention in 1926 for his disciplinary methods . When the team lost two games due to fumbles , he ordered eight of his backfield players to carry footballs with them to classes throughout the week and instructed other team members to try knocking the balls from under their arms . The penalty for losing a ball was " a hard run around the stadium . " He also ordered one of his ends to wear boxing gloves after he poked an opposing player in the eye .

The Aggies won only one game against seven defeats in 1928 . In late November , the day after a 46 – 0 loss to Oklahoma , newspapers reported that " reliable sources " had said Maulbetsch intended to resign . Maulbetsch immediately denied the rumor , saying : " I have not resigned . I am aware that a faction here is trying to get me out , but I do not intend to throw up the sponge . " In December , pressure to fire Maulbetsch grew , and one Oklahoma newspaper observed : " Coach Maulbetsch of the A. & M. football team is the object of attacks from many sides because of the rather poor showing made by his team during the past season . They are looking for a goat and just now Johnnie is cast in that role . Regardless of his past record , those who demand victory at any price and by any means whatsoever , are insisting that he be fired forthwith and a man be placed in the position who , by fair means or foul , will gather in a team that will win victories and never lose a game . " Ultimately , Maulbetsch resigned at the end of May 1929 as Oklahoma A & M 's coach in football , baseball , and basketball . It was announced that he would spend the remaining year of his contract on a leave of absence at half pay .

= = = Head coach at Marshall College ( 1929 – 1930 ) = = =

In July 1929 , Maulbetsch was hired by Marshall College in Huntington , West Virginia to become head coach in charge of football and track . When Marshall 's " Thundering Herd " got off to a 4 – 1 start , Maulbetsch won praise in the West Virginia press , but Marshall finished the season 1 – 2 – 1 in the second half . And in 1930 , the Marshall team went 3 – 5 – 1 , including a 65 – 0 loss to Penn State . Maulbetsch resigned as Marshall 's coach in January 1931 ; his only comment at the time was that he had " other plans . "

= = Later years and legacy = =

After retiring from football , Maulbetsch bought a drug store in Huntington , West Virginia . During World War II , Maulbetsch took a job building B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers at Ford Motor Company 's famed Willow Run Plant near Ypsilanti , Michigan . From 1946 until his death , he owned an automobile sales company in Adrian , Michigan . Maulbetsch died of cancer in 1950 at his home in Ann Arbor . He was survived by his widow , Ida , a son John Maulbetsch , and a daughter Barbara . Maulbetsch had been married to Ida ( maiden name Ida Elizabeth Cappon ) since May 27 , 1917 .

Maulbetsch was inducted posthumously into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1973 . Since 1956 , the John F. Maulbetsch Award has been given at the University of Michigan after spring practice to a freshman football candidate on the basis of desire , character , capacity for leadership and future success both on and off the football field . The award was established by Frederick C. Matthaei – a former classmate of Maulbetsch who went on to become a Regent of the University . The award has been a good indicator of future success , as past recipients include Jim Mandich ( 1967 ) , Rick Leach ( 1976 ) , Charles Woodson ( 1996 ) , Marlin Jackson ( 2002 ) , and Jake Long ( 2004 ) . Maulbetsch Avenue in Ypsilanti Township is presumably named after Maulbetsch .

= = Head coaching record = =

= = = Football = = =

= = = Baseball = = =

= Order of Canada =

The Order of Canada ( French : Ordre du Canada ) is a Canadian national order , admission into which is the second highest honour for merit in the system of orders , decorations , and medals of Canada . It comes second only to membership in the Order of Merit , which is the personal gift of Canada 's monarch .

To coincide with the centennial of Canadian Confederation , the three @-@ tiered order was established in 1967 as a fellowship that recognizes the outstanding merit or distinguished service of Canadians who make a major difference to Canada through lifelong contributions in every field of endeavour , as well as the efforts by non @-@ Canadians who have made the world better by their actions . Membership is accorded to those who exemplify the order 's Latin motto , desiderantes meliorem patriam , meaning " they desire a better country " , a phrase taken from Hebrews 11 : 16 . The three tiers of the order are Companion , Officer , and Member ; specific individuals may be given extraordinary membership and deserving non @-@ Canadians may receive honorary appointment into each grade .

The monarch — at present Elizabeth II — is Sovereign of the order and the serving governor general , currently David Lloyd Johnston , is its Chancellor and Principal Companion and administers the order on behalf of the reigning king or queen . Appointees to the order are recommended by an advisory board and formally inducted by the governor general or the sovereign . As of October 2015 , 6 @,@ 531 people have been appointed to the Order of Canada , including scientists , musicians , politicians , artists , athletes , business people , and film stars , benefactors , and others . Some have resigned or have been removed from the order , while other appointments have been controversial . Appointees are presented with insignia and receive the right to armorial bearings .

= = Creation = =

The process of founding the Order of Canada began in early 1966 and came to a conclusion on 17 April 1967 , when the organization was instituted by Queen Elizabeth II , on the advice of the Canadian prime minister , Lester B. Pearson , who was assisted with the establishment of the order by John Matheson . The association was officially launched on 1 July 1967 , the 100th anniversary of Canadian Confederation , with Governor General Roland Michener being the first inductee to the order — to the level of Companion — and on 7 July of the same year , 90 more people were appointed , including Vincent Massey , Louis St. Laurent , Hugh MacLennan , David Bauer , Gabrielle Roy , Donald Creighton , Thérèse Casgrain , Wilder Penfield , Arthur Lismer , M. J. Coldwell , Edwin Baker , Alex Colville , and Maurice Richard . During a visit to London , United Kingdom , later in 1967 , Michener presented the Queen with her Sovereign 's badge for the Order of Canada , which she first wore during a banquet in Yellowknife in July 1970 .

From the Order of Canada grew a Canadian honours system , thereby reducing the use of British honours ( i.e. those administered by the Queen in her British privy council ) . Among the civilian awards of the Canadian honours system , the Order of Canada comes third , after the Cross of Valour and membership in the Order of Merit , which is within the personal gift of Canada 's monarch . By the 1980s , Canada 's provinces began to develop their own distinct honours and decorations .

= = Grades = =

The Canadian monarch , seen as the fount of honour , is at the apex of the Order of Canada as its Sovereign , followed by the governor general , who serves as the fellowship 's Chancellor . Thereafter follow three grades , which are , in order of precedence : Companion , Officer , and Member , each having accordant post @-@ nominal letters that members are entitled to use ; each incumbent governor general is also installed as the Principal Companion for the duration of his or her time in the viceregal post . Additionally , any governor general , viceregal consort , former governor general , former viceregal consort , or member of the Canadian Royal Family may be appointed as an extraordinary Companion , Officer , or Member . Promotions in grade are possible , though this is ordinarily not done within five years of the initial appointment , and a maximum of five honorary appointments into any of the three grades may be made by the governor general each year . As of March 2016 , there have been twenty one honorary appointments .

There were originally , in effect , only two ranks to the Order of Canada : Companion and the Medal of Service . There was , however , also a third award , the Medal of Courage , meant to recognize acts of gallantry . This latter decoration fell in rank between the other two levels , but was anomalous within the Order of Canada , being a separate award of a different nature rather than a middle grade of the order . Without ever having been awarded , the Medal of Courage was on 1 July 1972 replaced by the autonomous Cross of Valour and , at the same time , the levels of Officer and Member were introduced , with all existing holders of the Medal of Service created as Officers . Lester Pearson 's vision of a three @-@ tiered structure to the order was thus fulfilled .

Companions of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : CC , in French : Compagnon de l 'ordre du Canada ) have demonstrated the highest degree of merit to Canada and humanity , on either the national or international scene . Up to 15 Companions are appointed annually , with an imposed limit of 165 living Companions at any given time , not including those appointed as extraordinary Companions or in an honorary capacity . As of October 2015 , there are 143 living Companions , none being honorary . Since 1994 , substantive members are the only regular citizens who are empowered to administer the Canadian Oath of Citizenship .

Officers of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : OC , in French : Officier de l 'ordre du Canada ) have demonstrated an outstanding level of talent and service to Canadians , and up to 64 may be appointed each year , not including those inducted as extraordinary Officers or in an honorary capacity , with no limit to how many may be living at one time . As of October 2015 , there were 1 @,@ 123 living Officers , none being honorary .

Members of the Order of Canada ( post @-@ nominals : CM , in French : Membre de l 'ordre du Canada ) have made an exceptional contribution to Canada or Canadians at a local or regional level , group , field or activity . As many as 136 Members may be appointed annually , not including extraordinary Members and those inducted on an honorary basis , and there is no limit on how many Members may be living at one time . As of October 2015 , there were 2 @,@ 225 living Members , none being honorary .

= = Insignia = =

Upon admission into the Order of Canada , members are given various insignia of the organization , all designed by Bruce W. Beatty , who " broke new ground in the design of insignia of Orders within The Queen 's realms " and was himself made a member of the order in 1990 ; Beatty attended every investiture ceremony between 1967 and early 2010 . The badge belonging to the Sovereign consists of a jewelled , 18 @-@ carat gold crown of rubies , emeralds , and sapphires , from which is suspended a white , enamelled , hexagonal snowflake design , with six equal leaves and diamonds between each . At the centre is a disc bearing a maple leaf in pavé @-@ laid rubies on a white enamel background , surrounded at its edge by a red enamel ring ( annulus ) bearing the motto of the order . The Chancellor wears the badge of a Companion and is , upon installation as governor general , granted a livery collar for wear at Order of Canada investiture ceremonies .

The badges for inductees are of a similar design to the sovereign 's badge , though without precious stones , and slight differences for each grade . For Companions , the emblem is gilt with a red enamel maple leaf in the central disk ; for Officers , it is gilt with a gold maple leaf ; and for Members , both the badge itself and the maple leaf are silver . All are topped by a St. Edward 's Crown , symbolizing that the order is headed by the sovereign , and the reverse is plain except for the word CANADA .

The ribbon is white and bordered in red stripes , similar to the Canadian national flag ; the chest ribbon is the same for each grade , save for a metallic maple leaf in the centre , the colour of which matches that on the badge of the grade that the wearer was appointed to . For civilian wear , a lapel pin is worn on the jacket , which is designed as a miniature of the medallion .

Wear of the insignia is according to guidelines issued by the Chancellery of Honours , which stipulate that the badges be worn before most other national orders — that is , at the end of an individual 's medal bar closest to the centre of the chest or at the wearer 's neck — with only the Victoria Cross , the Cross of Valour , and the badge of the Order of Merit permitted to be worn before the badges of the Order of Canada . Those in the grades of Companion or Officer may wear their badges on a neck ribbon , while those in the Member group display their insignia suspended by a ribbon from a medal bar on the left chest . Protocol originally followed the British tradition , wherein female appointees wore their Order of Canada emblem on a ribbon bow positioned on the left shoulder . These regulations were altered in 1997 , and women may wear their insignia in either the traditional manner or in the same fashion as the men .

With the patriation in 1988 of oversight of arms to Canada through the Canadian Heraldic Authority , the constitution of the Order of Canada was amended to include the entitlement of all inductees to petition the Chief Herald of Canada for personal armorial bearings , should they not already possess any . Companions may receive supporters , and all members may have the escutcheon ( shield ) of their arms encircled with a red ribbon bearing the order 's motto in gold , and from which is suspended a rendition of the holder 's Order of Canada badge . The Queen , Sovereign of the Order of Canada , approved the augmentation of her royal arms for Canada with the order 's ribbon in 1987 .

= = = Possession and sale = = =

The constitution of the Order of Canada states that the insignia remain property of the Crown , and requires any member of the order to return to the chancellery their original emblem should they be upgraded within the order to a higher rank . Thus , while badges may be passed down as family heirlooms , or loaned or donated for display in museums , they cannot be sold by any individual other than the monarch with the proper advice and consent of her ministers . Over the decades , however , a number of Order of Canada insignia have been put up for sale , the first being the Companion 's badge of Major Coldwell , who was appointed in 1967 ; his badge was sold at auction in 1981 , an act that received criticism from government officials .

In 2007 , it was revealed that one of the first ever issued insignia of the Order of Canada , a Medal of Service awarded originally to Quebec historian Gustave Lanctot , was put up for sale via e @-@ mail . Originally , the anonymous auctioneer , who had purchased the decoration for $ 45 at an estate sale in Montreal , attempted to sell the insignia on eBay ; however , after the bidding reached $ 15 @,@ 000 , eBay removed the item , citing its policy against the sale of government property , including " any die , seal or stamp provided by , belonging to , or used by a government department , diplomatic or military authority appointed by or acting under the authority of Her Majesty . " Rideau Hall stated that selling medals was " highly discouraged " , however the owner continued efforts to sell the insignia via the internet . Five years later , a miniature insignia presented to Tommy Douglas was put on auction in Ontario as part of a larger collection of Douglas artifacts . Douglas 's daughter , Shirley Douglas , purchased the set for $ 20 @,@ 000 .

= = Eligibility and appointment = =

Any of the three levels of the Order of Canada are open to all living Canadian citizens , except all federal and provincial politicians and judges while they hold office . The order recognizes the achievement of outstanding merit or distinguished service by Canadians who made a major difference to Canada through lifelong contributions in every field of endeavour , as well as the efforts made by non @-@ Canadians who have made the world better by their actions . Membership is thus accorded to those who exemplify the order 's Latin motto , taken from Hebrews 11 : 16 of the Bible , desiderantes meliorem patriam , meaning " they desire a better country . " Each of the six to eight hundred nominations submitted each year , by any person or organization , is received by the order 's Advisory Council , which , along with the governor general , makes the final choice of new inductees , typically by consensus rather than a vote ; a process that , when conceived , was the first of its kind in the world . Appointees are then accepted into the organization at an investiture ceremony typically conducted by the governor general at Rideau Hall , although the Queen or a provincial viceroy may perform the task , and the ceremony may take place in other locations . Since the 1991 investiture of Ted Rogers , Order of Canada instalment ceremonies have been broadcast on various television channels and the Internet ; recipients are given a complimentary video recording of their investiture ceremony from Rogers Cable .

= = = Advisory Council = = =

The task of the Advisory Council is to evaluate the nominations of potential inductees , decide if the candidates are worthy enough to be accepted into the order , and make recommendations to the governor general , who appoints the new members . The council is chaired by the Chief Justice of Canada , and includes the Clerk of the Queen 's Privy Council , the Deputy Minister of Canadian Heritage , the Chair of the Canada Council for the Arts , the President of the Royal Society of Canada , the Chair of the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada , and five members of the order who sit on the council for a three @-@ year period . If a nomination involves a non @-@ Canadian citizen , the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs is invited by the Advisory Council to offer evaluation . Decisions of the council and new appointments to and dismissals from the Order of Canada are announced to the Canada Gazette .

As of October 2015 , the members of the Advisory Council are :

The Right Honourable Beverley McLachlin PC – Chief Justice of Canada ( Chair )

Kim Baird CM

Dr. David Barnard – Chair , Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada

Dr. Graham Bell FRSC – President , Royal Society of Canada

Janice Charette , Clerk of the Privy Council and Secretary to the Cabinet

George T.H. Cooper CM QC

Graham Flack – Deputy Minister , Canadian Heritage

Monique Frize OC

Pierre Lassonde CM – Chair , Canada Council for the Arts

Monique F. Leroux CM OQ

H. Sanford Riley CM

W. Brett Wilson CM SOM

= = = Refusal = = =

Few have declined entry into the Order of Canada ; as of 1997 , 1 @.@ 5 percent of offered appointments to the order had been refused . The identities of those individuals who have declined induction since the 1970s are kept confidential , so the full list is not publicly known . Some , however , have spoken openly about their decisions , including Robert Weaver , who stated that he was critical of the " three @-@ tier " nature of the order ; Claude Ryan and Morley Callaghan , who both declined the honour in 1967 ; Mordecai Richler , who twice declined ; and Marcel Dubé , Roger Lemelin , and Glenn Gould , who all declined in 1970 . However , all the above individuals , save for Gould and Weaver , later did accept appointment into the order . Others have rejected appointment on the basis of being supporters of the Quebec sovereignty movement — such as Luc @-@ André Godbout , Rina Lasnier , and Geneviève Bujold — while Alice Parizeau , another supporter of Quebec sovereignty , was criticized for accepting entry into the order despite her beliefs .

Victoria Cross recipient Cecil Meritt cited the fact that he already held Canada 's highest decoration as a reason not to be admitted to the Order of Canada . Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , was in 1982 offered appointment to the order as an honorary Companion ; however , he refused on the grounds that , as the consort of the Queen , he was a Canadian and thus entitled to a substantive appointment . In 1993 , the Advisory Council proposed an amendment to the constitution of the Order of Canada , making the sovereign 's spouse automatically a Companion , but Prince Philip again refused , stating that if he was to be appointed , it should be on his merits . Congruent with these arguments , he in 1988 accepted without issue a substantive induction as a Companion of the Order of Australia . In 2013 , the constitution of the Order of Canada was amended in a way that permitted the substantive appointment of Royal Family members and Prince Philip accepted induction as the first extraordinary Companion of the Order of Canada on 26 April 2013 . Former Premier of Newfoundland Joey Smallwood declined appointment as a Companion because he felt that , as a self @-@ proclaimed Father of Confederation , he deserved a knighthood . Smallwood was never knighted and later accepted induction as a Companion .

= = = Resignation and removal = = =

Resignations from the order can take place only through the prescribed channels , which include the member submitting to the Secretary General of the Order of Canada a letter notifying the chancellery of his or her desire to terminate their membership , and only with the governor general 's approval can the resignation take effect . On 1 June 2009 , the governor general accepted the resignations of astronomer and inventor René Racine , pianist Jacqueline Richard , and Cardinal Jean @-@ Claude Turcotte ; on 11 January 2010 , did the same for Renato Giuseppe Bosisio , an engineering professor , and Father Lucien Larré ; and on 19 April 2010 for Frank Chauvin . It was also reported that other constituents of the Order of Canada had , in reaction to Henry Morgentaler 's induction into their ranks , indicated that they would return or had returned their emblems in protest , including organizations such as the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate and Madonna House Apostolate doing so on behalf of deceased former members .

Members may be removed from the order if the Advisory Council feels their actions have brought the society into disrepute . In order for this to be done , the council must agree to take action and then send a letter to the person both telling of the group 's decision and requesting a response . Anyone removed from the order is required to return their insignia . As of October 2015 , six people have been removed from the Order of Canada : Alan Eagleson , who was dismissed after being jailed for fraud in 1998 ; David Ahenakew , who faced calls for his removal due to anti @-@ Semitic comments he made in 2002 ; T. Sher Singh , after the Law Society of Upper Canada found him guilty of professional misconduct and revoked his license to practice law ; Steve Fonyo , due to " his multiple criminal convictions , for which there are no outstanding appeals " ; Garth Drabinsky , who was found guilty of fraud and forgery in Ontario and has been a fugitive from American law for related crimes ; and Lord Black of Crossharbour , who was convicted in the United States in 2007 of fraud and obstruction of justice . In 2013 , Norman Barwin resigned from the order as a result of the Advisory Council moving forward with his pending removal due to his being found guilty of professional misconduct .

= = = Controversial appointments = = =

The advisory board attempts to remain apolitical and pragmatic in its approach to selecting new members of the Order of Canada , generally operating without input from ministers of the Crown ; political interference has occurred only once , when in 1978 Paul Desmarais 's investiture was delayed for six months by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau . However , some of the committee 's selections have caused controversy . For instance , the admission in 2001 of sex educator Sue Johanson , host of the long @-@ running Sunday Night Sex Show , as a Member stirred controversy among some of Canada 's Christian organizations , as Johanson had taught teenagers methods of safe sex alongside abstinence . Similarly , the acceptance of birth control advocate Elizabeth Bagshaw and gay rights campaigner Brent Hawkes also incited debate .

Abortion activist Henry Morgentaler 's appointment to the order on 1 July 2008 not only marked the first time the Advisory Council had not been unanimous in its decision , but also proved to be one of the most controversial appointments in the order 's history , drawing both praise from abortion rights groups and the ire of Members of Parliament , groups opposing abortion , and religious leaders . The latter organized protests outside of Rideau Hall on 9 July , while compatriots did the same in front of Government House in St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador , the official residence of that province 's lieutenant governor . Several members of the order resigned or returned their insignia .

One former police detective , Frank Chauvin , along with a Catholic anti @-@ abortion activist , filed suit against the Order of Canada Advisory Council , demanding that the minutes of the meeting relating to Morgentaler be made public . The appointment of Morgentaler prompted former Liberal Member of Parliament Clifford Lincoln to write that the workings of the Advisory Council were " mysterious " , citing what he theorized to be inbuilt partiality and conflict of interest as reasons why Margaret Somerville , whom Lincoln had twice nominated to the Advisory Council , was turned down for appointment , yet Morgentaler was accepted . Journalist Henry Aubin in the Montreal Gazette opined that the council 's rejection of Somerville , her personal opposition to same @-@ sex marriage , and the acceptance of Brent Hawkes , Jane Rule , and Jean Chrétien , all regarded as supporting same @-@ sex unions , as well as the appointment of a controversial figure such as Morgentaler , were all signs that the Advisory Council operated with partisan bias . Aubin also pointed to the presence on the council of members of the Royal Society of Canada , an organization into which Somerville was received .

= = Proposed amendments = =

At a 2006 conference on Commonwealth honours , Christopher McCreery , an expert on Canada 's honours , raised the concern that the three grades of the Order of Canada were insufficient to recognize the nation 's very best ; one suggestion was to add two more levels to the order , equivalent to knighthoods in Australian and British orders . The order of precedence also came under scrutiny , particularly the anomaly that all three grades of the Order of Canada supersede the top levels of each of the other orders ( except the Order of Merit ) , contrary to international practice .

In June 2010 , McCreery suggested reforms to the Order of Canada that would avert the awkwardness around appointing those in Canada 's royal family as full members of the order : He theorized that the Queen , as the order 's Sovereign , could simply appoint , on ministerial advice , anyone as an extra member , or the monarch could issue an ordinance allowing for her relations to be made regular members when approved . Similarly , McCreery proposed that a new division of the order could be established specifically for governors general , their spouses , and members of the Royal Family , a version of which was adopted in 2013 .

= = Additional honours = =

At certain periods , holders of the order were presented with other awards , usually commemorative medals . Thus far , two commemoratives have been given automatically to every living member of the Order of Canada : the Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal in 1977 and the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal in 2012 .

= Ontario Highway 403 =

King 's Highway 403 ( pronounced " four @-@ oh @-@ three " ) , or simply Highway 403 , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that travels between Woodstock and Mississauga , branching off from and reuniting with Highway 401 at both ends and travelling south of it through Hamilton and Mississauga . It is concurrent with the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) for 22 km ( 14 mi ) from Burlington to Oakville . Highway 403 is also known as the Chedoke Expressway within Hamilton . Although the Highway 403 designation was first applied in 1963 to a short stub of freeway branching off of the QEW , the entire route was not completed until August 15 , 1997 , when the Brantford to the then @-@ still independent Town of Ancaster section was opened to traffic . The section of Highway 403 between Woodstock and Burlington was formally dedicated as the Alexander Graham Bell Parkway on April 27 , 2016 .

The majority of Highway 403 is surrounded by suburban land use , except west of Ancaster , where it passes through agricultural land ; Brantford is the only urban area through this section . In Hamilton , Highway 403 descends the Niagara Escarpment . It wraps around the northern side of Burlington Bay to encounter the QEW . From there , it travels straight through Burlington and Oakville with the QEW , departing to the north at the Mississauga – Oakville boundary . The freeway then crosses through the centre of Mississauga in an east – west direction , serving its city centre , before turning north . It continues north of Highway 401 as Highway 410 .

= = Route description = =

= = = Woodstock to Burlington = = =

Highway 403 begins at a junction with Highway 401 on the outskirts of Woodstock . The eastbound lanes split from eastbound Highway 401 , whereas the westbound lanes merge into westbound Highway 401 . It travels along the back lot lines of the second concession south of former Highway 2 . It passes beneath Oxford County Road 55 ( formerly Highway 53 ) and curves southeast . After crossing into the third concession , it curves back to the east . The highway travels straight for several kilometres , meeting with the southern leg of Highway 24 , which travels south to Simcoe .

The highway crosses the Grand River to the south of Paris , then passes over former Highway 2 as it enters into Brantford . As it passes through Brantford , the highway angles southeast and passes beneath the northern leg of Highway 24 and then the Wayne Gretzky Parkway . The route exits the small city to the east and curves northeast shortly thereafter . It travels between Jerseyville Road and former Highway 2 to Ancaster , jogging to avoid cutting through Dunmark Lake . As the freeway enters Ancaster , it once again crosses former Highway 2 and dips through the southern side of the town .

East of Ancaster , the freeway passes through a short greenbelt , with Hamilton Golf and Country Club lying to the north . A divided segment of Highway 6 meets the freeway and continues concurrently with it through Hamilton ; to the south , Highway 6 travels to John C. Munro International Airport , Caledonia and Jarvis at Highway 3 . Continuing east , Highway 403 and Highway 6 curve north into Hamilton and meet the Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway before abruptly curving to the east and descending the Niagara Escarpment . Scenic views of Hamilton , its harbour , and Lower Princess Falls are located along this steep descent . At the bottom of the escarpment the highway travels through a narrow , heavily developed corridor alongside former Highway 8 . It passes beneath multiple bridges in a depressed trench , eventually curving north at a sharp corner and passing beneath more bridges . This section features a reduced speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) as opposed to 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The highway returns to ground level alongside the Chedoke Creek , a now @-@ channelized river from which the freeway may take its name .

As the freeway continues north , it crosses an isthmus between Hamilton Harbour and Cootes Paradise alongside several roads which it has served to replace . It circles around the northern shore of Hamilton Harbour and returns to an eastward orientation . The concurrency with Highway 6 ends at an interchange where Highway 403 continues east and Highway 6 travels north towards Guelph . The freeway continues straight for several kilometres and meets the Queen Elizabeth Way and Highway 407 at the Freeman Interchange .

= = = Oakville to Mississauga = = =

Highway 403 travels concurrently with the QEW for 22 @.@ 6 km ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) between Freeman and Oakville , a straight section surrounded almost entirely by commercial units and warehouses . At the Ford Assembly Plant near the Halton – Peel regional boundary , Highway 403 branches off from the QEW and heads north for 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western edge of Mississauga . At that point it again meets Highway 407 . Both freeways interchange , but curve to avoid each other . Highway 407 continues to the north and west , while Highway 403 curves east to follow alongside a hydro corridor through the centre of Mississauga . From this interchange to Highway 401 , high @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lanes are present in the shoulder lanes for vehicles with at least one passenger . Sandwiched between residential subdivisions on both sides , the freeway passes beneath Erin Mills Parkway and crosses the Credit River .

On the other side of the river , the freeway skirts to the north of downtown Mississauga , as well as the Square One Shopping Centre . It passes beneath Hurontario Street ( once a section of Highway 10 ) and begins to widen before abruptly curving to the north as it approaches Cawthra Road . As the curve ends , the freeway widens further into ten lanes . This short section of highway passes beneath Eglinton Avenue and begins to diverge into a sprawling interchange approaching Highway 401 . Access to Highway 410 , which continues northward to Brampton , is provided from the collector lanes .

= = History = =

Highway 403 , although one of the first divided highways conceived for Ontario , is one of the most recently completed freeways in the province ; the multiple segments of the route did not become continuous until 2002 . Planning for the route was underway by 1958 , with the completion of the Freeman Bypass along the QEW providing a three @-@ legged junction for the new freeway . Sections of Highway 403 through Hamilton opened between December 1963 and September 1969 . An isolated section known as the Brantford Bypass was opened in October 1966 , and would remain unconnected to other freeways for over 20 years . Plans for a third segment through Mississauga were contemplated throughout the 1960s , but were not finalized until late 1977 , after which construction began . Portions opened at both ends in 1980 and 1981 , while the central gap , crossing the Credit River , was completed in December 1982 .

Construction to bridge the gaps in Highway 403 between Ancaster and Woodstock was carried out over three major phases . The first phase was a short extension of the Brantford Bypass beginning in 1975 . Later , work began to connect that extension with Highway 401 near Woodstock , opening in 1988 . The last phase , between Ancaster and Brantford , was opened in 1997 . The final discontinuity , between Burlington and Oakville , was signed as a concurrency with the QEW in 2002 . Originally , this section was to have travelled along the corridor occupied by Highway 407 , until budget shortfalls in 1995 resulted in a change of plans .

= = = Predecessors = = =

The corridor that connects London and Hamilton has always been considered important to Ontario . In late October 1793 , Captain Smith and 100 Queen 's Rangers returned from carving The Governor 's Road 32 km ( 20 mi ) through the thick forests between Dundas and the present location of Paris . John Graves Simcoe was tasked with defending Upper Canada from America following the revolution and with opening the virgin territory to settlement . After establishing a " temporary " capital at York , Simcoe ordered an inland route constructed between Cootes Paradise at the tip of Lake Ontario and his proposed capital of London . By the spring of 1794 , the road was extended as far as La Tranche , now the Thames River . Today , most of this route forms part of former Highway 2 and former Highway 5 .

The paving of the divided four @-@ lane Middle Road , with gentle curves , a grass median and grade @-@ separated interchanges , would set the stage for the freeway concept . It was the first intercity freeway in North America when it opened in June 1939 . Thomas McQueston , the new minister of the Department of Highways and the man most responsible for the Middle Road , decided to apply the concept to sections of Highway 2 plagued with congestion . A portion east of Woodstock was rebuilt in this fashion , but World War II would put an end to the ambitions of McQueston , at least temporarily .

= = = Initial construction = = =

The end of the Korean War heralded the resuming of freeway construction in Ontario ; the advances in machinery more than made up for lost time . The construction of Highway 401 across the province took first priority . However , the opening of the section from Highway 4 near London to Highway 2 east of Woodstock on May 31 , 1957 would complete part of the route required between London and Hamilton . By 1958 , planning on the Chedoke Expressway , or Controlled Access Highway 403 was well underway , though plans for a four lane freeway between Woodstock and Hamilton were around as early as 1954 . The opening of the Freeman Bypass of the QEW in August 1958 provided a connection point for a new freeway , and construction began the same day that the Burlington Bay Skyway opened : October 31 , 1958 . Highway 403 between Longwood Road ( Highway 2 ) and the QEW was opened to traffic on December 1 , 1963 at a length of 9 @.@ 0 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) . Work was already underway on the next section of the route that would extend it to Aberdeen Avenue . That section opened on July 9 , 1965 , extending the freeway by 3 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) .

Meanwhile , to the west , work had begun on a bypass of Brantford . The new freeway passed north of the city between Paris Road in the west and the junction of Highway 2 and Highway 53 in the east , a distance of 10 @.@ 3 km ( 6 @.@ 4 mi ) ; it opened October 31 , 1966 . A portion of the Brantford Bypass was itself bypassed in 1997 when the final section of Highway 403 was completed and is known as Garden Avenue . However , the Brantford Bypass would remain an isolated section of Highway 403 for over 20 years .

In Hamilton , work was underway on an extension of the Chedoke Expressway to Mohawk Road , crossing the Niagara Escarpment . This tedious project , which required extensive rock blasting , was soon accompanied by further construction from Mohawk Road to Highway 2 near Ancaster . Both projects were completed together and originally scheduled to be opened with a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony on August 22 , 1969 . However , local residents complained that the new section lacked any barriers preventing children from wandering onto the highway , postponing the ceremony until August 27 as temporary snow fencing was erected . This proved inadequate and protests grew more vocal over the following week . Several petitions were presented to Deputy Highway Minister H. Howden on August 26 , and the ceremonies were promptly cancelled . Over the following week , the Minister of Highways George Gomme met with residents and reached a compromise whereby a 24 – hour patrol was established to watch for children until a proper fence could be constructed . The route was subsequently opened on September 3 , without any ceremony . This completed the Hamilton section of Highway 403 .

= = = Mississauga = = =

Planning for the segment of Highway 403 through Mississauga dates back to the late 1950s when the Hamilton Expressway appeared on the Metropolitan Toronto 's regional transportation plan . It was to be a continuation of the Richview Expressway , which was ultimately never built , continuing from Toronto to Hamilton . The plan featured the expressway 's eastern terminus at the Highway 401 and Highway 427 interchange . As Toronto 's anti @-@ expressway movement gained momentum , provincial plans shifted the Hamilton Expressway to the west near Etobicoke Creek . In 1962 , the right @-@ of @-@ way alongside the hydro corridor between Burlington and Etobicoke Creek was protected after traffic studies indicated the need for a future freeway . On May 25 , 1965 , the Department of Highways unveiled the Toronto Region Western Section Highway Planning Study . The plan designated Highway 403 north from Burlington and then parallel with the QEW to Highway 401 near Highway 27 .

By the time construction was actually underway , plans had been completely modified to connect the overburdened QEW at Oakville with Highway 401 at the new Highway 410 interchange . This interchange was a better connection point for Highway 403 , but would also require the widening of Highway 401 from six lanes to twelve . Plans were submitted and approved in December 1977 by Mississauga city council , and construction began .

The new freeway opened in sections during the early 1980s . The first section between Cawthra Road and Highway 401 was opened August 18 , 1980 . This was followed by a short section from Highway 5 ( Dundas Street ) south to the QEW at Ford Drive , which opened in mid @-@ 1981 . Later that year , an extension to Erin Mills Parkway was opened on November 17 , 1981 . The final section to be opened took the longest to complete , involving construction of two bridges over the Credit River valley ; it opened on December 2 , 1982 . The cost of the entire 22 km ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) Mississauga segment was $ 87 million .

Around the same period , the Ministry of Transportation began to study upgrading Highway 401 to a collector – express system between Renforth Drive and Highway 403 , and along Highway 403 between Highway 401 and Highway 10 . This took place between late 1982 and the summer of 1985 ; the existing outermost ramps from Highway 403 to Highway 401 eastbound were re @-@ designated to serve collector traffic , as a pair of flyover ramps were added inside the interchange to serve motorists in the express lanes .

The right @-@ of @-@ way originally intended for Highway 403 between Cawthra Road and Etobicoke Creek was eventually used for a controlled access arterial extension called Eastgate Parkway , which was planned beginning in 1982 . The extension was built between 1988 and 1994 , incorporating a portion of Fieldgate Drive at the eastern end . The first section , between Cawthra Road and Dixie Road , opened in early 1991 . This was followed several years later by the section from Dixie Road to Eglinton Avenue that opened in late 1994 .

In the fall of 1991 , alongside the widening of Highway 410 into a full freeway , construction began on the connecting ramps between Highway 403 and Highway 410 , which pass under the existing bridge structures for Highway 401 collector traffic , while new overpasses were constructed in the centre for Highway 401 express lanes . The loop ramp from Highway 410 southbound to Highway 401 eastbound was replaced by a semi @-@ directional high @-@ speed flyover , while a new directional ramp and semi @-@ direction flyover were added to serve westbound Highway 401 commuters . Prior to the opening of this link , traffic from both freeways was forced onto eastbound Highway 401 . The 2 @.@ 2 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) link opened on November 2 , 1992 at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 3 million .

= = = Bridging the gaps = = =

In 1975 , construction began on a westward extension of the Brantford Bypass , from Highway 2 ( Paris Road ) to Rest Acres Road , which would become Highway 24 . This work consisted of the twin bridges over the Grand River and an interchange at Rest Acres Road . The Canadian National Railway underpass west of Highway 2 was built by the railway . By the beginning of 1978 , this work was completed . Work resumed west of Highway 24 during the spring of 1982 to connect with Highway 401 near Woodstock in order to relieve the high traffic volumes along Highway 2 . This included interchanges at Brant County Road 25 and Highway 53 . A section from Highway 24 to County Road 25 was opened in November 1984 , followed by the section west of there to Highway 53 one year later . Construction of the gap between Highway 53 and Highway 401 began in late 1985 , followed by the Highway 401 overpass for the westbound lanes , which began in 1987 . Transportation minister Ed Fulton ceremoniously opened the new freeway connection on September 26 , 1988 , completing the Woodstock to Brantford link .

Highway 403 was briefly left with three discontinuous sections : Woodstock – Brantford , Ancaster – Burlington , and Oakville – Mississauga . Between Brantford and Ancaster , traffic was defaulted onto Highway 2 , a four @-@ lane road with numerous private driveways and at @-@ grade intersections . On March 24 , 1987 , Chris Ward , MPP for Wentworth North officially announced that construction of the missing link between Brantford and Ancaster would begin in 1989 . Construction did not actually begin until the summer of 1990 . It included interchanges at Garden Avenue , Highway 52 and Highway 2 . A continuous construction program was carried out over the next seven years , with the link opening on August 15 , 1997 . Highway 2 , which was the only parallel route before the completion of Highway 403 , was subsequently downloaded to regional jurisdiction .

= = = Controversy = = =

Though some officials considered Highway 403 to be a perfect example of a freeway construction process , it was not built without its share of controversy . In addition to the previously mentioned issues that occurred in 1969 , portions of the freeway through Mississauga were built alongside established communities , leading to angry homeowners associations pressuring the province for noise mitigation measures and compensation .

In the late 1980s and early 1990s , the Mississauga section of Highway 403 was the site of more than two dozen fatal accidents over a five @-@ year period , one of the highest rates in North America at the time , despite being up to modern road standards . This led Peel Regional Police and the media to nickname it the ' Death Highway ' . In particular , the stretch from Mavis Road to Erin Mills Parkway has been the site of numerous accidents . Highway 403 features a downward slope as motorists head eastbound towards the Mavis Road interchange ; drivers complain of having to slam the brakes when traffic comes to a standstill , leading to rear @-@ end collisions . There is also glare from the sun that causes vision problems throughout the day .

= = = Recent construction = = =

The Hamilton @-@ Brantford and Mississauga sections of Highway 403 were initially planned to be linked up along the corridor that is now occupied by Highway 407 . However , these plans were altered by the Bob Rae government in 1995 , due to budgetary constraints . It was also announced that the Mississauga section of Highway 403 would be renumbered as Highway 410 . Ultimately , this never came to pass . Consequently , Highway 403 was signed concurrently along the Queen Elizabeth Way in 2002 , remedying the discontinuity .

In early 2001 , high @-@ mast lighting was scheduled to be added to the previously unlit Mississauga section between Highway 407 and Eastgate Parkway . In 2003 , the right shoulders between Erin Mills Parkway and Mavis Road were widened for GO Transit and Mississauga Transit to run express bus services . These projects preceded the widening of Highway 403 between Highway 407 and Highway 401 / 410 , through which a high @-@ occupancy vehicle ( HOV ) lane was added in each direction ; the project started in summer of 2004 and these opened on December 13 , 2005 . The HOV lanes and the dividing Ontario Tall Wall concrete barrier were constructed using the existing right @-@ of @-@ way provided by the grass median . Highway 403 between Woodstock and Burlington was formally dedicated as the Alexander Graham Bell Parkway on April 27 , 2016 .

Sufficient right @-@ of @-@ way exists at the Highway 401 / 403 / 410 junction for a loop ramp from Highway 403 eastbound to Highway 401 westbound , and a directional ramp for the opposite movement . This would give Highway 401 eastbound traffic direct access to Cawthra Road , making it a full four @-@ way interchange . These links are to be completed as Highway 401 is widened to a 12 @-@ lane collector @-@ express system west of the interchange .

= = Exit list = =

The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 403 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .

= Viewing Party =

" Viewing Party " is the eighth episode of seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 134th episode overall . Written by Jon Vitti and directed by Ken Whittingham , the episode aired on NBC in the United States on November 11 , 2010 .

The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) invite the office over to Gabe 's house for a Glee viewing party . Michael Scott cannot handle the fact that the office workers think of Gabe as their boss instead of him . Growing more jealous of Gabe and Erin 's relationship , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) goes to extremes in order to impress her . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) helps Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) with Cece , much to her husband Jim 's chagrin .

The episode featured several direct references to the Fox series Glee , in addition to various other cultural references . " Viewing Party " was viewed by 7 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 6 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a decrease in the ratings when compared to the previous week . The episode was also the highest @-@ ranked NBC series of the night , and it received moderately positive reviews from critics with one main detractor ; many reviewers enjoyed the character interaction and development , although Alan Sepinwall derided the entry for being dull .

= = Plot = =

Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) becomes frustrated when Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) refers to Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) as his boss . Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) and Gabe invite the office over to Gabe 's house for a Glee viewing party . When the show starts , Michael and Gabe get into an argument over how high the volume should be . After taking turns raising and lowering the volume , Michael retreats to Gabe 's bedroom , hoping that his employees will follow him there . Meanwhile , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) has been having a hard time with getting her daughter Cece to go to sleep at night , so Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) picks her up to try to calm her down . Pam is stunned that Cece becomes completely quiet in Dwight 's hands .

Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) changes the channel from the Glee episode so he can check sports scores . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) asks Jim to change the channel back to Glee , but discovers that Erin had neglected to record the episode . To avoid his co @-@ workers ' anger , Jim goes into the bedroom to see Dwight holding a sleeping Cece . Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) comes in and demands that Dwight meet her outside for fulfillment of their sex contract . Determined to put an end to Cece 's " reverse cycling " , Pam persuades Dwight to stay with the baby under the condition that Jim feeds Dwight pizza and beer while Pam goes outside to tell Angela that Dwight cannot see her .

Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) is growing increasingly jealous of Gabe 's relationship with Erin . While observing Gabe 's room , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) tells him that a Chinese virility supplement that Gabe keeps in his room is incredibly potent . Once alone Andy drinks the entire bottle of the supplement , which makes him intoxicated , prompting him to admit his jealousy to Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) . Phyllis volunteers to talk to Erin and find out if she is having sex with Gabe , but as Phyllis is fairly intoxicated herself , her inquiries segue into an explicit account of her sexual experiences with her husband Bob , which mortifies Erin . Andy 's intoxication turns into sickness , and he ultimately retreats to Gabe 's room and vomits on the bed .

Becoming irritated that no one joined in him in walking out on Gabe , Michael goes outside and pulls the cable connection , causing it to turn off . Hysteria erupts , and Michael becomes self @-@ conscious over the commotion he has caused . He goes outside to fix the cable . There he is discovered by Erin , who throughout the evening has been trying to encourage Michael to bond with Gabe . Michael , still indignant over the idea that his office views Gabe as his boss , is initially irritated by her efforts , but eventually realizes that Erin views him as a father figure . He jokes around and tells her to go to her room , leading to a bonding moment between the two . As he leaves the party , Michael brings Gabe into the joke by threatening to kill him if he breaks Erin 's heart .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by Jon Vitti , a long @-@ time writer of The Simpsons . It was his first writing credit for The Office after joining the staff the show in the seventh season as a consulting producer . It was directed by Ken Whittingham , who has directed several episodes of The Office previously .

The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Gabe inviting Stanley to his party and Stanley 's reaction , Michael making fun of Gabe and then noting in a talking head that he does not really know Gabe , Michael raiding Gabe 's kitchen cabinet for additional items to add to his pizza , Michael comparing himself to Tom Hanks in the 1988 film Big and Gabe to Hanks in the 1993 film Philadelphia , Michael trying his pizza , only to spit it out , and Pam and Jim marveling at CeCe sleeping .

= = Cultural references = =

Gabe compares the Scranton Strangler to the Waco siege ; Erin incorrectly believes he is mispronouncing " wacko " . Jim notes that the Scranton Strangler car chase , witnessed in the episode 's cold opening , is on the same level as " Balloon Boy " and Michael Jackson 's funeral . The Glee episode viewed during the party was the season two episode " Duets " . When turning up the volume at the party , he comments , " Turn it up to eleven . Spinal Cord " , an obvious mis @-@ reference to This Is Spinal Tap . Michael comments that his favorite character on Glee is " the invalid " , a reference to character Artie Abrams . Abrams is played by Kevin McHale . McHale appeared in the season four episode of The Office , " Launch Party " , as the pizza delivery boy .

= = Reception = =

" Viewing Party " aired on NBC on November 11 , 2010 . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 15 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 6 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that 3 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old households watched the episode , and ten percent of that demographic had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The Baltimore NBC affiliate carried the Ravens / Falcons NFL game , so ratings for the regular Thursday NBC programming were lower than usual .

Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " . He compared it to the earlier seventh season episode " Sex Ed " , writing that both featured " a Michael story wherein a large collection of unfortunate behaviors is capped off with a moment of sincerity " ; however , McNutt criticized this narrative structure , calling it " a bit cheap " . Despite this , he felt that Dwight 's subplot " was successful in that it strayed true to the office dynamic " , and that the actual viewing of the Glee episode was a " highlight " because it showcased the characters " fall [ ing ] into some really fun ( and familiar tropes . " Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , and called it " a solid episode " . She argued that " it left me wanting to tune in next week and see what ’ ll happen next " , largely because of the " surprising " amount of character development .

Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars . He was complimentary towards the main plot , and he felt empathy towards Michael because he felt that " Gabe is the absolute worst " . In addition , Forcella wrote that Pam and Jim 's subplot " had its moments , as well " , and called the scene featuring Jim feeding Dwight pizza " fantastic " . Not all reviews were glowing , however . Alan Sepinwall gave the episode a critical review , calling it " dreadful " . Although he said it was better than " Christening " , he felt that " so , so much of the episode didn 't work " . Sepinwall felt that the major problem with the episode was that it was " lifeless " and " light on jokes " , and only featured " Michael being petulant and crabby for a whole episode " , rather than featuring him in a character study . He concluded that " Ellie Kemper and Steve Carell almost were able to save the episode in the closing moments with Erin 's reaction to Michael declaring that he 's not her father , [ but ] it came far too late in an episode that was more concerned with Andy vomit humor . "

= Bart Gets an " F " =

" Bart Gets an " F " " is the first episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 11 , 1990 . In the episode , Bart fails four consecutive history exams and the school psychiatrist recommends that Bart repeat the fourth grade . Bart vows that he will start to do better and attempts to get the resident class genius Martin Prince to help him , but after that backfires , Bart prays for help . That night , Springfield is hit with a massive blizzard and the school is closed , giving Bart another day to study .

The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by David Silverman . Mayor Quimby makes his first appearance and the episode was the first to feature a new opening sequence . " Bart Gets an " F " " was the third episode produced for the second season , but it was chosen to be the season premiere because it prominently featured Bart.

Due to the success of the first season of The Simpsons , Fox decided to switch the show 's time slot to Thursday at 8 : 00 p.m. EST where it would air opposite of NBC 's The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . Through the summer , several news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry and heavily hyped the first episode of the second season . Several critics predicted that " Bart Gets an " F " " would do considerably worse in the ratings than The Cosby Show . However , the final Nielsen rating for the episode was 18 @.@ 4 and a 29 % share of the audience , finishing second in its time slot behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating and 29 % share . It finished eighth in the weekly ratings , but was watched by an estimated 33 @.@ 6 million viewers , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week . It became the highest rated and most watched program in the history of the Fox Network and remained in that position until January 1 , 1995 . As of 2016 it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons .

The episode has received positive reviews from television critics and was ranked 31st on Entertainment Weekly 's 1999 list of " The 100 Greatest Moments in Television " .

= = Plot = =

Bart presents a book report at Springfield Elementary School on Treasure Island , but it is blatantly obvious he did not read the book . After school , Mrs. Krabappel tells Bart his grades have steadily gotten worse and warns him about an upcoming exam on Colonial America , but Bart does not pay attention , and puts off studying . The next day at school , Bart feigns illness and that night , Lisa warns Bart he cannot evade his responsibilities forever , but Bart calls Milhouse for the test answers . After school the next day , an overconfident Bart hands in his test , only to get a poor score that is even worse than Milhouse 's substandard test and have Mrs. Krabappel take remedial action .

Homer and Marge are called in to meet with Mrs. Krabappel and school psychiatrist Dr. J. Loren Pryor . Dr. Pryor says that Bart is an underachiever and recommends that he should repeat the fourth @-@ grade . Homer and Marge consider that holding Bart back might not be such a bad idea . However , Bart is against this idea , and vows that he will start to do better and will pass . Left with little time to study on his own , Bart prays to God and asks that something miraculous happen to make him miss school the next day so he can have more time to study . That night , Springfield is hit with a massive blizzard , and the schools are closed .

After receiving word of the school closures , Bart prepares for a fun snow day . However , Lisa reminds him of his prayer , and Bart decides to make good with God by studying while everyone is outside having fun . The next day , he finishes the test and asks Mrs. Krabappel to grade it immediately . She does so , and tells him that he gets a 59 , failing by just one point . However , Bart becomes upset at having failed despite all his efforts . Mrs Krabappel is initially stunned and tries to console him but Bart when compares his failure to George Washington 's surrender of Fort Necessity to the French in 1754 , Mrs. Krabappel is impressed at this obscure historical reference , realizes that Bart has put more effort and gives him an extra point for demonstrating applied knowledge , pushing his grade up to a D minus , enough to pass . Proud without thinking , Bart runs throughout Springfield , exclaiming to people that he actually passed .

= = Production = =

" Bart Gets an " F " " was the first episode of The Simpsons to be written by David M. Stern . It was directed by David Silverman . Over the summer of 1990 , Bart 's rebellious nature was characterized by some parents and conservatives as a poor role model for children while several American public schools banned T @-@ shirts featuring Bart next to captions such as " I 'm Bart Simpson . Who the hell are you ? " and " Underachiever ( ' And proud of it , man ! ' ) " Several critics thought that the episode was a response to these controversies . However , executive producer James L. Brooks responded that it was not , but added , " we 're mindful of it . I do think it 's important for us that Bart does badly in school . There are students like that . Besides , I 'm very wary of television where everybody is supposed to be a role model . You don 't run across that many role models in real life . Why should television be full of them ? " Sam Simon commented that " there are themes to the shows we did last year , important themes , I think it 's a tribute to how well we executed them that nobody realized we had a point . Bart says " Cowabunga " for the second time ( the first time being in " The Telltale Head " ) , which was commonly associated with Bart through its use as a T @-@ shirt slogan . Mayor Quimby makes his first appearance in this episode , without his trademark sash that says " Mayor " . The sash was later added because the writers feared that viewers would not recognize him .

The episode was the first to feature a new opening sequence , which was shortened by fifteen seconds from its original length of roughly 1 minute , 30 seconds . The opening sequence for the first season showed Bart stealing a " Bus Stop " sign ; whilst the new sequence featured him skateboarding past several characters who had been introduced during the previous season . Starting with this season , there were three versions of the opening : a full roughly 1 minute 15 second long version , a 45 @-@ second version and a 25 @-@ second version . This gave the show 's editors more leeway . David Silverman believes that the animators began to " come into their own " as they had gotten used to the characters and were able to achieve more with character acting . During the scene where Bart delivers a speech where he states he is " dumb as a post " , Silverman wanted to cut from several angles very quickly to give a sense of anxiety . Martin Prince 's design was changed several times during the episode . There was a different model that had larger eyes and wilder hair designed for the scene where Martin betrays Bart and runs off . Silverman describes the " Snow Day " sequence as one of the hardest things he ever had to animate . It features several long pans which shows many different characters engaging in various activities and was difficult to time correctly . Bart 's fantasy where he sees the founding fathers of the United States uses muted colors and variations of red , white and blue . Silverman also had to work hard to make Bart cry without making his design look too off @-@ putting , and this is the reason why he was shown covering his face with a piece of paper .

= = First broadcast = =

= = = Move to Thursday = = =

The first season of The Simpsons had finished as high as 4th in the weekly ratings and was the Fox network 's first series to rank among a season 's top 30 highest @-@ rated shows and Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed " Bartmania " . Due to the success of the first season of the show , the Fox Network decided to switch The Simpsons ' timeslot in hopes that it would steal ratings from NBC 's " powerhouse " line up , generate more advertising revenue , and result in higher ratings for Beverly Hills , 90210 and Babes , which would follow the show . The show was moved from its from 8 : 00 p.m. EST Sunday night slot to the same time on Thursday , where it would compete with NBC 's The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . Many of the producers of The Simpsons , including James L. Brooks , were against the move . The show had been in the top 10 while airing on Sunday and they felt the move would destroy its ratings . He commented that " Suddenly a show that was a hit is fighting for its survival , [ ... ] We 're not fighting ' Cosby , ' we just want to get healthy ratings . There have been two weeks in my life when a show I was associated with was number one in the ratings , and on Sunday night , we had a chance to be the number one show in the country . I don 't think we have a chance on Thursday night . "

" Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " was the first episode produced for the season , but " Bart Gets an " F " " aired first because Bart was popular at the time and the producers had wanted to premiere with an episode involving him . It aired opposite the fourth episode of the seventh season of The Cosby Show titled " Period of Adjustment " , which saw the addition of Erika Alexander to the cast . The first 13 episodes of The Simpsons had been rerun several times through the summer , and Fox heavily promoted the first new episode since May , and news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry .

= = = Nielsen rating = = =

Reruns of The Simpsons which aired in the Thursday time slot against new episodes of The Cosby Show were ranked as low as 73rd in the weekly ratings ( compared with third place for The Cosby Show ) . Several critics predicted that " Bart Gets an " F " " would do considerably worse in the ratings than The Cosby Show . Greg Dawson of the Orlando Sentinel wrote that he would " bet dollars to plain @-@ cake doughnuts ( a Homer pet peeve ) that even a fresh Simpsons won 't come within five rating points of Cosby , which could get a 30 share in a power blackout . " Fox executive Peter Chernin said that they were hoping to establish a foothold on Thursday night and that " if we 're really lucky and very fortunate , we 're going to come in second place . "

Early overnight ratings figures for the original broadcast of the episode in 24 cities projected that The Simpsons had a 19 @.@ 9 Nielsen Rating and 30 % share of the audience while The Cosby Show had a 19 @.@ 3 Nielsen Rating and 29 % share . However , the final rating for " Bart Gets an " F " " was an 18 @.@ 4 and a 29 % share of the audience , finishing second in its time slot behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating and 29 % share . At the time , NBC had 208 television stations , while Fox only had 133 . It finished eighth in the weekly ratings , tied with Who 's the Boss ? , while The Cosby Show finished seventh . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 33 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week ( The Cosby Show was watched by 28 @.@ 5 million , finished seventh ) . It became the highest rated and most watched program in the history of the Fox Network . It remained in that position until January 1 , 1995 , when a National Football League playoff game between the Minnesota Vikings and Chicago Bears achieved a Nielsen Rating of 21 @.@ 0 . As of 2016 it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons .

= = Cultural references = =

Bart 's slapdash book report was on the Robert Louis Stevenson novel Treasure Island , while Martin presents Ernest Hemingway 's The Old Man and the Sea . Later on , Martin makes remarks about the forecastle of the Pequod in reference to Moby Dick .

During " Snow Day " , the citizens of Springfield sing " Winter Wonderland " .

The scene where everyone in Springfield gathers around the town circle , holds hands and begins singing is a reference to How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! .

" Hallelujah " , the chorus from George Frideric Handel 's Messiah , can be heard when it starts snowing .

In Bart 's fantasy of the improbable snowing on the 4th of July , he imagines Benjamin Franklin proclaiming he has invented the " First Ever Sled " , on which it is painted " Don 't Sled on Me " , an obvious reference to the Don 't Tread on Me banner .

= = Reception = =

The episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " A cracking opener to the second season - especially memorable for the sequence in which Bart prays for school to be cancelled the following day only to find himself exiled from the ensuing winter wonderland . " Virginia Mann of The Record felt that it was " not as wildly funny as last season 's best episodes , [ but still ] well @-@ done , humorous , and , at times , poignant . " The episode was praised for its emotional scenes . Tom Shales wrote that the episode is " not only funny , it 's touching " and praised it for its scenes where Bart prays , writing " There are few if any other entertainment shows on television that get into philosophical matters even this deeply . The Simpsons can be as thoughtful as a furrow @-@ browed Bill Moyers pontification - yet infinitely more amusing . " Hal Boedeker of The Miami Herald felt that it " pulls off a finale that 's thoughtful without being preachy , tender without being sappy . Despite the tears , the show keeps its edge . And the way TV usually smears on the schmaltz , that 's quite an achievement . " Phil Kloer of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution wrote " The episode does a good job of emphasizing the importance of studying without getting gooky . For all the talk about the anarchy of " The Simpsons , " the show sometimes has smuggled in an occasional message , as it does again . " In his book The Gospel According to the Simpsons , Mark I. Pinsky writes that " Bart Gets an " F " " offers the most detailed portrayal of the dynamic of prayer on The Simpsons . " Steve L. Case later included the episode in his book Toons That Teach , a list of 75 cartoons that help teach biblical lessons . Internet comedian , Doug Walker , considers the episode to be the best of the entire series because he found it to be the most dramatic , funny , realistic , and relatable .

The episode was ranked 31st on Entertainment Weekly 's list of " The 100 Greatest Moments in Television " , writing that it " stands as classic irreverent family TV " . In 2007 , Larina Adamson , a supervising producer on The Simpsons , named " Bart Gets an ' F ' " as her favorite episode of the series . In 2010 BBC named " Bart Gets an " F " " as one of the ten most memorable episodes of the show , calling it " insightful and poignant " .

= MediEvil : Resurrection =

MediEvil : Resurrection is a 2005 Gothic action @-@ adventure video game developed by SCE Cambridge Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation Portable . It is a re @-@ imagining of the first instalment in the series , MediEvil . It was first released as a launch title on 1 September 2005 in Europe and 13 September 2005 in North America . It was also re @-@ released for the PlayStation Network in 2008 . The game is set in the medieval Kingdom of Gallowmere and centres around the charlatan protagonist , Sir Daniel Fortesque , as he makes an attempt to stop antagonist Zarok 's invasion of the kingdom whilst simultaneously redeeming himself . The game also features a variety of voice talents , including Tom Baker as the narrator and the Grim Reaper .

Development of the game began in 2003 with the original intention of releasing the game for the PlayStation 2 . Sony Computer Entertainment Europe commissioned SCE Cambridge Studio to develop a launch title for the PlayStation Portable . Due to time constraints , the Cambridge studio was given only a year to develop the game , thus they decided to remake the original MediEvil . The game was met with mixed reviews upon release , with critics mainly praising the game 's humour , voice talent and graphics but was criticised for lack of innovation and cumbersome camera controls .

= = Gameplay = =

Gameplay is similar to that of the original game in which players control Sir Daniel Fortesque as he travels through Gallowmere to stop the evil Zarok . Dan can utilise a variety of weapons , including close range weapons such as swords and axes to long ranged weapons such as throwing knives and crossbows . If Dan defeats enough enemies to collect the Chalice of Souls hidden throughout each level , he will be able to travel to the Hall of Heroes , where a legendary hero rewards him by giving him a new weapon or other helpful items . Dan possesses a single life bar throughout the game , which can be sustained by collecting Life Bottles throughout the game which can be replenished by energy vials and Life Fountains . The remastered version also includes some exclusive arcade @-@ style minigames which can also be played over online multiplayer .

MediEvil : Resurrection features many alterations to the original structure and content , such as the addition of the " Anubis Stone " sub @-@ plot which has never appeared in the original . Various levels and characters designs are altered drastically from the original , with some levels removed altogether . Resurrection 's altered plot is given a much more humorous and light @-@ hearted setting as opposed to the Gothic horror @-@ comedy of the first instalment . Unlike the original , there is no alternate ending ; Dan still enters eternal slumber regardless of whether he collects all of the chalices .

= = Plot = =

In the year 1286 , an evil sorcerer named Zarok plotted to take over the kingdom of Gallowmere with his undead army . It is told in legend that the King of Gallowmere 's champion , Sir Daniel Fortesque , led his army to victory and managed to kill Zarok before succumbing to his mortal wounds . In reality however , Dan was in fact struck down by the first arrow fired in the battle , with the king choosing to cover it up and declare Dan the " Hero of Gallowmere " . Zarok , meanwhile , was forced into hiding and was presumed dead . 100 years later , in 1386 , Zarok reappears , casting a spell over Gallowmere to awake his undead army and steal the souls of the living . However , in the process , he unwittingly revives the corpse of Dan , who has over time become a skeletal corpse , missing his jaw and the eye he lost in the battle of Gallowmere . Shortly after waking up , Dan is accompanied by Al @-@ Zalam , a genie whose powers were robbed by Zarok . Having been unable to ascend to the Hall of Heroes due to his failures in life , Dan uses this opportunity to defeat Zarok , save Gallowmere and earn his place as a true hero .

As Dan travels across Gallowmere , collecting pieces of an artefact called the ' Anubis Stone ' along the way , fighting his way through Zarok 's hordes and confronting all manners of beasts , he soon arrives at Zarok 's lair , fighting off Zarok 's skeletal warriors using the souls of his old allies retrieved by collecting the Chalices . After also managing to defeat Zarok 's champion , Lord Kardok , Zarok turns into a powerful monster , but Dan manages to defeat him . As Zarok sets his lair to self @-@ destruct , Dan is rescued by Al @-@ Zalam and the two escape , leaving Zarok 's magical influence over the land thwarted . With the magic cast on him also wearing off as a result , Dan returns to his burial chamber where he once again enters eternal slumber .

= = Development = =

Development of MediEvil : Resurrection began in 2003 at SCE Cambridge Studio . The senior management team of Sony Computer Entertainment Europe wanted a launch game for the PlayStation Portable console and ordered the studio to develop the game in time for the console 's release . Due to the short notice , the studio was given only a year to develop a game , thus it was decided that a remake of the original MediEvil would be suitable as developing an original title would take more time to develop .

Despite the success of the previous games in the MediEvil series , only three original team members were involved in the making of MediEvil : Resurrection . Chris Sorrell , the creator of MediEvil , stressed in a retrospective interview that he would have preferred to direct Resurrection if he was not at the time instructed to direct the video @-@ game adaptation of 24 . Since the release of Resurrection , Sorrell expressed disappointment with the changes made to the game and the fact that his superiors did not allow him to direct it , but praised the team 's ability for working under a time constraint . Piers Jackson was instead appointed as the producer for Resurrection . He directed the overall development of the title , working closely with a new design team led by Dominic Cahalin . Mitch Phillips , who was the character animator for the previous two instalments , was appointed as lead artist for the game . Phillips , along with Paul Arnold and Andrew Barnabas , the musical duo more commonly known as " Bob & Barn " , who composed the original soundtrack for MediEvil , were the only people from the original team to return .

According to Piers Jackson , the thrust of the design was to produce a title that could showcase the full abilities of the PlayStation Portable , including its built @-@ in Wi @-@ Fi capabilities . Jackson also asserted that Resurrection was an entirely different game from the original ; whilst the studio had taken the basic story and some of the locations from the original game , all the code , graphics and voice actors were changed . New additions to Resurrection included an expanded plot , added mini @-@ games , multiplayer facilities and a cloud save function . During late stages of development , the studio attempted to preserve ideas that they thought worked well in the original , though their uses were altered or repositioned to keep the game fresh even to those who had played the original . The addition of the ' Anubis Stone ' sub @-@ plot was to strengthen the story arc and the creation of Al @-@ Zalam was to act as Dan 's internal monologue as well as the player 's guide .

= = = Music = = =

The soundtrack in Resurrection is orchestrated , unlike the first instalment . Approximately half of the themes from the original were removed while new themes were created to fit with the new levels . The music is split into two halves ; the cues from the first half are largely reminiscent of a select number of cues from the original game with the addition of extra thematic elements to strengthen them . The other half of the music is original and composed exclusively for Resurrection . The new soundtrack was composed by Bob & Barn and features performances from members of the City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra that was recorded in the Czech Republic . The orchestra , headed by Nic Raine , consisted of approximately 80 performers and in addition benefits from a 32 piece choir , also recorded in the same venue . This follows the tradition of SCE Cambridge Studio 's previous orchestral game Primal , which was also recorded in Prague by the same performers .

= = Reception = =

MediEvil : Resurrection received mixed reviews upon release . It received an aggregate score of 69 % from GameRankings and a score of 66 from Metacritic . General criticisms from reviewers were directed at the camera controls , which was cited as being particularly poor during combat sequences , and occasionally being the cause for frame rate drops . Jason Allen of IGN noted that the camera angles were " not as bad " during open areas of the game , but became " rather clumsy in the middle of a heated battle " . Kristan Reed of Eurogamer expressed similar concerns with the camera work , stating that the camera was " sloppy " and that it proved particularly difficult during combat , when enemies were to suddenly appear off screen .

The combat was also criticised for its poor hit detection . Greg Mueller of GameSpot noted that the poor collision detection turned most of the combat sequences to a " frustrating and tedious " experience . Reed similarly criticised the combat system , citing that the system is " unremarkable on the basic level " and was disappointed with the lack of technical additions to the game . Allen also expressed concern with the fighting mechanics , stating that every melee attack was inaccurate and " clumsy " , combined with cumbersome camera work .

The graphics and voice talent were the most praised aspects of the game , especially Tom Baker 's role as the narrator and Grim Reaper . Mueller praised the soundtrack and dialogue , stating that the best part of the game " is easily the sound " , and that the voice of any character fits their role " perfectly " , making them more interesting than " the average voice @-@ over " . Reed also praised Baker 's role in the game , stating that voice @-@ overs and audio were the most enjoyable experiences in Resurrection , also citing that Baker 's voice performance was " majestic " and " eccentric " . Chris Scantleberry of GameSpy felt that the overall dialogue was heavy on the stereotypical accent , but was assured that players would enjoy the " electric atmosphere " of MediEvil , which he often compared to that of Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas .

Chris Sorrell and Jason Wilson , co @-@ creators of MediEvil , had also expressed disappointment with the game . Neither of them had any involvement with MediEvil : Resurrection , and when they were asked about the game during a retrospective interview with RetroGamer , Wilson felt disheartened with having to watch something he " cherished " to be altered with decisions he thought were " questionable " . Sorrell felt similar disappointment in the redesign of the game and there were a number of aspects of it that he disagreed with . He did , however , praise the development team of Resurrection , stating that they did " an awesome job " considering the time constraints they were up against .

= Infamous Second Son =

Infamous Second Son ( stylized as inFAMOUS Second Son ) is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Sucker Punch Productions and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 4 . The game was released worldwide on March 21 , 2014 . Like in previous Infamous games , the player @-@ controlled protagonist possesses superpower abilities that players use in combat and when traveling across the city . The story follows protagonist Delsin Rowe fighting the Department of Unified Protection ( D.U.P. ) in a fictionalized Seattle . Over the course of the game , Delsin acquires new powers and becomes either good or evil as player choices influence his morality .

Sucker Punch began planning the game as early as 2010 , when they began discussion with Sony to bring the Infamous series onto a new generation of hardware . They provided feedback to Sony on what hardware evolutions they would like to see on the PlayStation 4 system . Second Son was considered a fresh start for the series because it features a new protagonist . Delsin Rowe 's superpowers were designed to feel fluid and suited to the open world design .

Infamous Second Son was met with generally positive reviews ; critics praised its gameplay , dynamic combat , visuals and design , while criticism was aimed at the game 's morality system , which some found to be dated and binary , as well as the game 's repetitive side missions . The story was met with a mixed response , with some critics finding the narrative and characters to be a step backwards from previous installments in the series , while others viewing the writing as an improvement over its predecessors . Infamous Second Son was a commercial success , and sold over a million copies within nine days , making it the fastest @-@ selling entry within the Infamous franchise .

= = Gameplay = =

In Infamous Second Son , players control the main character Delsin Rowe from a third @-@ person perspective and freely roam open world Seattle . Players parkour @-@ style climb vertical surfaces like high @-@ rise buildings . Delsin is a Conduit , which allows him to use superpower abilities by manipulating materials such as smoke , neon , video , and concrete . These materials can be weaponized ( such that Delsin can perform melee attacks or fire projectiles from his fingertips ) or used to deftly navigate the game world ( such as using neon to dash up buildings ) . Using powers depletes a meter in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) , which can be replenished by drawing from power sources such as smoke from exploded vehicles . Delsin earns new powers as he progresses through the story , which sees him fight against the Department of Unified Protection ( D.U.P. ) during missions . Each time Delsin gains a new power set he must destroy mobile D.U.P. command centers to learn the basic abilities that correspond to it . Delsin upgrades and acquires new abilities by spending Blast Shards that have been collected , they are scattered throughout Seattle . Players become more powerful in combat by expanding Delsin 's suite of abilities .

Players may choose to act in either a good or evil way . Examples including healing civilians , doing drug busts , and stopping suspect brutality for good , or killing civilians , obliterating enemies and completing missions with evil karma for bad . Several times throughout the story , Delsin finds himself in a scenario where he must make a good or evil choice , such as whether to encourage Conduit vigilante Abigail " Fetch " Walker to stop slaying drug dealers , or to train her to become a more prolific killer . Player choices influence outcomes in some later missions . In combat , Delsin may use his abilities to incapacitate foes or obliterate them with headshots . He may choose to open fire on innocent civilians . Delsin 's choices manifest in a logo displayed on his jacket and the HUD , which features a blue ( good ) and red ( evil ) bird . Performing actions that are villainous gradually change the logo so that the red bird dominates the other , with the opposite happening with heroism . This is a visual representation of Delsin 's Karma level , that increases as good or evil depending on his choices . As his Karma level increases , Delsin can acquire new powers that correspond to his play @-@ style ( e.g. very destructive powers with high levels of evil Karma ) and his jacket also changes . If you have good karma , the jacket completely changes white whereas if evil the jacket turns red . A continual streak of either good or evil actions fills up a bar in the HUD , which then lets Delsin perform a powerful finishing move called a Karma Bomb .

When not completing story missions , players can explore the city and complete activities such as tagging graffiti spots or assassinating D.U.P. secret agents . The city is split into districts that are all initially controlled by the D.U.P. , but Delsin gradually liberates each district by completing activities . When D.U.P. control of a district falls below 30 percent , Delsin can enter a District Showdown that requires him to eliminate a wave of D.U.P. forces , eradicating D.U.P. presence there .

= = Plot = =

= = = Setting and characters = = =

Second Son takes place in 2016 , seven years after Infamous 2 's Conduit protagonist Cole MacGrath sacrifices himself to cure humanity of a plague and destroy The Beast . Cole uses the powerful Ray Field Inhibitor weapon , which kills him and most of the other Conduits . The United States government establishes the D.U.P. to hunt down and capture the world 's remaining Conduits , dubbing Conduits with the pejorative " Bio @-@ Terrorists " . The protagonist is Delsin Rowe ( Troy Baker ) , a graffiti artist and the local delinquent of the Akomish reservation . Delsin has the unique Conduit ability of Power Absorption , allowing him to use other Conduits ' powers . His brother , Reggie ( Travis Willingham ) , is the local sheriff , and often arrests Delsin for his acts of vandalism . Both are Akomish Native Americans , whose territory lies at the shore of Salmon Bay , Washington . The antagonist is Brooke Augustine ( Christine Dunford ) , the director of the D.U.P. and a Conduit with power over Concrete . Her actions in the Akomish reservation drive Delsin to travel to Seattle , now under lockdown by D.U.P. forces . Delsin and Reggie encounter three other Conduits : Henry " Hank " Daughtry ( David Stanbra ) , a convict with control over Smoke ; Abigail " Fetch " Walker ( Laura Bailey ) , an ex @-@ junkie who uses her Neon powers to hunt down the illegal drug dealers in Seattle ; and Eugene Sims ( Alex Walsh ) , a reclusive video gamer who uses his Video ( digital materialization ) powers to save suspected Conduits from the D.U.P.

= = = Story = = =

After Reggie catches Delsin vandalizing a billboard , their subsequent argument is interrupted when a military truck carrying three Conduit prisoners crashes on the Akomish reservation . Two of the Conduits escape . Delsin pulls the third , Hank , out of the wreckage , and inadvertently absorbs his smoke powers . Shocked and frightened , Delsin pursues Hank in an effort to figure out what has happened and how to control his powers . However , they are both cornered by Brooke Augustine . She encases Hank in concrete and questions Delsin , suspecting him of hiding something . Delsin can choose to either tell Augustine the truth about his powers or reveal nothing . Regardless , Augustine renders him unconscious before moving on to the other tribe members .

Delsin awakens a week later and discovers that Augustine has tortured the rest of the tribe in an unsuccessful bid to gain information . However , she has left them to gradually die from concrete shards buried into their bodies , including their leader Betty ( Karen Austin ) . Reggie , who was spared from the torture , learns that the only way to remove the shards is to use Augustine 's power on them . Delsin realizes that he can absorb Conduit powers and resolves to go to Seattle to take Augustine 's powers and save the tribe . Reggie reluctantly accompanies Delsin to keep an eye on him . They reach Seattle and find that it has been put under strict martial law by the D.U.P. in order to find the other escaped Conduits . With Reggie 's help , Delsin battles D.U.P. forces and tracks down core fragments to develop his powers . He eventually encounters the other two escaped Conduits , Fetch and Eugene , and absorbs their powers . After both confrontations , Delsin defends the Conduits from Reggie , who initially views them as " freaks " , and can choose to either redeem or corrupt them .

Now possessing three powers , Delsin encounters Hank , who has escaped again . Hank tells Delsin that Fetch and Eugene have been captured by the D.U.P. , and are being held on an artificial concrete island in Puget Sound . However , the situation turns out to be a trap set by Augustine . Reggie appears and rescues Delsin with a rocket launcher . While the brothers free Fetch and Eugene , Augustine encases Reggie 's feet in concrete and blasts them off the platform . As they dangle above the ocean , Reggie realizes that Delsin cannot save both of them , tells him that he is proud of him , and lets Delsin 's hand go and falls to his death . Distraught and enraged , Delsin climbs back up onto the platform and battles Augustine , destroying the entire island .

Augustine flees back to the D.U.P. headquarters . Delsin tracks Hank down to the docks , where he is fleeing from D.U.P. forces . Hank begs for forgiveness , saying that he only worked with Augustine because she threatened to hurt his daughter . Delsin can choose to either kill Hank , or let him escape Seattle with his daughter . Aided by Fetch and Eugene , Delsin rallies an assault on the D.U.P. headquarters . After breaking through the building 's defenses , Delsin confronts Augustine and reveals to her that he has figured out she staged the Conduit escape at Akomish to instill fear in the population and give the D.U.P. a reason to continue their regime . Augustine lets Delsin absorb her powers , and tells him that she wants to save the Conduits by imprisoning and protecting them from the population . Delsin battles and eventually defeats Augustine with his new concrete powers .

If Delsin has good Karma , he spares Augustine and exposes her crimes to the world . She is arrested and the D.U.P. disbands . Delsin , Fetch and Eugene convince the humans that they can peacefully coexist with the Conduits . All of the imprisoned Conduits are freed . Delsin returns to the reservation and heals the tribe members , then paints a mural dedicated to Reggie .

If Delsin has evil Karma , he kills Augustine and , together with Fetch and Eugene , takes control of Seattle . He releases all of the imprisoned Conduits and absorbs their powers . Upon returning to the reservation , Delsin is met by a wheelchair @-@ bound Betty who banishes him from the tribe for the killings in Seattle . Shocked and angered , Delsin destroys the entire reservation .

= = Development and release = =

= = = Origins and PlayStation 4 = = =

Sucker Punch Productions began to develop Second Son while the PlayStation 4 was still being designed . Having finished work on Infamous : Festival of Blood , they began to plan a new entry in the Infamous series under the working title Infamous 3 . As early as 2010 , they discussed with Sony their desire to bring Infamous to a new PlayStation platform .

Sucker Punch were in close connection with the PS4 's lead system architect Mark Cerny , who visited the studio several times . They gave Cerny feedback about how much power a new PlayStation system would require to render their ideal open world , how fast it would be capable of doing so and to what degree of texture detail . " We had some experience there that was useful for that team when they were planning some aspects of the hardware design " , producer Brian Fleming explained . He found that during the PS4 's development , there was a great level of interactivity between the system 's designers and game developers such as Sucker Punch .

Sucker Punch made suggested improvements they would like to see for the DualShock 4 gamepad . Second Son 's designer Jaime Griesemer traveled to Sony 's headquarters in Japan to discuss such improvements . The developers found they were able to adopt the DualShock 4 's touchpad into Second Son 's gameplay ( for example , players emulate the in @-@ game fingerprint scanner using the DualShock 4 touchpad ) .

The game was envisioned to take full advantage of the hardware , without the imposition of porting to older platforms like the PlayStation 3 . The hardware let developers improve the particle system that lights Delsin 's face up while he draws neon power from billboards and add detailed reflections to the game world . The increased memory bandwidth let the team render characters with higher fidelity . They found the PS4 's simplified architecture so easy to work with that they were able to reach very high graphical quality even though the hardware was new .

Over 110 developers worked on the game , a number that director Nate Fox considered small . He felt that working with a small team necessitated having a defined vision for the game from the outset , " to answer those first questions about what you want your game to be " . Sometimes , ideas came about during development that would have to be thrown out for not fitting with the game 's original vision . " We kill our darlings at Sucker Punch . It 's not easy ; it 's necessary " , Fox explained . Second Son displays a native resolution of 1080p at 30 frames per second .

= = = Design = = =

Sucker Punch elected to set Second Son in their hometown of Seattle as they could draw from their personal experiences in the open world 's design . During early development when team members debated where Second Son would be set , Seattle rated high on a list of possibilities . Fleming considered that the city had not been featured in many games prior to Second Son and so would not be " overblown " , and felt that Seattle 's weather and mixture of " old and new " architecture would make it an interesting setting . The team conducted fieldwork in Seattle 's nearby forests with audio and video equipment , which was used to reproduce local flora and the chirping sounds of local American robins . Seattle landmarks such as Pioneer Square , the Space Needle and Elephant Car Washes feature in the game . The developers licensed logos and signs from local businesses . Griesemer called the game world an " abstraction " of Seattle rather than a re @-@ creation since its layout did not suit Second Son 's gameplay and required the team to make necessary changes . The team wanted to thematically explore Seattle 's heritage of Pacific Northwest , Native American tribes in the game .

The designers used graphic sliders in the game engine to determine the amount of water covering the streets . Like Seattle , rain is frequent in the game . The lighting effects ( such as neon light from Delsin 's powers ) coupled with reflections help bring color into Seattle 's dark and rainy atmosphere . Because of the move to the PS4 , Sucker Punch were able to render more open world than what was possible in previous Infamous games . " You get a better feel of the city when you can see more of it " , said Griesemer .

After deciding on Seattle for the setting , the developers began to think about the superpowers that Delsin would possess . They added neon lighting to the city to amplify the " beautiful reflective streets " , and subsequently decided to make neon a source of power for Delsin because of its prevalence . Animation director Billy Harper considered Delsin 's smoke powers challenging to design , as the team wanted to make powers feel more fluid than in previous Infamous games . They removed Cole 's " contorted hand poses " to improve the connection between Delsin and his powers . Fox felt that smoke helps Delsin deftly navigate the game world by letting him zip up buildings and through enemies . Griesemer ( who previously worked with Bungie on the Halo series ) wanted to bring the fluidity of first @-@ person shooters to Second Son 's combat . The team reviewed the control scheme of previous Infamous games and " removed some of the complexity that was preventing people from interacting with the game " .

Griesemer said that a recurring theme throughout Infamous games that they wanted to continue with Second Son was the idea of " modern elemental powers " , variations on commonplace powers drawn from the game world . Producer Brian Fleming found that the graphical effects helped to inform players of the amount of power Delsin possesses . " This is a game about super powers , so for us , the way the effects look tells you a lot about how you 're playing the game " , he explained . Fox considered that the game world 's resemblance to Seattle helped the superpower elements feel authentic . " Because we have that sweet foundation of plausibility , you buy into the super @-@ powered element " , he explained .

= = = Character development = = =

Second Son 's premise is built from the ending of Infamous 2 that sees protagonist Cole MacGrath sacrifice himself to save humanity . They looked at Trophy data and found the majority ( 78 % ) of Infamous 2 players chose this ending , and concurred with the popular choice . This allowed them to create the new protagonist , Delsin , from scratch . " Moving forward onto [ Second Son ] , we said ' Alright , Cole 's dead . People have voted for this . Let 's make a new hero ' " , Fox explained . Griesemer felt that taking the Infamous series to the PS4 signified a new era , and that departing from the story of previous games would help them reach new audiences . " We needed a new entry point , and Delsin was the first step for that " , he explained . The idea to move away from Cole 's story came about during pre @-@ production staff meetings , and was confirmed after discussions both internally and with Sony Computer Entertainment . Griesemer described the contemporaneous sentiment as " It 's going to be new hardware , a new platform and we 're going to have a new audience " .

Delsin 's Native American heritage came from the game 's setting in the Pacific Northwest , which features a large Native American population . Delsin wears a beanie inspired by one that Harper would wear around the studio ( Harper recounted one particular staff meeting where four of the six team members were wearing hats ) . Delsin 's character was inspired by United Kingdom street artist Banksy , as the development team appreciated Banksy 's clandestine , satirical work . Developing Delsin 's personality , the team posited the hypothetical : " What if Johnny Knoxville had powers ? What would he do with it ? " . Harper considered Delsin " full of reckless abandon " , the kind of character that would , upon gaining superpowers , jump off a cliff to see what happens . Fox considered Delsin " flawed in a way I think a lot of us can relate to " , trying to live up to his successful brother Reggie . He called the game 's story a " hero 's journey " .

Digital Domain were brought on board for the motion capture work . Fox helped direct the actors ' performances , but found that they did not need much guidance for their roles . " You need to let them understand what you need from a scene , but the actors are so much better equipped to deliver that than me " , he explained . Fleming considered that using motion capture added authenticity to the characters . " The ability to capture [ Delsin 's ] facial reaction when he 's like ' Oh , shit ' , but doesn 't say ' Oh shit ' — that 's a big deal " , he explained .

Most of the non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) that inhabit the open world were motion captured . The developers contacted casting agencies , and asked their friends and families if they would like to appear as extras in the game . Over 75 people were scanned in a three @-@ day period . They were seated in chairs and told not to move or smile , and a high @-@ definition digital camera captured a 3D model of their faces . The camera sent out strobe light patterns to capture the volume and shape of each face . A 360 @-@ degree setup captured the actors ' moving bodies , but mannequins were also used to help capture different clothing styles . Data collected from the cameras was used by the designers to render digital models , each composed of roughly 1 @.@ 4 million polygons — any blank spots on the models would be digitally filled in by the designers . To render the models in the game , the data would be compressed by reducing the polygon count .

= = = Marketing and release = = =

On February 20 , 2013 , Sony held a conference in New York that announced the PS4 . Fox appeared on @-@ stage during the conference and recounted participating in an anti @-@ globalization protest in Seattle in 1999 . He then announced Second Son , and a debut trailer was shown that introduced the game 's premise and lead character . The game was privately demoed at E3 2013 , and its March 21 , 2014 , North American release date was confirmed during a PS4 launch event on November 14 , 2013 . By February 25 , 2014 , Second Son went gold ( finished development ) .

On March 8 , it was announced that Second Son 's pre @-@ order sales had surpassed those of The Last of Us in the United Kingdom . Two special edition versions of the game were produced ; pre @-@ ordered and first @-@ run copies of the game received the Limited Edition , which includes the Cole 's Legacy mission pack that explain story events between Infamous 2 and Second Son . The Collector 's Edition includes a unique box cover , a replica of Delsin 's beanie , eight pins from his vest , an exclusive in @-@ game vest , and a D.U.P.-themed patch . All pre @-@ ordered copies of the game included four in @-@ game vests for Delsin .

= = = Downloadable content = = =

Paper Trail is a free downloadable content ( DLC ) with alternate reality game features . The story is split into six parts , with the first being available after reaching a certain point in the main story . Each subsequent part was made available each Friday from March 28 , 2014 in North America and , concluding with the release of the final part on April 25 , 2014 .

At E3 2014 , the DLC package Infamous First Light was announced and was released on August 26 , 2014 in North America and August 27 , 2014 in Europe . In First Light , the player controls Fetch . It is a stand @-@ alone expansion and Second Son is not required to play the game , but ownership of Second Son grants players access to exclusive content . Infamous First Light received mixed to positive reviews from critics .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

The game received generally positive reviews with a normalized rating of 80 out of 100 based on 90 reviews on Metacritic . GameRankings assigned a rating of 81 % based on 61 reviews . The game sold over one million copies within nine days of its release , making it the fastest @-@ selling installment in the series .

Vince Ingenito of IGN recalled being left " staring slack @-@ jawed " at the visuals , and called the open world " beautifully and diversely realized " with impressive lighting effects . Tom Mc Shea of GameSpot called the visuals " incredible " . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer praised Seattle 's art direction , and found the draw distances and frame rate consistent . David Meikleham of PlayStation Official Magazine ( OPM ) was very impressed with the graphics and 1080p definition , but cited occasional frame rate dips during intense combat . He enjoyed playing in Seattle and using his powers to level the destructible environments . Tamoor Hussain of Computer and Video Games ( CVG ) praised graphical details like the particle and lighting systems . " [ The game is ] colorful , rich in detail and has some of the best effects we 've seen on console " , he wrote .

GameSpot 's Mc Shea considered the combat well @-@ balanced between Infamous 's slower pace and Infamous 2 's frenetic action , and enjoyed Delsin 's agility and power . Chris Carter of Destructoid considered the combat 's simplicity its strength , finding Delsin easy to control and navigate the world . Edge were underwhelmed with the game 's opening because of its " skittish " parkour , but noted that once Delsin gained powers and reached Seattle , the game became very fun . They felt that enemies were clever enough to make combat a fun challenge , and called the main missions " for the most part well designed and generously proportioned " . IGN 's Ingenito enjoyed using Delsin 's powers in combat , and called each set " strong enough to hang an entire game on " . He found upgrading Delsin 's powers helped keep the combat fresh and made for good replay value . Philip Kollar of Polygon favored using neon power , but praised the balance and variety between all of them . He called the combat " a hell of a lot of fun " . Eurogamer 's Welsh found the combat imperfect yet fun , but did not think that upgrading Delsin 's skills made enough of a difference to his power .

Destructoid 's Carter thought that Delsin was a more interesting protagonist than " wooden " Cole , which helped his investment into the story . IGN 's Ingenito thought Delsin was an interesting lead character , especially because of the chemistry with Reggie . He found Troy Baker 's performance of Delsin " [ imbued ] with a charm and youthful abandon that keeps it from feeling tropey [ sic ] or overwrought " . However , he found supporting characters like Fetch underdeveloped and the narrative too straightforward . Although calling the characters clichéd , Edge felt that they were written and acted well . GameSpot 's Mc Shea called Delsin annoying and immature , and found the gameplay more interesting than the " tired " story . Eurogamer 's Welsh considered the plot driven by " inconsequential MacGuffins " and thought the ending rushed , but praised the story for not stretching on too long . Polygon 's Kollar felt that the story did not explore its themes of surveillance and security @-@ over @-@ freedom well enough , such that its impact was diminished . He was overall disappointed with the narrative , despite finding the main characters written better than in previous Infamous games . OPM 's Meikleham was put off by Delsin 's arrogance and was underwhelmed with the story , but he was impressed by the quality of the motion capture performances .

Edge and Eurogamer 's Welsh faulted the morality system because they did not think it had enough influence on the story . IGN 's Ingenito called it " woefully outdated " , and felt that making evil choices severely jarred with Delsin 's character . He found the system redundant because Delsin became more powerful when he strictly adhered to either a good or evil play @-@ style , rather than crossing in @-@ between . GameSpot 's Mc Shea felt that the morality system was too binary because there was no " moral gray area " between playing good and evil . Polygon 's Kollar reflected Mc Shea 's opinion that the morality choices were too binary , and had difficulty connecting to his choices because they were too polarized between good and evil . OPM 's Meikleham felt that the morality system had " little to no impact on gameplay " . Danny Cowan of Joystiq thought that the morality system was well @-@ balanced , with equal incentive and drawback tied to Delsin 's choices .

GameSpot 's Mc Shea found Second Son 's open world beholden to a dated formula . He described Seattle as " a playground for you to go nuts in " instead of " a living , breathing world " , with the Seattleites existing only as fodder for players . CVG 's Hussain called Seattle " hauntingly empty " , with the sparsely distributed NPCs behaving inanimately . He felt that the open world 's lifelessness was the game 's biggest detractor , and he drew unfavorable comparison with Grand Theft Auto V , Sleeping Dogs and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag , which he felt featured better open worlds . Eurogamer 's Welsh felt that Second Son did not innovate the open world genre as well as it could have because it relied too heavily on many of the genre 's tropes . Polygon 's Kollar felt that there was not enough variation in the missions and activities , as " virtually all culminate in the goal of beating up more soldiers or thugs " . Edge found the amount of content in the game thin , finding little merit in additional playthroughs because of the repetitive side @-@ missions . " Approach [ Second Son ] as an action game that just happens to be set in a nonlinear environment and it makes more sense " , they wrote . Destructoid 's Carter found the amount of content ample , and enjoyed liberating the city and collecting Blast Shards .

= = = Sales = = =

Infamous Second Son sold over one million copies nine days after its launch .

= 1973 Pacific hurricane season =

The 1973 Pacific hurricane season was an event in tropical cyclone meteorology . The most important system this year was Hurricane Ava , which was the most intense Pacific hurricane known at the time . Several other much weaker tropical cyclones came close to , or made landfall on , the Pacific coast of Mexico . The most serious of these was Hurricane Irah , which downed power and communication lines in parts of the Baja California Peninsula ; the other landfalling storms caused rain and some flooding . No tropical cyclone this season caused any deaths .

This season had a quick start but a slow end . Overall activity was below average , with twelve named systems in total . Of these , five were tropical storms , seven were hurricanes , of which three were major ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale ) . Just one storm formed in August , one of the least active Augusts ever in the east Pacific . The season officially started May 15 , 1973 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1973 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1973 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . All tropical cyclones this season formed in the eastern north Pacific Ocean , often off the coast of Mexico . As is usual in the northern hemisphere , most traveled generally westward or northwestward , and two reached as far as the waters south of the Hawaiian Islands .

= = Season summary = =

The season began with the formation of the pre @-@ Ava tropical depression on June 2 and ended with the dissipation of Tropical Lillian on October 9 . The season lasted a total of 129 days . No named storms formed in May , three in June , four in July , one in August , three in September , one in October , and none in November . Another six tropical depressions formed during the year , but data on them is unavailable . All of these tropical cyclones formed in the eastern north Pacific tropical cyclone basin , which encompasses the Pacific Ocean north of the equator east of 140 ° W. None formed in the central north Pacific , which is the remainder of the Pacific Ocean east of the international dateline .

Of the tropical cyclones that formed this year , were twelve tropical storms and seven were hurricanes . Of those hurricanes , three of them were major hurricanes because they reached Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale . These totals are all below the long @-@ term averages of thirteen tropical storms , nine hurricanes , and four major hurricanes . At the time , this season 's total of twelve named tropical cyclones was exactly average , although at the time the climatology in this basin was weak because satellite coverage was spotty before 1966 .

This season , all advisories and tropical cyclone data were released and collected by two agencies , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center in Redwood City , California , and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Honolulu , Hawaii , both of which were coextensive with the National Weather Service Forecast Offices in their respective cities . The EPHC covered the area between the coast of North America and 140 ° W , and the CPHC the remainder of the area .

= = = Hurricane Ava = = =

A tropical depression formed on June 2 . It steadily strengthened and headed in a generally westerly direction . It moved slowly and became Hurricane Ava on June 4 . Two days later , it became a major hurricane and it sped up . On June 7 , it became a Category 5 hurricane . It then started weakening and slowed down until it dissipated on June 12 . No deaths or damages were attributed to Hurricane Ava .

Ava 's minimum central pressure was 915 millibars , and its maximum sustained winds reached 140 knots ( 260 km / h ) . This made Ava the most intense recorded east Pacific hurricane at the time . Ava reached Category 5 intensity on June 7 , the earliest date in an east Pacific season that a hurricane has done so . It was also the second known Category 5 storm in the east Pacific ; ( behind Patsy in 1959 ) . Ava is the strongest June storm , the fifth most intense east Pacific hurricane , and was the only June Category 5 on record until 2010 .

Ava was also flown into by hurricane hunter aircraft in what was the first penetration of a Pacific hurricane by NOAA aircraft . During these flights , radars and other devices were tested , and wind speed , pressure , and wave heights were measured . This is the reason why Hurricane Ava 's pressure is measured instead of estimated . Ava was also photographed from Skylab because it was visible during one of the missions . At that time , it was coincidentally on the surface of the Earth directly underneath the space station . All in all , these made Hurricane Ava one of the best @-@ observed Pacific hurricanes at the time .

= = = Tropical Storm Bernice = = =

A nearly stationary disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone spent three days organizing and finally developed into a tropical depression on June 22 . The cyclone started heading northwest . After intensifying into a tropical storm , Bernice made landfall on June 23 at a location roughly 50 mi ( 80 km ) southwest of Zihuatanejo . It dissipated later that day . Bernice exposed two ships to gales , but otherwise neither deaths nor significant impact was reported . At its peak , Tropical Storm Bernice had winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) .

= = = Tropical Storm Claudia = = =

A tropical depression formed June 26 from a westward @-@ moving area of disturbed weather . The next day , it developed gale @-@ force winds and was named Claudia . Claudia headed northwesterly and then northwards and made landfall on June 28 approximately 30 mi ( 50 km ) east of Acapulco . It dissipated inland the next day . No deaths or casualties were reported due to this tropical cyclone .

= = = Hurricane Doreen = = =

On July 18 , a tropical storm formed from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone and was named Doreen . It steadily intensified , and became a hurricane on July 19 . Doreen briefly reached Category 4 strength on July 21 with a relatively high central pressure of 972 mb ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . It then weakened steadily as its path carried it on a direct path to the Big Island of Hawaii . Doreen weakened to a tropical storm as it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on July 25 . A frontal system stuck between two high @-@ pressure areas weakened as the two areas merged , creating a larger high pressure area that turned Doreen to the southwest on July 27 . The hurricane then turned back to the northwest and strengthened back into a hurricane . It became a major hurricane again before weakening . Doreen dissipated August 3 . Its remnant vortex continued westward until it dissipated under a trough near the dateline . Doreen 's sudden change of track and restrengthening was unusual .

From formation to dissipation , Doreen lasted 16 @.@ 25 days and traveled a distance of 4 @,@ 200 mi ( 6 @,@ 760 km ) . This tied Hurricane Celeste 's record for longest @-@ lasting Pacific hurricane . Doreen was also the longest @-@ lasting July tropical cyclone . Hurricane Fico broke both of these records in the 1978 season . Doreen remains the eighth @-@ longest lasting Pacific tropical cyclone , tied with two other storms . Several ships encountered Doreen . The most serious incident involved a Greek ship called Cornelia which lost its rudder in 35 ft ( 10 m ) waves , but managed to escape and continue on its way to Panama . On the afternoon of July 29 , 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) swells and 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 m ) waves were seen from Kapoho . Otherwise , no damages or deaths were blamed on this tropical cyclone .

= = = Hurricane Emily = = =

A depression formed July 21 from squalls in the Gulf of Tehuantepec and headed west @-@ northwest and strengthened into a tropical storm . Emily continued moving nearly parallel to the coast before turning to the west while steadily intensifying . Emily eventually reached Category 4 intensity on July 22 . Emily then weakened as it turned to the northwest . It dissipated on July 28 . Emily 's wind field was large enough to bring gales areas 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of the hurricane from July 22 to 24 . This tropical cyclone caused no deaths or damage .

= = = Hurricane Florence = = =

On July 25 , a depression formed off the coast of Guatemala . The storm made a close approach to the Mexican coast as a depression , but did not make landfall . Just after that , it strengthened into a tropical storm . Florence headed west and then west @-@ northwest . It became a hurricane on July 29 . It began weakening thereafter . Florence dissipated on July 30 . No damages or deaths were reported .

= = = Tropical Storm Glenda = = =

A depression that had formed on July 30 from a tropical disturbance quickly strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Glenda . It took a path similar to both Florence and Emily , but further from the shore . Glenda dissipated August 5 . At the time it still had winds of 40 knots ( 70 km / h ) , down from its peak of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . No deaths , damage , or other impact was reported .

= = = Tropical Storm Heather = = =

The only storm to form in August this year formed on August 31 from an area of circulation in the ITCZ over the Gulf of Tehuantepec . It became a tropical depression on August 30 . After moving northwest for a bit , it became a tropical storm and headed almost due north towards Mexico . Heather dissipated September 1 , just before making landfall . Tropical Storm Heather caused no deaths or damage to any location in the coastal area of the Gulf of Tehuantepec .

= = = Hurricane Irah = = =

A depression formed September 22 . It became a tropical storm on September 23 and a hurricane on September 24 . Irah took a northwesterly path and reached Category 2 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and then dropped back down to a 1 as it recurved . It made landfall on Baja California and entered the Gulf of California as a tropical storm , making landfall again in northwestern Mexico approximately 30 mi ( 50 km ) northwest of Los Mochis . Irah 's first landfall was the strongest of the season . The hurricane dissipated on September 27 while heading east @-@ northeast over mainland Mexico .

Irah blew over some power and communication lines during its passage over the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . Heavy rain fell over parts of Mexico , with the highest total being 10 @.@ 24 in ( 260 mm ) at Sierra de la Laguna . One person was injured and at least ten houses were destroyed in Cabo San Lucas . No one was killed . There was some concern that the hurricane could disrupt splashdown procedures for astronauts at the end of Skylab 3 ; however , the return to Earth was not seriously affected .

= = = Tropical Storm Jennifer = = =

On September 23 , another depression formed . It took a northeasterly path , rotating around the southern periphery of Hurricane Irah as part of a Fujiwara interaction . It strengthened into a tropical storm late on September 24 . The peak windspeed of this tropical cyclone was 40 miles per hour ( 60 km / h ) . Jennifer then weakened to a depression and turned to the north @-@ northeast . Jennifer brushed the Islas Marías . The cyclone made landfall near just southeast of Mazatlán and dissipated September 27 . Tropical Depression Jennifer caused rain over several parts of Mexico . The highest total was 7 @.@ 48 in ( 190 mm ) at Navarette / San Blas . No one was killed and no damage was reported .

= = = Hurricane Katherine = = =

Katherine became a tropical storm on September 29 , just six hours after forming . It headed out to sea . On October 1 , it became a hurricane . It peaked in windspeed the next day . After weakening to storm strength , it crossed 140 ° W and entered the central Pacific . Katherine continued its slightly south of westward track . It dropped to a depression on October 9 , and dissipated shortly after that due to the influence of a cold trough . The storm never threatened land , causing no casualties or damage .

= = = Hurricane Lillian = = =

A depression that formed October 5 reached storm strength the same day . It generally paralleled the coast of Mexico far offshore . Lillian reached minimal hurricane strength on October 7 and peaked the next day . The hurricane began to weaken immediately thereafter and dissipated on October 9 . Through its life , Lillian at first traveled generally west @-@ northwestward , and then westward . Lillian never threatened land , causing no known impact .

= = 1973 Storm Names = =

These names were used for storms that formed in the eastern Pacific during this season . It is the same list used in the 1969 season . Storms were named Katherine and Lillian for the first time this year . No names were retired , so this list was used again in the 1977 season . Names that weren 't assigned are colored gray .

The Central Pacific used names and numbers from the Western Pacific 's typhoon list . No systems formed in the area , and thus no names were required .

= Varaha Upanishad =

Varaha Upanishad ( Sanskrit : वराह उपनिषत ् , " boar " ) is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism composed between the 13th and 16th centuries CE . Composed in Sanskrit , it is listed as one of the 32 Krishna Yajurveda Upanishads , and classified as one of 20 Yoga Upanishads .

The text has five chapters , structured primarily as a discussion between Vishnu in his Varaha ( boar ) avatar and the sage Ribhu . The discussion covers the subjects of Tattvas , the nature and relationship between the individual soul ( Self , Atman ) and the Ultimate Reality ( Brahman ) , the seven stages of learning , the characteristics of Jivanmukti ( inner sense of freedom while living ) , and the four types of Jivanmuktas ( liberated persons ) . The last chapter of the text is dedicated to Yoga , its goals and methods .

It is , as an Upanishad , a part of the corpus of Vedanta literature that presents the philosophical concepts of Hinduism . The Varaha Upanishad emphasizes that liberation from sorrow and fear requires a human being to know the non @-@ dualistic nature of existence , oneness between Self , Brahman and Vishnu , and the role of Yoga in self @-@ liberation , and lists ten Yamas ( virtues ) as essential to a liberation of one 's soul : nonviolence , satya , asteya , brahmacharya , compassion , rectitude , kshama , non @-@ hypocrisy , mitahara , and shaucha . The text describes the Jivanmukta as one whose inner state , amongst other things , is neither affected by happiness nor by suffering inflicted on him , who does not shrink out of fear from the world , nor the world shrinks from him with fear , and whose sense of calm and inner contentment is free from anger , fear , and joy toward others .

= = Etymology and anthology = =

Varaha means boar , specifically referring to the incarnation of Vishnu as a boar in Indian mythology . The term Upanishad means it is knowledge or " hidden doctrine " text that belongs to the corpus of Vedanta literature presenting the philosophical concepts of Hinduism and considered the highest purpose of its scripture , the Vedas . The text is also known as Varahopanishad .

The text is listed as 98th in the modern era anthology that consists of 108 Upanishads . A Sanskrit text , it is considered one of the 32 Upanishads under the Krishna Yajurveda or Black Yajurveda . Classified as a Yoga Upanishad , the author , authenticity , and source of this Hindu text has been in question , and it is a late Upanishad . Varaha Upanishad was not listed in the anthology of known Upanishads published in the 17th century by Dara Shikoh , in the early 19th @-@ century Henry Thomas Colebrooke anthology , or in the Narayana compilations of Upanishads .

= = Chronology = =

The text opens by acknowledging Itihasa ( Epics , Ramayana and Mahabharata ) and other post @-@ Vedic era texts , thus implying that it was composed in the common era . The text incorporates terminology such as Yogi Siddhi , suggesting that , like other Yoga Upanishads , it was composed after Yoga Sutras of Patanjali and other major Yoga texts . The text also incorporates sections on tantra terminology such as Chakra and Nāḍi in its discussion of Laya , Mantra , and Hatha yoga . The minor Yoga Upanishads , according to Antonio Rigopoulos , a professor of Indology at the University Ca ' Foscari of Venice , were recorded in the medieval period of India 's Advaita and Yoga @-@ rooted traditions , possibly in the middle of the 2nd millennium CE , but may well represent already established ideas and practices before the epic and medieval period , given that they use concepts and terminology rooted in the 1st millennium BCE Vedic era text , such as pranava , Atman , and Brahman .

According to Ananda , the text was likely composed between the 13th and 16th centuries .

= = Contents = =

= = = Structure = = =

Ribhu , after observing Tapas ( penance ) for 12 long deva years , is visited by Vishnu in his Varaha avatar ; the latter asks Ribhu what boon he would like . Ribhu declines all worldly pleasures , and asks Vishnu to explain " that science of Brahman which treats of thy nature , a knowledge which leads to salvation " . From this point on , the Upanishad is structured as a sermon by Varaha to the sage Ribhu . It has five chapters with a total of 247 verses .

= = = Tattvas = = =

In Chapter 1 of the text , Varaha tells Ribhu first about the science of Tattvas , meaning " principles " . The Tattvas are said to be 24 , 36 , or even 96 by some teachers , which Varaha elaborates .

In the Tattvas , asserts Varaha , are included the five sensory organs , five organs of action , five vital airs essential to a living body ( " Vital airs " of Prāṇa , Apāna , Uḍāna , Samāna , and Vyāna ) , five rudimentary principles of perception , and the faculties of knowledge – Manas ( mind ) which produces uncertain knowledge , Buddhi ( intelligence ) which leads to certain knowledge , " Chitta " ( emotional consciousness ) which produces doubts and fluctuations in knowledge , and " Ahankara " ( ego ) which produces egoism . These total 24 tattvas , states the text .

Some scholars , asserts Varaha , expand the list of tattvas of a human body to 36 , by including the five elements – earth ( Prithvi ) , air ( Vayu ) , water ( Ap ) , ether ( Akasha ) , and fire ( Agni ) ; the three bodies – the gross , the subtle and the causal ( Karana ) ; three states of consciousness – when awake , when dreaming , and when in dreamless sleep ; and one jiva ( soul ) .

Varaha then describes how the list of tattva increases to 96 in verses 1 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 14 . It includes the six stages of changes ( Aiyar translates this to " existence , birth , growth , transformation , decay , and destruction " ) ; six maladies or " infirmities " ( hunger , thirst , suffering , delusion , age , and death ) ; koshas or six sheaths ( " skin , blood , flesh , fat , marrow , and bones " ) ; six adversities or foes of a body ( " longing , anger , craving , arrogance , and malice " ) ; three aspects of " jiva " – " Vishva " ( world ) , " Taijasa " ( endowed with light ) , and " Prajna " ( insight into nature of reality ) ; three " Guṇas " or qualities , innate psyche ( " Sattva , Rajas , and Tamas " ) ; three types of Karmas ( " Prarabdha " ( past karma now being enjoyed ) , " Sanchita " ( past karma yet to be enjoyed ) , and " Agamin " ( current karma to be enjoyed later ) ) ; five actions ( " talking , lifting , walking , excreting , and enjoying " ) ; and tattvas of " thought , certainty , egoism , compassion , kindness , anticipation , sympathy , and indifference " . To complete its list of 96 , the Varaha adds " Dik " , or the four quarters , all Vedic deities who are part of the human body , namely " Vayu " ( air , ear ) , Sun ( light , eye ) , " Varuna " ( water , tongue ) , Ashvini Devas ( nose ) , Agni ( fire ) , Indra , Upendra , and Mrityu ( death ) ; it includes the moon , the four @-@ faced Brahma , Rudra , Kshetrajna ( the conscious knower of the body ) , and Ishvara .

Vishnu , as Varaha , asserts in verses 1 @.@ 15 to 1 @.@ 17 , that he is " other than aggregate of these 96 Tattvas " , and those who worship him in his Varaha avatar and know these 96 tattvas remove their Ajnana ( ignorance ) , achieve salvation regardless of which order of life they are in , whether they have shaven head , or head full of hair , or maintain a head with only a tuft of hair .

= = = Brahmavidya = = =

The Varaha , in the 83 verses of Chapter 2 , explains to Ribhu how to achieve the most exalted knowledge of Brahmavidya , and then what it is . He tells Ribhu that the four means of this knowledge are to practice conduct of one 's Varna ( caste ) and one 's Ashrama ( stage in life ) , from ascetic austerity and with the help of a Guru ( spiritual teacher ) . The Varaha then states that the path to Brahmavidya is through the capacity to distinguish between the ephemeral and the eternal , detachment from the material world unto the spiritual world . A sincere longing for spiritual liberation and six virtuous qualities ( shama ) are essential in order to achieve Brahmavidya , asserts the Upanishad , these being tranquility , self @-@ restraint , doing work without craving for rewards , endurance , faith , and meditation . Varaha states in verse 2 @.@ 4 that the truly blessed are those who know Brahman and Atman and have thus become one with them .

Ribhu then asks Varaha , " Taking birth as a human , that is also a male and a Brahmin is difficult , a yogi who has studied the Vedanta but who does not know the form of Vishnu , how can such an ignorant one become liberated ? "

Varaha replies in verses 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 that he alone is Supreme Bliss , that apart from the Atman ( soul ) there exists no Ishvara or phenomenal world . Those who know their Atman ( soul ) have no notions of Varna ( caste ) or Ashrama ( stage in life ) ; they see Atman as Brahman , they become Brahman and reach " Moksha " salvation even without seeking . That which is of the character of Truth , Knowledge , Bliss , and Fullness , states Varaha Upanishad in verse 2 @.@ 16 , stands farthest away from Tamas ( darkness , destruction , chaos ) .

Varaha states that what one aspires to is part of His own " light " , which is all @-@ encompassing . As Atman , self effulgent , Varaha states that " Brahma @-@ Jnanis " are those who see nothing but the Brahman , and they are happy and content in the universe despite being subject to sufferings .

The Varaha Upanishad asserts the non @-@ dualistic premise that Brahman and Atman are one , and those who know this fear nothing , suffer nothing , and possess fortitude . He is I , states Vishnu . " Become that , Ribhu ; Thou am I verily " , suggests Vishnu . Those high souled ones , who with the firm conviction that " I am the Brahman " , are the Jivanmukta , states verse 2 @.@ 43 of the text .

= = = = Sankalpa = = = =

According to the Upanishad , the entire universe evolves by Sankalpa ( a thinking , ideation process ) , one becomes what one thinks , metaphysics affects physics , and it is ideation that helps retain the appearances of the world . Following renunciation from this universe , which is also called a Sankalpa , the meditating mind is to be focused on the Nirvikalpa ( the unchangeable ) or the unchangeable part ( metaphysical reality ) . Varaha in verse 2 @.@ 64 compares the " samsara " ( cycle of rebirth ) to the domain of karma , states Billington , one that is like a long dream ( " swapna " ) , a delusion , a sea of sorrow . It defines jivanmukta as someone who has overcome and attained liberation from this samsara through self @-@ knowledge .

= = = = Meditation = = = =

Varaha explains that through obeisance to Him who is found in everything , and doing meditation for just 48 minutes ( a muhurtha ) , will expand his wisdom to the state of " Pratyagatman " , the state of Atman which is forever liberated . It means living close to Jivatma ( soul ) and Paramatman ( the Supreme Soul ) .

The Upanishad states that knowledge of Brahman results in knowing spiritual truth in the Paroksha ( indirect cognition ) way , but Sakshatkara ( direct realization ) results in knowing that his own soul is Brahman . And when a practitioner of Yoga becomes a Jivamukta ( liberated soul ) , he knows that his Atman is the ultimate perfection . To an enlightened person who has realized Brahman , the two words " bondage " and " moksha " mean " mine " and " not mine " . " Mine " is linked to a person , but " not mine " relates to one who is liberated from all thinking and knows Atman .

= = = = Samadhi = = = =

In verses 2 @.@ 75 through 2 @.@ 87 , the Varaha Upanishad defines the goal of Yoga and what is " Samadhi " , as follows :

The state of Samadhi , it explains , is akin to salt dissolving in water , and the quality of oneness that results .

= = = Vishnu is Shiva = = =

The Upanishad , in Chapter 3 , continues the sermon of Vishnu to Ribhu , that " Ribhu should develop the conviction that he himself is palpable Existence and Consciousness , indivisible , without a counterpart , devoid of all visibility , non @-@ ailing , flawless , the Shiva without a double " . The text reasserts its non @-@ dualism in Chapter 3 , adding that bhakti to Vishnu is the path to liberating knowledge of Brahman . In verse 3 @.@ 14 – 3 @.@ 15 , states Ayyangar , everyone is equal in the eyes of god , there is no difference between living forms and human beings based on law , family , caste , or clan , and everyone is one Truth and Absolute Brahman . The " Vishnu is Shiva " and " all is Shiva " theme repeats in verse 4 @.@ 32 , which declares , " The Guru is Shiva , the Veda is Shiva , the Deva is Shiva , the Lord is Shiva , I Varaha am Shiva , all is Shiva , other than Shiva there is naught " .

The Ultimate Truth , states the text , is that which always is , which preserves its nature over time , and which is unaffected by anything . The Atman , the Brahman , the " Chit , Sat and Ananda " , and Janardhana ( Vishnu ) is such Truth , and they are synonymous , one . Some try to seek Sidhis , asserts the Upanishad , through mantras , religious rituals , time , skill , medicine , or wealth , but such Sidhis are fleeting and fruitless . Be an Atmajnani ( one with Self @-@ knowledge ) through Yoga , says Vishnu to Ribhu , and to such a person Siddhis are of no importance .

= = = Seven stages of knowledge = = =

The Varaha Upanishad , in Chapter 4 , states that individuals gain knowledge through seven stages : First , one must have virtuous desire to learn , discover ( Subh @-@ echchha ) . The second stage is inquiry , investigation ( Vichārana ) . Discernment and thinning of mind toward other objects ( Tanumanasi ) is the third stage , states the text . The fourth stage is harmony , creative union with the subject of knowledge ( Sattva @-@ patti ) . Detachment from everything else ( Asamsakti ) is the fifth stage . Conceptual analysis and gaining complete , correct meaning of the topic ( Pad @-@ artha @-@ bhavana ) is the sixth stage . The seventh or last stage is Turiya , complete consciousness .

The text states that AUM is a means for meditating on the nature of Atman and Brahman , wherein " A " represents Akara and Visva , " U " represents Ukara and Taijasa , M represents Makara and Prajna , the Ardhamatra that follows AUM , represents the Turiya .

= = = = The characteristics of a Jivanmukta = = = =

The Varaha Upanishad , in a manner similar to many ancient and medieval era Hindu texts , discusses moksha in this life ( rather than afterlife ) , or Jivanmukti , calling those who have reached such a state a Jivanmukta ( self @-@ realized person ) . The verses 4 @.@ 21 – 4 @.@ 30 describe the characteristics of a Jivanmukta ; Ayyangar and Aiyar state as follows :

He who is engrossed in the ways of the world , yet his mind is steady , like ether , is said to be Jivanmukta

He whose mental radiance neither rises nor sets , whose inner state is neither affected by happiness nor by misery inflicted on him , is said to be Jivanmukta

He who is wakeful while remaining asleep , he whose mental alertness is devoid of impressions , is known as Jivanmukta

He who responds to influences such as hatred , fear , love , yet his heart remains pure like Akasha ( aether , space ) , is said to be Jivanmukta

He whose attitude is not be attached to anything , his intellect never clouded whether active or passive , is a Jivanmukta

He who does not shrink out of fear from the world , nor the world shrinks from him , who is free from anger , fear and joy , is a Jivanmukta

He whose mind is not agitated , though participating in the world , who rests in state of calmness and absolute consciousness , no matter what , is known as Jivanmukta

The concept and characteristics of Jivanmukta in Varaha Upanishad is similar , states Sprockhoff , but other Upanishads develop these ideas further and in greater depth .

= = = Yoga = = =

Chapter 5 of the Varaha Upanishad is dedicated to Yoga , as a discussion between Ribhu and his student Nidagha . There are three types of Yoga , states the text , and these are Laya ( soft ) , Mantra ( mystic ) , and Hatha ( middle ) , recommending Hatha Yoga as foremost of three . It discusses various aspects of Yoga , ranging from recommending that healthy food should be eaten in temperate quantities , in small portions , several times a day , to recommending that Yoga should not be performed when one is not feeling well or is very hungry . The goal of Yoga , states Varaha , is manifold , including the gain of body strength and suppleness , acquisition of knowledge of one 's own body and its auras , meditation , and Self ( soul ) knowledge .

= = = = Axiology : Yamas and Niyamas = = = =

The axiology in the Varaha Upanishad is presented in Chapter 5 as ten Yamas and ten Niyamas . This list is similar to the list found in other Yoga texts such as the Shandilya Upanishad , as well as by Svātmārāma :

Ahiṃsā ( अहिंसा ) : nonviolence

Satya ( सत ् य ) : truthfulness

Asteya ( अस ् तेय ) : not stealing

Brahmacharya ( ब ् रह ् मचर ् य ) : celibacy when single , not cheating on one 's partner

Kṣamā ( क ् षमा ) : forgiveness

Dhṛti ( धृति ) : fortitude

Dayā ( दया ) : compassion

Ārjava ( आर ् जव ) : non @-@ hypocrisy , sincerity

Mitāhāra ( मितहार ) : measured diet

Śauca ( शौच ) : purity , cleanliness

The Varaha Upanishad along with the Shandilya , suggests ten niyamas in the sense of positive duties , desirable behaviors , and discipline . The Varaha 's axiological list in Chapter 5 for observances include :

Tapas : persistence , perseverance in one 's purpose , penance austerity

Santoṣa : contentment , acceptance of others and of one 's circumstances as they are , joy

Āstika : faith in Real Self ( jnana yoga , raja yoga ) , belief in God ( bhakti yoga ) , conviction in Vedas / Upanishads ( orthodox school )

Dāna : generosity , charity , sharing with others

Īśvarapūjana : worship of the Ishvara ( God / Supreme Being , Brahman , True Self , Unchanging Reality )

Siddhānta śrāvaṇa : listening to the ancient scriptures , texts about ethics , values , and principles

Hrī : remorse and acceptance of one 's past , modesty , humility

Mati : think and reflect to understand , reconcile conflicting ideas

Japa : mantra repetition , reciting prayers or knowledge

Vrata : keeping promises , fast rituals , observing pilgrimage and yajna

= = = = Yogasanas = = = =

The Upanishad makes mention of eleven asanas ( Yogic postures ) , of which two pertain to physiological postures : the Peacock and the Rooster . It describes squatting with folded legs known as Sukhasana , a meditative pose .

Varaha gives a simile of an artist practicing dance to an orchestra , balancing a vessel on her head . She is focused only on the stability of the pot , in the same manner a practitioner of Yoga always contemplates on the Brahman . The yogic practice should be centered on the " spiritual sound " only . Immersion and self @-@ absorption in music is a form of yoga . Varaha encourages introspection , and states that a person discerning his own mistakes will be free of attachments in life .

= = = = Kundalini = = = =

Varaha emphatically states that Kundalini or corporeal energy is the ultimate power of truth . It is further states that prana , the life force , exists in the Nadis ( channels , pipes or tubes ) , which run in the body , emanating from the sole of the foot and running to the skull of the head . The six Chakras beginning with Muladhara are said to be the seat of Shakti . From the neck to the top of the head is said to be the seat of Shambu .

= Vettor Pisani @-@ class cruiser =

The Vettor Pisani class consisted of two armoured cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1890s . The two ships of the class , Vettor Pisani and Carlo Alberto , were frequently deployed overseas during their careers . The former served in the Far East during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 while the latter was involved in pioneering long @-@ range radio experiments several years later before deploying to South American waters . Carlo Alberto then served as a training ship for several years . Both ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 and played minor roles in World War I , during which time Carlo Alberto was converted into a troop transport and Vettor Pisani into a repair ship . They were both discarded in 1920 and subsequently scrapped .

= = Design and description = =

The ships of the class had a length between perpendiculars of 99 meters ( 324 ft 10 in ) and an overall length of 105 @.@ 7 meters ( 346 ft 9 in ) . They had a beam of 18 @.@ 04 meters ( 59 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 ft 7 in ) . They displaced 6 @,@ 397 – 6 @,@ 614 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 296 – 6 @,@ 510 long tons ) at normal load , and 7 @,@ 057 – 7 @,@ 128 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 946 – 7 @,@ 015 long tons ) at deep load . The Vettor Pisani class had a complement of 28 officers and 472 to 476 enlisted men .

The ships were powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was supplied by eight Scotch marine boilers and their exhausts were trunked into a pair of funnels amidships . Designed for a maximum output of 13 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 700 kW ) and a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , both ships exceeded their designed power during their sea trials although only Carlo Alberto met her designed speed . The two had a cruising radius of about 5 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .

The main armament of the Vettor Pisani @-@ class ships consisted of twelve quick @-@ firing ( QF ) Cannone da 152 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns in single mounts . These 152 mm ( 6 in ) weapons had 40 @-@ caliber barrels . All of these guns were mounted on the broadside , eight on the upper deck and four at the corners of the central citadel in armored casemates . The M1891 guns weighed 6 @.@ 6 metric tons ( 6 @.@ 5 long tons ) and fired a 45 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) , armor @-@ piercing , capped shell at a muzzle velocity of 700 m / s ( 2 @,@ 297 ft / s ) .

Single 40 @-@ caliber QF Cannone da 120 / 40 A Modello 1891 guns were mounted at the bow and stern and the remaining two or four 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were positioned on the main deck between the 152 mm guns . The 20 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 45 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell had a muzzle velocity of 645 m / s ( 2 @,@ 116 ft / s ) when fired by these guns . For defense against torpedo boats , the ships carried fourteen QF 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) Hotchkiss guns and six or eight QF 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . They were also equipped with four 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .

The ships were protected by an armored belt that was 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at the bow and stern . The upper strake of armor was also 15 cm thick and protected just the middle of the ship , up to the height of the upper deck . The curved armored deck was 3 @.@ 7 cm thick . The conning tower armor was also 15 cm thick and each 15 @.@ 2 cm gun was protected by a 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) gun shield .

= = Ships = =

= = Service = =

Vettor Pisani was the flagship of Rear Admiral Candiani , commander of the Cruising Squadron dispatched to China in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion . She arrived at La Spezia in early 1902 , but only remained in Italian waters for a year before returning to the Far East for another year @-@ long cruise .

Carlo Alberto acted as the royal yacht for King Victor Emmanuel III when he attended the coronation ceremony for King Edward VII of the United Kingdom in 1902 . Victor Emmanuel invited Guglielmo Marconi to accompany him and conduct radio experiments en route . When the coronation was delayed by Edward 's illness , the ship took Victor Emmanuel to meetings with Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in Kronstadt . She then ferried Marconi across the Atlantic to Nova Scotia for experiments transmitting radio messages across the ocean . After 15 December , when Marconi successfully transmitted messages from Canada to England , Carlo Alberto was sent to Venezuelan waters during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902 – 03 , when an international force of British , German , and Italian warships blockaded Venezuela over the country 's refusal to pay foreign debts . From 1907 to 1910 she served as a gunnery and torpedo training ship .

Both ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 . Vettor Pisani supported operations in the Adriatic and Aegean Seas and in the Dardanelles while Carlo Alberto took part in the assaults on Tripoli and Zuara and thereafter provided gunfire support to Italian forces in North Africa .

Obsolescent by the beginning of World War I , neither ship was very active during the war . Vettor Pisani spent the war in the Adriatic and participated in an abortive attempt in mid @-@ 1915 to bombard a rail line near Ragusa Vecchia on the Dalmatian coast . An Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine , U @-@ 4 , intercepted the Italian ships and sank the armored cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi . Vettor Pisani subsequently became a repair ship in 1916 and was stricken from the Navy List on 2 January 1920 . She was sold for scrap and broken up beginning on 13 March .

Carlo Alberto spent the almost the entire war based in Venice . She began conversion into a troop transport there in 1917 and the work was finished in Taranto early the next year ; she was recommissioned with the new name of Zenson . The ship was discarded on 12 June 1920 and subsequently scrapped .

= Radius of maximum wind =

The radius of maximum wind ( RMW ) is the distance between the center of a cyclone and its band of strongest winds . It is a parameter in atmospheric dynamics and tropical cyclone forecasting . The highest rainfall rates occur near the RMW of tropical cyclones . The extent of a cyclone 's storm surge and its maximum potential intensity can be determined using the RMW . As maximum sustained winds increase , the RMW decreases . Recently , RMW has been used in descriptions of tornadoes . When designing buildings to prevent against failure from atmospheric pressure change , RMW can be used in the calculations .

= = Determination = =

The RMW is traditionally measured by reconnaissance aircraft in the Atlantic basin . It can also be determined on weather maps as the distance between the cyclone center and the system 's greatest pressure gradient . Using weather satellite data , the distance between the coldest cloud top temperature and the warmest temperatature within the eye , in infrared satellite imagery , is one method of determining RMW . The reason why this method has merit is that the strongest winds within tropical cyclones tend to be located under the deepest convection , which is seen on satellite imagery as the coldest cloud tops . Use of velocity data from Doppler weather radar can also be used to determine this quantity , both for tornadoes and tropical cyclones near the coast .

= = Tornadoes = =

In the case of tornadoes , knowledge of the RMW is important as atmospheric pressure change ( APC ) within sealed buildings can cause failure of the structure . Most buildings have openings totaling one square foot per 1 @,@ 000 @-@ cubic @-@ foot ( 28 m3 ) volume to help equalize air pressure between the inside and outside of the structures . The APC is around one @-@ half of its maximum value at the RMW , which normally ranges between 150 feet ( 46 m ) and 500 feet ( 150 m ) from the center ( or eye ) of the tornado . The widest tornado as measured by actual radar wind measurements was the Mulhall tornado in northern Oklahoma , part of the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak , which had a radius of maximum wind of over 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .

= = Tropical cyclones = =

An average value for the RMW of 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) was calculated as the mean ( or average ) of all hurricanes with a lowest central atmospheric pressure between a pressure of 909 hectopascals ( 26 @.@ 8 inHg ) and 993 hectopascals ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . As tropical cyclones intensify , maximum sustained winds increase as the RMW decreases . The heaviest rainfall within intense tropical cyclones has been observed in the vicinity of the RMW .

The radius of maximum wind helps determine the direct strikes of tropical cyclones . Tropical cyclones are considered to have made a direct strike to a landmass when a tropical cyclone passes close enough to a landmass that areas inside the radius of maximum wind are experienced on land . The radius of maximum wind is used within the maximum potential intensity equation . The Emanuel equation for Maximum Intensity Potential relies upon the winds near the RMW of a tropical cyclone to determine its ultimate potential .

The highest storm surge is normally coincident with the radius of maximum wind . Because the strongest winds within a tropical cyclone lie at the RMW , this is the region of a tropical cyclone which generates the dominant waves near the storm , and ultimately ocean swell away from the cyclone . Tropical cyclones mix the ocean water within a radius three times that of the RMW , which lowers sea surface temperatures due to upwelling .

Much is still unknown about the radius of maximum wind in tropical cyclones , including whether or not it can be predictable .

= William Wilberforce =

William Wilberforce ( 24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833 ) was an English politician , philanthropist , and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade . A native of Kingston upon Hull , Yorkshire , he began his political career in 1780 , eventually becoming the independent Member of Parliament for Yorkshire ( 1784 – 1812 ) . In 1785 , he became an Evangelical Christian , which resulted in major changes to his lifestyle and a lifelong concern for reform .

In 1787 , he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of anti @-@ slave @-@ trade activists , including Granville Sharp , Hannah More and Charles Middleton . They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition , and he soon became one of the leading English abolitionists . He headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act of 1807 .

Wilberforce was convinced of the importance of religion , morality and education . He championed causes and campaigns such as the Society for the Suppression of Vice , British missionary work in India , the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone , the foundation of the Church Mission Society , and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals . His underlying conservatism led him to support politically and socially controversial legislation , and resulted in criticism that he was ignoring injustices at home while campaigning for the enslaved abroad .

In later years , Wilberforce supported the campaign for the complete abolition of slavery , and continued his involvement after 1826 , when he resigned from Parliament because of his failing health . That campaign led to the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 , which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire ; Wilberforce died just three days after hearing that the passage of the Act through Parliament was assured . He was buried in Westminster Abbey , close to his friend William Pitt .

= = Early life and education = =

Wilberforce was born in a house on the High Street of Hull , in the East Riding of Yorkshire : England , on 24 August 1759 , the only son of Robert Wilberforce ( 1728 – 68 ) , a wealthy merchant , and his wife Elizabeth Bird ( 1730 – 98 ) . His grandfather William ( 1690 – 1774 or 1776 ) had made the family fortune in the maritime trade with Baltic countries , and had twice been elected mayor of Hull .

Wilberforce was a small , sickly and delicate child , with poor eyesight . In 1767 he began attending Hull Grammar School , at the time headed by a young , dynamic headmaster , Joseph Milner , who was to become a lifelong friend . Wilberforce profited from the supportive atmosphere at the school until the death of his father in 1768 . With his mother struggling to cope , the nine @-@ year @-@ old Wilberforce was sent to a prosperous uncle and aunt with houses in both St James ' Place , London , and Wimbledon , at that time a village 7 miles ( 11 km ) south @-@ west of London . He attended an " indifferent " boarding school in Putney for two years , spending his holidays in Wimbledon , where he grew extremely fond of his relatives . He became interested in evangelical Christianity because of their influence , especially that of his aunt Hannah , sister of the wealthy Christian merchant John Thornton , a philanthropist and a supporter of the leading Methodist preacher George Whitefield .

Wilberforce 's staunchly Church of England mother and grandfather , alarmed at these nonconformist influences and at his leanings towards evangelicalism , brought the 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy back to Hull in 1771 . Wilberforce was heartbroken to be separated from his aunt and uncle . His family opposed a return to Hull Grammar School because the headmaster had become a Methodist ; Wilberforce therefore continued his education at nearby Pocklington School from 1771 to 1776 . Influenced by Methodist scruples , he initially resisted Hull 's lively social life , but as his religious fervour diminished , he embraced theatre @-@ going , attended balls and played cards .

In October 1776 , at the age of 17 , Wilberforce went up to St John 's College , Cambridge . The deaths of his grandfather and uncle in 1777 had left him independently wealthy , and as a result he had little inclination or need to apply himself to serious study . Instead , he immersed himself in the social round of student life , and pursued a hedonistic lifestyle enjoying cards , gambling and late @-@ night drinking sessions — although he found the excesses of some of his fellow students distasteful . Witty , generous , and an excellent conversationalist , Wilberforce was a popular figure . He made many friends , including the more studious future Prime Minister , William Pitt . Despite his lifestyle and lack of interest in studying , he managed to pass his examinations , and was awarded a B.A. in 1781 and an M.A. in 1788 .

= = Early parliamentary career = =

Wilberforce began to consider a political career while still at university , and during the winter of 1779 – 80 , he and Pitt frequently watched House of Commons debates from the gallery . Pitt , already set on a political career , encouraged Wilberforce to join him in obtaining a parliamentary seat . In September 1780 , at the age of twenty @-@ one and while still a student , Wilberforce was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Kingston upon Hull , spending over £ 8 @,@ 000 to ensure he received the necessary votes , as was the custom of the time . Free from financial pressures , Wilberforce sat as an independent , resolving to be " no party man " . Criticised at times for inconsistency , he supported both Tory and Whig governments according to his conscience , working closely with the party in power , and voting on specific measures according to their merits .

Wilberforce attended Parliament regularly , but he also maintained a lively social life , becoming an habitué of gentlemen 's gambling clubs such as Goostree 's and Boodle 's in Pall Mall , London . The writer and socialite Madame de Staël described him as the " wittiest man in England " and , according to Georgiana , Duchess of Devonshire , the Prince of Wales said that he would go anywhere to hear Wilberforce sing .

Wilberforce used his speaking voice to great effect in political speeches ; the diarist and author James Boswell witnessed Wilberforce 's eloquence in the House of Commons and noted , " I saw what seemed a mere shrimp mount upon the table ; but as I listened , he grew , and grew , until the shrimp became a whale . " During the frequent government changes of 1781 – 84 , Wilberforce supported his friend Pitt in parliamentary debates .

In autumn 1783 , Pitt , Wilberforce and Edward Eliot ( later to become Pitt 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , travelled to France for a six @-@ week holiday together . After a difficult start in Rheims , where their presence aroused police suspicion that they were English spies , they visited Paris , meeting Benjamin Franklin , General Lafayette , Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI , and joined the French court at Fontainebleau .

Pitt became Prime Minister in December 1783 , with Wilberforce a key supporter of his minority government . Despite their close friendship , there is no record that Pitt offered Wilberforce a ministerial position in this or future governments . This may have been due to Wilberforce 's wish to remain an independent MP . Alternatively , Wilberforce 's frequent tardiness and disorganisation , as well as the chronic eye problems that at times made reading impossible , may have convinced Pitt that his trusted friend was not ministerial material . When Parliament was dissolved in the spring of 1784 , Wilberforce decided to stand as a candidate for the county of Yorkshire in the 1784 general election . On 6 April , he was returned as MP for Yorkshire at the age of twenty @-@ four .

= = Conversion = =

In October 1784 , Wilberforce embarked upon a tour of Europe which would ultimately change his life and determine his future career . He travelled with his mother and sister in the company of Isaac Milner , the brilliant younger brother of his former headmaster , who had been Fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , in the year when Wilberforce first went up . They visited the French Riviera and enjoyed the usual pastimes of dinners , cards , and gambling . In February 1785 , Wilberforce returned to the United Kingdom temporarily , to support Pitt 's proposals for parliamentary reforms . He rejoined the party in Genoa , Italy , from where they continued their tour to Switzerland . Milner accompanied Wilberforce to England , and on the journey they read The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul by Philip Doddridge , a leading early 18th @-@ century English nonconformist .

Wilberforce 's spiritual journey is thought to have begun at this time . He started to rise early to read the Bible and pray and kept a private journal . He underwent an evangelical conversion , regretting his past life and resolving to commit his future life and work to the service of God . His conversion changed some of his habits , but not his nature : he remained outwardly cheerful , interested and respectful , tactfully urging others towards his new faith . Inwardly , he underwent an agonising struggle and became relentlessly self @-@ critical , harshly judging his spirituality , use of time , vanity , self @-@ control and relationships with others .

At the time , religious enthusiasm was generally regarded as a social transgression and was stigmatised in polite society . Evangelicals in the upper classes , such as Sir Richard Hill , the Methodist MP for Shropshire , and Selina Hastings , Countess of Huntingdon , were exposed to contempt and ridicule , and Wilberforce 's conversion led him to question whether he should remain in public life . He sought guidance from John Newton , a leading Evangelical Anglican clergyman of the day and Rector of St Mary Woolnoth in the City of London . Both Newton and Pitt counselled him to remain in politics , and he resolved to do so " with increased diligence and conscientiousness " . Thereafter , his political views were informed by his faith and by his desire to promote Christianity and Christian ethics in private and public life . His views were often deeply conservative , opposed to radical changes in a God @-@ given political and social order , and focused on issues such as the observance of the Sabbath and the eradication of immorality through education and reform . As a result , he was often distrusted by progressive voices because of his conservatism , and regarded with suspicion by many Tories who saw Evangelicals as radicals , bent on the overthrow of church and state .

In 1786 , Wilberforce leased a house in Old Palace Yard , Westminster , in order to be near Parliament . He began using his parliamentary position to advocate reform by introducing a Registration Bill , proposing limited changes to parliamentary election procedures . He brought forward a bill to extend the measure permitting the dissection after execution of criminals such as rapists , arsonists and thieves . The bill also advocated the reduction of sentences for women convicted of treason , a crime that at the time included a husband 's murder . The House of Commons passed both bills , but they were defeated in the House of Lords .

= = Abolition of the slave trade = =

= = = Initial decision = = =

The British initially became involved in the slave trade during the 16th century . By 1783 , the triangular route that took British @-@ made goods to Africa to buy slaves , transported the enslaved to the West Indies , and then brought slave @-@ grown products such as sugar , tobacco , and cotton to Britain , represented about 80 percent of Great Britain 's foreign income . British ships dominated the trade , supplying French , Spanish , Dutch , Portuguese and British colonies , and in peak years carried forty thousand enslaved men , women and children across the Atlantic in the horrific conditions of the middle passage . Of the estimated 11 million Africans transported into slavery , about 1 @.@ 4 million died during the voyage .

The British campaign to abolish the slave trade is generally considered to have begun in the 1780s with the establishment of the Quakers ' antislavery committees , and their presentation to Parliament of the first slave trade petition in 1783 . The same year , Wilberforce , while dining with his old Cambridge friend Gerard Edwards , met Rev. James Ramsay , a ship 's surgeon who had become a clergyman on the island of St Christopher ( later St Kitts ) in the Leeward Islands , and a medical supervisor of the plantations there . What Ramsay had witnessed of the conditions endured by the slaves , both at sea and on the plantations , horrified him . Returning to England after fifteen years , he accepted the living of Teston , Kent in 1781 , and there met Sir Charles Middleton , Lady Middleton , Thomas Clarkson , Hannah More and others , a group that later became known as the Testonites . Interested in promoting Christianity and moral improvement in Britain and overseas , they were appalled by Ramsay 's reports of the depraved lifestyles of slave owners , the cruel treatment meted out to the enslaved , and the lack of Christian instruction provided to the slaves . With their encouragement and help , Ramsay spent three years writing An essay on the treatment and conversion of African slaves in the British sugar colonies , which was highly critical of slavery in the West Indies . The book , published in 1784 , was to have an important impact in raising public awareness and interest , and it excited the ire of West Indian planters who in the coming years attacked both Ramsay and his ideas in a series of pro @-@ slavery tracts .

Wilberforce apparently did not follow up on his meeting with Ramsay . However , three years later , and inspired by his new faith , Wilberforce was growing interested in humanitarian reform . In November 1786 , he received a letter from Sir Charles Middleton that re @-@ opened his interest in the slave trade . At the urging of Lady Middleton , Sir Charles suggested that Wilberforce bring forward the abolition of the slave trade in Parliament . Wilberforce responded that he " felt the great importance of the subject , and thought himself unequal to the task allotted to him , but yet would not positively decline it " . He began to read widely on the subject , and met with the Testonites at Middleton 's home at Barham Court in Teston in the early winter of 1786 – 87 .

In early 1787 , Thomas Clarkson , a fellow graduate of St John 's , Cambridge , who had become convinced of the need to end the slave trade after writing a prize @-@ winning essay on the subject while at Cambridge , called upon Wilberforce at Old Palace Yard with a published copy of the work . This was the first time the two men had met ; their collaboration would last nearly fifty years . Clarkson began to visit Wilberforce on a weekly basis , bringing first @-@ hand evidence he had obtained about the slave trade . The Quakers , already working for abolition , also recognised the need for influence within Parliament , and urged Clarkson to secure a commitment from Wilberforce to bring forward the case for abolition in the House of Commons .

It was arranged that Bennet Langton , a Lincolnshire landowner and mutual acquaintance of Wilberforce and Clarkson , would organize a dinner party in order to ask Wilberforce formally to lead the parliamentary campaign . The dinner took place on 13 March 1787 ; other guests included Charles Middleton , Sir Joshua Reynolds , William Windham , MP , James Boswell and Isaac Hawkins Browne , MP . By the end of the evening , Wilberforce had agreed in general terms that he would bring forward the abolition of the slave trade in Parliament , " provided that no person more proper could be found " .

The same spring , on 12 May 1787 , the still hesitant Wilberforce held a conversation with William Pitt and the future Prime Minister William Grenville as they sat under a large oak tree on Pitt 's estate in Kent . Under what came to be known as the " Wilberforce Oak " at Holwood , Pitt challenged his friend : " Wilberforce , why don 't you give notice of a motion on the subject of the Slave Trade ? You have already taken great pains to collect evidence , and are therefore fully entitled to the credit which doing so will ensure you . Do not lose time , or the ground will be occupied by another . " Wilberforce 's response is not recorded , but he later declared in old age that he could " distinctly remember the very knoll on which I was sitting near Pitt and Grenville " where he made his decision .

Wilberforce 's involvement in the abolition movement was motivated by a desire to put his Christian principles into action and to serve God in public life . He and other Evangelicals were horrified by what they perceived was a depraved and unchristian trade , and the greed and avarice of the owners and traders . Wilberforce sensed a call from God , writing in a journal entry in 1787 that " God Almighty has set before me two great objects , the suppression of the Slave Trade and the Reformation of Manners [ moral values ] " . The conspicuous involvement of Evangelicals in the highly popular anti @-@ slavery movement served to improve the status of a group otherwise associated with the less popular campaigns against vice and immorality .

= = = Early parliamentary action = = =

On 22 May 1787 , the first meeting of the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade took place , bringing like @-@ minded British Quakers and Anglicans together in the same organisation for the first time . The committee chose to campaign against the slave trade rather than slavery itself , with many members believing that slavery would eventually disappear as a natural consequence of the abolition of the trade . Wilberforce , though involved informally , did not join the committee officially until 1791 .

The society was highly successful in raising public awareness and support , and local chapters sprang up throughout Great Britain . Clarkson travelled the country researching and collecting first @-@ hand testimony and statistics , while the committee promoted the campaign , pioneering techniques such as lobbying , writing pamphlets , holding public meetings , gaining press attention , organising boycotts and even using a campaign logo : an image of a kneeling slave above the motto " Am I not a Man and a Brother ? " , designed by the renowned pottery @-@ maker Josiah Wedgwood . The committee also sought to influence slave @-@ trading nations such as France , Spain , Portugal , Denmark , Holland and the United States , corresponding with anti @-@ slavery activists in other countries and organising the translation of English @-@ language books and pamphlets . These included books by former slaves Ottobah Cugoano and Olaudah Equiano , who had published influential works on slavery and the slave trade in 1787 and 1789 respectively . They and other free blacks , collectively known as " Sons of Africa " , spoke at debating societies and wrote spirited letters to newspapers , periodicals and prominent figures , as well as public letters of support to campaign allies . Hundreds of parliamentary petitions opposing the slave trade were received in 1788 and following years , with hundreds of thousands of signatories in total . The campaign proved to be the world 's first grassroots human rights campaign , in which men and women from different social classes and backgrounds volunteered to try to end the injustices suffered by others .

Wilberforce had planned to introduce a motion giving notice that he would bring forward a bill for the Abolition of the Slave Trade during the 1789 parliamentary session . However , in January 1788 , he was taken ill with a probable stress @-@ related condition , now thought to be ulcerative colitis . It was several months before he was able to resume work , and he spent time convalescing at Bath and Cambridge . His regular bouts of gastrointestinal illnesses precipitated the use of moderate quantities of opium , which proved effective in alleviating his condition , and which he continued to use for the rest of his life .

In Wilberforce 's absence , Pitt , who had long been supportive of abolition , introduced the preparatory motion himself , and ordered a Privy Council investigation into the slave trade , followed by a House of Commons review .

With the publication of the Privy Council report in April 1789 and following months of planning , Wilberforce commenced his parliamentary campaign . On 12 May 1789 , he made his first major speech on the subject of abolition in the House of Commons , in which he reasoned that the trade was morally reprehensible and an issue of natural justice . Drawing on Thomas Clarkson 's mass of evidence , he described in detail the appalling conditions in which slaves travelled from Africa in the middle passage , and argued that abolishing the trade would also bring an improvement to the conditions of existing slaves in the West Indies . He moved 12 resolutions condemning the slave trade , but made no reference to the abolition of slavery itself , instead dwelling on the potential for reproduction in the existing slave population should the trade be abolished . With the tide running against them , the opponents of abolition delayed the vote by proposing that the House of Commons hear its own evidence , and Wilberforce , in a move that has subsequently been criticised for prolonging the slave trade , reluctantly agreed . The hearings were not completed by the end of the parliamentary session , and were deferred until the following year . In the meantime , Wilberforce and Clarkson tried unsuccessfully to take advantage of the egalitarian atmosphere of the French Revolution to press for France 's abolition of the trade , which was , in any event , to be abolished in 1794 as a result of the bloody slave revolt in St. Domingue ( later to be known as Haiti ) , although later briefly restored by Napoleon in 1802 .

In January 1790 , Wilberforce succeeded in speeding up the hearings by gaining approval for a smaller parliamentary select committee to consider the vast quantity of evidence which had been accumulated . Wilberforce 's house in Old Palace Yard became a centre for the abolitionists ' campaign and a focus for many strategy meetings . Petitioners for other causes also besieged him there , and his ante @-@ room was thronged from an early hour , like " Noah 's Ark , full of beasts clean and unclean " , according to Hannah More .

Interrupted by a general election in June 1790 , the committee finally finished hearing witnesses , and in April 1791 with a closely reasoned four @-@ hour speech , Wilberforce introduced the first parliamentary bill to abolish the slave trade . However , after two evenings of debate , the bill was easily defeated by 163 votes to 88 , the political climate having swung in a conservative direction in the wake of the French Revolution and in reaction to an increase in radicalism and to slave revolts in the French West Indies . Such was the public hysteria of the time that even Wilberforce himself was suspected by some of being a Jacobin agitator .

This was the beginning of a protracted parliamentary campaign , during which Wilberforce 's commitment never wavered , despite frustration and hostility . He was supported in his work by fellow members of the so @-@ called Clapham Sect , among whom was his best friend and cousin Henry Thornton . Holding evangelical Christian convictions , and consequently dubbed " the Saints " , the group mainly lived in large houses surrounding the common in Clapham , then a village to the south @-@ west of London . Wilberforce accepted an invitation to share a house with Henry Thornton in 1792 , moving into his own home after Thornton 's marriage in 1796 . The " Saints " were an informal community , characterised by considerable intimacy as well as a commitment to practical Christianity and an opposition to slavery . They developed a relaxed family atmosphere , wandering freely in and out of each other 's homes and gardens , and discussing the many religious , social and political topics that engaged them .

Pro @-@ slavery advocates claimed that enslaved Africans were lesser human beings who benefited from their bondage . Wilberforce , the Clapham Sect and others were anxious to demonstrate that Africans , and particularly freed slaves , had human and economic abilities beyond the slave trade , and that they were capable of sustaining a well @-@ ordered society , trade and cultivation . Inspired in part by the utopian vision of Granville Sharp , they became involved in the establishment in 1792 of a free colony in Sierra Leone with black settlers from the United Kingdom , Nova Scotia and Jamaica , as well as native Africans and some whites . They formed the Sierra Leone Company , with Wilberforce subscribing liberally to the project in money and time . The dream was of an ideal society in which races would mix on equal terms ; the reality was fraught with tension , crop failures , disease , death , war and defections to the slave trade . Initially a commercial venture , the British government assumed responsibility for the colony in 1808 . The colony , although troubled at times , was to become a symbol of anti @-@ slavery in which residents , communities and African tribal chiefs , worked together to prevent enslavement at the source , supported by a British naval blockade to stem the region 's slave trade .

On 2 April 1792 , Wilberforce again brought a bill calling for abolition . The memorable debate that followed drew contributions from the greatest orators in the house , William Pitt and Charles James Fox , as well as from Wilberforce himself . Lord Melville , as Home Secretary , proposed a compromise solution of so @-@ called " gradual abolition " over a number of years . This was passed by 230 to 85 votes , but the compromise was little more than a clever ploy , with the intention of ensuring that total abolition would be delayed indefinitely .

= = = War with France = = =

On 26 February 1793 , another vote to abolish the slave trade was narrowly defeated by eight votes . The outbreak of war with France the same month effectively prevented any further serious consideration of the issue , as politicians concentrated on the national crisis and the threat of invasion . The same year , and again in 1794 , Wilberforce unsuccessfully brought before Parliament a bill to outlaw British ships from supplying slaves to foreign colonies . He voiced his concern about the war and urged Pitt and his government to make greater efforts to end hostilities . Growing more alarmed , on 31 December 1794 , Wilberforce moved that the government seek a peaceful resolution with France , a stance that created a temporary breach in his long friendship with Pitt .

Abolition continued to be associated in the public consciousness with the French Revolution and with British radical groups , resulting in a decline in public support . In 1795 , the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade ceased to meet , and Clarkson retired in ill @-@ health to the Lake District . However , despite the decreased interest in abolition , Wilberforce continued to introduce abolition bills throughout the 1790s .

The early years of the 19th century once again saw an increased public interest in abolition . Since Napoleon had reintroduced slavery in the French colonies , support of abolition was no longer perceived as being pro @-@ French .

In 1804 , Clarkson resumed his work and the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade began meeting again , strengthened with prominent new members such as Zachary Macaulay , Henry Brougham and James Stephen . In June 1804 , Wilberforce 's bill to abolish the slave trade successfully passed all its stages through the House of Commons . However , it was too late in the parliamentary session for it to complete its passage through the House of Lords . On its reintroduction during the 1805 session , it was defeated , with even the usually sympathetic Pitt failing to support it . On this occasion and throughout the campaign , abolition was held back by Wilberforce 's trusting , even credulous nature , and his deferential attitude towards those in power . He found it difficult to believe that men of rank would not do what he perceived to be the right thing , and was reluctant to confront them when they did not .

= = = Final phase of the campaign = = =

Following Pitt 's death in January 1806 , Wilberforce began to collaborate more with the Whigs , especially the abolitionists . He gave general support to the Grenville – Fox administration , which brought more abolitionists into the cabinet ; Wilberforce and Charles Fox led the campaign in the House of Commons , while Lord Grenville advocated the cause in the House of Lords .

A radical change of tactics , which involved the introduction of a bill to ban British subjects from aiding or participating in the slave trade to the French colonies , was suggested by maritime lawyer James Stephen . It was a shrewd move , since the majority of British ships were now flying American flags and supplying slaves to foreign colonies with whom Britain was at war . A bill was introduced and approved by the cabinet , and Wilberforce and other abolitionists maintained a self @-@ imposed silence , so as not to draw any attention to the effect of the bill . The approach proved successful , and the new Foreign Slave Trade Bill was quickly passed , and received royal assent on 23 May 1806 . Wilberforce and Clarkson had collected a large volume of evidence against the slave trade over the previous two decades , and Wilberforce spent the latter part of 1806 writing A Letter on the Abolition of the Slave Trade , which was a comprehensive restatement of the abolitionists ' case . The death of Fox in September 1806 was a blow , and was followed quickly by a general election in the autumn of 1806 . Slavery became an election issue , bringing more abolitionist MPs into the House of Commons , including former military men who had personally experienced the horrors of slavery and slave revolts . Wilberforce was re @-@ elected as an MP for Yorkshire , after which he returned to finishing and publishing his Letter , in reality a 400 @-@ page book which formed the basis for the final phase of the campaign .

Lord Grenville , the Prime Minister , was determined to introduce an Abolition Bill in the House of Lords , rather than in the House of Commons , taking it through its greatest challenge first . When a final vote was taken , the bill was passed in the House of Lords by a large margin . Sensing a breakthrough that had been long anticipated , Charles Grey moved for a second reading in the Commons on 23 February 1807 . As tributes were made to Wilberforce , whose face streamed with tears , the bill was carried by 283 votes to 16 . Excited supporters suggested taking advantage of the large majority to seek the abolition of slavery itself , but Wilberforce made it clear that total emancipation was not the immediate goal : " They had for the present no object immediately before them , but that of putting stop directly to the carrying of men in British ships to be sold as slaves . " The Slave Trade Act received royal assent on 25 March 1807 .

= = Personal life = =

In his youth , Wilberforce showed little interest in women , but in his late thirties , twenty @-@ year @-@ old Barbara Ann Spooner ( 1777 – 1847 ) was recommended by his friend Thomas Babington as a potential bride . Wilberforce met her two days later on 15 April 1797 , and was immediately smitten ; following an eight @-@ day whirlwind romance , he proposed . Despite the urgings of friends to slow down , the couple married at the Church of St Swithin in Bath , Somerset , on 30 May 1797 . They were devoted to each other , and Barbara was very attentive and supportive to Wilberforce in his increasing ill health , though she showed little interest in his political activities . They had six children in fewer than ten years : William ( b . 1798 ) , Barbara ( b . 1799 ) , Elizabeth ( b . 1801 ) , Robert Isaac Wilberforce ( b . 1802 ) , Samuel Wilberforce ( b . 1805 ) and Henry William Wilberforce ( b . 1807 ) . Wilberforce was an indulgent and adoring father who revelled in his time at home and at play with his children .

= = Other concerns = =

= = = Political and social reform = = =

Wilberforce was deeply conservative when it came to challenges to the existing political and social order . He advocated change in society through Christianity and improvement in morals , education and religion , fearing and opposing radical causes and revolution . The radical writer William Cobbett was among those who attacked what they saw as Wilberforce 's hypocrisy in campaigning for better working conditions for slaves while British workers lived in terrible conditions at home . " Never have you done one single act , in favour of the labourers of this country " , he wrote . Critics noted Wilberforce 's support of the suspension of habeas corpus in 1795 and his votes for Pitt 's " Gagging Bills " , which banned meetings of more than 50 people , allowing speakers to be arrested and imposing harsh penalties on those who attacked the constitution . Wilberforce was opposed to giving workers ' rights to organise into unions , in 1799 speaking in favour of the Combination Act , which suppressed trade union activity throughout the United Kingdom , and calling unions " a general disease in our society " . He also opposed an enquiry into the 1819 Peterloo Massacre in which eleven protesters were killed at a political rally demanding reform . Concerned about " bad men who wished to produce anarchy and confusion " , he approved of the government 's Six Acts , which further limited public meetings and seditious writings . Wilberforce 's actions led the essayist William Hazlitt to condemn him as one " who preaches vital Christianity to untutored savages , and tolerates its worst abuses in civilised states . "

Wilberforce 's views of women and religion were also conservative . He disapproved of women anti @-@ slavery activists such as Elizabeth Heyrick , who organised women 's abolitionist groups in the 1820s , protesting : " [ F ] or ladies to meet , to publish , to go from house to house stirring up petitions – these appear to me proceedings unsuited to the female character as delineated in Scripture . " Wilberforce initially strongly opposed bills for Catholic emancipation , which would have allowed Catholics to become MPs , hold public office and serve in the army , although by 1813 , he had changed his views and spoke in favour of a similar bill .

More progressively , Wilberforce advocated legislation to improve the working conditions for chimney @-@ sweeps and textile workers , engaged in prison reform , and supported campaigns to restrict capital punishment and the severe punishments meted out under the Game Laws . He recognised the importance of education in alleviating poverty , and when Hannah More and her sister established Sunday schools for the poor in Somerset and the Mendips , he provided financial and moral support as they faced opposition from landowners and Anglican clergy . From the late 1780s onward , Wilberforce campaigned for limited parliamentary reform , such as the abolition of rotten boroughs and the redistribution of Commons seats to growing towns and cities , though by 1832 , he feared that such measures went too far . With others , Wilberforce founded the world 's first animal welfare organisation , the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ( later the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ) . In 1824 , Wilberforce was one of over 30 eminent gentlemen who put their names at the inaugural public meeting to the fledgling National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck , later named the Royal National Lifeboat Institution . He was also opposed to duelling , which he described as the " disgrace of a Christian society " and was appalled when his friend Pitt engaged in a duel in 1798 , particularly as it occurred on a Sunday , the Christian day of rest .

Wilberforce was generous with his time and money , believing that those with wealth had a duty to give a significant portion of their income to the needy . Yearly , he gave away thousands of pounds , much of it to clergymen to distribute in their parishes . He paid off the debts of others , supported education and missions , and in a year of food shortages , gave to charity more than his own yearly income . He was exceptionally hospitable , and could not bear to sack any of his servants . As a result , his home was full of old and incompetent servants kept on in charity . Although he was often months behind in his correspondence , Wilberforce responded to numerous requests for advice or for help in obtaining professorships , military promotions and livings for clergymen , or for the reprieve of death sentences .

= = = Evangelical Christianity = = =

A supporter of the evangelical wing of the Church of England , Wilberforce believed that the revitalisation of the Church and individual Christian observance would lead to a harmonious , moral society . He sought to elevate the status of religion in public and private life , making piety fashionable in both the upper- and middle @-@ classes of society . To this end , in April 1797 , Wilberforce published A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of This Country Contrasted With Real Christianity , on which he had been working since 1793 . This was an exposition of New Testament doctrine and teachings and a call for a revival of Christianity , as a response to the moral decline of the nation , illustrating his own personal testimony and the views which inspired him . The book proved to be influential and a best @-@ seller by the standards of the day ; 7 @,@ 500 copies were sold within six months , and it was translated into several languages .

Wilberforce fostered and supported missionary activity in Britain and abroad . He was a founding member of the Church Missionary Society ( since renamed the Church Mission Society ) and was involved , with other members of the Clapham Sect , in numerous other evangelical and charitable organisations . Horrified by the lack of Christian evangelism in India , Wilberforce used the 1793 renewal of the British East India Company 's charter to propose the addition of clauses requiring the company to provide teachers and chaplains and to commit to the " religious improvement " of Indians . The plan was unsuccessful due to lobbying by the directors of the company , who feared that their commercial interests would be damaged . Wilberforce tried again in 1813 , when the charter next came up for renewal . Using petitions , meetings , lobbying and letter writing , he successfully campaigned for changes to the charter . Speaking in favour of the Charter Act 1813 , he criticised the British in India for their hypocrisy and racial prejudice , while also condemning aspects of Hinduism including the caste system , infanticide , polygamy and suttee . " Our religion is sublime , pure beneficent " , he said , " theirs is mean , licentious and cruel " .

= = = Moral reform = = =

Greatly concerned by what he perceived to be the degeneracy of British society , Wilberforce was also active in matters of moral reform , lobbying against " the torrent of profaneness that every day makes more rapid advances " , and considered this issue and the abolition of the slave trade as equally important goals . At the suggestion of Wilberforce and Bishop Porteus , King George III was requested by the Archbishop of Canterbury to issue in 1787 the Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice , as a remedy for the rising tide of immorality . The proclamation commanded the prosecution of those guilty of " excessive drinking , blasphemy , profane swearing and cursing , lewdness , profanation of the Lord 's Day , and other dissolute , immoral , or disorderly practices " . Greeted largely with public indifference , Wilberforce sought to increase its impact by mobilising public figures to the cause , and by founding the Society for the Suppression of Vice . This and other societies in which Wilberforce was a prime mover , such as the Proclamation Society , mustered support for the prosecution of those who had been charged with violating relevant laws , including brothel keepers , distributors of pornographic material , and those who did not respect the Sabbath . Years later , the writer and clergyman Sydney Smith criticised Wilberforce for being more interested in the sins of the poor than those of the rich , and suggested that a better name would have been the Society for " suppressing the vices of persons whose income does not exceed £ 500 per annum " . The societies were not highly successful in terms of membership and support , although their activities did lead to the imprisonment of Thomas Williams , the London printer of Thomas Paine 's The Age of Reason . Wilberforce 's attempts to legislate against adultery and Sunday newspapers were also in vain ; his involvement and leadership in other , less punitive , approaches were more successful in the long @-@ term , however . By the end of his life , British morals , manners , and sense of social responsibility had increased , paving the way for future changes in societal conventions and attitudes during the Victorian era .

= = = Emancipation of enslaved Africans = = =

The hopes of the abolitionists notwithstanding , slavery did not wither with the end of the slave trade in the British Empire , nor did the living conditions of the enslaved improve . The trade continued , with few countries following suit by abolishing the trade , and with some British ships disregarding the legislation . Wilberforce worked with the members of the African Institution to ensure the enforcement of abolition and to promote abolitionist negotiations with other countries . In particular , the US had abolished the slave trade in 1808 , and Wilberforce lobbied the American government to enforce its own prohibition more strongly .

The same year , Wilberforce moved his family from Clapham to a sizeable mansion with a large garden in Kensington Gore , closer to the Houses of Parliament . Never strong , and by 1812 in worsening health , Wilberforce resigned his Yorkshire seat , and became MP for the rotten borough of Bramber in Sussex , a seat with little or no constituency obligations , thus allowing him more time for his family and the causes that interested him . From 1816 Wilberforce introduced a series of bills which would require the compulsory registration of slaves , together with details of their country of origin , permitting the illegal importation of foreign slaves to be detected . Later in the same year he began publicly to denounce slavery itself , though he did not demand immediate emancipation , as " They had always thought the slaves incapable of liberty at present , but hoped that by degrees a change might take place as the natural result of the abolition . "

In 1820 , after a period of poor health , and with his eyesight failing , Wilberforce took the decision to further limit his public activities , although he became embroiled in unsuccessful mediation attempts between King George IV , and his estranged wife Caroline of Brunswick , who had sought her rights as queen . Nevertheless , Wilberforce still hoped " to lay a foundation for some future measures for the emancipation of the poor slaves " , which he believed should come about gradually in stages . Aware that the cause would need younger men to continue the work , in 1821 he asked fellow MP Thomas Fowell Buxton to take over leadership of the campaign in the Commons . As the 1820s wore on , Wilberforce increasingly became a figurehead for the abolitionist movement , although he continued to appear at anti @-@ slavery meetings , welcoming visitors , and maintaining a busy correspondence on the subject .

The year 1823 saw the founding of the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery ( later the Anti @-@ Slavery Society ) , and the publication of Wilberforce 's 56 @-@ page Appeal to the Religion , Justice and Humanity of the Inhabitants of the British Empire in Behalf of the Negro Slaves in the West Indies . In his treatise , Wilberforce urged that total emancipation was morally and ethically required , and that slavery was a national crime that must be ended by parliamentary legislation to gradually abolish slavery . Members of Parliament did not quickly agree , and government opposition in March 1823 stymied Wilberforce 's call for abolition . On 15 May 1823 , Buxton moved another resolution in Parliament for gradual emancipation . Subsequent debates followed on 16 March and 11 June 1824 in which Wilberforce made his last speeches in the Commons , and which again saw the emancipationists outmanoeuvred by the government .

= = Last years = =

Wilberforce 's health was continuing to fail , and he suffered further illnesses in 1824 and 1825 . With his family concerned that his life was endangered , he declined a peerage and resigned his seat in Parliament , leaving the campaign in the hands of others . Thomas Clarkson continued to travel , visiting anti @-@ slavery groups throughout Britain , motivating activists and acting as an ambassador for the anti @-@ slavery cause to other countries , while Buxton pursued the cause of reform in Parliament . Public meetings and petitions demanding emancipation continued , with an increasing number supporting immediate abolition rather than the gradual approach favoured by Wilberforce , Clarkson and their colleagues .

In 1826 , Wilberforce moved from his large house in Kensington Gore to Highwood Hill , a more modest property in the countryside of Mill Hill , north of London , where he was soon joined by his son William and family . William had attempted a series of educational and career paths , and a venture into farming in 1830 led to huge losses , which his father repaid in full , despite offers from others to assist . This left Wilberforce with little income , and he was obliged to let his home and spend the rest of his life visiting family members and friends . He continued his support for the anti @-@ slavery cause , including attending and chairing meetings of the Anti @-@ Slavery Society .

Wilberforce approved of the 1830 election victory of the more progressive Whigs , though he was concerned about the implications of their Reform Bill which proposed the redistribution of parliamentary seats towards newer towns and cities and an extension of the franchise . In the event , the Reform Act 1832 was to bring more abolitionist MPs into Parliament as a result of intense and increasing public agitation against slavery . In addition , the 1832 slave revolt in Jamaica convinced government ministers that abolition was essential to avoid further rebellion . In 1833 , Wilberforce 's health declined further and he suffered a severe attack of influenza from which he never fully recovered . He made a final anti @-@ slavery speech in April 1833 at a public meeting in Maidstone , Kent . The following month , the Whig government introduced the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery , formally saluting Wilberforce in the process . On 26 July 1833 , Wilberforce heard of government concessions that guaranteed the passing of the Bill for the Abolition of Slavery . The following day he grew much weaker , and he died early on the morning of 29 July at his cousin 's house in Cadogan Place , London .

One month later , the House of Lords passed the Slavery Abolition Act , which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire from August 1834 . They voted plantation owners £ 20 million in compensation , giving full emancipation to children younger than six , and instituting a system of apprenticeship requiring other enslaved peoples to work for their former masters for four to six years in the British West Indies , South Africa , Mauritius , British Honduras and Canada . Nearly 800 @,@ 000 African slaves were freed , the vast majority in the Caribbean .

= = = Funeral = = =

Wilberforce had requested that he was to be buried with his sister and daughter at Stoke Newington , just north of London . However , the leading members of both Houses of Parliament urged that he be honoured with a burial in Westminster Abbey . The family agreed and , on 3 August 1833 , Wilberforce was buried in the north transept , close to his friend William Pitt . The funeral was attended by many Members of Parliament , as well as by members of the public . The pallbearers included the Duke of Gloucester , the Lord Chancellor Henry Brougham and the Speaker of the House of Commons Charles Manners @-@ Sutton . While tributes were paid and Wilberforce was laid to rest , both Houses of Parliament suspended their business as a mark of respect .

= = Legacy = =

Five years after his death , sons Robert and Samuel Wilberforce published a five @-@ volume biography about their father , and subsequently a collection of his letters in 1840 . The biography was controversial in that the authors emphasised Wilberforce 's role in the abolition movement and played down the important work of Thomas Clarkson . Incensed , Clarkson came out of retirement to write a book refuting their version of events , and the sons eventually made a half @-@ hearted private apology to him and removed the offending passages in a revision of their biography . However , for more than a century , Wilberforce 's role in the campaign dominated the history books . Later historians have noted the warm and highly productive relationship between Clarkson and Wilberforce , and have termed it one of history 's great partnerships : without both the parliamentary leadership supplied by Wilberforce and the research and public mobilisation organised by Clarkson , abolition could not have been achieved .

As his sons had desired and planned , Wilberforce has long been viewed as a Christian hero , a statesman @-@ saint held up as a role model for putting his faith into action . More broadly , he has also been described as a humanitarian reformer who contributed significantly to reshaping the political and social attitudes of the time by promoting concepts of social responsibility and action . In the 1940s , the role of Wilberforce and the Clapham Sect in abolition was downplayed by historian Eric Williams , who argued that abolition was motivated not by humanitarianism but by economics , as the West Indian sugar industry was in decline . Williams ' approach strongly influenced historians for much of the latter part of the 20th century . However , more recent historians have noted that the sugar industry was still making large profits at the time of abolition , and this has led to a renewed interest in Wilberforce and the Evangelicals , as well as a recognition of the anti @-@ slavery movement as a prototype for subsequent humanitarian campaigns .

= = Memorials = =

Wilberforce 's life and work have been commemorated in the United Kingdom and elsewhere . In Westminster Abbey , a seated statue of Wilberforce by Samuel Joseph was erected in 1840 , bearing an epitaph praising his Christian character and his long labour to abolish the slave trade and slavery itself .

In Wilberforce 's home town of Hull , a public subscription in 1834 funded the Wilberforce Monument , a 31 @-@ metre ( 102 ft ) Greek Doric column topped by a statue of Wilberforce , which now stands in the grounds of Hull College near Queen 's Gardens . Wilberforce 's birthplace was acquired by the city corporation in 1903 and , following renovation , Wilberforce House in Hull was opened as Britain 's first slavery museum . Wilberforce Memorial School for the Blind in York was established in 1833 in his honour , and in 2006 the University of Hull established the Wilberforce Institute for the study of Slavery and Emancipation in Oriel Chambers , a building adjoining Wilberforce 's birthplace . Various churches within the Anglican Communion commemorate Wilberforce in their liturgical calendars , and Wilberforce University in Ohio , United States , founded in 1856 , is named after him . The university was the first owned by African @-@ American people , and is a historically black college . In Ontario , Canada , Wilberforce Colony was founded by black reformers , and inhabited by free slaves from the United States .

Amazing Grace , a film about Wilberforce and the struggle against the slave trade , directed by Michael Apted and starring Ioan Gruffudd and Benedict Cumberbatch was released in 2007 to coincide with the 200th anniversary of Parliament 's anti @-@ slave trade legislation .

= Clover ( creature ) =

Clover is the production name given to the giant monster and the main antagonist in the 2008 film Cloverfield . The creature was originally conceived by producer J. J. Abrams and was designed by artist Neville Page . In the film , the monster 's name is never mentioned ; the name " Cloverfield " is only given to the US Department of Defense case file of the incidents depicted in the film . The Department of Defense names the creature " LSA " for Large @-@ Scale Aggressor in the film 's Blu @-@ ray special feature called " Cloverfield Special Investigation Mode " . The name Clover was the nickname affectionately given to the monster among the production staff .

= = Appearances = =

The monster was first referred to in the viral marketing campaign for the 2008 film including a recording of its roar , foreign news clips about a monster attack and sonar images .

A similar monster appears in a four @-@ part manga series Cloverfield / Kishin by Yoshiki Togawa , which serves as a spin @-@ off to the film . The monster made a first full appearance in Cloverfield , where it was seen rampaging through New York City and being attacked by the United States military .

= = History = =

In the film , it is mentioned that the brand Tagruato belongs to the oil company where Rob was hired as vice president and is the company that owns the platform that is being destroyed by the monster . Tagruato produces a drink called Slusho ! and in the movie , some guests at a Tagruato party can be seen wearing shirts with the Slusho ! brand . However , Tagruato and Slusho ! have two different official websites .

= = Concept and creation = =

J. J. Abrams conceived of a new monster after he and his son visited a toy store in Japan while promoting Mission : Impossible III . He explained , " We saw all these Godzilla toys , and I thought , we need our own [ American ] monster , and not like King Kong , King Kong 's adorable . But I wanted something that was just insane and intense " .

The monster was designed by artist Neville Page . He sought a biological rationale for the creature , though many of his ideas would not show up on screen . Page designed the creature as immature and suffering from " separation anxiety " . He compared the creature to a rampaging elephant , saying " there 's nothing scarier than something huge that 's spooked " . Page said of the creature 's backstory , " For me , one of the most key moments in our collective brainstorming was the choice to make the creature be something that we would empathize with . It is not out there just killing . It is confused , lost , scared . It 's a newborn . Having this be a story point ( one that the audience does not know ) , it allowed for some purposeful choices about its anatomy , movement and , yes , motivations " . The creature was developed by visual effects supervisor Kevin Blank and Phil Tippett 's company Tippett Studio . Blank described the intended goal of the creature , " Rather than the monster having a personality [ like Godzilla or King Kong ] , it 's more of an entity or an event " .

Reeves described the creature 's reaction to its surroundings thus : " It ’ s this new environment that it finds frightening " . To indicate this , Reeves suggested the addition of white in the creature 's eyes so it would look similar to a spooked horse . The filmmakers generated and used the idea of parasites because the film could not realistically have scenes between the human protagonists and the enormous creature .

= = = Creature design = = =

Although conceived by the film 's creators as infantile , the creature is 25 stories tall ( compared as 240 – 300 feet , or 70 – 90 meters ) and withstands missiles , artillery shells , and bombs with minimal injury .

It is vaguely quadrupedal , though capable of standing upright over short distances . The limbs are comparatively long and thin compared with the body core , and according to creator Neville Page , this , coupled with its quadrupedal stance , is meant to imply that it is a newborn : he speculates that the adults may be bipedal . The forelimbs are large in proportion to the body , and the hind legs stubby . The creature 's head at first glance appears to be a solid sphere ; but it can open its mouth extremely wide . Above the eyes on either side of the head are fleshy pouches which it inflates when agitated .

The creature 's design includes appendages on its underbelly , described by Neville Page as an " elongated , and articulated external esophagus with the business end terminating in teethlike fingers " . They were designed to relate the scale of human prey to the huge scale of the creature . The scenes from the film where people were consumed by these appendages were cut from the final edit , but the fourth and final chapter of Cloverfield / Kishin shows this .

The creature is covered with parasites , which it sheds as part of a " post @-@ birth ritual " . Abrams described the parasites as " horrifying , dog @-@ sized creatures that just scatter around the city and add to the nightmare of the evening " . Reeves added that " The parasites have a voracious , rabid , bounding nature , but they also have a crab @-@ like crawl . They have the viciousness of a dog , but with the ability to climb walls and stick to objects . " The top half of the parasite 's head is the mandible . The top and lower jaws end in serrated edges and have four pairs of eyes each . The rest of the parasite consists of a crustacean @-@ like carapace , several pairs of claws , and arms . A deep blue @-@ purple muscular membrane stretches between the top and lower jaws . When a human is bitten , the victim becomes ill and bleeds profusely , mainly from the eyes , and shortly after this , the torso expands and explodes . They are called HSPs ( Human Scale Parasites ) on the Blu @-@ ray Special Investigation Mode .

Artist Neville Page , in response to claims that the design of the creature was similar to that of the 2006 South Korean film The Host , said , " They are [ similar ] in that they ravage and seem to originate from the water , but the end results are quite different . However , when I finally saw some of the concept art , there were some very obvious similarities . But then again , I think that we were both channeling similar biological possibilities . "

= = Merchandise = =

Based on the success of Cloverfield , which earned over $ 40 million over its opening weekend in the United States and Canadian box office , the toy company Hasbro began accepting orders for a 14 @-@ inch limited edition toy figure of the monster to be shipped to fans starting December 24 , 2008 . It also comes with several accessories , including the disembodied head of the Statue of Liberty , two changeable heads ( one with an open mouth , one with a closed mouth ) , and 10 static figures of the monster 's parasites .

= = Critical analysis = =

Reviewing the film Cloverfield , the San Jose Mercury News described the creature as " a monster for the MySpace generation " . Reviewer James Berardinelli noted , " The movie follows the Jaws rule that monsters are usually more intimidating when they are shown infrequently and only in brief glimpses " . Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle described the creature as retaining " an air of mystery — a monstrous je ne sais quoi that makes him all the freakier . " Richard Corliss of Time complained of the recycled elements of the creature , such as its emergence mimicking the original Godzilla film and its parasites being similar to the " toy meanies " from the 1984 film Gremlins .

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times expressed acceptance of the lack of explanation for the creature 's origin , explaining that it " is all right with me after the tiresome opening speeches in so many of the 30 or more Godzilla films " . Peter Howell of the Toronto Star thought that the " main " creature was disappointing , while he considered the " mutant spider crabs " that came from it as " way scarier " . Lawrence Person of Locus Online describes it as " like a cross between a truly giant mantis and Johnny the Skeletal Torso . " Todd McCarthy of Variety found that the creature was more reassuring as it appeared more in the film , explaining , " Its very nature as a walking , stalking being suggests it can somehow be killed by conventional means " . Chris Vognar of The Dallas Morning News applauded the creature 's appearance as cinematic :

= = Popular culture = =

The monster appears in the Robot Chicken episode " Especially the Animal Keith Crofford " . It rampages through New York until it reaches the future site of the Freedom Tower where it builds it in its own vision .

The monster is parodied in the South Park season 12 episode " Pandemic 2 : The Startling " . The episode is a parody of the Cloverfield , with the monster replaced by giant guinea pigs .

In Sam & Max Season 3 , at the end of " Beyond the Alley of the Dolls " , Max is transformed into a creature similar to the monster ( or more rather Cthulhu ) , and smashes off the Statue of Liberty 's head , and goes on to rampage through New York .

In a strip from Starslip by Kris Straub ( # 705 - Jan 28 , 2008 ) , one of the main characters makes a reference to a supposed " Cousin Cloverfield " , " a member of [ their ] Behemoth class " who escaped and laid waste to one of Earth cities .

On September 12 , 2010 , the strip Lio by Mark Tatulli featured Lio trying to lure the Cloverfield monster into a giant hamster cage as a pet .

An episode of Mad parodies the movie with stars from The Disney Channel and Nickelodeon in New York being attacked by Clifford the Big Red Dog .

= Knut ( polar bear ) =

Knut ( German pronunciation : [ ˈknuːt ] ; 5 December 2006 – 19 March 2011 ) was an orphaned polar bear born in captivity at the Berlin Zoological Garden . Rejected by his mother at birth , he was raised by zookeepers . He was the first polar bear cub to survive past infancy at the Berlin Zoo in more than 30 years . At one time the subject of international controversy , he became a tourist attraction and commercial success . After the German tabloid newspaper Bild ran a quote from an animal rights activist that decried keeping the cub in captivity , fans worldwide rallied in support of his being hand @-@ raised by humans . Children protested outside the zoo , and e @-@ mails and letters expressing sympathy for the cub 's life were sent from around the world .

Knut became the center of a mass media phenomenon dubbed " Knutmania " that spanned the globe and spawned toys , media specials , DVDs , and books . Because of this , the cub was largely responsible for a significant increase in revenue , estimated at about five million euros , at the Berlin Zoo in 2007 . Attendance figures for the year increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable year in its 163 @-@ year history .

On 19 March 2011 , Knut unexpectedly died at the age of four . His death was caused by drowning after he collapsed into his enclosure 's pool while suffering from Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis .

= = Infancy = =

Knut was born at the Berlin Zoo to 20 @-@ year @-@ old Tosca , a former circus performer from East Germany who was born in Canada , and her 13 @-@ year @-@ old mate Lars , who was originally from the Tierpark Hellabrunn in Munich . After an uncomplicated gestation , Knut and his unnamed brother were born on 5 December 2006 . Tosca rejected her cubs for unknown reasons , abandoning them on a rock in the polar bear enclosure . Zookeepers rescued the cubs by scooping them out of the enclosure with an extended fishing net , but Knut 's brother died of an infection four days later . Knut was the first polar bear to have been born and survive in the Berlin Zoo in over 30 years . Only the size of a guinea pig , he spent the first 44 days of his life in an incubator before zookeeper Thomas Dörflein began raising the cub .

Knut 's need for round @-@ the @-@ clock care required that Dörflein not only sleep on a mattress next to Knut 's sleeping crate at night , but also play with , bathe , and feed the cub daily . Knut 's diet began with a bottle of baby formula mixed with cod liver oil every two hours , before graduating at the age of four months to a milk porridge mixed with cat food and vitamins . Dörflein also accompanied Knut on his twice @-@ daily one @-@ hour shows for the public and therefore appeared in many videos and photographs alongside the cub . As a result , Dörflein became a minor celebrity in Germany and was awarded Berlin 's Medal of Merit in honour of his continuous care for the cub . Dörflein died of a heart attack on 22 September 2008 . He was 44 years old .

= = Controversy and media coverage = =

In early March 2007 , German tabloid Bild @-@ Zeitung carried a quote by animal rights activist Frank Albrecht who said that Knut should have been killed rather than be raised by humans . He declared that the zoo was violating animal protection legislation by keeping him alive . Wolfram Graf @-@ Rudolf , the director of the Aachen Zoo , agreed with Albrecht and stated that the zookeepers " should have had the courage to let the bear die " after it was rejected , arguing that the bear will " die a little " every time it is separated from its caretaker . A group of children protested at the zoo , holding up placards reading " Knut Must Live " and " We Love Knut " , and others sent numerous emails and letters asking for the cub 's life to be spared . Threatening letters were also sent to Albrecht . The Berlin Zoo rallied in support of the baby polar bear , vowing not to harm him and rejecting the suggestion that it would be kinder to euthanise him .

Albrecht stated his original aim was to draw attention to the law , not to have Knut put down . In December 2006 he had taken legal action against Leipzig Zoo to prevent them from killing a sloth bear cub rejected by its mother . His case was dismissed on the grounds that humans raising the animal would have been against the law of nature . In response to the criticism against him , Albrecht said that he was merely drawing parallels between the two cubs . The publicity from this coverage raised Knut 's profile from national to international .

= = Debut and first year = =

On 23 March 2007 , Knut was presented to the public for the first time . Around 400 journalists visited the Berlin Zoo on what was dubbed " Knut Day " to report on the cub 's first public appearance to a worldwide audience . Because Knut became the focus of worldwide media at a very young age , many stories and false alarms regarding the cub 's health and well @-@ being were circulated during his first year . For example , on 16 April 2007 , Knut was removed from display due to teething pains resulting from the growth of his right upper canine tooth , but initial reports vaguely stated that he was suffering from an unknown illness and subsequently put on antibiotics . Much ado was also made about a death threat that was sent shortly before 15 : 00 local time on Wednesday 18 April 2007 . The zoo had received an anonymous letter by fax which said " Knut ist tot ! Donnerstag Mittag . " ( " Knut is dead ! Thursday noon . " ) In response , the police increased their security measures around the bear . The time frame for the threat passed without incident or harm to Knut .

Despite Der Spiegel reporting on 30 April 2007 that Knut was " steadily getting less cute " as he increased in age , Knut continued to bring in record crowds to the zoo that summer . After reaching seven months old and 50 kg ( 110 lb ) in July 2007 , Knut 's scheduled twice daily public appearances were canceled due to the zoo 's concern for the safety of his keeper . Zoo spokeswoman Regine Damm also said it was time for the bear to " associate with other bears and not with other people . " After living in the same enclosure as Ernst , a Malaysian black bear cub who was born a month before Knut , and its mother , Knut was then moved to his own private living space . While visitor numbers dwindled from extreme highs in March and April , Knut remained a major attraction at the zoo for the rest of 2007 . 400 @,@ 000 guests were recorded in August 2007 , which was an all @-@ time high .

News of Knut and his life at the zoo was still being reported internationally in late 2007 . Knut 's restricted diet , necessary to curtail his natural weight gain necessary to survive harsh winters , made headlines outside of Germany . His daily meals were reduced in number from four to three , and treats , such as croissants , which were favored by the young polar bear , were restricted . After hurting his foot while slipping on a wet rock in his enclosure a month later in September , there was an outpouring of concern and support from fans worldwide .

In November 2007 and weighing over 90 kg ( 198 lb ) , Knut was deemed too dangerous for close handling and his interaction with human handlers was further diminished . The celebration of the cub 's first birthday , which was attended by hundreds of children , was broadcast live on German television . The national mint also issued 25 @,@ 000 special commemorative silver coins to mark his birthday . Knut 's role at the Berlin Zoo was to have included his becoming an " attractive stud " for other zoos in order to help preserve his species . When Flocke was born at the Nuremberg Zoo in December 2007 under similar circumstances , Bild dubbed her Mrs. Knut , suggesting that the two German @-@ born polar bears might become mates when they matured .

= = 2008 – 2010 = =

A year after his public debut , Knut was reported as weighing more than 130 kg ( 286 lb ) . A plate of six @-@ inch glass , strong enough to resist a mortar blast , was erected between him and zoo visitors . At the end of March 2008 , Markus Röbke , one of the keepers who helped rear Knut , reported that the bear should leave the zoo as soon as possible in order to help him acclimate to a life alone . Röbke also said that Knut plainly misses his past father @-@ figure , Thomas Dörflein , and has become so used to attention that he cries when no one is near his enclosure . " Knut needs an audience , " Röbke stated . " That has to change " . In April , animal welfare campaigners criticized the zoo for allowing Knut to kill and eat ten carp from the moat surrounding his enclosure , saying that it was a breach of German animal protection regulations . The zoo 's bear expert , Heiner Klös , however , said that Knut 's behavior was " all part of being a polar bear . "

In July 2008 , it was announced that the Neumünster Zoo in northern Germany , which owns Knut 's father , was suing the Berlin Zoo for the profits from Knut 's success . Although the Berlin Zoo conceded Neumünster 's ownership of Knut due to a previous agreement , it contended that the other zoo has no right to its proceeds . Neumünster had previously tried to negotiate with Berlin Zoo , but later sought a court ruling in their favor . Peter Drüwa , the zoo director at Neumünster , stated that they " do not want to remove Knut from his environment , but we have a right to our request for money . " Shortly before Knut 's second birthday , reports began circulating that the bear would have to be relocated to another zoo because he was becoming too large for his enclosure . The zoo later released statements that they wish to keep Knut , and the mayor of Berlin , Klaus Wowereit , also declared he wanted the still @-@ adolescent cub to stay in the capital .

Disputes between the two zoos continued into 2009 . On 19 May , the Berlin Zoo offered to buy Knut from Neumünster and therefore negate their financial claim on the two @-@ year @-@ old polar bear . Although Neumünster Zoo set a price of € 700 @,@ 000 , the Berlin Zoo stated that they would not pay " a cent more " than € 350 @,@ 000 ( $ 488 @,@ 145 ) . On 8 July , the Berlin Zoo agreed to pay € 430 @,@ 000 ( $ 599 @,@ 721 ) to keep Knut in Berlin .

Giovanna , a female polar bear roughly the same age as Knut , was relocated to Berlin from Munich 's Hellabrunn Animal Garden in September 2009 . She was presented to the public on 23 September , and was due to briefly share Knut 's enclosure while her regular home in Munich underwent repairs . Her arrival sparked international interest , as many sources mused that the two bears ( although sexually immature ) would soon be " dating " . However , in March 2010 , the German chapter of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals called for Knut to be castrated in order to avoid inbreeding ; he and Giovanna share a grandfather and , according to PETA spokesman Frank Albrecht , the same animal rights activist who spoke out about Knut 's handraising three years earlier , their offspring would threaten the genetic diversity of the German polar bear population . The Berlin Zoo declined to comment on the matter , only noting that Giovanna 's stay in Berlin was still temporary . In August 2010 , Giovanna was moved back to Munich after repairs on her enclosure were completed .

Until his death , Knut shared an enclosure with three female polar bears : Nancy , Katjuscha and his mother Tosca . The older bears were reportedly aggressive towards the young male bear , causing news reports in late 2010 to question whether Knut was being bullied . One of the zookeepers disagreed , stating publicly that " For the time being , Knut is not yet an adult male and doesn 't yet know how to get respect like his father did . But day by day , he is imposing himself and with time , this type of problem will go away . "

= = Death = =

On 19 March 2011 , at the age of four , Knut collapsed and died in his enclosure . Witnesses reported that after the bear 's rear left leg began shaking , he became agitated before convulsing several times and falling backwards into the pool . Approximately 600 to 700 zoo visitors witnessed Knut 's death . A statement made on 22 March in relation to the necropsy reported there were " significant changes in the brain , which may be regarded as a reason for the sudden death " . Animal welfare organizations in Germany initially accused the Berlin Zoo of negligence , claiming that Knut died of stress caused by being forced to share his enclosure with three female polar bears . The zoo denied such claims . Bear curator Heiner Klös stated they " did everything to look after Knut — it 's normal for polar bears to live with other polar bears in a zoo , and the idea was that Knut should learn social behavior and other skills from the older females ... He played with the other bears , he was relaxed and strong . "

On 1 April , pathology experts announced that Knut 's immediate cause of death was from drowning . The bear 's apparent seizure was due to his suffering from Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis , a swelling of the brain likely triggered by an infection . It is unknown what infection caused the swelling , but pathologists believe it was a virus . Although Knut showed no symptoms of being ill , pathologists believe that " this suspected infection must already have been there for a long time ... at least several weeks , possibly months . " It was also announced that had Knut not drowned after collapsing , he would not have survived the encephalitis .

Knut 's sudden death caused an international outpouring of grief . Hundreds of fans visited the zoo after the bear 's death , leaving flowers and mementos near the enclosure . The mayor of Berlin , Klaus Wowereit , stated " We all held him so dearly . He was the star of the Berlin zoos . "

In January 2014 , Knut 's full autopsy results were published by the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research in the Journal of Comparative Pathology . It was the most in @-@ depth post @-@ mortem ever carried out on an animal . The autopsy revealed that the damage to the bear ’ s brain was so severe that even if he had not fallen into the water and drowned he would have died anyway . Experts hypothesized that he was suffering from a virus that caused the encephalitis .

In August 2015 , it was discovered that Knut died of Anti @-@ NMDA receptor encephalitis . This was the first case discovered in non human animals .

= = Memorialization = =

The zoo made plans to erect a monument in Knut 's honour , financed by donations from fans . Thomas Ziolko , the chairman of the Friends of the Berlin Zoo , was quoted as saying " Knut will live on in the hearts of many visitors , but it 's important to create a memorial for coming generations to preserve the memory of this unique animal personality . " On 24 October 2012 , the Berlin Zoo unveiled a bronze sculpture by Ukrainian artist Josef Tabachnyk . " Knut – The Dreamer " shows the bear " stretching out dreamily on a rock " .

Knut 's remains were exhibited in Berlin 's Museum of Natural History , although this decision has caused some controversy with fans . A full @-@ sized sculpture covered in Knut 's pelt was presented to the public on 16 February 2013 . It went on display in the entrance hall of the museum where it was viewed free of charge until 5 May . It will later be used for an exhibition on climate change and environment protection . Museum spokeswoman Gesine Steiner stated that " It 's important to make clear we haven 't had Knut stuffed . It is an artistically valuable sculpture with the original fur . "

From 13 June till 1 September 2013 , Knut went on display in the Naturalis Biodiversity Center , the Dutch national museum of natural history in Leiden , Netherlands .

Knut returned to Berlin 's Museum of Natural History on 28 July 2014 as an exhibit for a special exhibition on “ Highlights of Taxidermy ” . The museum has won world championship prizes for taxidermy and Knut ’ s remains will be the highlight of this exhibition for years to come .

= = Effects of popularity = =

= = = Commercial success = = =

The Berlin Zoo registered " Knut " as a trademark in late March 2007 . As a result , its shares more than doubled at the Berlin Stock Exchange ; previously worth around € 2 @,@ 000 , the value closed at € 4 @,@ 820 just a week later . The zoo reported that its attendance figures for 2007 increased by an estimated 30 percent , making it the most profitable it had been in its 163 @-@ year history . Knut earned the Berlin Zoo nearly € 5 million that year , mainly thanks to an increase in visitors as well as the amount of merchandise sold .

Various companies profited from the attention surrounding Knut by developing themed products such as ringtones and cuddly toys . Plush toy company Steiff produced several Knut @-@ based plush toys in three sizes and models : sitting , standing , and lying down . The first 2 @,@ 400 produced toys , which sold exclusively at the Berlin Zoo , sold out in only four days . The money raised from the Steiff deal was intended to be used to renovate the polar bear enclosure at the zoo . Candy company Haribo released a raspberry @-@ flavored gummy bear sweet called Cuddly Knut beginning in April 2007 . They pledged to donate ten cents to the zoo for every tub of Knut sweets it sold . The gummy bears sold so well that the Bonn @-@ based company had to expand production to a second factory to deal with demand .

Knut was the subject of several popular songs in Germany , the most successful of which were the singles " Knut is Cute " and " Knut , der kleine Eisbär " ( English : " Knut , the little polar bear " ) by nine @-@ year @-@ old Kitty from Köpenick . In Britain , musical comedian Mitch Benn has performed four songs about Knut for BBC Radio 4 satirical series The Now Show : " The Baby Bear Must DIE ! " , " Knut Isn 't Cute Anymore " , " Goodbye Knut " and " Panda in Berlin " . A blog with updates about the polar bear was maintained by a journalist at the regional public broadcaster Rundfunk Berlin @-@ Brandenburg ; it was available in German , English , and Spanish . RBB was also responsible for a weekly television program dedicated to the polar bear cub that was broadcast in Germany . Knut has also been the subject of several DVDs , including one entitled " Knut – Stories from a Polar Bear 's Nursery " . On 29 March 2007 he appeared on the cover of the German Vanity Fair magazine , which included a several page spread about the cub 's life .

On 1 May 2007 , it was announced that New York @-@ based Turtle Pond Publications and the Berlin Zoo had signed a deal for the worldwide publishing rights to Knut with the hopes of raising awareness of global warming issues . Written by Craig Hatkoff and his daughters Juliana and Isabella , the 44 @-@ page book entitled Knut , der kleine Eisbärenjunge ( Little Polar Bear Knut ) includes Knut 's life story as well as previously unpublished photographs . Although several books about Knut had already been published in Germany , this book was the first to be authorized by the Berlin Zoo .

The book was published in Germany by Ravensburger on 26 July 2007 and US publishing company Scholastic released the English version , entitled Knut : How one little polar bear captivated the world , in the United States in November of the same year . Rights to the book have also been sold to publishers in Japan , England , Mexico , China , and Italy .

On 31 December 2007 , the zoo 's director confirmed the zoo had received a proposal for a film deal from Hollywood film producer Ash R. Shah , whose films include Supernova and Shark Bait , to make an animated film about the bear 's life . Shah reportedly approached the Berlin Zoo with a purported € 3 @.@ 5 million film deal . Knut made his big screen debut in the German film Knut und seine Freunde ( Knut and His Friends ) , which premiered in Berlin on 2 March 2008 . Directed by Michael Johnson , the film depicts how Knut was rescued after his mother abandoned him and also features a polar bear family from the Arctic and two brown bear cubs from Belarus .

= = = Environmental causes = = =

Dr. Gerald Uhlich , of the Berlin zoo 's board of trustees , stated that because of his vast popularity , Knut had become a means of communication and that he had the ability to " draw attention to the environment in a nice way . Not in a threatening , scolding way . " As a result , the German Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel officially adopted Knut as the mascot for a conference on endangered species to be held in Bonn in 2008 . The minister met with Knut soon after his zoo debut , commenting that although Knut was in safe hands , " worldwide polar bears are in danger and if Knut can help the cause , then that is a good thing . "

Photographer Annie Leibovitz took pictures of Knut that were used for an environmental campaign , including Vanity Fair magazine 's May 2007 Green Issue in which he was superimposed into a photograph with American actor Leonardo DiCaprio . The polar bear has also been depicted on the logo for the German Environment Minister 's campaign to help stop global warming and a 2008 special issue stamp . Officially released on 9 April , the stamp shows the roughly one @-@ year @-@ old Knut with the slogan " Natur weltweit bewahren " ( " Preserve nature worldwide " ) .

= Michael John O 'Leary =

Major Michael John O 'Leary VC ( 29 September 1890 – 2 August 1961 ) was an Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross , the most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . O 'Leary achieved his award for single @-@ handedly charging and destroying two German barricades defended by machine gun positions near the French village of Cuinchy , in a localised operation on the Western Front during the First World War .

At the time of his action , O 'Leary was a nine @-@ year veteran of the British armed forces and by the time he retired from the British Army in 1921 , he had reached the rank of lieutenant . He served in the army again during the Second World War , although his later service was blighted by periods of ill @-@ health . At his final retirement from the military in 1945 , O 'Leary was an Army major in command of a prisoner of war camp . Between the wars , O 'Leary spent many years employed as a police officer in Canada and is sometimes considered to be a Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross . Following the Second World War he worked as a building contractor in London , where he died in 1961 .

= = Early life = =

O 'Leary was born in 1890 , one of four children of Daniel and Margaret O 'Leary , who owned a farm at Inchigeela , near Macroom in County Cork , Ireland . Daniel O 'Leary was a fervent Irish nationalist and keen sportsman who participated in competitive weightlifting and football . Aged 16 and unwilling to continue to work on his parent 's land , Michael O 'Leary joined the Royal Navy , serving at the shore establishment HMS Vivid at Devonport for several years until rheumatism in his knees forced his departure from the service . Within a few months however , O 'Leary had again tired of the farm and joined the Irish Guards regiment of the British Army .

O 'Leary served three years with the Irish Guards , leaving in August 1913 to join the Royal Northwest Mounted Police ( RNWMP ) in Saskatchewan , Canada . Operating from Regina , Constable O 'Leary was soon commended for his bravery in capturing two criminals following a two @-@ hour gunbattle , for which service he was presented with a gold ring . At the outbreak of the First World War in Europe during August 1914 , O 'Leary was given permission to leave the RNWMP and return to Britain in order to rejoin the army as an active reservist . On 22 October , O 'Leary was mobilized and on 23 November he joined his regiment in France , then fighting with the British Expeditionary Force , entrenched in Flanders .

= = First World War service = =

During December 1914 , O 'Leary saw heavy fighting with the Irish Guards and was Mentioned in Despatches and subsequently promoted to Lance Corporal on 5 January 1915 . Three weeks later , on 30 January , the Irish Guards were ordered to prepare for an attack on German positions near Cuinchy on the La Bassée Canal , a response to a successful German operation in the area five days before . The Germans attacked first however , and on the morning of 1 February seized a stretch of canal embankment on the western end of the 2nd Brigade line from a company of Coldstream Guards . This section , known as the Hollow , was tactically important as it defended a culvert that passed underneath a railway embankment . 4 Company of Irish Guards , originally in reserve , were tasked with joining the Coldstream Guards in retaking the position at 04 : 00 , but the attack was met with heavy machine gun fire and most of the assault party , including all of the Irish Guards officers , were killed or wounded .

To replace these officers , Second Lieutenant Innes of 1 Company was ordered forward to gather the survivors and withdraw , forming up at a barricade on the edge of the Hollow . Innes regrouped the survivors and , following a heavy bombardment from supporting artillery and with his own company providing covering fire , assisted the Coldstream Guards in a second attack at 10 : 15 . Weighed down with entrenching equipment , the attacking Coldstream Guardsmen faltered and began to suffer heavy casualties . Innes too came under heavy fire from a German barricade to their front equipped with a machine gun .

Michael O 'Leary had been serving as Innes 's orderly , and had joined him in the operations earlier in the morning and again in the second attack . Charging past the rest of the assault party , O 'Leary closed with the first German barricade at the top of the railway embankment and fired five shots , killing the gun 's crew . Continuing forward , O 'Leary confronted a second barricade , also armed with a machine gun 60 yards ( 55 m ) further on and again mounted the railway embankment , to avoid the marshy ground on either side . The Germans spotted his approach , but could not bring their gun to bear on him before he opened fire , killing three soldiers and capturing two others after he ran out of ammunition . Reportedly , O 'Leary had made his advance on the second barricade " intent upon killing another German to whom he had taken a dislike " .

Having disabled both guns and enabled the recapture of the British position , O 'Leary then returned to his unit with his prisoners , apparently " as cool as if he had been for a walk in the park . " For his actions , O 'Leary received a battlefield promotion to sergeant on 4 February and was recommended for the Victoria Cross , which was gazetted on 18 February :

= = = Michael O 'Leary song = = =

In 1915 , Jack Judge recorded Michael O 'Leary , V.C. , a song about O 'Leary 's role in the war effort .

= = = Later war service = = =

Returning to Britain to receive his medal from King George V at Buckingham Palace on 22 June 1915 , O 'Leary was given a grand reception attended by thousands of Londoners in Hyde Park on 10 July . He was also the subject of much patriotic writing , including a poem in the Daily Mail and the short play O 'Flaherty V.C. by George Bernard Shaw . Tributes came from numerous prominent figures of the day , including Sir Arthur Conan Doyle who said that " No writer in fiction would dare to fasten such an achievement on any of his characters , but the Irish have always had a reputation of being wonderful fighters , and Lance @-@ Corporal Michael O ’ Leary is clearly one of them . " and Thomas Scanlan who said : " I heard early this week of the great achievements of the Irish Guards . All Ireland is proud of O ’ Leary . He fully deserves the high honour that has been conferred upon him . Ireland is grateful to him . " His reception was repeated in Macroom when he visited Ireland , with crowds turning out to applaud him . Daniel O 'Leary was interviewed in a local newspaper regarding his son 's exploit but was reportedly unimpressed , commenting : " I am surprised he didn 't do more . I often laid out twenty men myself with a stick coming from Macroom Fair , and it is a bad trial of Mick that he could kill only eight , and he having a rifle and bayonet . "

O 'Leary was further rewarded for his service , being advanced to a commissioned rank as a second lieutenant with the Connaught Rangers , and he was also presented with a Russian decoration , the Cross of St. George ( third class ) . Despite his popularity with the crowds in London and Macroom , he was jeered by Ulster Volunteers at a recruitment drive in Ballaghaderrin during the autumn of 1915 . This treatment caused such a scandal that it was raised in the Houses of Parliament in December .

In 1916 , O 'Leary travelled to Salonika with the 5th battalion of the Connaught Rangers to serve in the Balkans campaign , remaining in theatre until the end of the war , following which he was stationed in Dover with the 2nd battalion until demobilised in 1921 . During his service in the Balkans , O 'Leary contracted malaria , which was to have severe negative effects on his health for the rest of his life .

He was in the same regiment as the British actor Stanley Holloway and both served together in France . After the war ended , they both remained close friends and Holloway often stayed in The May Fair where O 'Leary later worked as a concierge .

= = Later life = =

Leaving his wife Greta and their two children in Britain , O 'Leary returned to Canada in March 1921 with the purported intention of rejoining the RNWMP , newly renamed the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . For unknown reasons , this plan came to nothing and after some months giving lectures on his war service and working in a publishing house , O 'Leary joined the Ontario Provincial Police , charged with enforcing the prohibition laws . In 1924 , with his family recently arrived from England , O 'Leary left the Ontario police force and became a police sergeant with the Michigan Central Railway in Bridgeburg , Ontario , receiving £ 33 a month .

In 1925 , O 'Leary was the subject of several scandals , being arrested for smuggling illegal immigrants and later for irregularities in his investigations . Although he was acquitted both times , he spent a week in prison following the second arrest and lost his job with the railway . Several months later , the municipal authorities in Hamilton , Ontario loaned him £ 70 to pay for him and his family to return to Ireland . Although his family sailed on the SS Leticia , O 'Leary remained in Ontario , working with the attorney general 's office .

With his health in serious decline , the British Legion arranged for O 'Leary to return to Britain and work in their poppy factory . By 1932 , O 'Leary was living in Southborne Avenue in Colindale , had regained his health and found employment as a commissionaire at The May Fair in London , at which he was involved in charitable events for wounded servicemen . With the mobilisation of the British Army in 1939 , O 'Leary returned to military service as a captain in the Middlesex Regiment . O 'Leary was sent to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force but had returned to Britain before the Battle of France due to a recurrence of his malaria .

No longer fit for full active service , O 'Leary was transferred to the Pioneer Corps and took command of a prisoner of war camp in Southern England . In 1945 , he was discharged from the military as unfit for duty on medical grounds as a major and found work as a building contractor , in which career he remained until his retirement in 1954 . Two of O 'Leary 's sons had also served in the military during the war , with both receiving Distinguished Flying Crosses for their actions . As a Victoria Cross recipient , O 'Leary joined the VE day parade in 1946 , but at the 1956 Centenary VC review his place was taken by an imposter travelling in a bath chair . With his health again declining , O 'Leary moved to Limesdale Gardens in Edgware shortly before his death in 1961 at the Whittington Hospital in Islington .

O 'Leary was buried at Mill Hill Cemetery following a funeral service at the Roman Catholic Annunciation Church in Burnt Oak which was attended by an honour guard from the Irish Guards and six of his children . His medals were later presented to the Irish Guards , and are on display at the Regimental Headquarters . He is also remembered in his birthplace , the macroom @-@ online website listing him as a prominent citizen and states that " while many might consider he was fighting with the wrong army , in the wrong war , he was nevertheless a very brave , resourceful and capable soldieer [ sic ] who deserved the honours bestowed upon him . "

= Mari , Syria =

Mari ( modern Tell Hariri ) , was an ancient Semitic city in Syria . Its remains constitute a tell located 11 kilometers north @-@ west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates river western bank , some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez @-@ Zor . It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC . As a purposely built city , the existence of Mari was related to its position in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes ; this position made it an intermediary between Sumer in the south and the Levant in the west .

Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic East @-@ Semitic state before 2500 BC . This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival Ebla , and is known for its strong affinity with the Sumerian culture . It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the Akkadians who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor bearing the title of Shakkanakku ( military governor ) . The governors later became independent with the rapid disintegration of the Akkadian empire and rebuilt the city as a regional center in the middle Euphrates valley . The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons . A short time after the Shakkanakku collapse , Mari became the capital of the Amorite Lim dynasty . The Amorite Mari was short lived as it was annexed by Babylonia in c . 1761 BC , but the city survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the Assyrians before being abandoned and forgotten during the Hellenistic period .

The Mariotes worshiped both Semitic and Sumerian deities and established their city as a center of old trade . However , although the pre @-@ Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence , Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but rather a Semitic speaking nation that used a dialect similar to Eblaite . The Amorites were West @-@ Semites who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC ; by the Lim dynasty 's era ( c . 1830 BC ) , they became the dominant population in the Fertile Crescent .

Mari 's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria , due to the discovery of more than 25 @,@ 000 tablets that contained important information about the administration of state during the second millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations between the political entities in the region . They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC , which connected areas as far as Afghanistan in Southern Asia and Crete in the Mediterranean region .

= = History = =

The name of the city can be traced to Mer , an ancient storm deity of northern Mesopotamia and Syria who was considered the patron deity of the city , Georges Dossin noted that the name of the city was spelled identically like the name of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him .

= = = The first kingdom = = =

Mari is not considered a small settlement that later grew , but rather a new city that was purposely founded during the Mesopotamian Early Dynastic period I c . 2900 BC , to control the waterways of the Euphrates trade routes that connect the Levant with the Sumerian south . The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers away from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods , and was connected to the river by an artificial canal that was between 7 and 10 kilometers long depending on which old meander it used to be attached with , which is hard to identify today .

The city is difficult to excavate , as it is buried deep under the later layers of habitation . A defensive system against floods , composed of a circular embankment was unearthed , in addition to a circular 6 @.@ 7 m thick internal rampart to protect the city from enemies . An area of 300 meters long filled with gardens and craftsmen quarters , separated the outer embankment from the inner rampart which had a height of 8 to 10 meters , and was strengthened by defensive towers . Other findings includes one of the city gates , a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate , in addition to residential houses . Mari had a central mound , however no temple or palaces have been unearthed , although a large building that seem to have been an administrative one was unearthed , this building had stone foundations and dimensions of ( 32 meters X 25 meters ) , with rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide . The city was abandoned at the end of the Early Dynastic period II c . 2550 BC for unknown reasons .

= = = The second kingdom = = =

Around the beginning of the Early Dynastic period III ( earlier than 2500 BC ) , Mari was rebuilt and populated again . The new city kept many of the first city exterior features , including the internal rampart and gate . Also kept , the outer circular embankment measuring 1 @.@ 9 km in diameter , which was topped by a wall that is two meters thick , suitable for the protection of archers .

However , the internal structure was completely changed , the city was carefully planned ; first to be built were the streets that descends from the elevated center into the gates , assuring the drainage of rain water .

At the heart of the city , a royal palace was built which also served as a temple . Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom 's palace have been unearthed ( the oldest is designated P3 , while the latest is P0 ) , and the last two levels are dated to the Akkadian period . The first two levels were excavated , the findings includes a temple named Enceinte Sacrée , which was the largest in the city but it is unknown for whom it was dedicated . Also unearthed , a pillared throne room and a hall that have three double wood pillars leading to the temple .

Six more temples were discovered in the city , including the temple called the Massif Rouge ( to whom it was dedicated is unknown ) , and temples dedicated for Ninni @-@ Zaza , Ishtarat , Ishtar , Ninhursag and Shamash . All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple , the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered the administrative center of the high priest .

The second kingdom appears to be a powerful and prosperous political center , kings held the title of Lugal , and many are attested in the city , but the most important source is the letter of king Enna @-@ Dagan c . 2350 BC , which was sent to Irkab @-@ Damu of Ebla , and in it , the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements . However , the reading of this letter is still problematic and many interpretations have been presented by scholars .

= = = = Mari @-@ Ebla war = = = =

The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna @-@ Dagan is Ansud , who is mentioned as attacking Ebla , the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war , and conquering many of Ebla 's cities , including the land of Belan . The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu , who conquered the lands of Ra 'ak and Nirum , but king Kun @-@ Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC . The war continued with Išhtup @-@ Išar of Mari conquest of Emar , at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid @-@ 24th century BC . King Igrish @-@ Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul @-@ Il of Mari , who is mentioned in the letter conquering many of Ebla 's cities and campaigning in the Burman region .

Enna @-@ Dagan also received tribute , and his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab @-@ Damu of Ebla , who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute . Mari defeated Ebla 's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium 's term , causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia . The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi @-@ Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa . Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c . 2300 BC , during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar .

According to Alfonso Archi , Hidar was succeeded by Isqi @-@ Mari whose royal seal was discovered and it depicts battle scenes , causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general . Just a decade after Ebla 's destruction ( c . 2300 BC middle chronology ) , Mari itself was destroyed and burned by Sargon of Akkad , Michael Astour give the date as c . 2265 BC ( short chronology ) .

= = = The third kingdom = = =

Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king Manishtushu . A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title " Shakkanakku " ( military governor ) . Akkad kept direct control over the city , which is evident by Naram @-@ Sin of Akkad 's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city .

= = = = The Shakkanakku dynasty = = = =

The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is Ididish who was appointed in c . 2266 BC , according to the lists , Ididish ruled for 60 years , and was succeeded by his son making the position hereditary .

The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure , phase P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku . Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city , and contained royal burials that date to the former periods . The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width . The former sacred inclosure was maintained , so was the temple of Ninhursag . However , the temples of Ninni @-@ Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared , while a new temple called the " temple of lions " ( dedicated to Dagan ) , was built by the Shakkanakku Ishtup @-@ Ilum and attached to it , was a rectangular terrace ( ziggurat ) that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices .

Akkad disintegrated following Shar @-@ Kali @-@ Sharri 's reign , and Mari gained its independence , but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following Third Dynasty of Ur period . A princess of Mari married the son of king Ur @-@ Nammu of Ur , and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony . However , the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari , and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions , while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur 's court . The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty , which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC .

= = = = The Lim dynasty = = = =

The second millennium BC in the Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the Amorites , which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region , including Mari which in c . 1830 BC , became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king Yaggid @-@ Lim . However , the Epigraphycal and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras .

Yaggid @-@ Lim was the ruler of Suprum before establishing himself in Mari , he entered an alliance with Ila @-@ kabkabu of Ekallatum , but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war . The conflict ended with Ila @-@ kabkabu capturing Yaggid @-@ Lim 's heir Yahdun @-@ Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari , Yaggid @-@ Lim who survived Ila @-@ kabkabu was killed by his servants . However , in c . 1820 BC Yahdun @-@ Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari .

Yahdun @-@ Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders , and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur @-@ Yahdun @-@ Lim . He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean , however he later had to face a rebellion by the Banu @-@ Yamina nomads who were centered at Tuttul , and the rebels were supported by Yamhad 's king Sumu @-@ Epuh , whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun @-@ Lim and Eshnunna . Yahdun @-@ Lim defeated the Yamina but an open war with Yamhad was avoided , as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi @-@ Adad I of Assyria , the son of the late Ila @-@ kabkabu . The war ended in a defeat for Mari , and Yahdun @-@ Lim was assassinated in c . 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu @-@ Yamam , who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi @-@ Adad advanced and annexed Mari .

= = = = = The Assyrian era and the Lim restoration = = = = =

Shamshi @-@ Adad appointed his son Yasmah @-@ Adad on the throne of Mari , the new king married Yahdun @-@ Lim 's daughter , while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad , and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi @-@ Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family . To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad , Shamshi @-@ Adad married Yasmah @-@ Adad to Betlum , the daughter of Ishi @-@ Adad of Qatna . However , Yasmah @-@ Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna , and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c . 1776 BC , while the armies of Yarim @-@ Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of Zimri @-@ Lim , the heir of the Lim dynasty .

As Zimri @-@ Lim advanced , a leader of the Banu @-@ Simaal ( Zimri @-@ Lim 's tribe ) overthrew Yasmah @-@ Adad , opening the road for Zimri @-@ Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah @-@ Adad 's escape , and married princess Shibtu the daughter of Yarim @-@ Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c . 1776 BC . Zimri @-@ Lim 's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim @-@ Lim I affected Mari 's status , Zimri @-@ Lim referred to Yarim @-@ Lim as his father , and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad 's main deity Hadad and Zimri @-@ Lim , who declared himself a servant of Hadad .

Zimri @-@ Lim started his reign with a campaign against the Banu @-@ Yamina , he also established alliances with Eshnunna and Hammurabi of Babylon , and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians . The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the Upper Khabur region , which was named Izdamaraz , where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as Urkesh , and Talhayum , forcing them into vassalage . The expansion was met by the resistance of Qarni @-@ Lim , the king of Andarig , whom Zimri @-@ Lim defeated , securing the Mariote control over the region in c . 1771 BC , and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace . Zimri @-@ Lim 's greatest heritage was the renovation of the Royal Palace , which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms , exquisite artifacts such as The Goddess of the Vase statue , and a royal archive that contained 25000 tablets .

Mari 's alliance with Eshnunna contributed to its demise , as that city later became an enemy of Hammurabi . The relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city of Hīt that consumed much time in negotiations , during which a war against Elam involved both kingdoms in c . 1765 BC . Finally , the kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri @-@ Lim in battle in c . 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty , while Terqa became the capital of a rump state named the Kingdom of Hana .

= = = Later periods = = =

Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c . 1759 BC , causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city . However , Mari was allowed to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration , an act that Hammurabi considered merciful . Later , Mari became part of Assyria and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king Tukulti @-@ Ninurta I ( reigned 1243 – 1207 BC ) . Afterward , Mari constantly changed hands between Assyria and Babylon .

In the middle of the eleventh century BC , Mari became part of Hana whose king Tukulti @-@ Mer took the title king of Mari and rebelled against Assyria , causing the Assyrian king Ashur @-@ bel @-@ kala to attack the city . Mari came firmly under the authority of the Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire , and was assigned in the first half of the 8th century BC to a certain Nergal @-@ Erish to govern under the authority of king Adad @-@ Nirari III ( reigned 810 @-@ 783 BC ) . In c . 760 BC , Shamash @-@ Risha @-@ Usur , an autonomous governor ruling parts of the upper middle Euphrates under the nominal authority of Ashur @-@ dan III , styled himself the governor of the lands of Suhu and Mari , so did his son Ninurta @-@ Kudurri @-@ Usur . However , by that time , Mari was known to be located in the so @-@ called Land of Laqe , making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it , and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons . The city continued as a small settlement until the Hellenistic period before disappearing from records .

= = People , language and government = =

The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probably East Semitic speaking people from Terqa in the north . I. J. Gelb relates Mari 's foundation with the Kish civilization , which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations , that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant .

At its height , the second city was the home of about 40 @,@ 000 people . This population was East @-@ Semitic speaking one , and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla ( the Eblaite language ) , while the Shakkanakku period had an East @-@ Semitic Akkadian speaking population . West Semitic names started to be attested in Mari since the second kingdom era , and by the middle Bronze @-@ Age , the west Semitic Amorite tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and Khabur valleys . Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period , even among the ruling dynasty members .

During the Lim era , the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people , and although the Amorite language became the dominant tongue , Akkadian remained the language of writing . The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called the Haneans , a term that indicate nomads in general , those Haneans were split into the Banu @-@ Yamina ( sons of the right ) and Banu @-@ Simaal ( sons of the left ) , with the ruling house belonging to the Banu @-@ Simaal branch . The kingdom was also a home to tribes of Suteans who lived in the district of Terqa .

Mari was an absolute monarchy , with the king controlling every aspect of the administration , helped by the scribes who played the role of administrators . During the Lim era , Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital , the provincial seats were located at Terqa , Saggaratum , Qattunan and Tuttul . Each province had its own bureaucracy , the government supplied the villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments , in return for a share in the harvest .

= = = Kings of Mari = = =

The Sumerian King List ( SKL ) records a dynasty of six kings from Mari enjoying hegemony between the dynasty of Adab and the dynasty of Kish . The names of the Mariote kings were damaged on the early copies of the list , and those kings were correlated with historical kings that belonged to the second city . However , an undamaged copy of the list that date to the old Babylonian period was discovered in Shubat @-@ Enlil , and the names bears no resemblance to any of the historically attested monarchs of the second city , indicating that the compilers of the list had an older and probably a legendary dynasty in mind , that predate the second city .

The chronological order of the kings from the second kingdom era is highly uncertain ; nevertheless , it is assumed that the letter of Enna @-@ Dagan lists them in a chronological order . Many of the kings were attested through their own votive objects discovered in the city , and the dates are highly speculative .

For the Shakkanakkus , the lists are incomplete and after Hanun @-@ Dagan who ruled at the end of the Ur era c . 2008 BC ( c . 1920 BC Short chronology ) , they become full of lacunae . Roughly 13 more Shakkanakkus succeeded Hanun @-@ Dagan but only few are known , with the last known one reigning not too long before the reign of Yaggid @-@ Lim who founded the Lim dynasty in c . 1830 BC .

= = Culture and religion = =

The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south . The society was led by an urban oligarchy , and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress . The calendar was based on a solar year divided into twelve months , and was the same calendar used in Ebla " the old Eblaite calendar " . Scribes wrote in Sumerian language and the art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art , so was the architectural style .

Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Mari 's culture during the Amorite period , which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city . However , it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed , which is noticeable in the seals of kings , which reflect a clear Syrian origin . The society was a tribal one , it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads ( Haneans ) , and in contrast to Mesopotamia , the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace . Women enjoyed a relative equality to men , queen Shibtu ruled in her husband 's name while he was away , and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband 's highest officials .

The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities , and throughout most of its history , Dagan was Mari 's head of the Pantheon , while Mer was the patron deity . Other deities included the Semitic deities ; Ishtar the goddess of fertility , Athtar , and Shamash , the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities , and believed to be all @-@ knowing and all @-@ seeing . Sumerian deities included Ninhursag , Dumuzi , Enki , Anu , and Enlil . Prophecy had an important role for the society , temples included prophets , who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals . Ornina , the singer of Ishtar temple , was one of the oldest multi @-@ talented women who has a prominent statue depicting her playing music during the reign of Iblul @-@ Il .

= = Economy = =

The first Mari provided the oldest wheels workshop to be discovered in Syria , and was a center of bronze metallurgy . The city also contained districts devoted to smelting , dyeing and pottery manufacturing , charcoal was brought by river boats from the upper Khabur and Euphrates area .

The second kingdom 's economy was based on both agriculture and trade . The economy was centralized and directed through a communal organization , where grains were stored in communal granaries , and distributed amongst the population according to social statues . The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom . Some people were directly connected to the palace instead of the communal organization , those included the metal and textile producers and the military officials . Ebla was Mari 's most important trading partner and rival , Mari 's position made it an important trading center as it controlled the road linking between the Levant and Mesopotamia .

The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy , which was still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley . The city kept its trading role and was a center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms , it received goods from the south and east through riverboats and distributed them north , north west and west . The main merchandises handled by Mari were metals and tin imported from the Iranian Plateau and then exported west as far as Crete . Other goods included copper from Cyprus , silver from Anatolia , woods from Lebanon , gold from Egypt , olive oil , wine , and textiles in addition to precious stones from modern Afghanistan .

= = Excavations and archive = =

Mari was discovered in 1933 , on the eastern flank of Syria , near the Iraqi border . A Bedouin tribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman , when they came across a headless statue . After the news reached the French authorities currently in control of Syria , the report was investigated , and digging on the site was started on December 14 , 1933 by archaeologists from the Louvre in Paris . Discoveries came quickly , with the temple of Ishtar being discovered in the next month . Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the " most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture " .

Since the beginning of excavations , over 25 @,@ 000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in cuneiform were discovered . Finds from the excavation are on display in the Louvre , the National Museum of Aleppo , the National Museum of Damascus , and the Deir ez @-@ Zor Museum . In the latter , the southern façade of the Court of the Palms room from Zimri @-@ Lim 's palace has been reconstructed , including the wall paintings .

Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns between 1933 @-@ 1939 , 1951 @-@ 1956 , and since 1960 , and the first 21 seasons up to 1975 were led by André Parrot , followed by Jean @-@ Claude Margueron ( until 2004 ) , and Pascal Butterlin ( starting in 2005 ) . A journal devoted to the site since 1982 , is Mari : Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires . Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends , according to French archaeologist André Parrot , " each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site 's history down to virgin soil , such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed . "

= = = Mari tablets = = =

The tablets were written in Akkadian , and they give informations about the kingdom , its customs , and the names of people who lived during that time . More than 3000 are letters , the remainder includes administrative , economic , and judicial texts . The tablets , according to André Parrot , " brought about a complete revision of the historical dating of the ancient Near East and provided more than 500 new place names , enough to redraw or even draw up the geographical map of the ancient world . " Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Mari 's independence ( c . 1800 – 1750 BC ) , and most have now been published . The language of the texts is official Akkadian but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari 's inhabitants was Northwest Semitic .

= = Current situation = =

As a result of the Syrian Civil War , excavations stopped , and the site came under the control of armed gangs , and witnessed a large scale looting . An official report revealed that the robbers are focusing on the royal palace , the public baths , the temple of Ishtar and the temple of Dagan .

= OMG ( song ) =

For other songs titled OMG , see OMG

" OMG " is a song by American recording artist Usher and American rapper will.i.am , who also wrote and produced the song . It uses the auto @-@ tune effect in several lines , as well as Jock Jams @-@ esque sports arena chanting . It was released on March 22 , 2010 as the first worldwide single off his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond , and the fourth single overall , following the three US singles " Papers " , " Hey Daddy ( Daddy 's Home ) " , and " Lil Freak " . The song was met with a mixed reception from critics , who criticized the use of auto @-@ tune , but commended the song 's dance and club vibe . The song marks the second time that Usher has collaborated with will.i.am , following the single " What 's Your Name " , from his previous album Here I Stand ( 2008 ) .

" OMG " topped the charts in Australia , Ireland , New Zealand , the United Kingdom and the United States . The song became his ninth number @-@ one hit in the United States , making him the first 2010s artist to collect number @-@ one singles in three consecutive decades . He became only the fourth artist of all @-@ time to achieve that feat . Usher also became the third artist to have at least one number @-@ one song from five consecutive studio albums . The song 's choreography and dance @-@ heavy accompanying music video has been compared by critics to that of " Yeah ! " . Usher performed the song live several times including on the ninth season of American Idol with will.i.am. He also performed the song as a part of a medley during his critically acclaimed performance at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . " OMG " , was named the fifth best selling song of 2010 in the US , selling 3 @.@ 8 million units . The song sold 6 @.@ 9 million copies worldwide during that year .

= = Production and composition = =

" OMG was written and produced by The Black Eyed Peas frontman , will.i.am. The tune was recorded at Chung King Studios , New York City . Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow mixed the record at Paper V.U. Studios , North Hollywood . The vocal sample of a crowd shouting " owowowo " used in the song was recorded by will.i.am while performing with The Black Eyed Peas on the French TV show Taratata .

" OMG " is a midtempo pop song , drawing from the subgenres of dance @-@ pop and synthpop , and is also influenced by R & B. The song also infuses hints of Eurodance . Several lines feature the Auto @-@ Tune vocal effect , and makes use of " hypnotic " hand claps , and Jock Jams @-@ esque arena chanting . The song is set in common time , and has a tempo of 130 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E minor , and Usher 's vocals span from the low note of G3 to high note of E5 . It follows the chord progression Em – D – Bm7 – C6 . According to James Reed of the Boston Globe , Usher is featured in a staccato delivery over the song 's minimalist dance beat . " will.i.am begins the song with the line , " Oh my gosh " then Usher starts singing the chorus . He performs his verse and the second chorus , before will.i.am gives his verse . " OMG " concludes with an extended final chorus . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times said that the lyrics of the song detail Usher 's encounter with a woman in a club .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical = = =

The song has garnered mixed reception , with most critics disapproving of the auto @-@ tuned vocals , and the production and appearance by will.i.am. Edna Gundersen of USA Today said that Usher seemed " disengaged " on the song , and allowed will.i.am. to " bludgeon " the song with auto @-@ tune . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said the song was one of the tracks where production fell short on Raymond v. Raymond , calling the song another auto @-@ tuned " formulaic chant " by will.i.am. The New York Daily News said that the song is " as annoying as the tech @-@ speak it mimics . " Andrew Winistorfer of Prefix Magazine preferred " Lil Freak " to be the album 's big single , stating that the song " doesn 't come close to matching the filthy heights of " Little Freak , " [ sic ] but the sports arena chanting thing hasn 't been done this well since the ' 90s when Jock Jams were enormous . " Winistorfer also said that Usher brought back his " bad taste " in collaborators since Lil Jon on " Yeah ! " , saying that having the latter on this song would be an improvement .

James Reed of the Boston Globe said that Usher " fares better " on the collaboration . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times commended the song 's " thumping " groove . Gail Mitchell of Billboard said that Usher " pumps up the beat on the infectious club anthem . " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian , called the track " irresistible " . Monica Herrera of Billboard magazine said the song , like " Yeah ! " , appealed to a broader audience and attuned to clubs . Herrera also said that " the lyrics are hypnotic hand claps and soccer @-@ game chants that fade in and out to keep the party going " .

= = = Controversy = = =

In 2010 , WYOY disc jockeys compared part of Usher 's verse to a song sung by Homer Simpson in " Dude , Where 's My Ranch ? " , a 2003 episode of television comedy The Simpsons . The cadences of the line , " Honey got a booty like pow , pow , pow . Honey got some boobies like wow , oh wow " were compared to those of Simpson 's tune , " Christmas in December , wow wow wow . Give me tons of presents , now now now . " Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly disagreed , calling the likenesses " a random coincidence " .

= = Chart performance = =

The song debuted at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 selling 130 @,@ 000 units in its first week . The song became the third @-@ highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 of Usher 's career , behind 1997 's " Nice & Slow " at number nine , and 1998 's " My Way " at eight . For the week ending May 15 , 2010 , the song lifted to number one on the chart , becoming Usher 's ninth number @-@ one single and Will.i.am 's first number one single as a solo artist ( or without his group , The Black eyed Peas ) . The song collected airplay and digital gainer honors , moving fourteen to seven on the Hot 100 Airplay chart , and two to one on the Hot Digital Songs chart . The song later topped both charts . By March 2011 , the song has reached 4 million in sales , and as of May 2013 , the song has sold 4 @,@ 719 @,@ 000 copies .

With the song , Usher tied with the Bee Gees , Elton John , and Paul McCartney for ninth among artists all time with the most Hot 100 hits . Usher also became the third artist , behind McCartney and Michael Jackson to collect at least one number @-@ one single from five consecutive albums . The song made Usher the first artist in the 2010s to have a number @-@ one single in three consecutive decades , Usher 's being the 1990s , 2000s and 2010s . He became only the fifth artist of all time to accomplish this , the others being Stevie Wonder in the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s ; Michael Jackson in the 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s ; and Madonna and Janet Jackson in the 1980s , 1990s and 2000s . " OMG " was the second shortest title to lead the chart , tying Jackson 's " Ben " , " Bad " , and " ABC " with the Jackson 5 , with Britney Spears ' " 3 " being the chart @-@ topper with the shortest title .

The song charted at number three on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , two on the Pop Songs chart , and three on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . It also topped the Rhythmic Top 40 , making Usher the first artist to collect ten number ones on the chart , above 50 Cent , Beyoncé , Nelly , T @-@ Pain , and Mariah Carey , each with seven . Usher led first on the chart with " You Make Me Wanna " for thirteen weeks from 1997 – 1998 and " Love in This Club " featuring Young Jeezy in 2008 .

" OMG " reached number two in Canada , and was certified Platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association . It was later upgraded to 2x Platinum for shipments over 160 @,@ 000 copies . It sold 223 @,@ 000 copies during 2010 in Canada . Internationally , " OMG " charted across Europe , reaching number one in the Ireland , and United Kingdom where it became the third best selling song of 2010 . It also charted moderately in other countries , allowing it to reach a peak of six on the European Hot 100 . In Australia and New Zealand the song placed at the top of the charts . It was certified 2 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association , and Platinum in New Zealand by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for shipments of 15 @,@ 000 units . It was later upgraded to 5 × Platinum in Australia for shipments over 350 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

Usher and will.i.am shot the video the weekend of March 6 , 2010 . The video was directed by Anthony Mandler . In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , Mandler said about the concept of the video : " ... The video is a spectacle . It really emphasizes what we love about Usher and the character and the icon that he is , and most importantly , it ’ s really a video that showcases his superstardom " . The video was released on March 30 , 2010 , on VEVO and AMTV . According to Mandler , the original idea for the video was citing Max Headroom , a fictional artificial intelligence character from 1980s British television and film . The reference is made when Usher is seen on a flickering television at the beginning of the video . Mandler specified , commenting , " Max Headroom was always in his room , " he continued , " this unidentifiable room , ' 80s shapes . I used that for inspiration . " Usher stated that he wanted to do something theatrical and fun , and that while will.i.am. brought the international sound , he wanted to bring the producer into his world , " working off of each other and playing off of each other as artists , but the cinematography would be artistic and incredible . " Mandler described the visuals in the clip as " Hitchcock @-@ ian " , as well as simply captuiring Usher in his element , as he said he wanted the R & B singer 's talent to take over . He further explained , stating ,

" The concept was to create a world where we put Usher in a space where he does what I think he does better than anyone else in the world , which is perform at a level and magnitude of a superstar and take us , the viewer , whether audible or visually , on a journey , not a ride . And , in that , I wanted to create an unpredictability , so one set leads to another and another , and you never know what 's gonna happen . Along the way , Usher becomes our guide . We 're so focused on him , we don 't notice the change . The thing is unfolding little by little , and you can 't quite see far enough ahead to know what 's gonna come next . "

= = = Synopsis and reception = = =

The video begins with Usher flickering on a television in a room , before we see him in a scene dancing with blue flashing lights , and will.i.am. is shown in a similar room with red flashing lights . Usher is then shown with female background dancers in a white room . In the scene he dons a pair of glasses which show the dancers performing through the lens . Usher then dances outside in front of a concrete wall , with male background dancers appearing as shadows . As will.i.am. performs his verse , he and Usher are seen in their corresponding rooms with flashing lights . After this , Usher puffs a cigar and dances with male background dancers in an arena @-@ like area , whilst he is also joined by female dancers with flashing lights on the floor , with the video ending with Usher shown on the flashing television .

In a review of the video , Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly said , " For a song with such a title , it sure does take a minute for its video to build up to wow @-@ worthy moments . After some clean dance sequences , the magic begins . Usher grooves with shadows , puffs out O ’ s with cigar smoke , and then links back up with his ladies on a primary colored dance floor to show off his steps . " Chris Ryan of MTV News compared the video 's flashing lights to the music video for " Yeah ! " , and called the song an answer track to Trey Songz 's " LOL " . At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , the clip was nominated for Best Dance Video , Best Choreography , and Best Male Video .

= = Live performances = =

Usher performed the song with will.i.am. on the ninth season of American Idol , appearing in a black bowler and matching black suit with silver lapels , accompanied by flames and other pyrotechnics . They then performed the song together on The Oprah Winfrey Show on May 10 , 2010 . The song has also been performed live in Australia on Hey Hey it 's Saturday on May 19 , 2010 , as well as on Sunrise on May 21 , 2010 . Usher later performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , So You Think You Can Dance , Good Morning America and live in the United Kingdom on Britain 's Got Talent . On August 6 , 2010 , he performed the song alongside other hits at his New Look Foundation ’ s inaugural World Leadership Awards in Atlanta , where his protege Justin Bieber and R & B singer Ciara also performed . Another event the song was performed at was the Activision E3 Event . The song was performed alongside " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " during the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . VMA executive producer Dave Sirulnick told MTV News , " We said to him , ' We want to do the best televised dance routine that you 've done in years . Let 's show why you 're the king . ' " MTV Buzzworthy writer , Tamar Antai was present at the rehearsal for the show , and commented that the VMA crew was about to " pull off visual feats not just previously unseen and unparalleled at the VMAs , but unseen and unparalleled on TV . "

The performance was received with critical acclaim . On Usher specifically Antai said the performance was like " liquid magic " , saying , " He took it to the level that comes after the next level . The penthouse level . " He was aided by about a dozen background dancers , the males in skeleton @-@ like costumets , and the females donning a one @-@ piece , gloves and boots . The " OMG " performance was accompanied by red laser lights , making an illusion as if the stage disappeared . The lights spelled out " O.M.G " as well as " Usher " , as dancers lowered from the ceiling . Jayson Rodrgiguez of MTV News commented , " The singer moved and grooved , proving that he 's the R & B star that everyone pays attention to for the big moments . " Rochell D. Thomas , also of the site said " Call it what you will : talent , swag , skills ... When he steps on the dance floor , some mysterious thing comes out of him and puts the G in groove . " Thomas went on to say that Usher 's dance moves would make " the late great Michael Jackson jealous " in the stage production " that included more special @-@ effects bells and whistles than a summer blockbuster . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy also compared the performance to Jackson , calling it overall , " One part " Tron , " one part laser show , one part Michael Jackson choreo tribute , and all spectacle . " Usher appeared with The Black Eyed Peas to perform the song during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLV .

= = Track listing = =

= = Personnel = =

Vocals - Usher

Lyrics , music , production , instruments , recording , engineering , vocals – will.i.am

Mixing – Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow

Source :

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Clavaria fragilis =

Clavaria fragilis , commonly known as fairy fingers , white worm coral , or white spindles , is a species of fungus in the family Clavariaceae . It is synonymous with Clavaria vermicularis . The fungus is the type species of the genus Clavaria and is a typical member of the clavarioid or club fungi . It produces tubular , unbranched , white basidiocarps ( fruit bodies ) that typically grow in clusters . The fruit bodies can reach dimensions of 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) thick . Clavaria fragilis is a saprobic species , growing in woodland litter or in old , unimproved grassland . It is widespread throughout temperate regions in the Northern Hemisphere , but has also been reported from Australia and South Africa . The fungus is edible , but insubstantial and flavorless . There are several other small white coral @-@ like fungi with which C. fragilis may be confused .

= = History and taxonomy = =

Clavaria fragilis was originally described from Denmark in 1790 by Danish naturalist and mycologist Theodor Holmskjold , and was sanctioned under this name by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum . The Latin epithet fragilis refers to the brittle fruit bodies . The species was redescribed by Swedish mycologist Olof Swartz in 1811 , using the name Clavaria vermicularis ( the epithet meaning " wormlike " ) . Though it is a later synonym — and thus obsolete according to the principle of priority — the latter name is still frequently used today . There are several other names considered to be synonymous with C. fragilis by the online taxonomical database MycoBank ( see the taxobox ) .

In North America , the fungus has colloquially been called " fairy fingers " or " white worm coral " . In the UK its recommended English name is " white spindles " . British naturalist Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " worm club @-@ stool " in his 1821 A Natural Arrangement of British Plants .

= = Description = =

The fruit bodies of C. fragilis are irregularly tubular , smooth to furrowed , sometimes compressed , very fragile , white , up to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) thick , and typically grow in dense clusters . The tip of the fruit body tapers to a point , and may yellow and curve with age . There is no distinct stalk , although it is evident as a short , semitransparent zone of tissue at the base of the club . Microscopically , the hyphae of the flesh are swollen up to 12 µm wide and lack clamp connections . The spores are smooth , colourless , ellipsoid to oblong , measuring 5 – 7 by 3 – 4 µm . The spores are white in deposit . The basidia ( spore bearing cells ) measure 40 – 50 by 6 – 8 µm , and lack clamps at their bases .

= = = Edibility = = =

Clavaria fragilis is edible , but the fruit bodies are insubstantial and fragile . One field guide says " its flesh is tasteless and so delicate that it seems to dissolve in one 's mouth . " Its odor has been compared to iodine .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The species occurs throughout the Northern Hemisphere , in Europe , North America , and Asia . In North America , it is more common east of the Rocky Mountains . It has also been recorded from Australia and South Africa . In 2006 , it was reported from the Arctic zone of the Ural Mountains , in Russia .

The fungus grows in woodland and in grassland on moist soil , and is presumed to be saprobic , rotting fallen leaf litter and dead grass stems . The fruit bodies tend to grow in groups , tufts or clusters . Although they can grow singly , they are typically inconspicuous unless in clusters .

= = Similar species = =

Similar fungi with simple , white fruit bodies include Clavaria acuta , an equally widespread species that typically grows singly or in small groups rather than in dense clusters and can be distinguished microscopically by its clamped basidia and larger spores ; the morphologically similar , but rare C. atkinsoniana , found in the southwestern and central United States , which cannot be distinguished from C. fragilis by field characteristics alone but has larger spores — 8 @.@ 5 – 10 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 µm ; C. rubicundula , another North American species , which is similar in stature but has a reddish tint ; and Multiclavula mucida , a widespread lichenized species with smaller fruit bodies that occurs with its associated algae on moist wood .

= = Conservation status = =

In North America , Clavaria fragilis has been called " by far our most common Clavaria " . In northern Europe , it is one of a suite of " CHEG " fungi ( CHEG standing for " Clavarioid fungi @-@ Hygrocybe @-@ Entoloma @-@ Geoglossaceae " ) considered to be indicator species of old , unimproved grassland ( permanent grassland that has not been cultivated for some years ) . Though such grasslands are a threatened habitat in Europe , C. fragilis is one of the commoner CHEG species . It is , nonetheless , on the national red list of threatened fungi in the Netherlands and Slovenia .

= Natural dye =

Natural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants , invertebrates , or minerals . The majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources — roots , berries , bark , leaves , and wood — and other organic sources such as fungi and lichens

Archaeologists have found evidence of textile dyeing dating back to the Neolithic period . In China , dyeing with plants , barks and insects has been traced back more than 5 @,@ 000 years . The essential process of dyeing changed little over time . Typically , the dye material is put in a pot of water and then the textiles to be dyed are added to the pot , which is heated and stirred until the color is transferred . Textile fibre may be dyed before spinning ( " dyed in the wool " ) , but most textiles are " yarn @-@ dyed " or " piece @-@ dyed " after weaving . Many natural dyes require the use of chemicals called mordants to bind the dye to the textile fibres ; tannin from oak galls , salt , natural alum , vinegar , and ammonia from stale urine were used by early dyers . Many mordants , and some dyes themselves , produce strong odors , and large @-@ scale dyeworks were often isolated in their own districts .

Throughout history , people have dyed their textiles using common , locally available materials , but scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes , Tyrian purple and crimson kermes , became highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world . Plant @-@ based dyes such as woad ( Isatis tinctoria ) , indigo , saffron , and madder were raised commercially and were important trade goods in the economies of Asia and Europe . Across Asia and Africa , patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece @-@ dyed cloth . Dyes such as cochineal and logwood ( Haematoxylum campechianum ) were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets , and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America .

The discovery of man @-@ made synthetic dyes in the mid @-@ 19th century triggered a long decline in the large @-@ scale market for natural dyes . Synthetic dyes , which could be produced in large quantities , quickly superseded natural dyes for the commercial textile production enabled by the industrial revolution , and unlike natural dyes , were suitable for the synthetic fibres that followed . Artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement preferred the pure shades and subtle variability of natural dyes , which mellow with age but preserve their true colors , unlike early synthetic dyes , and helped ensure that the old European techniques for dyeing and printing with natural dyestuffs were preserved for use by home and craft dyers . Natural dyeing techniques are also preserved by artisans in traditional cultures around the world .

In the early 21st century , the market for natural dyes in the fashion industry is experiencing a resurgence . Western consumers have become more concerned about the health and environmental impact of synthetic dyes in manufacturing and there is a growing demand for products that use natural dyes . The European Union , for example , has encouraged Indonesian batik cloth producers to switch to natural dyes to improve their export market in Europe .

= = Dyes in use in the fashion industry = =

Fibre content determines the type of dye required for a fabric :

Cellulose fibres : cotton , linen , hemp , ramie , bamboo , rayon

Protein fibres : wool , angora , mohair , cashmere , silk , soy , leather , suede

Cellulose fibres require fibre @-@ reactive , direct / substantive , and vat dyes , which are colourless , soluble dyes fixed by light and / or oxygen . Protein fibres require vat , acid , or indirect / mordant dyes , that require a bonding agent . Each synthetic fibre requires its own dyeing method , for example , nylon requires acid , disperse and pigment dyes , rayon acetate requires disperse dyes , and so on . The types of natural dyes currently in use by the global fashion industry include :

= = = Animal = = =

Cochineal insect ( red )

Cow urine ( Indian yellow )

Lac insect ( red , violet )

Murex snail ( purple )

Octopus / Cuttlefish ( sepia brown )

= = = Plant = = =

Catechu or Cutch tree ( brown )

Gamboge tree resin ( dark mustard yellow )

Himalayan rubhada root ( yellow )

Indigofera plant ( blue )

Kamala tree ( red )

Larkspur plant ( yellow )

Madder root ( red , pink , orange )

Myrabolan fruit ( yellow , green , black )

Pomegranate peel ( yellow )

Weld herb ( yellow )

= = Origins = =

Colors in the " ruddy " range of reds , browns , and oranges are the first attested colors in a number of ancient textile sites ranging from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age across the Levant , Egypt , Mesopotamia and Europe , followed by evidence of blues and then yellows , with green appearing somewhat later . The earliest surviving evidence of textile dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement at Çatalhöyük in southern Anatolia , where traces of red dyes , possible from ochre ( iron oxide pigments from clay ) , were found . Polychrome or multicolored fabrics seem to have been developed in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE . Textiles with a " red @-@ brown warp and an ochre @-@ yellow weft " were discovered in Egyptian pyramids of the Sixth Dynasty ( 2345 – 2180 BCE ) .

The chemical analysis that would definitively identify the dyes used in ancient textiles has rarely been conducted , and even when a dye such as indigo blue is detected it is impossible to determine which of several indigo @-@ bearing plants was used . Nevertheless , based on the colors of surviving textile fragments and the evidence of actual dyestuffs found in archaeological sites , reds , blues , and yellows from plant sources were in common use by the late Bronze Age and Iron Age .

In the 18th century Jeremias Friedrich Gülich made substantial contributions to refining the dyeing process , making particular progress on setting standards on dyeing sheep wool and many other textiles . His contributions to refining the dying process and his theories on colour brought much praise by the well known poet and artist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe .

= = Processes = =

The essential process of dyeing requires soaking the material containing the dye ( the dyestuff ) in water , adding the textile to be dyed to the resulting solution ( the dyebath ) , and bringing the solution to a simmer for an extended period , often measured in days or even weeks , stirring occasionally until the color has evenly transferred to the textiles .

Some dyestuffs , such as indigo and lichens , will give good color when used alone ; these dyes are called direct dyes or substantive dyes . The majority of plant dyes , however , also require the use of a mordant , a chemical used to " fix " the color in the textile fibres . These dyes are called adjective dyes . By using different mordants , dyers can often obtain a variety of colors and shades from the same dye . Fibres or cloth may be pretreated with mordants , or the mordant may be incorporated in the dyebath . In traditional dyeing , the common mordants are vinegar , tannin from oak bark , sumac or oak galls , ammonia from stale urine , and wood @-@ ash liquor or potash ( potassium carbonate ) made by leaching wood ashes and evaporating the solution .

We shall never know by what chances primitive man discovered that salt , vinegar from fermenting fruit , natural alum , and stale urine helped to fix and enhance the colours of his yarns , but for many centuries these four substances were used as mordants .

Salt helps to " fix " or increase " fastness " of colors , vinegar improves reds and purples , and the ammonia in stale urine assists in the fermentation of indigo dyes . Natural alum ( aluminum sulfate ) is the most common metallic salt mordant , but tin ( stannous chloride ) , copper ( cupric sulfate ) , iron ( ferrous sulfate , called copperas ) and chrome ( potassium dichromate ) are also used . Iron mordants " sadden " colors , while tin and chrome mordants brighten colors . The iron mordants contribute to fabric deterioration , referred to as " dye rot " . Additional chemicals or alterants may be applied after dying to further alter or reinforce the colors .

Textiles may be dyed as raw fibre ( dyed in the fleece or dyed in the wool ) , as spun yarn ( dyed in the hank or yarn @-@ dyed ) , or after weaving ( piece @-@ dyed ) . Mordants often leave residue in wool fibre that makes it difficult to spin , so wool was generally dyed after spinning , as yarn or woven cloth . Indigo , however , requires no mordant , and cloth manufacturers in medieval England often dyed wool in the fleece with the indigo @-@ bearing plant woad and then dyed the cloth again after weaving to produce deep blues , browns , reds , purples , blacks , and tawnies .

In China , Japan , India , Pakistan , Nigeria , Gambia , and other parts of West Africa and southeast Asia , patterned silk and cotton fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques in which the cloth is printed or stenciled with starch or wax , or tied in various ways to prevent even penetration of the dye when the cloth is piece @-@ dyed . The Chinese ladao process is dated to the 10th century ; other traditional techniques include tie @-@ dye , batik , Rōketsuzome , katazome , bandhani and leheria .

The mordants used in dyeing and many dyestuffs themselves give off strong and unpleasant odors , and the actual process of dyeing requires a good supply of fresh water , storage areas for bulky plant materials , vats which can be kept heated ( often for days or weeks ) along with the necessary fuel , and airy spaces to dry the dyed textiles . Ancient large @-@ scale dye @-@ works tended to be located on the outskirts of populated areas , on windy promontories .

= = Common dyestuffs = =

= = = Reds and pinks = = =

A variety of plants produce red dyes , including a number of lichens , henna , alkanet or dyer 's bugloss ( Alkanna tinctoria ) , asafoetida and dyer 's madder Rubia tinctorum . Madder and related plants of the genus Rubia are native to many temperate zones around the world , and were already used as sources of good red dye , such as rose madder , in prehistory . Madder has been identified on linen in the tomb of Tutankhamun , and Pliny the Elder records madder growing near Rome . Madder was a dye of commercial importance in Europe , being cultivated in the Netherlands and France to dye the red coats of military uniforms until the market collapsed following the development of synthetic alizarin dye in 1869 . Madder was also used to dye the " hunting pinks " of Great Britain .

Turkey red was a strong , very fast red dye for cotton obtained from madder root via a complicated multistep process involving " sumac and oak galls , calf 's blood , sheep 's dung , oil , soda , alum , and a solution of tin . " Turkey red was developed in India and spread to Turkey . Greek workers familiar with the methods of its production were brought to France in 1747 , and Dutch and English spies soon discovered the secret . A sanitized version of Turkey red was being produced in Manchester by 1784 , and roller @-@ printed dress cottons with a Turkey red ground were fashionable in England by the 1820s .

Munjeet or Indian madder ( Rubia cordifolia ) is native to the Himalayas and other mountains of Asia and Japan . Munjeet was an important dye for the Asian cotton industry and is still used by craft dyers in Nepal .

Puccoon or bloodroot ( Sanguinaria canadensis ) is a popular red dye among Southeastern Native American basketweavers . Choctaw basketweavers additionally use sumac for red dye . Coushattas artists from Texas and Louisiana used the water oak ( Quercus nigra L. ) to produce red .

A delicate rose color in Navajo rugs comes from fermented prickly pear cactus fruit , Opuntia polyacantha . Navajo weavers also use rainwater and red dirt to create salmon @-@ pink dyes .

= = = Oranges = = =

Dyes that create reds and yellows can also yield oranges . Navajo dyers create orange dyes from one @-@ seeded juniper , Juniperus monosperma , Navajo tea , Thelesperma gracile , or alder bark .

= = = Yellows = = =

Yellow dyes are " about as numerous as red ones " , and can be extracted from saffron , pomegranate rind , turmeric , safflower , onionskins , and a number of weedy flowering plants . Limited evidence suggests the use of weld ( Reseda luteola ) , also called mignonette or dyer 's rocket before the Iron Age , but it was an important dye of the ancient Mediterranean and Europe and is indigenous to England . Two brilliant yellow dyes of commercial importance in Europe from the 18th century are derived from trees of the Americas : quercitron from the inner bark of Eastern Black Oak ( Quercus velutina ) , ] native to eastern North America and fustic from the dyer 's mulberry tree ( Maclura tinctoria ) of the West Indies and Mexico .

In rivercane basketweaving among Southeastern Woodlands tribes in the Americas , butternut ( Juglans cinerea ) and yellow root ( Xanthorhiza simplicissima ) provide a rich yellow color . Chitimacha basket weavers have a complex formula for yellow that employs a dock plant ( most likely Rumex crispus ) for yellow . Navajo artists create yellow dyes from small snake @-@ weed , brown onion skins , and rubber plant ( Parthenium incanum ) . Rabbitbush ( Chrysothamnus ) and rose hips produce pale , yellow @-@ cream colored dyes .

= = = Greens = = =

If plants that yield yellow dyes are common , plants that yield green dyes are rare . Both woad and indigo have been used since ancient times in combination with yellow dyes to produce shades of green . Medieval and Early Modern England was especially known for its green dyes . The dyers of Lincoln , a great cloth town in the high Middle Ages , produced the Lincoln green cloth associated with Robin Hood by dyeing wool with woad and then overdyeing it yellow with weld or dyer 's greenweed ( Genista tinctoria ) , also known as dyer 's broom . Woolen cloth mordanted with alum and dyed yellow with dyer 's greenweed was overdyed with woad and , later , indigo , to produce the once @-@ famous Kendal green . This in turn fell out of fashion in the 18th century in favor of the brighter Saxon green , dyed with indigo and fustic .

Soft olive greens are also achieved when textiles dyed yellow are treated with an iron mordant . The dull green cloth common to the Iron Age Halstatt culture shows traces of iron , and was possibly colored by boiling yellow @-@ dyed cloth in an iron pot . Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau in North America used lichen to dye corn husk bags a sea green .

Navajo textile artist Nonabah Gorman Bryan developed a two @-@ step process for creating green dye . First the Churro wool yarn is dyed yellow with sagebrush , Artemisia tridentata , and then it is soaked in black dye afterbath . Red onion skins are also used by Navajo dyers to produce green .

= = = Blues = = =

Blue colorants around the world were derived from indigo dye @-@ bearing plants , primarily those in the genus Indigofera , which are native to the tropics . The primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true indigo ( Indigofera tinctoria ) . India is believed to be the oldest center of indigo dyeing in the Old World . It was a primary supplier of indigo dye to Europe as early as the Greco @-@ Roman era . The association of India with indigo is reflected in the Greek word for the dye , which was indikon ( ινδικόν ) . The Romans used the term indicum , which passed into Italian dialect and eventually into English as the word indigo .

In Central and South America , the important blue dyes were Añil ( Indigofera suffruticosa ) and Natal indigo ( Indigofera arrecta ) .

In temperate climates including Europe , indigo was obtained primarily from woad ( Isatis tinctoria ) , an indigenous plant of Assyria and the Levant which has been grown in Northern Europe over 2 @,@ 000 years , although from the 18th century it was mostly replaced by superior Indian indigo imported by the British East India Company . Woad was carried to New England in the 17th century and used extensively in America until native stands of indigo were discovered in Florida and the Carolinas . In Sumatra , indigo dye is extracted from some species of Marsdenia . Other indigo @-@ bearing dye plants include dyer 's knotweed ( Polygonum tinctorum ) from Japan and the coasts of China , and the West African shrub Lonchocarpus cyanescens .

= = = = Natural dyeing with Indigo , Jaipur ( Rajasthan , India ) = = = =

= = = Purples = = =

In medieval Europe , purple , violet , murrey and similar colors were produced by dyeing wool with woad or indigo in the fleece and then piece @-@ dyeing the woven cloth with red dyes , either the common madder or the luxury dyes kermes and cochineal . Madder could also produce purples when used with alum . Brazilwood also gave purple shades with vitriol ( sulfuric acid ) or potash .

Choctaw artists traditionally used maple ( Acer sp . ) to create lavender and purple dyes . Purples can also be derived from lichens , and from the berries of White Bryony from the northern Rocky Mountain states and mulberry ( morus nigra ) ( with an acid mordant ) .

= = = Browns = = =

Cutch is an ancient brown dye from the wood of acacia trees , particularly Acacia catechu , used in India for dyeing cotton . Cutch gives gray @-@ browns with an iron mordant and olive @-@ browns with copper .

Black walnut ( Juglans nigra ) is used by Cherokee artists to produce a deep brown approaching black . Today black walnut is primarily used to dye baskets but has been used in the past for fabrics and deerhide . Juniper , Juniperus monosperma , ashes provide brown and yellow dyes for Navajo people , as do the hulls of wild walnuts ( Juglans major ) . Khaki , which translates a Hindustani word signifying " soil @-@ coloured " , was introduced into British uniforms in India , which were dyed locally with a dye prepared from the native mazari palm Nannorrhops .

= = = Greys and blacks = = =

Choctaw dyers use maple ( Acer sp . ) for a grey dye . Navajo weavers create black from mineral yellow ochre mixed with pitch from the piñon tree ( Pinus edulis ) and the three @-@ leaved sumac ( Rhus trilobata ) . They also produce a cool grey dye with blue flower lupine and a warm grey from Juniper mistletoe ( Phoradendron juniperinum ) .

= = = Lichen = = =

Dye @-@ bearing lichen produce a wide range of greens , oranges , yellows , reds , browns , and bright pinks and purples . The lichen Rocella tinctoria was found along the Mediterranean Sea and was used by the ancient Phoenicians . In recent times , lichen dyes have been an important part of the dye traditions of Wales , Ireland , Scotland , and among native peoples of the southwest and Intermontane Plateaus of the United States . Scottish lichen dyes include cudbear ( also called archil in England and litmus in the Netherlands ) , and crottle .

= = = Fungi = = =

Miriam C. Rice , ( 1918 — 2010 ) of Mendocino , California , pioneered research into using various mushrooms for natural dyes . She discovered mushroom dyes for a complete rainbow palette . Swedish and American mycologists , building upon Rice 's research , have discovered sources for true blues ( Sarcodon squamosus ) and mossy greens ( Hydnellum geogenium ) . Hypholoma fasciculare provides a yellow dye , and fungi such as Phaeolus schweinitzii and Pisolithus tinctorius are used in dyeing textiles and paper .

= = Luxury dyestuffs = =

From the second millennium BC to the 19th century , a succession of rare and expensive natural dyestuffs came in and out of fashion in the ancient world and then in Europe . In many cases the cost of these dyes far exceeded the cost of the wools and silks they colored , and often only the finest grades of fabrics were considered worthy of the best dyes .

= = = Royal purple = = =

The premier luxury dye of the ancient world was Tyrian purple or royal purple , a purple @-@ red dye which is extracted from several genera of sea snails , primarily the spiny dye @-@ murex Murex brandaris ( currently known as Bolinus brandaris ) . Murex dye was greatly prized in antiquity because it did not fade , but instead became brighter and more intense with weathering and sunlight . Murex dyeing may have been developed first by the Minoans of East Crete or the West Semites along the Levantine coast , and heaps of crushed murex shells have been discovered at a number of locations along the eastern Mediterranean dated to the mid @-@ 2nd millennium BC . The classical dye known as Phoenician Red was also derived from murex snails .

Murex dyes were fabulously expensive – one snail yields but a single drop of dye – and the Roman Empire imposed a strict monopoly on their use from the reign of Alexander Severus ( AD 225 – 235 ) that was maintained by the succeeding Byzantine Empire until the Early Middle Ages . The dye was used for imperial manuscripts on purple parchment , often with text in silver or gold , and porphyrogenitos or " born in the purple " was a term for Byzantine offspring of a reigning Emperor . The color matched the increasingly rare purple rock porphyry , also associated with the imperial family .

= = = Crimson and scarlet = = =

Tyrian purple retained its place as the premium dye of Europe until it was replaced " in status and desirability " by the rich crimson reds and scarlets of the new silk @-@ weaving centers of Italy , colored with kermes . Kermes is extracted from the dried unlaid eggs of the insect Kermes vermilio or Kermococcus vermilio found on species of oak ( especially the Kermes oak of the Mediterranean region ) . The dye is of ancient origin ; jars of kermes have been found in a Neolithic cave @-@ burial at Adaoutse , Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône . Similar dyes are extracted from the related insects Porphyrophora hamelii ( Armenian cochineal ) of the Caucasus region , Porphyrophora polonica ( Polish cochineal or Saint John 's blood ) of Eastern Europe , and the lac @-@ producing insects of India , Southeast Asia , China , and Tibet .

When kermes @-@ dyed textiles achieved prominence around the mid @-@ 11th century , the dyestuff was called " grain " in all Western European languages because the desiccated eggs resemble fine grains of wheat or sand . Textiles dyed with kermes were described as dyed in the grain . Woollens were frequently dyed in the fleece with woad and then piece @-@ dyed in kermes , producing a wide range colors from blacks and grays through browns , murreys , purples , and sanguines . By the 14th and early 15th century , brilliant full grain kermes scarlet was " by far the most esteemed , most regal " color for luxury woollen textiles in the Low Countries , England , France , Spain and Italy .

Cochineal ( Dactylopius coccus ) is a scale insect of Central and North America from which the crimson @-@ coloured dye carmine is derived . It was used by the Aztec and Maya peoples . Moctezuma in the 15th century collected tribute in the form of bags of cochineal dye . Soon after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire cochineal began to be exported to Spain , and by the seventeenth century it was a commodity traded as far away as India . During the colonial period the production of cochineal ( in Spanish , grana fina ) grew rapidly . Produced almost exclusively in Oaxaca by indigenous producers , cochineal became Mexico 's second most valued export after silver . Cochineal produces purplish colors alone and brilliant scarlets when mordanted with tin ; thus cochineal , which produced a stronger dye and could thus be used in smaller quantities , replaced kermes dyes in general use in Europe from the 17th century .

= = = The rise of formal black = = =

During the course of the 15th century , the civic records show brilliant reds falling out of fashion for civic and high @-@ status garments in the Duchy of Burgundy in favor of dark blues , greens , and most important of all , black . The origins of the trend for somber colors are elusive , but are generally attributed to the growing influence of Spain and possibly the importation of Spanish merino wools . The trend spread in the next century : the Low Countries , German states , Scandinavia , England , France , and Italy all absorbed the sobering and formal influence of Spanish dress after the mid @-@ 1520s .

Producing fast black in the Middle Ages was a complicated process involving multiple dyeings with woad or indigo followed by mordanting , but at the dawn of Early Modern period , a new and superior method of dyeing black dye reached Europe via Spanish conquests in the New World . The new method used logwood ( Haematoxylum campechianum ) , a dyewood native to Mexico and Central America . Although logwood was poorly received at first , producing a blue inferior to that of woad and indigo , it was discovered to produce a fast black in combination with a ferrous sulfate ( copperas ) mordant . Despite changing fashions in color , logwood was the most widely used dye by the 19th century , providing the sober blacks of formal and mourning clothes .

= = Decline and rediscovery = =

The first synthetic dyes were discovered in the mid @-@ 19th century , starting with William Henry Perkin 's mauveine in 1856 , an aniline dye derived from coal tar . Alizarin , the red dye present in madder , was the first natural pigment to be duplicated synthetically , in 1869 , leading to the collapse of the market for naturally grown madder . The development of new , strongly colored aniline dyes followed quickly : a range of reddish @-@ purples , blues , violets , greens and reds became available by 1880 . These dyes had great affinity for animal fibres such as wool and silk . The new colors tended to fade and wash out , but they were inexpensive and could be produced in the vast quantities required by textile production in the industrial revolution . By the 1870s commercial dyeing with natural dyestuffs was fast disappearing .

At the same time the Pre @-@ Raphaelite artist and founding figure of the Arts and Crafts movement William Morris took up the art of dyeing as an adjunct to his manufacturing business , the design firm of Morris & Co . Always a medievalist at heart , Morris loathed the colors produced by the fashionable aniline dyes . He spent much of his time at his Staffordshire dye works mastering the processes of dyeing with plant materials and making experiments in the revival of old or discovery of new methods . One result of these experiments was to reinstate indigo dyeing as a practical industry and generally to renew the use of natural dyes like madder which had been driven almost out of use by the commercial success of the anilines . Morris saw dyeing of wools , silks , and cottons as the necessary preliminary to the production of woven and printed fabrics of the highest excellence ; and his period of incessant work at the dye @-@ vat ( 1875 – 76 ) was followed by a period during which he was absorbed in the production of textiles ( 1877 – 78 ) , and more especially in the revival of carpet- and tapestry @-@ weaving as fine arts . Morris & Co. also provided naturally dyed silks for the embroidery style called art needlework .

Scientists continued to search for new synthetic dyes that would be effective on cellulose fibres like cotton and linen , and that would be more colorfast on wool and silk than the early anilines . Chrome or mordant dyes produced a muted but very fast color range for woollens . These were followed by acid dyes for animal fibres ( from 1875 ) and the synthesis of indigo in Germany in 1880 . The work on indigo led to the development of a new class of dyes called vat dyes in 1901 that produced a wide range of fast colors for vegetable fibres . Disperse dyes were introduced in 1923 to color the new textiles of cellulose acetate , which could not be colored with any existing dyes . Today disperse dyes are the only effective means of coloring many synthetics . Reactive dyes for both wool and cotton were introduced in the mid @-@ 1950s , and are used both in commercial textile production and in craft dyeing .

In America , synthetic dyes became popular among a wide range of Native American textile artists ; however , natural dyes remained in use , as many textile collectors prefer natural dyes over synthetics . Today , dyeing with natural materials is often practiced as an adjunct to handspinning , knitting and weaving . It remains a living craft in many traditional cultures of North America , Africa , Asia , and the Scottish Highlands .

= Random Access Memories =

Random Access Memories is the fourth studio album by the French electronic music duo Daft Punk , released on 17 May 2013 by the duo 's imprint Daft Life and Columbia Records . The album pays tribute to the late 1970s and early 1980s era of music in the United States , particularly the sounds of said era that emerged from Los Angeles . This theme was reflected in the promotional campaign for the album that included billboards , television advertisements and a web series , as well as in the album 's packaging . Unlike their previous albums , Daft Punk recruited session musicians to perform live instrumentation in professional recording locations , and limited the use of electronic instruments to usage of drum machines , a custom @-@ built modular synthesizer and vintage vocoders . The album features collaborations with Giorgio Moroder , Panda Bear , Julian Casablancas , Todd Edwards , DJ Falcon , Chilly Gonzales , Nile Rodgers , Paul Williams and Pharrell Williams . It is the first album by the duo to be released by Columbia Records .

Random Access Memories received critical acclaim upon release , scoring an 87 out of 100 on review aggregator site Metacritic and frequently appearing on many music critics ' year @-@ end lists . It has also become one of Daft Punk 's most commercially successful albums to date , topping the charts in more than 25 countries worldwide . It debuted at # 1 on the Billboard 200 in the United States , selling more than 339 @,@ 000 copies within its first week , becoming their highest charting album to date and their first to top the Billboard 200 chart . The album 's lead single " Get Lucky " became a critical and commercial success worldwide , topping the charts in more than 30 countries worldwide and becoming one of the best @-@ selling digital singles of all time . The album later won Grammy Awards for Album of the Year , Best Dance / Electronica Album and Best Engineered Album , Non @-@ Classical , and " Get Lucky " won for Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in 2014 .

= = Background = =

= = = Conception = = =

Shortly after finishing off their Alive 2006 / 2007 tour , Daft Punk began working on new material in 2008 . Thomas Bangalter of the duo recalled , " the two of us would go in with a lot of keyboards , guitars , drums , and stuff and started to do demos for six , seven months . " Daft Punk were pleased with the work in terms of composition , but were dissatisfied with the production aspect , as they relied on samples and loops of their own performances : " We could play some riffs and stuff but not keep it [ up ] for four minutes straight . " Daft Punk put these demos aside and started work on the Tron : Legacy film soundtrack later in 2008 . As Bangalter mentioned after the film 's release in 2010 : " Making music for a movie is very humbling . We ’ ve been working on some of our music concurrently . " Daft Punk then decided to work extensively with live musicians on what would become Random Access Memories : " We wanted to do what we used to do with machines and samplers , but with people . " They avoided the use of samples on the album , with the exception of the closing track " Contact " .

The album features Chic frontman Nile Rodgers , who commented that a collaboration was " something we 've [ Daft Punk and Rodgers ] talked about for a long time . We 've respected each other endlessly . " Daft Punk eventually visited Rodgers ' home for an informal jam session , and an official collaboration was later confirmed and completed . Musician Paul Williams announced in a 2010 interview that he had worked with the group , after Daft Punk had been introduced to Williams by a sound engineer with whom they were mutually acquainted .

In May 2012 Daft Punk 's collaboration with Giorgio Moroder was announced — Moroder had recorded a monologue about his life for use in a track on the album . Rodgers was also present during the Moroder recording session . Moroder clarified that he was not involved in the composition of the track or its use of a synthesizer : " They did not let me get involved at all . Thomas asked me if I wanted to tell the story of my life . Then they would know what to do with it . " Daft Punk had been in contact with Moroder in relation to a possible contribution for the Tron : Legacy score , but this never happened .

Chilly Gonzales stated in an interview that his contribution was recorded in a one @-@ day session : " I played for hours and they 're gonna grab what they grab and turn it into whatever . " He explained that Daft Punk prompted him at the piano in the same manner that a film director coaches an actor , and Gonzales left the Los Angeles studio without knowledge of what the final product would sound like . He had previously recorded a cover version of Daft Punk 's song " Too Long " that appeared on the duo 's 2003 album Daft Club .

Pharrell Williams collaborated with Daft Punk and Rodgers by providing vocals for two tracks on Random Access Memories . As a member of the Neptunes , Pharrell had previously provided a remix of " Harder , Better , Faster , Stronger " that appeared on Daft Club . The Neptunes and Daft Punk also co @-@ produced N.E.R.D. ' s song " Hypnotize U " .

= = = Recording = = =

Recording took place at Henson Recording Studios , Conway Recording Studios and Capitol Studios in California , Electric Lady Studios in New York City , and Gang Recording Studio in Paris , France . Having worked with keyboardist and arranger Chris Caswell on Tron : Legacy , the duo enlisted him and connected with engineers and other session players for their next album . Daft Punk recalled that they wished to avoid the more compressed sounds of drum machines in favor of " airy open " drum sets of the 1970s and 80s , which the duo consider the most appealing era . Bangalter clarified that " it 's not that we can 't make crazy futuristic sounding stuff , but we wanted to play with the past " . The duo noted that the session players were enthusiastic to reunite in the context of the new album and the perceived prestige of the studio locations .

Drummer Omar Hakim recalled being asked by Daft Punk to perform on the album , and was surprised by what they wanted of him . He at first assumed that the duo wanted electronic drum work , since Hakim had done some drum programming in his career . Daft Punk instead specified that they were looking to record Hakim performing acoustic drum riffs that the duo had conceived . Rather than play out the entire structure of a song , Hakim would perform individual patterns for extended periods , thus creating a library for the duo to cull from . Daft Punk conveyed their ideas to session musicians via sheet music and in some instances by humming melodies . Bangalter recalled an example in which he hummed a complex drum and bass line to Hakim , who replicated and improved upon it for the track " Giorgio by Moroder " .

Most of the vocal sessions took place in Paris , whereas the rhythm sections were recorded in the United States . The album incorporates a variety of accompanying performances including a horn section , woodwind instruments , a string orchestra and choir . Orchestral parts in particular were recorded for almost every track , but were only included on a few songs in the final product . The use of such performers and places came at great monetary expense , as noted by Bangalter : " There used to be a time where people that had means to experiment would do it , you know ? That 's what this record is about . " He estimated a cost of over one million dollars , but felt that the number was not important . Bangalter stated that the sessions were financed by Daft Punk themselves , which allowed them the luxury of abandoning the project if they had so wished . He also specified that " there are songs on the album that traveled into five studios over two and a half years . "

Various sound effects were newly recorded with the help of film experts from Warner Bros. Bangalter noted one example in which the sound of a busy restaurant was achieved by placing microphones in front of the forks of a group of people . In another instance , the effect of dripping water was recorded on a soundstage . Use of electronics was limited to drum machines that appear on only two tracks , a large custom @-@ built Modcan modular synthesizer performed live by the duo , and vintage vocoders . When asked which of the two Daft Punk members performed the robotic vocals on the album , Bangalter expressed that it did not matter . The duo produced most of the vocoder tracks in their own private studio in Paris , with later processing done by Mick Guzauski at Capitol . Moroder elaborated that Daft Punk would take " a week or so " to find an adequate vocoder sound , and an additional few days to record the lyrics .

Although the duo felt that the presets and parameters of digital tools would inhibit creativity and innovation , they admitted that Random Access Memories could not have been made in the complete absence of computer technology . The sessions were recorded simultaneously onto Ampex reels and as Pro Tools tracks ; Daft Punk and Guzauski would then listen to each recording in both analogue and digital iterations , deciding which of the two they preferred . Subsequently the elements were edited by the duo with Pro Tools in a manner similar to how they would work with samples .

In an interview conducted in November 2012 by Guitar World magazine , Fourplay member Nathan East mentioned that he had contributed to the project . The percussionist Quinn also stated that he performed on " every drum [ he ] own [ s ] " for the album . Pedal steel guitar work on the record was performed by Greg Leisz . Daft Punk sought to use the instrument in a way that bordered between electronic and acoustic . Additional session players include John " J.R. " Robinson , Paul Jackson , Jr . , James Genus , Thomas Bloch and Chris Caswell .

= = Composition = =

= = = Theme and influences = = =

Bangalter described the album 's title as encapsulating Daft Punk 's interest in the past , referencing both random @-@ access memory technology and the human experience : " We were drawing a parallel between the brain and the hard drive – the random way that memories are stored . " Daft Punk felt that while current technology allows for an unlimited capacity to store recorded material , the content produced by contemporary artists had diminished in quality . Their goal was therefore to maximize the potential of infinite storage by recording a sprawling amount of elements . The duo pointed to the process as being further inspiration for the album 's title , as they sought to make connections out of the random series of ideas .

Regarding the style of the album , they sought a " west coast vibe " , referencing such acts as Fleetwood Mac , the Doobie Brothers and the Eagles . Daft Punk also acknowledged that the record pays homage to Michael Jackson , the Cars and Steely Dan . The recording of live synthesizer parts was done in a progressive rock fashion , with the pop sensibilities of Wizzard and the Move . Daft Punk specifically looked to the album Rumours by Fleetwood Mac and The Dark Side of the Moon by Pink Floyd as models . Bangalter felt that " the most important records in music , whether it 's Led Zeppelin [ ... ] or The White Album or Sgt. Pepper 's ... or Quadrophenia or Tommy , are the ones that take you on a journey for miles and miles . "

= = = Structure = = =

The initial demos of Random Access Memories were created without a clear plan for an album . Over the course of the sessions , numerous tracks were created and discarded . At one point Daft Punk had considered sorting the entire album into one continuous track , similar to the Prince record Lovesexy . They had also considered releasing it as a four @-@ disc box set to accommodate the large volume of content produced . Thus the album lacked structure until the final months of production .

The opening track , " Give Life Back to Music " , features guitar work by Rodgers and Paul Jackson , Jr . , drums by John " J.R. " Robinson , and lyrics performed by Daft Punk using vocoders . The song reflects the duo 's goal to create a light yet polished and elegant record . As stated by NME , the album begins with " a stupendously vast rock intro that obliterates any trace of Human After All 's brittle techno " . The following track , " The Game of Love " , also features vocoder singing by the duo . Bangalter said , " There ’ s this thing today where the recorded human voice is processed to try to feel robotic . " He explained that the duo 's intention was to produce robotic vocals with expressiveness and emotion . " Giorgio by Moroder " was created to serve as a metaphor about musical freedom . The duo believed that a monologue by Moroder about his career would be an analogue for music 's history regarding exploration of genres and tastes .

" Within " was one of the first tracks to be recorded for the album . It features Gonzales on piano with minimal accompaniment consisting of bass and a percussion track , as well as vocoder . In the context of the album , " Within " marks the transition from the key of A minor of the previous three songs , to the key of B @-@ flat minor of subsequent tracks . Regarding the lyrics , critic Nick Stevenson observed , " A deep vocoder sings about not understanding the world , being lost and not even remembering his own name . " Jeremy Abbott of Mixmag added , " So many things I don 't understand is the prominent lyric and Chilly 's chords combined with grazing cymbals make for a beautiful summer lullaby . "

" Instant Crush " was based on a demo that Daft Punk presented to Julian Casablancas ; he became enthused upon hearing it and provided vocals . The song contains rock influences and a guitar solo . Critic John Balfe considered it " appropriately Strokes @-@ ish , even if [ Casablancas ' ] trademark drawl is fed quite substantially through a vocoder . " De Homem @-@ Christo noted , " It is true that it is not his usual register , it is the way Julian reacted to the track so for us it is even more exciting . " " Lose Yourself to Dance " features Pharrell Williams and was the result of a desire to create dance music with live drummers . To that end , Robinson appears as session player . A vocoder chant of " come on " appears in the song alongside Pharrell Williams 's singing .

" Touch " features lyrics written and performed by Paul Williams . Daft Punk noted that the song is the most complex piece on the record , being composed of over 250 elements . As Pitchfork observed , " the song warps and bends , floating through genres , epochs , and emotions with a sense of hallucinatory wonder " and recalls the Beatles song " A Day in the Life " . In Rolling Stone , Will Hermes observes , " It 's completely ridiculous . It 's also remarkably beautiful and affecting . " Louis Lepron of Kombini believed the multitude of styles and science fiction aesthetics on the track is an homage to musical films including Phantom of the Paradise , the soundtrack of which Williams had composed . The song 's opening is a specific reference to a scene in the film in which the title character 's voice is gradually enhanced in a studio booth . De Homem @-@ Christo stated that " Touch " is " like the core of the record , and the memories of the other tracks are revolving around it . "

" Get Lucky " is the second song on the album to feature Pharrell Williams , who clarified that the title phrase does not simply refer to a sexual act , but to the potential fortune of finding chemistry with another person . When he had first heard the song , Pharrell Williams said it evoked the image of a " peachy color [ ed ] " sunrise on an exotic island . Daft Punk discussed the concept of the song " Beyond " with Paul Williams , who then translated the ideas into lyrics for it . The track begins with an orchestral string section and timpani before settling into what NME called " reupholstered Warren G ' Regulate ' grooves " . Stevenson similarly described " Beyond " as " a lot like the sample used in Nate Dogg and Warren G ’ s ‘ Regulate ’ " , Michael McDonald 's song " I Keep Forgettin ' " , which he noted as " no bad thing " , and stated that the vocoder @-@ affected lyrics detail " the existential world beyond oceans and mountains – a land beyond love . "

" Motherboard " was described by Daft Punk as being " a futuristic composition that could be from the year 4000 " . A review elaborated that the instrumental piece can " carry you away like a track by Sébastien Tellier " . Todd Edwards commented that the lyrics of " Fragments of Time " were inspired by his desire to capture the moments he experienced during his visit to the duo 's studio sessions in California . " Doin ' It Right " was the last song to be recorded and features vocals performed by Panda Bear . The duo referred to it as the only purely electronic piece on the album , with a modern style . The closing track , " Contact " , is co @-@ produced by DJ Falcon and features a sample of the song " We Ride Tonight " by Australian rock band the Sherbs .

The Japan @-@ exclusive bonus track " Horizon " , written by Bangalter and de Homem Christo , is a slow @-@ tempo composition reminiscent of Pink Floyd . It is characterized by a consistent guitar strum while several additional instruments are progressively layered over , including a bass guitar and drums . The song is stylistically different from other tracks on the album , and is one of the few to feature no lyrics .

= = Promotion and release = =

In January 2013 , de Homem @-@ Christo first revealed that Daft Punk was in the process of signing with Sony Music Entertainment through the Columbia Records label , and that the album would have a spring release . A report from The Guardian followed specifying a release date of May 2013 . On 26 February 2013 , Daft Punk 's official website and Facebook page announced the signing to Columbia with a picture of the duo 's helmets , and a " Columbia " logo in the corner . Billboards and posters featuring the helmets and logo then appeared in several major cities .

On 2 March , a 15 @-@ second television ad aired during Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) depicting an animated , stylized version of the band 's logo and the aforementioned image of the helmets . The music featured in the ad was a result of the collaboration with Rodgers , who noted that various fan remixes of the clip appeared online after the airing . A second TV ad also premiered that was similar to the first on Saturday Night Live , but with a different music clip and the title Random Access Memories in place of the stylized Daft Punk logo . During the first night of Coachella Festival 2013 , a third trailer debuted that featured Daft Punk , Pharrell Williams and Rodgers performing , as well as a list of collaborators on the album . The trailer also aired during Saturday Night Live the following evening , but without a list of collaborators .

The gradual rollout of promotion was inspired by advertising of the past , reflecting the theme of the album . Daft Punk approached Columbia with a specific agenda for the campaign ; Rob Stringer of the label recalled that the duo had showed him the book Rock ' n ' Roll Billboards of the Sunset Strip as an example of what they wanted . Bangalter felt that physical billboards are more affecting than banner ads and that " SNL is this part of American culture with a certain timelessness to it . " The campaign was handled by a small group led by Daft Punk and manager Paul Hahn , with assistance from Kathryn Frazier of the public @-@ relations firm Biz 3 . The duo had pursued Columbia in particular because of its long @-@ standing history , as expressed by Bangalter : " It felt interesting conceptually to write this story with a record company like Columbia , with a 125 @-@ year legacy . " Furthermore , the vinyl labels of the album feature the classic yellow on red Columbia label used on records during said time period .

Central to the promotion was the limiting of exposure to the album 's content , as well as a focus on face @-@ to @-@ face contact for press previews . As Hahn stated , " There is a minimalism in our approach that creates an absence of information , and we notice our fans tend to throw themselves into the breach , or try to fill the empty spaces . " The album 's track titles were initially withheld from online retailers and later revealed through Columbia 's Vine account on 16 April 2013 as a video relaying a series of images . Following a reported leak of the song days earlier , " Get Lucky " was released as a digital download single on 19 April 2013 . On 13 May , Daft Punk 's official Vevo channel posted a video revealing the artwork packaging of the vinyl version of the album , as well as the first few seconds of the opening track . Later that day , a limited @-@ time preview stream of the full album was launched via the iTunes Store .

Daft Punk were scheduled to appear on 6 August episode of The Colbert Report to promote Random Access Memories , but were unable to do so because of conflicting obligations regarding the duo 's future appearance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . According to Stephen Colbert , Daft Punk were unaware of any exclusivity agreement and were halted by MTV executives the morning prior to the taping . Colbert nevertheless broadcast an elaborate sketch of himself dancing to " Get Lucky " with various celebrities , including Hugh Laurie , Jeff Bridges , Jimmy Fallon , Bryan Cranston , Jon Stewart , Henry Kissinger , Matt Damon , and the Rockettes .

Columbia released a deluxe box set of Random Access Memories containing a 56 @-@ page hardcover book , the vinyl edition of the album , a partial 70mm film strip of the " Lose Yourself to Dance " video , and USB drives containing bonus audio as well as video content .

= = = The Collaborators = = =

The Random Access Memories official website features a video series called The Collaborators , directed by Ed Lachman and produced by The Creators Project , a partnership between Intel and Vice . Eight episodes were released in the series , which features interviews with participant artists that were involved in the making of the album . All featured album artists appear in the series with the exception of Casablancas , who would go on to appear prominently in the music video for " Instant Crush " . Excerpts of the lead single " Get Lucky " appear in the opening and ending of each Collaborators episode as well as excerpts of other songs from the album , corresponding to each featured musician .

The first episode features disco pioneer Moroder speaking about his experiences with the genre such as his records with Donna Summer and experimenting with synthesizers . Moroder also talks about his visit with Daft Punk in their recording studio . When asked how he first found out about the duo , he replied that he first heard their 2000 single " One More Time " and especially liked the breakdown middle section . He concluded that he views Daft Punk as " perfectionists " and described the album 's style as " something [ ... ] different . Still dance , still electronic ; but [ they ] give that human touch back " .

Episode two revealed that Edwards had contributed to the album ; he expressed that it was difficult keeping his involvement a secret . Edwards had previously collaborated with Daft Punk to create the song " Face to Face " on the 2001 album Discovery . He summarized his experience in the studio recording " Fragments of Time " as being life @-@ changing , as the sessions inspired him to move from New Jersey to California on a permanent basis . Edwards also pointed out the irony of " two androids [ ... ] bringing soul back to music " .

The third episode features Rodgers , who spoke of his background as a founding member of Chic , as well as his numerous collaborations with other artists throughout his career , such as David Bowie , Madonna , and Duran Duran . He expressed that working with Daft Punk " [ felt ] like [ ... ] working with contemporaries " and that they motivated each other to excel when collaborating on the album . At the end of the episode , Rodgers played a portion of a then @-@ unspecified song in which he participated , which was later identified as " Lose Yourself to Dance " , and remarked that the duo 's style has evolved whilst simultaneously exploring music 's past , suggesting that " they went back to go forward . "

Pharrell Williams participated in the fourth episode in which he elaborated on his experience with the creation of the album . Pharrell remarked upon the organic sound of the album , surmising that it " feels like the only click track they had was [ ... ] the human heartbeat " . He felt that the record can be enjoyed by people of all ages due to the accessible nature of music , and concluded that Daft Punk " could just get back on the spaceship that brought them here and go , and leave us . But they 're gracious , they 're nice robots . They chose to stay " .

Episode five features Noah Lennox , better known by his stage name Panda Bear , who spoke about his contribution to the album as well as his history with the band Animal Collective . He had first heard of Daft Punk through the music video of the song " Around the World " , which introduced him to many aspects of electronic dance music . He added that Homework was one of the few albums he and his older brother both enjoyed . Regarding Random Access Memories , Lennox remarked upon the approach of having live musicians , but structuring their performances in a minimal , sample @-@ like fashion .

For the sixth episode , Gonzales spoke about his contribution to the album . He recalled Daft Punk 's visible joy in listening to the raw session recordings made early in the production of the album , as well as the impending years @-@ long challenge that would be faced in completing the record . Gonzales expressed that the duo were aware of how the keys of each song would contribute to the emotional progression of the album as a whole . He therefore performed the piano in the song " Within " to accommodate the cycle . Gonzales concluded by pointing out that Daft Punk rarely collaborate with others , and thus felt that they did so on Random Access Memories to " make the work be transcendent " .

The seventh episode features Stéphane Quême , otherwise known as DJ Falcon , who spoke of first meeting Daft Punk when the duo began recording their debut album Homework . Quême noted that the group 's sound had changed since their debut , and that each of their albums had had a distinct influence . He also felt that the recording of Random Access Memories was such that a producer could potentially sample a track from it in the same way that Daft Punk themselves had sampled older records in their previous albums . Quême concluded that the duo were always sincere and although their first single was released 20 years ago , it still felt modern .

Episode eight features Paul Williams , who likened Daft Punk 's personas to a character from the film Phantom of the Paradise , in which he starred . He also added that their masks hide who they are from the public and allow the listeners to enjoy the music for what it is . Paul Williams worked with the duo at Henson Recording Studios , the former studio of A & M Records where he had worked previously , including his compositions for Jim Henson 's films featuring the Muppets , such as " Rainbow Connection " . He also stated that the song he penned was to be sung from the point of view of an unidentified first person , setting the emotion , but the lyrics came from the music itself . Paul Williams said that he felt vulnerable while writing the record , and said he writes best when he is allowed to be honest and vulnerable , a situation that Daft Punk allowed . He also stated that his sobriety added a sense of wonder to the song he wrote , as every day for him being sober has been wonderful compared to his prior life of excess .

= = = Global album launch = = =

The 79th Annual Wee Waa Show , held on 17 May 2013 in the rural Australian town of Wee Waa , was selected as the venue for the worldwide album launch . The tickets for the Wee Waa album launch were completely sold within thirteen minutes of release , even though it was widely understood that Daft Punk would not be in attendance at the launch — the album launch details revealed that the album would be streamed live to the 4 @,@ 000 audience members . Australian police in the local Wee Waa area initiated Operation Hadrian to prevent alcohol @-@ related problems and anti @-@ social behaviour at the launch event .

Sony commissioned the design and construction of a custom @-@ built stage for the Wee Waa album launch event , and the Daft Arts production house assembled a LED circular music space that became Australia 's biggest @-@ ever outdoor dance floor . The record label described the creation , which was illuminated by a giant disco ball and complemented by four speaker towers and flood lights , as " Saturday Night Fever meets Close Encounters of the Third Kind " . The prelude to the streaming of the album was a pyrotechnic show provided by Father Anthony Koppman and his company " Holy Smoke " from Guyra , New South Wales .

= = Critical reception = =

At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album gained an average score of 87 , based on 47 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " and scoring higher than any other album by the duo . Q referred to it as " by some margin Daft Punk 's best album in a career that 's already redefined dance music at least twice . It is , in short , a mind blower . " The Independent stated , " Random Access Memories breathes life into the safe music that dominates today ’ s charts , with its sheer ambition … It 's an exciting journey , and one that , for all its musical twists and turns , has its feet planted on the dancefloor . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly called it " a headphones album in an age of radio singles ; a bravura live performance that stands out against pro forma knob @-@ twiddling ; a jazzy disco attack on the basic house beat ; a full collaboration at a time when the superstar DJ stands alone . " She concluded her review by saying that " if EDM is turning humans into robots , Daft Punk are working hard to make robot pop feel human again . "

Several critics commented on the variety of content on the album . NME said , " There 's a creeping notion that every musical idea that 's ever been so much as thought up is on this album . " In addition , Random Access Memories is ranked # 497 on NME 's list , " The 500 Greatest Albums Of All Time " . Mark Richardson of Pitchfork Media echoed this sentiment , calling the record " a mix of disco , soft rock , and prog @-@ pop , along with some Broadway @-@ style pop bombast and even a few pinches of their squelching stadium @-@ dance aesthetic " . Richardson praised the engineering and recording on the album , but did say that " though everything about RAM , from the session musicians to the guests to the means of production , is meant to sound more ' human , ' the album at points sounds more sterile , almost too perfect . " Pitchfork deemed the album the seventh best of 2013 . DJ Magazine commented on the shift in Daft Punk 's musical style : " While Daft Punk clearly want to move on and evolve , ditching the electronic beats , house and techno that first elevated them to fame , it 's that music that forms the bedrock of their best tunes , and still , that 's what they 're best at making . " In a four @-@ star review , Resident Advisor stated that " it 's an album rooted in a now @-@ ancient aesthetic : ' 70s staples , like crisply recorded California studio music , or the kind of deceptively sophisticated New York disco that Nile Rogers [ sic ] , one of the album 's key guest artists , popularized with Chic . " In a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , Heather Phares of AllMusic said that the record " taps into the wonder and excitement " of music from the 1970s and early 1980s . Phares concluded her review by saying , " Random Access Memories is also Daft Punk 's most personal work , and richly rewarding for listeners willing to spend time with it . "

Aaron Payne of musicOMH wrote , " Daft Punk somehow misplace the wit and the light touch that 's pretty much their trademark . Instead , these long epics become somewhat tedious and there is a strong whiff of egoism and self @-@ indulgence . … At over 70 minutes , the album feels rather bloated . Quite a few of the songs are too long , or too empty of ideas , or too willing to repeat themselves , or too willing to play to type " . Dan Weiss of Paste noted that " none of the admittedly eclectic pilferings of Random Access Memories challenge or defy anything . They all evoke specific eras of film soundtrack or disco trend . The beats have grown less , not more , complex over time . "

= = = Accolades = = =

Random Access Memories received Grammy Awards for Album of the Year , Best Dance / Electronica Album and Best Engineered Album , Non @-@ Classical for the 56th Annual Grammy Awards . The lead single , " Get Lucky " , also won for Record of the Year and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance . " Get Lucky " had previously been nominated for Best Song of the Summer at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards and Best Song at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards . In January 2015 , the album was placed at number 9 on Billboard 's list of " The 20 Best Albums of 2010s ( so far ) " .

= = Commercial performance = =

Random Access Memories debuted at number one on the French Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 195 @,@ 013 copies ( 127 @,@ 361 physical sales and 67 @,@ 652 digital sales ) , earning Daft Punk their first number @-@ one album in France . The next week , it sold 49 @,@ 600 copies to remain at the top spot with a 75 % sales decrease . The album secured a third consecutive week atop the French chart , withstanding a 29 % sales drop to 35 @,@ 500 copies .

Random Access Memories debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with 165 @,@ 091 copies sold in its first week , becoming the duo 's first UK number @-@ one album , as well as the second fastest @-@ selling artist album of 2013 after One Direction 's Midnight Memories . The album remained at number one on the UK chart the following week , selling 52 @,@ 801 copies . In its third week , it fell to number three on sales of 28 @,@ 182 copies .

In the United States , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 339 @,@ 000 copies , the duo 's first number one album on the chart . The album maintained the number one spot in its second week , selling 93 @,@ 000 copies . In the album 's third week of release , it sold an additional 62 @,@ 000 copies , while falling to number two on the Billboard 200 . The album 's vinyl LP format also proved popular ; it was 2013 's top @-@ selling LP , with 49 @,@ 000 US copies shifted . The album had sold 922 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of January 2014 . On 6 February 2014 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Following the duo 's Album of the Year win at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards , Random Access Memories jumped from number thirty @-@ nine to number ten on the Billboard 200 with a 300 % sales increase , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies that week .

Random Access Memories entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number one with 46 @,@ 000 copies sold , the biggest one @-@ week sales total in Canada of 2013 . The album remained at number one the next week , selling 17 @,@ 000 copies . In Japan , the album debuted at number three on the Oricon Weekly Albums Chart , selling 25 @,@ 970 copies .

The album debuted at number one in several countries across continental Europe , including Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark ( where the album sold 5 @,@ 392 copies in its first week ) , Finland , Germany , Ireland , Italy , Norway , Portugal , Spain and Switzerland . In Oceania , Random Access Memories debuted at number one in Australia and New Zealand ; it was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) in its first week .

As of 2014 Random Access Memories has sold 3 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide .

= = Track listing = =

= = Personnel = =

Production

Bob Ludwig – mastering

Chab ( Antoine Chabert ) - mastering

Paul Hahn – management

Cédric Hervet – creative director , cover art

Warren Fu – cover art , illustrations

Mick Guzauski – recording , mixing engineer

Peter Franco – recording engineer

Florian Lagatta – recording engineer

Daniel Lerner – digital audio engineer

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications and sales = =

= = Release history = =

On 23 March , the album became available for pre @-@ order on the iTunes Store via digital download , revealing a release date of 17 May in Australia , 20 May in the United Kingdom , and 21 May in the United States . It later appeared as an Amazon.com pre @-@ order on CD , vinyl and directly from the Random Access Memories official website . The album became available for preview streaming via the iTunes Store on 13 May 2013 . It was also released for streaming on Spotify , with the lead single , " Get Lucky " , topping Spotify 's first digital streaming chart in the process .

= Peyton Manning =

Peyton Williams Manning ( born March 24 , 1976 ) is a former American football quarterback who played 18 seasons in the National Football League ( NFL ) . Considered to be one of the greatest quarterbacks of all @-@ time , he spent the majority of his career with Indianapolis Colts . In his last four seasons , he played with the Denver Broncos . Manning played college football for the University of Tennessee , leading the Tennessee Volunteers to the 1997 SEC Championship in his senior season . He is the second son of former NFL quarterback Archie Manning and older brother of New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning .

Manning was selected by the Indianapolis Colts as the first overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft . From 1998 to 2010 , he improved the fortunes of the struggling Colts franchise and helped transform them into playoff contenders , leading the team to eight division championships , two AFC championships , and one Super Bowl , the franchise 's first since 1971 , as well as their first since relocating to Indianapolis .

After undergoing neck surgery that forced him to miss the entire 2011 season , Manning was released by the Colts and signed with the Denver Broncos . Serving as the Broncos ' starting quarterback from 2012 to 2015 , his tenure saw the Broncos reach the top of their division each year and his playing career concluded with a victory in Super Bowl 50 .

Manning holds many NFL records , including combined regular and postseason career wins ( 200 ) , AP MVP awards ( 5 ) , Pro Bowl appearances ( 14 ) , 4 @,@ 000 @-@ yard passing seasons ( 14 ) , passing yards ( 71 @,@ 940 ) , and touchdown passes ( 539 ) . A two @-@ time Super Bowl winner and the most valuable player of Super Bowl XLI , Manning is also the only quarterback to start the Super Bowl for two different franchises more than once each and the only starting quarterback to win a Super Bowl with two different franchises .

During a 2009 Monday Night Football game , Manning received the nickname " The Sheriff " from color commentator Jon Gruden due to his tendency to audible prior to the snap , and he was one of the most recognizable and parodied players in the NFL . Teams led by Manning typically utilized the hurry @-@ up offense in place of the standard huddle .

= = High school career = =

Manning attended Isidore Newman School in New Orleans , Louisiana , and led their football team to a 34 – 5 record during his three seasons as starter . He was named Gatorade Circle of Champions National Player @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Year and Columbus ( Ohio ) Touchdown Club National Offensive Player @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Year in 1993 . While at Newman he began wearing the number 18 in honor of his older brother Cooper , who was forced to give up football due to spinal stenosis . Younger brother Eli also wore the number when he became starting quarterback . Newman has since retired the number 18 jersey and it can be seen hanging in the school gym . Manning was among the most sought after high school players in the country and was recruited by about 60 colleges , led by Florida , Florida State , LSU , Michigan , Tennessee , Texas , Texas A & M , and his father 's alma mater , Ole Miss .

= = College career = =

Manning chose to play college football for the University of Tennessee Volunteers . Some were surprised that he did not pick the Ole Miss Rebels , for whom his father Archie played . He became Tennessee 's all @-@ time leading passer with 11 @,@ 201 yards and 89 touchdowns and won 39 of 45 games as a starter , breaking the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) record for career wins .

As a freshman , Manning began the season as the third @-@ string quarterback . In the season opener against UCLA , Manning was one of three quarterbacks to come off the bench after starter Jerry Colquitt suffered a season @-@ ending injury on the seventh play of the game . However , Manning wasn 't able to generate any offense and was pulled from the game . During the season 's fourth game , against Mississippi State , starter Todd Helton got injured and Manning took over . The Vols lost 24 – 21 , but Manning was named the team 's starter and remained so for the rest of his college career . In his first start , the following week against Washington State , the Vols won 10 – 9 . They won all but one of their remaining games , finishing the season 8 – 4 with a 45 – 23 victory over Virginia Tech in the Gator Bowl .

Manning and the Vols started off the 1995 season with victories over East Carolina and Georgia , before heading off to Gainesville to play the Gators . Against Florida , he threw for 326 yards and 2 touchdowns , leading the Vols to a 30 – 21 halftime lead . However , the Gators outscored the Vols 41 – 7 in the second half , winning 62 – 37 . This was the Vols ' only loss of the season , as they won their remaining 8 regular season games , including a 41 – 14 win over Alabama and then defeated Ohio State in the Citrus Bowl . The Vols ended the season ranked third and Manning came in sixth in Heisman Trophy voting .

The Vols opened the 1996 season ranked second behind Nebraska and one of the favorites to win the national championship . However , after winning their first 2 games against UNLV and UCLA , the Vols again lost to Florida 35 – 29 , with Manning throwing 4 interceptions . After winning their next four games , the Vols were upset by Memphis , despite Manning passing for 296 yards .

The Vols won the remainder of their games , including a 48 – 28 win in the Citrus Bowl over Northwestern , a game in which Manning passed for 408 yards and 4 touchdowns ; he was named the game 's MVP .

Manning completed his degree in three years , a Bachelor of Arts in speech communication , and was projected to be the top overall pick in the NFL Draft , but returned to Tennessee for his senior year . In his senior season , the Vols opened the season with victories against Texas Tech and UCLA , but for the third time in his career , Manning fell to Florida 33 – 20 . The Vols won the rest of their regular season games , finishing 10 – 1 , and advanced to the SEC Championship game against Auburn . Down 20 – 7 , Manning led the Vols to a 30 – 29 victory . Throwing for 4 touchdowns , he was named the game 's MVP , but injured himself in the process . The 3rd @-@ ranked Vols were matched @-@ up with second @-@ ranked Nebraska in the Orange Bowl ; if Tennessee won and top @-@ ranked Michigan lost to Washington State in the Rose Bowl , the Vols would win the national championship . However , the Vols ' defense could not stop Nebraska 's rushing attack , giving up over 400 rushing yards in a 42 – 17 loss . As a senior , Manning won numerous awards ; he was a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ American , the Maxwell Award winner , the Davey O 'Brien Award winner , the Johnny Unitas Award winner , and the Best College Player ESPY award winner , among others . In 2005 , Tennessee retired Manning 's number ( No. 16 ) . One of the streets leading to Neyland Stadium has been renamed Peyton Manning Pass . Manning also excelled academically and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa Society in 1997 and awarded the National Football Foundation National Scholar @-@ Athlete Award .

In 1996 , while attending the University of Tennessee , Manning was accused by female trainer Jamie Ann Naughright of exposing his buttocks during a foot examination . Manning said that he was just pulling a prank by " mooning " another athlete in the room as Naughright bent over to examine him . Naughright settled with the university for $ 300 @,@ 000 for its alleged failure in four incidents , and resigned from the school . She had initially made a list of 33 complaints about the school .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Overview = = =

Manning was selected by the Indianapolis Colts with the first overall pick of the 1998 NFL draft . He would start as a rookie and go on to play for the Colts for 13 full seasons before being sidelined by a neck injury , which cost him the entire 2011 season . After recovering from the injury , he joined the Denver Broncos for whom he played from the 2012 season through the 2015 season . Excluding the year lost to injury , Manning played in 17 NFL seasons .

Manning is often referred to as one of the greatest passing quarterbacks of all time . He was named the NFL 's most valuable player a record five times ( four times as a Colt , once as a Bronco ) , was named to the Pro Bowl 14 times ( a record ) and named to the first team All @-@ Pro seven times . As a starter up to the end of 2015 season he had a career winning percentage of .702 in the regular season . He holds the NFL record for career touchdown passes and career passing yards , achieved in 2014 and 2015 respectively .

The most commonly cited criticism of Peyton Manning 's professional career is that despite great success and gaudy statistics during the regular season , he did not enjoy similar levels of success in the post @-@ season . His career post @-@ season record as a starter was a more modest 14 @-@ 13 , compared to his regular season record through the 2015 season which was 186 @-@ 79 . Manning won two Super Bowls ( Super Bowl XLI and Super Bowl 50 ) and played in two others ( Super Bowl XLIV and Super Bowl XLVIII ) , being named MVP of XLI , while losing XLIV in an upset , and managing just one successful touchdown drive in each of XLVIII and 50 . During the early part of Manning 's career " his record @-@ breaking stats were written off because of the Colts ' postseason failures " ; conversely he posted poor stats in the 2015 regular season and Super Bowl 50 ( which would be his final season ) but nonetheless won his second league championship thanks to his team 's defense .

= = = Indianapolis Colts = = =

= = = = 1998 season : rookie season = = = =

Despite concerns about his arm strength and mobility , Manning was selected first overall in the 1998 draft by the Indianapolis Colts . Although many considered Ryan Leaf his rival for the first selection in the draft , and Leaf 's quarterback rating was higher , all six experts Sports Illustrated consulted believed that Manning was superior . Five said that they would take him first in the draft ; Sid Gillman said of Manning , " this is a pro quarterback " . The Colts ' scouts initially favored Leaf , but the team 's management and coaches were gradually won over by Manning 's attitude , particularly as Manning showed up prepared to a scheduled interview meeting with the Colts ' staff while Leaf arrived late . Colts general manager Bill Polian who had the final say on the draft selection recalled Manning saying " I 'll leave you with this thought . If you take me , I promise you we will win a championship . If you don 't , I promise I 'll come back and kick your ass . "

In his rookie season , he passed for 3 @,@ 739 yards with 26 touchdowns , set five different NFL rookie records including most touchdown passes in a season , and was named to the NFL All @-@ Rookie First Team . Manning 's first win came against fellow rookie Leaf , 17 – 12 over the Chargers . Weeks later , Manning faced off against Steve Young ; he threw three touchdowns , tying a Colts rookie record , but the 49ers kicked a late field goal to win 34 – 31 . In November against the Jets , Manning threw for three touchdowns in a 24 – 23 win ; he was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance . It was the first game @-@ winning drive of Manning 's career , as he threw the game @-@ winning TD pass to Marcus Pollard . Manning was certainly a bright spot in 1998 for the Colts , but he also threw a league high 28 interceptions as the team struggled to a 3 – 13 record with a defense that gave up more than 27 points per game . The Colts lost many close games , including five games in which they had led by double @-@ digits at some point .

= = = = 1999 – 2001 = = = =

The Indianapolis Colts opened the 1999 season with a 31 – 14 victory over Buffalo , but gave up a 28 – 7 lead the following week against the Patriots and lost . After defeating San Diego 27 – 19 in a game in which Manning threw for over 400 yards , and was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week , they lost again , to Miami . The Colts responded by winning 11 of their remaining 12 games , finishing 13 – 3 and the AFC East champions . The 10 game turnaround from the previous year set an NFL record . As the second seed in the AFC , the Colts earned a first round bye , and faced Tennessee in the playoffs . The Colts lost 19 – 16 to the Super Bowl bound Titans and Manning was limited to one touchdown run . Manning finished the year with 4 @,@ 135 passing yards and 26 passing touchdowns , and was named both Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl , both firsts for him . In the Pro Bowl , he passed for 270 yards with 2 touchdowns .

The Colts started the 2000 season inconsistently . Following an opening week victory against Kansas City , they blew a 21 – 0 lead against the Raiders . The Colts responded with a Monday Night victory against Jacksonville , a 43 – 14 win in which Manning threw for 430 yards and 4 touchdowns ; Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this performance . The Colts won 4 of their next 5 games , including one against New England in which Manning posted the first perfect passer rating of his career , but then lost 4 of the 5 games following that . The Colts regained their momentum , winning their final 3 games , including a 31 – 10 win over Minnesota on Week 17 . Manning threw for 4 touchdowns in the win and was again named AFC Offensive Player of the Week and the win gave the Colts a 10 – 6 record as well as a wild card spot in the playoffs . In the wild card game , the Colts fell to the Dolphins 23 – 17 in overtime . Manning passed for 194 yards and a touchdown in the loss . He finished the season with 4 @,@ 413 passing yards and 33 passing touchdowns and was named Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl . At the Pro Bowl , Manning threw two touchdown passes .

Manning and the Colts introduced their now @-@ signature no @-@ huddle offense , and used it to great effect in a Week 1 rout of the Jets , 45 – 24 . Two weeks later ( Week 2 games were not played as scheduled due to the 9 / 11 attacks ) the Colts advanced to 2 – 0 with a win over Buffalo , behind Manning 's 421 yards passing . He was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game . However , the Colts lost the following week to New England , and continued their slide , losing their following two games . The Colts briefly rebounded , winning two games , but then lost 7 of their last 9 , including a 40 – 21 home loss to the 49ers . After Manning threw a career @-@ high four interceptions in that game , coach Jim Mora uttered his infamous " Playoffs ? Don 't talk about playoffs . Are you kidding me . Playoffs ? I 'm just hoping we can win a game , another game " press conference . Despite the 6 – 10 record , Manning finished the season with 4 @,@ 131 passing yards , 26 passing touchdowns , and 4 rushing touchdowns as the offense produced the second most points in the league . However , the defense allowed the most points and Jim Mora was fired after the season .

= = = = 2002 season = = = =

Tony Dungy would become Manning 's second head coach in the NFL . The Colts started off the 2002 season 4 – 1 , before a 3 @-@ game losing streak sent them to 4 – 4 . The Colts responded by winning all but two of their remaining games , including a 35 – 13 upset of the Eagles in which Manning had a perfect passer rating for the second time in his career , giving them a 10 – 6 record and a spot in the playoffs . However , the Colts were pummeled by the Jets in the Wild Card game , 41 – 0 , with Manning passing for only 137 yards . He finished the year with 4 @,@ 200 passing yards and 27 passing touchdowns and was named to the Pro Bowl team . In the Pro Bowl , Manning completed five of eleven passes for 100 yards and a touchdown .

= = = = 2003 season : first MVP = = = =

The 2003 Colts began the season 5 – 0 , including a 55 – 21 blowout of the Saints in which Manning played his third perfect passer rating game and threw a career @-@ high six TD passes , earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors . On Monday Night Football against the defending champion Buccaneers , Manning and the Colts trailed 35 – 14 in the final five minutes . After one short TD drive , the Colts recovered the onside kick . Manning threw a 28 @-@ yard TD pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th & 6 to make it 35 – 28 . With 1 : 41 remaining , Manning got the ball back and drove the offense 85 yards for the game @-@ tying TD . He set up the winning 29 @-@ yard field goal in overtime for a stunning 38 – 35 win . It was the only time in NFL history a team won a game after trailing by 21 points in the final 4 minutes of regulation . Manning passed for 386 yards in the game .

After an overtime loss to Carolina , the Colts won all but three of their remaining games , finishing 12 – 4 . On November 30 the Colts hosted the 9 – 2 Patriots in what would be the beginning of the NFL 's top rivalry of the 2000s . The Colts trailed 31 – 10 late in the third quarter before Manning threw three TD passes in a span of six minutes to tie the game . Trailing 38 – 34 in the final minutes , the Colts had 3 plays at the 1 @-@ yard line to try and score the winning TD . Edgerrin James was stopped on 4th down by Willie McGinest and the Patriots won . In a Week 14 win against Atlanta , Manning threw for five touchdowns and was named player of the week a second time . He also earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors for the month of October .

In the Wild Card playoff round Manning and the Colts defeated the Denver Broncos 41 – 10 for his first playoff win . He passed for 377 yards and 5 touchdowns in the game , earning him a perfect passer rating , his second of the season and the fourth of his career . After the game , Manning was awarded Player of the Week honors for the third time that season . In the divisional playoffs , Manning led the Colts to a 38 – 31 win over the Kansas City Chiefs . Neither team punted in the game . In the AFC title game Manning was shut down by the New England Patriots top @-@ ranked defense and posted the third lowest passer rating of his career at 35 @.@ 5 . The Patriots defense intercepted Manning four times and sacked him another four , as the Colts lost the game 24 – 14 .

During the season , Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month for September and was named the AP NFL co @-@ MVP along with Titans quarterback Steve McNair . Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best NFL Player . Manning led the league with 4 @,@ 267 passing yards and threw 29 touchdowns ; he was named first @-@ team All @-@ Pro and to the Pro Bowl . He passed for 342 yards and 3 touchdowns in the Pro Bowl , a 55 – 52 loss .

= = = = 2004 season : second MVP = = = =

The 2004 Colts opened the season with a 27 – 24 loss to the Patriots , after Mike Vanderjagt missed a game tying field goal in the closing seconds of the game . The Colts won their next four games including a 45 – 31 win over Green Bay in which Manning threw 5 touchdowns , earning him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors , but then lost their next two games , to Jacksonville and Kansas City , despite Manning throwing for 840 yards combined in the two games . The Colts responded well , winning their next 8 games before losing their final regular season game to Denver , a game in which Manning played only the first series . During the month of November , Manning was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week twice ; once for his 5 touchdown performance in a 49 – 14 blowout of Houston and once for his performance in a 41 – 9 win at Detroit on Thanksgiving in which he threw 6 touchdowns in less than three quarters . Due to his performances in November , Manning earned AFC Offensive Player of the Month honors . He was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for a fourth time in the week 16 game against San Diego where he led the Colts to a 34 – 31 victory after trailing by fifteen in the fourth quarter . With the Colts facing a 4th & 4 at their own 26 , Manning waved the punt team off the field and completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Reggie Wayne for the first down . He finished the drive with a 21 @-@ yard TD pass to Brandon Stokley , his 49th TD pass of the season , breaking Dan Marino 's record of 48 . After the two @-@ point conversion to tie , Manning got the ball first in overtime and set up the winning field goal . The Colts clinched the AFC 's third seed with the win .

During the season , Manning threw for 4 @,@ 557 yards , had a then record 121 @.@ 1 passer rating and a then @-@ record 49 touchdown passes while throwing only 10 interceptions . Manning 's 2004 season was voted the second greatest passing season of all time by ESPN in 2013 . He achieved this despite the 2004 season being his only season of his career where he attempted less than 500 passes . His 9 @.@ 9 % touchdown passing percentage is currently the highest in NFL history . His 49 touchdown passes is currently the third highest ever and his 121 @.@ 1 passer rating is the second highest ever . He was selected as the 2004 NFL MVP drawing 49 of 50 votes , was named NFL Offensive Player of the Year and was named the Best NFL Player at the ESPY Awards for the second consecutive year ; Manning also received the ESPY Award for Best Record @-@ Breaking Performance for his 49 touchdown passes . The Colts finished the season with a 12 – 4 record and their second straight AFC South title . The Colts scored a franchise record 522 points . Three Colts receivers had 1 @,@ 000 yard seasons with at least 10 touchdowns that season , also a record . Sports statistics cite Football Outsiders calculates that Manning had the best season ever by a quarterback , play @-@ for @-@ play , in 2004 .

In the Wild Card game against Denver , Manning passed for 458 yards and 4 touchdowns . However , the Colts ' 2004 season ended in Foxborough for a second straight year with a 20 – 3 loss against New England , when Manning recorded a season @-@ low passer rating of 69 @.@ 3 . It was Manning 's seventh consecutive loss to the Patriots in Foxborough and the Colts ' three points were their lowest single game point total since their opening game of the 2003 season . Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter ; in the Pro Bowl , he threw 3 touchdowns in a 38 – 27 victory and was named the game 's MVP . Manning was also a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection .

= = = = 2005 season = = = =

In 2005 , the Colts had a greatly improved defense over that of recent years . Combining this with their offense , they won their first 13 games , including a 40 – 21 rout of the two @-@ time defending Super Bowl Champions , New England . This was Manning 's first road win against the Patriots in 8 attempts , and his 3 touchdowns passes earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors . By week 15 , the Colts had a perfect 13 – 0 record , and had secured the AFC South and home @-@ field advantage throughout the playoffs . Nevertheless , Tony Dungy made the decision to play all of his regular starters against the Chargers . However , the Colts played a sub @-@ par game against the Chargers and fell short of the win ; the score was 26 – 17 . Manning finished the season with 3 @,@ 747 passing yards , the first time he had thrown for under 4 @,@ 000 yards since his rookie season of 1998 , largely because Manning sat out much of the final two games with the top AFC seed clinched . His quarterback rating of 104 @.@ 1 was the highest in the league for the season .

In the playoffs , the Pittsburgh Steelers visited the RCA Dome for the second AFC divisional playoff game of the 2005 season . In the 4th quarter with only a few minutes left in the game , Manning threw what looked to be the game @-@ ending interception to Troy Polamalu , but the interception was overturned ( a call the NFL later admitted was incorrect ) . The Colts went on to score , and were able to get the ball back down three points near the end of the game . On 4th down , Manning was sacked near his own goal line , and the game seemed to be over as the Steelers were one yard from a touchdown . On the next play , the ball was fumbled by Jerome Bettis and picked up by Colts defender Nick Harper who appeared to have a clear path down the sideline for what might have been the game @-@ winning score . However , Steelers ' quarterback Ben Roethlisberger managed to dive in front of Harper and tackle him by the leg , saving a touchdown . Then the Colts drove down the field to the Steelers 27 @-@ yard line , before Mike Vanderjagt missed a field goal as time ran out .

Manning came in second in voting for the MVP award to Shaun Alexander ending his streak at two years . He was named the 2005 winner of the Walter Payton Man of the Year Award and nominated for the FedEx Air Player of the Year Award , along with Tom Brady and Carson Palmer . Manning was also named first @-@ team All @-@ Pro for the third consecutive year and named to the Pro Bowl squad ; in the Pro Bowl , he threw one touchdown pass and three interceptions .

= = = = 2006 season : First Super Bowl championship = = = =

Manning opened the 2006 season against his brother Eli 's New York Giants on Sunday Night Football . It was the first NFL game with starting quarterbacks that were brothers , and Peyton 's team won 26 – 21 . Manning passed for 400 yards against the Texans in a 43 – 24 victory , which earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors ( he also won the award for his 345 yards and 4 TD passes against the Redskins in week 7 ) . A second trip to New Jersey , this time to play the Jets , produced another Colts win . After taking the lead twice in the fourth quarter , Manning had to lead a third scoring drive , this time finishing with a 1 @-@ yard quarterback sneak rushing touchdown in the last minute for a 31 – 28 win .

At Denver , Manning again led three scoring drives in the fourth quarter in a 34 – 31 shootout win . He completed 32 of 39 passes for 345 yards and 3 TDs . Following a second straight season with a win at New England , then a home win against Buffalo , the Colts were the NFL 's last unbeaten team at 9 – 0 . Their first loss would come in Dallas . Plagued by a run defense that would allow over 100 yards in every game , the Colts were 11 – 4 heading into their final game . Against Miami , Manning threw for 282 yards , 2 TDs and rushed for another TD . The Colts won 27 – 22 , were AFC South division champions , and clinched the third seed in the AFC playoffs . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week . He ended the regular season with 4 @,@ 397 passing yards and a league @-@ leading 31 touchdown passes . His passer rating ( 101 @.@ 0 ) was the highest in the league for the third year in a row . Manning helped the offense set an NFL record for third down conversion rate in a season ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) .

Despite three interceptions , Manning completed 30 out of 38 passes as the Colts beat the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wild Card playoff game by a score of 23 – 8 . The following week they were limited to five field goals and no touchdowns , but defeated the Baltimore Ravens , 15 – 6 . In the AFC Championship game against the rival Patriots , the Colts trailed 14 – 3 when Manning threw an interception that was returned for a TD by Asante Samuel to give New England a 21 – 3 lead . Manning led the Colts to 32 points in the second half for a 38 – 34 victory , the final score coming late in the fourth quarter as Manning led the Colts on an 80 @-@ yard TD drive to take the lead for the first time in the game . He finished the game with 349 yards passing and two touchdowns ( 1 rushing ) . The comeback was the largest deficit ever overcome in a conference championship .

Completing 25 of 38 passes for 247 yards with a touchdown and one interception , Manning led the Colts to a 29 – 17 victory over the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI and was voted Super Bowl MVP . Manning , who had been criticized for failing to win big games , exorcised his big @-@ game demons with the win . " In years ' past when our team 's come up short , it 's been disappointing " , he told reporters . " Somehow we found a way to have learned from some of those losses and we 've been a better team because of it . " For his role in the Colts ' championship run , Manning was awarded the ESPY for Best Championship Performance . Manning was again named to the Pro Bowl and was also named Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro ; in the Pro Bowl he played only two series , passing for 67 yards . Following the Super Bowl win , Manning agreed to restructure his contract to save the Colts $ 8 @.@ 2 million in salary cap space .

= = = = 2007 season = = = =

Manning 's Colts opened the NFL season with 7 wins , pitting them against an undefeated Patriots squad in a match @-@ up that was being called " Super Bowl 41 1 / 2 " . Manning and Addai helped the Colts to a 13 – 7 halftime lead , and an early fourth @-@ quarter touchdown upped the lead to 20 – 10 . However , Brady led the Patriots to two late touchdowns , to hand Manning his first loss of the season , 24 – 20 . Manning finished the game with 225 yards passing , including a passing touchdown . He also had a rushing touchdown .

Manning did not bounce back from the loss well . Against the San Diego Chargers he threw for a career @-@ worst and franchise @-@ record 6 interceptions . Despite this , he was able to rally the Colts from a 23 – 0 deficit to 23 – 21 , and gave Adam Vinatieri an opportunity to take the lead with a 29 @-@ yard field goal . Vinatieri 's miss sunk the Colts to 7 – 2 . Manning did not play particularly well against the Kansas City Chiefs either , throwing no touchdowns . However , he managed to lead the Colts on a late drive for a game @-@ winning field goal , rushing for two yards on 4th and 1 in the process . Manning finished the game with 163 passing yards , allowing him to overtake 40 @,@ 000 in his career . The victory was Manning 's 100th . The Colts won their next 5 games , securing yet another AFC South title , as well as the AFC 's number two seed in the play @-@ offs . In the final game of the regular season , Manning played only two series before being replaced with back @-@ up Jim Sorgi ; the Colts lost the game to the Titans , 16 – 10 . Manning finished the season with 4 @,@ 040 passing yards , 31 touchdown passes , and a quarterback rating of 98 @.@ 0 . In the divisional round of the playoffs , Manning and the Colts lost to the Chargers , 28 – 24 . Manning helped the Colts to 4 different leads but could not lead a final touchdown drive for the win . Manning finished the game with 402 yards passing and 3 passing touchdowns . Peyton was widely viewed during Super Bowl XLII as he cheered on brother Eli and the New York Giants in their upset of the New England Patriots . Manning was named a Pro Bowl starter and passed for 147 yards and a touchdown in three series .

= = = = 2008 season : third MVP = = = =

On July 14 , 2008 , Manning had surgery to remove an infected bursa sac in his left knee . Manning , who had worn a knee brace due to problems since he was in college , sat out all four preseason games and missed most of training camp .

In the first regular season game at new Lucas Oil Stadium , the Colts lost 29 – 13 to the Chicago Bears . The following week they fell behind 15 – 0 to the Minnesota Vikings in the second half before rallying to win the game on Adam Vinatieri 's 47 @-@ yard field goal . Manning passed for 311 yards as the Colts avoided their first 0 – 2 start since Manning 's rookie season . Week 3 matched the Colts with division rival Jacksonville . Manning threw 2 interceptions in the game , including one that was returned for a TD by Rashean Mathis . Jacksonville rushed for 236 yards and held the ball for over 41 minutes . Still , trailing by 6 late in the game Manning led the Colts on a 77 @-@ yard TD drive to take a 21 – 20 lead . Jacksonville kicker Josh Scobee made a 51 @-@ yard field goal to win the game and drop the Colts to 1 – 2 .

For the third week in a row , Manning used the 4th quarter to bring the Colts back from a 27 – 10 deficit in the last 5 minutes against the Houston Texans to a 31 – 27 victory . It was the first time an NFL team had won a game in regulation after trailing by 17 points in the last 5 minutes . Manning threw a 7 @-@ yard TD pass on 4th & 6 to rookie tight end Tom Santi to make the deficit 27 – 17 . Houston QB Sage Rosenfels , starting for the injured Matt Schaub , then fumbled the ball on a scramble , and it was returned 68 yards for a TD by Gary Brackett . After another Rosenfels fumble , Manning threw the 5 @-@ yard game @-@ winning TD pass to Reggie Wayne . The Colts scored 3 TDs in 2 : 10 .

On October 12 Manning led the Colts to a 31 – 3 blow out win at Lucas Oil Stadium against the Baltimore Ravens to avoid their first 0 – 3 start at home since 1997 . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the 17th time in his career for his effort of 3 TD passes and 271 yards passing . It was revealed during the game by CBS commentators Jim Nantz and Phil Simms that Manning had a second surgery on his knee before the season started . Colts coach Tony Dungy confirmed this report the day after the Baltimore game .

The Colts suffered their largest margin of defeat , 34 – 14 , in Green Bay the following week . Manning threw 2 interceptions that were returned for touchdowns ( for the second time in his career ; the first was on 09 / 30 / 01 vs. New England Patriots ) . The next week the Colts went into Tennessee on Monday Night Football to face the 6 – 0 Titans . They led 14 – 6 in the 3rd quarter , but Tennessee scored 25 unanswered for a 31 – 21 victory and almost assured the Colts they would not win the AFC South division title for the first time in 6 seasons . At 3 – 4 the Colts opened up November with their annual showdown against the New England Patriots on Sunday Night Football . Tied at 15 in the 4th quarter , Manning set up Adam Vinatieri for a 52 @-@ yard field goal that proved to be the winning points in an 18 – 15 victory . Manning completed 21 of 29 passes for 254 yards , 2 touchdowns and no interceptions . The Colts were 4 – 4 halfway through the season and still alive in the AFC playoff race .

In week 10 the Colts traveled to Pittsburgh , who had the league 's No. 1 defense . They trailed 17 – 7 in the second quarter before Manning found Dallas Clark for a 2 @-@ yard TD to end the half 17 – 14 . Down 20 – 17 in the 4th quarter , Manning found Dominic Rhodes uncovered for a 17 @-@ yard TD pass that would put the Colts up 24 – 20 for the rest of the game . It was Manning 's 4th game @-@ winning drive ( 35th of his career ) this season . He completed 21 of 40 for 240 yards and 3 touchdowns ( the 50th game of his career with 3 + TD passes ) . It was the first time the Colts have won in Pittsburgh since 1968 ( 12 straight losses before this win ) . Against Houston , Manning passed for 320 yards and 2 TDs while leading 5 consecutive scoring drives in a 33 – 27 victory , the third in a row for the Colts . Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the second time this season ( 18th time , career ) .

At San Diego , Manning threw for 255 yards , 2 TDs and 1 INT in a 23 – 20 victory . The interception snapped a career @-@ best streak of 140 pass attempts without an interception . After the Chargers rallied from a 10 @-@ point deficit in the 4th to tie the game , Manning led the game @-@ winning drive by completing a 14 @-@ yard pass to Marvin Harrison on 4th and inches at midfield . Adam Vinateri kicked the winning 51 @-@ yard field goal three plays later . It was Manning 's 5th game @-@ winning drive this season . Manning passed for a season @-@ low 125 yards at Cleveland , but the Colts won their 5th straight game , by a final of 10 – 6 .

In a 35 – 3 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals , Manning threw 3 TD passes while completing 26 of 32 passes for 277 yards . It marked the 11th straight season Manning had thrown at least 20 TD passes , the second longest streak ever . Against the 0 – 13 Detroit Lions , the Colts found themselves in a 21 – 21 game in the 4th quarter . Manning led his 6th game @-@ winning drive of the season and the Colts pulled away 31 – 21 . It marked their 7th straight win , 7th straight season with 10 + wins , and they became the only team in NFL history to have a winning streak of at least 7 games in 5 straight seasons . Manning completed 28 of 37 passes for 318 yards and 1 TD .

Needing a win to clinch the 5th seed in the playoffs , Manning had one of his best career performances in Jacksonville on Thursday Night Football . He completed his first 17 passes of the game . In addition to completing his last 6 against Detroit , Manning 's 23 straight completions fell one shy of the NFL record ( Donovan McNabb – 24 ) . The Colts trailed 14 – 0 in the first half and 24 – 14 to start the 4th quarter . Manning led his 7th 4th quarter win of the season and the Colts put the game away with a defensive TD for a 31 – 24 victory to clinch a 7th consecutive playoff berth . Manning completed 29 of 34 passes ( 85 @.@ 7 % ) for 364 yards and 3 TDs . It increased his NFL record streak of seasons with 25 TD passes to 11 . Manning and the Colts tied an NFL record by winning 3 games in a season in which they trailed by at least 14 points . For his efforts Manning won AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the third time in 2008 . It was the 19th time he has won the award , passing Dan Marino for the most all @-@ time since the award was originated in 1984 . He also was selected as the FedEx Air Player of the Week . With the playoff seed secured , Manning only played the opening drive in a shutout against the division @-@ leading Titans in Week 17 . He completed all 7 of his passes for 95 yards and a TD , extending his NFL record to nine seasons with 4000 yards passing , and also extended the record to a sixth straight season he led the Colts to at least 12 wins . At the end of the 2008 season , Manning was named NFL MVP for the 3rd time , tying Brett Favre for the most MVP awards in NFL history .

The day following the MVP award , the Colts played their 2007 nemesis , the Chargers , in their wild @-@ card playoff game . Down 14 – 10 at the half , Manning put the Colts ahead 17 – 14 in the third quarter as he completed a 72 @-@ yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Reggie Wayne . But the Chargers tied the game in the fourth quarter as kicker Nate Kaeding nailed a 22 @-@ yard field goal . When San Diego won the coin toss , they scored on the first possession , ending the Colts season .

= = = = 2009 season : fourth MVP and second Super Bowl appearance = = = =

Under new head coach Jim Caldwell , Manning started the 2009 season with a victory by throwing for 301 yards . In week two Manning led his 29th fourth quarter comeback ( 38th game @-@ winning drive ) by throwing for 303 yards and 2 TD passes , despite only having the ball for 14 : 53 , the lowest time of possession for a winning team in the NFL since they began tracking the statistic in 1977 . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Month for the fourth time in his career in September . Against the Seattle Seahawks Manning passed for 353 yards and 2 TDs for his fourth consecutive 300 @-@ yard passing game set a new franchise record .

Against Houston Texans in week 9 he became the first quarterback to pass for over 40 @,@ 000 yards in a decade . He threw a career @-@ high 25 passes in the 1st quarter ( most in any opening quarter since 1991 ) , and had a career @-@ high 40 pass attempts in the first half . He set a franchise record for most 300 @-@ yard passing games in a season with his seventh 300 @-@ yard effort of the season ( also an NFL record through the first 8 games of a season ) . Against Houston 3 weeks later Manning claimed his 34th comeback win in the 4th quarter , tying him with John Elway and Johnny Unitas for the second most in NFL history . On week 15 against the Jacksonville Jaguars Manning won his 23rd consecutive regular season game breaking Jim McMahon 's NFL record of 22 straight wins with the Chicago Bears from 1984 – 87 . At the end of the regular season Manning was awarded his fourth MVP , breaking the NFL record for most MVPs by a single player . He was also selected to the AP All @-@ Pro team for the fifth time in his career .

In the AFC Divisional against the Baltimore Ravens Manning threw 2 TD passes late in the first half to build a 17 – 3 halftime lead . He completed 30 passes for 246 yards in leading his eight straight victory over the Ravens . In the AFC Championship against New York Jets Manning overcame a 17 – 6 deficit late in the second quarter to lead the Colts to 24 unanswered points in a 30 – 17 win . The 11 @-@ point comeback was the third largest in a championship game . Manning set a playoff record with his seventh 300 @-@ yard passing game in the postseason . In Super Bowl XLIV against New Orleans Saints , Manning led the Colts to a 10 – 0 lead after their two first quarter drives , throwing a TD pass to Pierre Garcon to cap off a 96 @-@ yard drive ( tied for longest in Super Bowl history ) . After running just six plays in the second quarter , the Colts led 10 – 6 at halftime . The Saints recovered an onside kick to start the second half and took their first lead , 13 – 10 . Manning led a go ahead TD drive to regain the lead . Leading 17 – 16 at the start of the 4th quarter , Matt Stover missed a 51 @-@ yard field goal for the Colts . The Saints scored the go ahead TD and two @-@ point conversion to take a 24 – 17 lead with 5 : 42 left . Manning took over and moved the Colts to the Saints ' 31 @-@ yard line . Facing a 3rd & 5 with 3 : 24 left , his pass intended for Reggie Wayne was intercepted by Tracy Porter , who returned it 74 yards for a critical TD and 31 – 17 Saints lead . Manning drove the Colts down to the 5 @-@ yard line in the last minute , but his 4th & goal pass was dropped by Reggie Wayne at the goal line . The Saints won their first Super Bowl , dropping Manning to 9 – 9 in the postseason ( 1 – 1 Super Bowl record ) . Manning passed for 333 yards on 31 / 45 , with 1 TD and 1 interception .

= = = = 2010 season = = = =

In a season @-@ opening loss in Houston , Manning set career highs in pass attempts ( 57 ) and completions ( 40 ) , throwing for 3 TDs and 433 yards , the fourth highest opening @-@ weekend total ever . In his third game Manning passed for 325 yards , 3 TDs and no interceptions , marking the first time since 1960 a QB began a season with three consecutive games of at least 3 TD passes and zero interceptions . Against the Kansas City Chiefs Manning failed to throw a TD for the first time in 2010 , but led the Colts on a game @-@ winning drive in the 4th quarter ( 45th of his career ) to hand the Chiefs their first loss of the season . In week 6 against the Washington Redskins he passed for 307 yards and 2 TDs . Including the playoffs , that was 68 career games with 300 + yards passing , moving him ahead of Dan Marino ( 67 ) for the most in NFL history . Week 9 against the Philadelphia Eagles marked his 200th consecutive regular season start .

Against the New England Patriots Manning passed for 396 yards , 4 TDs and 3 interceptions , the second time Manning threw 4 TDs in a game and breaking a tie with Dan Marino for second @-@ most all @-@ time . The next week was resulted in the largest margin of defeat at home in his NFL career , 36 – 14 to the San Diego Chargers . Against the Tennessee Titans he went over 4000 yards passing for the 11th time in a season , and tied Dan Marino with his 63rd regular season game with 300 + yards passing . Manning was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for this game . The Colts ended up winning the AFC South for the seventh time in eight years , and Manning became the first QB in NFL history to lead his team to nine consecutive postseason berths ( 2002 – 2010 ) . It was the 208th consecutive regular season start of his career , breaking Gene Upshaw 's record . For the season , Manning finished with an NFL record 450 completions on 679 attempts ( third most in history ) , and a career @-@ high 4700 yards passing . The season ended in a one @-@ point defeat to the New York Jets in the play @-@ off .

In 2010 , he was chosen as the 14th @-@ smartest athlete in sports by Sporting News .

= = = = 2011 season : Lost season = = = =

The Colts placed their franchise tag on Manning on February 15 , 2011 . On July 30 , 2011 , the Colts signed Manning to a 5 @-@ year , $ 90 million contract after negotiations in which he made it clear that he did not need to be the highest @-@ paid player in the NFL .

After a May 23 neck surgery , Manning could not use the Colts ' facilities for practice and workouts due to the NFL lockout . Reluctant to have witnesses to his recovery , he used the Colorado Rockies baseball team 's trainers at Coors Field in Denver . Manning was unable to complete his throwing motion , and his arm strength had significantly diminished . Based on an MRI , doctors told him in the late summer that he needed spinal fusion surgery and that at his age they could not guarantee his return to the NFL . On September 7 , the Colts officially ruled Manning out for the season opener against Houston , ending his consecutive starts streak of 208 games ( 227 including playoffs ) ; the team signed Kerry Collins out of retirement and named him interim starting quarterback . After seeking other opinions , Manning had the second surgery on September 8 .

Manning stated that while he did intend to play during the 2011 season , he would not " fight " the front office to stay off injured reserve if his roster spot was needed . Manning started practicing throwing footballs again in mid @-@ December , with teammate Joseph Addai even claiming his passes looked " game ready . " Ultimately , Manning did not play a single game in 2011 , and the Colts went 2 – 14 without him ; only the third season since Manning was a rookie that the Colts did not win at least 10 games .

With the Colts having the first overall pick in the upcoming 2012 draft ( which contained highly rated quarterback Andrew Luck ) and with Manning due a $ 28m roster bonus , he was released on March 7 , 2012 . Earlier , the Colts had dismissed vice @-@ chairman Bill Polian ( who in his previous capacity as general manager had drafted Manning ) , general manager Chris Polian , and head coach Jim Caldwell , as a precursor to the rebuilding of the team .

In an emotional press conference , Manning told Colts fans , " Thank you for letting me be your quarterback . " Upon his release , Colts owner Jim Irsay announced that no Colt will ever wear the No. 18 jersey again , and it was formally retired on March 18 , 2016 .

= = = Denver Broncos = = =

As one of the most highly sought @-@ after free agents , Manning selected the Denver Broncos after meeting with John Elway , a retired Broncos Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer quarterback who was now the team 's Executive Vice President of Football Operations and General Manager , and Broncos head coach John Fox . Manning reached an agreement with the Broncos on a five @-@ year contract worth $ 96 million on March 20 , 2012 . Although No. 18 is retired in honor of Frank Tripucka , he gave Manning permission to wear it .

= = = = 2012 season = = = =

On Thursday , August 9 , 2012 , Manning made his first appearance as a Bronco in a preseason game against the Chicago Bears , where he completed 4 of 7 passes for 44 yards , and was intercepted once by Bears safety Major Wright .

Manning made his regular season debut as a Denver Bronco in the prime time game on the first Sunday of the 2012 NFL Season , against the Pittsburgh Steelers . In the game , Manning completed 19 of 26 passes for 253 yards , 2 touchdowns , and no interceptions . He posted a 129 @.@ 2 QB rating in the 31 – 19 win , and made history in the third quarter when he connected with Demaryius Thomas on a 71 @-@ yard touchdown pass . The touchdown was Manning 's first in the NFL with a team other than the Colts , and marked the 400th of his career , making him the third quarterback , after Dan Marino and Brett Favre , to accomplish the feat and the fastest of the three to reach that mark . Despite the preseason concerns about his recovery , by late October ESPN stated that Manning " has silenced the critics " about his arm strength . Manning was later named to the 2013 Pro Bowl , his twelfth .

The Broncos made the playoffs , but lost 38 – 35 in double overtime to Baltimore , who went on to win Super Bowl XLVII that season .

On February 2 , 2013 , Manning was awarded the AP National Football League Comeback Player of the Year Award and was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection , in addition to finishing second in MVP voting .

= = = = 2013 season : fifth MVP and third Super Bowl appearance = = = =

On the opening game of the 2013 NFL season , Manning became one of only six players in NFL history to throw seven touchdowns in a game , doing so against the defending Super Bowl XLVII champions , the Baltimore Ravens . He added to this feat by not throwing an interception , tying Y. A. Tittle as one of the only two players to have a 7 : 0 touchdown to interception ratio in a single game ( although Nick Foles would later match that feat in week 9 of the same season ) . Against the Oakland Raiders in week three , Manning broke the record for most touchdown passes in the first three games of a season after throwing 12 , surpassing Tom Brady 's 2011 record . In Week 5 , Manning threw his first interception of the season , in a win against the Dallas Cowboys . He was intercepted by Morris Claiborne . Two weeks later , Manning returned to Indianapolis for the first time in the regular season since being released by the Indianapolis Colts . In an emotional pregame ceremony , the Indianapolis Colts showed a tribute video to Manning .

In Week 16 against the Houston Texans , Manning broke Brady 's record for most touchdown passes in a season with 51 on a 25 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Julius Thomas , he finished the regular season with 55 touchdown passes , in addition to throwing for a league record 5 @,@ 477 yards . His 450 completions are tied for second most all time . The Broncos scored an NFL record 606 points , becoming the first team ever to eclipse 600 points in a season . They had more 50 @-@ point games in a season than any other team in NFL history , with 3 . Four Broncos receivers recorded at least ten touchdowns — an NFL record — and Manning set a season record with nine games with four or more touchdown passes . His 115 @.@ 1 passer rating ranks fifth all time and he joined Tom Brady as the only two quarterbacks to achieve a passer rating of 110 @.@ 0 or higher in more than one season . The Broncos went on to win their divisional round playoff game against the San Diego Chargers by a score of 24 – 17 . They beat the New England Patriots in the AFC championship game by a score of 26 @-@ 16 . Manning became the third starting quarterback to reach the Super Bowl two different teams , after Craig Morton and Kurt Warner .

In Super Bowl XLVIII , Manning 's Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 43 – 8 . Manning was up against the Seahawks ' young starting quarterback Russell Wilson , who idolized Manning and attended one of Manning 's passing camps as a teenager , and later met Manning at a Broncos pre @-@ draft interview . The Seahawks ' number one ranked defense proved too much for the Broncos ' number one ranked offense to overcome , while the Broncos ' defense also struggled due to injuries . The Broncos ' first play from scrimmage set the tone for the game . While Manning was stepping forward to call an audible , center Manny Ramirez snapped the ball too early and it flew past Manning 's head into the end zone , where running back Knowshon Moreno downed it for a safety . Manning set a Super Bowl record with 34 completions ( broken by Tom Brady the following year in Super Bowl XLIX ) , but the record @-@ setting offense didn 't record a first down until the 2nd quarter , and didn 't score any points until the final seconds of the 3rd quarter . While Manning threw one touchdown pass , he also threw two costly interceptions , one of which was returned for a touchdown .

= = = = 2014 season : NFL all @-@ time leader in passing touchdowns = = = =

On August 28 , 2014 , Manning was fined $ 8 @,@ 268 for taunting D. J. Swearinger during a preseason game against the Houston Texans . With the Broncos ' win in their opening game of the 2014 NFL season against the Indianapolis Colts , Manning became , along with Brett Favre , one of only two starting quarterbacks in NFL history who have beaten all 32 teams . On October 5 , 2014 , Manning threw his 500th career touchdown pass to Julius Thomas against the Arizona Cardinals , and also tied Dan Marino for the most 400 yard games by a quarterback .

On October 19 , 2014 , against the San Francisco 49ers , Manning threw his 509th career touchdown pass to Demaryius Thomas , passing Brett Favre to become the NFL 's all @-@ time leader in passing touchdowns . By the end of the regular season , Manning would be selected to his 14th Pro Bowl appearance , tying him with Tony Gonzalez , Bruce Matthews , and Merlin Olsen for most Pro Bowl selections in a career . However , his season ended after the Broncos lost in the divisional round of the playoffs to his former team , the Indianapolis Colts , 24 – 13 .

= = = = 2015 season : Final season and second Super Bowl championship = = = =

After much speculation , Manning announced in the offseason that he would return for his 18th season in the NFL . In the season opener , Manning 's play seemed to have deteriorated , going 24 – 40 for 175 yards and 1 interception , but a pick @-@ 6 by cornerback Aqib Talib allowed the Broncos to win 19 – 13 . The Broncos got off to a dominant 7 – 0 start to the season ; however , the streak ended in a loss at Indianapolis , losing 24 – 27 . During that winning streak , and the loss in Indianapolis , Manning played better , putting up over 250 yards in 6 of the 7 games , and he scored 9 touchdowns . However , he never had a game without an interception bringing his 8 @-@ game TD – INT ratio to 9 – 13 and the Broncos needed a hardworking defense to contribute for victories .

In Week 10 against Kansas City , the game 's biggest highlight was Manning breaking Brett Favre 's record for career passing yards with a 4 @-@ yard pass to Ronnie Hillman in the first quarter . Despite the accomplishment , however , Manning went 5 @-@ for @-@ 20 for 35 yards and four interceptions with a 0 @.@ 0 passer rating before head coach Gary Kubiak benched him during the third quarter . Brock Osweiler filled in for Manning for the rest of the game as the Broncos would eventually lose 29 – 13 . A day later , sources said that Manning had suffered a bout of plantar fasciitis . It was later announced that this injury would keep him out of Week 11 , marking the first time Peyton had missed a game in a season he played . Osweiler replaced Manning and performed well in a 17 – 15 win over the Chicago Bears , leading to questions about whether Manning would retain his role when healthy in a Week 12 showdown against the New England Patriots . The next day , head coach Gary Kubiak , citing Manning 's injuries , announced that Osweiler would start against New England . On December 15 , it was announced that Osweiler would make his fifth consecutive start , against the Pittsburgh Steelers , even though Manning had returned to practice and the Broncos had gone seven straight quarters without scoring a touchdown on offense . Overall , the Broncos went 4 @-@ 2 in six games without Manning , giving them an 11 @-@ 4 record heading into the final week of the regular season .

Manning was listed as active for the Week 17 regular season finale against the San Diego Chargers , but for the first time since his freshman year at college , he was listed as a backup . In the third quarter , with the Broncos down 13 – 7 , Manning entered the game in relief of Brock Osweiler , who had been intercepted twice and fumbled once . The Broncos went on to beat the Chargers , 27 – 20 , and secure the top seed in the AFC . Despite the Broncos ' 12 – 4 record ( and Manning 's 8 – 2 record in games that he played in ) , Manning had the worst season statistically of his career , as he threw a career low 9 touchdown passes and 17 interceptions in just 10 games , and posting a quarterback rating of 67 @.@ 9 , the lowest rating of his career , and first time he had a rating below 84 since his rookie season . Manning 's 59 @.@ 8 completion percentage was the second lowest of his career , only behind his rookie season . Manning 's 17 interceptions were second to Jaguars quarterback Blake Bortles , who threw 18 interceptions but started all 16 games .

The Broncos , by virtue of having the AFC 's # 1 seed , earned home field advantage throughout the NFL playoffs . The Broncos defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the Divisional round to advance to the AFC Championship game to host the defending Super Bowl champions , the New England Patriots . It was the 17th , and ultimately final , meeting between Manning and his longtime rival Tom Brady . Despite a late comeback from the Patriots , the Broncos won 20 – 18 to advance to Super Bowl 50 . Manning threw two touchdowns and no interceptions in the win .

On February 7 , 2016 , the Broncos defeated the Carolina Panthers 24 – 10 in Super Bowl 50 as the Broncos ' defense shut down the heavily @-@ favored Panthers ' top @-@ ranked offense and regular season MVP Cam Newton . Manning finished the game 13 of 23 for 141 yards with one interception while being sacked five times , scoring his only passing points with 3 : 08 left in the 4th quarter when he connected with Bennie Fowler for a 2 @-@ point conversion , which ended up being the final pass of his career . Manning became the oldest starting quarterback to both play in and win a Super Bowl . Manning also became the first quarterback to start two Super Bowls with multiple franchises , with different head coaches each time ( Dungy , Caldwell , Fox and Kubiak ) and the first quarterback to lead two different franchises to a Super Bowl victory . The victory gave Manning his 200th overall win including regular season and playoffs , making him the starting quarterback with the most combined regular season and postseason wins in NFL history , snapping a tie with Brett Favre .

= = = Retirement = = =

Manning announced his retirement , after 18 seasons , on March 7 , 2016 . Manning 's final words of his retirement speech were , " I 've fought a good fight . I 've finished my football race and after 18 years , it 's time . God bless all of you and God bless football . "

After 18 seasons with the NFL , Peyton Manning received the 2016 ESPY Icon Award

= = = " The Manning Bowl " = = =

Peyton and Eli Manning played against each other three times in their professional careers . These encounters were colloquially dubbed " The Manning Bowl " , and Peyton 's teams ( twice with the Indianapolis Colts , once with the Denver Broncos ) held a 3 – 0 record over Eli 's team ( three games with the New York Giants ) . The first Manning Bowl was held on September 10 , 2006 , and Peyton 's Colts defeated Eli 's Giants by a score of 26 – 21 . The second Manning Bowl was held on September 19 , 2010 , with Peyton and the Colts besting Eli 's team again by a score of 38 – 14 . The third and final Manning Bowl took place on September 15 , 2013 , and Peyton and the Broncos beat Eli 's Giants , 41 – 23 .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = College career statistics = = =

= = = NFL career statistics = = =

= = = = Regular season = = = =

= = = = Post @-@ season = = = =

= = Career awards and records = =

= = = Major high school awards = = =

1992 , 1993 Louisiana Class 2A MVP

1993 Gatorade Circle of Champions Award

1993 Atlanta TD Club 's Bobby Dodd Award

1993 New Orleans Quarterback Club Player of the Year

1993 Columbus , Ohio Touchdown Club Offensive Player of the Year

1993 Gatorade High School Player of the Year ( National )

= = = College awards = = =

= = = College records = = =

= = = = Tennessee Volunteers records = = = =

= = = = SEC records = = = =

Lowest interception percentage ( season ) : 1 @.@ 05 % ( 1995 )

Highest completion percentage ( career ) : 62 @.@ 49 %

Lowest interception percentage ( career ) : 2 @.@ 39 %

Most 300 + passing yard games ( career ) : 18

= = = NFL awards = = =

5x NFL MVP ( 2003 ( shared with Steve McNair ) , 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2013 )

2x NFL Offensive Player of the Year ( 2004 , 2013 )

Best NFL Player ESPY Award ( 2004 , 2005 )

14 × Pro Bowl ( 1999 – 2000 , 2002 – 2010 , 2012 – 2014 )

7 × First @-@ team All @-@ Pro ( 2003 – 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2013 )

3 × Second @-@ team All @-@ Pro ( 1999 , 2000 , 2006 )

2 × Bert Bell Award ( 2003 , 2004 )

8 × AFC Offensive Player of the Year Awards ( 1999 , 2003 – 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2012 , 2013 )

1998 NFL All @-@ Rookie First Team

2004 Fedex Express Player of the Year

Best Record @-@ Breaking Performance ESPY Award ( 2005 , 2014 )

2005 Walter Payton Man of the Year Award

2005 Byron " Whizzer " White Humanitarian Award

2005 Pro Bowl MVP

2007 Super Bowl MVP

2007 Best Championship Performance ESPY Award

2012 NFL Comeback Player of the Year

27 × AFC Offensive Player Of The Week

Additionally , Manning has been named the AFC Offensive Player of the Month a record eight times ( 9 / 2003 , 11 / 2004 , 10 / 2006 , 9 / 2009 , 9 / 2012 , 10 / 2012 , 9 / 2013 , 12 / 2013 ) and Offensive Player of the Week a record 26 times ( 25 AFC , 1 NFL / playoff ) .

= = = NFL records = = =

Manning holds a number of individual career records :

= = = = Regular season = = = =

= = = = Playoff records = = = =

Most 300 + yard passing games : 8

Most yards passing , 1st half of game : 360 vs. Denver Broncos , 1 / 9 / 05

Led the biggest comeback in conference championship game history ( 18 pts ) , 1 / 21 / 07 vs. New England

One of only four QBs to post a perfect 158 @.@ 3 passer rating in a game ( Don Meredith , Terry Bradshaw , Dave Krieg )

Most games with 20 + completions : 14 ( surpassed by Tom Brady in 2011 )

Most games with 30 + completions : 4 ( surpassed by Drew Brees in 2011 )

Most games with 30 + attempts : 17

Most games with 40 + attempts : 8 ( tied by Tom Brady in 2011 )

Most completions and attempts in a single postseason : 97 / 153 ( 2006 )

One of only 2 quarterbacks to complete 80 % of his passes in two playoff games ( tied with Kurt Warner )

Most consecutive postseasons with at least one start : 9 ( 2002 – 2010 )

Most postseason losses by a quarterback : 13

Most first @-@ round postseason losses by a quarterback : 9

= = = = Rookie records = = = =

Most touchdown passes : 26 ( tied by Russell Wilson in 2012 )

Most interceptions thrown : 28

Most consecutive games with a touchdown pass ( games 4 – 16 ) : 13

Most games with at least one touchdown pass : 15

Most games with 300 + yards passing : 4

= = = = With Marvin Harrison = = = =

Manning and former Colts wide receiver Marvin Harrison hold a number of QB @-@ WR tandem records :

Most completions / receptions ( career ) : 953

Most passing / receiving yards ( career ) : 12 @,@ 756

Most passing / receiving touchdowns ( career ) : 112

Most completions / receptions in a season , QB @-@ to @-@ WR duo : 143 ( 2002 )

= = = = Pro Bowl records = = = =

Most Pro Bowl selections ( tied with Tony Gonzalez , Bruce Matthews , and Merlin Olsen ) : 14

Most Pro Bowl selections for a QB : 14

Most consecutive Pro Bowl selections for a QB : 9 ( during the 2002 – 2010 seasons )

Most passing attempts ( career ) : 150

Most passing attempts ( game ) : 41 ( 2004 )

Most completions ( career ) : 92

Most completions ( game ) : 22 ( 2004 )

Most passing yards ( career ) : 1 @,@ 278

Most passing yards ( game ) : 342 ( 2004 )

Most passing touchdowns ( career ) : 13

= = = = Colts franchise records = = = =

= = = = Broncos franchise records = = = =

Highest completion percentage ( season ) : 68 @.@ 6 % ( 2012 )

Highest completion percentage ( career ) : 66 @.@ 5 %

Most completions ( season ) : 450 ( 2013 )

Most pass attempts ( season ) : 679 ( 2013 )

Most passing yards ( season ) : 5 @,@ 477 ( 2013 )

Most 300 + passing yard games ( season ) : 12 ( 2013 )

Most 400 + passing yard games ( season ) : 3 ( 2013 )

Highest average passing yards per game ( season ) : 342 @.@ 3 ( 2013 )

Highest average passing yards per game ( career ) : 295 @.@ 0

Most touchdown passes ( game ) : 7 ( September 5 , 2013 vs. Baltimore Ravens )

Most touchdown passes ( season ) : 55 ( 2013 )

Highest passer rating ( season ) : 115 @.@ 1 ( 2013 )

Highest passer rating ( career ) : 101 @.@ 7

Most seasons with 100 + passer rating : 3 ( 2012 @-@ 2014 )

Most touchdown passes without an interception ( game ) : 7 ( September 5 , 2013 vs. Baltimore Ravens )

Most seasons with at least 4 @,@ 000 passing yards : 3 ( 2012 @-@ 2014 )

Highest winning percentage as a starter ( career ) : 78 @.@ 9 % ( 45 @-@ 12 @-@ 0 )

= = Personal life = =

Manning was born in New Orleans , Louisiana , the son of Olivia ( née Williams ) and former NFL quarterback Archie Manning . He is the brother of two @-@ time Super Bowl Champion , Eli Manning . Some have described the Mannings as football 's " royal family " .

Manning married his wife , Ashley , in Memphis on St. Patrick 's Day , 2001 . A graduate of the University of Virginia , Ashley was introduced to him by her parents ' next @-@ door neighbor the summer before Manning 's freshman year in college . Peyton and wife Ashley have twins , a son , Marshal Williams , and a daughter , Mosley Thompson , born on March 31 , 2011 .

Manning is a Christian . At age 13 , he said , " I committed my life to Christ , and that faith has been most important to me ever since . " Manning said his priorities ranked in order are " ... faith , family , friends , and football . " Manning said he prays every night and before games and added , " I hope ( and pray ) I don 't do too many things that displease Him before I get to Heaven myself . I believe , too , that life is much better and freer when you 're committed to God in that way . "

Manning reportedly memorized the Colts ' playbook within a week after being drafted , and in 2012 was able to precisely recall the details and timing of a specific play he had used at Tennessee 16 years earlier . During the summer , Archie , Peyton , Eli , and eldest sibling Cooper run the Manning Passing Academy , a five @-@ day camp which aims to improve the offensive skills of quarterbacks , wide receivers , tight ends , and running backs . In addition to the Mannings , the camp has included many prominent players from football as coaches , such as Colts wide receivers Marvin Harrison and Reggie Wayne .

Manning , along with his father Archie , co @-@ authored a book titled , Manning : A Father , His Sons , and a Football Legacy , which was released in 2000 . The book covers Archie 's and Cooper 's lives and careers , and Manning 's life and career up to the time that the book was released , and examines football from both Archie 's and Manning 's points @-@ of @-@ view .

Mark Kiszla , a sports columnist for the Denver Post , in a column about Manning 's future plans , said that Manning 's net worth " is estimated to be in excess of $ 150 million " and " That 's not enough money to buy an NFL franchise by himself , although an ownership group that included Manning as president with a financial stake in the team would be led by a brilliant football mind . " He has donated over $ 8 @,@ 000 to Republican politicians , among them Fred Thompson , Bob Corker and former President George W. Bush . For the 2016 presidential race , Manning has contributed to the campaign of Jeb Bush . On October 26 , 2012 , Manning purchased 21 Papa John 's Pizza stores , all in Colorado .

= = = In popular culture = = =

Manning has been credited with helping to improve the image of the city of Indianapolis . A curator at the Indiana State Museum observed that " There is no Super Bowl held here without Peyton . There is no Lucas Oil Stadium without Peyton . Without Peyton , the Colts would probably be in L.A. right now . " He has become one of the NFL 's most marketable players , appearing in several television and printed advertisements for some of the NFL 's biggest sponsors .

Manning appeared in one of a series of DirecTV commercials where celebrities are seen in their element , then suddenly begin addressing the viewer . In his commercial , they parodied his pre @-@ snap audible routine , and known delay in calling for the ball by having him pitch NFL Sunday Ticket , instead of changing the play during a blowout game against the Tennessee Titans . Manning also appears in advertisements for St. Mary 's Medical Center in Knoxville , Tennessee .

Manning hosted Saturday Night Live on March 24 , 2007 , his 31st birthday . The episode earned the show 's highest household rating in more than 10 months in the metered markets . He also appeared on SNL in 2008 and on the 2015 Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special .

He has won the Favorite Male Athlete award for the Kids Choice Awards .

On May 27 , 2007 , Manning waved the green flag to begin the 91st Indianapolis 500 .

In 2009 , Manning guest @-@ voiced ( with his brothers , Eli and Cooper ) on an episode of The Simpsons called " O Brother , Where Bart Thou ? " in which Bart dreams of having a baby brother and sees such famous brothers as The Marx Brothers , The Blues Brothers , The Wright Brothers , The Mario Brothers , and The Manning Brothers .

= = = Philanthropy = = =

Shortly after beginning his NFL career , Manning started his own charity called ' the Peyback Foundation ' . The Peyback Foundation 's mission is to help disadvantaged kids , and focuses its efforts in Louisiana , Tennessee , and Indiana . For his work with this foundation , Manning received the Samuel S. Beard Award for Greatest Public Service by an Individual 35 Years or Under , an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards .

Manning , along with his brother Eli , volunteered their assistance in the wake of Hurricane Katrina . Among the tasks performed , the Mannings assisted in the delivery of 30 @,@ 000 pounds of water , Gatorade , baby formula , diapers , and pillows to the people of New Orleans .

In September 2007 , St. Vincent Hospital in Indianapolis renamed its children 's hospital to " Peyton Manning Children 's Hospital at St. Vincent . " Manning and his wife made a donation of an undisclosed amount to St. Vincent 's and have had a relationship with the hospital since his arrival in Indianapolis .

= Grand Theft Auto IV =

Grand Theft Auto IV is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games . It was released on 29 April 2008 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles , and on 2 December 2008 on Microsoft Windows . It is the eleventh title in the Grand Theft Auto series , and the first main entry since 2004 's Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . Set within the fictional Liberty City ( based on New York City ) , the single @-@ player story follows a war veteran , Niko Bellic and his attempts to escape his past while under pressure from loan sharks and mob bosses . The open world design lets players freely roam Liberty City , consisting of three main islands .

The game is played from a third @-@ person perspective and its world is navigated on @-@ foot or by vehicle . Throughout the single @-@ player mode , players play as Niko Bellic . An online multiplayer mode is included with the game , allowing up to 32 players to engage in both co @-@ operative and competitive gameplay in a recreation of the single @-@ player setting . Two expansion packs were later released for the game , The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony , which both feature new plots that are interconnected with the main Grand Theft Auto IV storyline , and follow new protagonists .

Development began in 2004 , soon after the release of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . As part of their research for the open world , the developers conducted field research around New York throughout development and captured footage for the design team . Development duties were shared between many of Rockstar 's studios worldwide . Following its announcement in May 2006 , Grand Theft Auto IV was widely anticipated . Upon release , the game received universal critical acclaim , with praise particularly directed at the game 's narrative and open world design . However , the game also generated controversy , with criticism directed at the game 's depiction of violence and ability to drive under the influence of alcohol . Grand Theft Auto IV broke industry sales records and became the fastest @-@ selling entertainment product in history at the time , earning US $ 310 million in its first day and US $ 500 million in its first week . Considered one of the most significant titles of the seventh generation of video games , and by many critics as one of the greatest video games of all time , it won year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . Its successor , Grand Theft Auto V , was released in September 2013 .

= = Gameplay = =

Grand Theft Auto IV is an action @-@ adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Players complete missions — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . It is possible to have several active missions running at one time , as some missions require players to wait for further instructions or events . Outside of missions , players can freely roam the game 's open world , and have the ability to complete optional side missions . Composed of the fictional city of Liberty City , the world of Grand Theft Auto IV is larger in area than most earlier entries in the series . At the beginning of the game , players can only explore the first island – composed of Dukes and Broker – with all other islands unlocking as the story progresses .

Players use melee attacks , firearms and explosives to fight enemies , and may run , jump , swim or use vehicles to navigate the game 's world . There is a first @-@ person perspective option when using vehicles . In combat , auto @-@ aim and a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies . Should players take damage , their health meter can be fully regenerated using multiple techniques , such as eating , using medical kits , or calling for paramedics . If players commit crimes while playing , the game 's law enforcement agencies may respond as indicated by a " wanted " meter in the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . On the meter , the displayed stars indicate the current wanted level ( for example , at the maximum six @-@ star level , efforts by law enforcement to incapacitate players become very aggressive ) . Law enforcement officers will search for players who leave the wanted vicinity . The wanted meter enters a cooldown mode and eventually recedes when players are hidden from the officers ' line of sight .

The game 's cover system allows players to deftly move between cover , to fire blindly , aim freely , and target a specific enemy . Individual body parts can also be targeted . Melee attacks include additional moves , such as dodging , blocking , disarming an opponent and counter @-@ attacking . Body armour can be used to absorb gunshots and explosive damage , but is used up in the process . When health is entirely depleted , gameplay stops , and players respawn at the nearest hospital .

The game 's single @-@ player mode lets players control a war veteran , Eastern European Niko Bellic . During the story , Niko meets various new characters , many of whom he befriends . These characters can then perform favours for Niko whenever he asks ; for example , his cousin Roman , who owns a taxi service , can send one of his cabs to Niko and take him to any destination around the city . Cabs are always available during gameplay , allowing players to quickly travel to a destination . Throughout the course of the game , players are also faced with morality choices , which alter the storyline appropriately depending on the player 's choice . While free roaming the game world , players may engage in context @-@ specific activities such as bowling or darts . Other available activities include a vigilante minigame , and in @-@ game television programming . Niko has a smartphone for contacting friends and starting activities . The smartphone is also used to access the game 's online multiplayer mode , and to enter cheat codes . To access the in @-@ game Internet , which allows Niko to send and receive emails and set up prospective dates with potential girlfriends , Niko can use Internet cafés located around the city . The game also features a subway system , allowing players to quickly traverse through the game world .

The online multiplayer mode for Grand Theft Auto IV allows up to 32 players to freely roam across a recreation of the single @-@ player world . Players decide which game mode that they wish to play , including deathmatches and street races . Both cooperative and competitive game modes are available . These game modes are split into ranked and unranked matches . For players to level up through ranks , in @-@ game money must be earned . The game also features a Free Mode , in which players have the entire map open to explore , with no end goal or mission to complete . Hosts of the game can control many variables , such as police presence , traffic , and weapons . LAN support is available in the Windows version of the game .

= = Synopsis = =

= = = Setting = = =

Grand Theft Auto IV takes place in 2008 , in a redesigned version of Liberty City consisting of four boroughs , based on four of the boroughs of New York City : Broker ( based on Brooklyn ) , Dukes ( Queens ) , Bohan ( The Bronx ) , and Algonquin ( Manhattan ) . Adjacent to the city is the independent state of Alderney ( Northern New Jersey ) . There are three minor islands present in the game : Charge Island ( Randall 's Island ) , Colony Island ( Roosevelt Island ) , and Happiness Island ( Liberty Island ) . Initially , bridges are locked down due to a terrorist threat , and players are constantly pursued by police if the bridges are crossed , but the blockades are lifted as the story progresses , allowing the player to traverse between islands . Grand Theft Auto IV takes place in a different storyline and timeline from the previous games in the series . However , the game takes place in the same canon as its expansion packs , The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony , and its successor , Grand Theft Auto V.

= = = Plot = = =

Following his cousin Roman 's request , Niko Bellic , an Eastern European , comes to Liberty City to pursue the American Dream , and to search for the man who betrayed his unit in a war fifteen years prior . Upon arrival , however , Niko discovers that Roman 's tales of riches and luxury were lies concealing struggles with gambling debts and loan sharks , and that Roman lives in a dirty apartment rather than a mansion .

Niko defends Roman from his loan sharks several times , eventually killing Vlad Glebov , Roman 's Russian loan shark . Niko was forced to work for Vlad to settle Roman 's debts but ended up killing him after learning that he had slept with Roman 's girlfriend , Mallorie . After Vlad 's murder , Niko and Roman are kidnapped by members of the Liberty City Bratva on order of Mikhail Faustin and his associate , Dimitri Rascalov . Faustin , not bothered by the murder of Vlad , hires Niko . Niko quickly learns that Faustin is a psychopath when he orders him to kill the son of Kenny Petrović , the most powerful man in the Liberty City Bratva . After the Petrović family threatens retaliation , Dimitri orders Niko to assassinate Faustin in order to prevent a gang war . When Niko meets with Dimitri to collect on the assassination , Dimitri brings Niko 's former employer Ray Bulgarin instead , the latter accusing Niko of stealing from him a few years earlier . When Niko truthfully denies the allegation , a firefight ensues , allowing Dimitri and Bulgarin to escape .

Immediately afterwards , Niko and Roman are forced to escape to Bohan when their apartment and taxi company are destroyed in arson attacks by Dimitri 's men . However , things go poorly as well in Bohan : Dimitri 's men kidnap Roman in a failed bid to ambush and kill Niko , who rescues Roman . Furthermore , Niko 's girlfriend Michelle reveals that she works for a government agency and entraps Niko into working for her agency , known only by its cover : United Liberty Paper . Niko kills several known or suspected terrorists for the agency in exchange for the file of the numerous crimes the police have on him and the promise of assistance in finding the traitor of his unit .

Eventually , United Liberty Paper tracks down the man responsible for Niko 's unit 's betrayal , Darko Brevic , and brings him into Liberty City . Niko confronts Darko and decides his fate . Having dealt with his past , Niko is summoned by one of his employers , Jimmy Pegorino , who demands one final favour : to help with an extremely lucrative deal on heroin in collusion with Dimitri Rascalov .

At this point , Niko is faced with two choices : strike a deal with Dimitri , or exact revenge on him . Should Niko go through with the deal , Dimitri sets up Niko by taking the heroin for himself . At Roman 's wedding , an assassin sent by Dimitri kills Roman with a stray bullet as Niko disarms and kills him . A devastated and vengeful Niko later tracks down , chases , and kills Dimitri , but not before witnessing Dimitri executing Pegorino . Should Niko choose to exact revenge , Niko ambushes and executes Dimitri . At Roman 's wedding , Pegorino , furious after Niko 's betrayal , commits a drive @-@ by shooting . He targets Niko , but ends up killing Niko 's girlfriend , Kate . Niko soon tracks down , chases , and kills Pegorino , who had become hated and targeted by the entire Liberty City underworld .

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

Work on Grand Theft Auto IV began in November 2004 , almost immediately after the release of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) . Around 150 game developers worked on Grand Theft Auto IV , led by core members of the team that previously worked on Grand Theft Auto III ( 2001 ) . For the game , Rockstar used their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) , which was previously used in Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis ( 2006 ) , in combination with the Euphoria game animation engine . Instead of pre @-@ written animations , Euphoria uses procedural animation to control the way the player moves , enabling character movements to be more realistic . The Euphoria engine also enables NPCs to react in a realistic way to the player 's actions . In one preview , a player knocked an NPC out of a window and the character grabbed onto a ledge to stop himself from falling . The game also uses middleware from Image Metrics to facilitate intricate facial expressions and ease the process of incorporating lip @-@ synching . Foliage in the game is produced through SpeedTree .

Grand Theft Auto IV sees a shift in the series to a more realistic and detailed style and tone , partly a result of the transition to consoles which offered high @-@ definition graphics and the new and improved capabilities of such consoles . Rockstar co @-@ founder Dan Houser said " what we 're taking as our watchword on [ Grand Theft Auto IV ] is the idea of what high definition actually means . Not just in terms of graphics , which obviously we are achieving , but in terms of all aspects of the design . [ ... ] You know , trying to make something more realistic , more held together , but still retaining the overall coherence that the other games had . " Art director Aaron Garbut said one of the reasons they decided to set the game in New York because " we all knew what an amazing , diverse , vibrant , cinematic city it is , " and since they were hoping the push the " detail , variety and life " to a high level , it seemed that " basing the game in a city so synonymous with these things was a great fit . " Dan Houser added " because we were working in high definition and we knew we 'd need a shitload of research , we wanted to be somewhere where we had a foothold . " The developers consciously avoided creating a block for block recreation of New York City , Dan Houser said " what we 've always tried to do is make a thing that looks real and has the qualities of a real environment , but is also fun from a game design perspective . " The Grand Theft Auto IV rendition of Liberty City is far more detailed and larger in size than most earlier entries in the series Although smaller than San Andreas , the main setting for Grand Theft Auto IV 's predecessor Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas , Liberty City is comparable to it in terms of scope when " the level of verticality of the city , the number of buildings you can go into , and the level of detail in those buildings " are taken into account . The goal for Liberty City was to have no dead spots or irrelevant spaces , such as the wide open deserts in San Andreas . To achieve a realistic environment , the Rockstar North team , based in Edinburgh , Scotland , made two trips to New York for research , one at the start of the project ( which was done with every previous Grand Theft Auto game ) and another smaller one further into development . A full @-@ time research team , based in New York , handled further requests for information ranging from the ethnic minority of a neighbourhood to videos of traffic patterns .

The story of Grand Theft Auto IV was written by Dan Houser and Rupert Humphries . Unlike previous Grand Theft Auto games which have a strong cultural or cinematic influence , " [ Grand Theft Auto IV doesn 't ] really have any cinematic influences " , as explained by Houser . " We were consciously trying to go , well , if video games are going to develop into the next stage , then the thing isn 't to try and do a loving tribute or reference other stuff . It 's to reference the actual place itself " . Houser also said , " In terms of the character , we wanted something that felt fresh and new and not something that was obviously derived from [ a ] movie . [ ... ] Maybe [ we ] could do something ourselves that would live alongside that stuff " .

Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich said " [ we had ] to pick the songs that make New York today what it is , but make sure they won 't feel dated by the time the game comes out . " The developers contacted over 2 @,@ 000 people in order to obtain recording and publishing rights . They even hired a private investigator to locate the relatives of late Skatt Bros. member Sean Delaney to license the band 's song , " Walk the Night " . Citing sources close to the deals , Billboard reported that Rockstar paid as much as $ 5 @,@ 000 per composition and another $ 5 @,@ 000 per master recording per track . Developers originally considered letting players purchase music by going to an in @-@ game record shop and for Niko to have an MP3 player , but both ideas were cut . DJ Green Lantern produced tracks exclusively for the game 's hip @-@ hop radio station The Beat 102 @.@ 7 . Record label owner and record producer Bobby Konders , who hosts the in @-@ game radio station Massive B Soundsystem 96 @.@ 9 , went through the extra effort of flying to Jamaica to get dancehall artists to re @-@ record tracks to make references to the boroughs of Liberty City .

The Corporate Vice @-@ President of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business division , Peter Moore , announced at E3 2006 that the game would appear on Xbox 360 , by rolling up his sleeve to reveal a Grand Theft Auto IV temporary tattoo . Rockstar Games initially appeared to be committed to the original 16 October 2007 release date ; however , Wedbush Morgan analyst Michael Pachter suggested that Take @-@ Two may choose to delay the release of the game in order to boost its financial results for 2008 and to avoid competing with the release of other highly anticipated titles , such as Halo 3 . Rockstar responded by saying that Grand Theft Auto IV was still on track for release in " late October " . On 2 August 2007 , Take @-@ Two announced that Grand Theft Auto IV would miss its original release date of 16 October 2007 contrary to their previous statements , and would be delayed to their second fiscal quarter ( February – April ) of 2008 . In a later conference call with investors , Take @-@ Two 's Strauss Zelnick attributed the delay to " almost strictly technological problems ... not problems , but challenges . " It was later revealed that technical difficulties with the PlayStation 3 version of the game contributed to the delay , along with storage problems on the Xbox 360 . On 24 January 2008 , Take @-@ Two announced that Grand Theft Auto IV would be released on 29 April 2008 . As the release date approached , Rockstar Games and Take @-@ Two marketed the game heavily through various forms , including television ads , Internet video , billboards , viral marketing , and a redesigned website . A special edition of the game was also released for both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . At a Take @-@ Two shareholder meeting on 18 April 2008 , Take @-@ Two CEO Ben Feder announced that Grand Theft Auto IV had already " gone gold " and was " in production and in trucks en route to retailers " . The game was eventually released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game consoles in Europe , North America , and Oceania on 29 April 2008 , and in Japan on 30 October 2008 . Overall , Grand Theft Auto IV took over 1000 people and more than three and a half years to complete , with a total cost estimated at approximately $ 100 million , making it , at the time , the most expensive video game ever developed .

On 6 August 2008 , Rockstar announced that a Microsoft Windows version of Grand Theft Auto IV was in development by Rockstar North and Rockstar Toronto . The game was originally announced for release in North America on 18 November 2008 and in Europe on 21 November 2008 but was later pushed back to 2 and 3 December 2008 , respectively . It contains expanded features , including traffic density control , draw distance configurations and a replay editor . The replay editor allows players to record and edit game clips , videos can then be uploaded to Rockstar 's Social Club website . It utilised Games for Windows - Live for online play and supports 32 players for multiplayer . SecuROM protection is utilised and a one time online activation is required in order to play the game . The game was made available on Steam on 4 January 2009 .

= = = Episodic content = = =

Two episodic packs for Grand Theft Auto IV have been released . These two episodes were first released separately , exclusively on Xbox Live , as downloadable content ( DLC ) , requiring the original game to play . They were later released together as part of a standalone game , titled Grand Theft Auto : Episodes From Liberty City , which does not require the original game to play . Dan Houser stated the episodes shows " a different side of Liberty City " .

The first expansion , titled Grand Theft Auto : The Lost and Damned , was originally released on 17 February 2009 . The protagonist of The Lost and Damned is Johnny Klebitz , a member of Liberty City 's biker gang The Lost . The second expansion , titled Grand Theft Auto : The Ballad of Gay Tony , was released on 29 October 2009 . The protagonist of The Ballad of Gay Tony is Luis Fernando Lopez , an assistant to nightclub owner Tony " Gay Tony " Prince , and follows him as he resolves the conflicts of his friends , family , and boss .

Jeronimo Barrera , Vice President of Product Development for Rockstar Games , said that the episodes were experiments because the team were not sure that there was enough users with access to online content on the Xbox 360 . Take @-@ Two Interactive 's Chief Financial Officer , Lainie Goldstein revealed that Microsoft was paying a total of $ 50 million for the first two episodes . In January 2010 , Rockstar announced that the DLC as well as Episodes From Liberty City would be made available for the PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows on 13 April 2010 in North America and 16 April 2010 in Europe .

Both episodes were released for PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows on 13 April 2010 in North America and on 16 April 2010 in Europe . Grand Theft Auto IV : The Complete Edition , including the original Grand Theft Auto IV and its two episodic expansions , was listed on online stores , before being confirmed by Rockstar . The compilation was released on PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Windows on 26 October 2010 in North America , and 29 October in Europe .

= = = Soundtrack = = =

Like previous games in the Grand Theft Auto series , Grand Theft Auto IV features a soundtrack that can be heard through radio stations while the player is in a vehicle . Liberty City is serviced by 19 radio stations , three of which are talk radio stations . The other stations feature music from a large range of genres , including tracks from Genesis , David Bowie , Bob Marley , The Who , Queen , Kanye West and Elton John .

Grand Theft Auto IV uses a similar music system to that of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) . In other games in the series , each radio station was essentially a single looped sound file , playing the same songs , announcements and advertisements in the same order each time . With the radio stations in Grand Theft Auto IV , each sound file is held separately , and sequenced randomly , allowing songs to be played in different orders , announcements to songs to be different each time , and plot events to be mentioned on the stations . Certain songs are also edited to incorporate references to the fictional Liberty City .

A variety of real celebrities provide voices for the radio DJs in the game , including fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld , musicians Iggy Pop , Femi Kuti , Jimmy Gestapo and Ruslana , and real @-@ life radio talk show host Lazlow Jones . Saturday Night Live actors Bill Hader and Jason Sudeikis appear on the liberal and conservative radio talk shows respectively , with Fred Armisen playing several guests on Lazlow 's " Integrity 2 @.@ 0 " . Numerous other comedians , including Jim Norton , Patrice O 'Neal , Rick Shapiro , and Robert Kelly , as well as radio hosts Opie & Anthony appeared on the radio and / or as characters in @-@ game .

The Music of Grand Theft Auto IV is a 2008 soundtrack packaged with the special edition of Grand Theft Auto IV . The disc contains several soundtrack selections . The soundtrack features several genres , from hip hop to rock and reggae . Several artists re @-@ recorded their songs to make references to in @-@ game locations . Two songs , " Liberty City : The Invasion " and " No Sex for Ben " , were composed specifically for the game and the soundtrack . The theme song of Grand Theft Auto IV , " Soviet Connection " , was composed by Michael Hunter , who previously composed the theme for Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas .

= = Reception = =

= = = Initial release = = =

Grand Theft Auto IV was released to universal acclaim . Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating in the 0 – 100 range , calculated an average score of 98 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 64 reviews for the PlayStation 3 version and 86 reviews for the Xbox 360 version . It is the second @-@ highest rated game on Metacritic , tied with a number of other games . It is also one of the highest @-@ rated games on GameRankings . Reviewers liked the game 's narrative , open world design and combat system . Hilary Goldstein of IGN felt that the game " sets a new benchmark for open @-@ world games " , and Andrew Reiner of Game Informer wrote that the game " completely changes the landscape of gaming " .

Reviewers lauded the open world design , some further complimenting the freedom that it allows the player . Seth Schiesel of The New York Times named the city the " real star " of the game . Official Xbox Magazine 's Hicks was impressed by the city , attributing this to the game 's AI . Robinson of Computer and Video Games considered the environment believable , and felt that the world was " utterly unmatched " . Goldstein of IGN felt that , although Liberty City is inspired by New York , it is not beholden to it . He wrote that the city " exists in its own universe and rightfully so " . Crispin Boyer of 1UP.com directed praise at the city 's " breathtaking vistas , incredibly varied scenery , and lived @-@ in look . " Conversely , Jesse Costantino of Game Revolution felt that the game lacked important features common in other open world games .

Reviewers praised the game 's narrative . IGN 's Goldstein accepted that the darker tones to the story , a break from series tradition . Jon Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine felt surprised by the amount of depth to the story . Reiner of Game Informer wrote that the level of freedom in the game contributed to his enjoyment of the story . The morality choices faced by players throughout the narrative were also welcomed . 1UP.com 's Boyer felt that they gave the game an element of " replayability " . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell considered the morality choices a fair substitute over " bosses with large health bars " .

The game 's characters — particularly Niko — received positive reactions from critics . Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine and Andy Robinson of Computer and Video Games both called Niko " charismatic " and " likeable " , stating that they prefer him over previous protagonists of the series . George Walter of GamesRadar praised the depth of the character , and IGN 's Goldstein felt that the character of Niko feels relatable when faced with difficult decisions . Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb felt that Niko was a " the only thing that mattered to [ him ] " as he progressed through the story , with the character becoming one of his favourite features of the game . Schiesel of The New York Times named Niko one of the most realised video game characters attributing this to the game 's script , while 1UP.com 's Boyer commended the use of character bonding during the game 's missions .

Many reviewers found the combat system was more responsive than in previous games , particularly praising the addition of the cover system . Justin Calvert of GameSpot wrote that the cover system makes the game 's combat a " huge improvement " over previous games . Reiner of Game Informer agreed , writing that the targeting system makes players feel responsible for all deaths . IGN 's Goldstein praised the fluidity of the cover system , and felt that the auto aim mechanic is a " great help in larger battles " . GamesRadar 's Walter wrote that the cover system has " paved the way to a new style of mission " . David McComb of Empire called the combat " sharp and instinctive " , and Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine felt that the cover system allows players to execute an attack plan . In addition to the combat system , most reviewers noted the vehicle handling was more realistic than in previous games . Robinson of Computer and Video Games felt that the vehicle handling echoed realism , while Hicks of Official Xbox Magazine called the vehicle selection " excellent " . Costantino of Game Revolution praised the improvement of the game 's mechanics , particularly the physics engine 's advanced vehicle and character animations .

Reviewers praised the sound design . Goldstein of IGN praised the actors ' performances and the use of licensed music . GameSpot 's Calvert and GamesRadar 's Walter also commended the licensed music , the latter admiring the humour of the radio 's talk stations . Michael Pinson of The Pro Audio Files praised the separate features of the game 's sound design — including the city 's ambiance , licensed music , character dialogue , and vehicle and weapon sound effects — applauding the developer 's use of uniting the features together . Carolyn Gudmundson of GamesRadar also retroactively praised the game 's soundtrack , commending its suitability to the game 's setting .

The game 's online multiplayer mode received positive reactions from critics . Reiner of Game Informer praised the character customisation available in the multiplayer mode , and noted that it runs " just as smoothly " as the single @-@ player game . 1UP.com 's Boyer called the multiplayer modes " excellent " , and IGN 's Goldstein named it one of the best . Official Xbox Magazine 's Hicks dubbed the multiplayer as " hugely entertaining " , while Walter of GamesRadar praised the " seamless " process of entering a multiplayer match . Giant Bomb 's Gerstmann and Game Revolution 's Costantino felt divided about the multiplayer , the latter naming it a " fantastic idea " , but feeling as though connectivity problems resulted in a " broken " experience .

= = = Microsoft Windows version = = =

When Grand Theft Auto IV was released to Microsoft Windows in December 2008 , it received generally positive reviews . Metacritic calculated an average score of 90 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 40 reviews . Reviewers liked the enhanced visuals and the additional features , but criticised the port for its inferiority over the console versions .

The in @-@ game features added in the port were well received . The addition of the Video Editor was met with positive reactions ; GameSpot 's Calvert called it " a great way to get creative " , while Kieron Gillen of Eurogamer criticised the unpredictability in its timing . Critics also praised the addition of the customisable radio station , which allows players to listen to their own choice of music ; Tom Chick of 1UP.com named it the best feature of the port , and Steven Hopper of GameZone called it a " great touch " . The port 's upgrade to 32 concurrent players in the online multiplayer mode , as opposed to the console version 's 16 players , was also met with positive feedback ; Eurogamer 's Gillen said that the " possibility for mayhem ... increases " , while Will Tuttle of GameSpy felt that the player increase " changes the action significantly " .

The port 's enhanced visuals were commended by many reviewers . GameZone 's Hopper considered the visuals an improvement over the original versions . Andy Robinson of Computer and Video Games called the visuals " impressive " , while Tom Orry of VideoGamer.com called them " superb " . Conversely , the port 's system requirements , considered difficult to run with advanced settings , received criticism . Eurogamer 's Gillen said that , though the Windows version is " the most attractive version " , it 's " annoyingly fiddly to get there " . GameSpy 's Tuttle was able to overlook the demanding system requirements in exchange for the game 's other features .

= = Commercial performance = =

= = = Sales = = =

Within twenty @-@ four hours of its release , Grand Theft Auto IV sold over 3 @.@ 6 million copies , equating to approximately $ 310 million in revenue . Within a week , it generated more than $ 500 million in worldwide revenue , equating to approximately 6 million copies sold for Take Two . The numbers surpassed analysts ' expectations for the title . After one month of availability , the game had sold over 8 @.@ 5 million copies . It broke three Guinness World Records on 13 May 2008 : highest grossing video game in 24 hours , highest revenue generated by an entertainment product in 24 hours , and fastest @-@ selling video game in 24 hours . On 11 March 2011 , Take @-@ Two announced that the game had sold over 20 million copies , with the Grand Theft Auto series surpassing a collective total of 100 million copies . As of July 2013 , the game has sold over 25 million copies . All sales records broken by Grand Theft Auto IV were beaten by its successor , Grand Theft Auto V , upon release .

In the United Kingdom , the game became the fastest @-@ selling game of all time , selling over 631 @,@ 000 copies in twenty @-@ four hours . This broke the record set by Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas at 501 @,@ 000 copies over the same period . During the first five days of availability , the game sold over 927 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . Over the same period , 2 @.@ 85 million units were sold in the United States . By the end of 2008 , the game had sold over 5 @.@ 18 million copies in the US . In its first four days of availability in Japan , it sold 133 @,@ 000 copies on the PlayStation 3 and 34 @,@ 000 on the Xbox 360 , according to Media Create .

In the first week of availability , the Windows version of Grand Theft Auto IV debuted at seventh place on the weekly charts ; by the second week , it had left the top @-@ ten . Based on unique user counts , the game was the most played Games for Windows – Live game in 2009 and 2012 , and the second @-@ most played in 2011 .

= = = Awards = = =

Following the critical acclaim it received on its release , Grand Theft Auto IV has received various awards from various critics and publications . It received several Game of the Year awards , from gaming media outlets such as Spike TV , Giant Bomb , Kotaku , and GameTrailers , as well as mainstream publications , like The New York Times , the Los Angeles Times , and Time magazine . Grand Theft Auto IV also received seven nominations at the 5th British Academy Video Games Awards ( BAFTA Games Awards ) , and three nominations at the 9th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards , but did not win any of them .

= = Controversies = =

Prior to and since the release of Grand Theft Auto IV , the game had been subject to a great deal of controversy , as was the case with previous Grand Theft Auto titles . Figures including George Galloway , Jack Thompson and Hillary Clinton have criticised the game , as have organisations including New York City officials and Mothers Against Drunk Driving ( MADD ) . MADD asked ESRB to change the rating of the game from " M " ( for ages seventeen and up ) to " AO " ( for adults only ) due to the player 's ability to drive under the influence of alcohol .

The initial version of Grand Theft Auto IV released in Australia and New Zealand was pre @-@ censored by Rockstar to allow the game to meet the perceived requirements of the Australian classification system . However , the game was resubmitted to the New Zealand OFLC by Stan Calif , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old student who was unhappy that New Zealand received an edited version of the game as a result of Australian censorship laws . The unedited version was subsequently given an R18 rating and cleared for sale in New Zealand . For the PC release , the uncensored version of the game was awarded MA15 + in Australia . Following the release of The Lost and Damned , Rockstar distributed a patch which uncensored the Australian release for consoles .

There have been reports in the United Kingdom and the United States of crimes perpetrated against people purchasing Grand Theft Auto IV , as well as employees of stores selling the game . One of these incidents , an attack near a Gamestation store in Croydon , London was later reported to be an unrelated argument between two groups of people leaving a pub and the story has been referred to as a " media panic . " Six teenagers were later arrested in June 2008 after engaging in a crime spree in New Hyde Park , New York , assaulting and robbing several people , and attempting a carjacking . According to police , the teens claimed that they were " inspired " by Grand Theft Auto IV .

= Norwood – 205th Street ( IND Concourse Line ) =

Norwood – 205th Street ( formerly 205th Street ) is the northern terminal station on the IND Concourse Line of the New York City Subway . Located at the intersection of 205th Street and Bainbridge Avenue in Norwood , Bronx , it is served by the D train at all times .

= = History = =

The station was built as part of the sixth and seventh sections of the IND Concourse Line beginning in the late 1920s . The station was built under East 205th Street at its eastern end , and underneath preexisting private property for most of its length . The station opened on July 1 , 1933 , along with the rest of the Concourse subway . On July 1 , 1937 , an escalator was opened in the station , the first of its kind in the Bronx .

On August 23 , 1954 , a D train relaying east of the station overshot the bumper blocks at the end of the track , crashing into the wall at the end of the line . The train motorman was trapped in the tunnel for seven hours , and when he was freed , his left foot had to be amputated .

= = Station layout = =

This underground station has two tracks and one island platform . Both track walls have a lime green trim line with a medium Kelly green border . Small " 205 " signs are placed below them at regular intervals . The platform has a row of concrete @-@ clad I @-@ beam columns on both sides ; these are painted medium Hunter green . There is clear evidence of water damage and mold due to poor drainage in numerous areas along the platform ceiling , the wall tiles , and to a number of the support columns . The station is also notorious for having piles of trash bags on the platform and at entrances , as well as for large amounts of litter on the tracks due to an absence of trash cans . 205th Street station was declared one of the five worst in the system in terms of maintenance and appearance by the New York City Transit Riders Council in 2005 , problems which have persisted into the 2010s .

Due to changes in the street grid of the neighborhood , the station is located at East 205th Street and Perry Avenue at its eastern end , and at East 206th Street and Bainbridge Avenue at its western end . 205th Street turns diagonally southwest at Perry Street , while the subway maintains its previous direction , lining up with Van Cortland Avenue before turning south onto Grand Concourse .

The station is located close to several Norwood landmarks , including the New York Public Library 's Mosholu Branch ; the Montefiore Medical Center and North Central Bronx Hospital , north of the station on East 210th Street ; St. Brendan 's Church and School ; the Valentine – Varian House ; and the Williamsbridge Oval , the former site of the Williamsbridge Reservoir .

= = = Fare control = = =

This station has two fare control areas . The full @-@ time side at the south ( geographical west ) end has a turnstile bank , token booth , and two staircases going up to the southeast and northwest corners of East 206th Street and Bainbridge Avenue . Because of the varying topography of the surrounding neighborhood , a single escalator was installed in 1937 in this fare control area , traversing an elevation difference of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) between the mezzanine and platform . Access to fare control otherwise requires walking up three flights of stairs from platform level .

The other fare control area at the station 's north ( geographical east ) end , accessed by a ramp to the platform , is unstaffed , containing full height turnstiles and two staircases going up to the northwest and southeast corners of East 205th Street and Perry Avenue . The token booth at this location was closed on July 30 , 2005 and removed sometime afterward .

= = Track layout = =

This station was not intended to be the terminus of the Concourse Line or the D train ; both were supposed to have been extended east past Bronx Park and the IRT White Plains Road Line along Burke Avenue to serve the northeast section of the Bronx . This idea was postponed due to lack of funding , and ultimately abandoned when the City of New York bought the right @-@ of @-@ way of the bankrupt New York , Westchester and Boston Railway and converted it for subway use in 1941 . Another proposal in the 1970s involved extending the Concourse Line to White Plains Road , but financial troubles caused the plan to be aborted .

As a result of the planned extension , the two tracks continue east of this station for about 700 feet along 205th Street to Webster Avenue , ending at a concrete wall , and this station does not have any crew quarters . Crews are changed at Bedford Park Boulevard , the next station south . Additionally , there is no diamond crossover between the tracks west of this station ; here , a center track forms leading west to the Concourse Yard . Because of this , terminating trains arrive on the southern ( railroad northbound ) track and discharge their passengers before continuing east to the end of the track . They then use the diamond crossover there to return to this station on the northern ( railroad southbound ) track and begin service to Manhattan and Brooklyn . Due to the track configuration , trains may reverse into the yard from the southern track , and trains from the yard may start service on the northern track .

= Corey Taylor =

Corey Todd Taylor ( born December 8 , 1973 ) is an American musician , author , and actor best known as the lead singer and lyricist of the heavy metal band Slipknot and hard rock / alternative metal band Stone Sour .

Taylor is a founding member of Stone Sour , and has released five studio albums with that band . Taylor joined Slipknot in 1997 to replace their original vocalist , Anders Colsefni . He has released five studio albums with them . He has worked with several bands , including Junk Beer Kidnap Band , Apocalyptica , Anthrax , Aaron Lewis of Staind , and Soulfly . Taylor was ranked number 86 in Hit Parader 's Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time . He was also named 7th greatest heavy metal frontman by NME . Taylor was also found , by VVN Music , to possess the second @-@ highest vocal range of any known singer in popular music with a range of 5 and a half octaves . He was beaten only by Mike Patton ( 6 octaves ) .

= = Personal life = =

Corey Todd Taylor was born in Des Moines , Iowa on December 8 , 1973 . Taylor was mostly raised by his mother in Waterloo , Iowa , a place described by Taylor as a " hole in the ground with buildings around it . " He is of German and Native American background from his father 's side and Irish and Dutch on his mother 's side . Taylor was raised by his single mother . He developed a fond feeling toward rock ' n ' roll after his grandmother introduced him to Elvis Presley .

In 1979 , Taylor and his mother saw the science fiction series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century . Before the series , there was a trailer for the 1978 horror film Halloween . Taylor said this " developed some sense of Slipknot in [ himself ] . " While Halloween introduced Taylor to masks and horror themes , Taylor 's grandmother introduced him to rock music , showing him a collection of Elvis Presley records from the mid @-@ fifties to late seventies . He especially found some songs like " Teddy Bear " , " In the Ghetto " , and " Suspicious Minds " , to appeal to his interests the most , describing them as " good times . " Taylor also began listening to Black Sabbath at a young age , beginning with their early work .

Taylor , along with his mother and sister , lived at one point in an " old dilapidated farmhouse , " which on days in late autumn would " look like Black Sabbath album covers . " By age fifteen , Taylor had developed a drug addiction and had overdosed on cocaine twice . By this time , Taylor was living in Waterloo , Iowa , but later set out on his own and ended up at his grandmother 's house in Iowa . She took legal custody of him and helped him buy musical equipment . When Taylor was eighteen , he left his grandmother 's home and went to various places , Des Moines being a place to which he frequently returned .

In his early twenties , when Taylor was living with his grandmother , he attempted suicide by way of overdose . Taylor 's ex @-@ girlfriend 's mother drove him to the hospital in Des Moines and doctors were able to resuscitate him . He describes this as the lowest point in his life .

Taylor and his father first met when Taylor was 30 years old , and now have a relationship , although he said their paths do not cross that often . On September 17 , 2002 , Taylor 's then @-@ fiancée , Scarlett Stone , gave birth to their son Griffin Parker . Taylor also has a daughter named Angeline from an earlier relationship . Taylor and Stone married on March 11 , 2004 , and divorced three years later .

Taylor has also had alcohol abuse problems , which his wife , Scarlett , helped him through as well as keeping him from committing suicide . In 2006 , Taylor told MTV that he had attempted to jump off a balcony of the eighth floor of the Hyatt on Sunset Boulevard in 2003 , but " somehow [ Scarlett ] stopped me " . This was later recanted by Taylor in an interview with Kerrang ! radio and stated that it was , in fact , his friend Thom Hazaert who stopped him from jumping . Scarlett then told him that either he would have to get sober or she would annul their marriage . Before Stone Sour started recording Come What ( ever ) May in January 2006 , Taylor was sober .

On August 3 , 2009 , he co @-@ hosted the 2009 Kerrang ! Awards alongside Scott Ian of Anthrax . The following year , they both once again co @-@ hosted The Kerrang Awards , where Corey collected the K ! Services to Metal award on behalf of Paul Gray who died after an accidental overdose of morphine and fentanyl .

In early September 2010 , Taylor announced that his book , Seven Deadly Sins : Settling The Argument Between Born Bad And Damaged Good would be released on July 12 , 2011 through Da Capo Press .

On November 13 , 2009 , Taylor married Stephanie Luby at the Palms Hotel in Las Vegas .

= = Music career = =

= = = Slipknot = = =

In Des Moines , Iowa , Joey Jordison , Shawn Crahan , and Mick Thomson approached him asking him to join Slipknot . He agreed to go to one of their practices , and ended up singing in front of them . Of Slipknot 's nine members , Corey was the sixth to join the band . Performing with Slipknot , he would also come to be known as " Number Eight " , being that the band follows a numbering scheme for its members , ranging from 0 – 8 . According to Shawn Crahan , Corey wanted number eight , because it symbolizes infinity .

Feeling he could expand more inside Slipknot than in Stone Sour , Taylor temporarily quit Stone Sour , even though they were recording an album with Sean McMahon . Taylor 's first gig with Slipknot was on August 22 , 1997 , which according to band members did not go well . During his first gig , Taylor did not perform wearing a mask ; however , for his second show nearly a month later , Corey wore a mask that resembles his debut album mask . Taylor 's current mask was described by MTV 's Chris Harris as looking " as though it were made of dried , human flesh — like Leatherface , if only he used moisturizer . "

Taylor has recorded with Slipknot since the release of their second demo album , a self @-@ titled demo used to promote the band to prospective labels and producers . As permanent vocalist , he recorded with Slipknot at Indigo Ranch in Malibu , California and released Slipknot , the band 's debut album that peaked number one on the Top Heatseekers chart , went 2 × Platinum in the United States , and was included in the 2006 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Taylor was accused of copyright infringement , regarding the lyrics of the song " Purity " , but no action was taken . Taylor began recording for their second studio album , Iowa , in 2001 at Sound City and Sound Image in Van Nuys , Los Angeles . It was released August 28 , 2001 and peaked number one on the UK Albums Chart , as well as number three on the Billboard 200 . While writing Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) , Taylor decided to write lyrics that would not warrant an explicit label . It peaked number two on the Billboard 200 . All Hope Is Gone was the first Slipknot album to peak number one on the Billboard 200 .

= = = Stone Sour = = =

Taylor is a founding member of the American hard rock band Stone Sour . After he formed the band with drummer Joel Ekman , Shawn Economaki joined filling in the bass position , leaving the electric guitar position to be filled by Josh Rand . Stone Sour recorded a demo album in 1993 , and another in 1994 . In 1997 , Taylor was approached by the metal band , Slipknot , resulting in him abandoning Stone Sour while they were recording a demo album with Sean McMahon at SR studios . Taylor did not return until five years later to record their debut album , Stone Sour in 2002 . Both Taylor and guitarist Josh Rand contacted Jim Root , Slipknot 's guitarist , and Shawn Economaki , Stone Sour 's original bassist , to begin writing songs for their debut album . Drummer Joel Ekman came back on board as well . This " reformation " later resulted in Stone Sour recording at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls , Iowa .

Their self @-@ titled debut album was released August 27 , 2002 , and it debuted at number 46 on the Billboard 200 . Their second album , Come What ( ever ) May debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 . It was released August 1 , 2006 , and charted on several different charts . Live in Moscow is currently their only album specifically released only for music download . During the recording of the album , drummer Joel Ekman left the band for personal reasons . As a result , drummer Roy Mayorga was recruited , taking his place . The group released their third studio album , Audio Secrecy , on September 7 , 2010 .

Later , Corey Taylor has announced the release of a concept double album with Stone Sour . The albums are titled " House of Gold And Bones " . During the process of making the double album , bassist Shawn Economaki left the band . He was temporarily replaced for touring purposes by Johny Chow . The first part was released in October 2012 and the second part in April 2013 . There are 23 songs in total , 11 on the first part and 12 on the second . In addition to these two albums is a four @-@ part comic book series written by Taylor and published by Dark Horse Comics . They are set to go on sale in 2013 . With these albums came a story that was written by Taylor that coincide with the album . Fans can also construct a miniature " house of gold and bones " from the packaging design of the physical versions of the two albums . Taylor has also said that he would like to finish off the project by making the story into a movie but nothing has come of this yet .

= = = Other work = = =

Taylor has appeared as a guest musician on albums by Soulfly , Apocalyptica and Damageplan . At one point , he was heavily involved in the recording of thrash metal band Anthrax 's album , Worship Music , but the sessions remain unreleased . He also contributed to the Roadrunner United all @-@ star album in 2005 , providing vocals for the song " Rich Man " . Taylor has also made a brief appearance in Steel Panther 's singles " Death to All but Metal " , " Eyes of a Panther " , and " Asian Hooker " . In 2006 , Taylor founded the record company Great Big Mouth Records . Taylor has produced two albums : Face Cage 's self @-@ titled album and Walls of Jericho 's Redemption . Taylor provided guest narration on the track " Repentance " for Dream Theater 's 2007 album Systematic Chaos . In an interview with Billboard magazine , Taylor confirmed that on January 13 , 2009 , he was planning on making a solo album , as well as returning to his side project Stone Sour after Slipknot 's All Hope Is Gone World Tour . Taylor has stated that he was writing songs that " don 't fit either of his main bands . " He describes them as a cross between Foo Fighters , Johnny Cash , and Social Distortion , saying that there 's " a country background that comes built @-@ in with living in Iowa " .

On March 30 , 2009 , it was confirmed that Taylor and the Junk Beer Kidnap Band would be performing at Rockfest in 2009 . The group performed on April 24 , 2009 at People 's Court in Des Moines , Iowa , marking Taylor 's first official solo show . Taylor performs with his band the Dum Fux , who make covers for 1970s punk rock and 1980s hair metal . Taylor also performs with Audacious P , a band that is primarily a Tenacious D cover band . Rapper Tech N9ne confirmed that Taylor was to perform on his album K.O.D. , but was removed because Taylor did not submit his vocals in time . Taylor recently admitted that he tried out for the vacant singer spot in the band Velvet Revolver , but said that it just did not work out . However , according to a recent Billboard article , it seems likely that he may in fact become the vocalist for Velvet Revolver , though no official confirmation has been made . Duff McKagan added that they can neither " confirm or deny " Taylor 's membership in the band but believes that Taylor is the " real deal " . Slash has since ruled Corey out as the possible new vocalist explaining that " [ it ] just wasn 't right " although he does love him . He however , has recorded 10 new songs with the band , drummer Matt Sorum stated it 's unlikely it will ever be released . Taylor explained to Mark Hoppus on Hoppus on Music that McKagan and he were writing new music for a possible new supergroup .

In July 2011 Taylor collaborated with Aaron Lewis while promoting Lewis ' solo album , Town Line for a one night only acoustic duet show covering songs such as , Pearl Jam 's " Black " , Pink Floyd 's Comfortably Numb , and Alice in Chains ' Down in a Hole , videos from this show with Taylor and Lewis can be found on YouTube . Taylor also shared the stage with Aaron Lewis on August 16 , 2009 during the Ride For Dime memorial concert . They performed Pantera covers with a variety of other musicians .

As a solo artist he recorded a song , " X @-@ M @ $ " , for The Teenage Cancer Trust . The single was made available to digital retailers on December 12 , 2010 . It debuted at number thirty @-@ seven in the UK . Taylor clarified on YouTube that the song was just a joke about people who don 't enjoy Christmas . He personally loves Christmas especially due to the fact he gets to see his extended family but finds the frustration of people who don 't like it to be hilarious .

In 2011 , Taylor collaborated with Blink @-@ 182 drummer Travis Barker on Barker 's solo album Give the Drummer Some on the song " On My Own " .

in 2016 Taylor started to host " A Series of Bleeps " , a rocksentered radioshow on Beats 1 .

Taylor is confirmed to be a guest vocalist in Korn 's upcoming album .

= = Acting career = =

On December 4 , 2013 , Corey Taylor joined the cast of Fear Clinic with Robert Englund . He played Bauer , one of the employees of the clinic who struggles to keep things under control when all hell breaks loose . He played in a horror movie called Bullied that came out in 2013 . In October 2015 . Taylor provided the roars for The Fisher King in the Doctor Who episode " Before the Flood " .

= = Style and influence = =

The first two Slipknot albums with Taylor 's vocals , Slipknot and Iowa , both contain gratuitous explicit content . Many critics claimed Taylor relied on the profanity , which is why Slipknot 's third album , Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) is profanity @-@ free , ( with the exceptions of the word bitch on the song " Duality " and bastard on the spoken intro of " Pulse of the Maggots " ) , and did not warrant the explicit label . Compared with the previous vocalist for Slipknot , Anders Colsefni , Taylor has a vocal style that was characterized by drummer Joey Jordison as " really good melodic singing " . Taylor 's vocal style , which contains at times melodic singing , growling , screaming , shouting , and rapping , led him to place at number 86 on the Hit Parader 's Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time and is often compared to other vocalists such as Ivan L. Moody , John Bush , Phil Anselmo and Jamey Jasta .

Taylor 's two major projects have contrasting temperaments . Slipknot is considered to be heavy metal , nu metal and alternative metal , and expresses moods such as depression , hostility , anger , misanthropy , and rebellion . Stone Sour is classified as alternative metal , expressing moods of bleakness and somberness as well as anger and rebellion . Taylor cites Mötley Crüe , AC / DC , The Who , The Beatles , Led Zeppelin , The Doors , Pink Floyd , Faith No More , Van Halen , Aerosmith , Rush , Motörhead , Judas Priest , Iron Maiden , Metallica , Alice in Chains , Bon Jovi , Guns N ' Roses , Nine Inch Nails , Dokken , Misfits , Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Queen , Anthrax , Black Flag , Slayer , Def Leppard , The Stooges , Sex Pistols , Lynyrd Skynyrd , Neil Young , Cheap Trick , Pearl Jam , The Damned , The Cramps , Soundgarden , Mr. Bungle , Megadeth , Nirvana , Journey , Bob Dylan , Kiss , ZZ Top , White Zombie , Pantera , Korn , and Marilyn Manson as influences .

= = Discography as featured artist = =

= = Filmography = =

= = Books and other writings = =

= = Equipment = =

= = Awards = =

Revolver Golden Gods Awards

Loudwire Music Awards

= International Association for Plant Taxonomy =

The International Association for Plant Taxonomy ( IAPT ) promotes an understanding of plant biodiversity , facilitates international communication of research between botanists , and oversees matters of uniformity and stability in plant names . The IAPT was founded on July 18 , 1950 at the Seventh International Botanical Congress in Stockholm , Sweden . Currently , the IAPT headquarters is located in Bratislava , Slovakia . Its current president , since 2011 , is Vicki Funk of the Smithsonian Institution , Washington , DC . ; vice @-@ president is Sandra Knapp of the Natural History Museum , London ; and secretary @-@ general is Karol Marhold of the Institute of Botany , Slovak Academy of Sciences , Bratislava .

Both the taxonomic journal Taxon and the series Regnum Vegetabile are published by the IAPT . The latter series includes the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , the Index Nominum Genericorum , and Index Herbariorum .

= = Purpose = =

The IAPT 's primary purpose is the promotion and understanding of biodiversity — the discovery , naming , classification , and systematics of plants — for both living and fossil plants . Additionally , it promotes the study and conservation of plant biodiversity , and works to raise awareness of the general public to this issue . The organization also facilitates international cooperation among botanists working in the fields of plant systematics , taxonomy , and nomenclature . This is accomplished in part through sponsorship of meetings and publication of resources , such as reference publications and journals .

The IAPT also seeks to achieve uniformity and stability in plant names . It accomplishes this through the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , previously known as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , and through the oversight of the International Bureau for Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature .

= = Publications and online resources = =

= = = Taxon = = =

Taxon is the bi @-@ monthly journal of the IAPT . The journal , which was initiated in 1951 , publishes original papers and reviews dealing with systematic botany in the broadest sense . Preference is given to integrative papers combining the results of modern analysis with their consequences for classification . Taxon also contains matters related to botanical nomenclature , and is the medium for the publication of both proposals to conserve or reject names and proposals to amend the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) . Publication of such matters in Taxon satisfies the required submission to the General Committee . The journal also contains sections devoted to the International Organisation of Plant Biosystematics , reviews and notices of books and other publications , and news in the world of plant systematics . Although the journal is " devoted to systematic and evolutionary biology with emphasis on botany " , it has been in the past criticized for focusing overly on nomenclature and less on the principles and advancements made in the field of plant systematics .

= = = Regnum Vegetabile = = =

Regnum Vegetabile is a published series of books on topics of interest to plant taxonomists . Many of the volumes are literature surveys or monographs in the area of plant systematics . There are several volumes of general use :

International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( Vol . 154 , 2012 ) The ICN is a set of rules and recommendations dealing with the formal names that are given to plants . The current edition is known as the " Melbourne Code " , as it was drafted in 2011 at the Seventeenth International Botanical Congress in Melbourne , Australia .

International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants , 8th edition ( Vol . 151 , 2010 ) Companion to the ICN , this volume sets forth rules regarding the names of plant cultivars .

Index Nominum Genericorum ( Vols . 100 @-@ 102 & 113 ) An index of all published generic names covered by the ICN , including the place of publication and information about the type species . The index is prepared in collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution . An electronic version is available online .

Index Herbariorum , the first six editions ( Vol . 15 , 31 , 86 , 92 , 93 , 106 , 109 , 114 , 117 , 120 ) A directory and guide to the herbaria of the world , including contact information , abbreviation codes , and important collections located in each herbarium . Index Herbariorum is now an online database , managed by The New York Botanical Garden , and available for on @-@ line searching .

International Directory of Botanical Gardens ( Updated as Vol . 95 , 1977 ) A directory to botanical gardens and arboreta around the world .

The series includes many additional volumes of interest to specialists in specific subdisciplines of botany , in addition to the ones listed above .

= = = Databases = = =

In addition to electronic versions of its print publications , the IAPT maintains the following :

" Names in Current Use " - A database of scientific names of extant botanical genera .

= Lhasa ( prefecture @-@ level city ) =

Lhasa City , is a prefecture @-@ level city , formerly a prefecture until 7 January 1960 , one of the main administrative divisions of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China . It covers an area of 29 @,@ 274 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 303 sq mi ) of rugged and sparsely populated terrain . The prefecture @-@ level city contains two districts Chengguan District and Doilungdêqên District .

The prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River . It lies on the Lhasa terrane , the last unit of crust to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the continent of India collided with Asia about 50 million years ago and pushed up the Himalayas . The terrane is high , contains a complex pattern of faults and is tectonically active . The temperature is generally warm in summer and rises above freezing on sunny days in winter . Most of the rain falls in summer . The upland areas and northern grasslands are used for grazing yaks , sheep and goats , while the river valleys support agriculture with crops such as barley , wheat and vegetables . Wildlife is not abundant , but includes the rare snow leopard and black @-@ necked crane . Mining has caused some environmental problems .

The former prefecture is divided into seven mostly rural counties and one district , which contains the main urban area of Lhasa . The 2000 census gave a total population of 474 @,@ 490 , of whom 387 @,@ 124 were ethnic Tibetans . The Han Chinese population at the time was mainly concentrated in urban areas . The prefecture @-@ level city is traversed by two major highways and by the Qinghai – Tibet Railway , which terminates in the city of Lhasa . Two large dams on the Lhasa River deliver hydroelectric power , as do many smaller dams and the Yangbajain Geothermal Station . The population is well @-@ served by primary schools and basic medical facilities , although more advanced facilities are lacking . Tibetan Buddhism and monastic life have been dominant aspects of the local culture since the 7th century . Most of the monasteries were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but since then many have been restored and serve as tourist attractions .

= = Geography = =

= = = Location = = =

Lhasa lies in south @-@ central Tibet , to the north of the Himalayas . The prefecture @-@ level city is 277 kilometres ( 172 mi ) from east to west and 202 kilometres ( 126 mi ) from north to south . It covers an area of 29 @,@ 518 square kilometres ( 11 @,@ 397 sq mi ) . It is bordered by Nagqu Prefecture to the north , Nyingchi Prefecture to the east , Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture to the south and Shigatse prefecture @-@ level city to the west . The prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , which is the center of Tibet politically , economically and culturally . Chengguan District is also the center of Tibet in terms of transport , communications , education and religion , as well as being the most developed part of Tibet and a major tourist destination with sights such as the Potala Palace , Jokhang and Ramoche Temple .

= = = Lhasa River basin = = =

Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River , a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River . Exceptions are the north of Damxung County , which crosses the watershed of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains and includes part of the Namtso lake , and Nyêmo County , which covers the basin of the Nimu Maqu River , a direct tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo . The river basin is separated from the Yarlung Tsangpo valley to the south by the Goikarla Rigyu range . The largest tributary of the Lhasa River , the Reting Tsangpo , originates in the Chenthangula Mountains in Nagqu Prefecture at an elevation of about 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) , and flows southwest into Lhasa past Reting Monastery .

The Lhasa River drains an area of 32 @,@ 471 square kilometres ( 12 @,@ 537 sq mi ) , and is the largest tributary of the middle section of the Yarlung Tsangpo . The average altitude of the basin is around 4 @,@ 500 metres ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) . The basin has complex geology and is tectonically active . Earthquakes are common . Annual runoff is 10 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 73 × 1011 cu ft ) . Water quality is good , with little discharge of sewage and minimal chemical pesticides and fertilizers .

The Lhasa River forms where three smaller rivers converge . These are the Phak Chu , the Phongdolha Chu which flows from Damxung County and the Reting Tsangpo , which rises beyond the Reting Monastery . The highest tributary rises at around 5 @,@ 290 metres ( 17 @,@ 360 ft ) on the southern slope of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains . In its upper reaches the river flows southeast through a deep valley . Lower down the river valley is flatter and changes its direction to the southwest , The river expands to a width of 150 to 200 metres ( 490 to 660 ft ) . Major tributaries in the lower reaches include the Pengbo River and the Duilong River . At its mouth the Lhasa Valley is about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) wide .

The bulk of the water is supplied by the summer monsoon rains , which fall from July to September . There are floods in the summer from July to September , with about 17 % of the annual runoff flowing in September . In winter the river has low water , and sometimes freezes . Total flow is about 4 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 96 cu mi ) , with average flow about 125 cubic metres per second ( 4 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ) . The total hydropower potential of the river basin is 2 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 kW . Zhikong Hydro Power Station in Maizhokunggar County delivers 100 MW . The Pangduo Hydro Power Station in Lhünzhub County has total installed capacity of 160 MW .

= = Geology = =

The former Lhasa prefecture lies in the Lhasa terrane , to which it gives its name . This is thought to be the last crustal block to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the collision with the Indian plate in the Cenozoic . The terrane is separated from the Himalayas to the south by the Yarlung @-@ Tsangpo suture , and from the Qiangtang terrane to the north by the Bangong @-@ Nujiang suture . The Lhasa terrane consisted of two blocks before the Mesozoic , the North Lhasa Block and the South Lhasa Block . These blocks were joined in the Late Paleozoic .

The Lhasa terrane moved northward and collided with the Qiangtang terrane along the Bangong suture . The collision began towards the end of the late Jurassic ( c . 163 – 145 Ma ) , and collision activity continued until the early Late Cretaceous ( c . 100 – 66 Ma ) . During this period the terrane may have been shortened by at least 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) . The collision caused a peripheral foreland basin to form in the north part of the Lhasa terrane . In some parts of the foreland basin the north @-@ dipping subduction of the Neotethyan oceanic crust below the Lhasa terrane caused volcanism . The Gangdese batholith was formed as this subduction continued along the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane . The Gangdese intrudes the southern half of the Lhasa terrain .

Contact with India began along the Yarlung @-@ Zangbo suture around 50 Ma during the Eocene , and the two continents continue to converge . Magmatism continued in the Gangdese arc until as late as 40 Ma . There was significant crustal shortening as the collision progressed . The South Lhasa terrane experienced metamorphism and magmatism in the Early Cenozoic ( 55 – 45 Ma ) and metamorphism in the Late Eocene ( 40 – 30 Ma ) , presumably due to the collision between the continents of India and Eurasia .

Rocks in this region include sedimentary rocks from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic into which granite has intruded during the Cretaceous . The rocks have metamorphosed and are deeply eroded and faulted . The rocks exposed in the Reting Tsangpo canyon range in age from 400 Ma to 50 Ma . The result of faulting has been to often juxtapose relatively recent rocks with much older rocks . Some parts of the ocean floor were pushed up onto the Tibetan Plateau and formed marble or slate . Sea fossils from 400 Ma are found in the river 's canyons , and houses are roofed with slate .

The Yangbajing Basin lies between the Nyainquentanglha Range to the northwest and the Yarlu @-@ Zangbo suture to the south . The Yangbajain Geothermal Field is in the central part of a half @-@ graben fault @-@ depression basin caused by the foremontane fault zone of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains . The SE @-@ dipping detachment fault began to form about 8 Ma . The geothermal reservoir is basically a Quaternary basin underlaid by a large granite batholith . The basin has been filled with glacial deposits from the north and alluvial @-@ pluvial sediments from the south . Fluid flows horizontally into the reservoir through the faults around the basin . Chemical analysis of the thermal fluid indicate that there is shallow @-@ seated magmatic activity not far below the geothermal field .

During the ice ages of the last two million years the Tibetan plateau and the Himalayas have been covered by the expanded polar ice cap several times . As the ice moved it eroded the rock , filling the river canyons with gravel . In some sections the rivers have cut through the gravel and flow swiftly over bedrock , and in some areas large boulders have fallen into the rivers and formed rapids .

= = Climate = =

The Lhasa valley is roughly the same latitude as the southern United States , but at an altitude of 3 @,@ 610 metres ( 11 @,@ 840 ft ) or more it is of course cooler . The central river valleys of Tibet are warm in summer , and even in the coldest months of winter the temperature is above freezing on sunny days . The climate is semi @-@ arid monsoon , with a low average temperature of 1 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 5 ° C ( 34 @.@ 2 to 45 @.@ 5 ° F ) . Average annual precipitation is 466 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 36 in ) , with 85 % falling in the June – September period . Typically there are 3 @,@ 000 hours of sunshine each year . It is cooler in the northern regions , warmer in the south . Annual figures :

Studies of temperature and precipitation data from 1979 to 2005 indicate that higher temperatures are leading to longer snow @-@ free periods at the lower elevations . However , at higher levels the amount of precipitation has increased , so despite warming the snow @-@ free period is shorter .

= = Environment = =

Most of the population of Tibet lives in the southern valleys , including those around Lhasa . The higher regions are used by nomadic drokpa who tend herds of yaks , sheep and goats on the steppe grasslands of the hills and high valleys . In the lower parts it is possible to cultivate products that include barley , wheat , black peas , beans , mustard , hemp , potatoes , cabbage , cauliflower , onions , garlic , celery and tomatoes . The traditional staple food is barley flour called tsampa , often combined with buttered tea and made into a paste .

A visitor described the valley around Lhasa in 1889 as follows ,

The plain over which we are riding is a wonderfully fruitful one . It is skirted on the south by the Kyi river , and is watered , moreover , by another smaller stream from the north , which flows into the Kyi ... some five miles west of Lhasa . All this land is carefully irrigated by means of dikes and cross @-@ channels from both rivers . Fields of buckwheat , barley , pea , rape , and lindseed lie in orderly series everywhere . The meadows near the water display the richest emerald @-@ green pasturage . Groves of poplar and willow , in shapely clumps , combine with the grassy stretches to give in places a parklike appearance to the scene . Several hamlets and villages , such as Cheri , Daru , and Shing Dongkhar , are dotted over these lands . A fertile plain truly for a besieging army !

The Lhasa region does not have abundant wildlife or great numbers of species , but the Lhasa valley does support wintering populations of hundreds of black @-@ necked cranes . Hutoushan Reservoir lies in Qangka Township , Lhünzhub County . The reservoir is bordered by large swamps and wet meadows , and has abundant plants and shellfish . The reservoir , which lies in the Pengbo valley , is the largest in Tibet , with total storage of 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 420 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . Endangered black @-@ necked cranes migrate to the middle and southern part of Tibet every winter , and may be seen on the reservoir and elsewhere in the Lhasa region . Other wildlife includes bharal , pheasants , roe deer , Thorold 's deer , Mongolian gazelle , Siberian ibex , otter , brown bear , snow leopard and duck . Medicinal plants include fritillaries ( fritillaria ) , stonecrop ( rhodiola ) , Indian barberry ( berberis aristata ) , Chinese caterpillar fungus ( ophiocordyceps sinensis ) , codonopsis and Lingzhi mushroom ( ganoderma ) .

The dams on the Lhasa river built as part of the Three Rivers Development Project are unlikely to affect the flow of the Brahmaputra in India . However , the climate and soil are unsuitable for large @-@ scale irrigation . Where grasslands have been converted into irrigated farms fed by dams the result may damage the environment . Jama wetland in Maizhokunggar County is vulnerable to grazing and climate change . Extensive mining in some mountainous regions have turned areas of what was green pasturage into a grey wasteland . The authorities are reported to have suppressed protests by the local people . Military personnel have been involved in efforts to protect and improve the environment , including replanting programs .

A 2015 study reported that during the non @-@ monsoon season the levels of arsenic in the Duilong River , at 205 @.@ 6 μg / L were higher than the WHO guideline of 10 μg / L for drinking water . The source of the pollution seems to be untreated water from the Yangbajain Geothermal Field power station . It can be detected 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) downstream from this site .

= = Administrative divisions = =

Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city consists of two district and six counties . Chengguan District and Doilungdêqên District contains most of the urban area of Lhasa , which lies in the Lhasa River valley floor .

= = = Chengguan District = = =

Chengguan District is located on the middle reaches of the Lhasa River , with land that rises to the north and south of the river . It is 28 kilometres ( 17 mi ) from east to west and 31 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from north to south . Chengguan District is bordered by Doilungdêqên District to the west , Dagzê County to the east and Lhünzhub County to the north . Gonggar County of Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture lies to the south . Chengguan District has an elevation of 3 @,@ 650 metres ( 11 @,@ 980 ft ) and covers 525 square kilometres ( 203 sq mi ) . The urban built @-@ up area covers 60 square kilometres ( 23 sq mi ) . The average annual temperature is 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) . Annual precipitation is about 500 millimetres ( 20 in ) , mostly falling between July and September .

Before the Chinese takeover the city of Lhasa had a population of 25 @,@ 000 – 30 @,@ 000 , or 45 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 if the large monasteries around the city are included . The old city formed a quadrangle about 3 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) around the Jokhang temple , about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the east of the Potala Palace . During the period before the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping the old city of Lhasa was left largely intact , while bleakly functional compounds containing symmetrical dormitory @-@ type buildings for both living and working were built apart from the city along the main roads .

By 1990 the city had expanded to cover 40 square kilometres ( 15 sq mi ) , with an official population of 160 @,@ 000 . The 2000 official census gave a total population of 223 @,@ 001 , of which 171 @,@ 719 lived in the areas administered by sub @-@ districts and residential committees . 133 @,@ 603 had urban registrations and 86 @,@ 395 had rural registrations , based on their place of origin . By 2013 the urban area filled most of the natural Lhasa River valley in Chengguan District . A 2011 book estimated that up to two @-@ thirds of the city 's residents are non @-@ Tibetan , although the government states that Chengguan District as a whole is still 63 % ethnic Tibetan .

= = = Doilungdêqên District = = =

Doilungdêqên District contains the western suburbs of the city of Lhasa , which begin about 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the city center . It covers an area of 2 @,@ 704 square kilometers , with 94 @,@ 969 acres of farmland . The county borders on the north Tibet grasslands in the northwest . The valley of the Duilong River leads south to the Lhasa River . The Duilong is 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) in length . In the south the county occupies part of the south bank of the Lhasa River . The county has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , with a highest elevation of 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) and a lowest point at 3 @,@ 640 metres ( 11 @,@ 940 ft ) .

There are about 120 frost @-@ free days annually . Annual mean temperature is 7 ° C ( 45 ° F ) , with temperatures in January falling below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) Annual precipitation is about 440 millimetres ( 17 in ) , with autumn rainfall of 310 millimetres ( 12 in ) . The county is agriculturally rich and was used by the Tibetan kings as a source of food for Lhasa .

The seat of government is in the town of Donggar . This is just 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) from downtown Lhasa . In 1992 there were 33 @,@ 581 people in 6 @,@ 500 households , with 94 @.@ 28 % of the people engaged in farming . About 90 % of the people were ethnic Tibetan , with most people of other ethnicity living in Donggar . The main mineral resources are coal , iron , clay , lead and zinc . Tsurphu Monastery , built in 1189 , is treated as a regional cultural relic reserve . The Nechung Monastery , former home of the Nechung Oracle , is located in Naiquong township . Nechung was built by the 5th Dalai Lama ( 1617 – 82 ) .

= = = Dagzê County = = =

Dagzê County has a total area of 1 @,@ 373 square kilometres ( 530 sq mi ) . It has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 100 metres ( 13 @,@ 500 ft ) above sea level , and descends from higher ground in the north and south to 3 @,@ 730 metres ( 12 @,@ 240 ft ) in the lowest part of the Lhasa river valley . The average temperature is 7 @.@ 5 ° C ( 45 @.@ 5 ° F ) , with about 130 days free of frost . Average rainfall is 450 millimetres ( 18 in ) . About 80 % – 90 % of precipitation falls in the summer .

As of 2013 the total population was 29 @,@ 152 . The main occupation is agriculture . As of 2012 per capita income of farmers and herdsmen was 6 @,@ 740 yuan . In 2010 there were 28 schools in the county , including one junior high school and one kindergarten , with 276 full @-@ time teachers . There is a county hospital and five township hospitals . The Sichuan @-@ Tibet Highway ( China National Highway 318 ) runs through the county . The main monasteries in Dagzê are Ganden Monastery and Yerpa .

= = = Damxung County = = =

Damxung County has an area of 10 @,@ 036 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 875 sq mi ) , with rugged topography . As of 2013 the population was 40 @,@ 000 , up from 35 @,@ 000 in 1997 . It is tectonically active . On 6 October 2008 an earthquake measuring 6 @.@ 6 on the Richter magnitude scale was reported . In November 2010 a moderate quake in Damxung at 5 @.@ 2 on the Richter scale shook office windows in Lhasa . There were no casualties , but houses were damaged .

In the extreme northeast of the county , Namtso lake has an area of 1 @,@ 920 square kilometres ( 740 sq mi ) , of which 45 % lies in Damxung county . Namtso is one of the great lakes of the Tibetan plateau . The Nyenchen Tanglha ( or Nyainqentanglha ) mountains extend along the northwest of the county . Mount Nyenchen Tanglha is the highest peak in the region , at 7 @,@ 111 metres ( 23 @,@ 330 ft ) . The Nyainqêntanglha mountains define the watershed between northern and southern Tibet . A valley with elevation of about 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) runs parallel to the mountains to their southeast , sloping from northwest to southeast . 30 % of the county 's total area is in the prairie of this valley .

Damxung is cold and dry in the winter , cool and wet in summer , with very variable weather . The average annual temperature is 1 @.@ 3 ° C ( 34 @.@ 3 ° F ) , with only 62 frost @-@ free days . The land is frozen from the start of November to the following March . Pasture has 90 – 120 days for growth . Average annual precipitation is 481 millimetres ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) . Natural grasslands cover 693 @,@ 171 hectares ( 1 @,@ 712 @,@ 860 acres ) , of which 68 % is considered excellent . Almost all the people are engaged in rearing livestock , including yaks , sheep , goats and horses .

The Qinghai @-@ Tibet Highway ( China National Highway 109 ) runs from east to west across the county . Damxung Railway Station links the county to the city of Lhasa to the south . There is a large geothermal field at Yangbajain harnessed by generating units that deliver 25 @,@ 181 kilowatts to the city of Lhasa to the south . The transmission line follows the Duilong River south through Doilungdêqên District . Kangma Monastery is 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) from the county seat . The meditation room has 1 @,@ 213 carved stone reliefs of Buddha that are about three hundred years old . Yangpachen Monastery in Yangbajain is historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyu . The monastery was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but later was rebuilt .

= = = Lhünzhub County = = =

Lhünzhub County is located around 65 km ( 40 mi ) northeast of metropolitan Lhasa . It includes the Pengbo River Valley and the upper reaches of the Lhasa River . It covers an area of 4 @,@ 512 km2 ( 1 @,@ 742 sq mi ) . The county is geologically complex , with an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The administrative center is the town of Lhünzhub .

As of 2000 the county had a total population of 50 @,@ 895 , of which 8 @,@ 111 lived in a community designated as urban . 2 @,@ 254 had non @-@ agricultural registration and 48 @,@ 362 had agricultural registration . In the south the Pengbo valley has an average elevation of 3 @,@ 680 metres ( 12 @,@ 070 ft ) with a mild climate . The average temperature is 5 @.@ 8 ° C ( 42 @.@ 4 ° F ) . The northern " three rivers " section , crossed by the Lhasa River and its tributary the Razheng River , is mountainous and has an average elevation of 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) . It has average annual temperature of 2 @.@ 9 ° C ( 37 @.@ 2 ° F ) and is mostly pastoral , with yak , sheep and goats .

The Pengbo valley is the main grain @-@ producing region of Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city and Tibet , with a total of 11 @,@ 931 hectares ( 29 @,@ 480 acres ) of arable land . Crops include barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , canola and vegetables such as potato . Livestock includes yak , sheep , goats and horses . In 2010 the per capita income of farmers and herdsmen was 4 @,@ 587 yuan . The Pengbo valley has a long history of pottery @-@ making . Products include braziers , flower pots , vases and jugs . Mining is an important source of income . In 2011 the government has plans to more actively promote tourism . The Pangduo Hydro Power Station became operational in 2014 . It has been called the " Tibetan Three Gorges " .

The county is a center of Tibetan Buddhism . There were thirty @-@ seven gompas including twenty @-@ five lamaseries with 919 monks and twelve nunneries with 844 nuns as of 2011 . Reting Monastery was built in 1056 by Dromtön ( 1005 – 1064 ) , a student of Atiśa . It was the earliest monastery of the Gedain sect , and the patriarchal seat of that sect .

= = = Maizhokunggar County = = =

Maizhokunggar County is located on the middle and upper sections of the Lhasa River and the west of Mila Mountain . Mila ( or Mira ) Mountain , at 5 @,@ 018 metres ( 16 @,@ 463 ft ) , forms the watershed between the Lhasa River and the Nyang River . The Gyama Zhungchu , which runs through Gyama Township , is a tributary of the Lhasa River . Maizhokunggar County is about 68 kilometres ( 42 mi ) east of Lhasa , has an area of 5 @,@ 492 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 120 sq mi ) with an average elevation of more than 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The annual average temperature is 5 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 ° C ( 41 @.@ 2 to 48 @.@ 4 ° F ) . There are about 90 frost @-@ free days each year . Annual rainfall is 515 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 20 @.@ 31 in ) . China National Highway 318 runs through the county from east to west . The 100 MW Zhikong Hydro Power Station on the Lhasa River came into operation in September 2007 .

The total population as of 2010 was 48 @,@ 561 people in 9 @,@ 719 households , the great majority engaged in farming and herding . 98 % of the population are ethnic Tibetan . The seat of government is in Kunggar in the west of the county . Many of the people depend on farming or herding . Development efforts include increased farm animal husbandry , feedstock production , greenhouses for vegetables , and breeding programs . Crops include barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , canola , peas , cabbage , carrots , eggplant , cucumbers , lettuce , spinach , green peppers , pumpkins , potatoes and other greenhouse crops . The economy is driven by mineral extraction , which was expected to account for 73 @.@ 85 % of total tax revenue in 2007 while employing 419 people .

Traditional folk handicrafts include pottery , willow basketwork , wooden objects , mats and gold and silver items . The county is especially noted for its pottery , which does not corrode , retains heat and has an ethnic style . It has a more @-@ than @-@ 1000 @-@ year @-@ old history . The Drikhung Thil Monastery of the Kagyu Sect was founded in 1179 by Lingchen Repa , a disciple of Phagmo Drupa . The monastery is the home of the Drikhung Kagyu School of the Kagyu sect . The ruined Gyama Palace , in the Gyama Gully in the south of the county , was built by Namri Songtsen in the 6th century after he had gained control of the area from Supi .

= = = Nyêmo County = = =

Nyêmo County is located in the middle section of the Brahmaputra , 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) from Lhasa . It is mainly agricultural and pastoral , with an area of 3 @,@ 276 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 265 sq mi ) and an average elevation of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Nimu Maqu River flows through the county from north to south . The Yarlung Tsangpo River forms its southern boundary . The highest point is a peak at 7 @,@ 048 @.@ 8 metres ( 23 @,@ 126 ft ) above sea level , and the lowest point is where the Maqu River empties into the Brahmaputra at an elevation of 3 @,@ 701 metres ( 12 @,@ 142 ft ) . The county has a temperate semi @-@ arid plateau monsoon climate , with about 100 frost @-@ free days . Annual rainfall is 324 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 12 @.@ 76 in ) .

Nyêmo County has its headquarters in Nyêmo Town . The county seat is 3 @,@ 809 metres ( 12 @,@ 497 ft ) above sea level . As of 2011 the total population was 30 @,@ 844 people , of whom 28 @,@ 474 were engaged in agriculture or herding . By 2012 the per capita income of farmers and herdsmen had reached 6 @,@ 881 yuan . In the 7th century Nyêmo was producing printing materials , clay @-@ based incense and wooden @-@ sole shoes . Nyêmo 's long tradition of making paper and printing texts using woodblocks dates back to this period . Nyêmo County has China 's first museum of Tibetan text . There are 22 temples . As of 2011 there were 118 monks and 99 nuns . The Nyêmo Chekar monastery is known for its 16th century murals depicting reincarnations of the Samding Dorje Phagmo .

= = = Qüxü County = = =

Qüxü County has a total area of 1 @,@ 680 square kilometres ( 650 sq mi ) , with an average elevation of 3 @,@ 650 metres ( 11 @,@ 980 ft ) . The county is in the Yarlung Tsangpo valley , and is mostly relatively flat , but rises to the Nyainqêntanglha Mountains in the north . The Lhasa River runs south through the eastern part of the county to its confluence with the Yarlung Tsangpo River , which forms the southern boundary of the county . The lowest elevation is 3 @,@ 500 metres ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) , and the highest summit elevation is 5 @,@ 894 metres ( 19 @,@ 337 ft ) . Qüxü County has about 150 days a year without frost . Annual precipitation is 441 @.@ 9 millimeters ( 17 @.@ 40 in ) .

Qüxü County has its headquarters in Qüxü Town . The fifth census in 2000 recorded a population of 29 @,@ 690 . The county seat has been growing fast , and had 5 @,@ 000 people by 2002 . China National Highway 318 runs through Qüxü County from Lhasa towards the west . Bridges span the Lhasa River and the Yarlung Tsangpo River .

Qüxü County is semi @-@ agricultural and crops grown are mainly highland barley , winter wheat , spring wheat , peas and rapeseed . Apples and walnuts are also produced . Animal husbandry is also strong , with the main animals farmed including yak , cattle , goats , sheep , horses , donkeys , pigs , and chickens . As of 2002 the per capita net income of farmers and herdsmen was 1 @,@ 960 yuan . The Nyethang Drolma Lhakhang Temple is located in Qüxü County , said to have been founded in 1055 by Dromtön , a pupil of Atiśa .

= = Demographics = =

The demographics of Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city are difficult to define precisely due to the way in which administrative boundaries have been drawn , and the way in which statistics are collected . The population of Lhasa prefectural @-@ level city is about 500 @,@ 000 , of whom about 80 % are ethnic Tibetan and most of the others are ethnic Han Chinese . Approximately 250 @,@ 000 people live in the city and in towns , most of them in or near Chengguan District , and the remainder live in rural areas .

= = = Ethnicity = = =

The 2000 census give the following breakdown for the population of the prefecture @-@ level city as a whole :

The 2000 census counts more than 105 @,@ 000 people in Chengguan District who are registered elsewhere . Most of them are Han , with agricultural registrations . Outside Chengguan District , in 2000 the rural townships almost all had Han populations below 2 @.@ 85 % , other than one in Duilongdeqing County and one in Qushui County , both near the metropolitan district of Lhasa . Urban towns other than Yangbajain had Han populations of between 2 @.@ 86 % and 11 @.@ 25 % . Within the metropolitan district Han population ranged from 11 @.@ 26 % to 11 @.@ 25 % in the southern rural township to 46 @.@ 56 % to 47 @.@ 46 % in the city street offices . Han migrants accounted for 20 % of the population , but held a much higher percentage of the higher @-@ status office and service @-@ sector jobs . Hans also dominated construction , mining and trade .

According to the November 2000 census , the ethnic distribution in Lhasa Prefecture @-@ level City was as follows :

= = = Administrative divisions = = =

Lhasa metropolitan district includes most of the built @-@ up area , which counts as urban , and four rural townships . The counties also contain urban towns , of which there are nine in the prefectural municipality .

Official census figures for 2000 are :

The census figures differ considerably from the Tibet Statistical Yearbooks for the same period , since the yearbook only includes the registered population and counts them based on place of origin rather than place of residence . The 1990 census used an approach similar to the yearbook , so the numbers are misleading , but the 2000 census tried to count people who had actually been present in Lhasa for over six months . The census distinguishes between " agricultural " and " non @-@ agricultural " registration , but this does not reflect the actual occupations of the people . Many with an " agricultural " registration may in fact work in the city or in a town . Also , the census was taken in November , when many of the ethnic Han workers in seasonal industries such as construction would have been away from Tibet . Finally , the census does not count the military .

= = Infrastructure = =

= = = Highways = = =

China National Highway 318 enters the prefecture @-@ level city from the east at Mila Mountain , where it reaches an elevation of 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) . The highway runs through Maizhokunggar County from east to west . It continues along the south bank of the Lhasa River through Dagzê County , then crosses to the north of the river in Chengguan District and runs through the center of the urban district . It turns south to cross Doilungdêqên District , where it is joined by 109 , and continues down the west side of the Lhasa River through Qüxü County , and then along the north shore of the Yarlung Tsangpo through Nyêmo County , and onward to the west .

China National Highway 109 ( the Qinghai – Tibet Highway ) runs through Damxung County from the northeast to southwest , then turns to the southeast at Yangbajain . It then runs through Doilungdêqên District along the Duilong River valley , to join China National Highway 318 just west of Lhasa . The Lhasa Airport Expressway from Lhasa to Lhasa Gonggar Airport in Lhoka ( Shannan ) Prefecture is the first expressway in the Tibet Autonomous Region . Construction began in April , 2009 . The expressway is 37 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 5 mi ) long and has four lanes .

= = = Railroad = = =

The Qinghai – Tibet Railway runs through the Lhasa prefecture @-@ level city beside the Qinghai – Tibet Highway through Damxung County and Doilungdêqên District . It terminates at Lhasa Railway Station in Niu New Area ( Liuwu Township ) . The terminus of the Qinghai – Tibet line , this station is over 3 @,@ 600 metres ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) above sea level , and is its largest passenger transport station . It includes a clinic with oxygen treatment facilities . The station uses solar energy for heating . The Liuwu Bridge links central Lhasa to Lhasa Railway Station and the newly developed Niu New Area of Doilungdêqên District on the south bank of the Lhasa River . Residents in the area were resettled to make way for the new development .

= = = Power = = =

The Yangbajain Geothermal Station was established in 1977 to exploit the Yangbajain Geothermal Field in Damxung . It is the first geothermal power station to be built in Tibet and is the largest geothermal steam power plant in China . 4 @,@ 000 kW of electricity from Yangbajain began to be delivered to Lhasa in 1981 along a transmission line that followed the Doilung Qu River . It was the main power supply for Lhasa until the Yamdrok Hydropower Station came into operation . By the end of 2000 eight steam turbo generators had been installed at the Yangbajain Geothermal Station , each with capacity of 3 @,@ 000 kW , giving a total of 25 @,@ 000 kW . The geothermal field delivers 25 @,@ 181 kilowatts , or 100 million kilowatts annually , to the city of Lhasa to the south .

The Pangduo Hydro Power Station has been called " Tibet 's Three Gorges Dam " . It impounds the Lhasa River in Pondo Township of Lhünzhub County , about 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) from Lhasa . It is at an elevation of 13 @,@ 390 feet ( 4 @,@ 080 m ) above sea level , upstream from the 100MW Zhikong Dam at 12 @,@ 660 feet ( 3 @,@ 860 m ) . The rock @-@ fill dam impounds 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 4 @.@ 1 × 1010 cu ft ) of water . The power station has total installed capacity of 160 MW .

The Zhikong Hydro Power Station lies between the middle and lower reaches of the Lhasa River , also called the Kyi River . It is about 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) northeast of Lhasa , in Maizhokunggar County . It is at an elevation of 12 @,@ 660 feet ( 3 @,@ 860 m ) above sea level , downstream from the Pangduo Hydro Power Station . The Zhikong Dam , a rock @-@ fill dam , is 50 metres ( 160 ft ) tall . It impounds 225 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 7 @.@ 9 × 109 cu ft ) of water . Installed capacity is 100 MW .

= = = Other facilities = = =

The rural counties generally have numerous primary schools at the village level , with high levels of attendance , and at least one secondary school . In 2010 there were 28 schools in Dagzê County , including one junior high school and one kindergarten . As of 2009 there were 37 primary and secondary school buildings in Damxung County . Maizhokunggar County has one high school , 14 full primary schools and 74 village schools . Nyêmo County has 24 primary and secondary schools , including one junior high school . As of 2002 Qüxü County had one County Middle School , and 18 primary schools . Outside Lhasa most of the Tibetans do not understand the Chinese language , so Tibetan is the natural language for basic instruction . However , this may be affected by the availability of teachers and the preference of the local administration . As of 2003 the former bilingual mode of instruction had been changed to giving instruction in Chinese in some of the counties near Lhasa . Examination results were already poor in subjects such as mathematics and physics . Marks dropped further after the change .

Some of the township seats have a small clinic . Most have only a health station , usually poorly supplied . There is a county hospital and five township hospitals in Dagzê County . There were seven hospitals in Damxung in 2009 , including a county hospital , with a total of 40 beds . The first drug rehabilitation center in Tibet was being constructed in Duilongdeqing County in 2009 . It was planned to provide physiological rehabilitation , psychological therapy and job training for up to 150 drug addicts . Lhünzhub County has 23 health care establishments , including a County People 's Hospital with 30 beds . Maizhokunggar has been selected as a Cooperative Medical System experimental site , which has resulted in a very high percentage of people with health care coverage . Nyêmo County has a county hospital with 42 medical staff , eight rural health centers and 26 village clinics .

The local television stations are Xizang TV ( XZTV ) and Lhasa Broadcasting and Television Center . Lhünzhub County has a local radio and television station . TV coverage is received by 72 @.@ 1 % of the population , and radio by 83 @.@ 4 % of the population . In Maizhokunggar County television is available to 36 % of the population and radio to 48 % . There is a county television station in Nyêmo County . As of 2002 in Qüxü County 98 % of the population received radio coverage and 94 % received television . In 2015 there were 359 @,@ 000 fixed line telephone subscribers in the whole of Tibet . The rugged high @-@ altitude terrain makes it expensive to provide telecommunications services . The first mobile phone service was launched in 1993 with just one base station in Lhasa , and as late as 2005 mobile phones were expensive status symbols . Since then both mobile phones and internet usage have grown fast .

As of 1996 the sole prison ( jianyu ) for judicially @-@ sentenced political prisoners in Tibet was TAR Prison No. 1 , also called Drapchi Prison after the neighborhood in Lhasa where it stands . It is for men serving sentences of five or more years . There is a labor camp ( laogai ) in Lhasa for men serving shorter sentences . There are various other institutions where prisoners from Lhasa shi are held while they are being investigated , or where they undergo reform @-@ through @-@ labor .

= = Temples and monasteries = =

Buddhism was adopted as the official religion of Tibet by king Songtsän Gampo ( died 649 ) at a time when the rise of Hinduism was sweeping away Buddhism in India , the land of its birth . Over the next two centuries Buddhism became established in Tibet , now the center of the religion . Tibetan Buddhism would become a pervasive influence on the lives of the people . The first monastery , Samyé , was founded by Trisong Detsen ( c . 740 – 798 ) . Its buildings were arranged in a mandala pattern after the Odantapuri monastery in Bihar . The three @-@ story monastery was completed in 766 and consecrated in 767 . Seven Tibetans took monastic vows in a ceremony that marked the start of the long Tibetan tradition of monastic Buddhism .

= = = Early foundations = = =

Yerpa , on a hillside in Dagze County , is known for its meditation cave connected with Songtsän Gampo . The cliffs contain some of the earliest known meditation sites in Tibet , some dating back to pre @-@ Buddhist times . There are a number of small temples , shrines and hermitages . Songtsän Gampo 's queen , Monza Triucham , founded the Dra Yerpa temple here . Jokhang in Chengguan District is the most sacred temple in Tibet , built in the 7th century when Songtsän Gampo transferred his capital to Lhasa . It was designed to house an image of Buddha that the Nepalese queen Tritsun had brought . Later rulers and Dalai Lamas enlarged and elaborated the temple .

Ramoche Temple to the north of Jokhang is considered the most important temple in Lhasa after Jokhang , and was completed about the same time . Muru Nyingba Monastery is a small monastery located between the larger Jokhang temple and Barkhor in the city of Lhasa . It was the Lhasa seat of the former State Oracle who had his main residence at Nechung Monastery . It was destroyed during the persecution of Buddhism under Langdarma ( c . 838 – 841 ) but rebuilt by Atiśa ( 980 – 1054 ) . The monastery was part of the Sakya sect at one time. but became Gelug under Sonam Gyatso , the 3rd Dalai Lama ( 1543 – 89 ) .

= = = Middle period = = =

The Nyethang Drolma Temple is southwest of Lhasa , 36 kilometres ( 22 mi ) from the county seat and 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) from Lhasa . It is in Nyétang , Qüxü County . Some sources say that Atiśa ( 980 – 1054 ) built the monastery , which was expanded after his death by his pupil Dromtön ( 1004 – 64 ) . Another version says that Dromtön raised funds to build the temple to commemorate his old friend . Dromtön built Reting Monastery in Lhünzhub County in 1056 . It was the earliest monastery of the Gedain sect , and the patriarchal seat of that sect . In 1240 a Mongol force sacked Reting monastery and killed 500 people . The gompa was rebuilt . When the Gedain sect joined the Gelug sect in the 16th century the monastery adopted the reincarnation system .

Tsurphu Monastery in Doilungdêqên District was built in 1189 and is treated as a regional cultural relic reserve . The monastery was founded by Düsum Khyenpa , 1st Karmapa Lama , founder of Karma Kagyu school . It is the main Kagyu temple . The Drigung Monastery of the Kagyu Sect was founded in 1179 in Maizhokunggar County . It is the home of the Drikhung Kagyu School of the Kagyu sect . At one time Drigung was highly influential in both the political and religious spheres . It was destroyed in 1290 by Mongols led by a general from the rival Sakya sect , and although rebuilt was never able to regain its power .

Yangpachen Monastery in Yangbajain , Damxung County was historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyu . It is the main monastery of the Red Hat school of the Karma Kagyu sect . It was built in 1490 , and through extensive repairs and additions grew into a major architectural complex that contained a large collection of cultural relics . The Red Hat school of Karma Kagyu died out in 1791 . Other monasteries founded outside the Gelug tradition include Taklung Monastery of the Kagyu school , founded in 1180 in Lhünzhub County , and Nyêmo Chekar monastery of the Bodongpa school , founded in the 16th century in Nyêmo County .

= = = Gelug foundations = = =

Ganden Monastery was built after 1409 at the initiative of Je Tsongkhapa , founder of the Gelug sect , and is the most important of this sect . It is 57 kilometres ( 35 mi ) from Lhasa on the slopes of Wangbori Mountain at an elevation of 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) , on the south bank of the Lhasa River in Dagze County . The mountain is said to have the shape of a reclining elephant . The monastery includes Buddha halls , palace residences , Buddhist colleges and other buildings .

Drepung Monastery in Chengguan District was founded in 1416 by Jamyang Choge Tashi Palden ( 1397 – 1449 ) , one of Tsongkhapa 's main disciples . It was named after the sacred abode in South India of Shridhanyakataka . At one time Drepung Monastery , with up to 10 @,@ 000 resident monks , was the largest in the world . Sera Monastery was not much smaller . Sera Monastery , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Lhasa , was founded in 1419 by Jamchen Chöjé Shakya Yeshé ( 1354 – 1435 ) , a close disciple of Tsongkhapa . Ganden , Drepung and Sera are called the great " Three Seats of Learning " of the Gulugpa school .

The Nechung Monastery , former home of the Nechung Oracle , is located in Naiquong township , also in Duilongdeqing County . Nechung was built by the 5th Dalai Lama ( 1617 – 82 ) . Other Gelug foundations include Sanga Monastery ( 1419 , Dagzê County ) , Ani Tsankhung Nunnery ( 15th century , Chengguan District ) , Kundeling Monastery ( 1663 , Chengguan District ) , and Tsomon Ling ( 17th century , Chengguan District ) .

= = = Revolution and reconstruction = = =

Most of the monasteries in the prefecture @-@ level city suffered damage , and many were destroyed , before and during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) . Jokhang was used as a military barracks and a slaughterhouse during the Cultural Revolution , and then as a hotel for Chinese officials . Many of the statues were taken , or were damaged or destroyed , so most of the present statues are recent copies . Jokhang was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 . Ramoche Temple was badly damaged during the Cultural Revolution but has been restored with assistance from the Swiss . The Nyethang Drolma Temple survived the Cultural Revolution without much damage , and was able to preserve most of its valuable artifacts , due to the intervention of Premier Zhou Enlai at the request of the government of what is now Bangladesh .

Reting Monastery was devastated by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution , and has only been partially restored . Tsurphu monastery was reduced to rubble , but the huge temples and chanting halls have been rebuilt . Before and during the Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 76 ) Drigung Monastery was looted of almost all its collection of statues , stupas , thangkas , manuscripts and other objects apart from a few small statues that the monks managed to hide . The buildings were severely damaged . Reconstruction began in 1983 and seven of the fifteen temples were rebuilt . Yangpachen Monastery was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution , but later was rebuilt .

Ganden Monastery was completely destroyed during the rebellion of 1959 . In 1966 it was severely shelled by Red Guard artillery , and monks had to dismantle the remains . The buildings were reduced to rubble using dynamite during the Cultural Revolution . Re @-@ building has continued since the 1980s . Nechung was almost completely destroyed but has been largely restored . There is a huge new statue of Guru Rinpoche ( Padmasambhava ) on the second floor .

Nine sites in the Lhasa valley were listed in 1985 by the TAR Cultural Relics Authority as " regionally protected buildings " . These were Tsangkung Nunnery , Meru Monastery and Great Kashmiri Mosque in the old city , and the Karmashar Temple , Meru Nyingba Monastery and Northern , Southern , Eastern and Western Rigsum Temples elsewhere in the former prefecture .

= 33 ( Battlestar Galactica ) =

" 33 " is the first episode of first season and the pilot episode of the reimagined military science fiction television program Battlestar Galactica , immediately following the events of the 2003 miniseries . " 33 " follows Galactica and her civilian fleet as they are forced to contend with constant Cylon pursuit for days without sleep ; they are forced to ultimately destroy one of their own ships to foil the Cylons and earn their first respite of the series .

The episode was written by series creator Ronald D. Moore , and the television directoral debut of Michael Rymer . Moore and executive producer David Eick made the decision to slot this episode as the first of the season because of its potential impact on the audience . " 33 " distinguished the themes of the new Battlestar Galactica series by following characters on the spaceships , on the planets that were fled , and in the minds of other characters . Attention to detail was prevalent in this first episode ; the production team , the editing team , and even the actors themselves strove for authenticity of specific portrayals and moments .

Though there were compromises made due to concerns of the episode being too dark for audiences , the episode was lauded by both cast and crew in addition to winning the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form . " 33 " originally aired on Sky One in the United Kingdom on October 18 , 2004 , and subsequently aired on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on January 14 , 2005 , along with the following episode " Water " .

= = Plot = =

Having fled the besieged Ragnar Anchorage , the convoy of refugee spaceships is relentlessly pursued and attacked by Cylon Basestars . The colonial fleet must execute a faster @-@ than @-@ light ( FTL ) jump every 33 minutes to escape the Cylons , who consistently arrive at the new jump coordinates approximately 33 minutes later . After over 130 hours and 237 jumps , the fleet 's crew and passengers , particularly those aboard Galactica , have been operating without sleep while facing the strain of nearly constant military action .

Upon the 238th consecutive jump , the Olympic Carrier ( a commercial passenger vessel with 1 @,@ 345 souls aboard ) is accidentally left behind and the attacks unexpectedly cease , allowing the fleet some respite . When it arrives three hours later , President Laura Roslin and Commander Adama order Capt. Lee " Apollo " Adama and Lt. Kara " Starbuck " Thrace to destroy it , believing that it has been infiltrated by Cylons and now poses a threat to the fleet 's safety . The colonial officers destroy the ship while the rest of the colonial fleet jumps away . Baltar 's internal Number Six explains to him that God is looking after his interests , implying that a scientist on the Olympic Carrier was preparing to reveal Baltar 's unwitting collusion with the Cylon attack on the colonies . After the fleet 's last jump , the Cylons do not return , and the President 's survivor whiteboard aboard Colonial One , the result of a fleetwide census , is updated with one additional soul ( to 47 @,@ 973 ) with the birth of the fleet 's first child aboard the Rising Star — a boy .

Meanwhile , on Caprica , Lt. Karl Agathon ( call sign " Helo " ) is captured by a Cylon patrol and then " rescued " from his Cylon captors by a Number Eight in the guise of his crewmate Sharon " Boomer " Valerii , who shoots a Number Six to free him .

= = Writing = =

Preparing for production of Battlestar Galactica 's first season , writer and series creator Ronald D. Moore wrote a short list of potential storylines , one of which was " the fleet jumps every 33 minutes ; because the Cylons are relentlessly pursuing them , the crew gets no sleep . " Conferring with fellow executive producer David Eick , the two decided that this story would be " the best way to kick off the season " . Moore described writing " 33 " as a great experience ; he wrote the whole script without a story outline or much structure , excited to begin the first episode of the first season and start the first year already " at the end of the road " . Moore wrote the episode over his Christmas break before the series was officially picked up ; he later claimed that this aspect was what made the episode " one of the more fun projects that [ he ] wrote all of the first season . "

David Eick found the episode to be a " standalone concept " that did not require having seen the miniseries to understand it . Because the miniseries ended " at a very happy place " , starting the series in the middle of a crisis without explanation , and showing the audience that " actually , while you — the audience — were away , really bad things have been happening " made for a much more intriguing and interesting story . " 33 " ' s complex storyline was a harbinger for episodes to come , and laid the groundwork with the network and audiences alike .

Moore explained on his blog that the number 33 had no hidden meaning or significance , only that he felt it sufficiently long to allow minor functions like snacking , showering , or cat napping , but was too short to allow anybody to gain any meaningful sleep and recharge their batteries . Further , Moore intentionally gave the number no meaning to avoid creating and inserting unnecessary technobabble into a drama @-@ driven episode .

= = Production = =

" 33 " was director Michael Rymer 's first television episode . He accepted the job without reading the script , saying that based on his writing experience , " 33 " went well beyond his expectations and excited him . Bear McCreary originally composed the musical theme " Boomer Theme " for this episode ; it was later expanded for use with the Athena character , before becoming the de facto " Hera Theme " for the character Hera Agathon in the fourth season episode , " Islanded in a Stream of Stars " . Joel Ransom was the director of photography for the miniseries , but when Eick learned he was unavailable for the series , he turned to Stephen McNutt , with whom he had worked on American Gothic . In the interim , McNutt had moved on to shooting in high @-@ definition video ; this was fortuitous for the production team because , while Ransom had filmed the miniseries on 35 mm film , the production team was switching to high @-@ definition video for the series .

Executive producer David Eick opined that " 33 " was the " silver bullet " that ultimately tipped the scales in their favor and convinced the Sci Fi Channel to pick up the series . The network 's biggest concern in picking up the series was that Battlestar Galactica would fall victim to the same trappings of space opera as other television properties ( Star Trek , Andromeda , Stargate ) . Two aspects that assuaged these concerns were specifically discussed in the episode 's DVD commentary . First , " 33 " went into Gaius Baltar 's ( James Callis ) mind and visited his house on Caprica ( shot in Lions Bay , British Columbia ) ; being swept away by the blue skies and beaches in his fantasy was not the sort of imagery expected of space opera @-@ type shows . Second was going back to the devastated Caprica and following @-@ up with Helo 's ( Tahmoh Penikett ) story .

With sleep deprivation one of the major plot points of the episode , actor Edward James Olmos ( William Adama ) liaised with an expert on the subject and the crew to best depict the actual effects realistically . Following up , director Michael Rymer gave each main cast member a specific symptom to play up , so as to avoid repetition on screen . Olmos and several other cast members took their study a step further , to immerse themselves by restricting their sleep patterns to about three hours a night to emphasize what their expert was imparting .

In the episode 's DVD commentary , Moore and Rymer related how there were endless discussion about the clocks to feature in this episode . Concerns over digital versus analog , size and shape , the ratio of digital to analog clocks , whether they should run forwards or backwards , and whether any labels should be stenciled or hand @-@ drawn were all brought up . David Eick also noted that as of the commentary 's recording , the clock at Felix Gaeta 's ( Juliani ) station still had its " 33 " label affixed .

= = = Editing = = =

The first cut of " 33 " was ten minutes too long . Despite this , the production crew took extra care not to eliminate " human moments " in their efforts to trim the episode . These included a shot of Galen Tyrol ( Douglas ) and Cally Henderson ( Clyne ) walking across Galactica 's hangar bay , a shot of Crewman Socinus ( Oyarzun ) giving a bedraggled look over the shoulder of another crewmember , and a shot of PO2 Dualla ( McClure ) walking through Galactica 's remembrance corridor .

In a question @-@ and @-@ answer session , Moore revealed a scene written for , but cut from , the episode . In the cut scene , the recurring prop in the characters ' briefing room was to have been explicitly introduced and explained ; the prop remained in the series , but its backstory was cut .

There was a scene cut from " 33 " where we saw Laura being given her copy of the photo along with a card that said it was taken on the roof of the capitol building on Aerilon during the attack . The photo was inspired by the famous shot of the fire @-@ fighters raising the flag at Ground Zero that became iconic . I thought the Colonies would have their own version of this -- a snapshot taken in the moment that becomes a symbol of the day they can never forget and of all they had lost . The photo itself is of a soldier falling to his knees ( possibly shot or simply overcome by emotion ) as he stands on the rooftop over looking the devastation of his city , while the Colonial flag waves at the edge of frame . The inscription below the photo on Laura 's plaque reads , " Lest We Forget " in itself a reference to the inscription on the watch presented to John Wayne 's character in She Wore a Yellow Ribbon .

Other cut scenes included one shot in the pilots ' head , showing the pilots " wrecked and exhausted [ ... ] with an exchange between Starbuck and Apollo " , as well as several shots of Commander Adama ( Olmos ) gagging and vomiting because of acid reflux brought on by sleep deprivation . Another line of Olmos ' — an ad @-@ lib about suicides in the fleet — was cut so as not to alienate audiences by being " too dark " .

As originally written and shot , when Apollo ( Jamie Bamber ) fires on the Olympic Carrier , it was made clear that he sees people inside . Moore wrote the scene to be strong and clear that the characters were making the decision to fire on the passenger liner in full awareness of the consequences to illustrate and emphasize " the uncompromising nature of the show . " This was an " enormous fight " between Moore and the network , with the latter feeling this was another scene that was " too dark " and had the potential to turn away audiences ; the network further implied that if the scene were left intact , they may have been compelled to air the episodes out of order . To placate the network , Moore and Eick changed the ending of the episode and " cheated " ; instead , when Apollo flies by the Olympic Carrier , it is unclear whether or not there is anybody inside . In a " small act of defiance " , visual effects supervisor Gary Hutzel snuck in small , indeterminate movement behind one or two of the Olympic Carrier 's windows on behalf of the production and writing teams . The episode also originally ended with Helo 's escape from the Cylons on Caprica ; again tasked by the network to keep the episode from being " too dark " , Moore wrote in an additional scene — President Roslin ( Mary McDonnell ) learning of the newborn — upon which to end the episode on a hopeful note .

= = Release and reception = =

" 33 " first aired in the United Kingdom on October 18 , 2004 ( 2004 @-@ 10 @-@ 18 ) , and in the United States on January 14 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 01 @-@ 14 ) , almost three months later . UK viewers obliged US Battlestar Galactica fans by illegally copying the episode — uploading Torrents to the Internet — within hours of its Sky One airing . " 33 " has been released thrice on home video as part of the first season collected sets ; on July 26 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 07 @-@ 26 ) as a Best Buy exclusive , again on September 20 , 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 09 @-@ 20 ) , and finally as an HD DVD set on December 4 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 12 @-@ 04 ) . The episode was also released on July 28 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 07 @-@ 28 ) as part of the entire series ' home video set on both DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc .

Both series creator Ronald D. Moore and star Jamie Bamber ( Lee Adama ) claim " 33 " as their favourite episode . Bamber described it as " ... the perfect episode of Battlestar Galactica . " Emphasizing the dark , gritty , and nightmarish aspects of the episode , the actor felt it was a microcosm of the series as a whole . In interviews with Wired UK and the Los Angeles Times , Moore opined that the episode subverted viewers ' expectations and was a " fantastic way to open that first year . "

" 33 " won the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , and drew a 2 @.@ 6 household Nielsen rating , attracting 3 @.@ 1 million viewers and making it the # 2 program on cable ( 8pm @-@ 11pm ) . At the website Television Without Pity , the staff review rated the episode an " A + " , while ( as of November 2010 ) 546 of their readers awarded it an average grade of " B " . The New York Post 's " 10 Most Dramatic Moments of the ' 00s " included " 33 " in its # 10 spot , describing it as the premiere episode of " a sci @-@ fi show with high stakes and serious guts . "

= Ralph d 'Escures =

Ralph d 'Escures ( died 20 October 1122 ) was a medieval Abbot of Séez , Bishop of Rochester and then Archbishop of Canterbury . He studied at the school at the Abbey of Bec . In 1079 he entered the abbey of St Martin at Séez , and became abbot there in 1091 . He was a friend of both Anselm of Canterbury and Gundulf , Bishop of Rochester , whose see , or bishopric , he took over on Gundulf 's death .

Ralph was not chosen archbishop of Canterbury by the chapter of Canterbury alone . His election involved an assembly of the lords and bishops meeting with King Henry I of England . Ralph then received his pallium from Pope Paschal II , rather than travelling to Rome to retrieve it . As archbishop , Ralph was very assertive of the rights of the see of Canterbury and of the liberties of the English church . He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland . Ralph also quarrelled for a time with Pope Paschal II .

Ralph suffered a stroke on 11 July 1119 and was left partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly from that time until his death on 20 October 1122 . A surviving English translation of a sermon delivered by Ralph is preserved in a manuscript in the British Library . The sermon survives in some fifty Latin manuscripts .

= = Early life = =

Ralph was the son of Seffrid d 'Escures and his first wife Rascendis , and a half brother of Seffrid I , Bishop of Chichester from 1125 to 1145 . The surname of de Turbine , by which he is sometimes known in older scholarship , is only attested in the fourteenth century and possibly resulted from confusion with William de Corbeil , Ralph 's successor at Canterbury . Ralph studied at the school at the Abbey of Bec before entering the abbey of St Martin at Séez in 1079 . St. Martin was a house founded by the Montgomery and Bellême families , and was still under their lordship . He became abbot of the house in 1091 , and his election was attended by Anselm , abbot of Bec .

= = Time in England = =

Soon afterwards Ralph paid a visit to England , perhaps to visit Shrewsbury Abbey , which was a daughter house of Séez . He may have been involved in the mediating the surrender of Robert of Bellême at Shrewsbury in 1102 , for some chroniclers state that it was Ralph who delivered the keys of the castle to King Henry I of England . In 1103 he took refuge in England from the demands of Robert of Bellême for homage . Ralph declined to do homage because Pope Urban II had ordered that no clergy could do homage to the laity . Robert was also demanding heavy taxes , and Ralph fled with Serlo , Bishop of Séez , who was also subjected to Robert 's demands . He passed his time in England with his friends Saint Anselm and Gundulf the Bishop of Rochester . He attended the translation of Saint Cuthbert 's remains at Durham , where he was one of examiners of the body , and declared the saint 's remains uncorrupt . In 1106 he visited Anselm at the Abbey of Bec , but probably did not try to assert himself at Séez . After Anselm was elected to the see of Canterbury , Ralph appears to have become part of the archbishop 's household .

In June 1108 Ralph succeeded Gundulf as Bishop of Rochester , having been nominated by Gundulf before his death . Ralph was consecrated on 9 August 1108 . He was at Anselm 's deathbed in April 1109 , and , afterwards , Ralph acted as administrator of the see of Canterbury until 26 April 1114 , when he was chosen Archbishop at Windsor . The king had wanted his doctor , Faricus , who was an Italian and Abbot of Abingdon , but the nobles and the bishops objected to anyone but a Norman being appointed . The bishops also desired someone who was not a monk , or at least not one who was so close to Henry . As a compromise , Ralph was chosen , rather than the secular clergy that the bishops favoured . Although Ralph was a monk and had not served as a royal clerk , he was also a bishop , which seems to have reconciled the other bishops to his selection .

= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =

It is noteworthy that , while Ralph was not chosen by the chapter of Canterbury alone , his election involved an assembly of the magnates and bishops meeting with the king . He was not selected solely by the king , nor solely by the bishops or chapter . Ralph received his pallium from the pope , rather than travelling to Rome to retrieve it . It was only with difficulty , however , that Pope Paschal II was persuaded to grant the pallium , as the papacy was attempting to again assert papal jurisdiction over the English Church . It was Anselm of St Saba who brought the pallium to England , along with letters from Paschal complaining that the English Church was translating bishops from see to see without papal permission , that legates from the papacy were being refused entry to England and that the king was allowing no appeals to be made to the pope over ecclesiastical issues . In 1116 the pope even demanded the payment of Peter 's Pence , a payment direct to the papacy of a penny from every household in England . Ralph , when he took the pallium , professed " fidelity and canonical obedience " to the pope , but did not submit to the papal demands and , in fact , supported King Henry in opposing the pope 's demands .

As archbishop Ralph championed the rights of the see of Canterbury and the English church . He claimed authority in Wales and Scotland , writing to the pope that " the church of Canterbury has not ceased to provide pastoral care for the whole of Britain and Ireland , both as a benevolence and from its rights of primacy . " He advised the bishop of Llandaff that a new Llandaff Cathedral should be built and granted an indulgence to contributors . He even refused to consecrate Thurstan as Archbishop of York because Thurstan would not profess obedience to the Archbishop of Canterbury , part of the Canterbury @-@ York dispute . At first , Ralph depended only on the king to demand Thurstan to submit , but later he appealed to the popes to force Thurstan to obey . His refusal brought him into a dispute with the papacy , for Pope Paschal II supported Thurstan . Ralph visited Rome in 1117 , but was unable to obtain an interview with Paschal as the pope had fled the city in front of an invading imperial army . Ralph had taken ill with an ulcer on his face during the trip to Rome and , for a time , it was feared that he would die . He recovered enough to continue on to Rome , however , although it was a fruitless trip . Despite instructions from Paschal ’ s successors , Gelasius II and Calixtus II , the archbishop continued to refuse to consecrate Thurstan , and Thurstan was still unconsecrated when Ralph died . Thurstan was eventually consecrated at Rheims by Pope Calixtus II in May 1119 , although the issue of primacy remained unresolved .

Although he feuded with York over the primacy , it appears clear that Ralph considered the Investiture Crisis settled in England for , in 1117 while visiting Rome , he took a neutral position as regards the issues between the Pope and the Emperor . In 1115 , however , he refused to consecrate Bernard as Bishop of St David 's in the royal chapel , although Robert of Meulan , the king 's chief counsellor , advocated that the consecration must take place in the royal chapel according to ancient custom . The king did not insist and Ralph won the confrontation . He was also involved in ecclesiastical affairs in Normanday , as he attended the provincial synod , or Council of Rouen , held in 1118 .

= = Final years and legacy = =

Ralph suffered a stroke on 11 July 1119 as he was removing his vestments after celebrating Mass . From then until his death , Ralph was partially paralysed and unable to speak clearly . He was still involved in decision making and , in 1120 , he agreed to King Alexander I of Scotland 's suggestion that Eadmer become the next Bishop of St Andrew 's . Ralph was one of the lords consulted about the remarriage of Henry I to Adeliza of Leuven at London in 1121 . He also successfully asserted his right to celebrate the king 's new marriage , over attempts by Roger of Salisbury to officiate instead . Due to the damage from the stroke , Ralph was unable to perform the ceremony but , when Roger made an attempt to do so , Ralph successfully insisted on choosing the officiant and William Giffard the Bishop of Winchester performed the marriage . Ralph died on 20 October 1122 , at Canterbury . He was buried in the nave of Canterbury Cathedral on 23 October 1122 . His nephew , John , was a clerk under Ralph , and later Ralph appointed him Archdeacon of Canterbury . After Ralph 's death , John was elected to the see of Rochester .

Ralph was regarded as a " witty , easygoing " man . The struggle with York , however , along with his illnesses and the effects of the stroke , turned Ralph in his last years into a quarrelsome person . Orderic Vitalis said that he was well educated and well loved by people . Even William of Malmesbury , no lover of ecclesiastics and always ready to find fault with them , could only find fault with him for his occasional lapses into unbecoming frivolity .

Ralph wrote a sermon for the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin and it survives in some fifty Latin manuscripts , probably because it was thought to have been written by Anselm of Canterbury , until shown to be Ralph 's in 1927 . A surviving English translation of the sermon is also preserved in the manuscript British Library , Cotton Vespasian D. xiv . The Latin version , which Ralph was a translation of his originally spoken French version , has been edited and published in 1997 . Ralph also had the monks of Christ Church , Canterbury search for documents relating to the privileges of Canterbury and had those documents copied into a manuscript which still survives , BM MS Cotton Cleopatra E. His seal is one of the first to take the usual form for bishop 's seals , with Ralph standing , in full vestments including a mitre , and performing a benediction with his right hand while holding his crosier in his left . The seal took the form of a pointed oval .

= Bow Back Rivers =

Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers is a complex of waterways between Bow and Stratford in east London , England , which connect the River Lea to the River Thames . Starting in the twelfth century , works were carried out to drain Stratford Marshes and several of the waterways were constructed to power watermills . Bow Creek provided the final outfall to the Thames , and the other channels were called Abbey Creek , Channelsea River , City Mill River , Prescott Channel , Pudding Mill River , Three Mills Back River , Three Mills Wall River and Waterworks River .

The rivers have been subject to change over centuries , with Alfred the Great diverting the river in 896 to create a second channel , and Queen Matilda bridging both channels around 1110 . Because the river system was tidal as far as Hackney Wick , several of the mills were tide mills , including those at Abbey Mills and those at Three Mills , one of which survives . Construction of the New River in the seventeenth century to supply drinking water to London , with subsequent extraction by waterworks companies , led to a lowering of water levels , and the river was gradually canalised to maintain navigation . Significant changes occurred with the creation of the Lee Navigation in 1767 , which resulted in the construction of the Hackney Cut and the Limehouse Cut , allowing barges to bypass most of the back rivers . A major reconstruction of the rivers took place in the 1930s , authorised by the River Lee ( Flood Relief ) Act , but by the 1960s , commercial usage of the waterways had largely ceased . Deteriorating infrastructure led to the rivers dwindling to little more than tidal creeks , and they were categorised in 1968 as having no economic or long @-@ term future .

However , British Waterways decided that their full restoration was an important aim in 2002 , and the construction of the main stadium for the 2012 Summer Olympics on an island formed by the rivers provided funding to construct a new lock and sluices which stabilised water levels throughout the Olympic site . It was hoped that significant amounts of materials for the construction of the Olympic facilities would be delivered by barge , but this did not happen . Improvements to the channels which form a central feature of the Olympic Park included the largest aquatic planting scheme ever carried out in Britain .

= = Name = =

It is unclear when the individually named rivers became known collectively as Bow Back Rivers . Charles Tween , writing on behalf of the Lee Conservancy , referred to them as both the Stratford Back Rivers and the Stratford Back Streams in 1905 . The section to the west of the more recent City Mills Lock was labelled Bow Back River on a map of 1895 , but had previously been part of Pudding Mill River . Powell , writing in 1973 , still referred to them as the Stratford Back Rivers .

The 1939 edition of " Inland Waterways of Great Britain " , an early attempt to provide a guide for the leisure use of canals , noted that the River Lee had " several subsidiary canalised waterways " , and listed Bow Creek , Old River Lee , City Mills River and Waterworks River , but did not describe them collectively . Boyes and Russell writing in 1977 referred to them as the Bow Back Rivers or Stratford Back Rivers , and by the sixth edition of " Inland Waterways of Great Britain " , published in 1985 , they were referred to as Bow Back Rivers .

The river which supplies the Bow Back Rivers has been known as the River Lee or River Lea , but modern usage tends to use " Lea " when referring to the natural river , and " Lee " when referring to the navigation , so that the Lee Navigation is a canalisation of the River Lea . The name Bow may derive from either an arched bridge over the River Lea in the 12th century or a bend in the road east of Bow Road station .

= = History = =

The Bow Back Rivers cross an area originally known as Stratford Marsh , an area of common Lammas land , where inhabitants had common rights to graze horses and cattle between Lammas Day ( 1 August ) and Lady Day ( 25 March ) , but which was used for growing hay for the rest of the year . The Marsh was between Stratford @-@ Langthorne and Stratford @-@ at @-@ Bow . Little remains from pre @-@ history , but the names suggest that the two settlements lay at either end of a stone causeway across the marsh . Remains of a stone causeway have been found , but no traces of an associated road . The ford at Old Ford is of pre @-@ Roman origin , part of a route from London to Essex which crossed Bethnal Green . In the Roman era , a new road was built from London to the ford , which carried the principal road to Colchester . There may also have been a ford further south at Bow , and a further causeway existed between Homerton and Leyton , known as Wanstead Slip .

These crossings passed across a true marsh , either side of the River Lea . This wide , fast flowing river was then tidal as far as Hackney Wick , and navigable as far as Hertfordshire . Dates for the earliest use of the rivers by boats are unknown , although a late Bronze Age dugout canoe and parts of a Saxon barge have been found in the marshes at Walthamstow . The first alteration to the natural river may have been made by Alfred the Great , who cut another channel to strand a force of Danes in 896 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . This lowered the tide head to Old Ford , and prevented large boats sailing the river until the 15th century .

During the reign of King Henry I between 1100 and 1118 , his wife Queen Matilda ( or Maud ) , on hearing of the problems of crossing the river at Old Ford , directed that the road should be routed further south , and paid for two bridges , one to cross the Lee and the other to cross the Channelsea River , from her own funds . She also paid for the road to be built between them , and the location of the bridge became known as Stratford @-@ atte @-@ Boghe , later Stratford @-@ le @-@ Bow , and finally dropped Stratford to become Bow or Bow Bridge . John Leland , writing in the 1500s , gives a more fanciful account , in which the queen falling into the water prompted the action . The addition of le @-@ Bow probably had less to do with the shape of the bridge than the fact that arch was derived from arcus , meaning bow .

In 1135 , Stratford Langthorne Abbey was founded . The Abbey continued the process of draining Stratford marsh begun in the Middle Ages , and creating artificial channels to drive water and tide mills . A small river port developed at Stratford , mentioned in the 15th century , to serve the needs of Stratford Abbey and the mills at Stratford , and there is similar evidence in later centuries . The Abbey took on responsibility to maintain the marsh walls around Bow Creek , to keep the tidal waters out . The river was being used for the transport of goods and passengers by 1571 , when an Act of Parliament empowered the Lord Mayor of London to make improvements to the river to ensure that supplies of grain continued to reach the capital . These works included a new cut near the Thames , probably the section of river between Bow Tidal Gates and Old Ford , on which no tolls were to be charged , and a pound lock was constructed at Waltham Abbey , only the second to be built in England .

Between Bow Bridge and Channelsea Bridge there were three others , said in 1303 to have been built to fill the gaps caused by the cutting of mill streams through Maud 's causeway , although there is evidence that the mills pre @-@ dated the causeway . However , the mill owners took responsibility for the bridges , which crossed the mill streams for St Thomas 's , Spileman 's and Saynes mills . The last two were owned by the City of London , and the bridges were called Pegshole and St Michael 's Bridges . An administrative mistake around 1814 resulted in the City of London taking responsibility for St Thomas 's Bridge , but the miller did not complain as Pegshole bridge was smaller and therefore less costly to maintain . The names were eventually swapped , and all three were replaced by Groves Bridge in 1933 , which crossed the widened Three Mills Wall River , the two branches of the Waterworks River having been combined into Three Mills Wall River , while Three Mills Wall Back River was filled in .

Crossing the Back Rivers by a series of low @-@ level bridges is the Northern Outfall Sewer which leads to the Abbey Mill Pumping Station , both of which were designed by Joseph Bazalgette in the 1860s . Today , the route of the embankment that encloses the sewer from Bow to Beckton is followed by a public footpath , The Greenway .

= = = Public water supply = = =

Water was extracted from the rivers to provide a public water supply . The opening of the New River in 1633 , a 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) channel built to bring water to London from Amwell springs , and soon afterwards from the River Lea near Ware , had a detrimental effect on both navigation and milling by reducing water levels . Around 1745 , the West Ham Waterworks Company built a waterworks at Saynes Mill in Stratford , the river on which it was located later being known as Waterworks River . The East London Waterworks Company was set up in 1807 , and built works at Old Ford , where they extracted water from the river . The supply to the works was moved further upstream in 1829 , and in 1830 they built a canal , running parallel to the Hackney Cut , so that water could be obtained from Lea Bridge . Much of the work was carried out by the contractor William Hoof , who had gained a reputation as a specialist tunnelling contractor , after working on Strood Tunnel for the Thames and Medway Canal and Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal . He worked on the waterworks project from 1829 until 1834 . Where there had been a reservoir to the south of the Middlesex Filter Beds weir in 1850 , maps from 1870 show the site occupied by a waterworks , and the canal which supplied the Old Ford works running beside the Hackney Cut . Another large reservoir , triangular in shape , was located between the old river and the Hackney Cut at Old Ford , with two connections to the old river . The water supply canal passed under the old river to feed two compensation reservoirs to the north of the Great Eastern Railway tracks . A covered reservoir was situated on the west bank of the old river .

The Waterworks River underwent considerable change over the years . In 1850 , it left the channel of the Old River Lee much further to the north , to the south @-@ west of Temple Mills railway depot . It was called Lead Mills Stream at this point . Near Temple Mills bridge , now on the A12 road , Channelsea River split off . The two channels ran parallel to the Old River Lee , before Channelsea River turned to the south @-@ east . There was another small connection between the Old River Lee and the Waterworks River called Bully Fence , where the northern Channelsea River is shown on modern maps . By 1870 , it was called Waterworks River as far north as Temple Mills depot , and by 1896 , its present connection to the old river near to Carpenters Road had been established . Twenty years later , the northern Waterworks River rejoined the Lee at Bully Fence , and the section between there and Carpenters Road had been filled in . At some point , the connection at Bully Fence became the main source for the Channelsea River , although the 1953 / 66 map still shows it connected to the remnants of the system to the north , for drainage . Administrative boundaries still follow the northern course of the Waterworks River .

= = = Navigation = = =

Although the River Lee was navigable up to Hertford , this had been achieved by the use of flash locks , where a single gate created a channel through a weir . These caused conflict between the bargemen and the millers , since operation of the lock lowered the water level above it , hindering the operation of the mill . In 1765 , the engineer John Smeaton was asked to survey the river , with a view to improving it " for the good of the public " . His report of September 1766 highlighted the need to replace the flash locks with the more modern locks or pen sluices , each with two sets of gates . Significantly for the Bow Back Rivers , he suggested a new cut from Lea Bridge to Old Ford , and another from Bow Tidal Gates to a basin at Limehouse . The first became known as the Hackney Cut , and the second as the Limehouse Cut . An Act of Parliament was obtained on 29 June 1767 , and work began .

The Limehouse Cut would give direct access to the River Thames , avoiding the tidal Bow Creek . It was expected to open in July 1770 , but some of the brickwork collapsed , and had to be repaired before the cut opened on 17 September 1770 . It closed again briefly in December , when a bridge collapsed into it , and it was soon decided that it was too narrow , and so was widened to allow barges to pass each other along its complete length . This work was finished on 1 September 1777 . The contract for the Hackney Cut was given to Jeremiah Ilsley on 18 January 1768 , and a bricklayer called Henry Holland was asked to build two locks on the cut on 23 April 1768 . A millwright from Bromley called Mr Cooper was given the job of building Bromley Lock ( close to Bow tidal gates ) . Work progressed quickly , and the cut was opened for traffic on 7 August 1769 .

The Act of 1767 had specified points on the river at which tolls could be collected , but had made no mention of tolls for use of Bow Creek , Bow Back Rivers , or the section of the navigation between Bow tidal gates and Old Ford , and these had remained toll @-@ free . An Act of Parliament obtained on 14 August 1850 allowed the trustees to build a pound lock at Bow tidal gates . To prevent opposition from the bargees , the Act had formalised the freedom from tolls on the Bow River section . Once the lock was built , however , the trustees charged a toll for using it . This was unpopular , but there was still the option of using the tidal gates at certain states of the tide , which did not incur a toll . A clause to authorise the lock toll was deleted by Parliament from a subsequent Act of 1868 , and it was still the case in 1977 that a charge was made for using the lock but not for using the gates .

By 1821 , Stratford was served by a number of wharfs , some located on the Lea and others on the Channelsea River or other branches . In addition to wharfs for general goods , some specifically handled timber , chalk , stone , coal , or wheat . Several of the factories and mills had private wharfs . By this date , a dock had been built near Bow Bridge to the south of the High Street . It was about 80 by 50 yards ( 73 by 46 m ) , and was connected to the river by its own channel . It was initially called Stratford Dock , later becoming Meggs Dock and was probably constructed by the Middlesex and Essex Turnpike Trust . Half of it had been filled in by 1896 , and the rest by 1920 .

In the 1860s , the income from the navigation had dropped , as a result of attempts to compete against the railways , but economies were made , and capital works continued . The lock at Lea Bridge was removed , and replaced by Old Ford Lock further to the south , which was built to take 100 @-@ ton barges , rather than the 40 @-@ ton barges specified by an Act of 1805 . Although the original Lee trustees , and after 1868 the Conservators of the River Lee , were officially responsible for the Bow Back Rivers , there was little incentive to maintain them , since they did not generate any revenue . Nor could they be closed , since they allowed surplus water from the upper river to reach the Thames , without causing flooding .

= = = Regeneration = = =

The rivers were run down by the 1920s and , with high unemployment in the area , West Ham Corporation and the Lee Conservancy Board applied for a government unemployment relief grant , with which to fund major improvements . In addition to work on the channels , Bow Tidal Lock was duplicated , Marshgate Lock was rebuilt further east as City Mill Lock , and a second new lock at Carpenters Road was constructed . It used up @-@ and @-@ over radial gates operated by winches , rather than the traditional mitre gates used at City Mill Lock . The gates were quadrant @-@ shaped , and were lowered into the bed of the river to allow boats to enter or leave the lock . An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1930 to authorise the work , called the River Lee ( Flood Relief ) Act , and work began the following year . The project was completed in 1935 . Before the work , there had been a floodgate on the Waterworks River above its junction with the Three Mills Wall River , and a large pool , the City Mill Pool , connecting to the City Mills River and Bow Back River . Marshgate Lock was situated to the west of the junction between the Pudding Mill River and Bow Back River . It was originally built in 1864 , by adding a second set of gates to Hunters Gates , a floodgate which had been built around 1847 . The reconstructed lock was built on the site of the City Mill Pool , and had two sets of gates at its eastern end , to prevent high tidal levels in Waterworks River flooding the waterways to the west . It was labelled Marshgate Lane Lock on the 1948 map , but was called Ward Lock , after a local councillor , and is now known as City Mills Lock . The course of the Bow Back River was then straightened , and the original Marshgate Lock was bypassed . Pudding Mill River became a dead end when the lower section was filled in , as was most of the Three Mills Back River , and the floodgate on Waterworks River was also removed . Reconstruction of the channels included widening City Mill River to 50 feet ( 15 m ) , while Three Mills Wall River and Waterworks River were made twice that width .

Prior to the work , the arrangement had been to regulate the navigation with the Pond Lane Flood Gates and Marshgate Lane tidal lock . The new lock at Carpenter 's Road gave access to the Waterworks River , providing barge access to Temple Mills . At high tides , the low headroom of the Northern Outfall Sewer aqueduct prevented access to the southern reaches of the system , and to allow access City Mill Lock was constructed near Blaker Road . In 2005 , the lock was partially restored as part of the planning gain required from the developers of the adjacent Bellamy Homes housing scheme .

The 1930s improvements included the construction of the Prescott Channel , designed to allow flood water to bypass the Three Mills tide mills . The channel included sluices to regulate water levels above it , but these became redundant once the tide mills ceased to operate , and eventually seized up . They were removed soon after parts of the Channelsea River were culverted .

By the 1960s , only the Bow Back River , the City Mills River and the Channelsea River were still being used for commercial traffic . A section of the Channelsea River between Stratford High Street and Lett Road was culverted between 1957 and 1958 . As traffic ceased , the lock structures deteriorated , and by 2006 , City Mills Lock and Carpenters Road Lock were officially disused . The 1968 British Waterways Act had classified most waterways into commercial , cruising and remainder waterways . Remainder waterways were those for which the government of the time could see no economic future , and which would only therefore be subject to maintenance to prevent them becoming unsafe . The Bow Back Rivers fell into this category , and remained neglected until their full restoration was enshrined in a British Waterways policy document in 2002 .

= = Olympics = =

The Olympic Stadium for the London 2012 Summer Olympics is constructed on former industrial land between the Lea Navigation to the west and the City Mill River to the east . The land was formerly bisected by the remains of the Pudding Mill River , but this was filled in to provide a site which was large enough . As part of the construction phase for the event , Three Mills Lock was constructed on the Prescott Channel . This consists of a barge lock , suitable for 350 @-@ tonne ( 344 @.@ 5 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 385 @.@ 8 @-@ short @-@ ton ) barges , and an adjacent sluice , which enables the water levels above the structure to be regulated , rather than navigation being subject to the tides . The lock was built to allow construction materials to be delivered to the site and spoil to be removed , and the final cost was £ 23 million , which included a sluice on the Three Mills Wall River . Work began in March 2007 , and the project lasted for just over two years . Despite hopes that it would transport 1 @.@ 75 million tonnes while the stadium was being built , very little commercial traffic used the new lock .

With water levels above the structure remaining fairly constant , £ 400 @,@ 000 was spent on refurbishing City Mills Lock . Although some work had been carried out in 2006 , including the fitting of new metal gates , it was not operational , and had not been used for around 40 years . The second phase of restoration included fitting the equipment to automate its operation . The first public use of the lock occurred on 31 July 2010 . British Waterways hoped to restore the Carpenters Road Lock soon afterwards , but the project was postponed until after the completion of the Olympic games , as temporary ' Land Bridges ' were erected over the site of the lock to enable pedestrians to reach the stadium , some of which will be removed after the event . Following the Olympic games , it is hoped the waterways will continue to be used by both commercial and leisure craft .

The Olympic Delivery Authority took the decision to culvert more of the Channelsea River , where it crossed the northern part of the site . It remains a designated main river , and so they had to liaise with the Environment Agency on matters of flood @-@ risk management , and a site was identified which would provide compensation for the loss of habitat caused by the culverting . Much of the old River Lea was inaccessible to the public prior to the project , but is a central feature of the northern parklands that have been created . Two ' wetland bowls ' were designed , which have been planted with water @-@ loving plants such as reeds , rushes , sedges and iris . They also provide spawning grounds and refuges during flood conditions for fish , as well as providing storage capacity for flood water . It was the largest aquatic planting scheme ever carried out in Britain when it was completed , and most of the 350 @,@ 000 plants were grown in Norfolk from seeds and cuttings removed from the site . At the southern end of the site , the Waterworks River was reconstructed . Improvements in the 1930s created channels with vertical concrete sides , and little thought for habitat . The channel was made 26 feet ( 8 m ) wider , with sloping banks and ramps down to the water 's edge , and was improved visually and ecologically by the planting of aquatic marginal plants .

With the exception of Bow Creek , the Bow Back Rivers were closed for public access during the Olympics construction works , and remained closed until after the events . Access to sections of the Lee Navigation which pass close to the Olympic Stadium , including part of Bow River , part of the Hackney Cut , and the Hertford Union Canal were restricted during the summer of 2012 . The Bow Back Rivers were intended to form a major feature of the Olympic site . The stadium formed the centrepiece of the Olympics on an island site , with the Waterworks River to the east , and the Aquatics Centre on the eastern bank . Five new pedestrian bridges were built across the waterways to provide the principal access to the stadium .

= = Locks = =

The locks on the Bow Back Rivers are not built to a single standard , and sizes vary .

= = Points of interest = =

= OSI ( band ) =

OSI is an American progressive rock band , originally formed by Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos in 2002 . Chroma Key keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore is the only other full @-@ time member of the band . The collaboration may be considered a studio project , as its members and contributors write and track most of their material independently , sharing and developing tracks long @-@ distance , only coming together at the end of the process for mixing and additional tracking . The band 's name is a reference to the Office of Strategic Influence , a short @-@ lived American government agency formed in 2001 to support the War on Terror through propaganda . The band has featured a number of guest musicians on its albums , including Sean Malone , Steven Wilson , Mikael Åkerfeldt , Joey Vera and Gavin Harrison .

Matheos recruited Moore , Dream Theater 's then @-@ drummer Mike Portnoy and Sean Malone ( Fretless Bass and Chapman Stickist ) to perform on what was originally planned to be a Matheos solo album . Matheos and Portnoy originally planned to produce a progressive metal album similar to Matheos ' work in Fates Warning , however Moore 's impact changed the music 's direction and genre , incorporating electronica into the original progressive metal sound . The band 's debut album was released by InsideOut Music in 2003 .

OSI was originally intended to be a one @-@ off project , but Matheos and Moore found they both had gaps in their schedules so produced a follow @-@ up . Free was released in 2006 , with Portnoy returning to play drums as a session musician rather than a full band member , due to personal and musical differences between him and Moore . Blood was released in 2009 , with Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison replacing Portnoy . The fourth album Fire Make Thunder was released in 2012 by Metal Blade Records , with Harrison once again on drums .

= = History = =

= = = Formation and Office of Strategic Influence ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =

Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally intended to create a progressive metal supergroup while Fates Warning went on hiatus . He recruited Cynic & Gordian Knot Fretless Bass and Chapman Stickist Sean Malone and then @-@ Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy to work on the project . Matheos then asked Chroma Key and ex @-@ Dream Theater keyboardist Kevin Moore to contribute by adding keyboard arrangements to the music he had written . Moore instead heavily edited the music , changing the song structures and adding vocals . Matheos decided to pursue this new direction , sounding closer to Chroma Key than standard progressive metal , over his and Portnoy 's original idea .

Many vocalists were considered to perform on the album ; Matheos and Portnoy briefly considered having a different vocalist perform on each track . Daniel Gildenlöw of Pain of Salvation wrote some vocal melodies and lyrics , but Moore ultimately performed most of the vocals and wrote most of the lyrics . Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree wrote lyrics and performed vocals on one track . Cynic and Gordian Knot bassist Sean Malone performed bass , but was credited as a guest musician because his schedule meant he was unable to join Matheos , Moore and Portnoy for the basic tracking sessions .

Matheos , Moore and Portnoy recorded the album at Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut from June 2 to June 9 , 2002 . Songs with a strong progressive metal influence were mostly written by Matheos , while Moore had greater influence over the vocal @-@ driven tracks . Portnoy made minor arrangement suggestions but did not take part in the actual writing of the album . The album 's recording sessions were the first time Moore and Portnoy collaborated since 1994 in their work in Dream Theater . In 2009 , Portnoy recalled that he found the experience of making the record difficult , and that he was frustrated by the lack of collaboration between him and Moore . Differences between Moore and Portnoy led to his return on the follow @-@ up album as a session drummer rather than full @-@ time member .

InsideOut Music released Office of Strategic Influence on February 17 , 2003 . Moore chose the group 's name and album 's title , referring to the Office of Strategic Influence , established by the US Government after the September 11 attacks to spread propaganda . The album was critically well received . Critics praised the members ' musicianship and the fact that the album differed significantly from the members ' other projects .

= = = Free and Blood ( 2005 – 2009 ) = = =

Matheos and Moore did not plan to make a second OSI album , and returned to their own projects after the first album 's completion . In 2005 , they both had free schedules , so decided to produce a follow @-@ up album . Joey Vera ( also of Fates Warning ) played bass on the album . Portnoy originally told Matheos and Moore that he did not want to perform drums on the album , but was persuaded to perform on the album as a session musician .

Free was released on April 24 , 2006 , receiving generally positive critical reception . Critics noted that the album was darker and more keyboard @-@ focused than the band 's debut. re : free , an EP featuring remixes of three tracks from Free , was released on October 24 , 2006 . The band were keen to tour in support of Free , but no live shows materialised . " The reality of it is in order to [ tour ] the way we would like ... and present it the way we would want to present it ... would cost too much money for the kind of fan base that we have right now , " Matheos said in 2009 . In 2010 he anticipated that OSI will " remain a studio band . "

In September 2008 , Moore posted an update on the Chroma Key website , stating that he and Matheos had been working on a third OSI album for several months . Portnoy was replaced by Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison and Matheos played bass on the album . Opeth vocalist and guitarist Mikael Åkerfeldt and No @-@ Man vocalist Tim Bowness wrote lyrics and sang on one track each .

Blood was released on April 27 , 2009 in Europe and May 19 in North America . The album received positive reviews : Andrew Reilly of Madeloud said that " with Blood the two have finally found the stylistic fusion their first two discs hinted at " , and praised Harrison 's drumming .

= = = Fire Make Thunder ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =

In 2010 , OSI signed with Metal Blade Records . The label reissued Office of Strategic Influence on September 28 , 2010 .

Written and recorded throughout most of 2011 , OSI 's fourth album " Fire Make Thunder " was released on March 27 , 2012 . Gavin Harrison of Porcupine Tree was once again enlisted as session drummer along with a co @-@ writing credit for the song " Enemy Prayer " . All other instruments and programming were performed by Matheos and Moore , while lyrics and vocals were handled exclusively by Moore . The recordings for the album , with the exception of drums , were performed at the musician 's respective home studio . In July 2011 at Sound Farm Studio & Recording Environment final overdubs as well as some additional writing and arranging were completed . The band mixed the album alongside engineer Matt Sepanic . Engineer Roger Siebel handled the final mastering . The record was produced by both Moore and Matheos . During the development process , Kevin Moore kept frequent updates referring to the mixing process of the album on his official Facebook and Twitter accounts .

= = Musical style = =

Moore has described OSI 's sound as " a new approach to progressive rock " , combining elements of progressive metal and electronica . Moore considers the two genres to be " almost natural enemies " , and that the conflict between the two genres " keeps [ the music ] interesting " . Matheos cites progressive rock and heavy metal bands such as Genesis , Jethro Tull , Black Sabbath and UFO as influences . Moore described his influences as minimal techno , experimental , electronic musicians and " bands that play live and then chop it up " .

Matheos and Moore primarily work alone , exchanging files and ideas by email . The writing process for all OSI 's albums has been the same , with Matheos sending Moore an idea " from just a guitar riff to elaborate , almost completed songs " , which Moore then edits and sends back to Matheos . Moore , the band 's vocalist and lyricist , has described the process of writing lyrics as an " audio Rorschach test " . The lyrics on Office of Strategic Influence feature political themes , but the lyrics on later releases are less political , instead being based on Moore 's personal experiences . " I 'll start writing a song that has a little bit of a world view or political view or something , " he said , " but then by the time I 'm finished the lyrics it 'll be about a relationship or something like that . " On Blood , Moore largely abandoned his earlier stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness approach to writing lyrics , in an attempt to make the lyrics more coherent . " I didn 't want it to be like ' Oh , you get your own impression of the lyrics . Everybody has their own idea ! ' I wanted to have an idea that I wanted to communicate , and something communicable , " he explained .

Moore has acknowledged the narrow range of his vocals . He considers his vocal style to " [ come ] from how I feel when I ’ m singing , when I 'm in the zone of writing lyrics and recording which , a lot of times , comes as the same time . It 's sort of an introspective time . A lot of the material lends itself to that kind of voice and that kind of spirit . "

= = Members = =

Current members

Jim Matheos ( Fates Warning ) – guitars , bass ( Since Blood ) , keyboards , programming

Kevin Moore ( Chroma Key , ex @-@ Dream Theater ) – vocals , keyboards , programming

Former members

Mike Portnoy ( ex @-@ Dream Theater ) – drums on Office of Strategic Influence as a full band member and on Free as a session musician

Guest musicians

Gavin Harrison ( Porcupine Tree ) – drums on Blood and Fire Make Thunder

Sean Malone ( Gordian Knot , Cynic ) – bass , Chapman Stick on Office of Strategic Influence

Joey Vera ( Fates Warning ) – bass on Free

Steven Wilson ( Porcupine Tree ) – vocals on the track " shutDOWN " on Office of Strategic Influence

Tim Bowness ( No @-@ Man ) – vocals on the track " No Celebrations " on Blood

Mikael Åkerfeldt ( Opeth ) – vocals on the track " Stockholm " on Blood

= = Discography = =

= First interracial kiss on television =

The first interracial kiss on television is a much debated topic concerning who the first two persons of different races to kiss on television were . For a time , it was understood to have occurred during an episode of the British soap opera Emergency – Ward 10 in 1964 . However , in November 2015 , a Granada Play of the Week , You in Your Small Corner , was uncovered which was broadcast in June 1962 ; that quickly led to the rediscovery of another play featuring the same young Jamaican actor , Hot Summer Night , televised in Britain on 1 February 1959 . Competing claims have also been made in favor of I Love Lucy .

= = Claims = =

= = = I Love Lucy = = =

The 1950s American television program I Love Lucy broadcast multiple instances of real @-@ life husband and wife Desi Arnaz , an Hispanic male , and Lucille Ball , a woman of North European ancestry , kissing . However , despite Arnaz and Ball being frequently described as an " interracial couple , " " Hispanic " is generally understood to be a catchall indicating persons of a Latin American or Iberian cultural background , as opposed to a race . Arnaz was usually considered to be a white male of Cuban ancestry .

= = = You in Your Small Corner and Hot Summer Night = = =

In June 1962 , a live performance of the play You in Your Small Corner by Barry Reckord was broadcast on British television as part of the series Granada Play of the Week . The central theme of the play is a relationship between a young black intellectual and a white working class girl . During the play , a kiss takes place between actors Lloyd Reckord and Elizabeth MacLennan , and what has been described as an " explicit post @-@ coital scene " .

You In Your Small Corner was rediscovered during preparations for a November 2015 British Film Institute panel discussion on " Race and Romance on TV " and was used in publicity for the event . As a result , panel moderator Samira Ahmed was able , on the night , to announce the rediscovery of an even earlier TV kiss by Lloyd Reckord , with Andrée Melly , in the ITV Armchair Theatre adaptation of Ted Willis 's play Hot Summer Night , broadcast on 1 February 1959 .

= = = Emergency Ward 10 = = =

One of the earliest interracial kisses on television occurred in a July 1964 episode of British soap opera Emergency Ward 10 , during which characters Louise Mahler ( portrayed by Joan Hooley ) and Giles Farmer ( portrayed by John White ) kissed . The scene in which Mahler and Farmer kissed was originally scripted to occur in Mahler 's bedroom , but was rewritten so as to occur outdoors , due to concerns it would otherwise be too risqué ( the earlier Lloyd Reckord plays had both been shown well after the 9pm adult @-@ content watershed ) . According to an issue of the Daily Express published after the episode aired , " not a viewer rang @-@ up to complain " . In a 2015 interview , conducted prior to the discovery of the You in Your Small Corner footage , Hooley noted that the historic importance of what had been known as the " first interracial kiss on television " had been inflated in popular memory :

A lot of people spoke about it more ten years later than they did at the time it was happening . So , it was much later that it occurred to me that I was part of history . I find it odd to have to admit that I was part of history because I don 't see why there should be anything to do about it . I don 't think there should have been all this fuss about it .

= = Star Trek claim = =

The first interracial kiss on American network television is often attributed to a 1968 episode of Star Trek , " Plato 's Stepchildren " .

Other sources contend that both The Wild Wild West ( " The Night the Dragon Screamed " , aired 1966 Jan. 14 ) and I Spy had broadcast interracial kisses between Caucasian and Asian actors prior to the Star Trek episode . In addition , a December 1967 episode of Movin ' with Nancy featured a kiss between Nancy Sinatra and Sammy Davis , Jr . , more than a year before " Plato 's Stepchildren " aired . Further , some contend that " Plato 's Stepchildren " did not include an interracial kiss at all , full lip contact between William Shatner and Nichelle Nichols not having occurred , the actors having turned their heads away from the camera at the last moment to present the illusion of a kiss . The latter point has been disputed , Shatner claiming that he and Nichols ' lips never fully touched , while Nichols has alternately asserted that the kiss was , in fact , real .

= Geographical name changes in Turkey =

Geographical name changes in Turkey have been undertaken , periodically , in bulk from 1913 to the present by successive Turkish governments . Thousands of names within the Turkish Republic or the Ottoman Empire have lost or departed from their popular or historic alternatives in favour of recognizably Turkish names , as part of the Turkification policy . The governments have argued that such names are foreign and / or divisive against Turkish unity . Names changed were usually of Armenian , Greek , Laz , Georgian , Bulgarian , Kurdish , Assyrian , or Arabic origin .

Turkey 's efforts to join the European Union in the early 21st century has led to a decrease in the incidence of such changes from local , and particularly the central government . In some cases legislation has restored the names of certain villages ( primarily those housing Kurdish minorities ) . Place names that have formally changed frequently persist in local dialects and languages throughout the ethnically diverse country .

The policy commenced during the final years of the Ottoman Empire and continued into the Turkish Republic . Under the Kemalist oriented government , specialized governmental commissions were created for the purpose of changing names . Approximately 28 @,@ 000 topographic names were changed , which included 12 @,@ 211 village and town names and 4 @,@ 000 mountain , river , and other topographic names . Most name changes occurred in the eastern regions of the country where minority ethnicities form a large part or a majority of the population . Policies at times included banning the use of foreign names that were considered divisive and inappropriate .

= = History = =

= = = Ottoman Empire = = =

The Committee of Union and Progress took the reins of the Ottoman government through a coup d 'état in 1913 . At the height of World War I and during the final years of the Ottoman Empire , when the ethnic cleansing policies of non @-@ Muslim Greek , Armenian , and Assyrian minorities were underway , Minister of War Enver Pasha issued an edict ( ferman ) on October 6 , 1916 , declaring :

It has been decided that provinces , districts , towns , villages , mountains , and rivers , which are named in languages belonging to non @-@ Muslim nations such as Armenian , Greek or Bulgarian , will be renamed into Turkish . In order to benefit from this suitable moment , this aim should be achieved in due course .

General Directorate of State Archives of the Republic of Turkey , İstanbul Vilayet Mektupçuluğu , no . 000955 , 23 Kânunuevvel 1331 ( October 6 , 1916 ) Ordinance of Enver Paşa

Enver Pasha did not change the geographical names belonging to Muslim minorities ( i.e. Arabs and Kurds ) due to the Ottoman government 's role as a Caliphate . His decree inspired many Turkish intellectuals to write in support of such measures . One such intellectual , Hüseyin Avni Alparslan ( 1877 – 1921 ) , a Turkish soldier and author of books about Turkish language and culture , was inspired by the efforts of Enver Pasha , writing in his book Trabzon İli Lâz mı ? Türk mü ? ( Is the Trabzon province Laz or Turkish ? ) that :

If we want to be the owner of our country , then we should turn even the name of the smallest village into Turkish and not leave its Armenian , Greek or Arabic variants .

Only in this way can we paint our country with its colors .

It is not known how many geographical names were changed under the ordinance . The ultimate overarching objective behind it failed due to the collapse of the Ottoman government and trials of its leaders before Ottoman and European courts for massacres against ethnic minorities committed in 1915 .

A decreased level of cultural repression has taken place in the Turkish Republic , however non @-@ mainstream Turkic origin place names have invariably been officially renamed over the course of time .

= = = Republic of Turkey = = =

Turkish nationalism and secularism were two of the six founding principles of the Turkish Republic . Mustafa Kemal Ataturk , the leader of the early decades of the Republic , aimed to create a nation state ( Turkish : Ulus ) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire . During the first three decades of the Republic , efforts to Turkify geographical names were a recurring theme . Imported maps containing references to historical regions such as Armenia , Kurdistan , or Lazistan ( the official name of the province of Rize until 1921 ) were prohibited ( as was the case with Der Grosse Weltatlas , a map published in Leipzig ) .

Journalist and writer Ayşe Hür has noted that after the death of Ataturk and during the Democratic period of the Turkish Republic in the late 1940s and 50s , " ugly , humiliating , insulting or derisive names , even if they were Turkish , were subjected to changes . Village names with lexical components meaning red ( kizil ) , bell ( çan ) , church ( kilise , e.g. Kirk Kilise ) were all changed . To do away with " separatist notions " , the Arabic , Persian , Armenian , Kurdish , Georgian , Tatar , Circassian , and Laz village names were also changed . "

The Special Commission for Name Change ( Ad Degistirme Ihtisas Komisyonu ) was created under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior . It brought together professors , politicians , generals , linguists , and academicians throughout Turkey to take up the task of official name changing . Among the commission 's participants were members of the Office of the General Staff , Ministry of Defense , Ministry of Education , and history and geography professors from Ankara University . The initiative proved successful , as approximately 28 @,@ 000 topographic names were changed , including 12 @,@ 211 village and town names and 4 @,@ 000 mountain , river , and other topographic names . This figure also included names of streets , monuments , quarters , neighborhoods , and other components that make up certain municipalities . By 1927 , all street and square names in Istanbul which were not of Turkish origin were changed . The campaign continued until 1978 , and was reintroduced after the military coup of 1980 in 1981 – 83 . During the heightened tension between Kurdish rebels and the Turkish government , the focus of geographical name changing in the 1980s was on Kurdish villages , towns , rivers , etc .

In 1981 , the Turkish government stated in the preface of Köylerimiz , a publication dedicated to names of Turkish villages , that :

Approximately 12 @,@ 000 village names that are non @-@ Turkish , understood to originate from non @-@ Turkish roots , and identified as causing confusion have been examined and replaced with Turkish names , and put into effect by the Substitution Committee for Foreign Names functioning at the Directorate General for Provincial Governments in our Ministry .

At the culmination of the policy , no geographical or topographical names of non @-@ Turkish origin remained . Some of the newer names resembled their native names , but with revised Turkish connotations ( i.e. Aghtamar was changed to Akdamar ) .

= = = Current status = = =

Although geographical names have been formally changed in Turkey , their native names persist and continue in local dialects throughout the country . At times , Turkish politicians have also used the native names of cities during their speeches . In 2009 , when addressing a crowd in the town of Güroymak , president Abdullah Gul used the native name Norşin . Also that year , when talking about his family origins , Prime Minister Recep Tayip Erdogan used the native Greek name of Potamya instead of Güneysu .

Efforts at restoring the former names of geographical terms have been recently introduced in Turkey . In September 2012 , legislation was introduced to restore the names of ( primarily Kurdish ) villages to their former native names . According to the bill , the province of Tunceli would be named Dersim , Güroymak would be named Norşin , and Aydınlar would be named Tilo .

= = Comparative analysis = =

Most of the geographical name changes occurred in the eastern provinces of the country and on the coast of the eastern Black Sea , where minority populations tend to live . Through independent study , etymologist Sevan Nisanyan estimates that , of the geographical location name changes , 4 @,@ 200 were Greek , 4 @,@ 000 Kurdish , 3 @,@ 600 Armenian , 750 Arabic , 400 Assyrian , 300 Georgian , 200 Laz , and 50 others . The official statistics of The Special Commission for Name Change ( Ad Degistirme Ihtisas Komisyonu ) claim that the total number of villages , towns , cities , and settlements renamed is 12 @,@ 211 . The chart below lists the provinces and the number of villages or towns renamed .

= = Notable geographical name changes = =

= = = Armenian = = =

Armenian geographic names were first changed under the reign of Sultan Abdulhamit II . In 1880 , the word Armenia was banned from use in the press , schoolbooks , and governmental establishments , to be replaced with words like Anatolia or Kurdistan . Armenian name changing continued under the early Republican era up until the 21st century . It included the Turkification of last names , change of animal names , change of the names of Armenian historical figures ( i.e. the name of the prominent Balyan family was concealed under the identity of a superficial Italian family called Baliani ) , and the change and distortion of Armenian historical events .

Most Armenian geographical names were in the eastern provinces of the Ottoman empire . Villages , settlements , or towns that contain the suffix -kert , meaning built or built by ( i.e. Manavazkert ( today Malazgirt ) , Norakert , Dikranagert , Noyakert ) , -shen , meaning village ( i.e. Aratashen , Pemzashen , Norashen ) , and -van , meaning town ( i.e. Charentsavan , Nakhichevan , Tatvan ) , signify an Armenian name . Throughout Ottoman history , Turkish and Kurdish tribesmen have settled into Armenian villages and changed the native Armenian names ( i.e. the Armenian Norashen was changed to Norşin ) . This was especially true after the Armenian genocide , when much of eastern Turkey was depopulated of its Armenian population .

Sevan Nişanyan estimates that 3 @,@ 600 Armenian geographical locations have been changed .

Notable name changes of Armenian geographical locations :

= = = Assyrian = = =

Most Assyrian name changes occurred in the southeast of Turkey near the Syrian border in the Tur Abdin region . The Tur Abdin ( Syriac : ܛܘܼܪ ܥܒ ݂ ܕܝܼܢ ) is a hilly region incorporating the eastern half of Mardin Province , and Şırnak Province west of the Tigris , on the border with Syria . The name ' Tur Abdin ' is from the Syriac language meaning ' mountain of the servants ( of God ) ' . Tur Abdin is of great importance to Syriac Orthodox Christians , for whom the region used to be a monastic and cultural heartland . The Assyrian / Syriac people of Tur Abdin call themselves Suroye and Suryoye , and traditionally speak an Eastern Aramaic dialect called Turoyo .

After the Assyrian genocide , the Assyrians of the region were either depopulated or massacred . Currently , there are 5 , 000 Assyrians living in the region .

Nişanyan estimates that 400 Assyrian geographical locations have been changed .

Notable name changes of Assyrian geographical locations :

= = = Greek = = =

Many of the Greek names have maintained their origins from the Byzantine empire and Empire of Trebizond era .

With the establishment of the Ottoman empire , many Turkish name changes have continued to retain their Greek origins . For example , the modern name " İzmir " derives from the former Greek name Σμύρνη " Smyrna " , through the first two syllables of the phrase " εις Σμύρνην " ( pronounced " is Smirnin " ) , which means " to Smyrna " in Greek . A similar etymology also applies to other Turkish cities with former Greek names , such as İznik ( from the phrase " is Nikaean " , meaning " to Nicaea " ) , Istanbul ( from the phrase " is tan Polin " or " to the City " ) , or even for the Greek island of Kos , called " İstanköy " in Turkish .

Nişanyan estimates that 4 @,@ 200 Greek geographical locations have been changed , the most of any ethnic minority .

Notable name changes of Greek geographical locations :

= = = Kurdish = = =

The Kurdish geographical name changes were exempt under the Ottoman Empire due to the Islamic religious orientation of Kurds . During the Republican era and especially after the Dersim massacre , Kurdish geographical name changes became more common . During the Turkish Republican era , the words Kurdistan and Kurds were banned . The Turkish government had disguised the presence of the Kurds statistically by categorizing them as Mountain Turks . This classification was changed to the new euphemism of Eastern Turk in 1980 .

Also included in the category of Kurdish geographical name changes are Zazaki , which is considered among Kurdish group , along with Kurmanci . Nişanyan estimates that 4 @,@ 000 Kurdish geographical locations have been changed .

Notable name changes of Kurdish geographical locations :

= Solar energy =

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever @-@ evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis .

It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power . Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy . Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light @-@ dispersing properties , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air .

The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity . The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1 @,@ 575 – 49 @,@ 837 exajoules ( EJ ) . This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption , which was 559 @.@ 8 EJ in 2012 .

In 2011 , the International Energy Agency said that " the development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer @-@ term benefits . It will increase countries ’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import @-@ independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared " .

= = Potential = =

The Earth receives 174 @,@ 000 terawatts ( TW ) of incoming solar radiation ( insolation ) at the upper atmosphere . Approximately 30 % is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds , oceans and land masses . The spectrum of solar light at the Earth 's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near @-@ infrared ranges with a small part in the near @-@ ultraviolet . Most of the world 's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150 @-@ 300 watts / m ² , or 3 @.@ 5 @-@ 7 @.@ 0 kWh / m ² per day .

Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's land surface , oceans – which cover about 71 % of the globe – and atmosphere . Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises , causing atmospheric circulation or convection . When the air reaches a high altitude , where the temperature is low , water vapor condenses into clouds , which rain onto the Earth 's surface , completing the water cycle . The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection , producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind , cyclones and anti @-@ cyclones . Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 ° C. By photosynthesis , green plants convert solar energy into chemically stored energy , which produces food , wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived .

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth 's atmosphere , oceans and land masses is approximately 3 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 exajoules ( EJ ) per year . In 2002 , this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year . Photosynthesis captures approximately 3 @,@ 000 EJ per year in biomass . The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth 's non @-@ renewable resources of coal , oil , natural gas , and mined uranium combined ,

The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography , time variation , cloud cover , and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire .

Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation . However , the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator . Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb . This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day . Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells .

In addition , land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels . Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells , as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way . Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established .

Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture , convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world , mostly depending on distance from the equator . Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends , all renewable energies , other than Geothermal power and Tidal power , derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun .

Active solar techniques use photovoltaics , concentrated solar power , solar thermal collectors , pumps , and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs . Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties , designing spaces that naturally circulate air , and referencing the position of a building to the Sun . Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies , while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies .

In 2000 , the United Nations Development Programme , UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs , and World Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation , cloud cover , and the land that is usable by humans . The estimate found that solar energy has a global potential of 1 @,@ 575 – 49 @,@ 837 EJ per year ( see table below ) .

= = Thermal energy = =

Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating , space heating , space cooling and process heat generation .

= = = Early commercial adaptation = = =

In 1897 , Frank Shuman , a U.S. inventor , engineer and solar energy pioneer built a small demonstration solar engine that worked by reflecting solar energy onto square boxes filled with ether , which has a lower boiling point than water , and were fitted internally with black pipes which in turn powered a steam engine . In 1908 Shuman formed the Sun Power Company with the intent of building larger solar power plants . He , along with his technical advisor A.S.E. Ackermann and British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys , developed an improved system using mirrors to reflect solar energy upon collector boxes , increasing heating capacity to the extent that water could now be used instead of ether . Shuman then constructed a full @-@ scale steam engine powered by low @-@ pressure water , enabling him to patent the entire solar engine system by 1912 .

Shuman built the world ’ s first solar thermal power station in Maadi , Egypt , between 1912 and 1913 . His plant used parabolic troughs to power a 45 – 52 kilowatts ( 60 – 70 hp ) engine that pumped more than 22 @,@ 000 litres ( 4 @,@ 800 imp gal ; 5 @,@ 800 US gal ) of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields . Although the outbreak of World War I and the discovery of cheap oil in the 1930s discouraged the advancement of solar energy , Shuman ’ s vision and basic design were resurrected in the 1970s with a new wave of interest in solar thermal energy . In 1916 Shuman was quoted in the media advocating solar energy 's utilization , saying :

We have proved the commercial profit of sun power in the tropics and have more particularly proved that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun .

= = = Water heating = = =

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water . In low geographical latitudes ( below 40 degrees ) from 60 to 70 % of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 ° C can be provided by solar heating systems . The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors ( 44 % ) and glazed flat plate collectors ( 34 % ) generally used for domestic hot water ; and unglazed plastic collectors ( 21 % ) used mainly to heat swimming pools .

As of 2007 , the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems was approximately 154 thermal gigawatt ( GWth ) . China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GWth installed as of 2006 and a long @-@ term goal of 210 GWth by 2020 . Israel and Cyprus are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90 % of homes using them . In the United States , Canada , and Australia , heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GWth as of 2005 .

= = = Heating , cooling and ventilation = = =

In the United States , heating , ventilation and air conditioning ( HVAC ) systems account for 30 % ( 4 @.@ 65 EJ / yr ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50 % ( 10 @.@ 1 EJ / yr ) of the energy used in residential buildings . Solar heating , cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy .

Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat — heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy . Common thermal mass materials include stone , cement and water . Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night . However , they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well . The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate , daylighting and shading conditions . When properly incorporated , thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment .

A solar chimney ( or thermal chimney , in this context ) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building . As the chimney warms , the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building . Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses .

Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling . When planted on the southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere , their leaves provide shade during the summer , while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter . Since bare , leafless trees shade 1 / 3 to 1 / 2 of incident solar radiation , there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating . In climates with significant heating loads , deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator @-@ facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability . They can , however , be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain .

= = = Cooking = = =

Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking , drying and pasteurization . They can be grouped into three broad categories : box cookers , panel cookers and reflector cookers . The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767 . A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid . It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90 – 150 ° C ( 194 – 302 ° F ) . Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers . Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries ( dish , trough , Fresnel mirrors ) to focus light on a cooking container . These cookers reach temperatures of 315 ° C ( 599 ° F ) and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun .

= = = Process heat = = =

Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish , trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications . The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project ( STEP ) in Shenandoah , Georgia , USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50 % of the process heating , air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory . This grid @-@ connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water , and had a one @-@ hour peak load thermal storage . Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation . The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from seawater is one of the oldest applications of solar energy . Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams . Clothes lines , clotheshorses , and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas . In some states of the United States legislation protects the " right to dry " clothes . Unglazed transpired collectors ( UTC ) are perforated sun @-@ facing walls used for preheating ventilation air . UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 ° C ( 40 ° F ) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45 – 60 ° C ( 113 – 140 ° F ) . The short payback period of transpired collectors ( 3 to 12 years ) makes them a more cost @-@ effective alternative than glazed collection systems . As of 2003 , over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35 @,@ 000 square metres ( 380 @,@ 000 sq ft ) had been installed worldwide , including an 860 m2 ( 9 @,@ 300 sq ft ) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1 @,@ 300 m2 ( 14 @,@ 000 sq ft ) collector in Coimbatore , India , used for drying marigolds .

= = = Water treatment = = =

Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable . The first recorded instance of this was by 16th @-@ century Arab alchemists . A large @-@ scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas . The plant , which had solar collection area of 4 @,@ 700 m2 ( 51 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , could produce up to 22 @,@ 700 L ( 5 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 6 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day and operate for 40 years . Individual still designs include single @-@ slope , double @-@ slope ( or greenhouse type ) , vertical , conical , inverted absorber , multi @-@ wick , and multiple effect . These stills can operate in passive , active , or hybrid modes . Double @-@ slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes , while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large @-@ scale applications .

Solar water disinfection ( SODIS ) involves exposing water @-@ filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) bottles to sunlight for several hours . Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions . It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage . Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water .

Solar energy may be used in a water stabilization pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity . A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis , although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable .

= = Electricity production = =

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics ( PV ) , or indirectly using concentrated solar power ( CSP ) . CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect .

Solar power is anticipated to become the world 's largest source of electricity by 2050 , with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption , respectively .

Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s . Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP installation , in the Mojave Desert of California , is the largest solar power plant in the world . Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station , both in Spain . The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project , in the United States , and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India , are the world ’ s largest photovoltaic plants . Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed , but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW , which are connected to the grid using net metering and / or a feed @-@ in tariff . In 2013 solar generated less than 1 % of the world 's total grid electricity .

= = = Photovoltaics = = =

In the last two decades , photovoltaics ( PV ) , also known as solar PV , has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source . A solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect . The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s . In 1931 a German engineer , Dr Bruno Lange , developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide . Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1 % of incident light into electricity , both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery . Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s , researchers Gerald Pearson , Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954 . These early solar cells cost 286 USD / watt and reached efficiencies of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 % . By 2012 available efficiencies exceeded 20 % , and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics was in excess of 40 % .

= = = Concentrated solar power = = =

Concentrating Solar Power ( CSP ) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant . A wide range of concentrating technologies exists ; the most developed are the parabolic trough , the concentrating linear fresnel reflector , the Stirling dish and the solar power tower . Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light . In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight , and is then used for power generation or energy storage .

= = Architecture and urban planning = =

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history . Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese , who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth .

The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun , compact proportion ( a low surface area to volume ratio ) , selective shading ( overhangs ) and thermal mass . When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well @-@ lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range . Socrates ' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design . The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting , heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package . Active solar equipment such as pumps , fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance .

Urban heat islands ( UHI ) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment . The higher temperatures result from increased absorption of solar energy by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete , which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment . A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white , and to plant trees in the area . Using these methods , a hypothetical " cool communities " program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 ° C at an estimated cost of US $ 1 billion , giving estimated total annual benefits of US $ 530 million from reduced air @-@ conditioning costs and healthcare savings .

= = Agriculture and horticulture = =

Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants . Techniques such as timed planting cycles , tailored row orientation , staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields . While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource , the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture . During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age , French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy . These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm . Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south , but over time , sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight . In 1699 , Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun . Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water , drying crops , brooding chicks and drying chicken manure . More recently the technology has been embraced by vintners , who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses .

Greenhouses convert solar light to heat , enabling year @-@ round production and the growth ( in enclosed environments ) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate . Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year @-@ round for the Roman emperor Tiberius . The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad . Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today , and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers .

= = Transport = =

Development of a solar @-@ powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s . The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar @-@ powered car race , where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3 @,@ 021 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 877 mi ) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide . In 1987 , when it was founded , the winner 's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour ( 42 mph ) and by 2007 the winner 's average speed had improved to 90 @.@ 87 kilometres per hour ( 56 @.@ 46 mph ) . The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles .

Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power , such as for air conditioning , to keep the interior cool , thus reducing fuel consumption .

In 1975 , the first practical solar boat was constructed in England . By 1995 , passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively . In 1996 , Kenichi Horie made the first solar @-@ powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean , and the Sun21 catamaran made the first solar @-@ powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006 – 2007 . There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010 .

In 1974 , the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise airplane made the first solar flight . On 29 April 1979 , the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar @-@ powered , fully controlled , man @-@ carrying flying machine , reaching an altitude of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . In 1980 , the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics . This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981 . In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power . Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAV ) with the Pathfinder ( 1997 ) and subsequent designs , culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non @-@ rocket @-@ propelled aircraft at 29 @,@ 524 metres ( 96 @,@ 864 ft ) in 2001 . The Zephyr , developed by BAE Systems , is the latest in a line of record @-@ breaking solar aircraft , making a 54 @-@ hour flight in 2007 , and month @-@ long flights were envisioned by 2010 . As of 2016 , Solar Impulse , an electric aircraft , is currently circumnavigating the globe . It is a single @-@ seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power . The design allows the aircraft to remain airborne for several days .

A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air . As sunlight shines on the balloon , the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force , much like an artificially heated hot air balloon . Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight , but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface @-@ area to payload @-@ weight ratio is relatively high .

= = Fuel production = =

Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions . These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels . Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical . A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis . The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon @-@ based fuels ( such as methanol ) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging ; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons , though use of water as the source of electrons ( as plants do ) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen . Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 – the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel @-@ cell electric power plants and the pure water by @-@ product going directly into the municipal water system . Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth 's surface ( i.e. , roads , vehicles and buildings ) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants .

Hydrogen production technologies have been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s . Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells , several thermochemical processes have also been explored . One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures ( 2 @,@ 300 – 2 @,@ 600 ° C or 4 @,@ 200 – 4 @,@ 700 ° F ) . Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods . Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen production . The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute of Science uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide ( ZnO ) at temperatures above 1 @,@ 200 ° C ( 2 @,@ 200 ° F ) . This initial reaction produces pure zinc , which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen .

= = Energy storage methods = =

Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations . Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water , earth and stone . Well @-@ designed systems can lower peak demand , shift time @-@ of @-@ use to off @-@ peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements .

Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber 's salt are another thermal storage medium . These materials are inexpensive , readily available , and can deliver domestically useful temperatures ( approximately 64 ° C or 147 ° F ) . The " Dover House " ( in Dover , Massachusetts ) was the first to use a Glauber 's salt heating system , in 1948 . Solar energy can also be stored at high temperatures using molten salts . Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low @-@ cost , have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems . The Solar Two project used this method of energy storage , allowing it to store 1 @.@ 44 terajoules ( 400 @,@ 000 kWh ) in its 68 m ³ storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99 % .

Off @-@ grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity . With grid @-@ tied systems , excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid , while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls . Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid . This is handled by ' rolling back ' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes . If the net electricity use is below zero , the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month . Other approaches involve the use of two meters , to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced . This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter . Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions , making a second meter unnecessary .

Pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one . The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water , with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator .

= = Development , deployment and economics = =

Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution , energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels . The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce . However , development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability , economy , and utility of coal and petroleum .

The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies . Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the U.S. and the Sunshine Program in Japan . Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the U.S. ( SERI , now NREL ) , Japan ( NEDO ) , and Germany ( Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE ) .

Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s . These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels . As with photovoltaics , solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices . Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and annual growth rates have averaged 20 % since 1999 . Although generally underestimated , solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007 .

The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces :

The development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer @-@ term benefits . It will increase countries ’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import @-@ independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating climate change , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared .

In 2011 , a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics , solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world ’ s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change . The energy from the sun could play a key role in de @-@ carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters . " The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications , from small scale to big scale " .

We have proved ... that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun .

= = ISO standards = =

The International Organization for Standardization has established several standards relating to solar energy equipment . For example , ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters .

= The Garden of Earthly Delights =

The Garden of Earthly Delights is the modern title given to a triptych painted by the Early Netherlandish master Hieronymus Bosch , housed in the Museo del Prado in Madrid since 1939 . It dates from between 1490 and 1510 , when Bosch was between about 40 and 60 years old , and is his best @-@ known and most ambitious surviving work .

The triptych is painted in oil on oak and is formed from a square middle panel flanked by two other oak rectangular wings that close over the center as shutters . The outer wings , when folded , show a grisaille painting of the earth during the biblical narrative of Creation . The three scenes of the inner triptych are probably ( but not necessarily ) intended to be read chronologically from left to right . The left panel depicts God presenting Eve to Adam , the central panel is a broad panorama of socially engaged nude figures , fantastical animals , oversized fruit and hybrid stone formations . The right panel is a hellscape and portrays the torments of damnation .

Art historians frequently interpret the painting as a didactic warning on the perils of life 's temptations . However , the intricacy of its symbolism , particularly that of the central panel , has led to a wide range of scholarly interpretations over the centuries . Twentieth @-@ century art historians are divided as to whether the triptych 's central panel is a moral warning or a panorama of paradise lost . American writer Peter S. Beagle describes it as an " erotic derangement that turns us all into voyeurs , a place filled with the intoxicating air of perfect liberty " .

Bosch painted three large triptychs ( the others are The Last Judgment of c . 1482 and The Haywain Triptych of c . 1516 ) that can be read from left to right and in which each panel was essential to the meaning of the whole . Each of these three works presents distinct yet linked themes addressing history and faith . Triptychs from this period were generally intended to be read sequentially , the left and right panels often portraying Eden and the Last Judgment respectively , while the main subject was contained in the center piece . It is not known whether " The Garden " was intended as an altarpiece , but the general view is that the extreme subject matter of the inner center and right panels make it unlikely that it was intended to function in a church or monastery , but was instead commissioned by a lay patron .

= = Description = =

= = = Exterior = = =

When the triptych 's wings are closed , the design of the outer panels becomes visible . Rendered in a green – gray grisaille , these panels lack colour , probably because most Netherlandish triptychs were thus painted , but possibly indicating that the painting reflects a time before the creation of the sun and moon , which were formed , according to Christian theology , to " give light to the earth " . It was common for the outer panels of Netherlandish altarpieces to be in grisaille , such that their blandness highlighted the splendid colour inside .

The outer panels are generally thought to depict the creation of the world , showing greenery beginning to clothe the still @-@ pristine Earth . God , wearing a crown similar to a papal tiara ( a common convention in Netherlandish painting ) , is visible as a tiny figure at the upper left . Bosch shows God as the father sitting with a Bible on his lap , creating the Earth in a passive manner by divine fiat . Above him is inscribed a quote from Psalm 33 reading " Ipse dixit , et facta sunt : ipse mandāvit , et creāta sunt " — For he spake and it was done ; he commanded , and it stood fast . The Earth is encapsulated in a transparent sphere recalling the traditional depiction of the created world as a crystal sphere held by God or Christ . It hangs suspended in the cosmos , which is shown as an impermeable darkness , whose only other inhabitant is God himself .

Despite the presence of vegetation , the earth does not yet contain human or animal life , indicating that the scene represents the events of the biblical Third Day . Bosch renders the plant life in an unusual fashion , using uniformly gray tints which make it difficult to determine whether the subjects are purely vegetable or perhaps include some mineral formations . Surrounding the interior of the globe is the sea , partially illuminated by beams of light shining through clouds . The exterior wings have a clear position within the sequential narrative of the work as a whole . They show an unpopulated earth composed solely of rock and plants , contrasting sharply with the inner central panel which contains a paradise teeming with lustful humanity .

= = = Interior = = =

Scholars have proposed that Bosch used the outer panels to establish a Biblical setting for the inner elements of the work , and the exterior image is generally interpreted as set in an earlier time than those in the interior . As with Bosch 's Haywain triptych , the inner centerpiece is flanked by heavenly and hellish imagery . The scenes depicted in the triptych are thought to follow a chronological order : flowing from left @-@ to @-@ right they represent Eden , the garden of earthly delights , and Hell . God appears as the creator of humanity in the left hand wing , while the consequences of humanity 's failure to follow his will are shown in the right .

However , in contrast to Bosch 's two other complete triptychs , The Last Judgment ( around 1482 ) and The Haywain ( after 1510 ) , God is absent from the central panel . Instead , this panel shows humanity acting with apparent free will as naked men and women engage in various pleasure @-@ seeking activities . According to some interpretations , the right hand panel is believed to show God 's penalties in a hellscape .

Art historian Charles de Tolnay believed that , through the seductive gaze of Adam , the left panel already shows God 's waning influence upon the newly created earth . This view is reinforced by the rendering of God in the outer panels as a tiny figure in comparison to the immensity of the earth . According to Belting , the three inner panels seek to broadly convey the Old Testament notion that , before the Fall , there was no defined boundary between good and evil ; humanity in its innocence was unaware of consequence .

= = = = Left panel = = = =

The left panel ( 220 × 97 @.@ 5 cm , 87 × 38 @.@ 4 in ) ( sometimes known as the Joining of Adam and Eve ) depicts a scene from the paradise of the Garden of Eden commonly interpreted as the moment when God presents Eve to Adam . The painting shows Adam waking from a deep sleep to find God holding Eve by her wrist and giving the sign of his blessing to their union . God is younger @-@ looking than on the outer panels , blue @-@ eyed and with golden curls . His youthful appearance may be a device by the artist to illustrate the concept of Christ as the incarnation of the Word of God . God 's right hand is raised in blessing , while he holds Eve 's wrist with his left . According to the work 's most controversial interpreter , the 20th @-@ century folklorist and art historian Wilhelm Fraenger :

... " As though enjoying the pulsation of the living blood and as though too he were setting a seal on the eternal and immutable communion between this human blood and his own . This physical contact between the Creator and Eve is repeated even more noticeably in the way Adam 's toes touch the Lord 's foot . Here is the stressing of a rapport : Adam seems indeed to be stretching to his full length in order to make contact with the Creator . And the billowing out of the cloak around the Creator 's heart , from where the garment falls in marked folds and contours to Adam 's feet , also seems to indicate that here a current of divine power flows down , so that this group of three actually forms a closed circuit , a complex of magical energy " ...

Eve avoids Adam 's gaze , although , according to art historian Walter S. Gibson , she is shown " seductively presenting her body to Adam " . Adam 's expression is one of amazement , and Fraenger has identified three elements to his seeming astonishment . Firstly , there is surprise at the presence of the God . Secondly , he is reacting to an awareness that Eve is of the same nature as himself , and has been created from his own body . Finally , from the intensity of Adam 's gaze , it can be concluded that he is experiencing sexual arousal and the primal urge to reproduce for the first time .

The surrounding landscape is populated by hut @-@ shaped forms , some of which are made from stone , while others are at least partially organic . Behind Eve rabbits , symbolising fecundity , play in the grass , and a dragon tree opposite is thought to represent eternal life . The background reveals several animals that would have been exotic to contemporaneous Europeans , including a giraffe , an elephant and a lion that has killed and is about to devour his prey . In the foreground , from a large hole in the ground , emerge birds and winged animals , some of which are realistic , some fantastic . Behind a fish , a person clothed in a short @-@ sleeved hooded jacket and with a duck 's beak holds an open book as if reading . To the left of the area a cat holds a small lizard @-@ like creature in its jaws . Belting observes that , despite the fact that the creatures in the foreground are fantastical imaginings , many of the animals in the mid and background are drawn from contemporary travel literature , and here Bosch is appealing to " the knowledge of a humanistic and aristocratic readership " . Erhard Reuwich 's pictures for Bernhard von Breydenbach 's 1486 Pilgrimages to the Holy Land were long thought to be the source for both the elephant and the giraffe , though more recent research indicates the mid @-@ 15th @-@ century humanist scholar Cyriac of Ancona 's travelogues served as Bosch 's exposure to these exotic animals .

According to art historian Virginia Tuttle , the scene is " highly unconventional [ and ] cannot be identified as any of the events from the Book of Genesis traditionally depicted in Western art " . Some of the image 's details seem to contradict the innocence that might be expected in the Garden of Eden before the expulsion . Tuttle and other critics have interpreted the gaze of Adam upon his wife as lustful , and indicative of the Christian belief that humanity was doomed from the beginning . Gibson believes that Adam 's facial expression betrays not just surprise but also expectation . According to a belief common in the Middle Ages , before the Fall Adam and Eve would have copulated without lust , solely to reproduce . Many believed that the first sin committed after Eve tasted the forbidden fruit was carnal lust . On a tree to the right a snake curls around a tree trunk , while to its right a mouse creeps ; according to Fraenger , both animals are universal phallic symbols .

= = = = Center panel = = = =

The skyline of the center panel ( 220 × 195 cm , 87 × 77 in ) matches exactly with that of the left wing , while the positioning of its central pool and the lake behind it echoes the lake in the earlier scene . The center image depicts the expansive " garden " landscape which gives the triptych its name . The panel shares a common horizon with the left wing , suggesting a spatial connection between the two scenes . The garden is teeming with male and female nudes , together with a variety of animals , plants and fruit . The setting is not the paradise shown in the left panel , but neither is it based in the terrestrial realm . Fantastic creatures mingle with the real ; otherwise ordinary fruits appear engorged to a gigantic size . The figures are engaged in diverse amorous sports and activities , both in couples and in groups . Gibson describes them as behaving " overtly and without shame " , while art historian Laurinda Dixon writes that the human figures exhibit " a certain adolescent sexual curiosity " .

Many of the numerous human figures revel in an innocent , self @-@ absorbed joy as they engage in a wide range of activities : some appear to enjoy sensory pleasures , others play unselfconsciously in the water , and yet others cavort in meadows with a variety of animals , seemingly at one with nature . In the middle of the background , a large blue globe resembling a fruit pod rises in the middle of a lake . Visible through its circular window is a man holding his right hand close to his partner 's genitals , and the bare buttocks of yet another figure hover in the vicinity . According to Fraenger , the eroticism of the center frame could be considered either as an allegory of spiritual transition or a playground of corruption .

On the right @-@ hand side of the foreground stand a group of three fair and one black @-@ skinned figures . The fair @-@ skinned figures , two males and one female , are covered from head to foot in light @-@ brown body hair . Scholars generally agree that these hirsute figures represent wild or primeval humanity but disagree on the symbolism of their inclusion . Art historian Patrik Reuterswärd , for example , posits that they may be seen as " the noble savage " who represents " an imagined alternative to our civilized life " , imbuing the panel with " a more clear @-@ cut primitivistic note " . Writer Peter Glum , in contrast , sees the figures as intrinsically connected with whoredom and lust .

In a cave to their lower right a male figure points towards a reclining female who is also covered in hair . ( image ) The pointing man is the only clothed figure in the panel , and as Fraenger observes , " he is clothed with emphatic austerity right up to his throat " . In addition , he is one of the few human figures with dark hair . According to Fraenger :

The way this man 's dark hair grows , with the sharp dip in the middle of his high forehead , as though concentrating there all the energy of the masculine M , makes his face different from all the others . His coal @-@ black eyes are rigidly focused in a gaze that expresses compelling force . The nose is unusually long and boldly curved . The mouth is wide and sensual , but the lips are firmly shut in a straight line , the corners strongly marked and tightened into final points , and this strengthens the impression — already suggested by the eyes — of a strong controlling will . It is an extraordinarily fascinating face , reminding us of faces of famous men , especially of Machiavelli 's ; and indeed the whole aspect of the head suggests something Mediterranean , as though this man had acquired his frank , searching , superior air at Italian academies .

The pointing man has variously been described as either the patron of the work ( Fraenger in 1947 ) , as an advocate of Adam denouncing Eve ( Dirk Bax in 1956 ) , as Saint John the Baptist in his camel 's skin ( Isabel Mateo Goméz in 1963 ) , or as a self @-@ portrait . The woman below him lies within a semicylindrical transparent shield , while her mouth is sealed , devices implying that she bears a secret . To their left , a man crowned by leaves lies on top of what appears to be an actual but gigantic strawberry , and is joined by a male and female who contemplate another equally huge strawberry . ( image )

There is no perspectival order in the foreground ; instead it comprises a series of small motifs wherein proportion and terrestrial logic are abandoned . Bosch presents the viewer with gigantic ducks playing with tiny humans under the cover of oversized fruit ; ( image ) fish walking on land while birds dwell in the water ; a passionate couple encased in an amniotic fluid bubble ; and a man inside of a red fruit staring at a mouse in a transparent cylinder .

The pools in the fore and background contain bathers of both sexes . In the central circular pool , the sexes are mostly segregated , with several females adorned by peacocks and fruit . Four women carry cherry @-@ like fruits on their heads , perhaps a symbol of pride at the time , as has been deduced from the contemporaneous saying : " Don 't eat cherries with great lords — they 'll throw the pits in your face . " The women are surrounded by a parade of naked men riding horses , donkeys , unicorns , camels and other exotic or fantastic creatures . Several men show acrobatics while riding , apparently acts designed to gain the females ' attention , which highlights the attraction felt between the two sexes as groups . The two outer springs also contain both men and women cavorting with abandon . Around them , birds infest the water while winged fish crawl on land . Humans inhabit giant shells . All are surrounded by oversized fruit pods and eggshells , and both humans and animals feast on strawberries and cherries .

The impression of a life lived without consequence , or what art historian Hans Belting describes as " unspoilt and pre @-@ moral existence " , is underscored by the absence of children and old people . According to the second and third chapters of Genesis , Adam and Eve 's children were born after they were expelled from Eden . This has led some commentators , in particular Belting , to theorise that the panel represents the world if the two had not been driven out " among the thorns and thistles of the world " . In Fraenger 's view , the scene illustrates " a utopia , a garden of divine delight before the Fall , or — since Bosch could not deny the existence of the dogma of original sin — a millennial condition that would arise if , after expiation of Original Sin , humanity were permitted to return to Paradise and to a state of tranquil harmony embracing all Creation . "

In the high distance of the background , above the hybrid stone formations , four groups of people and creatures are seen in flight . On the immediate left a human male rides on a chthonic solar eagle @-@ lion . The human carries a triple @-@ branched tree of life on which perches a bird ; according to Fraenger " a symbolic bird of death " . Fraenger believes the man is intended to represent a genius , " he is the symbol of the extinction of the duality of the sexes , which are resolved in the ether into their original state of unity " . To their right a knight with a dolphin tail sails on a winged fish . The knight 's tail curls back to touch the back of his head , which references the common symbol of eternity : the snake biting its own tail . On the immediate right of the panel , a winged youth soars upwards carrying a fish in his hands and a falcon on his back . According to Belting , in these passages Bosch 's " imagination triumphs ... the ambivalence of [ his ] visual syntax exceeds even the enigma of content , opening up that new dimension of freedom by which painting becomes art . " Fraenger titled his chapter on the high background " The Ascent to Heaven " , and wrote that the airborne figures were likely intended as a link between " what is above " and " what is below " , just as the left and right hand panels represent " what was " and " what will be " .

= = = = Right panel = = = =

The right panel ( 220 × 97 @.@ 5 cm , 87 × 38 @.@ 4 in ) illustrates Hell , the setting of a number of Bosch paintings . Bosch depicts a world in which humans have succumbed to temptations that lead to evil and reap eternal damnation . The tone of this final panel strikes a harsh contrast to those preceding it . The scene is set at night , and the natural beauty that adorned the earlier panels is noticeably absent . Compared to the warmth of the center panel , the right wing possesses a chilling quality — rendered through cold colourisation and frozen waterways — and presents a tableau that has shifted from the paradise of the center image to a spectacle of cruel torture and retribution . In a single , densely detailed scene , the viewer is made witness to cities on fire in the background ; war , torture chambers , infernal taverns , and demons in the midground ; and mutated animals feeding on human flesh in the foreground . The nakedness of the human figures has lost all its eroticism , and many now attempt to cover their genitalia and breasts with their hands .

Large explosions in the background throw light through the city gate and spill forth onto the water in the midground ; according to writer Walter S. Gibson , " their fiery reflection turning the water below into blood " . The light illuminates a road filled with fleeing figures , while hordes of tormentors prepare to burn a neighbouring village . A short distance away , a rabbit carries an impaled and bleeding corpse , while a group of victims above are thrown into a burning lantern . The foreground is populated by a variety of distressed or tortured figures . Some are shown vomiting or excreting , others are crucified by harp and lute , in an allegory of music , thus sharpening the contrast between pleasure and torture . A choir sings from a score inscribed on a pair of buttocks , part of a group that has been described as the " Musicians ' Hell " .

The focal point of the scene is the " Tree @-@ Man " , whose cavernous torso is supported by what could be contorted arms or rotting tree trunks . His head supports a disk populated by demons and victims parading around a huge set of bagpipes — often used as a dual sexual symbol — reminiscent of human scrotum and penis . The tree @-@ man 's torso is formed from a broken eggshell , and the supporting trunk has thorn @-@ like branches which pierce the fragile body . A grey figure in a hood bearing an arrow jammed between his buttocks climbs a ladder into the tree @-@ man 's central cavity , where nude men sit in a tavern @-@ like setting . The tree @-@ man gazes outwards beyond the viewer , his conspiratorial expression a mix of wistfulness and resignation . Belting wondered if the tree @-@ man 's face is a self @-@ portrait , citing the figure 's " expression of irony and the slightly sideways gaze [ which would ] then constitute the signature of an artist who claimed a bizarre pictorial world for his own personal imagination " .

Many elements in the panel incorporate earlier iconographical conventions depicting hell . However , Bosch is innovative in that he describes hell not as a fantastical space , but as a realistic world containing many elements from day @-@ to @-@ day human life .

Animals are shown punishing humans , subjecting them to nightmarish torments that may symbolise the seven deadly sins , matching the torment to the sin . Sitting on an object that may be a toilet or a throne , the panel 's centerpiece is a gigantic bird @-@ headed monster feasting on human corpses , which he excretes through a cavity below him , into the transparent chamber pot on which he sits . The monster is sometimes referred to as the " Prince of Hell " , a name derived from the cauldron he wears on his head , perhaps representing a debased crown . To his feet a female has her face reflected on the buttocks of a demon . Further to the left , next to a hare @-@ headed demon , a group of naked persons around a toppled gambling table are being massacred with swords and knives . Other brutal violence is shown by a knight torn down and eaten up by a pack of wolves to the right of the tree @-@ man .

During the Middle Ages , sexuality and lust were seen , by some , as evidence of humanity 's fall from grace , and the most foul of the seven deadly sins . In the eyes of some viewers , this sin is depicted in the left @-@ hand panel through Adam 's , allegedly lustful , gaze towards Eve , and it has been proposed that the center panel was created as a warning to the viewer to avoid a life of sinful pleasure . According to this view , the penalty for such sins is shown in the right panel of the triptych . In the lower right @-@ hand corner , a man is approached by a pig wearing the veil of a nun . The pig is shown trying to seduce the man to sign legal documents . Lust is further said to be symbolised by the gigantic musical instruments and by the choral singers in the left foreground of the panel . Musical instruments often carried erotic connotations in works of art of the period , and lust was referred to in moralising sources as the " music of the flesh " . There has also been the view that Bosch 's use of music here might be a rebuke against traveling minstrels , often thought of as purveyors of bawdy song and verse .

= = Dating and provenance = =

The dating of The Garden of Earthly Delights is uncertain . Ludwig von Baldass ( 1917 ) considered the painting to be an early work by Bosch . However , since De Tolnay ( 1937 ) consensus among 20th @-@ century art historians placed the work in 1503 – 1504 or even later . Both early and late datings were based on the " archaic " treatment of space . Dendrochronology dates the oak of the panels between the years 1460 and 1466 , providing a terminus post quem for the work . Wood used for panel paintings during this period customarily underwent a lengthy period of storage for seasoning purposes , so the age of the oak might be expected to predate the actual date of the painting by several years . Internal evidence , specifically the depiction of a pineapple ( a " New World " fruit ) , suggests that the painting itself postdates Columbus ' voyages to the Americas , between 1492 and 1504 . The dendrochronological research brought Vermet to reconsider an early dating and , consequently , to dispute the presence of any " New World " objects , stressing the presence of African ones instead . He considers De Tolnay 's idea of Bosch developing towards more archaism as an anachronism , based on the development of modern art and suggests that the triptych was ordered by Engelbrecht II of Nassau , in or shortly after 1481 , when he attended the Chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch .

The Garden was first documented in 1517 , one year after the artist 's death , when Antonio de Beatis , a canon from Molfetta , Italy , described the work as part of the decoration in the town palace of the Counts of the House of Nassau in Brussels . The palace was a high @-@ profile location , a house often visited by heads of state and leading court figures . The prominence of the painting has led some to conclude that the work was commissioned , and not " solely ... a flight of the imagination " . A description of the triptych in 1605 called it the " strawberry painting " , because the fruit of the strawberry tree ( madroño in Spanish ) features prominently in the center panel . Early Spanish writers referred to the work as La Lujuria ( " Lust " ) .

The aristocracy of the Burgundian Netherlands , influenced by the humanist movement , were the most likely collectors of Bosch 's paintings , but there are few records of the location of his works in the years immediately following his death . It is probable that the patron of the work was Engelbrecht II of Nassau , who died in 1504 , or his successor Henry III of Nassau @-@ Breda , the governor of several of the Habsburg provinces in the Low Countries . De Beatis wrote in his travel journal that " there are some panels on which bizarre things have been painted . They represent seas , skies , woods , meadows , and many other things , such as people crawling out of a shell , others that bring forth birds , men and women , white and blacks doing all sorts of different activities and poses . " Because the triptych was publicly displayed in the palace of the House of Nassau , it was visible to many , and Bosch 's reputation and fame quickly spread across Europe . The work 's popularity can be measured by the numerous surviving copies — in oil , engraving and tapestry — commissioned by wealthy patrons , as well as by the number of forgeries in circulation after his death . Most are of the central panel only and do not deviate from the original . These copies were usually painted on a much smaller scale , and they vary considerably in quality . Many were created a generation after Bosch , and some took the form of wall tapestries .

The De Beatis description , only rediscovered by Steppe in the 1960s , cast new light on the commissioning of a work that was previously thought — since it has no central religious image — to be an atypical altarpiece . Many Netherlandish diptychs intended for private use are known , and even a few triptychs , but the Bosch panels are unusually large compared with these and contain no donor portraits . Possibly they were commissioned to celebrate a wedding , as large Italian paintings for private houses frequently were . Nevertheless , The Garden 's bold depictions do not rule out a church commission , such was the contemporaneous fervor to warn against immorality . In 1566 , the triptych served as the model for a tapestry that hangs at El Escorial monastery near Madrid .

Upon the death of Henry III , the painting passed into the hands of his nephew William the Silent , the founder of the House of Orange @-@ Nassau and leader of the Dutch Revolt against Spain . In 1568 , however , the Duke of Alba confiscated the picture and brought it to Spain , where it became the property of one Don Fernando , the Duke 's illegitimate son and heir and the Spanish commander in the Netherlands . Phillip II acquired the painting at auction in 1591 ; two years later he presented it to El Escorial . A contemporaneous description of the transfer records the gift on 8 July 1593 of a " painting in oils , with two wings depicting the variety of the world , illustrated with grotesqueries by Hieronymus Bosch , known as ' Del Madroño ' " . After an unbroken 342 years at El Escorial , the work moved to the Museo del Prado in 1939 , along with other works by Bosch . The triptych is not particularly well @-@ preserved ; the paint of the middle panel especially has flaked off around joints in the wood .

= = Interpretation = =

Because only bare details are known of Bosch 's life , biographical interpretation of his work becomes extremely difficult for academics , who must largely rely on conjecture . Individual motifs and elements of symbolism may be explained , but so far relating these to each other and to his work as a whole has remained elusive . The enigmatic scenes depicted on the panels of the inner triptych of The Garden of Earthly Delights have been studied by many scholars , who have often arrived at contradictory interpretations . Analyses based on symbolic systems ranging from the alchemical , astrological , and heretical to the folkloric and subconscious have all attempted to explain the complex objects and ideas presented in the work . Until the early 20th century , Bosch 's paintings were generally thought to incorporate attitudes of Medieval didactic literature and sermons . Charles De Tolnay wrote :

The oldest writers , Dominicus Lampsonius and Karel van Mander , attached themselves to his most evident side , to the subject ; their conception of Bosch , inventor of fantastic pieces of devilry and of infernal scenes , which prevails today ( 1937 ) in the public at large , and prevailed with historians until the last quarter of the 19th century .

= = = Warning against sin = = =

Some critics have interpreted the triptych as a warning on the transience of earthly pleasure . In 1960 art historian Ludwig von Baldass wrote that Bosch shows " how sin came into the world through the Creation of Eve , how fleshly lusts spread over the entire earth , promoting all the Deadly Sins , and how this necessarily leads straight to Hell " . Charles De Tolnay wrote that the center panel represents " the nightmare of humanity " , where " the artist 's purpose above all is to show the evil consequences of sensual pleasure and to stress its ephemeral character " . Supporters of this view see the painting as a sequential narrative , with the left @-@ hand panel showing humanity 's innocence in Eden , the central panel the corruption of that innocence , and finally humanity 's punishment in Hell . At various times in its history , the triptych was known as La Lujuria ( Lust ) , The Sins of the World and The Wages of Sin .

= = = Woman 's temptation = = =

Proponents of this idea point out that moralists during Bosch 's era believed that it was woman 's — ultimately Eve 's — temptation that drew men into a life of lechery and sin . This would explain why the women in the center panel are very much among the active participants in bringing about the Fall . At the time , the power of femininity was often rendered by showing a female surrounded by a circle of males . A late 15th @-@ century engraving by Israhel van Meckenem shows a group of men prancing ecstatically around a female figure . The Master of the Banderoles 's 1460 work the Pool of Youth similarly shows a group of females standing in a space surrounded by admiring figures . Here in Bosch 's center panel the image of males circulating around females has grown into fully grotesque dimensions . The 31 females in the central pool are surrounded by about 100 males performing stunts while riding on fancy animals in an endless , circular caravan .

= = = A false paradise = = =

This line of reasoning is consistent with interpretations of Bosch 's other major moralising works which hold up the folly of humans , e.g. , the Death and the Miser and the Haywain Triptych . The rendering of each of these works is such that , according to the art historian Walter Bosing , it is difficult to believe " Bosch intended to condemn what he painted with such visually enchanting forms and colors " . Bosing concluded however that a medieval mindset was naturally suspicious of material beauty , in any form , and that the sumptuousness of Bosch 's description may have been intended to convey a false paradise , teeming with transient beauty .

= = = Rebirth of a joyous world = = =

In 1947 , Wilhelm Fraenger argued that the triptych 's center panel portrays a joyous world when humanity will experience a rebirth of the innocence enjoyed by Adam and Eve before their fall . In his book The Millennium of Hieronymus Bosch , Fraenger wrote that Bosch was a member of the heretical sect known as the Adamites — who were also known as the Homines intelligentia and Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit . This radical group , active in the area of the Rhine and the Netherlands , strove for a form of spirituality immune from sin even in the flesh and imbued the concept of lust with a paradisical innocence .

Fraenger believed The Garden of Earthly Delights was commissioned by the order 's Grand Master . Later critics have agreed that , because of their obscure complexity , Bosch 's " altarpieces " may well have been commissioned for non @-@ devotional purposes . The Homines intelligentia cult sought to regain the innocent sexuality enjoyed by Adam and Eve before the Fall . Fraenger writes that the figures in Bosch 's work " are peacefully frolicking about the tranquil garden in vegetative innocence , at one with animals and plants and the sexuality that inspires them seems to be pure joy , pure bliss . " Fraenger argued against the notion that the hellscape shows the retribution handed down for sins committed in the center panel . Fraenger saw the figures in the garden as peaceful , naïve , and innocent in expressing their sexuality , and at one with nature . In contrast , those being punished in Hell comprise " musicians , gamblers , desecrators of judgment and punishment " .

Examining the symbolism in Bosch 's art — " the freakish riddles ... the irresponsible phantasmagoria of an ecstatic " — Fraenger concluded that his interpretation applied to Bosch 's three ( fully survived ) triptychs only : The Garden of Earthly Delights , Temptation of Saint Anthony , and The Haywain Triptych . Fraenger distinguished these pieces from the artist 's other works and argued that despite their anti @-@ cleric polemic they were nevertheless all altarpieces , probably commissioned for the devotional purposes of a mystery cult . While commentators accept Fraenger 's analysis as astute and broad in scope , they have often questioned his final conclusions . These are regarded by many scholars as hypothesis only , and built on an unstable foundation and what can only be conjecture . Critics argue that artists during this period painted not for their own pleasure but for commission , while the language and secularization of a post @-@ Renaissance mind @-@ set projected onto Bosch would have been alien to the late @-@ medieval painter .

= = = Humanity on the eve of the Flood = = =

Fraenger 's thesis stimulated others to examine The Garden more closely . Writer Carl Linfert also senses the joyfulness of the people in the center panel , but rejects Fraenger 's assertion that the painting is a " doctrinaire " work espousing the " guiltless sexuality " of the Adamite sect . While the figures engage in amorous acts without any suggestion of the forbidden , Linfert points to the elements in the center panel suggesting death and temporality : some figures turn away from the activity , seeming to lose hope in deriving pleasure from the passionate frolicking of their cohorts . Writing in 1969 , art historian E. H. Gombrich drew on a close reading of Genesis and the Gospel According to Saint Matthew to suggest that the central panel is , according to Linfert , " the state of mankind on the eve of the Flood , when men still pursued pleasure with no thought of the morrow , their only sin the unawareness of sin " .

= = = Irony and anachronisms = = =

In recent years several art historians have emphasized the ironic elements of The Garden . Erwin Pokorny concluded after many years of research on the complete work of Bosch , including the drawings , that in The Garden Bosch presented " a moralizing ironical wisdom that is sometimes reminiscent of Sebastian Brant ( 1457 – 1521 ) or Erasmus of Rotterdam ( 1465 – 1536 ) " . He pointed out that literature and art of Bosch 's time reflected not only the belief in hell after life , but also the belief in paradise after life . But then he listed many examples from the center panel showing that Bosch presented a new perspective by ridiculing this longing for paradise . Examples are fantastic acrobatics , equivalence of fruits and body parts , the parade of 100 males riding around the pool of females , and women signaling boredom by holding their heads in their hands .

Art historian Guido Boulboullé arrived at a similar conclusion concerning the two side panels . Adam and Eve are created within a mockery of a paradise that is already polluted by ugly and hideous creatures . About the hellscape he writes : " [ A ] gruesome comedy pervades the whole panel " . While the " Prince of Hell " ( see above ) clearly alluded to earlier devil images , he can no longer be taken seriously here because of the many ridiculous attributes that he is equipped with . Boulboullé concludes that " Bosch does not present a clear , but an ambiguous world . ... It can be understood as a moral insight into the incurability of human folly , whose ridiculousness only becomes endurable by laughing . "

Bosch 's ironic intention is also conspicuous in the three anachronisms in the lower right corner of each of the three panels . During the creation of Adam and Eve there is already a book in the hands of a fantastic creature . In The Garden a clothed person appears ; and in the hell , objects from the real world of contracts and business — pen , paper , and seal — enter the scene . " Bosch 's innovative concept of vice allusions in the Garden of Delights " thus can be viewed both as a grim warning and as an entertaining satire . These two contrasting interpretations are documented already in 1605 ( José de Sigüenza ) and 1627 ( Francisco de Quevedo ) , respectively .

= = = The corrupt gardens of Coudenberg = = =

Following this perspective , the triptych allegorically represents the gardens of the old Palace of Coudenberg ( Brussels ) , which were actually often depicted as an expression of the luxurious and corrupting headquarters of the Habsburg domination .

In brief , the first panel represents the once heavenly Burgundian Netherlands starting to be defiled ( after the death of Charles the Bold ) . The large central panel expresses the current situation , with the local Flemish @-@ Dutch elites being completely corrupted . The last panel anticipates the tragic fate of the region under the imperial government .

All details were carefully planned and are meaningful . For instance , the so @-@ called " Tree @-@ Man " symbolizes Bosch ( e.g. , " forest " , " wood " ) in the role of an eternal hangover ( the consequence of the dissolute party ) . By this way the artist punished himself because he was receiving well @-@ paid commissions from both the Habsburgs and the Nassau ( at that time , the imperial mais courtiers ) . In this context , Bosch systematically selected Maximilian Habsburg ( the Holy Roman Emperor ) to be his nemesis , whose anthropomorphic head is even shaped into the right limb of the " Tree @-@ Man " , aggravating the expiatory punishment of the artist .

= = Legacy = =

Because Bosch was such a unique and visionary artist , his influence has not spread as widely as that of other major painters of his era . However , there have been instances of later artists incorporating elements of The Garden of Earthly Delights into their own work . Pieter Bruegel the Elder ( c . 1525 – 1569 ) in particular directly acknowledged Bosch as an important influence and inspiration , and incorporated many elements of the inner right panel into several of his most popular works . Bruegel 's Mad Meg depicts a peasant woman leading an army of women to pillage Hell , while his The Triumph of Death ( c . 1562 ) echoes the monstrous Hellscape of The Garden , and utilizes , according to the Royal Museum of Fine Arts Antwerp , the same " unbridled imagination and the fascinating colours " .

While the Italian court painter Giuseppe Arcimboldo ( c . 1527 – 1593 ) did not create Hellscapes , he painted a body of strange and " fantastic " vegetable portraits — generally heads of people composed of plants , roots , webs and various other organic matter . These strange portraits rely on and echo a motif that was in part inspired by Bosch 's willingness to break from strict and faithful representations of nature .

David Teniers the Younger ( c . 1610 – 1690 ) was a Flemish painter who quoted both Bosch and Bruegel throughout his career in such works as his versions of the Temptation of St Anthony , the Rich Man in Hell and his version of Mad Meg .

During the early 20th century , Bosch 's work enjoyed a popular resurrection . The early surrealists ' fascination with dreamscapes , the autonomy of the imagination , and a free @-@ flowing connection to the unconscious brought about a renewed interest in his work . Bosch 's imagery struck a chord with Joan Miró and Salvador Dalí in particular . Both knew his paintings firsthand , having seen The Garden of Earthly Delights in the Museo del Prado , and both regarded him as an art @-@ historical mentor . Miró 's The Tilled Field contains several parallels to Bosch 's Garden : similar flocks of birds ; pools from which living creatures emerge ; and oversize disembodied ears all echo the Dutch master 's work . Dalí 's 1929 The Great Masturbator is similar to an image on the right side of the left panel of Bosch 's Garden , composed of rocks , bushes and little animals resembling a face with a prominent nose and long eyelashes .

When André Breton wrote his first Surrealist Manifesto in 1924 , his historical precedents as inclusions named only Gustave Moreau , Georges Seurat and Uccello . However , the Surrealist movement soon rediscovered Bosch and Breughel , who quickly became popular among the Surrealist painters . René Magritte and Max Ernst both were inspired by Bosch 's The Garden of Earthly Delights .

The triptych has also been the inspiration for works of fiction , among them Ian Watson 's science fiction novel The Garden of Delights , based around the discovery of a planet which resembles Bosch 's painting .

= 1994 Gator Bowl =

The 1994 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Tennessee Volunteers at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville , Florida on December 30 , 1994 . The game was the final contest of the 1994 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 45 @-@ 23 victory for Tennessee .

The 1994 Gator Bowl saw 17th @-@ ranked Virginia Tech face off against regional rival Tennessee at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium on the campus of the University of Florida . The game was moved to Gainesville in 1994 due to renovations to the Gator Bowl for the Jacksonville Jaguars . Virginia Tech came into the game with an 8 – 3 regular @-@ season record that included a record of 5 – 2 in Big East Conference competition . The Tennessee Volunteers came entered the game with a regular @-@ season record of 7 – 4 under head coach Phillip Fulmer that included a 5 – 3 record in Southeastern Conference competition .

The game kicked off on December 30 , 1994 in Gainesville , Florida . From the start , Tennessee 's high @-@ scoring offense dominated . The Volunteers scored two touchdowns in the first quarter and three in the second , while Virginia Tech was able to muster a lone touchdown and field goal in the second quarter . At halftime , Tennessee had a commanding 35 – 10 lead , behind the strong play of Freshman QB Peyton Manning .

The Hokies struggled back in the third quarter , scoring six unanswered points to close the score to 35 – 16 . In the fourth quarter , however , Tennessee answered Virginia Tech 's effort with 10 points , putting the game out of reach for the Hokies , who managed only a single touchdown in the fourth quarter . The Hokies fumbled the ball five times — losing it once — and threw two interceptions , allowing Tennessee to cruise to an easy victory , 45 – 23 . Tennessee running back James Stewart was named the game 's most valuable player .

= = Renovations = =

In early 1994 , Jacksonville Mayor Ed Austin proposed $ 49 million in renovations to Jacksonville 's aging Gator Bowl Stadium in order to keep the stadium up to date for the annual Florida @-@ Georgia rivalry game . After Florida and Georgia accepted the renovations , agreeing to play the rivalry game in Athens , Georgia during the renovations , Jacksonville investors proposed expanding the renovation plan in order to attract a National Football League team . The price tag was revised upward — to $ 121 million — and the city successfully attracted a team . Shortly after Jacksonville was awarded its new franchise — the Jacksonville Jaguars — the final plans were unveiled . The stadium would have additional luxury boxes , expanded seating , and upgraded facilities for teams and fans .

The renovations were much more extensive than had initially been proposed , and required more time to be completed . Instead of beginning in early 1995 , work would have to begin in 1994 , leaving the site of the 1994 Gator Bowl ( played on Dec. 30 ) in doubt . By the end of January 1994 , as the Gator Bowl was being demolished , that doubt was also demolished when a deal was struck to host the Gator Bowl at the University of Florida , in that school 's Ben Hill Griffin Stadium . The game 's title sponsor , Outback Steakhouse , and its television sponsor , TBS , would remain constant , and both were in their final year of contracts with the Gator Bowl .

= = Team selection = =

Prior to the start of the 1994 @-@ 1995 college football season , the Gator Bowl was snubbed by the newly formed Bowl Alliance , a group of football conferences , bowl games , and television networks created to match up the No. 1 and No. 2 college football teams at the conclusion of each season . Though the Gator Bowl offered to pay $ 115 million for the right to become a Bowl Alliance game , the Orange Bowl was selected in place of the Gator Bowl . This event had repercussions at the end of the season , when the bowl was passed over by high @-@ ranked teams that elected to accept bids to bowls in the new Bowl Alliance .

= = = Virginia Tech = = =

During the annual preseason poll of media members covering the Big East conference , Virginia Tech was picked to finish second among Big East teams , behind only Miami . The Hokies entered the 1994 college football season having finished the 1993 season with a win in the 1993 Independence Bowl , and hopes were high that they would return to a bowl game again in 1994 .

The Hokies started the season well , winning their first four games in succession and culminating with a victory against West Virginia in the annual battle for the Black Diamond Trophy . The Hokies , who had begun the season ranked No. 21 in the country , rose to No. 14 by their fifth game of the season , a trip to Syracuse , New York , to play the Syracuse Orange . There , Virginia Tech suffered its first loss of the season , permitting 100 @-@ yard rushing games from Syracuse 's Malcolm Thomas and Kirby Dar Dar , the last time the Hokies allowed two hundred @-@ yard rushers in the same game . Tech responded to the loss by reeling off another three wins in succession . That winning streak ended at No. 6 Miami , when Tech lost its second game of the season , a loss that was followed by a season @-@ ending defeat to perennial rival Virginia . The Hokies concluded the regular season with an 8 – 4 record overall and a 5 – 2 record in the Big East . Ironically , despite their season @-@ ending loss to Virginia , the Hokies were awarded an invitation to the Gator Bowl over the Cavaliers , who lost to North Carolina State in their season @-@ ending game . In addition to that loss , Gator Bowl officials later stated they were reluctant to invite an Atlantic Coast Conference team for a fourth straight year , thus opening the door for the Hokies from the Big East .

= = = Tennessee = = =

The Tennessee Volunteers had finished the 1993 season with a 10 – 2 record and a season @-@ ending loss to the Penn State Nittany Lions under first @-@ year head coach Phillip Fulmer in the Citrus Bowl . Hopes were high that Tennessee 's second year under Fulmer 's command would end better than its first .

Tennessee was ranked No. 13 in the Associated Press preseason poll at the start of the season , but won just one game in its first four of the season , causing the Volunteers to drop out of the top 25 for the first time since 1989 , breaking a streak of 84 consecutive weeks in the poll . To make matters worse , Tennessee 's two starting quarterbacks suffered season @-@ ending injuries during that four @-@ game span . In the Volunteers ' season @-@ opener against UCLA , Jerry Colquitt suffered a knee injury . Backup quarterback Todd Helton was hurt in the fourth game of the season , a loss to Mississippi State . In response to the poor start , Fulmer overhauled his defense and coped with the loss of his first- and second @-@ string quarterbacks by bringing in acclaimed freshman Peyton Manning , son of National Football League star Archie Manning .

Manning 's first start , a Tennessee homecoming game against Washington State , resulted in a 10 – 9 win . Things got progressively better for the Volunteers after Manning assumed the starting role , as they won six of their final regular @-@ season games . The sole loss was a 13 – 17 defeat at the hands of then @-@ No. 10 Alabama in Knoxville . The loss was merely a bump in the road , however , as Tennessee won all four regular @-@ season games that followed , ending the regular season with a 65 – 0 drubbing of in @-@ state rival Vanderbilt . In response to Fulmer 's success at turning the team around from a slow start , he was awarded with a one @-@ year contract extension by the university .

= = Pregame buildup = =

The matchup of Virginia Tech and Tennessee was the first game between the two teams since 1937 , an unusual fact since both teams are located in the Appalachian Mountains and the two schools are just 3 @.@ 5 hours by car apart . This proximity generated multiple news stories about towns lying between the two schools and the divided loyalties of their fans . In Washington County , Virginia , which lies along the Tennessee border , the county supervisor — a Virginia Tech graduate — proclaimed the week of the Gator Bowl to be " Hokie Week " over the objections of the county attorney , who graduated from Tennessee . This natural rivalry was amplified by a basketball game held the day prior to the Gator Bowl that pitted the two schools ' varsity teams against each other . In exchange for participating in the game , each team received $ 1 @.@ 5 million from the Gator Bowl Association .

Ticket sales were brisk in the month between the announcement of the Tech @-@ Tennessee matchup and the day of the game . By December 14 , two weeks after the initial announcement , Virginia Tech had sold 16 @,@ 000 tickets to Tennessee 's 9 @,@ 000 . On December 23 , one week before the game , Tech had sold 17 @,@ 653 tickets . By the day of the game , the two teams had combined to sell approximately 33 @,@ 000 tickets . Two days prior to the game , spread bettors favored Tennessee to win by seven points .

= = = Tennessee offense = = =

The Tennessee offense was led by freshman quarterback Peyton Manning , son of NFL great Archie Manning , who had played against the Hokies in the 1968 Liberty Bowl . During the regular season , Peyton played in seven games , winning six of them and completing 86 of his 139 pass attempts for 1 @,@ 114 yards , 11 touchdowns , and six interceptions . Manning 's passer rating of 145 @.@ 2 was the third @-@ highest among starting quarterbacks in the SEC . In recognition of his achievements , Manning was named the Southeastern Conference Freshman of the Year . One of Manning 's more prominent passing targets was Billy Williams , who , despite suffering a stress fracture in the first game of the season , recovered to catch 20 passes for 217 yards and two touchdowns . He also returned 17 kickoffs for an average of 20 @.@ 8 yards per return . Manning 's favorite target was Joey Kent , who caught 36 passes for 470 yards during the regular season , but slightly injured his ankle in a pre @-@ Gator Bowl practice .

The Volunteers ' rushing offense had been led by Aaron Hayden during the regular season , but Hayden broke his leg during Tennessee 's final regular season game . Due to the injury , James Stewart was forecast to start the game at running back for the Volunteers . During the regular season , Tennessee was ranked No. 13 in rushing , accumulating an average of 231 @.@ 2 rushing yards per game . Stewart accounted for 93 @.@ 5 yards of that total , having carried the ball 170 times for 1 @,@ 028 yards and 11 touchdowns during the regular season . One of Tennessee 's other backup running backs , Jay Graham , was predicted to be kept out of the game due to an injury , but played after undergoing surgery . Graham , who rushed 61 times for 275 yards during the regular season , suffered a broken jaw after being punched in the face by a teammate . Because of the injury to Graham , fourth @-@ string running back Ronnie Pillow , who had carried the ball just five times during the regular season , was predicted to back up Stewart during the game .

Prior to the game , Tennessee coach Fulmer pronounced himself unsatisfied with the Vols ' performance in opponents ' red zone during the regular season . Tennessee scored on just 36 of 52 possessions inside the opposition 's 20 @-@ yard line , a conversion rate of 69 @.@ 2 percent . Fulmer vowed to raise that percentage to what it had been the previous season , when Tennessee converted 41 of 46 possessions , or 89 @.@ 1 percent .

= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =

On offense , the Virginia Tech Hokies were led by quarterback Maurice DeShazo , who completed 164 of his 296 pass attempts during the regular season for 2 @,@ 110 yards , 13 touchdowns , and 13 interceptions . DeShazo 's success during the season helped him become the No. 4 all @-@ time passing leader in Virginia Tech history , finishing his career with 5 @,@ 720 passing yards . DeShazo 's favorite passing target was wide receiver Antonio Freeman , who finished the season having caught 38 passes for 586 yards and five touchdowns . The Gator Bowl was Freeman 's final collegiate game , just as it was DeShazo 's . Freeman finished his career as the No. 1 receiver in Virginia Tech history in terms of yardage ( bowl games were not counted in statistics until 2003 ) with 2 @,@ 207 receiving yards . Freeman also was the team 's leading punt returner , having returned 39 kicks for 467 yards and a touchdown , and received second @-@ team All @-@ Big East honors .

On the ground , Virginia Tech 's rushing offense was led by running back Dwayne Thomas , who carried the ball 142 times for 642 yards and five touchdowns . Backing up Thomas was Tommy Edwards , son of former Virginia Tech player Ken Edwards , who played with the Hokies from 1967 to 1969 , including the Hokies ' trip to the 1968 Liberty Bowl . By participating in the Gator Bowl and in the previous season 's Independence Bowl , the Edwardses became the first father @-@ son combo in Virginia Tech history to have competed in a bowl game .

At the beginning of December , Virginia Tech 's offensive preparations for the Gator Bowl were disrupted when offensive coordinator Gary Tranquill abruptly quit the team in order to join friend Nick Saban , who had been hired as the head coach at Michigan State . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer announced simultaneous with Tranquill 's departure that assistant head coach Billy Hite would control the offense during the Gator Bowl . Shortly after the announcement of Tranquill 's departure , Virginia Tech announced that former offensive coordinator Ricky Bustle would be returning to the team to fill the position after the Gator Bowl . Though he was not able to actively coach the team during the Gator Bowl , Bustle offered advice and strategy to Beamer during the weeks before the game .

Virginia Tech receiver Cornelius White fractured his patella while playing pick @-@ up basketball .

= = = Tennessee defense = = =

During the regular season , the Volunteers ' scoring defense was ranked the second @-@ best in the SEC , allowing an average of just 16 @.@ 82 points per game . Tennessee also allowed just eight passing touchdowns and 20 touchdowns overall . One of Tennessee 's defensive leaders was defensive end Steve White , who led the Volunteers in sacks and tackles for loss with seven and eight , respectively . Tennessee 's leader in interceptions was Ronald Davis , who had two during the regular season . Scott Galyon had the most tackles on the team , with 93 .

Strong safety Ray Austin , who had been named most valuable player in the Volunteers ' loss to Penn State during the 1993 Citrus Bowl , had 50 tackles — second @-@ best among Tennessee defensive backs — two fumble recoveries , a sack , and two tackles for loss despite playing in only six games . The Volunteers ' defense also featured a cornerback named Tony Edge , a player from Virginia 's Phoebus High School who had been heavily recruited by both Virginia Tech and Tennessee . Edge suffered a dislocated shoulder in the Volunteers ' last regular @-@ season game , but pledged he would play against the Hokies despite doctors ' disapproval .

= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =

Defensively , the Virginia Tech Hokies allowed an average of 308 yards per game and 18 @.@ 4 points per game . During the last two games of the regular season , however , the Hokies permitted 34 points and 42 points to Rutgers and Virginia , respectively . The Virginia Tech defense was led by two strong performers in the defensive secondary . Safety Torrian Gray intercepted four passes during the regular season , returning one of the catches for a touchdown . He tied with cornerback William Yarborough for the most interceptions on the team during the regular season . Neither player was the team 's leading tackler , however . That honor went to linebacker George DelRicco , who had 130 tackles during the regular season .

Fellow linebacker Ken Brown was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Big East selection , signifying his status as one of the best players at his position in the conference . He finished the season with 93 tackles , including six for loss and two sacks , enough for No. 3 on the team in tackles . Despite that success , Brown suffered a pulled hamstring before Virginia Tech 's final regular @-@ season game and his presence in the Gator Bowl was doubtful . Virginia Tech sophomore defensive end Cornell Brown was named the best defensive college player in the state of Virginia by the Roanoke Times after earning 20 tackles for loss , including 11 sacks , and 35 quarterback hurries during the regular season .

= = Game summary = =

The 1994 Gator Bowl kicked off on December 30 , 1994 at 8 p.m. EST at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium in Gainesville , Florida . An estimated 62 @,@ 200 fans were in attendance , and millions more people watched the game on television . TBS televised the game in the United States , and Gary Bender , Pat Haden , and Craig Sager were the broadcasters . Tennessee won the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss and elected to kick off to Virginia Tech to begin the game .

= = = First quarter = = =

Virginia Tech 's Tommy Edwards fielded the opening kickoff , which was returned to the Tech 29 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense began the first play of the game , an incomplete pass by Virginia Tech quarterback Maurice DeShazo . On the second play of the game , DeShazo again attempted a forward pass . This time , however , the ball was intercepted by Tennessee linebacker Tyrone Hines . Hines returned the ball to the Tech 28 @-@ yard line , allowing the Volunteers ' offense to begin the game already in scoring position . Tennessee 's first play was a run up the middle by James Stewart , who gained three yards . On the second play , Tennessee quarterback Peyton Manning completed a nine @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Nilo Silvan . During the play , Silvan suffered a broken ankle and did not return to the game . Now at the 16 @-@ yard line , Tennessee continued its drive with a rush by Stewart , who wasn 't able to advance the ball . On the next play , the Volunteers were penalized 10 yards for a block in the back of a Virginia Tech player . Despite the penalty and an incomplete pass on a subsequent play , Tennessee was able to gain a first down to the five @-@ yard line with a pass from Manning to Joey Kent . Two plays later , the Volunteers scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run by Stewart . The extra point kick was successful , and Tennessee took a 7 – 0 lead with 11 : 41 remaining in the first quarter .

Following Tennessee 's touchdown , the two teams traded possessions , each going three and out . Virginia Tech regained the ball after a Tennessee punt to its 20 @-@ yard line with 7 : 31 remaining in the quarter . After a Tech fumble that was recovered by the Hokies , Tech running back Dwayne Thomas ran nine yards for the first Tech first down of the game . After an incomplete pass , DeShazo and Thomas connected on an eight @-@ yard pass before Thomas broke free for an 11 @-@ yard run and another first down . Thomas continued advancing the ball , picking up eight yards on two rushing plays . DeShazo then completed a four @-@ yard pass for a first down at the Tennessee 39 @-@ yard line . There , however , Tennessee 's defense stiffened and did not allow the Hokies another first down . The Tech punt was downed at the Tennessee 7 @-@ yard line , where the Volunteers began their third possession of the game .

On the first play of the drive , Tennessee committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty , pushing the Volunteers back toward their goal line . A Tennessee rush was stopped for no gain , then Stewart picked up eight yards on a running play . Needing eight yards for a first down , Manning threw an 11 @-@ yard pass to Kent for the first down . On the next play , Manning completed a 43 @-@ yard toss to Kent , driving the Volunteers into the Virginia Tech half of the field . Manning 's next throw was a 35 @-@ yard touchdown throw to Marcus Nash . The extra point was good , and Tennessee took a 14 – 0 lead with 1 : 08 remaining in the quarter .

Tennessee 's kickoff went out of bounds , allowing Tech 's offense to start at its 35 @-@ yard line . DeShazo threw an incomplete pass , then completed one for a nine @-@ yard gain . Needing one yard for a first down , Tech fullback Bryan Edwards was stopped for a loss and the Hokies were forced to punt . Tennessee fair caught the ball at their 20 @-@ yard line , where the Volunteers ' offense again began to work . A five @-@ yard penalty pushed the Volunteers backward , but running back Jay Graham regained the lost five yards with a run on the next play and the clock ran out in the quarter . At the end of the first quarter , Tennessee led , 14 – 0 .

= = = Second quarter = = =

At the beginning of the second quarter , Tennessee had the ball at its 19 @-@ yard line , facing a second down and ten . On the first play of the quarter , Tennessee ran an end @-@ around to Kendrick Jones , who ran the ball for 76 yards , giving the Volunteers a first down at the Virginia Tech five @-@ yard line . Three plays later , running back Jay Graham crossed the goal line for the first Tennessee touchdown of the second quarter . The extra point was good , and with 13 : 23 remaining in the first half , Tennessee took a 21 – 0 lead .

Following Tennessee 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff and a short kick return , the Virginia Tech offense began at its 24 @-@ yard line . The first Tech play of the quarter , a run up the middle by Edmonds , resulted in a 17 @-@ yard gain and a first down . Dwayne Thomas followed Edmonds ' run with one of his own , advancing the ball to the 50 @-@ yard line . He pushed into Tennessee territory on the next play , a five @-@ yard run that gave the Hokies a first down at the Tennessee 45 @-@ yard line . DeShazo then ran nine yards , and Tech gained a first down on the next play . Inside the Tennessee 35 @-@ yard line , however , the Volunteers ' defense stiffened . DeShazo passed for a seven @-@ yard gain , but the Hokies were unable to gain a first down until DeShazo scrambled for a 13 @-@ yard gain on fourth down . The run kept the Tech drive alive as the Hokies now had a first down at the Tennessee 14 @-@ yard line . Tennessee forced another third @-@ down play , but the Hokies gained a first down at the Tennessee three @-@ yard line with a pass from DeShazo to Thomas . Four plays later , the Hokies scored their first points of the game as Thomas dove across the goal line on fourth down . The subsequent extra point was good , and the Hokies cut Tennessee 's lead to 21 – 7 with 5 : 17 remaining in the first half .

Virginia Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 26 @-@ yard line , and the Volunteers ' offense returned to the field . Instead of Peyton Manning , backup quarterback Branndon Stewart came on the field to lead Tennessee . On the second play of the Tennessee drive , Stewart gained 24 yards on a quarterback scramble , giving the Volunteers a first down at the Tennessee 49 @-@ yard line . On the next play , he completed a 27 @-@ yard pass to Kent for another first down . Two plays later , James Stewart broke free for an 18 @-@ yard run that gave Tennessee a first down at the Virginia Tech one @-@ yard line . One play later , Stewart crossed the goal line for Tennessee 's second touchdown of the quarter . The extra point was good , and Tennessee 's lead was again 21 points , 28 – 7 , with 3 : 22 remaining in the quarter .

The Volunteers ' kickoff was returned to the Tech 22 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began another drive . On the first play of the drive , however , Maurice DeShazo scrambled for a ten @-@ yard gain but fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by a Tennessee defender , and the Volunteers took over on offense from the Tech 32 @-@ yard line . Branndon Stewart came out onto the field in place of Manning , and completed an eight @-@ yard pass to James Stewart to begin the drive . James Stewart then ran to the 20 @-@ yard line for a first down . On the next play , Tennessee executed a trick play in which James Stewart received the ball via a hand @-@ off , imitating a running play , but threw the ball instead . The pass was caught by James Kendrick for a touchdown , and after the extra point , Tennessee had a 35 – 7 lead with 2 : 08 remaining in the first half .

The kickoff was returned to the Tech 27 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began the final drive of the second quarter . Antonio Freeman caught a six @-@ yard pass from DeShazo , then DeShazo completed a five @-@ yard pass to Shawn Scales . DeShazo completed a four @-@ yard pass , then Ken Oxendine had a seven @-@ yard catch from DeShazo at the Tech 49 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Oxendine caught a short pass that pushed the Hokies to the Tennessee 45 @-@ yard line , then DeShazo threw his first incomplete pass of the drive . The incompletion stopped the clock with 37 seconds remaining , allowing time for DeShazo to complete a 26 @-@ yard pass to Bryan Still on the next play . Now inside the Tennessee red zone , the Hokies continued to move the ball via short passes . Tech gained a first down at the Tennessee six @-@ yard line , and used a timeout to stop the clock in order to have a chance to earn a touchdown before halftime . On a subsequent play , however , Tech committed a five @-@ yard penalty , and Tech head coach Frank Beamer ordered kicker Ryan Williams into the game . Williams ' 27 @-@ yard field goal attempt was good , and Tech cut Tennessee 's lead to 35 – 10 at the end of the first half .

= = = Third quarter = = =

Because Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game , Tennessee received the ball to begin the second half . Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 13 @-@ yard line , and Peyton Manning returned to the field to lead the Volunteers ' offense . The first play of the second half was an eight @-@ yard run by James Stewart , which was followed by a six @-@ yard run by Stewart for a first down at the Tennessee 27 @-@ yard line . Another Stewart run was followed by two short completions from Manning , and the Volunteers had another first down at the 37 @-@ yard line . Tennessee 's next play was negated by an offensive pass interference penalty against the Volunteers , who were pushed back to the 22 @-@ yard line by the penalty . Though Manning gained 22 yards with a third @-@ down pass , Tennessee was unable to gain enough yards for a first down and punted . During the kick , Tennessee committed a penalty and had to kick again after the five @-@ yard penalty was assessed . The punt was fair caught at the Tech 25 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their first offensive possession of the second half with 10 : 14 remaining in the third quarter .

On the first play , DeShazo completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Still , who gave the Hokies a first down at their 43 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Tech wide receiver Antonio Freeman committed a pass interference penalty , pushing the Hokies back 15 yards . Dwayne Thomas made good the penalty by gaining 16 yards on an option run , which was followed by a 17 @-@ yard pass from DeShazo to Freeman , who kept the Hokies ' drive going with a first down at the Tennessee 39 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass , Thomas broke free for a 27 @-@ yard run along the left side of the field , giving Tech a first down at the Tennessee 13 @-@ yard line . Tennessee 's defense held for three plays , forcing a fourth down . Instead of kicking a field goal , the Hokies attempted to convert the fourth down by running the ball . DeShazo scrambled , broke free of the defense , and crossed the goal line for the first Tech touchdown of the second half . Williams missed the extra point kick , however , and Tech cut Tennessee 's lead to 35 – 16 with 7 : 03 remaining in the quarter .

The kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 17 @-@ yard line , and Tennessee 's offense began work . The Volunteers were aided by a five @-@ yard offsides penalty against Virginia Tech on the first play of the drive , but the Hokies stopped the Tennessee offense for losses or no gain until Manning threw a 14 @-@ yard pass on third down , pushing Tennessee to the 34 @-@ yard line . After two incomplete passes , Manning scrambled 27 yards for another first down , this time at the Tech 39 @-@ yard line . Once there , however , the Virginia Tech defense stiffened and did not allow another first down during the drive . Tennessee kicker John Becksvoort came into the game , seemingly to attempt a 48 @-@ yard field goal . The kick turned out to be a trick play — an attempted pass by the kick holder — but Hokie defender Mike Williams tackled the holder for a loss .

After the failed trick play , the Hokies ' offense started at their 44 @-@ yard line . The first Tech play of the drive was a 15 @-@ yard pass from DeShazo to Still for a first down . A three @-@ yard run by Thomas was followed by a seven @-@ yard reverse by Still for another first down at the Tennessee 29 @-@ yard line . On first down , Thomas pushed the Hokies eight yards forward with a run up the middle . This was followed by two incomplete passes , bringing up fourth down . Again , Tech head coach Frank Beamer elected to try to convert the fourth down rather than kick a field goal . Unlike Tech 's previous fourth down , however , the try was unsuccessful after DeShazo mishandled the snap and was tackled for a loss . Virginia Tech turned the ball over on downs , and Tennessee 's offense returned to the game with 1 : 31 remaining in the quarter .

The Volunteers started at their 27 @-@ yard line to begin the drive , but went three and out and punted back to the Hokies without gaining a first down . The kick was returned to the Tech 39 @-@ yard line , where the Hokies ' offense started with 31 seconds remaining in the quarter . On the first play of the drive , wide receiver Bryan Still broke away from the Tennessee defense and was wide open for a pass . Maurice DeShazo threw the ball to Still , but Still dropped the pass after it bounced off his chest , thus denying the Hokies a touchdown . Virginia Tech head coach Frank Beamer later cited the dropped pass as a critical turning point in the game , saying , " I think if he could have made that catch , we could have gotten back in the game . " Tech player Torrian Gray agreed , saying , " When he dropped the ball , that took a lot out of us . " After Still 's dropped pass , DeShazo threw two incomplete passes and Virginia Tech punted back to Tennessee . The kick was caught by near the Tennessee 10 @-@ yard line , and returned all the way to the Virginia Tech 37 @-@ yard line . At the end of the third quarter , Tennessee still led , 35 – 16 .

= = = Fourth quarter = = =

The fourth quarter began with Tennessee in possession of the ball and facing a first @-@ and @-@ 10 at the Virginia Tech 37 @-@ yard line after a long punt return . Stewart ran twice for six yards , then Manning completed a pass to Kent at the 20 @-@ yard line for a first down . Manning then completed a pass to Nash for another first down at the Tech five @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Stewart scored his third touchdown of the game with a five @-@ yard run to the right side of the field . The extra point was good , and with 13 : 17 remaining in the game , Tennessee took a 42 – 16 lead .

Bryan Still fielded the Tennessee kickoff and returned it to the 19 @-@ yard line of Virginia Tech . After a short pass , DeShazo threw his second interception of the game . Tennessee defender John Summers returned the catch to the Tech 19 @-@ yard line , and backup quarterback Branndon Stewart returned to the game for Tennessee 's offense . James Stewart took the first play of the Volunteers ' drive , an eight @-@ yard gain , then backup Jay Graham entered the game and ran to the five @-@ yard line for a first down . After the next play — , a two @-@ yard run by Graham — Tennessee committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty , pushing the Volunteers back to the 17 @-@ yard line . Branndon Stewart completed a pass to tight end David Horn , pushing Tennessee back to the three @-@ yard line , but not gaining enough for a first down . Tennessee kicker John Becksvoort returned to the game , and his 19 @-@ yard field goal attempt was good , giving the Volunteers a 45 – 16 lead with 9 : 41 to go in the game .

Following the kickoff and return , backup Virginia Tech quarterback Jim Druckenmiller entered the game to guide the Hokies ' offense . The first play of the drive , however , was a run by backup running back Ken Oxendine , who gained five yards . Two more runs by Oxendine failed to gain a first down , however , and Virginia Tech punted . Tennessee 's Sean Summers returned the kick to the Volunteers ' 40 @-@ yard line , and the Volunteers continued trying to run out the clock . Tennessee failed to gain a first down , and the resulting punt rolled into the end zone for a touchback .

From the Tech 20 @-@ yard line , Druckenmiller completed a 13 @-@ yard pass to Still for a first down at the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Druckenmiller completed a long pass to tight end Bryan Jennings , who carried the ball 41 yards . Following the play , the Volunteers completed a penalty , advancing the ball to the Tennessee 22 @-@ yard line . Two short runs advanced the Hokies to the 19 @-@ yard line , then Druckenmiller completed a 10 @-@ yard pass to Freeman for a first down . On the next play , Druckenmiller connected with Still for a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass . The extra point was good , and Tennessee 's lead was cut to 45 – 23 , but with only 4 : 13 remaining in the game , the game seemed out of reach for the Hokies .

Virginia Tech 's kickoff was recovered in the end zone for a touchback , and the Volunteers started at their 20 @-@ yard line . Tennessee resumed running out the clock via short runs up the middle of the field that kept the game clock ticking down . After not gaining a first down , Tennessee punted to the Hokies with less than two minutes remaining in the game . Tech wide receiver Antonio Freeman returned the kick to the Tech 42 @-@ yard line , and on the first play of the Hokie drive , Druckenmiller completed a 17 @-@ yard pass to the Tennessee 41 @-@ yard line . That completion was followed by a nine @-@ yard pass to Jermaine Holmes . After an incomplete pass that almost was intercepted , Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass before Oxendine failed to gain enough yards for a first down and Tech turned the ball over on downs . With less than a minute remaining , Tennessee 's offense ran out the remaining seconds on the clock and secured a 45 – 23 victory .

= = Statistical summary = =

In recognition of their performances during the game , Tennessee 's James Stewart and Virginia Tech 's Maurice DeShazo were named the game 's most valuable players . Stewart finished the game having carried the ball 22 times for 85 yards and three rushing touchdowns . Stewart also caught one pass for seven yards and threw a touchdown pass for 19 yards . On the other side , DeShazo completed 17 of his 30 passes for 140 yards and two interceptions . He also ran the ball 11 times for 39 yards and a rushing touchdown .

Though Stewart was named the most valuable player for the Volunteers , multiple Tennessee players had statistically significant games . Volunteer quarterback Peyton Manning finished the game having completed 12 of his 19 pass attempts for 189 yards , one touchdown , and one interception . Backup Tennessee quarterback Brandon Stewart completed all three of his pass attempts , accumulating 49 yards in the process . Tennessee receiver Joey Kent was the primary beneficiary of the Volunteer passing attack , leading all receivers during the game with six receptions for 116 yards . Tennessee 's passing touchdowns went to Kendrick Jones , who also had 37 receiving yards and 76 rushing yards ; and Marcus Nash , who caught three passes for 54 yards .

Virginia Tech 's offense , though far less successful than Tennessee 's , also had some high performers . Running Back Dwayne Thomas finished the game with 19 carries for 102 yards and a touchdown , becoming the game 's leading rusher in terms of yardage , if not points scored . The Hokies ' leading receiver , Bryan Still , caught five passes for 79 yards and a touchdown . The touchdown pass came from Tech backup quarterback Jim Druckenmiller , who finished the game having completed six of his eight pass attempts for 97 yards and the touchdown .

The 68 points scored in the game were a Gator Bowl record at the time , and Tennessee 's 35 first @-@ half points also were a Gator Bowl record . Kendrick Jones ' 76 @-@ yard run on the first play of the second quarter was the longest in Gator Bowl history at the time . Stewart 's three touchdowns and the Volunteers ' six touchdowns were Tennessee bowl game records at the time , and the Volunteers also set Tennessee bowl @-@ game records for most points and offensive yardage .

= = Postgame effects = =

With the win , Tennessee finished the 1994 college football season with an overall record of 8 – 4 . In the final Associated Press poll of the year , the Volunteers were ranked No. 22 . Virginia Tech 's also took it to a final record of 8 – 4 , and the Hokies fell from their No. 17 spot in the AP poll to being unranked . In the USA Today Coaches ' Poll , Tech dropped to No. 24 . This game was also the final meeting of the Hokies and the Volunteers until the 2009 Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl . Despite their regional proximity to each other , there were numerous failed attempts at scheduling a game between the universities . These efforts finally paid off in October 2013 when the two schools announced the Battle at Bristol , which will be at the Bristol Motor Speedway in Bristol , Tennessee , on September 10 , 2016 . The game will feature the largest crowd in history to see a football game , i.e. approximately 150 @,@ 000 fans over the current record of 115 @,@ 109 fans who saw Michigan play Notre Dame in September 2013 .

This was the last appearance of an SEC team in the Gator Bowl until 2011 . Conversely , it was the last Gator Bowl which did not feature a team from the ACC ( which admitted Virginia Tech in 2004 ) for the same period . After this game , the Gator Bowl entered into exclusive tie @-@ in contracts with the ACC and the Big East until 2010 ( with the addition of the Big 12 and Notre Dame from 2006 @-@ 2010 ) .

= Baggage ( U.S. game show ) =

Baggage is an American dating game show hosted by Jerry Springer and broadcast by Game Show Network . The original series premiered on April 19 , 2010 , airing for four seasons . A spin @-@ off series , entitled Baggage on the Road , aired for one season , which debuted January 7 , 2015 . The show has earned high ratings by GSN 's standards ; despite this , it has also received mixed critical reception .

The series gives three contestants the chance to win the eye of a prospective date . The contestants carry three suitcases onstage : a small , medium , and large one . Each suitcase contains an embarrassing , gross , unique , or weird proposition the contestant may have . These cases represent the " baggage " to which they will confess and defend . The bigger the suitcase , the bigger the secret . Once the three contestants are pared down to one , the potential dater must admit to a fault of his or her own .

= = Gameplay = =

The game is played by first introducing the central character . Three contestants are then introduced , each accompanied by three pieces of baggage : a small one , a medium one , and a large one , with each one containing a corresponding secret . The central contestant also has a piece of baggage of his or her own , which is only revealed at the end of the show . During the show , three possible secrets about the central contestant are given , one of which is the actual secret contained in their baggage . These secrets can include bad habits , strange relationship preferences , issues with one 's past , or strange hobbies . After the three other contestants are introduced , they each open the smallest piece of baggage , and explain the secrets they contain .

In the second segment , Springer reveals the second piece of baggage , contained in the medium @-@ sized suitcase . The three contestants are placed on the other side of the stage , along with the central contestant . Only the three contestants know which piece of baggage belongs to whom . The main contestant chooses the one piece of baggage which is the " deal breaker " ( i.e. , the one secret that they cannot accept ) . After stating this , the contestants then return to the other side of the stage and reveal which suitcase belongs to them . The person who claims the deal breaker baggage is immediately eliminated , and reveals the largest piece of baggage that would have been shown in the final round . The central contestant and two remaining contestants discuss the secrets in the medium pieces of baggage ; the two contestants then plead their cases as to why they should be the central contestant 's choice . The two remaining contestants , one at a time , are then asked a few questions ( usually five or six each ) by Springer about their personal lives .

The two remaining contestants open their largest pieces of baggage and reveal the secrets they contain . Each contestant makes one final statement , and the main contestant eliminates a second contestant . The main contestant 's own baggage is then opened and the contents revealed to the remaining contestant . If the contestant accepts the secret belonging to the central character , the couple is given an expense @-@ covered evening together . However , if the contestant can not accept the secret , the pair part ways .

= = Production = =

The series was officially announced on March 23 , 2010 , with Jerry Springer being confirmed as the host . The original series was produced by Comcast Entertainment Group ; Jay James and Tim Puntillo served as executive producers . On July 26 , GSN announced plans to renew the show for a second season , which began airing on August 16 , 2010 . A syndication test run was shown on a select group of Sinclair Broadcast Group 's stations January 10 , 2011 . The series began airing in syndication in the United States in September 2012 , becoming to first original program the network 's history to achieve such a feat .

A third season began airing on June 6 , 2011 . During season three , a half @-@ hour special entitled Baggage First Dates aired during a five @-@ hour " Best of Baggage Marathon . " The special followed a couple who had previously appeared on the show talking to Springer about what happened on their first date following their appearance . A fourth season of the show premiered on March 14 , 2012 .

With GSN ’ s Executive Vice President of Programming , Amy Introcaso @-@ Davis , citing that the series continued to remain " extremely popular " in reruns , GSN announced plans to order twenty episodes of a traveling version of the series . The spin @-@ off , entitled Baggage on the Road , follows an identical format to its predecessor while traveling to tape episodes in various U.S. cities . Prior to the spin @-@ off , a one @-@ hour special entitled Baggage : Most Outrageous Moments aired on January 1 , 2015 , featuring highlights from the original series ' run . The spin @-@ off premiered on January 7 , 2015 ; Wilshire Studios produced the revival with Lisa Tucker serving as executive producer .

= = Reception = =

The show quickly became a ratings success for GSN , becoming the highest @-@ rated weekday series in the network 's history . The original series averaged 473 @,@ 000 viewers during its first season , while the 2015 version saw a season @-@ high of 524 @,@ 000 viewers for its only season . Despite earning respectable ratings by GSN 's standards , Baggage has received mixed critical reviews . Carrie Grosvenor of About Entertainment argued that the series " isn 't exactly must @-@ see TV , but it 's entertaining enough to catch an episode here and there . " Additionally , Josef Adalian of The Wrap gave a negative pre @-@ review of the show , calling it and Springer " GSN 's latest bad idea . " In 2012 , however , Baggage appeared in Entertainment Weekly as a " top guilty pleasure , " and was also featured in the HBO television series Girls . Writing for Yahoo ! , Gabrielle Rice called the series " very entertaining , " and argued Springer to be " the perfect host for the show . " June Thomas , writing for Slate , opened her review by calling the series " real , and ... spectacular . " Additionally , Jordan Carr of The Awl titled his review , " Jerry Springer 's Baggage Is The Greatest TV Show Ever . " Carr called the formula of the show " brilliant " despite it being " predictable and not that exciting . "

The series has also spawned Australian and British versions under the same title . The British series , hosted by Gok Wan , aired on Channel 4 in 2012 .

= Churchill War Rooms =

The Churchill War Rooms is a museum in London and one of the five branches of the Imperial War Museum . The museum comprises the Cabinet War Rooms , a historic underground complex that housed a British government command centre throughout the Second World War , and the Churchill Museum , a biographical museum exploring the life of British statesman Winston Churchill .

Construction of the Cabinet War Rooms , located beneath the Treasury building in the Whitehall area of Westminster , began in 1938 . They became operational in August 1939 , shortly before the outbreak of war in Europe . They remained in operation throughout the Second World War , before being abandoned in August 1945 after the surrender of Japan . After the war the historic value of the Cabinet War Rooms was recognised . Their preservation became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works and later the Department for the Environment , during which time very limited numbers of the public were able to visit by appointment . In the early 1980s the Imperial War Museum was asked to take over the administration of the site , and the Cabinet War Rooms were opened to the public in April 1984 . The museum was reopened in 2005 following a major redevelopment as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , but in 2010 this was shortened to the Churchill War Rooms .

= = Construction = =

In 1936 the Air Ministry , the British government department responsible for the Royal Air Force , believed that in the event of war enemy aerial bombing of London would cause up to 200 @,@ 000 casualties per week . British government commissions under Warren Fisher and Sir James Rae in 1937 and 1938 considered that key government offices should be dispersed from central London to the suburbs , and non @-@ essential offices to the Midlands or North West . Pending this dispersal , in May 1938 Sir Hastings Ismay , then Deputy Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , ordered an Office of Works survey of Whitehall to identify a suitable site for a temporary emergency government centre . The Office concluded the most suitable site was the basement of the New Public Offices , a government building located on the corner of Horse Guards Road and Great George Street , near Parliament Square . The building now accommodates HM Treasury .

Work to convert the basement of the New Public Offices began , under the supervision of Ismay and Sir Leslie Hollis , in June 1938 . The work included installing communications and broadcasting equipment , sound @-@ proofing , ventilation and reinforcement . Meanwhile , by the summer of 1938 the War Office , Admiralty and Air Ministry had developed the concept of a Central War Room that would facilitate discussion and decision @-@ making between the Chiefs of Staff of the armed forces . As ultimate authority lay with the civilian government the Cabinet , or a smaller War Cabinet , would require close access to senior military figures . This implied accommodation close to the armed forces ' Central War Room . In May 1939 it was decided that the Cabinet would be housed within the Central War Room . In August 1939 , with war imminent and protected government facilities in the suburbs not yet ready , the War Rooms became operational on 27 August 1939 , only days before the invasion of Poland on 1 September , and Britain 's declaration of war on Germany on 3 September .

= = Wartime use = =

During its operational life two of the Cabinet War Rooms were of particular importance . Once operational , the facility 's Map Room was in constant use and manned around the clock by officers of the Royal Navy , British army and Royal Air Force . These officers were responsible for producing a daily intelligence summary for the King , Prime Minister and the military Chiefs of Staff .

The other key room was the Cabinet Room . Until the opening of the Battle of France , which began on 10 May 1940 , Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 's war cabinet met at the War Rooms only once , in October 1939 . Following Winston Churchill 's appointment as Prime Minister , Churchill visited the Cabinet Room in May 1940 and declared : ' This is the room from which I will direct the war ' . In total 115 Cabinet meetings were held at the Cabinet War Rooms , the last on 28 March 1945 , when the German V @-@ weapon bombing campaign came to an end .

On 22 October 1940 , during the Blitz bombing campaign against Britain , it was decided to increase the protection of the Cabinet War Rooms by the installation of a massive layer of concrete known as ' the Slab ' . Up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 metres ) thick , the Slab was progressively extended and by spring 1941 the increased protection had enabled the Cabinet War Rooms to expand to three times their original size . While the usage of many of the War Rooms ' individual rooms changed over the course of the war , the facility included dormitories for staff , private bedrooms for military officers and senior ministers , and rooms for typists or telephone switchboard operators .

Two other notable rooms include the Transatlantic Telephone Room and Churchill 's office @-@ bedroom . From 1943 , a SIGSALY code @-@ scrambling encrypted telephone was installed in the basement of Selfridges , Oxford Street connected to a similar terminal in the Pentagon building . This enabled Churchill to speak securely with American President Roosevelt in Washington , with the first conference taking place on 15 July 1943 . Later extensions were installed to both 10 Downing Street and the specially constructed Transatlantic Telephone Room within the Cabinet War Rooms . Churchill 's office @-@ bedroom included BBC broadcasting equipment ; Churchill made four wartime broadcasts from the Cabinet War Rooms . Although the office room was also fitted out as a bedroom , Churchill rarely slept underground , preferring to sleep at 10 Downing Street or the No.10 Annexe , a flat in the New Public Offices directly above the Cabinet War Rooms . His daughter Mary Soames often slept in the bedroom allocated to Mrs Churchill .

= = Abandonment and preservation = =

After the end of the war , the Cabinet War Rooms became redundant and were abandoned . Their maintenance became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works . In March 1948 the question of public access to the War Rooms was raised in Parliament and the Minister responsible , Charles Key MP , considered that ' it would not be practicable to throw open for inspection by the general public accommodation which forms part of an office where confidential work is carried on ' . Even so , a tour was organised for journalists on 17 March , with members of the press being welcomed by Lord Ismay and shown around the Rooms by their custodian , Mr. George Rance .

While the Rooms were not open to the general public , they could be accessed by appointment , with access being restricted to small groups . Even so , by the 1970s ( with responsibility for the Rooms having passed to the Department for the Environment in 1975 ) tens of thousands of requests to visit the Rooms were being received every year , of which only 5 @,@ 000 were successful . Meanwhile , the atmospheric conditions of the site , being dry and dusty , were having a detrimental effect on the rooms ' furnishings and historic maps and other documents . The prospect was raised of decanting the contents of the Rooms to an established museum , with the National Army Museum and Imperial War Museum being suggested as candidates . In the event , £ 7 @,@ 000 was secured to conserve the material in situ .

= = Opening and redevelopment = =

In 1974 the Imperial War Museum was approached by the government and asked to consider taking over the administration of the site . A feasibility study was prepared but came to nothing , the museum feeling it did not have sufficient resources to commit to the War Rooms . In 1981 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , known as an admirer of Winston Churchill , expressed the hope that the Rooms could be opened before the next general election . The Imperial War Museum was again approached . Initially still reluctant , the museum 's trustees decided in January 1982 that the museum would take over the site , on the understanding that the government would make the necessary resources available . The initial costs were to be met by the Department for the Environment , and the War Rooms intended to be self @-@ supporting thereafter . The Rooms were opened to the public by Thatcher on 4 April 1984 , in a ceremony attended by Churchill family members and former Cabinet War Rooms staff . At first the Rooms were administered by the museum on behalf of Department for the Environment ; in 1989 responsibility was transferred to the Imperial War Museum .

Following a major expansion in 2003 , a suite of rooms , used as accommodation by Churchill , his wife and close associates , was added to the museum . The restoration of these rooms , which since the war had been stripped out and used for storage , cost £ 7 @.@ 5 million . In 2005 the War Rooms were rebranded as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms , with 850m2 of the site redeveloped as a biographical museum exploring Churchill 's life . The museum , the development of which cost a further £ 6 million raised from private fundraising , makes extensive use of audiovisual technology . The centrepiece is a 15 @-@ metre interactive table that enables visitors to access digitised material , particularly from the Churchill Archives Centre , via an ' electronic filing cabinet ' . The Churchill Museum won the 2006 Council of Europe Museum Prize . During 2009 @-@ 2011 the museum received over 300 @,@ 000 visitors a year . In May 2010 the name of the museum was shortened to Churchill War Rooms .

In June 2012 the museum 's entrance was redesigned by Clash Architects with consulting engineers Price & Myers . Intended to act as a ' beacon ' for the museum , the new external design included a faceted bronze entranceway , while the interior showed the cleaned and restored Portland stone walls of the Treasury building and Clive Steps . The design was described as ' appropriately martial and bulldog @-@ like ' and as ' a fusion of architecture and sculpture ' .

= Plitvice Lakes incident =

The Plitvice Lakes incident ( Croatian : Krvavi Uskrs na Plitvicama or Plitvički krvavi Uskrs , both translating as " Plitvice Bloody Easter " ) was an armed clash at the beginning of the Croatian War of Independence . It was fought between Croatian police and armed forces from the Croatian Serb @-@ established SAO Krajina at the Plitvice Lakes in Croatia , on 31 March 1991 . The fighting followed the SAO Krajina 's takeover of the Plitvice Lakes National Park and resulted in Croatia recapturing the area . The clash resulted in one killed on each side and contributed to the worsening ethnic tensions .

The fighting prompted the Presidency of Yugoslavia to order the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) to step in and create a buffer zone between the opposing forces . The JNA arrived at the scene the following day and presented Croatia with an ultimatum requesting the police to withdraw . Even though the special police units which captured the Plitvice Lakes area did pull out on 2 April , a newly established Croatian police station , staffed by 90 officers , remained in place . The police station was blockaded by the JNA three months later , and captured in late August 1991 .

= = Background = =

In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina regions and eastern Croatia . They established a Serbian National Council in July 1990 , to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's policy of pursuing independence for Croatia . Milan Babić , a dentist from the southern town of Knin , was elected president . Knin 's police chief , Milan Martić , established paramilitary militias . The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the SAO Krajina , a self @-@ declared state incorporating the Serb @-@ inhabited areas of Croatia .

In the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defence , Croatia doubled the size of its police force to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police that were deployed in 12 battalions adopting military organisation . In addition there were 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police . The reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons .

In an effort to consolidate territory under their control , Croatian Serb leaders organised a political rally at the Plitvice Lakes on 25 March 1991 , demanding the area be annexed to the SAO Krajina . Three days later , on 28 March , SAO Krajina special police seized the area , and with the help of armed civilians , removed the Croatian management of the Plitvice Lakes National Park . The force deployed by the SAO Krajina to the Plitvice Lakes was estimated to be approximately 100 @-@ strong . The region was relatively sparsely populated and there was no obvious threat to Serbs there . Journalist Tim Judah suggests that the move may have been motivated by a desire to control a strategic road that ran north @-@ south through the park , linking the Serb communities in the Lika and Banovina regions .

= = Timeline = =

Croatia deployed special police forces , specifically the Lučko , Rakitje and Sljeme special police units based in and around Zagreb , supported by additional police forces drawn from Karlovac and Gospić to retake the Plitvice Lakes area . The Croatian police force , commanded by Josip Lucić , used several buses and passenger cars , as well as an armoured personnel carrier to approach the Plitvice Lakes area . The main 180 @-@ strong group of the Rakitje Special Police Unit ( SPU ) , directly commanded by Lucić , arrived in dense fog , along the main road from Zagreb via the Korana River bridge . The bridge was secured by the Lučko unit shortly before midnight on 30 / 31 March 1991 . An auxiliary force approached the Plitvice Lakes via Ličko Petrovo Selo , while the Kumrovec SPU was deployed in the area between the lakes and Gospić , where it captured the Ljubovo Pass to secure the right flank of the main effort . The total attacking force comprised approximately 300 troops .

The approaching convoy was ambushed at a barricade set up by the SAO Krajina force near Plitvice Lakes before 7 : 00 in the morning of Easter Sunday , 31 March 1991 . The SAO Krajina force attacked the vehicles carrying the Croatian police and held their position until they fell back to the national park post office two and a half hours later . The Croatian advance , additionally hindered by deep snow , was achieved at a cost of six wounded . The attacking force secured its objectives by 11 : 00 am . As the attacking operation reached its completion , the Croatian military sustained its first combat fatality of the Croatian War of Independence , when Josip Jović was killed by a machine gun covering retreating SAO Krajina troops . Shortly afterwards , the Yugoslav Air Force dispatched a Mil Mi @-@ 8 helicopter to attend to wounded on both sides , and it left the area after an hour and a half . The helicopter was dispatched by Colonel General Anton Tus , head of the Yugoslav Air Force at the time , following a request by Josip Boljkovac , Interior Minister of Croatia . As the fighting around Plitvice ended , sporadic gunfire was reported near Titova Korenica , to the south . The same afternoon , a Croatian police station was established at the Plitvice Lakes and Tomislav Iljić was appointed its commanding officer . The station was staffed by approximately 90 police officers who were redeployed from Gospić .

The Presidency of Yugoslavia met in an emergency session the same evening to discuss the clash . At the insistence of Serbia 's representative on the Presidency , Borisav Jović , the JNA was ordered to intervene , gain control in the area and prevent further combat . The Serbian parliament also met in an emergency session , treating the clashes as a virtual casus belli and voting to offer the Krajina Serbs " all necessary help " in their conflict with Zagreb . The following day , the SAO Krajina adopted a resolution to the effect that the territory was incorporated into Serbia , whose constitution and laws were adopted for use in the Serb @-@ held areas of Croatia . Croatian authorities accused Serbia 's president , Slobodan Milošević , of stage @-@ managing the unrest in order to break Croatia 's resolve to declare independence unless Yugoslavia was transformed into a loose confederation . They also accused him of attempting to coax the JNA to overthrow Croatian government .

= = = JNA intervention = = =

On 1 April , the JNA established a buffer zone to separate the belligerents at Plitvice Lakes , deploying elements of the 1st and the 5th Military Districts . Those were an armoured battalion of the 329th Armoured Brigade based in Banja Luka , a battalion of the 6th Mountain Brigade based in Delnice , a reconnaissance company and a mechanised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade based in Jastrebarsko and Karlovac , a battalion of the 306th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Regiment based in Zagreb , a signals company of the 367th Signals Regiment based in Samobor , a company of the 13th Military Police Battalion based in Rijeka and an anti @-@ aircraft artillery battery drawn from the 13th Proletarian Motorised Brigade based in Rijeka . Finally , the 5th Military District set up a forward command post at the Plitvice Lakes . The JNA force at the Plitvice Lakes was commanded by Colonel Ivan Štimac .

The commanding officer of the 5th Military District , Major General Andrija Rašeta , in overall command of the JNA intervention , told the media that his men were not protecting either side and were there only to prevent ethnic confrontations for an indeterminate period . However , the Croatian government reacted furiously to the JNA move . Tuđman 's aide , Mario Nobilo , claimed that the JNA had told Croatian officials that it would engage the police if they did not leave Plitvice . In a radio address , Tuđman said that the JNA would be regarded as a hostile army of occupation if its course of action remained unchanged . On 2 April , the JNA handed the Croatian authorities an ultimatum , requesting the police leave Plitvice . The special police left Plitvice the same day , but the 90 officers staffing the newly established police station remained in place .

= = Aftermath = =

Police officer Josip Jović was the only Croatian fatality in the incident . The SAO Krajina force also suffered one killed in the fighting — Rajko Vukadinović , who was the first Croatian Serb combat fatality in the war . A total of 20 people were wounded , seven of whom were the Croatian police . The Croatian forces captured 29 SAO Krajina troops , 18 of whom were formally charged with insurgency . Among the prisoners was Goran Hadžić , later to become the President of the Republic of Serbian Krajina , although he was quickly released . Hadžić 's release was explained as a goodwill gesture by the authorities , but Boljkovac claims he was released because he was collaborating with the Croatian authorities in 1991 . Approximately 400 tourists , most of them Italian , were evacuated from the Plitvice Lakes after the fighting .

The clash at the Plitvice Lakes worsened the overall situation in Croatia and led to an escalation of the conflict . Even though the Croatian and Serb forces were separated by the JNA at the Plitvice Lakes , the situation in the area continued to deteriorate following the clash . In nearby Plaški , Croatian police personnel left the local police station and were replaced by Serb officers . Both SAO Krajina and Croatian forces set up several roadblocks on the Saborsko – Lička Jasenica – Ogulin road . By summer , the blockades were extended to the north of Plaški and south of Saborsko , where Croatian authorities established another 30 @-@ strong police station on 2 April . Only JNA vehicles were permitted to pass the roadblocks , and that brought about a shortage of food , medicine and electricity in the area .

On 2 May , the Serb Democratic Party , the ruling party in the SAO Krajina , organised a protest march to the Plitvice Lakes and a political rally demanding the Croatian police withdraw from Plitvice . The march , led by Babić and Vojislav Šešelj , was prevented from reaching the Plitvice Lakes by the JNA and forced to return to Titova Korenica . The JNA imposed a blockade of the Plitvice Lakes police station on 1 July , on the pretext that the Croatian police had abducted and imprisoned two JNA officers . By 6 July , the SAO Krajina forces and the JNA commenced attacks on the Ljubovo Pass southeast of the Plitvice Lakes , on the Titova Korenica – Gospić road , driving the Croatian National Guard back and capturing the pass by the end of the month . Throughout the summer , the JNA continued to engage Croatian forces in Lika using the units deployed to the Plitvice Lakes in April . The fighting escalated further on 30 August , when the JNA captured the Plitvice Lakes police station and the following day when the Battle of Gospić began .

Jović is largely viewed in Croatia as the first casualty of the Croatian War of Independence . A monument dedicated to him was erected in his birthplace of Aržano in 1994 . After the war , a monument was erected at the site of his death , where annual commemorations of the clash are held . The clash and Jović 's death are commemorated annually at the Plitvice Lakes .

= Silky sifaka =

The silky sifaka ( Propithecus candidus ) , or silky simpona , is a large lemur characterized by long , silky , white fur . It has a very restricted range in northeastern Madagascar , where it is known locally as the simpona . It is one of the rarest mammals on Earth , and is listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) as one of the world 's 25 most critically endangered primates . The silky sifaka is one of nine sifaka species ( genus Propithecus ) , and one of four former subspecies of diademed sifaka ( P. diadema ) . Studies in 2004 and 2007 compared external proportions , genetics , and cranio @-@ dental anatomy supporting full species status , which has generally been accepted .

The silky sifaka has a variable social structure , and lives in groups of two to nine individuals . It spends most of its day feeding and resting , though it also devotes a considerable amount of time to social behaviors , such as playing and grooming , as well as traveling . Females occasionally take priority over males during feeding . Like other eastern sifakas , it consumes mainly leaves and seeds , but also fruit , flowers , and even soil on occasion . It is a seasonal breeder and only mates one day a year during the start of the rainy season . As with other sifaka species , non @-@ maternal infant care is common . Group members of all ages and both sexes will often groom , play with , occasionally carry , and even nurse infants that are not their own . The silky sifaka vocalizes frequently despite its moderately sized vocal repertoire consisting of seven adult calls . Like all lemurs , it relies strongly on scent for communication . Males will frequently scent @-@ mark on top of scent @-@ marks made by other group members , particularly females . Males also gouge trees with their toothcomb ( a special arrangement of the bottom , front teeth ) prior to chest scent @-@ marking . This chest marking results in males having brown @-@ stained chests , the only visible trait that can be used to distinguish between adult males and adult females .

The species is only found within a few protected areas in the rainforests of northeastern Madagascar , with the majority of the remaining population in Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve . A few groups have also been found in the Makira Forest Protected Area , the Betaolana Corridor , and some unprotected forest fragments . The silky sifaka is hunted throughout its range as there is no local fady ( taboo ) against eating this species . Habitat disturbance , such as slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture ( tavy ) , illegal logging of precious woods ( particularly , rosewood ) and fuel @-@ wood , also occurs within the protected areas where it is found .

= = Etymology = =

The name " sifaka " is a reference to a common general alarm vocalization given by western dry forest sifakas in which they emit an explosive , hiss @-@ like " shee @-@ faak " call several times in succession . On the east coast , local residents refer to the larger bodied diademed sifaka as simpona , a name which refers to the species ' sneeze @-@ like " zzuss " alarm vocalizations . The calls are emitted in a variety of stressful circumstances such as presence of humans , falling trees , terrestrial predators , and after aggression between group members . The specific name , candidus , is Latin for " white " , while the specific name of the taxonomic synonym sericeus is derived from the Greek word for " silk " .

= = Taxonomy = =

The silky sifaka was initially described in 1871 by French naturalist Alfred Grandidier in a formally published letter to French zoologist Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards . Grandidier 's description was based on his own observations north of Antongil Bay in the last few months of 1870 . He then named the species Propithecus candidus due to its white color , which he likened to that of the Verreaux 's sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi ) , but without the dark fur on its head or the ash @-@ colored spot on the back . The first specimen was obtained in 1872 and provided by " Monsieur Guinet " , a planter from Sambava . The specimen allowed both Grandidier and Milne @-@ Edwards to more thoroughly describe the species based on its skin , coat , and skull . Upon those findings , they changed the name to P. sericeus . Upon further review in 1875 , Grandidier demoted the silky sifaka to a variety or " race " of the diademed sifaka . By the time German zoologist Ernst Schwarz standardized lemur taxonomy in 1931 , P. sericeus had become a taxonomic synonym for the species , with the original name , Propithecus candidus , taking priority .

Schwarz placed all sifakas into two species , the larger diademed sifaka from the eastern rainforests and the smaller Verreaux 's sifaka from the dry forests and spiny forests of the west and south . At the time , both species comprised four subspecies , and the silky sifaka was listed as P. diadema candidus , a subspecies of the diademed sifaka . In his 1982 book Primates of Madagascar , anthropologist Ian Tattersall upheld this classification . When anthropologist Colin Groves reviewed the taxonomy in his book Primate Taxonomy in 2001 , he also upheld the subspecies status of the silky sifaka because variations in fur coloration between the available specimens suggested converging similarities with the diademed sifaka 's coloration . Groves later noted that the coloration of the two species did not overlap , suggesting that the populations were distinct .

In 2004 , Mayor et al. showed that despite having a similar karyotype ( the number and appearance of chromosomes ) of 42 chromosomes ( 2n = 42 ) , the silky sifaka was distinct from the diademed sifaka . This was shown through genetic tests ( D @-@ loop sequencing ) and by comparing external proportions . For example , the silky sifaka has a shorter tail . Their analysis indicated a closer relationship with Perrier 's sifaka ( Propithecus perrieri ) . Russell Mittermeier and colleagues followed by adopting the full species status of the silky sifaka for the 2nd edition of Lemurs of Madagascar in 2006 . Although Groves maintained the silky sifaka as a subspecies in the 3rd edition of Mammal Species of the World in 2005 , he recognized it as a distinct species in 2007 by acknowledging the work of Mayor et al. and also noting the additional distinction that the silky sifaka has relatively long molar teeth compared to the length of its toothrow . Despite the promotion to full species status , the silky sifaka is still considered to be a member of the P. diadema group , a group of four closely related , large @-@ bodied , eastern rainforest sifakas . The other three members of this group are the diademed sifaka , Perrier 's sifaka , and Milne @-@ Edwards ' sifaka ( Propithecus edwardsi ) . The species status of the silky sifaka , as well as other sifakas , does not have universal support : in 2007 , Tattersall argued against species distinctions within Propithecus , claiming the decisions were made prematurely .

In 1974 , Tattersall spotted what he thought was a color variant of the silky sifaka north of Vohemar in northeast Madagascar . Describing it as such eight years later in The Primates of Madagascar , he not only cited its mostly white fur , but also uncharacteristic traits such as a patch of orange on its crown and tufted ears . It was not observed again until 1986 , when a team led by paleoanthropologist Elwyn L. Simons captured specimens for captive breeding and identified it as a new species , named as the golden @-@ crowned sifaka ( Propithecus tattersalli ) in 1988 .

= = Geographic range and habitat = =

The silky sifaka is confined to a small region of northeastern Madagascar within a strip of humid forest stretching from Maroantsetra in the south to the Andapa Basin and the Marojejy Massif in the north . Marojejy National Park represents the northern limit of its current distribution , although historical sifaka range maps created by Grandidier and Milne @-@ Edwards in the late 19th century show the silky sifaka as far north as the Bemarivo River , north of Sambava . The Androranga River may represent the northwestern range limit within the Tsaratanana Corridor . The southern limit of its range appears to be the Antainambalana River , within the Makira Conservation Site . It is not known if the silky sifaka has ever ranged as far south as the Masoala Peninsula . As of 2009 , new observations of a few groups of the silky sifaka in unprotected forest fragments adjacent to northeastern Makira ( Antohaka Lava and Maherivaratra ) may slightly enlarge the known geographic range of this species . The presence of the silky sifaka has been documented within Marojejy National Park , Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , the Makira Forest Protected Area , the Betaolana Corridor , and the Tsaratanana Corridor . In 2008 , 16 groups were discovered in western Marojejy near Antsahaberoaka .

The silky sifaka tends to be found at higher elevations than any of the other sifaka species and also occupies the greatest range of elevations for the group . In Marojejy National Park and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , where most of the remaining groups exist , it is not found below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) of elevation and not above 1 @,@ 875 m ( 6 @,@ 152 ft ) . However , at its southernmost location in Makira ( Andaparaty ) , several groups inhabit forest fragments at an unusually low elevation of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . The silky sifaka inhabits three types of elevation @-@ specific habitats : primary montane rainforest , sclerophyllous forest , and the most elevated portions of low ericoid bush . It is unknown how sensitive the silky sifaka is to disturbance or whether it avoids habitat edges ( " edge @-@ intolerant " ) or is more edge @-@ tolerant like the diademed sifaka . Like other rainforest sifaka species , it seldom crosses unforested regions between forest fragments .

In the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve , the silky sifaka is sympatric ( shares the same geographic range ) with the white @-@ fronted brown lemur ( Eulemur albifrons ) and an all @-@ black population of indri ( Indri indri ) . In Marojejy National Park , it is sympatric with the white @-@ fronted brown lemur . In 2008 , it was suggested that the silky sifaka may be sympatric with the red ruffed lemur ( Varecia rubra ) near Maherivaratra and Andaparaty .

= = Description = =

The silky sifaka is one of the larger sifaka species , with a head @-@ body length of 48 – 54 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 ft ) , a tail length of 45 – 51 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 7 ft ) , a total length of 93 – 105 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 4 ft ) , and a weight of 5 – 6 @.@ 5 kg ( 11 – 14 lb ) . As its common English name suggests , its long , white fur has a silky texture . Not all individuals are completely white : some have silver @-@ gray or black tints on the crown , back , and limbs . The base of the tail ( " pygal region " ) can be yellow . The ears and face are hairless , and the skin may be a mix of pink and black , completely black , or completely pink . The tips of the ears protrude slightly above the fur on the rest of the head . Its eyes have a deep orange @-@ red coloration . Its appearance is distinctive , and since no other sifakas share its range , it is not easily confused with other lemur species .

While it is difficult to distinguish adult males and females in other eastern rainforest sifakas , such as the Perrier 's sifaka and Milne @-@ Edwards ' sifaka , gender in the silky sifaka is easily discerned due to differences in fur coloration of the upper chest . Females have white fur , while males have a large brown patch of fur that results from scent marking with a gland on the chest and throat ( the sternal gular gland ) . During mating season , the size of the " chest patch " increases to cover both the chest and abdomen as a result of increased scent marking .

= = Behavior = =

Until the 21st century , brief observations and lemur surveys had merely documented the presence of the silky sifaka in special reserves and national parks . More recently , a 14 @-@ month study and two short @-@ term studies in Marojejy National Park have revealed previously unknown details about its behavioral biology , communication , and feeding ecology . The silky sifaka has a variable social structure and is known to live in male @-@ female pairs , one @-@ male groups , and multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female groups . Group sizes range from two to nine individuals , while the home ranges are estimated to range from 34 to 47 ha ( 0 @.@ 13 to 0 @.@ 18 sq mi ) , varying in size by location .

According to some studies , the silky sifaka spends most of its day resting and feeding ( approximately 44 @.@ 4 % and 25 % respectively ) . It also devotes approximately 16 @.@ 8 % of the day to social behavior , such as personal grooming , social grooming ( allogrooming ) , and play . The rest of the day is spent traveling and sleeping . Other sources report that the species divides half of the day between traveling and foraging , while the rest is spent resting . Daily foraging usually starts at dawn unless delayed by rain . Group movement is usually led by females , and groups usually travel 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) per day , and may climb 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) along vertical slopes . Although the species spends its time in the trees , terrestrial play is not uncommon , even among adults , with play sessions lasting 30 minutes or more . Like other sifakas , it uses a type of arboreal locomotion known as vertical clinging and leaping . Dominance hierarchies have not been documented among female sifakas , including the silky sifaka , although seasonal hierarchies are known to occur . Aggression , which is generally infrequent , occurs primarily during feeding , where females take priority over males , although submissive signals are not always obvious .

The silky sifaka 's diet is similar to that of other eastern rainforest sifakas , consisting primarily of leaves ( folivory ) and seeds ( seed predation ) . It is highly varied and includes many plant species . A two @-@ month study from the mid @-@ 2000s showed that the silky sifaka can feed on as many as 76 species of plant from 42 families . Its favorites included primarily tree species , but also some lianas . The most prominent plant families in the diet were Moraceae ( 20 @.@ 30 % ) , Fabaceae ( 12 @.@ 87 % ) , Myrtaceae ( 12 @.@ 65 % ) , Clusiaceae ( 10 @.@ 13 % ) and Apocynaceae ( 9 @.@ 49 % ) . In the study , feeding upon these four plant families took up as much as 37 @.@ 06 % of the total feeding time for the silky sifaka : 16 @.@ 09 % on the fruit of Pachytrophe dimepate , 8 @.@ 43 % on the seeds of Senna sp . , 6 @.@ 52 % on the young leaves of Plectaneia thouarsii , and 6 @.@ 02 % on the fruit of Eugenia sp . In sum , folivory accounted for 52 % of the feeding time , while frugivory ( fruit @-@ eating ) accounted for 34 % , and seed predation made up 11 % . The consumption of flowers , as well as soil ( geophagy ) , was rarely observed in this study . Prior to this , preliminary studies had reported that folivory account for 75 % of the diet , while fruits and 15 % was seed predation , 7 % was flower consumption , and bark and soil made up the remainder .

Like all other lemurs , the silky sifaka is a seasonal breeder , and it is thought that it mates only one day a year during the start of the rainy season sometime in December or January . Infants are born six months later in June or July . Females typically give birth to a single infant once every two years , although births in consecutive years have been observed . Infants initially cling to the fur of their mother 's chest for nearly four weeks and then switch to riding on her back . As with other eastern rainforest sifakas , the infants of this species develop rapidly . This may be due to assistance in the care of infants by all group members ( known as alloparental care ) — a trait typical among all sifakas . Non @-@ maternal care usually takes the form of allogrooming , but also playing , occasional carrying , and in rare cases , nursing . The dispersal of offspring is thought to be similar to that of other eastern rainforest sifakas , with both males and females transferring out of the group at sexual maturity . However , dispersal has only been observed once with a young adult male , who left its natal group and proceeded to oust an older male from a group in which he had been a member for seven years . Female dispersal and group transfer has not yet been observed .

The only documented predator of the silky sifaka , other than humans , is the fossa , a cat @-@ like carnivore found only on Madagascar . Although no aerial predators are known , the silky sifaka often watch the sky and emit loud " aerial disturbance " roars at the sight of the large Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) and other small birds . Another more general alarm call is the loud , sneeze @-@ like " zzuss " vocalization , which are emitted in response to terrestrial disturbances , calls from lost group members , and aggression by other group members . Acoustic analyses of the " zzuss " vocalization have shown that the call 's acoustic structure differs between individuals and by gender .

Adult eastern sifakas have a moderately sized vocal repertoire of about seven call types . It is uncertain if their vocalizations have specific or varied contexts , and as with other primates , arousal level may play a role in the acoustic structure of its calls . Despite the limited size of the silky sifaka 's vocal repertoire , it does exhibit high call rates of seven calls per hour , on average . Even infants are known to have several specialized vocalizations . The most frequently emitted silky sifaka vocalizations are low @-@ amplitude , low @-@ frequency , tonal " hum " and " mum " vocalizations . These contact calls are used in a variety of circumstances including group movement , affiliation , foraging , and while resting .

The silky sifaka uses well @-@ developed olfactory ( smell @-@ based ) communication , as with all other strepsirrhine primates . Like other eastern rainforest sifakas , it has several specialized glands for scent @-@ marking , including a sebaceous gland on the chest , found only in males , and mixed apocrine @-@ sebaceous glands on the genitals in both sexes . Unlike the true lemurs of the genus Eulemur , the silky sifaka does not directly scent @-@ mark its conspecifics ( allomarking ) , although it does scent @-@ mark its territory . Both sexes will often urinate while scent @-@ marking . Males and females scent @-@ mark in different ways : females rub their genital glands in an up @-@ and @-@ down motion against trees , while males may use their chest gland , genital glands , or a combination of both . Males will also use their specialized toothcomb to gouge trees before scent @-@ marking with their chest — a behavior that leaves long @-@ lasting visible marks . The gouging is thought to serve a role in communication and has no dietary component , since males do not eat the bark or tree gum .

Males scent @-@ mark more frequently than females , as much as two or three times as often . Males also respond to female scent @-@ marking by overmarking with their own scent glands , usually by combining chest and genital marking . They will also overmark other males , although less quickly and less often . In a one @-@ year study , males responded to 71 % of the marks made by females within an average of 61 seconds while only 17 % of male marks received a response from other group members . Because males overmark frequently , this results in " totem @-@ tree marking " , where certain trees become covered by male scent and gouge marks . However , no observations of widespread home range border scent @-@ marking have been reported . Scent @-@ marks are usually left on trees in the core area of the home range , as opposed to the territorial boundaries .

= = Conservation = =

According to the most recent IUCN Red List assessment , the silky sifaka is Critically Endangered . It is one of the rarest and most critically endangered lemurs . The silky sifaka is one of five lemurs listed as one of " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " and has been on the list all five times since its inception in 2000 . Its population size is estimated to range between 100 and 1 @,@ 000 individuals , while the number of mature individuals is thought to be less than 250 . There are no silky sifakas in captivity , such as in zoos .

The silky sifaka is the flagship species for the protected areas in which it is found , particularly for Marojejy , which has recently been inaugurated as part of a World Heritage Site cluster known as the Rainforests of the Atsinanana . Habitat disturbance , such as slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture ( known locally as tavy ) , logging of precious woods ( e.g. , rosewood ) and fuel @-@ wood , also occurs within the protected areas where it is found . Unlike the golden @-@ crowned sifaka ( Propithecus tattersalli ) , there is no local taboo ( fady ) against eating this species , and the hunting of bushmeat is a known issue within its range . It is most heavily hunted in the northern and western parts of Marojejy , as well as other areas around the Andapa Basin . The species is restricted to 90 @,@ 000 ha ( 350 sq mi ) of protected areas , although this may be an overestimation because in much of its range the silky sifaka is not found below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) in altitude , possibly due to either hunting pressure or habitat preference .

Illegal logging of precious hardwoods , such as rosewood and ebony , has become one of the greatest threats to the silky sifaka 's habitat , especially since the 2009 Malagasy political crisis . Its two largest protected areas , Masoala National Park and Marojejy National Park , have been the hardest hit . The disturbance caused by selective logging increases the likelihood of forest fires , helps invasive species take root , impairs habitat , and causes the loss of genetic diversity .

Local villages adjacent to its remaining protected areas adopted a two @-@ pronged strategy towards silky sifaka conservation education . First , a " cognitive component " was implemented to increase knowledge and awareness through radio interviews , slide presentations , and the disbursement of literature in twelve primary and secondary schools . Additionally , an " emotional component " was begun to link silky sifaka conservation with positive emotional experiences , with the goal of establishing a psychological connection between the children and the lemur . To do this , groups of children were taken on three @-@ day educational eco @-@ tours in Marojejy National Park . Both the teachers and the students showed interest and genuine concern about the plight of the silky sifaka .

Plans are being made to both expand Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve and link existing parks and reserves in the region with wildlife corridors . These corridors include the Betaolana Corridor between Marojejy and Anjananharibe @-@ Sud and Makira , which will connect Anjananharibe @-@ Sud with Masoala National Park to the south . In addition to providing additional habitat for the silky sifaka , the corridors would promote genetic exchange between currently isolated populations .

= = = Books cited = = =

= Transformer =

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction . Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields . Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications .

A varying current in the transformer 's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer 's secondary winding . This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force ( EMF ) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction . Making use of Faraday 's Law ( discovered in 1831 ) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties , transformers can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks .

Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885 , transformers have become essential for the transmission , distribution , and utilization of alternating current electrical energy . A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications . Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons .

= = Basic principles = =

= = = Ideal transformer = = =

For simplification or approximation purposes , it is very common to analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images . An ideal transformer is a theoretical , linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled ; that is , there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic core . Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive force .

A varying current in the transformer 's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding . This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force ( EMF ) or voltage in the secondary winding . The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings . With a voltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding , the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions . ( See also Polarity . )

According to Faraday 's Law , since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer , a voltage is induced in each winding , according to eq . ( 1 ) in the secondary winding case , according to eq . ( 2 ) in the primary winding case . The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF . This is in accordance with Lenz 's law , which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field .

The transformer winding voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the winding turns ratio according to eq . ( 3 ) .

According to the law of conservation of energy , any load impedance connected to the ideal transformer 's secondary winding results in conservation of apparent , real and reactive power consistent with eq . ( 4 ) .

The ideal transformer identity shown in eq . ( 5 ) is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer , with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio .

By Ohm 's law and the ideal transformer identity :

the secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq . ( 6 )

the apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is derived in eq . ( 7 ) to be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load impedance .

= = = = Polarity = = = =

A dot convention is often used in transformer circuit diagrams , nameplates or terminal markings to define the relative polarity of transformer windings . Positively increasing instantaneous current entering the primary winding 's dot end induces positive polarity voltage at the secondary winding 's dot end .

= = = Real transformer = = =

= = = = Deviations from ideal = = = =

The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers .

Core losses , collectively called magnetizing current losses , consist of

Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer core , and

Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer 's applied voltage .

Whereas windings in the ideal model have no resistances and infinite inductances , the windings in a real transformer have finite non @-@ zero resistances and inductances associated with :

Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings

Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance .

= = = = Leakage flux = = = =

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding , including itself . In practice , some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings . Such flux is termed leakage flux , and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings . Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply . It is not directly a power loss , but results in inferior voltage regulation , causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage , particularly under heavy load . Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance .

In some applications increased leakage is desired , and long magnetic paths , air gaps , or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short @-@ circuit current it will supply . Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance , such as electric arcs , mercury vapor lamps , and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short @-@ circuited such as electric arc welders .

Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating , especially audio @-@ frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings .

Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel . It can be shown that if the percent impedance and associated winding leakage reactance @-@ to @-@ resistance ( X / R ) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same , the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt @-@ ampere ratings ( e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1 @,@ 000 kVA unit , the larger unit would carry twice the current ) . However , the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant . Also , the Z impedance and X / R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary , corresponding 1 @,@ 000 kVA and 500 kVA units ' values being , to illustrate , respectively , Z ≈ 5 @.@ 75 % , X / R ≈ 3 @.@ 75 and Z ≈ 5 % , X / R ≈ 4 @.@ 75 .

= = = = Equivalent circuit = = = =

Referring to the diagram , a practical transformer 's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model , which can incorporate an ideal transformer .

Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model :

Primary winding : RP , XP

Secondary winding : RS , XS .

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation , RS and XS are in practice usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared , ( NP / NS ) 2 = a2 .

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model :

Core or iron losses : RC

Magnetizing reactance : XM .

RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model .

Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency . The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain mutual flux in the core . Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux , the relationship between the two being non @-@ linear due to saturation effects . However , all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non @-@ linearity effects are not typically reflected in transformer equivalent circuits . With sinusoidal supply , core flux lags the induced EMF by 90 ° . With open @-@ circuited secondary winding , magnetizing branch current I0 equals transformer no @-@ load current .

The resulting model , though sometimes termed ' exact ' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions , retains a number of approximations . Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances . This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances by simple summation as two series impedances .

Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests : open @-@ circuit test , short @-@ circuit test , winding resistance test , and transformer ratio test .

= = Basic transformer parameters and construction = =

= = = Effect of frequency = = =

By Faraday 's Law of induction shown in eq . ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , transformer EMFs vary according to the derivative of flux with respect to time . The ideal transformer 's core behaves linearly with time for any non @-@ zero frequency . Flux in a real transformer 's core behaves non @-@ linearly in relation to magnetization current as the instantaneous flux increases beyond a finite linear range resulting in magnetic saturation associated with increasingly large magnetizing current , which eventually leads to transformer overheating .

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency . By operating at higher frequencies , transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance . However , properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency . Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight . Conversely , frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower ( e.g. 16 @.@ 7 Hz and 25 Hz ) than normal utility frequencies ( 50 – 60 Hz ) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors . Consequently , the transformers used to step @-@ down the high overhead line voltages ( e.g. 15 kV ) were much larger and heavier for the same power rating than those required for the higher frequencies .

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current . At a lower frequency , the magnetizing current will increase . Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages , losses , and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical . For example , transformers may need to be equipped with ' volts per hertz ' over @-@ excitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency .

One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high @-@ speed train service operating across regions with different electrical standards . The converter equipment and traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage ( ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16 @.@ 7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV ) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor and DC converters and motors with varying harmonics mitigation filtering requirements .

Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high @-@ frequency components , such as caused in switching or by lightning .

At much higher frequencies the transformer core size required drops dramatically : a physically small and cheap transformer can handle power levels that would require a massive iron core at mains frequency . The development of switching power semiconductor devices and complex integrated circuits made switch @-@ mode power supplies viable , to generate a high frequency from a much lower one ( or DC ) , change the voltage level with a small transformer , and , if necessary , rectify the changed voltage .

= = = Energy losses = = =

Real transformer energy losses are dominated by winding resistance joule and core losses . Transformers ' efficiency tends to improve with increasing transformer capacity . The efficiency of typical distribution transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent .

As transformer losses vary with load , it is often useful to express these losses in terms of no @-@ load loss , full @-@ load loss , half @-@ load loss , and so on . Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate overwhelmingly without load , while variable winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load increases . The no @-@ load loss can be significant , so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply . Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core , good @-@ quality silicon steel , or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire , increasing initial cost . The choice of construction represents a trade @-@ off between initial cost and operating cost .

Transformer losses arise from :

Winding joule losses

Current flowing through a winding 's conductor causes joule heating . As frequency increases , skin effect and proximity effect causes the winding 's resistance and , hence , losses to increase .

Core losses

Hysteresis losses

Each time the magnetic field is reversed , a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core . According to Steinmetz 's formula , the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by

<formula> , and ,

hysteresis loss is thus given by

<formula>

where , f is the frequency , η is the hysteresis coefficient and βmax is the maximum flux density , the empirical exponent of which varies from about 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 8 but is often given as 1 @.@ 6 for iron .

Eddy current losses

Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short @-@ circuited turn throughout its entire length . Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux , and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material . The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness . Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other , rather than a solid block ; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores .

Magnetostriction related transformer hum

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material , such as the core , causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field , an effect known as magnetostriction , the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum . This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies and in high @-@ frequency flyback transformers associated with television CRTs .

Stray losses

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless , since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half @-@ cycle . However , any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer 's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat . There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small .

Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission

In addition to magnetostriction , the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings . This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork , thus amplifying audible transformer hum .

= = = Core form and shell form transformers = = =

Closed @-@ core transformers are constructed in ' core form ' or ' shell form ' . When windings surround the core , the transformer is core form ; when windings are surrounded by the core , the transformer is shell form . Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils . Core form design tends to , as a general rule , be more economical , and therefore more prevalent , than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges ( less than or equal to , nominally , 230 kV or 75 MVA ) . At higher voltage and power ratings , shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent . Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra @-@ high voltage and higher MVA applications because , though more labor @-@ intensive to manufacture , shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA @-@ to @-@ weight ratio , better short @-@ circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage .

= = Construction = =

= = = Cores = = =

= = = = Laminated steel cores = = = =

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel . The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings . Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses , and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires . Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations , a principle that has remained in use . Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non @-@ conducting layer of insulation . The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum cross @-@ sectional area for the core to avoid saturation .

The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux , and so reduce their magnitude . Thinner laminations reduce losses , but are more laborious and expensive to construct . Thin laminations are generally used on high @-@ frequency transformers , with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz .

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E @-@ shaped steel sheets capped with I @-@ shaped pieces , leading to its name of ' E @-@ I transformer ' . Such a design tends to exhibit more losses , but is very economical to manufacture . The cut @-@ core or C @-@ core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together . It is then cut in two , forming two C shapes , and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap . They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains , reducing reluctance .

A steel core 's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed . When power is then reapplied , the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced , usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform . Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass . On transformers connected to long , overhead power transmission lines , induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices .

Distribution transformers can achieve low no @-@ load losses by using cores made with low @-@ loss high @-@ permeability silicon steel or amorphous ( non @-@ crystalline ) metal alloy . The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load .

= = = = Solid cores = = = =

Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch @-@ mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz . These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity . For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band , cores made from non @-@ conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common . Some radio @-@ frequency transformers also have movable cores ( sometimes called ' slugs ' ) which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient ( and bandwidth ) of tuned radio @-@ frequency circuits .

= = = = Toroidal cores = = = =

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring @-@ shaped core , which , depending on operating frequency , is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil , powdered iron , or ferrite . A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned , improving the transformer 's efficiency by reducing the core 's reluctance . The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E @-@ I core . The cross @-@ section of the ring is usually square or rectangular , but more expensive cores with circular cross @-@ sections are also available . The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core . This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening to minimize the core 's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference .

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E @-@ I types for a similar power level . Other advantages compared to E @-@ I types , include smaller size ( about half ) , lower weight ( about half ) , less mechanical hum ( making them superior in audio amplifiers ) , lower exterior magnetic field ( about one tenth ) , low off @-@ load losses ( making them more efficient in standby circuits ) , single @-@ bolt mounting , and greater choice of shapes . The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity ( see Classification parameters below ) . Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path , toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current , compared to laminated E @-@ I types .

Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies , typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz , to reduce losses , physical size , and weight of inductive components . A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding . This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil . As a consequence , toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon . Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open , then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings .

= = = = Air cores = = = =

A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the windings near each other , an arrangement termed an ' air @-@ core ' transformer . The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless , and so an air @-@ core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material . The leakage inductance is inevitably high , resulting in very poor regulation , and so such designs are unsuitable for use in power distribution . They have however very high bandwidth , and are frequently employed in radio @-@ frequency applications , for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary windings . They 're also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance .

= = = Windings = = =

The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application , but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn . For small power and signal transformers , in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small , the coils are often wound from enamelled magnet wire , such as Formvar wire . Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil @-@ impregnated paper and blocks of pressboard .

High @-@ frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin @-@ effect and proximity effect losses . Large power transformers use multiple @-@ stranded conductors as well , since even at low power frequencies non @-@ uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high @-@ current windings . Each strand is individually insulated , and the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding , or throughout the whole winding , each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor . The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor , and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself . The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size , aiding manufacture .

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve high @-@ frequency response . Coils are split into sections , and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding .

Power @-@ frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding , usually on the higher voltage winding side , for voltage adjustment . Taps may be manually reconnected , or a manual or automatic switch may be provided for changing taps . Automatic on @-@ load tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution , on equipment such as arc furnace transformers , or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads . Audio @-@ frequency transformers , used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers , have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker . A center @-@ tapped transformer is often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push @-@ pull circuit . Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar .

Dry @-@ type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard open @-@ wound ' dip @-@ and @-@ bake ' construction or of higher quality designs that include vacuum pressure impregnation ( VPI ) , vacuum pressure encapsulation ( VPE ) , and cast coil encapsulation processes . In the VPI process , a combination of heat , vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal , bind , and eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer , thus increasing resistance to corona . VPE windings are similar to VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental effects , such as from water , dirt or corrosive ambients , by multiple dips including typically in terms of final epoxy coat .

= = = Cooling = = =

To place the cooling problem in perspective , the accepted rule of thumb is that the life expectancy of insulation in all electrics , including all transformers , is halved for about every 7 ° C to 10 ° C increase in operating temperature , this life expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between about 7 ° C to 8 ° C in the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation .

Small dry @-@ type and liquid @-@ immersed transformers are often self @-@ cooled by natural convection and radiation heat dissipation . As power ratings increase , transformers are often cooled by forced @-@ air cooling , forced @-@ oil cooling , water @-@ cooling , or combinations of these . Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windings . Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating within the transformer tank . The mineral oil and paper insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years . It is estimated that 50 % of power transformers will survive 50 years of use , that the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years , and that about 30 % of power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures . Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant , which not only shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure . With a great body of empirical study as a guide , transformer oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides valuable maintenance information . This underlines the need to monitor , model , forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions under varying , possibly difficult , power loading conditions .

Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid @-@ filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil , or be installed in fire @-@ resistant rooms . Air @-@ cooled dry transformers can be more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fire @-@ resistant transformer room .

The tank of liquid filled transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins . Some large transformers employ electric fans for forced @-@ air cooling , pumps for forced @-@ liquid cooling , or have heat exchangers for water @-@ cooling . An oil @-@ immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay , which , depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing , is used to either alarm or de @-@ energize the transformer . Oil @-@ immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls , oil containment , and fire @-@ suppression sprinkler systems .

Polychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant , though concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use . Today , non @-@ toxic , stable silicone @-@ based oils , or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire @-@ resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault . PCBs for new equipment were banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing equipment in United Kingdom Legislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985 essentially bans PCB use in transformers manufactured in or imported into the country after 1980 , the maximum allowable level of PCB contamination in existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm .

Some transformers , instead of being liquid @-@ filled , have their windings enclosed in sealed , pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride gas .

Experimental power transformers in the 500 ‐ to ‐ 1 @,@ 000 kVA range have been built with liquid nitrogen or helium cooled superconducting windings , which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses .

= = = Insulation drying = = =

Construction of oil @-@ filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced . Drying is carried out at the factory , and may also be required as a field service . Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core , or by vapor @-@ phase drying ( VPD ) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core .

For small transformers , resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is used . The heating can be controlled very well , and it is energy efficient . The method is called low @-@ frequency heating ( LFH ) since the current used is at a much lower frequency than that of the power grid , which is normally 50 or 60 Hz . A lower frequency reduces the effect of inductance , so the voltage required can be reduced . The LFH drying method is also used for service of older transformers .

= = = Bushings = = =

Larger transformers are provided with high @-@ voltage insulated bushings made of polymers or porcelain . A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil .

= = Classification parameters = =

Transformers can be classified in many ways , such as the following :

Power capacity : From a fraction of a volt @-@ ampere ( VA ) to over a thousand MVA .

Duty of a transformer : Continuous , short @-@ time , intermittent , periodic , varying .

Frequency range : Power @-@ frequency , audio @-@ frequency , or radio @-@ frequency .

Voltage class : From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts .

Cooling type : Dry and liquid @-@ immersed – self @-@ cooled , forced air @-@ cooled ; liquid @-@ immersed – forced oil @-@ cooled , water @-@ cooled .

Circuit application : Such as power supply , impedance matching , output voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation .

Utilization : Pulse , power , distribution , rectifier , arc furnace , amplifier output , etc ..

Basic magnetic form : Core form , shell form .

Constant @-@ potential transformer descriptor : Step @-@ up , step @-@ down , isolation .

General winding configuration : By EIC vector group – various possible two @-@ winding combinations of the phase designations delta , wye or star , and zigzag or interconnected star ; other – autotransformer , Scott @-@ T , zigzag grounding transformer winding .

Rectifier phase @-@ shift winding configuration : 2 @-@ winding , 6 @-@ pulse ; 3 @-@ winding , 12 @-@ pulse ; . . . n @-@ winding , [ n @-@ 1 ] * 6 @-@ pulse ; polygon ; etc ..

= = Types = =

Various specific electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types . Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles , they are customize in construction or electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions .

Autotransformer : Transformer in which part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary circuits .

Capacitor voltage transformer : Transformer in which capacitor divider is used to reduce high voltage before application to the primary winding .

Distribution transformer , power transformer : International standards make a distinction in terms of distribution transformers being used to distribute energy from transmission lines and networks for local consumption and power transformers being used to transfer electric energy between the generator and distribution primary circuits .

Phase angle regulating transformer : A specialised transformer used to control the flow of real power on three @-@ phase electricity transmission networks .

Scott @-@ T transformer : Transformer used for phase transformation from three @-@ phase to two @-@ phase and vice versa .

Polyphase transformer : Any transformer with more than one phase .

Grounding transformer : Transformer used for grounding three @-@ phase circuits to create a neutral in a three wire system , using a wye @-@ delta transformer , or more commonly , a zigzag grounding winding .

Leakage transformer : Transformer that has loosely coupled windings .

Resonant transformer : Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high secondary voltage .

Audio transformer : Transformer used in audio equipment .

Output transformer : Transformer used to match the output of a valve amplifier to its load .

Instrument transformer : Potential or current transformer used to accurately and safely represent voltage , current or phase position of high voltage or high power circuits .

Pulse transformer : Specialized small @-@ signal transformer used to transmit digital signaling while providing electrical isolation , commonly used in Ethernet computer networks as 10BASE @-@ T , 100BASE @-@ T and 1000BASE @-@ T.

= = Applications = =

Transformers are used to increase ( or step @-@ up ) voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires . Wires have resistance which loses energy through joule heating at a rate corresponding to square of the current . By transforming power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and distribution . Consequently , transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry , permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand . All but a tiny fraction of the world 's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer .

Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to decrease ( or step @-@ down ) the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain . The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage .

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers . Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two @-@ way conversation over a single pair of wires . A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground , such as between external cables and internal circuits .

= = History = =

= = = Discovery of induction = = =

Electromagnetic induction , the principle of the operation of the transformer , was discovered independently by Michael Faraday in 1831 , Joseph Henry in 1832 , and others . The relationship between EMF and magnetic flux is an equation now known as Faraday 's law of induction :

<formula> .

where <formula> is the magnitude of the EMF in Volts and ΦB is the magnetic flux through the circuit in webers .

Preceded by Francesco Zantedeschi in 1830 , Faraday performed early experiments on induction between coils of wire , including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring , thus creating the first toroidal closed @-@ core transformer . However he only applied individual pulses of current to his transformer , and never discovered the relation between the turns ratio and EMF in the windings .

= = = Induction coils = = =

The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil , invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College , Ireland in 1836 . He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding , the larger the induced secondary EMF will be . Induction coils evolved from scientists ' and inventors ' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries . Since batteries produce direct current ( DC ) rather than AC , induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction . Between the 1830s and the 1870s , efforts to build better induction coils , mostly by trial and error , slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers .

= = = First alternating current transformers = = =

By the 1870s , efficient generators producing alternating current ( AC ) were available , and it was found AC could power an induction coil directly , without an interrupter .

In 1876 , Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of AC . The secondary windings could be connected to several ' electric candles ' ( arc lamps ) of his own design . The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers .

In 1878 , the Ganz factory , Budapest , Hungary , began equipment for electric lighting and , by 1883 , had installed over fifty systems in Austria @-@ Hungary . Their AC systems used arc and incandescent lamps , generators , and other equipment .

Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron core called a ' secondary generator ' in London in 1882 , then sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the United States . They also exhibited the invention in Turin , Italy in 1884 , where it was adopted for an electric lighting system . However , the efficiency of their open @-@ core bipolar apparatus remained very low .

= = = Early series circuit transformer distribution = = =

Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at transferring power to loads . Until about 1880 , the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit . Open @-@ core transformers with a ratio near 1 : 1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps . The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp ( or other electric device ) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit . Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit , including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil . Efficient , practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s , but within a decade , the transformer would be instrumental in the War of Currents , and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts , a position in which they have remained dominant ever since .

= = = Closed @-@ core transformers and parallel power distribution = = =

In the autumn of 1884 , Károly Zipernowsky , Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri ( ZBD ) , three engineers associated with the Ganz factory , had determined that open @-@ core devices were impracticable , as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage . In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers ( later called ZBD transformers ) , they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either a ) wound around iron wire ring core or b ) surrounded by iron wire core . The two designs were the first application of the two basic transformer constructions in common use to this day , which can as a class all be termed as either core form or shell form ( or alternatively , core type or shell type ) , as in a ) or b ) , respectively ( see images ) . The Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made delivery of the world 's first five high @-@ efficiency AC transformers , the first of these units having been shipped on September 16 , 1884 . This first unit had been manufactured to the following specifications : 1 @,@ 400 W , 40 Hz , 120 : 72 V , 11 @.@ 6 : 19 @.@ 4 A , ratio 1 @.@ 67 : 1 , one @-@ phase , shell form .

In both designs , the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core , with no intentional path through air ( see Toroidal cores below ) . The new transformers were 3 @.@ 4 times more efficient than the open @-@ core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs . The ZBD patents included two other major interrelated innovations : one concerning the use of parallel connected , instead of series connected , utilization loads , the other concerning the ability to have high turns ratio transformers such that the supply network voltage could be much higher ( initially 1 @,@ 400 to 2 @,@ 000 V ) than the voltage of utilization loads ( 100 V initially preferred ) . When employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems , closed @-@ core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes , businesses and public spaces . Bláthy had suggested the use of closed cores , Zipernowsky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connections , and Déri had performed the experiments ;

Transformers today are designed on the principles discovered by the three engineers . They also popularized the word ' transformer ' to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current , although the term had already been in use by 1882 . In 1886 , the ZBD engineers designed , and the Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for , the world 's first power station that used AC generators to power a parallel connected common electrical network , the steam @-@ powered Rome @-@ Cerchi power plant .

Although George Westinghouse had bought Gaulard and Gibbs ' patents in 1885 , the Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US rights for the ZBD transformers , requiring Westinghouse to pursue alternative designs on the same principles . He assigned to William Stanley the task of developing a device for commercial use in United States . Stanley 's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding ( see image ) . This design was first used commercially in the US in 1886 but Westinghouse was intent on improving the Stanley design to make it ( unlike the ZBD type ) easy and cheap to produce .

Westinghouse , Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to manufacture core , consisting of a stack of thin ' E ‑ shaped ' iron plates , insulated by thin sheets of paper or other insulating material . Prewound copper coils could then be slid into place , and straight iron plates laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit . Westinghouse applied for a patent for the new low @-@ cost design in December 1886 ; it was granted in July 1887 .

= = = Other early transformer designs = = =

In 1889 , Russian @-@ born engineer Mikhail Dolivo @-@ Dobrovolsky developed the first three @-@ phase transformer at the Allgemeine Elektricitäts @-@ Gesellschaft ( ' General Electricity Company ' ) in Germany .

In 1891 , Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil , an air @-@ cored , dual @-@ tuned resonant transformer for producing very high voltages at high frequency .

= Jeff Hanneman =

Jeffrey John " Jeff " Hanneman ( January 31 , 1964 – May 2 , 2013 ) was an American musician , best known as a founding member of the American thrash metal band Slayer . Hanneman contributed both lyrical and musical material to every Slayer album and wrote the songs " Raining Blood " , " War Ensemble , " " South of Heaven , " " Seasons in the Abyss , " and " Angel of Death , " all of which have been played at almost every live Slayer performance after their respective compositions . He had his own signature guitar , the ESP Jeff Hanneman Signature model .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life = = =

Hanneman was born January 31 , 1964 , in Oakland , California , and grew up in Long Beach in a family containing several war veterans : his father fought in Normandy during World War II and his brothers in Vietnam , making warfare a common conversation topic at the dinner table . War films were popular on TV at the time , and Hanneman often joined his brothers in constructing and coloring tank and plane models . His interest in warfare and military history has been attributed to his upbringing .

In a 2009 interview with Decibel magazine , he stated his father is German , but fought for the Allied side in World War II . In the same interview , he also goes into detail of what district of Germany his father and grandparents hail from . His grandfather was fluent in German .

Hanneman was introduced to heavy metal music as a child through his older sister Mary , when she was listening to Black Sabbath at her house . Once he reached high school , he discovered hardcore punk , which had a significant influence on his style and attitude .

= = = Slayer = = =

In 1981 Hanneman , who was working as a telemarketer at the time , met Kerry King , when King was auditioning for a southern rock band called " Ledger " . King remembered : " As I was leaving , I saw Jeff just kinda standing around playing guitar , and he was playing stuff that I was into , like Def Leppard 's ' Wasted ' and AC / DC and Priest " . After the try @-@ out session , the two guitarists started talking and playing Iron Maiden and Judas Priest songs . Slayer was born when King asked " Why don 't we start our own band ? " , to which Hanneman replied " ... Fuck yeah ! " .

Hanneman stated that he was playing guitar " for like a month " by the time he met King and put an effort into improving his skills after watching him play . Hanneman , who was heavily influenced by hardcore punk music , got the other members into the genre , leading Slayer into a faster and more aggressive approach . The band 's drummer Dave Lombardo asserted that his hardcore influences pushed him to play faster , contributing to shape his drumming style .

In 1984 , Hanneman , Lombardo and Suicidal Tendencies guitarist Rocky George had a brief hardcore punk side project called " Pap Smear " – the band had many tracks and was due to start recording when Hanneman was advised to avoid the side project by Slayer 's producer , Rick Rubin , who is quoted as saying " Ahhhh , don 't do it , man – this is the kind of thing that breaks bands up ! " and Hanneman took Rubin 's advice . Only a demo was recorded , consisting of Hanneman on vocals and bass , Lombardo on drums and George on guitar . Later two of the songs were re @-@ recorded on Slayer 's 1996 album Undisputed Attitude .

= = = Illness and death = = =

In early 2011 , Hanneman contracted necrotizing fasciitis . Reports linked this illness with a spider bite he claimed to have received while in a friend 's hot tub .

In light of his illness and Slayer 's upcoming participation in the Australian Soundwave Festival tour that was set to begin on February 26 , 2011 , the band made the decision to play the dates without Hanneman , and on February 16 , 2011 , brought on Gary Holt ( guitarist of the band Exodus ) to fill in for him . Pat O 'Brien joined as Slayer 's temporary second guitarist when Holt left the tour to play with Exodus . In 2012 , bandmate Tom Araya announced a recovery from the disease . However , later in February 2013 , Kerry King revealed continuing health problems that kept Hanneman from working .

Hanneman died of liver failure on May 2 , 2013 , in a Southern California hospital near his home . On May 9 , 2013 , the official cause of death was announced as alcohol @-@ related cirrhosis . Hanneman and his family had apparently been unaware of the extent of the condition until shortly before his death .

= = Personal life = =

In 1989 , Hanneman married Kathryn in Las Vegas . They had met in 1983 before the release of the debut album Show No Mercy , during a Slayer show in Buena Park , California . The couple had no children and lived in Los Angeles . Kathryn stayed at home when Slayer toured ; Hanneman claimed to prefer this , having said that when he came home , she was " all brand new again . " Kathryn only toured with the band twice in twenty years .

Hanneman was a reserved person when he was offstage . Unlike the other members , he was very selective in socializing and rarely gave interviews . As vocalist / bassist Araya said : " If he didn 't like you , he wouldn 't hang with you . " Hanneman was a reformed cocaine and pill abuser , much like Araya . They decided to quit when they realized " this can lead to only death or something , this is going too far . " Hanneman was a long @-@ time fan of the Oakland Raiders and the Los Angeles Kings .

= = German history = =

Hanneman 's interest in German war medals and Nazi Germany was illustrated by many of his lyrics . Those interests in the Wehrmacht and Waffen @-@ SS began with medals given to him by his father , including some taken from a dead German soldier . His most prized medal was his Knight 's Cross , which he had bought from a Slayer fan for $ 1000 . While touring with Motörhead , Hanneman discovered Motörhead vocalist Lemmy 's interest in medals , and the two discussed medal designs , weapons and tactics used by the Wehrmacht .

Hanneman 's lyrics for the song " Angel of Death " led to accusations of Slayer being Nazi sympathizers . Hanneman defended himself with " nothing I put in the lyrics that says necessarily he ( Josef Mengele ) was a bad man , because to me – well , isn 't that obvious ? I shouldn 't have to tell you that . " The band has stated numerous times that they are not Nazis and do not condone Nazism .

= = Influences and style = =

Hanneman 's major influences included hard rock and heavy metal bands like Led Zeppelin , Iron Maiden , Judas Priest , Black Sabbath , Aerosmith and hardcore punk acts such as Wasted Youth , Minor Threat , Dead Kennedys , Black Flag , T.S.O.L. , which led to Slayer 's 1996 album Undisputed Attitude . Hanneman 's and King 's dual guitar solos have been called " wildly chaotic , " and " twisted genius " . Early albums , such as Hell Awaits and Reign in Blood , featured a " wailing style " and " demented soloing often mimicking the screams of the song 's victims . " South of Heaven featured " more technical " guitar riffs , utilizing the aforementioned tremolo picking and down @-@ picked notes , improving musicianship while retaining a melodic sense . Both Hanneman and King were ranked # 10 in Guitar World 's " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists of All Time . "

= = Legacy = =

Hanneman 's guitar work had a notable impact on the heavy metal scene . Musicians like Robb Flynn ( Machine Head ) , Dino Cazares ( Fear Factory , Divine Heresy ) , Mille Petrozza ( Kreator ) , Andreas Kisser ( Sepultura ) , Dan Lilker ( Anthrax , Nuclear Assault ) , Eric Hoffman ( Deicide , Amon ) , Trevor Peres ( Obituary ) , Mark Morton ( Lamb of God ) and Kelly Shaefer ( Atheist ) cited him as an influence on their playing and songwriting . Jeff Walker said that " Hanneman 's playing and riff writing and attitude has had a big impact on Carcass " . Shavo Odadjian declared that " without Jeff Hanneman , there would be no System of a Down " .

John Consterdine of Terrorizer magazine noted : " without Jeff Hanneman , Slayer certainly would not have created some of the most famous riffs in metal , which undoubtedly changed the entire genre " . According to Jeff Kitts of Guitar World , he " influenced a generation and changed the course of metal forever " . Alex Webster of Cannibal Corpse , who considers Hanneman his major influence as a composer , regarded him as " one of the greatest musicians and songwriters in metal " and Alexi Laiho of Children of Bodom described him as " one of the fathers of metal " .

Alex Skolnick of Testament asserted that he " wrote some of the best riffs of all @-@ time " and " he impacted music in such a way that an entire genre will never be the same " . According to Corey Taylor of Slipknot and Stone Sour , Hanneman is " one of the most underrated writers and underrated players that ever was " while Slash of Guns n ' Roses and Velvet Revolver defined him " the king of thrash / speed metal guitar " .

= = Lyrics and music = =

Hanneman wrote the music for most of the band 's fan favorites , songs such as " Angel of Death " , " Raining Blood " , " Die by the Sword " , " South of Heaven " , " War Ensemble " , " Postmortem " , " Dead Skin Mask " and " Seasons in the Abyss " , which have all become staples for live performance at Slayer shows . Hanneman 's favorite album was Reign in Blood , and he enjoyed performing the songs " Raining Blood " and " Angel of Death . " He contributed lyrics and music to every Slayer album , having formed a music and lyric writing partnership with Araya , which sometimes overshadowed King 's creative input .

When writing new material , the band writes the music before the lyrics . Hanneman often composed riffs at his house , using a 24 @-@ track and a drum machine and then by gathering opinions from the other band members ; King and Lombardo made suggestions of alterations . The band will play the riff to get the basic song structure , and then figure out where the lyrics and solos go . Hanneman stated that writing lyrics and music is a " free for all " ; " It 's all just whoever comes up with what . Sometimes I 'll be more on a roll and I 'll have more stuff , same with Kerry – it 's whoever 's hot , really . Anybody can write anything ; if it 's good we use it , if not we don 't . "

= = Equipment = =

In Slayer 's early days , Hanneman used a black Gibson Les Paul modified with a Kahler Pro tremolo and a Joe Barden Two / Tone Humbucker bridge pickup during the Show No Mercy and Hell Awaits era . In mid 1985 he began playing B.C. Rich , notably a Rich Bich model he bought off his band colleague Kerry King , he subsequently applied various graphics to . His first Bich had a 3x3 headstock , chrome hardware ( including the Kahler Pro bridge ) and the pickups were DiMarzio Super Distortions . He and King can both also be seen with a second set of BC Rich 's around 1986 @-@ 1987 , which had 6 @-@ in @-@ line headstocks , black hardware and DiMarzio pickups . More rarely he also used a BC Rich Ironbird model . From 1987 he was seen using a custom made BC Rich Gunslinger with similar specs as his ' 86- ' 87 era Bich , he shortly after had the pickups replaced with two active EMG @-@ 81 humbuckers . In 1988 he began playing the famous Jackson Soloist that he would use constantly as his main guitar for songs played in E @-@ flat tuning until 2001 . It originally shipped to him with passive Jackson pickups ( probably a J @-@ 50 and J @-@ 80 ) and a JE @-@ 1200 mid @-@ boost circuit , but were soon changed for EMG @-@ 81 pickups as well . Around 1990 @-@ 1991 Hanneman began using ESP guitars , he mostly used as backup for this Jackson Soloist and other tunings . He had his own signature model made , based on the specs of his original Jackson Soloist . When touring , Hanneman carried six guitars due to the different tunings he utilized . Most albums such as Haunting the Chapel – Divine Intervention and World Painted Blood have E @-@ flat tuning . However , albums such as Diabolus in Musica – Christ Illusion feature alternate tunings such as Drop B and utilizing seven string guitars . The first album , Show No Mercy , was recorded in standard tuning , while live performances of those songs were played in E @-@ flat since about 1984 .

= = = Guitars = = =

ESP Jeff Hanneman Signature model

Jackson Custom Shop Soloist

EMG 81 / 85 Pickups with EMG SPC Mid @-@ Boost circuit

Kahler Pro bridges

Dunlop .009-.042 Strings

D 'Addario .009-.042 Strings ( earlier )

= = = Effects = = =

Shure Wireless System

Eventide H3000S Harmonizer

Yamaha SPX @-@ 90 Effects Processor

Rocktron Super C HUSH

MXR Smart Gate

BOSS RGE @-@ 10 ( 10 band EQ )

= = = Amplification = = =

Marshall JCM800 2203 amplifiers

Marshall JCM800 1960 Cabinets , later ModeFour Speaker Cabinet , supposedly loaded with Celestion G12T @-@ 75 Speakers

= = Discography = =

1983 : Show No Mercy

1984 : Haunting the Chapel

1985 : Hell Awaits

1986 : Reign in Blood

1988 : South of Heaven

1990 : Seasons in the Abyss

1994 : Divine Intervention

1996 : Undisputed Attitude

1998 : Diabolus in Musica

2001 : God Hates Us All

2006 : Christ Illusion

2009 : World Painted Blood

2015 : Repentless ( writing credit " Piano Wire " )

= Robert McLachlan ( cinematographer ) =

Robert McLachlan is a Canadian cinematographer . A successful cyclist in his youth , McLachlan quit the sport to take up cinematography , and entered the field after studying at Simon Fraser University , McLachlan was mentored by Richard Leiterman . His professional career began with documentary work for Greenpeace , before he became involved in both television and feature films ; his work has subsequently earned him several industry awards and award nominations .

McLachlan , who was inspired by both his father 's photography and his own appreciation for the films Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and Walkabout to choose his career path , would go on to find recognition as the chief cinematographer for the television series Millennium , for which he was scouted specifically . McLachlan 's style on this series led to several industry awards and briefly became popular in the medium , as well as leading him directly to future work on Game of Thrones . He founded the documentary production company Omni Film Productions in the 1970s , later selling his share of the company .

= = Early life and education = =

In his youth , McLachlan was an avid cyclist , accrediting this to the fact that his home town Vancouver was not cold enough for ponds to freeze over to play ice hockey on . During his teenage years , he trained upwards of six hours a day , and won several national championships in the sport . He qualified to represent Canada in the 1976 Summer Olympics , but the lack of funding for cycling in North America at the time would have necessitated him funding his own journey and leaving school to do so ; McLachlan opted instead to remain in education and focus on his interest in photography .

McLachlan first became interested in cinematography after viewing the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ; Nicolas Roeg 's work on the 1971 film Walkabout further cemented his interest in the field . McLachlan was also motivated by his father , who was an avid photographer . An early school assignment to create a Super 8 film project , for which he received an A grade , also proved a formative influence .

McLachlan studied fine art at the University of British Columbia for a year , before changing courses to attend classes at Simon Fraser University 's film department . McLachlan 's education focussed on the documentary style of John Grierson ; however , when he began work in 1987 , he was mentored by Richard Leiterman . McLachlan also cites influences outside the field of cinematography , drawing influence from the chiaroscuro , Dutch art and pre @-@ Raphaelite movements of visual art , and the works of Andrew Wyeth and Georges de La Tour in particular .

= = Career = =

Having graduated , McLachlan and Michael Chechik founded the production company Omni Film Productions in 1979 , and began to work with Greenpeace , filming documentary footage on a range of subjects . McLachlan narrowly avoided trouble on several of these shoots , finding himself arrested for filming too close to an Exxon oil tanker and scarcely missing being assaulted by trophy hunters in British Columbia . McLachlan would later sell his stake in Omni , but remains proud of their documentary work . At the time , McLachlan was unsuccessful in joining an industry union , relegating his work to advertising and small @-@ scale productions ; his first union @-@ backed project was on the revival of the television series Sea Hunt .

McLachlan found success on the Fox television series Millennium , earning several awards for his work on the show . He was head @-@ hunted for the series by its creator Chris Carter , who had seen his work on the series Strange Luck . McLachlan was initially offered a position shooting Carter 's other active series , The X @-@ Files , then in its third season , but was unable to start work in time . He developed a distinctive style for the series , shooting it with desaturated colours and lighting scenes as though they were to be filmed in black and white ; he also made use of high @-@ intensity strobe lighting usually employed for advertising and macro cinematography . McLachlan has noted that this style briefly became popular after the series ' broadcast but that other cinematographers had difficulty adjusting to it .

Having worked on Millennium with director David Nutter , McLachlan was able to parley this connection into a role on the HBO fantasy series Game of Thrones . McLachlan has called working on the show 's ten @-@ person cinematography team " a major logistical challenge " , noting the complexity of its out @-@ of @-@ sequence filming schedules as something unseen on a television series before . McLachlan has also worked on the programme Ray Donovan , and has based that series ' cinematography on both film noir aesthetics and thse of 1970s cinema , specifically citing The Long Goodbye , The Parallax View and All the President 's Men , as well as the work of Gordon Willis .

= = Accolades = =

McLachlan has been nominated for , and won , several awards over the course of his career . He has been nominated four times for the American Society of Cinematographers awards , three times for his work on the television series Millennium and once for the television film High Noon . He has also won several Canadian Society of Cinematographers awards , including wins for the films Willard and Impolite , as well as for several episodes of Millennium and The Lone Gunmen . McLachlan 's work on Game of Thrones received Emmy Award nominations in 2013 and 2015 , and a Canadian Society of Cinematographers award nomination in 2015 ; he was also nominated by the latter society for his cinematography on the series Ray Donovan .

= = Partial filmography = =

= = = Film = = =

= = = Television = = =

= Otto Julius Zobel =

Otto Julius Zobel ( October 20 , 1887 – January 1970 ) was an electrical engineer who worked for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company ( AT & T ) in the early part of the 20th century . Zobel 's work on filter design was revolutionary and led , in conjunction with the work of John R. Carson , to significant commercial advances for AT & T in the field of frequency division multiplex ( FDM ) telephone transmissions .

Although much of Zobel 's work has been superseded by more modern filter designs , it remains the basis of filter theory and his papers are still referenced today . Zobel invented the m @-@ derived filter and the constant @-@ resistance filter , which remains in use .

Zobel and Carson helped to establish the nature of noise in electric circuits , concluding that — contrary to mainstream belief — it is not even theoretically possible to filter out noise entirely and that noise will always be a limiting factor in what is possible to transmit . Thus , they anticipated the later work of Claude Shannon , who showed how the theoretical information rate of a channel is related to the noise of the channel .

= = Life = =

Otto Julius Zobel was born on October 20 , 1887 in Ripon , Wisconsin . He first studied at Ripon College , where he received his BA in 1909 with a thesis on Theoretical and experimental treatment of electrical condensers . He later received a Distinguished Alumnus Award from Ripon . He then went to the University of Wisconsin and graduated with an MA in physics in 1910 . Zobel stayed at the University of Wisconsin as a physics instructor from 1910 to 1915 , and graduated with his PhD in 1914 ; his dissertation concerned " Thermal Conduction and Radiation " . This followed his 1913 co @-@ authoring of a book on the subject of geophysical thermodynamics . From 1915 to 1916 he taught physics at the University of Minnesota . Having moved to Maplewood , New Jersey , he joined AT & T in 1916 , where he worked on transmission techniques . In 1926 , still with the company , he moved to New York and in 1934 , he transferred to Bell Telephone Laboratories ( Bell Labs ) , the research organisation created jointly by AT & T and Western Electric a few years earlier .

The last of his prolific list of patents occurred for Bell Labs in the 1950s , by which time he was residing in Morristown , New Jersey . He died there in January 1970 .

= = Thermal conduction = =

Zobel 's early work on heat conduction was not pursued in his later career . There are , however , some interesting connections . Lord Kelvin in his early work on the transmission line derived the properties of the electric line by analogy with heat conduction . This is based on Fourier 's law and the Fourier conduction equation . Ingersoll and Zobel describe the work of Kelvin and Fourier in their book and Kelvin 's approach to the representation of transmission functions would consequently have been very familiar to Zobel . It is therefore no surprise that in Zobel 's paper on the electric wave filter a very similar representation is found for the transmission function of filters .

Solutions to the Fourier equation can be provided by Fourier series . Ingersoll and Zobel state that in many cases the calculation involved makes the solution " well @-@ nigh impossible " by analytical means . With modern technology such a calculation is trivially easy , but Ingersoll and Zobel recommend the use of harmonic analysers , which are the mechanical counterpart of today 's spectrum analysers . These machines add together mechanical oscillations of various frequencies , phases and amplitudes by combining them through a set of pulleys or springs ; one for each oscillator . The reverse process is also possible , driving the machine with the function and measuring the Fourier components as output .

= = Background to AT & T research = =

After the work of John R. Carson in 1915 it became clear that multiplexed telephone transmissions could be greatly improved by the use of single sideband suppressed carrier ( SSB ) transmission . Compared to basic amplitude modulation ( AM ) SSB has the advantage of half the bandwidth and a fraction of the power ( one sideband can have no more than 1 / 6 of the total power and would typically be a lot less ) . AM analysed in the frequency domain consists of a carrier and two sidebands . The carrier wave in AM represents the majority of the transmitted power but contains no information whatsoever . The two sidebands both contain identical information so only one is required , at least from an information transmission point of view . Up to this point filtering had been by simple tuned circuits . However , SSB required a flat response over the sideband of interest and maximum rejection of the other sideband with a very sharp transition between the two . As the idea was to put another ( completely different ) signal in the slot vacated by the unwanted sideband it was important that all traces of it were removed to prevent crosstalk . At the same time minimum distortion ( i.e. flat response ) is obviously desirable for the sideband being retained . This requirement led to a big research effort in the design of electric wave filters .

George A. Campbell and Zobel worked on this problem of extracting a single sideband from an amplitude @-@ modulated composite wave for use in multiplexing telephone channels and the related problem of extracting ( de @-@ multiplexing ) the signal at the far end of the transmission .

Initially , the baseband pass range used was 200 Hz to 2500 Hz but later the International Telecommunication Union set a standard of 300 Hz to 3 @.@ 4 kHz with 4 kHz spacing . Thus the filtering was required to go from fully pass to fully stop in the space of 900 Hz . This standard in telephony is still in use today and had remained widespread until it began to be supplanted by digital techniques from the 1980s onwards .

Campbell had previously utilised the condition discovered in the work of Oliver Heaviside for lossless transmission to improve the frequency response of transmission lines using lumped component inductors ( loading coils ) . When Campbell started investigating electric wave filter design from 1910 , this previous work naturally led him to filters using ladder network topology using capacitors and inductors . Low @-@ pass , high @-@ pass and band @-@ pass filters were designed . Sharper cut @-@ offs and higher stop @-@ band rejection to any arbitrary design specification could be achieved merely by increasing the length of the ladder . The filter designs used by Campbell were described by Zobel as constant k filters although this was not a term used by Campbell himself .

= = Innovations = =

After Zobel arrived at the Engineering Department of AT & T he used his mathematical skills to further improve the design of electric wave filters . Carson and Zobel developed the mathematical method of analyzing the behavior of filters now known as the image method whereby the impedance and transmission parameters of each section are calculated as if it is part of an infinite chain of identical sections .

= = = Wave filters = = =

Zobel invented the m @-@ derived ( or m @-@ type ) filter section in 1920 , the distinguishing feature of this design being a pole of attenuation close to the filter cut @-@ off frequency . The result of this design is a filter response which falls very rapidly past the cut @-@ off frequency . To use a well known quaint engineer 's expression it " goes off like the side of a house " . A fast transition between pass @-@ band and stop @-@ band was , of course , one of the primary requirements for cramming as many telephone channels as possible into one cable .

One disadvantage of the m @-@ type section was that at frequencies past the pole of attenuation , the response of the filter started to increase again , reaching a peak somewhere in the stop @-@ band and then falling again . Zobel overcame this problem by designing hybrid filters using a mixture of constant k and m @-@ type sections . This gave Zobel the advantages of both : the fast transition of the m @-@ type and good stop @-@ band rejection of the constant k .

By 1921 Zobel had further perfected his composite filter designs . He was now using , in addition , m @-@ type half sections at the ends of his composite filters to improve the impedance matching of the filter to the source and the load , a technique in which he held a patent . The difficulty that he was trying to overcome was that the image impedance techniques being used to design filter sections only gave the mathematically predicted response if they were terminated in their respective image impedances . Technically , this was easy to do within the filter as it could always be arranged that adjacent filter sections had matching image impedances ( one of the characteristics of m @-@ type sections is that one side or the other of the m @-@ type section will have an image impedance identical to the equivalent constant k section ) . However , the terminating impedances are a different story . These are normally required to be resistive but the image impedance will be complex . Even worse , it is not even mathematically possible to construct a filter image impedance out of discrete components . The result of impedance mismatch is reflections and a degraded filter performance . Zobel found that a value of m = 0 @.@ 6 for the end half sections , while not mathematically exact , gave a good match to resistive terminations in the pass @-@ band .

Around 1923 , Zobel 's filter designs were reaching the peak of their complexity . He now had a filter section to which he had doubly applied the m @-@ derivation process resulting in filter sections which he called the mm ' -type . This had all the advantages of the previous m @-@ type , but more so . An even faster transition into the stop @-@ band and an even more constant characteristic impedance in the pass @-@ band . At the same time one side would match into the old m @-@ type , just as the m @-@ type could match into the k @-@ type . Because there were now two arbitrary parameters ( m and m ' ) that the filter designer could adjust , much better end matching half @-@ sections could be designed . A composite filter using these sections would have been the very best that could have been achieved at that time . However , the mm ' -type sections never became as widespread and well known as the m @-@ type sections , possibly because their greater complexity has deterred designers . They would have been inconvenient to implement with microwave technology and the increased count of components , especially wound components , made them more expensive to implement with conventional LC technology . Certainly , it is hard to find a textbook from any period which covers their design .

= = = Transmission line simulation = = =

Zobel directed much of his effort in the 1920s to constructing networks which could simulate transmission lines . These networks were derived from filter sections , which themselves had been derived from transmission line theory and the filters were used on transmission line signals . In turn , these artificial lines were used to develop and test better filter sections . Zobel used a design technique based on his theoretical discovery that the impedance looking into the end of a filter chain was practically the same ( within the limits of component tolerances ) as the theoretical impedance of an infinite chain after only a small number of sections had been added to the chain . These " image " impedances have a mathematical characterization impossible to construct simply out of discrete components , and can only ever be approximated . Zobel found that using these impedances constructed out of small filter chains as components in a greater network allowed him to build realistic line simulators . These were not in any sense intended as practical filters in the field , but rather the intention was to construct good controllable line simulators without having the inconvenience of miles of cable to contend with .

= = = Equalisers = = =

Zobel invented several filters whose defining characteristic was a constant resistance as the input impedance . The resistance remained constant through the pass band and the stop band . With these designs Zobel had completely solved the impedance matching problem . The main application of these sections has been not so much for filtering out unwanted frequencies , the k @-@ type and m @-@ type filters remained best for this , but rather to equalize the response in the pass band to a flat response .

Perhaps one of Zobel 's most fascinating inventions is the lattice filter section . This section is both constant resistance and flat response zero attenuation across the band , yet it is constructed out of inductors and capacitors . The only signal parameter it modifies is the phase of the signal at different frequencies .

= = = Impedance matching = = =

A common theme throughout Zobel 's work is the issue of impedance matching . The obvious approach to filter design is to design directly for the attenuation characteristics desired . With modern computing power , a brute force approach is possible and easy , simply incrementally adjusting each component while recalculating in an iterative process until the desired response is achieved . However , Zobel developed a more indirect line of attack . He realized very early on that mismatched impedances inevitably meant reflections , and reflections meant a loss of signal . Improving the impedance match , conversely , would automatically improve a filter 's pass @-@ band response .

This impedance matching approach not only led to better filters but the techniques developed could be used to construct circuits whose sole purpose was to match together two disparate impedances . Zobel continued to invent impedance matching networks throughout his career . During World War II he moved on to waveguide filters for use in the newly developed radar technology . Little was published during the war for obvious reasons but towards the end with Bell Labs in the 1950s , Zobel designs for sections to match physically different waveguide sizes appear . However , the circuit noted above which still bears Zobel 's name today , the constant @-@ resistance network , can be viewed as an impedance matching circuit and remains Zobel 's finest achievement in this regard .

= = Loudspeaker equalisation = =

The name of Zobel is , perhaps , most well known with regard to impedance compensation networks for loudspeakers . Clearly , his designs have applications in this field . However , none of Zobel 's patents or articles appear to discuss this topic . It is unclear whether he actually designed anything specifically for loudspeakers . The closest we get to this is where he speaks of impedance matching into a transducer , but here he is discussing a circuit to equalize a submarine cable , or in another instance where clearly he has in mind the hybrid transformer which terminates a line going into a telephone instrument on a phantom circuit .

= = Noise = =

While Carson led the way theoretically , Zobel was involved in the design of filters for the purpose of noise reduction on transmission systems .

= = = Background = = =

At the beginning of the 1920s and through to the 1930s , the thinking on noise was dominated by the radio engineers ' concern with external static . In modern terminology , this would include random ( thermal and shot ) noise but those concepts were relatively unknown and little understood at the time despite an early paper by Schottky in 1918 on shot noise . To the radio engineers of the time , static meant externally generated interference . The line of attack against noise from the radio engineers included developing directional antennae and moving to higher frequencies where the problem was known not to be so severe .

For telephone engineers , what was then called " fluctuating noise " , and would now be described as random noise , i.e. shot and thermal noise , was much more noticeable than with early radio systems . Carson broadened the radio engineers ' concept of signal @-@ to @-@ static ratio to a more general signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratio and introduced a figure of merit for noise .

= = = Impossibility of noise cancellation = = =

The radio engineers ' preoccupation with static and the techniques being used to reduce it led to the idea that noise could be totally eliminated by , in some way , compensating for it or canceling it out . The culmination of this viewpoint was expressed in a 1928 paper by Edwin Armstrong . This led to a famous retort by Carson in a subsequent paper , " Noise , like the poor , will always be with us " . Armstrong was technically in the wrong in this exchange , but in 1933 , ironically and paradoxically , went on to invent wide @-@ band FM which enormously improved the noise performance of radio by increasing the bandwidth .

Carson and Zobel in 1923 had conclusively shown that filtering cannot remove noise to the same degree as , say , interference from another station could be removed . To do this they had analyzed random noise in the frequency domain and postulated that it contains all frequencies in its spectrum . This was the first use of Fourier analysis to describe random noise and hence described it in terms of a spread of frequencies . Also first published in this paper was the concept of what we would now call band @-@ limited white noise . For Zobel this meant that characteristics of the receiving filter completely determine the figure of merit in the presence of white noise and that the filter design was key to achieving the optimum noise performance .

Although this work by Carson and Zobel was very early , it was not universally accepted that noise could be analyzed in the frequency domain in this way . For this reason , the aforementioned exchange between Carson and Armstrong was still possible years later . The precise mathematical relationship between noise power and bandwidth for random noise was finally determined by Harry Nyquist in 1928 thus giving a theoretical limit to what could be achieved by filtering .

This work on noise produced the concept , and led Zobel to pursue the design , of matched filters . This is the concept that the noise performance of the equipment is optimal when the filter is perfectly matched to the signal one is attempting to transmit and is the culmination of theoretical research into the application of removing noise by means of linear filters . This became important in the development of radar during the Second World War in which Zobel played a part .

= = Use of work in genetic programming research = =

Zobel 's work has recently found an application in research into genetic programming . The purpose of this research is to attempt to demonstrate that the results obtained from genetic programming are comparable to human achievements . Two of the measures that are used to determine whether a genetic programming result is human @-@ competitive are :

The result is a patented invention .

The result is equal to or better than a result that was considered an achievement in its field at the time of discovery .

One such problem set as a task for a genetic program was to design a crossover filter for woofer and tweeter loudspeakers . The output design was identical in topology to a design found in a patent of Zobel 's for a filter to separate multiplexed low and high frequencies on a transmission line . This was judged to be human @-@ comparable , not only because of the patent , but also because the high @-@ pass and low @-@ pass sections were " decomposed " as in Zobel 's design , but not specifically required to be so in the programs parameters . Whether or not Zobel 's filter design would be good for a hi @-@ fi system is another question . The design does not actually cross over , but rather , there is a gap between the two pass @-@ bands where the signal is not transmitted to either output . Essential for multiplexing , but not so desirable for sound reproduction .

A later genetic programming experiment produced a filter design which consisted of a chain of constant k sections terminated in an m @-@ type half section . This was also determined to have been a design patented by Zobel .

= The M + M 's Tour =

The M + M 's Tour was the sixth concert tour by American recording artist Britney Spears , consisting of six brief shows at clubs in the United States . Spears expressed interested to tour again as early as February 2006 . She started rehearsing for a show at House of Blues venues in secret , and pulled out of a surprise performance on April 25 , 2007 , at Los Angeles nightclub Forty Deuce . After a marquee reading " The M + M 's " at the House of Blues in San Diego , California , appeared in late April 2007 , media sources identified the act as Spears , and the show quickly sold out . The tour marked the first time Spears performed live since The Onyx Hotel Tour in June 2004 .

The show , which ran 12 – 16 minutes in length , featured Spears accompanied by four female back @-@ up dancers performing choreographed dance numbers to shortened versions of five songs , including hits such as " ... Baby One More Time " and " Toxic " . During the performance of one song , a male audience member participated onstage . Spears ' vocals during the performance were lip @-@ synched . The shows received mixed reviews from critics and fans . Some said that Spears looked happy and in great shape , while others deemed the show as subpar . Scalpers outside the San Diego venue sold tickets with a face value of $ 35 for prices between $ 200 and $ 500 .

= = Background and development = =

The shows took place against a backdrop of Spears ' life struggles the previous few years that had made her fodder for tabloid reports . These included a two @-@ day marriage , a stormy two @-@ year marriage and divorce and having two children , shaving her head , entering rehabilitation for substance abuse , and various run @-@ ins with the paparazzi .

In an interview with People in February 2006 , Spears explained that she was anxious to resume her career , saying , " This may sound weird , but I miss traveling . I miss the road , seeing different places and being with the dancers and having fun . That feeling of being on the stage , knowing it 's your best — I love that . I needed a break . I needed to be hungry again . " On April 26 , 2007 , Ivan Kane , the owner of Los Angeles nightclub Forty Deuce , told E ! News that Spears had pulled out of a surprise performance at the venue the previous night . Kane stated that during rehearsal , she was " looking very hot , with four backup dancers and [ she ] sang three songs . They ran through the set several times , the choreography was smokin ' , and she sounded great . " Marc Malkin of E ! News said that Spears thought she might need more time to prepare . He also reported that she was planning to tour House of Blues venues in the United States . Spears wanted to keep the rehearsals a secret , and did not even inform the owners of the different dance studios the reason for the preparation . In late April 2007 , a marquee reading " The M + M 's " appeared at the House of Blues in San Diego . Several gossip websites and local media sources identified the act as Spears , prompting the show to quickly sell out . On May 1 , 2007 , a front @-@ page story on The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune fueled the speculation . The same day , the doors opened at 19 : 00 PST ( 03 : 00 UTC ) , and Spears took the stage at 22 : 00 PST ( 06 : 00 UTC ) . It marked the first time Spears was on stage since her knee injury caused The Onyx Hotel Tour to be canceled in June 2004 .

= = Concert synopsis = =

The concert opened with Spears taking the stage accompanied by four blonde female dancers to perform a short version of " ... Baby One More Time " , wearing a silver beaded bra , a pleated white skirt and white boots . She wore a long brown wig to cover the head she had shaved two and a half months previously and appeared in physically good shape . ( By now her hair was about an inch long , and one of her dancers said of her hair without the wig , " It '  s getting longer and she looks beautiful . "  ) The show then segued into a flashy shortened version of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Though while Spears performed the original choreography to " Slave " , the performance was compared to the style of the Pussycat Dolls . The dancers then left Spears alone onstage to perform a chair routine of " Breathe on Me " . They re @-@ entered with a male fan from the audience with them and Spears giving him a lap dance . Half way through the lap dance , Spears disappeared for a costume change leaving her dancers to continue the performance . She then reappeared in a hot pink bra , white fur coat and jean skirt to perform " Do Somethin ' " with Spears throwing air guitars to the crowd . The show then concluded with " Toxic " , which featured Spears and her dancers performing in a mix of Spears and Shakira dance styles . As the performance came to an end , Spears said " Thank you so much . These are my dancers " – her only words during the show – and left the stage . The show lasted around 12 – 16 minutes .

The first show in San Diego began two hours after the stated time . There was no live band for the shows ; Spears and the dancers performed to recorded tracks . Spears ' vocals during the show were also not live but rather were lip @-@ synched to the recording . At some points , she was chewing gum while performing . The lack of live singing became most prominent during the Orlando stop of the tour , when the CD to which Spears was miming began skipping during " Do Somethin ' " , reportedly caused some in the audience to start booing . By the Florida shows , Spears was up to four costume changes .

= = Reception = =

Teri VanHorn of MTV said that with " Her body newly toned and her smile beaming , she looked every bit like a woman who had emerged from her quarter @-@ life crisis stronger than yesterday . " She also said Spears performed with " a naughty , free @-@ spirited attitude " , as though she " had invited 900 friends to her dirty little dance party , and too bad for you if you couldn 't roll with the fun . " SuChin Pak , also from MTV stated the show was " no huge revelation " , explaining , " It was not the kind of show that says : ' She 's back . She 's going to come out with the biggest album of her career . ' Nor did it say that she 's lost forever and we 'll never see the old Britney back again . These are all really tiny baby steps . " Thomas K. Arnold of USA Today said the show " turned out to be more rehearsal than comeback " , although " all those post @-@ rehab workouts were worth the effort . " On May 2 , 2007 , scalpers outside the House of Blues in San Diego were selling tickets with a face value of $ 35 for prices between $ 200 and $ 500 . Chris Lee of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " her ' comeback ' – if you want to call it that – cemented Spears ' place as pop music 's reigning drama queen , capable of capturing worldwide tabloid headlines with a bare minimum of creative expenditure . "

Most of the shows sold out , although there were some empty seats for the Las Vegas one despite tickets being available cheaply on the secondary market . Fan reaction to the show was generally divided . Some fans attending the show were dissatisfied with its short length , with one quoted afterward as saying , " That was so disappointing . " Some fans were also disappointed by the performance quality , with one quoted as saying , " It looked like she lip @-@ synched her way through the whole thing . " Other fans were more accommodating , pleased to be seeing her in good health and appearance and with one quoted as saying , " Whatever , we love her . She 's amazing . " One group of female fans wore matching pink tops that said " Bald Ambition " on one side and " The Comeback 2007 " on the other . Jim Abbott of the Orlando Sentinel summed up some of the reaction by writing that fans at the tail end of the tour " knew that the show would be short . ... They also knew that she would be lip @-@ synching , but this wasn 't about music as much as it was about celebrity , loyalty and beating adversity . "

= = Setlist = =

" ... Baby One More Time "

" I 'm A Slave 4 U "

" Breathe on Me "

" Do Somethin ' "

" Toxic "

= = Shows = =

= Gateway Protection Programme =

The Gateway Protection Programme is a scheme operated by the British government in partnership with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) and co @-@ funded by the European Union ( EU ) , offering a legal route for a quota of UNHCR @-@ identified refugees to be resettled in the United Kingdom . Following a proposal by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett , in October 2001 , the legal basis was established by the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 and the programme itself launched in March 2004 . Since its inception , the programme has enjoyed broad support from the UK 's main political parties .

The Gateway Protection Programme initially had a quota of 500 refugees per year , which was later increased to 750 , but the actual number of refugees resettled in most years has been fewer than the quota permitted . Liberian , Congolese , Sudanese , Burmese , Ethiopian , Mauritanian , Iraqi , Bhutanese , Eritrean , Palestinian , Sierra Leonean and Somali refugees have been resettled under the programme . Refugees have been resettled to a number of locations in England and Scotland . Of the 18 local authorities participating as resettlement locations by 2012 , eight are in the North West region of England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside . Evaluations of the programme have praised it as having a positive impact on the reception of refugees by local communities , but have also noted the difficulties these refugees have faced in securing employment .

= = Programme details = =

The programme is the UK 's " quota refugee " resettlement scheme . Refugees designated as particularly vulnerable by the UNHCR are assessed by the Home Office for eligibility under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees . If they meet the eligibility criteria they are then brought to the UK and granted indefinite leave to remain . The International Organization for Migration ( IOM ) helps facilitate pre @-@ departure medical screening , counselling , dossier preparation , transport and immediate arrival assistance . Once in the UK , refugees are entered into a 12 @-@ month support programme intended to aid their integration . The programme has involved local authorities and NGOs including the British Red Cross , the International Rescue Committee , Migrant Helpline , Refugee Action , the Refugee Arrivals Project , the Refugee Council , Scottish Refugee Council and Refugee Support . These organisations formed the Resettlement Inter @-@ Agency Partnership at the planning stage of the programme , in order to pool their resources and form a partnership for the delivery of services to the resettled refugees .

The programme is distinct from and in addition to ordinary provisions for claiming asylum in the United Kingdom . Since 2008 , it has been co @-@ funded by the European Union , first through the European Refugee Fund and then through its successor , the Asylum , Migration and Integration Fund ( AMIF ) . Over the period 2009 – 14 , the Home Office provided £ 29 @.@ 97 million in funding and the EU £ 18 @.@ 67 million . Anna Musgrave of the Refugee Council argues that the programme " is rarely talked about and the Home Office , in the main , stay fairly quiet about it . "

= = History = =

The Gateway Protection Programme is not the first British refugee resettlement programme . Other , informal resettlement programmes include the Mandate Refugee Scheme , and the UK has also participated in the Ten or More Plan . The former is for so @-@ called " mandate " refugees who have been granted refugee status by UNHCR in third countries . To qualify for the scheme , refugees must have close ties to the UK and it must also be demonstrated that the UK is the most appropriate country for their resettlement . The Ten or More Plan , established by UNHCR in 1973 and administered in the UK by the British Red Cross , is for refugees requiring medical attention not available in their current location . During the 1990s , 2 @,@ 620 refugees were settled in the UK through these two programmes . In 2003 , the UK 's Ten or More Plan had a resettlement goal of 10 people and the Mandate Refugee Scheme 300 . Refugees have also been resettled through specific programmes following emergencies . For example , 42 @,@ 000 Ugandan Asians expelled from Uganda during 1972 – 74 , 22 @,@ 500 Vietnamese during 1979 – 92 , over 2 @,@ 500 Bosnians in the 1990s , and over 4 @,@ 000 Kosovars in 1999 .

A new resettlement programme was proposed by the British Home Secretary , David Blunkett in October 2001 , having been hinted at by the previous Home Secretary , Jack Straw , in a speech to the European Conference on Asylum in Lisbon in June 2000 . The legal basis for the programme 's funding was established by Section 59 of the Nationality , Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 . This act was passed by the House of Commons by 362 votes to 74 in June 2002 and by the House of Lords – at the ninth attempt , following concern about the introduction of measures allowing for the detention of asylum seekers in rural areas ) – in November 2002 .

The Gateway Protection Programme was subsequently established in March 2004 , with the first refugees arriving in the UK on 19 March . Initially , the programme quota was set at 500 per year . The British government has faced criticism from academics and practitioners over the small number of refugees it has resettled in comparison with other developed states . For example , in 2001 the countries with the largest quota schemes were the United States ( 80 @,@ 000 refugees ) , Canada ( 11 @,@ 000 ) and Australia ( 10 @,@ 000 ) . Initially , David Blunkett had intended to raise the quota to 1 @,@ 000 in the second year of the programme 's operation , but local councils ' reluctance to participate in the scheme meant that it was slow to take off . It has been argued that their reluctance showed that hostile attitudes towards asylum seekers had carried over to affect the most genuinely needy refugees . The quota remained at 500 per year until the 2008 / 09 financial year , when it was increased to 750 refugees per year . The number of refugees resettled under the scheme is small in comparison to the number of asylum seekers offered protection in the UK . For example , in 2013 , 17 @,@ 647 initial decisions on asylum claims were made by the Home Office , of which 5 @,@ 734 ( 32 @.@ 5 per cent ) determined the applicant to be a refugee and granted them asylum , 53 ( 0 @.@ 3 per cent ) granted humanitarian protection and 540 ( 3 @.@ 1 per cent ) granted discretionary leave . 11 @,@ 105 applications ( 62 @.@ 9 per cent ) were refused . Worldwide , there were 51 @.@ 2 million forcibly displaced people at the end of 2013 , 16 @.@ 7 million of whom were refugees .

The programme has been supported by the main British political parties at the national level since its inception , and there has also been support from councillors from each of the main parties at the local authority level . On the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the scheme in 2014 , refugee groups and others praised it as a successful programme and called for it to be expanded , particularly in light of the Syrian refugee crisis . In early 2014 , Amnesty International and the Refugee Council campaigned for the government to offer resettlement or humanitarian protection to Syrian refugees above and beyond the Gateway quota of 750 per year , " to ensure that resettlement opportunities continue to be available to refugees from the rest of the world " . The anniversary of the programme was also the occasion of further criticism of the 750 quota , with some commentators arguing that this is mean @-@ spirited and continues to compare unfavourably with the refugee resettlement programmes of states including the United States , Canada and Australia . Others , such as academic Jonathan Darling , have been more skeptical about expanding the scheme , for fear that any such move will be accompanied by greater restrictions on the ability of people to claim asylum in the UK . He argues that " we must be critical of any attempts to expand such a quota @-@ based scheme at the expense of a more progressive asylum system " . Furthermore , he argues that the " hospitality " of the scheme is highly conditional and can be viewed as a form of " compassionate repression " , with the UNHCR , the Home Office and local authorities all involved in " sorting , decision , and consideration over which individuals are the ' exceptional cases ' " , to the exclusion of others .

In September 2015 , in the context of the European migrant crisis , Labour Party leadership candidate Yvette Cooper called for an increase in the number of refugees resettled in the UK to 10 @,@ 000 . The prime minister , David Cameron , subsequently announced that the UK would resettle 20 @,@ 000 refugees from camps in countries bordering Syria over the period to 2020 under the Vulnerable Persons Relocation Scheme , which was established in early 2014 and is distinct from , but modelled on , the Gateway Protection Programme .

= = Refugees resettled = =

The number of refugees resettled under the programme has been below the quota in every year except for 2009 , 2012 and 2013 . Refugees resettled have included Liberians from Guinea and Sierra Leone , Congolese ( DRC ) from Uganda and Zambia , Sudanese from Uganda , Burmese ( including Karen , Mon , Pa 'O and Rohingya people ) from Thailand , Ethiopians from Kenya , and Mauritanians from Senegal . Provision was made for 1 @,@ 000 Iraqi refugees to be resettled in the UK between 1 April 2008 and the end of March 2010 . In 2008 , 236 Iraqis were resettled and as of 18 May , a further 212 had been resettled in 2009 . However , in May 2009 the programme was shut down for those Iraqis resettling due to having worked in support of British occupying forces and therefore at risk for reprisals . This decision was criticised as premature and " mean @-@ spirited " by some members of Parliament . Nonetheless , other Iraqis continue to be resettled under the Gateway Protection Programme and between 2004 and 2014 , a total of 1 @,@ 344 Iraqis were resettled as part of the programme . Other nationalities of refugees resettled under the scheme include Bhutanese , Eritreans , Palestinians , Sierra Leoneans and Somalis .

= = Resettlement locations = =

In March 2009 , out of the 434 local authorities in the UK , 15 were participating in the programme . By 2012 , a total of 18 local authorities had participated . In a review of the scheme , academics Duncan Sim and Kait Laughlin note that " it is clear that , as with asylum seekers dispersed by the UK Borders Agency under Home Office dispersal policy , most refugees have been resettled away from London and south east England , a policy which may lead to separation of extended families " . Of the 18 local authorities , eight are in North West England and three in Yorkshire and Humberside .

The first refugees resettled under the programme were housed in Sheffield , which was the first city to join the scheme and which had branded itself the UK 's first ' City of Sanctuary ' . Others have been housed in cities and towns including Bradford , Brighton and Hove , Bromley , Colchester , Hull , Middlesbrough , Motherwell , Norwich , and the Manchester area including Bolton , Bury , Oldham , Rochdale , Salford , Stockport and Tameside . Sheffield , Bolton and Hull have received the largest numbers , accounting for just under half of all refugees resettled under the programme between 2004 and 2012 . The large proportion of refugees who have been resettled in North West England has been attributed partly to strong leadership on migration issues in Greater Manchester .

In 2007 , North Lanarkshire Council won the " Creating Integrated Communities " category in the UK Housing Awards for its involvement in the Gateway Protection Programme . Research with Congolese refugees settled with North Lanarkshire Council in Motherwell has found that the majority want to stay in the town and that they view it positively both as a location in its own right , and in comparison with other resettlement locations .

In April 2007 , Bolton Museum held an exhibition of photos of Sudanese refugees resettled in the town under the programme . A film , titled Moving to Mars was made about two ethnic Karen families resettled from Burma to Sheffield under the Gateway Protection Programme . The film opened the Sheffield International Documentary Festival in November 2009 and was aired on the television channel More4 on 2 February 2010 . One ethnic Karen refugee resettled with his family in Sheffield in 2006 , Kler Heh , signed a professional contract to play football for Sheffield United F.C. in March 2015 .

On 17 July 2009 , three Congolese men resettled in Norwich under the programme were killed in a car crash on the A1 road . The Home Office released a promotional video in October 2009 that highlighted the success of the programme in resettling the first 15 Congolese families in Norwich in 2006 . In 2011 , the Home Office stopped using Norwich as a resettlement location in favour of locations in Yorkshire and Lancashire , reportedly to the disappointment of the local council .

= = Evaluations = =

Resettlement has been presented as a means of the UK fulfilling its obligations towards displaced people in the context of hostile public attitudes towards asylum seekers . Research has shown that members of the British public are generally well disposed to providing protection to genuine refugees , but are sceptical about the validity of asylum seekers ' claims . A report published in 2005 states that " some participating agencies have been reluctant to pursue a proactive media strategy due to local political considerations and issues relating to the dispersal of asylum seekers " . However , in February 2006 , the Parliamentary Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Home Department Andy Burnham , when asked about how the programme fitted in with community cohesion strategies , stated in the House of Commons that :

" The early evidence from areas in which authorities have participated in the programme shows that it has been successful in challenging some of the attacks on the notion of political asylum that we have heard in recent years . In Bolton and Sheffield in particular , the towns have rallied around the individuals who have come to them . The programme has been a positive experience for the receiving community and , of course , for the vulnerable individuals who have benefited from the protection that those towns have offered " .

A report into the experience of refugees resettled in Brighton and Hove under the scheme between October 2006 and October 2007 was published by the Sussex Centre for Migration Research at the University of Sussex in December 2007 . The report found that the refugees had struggled to gain employment and English language skills . Another evaluation report undertaken for the Home Office and published in 2011 also found that only small numbers of resettled refugees were in paid employment , noting that many were still more concerned about meeting their basic needs .

In February 2009 , the Home Office published a report evaluating the effectiveness of the Gateway Protection Programme . The research it was based upon focused on refugees ' integration into British society in the 18 months following their resettlement . The research found that refugees showed signs of integration , including the formation of social bonds through community groups and places of worship . The report noted that low employment rates and slow progress with acquiring English language skills were particular concerns . Younger refugees and children had made the most progress . No specific language lessons are provided under the Gateway Protection Programme . Instead , Gateway refugees who require help with their English language skills are provided with access to mainstream English for Speakers of Other Languages ( ESOL ) courses , which are run by a range of state , voluntary and community @-@ based organisations . However , the International Catholic Migration Commission ( ICMC ) Europe reports that in Sheffield , it can be difficult for resettled refugees to gain access to ESOL classes because demand has generally exceeded supply – a situation also noted by an evaluation of the scheme 's operation in Motherwell undertaken in 2013 . The Motherwell evaluation found that most of the male refugees were in employment , but that many of them were not in jobs that allowed them to use their skills . The majority of women were not in work , reflecting a lack of job opportunities but also a lack of childcare provision .

A number of programme evaluations have found that many resettled refugees have been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in the UK . The Home Office 's 2009 evaluation notes that between one @-@ quarter and half of each of four groups of Liberian and Congolese refugees resettled under the programme had suffered verbal or physical harassment . An evaluation undertaken by academics at Sheffield Hallam University for the Home Office in 2011 found that one @-@ fifth of the refugees surveyed for the evaluation ( who had been in the UK for a year ) had been the victims of verbal or physical attacks in their first six months in the UK , and just over a fifth had been attacked in the second six months of their resettlement . Many of the victims of this abuse had not reported it to the authorities , and the authors of the evaluation suggest that this is a reason why there was a gap between the perceptions of refugee and service providers , who generally suggested that community relations were good . Verbal and physical attacks against refugees were also noted in the 2013 Motherwell evaluation .

= Dreamcast =

The Dreamcast ( Japanese : ドリームキャスト , Hepburn : Dorīmukyasuto ) is a home video game console released by Sega on November 27 , 1998 in Japan , September 9 , 1999 in North America , and October 14 , 1999 in Europe . It was the first in the sixth generation of video game consoles , preceding Sony 's PlayStation 2 , Nintendo 's GameCube and Microsoft 's Xbox . The Dreamcast is Sega 's final home console , marking the end of the company 's 18 years in the console market .

In contrast to the expensive hardware of the unsuccessful Sega Saturn , the Dreamcast was designed to reduce costs with " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " components , including a Hitachi SH @-@ 4 CPU and an NEC PowerVR2 GPU . Released in Japan to a subdued reception , the Dreamcast enjoyed a successful U.S. launch backed by a large marketing campaign , but interest in the system steadily declined as Sony built hype for the upcoming PlayStation 2 . Sales did not meet Sega 's expectations despite several price cuts , and the company continued to incur significant financial losses . After a change in leadership , Sega discontinued the Dreamcast on March 31 , 2001 , withdrawing from the console business and restructuring itself as a third @-@ party publisher . 9 @.@ 13 million Dreamcast units were sold worldwide .

Although the Dreamcast had a short lifespan and limited third @-@ party support , reviewers have considered the console ahead of its time . Its library contains many games considered creative and innovative , including Crazy Taxi , Jet Set Radio and Shenmue , as well as high @-@ quality ports from Sega 's NAOMI arcade system board . The Dreamcast was also the first console to include a built @-@ in modem for Internet support and online play .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

Released in 1988 , the Sega Genesis ( known as the Sega Mega Drive in Europe and Japan ) was Sega 's entry into the fourth generation of video game consoles . Selling 30 @.@ 75 million units worldwide , the Genesis was the most successful console Sega ever released . The successor to the Genesis , the Sega Saturn , was released in Japan in 1994 . The Saturn was a CD @-@ ROM @-@ based console that displayed both 2D and 3D computer graphics , but its complex dual @-@ CPU architecture made it more difficult to program for than its chief competitor , the Sony PlayStation . Although the Saturn debuted before the PlayStation in both Japan and the United States , its surprise U.S. launch — which came four months earlier than originally scheduled — was marred by a lack of distribution , which remained a continuing problem for the system . Moreover , Sega 's early release was undermined by Sony 's simultaneous announcement that the PlayStation would retail for US $ 299 — compared to the Saturn 's initial price of $ 399 . Nintendo 's long delay in releasing a competing 3D console and the damage done to Sega 's reputation by poorly supported add @-@ ons for the Genesis ( particularly the Sega 32X ) allowed Sony to establish a foothold in the market . The PlayStation was immediately successful in the U.S. , in part due to a massive advertising campaign and strong third @-@ party support engendered by Sony 's excellent development tools and liberal $ 10 licensing fee . Sony 's success was further aided by a price war in which Sega lowered the price of the Saturn from $ 399 to $ 299 and then from $ 299 to $ 199 in order to match the price of the PlayStation – even though Saturn hardware was more expensive to manufacture and the PlayStation enjoyed a larger software library . Losses on the Saturn hardware contributed to Sega 's financial problems , which saw the company 's revenue decline between 1992 and 1995 as part of an industry @-@ wide slowdown . Furthermore , Sega 's focus on the Saturn over the Genesis prevented it from fully capitalizing on the continued strength of the 16 @-@ bit market .

Due to long @-@ standing disagreements with Sega of Japan , Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske became less interested in his position . On July 16 , 1996 Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America , while Kalinske would be leaving Sega after September 30 of that year . Sega also announced that Sega Enterprises cofounder David Rosen and Sega of Japan CEO Hayao Nakayama had resigned from their positions as chairman and co @-@ chairman of Sega of America , though both men remained with the company . Bernie Stolar , a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America , was named Sega of America 's executive vice president in charge of product development and third @-@ party relations . Stolar did not support the Saturn due to his belief that the hardware was poorly designed and publicly announced at E3 1997 that " The Saturn is not our future . " After the launch of the Nintendo 64 , sales of the Saturn and Sega 's 32 @-@ bit software were sharply reduced . As of August 1997 , Sony controlled 47 percent of the console market , Nintendo controlled 40 percent , and Sega controlled only 12 percent . Neither price cuts nor high @-@ profile games were proving helpful to the Saturn 's success . Due to the Saturn 's poor performance in North America , Sega of America laid off 60 of its 200 employees in the fall of 1997 .

As a result of the company 's deteriorating financial situation , Nakayama resigned as president of Sega in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri . Stolar would subsequently accede to president of Sega of America . Following five years of generally declining profits , in the fiscal year ending March 31 , 1998 Sega suffered its first parent and consolidated financial losses since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange . Due to a 54 @.@ 8 % decline in consumer product sales ( including a 75 @.@ 4 % decline overseas ) , the company reported a consolidated net loss of ¥ 35 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 269 @.@ 8 million ) . Shortly before announcing its financial losses , Sega revealed that it was discontinuing the Saturn in North America , with the goal of preparing for the launch of its successor . This decision effectively left the Western market without Sega games for over one year . Rumors about the upcoming Dreamcast — spread mainly by Sega itself — leaked to the public before the last Saturn games were released .

= = = Development = = =

As early as 1995 , reports surfaced that Sega would collaborate with Lockheed Martin , The 3DO Company , Matsushita , or Alliance Semiconductor to create a new graphics processing unit , which conflicting accounts said would be used for a 64 @-@ bit " Saturn 2 " or an add @-@ on peripheral . Development of the Dreamcast was wholly unrelated to this rumored project . In light of the Saturn 's poor market performance , Irimajiri decided to start looking outside of the company 's internal hardware development division to create a new console . In 1997 , Irimajiri enlisted the services of Tatsuo Yamamoto from International Business Machines to lead an 11 @-@ man team to work on a secret hardware project in the United States , which was referred to as " Blackbelt " . Accounts vary on how an internal team led by Hideki Sato also began development on Dreamcast hardware ; one account specifies that Sega of Japan tasked both teams , while another suggests that Sato was bothered by Irimajiri 's choice to begin development externally and chose to have his hardware team begin development . Sato and his group chose the Hitachi SH @-@ 4 processor architecture and the VideoLogic PowerVR2 graphics processor , manufactured by NEC , in the production of their mainboard . Initially known as " Whitebelt " , this project was later codenamed " Dural " , after the metallic female fighter from Sega 's Virtua Fighter series .

Yamamoto 's group opted to use 3dfx Voodoo 2 and Voodoo Banshee graphics processors alongside a Motorola PowerPC 603e central processing unit ( CPU ) , but Sega management later asked them to also use the SH @-@ 4 chip . Both processors have been described as " off the shelf " components . In 1997 , 3dfx began its IPO , and as a result of legal obligations unveiled its contracts with Sega , including the development of the new console . This angered Sega of Japan executives , who eventually decided to use the Dural chipset and cut ties with 3dfx . According to former Sega of America vice president of communications and former NEC brand manager Charles Bellfield , presentations of games using the NEC solution showcased the performance and low cost delivered by the SH @-@ 4 and PowerVR architecture . He further stated that " Sega 's relationship with NEC , a Japanese company , probably made a difference [ in Sega 's decision to adopt the Japanese team 's design ] too . " Stolar , on the other hand , " felt the US version , the 3Dfx version , should have been used . Japan wanted the Japanese version , and Japan won . " As a result , 3dfx filed a lawsuit against both Sega and NEC claiming breach of contract , which would eventually be settled out of court . The choice to use the PowerVR architecture concerned Electronic Arts ( EA ) , a longtime developer for Sega 's consoles . EA had invested in 3dfx but was unfamiliar with the selected architecture , which was reportedly less powerful . As recounted by Shiro Hagiwara ( a general manager at Sega 's hardware division ) and Ian Oliver ( the managing director of Sega subsidiary Cross Products ) , the SH @-@ 4 was chosen while it was still in development and following a lengthy deliberation process because it was the only available processor that " could adapt to deliver the 3D geometry calculation performance necessary . " By February 1998 , Sega had renamed the Dural " Katana " ( after the Japanese sword ) , although certain hardware specifications such as random access memory ( RAM ) were not yet finalized .

Knowing that the Sega Saturn had been set back by its high production costs and complex hardware , Sega took a different approach with the Dreamcast . Like previous Sega consoles , the Dreamcast was designed around intelligent subsystems working in parallel with one another , but the selections of hardware were more in line with what was common in personal computers than video game consoles , reducing the system 's cost . According to Damien McFerran , " the motherboard was a masterpiece of clean , uncluttered design and compatibility . " Chinese economist and future Sega.com CEO Brad Huang convinced Sega chairman Isao Okawa to include a modem with every Dreamcast despite significant opposition from Okawa 's staff over the additional $ 15 cost per unit . To account for rapid changes in home data delivery , Sega designed the Dreamcast 's modem to be modular . Sega selected the GD @-@ ROM media format for the system . The GD @-@ ROM , which was jointly developed by Sega and Yamaha Corporation , could be mass @-@ produced at a similar price to a normal CD @-@ ROM , thus avoiding the greater expense of DVD @-@ ROM technology . As the GD @-@ ROM format can hold about 1 GB of data , illegally copying Dreamcast games onto a 650 MB CD @-@ ROM sometimes required the removal of certain game features , although this did not prevent copying of Dreamcast software . Microsoft developed a custom Dreamcast version of Windows CE with DirectX API and dynamic @-@ link libraries , making it easy to port PC games to the platform , although programmers would ultimately favor Sega 's development tools over those from Microsoft .

Sega held a public competition to name its new system and considered over 5 @,@ 000 different entries before choosing " Dreamcast " — a combination of " dream " and " broadcast " . According to Katsutoshi Eguchi , Japanese game developer Kenji Eno submitted the name and created the Dreamcast 's spiral logo , but this claim has not been verified by Sega . The Dreamcast 's start @-@ up sound was composed by the Japanese musician Ryuichi Sakamoto . Because the Saturn had tarnished Sega 's reputation , the company planned to remove its name from the console entirely and establish a new gaming brand similar to Sony 's PlayStation , but Irimajiri 's management team ultimately decided to retain Sega 's logo on the Dreamcast 's exterior . Sega spent US $ 50 – 80 million on hardware development , $ 150 – 200 million on software development , and $ 300 million on worldwide promotion — a sum which Irimajiri , a former Honda executive , humorously compared to the investments required to design new automobiles .

= = = Launch = = =

Despite taking massive losses on the Saturn , including a 75 percent drop in half @-@ year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast , Sega felt confident about its new system . The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre @-@ orders . Sega announced that Sonic Adventure , the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog , would arrive in time for the Dreamcast 's launch and promoted the game with a large @-@ scale public demonstration at the Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall . However , Sega could not achieve its shipping goals for the Dreamcast 's Japanese launch due to a shortage of PowerVR chipsets caused by a high failure rate in the manufacturing process . As more than half of its limited stock had been pre @-@ ordered , Sega stopped pre @-@ orders in Japan . On November 27 , 1998 , the Dreamcast launched in Japan at a price of JP ¥ 29 @,@ 000 , and the entire stock sold out by the end of the day . However , of the four games available at launch , only one — a port of Virtua Fighter 3 , the most successful arcade game Sega ever released in Japan — sold well . Sega estimated that an additional 200 @,@ 000 @-@ 300 @,@ 000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply . Key Dreamcast software titles Sonic Adventure and Sega Rally Championship 2 , which had been delayed , arrived within the following weeks , but sales continued to be slower than expected . Irimajiri hoped to sell over 1 million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999 , but less than 900 @,@ 000 were sold , undermining Sega 's attempts to build up a sufficient installed base to ensure the Dreamcast 's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers . There were reports of disappointed Japanese consumers returning their Dreamcasts and using the refund to purchase additional PlayStation software . Seaman , released in July 1999 , was considered the Dreamcast 's first major hit in Japan . Prior to the Western launch , Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast to JP ¥ 19 @,@ 900 , effectively making the hardware unprofitable but increasing sales . The price reduction and release of Namco 's Soul Calibur helped Sega to gain 17 percent on its shares .

Working closely with Midway Games ( which developed four launch titles for the system ) and taking advantage of the ten months following the Dreamcast 's release in Japan , Sega of America worked to ensure a more successful U.S. launch with a minimum of 15 launch games . Despite lingering bitterness over the Saturn 's early release , Stolar successfully managed to repair relations with major US retailers , with whom Sega presold 300 @,@ 000 Dreamcast units . In addition , a pre @-@ launch promotion enabled consumers to rent the system from Hollywood Video in the months preceding its September launch . Sega of America 's senior vice president of marketing Peter Moore , a fan of the attitude previously associated with Sega 's brand , worked with Foote , Cone & Belding and Access Communications to develop the " It 's Thinking " campaign of 15 @-@ second television commercials , which emphasized the Dreamcast 's hardware power . According to Moore , " We needed to create something that would really intrigue consumers , somewhat apologize for the past , but invoke all the things we loved about Sega , primarily from the Genesis days . " On August 11 , Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired , leaving Moore to direct the launch .

Prior to the Dreamcast 's release , Sega was dealt a blow when EA — the largest third @-@ party video game publisher — announced it would not develop games for the system . EA executive Bing Gordon claimed " [ Sega ] couldn 't afford to give us [ EA ] the same kind of license that EA has had over the last five years " , but Stolar recounted that EA president Larry Probst wanted " exclusive rights to be the only sports brand on Dreamcast " , which Stolar could not accept due to Sega 's recent $ 10 million purchase of sports game developer Visual Concepts . While the Dreamcast would have none of EA 's popular sports games , " Sega Sports " titles developed mainly by Visual Concepts helped to fill that void .

The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9 , 1999 at a price of $ 199 — which Sega 's marketing dubbed " 9 / 9 / 99 for $ 199 " . Eighteen launch titles were available for the Dreamcast in the U.S. Sega set a new sales record by selling more than 225 @,@ 132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours , earning the company $ 98 @.@ 4 million in what Moore called " the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history " . Within two weeks , U.S. Dreamcast sales exceeded 500 @,@ 000 . By Christmas , Sega held 31 percent of the North American video game marketshare . Significant launch titles included Soul Calibur , an arcade fighting game that was graphically enhanced for the system and went on to sell one million units , and Visual Concepts ' high @-@ quality football simulation NFL 2K . On November 4 , Sega announced it had sold over one million Dreamcast units . Nevertheless , the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega 's manufacturing plants , which produced defective GD @-@ ROMs .

Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14 , 1999 , at a price of GB ₤ 200 . By November 24 , 400 @,@ 000 consoles had been sold in Europe . By Christmas of 1999 , Sega of Europe reported selling 500 @,@ 000 units , placing it six months ahead of schedule . Sales did not continue at this pace , and by October 2000 , Sega had sold only about 1 million units in Europe . As part of Sega 's promotions of the Dreamcast in Europe , the company sponsored four European football clubs : Arsenal F.C. ( England ) , AS Saint @-@ Étienne ( France ) , U.C. Sampdoria ( Italy ) , and Deportivo de La Coruña ( Spain ) .

= = = Competition = = =

Though the Dreamcast launch had been successful , Sony still held 60 percent of the overall video game market share in North America with the PlayStation at the end of 1999 . On March 2 , 1999 , in what one report called a " highly publicized , vaporware @-@ like announcement " Sony revealed the first details of its " next generation PlayStation " , which Ken Kutaragi claimed would allow video games to convey unprecedented emotions . The center of Sony 's marketing plan and the upcoming PlayStation 2 itself was a new CPU ( clocked at 294 MHz ) jointly developed by Sony and Toshiba — the " Emotion Engine " — which Kutaragi announced would feature a graphics processor with 1 @,@ 000 times more bandwidth than contemporary PC graphics processors and a floating @-@ point calculation performance of 6 @.@ 2 gigaflops per second , rivaling most supercomputers . Sony , which invested $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in two large @-@ scale integration semiconductor fabrication plants to manufacture the PlayStation 2 's " Emotion Engine " and " Graphics Synthesizer " , designed the machine to push more raw polygons than any video game console in history . Sony claimed the PlayStation 2 could render 75 million raw polygons per second with absolutely no effects , and 38 million without accounting for features such as textures , artificial intelligence , or physics . Even with such effects , Sony estimated the PlayStation 2 could render 16 million polygons per second , whereas independent estimates ranged from 3 million to 20 million , compared to the Dreamcast 's roughly 3 million . The system would also utilize the DVD @-@ ROM format , which could hold substantially more data than the Dreamcast 's GD @-@ ROM format . Because it could connect to the Internet while playing movies , music , and video games , Sony hyped PlayStation 2 as the future of home entertainment . Rumors spread that the PlayStation 2 was a supercomputer capable of guiding missiles and displaying Toy Story @-@ quality graphics , while Kutaragi boasted its online capabilities would give consumers the ability to " jack into ' The Matrix ' ! " In addition , Sony emphasized that the PlayStation 2 would be backwards compatible with hundreds of popular PlayStation games . Sony 's specifications appeared to render the Dreamcast obsolete months before its U.S. launch , although reports later emerged that the PlayStation 2 was not as powerful as expected and distinctly difficult to program games for . The same year , Nintendo announced that its next generation console would meet or exceed anything on the market , and Microsoft began development of its own console .

Sega 's initial momentum proved fleeting as U.S. Dreamcast sales — which exceeded 1 @.@ 5 million by the end of 1999 — began to decline as early as January 2000 . Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega 's ¥ 42 @.@ 88 billion ( $ 404 million ) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000 , which followed a similar loss of ¥ 42 @.@ 881 billion the previous year and marked Sega 's third consecutive annual loss . Although Sega 's overall sales for the term increased 27 @.@ 4 % , and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded the company 's expectations , this increase in sales coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan . At the same time , increasingly poor market conditions reduced the profitability of Sega 's Japanese arcade business , prompting the company to close 246 locations . Knowing that " they have to fish where the fish are biting " , Sega of America president Peter Moore ( who assumed his position after Stolar had been fired ) and Sega of Japan 's developers focused on the U.S. market to prepare for the upcoming launch of the PS2 . To that end , Sega of America launched its own Internet service provider , Sega.com , led by CEO Brad Huang . On September 7 , 2000 Sega.com launched SegaNet , the Dreamcast 's Internet gaming service , at a subscription price of $ 21 @.@ 95 per month . Although Sega had previously released only one Dreamcast title in the U.S. that featured online multiplayer ( ChuChu Rocket ! , a puzzle game developed by Sonic Team ) , the launch of SegaNet ( which allowed users to chat , send email , and surf the web ) combined with NFL 2K1 ( a football game including a robust online component ) was intended to increase demand for the Dreamcast in the U.S. market . The service would later support games including Bomberman Online , Phantasy Star Online , Quake III Arena , and Unreal Tournament . The September 7 launch coincided with a new advertising campaign to promote SegaNet , including via the MTV Video Music Awards of the same day , which Sega sponsored for the second consecutive year . Sega employed aggressive pricing strategies with relation to online gaming . In Japan , every Dreamcast sold included a free year of Internet access , which Okawa personally paid for . Prior to the launch of SegaNet , Sega had already offered a $ 200 rebate to any Dreamcast owner who purchased two years of Internet access from Sega.com. To increase SegaNet 's appeal in the U.S. , Sega dropped the price of the Dreamcast to $ 149 ( compared to the PS2 's U.S. launch price of $ 299 ) and offered a rebate for the full $ 149 price of a Dreamcast ( and a free Dreamcast keyboard ) with every 18 @-@ month SegaNet subscription .

Moore stated that the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the U.S. by the end of 2000 in order to remain a viable platform , but Sega ultimately fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold . Moreover , Sega 's attempts to spur increased Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses . Instead of an expected profit , for the six months ending September 2000 Sega posted a ¥ 17 @.@ 98 billion ( $ 163 @.@ 11 million ) loss , with the company projecting a year @-@ end loss of ¥ 23 @.@ 6 billion . This estimate was more than doubled to ¥ 58 @.@ 3 billion , and in March 2001 Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥ 51 @.@ 7 billion ( $ 417 @.@ 5 million ) . While the PS2 's October 26 U.S. launch was marred by shortages — with only 500 @,@ 000 of a planned 1 million units shipped due to a manufacturing glitch — this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected , as many disappointed consumers continued to wait for a PS2 — while the PSone , a remodeled version of the original PlayStation , was the best @-@ selling console in the U.S. at the start of the 2000 holiday season . According to Moore , " the PlayStation 2 effect that we were relying upon did not work for us ... people will hang on for as long as possible ... What effectively happened is the PlayStation 2 lack of availability froze the marketplace " . Eventually , Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market , respectively , while Sega held only 15 percent . According to Bellfield , Dreamcast software sold at an 8 @-@ to @-@ 1 ratio with the hardware , but this ratio " on a small install base didn 't give us the revenue ... to keep this platform viable in the medium to long term . "

= = = Decline = = =

On May 22 , 2000 Okawa replaced Iramajiri as president of Sega . Okawa had long openly advocated that Sega abandon the console business . His sentiments were not unique ; Sega co @-@ founder David Rosen had " always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware " , and Stolar had previously suggested that Sega should have sold their company to Microsoft . In September 2000 , in a meeting with Sega 's Japanese executives and the heads of the company 's major Japanese game development studios , Moore and Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business and focus solely on software — prompting the studio heads to walk out . Nevertheless , on January 31 , 2001 Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a " platform @-@ agnostic " third @-@ party developer . The decision was Moore 's . Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to $ 99 to eliminate its unsold inventory , which was estimated at 930 @,@ 000 units as of April 2001 . After a further reduction to $ 79 , the Dreamcast was cleared out of stores at $ 49 @.@ 95 . The final Dreamcast unit to be manufactured was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega 's internal game development studios as well as the heads of Visual Concepts and Wave Master and given away with 55 first @-@ party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by GamePro magazine . Okawa , who had previously loaned Sega $ 500 million in the summer of 1999 , died on March 16 , 2001 ; shortly before his death , he forgave Sega 's debts to him and returned his $ 695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock , helping the company survive the third @-@ party transition . As part of this restructuring , nearly one @-@ third of Sega 's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001 .

9 @.@ 13 million Dreamcast units were sold worldwide . After the Dreamcast 's discontinuation , commercial games were still developed and released for the system , particularly in Japan . In the United States , game sales continued until the end of the first half of 2002 . Sega of Japan continued to repair Dreamcast units until 2007 . As of 2014 , the console is still supported through various MIL @-@ CD independent releases . After five consecutive years of financial losses , Sega finally posted a profit for the fiscal year ending March 2003 .

Reasons cited for the failure of the Dreamcast include hype for the PS2 ; a lack of support from EA and Squaresoft , considered the most popular third @-@ parties in the U.S. and Japan respectively ; disagreement among Sega executives over the company 's future , and Okawa 's lack of commitment to the product ; Sega 's lack of advertising money , with Bellfield doubting that Sega spent even " half " the $ 100 million it had pledged to promote the Dreamcast in the U.S. ; that the market was not yet ready for online gaming ; Sega 's focus on " hardcore " gamers over the mainstream consumer ; and poor timing . Perhaps the most frequently cited reason is the damage to Sega 's reputation caused by several previous poorly supported Sega platforms . Writing for GamePro , Blake Snow stated that " The much beloved console launched years ahead of the competition but ultimately struggled to shed the negative reputation [ Sega ] had gained during the Saturn , Sega 32X , and Sega CD days . As a result , casual gamers and jaded third @-@ party developers doubted Sega 's ability to deliver . " Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead noted that the " wait and see " approach of consumers and the lack of support from EA were symptoms rather the cause of Sega 's decline , concluding " Sega 's misadventures during the 1990s had left both gamers and publishers wary of any new platform bearing its name . " According to 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish , " While it would be easy to point an accusatory finger at Sony and blame them for killing the Dreamcast by overselling the PS2 ... there 's a certain level of intellectual dishonesty in such a stance ... [ Sega ] ' s poor U.S. support for hardware like the Sega CD , the 32X , and the Saturn made gamers gun shy . Many consumers felt burned after investing in expensive Sega machines and finding the resulting libraries comparatively lacking " .

The announcement of Sega 's third @-@ party transition was met with widespread enthusiasm . According to IGN 's Travis Fahs , " Sega was a creatively fertile company with a rapidly expanding stable of properties to draw from . It seemed like they were in a perfect position to start a new life as a developer / publisher . " Former Working Designs president Victor Ireland wrote that " It 's actually a good thing ... because now Sega will survive , doing what they do best : software . " The staff of Newsweek remarked " From Sonic to Shenmue , Sega 's programmers have produced some of the most engaging experiences in the history of interactive media ... Unshackled by a struggling console platform , this platoon of world @-@ class software developers can do what they do best for any machine on the market " . Rosen predicted " they have the potential to catch Electronic Arts " . Game Informer , commenting on Sega 's tendency to produce under @-@ appreciated cult classics , stated : " Let us rejoice in the fact that Sega is making games equally among the current console crop , so that history will not repeat itself . "

= = Technical specifications = =

= = = Hardware = = =

Physically , the Dreamcast measures 190 mm × 195 @.@ 8 mm × 75 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 48 in × 7 @.@ 71 in × 2 @.@ 97 in ) and weighs 1 @.@ 5 kg ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) . The Dreamcast 's main CPU is a two @-@ way 360 MIPS superscalar Hitachi SH @-@ 4 32 @-@ bit RISC clocked at 200 MHz with an 8 Kbyte instruction cache and 16 Kbyte data cache and a 128 @-@ bit graphics @-@ oriented floating @-@ point unit delivering 1 @.@ 4 GFLOPS . Its 100 MHz NEC PowerVR2 rendering engine , integrated with the system 's ASIC , is capable of drawing more than 3 million polygons per second and of deferred shading . Sega estimated that the Dreamcast was theoretically capable of rendering 6 – 7 million raw polygons per second , with the higher figure excluding textures and lighting , but the company conceded " game logic and physics reduce peak graphic performance . " Graphics hardware effects include trilinear filtering , gouraud shading , z @-@ buffering , spatial anti @-@ aliasing , per @-@ pixel translucency sorting and bump mapping . The system can output approximately 16 @.@ 77 million colors simultaneously and displays interlaced or progressive scan video at 640 × 480 video resolution . Its 67 MHz Yamaha AICA sound processor , with a 32 @-@ bit ARM7 RISC CPU core , can generate 64 voices with PCM or ADPCM , providing ten times the performance of the Saturn 's sound system . The Dreamcast has 16 MB main RAM , along with an additional 8 MB of RAM for graphic textures and 2 MB of RAM for sound . The system reads media using a 12x speed Yamaha GD @-@ ROM Drive . In addition to Windows CE , the Dreamcast supports several Sega and middleware application programming interfaces . In most regions , the Dreamcast included a removable modem for online connectivity , which was modular for future upgrades . The original Japanese model and all PAL models had a transfer rate of 33 @.@ 6 kbit / s , while consoles sold in the US and in Japan after September 9 , 1999 featured a 56 kbit / s dial @-@ up modem .

= = = Models = = =

Sega constructed numerous Dreamcast models , most of which were exclusive to Japan . A refurbished Dreamcast known as the R7 was originally used as a network console in Japanese pachinko parlors . Another model , the Divers 2000 CX @-@ 1 , possesses a shape similar to Sonic 's head and includes a television and software for teleconferencing . A Hello Kitty version , limited to 2000 units produced , was targeted at Japanese female gamers . Special editions were created for Seaman and Resident Evil Code : Veronica . Color variations were sold through a service called " Dreamcast Direct " in Japan . Toyota also offered special edition Dreamcast units at 160 of its dealers in Japan . In North America , a limited edition black Dreamcast was released with a Sega Sports logo on the lid , which included matching Sega Sports @-@ branded black controllers and two games .

= = = Accessories = = =

The Dreamcast controller includes both an analog stick and a digital pad , four action buttons , and two analog triggers . The system has four ports for controller inputs , although it was bundled with only one controller . The design of the Dreamcast 's controller , described by the staff of Edge as " an ugly evolution of Saturn 's 3D controller , " was called " [ not ] that great " by 1UP.com 's Sam Kennedy and " lame " by Game Informer 's Andy McNamara . The staff of IGN wrote that " unlike most controllers , Sega 's pad forces the user 's hands into an uncomfortable parallel position . " In contrast to the Sega CD and Sega Saturn , which included internal backup memory , the Dreamcast uses a 128 kbyte memory card called the VMU ( or " Visual Memory Unit " ) for data storage . The VMU features a small LCD screen , audio output from a one @-@ channel PWM sound source , non @-@ volatile memory , a directional pad , and four buttons . The VMU can present game information , be used as a minimal handheld gaming device , and connect to certain Sega arcade machines . For example , players use the VMU to call plays in NFL 2K or raise virtual pets in Sonic Adventure . Sega officials noted that the VMU could be used " as a private viewing area , the absence of which has prevented effective implementation of many types of games in the past . " After a VMU slot was incorporated into the controller 's design , Sega 's engineers found many additional uses for it , so a second slot was added . This slot was generally used for vibration packs providing force feedback like Sega 's " Jump Pack " and Performance 's " Tremor Pack " , although it could also be used for other peripherals including a microphone enabling voice control and player communication . Various third @-@ party cards provide storage , and some contain the LCD screen addition . Iomega announced a Dreamcast @-@ compatible zip drive that could store up to 100 MB of data on removable discs , but it was never released .

Various third @-@ party controllers from companies like Mad Catz include additional buttons and other extra features ; third @-@ parties also manufactured arcade @-@ style joysticks for fighting games , such as Agetech 's Arcade Stick and Interact 's Alloy Arcade Stick . Mad Catz and Agetec created racing wheels for racing games . Sega decided against releasing its official light gun in the U.S. , but some third party light guns were available . The Dreamcast supports a Sega fishing " reel and rod " motion controller and a keyboard for text entry . Although it was designed for fishing games such as Sega Bass Fishing , Soul Calibur was playable with the fishing controller , which translated vertical and horizontal movements into on @-@ screen swordplay in a manner that was retroactively cited as a predecessor to the Wii Remote . The Japanese Dreamcast port of Sega 's Cyber Troopers Virtual @-@ On Oratorio Tangram supported a " Twin Sticks " peripheral , but the game 's American publisher , Activision , opted not to release it in the U.S. The Dreamcast could connect to SNK 's Neo Geo Pocket Color , predating Nintendo 's GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable . Sega also produced the Dreameye , a digital camera that could be connected to the Dreamcast and used to exchange pictures and participate in video chat over the system 's Internet connection . Sega hoped developers would use the Dreameye for future software , as they later did with Sony 's similar EyeToy peripheral . In addition , Sega investigated systems that would have allowed users to make telephone calls with the Dreamcast , and discussed with Motorola the development of an Internet @-@ enabled cell phone that would have used technology from the console to enable quick downloads of games and other data .

The console can supply video through several different accessories . The console came with A / V cables , considered at the time to be the standard for video and audio connectivity . Sega and various third parties also manufactured RF modulator connectors and S @-@ Video cables . A VGA adapter allows Dreamcast games to be played on computer displays or Enhanced @-@ definition television sets in 480p .

= = Game library = =

Before the launch of the Dreamcast in Japan , Sega announced the release of its New Arcade Operation Machine Idea ( NAOMI ) arcade board , which served as a cheaper alternative to the Sega Model 3 . NAOMI shared the same technology as the Dreamcast — albeit with twice as much system , video , and audio memory and an 160 Mbyte flash ROM board in place of a GD @-@ ROM drive — allowing nearly identical home conversions of arcade games . Games were ported from NAOMI to the Dreamcast by several leading Japanese arcade companies , including Capcom ( Marvel vs. Capcom 2 and Project Justice ) , Tecmo ( Dead or Alive 2 ) , Treasure ( Ikaruga ) , and Sega itself ( F355 Challenge and Crazy Taxi ) .

In what has been called " a brief moment of remarkable creativity " , in 2000 Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi @-@ autonomous studios headed by the company 's top designers . Studios included United Game Artists ( UGA ) ( headed by former Sega Rally Championship producer Tetsuya Mizuguchi ) , Hitmaker ( headed by Crazy Taxi creator and future Sega president Hisao Oguchi ) , Smilebit ( headed by Shun Arai and including many former Panzer Dragoon and future Yakuza developers from Team Andromeda ) , Overworks ( headed by Noriyoshi Oba and composed of developers from Sega franchises including Sakura Wars , Shinobi and Streets of Rage ) , Sega AM2 ( Sega 's most famous arcade studio and the developer of Sega 's Virtua Fighter fighting game series , headed by the company 's top developer , Yu Suzuki ) , and Sonic Team ( the developer of Sega 's flagship series , Sonic the Hedgehog , headed by Yuji Naka ) . Sega 's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process , resulting in titles such as Rez ( an attempt to simulate synaesthesia in the form of a rail shooter ) , The Typing of the Dead ( a version of The House of the Dead 2 remade into a touch typing trainer ) , Seaman ( a pet simulator in which players use a microphone to interact with a grotesque humanoid fish whose growth is narrated by Leonard Nimoy ) , and Segagaga ( a Japan @-@ exclusive role @-@ playing @-@ game employing commentary on the perceived over @-@ abundance of sequels produced by the video game industry , in which players are tasked with preventing Sega from going out of business ) . Sega also revived franchises from the Genesis era , such as Ecco the Dolphin . Sega 's internal studios were consolidated starting in 2003 , with Mizuguchi leaving the company following the merger of UGA with Sonic Team .

UGA created the music game Space Channel 5 , in which players help a female outer space news reporter named Ulala fight aliens with " groove energy " by dancing . Intended for a " female casual " audience , Space Channel 5 is considered one of Sega 's " most daring and beloved " original properties , combining a " defiantly retro " and " uplifting " soundtrack with " dazzling " and " colorful " visual presentation — despite " a lack of real gameplay substance . " Neither Space Channel 5 nor UGA 's Rez were commercially successful , and the latter title was only available in the U.S. market through a PS2 port released in limited quantities . Hitmaker 's arcade ports included Crazy Taxi — an open world arcade racing game known for its addictive gameplay , which sold over one million copies and has been frequently cited as one of the best Dreamcast games — and Virtua Tennis — which revitalized the tennis game genre with a simple two @-@ button control scheme and use of minigames to test the player 's technique . Smilebit 's Jet Set Radio — in which players control a Tokyo @-@ based gang of youthful , rebellious inline skaters called the " GGs " , who use graffiti to claim territory from rival gangs while evading an oppressive police force — has been cited as a major example of Sega 's commitment to original game concepts during the Dreamcast 's lifespan . Lauded for composer Hideki Naganuma 's " punchy , psychedelic " soundtrack incorporating elements of " J @-@ pop and electro @-@ funk " as well as its message of " self @-@ expression and non @-@ violent dissent " , the game also popularized cel shaded graphics . Despite wide praise for its style , some criticized Jet Set Radio 's gameplay as mediocre , and it failed to meet Sega 's sales expectations . Produced by Rieko Kodama , the Overworks @-@ developed traditional role @-@ playing game Skies of Arcadia was acclaimed for its surreal Jules Verne @-@ inspired fantasy world of floating islands and sky pirates , charming protagonists , unique emphasis on the environmental properties of weapons , exciting airship battles , and memorable plot ( including a sequence viewed from multiple perspectives ) .

AM2 developed what Sega hoped would be the Dreamcast 's killer app , Shenmue , a " revenge epic in the tradition of Chinese cinema . " The action @-@ adventure title involved the quest of protagonist Ryo Hazuki to avenge his father 's murder , but its main selling point was its rendition of the Japanese city of Yokosuka , which included a level of detail considered unprecedented for a video game . Incorporating a simulated day / night cycle with variable weather , non @-@ player characters with regular schedules , and the ability to pick up and examine detailed objects ( also introducing the Quick @-@ time event in its modern form ) , Shenmue went over budget and was rumored to have cost Sega over $ 50 million . Originally planned as the first installment in an 11 @-@ part saga , Shenmue was eventually downsized to a trilogy — and only one sequel was ever released . While Shenmue was lauded for its innovation , visuals and music , its critical reception was mixed ; points of criticism included " invisible walls " which limited the player 's sense of freedom , boredom caused by the inability to progress without waiting for events scheduled to occur at specific times , excessive in @-@ game cutscenes and a lack of challenge . According to Moore , Shenmue sold " extremely well " , but the game had no chance of making a profit due to the Dreamcast 's limited installed base . Shenmue II " was completed for a much more reasonable sum " , while Sato defended Shenmue as an " investment [ which ] will someday be recouped " because " the development advances we learned ... can be applied to other games " . In addition to the mixed reception for Shenmue , IGN 's Travis Fahs stated that " the [ Dreamcast ] era wasn 't as kind to [ AM2 ] as earlier years " — citing ( among others ) F355 Challenge as an " acclaimed " arcade title that " didn 't do much at home " , and Genki 's port of Virtua Fighter 3 as inferior to the arcade version , " which was already a couple years old and never as popular as its predecessors . " The Virtua Fighter series would experience a " tremendous comeback " with the universally acclaimed Virtua Fighter 4 — which saw a console release exclusively on PS2 .

As the first fully 3D platforming game starring Sega 's mascot , Sonic the Hedgehog , Sonic Team 's Sonic Adventure was considered " the centerpiece of the [ Dreamcast ] launch " . Adventure garnered criticism for technical problems including erratic camera angles and glitches , but was praised for its " luscious " visuals , " vast , twisting environments " and iconic set pieces — including a segment in which Sonic runs down the side of a skyscraper — and has been described as the Sonic series ' creative apex . However , it failed " to catch on with players in nearly the way that [ Nintendo 's ] Mario 64 had done " , perhaps due to a perceived lack of gameplay depth . Distinguished by its innovative use of multiple storylines with varied forms of play , Adventure sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies , making it the Dreamcast 's best @-@ selling title . Sonic Team also developed the Dreamcast 's first online game — ChuChu Rocket ! — which was widely complimented for its addictive puzzle gameplay and " frantic " multiplayer matches , and the critically successful music game Samba de Amigo , which was noted for its expensive maracas peripheral and colorful aesthetic . Perhaps the most influential of Sonic Team 's Dreamcast releases was Phantasy Star Online , the first online console RPG . Developed after Okawa requested an online game from Sonic Team , PSO was heavily influenced by the PC action RPG Diablo , but refined and simplified its style of gameplay to appeal to console audiences .

In sports , Visual Concepts ' NFL 2K football series and its NBA 2K basketball series were critically acclaimed . NFL 2K was considered an outstanding launch game for its high @-@ quality visuals and " insightful , context @-@ friendly , and , yes , even funny commentary " , while NFL 2K1 featured groundbreaking online multiplayer earlier than its chief competitor , EA 's Madden NFL series . Madden and 2K continued to compete on other platforms through 2004 — with the 2K series introducing innovations such as a first person perspective new to the genre , and eventually launching ESPN NFL 2K5 at the aggressively low price point of $ 19 @.@ 95 — until EA signed an exclusive agreement with the National Football League , " effectively putting every other pro @-@ football game out of business . " After Sega sold Visual Concepts for $ 24 million in 2005 , the NBA 2K series continued with publisher Take @-@ Two Interactive . During the Dreamcast 's lifespan , Visual Concepts also collaborated with Sonic the Hedgehog level designer Hirokazu Yasuhara on the action @-@ adventure game Floigan Bros. and developed the critically successful action game Ooga Booga .

To appeal to the European market , Sega formed a French affiliate called No Cliché , which developed titles such as Toy Commander . Sega Europe also approached Bizarre Creations to develop the critically successful racing game Metropolis Street Racer , which featured detailed recreations of London , Tokyo , and San Francisco — complete with consistent time zones and fictional radio stations — and 262 individual race tracks .

Although Acclaim , SNK , Ubisoft , Midway , Activision , Infogrames , and Capcom supported the system during its first year , third @-@ party developer support proved difficult to obtain due to the failure of the Sega Saturn and the profitability of publishing for the PlayStation . Namco 's Soul Calibur , for example , was released for the Dreamcast because of the relative unpopularity of the Soul series at the time ; Namco 's more successful Tekken franchise was associated with the PlayStation console and PlayStation @-@ based arcade boards . Nevertheless , Soul Calibur received overwhelming critical acclaim and has been frequently described as one of the best games for the system . Capcom produced a number of fighting games for the system , including the Power Stone series , in addition to a temporary exclusive in the popular Resident Evil series called Resident Evil Code : Veronica . The Dreamcast is also known for several shoot ' em ups , most notably Treasure 's Bangai @-@ O and Ikaruga .

In January 2000 , three months after the system 's North American launch , Electronic Gaming Monthly offered praise for the game library , stating , " ... with triple @-@ A stuff like Soul Calibur , NBA 2K , and soon Crazy Taxi to kick around , we figure you 're happy you took the 128 @-@ bit plunge . " In a retrospective , PC Magazine 's Jeffrey L. Wilson referred to Dreamcast 's " killer library " and emphasized Sega 's creative influence and visual innovation as being at its peak during the lifetime of the system . The staff of Edge agreed with this assessment on Dreamcast 's original titles , as well as Sega 's arcade conversions , stating that the system " delivered the first games that could meaningfully be described as arcade perfect . " GamePro writer Blake Snow referred to the library as being " much celebrated " . Damien McFerran of Retro Gamer praised Dreamcast 's NAOMI arcade ports , opining " The thrill of playing Crazy Taxi in the arcade knowing full well that a pixel @-@ perfect conversion ( and not some cut @-@ down port ) was set to arrive on the Dreamcast is an experience gamers are unlikely to witness again . " Nick Montfort and Mia Consalvo , writing in Loading ... The Journal of the Canadian Game Studies Association , argued that " the Dreamcast hosted a remarkable amount of videogame development that went beyond the odd and unusual and is interesting when considered as avant @-@ garde ... it is hard to imagine a commercial console game expressing strong resistance to the commodity perspective and to the view that game production is commerce . But even when it comes to resisting commercialization , it is arguable that Dreamcast games came closer to expressing this attitude than any other console games have . " 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish favorably compared Sega 's Dreamcast output , which included some of " the most varied , creative , and fun [ games ] the company had ever produced " , with its " enervated " status as a third @-@ party . Fahs noted " The Dreamcast 's life was fleeting , but it was saturated with memorable titles , most of which were completely new properties . " According to author Steven L. Kent , " From Sonic Adventure and Shenmue to Space Channel 5 and Seaman , Dreamcast delivered and delivered and delivered . "

= = Reception and legacy = =

In December 1999 , Next Generation rated the Dreamcast 4 out of 5 stars and stated , " If you want the most powerful system available now , showcasing the best graphics at a reasonable price , this system is for you . " However , Next Generation rated the Dreamcast 's future prognosis as 3 stars out of 5 in the same article , noting that Sony would ship a superior hardware product in the PlayStation 2 in the next year , and that Nintendo had said it would do the same with the GameCube . At the beginning of 2000 , Electronic Gaming Monthly had five reviewers score the Dreamcast 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 5 , 8 @.@ 0 , and 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 points . By 2001 , the reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the Dreamcast scores of 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , 9 @.@ 0 , and 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 . BusinessWeek recognized the Sega Dreamcast as one of the best products of 1999 .

In 2009 , IGN named the Dreamcast the 8th greatest video game console of all time , giving credit to the innovations and software for the system . According to IGN , " The Dreamcast was the first console to incorporate a built @-@ in modem for online play , and while the networking lacked the polish and refinement of its successors , it was the first time users could seamlessly power on and play with users around the globe . " In 2010 , PC Magazine 's Jeffrey L. Wilson named the Dreamcast the greatest video game console , emphasizing that the system was " gone too soon " . In 2013 , Edge named the Dreamcast the 10th best console of the last 20 years , highlighting innovations that it added to console video gaming , including in @-@ game voice chat , downloadable content , and second screen technology through the use of VMUs . Edge explained the system 's poor performance by stating , " Sega 's console was undoubtedly ahead of its time , and it suffered at retail for that reason ... [ b ] ut its influence can still be felt today . " Writing in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , Duncan Harris noted " One of the reasons that older gamers mourned the loss of the Dreamcast was that it signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega 's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright , attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games . " Parish , writing for USgamer , contrasted the Dreamcast 's diverse library with the " suffocating sense of conservatism " that pervaded the gaming industry in the following decade . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer , discussing the Dreamcast 's portrayal " as a small , square , white plastic JFK " , commented that the system 's short lifespan " may have sealed its reputation as one of the greatest consoles ever " : " Nothing builds a cult like a tragic demise " . According to IGN 's Travis Fahs , " Many hardware manufacturers have come and gone , but it 's unlikely any will go out with half as much class as Sega . "

= St Caian 's Church , Tregaian =

St Caian 's Church , Tregaian , also known as St Caean 's Church , Tregaean , is a small medieval church dating from the 14th century in Anglesey , north Wales . It is dedicated to St Caian , a Christian from the 5th or 6th century about whom little is known . The building contains a late 14th @-@ century east window and a late 15th @-@ century doorway . The churchyard contains the grave of William ap Howel , who died in 1581 at the age of 105 , leaving over forty children between the ages of 8 and 89 and over three hundred living descendants .

The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , and is one of three churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because it is regarded as " an excellent late Medieval rural church " .

= = History and location = =

The date of construction of the first Christian building on this site is unknown . The church is dedicated to St Caian , a Christian from the 5th or 6th century , about whom little is known . One manuscript says that his father was St Caw , a king in northern Britain who lost his lands and sought safety in Anglesey , where the ruler Maelgwn Gwynedd gave him land in the north @-@ east of the island , the district known as Twrcelyn . If Caian was a son of St Caw , then his sisters included St Cwyllog , who established the nearby church of St Cwyllog , Llangwyllog , in the 6th century . Other manuscripts say that he was active in the 5th century and was a son or grandson of Brychan , a king from south Wales .

Caian gives his name to the hamlet of Tregaian in which the church is situated : the Welsh word tref ( shortened here to tre ) means " settlement " , and " ‑ gaian " is a modified form of the saint 's name – i.e. " Caian 's settlement " . Tregaian is about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north of Llangefni , the county town of Anglesey , and the church is in the countryside by a small road .

The present church is medieval , dating from the latter part of the 14th century , which is the period given to the east window . The doorway is from the late 15th century , the roof from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century , and the nave windows and the panelling of the pulpit are from the 17th century . It is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , as one of three churches in the combined benefice of Llangefni with Tregaean with Llanddyfnan ( Talwrn ) . It is within the deanery of Malltraeth , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2013 , the priest in charge of the parish is the Reverend J Ashley @-@ Roberts .

= = Architecture and fittings = =

The church is built from rubble masonry . The roof , which is made from slate , has a stone bellcote at the west end . Entrance is through the doorway on the south side , from the late 15th century ; it has decorated surrounds and a square frame . There is no structural division between the nave ( where the congregation sit ) and the chancel ( where the altar is located ) apart from a single step up into the chancel . The church is about 40 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 3 m ) long by 14 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) wide . The east window , from the late 14th century , is set in a pointed arch with decorative edging . It has stained glass from 1916 depicting Christ crowning a knight with the words " Well done thou good and faithful servant / Take unto you the whole armour of God . " There are two pairs of square @-@ headed windows in the south wall , dating from the 17th century . On the north side of the church , a second entrance was blocked up in the late 19th century , and there is one pair of square @-@ headed windows , also from the 17th century ; there is also a small window at the west end of the church , from the 17th or 18th century . The beams of the roof can be seen from inside the church . Behind the altar is a panelled reredos from the 19th century .

The church has a 12th @-@ century circular font , decorated with an irregular pattern of chevrons on the side . The bell is dated 1717 , whilst the pews are from the 19th century . There are memorials tablets from the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries on the walls , some of which commemorate the Lloyd family from a nearby house , Plas Tregaian . A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a plain silver cup dated 1714 – 15 . The churchyard contains the grave of William ap Howel , who died at the age of 105 in 1581 . Married three times , he fathered 42 or 43 children in and out of wedlock , and more than 300 of his descendants attended his funeral . His children at his death ranged in age from 8 to 89 .

= = Assessment = =

The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , and has been listed because it is " an excellent late Medieval rural church " . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also states that it " retains a strong simple character in the retention of many early features and its original plan , with structurally undivided nave and chancel . "

The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a small but neat edifice " , and noted the " handsome " east window . The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis said that the church was " simple and primitive in its construction " . Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that the font was " remarkable " for having no drain , and was " hardly large enough for immersion . " He added that the east window was of " rather singular " design .

A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey notes the " unusually wide " east window . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region says that the church " gives an impression of what the Anglesey parish churches were like before so many were reassembled in the 19th century " – partly because the walls lean , it adds . The east window has also been compared to that of St Ceidio 's Church , Rhodogeidio , also on Anglesey .

= Mirabito Outdoor Classic =

The Mirabito Outdoor Classic , also known as the 2010 AHL Outdoor Classic , was an outdoor ice hockey game played in 2010 between the Syracuse Crunch and Binghamton Senators of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . It was the first outdoor game in the history of the AHL as well as the first outdoor minor league hockey game . Syracuse won the game 2 – 1 with the help of goaltender Kevin Lalande , who stopped 36 of the 37 Binghamton shots , and Alexandre Picard , who scored the first outdoor goal in AHL history . The game was played in front of a then AHL record crowd of 21 @,@ 508 , on a rink constructed at the New York State Fairgrounds on a dirt auto racing track .

Crunch owner , Howard Dolgon , pursued the ideal of having his team in an outdoor game , but unlike the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Winter Classic the Crunch were responsible for funding the entire event . In order to afford the cost of hosting an outdoor game sponsorship deals with several independent organizations were made including Mirabito Energy Products , which lent its name to the title of the event . In part because of his success in putting on the event , Dolgon was awarded the James C. Hendy Memorial Award as the AHL 's outstanding executive . Following the success of the Mirabito Outdoor Classic other AHL Outdoor Classics were held by other AHL teams .

= = Background = =

= = = Planning = = =

In late November 2009 Syracuse Crunch owner , Howard Dolgon began attempts to have an American Hockey League ( AHL ) outdoor game for his franchise . Cost estimates for hosting the game were close to $ 1 million . Unlike the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Winter Classic , the league did not run the event , meaning the Crunch had to finance the entire project . The high cost of hosting was a reason for other franchises not pursuing outdoor games prior .

Dolgon originally wanted the game to be played at Alliance Bank Stadium in Syracuse and asked the Onondaga County Legislature to help fund the game . A proposal for the county to put in $ 350 @,@ 000 was voted down by a 16 – 2 margin . After the proposal was denied , Dolgon thought the project was dead , then he received a phone call from United States Senator Charles Schumer encouraging him to go forward with the game . Schumer later stated his encouragement stemmed from the opportunity for the event to be " a national event focused on Upstate and Central New York " .

With the game plans moving forward , Dolgon managed to recruit corporate sponsors to help alleviate the cost . The Crunch received $ 350 @,@ 000 from several sponsors , including Mirabito Energy Products which lent its name to the events title . Mirabito decided to sponsor the event because they were opening stores in the Central New York area and wanted to establish their brand name . New York Governor David Paterson secured a $ 75 @,@ 000 grant from the Empire State Development Corporation and helped the Crunch gain use of the New York State Fairgrounds free of charge . Even with the additional funding the Crunch still needed to pay upwards of $ 550 @,@ 000 .

= = = Rink = = =

The rink was built on the fairgrounds in front of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ seat permanent grandstand on a dirt auto racing track and leveled with what was described as " tons of granite " . With demands for over the 15 @,@ 000 seats occupancy of the grandstands , the Crunch rented additional temporary bleachers . Since there was no scoreboards on or near the track Syracuse rented two large video screens to show the score , time remaining , penalty times , and other information . The installation of the temporary rink cost an estimated $ 400 @,@ 000 and took a month and a half to complete .

= = = Associated events = = =

As plans moved forward the decision was made not just to play the game but make it an event celebrating New York hockey history . For the game the Crunch played their intrastate rivals the Binghamton Senators . The days before the game local youth hockey teams played on the ice , and then the day after there was a pond hockey tournament played on the rink featuring 16 local teams . The fairgrounds also featured VIP tents , fan zones , bands , and ice sculpting for the celebration , as well as appearances by former players for New York 's various professional teams .

= = Game = =

The game was the first outdoor game in the 74 @-@ year history of the AHL and the first minor league hockey outdoor game . The attendance of 21 @,@ 508 set a new AHL record surpassing the old mark of 20 @,@ 672 set in 1997 at the Greensboro Coliseum . The record was later broken by subsequent Outdoor Classics . Prior to the game the 174th Fighter Wing of the New York Air National Guard performed a flyover , and recording artist Jessie James sang The Star @-@ Spangled Banner . For the ceremonial puck drop , a skydiver delivered a puck from the National Hockey League 's first foray into outdoor games from the 1991 Las Vegas exhibition game .

There was a slight delay in the start of the game as some of the glass needed to be fixed . Once the game was under way it took just 1 : 50 before the Crunch 's Jon Mirasty and the Senators ' Jeremy Yablonski engaged in the first fight in Outdoor Classic history . Mirasty had previously stated that he was going to be involved in the first outdoor fight . The physical play continued and minutes later at the 3 : 29 mark Paul Baier and Mike Radja were given matching roughing minor penalties . Not long after the matching minors Mike Blunden made a pass to Alexandre Picard to send him on a breakaway . Picard became the first player to score in an Outdoor Classic when he beat Senators ' goaltender Mike Brodeur putting the Crunch up 1 – 0 . The score remained the same at the end of a penalty @-@ filled first period . Eight total penalties were called on the two clubs through the first 20 minutes of the game .

Early in the second period the Crunch got another power play opportunity when Senators ' captain Drew Bannister took a hooking penalty . The man advantage did not benefit Syracuse as the Senators tied the game 1 – 1 when Martin St. Pierre found an open Josh Hennessy , who put the puck past Kevin Lalande for the shorthanded goal . Binghamton seemed to be gaining the advantage in the second period outshooting the Crunch 16 – 9 . But , with just 11 @.@ 7 seconds remaining in the period , Crunch defenseman David Liffiton scored the go @-@ ahead goal from the high slot . During the third period the score remained the same , when with just 1 : 30 left in the game Syracuse 's Kevin Harvey took an interference penalty giving the Senators a chance to tie the game on the power play . Binghamton was unable to score in the first minute of the power play and pulled Brodeur to give them the six on four advantage . Even with the two man advantage the Senators failed to post a second goal on Lalande , who stopped 36 of the 37 shots he faced during the game helping the Crunch to the 2 – 1 victory . His performance earned him the first Star of the Game . The game was a penalty @-@ filled affair with 26 infractions called on the two teams and a total of 18 power plays awarded . Neither team was able to capitalize on the opportunities , with Binghamton going 0 – 10 and Syracuse 0 – 8 .

= = Reception and legacy = =

The event was considered a success not only did it set a new attendance record it also generated considerable exposure for both the Crunch and the AHL . The game was originally going to be aired just in New York by Time Warner Cable , but was picked up by the NHL Network for broadcast across Canada and the United States . The players and coaches appeared to enjoy the game as well . Crunch head coach Ross Yates stated , " it was unbelievable . It 's hard to describe " . Liffiton described the game as " a little taste of what it feels like to play college football " while Picard added , " I ’ ll do that every game for the rest of my life . " AHL President Dave Andrews further noted that it made him proud to be a part of the league .

Due in part to his success of putting on the event , Dolgon was awarded the James C. Hendy Memorial Award as the AHL 's outstanding executive . With the success of the Mirabito Outdoor Classic , multiple outdoor games have subsequently been held by AHL teams .

= = Team rosters = =

^ ‡ : Holt and LaCostat dressed as the back @-@ up goaltenders and did not enter the game .

= = = Coaches = = =

Binghamton :

Head coach : Don Nachbaur

Assistant coach : Mike BusniukSyracuse :

Head coach : Ross Yates

Assistant coach : Trent Cull

Assistant coach : Karl Goehring

= = = Officials = = =

Referee — Terry Koharski

Linesmen — Dan Murphy , Tim Kotyra

Source : AHL Box Score

= = Game summary = =

Scoring summary

Penalty summary

Three star selections

Source : AHL Box Score

= Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines =

Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines is a 2004 action role @-@ playing video game developed by Troika Games and released by Activision for Microsoft Windows . Set in White Wolf Publishing 's World of Darkness , the game is based on White Wolf 's role @-@ playing game Vampire : The Masquerade and follows either a male or female character who is killed and subsequently revived as a fledgling vampire . The game depicts the fledgling 's journey through 21st @-@ century Los Angeles to uncover the truth behind a recently discovered relic that heralds the end of all vampires .

Bloodlines is presented from first- and third @-@ person perspectives . The player assigns their character to one of several vampire clans — each with unique powers , customize their combat and dialog abilities and progress through Bloodlines with violent and nonviolent methods . The selection of clan affects how the player is perceived in the game world , and which powers and abilities they possess ; this opens up different avenues of exploration and methods of interacting with or manipulating other characters . The player is able to complete side missions away from the primary storyline by moving freely between the available hubs : Santa Monica , Hollywood , downtown Los Angeles , and Chinatown .

Troika 's 32 @-@ member team began development of Bloodlines in November 2001 , as an indirect sequel to the previous year 's Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption . Troika used Valve Corporation 's Source game engine , then @-@ in @-@ development , which was being used for Valve 's own Half @-@ Life 2 . The game 's production was turbulent , as the design 's scope exceeded the available resources , and the team were left without a producer for nearly a year until Activision appointed David Mullich to the role , where he found designs and levels unfinished or abandoned . After three years in development with no end in sight and running over budget , Activision set a strict deadline for completion , and Bloodlines was released incomplete in November 2004 .

Released in competition with Half @-@ Life 2 and several other titles , Bloodlines sold fewer than 80 @,@ 000 copies during its initial release , which was considered a poor performance . It divided critics at the time ; although they praised the game 's writing and scale of choice , they criticized its technical flaws . It was Troika Games ' last production before its failure in early 2005 , when it was unable to secure additional projects . The game has a cult following as a rarely replicated example of gameplay and narrative , and contemporary criticism has recognised it as a flawed masterpiece . As of 2014 , Bloodlines had received ten years of post @-@ release support from its fans , who have supplied fixes and restored lost and deleted content .

= = Gameplay = =

Bloodlines is an action role @-@ playing video game optionally presented from the first- or third @-@ person perspective . Before the game begins , players create a male or female vampire character by selecting a vampire clan and configuring available points in three areas — Attributes , Abilities and Disciplines ( vampiric powers ) — or by answering questions , which create a character for the player . The player can select one of seven vampire clans : the powerful Brujah , the decadent Toreador , the insane Malkavian , the aristocratic Ventrue , the monstrously @-@ deformed Nosferatu , the blood @-@ magic wielding Tremere , or the animalistic Gangrel .

The player builds their character by spending acquired points to increase their ratings in the three areas . The points spent on Attributes and Abilities combine to determine a player 's success or effectiveness in performing tasks such as using firearms , brawling , and lock @-@ picking ; for example , determining how accurate or how far the player can shoot , or if they can hack a computer . Attributes are represent by physical ( strength , dexterity , and stamina ) , social ( charisma , manipulation , and appearance ) , and mental ( perception , intelligence , and wit ) . Abilities are talents ( such as brawling and dodging ) , skills ( such as firearms and melee ) and knowledge ( such as computers and investigation ) . The player is initially assigned points to spend in the three areas , with the amount they can spend determined by clan ; for example , the Brujah can spend the most points on physical and skill attributes . During character creation , each upgrade costs one point . The upgrade cost increases as the game progresses . Each ability can be raised from zero to five , and it is impossible to accrue enough experience points to complete every skill ( allowing the player to specialize or balance their character ) . Experience points are gained by completing quests , finding items or unlocking secret paths , rather than killing enemies , and are used to increase or unlock the character 's statistics and abilities . The game features a main story , and optional side quests that can be completed at any time ; the player is able to move between the available areas at will to revisit locations , characters , or merchants .

The player 's clan affects their skills and powers . Although the attractive Toreadors receive bonuses for seduction and persuasion , opening additional dialog options , they are physically weak ; the Nosferatu are forced to travel in the shadows or through sewers to avoid alerting humans , but receive bonuses to their intelligence and computer skills , which enables access to more information . The Malkavians have separate dialog options , reflecting their inherent insanity . Upgrading some skills provides additional dialog options ; attractive and charismatic characters seduce to get their way , aggressive characters threaten , and others persuade their targets to cooperate .

Firearms combat is first @-@ person , with character points assigned to the firearms skill determining the shot 's accuracy and how long it takes to target an opponent . Melee combat is third @-@ person , with access to weapons such as katanas and sledgehammers for melee combat , or pistols , crossbows and flamethrowers for firearm combat . If a player sneaks up on an opponent , they can perform an instant kill ; weapons provide unique instant kill animations . The player can block attacks manually or automatically , by leaving their character idle . They can use stealth in missions by sneaking past guards and security cameras , picking locks , and hacking computers to locate alternative routes .

Each clan has specific Disciplines , which can be used in combat and to create approaches to quests . Although some powers overlap clans , no two clans share the same three Disciplines . More physical vampires can enhance themselves to become fast and lethal killers or summon spirit allies to attack their foes ; others can mentally dominate their targets to force their cooperation or render themselves invisible to hide from detection ; and others can boil their opponent 's blood from afar . Some Disciplines , such as Auspex ( which boosts perception , highlighting other characters ' auras through obstacles ) and Blood Buff ( which temporarily upgrades strength , dexterity , stamina and lockpicking ) are common to all vampires . Several abilities can be active at the same time . Blood is a primary currency in Bloodlines , used to activate Disciplines and abilities . It is drained with each use , and can be replenished by drinking from rats , visiting blood banks or drinking from humans by attacking or seducing them ; the player can feed on enemies during combat . Drinking from innocents for too long can kill them , costing a character humanity points .

Players are penalized for using certain vampiric abilities in front of witnesses ; exposing their existence loses masquerade points . Violating the masquerade five times draws the ire of vampire hunters and loses the game , although additional masquerade points can be earned with quests and other actions . The player has humanity points , representing the vampire 's humanity . Some actions cost humanity points ; a low humanity score alters available dialog options to become more aggressive , and increases the chance of entering a frenzied state and embarking on a killing spree , when the vampire 's blood is low . This frenzy can also be triggered by a large amount of damage . Like masquerade points , losing all humanity points ends the game , with the vampire becoming a mindless beast . Some areas , known as Elysium , prevent the use of Disciplines or weapons . Players can recruit a female ghoul , Heather , as a customizable servant who gives them blood , gifts , and money .

= = Synopsis = =

= = = Setting = = =

Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines takes place in four areas of 21st @-@ century Los Angeles : Santa Monica , Hollywood , downtown Los Angeles , and Chinatown . Set in the World of Darkness , the game depicts a world in which vampires , werewolves , demons , and other creatures shape human history . The vampires are bound by a code to maintain their secrecy ( forbidding the use of vampiric abilities in front of humans ) and avoid unnecessary killing ( to preserve the vampire 's last shreds of humanity ) . The vampires are divided into seven clans of the Camarilla , the vampire government , with distinctive traits and abilities . The Toreadors are the closest to humanity , with a passion for culture ; the Ventrue are noble , powerful leaders ; the Brujah are idealists who excel at fighting ; the Malkavians are cursed with insanity , or blessed with insight ; the Gangrel are loners , in sync with their animalistic nature ; the secretive , untrustworthy Tremere wield blood magic ; and the monstrous Nosferatu are condemned to a life in the shadows to avoid humanity . The clans are loosely united by their belief in the Camarilla 's goals and opposition to the Sabbat : vampires who revel in their nature , embracing the beast within . The Anarchs are a faction of idealistic vampires opposed to the Camarilla 's political structure , believing that power should be shared by all vampires .

The main character of Bloodlines , whom the player controls , is an unnamed fledgling vampire , transformed at the start of a game and belonging to one of the clans . The fledgling is employed by Sebastian LaCroix ( voiced by Andy Milder ) , prince of Los Angeles ' vampires . The fledgling 's travels through the vampire world bring them into contact with other undead creatures such as the deformed information broker Bertram Tung , the Anarch Smiling Jack , and the mentally @-@ unstable Voerman sisters , Jeanette and Therese . Chinatown is controlled by the Kuei @-@ Jin , Asian vampires led by Ming @-@ Xiao , who do not require blood and consider themselves superior to the other vampires .

= = = Plot = = =

The game begins with the player character , an unnamed human , being killed and resurrected as a fledgling vampire . For this unauthorized act , the fledgling and their Sire are brought before the Camarilla . The Sire is executed by order of LaCroix ; the fledgling is spared the same fate by the intervention of the Anarch , Nines Rodriguez , and employed by the prince .

LaCroix sends the fledgling to Santa Monica to help his ghoul , Mercurio , destroy a Sabbat warehouse . Following his success the fledgling travels to downtown Los Angeles , meeting separately with Nines , LaCroix , and Jack . LaCroix tasks the player with investigating a docked ship , the Elizabeth Dane , for information about an Ankaran sarcophagus rumored to contain the body of an Antediluvian , one of the oldest and most powerful vampires , whose arrival would herald the vampire apocalypse , Gehenna . The fledgling discovers that the sarcophagus seems to have been opened from within .

Increased Sabbat activity coincides with the disappearance of the Malkavian chief , Alistair Grout . At Grout 's mansion , the fledgling sees Nines leaving and discovers Grout 's remains in the mansion with vampire hunter Grunfeld Bach , who denies involvement in Grout 's death . Learning about Nines ' presence at the mansion , LaCroix tells the other chiefs to approve Nines ' execution . The fledgling is sent to the Museum of Natural History to recover the sarcophagus , but finds that it has been stolen . Jack later suggests to the fledgling that LaCroix wants the sarcophagus to drink the blood of the ancient within , gaining its power .

Believing that Gary , the Nosferatu chief , has stolen the sarcophagus , the fledgling is sent to Hollywood to find him ; after locating a captured Nosferatu for Gary , he reveals that the sarcophagus was stolen by the Giovanni vampire clan . The fledgling infiltrates the Giovanni mansion and finds the sarcophagus guarded by the Kuei @-@ Jin , who claim their leader , Ming @-@ Xiao , has formed an alliance with LaCroix . The locked sarcophagus is returned to LaCroix 's tower and Beckett , a vampire historian , tells the fledgling that the only person who can open it has been abducted by Grunfeld to lure LaCroix . The fledgling kills Grunfeld and learns that the sarcophagus ' key has been stolen .

They return to LaCroix , learning that the Sabbat tried to steal the sarcophagus to destroy it and prevent Gehenna , and kill the Sabbat leader to disperse his followers . The fledgling is met by Ming @-@ Xiao , who offers to form an alliance . Ming @-@ Xiao reveals that she has the key , and LaCroix killed Grout to prevent his powerful insight from unveiling LaCroix 's plans ; Ming @-@ Xiao changed into Nines at the mansion to frame him . Denying Ming @-@ Xiao 's claims , LaCroix rescinds the blood hunt on Nines and entrusts the fledgling with recruiting the Anarchs to punish the Kuei @-@ Jin for murdering Grout . The fledgling finds Nines hiding in the forest , and they are then attacked by a werewolf and Nines is badly injured . The fledgling escapes with Jack , who reveals that LaCroix has issued an execution order on the fledgling for framing Nines on orders from Ming @-@ Xiao .

The end varies , depending on whom , if anyone , the fledgling allies with . If the fledgling supports LaCroix or Ming @-@ Xiao , each sends the fledgling to kill the other . LaCroix opens the sarcophagus , to be killed with the fledgling by hidden explosives ; Ming @-@ Xiao betrays the fledgling , chaining them to the sarcophagus and sinking it in the ocean . Supporting the Anarchs or no one makes the fledgling kill Ming @-@ Xiao and maim LaCroix , who is killed after he opens the sarcophagus . If the fledgling opens the sarcophagus , they die in the explosion . If the fledgling is a Tremere , they kill Ming @-@ Xiao ; LaCroix is replaced by Tremere leader Maximillian Strauss , and the sarcophagus is stored . Each ending has Jack watching from afar with the mummy taken from the coffin and the enigmatic taxi driver who transports the fledgling between locations , who says " The blood of Caine controls our fate ... Farewell , vampire . "

= = Development = =

= = = Conception = = =

The development of Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines began at Troika Games in November 2001 . The developers wanted to put a role @-@ playing game in a first @-@ person setting , believing that the genre had become stale . Troika approached publisher Activision with its idea ; Activision suggested using the Vampire : The Masquerade license used a year earlier in Nihilistic Software 's Vampire : The Masquerade – Redemption , which had experienced sufficient success to merit a sequel . Instead of developing a sequel to Redemption , the development team researched the White Wolf property , including the game 's rules and its storylines . Troika was a small game studio , with five developers and a total staff of thirty @-@ two ( including lead writer Brian Mitsoda , who joined the team less than a year after development began ) . Although some preliminary design and levels were completed , much of the work was abandoned or redeveloped .

Troika wanted to make a 3D game , but was uncertain whether to build a new game engine or license an existing one and whether to use first- or third @-@ person . At that time , the Source game engine was being built by Valve Corporation . Valve employee Scott Lynch approached Troika about using the engine , and it was the first external team to use it . Troika chose Source for its facial animation and lip @-@ synching system , since it wanted players to speak to the characters face @-@ to @-@ face . Since the engine was in development with Bloodlines and Valve 's own Half @-@ Life 2 , Troika was working with unfamiliar code and tools , forcing it to write its own code to compensate for the unfinished engine , and with only a single source for technical support . Troika developed a lighting system to create distinctive , moody illumination for the nighttime setting , a particle system for the special effects accompanying the vampire Disciplines , and a cloth system for clothing flow . Source lacked its later artificial intelligence ( AI ) coding , and Troika 's code worked poorly with the Source engine .

= = = Writing = = =

Many of the central plot elements existed before designer Brian Mitsoda 's involvement : the prince , the anarchs being upset , aspects of the Gehenna storyline , and Jack and the sarcophagus as a major subplot . The designers broadly tied the overarching story into each hub and level . Each designer controlled their assigned section of the game , and working with a small team enabled quick decision making and ease in keeping plot elements consistent . Mitsoda became the primary writer for many of the characters and their quests , dialog , and side content in the game , such as emails , which helped retain a consistent narrative . He was given freedom with respect to the script , with no restrictions on language or content , and could rewrite characters when he thought his initial draft weak . Although the story was developed by Troika , it is inspired by White Wolf 's Time of Judgment novels about a vampire apocalypse . Bloodlines ' story was accepted as canonical by White Wolf , with the game serving as a prequel to Time of Judgment and including characters from the White Wolf game , such as Jack . Discussing character design , Mitsoda said he tried to disguise the need for characters who simply point a player in an appropriate direction :

" You need a character to pose a problem or give out a quest or be a barrier of some kind . I don 't like to make the [ character ] outright say ' I need you to do X , then I 'll give you Y ' ... – it makes the character into an automated quest kiosk . I like the characters to come off like people actually do – they don 't say ' hi ' when strangers come knocking , they say ' who the hell are you ? ' or they 're expecting you and know more than they let on , or they don 't care . I don 't like my [ characters ] to be standing around as if their lives begin when the character starts talking to them and end when the player leaves .

Single purpose characters needed a distinctive personality trait to quickly establish them with the player , rather than serving as a disposable item , while major characters had to reflect the player 's progression and actions through the game . Mitsoda wrote the characters by thinking about who each character was , assigning them motivations determining why they were where they were , what they thought about the player and what they wanted from them . In accordance with a suggestion by fellow writer Chad Moore the Malkavian player character has a dialog script distinct from that of the other eight clans ; Mitsoda said it was one of the simpler aspects of the development cycle . He wrote the Malkavian script last , with time running out on development , and the overwork and lack of sleep contributed to what Mitsoda considered an unhealthy state of mind , ideal for writing insane dialog . He wanted to highlight their madness , without making it comical . Since the story is set during the Camarilla 's takeover of Los Angeles , the team simplified the plot by only allowing the player to belong to one of the LA @-@ based clans .

= = = Design = = =

Troika co @-@ founder Jason Anderson 's research on Vampire : The Masquerade source material and fansites found that character interaction and involvement in the vampire societies , not statistics and powers , was the game 's main attraction . Troika tried to remain true to the pen @-@ and @-@ paper role @-@ playing game , hoping not to alienate the game 's fans , but rules designed for multiple players did not translate well to single player computer game design . The team attempted to discover which elements could work equally well in pen @-@ and @-@ paper and computer games . Although much of the character system and attributes translated , not all the attributes ( such as " knowledge of law " ) made sense in the computer game . Of 30 pen @-@ and @-@ paper abilities , 15 reached the final design .

Another difficult area was feats . Although common feats worked well , with a random chance of success or failure , uncommon ones would appear to fail more often . To avoid this , randomization was replaced by a degree of difficulty in accomplishing the feat . Although pen @-@ and @-@ paper falling damage is random , the computer game bases damage on the distance of the fall . The team 's biggest challenge was adapting disciplines . The pen @-@ and @-@ paper version may require a little blood that requires a long time to use , or have no blood cost and can be used at will ; upgraded disciplines had additional requirements considered too confusing for a computer game . Troika attempted to equalize the disciplines , keeping the effect intact and normalizing the cost , so a first level power requires one blood point , a second level two points and so on . To balance the clans the aristocratic Ventrue were only allowed to feed on noble blood , though this was changed to allow them to feed on lower @-@ class humans , receiving less blood . During character creation , the game had an optional character biography with unique positive and negative characteristics ( increasing one ability while limiting another ) . This was removed from the released game ; Activision felt that there was insufficient test time , and removing it was a more stable option .

The team 's previous experience was with turn @-@ based combat games , and it struggled to develop a real @-@ time combat system affected by customizable attributes and abilities that provided feedback to the player on how those statistics were affecting the battle . It initially found that by adhering too closely to the White Wolf source material rules for guns , where the effectiveness of a shot is determined in a contest between the player 's skill and the opponent 's defense , the firearms seemed broken ; the player would not hit where they aimed . Troika found it difficult to mesh the available factors in a real @-@ time setting . Melee combat had to deal with a variety of melee weapons and animations and adjust for melee @-@ on @-@ melee and melee @-@ on @-@ ranged combat .

Troika used first @-@ person perspective to immerse the player in the setting , interacting face @-@ to @-@ face with the characters and seeing their facial reactions to the player . It chose to follow a single @-@ character to aid the immersion , creating the isolation of a vampire unable to trust any other character . This aided the story and compensated for the technical issues of allowing multiple player characters .

Choice is a significant aspect of the game , requiring a non @-@ linear design to accommodate the customized characters . Level design began with a list of factors such as Disciplines , stealth and feats . Each area had to be viable for a shooting character ( sufficient ammunition ) , a discipline @-@ focused character ( sufficient blood sources to keep the powers fueled ) and a melee specialist ( to reach enemies without being killed ) , with stealth options and option combinations . Level design began with a focus on stealth , taking into consideration the positioning of guards and the character 's potential stealth capability at that point in the game . Then direct , combat @-@ heavy and dialog paths were added . The amusement arcade area was to feature playable versions of Activision arcade games such as Pitfall ! , though the idea was abandoned due to time constraints .

Director Leonard Boyarsky considered the animation system important in the team 's choice of the Source engine . The integrated " faceposer " tool allowed Troika to customize facial animations , expressions , gestures and lip @-@ synching , eliminating the need to explain what a character was doing . Every non @-@ player character required a voiceover , which helped Troika define its characters more quickly . The engine had a physics system permitting new features , such as monsters hurling corpses at the player or dying characters realistically crumbling into pieces , instead of requiring pre @-@ built animations . Although Troika had ignored first @-@ person engines due to technical limitations , such as a low polygon count and limited texture memory , as the technology improved , it thought it could create a real @-@ time action game without sacrificing the immersion and story of a role @-@ playing game .

Describing the choice of developing a game based on the existing White Wolf property over creating their own , Boyarsky said that although an original property lacked the constraints of an existing one the downside was that it had not been tested and could be rejected by its potential audience ; an existing property was proven . Troika tried to stay as close as possible to the White Wolf rules , while reducing the number of abilities and disciplines to those relevant to Bloodlines gameplay .

= = = Later development = = =

Activision introduced the game in May 2003 , but , that October , Valve experienced a security breach in which hackers stole the source code for Half @-@ Life 2 . The breach required new security implementations for the engine , delaying both games ; the release of Bloodlines was postponed until early 2005 . Until May 2004 , Troika and Activision said that the game would feature a multiplayer component and modes including a team of vampires against a team of vampire hunters , with the ability to upgrade characters between each round . The team was left without a producer by Activision for over a year before David Mullich was assigned to the project . With no producer oversight , Mullich found the game 's design incomplete , game levels created and abandoned , and several technical issues , including problems with code for the proposed multiplayer option . The Source multiplayer code was in its infancy , increasing its development time , and the idea was abandoned .

In addition to problems with the Source engine , the designers found that the game 's scope exceeded their resources . Bloodlines has several styles of gameplay , requiring different interfaces , animations and artificial intelligence for stealth and melee combat , and first- or third @-@ person capability . Compared to contemporary first @-@ person shooters , with 10 to 20 animated character models , Bloodlines had over 150 characters with 3 @,@ 000 unique animations , in addition to boss characters , with their own styles of movement . The designers underestimated the length of time required to develop and improve these systems . The game 's scope suffered from content not being removed when necessary ; other components would be endlessly refined without being finalized , preventing the developers from focusing on other parts of the game system . All content additionally required approval by White Wolf and Activision .

After three years in development , the game was progressing slowly and it was unknown when it would be finished . Activision set a series of deadlines for the project 's development to ensure Troika would have sufficient time to effectively test the game , though these milestones were repeatedly extended , and Bloodlines eventually ran over budget . In 2003 , Activision intervened , ordering that the game be ready for release in the next few months , and even advancing more money to Troika to complete its work on The Temple of Elemental Evil for Atari , freeing the Troika team to work on Bloodlines exclusively . Activision eventually issued an ultimatum that the project be finished within months , on September 15 , 2004 . Troika delivered a version of Bloodlines on the required date ; due to its scale , the game underwent three weeks of testing . Activision decided that the game was suitable for release , but was contractually @-@ bound to withhold Bloodlines until after the debut of Half @-@ Life 2 in November 2004 . Troika convinced Activision to use the delay to fund further development ; the additional budget was not enough to pay all of Troika 's staff , and some employees worked unpaid to complete the project . This version underwent another three weeks of testing to become the final release code ; the game was still unfinished when Activision forced its release . Bloodlines ' creative director Jason Anderson blamed Activision , saying that the publisher took the game from Troika without providing enough time to test and polish it . During the nearly four years of development , he estimated that the team worked overtime for all but two months .

= = = Music = = =

The game 's original score was composed and produced by Rik Schaffer . Troika licensed many songs for the game , and posters for real bands are featured on the walls of the game 's clubs . The soundtrack was released as a limited edition CD to customers who pre @-@ ordered the game through Best Buy . It features nine tracks by artists including Daniel Ash , Chiasm , Tiamat , Darling Violetta , Genitorturers , and Lacuna Coil . " Bloodlines " , performed by Al Jourgensen and Ministry , was composed and performed specifically for the game . The licensed tracks were chosen by Activision without input from Troika .

= = Release = =

Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines was released on November 16 , 2004 in competition with Half @-@ Life 2 , Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater , Halo 2 , and several other titles . Valve 's contract for Troika 's use of the Source engine guaranteed that Bloodlines could not be released before Half @-@ Life 2 , and could not be introduced to the public until after the announcement of Half @-@ Life 2 , over eighteen months after development began . In February 2004 , the game was scheduled for release in spring 2005 , partially to avoid competing with Half @-@ Life 2 and the competitive Christmas period , before Activision moved the date to November 2004 .

In a 2013 interview , Mitsoda said that it was released at " the worst possible time - most people didn 't even know we were out ... fans and the Troika [ developers ] are always going to wonder what the game could have been like with another six months . " Activision obtained model Erin Layne to play Jeanette in promotional material for the game . Layne worked with Bloodlines artist Tim Bradstreet for a day to provide the poses chosen by Activision to represent Jeanette in the game 's posters , clothing , and other items .

Despite generally favorable reviews , Bloodlines ' initial release sold 72 @,@ 000 copies and earned approximately $ 3 @.@ 4 million in sales , below Troika 's other games , Arcanum : Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura ( 234 @,@ 000 units , $ 8 @.@ 8 million ) and The Temple of Elemental Evil ( 128 @,@ 000 units , $ 5 @.@ 2 million ) . In comparison , Bloodlines ' release competitor Half @-@ Life 2 had sold 6 @.@ 5 million copies by 2008 . Bloodlines ‍ ' relative failure contributed to the demise of Troika Games .

Shortly after its debut , most of the development staff were laid off ; the remaining staff tried to patch Bloodlines and develop game concepts to secure funding to keep Troika in business . Troika , unable to obtain further funding from Activision or other publishers , released its employees in two waves : the first in November 2004 , followed by the remaining staff in December , except for its three founders , Anderson , Boyarsky , and Tim Cain . Some employees worked without pay to fix the game . When the company closed in February 2005 , it had secured no other game development deals . That month , Boyarsky confirmed that Troika had not been working on a patch for the game since most of its staff were gone since December 2004 . In a November 2004 interview Boyarsky said that although the team would like to pursue a Bloodlines sequel , the decision was Activision 's . In a 2006 interview , Anderson said that although Troika Games ' library had been critically well received , consistent technical issues had marred the perception of the company 's games , contributing to Troika 's difficulty in obtaining new projects .

Unofficial patches have been created by the game 's fans to address Bloodlines ' technical problems , and restore missing and incomplete content . After experiencing problems with the first versions of an unofficial patch created by Dan Upright , analytical chemist Werner Spahl continued patching the game from version 1 @.@ 2 with permission and instructions . The game community tested Spahl 's patches , providing reports on bugs and spelling errors . Although the game 's complexity meant that repairing one aspect often broke another , as work on the patches progressed Spahl began restoring removed and incomplete content in the game files , adding quests , items , weapons , and characters , with fan help to provide voice acting , models , and reinstating whole levels . The changes altered the original game so much that Spahl was criticized by some of the game 's fans . This resulted in two patch versions : a basic version , fixing the game 's technical issues , and a " plus " version with the additional content . As of April 2014 , the game has had almost 10 years of post @-@ release support with the release of version 9 of the patch . The game fared better following its release on Valve 's Steam digital distribution service in March 2007 , where , as of 2015 , it has sold 492 @,@ 000 units .

= = Reception = =

Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines received a mixed response , with reviewers praising its writing and presentation and criticizing its technical problems . The aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic give it a score of 81 % ( based on 68 reviews ) and 80 out of 100 ( based on 61 reviews ) , respectively .

The game has been called a flawed masterpiece . The scale and variety of choice and effect was highlighted by reviewers as Bloodlines ' greatest success , including the variety of clans , with specific dialog options , and the specific reactions from other characters , each with their own clan loyalty and bias . GameSpy called it a nearly flawless classic role @-@ playing game ; the The New York Times described it as brilliant but unfinished . Eurogamer praised its " effortlessly intelligent " script , saying that " no other game has come close . Nothing 's even tried " . VideoGamer.com opined that at its best , Bloodlines stands among the greatest RPGs of the preceding five years , although its technical problems should be remembered . According to HonestGamers , the game " may not be polished and may end with a sigh instead of a shout , but for its ambition alone it deserves stream after stream of compliments . " Reviewers compared it to other successful role @-@ playing games , including Fallout , Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , The Elder Scrolls III : Morrowind , Planescape : Torment , Baldur 's Gate II , and Deus Ex ; Eurogamer described Bloodlines as Deus Ex with vampires .

IGN appreciated Bloodlines ' rewarding exploration outside the main story , and the New York Times and GameSpy praised its " wonderfully imaginative " missions . Reviewers noted that later parts of the game were disappointing , delivering repetitive combat @-@ focused missions with regenerating enemies , abandoning dialog and stealth and punishing players who build characters with more social skills than combat abilities . GameSpy said that it had never seen a role @-@ playing game so affected by player actions with everything , from clan choice and character build to actions in missions , influencing future options and dialog .

Its writing was consistently praised by reviewers . The narrative was considered deep , successfully using White Wolf 's Vampire : The Masquerade content . Eurogamer said it had the best script the website had ever seen in a video game , and others described it as a superbly crafted tale of conspiracies , underworld subterfuge , fun and intrigue . Reviewers appreciated the use of adult themes , such as sex and death , in the storyline of a contemporary video game which no other games had tackled with similar effectiveness . The mature themes succeeded without being gratuitous or exploitative , and were explored honestly and intelligently by a knowledgeable writer . The game 's characters were praised for their memorable , developed personalities , with most major characters possessing their own backstory and presented as living people instead of ciphers . Its ending had a mixed response , with some reviewers appreciating their ability to choose one of the game 's four endings ( adding an incentive to replay the game ) and others considering the ending anti @-@ climatic .

GameSpot and GameSpy called the dialog was sharply written , with many memorable lines . Eurogamer noted that the characters ' frequent use of vulgar language worked ; written as real people , such language fit their character rather than giving the game an adult veneer . The website appreciated the breadth of dialog options , allowing the player greater control of how to play their character . PC Zone opined that the quantity of well written dialog did not guarantee quality ; many player choices seemed to have little effect on a conversation 's outcome , and the best response was often the most obvious . The voice acting was repeatedly praised for the actors ' quality and the amount of voice work , due to the many dialog options .

Much of Bloodlines ' criticism focused on technical problems when it was released , undermining the game experience or making it unplayable . Several reviewers noted errors which closed the game and typographical errors in on @-@ screen text . Others cited frequent , sometimes @-@ lengthy load times encounted while moving between hubs and entering or exiting buildings and areas . GameSpot called the game 's artificial intelligence poor , often causing enemies to rush at an armed player , fire at them from too great a distance to be effective or become immobilized while waiting for the player 's next attack . IGN noted that stealth broke the AI , allowing traps to be triggered and leaving the assailants standing still , unable to locate a hidden player . GameSpy said that the Source engine was Bloodlines ' greatest weakness ; although the RPG aspects were the game 's strong suit , features of the Source engine , such as first @-@ person shooting , were where it stumbled .

Combat was also criticized . Reviewers called it poor , clumsy , and unsatisfactory , complaining that Bloodlines favors melee combat ; firearms were weak , unwieldy and slow , even for characters specializing in guns . PC Zone , however , called the first @-@ person shooting entertaining and challenging . Although melee combat was criticized as sluggish and difficult due to enemy attacks interrupting the player 's , reviewers considered it overpowered ; according to GameSpot , a boss character was killed with melee weapons on a first attempt after the repeated failure to do so with a gun . The New York Times found the unavoidable combat in the last part of the game to be so difficult that they had to cheat to succeed . Stealth was criticized , with IGN noting that even with low stealth skill it was possible to sneak around many enemies and feed from a guard without alerting another guard next to them . GameSpot opined that some of the best missions were stealth @-@ based , as combat was more straightforward .

= = = Accolades = = =

In 2004 , IGN named Bloodlines the Best PC RPG of that year and GameSpy called the " Ocean House Hotel " quest the Level of the Year . In 2005 , Computer Gaming World called it the Role Playing Game of 2004 , saying that it offered " a deep , balanced character creation system , a truckload of interesting quests , a good story and great NPCs to interact with . " In 2006 , PC Zone listed Bloodlines the seventh @-@ best PC game which people were unlikely to have played , calling it the " best buggy game ever released " . In 2007 , the game was 80th on Computer & Video Games ' list of its top 100 games , and 86th on PC Gamer 's 2014 list of the same , moving to 63rd in PC Gamer 's 2015 edition . In 2011 , Rock , Paper , Shotgun called Bloodlines one of the most important PC games of all time ( " it signposts a direction to a future of games that we were denied " ) , listing it as one of the 122 Best PC Games Ever . Cinema Blend called it one of the most underappreciated games of the decade . In 2011 , Official Xbox Magazine called it one of the ten PC franchises it wanted on the Xbox 360 console . In 2013 , PC Gamer named it one of the 100 Best Horror Games on PC , and PCGamesN called it the seventh @-@ best PC role @-@ playing game . In 2014 , Bloodlines was 90th in Empire 's readers ' poll of the 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time , and Maximum PC chose it as one of the games they wanted to be remastered for contemporary game systems . In 2015 , Rock , Paper , Shotgun listed Bloodlines as the PC 's 19th Best RPG and 15th Best Horror Game .

Retrospective critiques continue to praise the game 's narrative and degree of choice . In 2009 , an article in Rock , Paper , Shotgun declared : " The sense of sorrow comes from the realisation that there 's nothing like [ Bloodlines ] on the horizon ... why should there be so few games like this ? Oh right , because it 's so very hard to do ... the lack of games comparable to Bloodlines is one of the great tragedies of our time . " Eurogamer called the game inspirational , with an unmatched level of narrative detail . In 2010 , The Escapist called Bloodlines a flawed masterpiece which could have been a genuine masterpiece with more time , money and staff ; although great games may inspire awe , it instead created a devoted fan base which continued to develop the game . Bloodlines is considered a cult classic .

= Won 't Get Fooled Again =

" Won 't Get Fooled Again " is a song by the English rock band The Who , written by Pete Townshend . It was released as a single in June 1971 , reaching the top 10 in the UK , while the full eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute version appears as the final track on the band 's 1971 album Who 's Next , released that August .

Townshend wrote the song as a closing number of the Lifehouse project , and the lyrics criticise revolution and power . To symbolise the spiritual connection he had found in music via the works of Meher Baba and Inayat Khan , he programmed a mixture of human traits into a synthesizer and used it as the main backing instrument throughout the song . The Who tried recording the song in New York in March 1971 , but re @-@ recorded a superior take at Stargroves the next month using the synthesizer from Townshend 's original demo . Ultimately , Lifehouse as a project was abandoned in favour of Who 's Next , a straightforward album , where it also became the closing track . The song has been performed as a staple of the band 's setlist since 1971 , often as the set closer , and was the last track drummer Keith Moon played live with the band .

As well as a hit , the song has achieved critical praise , appearing as one of Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . It has been covered by several artists , such as Van Halen who took their version to No. 1 on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart . It has been used for several TV shows and films , and in some political campaigns .

= = Background = =

The song was originally intended for a rock opera Townshend had been working on , Lifehouse , which was a multi @-@ media exercise based on his followings of the Indian religious avatar Meher Baba , showing how spiritual enlightenment could be obtained via a combination of band and audience . The song was written for the end of the opera , after the main character , Bobby , is killed and the " universal chord " is sounded . The main characters disappear , leaving behind the government and army , who are left to bully each other . Townshend described the song as one " that screams defiance at those who feel any cause is better than no cause " . He later said that the song was not strictly anti @-@ revolution despite the lyric " We 'll be fighting in the streets " , but stressed that revolution could be unpredictable , adding , " Don 't expect to see what you expect to see . Expect nothing and you might gain everything . " Bassist John Entwistle later said that the song showed Townshend " saying things that really mattered to him , and saying them for the first time . "

Townshend had been reading Universal Sufism founder Inayat Khan 's The Mysticism of Sound and Music , which referred to spiritual harmony and the universal chord , which would restore harmony to humanity when sounded . Townshend realised that the newly emerging synthesizers would allow him to communicate these ideas to a mass audience . He had met the BBC Radiophonic Workshop which gave him ideas for capturing human personality within music . Townshend interviewed several people with general practitioner @-@ style questions , and captured their heartbeat , brainwaves and astrological charts , converting the result into a series of audio pulses . For the demo of " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , he linked a Lowrey organ into a EMS VCS 3 filter that played back the pulse @-@ coded modulations from his experiments . He subsequently upgraded to an ARP 2500 . The synthesizer did not play any sounds directly as it was monophonic ; instead it modified the block chords on the organ as an input signal . The demo was completed by Townshend overdubbing drums , bass , electric guitar , vocals and handclaps . Overall , the song ran at a slower pace to the version later recorded by the Who .

= = Recording = =

The Who 's first attempt to record the song was at the Record Plant on W 44 Street , New York City , on 16 March 1971 . Manager Kit Lambert had recommended the studio to the group , which led to his producer credit , though the de facto work was done by Felix Pappalardi . This take featured Pappalardi 's Mountain band mate , Leslie West , on lead guitar .

Lambert proved to be unable to mix the track , and a fresh attempt at recording was made at the start of April at Mick Jagger 's house , Stargroves , using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio . Glyn Johns was invited to help with production , and he decided to re @-@ use the synthesized organ track from Townshend 's original demo , as the re @-@ recording of the part in New York was felt to be inferior to the original . Keith Moon had to carefully synchronise his drum playing with the synthesizer , while Townshend and Entwistle played electric guitar and bass . Townshend played a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow body guitar fed through an Edwards volume pedal to a Fender Bandmaster amp , all of which he had been given by Joe Walsh while in New York . This combination became his main electric guitar recording setup for subsequent albums . Although intended as a demo recording , the end result sounded so good to the band and Johns , they decided to use it as the final take . Overdubs , including an acoustic guitar part played by Townshend , were recorded at Olympic Studios at the end of April . The track was mixed at Island Studios by Johns on 28 May . After Lifehouse was abandoned as a project , Johns felt " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , along with other songs , were so good that they could simply be released as a standalone single album , which became Who 's Next .

= = Release = =

" Won 't Get Fooled Again " was first released as a single A @-@ side on 25 June 1971 , edited down to 3 : 35 . It replaced " Behind Blue Eyes " as the choice of single as the group felt it didn 't fit the Who 's established musical style . It was released on 17 July in the US . The B @-@ side , " I Don 't Even Know Myself " was recorded at Eel Pie Studios in 1970 for a planned EP that was never released . The single reached No. 9 in the UK charts and No. 15 in the US . Initial publicity material showed an abandoned cover of Who 's Next featuring Moon dressed in drag and brandishing a whip .

The full @-@ length version of the song appeared as the closing track of Who 's Next , released on 14 August in the US and 27 August in the UK , where it topped the album charts . " Won 't Get Fooled Again " drew strong praise from critics , who were impressed that a synthesizer had managed to be integrated so successfully within a rock song . Who author Dave Marsh described singer Roger Daltrey 's scream near the end of the track as " the greatest scream of a career filled with screams " . In 2011 , the song was ranked number 134 on Rolling Stone 's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time .

= = Live performances = =

The Who first performed the song live at the opening date of a series of Lifehouse related concerts in the Young Vic theatre , London on 14 February 1971 . It has subsequently been part of every Who concert since , often as the set closer and sometimes extended slightly to allow Townshend to smash his guitar or Moon to kick over his drumkit . The group performed live over the synthesizer part being played on a backing tape , which required Moon to wear headphones to play in sync with it . It was the last track Moon played live in front of a paying audience on 21 October 1976 and the last song he ever played with the Who at Shepperton Studios on 25 May 1978 , which was captured on the documentary film The Kids Are Alright . The song was part of the Who 's set at Live Aid in 1985 , Live 8 in 2005 , T4 on the Beach in 2008 and Capital FM 's Summertime Ball concert in 2009 , 2010 and 2015 and the radio station 's Jingle Bell Ball concerts in 2009 and 2015 .

In October 2001 , The Who performed the song at The Concert for New York City to help raise funds for the families of firemen and police officers killed during the 9 / 11 attacks . They finished their set with ' Won 't Get Fooled Again ' to a responsive and emotional audience , with close @-@ up aerial video footage of the World Trade Center buildings playing behind them on a huge digital screen . In February 2010 , the group closed their set during the halftime show of Super Bowl XLIV with this song . While the Who have continued to play the song live , Townshend has expressed mixed feelings for it , alternating between pride and embarrassment in interviews . Who biographer John Atkins described the track as " the quintessential Who 's Next track but not necessarily the best . "

Several live and alternative versions of the song have been released on CD or DVD . In 2003 , a deluxe version of Who 's Next was reissued to include the Record Plant recording of the track from March 1971 and a live version recorded at the Young Vic on 26 April 1971 . The song is also included on the album Live at the Royal Albert Hall , from a 2000 show with Noel Gallagher guesting .

Daltrey , Entwistle and Townshend have each performed the song at solo concerts . Townshend has re @-@ arranged the song for solo performance on acoustic guitar . On 30 June 1979 , he performed a duet of the song with classical guitarist John Williams for the 1979 Amnesty International benefit The Secret Policeman 's Ball .

= = Cover versions = =

The song was first covered in a distinctive soul style by Labelle on their 1972 album Moon Shadow . Van Halen began covering the song in concert in 1993 . Eddie Van Halen re @-@ arranged the track so that the synthesizer part was played on the guitar . A live recording was released on Live : Right Here , Right Now , and made it to number one on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart .

Both Axel Rudi Pell ( on Diamonds Unlocked ) and Hayseed Dixie ( on Killer Grass ) covered the song in their established styles of metal and bluegrass respectively . Richie Havens covered the track on his 2008 album , " Nobody Left to Crown " , playing the song at a slower tempo to the original .

= = Other uses = =

The original Who recording has been used in politics on several occasions . In an April 2006 editorial for Time magazine , retired United States Marine Corps Lieutenant General Greg Newbold referenced the song , labeling it an " antiwar anthem " that " conveyed a sense of betrayal by the nation 's leaders , who had led our country into a costly and unnecessary war in Vietnam . " In 2014 , the British Government ran an advertisement for superfast broadband using the song as its theme music .

Townshend has taken an interest in licensing the Who 's work to media and advertising , and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " has made several appearances on TV and film . A portion of the song has been used as the opening theme for the CBS series CSI : Miami , while a cover version of the track was played on The Simpsons ' " A Tale of Two Springfields " which featured the Who as special guests . However , Townshend refused permission for director Michael Moore to play the song over the closing credits of Fahrenheit 9 / 11 , as he was suspicious of Moore 's journalistic credentials and did not want his work to be associated with a possibly inaccurate film . Townshend later said " [ o ] nce I had an idea what the film was about , I was 90 % certain my song was not right for them . " In response Moore accused Townshend of supporting the Iraq War , which Townshend denied .

The Tampa Bay Lightning use the song as their entrance music .

= = Charts = =

= = Personnel = =

Roger Daltrey : vocals

Pete Townshend : acoustic and electric guitars , synthesized organ ( ARP 2500 , EMS VCS 3 ) and backing vocals

John Entwistle : bass guitar

Keith Moon : drums

= Homer at the Bat =

" Homer at the Bat " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 20 , 1992 . The episode follows the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant softball team , led by Homer , having a winning season and making the championship game . Mr. Burns makes a large bet that the team will win and brings in nine ringers from the " big leagues " to ensure his success . It was written by John Swartzwelder , who is a big baseball fan , and directed by Jim Reardon .

Roger Clemens , Wade Boggs , Ken Griffey , Jr . , Steve Sax , Ozzie Smith , José Canseco , Don Mattingly , Darryl Strawberry and Mike Scioscia all guest starred as themselves , playing the ringers hired by Mr. Burns . Terry Cashman sang a song over the end credits . The guest stars were recorded over several months , with differing degrees of cooperation . The episode is often named among the show 's best , and was the first to beat The Cosby Show in the ratings on its original airing . In 2014 , showrunner Al Jean selected it as one of five essential episodes in the show 's history .

= = Plot = =

It is softball season in Springfield and many of the workers at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant are reluctant to sign up for the Power Plant team due to their previous unsuccessful year . Homer reveals that he has a secret weapon , a homemade bat named " Wonder Bat " and his co @-@ workers eagerly join the team . Thanks in large part to Homer , the team goes through its season undefeated and earns the right to play in the championship game against the Shelbyville Nuclear Power Plant .

Mr. Burns makes a million dollar bet with Aristotle Amadopoulos , owner of the Shelbyville plant , that his team will win . To secure victory in the game , Mr. Burns decides to hire major league stars and assembles a team that includes Shoeless Joe Jackson , Pie Traynor , Harry Hooper , Honus Wagner , Cap Anson , Nap Lajoie , Gabby Street , Mordecai " Three Finger " Brown , and Jim Creighton ( the last of whom had been dead for 130 years ) . Waylon Smithers informs Mr. Burns that the players he picked have all retired and died , and so Mr. Burns changes tactics and orders Smithers to find some current superstar players . He hires nine Major League Baseball players — Roger Clemens , Wade Boggs , Ken Griffey , Jr . , Steve Sax , Ozzie Smith , Jose Canseco , Don Mattingly , Darryl Strawberry and Mike Scioscia — and gives them token jobs at the plant so that they can play on the team , much to the dismay of the plant workers who got the team to the championship game in the first place .

Mr Burns hires a hypnotist to train the team , and they all mouth back his words ( such as ' You will beat Shelbyville ' ) in unison ( ' We will beat Shelbyville ' ) until the hypnotist says ' You will give 110 % ' , at which point the team mouth back , still in perfect unison , ' That 's impossible . No one can give more than 100 % . By definition , that is the most anyone can give ' .

However , before the game , eight of the nine all @-@ star players suffer unrelated misfortunes that prevent them from playing : Clemens suddenly behaves like a chicken due to the hypnotist 's incompetence , Boggs is knocked unconscious by Barney after a bizarre argument at Moe 's Tavern ( over who was England 's greatest Prime Minister , Lord Palmerston or Pitt the Elder ) , Griffey , Jr. takes an overdose of nerve tonic , resulting in an extreme case of gigantism , Sax is arrested and put in jail for every unsolved murder in New York City , Smith disappears in the " Springfield mystery spot " , Canseco is too busy rescuing a woman and her possessions from a fire , Mattingly is kicked off the team by Mr. Burns due to sideburns only he can see , and Scioscia is hospitalized due to radiation poisoning from the plant , having taken his token job all too seriously . Mr. Burns is forced to use his original employees , along with Strawberry , the only star who can play . He made a speech that he knows that his team hated him for what he did to them and he tells them to win . Homer remains on the bench as Strawberry plays his position .

With the score tied and bases loaded with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning , Mr. Burns elects to field a right @-@ handed hitter against a left @-@ handed pitcher and pinch hits Homer for Strawberry . The very first pitch hits Homer in the head , rendering him unconscious , but forcing in the winning run . The team wins the title and Homer , still unconscious , is paraded as a hero . Smithers holds the trophy . Mr. Burns thinks about it . Homer lying on the ground .

= = Production = =

" Homer at the Bat " took a long time to produce . It was written by John Swartzwelder , who is a big baseball fan , but was suggested by Sam Simon , who wanted an episode filled with real Major League Baseball players . Executive producers Al Jean and Mike Reiss doubted that they would be able to get nine players , thinking that they would be able to get three at best . However , they succeeded , and the nine players who agreed to guest star were recorded over a period of six months , whenever they were playing the Los Angeles Dodgers or California Angels . Each player recorded their part in roughly five minutes and spent the next hour writing autographs for the staff . In several cases , the writers were unable to get the player who was their first choice . Two of the players who turned down the chance to guest star were Ryne Sandberg and Carlton Fisk .

All of the players were cooperative except for Jose Canseco , who was intimidating . He disliked his original part and insisted it be rewritten , and the writers grudgingly made him as heroic as possible . He was originally slated to wake up in bed with Edna Krabappel and miss the game , but Canseco 's then @-@ wife , Esther Haddad , objected . He disliked his caricature , stating that " the animation looked nothing like [ him ] , " but that he found the acting was very easy . When asked in 2007 about his part by the San Jose Mercury News , he responded , " that was 100 years ago , " hung up the phone and did not answer any of the paper 's subsequent calls for an interview about his guest spot .

Ken Griffey , Jr. did not understand his line " there 's a party in my mouth and everyone 's invited " and got quite frustrated when he was recording it . He was directed by Mike Reiss , and his father Ken Griffey , Sr. was also present , trying to coach his son . Roger Clemens , who made his own chicken noises , was directed by Jeff Martin , as was Wade Boggs . Mike Reiss directed most of the other players . Mike Scioscia accepted his guest spot in " half a second , " while Ozzie Smith has stated that he would like to guest star again " so [ he ] can get out [ of the Springfield Mystery spot ] . " Don Mattingly , who was forced to shave off his " sideburns " by Mr. Burns during the episode , would later have an actual " haircut controversy " , while he was playing for the New York Yankees . The coaching staff forced him to cut his long hair , and was briefly dropped from the team line @-@ up for not doing so . Many people believed the joke in the episode to be a reference to the incident , but " Homer at the Bat " was recorded a year before it happened . Many of the guest stars , including Terry Cashman , Wade Boggs and Darryl Strawberry all admit that they are more well known because of their appearance in the episode , Cashman having " Talkin ' Softball " requested more often than " Talkin ' Baseball " .

One of the hardest pieces of editing was the hypnotist segment , which featured several of the guest stars speaking in unison . It was difficult because the parts were recorded over a period of several months and thus it was hard to sync their voices . Rich Moore was originally intended to direct the episode , but as he did not know anything about baseball he was switched with Jim Reardon , who was a baseball fan . Moore was given the episode " Lisa the Greek " instead . Many of the player designs were difficult , because the animators had a hard time designing real world people during the early years .

= = Cultural references = =

The episode makes several allusions to the film The Natural . Homer 's secret weapon , his self @-@ created " Wonderbat " , is akin to Roy Hobbs 's " Wonderboy " , and both bats are eventually destroyed . The scene featuring the explosion of stadium lights as Homer circles the basepaths is also taken directly from the film . The end song " Talkin ' Softball " is a parody of " Talkin ' Baseball " by Terry Cashman . Jeff Martin wrote the new version of the song , but Cashman was brought in to sing it . The scenes of the Power Plant team traveling from city to city by train , overlaid with the pennant of the city they are going to , is a reference to the 1942 film The Pride of the Yankees . Carl batting with a piano leg is a reference to Norm Cash of the Detroit Tigers , who once tried to bat with a table leg in a game where Nolan Ryan was extremely overpowering and threw a no @-@ hitter . The episode 's title references " Casey at the Bat " .

= = Reception = =

During the previous season , Fox had put The Simpsons in a timeslot that meant it was in direct competition with The Cosby Show , which won the timeslot every time . " Homer at the Bat " had a 15 @.@ 9 rating and 23 % share to win its timeslot while The Cosby Show had a 13 @.@ 2 rating and 20 % share . This was the first time that a new Simpsons episode beat a new Cosby Show episode . Former executive producer Sam Simon and current showrunner Al Jean named it as their favorite episode . Regular cast members Harry Shearer and Julie Kavner disliked the episode because of its focus on the guest stars and its surreal tone . They were particularly annoyed by the Mattingly sideburns joke .

Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised the episode , calling it " a great episode because the accidents that befall the pro players are so funny . " Chris Turner , the author of the book Planet Simpson , said that the episode was the indication that " the Golden Age [ of the show ] had arrived . " Nate Meyers gave the episode four and a half out of five , stating " the script makes great use of the baseball superstars , giving each of them a strong personality and plenty of pep ( the highlight has to be Mattingly 's clash with Mr. Burns ) . " Colin Jacobson disliked the episode : " when [ " Homer at the Bat " ] originally aired , I didn 't like it . While I 've warmed up to the show slightly over the last decade , I still think it 's generally weak , and I 'd definitely pick it as Season Three 's worst . "

Entertainment Weekly placed the episode fifteenth on their top 25 The Simpsons episodes list , noting it was " early proof that The Simpsons could juggle a squad of guest stars without giving the family short shrift . " It was placed third on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list , Rich Weir called it " one of the show 's more memorable moments " and " effective as it combines a slew of guest stars with some hilarious material for Homer . " The entire episode was placed first on ESPN.com 's list of the " Top 100 Simpsons sport moments " , released in 2004 . Greg Collins , the author of the list , gave great praise of the episode . He stated that this is the " king of all sports episodes , and perhaps the greatest Simpsons episode ever . " A friend of Collins later met guest star Mike Scioscia and told him that he thought his guest spot was the best thing Scioscia had ever done , he responded " Thanks , I think " . Eric Reinagel , Brian Moritz and John Hill of Press & Sun @-@ Bulletin named the episode the fourth best in the show 's history , and a journalist for The Toronto Star named Homer 's conversation with Darryl Strawberry as the " greatest conversation of all time , involving the word yes " .

IGN.com ranked the baseballers ' performances as the seventeenth best guest appearance in the show 's history , calling " each of these appearances was hilarious , making this a classic episode . " The Phoenix.com praised the performances of each of the guest stars , but Darryl Strawberry , whom they put in the fifth position , was the only one to make their " Top 20 guest stars " list .

= = Impact = =

The episode has been credited with helping to save several lives . During the scene in which Homer chokes on a donut , a poster explaining how the Heimlich maneuver works is on the wall behind him . In May 1992 , Chris Bencze was able to save his brother 's life by performing the Heimlich Maneuver on him , having seen it in the episode , and in December 2007 Aiden Bateman was able to save his friend Alex Hardy 's life by recalling the same .

= Ottoman cruiser Berk @-@ i Satvet =

Berk @-@ i Satvet was a torpedo cruiser of the Ottoman Navy , the second and final member of the Peyk @-@ i Şevket class . She was built by the Germaniawerft shipyard in Germany in 1906 – 07 , and was delivered to the Ottoman Navy in November 1907 . The ship 's primary armament consisted of three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes and a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , and she was capable of a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . The ship 's early career was uneventful ; the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 passed without any action of the Ottoman fleet . Berk @-@ i Satvet saw action during the Balkan Wars of 1912 – 13 in the Aegean and Black Seas , against Greek and Bulgarian opponents , respectively .

After the Ottoman Empire entered World War I , Berk @-@ i Satvet was employed in patrols in the Black Sea . These included attacks on Russian ports with the ex @-@ German warships Yavuz Sultan Selim and Midilli . In January 1915 , Berk @-@ i Satvet struck a naval mine while escorting a convoy to Zonguldak ; the explosion severely damaged the ship and kept her out of service until April 1918 . For the remainder of the war , she patrolled the Black Sea . The ship was renamed Berk in 1923 and modernized twice , in the mid @-@ 1920s and in the late @-@ 1930s . She remained in service until 1944 , when she was stricken from the naval register . Berk was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1953 – 55 .

= = Design = =

Berk @-@ i Satvet , classified as a torpedo cruiser by the Ottoman Navy , was also sometimes referred to as a torpedo gunboat . She was 80 m ( 260 ft ) long , with a beam of 8 @.@ 4 m ( 28 ft ) and a draft of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 775 t ( 763 long tons ; 854 short tons ) while on sea trials . The ship was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion engines each driving a screw propeller . The engines were rated at 5 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 800 kW ) for a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) ; Berk @-@ i Satvet had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 240 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 730 mi ) . Her crew numbered 105 officers and enlisted men .

Berk @-@ i Satvet 's primary offensive armament was her three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow , above water , and the other two were in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She was armed with a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns that were placed in shielded single mounts on the forecastle and quarterdeck . She also carried six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , four of which were mounted in sponsons , and a pair of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She had no armor protection .

= = Service history = =

Berk @-@ i Satvet was ordered on 18 January 1903 and laid down down in February 1906 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , Germany . She was launched on 1 December of that year , and completed in 1907 . After completing sea trials , she was transferred to the Ottoman Navy , arriving in Constantinople on 13 November , where she was formally commissioned into the Ottoman fleet . In 1909 , she and her sister participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , Berk @-@ i Satvet was assigned to the Reserve Division , which was centered on the elderly ironclads Mesudiye and Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . She did not see action during the conflict , since the Ottoman fleet spent the war in port .

= = = Balkan Wars = = =

Berk @-@ i Satvet was transferred to the Black Sea on 9 December 1912 , to reinforce the squadron there during the First Balkan War . On 4 February 1913 , Berk @-@ i Satvet bombarded Bulgarian positions at Şarköy on the northern coast of the Sea of Marmara in preparation for an amphibious assault . Four days later , the Ottoman navy returned to support the landing at Şarköy . Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin , along with two small cruisers provided artillery support to the right flank of the invading force once it went ashore . The ships were positioned about one kilometer off shore , with Berk @-@ i Satvet leading the line , which also included the cruiser Mecidiye and the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis . The Bulgarian army resisted fiercely , which ultimately forced the Ottoman army to retreat , though the withdrawal was successful in large part due to the gunfire support from the fleet . Berk @-@ i Satvet and Mecidiye covered the left flank while the two battleships supported the left during the evacuation . In the course of the operation , Berk @-@ i Satvet had fired eighty @-@ four 105 mm shells .

On 9 March , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined a sweep toward Imbros , an island in the Aegean Sea at the entrance to the Gulf of Saros ; she briefly engaged a pair of Greek destroyers and stopped a steamer flying under the French flag . The vessel , which appeared to be supplying Bulgarian forces , was taken as a prize by the destroyer Yahisar . Later in March , she again escorted Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis in the Black Sea , while the two battleships bombarded Bulgarian troops that were attempting to breach the line of defenses at Çatalca . On 13 April , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined a fleet consisting of Barbaros Hayreddin , Turgut Reis , Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik , and several smaller warships . The ships sortied out of the Dardanelles and encountered a Greek fleet . After a brief engagement at extreme range , the Ottomans and Greeks withdrew to the Dardanelles and Imbros , respectively .

= = = World War I = = =

In late July 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe , though the Ottomans initially remained neutral . On 14 August , Berk @-@ i Satvet joined patrols of the Dardanelles , the defenses of which were strengthened with several new minefields . Tensions between the Ottomans and a British fleet patrolling the entrance to the Dardanelles increased until 5 November , when Britain and France declared war on the Ottoman Empire . In the meantime , Berk @-@ i Satvet had been transferred to the Black Sea . She joined the cruiser Midilli , formerly the German Breslau , for an attack on the Russian port of Novorossiysk on 29 October . Berk @-@ i Satvet embarked on another attack , this time with the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim , formerly the German Goeben . The battlecruiser shelled Sevastopol while Berk @-@ i Satvet observed ; she had been sent with Yavuz Sultan Selim primarily to train her crew .

Berk @-@ i Satvet sortied with her sister and Yavuz Sultan Selim on 5 December to provide distant support to a troop convoy headed to Rize . On 2 January 1915 at 15 : 00 , she , Midilli , and the cruiser Hamidiye steamed out of the Bosporus to escort a transport to Zonguldak , after which the three cruisers are to conduct a patrol off the port . At 18 : 00 into the voyage , a Russian mine exploded , which led Berk @-@ i Satvet 's commander to take evasive action . The ship struck a mine in the darkness , which caused significant damage . The mine destroyed both of her propellers and caused serious flooding at her stern . Two tugs arrived and towed Berk @-@ i Satvet to İstinye with Hamidiye as an escort . The damage was so severe that the ship was disabled for most of the war . After lengthy repairs , the ship was recommissioned on 1 April 1918 and patrols between Constantinople and Batumi . She remained in the Black Sea through the end of the war . On 30 November , the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros with the Entente powers , which concluded the conflict .

= = = Later career = = =

The ship was renamed Berk in 1923 following the end of the Turkish War of Independence , which saw the Republic of Turkey replace the old Ottoman Empire . At the time , the ship had been placed out of service . From 1924 to 1925 , she was modernized at the Gölcük Naval Shipyard and was recommissioned in 1925 . In 1927 , the ship visited İzmir . She was rebuilt in 1937 – 39 and incorporated substantial improvements . Her stem was replaced and her superstructure was rebuilt . The old gun armament was replaced with a pair of 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns and four 37 mm 40 @-@ caliber guns , and equipment to handle 25 mines was installed . The ship continued in service until 1944 , when she was stricken from the naval register . She was hulked at the Gölcük shipyard in 1950 , and broken up for scrap between 1953 and 1955 .

= Ohio State Route 607 =

State Route 607 ( SR 607 ) is a north – south highway near McConnelsville , Ohio . The route starts at SR 60 and travels north to its terminus at SR 78 , all located inside Morgan County . SR 607 was designated in 2011 , after Monastery Road was transferred from township @-@ maintenance to state @-@ maintenance . The road was then repaved and realigned in 2012 , and became signed on July 25 , 2013 . The route opened to the public on the next day .

= = Route description = =

All of SR 607 is located in central Morgan County , Ohio . The state route starts at the intersection of SR 60 near McConnelsville . SR 607 travels north for the majority of the length . SR 607 passes near an Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) county garage near the beginning of the road . Halfway through the route , SR 607 meets Township Road 696 in a T @-@ intersection , where the route moves slightly westward . After that , there is an Ohio Army National Guard training site at Hawk Drive . The route keeps moving north until it ends at SR 78 at another T @-@ intersection . The route goes through mostly forests and small hills . In 2012 , ODOT calculated 1 @,@ 975 vehicles traveling south of McGovern Lane . This is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . No part of SR 607 is included within the National Highway System , a system of routes deemed most important for the economy , defense and mobility of the country .

= = History = =

Planning of Monastery Road ( Township Road 209 ) improvements began in 2003 . At that time , $ 3 @.@ 8 million in state funding was set aside for the project , but the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) did not receive the money until 2005 . By 2007 , most of the earmarked money was spent on preliminary engineering and planning . Without the money , Morgan Township officials could not afford to upgrade the road , and ODOT was barred from spending money on local roads . In 2011 , deputy director Steve Williams devised a new plan that made the township road a state route , and Morgan Township officials transferred the road to ODOT .

Monastery Road was closed 0 @.@ 7 mi ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) north of SR 60 , and 0 @.@ 4 mi ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) south of SR 78 in April 2012 , for nine months . The road was realigned and resurfaced , and it cost around $ 1 @.@ 5 million . The road was also widened at the northern terminus with SR 78 , and the southern terminus with SR 60 . On July 25 , 2013 , ODOT erected state route signs on the road . The next day , Williams announced the upgrade of Monastery Road to State Route 607 and reopened the road .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Morgan Township , Morgan County .

= SK Ull =

Skiklubben Ull was a Norwegian Nordic skiing club based in Oslo . Founded in 1883 , Skiklubben Ull attracted several skilled sportsmen who between 1883 and 1891 won six Ladies ' Cups and one King 's Cup in national skiing events . The sporting facilities belonging the club were located in Vestre Aker , with the ski jumping hill Ullbakken near Frognerseteren being opened in 1884 . The prestigious Husebyrennet was staged there once . Members of SK Ull were later instrumental in moving this prestigious contest to the hill Holmenkollbakken .

Club members also held important positions in the general administration of skiing in Norway . The first Ull chairman Johan Bechholm was also the first secretary of the Association for the Promotion of Skiing ; Karl Roll became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation , Hjalmar Krag became chairman in the Confederation of Sports and Fritz R. Huitfeldt was a pioneer in several respects .

The club was founded by students and its membership later drew from the upper social strata . During the first ten years of club history , forty @-@ four of the sixty members admitted into the club belonged to one of four prestigious professions ; physician , military officer , jurist or engineer . The club was furthermore exclusive , in that it only had 119 members during its first 100 years of existence . In 1893 the club raised its own cabin , thus grouping it together with other so @-@ called " cabin ski clubs " such as Christiania SK . SK Ull eventually evolved from a skiing club to a social club in a skiing setting , using the old cabin for member meetings , which were also visited by the King of Norway .

= = The most active sporting period , 1883 – 1898 = =

Skiklubben Ull was founded on 29 January 1883 , and named after the Norse deity Ullr . In Norse mythology , Ullr was a god for hunting and competition , superior with his skis and his bow . SK Ull has been credited as being the second @-@ oldest skiing club in the world , after Christiania SK . The club founders were a group of university students who socialized in apartments in Wessels gate . The young men usually conversed about their studies or played card games , but they were also hobby cross @-@ country skiers , and decided to take up skiing in a more organized form by starting a club . The term describing a club member was ullaner .

The founding members were Thoralf Fabritius , Paul Lorck , Petter Dahl Thams , Andreas Bechholm , Johan Bechholm , Otto Dahl , Sigurd Gotaas and Michael Strøm Lie . New members were allowed every year until 1887 , after which new members were usually admitted biannually , in 1889 , 1891 , 1893 , 1895 , 1896 and 1897 . Notable members who joined the club shortly after the foundation include Fritz R. Huitfeldt , Henrik Florentz , Hans Grüner , Marius Grüner and Stefan Meidell . The first chairman was Johan Bechholm , followed by Sigurd Gotaas from 1885 and Fritz R. Huitfeldt from 1887 to 1891 . The three honorary memberships proclaimed in the early period were Fritz R. Huitfeldt ( 1883 ) , Hans Grüner ( 1884 ) and Axel Huitfeldt ( 1889 ) .

The club saw sporting success on the national level ( international competitions were few or none ) in its first years . Johan Bechholm finished eleventh and won the Ladies ' Cup in Husebyrennet of 1883 . In 1884 Ingvald M. Smith @-@ Kielland , Sr. won the Ladies ' Cup and Richard Blichfeldt won the King 's Cup . Vilhelm Nicolaysen finished fourth and won the Ladies ' Cup in 1886 , Karl Roll won the Ladies ' Cup in 1889 , Vilhelm Heiberg in 1890 and Otto Orre in 1891 .

Ull maintained its own ski jumping hill , Ullbakken , near Frognerseteren in Vestre Aker . It was opened in 1884 with a festive ski jumping contest , attended by Prince Eugen of Norway and Sweden . Ullbakken was the site of Husebyrennet in 1890 , when Kastellbakken was unusable . The dinner after this race was attended by Crown Prince Gustaf of Norway and Sweden . Karl Roll had an especially close relationship with the Swedish royal family , being a ski tutor for the princes while stationed in Stockholm between 1898 and 1904 . After Norway abolished the personal union in 1905 and elected its own king , Roll immediately became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp for the new monarch .

The club also staged the members @-@ only contest Ullrennet . In the invitation for Ullrennet and the subsequent banquet in 1897 , the members were asked to take their place at the table " according to rank , estate , age , dignity and skiing profess " . SK Ull also became the second in Norway to raise its own skiing cabin , " Ydale " at Voksenkollen in 1893 . This was named after Ýdalir , the mythological dwelling of the deity Ullr . Some of Ull 's rival clubs were Christiania SK , Skuld , Fram and Ondur . Christiania , Skuld and Fram owned skiing cabins similar to that of Ull — they were collectively referred to as " cabin skiing clubs " .

Reportedly , it was SK Ull 's forays into the district around Holmenkollen for sporting purposes that spurred the establishment of the new hill Holmenkollbakken in 1891 . The knowledge of the area spurred Fritz R. Huitfeldt to pinpoint the location of the new hill , together with Hans Krag . This hill lay at a higher altitude than Kastellbakken , and thus had more favourable snow conditions . Holmenkollbakken quickly replaced Kastellbakken as the main hill in the district , and eventually became world @-@ famous .

SK Ull also saw some sporting success in the 1890s , although the last Ladies ' Cup was taken in 1891 . The club was joined by top skiers like Tobias Bernhoft and Jørgen Berg . In the late 1890s , however , as many members reached higher ages , SK Ull became more of a gentlemen 's social club than an active skiing club . This social club was exclusive by nature , with a clause in the by @-@ laws that the membership could not surpass forty . Actually the club never had more than thirty members , which was the case in 1890 , and rarely more than twenty . The members were drawn from the higher social strata of Norway 's capital region . Forty @-@ four of the sixty members admitted into the club up to the opening of Ydale belonged to one of four prestigious professions : physician , military officer , jurist or engineer .

= = 1900 – 1945 = =

After 1898 , there was a pause in admitting new members . Four were admitted between 1906 and 1908 , followed by only one in the 1915 , three in 1924 , and two in 1935 . In 1940 the average member age was 69 .

After finishing their active careers , some of Ull 's members entered the ranks of sports officials and administrators . Most notable was Karl Roll , who became the first chairman of the Norwegian Ski Federation in 1908 . Several members had already held positions in the older organization Association for the Promotion of Skiing , founded three weeks before Ull , in 1883 . Johan Bechholm was its first secretary , from 1883 to 1886 , and many others followed . Johan Sverre ( member since 1896 ) was a notable Olympic administrator after the Norwegian independence in 1905 , and Hjalmar Krag ( member since 1887 ) became chairman in the Confederation of Sports . Fritz R. Huitfeldt also became a known figure in his field ; for his ski bindings , and for pioneering Telemark skiing . Huitfeldt 's ski factory , which he started together with Richard Blichfeldt , was named Ull .

During the first years of the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , Ull continued to host private parties . Later , however , the club 's cabin Ydale was occupied by the Germans from December 1942 to March 1945 . Ull instead used the Grand Hotel for its sixtieth anniversary in 1943 and the annual convention of 1944 . Two new members were admitted during the war ; Sverre Martens and Einar Poulsson .

= = After 1945 = =

At the war 's end in 1945 , Ull only had fourteen members . Its average member age was lowered to 65 years after the admission of five new members in 1946 and 1947 . The post @-@ war period also saw the admission to SK Ull of men from more professional groups . One of the new members , Erik Plahte , would serve as chairman from 1951 to 1973 , when he backed down at the age of 84 . Another of the new post @-@ war members , Jakob Vaage , took over . He was then aged 68 . By 1953 , all the club 's elected positions were held by post @-@ war members . Three of the older members , some with experience dating to the 1880s , were admitted as honorary members , the first honorary members in SK Ull since 1889 .

After professor Johs . Andenæs was admitted as a member in 1949 , the club admitted thirteen members in the 1950s ; seven in the 1960s as well as a corresponding member , Norwegian @-@ Canadian Herman Smith @-@ Johannsen ; and only three in the 1970s . One member was elected i 1980 , and three in 1983 ; Arvid Fossum , Odd Harsheim and Birger Ruud . Three honorary members were proclaimed after 1960 : Erik Plahte in 1969 , Herman Smith @-@ Johanssen in 1975 and Jakob Vaage in 1983 .

The cabin Ydale was still used for festivities , and became a small " museum " with skiing antiquities left behind by former members . The cabin was also used during the 1952 Winter Olympics as the residence of the Danish skiing team . A road leading to the cabin was named Ullveien in 1964 . In 1983 the 100 @-@ year anniversary of Ull was hosted at Ydale with attendance from King Olav V of Norway .

= = List of position @-@ holders = =

This is a list of chairmen , deputy chairmen and managers / secretaries of SK Ull .

= Can 't Hold Us Down =

" Can 't Hold Us Down " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera and rapper Lil ' Kim for the former 's fourth studio album Stripped ( 2002 ) . It was released by RCA Records on July 8 , 2003 , as the fourth single from the album . The track was written and produced by Scott Storch , with additional songwriting by Aguilera and Matt Morris . An R & B and hip hop song with dancehall elements , " Can 't Hold Us Down " criticizes gender @-@ related double standards .

" Can 't Hold Us Down " received mixed reviews from music critics . It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 ceremony , but lost to " Whenever I Say Your Name " by Sting and Mary J. Blige . The single peaked at number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and charted within the top ten of record charts of several countries including Australia , Denmark , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . The song was included on the setlists of Aguilera 's three major concert tours : Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) and Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) .

A music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " was directed by David LaChapelle , inspired by the Lower East Side of New York City in the 1980s . The single has been widely recognized as a feminist anthem , and its music video has been noted for being an example of cultural appropriation for how Aguilera depicted herself as an African @-@ American woman .

= = Background and release = =

American singer Christina Aguilera rose to prominence with the successes of her first three studio albums Christina Aguilera ( 1999 ) , Mi Reflejo ( 2000 ) , and My Kind of Christmas ( 2000 ) . However , she was dissatisfied with being marketed as what her then @-@ manager Steve Kurtz desired rather than Aguilera 's own wish . In late 2000 , Aguilera hired Irving Azoff as her new manager and announced that her forthcoming album would have more musical and lyrical depth . She named the album Stripped , explaining that the term represented " a new beginning , a re @-@ introduction of [ herself ] as a new artist " . Hip hop producer Scott Storch wrote and produced several tracks for the album , including " Can 't Hold Us Down " . Additional writing credits for the song were provided by Aguilera and Matt Morris .

" Can 't Hold Us Down " was serviced to mainstream radio and rhythmic stations in the United States as the fourth single from Stripped by RCA Records on July 8 , 2003 . The song was distributed as a CD single from September to October 2003 in the United Kingdom , Germany , and Italy by RCA Records and Sony Music Entertainment . A 12 @-@ inch edition of the song was released in the United States on September 9 , 2003 .

= = Music and lyrics = =

" Can 't Hold Us Down " is written in the key of E ♭ major . Chuck Taylor from Billboard described it as a R & B track , while The New York Times 's Kelefa Sanneh characterized it as a hip hop song . Todd Burns writing for Stylus Magazine also noted elements of dancehall towards the end of the track . Aguilera and Kim 's vocals on the track , which Taylor described as " faux @-@ R & B " , span two octaves , from F3 to F5 .

" Can 't Hold Us Down " lyrically discusses feminism ; the song criticizes the " common " gender @-@ related double standards , in which men are applauded for their sexual behaviors , while women who behave in a similar fashion are disdained . In the book Therapeutic Uses of Rap and Hip @-@ Hop , Susan Hadley and George Yancy discuss that " Can 't Hold Us Down " is a hip hop song that " encourages young women to be proud , strong , and empowered to be all that they can be " . At the song 's first verse , Aguilera sings " Call me a bitch ' cause I speak what 's on my mind / Guess it 's easier for you to swallow if I sat and smiled " ; she later rejects that all women " should be seen , not heard " and encourages them to " shout louder " during the chorus . Aguilera comments on the double standard with the lyrics " The guy gets all the glory the more he can score / While the girl can do the same and yet you call her a whore " . Lil ' Kim shares a similar sentiment during her verse in the bridge , questioning why a man is able to give a woman " some sex or sex her raw " while " if the girl do the same and then she 's a whore " .

Media outlets speculated that the lyrics of " Can 't Hold Us Down " were directed towards rapper Eminem , who referred to Aguilera in his songs " Off the Wall " and " The Real Slim Shady " . Spin magazine 's Josh Kun wrote that Aguilera suggested Eminem " Must talk so big / To make up for smaller things " . According to Kelefa Sanneh writing for The New York Times , Aguilera referred to Eminem in the lyrics " It 's sad you only get your fame through controversy " .

= = Reception = =

Chuck Taylor from Billboard criticized the song as a " real waste of time and talent " , while Rolling Stone 's Jancee Dunn called the track " curiously lifeless " . Stylus Magazine 's Todd Burns was critical of the song 's " bland " lyrics yet appreciated the dancehall elements that emerged at the end of the track . Josh Kun of Spin praised the lyrics for being more confrontational than the works of her contemporary Britney Spears . Jacqueline Hodges writing for BBC Music appreciated Lil 's Kim 's inclusion on the track for adding " a bit of edge " . " Can 't Hold Us Down " was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2004 Grammy Awards , but lost to " Whenever I Say Your Name " by Sting and Mary J. Blige . On reviewing Aguilera 's greatest hits album , Keeps Gettin ' Better : A Decade of Hits in 2008 , Nick Levine from Digital Spy shared disappointment because the song could not make it to the compilation .

" Can 't Hold Us Down " peaked at number 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 3 on the Pop Songs chart . The song peaked at number 4 on the Canadian Singles Chart . In Australia , " Can 't Hold Us Down " reached a peak position of number 5 on the Australian Singles Chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 copies in the country . Additionally , it reached number 2 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It peaked at number 4 on the Hungarian Singles Chart , number 5 on the Irish Singles Chart , and number 6 on the UK Singles Chart . The single charted at numbers 7 and 15 on the Belgian Flanders and Walloon Singles Charts , respectively . On the Danish Singles Chart , " Can 't Hold Us Down " peaked at number 8 , while its highest position on the German Media Control Charts was number 9 .

The song has been recognized as a feminist anthem . Nicholas Ransbottom from The Charleston Gazette placed the song on his list of the top ten songs of female empowerment in 2013 , calling it a " great anthem about women sticking up for themselves in a misogynistic world " . Several writers for The AV Club included the track on their list of seventeen " well @-@ intended yet misguided feminist anthems " in 2010 ; they agreed that the song itself was " actually one of her better songs " , although they felt that its accompanying music video overshadowed its lyrical " [ confrontation of ] the double standard of female sexuality " since Aguilera conducted herself in a provocative fashion that conflicted its intended meaning . Yasamin Saeidi from Burton Mail listed " Can 't Hold Us Down " on her list of the " top ten empowering lady anthems " in 2013 .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " was directed by David LaChapelle , who previously directed the music video for Stripped 's lead single " Dirrty " in 2002 . It was filmed in a Los Angeles soundstage that depicted a 1980s Lower East Side neighborhood in Manhattan , New York City . LaChapelle described the concept of the video as his " ode to the ' 80s " . In the video , Aguilera wears a pink sleeveless shirt , a sleeveless sport jacket , a pair of shorts , a mauve baseball cap embroidered with the words " Lady C " , and white long socks . She is seen with dyed black hair and is wearing dark mascara and a gold nose ring . The residents of the neighborhood are mostly Latin and black people , resembling people living in a ghetto .

As the video begins , Aguilera is chatting with a group of women . When Aguilera leaves the conversation , a black man suddenly grabs her buttocks , making Aguilera stop and causing an argument between them . As she continues to sing , the nearby women in the neighborhood join her , while the male residents join the man and form their respective sides in the street . They perform their own hip hop dance skills against each other . At the bridge , Lil ' Kim appears in a bikini and a sheer black blouse , and dances in her high heels . The argument ends with Aguilera spraying the men with a water hose , which she holds between her legs and parodies the male penis .

= = = Reception = = =

Jason Heller from The AV Club criticized LaChappelle for " [ swallowing ] the message " of the track by following an unrelated concept in the clip . In the book Music Video and the Politics of Representation , Diane Railton and Paul Watson felt that the video exemplified cultural appropriation , specifically noting how Aguilera conducted herself as an African @-@ American woman , and elaborated that it emphasized " a range of issues concerning the representation of gender and race " . Andy Cohn from The Fader provided a more favorable review , and opined that Aguilera 's " sass " helped to highlight her Irish and Ecuadorian background .

The music video for " Can 't Hold Us Down " has received scholarly attention as an example of cultural appropriation . Murali Balaji , author of the article " Vixen Resistin ' : Redefining black womanhood in hip @-@ hop music videos " published in the Journal of Black Studies , noted that " blackness and sexuality " has become characteristics by which African @-@ American women are able to self @-@ define . Consequently , he opined that the inclusion of Lil ' Kim in the clip represented an element of " ' primitive ' sexuality " , which Aguilera intended to imitate through her own behavior in the video . In their article " Naughty girls and red @-@ blooded women : Representations of female heterosexuality in music video " , published in Feminist Media Studies , Diane Railton and Paul Watson made specific note of the conflicting message raised by the lyrics " all my girls around the world " , while " blackness and whiteness are clearly inscribed on and through the bodies of Aguilera and Kim . " They suggested that this example detracted the message of the track by emphasizing the problem that " female heterosexuality " is confined to " the very limited range of ways " in mainstream culture , in this instance " gender and race [ and ] sexual behaviour " .

= = Live performances = =

Though the pair never performed the song together , Aguilera performed " Can 't Hold Us Down " on her Justified and Stripped Tour , which was held in support of Aguilera 's Stripped and Justin Timberlake 's album Justified ( 2002 ) . In late 2003 , the track was included on the setlist of The Stripped Tour , which acted as the Justified and Stripped Tour 's extension and happened without Timberlake 's acts . The performance in London was included on the singer 's first full @-@ length DVD Stripped Live in the U.K. ( 2004 ) . On her Back to Basics Tour ( 2006 – 08 ) , Aguilera performed excerpts of " Can 't Hold Us Down " in a medley with " Still Dirrty " .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits = =

Credits adapted from " Can 't Hold Us Down " CD liner notes

Studios

Mixed at The Record Plant , Los Angeles , CA

Recorded at The Enterprise Studios , Burbank , CA , and Conway Studios , Hollywood

Personnel

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Station model =

A station model is a symbolic illustration showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in air pressure , temperature , wind , cloud cover , and precipitation .

Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .

= = Measurement location and units = =

Weather maps primarily use the station model to show surface weather conditions , but the model can also show the weather aloft as reported by a weather balloon 's radiosonde or a pilot 's report .

Station model plots use a mixture of metric and Imperial units depending on the map 's location and what is being shown . Surface maps in the United States primarily use Imperial units , such as inches , degrees Fahrenheit , and knots . Most of the world , however , uses metric measurements for everything but wind speed , which is shown in knots .

= = Plotted winds = =

The station model uses a wind barb to show both wind direction and speed . The wind barb shows the speed using " flags " on the end .

Each half of a flag depicts five knots

Each full flag depicts 10 knots

Each pennant ( filled triangle ) depicts 50 knots

Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the flags are facing . Therefore , a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast , with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line . Once plotted on a map , an analysis of isotachs ( lines of equal wind speeds ) can be accomplished . Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts , usually at or above the 300 hPa level .

The flags and pennants point to the low pressure , so it is possible to determine at which hemisphere the station is standing . The barbs in the figure at the right are located at the Northern Hemisphere , because the wind is circling counter clock @-@ wise around a low @-@ pressure area at the Northern Hemisphere ( the wind is blowing in the opposite direction at the Southern Hemisphere , see also Buys Ballot 's law ) .

More than a century ago , winds were initially plotted as arrows facing downwind , with feathers on both sides of the staff to indicate wind speed . In the United States , the change to the modern convention of flags shown on one side of the staff to indicate wind speed took effect on August 1 , 1941 .

= = Cloud cover = =

Along with wind direction , cloud cover is one of the oldest atmospheric conditions to be coded on a station model . The circle in the middle of the station model represents cloud cover . In the United Kingdom , when the observation is taken from an automated weather observation site , the shape is a triangle . If the shape is completely filled in , it is overcast . If conditions are completely clear , the circle or triangle is empty . If conditions are partly cloudy , the circle or triangle is partially filled in . The cloud cover shape has different looks depending upon how many oktas ( eighths of the sky ) are covered by cloud . A sky half full of clouds would have a circle that was half white and half black . Below the shape indicating sky cover , the station model can indicate the coverage of low clouds , in oktas , and the ceiling height in hundreds of feet . The ceiling height is the height at which more than half the sky is covered by clouds .

For pilots , knowledge of the sky cover helps determine if visual flight rules are being met . Knowing the degree of cloud cover can help determine whether or not various weather fronts , such as cold fronts or warm fronts , have passed by a location . A nephanalysis , contouring areas that are cloudy with scalloped lines , can be performed to indicate a system 's cloud and precipitation pattern . This technique is rarely performed nowadays , due to the prevalence of satellite imagery worldwide .

= = Cloud types = =

Above or below the circle for manned stations ( automatic stations do not report cloud types ) that indicates sky cover can lie one or more symbols indicating cloud types in any of the low , middle and high @-@ étages for tropospheric clouds . One predominant cloud type may be depicted for each of three étages , if known . The middle and high @-@ étage types are depicted above the sky cover circle of the station model , while the main low @-@ étage cloud type is indicated below the circle . Since the station model has limited room , it makes no special provision for vertical or multi @-@ level clouds that can occupy more than one étage at a particular time . Consequently , cloud genera with significant vertical development may be coded and plotted as low or middle depending on the altitude at which they normally form . Cumulus and cumulonimbus usually form in the low étage of the troposphere and achieve vertical extent by growing upward into the middle or high étage . Conversely , nimbostratus usually forms in the middle étage of the troposphere and becomes vertically developed by growing downward into the low étage . Although the SYNOP code has no separate formal group classification for vertical or multi @-@ level clouds , the observer procedure for selecting numerical codes is designed to give high reporting priority to those genera or species that show significant vertical development .

The symbols used for clouds emulate the cloud shape . Cirrus is indicated by a couple hooks , cumulus are indicated by a mound shape , with cumulonimbus indicated with an upside down trapezoid on top of the cumulus symbol to indicate its anvil . When there is more than one cloud type present per level , the cloud type with the highest priority is included . Knowing the cloud type at various locations can help determine whether or not a weather front has passed by a particular location . A low deck of stratus could indicate a station is still north of a warm front , while thunderstorms can indicate the approach of a squall line or cold front .

= = Present weather and visibility = =

To the left of the cloud shape in the center of the station model is the symbol depicting present weather . The present weather symbol depicts the current weather which normally is obstructing the visibility at the time of observation . The visibility itself is shown as a number , in statute miles in the United States and meters elsewhere , describing how far the observer can see at that time . This number is located to the left of the present weather symbol . For pilots , knowledge of the horizontal visibility helps determine if they are flying through instrument meteorological conditions , such as foggy or smokey conditions , as well as areas of intense precipitation . Present weather depicted with the station model can include :

Dust

Fog

Haze

Ocean spray

Precipitation

Sand

Smoke

Thunderstorms

Volcanic ash

= = Temperature and dew point = =

To left of center in the station model , the temperature and dew point are plotted . Within the United States on surface weather maps , they are still plotted in degrees Fahrenheit . Otherwise , they will be in units of degrees Celsius . This knowledge is important to meteorologists because when this data is plotted on a map , isotherms and isodrosotherms ( lines of equal dew point ) are easily analyzed , either by man or machine , which can help determine location of weather fronts .

= = Sea level pressure and height of pressure surface = =

On the top right corner of the model for a surface weather map is the pressure , showing the last two integer digits of the pressure in millibars , or hectopascals , along with the first decimal . For instance , if the pressure at a certain location is 999 @.@ 7 hPa , the pressure portion of the station model will read 997 . Although the first digit or two of the pressure is left off , other nearby stations give away whether the pressure starts with a 10 or a 9 . Most of the time , choosing first digits that would lead to a value nearest to 1000 works out best . The plotting of this value within the station model allows for the analysis of isobars on weather maps . Within maps which plot data on constant pressure surfaces , the pressure is replaced with the height of the pressure surface .

= = Pressure tendency = =

Below the pressure will lie the pressure tendency figure , which indicates the pressure change over the past three hours . The number depicting the pressure change will usually have two digits and indicate the pressure change in 0 @.@ 1 millibar increments . There are nine different figures which represent the pressure change . A slant angled up and right indicates a steady rise , while a downward slant to the lower right indicates a steady fall . Steady rises can indicate improving conditions and approaching high pressure , and normally occur in the wake of a cold front . Steady falls can indicate deteriorating conditions and an approaching low pressure area , with the largest falls occurring in advance of a surface cyclone and its attendant warm front .

The time of the day must be considered , as there are two natural rises per day ( locally around 10 am and 10 pm ) and two natural falls per day ( locally around 4 am and 4 pm ) . These daily changes in pressure can mask the movement of pressure systems and fronts past a location . The lowest natural dip in the pressure , in a stagnant weather pattern , occurs around 4 pm while the highest natural peak in pressure occurs around 10 am . Once plotted on a map , the analysis of isallobars ( lines of equal pressure change ) can be plotted on a map , which can indicate the direction of motion of high and low pressures systems across the map domain .

= = Past weather = =

Station models can have past weather plotted within them , which would be located just under the pressure tendency . They indicate the type of weather experienced during the past six hours . The weather types are limited to obstructions of visibility and precipitation .

= Béla I of Hungary =

Béla I the Champion or the Wisent ( Hungarian : I. Bajnok or Bölény Béla , Slovak : Belo I. ; before 1020 – 11 September 1063 ) was King of Hungary from 1060 until his death . He descended from a younger branch of the Árpád dynasty . Béla 's baptismal name was Adalbert . He left Hungary in 1031 , together with his brothers , Levente and Andrew , after the execution of their father , Vazul . Béla settled in Poland and married Richeza ( or Adelaide ) , daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland .

He returned to his homeland upon the invitation of his brother Andrew , who had in the meantime been crowned King of Hungary . Andrew assigned the administration of the so @-@ called ducatus or " duchy " , which encompassed around one @-@ third of the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary , to Béla . The two brothers ' relationship became tense when Andrew had his own son , Solomon , crowned king , and forced Béla to publicly confirm Solomon 's right to the throne in 1057 or 1058 . Béla , assisted by his Polish relatives , rebelled against his brother and dethroned him in 1060 . He introduced monetary reform and subdued the last uprising aimed at the restoration of paganism in Hungary . Béla was fatally injured when his throne collapsed while he was sitting on it .

= = Life = =

= = = Childhood ( before 1031 ) = = =

Most Hungarian chronicles , including Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hungarorum and the Illuminated Chronicle , record that Béla 's father was Ladislaus the Bald , a cousin of Stephen , the first King of Hungary . However , many of the same sources add that it " is sometimes claimed " that Béla and his two brothers — Levente and Andrew — were in fact the sons of Ladislaus the Bald 's brother , Vazul . The chronicles also refer to gossip claiming that the three brothers were their father 's illegitimate sons , born to " a girl from the Tátony clan " . Modern historians , who accept the latter reports ' reliability , unanimously write that the three brothers were the sons of Vazul and his concubine .

Béla was born between 1015 and 1020 . It is debated whether Béla was a second or a third son . The former view is represented , for example , by the Polish historian Wincenty Swoboda , and the latter by the Hungarian scholars Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk . Kristó and Makk write that Béla 's name " most probably " derived from the Turkish adjective bujla ( " noble " ) . However , the name may also be connected to the Slavic word for white ( bjelij ) or to the Biblical name Bela .

= = = In exile ( 1031 – c . 1048 ) = = =

King Stephen 's only son who survived infancy , Emeric , died on 2 September 1031 . Thereafter , Vazul had the strongest claim to succeed the King . However , the monarch , suspecting that Vazul inclined towards paganism , favored his own sister 's son , Peter Orseolo . In order to ensure his nephew 's succession , Stephen had Vazul blinded . Béla and his two brothers fled from the kingdom .

They first settled in Bohemia , but their " condition of life was poor and mean " there . They moved to Poland , where " they received a warm reception " from King Mieszko II . According to the Hungarian chronicles , Béla participated in a Polish expedition against the pagan Pomeranians and defeated their duke " in single combat " . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that the Polish monarch " praised the boldness and strength of Duke Béla and bestowed on him all the Pomeranian tribute " . The King even gave his daughter — named either Richeza or Adelaide — in marriage to Béla and granted " a goodly quantity of land " to him . Makk says that Béla was not baptized until just before his marriage ; his baptismal name was the Germanic one of Adalbert .

At that time the Pomeranians refused to pay their yearly tribute to the Duke of Poland , to whom they were subject . The Duke set out to exact by force of arms the tribute due to him from the Pomeranians . Then the Pomeranians , who were pagans , and the Poles , who were Christians , agreed together that their leaders should meet each other in a duel , and if the Pomeranian fell defeated , he would render the customary tribute ; and if the Pole , then he might bewail its loss . Since [ the ] Duke [ Mieszko ] and his sons shrank in fear from the duel to be fought , [ Béla ] presented himself before them and through an interpreter spoke thus : ' If it is pleasing to you , Poles , and to the lord Duke , although I am of nobler birth than that pagan , yet I will fight for the advantage of your kingdom and for the honour of the Duke . ' This was pleasing both to the Pomeranians and to the Poles . When they met in combat , armed with lances , [ Béla ] is said to have struck the Pomeranian so manfully that he unseated him from his horse ; and the Pomeranian could not move from the spot where he had fallen , and [ Béla ] smote him with his sword . Then the Duke of the Pomeranians confessed himself at fault ; and the Pomeranians , seeing this , humbly submitted to the Duke of Poland and paid the accustomed tribute without murmuring .

King Mieszko II died in 1034 ; his son and heir , Casimir was forced to leave Poland . A period of anarchy followed , which lasted at least until 1039 when Casimir returned . According to Kristó and Makk , Béla was staying in Poland during this period ; he even may have administered the kingdom in the name of his absent brother @-@ in @-@ law . On the other hand , the Polish historian , Manteuffel writes that Béla and his two brothers , in contrast with the unanimous report of the Hungarian chronicles , arrived in Poland only with Casimir , after 1039 . It is beyond a doubt that Levente and Andrew departed from Poland in about 1038 , because — according to the Illuminated Chronicle — they did not want to " live the life of hangers @-@ on in the Duke of Poland 's court , regarded only as Béla 's brothers " .

= = = Duke in Hungary ( c . 1048 – 1060 ) = = =

Upon leaving Poland , Andrew and Levente settled in Kiev . They returned to Hungary after a rebellion which was dominated by pagans broke out against King Peter Orseolo in 1046 . The King was dethroned , and Andrew was proclaimed king . Levente died in the same year and Andrew , still childless , decided to invite Béla back to Hungary .

Having lost one brother , King Andreas sent to Poland to his other brother Bela , calling him with great love and saying : " Once we shared poverty and labour together , and now I ask you , most beloved brother , that you come to me without tarrying , so that we may be companions in joy and share in the good things of the kingdom , rejoicing in each other 's presence . For I have neither heir nor brother except you . You shall be my heir , and you shall succeed me in the kingdom . " Won by these words , Béla came to the King with all his family . When the King saw him , he rejoiced with a great joy , because he was fortified by his brother 's strength . Then the King and his brother Bela held a council and divided the kingdom into three parts , of which two remained under the proprietorship of the royal majesty or power and the third was put under the proprietorship of the Duke . This first division of the kingdom became the seed of discord and wars between the dukes and the kings of Hungary .

Urged by his brother , Béla returned in 1048 and received one @-@ third of the kingdom , with the title of duke . Béla 's ducatus or " duchy " encompassed large territories along the eastern and northern borders , including the regions of Nyitra ( Nitra , Slovakia ) and Bihar ( Biharia , Romania ) . He possessed a wide range of royal prerogatives , including coinage . The half @-@ denars minted for him bore the inscription BELA DUX ( " Duke Béla " ) . According to Steinhübel , the mid @-@ 11th @-@ century timber and earth walls of the fortress of Nyitra were erected in Béla 's reign .

The two brothers closely collaborated in the subsequent years . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , they together worked out a military strategy against the Germans , who were frequently invading the kingdom in the early 1050s . Ferenc Makk writes that Béla 's epithets — the Champion or the Wisent — are connected to his fighting against the Germans . The chronicler emphasizes that Andrew and Béla " lived in a great tranquillity of peace " even after Andrew fathered a son , Solomon , in 1053 . Béla was one of the lords witnessing the deed of the foundation of the Tihany Abbey , a Benedictine monastery that his brother established in 1055 .

The two brothers ' good relationship deteriorated after King Andrew had the child Solomon crowned king in 1057 or 1058 . The coronation was the consequence of the peace negotiations with the Holy Roman Empire , because the Germans did not acquiesce in a marriage between Solomon and Judith — the sister of the young German monarch , Henry IV — until Solomon 's right to succeed his father was declared and publicly confirmed . Thereafter Andrew was determined to secure the throne for his son . He invited Béla to his manor in Tiszavárkony , where the King offered his brother a seemingly free choice between a crown and a sword ( which were the symbols of the royal and ducal power , respectively ) . However , he had ordered that Béla be murdered if he chose the crown . Having been informed of his brother 's secret plan by one of his own partisans in the royal court , Béla opted for the sword , but he departed for Poland after the meeting .

He returned to Hungary , in the autumn of 1060 , with Polish troops that Duke Boleslaus the Bold of Poland had provided . Around the same time , German reinforcements arrived in Hungary to assist Andrew against Béla . The ensuing civil war ended with the victory of Béla , who defeated his brother in two successive battles fought at the river Tisza and at Moson . The King was seriously injured and died soon afterward . His partisans took his son , the child Solomon , to Germany .

= = = Reign ( 1060 – 1063 ) = = =

Béla was crowned king in Székesfehérvár on 6 December 1060 . He ordered that " the wives and sons and all the property of all those who had followed " his nephew to Germany " should be protected and kept safe and sound " , which induced many of Solomon 's partisans to reconcile themselves to Béla 's rule and return to Hungary . He reformed the coinage and introduced " large coins of purest silver " into circulation . In order to stabilize the new currency , Béla maximized the prices and eliminated the black market . He also ordered that weekly markets should be held on Saturdays , instead of Sundays , in the kingdom . The historian Nora Berend says that the latter measure " may have adversely affected Jewish activities " , because Jews , who observed the Sabbath , could not work on Saturdays .

Béla decided to discuss his innovations with the representatives of the freemen , and " sent heralds throughout all Hungary to summon two elders with gift of speech from each village to a royal council " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . A great crowd of commoners gathered in Székesfehérvár in 1061 . They demanded the restoration of paganism and the murder of clergymen , but Béla collected his army and suppressed their uprising within three days .

Béla attempted to conclude a peace treaty with the Holy Roman Empire . For this purpose , shortly after his coronation , he released all German commanders who had assisted his brother during the civil war . However , the young German monarch 's advisors refused Béla 's proposals . In the summer of 1063 , an assembly of the German princes decided to launch a military expedition against Hungary to restore young Solomon to the throne . Béla was planning to abdicate in favor of his nephew if the latter restored his former ducatus , but he was seriously injured when " his throne broke beneath him " in his manor at Dömös . The King — who was " half @-@ dead " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle — was taken to the western borders of his kingdom , where he died at the creek Kinizsa on 11 September 1063 . Béla was buried in the Benedictine Szekszárd Abbey , which he had set up in 1061 . Following Béla 's death , his three sons — Géza , Ladislaus and Lampert — sought refuge in Poland , and Solomon ascended the throne .

= = Family = =

Béla married , in about 1033 , a daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland . According to Makk , her name was either Richesa or Adelheid . Their eldest children , Géza and Ladislaus — who became kings of Hungary in 1074 and 1077 , respectively — were born in Poland in the 1040s . Béla 's third son , Lampert , was born after Béla 's return to Hungary .

Lampert was followed by a daughter named Sophia , who was first married to Margrave Ulric I of Carniola , and later to Duke Magnus of Saxony . Her younger sister , Euphemia , became the wife of Duke Otto I of Olomouc . Béla 's third daughter , Helena , was the queen of King Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia . An unnamed daughter of Béla became the first wife of a Hungarian nobleman , Lampert of the Clan Hont @-@ Pázmány . According to the historian Martin Dimnik , Béla also fathered a fifth daughter , Lanka , who was the wife of Prince Rostislav Vladimirovich of Tmutarakan .

The following family tree presents Béla 's ancestry , his offspring , and some of his relatives mentioned in the article .

* A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady . * * Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty . * * * Lanka is not mentioned as Béla I 's daughter by all specialists .

= Su Song =

Su Song ( simplified Chinese : 苏颂 ; traditional Chinese : 蘇頌 ; pinyin : Sū Sòng ; courtesy name : Zirong 子容 ) ( 1020 – 1101 AD ) was a renowned Han Chinese polymath who was described as a scientist , mathematician , statesman , astronomer , cartographer , horologist , medical doctor , pharmacologist , mineralogist , zoologist , botanist , mechanical and architectural engineer , poet , antiquarian , and ambassador of the Song Dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) .

Su Song was the engineer of a hydro @-@ mechanical astronomical clock tower in medieval Kaifeng , which employed the use of an early escapement mechanism . The escapement mechanism of Su 's clock tower had been invented by Buddhist monk Yi Xing and government official Liang Lingzan in 725 AD to operate a water @-@ powered armillary sphere , although Su 's armillary sphere was the first to be provided with a mechanical clock drive . Su 's clock tower also featured the oldest known endless power @-@ transmitting chain drive , called the tian ti ( 天梯 ) , or " celestial ladder " , as depicted in his horological treatise . The clock tower had 133 different clock jacks to indicate and sound the hours . Su Song 's treatise about the clock tower , Xinyi Xiangfayao ( 新儀象法要 ) , has survived since its written form in 1092 and official printed publication in 1094 . The book has been analyzed by many historians , such as Joseph Needham . The clock itself , however , was dismantled by the invading Jurchen army in AD 1127 , and although attempts were made to reassemble it , the tower was never successfully reinstated .

The Xinyi Xiangfayao was Su 's best @-@ known treatise , but the polymath compiled other works as well . He completed a large celestial atlas of several star maps , several terrestrial maps , as well as a treatise on pharmacology . The latter discussed related subjects on mineralogy , zoology , botany , and metallurgy .

European Jesuit visitors to China like Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault briefly wrote about Chinese clocks with wheel drives , but others mistakenly believed that the Chinese had never advanced beyond the stage of the clepsydra , incense clock , and sundial . They thought that advanced mechanical clockworks were new to China and that these mechanisms were something valuable that Europeans could offer to the Chinese . Although not as prominent as in the Song period , contemporary Chinese texts of the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) described a relatively unbroken history of mechanical clocks in China , from the 13th century to the 16th .

= = Life and works = =

= = = Career as a scholar @-@ official = = =

Su Song was born in modern @-@ day Fujian , near medieval Quanzhou . Like a contemporary , Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) , Su Song was a polymath , a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different interests . It was written by his junior colleague and Hanlin scholar Ye Mengde ( 1077 – 1148 ) that in Su 's youth , he mastered the provincial exams and rose to the top of the examination list for writing the best essay on general principles and structure of the Chinese calendar . From an early age , his interests in astronomy and calendrical science led him onto a distinguished path as a state bureaucrat . In his spare time he was fond of writing poetry , which he used to praise the works of artists such as the painter Li Gonglin ( 1049 – 1106 ) . He also was an antiquarian and collector of old artworks from previous dynasties .

In matters of administrative government , he had attained the rank of Ambassador and President of the Ministry of Personnel at the capital of Kaifeng , and was known also as an expert in administration and finance . After serving in the Ministry of Personnel , he became a Minister of Justice in 1086 . He was appointed as a distinguished editor for the Academy of Scholarly Worthies , where in 1063 he edited , redacted , commented on , and added a preface for the classic work Huainanzi of the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . Eventually , Su rose to the post of Vice President of the Chancellery Secretariat . Among many honorable positions and titles conferred upon him , Su Song was also one of the ' Deputy Tutors of the Heir Apparent ' . At court , he chose to distance himself from the political rivalries of the Conservatives , led by Prime Minister Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) , and the Reformists , led by Prime Minister Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) ; although many of his associates were of the Conservative faction . In 1077 he was dispatched on a diplomatic mission to the Liao Dynasty of the Khitan people to the north , sharing ideas about calendrical science , as the Liao state had created its own calendar in 994 AD . In a finding that reportedly embarrassed the court , Su Song acknowledged to the emperor that the calendar of the Khitan people was in fact a bit more accurate than their own , resulting in the fining and punishment of officials in the Bureau of Astronomy and Calendar . Su was supposed to travel north to Liao and arrive promptly for a birthday celebration and feast on a day which coincided with the winter solstice of the Song calendar , but was actually a day behind the Liao calendar . Historian Liu Heping states that Emperor Zhezong of Song sponsored Su Song 's clocktower in 1086 in order to compete with the Liao for " scientific and national superiority . " In 1081 , the court instructed Su Song to compile into a book the diplomatic history of Song @-@ Liao relations , an elaborate task that , once complete , filled 200 volumes . With his extensive knowledge of cartography , Su Song was able to settle a heated border dispute between the Song and Liao dynasties .

= = = Astronomy = = =

Su Song also created a celestial atlas ( in five separate maps ) , which had the hour circles between the xiu ( lunar mansions ) forming the astronomical meridians , with stars marked in an equidistant cylindrical projection on each side of the equator , and thus , was in accordance to their north polar distances . Furthermore , Su Song must have taken advantage of the astronomical findings of his political rival and contemporary astronomer Shen Kuo . This is so because Su Song 's fourth star map places the position of the pole star halfway between Tian shu ( − 350 degrees ) and the current Polaris ; this was the more accurate calculation ( by 3 degrees ) that Shen Kuo had made when he observed the pole star over a period of three months with his width @-@ improved sighting tube . There were many star maps written before Song 's book , but the greatest significance of these star maps by Su Song is , that they represent the oldest extant star maps in printed form .

= = = Pharmacology , botany , zoology , and mineralogy = = =

In 1070 , Su Song and a team of scholars compiled and edited the Bencao Tujing ( ' Illustrated Pharmacopoeia ' , original source material from 1058 – 1061 ) , which was a groundbreaking treatise on pharmaceutical botany , zoology , and mineralogy . In compiling information for pharmaceutical knowledge , Su Song worked with such notable scholars as Zhang Yuxi , Lin Yi , Zhang Dong , and many others .

This treatise documented a wide range of pharmaceutical practices , including the use of ephedrine as a drug . It includes valuable information on metallurgy and the steel and iron industries during 11th century China . He created a systematic approach to listing various different minerals and their use in medicinal concoctions , such as all the variously known forms of mica that could be used to cure ills through digestion . He wrote of the subconchoidal fracture of native cinnabar , signs of ore beds , and provided description on crystal form . Similar to the ore channels formed by circulation of ground water written of by the later German scientist Georgius Agricola , Su Song made similar statements concerning copper carbonate , as did the earlier Rihua Bencao of 970 with copper sulphate . Su 's book was also the first pharmaceutical treatise written in China to describe the flax , Urtica thunbergiana , and Corchoropsis tomentosa ( crenata ) plants . According to Edward H. Schafer , Su accurately described the translucent quality of fine realgar , its origin from pods found in rocky river gorges , its matrix being pitted with holes and having a deep red , almost purple color , and that the mineral varied in sizes ranging from the size of a pea to a walnut .

Citing evidence from an ancient work by Zheng Xuan ( 127 – 200 ) , Su believed that physicians of the ancient Zhou Dynasty ( 1046 – 256 BC ) used realgar as a remedy for ulcers . As believed in Su 's day , the " five poisons " used by Zhou era physicians for this purpose were thought to be cinnabar , realgar , chalcanthite , alum , and magnetite . Su made systematic descriptions of animals and the environmental regions they could be found , such as different species of freshwater , marine , and shore crabs . For example , he noted that the freshwater crab species Eriocher sinensis could be found in the Huai River running through Anhui , in waterways near the capital city , as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei . Su 's book was preserved and copied into the Bencao Gangmu of the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) physician and pharmacologist Li Shizhen ( 1518 – 1593 ) .

= = = Horology and mechanical engineering = = =

Su Song compiled one of the greatest Chinese horological treatises of the Middle Ages , surrounding himself with an entourage of notable engineers and astronomers to assist in various projects . Xinyi Xiangfayao ( lit . " Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe " ) , written in 1092 , was the final product of his life 's achievements in horology and clockwork . Fortunately , this book of Su 's that was handed down included 47 different illustrations of great detail of the mechanical workings for his astronomical clocktower .

Su Song 's greatest project was the 40 @-@ foot @-@ tall water @-@ powered astronomical clocktower constructed in Kaifeng , the wooden pilot model completed in 1088 , the bronze components cast by 1090 , while the wholly finished work was completed by 1094 during the reign of Emperor Zhezong of Song . The emperor had previously commissioned Han Gonglian , Acting Secretary of the Ministry of Personnel , to head the project , but the leadership position was instead handed down to Su Song . The emperor ordered in 1086 for Su to reconstruct the hun yi , or " armillary clock " , for a new clock @-@ tower in the capital city . Su worked with the aid of Han Gong @-@ lian , who applied his extensive knowledge of mathematics to the construction of the clock @-@ tower . A small @-@ scale wooden model was first crafted by Su Song , testing its intricate parts before applying it to an actual full @-@ scale clock tower . In the end , the clock @-@ tower had many impressive features , such as the hydro @-@ mechanical , rotating armillary sphere crowning the top level and weighing some 10 to 20 tons , a bronze celestial globe located in the middle that was 4 @.@ 5 feet in diameter , mechanically @-@ timed and rotating mannequins dressed in miniature Chinese clothes that exited miniature opening doors to announce the time of day by presenting designated reading plaques , ringing bells and gongs , or beating drums , a sophisticated use of oblique gears and an escapement mechanism , as well as an exterior facade of a fanciful Chinese pagoda . Upon its completion , the tower was called the Shui Yun Yi Xiang Tai , or " Tower for the Water @-@ Powered Sphere and Globe " . Joseph Needham writes :

After the invention of the escapement in ~ AD 725 ( Tang Dynasty ) , there was a great flourishing of gear @-@ wheels in clockwork and jackwork , culminating in the bronze and iron of Su Song 's elaborate masterpiece in ~ AD 1088 .

Years after Su 's death , the capital city of Kaifeng was besieged and captured in 1127 by the Jurchens of the Manchuria @-@ based Jin Dynasty during the Jin – Song wars . The clock @-@ tower was dismantled piece by piece by the Jurchens , who carted its components back to their own capital in modern @-@ day Beijing . However , due to the complexity of the tower , they were unable to successfully piece it back together . The new Emperor Gaozong of Song instructed Su 's son , Su Xie , to construct a new astronomical clock @-@ tower in its place , and Su Xie set to work studying his father 's texts with a team of other experts . However , they were also unsuccessful in creating another clock tower , and Su Xie was convinced that Su Song had purposefully left out essential components in his written work and diagrams so that others would not steal his ideas .

As the sinologist historian Derk Bodde points out , Su Song 's astronomical clock did not lead to a new generation of mass @-@ produced clockworks throughout China since his work was largely a government @-@ sponsored endeavor for the use of astronomers and astrologers in the imperial court . Yet the mechanical legacy of Su Song did not end with his work . In about 1150 , the writer Xue Jixuan noted that there were four types of clocks in his day , the basic waterclock , the incense clock , the sundial , and the clock with ' revolving and snapping springs ' ( ' gun tan ' ) . The rulers of the continuing Yuan Dynasty ( 1279 – 1368 AD ) had a vested interest in the advancement of mechanical clockworks . The astronomer Guo Shoujing helped restore the Beijing Ancient Observatory beginning in 1276 , where he crafted a water @-@ powered armillary sphere and clock with clock jacks being fully implemented and sounding the hours . Complex gearing for uniquely Chinese clockworks were continued in the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) , with new designs driven by the power of falling sand instead of water to provide motive power to the wheel drive , and some Ming clocks perhaps featured reduction gearing rather than the earlier escapement of Su Song . The earliest such design of a sand @-@ clock was made by Zhan Xiyuan around 1370 , which featured not only the scoop wheel of Su Song ' device , but also a new addition of a stationary dial face over which a pointer circulated , much like new European clocks of the same period .

= = Su Song 's escapement mechanism = =

In Su Song 's waterwheel linkwork device the action of the escapement 's arrest and release was achieved by gravity exerted periodically as the continuous flow of liquid filled containers of a limited size . In a single line of evolution , Su Song 's clock therefore united the concept of the clepsydra and the mechanical clock into one device run by mechanics and hydraulics . In his memorial , Su Song wrote about this concept :

According to your servant 's opinion there have been many systems and designs for astronomical instruments during past dynasties all differing from one another in minor respects . But the principle of the use of water @-@ power for the driving mechanism has always been the same . The heavens move without ceasing but so also does water flow ( and fall ) . Thus if the water is made to pour with perfect evenness , then the comparison of the rotary movements ( of the heavens and the machine ) will show no discrepancy or contradiction ; for the unresting follows the unceasing .

In his writing , Su Song credited , as the predecessor of his working clock , the hydraulic @-@ powered armillary sphere of Zhang Heng ( 78 – 139 AD ) , an earlier Chinese scientist . Su Song was also strongly influenced by the earlier armillary sphere created by Zhang Sixun ( 976 AD ) , who also employed the escapement mechanism and used liquid mercury instead of water in the waterwheel of his astronomical clock tower ( since liquid mercury would not freeze during winter and would not corrode and rust metal components over time ) . However , Su Song stated in his writing that after Zhang 's death , no one was able to replicate his device , much like his own .

The mechanical clockworks for Su Song 's astronomical tower featured a great driving @-@ wheel that was 11 feet in diameter , carrying 36 scoops , into each of which water poured at a uniform rate from the " constant @-@ level tank " ( Needham , Fig . 653 ) . The main driving shaft of iron , with its cylindrical necks supported on iron crescent @-@ shaped bearings , ended in a pinion which engaged a gear wheel at the lower end of the main vertical transmission shaft .

Joseph Needham gives a general description of the clock @-@ tower itself :

( Su Song 's ) clockwork , driven by a water @-@ wheel , and fully enclosed within the tower , rotated an observational armillary sphere on the top platform and a celestial globe in the upper story . Its time @-@ announcing function was further fulfilled visually and audibly by the performances of numerous jacks mounted on the eight superimposed wheels of a time @-@ keeping shaft and appearing at windows in the pagoda @-@ like structure at the front of the tower . Within the building , some 40 ft. high , the driving @-@ wheel was provided with a special form of escapement , and the water was pumped back into the tanks periodically by manual means . The time @-@ annunciator must have included conversion gearing , since it gave ' unequal ' as well as equal time signals , and the sphere probably had this . Su Song 's treatise on the clock , the Hsin I Hsiang Fa Yao , constitutes a classic of horological engineering .

That was figure Fig . 650 , while Fig . 656 displays the upper and lower norias with their tanks and the manual wheel for operating them .

Fig . 657 displays a rather miniature and scaled @-@ down pic for the basics of the escapement mechanism in an illustration ( from Su 's book ) , with Needham 's caption here in this quote : " The ' celestial balance ' or escapement mechanism of Su Song 's clockwork ( Xinyi Xiangfayao , ch . 3 , p . 18b ) " . The latter figure carefully labels :

a right upper lock

upper link

left upper lock

axle or pivot

long chain

upper counterweight

sump

checking fork of the lower balancing lever

coupling tongue

main ( i.e. lower ) counterweight .

Figure 658 @.@  displays a more intricate and most @-@ telling half @-@ page scale drawing of Su Song 's large escapement mechanism , labeling these individual parts as they interact with one another :

arrested spoke

left upper lock

scoop being filled by

water jet from constant @-@ level tank

small counterweight

checking fork tripped by a projection pin on the scoop , and forming the near end of

the lower balancing lever with

its lower counterweight

coupling tongue , connected by

the long chain with

the upper balancing lever , which has at its far end

the upper counterweight , and at its near end

a short length chain connecting it with the upper lock beneath it ;

right upper lock

= = The endless chain drive = =

The world 's oldest illustrated depiction of an endless power @-@ transmitting chain drive is from Su Song 's horological treatise . It was used in the clockworks for coupling the main drive shaft to the armillary sphere gearbox ( rotating three small pinions ) , as seen in Needham 's Fig . 410 and Fig . 652 . This belonged to the uppermost end of the main vertical transmission shaft , incorporating right angle gears and oblique gears connected by a short idling shaft . The toothed ring gear called the diurnal motion gear ring was fit around the shell of the armillary sphere along the declination parallel near the southern pole . Although the ancient Greek Philo of Byzantium ( 3rd century BC ) featured a sort of endless belt for his magazine arcuballista , which did not transmit continuous power , the influential source for Su Song 's chain drive is most likely the continuously @-@ driven chain pump known in China since the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . From his horological treatise , Su Song states :

The chain drive ( lit. celestial ladder ) is 19 @.@ 5 ft long ( 5 @.@ 9 m ) . The system is as follows : an iron chain with its links joined together to form an endless circuit hangs down from the upper chain @-@ wheel which is concealed by the tortoise @-@ and @-@ cloud ( column supporting the armillary sphere centrally ) , and passes also round the lower chain @-@ wheel which is mounted on the main driving @-@ shaft . Whenever one link moves , it moves forward one tooth of the diurnal motion gear @-@ ring and rotates the Component of the Three Arrangers of Time , thus following the motion of the heavens .

In addition , the motion gear rings and the upper drive wheel both had 600 teeth , which by Su 's mathematical precision carefully calculated measured units of the day in a division of 1 / 600 . These gears , having 600 teeth , thus ensured the division of the day into measurements of 2 minutes and 24 seconds each .

= = Su Song 's armillary sphere = =

In Joseph Needham 's third volume of Science and Civilization in China , the drawing for Fig . 159 displays a drawing of Su Song 's armillary sphere ( as depicted in his 11th century treatise ) , complete with three ' nests ' or layers of mechanically @-@ rotated rings . It was the earlier Chinese astronomer Li Chun @-@ feng of the Tang Dynasty who in 633 AD created the first armillary sphere with three layers to calibrate multiple aspects of astronomical observation . Zhang 's armillary sphere has often been compared to that of the 13th century monarch Alfonso X of Castile in Islamic @-@ era Spain . The chief difference was that Alfonso 's instrument featured an arrangement for making measurements of the azimuth and altitude , which was present in the Arabic tradition , while Su Song 's armillary sphere was duly graduated . For the drawing of Su 's armillary sphere , the listing of components are :

The Outer Nestmeridian circle

horizon circle

outer equator circle

The Middle Nestsolstitial colure circle

ecliptic circle

diurnal motion gear @-@ ring , connecting with the power @-@ drive

The Inner Nestpolar @-@ mounted declination ring or hour @-@ angle circle , with

sighting tube attached to it and strengthened by a

diametral brace

Other Partsvertical column concealing the transmission shaft

supporting columns in the form of dragons

cross @-@ piece of the base , incorporating water @-@ levels

south polar pivot

north polar pivit

= = Transmission of Su 's text and his legacy = =

When Su Song 's Xinyi Xiangfayao was written in 1092 and the horological monograph finalized and presented in 1094 , his work was published and widely printed in the north ( see woodblock printing and movable type of Bi Sheng ) . In the south , printing and circulation of his work was not widely distributed until Shi Yuanzhi of Jiangsu had it printed there in 1172 .

When presenting his clocktower design to the Emperor Zhezong , Su Song equated the constant flow of water with the continuous movements of the heavens , the latter of which symbolized the unceasing power of the emperor . This appealed to emperor , who featured artwork representing the clocktower on vehicles of major imperial processions , as illustrated in the Illustration of the Imperial Grand Carriage Procession of 1053 .

The later Ming Dynasty / Qing Dynasty scholar Qian Zeng ( 1629 – 1699 ) held an old volume of Su 's work , which he faithfully reproduced in a newly printed edition . He took special care in avoiding any rewording or inconsistencies with the original text as well . Again , it was later reprinted by Zhang Xizu ( 1799 – 1844 ) .

Interestingly enough , Su Song 's treatise on astronomical clockwork was not the only one made in China during his day , as the Song Shi ( compiled in 1345 ) records the written treatise of the Shuiyunhun Tianjiyao ( Wade – Giles : Shui Yun Hun Thien Chi Yao ; lit . Essentials of the [ Technique of ] making Astronomical Apparatus revolve by Water @-@ Power ) , written by Juan Taifa . However , this treatise no longer survives .

In the realm of modern research , the late British biochemist and historian of Chinese science Joseph Needham ( 1900 – 1995 ) ( known as Li Yuese in China ) did extensive research and analysis of Su Song 's texts and various achievements in his Science and Civilization in China book series . Joseph Needham also related many detailed passages from Su 's contemporary medieval Chinese sources on the life of Su and his achievements known in his day . In 1956 , John Christiansen reconstructed a model of Su Song 's clocktower in a famous drawing , which garnered attention in the West towards 11th @-@ century Chinese engineering . A miniature model of Su Song 's clock was reconstructed by John Cambridge and is now on display at the National Science Museum at South Kensington , London . In China , the clocktower was reconstructed to one @-@ fifth its actual scale by Wang Zhenduo , who worked for the Chinese Historical Museum in Beijing in the 1950s .

= Periyar E. V. Ramasamy =

Erode Venkata Ramasamy ( 17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973 ) , commonly known as Periyar also referred as E. V. R. or Thanthai Periyar , was an Indian social activist , freedom fighter and politician who started the Self @-@ Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam .

E.V. Ramasamy was born in Erode , Madras Presidency to a wealthy family of Balijas . At a young age , he witnessed numerous incidents of caste and gender discrimination . E.V. Ramasamy married when he was 19 , and had a daughter who lived for only 5 months . His first wife , Nagammai , died in 1933 . E.V. Ramasamy married for a second time in July 1948 . His second wife , Maniammai , continued E.V. Ramasamy 's social work after his death in 1973 , but his thoughts and ideas then were advocated by Dravidar Kazhagam .

E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 , but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the party was only serving the interests of the Brahmins . In 1924 , E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non @-@ violent agitation ( satyagraha ) in Vaikam , Kerala . From 1929 to 1932 Ramasamy toured British Malaya , Europe , and Russia , which had an influence on him . In 1939 , E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party , and in 1944 , he changed its name to Dravidar Kazhagam . The party later split and one group led by C. N. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) in 1949 . While continuing the Self @-@ Respect Movement , he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu ( Dravidistan ) .

E.V. Ramasamy propagated the principles of rationalism , self @-@ respect , women ’ s rights and eradication of caste . He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non @-@ Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo @-@ Aryan India . His work has greatly revolutionised the Tamil society and has significantly removed caste @-@ based discrimination . He is also responsible for bringing new changes to the Tamil alphabet . The citation awarded by the UNESCO described E.V. Ramasamy as " the prophet of the new age , the Socrates of South East Asia , father of social reform movement and arch enemy of ignorance , superstitions , meaningless customs and base manners . "

= = Biography = =

= = = Early years = = =

Erode Venkata Ramasami was born on 17 September 1879 , in Erode , then a part of the Coimbatore district of the Madras Presidency . E.V. Ramasamy 's father , a rich businessman , was Venkatappa Naicker ( or Venkata ) , and his mother was Chinna Thayammal , alias Muthammal . He had one elder brother named Krishnaswamy and two sisters named Kannamma and Ponnuthoy . He later came to be known as " Periyar " meaning ' respected one ' or ' elder ' in Tamil .

In 1929 , E.V. Ramasamy announced the deletion of his caste surname Naicker ( Balija Naicker ) from his name at the First Provincial Self @-@ Respect Conference of Chenggalpattu . He could speak three Dravidian languages : Mother tongue Kannada , Telugu and Tamil . His mother tongue was Kannada . Periyar attended school for five years after which he joined his father 's trade at the age of 12 . He used to listen to Tamil Vaishnavite gurus who gave discourses in his house enjoying his father 's hospitality . At a young age , he began questioning the apparent contradictions in the Hindu mythological stories . As Periyar grew , he felt that people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and therefore took it as one of his duties in life to warn people against superstitions and priests .

E.V. Ramasamy 's father arranged for his wedding when he was nineteen . The bride , Nagammai , was only thirteen . Despite having an arranged marriage , Periyar and Nagammai were already in love with each other . Nagammai actively supported her husband in his later public activities and agitations . Two years after their marriage , a daughter was born to them . However , their daughter died when she was five months old . The couple had no more children .

= = = Kasi Pilgrimage Incident = = =

In 1904 , E.V. Ramasamy went on a pilgrimage to Kasi to visit the revered Siva temple of Kashi Vishwanath . Though regarded as one of the holiest sites of Hinduism , he witnessed immoral activities such as begging , and floating dead bodies . His frustrations extended to functional Hinduism in general when he experienced what he called Brahmanic exploitation .

However , one particular incident in Kasi had a profound impact on E.V. Ramasamy 's ideology and future work . At the worship site there were free meals offered to guests . To E.V. Ramasamy 's shock , he was refused meals at choultries , which exclusively fed Brahmins . Due to extreme hunger , E.V. Ramasamy felt compelled to enter one of the eateries disguised as a Brahmin with a sacred thread on his bare chest , but was betrayed by his moustache . The gatekeeper at the temple concluded that E.V. Ramasamy was not a Brahmin , as Brahmins were not permitted by the Hindu shastras to have moustaches . He not only prevented Periyar 's entry but also pushed him rudely into the street .

As his hunger became intolerable , Periyar was forced to feed on leftovers from the streets . Around this time , he realised that the eatery which had refused him entry was built by a wealthy non @-@ Brahmin from South India . This discriminatory attitude dealt a blow to Periyar 's regard for Hinduism , for the events he had witnessed at Kasi were completely different from the picture of Kasi he had in mind , as a holy place which welcomed all . Ramasami was a theist until his visit to Kasi , after which his views changed and he became an atheist .

= = = Member of Congress Party ( 1919 – 1925 ) = = =

E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 after quitting his business and resigning from public posts . He held the chairmanship of Erode Municipality and wholeheartedly undertook constructive programs spreading the use of Khadi , picketing toddy shops , boycotting shops selling foreign cloth , and eradicating untouchability . In 1921 , Periyar courted imprisonment for picketing toddy shops in Erode . When his wife as well as his sister joined the agitation , it gained momentum , and the administration was forced to come to a compromise . He was again arrested during the Non @-@ Cooperation movement and the Temperance movement . In 1922 , periyar was elected the President of the Madras Presidency Congress Committee during the Tirupur session , where he advocated strongly for reservation in government jobs and education . His attempts were defeated in the Congress party due to a strong presence of discrimination and indifference , which led to his leaving the party in 1925 .

= = = Vaikom Satyagraha ( 1924 – 1925 ) = = =

In Vaikom , a small town in Kerala state , then Travancore , there were strict laws of untouchability in and around the temple area . Dalits , also known as Harijans were not allowed into the close streets around and leading to the temple , let alone inside it . Anti @-@ caste feelings were growing and in 1924 Vaikom was chosen as a suitable place for an organised Satyagraha . Under his guidance a movement had already begun with the aim of giving all castes the right to enter the temples . Thus , agitations and demonstrations took place . On the fourteenth of April , Periyar and his wife Nagamma arrived in Vaikom . They were immediately arrested and imprisoned for participation . In spite of Gandhi 's objection to non @-@ Keralites and non @-@ Hindus taking part , Periyar and his followers continued to give support to the movement until it was withdrawn . He received the title Vaikom Veeran , given by his followers who participated in the Satyagraha .

The way in which the Vaikom Satyagraha events have been recorded provides a clue to the image of the respective organisers . In an article entitle Gandhi and Ambedkar , A Study in Leadership , Eleanor Zelliot relates the ' Vaikom Satyagraha ' , including Gandhi 's negotiations with the temple authorities in relation to the event . Furthermore , the editor of E.V. Ramasamy 's Thoughts states that Brahmins purposely suppressed news about E.V. Ramasamy 's participation . A leading Congress magazine , Young India , in its extensive reports on Vaikom never mentions E.V. Ramasamy .

= = = Self @-@ Respect Movement = = =

Periyar and his followers campaigned constantly to influence and pressure the government to take measures to remove social inequality , even while other nationalist forerunners focused on the struggle for political independence . The Self @-@ Respect Movement was described from the beginning as " dedicated to the goal of giving non @-@ Brahmins a sense of pride based on their Dravidian past " .

In 1952 , the Periyar Self @-@ Respect Movement Institution was registered with a list of objectives of the institution from which may be quoted as

for the diffusion of useful knowledge of political education ; to allow people to live a life of freedom from slavery to anything against reason and self respect ; to do away with needless customs , meaningless ceremonies , and blind superstitious beliefs in society ; to put an end to the present social system in which caste , religion , community and traditional occupations based on the accident of birth , have chained the mass of the people and created " superior " and " inferior " classes ... and to give people equal rights ; to completely eradicate untouchability and to establish a united society based on brother / sisterhood ; to give equal rights to women ; to prevent child marriages and marriages based on law favourable to one sect , to conduct and encourage love marriages , widow marriages , inter caste and inter @-@ religious marriages and to have the marriages registered under the Civil Law ; and to establish and maintain homes for orphans and widows and to run educational institutions .

Propagation of the philosophy of self respect became the full @-@ time activity of Periyar since 1925 . A Tamil weekly Kudi Arasu started in 1925 , while the English journal Revolt started in 1928 carried on the propaganda among the English educated people . The Self @-@ Respect Movement began to grow fast and received the sympathy of the heads of the Justice Party from the beginning . In May 1929 , a conference of Self @-@ Respect Volunteers was held at Pattukkotai under the presidency of S. Guruswami . K.V. Alagiriswami took charge as the head of the volunteer band . Conferences followed in succession throughout the Tamil districts of the former Madras Presidency . A training school in Self @-@ Respect was opened at Erode , the home town of Periyar . The object was not just to introduce social reform but to bring about a social revolution to foster a new spirit and build a new society .

= = = International travel ( 1929 – 1932 ) = = =

Between 1929 and 1935 , under the strain of World Depression , political thinking worldwide received a jolt from the spread of international communism . Indian political parties , movements and considerable sections of leadership were also affected by inter @-@ continental ideologies . The Self @-@ Respect Movement also came under the influence of the leftist philosophies and institutions . E.V. Ramasamy , after establishing the Self @-@ Respect Movement as an independent institution , began to look for ways to strengthen it politically and socially . To accomplish this , he studied the history and politics of different countries , and personally observed these systems at work .

E.V. Ramasamy toured Malaya for a month , from December 1929 to January 1930 , to propagate the self @-@ respect philosophy . Embarking on his journey from Nagapattinam with his wife Nagammal and his followers , E.V. Ramasamy was received by 50 @,@ 000 Tamil Malaysians in Penang . During the same month , he inaugurated the Tamils Conference , convened by the Tamils Reformatory Sangam in Ipoh , and then went to Singapore . In December 1931 he undertook a tour of Europe , accompanied by S. Ramanathan and Erode Ramu , to personally acquaint himself with their political systems , social movements , way of life , economic and social progress and administration of public bodies . He visited Egypt , Greece , Turkey , Russia , Germany , England , Spain , France and Portugal , staying in Russia for three months . On his return journey he halted at Ceylon and returned to India in November 1932 .

The tour shaped the political ideology of E.V. Ramasamy to achieve the social concept of Self @-@ Respect . The communist system obtained in Russia appealed to him as appropriately suited to deal with the social ills of the country . Thus , on socio @-@ economic issues Periyar was Marxist , but he did not advocate for abolishing private ownership . Immediately after his return , samy , E.V. Rama in alliance with the enthusiastic communist , M. Singaravelu Chettiar , began to work out a socio @-@ political scheme incorporating socialist and self @-@ respect ideals . This marked a crucial stage of development in the Self @-@ Respect Movement which got politicised and found its compatibility in Tamil Nadu .

= = = Opposition to Hindi = = =

In 1937 , when Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency , he introduced Hindi as a compulsory language of study in schools , thereby igniting a series of anti @-@ Hindi agitations . Tamil nationalists , the Justice Party under Sir A. T. Panneerselvam , and E.V. Ramasamy organised anti @-@ Hindi protests in 1938 which ended with numerous arrests by the Rajaji government .

During the same year , the slogan " Tamil Nadu for Tamilians " was first raised by E.V. Ramasamy in protest against the introduction of Hindi in schools . He explained that the introduction of Hindi was a dangerous mechanism used by the Aryans to infiltrate Dravidian culture . He reasoned that the adoption of Hindi would make Tamils subordinate to the Hindi speaking North Indians . E.V. Ramasamy explained that Hindi would not only halt the progress of Tamil people , but would also completely destroy their culture and nullify the progressive ideas that had been successfully inculcated through Tamil in the recent decades .

Cutting across party lines , South Indian politicians rallied together in their opposition to Hindi . There were recurrent anti @-@ Hindi agitations in 1948 , 1952 and 1965 .

= = = As President of the Justice Party ( 1938 – 1944 ) = = =

A political party known as the South Indian Libertarian Federation ( commonly referred to as Justice Party ) was founded in 1916 , principally to oppose the economic and political power of the Brahmin groups . The party 's goal was to render social justice to the non @-@ Brahmin groups . To gain the support of the masses , non @-@ Brahmin politicians began propagating an ideology of equality among non @-@ Brahmin castes . Brahmanical priesthood and Sanskritic social class @-@ value hierarchy were blamed for the existence of inequalities among non @-@ Brahmin caste groups .

In 1937 , when the government required that Hindi be taught in the school system , E.V. Ramasamy organised opposition to this policy through the Justice Party . After 1937 , the Dravidian movement derived considerable support from the student community . In later years , opposition to Hindi played a big role in the politics of Tamil Nadu . The fear of the Hindi language had its origin in the conflict between Brahmins and non @-@ Brahmins . To the Tamils , acceptance of Hindi in the school system was a form of bondage . When the Justice Party weakened in the absence of mass support , E.V. Ramasamy took over the leadership of the party after being jailed for opposing Hindi in 1939 . Under his tutelage the party prospered , but the party 's conservative members , most of whom were rich and educated , withdrew from active participation .

= = = Dravidar Kazhagam ( 1944 – onwards ) = = =

= = = = Formation of the Dravidar Kazhagam = = = =

At a rally in 1944 , Periyar , in his capacity as the leader of the Justice Party , declared that the party would henceforth be known as the Dravidar Kazhagam , or " Dravidian Association " . However , a few who disagreed with Periyar started a splinter group , claiming to be the original Justice Party . This party was led by veteran Justice Party leader P. T. Rajan and survived until 1957 .

The Dravidar Kazhagam came to be well known among the urban communities and students . Villages were influenced by its message . Hindi , and ceremonies that had become associated with Brahmanical priesthood , were identified as alien symbols that should be eliminated from Tamil culture . Brahmins , who were regarded as the guardians of such symbols , came under verbal attack . From 1949 onwards , the Dravidar Kazhagam intensified social reformist work and put forward the fact that superstitions were the cause for the degeneration of Dravidians . The Dravidar Kazhagam vehemently fought for the abolition of untouchability amongst the Dalits . It also focused its attention on the liberation of women , women 's education , willing marriage , widow marriage , orphanages and mercy homes .

= = = = Split with Annadurai = = = =

In 1949 , E.V. Ramasamy 's chief lieutenant , Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai , established a separate association called the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) , or Dravidian Advancement Association . This was due to differences between the two , while Periyar advocated a separate independent Dravidian or Tamil state , Annadurai compromised with the Delhi government , at the same time claiming increased state independence . E.V. Ramasamy was convinced that individuals and movements that undertake the task of eradicating the social evils in the Indian sub @-@ continent have to pursue the goal with devotion and dedication without deviating from the path and with uncompromising zeal . Thus , if they contest elections aiming to assume political power , they would lose vigour and sense of purpose . But among his followers , there were those who had a different view , wanting to enter into politics and have a share in running the government . They were looking for an opportunity to part with E.V. Ramasamy . Thus , when E.V. Ramasamy married Maniammai on 9 July 1948 , they quit the Dravidar Kazhagam , stating that E.V. Ramasamy set a bad example by marrying a young woman that took his foster child in his old age – he was 70 and she 30 . Those who parted company with E.V. Ramasamy joined the DMK . Though the DMK split from the Dravidar Kazhagam , the organisation made efforts to carry on E.V. Ramasamy 's Self @-@ Respect Movement to villagers and urban students . The DMK advocated the thesis that the Tamil language was much richer than Sanskrit and Hindi in content , and thus was a key which opened the door to subjects to be learned . The Dravidar Kazhagam continued to counter Brahminism , Indo @-@ Aryan propaganda , and uphold the Dravidians ' right of self @-@ determination .

= = = = Later years = = = =

In 1956 , despite warnings from P. Kakkan , the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee , Periyar organised a procession to the Marina to burn pictures of the Hindu God Rama . Periyar was subsequently arrested and confined to prison .

The activities of Periyar continued when he went to Bangalore in 1958 to participate in the All India Official Language Conference . There he stressed the need to retain English as the Union Official Language instead of Hindi . Five years later , Periyar travelled to North India to advocate the eradication of the caste system . Nearing Periyar 's last years , an award was given to him by the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , and it was presented to him by the Union Education Minister , Triguna Sen in Madras ( Chennai ) , on 27 June 1970 . In his last meeting at Thiagaraya Nagar , Chennai on 19 December 1973 , Periyar declared a call for action to gain social equality and a dignified way of life . On 24 December 1973 , Periyar died at the age of 94 .

= = Principles and legacy = =

Periyar spent over fifty years giving speeches , propagating the realisation that everyone is an equal citizen and the differences on basis of caste and creeds were man @-@ made to keep the innocent and ignorant as underdogs in the society . Although Periyar 's speeches were targeted towards the illiterate and more mundane mass , scores of educated people were also swayed . Periyar viewed reasoning as a special tool . According to him , all were blessed with this tool , but very few used it . Thus Periyar used reasoning , with respect to subjects of social interest , in his presentations to his audiences . Communal differences in Tamil society were considered by many to be deep @-@ rooted features until Periyar came to the scene . Cho Ramaswamy remarked in India Today : + −

" Periyar was accepted and acclaimed as the leader by a significant section of the Tamil population in spite of all his contempt for Tamil and disdain for Tamils only because he was perceived to be a genuine individual , a rarity among those in public life . There was no shade of hypocrisy in him and he never attempted sophistry while propounding his social philosophy . "

= = = Rationalism = = =

The bedrock of E.V. Ramasamy ’ s principles and the movements that he started was rationalism . He thought that an insignificant minority in society was exploiting the majority and trying to keep it in a subordinate position forever . He wanted the exploited to sit up and think about their position , and use their reason to realise that they were being exploited by a handful of people . If they started thinking , they would realise that they were human beings like the rest , that birth did not and should not endow superiority over others and that they must awaken themselves and do everything possible to improve their own lot .

Likewise , E.V. Ramasamy explained that wisdom lies in thinking and that the spear @-@ head of thinking is rationalism . On caste , he stated that no other living being harms or degrades its own class . But man , said to be a rational living being , does these evils . The differences , hatred , enmity , degradation , poverty , and wickedness , now prevalent in the society are due to lack of wisdom and rationalism and not due to God or the cruelty of time . E.V. Ramasamy had written in his books and magazines dozens of times of various occasions that the British rule is better than self @-@ rule

E.V. Ramasamy also blamed the capitalists for their control of machineries , creating difficulties for the workers . According to his philosophy , rationalism , which has to lead the way for peaceful life to all , had resulted in causing poverty and worries to the people because of dominating forces . He stated that there is no use of simply acquiring titles or amassing wealth if one has no self @-@ respect or scientific knowledge . An example he gave was the West sending messages to the planets , while the Tamil society in India were sending rice and cereals to their dead forefathers through the Brahmins .

In a message to the Brahmin community , Periyar stated , " in the name of god , religion , and sastras you have duped us . We were the ruling people . Stop this life of cheating us from this year . Give room for rationalism and humanism " . He added that " any opposition not based on rationalism , science , or experience will one day or another , reveal the fraud , selfishness , lies and conspiracies " .

= = = Self @-@ respect = = =

Periyar 's philosophy of self @-@ respect was based on his image of an ideal world and a universally accepted one . His philosophy preaches that human actions should be based on rational thinking . Further , the outcome of the natural instinct of human beings is to examine every object and every action and even nature with a spirit of inquiry , and to refuse to submit to anything irrational as equivalent to slavery . Thus , the philosophy of self @-@ respect taught that human actions should be guided by reason , right and wrong should follow from rational thinking and conclusions drawn from reason should be respected under circumstances . Freedom means respect to thoughts and actions considered ' right ' by human beings on the basis of ' reason ' . There is not much difference between ' freedom ' and ' self @-@ respect ' .

Periyar 's foremost appeal to people was to develop self @-@ respect . He preached that the Brahmins had monopolised and cheated other communities for decades and deprived them of self @-@ respect . He stated that most Brahmins claimed to belong to a " superior " community with the reserved privilege of being in charge of temples and performing archanas . He felt that they were trying to reassert their control over religion by using their superior caste status to claim the exclusive privilege to touch idols or enter the sanctum sanctorum .

= = = Women ’ s rights = = =

As a rationalist and ardent social reformer , Periyar advocated forcefully throughout his life that women should be given their legitimate position in society as the equals of men and that they should be given good education and have the right to property . He thought age and social customs was not a bar in marrying women . He was keen that women should realise their rights and be worthy citizens of their country .

Periyar fought against the orthodox traditions of marriage as suppression of women in Tamil Nadu and throughout the Indian sub @-@ continent . Though arranged marriages were meant to enable a couple to live together throughout life , it was manipulated to enslave women . Much worse was the practice of child marriages practised throughout India at the time . Periyar married Maniammai who is 40 years younger than him though . It was believed that it would be a sin to marry after puberty . Another practice , which is prevalent today , is the dowry system where the bride 's family is supposed to give the husband a huge payment for the bride . The purpose of this was to assist the newly wedded couple financially , but in many instances dowries were misused by bridegrooms . The outcome of this abuse turned to the exploitation of the bride 's parents wealth , and in certain circumstances , lead to dowry deaths . There have been hundreds of thousands of cases where wives have been murdered , mutilated , and burned alive because the father of the bride was unable to make the dowry payment to the husband . Periyar fiercely stood up against this abuse meted out against women .

Women in India also did not have rights to their families ' or husbands ' property . Periyar fought fiercely for this and also advocated for the women to have the right to separate or divorce their husbands under reasonable circumstances . While birth control remained taboo in society of Periyar 's time , he advocated for it not only for the health of women and population control , but for the liberation of women .

He criticised the hypocrisy of chastity for women and argued that it should also either belong to men , or not at all for both individuals . While fighting against this , Periyar advocated to get rid of the Devadasi system . In his view it was an example of a list of degradations of women attaching them to temples for the entertainment of others , and as temple prostitutes . As a further liberation of women , Periyar pushed for the right of women to have an education and to join the armed services and the police force .

According to biographer M.D. Gopalakrishnan , Periyar and his movement achieved a better status for women in Tamil society . Periyar held that in matters of education and employment there should be no difference between men and women . Gopalakrishnan states that Periyar 's influence in the State departments and even the Center made it possible for women to join police departments and the army . Periyar also spoke out against child marriage .

= = = Social reform and eradication of caste = = =

Periyar wanted thinking people to see their society as far from perfect and in urgent need of reform . He wanted the government , the political parties and social workers to identify the evils in society and boldly adopt measures to remove them . Periyar 's philosophy did not differentiate social and political service . According to him , the first duty of a government is to run the social organisation efficiently , and the philosophy of religion was to organise the social system . Periyar stated that while Christian and Islamic religions were fulfilling this role , the Hindu religion remained totally unsuitable for social progress . He argued that the government was not for the people , but , in a " topsy @-@ turvy " manner , the people were for the government . He attributed this situation to the state of the social system contrived for the advantage of a small group of people .

One of the areas of Periyar 's focus was on the upliftment of rural communities . In a booklet called Village Uplift , Periyar pleaded for rural reform . At that time rural India still formed the largest part of the Indian subcontinent , in spite of the ongoing process of urbanisation . Thus , the distinction between rural and urban had meant an economic and social degradation for rural inhabitants . Periyar wanted to eradicate the concept of " village " as a discrimination word among places , just as the concept of " outcast " among social groups . Periyar advocated for a location where neither the name nor the situation or its conditions imply differences among people . He further advocated for the modernisation of villages by providing public facilities such as schools , libraries , radio stations , roads , bus transport , and police stations .

Periyar felt that a small number of cunning people created caste distinctions to dominate over society , so he emphasised that individuals must first develop self @-@ respect and learn to analyse propositions rationally . According to Periyar , a self @-@ respecting rationalist would readily realise that caste system had been stifling self @-@ respect and therefore he or she would strive to get rid of this menace .

Periyar stated that the caste system in south India is , due to Indo @-@ Aryan influence , linked with the arrival of Brahmins from the north . Ancient Tamil Nadu ( part of Tamilakkam ) had a different stratification of society in four or five regions ( Tinai ) , determined by natural surroundings and adequate means of living . Periyar also argued that birds , animals , and worms , which are considered to be devoid of rationalism do not create castes , or differences of high and low in their own species . But man , considered to be a rational being , was suffering from these because of religion and discrimination .

= = = Tamil language and writing = = =

Periyar claimed that Tamil , Telugu , Malayalam , and Kannada came from the same mother language of Old Tamil . He explained that the Tamil language is called by four different names since it is spoken in four different Dravidian states . Nevertheless , current understanding of Dravidian languages contains statements contradicting such claims . For example , the currently known classification of Dravidian languages provides the following distinct classes : Southern ( including Tamil – Kannada ( Malayalam ) and Tulu ) ; Central ( including Telugu – Kui and Kolami – Parji ) ; and , Northern ( including Kurukh – Malto and Brahui ) . Additionally , statements on the presence of evidence for linking Dravidian languages and Indo @-@ European languages are available .

With relation to writing , Periyar stated that using the Tamil script about the arts , which are useful to the people in their life and foster knowledge , talent and courage , and propagating them among the masses , will enlighten the people . Further , he explained that it will enrich the language , and thus it can be regarded as a zeal for Tamil . Periyar also stated that if words of North Indian origin ( Sanskrit ) are removed from Telugu , Kannada , and Malayalam , only Tamil will be left . On the Brahmin usage of Tamil , he stated how the Tamil spoken by the Andhras and the Malayalee peoples was far better than the Tamil spoken by the Brahmins . Periyar believed that Tamil language will make the Dravidian people unite under the banner of Tamil culture , and that it will make the Kannadigas , Andhras and the Malayalees be vigilant . With regards to a Dravidian alliance under a common umbrella language , Periyar stated that " a time will come for unity . This will go on until there is an end to the North Indian domination . We shall reclaim an independent sovereign state for us " .

At the same time , Periyar was also known to have made controversial remarks on the Tamil language and people from time to time . On one occasion , he referred to the Tamil people as " barbarians " and the Tamil language as the " language of barbarians " . However , Anita Diehl explains that Periyar made these remarks on Tamil because it had no respective feminine verbal forms .

Periyar 's ideas on Tamil alphabet reforms and his reasons were for the following such as the vowel ' ஈ ' ( i ) , having a cursive and looped representation of the short form , ' இ ' ( I ) . In stone inscriptions from 400 or 500 years ago , many Tamil letters are found in other shapes . As a matter of necessity and advantage to cope with printing technology , Periyar thought that it was sensible to change a few letters , reduce the number of letters , and alter a few signs . He further explained that the older and the more divine a language and its letters were said to be , the more they needed reform . Because of changes brought about by means of modern transport and international contact , and happenings that have attracted words and products from many countries , foreign words and their pronunciations have been assimilated into Tamil quite easily . Just as a few compound characters have separate signs to indicate their length as in ' கா ' , ' கே ' ( kA : , kE : ) , Periyar argued why should not other compound characters like ' கி ' , ' கீ ' , ' கு ' , ' கூ ' ( kI , ki : , kU , ku : ) ( indicated integrally as of now ) , also have separate signs . Further , changing the shape of letters , creating new symbols and adding new letters and similarly , dropping those that are redundant , were quite essential according to Periyar . Thus , the glory and excellence of a language and its script depend on how easily they can be understood or learned and on nothing else "

= = = Thoughts on Thirukkural = = =

Periyar hailed the Thirukkural as a valuable scripture which contained many scientific and philosophical truths . He also praised the secular nature of the work . Periyar praised Thiruvalluvar for his description of God as a formless entity with only positive attributes . He also suggested that one who reads the Thirukkural will become a Self @-@ respecter , absorbing knowledge in politics , society , and economics . According to him , though certain items in this ancient book of ethics may not relate to today , it permitted such changes for modern society .

On caste , he believed that the Kural illustrates how Vedic laws of Manu were against the Sudras and other communities of the Dravidian race . On the other hand , Periyar opined that the ethics from the Kural was comparable to the Christian Bible . The Dravidar Kazhagam adopted the Thirukkural and advocated that Thiruvalluvar 's Kural alone was enough to educate the people of the country . One of Periyar 's quotes on the Thirukkural from Veeramani 's Collected Works of Periyar was " when Dravida Nadu ( Dravidistan ) was a victim to Indo @-@ Aryan deceit , Thirukkural was written by a great Dravidian Thiruvalluvar to free the Dravidians " .

= = = Self @-@ determination of Dravida Nadu = = =

The Dravidian @-@ Aryan conflict was believed to be a continuous historical phenomenon that started when the Aryans first set their foot in the Dravidian lands . Even a decade before the idea of separation appeared , Periyar stated that , " as long as Aryan religion , Indo @-@ Aryan domination , propagation of Aryan Vedas and Aryan " Varnashrama " existed , there was need for a " Dravidian Progressive Movement " and a " Self @-@ Respect Movement " . Periyar became very concerned about the growing north Indian domination over the south which appeared to him no different from foreign domination . He wanted to secure the fruits of labour of the Dravidians to the Dravidians , and lamented that fields such as political , economic , industrial , social , art , and spiritual were dominated by the north for the benefit of the north Indians . Thus , with the approach of independence from Britain , this fear that North India would take the place of Britain to dominate south India became more and more intense .

Periyar was clear about the concept of a separate nation , comprising Tamil areas , that is part of the then existing Madras Presidency with adjoining areas into a federation guaranteeing protection of minorities , including religious , linguistic , and cultural freedom of the people . A separatist conference was held in June 1940 at Kanchipuram when Periyar released the map of the proposed Dravida Nadu , but failed to get British approval . On the contrary , Periyar received sympathy and support from people such as Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Muhammad Ali Jinnah for his views on the Congress , and for his opposition to Hindi . They then decided to convene a movement to resist the Congress .

The concept of Dravida Nadu was later modified down to Tamil Nadu This led to a proposal of a union of the Tamil people of not only South India but including those of Ceylon as well . In 1953 , Periyar helped to preserve Madras as the capital of Tamil Nadu , which later was the name he substituted for the more general Dravida Nadu . In 1955 Periyar threatened to burn the national flag , but on Chief Minister Kamaraj 's pledge that Hindi should not be compulsory he postponed the action . In his speech of 1957 called Suthantara Tamil Nadu En ? ( Why an independent Tamil Nadu ? ) , he criticised the Central Government of India inducing thousands of Tamilians to burn the constitution of India . The reason for this action was that Periyar held the Government responsible for maintaining the caste system . After stating reasons for separation and turning down opinions against it he closed his speech with a " war cry " to join and burn the map of India on 5 June . Periyar was sentenced to six months imprisonment for burning the Indian constitution .

Advocacy of such a nation became illegal when separatist demands were banned by law in 1957 . Regardless of these measures , a Dravida Nadu Separation Day was observed on 17 September 1960 resulting in numerous arrests . However , Periyar resumed his campaign in 1968 . He wrote an editorial on ' Tamil Nadu for Tamilians ' in which he stated , that by nationalism only Brahmins had prospered and nationalism had been developed to abolish the rights of Tamils . He advocated that there was need to establish a Tamil Nadu Freedom Organization and that it was necessary to work towards it .

= = = Anti @-@ Brahmanism vs. Anti @-@ Brahmin = = =

Periyar was a radical advocate of anti @-@ Brahmanism . Periyar 's ideology of anti @-@ Brahmanism is quite often confused as being anti @-@ Brahmin . Brahmanism is accepting social inequality based on birth . Even a non @-@ Brahmin who supports inequality based on caste was seen as a supporter of brahmanism . Periyar called on both Brahmins and non @-@ Brahmins to shun brahmanism .

In 1920 , when the Justice Party came to power , Brahmins occupied about 70 percent of the high level posts in government . After reservation was introduced by the Justice Party , it reversed this trend , allowing non @-@ Brahmins to rise in the government of the Madras Presidency . Periyar , through the Justice Party , advocated against the imbalance of the domination of Brahmins who constituted only 3 percent of the Population over Government jobs , judiciary and the Madras University . His Self @-@ Respect Movement espoused rationalism and atheism and the movement had currents of anti @-@ Brahminism . Furthermore , Periyar stated that :

" Our Dravidian movement does not exist against the Brahmins or the Banias ( a North Indian merchant caste ) . If anyone thinks so , I would only pity him . But we will not tolerate the ways in which Brahminism and the Bandiaism is degrading Dravidanadu . Whatever support they may have from the government , neither myself nor my movement will be of cowardice " .

Periyar also criticised Subramanya Bharathi in the journal Ticutar for portraying Mother Tamil as a sister of Sanskrit in his poems :

" They say Bharati is an immortal poet . … Even if a rat dies in an akrakāram , they would declare it to be immortal . … of Tamilnadu praises him . Why should this be so ? Supposedly because he sang fulsome praises of Tamil and Tamilnadu . What else could he sing ? His own mother tongue , Sanskrit , has been dead for years . What other language did he know ? He cannot sing in Sanskrit . … He says Tamilnadu is the land of Aryas . "

= = = Comparisons with Gandhi = = =

In the Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924 , Periyar and Gandhi both cooperated and confronted each other in socio @-@ political action . Periyar and his followers emphasised the difference in point of view between Gandhi and himself on the social issues , such as fighting the Untouchability Laws and eradication of the caste system .

According to the booklet Gandhi and Periyar Periyar wrote in his paper Kudi Arasu , in 1925 , reporting on the fact that Gandhi was ousted from the Mahasabha , because he opposed resolutions for the maintaining of caste and Untouchability Laws which would spoil his efforts to bring about Hindu @-@ Muslim unity . From this Gandhi learned the need of pleasing the Brahmins if anything was to be achieved .

Peiryar in his references to Gandhi used opportunities to present Gandhi as on principle serving the interests of the Brahmins. in 1927 , Periyar and Gandhi met at Bangalore to discuss this matter . The main difference between them came out when Periyar stood for the total eradication of Hinduism to which Gandhi objected saying that Hinduism is not fixed in doctrines but can be changed . In the Kudi Arasu , Periyar explained that :

" With all his good qualities , Gandhi did not bring the people forward from foolish and evil ways . His murderer was an educated man . Therefore nobody can say this is a time of high culture . If you eat poison you will die . If electricity hits the body you will die . If you oppose the Brahmin you will die . Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of Varnasrama Dharma structure but sees in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure . The consequence of this would be continued high @-@ caste leadership . Gandhi adapted Brahmins to social change without depriving them of their leadership " .

Thus , Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of the Varnasrama Dharma structure but saw in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure . The consequence of this would be continued high @-@ caste leadership . Gandhi accepted karma in the sense that " the Untouchables reap the reward of their karma , but was against discrimination against them using the revaluing term Harijans . As shown in the negotiations at Vaikom his methods of abolishing discrimination were : to stress on the orthodox inhumane treatment of Untouchables ; to secure voluntary lifting of the ban by changing the hearts of caste Hindus ; and to work within a Hindu framework of ideas .

On the Temple Entry issue Gandhi never advocated the opening of Garbha Griha to Harijans in consequence of his Hindu belief . These sources which can be labelled " pro @-@ Periyar " with the exception of M. Mahar and D.S. Sharma , clearly show that Periyar and his followers emphasised that Periyar was the real fighter for the removal of Untouchability and the true uplift of Hairjans , whereas Gandhi was not . This did not prevent Periyar from having faith in Gandhi on certain matters .

= = = Religion and atheism = = =

Periyar was generally regarded as a pragmatic propagandist who attacked the evils of religious influence on society , mainly what he regarded as Brahmin domination . At a young age , he felt that some people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and considered it as his life 's mission to warn people against superstitions and priests . Anita Diehl explains that Periyar cannot be called an atheist philosopher . Periyar , however , qualified for the definition of what the term ' atheist ' implies in his address on philosophy . He repudiated the term as without real sense : " … the talk of the atheist should be considered thoughtless and erroneous . The thing I call god ... that makes all people equal and free , the god that does not stop free thinking and research , the god that does not ask for money , flattery and temples can certainly be an object of worship . For saying this much I have been called an atheist , a term that has no meaning " . EVR Periyar a born Hindu was vehemently opposed to Hinduism and Christianity . He did not criticize Islam .

Anita Diehl explains that Periyar was against incompatibility of faith with social equality and not religion itself . In a book on revolution published in 1961 , Periyar stated , " be of help to people . Do not use treachery or deceit . Speak the truth and do not cheat . That indeed is service to God " .

On Hinduism , Periyar believed that it was a religion with no distinctive sacred book ( bhagawad gita ) , or origins , but to be an imaginary faith preaching the " superiority " of the Brahmins , the inferiority of the Shudras , and the untouchability of the Dalits ( Panchamas ) . Maria Misra , a lecturer at Oxford University , compares him to the philosophes , by stating , " his contemptuous attitude to the baleful influence of Hinduism in Indian public life is strikingly akin to the anti @-@ Catholic diatribes of the enlightenment philosophes " . In 1955 , Periyar was arrested for his public agitation of burning the pictures of Rama at public places , as a symbolic protest against the Indo @-@ Aryan domination and degradation of the Dravidian leadership according to the Ramayana epic . Periyar also shoed the images of Krishna and Rama , stating that they were Aryan gods that considered the Dravidian Shudras to be " sons of prostitutes " .

Periyar openly suggested to those who were marginalised within the Hindu communities to consider converting to other faiths such as Islam , Christianity , or Buddhism . On Islam , he stated how it was good for abolishing the disgrace in human relationship , based on one of his speeches to railway employees at Tiruchirapalli in 1947 . Periyar also commended Islam for its belief in one invisible and formless God ; proclamation of equal rights for men and women ; and advocating of social unity .

At the rally in Tiruchi , Periyar said :

" Muslims are following the ancient philosophies of the Dravidians . The Arabic word for Dravidian religion is Islam . When Brahmanism was imposed in this country , it was Mohammad Nabi who opposed it , by instilling the Dravidian religion 's policies as Islam in the minds of the people "

Periyar viewed Christianity similar to the monotheistic faith of Islam . He explained that their faith says that there can be only one God which has no name or shape . Periyar took an interest in Rev. Martin Luther , where both he and his followers wanted to liken him and his role to that of the European reformer . Thus , Christian views such as that of Ram Mohan Roy 's The Precepts of Jesus has had at least an indirect influence on Periyar .

Apart from Islam and Christianity , Periyar also found in Buddhism a basis for his philosophy though he did not accept that religion . It was again an alternative in the search for self @-@ respect and the object was to get liberation from the discrimination of Hinduism . Through Periyar 's movement Temple Entry Acts of 1924 , 1931 , and up to 1950 were created for the non @-@ Brahmins . Another accomplishment took place during the 1970s when Tamil replaced Sanskrit as the Temple language in Tamil Nadu , while Dalits were finally eligible for priesthood .

= = = Controversies = = =

= = = = Factionism in the Justice Party = = = =

When B. Munuswamy Naidu became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency in 1930 , he endorsed the inclusion of Brahmins in the Justice Party , saying :

So long as we exclude one community , we cannot as a political speak on behalf of or claim to represent all the people of our presidency . If , as we hope , provincial autonomy is given to the provinces as a result of the reforms that may be granted , it should be essential that our Federation should be in a position to claim to be a truly representative body of all communities . What objection can there be to admit such Brahmins as are willing to subscribe to the aims and objects of our Federation ? It may be that the Brahmins may not join even if the ban is removed . But surely our Federation will not thereafter be open to objection on the ground that it is an exclusive organisation .

Though certain members supported the resolution , a faction in the Justice Party known as the " Ginger Group " opposed the resolution and eventually voted it down . Periyar , who was then an observer in the Justice Party , criticised Munuswamy Naidu , saying :

At a time when non @-@ Brahmins in other parties were gradually coming over to the Justice Party , being fed up with the Brahmin 's methods and ways of dealing with political questions , it was nothing short of folly to think of admitting him into the ranks of the Justice Party .

This factionism continued until 1932 when Munuswamy Naidu stepped down as the Chief Minister of Madras and the Raja of Bobbili became the chief minister .

= = Followers and influence = =

After the death of Periyar in 1973 , conferences were held throughout Tamil Nadu for a week in January 1974 . The same year Periyar 's wife , Maniyammai , the new head of the Dravidar Kazhagam , set fire to the effigies of ' Rama ' , ' Sita ' and ' Lakshmana ' at Periyar Thidal , Madras . This was in retaliation to the Ramaleela celebrations where effigies of ' Ravana ' , ' Kumbakarna ' and ' Indrajit ' were burnt in New Delhi . For this act she was imprisoned . During the 1974 May Day meetings held at different places in Tamil Nadu , a resolution urging the Government to preserve 80 percent of jobs for Tamils was passed . Soon after this , a camp was held at Periyar Mansion in Tiruchirapalli to train young men and women to spread the ideals of the Dravidar Kazhagam in rural areas .

On Periyar 's birthday on 17 September 1974 , Periyar 's Rationalist Library and Research Library and Research Institute was opened by Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi . This library contained Periyar 's rationalist works , the manuscripts of Periyar and his recorded speeches . Also during the same year Periyar 's ancestral home in Erode , was dedicated as a commemoration building . On 20 February 1977 , the opening function of Periyar Building in Madras was held . At the meeting which the Managing Committee of the Dravidar Kazhagam held , there on that day , it was decided to support the candidates belonging to the Janata Party , the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) , and the Marxist Party during the General Elections .

On 16 March 1978 , Maniyammai died . The Managing Committee of the Dravidar Kazhagam elected K. Veeramani as General Secretary of the Dravidar Kazhagam on 17 March 1978 . From then on , the Periyar @-@ Maniyammai Educational and Charitable Society started the Periyar Centenary Women 's Polytechnic at Thanjavur on 21 September 1980 . On 8 May 1982 , the College for Correspondence Education was started under the auspices of the Periyar Rationalist Propaganda Organization .

Over the years , Periyar 's influence had an impact on Tamil Nadus political party heads such as C.N. Annadurai and M. Karunanidhi of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ' ( DMK ) , V. Gopalswamy founder of the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( MDMK ) , S. Ramadoss founder of the Pattali Makkal Katchi ( PMK ) , Thol . Thirumavalavan , founder of the Dalit Panthers of India ( DPI ) , and Dravidar Kazhagam 's K. Veeramani . Other political figures influenced by Periyar were former Congress minister K. Kamaraj , former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati . Periyar 's life and teachings have also influenced writers and poets such as Kavignar Inkulab , and Bharathidasan including actors such as Kamal Hassan and Sathyaraj . Noted Tamil Comedian N. S. Krishnan was a close friend and follower of Periyar.W. P. A. Soundarapandian Nadar was a close confidant of Periyar and encouraged Nadars to be a part of the Self @-@ Respect Movement .

= = In popular culture = =

Sathyaraj and Khushboo Sundar starred in a government @-@ sponsored film Periyar released in 2007 . Directed by Gnana Rajasekaran , the film was screened in Malaysia on 1 May 2007 and was screened at the Goa International Film Festival in November that year . Sathyaraj reprised his role as Periyar in the film Kalavadiya Pozhudugal directed by Thangar Bachan which released in late 2010 .

= Moonraker ( novel ) =

Moonraker is the third novel by the British author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond . It was published by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1955 and featured a cover design conceived by Fleming . The plot is derived from a Fleming screenplay that was too short for a full novel so he added the bridge passage between Bond and the industrialist Hugo Drax . In the latter half of the novel , the premise of Bond seconded to Drax 's staff as the businessman builds the Moonraker , a prototype missile designed to defend England . Unknown to Bond , Drax is German , an ex @-@ Nazi now working for the Soviets ; his plan is to build the rocket , arm it with a nuclear warhead , and fire it at London . Uniquely for a Bond novel , Moonraker is set entirely in Britain , which raised comments from some readers , complaining about the lack of exotic locations .

Moonraker , like Fleming 's previous novels , was well received by critics . Moonraker plays on a number of 1950s fears , including attack by rockets ( following the V @-@ 2 strikes of the Second World War ) , Soviet communism , the re @-@ emergence of Nazism and the " threat from within " posed by both ideologies . Fleming examines Englishness , and the novel shows the virtues and strength of England . Adaptations include a broadcast on South African radio in 1956 starring Bob Holness and a 1958 Daily Express comic strip . The novel 's name was used in 1979 for the eleventh official film in the Eon Productions Bond series and the fourth to star Roger Moore as Bond ; the plot was significantly changed from the novel to include excursions into space .

= = Plot = =

The British Secret Service agent James Bond is asked by his superior , M , to join him at M 's club , Blades . A club member , the multi @-@ millionaire businessman Sir Hugo Drax , is winning considerable money playing bridge , seemingly against the odds . M suspects Drax is cheating , and while claiming indifference , is concerned as to why a multi @-@ millionaire and national hero would cheat . Bond confirms Drax 's deception and manages to turn the tables — aided by a pack of stacked cards — and wins £ 15 @,@ 000 .

Drax is the product of a mysterious background , purportedly unknown even to himself . Presumed to have been a British Army soldier during the Second World War , he was badly injured and stricken with amnesia in the explosion of a bomb planted by a German saboteur at a British field headquarters . After extensive rehabilitation in an army hospital , he returned home to become a wealthy industrialist . After building his fortune and establishing himself in business and society , Drax started building the " Moonraker " , Britain 's first nuclear missile project , intended to defend Britain against its Cold War enemies . The Moonraker rocket was to be an upgraded V @-@ 2 rocket using liquid hydrogen and fluorine as propellants ; to withstand the ultra @-@ high combustion temperatures of its engine , it used columbite , in which Drax had a monopoly . Because the rocket 's engine could withstand high heat , the Moonraker was able to use these powerful fuels , greatly expanding its effective range .

After a Ministry of Supply security officer working at the project is shot dead , M assigns Bond to replace him and also to investigate what has been going on at the missile @-@ building base , located between Dover and Deal on the south coast of England . All the rocket scientists working on the project are German . At his post on the complex , Bond meets Gala Brand , a beautiful police Special Branch officer working undercover as Drax 's personal assistant . Bond also uncovers clues concerning his predecessor 's death , concluding that the man may have been killed for witnessing a submarine off the coast .

Drax 's henchman Krebs is caught by Bond snooping through his room . Later , an attempted assassination by triggering a landslide nearly kills Bond and Brand , as they swim beneath the Dover cliffs . Drax takes Brand to London , where she discovers the truth about the Moonraker by comparing her own launch trajectory figures with those in a notebook picked from Drax 's pocket . She is captured by Krebs , and finds herself captive in a secret radio homing station — intended to serve as a beacon for the missile 's guidance system — in the heart of London . While she is being taken back to the Moonraker facility by Drax , Bond gives chase , but is also captured by Drax and Krebs .

Drax tells Bond that he was never a British soldier and has never suffered from amnesia : he was Graf Hugo von der Drache , the German commander of a Skorzeny commando unit . He was the saboteur whose team had placed the car bomb at the army field headquarters , only to be injured himself in the detonation . The amnesia story was simply a cover he used while recovering in hospital , in order to avoid Allied retribution , although it would lead to a whole new British identity . Drax remains a dedicated Nazi , bent on revenge against England for the wartime defeat of his Fatherland and his prior history of social slights suffered as a youth growing up in an English boarding school before the war . He explains that he now means to destroy London with the missile he had constructed , by means of a Soviet @-@ supplied nuclear warhead that has been secretly fitted to the Moonraker . He also plans to play the stock market the day before to make a huge profit from the imminent disaster .

Brand and Bond are imprisoned where the blast from the Moonraker 's engines will incinerate them , to leave no trace of them once the Moonraker is launched . Before the firing , the couple escape . Brand gives Bond the proper coordinates to redirect the gyros and send the Moonraker into the sea . Having been in collaboration with Soviet Intelligence all along , Drax and his henchman attempt to escape by Russian submarine — only to be killed as the vessel flees through the waters onto which the Moonraker has been retargeted . After their debriefing at headquarters , Bond meets up with Brand , expecting her company — but they part ways after she reveals that she is engaged to a fellow Special Branch officer .

= = Background and writing history = =

In early 1953 the film producer Alexander Korda read a proof copy of Live and Let Die , and informed its author , Ian Fleming , that he was excited by the book , but that it would not make a good basis for a film . Fleming told the producer that his next book was to be an expansion of an idea for a screenplay , set in London and Kent , adding that the location would allow " for some wonderful film settings in the old metropolis idiom " .

Fleming undertook a significant amount of background research in preparation for writing Moonraker ; he asked his fellow correspondent on The Sunday Times , Anthony Terry , for information on the Second World War German resistance force — the Werewolves — and German V @-@ 2 rockets . The latter was a subject on which he wrote to the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke and the British Interplanetary Society . Fleming also visited the Wimpole Street psychiatrist Eric Strauss to discuss the traits of megalomaniacs ; Strauss lent him the book Men of Genius , which provided the link between megalomania and childhood thumb @-@ sucking . Fleming used this information to give Drax diastema , a common result of thumb @-@ sucking . According to his biographer Andrew Lycett , Fleming " wanted to make Moonraker his most ambitious and personal novel yet . " Fleming , a keen card player , was fascinated by the background to the 1890 royal baccarat scandal , and when in 1953 he met a woman who had been present at the game , he questioned her so intently that she burst into tears .

In January 1954 Fleming and his wife , Ann , travelled to their Goldeneye estate in Jamaica for their annual two @-@ month holiday . He had already written two Bond novels , Casino Royale , which had been published in April 1953 , and Live and Let Die , whose publication was imminent . He began writing Moonraker on his arrival in the Caribbean . He later wrote an article for Books and Bookmen magazine describing his approach to writing , in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " By 24 February he had written over 30 @,@ 000 words , although he wrote to a friend that he felt like he was already parodying the two earlier Bond novels . Fleming 's own copy bears the following inscription , " This was written in January and February 1954 and published a year later . It is based on a film script I have had in my mind for many years . " He later said that the idea for the film had been too short for a full novel , and that he " had to more or less graft the first half of the book onto my film idea in order to bring it up to the necessary length " .

Fleming considered a number of titles for the story ; his first choice had been The Moonraker , until Noël Coward reminded him of a novel of the same name by F. Tennyson Jesse . Fleming then considered The Moonraker Secret , The Moonraker Plot , The Inhuman Element , Wide of the Mark , The Infernal Machine , Mondays are Hell and Out of the Clear Sky . George Wren Howard of Jonathan Cape suggested Bond & the Moonraker , The Moonraker Scare and The Moonraker Plan , while his friend , the writer William Plomer , suggested Hell is Here ; the final choice of Moonraker was a suggestion by Wren Howard .

Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Moonraker in 1953 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in May of that year .

= = Development = =

= = = Plot inspirations = = =

The locations draw from Fleming 's personal experiences . Moonraker is the only Bond novel that takes place solely in Britain , which gave Fleming the chance to write about the England he cherished , such as the Kent countryside , including the White Cliffs of Dover , and London clubland . Fleming owned a cottage in St Margaret 's at Cliffe , near Dover , and he went to great lengths to get the details of the area right , including lending his car to his stepson to time the journey from London to Deal for the car chase passage . Fleming used his experiences of London clubs for the background of the Blades scenes . As a clubman , he enjoyed membership of Boodle 's , White 's and the Portland Club , and a combination of Boodles and the Portland Club is thought to be the model for Blades ; the author Michael Dibdin found the scene in the club to be " surely one of the finest things that Ian Fleming ever did . "

The early chapters of the novel centre on Bond 's private life , with Fleming using his own lifestyle as a basis for Bond 's . Fleming used further aspects of his private life , such as his friends , as he had done in his previous novels : Hugo Drax was named after his brother @-@ in @-@ law Hugo Charteris and a navy acquaintance Admiral Sir Reginald Aylmer Ranfurly Plunkett @-@ Ernle @-@ Erle @-@ Drax , while Fleming 's friend Duff Sutherland ( described as " a scruffy looking chap " ) was one of the bridge players at Blades . The name of the Scotland Yard superintendent , Ronnie Vallance , was made up from those of Ronald Howe , the actual assistant commissioner at the Yard , and of Vallance Lodge & Co . , Fleming 's accountants . Other elements of the plot came from Fleming 's knowledge of wartime operations carried out by T @-@ Force , a secret British Army unit formed to continue the work of the Fleming @-@ established 30 Assault Unit .

= = = Characters = = =

According to the author Raymond Benson , Moonraker is a deeper and more introspective book than Fleming 's previous work , which allows the author to develop the characters further . As such , Bond " becomes something more than ... [ the ] cardboard figure " that he had been in the previous two novels . The start of the book concentrates on Bond at home and his daily routines , which Fleming describes as " Elastic office hours from around ten until six , ... evenings spent playing cards in the company of a few close friends , ... or making love , with rather cold passion , to one of three similarly disposed married women . " This lifestyle was largely modelled on Fleming 's own , which the journalist and writer Matthew Parker sees as showing " a sourness " in the author 's character . According to Chancellor , two of Bond 's other vices were also displayed in the book : his fondness for gambling — illegal except in private members clubs in 1955 — and excessive drink and drug taking , neither of which were frowned upon in post @-@ war upper class circles . In preparation for beating Drax at cards , Bond consumes a vodka martini , a carafe of vodka shared with M , two bottles of champagne and a brandy ; he also mixes a quantity of Benzedrine , an amphetamine , into a glass of the champagne . According to The Times journalist and historian Ben Macintyre , to Fleming the alcohol consumption " meant relaxation , ritual and reliability " . Benzedrine was regularly taken by troops during the war to remain awake and alert , and Fleming was an occasional consumer .

Drax is physically abnormal , as are many of Bond 's later adversaries . He has very broad shoulders , a large head and protruding teeth with diastema ; his face is badly scarred from a wartime explosion . According to the writers Kingsley Amis and Benson — both of whom subsequently wrote Bond novels — Drax is the most successful villain in the Bond canon . Amis considers this to be " because the most imagination and energy has gone into his portrayal . He lives in the real world ... [ and ] his physical presence fills Moonraker . The view is shared by Chancellor , who considers Drax " perhaps the most believable " of all Fleming 's villains . The cultural historian Jeremy Black writes that as with Le Chiffre and Mr Big — the villains of the first two Bond novels — Drax 's origins and war history are vital to an understanding of the character . Like several other antagonists in the Bond canon , Drax was German , reminding readers of a familiar threat in 1950s Britain . Because Drax is without a girlfriend or wife he is , according to the norms of Fleming and his works , abnormal in Bond 's world .

Benson considers Brand to be one of the weakest female roles in the Bond canon and " a throwback to the rather stiff characterization of Vesper Lynd " from Casino Royale . Brand 's lack of interest in Bond removes sexual tension from the novel ; she is unique in the canon for being the one woman that Bond does not seduce . The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett write that the perceived reserve shown by Brand to Bond was not due to frigidity , but to her engagement to a fellow police officer .

M is another character who is more fully realised than in the previous novels , and for the first time in the series he is shown outside a work setting at the Blades club . It is never explained how he received or could afford his membership of the club , which had a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen , all of whom had to show £ 100 @,@ 000 in cash or gilt @-@ edged securities . Amis , in his study The James Bond Dossier , considers that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling ; Amis points out that in the 1963 book On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6 @,@ 500 a year .

= = Style = =

Benson analysed Fleming 's writing style and identified what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " : a stylistic technique that sweeps the reader from one chapter to another using ' hooks ' at the end of each chapter to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next : Benson feels that the sweep in Moonraker was not as pronounced as Fleming 's previous works , largely due to the lack of action sequences in the novel .

According to the literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek , in his examination of 20th @-@ century British spy novels , in Moonraker Fleming uses a technique closer to the detective story than to the thriller genre . This manifests itself in Fleming placing clues to the plot line throughout the story , and leaving Drax 's unveiling of his plan until the later chapters . Black sees that the pace of the novel is set by the launch of the rocket ( there are four days between Bond 's briefing by M and the launch ) while Amis considers that the story to have a " rather hurried " ending .

Moonraker uses a literary device Fleming employs elsewhere , that of having a seemingly trivial incident between the main characters — the card game — that leads to the uncovering of a greater incident — the main plot involving the rocket . Dibdin sees gambling as the common link , thus the card game acts as an " introduction to the ensuing encounter ... for even higher stakes " . Savoye sees this concept of competition between Bond and villain as a " notion of game and the eternal fight between Order and Disorder " , common throughout the Bond stories .

= = Themes = =

Parker describes the novel as " a hymn to England " , and highlights Fleming 's description of the white cliffs of Dover and the heart of London as evidence . Even the German Krebs is moved by the sight of the Kent countryside in a country he hates . The novel places England — and particularly London and Kent — in the front line of the cold war , and the threat to the location further emphasises its importance . Bennett and Woollacott consider that Moonraker defines the strengths and virtues of England and Englishness as being the " quiet and orderly background of English institutions " , which are threatened by the disturbance Drax brings .

The literary critic Meir Sternberg considers the theme of English identity can be seen in the confrontation between Drax and Bond . Drax — whose real name Drache is German for dragon — is in opposition to Bond , who takes the role of Saint George in the conflict .

As with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die , Moonraker involves the idea of the " traitor within " . Drax , real name Graf Hugo von der Drache , is a " megalomaniac German Nazi who masquerades as an English gentleman " , while Krebs bears the same name as Hitler 's last Chief of Staff . Black sees that , in using a German as the novel 's main enemy , " Fleming ... exploits another British cultural antipathy of the 1950s . Germans , in the wake of the Second World War , made another easy and obvious target for bad press . " Moonraker uses two of the foes feared by Fleming , the Nazis and the Soviets , with Drax being German and working for the Soviets ; in Moonraker the Soviets were hostile and provided not just the atomic bomb , but support and logistics to Drax . Moonraker played on fears of the audiences of the 1950s of rocket attacks from overseas , fears grounded in the use of the V @-@ 2 rocket by the Nazis during the Second World War . The story takes the threat one stage further , with a rocket based on English soil , aimed at London and " the end of British invulnerability " .

= = Publication and reception = =

= = = Publication history = = =

Moonraker was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape in hardback format on 5 April 1955 with a cover designed by Kenneth Lewis , following Fleming 's suggestions of using a stylised flame motif ; the first impression was of 9 @,@ 900 copies . The US publication was by Macmillan on 20 September that year . In October 1956 Pan Books published a paperback version of the novel in the UK , which sold 43 @,@ 000 copies before the end of the year . In December that year the US paperback was published under the title Too Hot to Handle by Permabooks . This edition was rewritten to Americanise the British idioms used , and Fleming provided a number of explanatory footnotes such as the value of English currency against the dollar . Since its initial publication the book has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .

= = = Reception = = =

Fleming 's friend — and neighbour in Jamaica — Noël Coward considered Moonraker to be the best thing Fleming had written to that point : " although as usual too far @-@ fetched , not quite so much so as the last two ... His observation is extraordinary and his talent for description vivid . " Fleming received numerous letters from readers complaining about the lack of exotic locations ; one of which protested " We want taking out of ourselves , not sitting on the beach in Dover . "

Julian Symons , writing in The Times Literary Supplement , found Moonraker " a disappointment " , and considered that " Fleming 's tendency ... to parody the form of the thriller , has taken charge in the second half of this story . " Maurice Richardson , in his review for The Observer , was more welcoming : " Do not miss this " , he urged , saying that " Mr. Fleming continues to be irresistibly readable , however incredible " . Hilary Corke , writing in The Listener , thought that " Fleming is one of the most accomplished of thriller @-@ writers " , and considered that Moonraker " is as mercilessly readable as all the rest " . Corke warned Fleming away from being over @-@ dramatic , declaring that " Mr Fleming is evidently far too accomplished to need to lean upon these blood @-@ and @-@ thunder devices : he could keep our hair on end for three hundred pages without spilling more blood than was allowed to Shylock . " The reviewer in The Scotsman considered that Fleming " administers stimuli with no mean hand ... ' Astonish me ! ' the addict may challenge : Mr Fleming can knock him sideways . "

John Metcalf for The Spectator thought the book " utterly disgraceful — and highly enjoyable ... without [ Moonraker ] no forthcoming railway journey should be undertaken " , although he also considered that it was " not one of Mr. Fleming 's best " . Anthony Boucher , writing in The New York Times , was equivocal , saying " I don 't know anyone who writes about gambling more vividly than Fleming and I only wish the other parts of his books lived up to their gambling sequences " . Richard Lister in the New Statesman thought that " Mr. Fleming is splendid ; he stops at nothing . " Writing for The Washington Post , Al Manola believed that the " British tradition of rich mystery writing , copious description and sturdy heroism all blend nicely " in Moonraker , providing what he considered was " probably the best action novel of the month " .

= = Adaptations = =

The actor John Payne attempted to take up the option on the film rights to the book in 1955 , but nothing came of the attempt . The Rank Organisation also came to an agreement to make a film , but this likewise fell through . The novel was not one of Fleming 's stories acquired by Eon Productions in 1961 ; in 1969 the company acquired the rights and commissioned Gerry Anderson to produce and co @-@ write a screenplay . Anderson and Tony Barwick prepared a 70 @-@ page treatment that was never filmed , but some elements were similar to the final screenplay of The Spy Who Loved Me .

The first adaptation of Moonraker was for South African radio in 1956 , with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond . According to The Independent , " listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob 's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination " . The novel was adapted as a comic strip that was published in the Daily Express newspaper and syndicated worldwide . The adaptation was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky , and ran daily from 30 March to 8 August 1959 . Titan Books reprinted the strip in 2005 along with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die as a part of the Casino Royale anthology .

" Moonraker " was used as the title for the eleventh James Bond film , produced by Eon Productions and released in 1979 . Directed by Lewis Gilbert and produced by Albert R. Broccoli , the film features Roger Moore in his fourth appearance as Bond . The Nazi @-@ inspired element of Drax 's motivation in the novel was indirectly preserved with the " master race " theme of the film 's plot . Since the screenplay was original , Eon Productions and Glidrose Publications authorised the film 's writer , Christopher Wood , to produce his second novelization based on a film ; this was entitled James Bond and Moonraker . Elements of Moonraker were also used in the 2002 film Die Another Day , with a scene set in the Blades club . The actress Rosamund Pike , who plays Miranda Frost in the film , later said that her character was originally to have been named Gala Brand .

= Spooked ( The Office ) =

" Spooked " is the fifth episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 157th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 27 , 2011 . It was written by Carrie Kemper , sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , and directed by Randall Einhorn . The episode guest starred David Mazouz .

The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Erin Hannon ( Kemper ) works to make a spooky , non @-@ childish Halloween party with help from Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) becomes friends with Robert California 's ( James Spader ) son ( David Mazouz ) , and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) debate the existence of ghosts . Meanwhile , Robert figures out everyone 's deepest fears and tries to culminate a ghost story .

" Spooked " received mixed reviews , although many critics complimented Ellie Kemper 's performance . According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Spooked " drew 5 @.@ 53 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode ranked as one of the lowest @-@ rated episodes of the series to air on Thursday and ranked third in its timeslot .

= = Plot = =

Erin Hannon has been assigned to set up the Halloween party by Andy Bernard , who wants to live up to the expectations set by Robert ( James Spader ) . Robert arrives with his son Bert and remarks that the party is more tailored to kids than adults . In response , Andy asks Angela Martin and Phyllis Vance to take over and re @-@ tailor the party , much to Erin 's chagrin . Andy also tells her that he wishes to speak with her at the end of the day . Worried that he intends to fire her , she asks Gabe ( Zach Woods ) to help her make the party more " scary " and " sexy " , and he gives her a tape to show everyone . Gabe explains to the camera crew that the video is a Cinema of the Unsettling movie , an avant garde film genre defined by its disturbing images and absence of plot . Disgusted by the video , the office staff demand an explanation from Erin . In desperation , she shows them her idea for making the party more " sexy " : a card game with photos of genitalia . This only makes them more outraged , and Andy and Robert talk with Erin in his office regarding the incident . Erin admits her fears about their planned talk at the end of the day . Andy tells her what he wanted to talk to her about : he has reached a point in his romantic relationship where his girlfriend should be able to call him at the office , and that he wanted to clear this with Erin first since she handles all calls . Erin had not even known that he was dating someone , and is shocked to hear they have been out on 31 dates so far . Erin feels dejected and leaves .

Jim and Pam Halpert argue whether ghosts are real after she claims to have seen one at a pub where she used to work . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute dresses up as Sarah Kerrigan from StarCraft , but Toby Flenderson takes off his wings as they had knives on them and Dwight is not allowed to bring in weapons . Bert recognizes what his costume is supposed to be and the two bond over playing StarCraft all day , ignoring everyone else . Dwight also makes Bert pretend to fire Toby , for taking away his weapons , on the grounds that he is the CEO 's son .

Throughout the party , Robert coaxes each of the employees into revealing their deepest fears . Before leaving , he tells a horror story implementing all their fears as a way to convince them not to let fear control their lives . This inspires Jim and Pam to stop their argument and Erin to talk to Andy about her feelings .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by story editor Carrie Kemper , sister of cast member Ellie Kemper , her second written story for the series . It was directed by one of the The Office 's cinematographers , Randall Einhorn , his 15th directing credit for the series . The episode is the third Halloween themed episode of the series after season two 's " Halloween " and season seven 's " Costume Contest " . The episode also featured James Spader as Sabre CEO Robert California , who is currently set to appear in 15 episodes for the season . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include the rest of the office getting in the debate over whether ghosts exist , and Robert 's son Bert and Dwight talking about zombies , specifically characters from The Walking Dead .

= = Cultural references = =

In the episode , Dwight dresses up as Sarah Kerrigan , a character from the video game series StarCraft . Later , Toby narrates a montage of previous costumes worn by Dwight including dressed as Freddy Krueger , Jigsaw , and Pinhead , the primary antagonists from the A Nightmare on Elm Street , Saw , and Hellraiser franchises , respectively . Angela is seen dressed in the same cat that she wore in the season two episode , " Halloween " . Jim , Kevin and Darryl are dressed up as professional basketball players Chris Bosh , Dwyane Wade and LeBron James , respectively . Ryan is dressed as Jesse Pinkman from the TV series Breaking Bad , wearing the character 's signature yellow hoodie and beanie .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original American broadcast , " Spooked " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 53 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 9 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the United States , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 15 % drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " Garden Party " making it the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series that aired on Thursday . The episode ranked third in its timeslot beating Person of Interest , which received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 % share in the 18 — 49 demographic , and The Secret Circle , which received a 0 @.@ 9 rating / 2 % share . The episode , however , was beaten to number two by Grey 's Anatomy , which received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 9 % share , and beaten to number one by the 2011 World Series , which received a 6 @.@ 5 rating / 18 % share .

= = = Reviews = = =

The episode received mostly mixed reviews from critics . National Post writer Barry Hertz wrote that while " it wasn ’ t as patience @-@ testing as last year ’ s outing [ ' Costume Contest ' ] , but it also wasn ’ t as gut @-@ busting and on @-@ the @-@ nose as its earlier incarnation [ " Halloween " ] . " He complimented the Erin and Andy plot , but called the Jim and Pam plot " boring " . Ellie Kemper 's performance received commendations from Hertz . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized the episode for " just creating situations and seeing how the characters react to them , which is likely why the writers were willing to lazily rehash the stock ' office Halloween party ' setup that drives the narrative of ' Spooked ' . " Despite this , he wrote positively of Erin 's plot , Kemper 's performance , and James Spader 's scary speech at the end . However , McNutt was critical of the Dwight plot and the Jim and Pam plot writing that " I don ’ t care that Pam believes in ghosts and Jim doesn ’ t , I don ’ t care that Dwight gets a few scenes in which the cynical adult is softened by the presence of a precocious child . " He ultimately gave the episode a C + . New York writer Chris Blanche criticized the episode for its lack of heart . Television Without Pity gave the episode a C rating . Several critics considered the episode an improvement over the previous halloween episode , " Costume Contest " .

= Primer ( film ) =

Primer is a 2004 American indie science fiction drama film about the accidental discovery of a means of time travel . The film was written , directed , produced , edited and scored by Shane Carruth , who also stars in the main role .

Primer is of note for its extremely low budget ( completed for $ 7 @,@ 000 ) , experimental plot structure , philosophical implications , and complex technical dialogue , which Carruth , a college graduate with a degree in mathematics and a former engineer , chose not to simplify for the sake of the audience . The film collected the Grand Jury Prize at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival , before securing a limited release in the United States , and has since gained a cult following .

= = Plot = =

Two engineers – Aaron and Abe – supplement their day @-@ jobs with entrepreneurial tech projects , working out of Aaron 's garage . During one such research effort , involving electromagnetic reduction of objects ' weight , the two men accidentally discover an ' A @-@ to @-@ B ' time loop side @-@ effect ; objects left in the weight @-@ reducing field exhibit temporal anomalies , proceeding normally ( from time ' A , ' when the field was activated , to time ' B , ' when the field is powered off ) , then backwards ( from ' B ' back to ' A ' ) , in continuous A @-@ then @-@ B @-@ then @-@ A @-@ then @-@ B sequence , such that objects can leave the field in the present , or at some previous point .

Abe refines this proof @-@ of @-@ concept and builds a stable time @-@ apparatus ( " the box " ) , sized to accommodate a human subject . Abe uses this " box " to travel six hours into his own past — as part of this process , Original @-@ Abe sits incommunicado in a hotel room , so as not to interact or interfere with the outside world , after which Original @-@ Abe enters the " box , " waits inside the " box " for six hours ( thus going back in time six hours ) , and becomes Future @-@ Overlap @-@ Double @-@ Abe , who travels across town , explains the proceedings to Aaron , and brings Aaron back to the secure self @-@ storage facility housing the " box . " At the end of the overlap @-@ timespan , Original @-@ Abe no longer exists , having entered the " box , " rewound six hours , and become Future @-@ Overlap @-@ Double @-@ Abe for the remainder of time .

Abe and Aaron repeat Abe 's six @-@ hour experiment multiple times over multiple days , making profitable same @-@ day stock trades armed with foreknowledge of the market 's performance . The duo 's divergent personalities – Abe cautious and controlling , Aaron impulsive and meddlesome – put subtle strain on their collaboration and friendship . These tensions come to a head after a late @-@ night encounter with Thomas Granger ( father to Abe 's girlfriend Rachel ) , who appears inexplicably unshaven and exists in overlap with his original suburban self . Granger falls into a comatose state after being pursued by Aaron ; Aaron theorizes that , at some point in the future , Granger entered the " box " ( at an unknown time , for unknown reasons ) , with timeline @-@ altering consequences . Abe concludes that time travel is simply too dangerous , and uses a second apparatus ( his " failsafe box , " built before the experiment 's beginning and kept continuously running in a secret location ) , traveling back four days to prevent the experiment 's launch .

Cumulative competing interference wreaks havoc upon the timeline . Future @-@ Abe sedates Original @-@ Abe ( so he will never conduct the initial time travel experiment ) , and meets Original @-@ Aaron at a park bench ( so as to dissuade him ) , but finds that Future @-@ Aaron has gotten there first ( armed with pre @-@ recordings of the past conversations , and an unobtrusive earpiece ) , having brought a disassembled " third failsafe box " four days back with his own body . Future @-@ Abe faints at this revelation , overcome by shock and fatigue .

The two men briefly and tentatively reconcile . They jointly travel back in time , experiencing and reshaping an event where Abe 's girlfriend Rachel was nearly killed by a gun @-@ wielding party crasher . After many repetitions , Aaron , forearmed with knowledge of the party 's events , stops the gunman , becoming a local hero . Abe and Aaron ultimately part ways ; Aaron considers a new life in foreign countries where he can tamper more broadly for personal gain , while Abe states his intent to remain in town and dissuade / sabotage the original " box " experiment . Abe warns Aaron to leave and never return .

An epilogue sequence reveals that multiple " box @-@ aware " versions of Aaron are still alive and circulating – at least one Future @-@ Aaron has intermingled knowledge with Original @-@ Aaron ( thanks to discussions , voice @-@ recordings , and an unsuccessful physical altercation ) . As a result , two or more Aarons now inhabit the same timeline , sharing information of future events , in stark contrast to Abe , who goes to painstaking extremes to keep his Original @-@ Abe " pure " and unaware of the future . The film 's final scene depicts a fully aware Aaron , directing French @-@ speaking workers in the construction of what appears to be a warehouse @-@ sized " box . "

= = Cast = =

Shane Carruth as Aaron

David Sullivan as Abe

Casey Gooden as Robert

Anand Upadhyaya as Phillip

Carrie Crawford as Kara

Samantha Thomson as Rachel Granger

Brandon Blagg as Will

Carruth cast himself as Aaron after having trouble finding actors who could " break ... the habit of filling each line with so much drama " . Most of the other actors are either friends or family members .

= = Themes = =

Although one of the more fantastic elements of science fiction is central to the film , Carruth 's goal was to portray scientific discovery in a down @-@ to @-@ earth and realistic manner . He notes that many of the greatest breakthrough scientific discoveries in history have occurred by accident , in locations no more glamorous than Aaron 's garage .

Whether it involved the history of the number zero or the invention of the transistor , two things stood out to me . First is that the discovery that turns out to be the most valuable is usually dismissed as a side @-@ effect . Second is that prototypes almost never include neon lights and chrome . I wanted to see a story play out that was more in line with the way real innovation takes place than I had seen on film before .

Carruth has said he intended the central theme of the film to be the breakdown of Abe and Aaron 's relationship , as a result of their inability to cope with the power afforded them by this technological advancement :

First thing , I saw these guys as scientifically accomplished but ethically , morons . They never had any reasons before to have ethical questions . So when they 're hit with this device they 're blindsided by it . The first thing they do is make money with it . They 're not talking about the ethics of altering your former self .

= = Physics and science = =

Aaron and Abe start the film by attempting to create a device to somehow counter the effects of gravity . They have plans for such a device from another development team , but wish to improve on the viability of the design . Their main approach to achieve this is to discard the coolant bath for the required superconductors . They instead increase the transition temperature of the superconductor to " something more usable " . The time machine makes use of the property of superconductors called the Meissner effect , which " knock [ s ] out the interior magnetic field " .

Aaron and Abe require palladium to build their machine . This is the reason they take the catalytic converter containing a small amount of palladium from a car .

The principles of time travel in the film are inspired by Feynman diagrams . Carruth explained : " Richard Feynman has some interesting ideas about time . When you look at Feynman diagrams [ which map the interaction of elementary particles ] , there 's really no difference between watching an interaction happen forward and backward in time . "

= = Production = =

While writing the script , Carruth studied physics to help him make Abe and Aaron 's technical dialogue sound authentic . He took the unusual step of eschewing contrived exposition , and tried instead to portray the shorthand phrases and jargon used by working scientists . This philosophy carried over into production design . The time machine itself is a plain gray box , with a distinctive electronic " hum " created by overlaying the sounds of a mechanical grinder and a car engine , rather than by using a processed digital effect . Carruth also set the story in unglamorous industrial parks and suburban tract homes .

Carruth chose to deliberately obfuscate the film 's plot to mirror the complexity and confusion created by time travel . As he said in a 2004 interview : " This machine and Abe and Aaron 's experience are inherently complicated so it needed to be that way in order for the audience to be where Abe and Aaron are , which was always my hope . "

= = = Filming = = =

Principal photography took place over five weeks , on the outskirts of Dallas , Texas . The film was produced on a budget of only USD $ 7 @,@ 000 , and a skeleton crew of five . Carruth acted as writer , director , producer , cinematographer , editor , and music composer . He also stars in the film as Aaron , and many of the other characters are played by his friends and family . The small budget required conservative use of the Super 16mm filmstock : the carefully limited number of takes resulted in an extremely low shooting ratio of 2 : 1 . Every shot in the film was meticulously storyboarded on 35mm stills . Carruth created a distinctive flat , overexposed look for the film by using fluorescent lighting , non @-@ neutral color temperatures , high @-@ speed film stock , and filters .

After shooting , Carruth took two years to fully post @-@ produce Primer . He has since said that this experience was so arduous that he almost abandoned the film on several occasions .

= = = Music = = =

The entire film score was created by Carruth . On October 8 , 2004 , the Primer score was released on Amazon and iTunes .

= = Release = =

= = = Distribution = = =

Carruth secured a North American distribution deal with THINKFilm after the company 's head of theatrical distribution , Mark Urman , saw the film at the 2004 Sundance Film Festival . Although he and Carruth made a " handshake agreement " during the festival , Urman reported that the actual negotiation of the deal was the longest he had ever been involved with , in part due to Carruth 's specific demands over how much control over the film he would retain . The film went on to take $ 424 @,@ 760 at the box office .

= = = Critical reception = = =

Primer received broadly positive reviews in the mainstream press . The website Metacritic rated Primer at 68 out of 100 , while the similar site Rotten Tomatoes reported that 73 % of the critics that saw the film gave it positive reviews , and the site listed it as one of the best science fiction films " for the thinking man ( ... or woman ) " .

Many reviewers were impressed by the film 's originality . Dennis Lim of The Village Voice said that it was " the freshest thing the genre has seen since 2001 " , while in The New York Times , A. O. Scott wrote that Carruth had " the skill , the guile and the seriousness to turn a creaky philosophical gimmick into a dense and troubling moral puzzle " . Scott also enjoyed the film 's realistic depiction of scientists at work , saying that Carruth had an " impressive feel for the odd , quiet rhythms of small @-@ scale research and development " .

There was also praise for Carruth 's ability to maintain high production values on a minuscule budget , with Roger Ebert declaring : " The movie never looks cheap , because every shot looks as it must look . " Ty Burr of The Boston Globe commented that " aspects of Primer are so low @-@ rent as to evoke guffaws " , but added that " the homemade feel is part of the point " .

The film 's unusually complex plot and dense dialogue proved controversial . Esquire critic Mike D 'Angelo claimed that " anybody who claims he fully understands what 's going on in Primer after seeing it just once is either a savant or a liar " . Scott Tobias writes for The A.V. Club : " The banter is heavy on technical jargon and almost perversely short on exposition ; were it not for the presence of voiceover narration , the film would be close to incomprehensible . " For the Los Angeles Times , Carina Chocano writes : " sticklers for linear storytelling are bound to be frustrated by narrative threads that start promisingly , then just sort of fall off the spool " . Some reviewers were entirely put off by the film 's obfuscated narrative . Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter complained that Primer " nearly gets lost in a miasma of technical jargon and scientific conjecture " .

" Primer is hopelessly confusing and grows more and more byzantine as it unravels , " Chuck Klosterman writes in an essay on time travel films five years later . " I 've watched it seven or eight times and I still don 't know what happened . " He nonetheless says it is " the finest movie about time travel I 've ever seen " because of its realism :

It 's not that the time machine ... seems more realistic ; it 's that the time travelers themselves seem more believable . They talk and act ( and think ) like the kind of people who might accidentally figure out how to move through time , which is why it 's the best depiction we have of the ethical quandaries that might result from such a discovery .

Ultimately , Klosterman says , the lesson of Primer regarding time travel is that " it 's too important to use only for money , but too dangerous to use for anything else " .

The film has been selected to be part of The A.V. Club 's New Cult Canon .

Donald Clarke , film critic with The Irish Times , included Primer at No. 20 on his list of the top twenty films of the decade ( 2000 – 2010 ) .

Science fiction author Greg Egan described it as " an ingenious , tautly constructed time @-@ travel story " .

= = Awards = =

Grand Jury Prize , Sundance Film Festival in 2004 .

Alfred P. Sloan Prize for films dealing with science and technology , the 2004 Sundance Film Festival .

Best Writer / Director ( Shane Carruth ) at the Nantucket Film Festival in 2004 .

Best Feature at the London International Festival of Science Fiction in 2005 .

= Schiehallion experiment =

The Schiehallion experiment was an 18th @-@ century experiment to determine the mean density of the Earth . Funded by a grant from the Royal Society , it was conducted in the summer of 1774 around the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion , Perthshire . The experiment involved measuring the tiny deflection of a pendulum due to the gravitational attraction of a nearby mountain . Schiehallion was considered the ideal location after a search for candidate mountains , thanks to its isolation and almost symmetrical shape . One of the triggers for the experiment were anomalies noted during the survey of the Mason – Dixon Line .

The experiment had previously been considered , but rejected , by Isaac Newton as a practical demonstration of his theory of gravitation . However , a team of scientists , notably Nevil Maskelyne , the Astronomer Royal , was convinced that the effect would be detectable and undertook to conduct the experiment . The deflection angle depended on the relative densities and volumes of the Earth and the mountain : if the density and volume of Schiehallion could be ascertained , then so could the density of the Earth . Once this was known , then this would in turn yield approximate values for those of the other planets , their moons , and the Sun , previously known only in terms of their relative ratios . As an additional benefit , the concept of contour lines , devised to simplify the process of surveying the mountain , later became a standard technique in cartography .

= = Background = =

A pendulum hangs straight downwards in a symmetrical gravitational field . However , if a sufficiently large mass such as a mountain is nearby , its gravitational attraction should pull the pendulum 's plumb @-@ bob slightly out of true . The change in plumb @-@ line angle against a known object — such as a star — could be carefully measured on opposite sides of the mountain . If the mass of the mountain could be independently established from a determination of its volume and an estimate of the mean density of its rocks , then these values could be extrapolated to provide the mean density of the Earth , and by extension , its mass .

Isaac Newton had considered the effect in the Principia , but pessimistically thought that any real mountain would produce too small a deflection to measure . Gravitational effects , he wrote , were only discernible on the planetary scale . Newton 's pessimism was unfounded : although his calculations had suggested a deviation of less than 2 minutes of arc ( for an idealised three @-@ mile high mountain ) , this angle , though very slight , was within the theoretical capability of instruments of his day .

An experiment to test Newton 's idea would both provide supporting evidence for his law of universal gravitation , and estimates of the mass and density of the Earth . Since the masses of astronomical objects were known only in terms of relative ratios , the mass of the Earth would provide reasonable values to the other planets , their moons , and the Sun . The data were also capable of determining the value of Newton 's gravitational constant G , though this was not a goal of the experimenters ; references to a value for G would not appear in the scientific literature until almost a hundred years later .

= = Finding the mountain = =

= = = Chimborazo , 1738 = = =

A pair of French astronomers named Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine were the first to attempt the experiment , conducting their measurements on the 6 @,@ 268 @-@ metre ( 20 @,@ 564 ft ) volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador in 1738 . Their expedition had left France for South America in 1735 to try to measure the meridian arc length of one degree of latitude near the equator , but they took advantage of the opportunity to attempt the deflection experiment . In December 1738 , under very difficult conditions of terrain and climate , they conducted a pair of measurements at altitudes of 4 @,@ 680 and 4 @,@ 340 m . Bouguer wrote in a 1749 paper that they had been able to detect a deflection of 8 seconds of arc , but he downplayed the significance of their results , suggesting that the experiment would be better carried out under easier conditions in France or England . He added that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell , as some thinkers of the day , including Edmond Halley , had suggested .

= = = Schiehallion , 1774 = = =

That a further attempt should be made on the experiment was proposed to the Royal Society in 1772 by Nevil Maskelyne , Astronomer Royal . He suggested that the experiment would " do honour to the nation where it was made " and proposed Whernside in Yorkshire , or the Blencathra @-@ Skiddaw massif in Cumberland as suitable targets . The Royal Society formed the Committee of Attraction to consider the matter , appointing Maskelyne , Joseph Banks and Benjamin Franklin amongst its members . The Committee despatched the astronomer and surveyor Charles Mason to find a suitable mountain .

After a lengthy search over the summer of 1773 , Mason reported that the best candidate was Schiehallion ( then spelled Schehallien ) , a 1 @,@ 083 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 553 ft ) peak lying between Loch Tay and Loch Rannoch in the central Scottish Highlands . The mountain stood in isolation from any nearby hills , which would reduce their gravitational influence , and its symmetrical east – west ridge would simplify the calculations . Its steep northern and southern slopes would allow the experiment to be sited close to its centre of mass , maximising the deflection effect .

Mason however declined to conduct the work himself for the offered commission of one guinea per day . The task therefore fell to Maskelyne , for which he was granted a temporary leave of his duties as Astronomer Royal . He was aided in the task by mathematician and surveyor Charles Hutton and Reuben Burrow , a mathematician of the Royal Greenwich Observatory . A workforce of labourers was engaged to construct observatories for the astronomers , and assist in the surveying . The science team was particularly well @-@ equipped : its astronomical instruments included a 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) brass quadrant from Cook 's 1769 transit of Venus expedition , a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) zenith sector , and a regulator ( precision pendulum clock ) for timing the astronomical observations . They also acquired a theodolite and Gunter 's chain for surveying the mountain , and a pair of barometers for measuring altitude . Generous funding for the experiment was available due to underspend on the transit of Venus expedition , which had been turned over to the Society by the King .

= = Measurements = =

= = = Astronomical = = =

Observatories were constructed to the north and south of the mountain , plus a bothy to accommodate equipment and the scientists . Most of the workforce was however housed in rough canvas tents . Maskelyne 's astronomical measurements were the first to be conducted . It was necessary for him to determine the zenith distances with respect to the plumb line for a set of stars at the precise time that each passed due south . Weather conditions were frequently unfavourable due to mist and rain . However , from the south observatory , he was able to take 76 measurements on 34 stars in one direction , and then 93 observations on 39 stars in the other . From the north side , he then conducted a set of 68 observations on 32 stars and a set of 100 on 37 stars . By conducting sets of measurements with the plane of the zenith sector first facing east and then west , he successfully avoided any systematic errors arising from collimating the sector .

To determine the deflection due to the mountain , it was necessary to account for the curvature of the Earth : an observer moving north or south will see the local zenith shift by the same angle as any change in latitude . After accounting for observational effects such as precession , aberration of light and nutation , Maskelyne showed that the difference between the locally determined zenith for observers north and south of Schiehallion was 54 @.@ 6 arc seconds . Once the surveying team had provided a difference of 42 @.@ 94 ″ latitude between the two stations , he was able to subtract this , and after rounding to the accuracy of his observations , announce that the sum of the north and south deflections was 11 @.@ 6 ″ .

Maskelyne published his initial results in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1775 , using preliminary data on the mountain 's shape and hence the position of its center of gravity . This led him to expect a deflection of 20 @.@ 9 ″ if the mean densities of Schiehallion and the Earth were equal . Since the deflection was about half this , he was able to make a preliminary announcement that the mean density of the Earth was approximately double that of Schiehallion . A more accurate value would have to await completion of the surveying process .

Maskelyne took the opportunity to note that Schiehallion exhibited a gravitational attraction , and thus all mountains did ; and that Newton 's inverse square law of gravitation had been confirmed . An appreciative Royal Society presented Maskelyne with the 1775 Copley Medal ; the biographer Chalmers later noting that " If any doubts yet remained with respect to the truth of the Newtonian system , they were now totally removed " .

= = = Surveying = = =

The work of the surveying team was greatly hampered by the inclemency of the weather , and it took until 1776 to complete the task . To find the volume of the mountain , it was necessary to divide it into a set of vertical prisms and compute the volume of each . The triangulation task falling to Charles Hutton was considerable : the surveyors had obtained thousands of bearings to more than a thousand points around the mountain . Moreover , the vertices of his prisms did not always conveniently coincide with the surveyed heights . To make sense of all his data , he hit upon the idea of interpolating a series of lines at set intervals between his measure values , marking points of equal height . In doing so , not only could he easily determine the heights of his prisms , but from the swirl of the lines one could get an instant impression of the form of the terrain . Hutton had invented contour lines , in common use since for depicting cartographic relief .

Hutton had to compute the individual attractions due to each of the many prisms that formed his grid , a process which was as laborious as the survey itself . The task occupied his time for a further two years before he could present his results , which he did in a hundred @-@ page paper to the Royal Society in 1778 . He found that the attraction of the plumb @-@ bob to the Earth would be 9 @,@ 933 times that of the sum of its attractions to the mountain at the north and south stations , if the density of the Earth and Schiehallion had been the same . Since the actual deflection of 11 @.@ 6 ″ implied a ratio of 17 @,@ 804 : 1 after accounting for the effect of latitude on gravity , he was able to state that the Earth had a mean density of <formula> , or about <formula> that of the mountain . The lengthy process of surveying the mountain had not therefore greatly affected the outcome of Maskelyne 's calculations . Hutton took a density of 2 @,@ 500 kg · m − 3 for Schiehallion , and announced that the density of the Earth was <formula> of this , or 4 @,@ 500 kg · m − 3 . In comparison with the modern accepted figure of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , the density of the Earth had been computed with an error of less than 20 % .

That the mean density of the Earth should so greatly exceed that of its surface rocks naturally meant that there must be more dense material lying deeper . Hutton correctly surmised that the core material was likely metallic , and might have a density of 10 @,@ 000 kg · m − 3 . He estimated this metallic portion to occupy some 65 % of the diameter of the Earth . With a value for the mean density of the Earth , Hutton was able to set some values to Jérôme Lalande 's planetary tables , which had previously only been able to express the densities of the major solar system objects in relative terms .

= = Repeat experiments = =

A more accurate measurement of the mean density of the Earth was made 24 years after Schiehallion , when in 1798 Henry Cavendish used an exquisitely sensitive torsion balance to measure the attraction between large masses of lead . Cavendish 's figure of 5 @,@ 448 ± 33 kg · m − 3 was only 1 @.@ 2 % from the currently accepted value of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , and his result would not be significantly improved upon until 1895 by Charles Boys . The care with which Cavendish conducted the experiment and the accuracy of his result has led his name to since be associated with it .

John Playfair carried out a second survey of Schiehallion in 1811 ; on the basis of a rethink of its rock strata , he suggested a density of 4 @,@ 560 to 4 @,@ 870 kg · m − 3 , though the then elderly Hutton vigorously defended the original value in an 1821 paper to the Society . Playfair 's calculations had raised the density closer towards its modern value , but was still too low and significantly poorer than Cavendish 's computation of some years earlier .

The Schiehallion experiment was repeated in 1856 by Henry James , director @-@ general of the Ordnance Survey , who instead used the hill Arthur 's Seat in central Edinburgh . With the resources of the Ordnance Survey at his disposal , James extended his topographical survey to a 21 @-@ kilometre radius , taking him as far as the borders of Midlothian . He obtained a density of about 5 @,@ 300 kg · m − 3 .

An experiment in 2005 undertook a variation of the 1774 work : instead of computing local differences in the zenith , the experiment made a very accurate comparison of the period of a pendulum at the top and bottom of Schiehallion . The period of a pendulum is a function of g , the local gravitational acceleration . The pendulum is expected to run more slowly at altitude , but the mass of the mountain will act to reduce this difference . This experiment has the advantage of being considerably easier to conduct than the 1774 one , but to achieve the desired accuracy , it is necessary to measure the period of the pendulum to within one part in one million . This experiment yielded a value of the mass of the Earth of 8 @.@ 1 ± 2 @.@ 4 × 1024 kg , corresponding to a mean density of 7 @,@ 500 ± 1 @,@ 900 kg · m − 3 .

A modern re @-@ examination of the geophysical data was able to take account of factors the 1774 team could not . With the benefit of a 120 @-@ km radius digital elevation model , greatly improved knowledge of the geology of Schiehallion , and in particular a computer , a 2007 report produced a mean Earth density of 5 @,@ 480 ± 250 kg · m − 3 . When compared to the modern figure of 5 @,@ 515 kg · m − 3 , it stood as a testament to the accuracy of Maskelyne 's astronomical observations .

= = Mathematical procedure = =

Consider the force diagram to the right , in which the deflection has been greatly exaggerated . The analysis has been simplified by considering the attraction on only one side of the mountain . A plumb @-@ bob of mass m is situated a distance d from P , the centre of mass of a mountain of mass MM and density ρM . It is deflected through a small angle θ due to its attraction F towards P and its weight W directed towards the Earth . The vector sum of W and F results in a tension T in the pendulum string . The Earth has a mass ME , radius rE and a density ρE .

The two gravitational forces on the plumb @-@ bob are given by Newton 's law of gravitation :

<formula>

Where G is Newton 's gravitational constant . G and m can be eliminated by taking the ratio of F to W :

<formula>

Where VM and VE are the volumes of the mountain and the Earth . Under static equilibrium , the horizontal and vertical components of the string tension T can be related to the gravitational forces and the deflection angle θ :

<formula>

Substituting for T :

<formula>

Since VE , VM , d and rE are all known , and θ and d have been measured , then a value for the ratio ρE : ρM can be obtained :

<formula>

= Battle of Ban Me Thuot =

The Battle of Ban Me Thuot was a decisive battle of the Vietnam War which led to the complete destruction of South Vietnam 's II Corps Tactical Zone . The battle was part of a larger North Vietnamese military operation known as Campaign 275 to capture the Tay Nguyen region , known in the West as the Vietnamese Central Highlands .

In March 1975 the Vietnam People 's Army ( VPA ) 4th Corps staged a large @-@ scale offensive , known as Campaign 275 , with the aim of capturing the Central Highlands from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) in order to kick @-@ start the first stage of the 1975 Spring Offensive . Within ten days , the North Vietnamese destroyed most South Vietnamese military formations in II Corps Tactical Zone , exposing the severe weaknesses of the South Vietnamese Army . For South Vietnam , the defeat at Ban Me Thuot and the disastrous evacuation from the Central Highlands came about as a result of two major mistakes . Firstly , in the days leading up to the assault on Ban Me Thuot , ARVN Major General Pham Van Phu repeatedly ignored intelligence which showed the presence of several North Vietnamese combat divisions around the district . Secondly , President Nguyen Van Thieu 's strategy to withdraw from the Central Highlands was poorly planned and implemented .

In the end , it was the ordinary South Vietnamese soldiers and their families who paid the ultimate price , as North Vietnamese artillery decimated the South Vietnamese military convoy on Route 7 .

= = Background = =

At the beginning of 1975 , members of the North Vietnamese Political Bureau paid close attention to the military situation in South Vietnam to plan for their next major offensive . On January 8 , two days after the Vietnam People ’ s Army 4th Corps had captured Phuoc Long on the northern edges of South Vietnam ’ s III Corps Tactical Zone , North Vietnamese leaders agreed to launch an all @-@ out military offensive , in order to end the war . Originally the North Vietnamese leaders expected the campaign would last two years , be completed in 1976 , and pave the way for final victory . Their key objectives were to bring military pressure closer to Saigon , annihilate as many South Vietnamese military units as possible , and create favourable conditions on the battlefield so that combat forces could be deployed from their current localities .

Following extensive discussions on the fighting ability of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , the Political Bureau approved the General Staff ’ s plan , which had selected the Central Highlands as the main battlefield for the upcoming offensive . The Central Highlands campaign was codenamed ‘ Campaign 275 ’ and the goal was to capture the city of Ban Me Thuot . To achieve that objective , North Vietnamese General Văn Tiến Dũng placed great emphasis on the principles of massed force , secrecy , and surprise to draw South Vietnamese forces away from the main objective . For the element of surprise to be successful , North Vietnamese forces needed to launch strong diversionary attacks on Pleiku and Kon Tum , thereby leaving Ban Me Thuot completely exposed . Once the element of surprise had been achieved , the North Vietnamese would mass their forces on Ban Me Thuot , and prevent South Vietnamese reinforcements from retaking the city .

= = = Order of battle = = =

= = = = North Vietnam = = = =

In March 1975 the Vietnam People 's Army Central Highlands Front , under the command of General Hoang Minh Thao , were given the responsibility of carrying out Campaign 275 to capture key objectives in the Central Highlands . Major General Vu Lang was the deputy commander , Colonel Dang Vu Hiep was appointed the Front ’ s political commissar , and Colonel Phi Trieu Ham was the deputy political commissar .

The Central Highlands Front fielded five infantry divisions ( 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ , 10th , 316th , 320A and 968th Infantry Divisions ) and four independent regiments ( 25th , 271st , 95A , and 95B Infantry Regiments ) . To support the aforementioned units , North Vietnam deployed the 273rd Armoured Regiment , two artillery units ( 40th and 675th Artillery Regiments ) , three air @-@ defence units ( 232nd , 234th , and 593rd Air @-@ Defence Regiments ) , two combat engineer units ( 7th and 575th Combat Engineer Regiments ) , and the 29th Communications Regiment .

= = = = Offensive strategy = = = =

Between February 17 and February 19 , 1975 , North Vietnamese field commanders in the Central Highlands Front held a conference to plan for their upcoming offensive . In order to plan their combat strategy , North Vietnamese commanders assessed the potential obstacles faced by the Vietnam People ’ s Army and the strength of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) in the Central Highlands . Following extensive discussions , North Vietnamese commanders concluded that the South Vietnamese army in the Central Highlands could mobilise about 5 – 7 regiment @-@ sized units to counter the upcoming offensive . In the worst @-@ case scenario , if South Vietnamese units were not tied up elsewhere , North Vietnamese commanders thought that South Vietnam could probably mobilise between nine and twelve regiments . North Vietnamese commanders believed South Vietnam could deploy about one or two armoured brigades , three to five battalions of artillery , and 80 aircraft per day to support the army . The North Vietnamese commanders within the Central Highlands Front discussed the possibility of the United States re @-@ entering the conflict , which they believed would see the commitment of about 100 fighter @-@ bombers from the United States Seventh Fleet .

Aside from dealing with the army formations which South Vietnam might have deployed , the question of where and when to strike was the main problem that concerned the North Vietnamese . After the strength of both armies had been taken into account , the Central Highlands High Command came up with two offensive options .

In the first option , the North Vietnamese could avoid the outlying South Vietnamese installations and strike directly at their primary target of Ban Me Thuot . For the first option to be successful , the North Vietnamese had to secure Highways 14 , 19 , and 21 to isolate Ban Me Thuot , and stop potential South Vietnamese reinforcements . The North Vietnamese favoured the first option , because it would give the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and other support units little or no time to respond . At the same time , the first option would have enabled a quick victory without inflicting large @-@ scale damage on the civilian population of Ban Me Thuot .

In the second option , the North Vietnamese had to destroy all the outlying South Vietnamese defences and then move on to Ban Me Thuot . The Central Highlands Front , under General Hoang Minh Thao 's command , ordered all combat units to follow the second option and destroy the defences around Ban Me Thuot , but to be ready to switch to the first option when the opportunity presented itself .

= = = = South Vietnam = = = =

The 23rd Division ( South Vietnam ) under the command of Brigadier General Tran Van Cam was the main unit defending Ban Me Thuot and the surrounding areas . Major General Pham Van Phu had at his disposal five artillery battalions equipped with 146 artillery guns , and one armoured brigade of about 117 tanks and armoured vehicles . The South Vietnamese military also stationed air force and naval units in Ban Me Thuot .

The Army of the Republic of Vietnam also had the 22nd Division ( South Vietnam ) , seven ranger battalions , 36 regional force battalions , eight artillery battalions equipped with 230 artillery guns , and four armoured brigades in the Central Highlands . To support those ground units , the South Vietnamese air force had 32 fighter @-@ bombers , 86 helicopters , and 32 transport and reconnaissance aircraft .

Across the Central Highlands of Vietnam , the South Vietnamese military enjoyed a numerical superiority of about 78 @,@ 300 soldiers against North Vietnam ’ s 65 @,@ 141 soldiers . However , within the vicinity of Ban Me Thuot , the South Vietnamese were actually outnumbered by a ratio of 5 : 1 . The North Vietnamese had more tanks , armoured vehicles , and heavy artillery , with a ratio of about 2 : 1 . North Vietnamese General Van Tien Dung believed his tank and artillery units in the Central Highlands were the key factors that guaranteed a quick victory , because South Vietnam simply lacked the capability to withstand such large numbers of heavy weaponry .

= = = = South Vietnamese preparations = = = =

On February 18 , 1975 , President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu gathered all his commanders at the Independence Palace to discuss the Ly Thuong Kiet Military Plan , which was approved by the National Security Council in December 1974 . During a briefing by ARVN Colonel Hoang Ngoc Lung , Head of the ARVN General Staff , several important issues were brought to the attention of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu and the ARVN Corps commanders . Firstly , information gathered by the South Vietnamese army showed there were seven North Vietnamese divisions in the northern areas of South Vietnam ’ s I Corps Tactical Zone . Secondly , there were signs which suggested that the North Vietnamese might launch a large @-@ scale attack during the spring @-@ summer season of 1975 . And thirdly , the II Corps Tactical Zone under the command of Major General Pham Van Phu was most likely North Vietnam ’ s first target . On February 19 General Phu returned to Pleiku to draw up a defence plan .

During the next few days , reports from South Vietnamese intelligence showed that North Vietnam ’ s 968th Infantry Division had arrived in South Vietnam ’ s II Corps from Laos . Two divisions ( 10th and 320A Infantry Divisions ) had taken up positions around Pleiku and Kon Tum , while two regiments ( 271st and 202nd Regiments ) had set up their base in Quang Duc . On March 2 a CIA officer flew out from Nha Trang to inform ARVN Colonel Nguyen Trong Luat of North Vietnamese preparations to attack Ban Me Thuot , without offering information on the strength of North Vietnamese formations . In response to the CIA report , General Phu ordered the 53rd Regiment to move from Quang Duc to Ban Me Thuot , and the 45th Regiment from Thuan Man to Thanh An @-@ Don Tham . General Phu did not make any further changes to the South Vietnamese order of battle in or around Ban Me Thuot . Thus , by the time the North Vietnamese opened fire on Ban Me Thuot , General Phu had simply failed to implement an effective plan to save II Corps .

= = Prelude = =

= = = Diversions = = =

In February 1975 , during the midst of Tet New Year celebrations , a North Vietnamese deserter surrendered himself to the ARVN 2nd Brigade Headquarters . Through extensive interrogations , the North Vietnamese soldier revealed the whereabouts of North Vietnamese units ; the 10th Infantry Division had encircled Duc Lap , while the 320A Infantry Division had arrived in Ea H ’ leo and were gearing up for an assault on Thuan Man , and an unknown unit was heading towards Ban Me Thuot . In late February , North Vietnamese artillery shells began to rain down on Pleiku , which convinced General Phu that the North Vietnamese would attack Pleiku instead of Ban Me Thuot . South Vietnamese military intelligence and information received from the American Embassy in Saigon showed the presence of about two or three North Vietnamese combat divisions positioned about 20 kilometres away from Kontum and Pleiku . Indeed , the movements around Pleiku and Kontum during the month of February were designed by the North Vietnamese Tay Nguyen Front to fool South Vietnamese military commanders in the Central Highlands .

Since December 1974 , the North Vietnamese prepared for the offensive by conducting raids on various South Vietnamese outposts and broadcasting fake radio messages to keep South Vietnamese commanders guessing about the location of their next assault . While the South Vietnamese units were kept occupied by Communist diversions , North Vietnamese General Hoang Minh Thao began moving his troops into attacking positions . The VPA 7th Combat Engineer Regiment was tasked with connecting Route 14 at North Vo Dinh with Highway 19 near Mang Yang Pass , which surpassed the district of Kontum . The VPA 10th Infantry Division began withdrawing from Duc Lap , and only left a small force behind to continue the bombardment of Pleiku , as artillery and tanks units took positions north of Kontum . The 320A Infantry Division deployed a small unit west of Pleiku to apply additional pressure on South Vietnamese positions at La Son , Thanh An , and Don Tam . Elements of the 95th Regiment conducted blocking operations along Highway 19 to stop South Vietnamese reinforcements from reaching their destination . The 198th Special Forces Regiment raided South Vietnamese depots at Pleiku , while the main formation of the 10th and 320A Infantry Divisions marched on Ban Me Thuot .

Personnel from local Viet Cong units infiltrated Kontum and Pleiku to spread rumours of a ‘ big Communist offensive ’ on the aforementioned districts . In response to the rumours , the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment was sent out to sweep the areas near Ban Me Thuot , Thuan Man , and Duc Lap . To maintain the secrecy of their operations , the North Vietnamese Tay Nguyen Front ordered the 320A Infantry Division , which had by then set up camp west of Ban Me Thuot , to avoid contact with the South Vietnamese . Upon their arrival from Laos , the 316th Infantry Division received similar orders , and was not allowed to open fire under any circumstances . As the events in South Vietnam ’ s II Corps Tactical Zone were beginning to unfold , intelligence reports from Saigon continued to warn General Phu of an imminent Communist onslaught on Ban Me Thuot . Despite the numerous warnings which he had received from the CIA and his own military intelligence , General Phu remained convinced that Pleiku would be North Vietnam ’ s next target . As a result , on February 18 , 1975 , he ordered the 23rd Infantry Division to remain at their positions in Kontum and Pleiku , thereby reversing his earlier decision to bolster South Vietnamese defences at Ban Me Thuot .

= = = Closing in = = =

On March 3 , 1975 , North Vietnam ’ s Campaign 275 against South Vietnamese military forces in the Central Highlands began . The 95A Regiment was the first unit to go into action when they destroyed one South Vietnamese regional force battalion and successfully secured a 20 @-@ kilometre stretch of road on Highway 19 connecting Ayun with Pleibon and Phu Yen . Later , elements of the North Vietnamese 3rd ‘ Gold Star ’ Division secured a section of Highway 19 at Thuong An that connected with Bridge no.13 at Dong An Khe , killing about 300 South Vietnamese soldiers . On the night of March 5 , the North Vietnamese 25th Regiment ambushed a South Vietnamese transportation convoy at Chi Cuc and cut off Highway 21 west of Ban Me Thuot . To keep all the main roads open , Phu sent reinforcements to defend a section of Highway 19 at the eastern side of Peiku and ordered the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment to march back from Thuan Man to defend Route 14 at southern Pleiku . The ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Vu The Quang , was redeployed from Quang Duc Province to defend Ban Me Thuot . By March 8 , the North Vietnamese army had completely isolated the South Vietnamese II Corps Tactical Zone from the rest of the country . Route 7 , which had not been used for a long time due to neglect , was the only road still open .

On March 5 Quang sent one of his battalions to Ban Me Thuot in a convoy of 14 vehicles . They were ambushed by the North Vietnamese 9th Regiment , 320A Infantry Division at Thuan Man . Eight vehicles were destroyed , while two 150mm artillery guns were captured by the North Vietnamese . The remaining seven vehicles had to turn back , and Quang returned to Ban Me Thuot on a helicopter . On March 7 the North Vietnamese 48th Regiment , 320A Infantry Division , captured Chu Se and Thuan Man , and took 121 soldiers prisoner . On March 9 Phu ordered the 21st Ranger Battalion to fly out from Pleiku to support the 53rd Infantry Regiment in their efforts to retake Thuan Man . During the early hours of March 9 , as the 21st Ranger Battalion and the 53rd Infantry Regiment were repeatedly beaten back in their attempts to retake Thuan Man , the under @-@ strength North Vietnamese 10th Regiment captured Duc Lap and the surrounding areas .

At 11 am on March 9 , Phu flew out to Ban Me Thuot to assess the military situation with Brigadier General Le Trung Tuong , Colonel Vu The Quang , and Colonel Nguyen Trong Luat . Phu admitted that the situation at Duc Lap was irreversible . The 21st Ranger Battalion was reassigned to the north of Ban Me Thuot , the 2nd Battalion of the 53rd Infantry Regiment was to defend Dac Sac , and when the opportunity arose they would be tasked with retaking Duc Lap . Subsequently , Quang was entrusted with the task of defending Ban Me Thuot . Despite the strong presence of two North Vietnamese divisions outside Ban Me Thuot , Phu believed the situation outside the district was only a mere diversion attempt , and the real target would be Pleiku . Thus , upon arrival at his Pleiku headquarters , he raised the level of alertness there to 100 % . While Phu was waiting for the enemy to assault Pleiku , the North Vietnamese 7th and 575th Combat Engineer Regiments cleared the main roads into Ban Me Thuot to ensure tanks and heavy artillery could be directed at the district without hindrance . By the early hours of March 10 , the North Vietnamese army was in a strong position to strike at Ban Me Thuot .

= = Battle = =

= = = Fall of Ban Me Thuot = = =

At 2 am on March 10 , 1975 , the North Vietnamese army began their assault on South Vietnamese forces at Ban Me Thuot . The North Vietnamese 198th Special Forces Regiment spearheaded the attack by hitting the Hoa Binh Airfield , the district of Mai Hac De , and the headquarters of the ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment . The initial North Vietnamese attack , which was marked by heavy artillery bombardment and actions initiated by the 198th Special Forces Regiment , had shocked ARVN Colonels Nguyen Trong Luat and Vu The Quang , both subordinates of Major General Pham Van Phu . Despite the strength of the initial assault , Quang believed the North Vietnamese only wanted to cause disruption and would withdraw their forces by daybreak . By 3 : 30 am , the 4th Battalion , 198th Special Forces Regiment , had successfully secured Phan Chu Trinh Road and the southern part of Hoa Binh airport , and they waited there for the regular infantry and tank units to arrive .

The North Vietnamese 5th Battalion , 198th Special Forces Regiment continued their assault on South Vietnamese installations at Mai Hac De district and the headquarters of the ARVN 53rd Infantry Regiment . The 5th Battalion successfully overran the nearby South Vietnamese artillery position and the tactical operations centre , thereby establishing control over the battlefield . By 5 am all main roads leading into the city of Ban Me Thuot were completely under North Vietnamese control . As the sun rose , the North Vietnamese continued to pound South Vietnamese positions around Ban Me Thuot with heavy artillery to cover the next wave of infantry assaults . During the morning of March 10 , North Vietnamese infantry units attacked Ban Me Thuot from different directions along the main roads . The 174th Regiment , with one armoured battalion in support , marched through Chi Lang , Chu Di , and Mai Hac De from the northwest . As the 95B Regiment approached Ban Me Thuot from the northeast , the main formation of the 149th Regiment secured Chu Blom and marched towards Ban Me Thuot from the southeast . The 1st Battalion , 3rd Regiment and the 1st Battalion , 149th Regiment launched an assault on Hoa Binh airfield from the northeast and southwest respectively . At the same time , the 2nd Regiment captured the South Vietnamese installation at Phuoc An .

In an attempt to halt the North Vietnamese assault , Luat ordered two squadrons of M @-@ 113 armoured personnel carriers to confront the enemy at Nga Sau , but they were forced to turn back by tanks from the North Vietnamese 3rd Tank Battalion , 273rd Armoured Regiment . At around 5 : 30 pm , a South Vietnamese ranger battalion was forced to abandon the nearby installation at Dac Lac after continuous assaults from the 95B Regiment . In the northeast , the South Vietnamese 9th Ranger Battalion held off the North Vietnamese 95B Regiment until they abandoned their positions on the next day . In the western outskirts of Ban Me Thuot , eight A @-@ 37 Dragonfly bombers from the South Vietnamese 6th Air Force Division inflicted light casualties on the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment , but failed to stop their enemies ’ momentum . In the southwest , Quang tried to retake Mai Hac De by mobilising his reserve units with tactical air support . Meanwhile , in the south @-@ eastern end of Ban Me Thuot , the North Vietnamese 149th Regiment defeated the South Vietnamese 53rd Infantry Regiment , after they sustained heavy casualties from repeated air attacks from A @-@ 37 bombers .

Earlier in the day , at about 2 : 30 pm , South Vietnamese Colonel Trinh Tieu , Chief of the ARVN 2nd Brigade in II Corps , discovered that the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division had moved into positions south of Ban Me Thuot from their base in Laos . To stop them from advancing any further , Phu ordered his soldiers to destroy every bridge connected to Highway 14 . By the time Phu ’ s order was carried out , elements of the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division had engaged in clashes with the South Vietnamese for more than 10 hours . By 5 pm the North Vietnamese 8th Battalion , 149th Regiment , in combination with the 198th Special Forces Regiment , tried but failed to capture Hoa Binh airfield , which was defended by one South Vietnamese ranger battalion .

During the night of March 10 , there was a lull in the fighting around Ban Me Thuot . South Vietnamese soldiers began retreating to various points around the headquarters of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division , the Hoa Binh airfield , and the radio station . Colonel Quang , in a desperate attempt to save Ban Me Thuot , called on Brigadier General Le Trung Tuong to send reinforcements ; none were sent . In the early hours of March 11 , the North Vietnamese army resumed their assault under continuous bombing runs from South Vietnamese air force A @-@ 37 Dragonfly bombers . At 7 : 55 am , the South Vietnamese air force , while trying to stop a dozen North Vietnamese tanks from advancing toward their objective , accidentally dropped two bombs on the headquarters of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division . From that point on , the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division lost all contact with the ARVN 2nd Brigade Command Headquarters . At 11 am on March 11 , the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division established full control over Ban Me Thuot after South Vietnamese soldiers within the city realised that they had been defeated and that no reinforcements had been sent . Thus , only Hoa Binh airfield was still in South Vietnamese hands , with the under @-@ strength ARVN 21st Ranger Battalion and the 53rd Infantry Regiment defending the area .

= = = Counterattack = = =

On March 12 , all South Vietnamese soldiers who had survived the North Vietnamese assault gathered at the headquarters of the 23rd Infantry Division and Hoa Binh airfield . Unfortunately , those soldiers were without their leaders , because both Colonels Nguyen Trong Luat and Vu The Quang were captured by the North Vietnamese in the early hours of the day . From Saigon , President Nguyen Van Thieu ordered Phu to hold all South Vietnamese positions at the eastern end of Ban Me Thuot , where they could stage a counter @-@ attack . Phu drew up a plan to retake Ban Me Thuot that would involve the last two remaining regiments ( 44th and 45th Infantry Regiments ) of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and the soldiers who had gathered at the 23rd Infantry Division headquarters and Hoa Binh airfield . Thieu approved the plan at dawn , and authorised Phu to make full use of three South Vietnamese air force units ( 6th Air Force Division belonging to the ARVN 2nd Brigade , 1st Air Force Division at Da Nang Air Base , and the 4th Air Force Division at Cần Thơ ) .

On the afternoon of March 12 , elements of the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division were dropped off at designated landing zones around Phuoc An . Initially about 100 South Vietnamese helicopters participated in the operation , and 81 fighter @-@ bombers were deployed to strike at North Vietnamese positions to cover the landings . At 3 : 10 pm , Phu took off in his Cessna U @-@ 17 to direct the operation over the skies of Ban Me Thuot . As he approached the battlefield , Phu phoned the South Vietnamese units at Hoa Binh airfield to notify them that an operation was underway , and he encouraged the soldiers to hold on to their positions . On the morning of March 13 , another 145 helicopters were used to complete the first phase of the operation with the entire 44th Infantry Regiment , the last soldiers of the 45th Infantry Regiment , and the 232nd Artillery Battalion dropped off at various points in Nong Trai , Phuoc An and along Highway 21 . At the completion of the landing operation , Phu returned to Pleiku to have a meeting with Thieu , during which they discussed the sudden appearance of the North Vietnamese 316th Infantry Division .

While the South Vietnamese air force was transporting the 23rd Infantry Division to the battlefield , their airbase at Cu Hanh was subjected to artillery bombardment from the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division . The North Vietnamese Central Highlands Front had anticipated the South Vietnamese military 's movements , so they built up their forces in and around Ban Me Thuot to prepare for a South Vietnamese counter @-@ attack . On March 13 , the North Vietnamese 24th and 28th Regiments received two companies of armoured vehicles and one artillery battalion , which had begun raining artillery shells on Phuoc An . At 7 : 07 am on March 14 , even before the ARVN 44th and 45th Infantry Regiments began their combat operations , the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment opened fire and attacked the South Vietnamese , with support from the 273rd Armoured Regiment .

By midday on March 14 , the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment slowly melted away , as they were squeezed from all sides by the North Vietnamese 24th Regiment . Rather than marching on to Ban Me Thuot to relieve the soldiers of the 45th Infantry Regiment , the ARVN 44th Infantry Regiment were pinned down to fight the enemies ’ 24th Regiment . On March 16 , South Vietnamese formations at Phuoc An and Nong Trai came under heavy attack . At 8 : 15 am the 3rd Battalion , the last unit from the ARVN 45th Infantry Regiment , was completely wiped out . Subsequently , all South Vietnamese soldiers at Nong Trai were captured along with one helicopter .

On March 17 General Hoang Minh Thao ordered the 28th Regiment and the rest of the 273rd Armoured Regiment to support the 24th Regiment in their efforts to capture Phuoc An . At the same time , the North Vietnamese 66th Regiment and the 198th Special Forces Regiment began their final push on Hoa Binh airfield . At 11 : 30 am , South Vietnamese soldiers at Hoa Binh airfield , mainly drawn from the 53rd Infantry Regiment and the 21st Ranger Battalion , were finally defeated . Simultaneously , the remnants of the ARVN 44th Infantry Regiment abandoned Phuoc An , leaving the North Vietnamese in complete control of Ban Me Thuot .

= = = Retreat = = =

While battles were raging in and around Ban Me Thuot , South Vietnamese military forces in I Corps Tactical Zone were under pressure by the North Vietnamese 324th and 325th Infantry Divisions . During the period from March 8 to March 13 , there were clashes in Truoi in southern Hue , Mai Linh , Mo Tau , Thien Phuoc , and Quang Ngai . As a result of the immense pressure placed upon I Corps , the ARVN General Staff could not deploy strong units from the region to defend Ban Me Thuot and the rest of II Corps . On March 11 Thieu convened a meeting with Prime Minister Trần Thiện Khiêm , Chief of the ARVN General Staff General Cao Văn Viên , and Lieutenant General Dang Van Quang to discuss the military situation in the northern provinces of South Vietnam . In this meeting , Thieu decided to withdraw what was left of his army from the northern provinces to defend the Mekong region , where most of the nation ’ s population and vital economic resources were located . Thieu justified his decision on the basis that the South Vietnamese military could not defend every inch of South Vietnam ’ s territory , so the military had to be ‘ lightened at the top and heavy at the bottom ’ .

Starting at 11 am on March 14 , Thieu flew out to Cam Ranh for a briefing with General Phu . The events which took place after this briefing would go down as one of the greatest failures in military history . After Phu had outlined the military situation in the Central Highlands , he asked Thieu to bolster the South Vietnamese 6th Air Force Division with more aircraft and additional brigades to defend Kontum and Pleiku . Thieu refused to send further reinforcements because the South Vietnamese military no longer had the resources . Phu was ordered to move all his units down to the Mekong region where they could continue fighting . General Vien cautioned against moving large military formations down Highway 19 ; he reminded Thieu of the destruction suffered by the French Mobile Group 100 in the region in 1954 . Thieu and his commanders made the decision to use Route 7 instead , in an attempt to surprise the North Vietnamese , who would not expect them to use that road due to its poor condition .

After the briefing Phu immediately returned to his headquarters in Pleiku , where he began planning for the withdrawal with Brigadier Generals Tran Van Cam , Pham Ngoc Sang , Pham Duy Tat , and Colonel Le Khac Ly . To maintain secrecy , Phu ordered his officers to issue orders using only word of mouth instead of written documents , and not to reveal the withdrawal plan to local regional forces . Furthermore , he stated that the abandonment of II Corps Tactical Zone had to be quick , with the army taking only enough military equipment and ammunition to fight one last battle . Generals Tat and Cam were assigned the task of supervising the movements of soldiers and their dependents on the ground . Sang was responsible for the movement of vital military equipment and supplies via air transport and to sweep Route 7 using air force fighter @-@ bombers . Ly was ordered to lead a group of combat engineers to repair the road and bridges on Route 7 , as well as maintain contact with the ARVN 2nd Brigade Headquarters in Nha Trang . The plan was destined to fail , as Phu was unaware that General Ngo Quang Truong , commander of I Corps Tactical Zone , had also received similar orders to evacuate .

= = = Disaster on Route 7 = = =

Although local commanders in II Corps Tactical Zone tried their best to maintain secrecy , the unusual movement of transport aircraft in Pleiku on March 14 stirred up concern and suspicion amongst soldiers and civilians in the area . On March 15 the concerns of civilians were further heightened when a convoy of transport vehicles belonging to the 6th and 23rd Ranger Battalions headed south from Kontum . On the afternoon of March 15 , the withdrawal of South Vietnamese forces began to pick up momentum . The ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron and the 6th Ranger Battalion opened the main road which stretched from Pleiku to Phu Tuc . Behind them were various infantry , armoured vehicle , and support units . During the early phases of the operation , Phu was confident that his plan would succeed for two reasons . Firstly , he believed most North Vietnamese units were busy stopping the counter @-@ attack at Phuoc An waged by the ARVN 23rd Infantry Division and would not have the time to disrupt the withdrawal . Secondly , if the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division near Pleiku was deployed to stop the operation , it would have to overcome the formidable ARVN 25th Ranger Battalion which was tasked with stopping any North Vietnamese attacks .

For North Vietnamese field commanders of the Tay Nguyen Front , the withdrawal of South Vietnamese military forces from II Corps Tactical Zone came as a surprise , but it was not totally unexpected . What surprised the North Vietnamese the most was the speed of the withdrawal . Indeed , it was not until the evening of March 15 , when the ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron reached Cheo Reo , that the North Vietnamese began to receive information of Saigon ’ s decision to abandon the Central Highlands . At 8 pm on March 16 , the Tay Nguyen Front Command issued the first orders to pursue the South Vietnamese . The North Vietnamese 9th Battalion , 64th Regiment , part of the 320A Infantry Division , was the first unit to be mobilised to intercept the South Vietnamese column south of Cheo Reo district . Subsequently , the entire North Vietnamese 320A Infantry Division was sent to destroy the South Vietnamese column along Route 7 , with the 2nd Tank Battalion of the 273rd Armoured Regiment , the 675th Regiment , and the 593rd Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in support . By the early hours of March 17 , tanks from the ARVN 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron and the 6th Ranger Battalion clashed with the North Vietnamese 9th Battalion , 64th Regiment at Tuna Pass , about 4 kilometres away from the district of Cheo Reo .

During the evening of March 17 , General Tat organised a counter @-@ attack against the enemy 's 9th Battalion with support from fighter @-@ bombers , tanks and artillery , but his troops were repeatedly beaten back in their attempt to keep the road open . By the early hours of March 18 , the entire North Vietnamese 64th Regiment had blocked all the routes around Tuna Pass , while the 48th Regiment and elements of the North Vietnamese 968th Infantry Division began closing in on Cheo Reo from three directions . In the afternoon , Phu sent the 25th Ranger Battalion and the 2nd Armoured Cavalry Brigade to reopen Route 7 . At the same time the North Vietnamese 675th Artillery Regiment began shelling the main South Vietnamese column in Cheo Reo as three infantry regiments attacked the convoy from all sides . Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese , all their attempts to organise strong resistance were stifled by the chaos created by North Vietnamese artillery bombardments . At 3 pm , General Tat was ordered to destroy all heavy weaponry so the North Vietnamese could not make use of it . About 30 minutes later , a UH @-@ 1 helicopter landed on the grounds of Phu Bon primary school to pick up Tat and flew off to Nha Trang . At 9 am on March 19 , all South Vietnamese soldiers in the district of Cheo Reo stopped fighting . The 6th Ranger Battalion and the 19th Armoured Cavalry Squadron became the only units to arrive at their destination at Cung Son with only light casualties .

= = Aftermath = =

The loss of Ban Me Thuot and the subsequent evacuation from the Central Highlands cost South Vietnam ’ s II Corps Tactical Zone more than 75 % of its combat units — the 23rd Infantry Division , the Ranger groups , tanks , armoured cavalry , artillery , and combat engineering units . Overall about 3 / 4 of all South Vietnamese army soldiers were killed , wounded , deserted , or missing . North Vietnamese casualties were light in comparison , with 600 soldiers killed and 2 @,@ 416 wounded . Official Vietnamese history informs that during the eight days of fighting , North Vietnam 's army put 28 @,@ 514 South Vietnamese officers and soldiers out of action ; 4 @,@ 502 were killed in action and 16 @,@ 822 were captured . The North Vietnamese army destroyed 17 @,@ 183 small arms of various kinds , 79 artillery pieces , and 207 tanks and armoured vehicles ; 44 aircraft were shot down and another 110 were damaged .

Civilians who took part in the evacuation suffered the consequences of the military action along Route 7 . Most of the civilians who followed the military convoy were either relatives of soldiers or officers in the army , or were government civil servants . Of the estimated 400 @,@ 000 civilians who initially took part in the march , only a handful actually reached their destinations in the Mekong region . In addition to the casualties inflicted upon them by North Vietnamese artillery , the civilians were also hit by air strikes from the South Vietnamese air force . As a result of those huge losses , Route 7 became known as the ‘ convoy of tears ’ .

= = = South Vietnamese mistakes = = =

The collapse of South Vietnamese forces in the Central Highlands came about as a result of three major factors . Firstly , during much of the war , President Nguyen Van Thieu ’ s confidence in the ARVN ’ s intelligence could not be shaken . However , following the capitulation of Ban Me Thuot , Thieu lost all faith in his own military intelligence agencies , when it became evidently clear that the strength of North Vietnamese forces was far greater than what South Vietnamese intelligence agencies had gathered . Consequently , Thieu completely ignored his own military intelligence and the CIA , and made all military decisions by himself without consulting the Joint General Staff . Thus , when Major @-@ General Pham Van Phu requested that Thieu send reinforcements to bolster the strength of South Vietnamese forces in the Central Highlands , Thieu gave him two options : either carry out the President ’ s orders , or be replaced by somebody who was willing to do so . General Phu chose to implement Thieu ’ s orders and evacuated his units from II Corps .

The second factor which contributed to the destruction of the ARVN 2nd Brigade , II Corps Tactical Zone , was the inability of South Vietnamese commanders to coordinate the withdrawal . In the process of pulling out from the Central Highlands , large numbers of South Vietnamese soldiers and heavy military equipment were stretched out along the narrow corridor of Route 7 . Behind the military formation were huge numbers of South Vietnamese civilians who were relatives of the military personnel , as well as government officials and their families . Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese soldiers on the ground , their army simply lacked the logistical system required to maintain the element of secrecy , which South Vietnamese commanders had hoped would enable them to pull out from the region without drawing too much attention from the North Vietnamese . It is hard to fathom how South Vietnamese commanders hoped to move 400 @,@ 000 civilians in utmost secrecy . So when North Vietnamese forces attacked the South Vietnamese column along Route 7 , there was little South Vietnamese commanders could do to prevent the destruction of their units .

The third factor which led to the quick disintegration of II Corps was the poor state of morale amongst the soldiers of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam . By 1975 , the morale of South Vietnamese soldiers and their commanding officers had reached its lowest point as the war continued to drag on with no end in sight . The determination of the ARVN officer corps had taken a serious blow when South Vietnamese Foreign Minister Tran Van Lam returned from the United States in February 1975 , and reported that no additional military or economic aid had been offered . When the order was given to abandon the Central Highlands , the primary concern of South Vietnamese military personnel was not battlefield victories , but the welfare of their families . Consequently , when the North Vietnamese attacked South Vietnamese forces on Route 7 , large numbers of South Vietnamese soldiers left the battlefield to search for their families amidst the chaos . During the final days of South Vietnam ’ s existence , the average South Vietnamese soldier showed more loyalty to his family than to his commanding officer , which had a significant impact on his willingness to fight on .

During the First Indochina War ( 1945 to 1954 ) , both Viet Minh and French forces considered the Central Highlands to be their ‘ home ’ , as it was considered the key to domination in Indochina . Both sides recognised that in order to occupy the Central Highlands , they had to possess a sufficient reserve of manpower with which to control the strategic areas within the region . By 1975 , the South Vietnamese military could no longer afford to maintain a large strategic reserve . South Vietnamese units in II Corps were overstretched in various locations across the Central Highlands , and could easily be overrun by enemy forces . Although Thieu ’ s decision to abandon the region was made with the aim of saving the military formations of II Corps , the decision nonetheless turned into a death warrant for General Phu ’ s men and their families . The lack of coordination and poor organisation during the withdrawal operation not only led to the destruction of II Corps , but marked the beginning of the end for South Vietnam .

= Art Farmer =

Arthur Stewart " Art " Farmer ( August 21 , 1928 – October 4 , 1999 ) was an American jazz trumpeter and flugelhorn player . He also played flumpet , a trumpet – flugelhorn combination specially designed for him . He and his identical twin brother , double bassist Addison Farmer , started playing professionally while in high school . Art gained greater attention after the release of a recording of his composition " Farmer 's Market " in 1952 . He subsequently moved from Los Angeles to New York , where he performed and recorded with musicians such as Horace Silver , Sonny Rollins , and Gigi Gryce and became known principally as a bebop player .

As Farmer 's reputation grew , he expanded from bebop into more experimental forms through working with composers such as George Russell and Teddy Charles . He went on to join Gerry Mulligan 's quartet and , with Benny Golson , to co @-@ found the Jazztet . Continuing to develop his own sound , Farmer switched from trumpet to the warmer flugelhorn in the early 1960s , and he helped to establish the flugelhorn as a soloist 's instrument in jazz . He settled in Europe in 1968 and continued to tour internationally until his death . Farmer recorded more than 50 albums under his own name , a dozen with the Jazztet , and dozens more with other leaders . His playing is known for its individuality – most noticeably , its lyricism , warmth of tone and sensitivity .

= = Early life = =

Art Farmer was born an hour before his twin brother , on August 21 , 1928 , in Council Bluffs , Iowa , reportedly at 2201 Fourth Avenue . Their parents , James Arthur Farmer and Hazel Stewart Farmer , divorced when the boys were four , and their steelworker father was killed in a work accident not long after this . Art moved with his grandfather , grandmother , mother , brother and sister to Phoenix , Arizona when he was still four . He started to play the piano while in elementary school , then moved on to bass tuba and violin before settling on cornet and then trumpet at the age of thirteen . His family was musical : most of them played as a hobby , and one was a professional trombonist . Art 's grandfather was a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church . This influenced Farmer 's first choice of instrument , as his mother played piano for the church choir . The bass tuba was for use in a marching band and was Farmer 's instrument for a year , until a cornet became available . Phoenix schools were segregated , and no one at Farmer 's school could provide useful music lessons . He taught himself to read music and practiced his new main instrument , the trumpet .

Farmer and his brother moved to Los Angeles in 1945 , attending the music @-@ oriented Jefferson High School , where they got music instruction and met other developing musicians such as Sonny Criss , Ernie Andrews , Big Jay McNeely , and Ed Thigpen . The brothers earned money by working in a cold @-@ storage warehouse and by playing professionally . Art started playing trumpet professionally at the age of 16 , performing in the bands of Horace Henderson , Jimmy Mundy , and Floyd Ray , among others . These opportunities came about through a combination of his ability and the absence of numerous older musicians , who were still in the armed forces following World War II . Around this time in Los Angeles , there were abundant opportunities for musical development , according to Farmer : " During the day you would go to somebody 's house and play . At night there were after @-@ hours clubs [ ... and ] anybody who wanted to play was free to come up and play " . Farmer left high school early but persuaded the principal to give him a diploma , which he did not collect until a visit to the school in 1958 .

At this time , as an adolescent in Los Angeles , bebop and the swing era big bands both attracted Farmer 's attention . Decades later , he stated that , at that time , " I knew I had to be in jazz . Two things decided me – the sound of a trumpet section in a big band and hearing a jam session " . Farmer 's trumpet influences in the 1940s were Dizzy Gillespie , Miles Davis and Fats Navarro , but , in his own words , " then I heard Freddie Webster , and I loved his sound . I decided to work on sound because it seemed like most of the guys my age were just working on speed " .

= = Later life and career = =

= = = Early career in Los Angeles and New York = = =

Farmer left school to tour with a group led by Johnny Otis , but this job lasted for only four months , as Farmer 's lip gave out . Performing for long periods seven days a week for this job put great pressure on his technique , which was insufficiently developed to cope with such physical demands . His lip eventually became lacerated , and he could no longer play . He then received technique training in New York , where he worked for a time as a janitor and played as a freelance musician during 1947 and 1948 . An audition for Dizzy Gillespie 's big band was unsuccessful , and Farmer returned to the West Coast in 1948 as a member of Jay McShann 's band . Club and studio work was hard to get in Los Angeles from the late 1940s and into the 1950s , as it was dominated by white musicians . Farmer played and toured with Benny Carter , Roy Porter and Gerald Wilson , then played with Wardell Gray in 1951 – 52 . The hazards of the touring jazz musician 's lifestyle were also present : while travelling overnight by car between Phoenix and El Paso , to get to another Roy Porter @-@ led gig , the car that Farmer was in overturned at high speed , leaving him concussed and Porter with broken ribs .

Farmer 's first studio recording appears to have been on June 28 or July 2 , 1948 , in Los Angeles , under the leadership of vocalist Big Joe Turner and pianist Pete Johnson . They recorded " Radar Blues " , and at some point in the same or the following year they added a further seven sides ; the eight tracks were released as four singles by Swing Time Records . Farmer recorded further singles with Roy Porter and then , on January 21 , 1952 , as a member of Wardell Gray 's sextet . The latter session produced six tracks that were released as singles . These included " Farmer 's Market " , a piece that was written by Farmer and brought him greater attention .

= = = Career after second move to New York = = =

Farmer worked in Los Angeles for a time as a hotel janitor and a hospital file clerk , before joining Lionel Hampton 's orchestra in 1952 . He toured Europe with the orchestra , and shared the organization 's trumpet chairs with Clifford Brown , Quincy Jones and Benny Bailey . This aided his musical development considerably , as did his 1953 membership of Teddy Charles ' New Directions band – the compositions he encountered in this band allowed him to consider a broader range of expression during improvisation .

Farmer relocated to New York and , on July 2 , 1953 , had his first recording session as leader . This was combined with another recorded 11 months later to form the eight @-@ track Prestige LP , The Art Farmer Septet , featuring arrangements by Quincy Jones and Gigi Gryce . Farmer became " one of the most sought @-@ after trumpeters of the fifties " : he continued to work with Gryce ( 1954 – 56 ) , and also with Horace Silver ( 1956 – 58 ) and Gerry Mulligan ( 1958 – 59 ) , among others . One of the others was pianist Thelonious Monk , who led a sextet that included Farmer on its performances on a version of the Steve Allen Show , broadcast on television on June 10 , 1955 . The following month , Farmer played in the Charles Mingus sextet 's performance at the Newport Jazz Festival .

Farmer recorded only twice with Horace Silver 's group , as Silver recorded for Blue Note Records , while Farmer was signed to Prestige . Feuds between the label bosses ruled out extensive cross @-@ label collaboration . The transition from Silver 's piano @-@ led quintet to Mulligan 's piano @-@ less quartet was not straightforward : " to suddenly find yourself in a pianoless group was like walking down the street naked " , commented Farmer . As a member of Mulligan 's band , Farmer appeared on film twice – in I Want to Live ! ( 1958 ) and The Subterraneans ( 1960 ) – and again toured Europe , as part of a Jazz at the Philharmonic tour , helping him to develop an international reputation . In New York , Farmer worked with Lester Young , who told him to " tighten up and tell a ' story ' in each solo " . At this time , Farmer also rented his trumpet on a nightly basis to Miles Davis , who had pawned his own due to his drug dependency .

From the middle of the 1950s , Farmer featured in recordings by leading arrangers of the day , including George Russell , Quincy Jones and Oliver Nelson , being in demand because of his reputation for being able to play anything . The wide range of styles these arrangers represented was extended when Farmer took part in a series of experimental sessions with composer Edgard Varèse in 1957 . Varèse used approximate notation and wanted the musicians to improvise within its structure ; at least some of the seasoned jazz musicians present regarded this process of creation as similar to their own familiar creations of spontaneously produced head arrangements , but their efforts influenced Varèse 's composition , Poème électronique . Farmer 's playing around this time is summarized by critic Whitney Balliett , commenting on his performance on Hal McKusick 's 1957 album Hal McKusick Quintet : " Farmer has become one of the few genuinely individual modern trumpeters . ( Nine out of ten modern trumpeters are true copies of Dizzy Gillespie or Miles Davis . ) " Farmer was one of 57 jazz musicians to appear in the 1958 photograph " A Great Day in Harlem " and was later interviewed for the 1994 documentary of the same title .

Farmer formed the Jazztet in 1959 , with the composer and tenor saxophonist Benny Golson , after each man independently came to the conclusion that the other should be a member of his new sextet . The Jazztet lasted until 1962 , recorded several albums for Argo and Mercury Records , and assisted in the early careers of pianist McCoy Tyner and trombonist Grachan Moncur III . In the early 1960s Farmer established a trio with guitarist Jim Hall and bassist Steve Swallow ; his relationship with Hall lasted from 1962 to 1964 , and included two tours of Europe , one of which had concerts recorded for the BBC 's Jazz 625 programme , which were later released on DVD . Hall left the second tour while the quartet , which included Swallow and drummer Pete La Roca , was engaged in Berlin , and a pianist replaced him ; this was ultimately Steve Kuhn . In 1964 , this new quartet recorded the album Sing Me Softly of the Blues for the Atlantic label . These bands played laid back , melodious music during a period when avant @-@ garde jazz was becoming more common .

Farmer toured Europe in 1965 – 66 , then returned to the US and led a small group with Jimmy Heath . His stylistic development continued during this period of his career , in part because he " absorbed , understood , and had the technical and artistic gifts to put to personal use the [ John ] Coltrane innovations of the ' Giant Steps ' period of the early 1960s " . Work opportunities , however , were diminishing as rock became more popular in the mid @-@ 1960s , so Farmer joined the pit orchestra of Elliot Lawrence for the production of The Apple Tree on Broadway , for six months .

= = = Career after permanent move to Europe = = =

The visits to Europe continued . Farmer moved there in 1968 and ultimately settled in Vienna , where he performed with The Kenny Clarke / Francy Boland Big Band and joined the Austrian Radio Orchestra . The latter job initially required only ten days a month of his time , so he was able to play with other well @-@ known expatriates such as Don Byas , Dexter Gordon , and Ben Webster . As the orchestra 's music gradually changed in style from jazz to simpler forms and took up more of Farmer 's time , he found that it was getting in the way of his musical ambitions , so he left after three or four years . Pursuing these ambitions meant that Farmer traveled extensively worldwide . He said in 1976 that " I 'm traveling 90 percent of the time . I can live anywhere . It 's just a matter of getting to the airport " . A 1982 revival of the Jazztet , with Golson , led him to play more frequently in the United States than he had over the previous decade . In the 1980s Farmer also created a quintet , featuring saxophonist Clifford Jordan , that toured internationally . In the early 1980s , Farmer had also made some changes to his lifestyle . Interviewed for a 1985 article in The New Yorker , he reported losing 30 pounds in weight a couple of years earlier , and stopping smoking and drinking a couple of years before that ; Farmer " used to think he couldn 't play without drinking ; now he couldn 't play and drink " , was the interviewer 's summary of Farmer 's habits , which appear to have avoided the drug @-@ related problems of many of his contemporaries .

From the early 1990s , Farmer had a second house in New York and divided his time between Vienna and there . He had regular gigs with Clifford Jordan at the Sweet Basil Jazz Club and , later , with Ran Blake and Jerome Richardson at the Village Vanguard , both in New York . Farmer was awarded the Austrian Gold Medal of Merit in 1994 . In the same year , a concert in honor of his achievements was held at the Alice Tully Hall in New York . Farmer also recorded extensively as a leader throughout his later career , including some pieces of classical music with US and European orchestras . Farmer 's level of playing even towards the end of his career was noted in a review by Scott Yanow of one of his last recordings , Silk Road , from 1996 : " the warm @-@ toned and swinging Farmer is consistently the main star , and at age 68 he proves to still be in his prime " . In 1999 Farmer was selected as a National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Master . A few months later , on October 4 , Farmer died of a heart attack at home in Manhattan , aged 71 .

= = Personality and family life = =

Farmer first married in the mid @-@ 1950s , to a woman from South America ; the couple had one son , Arthur Jr , who died in 1994 , and they divorced after about a year . Farmer 's second wife was a distant cousin ; this also ended in divorce . He married again , to a Viennese banker named Mechtilde Lawgger , and their son , Georg , was born in the early 1970s . They lived together in a house that they had built in Vienna , and Farmer reported contentment with his lifestyle ; notably , in contrast with his homeland , he did not experience racism in Europe . Farmer described himself in 1985 as " an introvert , and kind of reclusive " ; a soundproof room in his Austrian house allowed him to practice alone for the four or five hours a day that he desired . His personality was often described by others as mirroring his playing : Leonard Feather , for instance , observed in 1990 that Farmer was " mellow , relaxed and [ ... ] gentle " .

Farmer was affected by the sudden death of his twin brother in 1963 : more than 20 years later , he said that he still dreamed of his sibling , and admitted that , " It seems there 's a part of him I haven 't fully gotten over " . Farmer 's third wife died from cancer in 1992 ; speaking three years later , he remarked that " I guess I never will really recover from that because we had been together for over 20 years when she died " . After his own death , he was described as being survived by his companion and manager , Lynne Mueller , and son .

= = Playing style = =

Descriptions of Farmer 's playing style typically stress his lyricism and the warmth of his sound . The Los Angeles Times obituary writers noted that his playing had " a sweetly lyrical tone and a melodic approach to phrasing , neither of which minimized his capacity to produce rhythmically swinging phrases " . The equivalent comments in The Guardian were that " Farmer avoided the bright , penetrating sound of orthodox trumpet playing and was influenced by the more reserved articulation of Miles Davis and Kenny Dorham " , and that , although he could seem more restrained than Davis or Lee Morgan , " Farmer was in his way a true original . His phrasing was always distinctive , letting the beat run ahead of him rather in the manner of Billie Holiday 's vocals " .

Farmer moved from trumpet to playing mostly flugelhorn from the early 1960s , utilising the latter instrument 's more mellow sound and Farmer 's ability to get what he wanted from it without having to use a mute . In 1989 , he played a major part in creating a trumpet – flugelhorn hybrid , the flumpet , which was constructed for him by instrument maker David Monette . This instrument allowed him to play with more expression in a range of settings , from small groups to big bands . In 1997 , Monette presented him with a personalized flumpet , with decorations symbolising important people and places in Farmer 's life .

Farmer 's determination to keep exploring forms of expression continued throughout his life . One comment on a concert given when Farmer was 67 was that " his style was continuing to evolve " ; he " delivered several solos in which his characteristically flowing lines were interrupted by sudden , wide melodic leaps and disjunct rhythmic accents " . A few months before his death , although faster numbers had become perhaps too challenging , The Guardian observed , Farmer 's playing on slower tunes achieved a new level of emotional expression .

= = Discography and filmography = =

= Karim Benzema =

Karim Mostafa Benzema ( born 19 December 1987 ) is a French professional footballer of Algerian descent who plays for Spanish club Real Madrid and the France national team as a striker . He has been described as an " immensely talented striker " who is " strong and powerful " and " a potent finisher from inside the box " .

Benzema was born in the city of Lyon and began his football career with local club Bron Terraillon . In 1996 , he joined the biggest club in the city , Olympique Lyonnais , and subsequently came through the club 's youth academy . Benzema made his professional debut in the 2004 – 05 season and appeared sporadically in his first three seasons as Lyon won three titles in that span . In the 2007 – 08 season , Benzema became a starter and had a breakthrough year scoring over 30 goals as Lyon won its seventh straight league title . For his performances , he was named the National Union of Professional Footballers ( UNFP ) Ligue 1 Player of the Year and named to the organization 's Team of the Year . Benzema was also the league 's top scorer and given the Bravo Award by Italian magazine Guerin Sportivo . After another season at Lyon , in July 2009 , Benzema moved to Real Madrid in a transfer fee worth over € 35 million ( $ 50 million ) , and signed a six @-@ year contract . After struggling to establish himself in his debut season with the club , in the ensuing two seasons , Benzema reached prominence , scoring 32 goals en route to helping Real Madrid win the Copa del Rey in 2011 and the 2011 – 12 edition of La Liga . He has been named French Player of the Year thrice for his performances in 2011 , 2012 and 2014 .

Benzema is a former French youth international and has represented his nation from under @-@ 17 level onwards . Prior to playing for the senior team , he played on the under @-@ 17 team that won the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Championship . Benzema made his senior international debut in March 2007 in a friendly match against Austria , scoring in a 1 – 0 win . Benzema has earned over 70 caps and represented France at three major international tournaments : the 2008 and 2012 editions of the UEFA European Football Championship and the 2014 FIFA World Cup . However , Benzema has twice been intentionally left off major tournament squads ( 2010 World Cup and 2016 Euros ) due to various scandals .

= = Club career = =

= = = Early career = = =

Benzema began his football career at his hometown club Bron Terraillon SC at the age of eight . While at the club , he was nicknamed Coco by friends and , after scoring two goals in an under @-@ 10 match against the Lyon youth academy , began attracting attention from the biggest club in the city . According to Serge Santa Cruz , who was president of Bron Terraillon in the 1990s , Lyon officials had visited him directly in an attempt to sign the youngster ; however , Santa Cruz refused . After talking with Benzema 's father , the club allowed the player to undergo a trial with Lyon . Following the trial , Benzema officially joined Lyon and was inserted into the club 's academy .

= = = Lyon = = =

Benzema quickly ascended up the youth categories in the academy . He served as a ballboy during Lyon senior team matches and performed well in school being described as a student who was " discreet and respectful " . At under @-@ 16 level , Benzema scored 38 goals in the Championnat National des 16 ans , the domestic league for under @-@ 16 youth players in France . Ahead of the 2004 – 05 season , Benzema was promoted to the club 's reserve team , which was playing in the Championnat de France amateur , the fourth division of French football . Despite only playing with the team during the autumn campaign , he scored a team @-@ high ten goals as the Lyon reserve team finished second in its group .

= = = = 2004 – 2007 = = = =

Benzema was called up to the senior team for the first time under manager Paul Le Guen during the break leading up to the second half of the season . As is customary with new players arriving at Lyon , the young striker had to stand up and speak to his new teammates , which at that time included the likes of Michael Essien , Sylvain Wiltord , Florent Malouda and Éric Abidal . While speaking , Benzema was subjected to jokes and laughter , which prompted the youngster to declare " Do not laugh , I 'm here to take your place " . He , subsequently , made his professional debut on 15 January 2005 against Metz , appearing as a substitute for Pierre @-@ Alain Frau . Lyon won the match 2 – 0 as Benzema provided the assist on the second goal scored by Bryan Bergougnoux . He would subsequently sign his first professional contract , agreeing to a three @-@ year deal . After making three more appearances as a substitute , on 2 April , Benzema made his first professional start in a 1 – 0 win over Lens . He finished the campaign with six appearances as Lyon won its fourth @-@ straight league title .

Benzema began the 2005 – 06 season under the tutelage of new manager Gérard Houllier . Under Houllier , he struggled for meaningful minutes due to the presence of newly signed Brazilian striker Fred , as well as Sylvain Wiltord . Benzema made his season debut on 2 October 2005 in a league win over Rennes , appearing as a substitute . On 6 December , he made his UEFA Champions League debut in Lyon 's final group stage match against Norwegian club Rosenborg . On his competition debut , he scored his first professional goal in a 2 – 1 win . A month later , Benzema scored his first professional double in a 4 – 0 win over Grenoble in the Coupe de France . On 4 March 2006 , Benzema scored his first professional league goal against Ajaccio in a 3 – 1 win .

Benzema began earning more playing time in the 2006 – 07 season and made his competitive season debut in the 2006 Trophée des Champions against Paris Saint @-@ Germain . In the French Supercup , Benzema converted a penalty which drew the match at 1 – 1 . Lyon later won the league curtain @-@ raiser 5 – 4 on penalties . Benzema opened the league campaign on a quick note scoring in the team 's first match of the season against Nantes . Three weeks later , on 26 August 2006 , Benzema appeared as a substitute and scored two goals in a 4 – 1 away win over Nice . He also converted two goals in the Champions League group stage against Romanian outfit Steaua București and Ukrainian club Dynamo Kyiv . After appearing regularly during the autumn campaign , on 10 November , Benzema suffered a severe thigh injury . The injury resulted in the striker missing three months of action before returning in February 2007 . Benzema failed to score a goal until the final league match of the season against Nantes as Lyon recorded its sixth consecutive league title .

= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =

For the 2007 – 08 season , with the likes of Florent Malouda , John Carew and Sylvain Wiltord all departing from the club , Benzema switched to the number 10 shirt and was inserted into the lead striker role . After forming a special relationship with new manager Alain Perrin , he responded with 31 goals in 51 games . He topped the league with 20 goals , scored four goals in the Champions League , one in the Coupe de la Ligue and totaled six goals in six Coupe de France matches , helping Lyon win their first ever double . Some of his more dazzling performances that season included a hat @-@ trick against Metz on 15 September , an equalizing goal in the 90th minute from a free kick against Derby du Rhône rivals Saint @-@ Étienne , and a goal against Lens that was nominated for goal of the season by fans .

In the Champions League , Benzema scored an important double against Rangers at Ibrox Stadium on the last match day of the group stage . The 3 – 0 victory assured Lyon progression to the knockout rounds . In the knockout rounds , Lyon faced Manchester United and Benzema continued to score , this time it was from outside the penalty box in the first leg match which ended in a 1 – 1 draw and United eventually won the tie 1 – 2 on aggregate . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson and players praised Benzema for his performance . Lyon President Jean @-@ Michel Aulas later accused Ferguson of tapping @-@ up Benzema .

On 13 March 2008 , Benzema extended his contract with Lyon until 2013 with a one @-@ year extension option . After signing his new contract , Benzema became one of the highest paid footballers in France . For his efforts that season , he was named the Ligue 1 Player of the Year , selected to the Team of the Year and awarded the Trophée du Meilleur Buteur for being the league 's top scorer . He was also shortlisted by French magazine France Football for the 2008 Ballon d 'Or award , eventually won by Cristiano Ronaldo .

= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =

Benzema got off to a good start for the 2008 – 09 season , scoring twice in Lyon 's opening league match against Toulouse . The following three weeks , he scored goals against Rhône @-@ Alpes rivals Grenoble and Saint @-@ Étienne and scored a goal against Nice , converting a penalty in the dying seconds . Lyon won all three matches . As a result of his early goals , Olympique Lyonnais President Jean @-@ Michel Aulas quelled the many transfer rumors surrounding Benzema by placing a € 100 million price tag on the striker . He was also nominated alongside Franck Ribéry to be featured on the French cover of the video game FIFA 09 .

He scored his seventh goal of the league on 29 October , scoring in the 2 – 0 win over Sochaux . Benzema scored again the following weekend in a 2 – 0 win over Le Mans . He was among the top scorers in the Champions League group stage , scoring five goals , a double against Steaua București , two goals in two matches against Fiorentina , and a goal against the eventual group winners Bayern Munich on the final match day .

Following the winter break , Benzema endured a rough patch going scoreless the first three games before recording his 11th goal of the season against Nice in a 3 – 1 victory . Two weeks later , he scored his 12th goal against Nancy in a 2 – 0 victory . The next nine matches , both Benzema and Lyon 's form dwindled losing four matches , drawing three , and winning only two with Benzema scoring only two goals in that stretch , both of them against Le Mans in a 3 – 1 victory . The bad form resulted in Lyon losing their grip on first @-@ place position and eventually falling out of the title race , thus ending their streak of seven consecutive Ligue 1 titles . Benzema was a part of four of those title runs .

Despite losing the title , Benzema got back on track scoring his 15th and 16th goals of the season on 17 May in a 3 – 1 away victory over rivals Marseille , the first goal being a penalty . He scored his 17th goal the following weekend against Caen in a 3 – 1 victory moving him into third place among Ligue 1 top scorers .

= = = Real Madrid = = =

= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =

On 1 July 2009 , it was announced that Lyon had reached an agreement with Spanish club Real Madrid for the transfer of Benzema . The transfer fee was priced at € 35 million with the fee rising to as much as € 41 million based on incentives . On 9 July , Benzema successfully passed his medical and signed his contract , a six @-@ year deal , later that afternoon . He was presented officially as a Real Madrid player later that night at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , similarly to the previous signings of Kaká and Cristiano Ronaldo . Benzema made his Real Madrid debut on 20 July in the club 's opening pre @-@ season friendly against Irish club Shamrock Rovers in Dublin , appearing as a half @-@ time substitute . He scored the lone goal in the club 's 1 – 0 win , scoring in the 87th minute . On 24 August , Benzema netted two goals in Real Madrid 's 4 – 0 victory over Norwegian club Rosenborg in an annual friendly tournament organized for the Santiago Bernabeu Trophy . The goals brought his total tally in the pre @-@ season with Real Madrid to five , making him the joint top scorer alongside fellow striker Raúl .

Benzema made his league debut for Madrid on 29 August 2009 against Deportivo La Coruña . He started the match , but was substituted out in the second half as Madrid won 3 – 2 . A month later , he scored his first goal for the club in a 5 – 0 victory against newly promoted Xerez . After missing the mid @-@ week match against Villarreal , against Tenerife at the weekend , Benzema scored his first double for Madrid in a 3 – 0 home victory . He made his Champions League debut for the club on 30 September in a group stage tie against Marseille . In the match , Benzema assisted on a Cristiano Ronaldo goal . After failing to score a goal in the month of October , in the team 's first match in November against Italian club Milan in the Champions League , Benzema scored the opener to give Madrid a 1 – 0 lead . His goal was later cancelled out by a Ronaldinho penalty . On 7 November , in the El Derbi madrileño against Atlético Madrid , Benzema assisted on Madrid 's second goal , scored by Marcelo . Madrid won the match 3 – 2 .

In late November , Benzema began appearing mainly as a substitute as manager Manuel Pellegrini preferred Gonzalo Higuaín in the lead striker role . To coincide with his benching , the striker was also being criticized by the Spanish media for his under @-@ performance and difficulties settling in the country as he had not yet begun learning the Spanish language . He was even declared the " new Anelka " by a Spanish newspaper Marca blogger , referring to former Real Madrid striker Nicolas Anelka who had a tumultuous year at the club before being sold . Benzema was defended by his compatriot Zinedine Zidane , who admitted " after two months , I was also criticized " and that Benzema was " a talented player and talented players in Madrid must win " .

On 5 December , Benzema appeared as a substitute for Rafael van der Vaart and scored the third goal in a 6 – 0 romp of Almería . The day after the match against Almería , Benzema responded to the criticism by stating , " I am totally integrated and very happy at Real Madrid , " and , " Yes , I have improved my adaptation . I have a new home and I 'm learning Spanish to understand myself better with my teammates . " After nearly a month coming off of the bench , he started alongside Higuaín away to Valencia on 12 December and responded by assisting on one of Higuaín 's two goals . A week later , Benzema returned to the bench . On his 22nd birthday , he scored in a 6 – 0 home win against Real Zaragoza . Following an injury to Higuaín in early January 2010 , Pellegrini inserted Benzema back into the starting lineup . After failing to score in his first two starts in the absence of Higuaín , against Deportivo La Coruña on 30 January , he scored a double in an important 3 – 1 away win . Following the return of Higuaín , Benzema was relegated back to a substitute 's role and finished the campaign by making eight consecutive appearances off the bench . Included in one of the those appearances was his final goal of the season against Athletic Bilbao in a 5 – 1 win .

= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =

Ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , Benzema switched to the number nine shirt as Real Madrid were under the tutelage of new incoming manager José Mourinho . The striker immediately drew the ire of Mourinho who declared to reporters during a pre @-@ season media session that " Benzema must understand that he is extremely talented , but that in itself is not enough " , while also stating that " [ Madrid ] need a striker who is sparky , not one that is listless " . Mourinho sentiments were later echoed by incoming France national team coach Laurent Blanc who acknowledged that Benzema was " not used to working " . Blanc also stated that the striker needed to shed weight in order to fulfill his potential .

Due to Mourinho preferring Ronaldo and Higuaín as his forwards , Benzema began the campaign as a substitute coming off the bench in the team 's opening league match of the season against Mallorca . Following the September international break , he made his first start in a 1 – 0 win over Osasuna . On 21 September , Benzema made a substitute appearance and scored his first goal of the season in a 3 – 0 home win against Espanyol . Afterwards , the striker failed to score a domestic goal for nearly two months . The striker did assist on goals in back @-@ to @-@ back weeks against Hércules in the league and Milan in the Champions League .

On 10 November , Benzema scored his second goal of the campaign against Real Murcia in the 2010 – 11 edition of the Copa del Rey . In late November , Benzema was inserted into the starting eleven following a severe back injury to Higuaín , along with the team 's lack of senior strikers . In his first match since being inserted into the starting lineup permanently , he scored his first Champions League goal of the season in a group stage fixture against Dutch club Ajax . In Madrid 's final group stage tie against French outfit Auxerre , Benzema scored his first hat trick for the club in a 4 – 0 win . The first goal he scored was Real Madrid 's 300th goal in the Champions League era . Two weeks later , Benzema converted another hat trick , this time in an 8 – 0 thrashing of Levante in the Copa del Rey . In the team 's first fixture of the 2011 calendar year , he assisted on the game @-@ winning goal scored by Ronaldo in a 3 – 2 win over Getafe . In late January , for the first time in his Real Madrid career , Benzema scored goals in back @-@ to @-@ back matches . On 23 January , he scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 win at home against Mallorca . Three days later , Benzema repeated his efforts scoring the only goal in a win over Sevilla in the first leg of the team 's Copa del Rey semi @-@ final tie . Real Madrid later advanced to its 37th Copa del Rey final in club history after beating Sevilla 2 – 0 in the second leg .

Following the arrival of Emmanuel Adebayor on loan , Benzema went unused in two consecutive league matches in February 2011 . He returned to the starting lineup on 19 February and embarked on a run in which he scored ten goals in eight matches . Included in those ten goals were doubles in three straight matches against Málaga , Racing Santander and Hércules , as well as a goal in the first leg of Madrid 's Round of 16 tie against former club Lyon . The strike against his hometown club was the 100th goal of his professional career , and also the first goal for Real Madrid at the Stade de Gerland in six years , though despite the honours associated with netting the goal , Benzema did not celebrate out of respect for his former club .

On 19 March , he scored the opener in the El Derbi madrileño as Real Madrid went on to win the match 2 – 1 . Despite his form , Benzema appeared in only one of the four highly anticipated matches against El Clásico rivals Barcelona , in which the two clubs met in the league , the 2011 Copa del Rey Final and the Champions League knockout stage . In between those clashes , on 23 April 2011 , Benzema scored a goal and assisted on another in a 6 – 3 win over Valencia . On 30 April , he scored a goal in the team 's 3 – 2 loss to Real Zaragoza . It was the only match of the campaign that Real Madrid loss , in which Benzema scored . To close out the campaign , Benzema scored another double in an 8 – 1 win over Almería . He finished the campaign second on the team behind Ronaldo with 26 goals as Real Madrid captured the Copa del Rey giving Benzema his first honour with the club . For his performances during the campaign , particularly during the second half , Benzema was praised by Mourinho , club officials Florentino Pérez and Emilio Butragueño , as well as national team manager Laurent Blanc .

= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =

Prior to the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Benzema , taking the advice of compatriots Blanc and Zidane , ventured to Merano , Italy , to attend a high performance clinic where he underwent treatment to reduce his weight . The spell at the clinic was ultimately a success after the striker arrived at pre @-@ season 8 kilograms ( 18 lb ) lighter . While at the clinic , Benzema also underwent physical training to build up his muscle mass . The striker was impressive in the pre @-@ season scoring eight goals in seven matches . His performances during the pre @-@ season resulted in Mourinho naming him the starting lead striker for the new campaign . Mourinho was later credited with Benzema 's transformation , but denied full responsibility and , instead , gave credit to the striker himself .

Benzema made his 2011 – 12 competitive debut for Madrid in the first leg of the 2011 Supercopa de España against Barcelona . In the match , he started and assisted on the opening goal of the match , scored by Mesut Özil . In the second leg , with Madrid trailing 4 – 3 on aggregate late in the match , Benzema scored the equalizing goal to even the tie at 4 – 4 . However , six minutes later , a Lionel Messi strike gave Barcelona the supercup . Benzema made his league debut for Madrid in the team 's 6 – 0 away win over Real Zaragoza . In the team 's next league match two weeks later against Getafe , Benzema scored a double in a 4 – 2 victory . After going scoreless in three consecutive league matches , he scored his third league goal of the campaign against Rayo Vallecano in a 4 – 2 win . In the team 's ensuing match against Ajax in the Champions League , Benzema scored Madrid 's third goal in a 3 – 0 home win . He also assisted on the opener , which was scored by Ronaldo . In the club 's next Champions League match against Lyon , Benzema scored again netting the opener . He also turned provider for the second consecutive match assisting on a goal by Sami Khedira . Madrid won the match 4 – 0 .

In November 2011 , Benzema scored five goals ; three in the league and two in Europe . In the league , he converted his three goals in wins over Osasuna and Valencia , while he scored his two Champions League goals in a 6 – 2 group stage win over Croatian club Dinamo Zagreb . On 10 December 2011 , Benzema scored the opener in Madrid 's 3 – 1 defeat to Barcelona in the El Clásico . The goal , scored just 21 seconds into the match , was the fastest goal ever scored in a match between the two rivals . Three days after his record @-@ breaking goal , for his performances during the 2011 calendar year , Benzema was named the France Football French Player of the Year , beating out Barcelona defender Éric Abidal and Lyon goalkeeper Hugo Lloris . He became only the second French player based in Spain to win the award , and also the second Real Madrid player to capture it . Zidane was the first to achieve both honorable mentions . Benzema expressed gratitude at winning the award , stating , " It is a pleasure to win an individual trophy . When I see the previous winners — Zidane , Henry and other major players — it makes me proud to join them on the list . " In the team 's next match after winning the award , against Sevilla , Benzema assisted on two goals in a 6 – 2 triumph .

Benzema opened the 2012 portion of the campaign in positive form . He scored goals against Granada and Málaga . Benzema scored against the latter club in the Copa del Rey in each leg of the Round of 16 . The 4 – 2 aggregate win advanced Real Madrid to the quarter @-@ finals where the club faced Barcelona . After failing to score in the first leg , which ended 2 – 1 in favor of Barça , in the second leg on 25 January 2012 , Benzema scored his third goal of the season against the Blaugrana , but Madrid failed to win the tie losing 4 – 3 on aggregate . On 12 February , Benzema scored his first league goal in over a month against Levante . A week later , he scored a double in a 4 – 0 shutout of Racing Santander . On 24 March , Benzema scored two goals in a league win over Real Sociedad . The two goals made him the top French scorer in La Liga history surpassing Zidane . Three days later , Benzema scored another double in a 3 – 0 first leg away win over Cypriot club APOEL in the Champions League quarter @-@ finals . On 29 April , Benzema put in a masterpiece performance scoring two goals and assisting on another in a 3 – 0 win over Sevilla . The double was his seventh of the season and allowed Madrid to close in on its first Primera Division title in four years . Los Blancos captured their 32nd league title the following week cruising to a 3 – 0 win over Athletic Bilbao . Benzema appeared as a second @-@ half substitute in the match .

= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =

On the first matchday of the UEFA Champions League , Benzema scored an equalizer against Manchester City in 3 – 2 win at Santiago Bernabéu . On 4 October 2012 , Benzema scored a bicycle kick goal off a cross by Kaká in a 4 – 1 win against Ajax in Amsterdam . On 18 December 2012 , one day before his 25th birthday , his fine form saw him earn the award for best French footballer of 2012 , for the second year running .

On 2 March 2013 , Benzema opened the scoring against Barcelona in the league game at the Santiago Bernabéu . Real went on to win the game 2 – 1 , the second time they beat Barcelona in a week . On 30 April 2013 , Benzema scored one goal and assisted to Sergio Ramos against Dortmund .

= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =

Benzema started new season by scoring in a 2 – 1 win over Real Betis at the Santiago Bernabéu . He scored again one week later in a 1 – 0 away over Granada , assisted by Cristiano Ronaldo . After four matches without scoring ( two with Real Madrid and two with France ) , he returned to goal @-@ scoring form by netting twice in a 6 – 1 away win over Galatasaray in Champions League . On 18 January 2014 , he scored his 100th goal for Madrid in a 5 – 0 victory at Real Betis . On 23 March , Benzema scored two goals against fierce rivals Barcelona in El Clásico at the Bernabéu from two crosses by Ángel Di María , taking his goal tally in La Liga to 17 goals , though Barcelona won the match 4 – 3 .

Benzema was part of Real Madrid 's starting eleven in the 2014 Copa del Rey Final on 16 April at the Mestalla Stadium , and assisted Di María 's opening goal before Gareth Bale hit the winner for Madrid in a 2 – 1 victory . One week later , Benzema scored the only goal of the game to win the first leg of a Champions League semi @-@ final against Bayern Munich . The club went on to win the final in May . Real Madrid 's attacking trio of Bale , Benzema and Cristiano , dubbed " BBC " , finished the season with 97 goals .

= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =

On 6 August 2014 , Real Madrid announced that Benzema had signed a new five @-@ year deal that will keep him at the club until 2019 . On 12 August 2014 , Benzema played the whole 90 minutes in Real Madrid 's 2 – 0 win against Sevilla in Cardiff to claim the UEFA Super Cup .

On 16 September 2014 , Benzema scored Real Madrid 's 1,000th goal in European competition after netting a goal in a 5 – 1 victory over FC Basel in the first match of the Champions League group stage . He scored the winning goal in Real Madrid 's 2 – 1 away victory against Ludogorets Razgrad in the Champions League after coming on as a second @-@ half substitute . The next weekend , he scored a brace in the 5 – 0 victory against Athletic Bilbao in La Liga .

Benzema was chosen as La Liga Player of the Month for October 2014 , with his manager Carlo Ancelotti winning the equivalent award . He scored three of Real Madrid 's 13 goals of the month , in which they won three matches and only conceded just one goal .

= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =

Benzema scored a hatrick in an 8 – 0 thrashing against Malmö FF on 8 December 2015 . On 20 December 2015 , he scored another hatrick in a 10 – 2 victory over Rayo Vallecano .

He was a regular starter when the team won the 2015 – 16 UEFA Champions League .

= = International career = =

= = = Youth = = =

Benzema is a former France youth international having earned caps at all levels for which he was eligible , excluding the under @-@ 16 team . He is a member of the group , commonly known in France as the Génération 1987 , a youth class that produced current internationals Hatem Ben Arfa , Jérémy Ménez and Samir Nasri , alongside himself . Benzema was the last of the four to make his youth international debut under coach Philippe Bergeroo and officially joined the team ahead of the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship that was played on home soil . In the competition , he appeared in two matches . On his tournament debut , Benzema scored the opening goal in a 3 – 1 win over Northern Ireland . His lone other appearance in the competition was in a 1 – 0 group stage win over Spain as France went on to win the tournament defeated the same team in the final .

Benzema was a regular starter in the team at under @-@ 18 level . He made his debut with the team at a local tournament in the Czech Republic . Benzema scored his first goal at under @-@ 18 level in the competition against Poland in the team 's final group stage match . In the final against the hosts , he scored the opening goal in a 2 – 0 win as France were declared champions of the competition . On 30 September 2004 , Benzema was one of three goalscorers in France 's 3 – 0 away win over Norway . In the team 's next match against Russia , he scored a double in a 3 – 1 victory . Due to France winning the 2004 U17 European title , the under @-@ 18 team was allowed participation in the 2005 edition of the UEFA @-@ CAF Meridian Cup . Benzema was called up to the team for the competition and played in all four matches scoring a tournament @-@ high five goals as France were crowned champions of the tournament . He opened the tournament by scoring two goals in a 7 – 0 victory over Cameroon . After going scoreless in the team 's next match against Sierra Leone , Benzema responded by scoring a goal in a shutout victory over Nigeria and netting another double in a 4 – 1 win against Egypt . On 19 May 2005 , in the team 's final match of the season against Slovakia , Benzema scored all four goals in a 4 – 1 victory . He finished the under @-@ 18 campaign with 18 appearances and a team @-@ high 14 goals and was , subsequently , praised by Bergeroo who , following the campaign , declared that Benzema was " quite efficient " .

The foursome of Benzema , Ben Arfa , Ménez and Nasri returned to international play together for under @-@ 19 duty . The four were joined by Issiar Dia , Blaise Matuidi and Serge Gakpé with the objective of winning the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship . The team opened the campaign with two friendly matches against Norway . Over the course of the two matches , Benzema scored one goal , which came in the first match , a 4 – 0 win . In the first round of qualification for the UEFA @-@ sanctioned tournament , he scored his only goal in the final group match against Austria . France won the match 2 – 0 , which resulted in the team progressing to the Elite Round . In the ensuing round , France were placed in a relatively easy group alongside Scotland , Bulgaria , and Belarus . In the opening group game against Bulgaria , Benzema scored a double converting a penalty and scoring in play as France won 4 – 0 . Both of his goals were scored within a minute of each other . After surprisingly drawing 0 – 0 with Belarus , France faced Scotland in the final group stage match . Benzema opened the scoring in the 11th minute , but his goal was cancelled out by Steven Fletcher in the second half . The match ultimately finished 1 – 1 and , despite finishing the round undefeated , France were eliminated after being beaten on points by the Scots .

Benzema made his under @-@ 21 debut for Les Espoirs under coach René Girard in the team 's first match following the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship against Belgium . He started the match and was replaced at half @-@ time by Yoann Gourcuff . He featured in qualification matches for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship and appeared as a starter and substitute in the first leg and second leg , respectively , of the team 's surprising defeat to Israel in the qualifying playoffs . Despite still being eligible to represent the under @-@ 21 team until 2009 , his appearance in the second leg defeat to Israel was Benzema 's last with the team and he finished his under @-@ 21 career with five appearances and no goals . Prior to representing France at senior international level , Benzema was courted by the Algerian Football Federation ( FAF ) who sought for the player to represent Algeria at senior international level . In December 2006 , the striker was approached by former federation president Hamid Haddadj and then @-@ national team coach Jean @-@ Michel Cavalli , but turned down the invite citing his desire to continue his international career with France . Benzema later told French radio station Radio Monte Carlo " Algeria is my parents ’ country and it is in my heart , but football @-@ wise , I will only play for the French national team " .

= = = Senior = = =

= = = = Euro 2008 = = = =

Benzema was called up for the first time to the senior national team by Raymond Domenech on 9 November 2006 for the team 's friendly match against Greece that would be played on 15 November . Benzema described the call @-@ up as " a reward " , while also stating " I am pleased , of course , me and my family . A ( the senior national team ) , is the national team 's highest honor " . Two days before the match , he was forced to withdraw from the team due to a thigh injury , which he suffered while playing domestically for Lyon . After failing to make the squad for the team 's February 2007 match against Argentina , Benzema returned to the team in March for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania and a friendly against Austria . After failing to appear in the qualifier , he made his international debut on 28 March 2007 against Austria . Benzema appeared as a half @-@ time substitute for Djibril Cissé and scored the only goal of the match after a free @-@ kick from Samir Nasri . On 13 October , Benzema scored a double in a 6 – 0 win against the Faroe Islands . After appearing regularly in the team for the rest of the 2007 – 08 season , he was named to the 23 @-@ man squad to participate in UEFA Euro 2008 .

Benzema made his debut in the competition on 9 June 2008 in the team 's opening match against Romania . Benzema started the match , but was substituted out for Nasri in the second half after a frustrating performance . The match finished 0 – 0 and Benzema was , subsequently , criticized by the French media for his performance with newspaper Le Point declaring that Benzema was " unrecognizable " and that he " symbolized the impotence of France in the attack " . The newspaper also cited his lack of international experience for his subdued performance . In the team 's next group game against the Netherlands , Benzema played no part in the 4 – 1 defeat . He returned to the team in its final group game against Italy and was given a place in the starting lineup . However , France lost 2 – 0 and were eliminated from the competition .

In November 2008 , Benzema , among several other young players in the team , was accused of being insolent during the team 's campaign at the European Championship . The accusation came from international teammate William Gallas who inserted the charge in his autobiography . Though most of Gallas ' accusations were directed at Nasri , during the competition , it was reported by newspaper Le Parisien that several of the national team players described Benzema as " arrogant " and that the striker was scolded by midfielder Claude Makélélé following the team 's loss to the Netherlands .

= = = = 2010 World Cup = = = =

Despite the reports from after Euro 2008 , Benzema remained a regular in the team and , ahead of qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup , switched to the number ten shirt after previously wearing the number nine . In the team 's first match following its elimination from Euro 2008 , Benzema scored a goal in a 3 – 2 friendly win over Sweden in Göteborg . Two months later , he scored another goal in a 3 – 1 victory against Tunisia at the Stade de France . On 5 June 2009 , Benzema converted the only goal of the match , a penalty shot , in a 1 – 0 win over Turkey at the Stade de Gerland , his home stadium . He scored his first World Cup qualification goals in victories over the Faroe Islands and Austria in October 2009 . His cap against Austria would be his last of the Domenech era as he failed to make France 's preliminary 30 @-@ man squad for the World Cup . Domenech cited Benzema 's struggle for form with his new club Real Madrid , rather than his alleged involvement in a sex scandal as his reason for leaving the striker out . Prior to the list being unveiled , Benzema informed Radio Monte Carlo that if he was not selected he would be " very disappointed , but not killed " and " I will support the France team no matter what " .

= = = = Euro 2012 = = = =

Following the World Cup , Benzema returned to the national team under the reign of new coach Laurent Blanc . Blanc , an admirer of Benzema , sought to build the attack around the striker and , after going almost a year without representing France , Benzema made his return to the team in its 2 – 1 defeat to Norway in Oslo . Alongside Gourcuff , Benzema led the team in scoring in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 netting three . He scored his three goals in wins over Bosnia and Herzegovina , Luxembourg , and Albania . On 17 November 2010 , Benzema scored the opening goal in France 's 2 – 1 win over England at Wembley Stadium . In the team 's next match against Brazil in February 2011 , he scored the only goal for France in a 1 – 0 win . After appearing regularly in qualifying for UEFA Euro 2012 , on 29 May 2012 , Benzema was named to the squad to participate in the competition . On 5 June , in the team 's final warm @-@ up friendly ahead of the European Championship , Benzema scored two goals in a 4 – 0 shutout win over Estonia . At UEFA Euro 2012 , Benzema started the team 's opening match against England , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . In the team 's ensuing group stage match against the Ukraine , he assisted on both team goals in a 2 – 0 win .

= = = = 2014 World Cup = = = =

On 11 October 2013 , Benzema scored his first goal for the France national team since June 2012 in a friendly against Australia , thus ending a scoring drought for his national team which had lasted 1 @,@ 222 minutes . In that match played at the Parc des Princes stadium in Paris , which France won 6 – 0 , Benzema scored France 's sixth and final goal in the 50th minute after turning home Franck Ribéry 's left @-@ wing cross . In the second leg of the 2014 World Cup qualification play @-@ off against Ukraine held on 19 November 2013 at the Stade de France , Benzema scored France 's second goal in the 34th minute to level the aggregate score at 2 – 2 . Benzema scored his goal when he side @-@ footed home after a huge scramble in the Ukrainian penalty box , although he was shown on television replays to be offside by almost one metre when the ball took a final touch off Mathieu Valbuena 's chest . Benzema had four minutes earlier been denied a legitimate goal , the offside flag wrongly raised when he turned in Ribéry 's low cross into the net with his torso a metre from the Ukrainian goal @-@ line . Ukraine had won the first leg of the play @-@ off 2 – 0 in Kiev just four days earlier . France would eventually win the second leg 3 – 0 to advance to the 2014 World Cup finals in Brazil with a 3 – 2 aggregate scoreline .

On 6 June 2014 , Benzema was named in France 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup , making his debut in the tournament . In the team 's first match , a 3 – 0 win against Honduras in Porto Alegre on 15 June , he scored a goal in each half , the first from a penalty kick . He also assisted the team 's second goal when his shot rebounded off the post and was fumbled over the goal @-@ line by Honduran goalkeeper Noel Valladares for an own goal , the first World Cup goal given by goal @-@ line technology . He was named by FIFA as man of the match for his performance . In the second group fixture , he scored and had a penalty saved in a 5 – 2 defeat of Switzerland , as Les Bleus all but secured qualification to the knockout stage . France were later knocked out by Germany in the quarter @-@ final stage of the tournament .

= = = = Euro 2016 = = = =

On 13 April 2016 , French Football Federation announced that Benzema would not be picked for Euro 2016 tournament on home soil . He responded on 1 June 2016 in Marca , in an interview entitled ' Benzema : " Deschamps folded due to pressure from France 's racist element " ' .

= = Style of play = =

A skillful , quick , agile , and prolific forward , who is good in the air , Benzema has been described as an " immensely talented striker " who is " strong and powerful " and " a potent finisher from inside the box " with both feet , despite being naturally right footed . An atypical number 9 , although he is usually deployed as a centre @-@ forward , Benzema is also capable of playing in several other offensive positions , and has been used on the wing , or even behind the main striker . In addition to his goalscoring , Benzema is indeed known for his willingness and ability to drop into deeper or wider positions , and either link @-@ up play with midfielders as a number 10 , or use his strength and technical ability to hold up the ball to provide assists for teammates , courtesy of his vision , creativity , passing , and eye for the final ball . He has also been praised for his work @-@ rate and tactical intelligence off the ball , as well as his attacking movement as a forward , which often draws opposition defenders out of position , and in turn creates spaces for Cristiano Ronaldo to make attacking runs into the centre of the area from the left wing .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Club = = =

As of 28 May 2016

1Includes Coupe de France , Coupe de la Ligue , Trophée des Champions , Copa del Rey and Supercopa de España2Includes UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup

= = = International = = =

As of 8 October 2015

= = Honours = =

= = = Club = = =

Lyon

Ligue 1 : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08

Coupe de France : 2007 – 08

Trophée des Champions : 2006 , 2007

Real Madrid

UEFA Champions League : 2013 – 14 , 2015 – 16

UEFA Super Cup : 2014

FIFA Club World Cup : 2014

La Liga : 2011 – 12

Copa del Rey : 2010 – 11 , 2013 – 14

Supercopa de España : 2012

= = = International = = =

France

UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship ( 1 ) : 2004

= = = Individual = = =

Bravo Award : 2008

Ligue 1 Top Goalscorer : 2007 – 08

UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year : 2007 – 08

UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year : 2007 – 08

Étoile d 'Or : 2007 – 08

French Player of the Year ( 3 ) : 2011 , 2012 , 2014

Fastest goal in an El Clásico on 10 December 2011 ( 21 seconds )

= = Personal life = =

Karim Benzema was born in the city of Lyon , France to French nationals of Algerian descent . As a practicing Muslim , he observes fasting during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan . His grandfather , Da Lakehal Benzema , lived in the village of Tigzirt , located in the northern town of Beni Djellil in Algeria before migrating to Lyon , where he eventually settled in the 1950s . Benzema 's father , Hafid , was born in Tigzirt , while his mother , Wahida Djebbara , was born and raised in Lyon ; her family originated from Oran . Benzema is the third youngest in the family and grew up with eight other siblings in Bron , an eastern suburb of Lyon . His younger brothers Gressy and Sabri are also footballers . The former currently plies his trade at the amateur level with Vaulx @-@ le @-@ Velin in the Division d 'Honneur , the sixth division of French football , while the latter plays in the youth academy of a club in the family 's hometown of Bron . Since establishing himself as an international footballer , Benzema has been involved in numerous promotional campaigns . Since 2008 , he has regularly appeared on the cover of the French version of the annual FIFA video game . Benzema is sponsored by German sportswear company Adidas and has , subsequently , appeared in several television advertisements for the brand .

On 3 February 2014 , his longtime girlfriend , Chloé de Launay , gave birth to his daughter , Mélia .

= = = Legal issues = = =

On 18 April 2010 , it was first reported by French television channel M6 that four members of the French national team were being investigated for their roles as clients in a prostitute ring operated inside of a Paris nightclub , with some of the women possibly being underage or transgender . The players were eventually revealed to be Franck Ribéry , Sidney Govou , Hatem Ben Arfa and Benzema . Benzema was alleged to have had a sexual rendezvous with a prostitute when she was 16 years of age , an act Benzema denied through his lawyer . On 20 July , Benzema was questioned by Paris police and indicted on the charge of " solicitation of a minor prostitute " . In November 2011 , prosecutors asked for the cases against Ribéry and Benzema to be dropped , saying that the players were not aware that the escort , identified as Zahia Dehar , was 16 years old . However , the case has gone on to trial . The first hearing was held in June 2013 .

On 4 November 2015 , Benzema was arrested by French police for his alleged part in blackmailing fellow France international player Mathieu Valbuena . During the investigation over the blackmail plot , French Prime Minister Manuel Valls stated , " A great athlete should be exemplary . If he is not , he has no place in the France team . There are so many kids , so many youngsters in our suburbs that relate to great athletes . They wear the blue jersey , the colours of France , which are so important in these moments . "

= Roanoke Building =

11 South LaSalle Street Building or Eleven South LaSalle Street Building ( formerly Roanoke Building and Tower and originally Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition or simply the Roanoke Building and Lumber Exchange Building ) is a Chicago Landmark building that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and that is located at 11 South LaSalle Street in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois , United States . This address is located on the southeast corner of LaSalle and Madison Street in Cook County , Illinois across the Madison Street from the One North LaSalle Building . The building sits on a site of a former Roanoke building ( once known as Major Block 2 ) that once served as a National Weather Service Weather Forecast official climate site and replaced Major Block 1 after the Great Chicago Fire . The current building has incorporated the frontage of other buildings east of the original site of Major Block 1 .

The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( under the name Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition ) on December 6 , 2007 , and named a Chicago Landmark on December 12 , 2007 . It incorporates the lands of the former DeSoto Building and former Farewell Hall .

= = Original Roanoke Building = =

A four @-@ story Major Block 1 building , designed by T. V. Widskier , sat on this location until the Great Chicago Fire . After the fire , this was replaced with the Major Block 2 , which eventually became known as the Roanoke Building . Major Block 2 stood from 1872 – 1912 as a seven @-@ story building on spread foundations . It was designed by Dixon & Hamilton and had a length of 136 feet ( 41 @.@ 5 m ) along South LaSalle Street and a width of 66 feet ( 20 @.@ 1 m ) along West Madison Street . A commonly published illustration of this building shows it as a five @-@ story building . From June 8 , 1873 to January 1 , 1887 the original Roanoke building served as the Chicago location for the National Weather Service Weather Forecast official climate site . The building is mentioned in Saul Bellow 's More Die of Heartbreak but there it is referred to as a wealthy residence building and not as an office building .

= = Current Roanoke Building = =

= = = The original current building = = =

The current building was designed in three phases : in 1915 Holabird & Roche 's design for the first 16 floors was built , and five floors were added in 1922 . It was built originally as the sixteen @-@ story high Lumber Exchange Building and later renamed as the 11 South LaSalle Street Building . The Holabird & Roche design had three basements and rock caissons . The original 16 @-@ floor building was a late Chicago school commercial building that incorporated arches at both the fourth and the top floor , but when the top five floors were added in 1922 under the original cornice , the top rank of arches disappeared . The building uses dark terra cotta with italianate designs . The vaulted ceiling and marble wall lobby contribute to what is described as a classical entrance and lobby . The Palladian entrance uses contrasting white varigated and black marble .

= = = Tower addition = = =

In 1925 , the building was built to its current 35 story height by the addition of an adjacent tower to the east of the Madison street frontage . The entire building contains 330 @,@ 000 square feet ( 31 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The 36 @-@ story tower was added east of the original structure on the site of the former DeSoto Building at 125 @-@ 129 West Madison . The tower was an early example of the use of setbacks and it uses ranks of paired windows . When the Tower was built four bronze bells were installed and were set to chime an original composition called " Samheim " which is Norse for " Tomorrow " every quarter @-@ hour . The largest of these chimes is 7 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 200 kg ; 500 st ) and inscribed with the name " Leander " in honor of Leander McCormick . The current Roanoke building is the city 's only example of a building in the style of Portuguese Gothic architecture . According to the press release from the city announcing the landmark promotion , the building 's terra cotta ornamentation is derived from Portuguese Gothic precedents . The building was modernized in the 1950s and went through a postmodern renovation in 1984 to evoke the original ornamentation . The building has the same frontage as the original Roanoke building plus that of the former Farewell Hall ( built by William W. Boyington at 131 @-@ 3 West Madison Street ) .

From 1920 until 1969 the building hosted the offices of the law firm Sidley & Austin . Today the building is leased by small service industry firms , such as second @-@ floor tenant Thomas P. Gohagan & Co . , which arranges travel trips and tours for non @-@ profit organizations .

The building is undergoing renovation to the lobby , the façade , the elevators and the exterior lighting . The recent National Register listing has made the renovation feasible by making the building eligible for federal tax credits and reduced property taxes . The building qualified for the landmark Class L tax status , which makes it eligible for twelve years of reduced property taxes and other economic incentives for repair and rehab of historic buildings > In order to perform the renovation the owners took out a $ 43 @.@ 3 million loan against the property according to Form 8 @-@ K filings with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission . Its National Registered Historic Places announcement listed it under the name " Lumber Exchange Building and Tower Addition " although its Chicago Landmark listing is under the name " Roanoke Building and Tower . "

= Donnie Fatso =

" Donnie Fatso " is the ninth episode of the twenty @-@ second season of the animated comedy series The Simpsons . It first aired on Fox in the United States on December 12 , 2010 . The plot revolves around an FBI agent , who helps Homer go undercover to infiltrate Fat Tony 's mob . Homer agrees to this in hopes of decreasing his sentence after being charged for bribery . This episode is a reference to Goodfellas as well as real @-@ life FBI agent Donnie Brasco .

" Donnie Fatso " was written by Chris Cluess and directed by Ralph Sosa . Critics were polarized with the episode , with criticism stemming from its main plot and cultural references . Upon its initial airing , the episode received 7 @.@ 32 million viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " Donnie Fatso " featured guest appearances from Jon Hamm and Joe Mantegna , as well as several recurring voice actors and actresses for the series .

= = Plot = =

Homer and Marge wake on New Year 's Day with hangovers after the family 's New Year 's Eve celebration . As Homer takes out the garbage , Chief Wiggum , Eddie , and Lou arrive and issue him multiple citations and fines - the result of recently passed , frivolous laws intended to bring in revenue for the city when broken . Taking Moe 's suggestion that he bribe a city official to clear up the fines , Homer leaves a sack full of cash on the official 's desk but is promptly arrested , convicted , and sentenced to 10 years in prison . Wiggum takes pity on Homer and tells him to meet with an FBI agent , who offers to reduce the sentence if Homer will go undercover in the prison to investigate Fat Tony , who is also serving time along with his top henchmen .

Homer quickly gains favor with Fat Tony , due to a confrontation engineered by the FBI agent , and Fat Tony breaks him and the entire group out of prison and offers him a chance to join the syndicate . Homer 's first task is to burn down Moe 's Tavern in revenge for Moe 's rudeness toward Fat Tony on the phone , but Homer finds that Moe has already done the deed himself . Fat Tony accepts Homer into the syndicate and the two develop a special bond ; however , complications over a scheme to import weapons put the syndicate under severe stress . Eventually Fat Tony discovers Homer 's undercover status and , emotionally devastated by his betrayal , suffers a fatal heart attack .

Meanwhile , Marge has begun to panic over being unable to communicate with Homer , as she knows nothing of his undercover work and cannot get any information on his whereabouts . She is surprised and thrilled when he returns home with his prison sentence lifted , but Homer feels guilt for Fat Tony 's death and bitterness toward the government over being used to bring him down . Homer visits Fat Tony 's grave to apologize , but is kidnapped by his cousin Fit Tony , who plans to kill him for revenge . However , Fit Tony spares his life after Homer tells of the time he and Fat Tony spent together , seeing that Fat Tony lives on in Homer 's memories . Fit Tony takes charge of the syndicate , but the stress of the position causes him to overeat and gain weight , becoming known first as Fit Fat Tony and then simply Fat Tony - now physically indistinguishable from the original .

= = Production = =

Donnie Fatso was written by Chris Cluess and directed by Ralph Sosa . In July 2010 , it was announced that Jon Hamm would make a guest appearance in the episode as an agent for the FBI . In his interview with Entertainment Weekly , showrunner Al Jean was pleased with Hamm 's performance , opining : " You gave him one note and he immediately did twelve great things with it . He was really funny . And handsome . He had it all . Hamm stated that appearing on the show was " an incredible experience " . In his interview with Access Hollywood , he continued , " I got to work on The Simpsons , which I watched for 20 years and the show is still fresh and still funny and the characters still resonate . It ’ s one of the best shows on television . It was an honor to be asked to be a part of it . " Joe Mantegna returned as Fat Tony , and voiced Fat Tony 's cousin Fit Tony .

" Donnie Fatso " features several references to music , film , media , and other pop culture phenomenon . The episode 's plot and title are parodical to that of the film Donnie Brasco . At the end of the episode , Homer 's monologue serves as a homage to monologue of Henry Hill in Goodfellas . Similarly , the parodying monologue is set to Sid Vicious ' version of " My Way " . Near the end of the episode , Fit Tony narrowly avoids a car bomb , a scene similar to that in Casino . The final scene between Fat Tony and Homer is reminiscent to that of the television show Wiseguy .

The opening sequence of " Donnie Fatso " featured a Fox News helicopter with the words " Merry Christmas from Fox News … But no other holidays . " It was the third episode of the season to satirize Fox News in its opening sequence , having first done so in " The Fool Monty " , in which helicopter can be seen hovering over New York City with the slogan " Fox News : Not Racist , But # 1 With Racists " . Bill O 'Reilly , host of the The O 'Reilly Factor , harshly criticized the show , calling the producers " pinheads " . He resumed : " Continuing to bite the hand that feeds part of it , Fox broadcasting once again allows its cartoon characters to run wild . " In response , producers added a brief scene at the beginning of the opening sequence in the following episode , " How Munched is That Birdie in the Window ? " , in which a helicopter appears bearing the slogan " Fox News : Unsuitable for Viewers Under 75 . " The scene was later removed from the opening sequence of " How Munched is That Birdie in the Window ? " , and was replaced by one reminiscing the film King Kong . According to showrunner Al Jean , the producers of the show were pleased that they had annoyed O 'Reilly , exclaiming that it was " very entertaining for [ them ] . "

= = Reception = =

" Donnie Fatso " was first broadcast on December 12 , 2010 in the United States as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was succeeded by episodes of Family Guy and American Dad ! . The episode was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 32 million viewers , despite airing simultaneously with Extreme Makeover Home Edition on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS , and a game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys as part of the 2010 NFL season on NBC . " Donnie Fatso " garnered a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings . The episode also became the third highest rated show of the week on Fox , only behind Glee and Family Guy . Total viewership and ratings were significantly down from the previous episode , " The Fight Before Christmas " , which received 9 @.@ 56 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 2 / 11 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic .

The episode attained mixed receptions from television critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a ' C ' grade , scoring lower than " Road to the North Pole " of Family Guy and " For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls " of American Dad . VanDerWerff felt that the episode was " fairly lazy " , and commented that the main plot was " too much of a mob movie pastiche . " Eric Hochberger of TV Fanatic criticized the humor of the episode , opining that " for an episode with such an overdone story , we could have forgiven things if it were at least funnier . " He continued : " Unfortunately , there just weren 't enough jokes to make the episode worth it . " In conclusion of his review , Hochberger gave " Donnie Fatso " a 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .

Critics were also polarized with the conclusion of Fat Tony , and the addition of Fit Tony . Entertainment Weekly writer Darren Franich named Fat Tony 's death the ninth Best TV Character Death of 2010 , writing , " give the writers some credit for doing something different : In the middle of an otherwise straightforward mob @-@ themed episode , they actually went ahead and killed off Fat Tony , a character who was first introduced almost twenty years ago . "

Dan Castellaneta 's performance in the episode , as Homer , Barney , Krusty and Louie , was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but lost to Maurice LaMarche , who received the award for his role in the Futurama episode " Lrrreconcilable Ndndifferences " .

= Hand in Glove =

" Hand in Glove " is a song by the British alternative rock band The Smiths , written by singer Morrissey and guitarist Johnny Marr . It was released as the band 's first single in May 1983 on independent record label Rough Trade Records . " Hand in Glove " peaked at number three on the UK Indie Chart . It did not chart ( top 75 ) but made number 124 outside the UK singles chart . A remixed version of the song was featured on the band 's debut album , The Smiths , in 1984 . That same year , a cover version recorded by singer Sandie Shaw featuring Smiths members Marr , Andy Rourke and Mike Joyce as backing musicians reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart .

= = Background and recording = =

Morrissey and Marr wrote " Hand in Glove " in January 1983 , between the second and third concerts The Smiths ever played . Morrissey claimed that after Marr gave him a demo cassette of the song , he went home and wrote lyrics for it in the span of two hours , conscious of the fact that it would be the group 's first recorded work . Even prior to performing the song live , the group was unanimous in the opinion that " Hand in Glove " was their strongest song to date .

The Smiths asked their manager Joe Moss to fund the recording of " Hand in Glove " . In late February , the group booked a one @-@ day recording session at Strawberry Studios in Stockport at the cost of £ 250 , which they produced themselves . Morrissey claimed in later years that he was dissatisfied with his vocal and returned a week later to re @-@ record his part , the day after which the entire group travelled to London and convinced Rough Trade owner Geoff Travis to release the record . However , author Simon Goddard noted that it was not until April 1983 that Marr and bassist Andy Rourke visited the Rough Trade offices . On that occasion , Marr handed Travis a cassette featuring " Hand in Glove " and a live recording of " Handsome Devil " , telling Travis , " [ L ] isten to this , it 's not just another tape " . Impressed , Travis promised he would . The following Monday , Travis called the group and invited them back to London to release " Hand in Glove " as a single . Both parties agreed to release the single as a temporary arrangement before agreeing to any long @-@ term partnership .

Two months after the single 's release , The Smiths recorded the song again during aborted sessions for their debut album with producer Troy Tate . This version was recorded a tone lower than the original in the key of F # minor , and features a shorter introduction . The Smiths recorded the song again with producer John Porter in October at Manchester 's Pluto Studios . Morrissey rejected this version of the song . Due to impending deadlines , the version that ultimately appeared on the band 's first album The Smiths was a remix of the original master recording from the Strawberry Studios session . For this version , Porter increased the separation between Marr 's guitar tracks and Morrissey 's vocals , emphasised drummer Mike Joyce 's drum beat , pushed Rourke 's bass back in the mix , and created a more dramatic opening and conclusion to the song .

= = Composition and lyrics = =

The original recorded version of " Hand in Glove " is in the key of G minor . The song begins with an overdub of Marr playing a harmonica over the rest of the music . Simon Goddard wrote that Marr 's use of the instrument " purposefully evoked the very same ' blunt vitality of working @-@ class " northernness " that Ian McDonald attributes to The Beatles ' parallel 1962 single ' Love Me Do ' , though infinitely more melancholy . " Of the backing music , Goddard wrote , " Marr 's redolent minor chord wash weeps with a rain @-@ soaked hopelessness while Rourke contributes one of his most inspired bass patterns " .

Morrissey explained that the song 's theme was " complete loneliness , " going on to state : " It was important to me that that there 'd be something searingly poetic about it , in a lyrical sense , and yet jubilant at the same time . " Goddard described " Hand in Glove " as " a bleak proclamation of doomed happiness [ . . . ] a shattering left @-@ hook of self @-@ loathing , loss and desperation " . Years later Morrissey considered the song to be the group 's " most special . " The singer said he was particularly proud of the song 's second verse , which included the lines " Though we may be hidden by rags / We have something they 'll never have . " Morrissey explained that the verse described " how I felt when I couldn 't afford clothes and used to dress in rags but I didn 't really feel mentally impoverished . "

In the song 's lyrics , Morrissey referenced works by playwright Shelagh Delaney , whom he would reference in several later songs . The song 's line " I 'll probably never see you again " appears in Delaney 's kitchen sink realism play A Taste of Honey and The Lion in Love . Morrissey paraphrased the line " Everything depends upon how near you stand next to me " from the 1974 Leonard Cohen song " Take This Longing " . Goddard conjectures that the song 's title was inspired by the 1947 detective novel Hand in Glove by Ngaio Marsh .

The song starts with the lines " Hand in glove / the sun shines out of our behinds " and then states that " No it 's not like any other love / this one 's different / because it 's us . " The lyrics then state that " the people stare " and " the Good People laugh " , " but we have something they 'll never have . " The song ends with the repeated line " I 'll probably never see you again " which is also taken from A Taste of Honey . The intro to the song uses the chords F major ( sus2 ) , Eb major and Bb major . The verse uses the chord G minor 7 , F7 ( sus2 ) and Eb major . ( The transcription cited is transposed to E minor instead of G minor . )

= = Release and reception = =

" Hand in Glove " was released as The Smiths ' debut recording in May 1983 . The single sold consistently for the next 18 months . Although the single failed to reach the UK Singles Chart , it reached number three on the UK Indie Chart . Its relative success earned the group a listing in the Guinness Book of Records in January 1984 when it and the group 's next two singles ' " This Charming Man " and " What Difference Does It Make ? " ' held the top three position on the UK Indie Chart . " It should have been a massive hit " , Morrissey later said , " it was so urgent . To me , it was a complete cry in every direction . It really was a landmark . " The single did raise the band 's profile ; a week after its release the band gained its first major live reviews in the music press , which in turn led to their first radio session with BBC Radio 1 disc jockey John Peel .

While reviewing a 1983 concert by The Smiths and The Go @-@ Betweens at The Venue in London , Barney Hoskyns , writing for the NME , described " Hand in Glove " as " one of the year 's few masterpieces , a thing of beauty and a joy forever " . In the 1984 edition of The Rock Yearbook , Hoskyns said the song " swept into my heart " . Bill Black , writing for Sounds , described it as a " daunting " debut . Writing for Allmusic , Ned Raggett calls the song a " stunning , surprising debut " and describes the music as " sparkling " stating that it relied on Marr 's " careful overdubbing of acoustic and electric guitars " . Raggett went on to describe Rourke 's bass and Joyce 's drumming as " sparse but effective " , and claimed that Joyce " especially shone " .

Reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine says lyrics to the Smiths single " Hand in Glove " contain " veiled references to homosexuality " .

= = Packaging = =

Morrissey had specific instructions on how he wanted the " Hand in Glove " single to be packaged . He told Rough Trade 's art department that the single should have a paper label centre with four vents encircling the middle , in homage to singles from the 1960s . The cover to the single features a photograph of George O 'Mara by Jim French , taken from Margaret Walters ' history The Nude Male . The sleeve 's homoerotic undertones elicited the reaction Morrissey was hoping for of unease and outrage . Rourke noted when he showed the recording to his parents his father was " mortified . He said to me , ' that 's a bloke 's bum ' and I said , ' yeah ' but when he asked me why I just didn 't have an answer for him " .

= = Track listing = =

Both songs written by Morrissey and Johnny Marr .

" Hand in Glove " – 3 : 16

" Handsome Devil " ( live , Manchester Hacienda , 4 / 2 / 83 ) – 2 : 53

= = Etchings on vinyl = =

British 7 " : KISS MY SHADES / KISS MY SHADES TOO

" Kiss my shades " is a lyric from the title track .

= = Sandie Shaw collaboration = =

Despite having established themselves as a group , Morrissey and Marr still harboured ambitions that they would be recognised as songwriters by having their songs covered by others . Their top choice was singer Sandie Shaw , who had scored several hits throughout the 1960s and was one of the most prominent British vocalists of her era . In the summer of 1983 , Marr and Morrissey began asking Shaw to cover their song " I Don 't Owe You Anything " , which they had conceived with her in mind to perform . The pair sent Shaw various letters coupled with song demos . Shaw was sceptical at first ; she was discouraged by the negative media attention that accompanied the Smiths song " Reel Around the Fountain " , and when she received a copy of " Hand in Glove " in the mail , she reportedly exclaimed to her husband " he 's started sending me pictures of naked men with their bums showing ! "

Shaw was eventually won over by the intervention of Geoff Travis and by Morrissey 's praise of her in the press . In January 1984 , NME announced that Shaw and The Smiths would release a collaborative recording of " I Don 't Owe You Anything " as a single on Rough Trade . In February , Shaw and The Smiths journeyed to Matrix Studios in London , where Shaw recorded three Smiths songs with Marr , Joyce and Rourke . The version of " Hand in Glove " recorded at Matrix was performed in the key of D minor , while Marr placed the intro riff 's accent on a major scale and Shaw altered some lyrics . Shaw ended up selecting their recording of " Hand in Glove " as the single 's A @-@ side , placing " I Don 't Owe You Anything " as the B @-@ side . The cover features a still of Rita Tushingham from the movie A Taste of Honey , an adaptation of the play of the same name that was written by Shelagh Delaney , who appeared on the covers of the single " Girlfriend In a Coma " and the compilation album Louder Than Bombs .

Released as a single in April 1984 solely under Shaw 's name , the recording became Shaw 's first hit in a decade when it reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart . Marr , Rourke and Joyce backed Shaw on two mimed television performances of the song , first on Channel 4 's Earsay in March 1984 , and then on Top of the Pops on 26 April , where the band appeared barefoot in homage to the singer , who did so often in the 1960s .

= = = Track listing = = =

7 "

" Hand in Glove " – 2 : 58

" I Don 't Owe You Anything " – 4 : 06

12 "

" Hand in Glove " – 2 : 58

" I Don 't Owe You Anything " – 4 : 06

" Jeane " – 2 : 52

= = = Etchings on vinyl = = =

British 7 " : KISS MY SHADES / JM

= = = Charts = = =

= Darlington F.C. =

Darlington Football Club was an English football club based in Darlington , County Durham . The club was founded in 1883 , and played its games at Feethams , before moving to the Darlington Arena in 2003 . The arena is an all @-@ seater stadium with a capacity of 25 @,@ 000 , although this was restricted to 10 @,@ 000 . The cost of the stadium was a major factor in driving the club into administration . The club originally played in regionally organised leagues , and were one of the founding members of the Northern League in 1889 . They were first admitted to the Football League when the Third Division North was formed in 1921 .

They won the Third Division North title in 1925 , and their 15th place in the Second Division in 1926 remained their highest ever league finish . After their admission to the League , they spent most of their history in the bottom tier . They won the Third Division North Cup in 1934 ; their first victory in nationally organised cup competition . They reached the last 16 of the FA Cup twice , and the quarter @-@ final of the Football League Cup once , in 1968 . In the early 1990s they won successive titles , with the Conference National in 1990 and the Fourth Division in 1991 . In 2011 they won the FA Trophy , defeating Mansfield Town 1 – 0 at Wembley Stadium .

In May 2012 , the club was bought out of a period of administration without entering into a Creditors Voluntary Agreement ( CVA ) . The Football Association ruled that it should be treated as a new club , which required a change of playing name . The name chosen was Darlington 1883 , and that team was placed in the Northern League Division One , which is the ninth tier of English football , for the 2012 – 13 season .

The club 's main rivals were Hartlepool United . The club 's traditional colours were black and white shirts , black shorts and black and white socks . The club 's crest depicted Locomotion No 1 , referring to the town 's railway history ; as well as a stylised Quaker hat , referring to the religious movement that had a historic influence on the town , and which was the source of the team 's nickname , the Quakers .

= = History = =

= = = Founding and pre @-@ war = = =

In July 1883 , a meeting was called in Darlington Grammar School to address concerns that so few Darlington @-@ based football clubs were entering the major competition in the region , the Durham Challenge Cup . The meeting agreed with the view expressed by the Darlington & Stockton Times newspaper , that there was " no club , urban or rural , sufficiently powerful to worthily represent Darlington " , decided to form a new club , and elected one Charles Samuel Craven , a local engineer , as secretary . Darlington Football Club duly entered the Durham Challenge Cup , reached the final in their first season , and won the trophy in 1885 . The following season Darlington entered the FA Cup for the first time , only to lose 8 – 0 to Grimsby Town . Craven was instrumental in the formation of the Northern League in 1889 . Darlington were one of the founder members , and went on to win the league title in 1896 and 1900 ; they reached the semi @-@ final of the FA Amateur Cup in the same two seasons .

The club turned professional in 1908 and joined the North Eastern League . The 1910 – 11 season saw Darlington reach the last 16 of the FA Cup , progressing through five qualifying rounds to lose to Swindon Town in the Third Round Proper , and two years later they won the North Eastern League . Ground improvements begun before the First World War left the club in financial difficulty during it ; the chairman of Darlington Forge Albion financed the completion of the East Stand and cleared the debts , allowing them to continue to compete . When competitive football resumed after the war , Darlington finished second in the North Eastern League , and were champions for a second time the following year . This victory was well timed , as it coincided with the formation of the Northern Section of the Football League 's Third Division , which Darlington were invited to join .

Their first season in the Third Division was a successful one and they ended up in second place . Three years later , in 1924 – 25 , they were champions and won promotion to the Football League Second Division . The 15th @-@ place finish in 1926 remains Darlington 's best League performance , but they were relegated back to the Third Division in 1927 , where they remained until the Second World War put an end to competitive football . They came as high as third in 1929 – 30 , but twice had to apply for re @-@ election to the League , in 1932 – 33 and 1936 – 37 , after finishing in last place in the section . In 1934 , they enjoyed their first success in a nationally @-@ organised cup competition , defeating Stockport County 4 – 3 at Old Trafford to win the Football League Third Division North Cup , and reached the final again two years later , this time losing 2 – 1 at home to Chester .

= = = Post @-@ war = = =

Soon after the Football Association gave permission for competitive matches to be played under floodlights , Darlington beat Carlisle United 3 – 1 in the first floodlit FA Cup match between Football League clubs , a replay held at St James ' Park , Newcastle United 's ground , in November 1955 . The 1957 – 58 season saw the club equal their previous best FA Cup run , reaching the last 16 by defeating Chelsea , Football League champions only three years earlier , in the Fourth Round . After letting slip a three @-@ goal lead at Stamford Bridge , Darlington won the replay 4 – 1 after extra time , described as " a most meritorious win , earned by a combination of sound tactics and an enthusiasm that Chelsea never equalled " by The Times ' correspondent , who felt it " surprising that extra time was necessary , for Darlington always seemed to have the match well in hand " . In the League , Darlington 's fourth place in 1948 – 49 was their only top @-@ half finish in the first twelve seasons after the war , and when the regional sections of the Third Division were merged , they were allocated to the new Fourth Division .

The Supporters ' Club raised £ 20 @,@ 000 to pay for a roof at one end of the Feethams ground and for floodlights , which were first used on 19 September 1960 . Later that night , the West Stand burned down due to an electrical fault . Darlington 's attendance record , of 21 @,@ 023 against Bolton Wanderers in the League Cup fourth round , was set two months later . Under the management of Lol Morgan , they won promotion to the Third Division in 1966 . A crowd of 16 @,@ 000 watched the draw against Torquay United on the last day of the season which ensured they finished as runners @-@ up , but they were relegated the following year .

Darlington reached the quarter @-@ finals of the 1968 League Cup ; drawn away to Brian Clough 's Derby County , they took the lead , only to lose 5 – 4 . During the 1970s the club had to apply for re @-@ election to the League five times , and by 1982 they were facing a financial crisis which they survived thanks to fundraising efforts in the town . Three years later they won promotion by finishing third in the league under manager Cyril Knowles . Darlington spent two seasons in the Third Division ; the 13th @-@ place finish in 1986 was the highest position they achieved in the Football League since the introduction of the four @-@ division structure in 1958 , but they were relegated the following season .

Though Brian Little 's appointment as manager in February 1989 failed to stave off relegation to the Conference , he went on to lead them to successive promotions . An immediate return to the Football League as Conference champions preceded the Fourth Division title in 1990 – 91 , but Little 's departure for Leicester City was followed by relegation and a succession of short @-@ term managers . They came close to a return to the Third Division via the play @-@ offs in 1996 ; on their first visit to Wembley , against Plymouth Argyle , they were beaten by a Ronnie Mauge goal .

= = = Reynolds and after = = =

The 1999 – 2000 season , the first under new chairman George Reynolds , was marked by Darlington becoming the first team to lose an FA Cup tie and still qualify for the next round . Manchester United 's involvement in the FIFA Club World Championship meant they did not enter the FA Cup . To decide who took their place , a " lucky losers " draw was held from the 20 teams knocked out in the second round ; Darlington were selected , and lost their third @-@ round tie 2 – 1 to Aston Villa at Villa Park . Their second Wembley appearance came later that season , facing Peterborough United in the play @-@ off final after automatic promotion had seemed certain earlier in the season . After a 3 – 0 aggregate semi @-@ final win over Hartlepool United , Quakers missed numerous chances and were again undone by a single goal , this time from Andy Clarke .

In 2002 , Darlington made unsuccessful approaches to sign Paul Gascoigne and Faustino Asprilla , and moved into their new stadium , named the Reynolds Arena , in summer 2003 . Reynolds had paid the club 's debts when he took over , but the cost of the stadium , partly financed with high @-@ interest loans and built without realistic expectation of filling it , drove the club into administration six months later . Reynolds resigned as a director in January 2004 with the club under threat of imminent closure . A benefit match , featuring footballers such as Gascoigne , Bryan Robson and Kenny Dalglish , played in front of a crowd of over 14 @,@ 000 , raised £ 100 @,@ 000 to help ensure survival in the short term . Despite the off @-@ field problems , David Hodgson , in his third spell as manager , and his players produced some fine performances as the team avoided relegation .

At the end of the season , Reynolds was obliged to hand over control to the Sterling Consortium to bring the club out of administration , Stewart Davies taking over as chairman . He and his staff adopted a fan @-@ friendly approach , in contrast to the abrasive Reynolds , before in 2006 , the club was sold to property developer George Houghton . For four consecutive seasons , under Hodgson , sacked in 2006 , and then under successor Dave Penney , the Quakers finished in the top half of the table , reaching the play @-@ off semi @-@ final in 2008 only to lose to Rochdale on penalties . In February 2009 , Darlington again went into administration , triggering an automatic 10 @-@ point deduction , without which they would have again reached the play @-@ offs . Fundraising efforts kept the club going , but when no buyer was found for the club by a May deadline , the administrators made the majority of the first @-@ team squad available for transfer and cut staff numbers to a minimum . On 20 May , Houghton returned to the club as chairman , appointed former Middlesbrough boss Colin Todd as manager , and brokered an agreement which led to the club coming out of administration and ownership passing to local businessman Raj Singh , enabling the club to compete in the 2009 – 10 season without any points deduction . Todd left the club after losing seven of his first nine games and was replaced by former Republic of Ireland manager Steve Staunton , who only won four of 23 league games .

The club were eventually relegated to the Conference , and suffered more managerial turmoil during the summer when Simon Davey and successor Ryan Kidd both left within 11 days , to leave Mark Cooper in charge . He led the club to victory in the 2011 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium , defeating Mansfield Town 1 – 0 with a goal from Chris Senior in the last minute of extra time . Following a succession of poor performances at the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Cooper and his assistant Richard Dryden were sacked by the club on 24 October 2011 . A little more than two months later , Singh placed the club into administration for a third time in less than a decade . A number of players were released and allowed to join other clubs for nominal fees in January before interim manager Craig Liddle and the remaining playing staff had their contracts terminated by Darlington 's administrator . Two days later , the club was spared from liquidation after a last @-@ minute injection of funding by supporters ' groups . Enough funds were raised for Darlington to complete the season , but relegation was confirmed with three matches remaining . After the club was taken over with the intention of moving into community ownership , without entering into a Creditors Voluntary Agreement ( CVA ) , Darlington were relegated four divisions , to the Northern League Division One , on the recommendation of the Football Association . Martin Gray was appointed manager . On 21 June 2012 , the Football Association rejected an appeal , confirming that the club was to be treated as a new club entered into the Northern League , and would no longer be able to play under the name Darlington F.C. The new owners opted to rename the new club Darlington 1883 .

= = Colours and badge = =

In 1888 , Darlington 's kit consisted of a shirt with black and white vertical stripes , black shorts and black socks . Apart from a period between the 1910s and 1936 , when blue shorts were worn , the basic colours of the home kit have remained black and white . The shirt design has varied , from the 1888 vertical stripes , through hoops , plain white , and back to hoops again in the 1990s . Sponsors ' names have appeared on Darlington 's shirts since the 1980s . A table of kit manufacturers ( since the 1970s ) and shirt sponsors appears on the right .

Supporters were invited to vote for the design of the 2010 – 11 kit , to be manufactured by Erreà ; options for the home shirt each had black @-@ and @-@ white hoops , while the proposed away colours were either the traditional red or sky @-@ blue and white . The front of the home shirt has black @-@ and @-@ white hoops with a curved white panel , the back is largely white , and it has black sleeves with white trim and a black collar ; shorts are white and socks have black @-@ and @-@ white hoops . The design originally chosen had to be changed to comply with Conference rules prohibiting predominantly black kit ( to avoid a clash with match officials ' colours ) . The away kit is all red with black trim on the shirt . The shirts bear the name of hotel The Morritt , winners of the right to sponsor the shirt in a draw from among seven local businesses , each of which had purchased a hospitality package .

The club badge is in the form of a shield , divided diagonally into two parts ; the smaller section , to the upper right , is in the club 's home colour of white , the larger is red , their traditional away colour . In the white section is a stylised Quaker hat , emblematic of the major role played by the Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) in the history of the town . The larger section depicts George Stephenson 's Locomotion No 1 , the steam locomotive that hauled the first train on the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 , representing the importance of the railway industry to the area . Across the bottom of the shield is a ribbon bearing the club 's nickname , The Quakers , and the whole rests on a bed of oak leaves , symbolic of strength and endurance .

= = Stadia = =

Feethams was originally used by Darlington Cricket Club , but began to be used for football in the 1860s . Darlington F.C. began playing there when they formed in 1883 . With growing crowd figures , the ground was expanded with the construction of the West stand at the turn of the twentieth century , and the construction of the Polam Lane end in 1905 . In 1913 , a pair of towers were built at the entrance to the ground , and in 1920 , offices and changing rooms were built underneath the East stand . Floodlights were installed in September 1960 , but after their first use an electrical fault gutted the West stand in a fire , prompting its rebuilding . In 1997 , the East stand was demolished and rebuilt as an all seater stand . The new stand brought the capacity of the stadium up to 8 @,@ 000 . However , the £ 3 million cost of the stand had a major negative effect on the club , and George Reynolds came in to stabilise the club . He initiated the construction of the 25 @,@ 000 seat Darlington Arena . The last match played at Feethams was a 2 – 2 draw with Leyton Orient on 3 May 2003 . Following the closure of the ground , the floodlights were sold to Workington A.F.C. and the stadium demolished . A 160 @-@ house housing estate was planned for the cleared site .

The all @-@ seater Darlington Arena was opened in 2003 , at a cost of £ 18 million . The first game at the new stadium was a 2 – 0 loss to Kidderminster Harriers on 16 August 2003 . The attendance of 11 @,@ 600 still stands as a record for the ground . Though the stadium can seat up to 25 @,@ 000 people , the club is restricted to just 10 @,@ 000 because of county and local planning regulations . The club struggled to fill the new stadium and entered administration in February 2009 .

Although generally known as the Darlington Arena , the ground has had a number of official names due to sponsorship reasons ; between 2003 and 2004 it was known as the Reynolds Arena , the Williamson Motors Stadium from 2004 to 2005 , the 96 @.@ 6 TFM Darlington Arena from 2005 to 2007 , the Balfour Webnet Darlington Arena between 2007 and 2009 , and since then it has been known as The Northern Echo Darlington Arena .

= = Supporters and rivalries = =

Darlington 's supporters consider Hartlepool United as their main rivals . The feeling is reciprocated : in a 2008 survey , 95 % of supporters of both clubs named the other as their bitterest rivals . The clubs , based 25 miles ( 40 km ) apart , with Middlesbrough directly between the two towns , had met 147 times ( as of 2009 – 10 ) , of which Hartlepool won 60 to Darlington 's 57 . The meeting between the two clubs in 2007 attracted a crowd of 10 @,@ 121 to the Darlington Arena , the largest attendance for that League fixture for 50 years , though the average League attendance at the stadium declined from over 5 @,@ 000 in its opening season to 2 @,@ 744 in 2009 – 10 .

Darlington has an official supporters ' club and an away supporters group , known as Darlington Away Far Travelling Supporters ( DAFTS ) , who represent Darlington supporters from places elsewhere in the country . A supporters ' trust was founded in 2002 ; it established a Disabled Supporters Group , tried to maintain a working relationship between club and supporters , and , together with the Darlington Camera Club , staged a " Farewell to Feethams " exhibition in celebration of the club 's longtime home . Together with the supporters ' club , the trust has been actively involved in fund @-@ raising particularly during the club 's periods of administration .

Fanzines included Mission Impossible , first published in the early 1990s , and Where 's The Money Gone , whose teenage editor , along with the editor of website Darlo Uncovered , Scott Thornberry , were among several supporters banned from the ground by chairman George Reynolds for criticising the running of the club .

The team mascot was Mr Q , described as " a flat @-@ looking cartoon man with a very big hat " . In 2006 , he was joined , and later replaced , by Darlo Dog , a Dalmatian , who was once ejected from the ground for climbing on the advertising boards in front of television cameras . Darlo Dog retired at the end of the 2009 – 10 season ; his successor , a panda named Feethams , was chosen via a design competition .

= = Honours = =

Honours achieved by Darlington since their foundation in 1883 include the following :

= = = League = = =

Football League Third Division North : 1

1924 – 25

Runners @-@ up : 1921 – 22

Fourth Division : 1990 – 91

Runners @-@ up : 1965 – 66

Football Conference : 1

1989 – 90

Northern League : 2

1895 – 96 , 1899 – 1900

Runners @-@ up : 1896 – 97 , 1898 – 99

North Eastern League : 2

1912 – 13 , 1920 – 21

Runners @-@ up : 1919 – 20

= = = Cup = = =

FA Trophy : 1

2010 – 11

Football League Third Division North Cup : 1

1933 – 34

Runners @-@ up : 1935 – 36

Durham Challenge Cup : 6

1884 – 85 , 1890 – 91 , 1892 – 93 , 1896 – 97 , 1919 – 20 , 1999 – 2000

= = Records = =

Darlington 's highest league finish was fifteenth in the Football League Second Division , during the 1925 – 26 season . The club 's best performance in the FA Cup has been two appearances in the last 16 of the competition . This first was in 1910 – 11 , when they lost to Swindon Town in the third round . The second was in the 1957 – 58 season , when they beat Chelsea 4 – 1 in a replay to reach the fifth round , in which they lost 6 – 1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers . The club 's best League Cup performance was reaching the quarter @-@ final in the 1967 – 68 season .

The Quakers ' biggest home win was a 13 – 1 defeat of Scarborough in the FA Cup on 24 October 1891 . Their best away win was on 22 October 1921 , when they beat Durham City 7 – 3 in the Third Division North .

The player with the most league appearances for Darlington is Ron Greener with 439 between 1955 and 1967 . He made a total of 490 senior appearances for the club . Alan Walsh scored a club @-@ record 87 league goals between 1978 and 1984 , and scored 100 goals for Darlington overall . The most league goals scored for the club by a single player in a season is 39 , by David Brown in the 1924 – 25 season . Franz Burgmeier has the most senior international appearances while a Darlington player , with seven caps for Liechtenstein in the 2008 – 09 season .

= = = Dream team = = =

As part of the " Farewell to Feethams " celebrations , a competition in the club programme in 2003 selected the following all @-@ time " Dream Team " : Mark Prudhoe , Ron Greener , Craig Liddle , Kevan Smith , John Peverell , Andy Toman , David McLean , Alan Sproates , Alan Walsh , Marco Gabbiadini and Colin Sinclair . Gabbiadini , scorer of 53 goals in his two seasons at Darlington , was voted greatest ever player .

= Andry Rajoelina =

Andry Rajoelina ( Malagasy : [ ˈjanɖʐʲ nʲˈrinə radzoˈel ] ) ( born 30 May 1974 ) was the President of the High Transitional Authority of Madagascar . He became president on 21 March 2009 during a political crisis , having held the office of Mayor of Antananarivo for one year prior , and stepped down on 25 January 2014 following internationally recognized general elections held in 2013 . Before entering the political arena , Rajoelina launched several successful enterprises , including a printing and advertising company called Injet in 1999 and the Viva radio and television networks in 2007 . He began his career as an entrepreneur in his teenage years , first as a disc jockey at local clubs and parties , and later by organizing and promoting musical events in the capital .

Upon rising to power , Rajoelina dissolved the Senate and National Assembly and transferred their powers to a variety of new governance structures he made responsible for overseeing the transition toward a new constitutional authority . These administrative structures repeatedly conflicted with the internationally mediated process to establish a transitional government of consensus . Voters approved a new constitution in a national referendum unilaterally organized by the Rajoelina administration in November 2010 , ushering in the Fourth Republic and putting in place the conditions enabling Rajoelina to stand in the next general election . In January 2013 he announced his decision to abstain from running in the 2013 general election , but in May 2013 he reversed this decision and submitted his candidature . A special electoral court ruled in August 2013 that his candidature was invalid and that Rajoelina would not be permitted to run in the 2013 election . He has declared an interest in presenting himself as a presidential candidate in a future election .

= = Early years = =

Andry Rajoelina was born on 30 May 1974 to a relatively wealthy family in Antananarivo . His father , now @-@ retired Colonel Roger Yves Rajoelina , held dual nationality and fought for the French army in the Algerian War . At the age of 13 , Rajoelina became the 1987 junior @-@ class national karate champion . While still in high school , Rajoelina began working as a disc jockey at parties and clubs in Antananarivo to earn pocket money . Although Rajoelina 's family could afford a college education for their son , he opted to discontinue his studies after completing his baccalaureat to launch a career as an entrepreneur .

In 1994 , Rajoelina met his future spouse Mialy Razakandisa , who was then completing her senior year at a high school in Antananarivo . The couple courted long @-@ distance for six years while Mialy completed her undergraduate and masters studies in finance and accounting in Paris ; they were reunited in Madagascar in 2000 and wed the same year . Their marriage produced two boys , Arena ( born 2002 ) and Ilonstoa ( born 2005 ) , and a daughter born in 2007 that the couple named Andrialy , a contraction of their own names .

= = Media entrepreneur = =

In 1993 , at the age of 19 , Rajoelina established his first enterprise : a small event production company called Show Business . The connections and influence of his father , then a prominent military officer , in combination with Rajoelina 's own knowledge of Antananarivo nightlife , were factors in the company 's success . By the following year , he had firmly established his reputation among the youth elite of the capital for organizing an annual concert called Live that brought together foreign and Malagasy musical artists . The event continued to grow in popularity with each passing year , attracting 50 @,@ 000 participants on its tenth anniversary .

In 1999 , he launched Injet , an advertising and digital printing company that quickly grew in prominence with its expansion of billboard advertising throughout the capital . The business was the first to make digital printing technology available on the island . Local magazine Echo Australe , which named then @-@ mayor of Antananarivo Marc Ravalomanana their Entrepreneur of the Year in 1999 , bestowed the same honor on Rajoelina in 2000 . Following Rajoelina 's marriage in 2000 , his wife 's wealthy parents invested in Injet and allowed Rajoelina in 2001 to acquire Domapub , a competing Antananarivo @-@ based billboard advertising business that they owned . The couple worked together to manage the family businesses , with Rajoelina responsible for Injet and his wife handling the affairs of Domapub . A competition organized by French bank BNI Crédit Lyonnais awarded first prize for best young entrepreneur in Madagascar to Rajoelina in 2003 .

Rajoelina 's business affairs gradually drew him into the political arena . Shortly after Ravalomanana won the presidential elections in 2001 , Rajoelina befriended the new president 's daughter and continued to expand his relationship with the capital 's political elite over the course of the Ravalomanana presidency . He assumed an increasingly political role after the policies of Ravalomanana 's Tiako I Madagasikara ( TIM ) -dominated government increasingly obstructed the expansion of his business activities , such as requiring the removal of Antananarivo 's first LED advertising panels , which Rajoelina had installed at a major roundabout in the capital . In May 2007 he purchased the Ravinala television and radio stations , which he renamed Viva TV and Viva FM . The official launch of these newly acquired media channels on 27 May was attended by many of the capital 's political and cultural elite , including Antananarivo mayor Hery Rafalimanana and Jacques Sylla , president of the TIM political party . Rajoelina used these media channels as outlets for voicing criticism of the Ravalomanana administration , quickly transforming his public image into that of an opposition leader .

= = Mayor of Antananarivo = =

In 2007 Rajoelina created and led the political association Tanora malaGasy Vonona ( TGV ) , meaning " determined Malagasy youth " . Shortly afterward he announced his candidacy for the position of Mayor of Antananarivo . Rajoelina was elected on 12 December 2007 with 63 @.@ 3 % of the vote and a 75 % voter turnout , beating TIM party incumbent Hery Rafalimanana . Although Rafalimanana enjoyed strong popularity during his tenure as mayor , having been nationally and internationally credited with effectively managing the capital and achieving significant transformation of the urban landscape in the city , his campaign suffered from inadequate TIM promotional support and the increasingly unpopular image of the TIM party .

Rajoelina faced significant challenges in his tenure as mayor . Upon taking office , he was confronted with redressing the city 's treasury , which had accumulated 8 @.@ 2 billion Malagasy Ariary ( approximately 4 @.@ 6 million U.S. dollars ) in debts under previous mayors , including Ravalomanana himself . Beginning 4 January 2008 , Ravalomanana ordered water cutoffs at public pumps and brownouts of Antananarivo 's street lights run by the state utilities company Jirama , due to 3 @.@ 3 million ariary of unpaid debts to Jirama by the City of Antananarivo . Rajoelina responded by condemning the move as political and proceeded to undertake an audit that identified and addressed long @-@ standing procedural irregularities and issues of corruption within the city 's administration . Following a series of crimes against members of Rajoelina 's inner circle in 2008 that comprised the burgling of his cabinet director 's car , the kidnapping and ransoming of one of his special advisers , and the death of an assistant under mysterious circumstances , rumors spread that the Rajoelina administration was being deliberately intimidated by supporters of the president .

= = = Confrontation with Ravalomanana = = =

On 13 December 2008 , the Government closed Andry Rajoelina 's Viva TV , stating that a Viva interview with exiled former head of state Didier Ratsiraka was " likely to disturb peace and security " . This move catalyzed the political opposition and a public already dissatisfied with other recent actions undertaken by Ravalomanana , including the July 2008 deal with Daewoo Logistics to lease half the island 's arable land for South Korean cultivation of corn and palm oil , and the November 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet at a cost of 60 million U.S. dollars . Within a week Rajoelina met with twenty of Madagascar 's most prominent opposition leaders , referred to in the press as the " Club of 20 " , to develop a joint statement demanding that the Ravalomanana administration improve its adherence to democratic principles . The demand was broadcast at a public press conference where Rajoelina also promised to dedicate a politically open public space in the capital which he would call Place de la democratie ( " Democracy Place " ) .

Beginning in January 2009 , Andry Rajoelina led a series of political rallies in downtown Antananarivo where he gave voice to the frustration that Ravalomanana 's policies had triggered , particularly among the economically marginalized and members of the political opposition . On 17 January he gathered 30 @,@ 000 supporters at a public park and declared it renamed Place de la democratie . At a rally on 31 January 2009 Rajoelina announced that he was in charge of the entire Malagasy Republic , declaring : " Since the president and the government have not assumed their responsibilities , I therefore proclaim that I will run all national affairs as of today . " He added that a request for President Ravalomanana to formally resign would shortly be filed with the Parliament of Madagascar . This self @-@ declaration of power discredited Rajoelina in the eyes of many of the supporters who had rallied around his original pro @-@ democracy message , and the number of attendees at subsequent rallies declined , averaging around 3 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 participants .

On 3 February , Ravalomanana dismissed Rajoelina as mayor of Antananarivo and appointed a special delegation headed by Guy Randrianarisoa to manage the affairs of the capital . Rajoelina denounced the decision and warned that it would not be accepted by the populace . The following day Rajoelina instead designated Michele Ratsivalaka to succeed him as mayor . Rajoelina incited demonstrators on 7 February to occupy the presidential palace , prompting the presidential guard to open fire on the advancing crowd , killing 31 and wounding more than 200 . Popular disapproval of Ravalomanana intensified and polarized some in favor of his resignation , although perceptions of Rajoelina as an alternative remained mixed . Conflicts between pro @-@ Rajoelina demonstrators and security forces continued over the following weeks , resulting in several additional deaths . The security forces unsuccessfully attempted to arrest Rajoelina at his compound on 5 March ; they also raided the offices of his Viva media network . Initially they surrounded Viva , and after thirty minutes the staff attempted to remove Viva property , at which point the security forces stormed the building and confiscated the equipment . For the next several days Rajoelina took refuge in the home of the French ambassador , reporting to the press that he feared for his safety .

On 11 March , following a declaration of neutrality by army leadership , pro @-@ opposition soldiers from the CAPSAT ( Army Corps of Personnel and Administrative and Technical Services ) stormed the army headquarters and forced the army chief of staff to resign . Over the next several days the army deployed forces to enable the opposition to occupy key ministries , the chief of military police transferred his loyalty to Rajoelina , and the army sent tanks against the president 's Iavoloha Palace . Rajoelina rejected Ravalomanana 's offer on 15 March to hold a national referendum to determine whether the president should resign , and called on security forces to arrest the president . The following day , the army stormed the president 's Ambohitsorohitra Palace and captured the Central Bank . Hours later Ravalomanana transferred his power to group of senior army personnel , an act described by the opposition as a voluntary resignation , although Ravalomanana later declared he had been forced at gunpoint to relinquish power . The military council would have been charged with organizing elections within 24 months and re @-@ writing the constitution for the " Fourth Republic " . However , Vice Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson announced on 18 March that it would transfer power directly to Rajoelina , making him president of the opposition @-@ dominated High Transitional Authority ( HAT ) that he had appointed weeks earlier . With the military 's backing , the authority was charged with taking up the task previously accorded to Ravalomanana 's proposed military directorate . Madagascar 's constitutional court deemed the transfer of power , from Ravalomanana to the military board and then to Rajoelina , to be legal ; the court 's statement did not include a justification for its decision .

Upon the army 's transfer of power to Rajoelina , Malagasy navy troops called for his resignation by 25 March , threatening to use force otherwise to protect the constitution of Madagascar and denouncing Rajoelina for the " civil war occurring in Madagascar " . The navy troops claimed there was " irrefutable " evidence that Rajoelina had paid the army corps hundreds of millions of ariary and that they should face trial in accordance with military law , but called for other nations not to get involved in what they considered a purely domestic affair . Rajoelina was sworn in as President on 21 March at Mahamasina stadium before a crowd of 40 @,@ 000 supporters . He was 35 years of age when sworn in , making him the youngest president in the country 's history and the youngest head of government in the world at that time .

The Southern African Development Community , a bloc of 15 nations including Madagascar , announced on 19 March that it would not recognize Rajoelina 's presidency since the takeover was unconstitutional . His ascension to the presidency was also condemned by the European Union and the United States , and the African Union suspended Madagascar and threatened sanctions if the constitutional government had not been restored in six months . No foreign diplomats attended Rajoelina 's investiture ; the HAT foreign minister said none had been invited .

= = President of the High Transitional Authority = =

Rajoelina took power in an atmosphere of national tension and international pressure to re @-@ establish constitutional authority . The new head of state announced on 17 March that a new constitution would be presented for voter approval and general elections would be held within 24 months . Immediately after taking office , Rajoelina began naming opposition leaders to positions within the HAT . He dissolved the Senate and Parliament and transferred their powers to his cabinet , the officials of the HAT , and the newly established Council for social and economic strengthening , through which his policies were issued as decrees . Legislative authority rested in practice with Rajoelina and his cabinet , composed of his closest advisers . A military committee established in April increased HAT control over security and defense policy . The following month , after the suspension of the country 's 22 regional governors , Rajoelina strengthened his influence over local government by naming replacements despite the fact that regional governorships were normally elected positions . The National Inquiry Commission ( CNME ) was established shortly thereafter ; although its official purpose was to strengthen HAT effectiveness in addressing judicial and legal matters , the new entity carried out investigations and arrests of TIM supporters and other opponents of the TGV party . In addition , the new administration launched a strong crackdown on demonstrations by the new opposition , composed largely of Ravalomanana supporters ; at two demonstrations in April 2009 security forces opened fire on unarmed civilians protesting the HAT 's closure of three media networks formerly controlled by Ravalomanana , killing four and wounding sixty . Political analysts have criticized Rajoelina for using his position primarily to consolidate power and protect his political position and business interests and those of his supporters , observing that his initially broad range of supporters within the opposition movement has significantly diminished over time .

While in power , Rajoelina periodically engaged in ongoing negotiations to establish conditions under which free and fair elections could be held to restore government constitutionality and legitimacy in the eyes of the international community . On 4 August 2009 Rajoelina met with former Madagascar presidents Ravalomanana , Ratsiraka and Zafy along with former Mozambican President Joaquim Chissano acting as mediator at the four @-@ day mediation crisis talks held in Maputo , Mozambique . The Maputo Accords signed by the four leaders in August and further accords signed in Addis @-@ Abeba in November provided guidelines for a period of consensual political transition . In the months that followed , however , Rajoelina obstructed the implementation of the accords , making unilateral political decisions and filling all important government posts with TGV party representatives .

After being pushed back repeatedly , a constitutional referendum was held on 17 November 2010 that resulted in adoption of the state 's fourth constitution with 73 % in favor and a voter turnout of 52 @.@ 6 % . The independent Malagasy political watchdog group KMF @-@ CNOE , as well as the political opposition and the international community , cited numerous irregularities in the process , which was carried out unilaterally by the HAT . The constitution in effect at the time Rajoelina took office required that presidential candidates attain a minimum of 40 years of age . One substantive change made by the new constitution was to lower the minimum age for presidential candidates from 40 to 35 , making Rajoelina eligible to stand in presidential elections . In addition , the new constitution mandated the leader of the High Transitional Authority – the position held by Rajoelina – be kept as interim president until an election could take place . The new constitution also contained a clause that required presidential candidates to have lived in Madagascar for at least six months prior to the elections , effectively barring Ravalomanana and other opposition leaders living in exile from running in the next election . After being repeatedly postponed , the general election was held on 25 October 2013 .

= = = Policies and governance = = =

The HAT under Rajoelina 's leadership affected highly visible , concrete activities that appealed to popular concerns . Rajoelina occasionally organized events to distribute basic items to groups of poor recipients , including medicines , clothing , house maintenance materials and school supplies . Rajoelina 's administration also spent billions of ariary to subsidize basic needs like electricity , petrol , and food staples . Public works construction projects featured prominently among Rajoelina 's activities . In 2010 , two years after Rajoelina launched the project as mayor of Antananarivo , the HAT completed the reconstruction of the Hotel de Ville ( town hall ) of Antananarivo which had been destroyed by arson during the rotaka political protests of 1972 . Also in 2010 , Rajoelina oversaw the construction of a hospital built to international standards in Toamasina . Through its trano mora ( " cheap house " ) initiative , the HAT built several subsidized housing developments intended for young middle class couples . Numerous other construction projects were planned or completed , including the restoration of historic staircases in Antananarivo built in the 19th century during the reign of Queen Ranavalona I , renovation of Toamasina 's two main markets and its principal boulevard , repaving of the heavily traveled road between Toamasina and Foulpointe , and the construction of a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity municipal stadium and new town hall in Toamasina .

On the national level , sanctions and suspension of donor aid amounting to 50 percent of the national budget and 70 percent of public investments obstructed the Rajoelina administration 's management of state affairs and its ability to systematically combat poverty on a wider scale . A United Nations envoy concluded in 2011 that Rajoelina 's controversial accession to the presidency had reduced food security , with Madagascar ranking among the worst in the world for child nutrition . The frequent non @-@ payment of civil servant and military salaries resulted in regular school and hospital closures , general strikes and widespread increases in corruption . Crime and insecurity grew dramatically , with a sharp upswing in violent crime and theft in Antananarivo and increasingly frequent and deadly incidences of armed cattle rustling in the central southern region of the island . Key development indicators steeply declined between 2009 and 2013 , including maternal and child mortality , education enrollment and completion , per capita income and employment rates . In 2010 the United Nations ranked Madagascar among the ten poorest countries in the world , noting that economic gains made under Ravalomanana had been lost following Rajoelina 's unconstitutional rise to power . In 2011 , Forbes magazine ranked Madagascar as the worst economy in the world , faulting its political instability and poor governance .

Environmental conditions on the island also worsened under Rajoelina . The illegal exportation of endangered rosewood from protected national forests abruptly increased under the HAT , with several business leaders and politicians linked to the HAT having been implicated in trafficking the valuable wood to China ; NGOs and the US government accused the Rajoelina administration of selling the wood to supplement the national budget and finance its public works projects . A large , unexplained stash of rosewood logs was discovered at the presidential palace after the end of Rajoelina 's term in office . Due to accelerating deforestation and a spike in bush meat consumption linked with deepening poverty , the island 's lemurs moved closer toward extinction under Rajoelina 's tenure . A July 2012 assessment found that 90 percent of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction , an increase from 38 percent in 2008 . Lack of funds for pesticides and systematic spraying resulted in the March 2013 outbreak of a locust infestation that was anticipated to persist for five to ten years and require $ 41 million U.S. dollars to bring under control , deepening the risk of nationwide famine and destruction of habitat for endangered species .

After coming to power , Rajoelina 's HAT pursued action against Ravalomanana and his business interests . On 2 June 2009 , Ravalomanana was fined 70 million US dollars ( 42 million British pounds ) and sentenced to four years in prison for alleged abuse of office which , according to HAT Justice Minister Christine Razanamahasoa , included the December 2008 purchase of a second presidential jet ( " Air Force II " ) worth $ 60 million . Rajoelina sold the controversial jet in 2012 and pursued legal action against Ravalomanana 's company Tiko to reclaim 35 million US dollars in back taxes . Additionally , on 28 August 2010 , the HAT sentenced Ravalomanana in absentia to hard labor for life and issued an arrest warrant for his role in the protests and ensuing deaths . Rajoelina likewise sought to distinguish himself from his predecessor in policy choices . One of Rajoelina 's first measures as president was to cancel Ravalomanana 's unpopular deal with Daewoo Logistics . He also rejected Ravalomanana 's medium term development strategy , termed the Madagascar Action Plan , and abandoned education reforms initiated by his predecessor that adopted Malagasy and English as languages of instruction , instead returning to the traditional use of French .

= = = Diplomatic relations = = =

The international community maintained that Rajoelina 's legitimacy was conditional to free and fair elections . A number of key international organizations in which Madagascar had been a member , including the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) and the African Union , withheld recognition of Rajoelina 's legitimacy throughout his tenure . The United States , Madagascar 's largest bilateral donor and provider of humanitarian aid , also refused to acknowledge the Rajoelina administration . The United Nations responded to the power transfer by freezing 600 million euros in planned aid . The United States suspended Madagascar from the list of beneficiaries of the African Growth and Opportunity Act ( AGOA ) , which had ensured preferential tariffs for the import of Malagasy textiles . This sanction resulted in the loss of over 50 @,@ 000 jobs and dealt a severe blow to the textile sector , which had accounted for half of Madagascar 's exports . Rajoelina initially sought to persuade former donors to recommence their support ; when these efforts failed to yield results , the he explored the possibility of foregoing the support of traditional partners through new or strengthened relations with such alternatives as Libya , China and Saudi Arabia but was again unable to secure the desired partnerships .

Rajoelina 's relations with France were characterized by an initial period of gradually increasing diplomatic engagement that weakened after 2012 . On 13 May 2011 , Andry Rajoelina met with Alain Juppé , the French Minister of Foreign Affairs , and was received by the French President Nicolas Sarkozy on 7 December 2011 . According to the French presidency , " The interview was devoted to the situation in Madagascar and the completion of the political transition initiated in 2009 through the implementation of the roadmap for the return of constitutional order , validated by the international community " . Following Rajoelina 's announcement to run in the 2013 election , however , France responded by suspending the visas issued to Rajoelina and his family , and refusing to issue new visas requested by his ministers .

The Rajoelina administration was gradually afforded increasing entry to the United Nations . From 9 to 13 May 2011 , Rajoelina was invited to participate in the Fourth United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries , held in Istanbul , Turkey . Rajoelina also spoke during the 66th Session of the United Nations General Assembly which took place on 23 September 2011 in New York City .

= = 2013 presidential candidacy = =

On 15 January 2013 , Rajoelina officially renounced his candidature in the next presidential election , then planned for May 2013 . This decision followed a similar declaration on the part of former president Ravalomanana . Exclusion of both political figures from the next general election was a key precondition to international recognition of the elections , as defined by the Southern African Development Community in its roadmap toward ending the political crisis . Rajoelina expressed support for Edgar Razafindravahy , interim mayor of Antananarivo and the official candidate of the TGV party among several other party candidates , and declared his intention to run in the 2018 presidential election .

However , on 3 May 2013 , Rajoelina made last @-@ minute arrangements to stand in the 2013 presidential elections , declaring the roadmap agreement had been breached when former president Ravalomanana 's wife , Lalao , decided to stand . The candidacy of former president Didier Ratsiraka was also permitted ; the candidature of all three prominent politicians was rejected by the international community . At the time that Rajoelina submitted his candidacy , he would have run against forty other candidates in total , of whom seven were affiliated with his own political movement .

The African Union urged Rajoelina , Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka to withdraw their controversial candidacies , and the European Union responded by suspended funding to the election . The French government sanctioned all three candidates by revoking their French visas , effectively barring them from French territory , and considered freezing their financial and real estate assets . Following the suspension of election funding , the HAT again pushed back the election date , citing inadequate financial resources . A special electoral court ruled in August 2013 that the candidatures of Rajoelina , Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka were invalid and that Rajoelina and his two chief rivals would not be permitted to run in the 2013 election . Rajoelina then announced his endorsement of presidential candidate Hery Rajaonarimampianina , who successfully progressed from the first round voting held 25 October 2013 alongside the candidate backed by Ravalomanana , Jean Louis Robinson . The run @-@ off between the two candidates was held on 20 December 2013 . Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the election , and Rajoelina officially stepped down on 25 January 2014 .

= = Post @-@ presidency = =

Following Rajaonarimampianina 's election , the international community offered " conditional recognition " of the new government . This tentative validation of the results was motivated by the concern that the new president was a puppet for Rajoelina , as well as the allegations by Robinson of massive electoral fraud after losing the runoff despite a wide lead over his opponent in the first round . Rajaonarimampianina set up the MAPAR committee to organize the selection of his cabinet , a process that extended over several months . During this time , Rajoelina sought to be nominated for the position of Prime Minister of Madagascar and claimed the MAPAR had promised he would be nominated . In April 2014 , Rajaonarimampianina instead announced the selection of Roger Kolo , following a consultation round which showed he had support from a majority in the parliament . On 18 April , a cabinet was announced that comprised 31 members with varied political affiliations . Rajoelina qualified Rajaonarimampianina 's decision to exclude him and form alliances with the political opposition , including Ravalomanana 's supporters , as " hypocrisy and betrayal " , and has declared a refusal to seek reconciliation with Rajaonarimampianina .

Following the end of Rajoelina 's term , the French government lifted its sanctions against him and 108 other HAT members . He and his family have since maintained a discreet profile , traveling to France , Dubai , South Africa and other foreign destinations . He has also made occasional visits to Madagascar . Rajoelina has declared an interest in presenting himself as a presidential candidate in the 2018 presidential election .

= Supergirl ( Hannah Montana song ) =

" Supergirl " is a pop song by American recording artist and actress Miley Cyrus , performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart – a character she played on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . The song was written by Kara DioGuardi , in collaboration with Daniel James , and produced by Dreamlab . " Supergirl " was released on August 28 , 2009 , by Walt Disney Records as the lead and only single from the series ' third soundtrack , Hannah Montana 3 . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . The song is characterized by dance @-@ pop elements in its musical composition and contains lyrics regarding the lows of pop stardom .

The song received average to mixed reception from contemporary critics and garnered average commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous efforts as Montana . In the United States , it peaked at number five on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles ( Hot 100 – 105 ) . It marked Cyrus ' first entry as Montana in Austria ; it peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Austrian Singles Chart . A music video for " Supergirl " was released , taken from footage of a concert performance .

= = Background = =

" Supergirl " was co @-@ written by Kara DioGuardi , who composed a total of four songs on Hannah Montana 3 , and Dan James . A karaoke version is available in Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana 3 . " Supergirl " leaked into the Internet in November 2008 , along with six other songs from Hannah Montana 3 . The song first premiered on Radio Disney on July 2 , 2009 , in order to promote the soundtrack and was afterward released as the lead and only single from Hannah Montana 3 on August 28 , 2009 .

= = Composition = =

" Supergirl " is pop song with a length of two minutes and fifty @-@ five seconds . According to Allmusic , the song contains dance @-@ pop and teen pop elements in its music , while Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly cited rock music as its main influence . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register described the track as a bouncy dance @-@ pop number also . The song is set in common time and has a moderate rock tempo . It is written in the key of C major and it follows the chord progression Am11 – Fmaj7 – C – G. Warren Truitt of About.com interpreted the lyrics of " Supergirl " to be about the lows of pop stardom . Larsen believed the line " You just wanna be like me " was a representation of Cyrus , " a super duper girl " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

" Supergirl " received average to mixed reception from contemporary critics . Heather Phares of Allmusic said , " That feeling of familiarity extends to the songs that haven 't appeared anywhere else . Whether it 's the happy side of Hannah ( ' It 's All Right Here , ' ' Supergirl ' ) [ ... ] they sound very much like what came before them . " Warren Truitt of About.com agreed but stated , " [ The song ] may be a little cookie @-@ cutter , but at least the songwriters realize who their audience is and they deliver the goods " . Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly compared the song 's style to that of Kelly Clarkson . While reviewing a concert before the release of the soundtrack , Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register predicted it would be released as a single and become popular with children , yet " saturate [ parents ' ] ears for a month or two " .

= = = Chart performance = = =

On the week ending July 25 , 2009 , in the United States , " Supergirl " debuted at number five on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart ( Hot 100 – 105 ) upon Hannah Montana 3 's release . The song dropped from the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart in the following week . On the week ending September 11 , 2009 , " Supergirl " debuted and peaked at number fifty @-@ eight on the Austrian Singles Chart , marking Cyrus ' first appearance in the country as Montana ; it also dropped from the Austrian Singles Chart after one week . Along with its B @-@ side , " Every Part of Me " , the song peaked at number forty @-@ two on the German Singles Chart .

= = Live performances = =

On October 10 , 2008 , Cyrus , dressed as Montana , premiered " Supergirl " , along with eight other songs , at the concert taping for the third season of Hannah Montana , which was set on October 10 in Irvine , California at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre . The performance began with Montana , dressed in a white and pink tie @-@ dye tee shirt , white pants , pink leather jacket , and large sunglasses . The performance begins with Cyrus sitting in a bench , facing a mirror , as backup dancers apply makeup on her and attend her . She stands up and roams around the stage to sing afterward . Peter Larsen of The Orange County Register called it one of " hits of the night " . The performance was later premiered as the song 's music video on July 2 , 2009 , on Disney Channel to promote Hannah Montana 3 .

= = Track listings = =

U.S. / EU Vinyl CD Single / Digital Download

" Supergirl " ( Album Version ) – 2 : 55

" Supergirl " ( Instrumental ) – 2 : 55

" Every Part of Me " – 3 : 30

EU 2 @-@ Track CD Single

" Supergirl " ( Album Version ) – 2 : 55

" Every Part of Me " – 3 : 30

= = Charts = =

= Leccinum manzanitae =

Leccinum manzanitae is an edible species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae . Described as new to science in 1971 , it is commonly known as the manzanita bolete for its usual mycorrhizal association with manzanita trees . Its fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) have sticky reddish to brown caps up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and its stipes are up to 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long and 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick . They have a whitish background color punctuated with small black scales known as scabers . Found only in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada , it is the most common Leccinum species in California . The mushroom is edible , although opinions vary as to its quality . L. manzanitae can be usually distinguished from other similar bolete mushrooms by its large size , reddish cap , dark scabers on a whitish stipe , and association with manzanita and madrone .

= = Taxonomy = =

Leccinum manzanitae was first described by the American mycologist Harry Delbert Thiers in 1971 , from collections made in San Mateo County , California , the previous year . In that state , it is known as the manzanita bolete because of its close association with manzanita trees . It is classified in subsection Versicolores of the section Leccinum in the genus Leccinum . Closely related species in this section include L. piceinum , L. monticola , L. albostipitatum , and L. versipelle .

= = Description = =

The fruit bodies of Leccinum manzanitae are sometimes massive , occasionally reaching weights of several pounds . The cap is 7 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , spherical to convex when young , and broadly convex to flattened or cushion @-@ shaped ( pulvinate ) . The surface of the cap is often shallowly to deeply pitted or reticulate , sticky , and covered with pressed @-@ down hairs that are more conspicuous toward the edge of the cap . Its color is dark red during all stages of development . The cap 's flesh is 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , white when first exposed , but slowly and irregularly changing to dark brownish @-@ gray with no reddish intermediate state . The change in color upon bruising or injury is often more pronounced in young specimens .

The tubes comprising the hymenophore are 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) long , with an adnate attachment to the stipe ; their color is pale olive when young and darkens when bruised . Pores are up to 1 mm in diameter , angular , and the same color as the tubes . The stipe is 10 – 16 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) long , and 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick at the apex , and either club @-@ shaped or swollen in the middle . It is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , with a dry surface , and covered with small , stiff , granular projections called scabers . The scabers are usually whitish when young , but eventually turn dark brownish @-@ grey with age . The stipe flesh stains a bluish color when bruised , although this reaction is variable and sometimes slow to occur . It has no distinctive taste or odor .

Leccinum manzanitae mushroom produce a cinnamon @-@ brown spore print . Spores are 13 – 17 by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 µm , somewhat elliptical to cylindrical , and tapered on each end ( fusoid ) ; their walls are smooth and moderately thick . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 27 – 32 by 6 – 9 µm , club @-@ shaped to pear @-@ shaped ( pyriform ) and four @-@ spored . The cystidia are 23 – 32 by 4 – 6 µm , fusoid to club @-@ shaped with narrow , elongated apices . Caulocystidia ( found on the stipe surface ) are thin @-@ walled , club @-@ shaped to somewhat fusoid , and sometimes end in a sharp point ; they measure 35 – 45 by 9 – 14 µm . Clamp connections are absent in the hyphae of Leccinum manzanitae . The hyphae of the cap cuticle are arranged in the form of a trichoderm ( wherein the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , perpendicular to the cap surface ) .

Several chemical tests can be used to help confirm the identify of the mushroom : a drop of dilute ( 3 – 10 % ) potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) solution will turn the tubes pale red whereas nitric acid ( HNO3 ) on the tubes produces orange @-@ yellow ; a solution of Iron ( II ) sulfate ( FeSO4 ) applied to the flesh results in a pale grey color .

Thiers also described the variety L. manzanitae var. angustisporae from Mendocino County . Similar to the main form in appearance and habitat , it has smaller , narrowly elongated spores , typically 3 – 4 µm wide and 1 – 2 µm longer .

= = = Edibility = = =

Leccinum manzanitae is edible , and its taste is sometimes rated highly , although others have described the flavor as bland . Drying the mushroom may improve the flavor . One field guide advises caution when selecting this species for the table , as there have been poisonings reported with similar @-@ looking mushrooms found in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest region of the United States .

= = = Similar species = = =

In the field , Leccinum manzanitae fruit bodies can be usually distinguished from those of other similar bolete species by its large size , reddish cap , dark scabers on a whitish stipe , and association with manzanita and madrone . L. ponderosum also has a dark red sticky cap , but its flesh does not darken upon exposure , and its cap is smooth when young . L. armeniacum also grows with manzanita and madrone , but its cap is more orange . L. aeneum , known only from California , is another species that associates with manzanitae and madrone . It has an orangish cap and whitish scabers on the stipe that do not darken significantly as the mushroom matures . L. insigne , found in coniferous forests with aspens , has a coloration similar to L. manzanitae . The brown @-@ capped L. scabrum is associated with ornamental birch , usually in cultivated landscapes . L. constans , also found exclusively in California , is paler , and does not undergo color changes when the cut flesh is exposed to air ; it is found near madrone in coastal regions . The species L. largentii , found in northern regions of the West Coast , has a dry cap with a fibrillose to scaly edge , dark olive pores , and densely arranged scabers on the stipe . It associates with toyon ( Heteromeles arbutifolia ) .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Leccinum manzanitae is a mycorrhizal species . Its fruit bodies grow singly to scattered in soil under madrone and manzanita . Known to occur only in North America , it is commonly found from central California to southern Oregon , but has also been reported further north in Washington and British Columbia ( Canada ) . Thiers considered it the most abundant Leccinum in California .

= Ramariopsis kunzei =

Ramariopsis kunzei is an edible species of coral fungi in the Clavariaceae family , and the type species of the genus Ramariopsis . It is commonly known as white coral because of the branched structure of the fruit bodies that resemble marine coral . The fruit bodies are up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) tall by 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide , with numerous branches originating from a short rudimentary stem . The branches are one to two millimeters thick , smooth , and white , sometimes with yellowish tips in age . Ramariopsis kunzei has a widespread distribution , and is found in North America , Europe , Asia , and Australia .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The species was first described as Clavaria kunzei by pioneer mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1821 . E.J.H. Corner transferred the species to Ramariopsis in 1950 , and made it the type species . In general , coral fungi often have extensive taxonomic histories , as mycologists have not agreed on the best way to classify them . In addition to Clavaria and Ramariopsis , the R. kunzei has been placed in the genera Ramaria by Lucien Quélet in 1888 , and Clavulinopsis by Walter Jülich in 1985 . According to the taxonomic database MycoBank , the species has acquired a sizable list of synonyms , listed in the taxobox . It is commonly known as white coral because of the branched structure of the fruit bodies that resemble marine coral .

A phylogenetic analysis of clavarioid fungi concluded that R. kunzei is in a phylogenetic lineage together with several Clavulinopsis species ( including C. sulcata , C. helvola and C. fusiformis ) , and that this clade ( the ramariopsis clade ) is nested within a group of species representing the Clavariaceae family .

= = Description = =

The fruit bodies of Ramariopsis kunzei are white to whitish @-@ yellow in color , and are highly branched structures resembling coral ; the dimensions are typically up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) tall and 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . Older specimens may have a pinkish tinge . The tips of the branches are blunt , not crested as in some other species of coral fungi , like Clavulina cristata ; branches are between 1 and 5 millimeters thick . The branch tips of mature specimens may be yellow . A stem , if present , may be up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long and scurfy — covered with small flakes or scales . The texture of the flesh may range from pliable to brittle . This fungus does not undergo any color changes upon bruising or injury , however , a 10 % solution of FeSO4 ( a chemical test known as " iron salts " ) applied to the flesh will turn it green .

In deposit , the spores are white . Viewed with a light microscope , the spores are translucent and have an ellipsoid to roughly spherical shape with spines on the surface , and dimensions of 3 – 5 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm . Spores are non @-@ amyloid , meaning that they do not absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are usually 25 – 45 µm long by 6 – 7 µm wide , and 4 @-@ spored . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of this species .

= = = Edibility = = =

The species is edible , but " fleshless and flavorless . " Other authors concur that the odor and taste are not distinctive .

= = = Similar species = = =

The " crested coral " ( Clavulina cristata , edible ) is similar in appearance to R. kunzei , but its branches have fringed , feathery tips . The " jellied false coral " ( Tremellodendron pallidum , edible ) has whitish , tough , cartilaginous branches with blunt tips .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

The species is thought to be saprobic and can be found growing on the ground , in duff , or less frequently on well @-@ decayed wood . Fruit bodies may grow singly , in groups , or clustered together . David Arora has noted a preference for growing under conifers , as well as a prevalence in redwood forests of North America . In contrast , an earlier author claimed this species grows " rarely in coniferous woods . "

In Europe , Ramariopsis kunzei has been collected in Scotland ( specifically , on the islands of Arran , Gigha and Kintyre peninsula ) , the Netherlands , Norway , former Czechoslovakia , Germany , Poland , and Russia ( Zhiguli Mountains ) . It has also been found in China , India , Iran , the Solomon Islands , and Australia . In North America , the distribution extends north to Canada , and includes the United States ( including Hawaii and Puerto Rico ) .

= By the Grace of God ( song ) =

" By the Grace of God " is a song by American singer Katy Perry from her fourth studio album , Prism ( 2013 ) , included as its closing track . The song was written and produced by Perry and Canadian record producer Greg Wells . It was conceived following Perry 's divorce from English actor and comedian Russell Brand . This initially made Perry consider making a " darker " album , but instead was channeled into the song . Throughout its autobiographical lyrics , Perry is depicted finding her strength and standing up for herself .

The track was first unveiled at Perry 's headlining set at the 2013 iTunes Festival . Upon the release of Prism , " By the Grace of God " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated its vulnerability and picked it as one of the musical highlights from the album , but criticized its placement on the record . Following the album 's release , it has entered various musical charts due to strong digital downloads .

= = Background and production = =

After English actor and comedian Russell Brand divorced Perry in late December 2011 , she was so distraught over the event that she considered committing suicide . Greg Wells , who assisted Perry with the composition of " By the Grace of God " , commented on the situation : " I think she felt so kicked in the head and so publicly embarrassed at being divorced by a text message " . After overcoming her suicidal thoughts and initial shock , she felt prompted to create a " darker " project as compared to her previous albums . Instead , she channelled the entire divorce event into " By the Grace of God " , in which its lyrics depict Perry battling against her suicidal thoughts while lying on her bathroom floor . During an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Perry spoke on how she felt during the breakup : " Imagine what you go through . Imagine what happens when you go through a break up . We all go through break ups and we all get very depressed and desperate . "

" By the Grace of God " was unveiled to industry insiders during a listening party for Prism held in Manhattan , while its inclusion on the album track list was confirmed on October 1 , 2013 . Perry confirmed that the song was the only one included in Prism about her divorce from Brand . However , the song " Ghost " , also present on Prism , includes references to the divorce , particularly the lyric " You sent a text , it was like the wind changed your mind " , although Perry stated that the track was not about the split . She further stated : " That 's the funny thing - it 's not about that chapter in my life , people think that certain songs are about certain people and there is only one song about that time in my life and that song is ' By the Grace of God ' " .

Unlike many of the album 's songs which were written by a multitude of collaborators , " By the Grace of God " was composed solely by Perry and Greg Wells . Wells also co @-@ wrote " Choose Your Battles " , the third bonus track from the album 's deluxe edition . For this track , he contributed with playing drums , piano , and the synthesizer . The song was engineered by Ian McGregor at Rocket Carousel Studio in Los Angeles , and mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach .

= = Composition = =

At a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ seven seconds , " By the Grace of God " is a pop piano @-@ driven power ballad . With a stripped @-@ down production , its instrumental is essentially composed of the sounds of various musical instruments , such as drums , piano and synthesizers along with military drums . Throughout the song , drums , piano , and synthesizers are used in its instrumental . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Co . , Inc. on Musicnotes.com , it is composed in the key of G minor and set in a 44 time signature at a tempo of 82 beats per minute . The melody spans the tonal range of B ♭ 3 to D5 , while the music follows the chord progression of Gm — E ♭ sus2 — B ♭ — Gm — E ♭ sus2 — Fsus4 .

Lyrically , Perry is depicted as having suicidal thoughts and lying on the floor of a bathroom . The song opens with only piano and Perry 's vocals , while she sings " Was twenty @-@ seven , surviving my return from Saturn " , and as the song carries on , she finds her strength , singing " By the grace of God / I picked myself back up / I put one foot in front of the other and I / Looked in the mirror and decided to stay / Wasn 't gonna let love take me out that way " . Perry commented on the lyrics : " [ They ] are very exact and autobiographical . That 's how I write . But the one thing about those lyrics is you can hear me finding my strength throughout the song . It starts off really low and then I kind of stand up for myself and say , ' No ! ' . " The song also sees Perry rejecting the idea that the relationship ended because of her .

Kitty Empire from The Guardian observed that the song served as a " vulnerable yin " to Perry 's hit single " Roar " ' s " righteous yang " . Josh Duboff from Vanity Fair highlighted the titles of " By the Grace of God " and deluxe edition song " Spiritual " , concluding that the religious undertones were " more prominent " in Prism . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph deemed the song " tender " , and Jason Lipshutz from Billboard said it " is the most revealing song Perry will likely ever pen " .

= = Critical reception = =

Upon its release , " By the Grace of God " received critical acclaim . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard thought the song was " obviously not the radio fare fans are used to from the pop star ( Perry ) " , but that it was " crucial for anyone trying to understand Perry 's Prism mind set " . Philip Matusavage from musicOMH considered that " the fact that [ " By the Grace of God " ] is the album highlight and is the only song written by less than three people " is an indicator of what Perry should do next . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune appreciated " Ghost " and " By the Grace of God " for allowing Perry 's vulnerability " to seep through " . In his review of Prism , Sam Lansky from Idolator showed himself divided relatively to the song : he classified it as the " most sonically conventional thing [ in the album ] " although he immediately stated it was " also the most emotionally gripping " in it .

Randall Roberts from Los Angeles Times affirmed that the song was " cosmic " and that it had a " humming , dark tension in which Perry and melody float like red balloons " . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph declared that , in the song , Perry " sounds like a woman , and an artist , who 's finally found herself " . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post said that " By the Grace of God " ranked " among Perry 's strongest ( tracks ) " , and that it was " her most strangely sensible and affecting song ever , one that distances her from her suddenly @-@ more @-@ callow @-@ seeming peers and also from Brand " . John Walker from MTV highlighted the fact that the song is " light on figures of speech and all @-@ too accessible platitudes " , as compared to the metaphors present on the lyrics of " Wide Awake " .

In contrast , Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described it as " a sappy Paula Cole @-@ style statement of self @-@ actualization " . Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone criticized its lyrics and negatively likened them to those of Alanis Morissette . Kitty Empire from The Guardian found the song to be " ridden with cliché " . Mesfin Fekadu from ABC News thought both tracks were " good " , but stated that they " could be great if Perry didn 't hold back and explored more lyrically and sonically " . Chris Bosman from Consequence of Sound criticized its placement on the album track listing and thought that they " would stand out more if they ( By The Grace of God , and closing track Double Rainbow ) hadn 't been forced to rub elbows , thus stealing momentum and impact from each other " . Carl Williott from Idolator praised the track as a " nice counterpart to Roar " .

= = Commercial performance = =

Following the album 's release , " By the Grace of God " entered the UK Singles Chart at number 179 on the week of November 2 , 2013 , and peaked on the US Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 10 , which represents the 25 songs which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also appeared on the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 71 , where it stayed for only one week . It also entered the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 77 with sales of 2 @,@ 104 .

= = Live performances = =

" By the Grace of God " was debuted during Perry 's headlining set at the Roundhouse in London , England for her iTunes Festival , held on September 30 , 2013 . Once she finished singing , Perry thanked her fans for " letting [ her ] stay " . On October 22 , 2013 , Perry held a release party for Prism where she performed " By the Grace of God " along with the other songs from Prism . Tiffany Lee from Yahoo ! Music wrote that Perry 's renditions of " Unconditionally " and " By the Grace of God " " shone like lights through a prism in their acoustic setting " . The song was included as part of the setlist on The Prismatic World Tour .

Perry performed the song at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards which were held on February 8 , 2015 . The performance was in support of domestic violence and sexual assault victims . Before she appeared on stage , a prerecorded video message from U.S. President Barack Obama was screened , which featured him encouraging musicians to support the " # ItsOnUs " sexual assault campaign . Then , domestic violence victim Brooke Axtell delivered a brief speech about her story . During the performance , Perry was clothed in a white dress , while shadows danced behind her . MTV 's John Walker labelled it as her most " powerful performance yet " , while Arienne Thompson of USA Today wrote that it was " powerful and subdued " compared to the " flamboyant and playful " set Perry was known for .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Recording

Recorded at Rocket Carousel Studios in Los Angeles , California .

Mixed at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia .

Personnel

Lead vocals - Katy Perry

Songwriting – Katy Perry , Greg Wells

Production – Katy Perry , Greg Wells

Vocal production – Katy Perry

Mixing – Serban Ghenea

Mixing engineer – John Hanes

Drums , piano , synths , and programming – Greg Wells

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Prism , Capitol Records .

= = Charts = =

= Young at Heart ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Young at Heart " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 11 , 1994 . It was written by Scott Kaufer and series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Michael Lange . The episode featured guest appearances by Dick Anthony Williams , William B. Davis and Alan Boyce , and saw Jerry Hardin reprise his role as Deep Throat . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Young at Heart " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 2 , being watched by 6 @.@ 8 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mostly negative reviews from critics .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully aid a former colleague of Mulder 's in an investigation into a series of robberies , it becomes apparent that the culprit is an old nemesis of Mulder 's — who had seemingly died in prison several years previously .

" Young at Heart " originated as a script from freelance writer Scott Kaufer , who was a friend of series creator Chris Carter and former employee of California magazine and Warner Bros comedy development department . Chris Carter rewrote the script , which included the addition of Barnett 's salamander hand . Director Michael Lange felt the episode offered him excellent scope to try new techniques , noting that the series producers " encourage cinematic stuff " . William B. Davis makes his second appearance of the series in this episode , although his role is simply credited as " CIA Agent " , rather than the more well @-@ known " Smoking Man " .

= = Plot = =

In 1989 , Joe Crandall , an inmate at a federal penitentiary in Pennsylvania , hears screaming from the infirmary . Inside , he discovers the prison 's doctor , Joe Ridley , amputating the hand of fellow inmate John Barnett . Ridley tells Crandall that Barnett is dead , threatening him with a scalpel . However , as Crandall leaves the room , he sees Barnett blinking at him .

Four years later , Fox Mulder is notified by his former FBI supervisor , Reggie Purdue , about a note from a jewelry store robbery mocking Mulder by name . Mulder recognizes the message as being from Barnett , a sociopathic multiple murderer whom he helped capture on his first case with the Bureau . Even though Barnett supposedly died in prison , the note bears his handwriting . Purdue shows Dana Scully a video of Barnett 's capture , which shows that Mulder didn 't fire on Barnett due to him having a hostage , per FBI regulations . Mulder 's hesitancy allowed Barnett to kill both the hostage and a fellow agent .

Scully looks into Barnett 's cause of death and discovers that despite it being listed as heart attack , he had no history of heart problems ; he had been sent to the infirmary over problems with his hand . Meanwhile , Barnett leaves Mulder another note in his car , along with photos of him and Scully .

Mulder and Scully visit the prison and meet Crandall , who recounts his experiences with Barnett and Ridley . Barnett makes taunting phone calls to Mulder , and strangles Purdue with his salamander @-@ like hand . Scully looks into Ridley 's past and finds that his medical license was revoked in 1979 due to malpractice ; he had performed illegal medical trials on children with progeria , a disease that causes premature aging . Mulder theorizes that Ridley 's experiments helped him find a way to reverse the aging process .

Scully summons Mulder when Ridley suddenly appears at her apartment . He tells the agents that he succeeded in making Barnett age in reverse after replacing his hand using salamander cells . However , Barnett stole Ridley 's government @-@ sponsored research . Deep Throat meets with Mulder and confirms Ridley 's story , saying that the government is negotiating with Barnett to purchase Ridley 's work .

Scully hears someone dialing into her answering machine and spots Barnett 's fingerprint on it . After Barnett calls again , Mulder decides to set up a sting operation at the cello recital for a friend of Scully 's , which Barnett learned about from her answering @-@ machine .

That night , FBI agents wait at the concert hall for Barnett 's arrival . Barnett , who goes completely unseen due to his youthful appearance , poses as a piano tuner . He shoots Scully in the chest during the recital and then flees , taking the cellist hostage . Mulder doesn 't hesitate this time around and fires at Barnett , fatally wounding him . Scully is revealed to have survived the attack , having worn a bullet @-@ proof vest . Despite the efforts of doctors and a mysterious CIA agent to resuscitate Barnett , he dies , and takes the secrets of Ridley 's research to the grave . The episode ends with the camera zooming in on locker number 935 in a train station , implying the secrets along with Barnett 's precaution , a bomb , are contained within and one day will be discovered .

= = Production = =

This episode originated as a script from freelance writer Scott Kaufer , who was an acquaintance of Chris Carter and former employee of California magazine and Warner Bros comedy development department . Chris Carter rewrote the script , which included the addition of Barnett 's salamander hand . Fox 's standards and practices department fought with the producers over the scene where Barnett strangles Reggie Purdue , and as a result the producers were forced to reduce the length of the scene . The footage of the young girl with progeria was filmed after the production crew contacted the Progeria Society and were put in touch with the family of Courtney Arciaga , who was a young girl with the disease . She and her family were fans of the series , and were flown from their San Diego home to Vancouver to shoot the scene .

Director Michael Lange felt the episode offered him excellent scope to try new techniques , noting that the series producers " encourage cinematic stuff " . He felt a highlight of this approach was in shooting the episode 's climactic stand @-@ off , explaining that " instead of shooting at a normal eye level as the Salamander Man takes the gun , I tilt up , and now I 'm shooting up his nose almost , and it was kind of like very disorienting . The show 's got a certain ennui that appeals to me , the film noir @-@ y movies of the ' 40s look , an undercurrent of tension and anxiety ' cause of all the weird things going on " .

William B. Davis makes his second appearance of the series in this episode , although his role is simply credited as " CIA Agent " , rather than " Smoking Man " , as per his credit in the pilot episode . The character of Reggie Purdue would later be referenced in the fourth season episode " Paper Hearts " , and the fifth season episode " Unusual Suspects " .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Young at Heart " premiered on the Fox network on February 11 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 12 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 2 with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 6 @.@ 8 million households watched this episode during its original airing .

Director Michael Lange said that he " liked the script very much , and I think I stayed fairly close to the original draft . I liked it because it had a good spookiness to it . To me , the intriguing part was the doctor 's research into being able to reverse the aging process , which I wish we could have explored more . " Executive Producer Robert Goodwin considered the episode one of the most emotional episodes of the first season , due to the time spent working with Courtney Arciaga , the little girl with progeria . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a C , being called " far @-@ fetched " and criticised for its unoriginal themes . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , described it as " sloppy , poorly edited " and " thoroughly unexciting " , pointing out the " forced " nature of the supporting characters ' past involvement with Fox Mulder . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , expressed mixed feelings over the episode , comparing it to Quincy , M.E. and stating that it " just wasn 't weird enough " for an episode of The X @-@ Files . " Young at Heart " has been cited , along with the fourth season episode " Paper Hearts " , as representing " the supreme irony and the hidden agenda of the series " — in both cases , Mulder , directly through his work on the X @-@ Files , puts information permanently beyond reach by killing those who hold it , showing that " despite the fact that Mulder drives the car , he frequently ends up — and goes — nowhere " .

= SMS Stralsund =

SMS Stralsund was a Magdeburg @-@ class light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine . Her class included three other ships : Magdeburg , Breslau , and Strassburg . She was built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen from 1910 to December 1912 , when she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .

Stralsund was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career . She saw significant action in the early years of World War I , including several operations off the British coast and the Battles of Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank , in August 1914 and November 1915 , respectively . She was not damaged in either action . The ship was in dockyard hands during the Battle of Jutland , and so she missed the engagement . After the end of the war , she served briefly in the Reichsmarine before being surrendered to the Allies . She was ceded to the French Navy , where she served as Mulhouse until 1925 . She was formally stricken in 1933 and broken up for scrap two years later .

= = Design = =

Stralsund was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Cormoran " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1910 and launched on 4 November 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 December 1912 . The ship was 138 @.@ 7 meters ( 455 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 33 @,@ 482 shp ( 24 @,@ 968 kW ) in service . These were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Stralsund carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Stralsund had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men .

The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .

= = Service history = =

Stralsund spent the majority of her career in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . On 16 August , some two weeks after the outbreak of World War I , Stralsund and Strassburg conducted a sweep into the Hoofden to search for British reconnaissance forces . The two cruisers encountered a group of sixteen British destroyers and a light cruiser at a distance of about 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) . Significantly outnumbered , the two German cruisers broke contact and returned to port . The ship 's first major action was the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . British battlecruisers and light cruisers raided the German reconnaissance screen in the Heligoland Bight . At 12 : 30 , Stralsund , Danzig , and Ariadne arrived to reinforce Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass , and quickly turned the tide against the British light cruisers . Shortly thereafter , the British battlecruisers intervened and sank Ariadne and Maass 's flagship Cöln . Stralsund and the rest of the surviving light cruisers retreated into the haze and were reinforced by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . Stralsund and Danzig returned and rescued most of the crew of Ariadne .

She also participated in the raid on Yarmouth on 2 – 3 November 1914 , as reconnaissance screen for the I Scouting Group . While the battlecruisers bombarded the town of Yarmouth , Stralsund laid a minefield , which sank a steamer and the submarine HMS D5 which had sortied to intercept the German raiders . After completing the bombardment , the German squadron returned to port without encountering British forces . Stralsund was also present during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , again screening for the I Scouting Group . In the withdrawal after bombarding the towns , the Germans were nearly intercepted by British forces ; the cruiser HMS Southampton spotted Stralsund and several torpedo boats . Confusion aboard the British flagship allowed the German squadron to escape , however . On 25 December , the British launched the Cuxhaven Raid , an air attack on the German naval base in Cuxhaven and the Nordholz Airbase . Stralsund engaged one of the attacking seaplanes , but was unable to shoot it down .

The ship was again part of the reconnaissance screen for the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . Stralsund and Graudenz were assigned to the front of the screen and Rostock and Kolberg steamed on either side of the formation ; each cruiser was supported by a half @-@ flotilla of torpedo boats . At 08 : 15 , lookouts on Stralsund and Kolberg spotted heavy smoke from large British warships approaching the formation . As the main German fleet was in port and therefore unable to support the battlecruisers , Hipper decided to retreat at high speed . The British battlecruisers were able to catch up to the Germans , however , and in the ensuing battle , the large armored cruiser Blücher was sunk .

Stralsund was not available for the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 as she was being rearmed with 15 cm SK L / 45 guns . The refit was completed at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel . The twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with seven 15 cm weapons and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 guns . On 2 February 1918 , Stralsund struck a mine laid by British ships in the North Sea . The dreadnought Kaiser and several other ships steamed out to escort Stralsund back to port . The ship was unavailable for the major fleet operation on 23 – 24 April 1918 to intercept a British convoy to Norway .

After the war , Stralsund served briefly with the reorganized Reichsmarine in 1919 . The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ship was to be disarmed and handed over to the Allies within two months of the signing of the treaty . She was ceded to France as a war prize under the transaction name " Z " . The ship was formally handed over in Cherbourg on 3 August 1920 . The ship was renamed Mulhouse and served briefly with the French Navy until a refit in 1925 in Brest . By this time , she was thoroughly worn out and was therefore placed in reserve shortly after completing the refit . On 15 February 1933 , Mulhouse was stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap in Brest in 1935 . The ship 's bell was later returned to Germany and is now on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .

= Aaron Sorkin =

Aaron Benjamin Sorkin ( born June 9 , 1961 ) is an American screenwriter , producer , and playwright . His works include the Broadway plays A Few Good Men and The Farnsworth Invention ; the television series Sports Night , The West Wing , Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip , and The Newsroom ; and the films A Few Good Men , The American President , Charlie Wilson 's War , The Social Network , Moneyball , and Steve Jobs .

Sorkin 's trademark rapid @-@ fire dialogue and extended monologues are complemented , in television , by frequent collaborator Thomas Schlamme 's characteristic directing technique called the " walk and talk " . These sequences consist of single tracking shots of long duration involving multiple characters engaging in conversation as they move through the set ; characters enter and exit the conversation as the shot continues without any cuts .

= = Early years = =

Sorkin was born in Manhattan , New York City , to a Jewish family , and was raised in the NY suburb of Scarsdale . His mother was a schoolteacher and his father a copyright lawyer who had fought in WWII and put himself through college on the G.I. Bill ; both his older sister and brother went on to become lawyers . His paternal grandfather was one of the founders of the International Ladies ' Garment Workers ' Union ( ILGWU ) . Sorkin took an early interest in acting . Before he reached his teenage years , his parents were taking him to the theatre to see shows such as Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? and That Championship Season .

Sorkin attended Scarsdale High School where he became involved in the drama and theatre club . In eighth grade he played General Bullmoose in the musical Li 'l Abner . In Scarsdale High 's senior class production of Once Upon a Mattress , Sorkin played Sir Harry . He served as vice president in his junior and senior year at Scarsdale High School and graduated in 1979 .

In 1979 , Sorkin attended Syracuse University . In his freshman year he failed a class that was a core requirement . It was a devastating setback because he wanted to be an actor , and the drama department did not allow students to take the stage until they completed all the core freshman classes . Determined to do better , he returned in his sophomore year , and graduated in 1983 . Recalling the influence on him at college of drama teacher Arthur Storch , Sorkin recalled , after Storch 's death in March 2013 , that " Arthur 's reputation as a director , and as a disciple of Lee Strasberg , was a big reason why a lot of us went to [ Syracuse ] . " You have the capacity to be so much better than you are " , he started saying to me in September of my senior year . He was still saying it in May . On the last day of classes , he said it again , and I said , " How ? " , and he answered , " Dare to fail " . I 've been coming through on his admonition ever since " .

= = = Early career as an actor and playwright = = =

After graduating from Syracuse University with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in Musical Theatre in 1983 , Sorkin moved to New York City where he spent much of the 1980s as a struggling , sporadically employed actor who also worked odd jobs , such as delivering singing telegrams , driving a limousine , touring Alabama with the children 's theatre company Traveling Playhouse , handing out fliers promoting a hunting @-@ and @-@ fishing show , and bartending at Broadway 's Palace Theatre . One weekend , while housesitting at a friend 's place he found an IBM Selectric typewriter , started typing , and " felt a phenomenal confidence and a kind of joy that [ he ] had never experienced before in [ his ] life . "

He continued writing and eventually put together his first play , Removing All Doubt , which he sent to his old Syracuse theatre teacher , Arthur Storch , who was impressed . In 1984 , Removing All Doubt was staged for drama students at his alma mater , Syracuse University . After that , he wrote Hidden in This Picture which debuted off @-@ off @-@ Broadway at Steve Olsen 's West Bank Cafe Downstairs Theatre Bar in New York City in 1988 . The contents of his first two plays got him a theatrical agent . Producer John A. McQuiggan saw the production of Hidden in This Picture and commissioned Sorkin to turn the one @-@ act into a full @-@ length play called Making Movies .

= = = A Few Good Men = = =

Sorkin got the inspiration to write his next play , a courtroom drama called A Few Good Men , from a phone conversation with his sister Deborah ( who had graduated from Boston University Law School and signed up for a three @-@ year stint with the U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General 's Corps ) . Deborah told Sorkin that she was going to Guantanamo Bay to defend a group of Marines who came close to killing a fellow Marine in a hazing ordered by a superior officer . Sorkin took that information and wrote much of his story on cocktail napkins while bartending at the Palace Theatre . He and his roommates had purchased a Macintosh 512K so when he returned home he would empty his pockets of the cocktail napkins and type them into the computer , forming a basis from which he wrote many drafts for A Few Good Men .

In 1988 Sorkin sold the film rights for A Few Good Men to producer David Brown before it premiered , in a deal that was reportedly " well into six figures " . Brown had read an article in The New York Times about Sorkin 's one @-@ act play Hidden in This Picture and found out Sorkin also had a play called A Few Good Men that was having Off Broadway readings . Brown produced A Few Good Men on Broadway at the Music Box Theatre . It starred Tom Hulce and was directed by Don Scardino . After opening in late 1989 , it ran for 497 performances .

Sorkin continued writing Making Movies and in 1990 it debuted Off @-@ Broadway at the Promenade Theatre , produced by John A. McQuiggan , and again directed by Don Scardino . Meanwhile , David Brown was producing a few projects at TriStar Pictures and tried to interest them in making A Few Good Men into a film but his proposal was declined due to the lack of star actor involvement . Brown later got a call from Alan Horn at Castle Rock Entertainment who was anxious to make the film . Rob Reiner , a Castle Rock producing partner , opted to direct it .

= = Screenwriting career ( 1991 – 98 ) = =

= = = Working under contract for Castle Rock Entertainment = = =

In the early 1990s , Sorkin worked under contract for Castle Rock Entertainment , Inc . He wrote the scripts for A Few Good Men , Malice and The American President : The three films grossed about US $ 400 million worldwide . While writing for Castle Rock he became friends with colleagues such as William Goldman and Rob Reiner and met his future wife Julia Bingham , who was one of Castle Rock 's business affairs lawyers .

Sorkin wrote several drafts of the script for A Few Good Men in his Manhattan apartment , learning the craft from a book about screenplay format . He then spent several months at the Los Angeles offices of Castle Rock , working on the script with director Rob Reiner . William Goldman ( who regularly worked under contract at Castle Rock ) became his mentor and helped him to adapt his stageplay into a screenplay . The movie was directed by Reiner , starred Tom Cruise , Jack Nicholson , Demi Moore , and Kevin Bacon , and was produced by Brown . A Few Good Men was released in 1992 and was a box office success .

Goldman also approached Sorkin with a story premise , which Sorkin developed into the script for Malice . Goldman oversaw the project as creative consultant while Sorkin wrote the first two drafts . However , he had to leave the project to finish up the script for A Few Good Men , so screenwriter Scott Frank stepped in and wrote two drafts of the Malice screenplay . When production on A Few Good Men wrapped up , Sorkin took over and resumed working on the Malice right through the final shooting script . Harold Becker directed the film , a medical thriller released in 1993 , which starred Nicole Kidman and Alec Baldwin . Malice had mixed reviews . Vincent Canby in The New York Times described the film as " deviously entertaining from its start through its finish " . Roger Ebert gave it 2 out of 4 stars , and Peter Travers in a 2000 Rolling Stone review summarized it as having " suspense but no staying power " .

Sorkin 's last produced screenplay for Castle Rock was The American President and once again he worked with William Goldman , who served as a creative consultant . It took Sorkin a few years to write the screenplay for The American President , which started off as a massive 385 @-@ page screenplay ; it was eventually whittled down to a standard shooting script of around 120 pages . Rob Reiner directed . The film was critically acclaimed . Kenneth Turan in the Los Angeles Times described the film as " genial and entertaining if not notably inspired " , and believed its most interesting aspects were the " pipe dreams about the American political system and where it could theoretically be headed " .

= = = Script doctor for hire = = =

Sorkin did uncredited script doctor work on several films in the 1990s . He wrote some quips for Sean Connery and Nicolas Cage in The Rock . He worked on Excess Baggage , a comedy about a girl who stages her own kidnapping to get her father 's attention , and rewrote some of Will Smith 's scenes in Enemy of the State .

Sorkin collaborated with Warren Beatty on a couple of scripts , one of which was Bulworth . Beatty , known for occasionally personally financing his film projects through pre @-@ production , also hired Sorkin to rewrite a script titled Ocean of Storms which never went into production . At one point Sorkin sued Beatty for proper compensation for his work on the Ocean of Storms script ; once the matter was settled , he resumed working on the script .

= = Writing for television ( 1998 – 2007 ) = =

= = = Sports Night ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = =

Sorkin came up with the idea to write about the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes happenings on a sports show while he was living in a room in the Four Seasons Hotel in Los Angeles writing the screenplay for The American President . He would work late , with the TV tuned into ESPN , watching continuous replays of SportsCenter . The show inspired him to try to write a feature film about a sports show but he was unable to structure the story for film , so instead he turned his idea into a TV comedy series . Sports Night was produced by Disney and debuted on the Disney @-@ owned ABC network in the fall of 1998 .

Sorkin fought with the ABC network during the first season over the use of a laugh track and a live studio audience . The laugh track was widely decried by critics as jarring , with Joyce Millman of Salon.com describing it as " the most unconvincing laugh track you 've ever heard " . Sorkin commented that : " Once you do shoot in front of a live audience , you have no choice but to use the laugh track . Oftentimes [ enhancing the laughs ] is the right thing to do . Sometimes you do need a cymbal crash . Other times , it alienates me . " The laugh track was gradually dialed down and was gone by the end of the first season . Sorkin was triumphant in the second season when ABC agreed to his demands , unburdening the crew of the difficulties of staging a scene for a live audience and leaving the cast with more time to rehearse .

Although Sports Night was critically acclaimed , ABC canceled the show after two seasons due to its low ratings . Sorkin entertained offers to continue the show on other television channels but declined all the offers as they were mainly contingent on his involvement which would have been a difficult prospect given that he was simultaneously writing The West Wing at that point .

= = = The West Wing ( 1999 – 2006 ) = = =

Sorkin conceived the political TV drama The West Wing in 1997 when he went unprepared to a lunch with producer John Wells and in a panic pitched to Wells a show centered on the senior staff of the White House , using leftover ideas from his script for The American President . He told Wells about his visits to the White House while doing research for The American President , and they found themselves discussing public service and the passion of the people who serve . Wells took the concept and pitched it to the NBC network , but was told to wait because the facts behind the Lewinsky scandal were breaking and there was concern that an audience would not be able to take a show about the White House seriously . When a year later some other networks started showing interest in The West Wing , NBC decided to greenlight the series despite their previous reluctance . The pilot debuted in the fall of 1999 and was produced by Warner Bros. TV .

The West Wing was honored with nine Emmy Awards for its debut season , making the show a record holder for most Emmys won by a series in a single season . Following the awards ceremony , a fiasco ensued , centered on the Emmy for writing The West Wing episode " In Excelsis Deo " which was awarded to Sorkin and Rick Cleveland , when it was reported in a The New York Times article that Cleveland had been ushered off the stage by Sorkin without being given a chance to say a few words . The story behind The West Wing episode is based on Cleveland 's father , a Korean war veteran who spent the last years of his life on the street , as Cleveland explains in his FreshYarn.com essay titled " I Was the Dumb Looking Guy with the Wire @-@ Rimmed Glasses " . A back and forth took place between Sorkin and Cleveland in a public web forum at Mighty Big TV where Sorkin explained that he gives his writers " Story By " credit on a rotating basis " by way of a gratuity " and that he had thrown out Cleveland 's script and started from scratch . In the end , Sorkin apologized to Cleveland . Cleveland and Sorkin also won the Writers Guild of America Award for best episodic drama at the February 2001 ceremony for " In Excelsis Deo " .

In 2001 , after wrapping up the second season of The West Wing , Sorkin had a drug relapse , only two months after receiving a Phoenix Rising Award for drug recovery ; this became public knowledge when he was arrested at Burbank Airport for possession of hallucinogenic mushrooms , marijuana , and crack cocaine . He was ordered by a judge to attend a drug diversion program . His drug addiction was highly publicized , most notably when Saturday Night Live did a parody called " The West Wing " , though he did recover .

In 2002 , Sorkin criticized NBC news anchor Tom Brokaw 's TV special about a day in the life of a president , " The Bush White House : Inside the Real West Wing " , comparing it to the act of sending a valentine to President George W. Bush instead of real news reporting . Sorkin 's TV series The West Wing aired on the same network , and so at the request of NBC 's Entertainment President Jeff Zucker he apologized , but would later say " there should be a difference between what NBC News does and what The West Wing TV series does . "

Sorkin wrote 87 screenplays in all , which amounts to nearly every episode during the show 's first four Emmy @-@ winning seasons . Sorkin describes his role in the creative process as " not so much [ that of ] a showrunner or a producer . I 'm really a writer . " He admits that this approach can have its drawbacks , saying " Out of 88 [ West Wing ] episodes that I did we were on time and on budget never , not once . " In 2003 , at the end of the fourth season , Sorkin and fellow executive producer Thomas Schlamme left the show due to internal conflicts at Warner Bros. TV not involving the NBC network , thrusting producer John Wells into an expanded role as showrunner . Sorkin never watched any episodes beyond his writing tenure apart from 60 seconds of the fifth season 's first episode , describing the experience as " like watching somebody make out with my girlfriend . " Sorkin would later return in the final episode in a cameo appearance as a member of President Bartlet 's staff .

= = = Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =

In 2003 Sorkin divulged to the American television interviewer Charlie Rose on The Charlie Rose Show that he was developing a TV series based on a late @-@ night sketch comedy show like Saturday Night Live . In early October 2005 a pilot script dubbed Studio 7 on the Sunset Strip for a new TV series , written by him and with Tommy Schlamme attached as producer , started circulating around Hollywood and generating interest on the web . A week later , NBC bought from Warner Bros. TV the right to show the TV series on their network for a near @-@ record license fee in a bidding war with CBS . The show 's name was later changed to Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip . Sorkin described the show as having " autobiographical elements " to it and " characters that are based on actual people " but said that it departs from those beginnings to look at the backstage maneuverings at a late night sketch comedy show .

In September 2006 , the pilot for Studio 60 aired on NBC , directed by Schlamme . The pilot was critically acclaimed and viewed by over 12 million people , but Studio 60 experienced a significant drop in audience by mid @-@ season . The seething anticipation that preceded the début was followed up by a large amount of thoughtful and scrupulous criticism in the press , as well as largely negative analysis in the blogosphere . In January 2007 , Sorkin spoke out against the press for focusing too heavily on the ratings slide and for using blogs and unemployed comedy writers as sources . After two months on hiatus , Studio 60 resumed to air the last episodes of season one , which would be its only season .

= = 2004 – present = =

= = = Return to the theatre = = =

In 2003 , Sorkin was writing a screenplay on spec about the story of inventor and television pioneer Philo Farnsworth , a topic he had first become familiar with back in the early 1990s when producer Fred Zollo approached him with the idea of adapting a memoir by Elma Farnsworth into a biopic . The next year he completed the screenplay under the title " The Farnsworth Invention " , and it was picked up by New Line Cinema with Thomas Schlamme signed on to direct . The story is about the patent battle between inventor Philo Farnsworth and RCA tycoon David Sarnoff for the technology that allowed the first television transmissions in the US .

At the same time , Sorkin was contacted by Jocelyn Clarke , the commissions manager of the Abbey Theatre in Dublin , requesting he write a play for them , a commission which he accepted . In time Sorkin decided to tackle his commission by rewriting " The Farnsworth Invention " as a play . He delivered a first draft of the play to the Abbey Theatre in early 2005 , and a production was purportedly planned for 2007 with La Jolla Playhouse in California deciding to stage a workshop production of the play in collaboration with the Abbey Theatre . But in 2006 the Abbey Theatre 's new management pulled out of all involvement with The Farnsworth Invention . Despite the setback , La Jolla Playhouse pushed on , with Steven Spielberg lending his talents as producer . The production opened under La Jolla 's signature Page To Stage program which allowed Sorkin and director Des McAnuff to develop the play from show to show according to audience reactions and feedback ; the play ran at La Jolla Playhouse from February 20 , 2007 through March 25 , 2007 . A production followed on Broadway , beginning in previews at the Music Box Theatre and scheduled to open on November 14 , 2007 ; however , the play was delayed by the 2007 Broadway stagehand strike . The Farnsworth Invention eventually opened at the Music Box Theatre on December 3 , 2007 following the end of the strike ; it closed on March 2 , 2008 .

In 2005 , Sorkin revised his play A Few Good Men for a revival at the London West End theatre , the Haymarket . The play opened at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in the fall of the same year and was directed by David Esbjornson , with Rob Lowe of The West Wing in the lead role .

= = = Return to film = = =

Sorkin 's return to film occurred when he was commissioned by Universal Pictures to adapt 60 Minutes producer George Crile 's nonfiction book Charlie Wilson 's War for Tom Hanks ' production company Playtone . Charlie Wilson 's War is about the colorful Texas congressman Charlie Wilson who funded the CIA 's secret war against the former Soviet Union in Afghanistan . Sorkin completed the screenplay and the film was released in 2007 starring Tom Hanks , Julia Roberts , and Philip Seymour Hoffman , directed by Mike Nichols .

In August 2008 , Sorkin announced that he had agreed to write a script for Sony and producer Scott Rudin about how Facebook was founded . The film , The Social Network , based on Ben Mezrich 's novel The Accidental Billionaires , was released on October 1 , 2010 . Sorkin won the Academy , BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for The Social Network . One year later , Sorkin received nominations for the same awards for co @-@ writing the screenplay to the film Moneyball .

In May 2012 , Sony announced that Sorkin would write a movie based on Walter Isaacson 's biography of Steve Jobs . Sorkin was a guest at the D10 conference in May 2012 and explained his thoughts at the time on the adaptation of Isaacson 's biography :

To be honest , one of the hesitations I had in taking on the movie is that it was a little like writing about the Beatles — that there are so many people out there who know so much about him and who revere him that I just saw a minefield of disappointment . Frankly , that I was going to do something and that people who ... hopefully , when I 'm done with my research , I 'll be in the same ball park of knowledge about Steve Jobs that so many people in this room are .

Steve Jobs , written by Sorkin , directed by Danny Boyle , and starring Michael Fassbender as Jobs , was released in October 2015 . On January 10 , 2016 , Sorkin won the Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay for his work on this film .

= = = Return to television = = =

It was announced in 2011 Sorkin would be returning to television with two HBO projects . He has teamed with The Office star John Krasinski to develop a miniseries about the Chateau Marmont Hotel based on Life at the Marmont , a book by the hotel 's co @-@ owner Raymond R. Sarlot and Fred Basten . He also developed The Newsroom , a series about a fictional cable news network . The series lasted three seasons , premiering on June 24 , 2012 , and concluding on December 14 , 2014 .

= = = Future projects = = =

In March 2007 , it was reported that Sorkin had signed on to write a musical adaptation of the hit 2002 record Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots by psychedelic @-@ rock band The Flaming Lips , collaborating with director Des McAnuff who had been developing the project .

On July 12 , 2007 , Variety reported that Sorkin had signed a deal with DreamWorks to write three scripts . The first script is titled The Trial of the Chicago 7 , which Sorkin was already developing with Steven Spielberg and producers Walter Parkes and Laurie MacDonald . In March 2010 , Sorkin 's agent , Ari Emanuel , was reported as saying that the project was proving " tough to get together " . However , in late July 2013 , it was announced that Academy Award nominated director Paul Greengrass was in final talks to direct Sorkin 's script and that Steven Spielberg had previously been attached .

In August 2008 , Des McAnuff announced that Sorkin had been commissioned by the Stratford Shakespeare Festival to write an adaptation of Chekhov 's The Cherry Orchard .

In 2010 , Sorkin reportedly obtained the film rights to Andrew Young 's book , The Politician ( about Sen. John Edwards ) , and announced that he would make his debut as a film director while also adapting the book for the screen .

In November 2010 , it was reported that Sorkin would be writing a musical based on the life of Houdini , with music by Danny Elfman . In January 2012 , Stephen Schwartz was reported to be writing the music and lyrics , with Sorkin making his debut as a librettist . The musical was expected to come out in 2013 @-@ 14 , with Sorkin saying " The chance to collaborate with Stephen Schwartz , ( the director ) Jack O 'Brien , and Hugh Jackman on a new Broadway musical is a huge gift . " In January 2013 , he dropped out of the project , citing film and TV commitments .

In September 2015 , it was reported that Sorkin is writing a biopic that will focus on the twenty year marriage of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz and their work together on I Love Lucy and The Lucy – Desi Comedy Hour . Academy Award winner Cate Blanchett is set to star as Ball , while the role of Arnaz is yet to be determined .

In January 2016 , it was announced that Sorkin would make his directorial debut with the film Molly 's Game for Sony Pictures Entertainment , based on Molly Bloom 's memoir and which he would adapt by himself .

In February 2016 , it was revealed that Sorkin will be adapting To Kill a Mockingbird for the stage , where he will be working alongside Bartlett Sher .

In March 2016 , it was announced that Sorkin would be adapting A Few Good Men for a live production on NBC , slated to air in 2017 .

= = Writing process and style = =

Sorkin has written for the theatre , film and television , and in each medium his level of collaboration with other creators has varied . He began in theatre which involved a largely solitary writing process , then moved into film where he collaborated with director Rob Reiner and screenwriter William Goldman , and eventually worked in television where he collaborated very closely with director Thomas Schlamme for nearly a decade on the shows Sports Night , The West Wing , and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip ; he now moves between all three media . He has a habit of chain smoking while he spends countless hours cooped up in his office plotting out his next scripts . He describes his writing process as physical because he will often stand up and speak the dialogue he is developing .

A New York Times article by Peter De Jonge explained that " The West Wing is never plotted out for more than a few weeks ahead and has no major story lines " , which De Jonge believed was because " with characters who have no flaws , it is impossible to give them significant arcs " . Sorkin has stated : " I seldom plan ahead , not because I don 't think it 's good to plan ahead , there just isn 't time . " Sorkin has also said , " As a writer , I don 't like to answer questions until the very moment that I have to . " The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer 's TV critic John Levesque has commented that Sorkin 's writing process " can make for ill @-@ advised plot developments " . Further complicating the matter , in television , Sorkin will have a hand in writing every episode , rarely letting other writers earn full credit on a script . Peter De Jonge has reported that ex @-@ writers of The West Wing have claimed that " even by the spotlight @-@ hogging standards of Hollywood , Sorkin has been exceptionally ungenerous in his sharing of writing credit " . In a comment to GQ magazine in 2008 , Sorkin said , " I 'm helped by a staff of people who have great ideas , but the scripts aren 't written by committee . "

Sorkin 's nearly decade @-@ long collaboration in television with director Thomas Schlamme began in early 1998 when they found they shared common creative ground on the soon to be produced Sports Night . Their successful partnership in television is one in which Sorkin focuses on writing the scripts while Schlamme executive produces and occasionally directs ; they have worked together on Sports Night , The West Wing , and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip . Schlamme will create the look of the shows , work with the other directors , discuss the scripts with Sorkin as soon as they are turned in , make design and casting decisions , and attend the budget meetings ; Sorkin tends to stick strictly to writing . In response to what he perceived as unfair criticism of The Newsroom , Jacob Drum of Digital Americana wrote , " The essential truth that the critics miss is that The Newsroom is Sorkin being Sorkin as he always has been and always will be : one part pioneer ; one part self @-@ conscious romantic ; two parts actual Lewis & Clark @-@ style pioneer , trapping his way across an old , old idea of an America that can always stand to raise its game — but most importantly , spinning a good yarn while he does so . "

Sorkin is known for writing memorable lines and fast @-@ paced dialogue , such as " You can 't handle the truth ! " from A Few Good Men and the partly Latin tirade against God in The West Wing episode " Two Cathedrals " . For television , one hallmark of Sorkin 's writer 's voice is the repartee that his characters engage in as they small talk and banter about whimsical events taking place within an episode , and interject obscure popular culture references into conversation .

Although his scripts are lauded for being literate , Sorkin has been criticized for often turning in scripts that are overwrought . His mentor William Goldman has commented that normally in visual media speeches are avoided , but that Sorkin has a talent for dialogue and gets away with breaking this rule .

= = Personal life = =

Sorkin married Julia Bingham in 1996 and divorced in 2005 , with his workaholic habits and drug abuse reported to be a partial cause . Sorkin and Bingham have one daughter , Roxy . Sorkin was a dependent cocaine user for many years and , after a highly publicized arrest in 2001 , he received treatment in a drug diversion program .

For several years , he dated Kristin Chenoweth , who played Annabeth Schott on The West Wing ( though after Sorkin had left the show ) . He has also reportedly dated columnist Maureen Dowd and actress Kristin Davis .

A consistent supporter of the Democratic Party , Sorkin has made substantial political campaign contributions to candidates between 1999 and 2011 , according to CampaignMoney.com. During the 2004 US presidential election campaign , the liberal advocacy group MoveOn 's political action committee enlisted Sorkin and Rob Reiner to create one of their anti @-@ Bush campaign advertisements . In August 2008 , Sorkin was involved in a Generation Obama event at the Fine Arts Theater in Beverly Hills , California , participating in a panel discussion subsequent to a screening of Frank Capra 's Mr Smith Goes to Washington . Despite this Sorkin does not consider himself a political activist noting " I 've met political activists , and they 're for real . I 've never marched anyplace or done anything that takes more effort than writing a check in terms of activism " .

In 1987 , Sorkin started using marijuana and cocaine . He has said that in cocaine he found a drug that gave him relief from certain nervous tensions he deals with on a regular basis . In 1995 , he checked into rehab at the Hazelden Institute in Minnesota , on the advice of his then girlfriend and soon to be wife Julia Bingham , to try to beat his addiction to cocaine . In 2001 , Sorkin along with colleagues John Spencer and Martin Sheen received the Phoenix Rising Award for their personal victories over substance abuse . However , two months later on April 15 , 2001 , Sorkin was arrested when guards at a security checkpoint at the Burbank Airport found hallucinogenic mushrooms , marijuana , and crack cocaine in his carry @-@ on bag when a metal crack pipe set off the gate 's metal detector . He was ordered to a drug diversion program .

Sorkin continued working on The West Wing amidst his drug abuse . In his commencement speech for Syracuse University on May 13 , 2012 , Sorkin declared that he had not used cocaine for eleven years .

= = Credits = =

= = = Filmography = = =

= = = Plays = = =

= = = Cameo acting appearances = = =

= = Accolades = =

= = = Academy Awards = = =

= = = British Academy Film Awards = = =

= = = Critics ' Choice Movie Awards = = =

= = = Golden Globe Awards = = =

= = = Primetime Emmy Awards = = =

= = = = As writer = = = =

= = = = As producer = = = =

= = = Satellite Awards = = =

= = = Writers Guild of America Awards = = =

= = = = Film = = = =

= = = = Television = = = =

= = Further information = =

Aaron Sorkin ( July 2002 ) . The West Wing Script Book . Newmarket Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55704 @-@ 549 @-@ 2 .

Aaron Sorkin ( February 2004 ) . The West Wing Seasons 3 & 4 : The Shooting Scripts : Eight Teleplays . Newmarket Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 55704 @-@ 612 @-@ 3 .

" Interview with Aaron Sorkin " ( PDF ) . On Writing Magazine , Issue 18 . The Writers Guild of America , East , Inc . February 2003 @.@  p . 6 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 28 , 2007 . Retrieved January 10 , 2007 .

Aaron Sorkin . " Early draft of the Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip pilot script " . Archived from the original on October 24 , 2009 . Retrieved February 1 , 2007 .

Aaron Sorkin and Rob Reiner ( 2001 ) . From Stage to Screen with Aaron Sorkin and Rob Reiner , A Few Good Men ( Special Edition DVD ) ( Documentary ) .

Aaron Barnhart ( January 21 , 2007 ) . " Aaron Sorkin , in his own words " . TV Barn ( Podcast ) .

= Delaware Route 72 =

Delaware Route 72 ( DE 72 ) is a state highway located in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 9 near Delaware City north to DE 7 in Pike Creek . The route runs through suburban areas of northern New Castle County , passing through the eastern part of Newark . DE 72 intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) , DE 1 , and DE 7 near Delaware City , DE 71 near Kirkwood , US 40 east of Glasgow , and DE 2 , DE 4 , and DE 273 in Newark . Parts of DE 72 were built as a state highway during the 1930s . By the 1940s , the route was designated between DE 2 in Newark and DE 7 in Pike Creek along Paper Mill Road . The route was extended south to DE 9 in the 1960s . In 1980 , the alignment was shifted to the east through Newark to bypass a railroad crossing on Chapel Street .

= = Route description = =

DE 72 begins at an intersection with DE 9 adjacent to the Delaware City Refinery near Delaware City , heading west on two @-@ lane undivided Wrangle Hill Road . The road continues between the oil refinery to the north and farmland to the south before coming to an intersection with US 13 and the southern terminus of DE 7 in Wrangle Hill , where it widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway . At this point , US 13 turns west for a short concurrency with DE 72 to a diamond interchange with the DE 1 freeway , where US 13 splits north onto DE 1 .

Past this interchange , DE 72 narrows back into a two @-@ lane undivided road and passes through a mix of farmland and residences , coming to an intersection with DE 71 . Following this , the road curves to the northwest through a mix of homes and commercial establishments , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . The route curves north and comes to an intersection with US 40 in a commercial area to the east of Glasgow .

Past the US 40 intersection , DE 72 continues to the north on Sunset Lake Road , heading into wooded areas with some fields and residential development and closely running to the west of a Norfolk Southern line . The route crosses to the east side of the railroad tracks and widens into a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane as it comes to an intersection with Old Baltimore Pike . At this intersection , the route name changes to South Chapel Street and it passes through fields with some development , crossing under Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 , Delaware Turnpike ) without an interchange . DE 72 enters the eastern part of Newark and passes industrial parks before heading past businesses and residential neighborhoods as it comes to an intersection with DE 4 .

Following this intersection , the road narrows to two lanes as it heads through agricultural areas to the east of the University of Delaware campus . The route continues northeast onto Library Avenue and runs through woods as it comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line . The road bends north into commercial areas , passing to the east of Newark High School and widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it comes to an intersection with Delaware Avenue , which carries the eastbound direction of DE 273 . Here , eastbound DE 273 turns north to join DE 72 and the road reaches an intersection where westbound DE 273 runs west on Main Street and DE 273 continues east as Ogletown Road . Past this intersection , DE 72 becomes concurrent with DE 2 and the name changes to Capitol Trail as it turns northeast and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line . The road leaves Newark and heads northeast through residential areas , briefly becoming undivided as it crosses White Clay Creek .

DE 72 splits from DE 2 by heading northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Possum Park Road through a mix of fields , woods , and housing developments . In Milford Crossroads , the route turns northeast onto Paper Mill Road and curves north to pass between White Clay Creek State Park to the west and the Middle Run Valley Natural Area to the east . The road continues northeast into the suburban Pike Creek area . DE 72 turns east and reaches its northern terminus at another intersection with DE 7 .

DE 72 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 34 @,@ 091 vehicles at the north end of Newark to a low of 3 @,@ 489 vehicles at the US 13 intersection . The portions of DE 72 concurrent with US 13 and DE 2 are part of the National Highway System .

= = History = =

What is now DE 72 originally existed as a county road by 1920 . By 1931 , the road was proposed as a state highway between present @-@ day DE 9 and US 13 while what would become DE 72 north of Milford Crossroads was completed as a state highway . The road from present @-@ day DE 9 to US 13 became a state highway ba year later . On July 1 , 1935 , the remaining sections of the present @-@ day route were transferred from the county to the state . The portion of the road between US 13 and US 40 was improved by the state in 1937 , providing a better route to Baltimore and Washington , D.C. for residents in the Delaware City , Port Penn , and Odessa areas .

DE 72 was designated by 1942 to run from DE 2 in Newark north to DE 7 , following Chapel Street and Paper Mill Road . In 1939 , suggestions were made to replace the bridge over the White Clay Creek along Paper Mill Road in Newark . Plans were completed for this bridge by 1942 but construction was postponed due to World War II . The concrete bridge carrying Paper Mill Road over the White Clay Creek was completed in 1947 , with final work on the project finished in August 1949 . By 1954 , Sunset Lake Road was improved from a dirt road to a low @-@ type bituminous road . The roadway between US 40 and Newark was paved by 1966 .

DE 72 was extended to its present southern terminus at DE 9 the next year , following Chapel Street , Sunset Lake Road , and Wrangle Hill Road . In 1980 , the Chapel Street crossing of the Northeast Corridor rail line in Newark was removed , and DE 72 was realigned farther to the east to follow Library Avenue across the railroad tracks before continuing north on DE 2 and Possum Park Road to Paper Mill Road in Milford Crossroads . DE 2 was realigned to follow DE 72 around the eastern part of Newark on Library Avenue by 1990 . In 2013 , the DE 2 concurrency between DE 4 and DE 273 was removed due to the truncation of DE 2 to the DE 273 intersection . On April 29 , 2016 , Governor Jack Markell , DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan , and local officials attended a groundbreaking ceremony for a $ 7 million project that will rebuild the interchange with DE 1 into a diverging diamond interchange , the first such interchange in Delaware .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in New Castle County .

= Arthur Compton =

Arthur Holly Compton ( September 10 , 1892 – March 15 , 1962 ) was an American physicist who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 for his discovery of the Compton effect , which demonstrated the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation . It was a sensational discovery at the time : the wave nature of light had been well @-@ demonstrated , but the idea that light had both wave and particle properties was not easily accepted . He is also known for his leadership of the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory , and served as Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis from 1945 to 1953 .

In 1919 , Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad . He chose to go to Cambridge University 's Cavendish Laboratory in England , where he studied the scattering and absorption of gamma rays . Further research along these lines led to the discovery of the Compton effect . He used X @-@ rays to investigate ferromagnetism , concluding that it was a result of the alignment of electron spins , and studied cosmic rays , discovering that they were made up principally of positively charged particles .

During World War II , Compton was a key figure in the Manhattan Project that developed the first nuclear weapons . His reports were important in launching the project . In 1942 , he became head of the Metallurgical Laboratory , with responsibility for producing nuclear reactors to convert uranium into plutonium , finding ways to separate the plutonium from the uranium and to design an atomic bomb . Compton oversaw Enrico Fermi 's creation of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the first nuclear reactor , which went critical on December 2 , 1942 . The Metallurgical Laboratory was also responsible for the design and operation of the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Plutonium began being produced in the Hanford Site reactors in 1945 .

After the war , Compton became Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis . During his tenure , the university formally desegregated its undergraduate divisions , named its first female full professor , and enrolled a record number of students after wartime veterans returned to the United States .

= = Early life = =

Arthur Compton was born on September 10 , 1892 in Wooster , Ohio , the son of Elias and Otelia Catherine ( née Augspurger ) Compton , who was named American Mother of the Year in 1939 . They were an academic family . Elias was dean of the University of Wooster ( later The College of Wooster ) , which Arthur also attended . Arthur 's eldest brother , Karl , who also attended Wooster , earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1912 , and was president of MIT from 1930 to 1948 . His second brother Wilson likewise attended Wooster , earned his PhD in economics from Princeton in 1916 and was president of the State College of Washington , later Washington State University from 1944 to 1951 . All three brothers were members of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity .

Compton was initially interested in astronomy , and took a photograph of Halley 's Comet in 1910 . Around 1913 , he described an experiment where an examination of the motion of water in a circular tube demonstrated the rotation of the earth . That year , he graduated from Wooster with a Bachelor of Science degree and entered Princeton , where he received his Master of Arts degree in 1914 . Compton then studied for his PhD in physics under the supervision of Hereward L. Cooke , writing his dissertation on " The intensity of X @-@ ray reflection , and the distribution of the electrons in atoms " .

When Arthur Compton earned his PhD in 1916 , he , Karl and Wilson became the first group of three brothers to earn PhDs from Princeton . Later , they would become the first such trio to simultaneously head American colleges . Their sister Mary married a missionary , C. Herbert Rice , who became the principal of Forman Christian College in Lahore . In June 1916 , Compton married Betty Charity McCloskey , a Wooster classmate and fellow graduate . They had two sons , Arthur Alan and John Joseph Compton .

Compton spent a year as a physics instructor at the University of Minnesota in 1916 – 17 , then two years as a research engineer with the Westinghouse Lamp Company in Pittsburgh , where he worked on the development of the sodium @-@ vapor lamp . During World War I he developed aircraft instrumentation for the Signal Corps .

In 1919 , Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad . He chose to go to Cambridge University 's Cavendish Laboratory in England . Working with George Paget Thomson , the son of J. J. Thomson , Compton studied the scattering and absorption of gamma rays . He observed that the scattered rays were more easily absorbed than the original source . Compton was greatly impressed by the Cavendish scientists , especially Ernest Rutherford , Charles Galton Darwin and Arthur Eddington , and he ultimately named his second son after J. J. Thomson .

For a time Compton was a deacon at a Baptist church . " Science can have no quarrel " , he said , " with a religion which postulates a God to whom men are as His children . "

= = Physics professor = =

= = = Compton effect = = =

Returning to the United States , Compton was appointed Wayman Crow Professor of Physics , and Head of the Department of Physics at Washington University in St. Louis in 1920 . In 1922 , he found that X @-@ ray quanta scattered by free electrons had longer wavelengths and , in accordance with Planck 's relation , less energy than the incoming X @-@ rays , the surplus energy having been transferred to the electrons . This discovery , known as the " Compton effect " or " Compton scattering " , demonstrated the particle concept of electromagnetic radiation .

In 1923 , Compton published a paper in the Physical Review that explained the X @-@ ray shift by attributing particle @-@ like momentum to photons , something Einstein had invoked for his 1905 Nobel Prize – winning explanation of the photo @-@ electric effect . First postulated by Max Planck in 1900 , these were conceptualized as elements of light " quantized " by containing a specific amount of energy depending only on the frequency of the light . In his paper , Compton derived the mathematical relationship between the shift in wavelength and the scattering angle of the X @-@ rays by assuming that each scattered X @-@ ray photon interacted with only one electron . His paper concludes by reporting on experiments that verified his derived relation :

<formula>

where

<formula> is the initial wavelength ,

<formula> is the wavelength after scattering ,

<formula> is the Planck constant ,

<formula> is the electron rest mass ,

<formula> is the speed of light , and

<formula> is the scattering angle .

The quantity h ⁄ mec is known as the Compton wavelength of the electron ; it is equal to 2 @.@ 43 × 10 − 12 m . The wavelength shift λ ′ − λ lies between zero ( for θ

= 0 ° ) and twice the Compton wavelength of the electron ( for θ =

180 ° ) . He found that some X @-@ rays experienced no wavelength shift despite being scattered through large angles ; in each of these cases the photon failed to eject an electron . Thus the magnitude of the shift is related not to the Compton wavelength of the electron , but to the Compton wavelength of the entire atom , which can be upwards of 10 @,@ 000 times smaller .

" When I presented my results at a meeting of the American Physical Society in 1923 , " Compton later recalled , " it initiated the most hotly contested scientific controversy that I have ever known . " The wave nature of light had been well demonstrated , and the idea that it could have a dual nature was not easily accepted . It was particularly telling that diffraction in a crystal lattice could only be explained with reference to its wave nature . It earned Compton the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 . Compton and Alfred W. Simon developed the method for observing at the same instant individual scattered X @-@ ray photons and the recoil electrons . In Germany , Walther Bothe and Hans Geiger independently developed a similar method .

= = = X @-@ rays = = =

In 1923 , Compton moved to the University of Chicago as Professor of Physics , a position he would occupy for the next 22 years . In 1925 , he demonstrated that the scattering of 130 @,@ 000 @-@ volt X @-@ rays from the first sixteen elements in the periodic table ( hydrogen through sulfur ) were polarized , a result predicted by J. J. Thomson . William Duane from Harvard University spearheaded an effort to prove that Compton 's interpretation of the Compton effect was wrong . Duane carried out a series of experiments to disprove Compton , but instead found evidence that Compton was correct . In 1924 , Duane conceded that this was the case .

Compton investigated the effect of X @-@ rays on the sodium and chlorine nuclei in salt . He used X @-@ rays to investigate ferromagnetism , concluding that it was a result of the alignment of electron spins . In 1926 , he became a consultant for the Lamp Department at General Electric . In 1934 , he returned to England as Eastman visiting professor at Oxford University . While there General Electric asked him to report on activities at General Electric Company plc 's research laboratory at Wembley . Compton was intrigued by the possibilities of the research there into fluorescent lamps . His report prompted a research program in America that developed it .

Compton 's first book , X @-@ Rays and Electrons , was published in 1926 . In it he showed how to calculate the densities of diffracting materials from their X @-@ ray diffraction patterns . He revised his book with the help of Samuel K. Allison to produce X @-@ Rays in Theory and Experiment ( 1935 ) . This work remained a standard reference for the next three decades .

= = = Cosmic rays = = =

By the early 1930s , Compton had become interested in cosmic rays . At the time , their existence was known but their origin and nature remained speculative . Their presence could be detected using a spherical " bomb " containing compressed air or argon gas and measuring its electrical conductivity . Trips to Europe , India , Mexico , Peru and Australia gave Compton the opportunity to measure cosmic rays at different altitudes and latitudes . Along with other groups who made observations around the globe , they found that cosmic rays were 15 per cent more intense at the poles than at the equator . Compton attributed this to the effect of cosmic rays being made up principally of charged particles , rather than photons as Robert Millikan had suggested , with the latitude effect being due to Earth 's magnetic field .

= = Manhattan Project = =

In April 1941 , Vannevar Bush , head of the wartime National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) , created a special committee headed by Compton to report on the NDRC uranium program . Compton 's report , which was submitted in May 1941 , foresaw the prospects of developing radiological weapons , nuclear propulsion for ships , and nuclear weapons using uranium @-@ 235 or the recently discovered plutonium . In October he wrote another report on the practicality of an atomic bomb . For this report , he worked with Enrico Fermi on calculations of the critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 , conservatively estimating it to be between 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) and 2 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 0 long tons ; 2 @.@ 2 short tons ) . He also discussed the prospects for uranium enrichment with Harold Urey , spoke with Eugene Wigner about how plutonium might be produced in a nuclear reactor , and with Robert Serber about how the plutonium produced in a reactor might be separated from uranium . His report , submitted in November , stated that a bomb was feasible , although he was more conservative about its destructive power than Mark Oliphant and his British colleagues .

The final draft of Compton 's November report made no mention of using plutonium , but after discussing the latest research with Ernest Lawrence , Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible . In December , Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project . He hoped to achieve a controlled chain reaction by January 1943 , and to have a bomb by January 1945 . To tackle the problem , he had the different research groups working on plutonium and nuclear reactor design at Columbia University , Princeton University and the University of California , Berkeley , concentrated together as the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago . Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium , to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium , and to design and build an atomic bomb .

In June 1942 , the United States Army Corps of Engineers assumed control of the nuclear weapons program and Compton 's Metallurgical Laboratory became part of the Manhattan Project . That month , Compton gave Robert Oppenheimer responsibility for bomb design . It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs that the Metallurgical Laboratory scientists had devised should be pursued , even though a successful reactor had not yet been built .

When labor disputes delayed construction of the Metallurgical Laboratory 's new home in the Red Gate Woods , Compton decided to build Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the first nuclear reactor , under the stands at Stagg Field . Under Fermi 's direction , it went critical on December 2 , 1942 . Compton arranged for Mallinckrodt to undertake the purification of uranium ore , and with DuPont to build the plutonium semi @-@ works at Oak Ridge , Tennessee .

A major crisis for the plutonium program occurred in July 1943 , when Emilio Segrè 's group confirmed that plutonium created in the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge contained high levels of plutonium @-@ 240 . Its spontaneous fission ruled out the use of plutonium in a gun @-@ type nuclear weapon . Oppenheimer 's Los Alamos Laboratory met the challenge by designing and building an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon .

Compton was at the Hanford site in September 1944 to watch the first reactor being brought online . The first batch of uranium slugs was fed into Reactor B at Hanford in November 1944 , and shipments of plutonium to Los Alamos began in February 1945 . Throughout the war , Compton would remain a prominent scientific adviser and administrator . In 1945 , he served , along with Lawrence , Oppenheimer , and Fermi , on the Scientific Panel that recommended military use of the atomic bomb against Japan . He was awarded the Medal for Merit for his services to the Manhattan Project .

= = Return to Washington University = =

After the war ended , Compton resigned his chair as Charles H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago and returned to Washington University in St. Louis , where he was inaugurated as the university 's ninth Chancellor in 1946 . During Compton 's time as Chancellor , the university formally desegregated its undergraduate divisions in 1952 , named its first female full professor , and enrolled record numbers of students as wartime veterans returned to the United States . His reputation and connections in national scientific circles allowed him to recruit many nationally renowned scientific researchers to the university . Despite Compton 's accomplishments , he was criticized then , and subsequently by historians , for moving too slowly toward full racial integration , making Washington University the last major institution of higher learning in St. Louis to open its doors to African Americans .

Compton retired as Chancellor in 1954 , but remained on the faculty as Distinguished Service Professor of Natural Philosophy until his retirement from the full @-@ time faculty in 1961 . In retirement he wrote Atomic Quest , a personal account of his role in the Manhattan Project , which was published in 1956 .

= = Philosophy = =

Compton was one of a handful of scientists and philosophers to propose a two @-@ stage model of free will . Others include William James , Henri Poincaré , Karl Popper , Henry Margenau , and Daniel Dennett . In 1931 , Compton championed the idea of human freedom based on quantum indeterminacy and invented the notion of amplification of microscopic quantum events to bring chance into the macroscopic world . In his somewhat bizarre mechanism , he imagined sticks of dynamite attached to his amplifier , anticipating the Schrödinger 's cat paradox , which was published in 1935 .

Reacting to criticisms that his ideas made chance the direct cause of people 's actions , Compton clarified the two @-@ stage nature of his idea in an Atlantic Monthly article in 1955 . First there is a range of random possible events , then one adds a determining factor in the act of choice .

A set of known physical conditions is not adequate to specify precisely what a forthcoming event will be . These conditions , insofar as they can be known , define instead a range of possible events from among which some particular event will occur . When one exercises freedom , by his act of choice he is himself adding a factor not supplied by the physical conditions and is thus himself determining what will occur . That he does so is known only to the person himself . From the outside one can see in his act only the working of physical law . It is the inner knowledge that he is in fact doing what he intends to do that tells the actor himself that he is free .

= = Death and legacy = =

Compton died in Berkeley , California , from a cerebral hemorrhage on March 15 , 1962 . He was survived by his wife and sons , and buried in the Wooster Cemetery in Wooster , Ohio .

Compton received many awards in his lifetime , including the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 , the Matteucci Gold Medal in 1933 , the Royal Society 's Hughes Medal and the Franklin Institute 's Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1940 . He is commemorated in various ways . The Compton crater on the Moon is co @-@ named for Compton and his brother Karl . The physics research building at Washington University in St Louis is named in his honor . Compton invented a more gentle , elongated , and ramped version of the speed bump called the " Holly hump , " many of which are on the roads of the Washington University campus . The University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Compton and his achievements by dedicating Arthur H. Compton House in Chicago in his honor . It is now listed as a National Historic Landmark . Compton also has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame . NASA 's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory was named in honor of Compton . The Compton effect is central to the gamma ray detection instruments aboard the observatory .

= Lockheed Have Blue =

Lockheed Have Blue was the code name for Lockheed 's demonstrator ( i.e. , " proof of concept " ) that preceded the F @-@ 117 Nighthawk production stealth aircraft . Have Blue was designed by Lockheed 's Skunk Works division , and tested at Groom Lake , Nevada . The Have Blue was the first fixed @-@ wing aircraft designed from an electrical engineering ( rather than an aerospace engineering ) perspective . The aircraft 's plate @-@ like , faceted shape was designed to deflect electromagnetic waves in directions other than that of the originating radar emitter , greatly reducing its radar cross @-@ section . Two flyable vehicles were constructed , but both crashed during the flight @-@ test program .

In the 1970s , it became increasingly apparent to U.S. planners that , in a military confrontation with Warsaw Pact forces , NATO aircraft would quickly suffer heavy losses . This came as a result of sophisticated Soviet defense networks , which used surveillance radars and radar @-@ guided surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( SAM ) and anti @-@ aircraft artillery to seek and eliminate enemy aircraft . Consequently , the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency ( DARPA ) started a study on low @-@ observability aircraft , seeking to design and produce an operational stealth aircraft . Five companies were initially invited , three of which bowed out early . The remaining two were later joined by Lockheed .

To design the aircraft , the Skunk Works ' design team devised a computer program to calculate the radar cross @-@ sections ( RCS ) of various designs . The eventual design characteristically featured faceted surfaces to deflect radar waves elsewhere . It had highly @-@ swept wings and inward @-@ canted vertical stabilizers , which led to its being nicknamed " Hopeless Diamond " . The first operational aircraft made its maiden flight on 1 December 1977 . The flight test program validated the feasibility of a flyable stealth aircraft . However , both prototypes were lost due to mechanical problems . Nevertheless , Have Blue was deemed a success , paving the way for the first operational stealth aircraft , Senior Trend , or F @-@ 117 Nighthawk .

= = Design and development = =

= = = Origins = = =

The Lockheed Have Blue was born out of a requirement to evade radar detection . During the Vietnam War , radar @-@ guided surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( SAM ) and anti @-@ aircraft artillery ( AAA ) posed a significant threat to US aircraft . As such , strike aircraft during the war often required support aircraft to perform combat air patrols and suppression of enemy air defenses ( SEAD ) . The 1973 Yom Kippur War again highlighted the vulnerability of aircraft to SAMs – the Israeli Air Force lost 109 aircraft in 18 days . During the Cold War , the Soviet Union developed an integrated defense network , central to which were medium- to long @-@ range surveillance radars . SAMs and AAAs would be set up around key locations to defend them from incoming enemy aircraft . If the loss ratio of Israel during the Yom Kippur War was experienced by NATO forces during a military confrontation with the Warsaw Pact , NATO aircraft numbers would be depleted within two weeks .

In 1974 , DARPA secretly requested answers from five aircraft manufacturers regarding two considerations . The first was about the signature thresholds at which an aircraft is virtually undetectable . The second point was whether these companies had the capacity to design and manufacture such an aircraft . Fairchild and Grumman declined to participate , while General Dynamics insisted on the use of electronic countermeasures . As a result , General Dynamics left the discussion . The remaining two companies , McDonnell Douglas and Northrop , were each awarded $ 100 @,@ 000 for further research .

= = = Design effort and early testing = = =

Lockheed , having been absent from the fighter aircraft industry for 10 years , was not approached by DARPA in 1974 . Ed Martin , Lockheed California Companies director of science and engineering , became aware of the research into stealth during his work at the Pentagon and Wright @-@ Patterson AFB . Martin and Ben Rich , who at that time had recently become Skunk Works ' president , briefed Clarence " Kelly " Johnson on the program . The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) gave Skunk Works permission to discuss with DARPA on the stealth characteristics of the A @-@ 12 and D @-@ 21 . Rich and Martin formally requested DARPA for the company to participate in the program , but the agency initially refused because there were insufficient funds ; after much debate , Lockheed was allowed entry , albeit without a government contract .

Preliminary designer Dick Scherrer requested possible shapes upon which he could base his low radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) design . He was introduced to Denys Overholser , who recommended an aircraft with flat surfaces . Overholser later recounted his discussion with Sherrer : " When Dick Scherrer asked me ... I said ' Well , it 's simple , you just make it out of flat surfaces , and tilt those flat surfaces over , sweeping the edges away from the radar view angle , and that way you basically cause the energy to reflect away from the radar . ' " Scherror subsequently drew a preliminary low @-@ RCS aircraft with faceted surfaces . At the same time , Overholser hired mathematician Bill Schroeder , with whom he had a prior working relationship – in fact , it was Schroeder who trained Overholser on mathematics relating to stealth aircraft . Kenneth Watson was hired as the senior lead aircraft designer .

During the next few weeks , the team created a computer program which could evaluate the RCS of possible designs . The RCS @-@ prediction software was called " ECHO 1 " . As tests with the program proceeded , it became apparent that edge calculations by the program were incorrect due to diffraction . In 1964 , Pyotr Ufimtsev , the chief scientist of the Moscow Institute for Radio Engineering , published a seminal paper titled Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction . The work was translated by the Air Force Systems Command 's Foreign Technnology Division ; subsequently , Overholser incorporated elements of Ufimtsev 's work to refine the software . ECHO 1 allowed the team to quickly decide which of the 20 possible designs were optimal , finally settling on the faceted delta @-@ wing design . However , many within the division were skeptical of the shape , giving rise to the name " Hopeless Diamond " – Kelly Johnson said to Rich , " Our old D @-@ 21 drone has a lower radar cross @-@ section than that goddamn diamond " .

In May 1975 , the Skunk Works produced an internal report titled , " Progress Report No. 2 , High Stealth Conceptual Studies . " Within it was a concept study called " Little Harvey , " including Kelly Johnson 's drawing of an aircraft with smoothly blended shapes . Johnson advocated for the use of blended shapes as the best way to achieve stealth , while Ben Rich advocated for faceted angles . Rich won the argument with Johnson , a rare occurrence .

The design effort produced a number of wooden models . A 24 @-@ inch long model , made of balsa wood , demonstrated placement of internal structure and access doors . An Air & Space article noted " The model shop found it nearly impossible to make all the flat surfaces come to a single point in one corner . Engineers later encountered the same difficulty fabricating the prototype on the factory floor . " For early tests of the design , two ⅓ -scale wooden mock @-@ ups were constructed . One model , coated in metal foil , was used to verify ECHO 1 's RCS calculations , while the other was earmarked for wind tunnel tests . Afterwards , a model was moved to the Grey Butte Range radar @-@ testing facility in the Mojave Desert near Palmdale , which allowed more accurate tests of the aircraft 's RCS . In the event , the aircraft 's RCS level confirmed ECHO 1 's predictions . This meant Ben Rich won a quarter from Johnson , who previously insisted that the D @-@ 21 had less RCS than Have Blue .

= = = Experimental Survivable Testbed = = =

In the summer of 1975 , DARPA informally invited Lockheed , Northrop and McDonnell Douglas to develop an aircraft under the name " Experimental Survivable Testbed " ( XST ) . McDonnell Douglas , having identified the thresholds at which aircraft were deemed undetectable , was unable to design and produce such an aircraft . Phase 1 of XST would see both Lockheed and Northrop build full @-@ scale models to test their RCS , construct flyable vehicles , and wind @-@ tunnel test their designs . Following Phase 1 , a sole contractor would be selected to continue with the construction and flight testing of two demonstrators as part of Phase 2 . Northrop 's and Lockheed 's designs were generally similar , though the former 's submission featured more angular and flat surfaces . The company used " GENSCAT " , software similar to ECHO 1 , to calculate the RCS of its designs .

On 1 November 1975 , Lockheed and Northrop were each awarded $ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ million contracts to proceed with Phase 1 of XST . During a four @-@ month period , the two companies were each required to construct full @-@ scale wooden mock @-@ ups , which would then be evaluated at the USAF 's Radar Target Scatter ( RATSCAT ) test facility at White Sands , New Mexico . To test the design 's radar returns , Lockheed erected a $ 187 @,@ 000 specially built pole upon which the model would be perched . In March 1976 , a Lockheed model was transferred to the range before being tested ; the following month Lockheed was pronounced the winner because the Northrop XST had a much higher side hemisphere RCS . DARPA , having realized the progress accumulated throughout the study , urged the Northrop team to remain together . The agency would later initiate the Battlefield Surveillance Aircraft @-@ Experimental ( BSAX ) , which evolved into the Tacit Blue and , ultimately , the B @-@ 2 bomber .

= = = Construction and further tests = = =

Skunk Works now had to design , construct and flight test two manned demonstrators as part of Phase 2 , or Have Blue . To build the demonstrators , Ben Rich had to raise $ 10 @.@ 4 million from the Lockheed management , which was secured by June . Phase 2 encompassed three main objectives , which were the validation of : reduced visibility in the radio wave , infrared , and visual spectrums and reduced acoustical observability ; acceptable flying qualities ; and the " modeling capabilities that accurately predict low observable characteristics of an aircraft in flight " .

Construction of both Have Blue demonstrators used leftover tools from the C @-@ 5 program . Final assembly of HB1001 was originally scheduled to end in August 1977 , before being ground tested until mid @-@ October . The secret roll @-@ out was envisaged to occur on 23 October , after which the aircraft would be dismantled and flown to the test area . On 1 September , however , with HB1001 partially complete , Lockheed machinists went on a four @-@ month strike . A group of managers instead took over the job of assembly , which was completed in six weeks , with ground tests beginning on 17 October .

While superficially similar to the later F @-@ 117 , the Have Blue prototypes were smaller aircraft , about one quarter the weight of the F @-@ 117 , with a wing sweep of 72 @.@ 5 ° and inward @-@ canted vertical tails ( inverse V @-@ tail ) . Radar @-@ absorbent material ( RAM ) , developed in a Lockheed laboratory , were applied to the aircraft 's flat surfaces – for the windscreen , special coatings were applied to give them metallic characteristics . The aircraft 's gross weight of 9 @,@ 200 – 12 @,@ 500 lb ( 4 @,@ 173 – 5 @,@ 669 kg ) enabled the aircraft to use the landing gear from the Northrop F @-@ 5 fighter . The aircraft 's powerplants were two 2 @,@ 950 @-@ pound @-@ force ( 13 @.@ 1 kN ) General Electric J85 @-@ GE @-@ 4As of the T @-@ 2B Buckeye . Because stealth took precedence above all else , the aircraft was inherently unstable . As a result , a quadruple redundant fly @-@ by @-@ wire ( FBW ) flight control system was integrated into the aircraft to give it normal flying characteristics . The flight control system was borrowed from the F @-@ 16 . The overwing engine inlet was covered by a low @-@ RCS grid ; during takeoffs , when more air is needed , blow @-@ in doors were constructed at the upper fuselage to admit additional airflow .

Throughout the one and a half months after the start of ground tests , HB1001 , the first of two demonstrators , underwent tests in preparations for the first flight . Flight instrumentation was checked first , followed by a thorough shakedown of the aircraft . In early November , two semi @-@ trailers were parked parallel to each other outside Building 82 ; a camouflage net was thrown over the top to cover the demonstrator during outdoor engine runs . During the engine tests , a local resident complained about the noise , but Have Blue retained its secrecy . HB1001 received a layer of iron @-@ coat paint ; during the weekend of 12 – 13 November , the aircraft received a camouflage scheme devised by Alan Brown , Have Blue 's chief technical engineer . The scheme , consisting of three colors , each with three tones , was used to deceive any casual onlooker from recognizing the design 's characteristic faceting . The aircraft was disassembled and loaded onto a C @-@ 5 – on 16 November , the aircraft was flown from Burbank Airport ( since renamed Bob Hope Airport ) to Area 51 at Groom Lake , Nevada . Upon touchdown , the aircraft was reassembled before undergoing another round of testing prior to the first flight . After four taxi tests , HB1001 was ready for test flights .

= = Operational history = =

= = = HB1001 = = =

HB1001 made its first flight on 1 December 1977 at the hands of Lockheed test pilot , Bill Park . He would fly the next four sorties , all chased by a T @-@ 38 piloted by Major ( later Lieutenant Colonel ) Ken Dyson . Dyson , an F @-@ 15 Eagle pilot , was previously approached by United States Air Force personnel about the project in 1976 . He made his first flight on HB1001 on 17 January 1978 , chased by Park . In fact , the two would be the only test pilots of Have Blue , alternating between the demonstrator and the chase plane . Flight test results allowed engineers to refine the FBW system . At the same time , they verified predictions made earlier by aerodynamic engineers on the aircraft 's behavior .

Flight tests proceeded fairly smoothly until 4 May 1978 , when HB1001 was making its 36th flight . The aircraft pitched up just as it made contact with the ground which forced the pilot , Bill Park , to abort the landing and make a second attempt . The impact had however been so hard that the landing gear had become jammed in a semi @-@ retracted position . Efforts to lower the gear were unsuccessful and Bill Park was forced to eject at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) when fuel ran out . The aircraft was destroyed on impact in the vicinity of the Groom Lake facility . Park survived , but suffered a concussion , forcing him to retire from further test flights . Dyson , who was in the chase plane , recounted : " Just before touchdown the airplane pitched up ... It seemed it slammed down on the ground real hard ... He [ Park ] raised the gear on the go around , and when he tried to extend it on approach , only one of the mains and the nose wheel came down . All this time , gas was being consumed ... I suggested he climb up to 10 @,@ 000 feet for ejection ... He started climbing , but the engine started flaming out , from the lack of fuel , so he ejected . "

= = = HB1002 = = =

At the time of the crash , HB1002 was almost complete , with the lessons learned from the HB1001 incorporated into the aircraft , including the rebuilding of the aft fuselage . HB1002 was distinguished from the prototype in having a gray paint coat . It did not have the flight test instrumentation boom present on HB1001 's nose . As the aircraft was used to test RCS returns , the unstealthy spin recovery chute was removed , and the aircraft was covered in radar @-@ absorbent material . It first flew on 20 July 1978 with Dyson at the controls , who would be the only pilot to fly the aircraft .

HB1002 was lost on 11 July 1979 during the aircraft 's 52nd flight . A hydraulic leak caused an engine fire , resulting in the loss of hydraulic pressure , which in turn caused severe pitch oscillations . The pilot ejected safely , and the aircraft was destroyed . It was later discovered that an engine exhaust clamp had loosened , allowing the hot exhaust to migrate to the right engine compartment . The heat built up there , causing the hydraulic lines to fail . The debris from both aircraft was secretly buried somewhere within the Nellis complex . Despite the crashes , Have Blue was considered a success .

= = = Senior Trend = = =

In October 1977 , just prior to Phase 2 of the XST competition , Lockheed was tasked with exploring possible operational aircraft . Just a month later , on the day HB1001 was transported to Groom Lake , the Air Force awarded the company a contract under the code name Senior Trend . The Air Force wanted to exploit the revolutionary technologies developed during the Have Blue program . The Tactical Air Command ordered five full @-@ scale development and twenty production aircraft .

Based on the Have Blue demonstrators , Senior Trend aircraft were different from their predecessors in several aspects . The wings exhibited less sweep to resolve a center @-@ of @-@ gravity problem discovered during tests . The front fuselage was shortened to give the pilot a better view . And , the vertical stabilizers were canted outwards from the centerline . Additionally , provisions were made to include two weapons bays , each of which would accommodate a single 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) laser @-@ guided bomb , or the B61 tactical nuclear bomb .

Beset by early construction problems , the first FSD aircraft was transferred to Groom Lake in May 1981 inside a C @-@ 5 . Further problems , this time with fuel leaks , delayed the first flight . Under the control of Harold Farley , the aircraft took off on 18 June for its maiden flight , nine months after the July 1980 first flight originally envisaged . The first production F @-@ 117A was delivered in 1982 , and operational capability was achieved in October 1983 ; the 59th and last F @-@ 117 was delivered in 1990 .

= = Specifications = =

Data from Crickmore , Donald , Aronstein and Piccirillo

General characteristics

Crew : 1

Length : 47 ft 3 in ( 14 @.@ 40 m )

Wingspan : 22 ft 6 in ( 6 @.@ 86 m )

Height : 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m )

Wing area : 386 ft ² ( 35 @.@ 86 m ² )

Empty weight : 8 @,@ 950 lb ( 4 @,@ 060 kg )

Max. takeoff weight : 12 @,@ 500 lb ( 5 @,@ 670 kg )

Powerplant : 2 × General Electric J85 @-@ GE @-@ 4A turbojets

Performance

Maximum speed : 600 mph ( 966 km / h )

Wing loading : 32 lb / ft ² ( 156 kg / m ² )

Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 62

= William Barley =

William Barley ( 1565 ? – 1614 ) was an English bookseller and publisher . He completed an apprenticeship as a draper in 1587 , but was soon working in the London book trade . As a freeman of the Drapers ' Company , he was embroiled in a dispute between it and the Stationers ' Company over the rights of drapers to function as publishers and booksellers . He found himself in legal tangles throughout his life .

Barley 's role in Elizabethan music publishing has proved to be a contentious issue among scholars . The assessments of him range from " a man of energy , determination , and ambition " , to " somewhat remarkable " , to " surely to some extent a rather nefarious figure " . His contemporaries harshly criticized the quality of two of the first works of music that he published , but he was also influential in his field .

Barley became the assignee of the Thomas Morley , who as well as being a composer held a printing patent ( a monopoly of music publishing ) . He published Anthony Holborne 's Pavans , Galliards , Almains ( 1599 ) , the first work of music for instruments rather than voices to be printed in England . His partnership with Morley enabled him to claim rights to music books , but was short @-@ lived . Morley gave work to the printer Thomas East , and died in 1602 . Some publishers ignored Barley 's claims , and many music books printed during his later life gave him no recognition .

= = Drapers ' Company = =

In a deposition of 1598 , Barley refers to his age as " xxxiii yeeres or thereabowt " , placing his date of birth around 1565 . Evidence suggests that Barley may have been born in Warwickshire . Little else is known about his early life . Barley was in London by 1587 , having completed an apprenticeship with the Drapers ' Company in that year . He trained as a bookseller under Yarath James , a small @-@ time publisher . James operated out of a shop in Newgate Market , near Christ Church Gate , in the 1580s . His interest in ballads was shared by Barley , who published a number of them during his lifetime . By 1592 , Barley had opened his own shop in the parish of St Peter upon Cornhill , whose register recorded his marriage to a Mary Harper on 15 June 1603 and christenings and burials of people associated with his family . He conducted business out of this shop for the next twenty years .

Barley is probably the same William Barley who opened a branch office in Oxford . This action brought him into conflict with the authorities . Barley most likely relied on his assistant , William Davis , to run the Oxford shop while he maintained the business at St Peter upon Cornhill . Davis was arrested in 1599 because Barley had failed to register as a bookseller with Oxford University . The two redeemed themselves though , and in 1603 , Barley and Davis were admitted as " privileged persons " of Oxford University . Privileged status at Oxford allowed tradesmen to practice their trade free from the jurisdiction of the town 's authorities .

Barley ran afoul of London authorities as well . In September 1591 , a warrant was issued for his arrest , although the charge is unknown . Barley also found himself in the midst of a longstanding feud between the Drapers ' Company and the Stationers ' Company . At the time , the latter held a monopoly over the publishing industry ; the Drapers ' Company wanted its members to be able to function as publishers and booksellers as well , insisting that it was the " custom of the City " to grant its freemen the right to engage in the book trade .

From 1591 to 1604 , Barley was associated with at least 57 works . The exact nature of his involvement is , at times , hard to identify . Some works were printed " for " him , others were " to be sold by " him , and two state that they were printed " by " him . He partnered with notable printers and publishers during this period , including Thomas Creede , Abel Jeffes , and John Danter . With Creede , Barley was involved in the publication of A Looking Glass for London and England ( 1594 ) and The True Tragedy of Richard III ( 1594 ) . During this period , Barley entered none of these works in the Stationers ' Register ( by entering a title into the register , a publisher recorded their rights to the work ) . This is probably due to the Stationers ' feud with the Drapers ' ; the Stationers ' viewed the ability of non @-@ members to enter works into the register as a special privilege . Thus , Barley relied on others , such as Creede , Jeffes , and Danter , to enter these titles . Whether Barley merely acted as a bookseller for the enterers or , in private agreements with them , actually retained the rights to some of the works remains unclear .

In 1595 , the Stationers ' Company fined Barley 40 shillings for illicitly publishing a number of works . Three years later , the organization sued him and a fellow draper , Simon Stafford , for allegedly publishing privileged books . A raid on Barley 's former premises found 4 @,@ 000 copies of the Accidence , a Latin grammar book protected by monopoly . Despite pleading his innocence in court , Barley , along with Stafford , Edward Venge , and Thomas Pavier ( who was Barley 's apprentice ) , was found guilty and sentenced to prison . The lawsuit affirmed the Stationers ' Company 's control over the Elizabethan book trade . Stafford , Pavier , and other draper @-@ booksellers joined the company within a few years so that they could continue their trade . Curiously , Barley did not join them until 1606 . The reasons for the delay are debated among scholars . Bibliographer J. A. Lavin suggests that the Stationers ' Company rejected Barley because he had no experience in the printing business . Gerald D. Johnson believes that his partnership with Thomas Morley , who held a royal patent on music publishing , allowed him to circumvent any legal obstacles . The Stationers ' Company could not interfere with the publication of works under royal grant .

= = Music publishing = =

In Elizabethan England , music printing was regulated by two royal patents issued by the queen : one for metrical psalters ( psalms set to music ) and one for all other types of music and music paper . The patent @-@ holders thus held a monopoly — only they or their assignees could legally print music . After printer John Day 's death in 1584 , the patent for metrical psalters transferred to his son Richard Day and was administered by his assignees , who were members of the Stationers ' Company . The more general one was awarded to composers Thomas Tallis and William Byrd in January 1575 . Despite the monopoly , Tallis and Byrd were not successful in their printing endeavors ; their 1575 collection of Latin motets called Cantiones quae ab argumento sacrae vocantur failed to sell and was a financial disaster . After Tallis died in 1585 , Byrd continued holding the patent , producing works with his assignee , Thomas East . The monopoly expired in 1596 , prompting prospective music publishers such as Barley to take advantage of the resulting power vacuum .

In 1596 , despite not having access to a proper music fount , Barley ( using the services of Danter and his wood blocks ) published The Pathway to Music , a music theory book , and A New Booke of Tabliture , a tutor for the lute and related instruments that included compositions by John Dowland , Philip Rosseter , and Anthony Holborne . Both featured numerous errors , and for the latter , Barley seems not to have gained prior publishing approval from the composers . Dowland disowned A New Booke of Tabliture , calling his lute lessons " falce and unperfect " , while Holborne complained of " corrupt coppies " of his work being presented by a " meere stranger " . Modern musicologists have labelled the publication " exasperating " and " seedy " . Morley criticized The Pathway to Music , stating that the author should be " ashamed of his labour " , and that " [ v ] ix est in toto pagina sana libro " ( " there is scarcely a page that makes sense in the whole book " ) . Despite their flaws , both works seem to have been instrumental in introducing music tutor books to the London market .

Two years later , Morley was awarded the same printing monopoly that Byrd had held . Morley 's pick of Barley as an assignee ( rather than experienced printers such as East or Peter Short , both of whom had previously worked with Morley ) is surprising . Morley may have been looking for help in challenging the metrical psalter patent of Richard Day and his assignees . At that time , East and Short were stationers , and the Stationers ' Company was actively enforcing the Day monopoly . Barley , however , was not a stationer , and in 1599 he and Morley published The Whole Booke of Psalmes and Richard Allison 's Psalmes of David in Metre . The former was a small pocket edition that was largely based on East 's 1592 publication of the same name . This work , although pirated and filled with small errors , provides some evidence of Barley 's editorial skill ; musicologist Robert Illing notes that if Barley " is to be discredited for roguery , he must also be applauded for his strokes of musical imagination " for successfully compressing such a large work into a pocket @-@ sized production . In Allison 's work , the two claimed that they had exclusive rights on the metrical psalter . Duly provoked , Day sued . The outcome of his lawsuit is not known , but neither Barley nor Morley ever published another metrical psalter .

Under Morley , Barley published eight books . The covers of each indicated that they were " printed by " Barley , but examination of the typography reveals this to be unlikely . At least two of the works contain designs that seem to belong to a device used by London printer Henry Ballard . Significant among these eight works is Holborne 's Pavans , Galliards , Almains ( 1599 ) , the first work of music for instruments rather than voices to be printed in England , and the first edition of Morley 's influential The First Booke of Consort Lessons ( 1599 ) .

= = Stationers ' Company = =

Barley 's relationship with Morley was short @-@ lived . By 1600 , Morley had turned to East as his assignee , authorizing him to print under his name for three years . Two years later , Morley died , and his music patent fell into abeyance . Unable to rely on the protections and privileges of Morley 's monopoly , Barley most likely came under increasing pressure from the Stationers ' Company . His financial circumstances also deteriorated after he was the target of a successful lawsuit by a cook named George Goodale , who was seeking payment of a debt of 80 pounds . As a result of the suit , many of Barley 's goods were seized , including various books and reams of paper . Barley greatly reduced his output from 1601 to 1605 , publishing only six works .

Barley evidently decided that it was futile to continue resisting the Stationers ' Company , and on 15 May 1605 , he successfully petitioned the Drapers ' Company for a transfer to the Stationers ' Company . On 25 June 1606 , the Stationers ' Company admitted him as a member . That same day , the Company 's court , which had the authority to resolve disputes between members , negotiated a settlement in a lawsuit Barley had brought against East concerning the copyrights on certain music books . East claimed that since he had lawfully entered the books into the Company 's register , the rights of the works belonged to him . Barley disagreed , claiming that the works were his through his partnership with Morley , who had held the royal music patent . The court 's compromise settlement recognized the rights of both , stipulating that if East were to print an edition of any of the books in question , he was to acknowledge Barley 's name on the imprint , pay Barley 20 shillings , and supply him with six free copies . On the other hand , Barley could not publish any of the books without the consent of East or his wife .

Despite the settlement recognizing his claim to Morley 's music patent , Barley seemingly found it difficult to enforce his rights , even with his new role as a stationer . Less than half of the known music books published from 1606 to 1613 recognized Barley 's rights on the imprint . Barley took Thomas Adams to the Stationers ' court in 1609 , challenging the copyrights of the music books Adams had published . The court handed down a settlement similar to the one between East and Barley . However , none of the music books Adams published afterward contained any recognition of Barley 's patent .

Barley himself published four books under his patent . In March 1612 , one of Barley 's servants died , possibly from plague . After receiving charitable remuneration from the Stationers ' Company , Barley moved , first to the parish of St Katherine Cree , and later to a house on Bishopsgate . Records from St Botolph @-@ without @-@ Bishopsgate indicate his burial on 11 July 1614 . His widow , Mary , and their son , William , were legatees of the will of Pavier . Mary Barley , who later remarried , transferred five of her husband 's patents to printer John Beale . Some of Barley 's remaining copyrights may have also been passed to the printer Thomas Snodham .

= Battle of St. Louis =

The Battle of St. Louis , Spanish San Luis , also known as the Battle of Fort San Carlos , was an unsuccessful British @-@ led attack on St. Louis ( a French settlement in Spanish Louisiana , founded on the west bank of the Mississippi , after the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) ) on May 26 , 1780 , during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War of 1779 – 1783 . A force , composed primarily of Indians and led by a former British militia commander , attacked the settlement . The settlement 's defenders , mostly local militia , under the command of Lieutenant Governor of Spanish Louisiana Fernando de Leyba , had fortified the town , as best they could and successfully withstood the attack .

A second simultaneous attack on the nearby American outpost at Cahokia , on the opposite bank of the Mississippi and technically in British @-@ controlled territory , was also repulsed . The retreating Indians destroyed crops and took captive civilians outside the protected area . The British failure effectively ended their attempts to gain control of the Mississippi River , during the war .

= = Background = =

Following the entry of Spain into the American Revolutionary War in 1779 , British military planners in London wanted to secure the corridor of the Mississippi River against both Spanish and Patriot activity . Their plans included expeditions from West Florida to take New Orleans and other Spanish targets , and several expeditions to gain control of targets in the upper Mississippi , including the small town of St. Louis . The expedition from West Florida never got off the ground , since Bernardo de Gálvez , the Governor of Spanish Louisiana , had moved rapidly to gain control of British outposts on the lower Mississippi , and was threatening action against West Florida 's principal outposts of Mobile and Pensacola .

= = = British expedition = = =

The British expeditions from the north were organized by Patrick Sinclair , the military governor at Fort Michilimackinac in present @-@ day Michigan . Beginning in February 1780 he instructed fur traders to circulate through their territories , recruiting interested tribes for an expedition against St. Louis . The fur traders were offered the opportunity to control the fur trade in the upper parts of Spanish Louisiana as an incentive to participate .

Most of the force gathered at Prairie du Chien , where they were placed under the command of Emanuel Hesse , a former militia captain turned fur trader . The force numbered about two dozen fur traders and an estimated 750 to 1 @,@ 000 Indians when it left Prairie du Chien on May 2 . The largest contingent of the force was about 200 Sioux warriors led by Wapasha , with additional sizable companies from the Chippewa , Menominee , and Winnebago nations , and smaller numbers of warriors from other nations . The Chippewa chief Matchekewis was given overall command of the native forces . When the force reached Rock Island they were joined by about 250 men from the Sac and Fox nations . These warriors were somewhat reluctant to attack St. Louis , but Hesse gave them large gifts to secure their participation in the venture . The diversity within the expedition included some animosity among the tribes , for the Chippewa and Sioux in particular had a history of conflict with each other . However , Wapasha and Matchekewis promoted unity during the expedition .

= = = Spanish and American defenses = = =

The village of St. Louis was primarily a trading hub on the Mississippi River , but it was also the administrative capital of Upper Spanish Louisiana , and it was governed by Lieutenant Governor Fernando de Leyba , who was also a captain in the Spanish Army . Leyba was warned in late March 1780 by a fur trader that the British were planning an attack on St. Louis and the nearby American @-@ held post at Cahokia . He began developing plans for the village 's defense . He had only 29 regular army soldiers of the Fijo de Luisiana Colonial Regiment and an inexperienced militia force of 168 , most of whom were dispersed in the surrounding countryside .

Leyba developed a grand plan of defense that included the construction of four stone towers . Without funds , or the time to get them from New Orleans , Leyba asked the villagers to contribute funds and labor to the construction of these fortifications , and paid for some of the work from his private funds . By mid @-@ May a single round tower had been built that was about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter and thirty to forty feet tall . The tower , dubbed Fort San Carlos , provided a commanding view of the surrounding countryside . As there did not appear to be sufficient time to build more towers , trenches were dug between the tower and the river to the north and south of the village . Five cannon were placed on top of the tower , and additional cannon were placed along the trenches .

With a force of only 197 men , 168 of which were inexperienced militia , it was highly probable that the opposing British @-@ Indian force of 1 @,@ 000 would overwhelm the Fort San Carlos . However , Leyba appealed to a 70 year old French habitant , Francois Valle , who was located 60 miles to the South of the fort at the site of the French Colonial Valles Mines . Valle sent his two sons and 151 well trained and equipped French militia men which tipped the scale in favor of the defenders . By Royal Decree on April 1 , 1782 , King Carlos III of Spain , conferred upon Francois Valle the rank of lieutenant in the regular Spanish army thus making him a Spanish don . ( citation : Colonial Ste . Genevieve : An Adventure on the Mississippi Frontier written by Carl J. Ekberg , Patrice Pr ; 2 Sub Edition , March 1996 ) .

Valle also greatly aided in the Battle of Fort San Carlos because he gave the defenders of both forts a major tactical advantage by supplying them with genuine lead ( instead of pebbles or stones ) from his mines for musket balls and cannonballs . Getting hit with a pebble or stone did not compare to the damage and knockdown power of a 52 caliber rifle ball at 100 feet . [ see http : / / en.wikipedia.org / France in the American Revolutionary War ]

As a result of his contributions , Francois Valle was called the " Defender of St. Louis " [ see http : / / vallemines.com / OfHistoricalNote / DefenderOfStLouis.aspx ] .

On May 15 , Leyba was visited by John Montgomery , the American commander at Cahokia , who proposed a joint Spanish @-@ American force to counter Hesse 's expedition , an idea that did not reach fruition . On May 23 , Leyba 's scouts reported that Hesse 's force was only 14 miles ( 23 km ) away , had landed their canoes , and were coming overland .

= = Battle = =

On May 25 , Hesse sent out scouting parties to determine the situation at St. Louis . These parties were unable to get close to the village due to the presence of workers , including women and children , in the fields outside the village . The next day Hesse sent Jean @-@ Marie Ducharme and 300 Indians across the river to attack Cahokia , while the remainder headed toward St. Louis , arriving about 1 : 00 pm . A warning shot was fired from the tower when they came in view , with the Sioux and Winnebagoes leading the way , followed by the Sac and Fox , and the fur traders , including Hesse , bringing up the rear . Leyba directed the defense from the tower , and opened a withering fire from there and the trenches when the enemy force came in range . On the first volley , most of the Sac and Fox fell back , apparently unwilling to fight , leaving many of the other participants suspicious of their motives in joining the expedition and complaining of their " treachery " .

Wapasha and the Sioux persisted for several hours in attempts to draw the Spanish defenders out , going so far as brutally killing some captives they had taken in the fields . Although this angered some of the townspeople to the point where the militia requested permission to make a sortie , Leyba refused , and the attackers eventually withdrew and headed north , destroying crops , livestock , and buildings as they went .

On the other side of the river , Ducharme 's attack on Cahokia was easily repulsed . The timely arrival of George Rogers Clark to lead its defense played a role ; Clark 's reputation as a frontier fighter made the Indian force reluctant to pursue the attack .

= = Aftermath = =

The village of 700 lost between 50 and 100 killed , wounded , and captured , virtually all civilians . A year later the Spaniards from St. Louis raided Fort St. Joseph , bringing the captured British flag back to St. Louis .

Fernando de Leyba died the following month , the subject of local criticism because he never formally recognized the efforts made by the citizenry in the town 's defense . His valor earned him a promotion to lieutenant colonel from King Charles , who did not know that he had died .

= = Legacy = =

The site where Fort San Carlos stood is at the corner of Fourth and Walnut Streets in St. Louis . A local organization annually commemorates the battle by reading the names of 21 people who lost their lives in the battle . The battle is also remembered in a mural and diorama located in the Missouri State Capitol ( pictured ) .

= Ray Jones ( footballer , born 1988 ) =

Raymond Barry Bankote " Ray " Jones ( 28 August 1988 – 25 August 2007 ) was an English professional footballer who played as a striker . He was known as one of the best young players in English football outside the Premier League . Jones spent his professional career at Queens Park Rangers , making his debut in the Football League Championship in April 2006 . His good form at the start of the following season led to his only international match , for England under @-@ 19 against the Netherlands , as well as bids for other clubs to sign him . He totalled six goals in 37 professional matches .

Jones died three days before his 19th birthday , when he drove head @-@ on into a bus in London . His club retired his shirt number of 31 . An inquest into the accident ruled that had Jones survived , he would have faced charges of death by dangerous driving for the deaths of his two passengers .

= = Career = =

Born in East Ham , London , Jones was rejected as a youth team player at Colchester United before impressing the coaches at Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) . He made his professional debut on 22 April 2006 , coming on for the final seven minutes as a substitute for Steve Lomas in a 1 – 2 home loss to promotion @-@ chasing Watford . Eight days later , he made his only other appearance of the season , coming on for Stefan Bailey in the 68th minute of a defeat by the same score away to the already @-@ crowned winners of the Football League Championship , Reading .

Jones had his first professional start on 12 August 2006 , in a 2 – 0 win over Southend United at Loftus Road . He assisted Nick Ward 's goal in the 41st minute , which gave QPR their first win of the new season . Brian Glanville of The Sunday Times opined that Jones and fellow youngster Dexter Blackstock combined in the forward line " as though they had been playing together for years " . Ten days later in the second round of the Football League Cup at home to Northampton Town , Jones came on for Marc Bircham in the 84th minute , and three minutes later headed Marcus Bignot 's cross for his first career goal , winning the match 3 – 2 .

On 5 September , Jones made his only international appearance , replacing Giles Barnes in a goalless friendly draw for England under @-@ 19 against the Netherlands at the Bescot Stadium in Walsall . Eighteen days later , he scored his first league goal , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Hull City , the first match of John Gregory 's tenure . Jones followed this the following weekend as QPR came from behind to win 2 – 1 at Southampton , scoring the decisive goal after rounding goalkeeper Kelvin Davis . On 17 November , as a substitute for Blackstock , Jones scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over high @-@ flying Cardiff City , connecting with Ward 's cross with less than three minutes left of the match .

Many Premier League clubs showed interest in Jones after several solid performances , and Gregory at one point stated that he was resigned to him leaving . After scoring the only goal against Colchester on 1 January 2007 , he pledged his future to the club , and a week later as he signed a new three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal . In total , Jones played 37 games ( 19 as a substitute ) for QPR in all competitions , scoring six goals .

Colchester made a £ 200 @,@ 000 offer for Jones in June 2007 , which was rejected , but they made another bid the following day , which was also turned down . QPR 's West London derby rivals Fulham also bid for him , as did Derby County , who offered £ 5 @.@ 75 million for him and teammate Lee Cook . He missed the start of the 2007 – 08 season , in the last month of his life , due to a foot injury .

= = = Style of play = = =

Writing Jones ' obituary in The Guardian , QPR fan Benjie Goodhart remembered him as the club 's " own Wayne Rooney , the prodigy , all precocious talent and burgeoning potential " , and attributed him the essential qualities for a forward including strength , speed , intelligence and confidence . He was perceived by the supporters to be the epitome of a new era under manager Gregory and prospective new owner Flavio Briatore , and could do " things for real that his peers acted out on their games consoles " . In spite of his confidence and talent , Jones was humble , and took the London Underground back home from games alongside the supporters .

= = Death = =

Jones died in a car crash in East Ham in the early hours of 25 August 2007 when the vehicle he was driving collided with a bus . He had only become a licensed driver 23 days earlier . Two passengers in his car , Idris Olasupo and Jess Basilva , were also killed ; Olasupo received a letter later that day , inviting him to Fulham 's academy . Jones ' death was compared to that of Kiyan Prince , a QPR youth player who was fatally stabbed the previous year at the age of 15 when breaking up a fight . Goodhart wrote that tributes would be " done particularly beautifully at QPR because , heartbreakingly , we 're getting rather good at it " .

As a mark of respect QPR postponed their upcoming game with Burnley , a team who in turn replaced it with an open training session with proceeds going to the charity of QPR 's choice . QPR also decided to retire the number 31 shirt in memory of Jones , who wore that shirt during his career . In their league game against Southampton on 1 September 2007 , all of the QPR players carried Jones ' name on the back of their shirts as a mark of respect . Ten days later , in the England U19 friendly against Belarus at Meadow Lane in Nottingham , a minute 's applause was held before the match .

An inquest in April 2008 found that Jones had sped over a pedestrian crossing on the wrong side of the road , leading to a head @-@ on collision . His death was recorded as an accident , but it was confirmed that had he survived , he would have been facing two charges of death by dangerous driving .

= = Career statistics = =

= Gheorghe Tătărescu =

For the artist , see Gheorghe Tattarescu .

Gheorghe I. Tătărescu ( also known as Guță Tătărescu , with a slightly antiquated pet form of his given name ; 2 November 1886 – 28 March 1957 ) was a Romanian politician who served twice as Prime Minister of Romania ( 1934 – 1937 ; 1939 – 1940 ) , three times as Minister of Foreign Affairs ( interim in 1934 and 1938 ; appointed to the office in 1945 @-@ 1947 ) , and once as Minister of War ( 1934 ) . Representing the " young liberals " faction inside the National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , Tătărescu began his political career as a collaborator of Ion G. Duca , becoming noted for his anti @-@ Communism and , in time , for his conflicts with the PNL 's leader Dinu Brătianu and the Foreign Minister Nicolae Titulescu . During his first time in office , he moved closer to King Carol II , leading an ambivalent policy toward the fascist Iron Guard and ultimately becoming instrumental in establishing the authoritarian and corporatist regime around the National Renaissance Front . In 1940 , he accepted the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union , and consequently had to resign .

After the start of World War II , Gheorghe Tătărescu initiated a move to rally political forces in opposition to Ion Antonescu 's dictatorship , and sought an alliance with the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) . He was twice expelled from the PNL , in 1938 and 1944 , creating instead his own group , the National Liberal Party @-@ Tătărescu , and representing it inside the Communist @-@ endorsed Petru Groza cabinet . In 1946 @-@ 1947 , he was also the President of the Romanian Delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris . After that moment , relations between Tătărescu and the PCR began to sour , and he was replaced from the leadership of both his own party and the Foreign Ministry when his name was implicated in the Tămădău Affair . Following the Communist takeover , he was arrested and held as a political prisoner , while being called to testify in the trial of Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu . He died soon after his release from prison .

Elected an honorary member of the Romanian Academy in 1937 , he was removed from his seat by the Communist authorities in 1948 . One of his brothers , Colonel Ștefan Tătărescu , was at some point the leader of a minor Nazi group , the National Socialist Party .

= = Early life and politics = =

Born in Târgu Jiu , Tătărescu studied at Carol I High School in Craiova . He later went to France , where he was awarded a doctorate from the University of Paris in 1912 , with a thesis on the Romanian parliamentary system ( Le régime électoral et parlementaire en Roumanie ) . He subsequently worked as a lawyer in Bucharest . He fathered a son , Tudor , and a daughter , Sanda ( married to the lawyer Ulise Negropontes in 1940 ) .

After joining the National Liberal Party ( PNL ) , he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time in November 1919 , representing Gorj County . Among his first notable actions as a politician was an initiative to interpellate Nicolae L. Lupu , the Minister of Interior Affairs Ministry in the Romanian National Party @-@ Peasants ' Party cabinet , in answer to concerns that the executive was tolerating socialist agitation in the countryside .

He stood among the PNL 's " young liberals " faction ( as they were colloquially known ) , supporting free trade and a more authoritarian rule over the country around King Carol II , and opposing both the older generation of leaders ( who tended to advocate protectionism and a liberal democracy ) and the dissident group of Gheorghe I. Brătianu ( see National Liberal Party @-@ Brătianu ) .

Undersecretary in the Interior Affairs Ministry under several PNL cabinets ( beginning with that of Ion I. C. Brătianu in 1922 @-@ 1926 ) , he first became noted as a collaborator of Ion G. Duca . In 1924 @-@ 1936 , in contrast to his post @-@ World War II agenda , Tătărescu was a noted anti @-@ communist , and reacted vehemently against the Romanian Communist Party ( PCdR , later PCR ) — recommending and obtaining its outlawing , based on Communist adversity to the concept of Greater Romania , and notably arguing that the Comintern @-@ supported Tatarbunary Uprising was evidence of " imperialist communism " .

= = First cabinet = =

= = = Context = = =

Tătărescu became leader of the cabinet in January 1934 , as the fascist Iron Guard had assassinated Prime Minister Duca on 30 December 1933 ( the five @-@ day premiership of Constantin Anghelescu ensured transition between the two governments ) . His was the second PNL cabinet formed during Carol 's reign , and the latter 's failure to draw support from the mainstream group led to a tight connection being established between Carol and the young liberals , with Tătărescu backing the process leading to the creation of a royal dictatorship . One of Tătărescu 's first measures was a decisive move to end the conflict between the National Liberal executive and the Mayor of Bucharest , Dem I. Dobrescu ( who was backed by the National Peasants ' Party ) — making use of his prerogative , he removed Dobrescu from office on 18 January .

The brief period constituted a reference point in Romanian economy , as the emergence from the Great Depression , although marked by endemic problems , saw prosperity more widespread than ever before . This was , in part , the contribution of new economic relations which Tătărescu defended and encouraged : the state transformed itself into the main agent of economic activities , allowing for prosperous businesses to benefit from its demands , and , in time , leading to the creation of a camarilla dominated by the figures of industrialists such as Aristide Blank , Nicolae Malaxa , and Max Auschnitt . In this context , Tătărescu 's allegedly subservient position in front of Carol was a frequent topic of ridicule at the time . According to a hostile account of the socialist Petre Pandrea :

" Tătărescu was ceremonious in order to cover his menial nature . When he was leaving audiences [ with the King ] , he pressed forward on the small of his back and returned facing backwards from the desk to the door , not daring to show his back . [ ... ] Watching over the scene [ ... ] , Carol II exclaimed to his intimate assistants :

— I don 't have a big enough tooshie for all the politicians to kiss ! "

Among other services rendered , he intervened in the conflict between Carol and his brother , Prince Nicholas , asking the latter to renounce either his marriage to Ioana Dumitrescu @-@ Doletti — considered a misalliance by Carol , it had not been recognized by Romanian authorities — or his princely prerogatives . Nicholas chose the latter alternative in 1937 .

Inside his party , Tătărescu lost ground to Dinu Brătianu , elected by the traditional Liberal elite as a compromise in order to ensure unity ; upon his election in 1934 , the latter stated :

" This time as well , I would have gladly conceded , if I were to believe that anyone else in the party could gather voter unanimity . "

The issue remained debated for the following two years . The party congress of July 1936 eventually elected Tătărescu to the second position in the party , that of general secretary .

= = = European politics = = =

In his foreign policy , Prime Minister Tătărescu balanced two different priorities , attempting to strengthen the traditional military alliance with Poland which was aimed at the Soviet Union , and reacting against the growing regional influence of Nazi Germany by maintaining the relevancy of the Little Entente and establishing further contacts with the Soviets .

In August 1936 , he removed Nicolae Titulescu from the office of Foreign Minister , replacing him with Victor Antonescu . This caused an uproar , with most of Romania 's diplomatic corps voicing their dissatisfaction . Over the following months , virtually all of Titulescu 's supporters were themselves recalled ( including , among others , Constantin Vișoianu , the ambassador to Poland , Constantin Antoniade , Romania 's representative to the League of Nations , Dimitrie Ghyka , the ambassador to Belgium , and Caius Brediceanu , the ambassador to Austria ) while Titulescu 's adversaries , such as Antoine Bibesco , were returned to office . Bibesco subsequently campaigned in France and the United Kingdom , in an attempt to reassure Romania 's main allies that the move did not signify a change in Romania 's priorities . Tătărescu was later blamed by his own party for having renounced the diplomatic course on which Romania had engaged .

In early 1937 , Tătărescu rejected the proposal of Józef Beck , Poland 's Minister of Foreign Affairs , to withdraw Romania 's support for Czechoslovakia and attempt a reconciliation with Hungary ( the following year , Romania withdrew its support for the former , indicating , just before the Munich Agreement , that it was not in a position to guarantee Czechoslovakia 's frontiers ) . This was accompanied by Czechoslovak initiatives to establish close contacts between the Little Entente and the Soviets : a scandal erupted in the same year , when the country 's ambassador to Romania , Jan Šeba , published a volume calling for Soviet @-@ Entente military cooperation ( despite the Soviet @-@ Romanian conflict over Bessarabia ) and expressing the hope that the Soviet state would extend its borders into West Belarus and Ukraine . Kamil Krofta , Czechoslovakia 's Foreign Minister , received criticism for having prefaced the book , and , after Tătărescu paid a visit to Czechoslovak Prime Minister Milan Hodža , Šeba was recalled to Prague .

= = = Facing the Iron Guard = = =

In combating the Iron Guard , Tătărescu chose to relax virtually all pressures on the latter ( while mimicking some of its messages ) , and instead concentrated again on curbing the activities of the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) and outlawing its Popular Front @-@ type organizations ( see Amicii URSS ) .

In April 1936 , he and the Minister of the Interior Ion Inculeț allowed the a youth congress to gather in Târgu Mureș , aware of the fact that it was masking a fascist gathering ; delegates to the congress , traveling in a special train commissioned by the government , vandalized Ion Duca 's memorial plate in Sinaia train station , and , upon their arrival in Târgu Mureș , made public their violent anti @-@ Semitic agenda . It was probably there that death squads were designated and assigned missions , leading to the murder of Mihai Stelescu , a former associate , in June of the next year .

In February 1937 , an intense publicity campaign by the Guard , begun with the ostentatious funerals of Ion Moța and Vasile Marin ( killed in the Spanish Civil War ) and culminating in the physical assaulting of Traian Bratu , rector of the University of Iași , by Guardist students , provoked the premier 's order to close down universities throughout the country .

Later in that year , the collaboration between monarch and premier , coupled with the fact that Tătărescu had successfully attracted nationalist votes from the Iron Guard , led to the signing of an electoral agreement between the latter , the National Peasants ' Party ( the main democratic opposition group ) , and the National Liberal Party @-@ Brătianu — the pact was meant to prevent all attempt by Carol to manipulate the votes in elections . ( A secondary and unexpected development was that the illegal PCR , which had decided to back the National Peasants ' Party prior to the elections , eventually supported the electoral pact . ) Tătărescu 's own alliance policy rose the anger of his opponents inside the PNL , as he signed collaboration agreements with the fascist Romanian Front and German Party .

The 1937 elections led to an unprecedented situation : although the PNL and Tătărescu had gained the largest percentage of the vote ( almost 36 % ) , they fell short of being awarded majority bonus ( granted at 40 % of the vote ) . As the far right had gathered momentum ( the Guard , running under the name of " Everything for the Fatherland Party " , had obtained 15 @.@ 6 % of the vote ) , Carol was faced with the threat of an Iron Guard government , which would have been one deeply opposed to all of his political principles : he called on a third party , Octavian Goga 's National Christian Party ( coming from the anti @-@ Semitic far right but deeply opposed to the Guard ) to form a new cabinet in December of that year .

Consequently , Tătărescu renounced his offices inside the party , and , while keeping his office of general secretary , he was surpassed by the readmitted Gheorghe I. Brătianu — who was elected to the new office of PNL vice president on 10 January 1938 . After the failure of Goga 's policies to curb the rise of their competitors , the king , backed by Tătărescu , resorted to dissolving all political parties on 30 May 1938 , creating instead the National Renaissance Front .

= = Second cabinet = =

In this context , Tătărescu chose to back the regime , as the PNL , like the National Peasants ' Party , remained active in nominal clandestinity ( as the law banning it had never been enforced any further ) . Having personally signed the document banning opposition parties , he was expelled from the PNL in April 1938 , and contested the legitimacy of the action for the following years . Allegedly , his ousting was recommended by Iuliu Maniu , leader of the National Peasants ' Party 's and , for the following years , the closest of Dinu Brătianu 's political allies .

Soon after his second arrival to power , Tătărescu became noted for the enthusiastic support he gave to the modernist sculptor Constantin Brâncuși , and directed state funds to finance the building of Brâncuși 's The Endless Column complex in Târgu Jiu ( completed in October 1938 ) .

Alongside Alexandru Vaida @-@ Voevod and Constantin Argetoianu ( whom he succeeded as Premier ) , Tătărescu became a dominant figure in the group of maverick pro @-@ Carol politicians . After a bloody crackdown on the Iron Guard , the Front attempted to reunite political forces in a national government that was to back Carol 's foreign policies in view of increasing threats on Romania 's borders after the outbreak of World War II . In 1945 , Tătărescu stressed his belief that authoritarianism benefited Romania , and supported the view that Carol had meant to keep Romania out of the war . Tătărescu 's second cabinet was meant to reflect the latter policies , but it did not draw any support from traditional parties , and , in April 1940 , Carol , assisted by Ernest Urdăreanu and Mihail Ghelmegeanu , began talks with the ( by then much weaker ) Iron Guard .

Tătărescu remained in office throughout the rest of the Phony War , until the fall of France , and his cabinet signed an economic agreement with Nazi Germany ( through which virtually all Romanian exports were directed towards the latter country ) and saw the crumbling of Romania 's alliance with the United Kingdom and France . The cabinet was brought down by the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union ( effects of the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact ) , as well as by Carol 's attempt to appease German hostility by dissolving it , replacing Tătărescu with Ion Gigurtu , and recreating the Front as the totalitarian Party of the Nation .

= = World War = =

After the Second Vienna Award ( when Northern Transylvania was lost to Hungary ) , confirming Carol 's failure to preserve both the country 's neutrality and its territorial integrity , Romania was taken over by an Iron Guard dictatorial government ( the National Legionary State ) . Speaking five years later , Dinu Brătianu placed the blame for the serious developments on Tătărescu 's own actions , addressing him directly :

" I remind you : [ ... ] you have contributed directly , in 1940 , in steering the country towards a foreign policy that , as one could tell even then , was to prove ill @-@ fated and which led us to the loathsome Vienna settlement , one which you have supported inside the Crown Council [ ... ] . "

On 26 November 1940 , the Iron Guard began a bloody retaliation against various political figures who had served under Carol ( following a late investigation into the 1938 killing of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu , the movement 's founder and early leader , by Carol 's authorities ) . Tătărescu and Constantin Argetoianu were among the second wave of captured politicians ( on 27 November ) , and were destined for arbitrary execution ; they were , however , saved by the intervention of regular police forces , most of whom had grown hostile to the Guardist militias .

Retired from political life during the war , he was initially sympathetic to Ion Antonescu 's pro @-@ German dictatorship ( see Romania during World War II ) — Dinu Brătianu , who remained in opposition to the Antonescu regime , made mention an official visit to Bessarabia , recovered after the start of Operation Barbarossa , when Tătărescu had accompanied Antonescu , " thus making common cause with his warmongering action " . At the time , his daughter Sandra Tătărescu Negropontes worked as an ambulance driver for the Romanian Red Cross .

In the end , Tătărescu became involved in negotiations aimed at withdrawing Romania from the conflict , and , while beginning talks with the Romanian Communist Party ( PCR ) , tried to build foreign connections to support Romania 's cause following the inevitable defeat ; he thus corresponded with Edvard Beneš , leader of the Czechoslovak government in exile in England . Beneš , who had already been discussing matters involving Romania with Richard Franasovici and Grigore Gafencu , and had agreed to support the Romanian cause , informed the Allied governments of Tătărescu 's designs .

Tătărescu later contrasted his diplomatic approach with the strategy of Barbu Știrbey ( who had only attempted an agreement with the Western Allies in Cairo , instead of opening relations with the Soviets ) . Initially meeting with the refusal of Iuliu Maniu and Dinu Brătianu ( who decided to invest their trust in Știrbey ) , he was relatively successful after the Cairo initiative proved fruitless : the two traditional parties accepted collaboration with the bloc formed by the PCR , the Romanian Social Democratic Party , the Ploughmen 's Front , and the Socialist Peasants ' Party , leading to the formation of the short @-@ lived and unstable National Democratic Bloc ( BND ) in June 1944 . It overthrew Antonescu in August , by means of the successful King Michael Coup .

= = Alliance with the Communists = =

Tătărescu returned to the PNL later in 1944 — after the Soviet Red Army had entered Romania and the country had become an Allied state , political parties were again allowed to register . Nevertheless , Tătărescu was again opposed to the party leaders Dinu and Gheorghe I. Brătianu , and split to form his own group in June – July 1945 . Dinu Brătianu convened the PNL leadership and formally excluded Tătărescu and his partisans , citing their support for dictatorial regimes .

As the PCR , which was growing more influential ( with the backing of Soviet occupation ) while generally lacking popular appeal , sought to form alliances with various forces in order to increase its backing , Tătărescu declared his group to be left @-@ wing and Social liberal , while attempting to preserve a middle course in the new political setting , by pleading for close relations to be maintained with both the Soviet Union and the Western Allies . N. D. Cocea , a prominent socialist who had joined the PNL , represented the faction in talks for an alliance with the Communists . The agreement , favored by Ana Pauker , was vehemently opposed by another member of the Communist leadership , Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , who argued in favor of " making a distinction inside the bourgeoisie " , and collaborating with the main PNL , while calling Tătărescu 's faction " a gang of con artists , blackmailers , and well @-@ known bribers " .

Tătărescu became Foreign Minister and vice president of the government in the cabinet of Petru Groza when the latter came into office after Soviet pressures in 1945 ; his faction had been awarded leadership of four other ministries — Finance , with three successive office @-@ holders ( of whom the last was Alexandru Alexandrini ) , Public Works , with Gheorghe Vântu , Industry ( with Petre N. Bejan ) , and Religious Affairs , with Radu Roșculeț . He indirectly helped the PCR carry out an electoral fraud during the general election in 1946 by failing to reply to American proposals for organizing fair elections . At the Paris Conference , where he was accompanied by the PCR leaders Gheorghe Gheorghiu @-@ Dej and Pătrășcanu , he acknowledged the dissolution of Greater Romania under the provisions of the new Treaty ( 1947 ) .

= = 1947 and after = =

Tensions between his group with the PCR occurred when the former founded itself as a party under the name of National @-@ Liberal Party ( commonly known as the National Liberal Party @-@ Tătărescu ) , and , in June – July 1945 , proclaimed its goal to be the preservation of property and a middle class under a new regime . Of himself and his principles , Tătărescu stated :

" I am not a communist . Taking in view my attitudes towards mankind , society , property , I am not a communist . Thus , the new orientation in external politics which I demand for my country cannot be accused of being determined by affinities or sympathies of doctrine . "

Speaking in retrospect , Gheorghiu @-@ Dej indicated the actual relation between his party and Tătărescu 's : " we have had to tolerate by our side a capitalist @-@ gentry political group , Tătărescu 's group " .

Tătărescu himself continued to show his support for several PCR policies : in the summer of 1947 , he condemned the United States for having protested against the repression of forces in the opposition . Nevertheless , at around the same time , he issued his own critique of the Groza government , becoming the target of violent attacks initiated by Miron Constantinescu in the PCR press . Consequently , he was singled out for negligence in office when , during the kangaroo trial of Iuliu Maniu ( see Tămădău Affair ) , it was alleged that several employees of his ministry had conspired against the government . Scînteia , the official voice of the PCR , wrote of all National Liberal Party @-@ Tătărescu offices in the government : " The rot is all @-@ encompassing ! It has to be removed ! " .

Tătărescu resigned his office on 6 November 1947 , and was replaced by the Communist Ana Pauker . For the following two months , he was sidelined in his own party by PCR pressures , and removed from its leadership in January 1948 ( being replaced with Petre N. Bejan — the party was subsequently known as National Liberal Party @-@ Petre N. Bejan ) . One of his last actions as cabinet member had been to sign the document officially rejecting the Marshall Plan .

After the proclamation of the People 's Republic of Romania on 30 December 1947 , the existence of all parties other than the PCR had become purely formal , and , after the elections of 28 March the one @-@ party state was confirmed by legislation . He was arrested on 5 May 1950 , and held in the notorious Sighet prison ( alongside three of his brothers — Ștefan Tătărescu included — and his former collaborator Bejan ) . His son Tudor , who was living in Paris , suffered from schizophrenia after 1950 , and had to be committed to an institution ( where he died in 1955 ) . Sandra Tătărescu Negropontes was also imprisoned in 1950 , and released three years later , upon the death of Joseph Stalin .

One of Gheorghe Tătărescu 's last appearances in public was his stand as one of the prosecution 's witnesses in the 1954 trial of Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu , when he claimed that the defendant had been infiltrated into the PCR during the time when he had been premier ( Pătrășcanu was posthumously cleared of all charges ) . Released in 1955 , Tătărescu died in Bucharest , less than two years later . According to Sanda Tătărescu Negropontes , this came as a result of tuberculosis contracted while in detention .

= Someday ( I Will Understand ) =

" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears . It was written by Spears and produced by Guy Sigsworth . The song was released on August 18 , 2005 , by Jive Records , as the sole single from Spears ' first extended play , Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ( 2005 ) . In July 2004 , Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline , later revealing she would be taking another career break to start a family . Spears wrote the song two weeks before knowing she was pregnant with her first child , Sean Preston Federline . A pop ballad , " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " lyrics refer to a feeling of empowerment as a pregnant woman . A remixed version of the song was included on the 2005 remix compilation , B in the Mix : The Remixes .

" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " has received mixed reviews from music critics . A few reviewers considered it as a lesson on the singer 's history and a " tear @-@ jerker " ballad , while others considered it a non @-@ savable " flop single " . The song reached the top ten in Denmark , Sweden and Switzerland and also charted in a number of European countries . An accompanying music video , directed by Michael Haussman , premiered on the finale of Britney & Kevin : Chaotic . Entirely shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , the music video features Spears as a pregnant woman and portrays a transformation of her character . Contemporary critics noted the video as a departure from Spears ' previous music videos , while comparing the imagery of it to American entertainer Madonna 's Kabbalah makeover .

= = Background = =

In July 2004 , Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline , whom she had met three months before . The romance received intense attention from the media , since Federline had recently broken up with actress Shar Jackson , who was still pregnant with their second child at the time . The initial stages of their relationship were chronicled in Spears 's first reality show Britney & Kevin : Chaotic . They held a wedding ceremony on September 18 , 2004 , but were not legally married until three weeks later on October 6 due to a delay finalizing the couple 's prenuptial agreement . In October 2004 , the singer announced she would be taking another career break to start a family . Spears gave birth to her first child , Sean Preston Federline , on September 14 , 2005 .

" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " was composed by Spears on the piano at her house , two weeks before she learned of her pregnancy with Sean Preston . She explained the song came " like a prophecy ... when you 're pregnant , you 're empowered " . It was produced by Guy Sigsworth , who previously worked with the singer on " Everytime " ( 2003 ) . Spears recorded her vocals for the song at Conway Studios in Los Angeles , California , and at Frou Frou Central in London . The piano was played by Spears herself , while all other instruments and mixing were done by Sigsworth . Background vocals for the song were provided by Kate Havnevik .

= = Critical response = =

" Someday ( I Will Understand ) " received mixed reviews from music critics . While reviewing Britney & Kevin : Chaotic , Mike McGuirk of Rhapsody noted , " Britney now sings about either the husband or the kid . ( Sorry , people . It 's a sad day for the middle @-@ aged American male sicko . ) For everyone else , these bonus tracks further Spears ' upward path of totally bangin ' production and almost uncanny Prince @-@ channeling . " Gil Kaufman of MTV thought the song a " horrible Britney ballad with the black @-@ and @-@ white video that began her descent into madness . " Leo Ebersole of Chicago Tribune considered it " a fictional piece " , while another reviewer from the same newspaper noted that " as a matter of fact , the song is more or less a lesson in Britney history . " Becky Bain of Idolator praised the track , stating that " Britney goes genuine for this ode to her unborn baby . " Kurt Kirton of About.com said that " And Then We Kiss " and other remixes of songs like " Toxic " and " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " on the remix album B in the Mix : The Remixes " hold their own " . IGN writer Spence D. noted the Hi @-@ Bias Signature Radio Remix " reverberates with all the clichés that often stifle the music that rustles through the late night / early morning club scenes around the world . " Rolling Stone contributor Barry Walters gave the song 's remix a negative review , saying that " nothing can rescue Spears ' freakishly sappy flop single " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " . " Bradley Stern also of MTV , however , praised the Leama & Moor Remix , saying it " transforms the tearjerker of a ballad into a full @-@ on trance anthem . Big beats , stuttering vocals -- it 's heartbreak on the dance floor . "

= = Commercial performance = =

On September 1 , 2005 , " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " debuted at number 46 on the Swedish Singles Chart . It peaked at number 10 the following week . In Switzerland , the song debuted at number eight on the week of September 4 , 2005 . On September 9 , 2005 , the song debuted in the Danish Singles Chart at number 11 . The following week , it peaked at the eight position . " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " also reached the top 20 in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Finland and Norway and charted in Austria and the Netherlands . " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " has sold 60 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " was directed by Michael Haussman . Spears commented that he " [ did ] a great job capturing the song , the essence and the emotion " and added that the video had " a different feeling " from any of her previous videos . It was shot entirely in black @-@ and @-@ white . Spears asserted that her life had " come full circle " and implied that in the process she underwent changes in her soul and body , as shown in the video . It premiered on June 14 , 2005 during the fifth and last episode of Spears 's reality show Britney & Kevin : Chaotic , titled " Veil of Secrecy " . The music video features a pregnant Spears lying in bed and walking around a house while singing to her unborn child . She also gazes through the window at the Roman sculptures in the garden .

Dana Alice Heller noted that her provocative costuming and dancing are replaced in the video with a solitary , fabric @-@ draped Spears that evokes an ethereal calmness . Heller compared the imagery to Madonna 's Kabbalah makeover , but added that while Madonna was " in her thirties after a tabloid head @-@ lining first marriage and a few other misguided relationships , Spears was only twenty @-@ two , making her transformation seem forced " . Hayley Butler of Jam ! said " the video is a far cry from the snake handling , sweating and skimpy Britney videos of the past . Dressed in a classy silk dress , she runs through gardens , lies in bed and walks through the grass , all with a burgeoning belly . " John Mitchel of MTV included the video on the list " Beyonce , Britney And Madonna : What To Expect When You 're Expecting — Music Video Edition " in 2011 . Despite praising the track , Idolator blogger Becky Bain stated that " at this point she still looks like a teenager herself , so it 's a little disconcerting seeing her with that huge belly , singing about motherhood . "

= = Track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Source :

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Willie Mount =

Willie Landry Mount ( born August 25 , 1949 ) is an American politician from Louisiana who served as a Democratic member of the Louisiana State Senate from 2000 to 2012 . She represented District 27 , which includes parts of Lake Charles and the surrounding cities of Sulphur and Westlake . From 1993 to 1999 , Mount was the first female to have served as the mayor of Lake Charles .

Mount was a candidate in the 2004 U.S. House of Representatives election for Louisiana 's 7th congressional district . She was defeated by Republican Charles Boustany in a contested general election campaign that received national attention .

= = Personal life = =

Born and reared in Lake Charles , Mount in 1974 obtained a Bachelor of Business Administration degree from McNeese State University in Lake Charles . She owned a small business and worked as a real estate agent and pharmaceutical representative for Lederle Laboratories . Mount resides in her hometown with her husband , attorney Benjamin Mount ; they have no children .

= = Career = =

Mount had been active in community work , through organizations such as the Junior League of Lake Charles , and ran for mayor of Lake Charles in 1993 , winning against Paul Savoie , a Democrat and a former mayor . During her tenure she served as president of the Louisiana Conference of Mayors and supported restoration efforts following hurricanes . To this end Mount testified before Congress in support of the Conservation and Reinvestment Act of 1999 . She also co @-@ sponsored the building of an Amtrak station , modeled after an older station that had been destroyed in a fire . In an effort to succeed retiring state senator James J. Cox , Mount announced her senate candidacy on October 19 , 1999 , while addressing the Calcasieu Parish School Board , which she asked to support her . Upon being elected , Mount resigned as mayor and City Council President Rodney Geyen took over the office .

In the senate , Mount served on a variety of committees , chairing the Senate Committees on Coastal Restoration and Flood Control , Revenue and Fiscal Affairs , and also serving as Vice @-@ Chair of the Senate Committee on Education . In 2008 , she became chairwoman of the Senate Committee on Health and Welfare . Mount often sponsors legislation regarding health and public service . This includes bills intended to identify sex offenders and enact term limits for various boards and commissions . She was responsible for passing these term limits as an amendment to the Louisiana Constitution , as SB 232 on November 4 , 2008 . Mount also sponsored legislation to merge New Orleans criminal and civil district courts , create a childhood and family learning center , couple the opening of new hospice care providers with inspections of existing ones , allow police to suspend driver 's licenses of teenagers with problems at school , and create a state @-@ run internet database providing information on the quality of health care providers . Mount was responsible for legislation that made Louisiana water fluoridation mandatory , and , in her capacity as chair of the Senate Health committee , Mount in 2008 declared major Louisiana health care reform unlikely without prior federal reform .

As senator , Mount raised funds for health care facilities ( Mount had herself roasted in support of the Southwest Louisiana Center for Health Services ) . Mount is a member of a number of boards and charitable organisations and provides an annual compilation of " Louisiana positives " about Louisiana 's standing in national ratings . Due to term limits , Mount was eligible to serve as senator until 2012 .

= = 2004 Congressional race = =

Mount ran for Congress in 2004 to succeed Chris John , who had announced his retirement from the U.S. House of Representatives to run for the U.S. Senate . She positioned herself as a conservative Democrat , supportive of balanced budgets and conservative social views , emphasizing job creation , health care and her opposition to offshoring . Her major Democratic opponent in the jungle primary was African American State Senator Don Cravins , Sr. , the father of another lawmaker , Don Cravins , Jr . , of Opelousas . Her major Republican opponent was Charles Boustany , a retired heart surgeon from Lafayette , who ran on a platform of preventing tax increases and passing a new energy bill . The Louisiana Democratic Party was supporting Mount , as Cravins was believed to be a weaker contestant in a run @-@ off . Polls taken in late October had shown Boustany , Cravins and Mount statistically tied and the election was hotly contested .

In the first ballot on November 2 , 2004 , Boustany and Mount garnered the most votes ; Cravins was defeated by less than two thousand votes . As both fell short of a majority , a second ballot was mandated . In the subsequent campaign , Mount criticized Boustany for favouring tax cuts for the rich and being indifferent to health care , while Boustany rejected the attacks as false and stressed his willingness to work with Democrats and Independents . Boustany in turn portrayed Mount as liberal and favoring tax increases . Mount also criticized Boustany for favoring the privatization of social security , an unpopular position in Louisiana , and as removed from the interests of voters . She received endorsements by U.S. Senator John Breaux , who had represented the 7th district for over fourteen years , and governor Kathleen Blanco . Boustany was helped by Vice President Dick Cheney , who campaigned on his behalf in Lake Charles . Mount , however , was not endorsed by Democratic primary opponent Don Cravins , who complained about the state Democratic Party 's endorsement of Mount in a partially party funded mailer that excluded him and which he believed contributed to his narrow loss . Cravins prepared a suit in federal court claiming that the state Democratic Party violated the Voting Rights Act .

In the general election on December 4 , 2004 , Boustany defeated Mount , 55 percent to 45 percent in an election with low voter turnout . Democrats had hoped on a big turnout , as the district is nearly a quarter African American , a reliable Democratic constituency . Analysis of the race suggested that Mount 's defeat was helped by the open primary system that had the Democratic candidates work against each other and led to Cravin 's conflict with the state Democratic Party which in turn led to suppressed voter turnout . The large number of negative advertisements was also cited as a factor that contributed to low turnout . Another detriment for Mount mentioned was the strong support for George W. Bush in the presidential election in the district , which he carried by about 60 percent . Following her defeat , Mount ruled out another campaign for the seat , but not a campaign for another state @-@ wide office .

When Mount left the Senate in 2012 , she was succeeded by a Republican , former State Representative Ronnie Johns of Sulphur , who ran unopposed for the open seat .

= = Campaign for tax assessor = =

In 2011 , Mount announced her candidacy for tax assessor of Calcasieu Parish . She received 13 @,@ 477 votes ( 38 @.@ 3 percent ) in the primary held on October 22 and promptly withdrew from the November 19 general election . Victory hence went to the acting assessor , Wendy Curphy Aguillard , an Independent who led the primary balloting with 17 @,@ 208 votes ( 48 @.@ 9 percent ) . A third candidate , Republican Mike Regan , was also eliminated in the primary , having received the remaining 4 @,@ 538 votes ( 12 @.@ 9 percent ) .

= = Electoral history = =

Mayor , City of Lake Charles , 1993

Threshold > 50 %

First Ballot , April 3 , 1993

Second Ballot , May 1 , 1993

Mount was unopposed for a second term as mayor .

Louisiana State Senator , 27th Senatorial District , 1999

October 23 , 1999

Mount was unopposed on October 4 , 2003 and October 20 , 2007 for her second and third term as state senator .

U.S. Representative , 7th Congressional District , 2004

Threshold > 50 %

First Ballot , November 2 , 2004

Second Ballot , December 4 , 2004

= No. 36 Squadron RAAF =

No. 36 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) strategic transport squadron . It operates Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy airlifters from RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The squadron has seen active service flying transport aircraft during World War II , the Korean War , the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi , the Vietnam War , and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq . It has also supported Australian humanitarian and peacekeeping operations around the world , including Somalia , Cambodia , East Timor and Indonesia .

The squadron was formed at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , in March 1942 , and equipped with Douglas DC @-@ 2s , among other aircraft . Later in the war it began operating Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . From 1946 to 1953 it was controlled by No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing , which was based in New South Wales at RAAF Station Schofields and , later , RAAF Station Richmond . In 1953 it was re @-@ formed at Iwakuni , Japan , as part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing . It returned to Australia and the aegis of No. 86 Wing in 1955 . The squadron began re @-@ equipping with Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules at Richmond in 1958 , becoming the first non @-@ US operator of the type . Over the next half @-@ century it flew two models of Hercules , the C @-@ 130A and C @-@ 130H . The squadron transferred to Amberley in 2006 , when it took delivery of its first Globemaster .

= = Role and equipment = =

No. 36 Squadron is responsible for strategic air transport in Australia and overseas , conducting missions as part of military operations and humanitarian efforts . It is located at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , and controlled by No. 86 Wing , which is part of Air Mobility Group . The unit headquarters comprises executive , administrative and operational components . As well as aircrew , the squadron is staffed by maintenance personnel responsible for regular servicing of equipment ; they are frequently required to accompany the aircraft on deployments overseas . More complex servicing is conducted by Boeing . No. 36 Squadron 's official crest , approved in May 1966 , depicts a horse intended to symbolise strength , speed , mobility and dependability . The unit 's motto is " Sure " .

The squadron operates eight Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster IIIs , the first of which entered service in December 2006 . The eighth and last was delivered in November 2015 . The aircraft are generally crewed by two pilots and a loadmaster , the latter being responsible for the loading , carriage and unloading of cargo or passengers . The C @-@ 17 can carry 70 tonnes of equipment , and is large enough to accommodate helicopters , tanks and other military vehicles . It can also carry over 130 passengers , and is designed for aerial despatch of paratroops or cargo . The C @-@ 17 has a range of some 10 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 200 miles ) and is able to operate from short and unsealed airstrips . Flown with a joystick and fly @-@ by @-@ wire controls , the aircraft is also highly manoeuvrable and responsive considering its size . It can be refuelled in flight by the Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports operated by No. 33 Squadron .

= = History = =

= = = World War II = = =

During February and March 1942 , the RAAF formed four transport units : Nos. 33 , 34 , 35 and 36 Squadrons . No. 36 Squadron was established on 11 March at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , under the control of Southern Area Command . Its initial strength was twenty @-@ six personnel and one Douglas DC @-@ 2 . This was gradually built up to a force of six DC @-@ 2s , as well as examples of various de Havilland types including the DH.84 Dragon , DH.86 Express , DH.89 Dragon Rapide , and Tiger Moth . Tasked with transport operations throughout Australia and to Port Moresby , New Guinea , the squadron relocated to Essendon , Victoria , on 17 July . One of the DC @-@ 2s crashed at Seven Mile Aerodrome , Port Moresby , on 14 September ; all aboard were killed . The squadron was transferred to Townsville , Queensland , on 11 December 1942 . During 1943 , it maintained detachments at Essendon and in New Guinea , and began re @-@ equipping with twelve Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas .

On 27 March 1943 , a Dakota of No. 36 Squadron crashed on takeoff in pre @-@ dawn fog at RAAF Station Archerfield , killing all twenty @-@ three occupants , twenty of whom were RAAF or Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force personnel . The squadron relocated to Garbutt on 20 February 1944 . During the New Guinea campaign it was responsible for carrying troops and cargo , and undertaking courier runs and supply drops . In 1945 , a detachment of No. 36 Squadron Dakotas augmented No. 84 Wing 's operations in Bougainville , flying almost 800 sorties between January and June . The squadron lost two Dakotas on supply missions in Aitape during February 1945 . In August , it flew paratroopers into Singapore as part of the reoccupation of the city , after which it continued to transport troops and cargo , and repatriate prisoners of war . Following the end of hostilities , in March 1946 , a detachment of six Dakotas established a courier service between Morotai and Japan , where Australian units had joined the British Commonwealth Occupation Force .

= = = Berlin Airlift and Korean War = = =

On 19 August 1946 , No. 36 Squadron transferred to RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , where it came under the control of No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing along with Nos. 37 and 38 Squadrons , also operating Dakotas , and No. 486 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . No. 486 Squadron provided day @-@ to @-@ day servicing for each of the flying squadrons , deeper maintenance being handled by No. 2 Aircraft Depot , based at the nearby RAAF Station Richmond . Courier flights to Japan continued until December 1947 , a 21 @,@ 000 km ( 13 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ) round trip from Schofields . On 25 August 1948 , twenty staff from No. 36 Squadron joined five crews from No. 38 Squadron to take part in the Berlin Airlift , a commitment that lasted almost a year . The Australians delivered over 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 kg ) of supplies , and over 7 @,@ 000 passengers . In the absence of these crews , Nos. 36 and 38 Squadron operations were amalgamated , flying hours being recorded under the latter 's auspices . During June 1949 , No. 36 Squadron and the other extant components of No. 86 Wing , Nos. 38 and 486 Squadrons , relocated from Schofields to Richmond .

Nos. 36 and 38 Squadrons began to operate separately again in June 1950 , following the return of crews from Berlin and No. 38 Squadron 's departure for service in the Malayan Emergency . No. 36 Squadron assumed control of the Governor @-@ General 's Flight in October 1950 . On 21 November 1952 , the squadron was awarded the Duke of Gloucester Cup for its proficiency . The return of No. 38 Squadron from Malaya in December stripped No. 36 Squadron of crews to ensure an even distribution of personnel among the two units . This led to No. 36 Squadron again merging with No. 38 Squadron . The former disbanded at Richmond on 9 March 1953 , re @-@ forming the next day from No. 30 Transport Unit at Iwakuni , Japan . Here it was part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , which controlled the RAAF 's units during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . Its complement included eight Dakotas and one CAC Wirraway . In July and August , the squadron evacuated over 900 Commonwealth prisoners of war . It departed Japan on 13 March 1955 , having carried over 42 @,@ 000 passengers and 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo , and was re @-@ established on 1 May at RAAF Base Canberra , where No. 86 Wing had transferred the previous year .

= = = Hercules era = = =

No. 36 Squadron handed over its six Dakotas to No. 38 Squadron in July 1958 , prior to re @-@ equipping with the Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules . It returned to Richmond in August , followed by the rest of No. 86 Wing a month later . After conversion training of its personnel in the United States , No. 36 Squadron became the first non @-@ US operator of the Hercules in December 1958 , when it began taking delivery of twelve C @-@ 130As ; deliveries completed in March 1959 . The official history of the post @-@ war Air Force described the Hercules as " probably the biggest step @-@ up in aircraft capabilities " the RAAF had ever received , considering it roughly four times as effective as the Dakota , taking into account the improvements in payload , range , and speed . In September 1960 , No. 36 Squadron began parachute trials on the Hercules . It made the Hercules ' first troop @-@ carrying flights into a combat zone in December 1962 , joining a Commonwealth airlift from Singapore to Borneo at the onset of the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia ; similar missions were undertaken over the next five years . The squadron was again awarded the Gloucester Cup in 1963 .

In August 1964 , No. 36 Squadron became an independently operating unit under the command of Headquarters RAAF Base Richmond , following the disbandment of No. 86 Wing . No. 486 Squadron was disbanded at the same time , leaving No. 36 Squadron responsible for its own day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance until 1966 ; No. 486 Squadron was re @-@ formed that year to service both No. 36 Squadron and No. 37 Squadron , the latter having taken delivery of twelve C @-@ 130E Hercules . During the Vietnam War , both squadrons undertook long @-@ range transport and medical evacuation flights between Australia and South East Asia , servicing Phan Rang , Vung Tau , and Nui Dat . No. 36 Squadron was presented with its own standard by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , on 1 April 1971 , in recognition of a quarter @-@ century 's service . Eight of its twelve Hercules were involved in relief efforts after Cyclone Tracy struck Darwin , Northern Territory , on Christmas Eve 1974 ; the aircraft flew over 550 hours , carrying 2 @,@ 864 passengers and almost 800 @,@ 000 pounds ( 360 @,@ 000 kg ) of cargo . Having remained in service for twenty years , clocking up 147 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours , the C @-@ 130As were replaced by C @-@ 130Hs in 1978 .

In November 1978 , one of No. 36 Squadron 's C @-@ 130Hs became the first Australian Hercules to land in Antarctica , at McMurdo Sound . The squadron reached a total of 200 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours in C @-@ 130s during 1984 . When No. 86 Wing was re @-@ formed at Richmond on 2 February 1987 , under the newly established Air Lift Group ( later Air Mobility Group ) , No. 36 Squadron formed part of its complement . The unit again received the Gloucester Cup in 1989 . That year , it provided transport for civilian passengers during the pilots ' dispute that curtailed operations by the two domestic airlines ; three aircraft and five crews undertook this task , over and above their normal duties . The squadron reached 100 @,@ 000 accident @-@ free flying hours on the C @-@ 130H during 1990 . In December 1990 and January 1991 , it flew missions to Dubai in support of Australia 's naval contribution to the Gulf War , and in 1993 transported Australian troops to Somalia as part of Operation Solace . Four of its C @-@ 130Hs were equipped with Electronic Warfare Self Protection packs , including radar and missile warning systems , and countermeasures such as chaff and flares , in 1994 . Later in the decade , one of the C @-@ 130Hs was fitted with signals intelligence equipment and crewed by RAAF and Defence Signals Directorate personnel .

Six of No. 36 Squadron 's Hercules evacuated over 450 civilians from Cambodia following the coup in July 1997 . The unit again became responsible for its own routine maintenance in 1998 , when No. 486 Squadron was disbanded . A detachment from No. 36 Squadron supported INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2000 . The squadron was assigned four C @-@ 130Es previously operated by No. 37 Squadron during the latter 's transition to the new C @-@ 130J Super Hercules , which commenced in 1999 ; the E models were retired the following year . No. 36 Squadron was once more awarded the Gloucester Cup in 2001 . It took part in relief efforts following the Bali Bombings in October 2002 . In February 2003 , it deployed a detachment of two Hercules to the Middle East as part of the Australian contribution to the invasion of Iraq . The aircraft arrived on 10 February , and began flying transport sorties less than two weeks later . A No. 36 Squadron Hercules became the first Coalition aircraft to land at Al Asad Airbase , west of Baghdad , after it was secured by Australian special forces personnel . One aircraft was hit by ground fire near Baghdad on 27 June 2004 , killing a coalition passenger . The detachment remained in Iraq until September 2004 , when it was relieved by two C @-@ 130Js from No. 37 Squadron . No. 36 Squadron also participated in Operation Sumatra Assist in the wake of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami .

= = = Globemaster era = = =

In May 2006 , No. 36 Squadron personnel began conversion training in the US in preparation for re @-@ equipping with Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports . It transferred its C @-@ 130Hs to No. 37 Squadron on 17 November 2006 , prior to relocating to Amberley . Also on 17 November , Wing Commander Linda Corbould took command of the unit , becoming the first woman to lead an RAAF flying squadron . Corbould was responsible for delivering the first Globemaster from the United States to Australia on 4 December . No. 36 Squadron achieved initial operating capability with the C @-@ 17 on 11 September 2007 , following eight months ' work @-@ up training . In June 2008 , it received the Gloucester Cup as the RAAF 's most proficient flying squadron of 2007 " for achieving all training objectives , supporting air lift activities globally and nationally and fulfilling short @-@ notice , high priority tasks , despite the squadron 's expertise being in its infancy " . Corbould completed her posting as commanding officer on 8 December 2008 , the day the squadron marked the second anniversary of C @-@ 17 operations by conducting the RAAF 's first flight with an all @-@ female aircrew .

Since re @-@ equipping with the Globemaster , No. 36 Squadron has continued to support Coalition forces in Afghanistan , as well as humanitarian operations worldwide . In 2011 , it took part in relief efforts following the floods in Queensland , the Christchurch earthquake , and the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami in Japan . The Queensland floods necessitated the evacuation of two C @-@ 17s to Richmond , when Amberley was threatened by rising waters ; of the other two Globemasters , one was in the Middle East and the other was undergoing maintenance at Amberley and could not be flown but was moved onto high ground and escaped damage . The deployment to Japan involved all three of the squadron 's available C @-@ 17s , the fourth still being serviced at Amberley . On 11 May 2012 , a C @-@ 17 flew an Australian Army M1 Abrams tank from RAAF Base Darwin to Shoalwater Bay for a training exercise ; it was the first time an RAAF Globemaster had airlifted an Abrams , which at 61 tonnes was among the largest single items the 70 @-@ tonne @-@ capacity aircraft could carry . In November that year the squadron took delivery of its sixth Globemaster . It was again awarded the Gloucester Cup in March 2013 , for its proficiency the previous year .

In September 2014 , RAAF C @-@ 17s were used to airlift arms and munitions to forces in Kurdish @-@ controlled northern Iraq following an offensive by ISIL militants . On 10 April 2015 , Prime Minister Tony Abbott announced the purchase of two more C @-@ 17s , which would bring No. 36 Squadron 's complement to eight aircraft . Concurrent with delivery of the new C @-@ 17s by year 's end , No. 36 Squadron 's facilities were to be improved , obviating the need for maintenance to take place in No. 33 Squadron hangars . Also on 10 April , the squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup a record seventh time , and the RAAF 's Maintenance Trophy a record fourth time . Later the same month , an Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transport of No. 33 Squadron carried out the RAAF 's first in @-@ flight refuelling of a No. 36 Squadron Globemaster . The Governor @-@ General , Sir Peter Cosgrove , presented the squadron with a new standard on 19 May ; the old standard was laid up in Holy Trinity Chapel at RAAF Williams , Victoria . No. 36 Squadron was awarded the Meritorious Unit Citation in the Queen 's Birthday Honours on 13 June 2016 for " for sustained outstanding service in warlike operations throughout the Middle East Area of Operations over the period January 2002 to June 2014 " .

= Cucurbita =

Cucurbita ( Latin for gourd ) is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family , Cucurbitaceae , also known as cucurbits , native to the Andes and Mesoamerica . Five species are grown worldwide for their edible fruit , variously known as squash , pumpkin , or gourd depending on species , variety , and local parlance , and for their seeds . First cultivated in the Americas before being brought to Europe by returning explorers after their discovery of the New World , plants in the genus Cucurbita are important sources of human food and oil . Other kinds of gourd , also called bottle @-@ gourds , are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria , which is in the same family and subfamily as Cucurbita but in a different tribe . These other gourds are used as utensils or vessels , and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species .

Most Cucurbita species are herbaceous vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils , but non @-@ vining " bush " cultivars of C. pepo and C. maxima have also been developed . The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types : female and male . The female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen . Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators , but other insects with more general feeding habits , such as honey bees , also visit .

The fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients , such as vitamin A and vitamin C , among other nutrients according to species . The plants contain the toxins , such as cucurbitin , cucurmosin , and cucurbitacin .

There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus , as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30 . The five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma , C. ficifolia , C. maxima , C. moschata , and C. pepo . All of these can be treated as winter squash because the full @-@ grown fruits can be stored for months ; however , C. pepo includes some cultivars that are better used only as summer squash .

Cucurbita fruits have played a role in human culture for at least 2 @,@ 000 years . They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru . After Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World , paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century . The fruits have many culinary uses including pumpkin pie , biscuits , bread , desserts , puddings , beverages , and soups . Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower and vegetable shows in many countries .

= = Description = =

Cucurbita species fall into two main groups . The first group are annual or short @-@ lived perennial vines and are mesophytic , i.e. they require a more or less continuous water supply . The second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic , tolerating dry conditions . Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group . Growing 5 to 15 meters ( 16 to 49 ft ) in height or length , the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground . Most species do not readily root from the nodes ; a notable exception is C. ficifolia , and the four other cultivated mesophytes do this to a lesser extent . The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow . There is wide variation in size , shape , and color among Cucurbita fruits , and even within a single species . C. ficifolia is an exception , being highly uniform in appearance . The morphological variation in the species C. pepo and C. maxima is so vast that its various subspecies and cultivars have been misidentified as totally separate species .

The typical cultivated Cucurbita species has five @-@ lobed or palmately divided leaves with long petioles , with the leaves alternately arranged on the stem . The stems in some species are angular . All of the above @-@ ground parts may be hairy with various types of trichomes , which are often hardened and sharp . Spring @-@ like tendrils grow from each node and are branching in some species . C. argyrosperma has ovate @-@ cordate ( egg @-@ shaped to heart @-@ shaped ) leaves . The shape of C. pepo leaves varies widely . C. moschata plants can have light or dense pubescence . C. ficifolia leaves are slightly angular and have light pubescence . The leaves of all four of these species may or may not have white spots .

There are male ( staminate ) and female ( pistillate ) flowers ( unisexual flowers ) on a single plant ( monoecious ) , and these grow singly , appearing from the leaf axils . Flowers have five fused yellow to orange petals ( the corolla ) and a green bell @-@ shaped calyx . Male flowers in Cucurbitaceae generally have five stamens , but in Cucurbita there are only three , and their anthers are joined together so that there appears to be one . Female flowers have thick pedicels , and an inferior ovary with 3 – 5 stigmas that each have two lobes . The female flowers of C. argyrosperma and C. ficifolia have larger corollas than the male flowers . Female flowers of C. pepo have a small calyx , but the calyx of C. moschata male flowers is comparatively short .

Cucurbita fruits are large and fleshy . Botanists classify the Cucurbita fruit as a pepo , which is a special type of berry derived from an inferior ovary , with a thick outer wall or rind with hypanthium tissue forming an exocarp around the ovary , and a fleshy interior composed of mesocarp and endocarp . The term " pepo " is used primarily for Cucurbitaceae fruits , where this fruit type is common , but the fruits of Passiflora and Carica are sometimes also pepos . The seeds , which are attached to the ovary wall ( parietal placentation ) and not to the center , are large and fairly flat with a large embryo that consists almost entirely of two cotyledons . Fruit size varies considerably : wild fruit specimens can be as small as 4 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) and some domesticated specimens can weigh well over 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) . The current world record was set in 2014 by Beni Meier of Switzerland with a 2 @,@ 323 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 054 @.@ 0 kg ) pumpkin .

= = Taxonomy = =

Cucurbita was formally described in a way that meets the requirements of modern botanical nomenclature by Linnaeus in his Genera Plantarum , the fifth edition of 1754 in conjunction with the 1753 first edition of Species Plantarum . Cucurbita pepo is the type species of the genus . Linnaeus initially included the species C. pepo , C. verrucosa and C. melopepo ( both now included in C. pepo ) , as well as C. citrullus ( watermelon , now Citrullus lanatus ) and C. lagenaria ( now Lagenaria siceraria ) ( both are not Cucurbita but are in the family Cucurbitaceae .

The Cucurbita digitata , C. foetidissima , C. galeotti , and C. pedatifolia species groups are xerophytes , arid zone perennials with storage roots ; the remainder , including the five domesticated species , are all mesophytic annuals or short @-@ life perennials with no storage roots . The five domesticated species are mostly isolated from each other by sterility barriers and have different physiological characteristics . Some cross pollinations can occur : C. pepo with C. argyrosperma and C. moschata ; and C. maxima with C. moschata . Cross pollination does occur readily within the family Cucurbitaceae . The buffalo gourd ( C. foetidissima ) , which does not taste good , has been used as an intermediary as it can be crossed with all the common Cucurbita .

Various taxonomic treatments have been proposed for Cucurbita , ranging from 13 – 30 species . In 1990 , Cucurbita expert Michael Nee classified them into the following oft @-@ cited 13 species groups ( 27 species total ) , listed by group and alphabetically , with geographic origin :

C. argyrosperma ( synonym C. mixta ) – cushaw pumpkin ; origin : Panama , Mexico

C. kellyana , origin : Pacific coast of western Mexico

C. palmeri , origin : Pacific coast of northwestern Mexico

C. sororia , origin : Pacific coast Mexico to Nicaragua , northeastern Mexico

C. digitata – fingerleaf gourd ; origin : southwestern United States ( USA ) , northwestern Mexico

C. californica

C. cordata

C. cylindrata

C. palmata

C. ecuadorensis , origin : Ecuador 's Pacific coast

C. ficifolia – figleaf gourd , chilacayote ; origin : Mexico , Panama , northern Chile and Argentina

C. foetidissima – stinking gourd , buffalo gourd ; origin : Mexico

C. scabridifolia , likely a natural hybrid of C. foetidissima and C. pedatifolia

C. galeottii is little known ; origin : Oaxaca , Mexico

C. lundelliana , origin : Mexico , Guatemala , Belize

C. maxima – winter squash , pumpkin ; origin : Argentina , Bolivia , Ecuador

C. andreana , origin – Argentina

C. moschata – butternut squash , ' Dickinson ' pumpkin , golden cushaw ; origin : Bolivia , Colombia , Ecuador , Mexico , Panama , Puerto Rico , Venezuela

C. okeechobeensis , origin : Florida

C. martinezii , origin : Mexican Gulf Coast and foothills

C. pedatifolia , origin : Querétaro , Mexico

C. moorei

C. pepo – field pumpkin , summer squash , zucchini , vegetable marrow , courgette , acorn squash ; origin : Mexico , USA

C. fraterna , origin : Tamaulipas and Nuevo León , Mexico

C. texana , origin : Texas , USA

C. radicans – calabacilla , calabaza de coyote ; origin : Central Mexico

C. gracilior

The taxonomy by Nee closely matches the species groupings reported in a pair of studies by a botanical team led by Rhodes and Bemis in 1968 and 1970 based on statistical groupings of several phenotypic traits of 21 species . Seeds for studying additional species members were not available . Sixteen of the 21 species were grouped into five clusters with the remaining five being classified separately :

C. digitata , C. palmata , C. californica , C. cylindrata , C. cordata

C. martinezii , C. okeechobeensis , C. lundelliana

C. sororia , C. gracilior , C. palmeri ; C. argyrosperma ( reported as C. mixta ) was considered close to the three previous species

C. maxima , C. andreana

C. pepo , C. texana

C. moschata , C. ficifolia , C. pedatifolia , C. foetidissima , and C. ecuadorensis were placed in their own separate species groups as they were not considered significantly close to any of the other species studied .

= = = Phylogeny = = =

The full phylogeny of this genus is unknown , and research was ongoing in 2014 . The following cladogram of Cucurbita phylogeny is based upon a 2002 study of mitochondrial DNA by Sanjur and colleagues .

= = Reproductive biology = =

All species of Cucurbita have 20 pairs of chromosomes . Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist pollinators in the apid tribe Eucerini , especially the genera Peponapis and Xenoglossa , and these squash bees can be crucial to the flowers producing fruit after pollination .

When there is more pollen applied to the stigma , more seeds are produced in the fruits and the fruits are larger with greater likelihood of maturation , an effect called xenia . Competitively grown specimens are therefore often hand @-@ pollinated to maximize the number of seeds in the fruit , which increases the fruit size ; this pollination requires skilled technique . Seedlessness is known to occur in certain cultivars of C. pepo .

The most critical factors in flowering and fruit set are physiological , having to do with the age of the plant and whether it already has developing fruit . The plant hormones ethylene and auxin are key in fruit set and development . Ethylene promotes the production of female flowers . When a plant already has a fruit developing , subsequent female flowers on the plant are less likely to mature , a phenomenon called " first @-@ fruit dominance " , and male flowers are more frequent , an effect that appears due to reduced natural ethylene production within the plant stem . Ethephon , a plant growth regulator product that is converted to ethylene after metabolism by the plant , can be used to increase fruit and seed production .

The plant hormone gibberellin , produced in the stamens , is essential for the development of all parts of the male flowers . The development of female flowers is not yet understood . Gibberellin is also involved in other developmental processes of plants such as seed and stem growth .

= = = Germination and seedling growth = = =

Seeds with maximum germination potential develop ( in C. moschata ) by 45 days after anthesis , and seed weight reaches its maximum 70 days after anthesis . Some varieties of C. pepo germinate best with eight hours of sunlight daily and a planting depth of 1 @.@ 2 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . Seeds planted deeper than 12 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) are not likely to germinate . In C. foetidissima , a weedy species , plants younger than 19 days old are not able to sprout from the roots after removing the shoots . In a seed batch with 90 percent germination rate , over 90 percent of the plants had sprouted after 29 days from planting .

Experiments have shown that when more pollen is applied to the stigma , as well as the fruit containing more seeds and being larger ( the xenia effect mentioned above ) , the germination of the seeds is also faster and more likely , and the seedlings are larger . Various combinations of mineral nutrients and light have a significant effect during the various stages of plant growth . These effects vary significantly between the different species of Cucurbita . A type of stored phosphorus called phytate forms in seed tissues as spherical crystalline intrusions in protein bodies called globoids . Along with other nutrients , phytate is used completely during seedling growth . Heavy metal contamination , including cadmium , has a significant negative impact on plant growth . Cucurbita plants grown in the spring tend to grow larger than those grown in the autumn .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Archaeological investigations have found evidence of domestication of Cucurbita going back over 8 @,@ 000 years from the very southern parts of Canada down to Argentina and Chile . Centers of domestication stretch from the Mississippi River watershed and Texas down through Mexico and Central America to northern and western South America . Of the 27 species that Nee delineates , five are domesticated . Four of them , C. argyrosperma , C. ficifolia , C. moschata , and C. pepo , originated and were domesticated in Mesoamerica ; for the fifth , C. maxima , these events occurred in South America .

Within C. pepo , the pumpkins , the scallops , and possibly the crooknecks are ancient and were domesticated at different times and places . The domesticated forms of C. pepo have larger fruits than non @-@ domesticated forms and seeds that are bigger but fewer in number . In a 1989 study on the origins and development of C. pepo , botanist Harry Paris suggested that the original wild specimen had a small round fruit and that the modern pumpkin is its direct descendant . He suggested that the crookneck , ornamental gourd , and scallop are early variants and that the acorn is a cross between the scallop and the pumpkin .

C. argyrosperma is not as widespread as the other species . The wild form C. a. subsp. sororia is found from Mexico to Nicaragua , and cultivated forms are used in a somewhat wider area stretching from Panama to the southeastern United States . It was probably bred for its seeds , which are large and high in oil and protein , but its flesh is of poorer quality than that of C. moschata and C. pepo . It is grown in a wide altitudinal range : from sea level to as high as 1 @,@ 800 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in dry areas , usually with the use of irrigation , or in areas with a defined rainy season , where seeds are sown in May and June .

C. ficifolia and C. moschata were originally thought to be Asiatic in origin , but this has been disproven . The origin of C. ficifolia is Latin America , most likely southern Mexico , Central America , or the Andes . It grows at altitudes ranging from 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in areas with heavy rainfall . It does not hybridize well with the other cultivated species as it has significantly different enzymes and chromosomes .

C. maxima originated in South America over 4 @,@ 000 years ago , probably in Argentina and Uruguay . The plants are sensitive to frost , and they prefer both bright sunlight and soil with a pH of 6 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 0 . C. maxima did not start to spread into North America until after the arrival of Columbus . Varieties were in use by native peoples of the United States by the 16th century . Types of C. maxima include triloba , zapallito , zipinka , Banana , Delicious , Hubbard , Marrow ( C. maxima Marrow ) , Show , and Turban .

C. moschata is native to Latin America , but the precise location of origin is uncertain . It has been present in Mexico , Belize , Guatemala , and Peru for 4 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 years and has spread to Bolivia , Ecuador , Panama , Puerto Rico , and Venezuela . This species is closely related to C. argyrosperma . A variety known as the Seminole Pumpkin has been cultivated in Florida since before the arrival of Columbus . Its leaves are 20 to 30 centimeters ( 8 to 12 in ) wide . It generally grows at low altitudes in hot climates with heavy rainfall , but some varieties have been found above 2 @,@ 200 meters ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) . Groups of C. moschata include Cheese , Crookneck ( C. moschata ) , and Bell .

C. pepo is one of the oldest , if not the oldest , domesticated species with the oldest known locations being Oaxaca , Mexico , 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 years ago , and Ocampo , Tamaulipas , Mexico , about 7 @,@ 000 years ago . It is known to have appeared in Missouri , United States , at least 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Debates about the origin of C. pepo have been on @-@ going since at least 1857 . There have traditionally been two opposing theories about its origin : 1 ) that it is a direct descendant of C. texana and 2 ) that C. texana is merely feral C. pepo . A more recent theory by botanist Thomas Andres in 1987 is that descendants of C. fraterna hybridized with C. texana , resulting in two distinct domestication events in two different areas : one in Mexico and one in the eastern United States , with C. fraterna and C. texana , respectively , as the ancestral species . C. pepo may have appeared in the Old World before moving from Mexico into South America . It is found from sea level to slightly above 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . Leaves have 3 – 5 lobes and are 20 – 35 centimeters ( 8 – 14 in ) wide . All the subspecies , varieties , and cultivars are interfertile . In 1986 Paris proposed a revised taxonomy of the edible cultivated C. pepo based primarily on the shape of the fruit , with eight groups . All but a few C. pepo cultivars can be included in these groups . There is one non @-@ edible cultivated variety : C. pepo var. ovifera .

= = History and domestication = =

The ancestral species of the genus Cucurbita were present in the Americas before the arrival of humans , and are native to the New World . The likely center of origin is southern Mexico , spreading south through what is now known as Mesoamerica , on into South America , and north to what is now the southwestern United States . Evolutionarily speaking , the genus is relatively recent in origin , dating back only to the Holocene , whereas the family Cucurbitaceae , in the shape of seeds similar to Bryonia , dates to the Paleocene . No species within the genus is entirely genetically isolated . C. moschata can intercross with all the others , though the hybrid offspring may not themselves be fertile unless they become polyploid . The genus was part of the culture of almost every native peoples group from southern South America to southern Canada . Modern @-@ day cultivated Cucurbita are not found in the wild . Genetic studies of the mitochondrial gene nad1 show there were at least six independent domestication events of Cucurbita separating domestic species from their wild ancestors . Species native to North America include C. digitata ( calabazilla ) , and C. foetidissima ( buffalo gourd ) , C. palmata ( coyote melon ) , and C. pepo . Some species , such as C. digitata and C. ficifolia , are referred to as gourds . Gourds , also called bottle @-@ gourds , which are used as utensils or vessels , belong to the genus Lagenaria and are native to Africa . Lagenaria are in the same family and subfamily as Cucurbita but in a different tribe .

The earliest known evidence of the domestication of Cucurbita dates back at least 8 @,@ 000 years ago , predating the domestication of other crops such as maize and beans in the region by about 4 @,@ 000 years . This evidence was found in the Guilá Naquitz cave in Oaxaca , Mexico , during a series of excavations in the 1960s and 1970s , possibly beginning in 1959 . Solid evidence of domesticated C. pepo was found in the Guilá Naquitz cave in the form of increasing rind thickness and larger peduncles in the newer stratification layers of the cave . By c . 8 @,@ 000 years BP the C. pepo peduncles found are consistently more than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick . Wild Cucurbita peduncles are always below this 10 mm barrier . Changes in fruit shape and color indicate that intentional breeding of C. pepo had occurred by no later than 8 @,@ 000 years BP . During the same time frame , average rind thickness increased from 0 @.@ 84 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 033 in ) to 1 @.@ 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 045 in ) .

Squash was domesticated first , followed by maize and then beans , becoming part of the Three Sisters agricultural system of companion planting . The English word " squash " derives from askutasquash ( a green thing eaten raw ) , a word from the Narragansett language , which was documented by Roger Williams , the founder of Rhode Island , in his 1643 publication A Key Into the Language of America . Similar words for squash exist in related languages of the Algonquian family .

= = = Production = = =

The family Cucurbitaceae has many species used as human food . Cucurbita is one of the most important of those , with the various species being prepared and eaten in many ways . Although the stems and skins tend to be more bitter than the flesh , the fruits and seeds of cultivated varieties are quite edible and need little or no preparation . The flowers and young leaves and shoot tips can also be consumed . The seeds and fruits of most varieties can be stored for long periods of time , particularly the sweet @-@ tasting winter varieties with their thick , inedible skins . Summer squash have a thin , edible skin . The seeds of both types can be roasted , eaten raw , made into pumpkin seed oil , ground into a flour or meal , or otherwise prepared .

Squashes are primarily grown for the fresh food market . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) reported that the ranking of the top five squash @-@ producing countries was stable between 2005 and 2009 . Those countries are : China , India , Russia , the United States , and Egypt . By 2012 , Iran had moved into the 5th slot , with Egypt falling to 6th . The top 10 countries in terms of metric tons of squashes produced are :

The only additional countries that rank in the top 20 where squashes are native are Cuba , which ranks 14th with 347 @,@ 082 metric tons , and Argentina , which ranks 17th , with 326 @,@ 900 metric tons . In addition to being the 4th largest producer of squashes in the world , the United States is the world 's largest importer of squashes , importing 271 @,@ 614 metric tons in 2011 , 95 percent of that from Mexico . Within the United States , the states producing the largest amounts are Florida , New York , California , and North Carolina .

This is how Cucurbita compares to several other major Cucurbitaceae crops in terms of crop tonnage harvested :

= = Nutrients = =

As an example of Curcubita , raw summer squash is 94 % water , 3 % carbohydrates , and 1 % protein , with negligible fat content ( table ) . In 100 grams , raw squash supplies 16 calories and is rich in vitamin C ( 20 % of the Daily Value , DV ) , moderate in vitamin B6 and riboflavin ( 12 @-@ 17 % DV ) , but otherwise devoid of appreciable nutrient content ( table ) , although the nutrient content of different Curcubita species may vary somewhat .

Pumpkin seeds contain vitamin E , crude protein , B vitamins and several dietary minerals ( see nutrition table at pepita ) . Also present in pumpkin seeds are unsaturated and saturated oils , palmitic , oleic and linoleic fatty acids , as well as carotenoids .

= = Toxins = =

Cucurbitin is an amino acid and a carboxypyrrolidine that is found in raw Cucurbita seeds . It retards the development of parasitic flukes when administered to infected host mice , although the effect is only seen if administration begins immediately after infection .

Cucurmosin is a ribosome inactivating protein found in the flesh and seed of Cucurbita , notably Cucurbita moschata . Cucurmosin is more toxic to cancer cells than healthy cells .

Cucurbitacin is a plant steroid present in wild Cucurbita and in each member of the family Cucurbitaceae . Poisonous to mammals , it is found in quantities sufficient to discourage herbivores . It makes wild Cucurbita and most ornamental gourds , with the exception of an occasional C. fraterna and C. sororia , bitter to taste . Ingesting too much cucurbitacin can cause stomach cramps , diarrhea and even collapse . This bitterness is especially prevalent in wild Cucurbita ; in parts of Mexico the flesh of the fruits is rubbed on a woman 's breast to wean children . While the process of domestication has largely removed the bitterness from cultivated varieties , there are occasional reports of cucurbitacin causing illness in humans . Cucurbitacin is also used as a lure in insect traps .

= = Pests and diseases = =

Cucurbita species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species , including the Cabbage Moth ( Mamestra brassicae ) , Hypercompe indecisa , and the Turnip Moth ( Agrotis segetum ) . Cucurbita can be susceptible to the pest Bemisia argentifolii ( silverleaf whitefly ) as well as aphids ( Aphididae ) , cucumber beetles ( Acalymma vittatum and Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardi ) , squash bug ( Anasa tristis ) , the squash vine borer ( Melittia cucurbitae ) , and the twospotted spidermite ( Tetranychus urticae ) . The squash bug causes major damage to plants because of its very toxic saliva . The red pumpkin beetle ( Raphidopalpa foveicollis ) is a serious pest of cucurbits , especially the pumpkin , which it can defoliate . Cucurbits are susceptible to diseases such as bacterial wilt ( Erwinia tracheiphila ) , anthracnose ( Colletotrichum spp . ) , fusarium wilt ( Fusarium spp . ) , phytophthora blight ( Phytophthora spp. water molds ) , and powdery mildew ( Erysiphe spp . ) . Defensive responses to viral , fungal , and bacterial leaf pathogens do not involve cucurbitacin .

Species in the genus Cucurbita are susceptible to some types of mosaic virus including : Cucumber mosaic virus ( CMV ) , Papaya ringspot virus @-@ cucurbit strain ( PRSV ) , Squash mosaic virus ( SqMV ) , Tobacco ringspot virus ( TRSV ) , Watermelon mosaic virus ( WMV ) , and Zucchini yellow mosaic virus ( ZYMV ) . PRSV is the only one of these viruses that does not affect all cucurbits . SqMV and CMV are the most common viruses among cucurbits . Symptoms of these viruses show a high degree of similarity , which often results in laboratory investigation being needed to differentiate which one is affecting plants .

= = Human culture = =

= = = Art , music , and literature = = =

Along with maize and beans , squash has been depicted in the art work of the native peoples of the Americas for at least 2 @,@ 000 years . For example , cucurbits are often represented in Moche ceramics .

Though native to the western hemisphere , Cucurbita began to spread to other parts of the world after Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1492 . Until recently , the earliest known depictions of this genus in Europe was of Cucurbita pepo in De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes in 1542 by the German botanist Leonhart Fuchs , but in 1992 , two paintings , one of C. pepo and one of C. maxima , painted between 1515 and 1518 , were identified in festoons at Villa Farnesina in Rome . Also , in 2001 depictions of this genus were identified in Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany ( Les Grandes Heures d 'Anne de Bretagne ) , a French devotional book , an illuminated manuscript created between 1503 and 1508 . This book contains an illustration known as Quegourdes de turquie , which was identified by cucurbit specialists as C. pepo subsp. texana in 2006 .

In 1952 , Stanley Smith Master , using the pen name Edrich Siebert , wrote " The Marrow Song ( Oh what a beauty ! ) " to a tune in 6 / 8 time . It became a popular hit in Australia in 1973 , and was revived by the Wurzels in Britain on their 2003 album Cutler of the West . John Greenleaf Whittier wrote a poem entitled The Pumpkin in 1850 . " The Great Pumpkin " is a fictional holiday figure in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz .

= = = Soap = = =

The fruit pulp of some species , such as C. foetidissima , can be used as a soap or detergent .

= = = Folk remedies = = =

Cucurbita have been used in various cultures as folk remedies . Pumpkins have been used by Native Americans to treat intestinal worms and urinary ailments . This Native American remedy was adopted by American doctors in the early nineteenth century as an anthelmintic for the expulsion of worms . In southeastern Europe , seeds of C. pepo were used to treat irritable bladder and benign prostatic hyperplasia . In Germany , pumpkin seed is approved for use by the Commission E , which assesses folk and herbal medicine , for irritated bladder conditions and micturition problems of prostatic hyperplasia stages 1 and 2 , although the monograph published in 1985 noted a lack of pharmacological studies that could substantiate empirically found clinical activity . The FDA in the United States , on the other hand , banned the sale of all such non @-@ prescription drugs for the treatment of prostate enlargement in 1990 .

In China , C. moschata seeds were also used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of the parasitic disease schistosomiasis and for the expulsion of tape worms .

In Mexico , herbalists use C. ficifolia in the belief that it reduces blood sugar levels .

= = = Culinary uses = = =

Long before European contact , Cucurbita had been a major food source for the native peoples of the Americas , and the species became an important food for European settlers , including the Pilgrims , even featuring at the first Thanksgiving . Commercially made pumpkin pie mix is most often made from varieties of C. moschata ; ' Libby 's Select ' uses the Select Dickinson Pumpkin variety of C. moschata for its canned pumpkin . Other foods that can be made using members of this genus include biscuits , bread , cheesecake , desserts , donuts , granola , ice cream , lasagna dishes , pancakes , pudding , pumpkin butter , salads , soups , and stuffing . The xerophytic species are proving useful in the search for nutritious foods that grow well in arid regions . C. ficifolia is used to make soft and mildly alcoholic drinks .

In India , squashes ( ghia ) are cooked with seafood such as prawns . In France , marrows ( courge ) are traditionally served as a gratin , sieved and cooked with butter , milk , and egg , and flavored with salt , pepper , and nutmeg , and as soups . In Italy , zucchini and larger squashes are served in a variety of regional dishes , such as cocuzze alla puviredda cooked with olive oil , salt and herbs from Puglia ; as torta di zucca from Liguria , or torta di zucca e riso from Emilia @-@ Romagna , the squashes being made into a pie filling with butter , ricotta , parmesan , egg , and milk ; and as a sauce for pasta in dishes like spaghetti alle zucchine from Sicily . In Japan , squashes such as small C. moschata pumpkins ( kabocha ) are eaten boiled with sesame sauce , fried as a tempura dish , or made into balls with sweet potato and Japanese mountain yam .

= = = Festivals = = =

Cucurbita fruits including pumpkins and marrows are celebrated in festivals in countries such as Argentina , Bolivia , Britain , Canada , Croatia , France , Germany , Italy , Japan , Peru , Portugal , Spain , Switzerland , and the United States . Argentina holds an annual nationwide pumpkin festival Fiesta Nacional del Zapallo ( " Squashes and Pumpkins National Festival " ) , in Ceres , Santa Fe , on the last day of which a Reina Nacional del Zapallo ( " National Queen of the Pumpkin " ) is chosen . In Portugal the Festival da Abóbora de Lourinhã e Atalaia ( " Squashes and Pumpkins Festival in Lourinhã and Atalaia " ) is held in Lourinhã city , called the Capital Nacional da Abóbora ( the " National Capital of Squashes and Pumpkins " ) . Ludwigsburg , Germany annually hosts the world 's largest pumpkin festival . In Britain a giant marrow ( zucchini ) weighing 54 @.@ 3177 kilograms ( 119 @.@ 750 lb ) was displayed in the Harrogate Autumn Flower Show in 2012 . In the USA , pumpkin chucking is practiced competitively , with machines such as trebuchets and air cannons designed to throw intact pumpkins as far as possible . The Keene Pumpkin Fest is held annually in New Hampshire ; in 2013 it held the world record for the most jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns lit in one place , 30 @,@ 581 on October 19 , 2013 .

Halloween is widely celebrated with jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns made of large orange pumpkins carved with ghoulish faces and illuminated from inside with candles . The pumpkins used for jack @-@ o @-@ lanterns are C. pepo , not to be confused with the ones typically used for pumpkin pie in the United States , which are C. moschata . Kew Gardens marked Halloween in 2013 with a display of pumpkins , including a towering pyramid made of many varieties of squash , in the Waterlily House during its " IncrEdibles " festival .

= Beautiful Liar =

" Beautiful Liar " ( Spanish : Bello Embustero ) is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé and Colombian singer Shakira . It was written by Beyoncé , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , and Stargate members Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen , and produced by Stargate and Beyoncé for the re @-@ release of Beyoncé 's second solo album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . The mixing of the song was done by Gustavo Celis . " Beautiful Liar " was released on March 14 , 2007 , by Columbia Records as the first single from the deluxe edition of the album . A Spanish and English mixed version of the song was produced and titled " Bello Embustero " .

" Beautiful Liar " is a mid @-@ tempo song ; musically , it is a melding of Shakira 's Latin and Middle Eastern styles with Beyoncé 's contemporary hip hop and R & B styles . Its theme is female empowerment ; two female protagonists sing about being charmed by the same man , but instead of fighting over him , both ladies agree that he is not worth their time . The song was well received by music critics , who praised generally Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's collaboration . " Beautiful Liar " was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Grammy Awards and the Spanish version was nominated for Record of the Year at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2007 . It won an Ivor Novello Awards for Best @-@ Selling British Song in 2008 .

" Beautiful Liar " was commercially successful . It peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and experienced the largest upward movement on that chart until 2008 . The song peaked at number one in many European countries , including France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , New Zealand , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom . Its accompanying music video was directed by Jake Nava , incorporates belly dancing moves . " Beautiful Liar " won the Most Earthshattering Collaboration award at the 2007 MTV Video Music Award . The song was included on Beyoncé 's set list during her 2007 The Beyoncé Experience world tour .

= = Conception and recording = =

" Beautiful Liar " was written by Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Amanda Ghost , Ian Dench , and Beyoncé . It was produced by Eriksen and Hermansen using their stage name , Stargate , and Beyoncé . Eriksen told Sound on Sound , " This song is very simple . Most of the time we have more chords in a song , because we find it hard writing a great song on just one chord . But if you do it right , you can make it work , and this song is an example . " The track had already been written in 2006 . Eriksen and Hermansen played it to their manager , Tyran Smith , who said that it would be perfect for a duet between Shakira and Beyoncé . Eriksen and Hermansen considered this to be impossible , however Smith was devoted to that idea . As they had no lyric or top melody , various writers attempted to finish the song . The first three attempts were not satisfactory , and Smith put Eriksen and Hermansen to work together with Ghost and Dench , who wrote a significant part of the lyrics and the melody .

" Beautiful Liar " initially had a Spanish title and different lyrics . Hermansen re @-@ titled it when he heard the line " beautiful liar " in one of the verses . When the production of the song was almost completed , it was presented to Beyoncé , who approved it . She added a few lines to the lyrics and recorded a solo version a few months before the release of the deluxe edition of B 'Day ( 2006 ) . Beyoncé confirmed that she would perform a duet with Shakira in an interview for Univision in December 2006 . In another interview for MTV News , Beyoncé said that she met Shakira several times at various awards shows , and they talked about plans to collaborate on a song as they are both fans of each other and respect each other 's work . Beyoncé said that she was very happy that they were able to work together after waiting for years .

When Beyoncé invited her to record a song for the re @-@ release of Beyoncé 's studio second album , B 'Day , Shakira was touring and consequently had difficulties to match her schedule with Beyoncé 's . A few months later , Shakira agreed to sing on the track . As she recorded her vocals , the songwriters and producers added the ethnic strings and percussion break . Beyoncé and Shakira recorded their vocals in different studios ; the vocals were engineered by Gustavo Celis . " Beautiful Liar " was recorded at Sony Music Studios and Battery Studios in New York City , Elastic Mix Studios and The Hit Factory in Florida , and Futura Productions in Boston , Massachusetts .

= = Composition = =

" Beautiful Liar " is a contemporary R & B and pop song , which is written in the key of G Phrygian dominant , and set in common time at a tempo of 96 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocal range spans from G3 to B ♭ 5 . Anna Pickard of The Guardian found elements of Latino and bounce music . The song opens with Shakira 's vocals accompanied by a piping , Middle Eastern figure , later joined by a mariachi @-@ flavored horn section . Groaning noises can be heard in the background which complement the melody . The names of the two singers are then heard : " Bee on say , be @-@ on @-@ SAY ! Sha kee ra , Sha @-@ ki @-@ RA " . The verses are sung on a mid @-@ tempo , strutting , hip @-@ thrusting arrangement , accented by rapid , flamenco @-@ like hand claps and guitar strums . The song also features Persian instruments such as , oud and ney .

Lyrically , " Beautiful Liar " speaks about two women who chose not to end a friendship because of a man who has cheated both of them . Its theme is one of female independence . Beyoncé told MTV News that " Beautiful Liar " is about female empowerment , in keeping with the theme of the album : " It 's about a guy who 's kind of playing both of us , and instead of us arguing over the guy we say , ' Forget him . Let 's stick together . He 's a beautiful liar . " The chorus features the lines , " Let 's not kill the karma , let 's not start a fight " with the female protagonists bonding in their mutual betrayal . Beyoncé and Shakira sing with staccato , intense vocal approach throughout the song . Beyoncé sings the lines " I didn 't know about you then , till I saw you with him again " earnestly while Shakira later adds " I walked in on your love scene , slow dancing " . In the end , the female protagonists conclude , " we can live without him " , referring to their cheating lover .

= = Release = =

" Beautiful Liar " was leaked onto the internet and appeared as an unpaid download in early February 2007 . The song was sent to radio stations in the United States on February 12 , 2007 ; it was added to rhythmic contemporary , contemporary hit radio , and urban contemporary playlists . " Beautiful Liar " was released as a CD Single in Australia on March 14 , 2007 , and on April 16 , 2007 , in the United Kingdom where it was released as a digital download two days earlier . In Europe , the song was released as a digital EP on April 14 , 2007 , and a maxi single on April 20 , 2007 . " Beautiful Liar " was later serviced as a digital EP in the UK and the US on May 20 , 2007 . Different versions of the song were produced ; Puerto Rican reggaeton artist Don Omar recorded verses for one of the song 's remixes , but this was not released . In the UK , most radio stations , including Radio 1 played an up @-@ beat dance remix of " Beautiful Liar " by the Freemasons instead of the original mix . Celis produced and mixed a Spanish @-@ language version , titled " Bello Embustero " , with additional lyrical contributions by Rudy Pérez . The Spanish version appeared on some regional releases of the deluxe edition of B 'Day in late May 2007 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

Nick Levine of Digital Spy awarded " Beautiful Liar " three stars out of five and wrote that it " isn 't as ridiculously overblown " as previous collaborations of Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey on " When You Believe " ( 1998 ) and Barbra Streisand and Celine Dion on " Tell Him " ( 1997 ) . However , he added that " it 's as calculated as a wannabe page 3 model 's decision to have a boob job " , and that an accompanying music video will keep fans happy . Ben Sisario of The New York Times called it a " steamy track " . Richard Cromelin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the singers " have fun with the grand soap @-@ operatics " of the song adding that " Beautiful Liar " has " cultural as well as musical resonance , furthering Beyonce 's bilingual agenda " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " is a minor letdown ; Shakira 's voice is too like Beyoncé 's for a truly complementary tango " . On April 26 , 2011 , Gary Trust of Billboard magazine listed " Beautiful Liar " at the fourth position on his list of the 10 All @-@ Female Hit Collaborations , calling it a " female @-@ bonding boy @-@ bashing anthem " . Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of the same publication ranked the song at number 22 on their list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " . In 2014 , Emily Exton of VH1 placed the track on her list of Shakira 's best duets , calling it a " sexy ode to the men we know we can 't trust " and praising both singers for their complementing vocal performance .

The song was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards . Its Spanish version was nominated at the 8th Annual Latin Grammy Award for Record of the Year . In Europe , " Beautiful Liar " won the Best @-@ Selling British Song at the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards . It was deemed eligible for the award because British songwriters Amanda Ghost and Ian Dench had worked on it .

= = = Chart performance = = =

Immediately after its release , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one on the iTunes best @-@ seller list in March 2007 . The song debuted at number 94 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart ; most sales were digital downloads . The following week , it rose 91 positions to number three after 150 @,@ 000 download copies were sold ; this set a record for the largest upward movement in the history of the Hot 100 chart , until it was surpassed by Britney Spears 's 2008 single " Womanizer " , and Kelly Clarkson 's 2009 single " My Life Would Suck Without You " . On the US Pop 100 chart , " Beautiful Liar " rose from number 77 to number three . It is one of the few singles to debut at number one on both the US Hot Digital Tracks chart and US Hot Digital Songs chart . In mid @-@ May , the song peaked at number one on the US Hot Singles Sales , becoming the fifth single from B 'Day to accomplish this feat . " Beautiful Liar " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in February 2009 , denoting shipment of one million copies . As of March 2014 , it has sold over 1 @,@ 419 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the US .

Outside the US , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one in 32 countries . In the UK , the Freemasons remixed version of the song was widely promoted by radio stations , including BBC Radio 1 , where it was put on the A @-@ List . Two weeks before the CD release , the song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 10 , based solely on downloads sales , which accumulated to 37 @,@ 500 units in its first week . It became both Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's highest debut on the UK Singles Chart based on digital sales alone . After the physical release , " Beautiful Liar " reached number one , becoming Beyoncé 's third UK number one single , and Shakira 's second . It remained at number one for three weeks . On June 20 , 2007 , the song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting sales of 400 @,@ 000 copies . " Beautiful Liar " was 2007 's 12th biggest @-@ selling single in the UK . As of September 2014 , the single has sold 430 @,@ 000 units in the UK . In Australia , the song reached number five , and was the country 's 51st best @-@ performing single in 2007 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified " Beautiful Liar " platinum , denoting shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted at number one on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and topped the Irish Singles Chart .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Beautiful Liar " was directed by Jake Nava , who directed several of Beyoncé 's other videos . It was filmed over two days , during the two @-@ week production of B 'Day Anthology Video Album . Because of a busy schedule , the production team did not have enough time for the choreography . The dance sequences were choreographed spontaneously and the routines were rehearsed in forty minutes . Beyoncé learned some of the choreography from Shakira , who created most of them and taught Beyoncé some belly dancing moves . Beyoncé originated the idea of playing a lookalike after an experience when she saw a boy dancing , and thought he was performing before a mirror , but realized he was dancing with another person . The music video premiered on Total Request Live on February 28 , 2007 .

The first half of the video features Beyoncé and Shakira in separate scenes . It begins with the women 's faces masked by smoke . As the video progresses they are featured against several different backgrounds , including dawn ( Beyoncé ) and dusk ( Shakira ) ; sheets blown in the wind ; bamboo covered with yellow orchids ; a room with blue neon lighting and Avestan writing on the walls ; and a background of stormy weather . Slow dance moves and belly dancing , during a breakdown after the bridge , are featured throughout the video . The women wear matching hairstyles and black outfits for the entirety of the video .

Alex Denney of Yahoo ! Music wrote that the dance moves of Beyoncé and Shakira in the video were convincing and erotic " without reaching the point of tackiness . " He added that the music video " is a real treat for men and women alike . The catchy beat and their lithe , sexy dance just provides an amazing entertaining video . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy praised the " gratuitous belly @-@ wiggling " choreography in the video . James Montgomery of MTV News noted that the music video " is enough to give you whiplash " due to Beyoncé 's and Shakira 's dance abilities . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine praised the scene during the bridge of the song , where Beyoncé and Shakira " begin mirroring each other 's movements " . Anna Pickard of The Guardian praised the clothes of the singers , saying that they matched their " mighty curves " , but criticized Beyoncé 's dancing throughout the video . Erin Strecker of Billboard noted how the clip " taught us all just how perfectly seductive the two could be " . " Beautiful Liar " was nominated for the Video Of The Year award at the 2007 BET Awards , but another Beyoncé video , " Irreplaceable " won it . At the 2007 MTV Video Music Award , it won the Most Earthshattering Collaboration , a new category in the awards show that year . Beyoncé received the award alone because Shakira was in Canada during the ceremonies .

= = Live performances = =

Beyoncé has never performed " Beautiful Liar " together with Shakira and the latter never performed the song live . Beyoncé 's first and only televised performance of the song was during The Early Show on CBS on April 2 , 2007 which was broadcast four days later . " Beautiful Liar " was later included on Beyoncé 's set list during her 2007 tour The Beyoncé Experience . On The Beyoncé Experience , Beyoncé was dressed in a green belly dancing outfit and stood in darkness with dry ice billowing behind her . A microphone was then lowered from the ceiling and as she began singing the first verse , colored illumination was projected onto the backdrop . Beyoncé then performed several hip dance routines . Towards the end of the performance , pairs of female dancers , clothed in purple dresses , performed mirrored choreography . Beyoncé was accompanied by two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three backup vocalists called The Mamas and a lead guitarist , Bibi McGill . Throughout the performance Shakira appeared on the video screen on stage .

While reviewing Beyoncé 's performance at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , on August 5 , 2007 , Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote , " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes . " Shaheem Reid of MTV News compared the performance with Michael Buffer further adding that " Beyoncé acknowledged Shakira by shaking her hips rapidly " . While reviewing Beyoncé 's performance of the song in Saskatoon on September 14 , 2007 , a writer of The StarPhoenix noted that it was one of the musical surprises during the evening . Jim Harrington from the San Jose Mercury News noted that Beyoncé 's all @-@ female band provided " plenty of punch " to the live performance of the song in Fresno on August 28 , 2007 further noting that the singer looked like a " sex kitten purring through " the song . In Los Angeles , on September 2 , Beyoncé performed " Beautiful Liar " , dressed in a green belly dancing outfit , with several female backup dancers , and live instrumentation . " Beautiful Liar " was included on Beyoncé 's live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) .

= = Formats and track listings = =

US and UK Digital EP

" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 21

" Beautiful Liar ( Bello Embustero ) " ( Spanish Version ) - 3 : 22

" Beautiful Liar ( Spanglish Version ) " ( featuring Sasha Fierce a.k.a. Beyoncé ) - 3 : 21

" Beautiful Liar ( Instrumental ) " - 3 : 19

New Zealand and UK Digital Download

" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 19

Australia , New Zealand and UK CD Single

" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 19

" Beautiful Liar ( Freemasons Remix Edit ) " ( featuring Shakira ) - 3 : 27

European Maxi single

" Beautiful Liar " ( featuring Shakira ) – 3 : 19

" Beautiful Liar ( Freemasons Remix Edit ) " ( featuring Shakira ) - 3 : 27

" Irreplaceable ( Maurice Joshua Remix Edit ) " - 4 : 03

" Déjà Vu ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) " - 3 : 15

" Beautiful Liar " ( Video ) - 3 : 34

= = Credits = =

Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes.Source :

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Star Wars : Rogue Squadron =

Star Wars : Rogue Squadron ( known as Star Wars : Rogue Squadron 3D on the PC ) is an arcade @-@ style action game co @-@ developed by Factor 5 and LucasArts . The first of three games in the Rogue Squadron series , it was published by LucasArts and Nintendo and released for Microsoft Windows and the Nintendo 64 in December 1998 . Rogue Squadron was one of the first games to take advantage of the Nintendo 64 's Expansion Pak , which allows gameplay at a 640 × 480 display resolution , instead of that system 's standard 320 × 240 resolution .

Set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy and inspired by the Star Wars : X @-@ wing Rogue Squadron comics , the game takes place primarily between events in the films Star Wars and The Empire Strikes Back . The player controls Luke Skywalker , commander of the elite X @-@ wing pilots known as Rogue Squadron . As the game progresses , Skywalker and Rogue Squadron fight the Galactic Empire in sixteen missions across various planets .

Rogue Squadron received generally positive reviews . Critics praised the game 's technical achievements and flight controls , but its use of distance fog and the lack of a multiplayer mode drew criticism . The game 's sales exceeded expectations ; by August 1999 , more than one million copies had sold worldwide . It spawned two sequels developed and released for the GameCube — Star Wars Rogue Squadron II : Rogue Leader and Star Wars Rogue Squadron III : Rebel Strike — as well as Star Wars : Episode I : Battle for Naboo , a spiritual successor released for Windows and Nintendo 64 .

= = Gameplay = =

Unlike the Star Wars : X @-@ Wing computer game series that emphasizes space combat simulation , Rogue Squadron is a fast @-@ paced , arcade @-@ style action game . Each of the game 's sixteen levels introduces mission objectives that must be completed to progress to the next level . These objectives are divided into four categories : search and destroy , reconnaissance , rescue , and protect . Enemy aircraft are primarily composed of TIE fighters . Ground defenses are more varied and include three different walkers , laser and missile turrets , tanks , probe droids , shuttles , stormtroopers and speeder bikes .

The heads @-@ up display features a health meter , a radar and an ammunition count for secondary weapons . The player can control five craft : X @-@ wing , A @-@ wing , Y @-@ wing , snowspeeder and V @-@ wing . Each vehicle offers a unique armament arrangement , as well as varying degrees of speed and maneuverability . The game initially restricts the player to a particular craft for each level ; however , after a level is completed , it can be replayed with any available craft . Levels set on non @-@ atmospheric moons expose the player 's craft to space ; thus disallowing the Speeder and V @-@ Wing ( which are repulsorcraft ) from being used ; but as on other levels , the craft is vertically confined . Nine bonus power @-@ ups are hidden in different levels throughout the game . These bonuses improve a craft 's weapons or durability and are applied to each eligible craft for the remainder of the game .

The player 's performance is measured throughout the game , and performance statistics are checked after each level against three medal benchmarks . Each benchmark contains five categories : completion time , number of enemies destroyed , shot accuracy , number of friendly craft and structures saved and number of bonuses collected . If a player 's performance exceeds one of the level 's three benchmarks in all five categories , a medal — bronze , silver or gold — is awarded on completion . Acquiring these medals promotes the player 's rank and helps unlock hidden content .

= = = Unlockable content = = =

Rogue Squadron includes a number of unlockable secrets . The player can unlock three bonus levels : " Beggar 's Canyon " , " The Death Star Trench Run " and " The Battle of Hoth " . These levels are made available when the player obtains all bronze , silver or gold medals , respectively , on each level . Alternatively , they can be unlocked via password . Unlike the game 's primary levels , the bonus levels are adaptions of events from the Star Wars films . " Beggar 's Canyon " allows the player to reenact the race mentioned in A New Hope , while " The Death Star Trench Run " allows the player to execute an alternate version of the movie 's climactic battle . In the " Battle of Hoth " bonus level , the player can join the Rebel Alliance 's combat against Imperial troops , as depicted in The Empire Strikes Back .

Several craft are also available when unlocked . Both the Millennium Falcon and a TIE interceptor are initially present in the craft selection screen . However , neither may be selected until the player enters the correct passwords or achieves all bronze or silver medals , respectively , on the bonus levels . Two other craft can be unlocked , but each is confined to a specific level . One is the T @-@ 16 Skyhopper in " Beggar 's Canyon " , and an AT @-@ ST is playable in a basic demonstration level unlocked only via password . A playable model of a 1969 Buick Electra 225 based on a car owned by the game 's sound designer , Rudolph Stember , is also included in the game as an Easter egg .

During Rogue Squadron 's development , Star Wars Episode I : The Phantom Menace — the first new Star Wars film in more than 15 years — was less than one year from its scheduled release date . To take advantage of this marketing opportunity , Factor 5 included content from the upcoming film in Rogue Squadron . LucasFilm provided the developers with design art for the Naboo Starfighter , a ship prominently featured in the new film . These designs were used to create an in @-@ game model . Because the game was scheduled to be released six months before the film , Factor 5 was required to keep the ship 's inclusion a secret . As a result , most of the game 's development team at Factor 5 and LucasArts were not informed of its inclusion . A complex scrambling system was also developed to help hide the ship 's code from gamers using cheat cartridges such as GameShark or Action Replay . More than six months after the release of Rogue Squadron , LucasArts unveiled the code to unlock the Naboo Starfighter as a playable craft . The code has been named the Nintendo 64 's most well @-@ hidden code because of the length of time before its discovery .

= = Synopsis = =

= = = Setting = = =

Star Wars : Rogue Squadron is set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy , where a war is fought between the Galactic Empire and the Rebel Alliance . The game 's first fifteen levels occur six months after the Battle of Yavin — as depicted in A New Hope — and before the events of The Empire Strikes Back . As the Empire gathers strength for an all @-@ out assault on the rebel forces , Luke Skywalker and Wedge Antilles form Rogue Squadron , a group comprising twelve of the most skilled X @-@ wing pilots from the Rebel Alliance .

The sixteenth and final level of the game takes place during Dark Empire , six years after Star Wars Episode VI : Return of the Jedi 's Battle of Endor . The Rebel Alliance has established the New Republic , which now controls three quarters of the galaxy . After the deaths of Emperor Palpatine and Darth Vader , the Galactic Empire collapsed , but was reborn under a mysterious new leader ( who is actually a clone of Palpatine ) . Rogue Squadron , now under the command of Wedge Antilles , continues to fight the Empire to protect the newly formed Republic .

= = = Plot = = =

The story is divided into four chapters , each of which starts with an opening crawl resembling those featured in the Star Wars films . Further story details are presented through the game 's instruction manual , pre @-@ mission briefings , character conversations during the game and in @-@ game cut scenes . The game begins with Rogue Squadron briefly encountering the Empire at the Mos Eisley spaceport on Tatooine . The team then executes escort and rescue missions on Barkhesh and Chorax , respectively .

The Rebels learn that Imperial officer Crix Madine wishes to defect to the Rebel Alliance . The Empire launches an attack on Corellia , where Madine is stationed , to prevent his departure . Rogue Squadron , with the help of Han Solo and Chewbacca in the Millennium Falcon , fights off the Empire and helps escort Madine safely off the planet . Soon after , Rogue Squadron is joined by Gold Squadron , a group of Y @-@ wings now led by Crix Madine ; they are dispatched to the moon of Gerrard V to aid its quest for independence from the Empire . They encounter the 128th TIE interceptor Squadron and disable Kasan Moor 's TIE . When Rogue Squadron tells Moor that she has been taken prisoner , she offers to defect and provide the Rebel Alliance with Imperial intelligence .

With the help of Kasan Moor 's intelligence , the Alliance launches three consecutive attacks on Imperial bases throughout the galaxy . After an assault on the Imperial Enclave , a facility on Kile II supporting the Empire 's Naval operations , Wedge Antilles is ambushed by a group of TIEs and is taken captive . The Rebel Alliance tracks Wedge to an Imperial prison complex on the planet of Kessel . The remaining members of Rogue Squadron travel to Kessel and rescue him and other Rebel prisoners .

With Wedge Antilles free and Rogue Squadron again at full strength , the Rebel Alliance turns its attention to a new Imperial threat — Moff Kohl Seerdon . Seerdon is consolidating Imperial power in preparation for an attack aimed at capturing Thyferra , a planet which produces the healing substance bacta . Rogue Squadron is ordered to disrupt his operation with hit @-@ and @-@ run missions against key targets on Taloraan and Fest . In retaliation , Seerdon attacks and holds a city on the planet of Chandrila hostage . Rogue Squadron and the Alliance strike back by initiating a Kasan Moor @-@ engineered raid on an Imperial base located inside a volcano on Sullust . While still on Sullust , however , General Rieekan informs the Squadron that Moff Seerdon has used their raid as a diversion and begun his attack on Thyferra . With Seerdon in control of the planet 's bacta and their own supply threatened , Rogue Squadron quickly reaches Thyferra , kills Seerdon and frees the planet .

In the final chapter , the game moves into the future , six years after the Battle of Endor . Rogue Squadron , now under the command of Wedge Antilles , continues to fight the wounded Empire . On the planet of Mon Calamari , new Imperial weapons called World Devastators are destroying the planet . Rogue Squadron is deployed , disables all three Devastators and destroys the Imperial presence .

= = Development = =

After the success of Star Wars : Shadows of the Empire on the Nintendo 64 in 1996 , LucasArts began planning a follow @-@ up . At the time , Factor 5 was developing a game engine to create large terrain maps . LucasArts , pleased with earlier collaborations with the company , decided to use Factor 5 's engine for its new game . The game 's focus would be space combat ; this direction was inspired by a level of Shadows of the Empire in which the player flies a snowspeeder during the Battle of Hoth . Rogue Squadron and Factor 5 production manager Brett Tosti stated , " That whole scene was actually the genesis for Rogue Squadron because everybody said , ' Why don 't you do a whole game like that ? ' So we did . " Factor 5 initially pitched a concept to allow gamers to play through missions similar to the fans ' favorite action sequences from the Star Wars films . This proposal was rejected , however . At that time , LucasFilm was not comfortable with video games drawing directly from the films .

During the early stages of development , the designers at LucasArts were inspired by Rogue Squadron and later Star Wars : X @-@ wing Rogue Squadron , a series of books and comic books set during the years of the original film trilogy . They began developing the story and gameplay with a similar setting that would include characters from the films participating in new , original missions using Factor 5 's terrain map engine as the base . In May 1998 , a demo of the game was displayed at E3 , but the game was so incomplete at the time that Tosti considered it a tech demo . It rendered a basic heightmap and an immobile AT @-@ AT model , while TIE fighters lacking artificial intelligence flew and fired in a predetermined path . When " playing " the demo for audiences , Tosti followed a very specific flight path of his own to give the illusion that he was actually battling with the TIEs . Despite the demo 's barebones presentation , response from gamers was largely positive .

Factor 5 appealed to Nintendo to use the Nintendo 64 's newly developed memory Expansion Pak . Nintendo was reluctant , expecting the technology to be reserved solely for hardware peripherals . However , after Iguana Entertainment used the Expansion Pak to achieve a higher display resolution for Turok 2 : Seeds of Evil , Factor 5 was given the green light . The Expansion Pak is used to increase Rogue Squadron 's N64 resolution from 320 × 240 to 640 × 480 .

LucasFilm was hesitant to grant access to the Star Wars library of sound effects for the game 's sound designer , Rudolph Stember . As a compromise , the company provided Stember with sounds sampled at the relatively low rate of 22 kHz , half the standard rate . Stember objected , claiming that the clips sounded worse than effects he had lifted from VHS tapes for a previous Star Wars project . The game includes voice work from several notable persons , including screen actors Olivia Hussey and Raphael Sbarge as well as voice actors Bob Bergen , Neil Ross and Terence McGovern . Instead of using Nintendo 's default sound drivers , Factor 5 developed its own tool called MOsys FX Surround . The Factor 5 drivers use Nintendo 64 processors , but tax them less ; advanced compression techniques were also employed . As a result , the game includes over 80 minutes of high @-@ quality stereo sound .

In November 1998 , a month before the game 's scheduled release , LucasArts signed a worldwide agreement with Nintendo concerning three new Star Wars video games . It granted Nintendo the rights to market the games and hold exclusive , worldwide distribution rights for five years following each release . Rogue Squadron was the first game released under this agreement .

= = Reception = =

Many reviews compared Star Wars : Rogue Squadron to one of its inspirations , the Battle of Hoth flight combat level in Star Wars : Shadows of the Empire , considered one of that game 's best elements . GamePro remarked that Rogue Squadron " enhanced the flight model with true pitch , roll , and bank mechanics " . IGN praised its inclusion of " upgrades , more enemies , better sound , and stunning second @-@ generation graphics " . The Nintendo 64 version received mostly positive reviews , and received an aggregate score of 85 percent from both GameRankings and Metacritic . GamePro named it one of the best games released in 1998 . In a 2008 retrospective , IGN 's Levi Buchanan stated that the game revived the Star Wars license on consoles through well @-@ paced gameplay , a story tied into the Star Wars canon and visuals that made it " one of the generation 's top stunners " .

The game 's technical aspects were singled out for acclaim . Its visuals were called " respectable " in the standard resolution , but highly praised in high @-@ resolution mode ( achieved via the Nintendo 64 's Expansion Pak ) . GameSpot remarked that in a higher resolution , " [ the ] textures of the landscapes , the ships , the lighting effects — everything looks so much better , " while IGN 's Peer Schneider said , " After playing the game in the optional high resolution mode ( 640 × 480 ) once , it 's impossible to go back to the still respectable standard resolution . " Citing details such as decals , Rebel markings , R2 units , cockpit views and exhaust flames , Schneider described the game 's 3D ship models as " gorgeous " . IGN 's Matt Casamassina said that the game was the best @-@ looking Nintendo 64 game to date .

Reviewers also praised the game 's sound design . Powered by the new Factor 5 audio drivers , Rogue Squadron features about 40 minutes of speech and 40 minutes of music . GameSpot 's Ryan Mac Donald believed that the game 's inclusion of extended voice work helped create a " movie @-@ like " atmosphere . IGN noted that in addition to being technically impressive , the game 's Dolby Pro Logic surround sound was an important gameplay element . The audio signals helped players determine enemy positions and direction of travel . IGN awarded the game three sound awards , including Sound Effects , Best Voice and Best Overall Sound of 1998 on the Nintendo 64 .

Some reviewers complained about aspects of the game 's visuals ; critics disliked the heavy reliance on distance fog . Another common criticism of the game was the lack of multiplayer modes . GamePro 's review called the omission a " serious , unforgivable sin " ; Schneider believed that while adding these modes would have extended Rogue Squadron 's replay value , the game was still enjoyable for its medal reward system and large number of secrets and unlockables .

Although nearly identical , the game 's PC version garnered lower review scores than its Nintendo 64 counterpart , with an aggregated GameRankings score of 80 percent . This version enjoyed many of the same praises for its gameplay , but handling and graphics were cited as problematic . Directly comparing the two versions , AllGame 's Brad Cook wrote that PC version 's handling is more difficult than the N64 version . He believed the PC 's " choppy " feel made it difficult to target enemies . In contrast to its opinion of the N64 version , IGN 's PC review was not enthusiastic about the game 's visuals . IGN staff remarked that Rogue Squadron 's " graphics and special effects aren 't spectacular " and that they had " seen better graphics " on the PC .

= = = Sales = = =

When Rogue Squadron was released in early December 1998 , the title 's Nintendo 64 incarnation was the second @-@ highest @-@ selling video game for the first half of the month ( behind Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time ) and the holiday season . Delayed until after Christmas in the United Kingdom , the game was released mid @-@ January and debuted as the second @-@ best @-@ selling game of the month , ahead of Ocarina of Time . In August 1999 , Nintendo added the title to its best @-@ selling Player 's Choice collection , while the PC version was re @-@ released as a part of the LucasArts Archive Series in May 2001 . Rogue Squadron 's retail success was not anticipated by the game 's producer Julian Eggebrecht , who said that the game sold " about 100 times better than anybody expected " . The Nintendo 64 version sold over 1 million copies in the United States , and over 44 @,@ 000 in Japan .

= HMS Glatton ( 1914 ) =

HMS Glatton and her sister ship Gorgon were originally built as coastal defence ships for the Royal Norwegian Navy , as Bjørgvin and Nidaros respectively . She was requisitioned from Norway at the beginning of World War I , but was not completed until 1918 although she had been launched over three years earlier . On 16 September 1918 , before she had even gone into action , she suffered a large fire in one of her 6 @-@ inch magazines , and had to be scuttled to prevent an explosion of her main magazines that would have devastated Dover . Her wreck was partially salvaged in 1926 , and moved into a position in the northeastern end of the harbour where it would not obstruct traffic . It was subsequently buried by landfill underneath the current car ferry terminal .

= = Background = =

Bjørgvin was ordered by Norway in 1913 to supplement the older Eidsvold class and Tordenskjold class classes of coastal defense ships . She would have been known in Norway as P / S Bjørgvin ; P / S stands for Panserskip ( " armoured ship " ) , while Bjørgvin was the old name for the Norwegian city of Bergen . However , when World War I broke out , the Royal Navy requisitioned most warships under construction in Britain for foreign powers and refunded the two @-@ thirds of Bjørgvin 's £ 370 @,@ 000 purchase price already paid by the Norwegians .

= = Construction and description = =

Bjørgvin was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick on 26 May 1913 and launched on 8 August 1914 . She was renamed Glatton after an earlier breastwork monitor of 1871 . Her completion was greatly delayed by the modifications made by the British , which included modifying the boilers to use both oil and coal and conversion of 12 double @-@ bottom tanks to carry the oil . This work began on 9 January 1915 , but was suspended the following May , when it was estimated that only another 10 – 12 months of work remained , to allow for faster progress to be made on the large light cruisers Furious and Courageous that were building in Armstrong 's Naval Yard downriver . In September 1917 , work was resumed to a new design that added a large anti @-@ torpedo bulge along about 75 % of the hull 's length , suppression of the torpedo tubes and 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns planned by the Norwegians , and a large tripod mast was to be fitted behind the single funnel to carry the directors for both the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) guns . Both of these guns had to be relined to use standard British ammunition and the mount for the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch gun was modified to give a maximum elevation of 40 ° which gave the gun a maximum range of 39 @,@ 000 yards ( 36 @,@ 000 m ) . Addition of the bulges cost 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) in speed , but prevented the extra weight resulting from all of these changes from deepening her draft . She was finally completed on 8 September 1918 .

Glatton displaced 5 @,@ 746 long tons ( 5 @,@ 838 t ) at deep load as built , with a length of 310 ft ( 94 m ) , a beam of 73 feet 7 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) at maximum , although her main hull only had a beam of 55 feet ( 16 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 16 feet 4 inches ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) . She was powered by two vertical triple expansion steam engines , which developed a total of 4 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) from four Yarrow watertube boilers and gave a maximum speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .

She was armed with two 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns arranged in two single @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of four six @-@ inch guns , also in single @-@ gun turrets , two of which superfired over the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch turrets . The other two were positioned on each side of the superstructure . One 3 in ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft gun was mounted on each center @-@ line 6 @-@ inch turret . She also carried four 3 @-@ pounder and two 2 @-@ pounder guns on high @-@ angle mounts .

= = Fate = =

After completion , Glatton sailed for Dover on 11 September 1918 to prepare for the offensive planned for later that month . At 6 : 15 on the evening of 16 September , Glatton 's midships 6 @-@ inch magazine had a low @-@ order explosion that ignited the cordite stored there . Flames shot through the roof of ' Q ' turret , starboard midside , and started to spread aft . The ship 's captain — Commander N. W. Diggle — ordered the forward magazines flooded , but the crew were unable to flood the rear magazines as the flames blocked access to the magazine flooding controls . The presence of the ammunition ship Gransha only 150 yards ( 140 m ) away risked a massive explosion that would devastate Dover if Glatton 's rear magazine exploded and set off Gransha 's ammunition . Vice @-@ Admiral Keyes — who had been walking with Commander Diggle when Glatton 's magazine exploded — boarded the recently arrived destroyer Cossack once apprised of the danger . He ordered Cossack to torpedo Glatton in an attempt to flood the magazine before it detonated . Cossack 's first 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) torpedo struck the anti @-@ torpedo bulge amidships , but failed to explode because it had been fired too close to Glatton . Her second torpedo blew a hole in Glatton at 7 : 40 , but the torpedo 's 200 @-@ pound ( 91 kg ) warhead was too small to penetrate through her bulge and Glatton remained afloat , still burning . Keyes transferred to the destroyer Myngs and ordered her to fire on Glatton with her 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedoes at 8 : 15 . They were aimed at the hole blown in Glatton 's starboard side by Cossack 's second torpedo and succeeded in causing Glatton to capsize until her masts and superstructure rested on the harbour bottom and dousing the fire . Casualties were heavy : 60 men were killed outright and 124 were injured of whom 19 later died of their burns .

= = = Inquiry = = =

A Court of Enquiry held immediately afterwards found that the explosion had occurred in the midships 6 @-@ inch magazine situated between the boiler and engine rooms . The cause was more difficult to establish , but the Court did note that the stokers were in the habit of piling the red @-@ hot clinker and ashes from the boilers against the bulkhead directly adjoining the magazine to cool down before they were sent up the ash ejector . The magazine was well insulated with 5 inches ( 13 cm ) of cork , covered by wood planking .75 inches ( 1 @.@ 9 cm ) thick and provided with special cooling equipment so it was not likely that the cordite had spontaneously combusted . The magazine of Glatton 's sister ship Gorgon was emptied and examined . The red lead paint on the bulkhead was blistered beneath the lagging and tests at the National Physical Laboratory demonstrated that it had been subject to temperatures of at least 400 ° F ( 204 ° C ) . Recorded temperatures inside the magazine did not exceed 83 ° F ( 28 ° C ) and a test of red @-@ hot ashes was inconclusive as the temperature in the lagging only reached 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) with occasional hot spots of 150 ° F ( 66 ° C ) . Other tests did reveal that the cork could give off flammable fumes under high heat and pressurized air . While not entirely satisfied with this conclusion it found in April 1919 that " The slow combustion of the cork lagging of the 6 @-@ inch midship magazine of the Glatton led to the ignition of the magazine and then to the ignition of the cordite in it and so caused the explosion . "

As a precaution , Gorgon 's lagging was stripped out and replaced with silicate wool , revealing the real cause . Part of the cork was missing and folded newspapers were found in the empty space which were left there by the dockyard workers during construction . Furthermore , a number of rivets were entirely missing which meant that 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) holes were present , which could have allowed the hot ashes to ignite the newspapers . The forced @-@ draught pressure in the boiler room would have supplied air through the rivet holes , causing the cork to give off flammable gases , and eventually ignite the cordite charges .

= = = Aftermath = = =

Glatton remained in Dover Harbour , an obstruction to shipping , with her hull visible at low tide as the Harbour Board could not afford the £ 45 @,@ 000 quoted on average by salvage companies . Finally they asked the Harbourmaster , Captain John Iron , if he could do it for less . He estimated it would cost about £ 5 @,@ 000 if he was granted use of the salvage craft already at Dover . The Board accepted his offer and work began in May 1925 . Some 12 @,@ 000 short tons ( 11 @,@ 000 t ) of silt were removed from underneath Glatton and her mainmast and superstructure were blasted away from the wreck . Four lifting lighters , with a capacity of 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) , were hired , but they would not suffice to lift a water @-@ logged 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) ship . It was necessary to seal all of the holes on her topside and pump air into each compartment at a rate of 70 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m3 ) per minute to restore her buoyancy . The first attempt to lift her began on 2 December 1925 and was successful in breaking the suction holding her to the bottom in combination with the rising tide . That was enough for the first try and the major lifting effort began the following day . Slowly she was moved , taking advantage of the tides , until on 16 March 1926 she was moved to a deep gully next to the western pier of the submarine harbour , close by the shore . The total cost was considerably more than originally estimated , but still far less than that quoted by the salvage companies , at no more than £ 12 @,@ 000 . There she remains , buried by landfill underneath the current car ferry terminal .

= = Memorial = =

A memorial was erected at St Mary 's Church and Grange Road cemetery in Gillingham , Kent . It was used from 1867 until 1973 when the site was largely cleared of memorials to provide a community open space for the local population . Then Woodlands Road Cemetery was used and this is the site of HMS Glatton 's Memorial with the graves of one officer and 56 men .

= Leo Martello =

Leo Martello ( September 26 , 1931 – June 29 , 2000 ) was a Sicilian @-@ American witch and gay rights activist , and author . He was a founding member of the Strega Tradition of Witchcraft , a form of the modern Pagan new religious movement which drew upon his own Sicilian heritage . During his lifetime he published a number of books on such esoteric subjects as Witchcraft , astrology , and tarot reading .

Born to a working @-@ class Italian American family in Dudley , Massachusetts , he was raised Roman Catholic although became interested in esotericism as a teenager . He later claimed that when he was 21 , relatives initiated him into a tradition of witchcraft inherited from their Sicilian ancestors ; this conflicts with other statements that he made , and there is no independent evidence to corroborate his claim . During the 1950s , he was based in New York City , where he worked as a graphologist and hypnotist . After beginning to publish books on paranormal topics in the early 1960s , he publicly began identifying as Wiccan in 1969 , and stated that he was involved in a New York coven .

After the Stonewall riots of 1969 , Martello – himself a gay man – involved himself in gay rights activism , becoming a member of the Gay Liberation Front ( GLF ) . Leaving the GLF following an internal schism , he became a founding member of the Gay Activist Alliance ( GAA ) and authored a regular column , " The Gay Witch " , for its newspaper . In 1970 he founded the Witches International Craft Associates ( WICA ) as a networking organization for Wiccans , and under its auspices organized a " Witch In " that took place in Central Park at Halloween 1970 , despite opposition from the New York City Parks Department . To campaign for the civil rights of Wiccans , he founded the Witches Anti @-@ Defamation League , which was later renamed the Alternative Religions Education Network . In 1973 , he visited England , there being initiated into Gardnerian Wicca by the Gardnerian High Priestess Patricia Crowther . He continued practicing Wicca into the 1990s , when he retreated from public life , eventually succumbing to cancer in 2000 .

= = Early life = =

= = = Youth : 1930 – 49 = = =

Martello was born on September 26 , 1930 , in Dudley , Massachusetts , being raised on a small farm rented by his father , the Italian immigrant Rocco Luigi Martello . Following the economic turmoil of the Great Depression , the Martellos were forced from their land and moved first to Worcester , Massachusetts and then to Southbridge , Massachusetts . It was here that Leo was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church , but his parents divorced soon after . Unable to care for him alone , his father sent Martello to the Catholic boarding preparatory school attached to Assumption College , Worcester , which was run by the Augustinians of the Assumption . He spent six years at the school , later describing it as the unhappiest period of his life . He studied graphology and from the age of 16 began making radio appearances as a graphologist , also writing stories for magazines .

Martello later claimed to have experienced psychic phenomena as a child , sparking his interest in occultism . By his early teenage years , he had begun studying palmistry and tarot card reading with a Gypsy named Marta . He also later claimed that his father had informed him that his grandmother , Maria Concetta , had been a psychic known as a Strega Maga ( " Great Witch " ) in her hometown of Enna , Sicily , Italy . According to Martello 's account , Concetta had worked as a folk magician and tarot card reader , and attracted the hatred and envy of the local Catholic clergy . He also related that on one occasion , she had killed a Mafioso using magic when he threatened her husband for not paying protection money . Martello related that when he was 16 , his father told him that he had cousins in New York City who wished to meet him . He proceeded to do so and – according to his account – they informed him that they were initiates of an ancient Italian witchcraft religion , La Vecchia ( " the Old Religion " ) . After identifying his possession of psychic powers , they initiated him into the tradition on his 21st birthday in 1951 , making him swear an oath never to reveal the secrets of the La Vecchia . Moving to the city , he studied at Hunter College and the Institute for Psychotherapy .

Martello never produced any proof to support his claims , and there is no independent evidence that corroborate them . An anonymous woman who had known Martello informed the researcher Michael G. Lloyd that during the 1980s , he had told her that he had never been initiated into a tradition of Witchcraft , and that he had simply embraced occultism in the 1960s in order to earn a living . The Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White expressed criticism of Martello 's claims , noting that it was " extremely doubtful " that a tradition of Wicca could have been passed down through Martello 's Sicilian family . Instead , he suggested that Martello might have been instructed in a tradition of folk magic that he later embellished into a form of Wicca , that the cousins themselves had constructed a form of Wicca that they passed on to Martello , or that the entire scenario had been a fabrication of Martello 's .

= = = New York City : 1950 – 68 = = =

Based in New York City , in 1950 Martello founded the American Hypnotism Academy , continuing to direct the organization until 1954 . From 1955 to 1957 , he served as treasurer of the American Graphological Society , and worked as a freelance graphologist for such corporate clients as the Unifonic Corporation of America and the Associated Special Investigators International . He also published a column titled " Your Handwriting Tells " for eight years that ran in the Chelsea Clinton News , and supplied various articles on the subject of graphology to different magazines . In the city , he also began to frequent the gay scene . In 1955 , Martello was awarded a Doctorate in Divinity by a non @-@ accredited organization , the National Congress of Spiritual Consultants , a clearing house for registered yet unaffiliated ministers . That year , he founded the Temple of Spiritual Guidance , taking on the role of Pastor , which he would continue in until 1960 , when he began to focus on his writing and his new philosophy of " psychoselfism " . In 1961 he published his first book , Your Pen Personality , in which he discussed the manner in which handwriting could be used to reveal the personality of the writer . Martello corresponded with California @-@ based Pagan Victor Henry Anderson , and it was at Martello 's encouragement that Anderson established his Mahaelani Coven circa 1960 .

Martello claimed that in the summer of 1964 , he moved to Tangier , Morocco , where he researched the history of the tarot , resulting in the publication of It 's in the Cards ( 1964 ) . Returning to the U.S. in 1965 , he moved in to an apartment in Greenwich Village , New York City , writing a book on astrology , It 's Written in the Stars , and a book on psychic protection , How to Prevent Psychic Blackmail . He also began attending the Spiritualist gatherings that were operated by Clifford Bias at the Ansonia Hotel . At some point High Priestess Lori Bruno founded a witchcraft coven and church , Our Lord and Lady of the Trinacrian Rose , in which Leo was acknowledged as Elder . In 1969 he publicly revealed himself to be a practitioner of Witchcraft ; claiming that he had gained the permission of his coven to do so . Intent on countering the negative publicity that Wicca had been receiving , he published The Weird Ways of Witchcraft in 1969 , the same year that he also published The Hidden World of Hypnotism .

= = Public activism = =

= = = Gay Liberation : 1969 – 70 = = =

In July 1969 , Martello attended an open meeting of the Mattachine Society 's New York branch . He was appalled at the Society 's negative reaction to the Stonewall riots , and castigated those gay people in the audience who accepted the categorization of homosexuality as a mental illness , accusing them of being self @-@ loathing . He proceeded to publish his thoughts in an essay in which he stated that " homosexuality is not a problem in itself . The problem is society 's attitude towards it . " Those gay rights activists who rejected the Mattachine Society 's approach and who favored a confrontational stance against the police and authorities founded the Gay Liberation Front ( GLF ) , with Martello elected the group 's first moderator . Martello supported the GLF 's stance that condemned " this rotten , dirty , vile , fucked @-@ up capitalist conspiracy " that dominated American society , and he volunteered by producing articles both for the group 's newsletter Come Out ! and for the wider press . He was involved in the GLF 's campaign against The Village Voice 's decision to ban the word " gay " from advertisements ; the magazine preferred the term " homophile " , which had also been used by the Mattachine Society . Wanting to break from previous gay liberation organizations , the GLF embraced the term " gay " , with Martello dismissing " homophile " as sounding like a nail file for homosexuals .

The GLF was structured around a system of anarchic consensus , which made it difficult for the group to reach conclusions on any issue , and heated arguments became commonplace at its meetings . In November 1969 , the group 's membership voted to provide political and financial support to the Black Panthers , an armed African @-@ American leftist group . This was heavily controversial among the GLF , given the homophobic nature of the Black Panthers , and resulted in a walk @-@ out of many senior members , including Martello , Arthur Evans , Arthur Bell , Lige Clarke , and Jack Nichols . That month , Martello was invited to a private meeting of these disaffected GLF members which resulted in the formation of the Gay Activist Alliance ( GAA ) . Although continuing the GLF 's emphasis on taking a confrontational approach to conventional American society and authority , the group was more tightly organized and structured , and focused exclusively on attaining equal rights for gay and lesbian people . The businessman Al Goldstein agreed to invest $ 25 @,@ 000 in the GAA 's new venture , a newspaper written by , and aimed at , the country 's gay community . It was launched in December 1969 as GAY , and it soon gained a readership of 25 @,@ 000 . Martello contributed a regular column known as " The Gay Witch " , reaching his widest audience to date , also authoring a variety of other articles that appeared in it .

= = = WICA and WADL : 1970 – 74 = = =

In 1970 , Martello founded the Witches International Craft Associates ( WICA ) , through which he issued The WICA Newsletter , set up to explain what Witchcraft and Wicca was to the wider public and to serve as a resource through which occultists could contact one another . In April 1970 he appeared on the WNEW @-@ TV Channel 5 documentary series Helluva Town , performing Witchcraft rites with several assistants in Central Park . That year saw one of New York 's first substantial gatherings of occultists , the Festival of Occult Arts , as well as the first Earth Day celebration and the first Christopher Street Gay Liberation Day parade . These events inspired Martello 's desire to hold a public Witchcraft Sabbat celebration . Acting under the auspices of WICA , in late summer he approached the New York City Parks Department asking for permission to hold a " Witch @-@ In " in Sheep Meadow , at the south end of Central Park , on October 31 , 1970 . The Department refused , and when Martello stated that the Witchcraft community would gather there regardless in their capacity as private individuals , he was threatened with police action . Martello gained the legal assistance of the New York Civil Liberties Union ( NYCLU ) , who informed the Parks Department that they were in breach of the First Amendment . The Department subsequently reversed their decision , and the event went ahead .

Inspired by his victory over the Parks Department , Martello founded an organization devoted to campaigning for the religious rights of Witches , the Witches Anti @-@ Defamation League ( WADL ) , which would eventually be renamed the Alternative Religions Education Network ( AREN ) . For WADL , he authored an essay titled " The Witch Manifesto " , likely influenced by Carl Wittman 's " Refugees from Amerika : A Gay Manifesto " ( 1970 ) , which demanded that the Roman Catholic Church face a tribunal for crimes committed against accused witches in the Early Modern period and that they pay reparations to the modern Witchcraft community for those actions . During this decade he authored a column for Gnostica magazine which was titled " Wicca Basket " , a pun on the phonetic similarity between " Wicca " and " wicker " .

In 1971 , a young gay Wiccan named Eddie Buczynski contacted Martello , and requested initiation . Due to Buczynski 's inexperience in the religion , Martello turned him down , although developed a friendship with him . Martello introduced Buczynski both to other covens who might initiate him , and to Herman Slater , who would become his long @-@ time partner . Slater was ill with various medical complications , and on one occasion was rehabilitating at the New York University Medical Center when Martello performed a healing ritual on him with the assistance of Buczynski . Martello would come to be known as a regular at The Warlock Shop , an occult store opened by Slater in New York . Through The WICA Newsletter , Martello had met Lady Gwen Thompson , the founder of the New England Covens of Traditionalist Witches ( NECTW ) , and decided to introduce Buczynski to her , resulting in Buczynski 's initiation into the tradition in Spring 1972 . Martello and Thompson later fell out , with some unconfirmed accounts claiming that it was because he lent her money and she did not pay him back . In October 1972 , Buczynski founded his own tradition of Wicca , termed Welsh Traditionalist Witchcraft , with Martello becoming an early initiate and taking on the name of " Nemesis " within that tradition . In turn , Martello welcomed Buczynski into his La Vecchia tradition , and initiated him through its three degree system .

In November 1972 , Martello lectured at the first Friends of the Craft conference , held at New York 's First Unitarian Church . In April 1973 , he moved to England for six months , where he was initiated and trained in the three degrees of Gardnerian Wicca by the Sheffield coven run by Patricia Crowther and her husband Arnold Crowther . He continued to encourage acceptance of homosexuality within the Pagan and Witchcraft community , authoring an article titled " The Gay Pagan " for Green Egg magazine . He expressed the view that homophobic Wiccans were " sexually insecure " and that they viewed the religion simply as " a ritual means of fornication " . He was also among the prominent male Pagans to endorse feminist and female @-@ only variants of Wicca , such as the Dianic Wicca promoted by Zsuzsanna Budapest .

= = = Later life = = =

During the 1990s , Martello retired from his public work . Doyle White noted that while Martello faded from prominence as the head of the Strega Wicca movement , the tradition gained a " new public advocate " in Raven Grimassi . Martello died of cancer on 29 June 2000 . Bruno was the executrix of his estate .

= = Personal life = =

Lloyd described Martello as " a lanky , hungry scrapper with piercing eyes , the face of a dark angel , and a mouth like a bear trap " , while in her encyclopaedia on Wicca , Rosemary Ellen Guiley described him as " a colourful figure , known for his humor " . Bruno described him as " a loving man , yet sometimes caustic " , stating that to know him " was an honor , and ever a challenge " . He was often noted for his scruffy appearance , with him typically wearing second @-@ hand clothes .

= = = Beliefs = = =

Martello defended the growing rise of feminists in Wicca during the 1970s , criticizing what he deemed as the continual repression of women within the Pagan movement . He also espoused the view that any Pagan who was involved in the U.S. government or military was a hypocrite . He was critical of Wiccans who espoused a division between white magic and black magic , commenting that it had racial overtones and that many of those advocating such a view were racist .

Although aware that historians had criticized the witch @-@ cult hypothesis of Margaret Murray , Martello stood by her claims , believing that the cult had been passed through oral tradition and thus evaded appearing in the textual sources studied by historians . Martello thought it unimportant that many Wiccans had lied about the origins of their beliefs , being quoted by Pagan journalist Margot Adler in her book Drawing Down the Moon as having stated " Let 's assume that many people lied about their lineage . Let 's further assume that there are no covens on the current scene that have any historical basis . The fact remains : they do exist now . And they can claim a spiritual lineage going back thousands of years . All of our pre @-@ Judeo @-@ Christian or Moslem ancestors were Pagans ! "

= = Publications = =

= Tropical Storm Julio ( 2008 ) =

Tropical Storm Julio was a tropical storm that made landfall on the southern tip of Baja California Sur in August 2008 . The tenth named storm of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season , it developed from a tropical wave on August 23 off the coast of Mexico . It moved parallel to the coast , reaching peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before moving ashore and weakening . On August 26 it dissipated in the Gulf of California . Julio was the third tropical cyclone to make landfall in the Pacific Ocean basin during the season , after Tropical Storm Alma , which struck Nicaragua in May , and Tropical Depression Five @-@ E , which moved ashore along southwestern Mexico in July . The storm brought locally heavy rainfall to southern Baja California , killing one person and leaving several towns isolated . Moisture from Julio reached Arizona , producing thunderstorms , including one which damaged ten small planes in Chandler .

= = Meteorological history = =

On August 20 , a tropical wave became discernible about 800 miles ( 1300 km ) off the coast of Mexico , which in the next day developed a large area of convection , or thunderstorms . Initially , conditions were unfavorable for development , due to strong upper @-@ level wind shear . Tracking northwestward parallel to the Mexican coast , the system became better organized on August 22 , though later that day its structure deteriorated . On August 23 , a strong area of convection developed and persisted near a circulation center , despite strong wind shear . With banding features becoming more prominent , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E about 345 miles ( 555 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .

The tropical depression initially moved northwestward around the southwestern periphery of a ridge over Mexico . Convection continued to develop to the west of the center , and late on August 23 , a ship report confirmed the depression intensified Tropical Storm Julio . Initially , the persistent shear left the center partially exposed from the thunderstorm activity , though upper level conditions gradually became more favorable for strengthening . On August 24 , Tropical Storm Julio attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) as intense convection developed near the center . Shortly thereafter , the center became difficult to locate , and late on August 24 the storm moved ashore along the southwestern coast of the Baja California Peninsula .

Tropical Storm Julio quickly weakened over land , although it initially maintained strong convection near its center . By early on August 26 , however , the low @-@ level and upper @-@ level circulations separated , with the upper @-@ circulation continuing quickly northeastward into mainland Mexico ; the low @-@ level circulation slowed as it entered the Gulf of California , after having been separated from its deep convection . Later in the day , the NHC discontinued advisories after the storm failed to maintain enough organized convection to be considered a tropical cyclone .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Shortly before it was named , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch in the state of Baja California Sur , from Santa Fe on the Pacific coast around the peninsula to Buenavista along the Gulf of California . About 24 hours prior to landfall , the watch was replaced with a warning from Santa Fe to San Evaristo , and the tropical storm watch was extended along both sides of the peninsula . Prior to it making landfall , more than 2 @,@ 500 families in susceptible areas left their homes . Officials opened several shelters in the area where the storm struck .

As Julio made landfall , it produced lightning and locally heavy rainfall , which left more than a dozen communities isolated due to flooding . The flooding damaged several houses and killed two people . Winds were generally light , although strong enough to damage a few electrical poles and small buildings . In nearby Sinaloa , rainfall from the storm led to an emergency evacuation of 500 residents .

Moisture from Julio developed thunderstorms across Arizona , including one near Chandler which produced winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; the storm damaged ten small planes at Chandler Municipal Airport , as well as a hangar . The damages at the airport were estimated at $ 1 million ( USD ) . The storms also dropped heavy rainfall , reaching over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in Gilbert , which caused flooding on Interstate 17 .

= Hubble Space Telescope =

The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 , and remains in operation . Although not the first space telescope , Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile , and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy . The HST is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble , and is one of NASA 's Great Observatories , along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory , the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory , and the Spitzer Space Telescope .

With a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) mirror , Hubble 's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet , visible , and near infrared spectra . Hubble 's orbit outside the distortion of Earth 's atmosphere allows it to take extremely high @-@ resolution images , with substantially lower background light than ground @-@ based telescopes . Hubble has recorded some of the most detailed visible @-@ light images ever , allowing a deep view into space and time . Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics , such as accurately determining the rate of expansion of the universe .

The HST was built by the United States space agency NASA , with contributions from the European Space Agency . The Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) selects Hubble 's targets and processes the resulting data , while the Goddard Space Flight Center controls the spacecraft .

Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923 . Hubble was funded in the 1970s , with a proposed launch in 1983 , but the project was beset by technical delays , budget problems , and the Challenger disaster ( 1986 ) . When finally launched in 1990 , Hubble 's main mirror was found to have been ground incorrectly , compromising the telescope 's capabilities . The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993 .

Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts . After launch by Space Shuttle Discovery in 1990 , four subsequent Space Shuttle missions repaired , upgraded , and replaced systems on the telescope . A fifth mission was canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster ( 2003 ) . However , after spirited public discussion , NASA administrator Mike Griffin approved one final servicing mission , completed in 2009 . The telescope is operating as of 2016 , and could last until 2030 – 2040 . Its scientific successor , the James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) , is scheduled for launch in 2018 .

= = Conception , design and aim = =

= = = Proposals and precursors = = =

In 1923 , Hermann Oberth — considered a father of modern rocketry , along with Robert H. Goddard and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky — published Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ( " The Rocket into Planetary Space " ) , which mentioned how a telescope could be propelled into Earth orbit by a rocket .

The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946 , to the astronomer Lyman Spitzer 's paper " Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory " . In it , he discussed the two main advantages that a space @-@ based observatory would have over ground @-@ based telescopes . First , the angular resolution ( the smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished ) would be limited only by diffraction , rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere , which causes stars to twinkle , known to astronomers as seeing . At that time ground @-@ based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 0 arcseconds , compared to a theoretical diffraction @-@ limited resolution of about 0 @.@ 05 arcsec for a telescope with a mirror 2 @.@ 5 m in diameter . Second , a space @-@ based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light , which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere .

Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for the development of a space telescope . In 1962 , a report by the US National Academy of Sciences recommended the development of a space telescope as part of the space program , and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining scientific objectives for a large space telescope .

Space @-@ based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II , as scientists made use of developments that had taken place in rocket technology . The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946 , and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) launched the Orbiting Solar Observatory ( OSO ) to obtain UV , X @-@ ray , and gamma @-@ ray spectra in 1962 . An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the United Kingdom as part of the Ariel space program , and in 1966 NASA launched the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory ( OAO ) mission . OAO @-@ 1 's battery failed after three days , terminating the mission . It was followed by OAO @-@ 2 , which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972 , well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year .

The OSO and OAO missions demonstrated the important role space @-@ based observations could play in astronomy , and in 1968 , NASA developed firm plans for a space @-@ based reflecting telescope with a mirror 3 m in diameter , known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope ( LST ) , with a launch slated for 1979 . These plans emphasized the need for manned maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life , and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable space shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available .

= = = Quest for funding = = =

The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal . In 1970 , NASA established two committees , one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project , and the other to determine the scientific goals of the mission . Once these had been established , the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument , which would be far more costly than any Earth @-@ based telescope . The U.S. Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages , which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope . In 1974 , public spending cuts led to Congress deleting all funding for the telescope project .

In response to this , a nationwide lobbying effort was coordinated among astronomers . Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person , and large scale letter @-@ writing campaigns were organized . The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasizing the need for a space telescope , and eventually the Senate agreed to half of the budget that had originally been approved by Congress .

The funding issues led to something of a reduction in the scale of the project , with the proposed mirror diameter reduced from 3 m to 2 @.@ 4 m , both to cut costs and to allow a more compact and effective configuration for the telescope hardware . A proposed precursor 1 @.@ 5 m space telescope to test the systems to be used on the main satellite was dropped , and budgetary concerns also prompted collaboration with the European Space Agency . ESA agreed to provide funding and supply one of the first generation instruments for the telescope , as well as the solar cells that would power it , and staff to work on the telescope in the United States , in return for European astronomers being guaranteed at least 15 % of the observing time on the telescope . Congress eventually approved funding of US $ 36 million for 1978 , and the design of the LST began in earnest , aiming for a launch date of 1983 . In 1983 the telescope was named after Edwin Hubble , who made one of the greatest scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century when he discovered that the universe is expanding .

= = = Construction and engineering = = =

Once the Space Telescope project had been given the go @-@ ahead , work on the program was divided among many institutions . Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) was given responsibility for the design , development , and construction of the telescope , while Goddard Space Flight Center was given overall control of the scientific instruments and ground @-@ control center for the mission . MSFC commissioned the optics company Perkin @-@ Elmer to design and build the Optical Telescope Assembly ( OTA ) and Fine Guidance Sensors for the space telescope . Lockheed was commissioned to construct and integrate the spacecraft in which the telescope would be housed .

= = = Optical Telescope Assembly ( OTA ) = = =

Optically , the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey – Chrétien design , as are most large professional telescopes . This design , with two hyperbolic mirrors , is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view , with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test . The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance , and they were designed to exacting specifications . Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light , but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet ( shorter wavelengths ) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment . Therefore , its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers , or about 1 / 65 of the wavelength of red light . On the long wavelength end , the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind — for example , the mirrors are kept at stable ( and warm , about 15 ° C ) temperatures by heaters . This limits Hubble 's performance as an infrared telescope .

Perkin @-@ Elmer intended to use custom @-@ built and extremely sophisticated computer @-@ controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape . However , in case their cutting @-@ edge technology ran into difficulties , NASA demanded that PE sub @-@ contract to Kodak to construct a back @-@ up mirror using traditional mirror @-@ polishing techniques . ( The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work . Their bid called for the two companies to double @-@ check each other 's work , which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused such problems . ) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum . An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2 @.@ 4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory .

Construction of the Perkin @-@ Elmer mirror began in 1979 , starting with a blank manufactured by Corning from their ultra @-@ low expansion glass . To keep the mirror 's weight to a minimum it consisted of top and bottom plates , each one inch ( 25 @.@ 4 mm ) thick , sandwiching a honeycomb lattice . Perkin @-@ Elmer simulated microgravity by supporting the mirror from the back with 130 rods that exerted varying amounts of force . This ensured that the mirror 's final shape would be correct and to specification when finally deployed . Mirror polishing continued until May 1981 . NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin @-@ Elmer 's managerial structure , and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget . To save money , NASA halted work on the back @-@ up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984 . The mirror was completed by the end of 1981 ; it was washed using 2 @,@ 400 gallons ( 9 @,@ 100 L ) of hot , deionized water and then received a reflective coating of 65 nm @-@ thick aluminum and a protective coating of 25 nm @-@ thick magnesium fluoride .

Doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin @-@ Elmer 's competence on a project of this importance , as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate . In response to a schedule described as " unsettled and changing daily " , NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985 . Perkin @-@ Elmer 's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter , and at times delays reached one day for each day of work . NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until March and then September 1986 . By this time , the total project budget had risen to US $ 1 @.@ 175 billion .

= = = Spacecraft systems = = =

The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge . It would have to withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth 's shadow , which would cause major changes in temperature , while being stable enough to allow extremely accurate pointing of the telescope . A shroud of multi @-@ layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable , and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit . Within the shell , a graphite @-@ epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned . Because graphite composites are hygroscopic , there was a risk that water vapor absorbed by the truss while in Lockheed 's clean room would later be expressed in the vacuum of space ; resulting in the telescope 's instruments being covered by ice . To reduce that risk , a nitrogen gas purge was performed before launching the telescope into space .

While construction of the spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments would be housed proceeded somewhat more smoothly than the construction of the OTA , Lockheed still experienced some budget and schedule slippage , and by the summer of 1985 , construction of the spacecraft was 30 % over budget and three months behind schedule . An MSFC report said that Lockheed tended to rely on NASA directions rather than take their own initiative in the construction .

= = = Computer systems and data processing = = =

The two initial , primary computers on the HST were the 1 @.@ 25 MHz DF @-@ 224 system , built by Rockwell Autonetics , which contained three redundant CPUs , and two redundant NSSC @-@ 1 ( NASA Standard Spacecraft Computer , Model 1 ) systems , developed by Westinghouse and GSFC using diode @-@ transistor logic ( DTL ) . A co @-@ processor for the DF @-@ 224 was added during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993 , which consisted of two redundant strings of an Intel @-@ based 80386 processor with an 80387 math co @-@ processor . The DF @-@ 224 and its 386 co @-@ processor were replaced by a 25 MHz Intel @-@ based 80486 processor system during Servicing Mission 3A in 1999 .

Additionally , some of the science instruments and components had their own embedded microprocessor @-@ based control systems . The MATs ( Multiple Access Transponder ) components , MAT @-@ 1 and MAT @-@ 2 , utilize Hughes Aircraft CDP1802CD microprocessors . The Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WFPC ) also utilized an RCA 1802 microprocessor ( or possibly the older 1801 version ) . The WFPC @-@ 1 was replaced by the WFPC @-@ 2 during Servicing Mission 1 in 1993 , which was then replaced by the Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 ) during Servicing Mission 4 in 2009 .

= = = Initial instruments = = =

When launched , the HST carried five scientific instruments : the Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WF / PC ) , Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph ( GHRS ) , High Speed Photometer ( HSP ) , Faint Object Camera ( FOC ) and the Faint Object Spectrograph ( FOS ) . WF / PC was a high @-@ resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations . It was built by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest . The instrument contained eight charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) chips divided between two cameras , each using four CCDs . Each CCD has a resolution of 0 @.@ 64 megapixels . The " wide field camera " ( WFC ) covered a large angular field at the expense of resolution , while the " planetary camera " ( PC ) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips , giving it a greater magnification .

The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet . It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90 @,@ 000 . Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS , which were capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instruments on Hubble . Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon @-@ counting digicons as their detectors . The FOC was constructed by ESA , while the University of California , San Diego , and Martin Marietta Corporation built the FOS .

The final instrument was the HSP , designed and built at the University of Wisconsin – Madison . It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness . It could take up to 100 @,@ 000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2 % or better .

HST 's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument . Its three Fine Guidance Sensors ( FGS ) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation , but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry ; measurements accurate to within 0 @.@ 0003 arcseconds have been achieved .

= = = Ground support = = =

The Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and the delivery of data products to astronomers . STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy ( AURA ) and is physically located in Baltimore , Maryland on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University , one of the 39 US universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium . STScI was established in 1981 after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large . NASA had wanted to keep this function in @-@ house , but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment . The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility ( ST @-@ ECF ) , established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984 , provided similar support for European astronomers until 2011 , when these activities were moved to the European Space Astronomy Centre .

One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope . Hubble is in a low @-@ Earth orbit to enable servicing missions , but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit . Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels , and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun ( precluding observations of Mercury ) , Moon and Earth . The solar avoidance angle is about 50 ° , to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA . Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs , and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments . If the FGSs are turned off , however , the Moon and Earth can be observed . Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat @-@ fields for the WFPC1 instrument . There is a so @-@ called continuous viewing zone ( CVZ ) , at roughly 90 ° to the plane of Hubble 's orbit , in which targets are not occulted for long periods . Due to the precession of the orbit , the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks . Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30 ° of regions within the CVZ , the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations .

Hubble orbits in the upper atmosphere at an altitude of approximately 569 kilometers ( 354 mi ) and an inclination of 28 @.@ 5 ° . The position along its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable . The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors , and this means that Hubble 's predicted position for six weeks ' time could be in error by up to 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) . Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance , as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance that the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed .

Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Maryland , 48 km ( 30 mi ) south of the STScI . Hubble 's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble 's Flight Operations Team .

= = = Challenger disaster , delays , and eventual launch = = =

By early 1986 , the planned launch date of October that year looked feasible , but the Challenger accident brought the U.S. space program to a halt , grounding the Space Shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years . The telescope had to be kept in a clean room , powered up and purged with nitrogen , until a launch could be rescheduled . This costly situation ( about $ 6 million per month ) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher . This delay did allow time for engineers to perform extensive tests , swap out a possibly failure @-@ prone battery , and make other improvements . Furthermore , the ground software needed to control Hubble was not ready in 1986 , and in fact was barely ready by the 1990 launch .

Eventually , following the resumption of shuttle flights in 1988 , the launch of the telescope was scheduled for 1990 . On April 24 , 1990 , shuttle mission STS @-@ 31 saw Discovery launch the telescope successfully into its planned orbit .

From its original total cost estimate of about US $ 400 million , the telescope had by now cost over $ 2 @.@ 5 billion to construct . Hubble 's cumulative costs were estimated to be about US $ 10 billion in 2010 , twenty years after launch .

= = Flawed mirror = =

Within weeks of the launch of the telescope , the returned images indicated a serious problem with the optical system . Although the first images appeared to be sharper than those of ground @-@ based telescopes , Hubble failed to achieve a final sharp focus and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected . Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond , instead of having a point spread function ( PSF ) concentrated within a circle 0 @.@ 1 arcsec in diameter as had been specified in the design criteria .

Analysis of the flawed images showed that the cause of the problem was that the primary mirror had been ground to the wrong shape . Although it was probably the most precisely figured mirror ever made , with variations from the prescribed curve of only 10 nanometers , at the perimeter it was too flat by about 2 @,@ 200 nanometers ( 2 @.@ 2 micrometers ) . This difference was catastrophic , introducing severe spherical aberration , a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its center .

The effect of the mirror flaw on scientific observations depended on the particular observation — the core of the aberrated PSF was sharp enough to permit high @-@ resolution observations of bright objects , and spectroscopy of point sources was only affected through a sensitivity loss . However , the loss of light to the large , out of focus halo severely reduced the usefulness of the telescope for faint objects or high @-@ contrast imaging . This meant that nearly all of the cosmological programs were essentially impossible , since they required observation of exceptionally faint objects . NASA and the telescope became the butt of many jokes , and the project was popularly regarded as a white elephant . For instance , in the 1991 comedy The Naked Gun 2 ½ : The Smell of Fear , Hubble was pictured with the Titanic , the Hindenburg , and the Edsel . Nonetheless , during the first three years of the Hubble mission , before the optical corrections , the telescope still carried out a large number of productive observations of less demanding targets . The error was well characterized and stable , enabling astronomers to partially compensate for the defective mirror by using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution .

= = = Origin of the problem = = =

A commission headed by Lew Allen , director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , was established to determine how the error could have arisen . The Allen Commission found that the main null corrector , a testing device used to achieve a properly shaped non @-@ spherical mirror , had been incorrectly assembled — one lens was out of position by 1 @.@ 3 mm . During the initial grinding and polishing of the mirror , Perkin @-@ Elmer analyzed its surface with two conventional null correctors . However , for the final manufacturing step ( figuring ) , they switched to a custom @-@ built null corrector , designed explicitly to meet very strict tolerances . The incorrect assembly of the device resulted in the mirror being ground very precisely but to the wrong shape . There was one later opportunity to catch the error , since for technical reasons a few of the final tests needed to use the two conventional null correctors . These tests correctly reported spherical aberration , but were dismissed since the reflective null corrector was considered more accurate .

The commission blamed the failings primarily on Perkin @-@ Elmer . Relations between NASA and the optics company had been severely strained during the telescope construction , due to frequent schedule slippage and cost overruns . NASA found that Perkin @-@ Elmer did not review or supervise the mirror construction adequately , did not assign its best optical scientists to the project ( as it had for the prototype ) , and in particular did not involve the optical designers in the construction and verification of the mirror . While the commission heavily criticized Perkin @-@ Elmer for these managerial failings , NASA was also criticized for not picking up on the quality control shortcomings , such as relying totally on test results from a single instrument .

= = = Design of a solution = = =

The design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions , and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem that could be applied at the first servicing mission , scheduled for 1993 . While Kodak had ground a back @-@ up mirror for Hubble , it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit , and too expensive and time @-@ consuming to bring the telescope back to Earth for a refit . Instead , the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense , to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission , effectively acting as " spectacles " to correct the spherical aberration .

The first step was a precise characterization of the error in the main mirror . Working backwards from images of point sources , astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror as built was − 1 @.@ 01390 ± 0 @.@ 0002 , instead of the intended − 1 @.@ 00230 . The same number was also derived by analyzing the null corrector used by Perkin @-@ Elmer to figure the mirror , as well as by analyzing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror .

Because of the way the HST 's instruments were designed , two different sets of correctors were required . The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 , already planned to replace the existing WF / PC , included relay mirrors to direct light onto the four separate charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) chips making up its two cameras . An inverse error built into their surfaces could completely cancel the aberration of the primary . However , the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces that could be figured in this way , and so required an external correction device .

The Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement ( COSTAR ) system was designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC , FOS , and GHRS . It consists of two mirrors in the light path with one ground to correct the aberration . To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope , one of the other instruments had to be removed , and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed . By 2002 , all of the original instruments requiring COSTAR had been replaced by instruments with their own corrective optics . COSTAR was removed and returned to Earth in 2009 where it is exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum . The area previously used by COSTAR is now occupied by the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph .

= = Servicing missions and new instruments = =

Hubble was designed to accommodate regular servicing and equipment upgrades . Five servicing missions ( SM 1 , 2 , 3A , 3B , and 4 ) were flown by NASA space shuttles , the first in December 1993 and the last in May 2009 . Servicing missions were delicate operations that began with maneuvering to intercept the telescope in orbit and carefully retrieving it with the shuttle 's mechanical arm . The necessary work was then carried out in multiple tethered spacewalks over a period of four to five days . After a visual inspection of the telescope , astronauts conducted repairs , replaced failed or degraded components , upgraded equipment , and installed new instruments . Once work was completed , the telescope was redeployed , typically after boosting to a higher orbit to address the orbital decay caused by atmospheric drag .

= = = Servicing Mission 1 = = =

After the problems with Hubble 's mirror were discovered , the first servicing mission assumed greater importance , as the astronauts would need to do extensive work to install corrective optics . The seven astronauts for the mission were trained to use about a hundred specialized tools . SM1 flew aboard Endeavour in December 1993 , and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over ten days .

Most importantly , the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package , and WFPC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 ( WFPC2 ) with an internal optical correction system . The solar arrays and their drive electronics were also replaced , as well as four gyroscopes in the telescope pointing system , two electrical control units and other electrical components , and two magnetometers . The onboard computers were upgraded with added coprocessors , and Hubble 's orbit was boosted .

On January 13 , 1994 , NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first sharper images . At the time , the mission was one of the most complex , involving five long extra @-@ vehicular activity periods . Its success was a boon for NASA , as well as for the astronomers with a more capable space telescope .

= = = Servicing Mission 2 = = =

Servicing Mission 2 , flown by Discovery in February 1997 , replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS ) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi @-@ Object Spectrometer ( NICMOS ) , replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder , and repaired thermal insulation . NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument , but shortly after it was installed , an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle . This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4 @.@ 5 years to about 2 years .

= = = Servicing Mission 3A = = =

Servicing Mission 3A , flown by Discovery , took place in December 1999 , and was a split @-@ off from Servicing Mission 3 after three of the six onboard gyroscopes had failed . The fourth failed a few weeks before the mission , rendering the telescope incapable of performing scientific observations . The mission replaced all six gyroscopes , replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer , installed a Voltage / temperature Improvement Kit ( VIK ) to prevent battery overcharging , and replaced thermal insulation blankets . The new computer is 20 times faster , with six times more memory , than the DF @-@ 224 it replaced . It increases throughput by moving some computing tasks from the ground to the spacecraft , and saves money by allowing the use of modern programming languages .

= = = Servicing Mission 3B = = =

Servicing Mission 3B flown by Columbia in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument , with the FOC ( which , except for the Fine Guidance Sensors when used for astrometry , was the last of the original instruments ) being replaced by the Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS ) . This meant that COSTAR was no longer required , since all new instruments had built @-@ in correction for the main mirror aberration . The mission also revived NICMOS by installing a closed @-@ cycle cooler and replaced the solar arrays for the second time , providing 30 percent more power .

= = = Servicing Mission 4 = = =

Plans called for Hubble to be serviced in February 2005 , but the Columbia disaster in 2003 , in which the orbiter disintegrated on re @-@ entry into the atmosphere , had wide @-@ ranging effects on the Hubble program . NASA Administrator Sean O 'Keefe decided that all future shuttle missions had to be able to reach the safe haven of the International Space Station should in @-@ flight problems develop . As no shuttles were capable of reaching both HST and the ISS during the same mission , future manned service missions were canceled . This decision was assailed by numerous astronomers , who felt that Hubble was valuable enough to merit the human risk . HST 's planned successor , the James Webb Telescope ( JWST ) , is not expected to launch until at least 2018 . A gap in space @-@ observing capabilities between a decommissioning of Hubble and the commissioning of a successor is of major concern to many astronomers , given the significant scientific impact of HST . The consideration that JWST will not be located in low Earth orbit , and therefore cannot be easily upgraded or repaired in the event of an early failure , only makes these concerns more acute . On the other hand , many astronomers felt strongly that the servicing of Hubble should not take place if the expense were to come from the JWST budget .

In January 2004 , O 'Keefe said he would review his decision to cancel the final servicing mission to HST due to public outcry and requests from Congress for NASA to look for a way to save it . The National Academy of Sciences convened an official panel , which recommended in July 2004 that the HST should be preserved despite the apparent risks . Their report urged " NASA should take no actions that would preclude a space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope " . In August 2004 , O 'Keefe asked Goddard Space Flight Center to prepare a detailed proposal for a robotic service mission . These plans were later canceled , the robotic mission being described as " not feasible " . In late 2004 , several Congressional members , led by Senator Barbara Mikulski , held public hearings and carried on a fight with much public support ( including thousands of letters from school children across the country ) to get the Bush Administration and NASA to reconsider the decision to drop plans for a Hubble rescue mission .

The nomination in April 2005 of a new NASA Administrator with an engineering rather than accounting background , Michael D. Griffin , changed the situation , as Griffin stated he would consider a manned servicing mission . Soon after his appointment Griffin authorized Goddard to proceed with preparations for a manned Hubble maintenance flight , saying he would make the final decision after the next two shuttle missions . In October 2006 Griffin gave the final go @-@ ahead , and the 11 @-@ day mission by Atlantis was scheduled for October 2008 . Hubble 's main data @-@ handling unit failed in September 2008 , halting all reporting of scientific data until its back @-@ up was brought online on October 25 , 2008 . Since a failure of the backup unit would leave the HST helpless , the service mission was postponed to incorporate a replacement for the primary unit .

Servicing Mission 4 , flown by Atlantis in May 2009 , was the last scheduled shuttle mission for HST . SM4 installed the replacement data @-@ handling unit , repaired the ACS and STIS systems , installed improved nickel hydrogen batteries , and replaced other components . SM4 also installed two new observation instruments — Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 ) and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( COS ) — and the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System , which will enable the future rendezvous , capture , and safe disposal of Hubble by either a crewed or robotic mission . Except for the High Resolution Channel of the ACS which was unable to be repaired , the work accomplished during SM4 rendered the telescope fully functional , and it remains so as of 2015 .

= = Major projects = =

Since the start of the program , a number of research projects have been carried out , some of them almost solely with Hubble , others coordinated facilities such as Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory and ESO 's Very Large Telescope . Although the Hubble observatory is nearing the end of its life , there are still major projects scheduled for it . One example is the upcoming Frontier Fields program , inspired by the results of Hubble 's deep observation of the galaxy cluster Abell 1689 .

= = = Cosmic Assembly Near @-@ infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey = = =

In an August 2013 press release , CANDELS was referred to as " the largest project in the history of Hubble " . The survey " aims to explore galactic evolution in the early Universe , and the very first seeds of cosmic structure at less than one billion years after the Big Bang . " The CANDELS project site describes the survey 's goals as the following :

The Cosmic Assembly Near @-@ IR Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey is designed to document the ﬁrst third of galactic evolution from z = 8 to 1 @.@ 5 via deep imaging of more than 250 @,@ 000 galaxies with WFC3 / IR and ACS . It will also find the first Type Ia SNe beyond z > 1 @.@ 5 and establish their accuracy as standard candles for cosmology . Five premier multi @-@ wavelength sky regions are selected ; each has multi @-@ wavelength data from Spitzer and other facilities , and has extensive spectroscopy of the brighter galaxies . The use of ﬁve widely separated ﬁelds mitigates cosmic variance and yields statistically robust and complete samples of galaxies down to 109 solar masses out to z ~ 8 .

= = = Frontier Fields program = = =

The program , officially named " Hubble Deep Fields Initiative 2012 " , is aimed to advance the knowledge of early galaxy formation by studying high @-@ redshift galaxies in blank fields with the help of gravitational lensing to see the " faintest galaxies in the distant universe . " The Frontier Fields web page describes the goals of the program being :

to reveal hitherto inaccessible populations of z = 5 – 10 galaxies that are 10 to 50 times fainter intrinsically than any presently known

to solidify our understanding of the stellar masses and star formation histories of sub @-@ L * galaxies at the earliest times

to provide the first statistically meaningful morphological characterization of star forming galaxies at z > 5

to find z > 8 galaxies stretched out enough by cluster lensing to discern internal structure and / or magnified enough by cluster lensing for spectroscopic follow @-@ up .

= = Public use = =

Anyone can apply for time on the telescope ; there are no restrictions on nationality or academic affiliation , but funding for analysis is only available to US institutions . Competition for time on the telescope is intense , with about one @-@ fifth of the proposals submitted in each cycle earning time on the schedule .

Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually , with time allocated for a cycle lasting about one year . Proposals are divided into several categories ; " general observer " proposals are the most common , covering routine observations . " Snapshot observations " are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time , including overheads such as acquiring the target . Snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule that cannot be filled by regular GO programs .

Astronomers may make " Target of Opportunity " proposals , in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle . In addition , up to 10 % of the telescope time is designated " director 's discretionary " ( DD ) time . Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year , and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae .

Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to views of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field , and in the first four cycles of telescope time , observations that were carried out by amateur astronomers .

= = = Amateur observations = = =

The first director of STScI , Riccardo Giacconi , announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his director discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope . The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle but excited great interest among amateur astronomers .

Proposals for amateur time were stringently reviewed by a committee of amateur astronomers , and time was awarded only to proposals that were deemed to have genuine scientific merit , did not duplicate proposals made by professionals , and required the unique capabilities of the space telescope . Thirteen amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope , with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997 . One such study was " Transition Comets — UV Search for OH " . The very first proposal , " A Hubble Space Telescope Study of Posteclipse Brightening and Albedo Changes on Io " , was published in Icarus , a journal devoted to solar system studies . A second study from another group of amateurs was also published in Icarus . After that time , however , budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable , and no additional amateur programs have been carried out .

= = = 20th and 25th anniversaries = = =

The Hubble Space Telescope celebrated its 20th anniversary in space on April 24 , 2010 . To commemorate the occasion , NASA , ESA , and the Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) released an image from the Carina Nebula .

To commemorate Hubble 's 25th anniversary in space on April 24 , 2015 , STScI released images of the Westerlund 2 cluster , located about 20 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 6 @,@ 100 pc ) away in the constellation Carina , through its Hubble 25 website . The European Space Agency created a dedicated 25th anniversary page on its website .

= = Scientific results = =

= = = Key projects = = =

In the early 1980s , NASA and STScI convened four panels to discuss Key Projects . These were projects that were both scientifically important and would require significant telescope time , which would be explicitly dedicated to each project . This guaranteed that these particular projects would be completed early , in case the telescope failed sooner than expected . The panels identified three such projects : 1 ) a study of the nearby intergalactic medium using quasar absorption lines to determine the properties of the intergalactic medium and the gaseous content of galaxies and groups of galaxies ; 2 ) a medium deep survey using the Wide Field Camera to take data whenever one of the other instruments was being used and 3 ) a project to determine the Hubble Constant within ten percent by reducing the errors , both external and internal , in the calibration of the distance scale .

= = = Important discoveries = = =

Hubble has helped resolve some long @-@ standing problems in astronomy , as well as raising new questions . Some results have required new theories to explain them . Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before , and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant , the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding , which is also related to its age . Before the launch of HST , estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50 % , but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo Cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of ± 10 % , which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble 's launch using other techniques . The estimated age is now about 13 @.@ 7 billion years , but before the Hubble Telescope scientists predicted an age ranging from 10 to 20 billion years .

While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe , it also cast doubt on theories about its future . Astronomers from the High @-@ z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project used ground @-@ based telescopes and HST to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that , far from decelerating under the influence of gravity , the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating . The cause of this acceleration remains poorly understood ; the most common cause attributed is dark energy .

The high @-@ resolution spectra and images provided by the HST have been especially well @-@ suited to establishing the prevalence of black holes in the nuclei of nearby galaxies . While it had been hypothesized in the early 1960s that black holes would be found at the centers of some galaxies , and astronomers in the 1980s identified a number of good black hole candidates , work conducted with Hubble shows that black holes are probably common to the centers of all galaxies . The Hubble programs further established that the masses of the nuclear black holes and properties of the galaxies are closely related . The legacy of the Hubble programs on black holes in galaxies is thus to demonstrate a deep connection between galaxies and their central black holes .

The collision of Comet Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was fortuitously timed for astronomers , coming just a few months after Servicing Mission 1 had restored Hubble 's optical performance . Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979 , and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a comet with Jupiter , an event believed to occur once every few centuries .

Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto @-@ planetary disks ( proplyds ) in the Orion Nebula ; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around Sun @-@ like stars ; and the optical counterparts of the still @-@ mysterious gamma ray bursts . HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System , including the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris .

A unique window on the Universe enabled by Hubble are the Hubble Deep Field , Hubble Ultra @-@ Deep Field , and Hubble Extreme Deep Field images , which used Hubble 's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky that are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths . The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away , and have generated a wealth of scientific papers , providing a new window on the early Universe . The Wide Field Camera 3 improved the view of these fields in the infrared and ultraviolet , supporting the discovery of some of the most distant objects yet discovered , such as MACS0647 @-@ JD .

The non @-@ standard object SCP 06F6 was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope in February 2006 . During June and July 2012 , US astronomers using Hubble discovered a tiny fifth moon moving around icy Pluto .

In March 2015 , researchers announced that measurements of aurorae around Ganymede revealed that the moon has a subsurface ocean . Using Hubble to study the motion of its aurorae , the researchers determined that a large saltwater ocean was helping to suppress the interaction between Jupiter 's magnetic field and that of Ganymede . The ocean is estimated to be 100 km ( 60 mi ) deep , trapped beneath a 150 km ( 90 mi ) ice crust .

On December 11 , 2015 , Hubble captured an image of the first @-@ ever predicted reappearance of a supernova , dubbed " Refsdal " , which was calculated using different mass models of a galaxy cluster whose gravity is warping the supernova 's light . The supernova was previously seen in November 2014 behind galaxy cluster MACS J1149.5 + 2223 as part of Hubble 's Frontier Fields program . Astronomers spotted four separate images of the supernova in an arrangement known as an Einstein Cross . The light from the cluster has taken about five billion years to reach Earth , though the supernova exploded some 10 billion years ago . The detection of Refsdal 's reappearance served as a unique opportunity for astronomers to test their models of how mass , especially dark matter , is distributed within this galaxy cluster .

On March 3 , 2016 , researchers using Hubble data announced the discovery of the farthest known galaxy to date : GN @-@ z11 . The Hubble observations occurred on February 11 , 2015 , and April 3 , 2015 , as part of the CANDELS / GOODS @-@ North surveys .

= = = Impact on astronomy = = =

Many objective measures show the positive impact of Hubble data on astronomy . Over 9 @,@ 000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer @-@ reviewed journals , and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings . Looking at papers several years after their publication , about one @-@ third of all astronomy papers have no citations , while only 2 % of papers based on Hubble data have no citations . On average , a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non @-@ Hubble data . Of the 200 papers published each year that receive the most citations , about 10 % are based on Hubble data .

Although the HST has clearly helped astronomical research , its financial cost has been large . A study on the relative astronomical benefits of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a 4 m ( 13 ft ) ground @-@ based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope , the HST costs about 100 times as much to build and maintain .

Deciding between building ground- versus space @-@ based telescopes is complex . Even before Hubble was launched , specialized ground @-@ based techniques such as aperture masking interferometry had obtained higher @-@ resolution optical and infrared images than Hubble would achieve , though restricted to targets about 108 times brighter than the faintest targets observed by Hubble . Since then , advances in adaptive optics have extended the high @-@ resolution imaging capabilities of ground @-@ based telescopes to the infrared imaging of faint objects . The usefulness of adaptive optics versus HST observations depends strongly on the particular details of the research questions being asked . In the visible bands , adaptive optics can only correct a relatively small field of view , whereas HST can conduct high @-@ resolution optical imaging over a wide field . Only a small fraction of astronomical objects are accessible to high @-@ resolution ground @-@ based imaging ; in contrast Hubble can perform high @-@ resolution observations of any part of the night sky , and on objects that are extremely faint .

= = Hubble data = =

= = = Transmission to Earth = = =

Hubble data was initially stored on the spacecraft . When launched , the storage facilities were old @-@ fashioned reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape recorders , but these were replaced by solid state data storage facilities during servicing missions 2 and 3A . About twice daily , the Hubble Space Telescope radios data to a satellite in the geosynchronous Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System ( TDRSS ) , which then downlinks the science data to one of two 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @-@ meter ) diameter high @-@ gain microwave antennas located at the White Sands Test Facility in White Sands , New Mexico . From there they are sent to the Space Telescope Operations Control Center at Goddard Space Flight Center , and finally to the Space Telescope Science Institute for archiving . Each week , HST downlinks approximately 140 gigabytes of data .

= = = Color images = = =

All images from Hubble are monochromatic grayscale , in which its cameras incorporate a variety of filters each sensitive to specific wavelengths of light . Color images are created by combining separate monochrome images taken through different filters . This process can also create false @-@ color versions of images including infrared and ultraviolet channels , where infrared is typically rendered as a deep red and ultraviolet is rendered as a deep blue .

= = = Archives = = =

All Hubble data is eventually made available via the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes at STScI , CADC and ESA / ESAC . Data is usually proprietary — available only to the principal investigator ( PI ) and astronomers designated by the PI — for one year after being taken . The PI can apply to the director of the STScI to extend or reduce the proprietary period in some circumstances .

Observations made on Director 's Discretionary Time are exempt from the proprietary period , and are released to the public immediately . Calibration data such as flat fields and dark frames are also publicly available straight away . All data in the archive is in the FITS format , which is suitable for astronomical analysis but not for public use . The Hubble Heritage Project processes and releases to the public a small selection of the most striking images in JPEG and TIFF formats .

= = = Pipeline reduction = = =

Astronomical data taken with CCDs must undergo several calibration steps before they are suitable for astronomical analysis . STScI has developed sophisticated software that automatically calibrates data when they are requested from the archive using the best calibration files available . This ' on @-@ the @-@ fly ' processing means that large data requests can take a day or more to be processed and returned . The process by which data are calibrated automatically is known as ' pipeline reduction ' , and is increasingly common at major observatories . Astronomers may if they wish retrieve the calibration files themselves and run the pipeline reduction software locally . This may be desirable when calibration files other than those selected automatically need to be used .

= = = Data analysis = = =

Hubble data can be analyzed using many different packages . STScI maintains the custom @-@ made Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System ( STSDAS ) software , which contains all the programs needed to run pipeline reduction on raw data files , as well as many other astronomical image processing tools , tailored to the requirements of Hubble data . The software runs as a module of IRAF , a popular astronomical data reduction program .

= = Outreach activities = =

It has always been important for the Space Telescope to capture the public 's imagination , given the considerable contribution of taxpayers to its construction and operational costs . After the difficult early years when the faulty mirror severely dented Hubble 's reputation with the public , the first servicing mission allowed its rehabilitation as the corrected optics produced numerous remarkable images .

Several initiatives have helped to keep the public informed about Hubble activities .

In the United States , outreach efforts are coordinated by the Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) Office for Public Outreach , which was established in 2000 to ensure that U.S. taxpayers saw the benefits of their investment in the space telescope program . To that end , STScI operates the HubbleSite.org website . The Hubble Heritage Project , operating out of the STScI , provides the public with high @-@ quality images of the most interesting and striking objects observed . The Heritage team is composed of amateur and professional astronomers , as well as people with backgrounds outside astronomy , and emphasizes the aesthetic nature of Hubble images . The Heritage Project is granted a small amount of time to observe objects which , for scientific reasons , may not have images taken at enough wavelengths to construct a full @-@ color image .

Since 1999 , the leading Hubble outreach group in Europe has been the Hubble European Space Agency Information Centre ( HEIC ) . This office was established at the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility in Munich , Germany . HEIC 's mission is to fulfill HST outreach and education tasks for the European Space Agency . The work is centered on the production of news and photo releases that highlight interesting Hubble results and images . These are often European in origin , and so increase awareness of both ESA 's Hubble share ( 15 % ) and the contribution of European scientists to the observatory . ESA produces educational material , including a videocast series called Hubblecast designed to share world @-@ class scientific news with the public .

The Hubble Space Telescope has won two Space Achievement Awards from the Space Foundation , for its outreach activities , in 2001 and 2010 .

There is a replica of the Hubble Space Telescope on the courthouse lawn in Marshfield , Missouri , the hometown of namesake Edwin P. Hubble .

= = Future = =

= = = Equipment failure = = =

Past servicing missions have exchanged old instruments for new ones , both avoiding failure and making possible new types of science . Without servicing missions , all of the instruments will eventually fail . In August 2004 , the power system of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS ) failed , rendering the instrument inoperable . The electronics had originally been fully redundant , but the first set of electronics failed in May 2001 . This power supply was fixed during servicing mission 4 in May 2009 . Similarly , the Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS ) main camera primary electronics failed in June 2006 , and the power supply for the backup electronics failed on January 27 , 2007 . Only the instrument 's Solar Blind Channel ( SBC ) was operable using the side @-@ 1 electronics . A new power supply for the wide angle channel was added during SM 4 , but quick tests revealed this did not help the high resolution channel .

HST uses gyroscopes to stabilize itself in orbit and point accurately and steadily at astronomical targets . Normally , three gyroscopes are required for operation ; observations are still possible with two , but the area of sky that can be viewed would be somewhat restricted , and observations requiring very accurate pointing are more difficult . There are further contingency plans for observations with just one gyro , but if all gyros fail , continued scientific observations will not be possible . In 2005 , it was decided to switch to two @-@ gyroscope mode for regular telescope operations as a means of extending the lifetime of the mission . The switch to this mode was made in August 2005 , leaving Hubble with two gyroscopes in use , two on backup , and two inoperable . One more gyro failed in 2007 . By the time of the final repair mission , during which all six gyros were replaced ( with two new pairs and one refurbished pair ) , only three gyros were still working . Engineers are confident that they have identified the root causes of the gyro failures , and the new models should be much more reliable .

= = = Orbital decay = = =

Hubble orbits the Earth in the extremely tenuous upper atmosphere , and over time its orbit decays due to drag . If it is not re @-@ boosted , it will re @-@ enter the Earth 's atmosphere within some decades , with the exact date depending on how active the Sun is and its impact on the upper atmosphere . If Hubble were to descend in a completely uncontrolled re @-@ entry , parts of the main mirror and its support structure would probably survive , leaving the potential for damage or even human fatalities . In 2013 , deputy project manager James Jeletic projected that Hubble could survive into 2020 . Based on solar activity and atmospheric drag , or lack thereof , a natural atmospheric reentry for Hubble will occur between 2030 and 2040 . In June 2016 , NASA extended the service contract for Hubble until June 2021 .

NASA 's original plan for safely de @-@ orbiting Hubble was to retrieve it using a space shuttle . Hubble would then have most likely been displayed in the Smithsonian Institution . This is no longer possible since the space shuttle fleet has been retired , and would have been unlikely in any case due to the cost of the mission and risk to the crew . Instead , NASA considered adding an external propulsion module to allow controlled re @-@ entry . Ultimately NASA installed the Soft Capture and Rendezvous System , to enable deorbit by either a crewed or robotic mission .

= = = Successors = = =

There is no direct successor to Hubble as an ultraviolet and visible @-@ light space telescope , as near @-@ term space telescopes do not duplicate Hubble 's wavelength coverage ( near @-@ ultraviolet to near @-@ infrared wavelengths ) , instead concentrating on the farther infrared bands . These bands are preferred for studying high redshift and low @-@ temperature objects , objects generally older and farther away in the universe . These wavelengths are also difficult or impossible to study from the ground , justifying the expense of a space @-@ based telescope . Large ground @-@ based telescopes can image some of the same wavelengths as Hubble , sometimes challenge HST in terms of resolution by using adaptive optics ( AO ) , have much larger light @-@ gathering power , and can be upgraded more easily , but cannot yet match Hubble 's excellent resolution over a wide field of view with the very dark background of space .

Plans for a Hubble successor materialized as the Next Generation Space Telescope project , which culminated in plans for the James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) , the formal successor of Hubble . Very different from a scaled @-@ up Hubble , it is designed to operate colder and farther away from the Earth at the L2 Lagrangian point , where thermal and optical interference from the Earth and Moon are lessened . It is not engineered to be fully serviceable ( such as replaceable instruments ) , but the design includes a docking ring to enable visits from other spacecraft . A main scientific goal of JWST is to observe the most distant objects in the universe , beyond the reach of existing instruments . It is expected to detect stars in the early Universe approximately 280 million years older than stars HST now detects . The telescope is an international collaboration between NASA , the European Space Agency , and the Canadian Space Agency since 1996 , and is planned for launch on an Ariane 5 rocket . Although JWST is primarily an infrared instrument , its coverage extends down to 600 nm wavelength light , or roughly orange in the visible spectrum . A typical human eye can see to about 750 nm wavelength light , so there is some overlap with the longest visible wavelength bands , including orange and red light .

A complementary telescope , looking at even longer wavelengths than Hubble or JWST , was the European Space Agency 's Herschel Space Observatory , launched on May 14 , 2009 . Like JWST , Herschel was not designed to be serviced after launch , and had a mirror substantially larger than Hubble 's , but observed only in the far infrared and submillimeter . It needed helium coolant , of which it ran out on April 29 , 2013 .

Further concepts for advanced 21st @-@ century space telescopes include the Advanced Technology Large @-@ Aperture Space Telescope , a conceptualized 8- to 16 @-@ meter ( 320- to 640 @-@ inch ) optical space telescope that if realized could be a more direct successor to HST , with the ability to observe and photograph astronomical objects in the visible , ultraviolet , and infrared wavelengths , with substantially better resolution than Hubble or the Spitzer Space telescope . This effort is being planned for the 2025 – 2035 time frame .

Existing ground @-@ based telescopes , and various proposed Extremely Large Telescopes , can exceed the HST in terms of sheer light @-@ gathering power and diffraction limit due to larger mirrors , but other factors affect telescopes . In some cases , they may be able to match or beat Hubble in resolution by using adaptive optics . However , AO on large ground @-@ based reflectors will not make Hubble and other space telescopes obsolete . Most AO systems sharpen the view over a very narrow field — Lucky Cam , for example , produces crisp images just 10 " to 20 " wide , whereas Hubble 's cameras are super sharp across a 2 ½ ' ( 150 " ) field . Furthermore , space telescopes can study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum , most of which is blocked by Earth 's atmosphere . Finally , the background sky is darker in space than on the ground , because air absorbs solar energy during the day and then releases it at night , producing a faint — but nevertheless discernible — airglow that washes out low @-@ contrast astronomical objects .

= = List of Hubble instruments = =

Advanced Camera for Surveys ( ACS )

Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( COS )

Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement ( COSTAR )

Faint Object Camera ( FOC )

Faint Object Spectrograph ( FOS )

Fine Guidance Sensor ( FGS )

Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph ( GHRS / HRS )

High Speed Photometer ( HSP )

Near Infrared Camera and Multi @-@ Object Spectrometer ( NICMOS )

Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ( STIS )

Wide Field and Planetary Camera ( WFPC )

Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 ( WFPC2 )

Wide Field Camera 3 ( WFC3 )

= California spiny lobster =

The California spiny lobster ( Panulirus interruptus ) is a species of spiny lobster found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from Monterey Bay , California to the Gulf of Tehuantepec , Mexico . It typically grows to a length of 30 cm ( 12 in ) and is a reddish @-@ brown color with stripes along the legs , and has a pair of enlarged antennae but no claws . The interrupted grooves across the tail are characteristic for the species .

Females can carry up to 680 @,@ 000 eggs , which hatch after 10 weeks into flat phyllosoma larvae . These feed on plankton before the metamorphosis into the juvenile state . Adults are nocturnal and migratory , living among rocks at depths of up to 65 m ( 213 ft ) , and feeding on sea urchins , clams , mussels and worms . The spiny lobster is eaten by various fish , octopuses and sea otters , but can defend itself with a loud noise produced by its antennae . The California spiny lobster is the subject of both commercial and recreational fishery in both Mexico and the United States , with sport fishermen using hoop nets and commercial fishermen using lobster traps .

= = Description = =

In common with all spiny lobsters , the California spiny lobster has two large , spiny antennae , but no large claws on its legs . The California spiny lobster is one of the largest spiny lobster species , and grows up to 60 centimeters ( 24 in ) long , but does not usually exceed 30 cm ( 12 in ) . Males can weigh up to 7 @.@ 4 kilograms ( 16 lb ) . , with the record being a 16 lbs . , 1 oz. male caught off Catalina island in 1968 . The upper side of the animal is brownish red , without the paler bands or spots seen in some other spiny lobsters . The legs are a similar color , but with one or more lighter streaks running along their length .

Males and females of all ages can be distinguished by the position of the two round genital openings or gonopores . In females , they are at the bases of the third pair of pereiopods , while in males they are at the base of the fifth ( last ) pereiopods , furthest from the head and the closest to the abdomen . Mature females have a small claw on the fifth pereiopod , and enlarged pleopods .

= = Distribution = =

The California spiny lobster is found in parts of the Gulf of California , and along the Pacific coast of the length of the Baja California peninsula , extending as far north as San Luis Obispo Bay , California . There are occasional records from Monterey Bay , but the water there is too cold for the California spiny lobster to breed , and it is thought that any adult found in Central California arrived as a larva during El Niño years .

California spiny lobsters live on rocky substrates , at depths of up to 65 meters ( 213 ft ) . Although they can be found in shallow water , including tide pools , they are more frequent in deeper waters . Juveniles generally inhabit rocky habitats at a depth of 0 – 4 m ( 0 – 13 ft ) with dense plant cover , especially the surf grass Phyllospadix torreyi .

= = Ecology and behavior = =

California spiny lobsters are nocturnal , hiding in crevices during the day , with only the tips of their long antennae showing , as a means of avoiding predators . Towards dawn , the spiny lobsters form aggregations , which they maintain until dusk . At night , they emerge and feed on sea urchins , clams , mussels and worms . This activity is important in limiting sea urchin populations , and so maintaining healthy seabed communities .

Natural predators of the California spiny lobster include bony fish such as the California sheepshead , giant sea bass and cabezone , sharks including the horn shark and leopard shark , octopuses and sea otters . In response to an approaching predator , spiny lobsters including the California spiny lobster can produce a loud noise using the stick @-@ slip phenomenon , akin to a bowed instrument . The bases of the antennae act as a plectrum , which is rubbed over a file on the edge of the antennular plate . If a predator is very close , spiny lobsters will flex their muscular tail in order to escape the predator , backwards .

There is an annual migration , in which spiny lobsters enter shallower water in spring and summer , and head out to deeper water in fall and winter , reaching depths as great as 240 ft ( 73 m ) , perhaps to avoid the effects of winter storms .

= = Life cycle = =

Female California spiny lobsters reach sexual maturity at a length of 65 – 69 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 7 in ) , which is typically at an age of 5 – 9 years ; males are sexually mature after 3 – 6 years . Because all the hard parts are lost at each molt , the life span of mature spiny lobsters is uncertain ; they are thought to live for 50 years or more .

Spiny lobsters do not have the gonopods ( first pleopods modified for reproduction ) that occur in clawed lobsters and crabs , and females do not have a deep pocket on the sternum in which to store sperm . Instead , a spermatophore is transferred directly from one of the male 's gonopores to the sternum of the female . The male gonopore is , however , adorned with a " penile process " , which is straight and serrated , with a small " hairbrush " . The sternum of mature females has three " windows " on the last three segments , which uniquely among Panulirus species , span both halves of the sternum . These windows are softer than the rest of the exoskeleton , and are thought to help the male locate the correct location to place the tar @-@ like spermatophore .

After mating , the fertilized eggs are carried on the female 's pleopods until they hatch , with between 120 @,@ 000 and 680 @,@ 000 carried by a single female . The eggs begin coral red , but darken as they develop to a deep maroon . When she is carrying the eggs , the female is said to be " berried " . The eggs are ready to hatch after 10 weeks , and spawning takes place from May to August , The larvae that hatch ( called phyllosoma larvae ) do not resemble the adults . Instead , they are flat , transparent animals around 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) long , but as thin as a sheet of paper . The larvae feed on plankton , and grow through ten molts into ten further larval stages , the last of which is around 30 – 32 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 in ) long . The full series of larval molts takes around 7 months , and when the last stage molts , it metamorphoses into the puerulus state , which is a juvenile form of the adult , albeit still transparent . The puerulus larvae settle to the sea floor when the water is near its maximum temperature , which in Baja California is in the fall .

The diet of the juveniles is varied , but comprises mostly amphipods and isopods , together with coralline algae and the plant Phyllospadix . When available , the juveniles prefer to eat crabs .

= = Fishery = =

In his original description , John Witt Randall noted that the California spiny lobster is " used as food by the natives " of Upper California . The California spiny lobster is now the most economically important lobster on the American West Coast . Sport fishing may account for up to half the entire catch , while most of the commercial catch comes from lobster traps , with smaller amounts coming from the use of trammel nets or by trawling . The major fishing area is west of Baja California , and imports from Mexico to the United States are twice the amount produced in California .

= = = Sport fishing in California = = =

Recreational fishermen are allowed to catch lobsters with hoop nets or by SCUBA diving or free @-@ diving ; almost all come from California , with only small numbers from other U.S. states . The California Department of Fish and Game estimates that recreational fishers caught more than 200 @,@ 000 spiny lobsters in the first half of the 2008 / 2009 season , amounting to around 280 @,@ 000 pounds ( 130 @,@ 000 kg ) , compared to commercial fishermen , who caught a total of 580 @,@ 000 lb ( 260 @,@ 000 kg ) in the same time .

The California Department of Fish and Game sets and enforces a number of regulations pertaining to recreational fishing of spiny lobsters :

Open season for California spiny lobster runs from the Saturday before the first Wednesday in October until the first Wednesday after March 15 .

No implements other than hoop nets may be used ; no one person may have more than 5 nets and no vessel may use more than 10 hoop nets . When fishing from land , each fisherman is limited to two hoop nets .

Lobster fishers may not land more than seven California spiny lobsters on any given day , and may not have more than seven in their possession at any time .

Fishers must carry a lobster gauge , and any lobster smaller than the minimum landing size must be returned to the sea immediately . The minimum size is a carapace length of 3 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 82 @.@ 6 mm ) , measured along the midline from the rear of the eye socket between the horns , to the end of the carapace . This is equivalent to a total body length of 20 centimeters or 7 @.@ 9 inches .

To fish for spiny lobster south of Point Arguello , a sport fishing license with ocean enhancement stamp must be displayed or kept nearby .

A report card for the season must be bought , filled in and returned before April 30 after the season ends .

Commercial and recreational traps must not be interfered with .

= = = Commercial fishing in California = = =

The open season for commercial fishing begins on the first Wednesday in October and runs until the first Wednesday after the 15th of March . Commercial fishermen may use individually buoyed traps , but may not dive for lobsters .

For those using lobster traps , the fishing effort is greatest at the beginning of the permitted season in California , and peters out towards the end of the season , 24 weeks later . Although the fishing effort becomes better concentrated on areas with more spiny lobsters during the season , the fishing efficiency ( catch per unit effort ) nonetheless decreases throughout the season .

= = = Fishing in Mexico = = =

In Mexico , spiny lobsters are an important commercial resource , representing the fifth most valuable fishery , worth US $ 18 million . Three species are exploited along the Pacific coast of the Baja California peninsula , but the catch of 744 t of the California spiny lobster makes up 95 % – 97 % of the total , with only small quantities of Panulirus inflatus and Panulirus gracilis . The fishing rights are held by 26 local co @-@ operatives .

The main legal restrictions on fishing for California spiny lobster in Mexico are a minimum landing size of 82 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 25 in ) , the prohibition of catching berried females , and a closed season : from February 16 to November 15 , fishing for spiny lobsters is prohibited in a region which moves south along Mexico 's Pacific coast during the season .

The Mexican fishery for the California spiny lobster was the first Latin American fishery to be awarded the Marine Stewardship Council 's sustainable fishery ecolabel , and the species is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .

= = Names = =

Panulirus interruptus is called the California spiny lobster by the Food and Agriculture Organization , but a number of other local , vernacular names exist , including California lobster , California marine crayfish , and red lobster in the United States , and langosta colorada and langosta roja in Mexico . The preferred common name of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service is simply spiny lobster .

John Witt Randall described the species in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in 1840 , based on material given to him by Thomas Nuttall . The exact locality is not known , being given only as " Upper California " , but the most likely sources are the places where Nuttall was most active , namely Santa Barbara and San Diego . The specific epithet interruptus refers to the grooves on the abdominal tergites , which are interrupted in this species . Although originally placed in the genus Palinurus , the California spiny lobster was later transferred to Adam White 's new genus Panulirus , together with other spiny lobsters that have long flagella on their first antennae .

= = Related species = =

The California spiny lobster is one of 19 species in the genus Panulirus , which is one of several genera of spiny lobsters whose names are anagrams of the original spiny lobster genus , Palinurus . Its closest relatives are not the other species that occur in the East Pacific , but rather Panulirus argus from the Caribbean Sea and West Pacific species such as Panulirus japonicus , Panulirus marginatus , Panulirus pascuensis , Panulirus cygnus and Panulirus longipes ; this relationship has been recovered from comparative studies of adult and larval morphology , as well as from molecular phylogenetics , using the sequences from cytochrome c oxidase and 16S ribosomal RNA genes .

The California spiny lobster can be differentiated from the other species in the genus by the interrupted grooves across the abdomen ; other species either lack grooves , or have grooves which span the entire body segment .

= Hybrid Theory =

Hybrid Theory is the debut album by the American rock band Linkin Park , released on October 24 , 2000 through Warner Bros. Records . The album was a commercial success , having been certified Diamond for sales of over 11 million units in the United States alone as of 2010 , peaking at number two on the Billboard 200 , and also reaching high positions on other charts worldwide .

Recorded at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood , California , and produced by Don Gilmore , the album 's lyrical themes deal with problems lead vocalist Chester Bennington experienced during his adolescence , including drug abuse and the constant fighting and divorce of his parents . Hybrid Theory takes its title from the previous name of the band as well as the concept of music theory and combining different styles .

Four singles were released from the album : " One Step Closer " , " Crawling " , " Papercut " , and " In the End " , all of them being responsible for launching Linkin Park into mainstream popularity . While " In the End " was the most successful of the four , all of the singles in the album remain some of the band 's most successful songs to date . Although " Runaway " , " Points of Authority " , and " My December " from the special edition bonus disc album were not released as singles , they were minor hits on alternative rock radio stations thanks to the success of all of the band 's singles and the album . At the 2002 Grammy Awards , Hybrid Theory was nominated for Best Rock Album . The album is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . It was ranked # 11 on Billboard 's Hot 200 Albums of the Decade . A special edition of Hybrid Theory was released March 11 , 2002 , a year and a half after its original pressing . Hybrid Theory has sold over 28 million copies worldwide , which makes it the best selling debut album of the 2000s . Linkin Park performed the album in its entirety for the first time at the Download Festival on June 14 , 2014 .

= = Background = =

Linkin Park was founded in 1996 as the rap rock band , Xero : lead guitarist Brad Delson , vocalist and rhythm guitarist Mike Shinoda , drummer Rob Bourdon , turntablist Joe Hahn , lead vocalist Mark Wakefield and bassist Dave Farrell ( who was not with the band during this point to tour with Tasty Snax ) . In 1999 , after Wakefield 's departure , lead vocalist Chester Bennington joined the five members Xero and the band was renamed to Linkin Park . Bennington 's previous band , Grey Daze , had recently disbanded , so his lawyer recommended him to Jeff Blue , vice president of A & R coordination for Zomba , who at the time was seeking a lead vocalist for Xero . Blue sent Bennington two tapes of Xero 's unreleased recordings — one with vocals by former Xero member Mark Wakefield , and the other with only the instrumental tracks — asking for his " interpretation of the songs " . Bennington wrote and recorded new vocals over the instrumentals and sent the tapes back to Blue . As Delson recalls , " [ Bennington ] really was kind of the final piece of the puzzle [ ... ] We didn 't see anything close to his talent in anybody else . " After Bennington joined , the group first renamed itself to Hybrid Theory and released a self @-@ titled EP . Legal complications with Welsh electronic music group Hybrid prompted a second name change , thus deciding on " Linkin Park " . Throughout 1999 , Linkin Park was a regular act at the Los Angeles club , The Whisky .

= = Writing and recording = =

The music that would ultimately become the Hybrid Theory album was first produced by Linkin Park in 1999 as a nine @-@ track demo tape . The band sent this tape to various recording companies and played forty @-@ two different showcases for recording industry representatives , including performances for Los Angeles promoter and impresario , Mike Galaxy 's showcase at The Gig on melrose . However , they were initially turned down by most of the major labels and several independent record labels . The band was signed by Warner Bros. Records in 1999 , due in large part to the constant recommendations of Jeff Blue , who had joined the label after resigning from Zomba .

Despite initial difficulties in finding a producer willing to take charge of the debut album of a newly signed band , Don Gilmore ultimately agreed to head up the project , with Andy Wallace hired as the mixer . Recording sessions , which mostly involved re @-@ recording the songs off the demo tape , began at NRG Recordings in North Hollywood , California in early 2000 and lasted four weeks . Shinoda 's rapping sections in most of the songs were significantly altered from the original , while most choruses remained largely unchanged . Due to the absence of Dave Farrell and Kyle Christener , who took part in the 1999 extended play , the band hired Scott Koziol and Ian Hornbeck as stand @-@ in bassists ; Delson also played bass throughout most of the album . The Dust Brothers provided additional beats for the track “ With You ” .

Bennington and Shinoda wrote the lyrics of Hybrid Theory based in part on early demos with Mark Wakefield . Shinoda characterized the lyrics as interpretations of universal feelings , emotions , and experiences , and as “ everyday emotions you talk about and think about . ” Bennington later described the songwriting experience to Rolling Stone magazine in early 2002 :

= = Composition = =

The music of Hybrid Theory draws from diverse inspirations . Bennington 's singing style is influenced by acts such as Depeche Mode and Stone Temple Pilots , while the riffs and playing techniques of guitarist Brad Delson are modeled after Deftones , Guns N ' Roses , U2 , and The Smiths . Mike Shinoda 's rapping , present in seven tracks , is very close to The Roots ' style . The lyrical content of the songs primarily touches upon the problems that Bennington encountered during his childhood , including child abuse , constant and excessive drug and alcohol abuse , the divorce of his parents , isolation , disappointments , and the aftermath feelings of failed relationships . Stylistically , the album has been described as nu metal , rap metal and alternative metal .

The album eventually produced four singles . " One Step Closer " , the album 's second track and first single , was gradually recorded in increments after Linkin Park struggled with " Runaway " , and features a guitar riff and electronic percussion in the introduction transitioning into a bridge with distortion @-@ heavy guitars and aggressive drums . It is also infamous for the " Shut up when I 'm talkin ' to you ! " refrain screamed by Bennington one minute and 48 seconds into the song . The music video for " One Step Closer " was shot in a Los Angeles subway and became an instant hit , eventually receiving heavy rotation on MTV and other music television networks . Stand @-@ in bassist Scott Koziol is shown performing with the band in the video .

The second single was " Crawling " . Lyrically , the song focuses on Bennington 's personal experiences with child abuse — the physical violence , the difficulty in breaking the cycle of abuse , and the subsequent loss of self @-@ esteem . This concept is echoed in the music video , in which a girl ( Katelyn Rosaasen ) is abused by her father and can be seen in the beginning of the video with several visible bruises .

" Papercut " was the album 's third single , and its lyrics describe paranoia . The music video for " Papercut " features the band performing in a hallway opposite a completely dark room on the walls of which are scribbled the song 's lyrics . Various supernatural themes are present in the video , and special effects are used to create eerie renditions , such as the " stretching " of Shinoda 's fingers and the “ melting ” of Bourdon 's face .

The fourth single to come from Hybrid Theory was " In the End " , which prominently features a signature piano riff performed by Shinoda . His rapping also dominates the verses of the song and is later joined by Bennington 's vocals in the chorus . The song 's concept is mainly based on one person 's failure . It is considered symbolic of an ending relationship , however , it can also represent broken trust in a once long @-@ lasting friendship . The music video for " In the End " was shot at various stops along the 2001 Ozzfest tour and was directed by Nathan " Karma " Cox and the band 's DJ Joe Hahn , who would go on to direct many of Linkin Park 's future videos ( the two also directed the music video for " Papercut " ) . Although the background for the " In the End " video was filmed in a California desert , the band itself performed on a studio stage in Los Angeles , with prominent CGI effects and compositing being used to create the finished version . Performing on a studio stage allowed Hahn and Cox to set off water pipes above the stage near the end and drench the band . The music video won the Best Rock Video award at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards .

" Points of Authority " , the fourth track on the album , has its own music video that can be found on Frat Party at the Pankake Festival , the band 's first DVD . Drummer Rob Bourdon describes the recording process of the song : “ Brad wrote this riff , then went home . Mike decided to cut it up into different pieces and rearranged them on the computer [ ... ] Brad had to learn his own part from the computer . ” Regarding the song , Delson praised Shinoda 's skill , describing him as “ a genius ” and “ Trent Reznor @-@ talented ” . On live performances of the song , when Shinoda raps the line , " Forfeit the game " verse for the third time in the song , Bennington would rap the verse along with Mike .

= = Artwork = =

With Hybrid Theory being Linkin Park 's first album , Mike Shinoda , who had worked as a graphic designer before becoming a professional musician , has stated that the band had looked through books for inspiration on how to present themselves for the first time . The result was a winged @-@ soldier which Shinoda illustrated himself . According to Chester Bennington , the idea of the soldier with dragonfly wings was to describe the blending of hard and soft musical elements by the use of the jaded looks of the soldier and frail touches of the wings . The art style was largely influenced by stencil graffiti , including early works by Banksy . The cover also features scrambled lyrics of the album 's songs within the background , though the lyrics of " One Step Closer " are the most prominent . A different version of the soldier can be seen on some of the album 's singles . The cover of Reanimation , a remix album of Hybrid Theory , features a robotic version of the soldier that is similar in appearance to a mobile suit Gundam , a line of robotic combat machines that are featured in the popular Gundam Wing anime series .

= = Release = =

Hybrid Theory was released in the United States on October 24 , 2000 following radio airplay of " One Step Closer " . Hybrid Theory also sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , entering the U.S. Billboard 200 charts at # 16 in late 2000 , and was certified gold by the RIAA five weeks after its release . In 2001 , Hybrid Theory sold 4 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States , making it the best @-@ selling album of the year , and it was estimated that the album continued selling 100 @,@ 000 copies per week in early 2002 . Throughout the following years , the album continued to sell at a fast pace and was certified diamond by the RIAA in 2005 for shipment of 10 million copies in the US . As of June 2014 , the album has sold 10 @,@ 222 @,@ 000 copies in the US .

Four singles from the album were released throughout 2001 ( though " Points of Authority " was released as a promotional single ) , three of which were chart successes on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks charts . The single " In the End " was the highest charting single from the album , which peaked at # 1 on the Modern Rock Tracks charts and appearing on charts worldwide . The success of " In the End " was partly responsible for Hybrid Theory 's chart success ; it reached # 2 in the Billboard 200 in early 2002 behind Weathered by Creed and by J to tha L – O ! : The Remixes by Jennifer Lopez . Hybrid Theory was the 11th best performing album on the Billboard 200 during the decade , the album reached the top ten in its 38th week on the chart and stayed in the top ten for 34 weeks . The album spent 105 weeks on the chart ( roughly 2 years ) and re entered at # 167 in February 2011 . The album also charted in 11 other countries at fairly high positions and ranked among the top ten in the charts of the United Kingdom , Sweden , New Zealand , Austria , Finland , and Switzerland . At the 44th Grammy Awards in 2002 , Linkin Park won Best Hard Rock Performance for their song " Crawling " . Additional nominations for Best New Artist and Best Rock Album lost out to Alicia Keys and All That You Can 't Leave Behind by U2 .

Following the success of Hybrid Theory , Linkin Park received invitations to perform at various rock concerts and tours , including Ozzfest , the Family Values Tour , KROQ @-@ FM 's Almost Acoustic Christmas , and the band 's self @-@ created tour , Projekt Revolution , which was headlined by Linkin Park and featured other bands such as Cypress Hill and Adema . During this time , Linkin Park reunited with their original bassist , Dave “ Phoenix ” Farrell . The band kept an online journal on their official website throughout their 2001 and 2002 touring regime , in which each band member made a respective notation . Although the notes are no longer on their website , they are available on fansites . Linkin Park played 324 shows in 2001 .

= = = Special editions = = =

A two @-@ disc special edition of Hybrid Theory was released on March 11 , 2002 in Asia . The first disc contains the original album , and the second disc features live performances of " Papercut " , " Points of Authority " , and " A Place for My Head " recorded at the Docklands Arena for BBC Radio 1 . Also featured on the second disc are two studio tracks : " My December " — a song written after the release of Hybrid Theory for inclusion on KROQ 's " Slim Santa " CD , and " High Voltage " , a remix of the song originally on the Hybrid Theory EP .

On August 12 , 2014 , the band released a Live CD of the Download Festival 2014 performance where they played their debut album in its entirely , " Hybrid Theory : Live at Download Festival 2014 " .

= = Critical reception = =

Hybrid Theory received generally positive reviews from critics . Stephanie Dickison of PopMatters commented that the band was a " far more complex and talented group than the hard rock boy bands of late " , and claimed that " they will continue to fascinate and challenge music 's standard sounds . " Q magazine gave Hybrid Theory four out of five stars . Robert Christgau of The Village Voice wrote that “ the men don 't know what the angry boys understand ” , and gave the album a " two @-@ star honorable mention rating " , citing " Papercut " and " Points of Authority " as highlights of the album . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone gave the album two and a half stars and commented that Hybrid Theory had " as much potency as albums by Limp Bizkit or Korn " and called it an album that " reflects the frustration of life " .

AllMusic writer William Ruhlmann said that " Linkin Park sounds like a Johnny @-@ come @-@ lately to an already overdone musical style " and called " One Step Closer " " a typical effort " , referring to the lyrics of the song 's chorus . Johan Wippsson from Melodic praised Don Gilmore 's production and described the albums as " destructive and angry but always with a well controlled melodic feeling all over . " NME 's Noel Gardner commented that " otherwise damn fine soaring emo @-@ crunchers like ' With You ' and ' A Place for My Head ' are pointlessly jazzed up with tokenistic scratching , " giving the album a score of six out of ten . Tyler Fisher at Sputnikmusic gave the album a 3 @.@ 0 / 5 , saying " Hybrid Theory stands as a defining mainstream album at the turn of the century , and for good reason . " , but calling the guitar riffs " often bland and unoriginal " . Mike Ross of Jam ! declares the albums as a combination of the best of hip hop and heavy metal . He goes on to state " ... they can actually rap . They can actually crank out a ferocious , head @-@ banging groove . They can write introspective lyrics with intelligence . It adds up to one of the finest new rap metal bands I 've ever heard . "

Later in 2002 , Linkin Park released an album entitled Reanimation . It included the songs of Hybrid Theory remixed and reinterpreted by nu metal and underground hip hop artists . Contributors to the album included Black Thought , Pharoahe Monch , Jonathan Davis , Stephen Carpenter , and Aaron Lewis . The sound of later Linkin Park albums would involve experimentation with classical instruments such as strings and piano , both of which , along with the same elements of electronica from Hybrid Theory , are prominently included in the band 's second studio album Meteora . As Shinoda explains the difference in the sound between Hybrid Theory and Meteora : " That electronic element has always been there in the band – it 's just that sometimes we bring it closer to the front . "

= = Legacy = =

= = = Accolades = = =

Hybrid Theory found itself in several " must have " lists that were compiled by various music publications , networks , and other media . In 2012 , Rock Sound named Hybrid Theory the best modern classic album of the last 15 years . In 2013 , Loudwire ranked it at # 10 in its Best Hard Rock Debut Albums list . Some of the more prominent of these lists to feature Hybrid Theory are shown below :

* denotes an unordered list

= = Track listing = =

= = Hybrid Theory – Live Around the World = =

Hybrid Theory – Live Around the World is a live album which features live versions of eight songs from the debut studio album , Hybrid Theory . They were recorded in various cities around the world from 2007 to 2010 .

= = = Track listing = = =

All songs written and composed by Linkin Park , except " A Place for My Head " Linkin Park , Wakefield , Farrell .

= = Personnel = =

Linkin Park

Chester Bennington – lead vocals

Mike Shinoda – lead vocals , rapping , rhythm guitar , keyboard , piano

Brad Delson – lead guitar , bass guitar , backing vocals

Joe Hahn – turntables , samples , programming , backing vocals

Rob Bourdon – drums , percussion , backing vocals

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = = Singles = = =

An en @-@ dash ( – ) denotes countries in which the singles were not released or did not chart .

= Eurasian wryneck =

The Eurasian wryneck ( Jynx torquilla ) is a species of wryneck in the woodpecker family . This species mainly breeds in temperate regions of Europe and Asia . Most populations are migratory , wintering in tropical Africa and in southern Asia from Iran to the Indian Subcontinent , but some are resident in northwestern Africa . It is a bird of open countryside , woodland and orchards .

Eurasian wrynecks measure about 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) in length and have bills shorter and less dagger @-@ like than those of other woodpeckers . Their upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks . Their underparts are cream speckled and spotted with brown . Their chief prey is ants and other insects , which they find in decaying wood or on the ground . The eggs are white as is the case with many birds that nest in holes and a clutch of seven to ten eggs is laid during May and June .

These birds get their English name from their ability to turn their heads through almost 180 degrees . When disturbed at the nest , they use this snake @-@ like head twisting and hissing as a threat display . This odd behaviour led to their use in witchcraft , hence to put a " jinx " on someone .

= = Taxonomy and etymology = =

The Eurasian wryneck was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758 . The type species came from Sweden .

The genus name Jynx is from the Ancient Greek name for this bird , iunx . The specific torquilla is Medieval Latin derived from torquere , to twist , referring to the strange snake @-@ head movements . The bird was used a a charm to bring back an errant lover , the bird being tied to a piece of string and whirled around . The English " wryneck " refers to the same twisting movement and was first recorded in 1585 .

The Picidae family has four subfamilies , the Picinae ( woodpeckers ) , the Picumninae ( piculets ) , the Jynginae ( wrynecks ) and the monotypic Nesoctitinae ( Antillean piculet ) . Based on morphology and behaviour , the Picumninae was considered to be the sister clade of the Picinae . This has now been confirmed by phylogenetic analysis and the Jynginae are placed basal to the Picinae , Nesoctitinae and Picumninae .

Jynginae includes one genus ( Jynx ) and two species , the Eurasian wryneck and the red @-@ throated wryneck ( Jynx ruficollis ) , resident in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . There are six subspecies of Jynx torquilla :

Jynx torquilla chinensis Hesse , 1911

Jynx torquilla himalayana Vaurie , 1959

Jynx torquilla mauretanica Rothschild , 1909

Jynx torquilla sarudnyi Loudon , 1912

Jynx torquilla torquilla Linnaeus , 1758

Jynx torquilla tschusii O. Kleinschmidt , 1907

= = Description = =

The Eurasian wryneck grows to about 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) in length . The subspecies Jynx torquilla tschusii weighs 26 to 50 g ( 0 @.@ 92 to 1 @.@ 76 oz ) . It is a slim , elongated @-@ looking bird with a body shape more like a thrush than a woodpecker . The upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks . The rump and upper tail coverts are grey with speckles and irregular bands of brown . The rounded tail is grey , speckled with brown , with faint bands of greyish @-@ brown and a few more clearly defined bands of brownish @-@ black . The cheeks and throat are buff barred with brown . The underparts are creamy white with brown markings shaped like arrow @-@ heads which are reduced to spots on the lower breast and belly . The flanks are buff with similar markings and the under @-@ tail coverts are buff with narrow brown bars . The primaries and secondaries are brown with rufous @-@ buff markings . The beak is brown , long and slender with a broad base and sharp tip . The irises are hazel and the slender legs and feet are pale brown . The first and second toes are shorter than the others . The first and fourth toes point backwards and the second and third point forwards , a good arrangement for clinging to vertical surfaces .

The call of the Eurasian wryneck is a series of repeated harsh , shrill notes quee @-@ quee @-@ quee @-@ quee lasting for several seconds and is reminiscent of the voice of the lesser spotted woodpecker . Its alarm call is a short series of staccato " tuck " s and when disturbed on the nest it hisses .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The Eurasian wryneck has a palearctic distribution . The breeding range of the nominate subspecies includes all of Europe from Britain to the Urals . In the north it reaches the Arctic Circle and the range includes Spain in the southwest . In the south and east it intergrades with J. t. tschusii ( smaller and more reddish brown ) which is found in Corsica , Italy , Dalmatia and parts of the Balkans . J. t. mauretanica ( also smaller than the nominate form , light , with whitish throat and breast ) is resident in Algeria and Morocco and possibly also the Balearic Islands , Sardinia and parts of Sicily . J. t. sarudnyi ( considerably paler than the nominate with fainter markings ) occurs in the Urals and then in a wide strip of Asia through southern Siberia , Central Asia , including the north @-@ western Himalayas to the Pacific coast . J. t. chinensis breeds in eastern Siberia and northeastern and central China while J. t. himalayana breeds in Pakistan and the northwestern Himalayas . Eurasian wrynecks also inhabit the island of Sakhalin , Japan and the coastal areas of southern China .

The Eurasian wryneck is the only European woodpecker to undertake long distance migrations . The wintering area of European species is located south of the Sahara , in a wide strip across Africa extending from Senegal , Gambia and Sierra Leone in the west to Ethiopia in the east . Its southern limit extends to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon . The populations from West Asia use the same wintering areas . The Central and East Asian breeding birds winter in the Indian subcontinent or southern East Asia including southern Japan .

During the summer the bird is found in open countryside , parkland , gardens , orchards , heaths and hedgerows , especially where there are some old trees . It may also inhabit deciduous woodland and in Scandinavia it also occurs in coniferous forests .

= = Behaviour = =

The Eurasian wryneck sometimes forms small groups during migration and in its winter quarters but in the summer is usually found in pairs . It characteristically holds its head high with its beak pointing slightly upwards . A mutual display that occurs at any time of year involves two birds perched facing each other with their heads far back and beaks wide open , bobbing their heads up and down . Sometimes the head is allowed to slump sideways and hang limply . On other occasions , when excited , the head is shaken and twisted about violently . When disturbed on the nest or held in the hand , the neck contorts and twists in all directions . The bird sometimes feigns death and hangs limply with eyes closed .

On returning to the breeding area after migration , the birds set up territories . On farmland in Switzerland it has been found that old pear orchards with large numbers of ant nests are preferentially selected over other habitata . Areas used for vegetable cultivation provided useful habitat when they include areas of bare ground on which the birds can forage . Territories are not chosen at random as arriving birds favoured certain areas over others with the same territories being colonised first year after year . The presence of other Eurasian wrynecks in the vicinity is also a positive influence . Orchards in general , and older ones in particular , provide favoured territories , probably because the dense foliage is more likely to support high numbers of aphids and the ground beneath has scant vegetation cover , both of which factors increase the availability of ants , the birds ' main prey . Despite some territories being consistently chosen over others , reproductive success in these territories was no higher than in others . Limiting factors for such crevice @-@ nesting species as Eurasian wrynecks are both the availability of nesting sites and the number of ants and their ease of discovery . Modern farming practices such as the removal of hedges , forest patches and isolated trees and the increasing use of fertilisers and pesticides are disadvantageous to such birds .

The diet of the Eurasian wryneck consists chiefly of ants but beetles and their larvae , moths , spiders and woodlice are also eaten . Although much time is spent in the upper branches of trees , the bird sometimes perches in low bushes and mostly forages on the ground , moving around with short hops with its tail held in a raised position . It can cling to tree trunks , often moving obliquely , and sometimes pressing its tail against the surface as a prop . It does not make holes in bark with its beak but picks up prey with a rapid extension and retraction of its tongue and it sometimes catches insects while on the wing . Its flight is rather slow and undulating .

= = Breeding = =

The nesting site is variable and may be in a pre @-@ existing hole in a tree trunk , a crevice in a wall , a hole in a bank , a sand martin 's burrow or a nesting box . In its search for a safe , protected site out of reach of predators , it sometimes evicts a previous occupant , its eggs and nestlings . It uses no nesting material and a clutch of normally seven to ten eggs is laid ( occasionally five , six , eleven or twelve ) . The eggs average 20 @.@ 8 by 15 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 82 in × 0 @.@ 61 in ) and weigh about 0 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 007 oz ) . They are a dull white colour and partially opaque . Both sexes are involved in incubation which takes twelve days , but the female plays the greater part . Both parents feed the chicks for about twenty days before they fledge . There is usually a single brood .

= = Status = =

The IUCN lists the Eurasian wryneck as being of " Least Concern " in its Red List of Threatened Species . This is because it has a world population estimated at up to fifteen million individual birds and a very wide geographical range . The population may be decreasing to a certain extent but not at such a rate as to make the bird reach the threshold for a more threatened category . In continental Europe , the largest populations are in Spain , Italy , Germany , Poland , Romania , Hungary , Belarus and Ukraine , and only in Romania is the population trend believed to be upward . In Russia , where there are believed to be 300 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 individuals , the population trend is unknown . In the United Kingdom the numbers of bird are on the decrease and it is protected under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention . It is protected as a migratory species under the Birds Directive in the European Union .

= Dream a Little Dream of Me ( Supernatural ) =

" Dream a Little Dream of Me " is the tenth episode of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural 's third season . It was first broadcast on The CW on February 7 , 2008 . The narrative follows series protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they enter the dreamscape to rescue the comatose Bobby Singer ( Jim Beaver ) .

Developed by Sera Gamble and Cathryn Humphris , the episode was written by the latter and directed by Steve Boyum . It delves into the backstory of Bobby , and also features a major turning point in Dean 's search for self @-@ worth . Many dream sequences had to be altered due to production issues , though series creator Eric Kripke believes it ultimately benefited the episode .

Critics gave generally positive reviews that praised Ackles for his dual performance and the production staff for their work on the dream sequences . However , they heavily criticized the actions of character Bela Talbot ( Lauren Cohan ) .

= = Plot = =

Within a dreamscape , hunter Bobby Singer ( Beaver ) searches around an old house and is suddenly attacked by a woman ( Elizabeth Marleau ) . A maid tries to no avail to wake him up in his motel room . Meanwhile , Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) finds his brother Sam ( Padalecki ) drinking at a bar in the middle of the afternoon . When Dean questions him about it , a drunken Sam admits that he is upset about not being able to save Dean from his demonic pact , which left him only a year to live . What bothers Sam even more is that Dean , who has little self @-@ worth , is not even concerned about his fate . Their conversation is interrupted by a call from the hospital .

After the brothers visit Bobby , who is in an unexplainable coma , they search his motel room and find a newspaper article about a doctor who suffered a sleep @-@ related death . Dean visits the doctor 's office , and learns that he was conducting secret dream experiments for his study on sleep disorders . Dean tracks down Jeremy , a young man who was part of the sleep study because he could not dream . While they talk , Jeremy offers Dean a beer , and he drinks it . Jeremy ( G. Michael Gray ) reveals that the experiment allowed him to dream by drinking a yellow tea , but the dreams scared him so much that he dropped out of the study . Sam , who has been busy conducting research , later tells Dean that a plant known as " African Dream Root " allegedly allows a person to enter and manipulate others ' dreams ; they believe someone killed the doctor in this manner and is now targeting Bobby . As a terrified Bobby hides in a closet within his dream , Dean suggests to Sam that they themselves use the dream root to save him .

The brothers contact Bela Talbot ( Cohan ) — a thief and frequent thorn in the Winchesters ' sides — to supply them with dream root . She enters the motel room wearing a trench coat , and removes it to reveal the lingerie underneath . She begins to passionately kiss Sam , and they lie on the bed . However , Sam is soon awakened from his dream by Dean , and Bela arrives moments later . She gives them the dream root without argument — she claims Bobby saved her life in Flagstaff — but is then kicked out . The brothers use the root to make tea , and soon find themselves in a clean version of Bobby 's house . Sam goes outside into brightly lit scenery of flowers and singing birds , but becomes locked out of the house . Inside , Dean locates Bobby , who does not believe that he is dreaming . A woman with stab wounds approaches them , and Bobby reveals that she is his wife . Years prior , she became possessed , and Bobby was forced to stab her because he did not know how to exorcise the demon from her ; her death led him to become a hunter . As Sam is attacked outside by an angry Jeremy , Bobby takes control of the dream , and they awaken .

Bobby explains that the man who attacked Sam is Jeremy Frost ; he was unable to dream because his father brutally hit him in the head with a baseball bat . The target 's DNA is a required ingredient for the dream @-@ root tea , and Jeremy acquired Bobby 's by offering him a beer . Dean realizes that he made the same mistake . Vulnerable to Jeremy , they both stay awake for two days while attempting to track him down . Unable to endure it any longer , Dean goes to sleep to face Jeremy , and Sam uses the dream root to enter his dream . The brothers encounter a dream version of Lisa Braeden ( Cindy Sampson ) — Dean 's former love interest — outstide on a blanket with a picnic basket . She invites Dean to join her , and tells him that she loves him before disappearing . Though Dean denies ever having that dream before , it is an obvious lie . Sam then sees Jeremy nearby and chases after him , and Dean finds himself in a long hallway . He enters his motel room , and comes face @-@ to @-@ face with a dream version of him ; he is his own worst nightmare . The Dream Dean comments on the real Dean 's feelings of worthlessness and self @-@ loathing ; he also deems Dean to be as " mindless and obedient as an attack dog " , noting that his possessions , personality , and motives all stem from his father . When the Dream Dean calls him a " good soldier and nothing else " , the real Dean reacts violently and exclaims that he did not deserve the burdens that his father put onto him and that he does not deserve to go to Hell . The real Dean shoots his doppelganger with a shotgun , but he returns to life as a demon . The Dream Dean taunts him that he cannot escape his fate , and reminds him that exposure to Hell will transform him into a demon .

Elsewhere , Sam finds and confronts Jeremy . The latter manipulates the dreamscape to his favor , but Sam retaliates by summoning the form of Jeremy 's father . A terrified Jeremy is distracted , and Sam kills him with a baseball bat . The brothers then awaken from their dreams . When they find that Bela lied about Bobby saving her life , they realize that she stole the Colt — a mystical gun capable of killing anything — from them . As the brothers prepare to leave to hunt her down , Dean admits that he does not want to die . Sam promises him that they will figure out a way to save him .

= = Production = =

= = = Conception = = =

Deemed by series creator Eric Kripke to be his homage to the film Dreamscape , the episode was the culmination of many previous pitches . Series writer Sera Gamble had been suggesting a dream @-@ based episode since the show 's first season , but it was not until the third season that the writers found the concept feasible . Although Cathryn Humphris was selected to pen " Dream a Little Dream of Me " due to her position on the writers ' rotation , she was teamed with Gamble to develop the story . On this pairing , Humphris commented , " I think that we complement each other well . Sera 's great at the really scary moments , and I think I 'm pretty good at some of the connective tissue and putting stuff together in the larger landscape . "

= = = Writing = = =

" Dream a Little Dream of Me " delves into the backstory of hunter Bobby Singer . The writers always knew his history would be " grounded in family " . Reflecting this , the original teaser depicted the supernatural deaths of Bobby 's children ; while eating dinner with his family , his children 's throats are supernaturally slit , and they would ask him , " Why , daddy , why did you let this happen ? " However , the writers could not determine where to go from there . Following Humphris ' earlier pitch of Bobby being an expert exorcist because of a previous failed exorcism , the focus changed to Bobby 's torment about killing his demonically possessed wife .

Other planned dream sequences were drastically altered due to production issues . One such scene , made to look like 80 's @-@ style film stock , had Dean being confronted by serial killer Jason Voorhees of the Friday the 13th film series . After production cleared the rights to use the character , Kripke made everyone view Friday the 13th : The Final Chapter to help them create the " perfect facsimile " of Jason . However , the film studio that had granted permission realized a few days before filming that it did not actually own the rights . In dire need of a new concept , the writers recalled Sam 's dream sequence with Bela ; since Sam is revealed to be a " horn dog " underneath , the writers wanted Dean to be the opposite . Dean secretly desires a normal family , so they had Cindy Sampson reprise her role as Lisa Braeden — Dean 's love interest from " The Kids are Alright " . On retrospect , Kripke preferred this scene over Jason because it is more illuminating of Dean 's character .

Dean 's other dream is a major turning point in the character 's storyline , after which he starts gaining self @-@ respect and realizes that he truly wants to live . He begins the season with little self @-@ worth , and the writers realized that this outlook stems from his father , John Winchester . Initially , they planned to have Jeffrey Dean Morgan reprise his role as John , who would browbeat Dean within the dreamscape . When they learned that Morgan was busy filming Watchmen , the writers instead found inspiration in the junkyard scene from the film Superman III , in which good and evil versions of Superman confront one another . Kripke noted , however , that the conversation between the two Deans still focuses on John .

= = = Filming = = =

Principal filming took place in Vancouver , British Columbia , with Bobby 's hospital scenes being filmed at Eagle Ridge Hospital in Port Moody , British Columbia . To distinguish the dream sequences , director of photography Serge Ladouceur used full blue lighting in the backgrounds — he normally uses half . The seamless transitions between dream scenes were accomplished by compressing the background with a long lens .

= = Reception = =

On its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 68 million viewers . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Tina Charles of TV Guide was happy to see Jim Beaver become more involved in the storyline , and praised Ackles for his " amazing job " during the confrontation between the two Deans . She described the latter scenes as " seamless , yet painful to watch " . Although Charles was happy to see the Colt get stolen — she thought the weapon was " too easy " and had lost its mystique — she noted her annoyance that the brothers continue to " look ridiculous " because Bela is able to steal things from them . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune gave the episode an A- . Despite the " sluggish pacing " of the first half , the " paternal baggage " and monster of the week " built up enough emotional resonance to triumph " . She noted the actors ' performances , such as the " great Winchester moment " in which Sam discusses Dean 's demonic pact ; for Peterson , " ... the dark , wounded look in Jared Padalecki 's eyes totally sells it " . The " brutally good character writing " and " truly impressive work " done for Dean 's dream @-@ encounter with himself was also lauded , with Peterson writing , " Ackles gives two of his best performances in the history of the show . At the same time . " Like Charles , however , she pointed out how " uncharacteristically stupid about Bela " the Winchesters have been . She commented , " Bela appears to have eaten the writers ' brains for breakfast . " The episode received a score of 7 out of 7 from TV Squad 's Brett Love . Bobby 's backstory at first was a " bit of a shock " for him , but he eventually came to realize that it " fits very well " . Love also thought that the dream root aspect " worked out great " , and deemed the dreamscapes " creepy and unsettling " .

= W. S. Gilbert =

Sir William Schwenck Gilbert ( 18 November 1836 – 29 May 1911 ) was an English dramatist , librettist , poet and illustrator best known for the fourteen comic operas ( known as the Savoy operas ) produced in collaboration with the composer Sir Arthur Sullivan . The most famous of these include H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre , The Mikado . These , as well as several of the other Savoy operas , continue to be frequently performed in the English @-@ speaking world and beyond by opera companies , repertory companies , schools and community theatre groups . Lines from these works have become part of the English language , such as " short , sharp shock " , " What , never ? Well , hardly ever ! " , and " Let the punishment fit the crime " .

Gilbert also wrote the Bab Ballads , an extensive collection of light verse accompanied by his own comical drawings . His creative output included over 75 plays and libretti , numerous stories , poems , lyrics and various other comic and serious pieces . His plays and realistic style of stage direction inspired other dramatists , including Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw . According to The Cambridge History of English and American Literature , Gilbert 's " lyrical facility and his mastery of metre raised the poetical quality of comic opera to a position that it had never reached before and has not reached since " .

= = Early life and career = =

= = = Beginnings = = =

Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street , Strand , London . His father , also named William , was briefly a naval surgeon , who later became a writer of novels and short stories , some of which were illustrated by his son . Gilbert 's mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris ( 1812 – 1888 ) , the daughter of Thomas Morris , an apothecary . Gilbert 's parents were distant and stern , and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them . They quarrelled increasingly , and following the break @-@ up of their marriage in 1876 , his relationships with them , especially his mother , became even more strained . Gilbert had three younger sisters , two of whom were born outside England because of the family 's travels during these years : Jane Morris ( b . 1838 in Milan , Italy – 1906 ) , who married Alfred Weigall , a miniatures painter ; Anne Maude ( 1845 – 1932 ) and Mary Florence ( b . 1843 in Boulogne , France – 1911 ) , neither of whom married . Gilbert was nicknamed " Bab " as a baby , and then " Schwenck " , after his father 's godparents .

As a child , Gilbert travelled to Italy in 1838 and then France for two years with his parents , who finally returned to settle in London in 1847 . He was educated at Boulogne , France from the age of seven ( he later kept his diary in French so that the servants could not read it ) , then at Western Grammar School , Brompton , London , and then at the Great Ealing School , where he became head boy and wrote plays for school performances and painted scenery . He then attended King 's College London , graduating in 1856 . He intended to take the examinations for a commission in the Royal Artillery , but with the end of the Crimean War , fewer recruits were needed , and the only commission available to Gilbert would have been in a line regiment . Instead he joined the Civil Service : he was an assistant clerk in the Privy Council Office for four years and hated it . In 1859 he joined the Militia , a part @-@ time volunteer force formed for the defence of Britain , with which he served until 1878 ( in between writing and other work ) , reaching the rank of Captain . In 1863 he received a bequest of £ 300 that he used to leave the civil service and take up a brief career as a barrister ( he had already entered the Inner Temple as a student ) , but his legal practice was not successful , averaging just five clients a year .

To supplement his income from 1861 on , Gilbert wrote a variety of stories , comic rants , grotesque illustrations , theatre reviews ( many in the form of a parody of the play being reviewed ) , and , under the pseudonym " Bab " ( his childhood nickname ) , illustrated poems for several comic magazines , primarily Fun , started in 1861 by H. J. Byron . He published stories , articles , and reviews in papers such as the Cornhill Magazine , London Society , Tinsley 's Magazine and Temple Bar . In addition , Gilbert was the London correspondent for L 'Invalide Russe and a drama critic for the Illustrated London Times . In the 1860s he also contributed to Tom Hood 's Christmas annuals , to Saturday Night , the Comic News and the Savage Club Papers . The Observer newspaper in 1870 sent him to France as a war correspondent reporting on the Franco @-@ Prussian War .

The poems , illustrated humorously by Gilbert , proved immensely popular and were reprinted in book form as the Bab Ballads . He would later return to many of these as source material for his plays and comic operas . Gilbert and his colleagues from Fun , including Tom Robertson , Tom Hood , Clement Scott and F. C. Burnand ( who defected to Punch in 1862 ) frequented the Arundel Club , the Savage Club , and especially Evans 's café , where they had a table in competition with the Punch ' Round table ' .

After a relationship in the mid @-@ 1860s with novelist Annie Thomas , Gilbert married Lucy Agnes Turner , whom he called " Kitty " , in 1867 ; she was 11 years his junior . He wrote many affectionate letters to her over the years . Gilbert and Lucy were socially active both in London and later at Grim 's Dyke , often holding dinner parties and being invited to others ' homes for dinner , in contrast to the picture painted by fictionalisations such as the film Topsy @-@ Turvy . The Gilberts had no children , but they had many pets , including some exotic ones .

= = = First plays = = =

Gilbert wrote and directed a number of plays at school , but his first professionally produced play was Uncle Baby , which ran for seven weeks in the autumn of 1863 .

In 1865 – 66 , Gilbert collaborated with Charles Millward on several pantomimes , including one called Hush @-@ a @-@ Bye , Baby , On the Tree Top , or , Harlequin Fortunia , King Frog of Frog Island , and the Magic Toys of Lowther Arcade ( 1866 ) . Gilbert 's first solo success , however , came a few days after Hush @-@ a @-@ Bye Baby premiered . His friend and mentor , Tom Robertson , was asked to write a pantomime but did not think he could do it in the two weeks available , and so he recommended Gilbert instead . Written and rushed to the stage in 10 days , Dulcamara , or the Little Duck and the Great Quack , a burlesque of Gaetano Donizetti 's L 'elisir d 'amore , proved extremely popular . This led to a long series of further Gilbert opera burlesques , pantomimes and farces , full of awful puns ( traditional in burlesques of the period ) , though showing , at times , signs of the satire that would later be a defining part of Gilbert 's work . For instance :

This was followed by Gilbert 's penultimate operatic parody , Robert the Devil , a burlesque of Giacomo Meyerbeer 's opera , Robert le diable , which was part of a triple bill that opened the Gaiety Theatre , London in 1868 . The piece was Gilbert 's biggest success to date , running for over 100 nights and being frequently revived and played continuously in the provinces for three years thereafter .

In Victorian theatre , " [ to degrade ] high and beautiful themes ... had been the regular proceeding in burlesque , and the age almost expected it " However , Gilbert 's burlesques were considered unusually tasteful compared to the others on the London stage . Isaac Goldberg wrote that these pieces " reveal how a playwright may begin by making burlesque of opera and end by making opera of burlesque . " Gilbert would depart even further from the burlesque style from about 1869 with plays containing original plots and fewer puns . His first full @-@ length prose comedy was An Old Score ( 1869 ) .

= = = German Reed entertainments and other plays of the early 1870s = = =

Theatre , at the time Gilbert began writing , had fallen into disrepute . Badly translated and adapted French operettas and poorly written , prurient Victorian burlesques dominated the London stage . As Jessie Bond vividly described it , " stilted tragedy and vulgar farce were all the would @-@ be playgoer had to choose from , and the theatre had become a place of evil repute to the righteous British householder . "

From 1869 to 1875 , Gilbert joined with one of the leading figures in theatrical reform , Thomas German Reed ( and his wife Priscilla ) , whose Gallery of Illustration sought to regain some of theatre 's lost respectability by offering family entertainments in London . So successful were they that by 1885 Gilbert stated that original British plays were appropriate for an innocent 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl in the audience . Three months before the opening of Gilbert 's last burlesque ( The Pretty Druidess ) , the first of his pieces for the Gallery of Illustration , No Cards , was produced . Gilbert created six musical entertainments for the German Reeds , some with music composed by Thomas German Reed himself .

The environment of the German Reeds ' intimate theatre allowed Gilbert quickly to develop a personal style and freedom to control all aspects of production , including set , costumes , direction and stage management . These works were a success , with Gilbert 's first big hit at the Gallery of Illustration , Ages Ago , opening in 1869 . Ages Ago was also the beginning of a collaboration with the composer Frederic Clay that would last seven years and produce four works . It was at a rehearsal for Ages Ago that Clay formally introduced Gilbert to his friend , Arthur Sullivan . The Bab Ballads and Gilbert 's many early musical works gave him much practice as a lyricist even before his collaboration with Sullivan .

Many of the plot elements of the German Reed Entertainments ( as well as some from his earlier plays and Bab Ballads ) would be reused by Gilbert later in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . These elements include paintings coming to life ( Ages Ago , used again in Ruddigore ) , a deaf nursemaid binding a respectable man 's son to a " pirate " instead of to a " pilot " by mistake ( Our Island Home , 1870 , reused in The Pirates of Penzance ) , and the forceful mature lady who is " an acquired taste " ( Eyes and No Eyes , 1875 , reused in The Mikado ) . During this time , Gilbert perfected the ' topsy @-@ turvy ' style that he had been developing in his Bab Ballads , where the humour was derived by setting up a ridiculous premise and working out its logical consequences , however absurd . Mike Leigh describes the " Gilbertian " style as follows : " With great fluidity and freedom , [ Gilbert ] continually challenges our natural expectations . First , within the framework of the story , he makes bizarre things happen , and turns the world on its head . Thus the Learned Judge marries the Plaintiff , the soldiers metamorphose into aesthetes , and so on , and nearly every opera is resolved by a deft moving of the goalposts ... His genius is to fuse opposites with an imperceptible sleight of hand , to blend the surreal with the real , and the caricature with the natural . In other words , to tell a perfectly outrageous story in a completely deadpan way . "

At the same time , Gilbert created several ' fairy comedies ' at the Haymarket Theatre . This series of plays was founded upon the idea of self @-@ revelation by characters under the influence of some magic or some supernatural interference . The first was The Palace of Truth ( 1870 ) , based partly on a story by Madame de Genlis . In 1871 , with Pygmalion and Galatea , one of seven plays that he produced that year , Gilbert scored his greatest hit to date . Together , these plays and their successors such as The Wicked World ( 1873 ) , Sweethearts ( 1874 ) , and Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) , did for Gilbert on the dramatic stage what the German Reed entertainments had done for him on the musical stage : they established that his capabilities extended far beyond burlesque , won him artistic credentials , and demonstrated that he was a writer of wide range , as comfortable with human drama as with farcical humour . The success of these plays , especially Pygmalion and Galatea , gave Gilbert a prestige that would be crucial to his later collaboration with as respected a musician as Sullivan .

During this period , Gilbert also pushed the boundaries of how far satire could go in the theatre . He collaborated with Gilbert Arthur à Beckett on The Happy Land ( 1873 ) , a political satire ( in part , a parody of his own The Wicked World ) , which was briefly banned because of its unflattering caricatures of Gladstone and his ministers . Similarly , The Realm of Joy ( 1873 ) was set in the lobby of a theatre performing a scandalous play ( implied to be the Happy Land ) , with many jokes at the expense of the Lord Chamberlain ( the " Lord High Disinfectant " , as he 's referred to in the play ) . In Charity ( 1874 ) , however , Gilbert uses the freedom of the stage in a different way : to provide a tightly @-@ written critique of the contrasting ways in which Victorian society treated men and women who had sex outside of marriage , which anticipated the ' problem plays ' of Shaw and Ibsen .

= = = As a director = = =

Once he became established , Gilbert was the stage director for his plays and operas and had strong opinions on how they should best be performed . He was strongly influenced by the innovations in ' stagecraft ' , now called stage direction , by the playwrights James Planché and especially Tom Robertson . Gilbert attended rehearsals directed by Robertson to learn this art firsthand from the older director , and he began to apply it in some of his earliest plays . He sought realism in acting , settings , costumes and movement , if not in content of his plays ( although he did write a romantic comedy in the " naturalist " style , as a tribute to Robertson , Sweethearts ) , shunned self @-@ conscious interaction with the audience , and insisted on a style of portrayal in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity , but were coherent internal wholes .

In Gilbert 's 1874 burlesque , Rosencrantz and Guildenstern , the character Hamlet , in his speech to the players , sums up Gilbert 's theory of comic acting : " I hold that there is no such antick fellow as your bombastical hero who doth so earnestly spout forth his folly as to make his hearers believe that he is unconscious of all incongruity " . Robertson " introduced Gilbert both to the revolutionary notion of disciplined rehearsals and to mise @-@ en @-@ scène or unity of style in the whole presentation – direction , design , music , acting . " Like Robertson , Gilbert demanded discipline in his actors . He required that his actors know their words perfectly , enunciate them clearly and obey his stage directions , which was something quite new to many actors of the day . A major innovation was the replacement of the star actor with the disciplined ensemble , " raising the director to a new position of dominance " in the theatre . " That Gilbert was a good director is not in doubt . He was able to extract from his actors natural , clear performances , which served the Gilbertian requirements of outrageousness delivered straight . "

Gilbert prepared meticulously for each new work , making models of the stage , actors and set pieces , and designing every action and bit of business in advance . Gilbert would not work with actors who challenged his authority . Even during long runs and revivals , Gilbert closely supervised the performances of his plays , making sure that the actors did not make unauthorised additions , deletions or paraphrases . Gilbert was famous for demonstrating the action himself , even as he grew older . Gilbert himself went on stage in a number of productions throughout his lifetime , including several performances as the Associate in Trial by Jury , as substitute for an ailing actor in his play Broken Hearts , and in charity matinees of his one @-@ act plays , such as King Claudius in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern .

= = Collaboration with Sullivan = =

= = = First collaborations amidst other works = = =

In 1871 , John Hollingshead commissioned Gilbert to work with Sullivan on a holiday piece for Christmas , Thespis , or The Gods Grown Old , at the Gaiety Theatre . Thespis outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season , and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety , However , nothing more came of it at that point , and Gilbert and Sullivan went their separate ways . Gilbert worked again with Clay on Happy Arcadia ( 1872 ) , and with Alfred Cellier on Topsyturveydom ( 1874 ) , as well as writing several farces , operetta libretti , extravaganzas , fairy comedies , adaptations from novels , translations from the French , and the dramas described above . Also in 1874 , he published his last contribution for Fun magazine ( " Rosencrantz and Guildenstern " ) , after a gap of three years , then resigned due to disapproval of the new owner 's other publishing interests .

It would be nearly four years after Thespis was produced before the two men worked together again . In 1868 , Gilbert had published a short comic sketch libretto in Fun magazine entitled " Trial by Jury : An Operetta " . In 1873 , Gilbert arranged with the theatrical manager and composer , Carl Rosa , to expand the piece into a one @-@ act libretto . Rosa 's wife was to sing the role of the plaintiff . However , Rosa 's wife died in childbirth in 1874 . Later in 1874 Gilbert offered the libretto to Richard D 'Oyly Carte , but Carte could not use the piece at that time . By early 1875 , Carte was managing the Royalty Theatre , and he needed a short opera to be played as an afterpiece to Offenbach 's La Périchole . He contacted Gilbert , asked about the piece , and suggested Sullivan to set the work . Sullivan was enthusiastic , and Trial by Jury was composed in a matter of weeks . The little piece was a runaway hit , outlasting the run of La Périchole and being revived at another theatre .

Gilbert continued his quest to gain respect in and respectability for his profession . One thing that may have been holding dramatists back from respectability was that plays were not published in a form suitable for a " gentleman 's library " , as , at the time , they were generally cheaply and unattractively published for the use of actors rather than the home reader . To help rectify this , at least for himself , Gilbert arranged in late 1875 for publishers Chatto and Windus to print a volume of his plays in a format designed to appeal to the general reader , with an attractive binding and clear type , containing Gilbert 's most respectable plays , including his most serious works , but mischievously capped off with Trial by Jury .

After the success of Trial by Jury , there were discussions towards reviving Thespis , but Gilbert and Sullivan were not able to agree on terms with Carte and his backers . The score to Thespis was never published , and most of the music is now lost . It took some time for Carte to gather funds for another Gilbert and Sullivan opera , and in this gap Gilbert produced several works including Tom Cobb ( 1875 ) , Eyes and No Eyes ( 1875 , his last German Reed Entertainment ) , and Princess Toto ( 1876 ) , his last and most ambitious work with Clay , a three @-@ act comic opera with full orchestra , as opposed to the shorter works for much reduced accompaniment that came before . Gilbert also wrote two serious works during this time , Broken Hearts ( 1875 ) and Dan 'l Druce , Blacksmith ( 1876 ) .

Also during this period , Gilbert wrote his most successful comic play , Engaged ( 1877 ) , which inspired Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest . Engaged is a parody of romantic drama written in the " topsy @-@ turvy " satiric style of many of Gilbert 's Bab Ballads and the Savoy Operas , with one character pledging his love , in the most poetic and romantic language possible , to every single woman in the play ; the " innocent " Scottish rustics being revealed to be making a living through throwing trains off the lines and then charging the passengers for services , and , in general , romance being gladly thrown over in favour of monetary gain . Engaged continues to be performed today by both professional and amateur companies .

= = = Peak collaborative years = = =

Carte finally assembled a syndicate in 1877 and formed the Comedy Opera Company to launch a series of original English comic operas , beginning with a third collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan , The Sorcerer , in November 1877 . This work was a modest success , and H.M.S. Pinafore followed in May 1878 . Despite a slow start , mainly due to a scorching summer , Pinafore became a red @-@ hot favourite by autumn . After a dispute with Carte over the division of profits , the other Comedy Opera Company partners hired thugs to storm the theatre one night to steal the sets and costumes , intending to mount a rival production . The attempt was repelled by stagehands and others at the theatre loyal to Carte , and Carte continued as sole impresario of the newly renamed D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . Indeed , Pinafore was so successful that over a hundred unauthorised productions sprang up in America alone . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , without success .

For the next decade , the Savoy Operas ( as the series came to be known , after the theatre Carte later built to house them ) were Gilbert 's principal activity . The successful comic operas with Sullivan continued to appear every year or two , several of them being among the longest @-@ running productions up to that point in the history of the musical stage . After Pinafore came The Pirates of Penzance ( 1879 ) , Patience ( 1881 ) , Iolanthe ( 1882 ) , Princess Ida ( 1884 , based on Gilbert 's earlier farce , The Princess ) , The Mikado ( 1885 ) , Ruddigore ( 1887 ) , The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 ) , and The Gondoliers ( 1889 ) . Gilbert not only directed and oversaw all aspects of production for these works , but he actually designed the costumes himself for Patience , Iolanthe , Princess Ida , and Ruddigore . He insisted on precise and authentic sets and costumes , which provided a foundation to ground and focus his absurd characters and situations .

During this time , Gilbert and Sullivan also collaborated on one other major work , the oratorio The Martyr of Antioch , premiered at the Leeds music festival in October 1880 . Gilbert arranged the original epic poem by Henry Hart Milman into a libretto suitable for the music , and it contains some original work . During this period , also , Gilbert occasionally wrote plays to be performed elsewhere – both serious dramas ( for example The Ne 'er @-@ Do @-@ Weel , 1878 ; and Gretchen , 1879 ) and humorous works ( for example Foggerty 's Fairy , 1881 ) . However , he no longer needed to turn out multiple plays each year , as he had done before . Indeed , during the more than nine years that separated The Pirates of Penzance and The Gondoliers , he wrote just three plays outside of the partnership with Sullivan . Only one of these works , Comedy and Tragedy , proved successful .

In 1878 , Gilbert realised a lifelong dream to play Harlequin , which he did at the Gaiety Theatre as part of an amateur charity production of The Forty Thieves , partly written by himself . Gilbert trained for Harlequin 's stylised dancing with his friend John D 'Auban , who had arranged the dances for some of his plays and would choreograph most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Producer John Hollingshead later remembered , " the gem of the performance was the grimly earnest and determined Harlequin of W. S. Gilbert . It gave me an idea of what Oliver Cromwell would have made of the character . " Another member of the cast recalled that Gilbert was tirelessly enthusiastic about the piece and often invited the cast to his home for dinner extra rehearsals . " A pleasanter , more genial , or agreeable companion than he was it would have been difficult , if not impossible , to find . " In 1882 , Gilbert had a telephone installed in his home and at the prompt desk at the Savoy Theatre , so that he could monitor performances and rehearsals from his home study . Gilbert had referred to the new technology in Pinafore in 1878 , only two years after the device was invented and before London even had telephone service .

= = = Carpet quarrel and end of the collaboration = = =

Gilbert sometimes had a strained working relationship with Sullivan , partly because each man saw himself allowing his work to be subjugated to the other 's , and partly due to their opposing personalities . Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin @-@ skinned , though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness , while Sullivan eschewed conflict . In addition , Gilbert imbued his libretti with " topsy @-@ turvy " situations in which the social order was turned upside down . After a time , these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan 's desire for realism and emotional content . In addition , Gilbert 's political satire often poked fun at those in the circles of privilege , while Sullivan was eager to socialise among the wealthy and titled people who would become his friends and patrons .

Throughout their collaboration , Gilbert and Sullivan disagreed several times over the choice of a subject . After both Princess Ida and Ruddigore , which were less successful than the seven other operas from H.M.S. Pinafore to The Gondoliers , Sullivan asked to leave the partnership , saying that he found Gilbert 's plots repetitive and that the operas were not artistically satisfying to him . While the two artists worked out their differences , Carte kept the Savoy open with revivals of their earlier works . On each occasion , after a few months ' pause , Gilbert responded with a libretto that met Sullivan 's objections , and the partnership continued successfully .

In April 1890 , during the run of The Gondoliers , however , Gilbert challenged Carte over the expenses of the production . Among other items to which Gilbert objected , Carte had charged the cost of a new carpet for the Savoy Theatre lobby to the partnership . Gilbert believed that this was a maintenance expense that should be charged to Carte alone . Gilbert confronted Carte , who refused to reconsider the accounts . Gilbert stormed out and wrote to Sullivan that " I left him with the remark that it was a mistake to kick down the ladder by which he had risen " . Helen Carte wrote that Gilbert had addressed Carte " in a way that I should not have thought you would have used to an offending menial . " As scholar Andrew Crowther has explained :

After all , the carpet was only one of a number of disputed items , and the real issue lay not in the mere money value of these things , but in whether Carte could be trusted with the financial affairs of Gilbert and Sullivan . Gilbert contended that Carte had at best made a series of serious blunders in the accounts , and at worst deliberately attempted to swindle the others . It is not easy to settle the rights and wrongs of the issue at this distance , but it does seem fairly clear that there was something very wrong with the accounts at this time . Gilbert wrote to Sullivan on 28 May 1891 , a year after the end of the " Quarrel " , that Carte had admitted " an unintentional overcharge of nearly £ 1 @,@ 000 in the electric lighting accounts alone . "

Gilbert brought suit , and after The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , he withdrew the performance rights to his libretti , vowing to write no more operas for the Savoy . Gilbert next wrote The Mountebanks with Alfred Cellier and the flop Haste to the Wedding with George Grossmith , and Sullivan wrote Haddon Hall with Sydney Grundy . Gilbert eventually won the lawsuit and felt vindicated , but his actions and statements had been hurtful to his partners . Nevertheless , the partnership had been so profitable that , after the financial failure of the Royal English Opera House , Carte and his wife sought to reunite the author and composer .

In 1891 , after many failed attempts at reconciliation by the pair , Tom Chappell , the music publisher responsible for printing the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , stepped in to mediate between two of his most profitable artists , and within two weeks had succeeded . Two more operas resulted : Utopia , Limited ( 1893 ) and The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) . Gilbert also offered a third libretto to Sullivan ( His Excellency , 1894 ) , but Gilbert 's insistence on casting Nancy McIntosh , his protegée from Utopia , led to Sullivan 's refusal . Utopia , concerning an attempt to " anglicise " a south Pacific island kingdom , was only a modest success , and The Grand Duke , in which a theatrical troupe , by means of a " statutory duel " and a conspiracy , takes political control of a grand duchy , was an outright failure . After that , the partnership ended for good . Sullivan continued to compose comic opera with other librettists but died four years later . In 1904 , Gilbert would write , " ... Savoy opera was snuffed out by the deplorable death of my distinguished collaborator , Sir Arthur Sullivan . When that event occurred , I saw no one with whom I felt that I could work with satisfaction and success , and so I discontinued to write libretti . "

= = Later years = =

Gilbert built the Garrick Theatre in 1889 . The Gilberts moved to Grim 's Dyke in Harrow in 1890 , which he purchased from Robert Heriot , to whom the artist Frederick Goodall had sold the property in 1880 . In 1891 , Gilbert was appointed Justice of the Peace for Middlesex . After casting Nancy McIntosh in Utopia , Limited , he and Lady Gilbert developed an affection for her , and she eventually gained the status of an unofficially adopted daughter , moving to Grim 's Dyke to live with them . She continued living there , even after Gilbert 's death , until Lady Gilbert 's death in 1936 . A statue of Charles II , carved by Danish sculptor Caius Gabriel Cibber in 1681 , was moved in 1875 from Soho Square to an island in the lake at Grim 's Dyke , where it remained when Gilbert purchased the property . On Lady Gilbert 's direction , it was restored to Soho Square in 1938 .

Although Gilbert announced a retirement from the theatre after the poor initial run of his last work with Sullivan , The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) and the poor reception of his 1897 play The Fortune Hunter , he produced at least three more plays over the last dozen years of his life , including an unsuccessful opera , Fallen Fairies ( 1909 ) , with Edward German . Gilbert also continued to supervise the various revivals of his works by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , including its London Repertory seasons in 1906 – 09 . His last play , The Hooligan , produced just four months before his death , is a study of a young condemned thug in a prison cell . Gilbert shows sympathy for his protagonist , the son of a thief who , brought up among thieves , kills his girlfriend . As in some earlier work , the playwright displays " his conviction that nurture rather than nature often accounted for criminal behaviour " . The grim and powerful piece became one of Gilbert 's most successful serious dramas , and experts conclude that , in those last months of Gilbert 's life , he was developing a new style , a " mixture of irony , of social theme , and of grubby realism , " to replace the old " Gilbertianism " of which he had grown weary . In these last years , Gilbert also wrote children 's book versions of H.M.S. Pinafore and The Mikado giving , in some cases , backstory that is not found in the librettos .

Gilbert was knighted on 15 July 1907 in recognition of his contributions to drama . Sullivan had been knighted for his contributions to music almost a quarter of a century earlier , in 1883 . Gilbert was , however , the first British writer ever to receive a knighthood for his plays alone — earlier dramatist knights , such as Sir William Davenant and Sir John Vanbrugh , were knighted for political and other services .

On 29 May 1911 , Gilbert was about to give a swimming lesson to two young women , Winifred Isabel Emery ( 1890 – 1972 ) , and 17 @-@ year @-@ old Ruby Preece in the lake of his home , Grim 's Dyke , when Preece lost her footing and called for help . Gilbert dived in to save her but suffered a heart attack in the middle of the lake and died . He was cremated at Golders Green and his ashes buried at the Church of St. John the Evangelist , Stanmore . The inscription on Gilbert 's memorial on the south wall of the Thames Embankment in London reads : " His Foe was Folly , and his Weapon Wit " . There is also a memorial plaque at All Saints ' Church , Harrow Weald .

= = Personality = =

Gilbert was known for being prickly . Aware of this general impression , he claimed that " If you give me your attention " , the misanthrope 's song from Princess Ida , was a satiric self @-@ reference , saying : " I thought it my duty to live up to my reputation . " However , many people have defended him , often citing his generosity . Actress May Fortescue recalled , " His kindness was extraordinary . On wet nights and when rehearsals were late and the last buses were gone , he would pay the cab @-@ fares of the girls whether they were pretty or not , instead of letting them trudge home on foot ... He was just as large @-@ hearted when he was poor as when he was rich and successful . For money as money he cared less than nothing . Gilbert was no plaster saint , but he was an ideal friend . " Journalist Frank M. Boyd wrote :

I fancy that seldom was a man more generally given credit for a personality quite other than his own , than was the case with Sir W. S. Gilbert ... Till one actually came to know the man , one shared the opinion held by so many , that he was a gruff , disagreeable person ; but nothing could be less true of the really great humorist . He had rather a severe appearance ... and like many other clever people , he had precious little use for fools of either sex , but he was at heart as kindly and lovable a man as you could wish to meet .

Jessie Bond wrote that Gilbert " was quick @-@ tempered , often unreasonable , and he could not bear to be thwarted , but how anyone could call him unamiable I cannot understand . " George Grossmith wrote to The Daily Telegraph that , although Gilbert had been described as an autocrat at rehearsals , " That was really only his manner when he was playing the part of stage director at rehearsals . As a matter of fact , he was a generous , kind true gentleman , and I use the word in the purest and original sense . "

Aside from his occasional creative disagreements with , and eventual rift from , Sullivan , Gilbert 's temper led to the loss of friendships with a number of people . For instance , he quarrelled with his old associate C. H. Workman , over the firing of Nancy McIntosh from the production of Fallen Fairies , and with actress Henrietta Hodson . He also saw his friendship with theatre critic Clement Scott turn bitter . However , Gilbert could be extraordinarily kind . During Scott 's final illness in 1904 , for instance , Gilbert donated to a fund for him , visited nearly every day , and assisted Scott 's wife , despite having not been on friendly terms with him for the previous sixteen years . Similarly , Gilbert had written several plays at the behest of comic actor Ned Sothern . However , Sothern died before he could perform the last of these , Foggerty 's Fairy . Gilbert purchased the play back from his grateful widow . According to one London society lady :

[ Gilbert ] ' s wit was innate , and his rapier @-@ like retorts slipped out with instantaneous ease . His mind was naturally fastidious and clean ; he never asserted himself , never tried to make an effect . He was great @-@ hearted and most understanding , with an underlying poetry of fancy that made him the most delicious companion . They spoke of his quick temper , but that was entirely free from malice or guile . He was soft @-@ hearted as a babe , but there was nothing of the hypocrite about him . What he thought he said on the instant , and though by people of sensitive vanity this might on occasion be resented , to a sensitiveness of a finer kind it was an added link , binding one to a faithful , valued friend .

As the writings about Gilbert by husband and wife Seymour Hicks and Ellaline Terriss ( frequent guests at his home ) vividly illustrate , Gilbert 's relationships with women were generally more successful than his relationships with men . According to George Grossmith , Gilbert " was to those who knew him a courteous and amiable gentleman – a gentleman without veneer . " Grossmith and many others wrote of how Gilbert loved to amuse children :

During my dangerous illness , Mr. Gilbert never failed a day to come up and enquire after me ... and kept me in roars of laughter the whole time ... But to see Gilbert at his best , is to see him at one of his juvenile parties . Though he has no children of his own , he loves them , and there is nothing he would not do to please them . I was never so astonished as when on one occasion he put off some of his own friends to come with Mrs. Gilbert to a juvenile party at my own house .

Gilbert 's niece Mary Carter confirmed , " ... he loved children very much and lost no opportunity of making them happy ... [ He was ] the kindest and most human of uncles . " Grossmith quoted Gilbert as saying , " Deer @-@ stalking would be a very fine sport if only the deer had guns . "

= = Legacy = =

In 1957 , a review in The Times explained " the continued vitality of the Savoy operas " as follows :

[ T ] hey were never really contemporary in their idiom ... Gilbert and Sullivan 's [ world ] , from the first moment was obviously not the audience 's world , [ it was ] an artificial world , with a neatly controlled and shapely precision which has not gone out of fashion – because it was never in fashion in the sense of using the fleeting conventions and ways of thought of contemporary human society ... The neat articulation of incredibilities in Gilbert 's plots is perfectly matched by his language ... His dialogue , with its primly mocking formality , satisfies both the ear and the intelligence . His verses show an unequalled and very delicate gift for creating a comic effect by the contrast between poetic form and prosaic thought and wording ... How deliciously [ his lines ] prick the bubble of sentiment . Gilbert had many imitators , but no equals , at this sort of thing ... [ Of ] equal importance ... Gilbert 's lyrics almost invariably take on extra point and sparkle when set to Sullivan 's music ... The two men together remain endlessly and incomparably delightful ... Light , and even trifling , though [ the operas ] may seem upon grave consideration , they yet have the shapeliness and elegance that can make a trifle into a work of art .

Gilbert 's legacy , aside from building the Garrick Theatre and writing the Savoy Operas and other works that are still being performed or in print over a hundred and twenty @-@ five years after their creation , is felt perhaps most strongly today through his influence on the American and British musical theatre . The innovations in content and form of the works that he and Sullivan developed , and in Gilbert 's theories of acting and stage direction , directly influenced the development of the modern musical throughout the 20th century . Gilbert 's lyrics employ punning , as well as complex internal and two and three @-@ syllable rhyme schemes , and served as a model for such 20th century Broadway lyricists as P.G. Wodehouse , Cole Porter , Ira Gershwin , and Lorenz Hart .

Gilbert 's influence on the English language has also been marked , with well @-@ known phrases such as " A policeman 's lot is not a happy one " , " short , sharp shock " , " What never ? Well , hardly ever ! " , and " let the punishment fit the crime " arising from his pen . In addition , biographies continue to be written about Gilbert 's life and career , and his work is not only performed , but frequently parodied , pastiched , quoted and imitated in comedy routines , film , television and other popular media .

Ian Bradley , in connection with the 100th anniversary of Gilbert 's death in 2011 wrote :

There has been much discussion about Gilbert 's proper place in British literary and dramatic history . Was he essentially a writer of burlesque , a satirist , or , as some have argued , the forerunner of the theatre of the absurd ? ... Perhaps he stands most clearly in that distinctively English satirical tradition which stretches back to Jonathan Swift . ... Its leading exponents lampoon and send up the major institutions and public figures of the day , wielding the weapon of grave and temperate irony with devastating effect , while themselves remaining firmly within the Establishment and displaying a deep underlying affection for the objects of their often merciless attacks . It is a combination that remains a continuing enigma .

= Ned Manning =

Ned Manning is an Australian playwright , actor and teacher , whose film credits include the lead role in Dead End Drive @-@ In ( 1986 ) and an appearance in the teen film Looking for Alibrandi ( 2000 ) . Manning 's television credits include Bodyline , The Shiralee , " Prisoner " " , and Brides of Christ . His first major play was Us or Them , and its production by Griffin Theatre Company marked the company 's transition to being staffed by professional actors . Other plays have included Milo , Kenny 's Coming Home and Close to the Bone ; in 2007 Manning played the lead in his own play Last One Standing at the Old Fitzroy theatre in Sydney . The plays have received mixed reviews , with Last One Standing in particular being criticised for its formulaic and predictable narrative . Manning has written for the Bell Shakespeare Company 's Actors at Work program , a travelling community and schools theatrical education initiative .

At one time the husband of Indigenous Australian artist Bronwyn Bancroft , Manning has since remarried , to theatre director Marion Potts . His children include New South Wales Young Australian of the Year for 2010 , Jack Manning Bancroft .

= = Life = =

Ned Manning was born in 1950 and grew up on a property in Coonabarabran , New South Wales . He married Bronwyn Bancroft , an Indigenous Australian artist , with whom he had two children , including New South Wales Young Australian of the Year for 2010 , Jack Manning Bancroft . Manning remarried to theatre director Marion Potts , with whom he had two children . In 2010 , they relocated from Sydney to Melbourne when she was appointed director of the Malthouse Theatre .

= = Playwright and author = =

Manning 's first play , Us or Them , was initially produced at the Childers Street Hall in Canberra on 1 November 1977 . It was then re @-@ written and performed in 1984 at the Stables Theatre for the Griffin Theatre Company , where it marked a turning point in Griffin 's history as the play 's success led to the cast and creatives being paid full professional rates . The play then transferred to the Philip St Theatre and on to the Q Theatre in Penrith .

Milo premiered at the Sydney Theatre Company 's Wharf 2 Theatre in October 1984 before productions at the Q Theatre , Theatre Up North in Townsville , Theatre South in Wollongong and regional performances . Milo has been recorded for Radio National , had numerous other productions , and also been published by Currency Press . However a 2001 production in Sydney was panned by the reviewer , who described it as " formulaic and obvious , complete with clunky and unconvincing pat ending " , and thought the play should be " put out to pasture " . The same year , The Australian 's reviewer was more positive , considering the performance to be " passionate and funny . Seven years after it first appeared , it remains one of the best plays written about the bush @-@ city divide " .

Manning 's next play , Kenny 's Coming Home ( 1991 ) , was performed at the Q Theatre , Penrith and was subsequently recorded for radio on ABC Radio National . The play is centred on a Rugby league footballer , Kenny , who gets caught up in a preselection battle between two of his family members . Kenny 's Coming Home included songs by Shane McNamara .

Close to the Bone was written in collaboration with the Indigenous students at the EORA Centre for Performing and Visual Arts in Redfern , and first produced there in September 1991 . Luck of the Draw was produced by the Darwin Theatre Company in May 1999 and was the first play written by a non @-@ Indigenous writer to be produced by Kooemba Jdarra theatre company in Brisbane . Last One Standing was performed at Sydney theatre the Old Fitzroy in 2007 . Manning played lead character Joe in the Old Fitzroy production ; The Sydney Morning Herald 's reviewer Bryce Hallett described his performance as " terrific " , providing the play " with an emotional anchor " , but considered the play itself to be predictable , lacking in depth and with " nothing revelatory on offer " ; The Sun @-@ Herald reviewer was of a similar view .

Manning has created many works for young audiences . He has prepared scripts for ten works for The Bell Shakespeare Company 's Actors at Work program , a travelling community and schools theatrical education initiative . Other plays for young people have included Alice Dreaming , which is one of the Australian Script Centre 's anthology of large cast plays . In 2012 he contributed to a Federation Press anthology of monologues for drama students , No Nudity , Weapons or Naked Flames . His play Romeo and Juliet Intensive was nominated for a 2011 AWGIE Award .

In 2012 , NewSouth Books published Manning 's memoir of a life of school teaching , Playground Duty . Reviewed by the New South Wales Writers ' Centre 's Amanda Calwell , it was described as showing " the value that one person with drive , ambition and compassion can offer by applying themselves to teaching " .

= = Television , film and directing = =

Manning 's film credits include the lead role in the 1986 Ozploitation film Dead End Drive @-@ In . Based on a Peter Carey short story called " Crabs " , Dead End Drive @-@ In is a post @-@ apocalyptic tale about a young man stranded in a small town 's drive @-@ in theater when the wheels are stolen off his car . He finds himself amongst a community of misfits trapped at the site , and seeks to break out . The film , directed by Brian Trenchard @-@ Smith , received mixed reviews : Tim Kroenert writing for Eureka Street described it as " Mad Max @-@ lite " and said that the film " is an example of how literality of translation can result in the sacrifice of the story ’ s essence . The film is fun on its own terms , but much of the nuance and irony that lend ‘ Crabs ’ its magic are simply lost " . Philippa Hawker writing for The Age said the film was " an energetic , inventively designed , cheerfully satirical and entertaining film " , and it is one of American film director Quentin Tarantino 's favourites . The film received only a short box @-@ office season ; Manning was critical of the distributor Greater Union and worked with the film 's other actors to secure separate release in independent cinemas . Manning 's other film credits include an appearance in the teen film Looking for Alibrandi . He has also made a short film , Love Bites . Manning 's television credits include Bodyline , The Shiralee and Brides of Christ .

In 1989 Manning directed the Belvoir St Theatre production of a play , Black Cockatoos , about the relationship between a white woman and an Aboriginal man . The script ( not by Manning ) was criticised by reviewer Angela Bennie , who nevertheless described Manning 's direction as delicate and perceptive in places , if also naive and self @-@ conscious .

= Burnside Burn =

The " Burnside Burn " was an event held on the Burnside Bridge in Portland , Oregon , starting at midnight on July 1 , 2015 , the day recreational marijuana became legal in the U.S. state of Oregon . It was organized by Portland NORML , the local chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws , having originated from its executive director , who wanted to photograph himself in front of the White Stag sign in the moments after Oregon Ballot Measure 91 took effect . The crowd , larger than anticipated , numbered in the thousands and at times blocked traffic lanes on the bridge . Some attendees wanted to commemorate the moment , while others were motivated by announcements of free marijuana and seeds . No fines were issued for consumption in public . The event was covered by cannabis publications , local and national news outlets , and the HBO television series Vice .

= = Description = =

The " Burnside Burn " was organized by Portland NORML , the local chapter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws , in celebration of the legalization of recreational marijuana use in Oregon and to circumnavigate a temporary limit on recreational sales . According to Russ Belville , the chapter 's executive director , the event began with the idea of taking a photograph in front of the White Stag sign . He recalled : " It evolved from me saying that when legalization happens , I want to take a photo under the Portland , Oregon sign . Other people said , ' Can we give marijuana away ? ' [ and ] I said , ' I can 't stop you ! ' "

On the evening of June 30 , beginning as early as 8pm , and into the morning of July 1 , 2015 , between a few hundred and a few thousand people gathered on the Burnside Bridge 's north sidewalk for the free event . The crowd sometimes spilled into the road and blocked multiple traffic lanes , resulting at one point in the complete blockage of west @-@ bound traffic . Activists chanted " Free the weed " and " Fuck the DEA " . Cannabis was shared and consumed openly .

The crowd was larger than anticipated and spanned the entire length of the 1 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 430 m ) Burnside Bridge . Belville had initially expected " between 50 and 5 @,@ 000 people " , but details of the event spread online and through word of mouth , and ultimately it was estimated that " thousands " had turned out . Some attendees said they were there to commemorate an historic moment , while others admitted having come for free marijuana and cannabis seeds . One man , known as " Pork Chop " ( or " Porkchop " ) , reportedly announced over a megaphone that he had 420 pounds of marijuana to distribute , though his claim was not supported by news outlets . Two women with Ideal Farms , who wished to " share the love " , distributed joints to attendees who could prove that they were of legal age . One man distributed drops of hash oil , and Belville himself shared an ounce of marijuana ( the maximum allowed under Oregon Ballot Measure 91 ) . Some participants did receive free marijuana , seeds , and / or starter plants , but many did not , due to the larger than expected crowd . Coupons were also distributed for later redemption .

Participants smoked openly and without fear . No fines were issued for consumption in public . Patrol vehicles drove by the scene a few times but did not stop . Prior to the event , police urged residents to avoid calling 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 to report public consumption , which they did not consider an emergency .

= = Commentary = =

The event was covered by cannabis publications , local and national media outlets , and the HBO documentary television series Vice . The Oregonian described the event as " loud and energetic " , attracting a diverse and " eclectic " crowd of activists , marijuana enthusiasts , and first @-@ time consumers , some from as far away as Canada and San Diego . According to Willamette Week , attendees ranged from octogenarians to " tweens with rainbow hair " and the crowd was " generally happy " . The newspaper summarized , " All and all , the mood was celebratory as befit such an historic occasion . "

NORML 's Kaliko Castille told The Huffington Post he was " happy to see a community able to come together — peacefully — over something positive . It 's great to see people from all walks of life out here , handing out joints to each other and getting to know their neighbors . " The Huffington Post 's Andy Campbell called the event a " smoke @-@ out with a message " and opined , " Legalization is so much more than being able to smoke a joint in your home without being a criminal . It 's a health care issue ; it 's a tax revenue issue ; it saves states millions in the court system ; and it ends the hidden costs of prosecution , which emerge when someone can 't get a job because there 's a possession charge on their record . " The Washington Post called the " Burnside Burn " an opportunity for marijuana enthusiasts to " celebrate their new freedom together " .

= Interstate 295 ( Delaware – New Jersey ) =

Interstate 295 ( abbreviated I @-@ 295 ) in New Jersey and Delaware is an auxiliary Interstate Highway , designated as a bypass around Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The route begins at a junction with I @-@ 95 south of Wilmington , Delaware , and runs to another junction with I @-@ 95 north of Trenton , New Jersey . The highway heads east from I @-@ 95 and crosses the Delaware River from Delaware to New Jersey on the Delaware Memorial Bridge concurrent with U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) . Upon entering New Jersey , the two routes split and I @-@ 295 runs parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike for most of its course in the state . After a concurrency with US 130 in Gloucester County , I @-@ 295 has an interchange with I @-@ 76 and Route 42 in Camden County . The freeway continues northeast toward Trenton , where it intersects I @-@ 195 and Route 29 before bypassing the city to the east and ending at US 1 in Lawrence Township , where the road becomes I @-@ 95 southbound .

Three portions of I @-@ 295 predate the Interstate Highway System : the Delaware Memorial Bridge and its approach , built in 1951 , a section in Salem County built in 1953 , and the part concurrent with US 130 , built in two sections that opened in 1948 and 1954 . The route was designated on these sections in New Jersey in 1958 and in Delaware in 1959 . The portion of I @-@ 295 connecting to I @-@ 95 in Delaware opened in 1963 while most of the route in New Jersey was finished by the 1980s . The last part of I @-@ 295 to be completed , near the interchange with I @-@ 195 and Route 29 , was finished in 1994 . I @-@ 95 was originally supposed to continue northeast from the routes ' junction near Trenton on the proposed Somerset Freeway , but this plan was canceled . I @-@ 295 previously extended a few miles past US 1 to where it would have met the Somerset Freeway ; in the 1990s , the section past US 1 became part of I @-@ 95 . As a result of the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , I @-@ 295 will be extended along the existing I @-@ 95 freeway and connect to the Pennsylvania Turnpike at Bristol .

= = Route description = =

I @-@ 295 begins at I @-@ 95 , I @-@ 495 , US 202 , and Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) near Newport , Delaware and heads east over the Delaware River on the Delaware Memorial Bridge into New Jersey . The highway intersects the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and runs northeast through suburban areas of South Jersey parallel to the turnpike , providing a bypass of Philadelphia and Camden . I @-@ 295 turns north and bypasses Trenton to the east and turns west as I @-@ 95 at the US 1 junction in Lawrence Township . The portion of I @-@ 295 running through New Jersey is sometimes referred to as the Camden Freeway by the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire length of I @-@ 295 is a part of the National Highway System .

= = = Delaware = = =

I @-@ 295 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 95 ( Delaware Turnpike ) , I @-@ 495 , US 202 , and DE 141 south of Newport in New Castle County , Delaware . The northbound beginning of I @-@ 295 has direct ramps from both directions of I @-@ 95 , southbound I @-@ 495 , and southbound DE 141 , while the southern end of I @-@ 295 had direct ramps to both directions of I @-@ 95 , northbound I @-@ 495 , and northbound DE 141 . From this junction , the highway heads southeast on the Delaware Turnpike , an eight @-@ lane freeway maintained by the Delaware River and Bay Authority ( DRBA ) that passes to the northeast of suburban neighborhoods in Wilmington Manor . I @-@ 295 reaches an interchange with US 13 / US 40 . Here , the Delaware Turnpike ends and US 40 splits from US 13 by heading east concurrent with I @-@ 295 . The road has an eastbound ramp to Landers Lane before it passes between residential neighborhoods and has an interchange with DE 9 north of New Castle . This interchange provides access to Veterans Memorial Park , where a war memorial honoring veterans from Delaware and New Jersey is located . Past DE 9 , the median of the freeway widens to include the DRBA headquarters , with direct access to and from the southbound lanes while northbound access is provided by way of DE 9 . After this , the southbound direction comes to a toll plaza for the Delaware Memorial Bridge . I @-@ 295 / US 40 continues east and passes over Norfolk Southern 's New Castle Secondary before crossing the Delaware River on the twin @-@ span Delaware Memorial Bridge .

= = = Pennsville to Westville = = =

Upon reaching the east bank of the Delaware River , I @-@ 295 / US 40 enters Pennsville Township in Salem County , New Jersey and heads east @-@ southeast through industrial areas . The freeway comes to an interchange with the southern terminus of US 130 and the western terminus of Route 49 , at which point it also meets the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike . Here , I @-@ 295 splits onto its own freeway maintained by NJDOT while US 40 continues along the New Jersey Turnpike for a short distance before it splits to the southeast . A short distance later , the roadway enters Carneys Point Township and CR 551 merges onto I @-@ 295 , with the four @-@ lane freeway heading northeast . The highway comes to a junction with Route 140 , where CR 551 splits from I @-@ 295 by continuing east along Route 140 . I @-@ 295 heads into wooded areas and features a rest area in the northbound direction . The freeway continues northeast and comes to a northbound weigh station before it reaches the Route 48 exit . The highway runs through a mix of farmland and woodland and enters Oldmans Township , where it comes to an interchange providing access to CR 643 .

I @-@ 295 crosses Oldmans Creek into Logan Township in Gloucester County and passes near some residential development and warehouses as it comes to the Center Square Road ( CR 620 ) exit . The road crosses Raccoon Creek and reaches an interchange serving US 322 / CR 536 . Following this , the highway runs through agricultural and wooded areas before northbound US 130 merges into the freeway . At this point , I @-@ 295 and US 130 head east as a six @-@ lane freeway with a narrow median and soon comes to the CR 684 exit . Continuing east , the freeway crosses into Greenwich Township and has a junction with CR 607 . After passing near Greenwich Lake , there are exits for CR 653 and CR 673 within a short distance of each other . I @-@ 295 / US 130 reaches an interchange with CR 680 on the border of Greenwich Township and East Greenwich Township . The road runs through a portion of East Greenwich Township before crossing back into Greenwich Township and coming to a junction with CR 678 and CR 667 on the border of Greenwich Township and Paulsboro .

Past this point , the freeway runs through marshy areas of Mantua Creek and continues into West Deptford Township . Here , there is an exit for CR 656 . Passing near more industrial areas , I @-@ 295 / US 130 has an interchange with the Mid @-@ Atlantic Parkway , which provides access to Route 44 as well as to CR 643 and CR 660 . Continuing northeast , the freeway reaches an interchange with Route 44 and CR 640 . At this point , Route 44 begins to parallel I @-@ 295 / US 130 on its northwest side as the two roads cross the Woodbury Creek . Route 44 ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac that has a ramp from the southbound direction of I @-@ 295 / US 130 prior to another exit that provides access to CR 644 . The freeway passes near some homes before US 130 splits from I @-@ 295 at an interchange that also has access to CR 642 . The median of I @-@ 295 becomes wider again and it continues east through woods , coming to a southbound exit and northbound entrance with Route 45 . The roadway passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Vineland Secondary and passes through a small strip of Deptford Township before it has a partial interchange with CR 551 , with a southbound exit and northbound entrance . The highway enters Westville and skirts near residential and commercial development , with another southbound exit and northbound entrance serving Route 47 .

= = = Bellmawr to Lawrence Township = = =

I @-@ 295 crosses the Big Timber Creek into Bellmawr in Camden County and runs northeast before it comes to the junction with the North @-@ South Freeway , which serves as the northern terminus of Route 42 and the eastern terminus of I @-@ 76 . At this point , the travel lanes of I @-@ 295 head north for a short distance along the outside of the North @-@ South Freeway , with the northbound lanes of I @-@ 295 having access from northbound Route 42 and eastbound I @-@ 76 and access to westbound I @-@ 76 while the southbound lanes of I @-@ 295 having access from eastbound I @-@ 76 and access to southbound Route 42 . Past this , I @-@ 295 continues east as a six @-@ lane freeway through wooded areas near suburban development , passing under Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Grenloch Industrial Track before reaching an interchange with Route 168 . The highway heads east along the border between Haddon Heights to the north and Barrington to the south and passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Beesleys Point Secondary before reaching the junction with US 30 near its junction with Route 41 / CR 573 .

The road fully enters Barrington before crossing into Lawnside , where it comes to a southbound exit and northbound entrance serving Warwick Road ( CR 669 ) . After this , I @-@ 295 curves northeast and passes through a corner of Tavistock before entering a part of Haddonfield and coming to a trumpet interchange providing access to the Woodcrest Station along the PATCO Speedline . At this point , the road becomes closely parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike to the southeast . The highway crosses into Cherry Hill and passes over the tracks carrying the PATCO Speedline and New Jersey Transit 's Atlantic City Line before it reaches the CR 561 exit . The roadway runs through wooded areas with suburban neighborhoods to the west and the New Jersey Turnpike to the east as it comes to a cloverleaf interchange at Route 70 . Past this , the highway curves north farther west from the turnpike .

I @-@ 295 enters Mount Laurel in Burlington County upon crossing Pennsauken Creek and runs northeast through woods near development , reaching a cloverleaf interchange with Route 73 that provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike to the east . Past this , the road passes east @-@ northeast near commercial areas to the southeast of Moorestown Mall before curving northeast to closely follow the turnpike . The highway runs through wooded areas and encounters the Route 38 junction . The roadway passes over Conrail Shared Assets Operations 's Pemberton Branch and CR 537 and runs through a mix of fields and trees with occasional development , with an exit serving CR 635 . I @-@ 295 crosses the Rancocas Creek into Westampton Township and runs through an area of warehouses , where it has a cloverleaf interchange at CR 626 . The highway runs north through rural land with nearby buildings and enters Burlington Township . Here , the road curves northeast and comes to a cloverleaf junction at CR 541 that provides access to a commercial area that includes the Burlington Center Mall along with the New Jersey Turnpike . The freeway runs through woodland and heads into Springfield Township , where it passes a pair of closed rest areas in each direction . I @-@ 295 crosses Assiscunk Creek into Florence Township and heads through a mix of farm fields and trees before it enters Mansfield Township and comes to a cloverleaf interchange at CR 656 that provides access to nearby CR 543 . The highway passes over the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike and continues through rural land into Bordentown Township , where a northbound exit and southbound entrance serves Rising Sun Road that provides access to US 206 and the New Jersey Turnpike . Past this , the road curves north and reaches the exit for US 130 west of Bordentown before passing through woodland and crossing over New Jersey Transit 's River Line .

I @-@ 295 crosses Crosswicks Creek into Hamilton Township in Mercer County and runs through woods and marshland a short distance east of the Delaware River . A scenic overlook of the river is located along the southbound side of the road ; access from the northbound lanes is provided by a pedestrian bridge over the highway . The freeway heads farther from the river and passes over the River Line again before it reaches a modified cloverleaf interchange serving the western terminus of I @-@ 195 and the southern terminus of the Route 29 freeway to Trenton . Following this junction , the road heads northeast near residential neighborhoods and comes to an interchange at Arena Drive ( CR 620 ) that provides access to nearby White Horse Avenue ( CR 533 ) . A short distance later , a southbound exit and northbound entrance provides access to northbound Olden Avenue ( CR 622 ) . I @-@ 295 continues through wooded areas with nearby development and curves north to come to an interchange at Route 33 and CR 606 . The next junction is a southbound exit and northbound entrance at CR 535 . The highway continues through woods and reaches a cloverleaf junction serving Sloan Avenue ( CR 649 ) . The roadway comes to a bridge over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor and crosses into Lawrence Township , where it curves northwest and comes to a modified interchange with US 1 . At this point , I @-@ 295 ends and the freeway continues west as southbound I @-@ 95 .

= = History = =

In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 39 was legislated to begin at the Yardley – Wilburtha Bridge and bypass Trenton to the north and east before continuing south to Hammonton along present @-@ day US 206 . Route 39 , which was not built around Trenton , was decommissioned in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering .

Portions of I @-@ 295 in Salem and Gloucester counties predate the Interstate Highway System as part of freeway bypasses for the surface section of US 130 / Route 44 through Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville . In 1948 , the first section of the US 130 / Route 44 bypass in Gloucester County between current exits 21 and 24 opened , with a second section between exits 14 and 21 opening in 1954 . The section of the present highway between the southern terminus of the New Jersey Turnpike and the present @-@ day CR 618 bridge was built as part of the US 130 bypass of Carneys Point in 1953 . The concurrent Route 44 designation was removed from US 130 in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , and was later assigned to the former surface alignment of US 130 through Carneys Point and between Bridgeport and Westville . In 1958 , the US 130 bypass of Carneys Point and the freeway in Gloucester County was designated as part of I @-@ 295 .

Construction on the Delaware Memorial Bridge began in 1949 . At the same time , work was underway on the Delaware Memorial Bridge approach in Delaware , a divided highway which would begin at a directional @-@ T interchange with US 13 in Farnhurst and head east to a cloverleaf interchange at New Castle Avenue ( present DE 9 ) before leading to the bridge . Construction on the US 13 interchange at Farnhurst began on July 12 , 1950 . On August 16 , 1951 , the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened to traffic . The Delaware Memorial Bridge and the approach road to US 13 became a part of US 40 following the opening of the bridge . I @-@ 295 was designated onto the New Jersey approach of the bridge in 1958 . That same year , construction began for a bridge at the Farnhurst interchange that would link the US 40 approach to the Delaware Memorial Bridge to the Delaware Turnpike that was proposed to run west to the Maryland border . A year later , the Farnhurst interchange and the bridge approach were upgraded to Interstate Highway standards , and it was designated as part of I @-@ 295 . Construction at the interchange connecting to the Delaware Turnpike at Farnhurst was completed in July 1961 . On November 14 , 1963 , the Delaware Turnpike opened to traffic , with I @-@ 295 extended west along that road to I @-@ 95 , which continued along the Delaware Turnpike towards Maryland . In the middle of 1964 , work began on a second span at the Delaware Memorial Bridge due to increasing traffic volumes . The second span of the bridge was opened to traffic in fall 1968 .

The remainder of I @-@ 295 through New Jersey was planned as Federal Aid Interstate Route 108 , which was created by NJDOT in 1956 . I @-@ 295 was built between the Big Timber Creek and Route 42 in 1958 . In 1960 , the section of the interstate between Route 42 and Warwick Road was finished . The highway was built between US 130 and Route 45 in 1960 and was extended east to the Big Timber Creek a year later . In 1963 , I @-@ 295 was completed between Warwick Road and just south of Route 70 . A year later , the roadway was extended north to Route 73 . The freeway was built between Route 73 and Route 38 in 1966 . In 1968 , the section of I @-@ 295 between Carneys Point and Bridgeport was finished . Following the completion of this section , US 130 reverted to its previous surface alignment through Carneys Point , replacing that portion of Route 44 . In 1972 , the highway was finished between Route 38 and CR 541 . I @-@ 295 was extended from CR 541 northward to US 130 near Bordentown a year later . I @-@ 295 was completed from US 1 west to a proposed interchange with I @-@ 95 in Hopewell Township in 1974 . In 1975 , the roadway was constructed from south of the Route 33 interchange north to US 1 . The section of I @-@ 295 between Arena Drive and south of Route 33 was finished in 1984 . In 1987 , I @-@ 295 was built between I @-@ 195 / Route 29 and Arena Drive , with the highway between I @-@ 195 / Route 29 and Route 33 opened to traffic on August 16 of that year . The final section of I @-@ 295 between US 130 in Bordentown and I @-@ 195 / Route 29 was finished in 1994 .

At its original northern terminus , the freeway continued west as I @-@ 95 toward the Scudder Falls Bridge while I @-@ 95 was proposed to head north along the Somerset Freeway . In 1983 , the Somerset Freeway portion of I @-@ 95 was cancelled as a result of community opposition . In the 1990s , the northern terminus of I @-@ 295 was moved to its current location at the US 1 interchange , with the route west of there replaced by an extended I @-@ 95 . Due to the cancellation of the Somerset Freeway , a gap exists along I @-@ 95 in New Jersey . To bridge the gap , motorists from northbound I @-@ 95 are directed to follow I @-@ 295 southbound and I @-@ 195 eastbound to reach the New Jersey Turnpike to continue north along I @-@ 95 , and vice versa .

In 1995 , the southbound rest area along I @-@ 295 in Burlington County was named for radio personality Howard Stern . Governor Christine Todd Whitman named the rest area after Stern as payback for him granting Whitman airtime during her 1993 gubernatorial campaign . A plaque proclaiming the rest area as the " Howard Stern Rest Stop " was installed , with an image of Stern poking his head from an outhouse . Days after the plaque was installed , it was stolen and later mailed to Stern . In 2003 , the rest areas along I @-@ 295 in Burlington County were closed as part of funding cuts in Governor Jim McGreevey 's budget , saving the state $ 1 million a year .

I @-@ 295 , like many other highways in New Jersey , once had solar @-@ powered emergency call boxes every mile ( about 1 @.@ 6 km ) ; the use of the call boxes became limited due to the increasing popularity of cell phones . To save on maintenance costs , NJDOT removed these call boxes in 2005 .

NJDOT has broken ground on the missing express connection between I @-@ 295 and Route 42 to provide an easier connection between the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area and points south to Atlantic City and vice versa . This project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection , will reconstruct the dangerous and congested Route 42 / I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 interchange , which currently requires traffic on I @-@ 295 to use 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ramps that merge onto the North – South Freeway for a short distance , among a series of other indirect connections . In 2007 , " Alternative D " for the reconstructed interchange was selected , calling for I @-@ 295 to cross over the North – South Freeway . This interchange is projected to cost $ 900 million . Construction began in 2013 and is scheduled to be complete in 2021 .

NJDOT has also announced another project to address the missing connections between I @-@ 295 and Route 42 . This project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / Route 42 Missing Moves , will provide connections from I @-@ 295 northbound to Route 42 southbound and Route 42 northbound to I @-@ 295 southbound by constructing two ramps just south of the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 interchange . The project is slated to begin in 2017 and is scheduled to be completed by 2020 .

= = Future = =

With the completion of the Pennsylvania Turnpike / Interstate 95 Interchange Project in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , I @-@ 95 will be redesignated along the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 276 ) to connect with the New Jersey Turnpike ( currently the northern section of I @-@ 95 ) at exit 6 , and the I @-@ 95 designation will be removed from the section north of the interchange in Pennsylvania . I @-@ 295 will be extended past its current terminus at US 1 along current I @-@ 95 , across the Scudder Falls Bridge , and into Pennsylvania to the new interchange .

Between September 2005 and May 2015 , the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania had an agreement that , instead , I @-@ 195 would be extended along this section of I @-@ 95 . This means that the extended I @-@ 195 would have replaced the portion of I @-@ 95 between the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Bristol Township , Pennsylvania , and US 1 in Lawrence Township , New Jersey . It would have also replaced I @-@ 295 north of exit 60 in Hamilton Township , New Jersey ( its exit with I @-@ 195 ) , truncating I @-@ 295 at that junction . This option would have reduced the confusion of having I @-@ 295 parallel itself in New Jersey and Pennsylvania . Interchange renumbering would have also taken place that will coordinate with the future I @-@ 195 designation in Pennsylvania , as well as the new and current I @-@ 195 designation , from Ewing to Belmar in New Jersey . This proposal had received conditional approval from AASHTO . On May 20 , 2015 , it was decided to revert to the original decision to extend I @-@ 295 to the interchange .

= = Exit list = =

In Delaware , the exits are not numbered .

= Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques =

The Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques ( English : Bunker of Éperlecques , also referred to as " the Watten bunker " or simply " Watten " ) is a Second World War bunker , now part of a museum , near Saint @-@ Omer in the northern Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais département of France , and only some 14 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 9 miles ) north @-@ northwest from the more developed La Coupole V @-@ 2 launch facility , in the same general area . The bunker , built by Nazi Germany under the codename Kraftwerk Nord West ( Powerplant Northwest ) between March 1943 and July 1944 , was originally intended to be a launching facility for the V @-@ 2 ( A @-@ 4 ) ballistic missile . It was designed to accommodate over 100 missiles at a time and to launch up to 36 daily . The facility would have incorporated a liquid oxygen factory and a bomb @-@ proof train station to allow missiles and supplies to be delivered from production facilities in Germany . It was constructed using the labour of thousands of prisoners of war and forcibly conscripted workers used as slave labourers .

The bunker was never completed as a result of the repeated bombing by the British and United States air forces as part of Operation Crossbow against the German V @-@ weapons programme . The attacks caused substantial damage and rendered the bunker unusable for its original purpose . Part of the bunker was subsequently completed for use as a liquid oxygen factory . It was captured by Allied forces at the start of September 1944 , though its true purpose was not discovered by the Allies until after the war . V @-@ 2s were instead launched from Meillerwagen @-@ based mobile batteries which were far less vulnerable to aerial attacks . Today , the bunker is preserved as part of a privately owned museum that presents the history of the site and the German V @-@ weapons programme . It has been protected by the French state as a monument historique since 1986 .

= = Background = =

The A @-@ 4 ballistic missile ( referred to as the V @-@ 2 from September 1944 ) was developed by the Germans between 1939 and 1944 . It was regarded by Adolf Hitler as a Wunderwaffe ( wonder weapon ) that he believed to be capable of turning the tide of the war . Its operational deployment was restricted by several factors . Large supplies of cryogenic liquid oxygen ( LOX ) were required as the oxidizer to fuel the missiles . LOX evaporates rapidly , necessitating a source reasonably close to the firing site in order to minimise loss through evaporation . Germany and the occupied countries did not at that time have sufficient manufacturing capacity for the amount of LOX required for a full @-@ scale A @-@ 4 campaign ; the total production capacity in 1941 and 1942 was about 215 tons daily , but each A @-@ 4 launch required about 15 tons . As the missile was intended for use against London and southern England , its operational range of 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) meant that the launch sites had to be located fairly close to the English Channel or southern North Sea coasts , in northern France , Belgium or the western Netherlands . This was within easy reach of the Allied air forces , so any site would have to be able to resist or evade the expected aerial bombardments .

Various concepts were mooted for the A @-@ 4 's deployment in a March 1942 study by Walter Dornberger , the head of the A @-@ 4 development project at the Peenemünde Army Research Center . He suggested that the missiles should be based in heavily defended fixed sites of a bunker @-@ style design similar to the massive submarine pens then under construction in occupied France and Norway . The rockets could be stored in such sites , armed , fuelled from an on @-@ site LOX production plant , and launched . This offered significant technical advantages ; not only would the LOX loss be minimised , but the complex process of pre @-@ launch testing would be simplified . A high rate of fire could be sustained as the facility could effectively operate like a production line , sending a steady flow of missiles to the launch pads .

The submarine pens and other Atlantic Wall fortifications had been built in 1940 and 1941 , when the Germans had air superiority and could deter Allied air attacks . By 1942 this advantage had been lost to the United States Army Air Forces , which had begun deploying to England in May 1942 , and a greatly expanded Royal Air Force . The German Army preferred an alternative approach which would use trailer @-@ style mobile launch platforms called Meillerwagen accompanied by testing and fuelling equipment mounted on railway cars or trucks . Although this configuration was far less efficient and would have a much lower rate of fire , it would have the great advantage of presenting a much smaller target for the Allied air forces . The Army was not convinced that fixed bunkers could resist repeated air attacks and was particularly concerned about the vulnerability of the launch sites ' road and rail links , which were essential for resupplying them with missiles and fuel .

In November 1942 , Hitler and Minister of Munitions Albert Speer discussed possible launch configurations and examined models and plans of the proposed bunkers and mobile launchers . Hitler strongly preferred the bunker option , though he also gave the go @-@ ahead for the production of mobile launchers . Two different bunker designs had been prepared : the B.III @-@ 2a design envisaged preparing the missile for launch inside the bunker , then transporting it outside to a launch pad , while the B.III @-@ 2b design would see the missile being elevated from within the bunker to a launch pad on the roof . Speer gave orders that two bunkers were to be constructed by the Organisation Todt construction group to a " special fortification standard " ( Sonderbaustärke ) , requiring a steel @-@ reinforced concrete ceiling 5 metres ( 16 ft ) thick and walls 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) thick . They would be built near the coasts opposite England , one on the Côte d 'Opale near Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and the other on the Cotentin Peninsula near Cherbourg . Each would be capable of launching 36 missiles a day , would hold sufficient supplies of missiles and fuel to last three days , and would be manned by 250 troops .

= = Design and location = =

In December 1942 , Speer ordered Peenemünde officers and engineers ( including Colonel Gerhard Stegmair , Dr Ernst Steinhoff and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Georg Thom ) to tour the Artois region in northwest France and locate a suitable site for an A @-@ 4 launch facility . The site chosen was just to the west of the small town of Watten , in the Forest of Éperlecques , near Saint @-@ Omer in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais department . It was given the cover name of Kraftwerk Nord West ( Northwest Power Plant ) .

The location was conveniently close to the main railway line between Calais and Saint @-@ Omer , the canalised River Aa , main roads and electric grid lines . Situated 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) from London , it was far enough inland to be safe from naval guns and it was sheltered to an extent by a ridge that rises to a height of 90 metres ( 300 ft ) to the north . At nearby Saint @-@ Omer , there was a major Luftwaffe base which was capable of providing air defence for the area . There were existing gravel and sand quarries as well as cement works in the vicinity , which would help with the enormous amount of material that would be needed for the construction works . The quantities required were very substantial indeed ; 200 @,@ 000 tons of concrete and 20 @,@ 000 tons of steel would be required to build the facility . When US Army Major General Lewis H. Brereton inspected the site after it had been captured by the Allies , he described the bunker as " more extensive than any concrete constructions we have in the United States , with the possible exception of Boulder Dam . "

The Watten bunker was to be built to a design based on the B.III @-@ 2a bunker , though substantially larger . The Germans had originally planned to build a separate LOX plant at Stenay but this option was abandoned in favour of installing a LOX production facility within the Watten bunker .

The bunker consisted of three main elements . The main part of the building was a giant structure some 92 metres ( 302 ft ) wide and 28 metres ( 92 ft ) high , housing the LOX plant and a vault where missiles would be assembled and prepared . Its walls were up to 7 metres ( 23 ft ) thick and the bunker 's working levels descended 6 metres ( 20 ft ) below ground . The plant would house five Heylandt compressors , each capable of producing about 10 tons of LOX per day . About 150 tons of LOX were to be stored in insulated tanks on @-@ site . The facility was intended to store up to 108 missiles and enough fuel to supply three days ' worth of launches . The Germans planned to fire up to 36 rockets a day from the site .

On the north side of the building was a fortified standard gauge railway station , linked to the main Calais @-@ Saint @-@ Omer line at Watten via a 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) spur line . Missiles , warheads and other components would be shipped to the station and transported on trucks into the main area of the bunker . Here the rockets were to be assembled , raised into a vertical position and fuelled and armed . From the arming halls , they would be moved to either end of the building through pivoting doors 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high . They would exit through the south face of the building and would be moved on tracks to the launch pads . There were no doors on the exit portals so chicanes were installed in the exit passage to deflect the blast of rockets being launched from outside . Launches would be overseen from a command tower located in the centre of the south side of the bunker , overlooking the launch pads .

To the north of the bunker , the Germans erected a bomb @-@ proof power station with a 2 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 1 @.@ 5 MW ) generating capacity . The site was initially powered from the main electricity grid , but it was intended that it would have its own independent power source to minimise the likelihood of disruption . Also associated with the Watten complex was a radar tracking site at Prédefin , 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) south of Saint @-@ Omer . A Giant Würzburg radar system was installed there to follow the trajectories of V @-@ 2s being launched from Watten . The intention was to follow the trajectory for as long as possible so that the accuracy of the missile launches could be determined .

= = Construction = =

The site was designed in January and February 1943 by engineers from the Peenemünde research facility and the Organisation Todt . On 25 March 1943 the construction plans were presented to Hitler , who immediately gave the go @-@ ahead for the project to begin . The construction firm Holzman & Polanski was awarded the contract and 6 @,@ 000 workers from Building Battalion 434 started construction that same month using plans by Franz Xaver Dorsch , Construction Director at the Organisation Todt . It was envisaged that the structure would be ready by the end of July 1943 , though not its wiring and plant , and it was intended that it would be fully operational by 1 November 1943 .

The workforce consisted of a mixture of German specialists and forcibly conscripted Frenchmen from the Service du Travail Obligatoire ( STO ) . They were supplemented by Belgian , Dutch , French , Polish , Czech and Soviet prisoners of war and civilian conscripts , who were used as slave labour . The labour force also included many French political prisoners and Spanish Republicans who had fled to France after General Franco 's victory in the Spanish Civil War but had then been interned by the invading Germans . The non @-@ German workers lived in two camps officially known as Organisation Todt Watten Zwangsarbeitslager 62 ( Forced Labour Camp 62 ) about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) distant from the site , near the village of Éperlecques . The camps were guarded by the French civil police with the assistance of Belgian and Dutch Nazis and Russian POWs who had volunteered for guard duty . Although escape attempts were punished by immediate execution , there were up to three escapes daily with external assistance . The commandant of the camp is said to have complained that it would have been easier to " guard a sack of fleas " . Over 35 @,@ 000 foreign workers passed through the camps during the period in which they were operational .

The labourers worked in 12 @-@ hour shifts of 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 men , with three 20 @-@ minute breaks during each shift . The work continued around the clock , seven days a week , under giant floodlights during the night . The living and working conditions were extremely harsh , especially for the political prisoners and the eastern Europeans , who were given especially punitive treatment due to their status as the most expendable members of the workforce . For the non @-@ German workers , falling ill or being unable to work through injury was the equivalent of a death sentence , as they would either be left to die or be transported back to the concentration camps from which they had been brought . A German commission that inspected the labour camps in the area in late 1943 commented : " The Eastern [ European ] worker is very tough . He works at his job until he falls flat on his face in the mire , and all that is left for the doctor to do is to issue the death certificate . "

A large supply dump was established at Watten next to the River Aa . This site was eventually used to store material required for all the V @-@ weapon sites in the Saint @-@ Omer area . Building materials were brought there by barges and trains where they were unloaded onto a Decauville narrow @-@ gauge railway for transportation to the construction site , where concrete mixers operated day and night . A 90 kV power line running to a transformer at Holque north of Watten provided electricity . An old quarry at Wizernes codenamed Schotterwerk Nordwest ( Gravel Quarry Northwest ) , some 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) south of Watten , was also converted into a storage dump to supply the Watten facility .

= = Discovery , destruction and abandonment = =

In early April 1943 , an Allied agent reported " enormous trenches " being excavated at the Watten site , and on 16 May 1943 an RAF reconnaissance mission led to Allied photographic interpreters noticing unidentified activity there . Other large facilities were observed to be under construction elsewhere in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . The purpose of the construction works was very unclear ; Lord Cherwell , Winston Churchill 's scientific adviser , admitted that he had little idea what " these very large structures similar to gun emplacements " were but he believed that " if it is worth the enemy 's while to go to all the trouble of building them it would seem worth ours to destroy them " .

At the end of May , the British Chiefs of Staff ordered that aerial attacks be carried out against the so @-@ called " heavy sites " being built by the Germans . On 6 August , Duncan Sandys , who headed a high @-@ level Cabinet committee to coordinate the British defence against the German V @-@ weapons , recommended that the Watten site should also be attacked because of the progress being made in its construction . The British Chiefs of Staff noted that a daylight attack by US bombers was under consideration but they raised objections to the proposal , as the Air Staff thought that Watten had nothing to do with rockets , suggesting that instead it might be merely a " protected operations room " .

The timing of the first raid was influenced by advice given by Sir Malcolm McAlpine , the chairman of the construction company Sir Robert McAlpine , who suggested that the Watten site should be attacked while the concrete was still setting . On 27 August 1943 , 187 B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses of the US 8th Air Force attacked the site with devastating effect . The fortified train station on the north side of the bunker was especially badly damaged , as concrete had just been poured there . Dornberger later wrote that following the attack the site was " a desolate heap of concrete , steel , props and planking . The concrete hardened . After a few days the shelter was beyond saving . All we could do was roof in a part and use it for other work . " The bombing killed and injured hundreds of the slave workers on site ; although the Allies had sought to avoid casualties by timing the raid with what they thought was a change of shifts , the shift pattern had been changed by the Germans at the last minute to achieve the day 's work quota .

Only 35 % of the Watten bunker had been completed by this time . It was clearly no longer possible to use it as a launch site , but the Germans still needed LOX production facilities to supply V @-@ 2 sites elsewhere . After surveying the site in September and October 1943 , Organisation Todt engineers determined that the northern part of the facility was irretrievably damaged but decided to focus on completing the southern part to serve as a LOX factory . One of the OT 's engineers , Werner Flos , came up with an idea to protect the bunker from bombardment by building it up from the roof first . This was done by initially constructing a concrete plate , flat on the ground , which was 5 metres ( 16 ft ) thick and weighed 37 @,@ 000 tons . It was incrementally raised by hydraulic jacks and then supported by walls which were built underneath it as it was raised , becoming the roof . The resulting concrete cavern was intended to be used by the Germans as a bombproof liquid oxygen factory . The thickness of the roof was chosen on the assumption that Allied bombs were incapable of penetrating such a depth of concrete ; the Germans , however , were unaware of the British development of earthquake bombs .

The Germans ' main focus of attention switched instead to Schotterwerk Nordwest , the former quarry at nearby Wizernes , where work had been ongoing to build a bombproof V @-@ 2 storage facility . This project was expanded to turn the quarry into a fixed launch facility . Plans were put into effect to build a huge concrete dome – now open to the public as the museum of La Coupole – under which missiles would be fuelled and armed in a network of tunnels before being transported outside for launching . The Allies carried out further heavy bombing against both the Watten and Wizernes sites with little initial effect on the buildings themselves , although the rail and road network around them was systematically destroyed . On 3 July 1944 , Oberkommando West gave permission to stop construction at both sites , which had been so disrupted by bombing that work could no longer proceed . Three days later an Allied raid succeeded in wrecking the interior of the Watten bunker with a Tallboy bomb that brought down part of the roof . Finally , on 18 July 1944 , Hitler decreed that plans for launching missiles from bunkers need no longer be pursued . Dornberger 's staff subsequently decided to continue minor construction at Watten " for deception purposes " . The site itself was now useless , as the Germans recognised when they wryly codenamed it Concrete Lump , and the liquid oxygen generators and machinery were transferred to the Mittelwerk V @-@ 2 factory in central Germany , well away from Allied bombers .

The Watten site was captured on 4 September 1944 by Canadian forces . The Germans had evacuated it a few days earlier and removed the pumps which kept the cavernous basement free from water ; not long afterwards it began to flood . This made a substantial amount of the bunker inaccessible to the Allies .

= = Subsequent investigations and utilisation = =

The bunker was inspected on 10 September 1944 by the French atomic scientist Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie , accompanied by Sandys . Following the visit , Sandys ordered a Technical Inter @-@ Services Mission under Colonel T.R.B. Sanders to investigate the sites at Mimoyecques , Siracourt , Watten , and Wizernes , collectively known to the Allies as the " Heavy Crossbow " sites . Sanders ' report was submitted to the War Cabinet on 19 March 1945 .

Despite the capture of Watten , it was still not known at this time what the site had been intended for . Sanders noted that " the purpose of the structures was never known throughout the period of intensive reconnaissance and attack " . Based on the discovery of large aluminium tanks installed in the main part of the bunker , he opined that the Germans had intended to use it as a factory for the production of hydrogen peroxide for use in the fuelling of V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missiles . He ruled out the possibility that it could have been used for LOX production and concluded , erroneously , that " the site had no offensive role . " He recommended that ( unlike the Mimoyecques and Wizernes sites ) the Watten bunker presented no threat to the UK 's security and " there is thus no imperative need , on that account , to ensure the destruction of the workings . "

The bunker was targeted again by the Allies in February 1945 , this time to test the newly developed CP / RA Disney bomb – a 4 @,@ 500 lb ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) concrete @-@ piercing rocket @-@ assisted bomb designed to double the normal impact velocity , and thereby increase the penetration , of the projectile . The site had been chosen for testing purposes in October 1944 as it had the largest accessible interior area of the targets under consideration and was furthest from an inhabited town . On 3 February 1945 , a B @-@ 17 of the US Eighth Air Force dropped a Disney bomb on the Watten bunker and scored a hit over the wall section , but the results were inconclusive and the Air Force was not able to determine how well the bomb had penetrated the concrete . Although Disney bombs were used operationally on a number of occasions , the weapon 's introduction came too late to be of any significance in the war effort . In January 2009 the body of the Disney bomb was extracted from the roof , where it had embedded itself .

The Watten bunker was inspected again on 20 June 1951 by an Anglo @-@ French commission to determine whether it was capable of being reused for military purposes . The British Assistant Military Attaché , Major W.C. Morgan , reported to the Director of Military Intelligence at the War Office that the main part of the bunker had not been significantly damaged by bombing and that although it was flooded , if it was patched and drained " the building could be quickly made ready to receive oxygen liquifying plant machinery , or for any other purpose requiring a large and practically bomb @-@ proof building . "

No further military use was made of the bunker and the land on which it stands reverted to private ownership . It was left abandoned for many years before the owners decided to redevelop the site . In 1973 , the bunker was opened to the public for the first time under the name of Le Blockhaus d 'Éperlecques . The ownership was taken over by Hubert de Mégille in the mid @-@ 1980s and on 3 September 1986 the French state declared it a monument historique . The area around the bunker has been re @-@ forested , though it is still heavily scarred by bomb craters , and various items of Second World War military equipment ( including a V @-@ 1 on a launch ramp ) are on display alongside paths around the site . An open @-@ air trail leads to and around the bunker with interpretative signs posted at various points to tell the story of the site and the German V @-@ weapons programme . In 2009 , the museum welcomed 45 @,@ 000 visitors .

= = Air raids on the Watten site = =

= Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia =

The Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia was signed by Alija Izetbegović , President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Franjo Tuđman , President of the Republic of Croatia , in Zagreb on 21 July 1992 during the Bosnian and Croatian wars for independence from Yugoslavia . It established cooperation , albeit inharmonious , between the two and served as a basis for joint defense against Serb forces . It also placed the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) under the command of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) .

Izetbegović , who had hoped to prevent Bosnia Herzegovina from falling under the influence of Croatia or Serbia , signed the agreement after Stjepan Kljuić , president of the Croatian Democratic Union 's ( HDZ ) branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina , was replaced by Tuđman with Mate Boban , who blocked the delivery of supplies to Sarajevo where a siege was under way and had proclaimed an independent Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HR @-@ HB ) . The agreement fell apart in October after a number of events including the assassination of Blaž Kraljević , leader of Croatian Defence Forces ( HOS ) in Bosnia and Herzegovina , the fall of the areas of Posavina , Bosanski Brod , and Jajce into the hands of the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) , and after a major battle broke out between the HVO and the ARBiH in Prozor .

= = Preparation for war = =

In 1990 and 1991 , Serbs in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina had proclaimed a number of " Serbian Autonomous Regions " with the intent of later unifying them to create a Greater Serbia . Serbs used the well equipped Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) in defending these territories . As early as September or October 1990 , the JNA had begun arming Bosnian Serbs and organizing them into militias . By March 1991 , the JNA had distributed an estimated 51 @,@ 900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23 @,@ 298 firearms to Serbian Democratic Party ( SDS ) . The Croatian government began arming Croats in the Herzegovina region in 1991 and in the start of 1992 , expecting that the Serbs would spread the war into Bosnia and Herzegovina . It also helped arm the Bosniak community . From July 1991 to January 1992 , the JNA and Serb paramilitaries used Bosnian territory to wage attacks on Croatia .

On 25 March 1991 , Franjo Tuđman met with Serbian president Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo , reportedly to discuss partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina . In November , the autonomous Croatian Community of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HZ @-@ HB ) was established , it claimed it had no secessionary goal and that it would serve a " legal basis for local self @-@ administration " . It vowed to respect the Bosnian government under the condition that Bosnia and Herzegovina was independent of " the former and every kind of future Yugoslavia . " In December , Tuđman , in a conversation with Bosnian Croat leaders , said that " from the perspective of sovereignty , Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina has no prospects " and recommended that Croatian policy " support for the sovereignty [ of Bosnia and Herzegovina ] until such time as it no longer suits Croatia . "

In April 1992 , the siege of Sarajevo began , by which time the Bosnian Serb @-@ formed Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) controlled 70 % of Bosnia and Herzegovina . On 8 April , Bosnian Croats were organized into the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) . A sizable number of Bosniaks also joined . The Croatian Defence Forces ( HOS ) , led by Blaž Kraljević in Bosnia and Herzegovina , which " supported Bosnian territorial integrity much more consistently and sincerely than the HVO " was also created . On 15 April 1992 , the multi @-@ ethnic Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) was formed , with slightly over two @-@ thirds of troops consisting of Bosniaks and almost one @-@ third of Croats and Serbs . In the winter Bosniaks began leaving the HVO and joining the ARBiH which also began receiving supplies from Croatia . In May , HVO Major General Ante Roso declared that the only " legal military force " in HZ @-@ HB was the HVO and that " all orders from the TO [ Territorial Defense ] command [ of Bosnia and Herzegovina ] are invalid , and are to be considered illegal on this territory " .

= = Pressure and agreement = =

The Croatian government played a " double game " in Bosnia and Herzegovina and " a military solution required Bosnia as an ally , but a diplomatic solution required Bosnia as a victim " . Tuđman 's Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) party held important positions in the Bosnian government including the premiership and the ministry of defence , but despite this carried out a separate policy and refused for the HVO to be integrated into ARBiH . Jerko Doko , the Bosnian defence minister , gave the HVO priority in the acquisition of military weapons . In January 1992 , Tuđman had arranged for Stjepan Kljuić , president of the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( HDZ BiH ) who favored cooperating with the Bosniaks towards a unified Bosnian state , to be ousted and replaced by Mate Boban , who favored Croatia to annex Croat @-@ inhabited parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina . A rift existed in the party between Croats from ethnically mixed areas of central and northern Bosnia and those from Herzegovina . Milivoj Gagro , prewar Croat mayor of Mostar and ally of Kljuić said : " The secessionist policy [ union with Croatia ] was consistently supported by the Herzegovina side , not by Sarajevo , Posavina , or Central Bosnia Croats . [ ... ] Croats from Central Bosnia and Posavina , as well as those from urban centers who lived with Muslims and Serbs , thought differently . But when the war picked up , Posavina Croats were attacked , Sarajevo was surrounded [ ... ] Kljuić was sidelined and Boban came in with idea [ the Croat separatist idea ] in this area . [ ... ] When they [ Croats in Sarajevo as well as Northern and Central Bosnia ] felt they could not survive any more they lifted their hands and accepted their fate . And the Herzegovina Croats promised them the stars in the sky and told them " come here and we will give you a place . " And what happened ? It resulted in an exodus . And all these miserable Croat refugee communities that look absolutely ugly . "

Izetbegović came under intense pressure from Tuđman to agree for Bosnia and Herzegovina to be in a confederation with Croatia ; however , Izetbegović wanted to prevent Bosnia and Herzegovina from coming under the influence of Croatia or Serbia . Because doing so would cripple reconciliation between Bosniaks and Serbs , make the return of Bosniak refugees to eastern Bosnia impossible and for other reasons , Izetbegović opposed . He received an ultimatum from Boban warning that if he did not proclaim a confederation with Tuđman that Croatian forces would not help defend Sarajevo from strongholds as close as 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) away . On 9 May , Boban , Josip Manolić , Tuđman 's aide and previously the Croatian Prime Minister , and Radovan Karadžić , president of the self @-@ proclaimed Republika Srpska , secretly met in Graz and formed an agreement on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Graz agreement . Beginning in June , discussions between Bosniaks and Croats over military cooperation and possible merger of their armies started to take place . The Croatian government recommended moving ARBiH headquarters out of Sarajevo and closer to Croatia and pushed for its reorganization in an effort to heavily add Croatian influence .

In June and July , Boban increased pressure " by blocking delivery of arms that the Sarajevo government , working around a United Nations embargo on all shipments to the former Yugoslavia , has secretly bought . " On 3 July , Boban declared the independence of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg @-@ Bosnia ( HR @-@ HB ) . He was established as its president . It claimed power over its own police , army , currency , and education and extended its grasp to many districts where Bosniaks were the majority . It only allowed a Croat flag to be used , the only currency allowed was the Croatian kuna , its only official language was Croatian , and a Croat school curriculum was enacted . Mostar , a town where Bosniaks constituted a slight majority , was set as the capital . There was no mention on the defense of Bosnia and Herzegovina 's territorial integrity .

On 21 July , Izetbegović and Tuđman signed the " Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia " in Zagreb , Croatia . The agreement allowed them to " cooperate in opposing [ the Serb ] aggression " and coordinate military efforts . It placed the HVO under the command of the ARBiH . Cooperation was inharmonious , but enabled the transportation of weapons to ARBiH through Croatia in spite of the UN sanctioned arms embargo , reopening channels blocked by Boban . It established " economic , financial , cultural , educational , scientific and religious cooperation " between the signatories . It also stipulated that Bosnian Croats hold dual citizenship for both Bosnia and Herzegovina and for Croatia . This was criticized as Croatian attempts at " claiming broader political and territorial rights in the parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina where large numbers of Croats live " . After its signature Boban vowed to Izetbegović that HR @-@ HB would remain an integral part of Bosnia and Herzegovina when the war ended .

= = Aftermath = =

In the summer of 1992 , the HVO started to purge its Bosniak members . At the same time armed incidents started to occur among Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina between the HVO and the HOS . The HOS was loyal to the Bosnian government and accepted subordination to the Staff of the ARBiH of which Kraljević was appointed a member . On 9 August , Kraljević and eight of his staff were assassinated by HVO soldiers under the command of Mladen Naletilić , who supported a split between Croat and Bosniaks , after Kraljević 's HOS attacked the VRS near Trebinje . The HOS 's advance into eastern Herzegovina and occupation of Trebinje angered Boban who had affirmed to Karadžić that Croat forces were uninterested in the region . The HOS was disbanded , leaving the HVO as the only Croat force . Bosnian officials suspected that Tuđman 's government was involved . According to Manolić the order to kill Kraljević was given by Šušak and approved by Tuđman . Božidar Vučurević , the war @-@ time mayor of Trebinje , stated he safeguarded records showing that SDS and HDZ figures considered it a " task " that need to be carried out .

In late September , Izetbegović and Tuđman met again and attempted to create military coordination against the VRS , but to no avail . By October , the agreement had collapsed and afterwards Croatia diverted delivery of weaponry to Bosnia and Herzegovina by seizing a significant amount for itself . Boban had abandoned a Bosnian government alliance and ceased all hostilities with Karadžić . The dominant Croatian – Bosnian defense of Posavina fell apart after Tuđman and / or Gojko Šušak ordered the withdrawal of the Croatian Army ( HV ) , enabling the Serbs to gain control of the corridor and connect their captured territories in western and eastern Bosnia . On 8 October , the town of Bosanski Brod was abandoned by the HVO and left to the VRS . By that time , the HV and the HVO had sustained approximately 7 @,@ 500 casualties , out of 20 @,@ 000 troops committed to the battle to control Posavina . The pullout appeared to be a quid pro quo for the JNA withdrawal from Dubrovnik 's hinterland that took place in July . Still , a Central Intelligence Agency analysis concluded that there is no direct evidence of such arrangements . On 9 October , the HVO signed a cease @-@ fire with the VRS in Jajce in exchange for providing electricity .

The strained relations escalated rapidly and led to an armed clash between the two forces in Novi Travnik on 18 October . Low @-@ scale conflicts spread in the region , and the two forces engaged each other along the supply route to Jajce three days later , on 21 October , as a result of an ARBiH roadblock set up the previous day on authority of the " Coordinating Committee for the Protection of Muslims " rather than the ARBiH command . Just as the roadblock was dismantled , a new skirmish occurred in the town of Vitez the following day . On 29 October , the VRS captured Jajce due to the inability of ARBiH and HVO forces to construct a cooperative defense , against the VRS which held the advantage in troop size and firepower , staff work and planning was significantly superior to the defenders of Jajce . Six days prior the first major battle in the impending Croat – Bosniak war broke out when the HVO pushed ARBiH from Prozor and expelled the Bosniak population after carrying out rapes , attacking the local mosque , and torching the property of Bosniaks . Initial reports indicated about 300 Bosniaks were killed or wounded in the attack , but subsequent reports by the ARBiH made in November 1992 indicated eleven soldiers and three civilians were killed . Another ARBiH report , prepared in March 1993 , revised the numbers saying eight civilians and three ARBiH soldiers were killed , while 13 troops and 10 civilians were wounded .

= Wizards & Warriors =

Wizards & Warriors is a platforming video game developed by Rare Ltd. for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . It was published by Acclaim and released in North America in December 1987 and in Europe on January 7 , 1990 . It was also released in Japan by Jaleco on July 15 , 1988 , under the title Densetsu no Kishi Elrond ( 伝説の騎士エルロンド ) . In the game , players control Kuros , the " Knight Warrior of the Books of Excalibur " , as he sets out in the Kingdom of Elrond to defeat the evil wizard Malkil , who holds the princess captive in Castle IronSpire , located deep within Elrond 's forests . During the game , players make their way through forests , tunnels , and caves , battling hordes of enemies and collecting treasure , magical items , and additional weaponry to get past the obstacles and hazards that lie in their path . It was Rare 's second game released for the NES , after Slalom .

Wizards & Warriors was featured in early video gaming magazines such as Nintendo Fun Club News , Nintendo Power , and VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in 1988 and 1989 . The main characters Kuros and Malkil would make appearances in the animated series The Power Team ( part of the TV video game reviewing show Video Power ) and Captain N : The Game Master . The game would also be novelized for the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , created by Seth Godin . It received general praise for its graphics , sound , difficulty , and arcade @-@ style gameplay . Criticisms include the presence of unlimited continues , which allow players to restart the game right where they previously left off while retaining all items that were collected before . Retro Gamer called Wizards & Warriors " a unique experience for NES gamers in 1987 , and technically well ahead of other games for the console at the time " . The game also spawned three sequels : Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II , Wizards & Warriors III : Kuros : Visions of Power and Wizards & Warriors X : The Fortress of Fear .

= = Plot = =

Wizards & Warriors pits the story 's hero Kuros , the " Knight Warrior of the Books of Excalibur " , against the main antagonist , the evil wizard Malkil . He was considered one of the greatest wizards in the land , such that Merlin was one of his students . However , the aging Malkil has gone mad and has started using his magic for evil . As a result , Malkil has captured the princess and holds her prisoner in Castle IronSpire , deep within the forests of Elrond . The game 's protagonist , the brave knight Kuros , is summoned to venture through the forests of Elrond . He is armed with the legendary Brightsword , a sword that is powerful enough to beat demons , insects , undead , and the other creatures which have fallen under Malkil 's spell . With the sword , he ventures out through the forests of Elrond and the various caves and underground tunnels and to Castle IronSpire , where he must defeat Malkil and rescue the princess .

= = Gameplay = =

Wizards & Warriors is a platformer in which players control Kuros as he makes his way through the forests of Elrond to Castle IronSpire , where he must defeat Malkil and rescue the princess . After starting the game , the map is briefly shown for players to look at ; afterwards , gameplay starts . Starting in the Elrond forest , players must explore the trees – both on top and inside – to find items and to make it into the caves and tunnels . There , players start collecting the various magical items and treasure ; they must make their way through caves filled with ice as well as lava . Afterwards , players fight through a second set of forests before arriving at Castle IronSpire , in which the player must go over the castle in order to enter it . The castle consists of a series of mazes in which players must use keys to open doors and possibly find other damsels which can be rescued . At the end lies the final confrontation with the wizard Malkil .

Players use the control pad to move horizontally and to crouch . Kuros can attack enemies by using his Brightsword or with other weapons and magic . He can also attack enemies while in the air or while standing by simply holding the sword in position . The objective of the game is to collect the various weapons and magic as well as the gems and treasure along the way ; players use these items to make it past the enemies and other obstacles and hazards . Players collect gems in order to " bribe " the creature who guards the entrance to the next level ; if players do not have enough gems , they cannot progress to the next level . At the end of each level is a boss creature which has been empowered by Malkil 's black magic . Bosses have an " Enemy 's Black Magic Power " meter which shows how difficult the boss is , how many hits are required to defeat it , and what type of weaponry needs to be used . Kuros has a life meter which decreases as time passes and when he sustains damage from enemies . Players loses a life when Kuros ' life meter runs out , but upon restarting they keep all the items they have obtained up to that point . The game ends when all three lives have been lost , but players have the choice to continue and restart at the level in which they lost their last life ; upon continuing , players keep all their items obtained up to that point , but their score goes back to zero . Along the way , players can replenish Kuros ' life meter by collecting pieces of meat scattered throughout the levels .

Along the way , players pick up many items which will help Kuros along his way . Acorns , torches , and treasure chests contain objects for players to collect . Chests are color @-@ coded and require a key of that matching color to open the chest ; the same color @-@ coded keys are used to open doors of matching colors . Some weapons and magic items are replaced once the player collects a new item , but others remain throughout the course of the game . Items include the following : " Boots of Force " which can kick open chests and doors ; magical potions which temporarily grant Kuros invulnerability , extra speed , or extra jumping ability ; gems to help bribe the end @-@ of @-@ level guardian ; a shield to protect from enemy attacks ; the " Potion of Levitation " which allows Kuros to float upwards ; the " Dagger of Throwing " and the " Battle Axe of Agor " which are thrown at enemies and return like a boomerang ; the " Feather of Feather Fall " which slows Kuros ' falling speed ; the " Wand of Wonder " and " Staff of Power " which shoot out balls of ice and fire , respectively ; the " Cloak of Darkness " which makes Kuros invisible to enemies ; the " Boots of Lava Walk " which allows Kuros to walk on the lava ; " Exploding Eggs " which destroys all on @-@ screen enemies ; " Alarm Clocks " which stops all enemies for a brief period ; knife and axe upgrades and an item simply called a " horn " ( trumpet ) which had many players confused as it appeared to be useless , its purpose was to reveal hidden doors to gem caves in some places . Other valuable treasures increase the player 's score and include coins , orbs , chalices , and entire hoards of treasure . Rescuing the damsels in the levels also increase the player 's score .

= = Development and reception = =

Wizards & Warriors was developed by UK @-@ based video game company Rare for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It was released by Acclaim in North American in December 1987 ; it would later be released by the same company in Europe on January 7 , 1990 . It was released in Japan by Jaleco under the title Densetsu no Kishi Elrond on July 15 , 1988 . The game would be Rare 's second NES release , after Slalom . The game 's soundtrack was composed by video game composer David Wise .

Wizards & Warriors was reviewed in Nintendo Fun Club News – the precursor to Nintendo Power – in which a brief overview of the gameplay was given . The game would be featured again in Nintendo Power 's November – December 1989 issue , where it was chosen as the best game to use with the NES Advantage controller , saying that the joystick would allow players to concentrate on other strategic gameplay elements . In 1989 , Wizards & Warriors was nominated by the magazine for " Best Graphics & Sound " and " Best Character " ( Kuros ) for its " Nintendo Power Awards ' 88 " , but it did not win in either category . It also received coverage in a 1989 issue of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment . The reviewer lauded the game 's challenge and need for problem solving – more particular the need to use different items aside from the Brightsword in order to defeat some enemies and progress in the game , and the need to find hidden rooms where required items are located . However , he noted that the high level of difficulty is offset by the ability to continue at exactly the same spot in which the player left off . Overall , the reviewer praised Wizards & Warriors for its " excellent graphics and sound " , arcade @-@ style gameplay , and overall challenge . German magazine Power Play praised the game 's good graphics , sound and extras , but criticized its " stale gameplay " .

In a retrospective of the entire Wizards & Warriors series , UK @-@ based magazine Retro Gamer gave a positive review of the first title , saying that " Kuros 's first adventure was a unique experience for NES gamers in 1987 , and technically well ahead of other games for the console at the time . " The review said that the game , while a platformer , placed much emphasis on finding treasure and items . The review said that most gamers found fault in relatively easy difficulty level , most symbolized by its unlimited continues in which players can continue at the point right where they left off . According to the retrospective , in 1988 , Rare showed Wizards & Warriors to Zippo Games , who was touring Rare and their NES library . Rare asked them to develop a sequel to the game , which would become Ironsword : Wizards & Warriors II . In another retrospective of Rare as part of the company 's 25th anniversary , GamePro looked back on the game , calling it " unique at the time " due to the unlimited amount of continues players received .

Wizards & Warriors has received scant coverage from modern video gaming websites . Video gaming website GamesRadar named the opening theme for the game as " Game music of the day " , noting that the theme " suggests , from the moment you turn on the game , that knights , wizards , goblins and who knows what else are about to collide in a battle so epic it 's destined for a Frazetta painting . " JC Fletcher from Joystiq called the game " a simple action @-@ platformer about a guy in thick armor who kicks open treasure chests in order to bribe knights " . He also notes the variety of good and bad items such as the " Staff of Power " which inflicts much damage to enemies and conversely the " Cloak of Darkness " , which he says " makes Kuros invisible to you but not to enemies " . He said that the game has an arcade feel , with unlimited continues , a high @-@ score list , name entry for high scores , and good music . Houston Press ' Jef Rouner lauded the game 's music and animation , and noted its high difficulty level , especially during boss battles . IGN listed Wizards & Warriors at # 56 on its " Top 100 NES Games " list , reviewer Sam Claiborn said that the game was inspired by Dungeons & Dragons @-@ type RPGs , but it went further in incorporating action platforming elements along with more traditional RPG elements . Columnist and comedy writer Seanbaby humorously criticized the game for items that did not work as intended , including the " Cloak of Darkness " and the " Boots of Lava Walk " .

= = Other media = =

Wizards & Warriors was ported as a standalone handheld game by Acclaim in September 1989 , as part of a series of handheld ports by the company which also included WWF WrestleMania Challenge , Knight Rider , 1943 : The Battle of Midway , and Rocky . Kuros and his nemesis Malkil were featured – along with the title characters from Kwirk and BigFoot , Tyrone from Arch Rivals , and characters from NARC – in the 1990 animated series The Power Team , part of the video game reviewing show Video Power . Malkil appeared in an episode of Captain N : The Game Master called " Nightmare on Mother Brain 's Street " where the world of the game was referred to as " Excalibur " and not Elrond .

Wizards & Warriors was one of the eight games that were novelized for the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , published by Scholastic Corporation ; the novelization was written by the series ' creator Seth Godin , under the pseudonym " F. X. Nine " . The book was the only one in the series in which no effort was made to edit out the protagonist 's weapons on the cover . However , on the cover , Kuros ' loincloth was airbrushed on both sides in order to more completely conceal his underside – which is more visible on the cover of the game itself . The novelization is about a boy named Matthew who is having trouble using his imagination for a creative writing class , when he accidentally brings his father 's knight figurine to life . He is then spirited away to the land of Elrond to help Kuros defeat Malkil . As with the other books in the series in which nobody actually " died " , all of the creatures that they killed were made from the lives of the people of Elrond , and whenever a creature was slain , a person was returned to their normal state . Further in the novel , the two save Kuros sister in the pink caves . While Matthew was invulnerable at the start of the mission , as the two drew closer to the evil wizard , he becomes more vulnerable to the attacks of Malkil 's villains .

= Disasterpieces =

Disasterpieces is the second video album by American metal band Slipknot . Released on November 26 , 2002 , a 2 @-@ disc case DVD features Slipknot performing a concert at London Dockland Arena , as well all of the band 's music videos until its release including songs from Slipknot and Iowa .

The concert was filmed by 26 cameras , including a camera on the headstock of Mick Thomson 's guitar and a " first person " point of view of several band @-@ members . The show was edited in part by band member Shawn Crahan who watched all of the footage recorded from the show . Disasterpieces was met with positive critical reception , with many citing the quick editing and high sound quality as strong points . In 2005 the DVD was certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA and is the band 's highest selling DVD to date shipping at least 400 @,@ 000 units as a longform video .

= = Recording and production = =

Disasterpieces was recorded at the now defunct London Dockland Arena in England on February 16 , 2002 , it was one of the final dates on the band 's European tour which was subsequently their final tour until 2004 . The concert was shot with 26 different cameras under the direction of Matthew Amos and documents the show , backstage action and an in @-@ store signing in Paris , France . In addition to operated cameras each band member had an individual camera which was attached to the side of their masks , apart from Mick Thomson whose camera was attached to the headstock of his guitar . The concept behind these cameras was to allow the viewer to see the show from the band member 's point of view . However they did cause some discomfort and problems for some band members . Bassist Paul Gray removed his after four songs , explaining that " they gave us this big [ camera ] pack to wear around our waist . So when I was jumping around , the thing started sliding down my leg " . Also during the song " Spit It Out " DJ Sid Wilson had his camera stolen when he was in the crowd , however it was returned at the end of the show , all of this is documented on the DVD .

The performance was edited by percussionist Shawn Crahan and Paul Richardson . Crahan later explained that he didn 't have an outline when he began editing , to the disbelief of others closest to him he watched all the footage in order to find the most appropriate footage to help immerse the viewer in the show . Additional content on the two @-@ disc set includes all music videos by the band at the time of release and the track " Purity " , which was removed from Slipknot due to legal reasons , in audio form . The DVD also gives the ability to the viewer to use the remote to change the viewing angle during " Disasterpiece " and also to view the individual band member mask cameras during " People = Shit " and " The Heretic Anthem " . The DVD was unveiled at an advance screening in New York City on November 1 , 2002 and was released on November 22 .

= = Reception = =

Disasterpieces was generally well received by critics . Kirk Miller of Rolling Stone complimented the multitude of camera angles and quick edits , writing that they helped to " [ take ] advantage of the masked metal giants ' sprawling live show " . Ottawa XPress reviewer Mitch Joel wrote that the sound was " mixed perfectly ... [ making ] songs like ' People = Shit ' , ' Spit It Out ' and ' Surfacing ' rocket " . Overall , he concluded , " Disasterpieces is an awesome and all @-@ embracing package . "

Disasterpieces peaked at number 3 in the Billboard Top Music Videos chart and rose to number 1 in Finland . On January 6 , 2003 the RIAA certified Disasterpieces platinum in the United States , and it was declared quadruple platinum on November 18 , 2005 .

It was honored with a 2002 Metal Edge Readers ' Choice Award for DVD / Home Video of the Year .

= = Contents = =

= = Personnel = =

Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight .

= = = Certifications = = =

= Spike Spiegel =

Spike Spiegel ( Japanese : スパイク ・ スピーゲル , Hepburn : Supaiku Supīgeru ) is the central protagonist of the 1998 anime series Cowboy Bebop . Spike is a former member of the criminal Red Dragon Syndicate , who left by faking his death after falling in love with a woman called Julia . He is first introduced as the partner of Jet Black , captain of the spaceship Bebop : the two are legalized bounty hunters pursuing criminals across the populated worlds . During his adventures on board the Bebop , he is drawn back into a bitter feud with Vicious , a rival from the Syndicate who seeks to kill him .

Spike was created by Shinichirō Watanabe and Toshihiro Kawamoto as part of the production entity Hajime Yatate . Created as a mirror image of Watanabe and based on Yusaku Matsuda 's character in Tantei Monogatari , he was designed as someone who would expect others to follow his lead . Kawamoto deliberately designed him to appear " uncool " to create the opposite effect for viewers . His final confrontation with Vicious was planned well in advance . His portrayal in the later movie adaptation displayed the character 's softer side and inner thoughts . Spike is voiced in Japanese by Kōichi Yamadera . In the English dub , he is voiced by Steven Blum .

In addition to the series , Spike has been featured in two manga adaptations , and been the main protagonist of two video game adaptations . Reception of Spike has been positive in Japan and the West , with multiple reviewers praising his portrayal . He has appeared on multiple reader and critic lists of the best anime characters . In addition to the series , many reviewers of the movie positively noted his expanded portrayal in The Movie . Both actors have been praised for their performances , with Blum commenting that it boosted his voice acting career .

= = Characteristics = =

Spike is a fictional bounty hunter who was born on Mars on June 26 , 2044 : he is 27 years old , has fluffy dark @-@ green hair and brown eyes . His right eye is artificial , and consequently lighter than the other . He stands 6 ' 1 " and weighs 155 lbs . Spike is a heavy smoker , and is frequently seen smoking despite rain or " no smoking " signs . A skilled martial artist who practices Jeet Kune Do , he is a devote follower of the philosophies of Bruce Lee . He also owns a converted antique Asteroid racer called the Swordfish II . During gunfights , he most often uses a Jericho 941 . In his younger days before joining the Bebop , Spike was part of the Red Dragon Syndicate , a Chinese criminal organization : during his time there , he was impetuous and volatile , but after leaving he became a calm and collected character with a love for combat . While holding little value in money or justice , he always holds true to his own values and fulfills his obligations . He also generally does this his way rather than following orders , which generally gets him into trouble . Watanabe has said that Spike has a habit of being very indirect with his emotions ; for example , he may behave antagonistically towards someone he actually likes . He says that this could apply to Spike 's relationship with Faye Valentine .

= = Appearances = =

= = = In Cowboy Bebop = = =

Years before the beginning of the series , Spike is a rising member of the Red Dragon crime syndicate . While there , he becomes a partner and friend of Vicious , another member of the Syndicate . Wounded from a gun battle , Spike is nursed back to health by Vicious ' girlfriend Julia , and the two fall in love . They plan to elope and escape the Syndicate , but Vicious finds out and attempts to force Julia to kill Spike or risk her own death . After Spike fakes his death to escape the Syndicate , Julia goes into hiding and does not meet up with him . Spike eventually met and teamed up with former Inter Solar System Police officer Jet Black . As legalized bounty hunters , they travel the Solar System 's inhabited worlds hunting criminals .

During his time on the Bebop , he and Jet are joined by Ein , an intelligent Welsh corgi ; Faye Valentine , a gambler and original resident of Earth woken from cryogenic sleep ; and Edward " Ed " Wong Hau Pepelu Tivruski IV , an eccentric girl from Earth who is a master hacker . Spike also has run @-@ ins with Vicious on two occasions : in " Ballad of Fallen Angels " , while pursuing a Red Dragon executive , Spike and Vicious battle in a derelict church and Spike is nearly killed . Later , in " Jupiter Jazz " , Spike hears that Julia was seen on Callisto and abandons the Bebop to look for her . Once there , he stumbles into a drug deal orchestrated by Gren , a man Vicious betrayed who is seeking revenge . During their confrontation , a three @-@ way battle ensues : Vicious escapes , and Gren is fatally injured , but he succeeds in telling Spike that Julia is alive and in hiding .

During the final story of the series , " The Real Folk Blues " , Julia comes out of hiding and sends a message to Spike through Faye : the two meet and resolve to flee as originally planned . Vicious , having staged a coup d 'état and taken over the Red Dragon Syndicate , sends assassins after the two . During a battle , Julia is shot and killed . After saying his goodbyes to Jet and Faye , Spike storms the headquarters of the Syndicate and has a final confrontation with Vicious : Spike is severely wounded and Vicious is killed . Shortly after this , Spike walks into and collapses in the entrance hall . Spike 's ultimate fate was deliberately left ambiguous , with Watanabe eventually unable to say whether he lived or died .

= = = In other media = = =

Spike is the main protagonist of Cowboy Bebop : The Movie , a story set between Episodes 22 and 23 of the original series while the Bebop crew are still working together . The crew of the Bebop take on a massive bounty for Vincent Volaju , who releases a cloud of deadly protean @-@ based nanomachines in Mars ' capital city . During his pursuit , Spike initially fights then allies with Elektra Ovirowa , a former comrade of Vincent 's .

Spike appears along with the other main characters in the manga adaptation of Cowboy Bebop and the alternate manga Cowboy Bebop : Shooting Star . In the PlayStation Cowboy Bebop , players control Spike as he pilots the Swordfish II during aerial battles through pre @-@ set courses . Spike appears as one of the playable characters in the PlayStation 2 action / beat ' em up video game Cowboy Bebop : Tsuioku no Serenade , a game set within the continuity of the series .

= = Creation and conception = =

During the first work by Shinichirō Watanabe on Cowboy Bebop , the first image that came to him was of Spike . Prior to that , Watanabe had the character of Spike in mind for a long time beforehand . From that point on , Watanabe " tried to build a story around him , trying to make him cool . " Watanabe created Spike as a mirror image of himself : in Watanabe 's words , " I don 't smoke or drink or fight , but I want to – so Spike does . " Spike forms the main focus on the series , with the central theme being his past and its karmic effect on him . Spike was portrayed as a very old @-@ fashioned type of man , who would simply do what he wanted and expect others to follow his lead and watch him from the sidelines . Spike 's artificial eye was included as Watanabe wanted his characters to have flaws . He was originally going to give Spike an eye patch , but the producers vetoed it . In order to portray him as cool , Toshihiro Kawamoto designed Spike to look " uncool " : when he stands still , he has a hunched appearance . This meant that when the character was moving vigorously , he came across as " extra cool " . Spike 's appearance was primarily based on the main protagonist of Tantei Monogatari , portrayed by famous Japanese actor Yusaku Matsuda . Spike 's Swordfish II spaceship was created by mecha designer Kimitoshi Yamane . Yamane liked the English biplane torpedo @-@ bomber Fairey Swordfish , which led him to name the Swordfish II after the bomber . The conclusion of Spike 's story and his final battle with Vicious were planned by Watanabe well in advance , with each episode featuring them meant to shadow their final confrontation . Some of the staff were unhappy about this approach as a continuation of the series would be difficult . While he considered altering the ending , he eventually settled with his original idea .

Spike 's Japanese voice actor , Kōichi Yamadera , was pleased to have gotten the part , but Unshō Ishizuka , Jet 's voice actor , was surprised that Yamadera was not cast as Jet . Spike and Jet were designed to be opposites , with Spike being thin and wearing smart attire , while Jet was bulky and wore more casual clothing . His English voice actor , Steven Blum , used film noir imagery to get himself in the right frame of mind to voice the character convincingly . Blum had some difficulty portraying the character in scenes where he was showing vulnerability . He called Spike an " example of a character [ he ] didn 't fully appreciate until the series was over " , also adding that he would like to reprise his role as the character if given the chance . Spike 's portrayal was expanded in Cowboy Bebop : The Movie . Specifically , according to Yamadera , the character displayed more of his inner thoughts and showed a gentler side than he did in the series . This was because the team had more time available to express such details . Blum found his performance in the movie one of his most difficult from an emotional standpoint , as there were scenes where Spike was portrayed quite differently from the version he had been playing in the series .

= = Reception = =

Spike 's character has been well received in Japan . He won first place in the Best Male Character category at Animage 's annual Anime Grand Prix awards two consecutive times in 1998 and 1999 . In the August 2001 issue of Newtype , Spike was ranked first on the magazine 's list of " Top 10 Most Popular Male Anime Characters in Japan " . The next year in July 2002 , Spike was again placed at number one on Newtype 's anime list of " Favorite Male Character " . In a Newtype poll from March 2010 , Spike was voted by readers as the eighteenth most popular male anime character from the 1990s . In 2014 , Kōichi Yamadera was voted by fans as the third coolest " old guy " voice actor in a Goo Ranking poll , with his portrayal of Spike cited as one of the contributing factors .

Western critics have also directed significant praise towards Spike . In his review of Cowboy Bebop , Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol praised the character portrayals , especially Spike 's , stating that " Spike 's character in particular runs the gamut from goofy to blasé to teeth @-@ gnashing tough ; he is one of most three @-@ dimensional anime leads in recent memory . " Christi of THEM Anime Review 4 @.@ 0 complimented Spike 's story arc in the series , saying that " the underlying theme of Spike Spiegel and his motivations for what he does is absolutely intriguing . " DVDTalk 's Kyle Mills called Spike the epitome of a good lead protagonist , referring to him as " composed , always cool , and is essentially the ultimate badass " , although his true nature is gradually shown throughout the series . In an article in The Atlantic , writer Alex Suskind was positive about Spike 's portrayal and development , saying that the word " cool " was the most apt way of describing him and referring to him as " a space @-@ age samurai @-@ cum @-@ Marlboro Man " . Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku , writing a retrospective on the series , praised the relationship between Spike and Faye , especially the way it evolved through the series without overt verbal expressions of affection .

His portrayal in The Movie has also received praise : IGN 's Andy Patrizio said that Spike " opens up his soul a little " during the film , while Chris Beveridge of Mania.com found Spike more likable in the film than in some parts of the series , comparing him to Lupin III and praising the moments where he could be himself and show more of his inner self . Carlos Ross of THEM Anime Review said that Spike 's portrayal was one of the things that worked in the film , and DVD Talk 's Neil Lumbard , alongside general praise of the characters , positively noted the further exploration of his personality . Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol was less enthusiastic , saying that while Spike was the only one who got much attention during the film , some sequences felt like they could work without him .

Blum 's portrayal as Spike has also drawn praise . Isler stated that " Steve Blum launched his career into new heights when he gave the performance of a lifetime in the English dub of the series , giving Spike a sense of smooth , effortless cool that many argue surpassed the original Japanese version . " While praising the whole principal cast of the series as one of the best English dubs , Serdar Yegulalp of About.com highlighted Blum as Spike as the standout performance of the series , stating that " Cynicism never sounded this suave or self @-@ assured " . Blum himself has called Spike a " gigantic benchmark " in his career and life , saying that " Spike changed everything " for him . He stated that his role as Spike opened up new opportunities for voicing characters , including T.O.M. on Toonami and Jamie on Megas XLR .

In 2009 and 2014 , IGN ranked Spike among the best anime characters of all time . In 2009 , Chris Mackenzie ranked Spike as the fourth greatest anime character behind Goku , Astro Boy , and Speed Racer . In 2014 , Ramsey Isler ranked him as second greatest behind Shinji Ikari of Neon Genesis Evangelion . At the 2005 Anime Awards from About.com , Spike was nominated in the category " Best Lead Male Character " , though he lost to Goku . In 2010 , Wired included Spike on its list of the " 6 Genre @-@ Tripping Gunfighters Jonah Hex Must Duel FTW ! " , with writer Scott Thill complimenting his abilities , while also commenting on his presence of heart compared to other equivalent protagonists . In 2013 , Complex ranked Spike the fourth most stylish anime character ever , with writer Jian DeLeon commenting that " The Mars @-@ born bounty hunter knows the benefit of a good uniform " . In 2014 , WatchMojo.com named Spike an honorable mention on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Anti @-@ Heroes " , and also ranked him at number nine on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Heroes " .

= No. 1 Squadron RAAF =

No. 1 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) squadron headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . Controlled by No. 82 Wing , it is equipped with Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multi @-@ role fighters . The squadron was formed under the Australian Flying Corps in 1916 and saw action in the Sinai and Palestine Campaigns during World War I. It flew obsolete Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s , B.E.12s , Martinsyde G.100s and G.102s , as well as Airco DH.6s , Bristol Scouts and Nieuport 17s , before re @-@ equipping with the R.E.8 in October 1917 and finally the Bristol Fighter in December . Its commanding officer in 1917 – 18 was Major Richard Williams , later known as the " Father of the RAAF " . Disbanded in 1919 , No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed on paper as part of the RAAF in 1922 , and re @-@ established as an operational unit three years later .

During World War II , the squadron flew Lockheed Hudson bombers in the Malayan and Dutch East Indies campaigns , suffering severe losses before being reduced to cadre in 1942 . It was re @-@ formed with Bristol Beauforts the following year , and re @-@ equipped with de Havilland Mosquitos in 1945 for further operations in the Dutch East Indies . Reduced to cadre once more after the war ended , No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ established at Amberley in 1948 as an Avro Lincoln heavy bomber unit . From 1950 to 1958 it was based in Singapore , flying missions during the Malayan Emergency , where it bore the brunt of the Commonwealth air campaign against communist guerillas . When it returned to Australia it re @-@ equipped with English Electric Canberra jet bombers . It operated McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms from 1970 to 1973 , as a stop @-@ gap pending delivery of the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber . The F @-@ 111 remained in service for 37 years until replaced by the Super Hornet in 2010 . From September 2014 to March 2015 , a detachment of Super Hornets was deployed to the Middle East as part of Australia 's contribution to the military intervention against ISIL .

= = Role and equipment = =

No. 1 Squadron is located at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , and controlled by No. 82 Wing , which is part of Air Combat Group . Its mission responsibilities include air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ surface combat . The squadron is nicknamed the " Fighting First " . The blazon of its crest is " the Australian Kookaburra in a diving position superimposed on the cross of Jerusalem " , which symbolises the Victoria Cross @-@ winning action of No. 1 Squadron pilot Frank McNamara in Palestine during World War I. The unit motto is Videmus Agamus ( " We see and we strike " ) .

The squadron operates Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornet multi @-@ role fighters , the first of which entered service in March 2010 . Nicknamed the " Rhino " , its missions include air superiority , fighter escort , land strike , maritime strike , close air support , and reconnaissance . The Super Hornet is larger than the " classic " McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet operated by the RAAF , carries more ordnance , and has a greater fuel capacity . It is fitted with a 20 mm cannon and can be armed with air @-@ to @-@ air and anti @-@ shipping missiles , as well as a variety of air @-@ to @-@ ground bombs and missiles . Flown by a crew of two , a pilot and an air combat officer ( ACO ) , it is capable of engaging targets in the air and on the surface simultaneously . It can be refuelled in flight by the RAAF 's Airbus KC @-@ 30A Multi Role Tanker Transports . The Super Hornets are serviced at the operating level by No. 1 Squadron technical staff ; heavier maintenance is conducted by Boeing Defence Australia and other contractors .

= = History = =

= = = World War I = = =

No. 1 Squadron was established as a unit of the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) at Point Cook , Victoria , in January 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel E.H. Reynolds . With a complement of 28 officers , 195 airmen , no aircraft and little training , it sailed for Egypt in mid @-@ March 1916 , arriving at Suez a month later . There it came under the control of the 5th Wing of the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) . After training in England and Egypt , the unit was declared operational at its new headquarters in Heliopolis on 12 June , when it took over aircraft belonging to No. 17 Squadron RFC . Its three flights were , however , operating in isolation at different bases in the Sinai Desert , and the squadron did not reunite until December . Flying primitive and poorly armed Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 two @-@ seat biplanes , its primary roles during this period of the Sinai Campaign were reconnaissance — including aerial photography — and artillery spotting for the British Army . No. 1 Squadron pilots attached to No. 14 Squadron RFC took part in the Battle of Romani in July and August . In September and October , B and C Flights , led by Captains Oswald Watt and Richard Williams respectively , undertook bombing and reconnaissance missions in support of the Australian Light Horse in northern Sinai .

On 12 September 1916 , the British began to refer to No. 1 Squadron as No. 67 ( Australian ) Squadron RFC . This practice continued until January 1918 , when the unit officially became known as No. 1 Squadron AFC . The relationship between airmen and ground crew was less formal than in British units ; squadron members recalled that " The CO is the only one who is ever called ' sir ' " and that officers did not demand " saluting and standing to attention and all that rot " . The unit received the first of several Martinsyde G.100 single @-@ seat fighters to augment the B.E.2s on 16 October ; although considered obsolete , the " Tinsyde " was substantially faster than the B.E.2 , and armed with forward @-@ firing machine guns . Shortly before the squadron took part in a bombing raid against Beersheba on 11 November , Lieutenant Lawrence Wackett managed to fix a machine gun to the top plane of one of the B.E.2s , using a mount he designed himself . Each flight was also assigned a Bristol Scout beginning in December , but it too was obsolete and under @-@ powered , and the squadron ceased operating the type within three months . Other older models issued to the unit included the Airco DH.6 , Martinsyde G.102 and Nieuport 17 . On 17 December , the squadron 's flights were finally brought together at one base , Mustabig .

Early March 1917 saw the heaviest bombing campaign carried out by the squadron to date ; short of its regular 20 @-@ pound ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) ordnance , the pilots improvised by dropping 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) howitzer shells on Turkish forces along the Gaza – Beersheba line . During one such mission on 20 March , Lieutenant Frank McNamara earned the Victoria Cross for landing his Martinsyde in the desert under enemy fire and rescuing a fellow pilot whose B.E.2 had been forced down . On 26 March , No. 1 Squadron took part in the First Battle of Gaza ; it suffered its first combat death the next day , when one of its B.E.2s was attacked by a German Rumpler . The unit participated in the Second Battle of Gaza on 19 April ; like its predecessor , the attack was a failure for the Allies . Williams , later to become known as the " Father of the RAAF " , assumed command of the squadron in May . Two B.E.12s were delivered the same month ; like the Martinsydes , they were armed with a forward @-@ firing machine gun and employed as escorts for the B.E.2s. By June , mechanical issues caused by hot summer weather and the threat from new German Albatros scouts were rendering the B.E.2s largely ineffective , and Williams urgently requested newer models . Modern aircraft were eventually delivered , first the Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 in October , and then the Bristol F.2 Fighter in December . " Now for the first time , " wrote Williams , " after 17 months in the field we had aircraft with which we could deal with our enemy in the air . "

No. 1 Squadron joined the 40th ( Army ) Wing of the RFC 's Palestine Brigade on 5 October 1917 . On 22 and 24 November , the squadron bombed Bireh village during the Battle of Jerusalem . The first of its 29 confirmed aerial victories , over an Albatros , occurred on 3 January 1918 . By month 's end , its complement of aircraft included five B.E.2s , five Martinsydes , two R.E.8s , and nine Bristol Fighters . The squadron supported the Capture of Jericho in February 1918 . It carried out air raids and reconnoitred prior to the First Transjordan attack on Amman in March and prior to the Second Transjordan attack on Shunet Nimrin and Es Salt a month later ; it also flew reconnaissance missions during the advance to and fighting near Es Salt and Jisr ed Damieh . By the end of March , it was equipped with 18 Bristol Fighters , which had replaced all the other types . As well as undertaking offensive operations , the Bristol Fighters served in the photo @-@ reconnaissance role . During the last week of April 1918 , the squadron moved its base forward from Mejdel to a new aerodrome outside Ramleh . Williams relinquished command in June to take over 40th Wing .

Beginning in August 1918 , members of No. 1 Squadron , including one of its aces , Lieutenant Ross Smith , were attached to Colonel T.E. Lawrence 's Arab army to protect it against German bombing . In September , the squadron began operating a Handley Page 0 / 100 , the only Allied heavy bomber in the Middle East and the only twin @-@ engined aircraft flown by the AFC . That month it joined the Bristol Fighters in the final offensive of the Palestinian Campaign , the Battle of Armageddon , inflicting what the Australian official history described as " wholesale destruction " on the Turkish Seventh Army . By October , the Bristol Fighters had moved forward from Ramleh to Haifa and by the middle of the month were required to patrol and reconnoitre an exceptionally wide area of country , sometimes between 500 and 600 miles ( 800 and 970 km ) , flying over Rayak , Homs , Beirut , Tripoli , Hama , Aleppo , Killis and Alexandretta . They bombed the German aerodromes at Rayak , where 32 German machines had been either abandoned or burnt , on 2 October . On 19 October , the first German aircraft was seen in the air since fighting over Deraa in mid @-@ September , just prior to the Battle of Sharon . Smith and another pilot forced a DFW two @-@ seater to land , and destroyed it on the ground by firing a Very light into the aircraft after the German pilot and observer had moved to safety . In the wake of the 31 October armistice with Turkey , the squadron relocated to Ramleh in December , and then in February 1919 to Kantara . There its members were personally farewelled by General Sir Edmund Allenby , who congratulated them for achieving " absolute supremacy of the air ... a factor of paramount importance " to the Allied campaign .

= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =

No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia on 5 March 1919 , and was disbanded . In 1921 , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was established as a separate branch of the military , and on 1 January 1922 , the squadron was re @-@ formed on paper . Its planned strength , approved by the Air Board in December 1921 , was three officers and five airmen , operating four Airco DH.9s. Funding problems for the fledgling Air Force resulted in the disbandment on 1 July of No. 1 Squadron and other units established at the same time , their aircraft and personnel instead forming a single squadron of six flights under the control of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) at Point Cook . No. 1 Squadron was reactivated as an operational unit of the RAAF reserve , known as the Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) , at Point Cook on 1 July 1925 . Its commanding officer was Flight Lieutenant Harry Cobby .

Like No. 3 Squadron , formed the same day at Point Cook but transferred to RAAF Richmond , New South Wales , three weeks later , No. 1 Squadron was a multi @-@ purpose or " composite " unit made up of three flights , each of which had a different role and comprised four aircraft : A Flight operated DH.9s for army cooperation , B Flight operated Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 fighters , and C Flight operated DH.9A bombers . A third of the squadron 's complement of 27 officers and 169 airmen was Permanent Air Force ( PAF ) , and the rest CAF . No. 1 Squadron relocated from Point Cook to nearby RAAF Laverton on 1 January 1928 . The RAAF retired its S.E.5s the same year , and in 1929 took delivery of Westland Wapiti general @-@ purpose aircraft to replace its DH.9s and DH.9As. Through the inter @-@ war years , No. 1 Squadron undertook various tasks including civil aid , flood and bushfire relief , search and rescue , aerial surveys , and air show demonstrations . In October 1930 , a de Havilland DH.60 Moth attached to the unit conducted Australia 's first crop @-@ dusting operation , at the behest of the Victorian Forestry Commission .

RAAF squadrons began adopting specialised roles in the early 1930s , No. 1 Squadron becoming No. 1 Single @-@ Engined Bomber Squadron . By November 1935 it was made up of two flights of newly delivered Hawker Demon fighter @-@ bombers , and one of Wapitis . In December 1935 it was augmented by No. 1 FTS 's Fighter Squadron and its six Bristol Bulldogs , which were redesignated fighter @-@ bombers . Nos. 21 and 22 ( Cadre ) Squadrons were formed on 20 April 1936 at Laverton and Richmond , respectively , absorbing the CAF personnel of Nos. 1 and 3 Squadrons , which became PAF units . The same day , No. 1 Squadron was renamed No. 1 ( Fighter Bomber ) Squadron . This reorganisation temporarily denuded No. 1 Squadron of most of its aircraft , leaving only A Flight , with four Bulldogs and a Wapiti , in operation . The Wapiti was transferred to No. 1 FTS in July , and by the end of the month the squadron 's complement of aircraft stood at four Bulldogs and one Moth .

No. 1 Squadron began receiving new Demons in November 1936 . In January 1937 , it relinquished its Bulldogs to No. 21 Squadron , which was to hold them until they could be transferred to the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ formed No. 2 Squadron . By the end of February , No. 1 Squadron 's strength was 12 Demons and one Moth , 11 officers and 108 airmen . The unit was redesignated No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron in August 1937 . Towards the end of the year , it was plagued by several Demon accidents , resulting in a series of inquiries and a review of RAAF procedures in 1938 by Marshal of the RAF Sir Edward Ellington ; the so @-@ called Ellington Report and its criticism of air safety standards led to the removal of Air Vice @-@ Marshal Richard Williams from his position as Chief of the Air Staff , which he had held since the formation of the Air Force . No. 1 Squadron received the RAAF 's first three CAC Wirraways on 10 July 1939 . As the likelihood of war increased , the squadron 's role was altered to incorporate reconnaissance as well as bombing , resulting in the transfer out of all Demons and Wirraways and the transfer in from other units of nine Avro Ansons on 28 – 29 August 1939 ; at the end of the month its personnel comprised nine officers and 122 airmen .

= = = World War II = = =

Following the outbreak of World War II , No. 1 Squadron 's Ansons were tasked with maritime patrol and convoy escort duties . In 1940 , the squadron became the RAAF 's inaugural Lockheed Hudson unit ; it received its first Hudson on 30 March , and by the end of May had transferred out the last of its Ansons and was operating 11 of the new aircraft . Deployed to Malaya to conduct maritime reconnaissance , No. 1 Squadron arrived at Sembawang , Singapore , on 4 July 1940 . It relocated to Kota Bharu , near the Malaya – Thailand border , in August 1941 . Two days before the attack on Malaya , its Hudsons spotted the Japanese invasion fleet but , given uncertainty about the ships ' destination and instructions to avoid offensive operations until attacks were made against friendly territory , Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke @-@ Popham did not allow the convoy to be bombed . Shortly after midnight , local time , on the night of 7 / 8 December , the Japanese force started landing on the beaches at Kota Bharu , close to the airfield , and from about 02 : 00 , No. 1 Squadron launched a series of assaults on the Japanese forces , becoming the first aircraft to make an attack in the Pacific War . The Hudsons sank a Japanese transport ship , the IJN Awazisan Maru , and damaged two more transports , the Ayatosan Maru and Sakura Maru , for the loss of two Hudsons , an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor . By the end of the day , Japanese ground forces had advanced to the outskirts of the airfield , forcing the squadron 's remaining airworthy aircraft to be evacuated to Kuantan , and from there back to Singapore .

By Christmas Eve 1941 , No. 1 Squadron had five serviceable aircraft . Together with No. 8 Squadron RAAF , also equipped with Hudsons , it was tasked with maritime patrols to the east of Singapore . On 26 January 1942 , two of the squadron 's Hudsons spotted a Japanese convoy heading for Endau , on the east coast of Malaya . It was decided to attack the convoy with all possible strength , including four Hudsons from No. 1 Squadron and five from No. 8 Squadron , together with obsolete Vickers Vildebeest and Fairey Albacore biplanes of Nos. 36 and 100 Squadrons RAF , and with what little fighter escort could be found . The convoy was strongly defended by Japanese fighters , and although all nine Hudsons returned to Singapore , several were badly shot up . The rest of the strike force did not fare as well ; 11 Vildebeests , two Albacores , two Hudsons ( of No. 62 Squadron RAF ) and three fighters were lost . By the end of the month , No. 1 Squadron had withdrawn to airfield P.2 on Sumatra , along with several other Commonwealth units including No. 8 Squadron . It continued to attack Japanese bases in Malaya and convoys in the Dutch East Indies , relocating to Semplak , Java , in mid @-@ February . At Semplak it took over the Hudsons of No. 8 Squadron and No. 65 Squadron RAF , giving it a strength of 25 aircraft ; at one stage it was to be renumbered as an RAF squadron , but this never occurred . Heavily outnumbered by Japanese air units , which raided Allied bases with impunity , No. 1 Squadron suffered heavy losses and was ordered to withdraw its four remaining Hudsons to Australia on 2 March 1942 , disbanding soon after . Although 120 of the squadron 's personnel were evacuated from Java , 160 men including the commanding officer , Wing Commander Davis , were unable to escape and were taken prisoner by the Japanese ; less than half survived captivity .

No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed with Bristol Beauforts on 1 December 1943 at Menangle , New South Wales . By March 1944 it had deployed to Gould , Northern Territory , where it was controlled by No. 79 Wing under North @-@ Western Area Command . Its strength at the beginning of the month was some 350 officers and men , and 19 Beauforts . The squadron commenced reconnaissance operations on 20 March , and undertook its first bombing mission on 4 April against Lautem , East Timor . It attacked other targets in Timor during May , losing two aircraft . Having undertaken 82 sorties in July , the Beauforts concentrated on maritime reconnaissance from August , using air @-@ to @-@ surface radar during operations from Gould and Gove . After re @-@ equipping with Mosquito fighter @-@ bombers at Kingaroy , Queensland , in January 1945 , the squadron deployed to Morotai in May and then Labuan Island in June – July . Now part of No. 86 ( Attack ) Wing , it flew only a few missions before the end of the war , losing one Mosquito . No. 1 Squadron returned to Australia in December 1945 and was disbanded at Narromine , New South Wales , on 7 August 1946 .

= = = Malayan Emergency = = =

No. 1 Squadron was re @-@ formed as a heavy bomber unit on 23 February 1948 , when No. 12 Squadron was re @-@ designated . Operating Avro Lincolns , it was based at RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland , where it formed part of No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing . The wing 's aircraft were serviced by No. 482 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . From July 1950 to July 1958 — for the first two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years under the auspices of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing — it was based in Singapore , flying missions against communist guerrillas during the Malayan Emergency . Tasked by RAF Air Headquarters Malaya , the Lincolns generally conducted area bombing missions , as well as strikes against pinpoint targets . They operated singly and in formations , sometimes in concert with RAF bombers , and often strafed targets with their machine guns and 20 mm cannon after dropping ordnance . The Lincolns were considered well suited to the campaign , owing to their range and ability to fly at low speeds to search for targets , as well as their firepower and heavy bomb load . Not having to contend with anti @-@ aircraft fire , they flew mainly by day , but No. 1 Squadron also operated by night , the only Commonwealth unit to do so .

The squadron carried out its own day @-@ to @-@ day maintenance in Malaya ; the Lincolns were rotated back to Australia for major work . Its original complement of six aircraft was increased to eight after the British Air Ministry requested in February 1951 that Australia augment its bomber force to partly offset the imminent withdrawal of the RAF 's Lincolns to Bomber Command in Europe . The squadron was awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency in 1950 – 51 and 1954 – 55 . It suffered no casualties during the campaign but two of its aircraft were written off : one that overshot the landing strip at Tengah in November 1951 , and another that crashed into the sea off Johore after striking trees on takeoff in January 1957 .

Although the original purpose of the bombing campaign in Malaya was to kill as many insurgents as possible , the impracticality of achieving this in operations over dense jungle resulted in a shift towards harassing and demoralising the communists , driving them out of their bases and into areas held by Commonwealth ground troops . Operation Kingly Pile , which involved two sorties by No. 1 Squadron and one by English Electric Canberra jet bombers of No. 12 Squadron RAF on 21 February 1956 , was considered the most successful of the more than 4 @,@ 000 missions conducted by the Lincolns , killing at least 14 communist troops . By the time it was withdrawn to Australia in July 1958 , the squadron had dropped over 14 @,@ 000 tonnes of bombs — 85 per cent of the total delivered by Commonwealth forces during the Emergency . Its service was recognised with the presentation of a Squadron Standard by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Far East Air Force , Air Marshal The Earl of Brandon . Until 2014 , the Malayan Emergency had marked the last occasion that the unit took part in combat operations .

= = = Jet era = = =

No. 1 Squadron re @-@ equipped with Canberra Mk.20s after returning to Australia . The RAAF 's first jet bomber , the Canberra was subsonic but had long range and was highly manoeuvrable . It had been procured partly for its capacity to deliver nuclear weapons , an ordnance option the government seriously contemplated but never acquired . Initially the Canberra 's envisaged mission profile was medium @-@ to @-@ high @-@ altitude area bombing but its primitive bombsight and light load made this a dubious proposition , and by mid @-@ 1961 crews were training in low @-@ level army cooperation tactics . No. 1 Squadron was awarded successive Gloucester Cups for its proficiency in 1959 – 60 and 1960 – 61 . As of January 1962 , its strength was eight aircraft and 53 personnel , including 18 officers . The unit effectively ceased operations in 1968 , to begin converting to the General Dynamics F @-@ 111C supersonic bomber , which was expected to enter service soon afterwards . Already controversial owing to its escalating cost , the F @-@ 111 program was heavily delayed by airworthiness concerns related to its swing @-@ wing technology . In September 1970 , as an interim measure while awaiting delivery of the F @-@ 111 , No. 1 Squadron relinquished its Canberras for leased McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms , which it operated until June 1973 . Although the Phantom had a multi @-@ role capability , the RAAF employed it as a strike aircraft to maintain compatibility with the proposed F @-@ 111 mission profile . One of No. 1 Squadron 's Phantoms was lost with its crew of two in June 1971 , the only fatalities and hull loss of the 24 aircraft leased to the RAAF . Though not as sophisticated an aircraft as the F @-@ 111 , the Phantom was a significant advance over the Canberra , and well regarded by its Australian crews .

No. 82 Wing accepted its first F @-@ 111Cs in June 1973 . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Charles Read , ordered that the new aircraft be flown with great caution initially , well within operational limits , to minimise the possibility of further damage to its reputation through early attrition . No. 1 Squadron was assigned 12 of the initial 24 aircraft delivered . It was No. 82 Wing 's lead strike force , while No. 6 Squadron was primarily tasked with crew conversion training . The wing employed a centralised servicing regime , whereby all aircraft and maintenance personnel were held by No. 482 Squadron , which released the F @-@ 111s in line with Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons ' joint flying program . In February 1981 , responsibility for operating @-@ level servicing of the F @-@ 111s was transferred to the flying squadrons , which for the first time took direct control of their F @-@ 111s . No. 482 Squadron continued to provide intermediate @-@ level servicing , while major upgrades and complex maintenance were carried out by No. 3 Aircraft Depot . These two organisations merged in 1992 to form No. 501 Wing , which handed over heavy maintenance of the F @-@ 111 to Boeing Australia in 2001 . Between 1977 and 1993 , the RAAF lost seven F @-@ 111Cs in crashes . Three of the accidents involved aircraft flown by No. 1 Squadron : in August 1979 , January 1986 and September 1993 , the last two killing both crew members . In July 1996 , No. 1 Squadron took responsibility for aerial reconnaissance using specially modified RF @-@ 111Cs previously operated by No. 6 Squadron . This gave No. 1 Squadron five mission types : land strike , maritime strike , close air support , long @-@ range air defence , and reconnaissance . In May 1999 the unit was again awarded the Gloucester Cup for proficiency .

Along with its revolutionary variable @-@ sweep wings , the F @-@ 111 was equipped with terrain @-@ following radar and an escape module that allowed the entire cockpit to be jettisoned in an emergency , instead of individual ejection seats . Its top speed was Mach 2 @.@ 5 and its combat radius gave it the capability of reaching targets in Indonesia from bases in northern Australia . Upon delivery in 1973 it was fitted with analogue avionics and could only drop unguided ( " dumb " ) bombs . In its 37 years of service with the RAAF the type went through several upgrades , including the Pave Tack infra @-@ red and laser @-@ guided precision weapons targeting system , Harpoon anti @-@ shipping missiles , and advanced digital avionics . Alan Stephens , in the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , described the F @-@ 111 as " the region 's pre @-@ eminent strike aircraft " and the RAAF 's most important acquisition . The closest they came to being used in anger , however , was during Australian @-@ led INTERFET operations in East Timor commencing in September 1999 . Both F @-@ 111 squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , to support the international forces in case of action by the Indonesian military , and remained there until December ; six of No. 1 Squadron 's aircraft and approximately 100 personnel were involved . From 20 September , when INTERFET forces began to arrive in East Timor , the F @-@ 111s were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated . As it happened , INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance , and F @-@ 111 operations were limited to reconnaissance by RF @-@ 111Cs from 5 November through 9 December .

In 2007 , the Australian government decided to retire the F @-@ 111s by 2010 , and acquire 24 Boeing F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets as an interim replacement , pending the arrival of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning then being developed . The F @-@ 111 fleet was considered to be at risk due to fatigue , and too expensive to operate as each aircraft required 180 hours of maintenance for every hour of flying time . No. 1 Squadron ceased operating the F @-@ 111 in January 2009 , in preparation for converting to the Super Hornet . Former F @-@ 111 aircrew , familiar with side @-@ by @-@ side seating and a different performance envelope , found conversion more challenging than pilots experienced in the RAAF 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet fighters , which shared many characteristics with the newer model . No. 1 Squadron re @-@ equipped between 26 March 2010 and 21 October 2011 , making it the first Australian unit , and the first squadron outside the United States , to fly the Super Hornet . It became operational with its new aircraft on 8 December 2011 . The multi @-@ role Super Hornet allowed No. 1 Squadron to augment its previous offensive strike role with an air @-@ to @-@ air combat function . The RAAF attained full operational capability with the Super Hornet in December 2012 .

On 14 September 2014 , the Federal government committed to deploying up to eight Super Hornets of No. 1 Squadron to Al Minhad Air Base in the United Arab Emirates , as part of the Australian Air Task Group joining the coalition against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) forces in Iraq . Aircraft from the squadron conducted their first mission over Iraq on 5 October , and their first strike four days later . According to the Department of Defence , as of 20 December 2014 the Super Hornets had flown over 180 sorties , dropped 113 weapons , and destroyed 36 ISIL targets , damaging another six . In March 2015 , having flown almost 3 @,@ 000 hours in over 400 missions , the detachment was replaced by six F / A @-@ 18As from No. 75 Squadron .

= = Future = =

In May 2013 , the Federal government announced plans to purchase 12 Boeing EA @-@ 18G Growlers to supplement the Super Hornet fleet . No. 6 Squadron is expected to begin taking delivery of the Growlers in 2017 , at which point its Super Hornets will be transferred to No. 1 Squadron . In April 2014 , the government announced the purchase of 58 F @-@ 35s in addition to 14 already ordered , for the express purpose of replacing the 71 " classic " Hornets of Nos. 3 , 75 and 77 Squadrons and No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit . A government decision on whether to purchase a further 28 F @-@ 35s , to be based at Amberley , will depend on how long the Super Hornets are to be retained . According to Australian Aviation , continuing delays to the F @-@ 35 program have increased the likelihood that the Super Hornets of Nos. 1 and 6 Squadrons will , rather than being disposed of early as originally planned , continue to be operated by the RAAF for their full service life of over 20 years .

= = Aircraft operated = =

= Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics =

The 2012 Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , was a wheelchair basketball team that played in the 2012 Summer Paralympics . The team of twelve included nine Paralympic veterans with fifteen Paralympic Games between them : Bridie Kean , Amanda Carter , Sarah Stewart , Tina McKenzie , Kylie Gauci , Katie Hill , Cobi Crispin , Clare Nott and Shelley Chaplin . There were three newcomers playing in their first Paralympics : Amber Merritt , Sarah Vinci and Leanne Del Toso . The Gliders had won silver at the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney and the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , but had never won gold .

The first stage of the Paralympic competition was the group stage , a round robin tournament . The Gliders faced a formidable task just to make the finals , as their pool included Brazil , Great Britain , Canada and the Netherlands , the last two of which had recently beaten them . After a narrow victory over Brazil and an easier one against Great Britain , the Gliders were again defeated by Canada , but they won their final match against the Netherlands to finish at the top of their pool . The Gliders went on to win in the quarterfinal against Mexico and the semifinal against the United States , but lost to Germany in the final , winning silver .

= = Background = =

Prior to 2012 , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , had won silver in the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney and the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , and bronze at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , but had never won gold . The official announcement of the membership of the Paralympic team was made on 5 July 2012 . The team of twelve included nine veterans with 15 Paralympic Games between them : Bridie Kean , Amanda Carter , Sarah Stewart , Tina McKenzie , Kylie Gauci , Katie Hill , Cobi Crispin , Clare Nott and Shelley Chaplin . Amber Merritt , Sarah Vinci and Leanne Del Toso were newcomers competing at their first Paralympics . Kean was selected as captain .

The oldest team member was Amanda Carter , aged 48 , who was coming back for a fourth Paralympic games having competed in the 1992 Summer Paralympics in Barcelona , the 1996 Summer Paralympics in Atlanta and the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney , at which she had been sidelined by a crippling elbow injury . She returned to the Gliders ' lineup in 2009 . The youngest , who had not even been born when Carter had played in Barcelona , was her 19 @-@ year @-@ old teammate Amber Merritt . British @-@ born Merritt was originally a swimmer , but had been recruited into basketball by the Paralympic Hall of Fame coach Frank Ponta . Merritt had averaged 20 points and 8 @.@ 4 rebounds per game in the Gliders World Challenge series against Japan , Germany and China in Sydney in July 2012 , including a game against Germany in which she scored 21 points and eight rebounds . Another young player from whom much was hoped was Cobi Crispin , whose performances in the Paralympic World Cup in Manchester and the Gliders World Challenge led to her being named Australian Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball International Player of the Year .

Source : Basketball Australia ; International Games as at 29 August 2012 from Official Results Book , p . 4152 .

= = Group stage = =

The first part of the competition was the group stage . The Gliders ' pool included Brazil , Great Britain , Canada and the Netherlands . Canada had beaten them in the bronze medal game at the 2010 Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Birmingham in July 2010 , and the Netherlands had also beaten them recently . Australian Gliders head coach , John Triscari admitted that Canada would be hard to beat . He added :

We ’ ve worked really hard to improve the team ’ s shooting percentage , we ’ ve had strength and conditioning coaches working with the girls to up their fitness and we ’ ve increased the volume of shooting during training . Hopefully all the hard work the girls are putting in now , will pay off in London .

Qualified for quarterfinals

Eliminated

Key : Pld

= played , W =

won , L

= lost , PF =

points for , PA

= points against , PD =

points difference , Pts = competition points

= = = Brazil = = =

Key : Pts

= points , Rebs =

rebounds , Asts = assists

The Gliders ' first game was on 30 August in front of a crowd of 3 @,@ 288 at the Basketball Arena in Olympic Park in Stratford , London , also known as " the Marshmallow " . The Gliders had not played Brazil in four years , and what little they knew about them came from watching video tapes .

The scores were tied fifteen times , and at no point were the Australians more than five points in front . With six minutes to go in the final quarter , the Gliders were up by only two points , with the score 45 – 43 . Crispin was sent to the free throw line where she extended her team 's lead to 47 – 43 . A technical foul saw her straight back to the free throw line to make it 48 – 43 , the Glider 's biggest lead of the game . Brazil then struck back , scoring five unanswered points to tie the score again at 48 – 48 , but Merritt scored one from the paint to put the Gliders back in front . She followed by taking a defensive rebound and then another shot to make it 52 – 48 . Brazil scored once more , but time ran out , and the Gliders won , 52 – 50 . Leading scorers for the Gliders were Crispin with 18 points and Merritt with 16 .

Triscari said that they could have played better . " The chemistry in our team " , he said , " is fantastic . It 's good to get a win under your belt and then we 'll take it from there . But we didn 't play to our maximum today I don 't think . We made some mistakes passing the ball , turning the ball over so we 've got some improvement to do . We can work on a few things . "

= = = Great Britain = = =

The Gliders ' next match was against Great Britain , and was held at the North Greenwich Arena , which could accommodate a larger crowd than the Marshmallow . A crowd of 5 @,@ 331 saw a low @-@ scoring affair . The Gliders concentrated on defence , and led by only 11 – 5 at quarter time . By half time , they had extended their lead to 25 – 11 . The third quarter went badly for Team Great Britain , which only scored three more points to Australia 's 14 , making the score 39 – 14 at three @-@ quarter time . The final quarter was Great Britain 's best , but the score was still 51 – 24 . Merritt and Crispin were again the Gliders ' top scorers , with 10 and 8 points respectively , but they shared the ball around , and every Glider except McKenzie scored at least two points . The British coach was scathing about his team 's performance . " They know that 's not the way we play " , he said , " and I 'm disappointed for the crowd and them because they are tons better than that . It was an absolutely disgraceful effort out there . It really was bad . "

= = = Canada = = =

The Gliders returned to the Marshmallow the next day for a match against Canada , another team considered a strong chance for a medal , in front of a capacity crowd of 7 @,@ 200 . The Gliders squandered early opportunities , and Canada won the first quarter 20 – 12 . Strong defensive play by Nott and Gauci helped the Gliders reverse this in the second , and left Canada with only a one @-@ point 33 – 32 lead at half time . The second half saw Canada slowly increase their lead , keeping tied with Australia 4 – 4 in the first half of third , 6 – 4 in the last half of the third 6 – 4 in the first half of the fourth , and 8 – 6 in the last half of the fourth . Australia 's top players were Crispin , who had 13 points and 15 rebounds ; Merritt , who earned 16 points ; and Chaplin , with eight points , five rebounds and seven assists . The loss raised the prospect that Australia might not make the finals at all , but Crispin remained confident that they could .

Triscari identified the Gliders ' poor shooting as their critical problem . " That was a really tough game , " he said , " and full credit to Canada , but we can 't beat top teams in the world when we only shoot at 34 % , that was the key statistic . " Merritt , in her British accent , said that she had " the utmost respect for Canada . They 're a great team , but we 'll refocus on the game tomorrow and go out and play like we know we can , the Australian way . "

= = = Netherlands = = =

The loss to Canada meant that the Gliders needed a win against the Netherlands , considered one of the competition 's best teams , and one which had beaten Canada . Crispin told the media that " We will go out like we have in every other game and stick to our game plan and hopefully we 'll come out on top " .

The Netherlands scored first , but Kean soon equalised , assisted by Stewart . The Dutch team responded , but Gauci took two points with a fast break , and then assisted Crispin in putting Australia in the lead , one which the Gliders would not relinquish . Stewart made the next two scores , from outside the paint , and assisted Crispin to bring the score to 6 – 16 . The Dutch team fought back , but there was a six @-@ point 12 – 18 deficit at quarter time . The Australian defence shut down their opportunities in the second quarter , and the score was 20 – 30 in Australia 's favour at half time , and 29 – 40 by the end of the third quarter . The Dutch team redoubled their efforts in the final quarter , and won the quarter 20 – 18 , but the Gliders won the game , 39 – 58 .

Once again Merritt led Australia 's scoring , with 19 points , with a considerably improved accuracy of 9 shots from 14 attempts , while Crispin had ten points and seven rebounds . The rest of the team performed equally well . Stewart scored six points and five rebounds . Chaplin 's reputation as a play maker was burnished with four rebounds and seven assists . Gauci had eight points and six assists . Nott had played all 40 minutes of the game against Canada the night before , then over 32 minutes in this game , and was particularly active in the final quarter . Triscari praised both the Gliders and their opponents :

We wanted to get on top early and have them chasing us , so , in that respect , I suppose it did . We focused on stopping a lot of their big players , particularly Beijer [ Mariska Beijer ] , from getting into the keyway , and the girls did a sensational job . Gert [ Gertjan van der Linden ] is very hard to coach against because he throws a lot of stuff at you . Tonight , he was the one having to make the changes . Another day , it will probably be me .

= = Finals = =

= = = Quarterfinal – Mexico = = =

The loss to Canada meant that the Gliders had won three out of four games , the same number as Canada and the Netherlands , but they were placed ahead of the Netherlands based on defeating them . Canada failed to defeat Great Britain by a sufficient margin , and therefore finished third . As a result , the Gliders topped their pool , and received a quarterfinal berth against Mexico , which had managed to qualify despite only winning one game . Triscari was confident , but was not taking the match lightly . He warned the media :

No game 's easy , you know . We finished on top , so the crossover with the other side is in our favour . But they are by no means easy . We only beat Brazil by two points and Brazil only beat Mexico by two in the PanAm ( Parapan championships ) play @-@ offs for third and fourth , so it 's going to be tough . "

The Gliders planned to dominate Mexico early , playing as aggressively against them as they had played against the Netherlands . Stewart took the tap , and lost . Australia 's first shots at goal were taken by Kean from the free throw line , but she missed both . Mexico 's Lucia Vazquez Delgadillo then opened the scoring to give Mexico a two @-@ point lead , which turned out to be their biggest of the game . Gauci then put points on the scoreboard for the Gliders . Mexico turned the ball over , and Crispin got her first from the paint , assisted by Gauci , which was repeated on the next play , with Stewart providing the assist this time . Mexico scored , but the Gliders responded with another shot from Crispin . On the next play , Gauci stole the ball and charged down the court , but failed to make the shot . Nott then took a defensive rebound , leading to Crispin scoring again . She was also fouled , but missed the resulting free throw . Shortly thereafter , Stewart drew another foul , and made both shots to bring the score to 14 – 4 .

The Gliders put Mexico under intense defensive pressure . Mexico had six team turnovers to the Gliders ' one , and wound up with 19 turnovers in total to Australia 's 6 . Australia scored 18 points from turnovers , compared to 6 for Mexico . Gauci , a two @-@ point player , took a three @-@ pointer to take the score to 17 – 8 . Mexico was unable to recover from Australia 's high scoring from Merritt , who ultimately scored 14 points with 70 per cent shooting , and Crispin , who scored twelve points with 67 per cent shooting . The two teams went into the quarter time break with the score 21 points to 10 . Mexico fell further behind in the second quarter . Amanda Carter immediately stole the ball from Mexico , which let Merritt score two points . A few minutes later , Carter , assisted by Chaplin , scored a basket from the paint , and was fouled in the process . A successful free throw made the score 36 – 16 . Another steal by Merritt led to a runaway break , bringing her contribution to ten points , and the score to 38 – 16 . At the half @-@ time break , the score was 44 – 20 .

In the third quarter , a team turnover and a series of missed shots by Hill , Kean and Crispin , allowed Mexico to outscore Australia by one point , leaving the score at 50 – 27 at the end of the quarter . The final quarter saw Australia 's Del Toso miss a shot at one end , and Mexico 's Floralia Estrada Bernal miss one at the other . Stewart also missed , before a Mexican turnover led to the first score of the quarter , by Stewart . Mexico 's Rocio Torres Lopez scored in response . Another shot by Stewart missed , but Carter took an offensive rebound , and scored . Turnovers by Kean and Del Toso allowed Mexico put four points on the board , but successive fouls sent Kean to the free throw line to score three points in response .

Merritt brought the score to 59 – 35 with her seventh scoring shot . As the game drew to a close , there were several missed shots by Sarah Vinci and Hill , but Mexico was unable to capitalise on the opportunities , continuing to miss shots and turn over the ball . With nineteen seconds of play remaining , Hill took a two @-@ point shot from inside the paint ; attracting a foul , she scored another point from a free throw . Although Mexico 's Wendy Garcia Amador scored the last two points of the game , her team lost to Australia 62 – 37 .

= = = Semifinal – United States = = =

In the semifinal , the Gliders had to beat the reigning champions , Team USA , in front of a small crowd of 4 @,@ 428 at the North Greenwich Arena . Stewart took the tap , and lost . Team USA had first possession and earned the first points of the game , but Gauci responded quickly . Then Team USA turned the ball over , but Nott lost it . Chaplin stole it back , but Kylie Gauci put the ball out of bounds . Nott stole it back again , but Gauci turned it over again . Team USA took a shot at the basket inside the paint , and missed , but took a rebound and scored . A Team USA free throw extended their lead to 2 – 6 . Thereafter both teams ' shooting was poor , and the score was only 10 – 12 at quarter time .

The second quarter started with Merritt scoring twice to give Australia the lead 14 – 12 . Team USA turned the ball over the Gliders several times , but they were unable to capitalise on their strong defence , leaving the score tied at 26 – 26 at half time . In the third quarter , an early goal by Gauci from outside the paint gave the Gliders the lead . A series of steals gave the Gliders additional shots , most of which they missed , but Team USA gave over a series of turnovers , and their shooting was worse than their rivals , resulting in a 10 – 0 run by the Gliders . Team USA were unable to score at all until the last minute of the quarter . A hurried goal with seconds to go by Hill saw the Gliders leading 38 – 28 . Team USA would ultimately post 28 turnovers to Australia 's 17 , and the Gliders would score 12 points from turnovers to Team USA 's three .

In the fourth quarter , the Australian defence remained strong , but their shooting did not improve . For the entire game , Crispin made only 3 out of 10 attempts , and Merritt just 4 out of 16 . Nott , who played the entire game , ended up being the team 's most accurate player , with four out of five attempts . Meanwhile , Team USA fought back to 40 – 39 . Three timeouts were taken in the last minute . Merritt was fouled twice , which sent her to the free throw line , but she missed both shots . The game went down to the last second , with Team USA 's Rose Hollermann missing one from inside the paint just before the shot clock ran out .

= = = Gold medal match – Germany = = =

The Gliders had to defeat Germany in front of a capacity crowd of 12 @,@ 985 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal . Australia had narrowly defeated the German team 48 – 46 in the Gliders World Challenge in Sydney a few months earlier , and at that point had beaten them three of the previous four times they had played .

Once again , Stewart took the tap , and lost . A defensive rebound by Kean after Germany missed two free throw shots resulted in the Gliders scoring first , with Gauci assisting Crispin . The Gliders played Germany like they had played against and defeated the United States , with a strong defence against a normally high @-@ scoring team . At first , they were successful ; with three minutes to go in the quarter , despite several missed shots , Australia was ahead 10 – 4 . In the last minutes , Germany scored ten points that gave them a 10 – 14 lead at quarter time .

In the second quarter , Germany extended their lead to ten points , but Kean scored a point from a free throw , and then , with seconds left on the clock , stole the ball , enabling Crispin to score , so the Gliders were only seven points behind at half time . The Gliders won the third quarter in previous games in London , which happened again against Germany , but only by 9 – 8 . The Gliders had six points to make up , with strong defences from both teams . Gauci scored the most in this game , scoring 15 points , including a three @-@ pointer , with five assists and four rebounds . In the end , the Gliders lost by fourteen points , 44 – 58 .

Triscari felt that the Gliders did not put enough pressure on the Germans , and that their shooting was not accurate enough . In Australia , Basketball Australia CEO Kristina Keneally praised the Gliders ' efforts . " The Gliders have been nothing short of brilliant at the Paralympic Games , " she said , " and this Silver Medal is just reward for their outstanding performance . This is the Gliders ' fourth consecutive Paralympic Medal – a remarkable achievement . All of the players , coaches and support staff have done a fantastic job and we can ’ t wait to greet them on their return home . " In 2013 , Keneally announced a four @-@ year development program for the Gliders that included the appointment of a full @-@ time head coach for the first time , based at the National Wheelchair Centre of Excellence at the New South Wales Institute of Sport in Homebush , New South Wales . In May 2013 , Tom Kyle was appointed the Gliders ' new head coach .

" We have had the opportunity to play Germany a fair bit in our preparation so our game plan was to have strong defensive pressure and take it from there " , Kean told the media . " It started off really good for us , unfortunately they just got a couple more runs than us and that 's the way it goes sometimes . They played a great game . We stuck together 12 deep from the second the buzzer started , to that end buzzer and no one gave up . I think that we can hold our heads high because of that . I guess the plan is , next four years , Rio we go one more . "

It was not to be . The Gliders did not qualify for the 2016 Summer Paralympics after finishing second to China at the 2015 Asia Oceania Qualifying Tournament .

= 1892 Alabama Cadets football team =

The 1892 Alabama Cadets football team represented the University of Alabama in the 1892 college football season . The team was led by their head coach E. B. Beaumont and played their home games at Lakeview Park in Birmingham , Alabama . In what was the inaugural season of Alabama football , the team finished with a record of two wins and two losses ( 2 – 2 ) .

William Little of Livingston , Alabama is credited with being responsible for the introduction of football at the university . After playing the game in 1891 while in attendance at a northern prep school , Little returned to Alabama where he helped establish the first team at the university for the 1892 season . The first game in Alabama football history was played on November 11 , 1892 , against Birmingham High School and was won by the Cadets 56 – 0 . They then split a pair of games with the Birmingham Athletic Club , and closed out the season with a 32 – 22 loss in the first Iron Bowl against Auburn on February 22 , 1893 . After the season , Beaumont was fired as head coach and replaced by Eli Abbott for the 1893 season .

= = Background = =

The first college football game was played on November 6 , 1869 , between Rutgers and the College of New Jersey . Although the sport continued to grow , it was not introduced for another 23 years at Alabama . The man credited with the introduction of football at Alabama was William G. Little of Livingston . Little attended the Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire for the 1891 – 92 school year . It was there that he first played and became an advocate for football . Originally he intended to attend Yale University . However , after his brother died , Little returned to Livingston in 1892 and enrolled at Alabama . He proposed the university field a football team , which was introduced for the 1892 season . Alabama selected Little as the first team captain for the inaugural 1892 season . The team was called the " Cadets , " as the current " Crimson Tide " moniker was not used until 1907 .

= = Schedule = =

Source : Rolltide.com : 1892 Alabama football schedule

= = Game notes = =

= = = Birmingham High School = = =

In what was the first ever game played by the University of Alabama , a team of Birmingham @-@ area high school players lost to the Cadets 56 – 0 at Birmingham 's Lakeview Park . Played on November 11 , the game served as a practice game for Alabama 's contest against the Birmingham Athletic Club scheduled for the next day . Although details of the second half are unavailable , touchdowns in the first half were scored by David Grayson , G. H. Kyser , Dan Smith ( twice ) , William Little and T. S. Frazer . The play utilized most throughout the game was a rushing formation developed by Harvard earlier in the season called the flying wedge .

= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( November ) = = =

A day after their victory over Birmingham High School , Alabama suffered their first all @-@ time loss against the Birmingham Athletic Club ( B.A.C. ) 5 – 4 . In a game noted for numerous fumbles by both squads , Alabama scored first and took a 4 – 0 lead on a William G. Little touchdown run late in the first half . However , the B.A.C. won the game 5 – 4 late in the second half when J. P. Ross successfully kicked a 63 @-@ yard field goal on a drop kick . Alabama would not lose another game by a single point until their 1947 game against Tulane .

= = = Birmingham Athletic Club ( December ) = = =

A month after their loss to the B.A.C. , Alabama returned to Lakeview Park and defeated the Athletics 14 – 0 . David Grayson scored first on a 65 @-@ yard touchdown run to give Alabama a 4 – 0 lead after a missed extra point . In the second half , both Robert Cope and Eli Abbott scored touchdowns and one G. H. Kyser extra point gave Alabama the 14 – 0 victory .

= = = Auburn = = =

Before 5 @,@ 000 fans at Birmingham 's Lakeview Park , Alabama lost to the Agricultural & Mechanical College of Alabama ( now known as Auburn University ) 32 – 22 in the first of what was subsequently dubbed the Iron Bowl . Auburn scored first on a 20 @-@ yard Rufus Dorsey touchdown run and again on a one @-@ yard Dorsey run and took an 8 – 0 lead early in the first half . Frank Savage then scored Alabama 's first touchdown on a 10 @-@ yard run and William B. Bankhead converted a successful extra point to cut the Auburn lead to 8 – 6 . After Auburn scored a third touchdown to go up 14 – 6 , Alabama responded with a 20 @-@ yard Dan Smith touchdown run and G. H. Kyser extra point to make the halftime score 14 – 12 in favor of Auburn .

In the second half , Auburn scored first again when Dorsey recovered an Alabama fumble and returned it 65 @-@ yards for a touchdown . After a successful extra point the blue and orange extended their lead to 20 – 12 . Alabama responded on their following possession with a 30 @-@ yard William Little touchdown run and Kyser extra point to cut the lead to 20 – 18 . Thomas Daniels then scored Auburn 's final two touchdowns on runs of one and 25 yards and also converted both extra points to give them a 32 – 18 lead . Smith scored the final points of the game late in the second half for Alabama on a short run that made the final score 32 – 22 .

= = Players = =

The following players were members of the 1892 football team according to the roster published in the 1893 edition of The Corolla , the University of Alabama yearbook .

= = After the season = =

Although they finished with a .500 record , after the completion of the season , E. B. Beaumont was fired as Alabama 's head coach . The 1894 edition of the university yearbook The Corolla stated of the Beaumont firing :

" We were unfortunate in securing a coach . After keeping him for a short time , we found that his knowledge of the game was very limited . We , therefore , ' got rid of ' him . "

After Beaumont 's departure , William G. Little continued the training of the team until Abbott was selected to serve as head coach for the 1893 season . Other notable players from the first Alabama team included William B. Bankhead who served as the Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1936 to 1940 and Bibb Graves who served as the 38th Governor of Alabama from 1927 to 1931 and again from 1935 to 1939 .

= Dungeons & Dragons =

Dungeons & Dragons ( abbreviated as D & D or DnD ) is a fantasy tabletop role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) originally designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson , and first published in 1974 by Tactical Studies Rules , Inc . ( TSR ) . The game has been published by Wizards of the Coast ( now a subsidiary of Hasbro ) since 1997 . It was derived from miniature wargames with a variation of the Chainmail game serving as the initial rule system . D & D 's publication is commonly recognized as the beginning of modern role @-@ playing games and the role @-@ playing game industry .

D & D departs from traditional wargaming and assigns each player a specific character to play instead of a military formation . These characters embark upon imaginary adventures within a fantasy setting . A Dungeon Master serves as the game 's referee and storyteller , while maintaining the setting in which the adventures occur and playing the role of the inhabitants . The characters form a party that interacts with the setting 's inhabitants ( and each other ) . Together they solve dilemmas , engage in battles and gather treasure and knowledge . In the process the characters earn experience points to become increasingly powerful over a series of sessions .

The early success of Dungeons & Dragons led to a proliferation of similar game systems . Despite this competition , D & D remains the market leader in the role @-@ playing game industry . In 1977 , the game was split into two branches : the relatively rules @-@ light game system of Dungeons & Dragons and the more structured , rules @-@ heavy game system of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( abbreviated as AD & D or ADnD ) . AD & D 2nd Edition was published in 1989 . In 2000 , the original line of the game was discontinued and the AD & D version was renamed Dungeons & Dragons with the release of its 3rd edition with a new system . These rules formed the basis of the d20 System which is available under the Open Game License ( OGL ) for use by other publishers . Dungeons & Dragons version 3 @.@ 5 was released in June 2003 , with a ( non @-@ OGL ) 4th edition in June 2008 . A 5th edition was released during the second half of 2014 .

As of 2004 , Dungeons & Dragons remained the best @-@ known and best @-@ selling role @-@ playing game , with an estimated 20 million people having played the game and more than US $ 1 billion in book and equipment sales . The game has been supplemented by many pre @-@ made adventures as well as commercial campaign settings suitable for use by regular gaming groups . Dungeons & Dragons is known beyond the game for other D & D @-@ branded products , references in popular culture and some of the controversies that have surrounded it , particularly a moral panic in the 1980s falsely linking it to Satanism and suicide . The game has won multiple awards and has been translated into many languages beyond the original English .

= = Play overview = =

Dungeons & Dragons is a structured yet open @-@ ended role @-@ playing game . It is normally played indoors with the participants seated around a tabletop . Typically , each player controls only a single character , which represents an individual in a fictional setting . When working together as a group , these player characters ( PCs ) are often described as a " party " of adventurers , with each member often having their own area of specialty which contributes to the success of the whole . During the course of play , each player directs the actions of their character and their interactions with other characters in the game . This activity is performed through the verbal impersonation of the characters by the players , while employing a variety of social and other useful cognitive skills , such as logic , basic mathematics and imagination . A game often continues over a series of meetings to complete a single adventure , and longer into a series of related gaming adventures , called a " campaign " .

The results of the party 's choices and the overall storyline for the game are determined by the Dungeon Master ( DM ) according to the rules of the game and the DM 's interpretation of those rules . The DM selects and describes the various non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) that the party encounters , the settings in which these interactions occur , and the outcomes of those encounters based on the players ' choices and actions . Encounters often take the form of battles with " monsters " – a generic term used in D & D to describe potentially hostile beings such as animals , aberrant beings , or mythical creatures . The game 's extensive rules – which cover diverse subjects such as social interactions , magic use , combat , and the effect of the environment on PCs – help the DM to make these decisions . The DM may choose to deviate from the published rules or make up new ones if they feel it is necessary .

The most recent versions of the game 's rules are detailed in three core rulebooks : The Player 's Handbook , the Dungeon Master 's Guide and the Monster Manual .

The only items required to play the game are the rulebooks , a character sheet for each player , and a number of polyhedral dice . Many players also use miniature figures on a grid map as a visual aid , particularly during combat . Some editions of the game presume such usage . Many optional accessories are available to enhance the game , such as expansion rulebooks , pre @-@ designed adventures and various campaign settings .

= = = Game mechanics = = =

Before the game begins , each player creates their player character and records the details ( described below ) on a character sheet . First , a player determines their character 's ability scores , which consist of Strength , Constitution , Dexterity , Intelligence , Wisdom , and Charisma . Each edition of the game has offered differing methods of determining these statistics . The player then chooses a race ( species ) such as human or elf , a character class ( occupation ) such as fighter or wizard , an alignment ( a moral and ethical outlook ) , and other features to round out the character 's abilities and backstory , which have varied in nature through differing editions .

During the game , players describe their PC 's intended actions , such as punching an opponent or picking a lock , and converse with the DM , who then describes the result or response . Trivial actions , such as picking up a letter or opening an unlocked door , are usually automatically successful . The outcomes of more complex or risky actions are determined by rolling dice . Factors contributing to the outcome include the character 's ability scores , skills and the difficulty of the task . In circumstances where a character does not have control of an event , such as when a trap or magical effect is triggered or a spell is cast , a saving throw can be used to determine whether the resulting damage is reduced or avoided . In this case the odds of success are influenced by the character 's class , levels and ability scores .

As the game is played , each PC changes over time and generally increases in capability . Characters gain ( or sometimes lose ) experience , skills and wealth , and may even alter their alignment or gain additional character classes . The key way characters progress is by earning experience points ( XP ) , which happens when they defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task . Acquiring enough XP allows a PC to advance a level , which grants the character improved class features , abilities and skills . XP can be lost in some circumstances , such as encounters with creatures that drain life energy , or by use of certain magical powers that come with an XP cost .

Hit points ( HP ) are a measure of a character 's vitality and health and are determined by the class , level and constitution of each character . They can be temporarily lost when a character sustains wounds in combat or otherwise comes to harm , and loss of HP is the most common way for a character to die in the game . Death can also result from the loss of key ability scores or character levels . When a PC dies , it is often possible for the dead character to be resurrected through magic , although some penalties may be imposed as a result . If resurrection is not possible or not desired , the player may instead create a new PC to resume playing the game .

= = = Adventures , campaigns , and modules = = =

A typical Dungeons & Dragons game consists of an " adventure " , which is roughly equivalent to a single story . The DM can either design an adventure on their own , or follow one of the many pre @-@ made adventures ( also known as " modules " ) that have been published throughout the history of Dungeons & Dragons . Published adventures typically include a background story , illustrations , maps and goals for PCs to achieve . Some include location descriptions and handouts . Although a small adventure entitled " Temple of the Frog " was included in the Blackmoor rules supplement in 1975 , the first stand @-@ alone D & D module published by TSR was 1978 's Steading of the Hill Giant Chief , written by Gygax .

A linked series of adventures is commonly referred to as a " campaign " . The locations where these adventures occur , such as a city , country , planet or an entire fictional universe , are referred to as " campaign settings " or " world " . D & D settings are based in various fantasy genres and feature different levels and types of magic and technology . Popular commercially published campaign settings for Dungeons & Dragons include Greyhawk , Dragonlance , Forgotten Realms , Mystara , Spelljammer , Ravenloft , Dark Sun , Planescape , Birthright , and Eberron . Alternatively , DMs may develop their own fictional worlds to use as campaign settings .

= = = Miniature figures = = =

The wargames from which Dungeons & Dragons evolved used miniature figures to represent combatants . D & D initially continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursors . The original D & D set of 1974 required the use of the Chainmail miniatures game for combat resolution . By the publication of the 1977 game editions , combat was mostly resolved verbally . Thus miniatures were no longer required for game play , although some players continued to use them as a visual reference .

In the 1970s , numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for Dungeons & Dragons and similar games . Licensed miniature manufacturers who produced official figures include Grenadier Miniatures ( 1980 – 1983 ) , Citadel Miniatures ( 1984 – 1986 ) , Ral Partha , and TSR itself . Most of these miniatures used the 25 mm scale .

Periodically , Dungeons & Dragons has returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures @-@ based wargaming . Supplements such as Battlesystem ( 1985 & 1989 ) and a new edition of Chainmail ( 2001 ) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies by using miniatures .

= = Game history = =

= = = Edition history = = =

Dungeons & Dragons has gone through several revisions . Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions .

= = = = Original game = = = =

The original Dungeons & Dragons , now referred to as OD & D , was a small box set of three booklets published in 1974 . It was amateurish in production and assumed the player was familiar with wargaming . Nevertheless , it grew rapidly in popularity , first among wargamers and then expanding to a more general audience of college and high school students . Roughly 1 @,@ 000 copies of the game were sold in the first year followed by 3 @,@ 000 in 1975 , and much more in the following years . This first set went through many printings and was supplemented with several official additions , such as the original Greyhawk and Blackmoor supplements ( both 1975 ) , as well as magazine articles in TSR 's official publications and many fanzines .

= = = = Two @-@ pronged strategy = = = =

In 1977 , TSR created the first element of a two @-@ pronged strategy that would divide the D & D game for nearly two decades . A Dungeons & Dragons Basic Set boxed edition was introduced that cleaned up the presentation of the essential rules , made the system understandable to the general public , and was sold in a package that could be stocked in toy stores . Also in 1977 , the first part of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons ( AD & D ) was published , which brought together the various published rules , options and corrections , then expanded them into a definitive , unified game for hobbyist gamers . TSR marketed them as an introductory game for new players and a more complex game for experienced ones ; the Basic Set directed players who exhausted the possibilities of that game to switch to the advanced rules .

As a result of this parallel development , the basic game included many rules and concepts which contradicted comparable ones in AD & D. John Eric Holmes , the editor of the basic game , preferred a lighter tone with more room for personal improvisation . AD & D , on the other hand , was designed to create a tighter , more structured game system than the loose framework of the original game . Between 1977 and 1979 , three hardcover rulebooks , commonly referred to as the " core rulebooks " , were released : the Player 's Handbook ( PHB ) , the Dungeon Master 's Guide ( DMG ) , and the Monster Manual ( MM ) . Several supplementary books were published throughout the 1980s , notably Unearthed Arcana ( 1985 ) that included a large number of new rules . Confusing matters further , the original D & D boxed set remained in publication until 1979 , since it remained a healthy seller for TSR .

= = = = Revised editions = = = =

In the 1980s , the rules for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons and " basic " Dungeons & Dragons remained separate , each developing along different paths .

In 1981 , the basic version of Dungeons & Dragons was revised by Tom Moldvay to make it even more novice @-@ friendly . It was promoted as a continuation of the original D & D tone , whereas AD & D was promoted as advancement of the mechanics . An accompanying Expert Set , originally written by David " Zeb " Cook , allowed players to continue using the simpler ruleset beyond the early levels of play . In 1983 , revisions of those sets by Frank Mentzer were released , revising the presentation of the rules to a more tutorial format . These were followed by Companion ( 1983 ) , Master ( 1985 ) , and Immortals ( 1986 ) sets . Each set covered game play for more powerful characters than the previous . The first four sets were later compiled as a single hardcover book , the Dungeons & Dragons Rules Cyclopedia ( 1991 ) , along with a new introductory boxed set .

Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition was published in 1989 , again as three core rulebooks ; the primary designer was David " Zeb " Cook . The Monster Manual was replaced by the Monstrous Compendium , a loose @-@ leaf binder that was subsequently replaced by the hardcover Monstrous Manual in 1993 . In 1995 , the core rulebooks were slightly revised , although still referred to by TSR as the 2nd Edition , and a series of Player 's Option manuals were released as optional rulebooks .

The release of AD & D2 deliberately excluded some aspects of the game that had attracted negative publicity . References to demons and devils , sexually suggestive artwork , and playable , evil @-@ aligned character types – such as assassins and half @-@ orcs – were removed . The edition moved away from a theme of 1960s and 1970s " sword and sorcery " fantasy fiction to a mixture of medieval history and mythology . The rules underwent minor changes , including the addition of non @-@ weapon proficiencies – skill @-@ like abilities that originally appeared in 1st Edition supplements . The game 's magic spells were divided into schools and spheres . A major difference was the promotion of various game settings beyond that of traditional fantasy . This included blending fantasy with other genres , such as horror ( Ravenloft ) , science fiction ( Spelljammer ) , and apocalyptic ( Dark Sun ) , as well as alternative historical and non @-@ European mythological settings .

= = = = Wizards of the Coast = = = =

In 1997 , a near @-@ bankrupt TSR was purchased by Wizards of the Coast . Following three years of development , Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition was released in 2000 . The new release folded the Basic and Advanced lines back into a single unified game . It was the largest revision of the D & D rules to date , and served as the basis for a multi @-@ genre role @-@ playing system designed around 20 @-@ sided dice , called the d20 System . The 3rd Edition rules were designed to be internally consistent and less restrictive than previous editions of the game , allowing players more flexibility to create the characters they wanted to play . Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage further customization of characters . The new rules standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat . In 2003 , Dungeons & Dragons v.3.5 was released as a revision of the 3rd Edition rules . This release incorporated hundreds of rule changes , mostly minor , and expanded the core rulebooks .

In early 2005 , Wizards of the Coast 's R & D team started to develop Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition , prompted mainly by the feedback obtained from the D & D playing community and a desire to make the game faster , more intuitive , and with a better play experience than under the 3rd Edition . The new game was developed through a number of design phases spanning from May 2005 until its release . Dungeons & Dragons 4th Edition was announced at Gen Con in August 2007 , and the initial three core books were released June 6 , 2008 . 4th Edition streamlined the game into a simplified form and introduced numerous rules changes . Many character abilities were restructured into " Powers " . These altered the spell @-@ using classes by adding abilities that could be used at will , per encounter , or per day . Likewise , non @-@ magic @-@ using classes were provided with parallel sets of options . Software tools , including player character and monster building programs , became a major part of the game .

On January 9 , 2012 , Wizards of the Coast announced that it was working on a 5th edition of the game . The company planned to take suggestions from players and let them playtest the rules . Public playtesting began on May 24 , 2012 . At Gen Con 2012 in August , Mike Mearls , lead developer for 5th Edition , said that Wizards of the Coast had received feedback from more than 75 @,@ 000 playtesters , but that the entire development process would take two years , adding , " I can 't emphasize this enough ... we 're very serious about taking the time we need to get this right . " The release of the 5th Edition , coinciding with D & D 's 40th anniversary , occurred in the second half of 2014 .

= = = Acclaim and influence = = =

The game had more than three million players around the world by 1981 , and copies of the rules were selling at a rate of about 750 @,@ 000 per year by 1984 . Beginning with a French language edition in 1982 , Dungeons & Dragons has been translated into many languages beyond the original English . By 2004 , consumers had spent more than US $ 1 billion on Dungeons & Dragons products and the game had been played by more than 20 million people . As many as six million people played the game in 2007 .

The various editions of Dungeons & Dragons have won many Origins Awards , including All Time Best Roleplaying Rules of 1977 , Best Roleplaying Rules of 1989 , and Best Roleplaying Game of 2000 for the three flagship editions of the game . Both Dungeons & Dragons and Advanced Dungeons & Dragons are Origins Hall of Fame Games inductees as they were deemed sufficiently distinct to merit separate inclusion on different occasions . The independent Games magazine placed Dungeons & Dragons on their Games 100 list from 1980 through 1983 , then entered the game into the magazine 's Hall of Fame in 1984 .

Dungeons & Dragons was the first modern role @-@ playing game and it established many of the conventions that have dominated the genre . Particularly notable are the use of dice as a game mechanic , character record sheets , use of numerical attributes and gamemaster @-@ centered group dynamics . Within months of Dungeons & Dragons 's release , new role @-@ playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role @-@ playing games , with most of these being in the fantasy genre . Some of the earliest other role @-@ playing games inspired by D & D include Tunnels & Trolls ( 1975 ) , Empire of the Petal Throne ( 1975 ) , and Chivalry & Sorcery ( 1976 ) .

The role @-@ playing movement initiated by D & D would lead to release of the science fiction game Traveller ( 1977 ) , the fantasy game RuneQuest ( 1978 ) , and subsequent game systems such as Chaosium 's Call of Cthulhu ( 1981 ) , Champions ( 1982 ) , GURPS ( 1986 ) , and Vampire : The Masquerade ( 1991 ) . Dungeons & Dragons and the games it influenced fed back into the genre 's origin – miniatures wargames – with combat strategy games like Warhammer Fantasy Battles . D & D also had a large impact on modern video games .

Director Jon Favreau credits Dungeons & Dragons with giving him " ... a really strong background in imagination , storytelling , understanding how to create tone and a sense of balance . "

= = = Licensing = = =

Early in the game 's history , TSR took no action against small publishers ' production of D & D compatible material , and even licensed Judges Guild to produce D & D materials for several years , such as City State of the Invincible Overlord . This attitude changed in the mid @-@ 1980s when TSR took legal action to try to prevent others from publishing compatible material . This angered many fans and led to resentment by the other gaming companies . Although TSR took legal action against several publishers in an attempt to restrict third @-@ party usage , it never brought any court cases to completion , instead settling out of court in every instance . TSR itself ran afoul of intellectual property law in several cases .

With the launch of Dungeons & Dragons 's 3rd Edition , Wizards of the Coast made the d20 System available under the Open Game License ( OGL ) and d20 System trademark license . Under these licenses , authors were free to use the d20 System when writing games and game supplements . The OGL and d20 Trademark License made possible new games , some based on licensed products like Star Wars , and new versions of older games , such as Call of Cthulhu .

With the release of the fourth edition , Wizards of the Coast has introduced its Game System License , which represents a significant restriction compared to the very open policies embodied by the OGL . In part as a response to this , some publishers ( such as Paizo Publishing with its Pathfinder Roleplaying Game ) who previously produced materials in support of the D & D product line , have decided to continue supporting the 3rd Edition rules , thereby competing directly with Wizards of the Coast . Others , such as Kenzer & Company , are returning to the practice of publishing unlicensed supplements and arguing that copyright law does not allow Wizards of the Coast to restrict third @-@ party usage .

During the 2000s , there has been a trend towards reviving and recreating older editions of D & D , known as the Old School Revival . Game systems based on earlier editions of D & D. Castles & Crusades ( 2004 ) , by Troll Lord Games , is a reimagining of early editions by streamlining rules from OGL . This in turn inspired the creation of " retro @-@ clones " , games which more closely recreate the original rule sets , using material placed under the OGL along with non @-@ copyrightable mechanical aspects of the older rules to create a new presentation of the games .

= = = Controversy and notoriety = = =

At various times in its history , Dungeons & Dragons has received negative publicity , in particular from some Christian groups , for alleged promotion of such practices as devil worship , witchcraft , suicide , and murder , and for the presence of naked breasts in drawings of female humanoids in the original AD & D manuals ( mainly monsters such as harpies , succubi , etc . ) . These controversies led TSR to remove many potentially controversial references and artwork when releasing the 2nd Edition of AD & D. Many of these references , including the use of the names " devils " and " demons " , were reintroduced in the 3rd edition . The moral panic over the game led to problems for fans of D & D who faced social ostracism , unfair treatment , and false association with the occult and Satanism , regardless of an individual fan 's actual religious affiliation and beliefs .

Dungeons & Dragons has been the subject of rumors regarding players having difficulty separating fantasy from reality , even leading to psychotic episodes . The most notable of these was the saga of James Dallas Egbert III , the facts of which were fictionalized in the novel Mazes and Monsters and later made into a TV movie . The game was blamed for some of the actions of Chris Pritchard , who was convicted in 1990 of murdering his stepfather . Research by various psychologists , the first being that of Armando Simon , has concluded that no harmful effects are related to the playing of D & D.

The game 's commercial success was a factor that led to lawsuits regarding distribution of royalties between original creators Gygax and Arneson . Gygax later became embroiled in a political struggle for control of TSR which culminated in a court battle and Gygax 's decision to sell his ownership interest in the company in 1985 .

= = Related products = =

D & D 's commercial success has led to many other related products , including Dragon Magazine , Dungeon Magazine , an animated television series , a film series , an official role @-@ playing soundtrack , novels , and computer games such as the MMORPG Dungeons & Dragons Online . Hobby and toy stores sell dice , miniatures , adventures , and other game aids related to D & D and its game offspring .

= = In popular culture = =

D & D grew in popularity through the late 1970s and 1980s . Numerous games , films , and cultural references based on D & D or D & D @-@ like fantasies , characters or adventures have been ubiquitous since the end of the 1970s . D & D players are ( sometimes pejoratively ) portrayed as the epitome of geekdom , and have become the basis of much geek and gamer humor and satire . Famous D & D players include Pulitzer Prize winning author Junot Díaz , professional basketball player Tim Duncan , comedian Stephen Colbert , and actors Vin Diesel and Robin Williams . D & D and its fans have been the subject of spoof films , including Fear of Girls and The Gamers : Dorkness Rising .

= Ninja Gaiden ( 2004 video game ) =

Ninja Gaiden is an action @-@ adventure hack and slash video game developed by Team Ninja for the Xbox video game console . It went through five years of development before its release by Tecmo in 2004 , and had a number of expansion packs and two remakes , Ninja Gaiden Black and Ninja Gaiden Sigma . The game follows the fictional story of Ryu Hayabusa , a master ninja , in his quest to recover a stolen sword and avenge the slaughter of his clan .

Tecmo specifically targeted Ninja Gaiden at a western audience , and despite difficulties in obtaining content ratings due to the game 's graphic depictions of violence , it was generally well received , and 362 @,@ 441 copies were sold in North America in the first month after its release . Nevertheless , the game had to be censored for release in some regions , and Japanese sales were poor , with only 60 @,@ 000 in the four months following its release . Making use of the Xbox 's internet connectivity , Ninja Gaiden was the focus of a series of online contests across North America , Europe and Japan . Record @-@ breaking numbers of players took part , competing for places in the live final , which was held during the Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) 2004 .

Team Ninja continued to update the game after its release : two Hurricane Packs were made available as free downloadable content that added extra content , gameplay challenges , and game engine improvements . These were incorporated into a reworked version , released in 2005 and entitled Ninja Gaiden Black , that was regarded by the game 's creator Tomonobu Itagaki and many players as the definitive version . In 2007 , Ninja Gaiden was graphically enhanced on the PlayStation 3 , with extra content , in the form of Ninja Gaiden Sigma . This version was later released on the PlayStation Vita as Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus .

= = Gameplay = =

Ninja Gaiden develops its narrative thread through the actions of its player @-@ controlled protagonist , Ryu Hayabusa . Viewed from a third person over @-@ the @-@ shoulder perspective , in typical action @-@ adventure fashion Ryu starts the game with basic , low @-@ level abilities and weapons that can be upgraded as he progresses , by discovering or buying items . In keeping with his ninja persona , his character can interact with the game environment to perform acrobatic feats , such as running along and jumping off walls , swinging from pole to pole , or running across water . The game world is made up of several distinct regions , most of which are connected via the city of Tairon , which functions as a hub . Access to these regions are obtained by fighting enemies , finding keys , or solving puzzles , inspired by the mechanics of the The Legend of Zelda video games . Dragon busts scattered throughout the regions provide the means to save player progress , permitting gameplay to be resumed at a later time .

Ryu 's movements are directed using the console gamepad . The game 's control system , which comprises the left thumbstick , two attack buttons , and a block button , was described as fluid and responsive , and Ninja Gaiden was regarded as having one of the deeper combat engines among Xbox games at the time , comparing well to the PlayStation 2 action @-@ adventures God of War and Devil May Cry . Eric Williams , the designer of the God of War combat engine , explained that Ninja Gaiden prohibits players from stopping or changing attacks in mid @-@ stroke . In contrast , God of War allows players to do so , and Devil May Cry grants this freedom to certain attacks . Williams said that , compared to those two games , the combat system in Ninja Gaiden was harder to master ; however , it lets players fight their computer controlled foes on equal terms .

Ninja Gaiden features a large selection of weapons for Ryu to wield , each with advantages and disadvantages that affect the way the player approaches combat . These include one @-@ handed swords , such as the Dragon Sword and Kitetsu , which grant quick attacks , and a move called the " Flying Swallow " , which allows Ryu to leap and slash through enemies . In addition these light weapons allow Ryu to smash foes into the ground and perform his signature Izuna Drop — a spinning piledriver . Heavy weapons , such as the Dabilahro and the Unlabored Flawlessness , are slow but cause more damage to opponents . With flails and staves , the player can string together long sequences of attacks . To engage distant foes Ryu can throw shuriken and shoot arrows . In addition to using standard melee techniques , Ryu can employ essences — colored globes of energy that are released on the death of enemies and absorbed into Ryu 's body when he comes into proximity with them . Essences have an important role in general gameplay , acting to heal Ryu , restore his magic , or increase his cash . However , in combat the player can cause Ryu to deliberately draw in essences , which can then be used to unleash powerful attacks known as Ultimate Techniques that allow Ryu to damage enemies without taking damage himself . These techniques deal heavy damage and make Ryu immune to injury for a short time .

Ninja Gaiden also provides Ryu with magical spells in the form of ninpo spells . When activated by the player , these make Ryu cast fireballs , ice storms , or bolts of lightning . Functioning in a similar manner to the bombs or grenades of shooter action games , these spells allow Ryu to inflict heavy damage on enemies while potentially avoiding damage himself . But , dissatisfied with their programmed visual effects , the game 's director Tomonobu Itagaki wanted to deter players from using ninpo . He therefore tweaked the game to award bonus points when players cleared stages without employing magic . For Ryu 's defense , the player has two options . First , Ryu can stand still and attempt to block attacks . However , certain enemies can break his guard — either through particularly strong attacks or by grappling him . The second option is to make Ryu dodge , by rolling away from the attack in a maneuver called " reverse wind " .

= = Plot = =

Inspired by the 1990s Ninja Gaiden series for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) , the 2004 version was originally set in a re @-@ imagined game world based on another Team Ninja creation , the Dead or Alive ( DOA ) series of fighting games . However , interviews with Tomonobu Itagaki indicate that the Xbox games are prequels to the NES series and that both possibly share a single continuity .

Ninja Gaiden is set in the game world of the Dead or Alive series . Located mainly in Japan and the fictional Vigoor Empire , the game draws on Heian period structures for its Japanese locales — a ninja fortress and village set in the mountains . In contrast the Vigoor Empire , with its capital city of Tairon , is a blend of architectural types from around the world . European @-@ style buildings display Arabic lettering , and the monastery in Tairon exhibits Gothic influences with a vaulted hall , pointed arches , and large stained glass windows . A hidden underground level features statues with the heads of cats , walls covered with carvings , hieroglyphics , Aztec pyramid and a labyrinth . This mix of styles was the result of Itagaki 's deliberate refusal to constrain the game 's creative process .

= = = Characters = = =

Ryu Hayabusa , the " super ninja " , is the protagonist of Ninja Gaiden , and the only player @-@ controllable character in the game . Itagaki believed that creating extra player characters might distract his team from focusing on Ryu 's development . Ryu has a long history with Tecmo ; he was the star of the 1990s Ninja Gaiden series , and has been part of the DOA roster since 1996 . His roles in these games played a part in his popularity among fans and the video game industry . Ninja Gaiden provides a backstory to Ryu 's appearance and character as seen in the Dead or Alive series , being set two years before the first DOA game .

Rachel is the leading female character , and tragic heroine of the game . She and her twin sister , Alma , are afflicted with a blood curse that turns humans into fiends . Believing that there is no cure for their condition , Rachel seeks to kill Alma to redeem her sister 's soul . The relationship between the sisters and the Greater Fiend Doku , who cursed them , serves as a plot device to drive the game forward , with Rachel occasionally needing to be rescued by Ryu . Although not a player @-@ controlled character in Ninja Gaiden , in a few sections of the Ninja Gaiden Sigma remake she is controllable . Two other characters assist the player in the game . Ayane , a young female ninja and one of the DOA regular cast members , acts as a guide throughout Ninja Gaiden by supplying advice and objectives to the player . Muramasa , a bladesmith , has shops scattered throughout the game world where players can purchase useful items and upgrades for Ryu 's weapons . Muramasa also gives quests and relates back @-@ stories and other crucial information ; for example , he tells Ryu how he can obtain the item required to upgrade his Dragon Sword to its full potential . Players have the option to customize the appearance of player characters , with selectable costumes for Ryu and hairstyles for Rachel .

Most of the enemies are fiends — humans changed into monsters by their blood curse . Three Greater Fiends lead their lesser brethren against Ryu , playing major roles in the game 's plot : Alma , Rachel 's sister , whose story forms a significant part of the game ; Doku , Ryu 's main antagonist , whose raid on Hayabusa village and theft of the Dark Dragon Blade comprise the main plot thread ; and Marbus , lord of the fiend underworld who is responsible for the final set of challenges Ryu faces in the realm of the fiends before encountering the Vigoor Emperor .

= = = Story = = =

Ninja Gaiden 's story spans 16 chapters , each beginning and ending with a cutscene . At the start of the game , the player takes control of Ryu as he infiltrates the Shadow clan fortress . Ryu is there to visit his uncle , the clan leader Murai . During their chat , Ayane delivers news of a raid on the Hayabusa village . Fighting his way back to his village , Ryu encounters Doku , who has killed the Hayabusa shrine maiden Kureha and has taken the Dark Dragon Blade . Ryu is cut down by Doku with the stolen Blade , but he is brought back to life as a " soldier of revenge " by a falcon , the spiritual animal of the Hayabusa clan .

Seeking vengeance for Kureha 's death , Ryu learns from Murai that the raiders were from Vigoor , so he stows away on an airship bound for the empire . Fighting his way through the streets of its capital city , Tairon , Ryu faces several bosses including the three Greater Fiends . He defeats Alma in a battle that wrecks the city , but leaves her to Rachel 's mercy . Conversely , Rachel cannot bring herself to kill her sister , and instead is taken by Doku , who prepares to sacrifice her in a ritual to enhance Alma 's power . With Alma 's help Ryu rescues Rachel and destroys Doku 's spirit , but with his dying breath Doku casts the blood curse on Ryu . The only way for Ryu to lift the curse is to kill the emperor , so he storms the palace , defeating Marbus who bars his way to the emperor 's personal realm . Two successive boss fights must be completed to destroy the Emperor and reclaim the Dark Dragon Blade — once this is accomplished his realm starts to destruct . Ryu must then be maneuvered up a series of ledges to escape , but in the process he loses his grip on the Dark Dragon Blade .

The fallen Blade lands at the feet of a figure , the Dark Disciple , who has been shadowing Ryu throughout the game . Taking the Blade , the Disciple reveals himself to be the clan leader Murai . He admits that the raid on Hayabusa village was part of his plan to restore the Blade 's evil power , using souls harvested by Ryu . Drawing on the Blade , Murai transforms himself , setting the stage for the final boss fight . Ryu defeats Murai and shatters the Blade with the True Dragon Sword . Victorious , Ryu turns himself into a falcon and flies to the Hayabusa village . In the game 's final scene he places the Dragon Eye , used to enhance his sword , on Kureha 's tombstone and disappears into the night . The story of Ninja Gaiden is continued in the sequels Ninja Gaiden : Dragon Sword , Ninja Gaiden II and Ninja Gaiden 3 .

= = Development = =

In 1999 , Team Ninja started work on the " Next @-@ Generation Ninja Gaiden Project " . The first stage of development was to create the game on the Sega NAOMI arcade system board . They then planned to move the project to the Dreamcast console for further development and release , but this was abandoned when Sega announced the end of Dreamcast product line in 2001 . At this point , Tecmo decided to release Ninja Gaiden as a launch title for the Sony PlayStation 2 in the United States . Itagaki , however , had other plans ; the Team Ninja Leader was impressed with the software development kits for the Xbox and pushed for his team to develop for the Microsoft console . The company kept silent on this change in direction , and surprised both the games industry and fans when they announced at E3 2002 that Ninja Gaiden would be released exclusively on the Xbox gaming console . Most fans who voted on Tecmo 's poll wanted the game on the Nintendo GameCube .

Ninja Gaiden was Team Ninja 's first action title . Its initial concept had nothing in common with the original Ninja Gaiden series that was released for the NES . However , for retail reasons Tecmo wanted to retain a link with the previous games , which had many adherents in the West , so Itagaki was asked to rethink his ideas to target the foreign market . Analysing the earlier games , he concluded that their violence appealed to players , and included gory content , such as beheadings , in the Xbox game to retain that spirit . He also aimed to make his new game hard but alluring ; it would challenge players on their reflexes rather than on their memories of layouts and timings . His team made a point of designing smoothly @-@ flowing gameplay with high @-@ quality animations that reacted quickly to the player 's input . Itagaki paid homage to the earlier Ninja Gaiden series by including updated versions of foes and special attacks . Team Ninja based their 3D computer models , from the pistols of the henchman upwards , on real world material . Character models were taken from studies of human anatomy , and the team hired martial artists in order to digitally capture their movement . Rather than import the motion captures directly into the game , however , the animators used them as templates to give a sense of realism to the game characters ' exaggerated movements . Itagaki found it more interesting to design nonhuman creatures than human enemies .

= = Release = =

In 2004 , Tecmo released a demo disc of Ninja Gaiden in Japan , bundled with the February 26 issue of Famitsu Xbox magazine . The demo let players try the first chapter of the game on two difficulty settings with a few fully upgraded weapons and ninpos . On March 2 , 2004 , a year later than originally planned , Tecmo released Ninja Gaiden in the United States .

= = = Regional censorship = = =

As released , Ninja Gaiden contained bloody acts of violence , decapitations and grotesque monsters . The North American games rating body , the Entertainment Software Rating Board ( ESRB ) , rated it as a " Mature " game , which prohibits sale to anyone under the age of 17 . The depiction of beheadings , though , attracts stricter ratings in other parts of the world . In Germany , the Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle ( USK ) deemed these excessive , and refused to rate the game at all . Since this had the potential to place Ninja Gaiden in Germany 's " List of Media Harmful to Young People " , which would have meant that shops could neither advertise the game nor sell it unless by request to customers of 18 years or older , Tecmo censored the European PAL version to obtain a USK rating . A year later , Tecmo managed to obtain a USK 18 + rating for the uncensored release of Ninja Gaiden Black .

Japan 's Computer Entertainment Rating Organization ( CERO ) rated Ninja Gaiden and Black , on their release , as 18 + games . At the time , CERO ratings acted as guidelines for consumers . However , on March 1 , 2006 , the Japanese rating system changed . A scale from A to D was introduced , with an additional Z rating for games with large amounts of gore and sexual content . The Z rating is legally enforced , it being illegal to sell such games to anyone under the age of 18 . As a result , Tecmo removed the human beheadings in Sigma to obtain a D rating for the East Asian market . However , CERO reclassified the two previous games as D , despite them also depicting human decapitations .

= = = Post @-@ release = = =

Team Ninja kept working on the Ninja Gaiden project after its release , with the aim of pushing the action genre and their first such title as far as they could . To this end , they released downloadable expansions , known as Hurricane Packs , free of charge . Itagaki said that since the packs were born out of his team 's interest , they did not care to charge players for their efforts . The two packs were available over Xbox Live in the third quarter of 2004 .

Hurricane Pack 1 was a revamped version of Story Mode ; Team Ninja tweaked the encounters and artificial intelligence ( AI ) of Ryu 's foes to increase the difficulty of the game . The pack introduced additional foes such as humanoid cats , giants wearing dinosaur skulls , and cyborgs , and Team Ninja made a key change to the camera system by which the on @-@ screen action is displayed ; players could now control the camera and change its viewing angle . Another feature of the pack was to enhance the combat engine ; the new " Intercept " skill let players counter any enemy attack with the proper timing .

Hurricane Pack 2 kept the enhancements of the first , but took place in an alternative world comprising only two regions , where players have to fight through several encounters to rescue Rachel from two new bosses ( Nicchae and Ishtaros ) . This expansion introduced fiends who wield giant swords and cast fireballs .

Team Ninja later compiled both expansion packs , and added new features , to create Ninja Gaiden Black . This game , which Itagaki viewed as the final version of Ninja Gaiden , went on sale on September 20 , 2005 . A few years later , Team Ninja upgraded the graphics of the game and ported it to the PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) . This version was released as Ninja Gaiden Sigma on June 14 , 2007 . Black became an Xbox Original game on February 11 , 2008 .

= = = Online competition = = =

The Master Ninja Tournaments were a series of three online contests held by Microsoft and Tecmo in 2004 . They took place over Xbox Live , and were open to participants in Europe , Japan , and North America . Winner selection was based on the scores achieved through playing Ninja Gaiden or its Hurricane Packs . Players had 14 to 24 days to complete the required games and submit their scores to an online scoreboard .

The first two tournaments formed regional qualification stages for a live Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship , held on September 25 at the TGS 2004 . Competition for places was intense , with both tournaments breaking records for online participation in Xbox Live events . Six of the highest scoring players from Europe and North America won bokkens bearing Itagaki 's signature , and five regional winners were selected to proceed to the final . Here , the finalists simultaneously played a custom game drawn from Hurricane Pack 2 while commentators called out the action . They had 15 minutes to complete the game and post the highest score ; the winner emerged only in the last 20 seconds , when Yasunori Otsuka cleared the game and outscored his rivals . At the award ceremony , the finalists received their prize plaques from Itagaki .

The tournaments were not without controversy . Players complained about Microsoft 's tardiness in posting the official rules for the first playoff , and it was believed that the top posted score was not achievable by fair means . Officials , however , stated that the score was possible , and allowed the results to stand . In the second playoff , Microsoft initially named the runner up as the North American finalist , after disqualifying the winner for no publicly stated reason , but eventually had to send the second runner up to Tokyo when the first was unable to produce a passport in time .

Master Ninja Tournament 3 started on September 27 and lasted 26 days . Rankings were decided by scores obtained while playing Hurricane Pack 2 , and the prizes were Tecmo apparel and Team Ninja games . This marked the end of official tournaments for Ninja Gaiden , although Microsoft have retained the ranking boards for players to upload their scores .

= = = Merchandise = = =

Tecmo has built up a line of merchandise around the Ninja Gaiden name . Its online shop carries apparel and accessories such as caps , wristbands , T @-@ shirts , key holders , and mugs . Most of the merchandise is based on that associated with the various Ninja Gaiden game launches or given as prizes in the Master Ninja Tournaments . Tecmo also published the original soundtrack of the game under their record label Wake Up on March 20 , 2004 . Kotobukiya , a figurine maker , includes 1 / 6 scale plastic figurines of Ninja Gaiden characters in their range of products . As of 2007 , they have produced figures of Ryu , Ayane , Kureha and Rachel .

= = Other versions = =

Tecmo published two versions of Ninja Gaiden : Ninja Gaiden Black for Xbox and Ninja Gaiden Sigma for PS3 . Essentially the same game as the original , they tell the same story of Ryu and the Dark Dragon Blade , but include additional content and updated game mechanics . Itagaki deemed Black to be the final version of Ninja Gaiden , but with the release of the PS3 , Tecmo ported the game to this platform as Sigma .

In addition to the narrative Story Mode , Black and Sigma introduced a gameplay variation called Mission Mode . Focused on action rather than character development , this provides combat @-@ based missions set mainly in small areas , where the player 's goal is to " destroy all enemies " . In both Story and Mission modes , game scoring is based on the player 's speed in clearing encounters , the number of kills achieved , the number of unused ninpo spells remaining at the end , and the amount of cash collected . Players can compare their scores on online ranking boards .

= = = Ninja Gaiden Black = = =

Tecmo announced at E3 2005 that Team Ninja was working on Ninja Gaiden Black , and later exhibited a working version of the game at the TGS 2005 . Black is a reworked compilation of the original Ninja Gaiden and the two Hurricane Packs . The game features new foes , such as exploding bats and doppelgänger fiends who can imitate Ryu . It contains more costumes than the original , and swaps Ninja Gaiden 's unlockable NES games for an arcade version .

One key feature of this version is its two new difficulty settings — the easy Ninja Dog and the very hard Master Ninja . Itagaki added Ninja Dog after receiving complaints of Ninja Gaiden being too hard in its default incarnation , although he believed that , with persistence , any player was capable of completing the game . Hence he ensured that those players selecting Ninja Dog would be subjected to gentle mockery by the game — players on this difficulty setting receive colored ribbons as accessories , and Ayane treats Ryu as an inferior . In compensation , Itagaki made the other difficulty settings harder than in Ninja Gaiden . Another feature of Black is its Mission Mode , which comprises 50 combat missions , one of which is adapted from the custom game designed for the Ninja Gaiden Master Tournament World Championship final . The last five missions are based on those in Hurricane Pack 2 and form a linked series known as " Eternal Legend " . While most of the improvements made in the Hurricane Packs carried forward through this game , including the camera system tweaks and new boss battles , the Intercept maneuver , introduced in Hurricane Pack 1 , was not included in Black , adding to its increased challenge .

= = = Ninja Gaiden Sigma = = =

In 2006 , Tecmo and Sony announced the development of Ninja Gaiden Sigma for the PS3 . Eidos obtained the European publishing rights for this game . Itagaki had no direct role in Sigma and judged it a flawed game , although he acknowledged that Sigma gave PlayStation owners a taste of Ninja Gaiden . A version for PlayStation Vita , titled Ninja Gaiden Sigma Plus , was released in North America and Europe on February 22 , 2012 .

= = Reception = =

Ninja Gaiden was released to much critical acclaim . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot called it " one of the best most challenging action adventure games ever made " , and IGN 's Erik Brudvig said that it " sets a new standard for third @-@ person action games in terms of length , depth , speed , and gore . " Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) called it " an unmissable instant classic " , and declared that " no Xbox should go without [ Ninja ] Gaiden . " Critics also regarded it to be one of the most difficult games released prior to 2007 .

Its enhanced version , Ninja Gaiden Black , also impressed reviewers . GameSpot noted that it had the best visual and audio presentation on the Xbox , and praised its new Mission Mode for " [ distilling ] the game down to its purest essentials . " IGN called its release " a rare and welcome day " , which brought their " excitement levels back to the first time [ they ] played the game . "

From a technical point of view , critics regarded Ninja Gaiden and Black as the best of the available Xbox software at the time ; the console hardware had been pushed to its limits without showing significant drops in performance . GameSpot 's Kasavin was impressed with their " first @-@ rate presentation " and said that no other games at that time came close in visuals and audio . According to IGN , the games could " make [ them ] momentarily forget about the next generation of consoles " . Both Ninja Gaiden and Black were top @-@ sellers , which led to them being compatible with the Xbox 360 for all regions on the new platform 's release . Ninja Gaiden attracted criticism for the way on @-@ screen action is framed by the game 's camera . The default camera system centers the action on Ryu and his surroundings , but reviewers were frustrated by occasions when the camera locked on to part of the scenery , thus losing track of Ryu . Tecmo attempted to address this with the introduction of manual camera controls in the Hurricane Packs , and most critics judged that either the camera frame was usually acceptable , or that Ninja Gaiden was a good enough game that its flaws could be overlooked .

Consumers purchased 1 @.@ 5 million copies of Ninja Gaiden and Black to August 2007 , with the bulk of these sales going to North America and Europe . According to the NPD Group , in its first month Ninja Gaiden sold 362 @,@ 441 copies in the United States . These sales figures reflect Tecmo 's decision to target the non @-@ Japanese market . Japanese gamers were not particularly excited — according to Itagaki , only 60 @,@ 000 copies of Ninja Gaiden were sold in Japan in the four months following its release . The critical and commercial successes of Ninja Gaiden have led CNET and GameSpot Asia to induct the game into their halls of fame .

The Ninja Gaiden games gained a reputation throughout the gaming community for their difficulty and attention to detail . Although they appealed to gamers who , like Pro @-@ G 's Struan Robertson , wanted a " bloody hard , but also bloody good " challenge , it was feared that casual gamers would find the learning curve daunting . IGN warned that gamers with lesser skills might not " get as much out of this game as others due to [ its ] incredible difficulty " , and Edge commented that " Tecmo ’ s refusal to extend any kind of handhold to less dedicated players is simply a failure of design , not a badge of hardcore honour " and " it ’ s impossible to believe they couldn ’ t have found a way to increase the accessibility of the game without undermining the gloriously intractable nature of the challenges it contains . " EGM found the challenge to be " rewarding " as it " motivates you to actually get better at the game . " Clive Thompson focused on Ninja Gaiden in his Slate article examining the motivation for playing difficult games . He contends that extreme levels of challenge can be initially very frustrating and may cause a game to be abandoned in disgust . However , where a game also rewards a player 's perseverance by teaching the skills required to overcome its challenges , that player will have the motivation to finish the game . Ninja Gaiden , in his opinion , strikes the correct balance between challenge and reward ; completion brings " a sort of exhausted exhilaration , like finally reaching the end of War and Peace . " In 2012 , CraveOnline included it on their list of five " badass ninja games " , calling it " the pinnacle of action gaming at the time , holding onto that crown for an entire year until God of War released in 2005 " and " a true video game classic , and maybe the best ninja game of all time . " That same year , G4tv ranked it as the 83rd top video game of all time , also calling it " the best ninja game ever made and one of the all around hardest . "

= Milutin Bojić =

Milutin Bojić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Милутин Бојић ; 18 May [ O.S. 7 May ] 1892 – 8 November [ O.S. 25 October ] 1917 ) was a Serbian poet , theatre critic , playwright , and soldier .

A native of Belgrade , he began writing poetry at an early age and published a number of literary reviews under a pseudonym while he was still a teenager . He rose to prominence during the Balkan Wars , writing about his experiences in territories newly retaken from the Ottoman Empire . The outbreak of World War I interrupted Bojić 's studies at the University of Belgrade and forced him to postpone marrying his girlfriend , Radmila Todorović . The couple were separated in the chaos of war , and Bojić left Belgrade with his family and relocated to Niš , where he worked as a military censor and wrote articles for a local newspaper to pay his family 's bills . In October 1915 , the Serbian Army was overwhelmed by a combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , Bulgarian and German invasion and forced to retreat to neutral Greece via Albania . Bojić and his younger brother joined the exodus , marching for several weeks through Kosovo , Montenegro and northern Albania , where they were finally reunited with Bojić 's fiancée . Bojić was not allowed to accompany his brother and fiancée on a ship destined for Italy because he was of fighting age , and had to continue marching to Greece without them .

In early 1916 , Bojić reached the Greek island of Corfu , where he was recruited to work for Serbian military intelligence . That summer , he was transferred to Thessaloniki , where he continued working for the military . In August , he was granted leave and sailed to France , where he reunited with his fiancée and his brother . Bojić returned to Greece several weeks later , and was diagnosed with tuberculosis in September the following year . Owing to the political connections of his patrons , he managed to find care at an exclusive military hospital in Thessaloniki , but by late October his condition worsened . He died in early November at the age of 25 . He was initially buried at the Allied military cemetery at Zeitenlik , but in 1922 , his siblings had his remains relocated to Belgrade , where they were reburied beside those of his parents .

Bojić 's popularity grew exponentially following his death . Many of his poems received widespread critical acclaim for their portrayal of the Serbian Army 's retreat during the winter of 1915 – 16 and its stay on Corfu , where thousands of soldiers succumbed to disease and exhaustion and were buried at sea . Bojić 's work remained popular in Yugoslavia for much of the 20th century , cementing his reputation as one of the greatest Serbian poets of the Romantic period .

= = Life and career = =

= = = Family = = =

Milutin Bojić was born in Belgrade on 18 May [ O.S. 7 May ] 1892 , the eldest child of Jovan and Sofia Bojić ( née Bogojević ) . His father 's family was originally from Herzegovina . Following the First Serbian Uprising , Bojić 's great @-@ grandfather fled his ancestral homeland and settled in the Austro @-@ Hungarian city of Semlin ( modern Zemun ) to escape Ottoman persecution . Bojić 's father and grandfather were born in Semlin , and were good @-@ standing members of the town 's fledgling Serb community . In 1875 , Bojić 's father was conscripted into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . Shortly afterwards , he entered into an argument with a high @-@ ranking Hungarian officer , insulted him , then fled to the Serbian capital to escape punishment . He attended trade school in Belgrade and became a successful shoemaker .

Bojić 's matrilineal line traces its origins to the town of Tetovo , in what is now northern Macedonia . His mother 's family had fled the town in 1690 as part of the Great Serb Migration and settled in Bečkerek ( modern Zrenjanin ) . Bojić 's maternal grandfather , Jovan , had lived in the border town of Pančevo since he was a child , married and started a family there . Much like Bojić 's father , he was a successful shoemaker , and in 1890 he offered to marry his only daughter to him . After initial disagreement over the price of the dowry , Bogojević gave the marriage his blessing and Bojić 's parents were soon married .

At the time of Bojić 's birth , his parents were living in a small flat at No. 4 Sremska Street , situated just above his father 's shop in Belgrade 's Stari Grad . Over the next decade , they had four more children – Jelica ( b . 1894 ) , Danica ( b . 1896 ) , Radivoje ( b . 1900 ) and Dragoljub ( b . 1905 ) . All of their children survived to adulthood . When Bojić was a child , he and his family were frequently visited by his mother 's cousin Jovan Sremac , the brother of humourist Stevan Sremac . Jovan is said to have greatly influenced the young Bojić , having introduced him to Serbian folk tales and medieval legends at an early age .

= = = Education and first publications = = =

Bojić began attending the Terazije Elementary School in 1898 , and finished with excellent grades . He likely began writing poetry between the ages of eight and ten , and this caught the attention of some of his teachers . Jovan Dravić , who taught Serbian in Bojić 's school , wrote : " One of my pupils has been writing poetry since his first year of elementary school . His father , a shoemaker on Sremska Street , is very proud of his son 's work . He keeps his poems locked away in a safe as great treasures , convinced that they are of immense value and proof of his son 's brilliant future . "

In 1902 , the Bojićes moved into a small house on Hilandarska Street . That autumn , Bojić enrolled into Belgrade 's Secondary School No. 2 , which taught children from the ages of ten to eighteen . Over the next several years , Bojić distinguished himself as an excellent student . In 1907 , he was recognized as the best student in his school , and was exempt from final examinations . By this time , Bojić 's poems started appearing in his school 's periodical . He also began writing literary reviews for Jovan Skerlić and Milan Grol 's Daily News ( Dnevni list ) , and became the paper 's youngest contributor . All of Bojić 's contributions there were written under a pseudonym because he feared he would not be taken seriously if his true age was uncovered . Bojić also authored articles in the newspapers Artwork ( Delo ) , Wreath ( Venac ) and The Serbian Literary Gazette ( Srpski književni glasnik ) . In 1908 , during the Austro @-@ Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bojić penned his first stage play , titled " The Blind Despot " ( Slepi despot ) . It was meant to be the first play of a trilogy titled " The Despot 's Crown " ( Despotova kruna ) . Bojić shared the play with his friend Radoslav Vesnić , who then showed it to Rista Odović , the director of the National Theatre in Belgrade .

By the end of his secondary school studies , Bojić was elected chairman of his school 's literary club . Upon turning eighteen , in May 1910 , he was deemed unfit to serve in the Serbian Army and excused from mandatory service . After graduation , in the autumn of 1910 , he enrolled in the University of Belgrade 's Faculty of Philosophy , where he studied the works of Immanuel Kant , as well as German , Italian and South Slavic literature with varying rates of success . Shortly after entering the university , Bojić began contributing theatrical reviews to Pijemont , an ultra @-@ nationalist daily strongly opposed to the Prime Minister of Serbia , Nikola Pašić , and his People 's Radical Party ( Serbian : Narodna radikalna stranka ; NRS ) . Pijemont was also the quasi @-@ official paper of the secret organization Unification or Death ( better known as the Black Hand ) , which played an important role in Serbian political life between 1903 and 1914 .

Milutin K. Dragutinović was one of Bojić 's greatest influences during his teenage years . Dragutinović was one of Bojić 's former secondary school teachers , as well as a literary critic and member of the National Theatre 's artistic committee . He advised Bojić to continue writing poetry and dramatic verse . In 1911 , Bojić shared the first draft of a stage play titled " Chains " ( Lanci ) with Dragutinović , who encouraged him to submit it to a competition held by the Literary Committee of the National Theatre in Belgrade . Bojić 's play was one of forty @-@ two works that were submitted . A number of prominent writers took part in the competition , including Ivo Vojnović , Branislav Nušić , Aleksa Šantić , and Svetozar Ćorović . " Chains " was rejected as being too " naïve " and " full of youthful exaggerations " , and the prize went to another contestant . In May , Bojić 's father died suddenly of a heart attack , aged 56 .

= = = Rise to prominence and coverage of the Balkan Wars = = =

Despite his busy schedule , during his university years Bojić spent many of his nights in cafés and bars , mingling with other artists in Skadarlija , Belgrade 's Bohemian quarter . He was extremely popular among the writers and artists of his generation .

During this time , many of Belgrade 's merchant elite became art patrons . Bojić 's patrons were Ljuba Jovanović @-@ Patak and his wife Simka , who used their power and influence to publicize his works . During the Balkan Wars , Bojić accompanied the Serbian Army as a war reporter and wrote several travelogues about his experiences in Kosovo and Macedonia . The expulsion of the Turks , who had occupied much of the Balkans for 500 years , seemed to fill Bojić with optimism about the future . Helena Malířová , a Czech volunteer nurse with the 17th Reserve Hospital of the Serbian Army 's 7th Regiment , recalled : " His spirit was in constant opposition to everything ; at the same time he was an enthusiast . He was bursting with desires , and he drank the sap of life through his senses . " Historian Mihailo Đorđević writes :

[ Bojić ] was an impulsive young man . From rare photographs and the testimony of his contemporaries emerges [ ... ] a figure of medium stature , with slightly drooped shoulders , thick brown hair , and a pale oval face . His eyebrows were dark , and one of them was almost always raised , giving his face an expression of intense irony . His eyes burned with constant passion , and his lips were full and sensuous . There was also something young and vulnerable in his smile . He smiled often , and his conversation was reputed to be brilliant .

As the wars raged , Bojić wrote a historical drama titled " The King 's Autumn " ( Kraljeva jesen ) , which received considerable praise from Skerlić . The drama premiered at the National Theatre in October 1913 . Another one of Bojić 's works , " Ms. Olga " ( Gospođa Olga ) premiered soon after . In early 1914 , publishing magnate Svetislav Cvijanović printed Bojić 's first poetry collection , consisting of 48 works .

= = = Outbreak of World War I and retreat to Corfu = = =

At the outbreak of World War I , Bojić was in his final year at the University of Belgrade and had gotten engaged to his girlfriend , Radmila Todorović . The war put a stop to his education , and Bojić decided to postpone the marriage until peace was restored . He remained employed at Pijemont until 1915 , when he left Belgrade with his family , never to return . While Todorović remained in the city , the Bojićes moved to the town of Aranđelovac in the Serbian interior . Shortly after , they moved to Niš as it was further from the frontlines . There , Bojić worked as a military censor . He wrote articles for the Niš Gazette ( Niški glasnik ) to pay his family 's bills . In early February 1915 , Bojić 's mother died of cancer , leaving him to take care of his younger siblings .

Bojić devoted most of his creative energy to the completion of an epic poem titled Cain , which was published just before the combined Austro @-@ Hungarian , Bulgarian and German invasion of Serbia in October 1915 . A deeply patriotic work , Cain compares Bulgaria 's impending attack on Serbia to the Biblical story of Cain jealously murdering his brother Abel . Upon capturing Niš , the Bulgarians burned every copy of the poem , and the only one that survived was the one that Bojić carried with him out of the city . Upon leaving Niš , Bojić and his brother Radivoje joined the Serbian Army in its retreat to the Adriatic coast . Their sisters and infant brother went to live with a cousin in occupied Kraljevo . The Bojić brothers ' journey took them through Kuršumlija , Mitrovica , Pristina , Prizren , Đakovica , Dečani and Peć , from where they continued to Andrijevica and Podgorica . The two intended to join retreating Montenegrin Army columns and head on to Scutari , where they hoped that Allied ships would evacuate them and other Serbian troops to Italy .

The Serbs quickly realized that they had no hope of being evacuated at Scutari due to the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval presence off the northern Albanian coast , and the Serbian and Montenegrin military leaderships elected to retreat further into the Albanian interior rather than surrender . The Serbs and Montenegrins marched south , first to Durrës and then to Vlorë . From there , they intended to meet up with a French expeditionary force that was to evacuate them to the Greek island of Corfu . Thousands of soldiers either died of hunger or succumbed to the cold . Many were ambushed by hostile Albanian tribesmen and killed while traversing the countryside . While marching through the wilderness , Bojić began writing a poetry anthology titled " Songs of Pride and Suffering " ( Pesme bola i ponosa ) , which would comprise some of his best known works . He also started working on a new drama in verse titled " The Marriage of Uroš " ( Uroševa ženidba ) .

Stojan Živadinović , a friend who accompanied Bojić on the difficult journey , recalled :

He was dressed in a strange way . A šajkača was pulled to the front of his head and almost completely covered his forehead . His eyebrows were hardly visible . Under its weight , the ears seemed to have collapsed . He wore a kind of long , black coat , covered in mud and held in place by a string . He used another piece of string for a belt , and from it hung a pot for boiling water , a tea strainer , a canteen , and other useful things . He walked slightly bent forward , followed everywhere by the noise of the things clashing at his waist .

The occupation of Serbia by the Central Powers pained Bojić far more than the everyday struggles of the exodus itself . He is said to have slept very little , telling Živadinović : " You don 't realize what you are missing by sleeping . In circumstances like these , the entire soul must be kept constantly awake . Whole centuries have never painted such a vast fresco . Never has death been so greedy , nor heroes so indifferent to it . " In December 1915 , Bojić reached Shëngjin with the others and reunited with his fiancée . Živadinović recalled : " I shall never forget the day that we saw the sea . Only then did Bojić begin to speak about the future . He was making plans for a vast novel in verse , for comedies , dramas , tragedies , all intended to bring the great events of our history back to life . " Upon reaching the coast , Bojić was told that he could not board the ship to Italy because he was of fighting age . His fiancée was allowed to board and his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old brother was judged to be too young for military service and granted passage as well . Unable to go with them , Bojić and his companions continued down the length of the Albanian coast until they reached Corfu , where the Allies had sent ships to transport the remnants of the Serbian Army to the Greek mainland .

Upon reaching Corfu , thousands of Serb troops began showing symptoms of typhus and had to be quarantined on the island of Vido , where 11 @,@ 000 died over the span of two months . Seven thousand of these had to be buried at sea because there was not enough space for their remains to be interred on land ; corpses were simply piled onto barges and tossed overboard . Bojić was appalled by the suffering . " Our church bells toll dead instead of hours , " he wrote . Witnessing the disposal of bodies inspired Bojić to write the poem " Ode to a Blue Sea Tomb " ( Plava Grobnica ) , which Đorđević describes as " Bojić 's best ... a masterpiece of Serbian patriotic poetry . " Shortly after arriving at Corfu , Bojić was recruited to work for Serbian military intelligence . In mid @-@ 1916 , he was transferred to Thessaloniki .

= = = Last years and death = = =

Upon reaching Thessaloniki , Bojić spent much of his spare time reading the works of French authors and writing poetry . In August 1916 , he received a month 's leave and sailed for France , where his fiancée and brother had gone to escape from the war , shortly after landing in Italy . Bojić spent the month with his fiancée in Nice . Upon returning to Greece , Bojić resumed his army service , and continued writing poetry . " Songs of Pride and Suffering " was first published in Thessaloniki in mid @-@ 1917 . Nearly every copy of the anthology was destroyed in the Great Fire of Thessaloniki , in August 1917 . The only copy that survived was one sent by Bojić to his fiancée in France and this became the basis for the post @-@ war edition .

In September 1917 , Bojić was diagnosed with tuberculosis . Owing to the influence of his old patron , Ljuba Jovanović @-@ Patak , he was admitted to a military hospital in central Thessaloniki which tended exclusively to Serbian Army officers , where Jovanović 's wife often visited him . Bojić continued writing poetry , and as his condition deteriorated , his poems began to take a melancholy tone . Nevertheless , he remained optimistic that he would recover from his illness and see his family again . One month before his death , he sent his fiancée and brother a telegram assuring them that he was " ... only slightly ill " and promised they would be reunited . Bojić died of tuberculosis on 8 November [ O.S. 25 October ] 1917 . Even a few hours before his death , he appeared convinced of his survival . According to a fellow patient , Bojić " ... died choking in half @-@ sleep from a fit of coughing that destroyed the tissues of his lungs . " He was buried at the Zeitenlik military cemetery in Thessaloniki . His family was shocked by the news of his death , particularly his brother and fiancée , who believed him to be on the road to recovery . In 1922 , Bojić 's remains were exhumed and transferred to Belgrade 's New Cemetery , where they were reburied beside those of his parents .

All of Bojić 's siblings survived the war ; his brother Radivoje became a diplomat and worked in the Yugoslav Ministry of Foreign Affairs until the Axis invasion of the country in April 1941 , when he left Yugoslavia with his family and emigrated to the West . Bojić 's youngest brother , Dragoljub , spent the rest of his life in Belgrade and became a high school geography teacher . His sister Jelica married and lived in Belgrade until her death in 1942 . His youngest sister , Danica , died single in 1952 . Bojić 's fiancée Radmila remained loyal to him and never married after his death ; she returned to Serbia after the war and died in Belgrade in 1971 .

= = Influences , themes and legacy = =

While at the University of Belgrade , Bojić studied The Bible in his free time and read the works of Victor Hugo , Friedrich Nietzsche , Charles Baudelaire , Leo Tolstoy , Anton Chekhov and Sigmund Freud , among others . Đorđević notes that Bojić 's early poems reflect the degree to which he was influenced by the " exalted sensuality " of Baudelaire 's works . He contends that Baudelaire 's influence on Bojić 's early work is " rather unfortunate " , as by striving to imitate Baudelaire 's style , Bojić failed to achieve originality and instead merely used Baudelaire as a " crutch in the absence of spontaneous emotion " .

As he matured , Bojić was influenced by the works of Irish writer Oscar Wilde , particularly the play Salome , which was being performed at the National Theatre in Belgrade during Bojić 's university years . The play influenced Bojić to such an extent that he later composed a poem of the same name . According to Đorđević , Bojić was " thrilled by the beauty of Wilde 's descriptions " , and reading his work inspired Bojić to use Biblical rhythm and accentuation . Đorđević notes that the archaic phrase " thou art " only appears in Bojić 's poems after he began reading Wilde . Wilde 's influence can also be observed in Bojić 's lyric plays , especially " The King 's Autumn " . Bojić was also inspired by French playwright Edmond Rostand , whose play L 'Aiglon was Bojić 's " dramatic ideal incarnate " . Rostand 's influence is most clearly felt in " The Marriage of Uroš " , where Bojić paid homage to Rostand by writing the entire drama in verse , a style that was considered obsolete at the time . Serbian history and medieval legends had the greatest influence on Bojić 's plays ; Đorđević notes that " all Bojić 's dramas , published or not , are inspired by Serbian medieval motifs " .

The Balkan Wars inspired Bojić to write his first patriotic poetry , where he attempted to emulate Hugo 's rhetorical verse . By 1914 , much of Bojić 's poetry revolved around patriotic themes , and by 1917 this theme had overtaken all others . In his last months , the only non @-@ patriotic poems that Bojić wrote were about the love he felt towards his fiancée . The historian John K. Cox opines that Bojić 's " personal suffering ... [ embodied ] Serbian history at the crossroads of greatness and disaster . "

Cox considers Bojić the most famous of the many Serbian artists and writers who perished during World War I. Đorđević contends that Bojić achieved more during his short career than a number of other writers and poets who led far longer lives . He writes that Bojić 's influence on Serbian literature would have been even greater had he survived the war , and praises him as " one of the great poets of the 20th century " .

In May 2014 , the inaugural Milutin Bojić Prize was awarded to a student from Čačak by the Milutin Bojić Library , a Belgrade @-@ based learning institution dedicated exclusively to studies on Bojić 's life and work . The Library is funded by the Serbian Ministry of Culture , and operates an extensive online database known as the Milutin Bojić Virtual Library . In August 2014 , researchers discovered the original manuscript of " Ode to a Blue Sea Tomb " in the Library 's archives . The yellowed slip of paper was immediately given to experts at the National Library of Serbia , who went about restoring it so as to prevent further decay .

= = = Endnotes = = =

= The Target ( The Office ) =

" The Target " is the eighth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 184th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on November 29 , 2012 . It features guest star Chris Gethard as Trevor .

The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) goes to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) for help when she learns that her husband is having an affair . Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) take advantage of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) when he needs a favor , and Pete ( Jake Lacy ) distracts Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) as she begins painting her mural .

" The Target " received positive reviews from critics , with many commenting on Nunez and Kinsey 's performances . The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 88 million viewers and received 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking fourth in its timeslot . The episode , however , ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .

= = Plot = =

Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) believes that Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) does not know about his affair with her husband , but in fact she is playing dumb in order to keep Oscar off his guard while she makes arrangements to have him killed . She goes to Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) for help , without telling him the details , and he calls a fellow former volunteer sheriff 's deputy named Trevor ( Chris Gethard ) for assistance . After Trevor shows his credentials , Angela says she wants the target murdered , which Dwight protests is too extreme , so they compromise to breaking the target 's kneecaps . Dwight realizes the target is Oscar when Angela angrily crushes a cookie given to her by Oscar . Dwight tries to get Angela to reconsider , but Trevor has already arrived to carry out the job . Dwight rushes to get Oscar out . They run into Trevor outside . A struggle between the three men ensues , with Oscar ultimately managing to take away Trevor 's lead pipe . When Trevor runs away , Oscar and Dwight are confronted by Angela , who blames Oscar for turning her husband gay . Oscar says that he was always gay , and refuses to hand the lead pipe over to Angela . She kicks him in the shin instead . Upset that they don 't understand homosexuality , Dwight and Angela go to Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) , who is confounded by their outlandish questions over homosexual activity .

Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) asks Dunder Mifflin CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) if he can work part @-@ time so he can go to Philadelphia to help with his sports marketing job . David Wallace says that he might be needed in the office if there 's a crisis with one of his clients , to which he responds that Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) and Phyllis Vance ( Phyllis Smith ) have agreed to cover for him , though he in fact hasn 't asked them yet . Stanley and Phyllis respond with their usual disinterest in helping others , so Jim offers to treat them to lunch . Stanley and Phyllis order extra side dishes and help themselves to an excess of wine , annoying Jim with drunken behavior and silencing him whenever he brings up the subject of their covering for him . When they arrive back at the office , a drunk Stanley and Phyllis are seemingly passed out in Jim 's backseat . When Jim puts his coat on them to keep them warm , Phyllis and Stanley say they will cover for him as they care for Jim and his family , laughing as they reveal they were only pranking him . Jim gives both of them a hug .

Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) decides to start painting her mural in the warehouse , but has a hard time getting started as she is afraid of it not being perfect . Meanwhile , bored with having to fill out customer complaint cards ( which he finds redundant because the complaints are already in the computer ) , Pete ( Jake Lacy ) uses them to build a card tower in the annex with other employees . The card tower takes on a deeper meaning for the employees when Pete points out that it is composed of failures made by every one of them ( excepting only Pam ) , and thus proves that they should not be ashamed of their failures . They decide to try to make it go all the way to the ceiling , but end up one complaint card short . Not wanting to use a blank card as it would defy the point of the tower , Pam offers to complete the tower by getting her first customer complaint . She calls one of their smaller clients , delivers a yo mama joke , and hangs up . The client , whose mother was actually obese and is now deceased , drops Dunder Mifflin as their paper supplier , leaving them simultaneously excited over getting that last complaint and disappointed over losing a client . After celebrating the completion of the card tower , Pam finally starts painting the mural , saying artists should not care too much in what others think , further asserting this by telling off Hide ( Hidetoshi Imura ) when he insults her artwork .

= = Production = =

" The Target " was written by producer Graham Wagner , marking his debut writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the ninth season . It was directed by executive producer Brent Forrester , his fourth directing credit for the series and first since the eighth season episode , " Test the Store " . Ed Helms and Clark Duke did not appear in the episode . This is due to the fact that they were both written out of several episodes of the season in order to film The Hangover Part III and Kick @-@ Ass 2 , respectively .

The official website of The Office included several cut scenes from " The Target " within a week of the episode 's release . In the first 58 @-@ second clip , Pam feels further pressure over her mural and reveals that several of the warehouse workers think her name is Pat . In the second 60 @-@ second clip , The Senator comes by the office , Jim pretends to beg to Stanley and Phyllis while they are sleeping , and Pam talks more about her mural . In the third 66 @-@ second clip , Angela checks out Trevor 's qualifications .

= = Cultural references = =

Dwight assures Angela that she is not stupid , rather " Jazz is stupid . " Angela concurs , saying : " Just play the right notes ! " " The Target " features several meta @-@ references and references to previous episodes . Dwight tells Angela and Trevor that " this documentary crew has been following our every move for the past nine years but I don 't see them so I think we 're good " , when they are in Trevor 's van . Angela and Dwight question Toby about the tendencies of homosexuals in a way similar to how Dwight questions Toby about the appearance of female genitalia in the second season episode " Sexual Harassment " . While working on her mural , Pam is seen wearing a Pratt Institute hoodie , which she attended for three months during the fifth season . Angela tells Dwight to meet up in the " usual place " , which Dwight shows up to nude , referencing their previous secretive relationship .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" The Target " originally aired on NBC on November 29 , 2012 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 88 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This made " The Target " the lowest rated episode of the series , tying with " Here Comes Treble " . The episode also ranks as the least @-@ viewed episode of the series and the first one to fall below the 4 @-@ million viewer mark . Despite this , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program . When DVR ratings were taken into account , the episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 047 million viewers , a 56 percent increase .

= = = Reviews = = =

" The Target " received mostly positive reviews from critics , with many praising the performances of Oscar Nunez and Angela Kinsey . The A.V. Club reviewer Erik Adams wrote that the episode was a perfect mix , between the more subtle , realistic style of the early seasons , and the more @-@ farcical style of the most recent seasons . He named the Oscar @-@ Angela plotline a " season highlight " , and complimented Angela Kinsey 's commitment to Angela throughout the plotline . He also praised the other storylines of the episode for showing the family @-@ like bond between the whole ensemble . He ultimately gave the episode an " A – " . Cindy White of IGN commented that the episode proved the series did not need a character in the role of the boss . She complimented the confrontation between Oscar and Angela and the Pam subplot for marking some " development " in her character , but criticized the Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplot for being " over the top " . She ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 / 10 . Paste writer Bonnie Stiernberg called the episode " strong " , and compared it to the older episodes . She praised the Oscar @-@ Angela plotline , calling it Oscar Nunez and Kinsey 's best performance of the year . She also complimented the Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplot , calling the ending to it sweet , and the Pam @-@ Pete @-@ Erin subplot , calling it " more complex @-@ but no less enjoyable " and praised the development of Pam 's character , considering it to be " touching " . Stiernberg ultimately gave the episode an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 .

Michael Tedder of New York praised the writers work and for giving " nice character moments " to the cast , particularly Kinsey . He also praised them for giving Kinsey " more to work with " , comparing her role in previous episodes which featured her character being " exaggerated to cartoon levels for the sake of a laugh " . ScreenCrush reviewer Damon Houx was slightly more critical with his review , writing that while the cast was quite good , the episode was too struggled with " find [ ing ] stuff for everyone to do " , and that the Pete @-@ Erin @-@ Pam and Jim @-@ Stanley @-@ Phyllis subplots " ultimately have nowhere interesting to go " . Multiple critics noted similarities between the style of this episode with the early seasons of the series , particularly for its use of callbacks .

= Royal Question =

The Royal Question ( French : Question royale , Dutch : Koningskwestie ) was a major political crisis in Belgium that lasted from 1945 to 1951 , coming to a head between March and August 1950 . The " Question " at stake surrounded whether King Leopold III could resume his royal powers and duties as King of the Belgians amid allegations that his actions during World War II had gone contrary to the provisions of the Belgian Constitution . It was eventually resolved by the abdication of Leopold in favour of his son , Baudouin , in 1951 .

The crisis emerged from the division between Leopold and his government , led by Hubert Pierlot , during the German invasion of 1940 . Leopold , who was suspected of authoritarian sympathies , had taken over command of the Belgian Army at the outbreak of war . Considering his constitutional position as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief to take precedence over his civil role as head of state , he refused to leave his army and join the Belgian government in exile in France . Leopold 's refusal to obey the Government marked a constitutional crisis and , after having negotiated the surrender to the Germans on 28 May , Leopold was widely condemned . During the subsequent German occupation , Leopold was held under house arrest in his palace where he was praised for stoically sharing the suffering of ordinary Belgians . Shortly before the Allies liberated the country in 1944 , he was deported to Germany by the Nazis .

With Belgium liberated but the King still in captivity , a regency was proclaimed and Leopold 's brother , Prince Charles , Count of Flanders , was elected as prince regent . The King was declared officially " unable to rule " in accordance with the Constitution . With the country divided along political lines over whether the King could ever return to his functions , and with the left wing dominant politically , Leopold went into exile in Switzerland . In 1950 , a national referendum was organised by a new centre @-@ right government to decide on whether Leopold could return . Although the result was a victory for the Leopoldists , it produced a strong regional split between Flanders , which was broadly in favour of the King 's return , and Brussels and Wallonia which generally opposed it . Leopold 's return to Belgium in July 1950 was greeted with widespread protests in Wallonia and a general strike . The unrest culminated in the killing of four workers by police on 31 July . With the situation fast deteriorating , on 1 August 1950 Leopold announced his intention to resign . After a transition period , he formally abdicated in favour of Baudouin in July 1951 .

= = Background = =

= = = Monarchy and the Constitution = = =

Belgium gained its independence from the United Netherlands in 1830 and was established as a popular and constitutional monarchy under a bicameral parliamentary democracy . A liberal Constitution was written in 1831 which codified the responsibilities and restrictions imposed on the monarch . Although the King , as head of state , was prevented from acting without the approval of a government minister , he was allowed full control of military matters in his capacity as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . Which responsibility would take precedence if they became incompatible was left ambiguous and this uncertainty would lie at the heart of the Royal Question . The first king , King Leopold I , accepted the terms of the Constitution but attempted to use its ambiguities to subtly increase his own powers . This was continued by his successors , although with little real success .

= = = King Leopold III = = =

King Leopold III came to the throne in 1934 after his father , Albert I , died in a mountaineering accident . Albert , known as the " Knight King " ( roi @-@ chevalier or koning @-@ ridder ) , had been hugely popular in Belgium after commanding the Belgian army during World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) while much of the country was under German occupation . Leopold 's reign was marked by economic crisis in the wake of the Great Depression , and political agitation by both far @-@ left and far @-@ right parties . Amid this period of crisis , Leopold attempted to expand the powers of the monarch . He was widely suspected of holding authoritarian and right @-@ wing political views . From 1936 , Leopold was a strong supporter of Belgium 's " independence policy " of political neutrality in the face of Nazi Germany 's increasingly aggressive territorial expansion .

= = German invasion and occupation , 1940 – 44 = =

On 10 May 1940 , German forces invaded neutral Belgium without a formal declaration of war . Leopold headed immediately to Fort Breendonk , the headquarters of the Belgian army near Mechelen , to take control of the army . He refused to address the Belgian parliament beforehand , as Albert I had famously done at the outbreak of World War I. The speed of the German advance , using the new Blitzkrieg approach , soon pushed the Belgian army westwards despite British and French support . On 16 May , the Belgian government left Brussels .

= = = Break between King and Government = = =

Soon after the outbreak of war , the King and Government began to disagree . While the Government argued that the German invasion had violated Belgian neutrality and made Belgium one of the Allies , Leopold argued that Belgium was still a neutral country and had no obligations beyond defending its borders . Leopold opposed allowing British and French forces into Belgian territory to fight alongside Belgian troops , as a breach of its neutrality .

On 25 May 1940 , Leopold met senior representatives of his Government for a final time at the Kasteel van Wijnendale in West Flanders . The meeting is frequently cited as the start of the Royal Question and the moment of the decisive break between King and Government . Four ministers of the Government were present : Hubert Pierlot , Paul @-@ Henri Spaak , Henri Denis and Arthur Vanderpoorten . By the time of the meeting , against the backdrop of the bloody Battle of the Lys , the Belgian government was preparing to continue the fight against Germany from exile in France . They urged the King to join them , following the examples of Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and Charlotte , Grand Duchess of Luxembourg . The King rejected their arguments and hardened his own position . He refused to leave Belgian territory and his army in Flanders at any cost . The ministers suspected that Leopold 's aides were already negotiating with the Germans . The meeting broke up with no agreement and the Belgian Government left for France .

Leopold negotiated a cease @-@ fire with the Germans on 27 May 1940 , and the Belgian armed forces officially surrendered the following day . Leopold became a prisoner of war and was placed under house arrest at the Royal Palace of Laeken , near Brussels . Furious that the King had both ignored the government and negotiated a surrender without consulting them , Pierlot gave an angry speech on Radio Paris , condemning the King and announcing the Government 's intention to continue fighting alongside the Allies . French politicians , notably Paul Reynaud , blamed Leopold for the growing disaster of the Battle of France and angrily condemned him as a " criminal king " ( roi @-@ félon ) .

= = = Leopold during the German occupation = = =

With the Belgian surrender on 28 May 1940 , Belgium was placed under German occupation and a military administration was established under General Alexander von Falkenhausen to govern the country . Belgian civil servants were ordered to remain at their posts in order to ensure the continued functioning of the state and to attempt to protect the population from the demands of the German authorities .

With France 's defeat and the installation of the pro @-@ German Vichy regime , it was widely believed that Germany was about to win the war . Leopold was hailed as a " martyr " or a symbol of national resilience , in contrast to a Government that appeared to place its ideology above the interests of the Belgian people . On 31 May 1940 , the senior representative of the Catholic Church in Belgium , Cardinal Jozef @-@ Ernest van Roey , circulated a pastoral letter calling for all Belgians to unite around the King . Other figures in the King 's entourage , particularly the authoritarian socialist Henri De Man , believed that democracy had failed and that the end of the war would see the King as the ruler of an authoritarian Belgian state .

Imprisoned , the King continued to follow his own political programme . He believed that after the German victory a " New Order " would be established in Europe and that , as the senior Belgian figure in occupied Europe , he could negotiate with the German authorities . Leopold corresponded with Adolf Hitler and tried to organise a meeting with him . Hitler remained uninterested and distrustful of the King , but on 19 November 1940 Leopold succeeded in gaining an unproductive audience with him at Berchtesgaden .

Popular support for Leopold in Belgium declined sharply in December 1941 when news of Leopold 's remarriage to Lilian Baels was made public . The marriage was deeply unpopular with the Belgian public . The image of the " prisoner @-@ king " ( roi prisonnier ) , sharing the suffering of the Belgian prisoners of war , was undermined and his popularity fell sharply , especially in Wallonia , the home of the majority of the Belgian prisoners still detained . Popular opinion also turned on the king for his perceived unwillingness to speak out against German occupation policies .

Amid German defeats against the Russians on the Eastern Front after 1942 , the King prepared for the end of the war . He ordered the preparation of a document , known as the Political Testament ( Testament Politique ) , which would justify his behaviour under the occupation and detail his interventions on behalf of Belgian prisoners of war and deported workers . Leopold however continued to condemn the action of the Belgian government in exile ( based in London after October 1940 ) . On 7 June 1944 , following D @-@ Day , he was deported to Germany . He was finally liberated by American forces on 7 May 1945 .

= = Regency and the early crisis , 1944 – 49 = =

= = = Leopold declared " unable to reign " , 1944 = = =

After D @-@ Day , Allied troops crossed the Belgian frontier on 1 September 1944 . German forces did little to oppose the liberating forces , which by 4 September were in control of Brussels , although the last occupied parts of Belgian territory were only liberated in February 1945 . On 8 September 1944 , the government in exile returned to Brussels and was greeted with general indifference . Although the King was no longer in the country , his Political Testament was presented to the returned Government as he had wished , and was soon circulated publicly . At the same time , a copy was presented to the British king , George VI , and was seen by the Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden . The text reignited the divisions within the Government which had been largely hidden since earlier in the war .

Since the King was still in German custody , there was no opposition to the creation of a regent in his absence . On 20 September 1944 , a meeting of both Chambers of Parliament was called . Article 82 of the Constitution was invoked , declaring the King " unable to reign " ( dans l 'impossibilité de régner ) . Leopold 's reclusive brother , Prince Charles , Count of Flanders , was elected prince regent and took the oath the following day . Further action on the Royal Question was pushed aside by more pressing economic and political issues that occupied most of the Government 's time .

= = = Political recovery and revival of the Royal Question = = =

Soon after the liberation , Belgium began a period of rapid economic recovery and the process of political reconstruction began . The traditional party system had been torn apart by the war and occupation . The two major ideological blocks proceeded to create their own parties : socialists created the Belgian Socialist Party ( PSB @-@ BSP ) , while Catholics and conservatives created the Christian Social Party ( PSC @-@ CVP ) . The biggest change in early post @-@ liberation politics was the surge of support for the Communist Party of Belgium , which become the third party in Belgian politics until 1949 , temporarily displacing the Liberal Party . The Walloon Movement also re @-@ emerged after the war , promoting the culture and economic interests of the French @-@ speaking areas in the south . The period saw major reform of trade unions following the creation of the first large unified union , the General Federation of Belgian Labour ( FGTB @-@ ABVV ) , in April 1945 with 248 @,@ 000 members nationwide . By 1947 , however , the political structure of the Belgian state had stabilised .

Under the early regency , both the Pierlot and subsequent Achille Van Acker governments attempted to avoid confronting the issue of Leopold 's return despite calls from Communists , some Socialists and trade unionists for the King 's resignation in April and May 1945 . Soon after the King 's liberation , Van Acker and a government delegation headed to Strobl , Austria to negotiate with Leopold . At a series of meetings between 9 and 11 May 1945 , Van Acker insisted that the King publicly announce his support for the Allied cause and his commitment to parliamentary democracy . No agreement was reached . In the meantime , Leopold took up residence in Pregny ( near Geneva ) in Switzerland under the pretext that heart palpitations made further negotiations or thoughts of return to political life impossible .

In Belgium , political debate about the Royal Question continued and grew after the war , and remained a polemical topic in the popular press , notably in the Francophone newspaper Le Soir . In the general election of 1949 , the PSC @-@ CVP campaigned on a pro @-@ Leopold royalist platform . The results reshaped the political landscape ; the Communists were routed and the PSB @-@ BSP lost seats to both the Liberals and Catholics . The Catholics gained a new majority in the Senate and a plurality in the Chamber of Representatives , their best results since the war . Gaston Eyskens took over as Prime Minister at the head of a Liberal @-@ Catholic coalition . Both parties in the government ( and Leopold himself ) supported a referendum on the King 's return , which became the focus of political attention .

= = Culmination of the crisis , 1950 = =

= = = Referendum of March 1950 = = =

The Eyskens government agreed to a national referendum , known as the " popular consultation " ( consultation populaire or volksraadpleging ) , which was scheduled for 12 March 1950 . Although campaigning was vigorous on both sides , there was little disruption to the polls .

The results of the referendum were indecisive . Leopold 's return won a clear 57 @.@ 68 per cent majority in the national vote , with majorities in seven of the nine provinces . However , the vote was heavily divided by region . In Flanders , 72 per cent voted in favour of Leopold 's return , but in Brussels the Leopoldists won only a minority of 48 per cent . In Wallonia a mere 42 per cent voted for the restitution of the King . The final results , in percentages by province , were :

* The majority in the arrondissement of Verviers voted in favour of the King 's return . ‡ The arrondissement of Namur voted against the return .

The result confirmed the worries of some , including Spaak , that the vote would not be sufficiently decisive in either direction and could divide the country along regional and linguistic lines . On 13 March , Eyskens traveled to Pregny to attempt to encourage Leopold to abdicate . Paul Van Zeeland and Spaak attempted to broker a new agreement by which Leopold would resign in favour of his son . On 15 April 1950 , Leopold announced that he was willing to temporarily delegate his authority . Many within the PSC @-@ CVP realised that , despite the referendum 's result , their party 's lack of a parliamentary majority would undermine their ability to build a national reconciliation around the King as long as their Liberal coalition partners and Socialist opponents were unwilling to accept the King 's return .

= = = Leopold 's return to Belgium = = =

On 29 April 1950 , Charles dissolved parliament pending fresh elections . His intention was probably to prevent the formation of a PSC @-@ CVP government under Van Zeeland , a staunch Leopoldist , which would lead to the return of the King without further discussion . The following election produced an absolute PSC @-@ CVP majority in both Chamber and Senate , and a new single @-@ party government under Jean Duvieusart was formed .

One of the first acts of the Duvieusart government was to introduce a bill bringing the " impossibility to reign " to an end . On 22 July 1950 , Leopold returned to Belgium for the first time since June 1944 and resumed his functions .

= = = General strike and abdication = = =

In 1949 , the FGTB @-@ ABVV voted a special budget of ten million Belgian francs to establish a Committee of Common Action ( Comité d 'action commune ) aimed at supporting strike action taken in event of the King 's return . The union took the lead in the opposition which emerged in the summer of 1950 . André Renard , a Walloon trade union leader , called for " insurrection " and " revolution " in the newspaper La Wallonie shortly after the King 's return in July 1950 . Modern historians have noted that " the smell of revolution was on the air " as Walloon nationalists called for the immediate secession of Wallonia and the creation of a republic .

The general strike of 1950 began in the coal mining centres of Hainaut and quickly spread . Workers were soon on strike across Wallonia , Brussels , and , to a lesser extent , Flanders . The port of Antwerp was one of the key sites affected and the country was virtually paralysed . On 30 July , four workers were shot dead by the Gendarmerie at Grâce @-@ Berleur , near Liège and the violence intensified . Staunch Leopoldists in the Government called for a stronger stance but found themselves in a minority , even in the PSC @-@ CVP . Frustrated at the lack of progress , the Government threatened to resign en masse .

As the situation escalated , the National Confederation of Political Prisoners and their Dependents ( Confédération nationale des prisonniers politiques et des ayants droit , Nationale Confederatie van Politieke Gevangenen en Rechthebbenden , or CNPPA @-@ NCPGR ) , the organisation representing political prisoners detained during the German occupation , offered to act as intermediaries between the different parties because of their respected status . The CNPPA @-@ NCPGR succeeded in persuading both parties to reopen negotiations . A tense meeting between the King and Government took place during the night of 31 July to 1 August at Laeken . In the afternoon on 1 August , Leopold publicly announced his intention to resign in favour of his eldest son , Baudouin , to avoid further bloodshed . Baudouin , at the age of 19 , formally became prince royal on 11 August 1950 .

= = Accession of Baudouin , 1951 = =

Leopold 's abdication message of 1 August 1950 was premised on a reconciliation in the person of his eldest son over the course of a year . Baudouin was seen by most parties as an acceptable alternative candidate . According to a law approved on 11 August , executive powers were transferred to Baudouin in advance of the official abdication . Leopold formally abdicated on 16 July 1951 . His son succeeded him the following day .

= = = Assassination of Julien Lahaut = = =

On 17 July 1951 , as Baudouin was taking the oath of allegiance to the Constitution in front of the Parliament , an unidentified individual in the Communist benches shouted " vive la république ! " ( " Long Live the Republic ! " ) . The interruption caused outrage . It was widely suspected that the culprit was Julien Lahaut , the noted Communist leader , who had been one of the leading opponents of Leopold 's return . On 18 August , Lahaut was shot dead by an unidentified assassin outside his house in Seraing , near Liège . The murder shocked the Belgian public and an estimated 200 @,@ 000 people attended Lahaut 's funeral . Although no @-@ one was ever prosecuted for the murder , it was widely attributed to clandestine Leopoldist militia like the Ligue Eltrois or the Bloc anticommuniste belge who operated with the knowledge of the security services .

= = Aftermath and significance = =

In the aftermath of the Royal Question , national priorities shifted to other political questions . On 17 September 1950 , the government of Joseph Pholien announced its intention of dispatching Belgian volunteers to fight in the Korean War . Negotiations about the European Defence Community followed and , by the mid @-@ 1950s , Belgium was immersed in a new political crisis , known as the Second School War , surrounding the secularisation of education .

Modern historians describe the Royal Question as an important moment in Belgian recovery after World War II . The opposition between Leopoldists and anti @-@ Leopoldists led to the re @-@ establishment of Socialist and Catholic political parties from before the war . The Question was also an important moment in the Belgian linguistic conflict . It also put an end to the federalisation of Belgian institutions which might exacerbate the regional tensions exposed by the Royal Question . In addition , the perceived failure of the PSC @-@ CVP to realise Flemish demands for the return of Leopold helped to strengthen support for the Flemish nationalist Volksunie party after 1954 . In Wallonia , the legacy of trade union and socialist political mobilisation during the general strike paved the way for a left @-@ wing revival of the Walloon Movement .

The Lahaut assassination was not solved , and it remains contentious as the only political murder in Belgian history apart from the death of the socialist politician André Cools in 1991 . Leopoldists were suspected , but no individual was prosecuted in the aftermath . An enquiry by historians Rudy Van Doorslaer and Etienne Verhoeyen named an alleged culprit . A final report , commissioned by the Belgian government , was submitted in 2015 .

= The Indian Princess ( play ) =

The Indian Princess ; or , La Belle Sauvage , is a musical play with a libretto by James Nelson Barker and music by John Bray , based on the Pocahontas story as originally recorded in John Smith 's The Generall Historie of Virginia ( 1624 ) . The piece is structured in the style of a Ballad @-@ opera , with songs and choruses , and also has music underlying dialogue , like a melodrama . Pocahontas persuades her father , King Powhatan , to free Smith and becomes attracted to John Rolfe , breaking off her arranged marriage with a neighboring tribal prince , an action that leads to war . Her tribe wins the war , but her father loses trust in the white settlers ; Pocahontas warns the settlers who reconcile with Powhatan . Several comic romances end happily , and Smith predicts a great future for the new country .

The play deals with relations between Native Americans and the first European settlers in America . Scholars have debated whether the piece is progressive in its depiction of the natives and have commented that the work reflects an emerging American dramatic and musical sensibility . It served to popularize and romanticize the Pocahontas story as an important American myth .

The comedy was first performed in 1808 at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia . It has been cited as the first play about American Indians by an American playwright known to be produced on a professional stage , and possibly the first play produced in America to be then performed in England , although the validity of both statements has been questioned . Its portrayal of Native Americans has been criticized as racially insensitive , but the piece is credited with inspiring a whole new genre of plays about Pocahontas specifically and Native Americans in general , that was prevalent throughout the 19th and early 20th Century . The play was subsequently produced throughout the country .

= = Background = =

Barker was motivated to create a truly " American " style of drama to counteract what he saw as " mental colonialism " and the American tendency to feel culturally inferior to Europe . For this reason , he looked to native subject matter for the play , as opposed to other American dramatists like John Howard Payne who neglected American subject matter and locations .

Although in his preface , Barker cites his primary source of inspiration as John Smith 's The Generall Historie of Virginia ( 1624 ) , he was likely more influenced by a series of popular books by John Davis , including , Travels of Four Years and a Half in the United States of America ( 1803 ) , Captain Smith and Princess Pocahontas ( 1805 ) , and The First Settlers of Virginia ( 1806 ) which featured a more sexualized and romanticized characterization of Pocahontas .

Much of the known background about the piece comes from a letter Barker wrote to William Dunlop , dated June 10 , 1832 . In it , he indicates that he had been working on The Indian Princess for a number of years before it was first produced in 1808 . In fact in 1805 , he wrote a Masque entitled " America " ( which has not survived ) that he intended to serve as a conclusion to the play , in which characters called " America , " " Science , " and " Liberty " sing and engage in political debate . Barker originally intended the piece as a play without music , but John Bray , an actor / translator / composer employed by The New Theatre in Philadelphia , convinced him to add a musical score .

= = Character list = =

The published dramatis personæ divides the character list into “ Europeans ” ( the settlers ) and “ Virginians ” ( the natives ) , listing the men first , by rank , followed by the women and the supernumeraries .

= = Plot synopsis = =

= = = Act I = = =

At the Powhatan River , Smith , Rolfe , Percy , Walter , Larry , Robin , and Alice disembark from a barge as the chorus of soldiers and adventurers sing about the joy of reaching the shore . Larry , Walter , Alice ( Walter ’ s wife ) , and Robin reminisce about love , and Robin admits to Larry his lustful feelings about Alice . Meanwhile , Nima is preparing a bridal gown for Pocahontas in the royal village of Werocomoco , but Pocahontas expresses displeasure about the arrangement her father made for her to marry Miami , a rival Indian prince . Smith is then attacked by a party of Indians , including Nantaquas , Pocahontas ’ s brother . Due to his fighting prowess , Nantaquas thinks he is a god , but Smith explains he is only a trained warrior from across the sea . The Indians capture Smith to bring him to their chief . Back at the Powhatan River , Robin attempts to seduce Alice , but is foiled by Walter and Larry . When Walter tells the group about Smith ’ s capture , they depart to go after him . Before they leave , Rolfe tries to convince Percy to move on after his lover , Geraldine , apparently was unfaithful .

= = = Act II = = =

When King Powhatan is presented with the captured Smith , he decides , at the urging of the tribe ’ s priest Grimosco , to execute him . Pocahontas , having been moved by Smith ’ s nobility , says she will not allow Smith to be killed unless she herself dies with him . This persuades Powhatan to free Smith . Soon , Percy and Rolfe encounter Smith and his Indian allies on the way back to the settlement , and Rolfe is immediately struck by Pocahontas , whose manner suggests the attraction is mutual . They speak of love , but Rolfe must soon depart with Smith . Pocahontas confesses her love for Rolfe to Miami , who receives the news with anger , jealousy and rage . Pocahontas convinces her father to dissolve her arranged engagement with Miami , which will mean war between their two tribes .

= = = Act III = = =

Jamestown has now been built and Walter tells his wife Alice about Powhatan ’ s victory over Miami . They then discuss a banquet hosted by Powhatan that Smith , Rolfe and Percy will attend . Meanwhile , Pocahontas and Nima witness Grimosco and Miami plotting to kill the European settlers . When Grimosco coerces Powhatan into believing he should kill all the White men , by casting doubt about their intentions , creating fear about how they will act in the future , and invoking religious imagery , Pocahontas runs to warn the settlers about the danger . Back in Jamestown , a comic bit ensues in which Larry ’ s wife Kate has arrived disguised as a male page , and teases him before revealing herself . She says she has come with Percy ’ s lover , Geraldine , also disguised as a page , who has come to convince Percy he was wrong about her infidelity . Pocahontas arrives and convinces the settlers to go to Powhatan ’ s palace to rescue their colleagues from Grimosco ’ s plot . They arrive just in time to prevent the disaster . Grimosco is taken away , and Miami stabs himself in shame . Everyone else has a happy ending : Pocahontas is with Rolfe , Walter is with Alice , Larry is with Kate , Percy is with Geraldine , and even Robin is with Nima . Smith forgives Powhatan , and gives the play 's final speech , predicting a great future for the new country that will form in this land .

= = Score = =

The surviving published version of the musical score appears in the format of a simplified keyboard transcription using a two @-@ staff system ( treble and bass ) . It includes only occasional notations about the instruments used in the original full orchestral score , which has not survived . Therefore , musical elements from the original production such as inner harmonic parts , countermelodies , and accompaniment figurations are no longer known . Based on records of payments made to musicians at The Chestnut Street Theatre at the time of the premiere , it was likely that the production employed approximately 25 pieces , which may have consisted of pairs of woodwinds ( flutes , oboes , clarinets , and bassoons ) and brasses ( horns and trumpets ) as well as some timpani and strings . Typically , however , the entire orchestra was used only for the overture and selected large chorus numbers , while solo numbers were accompanied by strings and one or two pairs of woodwinds . The brasses and timpani may have been used to invoke a sense of the military in numbers like Walter ’ s “ Captain Smith . ”

= = Performances = =

The play first premiered at The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia on April 6 , 1808 . In Barker 's letter to Dunlop , he writes the performance was done as a benefit for Mr. Bray ( who also played the role of Walter ) . However , other sources suggest it was a benefit for a Mrs. Woodham . In any case , it is clear that the performance was interrupted by an offstage commotion which may have cut the performance short . Mr. Webster , a tenor who played the role of Larry , was an object of public scorn at the time because of his effeminate manner and dress , and audience members rioted in outrage at his participation , causing Barker himself to order the curtain to be dropped . The play was subsequently performed again in Philadelphia on February 1 , 1809 , although it was advertised for January 25 .

There is some discrepancy about the date of the New York premiere , which took place at The Park Theatre , either on June 14 , 1808 , or on January 14 , 1809 , as a benefit for English actress Mrs. Lipman . It was performed again in New York as a benefit for Dunlop on June 23 , 1809 , There was a performance benefiting Bray and an actor named Mr. Cone advertised for August 25 , 1808 , at The Alexandria Theatre in Virginia . There was also a gala premiere on an unspecified date in Baltimore . Barker wrote in his letter to Dunlop that the play was subsequently and frequently performed in all the theatres across the country . It was the standard practice in all these productions for the Native American roles to be played by white actors wearing dark makeup .

The The Indian Princess has been cited as the first well @-@ documented case of a play that was originally performed in America being subsequently staged in England . Although records indicate there was a play called Pocahontas ; or the Indian Princess , credited as being adapted by T.A. Cooper , that played The Theatre Royal at Drury Lane in London on December 15 , 1820 , and subsequently on December 16 and December 19 , the piece differed drastically from Barker 's original and featured a completely different cast of characters . Barker himself wrote that the production was done without his permission or even his knowledge , and based on a critical response he read of the London performance , he deduced that there was very little in the play that was his own . Other evidence suggests that the script used in England was not only a completely different play , but that it was likely not even originated by an American . This assertion is based primarily on three factors : the kinder and meeker portrayal of the Natives , which reduces the grandeur of the play 's American heroes , the more vague listing of the setting as " North America " rather than specifically " Virginia , " and the lack of implications about America 's great destiny that was evident in Barker 's version . The distinction between the London and American versions is also supported by a review of the London production , in which the reviewer cites a lack of comic characters ( Barker ’ s version included several ) , and the presence of a character named “ Opechancaough , ” who is nowhere to be found in Barker ’ s play .

= = Style and structure = =

Structurally , the play resembles a typical English Ballad @-@ opera . The plot of the play can be seen as a blending of a comedy of racial and cultural stereotypes with a love story and an historical drama . Barker borrows heavily from Shakespearean comedy , as can be seen most blatantly in the gender disguises employed by the characters of Kate and Geraldine . The use of verse writing for higher class characters and prose for those of lesser status also borrows from the Shakespearean tradition . It is of note that Pocahontas switches from prose to verse after falling in love with Rolfe .

The Indian Princess is also one of the first American plays to call itself a “ melo @-@ drame ” ( or melodrama ) which literally is French for “ play with music . ” Like the French and German melodramas typical of the period , the score contained open @-@ ended snippets of background mood music that can be repeated as much as necessary to heighten the sentimentality of the drama , although some have argued that it bears no other resemblance to the typical French melodrama of the period . Still others have said that the categorization of the piece as a melodrama is accurate , considering the play ’ s portrayal of the genre ’ s typical persecuted heroine ( Pocahontas ) , villainous antagonists ( Miami and Grimosco ) , virtuous hero ( Smith ) , and comic relief ( Robin and others ) .

The play can also be seen as a predecessor to the exaggerated emotionalism of later American drama , and as an early example of how background music would be used in more modern American drama and films .

= = Analysis and criticism = =

The Indian Princess is one example of an attempt by an artist of the early 19th Century to define an American national identity . Pocahontas , representing the spirit of America , literally shields Smith from injury and serves as foster mother , protecting colonists from famine and attack , achieving mythic status as a heroic mother , and preserving , nurturing and legitimizing America as a country . The play allows for an acknowledgement of the troubling aspects of the nation ’ s history of conquest , violence , and greed , by couching the negative implications in a romantic plot . In other words , the romantic conquest helps to soften the harshness and brutality of the colonial conquest . The success of the play reflects a larger cultural desire to express its sense of self through the Pocahontas myth .

Barker also had commercial interests , and was motivated by a drive for artistic and financial success . In this vein , the play was an attempt to please the anglophile public , but create something truly American in setting and theme . The portrayals of the Indians in the play , from a perspective of racial sensitivity , have been met with mixed reviews by modern critics . Some write positively about the portrayals , saying that , other than Grimosco and Miami , the natives are noble , though primitive , and have a more “ American ” value system than the savages traditionally portrayed in British media of the period . Others , however , see the characters portrayed stereotypically as lusty , childlike , weak and corruptible beings , with the exceptions of Pocahontas and Nantaquas , who are portrayed positively only because they accept English values . Still others take a middle ground , noting the range of representations . In any case , the play can be seen as a justification of White assimilation of the natives , especially when examining Pocahontas ’ s choice to be with Rolfe as a microcosm of their societies .

Critics have pointed out several inherent flaws in the script , including the early placement of the play ’ s climax ( Smith at the chopping block ) at the beginning of Act II , loose construction , song lyrics that trivialize characters , and a main character in Pocahontas that is somewhat stilted and overly poetic . In contrast , however others have argued that Pocahontas ’ s love scene in Act III is where the truest poetry of the piece emerges .

There has been less critique of Bray ’ s musical work , but Victor Fell Yellin tried to recreate what he felt was the score 's melodic expressiveness and sonorous grandeur in his 1978 recording of it . In the liner notes , he points out that the music does not critically compare with the great musical masters of its time , but its success is derived from its charm . While it lacks modulation , it contains well @-@ turned melodic and rhythmic phrases , and syncopations that add to its American style .

The Indian Princess certainly began a long American tradition of romanticizing and sexualizing Pocahontas , who was only a child in Smith ’ s original accounts . Therefore , it deserves recognition for inaugurating a genre , but it can be criticized for diminishing the potential richness of the subject matter .

= = Historical significance = =

Barker 's The Indian Princess has been cited as the first American play featuring Native American characters to ever be staged , although Barker 's play is predated by at least two offerings by Europeans featuring Native Americans , including Tammany in 1794 by British playwright Ann Kemble Hatton , and German writer Johann Wilhelm Rose 's Pocahontas : Schauspiel mit Gesang , in fünf Akten ( A Play with Songs , in five Acts ) in 1784 . At least one American play was also written before Barker 's : Ponteach , published by Robert Rogers in 1766 , though the piece was apparently never produced . However , more recently uncovered evidence shows a record of an anonymous melodrama entitled Captain Smith and the Princess Pocahontas produced at The Chestnut Street Theatre in 1806 , calling into question whether Barker ’ s play was really the first of its kind ( though no further information is known about the earlier piece ) . Barker 's play has also been cited as the earliest surviving dramatized account of Smith and Pocahontas , although this idea is debunked by the availability of the aforementioned Johann Wilhelm Rose work .

In any case , The Indian Princess is credited as being primarily responsible for elevating the Pocahontas story to one of the nation 's most celebrated myths , and is thought to mark the beginning of the popular American genre of Indian Drama . The piece is also of note as one of very few of its time to have the entire musical score published and available today , as opposed to only individual popular songs .

Barker ’ s play directly or indirectly inspired many other stage adaptations of the Pocahontas story , including :

Pocahontas , or the Settlers of Virginia by George Washington Parke Custis ( 1830 )

Pocahontas by Robert Dale Owen ( 1837 )

The Forest Princess by Charlotte B. Conner ( 1848 )

Po @-@ ca @-@ hon @-@ tas , or The Gentle Savage by John Brougham ( 1855 )

Pocahontas by Welland Hendrick ( 1886 )

Pocahontas by Edwin O. Ropp ( 1906 )

Royalty in Old Virginia by Effie Koogle ( 1908 )

Pokey ; Or , The Beautiful Legend on the Amorous Indian by Phillip Moeller ( 1918 )

Pocahontas and the Elders by Virgil Geddes ( 1933 )

The Founders by Paul Green ( 1957 )

Additionally , there were approximately 40 plays with Indian themes recorded from 1825 to 1860 that likely were directly influenced by The Indian Princess . Edward Henry Corbould ’ s engraving ( c . 1850 ) , “ Smith Rescued by Pocahontas ” was possibly also directly inspired by The Indian Princess . Disney ’ s animated Pocahontas ( 1995 ) is one of the more recent of several films also in the same tradition as Barker ’ s play .

= 1996 Atlantic hurricane season =

The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season had the most major hurricanes since 1964 , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Featuring a total of thirteen named storms , nine hurricanes , and six major hurricanes , the season officially began on June 1 , 1996 , and ended on November 30 , 1996 , dates which conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season 's first tropical cyclone , Tropical Storm Arthur , developed on June 17 , while the final cyclone , Hurricane Marco dissipated on November 26 . The most intense hurricane , Edouard , was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that affected portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England . The season featured nine tropical cyclone landfalls , including six hurricanes , one of which was a major hurricane . In total , six major hurricanes formed during the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season — the highest number produced in a single season since 1964 .

The four most notable tropical cyclones of the season were hurricanes Bertha , Cesar , Fran , and Hortense . Bertha made landfall as a Category 2 hurricane on the coast of North Carolina , causing a total of 12 deaths and $ 335 million ( 1996 USD ) in damage . Hurricane Fran made landfall in the same general area a little over a month later as a Category 3 hurricane , causing 37 deaths and $ 6 @.@ 9 billion in damage . Hurricane Cesar developed in the east Caribbean during late @-@ July and crossed Nicaragua into the east Pacific as a strong tropical storm several days later , at which time it earned the name Douglas . The system produced strong winds and flooding , leading to 113 deaths and $ 202 @.@ 96 million in damage . Finally , Hurricane Hortense formed in the east Atlantic during the month of September and crossed Hispaniola and Puerto Rico , causing 39 direct deaths and $ 158 million in damage . Collectively , the tropical cyclones of the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season caused $ 8 @.@ 41 billion in damage and 256 deaths .

= = Season summary = =

= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =

Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) and the Weather Research Center ( WRC ) . A normal season , as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , has 12 @.@ 1 named storms , of these 6 @.@ 4 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 7 major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Additional , the 1950 @-@ 2000 CSU average for a normal season is 9 @.@ 6 named storms , of these 5 @.@ 9 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 3 become major hurricanes . In December 1995 , CSU predicted that only 8 named storms would form and 5 of those would become hurricanes ; no specific number of major hurricanes was given . However , in April 1996 , CSU revised their forecast , stating that 11 named storms would develop , with seven of those intensifying into a hurricane , and three reaching major hurricane intensity . In June , CSU predicted 10 named storms , 6 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes . The forecast by the WRC in early 1996 was 10 named storms and 6 hurricanes , though there was no prediction on the number of major hurricanes .

= = = Seasonal activity = = =

The 1996 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , but the first named storm did not form until seventeen days later . It was an above average season in which 13 tropical cyclones formed , with all cyclones attaining tropical storm status . Nine of these sixteen attained hurricane status and six of those reached major hurricane status , which was well above the 1980 – 2010 average of 2 @.@ 7 per season . Although there was neither an El Niño or a La Niña , the above average activity in the season was likely due to abnormally warm sea surface temperatures . Six hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season , causing 256 deaths and more than $ 8 @.@ 41 billion in damage . Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Marco also caused damage and fatalities , but neither storm made an official landfall .

Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of Tropical Storm Arthur on June 17 . In the month of July , two tropical cyclones formed , both of which later attained hurricane status . August was the most active month of the season , with a total of four storms developing in that period of time . The month of August also featured the strongest and costliest tropical cyclones of the season , Hurricane Edouard and Hurricane Fran , respectively . Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , only two tropical cyclones developed in that month . Despite this , both reached major hurricane status . Three tropical cyclones formed in October , with one attaining hurricane status . Finally , one tropical cyclone developed in November , Hurricane Marco . The storm lasted 10 days before dissipating on November 26 , only four days before the official end of the season on November 30 .

The season 's activity was reflected with an Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) index of 166 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .

= = Storms = =

= = = Tropical Storm Arthur = = =

An area of increasing convection , possibly associated with a tropical wave , developed into Tropical Depression One on June 17 at 1800 UTC , while located near Grand Bahama . Initially , the depression moved north @-@ northwestward and then northward around the western periphery of a Atlantic subtropical ridge . Despite moderately strong wind shear , the depression strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arthur while re @-@ curving northeastward at 0000 UTC on June 19 . About 24 hours later , Arthur made landfall near Cape Lookout , North Carolina with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . The storm weakened to a tropical depression early on June 20 , before becoming extratropical the next day .

As the center of Arthur passed east of Cape Romain , South Carolina , minor increases in surf were reported . Rainfall peaked at 5 @.@ 85 inches ( 149 mm ) in Georgetown , South Carolina , though because it fell gradually , no significant flooding was reported , other than minor ponding of water on roads . In addition , Arthur also brought precipitation to Georgia and Virginia , though amounts rarely exceeded 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . In North Carolina , swells ranged as high as 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) . A C @-@ Man station located about 34 @.@ 5 miles ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) southeast of Cape Fear reported sustained winds of 39 mph ( 64 km / h ) and gusts up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Overall , damage caused by Arthur was minimal , totaling only $ 1 million .

= = = Hurricane Bertha = = =

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Two at 0000 UTC on July 5 , while located about 575 miles ( 925 km ) east of Cape Verde . Twelve hours later , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bertha . Over the next few days , it continued to strengthen , becoming a hurricane on July 7 , prior to moving through the northern Leeward Islands . A period of rapid intensification began late on July 8 , with Bertha peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on the following day . Moving around the western periphery of a subtropical ridge , Bertha passed north of the Bahamas as a weakening hurricane before turning towards the north @-@ northeast and re @-@ strengthened . Late on July 12 , Bertha made landfall between Wrightsville Beach and Topsail Beach , North Carolina with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Gradual weakening ensued the following day as Bertha moved up the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and into New England before becoming extratropical on July 14 .

In the United States Virgin Islands , heavy rainfall and hurricane @-@ force winds damaged about 2 @,@ 500 homes , of which 43 lost their roofs . Many boats were destroyed . Total damage was estimated near $ 7 @.@ 5 million . The storm caused 3 deaths in Puerto Rico . Additionally , damage in Puerto Rico totaled $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Two deaths were confirmed in Saint Martin . The storm caused numerous power outages and damaged 10 homes in Antigua and Barbuda . Four deaths occurred in Florida , three of which due to rip currents . North Carolina bore the brunt of the hurricane in the United States . Storm surge destroyed several fishing piers , marinas , and boats . A combination of storm surge and strong winds damaged over 5 @,@ 000 homes and buildings , with at least 4 destroyed . There were 2 deaths in the state . The remnants brought local flooding and minor wind damage to the Mid @-@ Atlantic , New England , and Atlantic Canada . One surfer died in New Jersey . Overall , the storm caused 12 deaths and about $ 285 million in damage , primarily in eastern North Carolina .

= = = Hurricane Cesar = = =

A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on July 17 . It developed into Tropical Depression Three near Isla Margarita of Venezuela on July 24 . The depression headed westward , steered by a strong high pressure area over the Bahamas . On July 25 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cesar . Around that time , it struck Curaçao . Cesar caused minor damage in the ABC islands to roofs and trees ; one person drowned in heavy surf on Curçao . An additional three people drowned offshore Venezuela . In Colombia , heavy rainfall caused 3 deaths , 2 of which were from a mudslide in Pueblo Bello . Strong winds and significant amounts of precipitation lashed the Archipelago of San Andrés , Providencia and Santa Catalina , unroofing 60 homes , and resulting in 11 fatalities , and resulting in 800 million COP ( $ 440 @,@ 00 USD ) in damage . The storm continued westward and intensified into a hurricane on July 27 .

At 0400 UTC on July 28 , Cesar made landfall near Bluefields , Nicaragua , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . After weakening to a tropical storm later that day , Cesar moved into the Pacific and was reclassified as Tropical Storm Douglas on July 29 . In Nicaragua , the storm wrought about $ 50 @.@ 5 million in losses . More than 2 @,@ 500 homes , 39 bridges and 25 miles ( 40 km ) of roads were destroyed . The storm killed 42 people and left an estimated 100 @,@ 000 homeless in Nicaragua . In Costa Rica , river flooding damaged or destroyed 3 @,@ 874 homes ; 150 bridges were also destroyed . The road network was significantly damaged . Across the country , at least 39 people were killed and damage amounted to $ 151 million . Additionally , 12 people died in El Salvador . Overall , Cesar caused 113 deaths and $ 202 @.@ 96 million in damage .

= = = Hurricane Dolly = = =

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four at 0600 UTC on August 19 , while located west @-@ southwest of Jamaica . The system strengthened into Tropical Storm Dolly about twelve hours later . Dolly headed westward and intensified into a Category 1 hurricane late on August 20 . It then made landfall near Chetumal , Quintana Roo with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The system weakened to a tropical depression on August 21 . Later that day or early on August 22 , Dolly emerged into the Bay of Campeche and quickly re @-@ strengthened into a tropical storm . The storm deepened further and was upgraded to a hurricane again at 1200 UTC on August 23 ; Dolly simultaneously peaked with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Around that time , it struck between Tuxpan , Veracruz and Tampico , Tamaulipas . Dolly quickly weakened to a tropical depression early on August 24 , but remained intact while crossing Mexico and dissipated over the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 25 .

The storm brought heavy rainfall to much of Mexico , peaking at 37 @.@ 41 inches ( 950 mm ) . In Quintana Roo , flooding destroyed a large amount of farmlands . Widespread flooding occurred after a river in the Pueblo Viejo area overflowed its banks . Hundreds of homes were destroyed , displacing about 35 @,@ 000 people . Large scale evacuations occurred in San Luis Potosí , while about 6 @,@ 500 fled their homes in the Tampico area . Communications and power outages were reported as far west as Mazatlán , Sinaloa . Throughout Mexico , there were fourteen fatalities reported , six in Veracruz , three in Nuevo León , one in Monterrey , and one in . Additionally , two people were left missing in Nuevo León . The outer bands of Dolly brought rainfall to southern Texas , which caused minor flooding , but was mostly beneficial due to drought conditions in the state .

= = = Hurricane Edouard = = =

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Five on August 19 , while located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) southeast of Cape Verde . The depression moved westward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Edouard on August 22 . Further intensification occurred , with the storm being upgraded to a hurricane on the following day . Early on August 24 , the storm re @-@ curved west @-@ northwestward and began to undergo rapid deepening . At 0600 UTC on August 25 , Edouard attained its maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 933 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) ; it was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season . The storm remained a major hurricane for nearly eight days . Edouard passed well north of the Lesser Antilles and then began re @-@ curving northward on August 29 . Later , the storm passed midway between Cape Hatteras and Bermuda on September 1 .

Edouard approached Nantucket , Massachusetts , but turned to the east before reaching land . On September 3 , the storm weakened and became extratropical . It was absorbed by a larger system on the September 7 . Edouard brought rough seas and gusty winds along the East Coast of the United States from South Carolina northward . Strong waves in New Jersey drowned 2 people . Minor erosion and coastal flooding also occurred in several states , especially in New York and Massachusetts . In the latter , wind gusts up to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) left two @-@ thirds of Nantucket , most of Cape Cod , and all of Martha 's Vineyard without electricity . Gusty winds in Maine left about 1 @,@ 900 without power in Portland . Damage in the United States totaled about $ 20 million . In Canada , the storm brought rainfall up to 5 @.@ 35 inches ( 136 mm ) and gusts to 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Rough seas disrupted ferry service and caused the closure of several beaches .

= = = Hurricane Fran = = =

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on August 23 , while located southeast of Cape Verde . The depression moved westward for several days and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fran on August 27 while 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Fran tracked west @-@ northwestward and intensified into a hurricane on August 29 . However , Fran became less organized after a disruption to inflow due to Hurricane Edouard and weakened back to a tropical storm . Fran quickly re @-@ intensified into a hurricane by August 31 . While moving west @-@ northwestward and then north @-@ northwestward , the storm slowly strengthened . At 0000 UTC on September 5 , Fran peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 946 mbar ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Early on the following day , the storm made landfall near Cape Fear , North Carolina at the same intensity . Fran weakened and moved inland , becoming extratropical over Ontario on September 8 . Its remnants moved over the Great Lakes and were absorbed by a front on September 10 .

In South Carolina , the outer bands of Fran produced high winds and light to moderate rainfall , downing numerous trees and power lines . As a result , a number of cars were damaged and over 63 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity . Damage in South Carolina reached about $ 40 million . The state of North Carolina bore the brunt of the storm . Wind gusts as strong as 137 mph ( 220 km / h ) were reported . Additionally , storm tide heights ranging from 8 to 12 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) lashed the coast . Damage was most severe in the Raleigh area , exceeding $ 2 billion . Several hundred thousand falling trees damaged at least 10 @,@ 000 homes . Throughout the state , approximately 1 @.@ 7 million people were left without electricity . Damage in North Carolina reached about $ 5 @.@ 1 billion , with about $ 2 @.@ 3 billion to homes and businesses , $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to public property , $ 1 billion to forestry and timber , and $ 700 million to agriculture . Elsewhere , Fran brought flooding to several states , including Virginia , West Virginia , Maryland , Ohio , and Pennsylvania , as well as Washington , D.C. Outside North Carolina , effects were worst in Virginia , where flooding and winds left 400 @,@ 000 people without electricity and caused about $ 350 million in damage . Hurricane Fran was responsible for 37 deaths , with 24 of them in North Carolina . Property damage in the United States was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 9 billion .

= = = Tropical Storm Gustav = = =

An area of disturbed weather , accompanied with a low @-@ level circulation , emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 24 . It organized further over the next few days , becoming Tropical Depression Seven on August 26 , while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) south of Cape Verde . With a ridge to its north , the system moved west @-@ southwestward . Conditions were initially unfavorable for development due to outflow from Hurricane Fran . On August 28 , the depression began moving northwestward due to an approaching trough . Around the same time , the influence from Fran decreased , allowing it to intensify into Tropical Storm Gustav on August 28 .

At 0000 UTC on August 29 , Gustav reached its peak intensity as a 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Thereafter , the trough previously causing the storm 's northwestward motion transitioned into an upper @-@ level low , increasing shear across the region . As a result , the storm slowly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical depression late on September 1 . Gustav dissipated at 0600 UTC on the following day , while situated about 1 @,@ 015 miles ( 1 @,@ 633 km ) east @-@ northeast of the northernmost Lesser Antilles .

= = = Hurricane Hortense = = =

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Eight on September 3 , while located about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . The depression headed westward and barely strengthened until becoming Tropical Storm Hortense early on September 7 . Hortense passed over Guadeloupe on the following day and entered the Caribbean Sea . It strengthened into a hurricane on September 9 and then curved northwestward . The storm intensified slightly further , before making landfall near Guánica , Puerto Rico with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on September 10 . It soon moved back offshore and brushed Dominican Republic while crossing the Mona Passage . After re @-@ entering the Atlantic , Hortense substantially strengthened and peaked as a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane early on September 13 . Thereafter , the storm weakened as it tracked rapidly north @-@ northeastward . Early on September 15 , Hortense made landfall in Nova Scotia as a minimal Category 1 hurricane . It quickly weakened further to a tropical storm before re @-@ entering the Atlantic and became extratropical later that day .

The storm produced heavy rainfall and gusty winds as it passed through the Lesser Antilles . On Guadeloupe , damage was most significant to crops , with over 50 % of banana plantains destroyed . Localized flooding was reported on Martinique . Impact was most significant in Puerto Rico . Across the island , 11 @,@ 463 houses were severely damaged . About 1 @.@ 4 million people on Puerto Rico were left without electricity – equivalent to about 40 % of the island 's population . Damage in Puerto Rico was estimated at $ 153 @.@ 4 million . There were also 19 deaths , most of which due to drowning during flash floods . In the Dominican Republic , strong winds damaged a number of buildings and houses , and downed several power lines . Flooding also forced the closure of several roads and impacted 80 % of crops in Samaná Province . At least 3 fatalities were confirmed in that country . The storm brought strong winds to the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands , and lesser winds to Bermuda . Later in its duration , Hortense struck Nova Scotia , bringing heavy rainfall and hurricane force winds to isolated locations . There were many power outages , trees blown down , roofs torn away , and roads damaged in the state . New Brunswick , Newfoundland , and Prince Edward Island were also impacted , though not as severely as in Nova Scotia . Damage in Atlantic Canada reached approximately $ 3 @.@ 64 million .

= = = Hurricane Isidore = = =

A tropical wave with a well @-@ defined circulation developed into Tropical Depression Nine at 1200 UTC on September 24 , while located south of Cape Verde . Due to an anticyclone to its north , the depression initially moved west @-@ northwestward . After convection wrapped around the circulation and banding features increased , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Isidore on September 25 . Isidore deepened further and began developing an eye feature . Early on September 26 , the storm was upgraded to a hurricane . About 24 hours later , it reached Category 2 intensity . At 0000 UTC on September 28 , Isidore attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) .

After reaching peak intensity on September 28 , steering current from a quasi @-@ stationary mid- to upper @-@ level low pressure area turned Isidore northward . Later that day , the eye feature disappeared and the storm began weakening due to strong upper @-@ level winds . On September 28 , Isidore weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . By the following day , it was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane . Early on September 30 , Isidore weakened to a tropical storm . The storm deteriorated further and was downgraded to a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on the following day . Because much of the deep convection diminished , Isidore was declared extratropical at 0000 UTC on October 1 , while located about 490 miles ( 790 km ) west @-@ southwest of Flores Island in the Azores .

= = = Tropical Storm Josephine = = =

Tropical Depression Ten developed from the remnants of a cold front in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico on October 6 . Moving generally eastward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Josephine on October 6 . The next day , it peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Josephine made landfall in Taylor County , Florida near peak intensity early on October 8 . Shortly after moving inland , the storm became extratropical . Early in its duration , the system interacted with a ridge , resulting in strong winds and high tides in Texas . The outer bands caused flooding rainfall in southern Texas , and in Louisiana , high tides flooded roads and stranded residents on Grand Isle . In Florida , the storm produced a storm surge reaching 9 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee . High tides flooded about 3 @,@ 600 houses along the west coast . Strong winds left about 400 @,@ 000 people without power . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes , one of which damaged 130 homes .

The extratropical remnants of Josephine moved along the eastern coast of the United States , producing wind gusts as strong as 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , Maryland . The winds caused widespread power outages , including 26 @,@ 000 in Virginia and 31 @,@ 000 in New Jersey . Heavy rainfall flooded low @-@ lying areas and rivers along the storm 's path , including in North Carolina which had previously been affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In the Southeastern United States , the storm contributed to dozens of traffic accidents , which killed a person each in Georgia , North Carolina , and Virginia . Damage throughout the United States totaled about $ 130 million . Josephine later moved offshore , and after passing southeast of Cape Cod , moved through Atlantic Canada with moderate rainfall and gusty winds .

= = = Tropical Storm Kyle = = =

A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 27 and crossed the Atlantic and Caribbean before eventually developing into Tropical Depression Eleven on October 11 . The depression drifted slowly southwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Kyle later that day . Slightly further intensification occurred and Kyle peaked as a 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm early on October 12 . However , upper @-@ level southwesterly shear caused Kyle to quickly weaken back to a tropical depression later that day . At 1800 UTC on October 12 , Kyle made landfall in eastern Guatemala with winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . By early on October 13 , the storm had completely dissipated inland .

Portions of the coasts of Belize , Guatemala , Honduras , and Mexico were under a tropical storm warning or hurricane watch as Kyle was approaching ; however they were cancelled after Kyle weakened back to a tropical depression . Impact from Kyle was minimal and limited to light rainfall in the countries of Belize , Guatemala , Honduras , and the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico . In Belize , rainfall peaked at 2 @.@ 32 inches ( 59 mm ) . Rainfall to the northwest of the center of Kyle was heavier , with some areas of Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula receiving over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) ; precipitation peaked at 5 @.@ 71 inches ( 145 mm ) in Tulum .

= = = Hurricane Lili = = =

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on October 14 . After the storm formed , further strengthening of Lili was gradual , first to tropical storm status on October 16 and then to hurricane status on October 17 . The next day , Lili made landfall in Matanzas Province , Cuba with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and moved across the central portion of the island ; it was first hurricane to hit the country since Kate in 1985 . After emerging into the Atlantic Ocean , the hurricane accelerated northeastward , briefly peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) near the Bahamas on October 19 . For almost an entire week , Hurricane Lili oscillated in intensity while fluctuating several times in forward speed . About two weeks passed before Lili transitioned into an extratropical storm north of the Azores on October 27 , which subsequently moved across Ireland and Great Britain .

Early in its duration , Lili caused flooding in Central America that left thousands homeless and killed 14 people . In Cuba , 269 @,@ 995 people were evacuated in advance of Lili , resulting in no deaths in the country . Damage was heaviest in Cuba , mostly due to the hurricane 's heavy rainfall peaking at 29 @.@ 41 inches ( 747 mm ) . The hurricane affected 11 Cuban provinces , damaging 92 @,@ 542 houses and destroying another 6 @,@ 369 . The rains heavily damaged the sugar cane and banana crops . Overall , damage in the country was estimated at $ 362 million . In nearby Florida , one person died after being swept into a drain during the storm 's heavy rains . Moisture from Lili also fueled a storm that struck the northeastern United States , which contributed indirectly to a death when a man in Maine tried to drive across a flooded roadway . Damage in the Bahamas was not severe and was limited to some damaged roofs and downed trees . When the remnants of Lili struck Ireland and the United Kingdom , it produced strong winds and high seas that damaged hundreds of houses , causing $ 300 million in damage and six deaths .

= = = Hurricane Marco = = =

A cold front interacted with several tropical waves , eventually spawning Tropical Depression Thirteen late on November 16 , while southwest of Jamaica . Initially a tropical depression , it remained weak while tracking southwestward and eventually southward . On November 19 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Marco . It re @-@ curved eastward and continued to strengthen , briefly becoming a hurricane on November 20 . Marco weakened back to a tropical storm later that day . The storm turned northeastward toward Hispanola , but later became stationary before curing eastward . Afterwards Marco doubled @-@ back to the west . After weakening to a tropical depression on November 23 , Marco became a tropical storm again on the following day . Thereafter , it tracked northwestward while fluctuating in intensity , before dissipating on November 26 .

Although it did not make landfall , Marco produced heavy rainfall in the Greater Antilles and Central America , which caused significant flooding in some areas . In Honduras , 4 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , 40 bridges washed away , and nearly 50 @,@ 000 acres of fruit plantations were flooded . Nine deaths were also reported . Flood damage in other Central American countries was also reported , though affects were less severe . Heavy rainfall was also reported in Cuba . Marco also contributed to an ongoing flood in Jamaica and caused three additional fatalities in Dominican Republic . Overall , Marco caused 15 fatalities and approximately $ 8 @.@ 2 million in damage .

= = Storm names = =

The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1996 . The World Meteorological Organization retired three names in the spring of 1997 : Cesar , Fran , and Hortense . They were replaced in the 2002 season by Cristobal , Fay , and Hanna . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2002 season . This is the same list used for the 1990 season except for Dolly and Kyle , which replaced Diana and Klaus , respectively . A storm was named Kyle for the first time in 1996 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .

= = Season effects = =

This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1996 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and death include totals while a tropical cyclone was in its pre @-@ formative or post @-@ formative stages .

= Riot Act ( album ) =

Riot Act is the seventh studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam , released on November 12 , 2002 through Epic Records . Following a full @-@ scale tour in support of its previous album , Binaural ( 2000 ) , Pearl Jam took a year @-@ long break . The band then reconvened in the beginning of 2002 and commenced work on a new album . The music on the record featured a diverse sound , including songs influenced by folk , art rock , and experimental rock . The lyrics deal with mortality and existentialism , with much influence from both the political climate after the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks and the accidental death of nine fans during Pearl Jam 's performance at the 2000 Roskilde Festival .

The band supported the album with a politically charged concert tour in 2003 . Riot Act was the band 's last album of all @-@ new material for Epic . The album received mostly positive reviews , and has been certified gold by the RIAA in the United States .

= = Recording = =

Producer Adam Kasper was brought in to work with the band on its seventh album . Kasper had engineered other Pearl Jam albums , and was brought to produce following a suggestion by drummer Matt Cameron , who worked with Kasper on his previous groups Wellwater Conspiracy and Soundgarden . Riot Act was recorded in two sessions in February 2002 and April 2002 at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . The album was mixed by Brendan O 'Brien at Studio X.

Similar to the process for Yield and Binaural , band members worked on material individually before starting the recording sessions together . According to Cameron , everyone in the band had " four or five " ideas coming into the sessions , and there was " a lot to just kind of weed through and work on . " The band often recorded material intended to be demo recordings , but lead vocalist Eddie Vedder would come along and record his vocals afterwards , stating , " I just sang it , that 's the take . " Regarding the creative process , guitarist Stone Gossard said that while playing alone " the anal @-@ retentive side of you goes , ' I think I could play better . ' " , but when reuniting " the entire band goes ' No , it 's great as it is , ' then you just get in the mood and embrace it . " Gossard stated that " the process of letting go is constant in this band " , adding that bandmembers would arrive with " a clear idea of what a song is going to be " but eschew for other musical ideas while discussing the song with the group . Riot Act was the first Pearl Jam album to feature Kenneth " Boom " Gaspar on Keyboards , most notably on the song " Love Boat Captain " . According to Gaspar , the song initially developed out of a jam session he had with Vedder in Hawaii shortly after the two first met . When they were done , Vedder asked Gaspar if he was " ready to go to Seattle . " According to Gossard , bringing in Gaspar was about being " open to new things , " while Vedder stated Gaspar " was able to find his place " and fit in easily with the band dynamics . Guitarist Mike McCready said that he had always wanted the band to feature keyboards .

McCready described the recording environment as " a pretty positive one " and " very intense and spiritual . " Cameron said that producer Adam Kasper created a " really relaxed " atmosphere and that the band was able to complete lot of material in a short amount of time . Vedder set up his typewriter in a corner of the studio and would write lyrics as the band members played their material . Most of the album was recorded live , with Cameron describing the album as " our anti @-@ Pro Tools record . " Gossard said that the band fed off Cameron 's playing as well as Vedder 's excitement about the recording process .

= = Music and lyrics = =

Riot Act features a diverse sound , including folk @-@ based and experimental songs . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said " Riot Act is the album that Pearl Jam has been wanting to make since Vitalogy — a muscular art rock record , one that still hits hard but that 's filled with ragged edges and odd detours . " Gossard said " Riot Act really seems to showcase all of our thing . There 's the simple rock songs we could have written in the earlier era , but it covers all the different times and dynamics we 've had and still holds together . " The musical experiments also lead several songs on the album to use alternate tunings , including " You Are " , " All or None " and " Bu $ hleaguer " .

The lyrics on Riot Act were more direct than on preceding records , in response to the political climate after the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks . Bassist Jeff Ament commented that he felt that love was a major theme of the album , and Vedder tried to convey themes such as love , loss and struggle to make a difference because of the difficulty in leading with events such as the September 11 attacks and the accidental death of nine fans during Pearl Jam 's performance at the 2000 Roskilde Festival - " You start feeling like , ' What do I have to say ? What is my opinion ? ' Then I realized I did have an opinion . Not only did I have one , but I felt like it was formed by processing a lot of information and having good influences . Ament also told that " I think the time 's right to turn our voice up a bit [ . . . ] And Ed did it in a great way , with humour and a mystical , magical approach . It isn 't just , ' We 're pissed off , and fuck you ! Riot ! Anarchy ! ' Cos I don 't think that 's the method . At least at this point . " Vedder , however , said , " I have to admit this record came out a bit one @-@ sided . But I think we as a country need to understand why we 're involved in the Middle East . This hollow patriotism frightens me . " The singer added that the Riot Act lyrics " represent [ ed ] my state of mind these days . I 'm optimistic yet disillusioned , hopeful yet frustrated . " Several songs on the album were inspired by Roskilde tragedy , with the album 's first single , " I Am Mine " , being written by Vedder in 2000 in a hotel room before the band 's first show after Roskilde , and " Love Boat Captain " including a brief lyrical reference ( " Lost nine friends we 'll never know ... two years ago today " ) . Regarding the time period when the lyrics were being written , Vedder said , " There 's been a lot of mortality ... It 's a weird time to be writing . Roskilde changed the shape of us as people , and our filter for seeing the world changed . "

A few songs feature lyrical collaborations between Vedder and other members of the group , including one with Ament ( " Ghost " ) , one with Cameron ( " You Are " ) , and two with Gossard ( " Bu $ hleaguer " and " All or None " ) . Sole lyrical contributions from band members other than Vedder include Cameron with " Get Right " and Ament with " Help Help " . The album 's lyrics tackle existential matters ( " Love Boat Captain " , " Cropduster " , and " I Am Mine " ) , as well as social and political concerns ( " Green Disease " , " Bu $ hleaguer " , and " 1 / 2 Full " ) . The lyrics of " Save You " represent the anger felt by anyone who watches a close friend waste away his or her life . Regarding " Love Boat Captain " , Vedder said , " Love is one resource that the corporations aren 't going to be able to monopolize . " Vedder said that " Cropduster " is " about man 's giant ego , that he 's the most important thing on the planet . " Regarding " Green Disease " , Vedder stated he was " mystified " at CEO and corporate @-@ management salaries and " how someone can justify taking that much at the cost of other people 's livelihoods . " " Bu $ hleaguer " is a satirical commentary on President George W. Bush .

= = Packaging = =

The album 's cover art , photographed by Ament , features two skeletons wearing crowns , suggesting the possibility that the two represent a king and a queen . The forged metal figurines were created by blacksmith Kelly Gilliam . According to Ament , the band had trouble coming up with a name for the album . After the artwork had been finalized and the tracks were sequenced , the band spent weeks trying to come up with a title . Vedder suggested Riot Act , and the band members went with it as they were tired with trying to come up with a title . McCready stated that the title has no real significance . He said , " I guess we were trying to come up with a title that reflected some of the music on the record , which we thought was urgent @-@ sounding and kind of loud ... It just seemed to fit . " Ament implied that the title has to do with " getting your act together . "

= = Tour = =

Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in Australia , Japan , and North America in 2003 . The tours were the band 's first with keyboardist Boom Gaspar . The two legs of the North American tour focused on the Midwestern United States , the East Coast , and the West Coast , and had more concerts in arenas . The trauma of Roskilde lead the tour to lack performances on festivals and open floor venues .

The band received much publicity for its energetic politically charged performances during the tour . At many shows during the 2003 North American tour , Vedder performed " Bu $ hleaguer " with a rubber mask of George W. Bush , wearing it at the beginning of the song and then hanging it on a mic stand to allow him to sing . The band made news when it was reported that several fans left after Vedder had " impaled " the Bush mask on his mic stand at the band 's April 1 , 2003 show in Denver , Colorado show at the Pepsi Center . Following a performance of the song at Pearl Jam 's April 30 , 2003 show in Uniondale , New York at the Nassau Coliseum , the band was met with boos from the crowd and chants of " U @-@ S @-@ A. " Vedder responded by defending his right to free speech and the band followed with a performance of The Clash 's " Know Your Rights " . The song " Arc " was performed by Vedder at nine shows during the second North American leg of the tour as a tribute to the victims of the Roskilde disaster . The concerts were documented by a long series of official bootlegs , all of which were available through the band 's official website , and six of which were released in record stores : Perth , Tokyo , State College , Pennsylvania , two shows from Madison Square Garden , and Mansfield , Massachusetts . Two concerts became DVDs , the Seattle one being issued as Live at the Showbox , and the first of two shows at Madison Square Garden was released as the Live at the Garden DVD . Pearl Jam also supported the album 's material at a series of political rallies and benefit concerts while preparing for its eighth studio album .

= = Release and reception = =

= = = Commercial performance = = =

Riot Act reached number five in the U.S. on the Billboard 200 album chart , with 166 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week of release . The album would end up selling only 508 @,@ 000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan , short of the 718 @,@ 000 sold by predecessor Binaural . Riot Act has been certified gold by the RIAA . The international response to Riot Act was more positive . The album topped the charts in Australia , where it went platinum and ended among the best @-@ selling records of the year in both 2002 and 2003 . Riot Act also went to number two in both Italy , and New Zealand , three in Norway , and number four in Canada .

Three singles were released from Riot Act . Lead single " I Am Mine " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 43 , and reached number six on the Modern Rock charts . While " Save You " was released as the second single for North America , " Love Boat Captain " was the second single for international markets . " Save You " did not chart on the Hot 100 , but it did place on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts . Music videos for several songs from the album , including " I Am Mine " , " Save You " , " Love Boat Captain " , " Thumbing My Way " , and " 1 / 2 Full " , were filmed at Seattle 's Chop Suey club in September 2002 .

= = = Critical response = = =

Riot Act received mixed to favorable reviews from music critics according to Metacritic , where it holds a 73 after 20 reviews . NME gave Riot Act an eight out of ten . Reviewer Louis Pattison stated that " Riot Act is the sound of a band entering a powerful middle @-@ age . They still deserve your attention . " AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars , saying " given several plays , this does indeed seem like the richest record Pearl Jam has made in a long time . " Spin gave the album seven out of ten stars . The review said , " Pearl Jam 's seventh studio album balances emotive bombast with a taut @-@ sweaty hard @-@ rock attack . " Critic Robert Christgau described Pearl Jam on the album as " masters of their own audio , with soft spots where their emotions can go . " Rolling Stone staff writer Keith Harris gave the album three out of five stars , saying that " like Neil Young at his most deliberately despondent , Pearl Jam sound purposefully tired . " Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B , saying that Vedder ’ s lyrics " rarely cohere , " and that " too few of the tense rhythmic setups build to the kind of ... catharsis that would be something to Riot home about . " Q gave the album three out of five stars . The review called the album " An adult rock record in which nuance succeeds over bombast . "

Hugo Lindgren of The New York Times stated that the " record sounds as if it were made to slip quietly into the marketplace , connect with the faithful and leave everyone else alone , " and that " there 's no catchy single , and not even the slightest echo of anything else happening in pop music now . " He added that the " band 's grooves still sound taut , emotive and world @-@ class . " Adam Sweeting of The Guardian gave the album two out of five stars . In the review he stated that " Riot Act isn 't one thing or the other : tracks such as " Ghost " or " Get Right " gesture towards hard rock without really putting the hammer down , while a more reflective piece like " All or None " doesn 't exploit its own possibilities . " Sweeting observed , " On full , Pearl Jam sound like Stillwater , Cameron Crowe 's fictional 1970s second @-@ raters from his film Almost Famous . " Kyle Reiter of Pitchfork Media said that the album " meanders from one song to the next with an overwhelming insipidness , " and stated that it " [ brings ] them ever closer to homogenous bar @-@ band territory . "

= = Track listing = =

All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder , except where noted .

= = = Outtakes = = =

The album 's singles featured three B @-@ sides from the Riot Act recording sessions that weren 't included on the album : " Down , " " Undone " and " Other Side . " " Down " and " Undone " were B @-@ sides on the " I Am Mine " single , and " Other Side " was featured on the " Save You " and " Love Boat Captain " singles . All three songs were included on the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities , although " Undone " appeared in a slightly different form . McCready said that " Down " came out lighter than intended , and was ultimately left off Riot Act because it did not fit with the other songs on the album . Also recorded during the sessions was " 4 / 20 / 02 , " a song honoring Alice in Chains frontman Layne Staley which Vedder wrote the same day that he heard the news of Staley 's death . According to Vedder , " 4 / 20 / 02 " was not included on Riot Act because the band already had too many songs . It was included on Lost Dogs as well , albeit in the form of a hidden track . A recording of " Severed Hand , " a song that later appeared on the band 's next studio album Pearl Jam , was attempted during the recording sessions ; however the band only spent a few hours on the song before it was shelved . " Last Soldier , " which appeared on the band 's 2001 fan club Christmas single as a live version recorded at the 2001 Bridge School Benefit , was written by McCready following September 11 , 2001 . McCready said the band played around with the song , but never seriously considered recording it for Riot Act .

= = Personnel = =

= Oasis ( band ) =

Oasis were an English rock band formed in Manchester in 1991 . Developed from an earlier group , the Rain , the band originally consisted of Liam Gallagher ( vocals and tambourine ) , Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs ( guitar ) , Paul " Guigsy " McGuigan ( bass guitar ) , and Tony McCarroll ( drums , percussion ) . They were later joined by Liam 's older brother Noel Gallagher ( lead guitar and vocals ) as a fifth member , becoming the band 's settled line @-@ up until April 1995 .

Oasis signed to independent record label Creation Records in 1993 and released their record @-@ setting debut album Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) . The following year the band recorded ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 ) with their new drummer Alan White , formerly of Starclub , in the midst of a chart rivalry with Britpop peers Blur . Along with Suede , Pulp and the aforementioned Blur , Oasis came to be regarded as a component of the Britpop " big four " , and the Gallagher brothers were featured regularly in tabloid newspapers for their sibling disputes and wild lifestyles . In 1997 Oasis released their third album , Be Here Now ( 1997 ) , and although it became the fastest @-@ selling album in UK chart history , the album 's popularity tapered off quickly , not before selling 8 million copies . McGuigan and Arthurs left Oasis in 1999 as the band went on to record and release Standing on the Shoulder of Giants ( 2000 ) . After their departures , they were replaced by former Heavy Stereo guitarist / frontman Gem Archer and former Hurricane No. 1 guitarist / frontman Andy Bell who joined the group for the tour in support of Standing on the Shoulder of Giants , which had moderate success . Their fifth studio album Heathen Chemistry ( 2002 ) saw Noel Gallagher 's releasing strict creative control in the band 's output with all members contributing songs , which led to more relaxed recording sessions . In 2004 the band were joined by The Who 's drummer Zak Starkey , replacing Alan White , and found renewed success and popularity with Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 ) .

Following the recording of the band 's seventh album Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 ) , Starkey left and was replaced by Chris Sharrock on Oasis ' last tour as a collective band . During the tour the brothers ' increasingly deteriorating relationship ultimately led to Noel Gallagher announcing in August 2009 that he would be leaving the band after a backstage altercation with Liam before a festival appearance . The band , comprising the remaining members of Oasis and led by Liam Gallagher , decided to continue working together under the name Beady Eye until breaking up in 2014 , while Noel went on to form his solo project Noel Gallagher 's High Flying Birds .

Oasis have had eight UK number @-@ one singles and eight UK number @-@ one albums , and won fifteen NME Awards , nine Q Awards , four MTV Europe Music Awards and six Brit Awards , including one in 2007 for Outstanding Contribution to Music and one for the Best Album of the Last 30 Years as voted by BBC Radio 2 listeners ; they have been nominated for three Grammy Awards . By 2009 , the band had sold over 70 million records worldwide . The band were listed in the Guinness World Records book in 2010 for " Longest Top 10 UK Chart Run by a Group " after an unprecedented run of 22 top 10 hits in the UK . The band also holds the Guinness World Record for being the most successful act in the UK between the years 1995 and 2005 , spending 765 weeks in the Top 75 singles and albums charts .

= = History = =

= = = Formation and early years : 1991 – 92 = = =

Oasis evolved from an earlier band called the Rain , composed of Paul McGuigan ( bass guitar ) , Paul Arthurs ( guitar ) , Tony McCarroll ( drums ) and Chris Hutton ( vocals ) . Unsatisfied with Hutton , Arthurs invited and auditioned acquaintance Liam Gallagher as a replacement . Liam suggested that the band name be changed to Oasis . This change was inspired by an Inspiral Carpets tour poster that hung in the Gallagher brothers ' bedroom . One of the venues the poster listed was the Oasis Leisure Centre in Swindon , Wiltshire .

Oasis played their first ever live gig on 18 August 1991 at the Boardwalk club in Manchester . Liam 's brother Noel Gallagher , who was a roadie for Inspiral Carpets , went with the band to watch his younger brother 's band play . Whilst Noel and his friends did not think Oasis sounded particularly spectacular , he did begin to consider the possibility of using his brother 's group as a possible outlet for a series of songs he had been writing for several years . Noel approached the group about joining with the proviso that he would become the band 's sole songwriter and leader , and that they would commit to an earnest pursuit of commercial success . " He had loads of stuff written , " Arthurs recalled . " When he walked in , we were a band making a racket with four tunes . All of a sudden , there were loads of ideas . " Oasis under Noel Gallagher crafted a musical approach that relied on simplicity , with Arthurs and McGuigan restricted to playing barre chords and root bass notes ; McCarroll playing basic rhythms , and the band 's amplifiers turned up to create distortion , Oasis created a sound " so devoid of finesse and complexity that it came out sounding pretty much unstoppable . "

= = = Definitely Maybe : 1993 – 94 = = =

After over a year of live shows , rehearsals and a recording of a proper demo ( known as the Live Demonstration tape ) , the band 's big break came in May 1993 when they were spotted by Creation Records co @-@ owner Alan McGee . Oasis were invited to play a gig at King Tut 's Wah Wah Hut club in Glasgow , Scotland , by a band called Sister Lovers , who shared their rehearsal rooms . Oasis , along with a group of friends , found the money to hire a van and make the journey to Glasgow . When they arrived , they were refused entry to the club as they were not on that night 's set list , which reportedly caused the band to bully their way in ( although both the band and McGee have given contradicting statements about how they actually managed to get into the club on that night ) . They were given the opening slot and impressed McGee , who was there to see 18 Wheeler , one of his own bands , that night . McGee was so impressed by what he saw he offered them a recording contract then and there ; they however did not sign until several months later . Due to problems securing an American contract , Oasis ended up signing a worldwide contract with Sony , which in turn licensed Oasis to Creation in the UK . Following a limited white label release of the demo of their song " Columbia " , their first single , " Supersonic " , was released in April 1994 , reaching number 31 in the charts . The release was followed by " Shakermaker " . This song would become the subject of a plagiarism suit , with Oasis paying $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages . Their third single , " Live Forever " , was their first to enter the top ten of the UK charts . After troubled recording and mixing sessions , their debut album , Definitely Maybe , was released on 29 August 1994 , entering the charts at number one within a week of its release , and at the time becoming the fastest selling debut album in the UK .

The best part of a year of constant live performances and recordings , along with a hedonistic lifestyle , were taking their toll on the band . This behaviour culminated during a gig in Los Angeles in September 1994 , leading to inept performance by Liam during which he made offensive remarks about American audiences and hit Noel with a tambourine . The incident upset Noel to such an extent that he temporarily quit the band immediately after and flew to San Francisco ( it was from this incident that the song " Talk Tonight " was written ) . He was tracked down by Creation 's Tim Abbot and they made a trip to Las Vegas . Once there , the elder Gallagher was persuaded to continue with the band . He reconciled with his brother and the tour resumed in Minneapolis . The group followed up the fourth single from Definitely Maybe , " Cigarettes & Alcohol " , with the Christmas single " Whatever " , which entered the British charts at number three . This song would later carry a co @-@ writer 's credit for Neil Innes , who sued and also won damages .

= = = ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? : 1995 = = =

Oasis had their first UK number one single in April 1995 with " Some Might Say " . At the same time , drummer Tony McCarroll was ousted from the band . McCarroll said , on leaving Oasis , that he was " unlawfully expelled from the partnership " for what he called a " personality clash " with the brothers . The Gallaghers , on the other hand , doubted McCarroll 's musical ability , with Noel saying : " I like Tony as a geezer but he wouldn 't have been able to drum the new songs " . McCarroll was replaced by Alan White , formerly of Starclub and younger brother of renowned studio percussionist Steve White , whom Paul Weller recommended to Noel . White made his debut for the band at a Top of the Pops performance of " Some Might Say " . Oasis began recording material for their second album in May of that year in Rockfield Studios near Monmouth . The band , by this point , had recorded the concert that would see release in August as Live by the Sea .

During this period , the British press seized upon a supposed rivalry between Oasis and Britpop band Blur . Previously , Oasis did not associate themselves with the Britpop movement and were not invited to perform on the BBC 's " Britpop Now " programme introduced by Blur singer Damon Albarn . On 14 August 1995 , Blur and Oasis released new singles on the same day , setting up " The Battle of Britpop " that dominated the national news . Blur 's " Country House " outsold Oasis ' " Roll with It " 274 @,@ 000 copies to 216 @,@ 000 during the week . Oasis ' management came up with several reasons for this , claiming " Country House " sold more because it was less expensive ( £ 1 @.@ 99 vs £ 3 @.@ 99 ) and because there were two different versions of " Country House " with different B @-@ sides forcing serious fans to buy two copies . An alternative explanation given at the time by Creation was that there were problems associated with the barcode on the " Roll with It " single case , which did not record all sales . Noel Gallagher told The Observer in September that he hoped Damon Albarn and Alex James of Blur would " catch AIDS and die " , which caused a media furore . He subsequently apologised for this in a formal letter to various publications .

Bassist Paul McGuigan briefly left the band in September 1995 , citing nervous exhaustion . He was replaced by Scott McLeod , formerly of The Ya Ya 's , who was featured on some of the tour dates as well as in the " Wonderwall " video before leaving abruptly while on tour in the US . McLeod later contacted Noel Gallagher claiming he felt he had made the wrong decision . Gallagher curtly replied " I think you have too . Good luck signing on . " To complete the tour , McGuigan was successfully convinced to return to the band .

Although a softer sound led to mixed reviews , Oasis ' second album , ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? was a commercial success , becoming the fourth best @-@ selling album in UK Chart history with over four million copies sold . The album spawned two further hit singles , " Wonderwall " and " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , which reached numbers two and one respectively . It also contained the non @-@ UK single " Champagne Supernova " — featuring guitar and backing vocals by Paul Weller — that received widespread critical acclaim and peaked at number one on the US modern rock chart .

= = = Be Here Now : 1996 – 98 = = =

The group played their first headline outdoor concerts at Maine Road football stadium , home of Manchester City F.C. whom the Gallagher brothers have been fans of since childhood , on 27 and 28 April 1996 . Highlights from the second night featured on the video ... There and Then , released later the same year . As their career reached its zenith , Oasis performed back @-@ to @-@ back concerts at Knebworth on 10 and 11 August . The band sold out both shows within minutes . The audience of 125 @,@ 000 people each night for two nights ( 2 @.@ 5 million people applied for tickets , and 250 @,@ 000 were actually sold , meaning the possibility of 20 sold out nights ) , was at the time a record @-@ breaking number for an outdoor concert held in the UK , and to this day the largest demand for a show in British history .

The rest of the month proved to be difficult for the group . Oasis were due to record an episode of MTV Unplugged at the Royal Festival Hall but Liam pulled out , citing a sore throat . He watched the performance from a balcony with cold beer and cigarettes , heckling Noel 's singing between songs . Four days later the group left for a tour of American arenas but Liam refused to go ; the band decided to continue the tour with Noel on vocals . Liam rejoined the tour on 30 August , and on 4 September 1996 , Oasis performed " Champagne Supernova " at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards at Radio City Music Hall in New York City . Liam made gestures at Noel during his guitar solo , then spat beer all over the stage before storming off . A few weeks later Noel flew home without the band , who followed on another flight . This event prompted media speculation that the group were splitting up . The brothers soon reconciled and decided to complete the tour .

Oasis spent the end of 1996 and the first quarter of 1997 at Abbey Road Studios in London and Ridge Farm Studios in Surrey recording their third album . Quarrels between the Gallagher brothers plagued the recording sessions . Be Here Now was released in August 1997 . Preceded by the UK number one single " D 'You Know What I Mean ? " , the album was their most anticipated effort , and as such became the subject of considerable media attention . By the end of the first day of release , Be Here Now sold 424 @,@ 000 units and by the end of business on Saturday of that week sales had reached 696 @,@ 000 , making it the fastest @-@ selling album in British history . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 in the US , but its first week sales of 152 @,@ 000 — below expected sales of 400 @,@ 000 copies — were considered a disappointment . Although early media reviews were positive , once the hype had died down , the album was criticised for being bloated and derivative with most of the critics focused on the extensive length of several songs , the heavier sound , and overproduction .

By this time the Britpop movement was in decline , and the band had failed to meet expectations with their third album . After the conclusion of the Be Here Now Tour in early 1998 , amidst much media criticism the group kept a low profile . Later in the year , Oasis released a compilation album of fourteen B @-@ sides , entitled The Masterplan . " The really interesting stuff from around that period is the B @-@ sides . There 's a lot more inspired music on the B @-@ sides than there is on Be Here Now itself , I think " , related Noel in an interview in 2008 .

= = = Standing on the Shoulder of Giants : 1999 – 2000 = = =

In early 1999 , the band began work on their fourth studio album . First details were announced in February with Mark " Spike " Stent revealed to be taking a co @-@ producing role . Things were not going well and the shock departure of founding member Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs was announced in August . This departure was reported at the time as amicable , with Noel stating that Arthurs wanted to spend more time with his family . Arthurs ' statement clarified his leaving as " to concentrate on other things " . However , Noel has since offered a contradicting version : that a series of violations of Noel 's " no drink or drugs " policy ( imposed by Noel so that Liam could sing properly ) for the album 's sessions resulted in a confrontation between the two . Two weeks later the departure of bassist Paul McGuigan was announced . The Gallagher brothers held a press conference shortly thereafter where they assured reporters that " the future of Oasis is secure . The story and the glory will go on . "

The now three @-@ piece Oasis chose to continue recording the album , with Noel Gallagher re @-@ recording most of Arthurs ' guitar and McGuigan 's bass parts . After the completion of the recording sessions , the band began searching for replacement members . The first new member to be announced was new lead / rhythm guitarist Colin " Gem " Archer , formerly of Heavy Stereo , who later claimed to have been approached by Noel Gallagher only a couple of days after Arthurs ' departure was publicly announced . Finding a replacement bassist took more time and effort . The band were rehearsing with David Potts , but he quickly resigned , and they brought in Andy Bell , former guitarist / songwriter of Ride and Hurricane No. 1 as their new bassist . Bell had never played bass before and had to learn to play it ( with Noel since saying that Liam said , " If he can play the guitar , he can play the fookin ' bass " ) , along with a handful of songs from Oasis ' back catalogue , in preparation for a scheduled tour of America in December 1999 .

With the folding of Creation Records , Oasis formed their own label , Big Brother , which released all of Oasis ' subsequent records in the UK and Ireland . Oasis ' fourth album , Standing on the Shoulder of Giants , was released in February 2000 to good first @-@ week sales . It peaked at number one on the British charts and number 24 on the Billboard charts . Three singles were released from the album : " Go Let It Out " , " Who Feels Love ? " and " Sunday Morning Call " , all of which were top five UK singles . The " Go Let It Out " video was shot before Bell joined the group and therefore featured the unusual line @-@ up of Liam on rhythm guitar , Archer on lead guitar and Noel on bass . With the departure of the founding members , the band made several small changes to their image and sound . The cover featured a new " Oasis " logo , designed by Gem Archer , and the album was also the first Oasis release to include a song written by Liam Gallagher , entitled " Little James " . The songs also had more experimental , psychedelic influences . Standing on the Shoulder of Giants received only lukewarm reviews and is the band 's lowest selling studio album .

To support the record the band staged an eventful world tour . While touring in Barcelona in 2000 , Oasis were forced to cancel a gig when an attack of tendinitis caused Alan White 's arm to seize up , and the band spent the night drinking instead . After a row between the two brothers , Noel declared he was quitting touring overseas altogether , and Oasis were supposed to finish the tour without him . Noel eventually returned for the Irish and British legs of the tour , which included two major shows at Wembley Stadium . A live album of the first show , called Familiar to Millions , was released in late 2000 to mixed reviews .

= = = Heathen Chemistry : 2001 – 03 = = =

Throughout 2001 , Oasis split time between sessions for their fifth studio album and live shows around the world . Some gigs included the month @-@ long Tour of Brotherly Love with The Black Crowes and Spacehog and a show in Paris supporting Neil Young . The album , Heathen Chemistry , Oasis ' first album with new members Andy Bell and Gem Archer , was released in July 2002 . The album reached number 1 in the UK and number 23 in the US , although critics gave it mixed reviews . There were four singles released from the album : " The Hindu Times " , " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " , " Little by Little / She Is Love " , and " Songbird " , written by Liam – Oasis ' first single not written by Noel . The record blended the band 's sonic experiments from their last albums , but also went for a more basic rock sound . The recording of Heathen Chemistry was much more balanced for the band , with all of the members , apart from White , writing songs . Johnny Marr provided additional guitar as well as backup vocals on a couple of songs .

After the album 's release , the band embarked on a successful world tour that was once again filled with incidents . In late summer 2002 , whilst the band were on tour in the US , Noel , Bell and touring keyboardist Jay Darlington were involved in a car accident in Indianapolis . While none of the band members sustained any major injuries , some shows were cancelled as a result . In December 2002 , the latter half of the German leg of the band 's European tour had to be postponed after Liam Gallagher , Alan White and three other members of the band 's entourage were arrested after a violent brawl at a Munich nightclub . The band had been drinking heavily and tests showed that Liam had used cocaine . Liam lost two front teeth and kicked a police officer in the ribs , while Alan suffered minor head injuries after getting hit with an ashtray . Two years later Liam was fined around £ 40 @,@ 000 . The band finished their tour in March 2003 after returning to those postponed dates .

= = = Don 't Believe the Truth : 2004 – 06 = = =

Liam Gallagher said Oasis began recording a sixth album in late December 2003 with producers Death in Vegas at Sawmills Studios in Cornwall . The album was originally planned for a September 2004 release to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the release of Definitely Maybe . However , long @-@ time drummer Alan White , who at this time had played on nearly all of the band 's material , left the band in early January 2004 . At the time , his brother Steve White stated on his own website that " the spirit of being in a band was kicked out of him " and he wanted to be with his current girlfriend . White was replaced by Zak Starkey , drummer of The Who and the son of The Beatles ' Ringo Starr . Though Starkey performed on studio recordings and toured with the band , he was not officially a member and the band were a four @-@ piece for the first time in their career . Starkey played publicly for the first time at Poole Lighthouse .

A few days later , Oasis , with Starkey , headlined the Glastonbury Festival for the second time in their career and performed a largely greatest hits set , which included two new songs — Gem Archer 's " A Bell Will Ring " and Liam Gallagher 's " The Meaning of Soul " . The performance received negative reviews , with NME calling it a " disaster . " The BBC 's Tom Bishop called Oasis ' set " lacklustre and uneventful ... prompting a mixed reception from fans " , mainly because of Liam 's uninspired singing and Starkey 's lack of experience with the band 's material .

After much turbulence , the band 's sixth album was finally recorded in Los Angeles @-@ based Capitol Studios from October to December the same year . Producer Dave Sardy took over the lead producing role from Noel , who decided to step back from these duties after a decade of producing leadership over the band . In May 2005 , after three years and as many scrapped recording sessions , the band released their sixth studio album , Don 't Believe the Truth , fulfilling their contract with Sony BMG . It followed the path of Heathen Chemistry as being a collaborative project again , rather than a Noel @-@ written album . The album was the first in a decade not to feature drumming by Alan White , marking the recording debut of Starkey . The record was generally hailed as the band 's best effort since Morning Glory by fans and critics alike , spawning two UK number one singles : " Lyla " and " The Importance of Being Idle " , whilst " Let There Be Love " entered at number 2 . Oasis picked up two awards at the Q Awards : one People 's Choice Award and the second for Don 't Believe the Truth as Best Album . Following in the footsteps of Oasis ' previous five albums , Don 't Believe the Truth also entered the UK album charts at number one . To date the album has sold more than 7 million copies worldwide .

In May 2005 , the band 's new line @-@ up embarked on a large scale world tour . Beginning on 10 May 2005 at the London Astoria , and finishing on 31 March 2006 in front of a sold out gig in Mexico City , Oasis played more live shows than at any time since the Definitely Maybe tour , visiting 26 countries and headlining 113 shows for over 3 @.@ 2 million people . The tour passed without any major incidents and was the band 's most successful in more than a decade . The tour included sold out shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden and LA 's Hollywood Bowl . A rockumentary film made during the tour , entitled Lord Don 't Slow Me Down directed by Dick Carruthers was released in October 2007 . A second DVD included live footage from an Oasis gig in Manchester from 2 July 2005 .

Oasis released a compilation double album entitled Stop the Clocks in 2006 , featuring what the band considers to be their " definitive " songs . The band received the Brit Award for outstanding contribution to music in February 2007 , playing several of their most famous songs afterwards . Oasis released their first ever digital @-@ only release , " Lord Don 't Slow Me Down " , in October 2007 . The song debuted at number ten in the UK singles chart .

= = = Dig Out Your Soul : 2007 – 09 = = =

The band 's resurgence in popularity since the success of Don 't Believe The Truth was highlighted in February 2008 when , in a poll to find the fifty greatest British albums of the last fifty years conducted by Q magazine and HMV , two Oasis albums were voted first and second ( Definitely Maybe and ( What 's The Story ) Morning Glory ? respectively ) . Two other albums by the band appeared in the list – Don 't Believe The Truth came in at number fourteen , and the album that has previously been heavily criticised by some of the media , Be Here Now , made the list at No.22.

Oasis recorded for a couple of months in 2007 – between July and September — completing work on two new songs and demoing the rest . They took a two @-@ month break , because of the birth of Noel 's son . The band re @-@ entered the studio on 5 November 2007 and finished recording around March 2008 with producer Dave Sardy . In May 2008 , Zak Starkey left the band after recording Dig Out Your Soul , the band 's seventh studio album . He was replaced by former Icicle Works drummer Chris Sharrock on their tour and , like Zak , Chris was not an official member of the band and Oasis remained as a four @-@ piece . The first single from the record was " The Shock of the Lightning " written by Noel Gallagher , and was pre @-@ released on 29 September 2008 . Dig Out Your Soul , the band 's seventh studio album , was released on 6 October and went to number one in the UK and number five on the Billboard 200 . The band started touring for a projected 18 @-@ month @-@ long tour expected to last till September 2009 , with support from Kasabian , The Enemy and Twisted Wheel . On 7 September 2008 , while performing at Virgin Festival in Toronto , a member of the audience ran on stage and physically assaulted Noel . Noel suffered three broken and dislodged ribs as a result from the attack , and the group had to cancel several shows while he recovered . In June 2008 , the band re @-@ signed with Sony BMG for a three @-@ album deal .

On 25 February 2009 , Oasis received the NME Award for Best British Band of 2009 as well as best blog for Noel 's ' Tales from the Middle of Nowhere ' .

On 4 June 2009 , Oasis played the first of three concerts at Manchester 's Heaton Park and after having to leave the stage twice due to a generator failure , came on the third time to declare the gig was now a free concert ; it delighted the 70 @,@ 000 ticket holders , 20 @,@ 000 of whom claimed the refund . The band 's two following gigs at the venue , on 6 and 7 June , proved a great success , with fans turning out in their thousands despite the changeable weather and first night 's sound issues .

= = = Split and aftermath : 2009 – present = = =

As a result of Liam suffering laryngitis , Oasis cancelled a planned gig at V Festival in Chelmsford on 23 August 2009 . Noel Gallagher later made a statement saying the gig was cancelled due to Liam having ' a hangover ' . Tension between the brothers rose and a fight between them in a backstage area on 28 August 2009 reportedly resulted in Liam throwing a plum and wielding Noel 's guitar like an axe . The group 's manager announced the cancellation of their concert at the Rock en Seine festival near Paris just minutes before it was about to begin , along with the cancellation of the last date at I @-@ Day Festival and a statement that the group " does not exist anymore " . Two hours later , a statement from Noel appeared on the band 's website :

" It is with some sadness and great relief ... I quit Oasis tonight . People will write and say what they like , but I simply could not go on working with Liam a day longer . "

On the 6th of July 2011 Absolute Radio uploaded a video to YouTube where Noel Gallagher speaks about the night Oasis ended . Noel states within this video . ' If i had my time again i would have gone back and done the gig . I 'd have done that gig and i 'd have done the next gig and we 'd have all gone away and we could have probably discussed it . We may never have split up.'

On 16 February 2010 , Oasis won the award for Best Brit Album of the Last 30 Years at the 2010 Brit Awards . Liam Gallagher collected the award alone before presenting his speech , which thanked Bonehead , McGuigan and Alan White but not his brother , Noel . Liam threw his microphone and the band 's award into the crowd . On 15 March 2010 , Liam defended his actions at the awards ceremony , saying " I 'm sick of it all being about me and Noel , the last couple of months has pretty much been all about me and him so I thought it was only right to mention the other lads who played on the album and the best fans in the world , " and " I thought it was a nice gesture to give this to the fans , obviously it was misinterpreted as per usual . " about throwing the award .

Time Flies ... 1994 – 2009 , a compilation album containing singles by the group , was released on 14 June 2010 . The decision to make the compilation a singles collection , and the track order , was decided by Noel Gallagher , who released a number of videos to the Oasis YouTube account relating to the collection .

On 26 February 2014 , Noel via the band 's official website announced that the first three studio albums would be reissued , remastered and re @-@ released throughout the remainder of 2014 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Definitely Maybe . A remastered 3 @-@ disc version of Definitely Maybe was released on 19 May 2014 .

A documentary titled Supersonic is set to be released in October 2016 , and will tell the story of Oasis from their beginnings to the height of their fame during the summer of 1996 . Produced by the same team behind the Academy Award @-@ winning biopic Amy , Supersonic is said to feature up close and personal footage , as well as never before seen archive material and interviews with the band .

= = Influences = =

Oasis were most heavily influenced by the Beatles , an influence that was frequently labelled as an " obsession " by the British media . In addition , members of Oasis have cited the Stone Roses , U2 , Bee Gees , T. Rex , Sex Pistols , Slade , Small Faces , the Who , Nirvana , the Rolling Stones , the Stooges , the La 's , the Doors , Jimi Hendrix , Bob Dylan , Neil Young , Humble Pie , Happy Mondays , the Hollies , Inspiral Carpets , Peter Green @-@ era Fleetwood Mac , the Kinks , the Jam , Pink Floyd , the Verve , Led Zeppelin , David Bowie , the Velvet Underground , Talking Heads , and the Smiths as an influence or inspiration .

= = Legal battles over songwriter credits = =

Legal action has been taken against Noel Gallagher and Oasis for plagiarism on three separate occasions during the course of Oasis ' career . The first was the case of Neil Innes ( formerly of the Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band and the Rutles ) suing to prove the Oasis song " Whatever " borrowed from his song " How Sweet to Be an Idiot " . Innes was eventually awarded royalties and a co @-@ writer credit . Noel Gallagher claimed in 2010 that the plagiarism was unintentional and he was unaware of the similarities until informed of Innes 's legal case . In the second incident , Oasis were also sued by Coca @-@ Cola and forced to pay $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages to the New Seekers after it was alleged that the Oasis song " Shakermaker " had lifted words and melody from " I 'd Like to Teach the World to Sing " . When asked about the incident , Noel Gallagher joked " Now we all drink Pepsi . " On the third and final occasion , when promotional copies of ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? were originally distributed , they contained a previously unreleased bonus song called " Step Out " . This promotional CD was quickly withdrawn and replaced with a version that omitted the controversial song , which was allegedly similar to the Stevie Wonder song " Uptight ( Everything 's Alright ) " . " Step Out " later reappeared as the B @-@ side to " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , albeit now listing " Wonder , et. al " as co @-@ writers .

On the flip side , the 2003 song " Life Got Cold " by UK girl band Girls Aloud received attention due to similarities between the guitar riff and melody of " Life Got Cold " and that of the song " Wonderwall " . A BBC review stated " part of the chorus sounds like it is going to turn into Wonderwall by Oasis . " A source told The Sun that Girls Aloud " are all big Oasis fans so I 'm sure they won 't mind comparisons with their classic love song . " Warner / Chappell Music has since credited Oasis songwriter Noel Gallagher .

= = Legacy and influence = =

Many bands and artists have cited Oasis as an influence or inspiration , including the Killers , Arctic Monkeys , the Enemy , Elliott Smith , Lily Allen , the View , Drake Bell , Hurts , Coldplay , Maroon 5 , the Coral , Ryan Adams , the Kooks , the Rifles , the Pigeon Detectives , Keane and Kasabian .

= = Band members = =

Liam Gallagher – lead vocals , tambourine , acoustic guitar ( 1991 – 2009 )

Noel Gallagher – lead guitar , acoustic guitar , rhythm guitar , vocals , bass , keyboard ( 1991 – 2009 )

Gem Archer – rhythm guitar , lead guitar , acoustic guitar , harmonica ( 1999 – 2009 )

Andy Bell – bass , acoustic guitar ( 1999 – 2009 )

Alan White – drums , percussion ( 1995 – 2004 )

Paul " Guigsy " McGuigan – bass ( 1991 – 1999 )

Paul " Bonehead " Arthurs – rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar , piano ( 1991 – 1999 )

Tony McCarroll – drums ( 1991 – 1995 )

Touring musicians

Jay Darlington – keyboard ( 2004 – 2009 )

Zak Starkey – drums , percussion ( 2004 – 2008 )

Chris Sharrock – drums ( 2008 – 2009 )

= = = Timeline = = =

= = Discography = =

Studio albums

Definitely Maybe ( 1994 )

( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? ( 1995 )

Be Here Now ( 1997 )

Standing on the Shoulder of Giants ( 2000 )

Heathen Chemistry ( 2002 )

Don 't Believe the Truth ( 2005 )

Dig Out Your Soul ( 2008 )

= = Awards = =

= Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows =

Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is the seventh and final novel of the Harry Potter series , written by British author J. K. Rowling . The book was released on 21 July 2007 by Bloomsbury Publishing in the United Kingdom , in the United States by Scholastic , and in Canada by Raincoast Books , ending the series that began in 1997 with the publication of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . The novel chronicles the events directly following Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince ( 2005 ) , and the final confrontation between the wizards Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort , as well as revealing the previously concealed back story of several main characters . The title of the book refers to three mythical objects featured in the story , collectively known as the " Deathly Hallows " — an unbeatable wand , a stone to bring the dead to life , and a cloak of invisibility .

Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in January 2007 . Before its release , Bloomsbury reportedly spent £ 10 million to keep the book 's contents safe before its release date . American publisher Arthur Levine refused any copies of the novel to be released in advance for press review , although two reviews were submitted early . Shortly before release , photos of all 759 pages of the U.S. edition were leaked and transcribed , leading Scholastic to look for the source that had leaked it .

Released globally in 93 countries , Deathly Hallows broke sales records as the fastest @-@ selling book ever , a record it still held in 2012 . It sold 15 million copies in the first 24 hours following its release , including more than 11 million in the U.S. and UK alone . The previous record , 9 million in its first day , had been held by Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince . The novel has also been translated into over 120 languages . The title proved difficult to translate and was often rendered closer to " Harry Potter and the Relics of Death " in other languages .

Major themes in the novel are death and living in a corrupted society , and critics have compared them to Christian allegories . Generally well @-@ received , the book won the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award , and the American Library Association named it a " Best Book for Young Adults " . A two @-@ part film adaptation began showing in November 2010 when Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 was released ; Part 2 was released on 15 July 2011 .

= = Plot = =

= = = Background = = =

Throughout the six previous novels in the series , the titular character Harry Potter has struggled with the difficulties of adolescence along with being famous as the only wizard to survive the Killing Curse . The curse was cast by the evil Tom Riddle , better known as Lord Voldemort , a powerful evil wizard , who had murdered Harry 's parents and attempted to kill Harry as a baby , in the belief this would frustrate a prophecy that Harry would become his equal . As an orphan , Harry was placed in the care of his Muggle ( non @-@ magical ) relatives Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon .

In Philosopher 's Stone , Harry re @-@ enters the wizarding world at age 11 and enrols in Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . He makes friends with fellow students Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger , and is mentored by the school 's headmaster , Albus Dumbledore . He also meets Professor Severus Snape , who intensely dislikes and bullies him . Harry fights Voldemort several times while at school , as the wizard tries to regain a physical form . In Goblet of Fire , Harry is mysteriously entered in a dangerous magical competition called the Triwizard Tournament , which he discovers is a trap designed to allow the return of Lord Voldemort to full strength . During Order of the Phoenix , Harry and several of his friends face off against Voldemort 's Death Eaters , a group of Dark witches and wizards , and narrowly defeat them . In Half @-@ Blood Prince , Harry learns that Voldemort has divided his soul into several parts , creating " horcruxes " from various unknown objects to contain them ; in this way he has ensured his immortality as long as at least one of the horcruxes still exists . Two of these had already been destroyed , one a diary destroyed by Harry in the events of Chamber of Secrets and one a ring destroyed by Dumbledore shortly before the events of Half @-@ Blood Prince . Dumbledore takes Harry along in the attempt to destroy a third horcrux contained in a locket . However the horcrux has been taken by an unknown wizard , and upon their return Dumbledore is ambushed and disarmed by Draco Malfoy who cannot bring himself to kill him , then killed by Snape .

= = = Summary = = =

Following Dumbledore 's death , Voldemort consolidates his support and power , including covert control of the Ministry of Magic , while Harry is about to turn seventeen , losing the protection of his home . The Order of the Phoenix move Harry to a new location before his birthday , but are attacked upon departure . Mad @-@ Eye is killed , and George Weasley wounded , the rest arrive safely .

Abandoning school , Ron and Hermione accompany Harry to finish Dumbledore 's quest : to hunt and destroy Voldemort 's four remaining Horcruxes . Initially they have very few clues — one is a locket once owned by Hogwarts ' co @-@ founder Salazar Slytherin which was stolen by the mysterious " R.A.B. " , one is possibly a cup originally belonging to co @-@ founder Helga Hufflepuff , a third might be connected to co @-@ founder Rowena Ravenclaw , and the fourth might be Nagini , Voldemort 's snake familiar . They also receive apparently meaningless bequests from Dumbledore 's possessions — a Golden Snitch for Harry , a Deluminator for Ron , and a book of fairy tales for Hermione .

Before leaving , they attend Ron 's brother Bill 's wedding , but the Ministry of Magic finally falls to Voldemort and the wedding is attacked . They flee to 12 Grimmauld Place in London , the family home of Sirius Black and headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix , where they identify R.A.B. as Sirius ' brother Regulus Black , and learn from the house @-@ elf Kreacher that Slytherin 's locket was stolen from the house and then seized by Dolores Umbridge of the Ministry of Magic . They infiltrate the Ministry of Magic and take back the locket , but have no way to destroy it . Under the object 's evil influence and the strain of constant vigilance , they argue and Ron leaves .

Harry and Hermione continue the quest , discovering more about Dumbledore 's past , including the death of Dumbledore 's younger sister and his connection to the dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald . They travel to Godric 's Hollow , Harry 's birthplace and the place where his parents died , and meet the elderly magical historian Bathilda Bagshot , but she turns out to be Nagini in disguise , awaiting their arrival ; the snake attacks Harry and again they barely escape , this time to the Forest of Dean , where their luck appears to turn . A mysterious silver doe , similar to a Patronus , appears and silently guides Harry to an icy pond containing the Sword of Hogwarts co @-@ founder Godric Gryffindor , a Goblin @-@ made weapon and one of the few objects able to destroy Horcruxes . During Harry 's attempt to recover the sword , the Horcrux attempts to kill him . He is saved by Ron , who was guided back by the deluminator , and they realise Dumbledore 's gifts may be meaningful . Ron obtains the sword , and uses it to destroy the locket .

Harry continues to have visions of Voldemort torturing and killing wizards , apparently in pursuit of some object . Hermione identifies in her book , a strange symbol also worn at the wedding by Xenophilius Lovegood . They visit him and are told the symbol represents the mythical Deathly Hallows , three objects from an old fairy tale titled The Tale of the Three Brothers : the Elder Wand , an unbeatable wand ; the Resurrection Stone , able to summon the dead ; and an infallible Invisibility Cloak . Harry realises that Voldemort is seeking ( and shortly afterwards , successfully obtains ) the Elder Wand , won by Dumbledore after Grindelwald 's defeat , recognises the Resurrection Stone as that found by Dumbledore which had become the second Horcrux , and his own inherited Invisibility Cloak as the third Hallow .

The trio are captured and taken to Malfoy Manor , where Bellatrix Lestrange tortures Hermione to learn how the three acquired the sword , which she had believed was in her vault at Gringotts bank . They escape , along with Luna Lovegood , Ollivander , Dean Thomas , and the goblin Griphook , aided by the elf Dobby . During the escape Harry disarms Draco Malfoy and Dobby dies . Bellatrix ' terror in interrogating Hermione suggests to Harry that some exceptional object is in her vault , and when questioned , Griphook confirms that a gold cup is indeed in her vault . They break into the vault , retrieve the cup , and escape on a dragon , although they lose the sword . Harry has a vision of Voldemort and sees that he now understands their plan , and intends to make his remaining horcruxes even safer . The vision also confirms that the unidentified horcrux is at Hogwarts .

They enter the school through an undiscovered secret entrance . The teachers drive out Snape , and defend the school to win time for Harry to locate the penultimate horcrux . Voldemort had set a guard in the Ravenclaw tower , corroborating Harry 's belief that the horcrux is Rowena Ravenclaw 's diadem , lost centuries ago . The Ravenclaw ghost 's story further confirms this belief , and Harry remembers an old diadem in the Room of Requirement . Ron and Hermione destroy the cup with basilisk fangs from the Chamber of Secrets as Voldemort and his army besiege the castle . They find the diadem but are ambushed by Draco Malfoy and his friends Crabbe and Goyle . Crabbe tries to kill them using Fiendfyre , a cursed fire , but is unable to control it ; the fire destroys the diadem and himself . Harry and his friends save Malfoy and Goyle , and several major characters are killed in the battle , including Remus Lupin , Nymphadora Tonks , and Fred Weasley .

In his encampment , Voldemort feels that the Elder Wand is not performing as he expected . According to legend , its allegiance must be won by killing the previous owner , and Voldemort concludes — incorrectly — that as Snape killed Dumbledore , he will not be able to fully wield the wand 's power until he kills Snape , which he does . Harry arrives as Snape is dying , and Snape passes him memories to view in a pensieve . They reveal finally , that Snape had a lifelong love for Harry 's mother , and felt haunted by causing her death , that despite hating Harry 's father he agreed at Dumbledore 's request to watch over their son Harry and act as a double agent against Voldemort , that Dumbledore 's death was planned with Snape in advance , that Snape cast the doe Patronus to lead Harry to the sword , and that — apparently — he himself must die if Voldemort is to be killed . He accepts his death and Dumbledore 's scheming that has guided his life , and goes to seek out and be killed by Voldemort . On the way he tells Neville Longbottom that Voldemort 's snake Nagini — the last known horcrux — must be killed to make Voldemort vulnerable . He uses the Resurrection Stone to seek comfort and courage from his dead loved ones — his parents , Sirius and Lupin — dropping the stone in the forest before reaching Voldemort 's camp . Voldemort uses the Killing Curse and Harry does not defend himself .

Harry awakens in a dreamlike location somewhat like Kings Cross Station , and is greeted by Dumbledore who explains that Voldemort 's original Killing Curse left a fragment of Voldemort 's soul in Harry which caused the connection they had felt , that when Voldemort used Harry 's blood to regain his full strength , this further protected Harry from Voldemort , that this fragment of Voldemort 's soul has now been killed by Voldemort 's own spell , and that Harry is free to return or " go on " . Harry chooses to return and feigns death . Voldemort displays Harry 's body and offers a truce if the defenders surrender , but Neville kills Nagini with the sword , leaving Voldemort unprotected , and Harry escapes under his cloak as the battle resumes .

In a final onslaught , Bellatrix is killed and Harry reveals to Voldemort that he is alive . He explains to Voldemort that the Elder Wand 's loyalty transfers upon the defeat , not necessarily the killing , of its previous master . Although Voldemort believed he has won the wand 's allegiance by killing Snape , who killed Dumbledore , in fact he ( Harry ) had defeated Draco Malfoy who had previously disarmed Dumbledore . Therefore , the outcome of their duel will depend upon whether the Elder Wand knows its previous master was disarmed , which will have left Harry as its true master , even though neither Draco nor Harry ever physically held it . He also explains that his attempted self @-@ sacrifice has protected the remaining defendants , who can now no longer be hurt by Voldemort . Harry urges Voldemort to feel remorse , in order to save his soul . Enraged , Voldemort attempts one final Killing Curse , but the Elder Wand refuses to act against Harry and the spell rebounds , killing him finally .

After Voldemort 's death , Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his original broken wand , saying that he will return it to Dumbledore 's tomb , where its power may vanish if Harry dies undefeated and where it may drop out of history , and the wizarding world returns to peace once more .

Epilogue

In an epilogue set in King 's Cross station 19 years later , Harry and Ginny Weasley are a couple with three children : James Sirius , Albus Severus , and Lily Luna . Ron and Hermione also have two children , Rose and Hugo ; Harry 's godson Teddy Lupin , is found kissing Bill and Fleur Weasley 's daughter Victoire ; Neville Longbottom is now a Hogwarts professor ; and Draco Malfoy and his wife are also at the station to send off their son , Scorpius . Albus is departing for his first year at Hogwarts , and is worried he will be placed into Slytherin House . Harry reassures him , telling his son that he is named for two Hogwarts headmasters , and one of them ( Snape ) was a Slytherin and " the bravest man he had ever met " , but that the Sorting Hat could take account of personal preferences , as it did for Harry . The book ends with the words : " The scar had not pained Harry for nineteen years . All was well . "

= = Background = =

= = = Franchise = = =

Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury , the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom , on 30 June 1997 . It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic — the American publisher of the books — as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , after Rowling had received US $ 105 @,@ 000 for the American rights — an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then @-@ unknown author .

The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 , and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 , and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version . It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003 . Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 , and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release .

= = = Choice of title = = =

Shortly before releasing the title , J. K. Rowling announced that she had considered three titles for the book . The final title , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , named after the mythical Deathly Hallows in the novel , was released to the public on 21 December 2006 , via a special Christmas @-@ themed hangman puzzle on Rowling 's website , confirmed shortly afterwards by the book 's publishers . When asked during a live chat about the other titles she had been considering , Rowling mentioned Harry Potter and the Elder Wand and Harry Potter and the Peverell Quest .

= = = Rowling on finishing the book = = =

Rowling completed the book while staying at the Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh in January 2007 , and left a signed statement on a marble bust of Hermes in her room which read : " J. K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room ( 552 ) on 11 January 2007 " . In a statement on her website , she said , " I 've never felt such a mixture of extreme emotions in my life , never dreamed I could feel simultaneously heartbroken and euphoric . " She compared her mixed feelings to those expressed by Charles Dickens in the preface of the 1850 edition of David Copperfield , " a two @-@ years ' imaginative task " . " To which , " she added , " I can only sigh , try seventeen years , Charles " . She ended her message by saying " Deathly Hallows is my favourite , and that is the most wonderful way to finish the series " .

When asked before publication about the forthcoming book , Rowling stated that she could not change the ending even if she wanted . " These books have been plotted for such a long time , and for six books now , that they 're all leading a certain direction . So , I really can 't " . She also commented that the final volume related closely to the previous book in the series , Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , " almost as though they are two @-@ halves of the same novel " . She has said that the last chapter of the book was written " in something like 1990 " , as part of her earliest work on the series . Rowling also revealed she originally wrote the last words to be " something like : ' Only those who he loved could see his lightning scar ' " . Rowling changed this because she did not want people to think Voldemort would rise again and to say that Harry 's mission was over .

= = Major themes = =

= = = Death = = =

In a 2006 interview , J. K. Rowling said that the main theme of the series is Harry dealing with death , which was influenced by her mother 's death in 1990 , from multiple sclerosis . Lev Grossman of Time stated that the main theme of the series was the overwhelming importance of continuing to love in the face of death .

= = = Living in a corrupted society = = =

Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books , some more complex than others , and some including political subtexts . Themes such as normality , oppression , survival , and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series . Similarly , the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and " going over one 's most harrowing ordeals — and thus coming to terms with them " has also been considered . Rowling has stated that the books comprise " a prolonged argument for tolerance , a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry " and that also pass on a message to " question authority and ... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth " .

Some political commentators have seen J. K. Rowling 's portrayal of the bureaucratised Ministry of Magic and the oppressive measures taken by the Ministry in the later books ( like making attendance at Hogwarts School compulsory and the " registration of Mudbloods " with the Ministry ) as an allegory of criticising the state .

= = = Christian allegories = = =

The Harry Potter series has been criticised for supposedly supporting witchcraft and the occult . Before publication of Deathly Hallows , Rowling refused to speak out about her religion , stating , " If I talk too freely , every reader , whether 10 or 60 , will be able to guess what 's coming in the books " . However , many have noted Christian allegories apparent in Deathly Hallows . For example , Harry dies and then comes back to life to save mankind , like Christ . The location where this occurs is King 's Cross . Harry also urges Voldemort to show remorse , to restore his shattered soul . Rowling also stated that " my belief and my struggling with religious belief ... I think is quite apparent in this book " , which is shown as Harry struggles with his faith in Dumbledore .

Deathly Hallows begins with a pair of epigraphs , one by Quaker leader William Penn and one from Aeschylus ' The Libation Bearers . Of this , Rowling said " I really enjoyed choosing those two quotations because one is pagan , of course , and one is from a Christian tradition . I 'd known it was going to be those two passages since Chamber was published . I always knew [ that ] if I could use them at the beginning of book seven then I 'd cued up the ending perfectly . If they were relevant , then I went where I needed to go . They just say it all to me , they really do " .

When Harry visits his parents ' grave , the biblical reference " The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death " ( 1 Corinthians 15 : 26 ) is inscribed on the grave . The Dumbledores ' family tomb also holds a biblical quote : " Where your treasure is , there your heart will be also " , which is from Matthew 6 : 21 . Rowling states , " They 're very British books , so on a very practical note Harry was going to find biblical quotations on tombstones ... [ but ] I think those two particular quotations he finds on the tombstones at Godric 's Hollow , they sum up – they almost epitomise the whole series " .

Harry Potter pundit John Granger additionally noted that one of the reasons the Harry Potter books were so popular is their use of literary alchemy ( similar to Romeo and Juliet , C. S. Lewis 's Perelandra and Charles Dickens 's A Tale of Two Cities ) and vision symbolism . In this model , authors weave allegorical tales along the alchemical magnum opus . Since the medieval period , alchemical allegory has mirrored the passion , death and resurrection of Christ . While the entire series utilises symbols common in alchemy , the Deathly Hallows completes this cycle , tying themes of death , rebirth , and the Resurrection Stone to the principal motif of alchemical allegory , and topics presented in the first book of the series .

= = Release = =

= = = Marketing and promotion = = =

The launch was celebrated by an all @-@ night book signing and reading at the Natural History Museum in London , which Rowling attended along with 1 @,@ 700 guests chosen by ballot . Rowling toured the US in October 2007 , where another event was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City with tickets allocated by sweepstake .

Scholastic , the American publisher of the Harry Potter series , launched a multimillion @-@ dollar " There will soon be 7 " marketing campaign with a " Knight Bus " travelling to 40 libraries across the United States , online fan discussions and competitions , collectible bookmarks , tattoos , and the staged release of seven Deathly Hallows questions most debated by fans . In the build @-@ up to the book 's release , Scholastic released seven questions that fans would find answered in the final book :

Who will live ? Who will die ?

Is Snape good or evil ?

Will Hogwarts reopen ?

Who ends up with whom ?

Where are the Horcruxes ?

Will Voldemort be defeated ?

What are the Deathly Hallows ?

J. K. Rowling arranged with her publishers for a poster bearing the face of the missing British child Madeleine McCann to be made available to book sellers when Deathly Hallows was launched on 21 July 2007 , and said that she hoped that the posters would be displayed prominently in shops all over the world .

After it was told that the novel would be released on 21 July 2007 , Warner Bros. shortly thereafter said that the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix would be released shortly before the novel would be released , on 13 July 2007 , making many people proclaim that July 2007 , was the month of Harry Potter .

= = = Spoiler embargo = = =

Bloomsbury invested £ 10 million in an attempt to keep the book 's contents secure until 21 July , the release date . Arthur Levine , U.S. editor of the Harry Potter series , denied distributing any copies of Deathly Hallows in advance for press review , but two U.S. papers published early reviews anyway . There was speculation that some shops would break the embargo and distribute copies of the book early , as the penalty imposed for previous instalments — that the distributor would not be supplied with any further copies of the series — would no longer be a deterrent .

= = = Online leaks and early delivery = = =

In the week before its release , a number of texts purporting to be genuine leaks appeared in various forms . On 16 July , a set of photographs representing all 759 pages of the U.S. edition was leaked and was fully transcribed prior to the official release date . The photographs later appeared on websites and peer @-@ to @-@ peer networks , leading Scholastic to seek a subpoena in order to identify one source . This represented the most serious security breach in the Harry Potter series ' history . Rowling and her lawyer confirmed that there were genuine online leaks . Reviews published in both The Baltimore Sun and The New York Times on 18 July 2007 , corroborated many of the plot elements from this leak , and about one day prior to release , The New York Times confirmed that the main circulating leak was real .

Scholastic announced that approximately one @-@ ten @-@ thousandth ( 0 @.@ 0001 ) of the U.S. supply had been shipped early — interpreted to mean about 1 @,@ 200 copies . One reader in Maryland received a copy of the book in the mail from DeepDiscount.com four days before it was launched , which evoked incredulous responses from both Scholastic and DeepDiscount . Scholastic initially reported that they were satisfied it had been a " human error " and would not discuss possible penalties ; however , the following day Scholastic announced that it would be launching legal action against DeepDiscount.com and its distributor , Levy Home Entertainment . Scholastic filed for damages in Chicago 's Circuit Court of Cook County , claiming that DeepDiscount engaged in a " complete and flagrant violation of the agreements that they knew were part of the carefully constructed release of this eagerly awaited book . " Some of the early release books soon appeared on eBay , in one case being sold to Publishers Weekly for US $ 250 from an initial price of US $ 18 .

= = = Price wars and other controversies = = =

Asda , along with several other UK supermarkets , having already taken pre @-@ orders for the book at a heavily discounted price , sparked a price war two days before the book 's launch by announcing they would sell it for just £ 5 a copy . Other retail chains then also offered the book at discounted prices . At these prices the book became a loss leader . This caused uproar from traditional UK booksellers who argued they had no hope of competing in those conditions . Independent shops protested loudest , but even Waterstone 's , the UK 's largest dedicated chain bookstore , could not compete with the supermarket price . Some small bookstores hit back by buying their stock from the supermarkets rather than their wholesalers . Asda attempted to counter this by imposing a limit of two copies per customer to prevent bulk purchases . Philip Wicks , a spokesman for the UK Booksellers Association , said , " It is a war we can 't even participate in . We think it 's a crying shame that the supermarkets have decided to treat it as a loss @-@ leader , like a can of baked beans . " Michael Norris , an analyst at Simba Information , said : " You are not only lowering the price of the book . At this point , you are lowering the value of reading . "

In Malaysia , a similar price war caused controversy regarding sales of the book . Four of the biggest bookstore chains in Malaysia , MPH Bookstores , Popular Bookstores , Times and Harris , decided to pull Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows off their shelves as a protest against Tesco and Carrefour hypermarkets . The retail price of the book in Malaysia is MYR 109 @.@ 90 , while the hypermarkets Tesco and Carrefour sold the book at MYR 69 @.@ 90 . The move by the bookstores was seen as an attempt to pressure the distributor Penguin Books to remove the books from the hypermarkets . However , as of 24 July 2007 , the price war has ended , with the four bookstores involved resuming selling the books in their stores with discount . Penguin Books has also confirmed that Tesco and Carrefour are selling the book at a loss , urging them to practice good business sense and fair trade .

The book 's early Saturday morning release in Israel was criticised for violating Shabbat . Trade and Industry Minister Eli Yishai commented " It is forbidden , according to Jewish values and Jewish culture , that a thing like this should take place at 2 am on Saturday . Let them do it on another day . " Yishai indicated that he would issue indictments and fines based on the Hours of Work and Rest Law .

= = Publication and reception = =

= = = Critical response = = =

The Baltimore Sun 's critic , Mary Carole McCauley , noted that the book was more serious than the previous novels in the series and had more straightforward prose . Furthermore , reviewer Alice Fordham from The Times wrote that " Rowling 's genius is not just her total realisation of a fantasy world , but the quieter skill of creating characters that bounce off the page , real and flawed and brave and lovable " . Fordham concluded , " We have been a long way together , and neither Rowling nor Harry let us down in the end " . The New York Times writer Michiko Kakutani agreed , praising Rowling 's ability to make Harry both a hero and a character that can be related to .

Time magazine 's Lev Grossman named it one of the Top 10 Fiction Books of 2007 , ranking it at No. 8 , and praised Rowling for proving that books can still be a global mass medium . Novelist Elizabeth Hand criticised that " ... the spectacularly complex interplay of narrative and character often reads as though an entire trilogy 's worth of summing @-@ up has been crammed into one volume . " In a starred review from Kirkus Reviews , the reviewer said , " Rowling has shown uncommon skill in playing them with and against each other , and also woven them into a darn good bildungsroman , populated by memorable characters and infused with a saving , irrepressible sense of fun " . They also praised the second half of the novel , but criticised the epilogue , calling it " provocatively sketchy " . In another review from The Times , reviewer Amanda Craig said that while Rowling was " not an original , high @-@ concept author " , she was " right up there with other greats of children 's fiction " . Craig went on to say that the novel was " beautifully judged , and a triumphant return to form " , and that Rowling 's imagination changed the perception of an entire generation , which " is more than all but a handful of living authors , in any genre , have achieved in the past half @-@ century " .

In contrast , Jenny Sawyer of The Christian Science Monitor said that , " There is much to love about the Harry Potter series , from its brilliantly realised magical world to its multilayered narrative " , however , " A story is about someone who changes . And , puberty aside , Harry doesn 't change much . As envisioned by Rowling , he walks the path of good so unwaveringly that his final victory over Voldemort feels , not just inevitable , but hollow " . In The New York Times , Christopher Hitchens compared the series to World War Two @-@ era English boarding school stories , and while he wrote that " Rowling has won imperishable renown " for the series as a whole , he also stated that he disliked Rowling 's use of deus ex machina , that the mid @-@ book camping chapters are " abysmally long " , and Voldemort " becomes more tiresome than an Ian Fleming villain " . Catherine Bennett of The Guardian praised Rowling for putting small details from the previous books and making them large in Deathly Hallows , such as Grindelwald being mentioned on a Chocolate Frog Card in the first book . While she points out " as her critics say , Rowling is no Dickens " , she says that Rowling " has willed into a fictional being , in every book , legions of new characters , places , spells , rules and scores of unimagined twists and subplots " .

Stephen King criticised the reactions of some reviewers to the books , including McCauley , for jumping too quickly to surface conclusions of the work . He felt this was inevitable , because of the extreme secrecy before launch which did not allow reviewers time to read and consider the book , but meant that many early reviews lacked depth . Rather than finding the writing style disappointing , he felt it had matured and improved . He acknowledged that the subject matter of the books had become more adult , and that Rowling had clearly been writing with the adult audience firmly in mind since the middle of the series . He compared the works in this respect to Huckleberry Finn and Alice in Wonderland which achieved success and have become established classics , in part by appealing to the adult audience as well as children .

= = = Sales , awards and honours = = =

Sales for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows were record setting . The initial U.S. print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies , and more than a million were pre @-@ ordered through Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble , 500 percent higher than pre @-@ sales had been for Half @-@ Blood Prince . On 12 April 2007 , Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre @-@ order record , with more than 500 @,@ 000 copies pre @-@ ordered through its site . On opening day , a record 8 @.@ 3 million copies were sold in the United States ( over 96 per second ) , and 2 @.@ 65 million copies in the United Kingdom . It holds the Guinness World record for fastest selling book of fiction in 24 hours for U.S. sales . At WH Smith , sales reportedly reached a rate of 15 books sold per second . By June 2008 , nearly a year after it was published , worldwide sales were reportedly around 44 million .

Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has won several awards . In 2007 , the book was named one of The New York Times 100 Notable Books , and one of its Notable Children 's Books . The novel was named the best book of 2007 , by Newsweek 's critic Malcolm Jones . Publishers Weekly also listed Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows among their Best Books of 2007 . In 2008 , the American Library Association named the novel one of its Best Books for Young Adults , and also listed it as a Notable Children 's Book . Furthermore , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows received the 2008 Colorado Blue Spruce Book Award .

= = Translations = =

Due to its worldwide fame , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows has been translated into many languages . The first translation to be released was the Ukrainian translation , on 25 September 2007 ( as Гаррі Поттер і смертельні реліквії – Harry Potter i smertel 'ni relikviji ) . The Swedish title of the book was revealed by Rowling as Harry Potter and the Relics of Death ( Harry Potter och Dödsrelikerna ) , following a pre @-@ release question from the Swedish publisher about the difficulty of translating the two words " Deathly Hallows " without having read the book . This is also the title used for the French translation ( Harry Potter et les reliques de la mort ) , the Spanish translation ( Harry Potter y las Reliquias de la Muerte ) , the Dutch translation ( Harry Potter en de Relieken van de Dood ) and the Brazilian Portuguese translation ( Harry Potter e as Relíquias da Morte ) . The first Polish translation was released with a new title : Harry Potter i Insygnia Śmierci – Harry Potter and the Insignia of Death . The Hindi translation Harry Potter aur Maut ke Tohfe ( हैरी पॉटर और मौत के तोहफे ) , which means " Harry Potter and the Gifts of Death " , was released by Manjul Publication in India on 27 June 2008 . The Romanian version was released on the 1st of December 2007 using the title ( Harry Potter și Talismanele Morții ) .

= = Editions = =

Deathly Hallows was released in hardcover on 21 July 2007 and in paperback in the United Kingdom on 10 July 2008 and the United States on 7 July 2009 . In SoHo , New York , there was a release party for the American paperback edition , with many games and activities . An " Adult Edition " with a different cover illustration was released by Bloomsbury on 21 July 2007 . To be released simultaneously with the original U.S. hardcover on 21 July with only 100 @,@ 000 copies was a Scholastic deluxe edition , highlighting a new cover illustration by Mary GrandPré . In October 2010 , Bloomsbury released a " Celebratory " paperback edition , which featured a foiled and starred cover . Lastly , on 1 November 2010 , a " Signature " edition of the novel was released in paperback by Bloomsbury .

= = Adaptations = =

= = = Film = = =

A two @-@ part film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is directed by David Yates , written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman , David Barron and J. K. Rowling . Part 1 was released on 19 November 2010 , and Part 2 on 15 July 2011 . Filming began in February 2009 , and ended on 12 June 2010 . However , the cast confirmed they would reshoot the epilogue scene as they only had two days to shoot the original . Reshoots officially ended around December 2010 . Part 1 ended at Chapter 24 of the book , when Voldemort regained the Elder Wand . However , there were a few omissions , such as the appearances of Dean Thomas and Viktor Krum , and Peter Pettigrew 's death . James Bernadelli of Reelviews said that the script stuck closest to the text since Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , yet this was met with negativity from some audiences as the film inherited " the book 's own problems " .

= = = Audiobooks = = =

Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released simultaneously on 21 July 2007 , in both the UK and the United States . The UK edition features the voice of Stephen Fry and runs about 24 hours while the U.S. edition features the voice of Jim Dale and runs about 21 hours . Both Fry and Dale recorded 146 different and distinguishable character voices , and was the most recorded by an individual on an audiobook at the time .

For his work on Deathly Hallows , Dale won the 2008 Grammy Award for the Best Spoken Word Album for Children . He also was awarded an Earphone Award by AudioFile , who claimed , " Dale has raised the bar on audiobook interpretation so high it 's hard to imagine any narrator vaulting over it . "

= = The Tales of Beedle the Bard = =

On 4 December 2008 , Rowling released The Tales of Beedle the Bard both in the UK and US . The Tales of Beedle the Bard is a spin @-@ off of Deathly Hallows and contains fairy tales that are told to children in the " Wizarding World " . The book includes five short stories , including " The Tale of the Three Brothers " which is the story of the Deathly Hallows .

Amazon.com released an exclusive collector 's edition of the book which is a replica of the book that Amazon.com purchased at auction in December 2007 . Seven copies were auctioned off in London by Sotheby 's . Each was illustrated and handwritten by Rowling and is 157 pages . It was bound in brown Moroccan leather and embellished with five hand @-@ chased hallmarked sterling silver ornaments and mounted moonstones .

= Apollo Global Management =

Apollo Global Management , LLC is an American private equity firm , founded in 1990 by former Drexel Burnham Lambert banker Leon Black . The firm specializes in leveraged buyout transactions and purchases of distressed securities involving corporate restructuring , special situations , and industry consolidations . Apollo is headquartered in New York City , and also has offices in Purchase , New York , Los Angeles , Houston , London , Frankfurt , Luxembourg , Singapore , Hong Kong and Mumbai .

As of August 2015 , Apollo managed over US $ 162 billion of investor commitments across its private equity , credit and real estate funds and other investment vehicles making it one of the largest alternative investment management firms globally . Among the most notable companies currently owned by Apollo are Claire 's , Caesars Entertainment Corporation , Norwegian Cruise Line , Novitex Enterprise Solutions , and CORE Media Group ( American Idol ) .

= = History = =

Apollo , originally referred to as Apollo Advisors , was founded in 1990 , on the heels of the collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert in February 1990 . It was founded by Leon Black , the former head of Drexel 's mergers and acquisitions department , along with other Drexel alumni . Among the most notable founders are John Hannan , Drexel 's former co @-@ director of international finance ; Craig Cogut , a lawyer who worked with Drexel 's high @-@ yield division in Los Angeles ; and Arthur Bilger , the former head of the corporate finance department . Other founding partners included Marc Rowan , Josh Harris and Michael Gross , who both worked under Black in the mergers and acquisitions department , and Antony Ressler , who worked as a senior vice president in Drexel 's high yield department with responsibility for the new issue / syndicate desk .

Less than six months after the collapse of Drexel , the founders of Apollo had already begun a series of ventures . Apollo Investment Fund L.P. , the first of their private equity investment funds , was formed to make investments in distressed companies . Apollo 's first fund raised approximately $ 400 million of investor commitments on the strength of Black 's reputation as a prominent lieutenant of Michael Milken and key player in the buyout boom of the 1980s . Lion Advisors was set up to provide investment services to Credit Lyonnais , which was seeking to profit from depressed prices in the high yield market .

= = = 1990s = = =

At the time of Apollo 's founding , financing for new leveraged buyouts was minimal and Apollo turned instead to a strategy of distressed @-@ to @-@ control takeovers . Apollo would purchase distressed securities which could be converted into a controlling interest in the equity of the company through a bankruptcy reorganization or other restructuring . Apollo used distressed debt as an entry point , enabling the firm to invest in such firms as Vail Resorts , Walter Industries , Culligan and Samsonite .

Early on , Apollo made a name for itself by acquiring interests in companies that Drexel had helped finance by purchasing high @-@ yield bonds from failed savings and loans and insurance companies . Apollo acquired several large portfolios of assets from the U.S. government 's Resolution Trust Corporation . One of Apollo 's earliest and most successful deals involved the acquisition of Executive Life Insurance Company 's bond portfolio . Using this vehicle , Apollo would purchase the Executive Life portfolio , generating tremendous profits when the value of high yield bonds recovered , but also resulting in a variety of state regulatory issues for Apollo and Credit Lyonnais over the purchase . More than a decade after the purchase , in 2002 , California Attorney General Bill Lockyer accused Apollo , Leon Black , and an investor group led by French bank Credit Lyonnais , of illegally acquiring the assets and bond portfolio of Executive Life Insurance Co. in 1991 . According to the State of California , Lion allegedly violated a California law that prohibited foreign government @-@ owned banks from owning California insurance companies .

In 1993 , Apollo Real Estate Advisers was founded in collaboration with William Mack to seek opportunities in the U.S. property markets . Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund , L.P. , the first in a family of real estate " opportunity funds " was closed in April 1993 with $ 500 million of investor commitments . In 2000 , Apollo exited the partnership , which continued to operate as Apollo Real Estate Advisers until changing its name to AREA Property Partners , effective January 15 , 2009 . That firm is owned and controlled by its remaining principals , who include William Mack , Lee Neibart , William Benjamin , John Jacobsson , Stuart Koenig and Richard Mack . Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund , L.P. , the first in a family of real estate " opportunity funds " was closed in April 1993 with $ 500 million of investor commitments . As of 2008 , the firm was investing out of three funds : Apollo Real Estate Investment Fund V , Apollo European Real Estate Fund II and Apollo Value Enhancement Fund VII . In 2004 , Apollo Real Estate acquired the Value Enhancement Funds family of investment vehicles to broaden its offerings in the " value @-@ added " segment of the real estate investment spectrum . Apollo also operates a real estate mezzanine lending program and real estate securities hedge fund called Claros Real Estate Securities Fund , L.P.

In 1995 , Apollo raised its third private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund III with $ 1 @.@ 5 billion of investor commitments from investors that included CalPERS and the General Motors pension fund . Unlike its first two funds and later funds , Fund III would ultimately prove only an average performer for private equity funds of its vintage . Among the investments made in Fund III ( invested through 1998 ) were : Alliance Imaging , Allied Waste Industries , Breuners Home Furnishings , Levitz Furniture , Communications Corporation of America , Dominick 's , Ralphs ( acquired Apollo 's Food @-@ 4 @-@ Less ) , Move.com , NRT Incorporated , Pillowtex Corporation , Telemundo and WMC Mortgage Corporation .

Also in 1995 , Apollo founding partner Craig Cogut left the firm to found a smaller competitor Pegasus Capital Advisors . Since inception Pegasus has raised $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in four private equity funds focused on investments in middle @-@ market companies in financial distress . In 1997 , Apollo co @-@ founder Tony Ressler founded Ares Management as the successor to its Lion Advisors business which would manage collateralized debt obligation vehicles .

In 1998 , Apollo raised its fourth private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund IV , with $ 3 @.@ 6 billion of investor commitments . Among the investments made in Fund IV ( invested through 2001 ) were : Allied Waste Industries , AMC Entertainment , Berlitz International , Clark Retail Enterprises , Corporate Express ( Buhrmann ) , Encompass Services Corporation , National Financial Partners , Pacer International , Rent @-@ A @-@ Center , Resolution Performance Products , Resolution Specialty Materials , Sirius Satellite Radio , SkyTerra Communications , United Rentals and Wyndham Worldwide .

= = = 2000 @-@ 2005 = = =

Apollo deployed its fourth fund during the booming markets of the late 1990s , only to experience difficulties with the collapse of the Internet bubble and the onset of the recession . Amid the turmoil of collapsing markets , Apollo was able to raise its fifth private equity fund in 2001 , Apollo Investment Fund V , with $ 3 @.@ 7 billion of investor commitments , roughly the same amount raised as for its previous fund . Among the investments made in Fund V ( invested through 2006 ) were Affinion Group , AMC Entertainment , Berry Plastics , Cablecom , Compass Minerals , General Nutrition Centers ( GNC ) , Goodman Global , Hexion Specialty Chemicals ( Borden ) , Intelsat , Linens ‘ n Things , Metals USA , Nalco Investment Holdings , Sourcecorp , Spectrasite Communications , and Unity Media .

Meanwhile , Ares continued to grow through the late 1990s , and profited significantly from investments made after the collapse of the high yield market in 2000 and 2001 . Although technically , the founders of Ares had completed a spin out with the formation of the firm in 1997 , they had maintained a close relationship with Apollo over its first five years and operated as the West Coast affiliate of Apollo . By 2002 , when Ares raised its first corporate opportunities fund , the firm announced that it was more formally separating itself from its former parent company . The timing of this separation also coincided with Apollo 's legal difficulties with the State of California over its purchase of Executive Life Insurance Company in 1991 .

Following the spin @-@ off of Ares in 2002 , Apollo developed two new affiliates to continue its investment activities in the capital markets . The first of these new affiliates , founded in 2003 , was Apollo Distressed Investment Fund ( DIF ) Management a credit opportunity investment vehicle . The following year , in April 2004 , Apollo raised $ 930 million through an initial public offering ( IPO ) for a listed business development company , Apollo Investment Corporation ( NASDAQ : AINV ) ) . Apollo Investment Corporation was formed to invest primarily in middle @-@ market companies in the form of mezzanine debt and senior secured loans , as well as by making certain direct equity investments in companies . The Company also invests in the securities of public companies .

= = = 2005 @-@ 2010 = = =

The 2005 - 2007 period marked a boom period in private equity with new " largest buyout " records set and surpassed several times in an 18 @-@ month window from the beginning of 2006 through the middle of 2007 . Apollo was among the most active investors in leveraged buyout transactions during this period . Although Apollo was involved in a number of notable and large buyouts , the firm largely avoided the very largest transactions of this period . Among Apollo 's most notable investments during this period included Harrah 's Entertainment , a leading US gaming and casino company ; Norwegian Cruise Line , the cruise line operator ; Claire 's Stores , the retailer of costume jewelry ; and Realogy , the real estate franchisor that owns Coldwell Banker , Century 21 and Sotheby 's International Realty .

In August 2006 , Apollo launched a $ 2 billion publicly traded private equity vehicle in Europe , AP Alternative Assets ( ENXTAM : AAA ) . The IPO of this new vehicle followed in the footsteps of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts , which raised $ 5 billion for its KKR Private Equity Investors vehicle in May 2006 . Apollo initially attempted to raise $ 2 @.@ 5 billion for the public vehicle , but fell short when it offered the shares in June , raising only $ 1 @.@ 5 billion . Apollo raised an additional $ 500 million via private placements in the weeks following that sale .

As the private equity industry expanded through 2006 and 2007 , several of the largest private equity firms , most notably The Blackstone Group and Kohlberg Kravis Roberts , announced plans to realize value from their firms through the sale of shares in the public equity markets . Apollo Management chose a slightly different path , by completing a private placement of shares in its management company in July 2007 . By pursuing a private placement rather than a public offering , Apollo would be able to avoid much of the public scrutiny applied to Blackstone and KKR . In November 2007 , Apollo was able to realize additional value from the sale of a 9 % ownership interest in its management company to the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority ( ADIA ) . Ultimately , in April 2008 , Apollo would file with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) to permit some holders of its privately traded stock to sell their shares on the New York Stock Exchange and in March 2011 , Apollo completed its initial public offering ( NYSE : APO ) . In 2008 , the firm opened an office in India , marking their first push into Asia .

As the deterioration of the financial markets worsened into 2008 , Apollo saw several of its investments come under pressure . Apollo 's 2005 investment in the struggling US retailer , Linens ' n Things suffered from a significant debt burden and softening consumer demand . In May 2008 , Linens was forced to file for bankruptcy protection , one of several high profile retail bankruptcies in 2008 , costing Apollo all of its $ 365 million investment in the company . At the same time , Apollo 's investment in Claire 's , Realogy and Harrah 's Entertainment came under pressure . Apollo would respond actively to its investment difficulties seeking to exchange a portion of the existing debt at Harrah 's and Realogy to more favorable securities . At Claire 's , Apollo exercised its " PIK toggle " option to shut off cash interest payments to its bondholders and issue more debt instead , in order to provide the company with additional financial flexibility .

In December 2008 , Apollo completed fundraising for its latest fund , Apollo Investment Fund VII with approximately $ 14 @.@ 7 billion of investor commitments . Apollo had been targeting $ 15 billion , but had been in fundraising for more than 16 months , with the bulk of the capital raised in 2007 .

In December 2009 , it was announced that Apollo would acquire Cedar Fair Entertainment Company shares and the company would be become private underneath the management group . The deal includes a cash payment of $ 635 million and assumed debt which gives the transaction a value of $ 2 @.@ 4 billion . It was later announced in April 2010 that the deal was pulled due to poor shareholder response .

= = = 2010 @-@ 2015 = = =

In March 2012 it made a second attempt to acquire an amusement park operator with a $ 225 @.@ 7 million offer for Great Wolf Resorts .

In November 2012 , The McGraw @-@ Hill Companies sold their education division ( " McGraw @-@ Hill Education " ) to Apollo Global Management , in a deal totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 billion .

On 11 March 2013 , Apollo Global Management made the only bid for the snacks business of Hostess Brands , including Twinkies , for $ 410 million .

In December 2013 , Apollo bought a portfolio of Irish home loans from Lloyds Bank for € 307m , less than half their nominal £ 610m ( € 367m ) value . The shares were bought by an Apollo Global Management subsidiary , Tanager Limited . The portfolio made a £ 33m loss last year .

On 16 January 2014 , The Financial Times reported Apollo will buy CEC Entertainment , the parent of Chuck E. Cheese 's , for about $ 1 billion .

In June 2015 , Apollo Global Management made a successful offer of around $ 1 @.@ 03 billion in cash to privatise OM Group . Also that month , Apollo won the bidding during an auction for Saint @-@ Gobain ’ s Verallia glass bottle manufacturing unit for a rumoured fee of around 2 @.@ 95 billion .

In June 2016 , Apollo Global Management made a successful offer to purchase Diamond Resorts International .

= = Operations = =

Apollo is operated by its managing partners , Leon Black , Joshua Harris and Marc Rowan and a team of more than 250 investment professionals , as of March 31 , 2013 . The firm 's headquarters are located in the Solow Building at 9 West 57th Street in New York City , and the firm operates additional offices in Purchase , New York , Los Angeles , Houston , London , Frankfurt , Luxembourg , Singapore , Hong Kong and Mumbai

Apollo ’ s executive committee includes : Leon Black , chairman and chief executive officer ; Josh Harris , senior managing director ; Marc Rowan , senior managing director ; and Marc Spilker who was hired as President in November 2010 .

Apollo operates three business lines in an integrated manner :

Private equity — The private equity business is the cornerstone of Apollo 's investment activities . Apollo invests through a variety of private equity strategies , most notably leveraged buyouts and distressed buyouts and debt investments . This business operates primarily through the firm 's family of private equity investment funds ( See : Investment funds )

Credit — Apollo invests through a variety of credit strategies to complement its core private equity business . Apollo invests through a variety of investment vehicles including mezzanine funds , hedge funds , European non @-@ performing loan funds and senior credit opportunity funds .

Real Estate — Apollo Global Real Estate ( AGRE ) was established in 2008 to build upon Apollo 's history of investing in real estate @-@ related sectors such as hotels and lodging , leisure and logistics . AGRE manages a number of debt and equity @-@ oriented real estate investment funds .

= = Investment vehicles = =

= = = Private equity funds = = =

Apollo has historically relied primarily on private equity funds , pools of committed capital from pension funds , insurance companies , endowments , fund of funds , high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals , family offices , sovereign wealth funds and other institutional investors . Since 2014 , Apollo has begun investing its eighth private equity fund , Apollo Investment Fund VIII , which raised approximately $ 18 billion of investor commitments , making it the largest private equity fund raised since the financial crisis . Since inception in 1990 , Apollo has raised a total of eight private equity funds , including :

= = = Apollo Investment Corporation = = =

Apollo Investment Corporation is a US @-@ domiciled publicly traded private equity closed @-@ end fund and an affiliate of Apollo . AIC was formed to invest primarily in middle @-@ market companies in the form of mezzanine debt and senior secured loans , as well as by making certain direct equity investments in companies . The Company also invests in the securities of public companies .

AIC is structured as a business development company , a type of publicly traded private equity vehicle that is designed to generate interest income and long term capital appreciation . AIC historically has not invested in companies controlled by Apollo 's private equity funds .

= = = AP Alternative Assets = = =

AP Alternative Assets ( Euronext : AAA ) is a Guernsey @-@ domiciled publicly traded private equity closed @-@ end limited partnership , managed by Apollo Alternative Assets , an affiliate of Apollo Management . AAA was formed to invest alongside Apollo 's main private equity funds and hedge funds .

AAA was launched in August 2006 , shortly after Kohlberg Kravis Roberts completed an initial public offering for its $ 5 billion for its KKR Private Equity Investors vehicle in May 2006 . Apollo raised a total of $ 2 billion for AAA including the vehicle 's $ 1 @.@ 5 billion IPO and a subsequent private placement .

AAA 's investment portfolio is made up of a mix of private equity and capital markets investments :

= = Portfolio investments = =

Apollo has been an active private equity investor through the mid @-@ 2000s buyout boom . The following is a list of Apollo 's most recent and currently active private equity investments . The bulk of these investments are held in Apollo Investment Fund V , VI and VII .

Other investments include Connections Academy and Unity Media GMBH .

= = Affiliated businesses = =

From its inception , Apollo built as part of a network of affiliated businesses focusing on private equity and a variety of distressed investment strategies .

= = = Lion Advisors = = =

Lion Advisors ( or Lion Capital ) , which was founded at the same time as Apollo in 1990 , focused on investment management and consulting services to foreign institutional accounts targeting investments in public and private high yield debt securities in the US . In 1992 , Lion entered into a more formal arrangement to manage the $ 3 billion high @-@ yield portfolio for Credit Lyonnais which together with a consortium of other international investors provided the capital for Lion 's investment activities . The Lion business would ultimately be replaced by Ares Management .

= = = Ares Management = = =

Ares Management , founded in 1997 , was initially established to manage a $ 1 @.@ 2 billion market value collateralized debt obligation vehicle . Ares would grow to manage a family of collateralized loan obligation ( CLO ) vehicles that would invest in capital markets @-@ based securities including senior bank loans and high @-@ yield and mezzanine debt . Ares was founded by Antony Ressler and John H. Kissick , both partners at Apollo as well as Bennett Rosenthal , who joined the group from the global leveraged finance group at Merrill Lynch .

Ares I and II which were raised were structured as market value CLOs . Ares III though Ares X were structured as cash flow CLOs . In 2002 , Ares completed a spinout from Apollo management . Although technically , the founders of Ares had completed a spinout with the formation of the firm in 1997 , they had maintained a close relationship with Apollo over its first five years and operated as the West Coast affiliate of Apollo . Shortly thereafter , Ares completed fundraising for Ares Corporate Opportunities Fund , a special situations investment fund with $ 750 million of capital under management .

In 2004 , Ares debuted a publicly traded business development company , Ares Capital Corporation ( NASDAQ : ARCC ) . In 2006 , Ares raised a $ 2 @.@ 1 billion successor special situations fund ( Ares Corporate Opportunities Fund II ) .

= Bankers ' Toadies incident =

The Bankers ' Toadies incident occurred in 1937 in Alberta , Canada when a pamphlet was discovered advocating the " extermination " of nine men identified as " Bankers ' Toadies " . The men were opponents of the Social Credit government of Premier William Aberhart , which had been elected on a platform of giving all Albertans monthly dividends ; Aberhart blamed the banking system for his failure to follow through on this pledge .

After David Duggan , leader of the Conservative Party and one of the men named , raised his concern over the pamphlet in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , police raided the Social Credit League 's Edmonton headquarters . Social Credit whip Joe Unwin and Social Credit Board advisor George Frederick Powell were arrested and charged with criminal libel and counselling to murder . Both were convicted of the libel charge , and Justice William Carlos Ives sentenced them to hard labour .

= = Background = =

William Aberhart 's Social Credit League won a substantial victory in the 1935 Alberta provincial election on the strength of its promise to implement social credit , an economic theory proposed by British engineer C. H. Douglas . Social credit held that the poverty of the Great Depression was in part the fault of bankers , who kept the cost of credit , and by extension of production , high . Aberhart 's solution involved , among other things , monthly " credit dividends " to Albertans in the amount of C $ 25 .

By 1937 , Aberhart 's failure to implement these dividends or make other progress towards implementing social credit made many of his backbenchers suspect that he was either unwilling or unable to do so . This belief , combined with a suspicion that he did not properly understand Douglas 's theories , led to the 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt . One outcome of the revolt was Aberhart 's ceding a number of the government 's powers to the Social Credit Board , made up of five Social Credit backbenchers . Glenville MacLachlan , its chair , travelled to the United Kingdom , where he asked Douglas to come to Alberta and serve as its advisor . Douglas declined , but in his stead sent two of his lieutenants , L. D. Byrne and George Frederick Powell . Part of the Board 's mandate was to educate the public about social credit ; to this end , Powell and Social Credit whip Joseph Unwin were assigned to write educational materials .

In response to what they saw as the radically anti @-@ business views of the Aberhart government and the Social Credit Board , Alberta 's mainstream opposition parties — chiefly the Liberals and the Conservatives — began to cooperate under the auspices of the newly formed People 's League .

= = Leaflet = =

In October 1937 , Conservative leader David Duggan rose in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta to draw its attention to a pamphlet distributed in and around the legislature building that called for his " extermination " . The front of the leaflet read as follows :

My child , you should NEVER say hard or unkind things about Bankers ' Toadies . God made snakes , slugs , snails and other creepy @-@ crawly , treacherous , and poisonous things . NEVER , therefore , abuse them — just exterminate them ! And to prevent all evasion demand the RESULT you want — $ 25 @.@ 00 a month and a lower cost to live .

The back of the pamphlet listed nine men identified as " toadies " . Besides Duggan , they were

S. W. Field , lawyer and president of the People 's League

H. H. Parlee , lawyer and president of the Liberals ' Edmonton constituency association

John Lymburn , lawyer , member of the People 's League , and former Attorney @-@ General of Alberta

H. R. Milner , lawyer and president of the Conservatives ' Edmonton constituency association

G. D. Hunt , investment broker

L. Y. Cairns , lawyer , member of the Conservatives ' provincial executive

G. W. Auxier , lawyer and secretary of the People 's League

William Antrobus Griesbach , lawyer , member of the Canadian Senate , and former member of the Canadian House of Commons and mayor of Edmonton

Below this list of names were the words " Exterminate Them . And to prevent all Evasion , Demand the Result You Want — $ 25 @.@ 00 a MONTH and a lower cost to live . "

On October 3 , the police raided the Social Credit League 's Edmonton office and seized 4 @,@ 000 copies of the pamphlet . Griesbach pressed charges against Powell and Unwin for criminal libel and counselling to murder .

= = Trial = =

Aberhart , who besides being Premier was Attorney @-@ General , tried to prevent the trial from proceeding by withdrawing the Crown prosecutor assigned to it . Either trial judge William Carlos Ives or a justice of the peace countered by appointing a private prosecutor so the case could go ahead . Both defendants were held on $ 20 @,@ 000 bail . Both hired lawyers : Powell was represented by Hugh Calais Macdonald , while Unwin retained one R. Jackson . George Steer acted for the prosecution .

On October 27 , both men appeared before police magistrate A. H. Gibson for their preliminary hearings on the criminal libel charge ( the counselling to murder charge had been dropped ) . Unwin opted for a jury trial , while Powell elected to be tried by a judge alone . Unwin 's trial proceeded first , on November 12 . He testified that he had ordered the pamphlets , which were paid for by the government , and then circulated them as a publication of the " United Democrats " , a fictitious organization that listed its address as that of Unwin 's home . According to Unwin , the leaflet 's text , minus the named individuals , had been provided to him by Powell , he had sent it to the printer 's in exactly that form , and he was surprised to see the list of names in the final version . Though his testimony was vague and apparently evasive , he admitted to destroying 4 @,@ 000 copies of the leaflet on the day of the police raid . He was convicted and Ives , dismissing his role in the affair as that of an " errand boy " , sentenced him to three months hard labour .

Powell 's trial proceeded immediately after Unwin 's , and his testimony contradicted much of what Unwin had said . Powell claimed that Unwin had put the list of names on the pamphlet , and that Powell had expected that it would list organizations rather than individuals . Ives found Unwin 's testimony more credible , convicted Powell on November 15 , and sentenced him to six months hard labour . He also recommended that he be deported to his native United Kingdom following his sentence . Appeals by both men against conviction and sentence were unsuccessful .

= = Aftermath = =

The case attracted considerable media attention and mixed reactions . A Toronto spokesman for the Communist Party of Canada protested the arrests and called for a " united front " against the People 's League . Aberhart maintained that the men had been jailed on the basis of some harmless political humour , and encouraged the federal government to grant them clemency ; Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King responded that to do so would be to engage in " direct interference by the federal executive with the free and proper functioning of our courts " . Every night , some Social Crediters drove to the Fort Saskatchewan Penitentiary , where the men were being held , to show their support . On February 11 , 1938 , the legislature passed a resolution calling for the men 's release .

Douglas reacted to his deputy 's arrest with anger , telling reporters that " whoever is instigating the proceedings is asking for a great deal of trouble , and is likely to get it . " On December 10 , 1937 , he wrote King to tell him that he had been invited to come to Alberta to provide advice , and asked if he would be risking arrest and deportation if he did so . King responded that as long as Douglas , unlike Powell , refrained from running afoul of the Criminal Code , he had nothing to fear .

At the end of Unwin 's sentence , the Social Credit members of the legislature celebrated with a snake dance . Powell was released early , on March 21 , 1938 , in an attempt by King to bolster his Liberals ' chances in a by @-@ election in Edmonton East the same day ; the by @-@ election was won by Social Crediter Orvis A. Kennedy , and a jubilant celebration followed . Once again , the Communists expressed solidarity with the Social Crediters , with Jan Lakeman thanking the voters for giving " an overwhelming defeat to the forces of reaction " . Powell left Canada immediately upon his release , but not before being paid $ 4 @,@ 000 by the Alberta government as thanks for his services .

On August 18 , 1938 , police magistrate A. H. Gibson , who had presided over the prosecution of Unwin and Powell , was dismissed without cause by provincial Order in Council . Gibson believed that his dismissal was due to " the government 's resentment over my action in the Powell @-@ Unwin case and the fact that they hold me more or less to blame for the fact that the accused men were sent to jail . " Aberhart 's Social Crediters were re @-@ elected with a reduced majority in the 1940 provincial election ; Aberhart remained premier until his 1943 death . Unwin was defeated in 1940 by Labour candidate Angus James Morrison . Though he lived until January 4 , 1987 , Unwin remains most remembered for his involvement in the Bankers ' Toadies incident .

= Hôtel d 'Alluye =

The Hôtel d 'Alluye is a hôtel particulier in Blois , Loir @-@ et @-@ Cher , France . Built for Florimond Robertet when he was secretary and notary to Louis XII , the residence bears the name of his barony of Alluyes . On Rue Saint @-@ Honoré near Blois Cathedral and the Château de Blois , it is now significantly smaller than it was originally as the north and west wings were destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries .

Built between 1498 ( or 1500 ) and 1508 , the hôtel particulier is one of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois . Its façades consist of Gothic , French Renaissance and Italian Renaissance architecture . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was owned by the Robertet family from 1508 until 1606 before undergoing frequent changes in ownership ; since 2007 , it has been divided into ten apartments and a large office .

As a result of its ownership changes the building has been considerably altered , with only the east and south wings retaining their original appearance . Destruction of the west wing began during the seventeenth century , and the north wing was destroyed in 1812 . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929 , and its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days since 2011 .

= = Location = =

Built near Blois Cathedral and the Royal Château de Blois , the Hôtel d 'Alluye is located on Rue Saint @-@ Honoré . Its south side originally extended along Rue Saint @-@ Honoré between the current No. 4 and No. 10 , and its west side extended along Rue Porte @-@ Chartraine . Records indicate that the north side was extended to Rue Beauvoir in 1643 , enlarging the hôtel particulier over a large quadrangle 30 m ( 98 ft ) wide .

How Robertet obtained such a large plot in the centre of Blois is unknown ; he may have acquired the land gradually for the building 's future construction , or could have been granted a fief by the Crown for his services . Although , it is known that Robertet sought to acquire an adjoining building ( the Hôtel Denis @-@ Dupont ) to extend his property . Lawyer Denis Dupont ( the building 's owner ) strongly opposed the idea , and over half of the former Hôtel Denis @-@ Dupont remains .

= = History = =

= = = Construction = = =

Under Louis XII the courtesans of France settled in Blois from 1498 to 1515 , and the city became the capital of the Kingdom of France . As a result , many people purchased residences in Blois and the Loire Valley . Named after Robertet 's barony of Alluyes , construction of the Hôtel d 'Alluye began in 1498 or 1500 and was completed in 1508 . It was built during his tenure as secretary and notary to Louis XII , and a diplomatic document from the Republic of Florence described the hôtel as new in September 1508 . The hôtel particulier is an example of French Renaissance architecture ; this , coupled with its ornamentation , were intended to reflect the tastes of Robertet , who was well known for his artistic collections . One of the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Blois , the hôtel indicates the influence of the Quattrocento on him .

The Hôtel d 'Alluye was owned by the descendants of Robertet and Michelle Gaillard de Longjumeau until the early sixteenth century . In 1588 , it hosted Louis II , Cardinal of Guise , the brother of Henry I , Duke of Guise ( " Scarface " ) , who was on the Estates General of Blois until his assassination was ordered by Henry III . Robertet 's grandson , Baron François Robertet of Alluyes , died in 1603 with no male offspring ; three years later , the residence and its surrounding property were seized by the Crown .

= = = Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries = = =

The 1620s saw the fragmentation of the west wing of the original residence . Sold to a number of owners , this part of the building was gradually distorted until only a few remnants were left . The other three wings of the building were acquired by the Huraults of Saint @-@ Denis in 1621 , and on 5 July 1637 the residence was acquired by the Bégon family . In 1644 , major restoration work was done on the north wing under Charles Turmel . The Hôtel d 'Alluye was sold by Michel Bégon de la Picardière to the Terrouanne family on 5 August 1718 for 9 @,@ 000 livres .

= = = Modern era = = =

Around 1812 Lambert Rosey , a member of the Terrouanne family , demolished the building 's north wing . In 1832 , Rosey sold the building to Amédée Naudin for 12 @,@ 000 francs . Work began in the east wing , with its depth reduced and its layout becoming more irregular . Naudin died on 21 November 1864 , and his two daughters sold the residence on 5 June 1866 for 40 @,@ 000 francs . From 1868 to 1869 , it was restored under the direction of Félix Duban ; in 1877 , further restoration work was planned but not done .

From 1890 to 1895 major changes were made to the Rue Saint @-@ Honoré section , with many attics and roofs transformed . In 2007 , the residence was purchased by a developer , who divided it into ten apartments three years later . This helped save the rear of the residence , which had a badly @-@ damaged roof . Currently , the building comprises ten apartments and a large office .

= = Buildings = =

Destroyed in 1812 , the original layout of the north wing is unknown but it is described in a 1644 document . Narrower than the other wings , the wing and its gallery were no more than 8 m ( 26 ft ) wide and contained two bedrooms . A staircase at the northeast corner linked it to the other wings .

Although the east wing is well @-@ preserved , it has undergone many changes and its initial appearance is unknown . The wing has two levels overlooking the courtyard retaining their arcades ( now glassed @-@ in ) , which are the same shape as those in the south wing . The southeast end of the wing contained a kitchen ( with a well ) and a large pantry .

Opening onto Rue Saint @-@ Honoré with a large portal , the south wing was the hotel 's main building ; like the east wing , it is well @-@ preserved . To the left of the portal is an area which previously served as a stable . The ground floor has a large room opening onto the courtyard and another , smaller room . The first floor consists of three rooms : two small rooms and a garderobe . During the eighteenth century , it was recorded that the top floor had two chambres de bonne .

The west wing 's design is known only from archival records , since it was almost totally destroyed between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries . The first part of the wing consisted of stables , a spiral staircase leading to the exterior façade , a corridor linking the courtyard to the street and a large pantry . During the seventeenth century , the second part held an indoor jeu de paume court and a chapel ; its first floor had three large bedrooms .

= = Façades , entrances and courtyard = =

The hotel 's exterior façade was inspired by the Louis XII wing of the Château de Blois . Since its construction , dormers have been added and the window design has changed . The original façade can be seen in the decoration of some ground @-@ floor windows and the portal , and the walls , windows and corbels of this hôtel particulier are in the Gothic style .

More modern than the exterior façades and contrary to French architectural tradition , the interior façades embrace the Italian Renaissance style . The hotel 's galleries had two levels of " basket @-@ handle " arches , columns on the first floor and rectangular pillars . Italian influence on the buildings appears in the moldings and carvings on its doors and pillars — for example , facing birds .

Thirteen antique terracotta medallions adorn the balustrade of the gallery 's first floor , representing Roman emperors and influenced by Italian architecture . Surrounded by a thick garland of fruits and flowers , these medallions were originally painted green to suggest bronze and distinguish the façade . The building 's perforated railings are inspired by the François I wing of the Château de Blois . The windows were probably added during the late @-@ nineteenth @-@ century restoration . Dismantled in 1812 , the northern galleries were originally supported by two sets of six white marble columns ( rarely found in sixteenth @-@ century buildings ) .

The hôtel d 'Alluye originally had three entrances linking it to shopping areas . The original main entrance , on the south side of the hotel , has been preserved . The hotel was accessible from the west by a path from Rue Porte @-@ Chartraine ; that entrance was bricked up in 1606 . A third , seventeenth @-@ century entrance linked the north side of the hotel to Rue Beauvoir .

The inner courtyard was originally decorated with a bronze copy of Donatello 's David , which was inspired by Michelangelo . Placed in 1509 , the statue was given to Robertet by the Florentine Republic . As early as 1513 , it was moved to his Château de Bury .

= = Interior decoration = =

Much of the hôtel d 'Alluye 's original interior decoration remains . A notable exception is the fireplace in the largest room of the south wing , which was repainted and redecorated by Martin Monestier during the nineteenth century . On the sides of the fireplace , two maxims ( maxima propositio ) are engraved in ancient Greek . The first reads , " Remember the common fate " ( " ΜΕΜΝΗΣΟ ΤΗΣ ΚΟΙΝΗΣ ΤΥΧΗΣ " ) and the second " Above all , respect the divine " ( " ΠΡΟ ΠΑΝΤΩΝ ΣΕΒΟΥ ΤΟ ΘΕΙΟΝ " ) .

= = Conservation = =

The hôtel d 'Alluye , classified as a monument historique on 6 November 1929 , is privately owned . Since 2011 , its courtyard has been open to the public on European Heritage Days .

= The Last Temptation of Homer =

" The Last Temptation of Homer " is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 9 , 1993 . In the episode , a female employee named Mindy is hired at the nuclear power plant . Homer and Mindy find themselves attracted to each other , but even though Homer is very tempted by her , he stays faithful to his wife Marge . Meanwhile , Bart becomes an outcast and makes friends with a group of nerds after he is prescribed glasses , special shoes , and throat spray which changes his voice .

The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza . It did not get the usual amount of laughs at the test screenings , which made the staff worry the show was not as funny as they expected . Michelle Pfeiffer guest starred in the episode as Mindy and received praise for her performance , including a spot on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons . The episode features cultural references to films such as The Wizard of Oz , It 's A Wonderful Life , and A Christmas Carol . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .

= = Plot = =

After Homer and his coworkers barely escape from a gas leak at the nuclear power plant , Homer 's coworker is fired when he asks Mr. Burns to put in a real emergency exit . After breaking numerous labor laws in hiring a replacement , such as hiring illegal aliens and ducks , the United States Department of Labor demands that Burns make changes in the power plant 's policies , including hiring at least one female worker . A beautiful woman named Mindy Simmons is brought in and Homer finds he is falling in love with her . Barney advises Homer to talk to Mindy because they will most likely have nothing in common . Homer does so , and to his horror , he finds they have exactly the same personality and interests . Meanwhile , Marge is sick with a bad cold , which makes her very unattractive to Homer .

Meanwhile , Bart is sent to an eye specialist after it is discovered he has poor vision . The optometrist decides he has lazy eye and fits him with special , thick glasses he has to wear for two weeks . Bart also finds out he has a dry scalp that can only be treated by matting his hair down with a medicated salve , therefore parting his hair to both sides . He also receives a pair of oversized shoes to help his posture , and a spray in his throat to cure the redness , which temporarily gives him a squeaky voice . These adjustments give Bart the appearance of , and gradually turn him into , a nerd . He is picked on and beaten up regularly by bullies for the duration of the two weeks . Eventually , Bart comes back to school in his normal appearance , explaining he is no longer a nerd , but the bullies still decide to beat him up anyway .

Homer does his best to avoid Mindy , who is falling in love with Homer , but despite his best efforts , they keep ending up together . Eventually , Homer decides to talk to Mindy , and say that due to their attraction , they should completely avoid each other . However , things get worse when Homer and Mindy are sent to represent the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant at the National Energy Convention in Capital City . After a romantic dinner as an award for winning the Convention , Homer and Mindy go back to their hotel room , and Homer expresses his worries . Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him , but assures him that nothing has to happen between them , and that it is up to him to decide how far their relationship will go . Even though he is very tempted by her , Homer declares his faithfulness to Marge . Mindy accepts his decision and leaves after they share a kiss . Later , Marge shows up with Homer to share a romantic evening together .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza . The idea was conceived by the then @-@ show runner David Mirkin . When he was hired to work on The Simpsons , one of his goals was to study the aspect of Homer 's character if he was " really tempted away " from Marge . Mirkin wanted to find out what would happen in a situation where Homer finds himself attracted to another woman . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening had previously written an episode for the show 's third season , called " Colonel Homer " , where Homer finds himself attracted to a country singer named Lurleen Lumpkin . In that episode , Lurleen immediately had a " crush " on Homer , but Homer was not aware of it until later on . With this episode , Mirkin wanted Homer to immediately know he was attracted to Mindy . Mirkin thought it was a " great exploration " to see what happened to Homer in this particular case . The episode did not get the usual amount of laughs at the animatic test screening , which made the staff worry it was not as funny as they expected . Mirkin said it had to do with the fact that because there were very " subtle " performances in the episode , the animation had to be " exactly right " for it to be funny . Baeza and David Silverman , another animation director on the show , worked " hard " on the episode . Mirkin said from the very beginning it was a " huge group effort " from both the writing and the animation staff .

Many scenes in the animatic portrayed Mindy as flirty . Mirkin did not like this because the secret of the episode was Homer and Mindy are two good people who are thrown into the situation and " can 't help that their libidos are going crazy upon seeing each other " . He added that the two characters have " so much in common " that it is " not just a physical relationship , but a mental connection as well " , and that Mindy is not a seductress but rather a woman just as nervous as Homer . Mirkin also pointed out that while Homer is being tempted by a " seemingly perfect " woman at work , his wife could not be more " imperfect " since she has got a cold and looks sick . " He 's trying to connect with his family , but with Marge looking sick and Bart looking like a nerd , everything is just not working , " Mirkin said .

American actress Michelle Pfeiffer provided the voice of Mindy Simmons in the episode . All the writers showed up at the recording studio in West Los Angeles to see her record her lines . When Pfeiffer entered the room with her daughter , Pfeiffer was " mobbed " by the energy of the writers and directors , who were excited to see her . Mirkin , who directed Pfeiffer in the studio , was nervous because he thought she was a beautiful woman who was on a " completely different level " than the other actors and actresses he had directed on the show . Pfeiffer was also nervous because she had never voiced an animated character . Mirkin told her : " You 're gonna love this more than anything you have ever done because it 's calm and pleasant , and we have so much time to play and experiment . " This helped her calm down and by the end of the session , she was " really relaxed " and they had a " fantastic " time . Silverman told Pfeiffer to not sound too flirty , and that she should just act herself . In one scene in the episode , Mindy drools as she eats doughnuts , much like Homer does . To get the right drool sound , Pfeiffer put broccoli and water in her mouth . Mirkin said he did not have to give much direction during the recording of Homer and Mindy 's final scene together , in which Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him . Pfeiffer " hit it really well " and they did it several times to get it " more and more real " . Mirkin also thought that Pfeiffer completely understood the part and played it perfectly . He described her as " one of those actresses that you don 't even have to see to know they 're great , instead you can hear from her voice what a brilliant actress she is . " Dan Castellaneta was also praised by Mirkin for his performance as Homer . Castellaneta struggled to be " sweet " and " moving " in his performance .

When Homer calls a marriage counseling hotline in the episode , he accidentally knocks himself unconscious in the phone booth . In a dream , he is approached by his guardian angel . The angel , in the form of Colonel Klink , shows Homer what his life would be like without Marge . Colonel Klink is a character on the American television series Hogan 's Heroes . Klink 's actor in Hogan 's Heroes , Werner Klemperer , provided the voice of Klink in this episode . Mirkin said Klemperer was a " fantastic sport " to do the character . Since Hogan 's Heroes had gone off the air in 1971 , he had forgotten how to play Klink . Mirkin therefore had to do an impression of Klink that Klemperer could imitate to get it right .

= = Cultural references = =

When Bart receives new glasses , scalp treatment , orthopedic shoes , and throat spray , he does an impersonation of Jerry Lewis ' nerdy character in The Nutty Professor . When Homer first meets Mindy , he imagines her as Venus in Sandro Botticelli 's painting The Birth of Venus . To deal with Homer and Mindy charging room service to the company , Mr. Burns unleashes flying monkeys in the manner of the Wicked Witch of the West , as seen in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . However , the attempt fails as the monkeys all fall to their deaths . The scene between Homer and Colonel Klink from Hogan 's Heroes , wondering what his life would have been like if he married Mindy and not Marge , draws from the films It 's A Wonderful Life and A Christmas Carol . When Homer meets Mindy in the elevator , he thinks " unsexy thoughts " to avoid being seduced by her . He imagines Barney in a bikini and humming the theme tune to the American sitcom I Dream of Jeannie . Homer attempts to read the notes for Mindy that he wrote on his hand , but they have smeared out because of sweat . In his attempt , Homer unknowingly babbles the Nam Myoho Renge Kyo , a Buddhist chant in Nichiren Buddhism and SGI . This is a reference to an Akbar and Jeff cartoon , written by Matt Groening , in which the same mantra is used . When Homer notices the sweat , he says he is " sweating like [ film critic ] Roger Ebert " . In the bathroom , Homer sings a rough version of the song " Mandy " by Barry Manilow , replacing " Mandy " with " Mindy " . Homer refers to comic strip Ziggy when he wonders if Mindy agrees the title character has become " too preachy " . Barry White 's song " Can 't Get Enough of Your Love , Babe " is played in the episode 's final scene where Homer and Marge make out at the hotel room . When Bart is being fitted for correctional glasses the optician reveals former Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin had a pair just like Bart 's .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " The Last Temptation of Homer " finished 24th ( tied with The Fresh Prince of Bel Air ) in the ratings for the week of December 6 – 12 , 1993 . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .

Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . In 2003 , it was placed tenth on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episode list , and The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons Television Episodes " . Nancy Basile of About.com named it one of her top twenty favorite episodes of the show , and said Michelle Pfeiffer " is so elegant and beautiful , that the irony of her playing a burping love interest for Homer Simpson is funny enough . " She added " the thorny issue of adultery is tackled in a way only The Simpsons could , " and " though Homer is contemplating cheating , he 's a sympathetic and almost innocent character . " Robert Canning of IGN called the episode " smart , touching and funny " , and said " it did a great job showing Homer 's struggle to deal with the flirtations of a co @-@ worker . "

The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it a " wonderfully scripted episode " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said , " Given Homer ’ s utter devotion to Marge , it may seem off @-@ character for him to fall for Mindy , but the show makes it fit , as his obsession doesn ’ t come across as inconsistent . " He added the plot with Bart becoming a nerd is the " funnier one " of the two . Bill Gibron of DVD Talk called it a " jest fest loaded with insight into the human heart and hilarious over @-@ the @-@ top goofiness . " TV DVD Reviews 's Kay Daly called it the season 's finest episode with the " greatest foray into emotional resonance " . Matt Groening thought it was an amazing episode with " a lot of fun " in it . David Mirkin said Frank Mula 's script was great .

In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Pfeiffer 's role as Mindy one of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons . She also appeared on AOL 's list of their top favorite guest stars on the show . Brett Buckalew of Metromix Indianapolis wrote that Pfeiffer " gives arguably the best celebrity guest @-@ vocal performance in series history . " Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked her performance as the 15th best guest appearance in the show 's history .

= European storm petrel =

The European storm petrel , British storm petrel or just storm petrel ( Hydrobates pelagicus ) is a seabird in the storm petrel family , Hydrobatidae . It is the only member of the genus Hydrobates . The small , square @-@ tailed bird is entirely black except for a broad white rump and a white band on the underwings , and it has a fluttering , bat @-@ like flight . The large majority of the population breeds on islands off the coasts of Europe , with the greatest numbers in the Faroe Islands , United Kingdom , Ireland and Iceland . The Mediterranean population is a separate subspecies , but is inseparable at sea from its Atlantic relatives ; its strongholds are Filfla Island ( Malta ) , Sicily and the Balearic Islands .

The storm petrel nests in crevices and burrows , sometimes shared with other seabirds or rabbits , and lays a single white egg , usually on bare soil . The adults share the lengthy incubation and both feed the chick , which is not normally brooded after the first week . This bird is strongly migratory , spending the northern hemisphere winter mainly off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia , with some birds stopping in the seas adjoining West Africa , and a few remaining near their Mediterranean breeding islands . This petrel is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season . It feeds on small fish , squid and zooplankton while pattering on the sea 's surface , and can find oily edible items by smell . The food is converted in the bird 's stomach to an oily orange liquid which is regurgitated when the chick is fed . Although usually silent at sea , the storm petrel has a chattering call given by both members of a pair in their courtship flight , and the male has a purring song given from the breeding chamber .

The storm petrel cannot survive on islands where land mammals such as rats and cats have been introduced , and it suffers natural predation from gulls , skuas , owls and falcons . Although the population may be declining slightly , this petrel is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern due to its high total numbers . Its presence in rough weather at sea has led to various mariners ' superstitions , and , by analogy , to its use as a symbol by revolutionary and anarchist groups .

= = Taxonomy = =

The storm petrels , Hydrobatidae , are one of the four major families of the Procellariiformes or " tubenoses " , an order of seabirds that also includes the albatrosses , the Procellariidae , and the diving petrels . The family is an ancient group of small species which is thought to have diverged early from the rest of the tubenoses ; the supporting fossil record is poor , with specimens from California dating back only to the Late Miocene ( 11 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 3 million years ago ) . The Hydrobatidae are often divided into two subfamilies , the mainly southern hemisphere Oceanitinae and the northern Hydrobatinae ; cytochrome b DNA sequence analysis suggests that these might be full families . The European storm petrel is the only member of the genus Hydrobates , the remainder of the Hydrobatinae being placed in Oceanodroma , although the least storm petrel is sometimes separated as the sole member of Halocyptena . The relationships within the Hydrobatinae are complex and uncertain , and it has been suggested that all the members of the subfamily could be subsumed into an enlarged Hydrobates .

The storm petrel was first described from by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Procellaria pelagica . It was moved to the genus Hydrobates by Friedrich Boie in 1822 . Petrel , first recorded in 1602 , is a corruption of pitteral , referring to the bird 's pitter @-@ pattering across the water . The suggestion that the word refers to St Peter walking on the waves is a later invention . Storm arises from seamen 's association of this bird with bad weather . In English , the name of the species was written as " stormy petrel " by some 19th @-@ century authors .

The scientific name derives from Greek ; Hydrobates is from hudro , water , and bates , walker , and pelagicus is from pelagikos , of the sea . There are two recognised subspecies , the North Atlantic nominate subspecies , H. p. pelagicus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) , and the Mediterranean H. p. melitensis ( Schembri , 1843 ) . Although there is some genetic support for classifying the southern form as a separate species , the morphology is not considered sufficiently different from that of the nominate subspecies to justify a split .

= = Description = =

The storm petrel is a small bird , 14 – 18 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) in length with a 36 – 39 cm ( 14 – 15 in ) wingspan . It weighs 20 – 38 g ( 0 @.@ 71 – 1 @.@ 34 oz ) , with an average of 28 g ( 0 @.@ 99 oz ) . It is square @-@ tailed and has all @-@ black plumage except for a snow @-@ white rump that extends to the sides of the tail base and a broad white band on the underwings . Juveniles in fresh plumage can also show a narrow white bar on the upperwing . The plumage becomes dark brown rather than black as it becomes worn . There are no obvious differences between the sexes , although in the Mediterranean subspecies , at least , most captured birds can be sexed using a formula which involves multiplying the wing length by the length of the white rump band ; females are slightly larger and have a longer white rump than males . The Mediterranean subspecies has longer wings and a heavier bill on average than the nominate form , but neither sex nor subspecies can be determined by observation at sea .

Moult is prolonged in all tubenoses , since they must maintain an ability to fly . Northern populations start replacing their plumage after those further south , reflecting the later start to their breeding season . Birds in a Welsh colony commenced moulting in early August , while populations in northern Spain and the Balearics started in early July and mid @-@ June respectively . Breeding birds moult later than non @-@ breeders .

The storm petrel 's large nasal olfactory bulbs facilitate a keen sense of smell , and the birds themselves have a distinctive musty aroma which can help researchers to locate breeding colonies . Individual petrels recognise their own body scent and can use it to locate their nest in the dark .

The flight is weak @-@ looking and resembles that of a bat , with fluttering interspersed with short glides . When feeding , the birds hang with raised wings and patter on the surface with their feet , but , unlike the Wilson 's storm petrel , do not look as if they are walking on the water . Birds will sometimes settle on the sea . Like other petrels , the European storm petrel cannot walk properly on land , but shuffles on its tarsi ; once there is enough room , the bird flaps its wings to support itself on its toes .

The European storm petrel can be distinguished from related Western Palaearctic species by the white bar on its underwing and its distinctive fluttering flight . Compared to Leach 's storm petrel , band @-@ rumped storm petrel , and the recently described Monteiro 's storm petrel , it is also smaller , darker , shorter @-@ winged and has a square tail . Wilson 's storm petrel lacks an underwing bar , and has long legs with the feet visible beyond the tail .

= = = Voice = = =

In its display flight , the storm petrel gives a call consisting of eight or more repetitions of a fast ter @-@ CHICK sounds ending in a trill ( rapid alternation of notes ) . This chattering , staccato call is highly variable in pitch , stress and length . Both sexes make the call , which is used as an advertisement for a mate , for pair recognition , and in the nuptial flight . The details of the vocalisation vary geographically , including between the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations , and birds recognise calls from their own breeding area . The chatter @-@ call of the Mediterranean subspecies is distinctive . It has the first two notes running into each other , and the final element is sometimes doubled . The storm petrel is usually silent at sea , but sometimes gives the chattering call . A purring song arrr @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r … ending with a sharp chikka is given in the burrow by the male only ; it was described by Charles Oldham as " like a fairy being sick " . Other vocalisations include a fast wick @-@ wick @-@ wick , sometimes given in flight , and an up @-@ CHERRK alarm which resembles the chatter @-@ call . Chicks give a whistling pee @-@ pee @-@ pee call when being fed , and a faster version of this vocalisation is used by adults and young to signal distress .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Storm petrels breed only in the Western Palaearctic on islands off the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe . The largest colonies are in the Faroe Islands ( 150 @,@ 000 @-@ 400 @,@ 000 pairs ) , United Kingdom ( 20 @,@ 000 @-@ 150 @,@ 000 ) , Ireland ( 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 ) and Iceland ( 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 100 @,@ 000 ) , with smaller breeding areas off Norway , Malta , Spain , the Canary Islands , Italy , France and Greece . The strongholds of the melitensis subspecies are the island of Filfla ( Malta ) , Sicily and the Balearic Islands , with smaller sites elsewhere in the Mediterranean . This latter form also breeds in North Africa ; definitely in Tunisia , probably in Algeria and possibly in Morocco . Because of its nocturnal habits and the problems of accessing some of the small islands on which it breeds , the distribution is poorly known . A colony was discovered as recently as 2009 , on Lampedusa . The storm petrel has been recorded as a vagrant in several European countries as far east as the Ukraine , in the Guinea region of West Africa , and in Turkey , Israel , Lebanon , and the US . Although there were no North American records for more than 30 years after the first in 1970 , this bird has been more or less annual in small numbers since 2003 .

The storm petrel breeds on exposed and usually uninhabited islands which it visits only at night . It otherwise frequents mid @-@ depth waters away from the coastal zone , but not over the ocean deeps . In the breeding season , it is mainly found between the 10 – 25 ° C July isotherms . In Europe , it is rarely seen from land except in autumn storms .

The storm petrel is migratory , spending the northern hemisphere winter mainly in cool waters off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia , south to latitude 38 ° S and east to KwaZulu @-@ Natal . Some birds stay north of the equator in the seas adjoining Mauritania and Rio de Oro , and a few remain near the breeding islands , especially in the Mediterranean . It is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season , although it is described as regularly seen from land in West Africa . Young birds do not return to the breeding colonies until their second or third year . Birds mostly head south from the breeding islands between September and November , reaching West Africa by mid @-@ November and the south Atlantic by the end of the year . The return passage starts in April , with late records from the tropics and further south probably representing sub @-@ adult birds that will not breed that year .

= = Behaviour = =

= = = Breeding = = =

The storm petrel is sexually mature at age 4 – 5 years , with the Mediterranean subspecies typically breeding a year earlier than the Atlantic form . Breeding happens in colonies and normally begins in late May or June . Pairs have a repeated nocturnal display flight in which the male chases the female , the chase being accompanied by flight calls . Some near @-@ adult birds may pair up and occupy a hole at the same time , prior to breeding in the following year .

Storm petrels normally nest in crevices between or under rocks , or burrow in the soil . When they make their own tunnels , they loosen the earth with their bills and kick out the debris with their feet . The birds less commonly nest in walls , under buildings or down rabbit burrows . Disused or occupied burrows of Atlantic puffins and Manx shearwaters are sometimes used , and the petrel pair may share a common entrance with those seabirds , rabbits or other pairs of its own species . Where other occupants are present , the petrels dig a side burrow or use an existing low @-@ roofed tunnel which the larger birds or rabbits cannot easily enter . Even so , puffins and shearwaters will sometimes access and destroy nests , and adult petrels may be killed by their larger neighbours . Human @-@ made plastic nesting tubes are readily used , and may provide protection against predators . Birds usually mate for life and use the same hole every year .

The nest tunnel is 10 – 300 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 118 @.@ 1 in ) long and 5 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) across , with a slightly narrower entrance . The nest chamber is typically unlined , although pairs may bring in some grass , bracken or seaweed . Although the storm petrel is generally non @-@ territorial when breeding , a pair will defend the nest chamber itself after the eggs have been laid .

The clutch is a single egg , usually pure white , sometimes with some reddish brown spots that soon disappear . The average size of the egg is 28 mm × 21 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 in × 0 @.@ 83 in ) , and it weighs 6 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 24 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . If an egg is lost early enough , on rare occasions a replacement may be laid . This is very unusual for tubenoses . The eggs are incubated by both parents for 38 – 50 days , the longer periods arising when the eggs have become chilled through adult absence . One adult typically spends three days at a time on the egg while its partner feeds at sea . The chicks are altricial and covered with silver @-@ grey down , and are fed by both parents with their regurgitated oily stomach contents . The adults do not normally stay with the chick after first week , visiting only to bring food . After about 50 days , the chicks are fed less regularly , sometimes with gaps of several days , and the parents may stop visiting completely shortly before the chick leaves the nest . The chicks fledge about 56 – 86 days after hatching , and receive no parental support after leaving the nest hole .

Tubenoses have smaller egg clutches and much longer and more variable incubation and fledging times than passerines with similarly sized eggs , resembling swifts in these developmental factors . Tubenoses and swifts have generally secure nest sites , but their food sources are unreliable , whereas passerines are vulnerable in the nest but food is usually plentiful . In the particular case of the storm petrel , it has a body temperature perhaps 3 ° C lower than other small birds , and this may also contribute to the lengthy incubation .

The adult petrel 's annual death rate is 12 – 13 % , and the typical life span is 11 years . Longevity records established from bird ringing recoveries include a bird aged 31 years 11 months 9 days , and another aged more than 33 years .

= = = Feeding = = =

The storm petrel normally flies within 10 m ( 33 ft ) of the water surface and typically feeds by picking items off the sea as it patters over the surface . Birds have been observed diving for food to a depth of not more than 0 @.@ 5 m ( 20 in ) . and it is claimed , using indirect measurements , that the Mediterranean subspecies reaches depths of up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) ) . A bird may range up to 200 km ( 120 mi ) over the course of two or three days in search of food . Although the bird usually feeds during the day , in the breeding season petrels will often feed at night close to the shore .

The typical prey consists of surface organisms such as small fish , squid , crustaceans and jellyfish . The storm petrel will also eat offal and oily food , often located by smell , and will follow ships . In the Atlantic , more than half the food items are zooplankton and the fish caught include small herring and sprats ; whale carcasses are scavenged where available . During digestion , the plankton is quickly converted to an oily orange liquid that owes its colour to carotenoids . Larger prey items take longer to digest . The oil , rich in vitamin A , is produced by a large gland in the stomach . The Mediterranean subspecies ' diet is mainly fish , particularly Mediterranean sand eels . Petrels also catch opossum shrimps from waters close to the colony . Bluefin tuna farms are exploited on the Maltese island of Filfla ; birds from the large local colony feed on the unwashed food fed to the farmed tuna , a mixture of fish , squid and prawns which produces a sizeable oily slick . Small numbers of insects are caught near breeding colonies , and some plant material , including angiosperm seeds and sorrel , has been found in the stomach contents . A study on Leach 's storm petrel , which consumes similar items , showed that the petrels were snipping pieces off plant leaves in flight , but it could not be confirmed that this was in the course of catching insects . Nasal glands remove excess salt from seawater consumed by the petrel as a concentrated solution excreted through the nostrils .

Petrels can be attracted to boats with " chum " , a malodorous mixture typically containing fish heads , bones and offal , with added fish oil and popcorn to aid flotation . An apparently empty ocean will soon fill with hundreds of birds attracted by the smell . The attraction of the fishy odour is sometimes enhanced by the addition of dimethylsulphide ( DMS ) a chemical also naturally produced by some planktonic organisms , although there are doubts about the safety of this possible carcinogen .

= = Predators and parasites = =

Adults and young are vulnerable to predation at the breeding colonies , their only defence being to spit oil . Petrels cannot breed on islands where rats have been introduced , and feral cats frequently kill these birds on Foula in the Shetland Islands . The American mink , a non @-@ native species in Europe , is a strong swimmer , and can colonise islands up to 2 km ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) from the mainland . Natural predators of petrels and other seabirds include skuas and large gulls . The yellow @-@ legged gull is a particular problem in the Mediterranean , and great skuas were estimated to kill 7 @,@ 500 petrels a year on St Kilda , an unsustainable number . Some great black @-@ backed gulls on the Atlantic islands specialise in taking seabird chicks at night , and peregrine falcons hunt adults at sea . Localised predators include Eleonora 's falcon on the Columbretes Islands and the nocturnal barn owl on the Balearics ; a few owls can wipe out a colony . The little owl is also a predator of both adults and young where it occurs .

Feather mites of at least two species have been found on the storm petrel , with Halipeurus pelagicus occurring at much higher densities than Philoceanus robertsi . The flea Xenopsylla gratiosa and dermanyssid mites are commonly found , with lower numbers of ticks . These blood @-@ sucking parasites slow the growth rate of nestlings and may affect their survival rate .

Storm petrels seem to be largely free of blood parasites , even when in close proximity to carrier species such as the yellow @-@ legged gull . It has been suggested that seabird species with long incubation periods and long lives have well @-@ developed immune systems that prevent serious blood parasitism .

= = Status = =

The European population of the storm petrel has been estimated at 430 @,@ 000 – 510 @,@ 000 breeding pairs or 1 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 530 @,@ 000 individual birds and makes up 95 % of the world total numbers . The population estimate includes about 11 @,@ 000 to 16 @,@ 000 breeding pairs of the Mediterranean subspecies .

Although this species ' population now appears to be declining , the decrease is not rapid or large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria . Given its high numbers , this petrel is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern . The perceived decline may be due increased predation from gulls , skuas and introduced mammals . Eradication of rats protects seabird colonies and may enable recolonisation of islands cleared of rodents . Predation of cave @-@ nesting petrels in the Balearics by yellow @-@ legged gulls is restricted to relatively few individual gulls specialising in this prey item ; this means that the problems can be controlled by selective culling and the provision of plastic nest boxes .

Because it feeds in flight , the storm petrel is less affected by oil pollution than other seabirds , and may be able to use its good sense of smell to avoid slicks , although a large spill near a breeding colony could have serious consequences .

= = In culture = =

Its association with storms makes the storm petrel a bird of bad omen to mariners ; they are said to either foretell or cause bad weather . A more prosaic explanation of their appearance in rough weather is that , like most oceanic seabirds , they rely on the winds to support them in flight and just sit on the water surface when becalmed . The birds were sometimes thought to be the souls of perished sailors , and killing a petrel was believed to bring bad luck . The petrel 's reputation led to the old name of witch , although the commonest of the folk names is Mother Carey 's Chicken , a name also used for storm petrels in general in the UK and USA from at least 1767 . This is believed to be a corruption of mater cara ( dear mother , the Virgin Mary ) , a reference to the supernatural Mother Carey , or a superstitious modification of an earlier Mother Mary 's Chicken to reduce the potency of the religious name . The Mother Carey character appears a number of times in literature . In the Cicely Fox Smith poem " Mother Carey " , she calls old sailors to return to the sea , but in John Masefield 's poem of the same name she is seen as a wrecker of ships . She appears as a fairy in Charles Kingsley 's The Water Babies and is depicted in one of Jessie Willcox Smith 's illustrations for the book .

The association of the storm petrel with turbulent weather has led to its use as a metaphor for revolutionary views , the epithet " stormy petrel " being applied by various authors to characters as disparate as Roman tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher , a Presbyterian minister in the early Carolinas , an Afghan governor , or an Arkansas politician .

A 1901 poem by Russian writer Maxim Gorky is invariably titled in English as " The Song of the Stormy Petrel " , although that may not be a perfectly accurate translation of the Russian title " Песня о Буревестнике " , because " Буревестник " ( the name of the bird in Russian ) translates to the English general term " storm bird " . The poem was called " the battle anthem of the revolution " , and earned Gorky the nickname " The Storm Petrel of the Revolution " .

Various revolutionary anarchist groups adopted the bird 's name , either as a group identifier , as in the Spanish Civil War , or for their publications . The Stormy Petrel ( Burevestnik ) was the title of the magazine of the Anarchist Communist Federation in Russia around the time of the 1905 revolution , and is still an imprint of the London group of the Anarchist Federation ( Britain and Ireland ) . To honor Gorky and his work , the name Burevestnik was bestowed on a variety of institutions , locations , and products in the USSR .

= Bluespotted ribbontail ray =

Not to be confused with the bluespotted stingray , Neotrygon kuhlii .

The bluespotted ribbontail ray ( Taeniura lymma ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . Found from the intertidal zone to a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) , this species is common throughout the tropical Indian and western Pacific Oceans in nearshore , coral reef @-@ associated habitats . It is a fairly small ray , not exceeding 35 cm ( 14 in ) in width , with a mostly smooth , oval pectoral fin disc , large protruding eyes , and a relatively short and thick tail with a deep fin fold underneath . It can be easily identified by its striking color pattern of many electric blue spots on a yellowish background , with a pair of blue stripes on the tail .

At night , small groups of bluespotted ribbontail rays follow the rising tide onto sandy flats to root for small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes in the sediment . When the tide recedes , the rays separate and withdraw to shelters on the reef . Reproduction is aplacental viviparous , with females giving birth to litters of up to seven young . This ray is capable of injuring humans with its venomous tail spines , though it prefers to flee if threatened . Because of its beauty and size , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is popular with private aquarists despite being poorly suited to captivity . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Near Threatened , as it faces widespread habitat degradation and intensive fishing pressure throughout its range .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The bluespotted ribbontail ray was originally described as Raja lymma by Swedish naturalist Peter Forsskål , in his 1775 Descriptiones Animalium quae in itinere ad maris australis terras per annos 1772 , 1773 , et 1774 suscepto collegit , observavit , et delineavit Joannes Reinlioldus Forster , etc . , curante Henrico Lichtenstein . The specific epithet lymma means " dirt " . Forsskål did not designate a type specimen . In 1837 , German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle created the genus Taeniura for Trygon ornatus , now known to be a junior synonym of this species .

Other common names used for this species include bluespotted ray , bluespotted fantail ray , bluespotted lagoon ray , bluespotted stingray , fantail ray , lesser fantail ray , lagoon ray , reef ray , ribbon @-@ tailed stingray , and ribbontail stingray . Morphological examination has suggested that the bluespotted ribbontail ray is more closely related to the amphi @-@ American Himantura ( H. pacifica and H. schmardae ) and the river stingrays ( Potamotrygonidae ) than to the congeneric blotched fantail ray ( T. meyeni ) , which is closer to Dasyatis and Indo @-@ Pacific Himantura .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

Widespread in the nearshore waters of the tropical Indo @-@ Pacific region , the bluespotted ribbontail ray has a range that extends around the periphery of the Indian Ocean from South Africa to the Arabian Peninsula to Southeast Asia , including Madagascar , Mauritius , Zanzibar , the Seychelles , Sri Lanka , and the Maldives . It is rare in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman . In the Pacific Ocean , this species is found from the Philippines to northern Australia , as well as around numerous Melanesian and Polynesian islands as far east as the Solomon Islands . Rarely found deeper than 30 m ( 100 ft ) , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is a bottom @-@ dwelling species that frequents coral reefs and adjacent sandy flats . It is also commonly encountered in the intertidal zone and tidal pools , and has been sighted near seagrass beds . Every summer , considerable numbers of bluespotted ribbontail rays arrive off South Africa .

= = Description = =

The pectoral fin disc of the bluespotted ribbontail ray is oval in shape , around four @-@ fifths as wide as long , with a rounded to broadly angular snout . The large , protruding eyes are immediately followed by the broad spiracles . There is a narrow flap of skin between the nares with a fringed posterior margin , reaching past the mouth . The lower jaw dips at the middle and deep furrows are present at the mouth corners . There are 15 – 24 tooth rows in either jaw , arranged into pavement @-@ like plates , and two large papillae on the floor of the mouth . The pelvic fins are narrow and angular . The thick , depressed tail measures about 1 @.@ 5 times the disc length and bears one or two ( usually two ) serrated spines well behind the tail base ; there is a deep fin fold on the ventral surface , reaching the tip of the tail , and a low midline ridge on the upper surface .

The skin is generally smooth , save for perhaps a scattering of small thorns on the middle of the back . The dorsal coloration is striking , consisting of numerous circular , neon blue spots on a yellowish brown or green background ; the spots vary in size , becoming smaller and denser towards the disc margin . The tail has two stripes of the same blue running along each side as far as the spines . The eyes are bright yellow and the belly is white . Individuals found off southern Africa may lack the blue tail stripes . The bluespotted ribbontail ray grows to 35 cm ( 14 in ) across , 80 cm ( 31 in ) long , and 5 kg ( 11 lb ) .

= = Biology and ecology = =

One of the most abundant stingrays inhabiting Indo @-@ Pacific reefs , the bluespotted ribbontail ray generally spends the day hidden alone inside caves or under coral ledges or other debris ( including from shipwrecks ) , often with only its tail showing . At night , small groups assemble and swim onto shallow sandy flats with the rising tide to feed . Unlike many other stingrays , this species seldom buries itself in sand . The bluespotted ribbontail ray excavates sand pits in search of molluscs , polychaete worms , shrimps , crabs , and small benthic bony fishes ; when prey is located , it is trapped by the body of the ray and maneuvered into the mouth with the disc . Other fishes , such as goatfish , frequently follow foraging rays , seeking food missed by the ray .

Breeding in the bluespotted ribbontail ray occurs from late spring to summer ; the male follows the female and nips at her disc , eventually biting and holding onto her for copulation . There is also a documented instance of a male holding onto the disc of a smaller male bluespotted stingray ( Dasyatis kuhlii ) , in a possible case of mistaken identity . Adult males have been observed gathering in shallow water , which may relate to reproduction . Like other stingrays , this species is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are initially sustained by yolk , which later in development is supplemented by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , containing mucus , fat , and proteins ) produced by the mother . The gestation period is uncertain , but is thought to be between four and twelve months long . Females bear litters of up to seven young , each a miniature version of the adult measuring around 13 – 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) across . Males attain sexual maturity at a disc width of 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) ; the maturation size of females is unknown .

Known predators of the bluespotted ribbontail ray include hammerhead sharks ( Sphyrna ) and bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops ) ; it is also potentially preyed upon by other large fishes and marine mammals . When threatened , this ray tends to flee at high speed in a zigzag pattern , to throw off pursuers . Numerous parasites have been identified from this species : the tapeworms Aberrapex manjajiae , Anthobothrium taeniuri , Cephalobothrium taeniurai , Echinobothrium elegans and E. helmymohamedi , Kotorelliella jonesi , Polypocephalus saoudi , and Rhinebothrium ghardaguensis and R. taeniuri , the monogeneans Decacotyle lymmae , Empruthotrema quindecima , Entobdella australis , and Pseudohexabothrium taeniurae , the flatworms Pedunculacetabulum ghardaguensis and Anaporrhutum albidum , the nematode Mawsonascaris australis , the copepod Sheina orri , and the protozoan Trypanosoma taeniurae . This ray has been observed soliciting cleanings from the bluestreak cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) by raising the margins of its disc and pelvic fins .

= = Human interactions = =

While timid and innocuous towards humans , the bluespotted ribbontail ray is capable of inflicting an excruciating wound with its venomous tail spines . Its attractive appearance and relatively small size has resulted in its being the most common stingray found in the home aquarium trade . However , it seldom fares well in captivity and very few hobbyists are able to maintain one for long . Many specimens refuse to feed in the aquarium , and even seemingly healthy individuals often inexplicably die or stop feeding . A higher degree of success has been achieved by public aquariums and a breeding project is maintained by the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria ( for example , a total of 15 pubs were born at Lisbon Oceanarium from 2011 to 2013 ) . The bluespotted ribbontail ray is utilized as food in East Africa , Southeast Asia , and Australia ; it is captured intentionally or incidentally using gillnets , longlines , spears , and fence traps .

The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the bluespotted ribbontail ray as Near Threatened . Although still relatively common and widely distributed , this species faces continuing degradation of its coral reef habitat throughout its range , from development and destructive fishing practices using cyanide or dynamite . In addition , its populations are under heavy pressure by artisanal and commercial fisheries , and by local collecting for the aquarium trade .

= Douglas Jardine =

Douglas Robert Jardine ( 23 October 1900 – 18 June 1958 ) was a cricketer who played 22 Test matches for England , captaining the side in 15 of those matches between 1931 and 1934 . A right @-@ handed batsman , he is best known for captaining the English team during the 1932 – 33 Ashes tour of Australia . During that series , England employed " Bodyline " tactics against the Australian batsmen , wherein bowlers pitched the ball short on the line of leg stump to rise towards the bodies of the batsmen in a manner that most contemporary players and critics viewed as intimidatory and physically dangerous . Jardine is generally believed to be the person responsible for the implementation of Bodyline . A controversial figure among cricketers , he was well known for his dislike of Australian players and crowds and was unpopular in Australia , particularly for his manner and especially after the Bodyline tour . Many who played under his leadership regarded him as an excellent captain ; not all regarded him as good at managing people . He was also famous in cricket circles for wearing a multi @-@ coloured Harlequin cap .

After establishing an early reputation as a prolific schoolboy batsman , Jardine played cricket for Winchester College , attended the University of Oxford , playing for its cricket team , and played for Surrey County Cricket Club as an amateur . He developed a defensive method of batting which was unusual for an amateur , receiving occasional criticism for negative batting . Despite this , Jardine was selected in Test matches for the first time in 1928 , and went on to play with some success in the Test series in Australia in 1928 – 29 . Following this tour , his business commitments prevented him from playing as much cricket . However , in 1931 , he was asked to captain England in a Test against New Zealand . Although there were some initial misgivings about his captaincy , Jardine led England in the next three cricket seasons and on two overseas tours , one of which was the Australian tour of 1932 – 33 . Of his 15 Tests as captain , he won nine , lost one and drew five . He retired from all first @-@ class cricket in 1934 following a tour to India .

Although Jardine was a qualified solicitor he did not work much in law , choosing instead to devote most of his working life to banking and , later on , journalism . He joined the Territorial Army in the Second World War and spent most of it posted in India . After the war , he worked as company secretary at a paper manufacturer and also returned to journalism . While on a business trip in 1957 , he became ill with what proved to be lung cancer and died , aged 57 , in 1958 .

= = Early life = =

Douglas Jardine was born on 23 October 1900 in Bombay , British India , to Scottish parents . His parents were Malcolm Jardine , also a former first @-@ class cricketer but later a barrister , and Alison Moir . At the age of nine , Douglas was sent to stay with his mother 's sister in St Andrews , Scotland . She lived in a large mansion where he spent most of his school holidays while going to Horris Hill School near Newbury , Berkshire , from May 1910 . The school had high standards and Jardine was moderately successful academically . From 1912 , he played cricket for the school first eleven , enjoying success as a bowler and as a batsman . He captained the team in his final term , when the team were unbeaten . Jardine was influenced by the writing of former England captain C. B. Fry on batting technique , which contradicted the advice of his coach at Horris Hill . The coach disapproved of Jardine 's batting methods , but Jardine did not back down and quoted a book by Fry to support his viewpoint .

In 1914 , Jardine entered Winchester College . At the time , life at Winchester was arduous and austere ; discipline was harsh . Sport and exercise were vital parts of the school day . In Jardine 's time , preparing the pupils for war was also important . According to Jardine 's biographer , Christopher Douglas , the pupils were " taught to be honest , impervious to physical pain , uncomplaining and civilised . " All pupils were required to be academically competent and Jardine was able to get along without exhibiting brilliance ; successful sportsmen , on the other hand , were revered . Jardine enjoyed a slightly better position than some other pupils , already possessing when he arrived a reputation as a cricketer and soon excelling at other sports , representing the school at football as a goalkeeper and rackets , and playing Winchester College football , a sport which has resemblances to rugby union . However , his main sporting reputation came from cricket . He was in the first eleven for three years from 1917 and received coaching from Harry Altham , Rockley Wilson and Schofield Haigh , the latter two of whom were distinguished cricketers . Jardine later said that Wilson helped to develop his batting . In 1919 , his final year , Jardine came top of the school batting averages with 997 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 46 . He also became captain although there were doubts within the school about his ability to unify the team . Despite these doubts , Winchester won their annual match against Eton College in 1919 , a fixture in which Eton usually held the upper hand . Jardine 's batting ( 35 and 89 in the match ) and captaincy were believed by critics to be the key factors in his side 's first victory over Eton for 12 years . After his retirement from cricket , he named his 89 in that match as his favourite innings . Jardine went on to score 135 not out against Harrow School .

Jardine 's achievements in the season were widely reported in the local and national press . He went on to play in two representative schools matches at Lord 's Cricket Ground , where he scored 44 , 91 , 57 and 55 in two matches and won favourable reviews in the press . Wisden , in 1928 , described Jardine at this time as being obviously of a much higher standard than his contemporaries , particularly in defence and on side batting . However , at this stage in his batting , he was sometimes criticised for being too cautious and not using all the batting strokes of which he was capable . His good batting technique gave the impression that he could easily score more quickly .

= = First @-@ class career = =

= = = Oxford University = = =

Jardine entered New College , Oxford , in September 1919 at a time when the university was more crowded than usual due to the arrival of men whose entrance had been delayed due to the war . He still took part in several sports , representing New College as goalkeeper in matches between the colleges , and being given a trial for the University football team , although he was not chosen . He continued to play rackets and began to play real tennis , making such progress and showing such promise that he went on to represent the University successfully and won his Blue . In cricket , Jardine came under the coaching of Tom Hayward who influenced his footwork and defence . Wisden commented in 1928 that Jardine had come with an excellent reputation , but did not quite achieve the success which was expected . However , his batting ability , particularly defensively , remained unquestionable .

In the 1920 season , Jardine made his first @-@ class debut , played eight first @-@ class matches and scored two fifties . Playing mainly as an opening batsman , he won his Blue , appearing in the University Match against Cambridge but fell short of expectations , according to Wisden . Although his batting technique was excellent , he received criticism from those who saw him bat as they believed him to be too cautious . At this stage in his career , Jardine did limit his strokes , not feeling confident enough to play them all safely enough . In all , he scored 217 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 64 . In the match for Oxford against Essex , he took six wickets for six runs in a bowling spell of 45 balls , bowling leg breaks , to have bowling figures of six for 28 . It was the only occasion in his career where he took five or more wickets in an innings .

Playing more confidently and fluently in 1921 , Jardine began the season well , scoring three fifties in his first three first @-@ class matches . Then Oxford played against the Australian touring side which dominated the season . In the second innings , Jardine scored 96 not out to save the game but was unable to complete his century before the game ended . Even so , the innings was praised by those who saw it . The tourists were criticised in the press for not allowing Jardine to reach his hundred , particularly as the match was reduced from three days to two days at the request of the Australians , who wished to have a rest day in between matches . The Australians had tried to help him with some easy bowling but the situation was confused by the batsmen 's scores not being displayed on a scoreboard at the cricket ground . There has been speculation that this incident led to Jardine 's later hatred of Australians , although Christopher Douglas denies this was the case . Cricket historian David Frith believed it is possible that Australian captain Warwick Armstrong could have addressed sarcastic comments to Jardine but Wisden believed his slow approach cost him his century . The Australian manager expressed regret that he missed out . This innings was the highest that had been played to that point in the season against the Australians , and only one higher score was made before the first Test . It could have led to Jardine playing for England in 1921 as Plum Warner , an influential figure who had recently captained Middlesex , suggested in The Cricketer magazine that Jardine should play in the first Test , which followed the Oxford match . He had been impressed by Jardine on the other occasions he had seen him bat . He remained in Test contention for a short time , but was not selected . In the meantime , he scored his first first @-@ class hundred in a match against The Army and another followed against Sussex . Both innings were cautious , with defence his main priority for much of the innings , but he failed in the match against Cambridge . Jardine then went on to play for Surrey , for whom he was qualified , replacing the injured Jack Hobbs as an opening batsman before dropping down to number five in the batting order . Jardine played in a vital match against reigning County Champions Middlesex which would determine the champions for the season . In a situation of great pressure , Jardine scored a vital 55 to hold the innings together after the loss of early wickets , although Surrey went on to lose the match . Jardine finished the season with 1 @,@ 015 runs at an average of 39 @.@ 03 , although critics still did not believe his potential had been fulfilled .

Jardine missed most of the 1922 season due to a serious knee injury , playing only four matches at a time when he was expected to make a big impression . There was speculation in the newspapers about whether he would be fit for the match against Cambridge , but he missed it and was also unable to play for Surrey that season . Even so , in 1922 he was selected by The Isis as one of its men of the year . After some early problems with his troublesome knee , Jardine returned to cricket by May of the 1923 season . He was not given the Oxford captaincy in his final year , which has led to speculation that his manner and unfriendliness prevented him from being made captain . However , his injury and the availability of other deserving candidates may have provided at least part of the explanation . After a cautious start on his return , Jardine gradually found his batting form , and contributed to Oxford 's only win over Cambridge in the decade . During one innings of another match , he received criticism for using his pads to stop the ball from hitting the wickets : this was within the laws of the game but was controversial and seen by critics to be against the spirit of the game . Christopher Douglas traces Jardine 's hostility towards the press and critics to this incident . He also received criticism for his slow batting for Oxford , again being singled out due to his known ability to play attacking shots . Partly this was because Jardine held a responsible position , the team often reliant on his success . The complaints were a manifestation of wider criticism of young amateur batting at the time for its lack of enterprise , as commentators began to hark back to the " golden age " before the war . Jardine left Oxford in 1923 having scored a total of 1 @,@ 381 runs and a fourth class degree in modern history .

When Jardine went on to play for Surrey that season , a strong batting side , he played with more freedom and in a varied style . Batting at number five , he had to play different types of innings , either attacking or defensive , depending on the match situation . He made a success of it , playing long defensive innings or sacrificing his innings in an attempt to hit quick runs . His captain Percy Fender seemed satisfied with his role , keeping him in it all season despite his reputation for caution . He scored his first century for Surrey against Yorkshire and was awarded his County Cap , making 916 runs at an average of 38 @.@ 16 in the whole season .

= = = County cricketer = = =

Once Jardine left Oxford , he began to qualify as a solicitor while still playing for Surrey . He made steady progress over the next three seasons but was overshadowed by other amateur batsmen . His contemporaries at Oxford and Cambridge attracted much attention in the press , as did the next generation of amateur batsmen . He was appointed vice @-@ captain to Fender for the 1924 season , due in large part to the stigma attached to professional cricketers being appointed as captain . There were professionals such as Jack Hobbs playing for Surrey who could have been made captain , but Jardine was preferred as an amateur . In that season , Jardine was selected for the Gentlemen v Players match for the first time and came third in the Surrey averages . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 249 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 29 . The following season , Jardine was less successful , scoring fewer runs at a lower average and with a highest score of 87 ( 1 @,@ 020 runs at 30 @.@ 90 ) . It had also been suggested in the press that Jardine should captain the Gentlemen , with a view towards the future of the England Test team , but this did not happen . In fact , owing to an injury sustained playing village cricket at Ashtead for a team called C.E. McIver 's XI , he was unable to appear in the Gentlemen v Players match at Lord 's . In 1926 , Jardine had his most successful season to date , with 1 @,@ 473 runs ( average 46 @.@ 03 ) , although he was again overshadowed by other players and by the attention given to the Ashes series being played . Towards the end of the season , his batting became more attractive and his rate of scoring increased as he began to play more shots . His assurance and judgement against all bowling , even international bowlers , became noticed and he scored 538 runs in his final ten innings .

In 1927 , Jardine achieved his highest average in a season , scoring 1 @,@ 002 runs and averaging 91 @.@ 09 in a very wet summer which led to difficult wickets to bat on . Wisden named him as one of its Cricketers of the Year , commenting that he had improved his style and footwork . That season , he could only play 11 matches due to work commitments as a clerk with Barings Bank , for whom he had worked since qualifying as a solicitor . Despite his lack of practice , he scored hundreds in his first three matches and came top of the Surrey batting averages . He scored a century in the Gentlemen v Players match , which impressed influential people at Lord 's , and represented England in a trial match against The Rest . In this latter match , when Percy Chapman withdrew at the last minute , Jardine took over the captaincy , earning praise in the press for his performance . By this stage , he was considered a certainty to tour Australia the following winter .

= = = Test cricketer = = =

Jardine 's batting performance in 1928 was similar to that from the previous season . He played 14 matches , but scored 1 @,@ 133 runs at an average of 87 @.@ 15 . He also enjoyed success in high profile matches , scoring 193 for Gentlemen at the Oval , where the crowd had booed his slow start ( at one stage , he took half an hour to score two runs ) but later cheered him as his last fifty runs were scored in half an hour . For the same team at Lord 's , he scored 86 and 40 . He captained The Rest against England in a Test trial and made the highest score in each innings , scoring 74 not out in the fourth innings to help his team to draw the game on a difficult pitch , against international bowlers Maurice Tate and Harold Larwood .

Immediately after this match , Jardine made his Test debut against the West Indies who were touring England that season . This was West Indies ' first ever Test match . The team possessed several fast bowlers who bowled with hostility and enjoyed some success on the tour of England . Many batsmen only played them with difficulty , particularly on the occasional fast @-@ paced pitch , but Jardine played them confidently in the Test series . Jardine played in the first two Tests , both of which were won by England by an innings , but missed the third for unknown reasons . He scored 22 on his debut , but was more successful in the second Test . He scored an eventful 83 : when he had scored 26 , he hit his wicket when setting off for a run , but was given not out . At the time , a batsman was not out if he had completed his shot and was setting off for a run . West Indian cricketer Learie Constantine later recalled that Jardine would have been given out except that the batsman informed the umpire that he had already finished his shot . Jardine was later run out by Tate , a player with whom he did not enjoy a good relationship , when they were batting together in the England innings : Tate refused to go for a run causing Jardine to be run out .

= = = First tour to Australia = = =

Jardine was selected to tour Australia with the M.C.C. team in 1928 – 29 as part of a very strong batting side , playing in all five Test matches and scoring 341 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 62 . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 168 runs ( average 64 @.@ 88 ) . He was also on the five @-@ man selection committee for the tour , which chose teams to play in specific games but had not chosen the touring party . Wisden judged that he had been as great a success as had been expected and impressed everyone with the strength of his defensive shots and his play on the back foot . It said that he played some delightful innings . Percy Fender , covering the tour as a journalist , believed that Jardine never had the chance to play a normal innings in the Test , having to provide the stability to the batting , and often seeming to come out to bat in a crisis .

Jardine was the centre of attention at the start of the tour . He began the tour with three consecutive hundreds and was seen as one of the main English threats . In his first hundred , the crowd engaged in some good @-@ natured joking at Jardine 's expense , but he was jeered by the crowd in his second hundred for batting too slowly . His third hundred was described by Bradman as one of the finest exhibitions of strokeplay that he had seen ; Jardine accelerated after another slow start , during which he was again barracked , to play some excellent shots . The crowds took an increasing dislike to him , partially for his success with the bat , but mainly for his superior attitude and bearing , his awkward fielding , and particularly his choice of headwear . His first public action in South Australia was to take out the members of the South Australian team who had been to Oxford or Cambridge Universities . Then , he wore a Harlequin cap , given to people who played good cricket at Oxford . It was not unusual for Oxford and Cambridge cricketers to wear similar caps while batting , as both Jardine and M.C.C. captain Percy Chapman did so on this tour , although it was slightly unorthodox to wear them while fielding . However , this was neither understood nor acceptable to the Australian crowds . They quickly took exception to the importance he seemed to place on class distinction . Although Jardine may simply have worn the cap out of superstition , it conveyed a negative impression to the spectators , with his general demeanour drawing one comment of " Where 's the butler to carry the bat for you ? " Jardine 's cap became a focus for criticism and mockery from the crowds throughout the tour . Nevertheless , Jack Fingleton later claimed that Jardine could still have brought the crowds onto his side by exchanging jokes or pleasantries with them . It is certain that Jardine by this stage had developed an intense dislike for Australian crowds . During his third century at the start of the tour , during a period of abuse from the spectators , he observed to a sympathetic Hunter Hendry that " All Australians are uneducated , and an unruly mob " . After the innings , when Patsy Hendren said that the Australian crowds did not like Jardine , he replied " It 's fucking mutual " . Due to the large number of good close fielders in the side , Jardine did not field in the slips , his usual position for Surrey , but next to the crowd on the boundary . There , he was roundly abused and mocked , particularly when chasing the ball : he was not a good fielder on the boundary . In one of the Test matches , he spat towards the crowd while fielding on the boundary as he changed position for the final time .

In the first Test , Jardine scored 35 and 65 not out . His first innings began with England in an uncertain position , having lost three wickets for 108 on a very good batting wicket . His innings led England to a stronger position . He played very cautiously , being troubled by Clarrie Grimmett and Bert Ironmonger , the Australian spinners . Jardine believed that Ironmonger threw the ball , and this bowler gave him considerable trouble throughout his career . Thanks to the bowling of Harold Larwood , England took a huge first innings lead . In his second innings , although he played well in his 65 , Jardine was not under much pressure . He scored a large number of singles , giving his partners most of the bowling and building up the lead to the point where England achieved a massive victory by 675 runs . This victory surprised and troubled the Australian cricketing public . Jardine played a similar role in the second Test , batting with Wally Hammond to retrieve a poor start for England in his only innings as they won by eight wickets . Jardine scored 62 in the third Test , supporting Hammond who made a double century . However , when Australia batted a second time , they built up a big lead and left England needing 332 to win on an exceptionally bad wicket which had been damaged by rain . Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe , in one of their most famous partnerships , put on 105 . Hobbs sent a message to the team that Jardine should be the next batsmen to come in , even though he usually batted later on , as he was the batsman most likely to survive in the conditions . When Hobbs was dismissed , Jardine came in to bat . He survived , although finding batting exceptionally difficult , until the day 's play ended . Percy Fender believed that Jardine was the only batsman in the side who could have coped with the difficult conditions . He went on to make 33 next day , and England won by three wickets .

During the team 's brief visit to Tasmania , Jardine made his highest first @-@ class score of 214 . In the fourth Test , Jardine only scored one run in the first innings , before he was given out leg before wicket ( lbw ) despite obviously hitting the ball . In the second innings , coming out to bat with the score 21 for two , Jardine scored 98 in a partnership of 262 with Hammond which was then the highest partnership for the third wicket in all Test matches . The scoring was very slow , and the crowd protested throughout Jardine 's innings , even though he scored faster than Hammond . He was out when Wisden believed he looked certain to reach a century . England went on to win the match by 12 runs .

Jardine was not successful in the final Test , won by Australia . He was used as an opener , due to an injury to Sutcliffe , and made just 19 and a first ball duck . Once both of his innings were completed , on the fifth day of a match which lasted eight days , he left the match and set off across Australia to catch a boat to India for a holiday . It is not clear if this was planned or if he had simply had enough . Jardine never provided an explanation , to the Australian press nor afterwards . Later , Jardine wrote about the Australian crowds , complaining over their involvement , but praising their knowledge and judgement of the game and describing them as more informed than English crowds . He also expressed later reservations to Bob Wyatt about Percy Chapman , saying that he would have shot him if a gun was available . Jardine did not appear in first @-@ class cricket in the 1929 season due to business commitments .

= = England captain = =

= = = Appointment as captain = = =

At the beginning of the 1930 season , Jardine was offered the vice @-@ captaincy of Surrey . He was unable to accept owing to business commitments and played just nine matches for the season , scoring 402 runs at an average of 36 @.@ 54 and managing one century and one fifty . He was never in the running for Test selection that season , although his presence may have been missed as the English batting was unreliable in the Tests . Christopher Douglas argues that had Jardine been playing regularly , he would have been made captain for the final Test , when Chapman was dropped in favour of the sounder batsman Bob Wyatt . The sensation of the Test series was Donald Bradman , who dominated the English bowling to score 974 runs with unprecedented speed and certainty , making the English selectors realise that something must be done to address his skill . With Bradman at the fore , Australia regained the Ashes 2 – 1 .

Jardine played a full season of cricket in 1931 . In June , he was appointed as captain for the Test against New Zealand ( two more Tests were later added ) . The English selectors were searching for possible captains for the 1932 – 33 tour of Australia , with Bradman and Australia 's strong batting line up foremost in their minds . Christopher Douglas believes that , as Jardine was not a regular county captain , the selectors wanted to assess his leadership ability but had probably not settled on him as a final choice . He was also chosen as a dependable , proven batsman . While Percy Fender approved of his appointment , The Times ' correspondent believed that he was unproven and others were more deserving of the leadership . Ian Peebles , writing 40 years later , claimed that Jardine 's appointment was popular but cricket administrators had misgivings . Alan Gibson believed that Jardine was chosen because the other candidates were either not worth their place in the side , too old or had controversy attached to them . Furthermore , Jardine impressed the chairman of selectors , Pelham Warner , who stated that he was very effective in selection meetings through his knowledge of cricket history and went into great detail to choose the correct players ; it seems that Warner was the driving force behind Jardine 's appointment .

In his first Test as captain , Jardine clashed with several players . Frank Woolley was unhappy with his captain 's manner , feeling humiliated at his treatment in the field at one point . He also rebuked Ian Peebles and Walter Robins , two young amateur bowlers , for their amusement over an incident in the match . The home team 's fortunes were mixed , as New Zealand put up a very good fight in their first Test in England , and both sides could have won . The New Zealanders were so successful that a further two Tests were arranged . Jardine was criticised in the press for not instructing his batsmen to score quickly enough to win in the fourth innings , although this strategy was unlikely to succeed , and the match was drawn . England won the second Test by an innings and the third Test was drawn , sealing the series 1 – 0 . Jardine had a top score of just 38 in the series , but only batted four times and was not out in three of the innings . At the beginning of the following season , Wisden 's editor believed that , as Jardine had failed to impress ( unspecified ) people with his captaincy , he was no longer a certainty to lead the side to Australia , and only Percy Chapman 's lack of form prevented his reinstatement at Jardine 's expense . As a batsman , Jardine was more impressive in Wisden 's opinion , showing himself to be good in defence despite his lack of cricket in the past two seasons . A notable innings was his 104 for The Rest to prevent defeat against champion county Yorkshire . The opposition bowling , particularly from Bill Bowes , was short and hostile , but Jardine survived for over four hours . He scored 1 @,@ 104 first @-@ class runs for the season at an average of 64 @.@ 94 .

At the beginning of the 1932 season , Jardine became captain of Surrey . There was much speculation that Fender had been replaced due to disputes with the Surrey committee but it was some time before this , and Jardine 's appointment , was confirmed . Fender was supportive of Jardine and happy to play under him . Jardine overcame a cautious beginning to develop a more aggressive captaincy style , and Surrey finished in their highest position in the championship for six years . England played one international match that season , India 's first ever Test match , and Jardine was selected as captain . India possessed a very effective bowling attack on this tour , which surprised many teams , and England 's batsmen struggled against them . Jardine , who had played a long innings against the tourists for M.C.C. earlier in the season , was the only English batsman to pass 30 in both innings . He scored 79 and 85 not out , and was praised for two excellent defensive innings in a difficult situation by Wisden and The Cricketer . During the match , Jardine again clashed with his team . He gave Bill Bowes and Bill Voce the very unusual instruction to bowl one full toss each over to take advantage of the batsmen 's trouble seeing the ball against the crowd . The bowlers did not do so , and were later reprimanded by Jardine who told them to obey orders . Jardine himself went on to score 1 @,@ 464 runs in the season at an average of 52 @.@ 28 .

= = = Planning for the 1932 – 33 tour = = =

A week after the Test , it was announced that Jardine would captain the M.C.C. team to Australia that winter , although he seemed to have had last minute doubts about accepting . Others were also concerned about whether he was the best choice . For example , Rockley Wilson is reputed to have said that with Jardine as captain , " We shall win the Ashes ... but we may well lose a Dominion " . However , the selectors thought that a determined leader was needed to defeat the Australians and a more disciplined approach than that of Percy Chapman on the previous tour was needed . Jardine began to plan tactics from this point , discussing ideas with various people . He was aware that Bradman , Australia 's star batsman and the main worry of the selectors , had occasionally shown vulnerability to pace bowling . During the final Test of the 1930 Ashes at the Oval , during Bradman 's innings of 232 , the wicket became difficult for a time following rain . Bradman was briefly seen to be uncomfortable facing deliveries that bounced higher than usual at a faster pace . Percy Fender was one of many cricketers who noticed , and he discussed this with Jardine in 1932 . When Jardine later saw film footage of the Oval incident and noticed Bradman 's discomfort , he shouted , " I 've got it ! He 's yellow ! " Further details that developed his plans came from letters Fender received from Australia in 1932 describing how Australian batsmen were increasingly moving across the stumps towards the off @-@ side to play the ball on the on @-@ side . Fender showed these letters to Jardine . It was also known in England that Bradman had shown some discomfort during the 1931 – 32 Australian season against pace bowling .

Following Jardine 's appointment , a meeting was arranged with Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr and his two fast bowlers Larwood and Voce at London 's Piccadilly Hotel . Jardine explained his belief that Bradman was weak against bowling directed at leg stump and that if this line of attack could be maintained , it would restrict Bradman 's scoring to one side of the field , giving the bowlers greater control of his scoring . Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl accurately on leg stump and make the ball rise up into the body of the batsman . The bowlers agreed that they could , and that it might prove effective , but Jardine stressed that bowling accurately was vitally important , or Bradman would dominate the bowling . Larwood believed that Jardine saw Bradman as his main target and wished to attack him psychologically as well as in a cricketing sense . At the same time , other Australian batsmen were also discussed . Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the remainder of the 1932 season with mixed success . Jardine also visited Frank Foster who had toured Australia in 1911 – 12 to discuss field placings appropriate to Australian conditions . Foster had bowled leg theory on that tour with his fielders placed close in on the leg @-@ side , as had George Hirst in 1903 – 04 . During the second half of the season , the team to tour Australia was announced . The selection of four fast bowlers and a few medium pacers was very unusual at the time , and it was commented on by the hosts ' media , including Bradman . The selection of Eddie Paynter , who did not have a strong record , to replace the ill Kumar Shri Duleepsinhji was very likely a choice of Jardine . He had a history of good performances against Yorkshire , and Jardine considered that a player 's record against northern counties was a good indication of his potential at international level .

= = Bodyline tour = =

= = = Beginning of the tour = = =

In Jardine 's obituary , Wisden described this tour as " probably the most controversial tour in history . England won four of the five Tests , but it was the methods they employed rather than the results which caused so much discussion and acrimony . " On the journey to Australia , by the boat Orontes , Jardine kept away from his team . He issued some instructions on their conduct , such as giving autographs or keeping out of the sun . He also began to have disagreements with Plum Warner , who was one of the two team managers along with Richard Palairet . He discussed tactics with Harold Larwood and other bowlers , spoke to Hedley Verity about his role in the team , and he may have met batsmen Wally Hammond and Herbert Sutcliffe . Some players reported that Jardine told them to hate the Australians in order to defeat them , while instructing them to refer to Bradman as " the little bastard . " At this stage , he seems to have settled on leg theory , if not full Bodyline , as his main tactic .

Once the team arrived in Australia , Jardine quickly alienated the press by refusing to give team details before a match and being uncooperative when interviewed by journalists . The press printed some negative stories as a result and the crowds barracked as they had done on his previous tour , which made him angry . Jardine still wore his Harlequin cap and began the tour well with 98 and 127 before the first Test . Once again , he clashed with paceman Bill Bowes , refusing to give his bowler the requested field placings in an early match . As a result , Bowes deliberately gave away easy runs in an attempt to get his way , but following a discussion , Bowes was converted to Jardine 's tactics and ultimately to his ability as a captain . In a tour match , Jardine also instructed Hammond to attack the bowling of Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , whom he considered dangerous and thus did not want him to play in the Tests . Up until this point , there had been little unusual about the English bowling except the number of fast bowlers . Larwood and Voce were given a light workload in the early matches by Jardine . This changed in the match against an Australian XI , from which Jardine rested himself , where the bowlers first used the tactics that came to be known as Bodyline . Under the captaincy of Wyatt , the bowlers bowled short and around leg stump , with fielders positioned close by on the leg side to catch any deflections . Wyatt later claimed that this was not planned beforehand and he simply passed on to Jardine what happened after the match . These tactics continued in the next match ; several players were hit . Many commentators criticised this style of bowling ; although bowlers had previously used leg theory bowling , where bowlers bowled outside leg stump with a concentration of fielders on the leg side , using these tactics with fast bowlers dropping the ball short was almost unprecedented . It was seen as dangerous and against the spirit of the game . In a letter , Jardine told Fender that his information about the Australian batting technique was correct and that it meant he was having to move more and more fielders onto the leg side . He said that " if this goes on I shall have to move the whole bloody lot to the leg side . " Jardine increasingly came into disagreement with Warner over Bodyline as the tour progressed , but his tactics were successful in one respect : in six innings against the tourists ahead of the Tests , Bradman had scored only 103 runs , causing concern among the Australian public who expected much more from him .

= = = Test matches = = =

When the first Test began , Jardine persisted with Bodyline tactics , even though Bradman , the main target , did not play in the match . David Frith has pointed out that Bradman would have been watching and seeing the tactics that England were using . However , when Stan McCabe was scoring 187 not out , Jardine was briefly seen to be unsettled as runs came quickly , and he may not have been fully convinced that the tactics would be successful . England eventually won the match comfortably . In the second Test , Jardine completely misjudged the pitch and left out a specialist spinner when conditions later in the match favoured one . The match seemed to be going well when Bill Bowes unexpectedly bowled the returning Bradman first ball in the first innings ; Jardine was seen to be so delighted that he had clasped his hands above his head and performed a " war dance " . This was an extremely unusual reaction in the 1930s , particularly from Jardine who rarely showed any emotion while playing cricket . In the second innings , Bradman scored an unbeaten century which helped Australia to win the match and level the series at one match each . This made it seem to critics that Bodyline was not quite the threat that had been perceived and Bradman 's reputation , which had suffered slightly with his earlier failures , was restored . On the other hand , the pitch was slightly slower than was customary throughout the series , and Larwood was suffering from problems with his boots which reduced his effectiveness .

Jardine had clashed with more of his team by this stage : he had argued with Gubby Allen at least twice about his refusal to bowl Bodyline ( although he did bowl bouncers and fielded in the " leg trap " , the fielders who waited for catches close in on the leg side ) ; and the Nawab of Pataudi had refused to field in the " leg trap " , to which Jardine responded , " I see his highness is a conscientious objector " , and subsequently allowed Pataudi to play little part in the tour .

The teams went into the third Test with the series level ; England won that match but the controversy nearly ended the tour . Jardine , concerned by his poor run of batting form , had promoted himself to open the batting but was part of a drastic England collapse to 30 for four in the first innings . However , the trouble began when Bill Woodfull was struck on the chest by a Larwood delivery , drawing the comment from Jardine of " Well bowled , Harold " , aimed mainly at Bradman who was also batting at the time . For the next ball faced by Woodfull , at the start of Larwood 's next over , the fielders moved into the Bodyline fielding positions for the next ball he faced . Jardine wrote that Larwood had asked for the field to be moved , while Larwood said that it was Jardine 's decision . The crowd became noisily angry as the ill feeling caused by the English bowling tactics spilled out , and Jardine later expressed regret that he had moved the fielders when he did . There was further anger later in the innings when Bert Oldfield suffered a fractured skull . At this point , several of the players feared that there may be a riot and that the crowd would jump onto the field to attack them ; mounted police were deployed as a precaution , but the spectators remained behind the fences . Jardine then batted very slowly in an innings of 56 , during which he was continuously barracked by the crowd . Despite England 's win , Wisden believed that it was probably the most unpleasant match ever played . However , it commended Jardine 's courage , claimed that praise of his leadership was unanimous , and said that " above all he captained his team in this particular match like a genius " . In the immediate aftermath , journalists in England and Australia took up viewpoints both for and against Jardine . The M.C.C. sent a telegram congratulating him on winning the match .

Following the third Test , strongly worded cables passed between the Australian Board of Control and the M.C.C. at Lord 's . The Australian Board accused the English team of unsportsmanlike tactics , stating that " Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body the main consideration . " The M.C.C. responded angrily to the accusations of unsporting conduct , played down the Australian claims about the danger of Bodyline and threatened to call off the tour . The series was becoming a major diplomatic incident by this stage , and many people saw Bodyline as damaging to an international relationship that needed to remain strong . Public reaction in both England and Australia was outrage directed at the other nation . The Governor of South Australia , Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons met members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour . However , correspondence continued for almost a year . Jardine was shaken by the events and by the hostile reactions that his team were receiving . Stories appeared in the press , possibly leaked by the disenchanted Nawab of Pataudi , about fights and arguments between the England players . Jardine offered to stop using Bodyline if the team did not support him , but after a private meeting ( not attended by Jardine or either of the team managers ) the players released a statement fully supporting Jardine and the Bodyline tactics . It was subsequently revealed that several of the players had private reservations , but they did not express them publicly at the time . Even so , Jardine would not have played in the fourth Test without the withdrawal of the unsportsmanlike accusation .

Once the fourth Test got underway , England won the match to take the series . Partly prompted by Jardine , Eddie Paynter scored 83 having released himself from hospital . Jardine went on to make a painstaking 24 , at one point facing 82 balls without scoring a single run . He was not proud of his batting performance , being shamefaced to Australian Test opener Jack Fingleton , and describing his batting to Bill O 'Reilly as being " like an old maid defending her virginity . " England also won the final Test ending on 28 February , with a final clash taking place between Jardine and Larwood . After a long bowling spell , Larwood was furious when Jardine sent him in to bat as nightwatchman but went on to score 98 runs . Later , Larwood broke his foot while bowling in the second innings , but Jardine was not convinced that he was seriously injured . He made him stay on the field until Bradman was out . Larwood , partly through this injury and partly through political repercussions from this series , never played another Test . Also in this match , Jardine enraged Harry Alexander by asking him not to run on the pitch as he was damaging it and giving his side an advantage . He proceeded to bowl hostile bouncers at Jardine , who was struck painfully to the delight of the crowd .

While Jardine won the series as captain , he contributed just 199 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 11 in the Tests , and 628 runs ( average 36 @.@ 94 ) in all first @-@ class cricket in Australia . Jardine only played in the first Test of the short series which followed in New Zealand , due to rheumatism . All the players enjoyed the short tour although rain ruined the cricket , and Jardine was observed to show signs of paranoia towards all things Australian . Pelham Warner , although he later stated that he disapproved of Bodyline bowling , praised Jardine 's captaincy on the tour and believed that he was cruelly treated by the Australian crowds . He further believed that Jardine was convinced that the tactics were legitimate .

= = = Aftermath and 1933 season = = =

Controversy over Bodyline continued throughout the following summer . Jardine himself contributed his opinion in a book , In Quest for the Ashes , a first @-@ hand account of the Bodyline tour . He defended his tactics and heavily criticised the Australian barrackers , to the extent of suggesting that fixtures between England and Australia should be halted until this problem was solved . While arguments continued to rage in print and discussion , even at government level , Jardine received a hero 's welcome on his return to England , making several public appearances . Despite his fears that the M.C.C. might sack him in the face of criticism , he was appointed as England captain for the series against the West Indies in 1933 . He continued to captain Surrey during his infrequent first @-@ class appearances that summer , although business commitments prevented him from playing a full season . He was cheered by the crowd or given a standing ovation when he came out to bat as M.C.C. captain against the West Indians in May , at Sheffield for Surrey against Yorkshire , and in the first and second Test matches . In all first @-@ class cricket that season , Jardine scored 779 runs at an average of 51 @.@ 93 , including three hundreds . One of these centuries came in the second Test ( Jardine missed the third with an injury that ended his season ) .

Some bowlers had experimented with Bodyline in the season , and the West Indian team , 1 – 0 down in the series and frustrated by the lack of pace in the pitches , decided to experiment with the tactic . Facing a good West Indies total , England suffered a batting collapse , at one point falling to 134 for four . With Les Ames in difficulty against the short @-@ pitched bowling , Jardine said , " You get yourself down this end , Les . I 'll take care of this bloody nonsense . " He went right back to the bouncers , standing on tiptoe , and stopped them with a dead bat , sometimes playing the ball one handed for more control . Wisden described how he never flinched despite facing the greatest amount of Bodyline . It also believed that he played it " probably better than any other man in the world was capable of doing . " He batted for nearly five hours , scoring 127 , his only Test century . England then retaliated by bowling Bodyline in the West Indies ' second innings , but the slow pitch meant that the match was drawn . However , this performance played a large part in turning English opinion against Bodyline . The Times used the word " Bodyline " , without using inverted commas or using the qualification " so @-@ called " , for the first time . Wisden said that " most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that , while strictly within the law , it was not nice . "

= = = Retirement = = =

During the 1933 season , Jardine was appointed as captain for the M.C.C. tour of India that winter which would feature the hosts ' first Tests at home . This continued support for Jardine in the face of growing unhappiness towards Bodyline bowling came with some reservations , as the President and Secretary of the M.C.C. met Jardine for discussions prior to his appointment . This was probably about the need for diplomacy and tact on what may have proved to be a sensitive tour . With only two players from the Bodyline tour , Jardine and Verity , taking part , it was not a full @-@ strength side but won the Test series 2 – 0 . India were weaker than expected , and lacked a large group of quality players . Jardine nevertheless won praise from Wisden for his captaincy and his batting . He approached the matches with a very competitive spirit , seeking to gain every advantage with his tactics and research . At the same time , he was far more willing to take up speaking engagements than on the Bodyline tour , showed an appreciation and regard for Indian crowds which he had never extended to Australia , and played the diplomatic role that was usually expected of a captain of the M.C.C. at the time . He often spoke of his affection for India , describing it as the land of his birth and seemed to be relaxed and happy on this tour .

England won the Test series 2 – 0 . Jardine contributed three fifties in four innings in the series , scoring 221 runs at an average of 73 @.@ 66 . He scored 60 , 61 and 65 before his final Test innings ended at 35 not out . Jardine scored 831 first @-@ class runs on the Indian leg of the tour — he played one match in Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) — averaging 55 @.@ 40 . Although Jardine enjoyed the tour , there were still clashes evident . There was an argument with the Viceroy over Jardine selecting the Maharaja of Patiala to play for the M.C.C. in one match ; in a subsequent match , Jardine complained that the pitch was rolled for too long . He also clashed , later on , with the umpire Frank Tarrant , initially due to suspicion over the number of lbw decisions given against the M.C.C. , but also because Tarrant had warned him against using Bodyline and was employed by Indian princes . Jardine threatened to stop him umpiring and sent a telegram to Lord 's , with the result that Tarrant , having officiated the first two Tests , was not used in the third . For much of the time , Jardine used different tactics to those employed in Australia . Slow bowling , particularly that of Hedley Verity , played a key part in the bowling attack . At times , the faster bowlers Nobby Clark and Stan Nichols bowled Bodyline , resulting in several injuries . In this case , the Indian bowlers Mohammad Nissar and Amar Singh retaliated with Bodyline bowling of their own .

As the tour went on , there was discussion at a high level over Jardine 's future . The M.C.C. authorities had realised that Bodyline was dangerous and should not be continued , but some figures such as Lord Hawke did not want to let Jardine down . Australians saw him as more of a problem ; the likes of Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven wanted guarantees that Jardine would not use Bodyline and even that he not play . Plum Warner also believed that Jardine should no longer captain . Jardine himself saved the English selectors from any possible dilemma . In March 1934 , he first told Surrey that he would be unable to play regularly any more and he resigned as captain . Then in an announcement in the Evening Standard , he stated that " I have neither the intention nor the desire to play cricket against Australia this summer . " It is unclear whether this was due to the pressure over Bodyline , over assurances that the M.C.C. may have asked him to give or simply due to financial worries . This decision effectively ended his first @-@ class career . He never played another Test and played only two more first @-@ class matches in England , in 1937 and 1948 , and one in India in 1943 – 44 .

Jardine played in 22 Test matches for England , scoring 1 @,@ 296 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 00 . In his first @-@ class cricket career , he played 262 matches , scoring 14 @,@ 848 runs at an average of 46 @.@ 83 . His occasional bowling brought him 48 wickets at an average of 31 @.@ 10 .

= = Style and personality = =

= = = Batting = = =

Jardine was seen as having a classical technique . While batting , he stood very straight and side on to the bowler . His off @-@ driving was powerful , his defence was excellent , and he was superb at judging the line of the ball and letting it pass by if it was going to miss his wickets . His on @-@ side play was also excellent , being able to place the ball between fielders for easy runs . Christopher Douglas described Jardine as " the epitome of the old @-@ fashioned amateur " . However , he also comments that his approach to batting was like that of a professional and that his back @-@ foot batting was of a quality that few amateurs could manage . In 1928 , Wisden 's correspondent described Jardine as the most secure amateur batsman of the time , and identified his greatest strength as his defence and his " mental gifts . " He played very straight and hit the ball hard in defence , but could not play all the strokes , particularly on the off side . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed that Jardine had modelled himself on C. B. Fry . He also noted that Jardine displayed good concentration , a strong desire to improve his batting and a fighting spirit that brought out his best in a crisis . He also said that Jardine could play every recognised cricket shot , but would not do so in a match and Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed it was Jardine 's one weakness as a batsman . The more important the occasion , the more defensive and restricted Jardine 's batting became : " In general , as the task grew greater , the strokes grew fewer . "

Christopher Douglas argues that Jardine liked to make his runs when his side was in difficulty and enjoyed being tested ; his approach would often lead his team to recovery from an unfavourable situation . Douglas comments that Jardine held his place in the England side despite strong competition from other batsmen . His defensive technique rescued England from weak positions in around a dozen innings and only played in two losses with England ( which were his two least successful games with the bat ) . He also excelled in the main Gentlemen v Players fixture at Lord 's , making a good score in each of his appearances in this match . Jack Hobbs classed him as a great batsman and believed that he was under @-@ rated by his contemporaries .

Wisden believed that Jardine 's effective batting technique meant that fast bowlers troubled him less than other batsmen . He did have difficulties with a few bowlers . Alec Kennedy , a medium paced inswing bowler , took Jardine 's wicket eleven times , eight of these occasions before the batsman had scored 20 runs . Kennedy found that Jardine had slightly slow footwork , often bowling him or trapping him lbw . Bert Ironmonger also troubled Jardine , taking his wicket in five of the eleven Test innings in which they faced each other . Jardine displayed a slight weakness against Australian slow bowlers , not moving his feet well enough against them . In 16 Test innings in Australia , he was out to slow bowlers ten times , but he rarely experienced similar difficulties against English spinners . One other bowler to cause Jardine problems was the Australian paceman Tim Wall , who took his wicket five times on the nine occasions he bowled to him .

= = = Captaincy = = =

As a captain , Jardine inspired great loyalty in his players , even if they did not approve of his tactics . Christopher Douglas judges that Jardine did very well to keep the team united and loyal on the Bodyline tour . He points out that team spirit was always excellent and the players showed great determination and resolve . Jardine particularly impressed Yorkshiremen who played under him , as they believed he thought about cricket in a similar way to their county colleagues . He became close to Herbert Sutcliffe during the Bodyline tour , even though Sutcliffe was sceptical about Jardine on the previous Australian tour in 1928 – 29 . Hedley Verity was impressed by Jardine 's tactical understanding and named his younger son Douglas after the captain . Bill Bowes expressed approval of his leadership after initial misgivings , and went on to call him England 's greatest captain . Nevertheless , some players such as Arthur Mitchell who played under Jardine believed he was intolerant and unsupportive of players of lesser talent , expecting everyone to perform at world @-@ class standards .

Jardine insisted on strict discipline from his players but in return he went to great lengths to look after them , such as organising dental treatment or providing champagne for his tired bowlers . Critics praised his skill in field placing , which was sometimes interpreted as panic when he made frequent changes if the batsmen were on top . He also displayed great physical courage , such as when he was struck by a ball hard enough to draw blood on the Bodyline tour , but refused to show pain before reaching the dressing room . On the same tour , he instructed his men not to be friendly or to socialise with the Australian players ; Gubby Allen even claimed that Jardine instructed the team to hate the Australians . Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote that Jardine made thorough preparation for games in which he was captain , studying individual batsmen at great length to find weaknesses . He had very clear plans , judged the strengths and weaknesses of his teams and knew how to get the best out of individual players . However , Robertson @-@ Glasgow considered it a grave misjudgement to make Jardine captain of England , particularly given his known antipathy towards Australia . Pelham Warner described how Jardine " was a master of tactics and strategy , and was especially adept in managing fast bowlers and thereby preserving their energy . He possessed a great capacity for taking pains , which , it has been said , is the mark of a genius ... As a field tactician and selector of teams he was , I consider , surpassed by no one and equalled by few , if any . "

Laurence Le Quesne argues that one of Jardine 's greatest talents , and at the same time greatest weaknesses , was his ability to formulate a winning strategy without consideration of wider contexts such as the social aspect of the game . On the Bodyline tour , he ignored the diplomacy required of an M.C.C. delegation . Instead , he embarked , according to Le Quesne , to win the Tests and settle personal scores with the Australians . Jardine was personally incapable of reacting to the crowds or responding to the controversy in a way that would have eased tensions , and so was not a good choice as captain given what the selectors already knew of him . Nevertheless , Le Quesne believed that when trouble arose , Jardine conducted himself with " great moral courage and an impressive degree of dignity and restraint . "

In his Wisden obituary , Jardine was described as one of England 's best captains , while Jack Hobbs rated him the second best captain after Percy Fender . Warner also said that he was a fine captain on and off the field , and in dealing with administrators . In fact , he stated that , " If ever there was a cricket match between England and the rest of the world and the fate of England depended upon its result , I would pick Jardine as England captain every time . "

= = = Personality = = =

Jardine divided opinion among those with whom he played . He could be charming and witty or ruthless and harsh , while many people who knew him believed him to be innately shy . David Frith describes him as a complex figure who could change moods quickly . Although he could be friendly off the field , he became hostile and determined once he stepped onto the field . At his memorial service , he was described by Hubert Ashton as being " provocative , austere , brusque , shy , humble , thoughtful , kindly , proud , sensitive , single @-@ minded and possessed of immense moral and physical courage , " and Frith argues that these varied qualities are easily proven by what was said about him .

Harold Larwood maintained great respect for Jardine , treasuring a gift his captain gave him after the Bodyline tour and believing him to be a great man . Jardine showed affection for Larwood in return even after both of their retirements ; he expressed his concern for the way Larwood was treated , hosted a lunch for the former fast bowler shortly before he emigrated to Australia and met him there in 1954 . On the other hand , Donald Bradman would never speak to journalists about Bodyline or Jardine , and refused to give a tribute when Jardine died in 1958 . Jack Fingleton admitted that he had liked Jardine and stated that he and Larwood had each done their job on the Bodyline tour , and expressed regret at the way both left cricket in acrimonious circumstances . Fingleton also described Jardine as an aloof individual who preferred to take his time in judging a person before befriending them , a quality that caused problems in Australia . Bill O 'Reilly stated that he disliked Jardine at the time of Bodyline , but on meeting him later found him agreeable and even charming .

Alan Gibson said that Jardine had " irony rather than humour " . He sent Herbert Sutcliffe an umbrella as a joke on the day of his benefit match , when rain would have ruined the match and lost Sutcliffe a considerable amount of money . Many people who knew Jardine later in his life described him as having a sense of humour . Robertson @-@ Glasgow noted that while he could curse very eloquently , Jardine displayed " dislike of waste in material or words . " He also commented that " if he has sometimes been a fierce enemy , he has also been a wonderful friend . "

= = Later life = =

= = = Career after cricket = = =

Shortly before the tour of India in 1933 – 34 , Jardine became engaged and on 14 September 1934 , married Irene " Isla " Margaret Peat in London . She had met Jardine at shooting parties at her father 's Norfolk home . According to Gerald Howat , Jardine 's marriage was the probable reason for his giving up playing first @-@ class cricket . Jardine 's father @-@ in @-@ law was keen for him to pursue his law career but he instead continued as a bank clerk and began to work as a journalist . He reported on the 1934 Ashes for the Evening Standard . His writing for the press , and in a follow @-@ up book on the series , was critical of selectors but less so of the players . In 1936 , he penned Cricket : how to succeed , which was written as an instruction book for the National Union of Teachers . There was a possibility of his going to Australia as a journalist to cover the M.C.C. tour of 1936 – 37 , to the dismay of Hore @-@ Ruthven , but nothing came of this . With alterations to the law in 1935 , changing the lbw law and preventing Bodyline bowling , Jardine became increasingly disillusioned with top @-@ level cricket . He had grown uncomfortable with the nationalism stirred up by Tests , the greed of clubs and the large public following of individual players , particularly Bradman . At the same time , Jardine seemed to be ostracised by cricket writers and commentators , who simply ignored him . For example , Wisden made no mention of his retirement . Christopher Douglas believes that Jardine was used as a scapegoat for Bodyline once the M.C.C. stopped supporting the tactic and that a stigma was attached to him for the rest of his life and beyond .

Although Jardine had retired from regular first @-@ class competition , he continued to play club cricket . Jardine and his wife initially lived in Kensington but moved to Reading after the birth of their first child , daughter Fianach . A second daughter , Marion , followed but the family suffered from financial worries . Jardine , as well as working in journalism , earned money from playing bridge . The family also tried unsuccessfully to engage in market gardening . To make more money , Jardine became a salesman with Cable & Wireless before working for a coal mining company in the late 1930s . In 1939 , he returned to cricket journalism and according to Christopher Douglas , achieved his highest standard as a writer .

= = = Career in the Second World War = = =

Jardine joined the Territorial Army in August 1939 . Once World War II began , he was commissioned into the Royal Berkshire Regiment and went with the British Expeditionary Force to France . He served at Dunkirk , where he was fortunate to escape but suffered some injuries . After serving as staff captain at St. Albans , he was posted to India for the remainder of the war . He served in Quetta , then Simla as a major in the Central Provisions Directorate . He became fluent in the Hindustani language and although friendly , never formed close relationships with other officers . He gave lectures and played some cricket while in India . He left the army in 1945 only to find his job with the coal mining company was no longer available .

In the meantime , his wife had moved to Somerset . In 1940 , she gave birth to a son , Euan , who had many medical problems , and in 1943 she bore a third daughter , Iona . The pressure of running the household and caring for Euan led Isla to have a nervous breakdown after Iona 's birth . When Jardine returned from the war , the family moved to Radlett to be closer to London . Isla recovered and Jardine found a job with paper manufacturers Wiggins Teape . In 1946 , Jardine was chosen to play for Old England in a popular and successful fund raising match against Surrey . He displayed much of his old batting skill but did not show much involvement with his team @-@ mates . By 1948 , Jardine was more accepted in the cricket world . This was partly due to English perception of the short @-@ pitched fast bowling of Australian pairing Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller as being hostile . England 's poor performance in the 1946 – 47 and 1948 Ashes also caused writers to remember Jardine more fondly as an icon of past English success .

= = = Final years = = =

In 1953 , Jardine resumed journalism for the Ashes series and expressed a high opinion of Len Hutton 's captaincy . He also did some broadcasting and wrote short stories to supplement his income ; Isla was in poor health and her medical care was expensive . In the same year , he became the first President of the Umpires Association , while from 1955 to 1957 he was President of the Oxford University Cricket Club . In 1953 , he travelled , with some trepidation , as a board member of the Scottish Australian Company to inspect some land in Australia . While there , he struck up a friendship with Fingleton and was surprised to be well received in the country , in his own words , as " an old so @-@ and @-@ so who got away with it . "

In 1957 , Jardine travelled to Rhodesia , again to inspect some land , with his daughter Marion . While there , he became ill with tick fever . He showed no improvement upon his return to England and further tests revealed that he had advanced lung cancer . After some treatment , he travelled with his wife to a clinic in Switzerland but it was discovered that the cancer had spread and was incurable . He died in Switzerland on 18 June 1958 and his ashes were scattered over the top of Craigs Cross mountain in Perthshire , Scotland . His family had enquired about having his ashes dispersed at Lord 's , but this honour was restricted to war dead . When he died , his estate was valued at just over £ 71 @,@ 000 , which would have been worth around £ 1 ¼ million in 2008 .

= = Legacy = =

Jardine is inextricably associated with Bodyline . John Arlott wrote in 1989 that " It is no exaggeration to say that , among Australians , Douglas Jardine is probably the most disliked of cricketers . " In the view of Christopher Douglas , his name " stands for the legendary British qualities of cool @-@ headed determination , implacable resolve , patrician disdain for crowds and critics alike – if you 're English that is . To Australians the name is synonymous with the legendary British qualities of snobbishness , cynicism and downright Pommie arrogance . " He also argues that Bodyline , which was legal at the time , was a necessary step to overcome the unfair advantage which batsmen of the time enjoyed .

After the Bodyline tour , according to cricket writer Gideon Haigh , Jardine was seen as " the most reviled man in sport . " This perception faded from the 1950s onwards , and in more recent times , Jardine has been viewed more sympathetically . In 2002 , the England captain Nasser Hussain was compared to Jardine as a compliment when he displayed ruthlessness against the opposition .

= Maniac Mansion =

Maniac Mansion is a 1987 graphic adventure video game developed and published by Lucasfilm Games . It follows teenage protagonist Dave Miller as he attempts to rescue his girlfriend from a mad scientist , whose mind has been enslaved by a sentient meteor . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to guide Dave and two of his six playable friends through the scientist 's mansion while solving puzzles and avoiding dangers . Gameplay is nonlinear , and the game must be completed in different ways based on the player 's choice of characters . Initially released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II , Maniac Mansion was Lucasfilm Games ' first self @-@ published product .

The game was conceived in 1985 by Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick , who sought to tell a comedic story based on horror film and B movie clichés . They mapped out the project as a paper @-@ and @-@ pencil game before coding commenced . While earlier adventure titles had relied on command lines , Gilbert disliked such systems , and he developed Maniac Mansion 's simpler point @-@ and @-@ click interface as a replacement . To speed up production , he created a game engine called SCUMM , which was used in many later LucasArts titles . After its release , Maniac Mansion was ported to several platforms . A port for the Nintendo Entertainment System had to be reworked heavily , in response to complaints by Nintendo of America that the game was inappropriate for children .

Maniac Mansion was critically acclaimed : reviewers lauded its graphics , cutscenes , animation and humor . Writer Orson Scott Card praised it as a step toward " computer games [ becoming ] a valid storytelling art . " It influenced numerous graphic adventure titles , and its point @-@ and @-@ click interface became a standard feature in the genre . The game 's success solidified Lucasfilm as a serious rival to adventure game studios such as Sierra On @-@ Line . In 1990 , Maniac Mansion was adapted into a three @-@ season television series of the same name , written by Eugene Levy and starring Joe Flaherty . A sequel to the game , entitled Day of the Tentacle , was released in 1993 .

= = Overview = =

Maniac Mansion is a graphic adventure game in which the player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to guide characters through a two @-@ dimensional game world and to solve puzzles . Fifteen action commands , such as " Walk To " and " Unlock " , may be selected by the player from a menu on the screen 's lower half . The player starts the game by choosing two out of six characters to accompany protagonist Dave Miller . Each character possesses unique abilities : for example , Syd and Razor can play musical instruments , while Bernard can repair appliances . The game may be completed with any combination of characters ; but , since many puzzles are solvable only by certain characters , different paths must be taken based on the group 's composition . Maniac Mansion features cutscenes , a word coined by Ron Gilbert , that interrupt gameplay to advance the story and inform the player about offscreen events .

The game takes place in the mansion of the fictional Edison family : Dr. Fred , a mad scientist ; Nurse Edna , his wife ; and their son Weird Ed . Living with the Edisons are two large , disembodied tentacles , one purple and the other green . The intro sequence shows that a sentient meteor crashed near the mansion twenty years earlier ; it brainwashed the Edisons and directed Dr. Fred to obtain human brains for use in experiments . The game begins as Dave Miller prepares to enter the mansion to rescue his girlfriend , Sandy Pantz , who was kidnapped by Dr. Fred . With the exception of the green tentacle , the mansion 's inhabitants are hostile , and will throw the player characters into the dungeon — or , in some situations , kill them — if they see them . When a character dies , the player must choose a replacement from the unselected characters ; and the game ends if all characters are killed . Maniac Mansion has five possible endings , based on which characters are chosen , which survive , and what the characters accomplish .

= = Development = =

= = = Conception = = =

Maniac Mansion was conceived in 1985 , when Lucasfilm Games employees Ron Gilbert and Gary Winnick were assigned to create an original game . Gilbert had been hired the previous year as a programmer for the game Koronis Rift . He befriended Winnick over their similar tastes in humor , film and television . Company management provided little oversight in the creation of Maniac Mansion , a trend to which Gilbert credited the success of several of his games for Lucasfilm .

Gilbert and Winnick co @-@ wrote and co @-@ designed the project , but they worked separately as well : Gilbert on programming and Winnick on visuals . As both of them enjoyed B horror films , they decided to make a comedy @-@ horror game set in a haunted house . They drew inspiration from a film whose name Winnick could not recall . He described it as " a ridiculous teen horror movie " , in which teenagers inside a building were killed one by one without any thought of leaving . This film , combined with clichés from popular horror movies such as Friday the 13th and A Nightmare on Elm Street , became the basis for the game 's setting . Early work on the game progressed organically : according to Gilbert , " Very little was written down . Gary and I just talked and laughed a lot , and out it came . " Lucasfilm Games relocated to the Stable House at Skywalker Ranch during Maniac Mansion 's conception period , and the ranch 's Main House was used as a model for the mansion . Several rooms from the Main House received exact reproductions in the game , such as a library with a spiral staircase and a media room with a large @-@ screen TV and grand piano .

Story and characters were a primary concern for Gilbert and Winnick . The pair based the game 's cast on friends , family members , acquaintances and stereotypes . For example , Winnick 's girlfriend Ray was the inspiration for Razor , while Dave and Wendy were based , respectively , on Gilbert and a fellow Lucasfilm employee named Wendy . According to Winnick , the Edison family was shaped after characters from EC Comics and Warren Publishing magazines . The sentient meteor that brainwashes Dr. Fred was inspired by a segment from the 1982 anthology film Creepshow . A man @-@ eating plant , similar to that of Little Shop of Horrors , was included as well . The developers sought to strike a balance between tension and humor with the game 's story .

Initially , Gilbert and Winnick struggled to choose a gameplay genre for Maniac Mansion . While visiting relatives over Christmas , Gilbert saw his cousin play King 's Quest : Quest for the Crown , an adventure game by Sierra On @-@ Line . Although he was a fan of text adventures , this was Gilbert 's first experience with a graphic adventure , and he used the holiday to play the game and familiarize himself with the format . As a result , he decided to develop his and Winnick 's ideas into a graphic adventure game .

Maniac Mansion 's story and structure were designed before coding commenced . The project 's earliest incarnation was a simple paper @-@ and @-@ pencil board game , in which the mansion 's floor plan was used as a game board , and cards represented events and characters . Lines connected the rooms to illustrate pathways by which characters could travel . Strips of cellulose acetate were used to map out the game 's puzzles by tracking which items worked together when used by certain characters . Impressed by the map 's complexity , Winnick included it in the final game as a poster hung on a wall . Because each character contributes different skills and resources , the pair spent months working on the event combinations that could occur . This extended the game 's production time beyond that of previous Lucasfilm Games projects , which almost led to Gilbert 's firing . The game 's dialogue , written by David Fox , was not created until after programming had begun .

= = = Production and SCUMM = = =

Gilbert started programming Maniac Mansion in 6502 assembly language , but he quickly decided that the project was too large and complex for this method . He decided that a new game engine would have to be created . Its coding language was initially planned to be LISP @-@ inspired , but Gilbert opted for one similar to C. Lucasfilm employee Chip Morningstar contributed the base code for the engine , which Gilbert then built on . Gilbert hoped to create a " system that could be used on many adventure games , cutting down the time it took to make them " . Maniac Mansion 's first six @-@ to @-@ nine months of production were dedicated largely to engine development . The game was developed around the Commodore 64 home computer , an 8 @-@ bit system with only 64 KB of memory . The team wanted to include scrolling screens , but as it was normally impossible to scroll bitmap graphics on the Commodore 64 , they had to utilize lower @-@ detail tile graphics . Winnick gave each character a large head made of three stacked sprites to make them recognizable .

Although Gilbert wrote much of the foundational code for Maniac Mansion , the majority of the game 's events were programmed by Lucasfilm employee David Fox . Fox was between projects and planned to work on the game only for a month , but he remained with the team for six months . With Gilbert , he wrote the characters ' dialog and choreographed the action . Winnick 's concept art inspired him to add new elements to the game : for example , Fox allowed the player to place a hamster inside the kitchen 's microwave .

The team wanted to avoid punishing the player for applying everyday logic in Maniac Mansion . Fox noted that one Sierra game features a scene in which the player , without prior warning , may encounter a game over screen simply by picking up a shard of glass . He characterized such game design as " sadistic " , and he commented , " I know that in the real world I can successfully pick up a broken piece of mirror without dying " . Because of the project 's nonlinear puzzle design , the team struggled to prevent no @-@ win scenarios , in which the player unexpectedly became unable to complete the game . As a result of this problem , Gilbert later explained , " We were constantly fighting against the desire just to rip out all the endings and just go with three characters , or even sometimes just one character " . Lucasfilm Games had only one playtester , and many dead @-@ ends went undetected as a result . Further playtesting was provided by Gilbert 's uncle , to whom Gilbert mailed a floppy disk of the game 's latest version each week .

The Maniac Mansion team wanted to retain the structure of a text @-@ based adventure game , but without the standard command @-@ line interface . Gilbert and Winnick were frustrated by the genre 's text parsers and frequent game over screens . While in college , Gilbert had enjoyed Colossal Cave Adventure and the games of Infocom , but he disliked their lack of visuals . He found the inclusion of graphics in Sierra On @-@ Line games , such as King 's Quest , to be a step in the right direction . However , these games still require the player to type , and to guess which commands must be input . In response , Gilbert programmed a point @-@ and @-@ click graphical user interface that displays every possible command . Fox had made a similar attempt to streamline Lucasfilm 's earlier Labyrinth : The Computer Game , and he conceived the entirety of Maniac Mansion 's interface , according to Gilbert . Forty input commands were planned at first , but the number was gradually reduced to 12 . Gilbert finished the Maniac Mansion engine — which he later named " Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion " ( SCUMM ) — after roughly one year of work . Although the game was designed for the Commodore 64 , the SCUMM engine allowed it to be ported easily to other platforms .

After 18 to 24 months of development , Maniac Mansion debuted at the 1987 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago . The game was released for the Commodore 64 and Apple II in October 1987 . While previous Lucasfilm Games products had been published by outside companies , Maniac Mansion was self @-@ published . This became a trend at Lucasfilm . The company hired Ken Macklin , an acquaintance of Winnick 's , to design the game 's packaging artwork . Gilbert and Winnick collaborated with the marketing department to design the back cover . The two also created an insert that includes hints , a backstory and jokes . An MS @-@ DOS port was released in early 1988 , developed in part by Lucasfilm employees Aric Wilmunder and Brad Taylor . Ports for the Amiga , Atari ST and Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) followed , with the Amiga and Atari ST ports in 1989 and the NES port in 1990 . The 16 @-@ bit versions of Maniac Mansion featured a copy protection system requiring the user to enter graphical symbols out of a code book include with the game . This was not present in the Commodore 64 and Apple versions due to lack of disk space , so those instead used an on @-@ disk copy protection .

= = Nintendo Entertainment System version = =

There were two separate versions of the game developed for the NES . The first port was handled and published by Jaleco only in Japan . Released in 1989 it featured characters redrawn in a cute art style and generally shrunken rooms . No scrolling is present , leading to rooms larger than a single screen to be displayed via flip @-@ screens . Many of the background details are missing , and instead of a save feature an over 100 character long password is required to save progress . In September 1990 Jaleco released an American version of Maniac Mansion as the first NES title developed by Lucasfilm Games in cooperation with Realtime Associates . Generally , this port is regarded as being far closer to the original game than the Japanese effort . Company management was occupied with other projects , and so the port received little attention until employee Douglas Crockford volunteered to direct it . The team used a modified version of the SCUMM engine called " NES SCUMM " for the port . According to Crockford , " [ One ] of the main differences between the NES and PCs is that the NES can do certain things much faster " . The graphics had to be entirely redrawn to match the NES 's display resolution . Tim Schafer , who later designed Maniac Mansion 's sequel Day of the Tentacle , received his first professional credit as a playtester for the NES version of Maniac Mansion .

During Maniac Mansion 's development for the Commodore 64 , Lucasfilm had censored profanity in the script : for instance , the early line of dialogue " Don 't be a shit head " became " Don 't be a tuna head " . However , additional content was removed from the NES version to make it suitable for a younger audience , and to conform with Nintendo 's policies . Jaleco USA president Howie Rubin warned Crockford about content to which Nintendo might object , such as the word " kill " . After reading the NES Game Standards Policy for himself , Crockford suspected that further elements of Maniac Mansion could be problematic , and he sent a list of questionable content to Jaleco . When the company replied that the content was reasonable , Lucasfilm Games submitted Maniac Mansion for approval .

One month later , Nintendo of America contacted Lucasfilm Games to request the removal of offensive text and nude graphics . Crockford censored this content but attempted to leave the game 's essence intact . For example , Nintendo wanted graffiti in one room — which provided an important hint to players — removed from the game . Unable to comply without simultaneously removing the hint , the team simply shortened it . Sexually suggestive and otherwise " graphic " dialogue was edited , including a remark from Dr. Fred about " pretty brains [ being ] sucked out " . The nudity described by Nintendo encompassed a swimsuit calendar , a classical sculpture and a poster of a mummy in a Playmate pose . After a brief fight to keep the sculpture , the team ultimately removed all three . The phrase " NES SCUMM " in the credits sequence was censored as well .

Lucasfilm Games re @-@ submitted the edited version of Maniac Mansion to Nintendo , which then manufactured 250 @,@ 000 cartridges . Each cartridge was fitted with a battery @-@ powered back @-@ up to save data . Nintendo announced the port through its official magazine in early 1990 , and it provided further coverage later that year . The ability to microwave a hamster remained in the game , which Crockford cited as an example of the censors ' contradictory criteria . However , Nintendo later noticed it , and after the first batch of cartridges was sold , Jaleco was forced to remove the content from future shipments .

Late in development , Jaleco commissioned Realtime Associates to provide background music , which no previous version of Maniac Mansion had featured . Realtime Associates ' founder and president David Warhol noted that " video games at that time had to have ' wall to wall ' music " . He brought in George " The Fat Man " Sanger and his band , along with David Hayes , to compose the score . Their goal was to create songs that suited each character , such as a punk rock theme for Razor , an electronic rock theme for Bernard and a version of Thin Lizzy 's " The Boys Are Back in Town " for Dave Miller . Warhol translated their work into NES chiptune music .

= = Reception = =

Keith Farrell of Compute ! ' s Gazette was struck by Maniac Mansion 's similarity to film , particularly in its use of cutscenes to impart " information or urgency " . He lauded the game 's graphics , animation and high level of detail . Commodore User 's Bill Scolding and three reviewers from Zzap ! 64 compared the game to The Rocky Horror Picture Show . Further comparisons were drawn to Psycho , Friday the 13th , The Texas Chain Saw Massacre , The Addams Family and Scooby @-@ Doo . Russ Ceccola of Commodore Magazine found the cutscenes to be creative and well made , and he commented that the " characters are distinctively Lucasfilm 's , bringing facial expressions and personality to each individual character " . In Compute ! , Orson Scott Card praised the game 's humor , cinematic storytelling and lack of violence . He called it " compellingly good " and evidence of Lucasfilm 's push " to make computer games a valid storytelling art " .

German magazine Happy @-@ Computer commended the point @-@ and @-@ click interface and likened it to that of Uninvited by ICOM Simulations . The publication highlighted Maniac Mansion 's graphics , originality and overall enjoyability : one of the writers called it the best adventure title yet released . Happy @-@ Computer later reported that Maniac Mansion was the highest @-@ selling video game in West Germany for three consecutive months . The game 's humor received praise from Zzap ! 64 , whose reviewers called the point @-@ and @-@ click controls " tremendous " and the total package " innovative and polished " . Shay Addams of Questbusters : The Adventurer 's Newsletter preferred Maniac Mansion 's interface to that of Labyrinth : The Computer Game . He considered the game to be Lucasfilm 's best , and he recommended it to Commodore 64 and Apple II users unable to run titles with better visuals , such as those from Sierra On @-@ Line . A writer for ACE enjoyed the game 's animation and depth , but he noted that fans of text @-@ based adventures would dislike the game 's simplicity .

= = = Ports = = =

Reviewing the MS @-@ DOS and Atari ST ports , a critic from The Games Machine called Maniac Mansion " an enjoyable romp " that was structurally superior to later LucasArts adventure games . However , the writer noticed poor pathfinding and disliked the limited audio . Reviewers for The Deseret News lauded the audiovisuals and considered the product " wonderful fun " . Computer Gaming World 's Charles Ardai praised the game for attaining " the necessary and precarious balance between laughs and suspense that so many comic horror films and novels lack " . Although he faulted the control system 's limited options , he hailed it as " one of the most comfortable ever devised " . Writing for VideoGames & Computer Entertainment , Bill Kunkel and Joyce Worley stated that the game 's plot and premise were typical of the horror genre ; but they praised the interface and execution .

Reviewing Maniac Mansion 's Amiga version four years after its release , Simon Byron of The One Amiga praised the game for retaining " charm and humour " , but suggested that its art direction had become " tacky " compared to more recent titles . Stephen Bradly of Amiga Format found the game derivative , but he encountered " loads of visual humour " in it ; and he added , " Strangely , it 's quite compelling after a while . " Michael Labiner of Germany 's Amiga Joker considered Maniac Mansion to be one of the best adventure games for the system . He noted minor graphical flaws , such as a limited color palette , but he argued that the gameplay made up for such shortcomings . Writing for Datormagazin in Sweden , Ingela Palmér commented that the Amiga and Commodore 64 versions of Maniac Mansion were nearly identical . She criticized the graphics and gameplay of both releases , but felt the game to be highly enjoyable regardless .

Reviewing the NES release , British magazine Mean Machines commended the game 's presentation , playability and replay value . However , the publication noted undetailed graphics and " ear @-@ bashing tunes " . The magazine 's Julian Rignall compared Maniac Mansion to the title Shadowgate , but he preferred the former 's controls and lack of " death @-@ without @-@ warning situations " . Writers for Germany 's Video Games referred to the NES version as a " classic " . Co @-@ reviewer Heinrich Lenhardt stated that Maniac Mansion was unlike any other NES adventure game , and that it was no less enjoyable than its home computer releases . Co @-@ reviewer Winnie Forster found it to be " one of the most original representatives of the [ adventure game ] genre " . In retrospective features , Edge magazine called the NES version " somewhat neutered " and GamesTM referred to it as " infamous " and " heavily censored " .

= = TV adaptation and game sequel = =

Lucasfilm conceived the idea for a television adaptation of Maniac Mansion , the rights to which were purchased by The Family Channel in 1990 . The two companies collaborated with Atlantis Films to produce a sitcom named after the game , which debuted in September of that year . It aired on YTV in Canada and The Family Channel in the United States . Based in part on the video game , the series focuses on the Edison family 's life and stars Joe Flaherty as Dr. Fred . Its writing staff was led by Eugene Levy . Gilbert later said that the premise of the series changed during production , until it differed heavily from the game 's original plot . Upon its debut , the adaptation received positive reviews from Variety , Entertainment Weekly and the Los Angeles Times . Time named it one of the year 's best new series . However , Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly questioned the decision to air the series on The Family Channel , given Flaherty 's subversive humor . Discussing the series in retrospect , Richard Cobbett of PC Gamer criticized its generic storylines and lack of relevance to the game . The series lasted for three seasons ; sixty @-@ six episodes were filmed .

In the early 1990s , LucasArts tasked Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer , both of whom had worked on the Monkey Island series , with designing a sequel to Maniac Mansion . Gilbert and Winnick initially assisted with the project 's writing . The team included voice acting and more detailed graphics , which Gilbert had originally envisioned for Maniac Mansion . The first game 's nonlinear design was discarded , and the team implemented a Chuck Jones @-@ inspired visual style , alongside numerous puzzles based on time travel . Bernard and the Edison family were retained . The sequel , entitled Day of the Tentacle , was released in 1993 .

= = Impact and legacy = =

In 2010 , the staff of GamesTM dubbed Maniac Mansion a " seminal " title that overhauled the gameplay of the graphic adventure genre . Removing the need to guess syntax allowed players to concentrate on the story and puzzles , which created a smoother and more enjoyable experience , according to the magazine . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed agreed : he believed that the design was " infinitely more elegant and intuitive " than its predecessors , and that it freed players from " guessing @-@ game frustration " . Designer Dave Grossman , who worked on Lucasfilm Games ' later Day of the Tentacle and The Secret of Monkey Island , felt that Maniac Mansion had revolutionized the adventure game genre . Although 1985 's Uninvited had featured a point @-@ and @-@ click interface , it was not influential . Maniac Mansion 's implementation of the concept was widely imitated in other adventure titles . Writing in the game studies journal Kinephanos , Jonathan Lessard argued that Maniac Mansion led a " Casual Revolution " in the late 1980s , which opened the adventure genre to a wider audience . Similarly , Christopher Buecheler of GameSpy called the game a contributor to its genre 's subsequent critical adoration and commercial success .

Reed highlighted the " wonderfully ambitious " design of Maniac Mansion , in reference to its writing , interface and cast of characters . Game designer Sheri Graner Ray believed the game to challenge " damsel in distress " stereotypes through its inclusion of female protagonists . Conversely , writer Mark Dery argued that the goal of rescuing a kidnapped cheerleader reinforced negative gender roles . The Lucasfilm team built on their experiences from Maniac Mansion and became increasingly ambitious in subsequent titles . Gilbert admitted to making mistakes — such as the inclusion of no @-@ win situations — in Maniac Mansion , and he applied these lessons to future projects . For example , the game relies on timers rather than events to trigger cutscenes , which occasionally results in awkward transitions : Gilbert worked to avoid this flaw with the Monkey Island series . Because of Maniac Mansion 's imperfections , however , Gilbert considers it his favorite of his games .

According to writers Mike and Sandie Morrison , Lucasfilm Games became " serious competition " in the adventure genre after the release of Maniac Mansion . The game 's success solidified Lucasfilm as one of the leading producers of adventure games : authors Rusel DeMaria and Johnny Wilson described it as a " landmark title " for the company . In their view , Maniac Mansion — along with Space Quest : The Sarien Encounter and Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards — inaugurated a " new era of humor @-@ based adventure games " . This belief was shared by Reed , who wrote that Maniac Mansion " set in motion a captivating chapter in the history of gaming " that encompassed wit , invention and style . The SCUMM engine was reused by Lucasfilm in eleven later titles ; improvements were made to its code with each game . Over time , rival adventure game developers adopted this paradigm in their own software . GamesTM attributed the change to a desire to streamline production and create enjoyable games . Following his 1992 departure from LucasArts — a conglomeration of Lucasfilm Games , ILM and Skywalker Sound formed in 1990 — Gilbert used SCUMM to create adventure games and Backyard Sports titles for Humongous Entertainment .

In 2011 , Richard Cobbett summarized Maniac Mansion as " one of the most intricate and important adventure games ever made " . Retro Gamer ranked it as one of the ten best Commodore 64 games in 2006 , and IGN later named it one of the ten best LucasArts adventure game . Seven years after the NES version 's debut , Nintendo Power named it the 61st best game ever . The publication dubbed it the 16th best NES title in 2008 . The game 's uniqueness and clever writing were praised by Nintendo Power : in 2010 , the magazine 's Chris Hoffman stated that the game is " unlike anything else out there — a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure with an awesome sense of humor and multiple solutions to almost every puzzle . " In its retrospective coverage , Nintendo Power several times noted the ability to microwave a hamster , which the staff considered to be an iconic scene . In March 2012 , Retro Gamer listed the hamster incident as one of the " 100 Classic Gaming Moments " .

Maniac Mansion enthusiasts have drawn fan art of its characters , participated in tentacle @-@ themed cosplay and produced a trailer for a fictitious film adaptation of the game . German fan Sascha Borisow created a fangame remake , entitled Maniac Mansion Deluxe , with enhanced audio and visuals . He used the Adventure Game Studio engine to develop the project , which he distributed free of charge on the Internet . By the end of 2004 , the remake had over 200 @,@ 000 downloads . A remake with three @-@ dimensional graphics called Meteor Mess was created by the German developer Vampyr Games , and , as of 2011 , another group in Germany is producing one with art direction similar to that of Day of the Tentacle . Fans have created an episodic series of games based on Maniac Mansion as well . Gilbert has said that he would like to see an official remake , similar in its graphics and gameplay to The Secret of Monkey Island : Special Edition and Monkey Island 2 Special Edition : LeChuck 's Revenge . However , he expressed doubts about its potential quality , in light of George Lucas ' enhanced remakes of the original Star Wars trilogy .

= East Carolina University =

East Carolina University is a public , doctoral / research university in Greenville , North Carolina , United States . Named East Carolina University by statute and commonly known as ECU or East Carolina , the university is the third @-@ largest in North Carolina . The Association of Public and Land Grant Universities designates East Carolina as a Sea Grant university and an Innovation and Economic Prosperity campus .

Founded on March 8 , 1907 as a teacher training school , East Carolina has grown from 43 acres ( 17 ha ) to almost 1 @,@ 600 acres ( 647 ha ) today . The university 's academic facilities are located on five properties : Main Campus , Health Sciences Campus , West Research Campus , the Field Station for Coastal Studies in New Holland , North Carolina and the Millennial Research and Innovation Campus in Greenville 's warehouse district . The nine undergraduate colleges , graduate school , and four professional schools are located on these four properties . All of the non @-@ health sciences majors are located on the main campus . The College of Nursing , College of Allied Health Sciences , The Brody School of Medicine , and School of Dental Medicine are located on the health science campus . There are ten social sororities , 16 social fraternities , four historically black sororities , five historically black fraternities , one Native American fraternity , and one Native American sorority . There are over 300 registered clubs on campus including fraternities and sororities .

= = History = =

Public Laws of North Carolina , 1907 , Chapter 820 titled An Act to Stimulate High School Instruction in the Public Schools of the State and Teacher Training is the official law chartering East Carolina Teachers Training School ( ECTTS ) on March 8 , 1907 by the North Carolina General Assembly . The chairman of its original Board of Trustees , Thomas Jordan Jarvis , a former Governor of North Carolina now known as the " Father of ECU " , participated in groundbreaking ceremonies for the first buildings on July 2 , 1908 in Greenville , North Carolina and ECTTS opened its doors on October 5 , 1909 . Although its purpose was to train " young white men and women " , there were no male graduates until 1932 . In 1920 , ECTTS became a four – year institution and renamed East Carolina Teachers College ( ECTC ) ; its first bachelor 's degrees were awarded the following year in education . A master 's degree program was authorized in 1929 ; the first such degree granted by ECTC was in 1933 . Progress toward full college status was made in 1948 with the designation of the bachelor of arts as a liberal arts degree , and the bachelor of science as a teaching degree . A change of name to East Carolina College in 1951 reflected this expanded mission . Over the objections of Governor Dan K. Moore , who opposed the creation of a university system separate from the Consolidated University of North Carolina , ECC was made a regional university effective July 1 , 1967 , and assumed its present name , East Carolina University . The university did not remain independent for long ; on July 1 , 1972 , it was incorporated into the University of North Carolina System , the successor to the Consolidated University . Today , ECU is the third – largest university in North Carolina with 21 @,@ 589 undergraduate and 5 @,@ 797 graduate students , including the 308 medicine and 52 dental students .

= = Campus = =

East Carolina is separated into three distinct campuses : Main Campus , Health Sciences Campus , and West Research Campus . It owns two sports complexes : Blount Recreational Sports Complex and North Recreational Complex . It owns a field station in New Holland , North Carolina .

= = = Main = = =

The main campus , also known as the east campus , is about 530 acres ( 2 km2 ) in an urban residential area of downtown Greenville . The 158 buildings on main campus comprise more than 4 @.@ 6 million square feet ( 325 @,@ 000 m ² ) of academic , research , and residential space . Many of the Main Campus buildings feature the Spanish – Mission style architecture ; inspiration drawn from Thomas Jarvis ' time as an ambassador to Brazil . He wanted to bring the unique architecture to eastern North Carolina . On the main campus , there are five districts : Campus Core , Downtown District , Warehouse District , Athletic fields and the South Academic District . On the Campus Core , there are 15 residence halls which are divided into three separate neighborhoods . The distinct feature of the main campus is the mall , which is a large tree – laden grassy area where many students go to relax . In the middle of the mall is the replica of the cupola on the original Austin building .

= = = = Athletic fields = = = =

The varsity athletics fields are located south of the College Hill residential neighborhood . Fourteenth Street divides College Hill to the north , with the athletic fields to the south . Charles Boulevard borders the fields to the west and Greenville Boulevard borders it to the south . A residential neighborhood and Elmhurst Elementary School are the eastern borders . The northern portion of the area sits Dowdy @-@ Ficklen Stadium , Minges Coliseum , and Minges Natatorium , along with parking . The Murphy Center , which is the primary strength and conditioning , and banquet building , is located between Dowdy @-@ Ficklen and Minges Coliseum . The Tennis Complex , Ward Sports Medicine Building , Scales Field House , and the Pirate Club Building also surround Dowdy @-@ Ficklen . The Ward Sports Medicine Building houses offices for football and basketball , Pirate Club , media relations , and the director of athletics . The Scales Field House provides locker rooms , offices and equipment storage . The Pirate Club Building houses a ticket office , other offices , and an area for Pirate Club members . South of those facilities is the Cliff Moore Practice Facility which has a pair of natural grass fields and one FieldTurf field designed exclusively for the football team . On the southern border of the practice facility is Clark @-@ LeClair Stadium , which is the men 's baseball stadium . It opened in 2005 and seats 3 @,@ 000 in permanent seating with another 2 @,@ 000 located in the outfield . At the southern end of the fields is the Olympic Sports Complex , which include women 's soccer stadium , softball stadium , track and field facility , and Olympic Sports Team building . The Olympic Sports Complex was completed in 2011 with a price of $ 23 @.@ 4 million . The Smith @-@ Williams Center is a $ 17 million basketball development and practice facility , opened in 2013 . The football stadium is planning for a $ 40 million upgrade . The upgrades will include a new press , club , and suite areas , and upper deck , all located on the south side . This addition will increase the capacity from 50 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 .

East Carolina has spent $ 92 million on athletic projects from 1998 @-@ 2011 . Including the proposed projects , this is increased to $ 145 million .

= = = Health Sciences = = =

The Health Sciences campus is situated beside Vidant Medical Center ( VMC ) . VMC was originally Pitt County Memorial Hospital . After becoming a private non @-@ profit hospital , the renaming occurred . VMC , an 861 – bed flagship Level I Trauma Center , serves as the academic medical center for The Brody School of Medicine . Vidant Health owns VMC , leases or owns six and manages one . The area is about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Main Campus on 206 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 km2 ) with nearly 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 121 @,@ 000 m2 ) of academic and research space in 62 buildings . Other buildings besides VMC include Brody Medicine Science Building , the East Carolina Heart Institute , Leo Jenkins Cancer Center , and the Allied Health building composed of the College of Nursing , Laupus Medical Library and College of Allied Health Sciences . The 117 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m2 ) Family Medicine Center opened in the fall of 2011 . Ross Hall , which will house the School of Dental Medicine , will be just under 200 @,@ 000 square feet is currently being built .

= = = West Research = = =

West Research Campus lies on approximately 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of the Health Sciences Campus . It consists of four buildings with 36 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) on the former Voice of America site . Approximately 367 acres ( 1 @.@ 49 km2 ) are designated wetlands and large areas of biology , botany and other sciences field study sites . It has an environmental health onsite wastewater demonstration facility which is open to the public and all educators . It is also the home of the North Carolina Institute for Health and Safety in Agriculture , Forestry , and Fisheries with an administrative and several support buildings .

= = = = Institutes and centers = = = =

The Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University

East Carolina Heart Institute

Leo W. Jenkins Cancer Center

Innovation Design Lab

Family Medicine Center

UNC Coastal Studies Institute

Center for Epidemiology and Outcomes Research

Small Business Institute

Institute for Coastal Science and Policy

Pediatric Healthy Weight Research and Treatment Center

Center for Sustainable Tourism

Center for Sustainability

Center for Natural Hazards

Center for Geographic Information Science

Center for GIScience

Center for Applied Computational Studies

Center for Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics Education

Center for Survey Research

Lost Colony Center for Science & Research

East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute

Pocosin Arts Riverside Lodge

NC Agromedicine Institute

Golden LEAF Educational Consortium

= = = Community Service Learning Centers = = =

The School of Dental Medicine proposes to create 10 community service learning centers to be located in rural and underserved areas throughout the state of North Carolina . The fourth @-@ year students will be learning and providing care for the community for one year in these community centers . Five community centers have been announced . They are located in Ahoskie , Elizabeth City , Lillington , Spruce Pine , and Sylva . The other locations will be announced at a future time .

= = = Field Station for Coastal Studies = = =

The field station is located in New Holland , North Carolina . The area serves as a field station for the coastal studies , coastal resource management , and biology programs . The main goal of the field station is economic development into the region through both environmental education and eco – tourism . It also serves as a facility for small retreats and as a base for research on coastal issues . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 . It is adjacent to the 49 @,@ 925 @-@ acre ( 202 km2 ) Mattamuskeet Wildlife Refuge .

= = = North Recreational Complex = = =

North Recreational Complex ( NRC ) is an athletic complex located on a 129 @-@ acre ( 522 @,@ 044 @.@ 5 m2 ) parcel of land north of East Carolina University 's main campus . The NRC is one of the Nation 's largest recreational complexes . It will augment the Blount Intramural Sports Fields located behind the Carol Belk Building on Charles Boulevard . The first of three phases of the complex opened on September 2 , 2008 . Phase one includes eight lighted fields , a 5 @.@ 6 acres ( 0 km2 ) lake with a beach , walking trails / areas , and a field house . The complex is located near the intersection of the North Carolina Highway 33 and U.S. Route 264 .

Phase II opened in August 2011 , with the grand opening occurring on September 15 , 2011 . This phase includes a 5 @.@ 6 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 0 km2 ) lake on with a 51 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 700 m2 ) beach . A 2 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 190 m2 ) boat house is also located there . Canoes and kayaks can be rented at the boathouse for use in the lake . Other amenities include sand volleyball courts , horseshoes , grills , fitness equipment , six walking / running trails , a disc golf course , and an Odyssey Course which includes a 300 @-@ foot zip line .

= = = UNC Coastal Studies Institute = = =

Main page : UNC Coastal Studies Institute

ECU houses and manages the UNC Coastal Studies Institute ( UNC @-@ CSI ) which is an inter @-@ university , marine research institute located on Roanoke Island in Manteo along the Croatan Sound on the Outer Banks , established in 2003 focusing on Estuarine Ecology and Human Health , Coastal Processes and Engineering , Public Policy and Coastal Sustainability , and Maritime Heritage .

= = Colleges and schools = =

ECU is home to nine undergraduate colleges , a graduate school , and four professional schools . The oldest school is the modern day College of Education . The University offers 16 doctoral degree programs , 4 first professional degree programs , 76 master 's degree programs , and 102 bachelor 's degree programs .

ECU 's liberal arts college is the Thomas Harriot College of Arts and Sciences . It consists of 16 departments , making it the third largest College . The liberal arts college has its roots in the beginning of the University .

The College of Business is a professional school consisting of six departments with undergraduate concentrations in each , plus the Miller School of Entrepreneurship and a Master of Business Administration and Master of Science in Accounting program . The College 's beginnings came in 1936 when the Department of Commerce was organized . It later changed to the Department of Business Education , and then to the Department of Business . Finally , in 1960 , the School of Business was formed . The college undergraduate program was accredited in 1967 , and the graduate program was accredited in 1976 by The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business . The college is a governing school of the Graduate Management Admission Council . The college runs a Small Business Institute to advise small business owners on how to succeed .

The College of Education is the oldest and largest college at ECU . It houses and administers all of the education majors and an international open access journal , the Journal of Curriculum and Instruction . There are 17 undergraduate degree programs , 22 graduate degree programs , six advanced certifications , and the Doctor of Education program . The College prepares more professionals for North Carolina schools than any other university in the state . The College scored higher than other North Carolina universities when the state board evaluated teacher education programs in 2006 . In addition , the Institution of Higher Education Performance Report showed ECU was first in the number of graduates who were employed in public schools across the state . The college is considered one of the exemplary professional preparation programs according to the North Carolina State Board of Education 's Higher Education Performance Report .

The College of Fine Arts and Communication comprises four schools that range from dance to design and broadcast journalism . The college officially opened on July 1 , 2003 , but can trace its roots to ECU founding ; the school hired art and music professionals in 1907 to train teachers .

The College of Health and Human Performance is made up of three departments and handles all of the recreational and exercise degrees at East Carolina University . It took on its name in 2003 , but traces its legacy to the Department of Physical Education in 1930 . It was the 1930 East Carolina Teachers College Planning Document number two priority . In 1938 , the Department of Physical Education was established and Physical education became a specialty area for high school teachers .

The College of Human Ecology houses four departments and one school along with two institutes . It was first incorporated in 1968 and started to admit students in 1971 . " The Carolyn Freeze Baynes Institute for Social Justice is an international forum for addressing questions , presenting ideas , and developing innovations . The Institute 's focus in these activities is the identification of injustices and development of more just alternatives through systematic professional research , scholarship , and public presentation of findings and ideas . "

The College of Engineering and Technology comprises four departments . The college offers nine degrees including engineering , computer science , construction management , design , distribution and logistics , industrial engineering technology , information and computer technology , and industrial technology .

The College of Allied Health Sciences encompasses the health science majors outside of nursing . The school offers over 15 majors . All of the health sciences majors are located in the Allied Health Sciences building which is on the Health Sciences Campus beside The Brody School of Medicine . It was established in the 1967 – 68 school year .

The College of Nursing is a professional school that offers one undergraduate degree , Bachelor of Science in Nursing . The school was created in 1959 and now offers Bachelor of Science , Masters , and Ph.D programs . The college has over 100 faculty teaching the students everything about the nursing field while practicing in the under @-@ served Eastern North Carolina . There are three departments within this school : Department of Undergraduate Nursing Science Junior Division , Department of Undergraduate Nursing Science Senior Division , and the Department of Graduate Nursing Science . On October 12 , 2007 , the University of North Carolina Board of Governors permitted the re – designation of the School of Nursing to the College of Nursing . The National League for Nursing named the college a Center of Excellence . The college produces more nurses than any other school in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region .

The Graduate School consist of 85 master 's degree , 21 doctoral programs and 62 certificates . It coordinates the graduate offerings of all departments in the nine colleges . The School also runs the non – professional degree programs of the professional School of Medicine . The school offers 17 master 's degree in Accounting , Arts , Business Administration , Construction Management , Education , Environmental Health , Fine Arts , Library Science , Music , Nursing , Occupational Therapy , Public Administration , Public Health , School AdministrationScience , Social Work and Teaching . It also offers four doctoral degrees in Audiology , Education , Philosophy , and Physical Therapy .

The Brody School of Medicine is a professional school at the university . It consists of seven graduate majors , plus the Doctor of Medicine , all located on the Health Sciences Campus . The first appropriations were approved in 1974 , with the first medical students arriving in 1977 . The medical school is one of five in North Carolina .

The School of Dental Medicine is a professional school at the university . The school graduates one degree , Doctor of Dental Medicine . It will also have two residencies in Advanced Education in General Dentistry and Dental General Practice . The school also will offer a specialty program in Pedodontics . It was founded on February 24 , 2006 at the East Carolina Board of Trustees meeting . The dental school was unanimously approved by the UNC System Board of Governors as well . The facilities are located on the Health Sciences Campus and will house the first three years of education . Dental students will complete their final year at ECU Community Service Learning Centers to be located throughout the state . The School of Dental Medicine is one of two dental schools in the state .

= = Research = =

Randolph Chitwood , a cardiothoracic surgeon with East Carolina , performed the first minimally invasive robotic @-@ assisted mitral @-@ valve heart surgery in the United States . East Carolina researchers also developed an electronic fluency device called SpeechEasy ; the device is designed to improve the fluency of a person who stutters by changing the sound of the user 's voice in his or her ear . Walter Pories , a faculty member at The Brody School of Medicine developed the standard procedure for gastric bypass surgery . Researchers here also first discovered that 80 % of obese / type 2 diabetic patients who underwent this surgical procedure had a reversal of the disease . The Biofeedback Lab is currently developing techniques to help service members recover from posttraumatic stress disorders and traumatic brain injuries they received in Afghanistan and Iraq . The in vitro fertilization program is ranked first in North Carolina and fourth overall in the United States . Jason Bond , a former scientist in the Department of Biology , discovered many new species of spiders , including Myrmekiaphila neilyoungi and Aptostichus stephencolberti .

During an archaeological dig on Hatteras Island in 1998 , archaeologists discovered a 10 @-@ carat gold English signet ring from the 16th century , among other artifacts . The discovered ring was the first material connection between The Lost Colony on Roanoke Island and the Algonquian peoples on Croatan Island . In 2011 , underwater archaeologists raised the anchors of the Queen Anne 's Revenge , the flagship vessel of Blackbeard , near Beaufort .

= = = Libraries = = =

J.Y. Joyner Library is the main library located beside the Mall on the main campus . It holds nearly 1 @.@ 9 million bound volumes , 2 @.@ 1 million pieces of microform , 532 @,@ 000 government documents , and more than 24 @,@ 000 journal subscriptions . The library , which houses the East Carolina manuscript collection , is the largest library east of Raleigh . It is one of the leading repositories in the nation for modern naval and maritime history . It also holds materials related to North Carolina , the tobacco industry , worldwide missionary activities , and American military history . The library is the official repository of the records of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary . The J. Edgar Hoover Collection on International Communism contains many items dealing with communism worldwide . The Rare Book Collections has items dating from 1589 , including a 1733 Edward Moseley map , the first to comprehensively map the colony of North Carolina and the only original copy in the United States .

The Music Library is a branch of Joyner Library located on the first floor of A.J. Fletcher Music Center . It houses approximately 93 @,@ 000 items , including the entire audio recording collection . It is the largest music collection east of Raleigh . The primary users of the library are faculty and students within the School of Music and the School of Theatre and Dance , but anyone can use its resources . It began in 1958 @-@ 59 academic year when a small library was created . Today a staff of five oversee the library duties .

The William E. Laupus Library is the medical and health library for East Carolina . It is the primary library for the Brody School of Medicine , the College of Nursing , the College of Allied Health Sciences , and the School of Dental Medicine . It holds approximately 160 @,@ 000 volumes ( print and non – print ) and 10 @,@ 000 current print , non – print , and electronic serial titles . In 2006 , it moved to the Health Sciences Building on the Health Sciences campus . The library is named for Dr. Laupus , a former Dean of Brody School of Medicine .

= = Student life = =

= = = Greek life = = =

There are ten social sororities at the East Carolina Campus , most of which own a house located at or near 5th or 10th Street . There are currently 17 social fraternities at East Carolina . The majority are located off or near 5th Street or 10th Street . Of the 17 social fraternities , seven currently do own a house . Greek life started in 1958 with the introduction of four social fraternities : Kappa Alpha Order , Lambda Chi Alpha , Pi Kappa Alpha , and Theta Chi . Two years later , eight of the ten social sororities were founded .

National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) has a presence on campus , as well . There are four historically black sororities and five historically black fraternities . There are over 18 honor and 13 service or religious fraternities or sororities at ECU .

= = = Athletics = = =

ECU 's sports teams , nicknamed the Pirates , compete in NCAA Division FBS as a full – member of the American Athletic Conference ( The American ) . The Pirates joined The American on July 1 , 2014 . Jeff Compher is the Athletic Director . The football team is supported by world @-@ class spirit groups , such as the East Carolina University Marching Pirates , National Award winning Cheerleading squads , and spirit teams . Facilities include the 50 @,@ 000 seat Dowdy @-@ Ficklen Stadium for football , the 8 @,@ 000 – seat Williams Arena at Minges Coliseum for men 's and women 's basketball , and Clark @-@ LeClair Stadium , with a seating capacity of 3 @,@ 000 ( max capacity of 6 @,@ 000 + when including outfield " Jungle " areas ) for baseball . The Ward Sports Medicine building comprises 82 @,@ 095 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 600 m2 ) and houses the athletic department , Pirate Club offices and the Human Performance Laboratory . Athletes train in the Murphy Center a 52 @,@ 475 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 875 m2 ) edifice , housing the strength and conditioning facilities , along with banquet rooms , sport memorabilia , and an academic enhancement center . The Murphy Center was built for approximately $ 13 million and opened its doors to ECU student – athletes in June 2002 .

= = = Diversity = = =

The EDC Mini @-@ grant Project @-@ The Office of Equity , Diversity , and Community Relations developed this project to improve East Carolina University 's number of diversity studies , programs , and groups . This project intends to supply resources and funds towards diversity proposals offered by students , campus organizations , faculty , and staff . These programs include monitoring cultural awareness educational seminars , to improve departmental climate , to recruit diverse students , for research for curriculum improvement , among others .

= = Administration = =

There have been six presidents and seven Chancellors in the university 's history . Robert Herring Wright was inaugurated as the first president of ECTTS on November 13 , 1909 . The chief administrator changed names after ECU joined the UNC System in 1972 . The chancellor is chosen by the University of North Carolina Board of Governors on the recommendation of the board 's president , and he reports to the 12 – member Board of Trustees at ECU . Four of the twelve trustees are picked by the Governor of North Carolina , while the other eight are picked by the Board of Governors . The ECU student body president is an ex officio member of the Board of Trustees . The current chancellor , Cecil Pope Staton , Jr . , has held that post since replacing chancellor Steve Ballard on July 1 . 2016

The University of North Carolina Board of Governors are the policy @-@ making body legally charged with " the general determination , control , supervision , management , and governance of all affairs of the constituent institutions . " It has 32 voting members who are elected by the General Assembly for four @-@ year terms .

= = Rankings = =

In 2012 , East Carolina was classified by U.S. News & World Report as a National University in its second @-@ tier rankings . In 2010 , Forbes ranked the school 36th in its America 's Best College Buys story .

In the 2012 edition of U.S. News & World Report , The Brody School of Medicine is ranked 10th in the country for primary care physician preparation , 13th in the rural medicine specialty and 14th in family medicine . In 2010 , Brody was ranked seventh on the social mission scale .

The College of Business is named one of the best business schools according to The Princeton Review for the fifth year in a row . The College of Business is also named by GetEducated.com as the third best buy for affordability and quality in the Online Masters of Business Administration ( AACSB @-@ accredited ) category .

In 2009 , the university was awarded the Patriot Award . The Patriot Award recognizes employers who go above and beyond what the law requires in supporting their employees who serve in the National Guard or reserves . In 2010 , the university was awarded the Secretary of Defense Employer Support Freedom Award . It is the highest recognition given by the U.S. Government to employers for their outstanding support of their employees who serve in the Guard and Reserve .

= = Songs = =

" Hail to Thy Name So Fair " is the alma mater at East Carolina University . It first appeared in the 1940 @-@ 41 East Carolina Teachers College ( ECTC ) Student Handbook . It was written by Harold A. McDougle ( ' 44 ) who became a part @-@ time instructor in the Music Department from 1946 @-@ 47 . The Marching Pirates perform the song during all home football and basketball games . At every home football game , after the National Anthem is played by the band , the Alma Mater is played followed by the E.C. Victory song . At the end of football games , the football team walks to the student section to sing the Alma Mater and E.C. Victory song in unison .

= = Notable alumni = =

Pirate graduates have been influential in teaching , business , and the arts . Actress Emily Procter , Beth Grant , and screenwriter Kevin Williamson , creator of Scream and Dawson 's Creek , graduated from East Carolina . Acclaimed screen actress Sandra Bullock attended , but graduated later after leaving to pursue her acting career . Marcus Crandell ( born June 1 , 1974 , in Charlotte , North Carolina ) is a former quarterback and current coach in professional Canadian football ; he played 11 seasons for the Edmonton Eskimos , Calgary Stampeders and Saskatchewan Roughriders from 1997 to 2008 while also spending time in NFL Europe and the XFL . Crandell was named the Grey Cup Most Valuable Player after the Stampeders won the 89th Grey Cup in 2001 . Class of 1974 Alumnus Rick Atkinson , wrote An Army at Dawn : The War in North Africa , 1942 – 1943 followed by " The Day of Battle , The War in Sicily , 1943 – 1944 " and Dan Neil wrote criticism on automobiles ; both received Pulitzer Prizes . The most notable teaching alumnus is Ron Clark , a teacher , author , and founder of the Ron Clark Academy in Atlanta , Georgia . James Maynard graduated with a degree in psychology and founded the Golden Corral restaurant chain . Kelly King is the current chief executive officer for BB & T and graduated with an undergraduate degree in business accounting and a master 's of business administration . Former Jacksonville Jaguars quarterback David Garrard attended where he majored in Construction Management . Chris Johnson was drafted by the Tennessee Titans in the first round of the 2008 NFL Draft . WWE Chairman and CEO Vincent K. McMahon and his wife Linda McMahon both graduated with a degree in business administration as well . Scott Avett of the folk @-@ rock band The Avett Brothers earned degrees in 1999 and 2000 . Henry " Gizmo " Williams , Canadian Football League inductee , graduated from East Carolina University .

= We Are the World 25 for Haiti =

" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " is a charity single recorded by the supergroup Artists for Haiti in 2010 . It is a remake of the 1985 hit song " We Are the World " , which was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie , and was recorded by USA for Africa to benefit famine relief in Africa . Initially , in late 2009 , it had been suggested to Richie and Quincy Jones — producer of the original " We Are the World " — that a re @-@ cut version of the song be re @-@ released under the title " Live 25 " . Following the magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake in Haiti , which devastated the area and killed thousands of people , it was agreed that the song would be re @-@ recorded by new artists , in the hope that it would reach a new generation and help benefit the people of Haiti .

The song was recorded in fourteen and a half hours by over eighty artists on February 1 , 2010 . It was produced by Quincy Jones , and executively produced by Lionel Richie , and Haitian @-@ American musician Wyclef Jean . A music video directed by Paul Haggis was released to accompany and promote the song . The song was also recorded in Spanish by a Latin supergroup and was named Somos el Mundo . The song was directed by Emilio Estefan and his wife , Gloria Estefan .

" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " is musically structured similar to " We Are the World " , but includes a rap verse which was written by some of the song 's hip hop artists . Michael Jackson died months before the song 's release , but his material from the 1985 recording sessions was incorporated into the song and music video , as per the request of his mother , Katherine . His sister Janet duets with him on the song , and his nephews Taj , TJ , and Taryll — collectively known as 3T — feature on the track 's chorus .

" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " was released on February 12 , 2010 , during the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympics , as a CD single and a music download . Critically , " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " received generally negative reviews by contemporary music reviewers , with criticism focused on the song 's new musical additions , as well as the choice of artists who appear on the track . Some critics have even named it one of the worst songs of all time . However , the song was commercially successful worldwide , charting within the top 20 in multiple countries .

= = Background = =

In 1985 , " We Are the World " , a song and charity single originally recorded by USA for Africa was released . It was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie , and produced by Quincy Jones and Michael Omartian for the album We Are the World . The song was well received by music critics and was the recipient of several awards . The song was a worldwide commercial success , as it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest @-@ selling American pop single in history , as well as the first single to be certified multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . " We Are the World " was the best selling pop single of all time until it was eclipsed by Elton John 's 1997 version of " Candle in the Wind " .

On January 12 , 2010 , Haiti was struck by a magnitude 7 @.@ 0 Mw earthquake . It was the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years and caused widespread damage . The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . It has been estimated that the death toll could reach 200 @,@ 000 . Before the earthquake , Jones and Richie had planned to organize a re @-@ recording of " We Are the World " on January 28 , 2010 — the 25th anniversary of the original recording of the song . Randy Phillips , who was a key figure in the song being re @-@ issued , said that " We Are The World " producer Ken Kragen had suggested to re @-@ cut " We Are the World " and title it " Live 25 " . However , Lionel Richie and Jones were " very lukewarm " about the idea . Phillips commented that ,

" [ They felt ] that what happened 25 years ago was iconic and they did everything they could for Africa at that time , and they didn 't feel re @-@ cutting the song really made any sense . Basically , Lionel didn 't really want to do it , and we kind of let it die by not issuing the publishing license , because Lionel owns the copyright along with Michael Jackson 's estate . That was in November / December [ 2009 ] . They had gotten Visa on board as an underwriter of that effort , and I think they were going to try and premiere it at the World Cup . "

However , because of the devastation caused in Haiti , these plans were postponed . Phillips said that Jones had called Lionel and said , " this is what this song is written for , as a fundraising vehicle for causes , tragedies , catastrophes like this . Why don 't we take over the process , call our friends , and actually do this ? " Lionel understood the urgency of Haiti , and in January 2010 , it was agreed that " We Are the World " would be re @-@ recorded to help benefit Haiti , similar to how the original recording helped famine relief in Africa . Richie commented , " Unfortunately , sometimes it takes a hit record to make someone decide to save a life . I want this song to be the battle cry again . Every once in a while , you have to wake the world up . We slept right through Katrina . If we are not a socially aware culture , we 're going to fail . "

= = Recording = =

The new version of the song was recorded on February 1 , 2010 , in a session lasting 14 hours . Eighty @-@ five musicians were reportedly involved in the song 's recording , which was held in the same place as the original , at Henson Recording Studio on Beverly Boulevard in Los Angeles , California . Also similar to the 1985 process , some of the participating musicians were already in Los Angeles to attend an awards ceremony : the 52nd Grammy Awards . Jones said of the recording session , " It was a big challenge . It takes a serious army and serious emotional architecture . I 've never seen such a diverse group of people , and they came for the right reasons . " The recording process brought together diverse artists , with the oldest being 83 @-@ year @-@ old Tony Bennett and the youngest being 9 @-@ year @-@ old Ethan Bortnick .

The new version features updated lyrics and music , such as a rap segment including LL Cool J , will.i.am , Snoop Dogg & 7 others pertaining to Haiti , described as a " Greek chorus extension " , which was written by will.i.am. Other writers included Kanye West , Jones and LL Cool J. Lionel Richie and Jones revealed that Michael Jackson 's sister Janet duets with her late brother , as per a request from their mother , Katherine . In the official video , there is archive footage of Michael Jackson from the original 1985 recording . Richie said that he agreed with Katherine 's request , commenting , " It made me feel more secure about this . We definitely felt a void . He 's the other parent [ to the song ] . " The production team for the song included Humberto Gatica , RedOne , Mervyn Warren , Patti Austin and Rickey Minor . RedOne said that it took a week to create the new arrangement for " We Are The World 25 For Haiti " . He commented that he wanted to keep the " class of the original one " and did not want to " mess it up , because it 's too good . " He noted that he wanted to make the song " sound more now and current " while keeping the originals " whole chord progressions , the feeling and the vibe , but brought fresher sounds that are more now . "

Haitian @-@ American musician Wyclef Jean also serves as a producer . In addition , Wyclef Jean sings the first line of the second chorus in Haitian Creole . Richie said new artists were selected for the song so the song could be aimed at a new audience , commenting , " We have a familiar song that kids learn in school . Why not bring in Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers and let them address the issues ? " adding that " It was designed so that we wouldn 't have any of the originals there , so that we could pass on the baton to the next generation " . Phillips said that the producers received 80 percent of the people they wanted as recording artists for the song . In addition to Jean , Haitian actor Jimmy Jean @-@ Louis , most famous for playing The Haitian on Heroes , appears in the chorus .

At the time of the recording , numerous artists commented on the process , the 1985 version of the song and co @-@ writer Michael Jackson . R & B singer Jordin Sparks revealed that , despite having been born after the release of the original , the song had a " huge impact " on her . Celine Dion said that the release of the song would not only benefit the Haitian people , but also serve as a remembrance of " the passion [ Michael ] Jackson had for helping those in need " . Lionel Richie and Quincy Jones echoed Dion 's sentiments and further stated that if the singer were alive , he would have wanted to be just as involved as he had been a quarter of a century ago . According to Phillips , there was a " handful " of musicians who either declined or could not rearrange their schedules for the song 's recording , including country singer Taylor Swift , who was going to be touring in Australia .

= = Artists for Haiti = =

Conductors

Quincy Jones

Lionel Richie

Mervyn Warren

Soloists ( in order of appearance )

Chorus

= = Release , promotion , proceeds = =

The 2010 version of " We Are the World " , released under the name Artists for Haiti , debuted on the NBC television network on February 12 during their coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony . When the song premiered in its paid time spot , the video was edited in length , due in part to the time spent introducing the song . However , the full @-@ length music video was shown on NBC the following day during daytime Olympic coverage .

Similar to marketing of " We Are the World " , a music video of the song was filmed and released . The music video was directed by Academy Award @-@ winning film director Paul Haggis . Haggis said that he finished the video 12 hours early . Haitian film students were involved in the video as part of the production crew . The official video for the song was formatted similar to the original ; the video opens with the song 's title with the recording artists ' signatures surrounding it , as well as clips of the artists performing their parts in the recording studio and included archive footage of Michael Jackson performing his part of the song . The video was intercut with clips showing people in Haiti following the earthquake .

= = Critical reviews and responses = =

" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " received extremely negative reviews from contemporary music critics . The song was criticized for its use of Auto @-@ Tune , the choice of recording artists , and for the song 's rap . Chris Richards , a writer for The Washington Post , described the song as being " horribly oversung " . Richards commented that the most " disappointing " thing about the song was that " there were too few voices from the country , rock and Latin music communities . " He also noted that " nobody can argue with its worthy cause " because of the song 's proceeds to relief in Haiti , but remarked that the song did not have " We Are the World " ' s " original thrill " due to the song 's " panoply of voices " . Jon Pareles , a writer for The New York Times , remarked that while the song 's " Hollywood gloss " was " durable " , the song has " all the pitfalls of a Hollywood remake " . Parales commented that the quality of the song and performance " rises or falls on its talent pool " and criticized the choice of male musicians compared to " We Are the World " ' s original male artists .

US Magazine mentioned that " this version features second @-@ by @-@ second unexplainable absurdities , including Justin Bieber being given the opening verse , Nicole Scherzinger and other Z @-@ listers assigned more than one prime slot , and Wyclef Jean 's incomprehensible yodeling " . Maura Johnston , a writer for MTV , wrote more positively about the song , commenting favorably on the contemporary artists ' performances in living up to their predecessors . " Despite the different faces , the overall feel is similar to the original 's , " Johnston wrote . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson , a writer for Entertainment Weekly , gave the song a mixed review , noting that We Are the World 25 for Haiti was not as good as the original : " All in all , I can ’ t say this new ' We Are the World ' measured up to the 1985 version . "

Eight days after the Artists for Haiti 2010 celebrity remake was released , a " video response " to the song 's official YouTube video was posted by Internet personality and singer @-@ songwriter Lisa Lavie , and was " favorited " on the YouTube channel of the We Are The World Foundation . Lavie 's " We Are the World 25 for Haiti ( YouTube Edition ) " excluded the rap segment and minimized the Auto @-@ tune that were the subject of critical reviews of the celebrity version . Lavie 's video , an Internet collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world , received positive reception from media , including CNN ( " certainly is a sign of the times " ) and ABC World News with Diane Sawyer ( " Persons of the Week " ... " in effect saying , We are the world , too ... who proved that anthem is not just for glittering names . " ) Both videos link to the We Are the World Foundation for donations .

Rolling Stone said its readers " mostly agreed " with the assessment of a February 27 , 2010 Saturday Night Live parody : " Recently , the music world came together to record ' We Are the World 2 , ' a song to raise awareness of the Haiti earthquake disaster ; sadly , the song itself was a disaster , " with several impersonators dubbing the parody " We Are the World 3 : Raising Awareness of the ' We Are the World 2 ' Disaster . "

= = Chart performance = =

" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " debuted within the top 30 in multiple territories . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted at number 27 on the Spanish Singles Chart on the charts issue date February 14 , 2010 . The song debuted at number 17 in New Zealand on the charts issue date of February 15 , 2010 . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " peaked within the top five , charting at number three in Norway on the charts issue date of February 16 , 2010 ; the chart 's position is currently the song 's highest charting international territory since its release . The song debuted at number 25 in France on the issue date of February 13 .

" We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , behind Kesha 's " Tik Tok " . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " charted higher in its debut week than the original version , which entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 21 . According to Billboard , the song 's charting position stemmed mainly from download sales , with a reported 96 % of the song 's charting being from such sales . Following the song 's debut during the Olympics , 246 radio stations sampled the song in the United States . Radio stations in New York expressed that they would play the song frequently to raise awareness of Haitian citizens in need . Other radio stations throughout the United States echoed similar responses on the song getting airplay .

The song also sold over 267 @,@ 000 downloads in three days . " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " debuted at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 dated for February 27 . The song also debuted at number six in Belgium Wallonia and Flanders , as well at debuting at number 17 in Sweden . The song also charted at number 28 in Denmark . The song entered Irish charts at number nine . In the song 's second week of release in Norway , " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " moved up two spaces , topping the chart . Unlike the song 's chart performance in territories like Norway , the song dropped four places on the Billboard Hot 100 to sixth place and stayed in the charts for only five weeks more .

= = Charts = =

= = = Weekly = = =

= = = Year @-@ end = = =

= = Track listings = =

Short version " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " - 3 : 25

Long version " We Are the World 25 for Haiti " - 6 : 57

= Gethsemane ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Gethsemane " is the twenty @-@ fourth and final episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 18 , 1997 . It was directed by R.W. Goodwin , and written by series creator Chris Carter . " Gethsemane " featured guest appearances by Charles Cioffi , Sheila Larken and Pat Skipper , and introduced John Finn as recurring character Michael Kritschgau . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Gethsemane " earned a Nielsen household rating of 13 @.@ 2 , being watched by 19 @.@ 85 million people in its initial broadcast .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder is shown evidence of alien life which may actually be part of a huge government hoax designed to deflect attention from secret military programs . Meanwhile , Scully struggles with her cancer in the face of hostility from her brother , who believes she should no longer be working .

" Gethsemane " was filmed on one of the series ' most elaborate and costly sets , replicating an icy mountaintop inside a refrigerated building using real snow and ice . Shooting for exterior scenes took place on Vancouver 's Mount Seymour , occurring just a week before Duchovny 's wedding . The episode , which has been described by Carter as pondering " the existence of God " , has received mixed responses from critics , with its cliffhanger ending frequently being cited as its main failing .

= = Plot = =

The episode opens in medias res to police investigating a dead body in the apartment of FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) confirms the unseen body 's identity and leaves . She subsequently appears before an FBI panel led by Section Chief Scott Blevins ( Charles Cioffi ) , reviewing her work with Mulder on the X @-@ Files .

In Canada 's St. Elias Mountains , a frozen extraterrestrial body is discovered by an expedition team . Professor Arlinsky , the team 's leader , sends ice core samples containing presumably alien DNA to Mulder . Scully has the samples tested and confirms the DNA 's non @-@ terrestrial origin , but is attacked by a man who steals the samples . Scully learns that her attacker is Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) , a Defense Department employee . When she tracks down Kritschgau and holds him at gunpoint , he reveals that he might be killed .

Meanwhile , Mulder and Arlinsky return to the mountains , but finds that most of the expedition members have been shot dead . The sole survivor is a man named Babcock , who reveals that he has saved the alien corpse from theft by burying it . Together , the three men bring the corpse to the United States . There , Mulder and Arlinsky perform an autopsy on the corpse , believing it belongs to a genuine extraterrestrial . After Mulder leaves to meet with Scully , a mysterious assassin , Scott Ostelhoff , arrives and kills Arlinsky .

Scully introduces Mulder to Kritschgau , who claims that everything Mulder thinks he knows about aliens is a lie . He tells him that his sister 's abduction was fabricated , that all evidence of alien biology are merely scientific anomalies , and that the alien body he has just examined was fake . Kritschgau claims that the entire alien mythos is a hoax perpetrated by the U.S. government as a cover for the activities of the military – industrial complex . Mulder dismisses these claims until Scully tells him Kritschgau told her that she was given cancer to make him believe .

Mulder finds Arlinsky and Babcock dead , with the alien body missing . Mulder , distraught , sits in his apartment watching a conference about extraterrestrial life on television . The narrative returns to the present , where Scully reveals to the panel that Mulder died the previous night of an apparent self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound to the head .

= = Production = =

The icy caverns featured in the episode were constructed inside a warehouse which had previously been used for cold storage ; and required the use of truckloads of lumber and 10 @,@ 000 square feet ( 930 m2 ) of Styrofoam . The set would become one of the most expensive and elaborate built during the series ' history . The set required a constant temperature of − 21 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) in order to maintain the real snow and ice used to decorate it . This refrigeration allowed the actors ' breath to visibly fog up , and allowed the cast to " have a place that feels real " to aid their acting .

The outdoor scenes were filmed around Vancouver 's Mount Seymour , with weather conditions making shooting difficult enough to require an extra day of work . The episode 's production took place just a week before David Duchovny 's wedding , with his fiancée Téa Leoni visiting the set during filming . The first cut of the episode was twelve minutes too long , resulting in some of the scenes in the mountains being removed . Series creator Chris Carter re @-@ edited the entire episode two days before it aired .

Carter has described " Gethsemane " as a " big ideas episode " , noting that its main concern is debating " the existence of God " . The title of the episode is an allusion to the biblical garden of Gethsemane where Jesus was betrayed by Judas Iscariot . The character Michael Kritschgau was named after a former drama teacher of Gillian Anderson . The tagline for this episode is " Believe the lie " , changed from the usual " The truth is out there " . This episode marks the first appearance of one of Scully 's brothers since a flashback in the season two episode " One Breath " . Section Chief Scott Blevins makes his first appearance since the fourth episode of the first season , " Conduit " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Gethsemane " premiered on the Fox network on May 18 , 1997 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky One on July 13th 1997 and on free to air BBC One on March 4 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 7 with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 19 @.@ 85 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Gethsemane " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Lon Grahnke of Chicago Sun @-@ Times reacted positively toward the episode , calling it a " stunning " season finale . Paula Vitaris , writing for Cinefantastique , rated " Gethsemane " two stars out of four , noting that it " withholds so much information that it barely qualifies as a complete episode " . Vitaris felt that the large degree of ambiguity in the episode 's script left the actors ' performances " curiously neutral " , adding that the cast " struggle manfully " with the material . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode a B + , noting that " everything here has a ring of familiarity to it " . Handlen felt that the episode 's premise and ending were poorly executed , as " trying to balance possible truths while maintaining the plausibility of both is incredibly difficult to pull off on a long @-@ running show " , adding that the episode " comes down on the only side of the fence it really could " given that " there 've been too many scenes of shape @-@ changing bounty hunters and mystical alien healers to really let this idea play out know [ sic ] in any real way " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , noting that while it " attempts to do too much " , it " has a passion behind it which makes it gripping " . Shearman and Pearson felt that the episode 's cliffhanger ending , centering on the apparent death of Mulder , was too unbelievable , noting that it would be out of character for him to grow so disillusioned as to take his own life . In the 1999 FX Thanksgiving Marathon , containing fan @-@ selected episodes , " Gethsemane " ( along with " Redux " and " Redux II " ) was presented as the " Best Mythology Episode " .

The episode created speculation about whether or not Mulder was actually dead . An article in the Wall Street Journal discussed fan theories behind Mulder 's madness while a cartoon ran in The New Yorker a few weeks later surrounding Mulder 's " death " . Series creator Chris Carter noted that " the whole plot line of ' Gethsemane ' revolved around a hoax , but there are actually huge revelations in this show . And it 's an amazing thing that we could get people to believe that Mulder could actually kill himself because his belief system was stolen from him " . UGO Networks listed the episode at number 21 in a countdown of " TV 's Best Season Finales " , noting that it " rocked the core of the series ' entire mythology " . Den of Geek 's John Moore felt that the episode was " one of the finest season @-@ enders " of the series , noting that it " ended by completely pulling the carpet out from under the fans " . Moore listed the character of Michael Kritschgau as the seventh @-@ best villain of the series , adding that he shook " what we knew about the show to its core " by " provid [ ing ] nourishment to a seed of doubt that had been playing on Mulder 's mind for the entire season " .

= Cultura Profética =

Cultura Profética ( in English , Prophetic Culture ) is a Puerto Rican reggae band formed in 1996 . The band has undergone several lineup changes , but founding members Willy Rodríguez ( bass guitar , vocals ) , Boris Bilbraut ( drums , vocals ) , Eliut González ( guitar ) , and Omar Silva ( guitar , bass guitar ) have remained in the group throughout its history . Despite primarily performing reggae music , Cultura Profética has experimented with genres such as bossa nova , tango , jazz , and salsa . Lyrically , the group discusses socio @-@ political and ecological issues including Latin American identity and environmental concerns , as well as interpersonal relationships and love .

After gaining popularity in Puerto Rico as a cover band , Cultura Profética began performing original music and released its debut album , Canción de Alerta , in 1998 . The group followed up with Ideas Nuevas in 2000 , which featured further musical experimentation with a wider variety of musical styles , and then Diario in 2004 . After relocating to Mexico , the band released M.O.T.A. in 2005 , which peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot Latin Albums chart . In 2010 , La Dulzura was released , which took a more romantic lyrical focus and produced the radio hit " La Complicidad " . Cultura Profética released its most recent single , " Saca , Prende y Sorprende " in 2014 , and is reported to be working on a new album .

= = History = =

= = = 1996 – 99 : Formation and Canción de Alerta = = =

Cultura Profética originally began as a cover band , performing popular reggae songs in small bars and clubs before beginning to perform original music in Spanish . Shortly after transitioning to perform original music , the group adopted the name Cultura Profética , which was inspired by the view that " music is a voice of culture and is prophetic because the reggae music that we love , and that influenced us , is from the ’ 70s with themes of what 's happening now that can affect our future " , according to guitarist / bassist Omar Silva .

Many of the original members of the group attended the Escuela Elemental and the Escuela Secundaria of the University of Puerto Rico , an institution noted for its progressive and experimental teaching approaches . Vocalist / bassist Willy Rodriguez commented , " It is a school in which you are allowed to decide a few things on your own , you have free time between classes [ when ] you can do your own things , and there is a lot of musical culture in the school . It tends to allow you to explore your artistic interests ... There was always an air of liberation , of thinking on your own . I think that influenced a lot in what we do today musically and ideologically . " Group members Boris Bilbraut , Willy Rodríguez , Eliut González , Juan Costa , and Ivan Gutiérres began jamming together in 1996 , bonding over a shared interest in reggae music , particularly Bob Marley . These rehearsal sessions took place in El Hoyo , a neighborhood in the San Juan metropolitan area .

After transitioning away from being a cover band , the group quickly gained popularity in the Puerto Rican reggae scene . Cultura Profética began performing in major reggae festivals and opening for Jamaican reggae musician Don Carlos . The band 's first album , Canción de Alerta ( 1998 ) , was recorded in the Tuff Gong studios at Jamaica with Errol Brown , frontman of Hot Chocolate and Bob Marley 's sound engineer . The group was the first Spanish @-@ language act to record in Marley 's studios . The record discusses a number of social issues in Puerto Rico , including the importance of acknowledging the island 's African influence .

= = = 1998 – 2009 : Ideas Nuevas , Diario , and M.O.T.A. = = =

The group returned to Tuff Gong studios in 1999 to record its second album , Ideas Nuevas , which was released in May 2000 . On this record , the band began experimenting with a variety of rhythms such as bossa nova , salsa , ska , and jazz . The album was dedicated to a music instructor at the University of Puerto Rico . The band performed in Tito Puente 's amphitheater on May 12 , 2000 , later releasing a recording of the performance in the form of the live album Cultura en Vivo . In 2002 , the band released its third studio album , Diario . On this album , the band aimed to produce a record that represents Puerto Rican daily life , occasionally introducing songs with interludes of casual conversations and background noise , exemplified by songs such as " De Antes " and " Pa 'l Tanama " .

In 2004 , Cultura Profetica began to focus on the international stage , eventually moving temporarily to Mexico . Their fourth studio album , M.O.T.A. , was released in October 2005 after a tour through Mexico . M.O.T.A peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot Latin Albums chart , remaining at the position for two weeks . Also in 2005 , the group collaborated with Puerto Rican rapper Vico C on his song " Te Me Puedo Escapar " from his album Desahogo . In January 2006 , the song " Ritmo Que Pesa " from M.O.T.A peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart . In 2007 , the group released Tribute to the Legend : Bob Marley , a live recording of the group performing Bob Marley songs . After the release of the tribute album , Cultura Profética toured extensively through Latin America and expanded its fan base , particularly in Argentina . A DVD covering their performance at Jose Miguel Agrelot Coliseum was released in late summer of 2008 .

= = = 2010 – present : La Dulzura and upcoming album = = =

In 2010 , Cultura Profética released La Dulzura , the group 's first album on its own record label , La Mafafa . While discussing the decision to create an independent record label , Rodríguez explained " I can 't deny we spoke with different labels , but we didn 't find anything favorable . Labels are going through tough times and we decided to brave it on our own . " Many of the songs on the album were written and performed during the band 's extensive touring beginning in 2007 , and the songs went through numerous transformations during this time . Before the album 's official release , the band posted songs on the internet , including " La Complicidad " , which became a radio hit in Puerto Rico . La Dulzura debuted at number five on Billboard 's Top Latin Albums Chart .

La Dulzura represented a stylistic departure for the group , both musically and lyrically . The song " Del Tope al Fondo " is influenced by Argentine music , especially the genre of tango . Lyrically , the band discusses more romantic themes as opposed to the political emphasis of the group 's previous records . Guitarist Eliut Gonzalez remarked that the band aimed to shift discussion to " the good things in the world " , explaining that " We know that people need help , and that behind every revolution or movement , there is love . We wanted to document that in our music , but without doing it in a cheesy or typical way . " The singles " Baja la Tensión " , " La Complicidad " , " Para Estar " and " Ilegal " all charted on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart . In 2011 , the group collaborated with Dominican musician Vicente García on his single " Mi Balcón " .

The group 's most recent single , " Saca , Prende y Sorprende " , released in 2014 , pays homage to Jamaican deejay and rapper Super Cat and advocates for the legalization of marijuana . Gonzalez describes the band 's upcoming record as " very different " from La Dulzura , noting that the group began working on new material while on tour approximately a year after the album 's release .

= = Style and lyrical themes = =

Cultura Profética has been described as roots reggae . The group has often made use of the moog synthesizer , an instrument commonly used in traditional reggae but is generally rare in contemporary reggae . Despite primarily performing reggae music , the group incorporates various other rhythms into its compositions , including those of Caribbean genres such as salsa . The song " Reggae Rústico " from Ideas Nuevas includes an extended soneo , an improvised call @-@ and @-@ response section common in the salsa genre , at its closing , calling for unity in reggae music . Additionally , the band 's music features a strong emphasis on improvisation and polyrhythmic patterns . Rodríguez notes that " We 've developed what I think is our own genre . We don 't consider ourselves a pop act but we do make popular music in the sense that we are supported by many people . People have finally understood what we do . " Leila Cobo of Billboard observed elements of jazz in the single " La Complicidad , " additionally describing it as " more mellow rock than reggae . "

Lyrically , the group addresses social issues including corruption , environmentalism , personal liberty , and Latin American identity . Canción de Alerta contains the song " Por qué cantamos , " an adaptation of Uruguayan writer Mario Benedetti 's poem of the same name . Author Eunice Rojas cites this as an example of the group using " the power of music to advance social causes . " The song " Suelta Los Amarres " from Ideas Nuevas discourages listeners from using violence to advance a political cause . However , the lyrics on La Dulzura place more emphasis on interpersonal relationships and love . Silva notes that the group refrains from writing " romantic " lyrics , noting that " romanticism has a connotation of suffering for love . We are talking about the love that elevates and purifies your soul . We are talking in the sense of the love that sets you free . "

= = Discography = =

= = = Studio albums = = =

Canción de Alerta ( 1998 )

Ideas Nuevas ( 1999 )

Diario ( 2002 )

M.O.T.A. ( 2005 )

La Dulzura ( 2010 )

= = Band members = =

= = = Current members = = =

Willy Rodríguez — Bass Guitar , Vocals

Boris Bilbraut — Drums , Vocals

Omar Silva — Guitar , Bass Guitar

Juanqui Sulsona — Piano , Keyboards

Eliut González — Guitar

Eggie Santiago — Organ , Keyboards

Ernesto Rodriguez — Percussion

Patricia Lewis — Vocals

Adrianna Betancourt — Vocals

Victor Vazquez — Trombone

Kalani Trinidad — Flute & Saxophone

Jahaziel Garcia — Trumpet

= = = Former members = = =

Iván Gutiérrez — piano , brass arrangements

Sergio Orellana — keyboards , organ

Melvin Villanueva — piano

Juan Costa — rhythm guitar

Raúl Gaztambide — organ

Eduardo Fernández — trombone

Javier Joglar — tenor saxophone , flute

Luis Rafael Torres — tenor saxophone , alto saxophone , flute

Juan José " Cheo " Quiñones — trumpet

María Soledad Gaztambide — vocals

Yarimir Cabán , better known professionally as Mima — vocals

Eduardo " Edo " Sanz — drums , percussion

Omar Cruz — percussion

Beto Torrens , Juansi — percussion

Bayrex Jimenez — piano , keyboards

= Bridgewater Canal =

The Bridgewater Canal connects Runcorn , Manchester and Leigh , in North West England . It was commissioned by Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , to transport coal from his mines in Worsley to Manchester . It was opened in 1761 from Worsley to Manchester , and later extended from Manchester to Runcorn , and then from Worsley to Leigh .

The canal is connected to the Manchester Ship Canal via a lock at Cornbrook ; to the Rochdale Canal in Manchester ; to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook , southeast of Runcorn ; and to the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Leigh . It once connected with the River Mersey at Runcorn but has since been cut off by a slip road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge .

Often considered to be the first " true " canal in England , it required the construction of an aqueduct to cross the River Irwell , one of the first of its kind . Its success helped inspire a period of intense canal building in Britain , known as " canal mania " . It later faced intense competition from the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the Macclesfield Canal . Navigable throughout its history , it is one of the few canals in Britain not to have been nationalised , and remains privately owned . Pleasure craft now use the canal which forms part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals .

= = Design and construction = =

Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , owned some of the coal mines dug to supply north west England with fuel for the steam engines instrumental in powering England 's industrial revolution . The duke transported his coal along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and also by packhorse , but each method was inefficient and expensive ; river transport was subject to the vagaries of river navigation , and the amount of coal packhorses could carry was limited by its relative weight . The duke 's underground mines also suffered from persistent flooding , caused by the geology of the Middle Coal Measures , where the coal seam lies beneath a layer of permeable sandstone .

Having visited the Canal du Midi in France and watched the construction of the Sankey Canal in England , the duke 's solution to these problems was to build an underground canal at Worsley , connected to a surface canal between Worsley and Salford . In addition to easing overland transport difficulties and providing drainage for his mines , an underground canal would provide a reliable source of water for the surface canal , and also eliminate the need to lift the coal to the surface ( an expensive and difficult proposition ) . The canal boats would carry 30 long tons ( 30 t ) at a time , pulled by only one horse – more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart . The duke and his estate manager John Gilbert produced a plan of the canal , and in 1759 obtained an Act of Parliament , enabling its construction .

James Brindley was brought in for his technical expertise ( having previously installed a pumping system at the nearby Wet Earth Colliery ) , and after a six @-@ day visit suggested varying the route of the proposed canal away from Salford , instead taking it across the River Irwell to Stretford and thereon into Manchester . This route would make connecting to any future canals much easier , and would also increase competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation company . Brindley moved into Worsley Old Hall and spent 46 days surveying the proposed route , which to cross the Irwell would require the construction of an aqueduct at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell . At the duke 's behest , in January 1760 Brindley also travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee . The duke therefore gained a second Act of Parliament , which superseded the original .

Brindley 's planned route began at Worsley and passed southeast through Eccles , before turning south to cross the River Irwell on the Barton Aqueduct . From there it continued southeast along the edge of Trafford Park , and then east into Manchester . Although a connection with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation was included in the new Act , at Hulme Locks in Castlefield ( on land previously occupied by Hulme Hall ) , this was not completed until 1838 . The terminus would be at Castlefield Basin , where the nearby River Medlock was to help supply the canal with water . Boats would unload their cargoes inside the duke 's purpose @-@ built warehouse . There were no locks in Brindley 's design , demonstrating his ability as a competent engineer . The Barton Aqueduct was built relatively quickly for the time ; work commenced in September 1760 and the first boat crossed on 17 July 1761 .

The duke invested a large sum of money in the scheme . From Worsley to Manchester its construction cost £ 168 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 23 @,@ 348 @,@ 370 in 2015 ) , but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761 , the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half . This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building , known as Canal Mania . Along with its stone aqueduct at Barton @-@ upon @-@ Irwell , the Bridgewater Canal was considered a major engineering achievement . One commentator wrote that when finished , " [ the canal ] will be the most extraordinary thing in the Kingdom , if not in Europe . The boats in some places are to go underground , and in other places over a navigable river , without communicating with its waters " .

In addition to the duke 's warehouse at Manchester , more buildings were built by Brindley and extended to Alport Street ( now called Deansgate ) . The warehouses were of timber @-@ frame design , with load @-@ bearing hand @-@ made brick walls , supported on cast iron posts . The duke 's warehouse was badly damaged by fire in 1789 but was rebuilt .

= = = Manchester to Runcorn extension = = =

In September 1761 , with his assistant Hugh Oldham , Brindley surveyed an extension from Longford Bridge to Hempstones , near Halton , Cheshire . He assisted in obtaining Parliamentary approval for the Bridgewater Canal Extension Act of 1762 which allowed the construction of an extension to the canal , from Manchester , to the River Mersey at Runcorn . Despite objections from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company , Royal assent was given on 24 March 1762 . A junction , Waters Meeting , was created in Trafford Park , at which the new extension branched south through Stretford , Sale , Altrincham , Lymm and finally to Runcorn .

In December 1761 Brindley undertook a survey of the route at Runcorn . His initial plan was to make the terminus at Hempstones , east of Runcorn Gap , but following a study of the tides and depth of water there , he decided instead to build the terminus west of Runcorn Gap . This change was designed to accommodate Mersey flats , although the low fixed bridges required that traffic on the canal be able to lower or unship their masts . Runcorn basin was almost 90 feet ( 27 m ) above the Mersey , so a flight of ten locks , described as " the wonder of their time " , was built to connect the two . Nine locks had a fall of 2 metres ( 7 ft ) , with a fall at the river lock of more than 6 metres ( 20 ft ) at low water . It allowed vessels to enter and leave the canal on any tide . The connection to the Mersey was made on 1 January 1773 . The river 's tidal action tended to deposit silt around the lower entrance to the locks , so to counteract this a channel , equipped with gates at each end and known as the Duke 's Gut , was cut through the marshes upriver from the locks . At high tide the gates were closed , and with the ebb of the tide were opened to release water , which scoured the silt from the entrance to the locks . The cut created an island , known as Runcorn Island , crossed by Castle Bridge .

The connection to Manchester was delayed by Sir Richard Brooke of Norton Priory . Concerned that boatmen might poach his game and wildfowl , Brooke did not want the canal to pass through his land . The Act included several stipulations : the canal should not come within 325 metres ( 1 @,@ 066 ft ) of his house ; the towpath should be on the south side of the canal , furthest away from Brooke 's house ; there should be no quays , buildings , hedges or fences to obstruct the view ; no vessels were to be moored within 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) of the house , other than during construction . Eventually , though , a compromise was reached . This included the construction of a link to the Trent and Mersey Canal at Preston Brook ( permitted by the Trent and Mersey Canal Act of 1766 ) , and the building of the canal 's terminus to the west of Runcorn Gap . The Trent and Mersey link gave the Duke access to the Midlands , and forestalled the Weaver Trustees from making their own junction with the canal . The new extension also met with opposition from the Mersey and Irwell Navigation , until the duke purchased a controlling interest in the company . The first part of the new extension was opened in 1767 , and completed in full by March 1776 , but Brindley did not live to see its completion ; it was continued by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Hugh Henshall .

The total cost of the canal , from Worsley to Manchester and from Longford Bridge to the Mersey at Runcorn , was £ 220 @,@ 000 . Alongside the Mersey , the duke built Runcorn Dock , several warehouses , and Bridgewater House , a temporary home from which he could supervise operations at the Runcorn end . Two locks up from the tideway was a small dry dock .

= = = Sale to Stockport branch = = =

In 1766 the Duke gained a fourth act of parliament for a branch canal between Sale Moor and Stockport which was to follow the valley of the Mersey . The Act was applied for to counter a proposed canal that would give the towns of Stockport and Macclesfield access to the Mersey , via the River Weaver . The work was not done , the Act lapsed and this section of canal was never built .

Over two decades later , the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal had sought a connection to other waterways , and it appears that the Duke had planned to limit the activities of the new company . On 15 December 1792 the Duke purchased a portion of the Ringspiggot estate in Salford which blocked the MB & BC 's plans to build a riverside basin and wharfs there .

= = = Worsley to Leigh extension = = =

In 1795 the duke secured a fifth Act which enabled him to extend the canal a further 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Worsley via Boothstown , Astley Green and Bedford to Leigh . The new extension enabled the supply to Manchester of coal from Leigh and the surrounding districts . On 21 June 1819 an Act of Parliament was enacted to create a link between this extension and the Wigan branch of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal .

Access to the canal brought about a rapid development in coal mining on the Manchester Coalfield west of Worsley . Chaddock pits in the east of Tyldesley were connected to an underground level from Worsley . In 1820 , to ease congestion at the Delph in Worsley , Chaddock Pit was connected to the canal at Boothstown basin by an underground canal , the Chaddock Level which ran in a north west direction from the canal at Boothstown to the pit . Sometime after 1840 Samuel Jackson built a narrow gauge tramroad worked by horses from his Gin Pit Colliery to Marsland Green where he installed cranes and tipplers to load barges at a wharf . The tramroad was later worked by locomotives . In 1867 the Fletchers built a private railway line and the Bedford Basin with facilities for loading coal from Howe Bridge onto barges . Astley Green Colliery began winding coal on the north bank of the canal in 1912 . In the 1940s and 50s coal was sent to Barton Power Station and Runcorn Gas Works .

= = = Connection to Rochdale Canal = = =

Upon completion of the Rochdale Canal in 1804 , the two canals were joined at Castlefield . This connection may have been a factor in the failure of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal Company 's rival scheme to build a canal between Bury and Sladen . The River Medlock , a major source of water for the canal and which was almost as badly polluted as the nearby Irwell , was diverted through a tunnel under the canal at Castlefield by Charles Edward Cawley , a civil engineer for the Salford Corporation and later MP for Salford . The canal was from that point supplied by the much purer water of the Rochdale Canal .

= = = Mines = = =

Worsley Delph , in Worsley , originally a centuries @-@ old sandstone quarry near Worsley Brook , was the entrance to the Navigable Levels . It is now a Scheduled Monument . Two entrances , built years apart , allow access to the specially built M @-@ boats ( also known as Starvationers ) , the largest of which could carry 12 long tons ( 12 t ) of coal . Inside the mines 46 miles ( 74 km ) of underground canal on four levels , linked by inclined planes , were constructed . The mines ceased production in 1887 . As the canal passes through Worsley , iron oxide from the mines has , for many years , stained the water bright orange . The removal of this colouration is currently the subject of a £ 2 @.@ 5 million remedial scheme .

= = = Traffic = = =

In 1791 the mines at Worsley produced 100 @,@ 282 long tons ( 101 @,@ 891 t ) of coal , 60 @,@ 461 long tons ( 61 @,@ 431 t ) of which were " sold down the navigation " ; 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) of rocksalt was also transported from Cheshire . Sales of coal were £ 19 @,@ 455 , and nearly £ 30 @,@ 000 was earned from other cargoes . Passenger traffic in 1791 brought in receipts of £ 3 @,@ 781 .

The canal also carried passengers and was in keen competition with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company ( M & IN ) . The journey down river by the latter route took eight hours ( nine hours in the up direction ) while the journey on the Bridgewater canal took nine hours each way . Fares were similar but the Bridgewater route was said to be " more picturesque " . Boating men also used the canal . They lifted their small lightweight boats out of the M & IN at Runcorn , and carried them a short distance up the steep streets onto the Bridgewater Canal .

Barges on the canal continued to be towed by horses until the middle of the 19th century , when they were replaced by steam @-@ powered boats after a fatal epidemic spread through the horse population . The " dense smoke " produced by the steam barges and their " harsh unnecessary whistling " proved unpopular with some local residents , who also began to suffer from a condition known as canal throat , " no doubt caused by the foul emanations given off by its [ the Bridgewater Canal 's ] horribly filthy water " .

The canal carried commercial freight traffic until 1975 ; the last regular cargo was grain from Liverpool to Manchester for BOCM . It is now used mainly by pleasure craft and hosts two rowing clubs – Trafford Rowing Club and Manchester University Boat Club .

= = Bridgewater Trustees = =

The Duke of Bridgewater died on 8 March 1803 . By his will the income from the canal was to be paid to his nephew George Leveson @-@ Gower , the Marquess of Stafford ( later the 1st Duke of Sutherland ) . On his death it was to go to Stafford 's second son Francis , provided he changed his name to Egerton ; and then to his heirs and successors . The management of the company was placed in the hands of three trustees . These were Sir Archibald Macdonald , who was Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer , Edward Venables @-@ Vernon @-@ Harcourt , at the time the Bishop of Carlisle and later the Archbishop of York , and , as Superintendent , Robert Haldane Bradshaw , the Duke 's agent . Bradshaw managed the estate , for which he received a salary of £ 2 @,@ 000 a year and the use of the duke 's mansions at Worsley and Runcorn . The other two trustees had each married nieces of the duke and were " dummy trustees " .

During the time the canal was administered by the Bridgewater Trustees , it made a profit every year . Until his retirement in 1834 , the administration was carried out entirely by Bradshaw . It has been calculated that the average annual profit between 1806 and 1826 was of the order of 13 per cent , and in 1824 , the best year , it was 23 per cent . Bradshaw found it difficult to delegate , and complained of being over @-@ worked , but he was also regarded as being a " formidable bargainer " . In 1805 he was approached by the proprietors of the nearby Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal to resolve a dispute with a Salford landowner , but his response was delayed . In 1810 there was a general agreement with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company ( M & IN ) to simultaneously raise freight charges . However any cooperation between the two companies was short @-@ lived and by 1812 the Mersey and Irwell had reduced their charges . Further competition was to come from other carriers who used the canal ; in 1824 the traffic carried by private companies exceeded that carried by the Trustees for the first time . However , in time more profit came from " tonnage traffic " ( that carried by private companies ) than from the Bridgewater 's own carriage of freight . Bradshaw 's administration saw increased deterioration of the fabric of the canal , the locks , docks and warehouses . The undertakings were starved of capital largely owing to inadequate provision for it in the duke 's will . There were also problems caused by silting around the entrance to the Mersey and by the changing channels of the river itself .

During the 1820s there was increased dissatisfaction with the canals . They did not cope well with increasing volumes of cargo , and they were perceived as monopolistic , and the preserve of the landed gentry class . There was increased interest in the possibility of railway construction . The possible construction of a railway between Liverpool and Manchester was vigorously opposed by Bradshaw , who refused railway surveyors access to land owned by the Trustees . When the first bill was presented to parliament in 1825 , the Trustees opposed and it was overthrown . However , later in the year Lord Stafford , possibly persuaded to do so by William Huskisson , invested £ 100 @,@ 000 ( one @-@ fifth of the required capital ) , in the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . Following this the Trustees withdrew their opposition to the construction of the railway ; they did not petition against the second bill , which was passed in 1826 . At the same time as he made his investment in the railway , Lord Stafford advanced £ 40 @,@ 000 for improvements to the canal . This was spent mainly on a second line of locks at Runcorn , which were completed in 1828 , plus new warehouses at Manchester and Liverpool . The additional line of locks cost £ 35 @,@ 000 and was used for traffic heading to Manchester , while the old line was used for traffic passing down to the Mersey .

In 1830 the new railway opened and by the end of the year was carrying freight . Bradshaw immediately went into competition by lowering the rates of carriage on the canal and by offering improved terms to the private carriers . By so doing he managed to maintain the volume of traffic carried by the canal , both freight and passengers , at a time when the country was suffering a trade depression . However Bradshaw 's tactics led to a sharp decline in profits . At the same time costs were rising , partly due to the use of steamboats on the Mersey . Further competition came with the opening of the Macclesfield Canal in 1831 which gave separate access to Manchester from the Midlands . In November 1831 Bradshaw suffered a stroke , as a result of which he lost the use of his left arm and leg , and there is evidence that it also impaired his judgement .

Matters came to a head in 1833 , the year in which the canal made its lowest profit since the death of the Duke . On 19 July the Marquess of Stafford ( now the 1st Duke of Sutherland ) died and the profits from the canal passed to Francis Egerton . On 25 September Bradshaw 's son , Captain James Bradshaw , who had been acting as a deputy superintendent to the Trustees , and who had been expected to succeed his father as Superintendent , committed suicide . The agent for both Francis Egerton and his older brother , who was now the 2nd Duke of Sutherland , was James Loch . The events that followed were " stage @-@ managed by Loch " . He reported to Francis Egerton that Bradshaw was no longer fit to be Superintendent , and then persuaded Bradshaw to retire on his full salary . It had been expected that he would appoint his other son , William Rigby Bradshaw , as his successor , but Loch persuaded him to appoint James Sothern in the position ; Sothern had been the principal agent of the Trust since December 1832 . He took over the position of Superintendent on 3 February 1834 . The appointment of Sothern was not a success . Charges were made against him of dishonesty and of nepotism . He entered into disputes and disagreements with Loch , with Francis Egerton , and with the other two trustees . ( Sir Archibald Macdonald had died in 1826 ; by this time his place had been taken by the 10th Earl of Devon ) . To avoid a costly lawsuit , at the end of 1836 Sothern agreed to retire on various conditions which included receipt of £ 45 @,@ 000 . On 1 March 1837 , he was succeeded as Superintendent by James Loch .

Loch was extremely busy and did not have time to deal with the detailed administration of the Trust . He therefore looked for a deputy to take on these duties . His first choice was Richard Smith who was the mine agent to the Trustees of the 1st Earl of Dudley . However this was perceived as poaching and it led to such controversy that Smith declined the offer and recommended his son , George Samuel Fereday Smith for the post . Fereday Smith was appointed as Deputy Superintendent in March 1837 on a salary of £ 600 a year , half of the salary which had been offered to his father . Loch immediately undertook a reorganisation of the administration and efficiency of the business , restored the agreement with the Old Quay Company to raise freight charges , and improved the facilities for passengers , including the introduction of " swift boats " . By 1837 , the Trustees employed around 3 @,@ 000 people ( including those working in the colliery and in Worsley Yard ) , making it one of the largest employers in the country at the time . Since the death of the Duke the amount of freight carried by the canal had almost trebled ; in 1803 it carried 334 @,@ 495 long tons ( 339 @,@ 863 t ) of goods and in 1836 968 @,@ 795 long tons ( 984 @,@ 341 t ) .

In 1843 a new dock , the Francis Dock , was opened at Runcorn . The late 1830s and early 1840s had seen increased competition between the Bridgewater Canal on the one hand , and other canal companies and the railways on the other . The most dangerous of the rivals was the Mersey and Irwell Navigation Company who started to reduce their rates again in 1840 . This led to a price war between the two canal companies and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , who had previously cooperated on rates . Eventually , in desperation , the Bridgewater Trustees bought the Mersey and Irwell and took over its ownership on 1 January 1844 . During the same year competition with other canals was further reduced by agreements made with the Ellesmere and Chester Canal Company and with the Anderton Carrying Company . In 1844 the canal made a profit of £ 76 @,@ 410 , the second highest during the time it was administered by the Trustees .

Having seen off competition from other canal companies , the next major threat was to come from the railways . This was the period in the mid @-@ 1840s known as the Railway Mania . The railways competed with the canals in three ways ; by building , or threatening to build , new lines which would be in direct competition with the canals ; by amalgamation into giant companies ( such as the Midland and the London and North Western companies ) , which gave them more political power ; and by taking over ownership of canal companies . On 13 April 1844 The Times newspaper reported that the canal was to be emptied of water , and converted into a railway , although nothing came of this scheme . In 1845 , in return for concessions , the Trustees supported the Grand Junction Railway in its campaign to build a more direct line to Liverpool , which crossed the Mersey over a bridge at Runcorn Gap . However the bill was overthrown in the House of Lords . Competition from the railways and other canals led to a decline in the trading and the profits between 1845 and 1848 , but there was no " disastrous collapse " . During this time the Trustees and their representatives were engaged in vigorous campaigns in Parliament to protect their interests .

By October 1844 a bonding warehouse had been built in Manchester and the first cargo to arrive was announced in a letter to the Manchester Guardian , later printed in The Times :

FIRST ARRIVAL IN THE PORT OF MANCHESTER OF A CARGO OF GOODS FOR BOND

We have great pleasure in recording the first arrival in the Port of Manchester of a vessel , with an entire cargo of wines and spirits removed in bond , and for bonding in Manchester . The vessel , a flat named the Express , was wholly laden with a valuable cargo of wines and spirits , in all about 40 tons weight , belonging to Mr. William Gibb , spirit merchant , of this town , whose active and long @-@ continued exertions in the struggle to obtain the privilege of bonding for this great and important borough are about to be acknowledged in the form of a substantial mark of respect and gratitude by his fellow @-@ townsmen . The Express arrived from Liverpool on Saturday evening ; but it was yesterday morning before she began to unload . She is lying in the Bridgewater Canal , Knott Mill where the Duke 's trustees have constructed a large bonding vault , which Mr. Gibb has taken and had licensed for the purpose , and we believe he is now removing his stock of wine and spirits from other ports to Manchester , for the greater convenience of sampling and sale . The lockers , gaugers , and other officers of Customs were in attendance , superintending the unloading of the vessel and thus have commenced the operations of the Manchester Custom @-@ house . It is a gratifying circumstance that a gentleman who took so prominent a part in the struggle to obtain the boon of bonding for Manchester should be the first to enjoy the fruits of its success . We hope ere long to record the general operation of the system ; though it will require a little time , perhaps , as it must have a beginning . - Manchester Guardian

However , this venture was less successful than expected , as is evidenced by a letter to The Observer later that year , also printed in The Times :

MANCHESTER A BONDING PORT

After the pressing demands which have been made by some of our principal manufacturing towns for the privileges of inland bonded warehouses for goods subject to Customs duties , it would naturally be supposed that the formation of a Custom @-@ house establishment at Manchester would have occasioned a vast quantity of business in that extensive seat of British manufacturers ; but we are informed that the result is very different from what had been expected . Although the system has been introduced into Manchester only as an experiment and a large establishment has been formed entirely of old and experienced officers ; under the impression that the extent of business there would require the constant services of well tried men , we believe that , up to the present period , little trade has passed through the Manchester Custom @-@ house and the officers ' duties are nearly approaching to a sinecure . The total annual expense of this establishment , exclusive of that for the Custom @-@ house and warehouse is £ 2 @,@ 620 . The town council of the borough of Manchester , however , are made liable , under the act of the 7th and 8th of Victoria cap 81 , to the charges of maintaining this establishment , and the public are thereby exonerated from the expense .

- Observer

Between 1849 and 1851 the competition between the Trustees and the railway companies intensified . Agreements and alliances were made and broken . Their major opponents were the London and North Western Railway and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway who reduced tariffs and took business away from the canals . For the first time the railways carried more trade between Liverpool and the towns of central Lancashire than the canals . The value of the traffic carried by the Bridgewater Canal in 1851 was the lowest in the time it was administered by the Trustees . In 1851 the Earl of Ellesmere hosted a visit to Manchester by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . They stayed at Worsley Hall , with a view of the canal , and were given a trip between Patricroft railway station and Worsley Hall , on state barges . Large crowds had gathered to cheer the royal party , which apparently frightened the horses drawing the barge so much that they fell into the canal .

The Trustees spent much time between 1851 and 1855 in negotiations to ease the competition , especially that from the London and North Western Railway . The most likely allies seemed to be other railway companies , including the Shrewsbury and Birmingham and the Shrewsbury and Chester railway companies , and the Great Western Railway . Of these , the most likely seemed to be the Great Western Railway who , in their concern to expand northwards were willing to help the Trustees with the carriage of their traffic to the south . However years of negotiations came to no agreement and , in the end , the Trustees ' railway deal was done with the London and North Western Railway , who agreed to cooperate with the onward passage of the Trustees ' traffic .

On 28 June 1855 James Loch , the Superintendent , died and was succeeded by Hon. Algernon Fulke Egerton , Lord Ellesmere 's third son . He was then aged 29 , and had been educated at Harrow and Christ Church , Oxford ; he had been destined for a political life and had no experience of managing coal mines or canals . Since James Loch had been appointed , he had been mainly in control of the management of the Trustees , assisted by his son George Loch . During this time the role of Fereday Smith had been diminished ; initially appointed as Deputy Superintendent , his position was reduced to that of Principal Agent in 1845 . With the arrival of the inexperienced Algernon Egerton , Fereday Smith had a much greater say in the management . During the previous four years the Lochs had been reluctant to invest in improvements to the canal or Runcorn Dock , despite the increasing demand for the passage of goods through the dock , and the profits made during these years became stagnant . Fereday Smith had been keen on expansion and now his opportunity came . He first reduced the top @-@ heavy administration of the Trust , and then took on the planning of the expansion of the business . The steamers owned by the Trustees had been neglected and were in a poor state ; these were repaired or sold .

George Loch , who had been opposed to using the Trustees ' investments for improvements to the canals or docks , died in 1857 . Between 1857 and 1872 the Trustees provided more capital for improvements from their own resources than at any previous time . The Runcorn and Weston Canal was built in 1858 – 59 , providing a connection between Runcorn Docks and the Weaver Navigation . A new half tide dock , the Alfred Dock was opened at Runcorn in 1860 . Electric telegraph was installed in 1861 – 62 .

In 1862 the 2nd Earl of Ellesmere died and his son and heir , the 3rd Earl was a minor , aged 15 . This gave Algernon Egerton even more power to invest the profits of the company in developments . Negotiations were made to increase sea @-@ borne trade , both British and foreign , through the canal . Building started on a new dock at Runcorn in 1867 . Work was carried out in the Mersey estuary around the docks to improve access for vessels . Some of this was carried out in conjunction with the London and North Western Railway who were building a bridge across Runcorn Gap to take their line from Weaver Junction to Liverpool ; the railway paid half the cost of the improvements , amounting to about £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 6 million today ) . Improvements were made to the Trustees ' facilities at Liverpool , to the Mersey and Irwell Navigation and to the Bridgewater Canal itself . Agreements were made with the railway companies to cooperate on the transit of goods and the rates of carriage and " the Trustees ' fortunes entered a calmer phase " .

= = Subsequent owners = =

In 1872 the Bridgewater Navigation Company Ltd was formed , and on Monday 9 September the canal was purchased in the names of Sir Edward William Watkin and William Philip Price , respectively chairmen of the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway and the Midland Railway for £ 1 @,@ 120 @,@ 000 . The canal was sold again in 1885 , when the Manchester Ship Canal Company paid the Bridgewater Navigation Company £ 1 @,@ 710 @,@ 000 for all their property . The construction of the ship canal forced the removal of Barton Aqueduct and the construction of Barton Swing Aqueduct , as the former was too low for the vessels which would use the new canal . In 1907 The Manchester Ship Canal ( Bridgewater Canal ) Act 1907 was passed , permitting coal mining near the canal between Monton Bridge and Leigh , in exchange for which the mine owners were obliged to pay the associated costs of keeping the canal open and navigable .

In 1923 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was formed to acquire the Ellesmere family estate in Worsley . In 1984 Bridgewater Estates Ltd was purchased by a subsidiary of Peel Holdings . In 1987 Highams acquired a majority shareholding of the Manchester Ship Canal Company ( subsequently the shares held by Highams were transferred to Peel Holdings ) . In 1994 the Manchester Ship Canal Company became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Peel Holdings group . In 2004 ownership of the Manchester Ship Canal Company was transferred to the Peel Ports group .

= = Current status = =

The Bridgewater is often considered to be the first true canal in Britain , as it relied upon existing watercourses as sources of water rather than as navigable routes . It now terminates in Runcorn basin , just before the disused flight of 10 locks which ( before the approach road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge was built ) used to lower the canal to the Runcorn Docks on the River Mersey and later , to the Manchester Ship Canal . The old line of locks in Runcorn fell into disuse in the late 1930s , and they were closed under the Ship Canal Act of 1949 and filled in . The Ship Canal Act of 1966 allowed the closure and filling in of the newer line of locks . The gates from this flight of locks were removed and installed at Devizes on the Kennet and Avon Canal . The Duke 's warehouse in Manchester was demolished in 1960 .

The canal has suffered three breaches ; one soon after opening , another in 1971 near the River Bollin aqueduct , and another in the summer of 2005 when a sluice gate failed in Manchester . Cranes are located at intervals along the canal 's length to allow boards to be dropped into slots in the banks . These allow sections of the canal to be isolated in the event of a leak .

The canal now forms an integral part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals . Pleasure craft have been allowed on the canal since 1952 .

The new road crossing of the Mersey now under construction may allow a realignment of the Bridge approach road and the complete restoration of the original flight of locks – thus re @-@ opening the link to Runcorn Docks , the Runcorn and Weston Canal , the River Mersey , the Manchester Ship Canal , and the River Weaver . This would create a new ring route for leisure boats involving the Trent and Mersey Canal , the Anderton Boat Lift and the River Weaver .

The Hulme Locks Branch Canal in Manchester is now disused , and on 26 May 1995 was replaced by the nearby Pomona Lock .

= = = Bridgewater Way = = =

The Bridgewater Way is a scheme to redevelop the canal and make it more accessible to users , particularly cyclists . The 40 @-@ mile development , which includes a new towpath , will form part of the National Cycle and Footpath Network as Regional Route number 82 .

= Jules Massenet =

Jules Émile Frédéric Massenet ( French : [ ʒyl emil fʁedeʁik masnɛ ] ; 12 May 1842 – 13 August 1912 ) was a French composer of the Romantic era best known for his operas , of which he wrote more than thirty . The two most frequently staged are Manon ( 1884 ) and Werther ( 1892 ) . He also composed oratorios , ballets , orchestral works , incidental music , piano pieces , songs and other music .

While still a schoolboy , Massenet was admitted to France 's principal music college , the Paris Conservatoire . There he studied under Ambroise Thomas , whom he greatly admired . After winning the country 's top musical prize , the Prix de Rome , in 1863 , he composed prolifically in many genres , but quickly became best known for his operas . Between 1867 and his death forty @-@ five years later he wrote more than forty stage works in a wide variety of styles , from opéra @-@ comique to grand @-@ scale depictions of classical myths , romantic comedies , lyric dramas , as well as oratorios , cantatas and ballets . Massenet had a good sense of the theatre and of what would succeed with the Parisian public . Despite some miscalculations , he produced a series of successes that made him the leading composer of opera in France in the late 19th and early 20th centuries .

Like many prominent French composers of the period , Massenet became a professor at the Conservatoire . He taught composition there from 1878 until 1896 , when he resigned after the death of the director , Ambroise Thomas . Among his students were Gustave Charpentier , Ernest Chausson , Reynaldo Hahn and Gabriel Pierné .

By the time of his death , Massenet was regarded by many critics as old @-@ fashioned and unadventurous although his two best @-@ known operas remained popular in France and abroad . After a few decades of neglect , his works began to be favourably reassessed during the mid @-@ 20th century , and many of them have since been staged and recorded . Although critics do not rank him among the handful of outstanding operatic geniuses such as Mozart , Verdi and Wagner , his operas are now widely accepted as well @-@ crafted and intelligent products of the Belle Époque .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early years = = =

Massenet was born at Montaud , then an outlying hamlet and now a part of the city of Saint @-@ Étienne , in the Loire . He was the youngest of the four children of Alexis Massenet ( 1788 – 1863 ) and his second wife Eléonore @-@ Adelaïde née Royer de Marancour ( 1809 – 1875 ) ; the elder children were Julie , Léon and Edmond . Massenet senior was a prosperous ironmonger ; his wife was a talented amateur musician who gave Jules his first piano lessons . By early 1848 the family had moved to Paris , where they settled in a flat in Saint @-@ Germain @-@ des @-@ Prés . Massenet was educated at the Lycée Saint @-@ Louis and , from either 1851 or 1853 , the Paris Conservatoire . According to his colourful but unreliable memoirs , Massenet auditioned in October 1851 , when he was nine , before a judging panel comprising Daniel Auber , Fromental Halévy , Ambroise Thomas and Michele Carafa , and was admitted at once . His biographer Demar Irvine dates the audition and admission as January 1853 . Both sources agree that Massenet continued his general education at the lycée in tandem with his musical studies .

At the Conservatoire Massenet studied solfège with Augustin Savard and the piano with François Laurent . He pursued his studies , with modest distinction , until the beginning of 1855 , when family concerns disrupted his education . Alexis Massenet 's health was poor , and on medical advice he moved from Paris to Chambéry in the south of France ; the family , including Massenet , moved with him . Again , Massenet 's own memoirs and the researches of his biographers are at variance : the composer recalled his exile in Chambéry as lasting for two years ; Henry Finck and Irvine record that the young man returned to Paris and the Conservatoire in October 1855 . On his return he lodged with relations in Montmartre and resumed his studies ; by 1859 he had progressed so far as to win the Conservatoire 's top prize for pianists . The family 's finances were no longer comfortable , and to support himself Massenet took private piano students and played as a percussionist in theatre orchestras . His work in the orchestra pit gave him a good working knowledge of the operas of Gounod and other composers , classic and contemporary . Traditionally , many students at the Conservatoire went on to substantial careers as church organists ; with that in mind Massenet enrolled for organ classes , but they were not a success and he quickly abandoned the instrument . He gained some work as a piano accompanist , in the course of which he met Wagner who , along with Berlioz , was one of his two musical heroes .

In 1861 Massenet 's music was published for the first time , the Grande Fantasie de Concert sur le Pardon de Ploërmel de Meyerbeer , a virtuoso piano work in nine sections . Having graduated to the composition class under Ambroise Thomas , Massenet was entered for the Conservatoire 's top musical honour , the Prix de Rome , previous winners of which included Berlioz , Thomas , Gounod and Bizet . The first two of these were on the judging panel for the 1863 competition . All the competitors had to set the same text by Gustave Chouquet , a cantata about David Rizzio ; after all the settings had been performed Massenet came face to face with the judges . He recalled :

Ambroise Thomas , my beloved master , came towards me and said , " Embrace Berlioz , you owe him a great deal for your prize . " " The prize , " I cried , bewildered , my face shining with joy . " I have the prize ! ! ! " I was deeply moved and I embraced Berlioz , then my master , and finally Monsieur Auber . Monsieur Auber comforted me . Did I need comforting ? Then he said to Berlioz pointing to me , " He 'll go far , the young rascal , when he 's had less experience ! "

The prize brought a well @-@ subsidised three @-@ year period of study , two @-@ thirds of which was spent at the French Academy in Rome , based at the Villa Medici . At that time the academy was dominated by painters rather than musicians ; Massenet enjoyed his time there , and made lifelong friendships with , among others , the sculptor Alexandre Falguière and the painter Carolus @-@ Duran , but the musical benefit he derived was largely self @-@ taught . He absorbed the music at St Peter 's , and closely studied the works of the great German masters , from Handel and Bach to contemporary composers . During his time in Rome , Massenet met Franz Liszt , at whose request he gave piano lessons to Louise @-@ Constance " Ninon " de Gressy , the daughter of one of Liszt 's rich patrons . Massenet and Ninon fell in love , but marriage was out of the question while he was a student with modest means .

= = = Early works = = =

Massenet returned to Paris in 1866 . He made a living by teaching the piano and publishing songs , piano pieces and orchestral suites , all in the popular style of the day . Prix de Rome winners were sometimes invited by the Opéra @-@ Comique in Paris to compose a work for performance there . At Thomas 's instigation , Massenet was commissioned to write a one @-@ act opéra comique , La grand 'tante , presented in April 1867 . At around the same time he composed a Requiem , which has not survived . In 1868 he met Georges Hartmann , who became his publisher and was his mentor for twenty @-@ five years ; Hartmann 's journalistic contacts did much to promote his protégé 's reputation .

In October 1866 Massenet and Ninon were married ; their only child , Juliette , was born in 1868 . Massenet 's musical career was briefly interrupted by the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 , during which he served as a volunteer in the National Guard alongside his friend Bizet . He found the war so " utterly terrible " that he refused to write about it in his memoirs . He and his family were trapped in the Siege of Paris but managed to get out before the horrors of the Paris Commune began ; the family stayed for some months in Bayonne , in southwestern France .

After order was restored , Massenet returned to Paris where he completed his first large @-@ scale stage work , an opéra comique in four acts , Don César de Bazan ( Paris , 1872 ) . It was a failure , but in 1873 he succeeded with his incidental music to Leconte de Lisle 's tragedy Les Érinnyes and with the dramatic oratorio , Marie @-@ Magdeleine , both of which were performed at the Théâtre de l 'Odéon . His reputation as a composer was growing , but at this stage he earned most of his income from teaching , giving lessons for six hours a day .

Massenet was a prolific composer ; he put this down to his way of working , rising early and composing from four o 'clock in the morning until midday , a practice he maintained all his life . In general he worked fluently , seldom revising , although Le roi de Lahore , his nearest approach to a traditional grand opera , took him several years to complete to his own satisfaction . It was finished in 1877 and was one of the first new works to be staged at the Palais Garnier , opened two years previously . The opera , with a story taken from the Mahabharata , was an immense success and was quickly taken up by the opera houses of eight Italian cities . It was also performed at the Hungarian State Opera House , the Bavarian State Opera , the Semperoper , Dresden , the Teatro Real in Madrid , and the Royal Opera House , Covent Garden , in London . After the first Covent Garden performance , The Times summed the piece up in a way that was frequently to be applied to the composer 's operas : " M. Massenet 's opera , although not a work of genius proper , is one of more than common merit , and contains all the elements of at least temporary success . "

This period was an early high point in Massenet 's career . He had been made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1876 , and in 1878 he was appointed professor of counterpoint , fugue and composition at the Conservatoire under Thomas , who was now the director . In the same year he was elected to the Institut de France , a prestigious honour , rare for a man in his thirties . Camille Saint @-@ Saëns , whom Massenet beat in the election for the vacancy , was resentful at being passed over for a younger composer . When the result of the election was announced , Massenet sent Saint @-@ Saëns a courteous telegram : " My dear colleague : the Institut has just committed a great injustice " . Saint @-@ Saëns cabled back , " I quite agree . " He was elected three years later , but his relations with Massenet remained cool .

Massenet was a popular and respected teacher at the Conservatoire . His pupils included Bruneau , Charpentier , Chausson , Hahn , Leroux , Pierné , Rabaud and Vidal . He was known for the care he took in drawing out his pupils ' ideas , never trying to impose his own . One of his last students , Charles Koechlin , recalled Massenet as a voluble professor , dispensing " a teaching active , living , vibrant , and moreover comprehensive " . According to some writers , Massenet 's influence extended beyond his own students . In the view of the critic Rodney Milnes , " In word @-@ setting alone , all French musicians profited from the freedom he won from earlier restrictions . " Romain Rolland and Francis Poulenc have both considered Massenet an influence on Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande ; Debussy was a student at the Conservatoire during Massenet 's professorship but did not study under him .

= = = Operatic successes and failures , 1879 – 96 = = =

Massenet 's growing reputation did not prevent a contretemps with the Paris Opéra in 1879 . Auguste Vaucorbeil , director of the Opéra , refused to stage the composer 's new piece , Hérodiade , judging the libretto either improper or inadequate . Édouard @-@ Fortuné Calabresi , joint director of the Théâtre de la Monnaie , Brussels , immediately offered to present the work , and its première , lavishly staged , was given in December 1881 . It ran for fifty @-@ five performances in Brussels , and had its Italian premiere two months later at La Scala . The work finally reached Paris in February 1884 , by which time Massenet had established himself as the leading French opera composer of his generation .

Manon , first given at the Opéra @-@ Comique in January 1884 , was a prodigious success and was followed by productions at major opera houses in Europe and the United States . Together with Gounod 's Faust and Bizet 's Carmen it became , and has remained , one of the cornerstones of the French operatic repertoire . After the intimate drama of Manon , Massenet once more turned to opera on the grand scale with Le Cid in 1885 , which marked his return to the Opéra . The Paris correspondent of The New York Times wrote that with this new work Massenet " has resolutely declared himself a melodist of undoubted consistency and of remarkable inspiration . " After these two triumphs , Massenet entered a period of mixed fortunes . He worked on Werther intermittently for several years , but it was rejected by the Opéra @-@ Comique as too gloomy . In 1887 he met the American soprano Sibyl Sanderson . He developed passionate feelings for her , which remained platonic , although it was widely believed in Paris that she was his mistress , as caricatures in the journals hinted with varying degrees of subtlety . For her , the composer revised Manon and wrote Esclarmonde ( 1889 ) . The latter was a success , but it was followed by Le mage ( 1891 ) , which failed . Massenet did not complete his next project , Amadis , and it was not until 1892 that he recovered his earlier successful form . Werther finally received its first performance in February 1892 , when the Vienna Hofoper asked for a new piece , following the enthusiastic reception of the Austrian premiere of Manon .

Though in the view of some writers Werther is the composer 's masterpiece , it was not immediately taken up with the same keenness as Manon . The first performance in Paris was in January 1893 by the Opéra @-@ Comique company at the Théâtre Lyrique , and there were performances in the United States , Italy and Britain , but it met with a muted response . The New York Times said of it , " If M. Massenet 's opera does not have lasting success it will be because it has no genuine depth . Perhaps M. Massenet is not capable of achieving profound depths of tragic passion ; but certainly he will never do so in a work like Werther " . It was not until a revival by the Opéra @-@ Comique in 1903 that the work became an established favourite .

Thaïs ( 1894 ) , composed for Sanderson , was moderately received . Like Werther , it did not gain widespread popularity among French opera @-@ goers until its first revival , which was four years after the premiere , by when the composer 's association with Sanderson was over . In the same year he had a modest success in Paris with the one @-@ act Le portrait de Manon at the Opéra @-@ Comique , and a much greater one in London with La Navarraise at Covent Garden . The Times commented that in this piece Massenet had adopted the verismo style of such works as Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana to great effect . The audience clamoured for the composer to acknowledge the applause , but Massenet , always a shy man , declined to take even a single curtain call .

= = = Later years , 1896 – 1912 = = =

The death of Ambroise Thomas in February 1896 made vacant the post of director of the Conservatoire . The French government announced on 6 May that Massenet had been offered the position and had refused it . The following day it was announced that another faculty member , Théodore Dubois , had been appointed director , and Massenet had resigned as professor of composition . Two explanations have been advanced for this sequence of events . Massenet wrote in 1910 that he had remained in post as professor out of loyalty to Thomas , and was eager to abandon all academic work in favour of composing , a statement repeated by his biographers Hugh Macdonald and Demar Irvine . Other writers on French music have written that Massenet was intensely ambitious to succeed Thomas , but resigned in pique after three months of manoeuvring , once the authorities finally rejected his insistence on being appointed director for life , as Thomas had been . He was succeeded as professor by Gabriel Fauré , who was doubtful of Massenet 's credentials , considering his popular style to be " based on a generally cynical view of art " .

With Grisélidis and Cendrillon complete , though still awaiting performance , Massenet began work on Sapho , based on a novel by Daudet about the love of an innocent young man from the country for a worldly @-@ wise Parisienne . It was given at the Opéra @-@ Comique in November 1897 , with great success , though it has been neglected since the composer 's death . His next work staged there was Cendrillon , his version of the Cinderella story , which was well received in May 1899 .

Macdonald comments that at the start of the 20th century Massenet was in the enviable position of having his works included in every season of the Opéra and the Opéra @-@ Comique , and in opera houses around the world . From 1900 to his death he led a life of steady work and , generally , success . According to his memoirs , he declined a second offer of the directorship of the Conservatoire in 1905 . Apart from composition , his main concern was his home life in the rue de Vaugirard , Paris , and at his country house in Égreville . He was uninterested in Parisian society , and so shunned the limelight that in later life he preferred not to attend his own first nights . He described himself as " a fireside man , a bourgeois artist " . The main biographical detail of note of his latter years was his second amitié amoureuse with one of his leading ladies , Lucy Arbell , who created roles in his last operas . Milnes describes Arbell as " gold @-@ digging " : her blatant exploitation of the composer 's honourable affections caused his wife considerable distress and even strained Massenet 's devotion ( or infatuation as Milnes characterises it ) . After the composer 's death Arbell pursued his widow and publishers through the law courts , seeking to secure herself a monopoly of the leading roles in several of his late operas .

A rare excursion from the opera house came in 1903 with Massenet 's only piano concerto , on which he had begun work while still a student . The work was performed by Louis Diémer at the Conservatoire , but made little impression compared with his operas . In 1905 Massenet composed Chérubin , a light comedy about the later career of the sex @-@ mad pageboy Cherubino from Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro . Then came two serious operas , Ariane , on the Greek legend of Theseus and Ariadne , and Thérèse , a terse drama set in the French Revolution . His last major success was Don Quichotte ( 1910 ) , which L 'Etoile called " a very Parisian evening and , naturally , a very Parisian triumph " . Even with his creative powers seemingly in decline he wrote four other operas in his later years – Bacchus , Roma , Panurge and Cléopâtre . The last two , like Amadis , which he had been unable to finish in the 1890s , were premiered after the composer 's death and then lapsed into oblivion .

In August 1912 Massenet went to Paris from his house at Égreville to see his doctor . The composer had been suffering from abdominal cancer for some months , but his symptoms did not seem imminently life @-@ threatening . Within a few days his condition deteriorated sharply . His wife and family hastened to Paris , and were with him when he died , aged seventy . By his own wish his funeral , with no music , was held privately at Égreville , where he is buried in the churchyard .

= = Music = =

= = = Background = = =

In the view of his biographer Hugh Macdonald , Massenet 's main influences were Gounod and Thomas , with Meyerbeer and Berlioz also important to his style . From beyond France he absorbed some traits from Verdi , and possibly Mascagni , and above all Wagner . Unlike some other French composers of the period , Massenet never fell fully under Wagner 's spell , but he took from the earlier composer a richness of orchestration and a fluency in treatment of musical themes .

Although when he chose Massenet could write noisy and dissonant scenes – in 1885 Bernard Shaw called him " one of the loudest of modern composers " – much of his music is soft and delicate . Hostile critics have seized on this characteristic , but the article on Massenet in the 2001 edition of Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians observes that in the best of his operas this sensual side " is balanced by strong dramatic tension ( as in Werther ) , theatrical action ( as in Thérèse ) , scenic diversion ( as in Esclarmonde ) , or humour ( as in Le portrait de Manon ) . "

Massenet 's Parisian audiences were greatly attracted by the exotic in music , and Massenet willingly obliged , with musical evocations of far @-@ flung places or times long past . Macdonald lists a great number of locales depicted in the operas , from ancient Egypt , mythical Greece and biblical Galilee to Renaissance Spain , India and Revolutionary Paris . Massenet 's practical experience in orchestra pits as a young man and his careful training at the Conservatoire equipped him to make such effects without much recourse to unusual instruments . He understood the capabilities of his singers , and composed with close , detailed regard for their voices .

= = = Operas = = =

Massenet wrote more than thirty operas . Authorities differ on the exact total because some of the works , particularly from his early years , are lost and others were left incomplete . Still others , such as Don César de Bazan and Le roi de Lahore , were substantially recomposed after their first productions and exist in two or more versions . Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians lists forty Massenet operas in all , of which nine are shown as lost or destroyed . The " OperaGlass " website of Stanford University shows revised versions as premieres , and The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , does not : their totals are forty @-@ four and thirty @-@ six respectively .

Having honed his personal style as a young man , and sticking broadly with it for the rest of his career , Massenet does not , as some other composers do , lend himself to classification into clearly defined early , middle and late periods . Moreover , his versatility means that there is no plot or locale that can be regarded as typical Massenet . Another respect in which he differed from many opera composers is that he did not work regularly with the same librettists : Grove lists more than thirty writers who provided him with librettos .

The 1954 ( fifth ) edition of Grove said of Massenet , " to have heard Manon is to have heard the whole of him " . In 1994 Andrew Porter called this view preposterous . He countered , " Who knows Manon , Werther and Don Quichotte knows the best of Massenet , but not his range from heroic romance to steamy verismo . " Massenet 's output covered most of the different subgenres of opera , from opérette ( L 'adorable Bel ' -Boul and L 'écureuil du déshonneur – both early , lost pieces ) and opéra @-@ comique such as Manon , to grand opera – Grove categorises Le roi de Lahore as " the last grand opera to have a great and widespread success " . Many of the elements of traditional grand opera are written into later large @-@ scale works such as Le mage and Hérodiade . Massenet 's operas consist of anything from one to five acts , and although many of them are described on the title pages of their scores as " opéra " or " opéra comique " , others have carefully nuanced descriptions such as " comédie chantée " , " comédie lyrique " , " comédie @-@ héroïque " , " conte de fées " , " drame passionnel " , " haulte farce musicale " , " opéra légendaire " , " opéra romanesque " and " opéra tragique " .

In some of his operas , such as Esclarmonde and Le mage , Massenet moved away from the traditional French pattern of free @-@ standing arias and duets . Solos meld from declamatory passages into more melodic form , in a way that many contemporary critics thought Wagnerian . Shaw was not among them : in 1885 he wrote of Manon :

Of Wagnerism there is not the faintest suggestion . A phrase which occurs in the first love duet breaks out once or twice in subsequent amorous episodes , and has been seized on by a few unwary critics as a Wagnerian leit motif . But if Wagner had never existed , Manon would have been composed much as it stands now , whereas if Meyerbeer and Gounod had not made a path for M. Massenet , it is impossible to say whither he might have wandered , or how far he could have pushed his way .

The 21st @-@ century critic Anne Feeney comments , " Massenet rarely repeated musical phrases , let alone used recurrent themes , so the resemblance [ to Wagner ] lies solely in the declamatory lyricism and enthusiastic use of the brass and percussion . " Massenet enjoyed introducing comedy into his serious works , and writing some mainly comic operas . In Macdonald 's view of the comic works , Cendrillon and Don Quichotte succeed , but Don César de Bazan and Panurge are less satisfying than " the more delicately tuned operas such as Manon , Le portrait de Manon and Le jongleur de Notre @-@ Dame , where comedy serves a more complex purpose . "

According to Operabase , analysis of productions around the world in 2012 – 13 shows Massenet as the twentieth most popular of all opera composers , and the fourth most popular French one , after Bizet , Offenbach and Gounod . The most often performed of his operas in the period are shown as Werther ( 63 productions in all countries ) , followed by Manon ( 47 ) , Don Quichotte ( 22 ) , Thaïs ( 21 ) , Cendrillon ( 17 ) , La Navarraise ( 4 ) , Cléopâtre ( 3 ) , Thérèse ( 2 ) , Le Cid ( 2 ) , Hérodiade ( 2 ) , Esclarmonde ( 2 ) , Chérubin ( 2 ) and Le mage ( 1 ) .

= = = Other vocal music = = =

Between 1862 and 1900 Massenet composed eight oratorios and cantatas , mostly on religious subjects . There is a degree of overlap between his operatic style and his choral works for church or concert hall performance . Vincent d 'Indy wrote that there was " a discreet and semi @-@ religious eroticism " in Massenet 's music . The religious element was a regular theme in his secular as well as sacred works : this derived not from any strong personal faith , but from his response to the dramatic aspects of Roman Catholic ritual . The mingling of operatic and religious elements in his works was such that one of his oratorios , Marie @-@ Magdeleine , was staged as an opera during the composer 's lifetime . Elements of the erotic and some implicit sympathy for sinners were controversial , and may have prevented his church works establishing themselves more securely . Arthur Hervey , a contemporary critic not unsympathetic to Massenet , commented that Marie @-@ Magdeleine and the later oratorio Ève ( 1875 ) were " the Bible doctored up in a manner suitable to the taste of impressionable Parisian ladies – utterly inadequate for the theme , at the same time very charming and effective . " Of the four works categorised by Irvine and Grove as oratorios , only one , La terre promise ( 1900 ) , was written for church performance . Massenet used the term " oratorio " for that work , but he called Marie @-@ Magdeleine a " drame sacré " , Ève a " mystère " , and La Vierge ( 1880 ) a " légende sacrée " .

Massenet composed many other smaller @-@ scale choral works , and more than two hundred songs . His early collections of songs were particularly popular and helped establish his reputation . His choice of lyrics ranged widely . Most were verses by poets such as Musset , Maupassant , Hugo , Gautier and many lesser @-@ known French writers , with occasional poems from overseas , including Tennyson in English and Shelley in French translation . Grove comments that Massenet 's songs , though pleasing and impeccable in craftsmanship , are less inventive than those of Bizet and less distinctive than those of Duparc and Fauré .

= = = Orchestral and chamber music = = =

Massenet was a fluent and skilful orchestrator , and willingly provided ballet episodes for his operas , incidental music for plays , and a one @-@ act stand @-@ alone ballet for Vienna ( Le carillon , 1892 ) . Macdonald remarks that Massenet 's orchestral style resembled that of Delibes , " with its graceful movement and bewitching colour " , which was highly suited to classical French ballet . The Méditation for solo violin and orchestra , from Thaïs , is possibly the best known non @-@ vocal piece by Massenet , and appears on many recordings . Another popular stand @-@ alone orchestral piece from the operas is Le dernier sommeil de la Vierge from La Vierge , which has featured on numerous discs since the middle of the 20th century .

A Parisian critic , after seeing La grand ' tante , declared that Massenet was a symphonist rather than a theatre composer . At the time of the British premiere of Manon in 1885 , the critic in The Manchester Guardian , reviewing the work enthusiastically , nevertheless echoed his French confrère 's view that the composer was really a symphonist , whose music was at its best when purely orchestral . Massenet took a wholly opposite view of his talents . He was temperamentally unsuited to writing symphonically : the constraints of sonata form bored him . He wrote , in the early 1870s , " What I have to say , musically , I have to say rapidly , forcefully , concisely ; my discourse is tight and nervous , and if I wanted to express myself otherwise I would not be myself . " His efforts in the concertante field made little mark , but his orchestral suites , colourful and picturesque according to Grove , have survived on the fringes of the repertoire . Other works for orchestra are a symphonic poem , Visions ( 1891 ) , an Ouverture de Concert ( 1863 ) and Ouverture de Phèdre ( 1873 ) . After early attempts at chamber music as a student , he wrote little more in the genre . Most of his early chamber pieces are now lost ; three pieces for cello and piano survive .

= = = Recordings = = =

The only known recording made by Massenet is an excerpt from Sapho , " Pendant un an je fus ta femme " , in which he plays a piano accompaniment for the soprano Georgette Leblanc . It was recorded in 1903 , and was not intended for publication . It has been released on compact disc ( 2008 ) , together with contemporary recordings by Grieg , Saint @-@ Saëns , Debussy and others .

In Massenet 's later years , and in the decade after his death , many of his songs and opera extracts were recorded . Some of the performers were the original creators of the roles , such as Ernest van Dyck ( Werther ) , Emma Calvé ( Sapho ) , Hector Dufranne ( Grisélidis ) , and Vanni Marcoux ( Panurge ) . Complete French recordings of Manon and Werther , conducted by Élie Cohen , were issued in 1932 and 1933 and have been republished on CD . The critic Alan Blyth comments that they embody the original , intimate Opéra @-@ Comique style of performing Massenet .

Of Massenet 's operas , the two best known , Manon and Werther , have been recorded many times , and studio or live recordings have been issued of many of the others , including Cendrillon , Le Cid , Don Quichotte , Esclarmonde , Hérodiade , Le jongleur de Notre @-@ Dame , Le mage , La Navarraise and Thaïs . Conductors on these discs include Sir Thomas Beecham , Richard Bonynge , Riccardo Chailly , Sir Colin Davis , Patrick Fournillier , Sir Charles Mackerras , Pierre Monteux , Sir Antonio Pappano and Michel Plasson . Among the sopranos and mezzos are Dame Janet Baker , Victoria de los Ángeles , Natalie Dessay , Renée Fleming , Angela Gheorghiu and Dame Joan Sutherland . Leading men in recordings of Massenet operas include Roberto Alagna , Gabriel Bacquier , Plácido Domingo , Thomas Hampson , José van Dam , Alain Vanzo and Rolando Villazón .

In addition to the operas , recordings have been issued of several orchestral works , including the ballet Le carillon , the piano concerto in E ♭ , the Fantaisie for cello and orchestra , and orchestral suites . Many individual mélodies by Massenet were included in mixed recitals on record during the 20th century , and more have been committed to disc since then , including , for the first time , a CD in 2012 , exclusively devoted to his songs for soprano and piano .

= = Reputation = =

By the time of the composer 's death in 1912 his reputation had declined , especially outside his native country . In the second edition ( 1907 ) of Grove , J A Fuller Maitland accused the composer of pandering to the fashionable Parisian taste of the moment , and disguising a uniformly " weak and sugary " style with superficial effects . Fuller Maitland contended that to discerning music lovers such as himself the operas of Massenet were " inexpressibly monotonous " , and he predicted that they would all be forgotten after the composer 's death . Similar views were expressed in an obituary in The Musical Times

His early scores are , for the greater part , his best ... Later , and for the plain reason that he never attempted to renovate his style , he sank into sheer mannerism . Indeed , one can but marvel that so gifted a musician , who lacked neither individuality nor skill , should have so utterly succeeded in throwing away his gifts . Success spoiled him ... the actual progress of musical art during the past forty years left Massenet unmoved ... he has taken no part in the evolution of modern music .

Massenet was never entirely without supporters . In the 1930s Sir Thomas Beecham told the critic Neville Cardus , " I would give the whole of Bach 's Brandenburg Concertos for Massenet 's Manon , and would think I had vastly profited by the exchange . " By the 1950s critics were reappraising Massenet 's works . In 1951 Martin Cooper of The Daily Telegraph wrote that Massenet 's detractors , including some fellow composers , were on the whole idealistic , even puritanical , " but few of them have in practice achieved anything so near perfection in any genre , however humble , as Massenet achieved in his best works . " In 1955 Edward Sackville @-@ West and Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor commented in The Record Guide that , although usually dismissed as an inferior Gounod , Massenet wrote music with a distinct flavour of its own . " He had a gift for melody of a suave , voluptuous and eminently singable kind , and the intelligence and dramatic sense to make the most of it . " The writers called for revivals of Grisélidis , Le jongleur de Notre @-@ Dame , Don Quichotte and Cendrillon , all then neglected . By the 1990s , Massenet 's reputation had been considerably rehabilitated . In The Penguin Opera Guide ( 1993 ) , Hugh Macdonald wrote that though Massenet 's operas never equalled the grandeur of Berlioz 's Les Troyens , the genius of Bizet 's Carmen or the profundity of Debussy 's Pelléas et Mélisande , from the 1860s until the years before the First World War , the composer gave the French lyric stage a remarkable series of works , two of which – Manon and Werther – are " masterpieces that will always grace the repertoire " . In Macdonald 's view , Massenet " embodies many enduring aspects of the belle époque , one of the richest cultural periods in history " . In France , Massenet 's 20th @-@ century eclipse was less complete than elsewhere , but his oeuvre has been revalued in recent years . In 2003 Piotr Kaminsky wrote in Mille et un opéras of Massenet 's skill in translating French text into flexible melodic phrases , his exceptional orchestral virtuosity , combining sparkle and clarity , and his unerring theatrical instinct .

Rodney Milnes , in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera ( 1992 ) , agrees that Manon and Werther have a secure place in the international repertoire ; he counts three others as " re @-@ establishing a toehold " ( Cendrillon , Thaïs and Don Quichotte ) , with many more due for re @-@ evaluation or rediscovery . He concludes that comparing Massenet with the handful of composers of great genius , " It would be absurd to claim that he was anything more than a second @-@ rate composer ; he nevertheless deserves to be seen , like Richard Strauss , at least as a first @-@ class second @-@ rate one . "

= Everything in Time =

Everything in Time ( B @-@ sides , Rarities , Remixes ) is a compilation album comprising B @-@ sides , remixes , and rare songs by the American third wave ska band No Doubt , first released on November 23 , 2003 as disc three of No Doubt 's box set , Boom Box , which also contained The Singles 1992 – 2003 , The Videos 1992 – 2003 and Live in the Tragic Kingdom . Everything in Time was later released separately on October 12 , 2004 .

The album 's B @-@ sides and rarities originate in recording sessions for the band 's fourth studio album , Return of Saturn . The first six tracks were used as B @-@ sides for three of the singles released off the album , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " . Everything in Time also includes a remix of the song " New " , also from Return of Saturn , and two remixes of " Rock Steady " , the title track from No Doubt 's fifth studio album , Rock Steady .

The album received little coverage , not being a studio album , although the publications that did cover it gave average or good reviews , both in the box set Boom Box and its in solo release . It charted on the U.S. Billboard 200 album chart at number 182 .

= = Background = =

No Doubt 's fourth studio album , Return of Saturn was recorded between 1998 and 1999 and released on April 11 , 2000 . Over 40 demo tracks were recorded for Return of Saturn , but the list was whittled down to the fourteen for the album 's final composition , four of which were released as singles : " New " , " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " . No Doubt released their fifth studio album , Rock Steady , in December 2001 and from it released four singles , " Hey Baby " , " Hella Good " , " Underneath It All " and " Running " between 2001 and 2003 . The album sold 3 million copies and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .

Later , in April 2003 , No Doubt went into hiatus to take a break to spend time with their families before starting to compile Everything in Time ; The Singles 1992 – 2003 , a greatest hits album featuring songs from their previous studio albums ; and Boom Box , a box set compiling The Singles 1992 – 2003 , Everything in Time , The Videos 1992 – 2003 and Live in the Tragic Kingdom , which would all be released on the same date . The main reason to go into hiatus was that , in early 2003 , lead singer Gwen Stefani started work on her 1980s @-@ inspired new wave / dance @-@ pop music side project , under which she released two solo albums : Love . Angel . Music . Baby. on November 22 , 2004 and The Sweet Escape on December 4 , 2006 .

= = Music = =

The first six tracks on the album are B @-@ sides from No Doubt 's fourth album , Return of Saturn . " Big Distraction " is a B @-@ side to the British CD single release of " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and appears on the Australian and Japanese versions of Return of Saturn . " Leftovers " is a B @-@ side to the European enhanced and Australian CD single releases of " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " . " Full Circle " is a B @-@ side to the European , European enhanced , and Australian CD single releases of " Ex @-@ Girlfriend " and " Simple Kind of Life " and appears on the Japanese version of Return of Saturn . " Cellophane Boy " is a B @-@ side to the CD single release of " Simple Kind of Life " . " Beauty Contest " is a B @-@ side to the British and German CD single releases of " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " . " Under Construction " is a B @-@ side to the British CD single releases of " Simple Kind of Life " and " Bathwater " .

" Everything in Time " , " You 're So Foxy " , and " Panic " are outtakes from recording sessions of Return of Saturn , while " New Friend " is a leftover from the Rock Steady recordings . " Sailin ' On " is a cover of the song by Bad Brains , an American hardcore punk band , from their debut album Bad Brains . " Oi to the World " is a cover of the original version by The Vandals , a Californian punk rock band , from their album Oi to the World ! . " I Throw My Toys Around " is a song from the soundtrack of The Rugrats Movie , performed by No Doubt and Elvis Costello .

" New and Approved " is a remix of the song " New " from Return of Saturn . It was a B @-@ side to many of the single releases of " New " . " A Real Love Survives " and " A Rock Steady Vibe " are remixes of the song " Rock Steady " on the album Rock Steady . " A Real Love Survives " features British rapper Ms. Dynamite and " A Rock Steady Vibe " features Sweetie Irie .

= = Critical reception = =

In its 2003 release as part of Boom Box , Everything in Time was described as " certainly worth having " by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic in a review for the box set . RockMusicReview called the song " Full Circle " , from Everything in Time , one of the highlights of Boom Box . In its 2004 solo release , few critics reviewed Everything in Time because it was not a studio album . However , Laura Sinagra for Blender magazine gave it three stars out of five , saying it contained " endearing , younger examples of the marriage @-@ minded tomboy [ Gwen Stefani ] agonizing over the task of taming restless playboys " . She complimented " New Friend " , " Under Construction " and both versions of " Everything in Time " as " satisfying laments " with " truth @-@ serum lyrics " , and praised Stefani 's " just @-@ a @-@ girl sass " in " Oi to the World " . However , she criticized " Big Distraction " and " Leftovers " , which in her opinion were " pale beside the singles [ The Singles 1992 – 2003 ] " . Both Allmusic and Artistdirect gave the album three stars out of five but neither gave an actual review .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits = =

= = Chart positions = =

= = Release history = =

= Tom Driberg =

Thomas Edward Neil Driberg , Baron Bradwell ( 22 May 1905 – 12 August 1976 ) was a British journalist , politician and High Anglican churchman who served as a Member of Parliament ( MP ) from 1942 to 1955 and from 1959 to 1974 . A member of the British Communist Party for more than 20 years , he was first elected to parliament as an Independent , and joined the Labour Party in 1945 . He never held any ministerial office , but rose to senior positions within the Labour Party and was a popular and influential figure in left @-@ wing politics for many years .

The son of a retired colonial officer , Driberg was educated at Lancing and Christ Church , Oxford . After leaving the university without a degree , he attempted to establish himself as a poet before joining the Daily Express as a reporter , later becoming a columnist . In 1933 he began the " William Hickey " society column , which he continued to write until 1943 . He was later a regular columnist for the Co @-@ operative Group newspaper Reynold 's News and for other left @-@ leaning journals . He wrote several books , including biographies of the press baron Lord Beaverbrook and the fugitive British diplomat Guy Burgess . He retired from the House of Commons in 1974 , and was subsequently raised to the peerage as Baron Bradwell , of Bradwell juxta Mare in the County of Essex .

Driberg made no secret of his homosexuality , which he practised throughout his life despite it being a criminal offence in Britain until 1967 ; his ability to avoid any consequences for his risky and often brazen behaviour baffled his friends and colleagues . Always in search of bizarre experiences , Driberg befriended at various times the occultist Aleister Crowley and the Kray twins , along with honoured and respected figures in the worlds of literature and politics . He combined this lifestyle with an unvarying devotion to Anglo @-@ Catholicism . After his death , allegations were published about his role over many years as an MI5 informant , a KGB agent , or both . The extent and nature of Driberg 's involvement with these agencies remain uncertain .

= = Early life = =

= = = Family background and childhood = = =

Driberg was born on 22 May 1905 in Crowborough , a small dormitory town about 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of London . He was the third and youngest of three sons born to John James Street Driberg , a former officer in the Indian Civil Service , and his wife Amy Mary Irving Driberg ( née Bell ) . The Driberg family had immigrated from Holland about 200 years previously ; the Bells were lowland Scots from Dumfriesshire . John Driberg had retired in 1896 after 35 years in Assam , latterly as head of the state 's police , and was 65 years old when his youngest son was born . For Driberg , growing up mostly alone with his elderly parents was a stifling experience ; he would later describe Crowborough as " a place which I can never revisit , or think of , without a feeling of sick horror " .

At the age of eight Driberg began as a day @-@ boy at the Grange school in Crowborough . In his autobiography he mentions in particular two aspects of his time there : learning the " facts of life " from other boys , with extensive experimentation , and his discovery of what he calls " exotic " religion — High Anglicanism . These experiences formed what he called two " conflicting compulsions " , soon to be joined by a third — left @-@ wing politics — to shape the ruling passions of his life .

= = = Lancing = = =

In 1918 , when he was 13 , Driberg left the Grange for Lancing College , the public school on the south coast where , after some initial bullying and humiliation , he was befriended by fellow @-@ pupil Evelyn Waugh . Under Waugh 's sponsorship Driberg joined an intellectual society , the Dilettanti , which promoted literary and artistic activities alongside political debate . He began to write poetry ; his aesthetic education was further assisted by the charismatic J. F. Roxburgh , " a magnetically brilliant teacher " who later became headmaster of Stowe School . Lancing 's Gothic chapel gave Driberg the religious atmosphere he sought , though he found the services disappointingly " moderate " . By 1920 he was inclining to the political left and was in rebellion against his conservative upbringing . Finding the Labour Party too dull and respectable for his radical tastes , he joined the Brighton branch of the newly formed British Communist Party .

After Driberg had risen to responsible positions within the school ( deputy head boy , head librarian , and chief sacristan , among others ) , his Lancing career ended suddenly in the autumn of 1923 , when two boys complained about his sexual overtures . To avoid distressing the widowed Amy Driberg ( John Driberg had died in 1919 ) , the headmaster allowed him to remain in the school for the remainder of the term , stripped of his offices and segregated from all social contact with other boys . At the end of the term he was required to leave , on the pretext that he needed private tuition to pass his Oxford entrance examination which he had failed the previous summer . Back in Crowborough , after several months ' hard application under the guidance of his tutor , the future Lord Justice Pearson , Driberg won a classics scholarship to Christ Church , Oxford .

= = Oxford = =

Oxford in 1924 featured an avant @-@ garde aesthetic movement in which personalities such as Harold Acton , Brian Howard , Cyril Connolly and , a little later , W. H. Auden were leading lights . Driberg was soon immersed in a world of art , politics , poetry and parties : " There was just no time for any academic work " , he wrote later . With Auden , he discovered T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land , which they read again and again , " with growing awe " . A poem of Driberg 's in the style of Edith Sitwell was published in Oxford Poetry 1926 ; when Sitwell came to Oxford to deliver a lecture , Driberg invited her to have tea with him , and she accepted . After her lecture he found an opportunity to recite one of his own poems , and was rewarded when Sitwell declared him " the hope of English poetry " .

Meanwhile , together with the future historian A. J. P. Taylor , Driberg formed the membership of the Oxford University Communist Party . During the General Strike of May 1926 , most Oxford students supported the government and enrolled as special constables and strike @-@ breakers . A minority , which included the future Labour Party leader Hugh Gaitskell and the future Poet Laureate John Betjeman , sided with the strikers , while Driberg and Taylor offered their services at the British Communist Party 's headquarters in London . The Party showed no urgency to employ them , and Taylor soon left . Driberg , given a job distributing strike bulletins , was arrested by the police before he could begin and was detained for several hours . This ended his active role in the strike . Notwithstanding his extreme left @-@ wing associations , he secured 75 votes ( against the winner 's 152 ) in the 1927 elections for the presidency of the Oxford Union .

Throughout his time at Oxford , Driberg followed his passion for Anglican rituals by regularly attending Mass at Pusey House , an independent religious institution with a mission to " [ restore ] the Church of England 's Catholic life and witness " . In spite of the prevalent Oxford homoerotic ethos , his sexual energies were largely devoted to casual encounters with working @-@ class men , rather than to relationships with his fellow undergraduates . He experienced sexual relations with only one don , whom he met outside the university , unaware of the latter 's identity .

One of Driberg 's elaborate hoaxes was a concert called " Homage to Beethoven " , which featured megaphones , typewriters and a flushing lavatory . Newspaper accounts of this event raised the interest of the occultist Aleister Crowley . Driberg accepted an invitation to lunch with Crowley for the first of several meetings between them , at one of which Crowley nominated Driberg as his successor as World Teacher . Nothing came of the proposal , though the two continued to meet ; Driberg received from Crowley manuscripts and books that he later sold for sizeable sums . The consequence of these various extracurricular involvements was neglect of his academic work ; failure in his final examinations was inevitable , and in the summer of 1927 he left Oxford without a degree .

= = Daily Express columnist = =

= = = " The Talk of London " = = =

After leaving Oxford , Driberg lived precariously in London , attempting to establish himself as a poet while doing odd jobs and pawning his few valuables . Occasionally he had chance encounters with Oxford acquaintances ; Evelyn Waugh 's diary entry for 30 October 1927 records : " I went to church in Margaret Street where I was discomposed to observe Tom Driberg 's satanic face in the congregation " . Driberg had maintained his contact with Edith Sitwell , and attended regular literary tea parties at her Bayswater flat . When Sitwell discovered her protégé 's impoverished circumstances she arranged an interview for him with the Daily Express . After his submission of an article on London 's nightlife , he was engaged in January 1928 for a six @-@ week trial as a reporter ; coincidentally , Waugh had undergone an unsuccessful trial with the same newspaper a few months earlier .

Within a month of beginning his duties , Driberg achieved a scoop with the first national newspaper reports of the activities in Oxford of the American evangelist Frank Buchman , whose movement would in time be known as Moral Re @-@ Armament . Driberg 's reports were generally abrasive , even mocking in tone , and drew complaints from Buchman 's organisation about news bias . The trial period at the Express was extended , and in July 1928 Driberg filed an exclusive report on a society party at the swimming baths in Buckingham Palace Road , where the guests included Lytton Strachey and Tallulah Bankhead . This evidence of Driberg 's social contacts led to a permanent contract with the Express , as assistant to Percy Sewell who , under the name " The Dragoman " , wrote a daily feature called " The Talk of London " . Driberg later defended his association with an inconsequential society column by arguing that his approach was satirical , and that he deliberately exaggerated the doings of the idle rich as a way of enraging working @-@ class opinion and helping the Communist Party .

Driberg used the column to introduce readers to up @-@ and @-@ coming socialites and literary figures , Acton , Betjeman , Nancy Mitford and Peter Quennell among them . Sometimes he introduced more serious causes : capital punishment , modern architecture , the works of D. H. Lawrence and Jacob Epstein , and the lesbian novel The Well of Loneliness by Radclyffe Hall , which had been denounced in the Express editorial columns as " infamous " . By prior arrangement with Waugh , the column included a discreet announcement in September 1930 of Waugh 's conversion to Roman Catholicism ; Driberg was his only guest at the service . He further assisted Waugh in 1932 by giving him space in the column to attack the editor of the Catholic journal The Tablet , after it had described Waugh 's Black Mischief as blasphemous .

= = = As William Hickey = = =

Sewell retired in 1932 , leaving Driberg in sole charge of " The Talk of London " column . He grew increasingly frustrated with the trivial nature of his work . Following the intervention of Express proprietor Lord Beaverbrook , the column was relaunched in May 1933 as " These Names Make News " , and its by @-@ line changed to " William Hickey " , after the 18th century diarist and rake . Driberg described the new feature as " ... an intimate biographical column about ... men and women who matter . Artists , statesmen , airmen , writers , financiers , explorers ... " Historian David Kynaston calls Driberg the " founder of the modern gossip column " , although it soon began to move decisively away from chit @-@ chat and towards social and political issues . The tone of the column was described by Driberg 's ODNB biographer Richard Davenport @-@ Hines as " wry , compassionate , and brimm [ ing ] with ... open @-@ minded intelligence " .

Beaverbrook , who had developed a fondness for Driberg , was amused by the disparity between his columnist 's professed left @-@ wing sympathies and bon vivant lifestyle . The proprietor knew of Driberg 's persistent mismanagement of his personal finances , and on various occasions helped out with loans and gifts . During his time in London , Driberg had continued to indulge his taste for rough , casual sex ; his memoir records many such instances . In the autumn of 1935 he was charged with indecent assault , after an incident in which he had shared his bed with two Scotsmen picked up late one night , in the bohemian district of London which Driberg had christened " Fitzrovia " in the Hickey column . Beaverbrook paid for a leading counsel , J. D. Cassels , and two unimpeachable character witnesses were recruited by the defence . Driberg was acquitted , and Beaverbrook 's influence ensured that the case went unreported by the press . This was the first known instance of what writer Kingsley Amis called the " baffling immunity [ Driberg ] enjoyed from the law and the Press to the end of his days " .

In the latter part of the 1930s Driberg travelled widely : twice to Spain , to observe the Spanish Civil War , to Germany after the Munich Agreement of 1938 , to Rome for the coronation of Pope Pius XII and to New York for the 1939 New York World 's Fair . After the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact was announced in August 1939 , he informed his readers that there would be " no war this crisis " . Nine days later , after the German invasion of Poland precipitated the Second World War , he apologised for his mistake , and ended his first wartime column with the words " We 're all in it " . His opposition to the Nazi @-@ Soviet Pact and his support for the war in September 1939 may have been the reason for his expulsion from the Communist Party in 1941 . An alternative explanation , proffered later , is that he was reported by Anthony Blunt for passing information on the Party to Maxwell Knight of MI5 . Driberg and Knight were long @-@ standing acquaintances who met frequently and , among other things , shared a mutual interest in the works of Aleister Crowley .

Driberg 's mother had died in July 1939 . With his share of her money and the help of a substantial mortgage , he bought and renovated Bradwell Lodge , a country house in Bradwell @-@ on @-@ Sea on the Essex coast , where he lived and entertained until the house was requisitioned by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in 1940 . He continued to write the Hickey column , not always to his editor 's satisfaction ; his protestations against indiscriminate bombing of German civilians were particularly frowned on . In November 1941 he went to America and was in Washington on Monday 8 December , after the attack on Pearl Harbor , to report President Roosevelt 's speech to Congress announcing America 's entry into the war .

= = Early parliamentary career = =

= = = Independent Member for Maldon , 1942 – 45 = = =

When Driberg returned to Britain in March 1942 he found widespread public dissatisfaction with the government 's conduct of the war . This mood was reflected in a series of parliamentary by @-@ elections in which candidates supporting the wartime coalition government were defeated by Independents — the major parties had agreed to a pact under which they would not contest by @-@ elections in seats held by their respective parties . Driberg , in his column , generally welcomed this trend , while questioning " the merit of some of the candidates likely to get in if the reaction against the Party machines continues " . On 12 May 1942 the death was announced of Sir Edward Ruggles @-@ Brise , the Conservative member for Maldon — the constituency in which Bradwell Lodge was situated . Next day , Driberg requested three weeks ' leave from his column to fight the by @-@ election . Contrary to the belief of prime minister Winston Churchill and others that Driberg was being " run " by Beaverbrook , the Express proprietor was unenthusiastic ; an editorial on 25 May drew attention to Driberg 's individual viewpoint and stated that " The Daily Express does not support his candidature " .

Driberg 's campaign slogan was " A Candid Friend For Churchill " , personally supportive but critical of many of the prime minister 's circle . The lacklustre campaign of his right @-@ wing Conservative opponent helped to secure Driberg a wide range of support , from moderate Conservatives , Liberals and socialists . His fame as " William Hickey " , and his stance as the only candidate with a home in the constituency , gave him a strong local profile . His previous Communist Party associations were not revealed . At the poll , on 25 June , he overturned a previous Conservative majority of 8 @,@ 000 to finish 6 @,@ 000 votes ahead of his opponent . In his war memoirs , Churchill called the result " one of the by @-@ products of Tobruk " — which had fallen to Rommel on 21 June . Waugh , in his diary , remarked that the presentation of Driberg during the by @-@ election merely as a journalist and churchwarden gave " a very imperfect picture of that sinister character " .

On 2 July 1942 Driberg cast his first vote in the House of Commons , in support of Churchill against a rebel motion of censure on the government 's conduct of the war . The rebels ' case was put incompetently , which ensured that the motion gained only 25 votes , as against 477 cast for the government . Driberg delivered his maiden speech on 7 July , in a debate on the use of propaganda . He called for the lifting of the ban on the Communist Party 's newspaper , the Daily Worker , which he saw as a potentially valuable weapon of home propaganda .

In the following months he tabled questions and intervened in debates on behalf of various progressive causes . For example , on 29 September 1942 he asked the prime minister to " make friendly representations to the American military authorities asking them to instruct their men that the colour bar is not a custom in this country " . He continued to write the Hickey column , and used his parliamentary salary to fund a constituency office in Maldon .

In January 1943 , while in Edinburgh to campaign in another by @-@ election , Driberg was caught by a policeman while in the act of fellating a Norwegian sailor . In his own account of the incident Driberg records that he escaped arrest by identifying himself as " William Hickey " and as a member of parliament . These disclosures evidently overawed the constable , who took no further action ; indeed , Driberg says , the incident began a chaste friendship with the officer that endured for more than 10 years . Meanwhile , Beaverbrook had become disenchanted with him , and did not intervene when Arthur Christiansen , the Express editor , sacked the columnist in June 1943 over a story detrimental to a government minister , Andrew Rae Duncan . Driberg subsequently signed up with Reynolds News , a Sunday newspaper owned by the Co @-@ operative Group , and undertook a regular parliamentary column for the New Statesman . He also contributed to a weekly BBC European Service broadcast until , in October 1943 , he was banned after government pressure . He reported the post @-@ D @-@ Day allied advances in France and Belgium as a war correspondent for Reynolds News , and as a member of a parliamentary delegation witnessed the aftermath of the liberation of Buchenwald concentration camp in April 1945 .

= = = Labour Member , 1945 – 55 = = =

In the General election of July 1945 Driberg increased his majority at Maldon to 7 @,@ 727 . Before the election he had joined the Labour Party and had been welcomed by the local constituency party as their candidate . He was thus one of the 393 Labour MPs in the landslide election victory that replaced Churchill as prime minister with Clement Attlee .

Within a few days of his victory , Driberg left for the Far East , to report on the conditions of the allied troops in Burma . The Supreme Allied Commander , Lord Mountbatten , knew him slightly and made him an unofficial temporary special adviser . In this role he met the Patriotic Burmese Forces leader , Aung San , who impressed him as honest and incorruptible , " unlike some of the older Burmese politicians " . Later , he visited Saigon and offered to mediate with Ho Chi Minh , who had recently declared an independent Vietnam state . Driberg later maintained that , had his offer been taken up , he might have prevented the Vietnam War .

Because of his journalism , Driberg was a well @-@ known figure within the Labour Party generally , and in 1949 was elected to the party 's National Executive Committee ( NEC ) . In the February 1950 General Election he was again elected at Maldon , while nationally Labour lost 68 seats , reducing its parliamentary majority to six . With so small a majority , members ' regular attendance in the Commons chamber became important ; however , in August 1950 Driberg left the country for Korea , where Britain had joined the United States in a United Nations military expedition to repel the North Korean invasion of the South . Driberg and a few other left @-@ wing MPs had objected to British involvement ; In his Reynolds News column , Driberg had written of " Tories ( Conservatives ) who ... cannot help baying their delight at the smell of blood in the air " , a comment that caused outrage in parliament among the Conservative members . Whatever his reservations , Driberg 's war dispatches to Reynolds News were strongly supportive of the British troops . He participated in several night operations , and won respect from many of the soldiers for his courage despite , as one Marine put it " being a bit bent " . He was away from parliament for three months , missing many critical House of Commons divisions , and on his return was severely censured by his fellow Labour MPs for neglecting his duties . His general standing in the party was unaffected ; he had been re @-@ elected in absentia to the NEC in September 1950 .

In April 1951 the Labour government was hit by the resignations of three ministers — Aneurin Bevan , the future prime minister Harold Wilson , and John Freeman — over the imposition of prescription charges to pay for an increased armaments programme . Driberg was sympathetic to the rebels , though he tried to find a basis for compromise that would avoid resignations . The former ministers strengthened the small Labour group known as " Keep Left " , in which Driberg was prominent ; the group would henceforth be known as " Bevanites " . In the October 1951 General Election the Labour Party was defeated , and Churchill resumed office ; Driberg held on to his Maldon seat by 704 votes . Through the years of Labour government he had neither received nor sought office , having what historian Kenneth O. Morgan called a " backbench mindset " . He still enjoyed aspects of his parliamentary life , such as in 1953 when he showed the American singing sensation Johnnie Ray round the House of Commons ; his attempts to seduce the singer were politely resisted . However , he needed to earn more money , and in the spring of 1952 responded to a suggestion that he should write a biography of Beaverbrook . The press lord was amenable , and work began in the summer of 1953 . The project extended over several years , by which time Driberg was no longer in parliament ; he had announced in March 1954 that he was standing down from Maldon , which at the General Election of May 1955 fell , as he had expected , to the Conservatives .

= = Marriage = =

On 16 February 1951 Driberg surprised his friends by announcing his engagement to Ena Mary Binfield ( née Lyttelton ) . A former Suffolk county councillor , she worked as an administrator at the Marie Curie Hospital in London and was well known in senior Labour circles ; she had met Driberg in 1949 , at a weekend party given by the government minister George Strauss . According to her son , she was fully aware of Driberg 's sexual preferences , but looked forward to some political excitement , and " thought they could do a useful job as Mr. and Mrs. " Driberg 's motives are less clear , but he told his friend John Freeman that he needed someone to run Bradwell Lodge , to which he had returned in 1946 after its release by the RAF .

At Driberg 's insistence , Ena , a non @-@ practising Jew , was baptised into the Church of England before the wedding at St Mary the Virgin , Pimlico , on 30 June 1951 . The bride entered the church to a chorale arranged from the Labour Party anthem " The Red Flag " ; this was followed by a nuptial mass described by Driberg 's biographer Francis Wheen as " outrageously ornate " . Four hundred guests then attended an elaborate reception at the House of Commons .

In the ensuing years Ena tried hard to adapt to Driberg 's way of life and to control his wayward finances , but with little success . He continued his frequent travels and casual homosexual liaisons , and was hostile to her efforts to control or change any aspect of his life . In 1961 she wrote to him : " I have tried for ten years to make a compromise with you in your extraordinary mode of life and have now given up . " Thereafter they often lived apart , though they never formally separated . Even after a final breach in 1971 , they remained legally married .

= = Later career = =

= = = Out of parliament = = =

On leaving parliament in 1955 , Driberg 's main task was to complete the Beaverbrook biography . Although Beaverbrook had initially promised no interference with the text , he changed his mind when he began to read Driberg 's drafts . In the course of a prolonged disagreement , Beaverbrook accused his biographer of being driven by " malice and hatred " . When the manuscript was finally cleared for publication , much of the objectionable material had been removed ; nevertheless , Beaverbrook used the Daily Express to campaign against the book and denounce its hostile tone . Evelyn Waugh , to whom Driberg sent a copy , expressed disappointment that the work was in fact " a honeyed eulogy " .

In an effort to build his post @-@ parliamentary career , Driberg turned briefly to creative writing , but without success . In his more familiar field of journalism he caused a sensation by flying to Moscow in August 1956 to interview Guy Burgess , the former British diplomat who in 1951 had defected to Russia with his colleague Donald Maclean . The pair had emerged in Moscow in March 1956 , to give a brief press conference . Driberg had known Burgess in the 1940s , and the two shared similar homosexual inclinations ; this acquaintance was sufficient to secure the Moscow interview . On his return home Driberg rapidly wrote a book from the interview material , the serial rights of which were sold to the Daily Mail . Critics drew attention to the book 's relatively sympathetic portrayal of Burgess ; some believed the book had been vetted by the KGB , while others saw it as part of an MI5 plot to trap Burgess into revealing secret information for which he could be prosecuted should he ever return to Britain .

In 1956 Driberg convened a group of Christian socialists that met regularly at the Lamb public house in Bloomsbury to discuss issues such as imperialism , colonialism , immigration and nuclear disarmament . The group 's dispatches , Papers from the Lamb , led to the foundation in 1960 of the Christian Socialist Movement . Although no longer an MP , Driberg remained a member of the Labour Party 's NEC and was active in party affairs . In 1957 , in the face of antagonism from trade union leaders repelled by his lifestyle , he became Labour Party chairman , a largely ceremonial role . He travelled widely during his year in office , generally as a Reynolds News correspondent but using the party title to advantage whenever he could . Thus , in a 1958 visit to Moscow to interview space scientists , he obtained two meetings with Nikita Khrushchev .

In his final speech as chairman , to the party conference in 1958 , Driberg angered the Conservatives and their press supporters by referring to the Tory ideology as not essentially different from the German Herrenvolk philosophy . He had been contemplating for some time a return to the House of Commons , and in February 1959 was adopted as a candidate by the safe Barking constituency . In the General Election of October 1959 , which delivered a 100 @-@ seat majority to Harold Macmillan 's Conservative government , he won at Barking with a majority of exactly 12 @,@ 000 .

= = = Member for Barking , 1959 – 74 = = =

A dominant issue when Driberg returned to Westminster was that of the use or outlawing of nuclear weapons . The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) had been launched on 17 February 1958 , though Driberg 's involvement with the issue predated CND by three years . On 2 March 1955 , in an amendment to a House of Commons motion , he had called for Great Britain to " regain the moral leadership of the world by taking an initiative ... that may lead to the outlawing of ... thermo @-@ nuclear weapons " .

In October 1960 he supported the unilateralist motions passed at the Labour Party conference , and fought unsuccessfully in the NEC for them to be adopted as party policy . The conference motion was reversed the following year , but he continued to pursue the matter in parliament . On 29 May 1962 he urged that Britain not be a party to the renewal of nuclear tests , and in a speech on 23 July he said : " The unilateral abandonment of testing — or , better still , a test ban agreement — would be the most valuable first step towards general and complete disarmament . "

According to his colleague Ian Mikardo , Driberg was less than enthusiastic about his duties in Barking — " a very , very bad constituency MP " . Even his strongest supporters acknowledged that he attended as few local events as possible . In the Commons chamber he was a regular speaker on issues that concerned him , in particular disarmament , church affairs and racial discrimination . He supported the lowering of the voting age to 18 , and the broadcasting of parliamentary debates ; he opposed increases to judges ' salaries , and the extension of Stansted Airport . After the General Election of 1964 , which narrowly returned Labour to power under Harold Wilson , he was not offered a place in the new government , and soon found himself in opposition to Wilson 's policies on Vietnam , the Common Market , immigration and other major issues . He joined with Mikardo and other dissidents to form the " Tribune Group " , with the aim of promoting more left @-@ wing policies . The group 's influence lessened after March 1966 , when in another General Election Wilson increased his majority to 98 .

Driberg embraced enthusiastically the climate of the 1960s and the social and cultural freedoms that the decade introduced . In 1963 he met the Kray twins , prominent London gangland figures , and began a lengthy friendship with them and their associates . In July 1964 two backbench Conservative MPs reported to their Chief Whip that Driberg and Lord Boothby ( a well @-@ known Conservative peer ) had been importuning males at a dog track , and were involved with gangs of thugs .

At parties which Driberg and Boothby attended at the Krays ' flat , " rough but compliant East End lads were served like so many canapés " , according to Wheen . While Driberg avoided publicity , Boothby was hounded by the press and forced to issue a series of denials . After the twins had been convicted of murder in 1969 , Driberg frequently lobbied the Home Office about their prison conditions , requesting that they be given more visits and allowed regular reunions . Driberg was impressed with Mick Jagger , to whom he was introduced in 1965 , and tried hard over a number of years to persuade the singer to take up active Labour politics . He also began a long association with the satirical magazine Private Eye , supplying it with political gossip and , under the pseudonym " Tiresias " , compiling a regular , highly risqué prize cryptic crossword puzzle which on one occasion was won by the wife of the Archbishop of Canterbury .

In 1964 Driberg published a critical study of Moral Re @-@ armament , which brought him attacks from the movement on the basis of his homosexuality and communist past . Although he made money from this book , throughout the 1960s he was beset by financial problems . When Reynolds News , which had evolved into the Sunday Citizen , finally folded in 1967 , he became fully dependent on his parliamentary salary and casual journalism . He had long considered selling Bradwell Lodge , preferably to the National Trust on a basis that would allow him to continue living there . However , the Trust required the property to be mortgage @-@ free and endowed with a substantial fund to cover future repairs , neither of which terms could be arranged . In the event the house remained unsold until 1971 . As the 1970 election approached , Driberg wished to retire from parliament , and asked Wilson to appoint him as ambassador to the Vatican . Wilson refused , citing Driberg 's age — at 65 he was beyond the retirement age for senior diplomats . Against his will , but with few other sources of income available to him , Driberg fought the June 1970 General Election . He was returned for Barking with a comfortable though reduced majority ; nationally , Wilson 's government was defeated by Edward Heath 's Conservatives .

= = Retirement , ennoblement and death = =

Hampered by age and declining health , Driberg became less active politically , and in 1972 was voted off Labour 's NEC . The sale of Bradwell Lodge to a private buyer removed his main burden of debt , and he rented a small flat in the Barbican development in the City of London . In February 1974 , at the age of 68 , he retired from the House of Commons with the intention of writing his memoirs . Still short of income , he first completed a biography of his fellow @-@ journalist Hannen Swaffer , which was indifferently received — " a feeble potboiler " , according to Davenport @-@ Hines . Friends organised an elaborate 70th birthday party for him on 21 May 1975 ; " one duke , two dukes ' daughters , sundry lords , a bishop , a poet laureate — not bad for an old left @-@ wing MP " , Driberg observed to a guest .

In November 1975 he was granted a life peerage , and on 21 January 1976 was introduced to the House of Lords as Baron Bradwell of Bradwell juxta Mare . On 14 April he tabled a motion in the Lords calling on the government to consider the withdrawal of troops from Northern Ireland , but won little support . His health was failing , though he continued to work on his memoirs . His final contribution to the House of Lords was on 22 July , in a debate on entry vouchers for the dependents of immigrants .

Three weeks later , on 12 August 1976 , while travelling by taxi from Paddington to his Barbican flat , he suffered a fatal heart attack . The funeral was held on 19 August at St Matthew 's , Westminster ; he was buried in the cemetery attached to St Thomas 's Church , Bradwell .

= = Allegations of treachery = =

After the publication of his relatively sympathetic portrait of Burgess in 1956 , Driberg had been denounced as a " dupe of Moscow " by some elements of the press . Two years after Driberg 's death , the veteran investigative reporter Chapman Pincher alleged that he had been " a Kremlin agent of sympathy " and a supporter of Communist front organisations . In 1979 Andrew Boyle published The Climate of Treason , which exposed Anthony Blunt and led to a period of " spy mania " in Britain . Boyle 's exhaustive account of the Burgess – Maclean – Philby – Blunt circle mentioned Driberg as a friend of Burgess , " of much the same background , tastes and views " , but made no allegations that he was part of any espionage ring .

In this atmosphere , Pincher published Their Trade is Treachery ( 1981 ) , in which he maintained that Driberg had been recruited by MI5 to spy on the Communist Party while still a schoolboy at Lancing , and that he was later " in the KGB 's pay as a double agent " . Other writers added further details ; the former British Intelligence officer Peter Wright , in Spycatcher ( 1987 ) , alleged that Driberg had been " providing material to a Czech controller for money " . The former Kremlin archivist Vasili Mitrokhin asserted that the Soviets had blackmailed Driberg into working for the KGB by threatening to expose his homosexuality .

The weight of information , and its constant repetition , made an apparently strong case against Driberg , and former friends such as Mervyn Stockwood , the Bishop of Southwark , became convinced that he had indeed betrayed his country . Other friends and colleagues were more sceptical . According to ex @-@ Labour MP Reginald Paget , not even the security services were " lunatic enough to recruit a man like Driberg " , who was famously indiscreet and could never keep a secret . Mitrokhin 's " blackmail " story is questioned by historian Jeff Sharlet , on the grounds that by the 1950s and 1960s Driberg 's homosexuality had been an open secret in British political circles for many years ; he frequently boasted of his " rough trade " conquests to his colleagues . The journalist A. N. Wilson quotes Churchill commenting years before that " Tom Driberg is the sort of person who gives sodomy a bad name " .

Pincher , however , argued that as homosexual acts were criminal offences in Britain until 1967 , Driberg was still vulnerable to blackmail , although he also asserted that the MI5 connection secured Driberg a lifelong immunity from prosecution . Driberg 's colleague Michael Foot denied Pincher 's claim that Margaret Thatcher , when prime minister , had made a secret agreement with Foot to protect Driberg if Foot , in turn , would remain silent about the supposed treachery of Roger Hollis , another of Pincher 's recently dead targets .

Wheen asserts that Pincher was not an objective commentator ; the Labour Party , and its supposed infiltration by Communist agents , had been his target over many years . Pincher 's verdict on Driberg is that " in journalism , in politics and intelligence ... eventually he betrayed everybody " . Wheen argues that Driberg 's greatest vice was indiscretion ; he gossiped about everyone , but " indiscretion is not synonymous with betrayal " . Driberg 's Labour Party colleague , Leo Abse , offers a more complex explanation : Driberg was an adventurer who loved taking risks and played many parts . " Driberg could have played the part of the spy with superb skill , and if the officers of MI5 were indeed inept enough to have attempted to recruit him , then , in turn , Tom Driberg would have gained special pleasure in fooling and betraying them " .

= = Appraisal = =

In his will Driberg had stipulated that at his funeral his friend Gerald Irvine should deliver an " anti @-@ panegyric " in place of the normal eulogy . Irvine obliged , with a detailed assessment of Driberg against the Seven Deadly Sins , finding him guilty of Gluttony , Lust and Wrath , but relatively free from Avarice and Envy and entirely untouched by Sloth . Pride , Irvine maintained , was in Driberg 's case mitigated by " the contrary virtue of humility " . Ena did not attend the funeral ; she gave a single press interview in which she expressed " huge respect for Tom 's journalistic skills , political power and championship of the underdog " . She added that if her admiration for him did not extend to their personal life together , that was a private matter .

Driberg prided himself on being an exception to a rule propounded by Cyril Connolly , that the war between the generations is the one war in which everyone changes sides eventually . Mervyn Stockwood , in his address at the funeral service , praised Driberg as " a searcher for truth " , whose loyalty to the socialist cause was beyond question . This verdict was echoed by Michael Foot , who in a postscript to Driberg 's memoir wrote of Driberg 's " great services " to the Labour Party in the various offices that he occupied . Foot believed that Driberg 's homosexual passion , rather than bringing him fulfilment , had " condemned him to a lifetime of deep loneliness " The Times obituarist described Driberg as " A journalist , an intellectual , a drinking man , a gossip , a high churchman , a liturgist , a homosexual " , the first time , according to journalist Christopher Hitchens , that the newspaper had ever defined a public figure specifically as homosexual .

Nevertheless , Driberg 's incomplete memoir Ruling Passions , when published in June 1977 , was a shock to the public and to some of his erstwhile associates , despite advance hints of the book 's scandalous content . Driberg 's candid revelations of his " cottaging " and his descriptions of casual oral sex were called by one commentator " the biggest outpouring of literary dung a public figure has ever flung into print . " The comedians Peter Cook and Dudley Moore depicted Driberg as a sexual predator , wearing " fine fishnet stockings " and cavorting with a rent boy , in a sketch , " Back of the Cab " , which they recorded in 1977 .

More vituperation followed when Pincher 's allegations of Driberg 's links with the Russian secret service were published in 1981 ; Pincher christened him " Lord of the Spies " . However , Foot dismissed these accusations as typical of the " fantasies of the secret service world that seem to have taken possession of Pincher 's mind " . Foot added that Driberg " had always been much too ready to look forgivingly on Communist misdeeds , but this attitude was combined with an absolutely genuine devotion to the cause of peace " .

In his 2004 biographical sketch Davenport @-@ Hines describes Driberg as " a sincere if eccentric Christian socialist who detested racism and colonialism " , who at the same time " could be pompous , mannered , wayward , self @-@ indulgent , ungrateful , bullying and indiscreet " . As to the apparent contradiction between sincere Christianity and promiscuous homosexuality , Wheen argues that " there had been a recognisable male homosexual subculture in the Anglo @-@ Catholic movement since the late nineteenth century " . This theme is explored in a paper by David Hilliard of Flinders University , who maintains that " the [ 19th century ] conflict between Protestantism and Anglo @-@ Catholicism within the Church of England was ... regularly depicted by Protestant propagandists as a struggle between masculine and feminine styles of religion " .

Driberg throughout his life was a devout Anglo @-@ Catholic ; Wheen suggests that Evelyn Waugh , in Brideshead Revisited , may have had Driberg in mind when the novel 's protagonist Charles Ryder is warned on arrival at Oxford to " beware of Anglo @-@ Catholics — they 're all sodomites with unpleasant accents . "

Driberg was the subject of a play , Tom and Clem , which was staged at London 's Aldwych Theatre in April 1997 . The action takes place during Driberg 's brief visit to the Potsdam Conference in July 1945 , and deals with the contrast of compromise , represented by the pragmatic Clement Attlee , and post @-@ war idealism , personified by Driberg . Michael Gambon 's portrayal of Driberg , as " a slovenly , paunchy Bacchus with a mouth that can suddenly gape like a painfully @-@ hooked fish " , won special praise from The Times critic Benedict Nightingale .

= SMS Pommern =

SMS Pommern was one of five Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Kaiserliche Marine between 1904 and 1906 . Named after the Prussian province of Pomerania , she was built at the AG Vulcan yard at Stettin , where she was laid down on 22 March 1904 and launched on 2 December 1905 . She was commissioned into the navy on 6 August 1907 . The ships of her class were already outdated by the time they entered the service , being inferior in size , armor , firepower , and speed to the revolutionary new battleship HMS Dreadnought .

After commissioning , Pommern was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet , where she served throughout her peacetime career and the first two years of World War I. During this period , Pommern participated in several fruitless sorties into the North Sea in attempts to lure out and destroy a portion of the British Grand Fleet . The ship was present at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She and her sisters briefly engaged the British battlecruisers commanded by David Beatty ; Pommern was hit once by a 12 in ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) shell from the battlecruiser HMS Indomitable . During the confused night actions in the early hours of 1 June , she was hit by one , or possibly two , torpedoes from the British destroyer HMS Onslaught , which detonated one of Pommern 's 17 @-@ centimeter ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) gun magazines . The resulting explosion broke the ship in half and killed the entire crew . Pommern was the only battleship of either side sunk during the battle .

= = Construction = =

Pommern was ordered under the contract name " O " . She was laid down on 22 March 1904 at the AG Vulcan dockyard in Stettin . She was originally scheduled to be launched on 19 November 1905 , but the water level in the harbor was too low . As a result , the ship could not be launched until 2 December . The Oberpräsident of Pommern , Helmuth von Maltzahn , gave the launching speech . In July 1907 Pommern was transferred to Kiel where she had her main battery of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns installed . She was commissioned for trials on 6 August ; during her speed run , she made 18 @.@ 7 knots ( 34 @.@ 6 km / h ; 21 @.@ 5 mph ) , which made her the fastest pre @-@ dreadnought battleship in the world .

The ship was 127 @.@ 6 m ( 418 ft 8 in ) long and had a beam of 22 @.@ 2 m ( 72 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 8 @.@ 21 m ( 26 ft 11 in ) . Her full @-@ load displacement was 14 @,@ 218 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 993 long tons ) . She was equipped with triple expansion engines that were rated at 17 @,@ 453 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 015 kW ) and a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Steam was provided by twelve Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers . In addition to being the fastest ship of her class , Pommern was the most fuel efficient . At a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , she could steam for 5 @,@ 830 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 800 km ; 6 @,@ 710 mi ) . The ship had a peacetime crew of 35 officers and 708 enlisted men , though during military operations , the size of the crew expanded .

Pommern 's primary armament consisted of four 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 40 guns in two twin turrets . She was equipped with fourteen 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates and twenty 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns in pivot mounts . The ship was also armed with six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the hull . One was in the bow , one in the stern , and four on the broadside . Her armored belt was 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships and she had a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick armored deck . The main battery turrets had 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick sides .

= = Service history = =

Pommern was assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet alongside her sisters . She took part in the annual training cruises and maneuvers with the rest of the High Seas Fleet between 1908 and 1914 . This included fleet training in the Baltic in 1908 and a cruise into the Atlantic the following year . In May 1910 Pommern took part in fleet training in the Kattegat between Denmark and Norway , followed by a cruise to Norway in the summer . At the end of 1910 , the fleet conducted another cruise into the Baltic . The next two years followed a similar pattern , though the summer cruise in 1912 was interrupted by the Agadir Crisis . As a result , the cruise was only into the Baltic . Later in the year Pommern took part in maneuvers off the island of Helgoland in the North Sea .

In July 1914 , about two weeks after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo , Pommern was with the High Seas Fleet during its annual summer cruise to Norway . As a result of rising international tensions , the cruise was cut short and the German fleet was back in Wilhelmshaven by 29 July . At midnight on 4 August , the United Kingdom declared war on Germany . Pommern remained with the High Seas Fleet throughout the first two years of the naval war . At the outbreak of war , the ship and her sisters in the II Battle Squadron were deployed to the mouth of the Elbe River to guard the area from possible British incursions .

Pommern and the rest of the II Battle Squadron then rejoined the High Seas Fleet as part of the battleship support for the battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group that bombarded Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . During the operation , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens convinced Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl that he was confronted with the entire Grand Fleet , and so he broke off the engagement and turned for home . Two fruitless fleet advances followed on 17 – 18 and 21 – 23 April 1915 . A third took place on 17 – 18 May , and a fourth occurred on 23 – 24 October .

On 24 – 25 April 1916 , Pommern and her sisters joined the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet to support the battlecruisers , which were again tasked with conducting a raid of the English coast . While en route to the target , the battlecruiser Seydlitz was damaged by a mine . Seydlitz was detached to return home , and the rest of the ships continued with the mission . Due to poor visibility , the battlecruisers conducted a brief bombardment of the ports of Yarmouth and Lowestoft . The operation was quickly called off , which prevented the British fleet from being able to intervene .

= = = Battle of Jutland = = =

Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the new commander of the High Seas Fleet , immediately planned another foray into the North Sea , but the damage to Seydlitz delayed the operation until the end of May . Pommern remained assigned to the II Battle Squadron , now under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Mauve . The squadron was positioned at the rear of the German line . During the " Run to the North , " Scheer ordered the fleet to pursue the British V Battle Squadron at top speed . The slower Deutschland @-@ class ships could not keep up with the faster dreadnoughts and quickly fell behind .

Later in the evening of the first day of the battle , the hard @-@ pressed battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group were being pursued by their British opponents . Pommern and the other so @-@ called " five @-@ minute ships " came to their aid by steaming in between the opposing battlecruiser squadrons . Pommern could not make out a target in the darkness , though her several of her sisters could . Despite this , their shooting was ineffective . The British battlecruisers scored several hits on the German ships , including one on Pommern by a 12 in ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) shell fired by Indomitable , forcing her to haul out of line . Admiral Mauve ordered an 8 @-@ point turn to the south to disengage from the British , and they did not follow .

At 3 : 10 on the morning of 1 June , Pommern was torpedoed by the British destroyer Onslaught . At least one torpedo , and possibly a second , struck the ship , detonating one of the 17 cm ammunition magazines . A tremendous explosion broke the ship in half . The stern capsized and remained afloat for at least 20 minutes with her propellers jutting into the air . Hannover , the ship directly astern of Pommern , was forced to haul out of line to avoid the wreck . Pommern 's entire crew of 839 officers and enlisted men were killed when the ship sank . She was the only battleship , pre @-@ dreadnought or dreadnought , in either fleet to be sunk at Jutland ; her loss , coupled with the vulnerabilities of the surviving pre @-@ dreadnoughts , prompted Scheer to leave them behind during the sortie of 18 – 19 August 1916 .

= Sleaford =

Sleaford is a market town and civil parish in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire , a non @-@ metropolitan county in the east of England . It is on the edge of the fertile Fenlands , about 11 miles ( 18 km ) north @-@ east of Grantham , 16 miles ( 26 km ) west of Boston , and 17 miles ( 27 km ) south of the city and county town of Lincoln . With an estimated resident population of 17 @,@ 671 at the time of the 2011 Census , the town is the largest settlement in North Kesteven , and makes up roughly 15 % of its total population . Bypassed by the A17 and the A15 , it is connected to Lincoln , Newark , Peterborough and King 's Lynn . Sleaford railway station is on the Nottingham to Skegness ( via Grantham ) and Peterborough to Lincoln Lines .

The first settlement formed during the Iron Age where a prehistoric track crossed the River Slea . It was a tribal centre and home to a mint for the Corieltauvi during the 1st centuries BC and AD . Evidence of Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement has been uncovered , and by the late Saxon period the town was an economic and jurisdictional centre with a court and market . During the medieval period , records differentiate between Old and New Sleaford , the latter emerging in the areas around the present day market place and St Denys ' Church . Sleaford Castle was constructed in the 12th century for the Bishops of Lincoln , who owned the manor . Granted the right to hold a market in the mid @-@ 12th century , New Sleaford developed into a market town and became locally important in the wool trade , while Old Sleaford declined .

From the 16th century , the landowners were the Carre family , who operated tight control over the town , and it grew little in the early modern period . The manor passed from the Carre family to the Hervey family by the marriage of Isabella Carre to John Hervey , 1st Earl of Bristol , in 1688 . The town 's common land and fields were legally enclosed by 1794 , giving ownership mostly to the Hervey family ; this coincided with making the Slea into a canal , and heralded the first steps towards modern industry . The Sleaford Navigation brought economic growth until it was superseded by the railways in the mid @-@ 1850s . In the 20th century , the sale of farmland around Sleaford by Bristol Estates led to the development of large housing estates . The subsequent availability of affordable housing combined with the town 's educational facilities and low crime rates made it an attractive destination for home @-@ buyers . As a result , the town 's population underwent the fastest growth of any town in the county during the 1990s .

Sleaford was primarily an agricultural town until the 20th century , supporting a cattle market , with seed companies , such as Hubbard and Phillips , and Sharpes International Seeds , being established in the late 19th century . The arrival of the railway made the town favourable for malting . Industry has declined , and in 2011 the most common occupations are in wholesale and retail trade , health and social care , public administration and defence and manufacturing . Regeneration of the town centre has led to the redevelopment of the old industrial areas , including the construction of the National Centre for Craft & Design on an old wharf .

= = History = =

= = = Etymology = = =

The earliest records of the place @-@ name Sleaford are found in a charter of 852 as Slioford and in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as Sliowaford . In the Domesday Book ( 1086 ) , it is recorded as Eslaforde and in the early 13th century as Sliforde . In the 13th century Book of Fees the name appears as Lafford . The name is formed from the Old English words sliow and ford , which together mean ' ford over a muddy or slimy river ' .

= = = Early = = =

Archaeological material from the Bronze Age and earlier has been recovered and excavations have shown that there was unsustained late @-@ Neolithic and Bronze Age human activity in the vicinity . The earliest known permanent settlement dates from the Iron Age and began where a track running northwards from Bourne crossed the River Slea . Although only sparse pottery evidence has been found for the middle Iron Age period , 4 @,@ 290 pellet mould fragments , likely used for minting and dated to 50 BC – AD 50 , have been uncovered south east of the modern town centre , south of a crossing of the River Slea and near Mareham Lane in Old Sleaford . The largest of its kind in Europe , the deposit has led archaeologists to consider that the site in Old Sleaford was probably one of the largest Corieltauvian settlements during this period and may have been a tribal centre .

During the Roman occupation of Britain ( AD 43 – 409 ) , the settlement was " extensive and of considerable importance . " Its location along the fen @-@ edge may have made it economically and administratively significant as a centre for managers and owners of fenland estates . There is evidence to suggest that a road connected Old Sleaford to Heckington ( about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) east ) , where Roman tile kilns have been uncovered and may imply the presence of a market at Sleaford . When the first roads were constructed by the Romans , Sleaford was bypassed due to it being " less conveniently located " and more " geared to native needs " . A smaller road , Mareham Lane , which the Romans renewed , ran through Old Sleaford , and southwards along the fen edge , towards Bourne . Where it passed through Old Sleaford , excavations have revealed a large stone @-@ built domestic residence , associated farm buildings , corn @-@ driers , ovens and field systems , all from the Roman period , and a number of burials . Other Roman remains , including a burial , have been excavated in the town .

= = = Middle Ages = = =

There is little evidence of continuous settlement between the late Roman and Anglo @-@ Saxon periods but the Saxons did establish themselves eventually . South of the modern town , a 6th – 7th century cemetery has been uncovered containing an estimated 600 burials , many showing signs of pagan burial rites . It is possible that the Anglo @-@ Saxon inhabitants were foederati first brought over by the Romano @-@ Britons to defend settlements from other Saxon invaders . The now ruined Church of St Giles / All Saints at Old Sleaford has been discovered and excavations of the Market Place in 1979 uncovered Anglo @-@ Saxon remains from the 8th – 9th centuries , indicating some form of enclosure with domestic features . The earliest documentary reference to Sleaford is in a charter from the 9th century , when it was owned by Medehamstede Abbey in Peterborough , a Mercian royal foundation . There is little evidence of estate structure until the late Saxon period , but there may have been a market and court in pre @-@ Conquest Sleaford and it was probably an economic and jurisdictional centre for surrounding settlements . The Slea played an important role in the town 's economy : it never ran dry nor froze , and by the 11th century a dozen watermills lined its banks . The mills and others in nearby Quarrington and the lost hamlet of Millsthorpe , constituted the " most important mill cluster in Lincolnshire " .

Later in the Middle Ages , the Romano @-@ British settlement became known as " Old Sleaford " , while " New Sleaford " was used to describe the settlement centred on St Denys ' Church and the Market Place . The Domesday Book ( 1086 ) has two entries under Eslaforde ( Sleaford ) recording land held by Ramsey Abbey and the Bishop of Lincoln . The location of the manors recorded in Domesday is not made clear in the text . One theory endorsed by Maurice Beresford is that they focused on the settlement at Old Sleaford because of evidence that New Sleaford was planted in the 12th century by the bishop to increase his income , which was associated with the construction of Sleaford Castle between 1123 and 1139 . Beresford 's theory has been criticised by the local historians Christine Mahany and David Roffe who have reinterpreted the Domesday material and argued that by 1086 the Bishop 's manor included a church and associated settlement in what became New Sleaford .

The right to hold a fair on the feast day of St Denis was granted by a charter of King Stephen to Alexander , Bishop of Lincoln , in 1136 – 40 . Between 1154 and 1165 , Henry II granted the bishop of Lincoln the right to hold a market at Sleaford ; bishop Oliver Sutton argued in 1281 that his right to hold a market and fair had existed since time immemorial . In 1329 , Edward III confirmed the market and , in 1401 , Henry IV granted the bishop fairs on the feast days of St Denis and St Peter 's Chains . A survey of 1258 is the first to mention burgage tenure ; tenants in the nearby hamlet of Holdingham held tofts with other land , while those in New Sleaford held only tofts , indicating that demesne farming centred on the hamlet . The town later had at least two guilds comparable to those found in developed towns . However , there was no formal charter outlining the town 's freedoms ; it was not a centre of trade and tight control by the bishops meant the economy was primarily geared to serve them . Hence , it retained a strong tradition of demesne farming well into the 14th century . As the economic initiative fell more to the burgesses and middlemen who formed connections with nearby towns , such as Boston , evidence suggests that Sleaford developed a locally important role in the wool trade . In the Lay Subsidy of 1334 , New Sleaford was the wealthiest settlement in the Flaxwell wapentake , with a value of £ 16 0s . 81 / 4d . Meanwhile , Old Sleaford , an " insignificant " place since the end of the Roman period , declined and may have been deserted by the 16th century .

= = = Early modern = = =

During the late 15th and early 16th centuries , the Hussey family owned the manor of Old Sleaford . John Hussey , 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford was executed for treason for his part in the Lincolnshire Rising . The manor and his residence at Old Place reverted to the Crown and were later sold to Robert Carre . George Carre or Carr from Northumberland had settled in Sleaford by 1522 when he was described as a wool merchant . His son Robert bought Hussey 's land and the castle and manor of New Sleaford from Edward Clinton , 1st Earl of Lincoln . His eldest surviving son Robert , founded Carre 's Grammar School in 1604 , and his youngest son Edward was created a baronet ; his son founded Sleaford Hospital in 1636 . The last male descendent died in 1683 and the heiress , Isabella Carre , married John Hervey , Earl of Bristol , in whose family the estates remained until the 1970s . The Carres and Herveys had a strong influence : in addition to extracting dues from their tenants , they took leading tradesmen to the Exchequer Court to gain legal force behind their monopoly on charging tolls on market and cattle traders and for driving animals through the town .

Industry was slow to take hold , and by the second half of the 18th century , Cogglesford Mill was the only working corn mill in the town . An old mill at the junction of Westgate and Castle Causeway supplied hemp to the growing rope @-@ making business of the Foster and Hill families . As local historian Simon Pawley wrote , " in many respects , things had changed little [ by 1783 ] since the survey of 1692 " , with few of the buildings or infrastructure being improved . Major changes to agriculture and industry took place in the last decade of that century . From the Middle Ages , Sleaford was surrounded by three open fields : North , West and Sleaford Fields . At the enclosure of the open fields in 1794 more than 90 % of the 1 @,@ 096 acres of open land was owned by Lord Bristol . Despite the costs of fencing and re @-@ organising the fields , the system was easier to farm , and cottages were built closer to fields , while the landowner could charge more rent owing to the increased profitability of the land ; those who lost out were the cottagers , who could no longer keep a few animals grazing on the common land at no cost . The process allowed the land boundaries and pathways to be tidied up ; Drove Lane , which ran to Rauceby , was shifted north and straightened .

= = = Industrial = = =

Canalisation of the River Slea began in the 1790s . Canals in England were constructed from the 1760s to make inland trade easier ; Sleaford 's businessmen were keen to benefit from the improved communication they allowed . The Sleaford Navigation opened in 1794 . It facilitated the export of agricultural produce to the Midlands , and the import of coal and oil . Mills along the Slea benefited and wharves were constructed around Carre Street . Between 1829 and 1836 the navigation 's toll rights increased in value by 27 times . The railways emerged in the 19th century as an alternative to canals and arrived at the town in 1857 , when a line from Grantham to Sleaford opened . It made agricultural trade easier and improved communication , but led to the decline of the Navigation Company . Income from tolls decreased by 80 % between 1858 and 1868 ; it made its first loss in 1873 and was abandoned in 1878 . The town 's rural location and transport links meant that the late 19th century saw the rise of two local seed merchants : Hubbard and Phillips , and Charles Sharpe ; the former took over the Navigation Wharves , and the latter was trading in the US and Europe by the 1880s . The railway , Sleaford 's rural location and its artesian wells , were key factors in the development of the 13 @-@ acre Bass & Co maltings complex at Mareham Lane ( 1892 – 1905 ) .

In the first half of the 19th century , Sleaford 's population more than doubled from 1 @,@ 596 in 1801 to 3 @,@ 539 in 1851 . Coinciding with this is the construction or extension of public buildings , often by the local contractors Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry . The gasworks opened in 1839 to provide gas lighting in the town . Sleaford 's Poor Law Union was formed in 1836 to cater for the town and the surrounding 54 parishes . The workhouse was constructed by 1838 and could house 181 inmates . Despite these advances , the slums around Westgate were over @-@ crowded , lacking sanitation and disease @-@ ridden ; the local administration failed to deal with the matter until 1850 , when a report on the town 's public health by the General Board of Health heavily criticised the situation and set up a Local Board of Health to undertake public works . By the 1880s , Lord Bristol had allowed clean water to be pumped into the town , but engineering problems and a reluctance to sell land to house the turbines had delayed the introduction of sewers .

= = = Post @-@ industrial = = =

Although largely undamaged in the First and Second World Wars , Sleaford has close links with the Royal Air Force due to its proximity to several RAF bases , including RAF Cranwell and RAF Waddington . Lincolnshire 's topography — flat and open countryside — and its location on the east of the country made it ideal for the development of Britain 's airfields , constructed in the First World War . Work began on Cranwell in late 1915 ; it was designated an RAF base in 1918 and the RAF College opened in 1920 as he world 's first air academy . The Cranwell branch railway linking Sleaford station to the RAF base opened in 1917 and closed in 1956 . During the Second World War , Lincolnshire was " the most significant location for bomber command " and Rauceby Hospital , south @-@ west of Sleaford , was requisitioned by the RAF as a specialist burns unit which plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe regularly visited .

In the inter @-@ war period , Sleaford 's population remained static , but the Great Depression in the 1930s caused unemployment to rise . Council @-@ housing developments along Drove Lane proved insufficient to house low @-@ income families after the Westgate slums were cleared in the 1930s so Jubilee Grove opened in that decade to meet the demand . In the post @-@ war period , there were new housing developments at St Giles Avenue , the Hoplands , Russell Crescent , Jubilee Grove , and Grantham Road . Parts of the town were redeveloped : in 1958 , the Bristol Arms Arcade opened , the Corn Exchange was demolished in the 1960s , and the Waterside Shopping Precinct opened in 1973 , as did Flaxwell House , designed to house a department store , though later becoming the national headquarters for Interflora .

By 1979 , the major landowner , Victor Hervey , 6th Marquess of Bristol , heavily in debt , had sold most of his estates in Sleaford and Quarrington and the estate 's office closed in 1989 . Much of the land was sold to property developers and in the following decades saw the construction of residential buildings and a considerable population increase . According to a council report , " the quality of life , low crime rates , relatively low house prices and good @-@ quality education " attracted people to the town . From 1981 to 2011 , Sleaford 's population rose from 8 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 ; the growth rate from 1991 to 2001 was the fastest of any town in the county . Its infrastructure struggled to cope , especially with increased traffic congestion ; two bypasses around the town and a one @-@ way system were introduced , a process which Simon Pawley argues accelerated the decline of the High Street . In the early 2000s , the Single Regeneration Budget of £ 15 million granted to Sleaford improved the town centre and funded development of the Hub ( since 2011 , the National Centre for Craft & Design ) in the old Navigation wharves area .

= = Geography = =

= = = Topography = = =

Sleaford is the principal market town in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire . The civil parish includes the hamlet of Holdingham to the north east and the village of Quarrington to the south east , both of which merge with the town . The County Council 's State of the Environment Report ( 1994 ) found that roughly three @-@ quarters of Lincolnshire is low @-@ lying , with much of it near sea @-@ level ; Sleaford lies approximately 43 feet ( 13 m ) above sea level close to Lincoln Cliff , a Limestone scarp running north – south through Lindsey and Kesteven . The bedrock under the western half of the town belongs to the Great Oolite Group of Jurassic Sandstone , Limestone and Argillaceous rocks formed 168 − 165 million years ago ; Kellaways and Oxford Clay formations , dated to 165 – 156 million years ago , underlie the eastern half . Alluvium deposits are found along the Slea 's course , and Fen sand and gravel are found to the east and south . The county 's agricultural land is generally of " very good " quality ; as a result , intensive arable and vegetable farming is predominant and pastoral farming declined over the course of the 20th century . Sleaford is on the edge of the Fens , a low @-@ lying region of the East of England which , before drainage from the 17th to the 20th centuries , were marshy and liable to flooding . Draining has revealed nutrient @-@ rich soils and enabled 88 % of the land to be cultivated , especially for arable farming , and most of it is graded amongst the most productive farmland in the country .

= = = Climate = = =

According to the Köppen classification , the British Isles experience a maritime climate characterised by relatively cool summers and mild winters . Lincolnshire 's position on the east of the Isles allows for a sunnier and warmer climate relative to the national average , and it is one of the driest counties in the United Kingdom . Although it may vary depending on altitude and proximity to the coast , the mean average temperature for the East of England is approximately 9 ° C to 10 @.@ 5 ° C ; the highest temperature recorded in the region was 37 @.@ 3 ° C at Cavendish on 10 August 2003 . On average , the region experiences 30 days of rainfall in winter and 25 in summer , with 15 days of thunder and 6 – 8 days of hail per year ; on 25 August 2001 , hail the size of golf balls were reported in Sleaford and other parts of central Lincolnshire . Wind tends to affect the north and west of the country more than the East , and Lincolnshire tends to receive no more than 2 days of gale per year ( where gale is a gust of wind at > 34 knots , sustained for at least 10 minutes ) . Despite this , tornadoes form more often in the East of England than elsewhere in the country ; Sleaford experienced tornadoes in 2006 and 2012 , both of which caused damage to property .

= = Governance = =

= = = Politics = = =

Before 1832 , Sleaford was in the Lincolnshire parliamentary constituency , which encompassed all of the county except for four boroughs . In the 1818 election , 49 of the 2 @,@ 000 people living in New and Old Sleaford and Quarrington qualified to vote . In 1832 , the Reform Act widened the franchise and divided Lincolnshire . Sleaford was in the South Lincolnshire constituency that elected two members to parliament . Following the 1867 reforms , the South Lincolnshire constituency 's borders were redrawn , but Sleaford remained within it . The franchise was widened by the reforms so that roughly 15 % ( 202 ) of males in Sleaford and Quarrington could vote in 1868 . The constituency was abolished in 1885 and the Sleaford constituency was formed . It merged with the Grantham seat in 1918 . In 1997 , Sleaford was reorganised into Sleaford and North Hykeham .

The member returned in 2010 for Sleaford and North Hykeham was the Conservative candidate Stephen Phillips , who replaced Douglas Hogg . Lincolnshire elected a Member of the European Parliament from 1974 until 1994 , and then became part of the Lincolnshire and Humberside South constituency until 1999 ; since then , it has elected members as part of the East Midlands constituency ; from 1999 , there were six members for the East Midlands , but the number was reduced to five in 2009 .

= = = Local government = = =

From the early medieval period , New Sleaford was in the Flaxwell Wapentake and Old Sleaford in the Ashwardhurn Wapentake . Sleaford Poor Law Union , overseen by a Board of Guardians , was established in 1836 . A Local Board of Health was formed in 1851 . Public health was reorganised by the Public Health Act 1872 , which established Urban and Rural Sanitary Districts ( USD or RSD ) ; Sleaford USD covered New and Old Sleaford , Holdingham and Quarrington , while the Sleaford RSD included all other parishes in the Poor Law Union . The Local Government Act 1894 converted the Board of Health and USD into the Sleaford Urban District Council and , in 1899 , the town became the administrative base of Kesteven County Council . A rural district formed in 1894 was abolished in 1931 . In 1973 , Sleaford Urban District merged with the North and East Kesteven districts to form North Kesteven , a district of Lincolnshire ; by statutory instrument , Sleaford civil parish became the urban district 's successor , thus merging Quarrington , New Sleaford , Old Sleaford and Holdingham civil parishes .

Sleaford Town Council , the parish @-@ level local government body beneath the district council is composed of 18 councillors from six wards : Castle , Holdingham , Mareham , Navigation , Quarrington , and Westholme . The Chairman of the Town Council is also the Mayor of Sleaford ; Cllr Keith Dolby is Mayor for 2014 – 15 . The six wards are also represented on North Kesteven District Council , although Mareham and Quarrington are merged into a single ward . Sleaford sends one councillor to Lincolnshire County Council . Sleaford Town Council has offices on Carre Street and the District Council offices are in the Lafford Terrace building on Eastgate , which was purchased by the council in 1934 .

Sleaford Urban District Council was granted a coat of arms on 26 October 1950 and after it was abolished the arms were used by its successor , Sleaford Town Council . The arms are blazoned : Gules on a Chevron Or three Estoiles Sable on a Chief Argent as many Trefoils slipped Vert . The trefoils in the chief are from the arms of the Marquess or Bristol , while the lower portion of the shield is the arms of the Carre family . Its crest is blazoned : On a Wreath of the Colours an Eagle wings extended and head downwards and to the sinister proper holding in the beak an Ear of Wheat stalked and leaved Or , the eagle symbolises Sleaford 's links with the Royal Air Force and the ear of wheat represents agriculture .

= = Public services = =

Policing is provided by the Lincolnshire Police , and fire @-@ fighting by the Lincolnshire Fire and Rescue Service . The police station is on Boston Road , although older premises on Kesteven Street were erected in 1845 and reconstructed in 1912 . The fire station is on Church Lane although plans to move it to East Road by 2016 were approved in 2014 . East Midlands Ambulance Service ( EMAS ) operates from Kesteven Street . The United Lincolnshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides services at three hospitals , Pilgrim Hospital in Boston , Grantham and District Hospital , and Lincoln County Hospital , all of which have 24 @-@ hour accident and emergency departments as of January 2015 .

Mains water and sewerage services are provided by Anglian Water , a former nationalised industry and natural monopoly , privatised in 1989 and regulated by the Water Services Regulation Authority ( OFWAT ) . In 1879 , an Act of Parliament was passed to set up a water company for the town ; pumping machinery was installed and works constructed in 1880 to provide a clean water supply to the town . In 1948 , the council took over the company and in 1962 its operation was handed to the Kesteven Water Board , which was absorbed by the Anglian Water Authority in 1973 .

Lincolnshire County Council promoted a Bill to Parliament to build an electricity generating station which passed in 1900 . It was built at the cost of £ 6 @,@ 700 in 1901 on Castle Causeway and remained there until nationalisation in 1948 . Following nationalisation , electricity was provided by the East Midlands Electricity Board until it was privatised in 1990 ; in 1998 , East Midlands Electricity , the privately owned predecessor company , was purchased by PowerGen . A " virtually carbon neutral " straw @-@ burning power @-@ station at Sleaford opened in 2013 ; capable of supplying electricity to 65 @,@ 000 homes , it is powered by straw bales from farms within a 50 @-@ mile radius . Most electricity generated is fed into the National Grid and the facility provides free heat to public buildings in the town .

Natural Gas was supplied by British Gas , which was privatised in 1986 . Distribution of gas and electricity is the responsibility of the National Grid . The energy markets are regulated by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets ( OFGEM ) . The Sleaford Gas Light Company was formed in 1838 and the following year , gas lighting was provided and a gasworks was constructed on Eastgate . In 1866 , the company was incorporated ; in 1895 – 96 , the works were rebuilt and lit the town until the company was nationalised in 1948 . Gas ceased to be made here in the 1960s and the original buildings were retained although later extensions were demolished from 1966 to 1968 .

Sleaford Library houses a local and family history section and microfiche machine . It was refurbished in 2010 , but , as of 2014 , was listed by the county council as " undersized " .

= = Economy = =

= = = Employment = = =

Sleaford served the surrounding agricultural communities and the town maintained a weekly market throughout the 19th century and a livestock market on Northgate from 1874 until 1984 . According to a 2010 council report , the public sector was the town 's main employer , along with agriculture and manufacturing . Unemployment was lower than the national average as were wages reflecting pay in the food processing and agricultural industries . At the 2011 Census , the largest group of working @-@ age persons by economic activity are those in full @-@ time employment , who make up 43 @.@ 8 % of this section of the population , while 15 % are part @-@ time employees and 7 @.@ 7 % are self @-@ employed ; 15 % of the working @-@ age population are retired . 4 @.@ 2 % were unemployed , with 40 % of those in long @-@ term unemployment and roughly one third were aged 16 to 24 . The largest socio @-@ economic grouping is those working in lower @-@ tier managerial or administrative roles ( 21 @.@ 9 % ) , followed by semi @-@ routine ( 17 @.@ 8 % ) , routine ( 15 % ) and intermediate ( 12 @.@ 5 % ) occupations ; no other group comprised 10 % or more . In terms of industry , the most common , based on those working in the sector , are wholesale and retail trade ( including automotive repairs ) at 16 @.@ 9 % , health and social care ( 13 @.@ 4 % ) , public administration and defence ( 13 @.@ 3 % ) and manufacturing ( 10 @.@ 9 % ) , with no other groups representing 10 % or more . An unemployment survey of Lincolnshire in 2014 found that the county experienced a decline in unemployment ( based on Jobseekers Allowance claimants ) by 29 % over the preceding 12 months , while the county 's unemployment rate was marginally below the national average .

= = = Regeneration = = =

In 2011 North Kesteven District Council produced a 25 @-@ year strategy to regenerate the town because its rapid growth since the 1990s had outgrown improvements to its infrastructure . It plans future residential developments and outlines ways of improving the town centre . It suggests developing more parking around the centre and reverting parts the one @-@ way system , developing southern Southgate and turning Money 's Yard into an attraction to link with the National Centre for Craft and Design . North Kesteven District Council granted planning permission for a £ 56 m project to redevelop the derelict Bass Maltings site by converting it into residential and retail space and creating about 500 permanent jobs . The development including a supermarket was delayed when the town council opposed a link road through part of the recreation ground . Tesco , who had pledged to invest in a £ 20 million store in the development withdrew in January 2015 following financial set @-@ backs .

= = Transport = =

The A17 road from Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent to King 's Lynn bypasses Sleaford from Holdingham Roundabout to Kirkby la Thorpe . It ran through the town until the bypass opened in 1975 . The Holdingham roundabout connects the A17 to the A15 road from Peterborough to Scawby . It also passed through Sleaford until 1993 , when its bypass was completed . Three roads meet at Sleaford 's market place : Northgate ( B1518 ) , Southgate and Eastgate ( B1517 ) . A one @-@ way system set up in 1994 creates a circuit around the town centre .

The railways arrived in the 19th century . Early proposals to bring a line to Sleaford failed , but in 1852 plans were made to build the Boston , Sleaford and Midland Counties Railway and its Act of Parliament passed in 1853 . The line from Grantham opened in 1857 ; Boston was connected in 1859 , Bourne in 1871 and Ruskington on Great Northern and Great Eastern Joint Railway in 1882 .

Sleaford is a stop on the Peterborough to Lincoln Line and the Poacher Line , from Grantham to Skegness . Grantham , roughly 14 @.@ 8 miles ( 23 @.@ 8 km ) away by road and two stops on the Poacher Line , is a major stop on the East Coast Main Line . Trains from Grantham to London King 's Cross take approximately 1 hour 15 minutes .

The River Slea through the town was converted into use as a canal for much of the 19th century . Plans to canalise it were drawn up in 1773 , but faced opposition from land @-@ owners who feared it might affect the drainage of fens . Plans were approved in 1791 with the support of Brownlow Bertie , 5th Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven who owned estates and quarries that he hoped would benefit . An Act of Parliament passed in 1792 , establishing the Sleaford Navigation , which opened two years later . After falling revenues due to competition from the railways , the navigation company closed in 1878 . The river , although no longer navigable , passes under Carre Street and Southgate . The Nine Foot Drain , also unnavigable , meets the Slea just before Southgate .

= = Demography = =

The resident population at the 2011 Census was 17 @,@ 671 , which accounts for roughly 15 % of the population of the North Kesteven District ; the urban area contained 8 @,@ 690 houses . The town 's population grew by 39 % between 1991 and 2001 , the fastest growth rate of any town in Lincolnshire . The district population is predicted to rise by 29 % between 2008 and 2033 , compared with a national average of 18 % ; in 2013 , county councillors approved plans to build 4 @,@ 500 new homes . A joint planning strategy report found that " This growth has largely been the result of people moving to the area attracted by the quality of life , low crime rates , relatively low house prices and good @-@ quality education . "

The 2011 Census revealed that approximately 93 @.@ 6 % of the town 's resident population were White British ; the second largest ethnic group was White Irish at approximately 3 @.@ 4 % , followed by Asian ( including Asian British ) at 1 @.@ 09 % ; no other ethnic group represented 1 % or more of the population . 88 @.@ 5 % of residents were born in England and 4 @.@ 41 % in other parts of the United Kingdom ; 4 @.@ 3 % were from EU countries , with 2 @.@ 5 % coming from EU member states which joined after 2001 .

Between December 2013 and November 2014 , 1 @,@ 289 criminal acts were reported , of which 43 @.@ 9 % were classed as anti @-@ social behaviour , making it the largest portion of reported crimes . In 2010 , recorded crime levels were amongst the lowest in the country and , for the year ending June 2014 , the crime rate in the North Kesteven district is the lowest in Lincolnshire at 24 @.@ 38 crimes per thousand residents .

= = Religion = =

= = = Population = = =

Most people in the town identify as Christian , although the proportion has declined between the last two censuses . At the 2011 Census , 70 @.@ 3 % of residents identified as Christian , while 21 @.@ 8 % reported no religion , and 6 @.@ 6 % did not state a religion ; no other religious group comprised 1 % or more of the population . The 2001 Census recorded that 81 @.@ 6 % of Sleaford residents identified as Christian , nearly ten percentage points higher than the national figure ( 71 @.@ 8 % ) ; 11 @.@ 5 % of the town 's residents had no religion and 6 % did not disclose a religion .

In the Compton Census ( 1676 ) , New Sleaford had a Conformist population of 576 people , no " Papists " , and 6 Non @-@ conformists . In the 19th century , it had a sizeable Non @-@ conformist population and a large Anglican congregation ; at the 1851 Census of Religious Worship , an estimated 2 @,@ 000 people attended Non @-@ conformist places of worship , while an estimated 600 – 700 people attended Anglican services in the parish . The Wesleyans met in Westgate in the early 19th century ; by 1848 , the congregation had set up in Northgate , an area known for its taverns and poor tenements .

= = = Ecclesiastical history = = =

New Sleaford had a church and priest by the time of the Domesday Book ( 1086 ) and the vicarage was founded in 1274 . During the Commonwealth ( 1649 – 1660 ) , the vicar was expelled and replaced by Puritan ministers , the last of whom was removed following the Restoration in 1660 and replaced with an Anglican clergyman . In 1616 , the vicarage was valued at £ 8 and in 1872 at £ 180 . As of 2015 , the ecclesiastical parish of St Denys , Sleaford , encloses the town of Sleaford and hamlet of Holdingham north of the railway line and does not include Quarrington . It falls within the Lafford Deanery , the Lincoln Archdeaconry and the Diocese of Lincoln . The patron is the Bishop of Lincoln and the incumbent vicar is the Rev. Philip Anthony Johnson , who was instituted in 2013 .

Old Sleaford was in the possession of Ramsey Abbey at the time of Domesday and later Haverholme Priory , and was eventually served by a vicar ; the church was dedicated either to St Giles or to All Saints . At the Dissolution of the Monasteries ( 1536 – 1541 ) , the king took over collection of the tithes , eventually leasing them to Thomas Horseman and then selling them to Robert Carre . In the 17th century , the rectory of Quarrington and the vicarage were combined to form the parish of Quarrington with Old Sleaford ; the current rector of Quarrington is the Rev. Sandra Benham . The parish boundaries of New Sleaford and Quarrington with Old Sleaford were last altered in 1928 .

The prebendary of New Sleaford or Lafford had a seat in the Lincoln Cathedral ; it existed before 1274 and was in the patronage of the bishop . Sleaford 's tithes paid to the prebendary were valued at £ 11 19s . 7d . ( £ 11 @.@ 98 ) in 1616 . After the enclosure of Sleaford 's fields , a farm at Holdingham Anna was allotted to the prebendary in place of the tithes . The Prebendal Court of Sleaford had jurisdiction over New and Old Sleaford and Holdingham to grant administration and probate . The parishes of New and Old Sleaford were in the peculiar jurisdiction of the predendary until 1846 , when they became part of Aswardhurn and Lafford Rural Deanery . In 1866 they were placed in Aswardhurn and Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery , from 1884 in the Lafford No. 2 Rural Deanery , the Lafford South Rural Deanery from 1910 , and since 1968 , in the Lafford Rural Deanery .

= = = Places of worship = = =

The Anglican parish church is dedicated to St. Denys . The oldest parts date to the late @-@ 12th century and the broach @-@ spire , built around 1220 , is one of the oldest in England . Regular Sunday services are held at the parish church .

Non @-@ conformist meetings took place on Hen Lane ( later Jermyn Street ) from about 1776 . The Congregationalists who met there constructed a chapel on Southgate in 1867 – 68 ; in 1972 , it became Sleaford Reformed Church . Wesleyans first met in the 1790s at the house of Thomas Fawcett on Westgate . They built a chapel nearby in 1802 , which was replaced in 1823 ; it housed the congregation until 1848 when a larger one was built on North Street . It was demolished and replaced by another on the same site in 1972 . A Baptist chapel was built in Old Sleaford in 1811 to house a congregation of 250 , it served the Strict Baptists until possibly the mid @-@ 20th century . The premises have been converted into a house . A Wesleyan Reform Methodist chapel opened in West Banks in 1864 , but since 1896 has been occupied by the Salvation Army .

The Fens were increasingly cultivated after the Napoleonic Wars , prompting migrant Catholic Irish farm @-@ workers to move to the area . By 1879 a Roman Catholic missionary , Father Hermann Sabela , was conducting services in the town . A Catholic school and chapel were built in 1881 on land in Jermyn Street and in 1888 , Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic Church , opened beside it . The incumbent priest is Father Michael John Bell , who was appointed in 2001 . Mass is held on Sundays and throughout the week .

The Sleaford Muslim Community Association has met in St Deny 's Church Hall since the early 2000s . Plans to build a prayer hall on Station Road were approved in November 2013 . Protests were planned by the English Defence League , but were cancelled .

Sleaford Spiritualist Church opened in about 1956 on Westgate .

= = Education = =

= = = Primary = = =

Sleaford has four primary schools . In 1726 William Alvey bequeathed land to fund teaching children in Sleaford . The school and master 's house for Alvey 's Endowed School , a national school , was built in 1851 . New buildings for the infants ' school were constructed in 1888 . William Alvey Church of England School is housed in the same buildings . It became an academy in 2012 . St Botolph 's School is a Church of England Primary School , which opened at its current site in 2002 . Church Lane School is housed in buildings constructed in 2002 , when the original school house was demolished ; in 2013 , it had c . 201 children on roll . Our Lady of Good Counsel Roman Catholic School had 155 pupils on roll in 2011 .

In 1835 , there were eight day schools and three Sunday schools in New Sleaford and two daily schools in Old Sleaford . An infant school in the old playhouse on Westgate opened in 1855 ; Wesleyan schools attached to the chapel on North Street accommodated up to 200 pupils . In addition to private girls ' schools , short @-@ lived private schools for boys were established by Mr Herring and Charles Boyer in 1851 , Henry Carruthers , and Edwin Reginald Dibben in 1870 in competition with the grammar school . Charles Kirk built a school and chapel at Quarrington in 1867 . It became St Botolph 's Primary School and in 2002 moved to a new site . In 1879 , an art school was established in Duke Street in connection with the Science and Art Department ; by 1896 , two Wesleyan schools and a Catholic school were also in operation .

= = = Secondary = = =

The town has three secondary schools with sixth forms : Carre 's Grammar School , a boys ' grammar school , Kesteven and Sleaford High School , a selective academy girls ' grammar school , and St George 's Academy , formerly St George 's College of Technology , and before that Sleaford ( County ) Secondary Modern School ( mixed non @-@ selective secondary school ) . The grammar schools are selective and pupils are required to pass the Eleven plus exam . St George 's is not selective . The co @-@ educational Joint Sixth Form consortium between Carre 's and St George 's allows pupils to choose subjects taught at either school .

Carre 's Grammar School was founded in 1604 by a bequest of Robert Carre of Aswarby . It has received Specialist Sports and Science statuses , became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be " good " by Ofsted in 2013 , at which time it had 817 pupils , including the co @-@ educational sixth form . Sleaford and Kesteven High School for Girls was established in 1902 . It has specialist art status , became an academy in 2011 and was judged to be " good " by Ofsted in 2013 , at which time there were 825 pupils on roll , including those in the co @-@ educational sixth form . St George 's opened in 1908 as Sleaford Council School . It has received specialist technology college status , converted to an academy in 2010 and operates a satellite school at Ruskington . St George 's had 2 @,@ 247 pupils on roll in 2012 , across both sites and including the sixth form ; when assessed by Ofsted in that year , was judged to be " good " .

= = Culture = =

The National Centre for Craft & Design opened as The Hub in 2003 with support from a Single Regeneration Budget grant . It attracts 90 @,@ 000 visitors on average each year and houses exhibitions of applied and contemporary art . The Playhouse theatre on Westgate was constructed in 1825 , and sold in 1856 to be converted into an infants school and later a library and offices . In 1994 , Sleaford Little Theatre bought and restored it and in 2000 it opened to the public . The Sleaford Picturedrome opened in 1920 ; the cinema closed in 2000 and the building became a snooker hall and then a nightclub that closed in 2008 .

Sleaford Museum Trust was formed in the 1970s to collect and preserve historical artefacts from the town 's history . A Heritage Lottery Fund grant of more than £ 94 @,@ 000 in December 2013 allowed the trust to establish a museum on Southgate , which opened in April 2015 . Sleaford and District Civic Trust was founded in 1972 to " preserve the best features " of the town .

There is a volunteer twinning association , the Sleaford and District Town Twinning Association , which was founded in 1999 . The association has created and maintains links and annual visits with Marquette @-@ lez @-@ Lille in France since 1999 , and with Fredersdorf @-@ Vogelsdorf in Germany since 2009 .

= = = Sport = = =

Sleaford Town F.C. played in the United Counties League Premier Division for the 2014 – 15 season . Formed as Sleaford Amateurs F.C. in 1920 , the club was renamed Sleaford Town in 1968 . In 2007 it moved to its present grounds at Eslaforde Park . Sleaford Rugby FC 's clubhouse opened in 1999 off the A153 . Sleaford Golf Club was founded in 1905 and had roughly 100 members the following year , which increased to 193 in 1911 . The original golf course has been altered . In 2014 , the club had roughly 600 members . Sleaford Cricket Club has grounds at London Road ; the earliest record of the club is in 1803 . The town is also home to Bristol Bowls Club , an all @-@ discipline gymnastics club founded in 1996 . An outdoor lido opened in 1872 on riverside land owned by the Bristol estate but handed over to the community as public baths . Indoor facilities were built in the 20th century and the old lido became Sleaford Leisure Centre . In 2011 Kesteven District Council received a grant of £ 2 @.@ 85 million , to fund reconstruction of the centre and its gym .

= = = Local media = = =

The main radio stations for the county are BBC Radio Lincolnshire , broadcasting on 94 @.@ 9 FM and 104 @.@ 7 FM frequencies , and the commercial station Lincs FM , on 102 @.@ 2 , 96 @.@ 7 and 97 @.@ 6 FM . The town 's local newspapers are the Sleaford Standard ( founded in 1924 ) , the Sleaford Advertiser ( founded in 1980 ) and the Sleaford Target ( founded in 1984 ) . Historically , the Sleaford Gazette operated between 1854 and 1960 ; the Sleaford Journal from at least 1884 until it was incorporated into the Gazette in December 1929 , the Sleaford Telegraph ran from 1888 to 1889 and the Sleaford Guardian was in print for a year from 1945 to 1946 .

= = Landmarks = =

A small number of medieval buildings remain standing in the town . St Denys ' Church and St Botolph 's in Quarrington date to the 12th and 13th centuries respectively , while Sleaford 's half @-@ timbered vicarage is 15th century . St Denys ' Church is noted for its tracery and its stone broach spire is one of the oldest in England . Cogglesford Mill is the only remaining watermill in town and is a testament to the economic importance of the River Slea from the late @-@ Saxon period onwards . The Bishops of Lincoln used the medieval town as a base , constructing the now @-@ ruined Sleaford Castle , and as a means of extracting produce and wealth through demesne farming and by granting a market and limited freedoms to the town . As a result , the oldest areas are the market place and the four roads which meet there : Northgate , Southgate , Eastgate and Westgate ; many 18th and 19th century buildings are found in this area .

Buildings dating from these centuries include William Alvey 's baroque house on Northgate , the Manor House on Northgate inset with medieval masonry , and Sessions House on the Market Place . The Carre family founded the grammar school which was rebuilt in 1834 , the hospital , rebuilt in 1830 , and the almshouses , rebuilt 1857 , while the Victorian builders Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry constructed or added to numerous public buildings and private residences , including Lafford Terrace and their own houses on Southgate and at Westholme .

During the Industrial Revolution , the Slea was canalised in 1794 and the Sleaford Navigation Company constructed offices and wharves along Carre Street . The canal brought trade , while the Gothic @-@ fronted gasworks on Eastgate lit the town from 1839 . Benjamin Handley and Anthony Peacock financed and benefited from the navigation and founded the bank that took over Alvey 's House on Northgate and later added a Baroque extension ; Henry Handley , a Member of Parliament , is commemorated by the Handley Memorial on Southgate , a Gothic monument in the style of an Eleanor Cross . During the 1850s , the railways arrived and the station was built in a Gothic style . Sleaford 's agricultural location and its new transport links encouraged seed trading and malting in the late 19th century : the seed merchant Charles Sharpe 's house , The Pines , is on Boston Road . The massive Bass and Company maltings complex , constructed in brick off Mareham Lane between 1892 and 1905 , is grade II * listed and has a frontage more than 1 @,@ 000 feet long .

= = Sleafordians = =

The Handley family were well @-@ connected with business ; Benjamin Handley was a lawyer , prominent in the Navigation Company and partner in the local bank Peacock , Handley and Kirton . His son , Henry was M.P. for South Lincolnshire ; after his death , the residents erected a monument to him on Southgate . Robert Armstrong Yerburgh the son of Rev Richard Yerburgh , vicar of New Sleaford was twice M.P. for Chester . Sir Thomas Meres , politician was educated at the grammar school . Sir Robert Pattinson was also educated at the grammar was M.P. for Grantham and Sleaford .

The religious controversialist Henry Pickworth was born in New Sleaford and challenged the opponent of Quakerism Francis Bugg to an open debate at Sleaford . John Austin , a religious writer , was educated at the grammar school . William Scoffin served as the town 's Presbyterian minister and preached there for more than forty years , while Benjamin Fawcett , Presbyterian minister , was born and educated at Sleaford . Andrew Kippis , the Presbyterian minister , biographer and Fellow of the Royal Society , attended the Grammar School .

Richard Banister , the oculist , practised for 14 years in Sleaford where he trained in couching cataracts . Henry Andrews astronomer and astrologer , worked in Sleaford during his youth .

The royalist poet Thomas Shipman was educated at Carre 's Grammar School , as was novelist Henry Jackson ; Joseph Smedley , the actor and comedian , built the theatre in 1824 , before settling in the town in 1842 , establishing a printing business and dying in North Street ; and Charles Haslewood Shannon , the artist , was born in the town . The actress and comedian Jennifer Saunders was born in Sleaford . In popular culture , the singer Lois Wilkinson of the Caravelles was born in the town ; glamour model Abi Titmuss grew up in Ruskington and was educated at Kesteven and Sleaford High School ; and Bernie Taupin , Elton John 's songwriter , was born in the town . Eric Thompson who narrated The Magic Roundabout television series , was born in a house on Jermyn Street . In sport , the professional footballer Mark Wallington who played for Leicester City , Derby County and Lincoln City , grew up in Sleaford and , after retiring taught Physical Education at St George 's Academy .

= Tsugaru clan =

The Tsugaru clan ( 津軽氏 , Tsugaru @-@ shi ) was a Japanese samurai clan originating in northern Japan , specifically Mutsu Province ( the northeast coast of Honshū ) . A branch of the local Nanbu clan , the Tsugaru rose to power during the Azuchi @-@ Momoyama period . It was on the winning side of the Battle of Sekigahara , and entered the Edo period as a family of lords ( daimyo ) ruling the Hirosaki Domain . A second branch of the family was later established , which ruled the Kuroishi Domain . The Tsugaru survived as a daimyo family until the Meiji Restoration , when Tsugaru Tsuguakira of Hirosaki and Tsugaru Tsugumichi of Kuroishi were relieved of office . Their extended family then became part of the new nobility in the Meiji era .

= = History = =

= = = Origins through 1599 = = =

The Tsugaru clan initially claimed descent from the Kawachi Genji branch of the Minamoto clan ; in later years , this claim of origin would change to the Konoe family , which was a branch of the Fujiwara clan . It was first known as the Ōura clan ( 大浦氏 , Ōura @-@ shi ) , a branch family of the Nanbu clan , which ruled sections of northern Mutsu Province . Relations between the two families soured after the Ōura declared their independence from the Nanbu in 1571 , during the headship of Ōura Tamenobu . He had been vice @-@ district magistrate ( 郡代補佐 , gundai hosa ) under the Nanbu clan 's local magistrate Ishikawa Takanobu ; however , he attacked and killed Ishikawa and began taking the Nanbu clan 's castles . Tamenobu also attacked Kitabatake Akimura ( another local power figure ) and took his castle at Namioka . The Ōura clan 's fight against the Nanbu clan , under Nanbu Nobunao , would continue in the ensuing years . In 1590 , Tamenobu pledged fealty to Toyotomi Hideyoshi ; Hideyoshi confirmed Tamenobu in his holdings . As the Ōura fief had been in the Tsugaru region on the northern tip of Honshū , the family then changed its name to Tsugaru .

= = = The Tsugaru in the Edo era = = =

The Tsugaru clan sided with Tokugawa Ieyasu 's Eastern Army during the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 . Its immediate neighbors also all supported the Eastern Army . After the Tokugawa victory at Sekigahara , the Tsugaru clan was granted an increase in territory , along with permission to keep its existing domain of Hirosaki ( named for the family 's castle town ) . The domain started out small at 45 @,@ 000 koku , before being increased in size to 100 @,@ 000 koku . Tamenobu remained politically active in the early years of the Edo era , mainly in the Kansai area ; he died in Kyoto in 1608 .

The early years of the Edo era were marked by a series of major O @-@ Ie Sōdō disturbances that shook the Tsugaru family : the Tsugaru Disturbance ( 津軽騒動 , Tsugaru @-@ sōdō ) of 1607 , Kōsaka Kurando 's Riot ( 高坂蔵人の乱 , Kōsaka Kurando no ran ) of 1612 , the Funabashi Disturbance ( 船橋騒動 , Funabashi @-@ sōdō ) of 1634 , and the Shōhō Disturbance ( 正保騒動 , Shōhō @-@ sōdō ) of 1647 . In 1821 , there was a foiled plot by Sōma Daisaku , a former retainer of the Nanbu clan , to assassinate the Tsugaru lord ; this stemmed from the old enmity between the two clans .

A major branch of the Tsugaru clan was founded in 1656 , which was first given hatamoto rank , before being promoted to daimyo status in 1809 ; this became the ruling family of the Kuroishi Domain , which immediately bordered its parent family 's domain . A lesser branch was founded by Tsugaru Nobuzumi , the son of the first Kuroishi @-@ Tsugaru family head ; this branch remained hatamoto through the end of the Edo period . The main Tsugaru family 's funerary temple in Hirosaki was located at Chōshō @-@ ji . Though neither Tsugaru daimyo family ever held shogunate office , the Tsugaru of Hirosaki ( together with many of the other domains of northern Honshū ) assisted the shogunate in policing the frontier region of Ezochi ( now Hokkaido ) . In the late Edo period , during the headship of Tsugaru Tsuguakira , the Hirosaki domain 's forces were modernized along western lines .

= = = The Tsugaru clan in the Boshin War = = =

During the Boshin War of 1868 @-@ 69 , the Tsugaru clan first sided with the imperial government , and attacked the forces of the nearby Shōnai Domain . However , it soon switched course , and was briefly a signatory to the pact that created the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei , before backing out , once again in favor of the imperial government . It did not take part in any of the major military action against the imperial army . The Kuroishi branch joined the Hirosaki @-@ Tsugaru in siding with the imperial government . As a result , the entire clan was able to evade the punishment meted out by the government on the northern domains . After northern Honshū was pacified , Tsugaru forces joined the imperial army in attacking the Republic of Ezo at Hakodate . In return for its assistance , the Meiji government granted the Tsugaru family of Hirosaki a 10 @,@ 000 koku increase to its fief . Both branches of Tsugaru daimyo were made imperial governors ( 藩知事 , han chiji ) of their domains in 1869 . Two years later , as with all other daimyo , both Tsugaru lines were relieved of their offices by the abolition of the han system .

= = = Meiji and beyond = = =

In the Meiji era , Tsugaru Tsuguakira , who had been the last daimyo of the main Tsugaru family , was ennobled with the title of count ( hakushaku ) . Tsugaru Tsugumichi , the last daimyo of the Kuroishi @-@ Tsugaru , became a viscount ( shishaku ) . Tsuguakira later worked as a supervisor in the Number 15 National Bank ( 第十五国立銀行 , Dai jūgo kokuritsu ginkō ) , and Tsugumichi became a member of the House of Peers in 1890 . As Tsuguakira was heirless , he adopted Konoe Hidemaro , the son of court noble Konoe Tadafusa , as his heir ; Hidemaro succeeded to headship upon Tsuguakira 's death in 1916 .

Princess Hitachi is a present @-@ day descendant of the main Tsugaru line .

= = Family heads = =

= = = Main line ( Hirosaki ) = = =

= = = Branch line ( Kuroishi ) = = =

= = Notable retainers = =

= = = Hirosaki = = =

= Neptunium =

Neptunium is a chemical element with symbol Np and atomic number 93 . A radioactive actinide metal , neptunium is the first transuranic element . Its position in the periodic table just after uranium , named after the planet Uranus , led to it being named after Neptune , the next planet beyond Uranus . A neptunium atom has 93 protons and 93 electrons , of which seven are valence electrons . Neptunium metal is silvery and tarnishes when exposed to air . The element occurs in three allotropic forms and it normally exhibits five oxidation states , ranging from + 3 to + 7 . It is radioactive , poisonous , pyrophoric , and can accumulate in bones , which makes the handling of neptunium dangerous .

Although many false claims of its discovery were made over the years , the element was first synthesized by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory in 1940 . Since then , most neptunium has been and still is produced by neutron irradiation of uranium in nuclear reactors . The vast majority is generated as a by @-@ product in conventional nuclear power reactors . While neptunium itself has no commercial uses at present , it is widely used as a precursor for the formation of plutonium @-@ 238 , used in radioisotope thermal generators to provide electricity for spacecraft . Neptunium has also been used in detectors of high @-@ energy neutrons .

The most stable isotope of neptunium , neptunium @-@ 237 , is a by @-@ product of nuclear reactors and plutonium production . It , and the isotope neptunium @-@ 239 , are also found in trace amounts in uranium ores due to neutron capture reactions and beta decay .

= = Characteristics = =

= = = Physical = = =

Neptunium is a hard , silvery , ductile , radioactive actinide metal . In the periodic table , it is located to the right of the actinide uranium , to the left of the actinide plutonium and below the lanthanide promethium . Neptunium is a hard metal , having a bulk modulus of 118 GPa , comparable to that of manganese . Neptunium metal is similar to uranium in terms of physical workability . When exposed to air at normal temperatures , it forms a thin oxide layer . This reaction proceeds more rapidly as the temperature increases . Neptunium has been determined to melt at 639 ± 3 ° C : this low melting point , a property the metal shares with the neighboring element plutonium ( which has melting point 639 @.@ 4 ° C ) , is due to the hybridization of the 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in the metal . The boiling point of neptunium is not empirically known and the usually given value of 4174 ° C is extrapolated from the vapor pressure of the element . If accurate , this would give neptunium the largest liquid range of any element ( 3535 K passes between its melting and boiling points ) .

Neptunium is found in at least three allotropes . Some claims of a fourth allotrope have been made , but they are so far not proven . This multiplicity of allotropes is common among the actinides . The crystal structures of neptunium , protactinium , uranium , and plutonium do not have clear analogs among the lanthanides and are more similar to those of the 3d transition metals .

α @-@ neptunium takes on an orthorhombic structure , resembling a highly distorted body @-@ centered cubic structure . Each neptunium atom is coordinated to four others and the Np – Np bond lengths are 260 pm . It is the densest of all the actinides and the fifth @-@ densest of all naturally occurring elements , behind only rhenium , platinum , iridium , and osmium. α @-@ neptunium has semimetallic properties , such as strong covalent bonding and a high electrical resistivity , and its metallic physical properties are closer to those of the metalloids than the true metals . Some allotropes of the other actinides also exhibit similar behaviour , though to a lesser degree . The densities of different isotopes of neptunium in the alpha phase are expected to be observably different : α @-@ 235Np should have density 20 @.@ 303 g / cm3 ; α @-@ 236Np , density 20 @.@ 389 g / cm3 ; α @-@ 237Np , density 20 @.@ 476 g / cm3 .

β @-@ neptunium takes on a distorted tetragonal close @-@ packed structure . Four atoms of neptunium make up a unit cell , and the Np – Np bond lengths are 276 pm. γ @-@ neptunium has a body @-@ centered cubic structure and has Np – Np bond length of 297 pm . The γ form becomes less stable with increased pressure , though the melting point of neptunium also increases with pressure . The β @-@ Np / γ @-@ Np / liquid triple point occurs at 725 ° C and 3200 MPa .

= = = = Alloys = = = =

Due to the presence of valence 5f electrons , neptunium and its alloys exhibit very interesting magnetic behavior , like many other actinides . These can range from the itinerant band @-@ like character characteristic of the transition metals to the local moment behavior typical of scandium , yttrium , and the lanthanides . This stems from 5f @-@ orbital hybridization with the orbitals of the metal ligands , and the fact that the 5f orbital is relativistically destabilized and extends outwards . For example , pure neptunium is paramagnetic , NpAl3 is ferromagnetic , NpGe3 has no magnetic ordering , and NpSn3 behaves fermionically . Investigations are underway regarding alloys of neptunium with uranium , americium , plutonium , zirconium , and iron , so as to recycle long @-@ lived waste isotopes such as neptunium @-@ 237 into shorter @-@ lived isotopes more useful as nuclear fuel .

One neptunium @-@ based superconductor alloy has been discovered with formula NpPd5Al2 . This occurrence in neptunium compounds is somewhat surprising because they often exhibit strong magnetism , which usually destroys superconductivity . The alloy has a tetragonal structure with a superconductivity transition temperature of − 268 @.@ 3 ° C ( 4 @.@ 9 K ) .

= = = Chemical = = =

Neptunium has five ionic oxidation states ranging from + 3 to + 7 when forming chemical compounds , which can be simultaneously observed in solutions . It is the heaviest actinide that can lose all its valence electrons in a stable compound . The most stable state in solution is + 5 , but the valence + 4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds . Neptunium metal is very reactive . Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds .

= = = Atomic = = =

A neptunium atom has 93 electrons , arranged in the configuration [ Rn ] 5f46d17s2 . This differs from the configuration expected by the Aufbau principle in that one electron is in the 6d subshell instead of being as expected in the 5f subshell . This is because of the similarity of the electron energies of the 5f , 6d , and 7s subshells . In forming compounds and ions , all the valence electrons may be lost , leaving behind an inert core of inner electrons with the electron configuration of the noble gas radon ; more commonly , only some of the valence electrons will be lost . The electron configuration for the tripositive ion Np3 + is [ Rn ] 5f4 , with the outermost 7s and 6d electrons lost first : this is exactly analogous to neptunium 's lanthanide homolog promethium , and conforms to the trend set by the other actinides with their [ Rn ] 5fn electron configurations in the tripositive state . The first ionization potential of neptunium was measured to be at most ( 6 @.@ 19 ± 0 @.@ 12 ) eV in 1974 , based on the assumption that the 7s electrons would ionize before 5f and 6d ; more recent measurements have refined this to 6 @.@ 2657 eV .

= = = Isotopes = = =

20 neptunium radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 237Np with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 14 million years , 236Np with a half @-@ life of 154 @,@ 000 years , and 235Np with a half @-@ life of 396 @.@ 1 days . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 4 @.@ 5 days , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than 50 minutes . This element also has at least four meta states , with the most stable being 236mNp with a half @-@ life of 22 @.@ 5 hours .

The isotopes of neptunium range in atomic weight from 225 @.@ 0339 u ( 225Np ) to 244 @.@ 068 u ( 244Np ) . Most of the isotopes that are lighter than the most stable one , 237Np , decay primarily by electron capture although a sizable number , most notably 229Np and 230Np , also exhibit various levels of decay via alpha emission to become protactinium . 237Np itself , being the beta @-@ stable isobar of mass number 237 , decays almost exclusively by alpha emission into 233Pa . All of the known isotopes except one that are heavier than this decay exclusively via beta emission . The lone exception , 240mNp , exhibits a rare ( > 0 @.@ 12 % ) decay by isomeric transition in addition to the beta emission . 237Np eventually decays to form bismuth @-@ 209 and thallium @-@ 205 , unlike most other common heavy nuclei which decay into isotopes of lead . This decay chain is known as the neptunium series .

The isotopes neptunium @-@ 235 , -236 , and -237 are predicted to be fissile ; only neptunium @-@ 237 's fissionability has been experimentally shown , with the critical mass being about 60 kg , only about 10 kg more than that of the commonly used uranium @-@ 235 . Calculated values of the critical masses of neptunium @-@ 235 , -236 , and -237 respectively are 66 @.@ 2 kg , 6 @.@ 79 kg , and 63 @.@ 6 kg : the neptunium @-@ 236 value is even lower than that of plutonium @-@ 239 . In particular 236Np also has a low neutron cross section . Despite this , a neptunium atomic bomb has never been built : uranium and plutonium have lower critical masses than 235Np and 237Np , and 236Np is difficult to purify as it is not found in quantity in spent nuclear fuel and is nearly impossible to separate in any significant quantities from its parent 237Np .

= = = Occurrence = = =

Since all isotopes of neptunium have half @-@ lives that are many times shorter than the age of the Earth , any primordial neptunium should have decayed by now . After only about 80 million years , the concentration of even the longest lived isotope , 237Np , would have been reduced to less than one @-@ trillionth ( 10 − 12 ) of its original amount ; and even if the whole Earth had initially been made of pure 237Np ( and ignoring that this would be well over its critical mass of 60 kg ) , 2100 half @-@ lives would have passed since the formation of the Solar System , and thus all of it would have decayed . Thus neptunium is present in nature only in negligible amounts produced as intermediate decay products of other isotopes .

Trace amounts of the neptunium isotopes neptunium @-@ 237 , -239 , and -240 are found naturally as decay products from transmutation reactions in uranium ores . In particular , 239Np and 237Np are the most common of these isotopes ; they are directly formed from neutron capture by uranium @-@ 238 atoms . These neutrons come from the spontaneous fission of uranium @-@ 238 , naturally neutron @-@ induced fission of uranium @-@ 235 , cosmic ray spallation of nuclei , and light elements absorbing alpha particles and emitting a neutron . The half @-@ life of 239Np is very short , although the detection of its much longer @-@ lived daughter 239Pu in nature in 1951 definitively established its natural occurrence . In 1952 , 237Np was identified and isolated from concentrates of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo : in these minerals , the ratio of neptunium @-@ 237 to uranium is less than or equal to about 10 − 12 to 1 . Finally , the short @-@ lived 240Np occurs as an intermediate in the decay chain of primordial 244Pu .

Most neptunium ( and plutonium ) now encountered in the environment is due to atmospheric nuclear explosions that took place between the detonation of the first atomic bomb in 1945 and the ratification of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 . The total amount of neptunium released by these explosions and the few atmospheric tests that have been carried out since 1963 is estimated to be around 2500 kg . The overwhelming majority of this is composed of the long @-@ lived isotopes 236Np and 237Np since even the moderately long @-@ lived 235Np ( half @-@ life 396 days ) would have decayed to less than one @-@ billionth ( 10 − 9 ) its original concentration over the intervening decades . An additional very small amount of neptunium , created by neutron irradiation of natural uranium in nuclear reactor cooling water , is released when the water is discharged into rivers or lakes . The concentration of 237Np in seawater is approximately 6 @.@ 5 × 10 − 5 millibecquerels per liter : this concentration is between 0 @.@ 1 % and 1 % that of plutonium .

Once in the environment , neptunium generally oxidizes fairly quickly , usually to the + 4 or + 5 state . Regardless of its oxidation state , the element exhibits a much greater mobility than the other actinides , largely due to its ability to readily form aqueous solutions with various other elements . In one study comparing the diffusion rates of neptunium ( V ) , plutonium ( IV ) , and americium ( III ) in sandstone and limestone , neptunium penetrated more than ten times as well as the other elements . Np ( V ) will also react efficiently in pH levels greater than 5 @.@ 5 if there are no carbonates present and in these conditions it has also been observed to readily bond with quartz . It has also been observed to bond well with goethite , ferric oxide colloids , and several clays including kaolinite and smectite . Np ( V ) does not bond as readily to soil particles in mildly acidic conditions as its fellow actinides americium and curium by nearly an order of magnitude . This behavior enables it to migrate rapidly through the soil while in solution without becoming fixed in place , contributing further to its mobility . Np ( V ) is also readily absorbed by concrete , which because of the element 's radioactivity is a consideration that must be addressed when building nuclear waste storage facilities . When absorbed in concrete , it is reduced to Np ( IV ) in a relatively short period of time . Np ( V ) is also reduced by humic acid if it is present on the surface of goethite , hematite , and magnetite . Np ( IV ) is absorbed efficiently by tuff , granodiorite , and bentonite ; although uptake by the latter is most pronounced in mildly acidic conditions . It also exhibits a strong tendency to bind to colloidal particulates , an effect that is enhanced when in soil with a high clay content . The behavior provides an additional aid in the element 's observed high mobility .

= = History = =

= = = Background and early claims = = =

When the first periodic table of the elements was published by Dmitri Mendeleev in the early 1870s , it showed a " — " in place after uranium similar to several other places for then @-@ undiscovered elements . Other subsequent tables of known elements , including a 1913 publication of the known radioactive isotopes by Kasimir Fajans , also show an empty place after uranium .

Up to and after the discovery of the final component of the atomic nucleus , the neutron in 1932 , most scientists did not seriously consider the possibility of elements heavier than uranium . While nuclear theory at the time did not explicitly prohibit their existence , there was little evidence to suggest that they did . However , the discovery of induced radioactivity by Irène and Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie in late 1933 opened up an entirely new method of researching the elements and inspired a small group of Italian scientists led by Enrico Fermi to begin a series of experiments involving neutron bombardment . Although the Joliot @-@ Curies ' experiment involved bombarding a sample of 27Al with alpha particles to produce the radioactive 30P , Fermi realized that using neutrons , which have no electrical charge , would most likely produce even better results than the positively charged alpha particles . Accordingly , in March 1934 he began systematically subjecting all of the then @-@ known elements to neutron bombardment to determine whether others could also be induced to radioactivity .

After several months of work , Fermi 's group had tentatively determined that lighter elements would disperse the energy of the captured neutron by emitting a proton or alpha particle and heavier elements would generally accomplish the same by emitting a gamma ray . This latter behavior would later result in the beta decay of a neutron into a proton , thus moving the resulting isotope one place up the periodic table . When Fermi 's team bombarded uranium , they observed this behavior as well , which strongly suggested that the resulting isotope had an atomic number of 93 . Fermi was initially reluctant to publicize such a claim , but after his team observed several unknown half @-@ lives in the uranium bombardment products that did not match those of any known isotope , he published a paper entitled Possible Production of Elements of Atomic Number Higher than 92 in June 1934 . In it he proposed the name ausonium ( atomic symbol Ao ) for element 93 , after the Greek name Ausonia ( Italy ) .

Several theoretical objections to the claims of Fermi 's paper were quickly raised ; in particular , the exact process that took place when an atom captured a neutron was not well understood at the time . This and Fermi 's accidental discovery three months later that nuclear reactions could be induced by slow neutrons cast further doubt in the minds of many scientists , notably Aristid von Grosse and Ida Noddack , that the experiment was creating element 93 . While von Grosse 's claim that Fermi was actually producing protactinium was quickly tested and disproved , Noddack 's proposal that the uranium had been shattered into two or more much smaller fragments was simply ignored by most because existing nuclear theory did not include a way for this to be possible . Fermi and his team maintained that they were in fact synthesizing a new element , but the issue remained unresolved for several years .

Although the many different and unknown radioactive half @-@ lives in the experiment 's results showed that several nuclear reactions were occurring , Fermi 's group could not prove that element 93 was being created unless they could isolate it chemically . They and many other scientists attempted to accomplish this , including Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner who were among the best radiochemists in the world at the time and supporters of Fermi 's claim , but they all failed . Much later , it was determined that the main reason for this failure was because the predictions of element 93 's chemical properties were based on a periodic table which lacked the actinide series . This arrangement placed protactinium below tantalum , uranium below tungsten , and further suggested that element 93 , at that point referred to as eka @-@ rhenium , should be similar to the group 7 elements , including manganese and rhenium . Thorium , protactinium , and uranium , with their dominant oxidation states of + 4 , + 5 , and + 6 respectively , fooled scientists into thinking they belonged below hafnium , tantalum , and tungsten , rather than below the lanthanide series , which was at the time viewed as a fluke , and whose members all have dominant + 3 states ; neptunium , on the other hand , has a much weaker , more unstable + 7 state , with + 4 and + 5 being the most stable . Upon finding that plutonium and the other transuranic elements also have dominant + 3 and + 4 states , along with the discovery of the f @-@ block , the actinide series was firmly established .

While the question of whether Fermi 's experiment had produced element 93 was stalemated , two additional claims of the discovery of the element appeared , although unlike Fermi , they both claimed to have observed it in nature . The first of these claims was by Czech engineer Odolen Koblic in 1934 when he extracted a small amount of material from the wash water of heated pitchblende . He proposed the name bohemium for the element , but after being analyzed it turned out that the sample was a mixture of tungsten and vanadium . The other claim , in 1938 by Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and French chemist Yvette Cauchois , claimed to have discovered the new element via spectroscopy in minerals . They named their element sequanium , but the claim was discounted because the prevailing theory at the time was that if it existed at all , element 93 would not exist naturally . However , as neptunium does in fact occur in nature in trace amounts , as demonstrated when it was found in uranium ore in 1952 , it is possible that Hulubei and Cauchois did in fact observe neptunium .

Although by 1938 some scientists , including Niels Bohr , were still reluctant to accept that Fermi had actually produced a new element , he was nevertheless awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in November 1938 " for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation , and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons " . A month later , the almost totally unexpected discovery of nuclear fission by Hahn , Meitner , and Otto Frisch put an end to the possibility that Fermi had discovered element 93 because most of the unknown half @-@ lives that had been observed by Fermi 's team were rapidly identified as fission products .

= = = Discovery = = =

As research on nuclear fission progressed in early 1939 , Edwin McMillan at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory of the University of California , Berkeley decided to run an experiment bombarding uranium using the powerful 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) cyclotron that had recently been built at the university . The purpose was to separate the various fission products produced by the bombardment by exploiting the enormous force that the fragments gain from their mutual electrical repulsion after fissioning . Although he did not discover anything of note from this , McMillan did observe two new beta decay half @-@ lives in the uranium trioxide target itself , which meant that whatever was producing the radioactivity had not violently repelled each other like normal fission products . He quickly realized that one of the half @-@ lives closely matched the known 23 @-@ minute decay period of uranium @-@ 239 , but the other half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 3 days was unknown . McMillan took the results of his experiment to chemist and fellow Berkeley professor Emilio Segrè to attempt to isolate the source of the radioactivity . Both scientists began their work using the prevailing theory that element 93 would have similar chemistry to rhenium , but Segrè rapidly determined that McMillan 's sample was not at all similar to rhenium . Instead , when he reacted it with hydrogen fluoride ( HF ) with a strong oxidizing agent present , it behaved much like members of the rare earths . Since these elements comprise a large percentage of fission products , Segrè and McMillan decided that the half @-@ life must have been simply another fission product , titling the paper " An Unsuccessful Search for Transuranium Elements " .

However , as more information about fission became available , the possibility that the fragments of nuclear fission could still have been present in the target became more remote . McMillan and several scientists , including Philip H. Abelson , attempted again to determine what was producing the unknown half @-@ life . In early 1940 , McMillan realized that his 1939 experiment with Segrè had failed to test the chemical reactions of the radioactive source with sufficient rigor . In a new experiment , McMillan tried subjecting the unknown substance to HF in the presence of a reducing agent , something he had not done before . This reaction resulted in the sample precipitating with the HF , an action that definitively ruled out the possibility that the unknown substance was a rare earth . Shortly after this , Abelson , who had received his graduate degree from the university , visited Berkeley for a short vacation and McMillan asked the more able chemist to assist with the separation of the experiment 's results . Abelson very quickly observed that whatever was producing the 2 @.@ 3 @-@ day half @-@ life did not have chemistry like any known element and was actually more similar to uranium than a rare earth . This discovery finally allowed the source to be isolated and later , in 1945 , led to the classification of the actinide series . As a final step , McMillan and Abelson prepared a much larger sample of bombarded uranium that had a prominent 23 @-@ minute half @-@ life from 239U and demonstrated conclusively that the unknown 2 @.@ 3 @-@ day half @-@ life increased in strength in concert with a decrease in the 23 @-@ minute activity through the following reaction :

<formula> ( The times are half @-@ lives . )

This proved that the unknown radioactive source originated from the decay of uranium and , coupled with the previous observation that the source was different chemically from all known elements , proved beyond all doubt that a new element had been discovered . McMillan and Abelson published their results in a paper entitled Radioactive Element 93 in the Physical Review on May 27 , 1940 . They did not propose a name for the element in the paper , but they soon decided on the name neptunium since Neptune is the next planet beyond Uranus in our solar system .

= = = Subsequent developments = = =

It was also realized that the beta decay of 239Np must produce an isotope of element 94 ( now called plutonium ) , but the quantities involved in McMillan and Abelson 's original experiment were too small to isolate and identify plutonium along with neptunium . The discovery of plutonium had to wait until the end of 1940 , when Glenn T. Seaborg and his team identified the isotope plutonium @-@ 238 .

Neptunium 's unique radioactive characteristics allowed it to be traced as it moved through various compounds in chemical reactions , at first this was the only method available to prove that its chemistry was different from other elements . As the first isotope of neptunium to be discovered has such a short half @-@ life , McMillan and Abelson were unable to prepare a sample that was large enough to perform chemical analysis of the new element using the technology that was then available . However , after the discovery of the long @-@ lived 237Np isotope in 1942 by Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl , forming weighable amounts of neptunium became a realistic endeavor . Early research into the element was somewhat limited because most of the nuclear physicists and chemists in the United States at the time were focused on the massive effort to research the properties of plutonium as part of the Manhattan Project . Research into the element did continue as a minor part of the project and the first bulk sample of neptunium was isolated in 1944 .

Much of the research into the properties of neptunium since then has been focused on understanding how to confine it as a portion of nuclear waste . Because it has isotopes with very long half @-@ lives , it is of particular concern in the context of designing confinement facilities that can last for thousands of years . It has found some limited uses as a radioactive tracer and a precursor for various nuclear reactions to produce useful plutonium isotopes . However , most of the neptunium that is produced as a reaction byproduct in nuclear power stations is considered to be a waste product .

= = Production = =

= = = Synthesis = = =

The vast majority of the neptunium that currently exists on Earth was produced in artificial nuclear reactions . Neptunium @-@ 237 is the most commonly synthesized isotope due to it being the only one that both can be created via neutron capture and also has a half @-@ lifelong enough to allow weighable quantities to be easily isolated . As such , it is by far the most common isotope to be utilized in chemical studies of the element .

When an 235U atom captures a neutron , it is converted to an excited state of 236U . About 81 % of the excited 236U nuclei undergo fission , but the remainder decay to the ground state of 236U by emitting gamma radiation . Further neutron capture creates 237U which has a half @-@ life of 7 days and thus quickly decays to 237Np through beta decay . During beta decay , the excited 237U emits an electron , while the atomic weak interaction converts a neutron to a proton , thus creating 237Np .

<formula>

237U is also produced via an ( n , 2n ) reaction with 238U . This only happens with very energetic neutrons .

237Np is the product of alpha decay of 241Am , which is produced through neutron irradiation of uranium @-@ 238 .

Heavier isotopes of neptunium decay quickly , and lighter isotopes of neptunium cannot be produced by neutron capture , so chemical separation of neptunium from cooled spent nuclear fuel gives nearly pure 237Np . The short @-@ lived heavier isotopes 238Np and 239Np , useful as radioactive tracers , are produced through neutron irradiation of 237Np and 238U respectively , while the longer @-@ lived lighter isotopes 235Np and 236Np are produced through irradiation of 235U with protons and deuterons in a cyclotron .

Artificial 237Np metal is usually isolated through a reaction of 237NpF3 with liquid barium or lithium at around 1200 ° C and is most often extracted from spent nuclear fuel rods in kilogram amounts as a by @-@ product in plutonium production .

2 NpF3 + 3 Ba → 2 Np + 3 BaF2

By weight , neptunium @-@ 237 discharges are about 5 % as great as plutonium discharges and about 0 @.@ 05 % of spent nuclear fuel discharges . However , even this fraction still amounts to more than fifty tons per year globally .

= = = Purification methods = = =

Recovering uranium and plutonium from spent nuclear fuel for reuse is one of the major processes of the nuclear fuel cycle . As it has a long half @-@ life of just over 2 million years , the alpha emitter 237Np is one of the major isotopes of the minor actinides separated from spent nuclear fuel . Many separation methods have been used to separate out the neptunium , operating on small and large scales . The small @-@ scale purification operations have the goals of preparing pure neptunium as a precursor of metallic neptunium and its compounds , and also to isolate and preconcentrate neptunium in samples for analysis .

Most methods that separate neptunium ions exploit the differing chemical behaviour of the differing oxidation states of neptunium ( from + 3 to + 6 or sometimes even + 7 ) in solution . Among the methods that are or have been used are : solvent extraction ( using various extractants , usually multidentate β @-@ diketone derivatives , organophosphorus compounds , and amine compounds ) , chromatography using various ion @-@ exchange or chelating resins , coprecipitation ( possible matrices include LaF3 , BiPO4 , BaSO4 , Fe ( OH ) 3 , and MnO2 ) , electrodeposition , and biotechnological methods . Currently , commercial reprocessing plants use the Purex process , involving the solvent extraction of uranium and plutonium with tributyl phosphate .

= = Chemistry and compounds = =

= = = Solution chemistry = = =

When it is in an aqueous solution , neptunium can exist in any of its five possible oxidation states ( + 3 to + 7 ) and each of these show a characteristic color . The stability of each oxidation state is strongly dependent on various factors , such as the presence of oxidizing or reducing agents , pH of the solution , presence of coordination complex @-@ forming ligands , and even the concentration of neptunium in the solution .

In acidic solutions , the neptunium ( III ) to neptunium ( VII ) ions exist as Np3 + , Np4 + , NpO +

2 , NpO2 +

2 , and NpO +

3 . In basic solutions , they exist as the oxides and hydroxides Np ( OH ) 3 , NpO2 , NpO2OH , NpO2 ( OH ) 2 , and NpO3 −

5 . Not as much work has been done to characterize neptunium in basic solutions . Np3 + and Np4 + can easily be reduced and oxidized to each other , as can NpO +

2 and NpO2 +

2 .

Neptunium ( III )

Np ( III ) or Np3 + exists as hydrated complexes in acidic solutions , Np ( H

2O ) 3 + n . It is a dark blue @-@ purple and is analogous to its lighter congener , the pink rare earth ion Pm3 + . In the presence of oxygen , it is quickly oxidized to Np ( IV ) unless strong reducing agents are also present . Nevertheless , it is the second @-@ least easily hydrolyzed neptunium ion in water , forming the NpOH2 + ion . Np3 + is the predominant neptunium ion in solutions of pH 4 – 5 .

Neptunium ( IV )

Np ( IV ) or Np4 + is pale yellow @-@ green in acidic solutions , where it exists as hydrated complexes ( Np ( H

2O ) 4 + n ) . It is quite unstable to hydrolysis in acidic aqueous solutions at pH 1 and above , forming NpOH3 + . In basic solutions , Np4 + tends to hydrolyze to form the neutral neptunium ( IV ) hydroxide ( Np ( OH ) 4 ) and neptunium ( IV ) oxide ( NpO2 ) .

Neptunium ( V )

Np ( V ) or NpO +

2 is green @-@ blue in aqueous solution , in which it behaves as a strong Lewis acid . It is a stable ion and is the most common form of neptunium in aqueous solutions . Unlike its neighboring homologues UO +

2 and PuO +

2 , NpO +

2 does not spontaneously disproportionate except at very low pH and high concentration :

2 NpO +

2 + 4 H + ⇌ Np4 + + NpO2 +

2 + 2 H2O

It hydrolyzes in basic solutions to form NpO2OH and NpO

2 ( OH ) −

2 .

Neptunium ( VI )

Np ( VI ) or NpO2 +

2 , the neptunyl ion , shows a light pink or reddish color in an acidic solution and yellow @-@ green otherwise . It is a strong Lewis acid and is the main neptunium ion encountered in solutions of pH 3 – 4 . Though stable in acidic solutions , it is quite easily reduced to the Np ( V ) ion , and it is not as stable as the homologous hexavalent ions of its neighbours uranium and plutonium ( the uranyl and plutonyl ions ) . It hydrolyzes in basic solutions to form the oxo and hydroxo ions NpO2OH + , ( NpO

2 )

2 ( OH ) 2 +

2 , and ( NpO

2 )

3 ( OH ) +

5 .

Neptunium ( VII )

Np ( VII ) is dark green in a strongly basic solution . Though its chemical formula in basic solution is frequently cited as NpO3 −

5 , this is a simplification and the real structure is probably closer to a hydroxo species like [ NpO

4 ( OH )

2 ] 3 − . Np ( VII ) was first prepared in basic solution in 1967 . In strongly acidic solution , Np ( VII ) is found as NpO +

3 ; water quickly reduces this to Np ( VI ) . Its hydrolysis products are uncharacterized .

= = = Hydroxides = = =

The oxides and hydroxides of neptunium are closely related to its ions . In general , Np hydroxides at various oxidation levels are less stable than the actinides before it on the periodic table such as thorium and uranium and more stable than those after it such as plutonium and americium . This phenomenon is because the stability of an ion increases as the ratio of atomic number to the radius of the ion increases . Thus actinides higher on the periodic table will more readily undergo hydrolysis .

Neptunium ( III ) hydroxide is quite stable in acidic solutions and in environments that lack oxygen , but it will rapidly oxidize to the IV state in the presence of air . It is not soluble in water . Np ( IV ) hydroxides exist mainly as the electrically neutral Np ( OH ) 4 and its mild solubility in water is not affected at all by the pH of the solution . This suggests that the other Np ( IV ) hydroxide , Np ( OH ) −

5 , does not have a significant presence .

Because the Np ( V ) ion NpO +

2 is very stable , it can only form a hydroxide in high acidity levels . When placed in a 0 @.@ 1 M sodium perchlorate solution , it does not react significantly for a period of months , although a higher molar concentration of 3 @.@ 0 M will result in it reacting to the solid hydroxide NpO2OH almost immediately . Np ( VI ) hydroxide is more reactive but it is still fairly stable in acidic solutions . It will form the compound NpO3 · H2O in the presence of ozone under various carbon dioxide pressures . Np ( VII ) has not been well @-@ studied and no neutral hydroxides have been reported . It probably exists mostly as [ NpO

4 ( OH )

2 ] 3 − .

= = = Oxides = = =

Three anhydrous neptunium oxides have been reported , NpO2 , Np2O5 , and Np5O8 , though some studies have stated that only the first two of these exist , suggesting that claims of Np5O8 are actually the result of mistaken analysis of Np2O5 . However , as the full extent of the reactions that occur between neptunium and oxygen has yet to be researched , it is not certain which of these claims is accurate . Although neptunium oxides have not been produced with neptunium in oxidations as high as those possible with the adjacent actinide uranium , neptunium oxides are more stable at lower oxidation levels . This behavior is illustrated by the fact that NpO2 can be produced by simply burning neptunium salts of oxyacids in air .

The greenish @-@ brown NpO2 is very stable over a large range of pressures and temperatures and does not undergo phase transitions at low temperatures . It does show a phase transition from face @-@ centered cubic to orthorhombic at around 33 @-@ 37GPa , although it returns to is original phase when pressure is released . It remains stable under oxygen pressures up to 2 @.@ 84 MPa and temperatures up to 400 ° C. Np2O5 is black @-@ brown in color and monoclinic with a lattice size of 418 × 658 × 409 picometres . It is relatively unstable and decomposes to NpO2 and O2 at 420 @-@ 695 ° C. Although Np2O5 was initially subject to several studies that claimed to produce it with mutually contradictory methods , it was eventually prepared successfully by heating neptunium peroxide to 300 @-@ 350 ° C for 2 – 3 hours or by heating it under a layer of water in an ampoule at 180 ° C.

Neptunium also forms a large number of oxide compounds with a wide variety of elements , although the neptunate oxides formed with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals have been by far the most studied . Ternary neptunium oxides are generally formed by reacting NpO2 with the oxide of another element or by precipitating from an alkaline solution . Li5NpO6 has been prepared by reacting Li2O and NpO2 at 400 ° C for 16 hours or by reacting Li2O2 with NpO3 · H2O at 400 ° C for 16 hours in a quartz tube and flowing oxygen . Alkali neptunate compounds K3NpO5 , Cs3NpO5 , and Rb3NpO5 are all created by a similar reaction :

NpO2 + 3 MO2 → M3NpO5 ( M = K , Cs , Rb )

The oxide compounds KNpO4 , CsNpO4 , and RbNpO4 are formed by reacting Np ( VII ) ( [ NpO

4 ( OH )

2 ] 3 − ) with a compound of the alkali metal nitrate and ozone . Additional compounds have been produced by reacting NpO3 and water with solid alkali and alkaline peroxides at temperatures of 400 - 600 ° C for 15 – 30 hours . Some of these include Ba3 ( NpO5 ) 2 , Ba2NaNpO6 , and Ba2LiNpO6 . Also , a considerable number of hexavelant neptunium oxides are formed by reacting solid @-@ state NpO2 with various alkali or alkaline earth oxides in an environment of flowing oxygen . Many of the resulting compounds also have an equivalent compound that substitutes uranium for neptunium . Some compounds that have been characterized include Na2Np2O7 , Na4NpO5 , Na6NpO6 , and Na2NpO4 . These can be obtained by heating different combinations of NpO2 and Na2O to various temperature thresholds and further heating will also cause these compounds to exhibit different neptunium allotropes . The lithium neptunate oxides Li6NpO6 and Li4NpO5 can be obtained with similar reactions of NpO2 and Li2O .

A large number of additional alkali and alkaline neptunium oxide compounds such as Cs4Np5O17 and Cs2Np3O10 have been characterized with various production methods . Neptunium has also been observed to bond with oxides of many additional elements in groups 3 through 7 , although these are much less well studied .

= = = Halides = = =

Although neptunium halide compounds have not been nearly as well studied as its oxides , a fairly large number have been successfully characterized . Of these , neptunium fluorides have been the most extensively researched , largely because of their potential use in separating the element from nuclear waste products . Four binary neptunium fluoride compounds , NpF3 , NpF4 , NpF5 , and NpF6 , have been reported . The first two are fairly stable and were first prepared in 1947 through the following reactions :

NpO2 + 1 ⁄ 2 H2 + 3 HF → NpF3 + 2 H2O ( 400 ° C )

NpF3 + 1 ⁄ 2 O2 + HF → NpF4 + 1 ⁄ 2 H2O ( 400 ° C )

Later , NpF4 was obtained directly by heating NpO2 to various temperatures in mixtures of either hydrogen fluoride or pure fluorine gas . NpF5 is much more difficult to create and most known preparation methods involve reacting NpF4 or NpF6 compounds with various other fluoride compounds . NpF5 will decompose into NpF4 and NpF6 when heated to around 320 ° C.

NpF6 or neptunium hexafluoride is extremely volatile , as are its adjacent actinide compounds uranium hexafluoride ( UF6 ) and plutonium hexafluoride ( PuF6 ) . This volatility has attracted a large amount of interest to the compound in an attempt to devise a simple method for extracting neptunium from spent nuclear power station fuel rods . NpF6 was first prepared in 1943 by reacting NpF3 and gaseous fluorine at very high temperatures and the first bulk quantities were obtained in 1958 by heating NpF4 and dripping pure fluorine on it in a specially prepared apparatus . Additional methods that have successfully produced neptunium hexafluoride include reacting BrF3 and BrF5 with NpF4 and by reacting several different neptunium oxide and fluoride compounds with anhydrous hydrogen ﬂuorides .

Four neptunium oxyfluoride compounds , NpO2F , NpOF3 , NpO2F2 , and NpOF4 ; have been reported although none of them have been extensively studied . NpO2F2 is a pinkish solid and can be prepared by reacting NpO3 · H2O and Np2F5 with pure fluorine at around 330 ° C. NpOF3 and NpOF4 can be produced by reacting neptunium oxides with anhydrous hydrogen ﬂuoride at various temperatures . Neptunium also forms a wide variety of fluoride compounds with various elements . Some of these that have been characterized include CsNpF6 , Rb2NpF7 , Na3NpF8 , and K3NpO2F5 .

Two neptunium chlorides , NpCl3 and NpCl4 , have been characterized and although several attempts to create NpCl5 have been made , they have not been successful . NpCl3 is created by reducing neptunium dioxide with hydrogen and carbon tetrachloride ( CCl4 ) and NpCl4 by reacting a neptunium oxide with CCl4 at around 500 ° C. Other neptunium chloride compounds have also been reported , including NpOCl2 , Cs2NpCl6 , Cs3NpO2Cl4 , and Cs2NaNpCl6 . Neptunium bromides NpBr3 and NpBr4 have also been created ; the latter by reacting aluminium bromide with NpO2 at 350 ° C and the former in an almost identical procedure but with zinc present . The neptunium iodide NpI3 has also been prepared by the same method as NpBr3 .

= = = Chalcogenides , pnictides , and carbides = = =

Neptunium chalcogen and pnictogen compounds have been well studied primarily as part of research into their electronic and magnetic properties and their interactions in the natural environment . Pnictide and carbide compounds have also attracted interest because of their presence in the fuel of several advanced nuclear reactor designs , although the latter group has not had nearly as much research as the former .

Chalcogenides

A wide variety of neptunium sulfide compounds have been characterized , including the pure sulfide compounds NpS , NpS3 , Np2S5 , Np3S5 , Np2S3 , and Np3S4 . Of these , Np2S3 , prepared by reacting NpO2 with hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide at around 1000 ° C , is the most well @-@ studied and three allotropic forms are known . The α form exists up to around 1230 ° C , the β up to 1530 ° C , and the γ form , which can also exist as Np3S4 , at higher temperatures . NpS can be created by reacting Np2S3 and neptunium metal at 1600 ° C and Np3S5 can be prepared by the decomposition of Np2S3 at 500 ° C or by reacting sulfur and neptunium hydride at 650 ° C. Np2S5 is made by heating a mixture of Np3S5 and pure sulfur to 500 ° C. All of the neptunium sulfides except for the β and γ forms of Np2S3 are isostructural with the equivalent uranium sulfide and several , including NpS , α − Np2S3 , and β − Np2S3 are also isostructural with the equivalent plutonium sulfide . The oxysulfides NpOS , Np4O4S , and Np2O2S have also been created , although the latter three have not been well studied . NpOS was first prepared in 1985 by vacuum sealing NpO2 , Np3S5 , and pure sulfur in a quartz tube and heating it to 900 ° C for one week .

Neptunium selenide compounds that have been reported include NpSe , NpSe3 , Np2Se3 , Np2Se5 , Np3Se4 , and Np3Se5 . All of these have only been obtained by heating neptunium hydride and selenium metal to various temperatures in a vacuum for an extended period of time and Np2Se3 is only known to exist in the γ allotrope at relatively high temperatures . Two neptunium oxyselenide compounds are known , NpOSe and Np2O2Se , are formed with similar methods by replacing the neptunium hydride with neptunium dioxide . The known neptunium telluride compounds NpTe , NpTe3 , Np3Te4 , Np2Te3 , and Np2O2Te are formed by similar procedures to the selenides and Np2O2Te is isostructural to the equivalent uranium and plutonium compounds . No neptunium − polonium compounds have been reported .

Pnictides and carbides

Neptunium nitride ( NpN ) was first prepared in 1953 by reacting neptunium hydride and ammonia gas at around 750 ° C in a quartz capillary tube . Later , it was produced by reacting different mixtures of nitrogen and hydrogen with neptunium metal at various temperatures . It has also been created by the reduction of neptunium dioxide with diatomic nitrogen gas at 1550 ° C. NpN is isomorphous with uranium mononitride ( UN ) and plutonium mononitride ( PuN ) and has a melting point of 2830 ° C under a nitrogen pressure of around 1 MPa . Two neptunium phosphide compounds have been reported , NpP and Np3P4 . The first has a face centered cubic structure and is prepared by converting neptunium metal to a powder and then reacting it with phosphine gas at 350 ° C. Np3P4 can be created by reacting neptunium metal with red phosphorus at 740 ° C in a vacuum and then allowing any extra phosphorus to sublimate away . The compound is non @-@ reactive with water but will react with nitric acid to produce Np ( IV ) solution .

Three neptunium arsenide compounds have been prepared , NpAs , NpAs2 , and Np3As4 . The first two were first created by heating arsenic and neptunium hydride in a vacuum @-@ sealed tube for about a week . Later , NpAs was also made by confining neptunium metal and arsenic in a vacuum tube , separating them with a quartz membrane , and heating them to just below neptunium 's melting point of 639 ° C , which is slightly higher than the arsenic 's sublimation point of 615 ° C. Np3As4 is prepared by a similar procedure using iodine as a transporting agent . NpAs2 crystals are brownish gold and Np3As4 is black . The neptunium antimonide compound NpSb was created in 1971 by placing equal quantities of both elements in a vacuum tube , heating them to the melting point of antimony , and then heating it further to 1000 ° C for sixteen days . This procedure also created trace amounts of an additional antimonide compound Np3Sb4 . One neptunium @-@ bismuth compound , NpBi , has also been reported .

The neptunium carbides NpC , Np2C3 , and NpC2 ( tentative ) have been reported , but have not characterized in detail despite the high importance and utility of actinide carbides as advanced nuclear reactor fuel . NpC is a non @-@ stoichiometric compound , and could be better labelled as NpCx ( 0 @.@ 82 ≤ x ≤ 0 @.@ 96 ) . It may be obtained from the reaction of neptunium hydride with graphite at 1400 ° C or by heating the constituent elements together in an electric arc furnace using a tungsten electrode . It reacts with excess carbon to form pure Np2C3 . NpC2 is formed from heating NpO2 in a graphite crucible at 2660 – 2800 ° C.

= = = Other inorganic = = =

Hydrides

Neptunium reacts with hydrogen in a similar manner to its neighbor plutonium , forming the hydrides NpH2 + x ( face @-@ centered cubic ) and NpH3 ( hexagonal ) . These are isostructural with the corresponding plutonium hydrides , although unlike PuH2 + x , the lattice parameters of NpH2 + x become greater as the hydrogen content ( x ) increases . The hydrides require extreme care in handling as they decompose in a vacuum at 300 ° C to form finely divided neptunium metal , which is pyrophoric .

Phosphates , sulfates , and carbonates

Being chemically stable , neptunium phosphates have been investigated for potential use in immobilizing nuclear waste . Neptunium pyrophosphate ( α @-@ NpP2O7 ) , a green solid , has been produced in the reaction between neptunium dioxide and boron phosphate at 1100 ° C , though neptunium ( IV ) phosphate has so far remained elusive . The series of compounds NpM2 ( PO4 ) 3 , where M is an alkali metal ( Li , Na , K , Rb , or Cs ) , are all known . Some neptunium sulfates have been characterized , both aqueous and solid and at various oxidation states of neptunium ( IV through VI have been observed ) . Additionally , neptunium carbonates have been investigated to achieve a better understanding of the behavior of neptunium in geological repositories and the environment , where it may come into contact with carbonate and bicarbonate aqueous solutions and form soluble complexes .

= = = Organometallic = = =

A few organoneptunium compounds are known and chemically characterized , although not as many as for uranium due to neptunium 's scarcity and radioactivity . The most well known organoneptunium compounds are the cyclopentadienyl and cyclooctatetraenyl compounds and their derivatives . The trivalent cyclopentadienyl compound Np ( C5H5 ) 3 · THF was obtained in 1972 from reacting Np ( C5H5 ) 3Cl with sodium , although the simpler Np ( C5H5 ) could not be obtained . Tetravalent neptunium cyclopentadienyl , a reddish @-@ brown complex , was synthesized in 1968 by reacting neptunium ( IV ) chloride with potassium cyclopentadienide :

NpCl4 + 4 KC5H5 → Np ( C5H5 ) 4 + 4 KCl

It is soluble in benzene and THF , and is less sensitive to oxygen and water than Pu ( C5H5 ) 3 and Am ( C5H5 ) 3 . Other Np ( IV ) cyclopentadienyl compounds are known for many ligands : they have the general formula ( C5H5 ) 3NpL , where L represents a ligand . Neptunocene , Np ( C8H8 ) 2 , was synthesized in 1970 by reacting neptunium ( IV ) chloride with K2 ( C8H8 ) . It is isomorphous to uranocene and plutonocene , and they behave chemically identically : all three compounds are insensitive to water or dilute bases but are sensitive to air , reacting quickly to form oxides , and are only slightly soluble in benzene and toluene . Other known neptunium cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives include Np ( RC8H7 ) 2 ( R = ethanol , butanol ) and KNp ( C8H8 ) · 2THF , which is isostructural to the corresponding plutonium compound . In addition , neptunium hydrocarbyls have been prepared , and solvated triiodide complexes of neptunium are a precursor to many organoneptunium and inorganic neptunium compounds .

= = = Coordination complexes = = =

There is much interest in the coordination chemistry of neptunium , because its five oxidation states all exhibit their own distinctive chemical behavior , and the coordination chemistry of the actinides is heavily influenced by the actinide contraction ( the greater @-@ than @-@ expected decrease in ionic radii across the actinide series , analogous to the lanthanide contraction ) .

= = = = Solid state = = = =

Few neptunium ( III ) coordination compounds are known , because Np ( III ) is readily oxidized by atmospheric oxygen while in aqueous solution . However , sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate can reduce Np ( IV ) to Np ( III ) , stabilizing the lower oxidation state and forming various sparingly soluble Np ( III ) coordination complexes , such as Np

2 ( C

2O

4 )

3 · 11H2O , Np

2 ( C

6H

5AsO

3 )

3 · H2O , and Np

2 [ C

6H

4 ( OH ) COO ]

3 .

Many neptunium ( IV ) coordination compounds have been reported , the first one being ( Et

4N ) Np ( NCS )

8 , which is isostructural with the analogous uranium ( IV ) coordination compound . Other Np ( IV ) coordination compounds are known , some involving other metals such as cobalt ( CoNp

2F

10 · 8H2O , formed at 400 K ) and copper ( CuNp

2F

10 · 6H2O , formed at 600 K ) . Complex nitrate compounds are also known : the experimenters who produced them in 1986 and 1987 produced single crystals by slow evaporation of the Np ( IV ) solution at ambient temperature in concentrated nitric acid and excess 2 @,@ 2 ′ -pyrimidine .

The coordination chemistry of neptunium ( V ) has been extensively researched due to the presence of cation – cation interactions in the solid state , which had been already known for actinyl ions . Some known such compounds include the neptunyl dimer Na

4 ( NpO

4 )

2C

12O

12 · 8H2O and neptunium glycolate , both of which form green crystals .

Neptunium ( VI ) compounds range from the simple oxalate NpO

2C

2O

4 ( which is unstable , usually becoming Np ( IV ) ) to such complicated compounds as the green ( NH

4 )

4NpO

2 ( CO

3 )

3 . Extensive study has been performed on compounds of the form M

4AnO

2 ( CO

3 )

3 , where M represents a monovalent cation and An is either uranium , neptunium , or plutonium .

Since 1967 , when neptunium ( VII ) was discovered , some coordination compounds with neptunium in the + 7 oxidation state have been prepared and studied . The first reported such compound was initially characterized as Co ( NH

3 )

6NpO

5 · nH2O in 1968 , but was suggested in 1973 to actually have the formula [ Co ( NH

3 )

6 ] [ NpO

4 ( OH )

2 ] · 2H2O based on the fact that Np ( VII ) occurs as [ NpO

4 ( OH )

2 ] 3 − in aqueous solution . This compound forms dark green prismatic crystals with maximum edge length 0 @.@ 15 – 0 @.@ 4 mm .

= = = = In aqueous solution = = = =

Most neptunium coordination complexes known in solution involve the element in the + 4 , + 5 , and + 6 oxidation states : only a few studies have been done on neptunium ( III ) and ( VII ) coordination complexes . For the former , NpX2 + and NpX +

2 ( X

= Cl , Br ) were obtained in 1966 in concentrated LiCl and LiBr solutions , respectively : for the latter , 1970 experiments discovered that the NpO3 +

2 ion could form sulfate complexes in acidic solutions , such as NpO

2SO +

4 and NpO

2 ( SO

4 ) −

2 ; these were found to have higher stability constants than the neptunyl ion ( NpO2 +

2 ) . A great many complexes for the other neptunium oxidation states are known : the inorganic ligands involved are the halides , iodate , azide , nitride , nitrate , thiocyanate , sulfate , carbonate , chromate , and phosphate . Many organic ligands are known to be able to be used in neptunium coordination complexes : they include acetate , propionate , glycolate , lactate , oxalate , malonate , phthalate , mellitate , and citrate .

Analogously to its neighbours , uranium and plutonium , the order of the neptunium ions in terms of complex formation ability is Np4 + > NpO2 +

2 ≥ Np3 + > NpO +

2 . ( The relative order of the middle two neptunium ions depends on the ligands and solvents used . ) The stability sequence for Np ( IV ) , Np ( V ) , and Np ( VI ) complexes with monovalent inorganic ligands is F − > H

2PO −

4 > SCN − > NO −

3 > Cl − > ClO −

4 ; the order for divalent inorganic ligands is CO2 −

3 > HPO2 −

4 > SO2 −

4 . These follow the strengths of the corresponding acids . The divalent ligands are more strongly complexing than the monovalent ones . NpO +

2 can also form the complex ions [ NpO +

2M3 + ] ( M =

Al , Ga , Sc , In , Fe , Cr , Rh ) in perchloric acid solution : the strength of interaction between the two cations follows the order Fe > In > Sc > Ga > Al . The neptunyl and uranyl ions can also form a complex together .

= = Applications = =

= = = Precursor in plutonium production = = =

An important of use of 237Np is as a precursor in plutonium production , where it is irradiated with neutrons to create 238Pu , an alpha emitter for radioisotope thermal generators for spacecraft and military applications . 237Np will capture a neutron to form 238Np and beta decay with a half @-@ life of just over two days to 238Pu .

<formula>

238Pu also exists in sizable quantities in spent nuclear fuel but would have to be separated from other isotopes of plutonium . Irradiating neptunium @-@ 237 with electron beams , provoking bremsstrahlung , also produces quite pure samples of the isotope plutonium @-@ 236 , useful as a tracer to determine plutonium concentration in the environment .

= = = Weapons = = =

Neptunium is fissionable , and could theoretically be used as fuel in a fast neutron reactor or a nuclear weapon , with a critical mass of around 60 kilograms . In 1992 , the U.S. Department of Energy declassified the statement that neptunium @-@ 237 " can be used for a nuclear explosive device " . It is not believed that an actual weapon has ever been constructed using neptunium . As of 2009 , the world production of neptunium @-@ 237 by commercial power reactors was over 1000 critical masses a year , but to extract the isotope from irradiated fuel elements would be a major industrial undertaking .

In September 2002 , researchers at the Los Alamos National Laboratory briefly created the first known nuclear critical mass using neptunium in combination with shells of enriched uranium ( uranium @-@ 235 ) , discovering that the critical mass of a bare sphere of neptunium @-@ 237 " ranges from kilogram weights in the high fifties to low sixties , " showing that it " is about as good a bomb material as [ uranium @-@ 235 ] . " The United States Federal government made plans in March 2004 to move America 's supply of separated neptunium to a nuclear @-@ waste disposal site in Nevada .

= = = Physics = = =

237Np is used in devices for detecting high @-@ energy ( MeV ) neutrons .

= = Role in nuclear waste = =

Neptunium accumulates in commercial household ionization @-@ chamber smoke detectors from decay of the ( typically ) 0 @.@ 2 microgram of americium @-@ 241 initially present as a source of ionizing radiation . With a half @-@ life of 432 years , the americium @-@ 241 in an ionization smoke detector includes about 3 % neptunium after 20 years , and about 15 % after 100 years .

Neptunium @-@ 237 is the most mobile actinide in the deep geological repository environment . This makes it and its predecessors such as americium @-@ 241 candidates of interest for destruction by nuclear transmutation . Due to its long half @-@ life , neptunium will become the major contributor of the total radiotoxicity in 10 @,@ 000 years . As it is unclear what happens to the containment in that long time span , an extraction of the neptunium would minimize the contamination of the environment if the nuclear waste could be mobilized after several thousand years .

= = Biological role and precautions = =

Neptunium does not have a biological role , as it has a short half @-@ life and occurs only in small traces naturally . Animal tests showed that it is not absorbed via the digestive tract . When injected it concentrates in the bones , from which it is slowly released .

Finely divided neptunium metal presents a fire hazard because neptunium is pyrophoric ; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature .

= = Literature = =

Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition , Albert Stwertka , ( Oxford University Press ; 1998 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 508083 @-@ 1

Lester R. Morss , Norman M. Edelstein , Jean Fuger ( Hrsg . ) : The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements , Springer @-@ Verlag , Dordrecht 2006 , ISBN 1 @-@ 4020 @-@ 3555 @-@ 1 .

Ida Noddack ( 1934 ) . " Über das Element 93 " . Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie 47 ( 37 ) : 653 – 655 @.@  doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / ange.19340473707.

Eric Scerri , A Very Short Introduction to the Periodic Table , Oxford University Press , Oxford , 2011 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 958249 @-@ 5 .

= Michael ( Glee ) =

" Michael " is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ fifth overall . Written by co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on January 31 , 2012 . It is a special tribute episode to Michael Jackson , and features eight of his songs as a solo artist , and one he sang as part of The Jackson 5 .

Reviews were widely varied for the episode : some felt it was the best of the third season to date , and others were quite critical , though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative . A number of reviewers noted that tribute episodes have tended to be light on plot , though several felt that this episode had surmounted the usual storyline problems that had plagued past tributes .

The episode 's musical performances were viewed more favorably , with many of the nine performances given high praise , including " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , " Human Nature " , " Smooth Criminal " , and " Scream " , the last of these primarily for Kevin McHale 's dancing . Five of the songs — the first three above plus " Bad " and " Black or White " — charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 , while the other four were also released as singles but did not chart .

Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 07 million American viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was up over 20 % from the previous episode , " Yes / No " .

= = Plot = =

Glee club members Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) are disappointed that they missed their chance to sing Michael Jackson 's music at Sectionals , so director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) says that New Directions might include Jackson for the upcoming Regionals competition . Blaine ( Darren Criss ) performs " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " to demonstrate his suggested number . However , he mentions this possibility to Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) , the new captain of the Dalton Academy Warblers and a Regionals competitor , and Sebastian later announces that the Warblers , who will be performing first , will also be doing Jackson 's music . New Directions challenges the Warblers for the right to perform Jackson , and they meet in a parking garage at night and compete to " Bad " . At the end of the number , Sebastian throws a slushie at Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) but Blaine interposes himself : he is hit in the face and badly injured .

Finn ( Cory Monteith ) asks Rachel ( Lea Michele ) for her answer to his proposal since he has waited the three days she requested , but she is not ready , so he agrees to wait longer . Rachel asks Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) for advice , and Quinn advises her to refuse and leave her past behind . Quinn has done so , and she has been accepted at Yale ; she sings " Never Can Say Goodbye " to former boyfriends Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Finn and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , and to the glee club . Sam calls Mercedes to the auditorium and asks her to sing with him — they have never duetted in glee club . She refuses and starts to leave , but he begins " Human Nature " and she joins in . Afterward , they kiss .

Blaine 's cornea was deeply scratched in the incident and he needs surgery . The club wants revenge on Sebastian ; Kurt says he should be expelled from Dalton , but Will asks them to let the system handle it . Artie ( Kevin McHale ) refuses : he is fed up with being told it will get better and says it should be better now , and leaves . Despite wanting revenge , Kurt is unwilling to use violence , so Santana goes to Dalton and accuses Sebastian of lying about the composition of the damaging slushie . He challenges her to a duel : the song " Smooth Criminal " . He admits after they finish that he rigged the slushie with rock salt , and hits her with an unadulterated one . Santana secretly recorded the encounter , and plays her evidence to New Directions , who in turn invite the Warblers to their auditorium , show them that they " get " Jackson better by performing " Black or White " , and reveal to the Warblers the proof that Sebastian deliberately tried to injure one of them .

Kurt 's father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) takes Kurt out of class to hand him his letter from NYADA . Kurt opens it and discovers to his elation he is a finalist for admission ; Burt is overcome with pride . Kurt tells Rachel , only to discover that she has not received any letter from the school ; Rachel dissolves in tears . Finn later sings " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " to Rachel , and she tells him she loves him and that she accepts his proposal . She ultimately does get a finalist letter from NYADA and tells Kurt , to his joy , but she has not yet told Finn .

= = Production = =

Executive producers Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk had been mentioning since before the second season ended that they were planning another big tribute episode that they had been wanting to do since the first season , but would not reveal the name of the artist . On December 6 , 2011 , the same day that they were airing the " Hold On to Sixteen " episode that featured three Jackson family songs , Murphy announced that they had finally obtained the rights to do a Michael Jackson tribute episode .

The episode was written by Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez @-@ Rejon , who had most recently directed Asian F. Filming had begun by December 12 , 2011 , and was interrupted by a two @-@ week holiday vacation . Both of the last two shooting days before the vacation began , December 15 and 16 , ran a couple of hours past midnight , with the final night not ending until three in the morning . Filming had not yet completed when the twelfth episode , with guest star Ricky Martin , began filming on January 5 , 2012 , the third day after the holiday vacation ended . The two episodes continued in parallel until the final Michael Jackson number was shot on January 13 , 2012 , over a month after filming began and the same day that the thirteenth episode commenced filming .

It had been announced late in the summer that Darren Criss , who plays Blaine Anderson , would be starring on Broadway in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22 , 2012 , with rehearsals beginning there a couple of weeks before his debut . At the time , the reports said he would be missing " an episode and a half of Glee " . The final scene filmed before the holiday break was the first song in the episode , for which Criss sang lead , and he filmed several scenes in the episode in those last four days . He is singing lead on the song " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Criss spent five weeks in New York City , the last three starring in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22 , 2012 .

The Dalton Academy Warblers return in this episode , and perform " Bad " with New Directions , which was shot on location in a " parking garage just outside the Paramount Studio gates " . On the previous day , several members of New Directions did their first location shoots in the building used for Dalton Academy . The Warblers shot their own number , " I Want You Back " by The Jackson 5 with Gustin on lead vocal , but the song was omitted from the final cut of the episode . This was the second time in the third season that ten musical performances were shot for an episode but only nine were ultimately included : Rivera 's rendition of " Santa Baby " was cut from the episode two before this one , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " . " I Want You Back " , like " Santa Baby " before it , was nevertheless released as a single , and on August 3 , 2012 , Murphy released the originally filmed scene including it uploaded to his YouTube page . The Warblers number had already run into difficulties earlier in production : it was originally planned to be Jackson 's " Rock with You " , but there were problems clearing the rights , so " I Want You Back " was selected and filmed instead . Gustin and Rivera performed " Smooth Criminal " with on @-@ screen musical guests 2Cellos , Luka Šulić and Stjepan Hauser , who became famous when their instrument @-@ only two @-@ cello cover of the piece received over three million views on YouTube in its first two weeks . The arrangement used for the performance is based on the 2Cellos version .

The remaining six songs that are covered in the episode include " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , performed by Michele and Monteith ; The Jackson 5 's " Never Can Say Goodbye " , sung by Agron ; " Ben " sung by Colfer , Michele and Monteith ; " Black or White " featuring Riley , Rivera , Michele , McHale and Colfer ; " Human Nature " sung by Riley and Overstreet ; and the Michael and Janet Jackson song " Scream " , performed by McHale and Harry Shum , Jr . " Human Nature " was originally reported as being part of a mash @-@ up with Nat King Cole 's " Nature Boy " , but the song as performed is the Jackson song alone . All ten songs recorded — the nine in the episode plus " I Want You Back " which was ultimately cut — have been released as singles , available for download .

Recurring guest stars in the episode include Kurt 's father Burt Hummel ( O 'Malley ) , glee club members Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) and Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) , and Dalton Academy Warbler Sebastian Smythe ( Gustin ) .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" Michael " was first broadcast on January 31 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 9 @.@ 07 million American viewers during its initial airing , an increase of over 20 % from the 3 @.@ 1 / 8 rating / share and 7 @.@ 50 million viewers of the previous episode , " Yes / No " , which was broadcast on January 17 , 2012 . In Canada , 1 @.@ 84 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere . It was the tenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , up two slots and 14 % from the 1 @.@ 61 million viewers who watched " Yes / No " two weeks earlier .

In the United Kingdom , " Michael " first aired on March 8 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 682 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewership was down over 15 % from " Yes / No " , which attracted 805 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " Michael " was broadcast on February 24 , 2012 . It was watched by 535 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the thirteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from eleventh the week before . The viewership was down nearly 4 % from the previous episode , " Yes / No " , which was seen by 556 @,@ 000 viewers .

= = = Critical reception = = =

The episode was given a widely varied reception by reviewers , ranging from Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone , who called it " season three 's best episode so far " , to BuddyTV 's John Kubicek , who described the episode as " just plain silly and ridiculous " , though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal wrote that " the episode was well paced , well sung and well danced " , though he was unhappy with the concluding number , and Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch said the episode " contained some of this season 's best dramatic and musical performances " . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV stated that she was " a little underwhelmed " by the episode , which " never quite lived up to the greatness that is Michael Jackson " . IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a " great " 8 out of 10 , and characterized it as " more than just a theme episode " in which he was " connecting to characters " that had not " grabbed " him since the first season .

MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan summarized the episode as follows : " When all was said and done , it was another tribute episode , something that can 't be uttered by a Glee fan without a sigh and an eye roll . " Bell noted that tribute episodes usually mean that " all sense of plot continuity " is forgone , but that this one ranked " at the top of all of the other Glee tribute episodes because even though it was absurd at times , at least there was a plot — and it kind of made sense " . Futterman was more complimentary and described it as the " most effortless tribute episode yet " , and Canning wrote that " with songs we know and love and storylines that actually connected and delivered some meaningful and moving moments " it was " more than just a theme episode " . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post , however , thought that it was very much like previous tributes in that it also " featured scattered plot lines engineered to include as many songs by said artists as possible " and also " glorified their respective pop stars ’ images to an absurd degree " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff also noted the glorification of Jackson , and noted " every time the show turns into an episode about Michael Jackson , it stops dead in its tracks entirely " . He stated that what was " weird " about the episode was that " what didn ’ t work was the spectacle , while what did work were the smaller , character @-@ based stories " which " provided a spine some of the other spectacle @-@ oriented episodes have lacked " . Futterman was one of many reviewers who took note of a new feature of this tribute episode when she commented on the " initial whiff of product placement and forced timing " related to the " Immortal World Tour " dialogue . Rae Votta of Billboard thought the inclusion a " brilliant bit of marketing synergy " , but TVLine 's Michael Slezak called it " ridiculously unsubtle product @-@ placement " .

Although Rachel 's decision to accept Finn 's proposal of marriage was greeted with skepticism , Canning spoke for many when he stated that her " arc in the episode was her best in a while " with " some compelling moments " . He also cited the " fantastically true advice " from Quinn , and VanDerWerff thought the scene " was going along great until the last 10 seconds " of that advice . Bell praised as " believable " the scene where Rachel " breaks down in front of Kurt " , and Slezak said he " loved that scene of Kurt holding his sobbing friend in front of the lockers " . Kurt 's scene with his father was Bell 's " favorite scene " which she said was " an incredibly touching moment between father and son . It was perfect . " Flandez also called Burt " perfect " for " delivering the NYADA envelope to his son " , and The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg described his scene as " another great Burt gem " .

Kubicek characterized the fact that Sebastian was not arrested for injuring Blaine as " an absurd plot twist " . He criticized Kurt for withholding the evidence and wrote , " Santana 's plan isn 't vicious or mean , it 's getting justice . Sebastian committed a crime and he should pay for it . " Slezak thought the decision as to whether the police would be given Santana 's evidence should have been Blaine 's to make , and Lynch posited that " a talk with the police " might teach Sebastian " that violent actions have legal consequences " . Chaney was incredulous at Will 's statements to the glee club on the matter , especially , " Unless you have proof that he tampered with the slushie , the police aren ’ t getting involved . " Kubicek called Artie 's anger that led to " Scream " a story arc that " goes nowhere and was just a poorly written excuse to do that song " , but Votta was impressed that " we learn more about Artie 's frustration in this fantasy scene than we have in 3 seasons " . Canning wrote that " as extraneous as the extended " Scream " segment was , the build up to that moment was perfect " .

= = = Music and performances = = =

The episode 's musical performances were given a better reception than the episode as a whole , though there were some dissenting voices , and not every song was received with the same enthusiasm . Slezak described the episode as " jam @-@ packed with terrific song @-@ and @-@ dance numbers " , and Votta wrote that " the musical numbers themselves were strong , fantastical and poignant to the story " . Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times declared , " The music was good ; the dancing , better . " Chaney wrote that " too many " of the musical numbers were " weak imitations " , which was reflected in her grading : her median grade for the nine numbers was a " C + " , and her highest grade was a single " B + " .

The first song was " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , which Bell said " was a fun homage to Michael Jackson , and it set the tone for the rest of the episode " . Futterman said that Blaine 's " slick showmanship " made him a " natural for lead vocals " , and Slezak called it " the best use of Darren Criss ' voice on Glee in quite some time " and gave it an " A − " . Lynch also gave it an " A − " , and said Criss " captured the excitement and the spunky bravado of the original " . Sullivan was another fan of " the sheer awesomeness of Darren Criss " on the song , and characterized it as " a tribute that 's more respectful than any other in the episode " . Chaney dissented from the general approval ; she gave it a " C + " and wrote that " the number was appropriately big and splashy , but musically , it sounded like all the funk had been drained right out of it " . She described " Bad " similarly as she gave it a " C − " : " this tune also sounded noticeably defunkified " . Sullivan was also unimpressed ; he wrote that the performance let " the world know what ' Bad ' sounds like after it 's drained of every ounce of danger " . Lynch gave it a " B " and wrote that " as silly as a choreographed gang fight between teenagers in a parking lot sounds ( and was ) , the choreography was crisp and the attitude was a lot of fun " . Slezak also praised the fight choreography , and stated that he " got chills " when Santana sang the chorus , and gave the song a " B + " . Futterman noted the " interesting twist " in the song 's arrangement " thanks to the Warblers ' penchant for a cappella " , and said that " Artie and Santana " began their battle for " vocal MVP of the episode " with " Bad " . Votta described the number as " up there with the Dreamgirls performance from earlier this season as one of the strangest and best things Glee has done " .

Kevin McHale 's performance as Artie in " Scream " inspired several reviewers , including Kate Stanhope of TV Guide and Bell , to write of their regret that McHale could not dance more often on the show . Reiter called him " a sorely underused Glee resource " and called the number " the best dance moment " of the episode , and Bell declared , " I have one word for this number : Epic . " Flandez called it a " phenomenal job " , and Stanhope cited " killer performances " by McHale on this number and others as evidence that with Artie only a junior " there is life " in New Directions after McKinley 's current seniors graduate . Lynch called the number " awesome " and gave it an " A + " , and Goldberg described it as " a perfect example of what the show looks like when it 's firing on all cylinders " ; both reviewers praised the dancing of both performers . Chaney wrote that the performance " lacked the energy and genuine aggression of the original Michael / Janet Jackson collaboration , although at least Kevin McHale and Harry Shum Jr. got to show off their dance skills " , and gave it a " C " . She felt that " Never Can Say Goodbye " , to which she gave a " B − " , " worked much better than every track that preceded it " because it adapted the song to the show " instead of trying to out @-@ Jackson Jackson " . Lynch called it " a nice summation of her character 's journey , but not vocally impressive enough to justify listening to outside of the episode " and gave it a " B " . Bell described it as a " blah performance " , but Stanhope said it was " sweet and reflective " . Futterman wrote that it was " a tune well @-@ suited for Quinn 's sultry voice and the flipped meaning she gives the lyrics " , and Slezak had a similar take : he gave it an " A " and called it a " remarkably lovely fit " for her voice .

Votta and Futterman both said that Sam and Mercedes sounded " great together " on " Human Nature " , and Futterman also complimented their individual voices — " hers restrained and soulful , his rock @-@ tinged and raw " — and summarized , " It 's a crisp , well @-@ executed cover " . Most other reviewers also noted how good their voices sounded together , including Chaney , who gave the song a " B − " , and Bell , who called their harmonies " out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ world amazing " . Lynch and Slezak each praised the tenderness in Riley 's vocals ; Lynch gave the song an " A " , and Slezak an " A − " . " Ben " , however , received far more mixed commentary , and several reviewers felt it was odd to , as Chaney put it , sing a song about a rat " to a guy who isn 't named Ben and was wearing an eye patch " , which Futterman called " a little creepy " and VanDerWerff , more bluntly , " fucking weird " . Despite this , Chaney gave the song a " B " , one of her highest grades of the night , in part because it gave Colfer " an excuse to hit those ' You ’ ve got a friend in me ' high notes " , while Futterman noted that he " does well in the high range " , and praised the verses by Rachel and Finn . Bell , however , called the song " a snooze @-@ fest " , and Slezak was very unhappy with the " interminable rendition " which he graded a " D " . In December 2012 , TV Guide listed the rendition as one of Glee 's worst performances .

" Smooth Criminal " was the most highly praised number of the night . Both Slezak and Lynch gave it an " A + " : the former called it " an instant Glee classic " that " had me on the edge of my musical chair from start to finish " , and Lynch wrote , " Santana declared herself the winner , but the actual victors were 2Cellos , the real @-@ life Croatian cellists whose manic intensity stole the scene . " Slezak was similarly impressed by 2Cellos — " this was really a duet between Santana and those amazing black cellos " — and Futterman called them " furiously awesome " and said of the song , " It 's the perfect soundtrack for the show 's slickest villains : Santana wails , Sebastian channels his Chuck Bass and we are sold . " Bell described it as " easily one of the best performances of the night " and added " Santana was flawless " . Chaney dissented from the acclaim with a " D " grade .

Slezak described the duet of " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " as " really pretty " , and Chaney said that " Lea Michele ... sang this Jackson love song in the loveliest possible fashion with Cory Monteith " . Votta wrote that " Finn sounds the best he 's sounded " , and Futterman noted that Finn held " his own against Rachel , vocally " — she liked the fact that it was Finn singing to Rachel instead of the usual other way around and was " grateful to the Glee team for assigning plot @-@ relevant songs " . Lynch felt that the song " seemed to slow down the otherwise wonderfully paced episode " and would have preferred it if they had cut the song and " kept the Warblers ' version of ' I Want You Back ' instead " . He was more enthusiastic about " Black or White " , which he characterized as " musically awesome but dramatically confusing " and graded an " A − " . Futterman said that " Artie once again nails the MJ impression " , and Goldberg declared that the " chorus with Santana leading charge and Artie 's rap " were " spot on " . Bell agreed that the song showed that " Artie is still New Directions ' go @-@ to rapper " , but noted that she did not feel that New Directions had successfully demonstrated that they " knew the true meaning of Michael Jackson " . Chaney was unenthusiastic and gave the song a " C " , while Flandez had more negative opinion than hers : " Sebastian Smythe got our reaction right : a slow @-@ handed clap " .

= = = Chart history = = =

Of the nine cover versions of Michael Jackson 's music , all of which were released as singles , five debuted on US and Canadian top 100 charts , and ranked in the same order in both countries . " Smooth Criminal " debuted in the US at number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 , with sales of 108 @,@ 000 ; only nine songs sold more digital downloads that week . " Human Nature " debuted at number fifty @-@ six , " Black or White " at number sixty @-@ four , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " at number seventy @-@ eight and " Bad " at number eighty . " Smooth Criminal entered the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart at number twenty @-@ eight , and was followed by " Human Nature " at number sixty @-@ two , " Black or White " at number sixty @-@ nine , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " at number eighty @-@ eight and " Bad " at number ninety .

= George Mikan =

George Lawrence Mikan , Jr . ( June 18 , 1924 – June 1 , 2005 ) , nicknamed Mr. Basketball , was an American professional basketball player for the Chicago American Gears of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) and the Minneapolis Lakers of the NBL , the Basketball Association of America ( BAA ) and the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . Invariably playing with thick , round spectacles , the 6 ft 10 in ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) , 245 pounds ( 111 kg ) Mikan is seen as one of the pioneers of professional basketball , redefining it as a game of so @-@ called big men with his prolific rebounding , shot blocking , and his talent to shoot over smaller defenders with his ambidextrous hook shot , the result of his namesake Mikan Drill .

Mikan had a successful playing career , winning seven NBL , BAA , and NBA championships , an All @-@ Star MVP trophy , and three scoring titles . He was a member of the first four NBA All @-@ Star games , and the first six All @-@ BAA and All @-@ NBA Teams . Mikan was so dominant that he caused several rule changes in the NBA , among them , the introduction of the goaltending rule , the widening of the foul lane — known as the " Mikan Rule " — and the creation of the shot clock .

After his playing career , Mikan became one of the founders of the American Basketball Association ( ABA ) , serving as commissioner of the league . He was also vital for the forming of the Minnesota Timberwolves . In his later years , Mikan was involved in a long @-@ standing legal battle against the NBA , fighting to increase the meager pensions for players who had retired before the league became lucrative . In 2005 , Mikan died after a long battle with diabetes .

For his feats , Mikan was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1959 , made the 25th and 35th NBA Anniversary Teams of 1970 and 1980 , and was elected one of the NBA 's 50 Greatest Players ever in 1996 . Since April 2001 , a statue of Mikan shooting his trademark hook shot graces the entrance of the Timberwolves ' Target Center .

= = Early years = =

George Mikan was born in Joliet , Illinois , as an American of Croatian descent . As a boy , he shattered one of his knees so badly that he was kept in bed for a year and a half . In 1938 , Mikan attended the Chicago Archbishop Quigley Preparatory Seminary and originally wanted to be a priest , but then moved back home to finish at Joliet Catholic . Mikan did not seem destined to become an athlete . When Mikan entered Chicago 's DePaul University in 1942 , he stood 6 ' 10 " , weighed 245 pounds , moved awkwardly because of his frame , and wore thick glasses for his near @-@ sightedness .

= = DePaul University = =

However , Mikan met 28 @-@ year @-@ old rookie DePaul basketball coach Ray Meyer , who saw potential in the bright and intelligent , but also clumsy and shy , freshman . Put into perspective , Meyer 's thoughts were revolutionary , because at the time it was believed that tall players were too awkward to ever play basketball well . In the following months , Meyer transformed Mikan into a confident , aggressive player who took pride in his height rather than being ashamed of it . Meyer and Mikan worked out intensively , and Mikan learned how to make hook shots accurately with either hand . This routine would become later known as the Mikan Drill . In addition , Meyer made Mikan punch a speed bag , take dancing lessons , and jump rope to make him a complete athlete .

From his first National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) college games for DePaul on , Mikan dominated his peers . He intimidated opponents with his size and strength , was unstoppable on offense with his hook shot , and soon established a reputation as one of the hardest and grittiest players in the league , often playing through injuries and punishing opposing centers with hard fouls . In addition , Mikan also surprised the basketball world with his unique ability of goaltending , i.e. jumping so high that he swatted the ball away before it could pass the hoop . In today 's basketball , touching the ball after it reaches its apogee is a violation , but in Mikan 's time it was legal because people thought it was impossible anyone could reach that high . " We would set up a zone defense that had four men around the key and I guarded the basket " , Mikan later recalled his DePaul days . " When the other team took a shot , I 'd just go up and tap it out . " As a consequence , the NCAA and later the NBA , outlawed goaltending . One of the few opposing centers to have any success against Mikan was Bob Kurland , a seven @-@ footer from Oklahoma A & M.

Mikan was named the Helms NCAA College Player of the Year twice in 1944 and 1945 and an All @-@ American three times , leading DePaul to the NIT title in 1945 , which was as prestigious as the NCAA tournament at the time . Mikan led the nation in scoring with 23 @.@ 9 points per game in 1944 – 45 and 23 @.@ 1 in 1945 – 46 . When DePaul won the 1945 National Invitation Tournament , Mikan was named Most Valuable Player for scoring 120 points in three games , including 53 points in a 97 – 53 win over Rhode Island , equalling the score of the entire Rhode Island team .

= = Professional playing career = =

= = = Chicago American Gears ( 1946 – 47 ) = = =

After the end of the 1945 – 46 college season , Mikan signed with the Chicago American Gears of the National Basketball League , a predecessor of the modern NBA . He played with them for 25 games at the end of the 1946 – 47 NBL season , scoring 16 @.@ 5 points per game as a rookie . Mikan led the Gears to the championship of the World Basketball Tournament , where he was elected Most Valuable Player after scoring 100 points in five games , and also voted into the All @-@ NBL Team .

However , before the start of the 1947 – 48 NBL season , Maurice White , the president of the American Gear Company and the owner of the American Gears NBL team , pulled the team out of the league . White planned to create a 24 @-@ team league called the Professional Basketball League of America , in which he owned all the teams and arenas . However , the league folded after just a month , and the players of White 's teams were equally distributed among the 11 remaining NBL franchises . As a consequence , every team had a 9 @.@ 09 % chance of landing Mikan , who ended up on the Minneapolis Lakers , playing for coach John Kundla .

= = = Minneapolis Lakers ( 1947 – 56 ) = = =

In his first season with the Lakers , Mikan led the league in scoring with 1 @,@ 195 points , becoming the first and only NBL player to score more than 1 @,@ 000 points in an NBL season . He was named league MVP , and the Lakers won the NBL title .

The following year , the Lakers and three other NBL franchises jumped to the fledgling Basketball Association of America . Mikan led his new league in scoring , and again set a single @-@ season scoring record . The Lakers defeated the Washington Capitols in the 1949 BAA Finals .

In 1949 , the BAA and NBL merged to form the NBA . The new league started the inaugural 1949 – 50 NBA season , featuring 17 teams , with the Lakers in the Central Division . Mikan again was dominant , averaging 27 @.@ 4 points per game and 2 @.@ 9 assists per game and taking another scoring title ; Alex Groza of Indianapolis Olympians was the only other player to break the 20 @-@ point @-@ barrier that year . After comfortably leading his team to an impressive 51 – 17 record and storming through the playoffs , Mikan 's team played the 1950 NBA Finals against the Syracuse Nationals . In Game 1 , the Lakers beat Syracuse on their home court when Lakers reserve guard Bob Harrison hit a 40 @-@ foot buzzer beater to give Minneapolis a two @-@ point win . The team split the next four games , and in Game 6 , the Lakers won 110 – 95 and won the first @-@ ever NBA championship . Mikan scored 31 @.@ 3 points per game in the playoffs .

In the 1950 – 51 NBA season , Mikan was dominant again , scoring a career @-@ best 28 @.@ 4 points per game in the regular season , again taking the scoring crown , and had 3 @.@ 1 assists per game . In that year , the NBA introduced a new statistic : rebounds . In this category , Mikan also stood out ; his 14 @.@ 1 rebounds per game ( rpg ) was only second to the 16 @.@ 4 rpg of Dolph Schayes of Syracuse . In that year , Mikan participated in one of the most notorious NBA games ever played . When the Fort Wayne Pistons played against his Lakers , the Pistons took a 19 – 18 lead . Afraid that Mikan would mount a comeback if he got the ball , the Pistons passed the ball around without any attempt to score a basket . With no shot clock invented yet to force them into offense , the score stayed 19 – 18 to make it the lowest @-@ scoring NBA game of all time . This game was an important factor in the development of the shot clock , which was introduced four years later . Mikan had scored 15 of the Lakers ' 18 points , thus scoring 83 @.@ 3 % of his team 's points , setting an NBA all @-@ time record . In the post season , Mikan fractured his leg before the 1951 Western Division Finals against the Rochester Royals . With Mikan hardly able to move all series long , the Royals won 3 – 1 . Decades later , in 1990 , Mikan recalled that his leg was taped with a plate ; however , despite effectively hopping around the court on one foot , he said he still averaged 20 @-@ odd points per game .

In the 1951 – 52 NBA season , the NBA decided to widen the foul lane under the basket from 6 feet to 12 feet . As players could stay in the lane for only three seconds at a time , it forced big men like Mikan to post @-@ up from double the distance . A main proponent of this rule was New York Knicks coach Joe Lapchick , who regarded Mikan as his nemesis , and it was dubbed " The Mikan Rule " . While Mikan still scored an impressive 23 @.@ 8 points per game , it was a serious reduction from his 27 @.@ 4 points per game the previous season , and his field goal percentage sank from .428 to .385 . He still pulled down 13 @.@ 5 rebounds per game , asserting himself as a top rebounder , and logged 3 @.@ 0 assists per game . Mikan also had a truly dominating game that season , in which he scored a personal @-@ best 61 points in a double overtime victory against the Rochester Royals . At the time , it was the second @-@ best performance in league history behind Joe Fulks ' 63 @-@ point score in 1949 , and Mikan 's output more than doubled that of his teammates , whose output that game totaled 30 points . In the 1952 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Mikan had a strong performance with 26 points and 15 rebounds in a West loss . Later that season , the Lakers reached the 1952 NBA Finals and were pitted against the New York Knicks . This qualified as one of the strangest Finals series in NBA history , as neither team could play on their home court in the first six games . The Lakers ' Minneapolis Auditorium was already booked , and the Knicks ' Madison Square Garden was occupied by the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus . Instead , the Lakers played in St. Paul and the Knicks in the damp , dimly lit 69th Regiment Armory . Perpetually double @-@ teamed by Knicks ' Nat Clifton and Harry Gallatin , Mikan was unable to assert himself and it was more Vern Mikkelsen 's credit that the first six games were split . In the only true home game , Game 7 in the Auditorium , the Lakers won 82 – 65 and edged the Knicks 4 – 3 , winning the NBA title and earning themselves $ 7 @,@ 500 to split among the team .

During the 1952 – 53 NBA season , Mikan averaged 20 @.@ 6 points and a career @-@ high 14 @.@ 4 rebounds per game , the highest in the league , as well as 2 @.@ 9 assists per game . In the 1953 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Mikan was dominant again with 22 points and 16 rebounds , winning that game 's MVP Award . The Lakers made the 1953 NBA Finals , and again defeated the Knicks 4 – 1 .

In the 1953 – 54 NBA season , the now 29 @-@ year @-@ old Mikan slowly declined , averaging 18 @.@ 1 points , 14 @.@ 3 rebounds and 2 @.@ 4 assists per game . Under his leadership , the Lakers won another NBA title in the 1954 NBA Finals , making it their third @-@ straight championship and fifth in six years ; the only time they lost had been when Mikan fractured his leg . From an NBA perspective , the Minneapolis Lakers dynasty has only been convincingly surpassed by the eleven @-@ title Boston Celtics dynasty of 1957 – 69 . At the end of the season , Mikan announced his retirement . He later said : " I had a family growing , and I decided to be with them . I felt it was time to get started with the professional world outside of basketball . " Injuries also were a factor , as Mikan had sustained 10 broken bones and 16 stitches in his career , often having to play through these injuries .

Without Mikan , the Lakers made the playoffs , but were unable to reach the 1955 NBA Finals . In the middle of the 1955 – 56 NBA season , Mikan returned to the Lakers lineup . He played in 37 games , but his long absence had affected his play . He averaged only 10 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 3 rebounds and 1 @.@ 3 assists , and the Lakers lost in the first round of the playoffs . At the end of the season , Mikan retired for good . His 10 @,@ 156 points were a record at the time ; he was the first NBA player to score 10 @,@ 000 points in a career . He was inducted into the inaugural Basketball Hall of Fame class of 1959 and was declared the greatest player of the first half of the century by The Associated Press .

= = Post @-@ playing career = =

In 1956 , Mikan was the Republican candidate for the United States Congress in Minnesota 's 3rd congressional district . He challenged incumbent Representative Roy Wier in a closely fought race that featured a high voter turnout . Despite the reelection of incumbent Republican President Dwight Eisenhower , the inexperienced Mikan lost by a close margin of 52 % to 48 % . Wier received 127 @,@ 356 votes to Mikan 's 117 @,@ 716 . Returning to the legal profession , Mikan was frustrated , after hoping for an influx of work . For six months , Mikan did not get any assignments at all , leaving him in financial difficulties that forced him to cash in on his life insurance .

Problems also arose in Mikan 's professional sports career . In the 1957 – 58 NBA season , Lakers coach John Kundla became general manager and persuaded Mikan to become coach of the Lakers . However , this was a failure , as the Lakers endured a 9 – 30 record until Mikan stepped down and returned coaching duties to Kundla . The Lakers ended with a 19 – 53 record , to record one of the worst seasons in their history . After this failure , Mikan then concentrated on his law career , raising his family of six children , successfully specializing in corporate and real estate law , and buying and renovating buildings in Minneapolis .

In 1967 , Mikan returned to professional basketball , becoming the first commissioner of the American Basketball Association , a rival league to the NBA . In order to lure basketball fans to his league , Mikan invented the league 's characteristic red @-@ white @-@ and @-@ blue ABA ball , which he thought more patriotic , better suited for TV , and more crowd @-@ pleasing than the brown NBA ball , and instituted the three @-@ point line . Mikan resigned from the ABA in 1969 .

In the mid @-@ 1980s , Mikan headed a task force with a goal of returning professional basketball to Minneapolis , decades after the Lakers had moved to Los Angeles to become the Los Angeles Lakers , and after the ABA 's Minnesota Muskies and Minnesota Pipers had departed . This bid was successful , leading to the inception of a new franchise in the 1989 – 90 NBA season , the Minnesota Timberwolves .

In 1994 , Mikan became the part @-@ owner and chairman of the board of the Chicago Cheetahs , a professional roller hockey team based in Chicago , Illinois , that played in Roller Hockey International . The franchise folded after their second season .

In his later years , Mikan suffered from diabetes and failing kidneys , and eventually , his illness caused his right leg to be amputated below the knee . When his medical insurance was cut off , Mikan soon found himself in severe financial difficulties . He fought a long and protracted legal battle against the NBA and the NBA Players ' Union , protesting the $ 1 @,@ 700 / month pensions for players who had retired before 1965 , the start of the so @-@ called " big money era " . According to Mel Davis of the National Basketball Retired Players Union , this battle kept him going , because Mikan hoped to be alive when a new collective bargaining agreement would finally vindicate his generation . In 2005 , however , his condition worsened .

= = Legacy = =

Mikan is lauded as the pioneer of Modern Age basketball . He was the original center , who scored 11 @,@ 764 points , an average of 22 @.@ 6 per game , retired as the all @-@ time leading scorer and averaged 13 @.@ 4 rebounds and 2 @.@ 8 assists in 520 NBL , BAA and NBA games . As a testament to his fierce playing style , he also led the league three times in personal fouls . He won seven NBL , BAA , and NBA championships , an All @-@ Star MVP trophy , and three scoring titles , and was a member of the first four NBA All @-@ Star games and the first six All @-@ BAA and All @-@ NBA Teams . As well as being declared the greatest player of the first half of the century by The Associated Press , Mikan was on the Helms Athletic Foundation all @-@ time All @-@ American team , chosen in a 1952 poll , was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1959 , made the 25th and 35th NBA Anniversary Teams of 1970 and 1980 and was elected one of the NBA 50 Greatest Players in 1996 . Mikan 's impact on the game is also reflected in the Mikan Drill , today a staple exercise of " big men " in basketball .

When superstar center Shaquille O 'Neal became a member of the Los Angeles Lakers , Mikan appeared on a Sports Illustrated cover in November 1996 with O 'Neal and Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , calling Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Mikan the " Lakers legends " to whom O 'Neal was compared . Since April 2001 , a statue of Mikan shooting his trademark hook shot graces the entrance of the Minnesota Timberwolves ' Target Center . In addition , a banner in the Staples Center commemorates Mikan and his fellow Minneapolis Lakers . He is also honored by a statue and an appearance on a mural in his hometown of Joliet , Illinois .

= = = Rule changes = = =

Mikan became so dominant that the NBA had to change its rules of play in order to reduce his influence , such as widening the lane from six to twelve feet ( " The Mikan Rule " ) . He also played a role in the introduction of the shot clock ; and in the NCAA , his dominating play around the basket led to the outlawing of defensive goaltending . Mikan was a harbinger of the NBA 's future , which would be dominated by tall , powerful players .

As an official , Mikan is also directly responsible for the ABA three @-@ point line which was later adopted by the NBA ; the existence of the Minnesota Timberwolves ; and the multi @-@ colored ABA ball , which still lives on as the " money ball " in the NBA All @-@ Star Three @-@ Point Contest .

= = Personal life = =

In 1947 , he married his girlfriend Patricia , who remained his wife for the next 58 years until he died . Mikan fathered six children , sons Larry , Terry , Patrick and Michael , and daughters Trisha and Maureen . All his life , Mikan was universally seen as the prototypical " gentle giant " , tough and relentless on the court , but friendly and amicable in private life . He was also the older brother of Ed Mikan , another basketball player for both DePaul and the BAA .

= = = Death = = =

Mikan died in Scottsdale , Arizona , on June 1 , 2005 , of complications from diabetes and other ailments . His son Terry reported that his father had undergone dialysis three times a week , four hours a day , for the last five years . He was interred at Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis .

Mikan 's death was widely mourned by the basketball world , and also brought media attention to the financial struggles of several early @-@ era NBA players . Many felt that the current players of the big @-@ money generation should rally for larger pensions for the pre @-@ 1965 predecessors in upcoming labor negotiations . Shaquille O 'Neal paid for Mikan 's funeral . He said : " Without number 99 [ Mikan ] , there is no me . " Before Game 5 of the 2005 Eastern Conference Finals between the Heat and the Detroit Pistons , there was a moment of silence to honor Mikan . Bob Cousy remarked that Mikan figuratively carried the NBA in the early days and single @-@ handedly made the league credible and popular . The 2005 NBA Finals between the Pistons and the San Antonio Spurs was dedicated to Mikan .

= Harry Strom =

Harry Edwin Strom ( July 7 , 1914 – October 2 , 1984 ) was the ninth Premier of Alberta , Canada , from 1968 to 1971 . His two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years as Premier were the last of the thirty @-@ six @-@ year Social Credit dynasty , as his defeat by Peter Lougheed saw its replacement by a new era Progressive Conservative government . He is remembered as an honest , decent man who lacked the political skills of his predecessor , Ernest Manning , or of Lougheed .

Alberta 's first native @-@ born Premier , Strom was born in Burdett , Alberta . He worked most of his young adult life on the family farm , and was also actively involved in his church . After a stint in municipal politics , he ran for the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the 1955 provincial election , and was elected . In 1962 , Manning appointed him to his cabinet as Minister of Agriculture , a position he held until 1967 when he was appointed Minister of Municipal Affairs . When Manning decided to resign in 1968 , Strom became a candidate to succeed him , and finished on top of a six candidate field .

As Premier , Strom undertook a number of initiatives , especially in education and youth @-@ related fields , but was politically ineffective . He lacked both charisma and an overriding sense of purpose , and his government gradually lost popularity . In the 1971 election , his government was handily defeated by Lougheed 's Progressive Conservatives . Strom served as opposition leader for two years , but soon relinquished the position and did not seek re @-@ election in 1975 . After leaving politics , Strom returned to farming . He died in 1984 .

= = Early life = =

Strom was born in Burdett , Alberta , on July 7 , 1914 . His parents , Nils Hjalmar Strom ( 1877 – 1928 ) and Elna Maria Olivia Ekensteen ( 1883 – 1969 ) , were second generation Swedish Canadians . He attended school in Burdett before moving to Calgary to attend high school at East Calgary High School and Calgary Technical High School , where he studied mechanics . In 1931 , he received a certificate from the Provincial Institute of Technology and Art . His father died the same year , and Strom returned home to help his mother with the operation of the family farm .

On October 27 , 1938 , Strom married Ruth Johnson , with whom he would have six children — Howard , Faith , Beverly , Brian , Ronald , and Arlene . The family attended the Evangelical Free Church of Canada in Bow Island until 1962 . There , Strom served as Sunday school teacher , deacon , and board chair , in addition to his twenty years of involvement with the church 's Overseas Missions Board . Besides his activities with the church , Strom was involved in the Forty Mile Rural Electrification Association , the Burdett Home and School Association , and the Agricultural Improvement Association of Burdett .

= = Entry into politics = =

In 1943 , Harry Strom was elected to the council of the County of Forty Mile No. 8 in southern Alberta . He served on local school boards at around the same time .

= = = MLA and cabinet minister = = =

In the 1955 provincial election , Strom ran as the Social Credit candidate in Cypress , where the incumbent , Social Crediter James Underdahl , was not seeking re @-@ election . He easily defeated his only opponent , Liberal Joe Flaig , and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . He would be re @-@ elected to this seat in each of the 1959 , 1963 , 1967 , and 1971 elections , always winning more than 60 % of the vote .

In October 1962 , Premier Ernest Manning appointed Strom Minister of Agriculture . In this capacity , he undertook a series of initiatives related to water use , including developing an agreement with Saskatchewan and Manitoba of the use of water emanating from the eastern slopes of Alberta 's Rocky Mountains . He also passed a series of legislation , including the Soil Conservation Act and Crop Insurance Act , and undertook a major departmental organization . The Alberta Agriculture Hall of Fame , which inducted Strom in 1985 , credited him with expanding the use of irrigation in the province and for being a key figure leading up to the signing of a 1973 cost @-@ sharing agreement on the subject with the federal government . He also served as Minister of Municipal Affairs for the last five months of the Manning government .

= = = Leadership election = = =

When Manning decided to retire in 1968 , he called a key group of senior ministers to his office to advise them of his decision . This group includes Strom , Treasurer Anders Aalborg , Industry Minister Russ Patrick , Education Minister Randy McKinnon . Aalborg was the natural choice to succeed Manning , but he had health problems and declined to run . Strom had no desire for the job and rejected any suggestion from the others that he be a candidate .

This rejection was not to last : a group of influential young Social Crediters , including the Premier 's son Preston , started a movement to draft Strom . They settled on him because he was personally popular among party members and because he had displayed an openness to new ideas in the past . Strom accepted their overtures , but as late as a week before he announced his candidacy he was still offering to step aside in favour of another candidate of the young Turks ' choice .

Strom 's campaign theme was " the social development of Alberta " , and this general theme encompassed such diverse policy planks as a citizens ' committee on constitutional reform , a head start program for disadvantaged youth , commissions on the future of urban planning and education , an expansion of the role of backbenchers in policy development , and the opening of a branch of the Premier 's office in Calgary . Though he entered as the favourite , a poll in spring 1969 showed him running second of five candidates behind Minister of Transportation Gordon Taylor . However , he had the strongest organization of any candidate , thanks in large part to his young backers , and overcame this deficit by the fall .

At the convention , Strom won a large plurality on the first ballot , finishing with nearly three times of the votes of the second place Taylor . Though the third place Raymond Reierson threw his support to the Transportation Minister before the second ballot , the results on this were decisive : Strom gained the support of more than a hundred new delegates and won a clear majority .

= = Premier = =

Harry Strom became Premier December 12 , 1968 and served until the 1971 election , when his government was defeated by Peter Lougheed 's Progressive Conservatives . This tenure makes him the fourth shortest @-@ serving former Premier in Alberta 's history , after Dave Hancock , Jim Prentice , and Richard G. Reid .

= = = Policy initiatives = = =

Many of Strom 's policy initiatives revolved around education and youth . He created the Alberta Service Corps , which allowed young Albertans to work summers on public services and environmental projects for remuneration , and which was one of several models for the federal government 's later Katimavik program . In response to increasing use of illicit drugs by Alberta youth , his government , led by Education Minister Bob Clark , inserted anti @-@ narcotics messages into the province 's school curriculum . Strom implemented trial kindergarten programs in Edmonton and Calgary — the Calgary program , provided jointly by an inner @-@ city community association and the Mount Royal College , has been called one of Canada 's first public @-@ private partnerships . His interest in educational matters was perhaps best exemplified by his government 's Commission on Educational Planning , which travelled the province to solicit Albertans ' views and whose final report , A Choice of Futures , was credited by Barr as setting " the tone and direction for education in Alberta for the next generation " . The Strom government also made substantial reforms to Alberta 's post @-@ secondary education system , expanding distance learning through the creation of Athabasca University and laying the foundation 's for ACCESS television , and effectively creating the province 's College ( as distinct from University ) system . This latter move led to the creation of Grant MacEwan College .

Strom also took a number of non @-@ educational policy initiative , such as naming Jim Henderson as the province 's first Environment Minister . Other priorities were the reform of the Premier 's Office and the establishment of an Intergovernmental Affairs Secretariat , converted by Peter Lougheed 's government into a full ministry under Don Getty . In 1970 , the government established the Alberta Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Commission .

= = = Leadership style = = =

Strom resisted leadership and saw himself as a conciliator , charged with maintaining unity among his cabinet and caucus . Soon after becoming Premier , Strom chief of staff Don Hamilton and strategist Owen Anderson scheduled strategy meetings with agendas drawn from Strom 's leadership platform . The meetings did not lead to action , and some began to grumble that " talking about decisions was a form of action " . According to Barr , Hamilton eventually started using the same agenda every week , with only the date changed , and Strom did not notice .

Strom was not an effective speaker and often would not look at the text of his speeches until he was delivering them . Realizing this , Hamilton once handed him a folder with nothing but a paper reading " Sock it to ' em , Harry " before the Premier was to give a speech at the University of Alberta . The Premier opened the folder and , as he became visibly alarmed , gratefully received the real speech when an aide brought it to him .

Strom also resisted calling an early election to give his government a fresh mandate , despite Hamilton 's impassioned advocacy for this course of action . He was no more positive towards Anderson 's proposals for a radical overhaul of the party , including the computerization of political data ( such as voting trends , demographic shifts , and polling results ) and the purchase of an office building to make the party a profit and free it from the need for fundraising . The ideas that Strom did not reject outright were referred to committees and study groups where they were watered down or shelved .

Despite these failings , Strom was recognized as possessing a number of virtues : he was kind , considerate , and honest . Most of all , he was humble : he had not sought the party leadership and notoriously asked after being repeatedly addressed as " Premier " at his first cabinet meeting why it could not " just be plain ' Harry ' anymore " . When travelling to Ottawa , he stayed at the un @-@ posh Skyline Hotel and ate meals in its basement cafeteria , where he ordered bread and pea soup for $ 0 @.@ 25 . On final analysis , Barr concludes that this temperament , commendable though it may be , was unsuited to running the government of an emerging economic powerhouse .

= = = Defeat = = =

Though the legislature 's mandate from the 1967 election was not due to expire until May 1972 , five years after it started , convention in Canadian politics is for legislatures to be dissolved every four years or less . Accordingly , Strom resolved to call an election in 1971 , sometime between May and September . After considering the spring , in the hopes that the planting season would have farmers feeling optimistic and therefore inclined to support the incumbent government , Strom finally settled on August 30 ( partly out of concerns that farmers would resent an election called in the middle of the planting or harvest seasons ) . A campaign committee was assembled , and recommended a budget of $ 580 @,@ 000 .

The party recruited star candidates , including Calgary alderman George Ho Lem and former Calgary Stampeder star Don Luzzi ( Edmonton alderman and future mayor Cec Purves was defeated in his bid to win the Social Credit nomination in Edmonton @-@ Strathcona from Strathcona Centre incumbent Joseph Donovan Ross ) , but was handicapped in these efforts by Strom 's unwillingness to offer cabinet posts or other incentives to potential new candidates . Strom 's lack of personal charisma was also a liability : tellingly , of the large budget recommended by the central committee , only $ 72 @,@ 000 was recommended for use on television advertising , where Strom did not shine . The party tried to revitalize the Premier 's image through publicity movies , though efforts were mixed . In one , which was pulled after a single showing , Strom appeared scowling in his living room , urging Albertans to lower their expectations of government . Another , produced by Tommy Banks and showing Strom in a variety of settings talking about the province 's changing face , was more successful .

The campaign did not give Social Credit partisans much reason for optimism . Strom did not draw the crowds that Progressive Conservative Peter Lougheed did , although an August 25 rally in Edmonton 's Jubilee Auditorium featuring speeches by Strom and Manning was full . After criticizing the Conservatives ' medicare platform , which promised free medicare to Albertans older than 65 , as spendthrift , Strom announced Social Credit 's barely cheaper alternative : medicare to Albertans older than 65 for one dollar per month . The Edmonton Journal , which had earlier published a poll showing that a plurality of Edmontonians intended to vote P.C. , endorsed Lougheed for Premier . Election night saw Social Credit defeated , taking 25 seats to the P.C.s ' 49 . Though Social Credit 's share of the vote had only slipped slightly , Lougheed benefited from a substantial reduction in the New Democrats ' vote and a near @-@ collapse of the Liberals ' . The party was also decimated in the province 's two largest cities , losing all of its seats in Edmonton and all but five in Calgary .

Strom conceded defeat in Edmonton and returned home to Medicine Hat .

= = Out of office and legacy = =

Strom continued as Social Credit leader , serving as leader of the opposition , until 1972 , when he resigned and was replaced by Werner Schmidt . He continued in the legislature until the 1975 election , in which he did not seek re @-@ election . After leaving politics , he returned to his farm and his involvement with his church . He died of cancer October 2 , 1984 , and was buried in Medicine Hat .

In honour of his political services , Strom received honorary Doctor of Laws degrees from the University of Calgary ( 1969 ) , the University of Lethbridge ( 1979 ) , and the University of Alberta ( 1980 ) . While several of his acts as premier had consequences extending well beyond his term , today he is largely forgotten , though he experienced a brief resurgence in name recognition in 2007 . That year , critics of Ed Stelmach compared Stelmach to Strom , with the insinuation being that Stelmach was destined to lose the next election and be the last of the Progressive Conservative dynasty in the same way that Strom was the last of the Social Credit dynasty . In the end , it would not be until the 2015 provincial election under the leadership of Jim Prentice that the Progressive Conservatives would be defeated , with some pundits also comparing Prentice to Strom .

Ruth Strom , his wife died in 2011 .

= = Electoral record = =

= = = As party leader = = =

= = = As MLA = = =

= = = Party leadership contests = = =

= Wind It Up ( Gwen Stefani song ) =

" Wind It Up " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani . Originally written for inclusion on Stefani 's Harajuku Lovers Tour 2005 , the song was later recorded for her second solo studio album , The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) , due to favorable reception . The track contains an interpolation of The Sound of Music song " The Lonely Goatherd " .

" Wind It Up " was negatively received by music critics , who criticized the song 's use of yodeling and found the track to be over the top . It was released as the album 's lead single on October 31 , 2006 and reached the top 20 in most music markets . The accompanying music video , which became popular on stations such as Total Request Live , was directed by Sophie Muller and takes influence from The Sound of Music .

= = Background and writing = =

In July 2005 , Stefani began writing and recording material with Pharrell Williams in Miami , Florida . During one of their sessions , they penned " Wind It Up " for a September 2005 fashion show revealing the 2006 collection of Stefani 's fashion line L.A.M.B.

Stefani asked DJ Jeremy Healy to create a mashup of the song and " The Lonely Goatherd " , a song from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical and 1965 film The Sound of Music . Stefani considered The Sound of Music her favorite film , and she had wanted to incorporate a beat to one of its songs all her life . Stefani commented , " I literally cried , and I 'm not exaggerating , when I heard the mash @-@ up . " Williams , however , did not like the addition of yodeling and The Sound of Music to the track .

The lyrics are not narrative , and Stefani stated , " A song like ' Wind It Up ' isn 't about anything . " In the song , Stefani discusses how boys watch girls dance . The song includes a reference to Stefani 's fashion line , with Stefani going , " They like the way that L.A.M.B. is going ' cross my shirt " .

= = Critical reception = =

" Wind It Up " received negative reviews by contemporary pop music critics . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Slezak found the bassline " rubbery " and criticized the song for lacking a melody as well as its reference to Stefani 's own clothing line . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that The Neptunes had forced the sampling " into one of their typical minimalist tracks , over which Gwen spouts off clumsy material @-@ minded lyrics touting her fashion line and her shape " . Bill Lamb of About.com rated the song three and a half stars , giving it " high marks for entertainment value " , but commented that it sounded like a retread of " Rich Girl " from Stefani 's debut album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine was mixed on the track , writing that " it 's preventing something far less interesting from getting played . " John Murphy from musicOMH panned the track as " just horrible , and possibly the worst start to an album this year " . Spence D. from IGN characterized the song as " a bugged out Sound Of Music bhangra blitz that sounds like part M.I.A. and part Julie Andrews " .

Many criticized the inclusion of yodeling and " The Lonely Goatherd " sample . In a review for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield called the track " yodel @-@ trocious " and argued that " the problem isn 't the Swiss Miss motif so much as the fourth @-@ rate Neptunes track . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian was pleased with the track , describing the yodeling as " off @-@ her @-@ head " , and referred to the track as " a pinnacle of madness " . IndieLondon 's Jack Foley noted " Wind It Up " as a highlight of The Sweet Escape and called it " Stefani 's gift that she can take something that , on paper , sounds cheesy and make it utterly , utterly cool . " USA Today 's Ken Barnes , however , found the track " campy " and " a tacky attempt at sexiness " , adding that the combination of yodeling and the interpolation was " awkward " . Alex Miller of the NME also found the song campy , commenting that its " dumb sexual bravado has all the sophistication of a teenage boy 's wet dream " , and compared the yodeling , interpolation , and " erotic rap " to " a trench foot which screams for amputation from the tracklisting " .

In the face of criticism , Stefani has defended the track :

I knew some people wouldn 't get it but I think I am enough down the line to not care . The people that did get it are Sound Of Music fans and really got a lot of pleasure from it . I still think it 's brilliant and I stand by it . Why can 't you do something weird for a while ? These songs are all about having fun , silly records that are to be enjoyed and not taken too seriously .

= = Commercial performance = =

" Wind It Up " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 40 on the issue dated November 18 , 2006 , becoming Stefani 's highest debut on the chart , both solo and as a member of No Doubt . It peaked four weeks later at number six and remained on the chart for 18 weeks . It peaked at number seven on the Pop 100 chart , but was less successful on the Pop 100 Airplay chart , only reaching number 19 . The single performed well in clubs , reaching number five on the Hot Dance Club Play chart , and peaked at number 18 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart .

" Wind It Up " met similar success in Europe , reaching number five on the European Hot 100 Singles . The single debuted at number eight on the UK Singles Chart , selling 10 @,@ 381 downloads in its first week . The following week , it rose to number three ( behind Take That 's " Patience " and Cliff Richard 's " 21st Century Christmas " ) with 17 @,@ 706 copies sold , earning Stefani her second highest @-@ peaking single in the United Kingdom after " The Sweet Escape " . It had less success across the continent , reaching the top 10 in Belgium , the Czech Republic , Finland , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , and Norway , and the top 20 in Austria , France , Sweden , and Switzerland .

The song was generally successful elsewhere . In Australia , " Wind It Up " debuted at number eight on the ARIA Singles Chart and spent its first seven weeks within the top 10 . It peaked at number five in its fifth week on the run , spending 19 weeks on the chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The track topped the New Zealand Singles Chart in its third and fourth week , and stayed on the chart for 20 weeks altogether . Three years later , on March 14 , 2010 , the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified " Wind It Up " gold .

= = Music video = =

The song 's music video was directed by Sophie Muller . Although it does not follow a substantial plot , it features outfits and scenes inspired by The Sound of Music . Stefani and her Harajuku Girls are often dancing in front of fields of flowers and a background of key @-@ like symbols composed of two G 's placed back to back . In a scene mimicking The Sound of Music , Stefani portrays Maria von Trapp while the dancers , dressed in pajamas , portray her children and jump on a bed . In another scene , Stefani uses curtains to create sailor suits for the Harajuku Girls . Stefani also appears as a nun and an orchestra conductor . One scene uses smoke to create the illusion that Stefani is a submerged escape artist searching for a key . She pulls the key , a symbol of " the sweet escape " , from her mouth as an allusion to performances by escapologist Harry Houdini . The song 's title is often visualized by a colorful sign that reads " wind it up " . Another video was produced in 3 @-@ D , but this version was never released . After seeing the video , Jimmy Iovine , co @-@ founder of Interscope Records , decided to work with James Cameron to produce other 3 @-@ D music presentations .

The video was successful on music video television programs . " Wind It Up " was first aired November 10 , 2006 on MTV , and it premiered on the station 's top @-@ 10 chart program Total Request Live four days later . The video debuted at number eight on the countdown and reached a peak at number two . After its November 17 debut on MuchMusic 's Countdown , it reached number two for the week of January 26 , 2007 . In a review of the music video , The Guardian 's Anna Pickard poked fun at the number of personas that appear in the video , referring to some of them as " Nunzilla " , " Gweninatrix " , and " CinderGwennie " , and commented that " your speakers have a mute setting for good reason . "

= = Track listings = =

UK , German , and Australian CD single

" Wind It Up " ( Main Mix ) – 3 : 11

" Wind It Up " ( Original Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 08

German CD maxi single

" Wind It Up " ( Main Mix ) – 3 : 11

" Wind It Up " ( Original Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 08

" Wind It Up " ( Instrumental Mix ) – 3 : 02

" Wind It Up " ( video ) – 3 : 11

UK 12 " single

A1 . " Wind It Up " ( Main Mix ) – 3 : 11

A2 . " Wind It Up " ( Original Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 08

B1 . " Wind It Up " ( Instrumental Main Mix ) – 3 : 11

B2 . " Wind It Up " ( Instrumental Neptunes Mix ) – 3 : 10

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .

= = Charts = =

= Tropical Storm Podul ( 2013 ) =

Tropical Storm Podul , known in the Philippines as Tropical Depression Zoraida , was a weak but destructive tropical cyclone that affected the Philippines shortly after the devastating Typhoon Haiyan . The 31st named storm of the 2013 Pacific typhoon season , Podul developed as a tropical depression on November 11 between Palau and the Philippine island of Mindanao . The system moved west @-@ northwestward and struck Davao Oriental in Mindanao on November 12 , bringing heavy rainfall that killed two people and disrupted relief efforts following Haiyan . After crossing the Philippines , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Podul on November 14 . Shortly thereafter , the storm struck southeastern Vietnam , and its circulation dissipated on November 15 . In Vietnam , Podul produced heavy rainfall that resulted in severe flooding . The storm damaged or destroyed 427 @,@ 258 houses , and overall damage was estimated at 1 @.@ 5 trillion ₫ ( 2013 Vietnamese dong , $ 72 million 2013 USD ) . Podul killed 42 people in the country and caused 74 injuries .

= = Meteorological history = =

On November 9 , an area of disorganized convection , or thunderstorms , persisted about 1175 km ( 730 mi ) southeast of Palau . The system consisted of a broad circulation , affected to its detriment by moderate wind shear . Moving west @-@ northwestward , the convection persisted and organized into the circulation , indicative of an increased potential for tropical cyclogenesis . Late on November 10 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) , meaning the agency anticipated a tropical depression would develop within 24 hours . Shortly thereafter , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Zoraida after the system entered its area of responsibility of the agency . At 1200 UTC on November 11 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression formed about halfway between Palau and the Philippine island of Mindanao , although operationally the agency had classified the system two days prior .

After passing south of Palau , the system 's circulation became more broad and its convection became less organized , despite decreased wind shear . Early on November 12 , the depression made landfall on Mindanao in Davao Oriental province . Shortly thereafter , PAGASA discontinued advisories on Zoraida , declaring that the depression degenerated into a low pressure area . By contrast , the JMA continued monitoring the depression as it moved through the Philippines and into the Sulu Sea . On November 13 , the center crossed over Palawan island into the South China Sea . At 1200 UTC the next day , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Podul about 275 km ( 170 mi ) east of the Vietnam coast . Around the same time , the JTWC began issuing warnings on the system as a tropical depression 32W , noting that convection had rapidly increased over the circulation . The agency also mentioned the continued presence of wind shear , although warm water temperatures and moderate outflow were expected to allow intensification . Although the JMA estimated peak 10 – minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , the JTWC only estimated tropical depression @-@ force 1 – minute winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) .

Late on November 14 , Podul made landfall in southeastern Vietnam near Phan Rang – Tháp Chàm and quickly weakened into a tropical depression . The JTWC assessed the circulation was dissipating near the coast , and the JMA declared Podul dissipated at 1200 UTC on November 15 . Operationally , the agency tracked the system into the Gulf of Thailand , and the Thai Meteorological Department tracked Podul to near the Malay Peninsula on November 16 , before ceasing advisories on the storm . The remnants later redeveloped into Cyclonic Storm Helen in the Bay of Bengal , which later struck southeastern India on November 22 before dissipating .

= = Preparations and impact = =

The Guam National Weather Service warned of the potential of heavy rainfall and high surf for Palau and nearby Yap island . While passing south of Palau , the system produced light winds of about 28 km / h ( 17 mph ) .

Late on November 10 , as the system moved into the Philippine area of responsibility , PAGASA issued the Public Storm Warning Signal Number 1 for seven areas in Mindanao , indicating the potential for winds between 30 – 60 km / h ( 20 – 35 mph ) . Over the next day these warnings were extended to cover three provinces in Luzon , eight provinces in Visayas and twenty @-@ one provinces in Mindanao . On Cebu Island , officials ordered schools to close during the storm 's passage . After the extreme damage due to Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines , the depression that became Podul affected the same areas just days later , which affected rescue work . The depression caused additional difficulties in travel and communications . In addition to causing a landslide in Monkayo , flooding from the depression covered roads and forced about 1 @,@ 000 families to evacuate . In Davao del Norte , the depression resulted in river flooding that killed two people .

In Vietnam , Podul produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 973 mm ( 38 @.@ 3 in ) in two districts in Quảng Ngãi Province . The rains caused flooding that forced over 78 @,@ 000 people to flee their homes , including 1 @,@ 400 the resort town Hội An where floodwaters reached 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) deep . High volumes of flooding caused water to be released from reservoirs , which some local officials credited for the widespread flooding . About 260 km ( 160 mi ) of canals and dykes were washed away during the storm . The high rainfall increased water levels along rivers , with the Ba River in Gia Lai Province reaching 410 mm ( 16 in ) higher than the record set in 1981 . Flooding also damaged over 6 @,@ 000 ha ( 15 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops , mostly to rice . Podul damaged or flooded about 280 @,@ 000 m2 ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of roadways and bridges , resulting in traffic jams , and halted three train lines . The storm damaged or destroyed 427 @,@ 258 houses , and overall damage was estimated at 1 @.@ 5 trillion ₫ ( 2013 Vietnamese dong , $ 72 million 2013 USD ) . Throughout Vietnam , Podul killed 42 people and injured 74 others . By November 20 , the floods began receding from most locations . Newspapers described the flooding as the worst in Vietnam since 1999 . After the storm , the Vietnamese provincial governments assisted in rebuilding houses and roads .

= Washington State Route 213 =

State Route 213 ( SR 213 ) is the shortest state highway in the U.S. state of Washington . The 0 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) long unsigned highway serves Malott , a community in Okanogan County . Extending from U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) over the Okanogan River via a bridge to First Avenue in Malott , the roadway is semi @-@ complete , as state law designates that the road should extend to SR 20 southwest of Okanogan . First appearing in a map in 1954 , SR 213 originated as a branch of Primary State Highway 16 ( PSH 16 ) in 1959 and later SR 20 Spur in 1964 . SR 20 Spur became SR 213 in 1973 because another SR 20 Spur was recently established in Anacortes .

= = Route description = =

SR 213 originates at an intersection with U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) south of Malott . Traveling northwest and turning northeast , the unsigned roadway crosses the Cascade and Columbia River Railroad and the Okanogan River near the confluence of the Okanogan River and Loup Loup Creek . After crossing the Okanogan River , the highway enters Malott and terminates at First Avenue , although state law dictates that eventually the road will be extended to SR 20 southwest of Okanogan . An estimated daily average of 740 motorists utilized SR 213 in 2008 .

= = History = =

SR 213 originated as a minor road that connected U.S. Route 97 ( US 97 ) to the area south of the Okanogan River and Malott ; the road first appeared on a map in 1954 . In 1959 , the Washington State Legislature passed a law that created a branch of Primary State Highway 16 ( PSH 16 ) that extended from PSH 16 near Okanogan to US 97 in Malott to take effect on July 1 , 1961 . By 1963 , US 97 was realigned south of the Okanogan River and the PSH 16 branch was extended across the river . During a highway renumbering in 1964 , PSH 16 became SR 20 and the branch of PSH 16 became SR 20 Spur . In 1973 , SR 20 Spur became SR 213 , while another SR 20 Spur was established in Anacortes . Beginning in 2008 , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) has been maintaining a short , 0 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) long segment of the proposed SR 213 as the a state route . The highway between Malott and SR 20 will be eventually built as state law dictates it .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is in Okanogan County .

= M @-@ 10 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 10 is a state trunkline highway in the Metro Detroit area of Michigan in the United States . The southernmost portion follows Jefferson Avenue in downtown Detroit , and the southern terminus is at the intersection of Jefferson and M @-@ 3 ( Randolph Street ) next to the entrance to the Detroit – Windsor Tunnel . The northern terminus is in West Bloomfield Township at the intersection with Orchard Lake Road . The highway has several names as it runs through residential and commercial areas of the west side of Detroit and into the suburb of Southfield . It is called the John C. Lodge Freeway , The Lodge , James Couzens Highway and Northwestern Highway .

M @-@ 10 was built in segments through the late 1950s and early 1960s . It carried several different names before the entire route was finally officially named the John C. Lodge Freeway in 1987 . The freeway has carried a few other highway designations . The southern segment was part of US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) and the whole thing was later renumbered Business Spur Interstate 696 ( BS I @-@ 696 ) . From 1970 until 1986 , it was part of US 10 , and the freeway has been M @-@ 10 since . The non @-@ freeway segment that runs between I @-@ 696 in Southfield and Orchard Lake Road was previously numbered M @-@ 4 . M @-@ 10 was named after John C. Lodge , an influential Detroiter and Mayor of Detroit from 1927 – 28 .

= = Route description = =

Running about 22 @.@ 8 miles ( 36 @.@ 7 km ) in the Metro Detroit area , M @-@ 10 runs roughly northwest – southeast from Downtown Detroit into the northern suburbs in Oakland County . The entire length of the highway is listed as a part of the National Highway System , a system of roads importance to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . As a state trunkline highway , the roadway is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , and it includes approximately 18 @.@ 5 miles ( 29 @.@ 8 km ) of freeway . M @-@ 10 has six lanes from Detroit to Inkster Road in Farmington Hills , where it drops to four ; a few segments have eight lanes for short distances between interchanges . According to the department , 28 @,@ 964 vehicles use M @-@ 10 on average near on Jefferson Avenue in Detroit , and 139 @,@ 800 vehicles do so between US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) and Lahser Road in Southfield , the lowest and highest traffic counts along the highway in 2013 , respectively .

= = = Detroit = = =

M @-@ 10 starts at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Randolph Street in Downtown Detroit , an intersection that also marks the southern end of M @-@ 3 and the western end of Business Spur I @-@ 375 . This intersection is also the access to the Detroit – Windsor Tunnel between the Renaissance Center and the Old Mariners ' Church . From here , M @-@ 10 runs west @-@ southwesterly parallel to the Detroit River on Jefferson Avenue past Hart Plaza . At the intersection with Woodward Avenue , M @-@ 10 transitions onto the John C. Lodge Freeway , which runs under Cobo Center , home of the North American International Auto Show each January . The freeway turns north @-@ northwesterly and away from the Detroit River next to Joe Louis Arena . North of the Cobo Center curve , M @-@ 10 forms the boundary between Downtown Detroit to the east and the Corktown neighborhood to the west . The freeway has a pair of service drives as it leaves the commercial areas near the MGM Grand Detroit and the interchange with I @-@ 75 ( Fisher Freeway ) .

North of I @-@ 75 , M @-@ 10 forms the border between North Corktown ( west ) and Midtown Detroit ( east ) . The freeway passes the MotorCity Casino at at the interchange with Grand River Avenue . The rest of its route in the part of the city passes through residential zones . Near the interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) , M @-@ 10 passes the campus of Wayne State University . North of I @-@ 94 , the Lodge Freeway is the border between the West Side and New Center . This area is residential on either side of the freeway north of the campus of the Henry Ford Hospital . North of Clairmont Avenue , M @-@ 10 curves to the northwest before resuming its north @-@ northwesterly course near Chicago Boulevard . North of Webb Avenue , the freeway follows the western city limits of Highland Park , an enclave within the city of Detroit . M @-@ 10 intersects M @-@ 8 where it transitions between Davison Avenue and the Davison Freeway on the western edge of Highland Park before the Lodge Freeway curves around to run due west .

M @-@ 10 runs for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) on this due westward course before it intersects Wyoming Avenue and turns northwest . The frontage roads change names from John C. Lodge Service Drive to James Couzens Freeway at the Wyoming Avenue interchange . The freeway continues for another 3 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) with interchanges for local streets in this part of Detroit , including 7 Mile Road . At the interchange with M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , the freeway crosses out of Detroit and Wayne County into Southfield in Oakland County .

= = = Oakland County = = =

The service drives change names again to Northwestern Highway upon crossing into Oakland County . The east side of M @-@ 10 is flanked by the Northland Shopping Center and a campus of Oakland Community College ; the west side is residential . About 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) into Southfield , M @-@ 10 intersects the northern end of M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) and 9 Mile Road . The adjacent properties are mostly residential , but there are some commercial areas centered around the various Mile Roads , such as the campus of Lawrence Technological University at 10 Mile Road . Near Lahser and 11 Mile roads , M @-@ 10 meets I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) and US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) in a complex interchange called the Mixing Bowl . This interchange spans over two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) near the American Center . The carriageways for I @-@ 696 run in the median of M @-@ 10 while partial interchanges connect to Lahser and Franklin roads on either end of the various ramps that connect to I @-@ 696 and US 24 .

Northwest of this interchange , M @-@ 10 transitions to a boulevard with Michigan lefts . Called just Northwestern Highway , M @-@ 10 runs through suburban residential areas of Southfield . At the intersection with Inkster Road , the highway clips the southwest corner of the city of Franklin and enters the northeastern corner of Farmington Hills . The roadway is lined with commercial properties while just behind them are residential subdivisions and two golf courses . At the intersection with 14 Mile Road , Northwestern Highway crosses into West Bloomfield Township , and 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) further on , the highway ends at Orchard Lake Road .

= = History = =

= = = Previous designations = = =

In 1919 , the state numbered its highways for the first time . In the initial allocation of numbers , M @-@ 10 was assigned to a highway that started at the Ohio state line south of Monroe , ran northeasterly along Telegraph Road into Dearborn and turned easterly into Detroit . From there , the highway turned north along Woodward Avenue through Pontiac and Dixie Highway through Flint and Saginaw to Bay City . Then M @-@ 10 ran along the Saginaw Bay to Standish and turned to follow the Lake Huron shoreline , with some substantial deviations inland . The highway generally followed the lakeshore as far north as Alpena and Rogers City , and from there , M @-@ 10 ran due west through Onaway before turning north into Cheboygan . The last section of M @-@ 10 followed the Lake Huron shoreline to Mackinaw City , where it terminated . This designation lasted until November 11 , 1926 , when the United States Numbered Highway System was created . In Michigan 's initial allocation of highways , four new designations replaced M @-@ 10 : US 24 from the state line north to Dearborn , US 112 between Dearborn and Detroit , US 10 from Detroit to Saginaw , and US 23 from Saginaw to Mackinaw City . At the time , no M @-@ 10 designation was reassigned to any other roads .

The second iteration of M @-@ 10 was designated in 1929 on a much shorter segment of the original M @-@ 10 through the Flint area , serving as a business connection for the city as the through route , US 10 , bypassed it on the east . It was later redesignated as Business US 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) in 1941 , and then as Bus . M @-@ 54 in 1962 before being turned back to local control in 1974 .

= = = Current designation = = =

During the 1950s , the Lodge Freeway was proposed to run from Detroit as far as the Fenton – Clio Expressway ( US 23 ) at Fenton . The intersection with the Edsel Ford Freeway , next to Wayne State University was built in 1953 and was the first full freeway @-@ to @-@ freeway interchange built in the United States . The freeway was dedicated on November 7 , 1957 , and opened without any state trunkline designation between downtown and the Wyoming Curve . The section from the Edsel Ford Freeway ( now I @-@ 94 ) into downtown Detroit was designated as US 12 by the middle of 1960 .

The freeway was then redesignated Business Spur I @-@ 696 ( BS I @-@ 696 ) in 1962 , and the next year the freeway was extended northwesterly along James Couzens Highway and Northwestern Highway into Southfield , connecting with the completed first phase of I @-@ 696 that opened in 1963 @-@ 64 . That designation remained until 1970 when US 10 was shifted off Woodward Avenue to follow the Lodge Freeway between downtown Detroit and Telegraph Road , replacing the BS I @-@ 696 designation .

An extension to the Northwestern Highway was again proposed in 1966 to connect with the proposed I @-@ 275 extension . The I @-@ 275 project was then cancelled in 1977 . The section of Northwestern Highway under state control between the West Bloomfield Township – Farmington Hills border into Southfield was numbered M @-@ 4 in 1979 .

The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) petitioned the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in the mid @-@ 1980s to truncate US 10 to Bay City . The request was approved on October 11 , 1985 , and the signage was changed the next year . After the change , the Lodge Freeway was redesignated M @-@ 10 . The non @-@ freeway Northwestern Highway , until then designated M @-@ 4 , was also renumbered as M @-@ 10 . The southernmost portion of the Lodge Freeway was also initially redesignated as a portion of BS I @-@ 375 from I @-@ 75 south . By the next year however , the southern end of M @-@ 10 was moved to the corner of Jefferson and Randolph , placing all of the Lodge Freeway as part of M @-@ 10 .

From 2006 to 2007 , the Lodge underwent major reconstruction to ease traffic congestion in the metro area , temporarily closing down much of the freeway . The $ 133 million project ( equivalent to $ 155 million in 2015 ) included concrete pavement reconstruction and rehabilitation , new barrier walls , repairs or replacements to 50 bridges , upgrades to 22 ramps , utility upgrades , and replacement of freeway signs between Lahser Road in Southfield and Jefferson Avenue in Detroit .

= = Memorial highway names = =

Starting in 1924 , officials in southeastern Michigan proposed building a highway from Detroit to run northwesterly across the state to Ludington , bisecting the angle created by Woodward and Grand River avenues . This roadway was named Northwestern Highway when it was built in 1929 to an endpoint at 14 Mile Road . Further construction on Northwestern Highway was halted by the Great Depression .

The freeway segment northwest of Wyoming Avenue to the county line was previously known as James Couzens Highway after the street it replaced . That street was named after the death of James J. Couzens . Couzens was a former Commissioner of Detroit 's Department of Street Railways from 1913 through 1915 , after which he served as Police Commissioner from 1916 until 1918 . He was Mayor of Detroit from 1919 until 1922 and United States Senator from Michigan from 1922 until his death on October 22 , 1936 . During his years of public service , he is said not to have accepted a salary , giving it all to charity . After his death , Detroit renamed its section of Northwestern Highway after Couzens .

John C. Lodge was a member of the constitutional convention which drafted the Michigan Constitution of 1908 , a former member of the Michigan Legislature and Detroit alderman and councilman . He later served as Mayor of Detroit in 1918 – 1919 before returned to the City Common Council from 1932 to 1947 . He was then elected to the Wayne County Board of Supervisors from 1948 until 1950 . In total , he held elective office longer than anyone in city history . He died on February 6 , 1950 , and the future Lodge Freeway was named in his honor on January 20 , 1953 . The entire freeway , including segments previously named for James Couzens and the Northwestern Highway was named the John C. Lodge Freeway in 1987 , although the service drives retained their original names .

= = Exit list = =

= Vanaja ( film ) =

Vanaja is a 2006 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film written and directed by Rajnesh Domalpalli on a story that constituted his Master of Fine Arts thesis at Columbia University . The film was made on a shoestring budget using a cast of non @-@ professional first @-@ timers for two and a half months .

The film stars Mamatha Bhukya as the title character : a 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a poor fisherman set in the backdrop of a rustic state of Andhra Pradesh in Southern India . She learns Kuchipudi , a classical Indian dance form , while being employed at a local landlady 's house . All seems to be going well for her until sexual chemistry evolves between her and the landlady 's son , and this eventually leads her being raped by him . The ensuing pregnancy disrupts her simple life , and she must choose how to deal with the child .

Vanaja was screened at several international festivals such as the Toronto International Film Festival and the Berlin International Film Festival , among others . It was nominated for the Diesel Discovery Award at the former and won the Best First Feature award at the latter . Beside this , it won several jury prizes at other film festivals , and was nominated for the Best First Feature and Best Cinematography awards at the Independent Spirit Awards . Vanaja found favour with many international critics as well . Roger Ebert ranked it among the five best foreign language films of 2007 . It runs for 111 minutes in with subtitles in English .

= = Plot = =

Vanaja ( Mamatha Bhukya ) is the 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Somayya ( Ramachandriah Marikanti ) , a poor , low caste fisherman from rural Andhra Pradesh . Somayya struggles to support his family due to dwindling catches at sea and mounting debts . One day , Vanaja and her teenage friend Lacchi ( Bhavani Renukunta ) watch a theatrical performance by a former Kuchipudi ( a native classical Indian dance form ) great , Rama Devi ( Urmila Dammannagari ) . The sequence of events lead to a soothsayer predicting to Vanaja that she will be a great dancer . With permission from her father , she goes to work in the house of the local landlady Rama Devi with the hope of learning Kuchipudi . While she is employed as a farmhand , she is entrusted with tending the chickens . When she gets caught playfully chasing them , she lies to conceal her pranks . Her vivaciousness and spunk soon catch the landlady ’ s eye . To keep her out of trouble , Rama Devi soon promotes her to a kitchen underhand where she meets Rama Devi ’ s cook , the old , crusty and extremely loyal Radhamma ( Krishnamma Gundimalla ) .

After settling down at the landlady 's house , Vanaja gets invited to play a game of ashta chamma ( a leisurely game in rural towns of Andhra Pradesh ) against the landlady . Knowing that losing isn ’ t the mistress ’ s forte , she deliberately gives up her game . This gesture , in turn , eventually secures her the landlady ’ s mentorship , first in music and then in dance . Vanaja excels at these art forms and seems to be on a steadily ascending path until the arrival of Shekhar ( Karan Singh ) , the landlady 's 23 @-@ year @-@ old son , from the United States . Shekhar is a handsome , muscular young man who is running for an office in the local government . Sexual chemistry is ignited between Shekhar and Vanaja ( still a minor at 15 ) when flirtation and sexual innuendo bloom .

In the meanwhile , her father 's fishing boat is taken away by creditors . He sinks into a state of sadness and begins to drink away their savings . On one occasion , Vanaja ’ s superior intellect pits her against Shekhar in a public incident which ultimately humiliates him in front of his mother . Matters escalate , and one day Vanaja is raped by Shekhar . She eventually loses her job when she becomes pregnant . She gives birth to a boy , much against Rama Devi ’ s wishes who would have liked her to abort the foetus . Vanaja hopes that the physical evidence of the child will be proof of the rape and that somehow Shekhar will be brought to justice . However , Shekhar has no desire to marry Vanaja because she is from a lower caste . In the end Rama Devi and Shekhar gain possession of the child , who will grow up to be an upper caste boy .

= = Cast = =

Mamatha Bhukya as Vanaja

Urmila Dammannagari as Rama Devi

Ramachandriah Marikanti as Somayya

Krishnamma Gundimalla as Radhamma

Karan Singh as Shekhar

Bhavani Renukunta as Lacchi

= = Production = =

= = = Background = = =

Director Rajnesh Domalpalli graduated with bachelor 's and master 's degrees in electrical engineering in 1984 and 1986 . While working on his bachelor 's degree at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay , he wrote short stories . One of his stories , The Dowry , was twice selected for broadcast by BBC World Service while he was in graduate school . During schooling , he was introduced to south Indian classical music , especially on the veena , and followed this up with years of training on the vocals .

While he was working as a software engineer in Silicon Valley , California , he pursued filmmaking and graduated with a Master of Fine Arts degree from Columbia University .

A short synopsis , including a character and a conflict study of Vanaja , was Domalpalli 's project submission in his first semester at the Columbia University in fall of 2001 . The story was inspired by a child 's scream upon being separated from her mother in Sophie 's Choice . Over the next three semesters , however , the story veered from its original focus of mother @-@ child separation to what Domalpalli later described as a study of " elements of class distinction and conflict that continue to infuse our society and culture even today . " Referring to its emphasis , he said the film was also about " fading institutions of folk art , old buildings that are collapsing , things which we should be protecting — which are a part of our heritage . " Speaking of the need for preservation of Indian culture and heritage , he said that making the film was an opportunity to emphasize the Indian folk arts , too .

= = = Filmmaking = = =

With the early version of the script being ready at the end of his fourth semester , Domalpalli 's initial intent was to find financing for the film in India and then in the United States . However , he could not find financing . Domalpalli decided to select non @-@ professionals and train them in a year . In the United States , producers voiced similar concerns over the marketability of the film and what they referred to as " its lack of cohesion . " Beside this , Domalpalli 's inexperience in filmmaking added to their concerns . Recalling initial hurdles , Domalpalli later said , " it was only when I showed my professors a rough cut of the film , and they approved , that purse strings finally came loose . " It eventually constituted the thesis for his master 's degree .

He imbibed socio @-@ cultural ethos from his upbringing in several rural areas of Andhra Pradesh , and this prompted him to make the movie in the Telugu language . In 2004 , he began filming with a meagre sum of USD 20000 provided by his mother Latha Domalpalli , the eventual film producer . Referring to filming the burrakatha ( a story telling technique used in southern India ) scene at the beginning of the film , Domalpalli said :

If you talk to people who perform a Burrakatha , you will see a huge difference in the way the older generation performs the art vis @-@ à @-@ vis the way the way the younger generation performs it ... This has happened because of the advent of television . Burrakatha is a long @-@ format art form . The point we are making is that if we don 't protect these folk arts , they will be on their way out .

The producers faced a stiff challenge in securing a rural bungalow to serve as the landlady 's mansion . Even after obtaining a building as the best possible fit in the coastal town of Bobbili , infestation of snakes and bats posed a problem for the crew . In addition , the building was not strong enough to support the filming equipment . Under these circumstances , the makeshift production designers refurbished the building with space for chicken coops and goat pens as required by the script . To make the space look inhabited , local help was sought for trampling the ground with their livestock . The local people wanted to act as extras in exchange for providing farming tools , bullock carts and other material . As a result , the crew had to ensure that these extras didn 't look into the camera during filming .

" Given the rural nature of the story , and the tendency of most local acting to lean towards the theatrical , it was clear that non @-@ actors drawn from hutments , labor camps and the vast Indian middle class were the right choice , " said Domalpalli , referring to his choice of casting . In addition , the inclusion of Radhamma 's character was to bring a natural feel for the film . Her behavior such as the way she " sits , stands , moves , grunts and groans — that is the way people from a village talk and behave ... You would immediately recognize a person who served you breakfast ... That makes a point . "

Referring to the challenges faced in casting , he said that while they were canvassing local people for auditions , they were warding off rumors that they were after the people 's kidneys . When placing a newspaper advertisement for the landlady 's character did not seem viable , they advertised for household help instead . Upon seeing this , Urmila Dammannagari turned up for the interview with Domalpalli . Inadvertently , their conversation veered toward the film and the real motive behind the advertisement became evident . Though initially shocked and despite the fact that she had to commute 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) from her house to the location , she took up the role . Professionally Krishnamma Gundimalla , who played the role of Radhamma , carried bricks on her head as a construction worker . On the other hand , Ramachandriah Marikanti , who plays Vanaja 's fisherman father , was a municipal sweeper and worked as a security guard .

For casting Vanaja and Lacchi , he said that they met approximately 2500 children , interviewed about 260 , and finally selected two from a shortlist of five to play the roles of Vanaja and Lacchi . Parents of these children were distrustful of them because their wards would have to frequently commute to Domalpalli 's house for acting lessons for at least a year . Domalpalli felt that " to convince people to devote so much of their children 's time and energy was hard enough , but to find the right combination of intelligence , commitment and talent as well was probably the steepest cliff they had to climb . " While visiting schools for identifying the child cast , Mamatha Bhukya at first was not selected because her hair was short . But after she sang a song on Mahatma Gandhi , she was selected for the role . Srinivas Devarakonda , a disciple of well @-@ known Kuchipudi guru Vempati Chinna Satyam , taught Mamatha the classical dance form for a year in the basement of Domalpalli 's house . Due to this sustained effort , she altered her ambitions from becoming a doctor to an actress and a Kuchipudi dancer . Bhavani Renukunta was chosen for Lacchi 's role after an interview at the Hyderabad office of Varija Films , the company that handled the publicity .

Suriname @-@ born Milton Kam , who had shot 10 feature films and more than 50 short films , was chosen as the director of photography . Since Domalpalli 's experience was limited to short video films with a different aspect ratio , he was shocked to look through the Super 16mm lens the day they commenced the shoot . However , Kam helped him to stay composed during the production .

Domalpalli used Carnatic music for the background score . This featured the violin @-@ playing of B. S. Narayanan , a student of renowned Carnatic violinist T. N. Krishnan . Narayanan played the popular Jayadeva Ashtapadi " Sa virahe " , having retuned it in the mode or rāga known as " Behag " .

Domalpalli used " janapada geetalu " in the film ; folk songs that are rarely heard . To record these songs for the film , Domalpalli and his crew traveled to towns and villages in rural Andhra .

= = Release and reception = =

The film was released in the United States on 31 August 2007 . After being screened at over 100 film festivals in 49 countries , Vanaja has won 24 international awards and 2 nominations . The Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) , the body that governs the Oscars , invited the screenplay to be placed in the permanent archives of the Margaret Herrick Library . The DVD , which released on 8 March 2008 , has subtitle options in English . Besides interviews with Domalpalli and Bhukya , unedited dance sequences and several short films of Domalpalli , the DVD is available in 16 : 9 Anamorphic widescreen , Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround , widescreen and NTSC format . While reviewing it , Jeffrey Kauffman from DVD Talk observed that though most of the film was made using natural lighting situations , the color and saturation quality was excellent . Further , the reviewer was quite favourable about the use of exotic sounds right from birds to the instruments .

= = = Special screenings and awards = = =

On 11 September 2006 , Vanaja first premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival . The same year , it won an Honorable Mention for the Golden Starfish Award at the Hamptons International Film Festival . It won the Best Narrative Film award at the Indo @-@ American Arts Council Film Festival . Following that , it was showcased at the International Film Festival of India and the International Film Festival of Kerala by the end of 2006 .

At the film 's screening at the 2007 Berlin Film Festival , it won a standing ovation from the audience , bringing Mamatha Bhukya to tears and emotionally affecting Rajnesh Domalpalli . The film won the Best First Feature award at this festival . The same year , Vanaja received a special international jury prize at the Cairo International Film Festival , Best Feature at the Memphis International Film Festival , Best International Film at the Sacramento International Film Festival , and a Platinum award at the WorldFest @-@ Houston International Film Festival . It received a special mention for the grand jury prize at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles , the Miloš Macourek Award in special recognition for a feature film for youth at the Zlín International Film Festival , an Achievement Award at the Newport Beach Film Festival , and a special jury prize for Best Production Design at the RiverRun International Film Festival . It won the prize for Best Cinematography at the Rhode Island International Film Festival , the first prize in the live @-@ action feature film category at the Chicago International Children 's Film Festival , and the Camério Meilleur Long Métrage / Starlink Aviation award at the Carrousel international du film de Rimouski . In addition , the film won also won an award for the best live @-@ action film at the International Young Audience Film Festival . Bhukya won the best actress award at the Asian Festival of First Films . It was chosen as one of 13 " key films " when the Locarno International Film Festival focused on India in 2011 .

= = = Reviews = = =

The film received an overall positive response from critics and was particularly noted for the theme and for Mamatha Bhukya 's performance . The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 85 % based on 26 critic reviews with an average rating of 7 / 10 . Roger Ebert described Bhukya as " a natural star , her eyes and smile illuminating a face of freshness and delight . " Writing about Vanaja , he added that " there are the glorious colors of saris and room decorations , the dazzle of dance costumes and the dusty landscape that somehow becomes a watercolor by Edward Lear , with its hills and vistas , its oxen and elephants , its houses that seem part of the land . In this setting , Domalpalli tells his story with tender precision , and never an awkward moment . " Ebert listed it among the top five foreign films of 2007 . According to Laura Kern from The New York Times , the film " is a coming @-@ of @-@ age tale that is engrossing , if slightly overlong , and absolutely timeless , unfolding against an antiquated class system that sadly stands firm in rural areas of India to this day . "

A review in Variety called it " a film that touches the heartstrings as it brings home the cruel class distinctions that poison Indian societ , " and said it " is more than a children 's film , despite revolving around a central character of 14 . Its social message , linked to the story of a poor farm girl who aspires to be a dancer , never feels forced , and the moral issues it depicts are realistically complex . " Commenting on its commercial feasibility , the review concluded that " while that might not translate into obvious box office potential , art house appeal is there for distributors willing to seek out a market . " The Chicago Tribune wrote :

It 's a touching , believable , often funny but ultimately sad tale of how one class can take advantage of another , even in the guise of patronizing benevolence . Though sometimes shifting abruptly in time , Vanaja is an arresting story of modern @-@ day hardship and class exploitation , recalling Charles Dickens as well as Western fairy @-@ tale lore . Domalpalli 's settings are ultra @-@ real in detail and color , from the crude , almost feudal deprivations of Vanaja 's dirt @-@ floor background to the stately rituals and autocratic entitlement of the well @-@ to @-@ do .

Speaking of Bhukya 's performance , the San Francisco Chronicle writes , " Bhukya delivers an entrancing and natural performance , deftly balancing both the wide @-@ eyed childishness of a young girl with the dawning awareness of life 's darker possibilities . She 's also an accomplished dancer , which she proves at several points in the film . " It adds , " can this wonder @-@ filled film truly be not only Domalpalli 's first feature , but originally part of a thesis submission at Columbia University ? Both in the film 's writing and direction , Domalpalli displays maturity , wisdom and a loving sense of visual and character detail . " Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle proclaimed , " director Domalpalli , who , with his debut feature , turned in what may well be the best Columbia University master 's thesis ever . " The Hartford Courant also claimed like the Chicago Tribune that the film would remind the Western audience of Charles Dickens , and further stated that it " ... gives a detailed sense of place and shows a mastery of story telling . The themes of fate and class resonate and the work of the amateur players is remarkably moving . "

Despite the generally positive reception , some critics differed in their opinion of the content and depiction . The New York Post criticised the film saying that " there 's enough mush in the Indian melodrama Vanaja to fill an entire season of a TV soap opera , " adding that toward its ending , the " viewers will be bored stiff by ( the ) long , tedious film " . Though the " narrative meanders ... [ it ] evokes village life with stark authenticity , " said a review by Time Out .

= New York and New Jersey campaign =

The New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles for control of New York City and the state of New Jersey in the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington in 1776 and the winter months of 1777 . Howe was successful in driving Washington out of New York City , but overextended his reach into New Jersey , and ended the active campaign season in January 1777 with only a few outposts near the city . The British held New York harbor for the rest of the war , using it as a base for expeditions against other targets .

First landing unopposed on Staten Island on July 3 , 1776 , Howe assembled an army composed of elements that had been withdrawn from Boston in March following their failure to hold that city , combined with additional British troops , as well as Hessian troops rented from several German principalities . Washington had New England soldiers as well as regiments from states as far south as Virginia . Landing on Long Island in August , Howe defeated Washington in the largest battle of the war , but the Continental Army was able to retreat to Manhattan under cover of darkness and fog . Washington suffered a series of defeats in Manhattan , with the exception of a victory at Harlem Heights , but was nevertheless chased north to White Plains , New York . At that point Howe returned to Manhattan to capture forces Washington had left in the north of that island .

Washington and much of his army crossed the Hudson River into New Jersey , and retreated all the way across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania , shrinking due to ending enlistment periods , desertions , and poor morale . Howe ordered his troops into winter quarters in December , establishing a chain of outposts from New York to Burlington , New Jersey . Washington , in a tremendous boost to American morale , launched a successful strike against the Trenton garrison after crossing the icy Delaware River , prompting Howe to withdraw his chain of outposts back to New Brunswick and the coast near New York , while Washington established his winter camp at Morristown . During the remaining winter months , both sides skirmished frequently as the British sought forage and provisions .

Britain maintained control of New York City and some of the surrounding territory until the war ended in 1783 , using it as a base for operations elsewhere in North America . In 1777 , General Howe launched a campaign to capture Philadelphia , leaving General Sir Henry Clinton in command of the New York area , while General John Burgoyne led an attempt to gain control of the Hudson River valley from Quebec that failed at Saratoga . Northern New Jersey was the scene of skirmishing between the opposing forces for the rest of the war .

= = Background = =

When the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775 , British troops were under siege in Boston . They defeated Patriot forces in the Battle of Bunker Hill , suffering very high casualties . When news of this expensive British victory reached London , General William Howe and Lord George Germain , the British official responsible , determined that a " decisive action " should be taken against New York City using forces recruited from throughout the British Empire as well as troops hired from small German states .

General George Washington , recently named by the Second Continental Congress as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Continental Army , echoed the sentiments of others that New York was " a post of infinite importance " , and began the task of organizing military companies in the New York area when he stopped there on his way to take command of the siege of Boston . In January 1776 Washington ordered Charles Lee to raise troops and take command of New York 's defenses . Lee had made some progress on the city 's defenses when word arrived in late March 1776 that the British army had left Boston after Washington threatened them from heights south of the city . Concerned that General Howe was sailing directly to New York , Washington hurried regiments from Boston , including General Israel Putnam , who commanded the troops until Washington himself arrived in mid @-@ April . At the end of April , Washington dispatched General John Sullivan with six regiments to the north to bolster the faltering Quebec campaign .

General Howe , rather than moving against New York , withdrew his army to Halifax , Nova Scotia , and regrouped while transports full of British troops , shipped from bases around Europe and intended for New York , began gathering at Halifax . In June he set sail for New York with the 9 @,@ 000 men assembled there , before all of the transports arrived . German troops , primarily from Hesse @-@ Kassel , as well as British troops from Henry Clinton 's ultimately unsuccessful expedition to the Carolinas , were to meet with Howe 's fleet when it reached New York . General Howe 's brother , Admiral Lord Howe , arrived at Halifax with further transports after the general sailed , and immediately followed .

When General Howe arrived in the outer harbor of New York , the ships began sailing up the undefended Narrows between Staten Island and Long island on July 2 , and started landing troops on the undefended shores of Staten Island that day . Washington learned from prisoners taken that Howe had landed 10 @,@ 000 men , but was awaiting the arrival of another 15 @,@ 000 . General Washington , with a smaller army of about 19 @,@ 000 effective troops , lacked significant intelligence on the British force and plans , and was uncertain exactly where in the New York area the Howes intended to strike . He consequently split the Continental Army between fortified positions on Long Island , Manhattan and other mainland locations , and also established a " Flying Camp " in northern New Jersey . This was intended as a reserve force that could support operations anywhere along the Jersey shore of the Hudson .

= = Capture of New York City = =

The Howe brothers had been granted authority as peace commissioners by Parliament , with limited powers to pursue a peaceful resolution to the conflict . King George III was not optimistic about the possibility of a peace , " yet I think it right to be attempted , whilst every act of vigour is unremittingly carried on " . Their powers were limited to granting of " general and special pardons " and to " confer with any of his Majesty 's subjects " . On July 14 , pursuant to these powers , Admiral Howe sent a messenger with a letter addressed to " George Washington , Esq . " across the harbor . Washington 's adjutant , Joseph Reed , politely informed the messenger that no person with that title was in their army . Admiral Howe 's aide wrote that " the Punctilio of an Address " should not have prevented the letter 's delivery , and Howe was said to be visibly annoyed by the rejection . A second request , addressed to " George Washington , Esq . , etc . " was similarly rejected , although the messenger was told that Washington would receive one of Howe 's adjutants . In that fruitless meeting , held July 20 , Washington pointed out that the limited powers the Howe brothers had been given were not of much use , as the rebels had done no wrong requiring an amnesty .

In late August , the British transported about 22 @,@ 000 men ( including 9 @,@ 000 Hessians ) from Staten Island to Long Island . In the Battle of Long Island on August 27 , 1776 , the British outflanked the American positions , driving the Americans back to their Brooklyn Heights fortifications . General Howe then began to lay siege to the works , but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime retreat through his unguarded rear across the East River to Manhattan Island . Howe then paused to consolidate his position and consider his next move .

During the battle , the British had captured General John Sullivan . Admiral Howe convinced him to deliver a message to Congress in Philadelphia , and released him on parole . Washington also gave his permission , and on September 2 Sullivan told the Congress that the Howes wanted to negotiate , and had been given much broader powers to treat than those they actually held . This created a diplomatic problem for Congress , which did not want to be seen as aggressive , which is how some representatives felt a direct rejection of the appeal would appear . Consequently , Congress agreed to send a committee to meet with the Howes in a move they did not think would bear any fruit . On September 11 , the Howe brothers met with John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , and Edward Rutledge in the Staten Island Peace Conference . It had exactly the outcome the Americans expected .

During this time , Washington , who had previously been ordered by Congress to hold New York City , was concerned that he might have escaped one trap for another , since the army was still vulnerable to being surrounded on Manhattan . To keep his escape routes open to the north , he placed 5 @,@ 000 troops in the city ( which then only occupied the lower portion of Manhattan ) , and took the rest of the army to Harlem Heights . In the first recorded use of a submarine in warfare , he also attempted a novel attack on the Royal Navy , launching the Turtle in a failed attempt to sink the HMS Eagle , Admiral Howe 's flagship .

On September 15 , General Howe landed about 12 @,@ 000 men on lower Manhattan , quickly taking control of New York City . The Americans withdrew to Harlem , where they skirmished the next day , but held their ground . Rather than attempting to dislodge Washington from his strong position a second time , Howe again opted for a flanking maneuver . Landing troops with some opposition in October in Westchester County , he sought once again to encircle Washington . To defend against this move , Washington withdrew most of his army to White Plains , where after a short battle on October 28 he retreated further north . This isolated the remaining Continental Army troops in upper Manhattan , so Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November , taking almost 3 @,@ 000 prisoners .

Four days later , November 20 , Fort Lee , across the Hudson River from Fort Washington , was also taken . Washington brought much of his army across the Hudson into New Jersey , but was immediately forced to retreat by the aggressive British advance .

General Howe , after consolidating British positions around New York harbor , detached 6 @,@ 000 men under the command of two of his more difficult subordinates , Henry Clinton , and Hugh , Earl Percy to take Newport , Rhode Island ( which they did without opposition on December 8 ) , while he sent General Lord Cornwallis to chase Washington 's army through New Jersey . The Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December .

= = Reactions = =

The outlook of the Continental Army — and thus the revolution itself — was bleak . " These are the times that try men 's souls " , wrote Thomas Paine in The American Crisis . Washington 's army had dwindled to fewer than 5 @,@ 000 men fit for duty and would be significantly reduced after enlistments expired at the end of the year . Spirits were low , popular support was wavering , and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia , fearing a British attack . Washington ordered some of the troops that returned from the failed invasion of Quebec to join him , and also ordered General Lee 's troops , which he had left north of New York City , to join him . Lee , whose relationship with Washington was at times difficult , made excuses and only traveled as far as Morristown , New Jersey . When Lee strayed too far from his army on December 12 , his exposed position was betrayed by Loyalists , and a British company led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton surrounded the inn where he was staying and took him prisoner . Lee 's command was taken over by John Sullivan , who finished marching the army to Washington 's camp across the river from Trenton .

The capture of Lee presented the Howes with a problematic prisoner . As with a number of other Continental Army leaders , he had previously served in the British Army . Because of this the Howes at first treated him as a deserter , with threats of military punishment . However , Washington intervened , tying the treatment of Lee to the treatment of prisoners he held . Lee was ultimately treated well , and apparently offered the British commanders advice on how to win the war . Because the Americans did not have a prisoner of comparable rank , Lee remained a prisoner in New York until 1778 , when was exchanged for Richard Prescott .

The failure of the Continental Army to hold New York also brought about a rise in Loyalist activity , as the city became a haven for refugee supporters of the Crown from elsewhere across the country . The British actively recruited in New York and New Jersey to build regiments of provincial militia , with some success . Loyalists in these areas may have been motivated by seeing elements of the rebel army head home after their enlistments ended . One New York Patriot militia leader wrote that thirty of his men , rather than reenlisting with him , had instead signed up with the enemy . On November 30 Admiral Howe offered amnesty to anyone that had taken up arms against the Crown , provided they swore an oath to it . Washington responded with his own proclamation suggesting that those who did not renounce such oaths should immediately go behind British lines . As a result , New Jersey became a civil battlefield , with militia activity as well as spying and counterspying continuing for the rest of the war .

News of the capture of New York was favorably received in London , and General Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath for his work . Combined with news of the recovery of Quebec , circumstances suggested to British leaders that the war could be ended with one more year 's campaigning . News of Admiral Howe 's amnesty proclamation was met with some surprise , as its terms were more lenient than the hardliners in the government expected . Politicians opposed to the war pointed out that the proclamation failed to mention the primacy of the Parliament . Furthermore , the Howes were criticized for failing to keep Parliament informed of the various peace efforts they embarked on .

= = Howe 's strategy = =

With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season , the British established a chain of outposts stretching from Perth Amboy to Bordentown and entered winter quarters . They controlled much of New York and New Jersey and were in a good position to resume operations in the spring , with the rebel capital of Philadelphia in striking distance . Howe detached General Clinton with 6 @,@ 000 men to occupy Newport , Rhode Island as a base for future operations against Boston and Connecticut ( Clinton occupied Newport in early December without opposition . ) Howe then sketched a campaign for the following year in a letter to Lord Germain : 10 @,@ 000 men at Newport , 10 @,@ 000 for an expedition to Albany ( to meet an army descending from Quebec ) , 8 @,@ 000 to cross New Jersey and threaten Philadelphia , and 5 @,@ 000 to defend New York . If additional foreign forces were available , operations could also be considered against the southern states .

= = Washington 's counterstrike = =

While worrying over how to hold his army together , Washington organized attacks on the relatively exposed British outposts , which were as a result continually on edge due to ongoing militia and army raids . German commanders Carl von Donop and Johann Rall , whose brigades were at the end of the chain of outposts , were frequent targets of these raids , but their repeated warnings and requests for support from General James Grant were dismissed .

Beginning in mid @-@ December , Washington planned a two @-@ pronged attack on Rall 's outpost in Trenton , with a third diversionary attack on Donop 's outpost in Bordentown . The plan was aided by the fortuitous presence of a militia company that drew Donop 's entire 2 @,@ 000 @-@ man force away from Bordentown to the south that resulted in a skirmish at Mount Holly on December 23 . The consequence of this action was that Donop was not in a position to assist Rall when Washington 's attack on Trenton took place . On the night of December 25 – 26 , Washington and 2 @,@ 400 men stealthily crossed the Delaware and surprised Rall 's outpost the following morning , killing or capturing nearly 1 @,@ 000 Hessians . This action not only significantly boosted the army 's morale ; it also brought Cornwallis out of New York . He reassembled an army of more than 6 @,@ 000 men , and marched most of them against a position Washington had taken south of Trenton . Leaving a garrison of 1 @,@ 200 at Princeton , Cornwallis then attacked Washington 's position on January 2 , 1777 , and was three times repulsed before darkness set in . During the night Washington once again stealthily moved his army , going around that of Cornwallis with the intention of attacking the Princeton garrison .

Hugh Mercer , leading the American advance guard , encountered British soldiers from Princeton under the command of Charles Mawhood . The British troops engaged Mercer and in the ensuing battle , Mercer was mortally wounded . Washington sent reinforcements under General John Cadwalader , which were successful in driving Mawhood and the British from Princeton , with many of them fleeing to Cornwallis in Trenton . The British lost more than one quarter of their force in the battle , and American morale rose with the victory .

The defeats convinced General Howe to withdraw most of his army from New Jersey , only leaving outposts at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy . Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown , having retaken most of the state from the British . However , provisions for both armies were limited , and commanders on both sides sent out parties to forage for food and other supplies . For the next few months , they engaged in a forage war , in which each targeted the foraging parties of the other . This led to numerous skirmishes and minor confrontations including the Battle of Millstone . The British also sniped with each other over the subject of provisions . Lord Percy resigned his command after a series of disagreements with Howe came to a head over the ability of the Newport station to provide forage to the New York and New Jersey forces .

= = Aftermath = =

The British gained control of New York harbor and the surrounding agricultural areas , and held New York City and Long Island until the war ended in 1783 . The Americans suffered significant casualties and lost important supplies , but Washington managed to retain the core of his army and avoid a decisive confrontation that could have ended the war . With the bold strokes of Trenton and Princeton , he had regained initiative and boosted morale . The areas around New York City in New York , New Jersey , and Connecticut were an ongoing battleground for the rest of the war .

The early reports that General Howe sent to his superiors in London concerning the battles at Trenton and Princeton attempted to minimize their significance , blaming Rall for Trenton , and trying to recast Princeton as a nearly successful defense . Not everyone was fooled by his accounts , in particular Lord Germain . In a letter to the Hessian General Leopold Philip von Heister Germain wrote that " the officer who commanded [ the forces at Trenton ] and to whom this misfortune is to be attributed has lost his life by his rashness . " Heister in turn had to report the loss to his ruler , Frederick II , Landgrave of Hesse @-@ Kassel , with the news that not only had an entire brigade been lost , but sixteen regimental colors and six cannon as well . The news reportedly enraged Frederick , who broadly suggested that Heister return home ( which he did , turning over command of the Hessian forces to Wilhelm von Knyphausen ) . Frederick also ordered extensive inquiries into the events of 1776 , that took place in New York from 1778 to 1782 . These inquiries created a unique archive of materials about the campaign .

The news of Washington 's successes reached Paris at a critical time . Britain 's ambassador to France , Lord Stormont , was preparing complaints to France 's foreign minister , the Comte de Vergennes , concerning the semi @-@ secret financial and logistical support France had been giving to the rebels . Stormont had learned that supplies bound for America were to be shipped under French flags , where they had previously sent under American colors . He wrote that the French court was extremely happy with the news , and that the French diplomatic position noticeably hardened : " that M. de Vergennes is hostile in his heart and anxious for the success of the Rebels I have not a shadow of a doubt . "

= = Next steps = =

The British planned two major operations for the 1777 campaign season . The first was an ambitious plan to gain control of the Hudson River valley , whose central thrust was a move along Lake Champlain by the army from Quebec under General John Burgoyne . Execution of this plan ultimately failed , ending with the surrender of Burgoyne 's army at Saratoga , New York , in October . The second operation was General Howe 's plan to take Philadelphia , which , after a difficult start , met with success in September .

Washington 's strategy in 1777 continued to be a basically defensive one . He successfully fended off an attempt by Howe to draw him into a general engagement in northern New Jersey , but was unable to prevent Howe 's later success taking Philadelphia . He did send material help to General Horatio Gates , who was tasked with defending against Burgoyne 's movements . Major General Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan 's riflemen all played a notable role in the defeat of Burgoyne , following which France entered the war .

= = Legacy = =

In the urban environments of Manhattan , Brooklyn , and Trenton there are plaques and other memorials placed to commemorate the actions that took place in and around those locations . The Princeton Battlefield and Washington 's Crossing are National Historic Landmarks , with state parks also preserving all or part of the locations where events of this campaign occurred in those areas . Morristown National Historical Park preserves locations occupied by the Continental Army during the winter months at the end of the campaign .

= Sauganash Hotel =

Sauganash Hotel ( originally Eagle Exchange Tavern ) is a former hotel ; regarded as the first hotel in Chicago , Illinois . It was located at Wolf Point in the present day Loop community area at the intersection of the north , south and main branches of the Chicago River . The location at West Lake Street and North Wacker Drive ( formerly Market Street ) was designated a Chicago Landmark on November 6 , 2002 . The hotel changed proprietors often in its twenty @-@ year existence and briefly served as Chicago 's first theater . It was named after Billy Caldwell , an interpreter in the British Indian Department .

= = History = =

Mark and Monique Beaubien , the owners and builders of the hotel , were French Indian traders . In 1826 they moved to Chicago on the advice of Mark 's brother Jean , who lived at Fort Dearborn . The Beaubiens settled in a small cabin on Wolf 's Point and continued their trade with the Indians . They built a tavern on the east bank of the south branch of the Chicago River at the point where the north and south branches meet . The tavern was named Eagle Exchange Tavern . In 1831 , they added a frame to the log structure to create Chicago 's first hotel , the Sauganash Hotel . When completed , it was one of only two residential structures on the south side of the main branch of the Chicago River , the other being that of Col. John B. Beaubien , Mark 's brother . The settlement had only twelve houses at the time . The hostelry immediately became famous , and when reconstructed later became the city 's largest and finest hotel . Immediately adjacent to the hotel 's public bar was Chicago 's first drug store .

The Greek Revival trim of the new hotel contrasted with the other eleven buildings of Chicago . The symmetry of its facade was typical to contemporary Greek Revival practiced on the East Coast . Juliette Kinzie , who came to Chicago from Connecticut in 1831 , described it as " a pretentios white two @-@ story building , with bright blue wood shutters , the admiration of all the little circle at Wolf Point " . The hostelry 's clientele transcended race , with natives and settlers enjoying each other 's company .

The flow of travelers and settlers intensified with the end of the Black Hawk War in 1832 . In 1833 the hotel housed election of the first town trustees of the newly formed Town of Chicago . Beaubien kept the Hotel until 1834 and during his ownership he regularly entertained guests with his violin . On August 18 , 1835 , two years after the Potawatomi natives signed the treaty agreeing to be moved to a reservation beyond the Mississippi River in northwestern Missouri , they selected 800 braves to perform their last war dance parade on a path that passed in front of the hotel . In 1835 , a Mr. Davis assumed control of the hotel , which subsequently had a series of proprietors . The building briefly served as Chicago 's first theater , and hosted the first Chicago Theatre company in November 1837 in an abandoned dining room . By 1839 , it returned to service as a hotel , but was destroyed by fire in 1851 , and subsequently torn down . The Wigwam was built in its place nine years later .

= = Honoree = =

Billy Caldwell " Sauganash " , who served as an interpreter for the Indian Agents , was the honoree of the hotel . Born in approximately 1780 , " Sauganash " was an Indian half @-@ breed , whose father was Colonel Caldwell , an Irish officer in the British Army stationed at Detroit ; his mother was a Pottawatomi . He was schooled at a Jesuit school in Detroit , where he learned English and French . Caldwell learned several Indian dialects . Billy Caldwell 's Indian Name was " Straight Tree " , but he was known by " Sauganash " , meaning Englishman in the Potawatomi language . As a warrior , Sauganash was under the influence of Tecumseh until his death and he became a Captain in the British Indian Department .

= = Theater = =

In 1834 ( three years before Chicago incorporated as a city ) , the hotel hosted the first professional public performance in Chicago at a cost of $ .50 ( $ 11 @.@ 85 today ) for adults and $ .25 for children . The show promised a wide variety of talents including ventriloquism . In the following two years , several traveling showmen performed at the hotel . In 1837 , the Chicago Theater , which was the first local theater company , set up shop in the hotel 's abandoned dining room . Co @-@ managers Harry Isherwood and Alexander McKinzie procured an amusement license for the company from the city council , and it began performing a different billed show every night starting in late October or early November for approximately six weeks . The plays included titles The Idiot Witness , The Stranger , and The Carpenter of Rouen . Production of The Stranger took place in the dining room of the hotel . Following a six @-@ week engagement , the company went on tour until the following spring , when it returned to a different local venue .

= Ed the Happy Clown =

Ed the Happy Clown is a graphic novel by Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown . Its title character is a large @-@ headed , childlike children 's clown who undergoes one horrifying affliction after another . The story in is a dark , humorous mix of genres and features scatological humour , sex , body horror , extreme graphic violence , and blasphemous religious imagery . Central to the plot are a man who cannot stop defecating ; the head of a miniature , other @-@ dimensional Ronald Reagan attached to the head of Ed 's penis ; and a female vampire who seeks revenge on her adulterous lover who had murdered her to escape his sins .

The surreal , largely improvised story began with a series of unrelated short strips that Brown went on to tie into a single narrative . Brown first serialized it in his comic book Yummy Fur , and the first , incomplete collected edition in 1989 , titled Ed the Happy Clown : A Yummy Fur Book . Shortly after , Brown became unsatisfied with the direction of the serial ; he brought it to an abrupt end in the eighteenth issue of Yummy Fur and turned to autobiography . A second edition titled Ed the Happy Clown : The Definitive Ed Book appeared in 1992 with an altered ending and most of the later parts of the series eliminated . The contents of this edition were re @-@ serialized with extensive endnotes in 2005 – 2006 as a nine @-@ issue Ed the Happy Clown series and collected as Ed the Happy Clown : A Graphic @-@ Novel in 2012 .

The story is seen by many critics as a highlight of the 1980s North American alternative comics scene . It has left an influence on contemporary alternative cartoonists such as Daniel Clowes , Seth , and Dave Sim , and has won a Harvey and other awards . Canadian film director Bruce McDonald has had the rights since 1991 to make an Ed movie , but the project has struggled to find financial backing .

= = Background = =

Brown grew up in Châteauguay , Quebec , a Montreal suburb with a large English @-@ speaking minority . He was an introverted youth attracted to comic books from a young age . He aimed at a career drawing superhero comics , but was unsuccessful in getting work with Marvel or DC Comics after graduating from high school . He moved to Toronto and discovered underground comix and the small @-@ press community .

By the early 1980s Marvel and DC had come to dominate comic @-@ book publishing in North America , and comic shops became the main places of purchase , with a clientele of dedicated comics fans . During this time , a trend towards greater ambition and expressiveness was developing on the fringes , such as Dave Sim 's long Cerebus series and the avant @-@ garde graphics magazine Raw in which the serialization of Art Spiegelman 's graphic novel Maus appeared . Brown was to find himself in the alternative comics scene that grew throughout the decade .

Brown was feeling himself in a creatively stagnant period when he came across a book on Surrealism : Wallace Fowley 's The Age of Surrealism ( 1950 ) . The book motivated Brown to work on an improvised minicomic series which he called Yummy Fur and self @-@ published from 1983 .

= = Content = =

Ed suffers one indignity after another as the plot gets grimmer and more surreal . His bizarre misfortunes include having the tip of his penis replaced by the head of a miniature , talking Ronald Reagan from another universe . Ed 's adventures featured encounters with penis @-@ worshipping pygmies , flesh @-@ eating rats , Martians , Frankenstein 's monster , and other characters from traditional genre fiction . The story unfolds with a black @-@ comedic sensibility topped with Christian symbolism . Despite his ordeals — being imprisoned for a crime he did not commit , falling in love with a vampire — Ed remains a gentle , childlike innocent , with a Candide @-@ like optimism . The story has had more than one ending and is a challenge to summarize .

= = = Summary = = =

The children 's hospital Ed is about to visit burns down with all the children in it . A number of apparently unrelated short gag strips appear before Brown begins to tie the narrative together into one plot .

Ed is imprisoned when he finds hospital janitor Chet Doodley 's severed hand and the police assume Ed had taken it . In the prison a man is unable stop defecating and his faeces fill the jail , engulfing all , including Ed . When Ed emerges he finds the head of his penis replaced with the head of a miniature Ronald Reagan from Dimension X — a world much like Ed 's but whose people are tiny . Dimension X has dumped its waste into a trans @-@ dimensional portal , which turns out to be the anus of the man who could not stop defecating . Reagan 's body remains in Dimension X , and the professor who discovered the portal travels to Ed 's dimension to find the head , making contact with the authorities of Ed 's world .

Chet believes the loss of his hand is due to his unfaithfulness to his wife ; as a child his mother read Chet the story of a Saint Justin who cuts off his right hand to avoid sinning , and Chet assumes his lost hand is a like punishment from God . He tries to atone for it by killing his girlfriend , Josie , in the woods . Penis @-@ worshipping , rat @-@ eating pygmy cannibals drag the bodies of both Josie and Ed into the sewers . As they are about to sever Ed 's penis Josie reanimates in time to save him . The two attempt to escape from the sewers when they are accidentally shot by a mother – daughter team of pygmy hunters . Josie dies again , and her disembodied spirit learns from the ghost of Chet 's sister that she has become a vampire .

The professor from Dimension X and members of the staff of the Adventures in Science TV show find Ed and the President and bring them to the TV studio . The discovery is big news , and the professor and the President make a TV appearance . When it is discovered that the people of Dimension X are homosexual or bisexual the professor is put to a violent death , and Ed and the body of Josie are put in confinement . The studio is invaded by the pygmies when they recognize their " Penis God " on television . Josie 's spirit returns to her body , and she and Ed escape and make their way to the hospital where Chet works . Josie gets her revenge by seducing Chet and killing him before he is able to repent , thus sending him to Hell .

Ed is one of a number of men secretly kidnapped to provide another , Bick Backman , with a penis transplant — a larger one to please his wife . Out of the lineup of unconscious men , Ed 's penis with the President 's head on it stands out and is chosen for Backman . After the operation , Mounties raid the hospital and , finding Reagan , take Backman and leave Ed , who has had a larger penis sewn on in the President 's place . The hospital hands Ed over to Mrs Backman , claiming he is her husband . Though suspicious , she accepts Ed — and his newly transplanted penis .

= = = = Endings = = = =

The ending that appeared in Yummy Fur has not appeared in book editions . In it , Mrs Backman takes Ed home , but her children are not convinced he is their father . After he spends some time in the house they decide " he 's way better than the other one " . There is a resemblance between Ed and Mrs Backman , and it is revealed they were twins separated at birth . While at church , the Backman children are kidnapped by stone aliens and are saved by Frankenstein 's monster , who brings them to Washington , D.C. where they find their kidnapped real father . Josie and Ed 's zombie friend rescues the Backmans . Ed has his clown makeup restored and reverts to his cheerful self . When he goes to visit Josie , he learns her apartment building has burned down , and she was the only casualty . Her charred skeleton is brought out , clutching an unburnt severed hand .

The alternate ending from the 1992 and later versions drops most of the story that follows Chet 's death , replacing it with 17 new pages . In this version , Chet 's severed hand visits Josie 's apartment at night and rolls up her window shade . As she is a vampire , the sunlight in the morning burns her to death while she sleeps , and she and Chet are reunited in the flames of Hell .

= = = Primary characters = = =

Ed

A big @-@ headed , childlike clown with Candide @-@ like optimism , despite the hardships his creator puts him through . He is a passive protagonist to and around whom events occur . He spends much of the story with the head of a miniature Ronald Reagan from another dimension for a penishead . He later discovers , after having the president severed from his penis and having a new one attached , that he has a long @-@ lost twin sister in Becky Backman . Brown considers Ed to be an " adult who 's pre @-@ adolescent " , whose sexuality is not fully formed .

Chet Doodley

A janitor working at a hospital , he is plagued with guilt over cheating on his wife after his hand falls off for no apparent reason . After having a dream in which a statue of the Virgin Mary turns into his girlfriend , Josie , and has sex with him , he murders Josie while having sex with her by stabbing her in the back in the woods . Josie , who becomes a vampire afterwards , hunts him down and eventually breaks his neck , sending him to Hell . " Chet " is short for " Chester " , and Douglas Wolk sees Chet as perhaps a stand @-@ in for Brown himself , though Brown denies any autobiographical elements in the story . Brown has stated he had a phobia of losing his hand , as it would end his ability to draw , and so named the character " Chet " .

Josie

Chet 's beautiful former girlfriend , who becomes a vampire " for actively engaging in a grievous sin " for committing adultery with her boyfriend Chet , when he murders her by stabbing her in the back . Her vampire self ends up saving Ed from having his penis decapitated by pygmy cannibals , and eventually tracks down Chet and kills him , sending him to Hell . In an alternate ending , she finds herself in Hell as well , eternally embracing Chet while being consumed by fire .

Ronald Reagan

Though bearing the American president 's name and position , the diminutive Reagan bears no resemblance to his namesake . He comes from Dimension X , and his head becomes attached to the end of Ed 's penis after falling into an interdimensional portal . The president 's body remains in Dimension X , where people are much smaller than in Ed 's , and are homosexual .

Brown had intended to use Ed Broadbent , a left @-@ wing politician of the Canadian New Democratic Party ( NDP ) , but changed it to the right @-@ wing Reagan as he believed Broadbent would have been too obscure to his American readers . He later regretted the decision and said he could have included an explanation . The idea of a talking penis has appeared in a number of other comics , such as The Talking Head ( 1990 ) by Paolo Baciliero and Pete Sickman @-@ Garner 's Young Tim .

= = Analysis = =

Ed spans a range of Brown 's interests , from political skepticism to scatological humour to vampires and werewolves . The story is dark and surreal , desperate and humorous .

Christian elements especially — largely sacriligeous — are prominent in the book . They are at first innocuous and unimportant : a zombie named Christian , another character who believes he has found Christ 's face on a piece of adhesive tape . With the fourth issue of Yummy Fur , Brown 's surreal take on Christianity becomes central : the cover depicts the Virgin Mary holding not just the infant Christ , but also a severed hand . Within is the story of Saint Justin , whose amputation becomes a key motif : Chet loses his own hand and finds another ; his own appears mysteriously under Ed 's pillow . Only by praying for forgiveness for his adultery and by murdering his lover is Chet 's hand miraculously restored . According to the Lives of the Saints , the fictional Saint Justin severed his own hand , but in another version Brown presents , Justin 's wife cuts it off with a woodaxe when she catches her husband masturbating after rejecting her advances . The altered ending from 1992 has both Josie and Chet reunited in Hell , and the ghost of Chet 's sister becomes a devil . As Brown mixes surreal sacrilege with the sort of moralism that compels him to condemn Josie for her bloody revenge , Brian Evenson calls Brown " deft at muddying the waters in a way that makes it very hard to pin him down as either belieever or satirist , as either anti @-@ religionist or apologist " .

While not part of the Ed story , Brown had been serializing straight adaptations in Yummy Fur of the Gospels of Mark and of Matthew during most of Ed 's run . R. Fiore called these adaptations " the best exploration of Christian mythology since Justin Green 's Binky Brown " , comparing Chet 's excessive Christian guilt with the " almost childlike retelling " of Mark . Yummy Fur readers also found " I Live in the Bottomless Pit " , a short strip in which a man discovers the Antichrist , who after millennia underground has forgotten his mission — a paradoxical one , as he states his orders were from God .

Ed prominently features transgressive content including nudity , graphic violence , racist imagery , blasphemy , and profanity . Brown grew up in a strictly Baptist household in which he was not allowed to swear , as depicted in Brown 's graphic novel I Never Liked You ( 1994 ) . Brown challenged his own anxieties by tackling subjects such as scatological humour . Imagery such as the recurring Pygmy characters and their " ooga booga " language , Chris Lanier asserted , reinforce " old colonial imaging of ' third world natives ' " .

= = Style = =

According to comics historian John Bell , " Brown arrived in print almost fully formed as an artist " . His style , while showing the influence of artists such as Robert Crumb , Harold Gray , and Jack Kirby , was distinct from his predecessors . He continued to mature as an artist and draughtsman throughout the run of Ed , showing enormous growth from the beginning to end of the graphic novel .

Unlike most cartoonists , Brown does not compose his pages , but draws each panel on separate sheets of paper and assembles them into pages afterwards . The panels in Ed were on 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm × 13 cm ) squares of cheap typewriter paper , which he placed on a block of wood on his lap in lieu of a drawing board . He used a number of different drawing tools , including Rapidograph technical pens , markers , crowquill pens and ink brushes . He had some photocopies printed from his pencilled work , which he found both faster to produce and more spontaneous in feel .

Brown worked freely , without ruling lines or lettering . Usually he roughly sketched the artwork with a light blue pencil , then elaborated it with an HB pencil , at which stage he has said " most of the work [ was ] done " . Brown inked the pre @-@ Vortex stories with a brush ; when he committed himself to a regular schedule , he felt inking with a brush would be too slow , and switched to cheap markers or pencils to increase his productivity . He continued to use a brush to fill in blacks and to letter his dialogue balloons . Brown came to favour the quality of the brush again toward the end of the story 's run , but found it slow to work with and thus used it less than he would have preferred . By photocopying before sending the artwork to the printer , Brown could ensure that the copy printed from was sufficiently black .

While he occasionally scripted certain pages or scenes , more frequently he did not , and often wrote dialogue only after having drawn the artwork . Brown did not plan out the stories , though he might have certain ideas prepared . Some ideas he found carried him for up to two to three issues of Yummy Fur . Brown used of flashback scenes different perspectives to alter the story to his needs — for example , when Brown revisited the scene of Josie 's murder , he placed Ed behind a bush , linking the two characters ' fates . When he had originally done the murder scene , he says he did not " know that Ed was over in the bushes a couple feet away " .

Brown found himself dissatisfied with much of the work , and later abandoning about a hundred printed pages which he intends not to have reprinted . He found that the improvisational method did not work well with Underwater in the 1990s ; after cancelling that series he turned to carefully scripting out his stories , beginning with Louis Riel .

= = = Influences = = =

When Brown started Ed , he was largely influenced by the comics he had grown up with , especially monster stories from Marvel Comics such as Werewolf by Night and Frankenstein 's Monster by artists such as Mike Ploog , and from DC Comics such as Swamp Thing by artists such as Bernie Wrightson and Jim Aparo .

Since graduating from high school , Brown had been inching towards underground comix , starting with the work of Richard Corben and especially Moebius in Heavy Metal , and eventually getting over his disgust over Robert Crumb 's sex @-@ laden comics to become a huge fan of the Zap and Weirdo artist . He says the book that finally pulled him over into the underground was The Apex Treasury of Underground Comics , which included Crumb as well as Art Spiegelman 's original short " Maus " story . He was also affected by Will Eisner 's graphic novel , A Contract with God . Brown had already been an Eisner fan , but this book was different , " something that wasn 't about a character with a mask on his face " . He started drawing in a more underground style , and submitting work to Raw , Last Gasp and Fantagraphics . The work was rejected from these publishers for one reason or another , and Brown was eventually convinced by his friend Kris Nakamura , who was active in the Toronto small press scene , to take it and self @-@ publish it . His minicomic , Yummy Fur , was the result , and included the earliest instalments of the Ed the Happy Clown story .

The book also drew inspiration from pulp science fiction , religious literature and television clichés . Harold Gray 's comic strip Little Orphan Annie had an effect on Brown after he discovered some Annie reprint books in the early 1980s . This was to be a primary influence on later work of Brown 's such as Louis Riel .

= = Publication = =

The story began in July 1983 in the second issue of Brown 's original Yummy Fur minicomic , the seven issues of which were reprinted in 1986 – 87 in the first three issues of the Vortex Comics @-@ published Yummy Fur . Ed ran in the first eighteen issues of Yummy Fur , along other features , such as Brown 's Gospel adaptations . Brown envisioned Ed as an ongoing character in the vein of Marvel and DC comic @-@ book characters . In the late 1980s he came to feel restricted by the character ; inspired by the revealing autobiographical work of Julie Doucet and Joe Matt and the simple cartooning of fellow Toronto cartoonist Seth , Brown turned to autobiography .

While Ed was the main feature of Yummy Fur until Brown switched to autobiographical comics in 1990 , it was juxtaposed against straight adaptations of the gospels of Mark and Matthew , which filled up the rest of the Yummy Fur issues starting with issue # 4 .

In 2004 Brown set to work on a revised Ed ; he pencilled a number of pages , but stopped when he came to believe the new version was no better than the original . Drawn and Quarterly — Brown 's publisher since 1991 — reissued the contents of the Definitive Ed collection in a nine issue series on smaller @-@ sized pages from 2005 to 2006 titled Ed the Happy Clown , with new covers , previously unpublished art and extensive commentary by Brown . The contents came mainly from issues two through twelve , and some from issue seventeen . About 80 pages — a third of the original Ed material — remains uncollected , including the entire 24 @-@ page ending that appeared in issue eighteen .

The first collection , Ed the Happy Clown : A Yummy Fur Book , appeared in 1989 from Vortex Comics before Brown decided to end the story . It collects the Ed stories up to the twelfth issue of Yummy Fur and includes a cartoon foreword scripted by Harvey Pekar and drawn by Brown . It was this edition that in 1990 won Brown one of his two Harvey Awards , for Best Graphic Album , and a UK Comic Art Award the same year for Best Graphic Novel / Collection .

The second edition came from Vortex in 1992 , after Brown had taken Yummy Fur to Drawn and Quarterly . Bill Marks had it labelled The Definitive Ed Book for marketing reasons . The edition reprinted what was in the first edition with an altered ending and some material from Yummy Fur # 17 , and excluded most of the material in the series from after Chet 's death .

In June 2012 , Drawn and Quarterly published a third edition , Ed the Happy Clown : A Graphic @-@ Novel , reprinting the contents of the Ed series of a few years earlier , including somewhat modified endnotes and annotations . It had a new introduction by Brown , replacing those by Pekar and Solomos in the previous editions . Compared to those editions , it was printed on higher @-@ quality paper with higher contrast in the printing , and the artwork was reduced in size . Brown subtitled the book with a hyphen : " graphic @-@ novel " . This reflects Brown 's distaste yet reluctant acceptance of the term , as its usage had by then become widespread . Brian Evenson sees this as a Brown @-@ like eccentricity and a gesture emphasizing the equal importance Brown places on both word and image . The book was a bestseller .

The 2012 edition also included a ten @-@ page story called " The Door " , which Brown redrew from an anonymous public domain story from a horror comic book . In the story , a couple go through a door in a funhouse which leads through a passage in which they get lost for years . Their clothes disintegrate over that time , exposing their genitals , until they finally come across another door — one that leads them to Hell . Brown wrote he found the original story truly horrifying , as the couple had done nothing apparent to deserve their fate . He had originally intended to incorporate it into the Ed story , but capriciously veered off in another narrative direction .

The artwork appeared at its largest in the Vortex Yummy Fur issues ; it was somewhat smaller in the minicomics and first two collected editions . The artwork was smallest in the 2012 Drawn and Quarterly edition , a size Brown considered ideal , stating , " The smaller the better , as long as the words are still legible . " The 2012 edition also had wider page margins and gutters between the images .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Ed was seen by many critics a high point of the early alternative comics scene in the 1980s , echoes of which can be seen in such later surrealistic graphics novels as Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron by Daniel Clowes and Black Hole by Charles Burns . The story won praise from The Comics Journal and mainstream publications such as The Village Voice and Rolling Stone , which placed Ed on an early @-@ 1990s " Hot " list . Time placed Ed at seventh on its list of " All Time Top Ten Graphic Novels " , while publisher and critic Kim Thompson placed Ed 27th on his top 100 comics of the 20th Century , and editor and critic Tom Spurgeon called Ed " one of the three best alt @-@ comix serials of all time " . The book appeared in Gene Kannenberg 's 500 Essential Graphic Novels ( 2008 ) .

Ed had a large impact on a number of Brown 's contemporaries , including fellow Canadians Dave Sim and Seth , the latter of whom was taken in by the ambitiousness of Brown 's storytelling , saying " Those brilliant sequences where he would show a situation and then return to it later from a different perspective , like the death of Josie , really blew me away " — and Dave Cooper , who called Ed " the most perfect book ever " . Others who cite Ed as an influence on their work include Daniel Clowes , Chris Ware , Craig Thompson , Matt Madden , Eric Reynolds and the Canadian cartoonists Alex Fellows , whose Canvas shows the influence of Ed , and Bryan Lee O 'Malley , who calls Brown " a Golden God " and whose Lost at Sea was heavily influenced by Ed . Anders Nilsen calls Ed " completely amazing and one of the best comics ever " , placing it in his top five comic books , and citing it as a major influence on his spontaneous Big Questions .

Critic Chris Lanier placed Ed in a tradition that included Like a Velvet Glove Cast in Iron , Max Andersson 's Pixy , and Eric Drooker 's Flood ! ; he wrote that symbols appear with such frequency and importance in these works as to suggest significance , while remaining symbolically empty . He finds predecessors for these works in German Dada and the Theatre of the Absurd . Reviewer Brad McKay found Ed " both hopeless and funny , a trick moviemakers like Tim Burton and Todd Solondz wish they could pull off more regularly " .

D. Aviva Rothschild likened the story to " staring at six @-@ day @-@ old roadkill " . Brown 's father was too offended to keep reading after the fifth minicomic issue , " Ed and the Beanstalk " .

In Yummy Fur # 4 , there was a scene in which a fictional " Saint Justin " masturbates after putting off his wife 's advances . In one panel " Saint Justin " had just ejaculated all over his hand , his penis in full view and his semen @-@ covered hand clearly visible behind it . Vortex publisher Bill Marks had the panel covered up with another illustration after discussing it with Brown . Brown agreed to this censorship , but was " annoyed " by it . Marks later called it a mistake that he would not make again , and when Brown included a scene in the following issue of the Ronald Reagan penishead vomiting Marks made no objection , and all future collections of Ed have the original uncensored panel . The censored portion of the panel was covered with a note delivered by a rabbit that Brown often used as a surrogate self ; the message read :

" Sorry folks but this picture of a penis ejaculating onto a hand has been censored . If any of you want to see this page as I originally drew it send me a self addressed envelope ( and an age statement ) care of Vortex Comics and I 'll send you a photocopy . "

Brown has said that perhaps 100 to 200 readers sent requests for the uncensored panel .

In stores , Yummy Fur was often wrapped in plastic with " adults only " labels on it . It is not known if Ed or Yummy Fur were banned from any stores , but Diamond , the largest American comics distributor , stopped carrying it for a time in 1988 . A publisher discovered that boxes of its feminist publication were lined with discarded pages of Yummy Fur , included pages in which Chet stabs Josie while having sex with her . The publisher lodged a complaint with the Ontario @-@ based printer , which informed Vortex it would no longer handle Yummy Fur . The third issue of the Drawn and Quarterly Ed series was seized at the Canadian border , but was later deemed admissible .

Critic R. Fiore initially found the 1992 ending disappointing , but changed his mind 2012 , saying the sad ending gave Ed " an emotional punch that it wouldn 't otherwise have " . Cartoonists such as Craig Thompson at first found the story off @-@ putting , but later came to admire it . Critic Douglas Wolk wrote that it is not surprising that Brown had not settled on one conclusion to the story , as that " would mean some kind of narrative closure " , while Ed 's premise is that " everything makes sense as a big picture eventually , but nothing can be relied on from moment to moment " .

In 2014 , Uncivilized Books published Ed Vs . Yummy Fur Brian Evenson . The book details the differences between the various versions of the Ed narrative .

= = = Awards = = =

= = Other media = =

Canadian filmmaker Bruce McDonald has had the rights since 1991 to adapt Ed to film , for which he has planned to use Yummy Fur as the title . Such a film could use stop @-@ motion animation , but the project has yet to get off the ground . At one point McDonald hoped to have Macaulay Culkin star as Ed , Rip Torn as Ronald Reagan and Drew Barrymore as Nancy Reagan . In 2000 , it was reported that the movie would have a budget of $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , but it was unable to get the financial backing . A script was written by Don McKellar , and later with John Frizzell .

The City of Toronto commissioned Brown to do as part of their Live with Culture campaign ; the strip in Now magazine for six weeks in 2007 . In one episode a zombie and his human girlfriend attend a screening of McDonald 's still @-@ unmade adaptation of Ed . The same year , McDonald placed Brown 's graphic novel in scenes in his film The Tracey Fragments .

= = = = Books = = = =

= = = = Journals and magazines = = = =

= = = = Other sources = = = =

= Lilioid monocots =

Lilioid monocots ( lilioids , liliid monocots , petaloid monocots , petaloid lilioid monocots ) is an informal name used for a grade ( grouping of taxa with common characteristics ) of five monocot orders ( Petrosaviales , Dioscoreales , Pandanales , Liliales and Asparagales ) in which the majority of species have flowers with relatively large , coloured tepals . This characteristic is similar to that found in lilies ( " lily @-@ like " ) . Petaloid monocots refers to the flowers having tepals which all resemble petals ( petaloid ) . The taxonomic terms Lilianae or Liliiflorae have also been applied to this assemblage at various times . From the early nineteenth century many of the species in this group of plants were put into a very broadly defined family , Liliaceae sensu lato or s.l. ( lily family ) . These classification systems are still found in many books and other sources . Within the monocots the Liliaceae s.l. were distinguished from the Glumaceae .

The development of molecular phylogenetics , cladistic theory and phylogenetic methods in the 1990s resulted in a dismemberment of the Liliaceae and its subsequent redistribution across three lilioid orders ( Liliales , Asparagales and Dioscoreales ) . Subsequent work has shown that two other more recently recognized orders , Petrosaviales and Pandanales also segregate with this group , resulting in the modern concept of five constituent orders within the lilioid monocot assemblage . This has resulted in treating monocots as three informal groups , alismatid , lilioid and commelinid monocots . The lilioids are paraphyletic in the sense that commelinids form a sister group to Asparagales .

= = Description = =

= = = True lilioids = = =

The descriptive term " petaloid lilioid monocot " relates to the conspicuous petal @-@ like ( petaloid ) tepals which superficially resemble true lilies ( Lilium ) . Morphologically , the petaloid or lilioid monocots can be considered to possess five groups ( pentacyclic ) of three @-@ fold ( trimerous ) whorls . Lilioid monocots all have flowers which can be considered to have been derived from a lily @-@ like flower with six relatively similar tepals , and six stamens . The typical lilioid gynoecium has three carpels fused into a superior trilocular ( three @-@ chambered ) superior ovary , axile placentation , a single hollow style , and several ovules with anatropous orientation in one or two rows per locule and nectaries at the base .

However , floral synapomorphy ( shared characteristics ) is rare since most conform to the general monocot pattern . This pattern is ancestral ( plesiomorphic ) for the lilioid monocots . Structural monosymmetry is rare , except for Orchidaceae .

Various trends are apparent among the lilioids , notably a change to an inferior ovary and a reduction of the number of stamens to three . In some groups ( such as the genus Trillium in the Liliaceae ) , the tepals have become clearly differentiated , so that the flower has three coloured petals and three smaller green sepals . Almost all lilioid monocots retain at least three petal @-@ like tepals . Since some commelinids ( e.g. Tradescantia ) have petaloid flowers , the term ' lilioid ' is a more accurate one for the group which excludes them , since the term petaloid monocot is still occasionally used in describing commelinids . The morphological concept of petaloid monocots has been equated with " animal @-@ attracting " ( that is , for pollination ) as opposed to wind @-@ pollinating plants ( such as grasses ) that have evolved very different floral structures . Pollen structure shows that of the two main tapetum types , secretory and plasmodial , the lilioid monocots are nearly all secretory .

= = = Comparison with other monocot orders = = =

In the orders that branched off before the lilioid monocots , the Acorales and Alismatales , flowers differ in several ways . In some cases , like Acorus ( Acorales ) , they have become insignificant . In others , like Butomus ( Alismatales ) , they have six coloured tepals , and so could be called ' petaloid ' , but stamens and carpels are more numerous than in the lilioid monocots .

The later evolved commelinids have various kinds of flower , few of which are ' lily @-@ like ' . In the order Poales , comprising grasses , rushes and sedges , flowers are either petal @-@ less or have small , unshowy petals . Many Zingiberales species have brightly coloured and showy flowers . However , their apparent structure is misleading . For example , the six tepals of cannas are small and hidden under expanded and brightly coloured stamens or staminodes which resemble petals and may be mistaken for them .

= = History = =

= = = Morphological definitions = = =

In one of the earliest monocot taxonomies , that of John Lindley ( 1830 ) , the grouping corresponding to the lilioid monocots was the " tribe " Petaloideae . In Lindley 's system the monocots consisted of two tribes , the Petaloideae , and the Glumaceae ( the grasses and sedges ) . Lindley divided the Petaloideae into 32 " orders " ( roughly corresponding to families ) and the Glumaceae into two further orders . Various successive taxonomies of the monocots also emphasized the grouping of species with petaloid ( undifferentiated ) perianths , such as Bentham and Hooker 's Coronarieæ and Hutchinson 's Corolliferae ( " Corolla bearing " ) ( 1936 ) . Hence the concept that there was a natural grouping of monocots whose flowers were predominantly petaloid , gave notion to the term " petaloid monocots " . The core group of petaloids were the Liliaceae , hence " lilioid monocots " .

The term " lilioid monocot " or lilioid " has had widely varying interpretations . One of the narrower applications is " lily @-@ like " monocots , meaning the two orders Asparagales and Liliales , but the term has also been applied to Takhtajan 's superorder Lilianae , the whole of Liliales , or restricted to Cronquist 's broadly defined Liliaceae . Although " petaloid " and " lilioid " have often been used interchangeably , as Heywood points out , some usages of " petaloid monocot " , particularly in horticulture , are so broad as to be almost meaningless in that it had been used to refer to all species with conspicuous petals or perianth segments ( tepals ) , which would cover a broad swathe of families ( he estimated three dozen across many orders ) . Other authors have defined it equally broadly as " having two whorls of tepals ( sepals and petals ) that are petal @-@ like " .

As Kron and Chase stated in 1995 , this taxonomic unit had been in a considerable state of flux , with significant variation between the systems of Cronquist ( 1981 ) , Thorne ( 1983 , 1992 ) , and Dahlgren ( 1985 ) . When classification systems were based on morphological characters alone , lilioid species which clearly departed from the " lily " pattern were easily placed into separate families . For example , the Amaryllidaceae contained species whose flowers had six stamens and an inferior ovary . The Iridaceae contained those with three stamens and an inferior ovary . The remaining taxa were put together in a very broadly defined Liliaceae , usually refereed to as Liliaceae sensu lato ( s.l. ) . The Cronquist system 's definition , for example , is the broadest of all . Rolf Dahlgren and colleagues were responsible for one of the most radical reorganisation of families , and in their 1985 monocot monograph defined the two orders ( Asparagales and Liliales ) which contain the bulk of monocot geophytes , as constituting the lilioid monocots .

The development of DNA sequencing and the use of genetic data in determining relationships between species of monocots confirmed what many taxonomists had long suspected : Liliaceae s.l. was highly polyphyletic . The family was demonstrated to include a significant number of unrelated groups , which belonged to quite separate families and even orders . For instance some genera such as Hyacinthus , previously placed in Liliaceae s.l. , were reclassified in families within Asparagales ( in this case Asparagaceae ) . In 1995 Chase et al. reviewed the understanding of the lilioids and equated them to Dahlgreen 's Liliiflorae , which they designated as superorder Lilianae . They pointed out that the understanding of the phylogenetics of this group was critical for the establishment of a monocot classification . They also noted that while many authors treated this group as monophyletic ( having a common ancestor ) , a closer reading of their texts revealed evidence of paraphyly ( excluding some descendants of a common ancestor ) . For instance , Dahlgren had based monophyly on a single synapomorphy , that of a petaloid perianth , yet in discussing his Lilliflorae admitted it was undoubtedly paraphyletic . Dahlgren treated the monocots as split between ten superorders and placed five orders ( Dioscoreales , Asparagales , Liliales , Melanthiales , Burmanniales and Orchidales ) in his Liliiflorae .

= = = Phylogenetic era = = =

In the 1995 study by Chase et al. referred to above , which was the largest yet to use purely molecular data , the results demonstrated paraphyly of the lilioids . However , because their data contradicted purely morphological phylogenies they were reluctant to draw definite conclusions as to the monophyly of this group . They identified four major clades of monocots . They named these alismatids , aroids , stemonoids and dioscoreoids , in addition to Acorus , and a core group of Asparagales , Liliales and commelinoids . They based the names of these groups on the closest corresponding superorders and orders of Dahlgren , with the exception of stemonoids ( based on Stemonaceae for which there was no obvious equivalent ) .

There was no clear clade corresponding to Dahlgren 's Liliiflorae , whose families were distributed amongst the aroids and dioscoreoids . Of Dahlgren 's Liliiflorae , the Dioscoreales largely grouped into dioscoreoids , with the exception of Stemonaceae . The Asparagales formed two major groupings , which they labelled " higher " and " lower asparagoids " , and included both the Iridaceae and Orchidaceae from Dahlgren 's Liliales . On the other hand , a number of families from three other orders ( Asparagales , Dioscoreales , Melanthiales ) segregated together with the remaining Liliales families . Genera from Dahlgren 's Melanthiales were found in both dioscoreoids and the redefined Liliales . Finally Dahlgren 's Burmanniales were found to belong with the dioscoreoids . Some Asparagales taxa were also found amongst the commelinoids . The stemonoids were formed from Stemonaceae and other families from a variety of orders , including Pandanaceae ( which alone formed Dahlgren 's Pandaniflorae ) .

In an attempt to resolve the apparent differences between morphological and molecularly defined trees , a combined analysis was undertaken which confirmed superorder Liliiflorae as monophyletic , provided that a few modifications were undertaken . These included the removal of two tribes of Melanthiaceae ( Melanthiales ) and the inclusion of three additional families ( Cyclanthaceae , Pandanaceae and Velloziaceae ) from other superorders . This newly and more narrowly redefined Lilianae / Liliiflorae contained three orders , Aparagales , Liliales and Dioscoreales ( which now included the stemonoids ) . This analysis also allowed for the establishment of a single synapomorphy , although this time by the presence of an inferior ovary . Significantly , the authors noted that it was no wonder the authors of angiosperm classifications had been exasperated by the Lilianae .

= = = Angiosperm Phylogeny Group = = =

These findings , presented at the first Monocot Conference in 1993 , with the addition of several studies that had become available in the interim , formed the basis of the 1998 consensus Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ( APG ) ordinal scheme . Among other things , the Alismatales were expanded and new orders such as Acorales ( a placement for Acorus ) and Pandanales ( which now represented the stemonoids as well as new families ) added . While not formally assigning any supraordinal ranks , the classification did recognize an informal grouping of monocot orders as the commelinoids . Otherwise the APG recognized only six monocot orders ( Acorales , Alismatales , Asparagales , Dioscoreales , Liliales and Pandanales ) . The last four were however grouped together in the resulting cladogram and most closely represent the concept of lilioids , although this left some unplaced monocot families , including Corsiaceae and Petrosaviaceae .

Simultaneous with the release of the 1998 APG classification were two events : the publication of Kubitzki 's major monograph on the monocots and the Second Monocot Conference . Kubitzki defined superorder Lilianae as all monocots except superorders Commelinae , Alismatanae and the Acoraceae , that is the four orders Asparagales , Liliales , Dioscoreales and Pandanales . The Monocot Conference devoted an entire section to Systematics of the Lilioids and included an update of their previous research by Chase and colleagues . On this occasion the latter felt that there was now enough data to put forward a definitive classification , defining the Lilioids as comprising the four orders placed in Lilianae by Kubitzki . Rudall and colleagues ( 2002 ) followed Chase ( 2000 ) , in using the term " lilioid monocots " and again noting unresolved polytomy between these four orders and the remaining monocot clades ( commelinids and Petrosaviaceae ) , although at that time the Petrosaviaceae were still unplaced .

There was now enough new data to justify revising the APG system , and a new classification was issued in 2003 . Although this resulted in changes within the orders , it did not affect the relationship between them . Lilioid monocots were discussed but not formally recognized ( commelinids , renamed from commelinoids , being the only supraordinal grouping in the monocots to be named ) and Petrosaviaceae remained unplaced . The second version of the APG coincided with the third Monocot Conference ( 2003 ) , the findings from which , using additional molecular markers , helped to resolve some of the remaining questions regarding relationships within this assemblage . Petrosaviaceae was shown to be included in what Chase refers to as " liliids " and placed in order Petrosaviales , while Dioscoreales and Pandanales were demonstrated to be sister clades . Rapid advances in understanding monocot relationships necessitated the release of another revision of the APG classification ( 2009 ) , which incorporated these advances . Further definition of the relationships between lineages using multiple markers is continuing .

Textbooks and other sources produced in the last century are inevitably based on older classifications . Publications using versions of the APG system are now appearing and the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families from the Royal Botanic Gardens , Kew now uses the APG III system , as does the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website and hence the classification of the lilioid monocots shown in the cladogram below . The Kew botanists treat the monocots as falling into three major groupings : alismatid monocots ( Acorales , Alismatales ) , lilioid monocots ( the five other non @-@ commelinid monocots ) and commelinid monocots . They also organize their monocot research into two teams I : Alismatids and Lilioids and II : Commelinids . A similar approach is taken by Judd in his Plant systematics .

= = Phylogeny and evolution = =

The cladogram shown below displays the orders of Lilianae sensu Chase & Reveal ( monocots ) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence . Lilioid monocot orders are bracketed , namely Petrosaviales , Dioscoreales , Pandanales , Liliales and Asparagales . These constitute a paraphyletic assemblage , that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants ( in this case commelinids which are a sister group to Asparagales ) ; to form a clade , all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included . While Acorales and Alismatales have been collectively referred to as " alismatid monocots " , the remaining clades ( lilioid and commelinid monocots ) have been referred to as the " core monocots " . The relationship between the orders ( with the exception of the two sister orders ) is pectinate , that is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids . Numbers indicate crown group ( most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest ) divergence times in mya ( million years ago ) .

While this is the most commonly understood relationship , Davis et al . ( 2013 ) using a combination of plastid genomes have suggested that if Asparagales is treated sensu stricto by excluding its largest and most atypical family , Orchidaceae then Aparagales sensu APG may not be monophyletic and that Orchidaceae and Liliales may be sister groups , and in turn are the sister of Asparagales . However , their data produced conflicting models . Zeng et al . ( 2014 ) using nuclear genes also found evidence for a sister relationship between Asparagales and Liliales . Although divergence time estimates within the lilioids have varied considerably , they were also able to obtain molecular clock estimates for the origin of the lilioids at approximately 125 mya ( Cretaceous period ) . On the other hand , a large data set using a combined analysis of nuclear , mitochondrial and plastid genes together with nuclear phytochrome C was in agreement with the earlier APG relationships .

= = Subdivision = =

Five orders make up the lilioid monocots .

Petrosaviales Takht . ( 1997 )

Dioscoreales R.Br. ( 1835 )

Pandanales R.Br. ex Bercht . & J.Presl ( 1820 )

Liliales Perleb ( 1826 )

Asparagales Link 1829

= Nunney Castle =

Nunney Castle is a medieval castle at Nunney in the English county of Somerset . Built in the late 14th century by Sir John Delamare on the profits of his involvement in the Hundred Years War , the moated castle 's architectural style , possibly influenced by the design of French castles , has provoked considerable academic debate . Remodelled during the late 16th century , Nunney Castle was damaged during the English Civil War and is now ruined . English Heritage maintain the site as a tourist attraction . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner has described Nunney as " aesthetically the most impressive castle in Somerset . "

= = History = =

= = = 14th century = = =

Nunney Castle was built near the village of Nunney in Somerset by Sir John Delamare . Delamare had been a soldier during the Hundred Years War with France , where he had made his fortune . He obtained a licence to crenellate from Edward III to build a castle on the site of his existing , unfortified manor house in 1373 and set about developing a new , substantial fortification .

The resulting castle centred on a stone tower @-@ keep , measuring 60 feet by 24 feet ( 18 m by 7 m ) internally and 54 feet ( 16 m ) tall , with four round corner @-@ towers . The tower @-@ keep had eight @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) thick walls made from Lias Oolite ashlar stone and was designed around three floors . The corner towers had conical roofs and prominent machicolations . The ground floor of the tower @-@ house included the kitchen and other service areas . The functions of the first and second floors are uncertain ; one theory is that the first floor was another service area , with the hall on the second floor ; another approach argues that the first floor formed the hall , and the second floor living accommodation ; a minority view proposes that the first floor was an armoury . The third floor was used as living accommodation for the owning family . The original design had a number of windows and fireplaces on the upper floors , but the hall would have been relatively dark and the stairs were inconveniently narrow .

The tower @-@ keep had a modest entrance , which was reached by a draw @-@ bridge that lay across the surrounding moat , which initially reached right up to the base of the castle . A simple , 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) high bailey wall , with minimal defensive value , surrounded the moat , which was in contrast wide , 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) deep , and would have been difficult for an attacker to drain . On the east side of the castle Nunney Brook was used as a line of defence rather than a bailey wall .

Historians , such as Adrian Pettifer and Stuart Rigold , previously believed that the design of Nunney was heavily influenced by the French castle designs that Delamare would have seen on his military campaigns . Nunney closely resembles the Bastille in Paris , for example , and the machicolations are typical of those found in French castles . Nunney was considered a conservative , even slightly backward design and probably built to protect against French invasion . Historians such as Robert Liddiard and Matthew Johnson are now less certain . Nunney is regarded as a bold , striking design , similar in many ways to those at Herstmonceux or Saltwood Castle . Whilst Nunney does resemble many French castles , there is no direct evidence that it was built in imitation of these designs , and indeed there are other English castles , such as Mulgrave and Dudley , that have a similar structure to Nunney 's . Nunney Castle may be better understood instead as characteristic of a wider range of tower @-@ keeps built in England during the period , designed , as Nigel Pounds puts it , " to allow very rich men to live in luxury and splendour . "

= = = 15th - 16th centuries = = =

Nunney Castle was inherited by John 's son , Philip Delamere , and grandson , Elias , before passing by marriage into the Poulet family following Elias ' probable death during Henry V 's campaigns in France . Sir John Poulet and his son John , and grandson , also called John , held the castle during most of the 15th century , but their primary residence was Basing Castle in Hampshire rather than Nunney . William Paulet , the Marquess of Winchester , was the final member of the family to own the castle ; after his death in 1572 it passed rapidly through several owners and in 1577 was sold by Swithun Thorpe to John Parker , who only kept it for a year before selling it to Richard Prater , at a cost of £ 2 @,@ 000 . The castle was redeveloped in the second half of the 16th century , probably by the Praters : the windows were enlarged to let in more light ; a grand staircase was built in one of the towers ; a Catholic altar was installed , and a revetment , or terrace , was built around the inside of the moat , leaving it 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide .

= = = 17th - 19th centuries = = =

Nunney Castle continued to be owned by the Roman Catholic Prater family into the 17th century . In 1642 the English Civil War broke out between the rival factions of Parliament and the king ; like many Catholics , Colonel Richard Prater supported Charles I. As the war progressed the Royalist situation deteriorated , however , and the south @-@ west became one of the few remaining Royalist strongholds ; Nunney Castle was garrisoned in anticipation of Parliamentary attack and took in a number of refugees , including many Catholics . In September 1645 a Parliamentary army under the command of Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell advanced into Somerset , taking Sherborne , Cary and Shepton Mallet before turning to Nunney . Two regiments of soldiers with cannons surrounded the castle on 18 September ; when Richard Prater refused to surrender , the cannons opened fire on the north side of the castle , breaching the castle wall . Richard continued to resist , hoisting a flag with a Catholic crucifix on it above the castle to taunt the besiegers , but two days later the garrison surrendered .

Due to the damage caused by the cannon , the castle escaped the slighting , or deliberate damaging , that occurred to many other castles at the end of the civil war . Nonetheless , Richard Prater was forbidden to return to the castle , despite his promises to support Parliament , and his son , George Prater , only recovered Nunney from its interim owners after Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 . The castle declined and was sold by the Praters to William Whitchurch around 1700 . During the 18th century the building was still in a reasonable condition and in 1789 an order was received make it ready to receive French prisoners , although it is unlikely they ever arrived .

= = = 20th - 21st centuries = = =

By the 20th century , Nunney Castle was increasingly ruined and covered in thick ivy . As a result , on 25 December 1910 a portion of the damaged north wall entirely collapsed — most of the fallen stone was stolen by local people . In 1926 , with the fabric of the castle under threat , the owner , Robert Bailey @-@ Neale , transferred the property to the Commissioner of Works , who began a programme of restoration work . The castle is now run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction and is a scheduled monument . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner has described the castle as " aesthetically the most impressive castle in Somerset . "

= John Newham =

Air Marshal John William " Jake " Newham , AC ( born 30 November 1930 ) is a retired senior commander of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) from 1985 until 1987 . Joining the RAAF in 1951 , he flew Gloster Meteor jets with No. 77 Squadron in the Korean War in 1953 , and subsequently de Havilland Vampires with No. 78 Wing on garrison duty in Malta . From 1958 to 1960 , he served with No. 3 Squadron , operating CAC Sabres during the Malayan Emergency . He took charge of No. 3 Squadron in 1967 , when it re @-@ equipped with the Dassault Mirage III supersonic fighter . His commands in the early 1970s included the Aircraft Research and Development Unit , RAAF Base Laverton , and No. 82 Wing , the last @-@ mentioned during its first years operating the long @-@ delayed General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber . He was appointed Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in March 1984 , and CAS in May the following year . His tenure as CAS coincided with the release of the Dibb Report on Australia 's defence capabilities , and the controversial transfer of the RAAF 's battlefield helicopters to the Australian Army . Newham retired from the Air Force in July 1987 and became a company director .

= = Early career = =

John William Newham , known as " Jake " , was born in Cowra , New South Wales , and educated at Cowra High School . After matriculating , he worked as a clerk in the Commonwealth Bank , and joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in February 1951 . He underwent flying training at RAAF Base Point Cook , Victoria , and graduated as a sergeant pilot in July 1952 . Following fighter training , he saw operational service in the Korean War , flying Gloster Meteor jets with No. 77 Squadron from February to September 1953 . He later recalled that his first sortie was as wingman to a Royal Air Force flight lieutenant : " We flew up past P 'yongyang and he showed me enemy gun locations by arranging for them to shoot at us " .

Having been commissioned as a pilot officer midway through his Korean service , Newham 's next posting was with No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing on Malta , where he flew de Havilland Vampires until 1955 . The wing had been on garrison duty in Malta since July 1952 , and Newham was one of five Korean War veterans who replaced pilots posted back to Australia . He married Jo Cranston in 1956 ; the couple had two daughters and a son . By November 1957 , Newham had been promoted to flight lieutenant and was undergoing conversion training on the CAC Sabre . From 1958 to 1960 he served in Malaya with No. 3 Squadron , whose Sabres conducted operations against communist guerrillas in the final years of the Malayan Emergency .

= = Rise to senior command = =

Newham attended RAAF Staff College , Canberra , from January to December 1964 . He then served as Chief Flying Instructor at No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , taking temporary command of the unit as a squadron leader from July 1965 to April 1966 . That August , he commenced conversion training on the Dassault Mirage III supersonic jet fighter . Promoted to wing commander , from July 1967 to October 1968 he led No. 3 Squadron at Williamtown as it re @-@ equipped with the Mirage . In 1971 , Newham was appointed commanding officer of the Aircraft Research and Development Unit . The following year he became Officer Commanding RAAF Base Laverton , Victoria .

By now a group captain , Newham was appointed Officer Commanding No. 82 Wing at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , in 1973 . He formed the RAAF Washington Flying Unit at McClellan Air Force Base , California , on 31 March to ferry the first twelve ( out of a total order of twenty @-@ four ) General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bombers to Australia . On 1 June , Newham led the first three F @-@ 111s in to land at Amberley , a gala occasion attended by the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence , Lance Barnard , the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Charles Read , the Air Officer Commanding Operational Command , Air Vice Marshal Brian Eaton , and a large media contingent . Newham later recalled that " our air force cred went up in the area and in the world with that aeroplane " . Read ordered Newham to operate the F @-@ 111 with great caution initially , well within limits , lest the long @-@ delayed and controversial aircraft suffer greater damage to its reputation through early attrition . Despite Newham 's protests over the plane 's capabilities , the restrictions remained in place until 1975 . That year he was appointed Staff Officer Operations at Headquarters Operational Command ( OPCOM ) .

= = Senior command and later life = =

Newham was promoted air commodore in 1976 and became Senior Air Staff Officer at OPCOM , serving through the following year . In 1978 he attended the Royal College of Defence Studies , London , and was made Director General of Operational Requirements in 1979 . In this capacity he visited Israel to investigate air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling operations , coming away favourably impressed : " the Israelis had more match practice than anybody around at the time . The experience gave me confidence in operational judgments . " He was promoted air vice marshal and appointed Chief of Air Force Operations in March 1980 , effective from April , and served on the Chief of the Air Staff Advisory Committee . In 1982 he was posted to the United States as the Head of Australian Defence Staff in Washington , D.C. Returning to Australia , Newham became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in March 1984 . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia on 11 June for services to the RAAF .

Promoted to air marshal , Newham became Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) on 21 May 1985 , succeeding Air Marshal David Evans . Newham initially endorsed the Federal government 's 1986 Review of Australia 's Defence Capabilities , otherwise known as the Dibb Report , but shortly afterwards publicly criticised its " understanding of the application of air power " and " debatable judgments " , especially its lukewarm attitude to the employment of the F @-@ 111s for strategic strike . At a conference the same year , he reiterated the RAAF 's position that " defensive action may prevent defeat , but wars can be won only by offensive action " . On 9 June , he was raised to Companion of the Order of Australia for service to the RAAF , " particularly as Chief of the Air Staff " . Newham 's term as CAS was also marked by the Federal government 's decision to transfer the RAAF 's battlefield helicopters to the Australian Army , against the recommendation of an independent committee . According to Air Force historians Alan Stephens and Keith Isaacs , " Newham protected the best interests of the Australian Defence Force by getting on with the business of effecting the transfer , notwithstanding the deep disappointment within his own service . In February 1987 , OPCOM ( subsequently Air Command ) was restructured into Force Element Groups ( FEGs ) , large functional organisations that supplanted the earlier concept of all @-@ powerful air base commands , to which every unit on a base reported . Initially established on a one @-@ year trial basis , the FEGs have remained in place .

Newham completed his tenure as CAS on 3 July 1987 and was succeeded by Air Marshal Ray Funnell . Retiring from the Air Force , he became Director of Helitech Industries . On 23 July 1998 , he was among those present when the Korean Ambassador to Australia awarded his government 's Presidential Unit Citation to No. 77 Squadron . Newham was one of ten surviving veterans of the squadron belatedly presented with the US Air Medal in Canberra on 27 June 2011 , for meritorious service in the Korean War .

= Parasaurolophus =

Parasaurolophus ( / ˌpærəsɔːˈrɒləfəs / PARR @-@ ə @-@ saw @-@ ROL @-@ ə @-@ fəs or / ˌpærəˌsɔːrəˈloʊfəs / PARR @-@ ə- SAWR @-@ ə @-@ LOH @-@ fəs ; meaning " near crested lizard " in reference to Saurolophus ) is a genus of ornithopod dinosaur that lived in what is now North America during the Late Cretaceous Period , about 76 @.@ 5 – 74 @.@ 5 million years ago . It was a herbivore that walked both as a biped and a quadruped . Three species are recognized : P. walkeri ( the type species ) , P. tubicen , and the short @-@ crested P. cyrtocristatus . Remains are known from Alberta ( Canada ) , and New Mexico and Utah ( USA ) . The genus was first described in 1922 by William Parks from a skull and partial skeleton found in Alberta .

Parasaurolophus was a hadrosaurid , part of a diverse family of Cretaceous dinosaurs known for their range of bizarre head adornments . This genus is known for its large , elaborate cranial crest , which at its largest forms a long curved tube projecting upwards and back from the skull . Charonosaurus from China , which may have been its closest relative , had a similar skull and potentially a similar crest . Visual recognition of both species and sex , acoustic resonance , and thermoregulation have been proposed as functional explanations for the crest . It is one of the rarer hadrosaurids , known from only a handful of good specimens .

= = Description = =

Like most dinosaurs , the skeleton of Parasaurolophus is incompletely known . The length of the type specimen of P. walkeri is estimated at 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft ) , and its weight is estimated at 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) . Its skull is about 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 ft 3 in ) long , including the crest , whereas the type skull of P. tubicen is over 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) long , indicating a larger animal . Its single known forelimb was relatively short for a hadrosaurid , with a short but wide shoulder blade . The thighbone measures 103 cm ( 41 in ) long in P. walkeri and is robust for its length when compared to other hadrosaurids . The upper arm and pelvic bones were also heavily built .

Like other hadrosaurids , it was able to walk on either two legs or four . It probably preferred to forage for food on four legs , but ran on two . The neural spines of the vertebrae were tall , as was common in lambeosaurines ; tallest over the hips , they increased the height of the back . Skin impressions are known for P. walkeri , showing uniform tubercle @-@ like scales but no larger structures .

= = = Skull = = =

The most noticeable feature was the cranial crest , which protruded from the rear of the head and was made up of the premaxilla and nasal bones . William Parks , who named the genus , hypothesized that a ligament ran from the crest to the notch to support the head , and cited the presence of possibly pathological notch as evidence . Although this idea seems unlikely , Parasaurolophus is sometimes restored with a skin flap from the crest to the neck . The crest was hollow , with distinct tubes leading from each nostril to the end of the crest before reversing direction and heading back down the crest and into the skull . The tubes were simplest in P. walkeri , and more complex in P. tubicen , where some tubes were blind and others met and separated . While P. walkeri and P. tubicen had long crests with only slight curvature , P. cyrtocristatus had a short crest with a more circular profile .

= = Classification = =

As its name implies , Parasaurolophus was initially thought to be closely related to Saurolophus because of its superficially similar crest . However , it was soon reassessed as a member of the lambeosaurine subfamily of hadrosaurids — Saurolophus is an hadrosaurine . It is usually interpreted as a separate offshoot of the lambeosaurines , distinct from the helmet @-@ crested Corythosaurus , Hypacrosaurus , and Lambeosaurus . Its closest known relative appears to be Charonosaurus , a lambeosaurine with a similar skull ( but no complete crest yet ) from the Amur region of northeastern China , and the two may form a clade Parasaurolophini . P. cyrtocristatus , with its short , rounder crest , may be the most basal of the three known Parasaurolophus species , or it may represent subadult or female specimens of P. tubicen .

The following cladogram is after the 2007 redescription of Lambeosaurus magnicristatus ( Evans and Reisz , 2007 ) :

= = Discovery and naming = =

Meaning " near crested lizard " , the name Parasaurolophus is derived from the Greek para / παρα " beside " or " near " , saurus / σαυρος " lizard " and lophos / λοφος " crest " . It is based on ROM 768 , a skull and partial skeleton missing most of the tail and the hind legs below the knees , which was found by a field party from the University of Toronto in 1920 near Sand Creek along the Red Deer River in Alberta , Canada . These rocks are now known as the Campanian @-@ age Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation . William Parks named the specimen P. walkeri in honor of Sir Byron Edmund Walker , Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Royal Ontario Museum . Parasaurolophus remains are rare in Alberta , with only one other partial skull from ( probably ) the Dinosaur Park Formation , and three Dinosaur Park specimens lacking skulls , possibly belonging to the genus . In some faunal lists , there is a mention of possible P. walkeri material in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana , a rock unit of late Maastrichtian age . This occurrence is not noted by Sullivan and Williamson in their 1999 review of the genus , and has not been further elaborated upon elsewhere . It is possible that the fossil specimen could be an undescribed lambeosaurine .

In 1921 , Charles H. Sternberg recovered a partial skull ( PMU.R1250 ) from what is now known as the slightly younger Kirtland Formation in San Juan County , New Mexico . This specimen was sent to Uppsala , Sweden , where Carl Wiman described it as a second species , P. tubicen , in 1931 . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin tǔbǐcěn " trumpeter " . A second , nearly complete P. tubicen skull ( NMMNH P @-@ 25100 ) was found in New Mexico in 1995 . Using computed tomography of this skull , Robert Sullivan and Thomas Williamson gave the genus a monographic treatment in 1999 , covering aspects of its anatomy and taxonomy , and the functions of its crest . Williamson later published an independent review of the remains , disagreeing with the taxonomic conclusions .

John Ostrom described another good specimen ( FMNH P27393 ) from New Mexico as P. cyrtocristatus in 1961 . It includes a partial skull with a short , rounded crest , and much of the postcranial skeleton except for the feet , neck , and parts of the tail . Its specific name is derived from the Latin curtus " shortened " and cristatus " crested " . The specimen was found in either the top of the Fruitland Formation or , more likely , the base of the overlying Kirtland Formation . The range of this species was expanded in 1979 , when David B. Weishampel and James A. Jensen described a partial skull with a similar crest ( BYU 2467 ) from the Campanian @-@ age Kaiparowits Formation of Garfield County , Utah . Since then , another skull has been found in Utah with the short / round P. cyrtocristatus crest morphology .

= = = Species = = =

Parasaurolophus is known from three certain species , P. walkeri , P. tubicen , and P. cyrtocristatus . All of them can be distinguished from each other , and have many differences . The first named species , therefore the type , is P. walkeri . One certain specimen , from the Dinosaur Park Formation is referred to it , but many more are almost certainly referable . Like stated above , it is different from the other two species , with it having a simpler internal structure than P. tubicen , a straighter crest and different internal structuring than P. cyrtocristatus .

The next named species is P. tubicen , which is the largest of the Parasaurolophus species . It lived in New Mexico , where three specimens are known , and can be differentiated from its other species . It possesses a long and straight crest , with a very complex interior compared to the other species . All known specimens of P. tubicen come from the De @-@ Na @-@ Zin Member of the Kirtland Formation .

In 1961 , the third species , P. cyrtocristatus was named by John Ostrom . Its three known specimens , have been found in the Fruitland and Kaiparowits formations from Utah and New Mexico . The second specimen , the first known from the Kaiparowits Formation , was originally unassigned to a specific taxon . Of the Parasaurolophus species , P. cyrtocristatus it is the smallest , and has the most curved crest . Because of its possession of the two above features , it has often been speculated that it was a female of P. walkeri or P. tubicen , which were males , although P. tubicen lived approximately a million years later . As noted by Thomas Williamson , the type material of P. cyrtocristatus is about 72 % the size of P. tubicen , close to the size at which other lambeosaurines are interpreted to begin showing definitive sexual dimorphism in their crests ( ~ 70 % of adult size ) . Even though many scientists have supported the possible fact of P. cyrtocristatus being a female , many other studies have found that it is not , because of the differences in age , distribution , and the large differences in the crest and its internal structure .

A study published in PLoS ONE in 2014 found that one more species could be referred to Parasaurolophus . This study , led by Xing , found Charonosaurus jiayensis was actually nested deeply inside Parasaurolophus , which created the new species P. jiayensis . If this species is indeed inside Parasaurolophus , then the genus lasted until the K @-@ Pg extinction , and is known from two continents .

= = Paleobiology = =

= = = Diet and feeding = = =

As a hadrosaurid , Parasaurolophus was a large bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing . Its teeth were continually being replaced ; they were packed into dental batteries containing hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . It used its beak to crop plant material , which was held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Vegetation could have been taken from the ground up to a height of around 4 m ( 13 ft ) . As noted by Bob Bakker , lambeosaurines have narrower beaks than hadrosaurines , implying that Parasaurolophus and its relatives could feed more selectively than their broad @-@ beaked , crestless counterparts .

= = = Growth = = =

Parasaurolophus is known from many adult specimens , and a juvenile described in 2013 . The juvenile was discovered in the Kaiparowits Formation in 2009 . Excavated by the joint expedition by The Webb Schools and Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology ( RAM ) , the juvenile has been identified as around only one year old when it died . Referred to Parasaurolophus sp . , the juvenile , under specimen number RAM 14000 , is the most complete , as well as youngest Parasaurolophus ever found , and measures 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) . This individual fits neatly into the currently known Parasaurolophus growth stages , and lived approximately 75 million years ago . Even though no complete skull of the intermediate age between RAM 14000 and adult Parasaurolophus has been found yet , a partial braincase of about the right size is known . At 25 % of the total adult size , the juvenile show that crest growth of Parasaurolophus began sooner than in related genera , such as Corythosaurus . It has been suggested that Parasaurolophus adults bore such large crests , especially when compared to the related Corythosaurus , because of this difference in age between when their crests started developing . Its age also means that Parasaurolophus had an very fast growth , which took place in about a year . The crest of the juvenile is not long and tubular like the adults , but low and hemispherical .

The skull of RAM 14000 is almost complete , with the left side only lacking a piece of the maxilla . However , the skull was split down the middle by erosion , possibly when it was resting on the bottom of a river bed . The two sides are displaced slightly , with some bones of the right being moved off the main block , also by erosion . After reconstruction , the skull viewed from the side resembles other juvenile lambeosaurines found , being roughly a trapezoid in shape .

A partial cranial endocast for RAM 14000 was reconstructed from CT scan data , the first ever for a Parasaurolophus of any ontogenetic stage . The endocast was reconstructed in two sections , one on the portion of the braincase articulated with the left half of the skull and the remainder on the disarticulated portion of the braincase . Their relative position was then approximated based on cranial landmarks and comparison with other hadrosaurids . Because of weathering , many of the smaller neural canals and foramina could not be identified for certain .

= = = Cranial crest = = =

Many hypotheses have been advanced as to what functions the cranial crest of Parasaurolophus performed , but most have been discredited . It is now believed that it may have had several functions : visual display for identifying species and sex , sound amplification for communication , and thermoregulation . It is not clear which was most significant at what times in the evolution of the crest and its internal nasal passages .

= = = = Differences in crests = = = =

As for other lambeosaurines , it is believed that the cranial crest of Parasaurolophus changed with age and was a sexually dimorphic characteristic in adults . James Hopson , one of the first researchers to describe lambeosaurine crests in terms of such distinctions , suggested that P. cyrtocristatus , with its small crest , was the female form of P. tubicen . Thomas Williamson suggested it was the juvenile form . Neither hypothesis became widely accepted . As only six good skulls , one juvenile braincase , and one recently discovered juvenile skull are known , additional material will help clear up these potential relationships . Williamson noted that in any case , juvenile Parasaurolophus probably had small , rounded crests like P. cyrtocristatus , that probably grew faster as individuals approached sexual maturity . Recent restudy of a juvenile braincase previously assigned to Lambeosaurus , now assigned to Parasaurolophus , provides evidence that a small tubular crest was present in juveniles . This specimen preserves a small upward flaring of the frontal bones that was similar to but smaller than what is seen in adult specimens ; in adults , the frontals formed a platform that supported the base of the crest . This specimen also indicates that the growth of the crest in Parasaurolophus and the facial profile of juvenile individuals differed from the Corythosaurus @-@ Hypacrosaurus @-@ Lambeosaurus model , in part because the crest of Parasaurolophus lacks the thin bony ' coxcomb ' that makes up the upper portion of the crest of the other three lambeosaurines .

= = = = Rejected function hypotheses = = = =

Many early suggestions focused on adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle , following the hypothesis that hadrosaurids were amphibious , a common line of thought until the 1960s . Thus , Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed it served as a snorkel , Martin Wilfarth that it was an attachment for a mobile proboscis used as a breathing tube or for food gathering , Charles M. Sternberg that it served as an airtrap to keep water out of the lungs , and Ned Colbert that it served as an air reservoir for prolonged stays underwater .

Other proposals were more physical in nature . As mentioned above , William Parks suggested that it was joined to the vertebrae with ligaments or muscles , and helped with moving and supporting the head . Othenio Abel proposed it was used as a weapon in combat among members of the same species , and Andrew Milner suggested that it could be used as a foliage deflector , like the helmet crest ( called a ' casque ' ) of the cassowary . Still other proposals made housing specialized organs the major function . Halszka Osmólska suggested that it housed salt glands , and John Ostrom suggested that it housed expanded areas for olfactory tissue and much improved sense of smell of the lambeosaurines , which had no obvious defensive capabilities . One unusual suggestion , made by creationist Duane Gish , is that the crest housed chemical glands that allowed it to throw jets of chemical " fire " at enemies , similar to the modern @-@ day bombardier beetle .

Most of these hypotheses have been discredited or rejected . For example , there is no hole at the end of the crest for a snorkeling function . There are no muscle scars for a proboscis and it is dubious that an animal with a beak would need one . As a proposed airlock , it would not have kept out water . The proposed air reservoir would have been insufficient for an animal the size of Parasaurolophus . Other hadrosaurids had large heads without needing large hollow crests to serve as attachment points for supporting ligaments . Also , none of the proposals explain why the crest has such a shape , why other lambeosaurines should have crests that look much different but perform a similar function , how crestless or solid @-@ crested hadrosaurids got along without such capabilities , or why some hadrosaurids had solid crests . These considerations particularly impact hypotheses based on increasing the capabilities of systems already present in the animal , such as the salt gland and olfaction hypotheses , and indicate that these were not primary functions of the crest . Additionally , work on the nasal cavity of lambeosaurines shows that olfactory nerves and corresponding sensory tissue were largely outside the portion of the nasal passages in the crest , so the expansion of the crest had little to do with the sense of smell .

= = = = Temperature regulation hypothesis = = = =

The large surface area and vascularization of the crest also suggests a thermoregulatory function . The first to propose the cranial crests of lambeosaurines related to temperature regulation was Wheeler ( 1978 ) . He proposed that there was a nerve connection between the crest and the brain , so that the latter could be cooled by the former . The next people to publish a related idea were Maryanska and Osmólska , who realized that like modern lizards , dinosaurs could have possessed salt glands , and cooled off by osmo @-@ regulation . In 2006 Evans published an argument about the functions of lambeosaurine crests , and supported why this could be a causing factor for the evolution of the crest .

= = = = Behavioural hypotheses = = = =

Parasaurolophus is often hypothesized to have used its crest as a resonating chamber to produce low frequency sounds to alert other members of a group or its species . This function was originally suggested by Wiman in 1931 when he described P. tubicen . He noted that the crests internal structures are similar to those of a swan , and theorized that an animal could use its elongated nasal passages to create noise . However , the nasal tubes of Hypacrosaurus , Corythosaurus , and Lambeosaurus are much more variable and complicated than the airway of Parasaurolophus . A large amount of material and data supports the hypothesis that the large , tubular crest of Parasaurolophus was a resonating chamber . Weishampel in 1981 suggested that Parasaurolophus made noises ranging between the frequencies 55 and 720 Hz , although there was some difference in the range of individual species because of the crest size , shape , and nasal passage length , most obvious in P. cyrtocristatus ( interpreted as a possible female ) . Hopson found that there is anatomical evidence that hadrosaurids had strong hearing . There is at least one example , in the related Corythosaurus , of a slender stapes ( reptilian ear bone ) in place , which combined with a large space for an eardrum implies a sensitive middle ear . Furthermore , the hadrosaurid lagena is elongate like a crocodilian 's , indicating that the auditory portion of the inner ear was well @-@ developed . Based on similarity of hadrosaurid inner ears to those of crocodiles , he also proposed that adult hadrosaurids were sensitive to high frequencies , such as their offspring might produce . According to Weishampel , this is consistent with parents and offspring communicating .

Computer modeling of a well @-@ preserved specimen of P. tubicen , with more complex air passages than those of P. walkeri , has allowed the reconstruction of the possible sound its crest produced . The main path resonates at around 30 Hz , but the complicated sinus anatomy causes peaks and valleys in the sound . The other main behavioural theory is that the crest was used for intra @-@ species recognition . This means that the crest could have been used for species recognition , as a warning signal , and for other , non @-@ sexual uses . These could have been some of the reasons crests evolved in Parasaurolophus and other hadrosaurids . Instead , social and physiological functions have become more supported as function ( s ) of the crest , focusing on visual and auditory identification and communication . As a large object , the crest has clear value as a visual signal , and sets this animal apart from its contemporaries . The large size of hadrosaurid eye sockets and the presence of sclerotic rings in the eyes imply acute vision and diurnal habits , evidence that sight was important to these animals . If , as is commonly illustrated , a skin frill extended from the crest to the neck or back , the proposed visual display would have been even showier . As is suggested by other lambeosaurine skulls , the crest of Parasaurolophus likely permitted both species identification ( such as separating it from Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus ) and sexual identification by shape and size .

= = = Paleopathology = = =

Parasaurolophus walkeri is known from one specimen which might contain a pathology . The skeleton shows a v @-@ shaped gap or notch in the vertebrae at the base of the neck . Originally thought to be pathologic , Parks published a second interpretation of this , as a ligament attachment to support the head . The crest would attach to the gap via muscles or ligaments , and be used to support the head while bearing a frill , like predicted to exist in some hadrosaurids . One other possibility , is that during preparation , the specimen was damaged , creating the possible pathology . The notch , however , is still considered more likely to be a pathology , even though some illustrations of Parasaurolophus restore the skin flap .

Another possible pathology was noticed by Parks , and from around the notch . In the fourth , fifth , and sixth vertebrae , directly anterior to the notch , the neural spines were damaged . The fourth had an obvious fracture , with the other two possessing a swelling at the base of the break .

= = Paleoecology = =

= = = Alberta = = =

Parasaurolophus walkeri , from the Dinosaur Park Formation , was a member of a diverse and well @-@ documented fauna of prehistoric animals , including well @-@ known dinosaurs such as the horned Centrosaurus , Chasmosaurus , and Styracosaurus ; fellow duckbills Gryposaurus and Corythosaurus ; tyrannosaurid Gorgosaurus ; and armored Edmontonia , Euoplocephalus and Dyoplosaurus . It was a rare constituent of this fauna . The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low @-@ relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward . The climate was warmer than present @-@ day Alberta , without frost , but with wetter and drier seasons . Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants , with an understory of ferns , tree ferns , and angiosperms .

Some of the less common hadrosaurs in the Dinosaur Park Formation of Dinosaur Provincial Park , such as Parasaurolophus , may represent the remains of individuals who died while migrating through the region . They might also have had a more upland habitat where they may have nested or fed . The presence of Parasaurolophus and Kritosaurus in northern latitude fossil sites may represent faunal exchange between otherwise distinct northern and southern biomes in Late Cretaceous North America . Both taxa are uncommon outside of the southern biome , where , along with Pentaceratops , they are predominate members of the fauna .

= = = New Mexico = = =

In the Fruitland Formation of New Mexico , P. cyrtocristatus shared its habitat with other ornithischians and theropods . Specifically , its contemporaries were the ceratopsian Pentaceratops sternbergii ; the pachycephalosaur Stegoceras novomexicanum ; and some unidentified fossils belonging to Tyrannosauridae , ? Ornithomimus , ? Troodontidae , ? Saurornitholestes langstoni , ? Struthiomimus , Ornithopoda , ? Chasmosaurus , ? Corythosaurus , Hadrosaurinae , Hadrosauridae , and Ceratopsidae . When Parasaurolophus existed , the Fruitland Formation was swampy , positioned in the lowlands , and close to the shore of the Cretaceous Interior Seaway . The lowermost part of the Fruitland Formation is just younger than 75 @.@ 56 ± 0 @.@ 41 mya , with the uppermost boudary dating to 74 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 22 mya .

Existing slightly later than the species from the Fruitland Formation , P. tubicen is also found in New Mexico , in the Kirtland Formation . Numerous vertebrate groups are from this formation , including fishes , crurotarsans , ornithischians , saurischians , pterosaurs , and turtles . The fishes are represented by the two species Melvius chauliodous and Myledalphus bipartitus . The crurotarsans include Brachychampsa montana and Denazinosuchus kirtlandicus . Ornithischians from the formation are represented by the hadrosaurids Anasazisaurus horneri , Naashoibitosaurus ostromi , Kritosaurus navajovius , and P. tubicen ; the ankylosaurids Ahshislepelta minor and Nodocephalosaurus kirtlandensis ; the ceratopsians Pentaceratops sternbergii and Titanoceratops ouranos ; and the pachycephalosaurs Stegoceras novomexicanum and Sphaerotholus goodwini . Saurischians include the tyrannosaurid Bistahieversor sealeyi ; the ornithomimid Ornithomimus sp . ; and the troodontid " Saurornitholestes " robustus . One pterosaur is known , named Navajodactylus boerei . Turtles are fairly plentiful , and are known from Denazinemys nodosa , Basilemys nobilis , Neurankylus baueri , Plastomenus robustus. and Thescelus hemispherica . Unidentified taxa are known , including the crurotarsan ? Leidyosuchus , and the theropods ? Struthiomimus , Troodontidae and Tyrannosauridae . The beginning of the Kirtland Formation dates to 74 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 22 mya , with the formation ending at around 73 @.@ 05 ± 0 @.@ 25 mya .

= = = Utah = = =

Argon @-@ argon radiometric dating indicates that the Kaiparowits Formation was deposited between 76 @.@ 6 and 74 @.@ 5 million years ago , during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period . During the Late Cretaceous period , the site of the Kaiparowits Formation was located near the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway , a large inland sea that split North America into two landmasses , Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east . The plateau where dinosaurs lived was an ancient floodplain dominated by large channels and abundant wetland peat swamps , ponds and lakes , and was bordered by highlands . The climate was wet and humid , and supported an abundant and diverse range of organisms . This formation contains one of the best and most continuous records of Late Cretaceous terrestrial life in the world .

Parasaurolophus shared its paleoenvironment with other dinosaurs , such as dromaeosaurid theropods , the troodontid Talos sampsoni , ornithomimids like Ornithomimus velox , tyrannosaurids like Albertosaurus and Teratophoneus , armored ankylosaurids , the duckbilled hadrosaur Gryposaurus monumentensis , the ceratopsians Utahceratops gettyi , Nasutoceratops titusi and Kosmoceratops richardsoni and the oviraptorosaurian Hagryphus giganteus . Paleofauna present in the Kaiparowits Formation included chondrichthyans ( sharks and rays ) , frogs , salamanders , turtles , lizards and crocodilians . A variety of early mammals were present including multituberculates , marsupials , and insectivorans .

= Action of 24 June 1801 =

The Action of 24 June 1801 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars . A British ship of the line , HMS Swiftsure under Captain Benjamin Hallowell was passing westwards through the Southern Mediterranean near Cape Derna when it encountered a much larger French squadron under Contre @-@ Amiral Honoré Ganteaume that was also returning westwards after a failed attempt to reinforce the besieged French garrison in Egypt . Although Hallowell immediately recognised the danger his vessel was in and turned to flee , the French ships were much faster and soon closed with his ship . At 14 : 00 , three French vessels were within long gunshot and Hallowell decided that his only hope of escape lay in disabling the three ships before the rest of the French squadron could join the engagement . Turning towards the enemy , Hallowell found that his sluggish ship was unable to respond rapidly to French manoeuvres and within two hours Swiftsure was surrounded . Threatened with complete destruction and unable to escape , the British captain surrendered .

The action was a rare victory for the French in the Mediterranean Sea , which had been largely under British control since the French Mediterranean Fleet had been destroyed in 1798 at the Battle of the Nile . This had trapped the French army in Egypt on the African side of the Mediterranean , and all efforts to reinforce and resupply them had ended in failure , including three separate expeditions by Ganteaume 's squadron . Swiftsure was later commissioned into the French Navy and fought at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , where the ship was recaptured by the British and rejoined the Royal Navy . Hallowell was subsequently court martialed for the loss of his ship , but was honourably acquitted and returned to naval service .

= = Background = =

On 1 August 1798 , during the Battle of the Nile , a British fleet under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson destroyed the French Mediterranean Fleet at Aboukir Bay on the Egyptian coast . The battle completely reversed the strategic situation in the Mediterranean : British forces had evacuated the region in 1796 after the Treaty of San Ildefonso brought Spain into the war on the French side , but they were now able to return in large numbers . As French maritime lines of communication were cut , the French Armée d 'Orient under General Napoleon Bonaparte became trapped in Egypt . Unable to return to Europe by sea , the army attempted and failed to pass overland through Palestine and was subsequently abandoned by Bonaparte , who returned to France with his closest advisors in the frigates Muiron and Carrère in November 1799 , promising to send reinforcements to the forces that remained in North Africa .

By 1801 , the Armée d 'Orient was on the verge of collapse . No supplies or support had arrived from France , their commander Jean Baptiste Kléber had been assassinated , and a British invasion was impending . Frustrated at his failure to assist his men in Egypt , Bonaparte ordered a squadron of ships of the line to sail from Brest in January 1801 under the command of Contre @-@ Amiral Honoré Ganteaume . This force was instructed to sail to the Eastern Mediterranean and land over 5 @,@ 000 troops at Alexandria . In February , Ganteaume 's force reached Toulon , the admiral concerned that his ships would be outnumbered further east where the British expeditionary force was gathering . Bonaparte sent him back to sea to complete the operation but again he returned , driven back by bad weather and a patrolling British squadron off Sicily under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren . On 27 April Ganteaume made a third attempt to reach Egypt , and reached Benghazi before pressure from larger British forces under Admiral Lord Keith drove his squadron back westwards . On 24 June , Ganteaume 's ships were retreating along the North African coast , passing close to Cape Derna .

Also in the region was the British 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Swiftsure under Captain Benjamin Hallowell , a veteran of the Battle of the Nile three years earlier . Swiftsure was passing slowly along the North African coast after being detached from Keith 's fleet to join Warren 's squadron off Malta , escorting a small convoy en route . Hallowell 's ship was understrength as more than 80 men had been removed from the ship for service in Egyptian waters and illness rendered another 59 unfit for duty , while the vessel itself was in a poor state of repair and leaking badly . Progress had been slow , and a northeasterly wind had also significantly delayed Hallowell 's passage . When he learned from a passing vessel that there was a French squadron in the region , he ordered the convoy to separate and sailed for Malta alone in an effort to join Warren more rapidly and warn him of Ganteaume 's return . At 03 : 30 on 24 June his lookouts sighted sails to the southwest . Hallowell immediately assumed that the distant ships were the enemy and he turned away from the French and tacked into the wind . By 05 : 30 , lookouts on the nearest French ships , the ships of the line Jean Bart and Constitution had spotted the distant British vessel and were ordered to give chase .

= = Battle = =

The French ships followed Swiftsure by tacking into the wind and a complicated chase developed , with Jean Bart and Constitution maintaining the pressure on the slow moving British vessel , while the rest of Ganteaume 's squadron used the prevailing wind to push far ahead of the ongoing chase before tacking at 08 : 00 across Hallowell 's intended course . Unless Hallowell could escape the trap , his ship would be caught between the two French divisions and overwhelmed . For six hours Hallowell continued his efforts to escape , but the French ships were too fast , Ganteaume 's force passing some distance ahead of the British ship and then turning back towards him so that by 14 : 00 Swiftsure was at serious risk of being surrounded . Hallowell determined that his only option was to attempt to drive though those ships of Ganteaume 's division that blocked his passage to leeward , the ships of the line Indivisible ( under Pierre @-@ Paulin Gourrège ) and Dix @-@ Août ( under Louis @-@ Marie Le Gouardin ) and the frigate Créole .

At 15 : 00 , with the detached division rapidly approaching from astern , Hallowell turned his ship towards the ships sailing ahead of Swiftsure and attempted to pass across the stern of the rearmost ship in an effort to rake and disable it , creating enough confusion to mask an escape . The manoeuvere was recognised by the French captains , and all three vessels turned to face the British ship as it approached . By 15 : 30 the ships of the line had opened a mutual fire , during which the faster French warships were able to easily outmanoeuvere the lumbering Swiftsure . At 16 : 37 , after more than an hour of fruitless firing at long range , the arrival of Jean Bart and Constitution within gunshot convinced Hallowell that further resistance was hopeless and he struck his flag to signal his surrender .

Swiftsure had taken significant damage to its masts , rigging and sails during the exchange of fire , a deliberate ploy by the French captains to limit the ship 's movement and prevent its escape . This had minimised casualties on deck by distracting the gunfire , and as a result only two men were killed and eight wounded , two of whom subsequently also died . French losses were more severe , with four casualties on Indivisible and six killed and 23 wounded on Dix @-@ Août , although neither ship was significantly damaged in the action .

= = Aftermath = =

Ganteaume 's fleet remained off the Cape Derna for the next six days , performing repairs to the captured vessel to make it seaworthy . Detachments of sailors were taken from all of the ships in the squadron and transferred to the prize , and on 30 June Ganteaume 's force was ready to sail northwest once again , eventually reaching Toulon without further incident on 22 July . Ganteaume used the capture of Swiftsure to excuse the failure of his effort to reinforce Egypt , which was invaded and captured by a British expeditionary force in the spring and summer of 1801 . While in captivity , Hallowell wrote a letter that was published in Britain praising the treatment he and his men had received while prisoners of war under Ganteaume , and he and his officers were released on parole the following month . On 18 August they faced a court martial on board HMS Genereux at Port Mahon in Minorca to investigate the loss of their ship , and were all honourably cleared of any blame . He was also praised for detaching the convoy , which otherwise might have also been lost . Hallowell subsequently returned to naval service in 1803 at the start the Napoleonic Wars , operating in the Caribbean and Mediterranean and eventually becoming a rear @-@ admiral in 1811 . Swiftsure , one of only five British ships of the line to be captured by the French during the entire war , was subsequently commissioned into the French Navy and remained in service for the next four years until recaptured at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .

= Burton v. United States =

Burton v. United States is the name of two appeals to the Supreme Court of the United States by Senator Joseph R. Burton ( R @-@ KS ) following his conviction for compensated representation of a party in a proceeding in which the United States was interested : Burton v. United States , 196 U.S. 283 ( 1905 ) and Burton v. United States , 202 U.S. 344 ( 1906 ) . Burton was convicted of acting as counsel to Rialto Grain and Securities Company in the United States Postmaster General 's investigation of Rialto for mail fraud .

On Burton 's first appeal , the Supreme Court reversed his convictions because venue and vicinage could not be proper in the Eastern District of Missouri on the sole ground that Burton 's bank sent the check to St. Louis after he cashed it . Further , the Court cited the prejudicial refusal of jury instructions . After Burton was retried and convicted , the Court affirmed , inter alia , on the ground that the agreement between Burton and Rialto had occurred in St. Louis .

Burton was the first defendant convicted under § 1782 of the Revised Statutes , 40 years after its 1864 enactment . Burton and his supporters argued that he was selectively prosecuted , on the orders of President Theodore Roosevelt , for political reasons . Burton also became the first member of the United States Senate to be convicted of public corruption , in fact the first member of the Senate to be convicted of any crime . The next year , Senator John H. Mitchell ( R @-@ OR ) was convicted under the same statute for his role in the Oregon land fraud scandal .

= = Background = =

= = = Rialto Co . ' s matter = = =

In 1872 , Congress created the crime of mail fraud . Rev. Stat . § 3929 authorized the United States Postmaster General , " upon evidence satisfactory to him " that mail fraud was being committed , to instruct the post master at the fraudster 's local post office to return registered mail addressed to the fraudster to the sender with the word " Fraudulent " written or stamped on the envelope . In 1895 , this authority was extended to all mail . Further , Rev. Stat . § 4041 authorized the Postmaster to also bar suspected fraudsters from cashing postal money orders .

The Rialto Grain and Securities Company , whose principal place of business was in St. Louis , Missouri , was under investigation by the Postmaster for mail fraud . The Postmaster had received two complaints and forwarded them for investigation on November 7 , 1902 . State courts were also investigating complaints from investors against Rialto . Hugh C. Dennis , the President of Rialto , and other officers had been criminally indicted , but ( at the time of Burton 's indictment ) none had been convicted . As of Burton 's indictment , Dennis had been once acquitted in federal court and four indictments were pending against him in state courts . For a time , Rialto 's offices had been closed due to a judicial attachment by its creditors .

= = = Burton 's representation = = =

That same month — while the two were in Illinois , en route from St. Louis to Chicago — former state judge Thomas B. Harlan , the general counsel of Rialto , arranged to hire Senator Joseph R. Burton ( R @-@ KS ) , a lawyer , to appear before the Postmaster as counsel for Rialto in connection with these investigations for a monthly salary of $ 500 . When the general counsel returned to St. Louis on November 18 , he communicated Burton 's offer to Rialto and Rialto accepted . Rialto notified Burton of its acceptance by telegram to him in Washington that same day .

Burton informed Rialto by mail that he had learned of the two complaints from the Postmaster , arranged for himself to be notified of any future complaints , and arranged to represent Rialto in a hearing before the Postmaster before any sanctions would issue . Burton continued to represent Rialto before the Postmaster , and draw his monthly salary , for five months . Burton 's intervention was successful , and the Postmaster 's investigation was ceased without the entry of a fraud order .

Rialto paid Burton by monthly checks for the first four months . Burton received the first check on November 22 . Burton indorsed and deposited the checks at Riggs National Bank in Washington , D.C. , which in turn sent the checks to Rialto 's bank , the Commonwealth Trust Company in St. Louis , Missouri , for payment . The last $ 500 was paid in cash to Burton in person , at Rialto 's office in St. Louis , on March 26 , 1903 , after which Burton 's representation of Rialto terminated .

= = = Indictment = = =

A federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri was already investigating the Brooks Brokerage Company , with which Dennis , the President of Rialto , was associated . Witnesses against Burton at the grand jury included Chief Post Office Inspector William E. Cochran , Dennis , and W.B. Mehaney , the Vice President of Rialto . About two weeks before Burton 's indictment , the grand jury came into possession of the checks from Rialto to Burton .

Burton was indicted on January 24 , 1904 , in the Eastern District of Missouri , on nine counts of violating Rev. Stat . § 1782 . Section 1782 ( enacted 1864 ) provided , in relevant part :

No Senator . . . after his election and during his continuance in office . . . shall receive or agree to receive any compensation whatever , directly or indirectly , for any services rendered , or to be rendered , to any person , either by himself or another , in relation to any proceeding . . . controversy . . . or other matter or thing in which the United States is a party , or directly or indirectly interested , before any Department . . . whatever . Every person offending against this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor , and shall be imprisoned not more than two years , and fined not more than ten thousand dollars , and shall , moreover , by conviction therefor , be rendered forever thereafter incapable of holding any office of honor , trust , or profit under the Government of the United States .

The first and second counts of the indictment pertained to the receipt of the final cash payment from Rialto with reference to two separate interests of the United States . The third count pertained to receipt of the final cash payment from Mahaney . The sixth , seventh , eighth , and ninth counts of the indictment pertained to the receipt of the four check for the first four months .

Burton arguably could not have been arrested at the time of his indictment because Congress was in session . Article One provides that Senators and Representatives " shall in all Cases , except Treason , Felony and Breach of the Peace , be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses , and in going to and returning from the same . " But , Burton voluntarily surrendered . On January 24 , Burton and his wife departed for St. Louis .

= = = Trial and conviction = = =

Judge Elmer Bragg Adams , sitting as the United States Circuit Court for the Eastern District of Missouri , presided over Burton 's trial . Former state judge Chester H. Krum appeared as Burton 's attorney . Assistant U.S. Attorney Horace Dyer acted as prosecutor .

In his opening statement , Krum argued that Burton had only agreed to act as general counsel and to allow his name to be placed in Rialto 's literature , and that the agreement explicitly provided that Burton would never represent Rialto before any federal agency .

On March 23 , the prosecution began its case in chief . Post Office Department employees identified the letters of complaint received against Rialto . Ernest H. Kastor , of a St. Louis advertising firm , testified that he introduced Burton to Dennis and Harlan in November 1902 . Witnesses said that the agreement was as Krum described and that the pay was agreed as $ 2 @,@ 500 in $ 500 installments . Dyer read into evidence the letter from Burton to Rialto .

The prosecution 's case continued on March 24 . Inspector Cochran testified that Burton had attempted to discuss the case with him the day his indictment was made public . Cochran refused to discuss it . Reporter J.H. Aubere testified that he had interviewed Burton that day , and that Burton had denied practicing before the Post Office . Hector McRea , the Controller of Rialto , testified to a meeting between Mahaney and Burton , where Burton 's representation was ended because the matter before the Post Office had concluded . Inspector Cochran was recalled to state that his conversation with Burton took place before Aubere 's interview . Further , Cochran testified that , on February 5 , 1902 , Burton had told him that he wished to represent Rialto before the Department for a fee , having been assured by other Senators that such conduct was common and legal . Burton also told Cochran that he needed to repay a disputed debt of $ 70 @,@ 000 . Finally , Mahaney testified that , on the day he personally paid Burton $ 500 , Burton advised Rialto to destroy its correspondence with him and that two such letters were destroyed . Thereafter , the prosecution rested .

The defense case commenced on March 25 . The third count of the indictment was quashed as duplicative with the first . Burton testified that he had accepted Rialto 's employment due to personal financial reversals . Burton testified that his duties would include acting as a criminal defense attorney for Dennis , but would not include any activity in Washington . Burton testified that he received notice of his appointment from Harlan on November 20 , 1902 , and that he had only contacted the Post Office to notify them of his intent to defend Dennis in a criminal case . He explained that he only asked to be notified of complaints against Rialto so that he could terminate his association with them should any arise .

After the jury returned deadlocked 11 @-@ 1 , Judge Adams delivered an Allen charge . Soon afterwards , the jury returned a verdict that failed to address the third count in the indictment , so the Judge Allen ordered the jury to return to deliberations without reading the verdict . On March 28 , 1904 , after forty @-@ one total hours of deliberation , the jury convicted Burton on five counts — counts one , two , six , eight , and nine — but acquitted on count three . Burton 's convictions would have authorized a maximum sentence of 10 years imprisonment and a $ 50 @,@ 000 fine .

Burton asked that the jury be polled , and each stated that the verdict was his own . Burton moved for a new trial . Judge Adams indicated that he would accept a supersedeas bond of $ 5 @,@ 000 , and Burton was not sentenced . Burton became the first defendant ever convicted under § 1782 , more than 40 years after its enactment .

Burton had a right to appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit , but instead opted for a direct appeal to the Supreme Court . On July 2 , Judge Adams certified Burton 's direct appeal on the grounds that Burton was convicted of an " infamous offense . " Burton posted a $ 10 @,@ 000 bond . On July 11 , Justice Brewer allowed the direct appeal .

= = Burton I ( 1905 ) = =

Before the Supreme Court , on November 30 and December 1 , 1904 , Burton was represented by ( former judge ) John Forrest Dillon and ( future Solicitor General ) Frederick William Lehmann at oral argument , with Harry Hubbard and W.H. Rossington also on the brief . Solicitor General Henry M. Hoyt represented the United States .

On January 16 , 1905 , the Court overturned Burton 's convictions .

= = = Sufficiency of the indictment and the evidence = = =

Without any discussion of the merits , 5 @-@ 4 , the Court held that the indictment stated offenses under § 1782 and that the evidence was sufficient for the jury to have convicted Burton . Justices Harlan , Brown , McKenna , Holmes , and Day were in the majority ; Chief Justice Fuller , and Justices Peckham , Brewer , and White , were in dissent .

= = = Venue and vicinage = = =

Article III provides that : " The Trial of all Crimes , except in Cases of Impeachment , shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed . " The Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment provides that : " In all criminal prosecutions , the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial , by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed , which district shall have been previously ascertained by law . . . . "

Burton argued that both constitutional provisions were violated because the crime had not occurred in the Eastern District of Missouri . Justice Peckham , writing for the entire Court except for Justice Harlan in dissent , reversed Burton 's convictions on these grounds . The Court held that Burton 's negotiation of the check in Washington , D.C. did not constitute conduct by Burton in St. Louis ( the site of the drawee bank ) . In other words , whatever the Washington , D.C. bank did with the check afterwards , it did for itself , not as Burton 's agent . " From the time of the delivery of the check by the defendant to the bank it became the owner of the check ; it could have torn it up or thrown it in the fire or made any other use or disposition of it which it chose , and no right of defendant would have been infringed . " Thus , the Court held that it was error for the trial judge to have submitted the question of the " understanding . . . between the defendant and the bank " to the jury . In support of this argument , the Court cited several of its own precedents concerning negotiable instrument law , as well as cases from the House of Lords and the courts of New York and Massachusetts .

In a single paragraph , the Court rejected the application of the continuing offense doctrine , which had been codified in Rev. Stat . § 731 . " This is not a case of the commencement of a crime in one district and its completion in another , so that under the statute the court in either district has jurisdiction . There was no beginning of the offense in Missouri . The payment of the money was in Washington , and there was no commencement of that offense when the officer of the Rialto Company sent the checks from St. Louis to defendant . The latter did not thereby begin an offense in Missouri . "

Justice Harlan dissented on this ground . " As between the accused and his client , " Harlan argued , " he was not , in any true sense , compensated for the services alleged to have been rendered in violation of the statute , until by payment of the checks by the St. Louis bank he was relieved of all liability to the Riggs National Bank arising from his indorsing the checks to it . " Harlan concluded that the majority had " sacrificed substance to mere form , " illustrating the Latin maxim " Qui haeret in litera haeret in cortice . "

= = = Refused jury instructions = = =

By the same 8 @-@ 1 majority , the Court found a separate and independent ground for the reversal of Burton 's convictions . Burton had requested certain jury instructions , which the trial judge had delivered . But , along with the requested instructions , the trial judge had stated that : " [ These instructions were ] asked by counsel for the defendant to give certain declarations here , and while I think they have , in the main , been covered by the charge , yet I will give them to you . . . . These are abstract propositions of law , which I give in connection with the charge , as perhaps more fully amplifying it . I am willing to give them , inasmuch as they are asked , and they contain general propositions of law . "

After the jury returned deadlocked 11 @-@ 1 , the trial judge delivered an Allen charge . At this point , the judge refused Burton 's request to instruct the jury that the earlier requested instructions stood on the same footing as the other instructions . The Court held that this was reversible error .

Harlan also dissented from this ground for reversal , arguing that Burton was not substantially prejudiced .

Further , the Court disapproved of the judge 's having asked the jury for the proportions of their deadlock ( even though he did not ask how many were for conviction and how many were for acquittal ) . In Brasfield v. United States ( 1926 ) , citing Burton , the Court held that such was reversible error , regardless of whether the defendant objected in the trial court .

= = Retrial = =

Burton was reindicted , still in the circuit court Eastern District of Missouri , on April 13 , 1905 , and arraigned on June 4 before Judge John Henry Rogers , of the Western District of Arkansas , sitting by designation . The new indictment had eight counts . The first , second , fourth , sixth , and eighth counts charged that Burton had agreed to receive compensation from Rialto . The third , fifth , and seventh counts charged that Burton had actually received compensation from Rialto . The counts different only in the interest of the United States which was alleged to have been involved in the matter . Counts four and five were dismissed before trial . Unlike the first indictment , the second alleged that Burton had received $ 500 in person in St. Louis . The first indictment alleged only compensated representation , the second indictment also alleged an agreement to do so .

While the indictment was pending , Burton was robbed in Chicago and his wallet was recovered in a mail box by postal employees . Before Burton 's second trial , the Department of Justice learned that Burton had also collected $ 14 @,@ 000 for representing the Chickasaw before the Interior Department : $ 5 @,@ 000 of which was paid directly to him , and $ 9 @,@ 000 of which was paid to his brother Z.R. Burton .

The trial date was originally set for October 3 , and subpoenas to witnesses — many of whom resided in Washington , D.C. — issued on September 12 . Judge Willis Van Devanter ( a future Supreme Court justice ) , of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit presided over Burton 's second trial . On November 20 , Assistant U.S. Attorney Dyer gave the opening statement for the prosecution and Lehmann for the defense . As in the first trial , Lehmann argued that Burton 's intent was to represent Dennis ( now deceased ) in a criminal case .

On November 21 , the prosecution introduced the letters , telegrams , and checks into evidence . On November 22 , Harland testified that Burton had stated : " I am not going to do anything inconsistent with my duty as a Senator . " Mahaney testified to the in @-@ person payment and the destruction of the letters at Burton 's request on March 22 , 1902 . Inspector Cochran testified that Burton represented Rialto before him .

On November 26 , 1905 , after two hours of deliberation , the jury convicted Burton on the six remaining counts : counts one , two , three , six , seven , and eight . Burton was sentenced on the sixth and seventh counts only ( because some of the counts involved the same transactions ) . Burton was sentenced to six months imprisonment in a county jail and a $ 2 @,@ 000 fine on the sixth count and six months imprisonment and a $ 500 fine on the seventh count . In addition , he was " rendered forever hereafter incapable of holding any office of honor , trust or profit under the Government of the United States . "

= = Burton II ( 1906 ) = =

The second time before the Court , on April 3 – 4 , 1906 , Burton was again represented by Dillon and Lehmann , plus Bailey P. Waggener , again with Hubbard and Rossington on the brief , plus W. Knox Haynes and W.P. Hackney . All together , Burton was represented by a team of ten lawyers , led by Dillon . Waggener delivered the argument in chief , assisted by Lehmann . Assistant Attorney General ( and future judge ) Charles Henry Robb represented the United States .

On May 21 , 1906 , the Supreme Court upheld Burton 's convictions . That same day , another of Burton 's lawyers , former Senator John Mellen Thurston , filed a petition for rehearing , which operated as a 60 day continuance , and in effect stayed the matter much longer because the Court was set to adjourn until October .

= = = Separation of powers = = =

Article One provides : " Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections , Returns and Qualifications of its own Members . . . . Each House may . . . punish its Members for disorderly Behavior , and , with the Concurrence of two @-@ thirds , expel a Member . "

Burton argued that § 1782 was an unconstitutional violation of the separation of powers because the Senate 's power to punish its members was exclusive . Burton 's brief compared the ban on legislators practicing before executive agencies to a ban on the President lobbying legislators for legislation . The New York Times called this " one of the most interesting efforts to get a new meaning out of the Constitution that has appeared for some time . " A later article noted that , " [ t ] he decision is especially interesting because of the large array of legal talent in the case and the ingenious argument made by Bailey Wagner [ sic ] of Topeka that the Senate is the judge of the qualifications of its own members . . . . "

The Court unanimously rejected this argument . The Court cited earlier laws prohibiting members of Congress from practicing before the United States Court of Claims and from entering into contracts with the United States . Further , the Court noted that " [ t ] he proper discharge of those duties does not require a Senator to appear before an executive Department in order to enforce his particular views , or the views of others , in respect of matters committed to that Department for determination . "

Burton also argued that that the provision rendering those convicted under § 1782 " incapable of holding any office of honor , trust or profit under the Government of the United States " unconstitutionally infringed on the Qualifications Clause . The Court dodged this question by holding that the provision would not bar a convicted defendant from serving in the Senate because Senators ( at the time ) were elected by the state legislatures .

= = = Interests of the United States = = =

Burton next argued that the indictment was insufficient because the Postmaster 's decision to return mail addressed to suspected fraudsters back to senders and to bar suspected fraudsters from cashing money orders was not a " proceeding . . . controversy . . . or other matter or thing in which the United States is . . . directly or indirectly interested . " The Court rejected this argument , 6 @-@ 3 . Although the Court admitted that the United States had no pecuniary interest in the proceeding , it argued :

The United States was the real party in interest on one side , while the Rialto Company was the real party in interest on the other side . If the Postmaster General did not represent the United States , whom did he represent ? . . . [ I ] t is , we think , a mistake to say that the United States was not interested , directly or indirectly , in protecting its property , that is , its mails and postal facilities , against improper and illegal use . . . . "

Justice Brewer , joined by Justices White and Peckham dissented on this point . They argued that the statute applied only to the pecuniary interests of the United States . These justices were among the four ( in addition to Chief Justice Fuller ) who would have held the indictment insufficient in Burton I , presumably for this reason . The dissenters argued that the majority 's interpretation would find the United States interested in any administrative proceeding , thus rendering the statutory words " before any Department , court martial , bureau , officer , or any civil , military , or naval commission whatever " to be mere surplussage . Further , the dissent cited the Reconstruction Era legislative history pointing towards a narrower interpretation .

= = = Sufficiency of the evidence = = =

Burton next argued that the evidence was insufficient to support his conviction . Reviewing the evidence , the Court rejected this argument .

= = = Separate offenses of agreeing and receiving = = =

Section 1782 provided that " No Senator . . . shall receive or agree to receive any compensation . . . . " Burton argued that he could not simultaneously be charged with separate offenses for agreeing to receive compensation and actually receiving compensation for the same transaction . The Court rejected this argument . The Court stated that Burton 's interpretation " does violence to [ the statute 's ] words , " emphasizing the word " or . "

Justice McKenna disagreed with this holding . Thus , he concurred only in the affirmance of the charges alleging receipt , not the charges alleging agreement .

= = = Double jeopardy = = =

Burton next argued that his prosecution violated the Double Jeopardy Clause . Specifically , Burton argued that his acquittal on the third count in the first trial barred his conviction on the third and seventh counts in the second trial . The Court rejected this argument . The Court held that the earlier and later counts did not describe the same offense because they named the payor as Mahaney and Rialto , respectively .

= = = Venue and vicinage = = =

Finally , Burton argued that the Eastern District of Missouri was an unconstitutional venue and vicinage ( an argument that the Court had accepted in Burton I ) . This time , the Court rejected the argument . The Court held that the agreement had occurred in St. Louis ( as the jury had been instructed that it was required to find ) based on Rialto 's acceptance in St. Louis , the telegram , and the letter . The Court bolstered this view by citation to its own and other precedents concerning offer and acceptance in contract law . The Court further cited its earlier precedents holding that the venue provision of Article III does not require the physical presence of the defendant in the forum state .

= = Aftermath = =

Burton remained a Senator while each of his appeals were pending . Allegedly , his colleagues made it known that they would move to expel him if he appeared in the Senate . However , Burton did appear in the Senate after his conviction . On April 6 , 1904 , Burton appeared to push for appropriations for the acquisition of land in the Adirondacks and Catskills . On January 22 , 1906 , Burton appeared in the Senate chamber again , for 30 seconds , in order to be eligible for $ 1 @,@ 000 in travel reimbursements from the federal government .

Burton 's term was due to expire on March 4 , 1907 . After his conviction was finally affirmed , a resolution to expel Burton from the Senate was referred to the United States Senate Committee on Privileges and Elections on May 22 , 1906 . Burton resigned from office on June 4 , 1906 , before the Senate could act .

Burton served five months of his six @-@ month sentence in the Iron County Jail in Ironton , Missouri . In March 1907 , he returned to Abilene .

= = Role of President Roosevelt = =

Contemporary rumor held that Burton 's indictment had been ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt . Although Joseph W. Folk , the Circuit Attorney for the City of St. Louis ( and future Governor of Missouri ) , had recently visited with the President and Attorney General , the New York Times reported that " there was not a word in either of those interviews about the Burton case . "

Burton himself alleged that Roosevelt had orchestrated his prosecution in March 23 , 1907 speech in Abilene , Kansas after his release from prison . Burton pointed out that his was the first prosecution under § 1782 and that numerous other public officials before him had potentially violated it , under the interpretation that prevailed in the Supreme Court .

Burton and Roosevelt had a complicated history . Burton , as a leader at the 1900 Republican National Convention , was perhaps instrumental in Roosevelt 's securing his party 's nomination . Roosevelt 's last appointment to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit ( whose jurisdiction , at the time , included appeals from Kansas ) had been William Cather Hook , a choice favored by Burton 's political opponents : Senator Chester I. Long ( R @-@ KS ) and Governor Willis J. Bailey ( R @-@ KS ) . When the next vacancy opened on the Eighth Circuit , Burton and his allies favored the appointment of Charles Blood Smith . D.W. Mulvane was unsuccessful in pressing Smith 's candidacy in a June 1903 meeting with Roosevelt .

Earlier that year , while accompanying Roosevelt on a visit to Kansas , Burton told Roosevelt about his project to create a reproduction of Jerusalem at the time of Christ 's birth for the St. Louis World 's Fair . Roosevelt gave Burton a letter praising the exhibit , which Burton in turn published by facsimile in a magazine advertisement for the sale of stock in the exhibit . The White House received a letter from the magazine inquiring into the authenticity of the letter on the same day that Mulvane returned for a second meeting to press Smith 's appointment . Roosevelt was enraged , demanded the return of the letter , and declared that " from now on Burton would be considered politically a Democratic Senator , as far as patronage is concerned . " " The President 's indignation knew no bounds . He had never been so grossly and humiliatingly deceived during his incumbency in office . "

Burton was also in a " long standing feud " with Fourth Assistant Postmaster ( and future Senator ) Joseph L. Bristow , whom Burton had lobbied Roosevelt ( and his predecessor , William McKinley ) to replace . Roosevelt refused to remove Bristow except for cause , and in any case refused to appoint one of Burton 's friends to replace him .

Another issue with which Burton clashed with Roosevelt was reciprocity with Cuba . Burton cited this issue in his Abilene speech . In order to force concessions from Roosevelt , Burton had joined with Senators from beet sugar states . Although Burton publicly spoke against a treaty with Cuba , he repeatedly privately informed Roosevelt that he would support the ratification of the treaty . According to the New York Times , " [ t ] he history of Burton 's manoeuvres at this time will never be fully told . "

= ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun =

" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " is a song by American recording artist Britney Spears , taken from her first greatest hits album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative ( 2004 ) . The song was produced by Bloodshy & Avant and originally recorded for In the Zone . It was released as a digital download on August 17 , 2004 , prior to the album 's release . The track has drawn comparisons to No Doubt 's single " Hella Good " as well as 1970s American funk bands . Lyrically , the songs refers to having a good time at a party . " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " received mixed reviews from critics , some naming it one of the best songs in the compilation , while others dismissed its lyrical content . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Bridesmaids .

= = Background = =

" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " was originally recorded for Spears 's fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . The song was written by Spears , Michelle Bell , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Henrik Jonback , and was produced by Bloodshy & Avant . The song was first included as a bonus track in the European version of the In the Zone DVD . In the United States , the track was a free download in the Wal @-@ Mart edition of In the Zone , due to an exclusive deal with Wal @-@ Mart and Sony Connect . When the deal ended in mid @-@ 2004 , Jive Records released the song on the iTunes Store and Rhapsody on August 17 , 2004 . " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " peaked at number seven on the iTunes chart while it was speculated to be in the tracklist of Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Bridesmaids .

= = Composition = =

" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " is composed in the key of G minor with 108 beats per minute . It has a dance @-@ oriented beat that has been compared by Jennifer Vineyard of MTV and Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic to No Doubt 's 2002 single " Hella Good " . Spears 's vocal range spans from the high @-@ tone of G3 to the low @-@ tone of Eb5 . The track features mainly guitar and bass , along with string arrangements and 1970s synthesizers reminiscent of Zapp and The Gap Band . Its lyrics refer to a make @-@ believe situation in which Spears describes an encounter with a man at a party . During the song , she declares to prefer having a good time rather than settling down .

= = Reception and chart performance = =

Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said " the In the Zone outtake [ ... ] betters most of the songs that were featured on the album " . Annabel Leathes of BBC Online commented that along with " Do Somethin ' " , they are " [ two ] robust , unreleased tracks [ that ] suggest , however , that she may still be churning out a few more No.1s before taking time out to sing lullabies to her brood " . Ann Powers of Blender magazine called the song " instantly forgettable and biographically inaccurate , " while Mike McGuirk of Rhapsody said the song " is on a level with her best work , namely " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . " Louis Pattison of the New Musical Express stated that the lyrics " chime rather oddly with Britney ’ s much @-@ vaunted desire to start a family " . On the week of September 4 , 2004 , " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " debuted at number 23 on Billboard Hot Digital Tracks , and fell to number 41 in the following .

= = Track listings = =

Digital download

" ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " – 3 : 23

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits for " ( I 've Just Begun ) Having My Fun " are taken from Greatest Hits : My Prerogative 's liner notes .

Songwriting – Britney Spears , Michelle Bell , Christian Karlsson , Pontus Winnberg , Henrik Jonback

Production – Bloodshy & Avant , Steven Lunt

Vocals – Britney Spears

= = Charts = =

= River Don Navigation =

The River Don Navigation was the result of early efforts to make the River Don in South Yorkshire , England , navigable between Fishlake and Sheffield . The Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden had re @-@ routed the mouth of the river in 1626 , to improve drainage , and the new works included provision for navigation , but the scheme did not solve the problem of flooding , and the Dutch River was cut in 1635 to link the new channel to Goole . The first Act of Parliament to improve navigation on the river was obtained in 1726 , by a group of Cutlers based in Sheffield ; the Corporation of Doncaster obtained an Act in the following year for improvements to the lower river . Locks and lock cuts were built , and , by 1751 , the river was navigable to Tinsley .

The network was expanded by the opening of the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1802 , linking to the River Trent , the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1804 , linking to Barnsley , and the Sheffield Canal in 1819 , which provided better access to Sheffield . All three were bought out by the Don Navigation in the 1840s , after which the canals were owned by a series of railway companies . The Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company was created in 1889 and eventually succeeded in buying back the canals and the Don Navigation in 1895 , but plans for expansion were hampered by a lack of capital . One success was the opening of the New Junction Canal in 1905 , jointly funded with the Aire and Calder Navigation .

During the 20th century , there were several plans to upgrade the Don , to handle larger craft . It was eventually upgraded to take 700 @-@ tonne barges in 1983 , but the scheme was a little too late , as an anticipated rise in commercial traffic did not occur . Most use of the navigation is now by leisure boaters , whose boats are dwarfed by the huge locks . The navigation and river are crossed by a wide variety of bridges , from a medieval bridge complete with a chapel on it , one of only three to have survived in Britain , to a motorway viaduct that pioneered the use of rubber bearings and a new waterproofing system . In between are a number of railway bridges , including two that were built to carry the internal railway system at the Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant . The former railway viaduct at Conisbrough now carries cyclists 113 feet ( 34 m ) above the Don , as part of the National Cycle Network .

The final section to Bramwith is known as the River Dun Navigation .

= = Early history = =

Before 1626 the River Don had two outlets , an eastern branch that meandered across Hatfield Chase to enter the River Trent , and a northern branch , which was a Roman navigation channel , and joined the River Aire at Turnbridge , near East Cowick . Cornelius Vermuyden 's drainage scheme for Hatfield Chase , begun in 1626 and largely completed by 1628 , included the construction of Ashfield Bank , which ran for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along the southern bank of the Don from Fishlake to Thorne , cutting off the eastern branch . Navigation to Sandtoft was made possible by the provision of a navigable sluice in the bank , which had lifting gates and a 50 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ foot ( 15 @.@ 2 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) lock chamber . A further bank some distance to the east of the northern channel ran for 5 miles ( 8 km ) from Thorne to Turnbridge to provide washlands , which would flood when high levels in the Aire prevented the Don discharging into it .

In the winter of 1628 , there was flooding at Fishlake and Sykehouse , which was followed by rioting . A navigable sluice was built at Turnbridge in 1629 , with a lock 60 by 18 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 by 5 @.@ 5 m ) , and an outfall sluice called the " Great Sluice " was completed in 1630 , probably by Hugo Spiering , who had assisted Vermuyden with the main project . Continued problems with flooding led to the construction of a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) channel from Newbridge near Thorne eastwards to Goole , where water levels in the Ouse were between 5 and 10 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 and 3 @.@ 0 m ) lower than at Turnbridge . The channel , called the Dutch River , ended in another outfall sluice , and was completed in 1635 at a cost of £ 33 @,@ 000 . Boats continued to use the lock at Turnbridge . In about 1688 the Goole sluice was washed away by a flood , and was never replaced . The tidal scour widened the channel , and barges of up to 30 tonnes could normally reach Fishlake , and often Wilsick House , in Barnby Dun . Smaller boats could reach Doncaster for most of the year , and large barges could do so when there was a flood tide .

Initial attempts to seek powers to make the River Don navigable were hampered by opposition from local landowners and disunity between the authorities in Sheffield , Rotherham and Doncaster . The first Act of Parliament was presented in 1698 by the MP for Thirsk , Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough , representing the interests of Rotherham . Although there was support from the " gentlemen , traders and inhabitants " of Doncaster , the Corporation opposed the Bill in view of the likely impact on their mills . There was no support from Sheffield either , and the Bill failed at its first reading . In 1704 Doncaster Corporation , with the support of its traders , presented a Bill that received a first reading , but disappeared without a second reading ever happening . By 1722 there was some agreement between Sheffield and Doncaster , with a tacit agreement that Doncaster would be responsible for the river below their town , and Sheffield for the section above Doncaster . There was organised resistance to the scheme from local landowners , and it appears that their influence resulted in the proposed Bill being defeated in committee , so it could not be presented to parliament .

However , in 1726 Sheffield 's Company of Cutlers sought parliamentary approval to make the river navigable from Holmstile in Doncaster to Tinsley , on the edge of Sheffield . Terminating at Tinsley placated the Duke of Norfolk , who represented the opposition from Sheffield , and a great deal of work had been done to reduce the opposition from landowners . The Act of Parliament was passed on 6 May 1726 giving the Cutlers powers to make cuts and to make the river deeper and wider so that boats of 20 tonnes could reach Tinsley . There were a number of restrictions , intended to protect existing water @-@ powered installations . Lord Frederick Howard 's mills at Rotherham , Kilnhurst forge , Thrybergh dam and Sprotborough mills and water engine were specifically mentioned .

The Corporation of Doncaster sought powers in 1727 to improve the river below Holmstile , as far as Wilsick House in Barnby Dun . The Bill passed through parliament uneventfully , and again included detailed restrictions on what could and could not be done , designed to protect the landowners . The details were very specific in that they included the permissible heights of dams , the maximum length of cuts , and many other details of the work to be carried out .

Both Acts were unusual in that they gave the bodies powers to borrow money , but did not create the companies to do the work . Nor were the financial arrangements clearly laid down , and both groups resorted to issuing shares to fund the improvements , although they were not actually empowered to do so . In October 1730 , the two groups decided to amalgamate , but a 1731 Act to formalise the agreement and legalise the issuing of shares was defeated because it also included powers to make further changes to the river , including the section below Barnby Dun . Finally an Act of 1733 created The Company of the Proprietors of the Navigation of the River Don , with powers to create a new cut from Bromley Sands above Rotherham to Ickles Dam . The problems presented by the river below Wilsick House , including shallows and fords at Bramwith and Stainforth , and bridges on the Dutch River that were difficult to navigate , resulted in the proprietors trying again to obtain powers to improve the lower river in 1737 , but again the petition was defeated in a parliamentary committee . Work continued , and it appears that Aldwarke was the head of navigation for some years , but Rotherham was reached in 1740 .

A further Bill in 1740 sought powers to improve the river from Barnby Dun to Fishlake Ferry . Despite serious opposition , which included the merchants and traders of Doncaster as well as Doncaster Corporation , the Bill was passed , giving the company new powers to make the river deeper and create a cut to avoid the shallows at Stainforth and Bramwith . Work on this northern section started almost immediately . The southern section to Tinsley was navigable by 1751 , although the wharf and warehouse had not been completed by that date , and the towpath from Rotherham was not completed until 1822 .

In 1737 , the navigation was leased to three of the company shareholders for 14 years , and a new 7 @-@ year lease was made in 1751 . After 1758 , the company managed the navigation itself . Tolls for the next 10 years raised an average of £ 7006 per annum , indicating healthy traffic levels .

= = Expansion = =

The early 19th century saw the completion of a number of canals which linked to the Don . The first was the Stainforth and Keadby Canal , which had been proposed by the Don Navigation shareholders in 1792 . Construction was started in 1793 and completed in 1802 , with John Thompson , the engineer to the Don Navigation Company , overseeing the work until his death in 1795 . It provided a link from Bramwith Lock to the River Trent , broadly following the old course of the River Don prior to Vermuyden 's improvements . Two years later , the Dearne and Dove Canal opened , connecting with the Barnsley Canal near Barnsley . The canal had also been proposed by Don Navigation shareholders in 1792 , and again John Thompson had overseen the initial construction . The third opening was in 1819 , when the Sheffield Canal connected the Tinsley terminus to the centre of Sheffield . There were several plans to create a link to the Chesterfield Canal , including one in 1793 by Benjamin Outram , and a proposal by Richard Gresley in 1810 for a North East Junction Canal , which would have linked to the Don at Rotherham , broadly following the modern ideas for the Rother Link . Neither of these , nor a revival of the idea in 1832 gained sufficient support to proceed .

The Company bought out the Dearne and Dove Canal in 1846 , the Sheffield Canal in 1848 , and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal in 1849 . They then amalgamated with the South Yorkshire , Doncaster and Goole Railway in 1850 , to become the South Yorkshire Railway and River Dun Company . This in turn was leased to the Manchester , Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway in 1864 . In order to allow an extension of the railway from Mexborough to Sheffield to pass under the railway line to Rotherham Westgate railway station , the Holmes cut below Ickles lock was diverted into the river , and the Eastwood cut below Rotherham lock was diverted to the east in 1864 . The original bed was then filled in and the railway built along its course . Despite attempts to divert coal traffic to the railway , the canals maintained their traffic levels , carrying 982 @,@ 000 tonnes in 1878 and 927 @,@ 254 in 1888 . However , there was dissatisfaction among users of the canals that the rates for traffic were higher than on the railways , and the canals were failing to modernise , as steam boats were banned , despite them having been in use for 50 years on the neighbouring Aire and Calder Navigation .

A plan to upgrade the waterways to allow the use of 300 to 500 @-@ tonne boats led to the formation of the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Canal Company Limited in November 1888 . The cost of the scheme was estimated to be around £ 1 million , in addition to the cost of acquiring the canals from the railway company . The new company obtained an Act of Parliament on 26 August 1889 , creating the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company , which was authorised to raise £ 1 @.@ 5 million and to purchase the four canals either by negotiation , or by compulsory purchase if negotiations failed . The railway company was unwilling to sell , and it was not until 1895 , after protracted negotiation and legal battles that the transfer was agreed . The Navigation Company had only succeeded in raising £ 625 @,@ 000 , which was less than the purchase price of the canals , and therefore the railway company nominated half of the ten directors , while the Aire and Calder Company declined to buy any shares because of railway influence . Many of the ambitious plans for the modernisation of the system were hindered by a lack of capital , although some further developments took place .

One improvement that was completed was the construction of the New Junction Canal . This had been authorised by an Act of Parliament obtained on 28 July 1891 by the Aire and Calder Navigation , which specified that the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation Company would share the cost of construction and the ownership of the new waterway . No work could start until the company actually owned their canals , and they were required to raise £ 150 @,@ 000 at a time when they had just failed to raise the finance for the takeover of the original canals . However , three @-@ quarters of the cost had been raised by 1903 . The new canal leaves the original navigation at Bramwith Junction , runs over the River Don on an aqueduct , and continues in a straight line for 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) , to join the Aire and Calder Navigation upstream from Goole . It provided a much more direct route from Sheffield to Goole , and was opened on 2 January 1905 . The company had hoped to run compartment boats for the transport of coal along the canal , as the Aire and Calder did , but although straightening of the navigation was completed at Doncaster in April 1905 and at Sprotborough in late 1907 , and Doncaster Town Lock was lengthened in 1909 and 1910 , most of the locks could only hold three compartments at a time , and so there was little advantage to using this type of boat .

= = Later developments = =

Towards the end of the First World War , Sheffield City Council proposed a major upgrade of the navigation . They expected the government to nationalise the waterway , and pay for the improvements , to which they would contribute , providing that the railway influence was removed . The scheme involved deepening the channel from 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , and constructing 18 new locks which would be 270 by 22 feet ( 82 @.@ 3 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) , to replace the existing 62 @-@ by @-@ 16 @-@ foot ( 18 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) locks . The locks would have multiple gates , and be capable of holding four 110 @-@ tonne barges or one 300 @-@ tonne barge . The estimated cost was £ 1 @,@ 483 @,@ 426 , but the government was unwilling to support the scheme , and Sheffield City Council was not prepared to proceed without government backing .

During the inter @-@ war years the navigation struggled to hold its own against competition from the railways and later the roads , and was affected by miners ' strikes in the coal industry . Traffic was spasmodic , rising from 381 @,@ 727 tonnes in 1926 , the year of the general strike , to 815 @,@ 329 tonnes in 1937 , but much of the latter was short @-@ haul traffic , rather than long @-@ haul , and the revenues did not increase correspondingly . In an agreement with Hatfield Main Colliery and the Aire and Calder , Bramwith Lock on the Stainforth and Keadby Canal was lengthened in 1932 , to allow compartment boats to be used for the coal traffic , while straightening of a stretch near Doncaster and the construction of a new warehouse and wharf were largely funded by Doncaster Corporation in 1934 .

The major traffic on the navigation had always been coal , but after the Second World War there was a steady increase in oil traffic . By 1946 , all of the mortgages that the company had used to fund expansion were repaid , and the financial position of the canal gradually improved . Control of the navigation , as with most British canals , passed to the British Transport Commission on 1 January 1948 , under the terms of the Transport Act ( 1947 ) . Some improvements continued to be made , with two coal wharfs being built at Mexborough in 1954 , to serve the new Doncaster power station , and Long Sandall Lock being extended to 215 by 22 feet ( 65 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) . The new lock was opened on 10 July 1959 , and allowed trains of 17 compartment boats to work through to Doncaster and Hexthorpe , as Doncaster Town Lock above it and Sykehouse Lock below it on the New Junction Canal were already of a similar size .

In 1961 , the British Transport Commission , together with the British Iron and Steel Federation and Sheffield Chamber of Commerce considered plans to upgrade the navigation to handle 250 @-@ tonne barges , and work started on new wharfs and warehouses at Rotherham . Control of the navigation passed on again in 1963 , this time to the British Waterways Board , who submitted a proposal to the government for a £ 2 @.@ 5 million upgrade , covering the stretch from Bramwith to Rotherham . This would have involved the construction of ten new locks , each 225 by 25 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 by 7 @.@ 6 m ) , to replace the existing 12 locks . The new main line would then have been the same size as the Aire and Calder Navigation , although some of the bridges would have had less clearance . In 1972 , a further proposal for a £ 2 million scheme to upgrade the waterway to handle 700 @-@ tonne barges up to Mexborough , and 400 @-@ tonne barges from there to Rotherham was submitted to the Department of the Environment .

Finally , the navigation was the subject of one of the last major attempts in the UK to attract commercial freight to the waterways . In 1983 , it was upgraded to the 700 @-@ tonne Eurobarge standard by deepening the channels and enlarging the locks as far as Rotherham . Conisbrough lock was removed altogether , and the two Eastwood locks were combined into one . The new lock was initially named the Sir Frank Price Lock , after the chairman of the British Waterways Board who formally opened it on 1 June 1983 . The expected rise in freight traffic did not occur , however . At Kilnhurst and Long Sandall , the new larger locks were built alongside the original locks , and so a comparison of the relative sizes can be made .

The new locks are 198 by 20 feet ( 60 @.@ 4 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , and the navigation accommodates boats with a draught of 8 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) and needing headroom of 10 @.@ 5 feet ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) . Beyond Rotherham , the locks are 70 by 15 @.@ 1 feet ( 21 @.@ 3 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) , and so can accommodate a 70 feet ( 21 m ) broad boat , but Rotherham lock is smaller , being only 61 @.@ 5 feet ( 18 @.@ 7 m ) long , and so the upper reaches are effectively restricted to 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) boats .

= = Route = =

The River Don Navigation ended at Tinsley Wharf , but it forms a convenient place to start a description of the route . The wharf was on the river , just upstream from the present junction with the canal to Sheffield . It was close to the site of the Meadowhall Shopping Centre and the Tinsley Viaduct , which carries the M1 motorway over the valley of the River Don . From here there is a towpath along the canal to Victoria Quays ( formerly Sheffield Basin ) in Sheffield City Centre , or the Five Weirs Walk follows the course of the River Don to the same destination . The towpath extends to Rotherham in the opposite direction , passing the large Jordans Weir and the three locks on the Holmes Cut . Beside Jordans Weir is the outfall from Blackburn Meadows sewage treatment plant . In dry weather , this discharges 30 million gallons ( 136 @,@ 000 m3 ) of treated water each day , more than doubling the flow in the river .

The towpath continues to Rotherham Lock , where the Rotherham cut starts , but from here to Conisbrough , the only way to see the navigation is from a boat or from one of the bridges which cross it . To the north of the cut are the remains of the Greasbrough Canal , now culverted under the embankment of the A633 road . Eastwood lock marks the end of the Rotherham Cut , to be followed by Aldwarke Lock , in the shadow of the A6123 road bridge , and Kilnhurst flood lock , which marks the start of the Kilnhurst Cut . In Swinton , the stub of the Dearne and Dove Canal turns off to the left , and there are three more locks before the cut ends . Immediately following this , the River Dearne flows into the Don , and the towpath resumes , where the Dearne Way footpath ends .

The route continues through a wooded valley , past the site of the Sprotborough Flash Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , with the towpath forming part of the Trans Pennine Trail . Sprotborough lock and weir are situated just before Sprotborough . Just below the lock on the north bank are the remains of an engine house , built in the 1690s for Sir Godfrey Copley of Sprotborough Hall . A water wheel pumped river water some 100 feet ( 30 m ) upwards to supply a fountain in the grounds of the hall , a swimming pool , and also provided a water supply for the village . The pump was powered by a water wheel which was removed in the 1970s . Soon the edge of Doncaster is reached , where amongst the railway marshalling yards , the River Don leaves the navigation for the final time , as does the towpath . The two weir streams flow either side of Doncaster prison , effectively forming an island on which the building sits . Doncaster Town Lock is situated close to Doncaster railway station , and between here and Long Sandall Lock , some of the changes which have occurred over the years can be visualised , with the river on the left and ox @-@ bow lakes on the right , severed by the course of the Wheatley Cut . The final section to Bramwith is usually called the River Dun Navigation . At Bramwith , the waterway splits , with the New Junction Canal heading north @-@ east for the Aire and Calder Navigation and Goole , and the Stainforth and Keadby Canal heading east to the River Trent at Keadby . The River Don heads northwards too , turning to the east where the Dutch River starts at Newbridge . The original course to the River Aire can be traced across the fields , now little more than a drainage ditch crossed by an oversized Grade II listed bridge on the A1041 at East Cowick , and Vermuyden 's embankments are closely followed by the A614 road after it has crossed the M18 motorway .

= = Structures = =

This section provides details of some of the many bridges crossing the Don Navigation , in west @-@ to @-@ east order , starting from Tinsley .

= = = Tinsley and Rotherham area = = =

= = = = MS & L railway bridge = = = =

This bridge , which is located a little below the junction of the Sheffield Canal and the river , carries the Sheffield to Rotherham freight @-@ only railway line . The railway , which opened in 1868 , was originally part of the Manchester , Sheffield & Lincolnshire Railway , which later became part of the Great Central Railway . Between this railway bridge and Jordan Bridge , there are two bridges carrying pipes .

= = = = Jordan Bridge = = = =

Called " Jordan Bridge 21 " by British Waterways , this bridge carried a railway that linked Blackburn Meadows Sewage Works to additional filters and contact beds to the east of the navigation . It was constructed by Logan and Hemmingway , who won a contract valued at £ 41 @,@ 046 in April 1907 , which included six settling tanks , 24 contact beds , and the bridge . The eastern approach consists of three brick arches , which allowed a siding to pass through it . Continued expansion of the works required a second bridge to be constructed in 1922 , to carry the railway over the river channel . The steelwork for Holmes bridge was supplied by Charles Ross Ltd , who were based in Sheffield , while piling work was carried out by Yorkshire Hennebique Concreting Co Ltd .

= = = = Holmes Lock Bridge = = = =

This carries Steel Street – a minor road linking the Blackburn Meadows Nature Reserve Car Park with Holmes . The bridge still has railway tracks embedded in part of the cobbled road surface . The tracks were part of a network of sidings which served the Holmes Rolling Mills on the north bank of the navigation , and the bridge provided access to a crushing plant situated on the island formed by the course of the river to the south and the Holmes Cut to the north .

= = = = Midland Railway bridges = = = =

The western of the two railway bridges was built in 1869 , but the line it carried was truncated by the building of the Holmes Chord in the 1980s , and it is now unused . The eastern of the two bridges was built in 1840 as part of the North Midland Railway . This carried the " main line " from Derby to York until the diversion via Bradway and Sheffield was opened in 1870 . The line is now freight @-@ only .

= = = = Lockhouse Bridge = = = =

Just east of Ickles Lock , this is actually two bridges . The western bridge carries the continuation of Millmoor Lane and the eastern the ex @-@ MS & L freight @-@ only line between Tinsley and Rotherham Central .

= = = = Centenary Way bridge ( south ) = = = =

This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation , which has now been re @-@ joined by the River Don . The road ( A630 ) is an upgrading of the old Canklow Road and is the main access into Rotherham from the M1 . It also forms part of the Rotherham Ring Road which was begun about 1968 , actually only goes half way around town , was built in sections and completed in 1995 . The towpath of the navigation ( part of the Trans @-@ Pennine Trail ) is carried on a walkway that is cantilevered over the Don from the retaining wall of the factory site to the north .

= = = = Corporation Bridge = = = =

This single @-@ span metal bridge carries Main Street over the navigation . Slightly upstream of this bridge was a wooden railway bridge with seven arches , built in 1838 , that took the Sheffield and Rotherham Railway into Westgate Station . It was demolished in 1952 . Prior to the re @-@ routing of the canal in 1864 , the Westgate line crossed the Holmes cut a little further to the west by a three @-@ arched bridge , the centre arch of which was 36 feet ( 11 m ) long and was made of iron .

= = = = Rotherham Lock footbridge = = = =

This footbridge provides pedestrian access to the Court House from Forge Island , which was once the site of an iron works but is now occupied by Tesco 's . The River Don separates from the navigation above Forge Island , and there is a road and pedestrian bridge across the river into Forge Island .

= = = = Bridge Street Bridge ( Chantry Bridge ) and Rotherham Bridge = = = =

Bridge Street Bridge ( Chantry Bridge ) is a single @-@ span metal bridge that carries Bridge Street over the navigation . The street continues eastwards and originally crossed the river at Rotherham Bridge . As originally constructed in 1483 the bridge had four arches and was 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide , but it was widened and a fifth arch added in 1768 . In 1930 a new bridge was built nearby , a little further upstream , and as part of the work , the fifth arch was removed and the bridge was returned to its Medieval width . Because of improvements to the river made in the 18th and 19th centuries , it is wider than it used to be , and the bridge no longer reaches the west bank . The chapel on the bridge is one of only three complete bridge chapels that still exist in Britain , the other two being at Wakefield , West Yorkshire , and St Ives , Huntingdonshire . Dating from about 1483 , it remained in use as a chapel until the reign of King Edward VI ( 1547 – 1553 ) . It was put to use as almshouses during the 17th and 18th centuries , and in 1779 it was used as a prison . Later , it became a private dwelling and finally a tobacconist 's shop , before being returned to its original use as a chapel ; it was formally reconsecrated in 1924 by the Bishop of Sheffield .

= = = = Centenary Way bridge ( north ) = = = =

This carries the Centenary Way dual carriageway over the navigation .

= = = = Greasbrough Road Bridge = = = =

The Greasbrough Road is no longer a main road and only serves local businesses . Downstream of this bridge are 3 pipe bridges .

= = = = Rawmarsh Road Bridge = = = =

Called “ Rotherham Rawmarsh Road Bridge 39 ” by British Waterways , this bridge carries the A633 Rotherham Road ( from Rotherham to Parkgate ) . The A633 crossing of the River Don is called Grafton Bridge .

= = = = Eastwood Footbridge = = = =

This carries the public footpath from the Eastwood area of Rotherham to the Parkgate Retail Park . When the Rotherham Cut section of the Don Navigation was constructed in 1740 , the crossing was by means of a swing bridge . This was replaced by the current footbridge in the late 1900s . To the south of Eastwood Footbridge is a bailey bridge crossing of the River Don .

= = = = Wash Lane Bridge = = = =

This bridge is situated immediately downstream of Aldwarke Weir and upstream of Aldwarke Lock . It was rebuilt in 1834 . In more recent times , it has been superseded by the A6123 ( Aldwarke Lane ) road bridge spanning both river and navigation . The bridge is now gated at both ends to prevent access to pedestrians and traffic .

= = = = Steelworks access ( road ) bridge = = = =

This provides access to the two steelworks from the A630 road at Dalton .

= = = = Don ( rail ) Bridge = = = =

This forms part of the internal rail network of the two steelworks . It was constructed in 1901 as part of what was called locally John Brown 's Private Railway . This railway connected the Silverwood and Roundwood Collieries of John Brown & Company with wharves on the Don Navigation . The girder bridge crossing the Don Navigation was the main engineering work on this railway line . It was built by Newton , Chambers & Company .

= = = = Thrybergh ( rail ) Bridge = = = =

This carried the former Great Central and Midland Railways ' joint line across the River Don . This line was double track . It was essentially a colliery line and never carried a regular passenger service .

= = = Kilnhurst and Mexborough area = = =

= = = = Kilnhurst Station Road Bridge = = = =

This is bridge number 46 and conveys the road to Hooton Roberts . The bridge over the Navigation adjoins the bridge over the railway . The bridge over railway is original , but that over the Navigation is a modern replacement . The " Station " in the name Station Road refers to the Kilnhurst Central ( Great Central ) Station rather than the Kilnhurst West ( Midland Railway ) Station .

= = = = Kilnhurst Burton Ings Bridge = = = =

This is bridge number 47 and conveys a service road over the Navigation and railway . At this point on the west side of the Navigation , there was a large tar distillation works and it is probable that this road connected that works with a tip or further chemical plant on the east side . The tar distillation works was built by Ellison & Mitchell in 1886 and became part of the Yorkshire Tar Distillers group in 1927 .

= = = = Swinton Talbot Road Bridge = = = =

This is bridge number 48 and connects the main road in Swinton ( A6022 Bridge Street and Rowms Lane ) with an industrial estate whose principal unit is the Morphy Richards distribution centre .

= = = = Mexborough Double Bridges = = = =

This is named " Double Bridges and Footbridge 49A " by the Canal & River Trust . The bridge carries a footway and double @-@ track railway over the Navigation . This section of the Navigation must have represented quite a challenge for full @-@ size barges to negotiate since the bridges are immediately adjacent to a right @-@ angle bend in the canal .

= = = = Mexborough Station Road Bridge = = = =

This is bridge number 52 and carries the access road to Mexborough railway station from the A6023 Greens Way ( and the town centre ) .

= = = = Mexborough BBCS Flour Mill = = = =

This imposing building ( and associated wharf ) stands on the north side of the Navigation close to the Church of St John the Baptist . It started off as the " Don Roller Mills " . It was owned by James White who sold it to the Barnsley British Cooperative Society in 1912 .

= = = Conisbrough and Warmsworth area = = =

= = = = Conisbrough Earth Centre Bridge = = = =

This is named " Cadeby Colliery Bridge 57 " by the Canal & River Trust because it once provided a road access to Cadeby Colliery from the south . From 1999 to 2004 , the bridge provided the main access to the ill @-@ fated Earth Centre visitor attraction . The bridge now forms part of public access from Conisbrough Station to the main ( west @-@ east ) section of the Trans Pennine Trail . There are two pipe bridges just upstream of the road bridge .

= = = = Conisbrough Viaduct = = = =

Conisbrough Viaduct was built in the first decade of the 20th century as part of the Dearne Valley Railway . This was a line which essentially served a coalfield , although there was a rudimentary passenger service between 1912 and 1951 . The remaining coal traffic on the line ceased in 1966 . The viaduct has 21 arches and was built from 12 million Conisbrough blue bricks . The central metal span is 150 feet ( 46 m ) long and crosses the Don at a height of 113 feet ( 34 m ) . The viaduct remained out of use until 2001 , when ownership was transferred to Railway Paths Ltd , who manage potentially useful railway structures until they can be incorporated into the National Cycle Network . Installation of a new deck surface and safety railings were funded by the Railway Heritage Trust in early 2008 , and the viaduct re @-@ opened as part of the Sustrans network in April 2008 .

= = = = Rainbow Bridge = = = =

Built in 1849 as part of the South Yorkshire Railway , which later became part of the Great Central Railway , the Rainbow bridge is still in use and carries the Swinton to Doncaster railway line .

= = = = Sprotbrough Bridge = = = =

Sprotbrough Bridge is actually two bridges that carry Mill Lane , the southern one crossing the weir stream and the northern one crossing the lock cut . Replacing a ferry crossing of the river , the first bridge and associated toll house were built in 1849 for Sir Joseph William Copley of Sprotbrough Hall . The designers of the southern bridge were Benjamin Brundell and William Arnold , and the present structure has three segmental arches on each side , which originally formed the approaches to a central arch . The arch was replaced by an above @-@ deck truss in 1897 . The ironwork was manufactured by Newton Chambers & Co . Ltd . , who were based at Thorncliffe Ironworks in Sheffield , as recorded by plates attached to the bridge . The northern bridge was a single @-@ arched masonry structure , which has been replaced by a plate girder bridge resting on the original piers . The toll house , consisting of a single storey with a half basement , made of dressed sandstone with an asphalt roof , still survives on the northern bank of the lock cut . Tolls collected here for passage over Sprotbrough Bridge were said to have been given by the Copley family to the Doncaster Dispensary .

= = = = A1 Don Viaduct = = = =

This bridge carries the A1 ( M ) motorway over the river ; it was opened by Ernest Marples , the Minister of Transport , on 31 July 1961 . It consists of two separate structures , one for each carriageway , each having seven spans . The longest span , formed from two 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) cantilevers and a suspended central span of 100 feet ( 30 m ) , carries the motorway over the river at a height of 70 feet ( 21 m ) . The total length of the structure is 760 feet ( 230 m ) , and it has a slight horizontal and vertical curve at its southern end . Five riveted steel girders and a 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) composite concrete deck support each carriageway . The bridge was one of the first to use rubber bearings , and the first to use bitumen membranes lined with copper to make the decks waterproof . The design includes jacking points to compensate for mining subsidence .

= = = = Warmsworth railway viaducts = = = =

There are two railway viaducts at Warmsworth . The western one was completed in 1914 and formed part of the Hull & Barnsley and Great Central Joint Railway . This was essentially a railway to serve the coalfield and was closed in 1958 . For some years after closure , the viaduct was used to carry a conveyor belt over the Don . It became part of the Doncaster spur on the Trans @-@ Pennine Trail , which was officially opened in 2001 . The steel pillars supporting the viaduct are filled with limestone . Its construction , which uses an above @-@ deck truss , contrasts with the below @-@ deck truss of the eastern viaduct , which was completed in 1910 and formed part of the Great Central Railway . It still carries a freight @-@ only line that avoids a crossing on the level of the East Coast Main Line at Doncaster Station .

= = = Doncaster Town area = = =

= = = = Newtons Farm Footbridge = = = =

Two bridges situated side @-@ by side , one made of concrete and the other a wooden bridge , cross one of the two weir channels where the river leaves the navigation before Doncaster Town Lock .

= = = = Cheswold Hauling Bridge = = = =

Cheswold Hauling Bridge , also known as Cheswold High Bridge , is a footbridge on the navigation towpath , which crosses the second of the two weir streams where the river leaves the navigation upstream of Doncaster Town Lock . The small section of river between the footbridge and where it rejoins that part of the River Don that left the navigation at Newtons Farm footbridge is called the River Cheswold , reputedly the shortest river in Great Britain .

= = = = North Bridge and St Marys Bridge = = = =

North Bridge Road is carried over the railway and then the navigation at Doncaster Town Lock by North Bridge , and over the Don by St Mary 's Bridge . North Bridge Road was previously part of the Great North Road . Until 1910 , this crossed the railway on the level before crossing the Don Navigation . After 1910 , a lengthy iron bridge took the road over the railway , navigation and river . This bridge was replaced by the current North Bridge in 2003 . Its use has been restricted to buses , taxis , cyclists and pedestrians since the new St George 's Bridge opened . The new bridge was constructed over the top of the old one while it was still in situ . Once the old bridge had been stripped of its surface trimmings the deck was cut up into 25 @-@ tonne sections , which were suspended from the new structure . A pulley system was used to transport these sections along the underside of the new bridge , so that they could be lowered onto the towpath , where they were cut up further before removal from the site .

= = = = Railway bridges = = = =

Below the North Bridge , the six railway tracks north of Doncaster Station cross the Don Navigation on three separate bridges . This section of tracks is known as Marshgate Junction and is where the lines to Leeds , York and Thorne diverge .

= = = = Friars Gate Bridge = = = =

This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses and car parks on the " island " between the river and navigation .

= = = = St George 's Bridge = = = =

St George 's Bridge is one of the newest bridges over the Don . It carries the dual carriageway New Bridge Road , part of the A19 , which is now the main road north out of Doncaster . It was opened on 22 November 2001 , and was named St George 's Bridge as a result of a public competition . It consists of a 690 @-@ yard ( 630 m ) long steel @-@ composite bridge with spans of 49 yards ( 45 m ) over the River Don , the East Coast Main Line , and the Don Navigation . The ladder beam layout , using two main plate girders , cross @-@ girders at 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) centres and precast planks , was chosen both to optimise the deck and to minimise the size and number of the piers .

= = = = Chappell Drive Bridge = = = =

This bridge provides access across the navigation from the centre of Doncaster to the small businesses situated on the " island " between the river and navigation . It is situated immediately north of the Hub campus of Doncaster College . Going downstream , there is a gap of some 5 miles ( 8 km ) before the next public road crossing of the navigation at Barnby Dun .

= = = Barnby Dun area = = =

= = = = Kirk Sandall Railway Bridge = = = =

This bridge conveys the ( ex @-@ Great Central Railway ) Doncaster @-@ to @-@ Hull railway over the Navigation . The bridge consists of two single @-@ span decks , both with above deck trusses . The older south deck ( pictured here ) is no longer used . The north deck accommodates both tracks of what is now a double @-@ track railway . The quadruple track from Thorne Junction on this line now finishes at Kirk Sandall Junction , a few hundred metres to the east . A further bridge to the west conveys the railway over the River Don .

= = = = Kirk Sandall Pipe Bridge = = = =

At this point , the Navigation runs parallel to , and a few metres to the south @-@ east of , the River Don . A pipe bridge high above both the Navigation and the River once carry waste from the glass works which adjoined the towpath ( to the south @-@ east ) across to a series of settling ponds ( to the north @-@ west ) . The glass works was a major employer in the Kirk Sandall area . The St Helens @-@ based Pilkington Bros established a plate glass works here in the early 1920s . The site was chosen for its proximity to the canal and railway , and for the sandy terrain which was needed for the production of glass . Pilkingtons also funded the building of 400 new houses in the Brecks Lane area , together with associated school and recreational facilities . The glass works closed in the 1990s and its site is now occupied by various units on an industrial estate .

= = = = Barnby Dun Lift Bridge = = = =

This was built in 1983 to replace the original ( 1900 ) swing bridge . It is built of steel and powered by electricity . The replacement work cost £ 0.5M and was part of a wider upgrade of the Navigation to conform to the 700 @-@ tonne Eurobarge standard ( see Later Development section of this article ) . An elevated control house was built for the sole use of operational staff , but in recent years a freestanding low level standard control console has been built for the use of boaters when the bridge is not staffed . Sykehouse Lift Bridge ( downstream of Barnby Dun ) was built to the same technical specification . Although the bridge carries an unclassified road linking Barnby Dun and Bentley , the bridge also provided the only access for heavy loads to the nearby Thorpe Marsh power station , so the bridge was designed to carry abnormal loads of up to 180 tons gross weight . Although Thorpe Marsh Power Station has now been demolished , the bridge is still busy with road traffic . This is because it is one of the few crossings of the Navigation in this area .

= = Points of interest = =

= The Alliance ( The Office ) =

" The Alliance " is the fourth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fourth episode overall . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on April 12 , 2005 . It was written by Michael Schur and directed by Bryan Gordon , marking their first credits for the show .

In this episode , paranoia takes over the members of the office as downsizing rumors swirl . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) forms a Survivor @-@ esque alliance with Jim ( John Krasinski ) against the other employees — later adding Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) also . Meanwhile , Michael ( Steve Carell ) arranges a morale @-@ boosting birthday party for Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) — although her birthday is more than a month away . Michael agonizes over writing the perfect greeting in her birthday card , and in the end , his joke falls flat , ruining the party .

The episode was inspired by popular reality television shows , most notably Survivor . Originally , the first cut of the episode ran 37 minutes long and the producers considered making the episode a two @-@ parter , one focusing on the Alliance and another focusing on Meredith 's birthday party , but later decided against the idea . In addition , several of the lines and scenes from the episode were improved or ad @-@ libbed by the cast . " The Alliance " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 4 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 % rating share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received positive reviews from critics .

= = Synopsis = =

Although time has dragged on , the downsizing rumors at Dunder Mifflin have not ceased . Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) feels particularly threatened by the impending crisis , and , in an act of desperation , forms an alliance with his office nemesis Jim ( John Krasinski ) . Jim sees the alliance as an opportunity with great potential and agrees as a lark . He immediately enlists Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) ' s help in the situation . The two continue to perform a series of office pranks at the expense of Dwight .

Meanwhile , Michael ( Steve Carell ) tries to boost morale in the office by having an office birthday party for Meredith ( Kate Flannery ) , even though her birthday is a month away . Michael agonizes over writing the perfect greeting in her birthday card . In the end , his joke ( and subsequent rejected ones ) falls flat and ruins the party . At the same time Oscar also gets him to donate money to his nephew 's cerebral palsy walk @-@ a @-@ thon , which Michael accidentally overcontributes to in an effort to look like a good boss .

At the end of the day , after a breakthrough in his pranks on Dwight , Jim giddily grabs Pam 's hand in an attempt to explain what has just happened . However , Pam 's fiancé Roy ( David Denman ) catches this and sees it as an attempt by Jim to make a move on Pam . Jim tries to convince Roy that it was just " office pranks " and asks Dwight to back him up , but he simply denies any involvement leaving Jim awkwardly embarrassed . Dwight reveals that he had no problems betraying Jim , despite the fact that he recently fell into one of Jim 's tricks .

= = Production = =

The episode was inspired by popular reality television shows , most notably Survivor . The " Can I trust Jim ... " line was a direct reference to the show and was a " last @-@ second addition " according to Daniels . In addition , Randall Einhorn , the camera man for the episode , was a camera man for Survivor . When the episode was being written , many of the cast and crew feared that it would bear too many stylistic resemblances to Curb Your Enthusiasm . Daniels later defended the show , saying that the show was different because of " the fact that they are on TV and they know they are being filmed . [ They know they 're ] on camera . " During the writing of the episode , Daniels made the writers spend actual time on the set , most notably in Michael 's office . Mindy Kaling later noted that she " hated it . "

The first cut of the episode ran 37 minutes long and the producers were tasked with cutting the footage down to 22 minutes . Executive producer Greg Daniels considered making the episode a two @-@ parter , one focusing on the Alliance and another focusing on Meredith 's birthday party , but the appearance of party hats in the Alliance @-@ only scenes caused him to nix this idea . Because the episode had to be cut down due to time , several scenes were drastically cut . The filming crew actually shot about 15 – 20 minutes of Steve Carell coming up with terrible card ideas , which was drastically cut for the episode . During the party , Ryan talks to a different woman in the background of each scene . Although not much footage made it into the final episode , the producers thought this was a nice character touch for the new employee . The penultimate scenes of Michael telling several terrible jokes to Meredith was cut down from the original 15 . The final scene where Roy confronts Jim was shot ten different times , each in a different style , ranging from Roy slamming Jim into the wall to Roy asking Jim , " Hey , what are you doing ? " Although the crew felt that the wall @-@ slamming version was more dramatic , they realized that it caused the episode to go from a comedy to an " angry drama . "

Several of the lines and scenes from the episode were improved or ad @-@ libbed by the cast . Jenna Fischer named the party planning scene her favorite scene and called it " longest most horrible meeting of all time " . On the commentary track for the episode , Fischer revealed that the scene was almost entirely ad @-@ libbed . At one point , Phyllis Smith , who portrays Phyllis Margaret Vance ( née Lapin ) , made a joke that made every one on set laugh , forcing production to halt for almost 45 minutes . Dwight 's " gun show " joke was written by Rainn Wilson . Larry Wilmore later called the " gun show " scene his favorite . Wilmore later said of ab @-@ libs , " part of the fun in writing a show like this is trying to write lines that sound like ad @-@ libs . " Daniels also praised the episode 's lines , saying , " when you know the acting is really good , it all sounds like it 's been improvised . "

The scenes where Dwight climbs into a box almost did not make the episode . Mike Schur , who wrote the episode , feared that Dwight climbing into the box would not only make the episode " crazy broad , " but also make the rest of the episode look boring by comparison . After shooting the scene , however , he described it as " the most natural thing in the world . " Phil Shaw , the stunt man for The Office , did most of the work in the box . Schur described Dwight 's emergence from the box as his " action hero " moment . Daniels likened the scene to the movie Alien .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original American broadcast on 12 April 2005 , " The Alliance " was viewed by an estimated 5 @.@ 4 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 4 / 6 % rating share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 4 % of all 18 – 49 year @-@ olds , and 6 % of all 18 – 49 year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode , airing after Scrubs , retained 100 % of its lead @-@ in 18 – 49 audience for the second week in a row .

= = = Reviews = = =

The episode received positive reviews from critics , with many praising the developing relationship between Pam and Jim . Travis Fickett from IGN praised the episode and compared Jim and Pam 's relationship in the first season to that of the fourth , saying , " Jim and Pam simply work better before they were a couple . The fact that Roy can come between them here is fun – and reminds us that it was more interesting when something could still come between them ! " In summary , he concluded that , " [ ' The Alliance ' ] is one of the better early episodes of the show , and going out with Dwight talking to the camera – his hair dyed blonde – is genius and gives us ( up to this point ) the most perfect ' Dwight ' moment of the show so far . " Television critic Robin Pierson noted that in the episode , " The Jim and Pam relationship begins to take real shape here . " He later called the moment when Roy nearly attacks Jim as " a much more ' real ' moment that the rest of the episode . " Furthermore , Pierson criticized the characterization of Dwight , noting that his actions were " stupidly naïve " . Miss Alli from Television Without Pity gave the episode an A.

Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " . He felt that the episode was " akin to a newborn deer working the wobbles out of its legs " and that " it ’ s a milestone for The Office , in that it represents the first time an episode generated so much material it could ’ ve occupied a full hour of airtime " . He felt that Michael 's plot was funny , but had issues . He argued that the retooling of Michael 's character made him a more likable character even when he was doing something inappropriate ; in this episode , however , his behavior is too cringe @-@ inducing . Adams praised the scene wherein Dwight emerged from the box , calling it one of " The Office 's first great sigh gags " . Furthermore , he felt that the scene was symbolic , as it produced " a stronger , deadlier , better character " .

= The Boat Race 1975 =

The 121st Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 29 March 1975 . Cambridge won their seventh race in eight years by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 19 minutes and 27 seconds . The race was umpired by former Oxford rower Christopher Davidge .

In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . Cambridge won the 30th Women 's Boat Race .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1974 race by five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 67 victories to Oxford 's 52 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The umpire for the race was Christopher Davidge , who had rowed for Oxford in the 1949 , 1951 and 1952 races , and was a non @-@ rowing Oxford University Boat Club president for the 1950 race .

The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .

In the month leading up to the race , Cambridge 's crew saw some significant changes , including the removal of David Sturge ( who had rowed in the 1973 race ) due to glandular fever . However , the Cambridge boat club president Steve Tourek was circumspect : " Cambridge might be slower than planned but still fast enough to beat Oxford . " On 24 March 1975 , Cambridge beat Oxford 's record time ( set five days earlier ) between Hammersmith Bridge and the Mile Post by two seconds . The following day , Oxford 's coach Dan Topolski revealed that the Oxford reserve crew , Isis , had equalled the record time , downplaying Cambridge 's efforts : " Shows how fast conditions really were yesterday . " Cambridge coach Lou Barry remarked of his charges : " this is a fast crew " .

= = Crews = =

The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 9 @.@ 75 lb ( 86 @.@ 8 kg ) , 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained two former Blues in boat club president Nick Tee and stroke Graham Innes , while Cambridge saw Nick Bradley , Henry Clay and Tourek return from the 1974 boat . Although the British international rower David Sturge was replaced through illness prior to the race , the Light Blues also saw international @-@ standard rowers Alistair Christie and James Macleod in the crew , both of whom had withdrawn from selection for the 1974 race to represent Great Britain . Only two competitors in the race were registered as " overseas " Blues , Oxford 's number five John Hutchings and his counterpart and Tourek , both from the United States .

= = Race = =

Cambridge started as pre @-@ race favourite ; according to the author and former rower Dickie Burnell , although Oxford had some " useful new recruits " no @-@ one " outside their immediate camp thought they could win . " Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Oxford took an early lead , but by the Mile Post , Cambridge had recovered to lead by two seconds . Extending their lead , the Light Blues gained a clear water advantage by Harrods Furniture Depository and moved in front of the Dark Blue boat . Shooting Hammersmith Bridge five seconds ahead , Cambridge held a length @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lead which they defended against a number of Oxford pushes . Midway round the Surrey bend , Oxford 's bow man Andrew Baird 's oar came out of its gate , allowing Cambridge to increase their lead by another length . A seven @-@ second lead at Chiswick Steps was extended to nine seconds by Barnes Bridge , and along the final bend , Cambridge pushed their lead further out to nearly four lengths , passing the finishing post in 19 minutes 27 seconds , thirteen seconds ahead of their rivals . It was Cambridge 's seventh victory in the previous eight years , having lost to Oxford in 1974 .

In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by nine @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , their first win since the 1966 race . In the 30th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , winning their 13th consecutive race .

= = Reaction = =

Oxford 's Baird claimed " I might have caught a crab , but I do not really know what happened . " Cambridge number six MacLeod said of the Dark Blues : " They kept coming at us time and time again . I was only sure of victory in the last mile of the race . " Christopher Dodd , writing in The Guardian was impressed : " The contest had a rare element ... it was a race nearly all the way , and was not all over in the first 20 stokes as has so often been the case in recent years . " Burnell suggested it was a race for the aficionados : " This was surely one of those so common Boat Races , which are hard fought all the way , yet never exciting from the point of view of the average spectator . "

= Reginald de Warenne =

Reginald de Warenne ( sometimes Rainald de Warenne ; between 1121 and 1126 – 1179 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman nobleman and royal official . The third son of an earl , Reginald began his career as an administrator of his brother 's estates and married the heiress to the feudal barony of Wormegay in Norfolk . By the reign of King Henry II , Reginald was a royal justice and played a minor role in the Becket controversy in 1170 . He died in 1179 and left a son and heir together with several daughters .

= = Origins = =

Reginald de Warenne was the third son of William de Warenne , the second Earl of Surrey , who died in 1138 . Reginald 's mother was Isabel de Vermandois . Reginald was likely born between 1121 and 1126 . Reginald 's brothers were William de Warenne , the third Earl of Surrey , and Ralph de Warenne . Reginald 's two sisters were Gundrada de Warenne who married first Roger , Earl of Warwick and then William of Lancaster , and Ada de Warenne who married Henry , Earl of Huntingdon . Ada 's husband was the only son of King David I of Scotland , and she was the mother of two kings of Scotland – Malcolm IV and William I. From their mother 's first marriage to Robert de Beaumont , Reginald and his siblings were half @-@ siblings of the twins Robert de Beaumont the Earl of Leicester and Waleran de Beaumont , the Count of Meulan and Earl of Worcester . There was another Reginald de Warenne alive during Reginald 's lifetime – this may have been an illegitimate half @-@ brother .

= = Early career = =

Reginald first appears in the historical record around 1138 when he was a witness on some of his father 's charters . Reginald was one of the main administrators of his elder brother 's estates up until 1147 . Reginald also had his own lands that he was granted from his brother 's honour in Norfolk and Sussex . While his brother was on crusade , Reginald granted the right to form a merchant guild to the inhabitants of the town of Lewes , as long as his brother agreed after his return from crusade . William , the third earl , died in early 1148 while on crusade and the earldom and estates passed to William 's daughter Isabel , whom King Stephen of England married to the king 's second son , William . Reginald continued to serve the new earl and also began to serve the king , witnessing a number of royal charters . Reginald eventually became the main advisor to the new earl .

Reginald was granted the castles of Bellencombre and Mortemer in the charter of Westminster in 1153 which settled the rights that William , the surviving son of King Stephen , received for not contesting the crown of England going to Henry of Anjou after Stephen 's death , and was also a witness to the charter . Reginald continued to serve as a royal official , witnessing a number of the new king 's charters .

= = Royal service = =

In 1157 Reginald was one of the justices present when King Henry II decided a case between Hilary of Chichester , the Bishop of Chichester and Walter de Luci , the Abbot of Battle Abbey . In 1164 he was present at the Council of Clarendon , which was part of the long struggle between King Henry II and the new Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket , over the control of the English church . Reginald also accompanied the king 's daughter Matilda to Germany for her marriage to Henry the Lion , Duke of Saxony .

Reginald was one of the four main justices involved with the general eyre in 1168 through 1170 , along with Richard of Ilchester , Guy the Dean of Waltham Holy Cross , and William Basset . In 1168 , Henry II summoned Reginald as a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ law , one of the first identifiable members of that order in the historical record . Besides these administrative and judicial roles , Reginald was a baron of the exchequer in 1169 and held the office of Sheriff of Sussex from 1170 to 1176 .

In 1170 , Reginald was involved with attempts to keep Thomas Becket , who had been in exile , from returning to England . Working with Reginald were Roger de Pont L 'Évêque – the Archbishop of York , Gilbert Foliot – the Bishop of London , Josceline de Bohon – the Bishop of Salisbury , Gervase de Cornhill – the Sheriff of Kent , and Ranulf de Broc . At that time , Reginald was a royal justiciar . Reginald was part of the party that met Becket at Sandwich on 1 December 1070 when the archbishop returned to England . Reginald 's group , led by Gervase of Cornhill , complained that the archbishop was sowing dissension in the land by his excommunication of the three ecclesiastics , but Becket managed to calm the officials by stating he would consider the matter and reply to them the next day . The next day the group was accompanied by some clergy sent by the ecclesiastics who had been excommunicated by Becket . Nothing further was accomplished by this meeting except further offers from Becket to consider other options . Reginald was involved in a further attempt at resolving the differences between the king and Becket later in December 1170 , which again came to nothing .

In 1173 Reginald worked for the king , along with Richard fitz Nigel and Nicholas de Sigillo , when all three men assessed a land tax on parts of the royal demesne . These three men assessed the tax in the counties of Buckinghamshire , Bedfordshire , Oxfordshire , Kent and Sussex . During the Revolt of 1173 – 74 Reginald served the king as castellan of Hastings Castle .

= = Death and legacy = =

Reginald married Alice , the daughter and heiress of William de Wormegay , Baron of Wormegay in Norfolk . William de Wormegay died in 1166 and Reginald was fined a bit over 466 pounds by the king for the right to inherit his father @-@ in @-@ law 's lands . With his father @-@ in @-@ law 's death he became Lord of Wormegay , or Baron Wormegay . This lordship was assessed at 14 and a quarter knight 's fees and was located mostly in Norfolk and Suffolk . The centre of the honour was at Lynn , Norfolk .

Sometime between Michaelmas 1178 and the start of 1179 , Reginald retired from public life and became a monk at Lewes Priory , which had been founded by his family . When he retired , the Exchequer began to pressure him to repay his debts owed to the king , which for the previous decade or more they had ignored . Reginald died in 1179 , and his heir was his son William de Warenne . Besides his son , Reginald also had several daughters . One was Gundrada who married three times – first to Peter de Valognes , son of Roger de Valognes , second to William de Courcy , son of William de Courcy and Avice de Rumilly the daughter of William Meschin , and third to Geoffrey Hose , the son of Henry Hose . Another daughter was Alice who married Peter , constable of Mealton . A possible third daughter was Muriel , who was a nun at Carrow Abbey . Another possible daughter was Ela , who married Duncan the Earl of Fife . At his death , Reginald still owed a large portion of the fine he 'd been assessed for the inheritance of his father @-@ in @-@ law 's estates .

The historian Edmund King has called Reginald " the fixer in that formidable family " . Reginald gave lands and gifts to a number of monasteries . Among these were the Warenne family foundations of Lewes and Castle Acre Priory , with further gifts to Carrow , Clerkenwell Priory , and Binham Priory .

= 1988 Winter Olympics =

The 1988 Winter Olympics , officially known as the XV Olympic Winter Games ( French : Les XVes Jeux olympiques d 'hiver ) , was a Winter Olympics multi @-@ sport event celebrated in and around Calgary , Alberta , Canada between February 13 and 28 , 1988 . The host city was selected in 1981 over Falun , Sweden and Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy . Most events took place in Calgary while several skiing events were held in the mountain resorts of Nakiska and Canmore , west of the city .

A then @-@ record 57 nations competed and 1 @,@ 423 athletes participated . The Soviet Union won the most medals with 29 , followed by East Germany with 25 . As it had in Montreal in 1976 , Canada again failed to win a gold medal in an official medal event as the host nation . Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip were individual medal leaders , capturing three gold medals apiece . The games are also remembered for the " heroic failure " of British ski jumper Eddie " The Eagle " Edwards and the Winter Olympic début of the Jamaica national bobsled team , both of which would be subjects of major feature films about their participation in the games .

The Calgary games were at the time one of the most expensive Olympics ever held , but the organizing committee turned record television and sponsorship revenue into a net surplus that was used to maintain the facilities built for the Olympics and develop the Calgary region into the heart of Canada 's elite winter sports program . The five purpose @-@ built venues continue to be used in their original functions , and have helped the country develop into one of the top nations in Winter Olympic competition ; Canada more than quintupled the five medals it won in Calgary at the 2010 games , the next Winter Olympics hosted on Canadian soil .

= = Host city selection = =

The bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics was Canada 's seventh attempt at hosting a winter games and Calgary 's fourth . Previous bids representing Montreal ( 1956 ) and Vancouver ( 1976 and 1980 ) bookended failed attempts by the Calgary Olympic Development Association ( CODA ) to host the 1964 , 1968 and 1972 games . The CODA became dormant in 1966 after losing its bid for the 1972 Olympics , but was revived in 1979 under the leadership of Frank King to bid for the 1988 games . Calgary earned the right to bid on behalf of Canada by the Canadian Olympic Association ( COA ) , defeating a rival challenge from a group representing Vancouver . The defeated organizing group lamented that they lost to Calgary 's " big @-@ ticket games " ; the Calgary bid proposed to spend nearly three times what the Vancouver group expected to pay to host the Olympics .

The CODA then spent two years building local support for the project , selling memberships to 80 @,@ 000 of the city 's 600 @,@ 000 residents . It secured C $ 270 million in funding from the federal and provincial governments while civic leaders , including Mayor Ralph Klein , crisscrossed the world attempting to woo International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) delegates . Driven by the arrival of the National Hockey League 's Calgary Flames , the city had already begun constructing an Olympic coliseum ( later named the Olympic Saddledome ) prior to the IOC vote , an action that demonstrated Calgary 's determination to host the games and positively influenced delegates . The city was one of three finalists , opposed by the Swedish community of Falun and Cortina d 'Ampezzo , the Italian town that hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics .

The vote was held September 30 , 1981 , at Baden @-@ Baden , West Germany , during the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress . After Cortina d 'Ampezzo was eliminated in the first round of balloting , Calgary won the right to host the games over Falun by a 48 – 31 vote . The announcement of the CODA 's victory sent delegates in Baden @-@ Baden and residents of Calgary into celebration . It was the first Winter Olympics awarded to Canada , and the second games overall , following the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal .

= = Venues = =

McMahon Stadium , Calgary 's primary outdoor facility , was the site of both the opening and closing ceremonies , the first time in 28 years that the same venue hosted both events . Three other existing venues served as secondary facilities : The Max Bell Centre hosted the demonstration events of curling and short track speed skating . The Father David Bauer Olympic Arena hosted some ice hockey matches , as did the Stampede Corral , which also played host to some figure skating events . Though the Corral did not support the size of the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) ' s standard ice surface , the Calgary Organizing Committee ( Olympiques Calgary Olympics ' 88 or OCO ' 88 ) was able to convince the IIHF to sanction the arena in exchange for a $ 1 @.@ 2 million payment .

The Games ' five primary venues were all purpose @-@ built however , at significant cost . The Olympic Saddledome was the primary venue for ice hockey and figure skating . Located at Stampede Park , the facility was expected to cost $ 83 million but cost overruns pushed the facility to nearly $ 100 million . The Olympic Oval was built on the campus of the University of Calgary . It was the first fully enclosed 400 @-@ metre speed skating venue in the world as it was necessary to protect against the possibility of either bitter cold temperatures or ice @-@ melting chinook winds . Seven world and three Olympic records were broken during the Games , resulting in the facility earning praise as " the fastest ice on Earth " . Canada Olympic Park was built on the western outskirts of Calgary and hosted bobsled , luge , ski jumping and freestyle skiing . It was the most expensive facility built for the games , costing $ 200 million .

Two facilities were built west of Calgary , in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains . The Canmore Nordic Centre was 90 @-@ percent funded by the Province of Alberta at a cost of $ 17 @.@ 3 million . Located near the community of Canmore it was built with the intention that it would become a year @-@ round recreation destination for Albertans . The facility hosted cross @-@ country skiing , biathlon and Nordic combined events . Nakiska ( Cree for " to meet " ) was the most controversial facility built . The province paid the $ 25 million construction cost for the alpine skiing facility on Mount Allan , about an hour west of Calgary . It was initially criticized for the location 's relative lack of snow , requiring artificial snow making machines to be installed , and for an initial lack of technical difficulty . International Ski Federation officials proposed modifications to the courses that ultimately met with praise from competitors .

= = Preparations = =

= = = Television = = =

The Calgary Olympics were the first to earn a significant television revenue base ; where the 1980 Lake Placid Games generated only US $ 20 @.@ 7 million worldwide , OCO ' 88 generated $ 324 @.@ 9 million in broadcast rights . The overwhelming majority of television revenues came from the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , which agreed in 1984 to pay $ 309 million for American television rights , over three times the $ 91 @.@ 5 million it paid for the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo . The deal , at the time the highest amount ever paid for a sporting event , allowed organizers to announce the Games would be debt @-@ free . The CTV Television Network paid C $ 4 @.@ 5 million for Canadian rights and to act as the host broadcaster , while western European nations paid US $ 5 @.@ 7 million combined .

OCO ' 88 made several alterations to the Olympic program as part of efforts to ensure value for its broadcast partners . Premier events , including ice hockey and figure skating , were scheduled for prime time and the Games were lengthened to 16 days from the previous 12 to ensure three weekends of coverage . However , a significant downturn in advertising revenue for sporting events resulted in ABC forecasting significant financial losses on the Games . Calgary organizers appreciated their fortunate timing in signing the deal . King described the timing of the contract with ABC as " the passing of the sun and the moon at the right time for Calgary . " ABC lost an estimated $ 60 million , and broadcast rights to the 1992 Winter Olympics were later sold to the CBS network for $ 243 million , a 20 % reduction compared to Calgary .

= = = Ticketing controversies = = =

A series of ticket @-@ related scandals plagued the organizing committee as the Games approached , resulting in widespread public anger . Demand for tickets was high , particularly for the premier events which had sold out a year in advance . Residents had been promised that only 10 percent of tickets would go to " Olympic insiders " , IOC officials and sponsors , but OCO ' 88 was later forced to admit that up to 50 percent of seats to top events had gone to insiders . The organizing committee , which was subsequently chastised by mayor Klein for running a " closed shop " , admitted that it had failed to properly communicate the obligations it had to supply IOC officials and sponsors with priority tickets . These events were preceded by OCO ' 88 's ticketing manager being charged with theft and fraud after he sent modified ticket request forms to Americans that asked them to pay in United States funds rather than Canadian and to return them to his company 's post office box rather than that of the organizing committee .

Organizers attempted to respond to public concern by asking sponsors to consider reducing their orders and by paying $ 1 @.@ 5 million to add 2 @,@ 600 seats to the Saddledome . King also noted that the Calgary Games offered a then @-@ record 1 @.@ 7 million tickets for sale , three times the amount available at Sarajevo or Lake Placid , and that 82 percent of them were going to Calgarians . By their start , a Winter Games ' record of over 1 @.@ 4 million tickets had been sold , a figure that eclipsed the previous three Winter Games combined .

= = = Community = = =

The city , which already had a strong volunteering tradition with the annual Calgary Stampede , also relied heavily on volunteers to run the Olympics . Over 22 @,@ 000 people signed up to fill 9 @,@ 400 positions , no matter how inglorious : doctors , lawyers and executives offered to clean manure dropped by horses at the opening ceremonies . Many residents participated in a " Homestay " program , opening their homes to visitors from around the world and renting rooms to those who could not stay in a hotel .

Klein was among those who felt it necessary that the event be community driven , a decision which allowed the city 's welcoming spirit to manifest . The Games ' mascots , Hidy and Howdy , were designed to evoke images of " western hospitality " . The smiling , cowboy @-@ themed polar bears were popular across Canada . Played by a team of students from Bishop Carroll High School , the sister @-@ brother pair made up to 300 appearances per month in the lead up to the Games . From their introduction at the closing ceremonies of the Sarajevo Games in 1984 until their retirement at the conclusion of the Calgary Games , the pair made about 50 @,@ 000 appearances . The iconic mascots graced signs welcoming travelers to Calgary for nearly two decades until they were replaced in 2007 .

= = = Finances = = =

Held at a price of C $ 829 million , the Calgary Olympics cost more to stage than any previous Games , summer or winter . The high cost was anticipated , as organizers were aware at the outset of their bid that most facilities would have to be constructed . The venues , constructed primarily with public money , were designed to have lasting use beyond the Games and were planned to become the home of several of Canada 's national winter sports teams . Despite the high costs , OCO ' 88 anticipated a C $ 36 million surplus , though the organizing committee counted only its own expenditures and excluded government spending .

The Games were a major economic boon for the city which had fallen into its worst recession in 40 years following the collapse of both oil and grain prices in the mid @-@ 1980s . A report prepared for the city in January 1985 estimated the games would create 11 @,@ 100 man @-@ years of employment and generate C $ 450 @-@ million in salaries and wages . In its post @-@ Games report , OCO ' 88 estimated the Olympics created C $ 1 @.@ 4 billion in economic benefits across Canada during the 1980s , 70 percent within Alberta , as a result of capital spending , increased tourism and new sporting opportunities created by the facilities .

= = Torch relay = =

The 1988 Olympic torch relay began on November 15 , 1987 , when the torch was lit at Olympia and Greek runner Stellos Bisbas began what was called " the longest torch run in history " . The flame arrived in St. John 's , Newfoundland on the Atlantic Ocean two days later and over 88 days traveled west across Canada . It passed through most major cities , north to the Arctic Ocean at Inuvik , Northwest Territories , then west to the Pacific Ocean at Victoria , British Columbia before returning east to Alberta , and finally Calgary . The torch covered a distance of 18 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 11 @,@ 000 mi ) , the greatest distance for a torch relay in Olympic history until the 2000 Sydney Games , and a sharp contrast to the 1976 Montreal Games when the relay covered only 775 kilometres ( 482 mi ) .

Relay sponsor Petro Canada issued entry forms allowing citizens the chance to become one of 6 @,@ 214 people to carry the torch for 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . Organizers , who initially expected to receive 250 @,@ 000 entries , were inundated with over 6 @.@ 6 million forms and called the response a sign that the Olympics had " fired the imagination of Canada " . The relay , called " Share the Flame " , also saw the torch travel by boat , snowmobile and dogsled .

The relay was subject to peaceful protests by members and supporters of the Lubicon Cree First Nation at several stops in Ontario and Alberta in protest of ongoing land claim disputes between the band and the Crown , as well as discontent over an exhibit at Calgary 's Glenbow Museum called " The Spirit Sings " that featured numerous artifacts stolen from native land .

The identity of the final torchbearer who would light the Olympic cauldron was one of OCO ' 88 's most closely guarded secrets . The relay began at St. John 's with Barbara Ann Scott and Fred Hayward representing Canada 's past Olympians , and ended with Ken Read and Cathy Priestner carrying the torch into McMahon Stadium representing the nation 's current Olympians . They then handed the torch to 12 @-@ year @-@ old Robyn Perry , an aspiring figure skater who was selected to represent future Olympians , to light the cauldron . The choice of Perry was an unusual departure from most Games as the cauldron has typically been lit by a famous individual or group from the host nation .

Constructed of maple and aluminum , the torch was designed to remain lit despite the sometimes adverse conditions of Canadian winters . It was modeled after the Calgary Tower , constructed entirely of Canadian materials and designed to be light enough for the relay runners to carry comfortably . The Calgary Tower itself was retrofitted to install a cauldron at its peak and was lit for the duration of the Games , one of several " replica cauldrons " constructed at Olympic venues throughout Calgary and Canmore .

= = Event highlights = =

There were 46 events contested in 6 sports ( 10 disciplines ) .

The 1988 Winter Games began on February 13 with a $ 10 million opening ceremony that featured 5 @,@ 500 performers , an aerial flyover by the Royal Canadian Air Force 's Snowbirds , the parade of nations and the release of 1 @,@ 000 homing pigeons . Canadian composer David Foster performed the instrumental theme song ( " Winter Games " ) and its vocal counterpart ( " Can 't You Feel It ? " ) , while internationally recognized Canadian folk / country musicians Gordon Lightfoot and Ian Tyson were among the featured performers . Governor General Jeanne Sauvé opened the Games on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II as an estimated 1 @.@ 5 billion people watched the ceremony .

The weather was a dominant story throughout much of the Games , as strong chinook winds that brought daily temperatures as high as 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) wreaked havoc on the schedules for outdoor events . Events were delayed when winds were deemed unsafe for competitors and organizers used artificial snow making equipment to ensure skiing venues were properly prepared . It was the first time in Olympic history that alpine events were held on artificial snow . The Games were also marred by the death of the Austrian ski team 's doctor , Joerg Oberhammer , on February 25 after a collision with another skier sent him crashing into a snow grooming machine at Nakiska , crushing and killing him instantly . The incident was ruled an accident .

The top individual competitors at the Olympics were Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip as they each won three gold medals . Italy 's Alberto Tomba won gold in two skiing events , his first of five career Olympic medals en route to becoming the first alpine skier to win medals at three Winter Games . East Germany 's Katarina Witt defended her 1984 gold medal in women 's figure skating , capturing a second gold in Calgary . Her compatriot Christa Rothenburger won the gold medal in the 1000 metre race in speed skating , then went on to win a silver medal in the team sprint cycling event at the 1988 Summer Games to become the only person in Olympic history to win medals at both Olympic Games in the same year . The Soviet Union won gold in hockey as Scandinavian neighbours Finland and Sweden took silver and bronze , respectively .

As it had in 1976 , Canada again failed to win an official gold medal as the host of an Olympic Games . Canadians won two gold medals in demonstration events , including by Sylvie Daigle as one of her five medals in short @-@ track speed skating . Canada 's top official performances came in figure skating where Brian Orser and Elizabeth Manley each won silver medals . Promoted by the media as the " Battle of the Brians " , the competition between Orser and American rival Brian Boitano was the marquee event of the Games . Boitano won the gold medal over Orser by only one @-@ tenth of a point . Manley was not viewed as a medal contender , but skated the greatest performance of her career to come within a fraction of Witt 's gold medal winning score .

American speed skater Dan Jansen 's personal tragedy was one of the more poignant events of the Games as he skated the 500 metre race mere hours after his sister Jane died of leukemia . A gold medal favourite , Jansen chose to compete as he felt it is what his sister would have wanted . Viewers around the world witnessed his heartbreak as he fell and crashed into the outer wall in the first quarter of his heat . In the 1000 metre race four days later , Jansen was on a world record pace when he again fell . After failing again in Albertville , Jansen finally won a gold medal at the 1994 Lillehamer Games .

One of the most popular athletes from the games was British ski jumper Eddie " The Eagle " Edwards , who gained infamy by placing last in both the 70 and 90 metre events finishing 70 and 53 points behind his next closest competitor , respectively . Edwards ' " heroic failure " made him an instant celebrity ; he went from earning £ 6 @,@ 000 per year as a plasterer before the Games to making £ 10 @,@ 000 per hour per appearance afterward . Left embarrassed by the spectacle he created , the International Ski Federation altered the rules following Calgary to eliminate each nation 's right to send at least one athlete and set minimum competition standards for future events . Regardless , the President of the Organizing Committee , Frank King , playfully saluted Edwards ' unorthodox sporting legacy , which would also be commemorated with a 2016 feature film , Eddie the Eagle .

The Jamaican bobsleigh team , making their nation 's Winter Olympic debut , was also popular in Calgary . The team was the brainchild of a pair of Americans who recruited individuals with strong sprinting ability from the Jamaican military to form the team . Dudley Stokes and Michael White finished the two @-@ man event in 30th place out of 41 competitors and launched the Jamaican team into worldwide fame . The pair , along with Devon Harris and Chris Stokes crashed in the four man event , but were met with cheers from the crowd as they pushed their sled across the finish line . Their odyssey was made into the 1993 movie Cool Runnings , a largely fictionalized comedy by Walt Disney Pictures .

= = Games = =

= = = Participating National Olympic Committees = = =

A record 57 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) entered athletes at the 1988 Calgary Olympics , 8 more than appeared at any previous Winter Games . 1 @,@ 423 athletes participated in 46 events : 1 @,@ 122 men and 301 women . Fiji , Guam , Guatemala , Jamaica , the Netherlands Antilles and the Virgin Islands had their Winter Olympics debut .

= = = Calendar = = =

In the following calendar for the 1988 Winter Olympic Games , each blue box indicates that an event competition , such as a qualification round , was held on that day . The yellow boxes represent days during which medal @-@ awarding finals for a sport were held with the number in these boxes representing the number of finals that were contested on that day .

= = = Medal table = = =

= = Legacy = =

Prior to Calgary , the Winter Olympics were viewed as a second @-@ rate event compared to their summer counterpart , so much so that the IOC had at one point considered eliminating them entirely . Few cities bid on the Winter Games due to challenges faced in generating revenue . In its bid for the Games , CODA convinced the IOC that it could not only generate enough revenue to turn a profit , but enough of one to ensure a lasting legacy of winter sport development . Organizers followed the lead of their counterparts in Los Angeles for the 1984 Summer Olympics , attracting a large television contract in the United States and was the first host city to benefit from a change in the IOC 's strategy on corporate sponsorship . The Calgary Games attracted support from over two dozen major Canadian and multinational corporations , generating millions of dollars in revenues .

Many program changes were made in Calgary to grow the appeal of the Winter Games for sponsors : the extension to 16 days from 12 added an extra weekend of coverage , while the additional programming time was filled by television friendly demonstration events popular in Canada . The exposure curling , freestyle skiing and short @-@ track speed skating gained in Calgary influenced the growth in their popularity and led to all three becoming full medal sports by 1998 .

= = = Impact on Calgary = = =

Hosting the Games helped fuel a significant increase in Calgary 's reputation on the world stage . Crosbie Cotton , a reporter for the Calgary Herald who covered the city 's Olympic odyssey from its bid to the closing ceremonies , noted a change in the attitude of the city 's population over time . He believed that the populace began to outgrow its " giant inferiority complex " that is " typically Canadian " , replacing it with a new level of confidence as the Games approached . They helped the city grow from a regional oil and gas centre best known for the Calgary Stampede to a destination for international political , economic and sporting events . A study prepared for the organizing committee of the 2010 Vancouver Olympics claimed that Calgary hosted over 200 national and international sporting competitions between 1987 and 2007 due to the facilities it had constructed for the Olympics .

The Games ' enduring popularity within Calgary has been attributed to efforts to make them " everybody 's Games " . Aside from the sense of community fostered by the level of volunteer support , organizers included the public in other ways . People were given opportunity to purchase a brick with their names engraved on it and used to build Olympic Plaza , where medal ceremonies were held in 1988 . It remains a popular public park and event site in the city 's downtown . Members of the community have attempted to bring a second Winter Games to the city . Calgary offered to take over the 2002 Winter Olympics after a bribery scandal resulted in speculation that Salt Lake City would be unable to remain the host . The city also made an effort to bid for the 2010 Games on Canada 's behalf , losing to Vancouver . A 2013 Calgary Sun online poll found that 81 % of respondents would support the city hosting a second Olympics .

= = = Canada 's development as a winter sport nation = = =

Mindful of the financial disaster the Montreal Olympics became , OCO ' 88 parlayed its ability to generate television and sponsorship revenues and government support into what was ultimately a C $ 170 million surplus . ( The claim of a surplus has frequently been challenged as OCO ' 88 counted only its own revenues and expenses and did not include government funded facilities in its accounting . ) The surplus was turned into endowment funds split between Canada Olympic Park ( $ 110 million ) and CODA , which was reformed following the Games to manage the Olympic facilities with a trust fund that had subsequently grown to be worth over $ 200 million by 2013 . Consequently , all five of the primary facilities built for the 1988 Olympics remained operational in their original intended purpose 25 years after the Games concluded .

Calgary and Canmore became the heart of winter sport in Canada as CODA ( now known as Winsport Canada ) established itself as the nation 's leader in developing elite athletes ; in 2006 , one @-@ quarter of Canada 's Olympic athletes were from the Calgary region and three @-@ quarters of its medalists were from or trained in Alberta . Canada was not a winter sport power in 1988 ; the nation 's five medals in Calgary was its second best total at a Winter Olympics behind the seven it won at the 1932 Lake Placid Games . After 1988 , Canada won an increasing number of medals at each successive Olympics , culminating in a 26 @-@ medal performance in 2010 that included a Winter Olympic record of 14 gold medals , one more than the previous record holders Soviet Union ( 1976 ) and Norway ( 2002 ) .

= Harry Kim ( Star Trek ) =

Ensign Harry S. L. Kim is a fictional character who appeared in each of the seven seasons of the American television series Star Trek : Voyager . Portrayed by Garrett Wang , he is the Operations Officer aboard the Starfleet starship USS Voyager . There was some difficulty in casting the part prior to the start of the series in 1995 , with a reported lack of young Asian actors to choose from .

The character first appeared in the pilot episode of the series , " Caretaker " . The character continued to appear throughout the series in a main cast role , with his final appearance in the finale , " Endgame " . In that episode , an alternative future version of the character is seen as a Starfleet Captain . He is typically shown as being naive , especially in romantic situations , but gifted . The character finds the ship 's first possible route home , and in one alternative future , he manages to develop a transwarp drive which allows him and Chakotay to travel home in a matter of hours but kills the rest of the crew . The producers had considered whether or not to kill off Kim during the third season . Wang subsequently reprised the role of Harry Kim for the fan @-@ made Star Trek : Renegades .

Reviewers said that Kim represented one of the elements of multiculturalism in the crew of Voyager , which also represented a proxy family for Kim . The storylines featuring Kim frequently had the character captured by aliens , something which was described as a typical Voyager storyline by critics . " Timeless " has been ranked as the best episode to feature Kim , and also the third best of the series , but holodeck episodes featuring Kim have also been listed by Io9 as some of the worst of their type in the franchise .

= = Concept and development = =

The character went through more than one name prior to casting , with it being called Jay Osaka at one point . The series bible for Star Trek : Voyager described Kim as being a sheltered individual who had sought to repay the love of his parents through fulfilling their expectations for him at Starfleet Academy . Winrich Kolbe , the director of the Voyager pilot " Caretaker " , was involved in the casting process and found Kim difficult as there wasn 't a great number of young Asian actors to choose from . He said that the role was an " inexperienced , naive character " , and that the actor cast as Kim would need to fight to stay in the forefront of episodes .

At the time of the casting , Garrett Wang had only been acting for about a year and a half , and after he was cast in the role he was described by Kolbe as a " young , up @-@ and @-@ coming actor , but he needs to learn , and that 's going to take some time . He 's one of the actors who has to really work hard on his craft in order to keep up with the others . " The naivety of the character was emphasized in the media reports , with TV Guide describing the character prior to the launch of the series as " green @-@ around @-@ the @-@ gills " .

Wang was enthusiastic about his new role , describing Kim 's background by saying that " I had a stellar Starfleet Academy career and am basically the rookie on the bridge . I 'm an Asian @-@ American . There 's the professional competence , but also the inner fear , ' Oh my God , are these britches too big for me ? ' His heritage is one of focus , of Zen and martial arts " . Of the casting , he said that " My goal now is to do the best job possible playing Harry Kim and to begin repaying my parents for the unaccountable financial support they have given me throughout the years . " The pilot of Voyager was broadcast on January 16 , 1995 .

Wang had initially gone along with the writing on the show until towards the end of the second season when he asked the production writers if he could have some actions scenes and perhaps a romance . He had realised at the time that he was the only member of the main cast without a stunt double as he had never had an action scene that required one . This resulted in the Brannon Braga penned " Non Sequitur " , to which Wang said to Rick Berman that there wasn 't a need to give him all his requests in a single episode . Following that , he became more involved in suggestions for character direction , but the writers avoided giving Kim more of a comedic element similar to The Doctor ( Robert Picardo ) and Neelix ( Ethan Phillips ) . Wang described himself as someone who tells jokes and makes impersonations on sets and was disappointed at not being able to utilise this nature . The producers at one point had planned to permanently kill off Harry Kim during season three , but after Wang was included in the People list of sexiest people alive 1997 , the plan was abandoned .

By season five of Voyager , certain characters were seen by the production staff as being under @-@ utilised , Kim amongst them . This led to episodes placing Kim , Chakotay and Tuvok in central positions , including the episode " Timeless " for the character of Kim . Wang was pleased with the episode , and felt that being able to act as the two different versions of Kim showed " a great dichotomy " . Following the end of the show in 2001 , Wang had felt that the character should have been promoted during the course of the series , but was told by producers that " someone 's got to be the ensign " .

= = Appearances = =

Kim was born in 2349 . After graduating from Starfleet Academy in 2370 , his first assignment was as the Operations Officer aboard USS Voyager as seen in " Caretaker " . Kim immediately became friends with Tom Paris ( Robert Duncan McNeill ) after he was assigned to the vessel for the mission which saw Voyager sent to track down a Maquis vessel in the Badlands . During this mission , the ship is sent some 70 @,@ 000 light years into the Delta Quadrant , where Kim and B 'Elanna Torres ( Roxann Dawson ) are abducted to an Ocampan medical facility . Both infected by an unknown ailment , they are rescued by and cured on Voyager on their escape from the underground city ; they are cured on board . At the time of the stranding of the ship , Kim was engaged to be married , but Kim was encouraged to date other crew members by Paris .

In " Eye of the Needle " , Kim found the ship 's first contact back with the Alpha Quadrant when he discovered a micro @-@ wormhole . It was discovered that it linked through to Romulan space some twenty years in the past . Kim twice travels through long @-@ range transportation systems . In " Emanations " , he is accidentally transported to the Vhnori homeworld by the effects of an alien burial system . He escapes the Vhnori and manages to go through the funeral system , killing him but returning him to Voyager where he is revived . When the crew meet the Sikaris in " Prime Factors " , Kim is the first crewman to be transported through their spatial trajector over a distance of some 40 @,@ 000 light years . Ultimately the technology proves incompatible with Voyager 's systems . On stardate 48693 @.@ 2 ( the episode " Heroes and Demons " ) , Kim is the first crewmember to be converted into energy by an alien creature appearing in a Beowulf holodeck programme . After the Doctor resolves the situation , Kim and two other crewmembers are restored .

Following a transporter accident , Kim awakes in San Francisco next to his fiancée , Libby ( Jennifer Gatti ) in the episode " Non Sequitur " . He finds that he never travelled on board Voyager , and nor did Paris . After being contacted by an alien , he discovers that the transporter interacted with an alien " time @-@ stream " and sent him into an alternative reality . After he receives assistance from Paris and the alien , he manages to restore the timeline and return to Voyager . During the episode " Persistence of Vision " , Kim hallucinates Libby after Voyager attempts to enter Bothan space . On stardate 49548 @.@ 7 , Voyager enters a plasma cloud to avoid Vidiian vessels in " Deadlock " . It is damaged , and Kim is sucked out through a hull breach into space and killed , while Naomi Wildman dies shortly after being born . The crew then find a duplicate Voyager in better condition occupying the same space but slightly out of phase . When the Vidiians attack the other Voyager , the alternative Kim is sent to the damaged version of the ship carrying the living Naomi Wildman shortly before the alternative Voyager self @-@ destructs . This destroys the two Vidiian vessels , and the damaged version of Voyager continues on its way , carrying a different version of Kim and Wildman .

Whilst on shore leave on Akritiri , Kim and Paris are falsely accused of a terrorist bombing . They are imprisoned on the planet , while the Voyager crew track down the real offenders , who help them rescue their crewmen ( episode " The Chute " . ) Whilst the crew are studying a nebula ( " Alter Ego " ) , Kim and Tuvok both become romantically attached to a holodeck character ; she turns out to be controlled by an alien on a nearby space station . Kim becomes infected with Taresian DNA leading him to suspect that he may be a member of their species in " Favorite Son " . But after discovering that it is all a ploy to extract his genetic material , he is saved by Voyager . In an alternative future seen in " Before and After " , Tom Paris and Kes ( Jennifer Lien ) marry , and give birth to a daughter Linnis ( Jessica Collins ) . Linnis and Kim marry , beget a child , Andrew Kim .

Kim becomes infected after being attacked by a member of Species 8472 whilst as a member of an away team aboard a Borg Cube in " Scorpion " . He is cured by the Doctor after the hologram develops a process utilising Borg nano @-@ probes . He is initially apprehensive working with the former Borg Seven of Nine ( Jeri Ryan ) but soon forms a new friendship . Following the events of " Demon " , Kim is one of the first crewmembers to be duplicated by an alien entity on a class @-@ Y planet . The duplicate crew are later killed after they leave the planet , and forget that they are duplicates . The duplicate version of Kim is the last Captain of the ship , before deciding to drop out of warp by ejecting the warp core , destroying it . Kim develops a transwarp drive in " Timeless " , which should allow Voyager to return to the Alpha Quadrant in hours . During the trip home , the ship is destroyed but Kim and Chakotay make it through on a shuttle . Years later , an older Kim and Chakotay find the destroyed Voyager and Kim manages to send a message back in time to Seven of Nine , averting the disaster and resetting the timeline .

Kim becomes infected with a bio @-@ chemical bond after having sex with a Varro named Tal ( Musetta Vander ) in " The Disease " , but the effects are removed by the Doctor . Alongside Tom Paris , Kim creates an Irish village holodeck program in " Fair Haven " . This later causes problems when the holodeck characters begin to recognise changes made to the program and that the Starfleet crew are not from their " world " . Kim is once again imprisoned by an alien race in " Body and Soul when he is part of the crew on the Delta Flyer which is captured by the Lokirrim for transporting a hologram through their space . Whilst on another mission in the Delta Flyer in " Nightingale " , Kim takes command of an Kraylor vessel , wanting to show that he can command after spending the past seven years as an Ensign on board Voyager . He manages to return the ship to its homeworld , evading an Annari fleet en route . In " Prophecy " , Kim is sexually pursued by the Klingon Ch 'Rega ( Peggy Jo Jacobs ) ; she later chooses Neelix instead . In the alternative future seen at the start of the series finale , " Endgame " , Kim has been promoted to the rank of Captain aboard the USS Rhode Island . He attempts to convince Admiral Kathryn Janeway ( Kate Mulgrew ) out of her plan to travel back in time to help Voyager return home , but instead helps her when a Klingon vessel attacks her shuttle .

= = = Voyager relaunch novels = = =

A series of non @-@ canon novels were launched in 2003 by Pocket Books set after the return of Voyager to the Alpha Quadrant . In these novels , Harry Kim is promoted to Lieutenant and assigned as Security Chief onboard Voyager under Captain Chakotay . In the Star Trek : Online spin @-@ off novel The Needs of the Many , published in 2010 , Harry Kim is the commanding officer of Starbase 11 in the year 2400 .

= = Reception = =

The mothering nature of Janeway on Kim has been described by reviewers , with the crew forming a type of family network which has Kim as a surrogate son . His separation from his nuclear family at a young age is described as cruel , and Janeway , Chakotay and Tuvok are highlighted as his de facto parents in the series . This motherly position was described by Michelle Erica Green in her review of the episode " The Disease " for TrekNation , who described certain scenes as Kim needing to request permission from " Mommy " in order to have a relationship with an alien . She felt that the disease itself caused the character to grow a " backbone " as he had rarely asserted himself previously to the Captain .

Kim has been used to show the multiculturalism of Star Trek : Voyager . One scene was described in " Faces " by Elisabeth Anne Leonard which featured a sweeping shot around the command table of Janeway , Chakotay , Tuvok and Kim , showing a Caucasian race woman , a Native American , a man of Asian descent and a black Vulcan in a single shot . Kim 's persistent optimism has been highlighted , with him being one of the few characters in the series who by the seventh series still believed that they would return home in their lifetime . Kim seemed to be frequently captured by alien species during the course of the series to the extent that it was described as one of the typical storylines seen in Voyager during an overview by The A.V. Club .

The authors of the book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos state that the episode " Deadlock , " which featured the death of Kim , was one of several examples in the Star Trek franchise where the death of a major character is reversed by a parallel existence . Other examples included in The Next Generation with the return of Tasha Yar in " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and the death of Miles O 'Brien in the Deep Space Nine episode " Visionary " . They felt that Kim also shared another similarity with " Yesterday 's Enterprise " in that in the episode " Non Sequitur " , he feels that reality has been changed – which was similar to the experience that Guinan felt in The Next Generation episode .

Amongst Kim 's relationships included the relationship with a character on the ship 's holodeck in the episode " Alter Ego " , but after building a rivalry for the character 's affections with Tuvok , he becomes disinterested after finding out that the character was being played by a real person . This relationship was highlighted as an example of how Star Trek describes the ideal woman as an " objectified embodiment of male desire with no inner self to complicate the so @-@ called relationship that a man may have with her " .

Juliette Harrisson for the website Den of Geek described " Timeless " as the best Harry Kim episode , and was the third best episode of Voyager overall . She said that " Wang ’ s bitter , emotionally scarred performance holds together an hour which also features some lovely imagery " . Episodes centering on Kim were included in io9 's list of the worst holodeck related episodes in Star Trek . These included " The Thaw " , with the worst moment described as " the Harry Kim baby thing " . Other episodes highlighted as bad included " Fair Haven " while it stated that it skipped the first season " Heroes and Demons " . Wang later returned to Star Trek in fan @-@ made productions and to the role of Harry Kim in Star Trek : Renegades , alongside Manu Intiraymi and Tim Russ from Voyager .

= Boyce McDaniel =

Boyce Dawkins McDaniel ( June 11 , 1917 - May 8 , 2002 ) was an American nuclear physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project and later directed the Cornell University Laboratory of Nuclear Studies ( LNS ) . McDaniel was skilled in constructing " atom smashing " devices to study the fundamental structure of matter and helped to build the most powerful particle accelerators of his time . Together with his graduate student , he invented the pair spectrometer .

During World War II , McDaniel used his electronics expertise to help develop cyclotrons used to separate Uranium isotopes . McDaniel is also noted as having performed the final check on the first atomic bomb prior to its detonation in the Trinity test .

= = Biography = =

Born in Brevard , North Carolina , McDaniel attended Chesterville High School in Ohio . After graduating in 1933 , he attended Ohio Wesleyan University , from which he graduated in 1938 with a Bachelor of Science . His initial postgraduate studies took place at the Case School of Applied Science , graduating with a Master 's degree in 1940 . McDaniel continued postgraduate studies when he moved to Cornell University , and in 1943 he completed his doctoral thesis , examining the absorption rates of neutrons in indium . The research was not classified , but McDaniel and Robert Bacher , his adviser at Cornell , marked it as " secret " on their own initiative . From Cornell , McDaniel moved to MIT where he held a postdoctoral position , studying " the rapidly evolving field of fast electronics " , which he applied to research in particle physics .

After the outbreak of World War II , McDaniel joined Bacher in Los Alamos , New Mexico to work for the Manhattan Project , where he became a part of Robert R. Wilson 's cyclotron research team . McDaniel was to have " a crucial role in helping to identify the amount of uranium @-@ 235 needed to ... detonate the world 's first nuclear bomb " . McDaniel is also noted as having performed the final check on the first atomic bomb prior to its detonation in the Trinity test .

McDaniel was one of many Manhanttan Project researchers to join the Cornell faculty after the war . He became an assistant professor in 1946 and became a full professor in 1955 . With his Ph.D. student Robert Walker , he invented the pair spectrometer , a device that measures gamma ray energies . He was a co @-@ founder of Cornell 's Laboratory for Nuclear Studies ( LNS ) and had a helped create the 300 megavolt ( MeV ) electron synchrotron , one of the first such accelerators in the world . He and Wilson , who was McDaniel 's predecessor as director of LNS , built three more electron synchrotrons of 1 GeV , 2 GeV , and 10 GeV , each of which enabled physicists to study phenomena in a new energy range . McDaniel quickly earned a reputation as a hands @-@ on designer as indicated by this episode in the construction of the 300 MeV synchrotron :

The magnet coil was wound incorrectly , a fatal flaw . To get it repaired by the manufacturer could take months . Mac made a toy model of the coil , studied it carefully for an evening , and discovered an ingenious but simple way to repair it , which he did in about a day , and defused the crisis .

He was a Fulbright research fellow in 1953 at the Australian National University and a Guggenheim fellow in 1959 at the University of Rome .

In 1967 , McDaniel became director of LNS and served until he retired from the Cornell faculty in 1985 . He research included important measurements with each of the series of LNS accelerators , including studies lambda @-@ meson photo production , K @-@ meson production , and measurements of the neutron electromagnetic form factors .

Wilson and McDaniel continued to collaborate at Cornell until Wilson left to head Fermilab in Batavia , Illinois in 1967 . In 1972 , Wilson invited McDaniel to serve as acting head of the accelerator section at Fermilab , and McDanield took a one year leave of absence from Cornell . Though the Fermilab accelerator had been placed into operation , it suffered from frequent component failures . When McDaniel left eight months later , he led the effort which increased the power of Fermilab 's accelerator from 20 GeV to 300 GeV and its beam density by a factor of 1000 . Of McDaniel 's contribution to Fermilab , Wilson said , " This bravura performance demonstrated Mac ’ s skill for leadership as well as his celebrated sixth sense for finding sources of trouble and fixing them . ” Upon returning to Cornell in 1974 , McDaniel proposed upgrading the then existing 10 GeV synchrotron with an 8 GeV electron @-@ positron storage ring , which would greatly increase the energy of particle collisions when the particles in the storage ring hit the particles traveling in the opposite direction in the synchrotron . When constructed in 1979 , the Cornell Electron Storage Ring became the world 's primary source of information about one of the fundamental building blocks of matter , the b @-@ quark . After the end of particle physics experiments 20 years later , CESR is now used as a test facility of damping rings for a future international linear collider . In 1981 , McDaniel developed a proposal for a new mile @-@ diameter electron @-@ positron collider called CSER II , but could not obtain the necessary $ 200 million in funding for it . In 1988 , McDaniel was Visiting Distinguished Professor at Arizona State University .

When interviewed in 1973 about his feelings on his work resulting in the dropping of atomic bombs on Japanese cities , McDaniel said :

It 's so difficult to assess these things today . I would have preferred to see a demonstration and am rather sad that it didn 't work out that way ... but I don 't know if it would have worked out as a useful venture . I have no idea what the Japanese would have done .

= = Honors = =

McDaniel was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1981 . He was a governing board member of Fermilab , a trustee of the Associated Universities , a member of the Department of Energy High Energy Advisory Panel , a trustee of the Universities Research Association and a board member of Brookhaven National Laboratory .

In 1993 , the McDaniels donated a farm to the Cornell Plantations , which named the 60 @.@ 6 acre property the Jane McDaniel Preserve .

McDaniel died of a heart attack in Ithaca , New York at the age 84 .

= What Is ... Cliff Clavin ? =

" What Is ... Cliff Clavin ? " is an eighth season episode of the American television series Cheers . It was directed by Andy Ackerman rather than James Burrows — who directed 243 out of 273 episodes of the show — and originally aired on January 18 , 1990 . In this episode , Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) appears on the game show Jeopardy ! and game show host Alex Trebek guest stars as himself . Cliff racks up US $ 22 @,@ 000 during the game but loses it all in the final round . The episode received praise from critics for its concept and its guest star .

= = Plot = =

Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) competes on the television game show Jeopardy ! , which has temporarily moved taping to Boston for a special occasion , and amasses $ 22 @,@ 000 by the end of the Double Jeopardy ! round , more than twice the score of the second place contestant , theoretically ensuring a win . For the Final Jeopardy ! clue of " Archibald Leach , Bernard Schwartz and Lucille LeSueur " in the category of " Movies " , Cliff responds incorrectly with " Who are 3 people who 've never been in my kitchen ? " Having wagered his entire score , Cliff loses all of his winnings . Cliff objects and argues , demanding that his answer be accepted . The show 's host , Alex Trebek , later arrives at Cheers , tells Cliff that his response should have been accepted earlier , and announces his resignation as the host of Jeopardy ! . However , Cliff convinces Trebek to remain as host by telling him how much the show and Trebek mean to him . After Cliff shares the news with others , Norm Peterson ( George Wendt ) praises Trebek for doing this just to make Cliff feel better . However , Trebek says that he did not realize that Cliff was at the bar and that meeting him had been a coincidence . Trebek says that Cliff scares him and that the story about quitting the show was a fabrication to placate him .

Meanwhile , Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) receives telephone calls from women whom he previously dated ; they are angry with him for making dates and not arriving . He eventually discovers that his " little black book " has been stolen and enrolls the help of bar patrons to find it . Through their detective work , Sam discovers that the thief has called Sam 's women alphabetically and that Rebecca Howe ( Kirstie Alley ) is the next recipient on the list . The thief turns out to be a teenage boy named Timmy ( Greg E. Davis ) , who wants to become a " babe hound " like Sam . To let Timmy go , Sam tells him to start as a " babe pup " and to call girls who are around his age , and gives him $ 25 for a haircut and a tip for a shampoo girl .

= = Reception = =

General Norman Schwarzkopf said this was the funniest episode of Cheers . Don Leighton from Superior Telegram called this episode the greatest and said the Final Jeopardy ! moment was hilarious . Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk said the category topics – specifically " Civil Servants " , " Stamps from Around the World " , " Mothers and Sons " , " Beer " , " Bar Trivia " , and " Celibacy " from the first round of Jeopardy ! – and the concept of the episode were a riot . Hot Springs Village Voice called Cliff 's Final Jeopardy ! moment a classic example of his mishaps caused by his own " know @-@ it @-@ all nature " . Andrew Razeghi , in his book Hope , called this episode " one of the most memorable episodes " of Cheers , found Cliff 's response to the Final Jeopardy ! clue neither right nor wrong and an example of divergent thinking , and called Cliff a poster child of Joy Paul Guilford . Former Jeopardy ! contestant Ken Jennings , in his book Brainiac , considered this episode of all Jeopardy ! -related episodes essential as other episodes that focus on characters who either are trapped in an elevator or have two dates on the same night .

= = Legacy = =

An early Jeopardy ! reference to the Cheers episode happened during the airing of the final round of the Jeopardy ! College Championship on May 18 , 1990 . Soon @-@ to @-@ be champion Michael Thayer of Rutgers College bet $ 0 and wrote " Who was someone I never met ? " as his response in the Final Jeopardy ! round . When the contestants ' wagers and responses were revealed , Trebek commented , " Michael , looks like you were watching that episode of Cheers . " In 1999 , another Jeopardy ! contestant responded to the Final Jeopardy ! clue with this question , inspired by Cliff Clavin 's incorrect response in the Final Jeopardy ! round : " What is a book that has never been in my kitchen ? " According to Michael Gordeuk from Westfield , New Jersey , Alex Trebek later recalled Cliff 's losing moment and then " broke into a huge laugh " .

Peter Wayner from InfoWorld defined " pulling a Clavin " as a reference to Cliff Clavin 's wagering all his leading score and then losing all to a zero in the Final Jeopardy ! round and as a tactic to avoid in Jeopardy ! In the Jeopardy ! fan community , the episode gave rise to what is known as " Clavin 's Rule " ( or " pulling a Cliff Clavin " ) , a rule of thumb that states that a player should not wager enough to endanger a " lock " or " runaway " game ( one where the first @-@ place player has more than twice the score of the second @-@ place player ) , no matter how tempting the category .

In the Double Jeopardy ! round of the Jeopardy ! episode from May 10 , 2005 , the categories were the same as those shown in Cliff Clavin 's game : CIVIL SERVANTS , STAMPS FROM AROUND THE WORLD , MOTHERS & SONS , BEER , " BAR " TRIVIA , and CELIBACY .

On the first episode of Jeopardy ! season 31 , which aired on September 15 , 2014 , Jeopardy ! champion Elizabeth Williams echoed Cliff Clavin 's answer in her response to the Final Jeopardy clue . Williams ' $ 600 wager combined with her opponents ' incorrect responses allowed Williams to triumph that day , nonetheless .

= Chrono Break =

Chrono Break was a trademark for a video game registered by Square ( now Square Enix ) in the United States on December 5 , 2001 . A similar trademark was registered by the company in the European Union on December 14 , 2001 , while the trademark Chrono Brake was registered in Japan . Although no official announcement was made , the trademark 's name coupled with Final Fantasy series video game developer Hironobu Sakaguchi 's comment in regards to Chrono Cross 's development teams interest in creating a sequel , led journalists to suggest that Square was working on a new game in the Chrono series . Since the trademark was registered , however , much of the staff who worked on prior games in the series either left the company , or moved on to other long @-@ term projects . No announcements have been made by Square Enix either supporting or rejecting the idea of making another sequel , and the trademarks all expired as of 2012 .

= = History = =

= = = Registration = = =

The registration followed a press report of talks about a new Chrono series game . Within this report , Hironobu Sakaguchi stated that the development team of Chrono Cross , especially Masato Kato , was interested in creating a new game in the series , and that script and story ideas were currently being considered , but that the project had not yet been greenlighted . Kato had previously mentioned in the Ultimania guide for Chrono Cross that he wanted to create a direct sequel to Chrono Trigger to wrap up certain story elements and plot threads , but the pitfalls of a direct sequel prompted them to do Chrono Cross instead . The registration , and Sakaguchi 's comments , led video game journalists to believe that a sequel to Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross was in full development . IGN Editor Douglass Perry went as far as to say " ... we 're almost positive that you can expect to see this awaited monster in 2004 . " On November 13 , 2003 , the trademark was dropped in the U.S. It expired on December 14 , 2011 in the European Union , and on July 26 , 2012 in Japan . A similar trademark was registered in 2001 by Square Enix in Japan as Chrono Brake ( Japanese : クロノ ・ ブレイク ) .

= = = Official response = = =

Inquiry over a new title was subsequently large enough to warrant an entry in Square Enix 's FAQ page , in which the company noted that no new game was in development , though this did not mean the series was dead . In 2006 , the entry was revised to include sequel inquiries for any series . After the release of Chrono Cross , a number of key staff from the title left Square to form a new development studio , Monolith Soft , which was initially owned by Namco and is currently a first @-@ party developer working under Nintendo . Other staff who had worked on the title remained at Square and proceeded to work on Final Fantasy XI , an MMORPG conceived by Hironobu Sakaguchi - one of Chrono Trigger ′ s creators . During an interview at E ³ 2003 , this development team stated that they would love to develop a new Chrono game , but their commitment to Final Fantasy XI would keep them busy for a long time . Richard Honeywood , localization director for Square Enix , explained ,

Final Fantasy XI is pretty much it for a while . We still have a lot of possible expansion packs we could do , and plenty of support to give . As far as Chrono is concerned , that 's huge ; but we can 't do two or three things at the same time , and it 's tough to do FFXI and another Chrono game at the same time or too close together . We 'd love to do one though , but yeah , not yet .

Takashi Tokita , who directed Chrono Trigger , mentioned a " Chrono Trigger 2 " in a 2003 interview which has not been translated to English . Trigger developer Yuji Horii expressed no interest in returning to the Chrono franchise in 2005 . In February 2007 , Square Enix producer Hiromichi Tanaka took part in several interviews while promoting games in Europe . Tanaka reiterated that no new game was in development , but that a return was certainly not out of the question .

... it 's very difficult to be able to reunite the original team , to be able to make a sequel to the Chrono series ... because if we don 't try to reunite these people but take other people instead , we will find ourselves at that point with a game which will feel different , since there would be different persons in charge , and we would possibly lose the Chrono spirit .

In January 2008 , composer Yasunori Mitsuda remarked that " there are a lot of politics involved " in creating a new game , and stressed that Masato Kato should participate in development should a new entry in the series materialize . He did say that he was open to working with the company on the series again " if they had a good concept for the game " , and he speculated that Kato " probably would " as well .

In August 2014 , at a PAX Prime panel , Sakaguchi stated that he had intended on continuing the Chrono series into another game , but that problems with Square Enix management prevented it from coming to fruition .

I think the statute of limitations has passed and expired so I think I 'm okay saying this — but we just didn 't see eye @-@ to @-@ eye with management , and so I went and fought for it , and I officially lost the battle ... Nothing 's confirmed . But again , it would be nice to be able to work on a continuation of my old creations .

= = Aftermath = =

The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the " Top Ten Sequels in Demand " , naming the games " steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue " and asking " what 's the damn holdup ? ! " . In Electronic Gaming Monthly ′ s June 2008 " Retro Issue " , writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to . In the first May Famitsu of 2009 , Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most @-@ wanted sequels by the magazine 's readers . At E3 2009 , SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked " If people want a sequel , they should buy more ! " In 2012 , a trademark for Chrono Bind by Square Enix lead Siliconera to speculate that the game had switched titles from Chrono Break to Chrono Bind ; however , it was later revealed to merely be the name of a DLC card game in Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . In the same year , Kotaku expressed disappointment that Square Enix had not acted on the Chrono Break name , citing strong sales of the DS port of Chrono Trigger as a reason as to why the company should release a third game in the series .

= Whitefriars , Bristol =

Whitefriars was a Carmelite friary on the lower slopes of St Michael 's Hill , Bristol , England . It was established in 1267 ; in subsequent centuries a friary church was built and extensive gardens developed . The establishment was dissolved in 1538 .

Much of the site was then redeveloped by Sir John Young , who built a " Great House " there . This later became a boys ' school founded by Edward Colston in the 18th century . The Red Lodge , which survives today as a museum , had its origins as a prospect house for the Prior . The Colston Hall , a venue for concerts , was built on part of the friary site in the 19th century . A 20th @-@ century office block named Whitefriars , built a short distance way , preserves the name .

= = History = =

Whitefriars was founded in 1267 by the Prince of Wales , the future king Edward I. The friars , also known as Friars of the Blessed Virgin , wore white habits , hence the name Whitefriars . In the fifteenth century William of Worcester , described the church as having dimensions of 45 by 25 yards ( 41 m × 23 m ) , with a tower 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . The friary was described by the antiquary Leyland , writing in the early sixteenth century , as standing on the right bank of the Frome by the quay . He added that it was " the fairest friary in England " . The friary had a large expanse of adjoining land extending up St Michael 's Hill . This was used for horticulture and the Carmelites sold produce to augment their income .

Writing to Thomas Cromwell in 1538 , Richard Yngworth , one of the commissioners or visitors charged with inspecting monastic houses , reported that the contents of the friary only just met the debts owed by the friars . He described a chapel with lead roofing , gardens and a " goodly howse in byldenge , mete for a great man " , also a conduit bringing fresh water from Brandon Hill , later taken over by St John 's Church . Four remaining friars surrendered their possessions to the commissioner in the presence of the Mayor .

= = Post @-@ dissolution = =

Some monastic cells , thought to belong to the friary , survive under the Red Lodge , which had its origins as a prospect house for the prior of Whitefriars . This building became the lodge house of an Elizabethan mansion , the Great House , built in the late 16th century by John Young , who had bought the friary from Bristol Corporation after the Dissolution of the Monasteries . The Great House was where Elizabeth I stayed , as a guest of John Young , in 1574 . In the 18th century , the house was acquired by Edward Colston , who established the original Colston 's School there . After the school moved to Stapleton in 1857 , the Colston Hall Society purchased the premises , and demolished the house to build the Colston Hall , which now occupies the site . Excavations during the building of the adjacent Colston House in the early 20th century found medieval walls , burials and floor tiles .

As part of the post @-@ war redevelopment of Bristol city centre , the name Whitefriars was given to a large multi @-@ storey office development located in Lewin 's Mead , a few hundred yards from the site of the original Whitefriars and adjoining the site of the Greyfriars office complex . The building has thirteen floors and stands 49 metres ( 161 ft ) high . It was completed in 1976 .

= National Hurricane Center =

The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , located at Florida International University in University Park , unincorporated Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida , is the division of the United States ' National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting weather systems within the tropics between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic ocean . Its Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) routinely issues marine forecasts , in the form of graphics and high seas forecasts , for this area year round , with the Ocean Prediction Center having backup responsibility for this unit . The Technology and Science Branch ( TSB ) provides technical support for the center , which includes new infusions of technology from abroad . The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) unit tasks planes , for research and operational purposes , to tropical cyclones during the Atlantic hurricane season and significant weather events , including snow storms , during winter and spring . Research conducted to improve operational forecasts is done through the Hurricane Forecast Improvement Project ( HFIP ) and Joint Hurricane Test Bed ( JHT ) initiatives .

During the Atlantic and northeast Pacific hurricane seasons , the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) issues routine tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans . When tropical storm or hurricane conditions are expected within 48 hours , the center issues the appropriate watches and warnings via the news media and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Weather Radio . Although the NHC is an agency of the United States , the World Meteorological Organization has designated it as Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the North Atlantic and eastern Pacific , making it the central clearinghouse for all tropical cyclone forecasts and observations occurring in these areas . If the center loses power or becomes incapacitated in some manner , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center backs tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the northeast Pacific ocean while the Weather Prediction Center backs up tropical cyclone advisories and tropical weather outlooks for the north Atlantic ocean .

= = History = =

The first hurricane warning service was set up in the 1870s from Cuba with the work of Father Benito Viñes . After his passing , hurricane warning services were assumed by the United States Signal Corp and United States Weather Bureau over the next decade , first based in Jamaica in 1898 and Cuba in 1899 before shifting to Washington , D.C. in 1902 . The central office in Washington , which evolved into the National Meteorological Center and Weather Prediction Center ( formally known as the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ) , assumed hurricane warning / advisory responsibility at that time . This responsibility passed to regional hurricane offices in 1935 , and the concept of the Atlantic hurricane season was established in order to keep a vigilant lookout for tropical cyclones during certain times of the year . Hurricane advisories issued every six hours by the regional hurricane offices began at this time . The Jacksonville hurricane warning office moved to Miami , Florida in 1943 . Tropical cyclone naming began for Atlantic tropical cyclones using the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet by 1947 . Starting in 1950 , the Miami Hurricane Warning Office began to prepare the annual hurricane season summary articles . In the 1953 Atlantic season , the United States Weather Bureau began naming storms which reach tropical storm intensity with human names .

The National Hurricane Research Project , begun in the 1950s , used aircraft to study tropical cyclones and carry out experiments on mature hurricanes through its Project Stormfury . On July 1 , 1956 , a National Hurricane Information Center was established in Miami , Florida which became a warehouse for all hurricane @-@ related information from one United States Weather Bureau office . The Miami Hurricane Warning Office ( HWO ) was moved from Lindsey Hopkins Hotel to the Aviation Building 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the northwest on July 1 , 1958 . Forecasts within the hurricane advisories were issued one day into the future in 1954 before being extended to two days into the future in 1961 , three days into the future in 1964 , and five days into the future in 2001 . The Miami HWO moved to the campus of the University of Miami in 1964 , and was referred to as the NHC in 1965 . The Miami HWO tropical cyclone reports were done regularly and took on their modern format in 1964 .

Beginning in 1973 , the National Meteorological Center duties ( renamed the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center ; renamed for a second time in 2013 ) gained advisory responsibility for tracking and publicizing inland tropical depressions . The World Meteorological Organization assumed control of the Atlantic hurricane naming list in 1977 . In 1978 , the NHC 's offices moved off the campus of the University of Miami across U.S. Highway 1 to the IRE Financial Building . Male names were added into the hurricane list beginning in the 1979 season . The hurricane warning offices remained active past 1983 . In 1984 , the NHC was separated from the Miami Weather Service Forecast Office , which meant the meteorologist in charge at Miami was no longer in a position above the hurricane center director . By 1988 , the NHC gained responsibility for eastern Pacific tropical cyclones as the former Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center in San Francisco was decommissioned . In 1992 , Hurricane Andrew blew the WSR @-@ 57 weather radar and the anemometer off the roof of NHC 's / the Miami State Weather Forecast offices . The radar was replaced with a WSR @-@ 88D NEXRAD system in April 1993 installed near Metro Zoo , near where Hurricane Andrew made landfall .

In 1995 , the NHC moved into a new hurricane @-@ resistant facility on the campus of Florida International University , capable of withstanding 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) winds . Its name was changed to the Tropical Prediction Center in 1995 . After the name change to TPC , the Hurricane Specialists were grouped as a separate NHC unit under the Tropical Prediction Center , separating themselves from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch . On October 1 , 2010 , the Tropical Prediction Center was renamed the NHC , and the group formerly known as the NHC became known as the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) .

Tropical cyclone forecasting is done nowadays using statistical methods based on tropical cyclone climatology , as well as methods of numerical weather prediction where computers use mathematical equations of motion to determine their movement . The World Meteorological Organization continues to create and maintain the annual hurricane naming lists . Naming lists continue to use a six @-@ year rotation , with the deadliest or most notable storms having their names retired from the rotation . The current director of the National Hurricane Center is Richard Knabb .

= = = List of directors = = =

= = Organization = =

For the fiscal year of 2008 , the budget for the NHC was $ 6 @.@ 8 million . A total of 66 people work for the NHC , with 12 of the staff composing their management . The NHC has been one of the nine national centers which compose the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) .

= = = Hurricane Specialists Unit = = =

Known as the NHC from 1995 through 2010 , the hurricane specialists within the hurricane specialists unit ( HSU ) are the chief meteorologists that predict the actions of tropical storms . The specialists work rotating eight @-@ hour shifts from May through November , monitoring weather patterns in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific oceans . Whenever a tropical or subtropical cyclone forms , they begin to issue advisories every six hours until the storm runs its course . Public advisories are issued more often when the storm expected to be of tropical storm or hurricane intensity threatens land . The specialists coordinate with officials in each country likely to be affected . They forecast and recommend watches and warnings .

During the hurricane season , the HSU routinely issues their Tropical Weather Outlook product , which identifies areas of concern within the tropics which could develop into tropical cyclones . If systems occur outside the defined hurricane season , special Tropical Weather Outlooks will be issued . Backup responsibility for their northeast Pacific area resides at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) , and vice versa if CPHC were to have communication issues . North Atlantic responsibilities are backed up by the Weather Prediction Center ( WPC ) . Routine coordination occurs at 1700 UTC each day between the Weather Prediction Center and National Hurricane Center to identify systems for the pressure maps three to seven days into the future within the tropics , and points for existing tropical cyclones six to seven days into the future . Outside of the hurricane season , the specialists concentrate on public education efforts .

= = = Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch = = =

The Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB , formerly the Tropical Satellite Analysis and Forecast unit and the Tropical Analysis Center ) is a part of the National Hurricane Center and was created in 1967 . The TAFB is responsible for high seas analyses and forecasts for tropical portions of the Atlantic and Pacific between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 30th parallel north in the northeast Pacific ocean and the 31st parallel north in the northern Atlantic ocean . Unlike the Hurricane Specialists Unit ( HSU ) , TAFB is staffed full @-@ time around the year . Other responsibilities of the TAFB include satellite @-@ derived tropical cyclone position and intensity estimates , WSR @-@ 88D radar fixes for tropical cyclones , tropical cyclone forecast support , media support , and general operational support . The Ocean Prediction Center backs up TAFB in the event of a communications outage , and vice versa .

= = = Technology and Science Branch = = =

The Technology & Science Branch ( TSB ) develops and transitions new tools and techniques into operations for tropical weather prediction in conjunction with other government and academic entities . TSB created and continues development of the Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting ( ATCF ) system , used to incorporate various data and model outputs , create and update HURDAT , and to generate tropical cyclone forecasts . The TSB provides support for NHC computer and communications systems including its website . TSB maintains a number of statistical and dynamical models used in predicting both tropical cyclone behavior and associated weather conditions . The Storm Surge Unit , which develops and maintains software to forecast the storm surge of tropical cyclones , is part of this branch . The Techniques Development and Applications Unit ( TDAU ) is part of TSB .

= = = CARCAH = = =

The Chief , Aerial Reconnaissance Coordination , All Hurricanes ( CARCAH ) is a subunit of the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron ( Hurricane Hunters ) . CARCAH 's mission is to provide a point @-@ of @-@ contact and to coordinate all tropical cyclone operational reconnaissance requirements at NHC and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center for the North Atlantic , Caribbean , Gulf of Mexico , and the North Pacific basin east of the International Date Line in accordance with the National Hurricane Operations Plan ( NHOP ) . During the winter , CARCAH coordinates the Atlantic and Pacific winter storm requirements in support of the National Winter Storms Operations Plan ( NWSOP ) . Missions are flown in advance of the high @-@ impact weather events forecast to affect the U.S. , such as heavy snowfall , and at times when there is significant uncertainty within / between numerical weather prediction output .

= = = HLT = = =

The Hurricane Liaison Team ( HLT ) supports hurricane response through information exchange between the NHC , the National Weather Service ( NOAA / NWS ) , and the emergency management community . The HLT is composed of federal , state , and local emergency managers , as well as NWS meteorologists and hydrologists , who maintain open lines of communication about the progress and threat level of the storm with appropriate Federal , state , and local officials . The team establishes and facilitates video and / or teleconferences with the NHC , FEMA and other Federal agencies , state Emergency Operations Centers ( EOCs ) , Weather Prediction Center ( HPC ) , Storm Prediction Center ( SPC ) , and River Forecast Centers ( RFCs ) . During significant landfalling hurricanes , the President of the United States as well as affected city mayors and state governors join the daily briefing call , which occurs at noon Eastern Daylight Time .

= = Research = =

As part of their annual tropical cyclone activity , the agency issues a report on every tropical cyclone in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific Ocean basins , which are available since 1958 and 1988 , respectively . The report summarizes the synoptic history , meteorological statistics , casualties and damages , and the post @-@ analysis best track of a storm . The reports were formally known as Preliminary Reports up until 1999 . The agency maintains archives and climatological statistics on Atlantic and Pacific hurricane history , including annual reports on every tropical cyclone , a complete set of tropical cyclone advisories , digitized copies of related materials on older storms , season summaries published as the Monthly Weather Review , and HURDAT , which is the official tropical cyclone database .

Programs are dedicated to improving the accuracy of tropical cyclone forecasts from the center . The Joint Hurricane Testbed ( JHT ) is a joint operation between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and United States Weather Research Program to speed up the transfer of tropical cyclone @-@ related research into forecast operations . Since 2001 , with its annual budget of between $ 1 @.@ 0 and $ 1 @.@ 5 million , the JHT has funded 62 initiatives , with most of them being implemented operationally . The projects have had varied success , ranging from minor to significant advances in the way the NHC operates . The Hurricane Forecast Improvement Program 's ( HFIP ) five @-@ year goal is to lead to a 20 percent improvement within the numerical weather prediction models provided by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction to NHC by 2015 and a 50 percent improvement within tropical cyclone track forecasting and intensity guidance by 2020 .

= = In popular culture = =

Summer Fury ( 2014 ) , novel by former South Florida TV weatherman Gary Travers

= Ranavalona III =

Ranavalona III ( November 22 , 1861 – May 23 , 1917 ) was the last sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar . She ruled from July 30 , 1883 to February 28 , 1897 in a reign marked by ongoing and ultimately futile efforts to resist the colonial designs of the government of France . As a young woman , she was selected from among several Andriana qualified to succeed Queen Ranavalona II upon her death . Like both preceding queens , Ranavalona entered a political marriage with a member of the Hova elite named Rainilaiarivony , who in his role as Prime Minister of Madagascar , largely oversaw the day @-@ to @-@ day governance of the kingdom and managed its foreign affairs . Ranavalona tried to stave off colonization by strengthening trade and diplomatic relations with the United States and Great Britain throughout her reign . French attacks on coastal port towns and an assault on the capital city of Antananarivo ultimately led to the capture of the royal palace in 1895 , ending the sovereignty and political autonomy of the century @-@ old kingdom .

The newly installed French colonial government promptly exiled Rainilaiarivony to Algiers . Ranavalona and her court were initially permitted to remain as symbolic figureheads , but the outbreak of a popular resistance movement – the menalamba rebellion – and discovery of anti @-@ French political intrigues at court led the French to exile the queen to the island of Réunion in 1897 . Rainilaiarivony died that same year and shortly thereafter Ranavalona was relocated to a villa in Algiers , along with several members of her family . The queen , her family and the servants accompanying her were provided an allowance and enjoyed a comfortable standard of living including occasional trips to Paris for shopping and sightseeing . Despite Ranavalona 's repeated requests , she was never permitted to return home to Madagascar . She died of an embolism at her villa in Algiers in 1917 at the age of 55 . Her remains were buried in Algiers but were disinterred 21 years later and shipped to Madagascar , where they were placed within the tomb of Queen Rasoherina on the grounds of the Rova of Antananarivo .

= = Early years = =

Ranavalona III , daughter of Andriantsimianatra and his wife Princess Raketaka , was born Princess Razafindrahety on November 22 , 1861 , at Amparibe , a rural village in the district of Manjakazafy outside Antananarivo . Razafindrahety 's lineage , as niece to Queen Ranavalona II and great @-@ granddaughter of King Andrianampoinimerina , qualified her to potentially inherit the throne of the Kingdom of Madagascar . Her parents assigned the care of the infant Razafindrahety to a slave who served the family .

When she was old enough to attend school , Razafindrahety was taken into the custody of her aunt , Queen Ranavalona II , who ensured she began receiving a private education from a London Missionary Society ( LMS ) teacher . She was described as an industrious and inquisitive child with a strong love of studying the Bible , learning and reading , and she developed affectionate relationships with her teachers . She continued her education throughout her adolescence at the Congregational School of Ambatonakanga , the Friends High School for Girls , and the LMS Girls ' Central School . She was baptized as a Protestant at Ambohimanga on April 5 , 1874 . Her teachers consistently described her as ranking among their strongest students .

As a young woman , Razafindrahety married an Andriana ( nobleman ) named Ratrimo ( Ratrimoarivony ) . Her husband died several years later on May 8 , 1883 , aged 22 , leaving Razafindrahety a premature widow . According to rumor , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony may have arranged to have Ratrimo poisoned for political reasons . The Aristocratic Revolution of 1863 , which had been orchestrated by Rainilaiarivony 's older brother , Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony , had replaced the absolute rule of the Andriana with a constitutional monarchy in which power was shared between an Andriana monarch and a Hova ( freeman ) prime minister . This arrangement was to be cemented by a political marriage between the prime minister and a ruling queen effectively selected by him . As Queen Ranavalona II neared death and the search for her successor began , Rainilaiarivony may have had Ratrimo deliberately poisoned so that Razafindrahety , the most eligible successor , would be free to marry the prime minister and succeed to the throne .

= = Reign = =

Ranavalona III was proclaimed queen upon the death of her predecessor , Queen Ranavalona II , on July 13 , 1883 , and moved into Tsarahafatra , a wooden house on the grounds of the royal Rova complex in Antananarivo . Her coronation took place in the Mahamasina neighborhood of Antananarivo on November 22 , 1883 , her 22nd birthday , where she was given the title " Her Majesty Ranavalona III by the grace of God and the will of the people , Queen of Madagascar , and Protectoress of the laws of the Nation " . She chose to break with tradition by supplementing the customary retinue of soldiers at her ceremony with a group of 500 male and 400 female pupils from the capital 's best schools . The girls were dressed in white while the boys wore soldiers ' uniforms and performed traditional military drills with spears . Ranavalona was crowned wearing a white silk gown with a red train featuring embroidery and gold embellishments . The queen was described in the American press in the following terms : " She is a little above the ordinary height and has delicate features , her complexion is a little darker than that of most of her subjects . She appears quite timid and she presides well at the solemn functions of her court . "

Like her two predecessors , Ranavalona concluded a political marriage with Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony . The young queen 's role was largely ceremonial as nearly all important political decisions continued to be made by the much older and more experienced prime minister . Ranavalona was frequently called upon to deliver formal speeches ( kabary ) to the public on behalf of Rainilaiarivony and would make appearances to inaugurate new public buildings , such as a hospital at Isoavinandriana and a girls ' school at Ambodin 'Andohalo . Throughout her reign , Ranavalona 's aunt , Ramisindrazana , acted as an adviser and exercised considerable influence at court . Ranavalona 's older sister , Rasendranoro , whose son Rakatomena and daughter Razafinandriamanitra lived with their mother at the Rova , was also a close companion . An American journalist who visited her palace reported that Ranavalona spent much of her leisure time flying kites or playing lotto , a parlor game , with her relatives and other ladies at court . She also enjoyed knitting , needlework and crocheting and would frequently bring her latest craft project to work on at cabinet meetings . She had a great love of fine garments and was the only Malagasy sovereign to import the majority of her clothing from Paris rather than London .

= = = Franco @-@ Hova War = = =

As sovereign of Madagascar , Ranavalona III became a pawn in the endgame of the maneuvering that had been taking place between the British and French since the beginning of the century . The tension between France and Madagascar had grown especially acute in the three years prior to Ranavalona 's succession , with an intensification of attacks in the months prior to her coronation . In February 1883 the northwestern coast was bombarded , followed by the occupation of Mahajanga by the French in May , and bombardment and capture of Toamasina in June . Attacks along the northern coast were ongoing at the time Ranavalona III was crowned in the summer of 1883 . Shortly after the French initiated this latest round of hostilities , Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony decided to engage Lieutenant Colonel Willoughby , a Briton who had gained combat experience in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War ( but without having been a member of the British armed forces ) , to oversee the nation 's military affairs and train the queen 's army to defend the island against the seemingly inevitable French invasion .

Throughout this period Madagascar continued to engage the French in negotiations , but these were to prove unsuccessful with both sides unwilling to capitulate on key points of contention . After two years of stalemate , a column brought an ultimatum to Antananarivo in December 1885 , asking for recognition of French rights in northeastern Madagascar , a French protectorate over the Sakalava , recognition of French property principles and an indemnity of 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 francs . This peace treaty was ratified by Ranavalona and Rainilaiarivony in January 1886 and French government representatives two months later .

Prior to ratification , the queen and her prime minister sought clarification about several articles in the main treaty that stated " foreign relations " would be controlled by a French resident and referenced " establishments " at Diego @-@ Suarez Bay . Two key French negotiators , Minister Patrimonio and Admiral Miot , provided an explanation affixed to the treaty as an annex , which led the rulers of Madagascar to deem the treaty an adequate enough safeguard of their nation 's sovereignty to warrant their approval and signature . However , the official treaty was published in Paris without the annex or any reference to it . When the annex was later published in London , the French denied it had any legal validity . France declared a protectorate over the island despite the opposition of the Malagasy government and the omission of this term from the treaty .

The international reaction to this latest turn of events was varied and greatly colored by national interests . The British were unwilling to defend Madagascar 's sovereignty for fear that the French might retaliate and fail to recognize the British claim to certain protectorates of its own . All official British engagement with Madagascar was henceforth transacted through the French resident , but these communiques were not officially recognized by Ranavalona and her court . The United States and Germany , on the other hand , continued to deal directly with the queen 's government as the rightful authority in Madagascar . This discrepancy forced a reinterpretation of one aspect of the treaty , resulting in the queen 's authority over internal affairs being maintained .

In 1886 the queen attempted to solicit the support of the United States in preserving Madagascar 's sovereignty by sending gifts to then @-@ President Grover Cleveland , including silk akotofahana cloths , an ivory pin and a woven basket . However , the United States was neither able nor inclined to assert itself militarily or diplomatically in favor of preserving Madagascar 's independence . Ranavalona signed a treaty granting further concessions to the French on December 12 , 1887 .

France 's claim to Madagascar as its protectorate was officially recognized by Britain in the Anglo @-@ French agreement of 1890 . Between 1890 and 1894 , the French sought to aggressively claim what they believed to be the territorial rights established by the treaty . However , these French land claims and settlements were perceived by Ranavalona and Rainilaiarivony as an unjustifiable encroachment upon Malagasy sovereignty . Ultimately Charles Le Myre de Vilers was sent to persuade the queen and her prime minister to submit to the French interpretation of the treaty with the intent to launch a war and take the island by force if an agreement was not reached . The French offer was flatly refused and diplomatic relations between France and Madagascar were broken off in November 1894 .

Upon terminating diplomatic relations , the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast in December 1894 , then captured Mahajanga on the west coast the following month and immediately began their gradual advance , constructing roads through the malarial swamps that hindered passage to the island 's interior . The main expeditionary troops arrived in May . Over 6 @,@ 000 of the original 15 @,@ 000 French soldiers lost their lives to disease as they gradually moved inland , necessitating several thousand reinforcements drawn from French colonies in Algeria and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The column reached the capital in September 1895 . For three days the Malagasy army managed to hold the French troops at the periphery of the city , but upon French bombardment of the Rova palace compound with heavy artillery , Ranavalona agreed to surrender control of her kingdom to the French .

= = = French colonization = = =

France officially annexed Madagascar on January 1 , 1896 . That August , the French officially declared Madagascar to be their colony and exiled Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to Algiers ( in French Algeria ) where he died the following year . The queen and much of her administration remained but were afforded no real political power . Shortly after Rainilaiarivony 's exile , Ranavalona was approached by a French official who informed her that a new prime minister would need to be selected . The queen hastily concluded that General Jacques Duchesne , the French general who had successfully led the military campaign against the Merina monarchy , would be a probable choice . Assuming that Malagasy political tradition would be preserved , Ranavalona believed she would be forced to marry whichever man was chosen for the job and worriedly asked if Duchesne was to be her next husband . Surprised , the French official reassured her that France had no intention of imposing a husband on the queen and would never again require her to marry a prime minister . The queen 's minister of foreign affairs , Rainitsimbazafy , was nominated to the post of prime minister by mutual consent .

In December 1895 , two months after the French capture of Antananarivo , popular resistance to French rule emerged in the form of the menalamba ( " red shawl " ) rebellion . This guerrilla war against foreigners , Christianity and political corruption quickly spread throughout the island and was principally conducted by peasants who wore shawls smeared with the red laterite soil of the highlands . The resistance movement gained ground until it was effectively put down by the French military at the end of 1897 . Members of Ranavalona 's court were accused of encouraging the rebels and many leading figures were executed , including the queen 's uncle Ratsimamanga ( brother of her favored adviser , Ramisindrazana ) and her minister of war , Rainandriamampandry . Ramisindrazana , the queen 's aunt , was exiled to Réunion , as the French were reluctant to execute a woman .

The resistance led the government of France to replace the island 's civil governor , Hippolyte Laroche , with a military governor , Joseph Gallieni . The day before Gallieni arrived in Antananarivo , he had a message sent to the queen requiring her to present herself and her entourage at the military headquarters , preceded by a standard bearer carrying a French flag . The queen was obliged to sign documents handing over all royal property to France before being placed under arrest and imprisoned in her own palace . She was only allowed to receive visitors who had obtained prior authorization from Gallieni himself . While imprisoned , Ranavalona offered to convert to Roman Catholicism in an attempt to curry French favor but was informed that such a gesture was no longer necessary .

= = Exile = =

Gallieni exiled Ranavalona from Madagascar on February 27 , 1897 , and officially abolished the monarchy the next day . French officials ordered the queen to leave her palace at 1 : 30 in the morning . She was carried from Antananarivo by palanquin as the city slept , accompanied by 700 – 800 escorts and porters . Throughout the days spent traveling to the eastern port of Toamasina where she would board a ship to Réunion , Ranavalona reportedly drank heavily , swigging rum directly from the bottle in an uncustomarily coarse fashion . At Toamasina on March 6 , Ranavalona was notified that her sister Rasendranoro and aunt Ramasindrazana would be arriving shortly , as would the queen 's fourteen @-@ year @-@ old niece , Razafinandriamanitra , who was nine months pregnant with the illegitimate child of a French soldier .

= = = Réunion Island = = =

Together , the family sailed on La Peyrouse to the port of Pointe des Galets , a site twenty kilometers ( 12 @.@ 5 miles ) from the capital of St. Denis , to secure a discreet arrival . Despite this effort , a crowd of French onlookers jeered and shouted as the boat docked , angry at the queen for the loss of French lives incurred during France 's campaign to occupy Madagascar . After waiting for the crowd to disperse , the captain escorted the queen and her party into a horse @-@ drawn buggy , the first Ranavalona had ever seen , and drove to the Hotel de l 'Europe in St. Denis . Young Razafinandriamanitra , suffering from the emotional and physical strains of the journey into exile , went into labor shortly after reaching the hotel . She gave birth to a little girl on her second day in Réunion , but could not recover her strength and died five days later . The infant was named Marie @-@ Louise and was baptised a Catholic to avoid antagonizing the French . Marie @-@ Louise , who could have become heir @-@ apparent according to the traditional rules of succession , was adopted by Ranavalona as her own daughter .

Within a month the party had been moved to a house owned by a Madame de Villentroy , located at the corner of rue de l 'Arsenal and rue du Rempart near the French government offices in St. Denis . Ranavalona was reportedly pleased with the two @-@ story house , which had a large walled garden and featured a peaked roof and wrap @-@ around veranda reminiscent of the traditional highland homes of Madagascar . In addition to the queen and her aunt , sister , and grand @-@ niece , the royal household included two secretaries , a cook , a maid , three servants for Ranavalona , and several more servants for her aunt and sister . The queen 's private pastor was authorized to make visits freely to the royal household .

The queen 's party occupied the house in Réunion for just under two years . As tensions between England and France began to mount once again , this time over the conflict in Sudan , the French authorities became concerned that elements of the population in Madagascar might seize the opportunity to launch a new rebellion against French rule . The queen 's proximity to Madagascar was seen as a possible source of encouragement for would @-@ be Malagasy rebels . French authorities made an abrupt decision to remove Ranavalona and her party to Algeria , a more distant location . On February 1 , 1899 , with very little forewarning , Ranavalona and her family were ordered aboard the Yang @-@ Tse accompanied by a secretary @-@ interpreter and several maids . During the 28 @-@ day journey to the French port of Marseilles , the passengers stopped over at such ports as Mayotte , Zanzibar , Aden and Djibouti . Throughout the trip , the various captains responsible for the journey were under orders to prevent Ranavalona from speaking with anyone who was not French . The party was held for several months at Marseilles before being transferred to a villa in the Mustapha Superieur area in Algiers . Ranavalona had hoped to continue on to Paris and was greatly disappointed to learn she was instead being sent to Algeria , reportedly bursting into tears and remarking , " Who is certain of tomorrow ? Only yesterday I was a queen ; today I am simply an unhappy , broken @-@ hearted woman . "

= = = Algeria = = =

At the queen 's villa in Algiers , Ranavalona was provided with servants and a French female attendant who kept her under observation and remained present whenever the queen entertained guests in her home . In addition , the government of France initially provided Ranavalona with an annual allowance of 25 @,@ 000 francs paid from the budget for the colony of Madagascar and authorized by the colony 's Governor General . Nearly all the queen 's property had been seized by the colonial authority , although she had been permitted to keep certain personal belongings , including some of her jewelry . Her initial pension allowed such a humble lifestyle that the colonial government of Algeria lobbied unsuccessfully several times on her behalf to obtain an increase for her . Ranavalona also tasked a servant with selling some of her jewelry for cash , but the plan was discovered by the French colonial authorities and the servant was discharged and sent back to Madagascar .

During the first years of her exile in Algeria , Ranavalona soon discovered the excitement of the socialite lifestyle among the elite of Algiers . She was regularly invited to parties , outings and cultural events and often hosted events of her own . However , homesickness was ever @-@ present and the impossibility of visiting Madagascar contributed to melancholy and boredom . She would frequently take long walks alone in the countryside , along the beach , or through the town to clear her mind and lift her spirits . The queen was eager to see mainland France and especially Paris and repeatedly submitted formal requests for permission to travel . These were routinely denied until May 1901 when Ranavalona received the first of many authorizations to visit France . That very month , the queen moved into a small apartment in the 16th arrondissement of Paris near the Avenue Champs @-@ Élysées and what is now the Place Charles de Gaulle , from which she visited the major sights of the city and was invited to numerous receptions , balls , shows and other events . She was widely received by high society with courtesy and admiration and was offered many gifts including a costly gown . During this first trip , Ranavalona visited the Palace of Versailles , was formally received at the Paris City Hall , and spent three weeks on vacation in Bordeaux . Finally , Ranavalona visited the beaches of Arcachon before exhausting her budget and boarding an Algeria @-@ bound ship at Marseilles in early August . The details of her visit attracted much attention from the Parisian press , which expressed sympathy for the queen 's fate and recrimination toward the French government for failing to provide a larger pension or accord her the consideration she deserved as a recipient of the Legion of Honor .

Ranavalona would return to France six more times over the course of the next twelve years . Her frequent visits and excellent reputation made her the cause célèbre of many French citizens who pitied the queen 's fate and admired her gracious acceptance of her new life . Ranavalona 's visits were generally accompanied by much media fanfare and the queen 's popularity among the French public grew to the extent that she was featured on the box of Petit Beurre cookies in 1916 . The queen 's second visit to France occurred in September 1903 , when she visited Vic @-@ sur @-@ Cère and Aurillac . Pressure by citizens during this visit succeeded in raising her pension to 37 @,@ 000 francs . Two years later she would visit Marseilles and Saint @-@ Germain and inhabit a large five @-@ bedroom Parisian apartment in the sixteenth arrondissement from which she would attend the Paris Opera , observe a session of the French House of Representatives and be formally received at the Ministry of the Colonies . Again due to pressure from sympathetic French citizens , Ranavalona 's pension was further raised to 50 @,@ 000 francs per annum . On her next visit in 1907 , the queen would use Dives @-@ sur @-@ Mer as a home base to visit the Calvados region , where she was photographed for the French press . From August to September 1910 , Ranavalona would visit Paris , Nantes , La Baule and Saint @-@ Nazaire and was repeatedly the target of undesired attention from press photographers . Her 1912 trip to the tiny , remote village of Quiberville would coincide with the increase of her annual pension to 75 @,@ 000 francs . The queen 's final voyage in 1913 would take her to Marseilles , Aix @-@ les @-@ Bains and Allevard .

The advent of World War I in 1914 put an end to Ranavalona 's visits to France . Throughout her time in Algeria , she and her family regularly attended the weekly Protestant service at the Reformed Church building in central Algiers . After the war began she sought to contribute by vigorously participating in the activities of the Algerian Red Cross .

= = Death and aftermath = =

Ranavalona died without ever having returned to Madagascar , after two formal requests in 1910 and 1912 were refused on the pretext of insufficient funds in the colonial coffers . The exiled queen died suddenly at her villa in Algeria on May 23 , 1917 , the victim of a severe embolism . Ranavalona was buried at the Saint @-@ Eugene cemetery in Algiers at 10 : 00 a.m. on May 25 . Her funeral was attended by dozens of personal friends , admirers , Red Cross colleagues , members of her church congregation and prominent figures of the political and cultural elite of Algiers . By nine in the morning , a long line of cars had already formed at the entrance to the memorial site .

This effusive display of respect and remembrance on the part of Ranavalona 's friends was not mirrored by subsequent actions of the French colonial administration in Madagascar . In June 1925 , eight years after the queen 's death , the Governor @-@ General of Algeria informed the Governor @-@ General of Madagascar by letter that payments for the maintenance of Ranavalona 's tomb were in default . He urged the colonial government in Madagascar to provide funds for the upkeep of the dilapidated tomb , emphasizing that such neglect was unworthy of the queen 's memory and the government of France alike . The request was twice refused and the tomb was never refurbished . In November 1938 , Ranavalona 's remains were exhumed and re @-@ interred in the tomb of Queen Rasoherina at the Rova of Antananarivo in Madagascar . A fire on the night of 6 November 1995 severely damaged the royal tombs and destroyed most of the other buildings at the site . The lamba @-@ wrapped remains of Ranavalona III were the only ones that could be saved from the flames . These have since been re @-@ interred in the royal tombs at Ambohimanga .

Following Ranavalona 's death , her aunt Ramasindrazana left Algeria and moved to Alpes @-@ Maritimes where she lived out the few remaining years of her life . The heir @-@ apparent , Marie @-@ Louise , had left Ranavalona 's villa several years earlier to study at a French high school and would go on to marry a French agricultural engineer named Andre Bosshard on June 24 , 1921 . Although she continued to receive a small pension from the French government throughout her lifetime , Marie @-@ Louise chose to pursue a career as a nurse and was awarded the Legion of Honor for her medical services during World War II . After Bosshard and the childless Marie @-@ Louise divorced , the young woman reportedly made the most of her new @-@ found freedom as a flamboyant and vivacious socialite . Marie @-@ Louise died in Bazoches @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Betz on January 18 , 1948 , without leaving any descendants , and was buried in Montreuil , France .

= = Honors = =

= = = National honors = = =

Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Royal Hawk ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .

Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Radama II ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .

Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Merit ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .

Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Military Merit ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .

Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of the Kingdom ( 30 / 07 / 1883 ) .

Sovereign Grand Master of the Order of Ranavalona ( 1896 ) .

= = = Foreign honors = = =

Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honor ( 18 / 01 / 1887 ) .

= = Ancestry = =

= Flight Unlimited =

Flight Unlimited is a 1995 aerobatic flight simulator video game developed and published by Looking Glass Technologies . It allows players to pilot reproductions of real @-@ world aircraft and to perform aerobatic maneuvers . They may fly freely , race through floating rings against a timer or take lessons from a virtual flight instructor . The instructor teaches basic and advanced techniques , ranging from rudder turns to maneuvers such as the tailslide , Lomcevak and Immelmann turn .

Flight Unlimited was the first self @-@ published game released by Looking Glass Technologies . It was intended to establish the company as a video game publisher and to compete with flight simulator franchises such as Microsoft Flight Simulator . Project leader Seamus Blackley , a particle physicist and amateur pilot , conceived the game in 1992 . He felt that other flight simulators failed to convey the experience of real flight , and he reacted by coding a simulated atmosphere for Flight Unlimited based on real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics . Aerobatic pilot Michael Goulian endorsed the game and assisted the team in making it more true to life .

Flight Unlimited received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success ; its sales exceeded 780 @,@ 000 copies by 2002 . Reviewers lauded its realism , flight instruction , graphics and sense of flight , but some criticized its high system requirements . The game was followed by two sequels : Flight Unlimited II ( 1997 ) and Flight Unlimited III ( 1999 ) . A combat @-@ oriented successor , Flight Combat , was released in 2002 as Jane 's Attack Squadron after a series of setbacks . Soon after Flight Unlimited 's completion , Blackley was fired from Looking Glass . He went on to design Jurassic Park : Trespasser at Dreamworks Interactive and later spearhead the Xbox project at Microsoft .

= = Gameplay = =

Flight Unlimited is a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) flight simulator video game : its gameplay is a simulation of piloting real @-@ world airplanes . Players may control the Bellanca Decathlon , Extra 300S , Pitts Special S @-@ 2B , Sukhoi Su @-@ 31 and Grob G103a Twin II sailplane . The game begins at the fixed @-@ base operator ( FBO ) interface — a traversable 3D room whose contents represent menu options . For example , the player interacts with a row of scale airplane models to select an aircraft , and with a world globe to change airfield locations . Six settings are available , including Sedona , Arizona and Springfield , Vermont .

The player may choose to begin flight on a runway or taxiway , or in the air . Aircraft are controlled via keyboard , joystick , head @-@ mounted display or specialized input devices such as pedals . During flight , several third- and first @-@ person camera angles may be selected . For example , the third @-@ person Flyby View places the camera in front of the plane as it flies past , while the first @-@ person Three @-@ Way View displays more information about the plane 's position and speed than other angles . Certain camera angles , including the Three @-@ Way View and 3 @-@ D Cockpit view , provide the player with simulated flight instruments such as an altimeter , airspeed indicator , accelerometer , variometer and tachometer . The game is designed to allow players to perform aerobatic maneuvers such as the Immelmann turn , tailslide , Lomcevak and Cuban Eight . Performances may be recorded and played back , with controls that allow the player to pause , rewind and fast forward . At any time , the player may stop a recording and resume flight from that point .

The game contains lessons that cover basic and advanced flight techniques , ranging from rudder turns to challenging aerobatic maneuvers . A simulated flight instructor offers real @-@ time advice based on the player 's performance . Certificates are earned by performing well during lessons . In Hoops courses , the player undertakes a time trial through rings that float in the sky , with the option to enable a " ghost plane " of the highest score . Four types of Hoops courses are available : Basic , Challenge , Distance and Trick . The last is intended as a highly demanding test of the player 's aerobatic ability . The game 's sole non @-@ powered aircraft , the Grob G103a Twin II sailplane , features its own game mode focused on energy management . The player attempts to use the direction of the wind , thermals — which realistically occur above areas that absorb more heat , such as plains and parking lots — and the orographic lift caused by slopes to stay airborne for as long as possible .

= = Development = =

= = = Origin = = =

The concept of Flight Unlimited originated from Looking Glass Technologies ' discontent with contemporary flight simulators . Company co @-@ founders Paul Neurath and Ned Lerner wanted to develop an exceptional game in the genre , and Neurath considered the idea during the production of Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss and Ultima Underworld II : Labyrinth of Worlds . In 1992 , Seamus Blackley , who had been undertaking graduate studies in particle physics at the Fermilab research facility , was hired through a want advertisement that Lerner had placed on a bulletin board . At the company , Blackley programmed the physics modeling system for a racing game and designed a large number of standalone physics demonstrations . He became fascinated by physics programming . An amateur pilot and flight devotee , Blackley asked Lerner extensive questions about his earlier game Chuck Yeager 's Advanced Flight Trainer , which Blackley held in high regard . In reaction to Blackley 's enthusiasm , Neurath suggested that the company develop a " traditional Cessna sim " .

However , Blackley instead proposed an aerobatics training simulation , which he had conceived while reading an aerobatics magazine on a Lexington , Massachusetts bus . Collaborating with Ultima Underworld II programmer Greg Travis , he created a thirty page concept document that outlined the game . His core idea was to recreate the " yummy , visceral , fluid feeling that you get when flying a real airplane " . He wanted the project to bear more resemblance to a playground than to a video game , and he sought to give it simple controls and realistic terrain to decrease the learning curve for beginners . Blackley assumed the role of project leader and then engaged the team in " flaming sessions " to generate ideas . According to programmer Doug Church , Blackley 's concept of the game was not fully developed , but he clearly expressed his thoughts and motivated the team . The first months of the project produced disparate prototypes that demonstrated prospective features . The company committed to full development of the game in early 1993 , and production commenced in March .

= = = Production = = =

Blackley 's first objective was to code the game 's simulated physics . He began by deciding on a programming method — in particular , he sought one that would allow aircraft to perform the " knife @-@ edge spin " maneuver that he had witnessed at air shows . In 1995 , he said that he had never played a flight simulator with an accurate sense of flight . He later described his belief that the genre had stagnated , and that flight games were evaluated " by [ their ] implementation of the standard feature set " , rather than by their enjoyability . Blackley researched physics programming in contemporary flight simulators , and he discovered that many used large databases of wind tunnel and plane sensory equipment information to dictate how aircraft would operate in prerecorded scenarios . Higher @-@ end simulators used a " Newtonian " system , in which algebra @-@ based measurements of force vectors determine a plane 's position in real @-@ time . However , Blackley believed that neither system correctly simulated the experience of flight .

In reaction , he used his knowledge of particle physics to create a real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics ( CFDs ) model for Flight Unlimited . The result is a simulated atmosphere : air acts as a fluid that automatically reacts to the shape of any object placed within it . Blackley gave the example that a lawn chair , if placed within the game 's real @-@ time CFDs model , would fall merely because of its shape . The game 's planes fly because the interaction of their architecture with the atmosphere creates lift , as with real @-@ world aircraft . Changes in the plane 's direction are caused by the interaction of their flight control surfaces ( ailerons , elevators and rudders ) with the simulated atmosphere . Because it simulates the dynamics of flight in real @-@ time , the system allows for aerobatic maneuvers that were impossible in previous flight simulators . In 1994 , Blackley said that it was possibly the first flight code designed for aerobatics . In constructing the CFDs model , Blackley and the team built from the Navier – Stokes equations of fluid motion , which Blackley described as " horrible , complicated partial differential equations " . According to Computer Gaming World , Blackley did not seek to represent the equations with perfect accuracy , and he was satisfied when the results were consistent and the sensation that they generated was correct .

After programming a basic version of the CFDs model , Blackley used several programs to examine the simulated currents of air that flowed across a model of a flat plate . He adjusted the code until the plate fell realistically , and then constructed test models for a plane wing and fuselage . He eventually built a complete but dysfunctional plane by using data from " pinhead books " . By reading aircraft design manuals , he discovered that the problems were caused by his plane 's incorrect tail and center of gravity . Following this , he created an exact three @-@ dimensional model of the Extra 300S over roughly three days . As he had not yet simulated the physical attributes of its propeller , Blackley programmed the plane to be propelled from the rear . However , the accurate model performed properly in the simulated atmosphere .

Artists Mike Marsicano and Kurt Bickenbach played critical roles in the creation of the game 's aircraft models , which were built in 3D Studio . As reference material , the team photographed real planes at several airfields , and they received blueprints and datasheets from aircraft manufacturers . The game 's Grob G103a Twin II sailplane was based directly on the one that Blackley owned at the time . The sophistication of the real @-@ time CFDs complicated the 3D modeling process , as the planes required accurate geometry to fly properly . While attempting to meet this goal , however , Bickenbach said that the models he created were overly detailed , which caused the team to struggle with performance issues related to the high number of polygons . Reducing the number altered the plane 's shape , which in turn reduced its flight realism ; this necessitated a balance between performance and accuracy . To obtain audio for the planes , Greg LoPiccolo and Tom Streit — former bassist and road manager , respectively , of the band Tribe — visited a Florida importer of Russian aerobatic aircraft . The two placed microphones inside the cockpits and next to the engines , and they flew each plane at multiple speeds while recording with a digital audio tape machine . Combining this material with digital recordings of wind sounds , the team fashioned a physics @-@ based sound system : sounds of the wind and engine are altered in real @-@ time based on wind speed in the game .

The flight instructor was created by programmer Andrew Grant and voiced by Tom Streit . It monitors the player 's controller input during " each frame of animation " . If a maneuver is attempted , the instructor " interpolates the initial control movements " and predicts which maneuver is being performed . The instructor then gives advice on how to complete the maneuver and offers guidance if a mistake is made . Grant believed that the code is sometimes " too picky " , and he stated that it expects players to perform maneuvers more precisely than is humanly possible . The team initially planned to include an online multiplayer component , which would have allowed 64 planes to fly in the same area — thereby giving players the ability to compete with one another . However , the feature was not implemented into the final game . The staff members also sought to include aerobatic competitions in which the player could participate , but the idea was dropped because of difficulties with realism . Problems with artificially intelligent judges were also a factor in the feature 's removal .

Flight Unlimited 's terrain graphics were created with stereophotogrammetry . The team gathered aerial photographs from locations in France and the United States . They combined two to three images of each area to create digital reproductions roughly 11 square miles ( 28 km2 ) in size . Each location in the game was based on two stereoscopic sets of photographs , which were processed for more than 72 hours by a " dedicated Pentium tucked away in a dark corner " . From the contrasting images , the computer generated a terrain " data blanket " with 3D height variations . While the team had considered using satellite or surveillance aircraft images to create the game 's terrain graphics , they found that the resolution was inadequate . Material from geographic information systems was also studied , but associate producer Paul Schaffer said that it would have been " astronomically expensive " to obtain data with the necessary resolution .

After assembling a playable demo of Flight Unlimited , the team requested assistance from then @-@ US Aerobatic Team member Michael Goulian , who worked as a flight instructor at the nearby Hanscom Field . Because of the game 's flight code , Goulian was able to execute aerobatic maneuvers within less than three minutes of playing the game ; and he later performed his " entire basic aerobatic routine " . Blackley told PC Gamer US that , while Goulian disliked flight simulators , " When he flew Flight Unlimited , he just said ' pretty cool . ' I was so psyched " . Goulian assisted the team during the next year of development : he co @-@ designed the game 's flight lessons and advised the team on adjustments to the plane models . Aerobatic pilot Patty Wagstaff was also consulted . At one point , the team encountered problems while testing a maneuver in the game 's Sukhoi Su @-@ 31 , and Blackley was concerned that he would need to rework the game 's physics code . However , Goulian phoned a colleague — a Russian pilot — who told them to compensate for the plane 's abnormally large ailerons . Using his advice on flying the real @-@ world plane , the team found that the maneuver worked correctly . Goulian endorsed Flight Unlimited and wrote the foreword to its official strategy guide .

The graphics and physics code increased the game 's system requirements , and the team worked to optimize performance during development . They struggled to improve the game 's memory usage : the process consumed nearly as much time as the creation of the physics model , according to Church . Programmer Eric Twietmeyer ran weekly tests of the game 's performance by disabling certain parts of the code — such as the physics calculations — to isolate which parts used the most memory . By 1994 , Blackley 's physics code took up only 1 % of CPU time , with the rest allocated to the terrain renderer . Blackley optimized his code by converting the mathematical calculations of air from the 3D game world into a " math @-@ friendly space " , during which time the Navier @-@ Stokes equations are applied . Afterwards , the data is returned to 3D space . According to Computer Gaming World , this method increased speed by " a factor of 100 , with almost no loss in precision . " The team had trouble with complex memory @-@ related glitches during development . Church called them " crazy " , and programmer Greg Travis noted that debugging the terrain cache system was a " nightmare " .

While leading the team , Blackley adopted a loose style of supervision . According to Opening the Xbox author Dean Takahashi , " Blackley [ was not ] ultra @-@ organized . His idea of good management was to invite someone over for a gourmet dinner and have a casual conversation about work " . However , Takahashi wrote that " Blackley worked hard to inspire his team " , and he described artist James Dollar 's belief that , " in contrast to other Looking Glass managers , he didn 't take over tasks and make others feel stupid " . During the first two years of production , the team was divided into small groups that worked on the game 's elements separately . For example , Blackley programmed the game 's physics , while Eric Twietmeyer and Tim Day created the terrain renderer . However , Doug Church later said that , while " the team [ did ] a bunch of very cool stuff , the FBO , the flight model , the instructor , the renderer , so on " , the result " was almost like four separate programs , with no connection " . Following the completion of the concurrently @-@ developed System Shock , a significant part of that game 's team — including Church , Marc LeBlanc and Rob Fermier — moved to Flight Unlimited to add connective material . At the time , Church said that it was difficult to meld the game 's elements , but he later stated that they largely coalesced by the end .

= = = Publication = = =

Flight Unlimited was self @-@ published by Looking Glass Technologies . Their previous games had been developed for other video game publishers , and had generated $ 90 million total earnings for those companies . However , Ronald Rosenberg of The Boston Globe reported that Looking Glass was " no longer satisfied as a backroom player surviving on royalties " . Doug Church later explained that the company wanted to self @-@ publish in order to escape the " treadmill of waiting for advances " , which would allow them to make long @-@ term plans without needing to satisfy the immediate demands of a publisher . In late 1994 , Looking Glass announced that venture capital investors , including Matrix Partners and Institutional Venture Partners , had provided the company with $ 3 @.@ 8 million . The sum was intended to fund the development and self @-@ publication of Flight Unlimited . According to Michael Humphreys of Matrix Partners and Ruthann Quindlen of Institutional Venture Partners , the decision was partly influenced by the past success of the company 's co @-@ founders , Paul Neurath and Ned Lerner .

Looking Glass intended Flight Unlimited as a gateway into the video game publishing industry . According to Lerner , the idea of self @-@ publishing had been considered when the company was founded . In 1995 , Looking Glass projected that sales of Flight Unlimited would increase royalty revenues to $ 10 million that year , up from $ 1 @.@ 5 million in 1994 . Jeffrey A. Kalowski , the company 's vice president of finance and administration , expected that the game would recoup its development costs and make a return before the end of the year . He predicted that , over the following 12 to 18 months , the company 's number of employees would increase from 52 to 82 . The company 's executive vice president and general manager , Jerry Wolosenko , told The Boston Globe that the company hoped to publish six games each year . According to Doug Church , the pressure for Flight Unlimited to succeed meant that the concurrently @-@ developed System Shock , which was not self @-@ published , received little attention from the company 's management .

Flight Unlimited was placed in direct competition with several major flight simulator franchises . Before the game 's release , Shelby Bateman of Next Generation Magazine wrote , " 1995 is going to be a real dogfight in the flight @-@ sim and aerial @-@ combat categories , and LookingGlass [ sic ] is betting its bankroll ... that it can capture significant market share from the likes of Microsoft Flight Simulator and the debut of Spectrum HoloByte 's Falcon 4 @.@ 0 , among others . " Describing the situation , Johnny L. Wilson of Computer Gaming World wrote , " The games that sell big are the ones that allow you to blow stuff up , so , if anything , that could be a problem for Flight Unlimited . " Doug Church explained that , because the game did not feature combat and bore little resemblance to Microsoft Flight Simulator , the team spent " many late nights " on marketing strategies . However , he noted that the game had a wide appeal among those who tested it during development , which he called " a really good sign " . Talking to Bernie Yee of PC Gamer US , Paul Neurath said that he thought the game would sell well . Yee noted that Neurath " fully [ expected ] it to prove more popular than Microsoft Flight Simulator " .

In January 1995 , Looking Glass showed Flight Unlimited alongside Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show , under their " Immersive Reality " marketing label . In March 1995 , the Boston Globe reported that the team was performing " 11th hour checks " of the game to prepare it for shipment to a Midwestern United States Compact Disc manufacturer . According to the newspaper , Looking Glass planned to begin by shipping 100 @,@ 000 units to retailers in Canada and the United States . Another 100 @,@ 000 copies were to be sent to France , Germany and the United Kingdom at a later date . However , upon the game 's June 7 , 1995 release for DOS , 200 @,@ 000 units were distributed simultaneously in the United States and Europe . The game 's European releases were localized with German , French and English text and voice acting , which was made possible by " close coordination with international partners " . Versions for Macintosh and Windows 95 were later released ; the former was shown at the Macworld Expo in April 1996 .

= = Reception = =

Flight Unlimited was a commercial success . It debuted in twelfth place on a June 1995 sales chart compiled by NPD Group , while Microsoft Flight Simulator 5 @.@ 1 took first place . The game went on to sell more than 300 @,@ 000 copies by 1997 , and more than 780 @,@ 000 by 2002 . According to Constantine von Hoffman of the Boston Herald , Flight Unlimited successfully competed with Microsoft Flight Simulator . PC Gamer 's Lee Buchanan wrote that it " soars above the pack of flight simulations " , and he considered it to be " the most fun [ he had ] had in a computerized cockpit " . Frank Vizard of Popular Mechanics hailed it as " the new top gun of flight simulators " , and Doug Bailey of The Boston Globe considered it to be the " first real serious challenge to Microsoft 's dominance of the genre " . The Record 's David Noack believed that the game 's physics and stereoscopic terrain set " a new standard in flight simulation " . Writing for Computer Gaming World , Bob and John Nolan stated , " If anything , you should at least take a look at this product , because you 'll be looking at the future of simulations . " The game was a finalist in the 12th Annual Awards for Technical Excellence held by PC Magazine , whose staff called it " the simulator by which all others will be judged . "

= = = Design = = =

Vizard stated that Flight Unlimited 's " very advanced computational fluid dynamics make [ each ] plane react according to spec " . Buchanan lauded the fluid model for creating a " sensation of actual flight [ that ] is nothing short of magnificent " , while PC Magazine 's staff commented that it makes " planes behave more like real aircraft than any simulator we have seen " . Bob and John Nolan called the game 's physics programming " groundbreaking " , and Chris Ware of the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader found the game to be the most accurate simulation of flight beyond " those multimillion @-@ dollar flight simulators [ used by ] fighter pilots and astronauts " . Noack agreed : he wrote that the game " is about as close to flying within going to the airport " . In 1996 , Computer Gaming World presented Flight Unlimited with a Special Artistic Achievement Award For Physical Model . The magazine 's staff praised Seamus Blackley 's programming for pushing the genre " higher into the realm of simulation " .

Ware found Flight Unlimited approachable and noted its " simplicity of use and depth of instruction " . Buchanan hailed the lesson mode as " a dream come true for any budding pilot " . A writer for The Washington Post called the game " [ the ] world 's first truly easy @-@ to @-@ use flight simulator " and " a good entry product " , in which " rank amateurs can just launch the program and start cruising immediately " . The Washington Post 's John Gaudiosi wrote that , while many games in the genre are overly complex , Flight Unlimited lets " those who aren 't rocket scientists ... experience the thrills of stunt flying . " He found its control scheme simple to understand . By contrast , Bailey found the game difficult and initially " frustrating " : he complained that he had to play the lesson mode before even taking off . Denny Atkin of Computer Gaming World characterized the game 's learning curve as steep , thanks to the accuracy of the physics programming , but he noted the scalable difficulty options . Bailey later recommended the game in a holiday shopping guide . He wrote that " it can be difficult to master . But once you 're up , it 's worth the trouble . "

A writer for The Washington Post commented that " serious flight freaks will like the racing and advanced maneuvers " . According to Gaudiosi , dedicated players will learn " all about aerodynamics and stunt flying " ; he considered the latter to be " hard stuff , even with green hoops guiding you " . Similarly , Buchanan characterized the Hoops courses as " incredibly demanding " , and Atkin cited that mode 's Trick difficulty level as " amazingly tough " . Bob and John Nolan wrote that people who " love to loop around the skies of Flight Simulator 5 will go bananas for " the aerobatics ; but the pair commented that combat flight simulator players " might get a little edgy once the wow @-@ power wears off . " However , Atkin believed that only those " never happy without something to shoot at " could be disappointed by the lack of combat : other players will " be too busy choreographing aerial ballets , pulling off death @-@ defying aerobatic stunts , or just enjoying a quiet soar down the ridge line to miss that stuff " . Likewise , Ware called the non @-@ violent gameplay " refreshing " , and Buchanan wrote , " If [ you are ] a battle @-@ weary veteran of air combat sims , Flight Unlimited might be just the sort of [ rest and relaxation ] you need . "

= = = Presentation = = =

Atkin found the cockpit and terrain graphics to look " almost real " . He commented , " Every few years a sim comes along that lets reviewers use the ' sets new standards for graphics ' cliché , and Flight Unlimited is the 1995 entry in this club . " Bob and John Nolan called Flight Unlimited " the ultimate show off piece for your new Pentium " , thanks to " unbelievable " graphics superior to those of any other computer game . Gaudiosi concurred : he characterized the visuals as " photo @-@ sharp " and " better than any I have seen " . PC Magazine 's staff found the graphics " impressive " and " even more stunning than those in Microsoft Flight Simulator " . Ware noted the " stunning 3 @-@ D photo @-@ realistic scenery " , while Bailey stated that the " graphics are brilliantly rendered and whiz by smoothly " . Buchanan called Flight Unlimited 's terrain " just superb " and Vizard described it as " amazingly real " . Buchanan believed that " what you hear in Flight Unlimited is every bit as good as what you see " , thanks to " utterly convincing " sound effects . Atkin praised the instructor as " one of the best uses of voice ever in a multimedia title " .

Bailey wrote that the game needs " a real beefy machine " to run properly ; Atkin stated that the " massive horsepower requirement will restrict many gamers to lower resolutions and detail levels " . Bob and John Nolan similarly found that the game " hogs computing power " . Buchanan wrote that the system requirements listed on the back of the game 's box " must be a joke " , and that a high @-@ performance computer is necessary to run the game .

= = Aftermath = =

Flight Unlimited was the first of three self @-@ published titles released by Looking Glass Technologies . However , the next two products , Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri ( 1996 ) and British Open Championship Golf ( 1997 ) , were commercial failures . As a result , the company ceased self @-@ publishing and was left in dire financial circumstances . Doug Church later explained that Looking Glass ' attempt to publish came at a difficult time for the video game industry : " the other mid @-@ sized publishers were mostly going out of business or getting bought " . He believed that the company had been " overreaching itself " with the venture , and that it was " being a little overambitious and a little cocky " .

= = = Sequels = = =

Flight Unlimited was intended to be followed by a combat @-@ oriented sequel , which was developed under the working title Flight Combat . In 1995 , Seamus Blackley told PC Gamer US that he wanted the game to " feel so real that pilots will be afraid . They 'll feel the gun hits . " Talking to Computer Gaming World , he stated that the game would teach players the " same curriculum [ as ] the Air Force " , and that it would feature competitive online play . However , a company manager , newly instated by venture capital investors who disliked Looking Glass ' management style , instead demanded that Blackley create a direct sequel to Flight Unlimited . The two argued regularly , and Blackley later accused the manager of " ripp [ ing ] the guts out of Looking Glass " . In response to Blackley 's refusal to create Flight Unlimited II , the manager fired him . Blackley left the company in late 1995 with designer Austin Grossman , and both were hired by Dreamworks Interactive to create Jurassic Park : Trespasser . He later spearheaded development of the Xbox at Microsoft .

Constantine Hantzopoulos directed Flight Unlimited II , which was published by Eidos Interactive in 1997 . The team could not continue using the real @-@ time computational fluid dynamics of Flight Unlimited because , according to Hantzopoulos , it was " all black box spaghetti code from Seamus " . The aerobatics focus of its predecessor was dropped in favor of general civilian aviation . The development of Flight Combat was hinted at during the production of Flight Unlimited II . A third game , Flight Unlimited III , was published by Electronic Arts in 1999 ; and it continued the focus on general aviation . That year , Flight Combat was officially announced as the World War II @-@ themed , Electronic Arts @-@ published Flight Combat : Thunder Over Europe , but its name was eventually changed to Jane 's Attack Squadron . The game was canceled as a consequence of Looking Glass Studios ' closure in 2000 . However , it was later finished by developer Mad Doc Software and released in 2002 by publisher Xicat Interactive .

= Octavarium ( album ) =

Octavarium is the eighth studio album by American progressive metal / rock band Dream Theater . Released on June 7 , 2005 , it was the band 's final release with Atlantic Records . Recorded between September 2004 and February 2005 , the album holds the distinction of being the last album ever recorded at The Hit Factory in New York City . With Octavarium , the band decided to create " a classic Dream Theater album " , drawing upon their various stylistic influences while trying to make the music less complex . The album takes as its creative concept the musical octave .

Octavarium peaked in the top five in the Finnish , Italian , and Swedish charts , and in the top ten in the Dutch , Japanese , and Norwegian charts . Critical reception of the album was generally positive ; the diversity of the music was praised , although critics found some of the songwriting to be inconsistent . Dream Theater promoted the album on a year @-@ long world tour , with the majority of concerts lasting almost three hours and featuring a different setlist each night . The tour finished at Radio City Music Hall accompanied by an orchestra ; this performance was recorded and released as a live album and concert video entitled Score . They co @-@ headlined the 2005 North American Gigantour with Megadeth .

= = Background = =

After completing a North American tour supporting one of their main influences , Yes , in summer 2004 , Dream Theater took a two @-@ month break . The band reconvened at The Hit Factory in New York City in November 2004 to begin work on their eighth studio album . The Hit Factory , a studio in which artists such as Michael Jackson , Madonna , Stevie Wonder , U2 and John Lennon had recorded , was earmarked for closure . Dream Theater was the last band to record there before it was permanently closed .

After writing the concept album Metropolis Pt . 2 : Scenes from a Memory , the double album Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence and the metal @-@ focused Train of Thought , the band decided to create " a classic Dream Theater album " . Keyboardist Jordan Rudess described it as " really going back to creating a real band effort , as well as drawing upon all our various stylistic influences . " On Octavarium , the band wanted to make the music less complex , featuring songs which Rudess regards as " quicker to appreciate " , although noted that the twenty @-@ four @-@ minute " Octavarium " was not as accessible . Guitarist John Petrucci noted that they wanted to focus on writing strong songs . To achieve this , the band stripped the sound down to piano , guitar and vocals when writing , focusing on the melodies and song structures .

Drummer Mike Portnoy dismissed claims that Octavarium was an attempt to write a more commercial album , stating that the band simply " [ has ] that side to [ them ] . We love bands like U2 or Coldplay , as well as liking shorter songs as well . " Portnoy noted that , after writing Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence and Train of Thought , they had not written an album of shorter songs for some time . He said that the band had found writing longer songs easier than writing shorter ones , and that the band was not trying to write a radio hit as " the label wouldn 't have done crap with it anyway . "

The band had previously written an orchestral @-@ style piece in the form of " Overture " on Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence , but recorded it using keyboards . The tracks " The Answer Lies Within " , " Sacrificed Sons " and " Octavarium " marked the first time Dream Theater worked with an orchestra , conducted by Jamshied Sharifi ( who studied at Berklee College of Music at the same time as Portnoy , Petrucci and bassist John Myung ) . The orchestra was selected based on their sight reading ability , allowing all their parts to be recorded in a maximum of two takes , even though they had never seen or played the music before .

Sharifi would later go on to conduct the Octavarium Orchestra on Dream Theater 's Score album .

= = Concept = =

When starting to work on what would become Octavarium , Portnoy noted that it would be their eighth studio album and that they had recently released their fifth live album , Live at Budokan . This sequence mirrored the octave on a musical keyboard : each octave contains eight naturals and five accidentals . Portnoy suggested that they use that concept for the entire album . When writing , the band delegated each song a different key . Sound effects were placed between songs to connect them : for example , " The Root of All Evil " , written in F , and the following track , " The Answer Lies Within " , written in G , were connected by a sound effect in the key of F # . The album 's lyrics and song titles featured references to this concept . Portnoy cited the titles " The Root of all Evil " ( referring to the musical term " root " ) and " Octavarium " ( " the octave of the octave " ) as two examples of this .

Octavarium begins " The Root of All Evil " with the final note of the band 's previous album , Train of Thought with " In the Name of God " . Train of Thought started " As I Am " with the last note from Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence with the title track , which in turn started with the noise that ended Scenes from a Memory at the end of " Finally Free " . Portnoy was inspired to do this thanks to the Van Halen album Women and Children First ; the outro of the album 's final song ended with a new riff being played which faded out . Portnoy recalled that he expected Van Halen 's next album to start with that ending riff , but was disappointed when it did not . He later realized he had " dug a hole where we 're expected to do it every time " . He solved this problem on Octavarium , where the final track ends with the beginning of the first one . This made the album a cycle in itself , allowing the band to have a clean start with their next album . At 04 : 52 – 5 : 17 , there is a lyrical and musical reference to the chorus of " This Dying Soul " from Train of Thought .

= = = Content = = =

" The Root of All Evil " is the third part of Portnoy 's Twelve @-@ step Suite , a set of songs from various Dream Theater albums which describe his journey through Alcoholics Anonymous . The song contains parts six and seven of the suite : " Ready " and " Remove " . " The Answer Lies Within " and " I Walk Beside You " are the two shortest tracks on the album . Rudess regards them as radio @-@ friendly songs which still maintain Dream Theater 's style .

Portnoy wrote the lyrics to " Never Enough " as a response to fans who Portnoy perceived to complain about every thing that Dream Theater did . Portnoy stated that while he appreciated the devotion of Dream Theater 's fans , he was frustrated because he was " constantly tearing [ himself ] away from [ his ] family " to give more to the fans . He found it discouraging that , even though he spent " countless nights " writing special setlists and the band spent days rehearsing , some fans would still complain that they went to a show and did not hear " Pull Me Under " . " It 's discouraging and makes me crazy sometimes , " he said .

" Sacrificed Sons " , at just over ten minutes long , is the second @-@ longest song on the album . Its lyrics , written by vocalist James LaBrie , deal with the September 11 attacks . Rudess noted that the band enjoyed writing about more serious topics instead of love songs . When working on the lyrics , LaBrie said that there was " a lot of discussion " about the song 's wording and how direct it should be .

The title track " Octavarium " is the longest track on the album , at 24 : 00 . Petrucci stated that the band wanted to write an epic song that thematically developed and would use an orchestra . The band was heavily influenced by the progressive rock sound of Genesis , Yes and Pink Floyd . The instrumental introduction , heavily influenced by Pink Floyd 's " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " , was performed by Rudess using a lap steel guitar and Continuum . Additionally , there are many references to other progressive rock songs in the lyrics .

= = = Artwork = = =

Hugh Syme provided the artwork for Octavarium . The idea of depicting a giant Newton 's cradle was born out of discussions between Syme and Portnoy . The two talked about how " for everything you do in music you create either a cluster or triad " , according to Syme . " And then it became evident that for every action there is an opposite reaction . So I thought we could do something based on the Newton 's cradle . " There are numerous references to the numbers five and eight throughout the artwork , alluding to the album 's concept . For example , the Newton 's cradle has eight suspended balls , and there are five birds on the cover . The album booklet features an octagonal maze , spider and octopus , among other references . The landscape on the cover is made up of a sky and grass from Indiana , and a background from the Lake District .

= = Release = =

A week before the scheduled release of Octavarium , Portnoy shut down the official Dream Theater and Mike Portnoy forums . Blabbermouth.net reported that this was in response to the album being leaked . Portnoy stated that " [ he ] chose to do this mainly [ emphasis removed ] to build anticipation for the big ' official ' unveiling next week " , although noted that " the repeated requests to refrain from spoilers and links for the new album against the band 's wishes were frustrating " .

Octavarium was released on June 7 , 2005 . It was their final album with Atlantic Records , ending a contract which had lasted fourteen years . Although in recent years the band had been allowed creative freedom , they were dissatisfied by the lack of promotion the label offered them . Portnoy released a DVD entitled Drumavarium in 2005 , containing footage of his drum performance from the Octavarium recording sessions . Rudess released a solo piano version of " The Answer Lies Within " on his 2009 album Notes on a Dream . " Panic Attack " is featured as a playable song in Rock Band 2 , where it is listed as the hardest song for both bass and drums .

= = = Reception = = =

Octavarium reached the top five in the Finnish , Italian , and Swedish charts , as well as the top ten in the Dutch , Japanese , and Norwegian charts . Critical reception of the album was generally positive . Writing for Blistering , Justin Donnelly praised the album as " diverse , melodic and hard hitting all at the same time " , ranking it as one of Dream Theater 's best releases . He particularly praised the title track , considering it to be " another Dream Theater classic " . Billboard considered the results of the band 's attempt to write shorter songs and use warmer instrumental textures to be " excellent " , particularly praising " The Root of All Evil " , " These Walls " and " I Walk Beside You " .

Harley Carlson of MetalReview.com regarded Octavarium as " successfully [ showcasing ] the band 's ability to craft emotive music , " although noted that it is " unquestionably Dream Theater , yet there is something missing . " Vik Bansal of musicOMH praised " Never Enough " , " Panic Attack " and " Sacrificed Sons " , but dismissed " The Root of All Evil " as " Dream Theater by the numbers " . He criticized " Octavarium " as " bloated " , although noted that fans of the band 's A Change of Seasons would enjoy it . He said that " there 's enough on the remainder of Octavarium to keep the rest of us interested and the prog rock haters whining dismissively " . Writing for Exclaim ! , Greg Pratt praised the album 's artwork and production , but said that " there ’ s nothing that blows any minds here , or even gives a mild bend ; hell , a good chunk of this disc feels like basic radio rock from the local old @-@ guy bar band " . He noted that although there were some longer songs on the album , " this just feels like 76 minutes of overdramatic rock , too heavy on the light and weak , and not enough time spent on just showing off " .

Donnelly considered Octavarium to be " somewhere between Images and Words , Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence and Train of Thought " . Carlson stated that the album " draws closest comparison to Falling into Infinity and Metropolis II : Scenes from a Memory , but with far less complexity and edge . " Tammy La Gorce of AllMusic noted that " a post @-@ hardcore edge - call it a leap into 2005 - has invaded [ the band 's ] pledge of allegiance to theatrical heavy rock ... What 's changed is Dream Theater 's commitment to carrying on their reputation as underground progressive rock 's classicists , and it seems well @-@ timed . " Critics noted a strong Muse influence on some tracks , on some cases generating negative reviews .

= = Touring = =

Dream Theater began the Octavarium Tour in support of Octavarium in Europe on June 10 , 2005 , beginning at the Sweden Rock Festival in Sölvesborg . The band co @-@ headlined the Gigantour with Megadeth across North America from July 21 to September 3 . The Montreal concert was recorded and released as a live album and concert video on August 22 , 2006 and September 5 , 2006 respectively , titled Gigantour . The main Octavarium world tour began in September in Finland , and saw the band continue with their " An Evening With Dream Theater " concert format . This meant the band would play for almost three hours , with a different setlist each evening . Many of the shows would center around a tour of the band 's history to that point , featuring a song ( or part of a longer song ) for each album before wrapping up the regular set with several from Octavarium Combined with interviews , rehearsals during soundcheck and meet @-@ and @-@ greet sessions with fans , the band became physically and mentally drained .

Dream Theater performed two shows on consecutive nights both in Amsterdam and London . On the second night in both cities , the band covered the entirety of Pink Floyd 's The Dark Side of the Moon album . Theresa Thomason , who had previously performed on Scenes From a Memory , was flown in to perform vocals on " The Great Gig in the Sky " . The London performance was released as a live album and concert video in 2006 by Portnoy 's YtseJam Records . The band covered all of Deep Purple 's Made in Japan at concerts in Tokyo and Osaka ; a recording of which was also released as a live album by YtseJam Records in 2007 .

To celebrate the band 's twentieth anniversary , the final concert on the tour was performed at Radio City Music Hall in New York on April 1 , 2006 . For the second half of the concert , the band was accompanied by a thirty @-@ piece orchestra conducted by Jamshied Sharifi . The concert was filmed and released as a live album and concert video named Score on August 29 , 2006 by Rhino Records .

= = Track listing = =

All music composed by Dream Theater .

= = Chart positions = =

= = Personnel = =

Additional personnel

= Peniophora quercina =

Peniophora quercina is a species of wood @-@ decay fungus in the family Peniophoraceae . The species produces fruit bodies which vary in appearance depending on whether they are wet or dry . The wet fruit bodies are waxy and lilac , and attached strongly to the wood . When dry , the edges curl up and reveal the dark underside , while the surface becomes crusty and pink . P. quercina is the type species of Peniophora , and was moved to the genus upon its creation by Mordecai Cubitt Cooke . The species is found primarily in Europe , where it can be encountered all year . Though primarily growing upon dead wood , especially oak , it is also capable of growing upon still @-@ living wood .

= = Taxonomy = =

Early descriptions of the species came from Carl Ludwig Willdenow , who named it Lichen carneus in 1787 , and Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard , who , in 1790 , named it Auricularia corticalis . However , the sanctioned name is Thelephora quercina , given by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , and sanctioned by Elias Magnus Fries in the first volume of his Systema Mycologicum . The specific name quercina is in reference to Quercus , the generic name for oak . A number of authors ( including Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , Lucien Quélet and Giacomo Bresadola ) reclassified Bulliard 's Auricularia corticalis throughout the 19th century , while Persoon 's Thelephora quercina was reclassified by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 , who placed it in Corticium as Corticium quercinum . However , in 1879 , Mordecai Cubitt Cooke transferred the species to his newly described genus Peniophora , declaring it the type species . Despite subsequent attempts at reclassification , Cooke 's name is the one currently used .

= = Description = =

Peniophora quercina produces resupinate fruit bodies which vary in appearance depending on whether they are wet or dry . They are up to 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) thick , and form irregular patches that sometimes measure several centimetres across . Initially , the species forms small , disc @-@ shaped fruit bodies through holes in bark , but these expand and merge to form the irregular patches . When fresh , the surface is reminiscent of jelly or wax , and can be smooth or warty , varying in colour from a dull blue to lilac . Initially , they are firmly attached to the wood on which they are growing , but as they dry , the edges roll inwards and reveal the dark brown or black underside . The dry specimens have a crusty and slightly fissured surface , and , in colour , are a bright pink or grey , tinted with lilac . There is a relatively thick layer of gelatinous flesh . Apart from a brown layer close to the wood , the flesh is hyaline . The species has no distinctive odour or taste , and is inedible .

= = = Microscopic features = = =

Peniophora quercina produces spores which take the shape of a curved cylinder ( sausage shaped ) , and have been variously reported as light red , pink and white . They measure from 8 to 12 by 3 to 4 micrometres ( μm ) . The spores are borne on basidia , with four spores per basidium , which measure 50 to 70 by 5 to 12 μm . The species has hyaline cystidia with thick cell walls , which are " heavily encrusted with crystalline material " . The cystidia are often buried within the fruit body as it grows , but can be found in large numbers . They have been variously described as spindle @-@ shaped or conical , and measure 25 to 35 by 10 to 15 μm . The hyphae have clamp connections , and the base of the fruit body is made up of brown hyphae with moderately thick cell walls , measuring 3 to 4 μm in width .

= = = Similar species = = =

Peniophora limulata is similar in appearance to P. quercina . However , the edges of the fruit body are highlighted in a dark black , and the species favours ash , as opposed to oak .

= = Ecology and distribution = =

Peniophora quercina typically grows upon dead wood , which can be attached to the tree or fallen , where it causes white rot . It favours oak , but can also be found on other deciduous trees , such as beech . P. quercina is known to be a pioneer species on dead wood , which means it can be the first species to grow . It is found in Europe , where it is very common . Though it can be encountered all year , it produces spores in late summer and autumn . It has also been recorded in Amur , in eastern Asia .

The species has also been identified in living sapwood , though it is latent at this time , and it is probable that it waits until the wood begins to die ( when it is drier , but contains more oxygen ) before the mycelia begin to grow . When the species was inoculated into living wood , it did grow , but only around the inoculation wound ; the species did not spread as it would have done on dead wood . Another study found that the species actively colonised partially living branches , causing white rot . However , the species had little effect on the cambium , and was mostly limited to the ends of branches .

= Paper War of 1752 – 1753 =

In 1752 , Henry Fielding started a " paper war " , a long term dispute with constant publication of pamphlets attacking other writers , between the various authors on London 's Grub Street . Although it began as a dispute between Fielding and John Hill , other authors , such as Christopher Smart , Bonnell Thornton , William Kenrick , Arthur Murphy , and Tobias Smollett were soon dedicating their works to aid various sides of the conflict .

The dispute lasted until 1753 and involved many of London 's periodicals . It eventually resulted in countless essays , poems , and even a series of mock epic poems starting with Smart 's The Hilliad . Although it is unknown what actually started the dispute , it resulted in a divide of authors who either supported Fielding or supported Hill , and few in between .

= = Background = =

Fielding started a " paper war " in the first issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal ( 4 January 1752 ) by declaring war against " hack writers " . In response , John Hill claimed in the London Daily Advertiser ( 9 January 1752 ) Fielding had met with him prior to January and proposed what would be a fake paper war that would involve London writers " giving Blows that would not hurt , and sharing the Advantage in Silence . " Such a meeting between Fielding and Hill to discuss the proposed war is believed to have occurred ( if it occurred ) on 28 December 1751 . It is known that Hill met Fielding for legal business between 26 and 28 December 1751 after Hill was robbed .

Before Hill had revealed this information , he attacked Fielding 's Amelia in the London Daily Advertiser on 8 January 1752 . The book 's title character , Amelia , was involved in an accident that damaged her face , and Hill , mocking the way Fielding described the scene , claimed that she " could charm the World without the Help of a Nose . " In response to both the revelation and personal attacks , Fielding wrote on 11 January 1752 : " If the Betrayer of a private Treaty could ever deserve the least Credit , yet his Lowness here must proclaim himself either a Liar , or a Fool . None can doubt that he is the former , if he hath feigned this Treaty , and I think few would scruple to call him the latter , if he had rejected it . " Regardless of the merits of Hill 's claim , a war was soon started : by the third issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal , Fielding narrowed his satire upon John Hill .

Although Hill , Fielding , Smart , Thornton , Kenrick , Murphy , and Smollett were all involved in the dispute , not all of them used their actual names ; instead , many preferred to use pseudonyms along with attacks under their own name : Fielding wrote as " Sir Alexander Drawcansir " ; Hill wrote as " The Inspector " ; Thornton wrote as " Madam Roxanna " ; and Smart wrote as " Mrs. Mary Midnight " . It was under these pseudonyms that various authors soon responded to Fielding 's attacks and to Fielding 's plan for a " Universal Register Office " , a planned center of advertisement of jobs , goods for sale , and other items . If this was not enough , Fielding started a dispute , just a few months before , with Philip D 'Halluin , a former employee who established the competing " Public Register Office " in King Street , Covent Garden , who hired Bonnell Thorton , a friend of Smart , to attack Fielding and Hill . However , Hill had previously aided Fielding in this matter .

Later , Hill attacked both Fielding and Smart , 13 August 1752 , in the only issue of the The Impertinent to be produced . Although the work was published anonymously , it was commonly known that it was produced by Hill , and he soon followed up the pamphlet with his 25 August 1752 The Inspector column in the London Daily Advertiser . With the column , he harshly criticized Smart 's Poems on Several Occasions . Fielding eventually left the dispute after the sixth issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal was published .

= = Event = =

Although it is quite possible that the first work in the " war " was produced by Smart on 29 April 1751 , it is also possible that the origins of the dispute could be traced even further back to Hill 's publications between February and March 1751 . Fielding 's first paper in the " war " was also the first issue of The Covent @-@ Garden Journal on 4 January 1752 . In it , Fielding attacked all of the writers of Grub Street , which brought a quick response . Hill responded twice and claimed that Fielding was planning a fake dispute on 9 January 1752 , Smollet attacked Hill 's piece on 15 January 1752 , and Thornton soon responded against Fielding in Have At You All : or , The Drury Lane Journal on 16 January 1752 .

During this time , personal works , such as Fielding 's Amelia , became targets . On 11 January 1752 , Fielding responded to Hill and those who supported his view of Amelia in The Covent @-@ Garden Journal by ironically stating :

a famous Surgeon , who absolutely cured one Mrs Amelia Booth , of a violent Hurt in her Nose , insomuch , that she had scarce a Scar left on it , intends to bring Actions against several ill @-@ meaning and slanderous People , who have reported that the said Lady had no Nose , merely because the Author of her History , in a Hurry , forgot to inform his Readers of that Particular .

Hill was not the only one to attack the work ; Thornton wrote satires of Amelia in the Drury @-@ Lane Journal . Thornton 's satires were first published on 16 January 1752 and included a fake advertisement for a parody novel called " Shamelia " , playing off of title of Fielding 's parody Shamela . He later parodied Amelia again on 13 February 1752 in a piece called " A New Chapter in Amelia . " Tobias Smollett joined in and published the pamphlet Habbakkuk Hilding anonymously on 15 January 1752 . Although there were many attacks against Fielding 's novel , there was some support for the work , and an anonymous pamphlet was written to attack " Hill and ' the Town ' " while praising Amelia . On 25 January 1752 , Fielding defended his work again by bringing the novel before the imaginary " Court of Censorial Enquiry " , in which Hill and the other critics are the prosecutors and it is they , not Amelia , that are truly put on trial .

The Covent @-@ Garden Journal served Fielding well and he used it in his attacks upon Hill and Hill 's supporters in the Journal piece called " Journal of the present Paper War between the Forces under Sir Alexander Drawcansir , and the Army of Grub @-@ street " . The work was modelled after Jonathan Swift 's The Battle of the Books and Fielding pretended to be a military leader that would lead " English VETERANS " against those who were compared to characters from the Greek and Roman classics along with those from modern French literature . However , he changed roles on the fourth issue , produced on 14 January 1752 , and transformed himself into a " judge " . By February , Kenrick joined in and " dramatized " the " Paper War " in a production called Fun and proceeded to defend Fielding . Charles Macklin followed suit by holding a benefit on 8 April 1752 at the Covent Garden with a two @-@ act play called The Covent Garden Theater , or Pasquin Turn 'd Drawcansir ; the play portrayed Fielding attacking the Hill and his followers , the " Town " .

A pamphlet in the London Daily Advertiser published on 29 January 1752 called The March of the Lion links various authors involved in the war and is the first to introduce Smart via a reference to his " Mrs. Mary Midnight " pseudonym , although Smart was not yet a participant . However , Smart did begin directly participating in the matter 4 August 1752 with the publication in The Midwife of a parody on Hill 's " Inspector " persona . In the piece , Smart responded to Hill 's attack on Smart 's " Old Woman 's Oratory " show and Hill 's claim that the show was dead . Hill was quick to respond ; he attacked both Fielding and Smart in a piece published on 13 August 1752 in the only issue of the The Impertinent . In the work , Hill claimed that authors either write because " they have wit " or " they are hungry " . He further claimed that Smart ,

wears a ridiculous comicalness of aspect , that makes people smile when they see him at a distance : His mouth opens , because he must be fed ; and the world often joins with the philosopher in laughing at the insensibility and obstinancy that make him prick his lips with thistles . "

The work was published anonymously . Some tried to claim that Samuel Johnson was the author and Hill tried to hide his authorship by attacking the essay in the 25 August 1752 " The Inspector " ( No. 464 ) . However , he was soon exposed and it became commonly known that Hill produced both and he soon followed up the pamphlet in the London Daily Advertiser .

With his 25 August 1752 The Inspector column , Hill harshly criticised Smart 's Poems on Several Occasions . Although Hill claimed to praise Smart , he did so in a manner , as Betty Rizzo claims , " that managed to insult and degrade Smart with patronizing encouragement . " Arthur Murphy responded to this essay , and to Hill , in the 21 October 1752 edition of the Gray 's Inn Journal . Following Murphy , Thornton attacked both Hill and Fielding in The Spring @-@ Garden Journal on 16 November 1752 . The Gentleman 's Journal issue of November 1752 came out with a quick retort and claimed that those who supported Hill " espoused the cause of Gentleman " and those who sided with Fielding espoused the cause " of the comedian . " This essay accomplished little but to polarise both sides even more . Hill then responded to Murphy , and their dispute was printed in a supplement of the December issue of the Gentleman 's Journal .

On 1 February 1753 , Smart published The Hilliad , an attack upon Hill that one critic , Lance Bertelsen , describes as the " loudest broadside " of the war . The response to The Hilliad was swift : Samuel Derrick responded directly with his The Smartiad , Arthur Murphy criticized Smart for his personally attacking Hill , and Rules for Being a Wit tried to provoke further response from Smart . However , Smart stopped responding to either of these assaults . Soon after , Hill ended his attacks with the final shot in December 1752 .

= Temperatures Rising =

Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46 @-@ episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line @-@ ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as the no @-@ nonsense chief @-@ of @-@ staff who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern played by Cleavon Little , and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) .

For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson in the second season . The series was re @-@ titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast consisting of : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny @-@ pinching chief @-@ of @-@ staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital .

The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format — albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast and a new line @-@ up of supporting players consisting of Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes after which it was cancelled permanently .

= = First season = =

= = = Concept and development = = =

Temperatures Rising was one of two sitcoms that the ABC network premiered in its 1972 – 73 prime time schedule , the other being The Paul Lynde Show . Both series were produced and developed by William Asher and his partner Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems , which had scored a major success for the network with Bewitched , a fantasy sitcom that first aired in 1964 starring Asher 's wife , Elizabeth Montgomery . Asher and Screen Gems made a deal with ABC to cancel Bewitched a year earlier than contracts stipulated , thereby allowing them the opportunity to develop the two new sitcoms . Ackerman served as executive producer and Asher as producer .

Asher and Ackerman derived the format of the series from an unsold pilot they had produced for ABC in 1965 . Entitled This is a Hospital ? , and written by Sheldon Keller , it starred comedian Shecky Greene as a mischievous intern who Asher referred to as " Sgt. Bilko in a hospital " . Asher also drew on the British Carry On franchise as his inspiration for Temperatures Rising .

= = = Original cast = = =

Set in Capitol General , a fictional Washington , D.C. , hospital , the series centered on five characters . Cleavon Little starred as Dr. Jerry Noland , a ghetto @-@ raised intern who works on the side as the hospital bookie and finds humor in anything from an operation to a con job . Joan Van Ark played Annie Carlisle , the hospital 's beautiful , young , sexy , head nurse , who is " always covering up for the inept crew " . Reva Rose played Nurse Mildred " Millie " MacInerny , who offers satirical comments on the shenanigans going on in the hospital . Nancy Fox was cast as Ellen Turner , a shy student nurse who becomes Noland 's most faithful follower . James Whitmore starred as Dr. Vincent Campanelli , the hospital 's chief of surgery . Campanelli is presented as an Italian @-@ American , former combat surgeon , who looks upon Noland with both pride and shock , and refers to the young intern and nurses Carlisle , MacInerny , and Turner as the " Four Horsemen of Aggravation " .

Cleavon Little 's guest appearance on All in the Family led to his casting in Temperatures Rising , which in turn led to the leading role in the Mel Brooks comedy film Blazing Saddles ( 1974 ) . Little 's casting reflected " pressure from the government and Negro organizations and concerned whites who believe that black representation on television was long overdue " . William Asher later stated that Temperatures Rising gave him a chance to work with a black actor . Nancy Fox was cast in Temperatures Rising after Elizabeth Montgomery spotted her in a commercial for Close @-@ Up toothpaste . Asher had considered her for a part in The Paul Lynde Show . During the time that Temperatures Rising was in production Fox declined an offer to leave the series and star in another , Needles and Pins .

= = = Overview = = =

In a 2000 interview , William Asher described Temperatures Rising as being about : " a young black surgeon who was always into mischief and things , but he was a very competent surgeon . James Whitmore was the head surgeon and he used to drive Whitmore crazy " . The pilot episode of Temperatures Rising was written by Sheldon Keller , who turned to his This is a Hospital ? script for inspiration . It features Noland broadcasting a bingo game in code over the hospital 's public @-@ address system . Jack Albertson guest starred as a United States Senator . Subsequent episodes feature Noland performing a secret operation on a young baseball player while Campanelli deals with a hospital inspector ( Ed Platt ) and John Astin as a gangster wanting Noland to be his personal physician . In another episode , Noland hypnotizes a patient ( Alice Ghostley ) and , accidentally , Nurse Turner as well . This nearly costs the hospital a large donation from a potential benefactor ( Charles Lane ) . In later episodes , Campanelli is seen having a brief romance with Nurse Turner 's aunt ( Beverly Garland ) , Noland helping out a new intern ( Bernie Kopell ) who has a reputation for being a jinx , and performing a witchcraft ritual on a patient ( Alan Oppenheimer ) who thinks he has been cursed .

Jack Albertson returned in a later episode that features Dr. Campanelli participating in a documentary film about hospital surgery . Unfortunately , Campanelli develops stage fright during filming . Noland then takes over the operation and receives all the acclaim . Bernie Kopell returned to his role as a hospital orderly in two episodes , one in which he causes a furor with a hospital scandal sheet , the other when Noland has to save him from being fleeced by a patient who is also a card sharp .

There was some racially tinged comic bantering in the series , such as scenes with Noland giving cotton to a nurse and stating , " Honey , picking cotton is part of my heritage , " or observing some adhesive strips labeled " flesh colored " and remarking , " Maybe this is your idea of flesh colored , but it wouldn 't make it in my neighborhood . " Aside from these , racial issues were avoided , as Asher and Ackerman felt that ABC was not interested in having them mixed into the comedy .

In discussing the series William Asher noted :

We too often forget the humanity of doctors and nurses . They become godlike to most of us and yet it is their humanity that makes them so interesting and enjoyable . We are not doing a drama and have no intention of doing anything like dealing with life and death issues . We want to make people laugh so we de @-@ emphasize the more serious elements of hospital life . It isn 't that he [ Noland ] just sees things differently , he also deals with them differently . That is why Noland will dream up a baby derby , a gambling night at the hospital , a variety show at Christmas and off @-@ truck betting when patients get bored with the hospital routine .

Production of Temperatures Rising was underway by August 1972 with filming done at the Burbank Studios in Burbank , California .

= = = Original reviews = = =

In his review of the premiere episode of Temperatures Rising for the Los Angeles Times , critic Don Page felt that James Whitmore was " totally wasted in this silly exercise " and that " guest Jack Albertson almost saves it with his portrayal of an annoyed senator . Otherwise , the diagnosis is terminal comedy " . Likewise , Cecil Smith , another writer for the Times , claimed it was the " worst show of the season . Avoid it like the plague " .

Other reviews were more favorable . Columnist Joan Crosby noted that " This is the kind of show you don 't think you 'll laugh at , but you do , mostly because the cast is so good . " She noted that Cleavon Little , Joan Van Ark , and Reva Rose were , respectively , " marvelous " , " pretty " , and " funny " , and that Nancy Fox " wins this year 's cute @-@ as @-@ a @-@ kitten award " . Barbara Holsopple , TV and radio editor for the Pittsburgh Press , noted that " ABC did a gutsy turnabout in taking the heavy drama out of a hospital and replacing it with comedy . The venture worked well , thanks to excellent performances from the Temperatures Rising cast " . She praised Jack Albertson , noted that Whitmore " was little seen " , and that the series : " is the kind of tidy little show that brings chuckles " . Win Fanning , a syndicated columnist , stated that : " the comedy writing and performances by a beautifully integrated cast give Temperatures a bright , light quality so seldom achieved in a situation comedy " , and that it was : " loaded with one @-@ liners and sight gags , which , if kept on the level of the opener , promise many hours of hilarity " . Fanning praised Cleavon Little as " one of the comedy finds of any TV season " , and Nancy Fox as " a fresh new face and talent giving promise of a long , successful career ahead " . More praise for the series came after the broadcast of its fourth episode . An unidentified reviewer , writing for the Armored Sentinel ( of Temple , Texas ) , stated " If you 're suffering from the case of the ' downs , ' this series is a sure pick up ! " The reviewer went on to note that " the brightest spot of the series is wacky Nancy Fox . Her role applies the wackiness of Goldie Hawn , but in situation comedy form . I 'd watch the show just for her ! The whole series is wacky and funny ; it 's downright good . I highly recommend it . "

= = = First season ratings = = =

ABC placed Temperatures Rising in its 8 : 00 PM Tuesday night time @-@ slot , where it debuted on September 12 , 1972 . Because one of the stars was black , some of ABC 's affiliated stations in the southern and mid @-@ western parts of the United States refused to air the series or broadcast it in a different time slot . Airing opposite it were Bonanza on NBC , and the new sitcom Maude on CBS . Bonanza was entering its fourteenth year and offered up an ambitious two @-@ hour season premiere dealing with the marriage of Little Joe Cartwright ( Michael Landon ) . Maude , starring Beatrice Arthur in the title role , was a spin @-@ off of All in the Family . Both shows presented Temperatures Rising with stiff opposition in the " ratings game " . This turned out to be partly true , as the two @-@ hour season premiere of Bonanza performed exceptionally well in the ratings . Maude did much better than Temperatures Rising in the New York City area , while Temperatures Rising fared better than Maude in the Los Angeles area . In subsequent weeks , Bonanza 's ratings dropped sharply and NBC cancelled the series in November 1972 . According to Asher : " Temperatures Rising put Bonanza out of business and was beating Maude in the Los Angeles area until mid @-@ season , when NBC switched to some heavy movies which hurt us " . Despite this the series finished its first year with a consistent 29 share of the ratings at a time when a 30 share was enough to assure renewal for another season . ABC , however , wanted to improve the ratings and decided to make significant changes to Temperatures Rising for its second season .

= = Second season = =

= = = New premise and producers = = =

As early as November 1972 , James Whitmore expressed a desire to leave Temperatures Rising , claiming that " the show [ was ] basically a broad farce and I didn 't feel it was right for me " . Screen Gems head John Mitchell , and ABC chief programmer Barry Diller , decided to replace Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show , was airing on Wednesday nights . At the time , Lynde was scoring second only to Peter Falk in TV popularity polls even though his sitcom , which aired opposite The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour on CBS , was floundering in the ratings . Asher was against making this change but was overruled as his contractual commitments to ABC had been used up .

Of the change Asher stated :

The network – ugh – they 're so stupid sometimes . The shows ( Temperatures Rising and The Paul Lynde Show ) were doing good , they weren 't big hits , but they were doing good . They felt that if they could put Paul [ Lynde ] and Cleavon Little together that they would have a big hit . I didn 't want to do that . I said I won 't do it , not at the sacrifice of the show . It 's wrong . I don 't think it 's a good idea . But they wanted to bring in somebody else as the head of the hospital . They wanted his [ Lynde 's ] mother to be head of the hospital and his conflicts would be with her and I just didn 't think it was right . I didn 't want to write it . I just didn 't want to do it [ and ] I didn 't . Someone else came in . It was a big thing with the network . They cancelled The Paul Lynde Show and put Paul in Temperatures Rising . "

Asher was replaced as producer by Bruce Johnson and Duke Vincent , whose previous credits included : Gomer Pyle – USMC , The Jim Nabors Hour , Arnie , and The Little People . They changed the title of the series to The New Temperatures Rising Show , and the tone went from lighthearted wackiness to a form of black comedy similar to The Hospital , a 1971 film written by Paddy Chayefsky , starring George C. Scott . The sitcom became : " a savage satire of the medical profession " with $ 185 @-@ a @-@ day hospital rooms , incompetent , fee @-@ splitting doctors , operations on the wrong patients , misread X @-@ rays , and rampant malpractice . Commenting on the series Vincent noted :

We 're not doing stories about a fouled @-@ up hospital . These things really happen . Every story we 've told is true . They 're the results of untrained people , inadequate staff , horrendous costs , worn @-@ out equipment , the demands of doctors . The doctors , not the patients , are the customers ; they 're the ones the hospitals have to please ...

= = = Revised cast = = =

For this new season , Johnson and Vincent dropped Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox from the series , leaving Cleavon Little as the only returning cast member . His character , Dr. Jerry Noland , was now being presented as the hospital 's only sane figure . Paul Lynde played Dr. Paul Mercy , the sneering , unscrupulous , hospital administrator while Sudie Bond was cast as Martha Mercy , his obnoxious , overbearing mother and the owner , and permanent resident , of the hospital . She constantly calls him with her pager to complain about everything . Also in the new cast were Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head of administrative and accounting : " ... who would let you bleed to death filling out forms " , Jennifer Darling as the romantically inclined nurse " Windy " Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , a fraudulent surgeon who has published two books , Profit in Healing and Malpractice and Its Defense , and John Dehner as " society " Dr. Charles Claver .

= = = Revised concept = = =

For the 1973 – 74 television season ABC continued to air the revamped Temperatures Rising on Tuesday nights at 8 : 00 PM . CBS continued to air Maude , and NBC introduced Chase , an hour @-@ long crime drama starring Mitchell Ryan , in the same time slot . Although the season premiere of Maude and Chase ' s debut aired on September 11 , 1973 , ABC delayed the premiere of The New Temperatures Rising Show until September 25 .

The episodes produced by Johnson and Vincent included Dr. Mercy exploiting a 125 @-@ year @-@ old American Civil War veteran and dealing with a strike by the doctors and nurses . Another episode saw Noland create a mythical patient and then claim that the patient died , the cause of death being the result of a lack of cardiac crash carts on each floor of the hospital . Johnson and Vincent 's favorite episode was one where the X @-@ rays of a professional footballer are misread , resulting in him being placed by mistake in " Crutchfield 's Traction " , in which holes are drilled in his head and tongs inserted in them .

= = = Second season reviews = = =

In reviewing The New Temperatures Rising Show , Associated Press television writer Jay Sharbutt noted :

First the hopeful note : There are faint signs the tinkering with Temperatures format could make the series funny later on , but only if the writing improves . The show now leaves most of the mugging to Lynde and no longer insists that each regular is wacky . It 's all feeble stuff but the cast is vastly improved and the new approach portends to better things ahead .

Likewise , Los Angeles Times critic Cecil Smith , who considered the original format " maybe the three worse shows on television rolled into one " now remarked : " Paul Lynde for the first time that I can recall has a part worthy of his mettle . The people surrounding him are first rate . "

= = = Sinking ratings = = =

Despite some heavy promotion the black comedy approach was not what audiences wanted to see , especially with Paul Lynde . As a result , the ratings for the series fell well below the levels of the previous season . The last of The New Temperatures Rising Show 's thirteen episodes aired on January 8 , 1974 . The following Tuesday , January 15 , ABC premiered Happy Days in its place . According to co @-@ producer Mitchell , " ... the audience didn 't buy that at all . They just didn 't get it . It was funny if you like black comedy , but if you don 't it would disturb you . So the show failed miserably and we lost the job and the show . "

= = Summer replacement = =

= = = Third concept = = =

When John Mitchell and Barry Diller noticed that The New Temperatures Rising Show was failing they contacted William Asher and asked him to salvage the series . According to Asher :

They asked if I 'd go back to the old Temperatures , only this time with Paul [ Lynde ] . At this point we were still hoping to make it for the midseason . After a couple of weeks we agreed that the show should go off the air in January , but continue production so that we would have 11 shows ready for airing any time they wanted them . Some of the nonsense and hijinks of the first season are gone and we have managed to keep a touch of reality of the second version .

As to why the series was not cancelled , Asher remarked , " I can answer that in two words : Paul Lynde . "

= = = Final cast = = =

For the third format , the show reverted to its original title Temperatures Rising and the proposed number of episodes was reduced from eleven to seven . The series ' production resumed on November 17 , 1973 , after a three week shutdown . Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner were dropped from the cast and a new line @-@ up was assembled . Paul Lynde continued as Dr. Paul Mercy while Alice Ghostley played Edwina Moffitt , the admissions nurse and Dr. Mercy 's sister . She had appeared as a guest star in an episode in the first season of Temperatures Rising . Nancy Fox returned as student nurse Ellen Turner , and Barbara Rucker was introduced as Nurse Amanda Kelly . Cleavon Little returned for a third time as Dr. Jerry Nolan , whose character was now being presented as somewhere between the jive @-@ talking surgeon of the first season and the serious one of the second .

= = = Last format and cancellation = = =

Temperatures Rising returned to the ABC network on July 18 , 1974 after a six @-@ month hiatus . Its new time slot , Thursday nights at 8 : 00 PM , had previously been occupied by Chopper One , an adventure series . The situations presented this time around included Dr. Mercy saving the life of a popular country music singer ( Dick Gautier ) , and setting up a surveillance system so that staff would be kept on their toes .

The final episode of Temperatures Rising aired on August 29 , 1974 . The attempt to resurrect the series was unsuccessful and ABC finally cancelled it permanently . Andy Siegel , a comedy development executive for ABC at the time , felt the series failed because audiences did not want to watch a show displaying inadequate medical care , even though it was done in a humorous fashion . In reminiscing about the series he stated : " When people see doctors on television they really want to feel that they 're in good hands . That no matter what happens it is a reassuring experience . " William Asher , in a 2000 interview , summed up the demise of the series by saying : " It didn 't get on . It 's too late . You can 't do that to an audience . They won 't accept it . "

= = Episodes = =

= New York State Route 382 =

New York State Route 382 ( NY 382 ) was a state highway in the town of Red House in Cattaraugus County , New York , in the United States . The highway was 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) long and served as a connector between NY 17 and the Red House entrance of Allegany State Park , where it connected to Allegany State Park Route 2 ( ASP Route 2 ) . NY 382 was assigned in the early 1930s and removed in the early 1970s after the highway 's connection to the park was dismantled , and the hamlet it served evacuated , as part of the Southern Tier Expressway 's construction . The NY 382 designation is currently reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation as a replacement for NY 88 in Ontario and Wayne counties .

= = Route description = =

The western terminus of NY 382 was at an intersection with Bay State Road and NY 17 in the now abandoned hamlet of Red House , located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) southwest of the city of Salamanca in the town of Red House . At the time , NY 17 was routed along an at @-@ grade highway that paralleled the future routing of the Southern Tier Expressway to the north and west . NY 382 headed southeast from the junction , passing through the center of what was then the hamlet of Red House before turning eastward ahead of Red House Brook , a small stream that branched off the nearby Allegheny River . NY 382 paralleled Red House Brook east to the Allegany State Park boundary , where the NY 382 designation ended and the highway continued east as Allegany State Park Route 2 .

= = History = =

NY 382 was assigned c . 1932 to a short roadway linking NY 17 to an entrance to Allegany State Park in Red House .

The route remained intact until the construction of the Southern Tier Expressway ( STE ) through Red House in the late 1960s and early 1970s . Unwanted tourism in Jimerson Town , a newly built settlement northeast of Red House , prompted Seneca leaders to seek ways to reduce through traffic in the settlement ; to do so , the state built a trumpet interchange off the expressway where NY 382 used to be , which , coupled with the flooding of the roadway of old Route 17 to the west , effectively cut Jimerson Town off from the highway system . The construction of the highway also allowed the state to claim eminent domain over most of the hamlet of Red House , leading to the hamlet 's destruction ; the few remaining private residences in the town as of 2015 are located southwest of what was Route 382 . When the interchange at exit 19 of the STE was constructed c . 1970 , NY 382 was disconnected from Allegany State Park Route 2 , which was realigned to meet the new exit . The NY 382 designation was removed around this time as a result . The roadway still runs from the former NY 17 ( now NY 951T , which terminates near the former NY 382 's end at a dilapidated bridge ) to the Exit 19 on / off ramp , but due to safety concerns , the road was blocked off at its eastern terminus .

The former NY 382 was reopened in August 2014 after a washout on old NY 17 left several households unable to reach Salamanca .

The NY 382 designation is reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation for future use along what is now NY 88 in the Finger Lakes region of New York . Currently , NY 88 has the same numerical designation as Interstate 88 , an Interstate Highway in eastern New York .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route was in Red House , Cattaraugus County .

= Zahir al @-@ Umar =

Zahir al @-@ Umar al @-@ Zaydani ( alternatively spelled Dhaher al @-@ Omar or Dahir al @-@ Umar ) ( Arabic : ظاهر آل عمر الزيداني ; Ẓāhir āl @-@ ʿUmar az @-@ Zaydānī , 1689 – 90 – 21 August 1775 ) was the virtually autonomous Arab ruler of northern Palestine in the mid @-@ 18th century , while the area was nominally part of the Ottoman Empire . For much of his reign , starting in the 1730s , his domain mainly consisted of Galilee , with successive headquarters in Tiberias , Arraba , Nazareth , Deir Hanna and finally Acre , in 1746 . He fortified Acre , and the city became a center of the cotton trade between Palestine and Europe . In the mid @-@ 1760s , he reestablished the port town of Haifa nearby .

Zahir successfully withstood assaults and sieges by the Ottoman governors of the Sidon and Damascus provinces , who attempted to limit or eliminate his influence . He was often supported in these confrontations by the rural Shia Muslim clans of Jabal Amil . In 1771 , in alliance with Ali Bey al @-@ Kabir of Egypt Eyalet and with backing from the Russian Empire , Zahir captured Sidon , while Ali Bey 's forces conquered Damascus , both acts in open defiance of the Ottoman sultan . At the peak of his power in 1774 , Zahir 's autonomous sheikhdom extended from Beirut to Gaza and included the Jabal Amil and Jabal Ajlun regions . By then , however , Ali Bey had been killed , the Ottomans entered into a truce with the Russians , and the Sublime Porte felt secure enough to check Zahir 's power . The Ottoman Navy attacked his Acre stronghold in the summer of 1775 and he was killed outside of its walls shortly after .

The wealth Zahir accumulated through monopolizing Palestine 's cotton and olive oil trade to Europe financed his sheikhdom . For much of his rule , he oversaw a relatively efficient administration and maintained domestic security , although he faced and suppressed several rebellions by his sons . The aforementioned factors , along with Zahir 's flexible taxation policies and his battlefield reputation made him popular among the local peasantry . Zahir 's tolerance of religious minorities encouraged Christian and Jewish immigration to his domain . The influx of immigrants from other parts of the empire stimulated the local economy and led to the significant growth of the Christian communities in Acre and Nazareth and the Jewish community in Tiberias . He and his family , the Zaydani clan , also patronized the construction of commercial buildings , houses of worship and fortifications throughout Galilee . Zahir 's founding of a virtually autonomous state in Palestine has made him a national hero among Palestinians today .

= = Early life = =

Zahir was born in the village of Arraba ( also called ' Arrabat al @-@ Battuf ) in central Galilee . The date of his birth is not clear , with the dates 1686 , 1689 – 90 and 1694 listed as his birth year by Zahir 's contemporary biographers Volney , Mikha 'il Sabbagh and Khalil al @-@ Muradi , respectively . According to contemporary biographer Ahmad Hasan Joudah , 1689 – 1690 is the most likely year of his birth because he considers Sabbagh to be the most reliable source for Zahir 's personal life . The proper transliteration of his given name is Ẓāhir , but in the local dialect of Arabic used in Galilee , his name was pronounced Ḍāhir . Zahir 's family , the Zaydani clan , were Sunni Muslim notables from the Qaisi tribal confederation based in the Tiberias area who had strong connections to the Arab @-@ Bedouin tribesmen of Galilee , which at the time was part of the Ottoman Empire . Zahir was the youngest of four sons born to Sheikh Umar al @-@ Zaydani . Zahirs brothers were Sa 'd , Salih " Abu Dani " and Yusuf , and his sister was Shammah . Zahir grew up in the village of Saffuriya .

Zahir 's father and grandfather had both served as the multazim ( chief tax collector ) of Tiberias , having been appointed by the Druze emirs ( princes ) of the Ma 'an dynasty which governed the region from their headquarters in Mount Lebanon . In 1698 , Umar az @-@ Zaydani was appointed multazim of the Safad region by Bashir Shihab I , the Sunni Qaisi emir who succeeded the Ma 'ans as governor of the Mount Lebanon Emirate . The Zaydani family maintained commercial trade relations extending from Galilee to Aleppo , and members of the family controlled tax farms in Galilee ; Zahir 's uncle Ali , for instance , held the tax farm of al @-@ Damun . Zahir 's elder brother Sa 'd became the head of the family when their father died in 1706 , but the family 's tax farms were transferred to Zahir , who was still a teenager . This was done as a precautionary measure , so that in the event of a default in tax payments , the Ottoman government would not be able to hold the practical owners of the tax farms accountable . Nonetheless , legal ownership of the Zaydani tax farms gave Zahir considerable power within his clan .

In 1707 , Zahir was involved in a brawl in Tiberias in which he killed a man . As a result , Sa 'd opted to move the family to Arraba after being offered safe haven there by the Bani Saqr tribe . It was in Arraba that Zahir gained a degree of formal education under the tutelage of a Muslim scholar named Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Hifnawi . During his youth , Zahir also learned how to hunt and fight . When the village of Bi 'ina was attacked by forces dispatched by the governor of Sidon Eyalet sometime between 1713 and 1718 , Zahir played an important role in defending the village and managed to evade the governor 's troops . According to chroniclers of the time , this event , along with Zahir 's moderation , turned Zahir into a folk hero in the area . He continued to gain the respect of the local peasantry throughout the 1720s for his martial skills . Along with Sa 'd , he also gained prestige among the people of Damascus with whom he continued the commercial relationships his father had previously established .

The contacts Zahir made in Damascus included the Muslim scholar Abd al @-@ Ghaffar al @-@ Shuwaki , who introduced Zahir to Sayyid Muhammad of the al @-@ Husayni family , which provided the sharifs of Damascus at the time . Zahir married Sayyid Muhammad 's daughter and thereafter moved to Nazareth because she considered Arraba too small . When Sayyid Muhammad died , Zahir inherited his fortune .

= = Rule = =

= = = Consolidation of power in Galilee = = =

In the late 1720s , Zahir and his brother Yusuf took control of the town of Tiberias with the backing of the Bani Saqr by capturing its multazim . Concurrently , Zahir issued a letter to Köprülü Abdullah Pasha , governor of Sidon Eyalet , accusing the multazim of oppression and of imposing illegal taxes on the population . Zahir further wrote that if Abdullah Pasha appointed him multazim of Tiberias and Arraba , he would guarantee the timely payment of taxes and rule justly . Abdullah Pasha consented to Zahir 's rule and sent him an honorary robe . This marked a significant change from the past appointments of his relatives as multazims of various Galilee subdistricts , because it came directly from the governor of Sidon rather than the semi @-@ autonomous rural chiefs of Mount Lebanon . Zahir made Tiberias his principle base and was joined by his Zaydani kinsmen . He appointed his cousin Muhammad ibn Ali , the multazim of al @-@ Damun , as commander of the family 's militia .

Zahir extended his rule southward toward Nazareth and the Marj Ibn Amer plain ( Jezreel Valley ) between Galilee and Jabal Nablus . Capturing these areas was likely a drawn @-@ out process , and Zahir 's efforts to wrest control of Nazareth ( a town in Safad Sanjak , but controlled by the Jarrar clan based in Nablus Sanjak ) caused the ruling clans of the Nablus hinterland ( Jabal Nablus ) , along with Zahir 's erstwhile allies in the Bani Saqr tribe , to challenge him . Zahir , meanwhile , relied on his Zaydani kinsmen , Maghrebi mercenaries who he commissioned in the mid @-@ 1730s under commander Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli , and Nazareth 's residents . In 1735 , Zahir 's forces , composed of 2 @,@ 000 men , routed the Jarrars and the Bani Saqr at a place called al @-@ Rawha in Marj Ibn Amer , killed their leader Sheikh Ibrahim al @-@ Jarrar , and captured Nazareth . According to historian Hanna Samarah , Zahir 's forces inflicted 8 @,@ 000 fatalities among the Jarrar @-@ Saqr coalition during the battle .

Following his victory at Marj Ibn Amer , 4 @,@ 000 locals , including many residents of Nazareth , joined Zahir 's forces to completely subdue Jabal Nablus . Among Zahir 's supporters were Christian women from Nazareth who supplied his troops with food and water . Zahir 's forces pursued the Jarrars to their throne village of Sanur , but ultimately withdrew after failing to subdue the fortress . This defeat marked the limit of Zahir 's influence south of Marj Ibn Amer and established the Jarrars as the dominant force of Jabal Nablus over their rivals , the Tuqans . While the Jarrars and Zahir eventually concluded a truce , the former continued to mobilize the clans of Jabal Nablus to prevent Zahir 's southward expansion .

In 1738 , Zahir 's forces captured the fortress at Jiddin and the villages in its political orbit , Abu Snan and Tarshiha . Jiddin had been ruled by Ahmad al @-@ Husayn , whose family historically controlled it . The peasants under his rule complained that he governed oppressively and appealed to Zahir , who was known for treating the peasantry fairly , to relieve them of al @-@ Husayn . Zahir , eager to expand his control toward the Mediterranean , accepted their requests and obtained permission from the governor of Sidon , Ibrahim Pasha al @-@ Azm , to seize the fortress . Likewise , al @-@ Husayn had also approached the governor , who , hoping to see two powerful local leaders weakened , gave al @-@ Husayn his blessing as well . Zahir assembled a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ strong force and defeated al @-@ Husayn 's forces near the fortress . He was then appointed multazim of Jiddin 's subdistrict .

Bi 'ina , which was also fortified , withstood a siege by Zahir in 1739 , but Zahir later married the daughter of Bi 'ina 's mukhtar ( headman ) , and thus brought Bi 'ina into his domain . He also acquired the fortress of Suhmata through diplomatic means . This further solidified his rule over northern and eastern Galilee . In 1740 , Zahir made an agreement with the neighboring Bedouin tribes to end their looting raids in the area . By then , Sa 'd had taken control of Deir Hanna and Muhammad ibn Ali captured Shefa- ' Amr , entrenching the presence of the Zaydani clan in western Galilee . After negotiations , Muhammad al @-@ Naf 'i , the multazim of Safad , surrendered the city to Zahir . Safad was the administrative seat of the sanjak and situated on a strategic hill overlooking the Galilee countryside . He later acquired the fortified village of Deir al @-@ Qassi after marrying the daughter of its sheikh , Abd al @-@ Khaliq Salih .

Zahir 's conquest of the Safad region and western Galilee removed the barriers between him and the Metawali ( Shia Muslim ) clans of Jabal Amil . Zahir informed the Metawalis ' sheikh , Nasif al @-@ Nassar , of his intent to acquire the fortified villages of al @-@ Bassa and Yaroun on the borders between the Zaydani and Metawali sheikhdoms . In response , Sheikh Nasif launched an assault against Zahir and the two sides confronted each other in indecisive skirmishes in the border village of Tarbikha . Zahir then received reinforcements from his Maghrebi cavalry and defeated the Metawalis , pursuing Sheikh Nasif to his headquarters in Tibnin . Zahir 's brother Sa 'd mediated an end to the fighting and thereafter a mutual defense pact was arranged between Zahir and Sheikh Nasif , whereby the former would receive control of al @-@ Bassa and Yaroun and the Metawalis ' support in his confrontations with the governors of Damascus . In return , Sheikh Nasif 's sons , who were captured by Zahir 's troops , were released , the Metawalis ' tax payments to Sidon were reduced by some 25 percent , and Zahir guaranteed his backing of a Sheikh Nasif in any confrontation with the governors of Sidon .

Zahir , similar to other local strongmen in the Ottoman Empire who did not owe their power to the central Ottoman authorities , was disliked by the Ottoman administration . The Ottoman Sultan sent an order to the governor of Damascus Eyalet , Sulayman Pasha al @-@ Azm , to put an end to Zahir 's rule in Galilee . In September 1742 , a military force led by the governor of Damascus came to Galilee and laid siege to Tiberias . After 83 days , the siege was lifted due to the departure of the Hajj pilgrim caravan . Using this respite , Zahir reinforced the defenses of Tiberias and Shefa- ' Amr . In July 1743 , backed by the Bani Saqr , the wali of Tripoli and the district governors of Jerusalem , Gaza and Irbid , Sulayman Pasha renewed his expedition , this time seeking to reduce Deir Hanna and sever Tiberias 's links to the outside . Sulayman died suddenly in Lubya and Zahir used the opportunity to assault Sulayman 's troops , capturing their camp . In 1745 , Zahir had a fortress erected on a hill overlooking Saffuriya .

= = = Ruler of Acre = = =

Zahir consolidated his authority over Acre in a drawn @-@ out process starting in the 1730s . His Acre @-@ based partner , the Melkite merchant Yusuf al @-@ Qassis , served as an early link between Zahir and the French merchants of Acre . His first direct contact with the French merchants was in 1731 when he negotiated a settlement of his brother Sa 'd's debts to the merchants . In 1743 , as part of his bid to gain control of the town , Zahir had his cousin , Muhammad al @-@ Ali of al @-@ Damun , arrested and executed due to the latter 's ambitions in Acre . In 1743 , Zahir requested the tax farm of Acre from the governor of Sidon , Ibrahim Pasha al @-@ Azm , who , wary of Zahir 's growing power in the province , rejected the request . Instead , Zahir took Acre by force in July 1746 .

In the first few years following his takeover of Acre , Zahir resided in the fortress of Deir Hanna in the heart of Galilee . He began fortifying Acre by building walls around the city in 1750 . He built other fortifications and buildings in Acre as well . In 1757 he took control of the Mediterranean port cities of Haifa and Tantura , and nearby Mount Carmel , all of which had been part of Damascus Eyalet , unlike most of Zahir 's domain at the time , which was in Sidon Eyalet . He also captured the port village of al @-@ Tira , between Tantura and Haifa , at that time . Zahir 's stated justification to the Ottoman authorities for conquering Palestine 's northern coastal plain was to protect the area from Maltese pirates .

In late 1757 , the Bani Saqr and Sardiyah tribes , who Zahir maintained ties with , launched an assault on the Hajj caravan as it coming back to Syria from Mecca . Thousands of Muslim pilgrims were killed in the raid , including Sultan Osman III 's sister . The attack shocked the Sublime Porte ( Ottoman imperial government ) , and discredited the governor of Damascus and amir al @-@ hajj , Husayn Pasha ibn Makki , for failing to ward off the Bedouin . Husayn Pasha had been serving his first term as governor , having replaced As 'ad Pasha al @-@ Azm , who Zahir had peaceful relations with , and among Husayn Pasha 's priorities were subduing Zahir and annexing his territories , which were part of Sidon Eyalet . Husayn Pasha lodged a complaint to the Sublime Porte alleging Zahir 's involvement in the raid . Zahir denied the allegation and pressed for an investigation into the assault . He also sought to earn the Sublime Porte 's favor by purchasing the looted goods of the caravan from the tribes , including the decorated banners representing Muhammad and the sovereignty of the sultan , and restoring them to Sultan Mustafa III ( Osman III had died on 30 October ) . Moreover , Zahir 's enemy Husayn Pasha was dismissed from office that year .

Husayn Pasha 's replacement , Uthman Pasha al @-@ Kurji , who took office in 1760 , sought to retrieve control of Haifa from Zahir . Uthman Pasha requested that the governor of Sidon , Nu 'man Pasha , recapture the port city on his behalf , to which Nu 'man Pasha complied , dispatching 30 Maghrebi soldiers on a vessel captained by a Frenchman on 20 May 1761 . The effort was a meager attempt and upon arrival , Zahir had the ship confiscated and its soldiers arrested , while the French captain paid a fine . The issue over Haifa 's annexation was smoothed over with the assistance of an Istanbul @-@ based Ottoman official and friend of Zahir , Yaqub Agha . Yaqub had a high @-@ ranking official named Sulayman Agha intervene in the matter and revoke Uthman Pasha 's orders .

= = = Intra @-@ family conflict = = =

In 1761 , Zahir ordered his son Uthman al @-@ Zahir to assassinate Zahir 's brother Sa 'd because the latter had been collaborating with Uthman Pasha and the Bani Saqr tribe to kill Zahir and replace him . Sa 'd's assassination indirectly led to the first conflict between Zahir and his sons , in this case Uthman . The latter had been promised control over Shefa- ' Amr in return for killing Sa 'd , but Zahir reneged due to pleas by Shefa- ' Amr 's residents not to appoint Uthman as their governor . Backed by his full @-@ brothers Ahmad and Sa 'd al @-@ Din , who were angered by Zahir 's refusal to cede them more territory , Uthman besieged Shefa- ' Amr in 1765 . However , under Zahir 's instructions , the locals in the vicinity defended the town and succeeded in preventing its capture . The three brothers then appealed to Zahir 's eldest and most loyal son , Salibi , to intervene on their behalf with Zahir , but Salibi was unable to persuade Zahir to make concessions . The four brothers then attempted to rekindle their alliance with the Bani Saqr , who Zahir had since routed at the Marj Ibn Amer plain in 1762 .

The brothers ' efforts to recruit the Bani Saqr failed when Zahir bribed the tribe not to back his sons and subsequently had Uthman imprisoned in Haifa for six months before exiling him to a village near Safad . Meanwhile , in 1765 , Zahir had Haifa demolished and then rebuilt and fortified at a site three kilometers to the southeast in 1769 . While the old village was situated on a plain , the new town , which remained a port along the Haifa Bay , was built on a narrow strip of land at the northern foot of Mount Carmel to make it easier to defend by land . In May 1766 , Uthman renewed his rebellion against Zahir with backing from the Druze clans of Galilee , but this coalition was defeated by Zahir near Safad . This conflict expanded to include competing Druze and Shia factions from Mount Lebanon and Jabal Amil , with Emir Mansur Shihab ( the Sunni leader of a Druze faction ) and the Metawali , Sheikh Qublan , siding with Zahir , while Emir Yusuf Shihab ( the leader of another Druze faction ) and Sheikh Nasif sided with Uthman . Mediation by Emir Isma 'il Shihab of Hasbaya culminated in a successful peace summit near Tyre between the two factions and a reconciliation between Zahir and Uthman , whereby the latter was granted control of Nazareth .

In September 1767 , conflict between Zahir and his son Ali al @-@ Zahir of Safad commenced over the former 's refusal to cede to the latter control of the strategic fortress of Deir Hanna or the village of Deir al @-@ Qassi . Prior to the dispute , Ali had been loyal to Zahir and proven himself effective in helping his father suppress dissent among his brothers and in battles against external enemies . Zahir 's forces intimidated Ali into surrendering later that month , and Zahir pardoned and ultimately ceded to him Deir al @-@ Qassi . However , conflict was renewed weeks later with Ali and his brother Sa 'id , backed by Sheikh Nasif , Emir Yusuf and Uthman Pasha poised against Zahir , Uthman , Sheikh Qublan and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Azm , governor of Sidon . With mediation from Ibrahim Sabbagh , Zahir 's financial adviser , Zahir settled his dispute with Sa 'id , granting the latter control over Tur 'an and Hittin .

Ali refused to negotiate , gained the backing of Salibi , and the two defeated their father , who had since demobilized his troops and was relying on local civilian volunteers from Acre . When Zahir re @-@ mobilized his Maghrebi mercenaries in Acre he launched an offensive and defeated Ali , who subsequently fled Deir Hanna in October . Out of sympathy for Ali 's children , who remained in the fortress village , he pardoned Ali on the condition he pay 12 @,@ 500 piasters and 25 Arabian horses for the fortress . By December 1767 , Zahir 's intra @-@ family disputes were put to rest for several years ( until 1774 – 75 ) , and through the intercession of Uthman , a close and enduring alliance was established between Zahir and Sheikh Nasif .

In 1768 the central Ottoman authorities partially recognized or legitimized Zahir 's de facto political position by granting him the title of " Sheikh of Acre , Emir of Nazareth , Tiberias , Safed , and Sheikh of all Galilee " . However , this official recognition was tempered when Yaqub Agha was executed shortly after and Sulayman Agha died in 1770 , depriving Zahir of close allies in Istanbul . In November 1770 , Uthman Pasha had the governor of Sidon replaced by his son Darwish Pasha and had his other son , Muhammad Pasha , appointed governor of Tripoli Eyalet . Uthman Pasha was committed to ending Zahir 's rule , and Zahir 's position was left particularly vulnerable with the loss of support in Istanbul . In response to threats from Damascus , Zahir further strengthened Acre 's fortifications and armed every adult male in the city with a rifle , two pistols and a sabre . He also moved to mend ties with his sons , who held various tax farms in Galilee , and consolidate his relationship with the Shia clans of Jabal Amil , thereby strengthening his local alliances .

= = = Alliance with Ali Bey and war with Damascus = = =

Although Zahir was bereft of friends in Istanbul and Damascus , he was forging a new alliance with the increasingly autonomous Mamluk ruler of Egypt and the Hejaz , Ali Bey al @-@ Kabir . Ali Bey shared a common interest with Zahir to subdue Damascus as he sought to extend his influence to Syria for strategic purposes vis @-@ a @-@ vis his conflict with the Sublime Porte . He had dispatched 15 @,@ 000 @-@ 20 @,@ 000 Egyptian troops to the port cities of Gaza and Jaffa under commander Ismail Bey . Together , Zahir and Ismail crossed the Jordan Valley with their armies and moved north toward Damascus . They made it as far as Muzayrib , but Ismail abruptly halted his army 's advance after confronting Uthman Pasha as he was leading the Hajj caravan in order to avoid harming the Muslim pilgrims . Ismail considered attacking the governor at that point to be a grave religious offense . He subsequently withdrew to Jaffa .

Zahir was surprised and angered by Ismail 's reticence to attack . In a unilateral move to impose his authority in Uthman Pasha 's jurisdiction , Zahir had his son Ahmad and other subordinate commanders collect taxes from villages in Damascus Eyalet , including Quneitra , while he dispatched his other son Ali on a campaign against the Bani Nu 'aym tribe in Hauran , also part of Damascus . In response to Zahir 's indignation , Ali Bey sent him 35 @,@ 000 troops under Abu al @-@ Dhahab in May . Together with Ismail 's troops in Jaffa , the Egyptian army captured Damascus from Uthman Pasha in June , while Zahir and his Metawali allies captured the city of Sidon from Darwish Pasha . However , Abu al @-@ Dhahab was persuaded by Ismail that confronting the Ottoman sultan , who carried a high religious authority as the caliph of Islam , was " truly ... a scheme of the Devil " and a crime against their religion . A short time after capturing Damascus , Abu al @-@ Dhahab and Ismail subsequently withdrew from the city , whose inhabitants were " completely astonished at this amazing event " , according to a chronicler of the time period . The sudden turn of events compelled Zahir 's forces to withdraw from Sidon on 20 June .

Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's withdrawal frustrated Zahir who proceeded to make independent moves , first by capturing Jaffa in August 1771 , after driving out its governor Ahmad Bey Tuqan , and shortly thereafter , capturing the cotton @-@ producing Bani Sa 'b region ( centered around modern @-@ day Tulkarm ) , which was held by Mustafa Bey Tuqan . Zahir had Jaffa fortified and stationed 2 @,@ 000 troops there . By the end of August , Zahir remained in control of Jaffa , while Uthman Pasha had restored his control over Ramla and Gaza .

= = = Peak of power = = =

In an attempt to expand his zone of influence to Nablus , the commercial center of Palestine and its agriculturally @-@ rich hinterland , Zahir besieged Nablus in late 1771 . By then , Zahir had secured an alliance with the powerful Jarrar clan , who were incensed at Uthman Pasha 's assignment of Mustafa Bey Tuqan as the collector of the miri ( hajj pilgrimage tax ) . Nablus was under the de facto control of the Tuqan and Nimr clans , local rivals of the Jarrars . The loss of Jaffa and Bani Sa 'b stripped Nablus of its sea access . Nablus was defended by 12 @,@ 000 mostly peasant riflemen under Nimr and Tuqan commanders . After nine days of clashes , Zahir decided to withdraw and avoid a costly stalemate . As he departed Nablus , his forces raided many of the city 's satellite villages , from which its peasant defenders originated .

Uthman Pasha had resumed his governorship of Damascus at the end of June 1771 and was determined to eliminate Zahir . To that end , he assembled a coalition that included his sons Darwish Pasha al @-@ Kurji and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Kurji , who were the governors of Sidon and Tripoli , respectively , and Emir Yusuf Shihab of Mount Lebanon . In late August Uthman Pasha reached Lake Hula at the head of 10 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops . Before Uthman Pasha could be joined by his allies , Zahir and Sheikh Nasif of the Metawalis confronted the governor 's troops on 2 September . Ali al @-@ Zahir , Zahir 's son and a commander of one of his four battlefield regiments , raided Uthman Pasha 's camp , while Zahir 's other troops blocked them from the west . Uthman Pasha 's troops hastily retreated towards the Jordan River , the only place where they were not surrounded . The overwhelming majority drowned in the river , with only 300 – 500 survivors , including Uthman Pasha who almost drowned but was rescued by one of his men . The Battle of Lake Hula marked a decisive victory for Zahir , who entered Acre triumphantly with the spoils of Uthman Pasha 's camp . He was celebrated by the residents of the city and on the way there , he was given honorary gun salutes by each of his fortified villages on the route between Tiberias and Acre . He also received congratulations from the French merchant ships at the port of Acre . Zahir 's victory encouraged Ali Bey to relaunch his Syrian campaign .

Following his victory against Uthman Pasha , Zahir demanded Darwish Pasha vacate Sidon , which he did on 13 October . He returned two days later after receiving the backing of Emir Yusuf . Zahir decided to move against Emir Yusuf , and together with his ally Sheikh Nasif , he confronted him at Nabatieh on 20 October . Emir Yusuf 's men numbered some 37 @,@ 000 . Zahir 's Metawali cavalry engaged in a maneuver where they fled the battlefield in apparent defeat , only to have the pursuant troops of Emir Yusuf surrounded by Zahir 's men , who dealt Emir Yusuf 's army a decisive blow . Emir Yusuf thereafter retreated to his mountain village of Deir al @-@ Qamar , while Sidon was left under the protection of Ali Jumblatt and 3 @,@ 000 Druze defenders . However , with news of Zahir 's victory , Ali Jumblatt and Darwish Pasha withdrew from Sidon , which was subsequently occupied by Zahir and Sheikh Nasif . Uthman Pasha and all of his sons were consequently dismissed from their posts by the Sublime Porte . Although , he could not capture Nablus and its hinterland , Zahir 's domain by the end of 1771 extended from Sidon to Jaffa and included an influential presence in the Hauran plain .

Muhammad Tuqan captured Jaffa from Zahir in May 1772 , the same month that Ali Bey arrived in Acre to seek Zahir 's protection after being forced out of Egypt by rival mamluks . In June , the Ottoman loyalist Jazzar Pasha sought to establish himself in Lebanon and took over Beirut from the local Druze chieftains . The Druze had previously been in conflict with Zahir , but due to Jazzar 's offensive , the circumstances fostered an alliance between them , Zahir and the Metawali clans of Jabal Amil . Zahir and Ali Bey sought to take back Jaffa and , with help from the Russian Fleet , succeeded after a nine @-@ month siege , in which they exhausted many of their resources . Prior to that , in late October 1772 , Zahir and his Lebanese allies captured Beirut from Jazzar , also with Russian naval support .

In March 1773 , Ali Bey left Palestine to reestablish himself in Egypt , but Abu al @-@ Dhahab had him killed when he arrived there . With this came an end to the alliance between Zahir and Ali Bey , which had brought together Egypt and Palestine politically and economically in a way that had not occurred since the early 16th century . While their attempts to unite their territories economically and politically were unsuccessful , their rule posed the most serious domestic challenge to Ottoman rule in the 18th century . As a consequence of Ali Bey 's death , Zahir moved to further strengthen his hold over Jaffa and capture Jerusalem , but he failed in the latter attempt . All of Ottoman Syria came under the official command of Uthman Pasha al @-@ Misri in 1774 in order to bring stability to the provinces of the region . Al @-@ Misri did not seek conflict with Zahir and sought to establish friendly terms with him . As such , he convinced the Sublime Porte to officially appoint Zahir as the governor of Sidon as long as Zahir paid all of the taxes the province had owed to the Porte . Al @-@ Misri further promoted Zahir in February by declaring him " Governor of Sidon , Nablus , Gaza , Ramla , Jaffa and Jabal Ajlun " , although this title was not officially sanctioned by the Porte . In effect , Zahir was the de facto ruler over Palestine ( with the exception of Nablus and Jerusalem ) , Jabal Amil , and the Syrian coast from Gaza to Beirut .

= = = Downfall = = =

Al @-@ Misri was recalled to Istanbul in the summer of 1774 and Muhammad Pasha al @-@ Azm was appointed governor of Damascus . Thus , Zahir 's governorship of Sidon was left vulnerable because it had largely depended on guarantees from al @-@ Misri . Al @-@ Azm sought peaceful relations with Zahir , but the Sublime Porte , having made peace with Russia and relieving itself from that conflict , aimed to undermine the rebellious rulers of its provinces , including Zahir . Al @-@ Azm managed to secure an official pardon of Zahir from the Porte in April 1775 , but not the governorship of Sidon . Meanwhile , conflict between Zahir and his sons had reignited , with Ali of Safad attempting to capture Zahir 's villages in Galilee in 1774 . Zahir defeated Ali with support from his other son , Ahmad of Tiberias . Afterward , Zahir 's rule was again challenged by one of his other sons , Sa 'id , later that year . In response to this challenge , Zahir armed and mobilized 300 of Acre 's civilian inhabitants to counter Sa 'id . Ali continued to undermine Zahir 's rule by encouraging defections by Zahir 's Maghrebi mercenaries through bribes .

On 20 May 1775 , Abu al @-@ Dhahab , having been encouraged by the Porte to eradicate Zahir 's influence , captured Jaffa and slaughtered its male inhabitants . News of the massacre spurred the people of Acre into a mass panic , with its residents fleeing and storing their goods in the city 's Khan al @-@ Ifranj ( the French Caravanserai ) for safekeeping . On 24 May , Zahir also departed the city , leaving for Sidon . Ali al @-@ Zahir , subsequently entered it and declared himself governor . However , Ali 's Maghrebi troops abandoned him and looted the city as Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's troops approached it a few days later . They proceeded to conquer Sidon by sea , prompting Zahir to seek shelter with Shia allies in Jabal Amil . Some of Zahir 's sons attempted to secure their own peace with Abu al @-@ Dhahab , but the latter became ill and died on 10 June , causing the collapse and chaotic withdrawal of his Egyptian troops from Acre . Zahir re @-@ entered the city two days later and reestablished order with the assistance of Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli . However , the setback of Abu al @-@ Dhahab 's death did not preclude the Sublime Porte from attempting to check Zahir 's power and Sidon remained in Ottoman hands .

On 23 April , the Porte dispatched the Ottoman Navy admiral , Hasan Pasha al @-@ Jazayiri , to blockade Acre . He reached Haifa on 7 August taking Jaffa from Zahir 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Karim al @-@ Ayyubi . Hasan Pasha ordered Zahir to pay the miri dues he owed to the Sublime Porte dating back to 1768 . Zahir initially agreed to pay 500 @,@ 000 piasters of the total amount upfront and a further 50 @,@ 000 piasters to Hasan Pasha himself to " spare the blood of the people " . Hasan Pasha apparently accepted Zahir 's proposals , but the arrangements fell apart .

The accounts differ as to exactly how the negotiations collapsed , but sources agree that their failure was the result of disputes within Zahir 's inner circle between his financial adviser Ibrahim Sabbagh and his chief military commander , al @-@ Dinkizli . Most accounts claim that Sabbagh urged Zahir not to pay Hasan 's requested sums and agitated for war . Sabbagh argued that Zahir 's treasury did not have the funds to pay the miri dues and that Zahir 's forces were capable of defeating Hasan . Al @-@ Dinkizli pressed Zahir to pay the amount , arguing that mass bloodshed could be averted . He advised Zahir to force Sabbagh to pay the amount if Zahir could not afford to himself . When the negotiations dragged on , Hasan pressed for a full repayment of the miri dues , warning Zahir that he would be executed if he failed to satisfy the demand . Zahir was insulted by Hasan 's threat and in turn threatened to destroy Hasan 's entire fleet unless he withdrew his ships .

Hasan proceeded to bombard Acre , and Zahir 's Maghrebi artillerymen responded with cannon fire , damaging two of Hasan 's ships . The following day , Hasan 's fleet fired roughly 7 @,@ 000 shells against Acre without returning fire from the city 's artillerymen ; al @-@ Dinkizli had called on his Maghrebi forces to refrain from returning fire because as Muslims they were forbidden from attacking the sultan 's military . Realizing his long @-@ time deputy commander 's betrayal , he attempted to flee Acre on 21 August or 22 August . As he departed its gates , he was fired on by Ottoman troops , with a bullet striking his neck and causing him to fall off his horse . A Maghrebi soldier then decapitated him . Zahir 's severed head was subsequently delivered to Istanbul .

= = = Aftermath = = =

Following his death , Sabbagh and Zahir 's sons Abbas and Salih were arrested by Hasan Pasha 's men . The Sublime Porte also seized property belonging to Zahir , his sons and Sabbagh , which valued at 41 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 piasters . They were imprisoned in Istanbul , the Ottoman capital along with their physician , who was known to be talented in his profession . The physician was summoned by the sultan to treat his wife 's ailment , which he did successfully , earning him his freedom from incarceration and a medal of honor from the sultan . The physician used his influence with the authorities to have Zahir 's children and grandchildren released and returned to their hometowns . Sabbagh was executed by Hasan Pasha . Al @-@ Dinkizli was rewarded with the governorship of Gaza , but died on the way to his new headquarters , likely having been poisoned by Hasan .

Zahir 's sons Uthman , Ahmad , Sa 'id and Ali continued to put up resistance , with the latter putting up the longest fight from his fortress in Deir Hanna . The fortress eventually capitulated to the combined forces of Hasan Pasha and Jazzar Pasha on 22 July 1776 . Ali fled , but was killed later that year in the area between Tiberias and Safad . By then , the rest of Zahir 's sons had been arrested or killed . Abbas was later appointed by Sultan Selim III as the Sheikh of Safad . However , in 1799 , when Napoleon invaded Palestine , but withdrew after being defeated in Acre , Abbas and Salih both left Safad with the departing French forces . This marked the end of Zaydani influence in Galilee .

Constantin @-@ François Volney , who wrote the first European biography of Zahir in 1787 , lists three main reasons for Zahir 's failure . First , the lack of " internal good order and justness of principle " . Secondly , the early concessions he made to his children . Third , and most of all , the avarice of his adviser and confidant , Ibrahim Sabbagh .

= = Politics = =

= = = Administration = = =

Zahir appointed many of his brothers and sons as local administrators , particularly after he consolidated his control over Acre , which became the capital of his territory . Except for Acre and Haifa , Zahir divided the remainder of his territory between his relatives . His eldest brother was appointed to Deir Hanna , and his younger brothers Yusuf and Salih Abu Dani were installed in I 'billin and Arraba , respectively . Zahir appointed his eldest son Salibi as the multazim of Tiberias . Salibi was killed in 1773 fighting alongside Ali Bey 's forces in Egypt . His death deeply distressed Zahir , who was around 80 years old at the time . He appointed Uthman in Kafr Kanna then Shefa- ' Amr , Abbas in Nazareth , Ali in Safad , and Ahmad in Saffuriya . Ahmad replaced Salibi in Tiberias as well , and also conquered Ajlun and Salt in Transjordan . In addition , Ahmad was given authority over Deir Hanna after Sa 'd's death . Zahir appointed his nephew Ayyub al @-@ Karimi in Jaffa and Gaza , while al @-@ Dinkizli was made multazim in Sidon in 1774 . The appointment of Zahir 's relatives and close associates was meant to ensure the efficient administration of his expanding realm and the loyalty of his circle . Among their chief functions was to ensure the supply of cotton to Acre . It is not clear if these posts were recognized by the Ottoman government .

Zahir had an aide who jointly served in the capacity of mudabbir ( manager ) and wazir ( vizier ) to assist him throughout much of his rule in matters of finance and correspondence . This official had always been a Melkite ( local Greek Catholic ) . His first wazir was Yusuf al @-@ Arqash , followed by Yusuf Qassis in 1749 . Qassis continued in this role until the early 1760s when he was arrested for attempting to smuggle wealth he had accumulated during his service to Malta . He was succeeded by Ibrahim Sabbagh , who had served as a personal physician for Zahir in 1757 when he replaced Zahir 's longtime physician Sulayman Suwwan . Suwwan was a local Greek Orthodox Christian and when he failed to properly treat Zahir during a serious illness in 1757 , Qassis used the opportunity to replace him with Sabbagh , a friend and fellow Melkite . Sabbagh became the most influential figure in Zahir 's administration , particularly as Zahir grew old . This caused consternation among Zahir 's sons as they viewed Sabbagh to be a barrier between them and their father and an impediment to their growing power in Zahir 's territory . Sabbagh was able to gain increased influence with Zahir largely because of the wealth he amassed through his integral role in managing Zahir 's cotton monopoly . Much of this wealth was acquired through Sabbagh 's own deals where he would purchase cotton and other cash crops from the local farmers and sell them to the European merchants in the Syria 's coastal cities and to his Melkite partners in Damietta , Egypt . Sabbagh served other important roles as well , including as Zahir 's political adviser , main administrator and chief representative with European merchants and Ottoman provincial and imperial officials .

There were other officials in Zahir 's civil administration in Acre , including chief religious officials , namely the mufti and the qadi . The mufti was the chief scholar among the ulama ( Muslim scholarly community ) and oversaw the interpretation of Islamic law in Zahir 's realm . He was appointed by the Sublime Porte , but Zahir managed to maintain the same mufti for many years at a time in contrast with the typical Syrian province which saw its mufti replaced annually . Zahir directly appointed the qadi from Palestine 's local ulama , but his judicial decisions had to be approved by the qadi of Sidon . Zahir had a chief imam , who in the last years of his rule was Ali ibn Khalid al @-@ Shaabi . An agha was also appointed to supervise the customs payments made by the European merchants in Acre and Haifa .

Zahir 's initial military forces consisted of his Zaydani kinsmen and the local inhabitants of the areas he ruled . They numbered about 200 men in the early 1720s , but grew to about 1 @,@ 500 in the early 1730s . During this early period of Zahir 's career , he also had the key military backing of the Bani Saqr and other Bedouin tribes . As he consolidated his hold over Galilee , his army rose to over 4 @,@ 000 men , many of the later recruits being peasants who supported Zahir for protecting them against Bedouin raids . This suppression of the Bedouin in turn caused the tribes to largely withdraw their military backing of Zahir . The core of his private army were the Maghrebi mercenaries . The Maghrebis ' commander , Ahmad Agha al @-@ Dinkizli , also served as Zahir 's top military commander from 1735 until al @-@ Dinkizli 's defection during the Ottoman siege of Acre in 1775 . From the time Zahir reconciled with Sheikh Nasif al @-@ Nassar of Jabal Amil in 1768 until most of the remainder of his rule , Zahir also had the support of Nasif 's roughly 10 @,@ 000 Metawali cavalrymen . However , the Metawalis did not aid Zahir during the Ottoman offensive of 1775 . Zahir 's fortified villages and towns were equipped with artillery installments and his army 's arsenal consisted of cannons , matchlock rifles , pistols and lances . Most of the firearms were imported from Venice or France , and by the early 1770s , from the Russian imperial navy .

= = = General security = = =

According to biographer Ahmad Hasan Joudah , the two principal conditions Zahir established to foster his sheikhdom 's prosperity and its survival were " security and justice " . Prior to Zahir 's consolidation of power , the villages of northern Palestine were prone to Bedouin raids and robberies and the roads were under constant threat from highway robbers and Bedouin attacks . Although following the looting raids , the inhabitants of these agrarian villages were left destitute , the Ottoman provincial government would nonetheless attempt to collect from them the miri ( hajj tax ) . To avoid punitive measures for not paying the miri , the inhabitants would abandon their villages for safety in the larger towns or the desert . This situation hurt the economy of the region as the raids sharply reduced the villages ' agricultural output , the government @-@ appointed mutasallims ( tax farmers ) could not collect their impositions , and trade could not be safely conducted due to insecurity on the roads .

By 1746 , however , Zahir had established order in the lands he ruled . He managed to co @-@ opt the dominant Bedouin tribe of the region , the Bani Saqr , which greatly contributed to the establishment of security in northern Palestine . Moreover , Zahir charged the sheikhs of the towns and villages of northern Palestine with ensuring the safety of the roads in their respective vicinity and required them to compensate anyone who was robbed of his / her property . General security reached a level whereby " an old woman with gold in her hand could travel from one place to another without fear or danger " , according to biographer Mikhail Sabbagh .

This period of calm that persisted between 1744 and 1765 greatly boosted the security and economy of Galilee . The security established in the region encouraged people from other parts of the Ottoman Empire to immigrate to Galilee . Conflict between the local clans and between Zahir and his sons remained limited to periodic clashes , while there were no attacks against Zahir 's domain from outside forces . While Zahir used force to strengthen his position in the region , the local inhabitants generally took comfort in his rule , which historian Thomas Philip described as " relatively just and reasonably fair " . According to Richard Pococke who visited the area in 1737 , the local people had great admiration for Zahir , especially for his war against bandits on the roads .

= = = Economic policies = = =

In addition to providing security , Zahir and his local deputies adopted a policy of aiding the peasants cultivate and harvest their farmlands to further guarantee the steady supply of agricultural products for export . These benefits included loans to peasants and the distribution of free seeds . Financial burdens on the peasants were also reduced as Zahir offered tax relief during drought seasons or when the harvest seasons were poor . This same tax relief was extended to newcomers who sought to begin cultivating new farmlands . Moreover , Zahir assumed responsibility for outstanding payments the peasants owed to merchants from credit @-@ based transactions if the merchants could provide proof of unsatisfactory payment . According to historian Thomas Philipp , Zahir " had the good business sense not to exploit peasants to the point of destruction , but kept his financial demands to a more moderate level . " He regularly paid the Ottoman authorities their financial dues , ensuring a degree of stability in his relationship with the sultanate .

When Zahir conquered Acre , he transformed it from a decaying village into a fortified market hub for Palestinian products , including silk , wheat , olive oil , tobacco and cotton , which he exported to Europe . With cotton in particular , Zahir was able to monopolize the market for it and its foreign export . He did business with European merchants based in Galilee 's ports , who competed with one another for the cotton and grain cultivated in the rural villages under Zahir 's dominion or influence in Galilee 's hinterland and Jabal Amil . Previously , European merchants made direct transactions with local cotton growers , but Zahir , with the help of Ibrahim Sabbagh , put an end to this system of commerce by making himself the middleman between the merchants and the growers living under his rule . This allowed him to both monopolize cotton production and the merchants ' price for the product . Zahir 's designation of prices for the local cash crops also prevented " exploitation " of the peasants and local merchants by European merchants and their " manipulation of the prices " , according to Joudah . This caused financial losses to the European merchants who lodged numerous complaints to the French and English ambassadors to the Sublime Porte . A formal agreement to regulate commerce between Zahir and the European merchants was reached in 1753 . Zahir further encouraged trade by offering local merchants interest @-@ free loans .

The high European demand for the product enabled Zahir to grow wealthy and finance his autonomous sheikhdom . This control of the cotton market also allowed him to gain unofficial control over all of the Sidon Eyalet , outside the city of Sidon itself . With mixed success , Zahir attempted to have French merchant ships redirected from the ports of Tyre and Sidon to Haifa instead , in order to benefit from the customs fees he could exact . The city of Acre underwent an economic boom as a result of its position in the cotton trade with France , and became the fortified headquarters of Zahir 's sheikhdom .

= = = Relationship with religious minorities = = =

Zahir maintained tolerant policies and encouraged the involvement of religious minorities in the local economy . As part of his larger efforts to enlarge the population of Galilee , Zahir invited Jews to resettle in Tiberias around 1742 , along with Muslims . Zahir did not consider Jews to be a threat to his rule and believed that their connections with the Jewish diaspora would encourage economic development in Tiberias , which the Jews considered particularly holy . His tolerance towards the Jews , the cuts in taxes levied on them , and assistance in the construction of Jewish homes , schools and synagogues , helped foster the growth of the Jewish community in the area . The initial Jewish immigrants came from Damascus and were later followed by Jews from Aleppo , Cyprus and Smyrna . Many Jews in Safad , which was governed by Zahir 's son Ali , moved to Tiberias in the 1740s to take advantage of better opportunities in that city , which at the time was under Zahir 's direct rule . The villages of Kafr Yasif and Shefa- ' Amr also saw new Jewish communities spring up under Zahir 's rule .

Zahir encouraged local Christian settlement in Acre , in order to contribute to the city 's commercial dynamism in trade and manufacturing . Christians grew to become the largest religious group in the city by the late 18th century . Zahir 's territory became a haven for Melkite and Greek Orthodox Christians from other parts of Ottoman Syria who migrated there for better trade and employment opportunities . In Nazareth , the Christian community prospered and grew under Zahir 's rule , and saw an influx from the Maronite and Greek Orthodox communities of Lebanon and Transjordan , respectively . The Melkite patriarch lived in Acre between 1765 and 1768 . Along with the Jews , the Christians contributed to the economy of Zahir 's sheikhdom in a number of ways , including the relative ease with which they were able to deal with European merchants , the networks of support many of them maintained in Damascus or Istanbul , and their role in service industries .

Zahir allowed the Franciscan community of Nazareth to build churches in 1730 , 1741 and 1754 on sites Christians associated with Jesus 's life . He allowed the Greek Orthodox community to build St. Gabriel 's Church over a ruined Crusader church in Nazareth , and in 1750 they enlarged St. George 's Church . The largest Christian community in Acre , the Melkites , built the largest church in the city , St. Andrew 's Church , in 1764 , while the Maronites built St. Mary 's Church for their congregation in 1750 . As a testament to the prosperity that the Christians enjoyed under Zahir 's rule , no further churches were built under the auspices of Zahir 's less tolerant successors .

A strong relationship existed between Zahir and the Shia Muslim peasants of Jabal Amil and their sheikhs . Zahir maintained law and order in Jabal Amil , while leaving its mostly Shia inhabitants to their own devices . The Shia also benefited economically from Zahir 's monopoly of the cotton industry and their sheikhs provided him men of great military skill to support his struggle against the Ottoman authorities . Zahir was a key backer of the Shia in their war with the Druze Jumblatt clan and the Shihab dynasty under Mulhim Shihab , and likewise , Shia forces were critical to the defense of Zahir 's sheikhdom against expeditions by the Ottoman governor of Damascus in 1771 and 1772 .

The relationship between Zahir and the rural sheikhs of the Druze of Mount Lebanon under the Shihab dynasty were mixed . While Sheikh Mansur Shihab of Chouf allied himself with Zahir , his nephew and rival , Yusuf Shihab of the Tripoli region remained supportive of the Ottomans . Owing largely to the conflict between Zahir and the Druze emirs of Mount Lebanon , he Druze of Galilee did not fare well under Zahir and his Zaydani clan . In the oral traditions of Galilee 's Druze inhabitants , Zahir 's reign was synonymous with oppression . During this period , many Druze villages were either destroyed or abandoned and there was a partial Druze exodus from Galilee , particularly from the villages around Safad , to the Hauran region east of the Jordan River .

= = Family = =

Zahir 's clan belonged to the Qaisi political faction in the centuries @-@ long struggle between the Qais and Yaman confederations . The Ma 'an and Shihab dynasties , who ruled Mount Lebanon ( and often Galilee ) semi @-@ autonomously , also belonged to the Qaisi faction . For the most part , Zahir respected the socio @-@ political system that prevailed in the region he ruled . The alliances between him and local notables were bolstered by a network of marriages between the influential families of the area , including Zahir 's Zaydani clan . Zahir 's own marriages were politically advantageous as they allowed him to consecrate his rule over certain areas or his relationships with certain Bedouin tribes , local clans or urban notables . Zahir had five wives during his lifetime . Among his wives was a woman from the Sardiyah , a Bedouin tribe active in Transjordan and Palestine . Zahir was also married to a daughter of Sayyid Muhammad , a wealthy religious notable from Damascus , a daughter of the mukhtar ( headman ) of Bi 'ina , and a daughter of the mukhtar of Deir al @-@ Qassi .

Zahir had eight sons from his wives , and according to Tobias Smollett , a daughter as well . His sons , from eldest to youngest , were Salibi , Ali , Uthman , Sa 'id , Ahmad , Salih , Sa 'd al @-@ Din and Abbas . His daughter 's husband 's name was Karim al @-@ Ayyubi , who was also Zahir 's cousin . By 1773 , Zahir had a total of 272 children , grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren .

As Zahir consolidated his power and reduced external threats to his rule in the 1760s , his sons aspired for more influence and ultimately fought against their father and each other in order to secure their place as Zahir 's successor . Besides support from elements of the Zaydani clan , Zahir 's sons maintained their own power bases , largely derived from their mothers ' clans , and also made their own alliances with other powerful actors in the region . Zahir was victorious in the many conflicts he had with his sons , but their frequent dissent weakened his rule and played a contributory role to his downfall in 1775 . Prior to his sons ' individual rebellions , Zahir had eliminated other relatives who challenged his power .

= = Legacy = =

Zahir 's rule radically changed the landscape of Galilee . With the restoration and re @-@ fortification of Acre and the establishment of the secondary port city of Haifa , Galilee significantly strengthened its ties with the Mediterranean world . Following Zahir 's death , his successor Jazzar Pasha maintained the cotton monopoly Zahir had established and Galilee 's economy remained almost completely dependent on the cotton trade . The region prospered for decades , but with the rise of the cotton market in the southern United States during the early @-@ mid 19th century , European demand shifted away from Palestine 's cotton and because of its dependency on the crop , the region experienced a sharp economic downturn from which it could not recover . The cotton crop was largely abandoned , as were many villages , and the peasantry shifted its focus to subsistence agriculture .

In the late 19th century , the Palestine Exploration Fund 's Claude Reignier Conder wrote that the Ottomans had successfully destroyed the power of Palestine 's indigenous ruling families who " had practically been their own masters " but had been " ruined so that there is no longer any spirit left in them " . Among these families were the " proud race " of Zahir , which was still held in high esteem , but was powerless and poor . Zahir 's modern @-@ day descendants in Galilee use the surname " Dhawahri " or " al @-@ Zawahirah " in Zahir 's honor . The Dhawahri clan constitute one of the traditional elite Muslim clans of Nazareth , alongside the Fahum , Zu 'bi and ' Onallas families . Other villages in Galilee where descendants of Zahir 's clan live are Bi 'ina and Kafr Manda and , prior to its 1948 destruction , al @-@ Damun . Many of the inhabitants of modern @-@ day northern Israel , particularly the towns and villages where Zahir or his family left an architectural legacy , hold Zahir in high regard .

Although he was mostly overlooked by historians of the Middle East , some scholars view Zahir 's rule as a forerunner to Palestinian nationalism . Among these scholars is Karl Sabbagh , who asserts the latter view in his book Palestine : A Personal History , which was widely reviewed in the British press in 2010 . Zahir was gradually integrated into Palestinian historiography . In Murad Mustafa Dabbagh 's Biladuna Filastin ( 1965 ) , a multi @-@ volume work about Palestine 's history , Zahir is referred to as the " greatest Palestinian appearing in the eighteenth century " . The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) radio station , Voice of Palestine , broadcast a series about Zahir in 1966 , praising him as a Palestinian national hero who fought against Ottoman imperialism . Zahir is considered by many Arab nationalists as a pioneer of Arab liberation from foreign occupation . According to Joudah

However historians may look at Shaykh Zahir al- ' Umar and his movement , he is highly respected by the Arabs of the East . In particular the Palestinians consider him a national hero who struggled against Ottoman authority for the welfare of his people . This praise is reflected in the recent academic , cultural and literary renaissance within Palestinian society that has elevated Zahir and his legacy to near @-@ iconic status . These re @-@ readings are not always bound to historical objectivity but are largely inspired by the ongoing consequences of the Nakba . Still it is precise to say that Shaykh Zahir had successfully established an autonomous state , or a " little Kingdom , " as Albert Hourani called it , in most of Palestine for over a quarter of a century .

= = = Building works = = =

Zahir and his family built fortresses , watchtowers , warehouses , and khans ( caravanserais ) . These buildings improved the domestic administration and general security of Galilee . Today , many of these structures are in a state of disrepair and remain outside the scope of Israel 's cultural preservation laws .

In Acre , Zahir rebuilt the Crusader @-@ era walls and built on top of various Crusader and Mamluk structures in the city . Among these were the caravanserais of Khan al @-@ Shawarda and its Burj al @-@ Sultan tower and Khan al @-@ Shunah . In 1758 , he commissioned the construction of the al @-@ Muallaq Mosque , He also built the Seraya government house in Nazareth , which served as that city 's municipal headquarters until 1991 . In Haifa , which Zahir founded , he built a wall with four towers and two gates around the new settlement . Within Haifa , he built the Burj al @-@ Salam fortress , a small mosque , a customs building , and a government residence ( saraya ) . In Tiberias , he commissioned the building of a citadel ( now ruined ) and the al @-@ Amari Mosque . The latter was built with alternating white and black stone , typical of the architectural style of Zahir 's building works , and a minaret .

Fortifications and other structures were built in the rural villages under Zahir 's control . In Deir Hanna , Zahir 's brother Sa 'd built a large fortress and an adjacent mosque , both of which were severely damaged during a siege by Jazzar Pasha in 1776 . In Khirbat Jiddin , he rebuilt the demolished Crusader fortress with the addition of a mosque and hamaam ( bathhouse ) . The mosque was destroyed by Israeli forces when the village was captured during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . In Shefa- ' Amr , Zahir 's son Uthman built a large fortress with four towers , of which one remains standing . Another of his sons , Ahmad , rebuilt the Crusader fortress in Saffuriya .

In Tibnin , in modern @-@ day Lebanon , and in Safad , Zahir or his son Ali had Crusader @-@ era fortresses rebuilt . Zahir fortified the village of Harbaj , although the village and its fort were in ruins by the late 19th century . At Tabgha on the Sea of Galilee , Zahir built five fountains , one of which remained standing by the 19th century . That remaining fountain was the largest of its kind in Galilee . In the village of I 'billin , Zahir 's brother Yusuf built fortifications and a mosque . The I 'billin fortress was later used as the headquarters of Aqil Agha , the 19th century semi @-@ autonomous Arab sheikh of Galilee .

= M @-@ 204 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 204 runs across the Leelanau Peninsula between Leland and Suttons Bay in the northwestern Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The trunkline runs through a rural section of Leelanau County , connecting two villages with the county seat . Originally a gravel road in 1933 , it was later paved within the first three years of existence . Segments were realigned to straighten curves in the late 1930s and early 1970s near the villages of Lake Leelanau and Suttons Bay .

= = Route description = =

M @-@ 204 starts at an intersection with M @-@ 22 ( Manitou Trail ) south of Leland next to Duck Lake . From there it follows Duck Lake Road along the south shore of Lake Leelanau 's northern lobe . The two @-@ lane roadway runs eastward and then southeasterly through a mixture of woods and fields to the village of Lake Leelanau . One there , M @-@ 204 follows Phillip Street across the Narrows and turns northeasterly . The bridge that the trunkline uses is eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic Places . Outside of town , the highway follows Duck Lake Road again past the county seat of Leelanau County . Near the intersection with Horn Road , M @-@ 204 turns southeasterly toward the village of Suttons Bay . As the trunkline descends a hill into the village , it passes through vineyards and woods . Inside town , M @-@ 204 follows Race Street and ends downtown at M @-@ 22 ( St. Joseph Avenue ) .

Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 204 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 3 @,@ 397 vehicles used the highway daily in Suttons Bay and 2 @,@ 931 vehicles did so each day near the western terminus , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 204 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

M @-@ 204 was first designated on July 12 , 1933 between Leland and Suttons Bay along what is today Duck Lake Road . The highway was paved by the middle of 1936 . The road was realigned on July 13 , 1939 , across the narrows of Lake Leelanau in the village of the same name . Another realignment near Suttons Bay was completed on March 26 , 1956 , to smooth out a curve in the road . A second completed on May 4 , 1956 , straightened a curve by Sylt Road east of Lake Leelanau . The western section was completely rebuilt between Duck Lake Corner and the Lake Leelanau Narrows Bridge to smooth out curves in the roadway . Sections not obliterated by the reconstruction were turned over to local control as Main Street or Old M @-@ 204 in Lake Leelanau when the project was finished on July 1 , 1970 .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is in Leelanau County .

= What Goes Around ... Comes Around =

" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around ( Interlude ) " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his second studio album , FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Timbaland , and Danja . The song was said by Timberlake to be about betrayal and forgiveness , and was described by some music critics as a " sequel " to his 2002 single " Cry Me a River " . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics .

" What Goes Around ... " is about the love life of a friend of Timberlake , Trace Ayala , and his relationship with Elisha Cuthbert . It also is rumored that the song talks about the relationship the two had in the TV series 24 .

The song was retitled " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " for its December 19 , 2006 , release as the third single from FutureSex / LoveSounds . It became Timberlake 's third consecutive number @-@ one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally the song was also successful , reaching the top ten in countries such as the United Kingdom , Canada , New Zealand , Germany , and Australia . The song was later certified two @-@ times platinum in Australia , gold in the United States and gold in New Zealand . The song won Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards , where it also received a nomination for Record of the Year .

The Samuel Bayer @-@ directed music video for " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was released February 7 , 2007 . Actress Scarlett Johansson plays Timberlake 's love interest in the video . The video received the award for Best Direction at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards and was also nominated for Video of the Year .

= = Production = =

When Timberlake began working on FutureSex / LoveSounds at Timbaland 's studio in Virginia Beach , Virginia , they had no idea of what the album would be like with no plan for it or even a title . He told his collaborators to do a remake of his previous single , " Cry Me a River " . Danja , a protégé of Timbaland , stated : " We had no direction at all other than ' Cry Me a River , ' and not in the sense of mimicking the track , but in how big the song was . There was no direction for how he wanted the song to sound , because there was no direction for how he wanted [ his album FutureSex / LoveSounds ] to sound . "

The song was written and produced by Justin Timberlake , Timbaland , and Nate " Danja " Hills . While in the studio , the three men were just " fooling around " and " freestyling " . When Danja began playing a guitar riff , it caught Timberlake 's attention . Timberlake started humming to the melody , and then the lyrics came . Timbaland , who was at his keyboards beside Danja , added drums to the melody . Danja commented that " everything was coming together at the same time " . After coming up with the music , Timberlake never wrote down the lyrics and , in an hour , he was ready to record it . By the time Timberlake was in the vocal booth , the basic track was done , then Timbaland produced a prelude of the song . Timberlake sang the song in a couple of takes and went back line by line to fill up the gaps . During the recording sessions , Timbaland and Danja added everything else , including the basses and strings . Danja compared the process to scoring to a movie , thinking the song was like a horror flick .

" What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was pivotal to the creation of FutureSex / LoveSounds . After finishing the production of the song , Timbaland teased Timberlake . Timberlake responded : " Let 's do something we would never do . Let 's go far left and just see what happens . " His answer motivated the collective , and they ended up producing ten songs for the album .

= = Composition and interpretation = =

" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " is a pop @-@ R & B song performed in a slow manner . It is composed in the key of A Dorian ( A Minor ) in common time . With a gentle and midtempo beat , the tempo is pacing to 76 beats per minute . The song features a two @-@ minute interlude titled " Comes Around " , featuring the album 's producer Timbaland , spanning to a seven @-@ minute and 28 @-@ second track . Timberlake 's voice ranges from B3 to D6 . Musically , the song is similar to the type of music produced on Timberlake 's Justified album ; however , it is the only link from FutureSex / LoveSounds to Justified .

In the beginning of the song , there is a five @-@ second harmony line of two bağlamas ( one each panned far left and far right on respect octaves ) , a Turkish folk instrument . The beat is then changed to a more upbeat version of the same melody with more percussion . The basic ornamentation is loyal to characteristic Turkish string ornamentations . Timbaland also used the Turkish oud to mellow out the guitar riff . The chord series follows the Am @-@ C @-@ G @-@ D keys . Following the instrumental , Timberlake begins the verse at thirteenth bar . The original track had a bridge , including the pre @-@ verses , the verses and the choruses . After hearing the vocals of Timberlake , they decided to remove the bridge and follow a simple flow , because they felt its " too much " to have it and a break at the end of the song . Timbaland provides backing vocals on the song .

" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " is about betrayal and forgiveness . Timberlake revealed that the song was written for the experience his friend went through . However , the public came up with different interpretation of the lyrics , that being a sequel to " Cry Me A River " . Bill Lamb wrote that the song has a " cautionary tale in the lyrics " . According to him , many fans and critics alike , after hearing the song , insisted that it is similar in meaning to " Cry Me a River " , which allegedly accounts to Timberlake 's relationship with former girlfriend , pop singer Britney Spears . However , Timberlake 's account of the song 's meaning contradicts this . Spence D. of IGN commented that the song presents " some intriguing ambiance " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Rolling Stone called the single " a soaring ballad featuring Timberlake 's falsetto , with verses and choruses that pile on top of one another with dizzying effect . " About.com reviewer Bill Lamb stated that the song " is one of the most gorgeous pop melodies of the year . " He complimented the string @-@ based arrangement of the song . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly called it " superior " , along with " LoveStoned " . Zach Baron of Pitchfork Media referred to it " some real can 't @-@ let @-@ go shit that 'll save you the repeat stabs on the bad night . " Spence D. of IGN called it " annoying " but he complimented the use of echo vocals and swirling synths .

" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " placed at number twenty @-@ four on Rolling Stone 's list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 . The song was nominated twice at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards , winning Best Male Pop Vocal Performance but lost to Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " for Record of the Year .

= = = Commercial performance = = =

" What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was commercially successful in the United States . The single debuted at number 64 on December 23 , 2006 on the Billboard Hot 100 , prior to its physical release . From number eight on February 24 , 2007 , it propelled to number one the following week . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " became Timberlake 's third consecutive number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 from his FutureSex / LoveSounds album , becoming the first male artist since Usher in 2004 to have three or more consecutive number @-@ one hits from one album . The single charted on Hot 100 for 25 weeks . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on June 7 , 2007 . By September 3 , 2010 , the song had passed the two million sales plateau , and has sold 2 @,@ 375 @,@ 000 copies as of April 2013 .

In the United Kingdom , " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " debuted at number 59 on the UK Singles Chart on January 28 , 2007 . The digital download sales helped propel the single to number 11 on February 25 , 2007 . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " peaked at number four on March 11 , to become his sixth top five single in the United Kingdom . It stayed on the chart for 22 weeks . The single entered the top five in Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Ireland , Norway , Romania , Sweden , Switzerland . In Australia , the single debuted and peaked at number three on the Australian ARIA singles chart on March 26 , 2007 , gaining the Highest Debut certification . It spent a total of 22 weeks on the chart . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling over 30 @,@ 000 units . The single peaked at number three in the New Zealand on April 9 , 2007 , and spent 16 weeks on the chart . " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand .

= = Music video = =

= = = Development = = =

The music video for the " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was produced as a short movie . The video was directed by Samuel Bayer , who had first directorial works with Nirvana 's 1991 single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . The video features dialogues written by Alpha Dog writer and director Nick Cassavetes , who had previously worked with Timberlake in the film . Timberlake and Bayer enlisted American actress Scarlett Johansson after deciding on using " real " actors . The shooting went for three days between Christmas and New Year 's Eve in Los Angeles . The dawn scene was shot on January 8 , after the original sessions were done .

= = = Synopsis = = =

The video starts off with Timberlake flirting with Johansson on the burlesque @-@ style club . She rejects with a tease at first but eventually leaves with him to go back to his place . In between cuts , they are shown in bed caressing each other . Johansson jumps into a pool outside the house , and floats below the surface as if she is drowning . Timberlake runs out and pulls her up ; she laughs at Timberlake and kisses him .

In another scene , Timberlake introduces her to a drunk Shawn Hatosy at the club calling her " The One " . Hatosy seems to be interested in Johansson and Timberlake asks him to " keep an eye on her for me " perhaps suspecting she has another man on the side . Timberlake returns and finds them kissing in the stairway . After punching Hatosy he chases after Johansson , who speeds off in her 1967 Chevrolet Corvette C2 Sting Ray ; Timberlake follows in his Porsche Carrera GT . Johansson runs into a fiery car crash pile up and is ejected from the car as it tumbles through the air and lands several feet away 2 times . Timberlake notices a motionless body lying supine on the ground . He gets out and kneels over her while the camera view moves toward the sky .

Some scenes shows Timberlake performing on the stairway with a microphone while a group of unknown girls with red paint on their eyes are seen dancing next to him while one ( Johansson ) is seen waving her batons with fire on them near the end of the video .

= = = Release and reception = = =

The music video of " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " was exclusively premiered on February 9 , 2007 on the iTunes Store . The music video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live at number nine on February 13 , 2007 . " What Goes Around ... " retired on May 7 at number seven . In Canada , the music video debuted on Muchmusic 's Top 30 countdown at number 22 on January 26 , 2007 . It peaked at number one on April 27 and stayed on the chart for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks . The video was commercially successful , becoming the fastest selling pop promo on iTunes . It has sold 50 @,@ 000 in downloads for four days . Timberlake was the first major artist to release a video on the download platform .

In September 2007 , " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction . It was also nominated for Video of the Year but lost to singer Rihanna 's 2007 video " Umbrella " .

= = Live performances = =

Timberlake performed the song on Saturday Night Live . Timberlake performed twice at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards , once at the piano for " What Goes Around Comes Around " and later " My Love " and Bill Withers ' " Ain 't No Sunshine . " The song is featured in the set list of FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , Legends of the Summer ( 2013 ) and the The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 / 14 ) .

= = Cover versions = =

On May 23 , 2007 , Marilyn Manson and Tim Skold appeared on UK radio station BBC Radio 1 's program Live Lounge to promote Marilyn Manson 's 2007 album Eat Me , Drink Me . They performed an acoustic version of " Heart @-@ Shaped Glasses ( When the Heart Guides the Hand ) " , followed with an acoustic cover of " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . The Manson cover does not include the interlude . French singer Myriam Abel , the winner of Nouvelle Star 3 , also recorded a non @-@ commercial cover of " What Goes Around ... / ... Comes Around " with a Raï influence , accessible through her official MySpace page . An a cappella rendition was recorded by Overboard for their 2007 album , Stranded . American post hardcore band Alesana recorded a cover for the Punk Goes ... compilation series , Punk Goes Pop 2 , released March 10 , 2009 . Benny Davis , of the Australian musical comedy act The Axis of Awesome , also heavily sampled the song on his track " Another Four Chords " on The Human Jukebox EP , released in 2013 .

Taylor Swift performed a mashup of " You 're Not Sorry " and " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " during her Fearless Tour ( 2009 − 10 ) .

= = Track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from FutureSex / LoveSounds booklet :

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Woodstock Library =

The Woodstock Library is a branch of the Multnomah County Library in southeast Portland , Oregon , United States . The library 's origins date back to 1908 , when the people of the Woodstock neighborhood established a reading room at the Woodstock Fire Station , which soon became one of fifteen " deposit stations " ( packing crates that turned into two @-@ shelf bookcases and could hold up to 50 books each ) . The Woodstock collection began as an assemblage of children 's books and was housed within a public school . In 1911 , the station was replaced by a " sub @-@ branch " library offering more books for adults and children , but without the reference works and services available at regular branches . The collection moved into a larger facility in 1914 , which became a full branch in 1917 , offering additional resources and services .

The library occupied a series of temporary locations during the 1920s – ' 40s . Construction began on Woodstock 's permanent library building in 1959 . It was dedicated on June 1 the following year , the fourth community library built by Multnomah County . Until the mid @-@ 1990s the library was maintained as @-@ is with only regular maintenance , though capacity strained as public use grew and new technologies demanded additional shelf space . In 1995 , the City of Portland 's Bureau of Planning released the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , which included a policy to improve the branch and its services . In 1996 , the county adopted a $ 28 million bond measure to renovate some branches and upgrade technology throughout the system . Given multiple issues with the existing building , including structural problems and non @-@ compliance with building codes , Multnomah County Library determined reconstruction was necessary . The library was demolished in January 1999 .

The current 7 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 700 m2 ) Woodstock Library building was completed in 2000 . It has a " lantern @-@ like " quality and has received multiple awards for its design . In addition to offering the Multnomah County Library catalog , which contains two million books , periodicals and other materials , the library houses collections in Chinese and Spanish and employs Chinese @-@ speaking staff .

= = Early history = =

In 1906 , the Multnomah County Library began distributing books to neighborhoods outside downtown Portland . A reading room was established in the Woodstock neighborhood 's fire station building in 1908 ; later that year it was recognized as a branch of Multnomah County Library . Deposit stations , containing packing crates that turned into two @-@ shelf bookcases holding up to 50 books each , were often set up within fire stations or private homes . Woodstock received its deposit station , a collection of children 's books housed within a public school , in 1909 , becoming one of fifteen outlying service areas . On May 16 , 1911 , the Woodstock deposit station was replaced by a sub @-@ branch library , supplying more reading material for adults and children but without the reference works and other library services offered at regular branches . The collection was moved to a larger storefront facility , west of SE 44th on SE Woodstock Boulevard , on September 12 , 1914 . The library achieved full branch status in 1917 , offering a collection and services comparable to other branches . In 1918 , the Woodstock branch and several others were threatened with closure after employees received a $ 10 per month salary increase , but funding sources helped to defray the additional expense . Along with other county libraries , the branch closed between November 1 and November 16 in response to the 1918 flu pandemic .

During the 1920s – ' 40s the library occupied a series of temporary locations within rented storefronts . Library resources and services were used heavily by unemployed residents during the Great Depression as well as during and after World War II , as people requested information ranging from foreign locales to victory gardens to jobs . In the 1950s , responding to population changes and the rise in automobile use , Multnomah County Library divided the county into six regions , each of which had a single " Class A " branch offering extended operating hours and full services . Deposit stations and smaller branch libraries were to be eliminated or merged to house larger collections .

= = Original building = =

Multnomah County Library decided to consolidate the Woodstock and Sellwood @-@ Moreland branches , both of which had struggled to operate in rented spaces for years . Construction of Woodstock 's first permanent library building , located at 6008 SE 49th Avenue , began in 1959 . The new library , measuring 5 @,@ 640 square feet ( 524 m2 ) , was dedicated on June 1 the following year , the fourth community library built by Multnomah County . The president of the Library Association of Portland wrote in the organization 's annual report : " Community response to this fine example of an adequate extension agency has been gratifying . This accelerated use fortifies the principle that excellent , strong book collections , strategically placed , provide economical and satisfactory extension [ branch ] service . "

The library received regular maintenance and refurbishment from the 1970s through the mid @-@ 1990s , including repairs following a small fire . Capacity became strained as video and audiobook collections demanded additional shelf space and public use continued to grow . In 1995 , the City of Portland 's Bureau of Planning released the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , which included a policy to enhance the branch . Objectives included promoting its use , upgrading the facility and its services , improving cyclist and pedestrian access , and strengthening its cultural and educational role within the community . In May 1996 , Multnomah County voters passed a $ 28 million bond measure to renovate some branches and upgrade technology throughout the system . Multnomah County Library determined building reconstruction was necessary given multiple issues including electrical , lighting , mechanical , plumbing and structural problems , mold growth within the walls and underneath flooring , and non @-@ compliance with earthquake engineering and Americans with Disabilities Act codes . Cost analysis revealed reconstruction was more effective than repairing the existing structure ; additional factors included data and communications upgrades and the need for meeting space . Woodstock Library closed on January 17 , 1999 and was demolished soon after . Many of its building materials were recycled or salvaged for reuse .

= = Current building = =

The current Woodstock Library building is at the intersection of one commercial street ( SE Woodstock Boulevard ) and one tree @-@ lined residential street ( SE 49th ) , which links to the Woodstock School and Woodstock Park . Measuring 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 700 m2 ) , it opened on March 14 , 2000 , the first branch within the Multnomah County Library system to undergo complete reconstruction . Architects were Folger Johnson and Donald Mayer as well as Thomas Hacker and Associates P.C. ( also referred to as Thomas Hacker Architects Inc. or THA Architecture ) . Becca Cavell served as project architect , project manager and construction administrator . Some of the building 's architectural features were designed by the engineering firm Degenkolb Engineers . Contractor services were provided by McCarthy Building Companies , Inc .

Designers had in mind a " lantern @-@ like " quality for the library , " open , light and inviting " . THA said the goal was to create a " feeling of openness and availability " , with a focus on " books and people " . Most of the library 's collection is housed within a single large room level with the sidewalk outside . The building has an exposed gridded steel roof 19 feet ( 580 cm ) high , supported by six pairs of slender steel columns and lined with windows . From several column options , Degenkolb chose cantilevered columns designed in a cruciform shape , built from four steel angles measuring 6 by 6 inches ( 15 cm × 15 cm ) . The columns taper from the top and provide even distribution of loads , protecting the structure against wind and earthquakes without lateral bracing ( or the need for supporting walls ) . The library features a 32 @-@ person capacity meeting room for hosting community events at no charge on a first come , first served basis . The building houses original artwork , including a work by Margot Voorhies @-@ Thompson and , at the entrance , a 15 @-@ line poem by Kim Stafford titled " Open This Door of All Doors " . The exterior includes 36 stainless steel panels etched with words depicting the history of books .

Kari Hauge became the first librarian of the new facility . In addition to offering the Multnomah County Library catalog of two million books , periodicals and other materials , the Woodstock Library houses collections in Chinese and Spanish and employs Chinese @-@ speaking staff . Self @-@ checkout stations and radio frequency identification gates were installed in July 2010 .

The current building has received several design awards . In 2000 , the American Institute of Steel Construction awarded Degenkolb with the I.D.E.A.S. Merit Award for quality structural engineering . Thomas Hacker Architects was presented with the 2002 AIA Regional Honor Award by the Northwest and Pacific Region of the American Institute of Architects through its Design Awards Program ; jurors noted the library 's " rigorous but poetic " structure and its " outstanding tectonic harmony , from the smallest scale of details to the basic design concept " . The building also received the 2000 AIA Portland Chapter Honor Award , the 2000 Portland General Electric EarthSmart Award , the 2001 AIA American Library Association Award of Excellence ( for its " simple and elegant design " ) and the 2002 Chicago Athenaeum American Architecture Award . The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America presented an award for the library 's quality lighting design . Ginnie Cooper , director of libraries for Multnomah County , said of the recognition : " Library users love this building and we 're pleased with how much the architectural community has applauded it as well . "

The Woodstock Library became a model project for library branch reconstruction in the region . Other libraries designed and built by Thomas Hacker include the Beaverton City Library , the Belmont Library , the Bend Library and the Penrose Library ( Whitman College ) .

= = Community role = =

Over the years both Woodstock Library buildings have hosted numerous activities , clubs , events and programs . According to the " Adopted Woodstock Neighborhood Plan " , the Woodstock Library and Woodstock Community Center enhance the Village Center 's role within the community as a " gathering place " . Recent examples include appearances by actors and authors , a clown show , " conversation circles " for non @-@ native English speakers , crafting , cultural celebrations , knitting groups , a mobile zoo , and neighborhood organization meetings and storytelling . The library has also hosted town hall meetings and served as a ballot drop @-@ off site during elections .

= Ragnarök =

In Norse mythology , Ragnarök is a series of future events , including a great battle , foretold to ultimately result in the death of a number of major figures ( including the gods Odin , Thor , Týr , Freyr , Heimdallr , and Loki ) , the occurrence of various natural disasters , and the subsequent submersion of the world in water . Afterward , the world will resurface anew and fertile , the surviving and returning gods will meet , and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors . Ragnarök is an important event in the Norse canon , and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory .

The event is attested primarily in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In the Prose Edda , and in a single poem in the Poetic Edda , the event is referred to as Ragnarök or Ragnarøkkr ( Old Norse " Fate of the Gods " and " Twilight of the Gods " respectively ) , a usage popularised by 19th @-@ century composer Richard Wagner with the title of the last of his Der Ring des Nibelungen operas , Götterdämmerung ( 1876 ) .

= = Etymology = =

The Old Norse compound ragnarok has a long history of interpretation . Its first element , ragna , is unproblematic , being the genitive plural of regin ( n. pl . ) " the ruling powers , gods " . The second element is more difficult , as it occurs in two variants , -rök and -røkkr . Zoega 's Old Icelandic Dictionary treats the two forms as two separate compounds , glossing ragnarök as " the doom or destruction of the gods " and ragnarøkkr as " the twilight of the gods " ( 1910 ) .

The plural noun rök , has several meanings , such as " development , origin , cause , relation , fate . " The word ragnarök as a whole is then usually interpreted as the " final destiny of the gods . "

The singular form ragnarøk ( k ) r is found in stanza 39 of the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna , and in the Prose Edda . The noun røk ( k ) r means " twilight " ( from a verb røkkva " to grow dark " ) , suggesting a translation " twilight of the gods " . This reading was widely considered a result of folk etymology , or a learned reinterpretation , of the original term due to the merger of / ǫ / and / ø / in Old Icelandic after ca . 1200 ( nevertheless giving rise to the concept of Götterdämmerung " Twilight of the Gods " in the German reception of Norse mythology ) . Nevertheless , Haraldur Bernharðsson in a 2007 paper suggested that the singular form -røkr " twilight " ( from a Proto @-@ Germanic * rekwa ) might have been the original reading . Haraldur Bernharðsson argues instead that the words ragnarök and ragnarøkkr are closely related , etymologically and semantically , and suggests a meaning of " renewal of the divine powers . "

Other terms used to refer to the events surrounding Ragnarök in the Poetic Edda include aldar rök ( aldar means age , " end of an age " ) from stanza 39 of Vafþrúðnismál , tíva rök from stanzas 38 and 42 of Vafþrúðnismál , þá er regin deyja ( " when the gods die " ) from Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 , unz um rjúfask regin ( " when the gods will be destroyed " ) from Vafþrúðnismál stanza 52 , Lokasenna stanza 41 , and Sigrdrífumál stanza 19 , aldar rof ( " destruction of the age " ) from Helgakviða Hundingsbana II stanza 41 , regin þrjóta ( " end of the gods " ) from Hyndluljóð stanza 42 , and , in the Prose Edda , þá er Muspellz @-@ synir herja ( " when the sons of Muspell move into battle " ) can be found in chapters 18 and 36 of Gylfaginning .

= = Attestations = =

= = = Poetic Edda = = =

The Poetic Edda contains various references to Ragnarök :

= = = = Völuspá = = = =

In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , references to Ragnarök begin from stanza 40 until 58 , with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath . In the poem , a völva recites information to Odin . In stanza 41 , the völva says :

The völva then describes three roosters crowing : In stanza 42 , the jötunn herdsman Eggthér sits on a mound and cheerfully plays his harp while the crimson rooster Fjalar ( Old Norse " hider , deceiver " ) crows in the forest Gálgviðr . The golden rooster Gullinkambi crows to the Æsir in Valhalla , and the third , unnamed soot @-@ red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location of Hel in stanza 43 .

After these stanzas , the völva further relates that the hound Garmr produces deep howls in front of the cave of Gnipahellir . Garmr 's bindings break and he runs free . The völva describes the state of humanity :

The " sons of Mím " are described as being " at play " , though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources . Heimdall raises the Gjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it , and Odin converses with Mím 's head . The world tree Yggdrasil shudders and groans . The jötunn Hrym comes from the east , his shield before him . The Midgard serpent Jörmungandr furiously writhes , causing waves to crash . " The eagle shrieks , pale @-@ beaked he tears the corpse , " and the ship Naglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jormungandr and sets sail from the east . The fire jötnar inhabitants of Muspelheim come forth .

The völva continues that Jötunheimr , the land of the jötnar , is aroar , and that the Æsir are in council . The dwarfs groan by their stone doors . Surtr advances from the south , his sword brighter than the sun . Rocky cliffs open and the jötnar women sink .

The gods then do battle with the invaders : Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolf Fenrir , causing his wife Frigg her second great sorrow ( the first being the death of her son , the god Baldr ) . Odin 's son Víðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir 's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear , thus killing the wolf . The serpent Jörmungandr opens its gaping maw , yawning widely in the air , and is met in combat by Thor . Thor , also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth , furiously fights the serpent , defeating it , but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterward before collapsing . The god Freyr fights Surtr and loses . After this , people flee their homes , and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea , the stars vanish , steam rises , and flames touch the heavens .

The völva sees the earth reappearing from the water , and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain . The surviving Æsir meet together at the field of Iðavöllr . They discuss Jörmungandr , great events of the past , and the runic alphabet . In stanza 61 , in the grass , they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago ( attested earlier in the same poem ) . The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown . The gods Höðr and Baldr return from Hel and live happily together .

The völva says that the god Hœnir chooses wooden slips for divination , and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world . She sees a hall thatched with gold in Gimlé , where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably . Stanzas 65 , found in the Hauksbók version of the poem , refers to a " powerful , mighty one " that " rules over everything " and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods ( Old Norse regindómr ) , which has been interpreted as a Christian addition to the poem . In stanza 66 , the völva ends her account with a description of the dragon Níðhöggr , corpses in his jaws , flying through the air . The völva then " sinks down . " It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that the völva is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post @-@ Ragnarök world .

= = = = Vafþrúðnismál = = = =

The Vanir god Njörðr is mentioned in relation to Ragnarök in stanza 39 of the poem Vafþrúðnismál . In the poem , Odin , disguised as Gagnráðr faces off with the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a battle of wits . Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr 's status as a hostage during the earlier Æsir – Vanir War , and that he will " come back home among the wise Vanir " at " the doom of men . "

In stanza 44 , Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the " famous " Fimbulwinter ( " Mighty Winter " ) . Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will be Líf and Lífþrasir , and that they will hide in the forest of Hoddmímis holt , that they will consume the morning dew , and will produce generations of offspring . In stanza 46 , Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists . Vafþrúðnir responds that Sól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her , and that after Ragnarök this daughter will continue her mother 's path .

In stanza 51 , Vafþrúðnir states that , after Surtr 's flames have been sated , Odin 's sons Víðarr and Váli will live in the temples of the gods , and that Thor 's sons Móði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir . In stanza 52 , the disguised Odin asks the jötunn about Odin 's own fate . Vafþrúðnir responds that " the wolf " will consume Odin , and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle . Odin ends the duel with one final question : what did Odin say to his son before preparing his funeral pyre ? With this , Vafþrúðnir realizes that he is dealing with none other than Odin , whom he refers to as " the wisest of beings , " adding that Odin alone could know this . Odin 's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr after Ragnarök .

= = = = Helgakviða Hundingsbana II = = = =

Ragnarök is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana II . Here , the valkyrie Sigrún 's unnamed maid is passing the deceased hero Helgi Hundingsbane 's burial mound . Helgi is there with a retinue of men , surprising the maid . The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding , or if Ragnarök has occurred . In stanza 41 , Helgi responds that it is neither .

= = = Prose Edda = = =

Snorri Sturluson 's Prose Edda quotes heavily from Völuspá and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there , though some of this information conflicts with that provided in Völuspá .

= = = = Gylfaginning chapters 26 and 34 = = = =

In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , various references are made to Ragnarök . Ragnarök is first mentioned in chapter 26 , where the throned figure of High , king of the hall , tells Gangleri ( King Gylfi in disguise ) some basic information about the goddess Iðunn , including that her apples will keep the gods young until Ragnarök .

In chapter 34 , High describes the binding of the wolf Fenrir by the gods , causing the god Týr to lose his right hand , and that Fenrir remains there until Ragnarök . Gangleri asks High why , since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir , they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound . High responds that " the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf 's blood , even though the prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin . "

As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr , Loki ( described as father of Fenrir ) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his son Narfi ( which are turned into iron ) in three places . There , venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by the jötunn Skaði , and when his wife Sigyn empties the bucket she is using to collect the dripping venom , the pain he experiences causes convulsions , resulting in earthquakes . Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset of Ragnarök .

= = = = Gylfaginning chapter 51 = = = =

Chapter 51 provides a detailed account of Ragnarök interspersed with various quotes from Völuspá , while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events . In Chapter 51 , High states the first sign of Ragnarök will be Fimbulwinter , during which time three winters will arrive without a summer , and the sun will be useless . High details that , prior to these winters , three earlier winters will have occurred , marked with great battles throughout the world . During this time , greed will cause brothers to kill brothers , and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds . High then quotes stanza 45 of Völuspá . Next , High describes that the wolf will first swallow the sun , and then his brother the moon , and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin . The stars will disappear . The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil , the mountains will topple , and all restraints will break , causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds .

High relates that the great serpent Jörmungandr , also described as a child of Loki in the same source , will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it . The ship Naglfar , described in the Prose Edda as being made from the human nails of the dead , is released from its mooring , and sets sail on the surging sea , steered by a jötunn named Hrym . At the same time , Fenrir , eyes and nostrils spraying flames , charges forward with his mouth wide open , his upper jaw reaching to the heavens , his lower jaw touching the earth . At Fenrir 's side , Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea .

During all of this , the sky splits into two . From the split , the " sons of Muspell " ride forth . Surtr rides first , surrounded by flames , his sword brighter than the sun . High says that " Muspell 's sons " will ride across Bifröst , described in Gylfaginning as a rainbow bridge , and that the bridge will then break . The sons of Muspell ( and their shining battle troop ) advance to the field of Vígríðr , described as an expanse that reaches " a hundred leagues in each direction , " where Fenrir , Jörmungandr , Loki ( followed by " Hel 's own " ) , and Hrym ( accompanied by all frost jötnar ) join them . While this occurs , Heimdallr stands and blows the Gjallarhorn with all his might . The gods awaken at the sound , and they meet . Odin rides to Mímisbrunnr in search of counsel from Mímir . Yggdrasil shakes , and everything , everywhere fears .

High relates that the Æsir and the Einherjar dress for war and head to the field . Odin , wearing a gold helmet and an intricate coat of mail , carries his spear Gungnir and rides before them . Odin advances against Fenrir , while Thor moves at his side , though Thor is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat . According to High , Freyr fiercely fights with Surtr , but Freyr falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger , Skírnir . The hound Garmr ( described here as the " worst of monsters " ) breaks free from his bonds in front of Gnipahellir , and fights the god Týr , resulting in both of their deaths .

Thor kills Jörmungandr , yet is poisoned by the serpent , and manages to walk nine steps before falling to the earth dead . Fenrir swallows Odin , though immediately afterward his son Víðarr kicks his foot into Fenrir 's lower jaw , grips Fenrir 's upper jaw , and rips apart Fenrir 's mouth , killing Fenrir . Loki fights Heimdallr , and the two kill one another . Surtr covers the earth in fire , causing the entire world to burn . High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 of Völuspá , and additionally stanza 18 of Vafþrúðnismál ( the latter relating information about the battlefield Vígríðr ) .

= = = = Gylfaginning chapters 52 and 53 = = = =

At the beginning of chapter 52 , Gangleri asks " what will be after heaven and earth and the whole world are burned ? All the gods will be dead , together with the Einherjar and the whole of mankind . Didn 't you say earlier that each person will live in some world throughout all ages ? "

The figure of Third , seated on the highest throne in the hall , responds that there will be many good places to live , but also many bad ones . Third states that the best place to be is Gimlé in the heavens , where a place exists called Okolnir that houses a hall called Brimir — where one can find plenty to drink . Third describes a hall made of red gold located in Niðafjöll called Sindri , where " good and virtuous men will live . " Third further relates an unnamed hall in Náströnd , the beaches of the dead , that he describes as a large repugnant hall facing north that is built from the spines of snakes , and resembles " a house with walls woven from branches ; " the heads of the snakes face the inside of the house and spew so much venom that rivers of it flow throughout the hall , in which oath breakers and murderers must wade . Third here quotes Völuspá stanzas 38 to 39 , with the insertion of original prose stating that the worst place of all to be is in Hvergelmir , followed by a quote from Völuspá to highlight that the dragon Níðhöggr harasses the corpses of the dead there .

Chapter 53 begins with Gangleri asking if any of the gods will survive , and if there will be anything left of the earth or the sky . High responds that the earth will appear once more from the sea , beautiful and green , where self @-@ sown crops grow . The field Iðavöllr exists where Asgard once was , and , there , untouched by Surtr 's flames , Víðarr and Váli reside . Now possessing their father 's hammer Mjölnir , Thor 's sons Móði and Magni will meet them there , and , coming from Hel , Baldr and Höðr also arrive . Together , they all sit and recount memories , later finding the gold game pieces the Æsir once owned . Völuspá stanza 51 is then quoted .

High reveals that two humans , Líf and Lífþrasir , will have also survived the destruction by hiding in the wood Hoddmímis holt . These two survivors consume the morning dew for sustenance , and from their descendants the world will be repopulated . Vafþrúðnismál stanza 45 is then quoted . The personified sun , Sól , will have a daughter at least as beautiful as she , and this daughter will follow the same path as her mother . Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 is quoted , and so ends the foretelling of Ragnarök in Gylfaginning .

= = Archaeological record = =

Various objects have been identified as depicting events from Ragnarök .

= = = Thorwald 's Cross = = =

Thorwald 's Cross , a partially surviving runestone erected at Kirk Andreas on the Isle of Man , depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf , his right foot in its mouth , while a large bird sits at his shoulder . Rundata dates it to 940 , while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century . This depiction has been interpreted as Odin , with a raven or eagle at his shoulder , being consumed by Fenrir at Ragnarök . On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan . These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as " syncretic art " ; a mixture of pagan and Christian beliefs .

= = = Gosforth Cross = = =

The Gosforth Cross ( 920 – 950 ) , in Cumbria , England , is a standing cross of a typical Anglo @-@ Saxon form , carved on all sides of the long shaft , which is nearly square in section . Apart from panels of ornament , the scenes include a Christian crucifixion , and possibly another scene in Hell , but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from the Ragnarök story , even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations as David M. Wilson . The Ragnarök battle itself may be depicted on the north side . The cross features various figures depicted in Borre style , including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head , one of whose feet is thrust into the beast 's forked tongue and on its lower jaw , while the other is placed against its upper jaw , a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir .

= = = Ledberg stone = = =

The 11th century Ledberg stone in Sweden , similarly to Thorwald 's Cross , features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four @-@ legged beast , and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir at Ragnarök . Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless , helmeted man , with his arms in a prostrate position . The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication , but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as " mysterious , " and " an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world . "

= = = Skarpåker stone = = =

On the early 11th century Skarpåker Stone , from Södermanland , Sweden , a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form , fornyrðislag , as in the Poetic Edda in the following engraving :

Jansson ( 1987 ) notes that at the time of the inscription , everyone who read the lines would have thought of Ragnarök and the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief .

= = Theories and interpretations = =

= = = Cyclic time and Hoddmímis holt = = =

Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end Ragnarök is " a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny , understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology " . Simek says that Hoddmímis holt " should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden , but rather as an alternative name for the world @-@ tree Yggdrasill . Thus , the creation of mankind from tree trunks ( Askr , Embla ) is repeated after the Ragnarǫk as well " . Simek says that in Germanic regions , the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient , and additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree , whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague ( citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder ) . In addition , Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar @-@ Oddr , " who is rejuvenated after living as a tree @-@ man ( Ǫrvar @-@ Odds saga 24 – 27 ) " .

= = = Muspille , Heliand , and Christianity = = =

Theories have been proposed about the relation between Ragnarök and the 9th century Old High German epic poem Muspilli about the Christian Last Judgment , where the word Muspille appears , and the 9th century Old Saxon epic poem Heliand about the life of Christ , where various other forms of the word appear . In both sources , the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire . Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts of Ragnarök , where the world is also consumed in flames , and , though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term , its etymology has not been solved .

= = = Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European basis = = =

Parallels have been pointed out between the Ragnarök of Norse religion and the beliefs of other related Indo @-@ European peoples . Subsequently , theories have been put forth that Ragnarök represents a later evolution of a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ Europeans . These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the Norse Fimbulwinter , the Iranian Bundahishn and Yima . Víðarr 's stride has been compared to the Vedic god Vishnu in that both have a " cosmic stride " with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf . Larger patterns have also been drawn between " final battle " events in Indo @-@ European cultures , including the occurrence of a blind or semi @-@ blind figure in " final battle " themes , and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills .

= = = Volcanic eruptions = = =

Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the events in Völuspá occurring after the death of the gods ( the sun turning black , steam rising , flames touching the heavens , etc . ) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland . Records of eruptions on Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described in Völuspá , especially the eruption at Laki that occurred in 1783 . Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions , and that he was a volcano demon . Surtr 's name occurs in some Icelandic place names , among them the lava tube caves Surtshellir , a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland .

= = = Bergbúa þáttr = = =

Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by a jötunn found in the 13th century þáttr Bergbúa þáttr ( " the tale of the mountain dweller " ) . In the tale , Thórd and his servant get lost while traveling to church in winter , and so take shelter for the night within a cave . Inside the cave they hear noises , witness a pair of immense burning eyes , and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas . The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology ( including a mention of Thor ) and also prophecies ( including that " mountains will tumble , the earth will move , men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire " ) . Surtr 's fire receives a mention in stanza 10 . John Lindow says that the poem may describe " a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans , as in Ragnarök " but that " many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland . "

= = Modern influence = =

In late 2013 and early 2014 , it was widely reported in English @-@ language media outlets that Ragnarök would occur on February 22 , 2014 . Apparently patterned after the 2012 phenomenon , the claim was at times attributed to a " Viking Calendar " . No such calendar is known to have existed , and the source was a " prediction " made to media outlets by the Jorvik Viking Centre in York , England , and intended to draw attention to an event that the institution was to hold on that date . The Jorvik Viking Centre was criticized for intentionally or unintentionally misleading the public ; however , in an article on the incident , Joseph S. Hopkins perceives the media response as an example of a broad revival of interest in the Viking Age and ancient Germanic topics .

= Chiswick Bridge =

Chiswick Bridge is a reinforced concrete deck arch bridge over the River Thames in west London . One of three bridges opened in 1933 as part of an ambitious scheme to relieve traffic congestion west of London , it carries the A316 road between Chiswick on the north bank of the Thames and Mortlake on the south bank .

Built on the site of a former ferry , the bridge is 606 feet ( 185 m ) long and faced with 3 @,@ 400 tons of Portland stone . At the time of its opening its 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) central span was the longest concrete span over the Thames . The bridge is possibly best known today for its proximity to the end of The Championship Course , the stretch of the Thames used for the Boat Race and other rowing races .

= = Background = =

The villages of Chiswick and Mortlake , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west of central London on the north and south banks of the River Thames , had been linked by a ferry since at least the 17th century . Both areas were sparsely populated , so there was little demand for a fixed river crossing at that point .

With the arrival of railways and the London Underground in the 19th century commuting to London became practical and affordable , and the populations of Chiswick and Mortlake grew rapidly . In 1909 the Great Chertsey Road scheme was proposed , which envisaged building a major new road from Hammersmith , then on the outskirts of London , to Chertsey , 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of central London , bypassing the towns of Kingston and Richmond . However , the scheme was abandoned due to costs and arguments between various interested parties over the exact route the road should take .

After the First World War , the population of the west London suburbs continued to grow , thanks to improved rail transport links and the growth in ownership of automobiles . In 1925 , the Ministry of Transport convened a conference between Surrey and Middlesex county councils with the aim of reaching a solution to the congestion problem , and the Great Chertsey Road scheme was revived . In 1927 , the Royal Commission on Cross @-@ River Traffic approved the scheme to relieve the by then chronic traffic congestion on the existing , mostly narrow , streets in the area , and on the narrow bridges at Richmond Bridge , Kew and Hammersmith . The Ministry of Transport agreed to pay heavy subsidies towards the cost .

A new arterial road , now the A316 road , was given Royal Assent on 3 August 1928 , and construction began in 1930 . The construction of the road required two new bridges to be built , at Twickenham and Chiswick . The proposal was authorised in 1928 and construction began in the same year . The bridge , along with the newly built Twickenham Bridge and the rebuilt Hampton Court Bridge , was opened by Edward , Prince of Wales on 3 July 1933 , and the ferry service was permanently closed .

= = Design = =

The new bridge was designed in reinforced concrete by architect Sir Herbert Baker and engineer Alfred Dryland , with additional input from Considère Constructions , at the time Britain 's leading specialist in reinforced concrete construction .

The bridge has concrete foundations supporting a five @-@ arch cellular reinforced concrete superstructure . The deck is supported by a concealed lattice of columns and beams rising from the arched superstructure . The structure is faced with 3 @,@ 400 tons of Portland stone , except for underneath the arches . The bridge is 606 feet ( 185 m ) long , and carries two 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide walkways , and a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide road . At the time it was built , the 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) central span was the longest concrete span over the Thames .

Unusually for a Thames bridge , only three of Chiswick Bridge 's five spans cross the river ; the shorter spans at each end of the bridge cross the former towpaths . To allow sufficient clearance for shipping without steep inclines , the approach roads to the bridge are elevated from some distance back from the river .

The bridge was built by the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company at a cost of £ 208 @,@ 284 ( about £ 13 @,@ 335 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . Additional costs such as building the approach roads and purchasing land brought the total cost of the bridge to £ 227 @,@ 600 ( about £ 14 @,@ 572 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . The Ministry of Transport paid 75 % of the cost , with Surrey and Middlesex county councils paying the remainder .

The bridge was generally well received . Country Life praised the design as " reflecting in its general design the eighteenth century Palladian tradition of Lord Burlington 's famous villa at Chiswick " .

= = Present @-@ day = =

Chiswick Bridge is a major transport route , and the eighth busiest of London 's 20 Thames road bridges . It is possibly best known for its proximity to the finishing line of The Championship Course , the stretch of the Thames used for the Boat Race and other rowing events . A University Boat Race Stone on the south bank , and a brightly painted blue and black marker post near the north bank of the river , 370 feet ( 110 m ) downstream of the bridge , mark the end of the course .

The towpath under the bridge on the southern bank now forms part of the Thames Path . As at 2009 the northernmost arch was used by the Tideway Scullers sculling club as storage space .

= Kubah =

Kubah ( literally Cupola or Dome ) is an Indonesian novel written by Ahmad Tohari . It follows a poor man named Karman who becomes a member of the Indonesian Communist Party , only to find himself a victim of the ongoing political struggles in 1950s Indonesia . After the Party 's destruction he spends twelve years as a prisoner at Buru before returning to his hometown and becoming a devout Muslim .

Tohari 's second novel , Kubah was written in two months and based on the events surrounding the Communist Party and the 30 September Movement coup in 1965 . Published in 1980 by Pustaka Jaya , Kubah came at a time when literary works with similar themes – the victimisation of Communist Party members – were scarce . The novel has also been characterised as dawah ( Islamic preaching ) . Reception of Kubah was mostly mixed ; critics praised the novel for its subject matter and criticised it for its predictability . It received a literary award in 1981 , and in 1986 it was translated into Japanese .

= = Plot = =

After twelve years imprisoned at Buru Island , the former Communist Party of Indonesia ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , or PKI ) member Karman returns to Central Java . During his time at Buru , his wife Marni has remarried and the area has modernised considerably , rendering him uncertain where to go . He decides to stay at his cousin 's home for a while . Meanwhile , Marni has heard of Karman 's release and realises that she still loves him , and would thus feel uncomfortable if he returned to their hometown of Pegaten . However , their grown daughter Tini wishes to meet her father .

In a series of flashbacks , Karman 's life is told . He lost his pro @-@ Dutch father during the Indonesian National Revolution and was raised in poverty before going to work for the rich merchant Haji Bakir as a child , babysitting his daughter Rifah . In the two years Karman lived with them , the family raised him to be a devout Muslim ; Karman , for his part , was a diligent worker and cared deeply for Rifah . When his uncle returned from the front , Karman was brought back home and educated until junior high school , dropping out for a lack of funds . When he was in his twenties Karman found a job at the local village chief 's office with the help of a civil employee named Triman and a teacher named Margo .

Unknown to Karman , both men were PKI members and intent on making him join the party . They gave him communist pamphlets and indoctrinated him in Party philosophy . When Karman was late in telling Rifah his feelings , losing her to another man , the PKI manipulated his emotions to make him leave Islam and hate Haji Bakir . Ultimately this was successful : Karman abandoned his mandatory prayers and began to espouse the Party 's politics . After Karman was refused marriage to Rifah a second time , following her husband 's death , he had Haji Bakir imprisoned . In this time Karman married Marni , intending to convert her family to communism .

By 1965 Karman had become a respected member of the PKI , although the public knew him as a member of Partindo . However , following the failure of the 30 September Movement ( Gerakan 30 September , or G30S ) coup in the national capital at Jakarta – orchestrated by the PKI – Karman realised that his position was unsound . He and his fellow PKI members began praying regularly , but many were ultimately killed – including Triman and Margo . Karman escaped from Pegaten hours before soldiers came to arrest him and managed to avoid capture for nearly two months , generally hiding in cemeteries . After his capture Karman was exiled to Buru .

In the present day , Karman has returned to Pegaten to a warm reception . Marni , although she admits that she still loves Karman , insists that she will stay with her new husband ; Haji Bakir , Karman 's uncle , and Karman 's mother have likewise forgiven him . Tini and Haji Bakir 's grandson Jabir are betrothed as planned , and , when the villagers renovate the dilapidated mosque , Karman makes the cupola . He receives much praise for his work and finds a sense of belonging in the mosque .

= = Background and writing = =

Kubah was inspired by Indonesian history , beginning in the 1940s and continuing until the 1980s . Following the national revolution from 1945 to 1949 , the country was set in a state of political turmoil and abject poverty which became increasingly severe towards the end of the 1950s . By the early 1960s the PKI and other leftist parties had the support of President Sukarno , giving them greater power ; PKI membership grew quickly in this period , aided by a hyperinflation and widespread poverty .

On 1 October 1965 , a group of Indonesian National Armed Forces members calling themselves the 30 September Movement killed six Army generals and announced that the president was under their power ; the coup was quashed the following day . Contemporary reports indicated that the PKI had been behind the G30S , a position endorsed by the Indonesian government . As a result , hundreds of thousands of registered and suspected PKI members were killed or exiled over the following decade , effectively destroying the Party . By 1974 Buru held some 10 @,@ 000 prisoners , while others were held elsewhere or forced to stay abroad . Political prisoners began to be released by the 1970s , but saw systematic discrimination at all levels of society : they found themselves under surveillance and with little hope of employment .

Kubah was the second novel written by Ahmad Tohari , who had been in senior high school when the G30S announced its coup . A devout Muslim who had trained as a doctor and ran a pesantren ( Islamic boarding school ) in Central Java , Tohari began to focus on writing when his first novel , Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak ( On the Foothill of Cibalak ; 1978 ) , won a prize from the Jakarta Arts Council . He finished Kubah in two months , first making a thematic overview for each chapter and then developing it further while writing . He deliberately left the novel 's ending open to interpretation , intending for readers to think for themselves .

= = Themes = =

Kubah is an early example of literature dealing with the G30S and PKI , although earlier examples exist . Former Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid described it as the first to deal with reconciliation between PKI members and general Indonesian society after G30S , an issue which was " hyper @-@ sensitive " at the time . The historian Anna @-@ Greta Nilsson Hoadley writes that Kubah explored why a person would be motivated to join the party , emphasizing poverty , cultural pressure , and active propaganda by the PKI . In the end , Karman is ultimately an " innocent victim " , who only joined the Party to improve his own standing . Even after his release Karman remains in a state of fear , " marked by a prisoner 's vulnerability . " The literary critics Maman S. Mahayana , Oyon Sofyan , and Achmad Dian wrote that , in this sense , Karman becomes representative of all PKI members who were arrested following G30S .

Mahayana , writing elsewhere , sees Karman as undergoing an existential quest to establish his identity , seemingly finding an answer in the PKI but ultimately becoming trapped by them . Mahayana indicates that a religious message is evident beginning with the novel 's opening , in which Tohari provides a four @-@ line quote from an old Javanese text regarding faith and becoming more explicit later on . He finds Karman 's dealing with the raftsman Kastagethek while escaping from the government the most explicit expression of Tohari 's intent ; unlike Karman , Kastagethek is a devout yet simple man who is happy in his poverty , leading Karman to question his own views before ultimately finding his identity in Islam . Mahayana thus argued that Kubah was meant as dawah , or Islamic preaching , with its message that humans should recognise their status as creatures of God conveyed through characters ' dialogue and actions .

= = Release and reception = =

Kubah was originally published by the Jakarta @-@ based Pustaka Jaya in 1980 ; unlike Di Kaki Bukit Cibalak and most of Tohari 's later novels , it had not been serialised first . Since 1995 it has been published by Gramedia , seeing four printings as of 2012 . The work was translated into Japanese by Shinobu Yamane in 1986 , under the title Shinsei .

The novel 's reception was mixed . It was awarded the Buku Utama Prize in 1981 for " increasing knowledge , spreading manners , and maturing Indonesian culture , " an award which included a trophy and Rp . 1 million in prize money . Mahayana found it worthy of this prize , praising Kubah 's use of flashback and the complicated issues it raised . Wahid , at the time an active Islamic intellectual with the Nahdlatul Ulama , wrote in 1980 that Kubah had poorly realised its potential ; he characterised it as a beginner 's work : lacking suspense , overly moralistic , and predictable .

Tohari 's trilogy Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk ( The Dancer of Paruk Village ; 1981 – 1985 ) , which has proven to be his most famous , also dealt with the G30S and the PKI . However , unlike Kubah , parts of Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk remained censored until 2003 . Numerous novels dealing with G30S and the PKI , written by other authors , have also been published since Kubah .

= = Explanatory notes = =

= Broaching ( metalworking ) =

Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool , called a broach , to remove material . There are two main types of broaching : linear and rotary . In linear broaching , which is the more common process , the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut . Linear broaches are used in a broaching machine , which is also sometimes shortened to broach . In rotary broaching , the broach is rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape . A rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine . In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach , which makes it very efficient .

Broaching is used when precision machining is required , especially for odd shapes . Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non @-@ circular holes , splines , keyways , and flat surfaces . Typical workpieces include small to medium @-@ sized castings , forgings , screw machine parts , and stampings . Even though broaches can be expensive , broaching is usually favored over other processes when used for high @-@ quantity production runs .

Broaches are shaped similar to a saw , except the height of the teeth increases over the length of the tool . Moreover , the broach contains three distinct sections : one for roughing , another for semi @-@ finishing , and the final one for finishing . Broaching is an unusual machining process because it has the feed built into the tool . The profile of the machined surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach . The rise per tooth ( RPT ) , also known as the step or feed per tooth , determines the amount of material removed and the size of the chip . The broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice versa . Because all of the features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it . A broach is effectively a collection of single @-@ point cutting tools arrayed in sequence , cutting one after the other ; its cut is analogous to multiple passes of a shaper .

= = Process = =

The process depends on the type of broaching being performed . Surface broaching is very simple as either the workpiece is moved against a stationary surface broach , or the workpiece is held stationary while the broach is moved against it .

Internal broaching is more involved . The process begins by clamping the workpiece into a special holding fixture , called a workholder , which mounts in the broaching machine . The broaching machine elevator , which is the part of the machine that moves the broach above the workholder , then lowers the broach through the workpiece . Once through , the broaching machine 's puller , essentially a hook , grabs the pilot of the broach . The elevator then releases the top of the pilot and the puller pulls the broach through the workpiece completely . The workpiece is then removed from the machine and the broach is raised back up to reengage with the elevator . The broach usually only moves linearly , but sometimes it is also rotated to create a spiral spline or gun @-@ barrel rifling .

Cutting fluids are used for three reasons ;

to cool the workpiece and broach

to lubricate cutting surfaces

to flush the chips from the teeth .

Fortified petroleum cutting fluids are the most common . However , heavy @-@ duty water @-@ soluble cutting fluids are being used because of their superior cooling , cleanliness , and non @-@ flammability .

= = Usage = =

Broaching was originally developed for machining internal keyways . However , it was soon discovered that broaching is very useful for machining other surfaces and shapes for high volume workpieces . Because each broach is specialized to cut just one shape either the broach must be specially designed for the geometry of the workpiece or the workpiece must be designed around a standard broach geometry . A customized broach is usually only viable with high volume workpieces , because the broach can cost US $ 15 @,@ 000 to US $ 30 @,@ 000 to produce .

Broaching speeds vary from 20 to 120 surface feet per minute ( SFPM ) . This results in a complete cycle time of 5 to 30 seconds . Most of the time is consumed by the return stroke , broach handling , and workpiece loading and unloading .

The only limitations on broaching are that there are no obstructions over the length of the surface to be machined , the geometry to be cut does not have curves in multiple planes , and that the workpiece is strong enough to withstand the forces involved . Specifically for internal broaching a hole must first exist in the workpiece so the broach can enter . Also , there are limits on the size of internal cuts . Common internal holes can range from 0 @.@ 125 to 6 in ( 3 @.@ 2 to 152 @.@ 4 mm ) in diameter but it is possible to achieve a range of 0 @.@ 05 to 13 in ( 1 @.@ 3 to 330 @.@ 2 mm ) . Surface broaches ' range is usually 0 @.@ 075 to 10 in ( 1 @.@ 9 to 254 @.@ 0 mm ) , although the feasible range is 0 @.@ 02 to 20 in ( 0 @.@ 51 to 508 @.@ 00 mm ) .

Tolerances are usually ± 0 @.@ 002 in ( ± 0 @.@ 05 mm ) , but in precise applications a tolerance of ± 0 @.@ 0005 in ( ± 0 @.@ 01 mm ) can be held . Surface finishes are usually between 16 and 63 microinches ( μin ) , but can range from 8 to 125 μin . There may be minimal burrs on the exit side of the cut .

Broaching works best on softer materials , such as brass , bronze , copper alloys , aluminium , graphite , hard rubbers , wood , composites , and plastic . However , it still has a good machinability rating on mild steels and free machining steels . When broaching , the machinability rating is closely related to the hardness of the material . For steels the ideal hardness range is between 16 and 24 Rockwell C ( HRC ) ; a hardness greater than HRC 35 will dull the broach quickly . Broaching is more difficult on harder materials , stainless steel and titanium , but is still possible .

= = Types = =

Broaches can be categorized by many means :

Use : internal , or surface

Purpose : single , or combination

Motion : push , pull , or stationary

Construction : solid , built @-@ up , hollow or shell

Function : roughing , sizing , or burnishing

If the broach is large enough the costs can be reduced by using a built @-@ up or modular construction . This involves producing the broach in pieces and assembling it . If any portion wears out only that section has to be replaced , instead of the entire broach .

Most broaches are made from high speed steel ( HSS ) or an alloy steel ; TiN coatings are common on HSS to prolong life . Except when broaching cast iron , tungsten carbide is rarely used as a tooth material because the cutting edge will crack on the first pass .

= = = Surface broaches = = =

The slab broach is the simplest surface broach . It is a general purpose tool for cutting flat surfaces .

Slot broaches ( G & H ) are for cutting slots of various dimensions at high production rates . Slot broaching is much quicker than milling when more than one slot needs to be machined , because multiple broaches can be run through the part at the same time on the same broaching machine .

Contour broaches are designed to cut concave , convex , cam , contoured , and irregular shaped surfaces .

Pot broaches are cut the inverse of an internal broach ; they cut the outside diameter of a cylindrical workpiece . They are named after the pot looking fixture in which the broaches are mounted ; the fixture is often referred to as a " pot " . The pot is designed to hold multiple broaching tools concentrically over its entire length . The broach is held stationary while the workpiece is pushed or pulled through it . This has replaced hobbing for some involute gears and cutting external splines and slots .

Straddle broaches use two slab broaches to cut parallel surfaces on opposite sides of a workpiece in one pass . This type of broaching holds closer tolerances than if the two cuts were done independently . It is named after the fact that the broaches " straddle " the workpiece on multiple sides .

= = = Internal broaches = = =

Solid broaches are the most common type ; they are made from one solid piece of material . For broaches that wear out quickly shell broaches are used ; these broaches are similar to a solid broach , except there is a hole through the center where it mounts on an arbor . Shell broaches cost more initially , but save the cost overall if the broach must be replaced often because the pilots are on the mandrel and do not have to be reproduced with each replacement .

Modular broaches are commonly used for large internal broaching applications . They are similar to shell broaches in that they are a multi @-@ piece construction . This design is used because it is cheaper to build and resharpen and is more flexible than a solid design .

A common type of internal broach is the keyway broach ( C & D ) . It uses a special fixture called a horn to support the broach and properly locate the part with relation to the broach .

A concentricity broach is a special type of spline cutting broach which cuts both the minor diameter and the spline form to ensure precise concentricity .

The cut @-@ and @-@ recut broach is used to cut thin @-@ walled workpieces . Thin @-@ walled workpieces have a tendency to expand during cutting and then shrink afterward . This broach overcomes that problem by first broaching with the standard roughing teeth , followed by a " breathing " section , which serves as a pilot as the workpiece shrinks . The teeth after the " breathing " section then include roughing , semi @-@ finishing , and finishing teeth .

= = = Design = = =

For defining the geometry of a broach an internal type is shown below . Note that the geometries of other broaches are similar .

where :

The most important characteristic of a broach is the rise per tooth ( RPT ) , which is how much material is removed by each tooth . The RPT varies for each section of the broach , which are the roughing section ( tr ) , semi @-@ finishing section ( ts ) , and finishing section ( tf ) . The roughing teeth remove most of the material so the number of roughing teeth required dictates how long the broach is . The semi @-@ finishing teeth provide surface finish and the finishing teeth provide the final finishing . The finishing section 's RPT ( tf ) is usually zero so that as the first finishing teeth wear the later ones continue the sizing function . For free @-@ machining steels the RPT ranges from 0 @.@ 006 to 0 @.@ 001 in ( 0 @.@ 152 to 0 @.@ 025 mm ) . For surface broaching the RPT is usually between 0 @.@ 003 to 0 @.@ 006 in ( 0 @.@ 076 to 0 @.@ 152 mm ) and for diameter broaching is usually between 0 @.@ 0012 to 0 @.@ 0025 in ( 0 @.@ 030 to 0 @.@ 064 mm ) . The exact value depends on many factors . If the cut is too big it will impart too much stress into the teeth and the workpiece ; if the cut is too small the teeth rub instead of cutting . One way to increase the RPT while keeping the stresses down is with chip breakers . They are notches in the teeth designed to break the chip and decrease the overall amount of material being removed by any given tooth ( see the drawing above ) . For broaching to be effective , the workpiece should have 0 @.@ 020 to 0 @.@ 025 in ( 0 @.@ 51 to 0 @.@ 64 mm ) more material than the final dimension of the cut .

The hook ( α ) angle is a parameter of the material being cut . For steel , it is between 15 and 20 ° and for cast iron it is between 6 and 8 ° . The back @-@ off ( γ ) provides clearance for the teeth so that they don 't rub on the workpiece ; it is usually between 1 and 3 ° .

When radially broaching workpieces that require a deep cut per tooth , such as forgings or castings , a rotor @-@ cut or jump @-@ cut design can be used ; these broaches are also known as free egress or nibbling broaches . In this design the RPT is designated to two or three rows of teeth . For the broach to work the first tooth of that cluster has a wide notch , or undercut , and then the next tooth has a smaller notch ( in a three tooth design ) and the final tooth has no notch . This allows for a deep cut while keeping stresses , forces , and power requirements low .

There are two different options for achieving the same goal when broaching a flat surface . The first is similar to the rotor @-@ cut design , which is known as a double @-@ cut design . Here four teeth in a row have the same RPT , but each progressive tooth takes only a portion of the cut due to notches in the teeth ( see the image gallery below ) . The other option is known as a progressive broach , which completely machines the center of the workpiece and then the rest of the broach machines outward from there . All of these designs require a broach that is longer than if a standard design were used .

For some circular broaches , burnishing teeth are provided instead of finishing teeth . They are not really teeth , as they are just rounded discs that are 0 @.@ 001 to 0 @.@ 003 in ( 0 @.@ 025 to 0 @.@ 076 mm ) oversized . This results in burnishing the hole to the proper size . This is primarily used on non @-@ ferrous and cast iron workpieces .

The pitch defines the tooth construction , strength , and number of teeth in contact with the workpiece . The pitch is usually calculated from workpiece length , so that the broach can be designed to have at least two teeth in contact with the workpiece at any time ; the pitch remains constant for all teeth of the broach . One way to calculate the pitch is :

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= = Broaching machines = =

Broaching machines are relatively simple as they only have to move the broach in a linear motion at a predetermined speed and provide a means for handling the broach automatically . Most machines are hydraulic , but a few specialty machines are mechanically driven . The machines are distinguished by whether their motion is horizontal or vertical . The choice of machine is primarily dictated by the stroke required . Vertical broaching machines rarely have a stroke longer than 60 in ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) .

Vertical broaching machines can be designed for push broaching , pull @-@ down broaching , pull @-@ up broaching , or surface broaching . Push broaching machines are similar to an arbor press with a guided ram ; typical capacities are 5 to 50 tons . The two ram pull @-@ down machine is the most common type of broaching machine . This style machine has the rams under the table . Pull @-@ up machines have the ram above the table ; they usually have more than one ram . Most surface broaching is done on a vertical machine .

Horizontal broaching machines are designed for pull broaching , surface broaching , continuous broaching , and rotary broaching . Pull style machines are basically vertical machines laid on the side with a longer stroke . Surface style machines hold the broach stationary while the workpieces are clamped into fixtures that are mounted on a conveyor system . Continuous style machines are similar to the surface style machines except adapted for internal broaching .

Horizontal machines used to be much more common than vertical machines ; however , today they represent just 10 % of all broaching machines purchased . Vertical machines are more popular because they take up less space .

Broaching is often impossible without the specific broaching or keyway machines unless you have a system that can be used in conjunction with a modern machining centre or driven tooling lathe ; these extra bits of equipment open up the possibility of producing keyways , splines and torx through one @-@ hit machining .

= = Rotary broaching = =

A somewhat different design of cutting tool that can achieve the irregular hole or outer profile of a broach is called a rotary broach or wobble broach . One of the biggest advantages to this type of broaching is that it does not require a broaching machine , but instead is used on lathes , milling machines , screw machines or Swiss lathes .

Rotary broaching requires two tooling components : a tool holder and a broach . The leading ( cutting ) edge of the broach has a contour matching the desired final shape . The broach is mounted in a special tool holder that that allows it to freely rotate . The tool holder is special because it holds the tool so that its axis of rotation is inclined slightly to the axis of rotation of the work . A typical value for this misalignment is 1 ° . This angle is what produces a rotating edge for the broach to cut the workpiece . Either the workpiece or the tool holder is rotated . If the tool holder is rotated , the misalignment causes the broach to appear as though it is " wobbling " , which is the origin of the term wobble broach .

For internal broaching the sides of the broach are drafted inward so it becomes thinner ; for external broaching the sides are drafted outward , to make the pocket bigger . This draft keeps the broach from jamming ; the draft must be larger than the angle of misalignment . If the work piece rotates , the broach is pressed against it , is driven by it , and rotates synchronously with it . If the tool holder rotates , the broach is pressed against the workpiece , but is driven by the tool holder .

Ideally the tool advances at the same rate that it cuts . The ideal rate of cut is defined as :

Rate of cut [ inches per rotation ( IPR ) ] = ( diameter of tool [ inches ] ) × sin ( Angle of misalignment [ degrees ] )

If it advances much faster , then the tool becomes choked ; conversely , if it advances much slower , then an interrupted or zig @-@ zag cut occurs . In practice the rate of cut is slightly less than the ideal rate so that the load is released on the non @-@ cutting edge of the tool .

There is some spiraling of the tool as it cuts , so the form at the bottom of the workpiece may be rotated with respect to the form at the top of the hole or profile . Spiraling may be undesirable because it binds the body of the tool and prevents it from cutting sharply . One solution to this is to reverse the rotation in mid cut , causing the tool to spiral in the opposite direction . If reversing the machine is not practical , then interrupting the cut is another possible solution .

In general , a rotary broach will not cut as accurately as a push or pull broach . However , the ability to use this type of cutting tool on common machine tools is highly advantageous .

= = History = =

The concept of broaching can be traced back to the early 1850s , with the first applications used for cutting keyways in pulleys and gears . After World War I , broaching was used to rifle gun barrels . In the 1920s and 30s the tolerances were tightened and the cost reduced thanks to advances in form grinding and broaching machines .

= Uncanny Tales ( Canadian pulp magazine ) =

Uncanny Tales was a Canadian science fiction pulp magazine edited by Melvin R. Colby that ran from November 1940 to September 1943 . It was created in response to the wartime reduction of imports on British and American science @-@ fiction pulp magazines . Initially it contained stories only from Canadian authors , with much of its contents supplied by Thomas P. Kelley , but within a few issues Colby began to obtain reprint rights to American stories from Donald A. Wollheim and Sam Moskowitz . Paper shortages eventually forced the magazine to shut down , and it is now extremely rare .

= = Publication history and contents = =

By the end of the 1930s the science fiction magazine field was booming , with multiple new magazines launched in a short period . Most of the publishers also printed versions of their magazines for the Canadian market , but with the outbreak of World War II , paper shortages and import restrictions reduced the availability of these magazines in Canada . Uncanny Tales was begun in response to these conditions ; the editor was Melvin R. Colby , and the first issue was dated November 1940 .

The first issue was digest @-@ sized , and was printed in green ink . Colby initially focused on weird fiction , with Thomas P. Kelley , a Canadian writer whose work had appeared in Weird Tales , a prolific contributor . For the first four issues the format remained unchanged , and almost all the stories were by Kelley or other Canadian writers . Colby subsequently began to obtain reprint rights to U.S. stories from both Donald A. Wollheim and Sam Moskowitz , though Wollheim 's and Moskowitz 's accounts of the events differ . In Wollheim 's account , he happened to meet Colby early in 1941 in New York ; Wollheim had been editing Cosmic Stories and Stirring Science Stories but both magazines had ceased publication at the time of the meeting . Colby , who worked for a Toronto newspaper , told Wollheim that he was editing Uncanny Tales to make extra money , and asked if Wollheim knew where he might be able to obtain stories at a low word rate . Since Stirring and Cosmic had never been distributed in Canada , Wollheim was able to offer him Canadian rights to the stories in those magazines , and Colby agreed to pay a quarter of a cent per word . According to Moskowitz , Wollheim heard rumors of the new magazine , perhaps via Nils Frome , a Canadian fan whom he knew . Wollheim obtained more details from Chester Cuthbert , a Canadian author he was in correspondence with , and contacted Colby to arrange reprints of stories from Stirring and Cosmic . Moskowitz had also heard of Uncanny Tales and wrote to him separately , arranging reprints at a tenth of a cent per word . He sent Colby several stories , which were duly printed , but subsequent correspondence with Colby failed to elicit payment , and eventually Colby stopped responding to his letters . The manuscripts were never returned . A few months later , Moskowitz spoke to John B. Michel — an author associated with Wollheim 's group of writers — and found out that a long @-@ standing feud between Wollheim and Moskowitz was at least partly responsible for his problems . Wollheim and many of the group of writers he represented held very left @-@ wing political positions ; Moskowitz was strongly opposed , and Michel told Moskowitz that Colby was politically left @-@ wing and had been put off by indications from Moskowitz that he was anti @-@ communist . However , the main reason that Colby stopped responding , according to Michel , was that once Wollheim found out that Moskowitz was also supplying stories , he offered Colby further material for free on condition that Colby stopped accepting Moskowitz 's submissions .

The sixth issue saw a story by Wollheim appear , and in the seventh issue there were three by Wollheim and one by Robert W. Lowndes . In total , 37 stories from Uncanny Tales have been identified as reprints from either Stirring or Cosmic . There were also a handful of new stories from the same group of authors , including three by Wollheim and two by Lowndes , one of which , " Lure of the Lily " , had been rejected by Wollheim for the American magazines for being too risqué . The stories supplied by Sam Moskowitz included Moskowitz 's own " The Way Back " ( reprinted from Comet ) , which appeared in the February 1942 issue ; Stanton Coblentz 's novel After 12 @,@ 000 Years , and James Taurasi 's story " Magician of Space " , which was not a reprint . Canadian writers continued to appear in the magazine , including C.V. Tench , who had sold a story to the very first issue of Astounding Stories in January 1930 . The stories of Canadian origin were generally unmemorable , and in some cases the stories may have been plagiarized or rewritten versions of other works .

Paper shortages caused by the war forced the magazine to a bimonthly schedule in 1942 , and only four more issues appeared . The last issue was dated September − October 1943 . Over the lifetime of the magazine its focus shifted from weird fiction to include both science fiction and fantasy . The magazine is now hard to find and complete runs are very rare .

= = Bibliographic details = =

Uncanny Tales was published by Adam Publishing Co. of Toronto for the first 17 issues , and by Norman Book Co. of Toronto for the last four issues . The publisher may have been owned by Valentine , of the Toronto publishers Valentine , Koniac and Chamberlain . The editor , who was not credited in the magazine , was Melvin R. Colby . The first four issues were digest @-@ sized and 64 pages long ; the format then switched to a large pulp size with 96 pages for all the remaining issues except the last , which had 128 pages . The price was 15 cents throughout except for the last issue , which was 25 cents . There was no volume numbering . A complete index by Dennis Lien of the contents of all issues can be found in issue 9 of Megavore , a science fiction and fantasy bibliography magazine .

In the early 1950s an anthology titled Brief Fantastic Tales appeared from Studio Publications in Toronto ; it consisted mostly of reprints from Uncanny Tales .

= Playmate to Jesus =

" Playmate to Jesus " is a song by Danish @-@ Norwegian pop band Aqua from their third studio album , Megalomania . The song , which was released in 2011 , is about universal love and " what goes around comes around " . The song was published the same day as their other single , " Like a Robot " , which was originally planned to be released in July 2011 . Despite the song 's positive critical reaction , it only charted in Denmark , becoming the group 's second lowest @-@ charting single . The music video , directed by Michael Sauer Christensen and filmed in Lyngby , Denmark , premiered on 22 September 2011 .

= = Production and composition = =

" Playmate to Jesus " was written by Aqua members Søren Rasted , Claus Norreen , René Dif and Lene Nystrøm , and produced by Norreen and Rasted . The song was recorded at Electron Studio in Copenhagen , and later mixed and mastered by Anders Schumann at C4 Studio . It is a midtempo pop song played in an E major key and following the chord progression E − B − C ♯ m − A. The song is about universal love and " what goes around comes around " . The sounds in the first seconds of the song are recorded on the spacecraft Discovery . A piano and violins start the song , before the beat kicks in . A Vocoder synth come 's through Nystrom 's vocal in certain parts of the song , and a synth bass and distorted snare drum are also played . Dif 's bridge only appears on the album version .

= = Release and reception = =

A preview of " Playmate to Jesus " was uploaded to Universal Music 's Danish YouTube account on 6 September 2011 . It was released as the album 's second single and as a radio single on 12 September , the same day as their club single " Like a Robot " , which was originally planned to be released in July . " Playmate to Jesus " is the first track of their third album Megalomania . The track was Aqua 's second @-@ lowest charting single . It debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Danish Singles Chart , issue dated 7 October 2011 . The following week the song peaked at number thirteen . In its third and final week on the chart it fell to number thirty @-@ three . It is the group 's third single not to chart within the top 10 in Denmark , the others being " We Belong to the Sea " and " Spin Me a Christmas " . The song has been certified gold in Denmark by the IFPI for sales of 300 @,@ 000 units .

Despite the song 's commercial performance , critical reactions to the song were mixed to positive . Jon O 'Brien of Allmusic , in a review of Megalomania , viewed " Playmate to Jesus " as one of the highlight songs of the album saying , " The sweeping strings , inspired sound effects , and driving country @-@ pop melodies of the lushly produced opener ' Playmate to Jesus ' , [ ... ] shows the reunion hasn 't been completely without merit . " Time said the song " has the dubious distinction of sounding vaguely like a Lady Gaga track that didn ’ t pass quality control , " but was " relatively catchy , boasting the kind of musical infectiousness that causes you to hum it under your breath on the subway . " Gaffa 's Signe Bønsvig Wehding considered the song to be " among the best tracks on the album " , along with " Dirty Little Popsong " , " Sucker for a Superstar " and " Like A Robot " . Idolator considered the song to be a knock @-@ off of Far East Movement 's " Like a G6 " , and more old school than " How R U Doin ? . "

= = Music video = =

Pictures of shooting the music video in Lyngby , Denmark were released on Aqua 's Facebook page on 14 September 2011 . A take of the video was also uploaded on their YouTube channel . The video was officially uploaded on YouTube on 22 September . Directed by Michael Sauer Christensen , it is set in an eerie , empty house that is reminiscent of a horror film , where a black cloud wanders through the halls of the house . The members wear black and gray clothing in the video , with Nystrom 's costume gradually changing throughout . The video ends by the members exiting the house through the roof and transforming into a beam of light shooting into the sky . The video uses a shortened radio edit of the original song , omitting the bridge .

= = Track listing = =

Digital download

" Playmate to Jesus " – 4 : 46

= = Personnel = =

Adapted from liner notes of Megalomania :

Writers : Søren Rasted , Claus Norreen , René Dif , Lene Nystrøm

Producers : Claus Norreen , Søren Rasted

Mixing and mastering : Anders Schumann

= = Sales and certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= A Perfect Circle =

A Perfect Circle is an American rock supergroup formed in 1999 by guitarist Billy Howerdel and Tool vocalist Maynard James Keenan . The original incarnation of the band also included Paz Lenchantin on bass , Troy Van Leeuwen on guitar , and Tim Alexander on drums , with Josh Freese as the primary drummer after the band 's initial round of touring prior to their first album . The latest lineup features Puscifer and Ashes Divide bassist Matt McJunkins ; former The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha ; and Puscifer and Ashes Divide touring drummer , Jeff Friedl . Despite having a varied cast since inception , the stylistic content of the songs has remained consistent with Howerdel as composer , and Keenan penning the lyrics and melodies .

A Perfect Circle has released three albums : their debut Mer de Noms in 2000 , a follow up , Thirteenth Step in 2003 , and an album of cover songs titled Emotive in 2004 . Shortly after Emotive 's release , the band went into hiatus while members focused on other projects , the most notably being Keenan 's work with Tool and Puscifer , and Howerdel 's putting out a solo album , Keep Telling Myself It 's Alright , under the moniker Ashes Divide .

In late 2008 , Keenan and Howerdel announced the band would reform , though the band 's activity would ultimately be sporadic in the coming years . The band toured in 2011 and 2013 , and then released a live album , A Perfect Circle Live : Featuring Stone and Echo , and a greatest hits album , Three Sixty in late 2013 . Work on new material has been alluded to by members since 2008 , though progress has been slow due to Keenan 's other commitments and uncertainty in the direction of the releases . The only new studio material released since the band 's hiatus was the single " By and Down " in 2013 .

= = History = =

= = = Mer de Noms ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =

A Perfect Circle was conceived by Billy Howerdel , a former guitar technician for Nine Inch Nails , The Smashing Pumpkins , Fishbone and Tool . Howerdel met singer Maynard James Keenan in 1992 , when Tool was opening for Fishbone , and the two became friends . Three years later , Keenan offered Howerdel , who was looking for lodging , a room in his North Hollywood home . This provided Howerdel the opportunity to play demos of his music for Keenan . Pleased with what he heard , Keenan remarked , " I can hear myself singing [ those songs ] . " Although he originally desired a female vocalist , Howerdel agreed that Keenan would be a good fit , and A Perfect Circle was formed a short time later . They were then joined by bassist and violinist Paz Lenchantin , former Failure guitarist Troy Van Leeuwen , and previous Primus drummer Tim Alexander . The band played their first show at LA 's Viper Club Reception on August 15 , 1999 . After playing shows in L.A. , the band entered the studio to begin work on their first album . Alexander was soon replaced with session drummer and member of The Vandals , Josh Freese , who previously worked with Howerdel on the Guns N ' Roses album , Chinese Democracy . Alexander 's performance can still be heard on the album version of the song , " The Hollow " .

The band 's debut album , Mer de Noms ( French for " Sea of Names " ) , was released on May 23 , 2000 . The album is distinctive in that it is the highest ever debut for a rock band , selling over 188 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and appearing at number four on the Billboard 200 . Howerdel had been working on some of the music , including tracks " The Hollow " and " Breña " , as far back as 1988 . The band began touring soon after recording for the album was finished . Initially , they served as the opening act for Nine Inch Nails on the 2000 Fragility v2.0 tour , but subsequently embarked on a number of headlining tours all over the world , including the Canadian festival , Summersault . As Keenan was well known through his other band , he would often wear long wigs on his otherwise bald head when performing , to distinguish himself from his Tool persona . Mer de Noms went certified platinum by the RIAA on October 31 , 2000 , while the band was on tour .

The album produced three singles : " Judith " , " 3 Libras " , and " The Hollow " . " Judith " is named after , and is about , Keenan 's mother , who suffered a stroke and was left paralyzed when he was 11 . The song " Renholdër " is a reference to guitarist and sound engineer Danny Lohner and reads Re : D.Lohner backwards . Lohner did not know the song was about him despite his first name being sung — albeit in a distorted fashion — in the song .

In the album review by Rolling Stone , Pat Blashill wrote that Keenan " added an almost operatic angst to Howerdel 's songs " and concluded that " A Perfect Circle sound like a desperate dream of what rock used to be . Maybe that 's the point . " AllMusic 's review expressed that " there 's little question that the addicting combination of Keenan 's aching voice and Howerdel 's accomplished songs and production skills made for one of 2000 's best splashes in whatever was left of ' modern rock ' . "

= = = Thirteenth Step and Emotive ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =

During the recording , release and tour for Tool 's album Lateralus , from 2000 to 2002 the band experienced a considerable amount of downtime . This made the band extremely dynamic in terms of its members . During the recording of Thirteenth Step , A Perfect Circle lost two of its members , Paz Lenchantin and Troy Van Leeuwen . Lenchantin left to join Billy Corgan 's new band Zwan in April 2002 , while Van Leeuwen left to handle touring duties as the new guitarist for Queens of the Stone Age . Ex @-@ Marilyn Manson bassist Jeordie White , formerly known as Twiggy Ramirez , replaced Lenchantin on bass in January 2003 , with Danny Lohner taking the reins on guitar . However , Lohner did not quite fit as a second guitarist , and former The Smashing Pumpkins guitarist James Iha eventually replaced him .

The band released their second album , Thirteenth Step , on September 16 , 2003 . With the new album came a new sound . While Mer de Noms had a heavier , deeper sound , Thirteenth Step was more melodic and straightforward . After the release of the album , John Lappen from The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " They were never a band who beat the listener over the head with metal brutality , but now they 're even more song @-@ oriented than before — a move that illustrates that the band has a knack for writing instrumental hooks that show off a melodic talent that was not as apparent on the first album . " This different sound can be heard in the three singles that came off the album : " Weak and Powerless " , " The Outsider " and " Blue " . Following the release of the album , the band toured throughout the U.S. until the year 's end . Then , in January 2004 , the group left the country to play shows in Europe , Australia , New Zealand and Japan . They headed home in mid @-@ March and finished touring in mid @-@ June .

The album received mostly positive reviews . AllMusic 's review stated the album " is the sound of a musical and lyrical maturity that normally doesn 't occur until a band 's third or fourth albums " . The review by Yahoo ! Music expressed that the album " has its share of anthemic moments , but the real passion spills over in the moody overtures where menacing danger feels seconds away " . Rolling Stone wrote in an attempt to summarize the album that it " sounds more like the dusky thrum of Disintegration @-@ era Cure than it does any of the members ' previous bands " , and continued " Thirteenth Step doesn 't bludgeon listeners into submission — it lulls them with droning guitars , dub @-@ deep bass and simmering vocals . "

A third album , Emotive , was released on November 2 , 2004 ( election day in the United States ) , and contains covers of anti @-@ war songs by artists such as John Lennon ( " Imagine " ) and Joni Mitchell ( " Fiddle and the Drum " ) . Emotive was recorded with current and former members of the band , but is mostly the work of Keenan and Howerdel . The single " Passive " was adapted from the defunct band Tapeworm , a project composed mainly of Keenan , Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails , and Danny Lohner . " Passive " first appeared under the title " Vacant " at a show played by A Perfect Circle in Portland , Oregon on January 31 , 2001 , notably , without the blessing of Reznor to play the song . The song remained unreleased by any artist until it appeared on Emotive as the song " Passive " . The single " Passive " can also be heard in the 2005 movie Constantine when John Constantine ( Keanu Reeves ) enters Papa Midnite 's office in his club in the second half of the movie . The song " Counting Bodies Like Sheep to the Rhythm of the War Drums " is used in the teaser trailer for The Fantastic Four as well as the trailer for The Taking of Pelham 123 .

The album received mixed reviews . An AllMusic review stated the album " falls flat and fails to raise the bar set so high by the quality of their previous two releases " . Rolling Stone praised half the album while criticizing the other , as did The Guardian which stated " cover versions are often hobbled by the artist 's inability to step outside the original and find a fresh perspective , but some of these treatments verge on the visionary . " Ken Micallef of Yahoo ! Music wrote " the band builds on the power of the previous Thirteenth Step , applying hypnotic arrangements , brooding melodies , and droning rhythms to a collection that sounds absurd on its surface , but is woven together by A Perfect Circle 's heavy and dark @-@ lidded instrumental approach . "

On November 16 , 2004 , the CD @-@ DVD set entitled Amotion was released . The DVD contains music videos for six singles ; previously unreleased videos for other songs , including three contest runner @-@ up videos and the winning video for " Blue " ; and three trailers for Bikini Bandits . The CD is composed entirely of remixes of the singles from Mer de Noms and Thirteenth Step . The songs were retooled by Danny Lohner , Joshua Eustis , Massive Attack , and James Iha among others .

= = = Hiatus and other projects ( 2005 – 2009 ) = = =

The future of A Perfect Circle remained uncertain and wobbled between " done for now " and " alive and well . " The band became inactive after they played their last show in Denver , Colorado on June 13 , 2004 . Keenan left to work on Tool 's album 10 @,@ 000 Days while Howerdel began work on a side @-@ project with Josh Freese that flourished into Ashes Divide . In addition to Keenan 's work with Tool , his side @-@ project Puscifer released its first album , V is for Vagina on October 30 , 2007 . The rest of the band also went their separate ways . Freese once again took up the reins as drummer for Nine Inch Nails . White moved on to rejoin Marilyn Manson at guitar under his pseudonym Twiggy Ramirez , and while there was talk of Iha joining Billy Corgan for The Smashing Pumpkins reunion tour in 2007 , this idea was rebuffed and he instead began work on a solo record .

Both Howerdel and Keenan discussed the future of the band in various mediums from 2006 through 2008 . During a February 2006 interview with Rock Hard , Keenan remarked , " I think [ APC ] is over . ... We pushed this project as far as it could go , and I see ourselves playing again together only in a few years to make one or two songs , nothing more . " Howerdel 's thoughts on the reunion of the band were similar to those of Keenan in a May 2006 interview with MTV . In a November 2007 issue of Spin featuring Keenan , when asked " Will there ever be another APC album , " he reiterated his comments from 2006 replying , " Um , no . Maybe , someday , a song on a soundtrack . But an album ? No . " Despite these comments , in an interview with Revolver the following month , Keenan discussed the other members of A Perfect Circle 's recent activities and also hinted at the possibility of a reunion . During the interview , Keenan stated :

The real problem with running Tool and A Perfect Circle at the same time was they both operate the same way . They 're both live touring bands with a label , still working under the old contract mentality . So I thought it was time to let A Perfect Circle go for now and let Billy explore himself . It 's tough for a guy who went from being a guitar tech [ for Tool ] to being in a band with a pretentious , famous singer and having to live in that shadow . It was important for Billy to go and do his own thing and really explore his own sound and let people hear what he has to say and how he would do it on his own , and then we 'll get back and do some A Perfect Circle stuff .

Although the band 's official website had offered no insight as to whether or not the group would reunite , news continued to arrive through Keenan about the existence of the band . In Puscifer 's May 2008 newsletter , Keenan remarked on the status of A Perfect Circle : " As many of you may have heard , Billy and I are engaged in our own little projects for the moment . His is called Ashes Divide and mine is called Puscifer ... Please be advised that A Perfect Circle and Tool are still alive and well . This is simply more . "

= = = Return and touring ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =

As early as December 2008 , Keenan had announced that he and Howerdel had been writing new music for A Perfect Circle , although it wasn 't until over year and a half later , mid @-@ 2010 , when various band members began teasing a return on respective Twitter accounts , that the band actually became active . This led up to a September announcement of tour dates in which they would be playing the entirety of each of their three albums at each concert , with one album being played per night . The new touring lineup was announced Maynard James Keenan , Billy Howerdel , Josh Freese , Matt McJunkins , and James Iha .

There have been conflicting reports as to what degree the band will be releasing new material . Keenan 's initial thoughts in 2008 referred to focusing on " one or two songs at a time " , which would most likely be released digitally via the internet , rather than a full album release on compact disc . Keenan jokingly mentioned that CDs have become " plastic discs that no one cares about anymore . " In June 2010 , Keenan stated that he was working on a fourth LP for A Perfect Circle . However , when asked about an album again in August , his response focused on single songs again , stating that he 's " ... not really into albums anymore . Might be more going back to the singles . The days of the singles market makes a lot more sense at this point . " and that " We have no label , so neither Billy nor I are really into kicking down hundreds of thousands of dollars to record a record and put it out . " Howerdel , in a September 2010 interview , said that he had been working on demos for the last three to four years , and he presents them to Keenan , who decides which he would like to develop into A Perfect Circle songs , or leave for Howerdel to develop into Ashes Divide songs . No new songs were played at the initial reunion concerts , as no songs were finished yet , and the band was still trying to " remind everybody " who they are at these concerts . The possibility of a live concert DVD was discussed , but ultimately not released .

In addition the initial 2010 concerts , the band also played a few songs on live television programs Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Last Call with Carson Daly in October and November 2010 respectively .

The band continued touring into 2011 , stopping in 24 cities and performing at events such as Rock on the Range Festival in Columbus , Ohio on May 21 and 22 , 2011 , Boonstock Music Festival in Edmonton , Alberta on July 2 , 2011 , Edgefest in Toronto , Canada on July 9 , 2011 , Bluesfest in Ottawa , Canada on July 10 , 2011 . Kanrocksas Music Festival in Kansas City , KS on August 6 , 2011 @.@  and Lollapalooza in Chicago , IL , on August 5 – 7 , 2011 . Freese was unavailable for the 2011 touring due to a scheduling conflict with Weezer . Jeff Friedl , drummer for Ashes Divide , filled in for him .

The band continued to allude to working on new music throughout 2011 , referring to the process as " Slow but steady . " Howerdel also referred to " road testing " new songs during touring , that could ultimately be placed on a future album . On June 29 , 2011 , The sole new song , " By and Down " , was debuted in Portland , Oregon . After this , Howerdel reiterated the band 's stance on a new album , stating " Right now the intention is not to put out a ( full album ) but just to release some songs along the way , and then they might be re @-@ imagined and put together in some collection ... If you need to have an album then there will be something more like a photo album where you collect these things and you put them in . "

After the 2011 tour , Keenan said that new material still was not ready , and that for the time , he and Howerdel were turning back to their respective side projects , Puscifer and Ashes Divide . During this time , in October 2012 , Freese left the band without any intentions of returning .

The band returned to touring in 2013 , playing Soundwave Music Festival and Lollapalooza Chile in early 2013 . In February 2013 , Keenan again stated that a new album was still " currently off the table " , due to his continued work with Puscifer , and Howerdel 's commitment to working on a second yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released Ashes Divide album . He shortly after appended that they are still working on new material , but it is still mostly just " jamming " and working on bits and pieces , not entire songs .

= = = Compilations and future releases ( 2013 – present ) = = =

In September 2013 , it was announced that the band would release two separate compilations in November 2013 . The first , a greatest hits album entitled Three Sixty , containing one new song , " By and Down " , the second , a box set entitled A Perfect Circle Live : Featuring Stone and Echo . The box set contains their three concerts in 2011 where they played one album in its entirety each night , and a performance of the band at Red Rocks .

In regards to future material from the band , Keenan stated " Of course , there 's always writing going on constantly . It 's just stuff that 's not quite sitting right yet , so you don 't know about it " . In November 2013 , Howerdel stated that " there are fully developed songs without lyrics and melody ... as far as the music end goes , I ’ ve got 75 % of the foundation of [ the next ] A Perfect Circle record ready to go . " He did concede that this could change depending on Keenan 's stance on music , and that Keenan prefers smaller releases , while Howerdel prefers the form of a full album . While the band was quiet over the course of 2014 and 2015 , in March 2016 , Keenan stated that he still hopes to make and release new music with the band .

= = Musical style = =

A Perfect Circle 's music has been described mainly as alternative rock , alternative metal , hard rock and nu metal . The band is also associated with various music styles , including art rock , art metal , progressive rock and progressive metal . Troy J. Augusto of Variety wrote that the band 's music combines equal parts of " ’ 80s Goth , contemporary alt metal and progressive art rock . "

= = Band members = =

= = = Timeline = = =

= = Discography = =

Mer de Noms ( 2000 )

Thirteenth Step ( 2003 )

Emotive ( 2004 )

= Nguyễn Chánh Thi =

Nguyễn Chánh Thi ( 23 February 1923 – 23 June 2007 ) was an officer in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) . He is best known for being involved in frequent coups in the 1960s and wielding substantial influence as a key member of various juntas that ruled South Vietnam from 1964 until 1966 , when he was overpowered by Vietnam Air Force chief and Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ in a power struggle and exiled to the United States . Known for his flamboyant style and hostility to U.S. advice , Thi 's ouster was supported by the American leadership , who backed Kỳ 's pro @-@ U.S. regime . Thi joined the French Army at the age of 17 and was captured by Japan after they invaded French Indochina during World War II . After several months he escaped . He later transferred to the Vietnamese National Army of the French @-@ backed State of Vietnam , which , in October 1955 , became the ARVN and Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) , respectively . A paratrooper , he fought for then @-@ Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm against the Bình Xuyên organized crime syndicate in the 1955 Battle for Saigon . Impressed by Thi 's performance , Diệm referred to him as " my son " and put him in command of the Airborne Brigade .

In November 1960 , Thi led the paratroopers in a coup against Diệm , citing political interference in the military . The rebels gained the upper hand but Thi was reluctant to push for a complete victory , and the coup was defeated after Diệm falsely promised to make reforms in order to buy time for loyalists to rescue him . Thi fled into exile in Cambodia , but returned after Diệm was deposed and executed in November 1963 . He became the deputy commander of I Corps under Nguyễn Khánh , and helped his superior to overthrow Diệm 's subjugators three months later . Thi became the commander of the 1st Division , before taking control of I Corps later in the year .

During the year after Khánh 's rise to power , Thi helped Khánh stage or put down several coup attempts , making him a key player in South Vietnamese military politics . In September 1964 , he and Kỳ helped rescue Khánh from a coup attempt by two disgruntled Catholic Diệmist generals , Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức . This gave Kỳ and Thi increased leverage in the junta . Two months later , he was prominent in shutting down a junta @-@ appointed civilian advisory body after they disapproved of a plan by younger officers to compulsorily retire old generals . In January 1965 , he helped Khánh depose the junta @-@ appointed civilian Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương , but by this time he had turned against Khánh . In February 1965 , he helped defeat a coup attempt by Phát and Phạm Ngọc Thảo , and helped to force Khánh 's resignation at the same time . Over the next year , Kỳ and Thi were the foremost officers in the junta , and in June 1965 , Thi declined an opportunity to serve as prime minister after being nominated by his fellow officers following the resignation of civilian Phan Huy Quát . Thi wanted to let a rival take the job and then step in after they had failed , but he never received a second opportunity .

Thi oversaw I Corps with a great deal of autonomy , and the other officers felt threatened , which was accentuated by Thi 's alignment with Buddhist activist movements in his region , traditionally a Buddhist stronghold . The Buddhists were opposed to expansion of the Vietnam War and the American leadership viewed Thi negatively . In early 1966 , feeling more confident about his hold on power , Kỳ orchestrated Thi 's removal , and announced that Thi would be going to the US for medical treatment , but in reality into exile . Thi refused to go along with Kỳ 's false story and wanted to stay in Vietnam , and this led to civil unrest in I Corps , where Thi was popular . The disquiet escalated into open rebellion by pro @-@ Thi military units , allied to Buddhist anti @-@ junta activists who were calling for civilian government and an end to the US @-@ driven war expansion policy . After three months of virtual secession , Kỳ 's forces quelled the dissidents , and Thi emigrated to the U.S. , where he lived for the rest of his life .

= = Early life = =

Thi was born on 23 February 1923 in Huế , then the capital of Vietnam and the seat of the Nguyễn dynasty . At the time , Vietnam was part of the colony of French Indochina and his father was a low @-@ level mandarin in the French @-@ controlled monarchy and had served in the French Army during World War I. Thi joined the French Army at 17 ; a few months later , Imperial Japan invaded Indochina during World War II , wresting control from France . Thi was a Japanese prisoner of war for several months until he escaped amidst the confusion of an Allied bombing raid on the Japanese military jail . According to family documents , Thi was captured and imprisoned by the communist Viet Minh of Ho Chi Minh for three months at the end of the war in 1945 as they declared independence during the August Revolution . At the time , a power vacuum emerged as the defeated Japanese withdrew from Vietnam . France attempted to reassert its colonial grip over Indochina , while various Vietnamese groups jockeyed for power at the head of an independent country . In 1946 , full @-@ scale conflict erupted between the Vietminh , who had declared the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRV ) independent , and France . As part of their political effort , the French created the State of Vietnam ( SoV ) , an associated state in the French Union , and installed former Emperor Bảo Đại as the head of state . Thi served in the SoV 's Vietnamese National Army ( VNA ) , and rose steadily up the ranks .

= = Diệm era = =

In 1954 , the Vietminh defeated the French Union forces at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and France decided to withdraw from Vietnam . Under the provisions of the Geneva Accords , the Vietminh 's DRV would take control of the northern half of the country , and the SoV the south , pending national reunification elections in 1956 . In the meantime , the State of Vietnam remained unstable . The Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects had their own private armies and de facto states in the Mekong Delta , while the Bình Xuyên organized crime syndicate controlled the national police , had their own military , and dominated the rampant drug trade , prostitution and illegal gambling in the southern capital Saigon . In April and May 1955 , Thi fought in VNA airborne units for Prime Minister Diệm against the Binh Xuyen in the Battle for Saigon after Diệm gave them an ultimatum to surrender . When they did not , the VNA attacked and decisively dispersed the Binh Xuyen after a few days of heavy street fighting . This performance so impressed the lifelong bachelor Diệm that he thereafter referred to Thi as " my son " . Diệm promoted Thi to the rank of colonel and put him in charge of the Airborne Brigade , which was expanded into a division a few years later . The Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) was not as impressed . One of their reports described Thi as " an opportunist and a man lacking strong convictions " . An American military advisor assessed Thi as " tough , unscrupulous , and fearless , but dumb " . In October 1955 , Diệm deposed Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum overseen by his brother Ngô Đình Nhu and declared himself President of the newly proclaimed Republic of Vietnam . The VNA thus became the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , and after Diệm canceled the reunification elections , the Vietnam War ensued .

= = Failed coup against Diệm = =

In 1960 , Thi led a revolt against Diệm after lobbying by his Airborne Division deputy commander , Lieutenant Colonel Vương Văn Đông . Đông had become discontented with Diệm 's arbitrary rule and constant meddling in military affairs . Diệm , who promoted officers on religion and loyalty , rather than skill , gave orders directly to individual commanders , and played senior officers against one another in order to weaken the military leadership and prevent them from becoming effective , lest they try to challenge his rule . Đông later claimed his sole objective was to force Diệm to improve the governance of the country . Đông was clandestinely supported by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Lieutenant Colonel Nguyễn Triệu Hồng , and Hong 's uncle , Hoang Co Thuy , members of the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng ( VNQDĐ , the Vietnamese Nationalist Party ) , which was an anti @-@ communist political organization whose members had been marginalized by Diệm . The coup was organized with the help of some VNQDĐ and Đại Việt Quốc Dân Đảng ( Nationalist Party of Greater Vietnam , known as Đại Việt ) members , civilians and officers alike.Đông enlisted the cooperation of an armored regiment , a marine unit and three paratrooper battalions . The operation was launched on November 11 at 05 : 00.The coup was executed ineffectually ; although the rebels captured the headquarters of the Joint General Staff at Tan Son Nhut Air Base , they failed to block the roads leading into Saigon and cut off loyalist reinforcements . Thi 's men also failed to disconnect phone lines into the palace , which allowed Diệm to appeal for aid from loyal units . After taking the key military points , the paratroopers headed towards Independence Palace . At first , they did not attack , believing that Diệm would capitulate . Most of Thi 's soldiers had been tricked into thinking that they were attacking in order to save Diệm from a Presidential Guard mutiny . When the attack finally started , Diệm was nearly killed in the opening salvoes when gunfire hit his bed , but he had arisen just a few minutes earlier . Despite their numerical advantage , the paratroopers ' first assault was repelled by the loyalists . Thi and Dong held fire ; they brought in reinforcements and attacked again , but the loyalists held firm . In the meantime , Thi 's rebels had captured the national police offices , the studios of Radio Saigon and the Presidential Guard barracks . They had also put most of the Saigon @-@ based generals under house arrest .

Apparently poised for a military victory , the rebels hesitated . Đông wanted to storm the palace and capture the president and his family . Thi was worried Diệm could be killed in an attack and thus felt that despite Diệm 's shortcomings , he was South Vietnam 's best available leader . Thi thought that enforced reform was the best outcome . The rebels wanted Nhu , Diệm 's younger brother and chief advisor , and his wife , Madame Nhu , who were widely regarded as the powers behind Diệm 's rule , out of the government , although they disagreed over whether to assassinate or deport the couple . Thi demanded that Diệm appoint an officer as Prime Minister and remove Madame Nhu from the palace . Saigon Radio broadcast a speech authorized by Thi 's Revolutionary Council , claiming that Diệm was being removed for corruption and suppression of liberty . Worried by the uprising , Diệm sent representatives to negotiate . After lengthy talks , the parties agreed to a ceasefire . In the meantime , loyalist forces headed towards the capital . Diệm promised to end press censorship , liberalize the economy , and hold free and fair elections . Diệm refused to sack Nhu , but agreed to dissolve the cabinet and form a new government which would accommodate members of the Revolutionary Council . In the early hours of 12 November , Diệm taped a speech detailing the concessions , and Thi broadcast the message on Saigon Radio .

When the loyalist reinforcements rolled into the capital aboard tanks and armored vehicles and began to wrest the initiative , the rebels began to break . After a brief , violent battle that killed around 400 people , the coup attempt was crushed . The casualties included a large number of anti @-@ Diệm civilians ; Thi exhorted them to bring down the Ngô family by charging the palace ; 13 were gunned down by the loyalist soldiers as they invaded the grounds . After the failed coup , Đông , Thi and other prominent officers fled to Tan Son Nhut and climbed aboard a C @-@ 47 . They fled to Cambodia , where they were given asylum by Prince Norodom Sihanouk , a long @-@ time Diệm opponent . Diệm promptly reneged on his promises , and intensified his authoritarian rule and crackdowns on dissidents . Almost three years after the incident , Diệm opened the trial for those involved in the coup on 8 July 1963 . Thi and his fellow exiled officers were found guilty and sentenced to death in absentia . In the meantime , Thi lived self @-@ sufficiently in Cambodia for three years .

= = 1964 coups with Khánh = =

Diệm was killed in a November 1963 coup , allowing Thi to return to South Vietnam and resume his military service . Soon after arriving home , Thi found himself involved in another coup plot , acting as the link between Khánh and Đỗ Mậu , two generals disgruntled with their position under the military junta of Minh , who oversaw the overthrow of Diệm . Mau was one of the principal tacticians in the 1963 coup ; although he did not command troops , he had a thorough knowledge of the backgrounds of the ARVN officers and their strengths , weaknesses and characteristics through his role as Diệm 's director of military security , and this understanding had allowed him to engineer the previous coup . Minh 's junta feared Mau 's shrewdness and tried to sideline him by making him the Minister of Information , a relatively unimportant position .

Disgruntled , Mau began recruiting for a coup , targeting Khánh , who had been moved to the I Corps in the far north of South Vietnam to keep him far away from Saigon . Khanh made no attempt to hide his annoyance at not being given a more important job , and had long been regarded as an ambitious and unscrupulous officer by his colleagues . Mau persuaded the junta to install Thi as Khanh 's deputy in I Corps . He tricked the junta by telling them that as Khánh had played a large part in putting down the 1960 coup attempt , Thi would still be harboring resentment . According to Mau , Thi would thus be an ideal mechanism for keeping the disliked Khánh in check . Privately , Mau predicted that Thi would act as a bridge between him in Saigon , and Khánh in Huế . He was correct in thinking the 1960 conflict would be irrelevant as allegiances shifted over time and that the pair would work together for their current aims .

The trio were joined by General Trần Thiện Khiêm , the disaffected commander of the III Corps that surrounded Saigon , and an assortment of Marine , Air Force and Special Forces officers and their units . Other notable recruits were Diem loyalist and former chief of the Civil Guard , Duong Ngoc Lam , who was under investigation for corruption , and General Đức , who had recently returned from exile in Paris . The cabal scheduled the coup for 04 : 00 , 30 January . On 29 January , Thi followed Khanh to the capital . The plotters and their agents met in obscure locations spots around town . On the night of 29 January , the rebel troops assumed their positions around Saigon . A number of American officers and embassy officials were alerted to be in their offices at 2 : 00 . At 03 : 00 , Khánh took over the Joint General Staff Headquarters at Tan Son Nhut , and by dawn , the coup had succeeded without a shot being fired as Minh 's junta was caught unaware . The popular Minh was allowed to stay on as a ceremonial but powerless head of state , but his colleagues were taken into custody . Nevertheless , Minh remained disgruntled and persistently tried to regain his influence through political means . On 2 February 1964 , Thi was appointed to be commander of the 1st Division based in Huế , as part of I Corps . He stayed in the post until 21 October and on 14 November , he took control of the entire corps . This corps oversaw the five northernmost provinces of central Vietnam and the 1st and 2nd Divisions .

= = = Defeating the September 1964 coup = = =

In August , Khánh gave himself more powers , provoking widespread riots and demonstrations across the nation , with Buddhist activists prominent in expressing opposition against Khánh . The anarchy forced Khánh to back down and make concessions , and he ended up in a weaker position than before . Among the concessions he made was to remove or demote some Catholic officials who had been close to Diệm 's religiously discriminatory rule , angering the minority Catholic community . Among those demoted were Generals Phát and Đức , both Catholic . They launched a coup attempt backed mainly by Catholic elements against Khánh before dawn on 13 September . They took over the city without firing a shot , and used the national radio station to proclaim the deposing of Khanh 's junta . There was little initial reaction from most of the military commanders , including Thi .

However , Phát and Đức could not apprehend Khánh , and the Americans decided to support the incumbent after concluding that the rebels did not have a satisfactory plan to rule . Thi and Air Force chief Kỳ were then prominent in helping to crush the coup . Kỳ and Thi 's role in putting down the coup attempt gave them more leverage in Saigon 's military politics . Indebted to Kỳ , Thi and their so @-@ called Young Turks for maintaining his hold on power , Khánh was now in a weaker position . This group of young officers were headlined by Thi , Kỳ , IV Corps commander General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , and Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , the head of the Republic of Vietnam Navy . They publicly called on Khanh to remove " corrupt , dishonest and counterrevolutionary " officers , civil servants and exploitationists , and threatened to remove him if he did not enact their proposed reforms .

Some observers accused Kỳ and Thi of either allowing or deliberately orchestrating the plot to embarrass Khánh , portray themselves as heroes , and therefore gain prominence on the political stage . In later years , Cao Huy Thuan , a professor and Buddhist activist based in the city of Đà Nẵng in I Corps , claimed Kỳ and Thi met with him a few days before the coup , and had discussed their plans for joining a coup against Khánh . At the subsequent military trial of Phát and Đức 's faction , the plotters were acquitted . According to the historian George McTurnan Kahin , Khánh rigged the trial so that Đức and Phát were acquitted so they would be used as a Catholic counterweight to the Young Turks faction of Kỳ and Thi , who in Khánh 's eyes had become increasingly strong and ominous . Khánh decided to build an alliance with the generals from Minh 's junta by releasing them from house arrest and recalling them to active roles . However , Thi and Kỳ were aware of the motives for these moves and adjusted accordingly .

= = = Dissolution of the High National Council = = =

The Young Turks and Khánh wanted to forcibly retire officers with more than 25 years of service , ostensibly because they thought them to be lethargic , out of touch , and ineffective . However , the unspoken and most important reason was because they viewed the older generals as rivals for power . Specific targets of this proposed policy were Minh and other senior officers in his short @-@ lived junta , Trần Văn Đôn , Lê Văn Kim and Mai Hữu Xuân .

The signature of the military @-@ appointed civilian Chief of State Phan Khắc Sửu was required to pass the ruling , but Sửu referred the matter to the High National Council ( HNC ) , a junta @-@ appointed civilian advisory body , to get their opinion . The HNC turned down the request . This was speculated to be because many HNC members were old , and did not appreciate the generals ' negativity towards seniors . On 19 December , the generals dissolved the HNC . The operation was commanded by Thi — who had traveled into Saigon from I Corps — and Kỳ . The national police , which was under the control and command of the military , moved through the streets before dawn , arresting five HNC members and other politicians and student leaders they deemed to be an obstacle to military rule . Minh and the other aging generals were arrested and flown to Pleiku , a Central Highlands town in a Montagnard area and forcibly retired , while other officers were simply imprisoned in the capital . The junta 's forces also arrested around 100 members of the National Salvation Council ( NSC ) of the anti @-@ war Lê Khắc Quyến party . The NSC was a new political party active in the I Corps region that opposed the expansion of the war and was aligned with Thi and the Buddhist activist monk Thích Trí Quang . As Thi was active in the purge , it was believed that the Quyen had fallen out with Thi .

The deposal prompted US Ambassador Maxwell D. Taylor to angrily berate Thiệu , Thi , Kỳ and Cang in a private meeting and threaten to cut off aid if they did not reverse their decision . Although nettled by the outburst , Thi took a perverse pleasure in riling Taylor . He was seen by a CIA officer soon after , grinning . When asked why he was happy , Thi said " Because this is one of the happiest days of my life ... Today I told the American ambassador that he could not dictate to us . " The dispute escalated for a few days as the junta threatened to expel Taylor , and Khanh went on a media offensive . A CIA informant reported that the arguments with Taylor had incensed the volatile Thi so much he privately vowed to " blow up everything " and " kill Phan Khac Suu , Trần Văn Hương and Nguyen Khanh and put an end to all this . Then we will see what happens . " However , the dispute galvanized the officers ' nationalist sentiments and they rallied around the embattled Khánh for a time . They ignored Taylor 's threats without suffering repercussions because the Americans were too intent on defeating the communists to cut funding in an attempt to force policy change in Saigon . Thi became notorious for his involvement in infighting . A CIA dossier compiled in the 1960s said that Thi " is like a card player , placing his bets now on this leader , then on another ; he plays his subordinates in the same manner . His only real objective is to continue the game . " Time described him as " vain , ambitious , an inveterate intriguer " . The New York Times described him as " a coup specialist " .

In late January 1965 , Buddhist protests against junta @-@ appointed civilian Prime Minister Trần Văn Hương broke out across South Vietnam . The unrest came after Huong had unveiled plans to expand conscription and the war against the communists , and demonstrations were at their largest in I Corps , a Buddhist and anti @-@ war escalation stronghold . In Huế , matters degenerated into a riot as 5 @,@ 000 demonstrators attacked the United States Information Service Library and burned 8 @,@ 000 books . Khánh and Thi were thought to have turned a blind eye to the rioting in order to allow the disorder to ruin the Huong government and allow them to inherit power . Khánh decided to have the armed forces replace Huong , and on the morning of 27 January , Khánh staged a bloodless putsch with the support of Thi and Kỳ . However , many of the officers had agreed to Khánh 's plan in hopes he would fail and discredit himself .

= = 1965 coup against Nguyen Khanh = =

By this time , Taylor 's relationship with Khánh had already broken down irreparably over the issue of the HNC , and the US became increasingly intent on a regime change as Khánh was becoming increasingly reliant on Buddhist support , which they saw as an obstacle to their war expansion plans . In the first week of February , Taylor told the leading South Vietnamese officers that the US was " in no way propping up General Khánh or backing him in any fashion " . Despite their mutual alignment with Buddhist activists , Thi was known to have become personally hostile to Khánh by this time . During this time , many officers were organizing separate plots against Khánh .

Shortly before noon on 19 February , the undetected communist agent , Colonels Thảo and Phát used tanks and some infantry battalions to seize control of the national military headquarters , post office and the radio station of Saigon . The rebels failed to capture Kỳ , who fled to Tan Son Nhut , where he ran into Khánh , and the pair flew off together , while some junta figures were arrested there . Thao made a radio announcement stating his desire to get rid of Khánh , whom he described as a " dictator " , while some of his fellow rebels made comments eulogizing Diem and indicating that they would start a hardline Catholic regime . This alarmed Thi , as the tone of the comments indicated that the rebels might punish people who had fought against Diệm in the past , such as those involved in the 1960 and 1963 coups .

The Americans decided that while they wanted Khánh out , they did not approve of Thảo and Phát , and their polarizing policies , so they began to lobby Kỳ and Thi , the two most powerful officers apart from Khánh , to defeat both sides . While Kỳ used air power to stop the two sides from confrontation by threatening to bomb them if they opened fire , the Americans consulted with Thi and General Cao Văn Viên , the commander of III Corps surrounding Saigon . They wanted Thi and Vien to assemble units hostile to both Khánh and the rebels into a Capital Liberation Force . The Americans provided Thi with a plane so that he could fly in from his I Corps headquarters in Đà Nẵng to lead ground forces against both Khanh and the rebels .

Late in the night , Thảo and Phát met with Kỳ in a meeting organized by the Americans , and insisted that Khanh be removed from power . The coup collapsed when , between midnight and dawn , anti @-@ coup forces swept into the city ; it was generally thought that the rebels did not put up a fight after being assured that Khánh would be ousted . Early in the morning , Thi , who gained the support of Kỳ , proposed a motion within the junta to remove Khánh and force him into exile , and the final vote was unanimous — Khanh was absent from the meeting . Kỳ , Thi and Thiệu then became the key figures in a junta that continued with Sửu and Prime Minister Phan Huy Quát as a civilian front , although General Minh became the nominal commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces .

Thi was a senior member in the ten @-@ man ruling junta , which wanted to expand the military effort against the communists , something that was opposed by the Buddhist protestors . Thi performed a balancing act and accommodated the Buddhists , wanting them to see him as a friend . He allowed the students to publish a magazine that was highly critical of military rule . Thi also manoeuvred to have his trusted subordinate Colonel Pham Van Lieu installed as the head of the national police — a body controlled by the army and effectively a military unit — increasing his political power . Following his ascension , Lieu replaced most of the Saigon district police chiefs with Thi supporters , raising the ire of some other prominent officers . The Buddhist activist leader Thích Trí Quang said that " Thi is nominally a Buddhist , but does not really care about religion " . In June 1965 , Quat and Sửu resigned because of persistent disputes with the military and one another ; Thi had an opportunity to take power . Quat resigned and tried to directly hand over power to Thi , but this was not allowed by the generals . Nevertheless , Thi was offered the prime ministerial position by his colleagues . He was seen as having a similar level of political influence to Kỳ , and was voted in as prime minister by the ten @-@ man junta . However , he declined the job offer on the private advice of Lieu , who told him that the political conditions were not ideal and that he should let a rival take control and fail before stepping in himself . According to Kahin , " to his [ Thi 's ] own bitter disappointment , he was never given a second chance " . Thi 's blunder was a great relief to the Americans , who were aware of the fact that Thi — despite being anti @-@ communist — had a hostility towards American advice . Kỳ and Thiệu , both pro @-@ American and supportive of a drastic escalation in anti @-@ communist military activity , became prime minister and head of state respectively , the latter post being largely ceremonial . Regardless of who held the top jobs , no officer had firm control over his peers , and the respective corps commanders were effectively allowed to independently rule their own regions in return for ongoing support of the junta .

In the same year , U.S. ground forces were introduced into combat roles in large numbers , and the first US Marines came ashore at Da Nang in Thi 's I Corps . The flamboyant Thi organized for the American troops to be greeted by military bands , welcoming banners and teenage girls who garlanded them with flowers . This caused embarrassment to US military officials who felt the introduction of combat troops and resultant American casualties would not be received well by the public when contrasted with Thi 's celebratory fanfare . Soon after the Americans were in position , Thi tipped off Marine Lieutenant General Lewis W. Walt about a major movement of Việt Cộng insurgents near Chu Lai in Quảng Trị Province near the border with North Vietnam . This resulted in Operation Starlite , generally regarded as the first offensive action undertaken by the Americans in the Vietnam War . Occurring between 18 – 24 August , it resulted in the 1st Việt Cộng Regiment being pushed to the coast .

= = Buddhist Uprising of 1966 = =

Air Marshal Kỳ , the prime minister and the most powerful member of the junta feared Thi as a rival . Many political observers in Saigon thought Thi actively wanted to depose Kỳ , and regarded him as the biggest threat to the other officers ' factions and the junta 's stability . According to Kỳ 's memoirs , Thi was a " born intriguer " who had " left @-@ wing inclinations " . Time magazine published a piece in February 1966 claiming Thi was more dynamic than Kỳ and could seize power at any time . Historian Robert Topmiller thought Kỳ may have seen the article as destabilizing and therefore decided to move against Thi , who was known to have the " deep @-@ rooted " loyalty of his soldiers . A large part of the South Vietnamese military was the Regional and Popular Forces , militia that served in their native areas , and they appreciated a commander with whom they had a regionalistic rapport . The support from the Buddhists , his troops and the regionalistic tendencies gave Thi a strong power base and made it hard for the other generals and the Americans to move against him . The outspoken Thi was also known as the general most likely to question and speak out against US policy .

The historian Stanley Karnow said of Kỳ and Thi : " Both flamboyant characters who wore gaudy uniforms and sported sinister moustaches , the two young officers had been friends , and their rivalry seemed to typify the personal struggles for power that chronically afflicted South Vietnam . But their dispute mirrored more than individual ambition . " Both were also known for their colorful red berets . There were reports Thi was showing insubordination towards Kỳ . The US military commander in Vietnam , General William Westmoreland , said that Thi once refused to report to Kỳ in Saigon when requested . On one occasion , when Kỳ came to I Corps to remonstrate with him , Thi turned to address his staff and mockingly asked " Should we pay attention to this funny little man from Saigon or should we ignore him ? " Thi made this comment rather loudly , within earshot of Ky , and the Vietnamese politician Bùi Diễm thought that Kỳ viewed Thi 's comment as a direct and calculated challenge to his authority . Time said Thi " ran it [ I Corps ] like a warlord of yore , obeying those edicts of the central government that suited him and blithely disregarding the rest " . Of the four corps commanders , Thi was seen as the one with the most power and independence from Saigon . Kahin thought Kỳ may have feared that Thi would secede from Saigon and turn central Vietnam into an independent state . The CIA analyst Douglas Pike , who worked in Vietnam , speculated that this would have been a large part of Ky 's thinking , as Vietnamese people have often had strong regional tendencies .

Knowing that Westmoreland and the US Embassy were hostile to Thi and supportive of his leadership , Kỳ mustered the support of eight generals on the 10 @-@ man junta , meaning that along with his vote , there were nine officers in favor of Thi 's removal . With Thi the only non @-@ supporter , Kỳ and his colleagues removed Thi from the junta and his corps command on 10 March 1966 . Thi claimed that during this meeting , knowing the other generals ' antipathy to him , he nettled them by chastising their commitment to the country . He said the populace would never support the generals ' war effort as long as they lived so comfortably , and he mocked them for ostentatiously flying their wives and mistresses to Hong Kong for shopping expeditions . The junta put Thi under house arrest pending his deportation from the country , and appointed General Nguyễn Văn Chuân , the erstwhile commander of 1st Division and a Thi subordinate , as the new I Corps commander .

The Americans supported Thi 's removal as they regarded him as being soft on communism , and a " virtual warlord " . US Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr . , Westmoreland and the Defense Secretary Robert McNamara were supportive of the Kỳ @-@ Thiệu regime , their prosecution of the war against the communists and support of a US escalation , and they opposed Thi , regarding him as lacking firmness against communism . At a White House meeting after news of the dismissal came through , Taylor said that Thi was " a bad character and good riddance " . Lodge wrote in a report that Thi " cherished some resentment against the Americans in respect of what he considers political and military interference and infringement of sovereignty " , claiming he had contemplated " the possibility of establishing a government in the south which would be of such a character that the bulk of the population including the Vietcong would support it — and presumably neutralization of the country and possibly federation with the North would soon be possible " . The Americans wanted to ease Thi out of the corridors of power by offering him an economic future in the US and free education for his children , and Lodge and Westmoreland personally spoke to him in an attempt to convince him to accept , but they were unsuccessful . On the other hand , Thi had the support of Walt , who commanded American forces in I Corps and was the senior advisor to Thi 's forces . Unlike his countrymen , Walt thought highly of Thi , and his ability as an officer .

Kỳ claimed Thi was leaving the country to receive medical treatment for his nasal passages , as well as a general health examination . An official announcement said that the junta " had considered and accepted General Thi 's application for a vacation " . Thi retorted that " The only sinus condition I have is from the stink of corruption . " With the health story exposed as a sham , Kỳ gave a series of reasons for dismissing Thi , accusing him of being too left @-@ wing , ruling I Corps like a warlord , having a mistress who was suspected of being a communist , and being too conspiratorial . Kỳ knew that Thi supported negotiations with the communists as a means of ending the war , and had a history of consistently removing officials and military figures who promoted such a policy , but did not publicly mention this as a reason . Thi 's dismissal provoked the Buddhist Uprising , led by the " Struggle Movement " . Thi was immensely popular in the Buddhist stronghold of Huế , a city of approximately 120 @,@ 000 , and civil unrest erupted throughout the region . When he returned to the former imperial capital five days after being relieved of his command , around 20 @,@ 000 supporters mobbed him , shouting and trying to touch him . This was part of a gamble by Kỳ to allow Thi back to his home city in an attempt to placate the dismayed locals , but it did not work . A general strike incapacited 90 % of Da Nang , the second biggest city in South Vietnam and the main port in central Vietnam .

During a rally , a Buddhist student leader cried " Do you want the general to stay with us ? " to which the students and other protestors answered , " Yes ! Yes ! " Thi told the large crowd to " Think about our country , not about me " . During the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek speech , he made sarcastic references about his need to go to the US for health treatment . He told a journalist that he would accept " any position which is useful for the country " , leading some to think that he wanted Kỳ or Thiệu 's job . According to Time magazine , Thi 's speeches showed he " was obviously torn between a desire to rally support for a comeback and his soldier 's distaste for adding to dissension " . Kahin said that " despite the circumspection of his public addresses , [ they ] undoubtedly helped encourage the Struggle Movement . "

The various dissidents formed a pro @-@ Thi , anti @-@ Kỳ organization called the Military @-@ Civilian Struggle Committee , better known as the Struggle Movement . Their message and influence quickly spread as they called for the end of military rule and took over radio stations and government buildings in I Corps . They intensified their calls for Kỳ to fulfil his promise to hold democratic elections . Some I Corps units supportive of Thi then decided to join the Struggle Movement and ceased military operations against the Vietcong , instead starting a stand @-@ off against Kỳ . Throughout April and May there were tense incidents as units loyal to the junta were flown in from Saigon , and the factions came close to warfare .

Thi publicly disassociated himself from the Struggle Movement . However , he remained in I Corps and was still regarded as a significant political influence and motivating factor for the Struggle Movement . Regardless of what he may have thought , the discontent against Kỳ was by then too much for him to control even if he had wanted to . By June , ARVN loyalists , with the help of the American forces , prevailed . Their superior numbers convinced many in the Struggle Movement to back down and realign with the government , and those who refused were militarily defeated , often in bitter street @-@ to @-@ street fighting . While the Struggle Movement was finally ebbing away , Thi agreed to meet with Kỳ at an American air base in Chu Lai to reach a settlement , seeing as the junta was going to prevail in any case . Thi agreed to the original offers of subsidies and the cover story of a medical trip .

= = Exile = =

After the uprising was crushed , Thi was deported to the USA , and lived in a small apartment on Connecticut Avenue on Dupont Circle , Washington , D.C. Although the apartment was small , Kahin , who interviewed Thi after his exile , described it as " handsome " . However , The New York Times called it " shabby " . Thi left his uniforms in his closet in Vietnam and disposed of all his medals . The only thing he kept from his military career was an army blanket . As part of his removal from South Vietnam , the American government gave him a substantial living allowance and paid for all his children 's education fees . Around 1973 , the payments were suddenly discontinued . In Washington , Thi spent much of his time at the Library of Congress , reading books about Asian history . Outspoken and still supported by many Buddhists , Thi tried to return to South Vietnam in February 1972 , but troops loyal to the Diệmist President Thiệu surrounded his plane on the tarmac and prevented him from disembarking ; the aircraft eventually took off and returned to the U.S.

Thi lived in the American capital until 1975 , when he moved to Arkansas . He lived in the southern state for a short period before settling in Lancaster , Pennsylvania . He worked in a variety of jobs and occasionally made speeches at universities and to Vietnamese American organizations and meetings . According to his relatives , Thi remained popular among the Vietnamese American community , most of whom had come to the US after the fall of Saigon and were stridently anti @-@ communist . His family said their refugee compatriots often recognized him , and usually refused to let him pay for meals at their restaurants . Thi 's second marriage , to Oanh Nguyen , ended in divorce . They had five children , four sons and a daughter . He later remarried , to Catherine Nguyen , who bore him a daughter . In all , Thi had six children and 12 grandchildren . He died at the Hospice of Lancaster County from heart ailments on 23 June 2007 .

= James Newland =

James Ernest Newland , VC ( 22 August 1881 – 19 March 1949 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . Newland was awarded the Victoria Cross following three separate actions in April 1917 , during attacks against German forces retreating to the Hindenburg Line . While in command of a company , Newland successfully led his men in several assaults on German positions and repulsed subsequent counter @-@ attacks .

Born in the Victorian town of Highton , Newland joined the Australian military in 1899 and saw active service during the Second Boer War . He continued to serve in the Australian Army 's permanent forces on his return to Australia , and completed several years service in the artillery . Transferring to the militia in 1907 , Newland became a police officer in Tasmania before re @-@ joining the permanent forces in 1910 . Following the outbreak of the First World War , he was appointed to the Australian Imperial Force and was among the first wave of men to land at Gallipoli . In the days following the landing , Newland was wounded and evacuated to Egypt where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant .

Transferring to the Western Front in 1916 , Newland was Mentioned in Despatches for his leadership while commanding a company during an attack at Mouquet Farm . He was wounded twice more during the war and medically discharged in March 1918 ; he returned to service with the permanent army . Newland held various appointments between the two world wars , and retired with the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1941 . He died of heart failure in 1949 .

= = Early life = =

Newland was born in the Geelong suburb of Highton , Victoria , on 22 August 1881 to William Newland , a labourer , and his wife Louisa Jane ( née Wall ) . In 1899 , he enlisted in the Commonwealth Military Forces and was assigned to the 4th Battalion , Australian Commonwealth Horse , as a private . The unit later embarked for South Africa , where Newland saw active service in Cape Town during the Second Boer War .

Returning to Australia in 1902 , Newland re @-@ settled in Victoria and joined the Royal Australian Artillery in July the following year . He served in the artillery for over four years , before transferring to the militia in September 1907 . In 1909 , he became a police officer in the Tasmanian Police Force , where he remained until August 1910 , when he re @-@ enlisted in the permanent army . He was posted to the Australian Instructional Corps ; he served with this unit until the outbreak of the First World War . In a ceremony at Sheffield , Tasmania on 27 December 1913 , Newland married Florence May Mitchell .

= = First World War = =

On 17 August 1914 , Newland transferred to the newly raised Australian Imperial Force following the British Empire 's declaration of war on Germany and her allies . Assigned to the 12th Battalion , he was made its Regimental Quartermaster Sergeant and embarked from Hobart aboard HMAT Geelong on 20 October , bound for Egypt . Following a brief stop in Western Australia , the troopship arrived at its destination seven weeks later . The 12th Battalion spent the following four months training in the Egyptian desert .

At the commencement of the Gallipoli Campaign , the 3rd Australian Brigade — of which the 12th Battalion was part — was designated as the covering force for the ANZAC landing , and as such was the first unit ashore on 25 April 1915 , at approximately 04 : 30 . Newland was wounded in the days following the landing , suffering a gunshot wound to his arm , and was evacuated to the 1st General Hospital . While at the hospital , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 22 May , before returning to the 12th Battalion four days later .

Newland was engaged in operations on the Gallipoli Peninsula until 9 June , when he was withdrawn from the area and placed in command of the 12th Battalion 's transport elements stationed in Egypt . Promoted to lieutenant on 15 October , he was hospitalised for ten days in November due to dengue fever . Following the Allied evacuation of Gallipoli in December , the 12th Battalion returned to Egypt where Newland continued as transport officer . Promoted to captain on 1 March 1916 , he was made adjutant of the 12th Battalion fifteen days later . It embarked for France and the Western Front later that month .

Disembarking at Marseilles , the 12th Battalion was initially posted to the Fleurbaix sector of France . After involvement in minor operations , it transferred to the Somme in July , where it participated in the Battle of Pozières , its first major French action . Newland was posted to command A Company from 8 August , and was subsequently moved to Sausage Valley along with the rest of the 12th Battalion in preparation for an attack on Mouquet Farm .

Mouquet Farm was a ruined complex connected to several German strongpoints , and formed part of the Thiepval defences . On 21 August , Newland led his company in an assault on a series of trenches slightly north east of the farm . By 18 : 30 , the company had captured its objectives and several of Newland 's men rushed off in pursuit of the retreating Germans . Newland immediately stopped them and organised the company into a defensive position ; the trench was consolidated by 05 : 00 the next morning . Praised for his " ... great coolness and courage under heavy fire " during the attack , he was recommended for the Military Cross . The award , however , was downgraded to a Mention in Despatches , the announcement of which was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 4 January 1917 .

Following its involvement at Pozières and Mouquet Farm , the 12th Battalion was briefly transferred to the Ypres sector in Belgium in September , before returning to Bernafay Wood on the Somme late the following month . Newland was admitted to the 38th Casualty Clearing Station with pyrexia on 4 December . He was moved to the 2nd General Hospital at Le Havre , and returned to the 12th Battalion two weeks later following recuperation . On the same day , he was attached to the headquarters of the 2nd Australian Brigade for duty as a staff officer . He was granted leave on 21 January 1917 on completion of this stint .

Re @-@ joining the 12th Battalion , Newland once again assumed command of A Company . On 26 February 1917 , he was tasked with leading it during the 12th Battalion 's attack on the village of La Barque during the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line . At Bark Trench , a position on the north side of the centre of La Barque , the company encountered a German strongpoint and Newland received a gunshot wound to the face . He was admitted to the 1st Australian Field Ambulance , and returned to the 12th Battalion on 25 March after a period of hospitalisation at the 7th Stationary Hospital in Boulogne .

= = = Victoria Cross = = =

By early April 1917 , there remained three German @-@ held outpost villages — Boursies , Demicourt and Hermies — between the area to the south of the I Anzac Corps position and the Hindenburg Line . An attack by the 1st Australian Division to capture them was planned for 9 April , the same day the British offensive opened at Arras . For his actions on three separate occasions during the assault , Newland was awarded the Victoria Cross .

On the night of 7 / 8 April , the 12th Battalion was tasked with the capture of Boursies , on the Bapaume – Cambrai road . The attack was a feint to mislead the German forces on the direction from which Hermies was to be assaulted . Leading A Company as well as an attached platoon from B Company , Newland began his advance on the village at 03 : 00 . The company was soon subject to heavy rifle and machine gun fire from a derelict mill approximately 400 metres ( 440 yd ) short of the village , and began to suffer heavy casualties . Rallying his men , Newland charged the position and bombed the Germans with grenades . The attack dislodged the Germans , and the company secured the area and continued its advance .

Throughout 8 April , the Australians were subjected to heavy shellfire from German forces . At approximately 22 : 00 , the Germans launched a fierce counter @-@ attack under the cover of a barrage of bombs and trench mortars against A Company 's position at the mill . They had some initial success and entered the forward posts of the mill , which were occupied by a platoon of Newland 's men under the command of Sergeant John Whittle . Newland , bringing up a platoon from the battalion 's reserve company , charged the attackers and re @-@ established the lost ground with Whittle 's assistance . The 12th Battalion was relieved by the 11th Battalion on 10 April , having succeeded in capturing Boursies at the cost of 240 casualties , of which 70 were killed or missing .

After a four @-@ day reprieve from the frontline , the 12th Battalion relieved the 9th Battalion at Lagnicourt on 14 April . Around dawn the next day , the Germans launched a severe counter @-@ attack against the 1st Australian Division 's line . Breaking through , they forced back the 12th Battalion 's D Company , which was to the right of Newland 's A Company . Soon surrounded and under attack on three sides , Newland withdrew the company to a sunken road which had been held by Captain Percy Cherry during the capture of the village three weeks earlier , and lined the depleted company out in a defensive position on each bank .

The German forces attacked Newland 's company several times during the battle , but were repulsed each time . During one of the assaults , Newland observed that the German attack was weakening and gathered a party of twenty men . Leading the group , he charged the Germans and seized forty as prisoners . As reinforcements from the 9th Battalion began to arrive , a combined counter @-@ attack was launched and the line recaptured by approximately 11 : 00 . During the engagement , the 12th Battalion suffered 125 casualties , including 66 killed or missing . Newland and Whittle were both awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions at Boursies and Lagnicourt ; they were the only two permanent members of the Australian military to receive the decoration during the war . At 35 years and 7 months old , Newland was also the oldest Australian Victoria Cross recipient of the First World War .

The full citation for Newland 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 8 June 1917 :

War Office , 8th June , 1917 .

His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Men : —

Capt. James Ernest Newlands , [ sic ] Inf . Bn . , Aus . Imp . Force .

For most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty , in the face of heavy odds , on three separate occasions .

On the first occasion he organised the attack by his company on a most important objective , and led personally , under heavy fire , a bombing attack . He then rallied his company , which had suffered heavy casualties , and he was one of the first to reach the objective .

On the following night his company , holding the captured position , was heavily counter @-@ attacked . By personal exertion , utter disregard of fire , and judicious use of reserves , he succeeded in dispersing the enemy and regaining the position .

On a subsequent occasion , when the company on his left was overpowered and his own company attacked from the rear , he drove off a combined attack which had developed from these directions .

These attacks were renewed three or four times , and it was Capt. Newland 's tenacity and disregard for his own safety that encouraged the men to hold out .

The stand made by this officer was of the greatest importance , and produced far @-@ reaching results .

= = = Later war service = = =

In early May 1917 , the 12th Battalion was involved in the British and Australian attempt to capture the village of Bullecourt . While engaged in this operation on 6 May , Newland was wounded for the third and final time of the war by a gunshot to his left armpit . Initially admitted to the 5th Field Ambulance , he was transferred to No 1 Red Cross Hospital , Le Touquet , the next day . The injury necessitated treatment in England , and Newland was shipped to a British hospital eight days later .

On recovering from his wounds , Newland attended an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 21 July , where he was decorated with his Victoria Cross by King George V. Later the same day , Newland boarded a ship to Australia . It arrived in Melbourne on 18 September , and Newland travelled to Tasmania . He was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force as medically unfit on 2 March 1918 .

= = Later life = =

Following his discharge , Newland retained the rank of captain and returned to service with the permanent military forces . Between the two world wars , he held various appointments in the army , including adjutant and quartermaster of the 8th , 49th , 52nd , 38th and 12th Battalions , as well as area officer and recruiting officer . In 1924 , Newland 's wife Florence died of tuberculosis . On 30 April 1925 , he married Heather Vivienne Broughton in a ceremony at St Paul 's Anglican Church , Bendigo ; the couple would later have a daughter . Promoted to major on 1 May 1930 , Newland was awarded the Meritorious Service Medal in 1935 .

Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Newland was seconded for duties as quartermaster instructor at the 4th Division headquarters . On 10 May 1940 , he assumed his final army appointment as quartermaster , A Branch , at Army Headquarters in Melbourne . He served in this position until August 1941 , when he was placed on the retired list with the honorary rank of lieutenant colonel .

In retirement , Newland served as Assistant Commissioner of the Australian Red Cross Society in the Northern Territory during the later months of 1941 . He joined the inspection staff at Ammunition Factory , Footscray on 2 January 1942 . At his home in Caulfield , Victoria on 19 March 1949 , he died suddenly of heart failure at the age of 67 . He was accorded a funeral with full military honours , and was buried at Brighton Cemetery . In 1984 , Newland 's daughter , Dawn , donated her father 's medals to the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , where they currently reside .

= Japanese battleship Yamashiro =

Yamashiro ( 山城 , " Mountain castle " , named for Yamashiro Province ) was the second of two Fusō @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy . Launched in 1915 and commissioned in 1917 , she initially patrolled off the coast of China , playing no part in World War I. In 1923 , she assisted survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake .

Yamashiro was modernized between 1930 and 1935 , with improvements to her armor and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style . Nevertheless , with only 14 @-@ inch guns , she was outclassed by other Japanese battleships at the beginning of World War II , and played auxiliary roles for most of the war .

By 1944 , though , she was forced into front @-@ line duty , serving as the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral Shōji Nishimura 's Southern Force at the Battle of Surigao Strait , the southernmost action of the Battle of Leyte Gulf . During fierce night fighting in the early hours of 25 October against a superior American force , Yamashiro was sunk by torpedoes and naval gunfire . Nishimura went down with his ship , and only 10 crewmembers survived .

= = Description = =

The ship had a length of 192 @.@ 024 meters ( 630 @.@ 00 ft ) between perpendiculars and 202 @.@ 7 meters ( 665 ft ) overall . She had a beam of 28 @.@ 7 meters ( 94 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 7 meters ( 29 ft ) . Yamashiro displaced 29 @,@ 326 long tons ( 29 @,@ 797 t ) at standard load and 35 @,@ 900 long tons ( 36 @,@ 500 t ) at full load . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 198 officers and enlisted men in 1915 and about 1 @,@ 400 in 1935 .

During the ship 's modernization during 1930 – 35 , her forward superstructure was enlarged with multiple platforms added to her tripod foremast . Her rear superstructure was rebuilt to accommodate mounts for 127 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and additional fire @-@ control directors . Yamashiro was also given torpedo bulges to improve her underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor . In addition , her stern was lengthened by 7 @.@ 62 meters ( 25 @.@ 0 ft ) . These changes increased her overall length to 212 @.@ 75 m ( 698 @.@ 0 ft ) , her beam to 33 @.@ 1 m ( 108 ft 7 in ) and her draft to 9 @.@ 69 meters ( 31 ft 9 in ) . Her displacement increased nearly 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) to 39 @,@ 154 long tons ( 39 @,@ 782 t ) at deep load .

= = = Propulsion = = =

The ship had two sets of Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove two propeller shafts . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 24 Miyahara @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , each of which consumed a mixture of coal and oil . Yamashiro had a stowage capacity of 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 100 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel oil , giving her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ship exceeded her designed speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) during her sea trials , reaching 23 @.@ 3 knots ( 43 @.@ 2 km / h ; 26 @.@ 8 mph ) at 47 @,@ 730 shp ( 35 @,@ 590 kW ) .

During her modernization , the Miyahara boilers were replaced by six new Kanpon oil @-@ fired boilers fitted in the former aft boiler room , and the forward funnel was removed . The Brown @-@ Curtis turbines were replaced by four geared Kanpon turbines with a designed output of 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . On her trials , Yamashiro 's sister ship Fusō reached a top speed of 24 @.@ 7 knots ( 45 @.@ 7 km / h ; 28 @.@ 4 mph ) from 76 @,@ 889 shp ( 57 @,@ 336 kW ) . The fuel storage of the ship was increased to a total of 5 @,@ 100 long tons ( 5 @,@ 200 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 11 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 21 @,@ 900 km ; 13 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) .

= = = Armament = = =

The twelve 45 @-@ calibre 14 @-@ inch guns of Yamashiro were mounted in six twin @-@ gun turrets , numbered one through six from front to rear , each with an elevation range of − 5 to + 30 degrees . The turrets were arranged in an unorthodox 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 style with superfiring pairs of turrets fore and aft ; the middle turrets were not superfiring , and had a funnel between them . The main guns and their turrets were modernized during the ship 's 1930 reconstruction ; the maximum elevation of the main guns was increased to + 43 degrees , increasing their maximum range from 25 @,@ 420 to 32 @,@ 420 metres ( 27 @,@ 800 to 35 @,@ 450 yd ) . Initially , the guns could fire at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute , and this was also improved during her first modernization .

Originally , Yamashiro was fitted with a secondary armament of sixteen 50 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch guns mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull . Each gun could fire a high @-@ explosive projectile to a maximum range of 22 @,@ 970 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) at up to six shots per minute . She was later fitted with six high @-@ angle 40 @-@ caliber three @-@ inch AA guns , in single mounts on both sides of the forward superstructure and both sides of the second funnel , as well as on both sides of the aft superstructure . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and could fire a 5 @.@ 99 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 2 lb ) shell at a rate of 13 to 20 rounds per minute to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 200 meters ( 23 @,@ 600 ft ) . The ship was also fitted with six submerged 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , three on each broadside .

During Yamashiro 's modernization in the early 1930s , all six three @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 40 @-@ caliber 127 @-@ millimeter dual @-@ purpose guns , fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute .

The improvements made during the reconstruction increased Yamashiro 's draft by 1 meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) ; the two foremost six @-@ inch guns were removed , as the same guns on her sister ship Fusō had gotten soaked in high seas after that ship 's reconstruction . The ship 's light @-@ AA armament was augmented by eight 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns in twin @-@ gun mounts . Four of these mounts were fitted on the forward superstructure , one on each side of the funnel and two on the rear superstructure . This was the standard Japanese light @-@ AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . The configuration of the AA guns varied significantly over time ; in 1943 , 17 single and two twin @-@ mounts were added for a total of 37 . In July 1944 , the ship was fitted with another 24 single , nine twin and eight triple @-@ mounts , for a total of 92 anti @-@ aircraft guns in her final configuration . The 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) gun had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines .

Also in July 1944 , the ship was provided with three twin @-@ gun and 10 single mounts for the license @-@ built 13 @.@ 2 mm Hotchkiss machine gun . The maximum range of these guns was 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) , but the effective range against aircraft was only 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute , but the need to change 30 @-@ round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute .

= = = Armor = = =

The ship 's waterline armor belt was 229 to 305 millimeters ( 9 to 12 in ) thick ; below it was a strake of 102 mm ( 4 in ) armor . The deck armor ranged in thickness from 32 to 51 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 279 @.@ 4 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) on the face , 228 @.@ 6 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) on the sides , and 114 @.@ 5 mm ( 4 @.@ 51 in ) on the roof . The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armor 305 mm thick , while the casemates of the 152 mm guns were protected by 152 mm armor plates . The sides of the conning tower were 351 millimeters ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Additionally , the vessel contained 737 watertight compartments ( 574 underneath the armor deck , 163 above ) to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage .

During her first reconstruction Yamashiro 's armor was substantially upgraded . The deck armor was increased to a maximum thickness of 114 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) . A longitudinal bulkhead of 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of high @-@ tensile steel was added to improve the underwater protection .

= = = Aircraft = = =

Yamashiro was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying @-@ off platform on Turret No. 2 in 1922 . She successfully launched Gloster Sparrowhawk and Sopwith Camel fighters from it , the first Japanese ship to do so . During her modernization in the 1930s , a catapult and a collapsible crane were fitted on the stern , and the ship was equipped to operate three floatplanes , although no hangar was provided . The initial Nakajima E4N2 biplanes were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938 and then by Mitsubishi F1M biplanes , from 1942 on .

= = = Fire control and sensors = = =

The ship was originally fitted with two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft 6 in ) and two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders in her forward superstructure , a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder on the roof of Turret No. 2 , and 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter rangefinders in Turrets 3 , 4 , and 5 .

While in drydock in July 1943 , a Type 21 air search radar was installed on the roof of the 10 @-@ meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast . In August 1944 , two Type 22 surface search radar units were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radar units were fitted on her mainmast .

= = Construction and service = =

Yamashiro , named for Yamashiro Province , the former province of Kyoto , was laid down at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 20 November 1913 and launched on 3 November 1915 . She was completed on 31 March 1917 with Captain Suketomo Nakajima in command , and was assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet in 1917 – 18 . She did not take part in any combat during World War I , as there were no longer any forces of the Central Powers in East Asia by the time she was completed , but she did patrol off the coast of China briefly during the war . On 29 March 1922 , a Gloster Sparrowhawk fighter successfully took off from the ship . She aided survivors of the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake , in September 1923 . Little detailed information is available about Yamashiro 's activities during the 1920s , although she did make a port visit to Ryojun Guard District , in Manchuria , on 5 April 1925 and also conducted training off the coast of China .

The ship 's reconstruction began on 18 December 1930 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal where her machinery was replaced , her armor was reinforced , and torpedo bulges were fitted . Yamashiro 's armament was also upgraded and her torpedo tubes were removed . Captain Chuichi Nagumo assumed command of the ship on 15 November 1934 , her modernization was completed on 30 March 1935 , and she became flagship of the Combined Fleet . Captain Masakichi Okuma relieved Nagumo on 15 November and he , in turn , was replaced by Captain Masami Kobayashi on 1 December 1936 . Yamashiro began a lengthy refit on 27 June 1937 and Captain Kasuke Abe assumed command on 20 October . Her refit was completed on 31 March 1938 and Captain Kakuji Kakuta relieved Abe on 15 November . In early 1941 , the ship experimentally launched radio @-@ controlled Kawanishi E7K2 floatplanes . Captain Chozaemon Obata assumed command on 24 May 1941 and Yamashiro was assigned to the 1st Fleet 's 2nd Division , consisting of the two Fusō @-@ class and the two Ise @-@ class battleships .

= = = World War II = = =

Yamashiro and her sister ship Fusō spent most of the war around Japan , mostly at the anchorage at Hashirajima in Hiroshima Bay . When the war started for Japan on 8 December , the division , reinforced by the battleships Nagato and Mutsu and the light carrier Hōshō , sortied from Hashirajima to the Bonin Islands as distant support for the 1st Air Fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . On 18 April 1942 , Yamashiro chased the Doolittle Raider force that had just launched an air raid on Tokyo , but returned four days later without having made contact . On 28 May , she set sail , commanded by Captain Gunji Kogure , with the rest of the 2nd Battleship Division and the Aleutian Support Group at the same time that most of the Imperial Fleet began an attack on Midway Island ( Operation MI ) . Commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Shirō Takasu , the division was composed of Japan 's four oldest battleships , including Yamashiro , accompanied by two light cruisers , 12 destroyers , and two oilers . Official records do not show the squadron as part of the larger Midway operation , known as Operation AL ; they were to accompany the fleet under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , but were only to provide support to the Aleutian task force if needed . They were not needed , and Yamashiro returned to home waters where she was employed mostly for training duties , in the Inland Sea till 1 February 1943 and at Yokosuka until September , when she became a training ship for midshipmen .

In an effort to replace the aircraft carriers lost at the Battle of Midway , the Navy made plans to convert the two Fusō @-@ class ships to hybrid battleship / carriers , but the two Ise @-@ class battleships were chosen instead . In July 1943 , Yamashiro was at the Yokosuka drydock for fitting of a radar and additional 25 mm AA guns . The ship was briefly assigned as a training ship on 15 September before loading troops on 13 October bound for Truk Naval Base , arriving with the battleship Ise on the 20th . The two battleships sailed for Japan , accompanied by the carriers Jun 'yō and Unyō , on 31 October . On 8 November , the submarine USS Halibut fired torpedoes at Jun 'yo that missed , but hit Yamashiro with a torpedo that failed to detonate . Yamashiro resumed her training duties in Japan , and Captain Yoshioki Tawara assumed command . He was promoted to Rear Admiral on 1 May , but died of natural causes four days later , and Captain Katsukiyo Shinoda was appointed to replace him .

During the US invasion of Saipan in June 1944 , Japanese troop ships attempting to reinforce the defenses were sunk by submarines . Shigenori Kami , chief of operations of the Navy Staff , volunteered to command Yamashiro to carry troops and equipment to Saipan . If the ship actually reached the island , he intended to deliberately beach the ship before it could be sunk and to use its artillery to defend the island . After Ryūnosuke Kusaka , Chief of Staff of the Combined Fleet , also volunteered to go , Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō approved the plan , known as Operation Y @-@ GO , but the operation was cancelled after the decisive defeat in the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19 and 20 June .

The ship was refitted in July at Yokosuka , where additional radar systems and light AA guns were fitted . Yamashiro and her sister ship were transferred to Battleship Division 2 of the 2nd Fleet on 10 September . The ship briefly became the division 's flagship under Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura until 23 September when he transferred his flag to Fusō . They departed Kure on 23 September for Lingga Island , carrying the Army 's 25th Independent Mixed Regiment , and escaped an attack by the submarine Plaice the next day . They arrived on 4 October , where Nishimura transferred his flag back to Yamashiro . The ships then transferred to Brunei to offload their toops and refuel in preparation for Operation Shō @-@ Gō , the attempt to destroy the American fleet conducting the invasion of Luzon .

= = = = Battle of Surigao Strait = = = =

As flagship of Nishimura 's Southern Force , Yamashiro left Brunei at 15 : 30 on 22 October 1944 , heading east into the Sulu Sea and then to the northeast into the Mindanao Sea . Intending to join Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita 's force in Leyte Gulf , they passed west of Mindanao Island into Surigao Strait , where they met a large force of battleships and cruisers lying in wait . The Battle of Surigao Strait would become the southernmost action in the Battle of Leyte Gulf .

At 09 : 08 on 24 October , Yamashiro , Fusō and the heavy cruiser Mogami spotted a group of 27 planes , including Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers escorted by Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters , coming from the carrier Enterprise . Around 20 sailors on Yamashiro were killed by strafing and rocket attacks , and the ship listed by almost 15 degrees after a bomb 's near miss damaged the hull and flooded the starboard bilge , until counter @-@ flooding in the port bilge righted the ship .

Nishimura issued a telegram to Admiral Soemu Toyoda at 20 : 13 : " It is my plan to charge into Leyte Gulf to [ reach ] a point off Dulag at 04 : 00 hours on the 25th . " At 22 : 52 , his force opened fire , damaging PT 130 and PT 152 and forcing them to retreat before they could launch their torpedoes . Three American destroyers launched torpedoes at 03 : 00 that morning , hitting Fusō at 03 : 08 and forcing her to fall out of formation . Yamashiro opened fire with her secondary battery seven minutes later . Around 03 : 11 , the destroyers Monssen and Killen fired their torpedoes , one or two of which hit Yamashiro amidships . The resulting damage temporarily slowed the ship down , gave her a list to port and forced the flooding of the magazines for the two aft turrets . Yamashiro may have been hit a third time near the bow at 03 : 40 .

At 03 : 52 , the battleship was attacked by a large formation to the north commanded by Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf . First came 6- and 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) shells from three heavy cruisers , Louisville , Portland , and Minneapolis , and four light cruisers , Denver , Columbia , Phoenix and Boise . Six battleships formed a battle line ; the Pearl Harbor veteran West Virginia was the first to open fire a minute later , scoring at least one hit with 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) shells in the first 20 @,@ 800 @-@ meter ( 22 @,@ 700 yd ) salvo , followed by Tennessee and California . Hampered by older radar equipment , Maryland joined the fight late , Pennsylvania never fired , and Mississippi managed to fire exactly one salvo — the last of the engagement . The Australian heavy cruiser HMAS Shropshire also had radar problems and did not begin firing until 03 : 56 .

The main bombardment lasted 18 minutes , and Yamashiro was the only target for seven of them . The first rounds hit the forecastle and pagoda mast , and soon the entire battleship appeared to be ablaze . Yamashiro 's two forward turrets targeted her assailants , and the secondary armament targeted the American destroyers plaguing Mogami and the destroyer Asagumo . The ship continued firing in all directions , but was not able to target the battleships with the other four operable 14 @-@ inch guns of her amidships turrets until almost 04 : 00 , after turning west . There was a big explosion at 04 : 04 , possibly from one of the middle turrets . Yamashiro increased her firing rate between 04 : 03 and 04 : 09 , despite the widespread fires and damage , and was hit during this time near the starboard engine room by a torpedo . By 04 : 09 , her speed was back up to 12 knots , and Nishimura wired to Kurita : " We proceed till totally annihilated . I have definitely accomplished my mission as pre @-@ arranged . Please rest assured . " At the same time , Oldendorf issued a brief cease @-@ fire order to the entire formation after hearing that the destroyer Albert W. Grant was taking friendly fire , and the Japanese ships also ceased fire .

Yamashiro increased speed to 15 knots in an attempt to escape the trap , but she had already been hit by two to four torpedoes , and after two more torpedo hits near the starboard engine room , she was listing 45 degrees to port . Shinoda gave the command to abandon ship , but neither he nor Nishimura made any attempt to leave the conning tower as the ship capsized within five minutes and quickly sank , stern first , vanishing from radar between 04 : 19 and 04 : 21 . Only 10 crewmembers of the estimated 1 @,@ 636 officers and crew on board survived .

John Bennett claimed to have discovered Yamashiro 's wreck in April 2001 , but confirmation of the wreck 's identity has not been made as of 2013 .

= Stuyvesant High School =

Stuyvesant High School / ˈstaɪvəsənt / , commonly referred to as Stuy / ˈstaɪ / or Stuyvesant , is one of nine specialized high schools in New York City , United States . Operated by the New York City Department of Education , these schools offer tuition @-@ free accelerated academics to city residents . Stuyvesant is a college preparatory science , technology , engineering , and mathematics ( STEM ) focused liberal arts high school .

Admission to Stuyvesant involves passing the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test . Each November , about 27 @,@ 000 eighth and ninth graders take the 2 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ hour exam , and roughly 950 students , or 3 @.@ 5 % of applicants , are accepted to Stuyvesant each year .

= = History = =

= = = Original building = = =

Stuyvesant High School is named after Peter Stuyvesant , the last Dutch governor of New Netherland before the colony was transferred to England in 1664 . The school was established in 1904 as a manual training school for boys , hosting 155 students and 12 teachers . In 1907 , it moved from its original location at 225 East 23rd Street to a building designed by C. B. J. Snyder at 345 East 15th Street . The building , built in 1905 for $ 1 @.@ 5 million , housed the Stuyvesant campus for the next 85 years . The school became renowned for excellence in math and science , and enrollment continued to grow so that by 1919 , admission began to be restricted based on scholastic achievement . Stuyvesant went on a double session plan in 1919 to accommodate the rising number of students , with some students attending in the morning and others in the afternoon and early evening . All students studied a full set of courses . These double sessions ran until 1956 .

The school implemented a system of entrance examinations starting in 1934 . The examination program was later expanded to include the newly founded Bronx High School of Science , and was developed with the assistance of Columbia University . During the 1950s , the building underwent a $ 2 million renovation to update its classrooms , shops , libraries and cafeterias . In 1956 , a team of six students designed and began construction of a cyclotron , and a low @-@ power test of the device succeeded six years later . A later attempt at full @-@ power operation , however , knocked out the power to the school and surrounding buildings .

Prior to 1969 , Stuyvesant did not accept female students . That year , 14 girls were admitted to Stuyvesant and 12 enrolled at the start of September , marking the school 's first co @-@ educational year . By 2002 , female enrollment had grown to 42 % .

New York State Legislature passed the Hecht @-@ Calandra act in 1972 , designating Brooklyn Tech , Bronx Science , Stuyvesant , and The High School of Music & Art ( now Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts ) as specialized high schools of New York City . The act called for a uniform exam to be administered for admission to Brooklyn Tech , Bronx Science and Stuyvesant High School . The exam , named the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test ( SHSAT ) , tested students in math and verbal abilities for students entering all of New York City 's specialized high schools , except for students applying for entry to LaGuardia High School , who are accepted by audition rather than examination .

The school building , meanwhile , deteriorated over the years . Although Stuyvesant was a top @-@ notch school even through the 1970s and 1980s , when New York City public schools in general were marked by violence and low grades among their students , Stuyvesant 's school building was in a broken @-@ down state . A New York Times report stated that the building had " held out into old age with minimal maintenance and benign neglect until its peeling paint , creaking floorboards and antiquated laboratories became an embarrassment . " The five @-@ story building could not cater adequately to the several thousand students , leading the New York City Board of Education to secure an agreement with the Battery Park City Authority for a new building to be built in Battery Park City , near lower Manhattan 's Financial District .

The 15th Street building remains in use as of 2012 , as " Old Stuyvesant Campus " , and houses three schools : the Institute for Collaborative Education , the High School for Health Professions and Human Services , and P.S. 226 . During the 2003 – 4 school year , Stuyvesant celebrated the 100th anniversary of its founding with a full year of activities . Events included a procession from the 15th Street building to the Chambers Street one ; a meeting of the National Consortium for Specialized Secondary Schools of Mathematics , Science and Technology ; an all @-@ class reunion ; and visits and speeches from notable alumni . In recent years , keynote graduation speakers have included Attorney General Eric Holder ( 2001 ) , former President Bill Clinton ( 2002 ) , United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan ( 2004 ) , Late Night comedian Conan O 'Brien ( 2006 ) , and the founder of Humans of New York , Brandon Stanton ( 2015 ) .

= = = New building = = =

Construction on the new ten @-@ floor , $ 150 million building located in Lower Manhattan began in 1989 . The new building was designed by Cooper , Robertson & Partners . When it opened in 1992 , the building was New York City 's first new high school building in ten years and , at the time , was the costliest high school building ever built in the city .

= = = = Aftermath of September 11 , 2001 = = = =

The new building is 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the site of the World Trade Center , which was destroyed on September 11 , 2001 . The school was evacuated during the attack . Although the smoke cloud coming from the World Trade Center engulfed the building at one point , there was no structural damage to the building , and there were no reports of physical injuries . Less than an hour after the collapse of the second WTC tower , concern over a bomb threat at the school prompted an evacuation of the surrounding area , as reported live by NBC news reporter Pat Dawson on the Today show . When classes resumed on September 21 , 2001 , students were moved to Brooklyn Technical High School while the Stuyvesant building served as a base of operations for rescue and recovery workers . This caused serious congestion at Brooklyn Tech , and required the students to attend in two shifts , with the Stuyvesant students attending the evening shift . Normal classes resumed three weeks later on October 9 .

Because Stuyvesant was so close to the World Trade Center site , there were concerns of asbestos exposure . The US EPA indicated at that time that Stuyvesant was safe from asbestos , and conducted a thorough cleaning of the Stuyvesant building , but the Stuyvesant High School Parents ' Association has contested the accuracy of the assessment . Some problems , including former teacher Mark Bodenheimer 's respiratory problems , have been reported — he accepted a transfer to The Bronx High School of Science after having difficulty continuing his work at Stuyvesant . Other isolated cases include Stuyvesant 's 2002 Class President Amit Friedlander , who received local press coverage in September 2006 after he was diagnosed with cancer . While there have been other cases linked to the same dust cloud that emanated from Ground Zero , a spot precariously close to Stuyvesant , there is no definitive evidence that such cases have directly affected the Stuyvesant community . Stuyvesant students did spend a full year in the building before the theater and air systems were cleaned , however , and a group of Stuyvesant alumni is currently lobbying for health insurance as a result .

Nine alumni were killed in the World Trade Center attack . Another alumnus , Richard Ben @-@ Veniste ' 60 , was on the 9 / 11 Commission . On October 2 , 2001 , the school paper , The Spectator , under Editor in Chief Jeff Orlowski and Faculty Advisor Holly Ojalvo , created a special 24 @-@ page full @-@ color 9 / 11 insert containing student photos , reflections and stories . On November 20 , 2001 , the magazine was distributed for free in 830 @,@ 000 copies of The New York Times to the entire New York Greater Metropolitan Area . In the months after the attacks , Annie Thoms ( 1993 ) , an English teacher at Stuyvesant and the theater adviser at the time , suggested that the students take accounts of staff and students ' reactions during and after September 11 , 2001 and turn them into a series of monologues . Thoms then published these monologues as With Their Eyes : September 11 — The View from a High School at Ground Zero .

= = = Enrollment = = =

Stuyvesant has a total enrollment of over 3 @,@ 000 students , and is open to residents of New York City entering either ninth or tenth grade . Enrollment is based solely on performance on the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test ( SHSAT ) . The list of schools using the SHSAT has since grown to include all of New York 's specialized high schools except LaGuardia High School , where entry is by audition rather than examination . The test score necessary for admission to Stuyvesant has consistently been higher than that needed for admission to the other schools using the test . Admission is currently based on an individual 's score on the examination and his or her pre @-@ submitted ranking of Stuyvesant among the other specialized schools . Each year , about 26 @,@ 000 of New York City 's eighth @-@ graders sit for the test . Ninth and rising tenth graders are also eligible to take the test for enrollment , though far fewer students are admitted this way . The test covers math ( word problems and computation ) and verbal ( reading comprehension , logical reasoning , unscrambling paragraphs ) skills .

According to Article 12 of New York education law , " Admissions to the Bronx High School of Science , Stuyvesant High School , and Brooklyn Technical High School shall be solely and exclusively by taking a competitive , objective , and scholastic achievement examination , which shall be open to each and every child in the city of New York . " The current admission policy is available from the NYC Department of Education . According to the Department of Education , Stuyvesant accepts students solely based on their performance on the SHSAT , although former Mayor John Lindsay and community activist group ACORN have argued that the exam may be biased against African and Hispanic Americans . A major cheating scandal on another standardized test , which eventually implicated seventy students , emerged in late June 2012 . According to the Department of Education , a student used a smartphone to send text messages to other students during a state Regents examination . Some students involved were suspended as a result . The ring leader , Nayeem Ahsan , was said to be the source of the cheating . This scandal would lead to the retirement of the Principal Stanley Teitel .

= = = = Accusations of bias in admission tests = = = =

The paucity of Black and Hispanic students at Stuyvesant has often been an issue for some city administrators . As of the 2014 @-@ 15 school year , Asian students made up 73 % of the school 's population ; White students , 20 % ; Latinos , 3 % ; Blacks , 1 % ; and unknown / other , 7 % .

In 1971 , Mayor John Lindsay argued that the test was culturally biased against black and Hispanic students and sought to implement an affirmative action progr " am . However , protests by parents forced the plan to be scrapped and led to the passage of the Hecht @-@ Calandra Act , which preserved admissions by examination only . A small number of students judged to be economically disadvantaged and who come within a few points of the cut @-@ off score were given an extra chance to pass the test .

Community activist group Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now ( ACORN ) published two reports in 1996 , titled Secret Apartheid and Secret Apartheid II . In these reports , ACORN called the SHSAT " permanently suspect " and a " product of an institutional racism " , and claimed that black and Hispanic students did not have access to proper test preparation materials . Along with Schools Chancellor Rudy Crew , they began an initiative for more diversity in the city 's gifted and specialized schools , in particular demanding that since only a few districts send the majority of Stuyvesant 's and Bronx Science 's students , that the SHSAT be suspended altogether " until the Board of Education can show that the students of each middle school in the system have had access to curricula and instruction that would prepare them for this test regardless of their color or economic status . " Jesse Shapiro , Stuyvesant valedictorian , and Alan Van Dyke and Micah C. Lasher , then sophomores , published several editorials in response , and change was averted .

A number of students take preparatory courses offered by private companies such as The Princeton Review and Kaplan , in order to perform better on the SHSAT , often leaving those unable to afford such classes at a disadvantage . To bridge this gap and boost minority admissions , the Board of Education started the Math Science Institute in 1995 , a free program to prepare students for the admissions test . Students attend preparatory classes through the program , now known as the Specialized High School Institute , at several schools around the city from the summer after 6th grade until the 8th grade exam . Despite these free programs , the black and Hispanic enrollment continue to decline .

= = School building = =

The new 10 @-@ story building opened in 1992 . It housed 2 @,@ 700 students and 103 faculty members initially . With five gymnasiums , an enormous swimming pool , modern computers , 12 science labs , multiple escalators , spacious studios , and Hudson River views , the school building was considered a paragon at the time of its opening .

In 1997 , the eastern end of the mathematics floor was dedicated to Dr. Richard Rothenberg , the math @-@ department chairman who had died from a sudden heart attack earlier that year . Sculptor Madeleine Segall @-@ Marx was commissioned to create the Rothenberg Memorial in his honor . She created a mathematics wall entitled " Celebration " , consisting of 50 wooden boxes — one for each year of his life — behind a glass wall , featuring mathematical concepts and reflections on Rothenberg .

In 2006 , Robert Ira Lewy ' 60 made a gift worth $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to found the Dr. Robert Ira Lewy M.D. Multimedia Center. and donated his personal library in 2007 . The school 's library has a capacity of 40 @,@ 000 volumes and overlooks Battery Park City . In late 2010 , the school library merged with the New York Public Library ( NYPL ) network in a four @-@ year pilot program , in which all students of the school received a student library card that can check books out of the school library or any other public library in the NYPL system .

In early 2011 , Stuyvesant conducted a pilot program in conjunction with Amazon.com , IBM , the City University of New York , and the New York City Department of Education . One hundred freshmen from the class of 2014 , as well as three teachers , were given electronic textbooks on Kindle DXs instead of traditional paper textbooks . The students received textbooks for Geometry , Biology , and World History and shared the same teachers for each of those subjects . While many universities have experimented with ebooks , Stuyvesant was the first high school to do so . Stanley Teitel , the principal at the time , told the Spectator he hoped to expand the program school @-@ wide if the pilot program proved successful , but the program was discontinued at the end of the 2011 spring term after a focus group was conducted five months after the start of the program . The group revealed that many students found the Kindles difficult to study from because of the small screen and the lag while flipping pages ; the teachers also complained saying the textbooks provided were below Stuyvesant 's level of study .

The New York City Department of Education reports that public per student spending at Stuyvesant is slightly lower than the city average . Stuyvesant also receives private contributions . Shortly after the new building was completed , the $ 10 million Tribeca Bridge was built to allow students to enter the building without having to cross the busy West Street . The new school building was designed to be fully compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act , and is listed as such by the New York City Department of Education . As a result , the building is one of the 5 additional sites of P721M , a school for older ( aged 15 – 21 ) students with multiple disabilities .

= = = Mnemonics = = =

During construction , the Battery Park City Authority ( in conjunction with the Percent for Art Program of the City of New York , the Department of Cultural Affairs and the New York City Board of Education ) commissioned Mnemonics , an artwork by public artists Kristin Jones and Andrew Ginzel . Four hundred hollow glass blocks were dispersed randomly from the basement to the tenth floor of the new Stuyvesant High School building . Each block contains relics providing evidence of geographical , natural , cultural and social worlds , from antiquity to the present time .

The blocks are set into the hallway walls and scattered throughout the building . Each block is inscribed with a brief description of its contents or context . The items displayed include a section of the Great Wall of China , fragments of the Mayan pyramids , leaves from the sacred Bo tree , water from the Nile and Ganges Rivers , a Revolutionary War button , pieces of the 15th Street Stuyvesant building , a report card of a student who studied in the old building , and fragments of monuments from around the world , various chemical compounds , and memorabilia from each of the 88 years ' history of the 15th Street building . As an ongoing work , empty blocks were installed , to be filled with items chosen by the 88 graduating classes following its installation , up through 2080 . The installation received the Award for Excellence in Design from the Art Commission of the City of New York .

= = Academics = =

Stuyvesant students undertake a college preparatory curriculum that includes four years of English , history , and laboratory @-@ based sciences , of which biology , chemistry , and physics are required . In addition , students take four years of mathematics , changed from three beginning with the class of 2015 . Students also take three years of a single foreign language ; a semester each of introductory art , music , health , and technical drawing ; two semesters of computer science ( changed from one for the class of 2015 ) ; and two lab @-@ based technology courses . Several exemptions from technology education exist for seniors . Stuyvesant offers students a broad selection of elective courses . Some of the more unusual offerings include robotics , astronomy , New York City history , Women 's Voices , and the mathematics of financial markets . Most students complete the New York City Regents courses by junior year and take calculus during their senior year . However , the school offers math courses through differential equations for the more advanced students . A year of technical drawing used to be required ; students learned how to draft by hand in its first semester and how to draft using a computer ( CAD ) in the second . Now , students take a one @-@ semester technical drawing class ( a compacted version of the former drafting course ) , and a semester of introductory computer science , which introduces NetLogo and Racket . For the class of 2015 , the one @-@ semester computer science course was replaced with a two @-@ semester course .

Students can choose from 55 Advanced Placement courses to earn college credits ; a few are thus able to start college as sophomores . Such courses include an AP English course focusing on literature and media in the realm of physics and mechanics . Computer science enthusiasts can take three additional computer programming courses after the completion of Advanced Placement computer science : systems level programming , computer graphics , and software development . There is also a one @-@ year computer networking class which can earn students Cisco Certified Network Associate ( CCNA ) certification .

Stuyvesant 's foreign language offerings include Mandarin Chinese , French , German , Hebrew , Italian , Latin , Japanese , and Spanish . The school 's Muslim Student Association raised funds to support courses in Arabic , which began in 2005 . Stuyvesant 's Biology and Geo @-@ science department offers courses in molecular biology ( a course sequence composed of a molecular science class in the Fall and a molecular genetics class in the Spring ) , human physiology , medical ethics , medical and veterinary diagnosis , human disease , anthropology and sociobiology , vertebrate zoology , laboratory techniques , medical human genetics , botany , the molecular basis of cancer , nutrition science , and psychology . The Chemistry and Physics department offers organic chemistry , physical chemistry , astronomy , engineering mechanics , and electronics .

Although Stuyvesant is primarily known for its math and science focus , the school also has a comprehensive humanities program , offering students courses in British and classical literature , Shakespearean literature , science fiction , philosophy , existentialism , debate , acting , journalism , creative writing , and poetry . The history core requires two years of global history ( or one year of global followed by one year of European history ) , one year of American history , as well as a semester each of economics and government . Humanities electives include American foreign policy , civil and criminal law , prejudice and persecution , race , ethnicity and gender issues , small business management , and Wall Street .

Stuyvesant entered into an agreement with City College of New York in 2004 , in which the college funds advanced after @-@ school courses that are taken for college credit but taught by Stuyvesant teachers . Some of these courses include physical chemistry , linear algebra , advanced Euclidean geometry , and women 's history . Before the 2005 revision of the SAT , Stuyvesant graduates had an average score of 1408 out of 1600 ( 685 verbal , 723 math ) . In 2010 , the average score on the SAT for Stuyvesant students was 2087 out of 2400 , or 674 , 735 , and 678 on the Reading , Math and Writing sections , respectively . The class of 2013 had an average SAT score of 2096 . Stuyvesant also was the high school with the highest number of Advanced Placement exams taken , and also the highest number of students reaching the mastery level .

= = Public recognition = =

Stuyvesant is noted for its academic programs , having produced many notable alumni including four Nobel laureates . U.S. News & World Report ranked it as one of the best high schools nationwide in their 2012 list of America 's best " Gold @-@ Medal " public high schools and fifth best in its 2012 list of STEM schools .

According to a September 2002 high school ranking by Worth magazine , 3 @.@ 67 % of Stuyvesant students went on to attend Harvard , Princeton , and Yale Universities , ranking it as the 9th top public high school in the United States and 120th among all schools , public or private . In December 2007 , The Wall Street Journal studied the freshman classes at eight selective colleges ( Harvard , Princeton , MIT , Williams College , Pomona College , Swarthmore College , U. Chicago , and Johns Hopkins ) , and reported that Stuyvesant sent 67 , or 9 @.@ 9 % of its 674 seniors , to them .

Stuyvesant , along with other similar schools , has regularly been excluded from Newsweek 's annual list of the Top 100 Public High Schools . The May 8 , 2008 issue states the reason as being , " because so many of their students score well above average on the SAT and ACT . " U.S. News & World Report , however , included Stuyvesant on its list of " Best High Schools " published in December 2009 , ranking 31st . In its 2010 progress report , the New York City Department of Education assigned it the highest possible grade of " A " .

= = Extracurricular activities = =

= = = Sports = = =

Stuyvesant fields 32 varsity teams , including a swimming team , as well as golf , bowling , volleyball , soccer , basketball , gymnastics , wrestling , fencing , baseball / softball , handball , tennis , track / cross country , cricket , football , and starting in Spring 2008 , lacrosse teams . In addition , Stuyvesant club teams include boys ' varsity and junior varsity , and girls ' varsity Ultimate teams . The boys ' Ultimate team , the Stuyvesant Sticky Fingers , won the UPA New York State Championships in 2002 , 2009 , 2010 , 2014 , and 2015 . The girls ' Ultimate team , Sticky Fingers , won the UPA Junior National tournament in 1998 . In 2016 , both the boys and girls Ping Pong teams won the city championship .

In September 2007 the Stuyvesant football team was given a home field at Pier 40 , located north of the school at Houston Street and West Street . In 2008 , the baseball team was granted use of the pier after construction and delivery of an artificial turf pitching mound that met PSAL specifications . Stuyvesant does not , however , have its own track or tennis court , although the new building does have a pool . Unlike most American high schools , most sports teams at Stuyvesant are individually known by different names . Only the football , cheerleading , badminton , girls ping pong , baseball , girls handball , girls bowling , and boys ' lacrosse teams retain the traditional Pegleg moniker ; other teams have their own unique names , such as the Runnin ' Rebels ( boys ' basketball ) , Vixens ( girls ' volleyball ) , Lemurs ( boys ' gymnastics ) , Phoenix ( girls ' basketball ) , Renegades ( girls ' softball ) , Felines ( girls ' gymnastics ) , Birdies ( girls ' golf ) , Eagles ( boys ' golf ) , Hookers ( boys ' bowling ) , Huskies ( girls ' lacrosse ) , Penguins ( girls ' swimming ) , Pirates ( boys ' swimming ) , Centaurs ( boys ' soccer ) , Mimbas ( girls ' soccer ) , Dragons ( boys ' handball ) , Smokin ' Aces ( boys ' tennis ) , Sticky Fingers ( boys ' and girls ' Ultimate ) , Lobsters ( girls ' tennis ) , Vipers ( girls ' fencing ) , Flying Dutchmen ( hockey ) , Greyducks ( track ) , Tigers ( cricket ) and Spartans ( wrestling and roller hockey ) .

= = = ARISTA = = =

The Stuyvesant chapter of ARISTA , the National Honor Society , was founded in 1910 . It is an organization dedicated to upholding the four pillars of Character , Scholarship , Leadership , and Service . ARISTA is highly selective . Once selected , ARISTA 's members are asked to complete a service requirement of 10 credits per month and to uphold all the pillars for which this organization stands . The ARISTA Executive Council consists of the President , Vice President , Vice President of Events and Services , Vice President of Tutoring , and Vice President of Communications . The ARISTA office is located in the Student Government Room , behind the Senior Bar . ARISTA provides a number of important and useful programs to the community , the school , and the student body .

ARISTA 's Tutoring Service includes many programs both inside and outside of school and online . First of these programs is the Peer Tutoring Service , sponsored by the Tutoring Committee and directed by the Vice President of Tutoring . Peer tutoring allows any student who is having trouble in any subject to get help . Also , The Tutoring Committee sponsors numerous Peer Study Workshops throughout the year . New this year is tutoring online .

ARISTA 's Events and Service Committee , headed by the Vice President of Events and Services , offer many volunteer opportunities both in school and out of school . Their activities include but are not limited to : monitoring for department offices , ushering for school theater productions , volunteering at parent teacher conferences , working at Soup Kitchens , tutoring at local elementary schools , participating in various walks ( such as the MS Walk and the AIDS Walk ) , and volunteering at Stuyvesant 's Open House Events .

= = = Student government = = =

The student body of Stuyvesant is represented by the Stuyvesant Student Union , a group of elected and appointed students who serve the student body in two important areas : improving student life by promoting and managing extracurricular activities ( clubs and publications ) , and by organizing out @-@ of @-@ school activity such as city excursions or fund @-@ raisers ; and providing a voice to the student body in all discussion of school policy with the administration .

= = = Clubs and publications = = =

Stuyvesant offers clubs , publications , teams and other opportunities under a system similar to that of many colleges . It hosts over 200 clubs ranging from The Thinkers ( philosophy ) club , to the Photography Club . The sheer number of clubs at the school is due to Stuyvesant 's relatively free policy of " student rule " . Most clubs are entirely student run , requiring only a Faculty Advisor to maintain their existence . One example of this policy is the Stuyvesant Model UN club , which is one of the largest clubs in the school . The club attends as many as 6 Model UN Conferences each year , held at various colleges across the Northeast . The club also hosts StuyMUNC , an annual conference organized and run almost entirely by the students . Stuyvesant also has a Junior State of America program ( a political debate club ) . The Stuyvesant Theater Community puts on three student @-@ run productions a year ( a fall musical , a winter drama , and a spring comedy ) as well as a one @-@ act festival and several smaller studio productions . Key Club International 's branch at Stuyvesant was founded in 1990 . With over 350 members , it is one of the largest clubs in the school .

= = = = The Spectator = = = =

The Spectator is Stuyvesant 's official in @-@ school newspaper , which is published biweekly and is independent from the school . It contains twelve sections : news , features , op @-@ ed , arts & entertainment , sports , photography , art , layout , copy , business , humor , and web . There are over 250 total staff members who help with publication . At the beginning of the fall and spring terms , there are recruitments , but interested students may join at any time .

The Spectator , founded in 1915 , is one of Stuyvesant 's oldest publications . It has a long @-@ standing connection with its older namesake , Columbia University 's Columbia Daily Spectator , and has been recognized by the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism 's Columbia Scholastic Press Association .

= = = = The Voice = = = =

The Voice was founded in the 1973 – 4 academic year as an independent publication only loosely sanctioned by school officials . It had the appearance of a magazine and gained a large readership . The Voice attracted a considerable amount of controversy and a First Amendment lawsuit , after which the administration forced it to go off @-@ campus and to turn commercial in 1975 – 6 .

In the beginning of the 1975 – 6 academic year , The Voice decided to publish the results of a confidential random survey measuring the " sexual attitudes , preferences , knowledge and experience " of the students . The administration refused to permit The Voice to distribute the questionnaire , and the Board of Education refused to intervene , believing that " irreparable psychological damage " would be occasioned on some of the students receiving it .

The editor @-@ in @-@ chief of The Voice , Jeff Trachtman , brought a First Amendment challenge to this decision in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in front of Judge Constance Baker Motley . Judge Motley , relying on the relatively recent Supreme Court precedent Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District ( holding that " undifferentiated fear or apprehension of disturbance is not enough to overcome the right to freedom of expression " ) , ordered the Board of Education to come up with an arrangement permitting the distribution of the survey to the juniors and seniors .

However , Judge Motley 's ruling was overturned on appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . Judge J. Edward Lumbard , joined by Judge Murray Gurfein and over an impassioned dissent by Judge Walter R. Mansfield , held that the distribution of the questionnaires was properly disallowed by the administration as there was " a substantial basis for defendants ' belief that distribution of the questionnaire would result in significant emotional harm to a number of students throughout the Stuyvesant population . " The Supreme Court denied certiorari review .

= = = Academic teams = = =

Stuyvesant 's academic teams include its nationally recognized Speech and Debate team , Science Olympiad , Quiz Bowl , chess , and math , which regularly compete successfully at major regional ( New York State Mathematics League ) , national ( American Regions Mathematics League ) , and international ( International Mathematical Olympiad ) tournaments , and whose members fill up a considerable percentage of the New York City Math Team . A FIRST Robotics team , StuyPulse , first competed in 2001 , and has since grown and won many regional competitions , most recently the New York Regional in 2016 , as well as winning the Curie Division at the 2016 FIRST Robotics Championship in St. Louis . Stuyvesant also has a Model United Nations team , a Junior State of America chapter , and a Model Congress team which competes at regional colleges . The Model United Nations team hosts StuyMUNC , an annual conference which takes place at Stuyvesant .

= = = SING ! = = =

The annual theater competition known as SING ! pits seniors , juniors , and " soph @-@ frosh " ( freshmen and sophomores working together ) against each other in a contest to put on the best performance . Started in 1947 at Midwood High School in Brooklyn , SING ! is a tradition at many New York City high schools . At Stuyvesant , SING ! started as a small event in 1973 and has grown to a huge school @-@ wide event — in 2005 , nearly 1 @,@ 000 students participated . The entire production is written , directed , produced , and funded by students . Their involvement ranges from being members of the production 's casts , choruses , or costume and tech crews to Irish dance , Step , Bollywood , Hip @-@ Hop , Swing , Ballet , Jazz or Latin dance groups . SING ! begins in late January to February and culminates in final performances on three nights in March / April . Scoring is done on each night 's performances and the winner is determined by the overall total .

= = Student body = =

Stuyvesant has contributed to the education of several Nobel laureates , winners of the Fields Medal and the Wolf Prize , and other accomplished alumni . In recent years , it has had the second highest number of National Merit Scholarship semi @-@ finalists , behind Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Alexandria , Virginia . Over the past nine years ( 2002 – 2010 ) , Stuyvesant has produced 103 semi @-@ finalists and 13 finalists on the Intel Science Talent Search , the second most of any secondary school in the United States .

For most of the 20th century , the student body at Stuyvesant was heavily Jewish . A significant influx of Asian students began in the 1970s . For the 2013 academic year , the student body was 72 @.@ 31 % Asian and 21 @.@ 44 % Caucasian , 1 @.@ 03 % African American , 2 @.@ 34 % Hispanic and 3 % unknown / other .

= = Notable people = =

Notable scientists among Stuyvesant alumni include mathematician Paul Cohen ( 1950 ) , string theorist Brian Greene ( 1980 ) , physicist Lisa Randall ( 1980 ) , and genomic researcher Eric Lander ( 1974 ) . Other prominent alumni include civil rights leader Robert Parris Moses , entertainers such as Thelonious Monk ( 1935 ) , and actors Lucy Liu ( 1986 ) , Tim Robbins ( 1976 ) , and James Cagney ( 1918 ) , comedian Paul Reiser ( 1973 ) and NBA basketball player and game fixer and bookmaker Jack Molinas ( 1949 ) . In business , government and politics , former United States Attorney General Eric Holder ( 1969 ) is a Stuyvesant alumnus , as are Senior Advisor to President Obama David Axelrod ( 1972 ) , former adviser to President Clinton Dick Morris ( 1964 ) , and founder of 5W Public Relations Ronn Torossian ( 1992 ) . Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning author Frank McCourt taught English at Stuyvesant before the publication of his memoirs Angela 's Ashes , ' Tis , and Teacher Man . Teacher Man 's third section , titled Coming Alive in Room 205 , concerns McCourt 's time at Stuyvesant , and mentions a number of students and faculty . New York City Council member Eva Moskowitz ( 1982 ) graduated from the school , as did the creator of the BitTorrent protocol , Bram Cohen ( 1993 ) .

Four Nobel laureates are also alumni of Stuyvesant :

Joshua Lederberg ( 1941 ) – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , 1958

Robert Fogel ( 1944 ) – Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences , 1993

Roald Hoffmann ( 1954 ) – Nobel Prize in Chemistry , 1981

Richard Axel ( 1963 ) – Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , 2004

= George S. Armstrong =

George Seale Armstrong ( May 16 , 1867 – June 9 , 1947 ) was a Canadian businessman and politician . He served on the Edmonton City Council from 1907 to 1910 and as Mayor of Edmonton from 1910 to 1912 .

Armstrong was born in what would soon become the province of Ontario in 1867 . After briefly teaching school , he entered the business industry , as a druggist . After initially gaining experience in politics on the council of Eastnor Township , he relocated west to the city of Edmonton , Alberta . In Edmonton , he established his pharmaceutical business once again and worked briefly with his brother on real estate and construction projects . In 1907 , he ran for election to the Edmonton City Council and was elected to a two @-@ year term . In 1910 , he decided to run for the mayoralty in the municipal election ; uncontested as the only nominated candidate on election day , Armstrong was acclaimed to the mayor 's chair for the upcoming year . During his term , several issues were brought up to attention , including the city 's need of a new civic building and the possibility of two new gas plants for the city .

His first term as mayor also saw the issue of possible amalgamation of the " twin cities " of Edmonton and Strathcona , an issue that had been spoken of as a possibility in the previous few years . Approved by councils of both cities , a successful plebiscite was held , and bylaws permitting the merge were passed and Edmonton 's annex of Strathcona came into effect in February 1912 . Armstrong put his name up once again in the mayoral election mandated by the agreement and defeated his rival candidate , and thus became the first post @-@ amalgamation mayor of the city of Edmonton . During his term , he introduced a new hospital , improvements to the street rail system , and commissioning a report on the expansion of the city . Another election was held later that December , and he did not stand for re @-@ election .

Armstrong later gained employment with the Edmonton post office after leaving the office of mayor , in which he would later rise to the position of postmaster , which he served in for 14 years . Armstrong also operated his drug store once again . He remained at the post office until his retirement in 1937 , and died ten years later in Edmonton at the age of 80 .

= = Early life and career = =

Armstrong was born in 1867 at Hopeville , Canada West , to William and Sarah ( née Seale ) Armstrong . After attending schools in Mount Forest , Ontario , Armstrong briefly became a schoolteacher before moving to Lion 's Head , Ontario where entered the pharmacy business . Armstrong would also spend some time at Eastnor Township , Ontario , where he served on the town council and as treasurer , from 1903 to 1905 . He then moved west and settle at the city of Edmonton , Alberta , in 1906 . That same year he opened up the Armstrong Drug Store , on Namayo Avenue and Boyle Street ( presently 97 Street and 103 Avenue ) . In his early years in Edmonton he also involved himself in several real estate ventures and construction projects along with his brother , Gordon .

= = Early political career = =

In 1906 , at a citizen 's meeting at a local store , Armstrong 's name was speculated as a possible candidate for alderman for the upcoming 1906 election . Armstrong , despite being a newcomer to the city , was open to the fact of running in the election , but ultimately did not run . Armstrong would however decide to run for council as an alderman in the 1907 election , on a platform based on assuring the availabilities of utilities to the people of Edmonton , as well as ensuring a sense of openness as a council to the people . During the time leading up to the election , he also voiced his opposition to the city 's arbitrary divisions into sections . He was elected to council for a two @-@ year term , receiving 774 votes , finishing second in a field of 12 candidates . Despite being a preferred candidate for the mayoralty in 1909 , he opted to run for council instead and was re @-@ elected for another two @-@ year term in the 1909 election . In 1910 , his name was once again speculated to run for the mayoralty of the city in the upcoming election , with many citizens approaching him to run . He later decided in favour of running , publishing an acceptance letter in the Edmonton Bulletin stating :

To the Electors of the City of Edmonton ,

Ladies and Gentleman — At the request of a large number of ratepayers I have consented to be a candidate for Mayor at the coming municipal election . My platform and address to the elctorate will appear in the press in a few days .

Respectfully yours , .

His platform would consist of the main points of leading the city out of debt , assuring the completion of city projects that were in progress before introducing news ones , and again , ensuring that utilities were available to everyone and were of high quality . He had also expressed desire to amalgamate the existing city of Edmonton with the city of Strathcona , which was divided from Edmonton by the North Saskatchewan River , situated on the south . Though former councillor William Harold Clark was urged to run by a group of citizens , Armstrong would be the only nominated mayoral candidate when nomination deadline day came , and thus he was acclaimed mayor ; the first occurrence since Kenneth W. MacKenzie was acclaimed in 1900 . Amongst his supporters for his candidacy were outgoing mayor Robert Lee and former mayor Charles May .

= = First mayoral term , 1911 = =

During his first term as mayor , Armstrong oversaw many issues that concerned the city . In March 1911 , he expressed his support for a new city hall building to be built , expressing his dissatisfaction with the existing building that housed the council and civic employees , mentioning the ever @-@ expanding number of staff . Later in that year , a committee would be formed concerning the issue , and a new structure would be planned with a planned cost of one million dollars . In July of that same year , he would sign a bylaw that would allow an American entrepreneur to establish a gas plant in the city , an issue that had been presented to council for debate several months prior . Later that year , the prospect of a municipal gas plant would also be supplied to city council . In July 1911 , when , along with the city council , he dismissed a pair of city commissioners after months of debate . The firing triggered a by @-@ election when alderman James H. McKinley would resign in protest to the action . In 1911 , he also served as a vice president of the Union of Alberta Municipalities . Involved in national and provincial affairs , he voiced his support for a canal to be constructed in the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron , stating that the presence of such canal would improve the trading relations of Canada with the United States by allowing an easier route between the two countries . He also was in favour of a hydroelectric project in the Athabasca River . Additionally , during this first term as mayor , Armstrong also oversaw the city 's festivities on George V 's coronation and moved to form a municipal purchasing department .

= = = Amalgamation of Edmonton = = =

Another issue presented to council during his first term in office was that of potential amalgamation with the city south of the North Saskatchewan River , Strathcona . Regarding the issue , Armstrong would gauge public interest as in favour of it , stating he was " satisfied that [ it ] would carry " . The particular issue had been in works as early as 1909 , when draft versions of a bylaw permitting the two cities to join where presented to each respective city council , but serious talks had not begun until this particular year . Plans for the action were set out by negotiations of a committee of both cities , reaching an agreement with conditions including an election to be held after the amalgamation law takes place , a new bridge to be constructed over the river separating the two cities , and the expansion of the street rail system to cover the land of the unified cities . It was also hoped at the time that being a larger city would lower taxes . A plebiscite was held in both Edmonton and Strathcona on September 26 , 1911 , with results at both municipalities overwhelmingly in favour of the joining of the two " twin cities " . With the law passed by council on December 19 , 1911 and approved by the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , the amalgamation was set for February 1 , 1912 , with the first combined election to take place on February 16 . The population of the new combined city would rise to over 40 @,@ 000 people .

= = Second term in office , 1912 = =

Armstrong would later declare his candidacy for that particular election ( the Edmonton municipal election , February 1912 ) , for the position of what was referred to as the first mayor of " Greater Edmonton " Stating that in his belief , 1911 was one of the most successful years in the history of the city , he ran on the premise that he had unfinished work from his first term , stating , " I ask for a continuance of your confidence , support and influence to allow me an opportunity to complete those undertakings which are in the best interests of Greater Edmonton " . His opponent , Bryce J. Saunders charged that the city had long lacked efficiency in its utilities , particular the water supply , which he believed in the public ownership of . Armstrong would later go on to defeat Saunders in the general election , 1791 votes to Saunders ' 1072 , a margin of just over 700 , with a voter turnout of around 30 percent .

During his brief second term as mayor in 1912 , Armstrong and council approved a plan to construct 110 miles of electric railway lines in the city , considered legislation permitting band concerts on Sundays , oversaw the opening of the Royal Alexandra Hospital , advocated for the availability of housing accommodations for all Edmontonians in the face of an influx of new settlers , and welcomed a visit from Governor General of Canada Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught and Strathearn to the city , planning a grand celebration . It was also in 1912 that the Hudson 's Bay Company put its Edmonton land holdings on the market , the first bridge across the North Saskatchewan River in the city 's east end opened , and that Armstrong commissioned a master plan for the newly amalgamated city , from an American firm based out of Minneapolis named Morell and Nichols . Among the suggestions in the report was the recommendation for a civic square to be built , which was opened 53 years later as Sir Winston Churchill Square . In his final week as mayor , the retiring Armstrong delivered the city 's annual report at an annual meeting , thanked the people of Edmonton for entrusting him as mayor , and advised his successor to be fiscally responsible ; stating , " If a reckless administration gets in next year , Edmonton will become a city like I was in recently , where they could not borrow enough money to clean their streets . " In the election held later that week , he would be succeeded by former mayor from 1901 – 04 , William Short , whom he supported and campaigned for . Armstrong was later honoured with an informal gathering in the city council chamber where he was presented with a gift of silverware ; with the city fire chief proclaiming that " Mayor Armstrong is bound to become a historical character " .

= = Post mayoral career = =

The year after he left office as mayor , Armstrong began work with the Edmonton post office . After being recommended for the position by city notables , he was named postmaster of the city on November 12 , 1913 . In the same year he oversaw the construction of a new building on Namayo Avenue , the Fairbairn Block , mainly for use by his business but with additional space for offices and housing in the upper levels . In 1920 , Armstrong was involved in a legal case involving his office as postmaster when he was accused in the 1919 disappearance of a sum of $ 50 @,@ 000 from the post office . Although exonerated in 1920 , he would again be arrested in 1923 and charged with theft . During the trial , it was testified that a witness had seen Armstrong on the day of the robbery , with only a paper in his hand as if he were heading out . Armstrong , who had proclaimed his innocence , and provided evidence for the trial was eventually acquitted and found not guilty of the charges in a decision made on May 29 , which was followed by an eruption of applause . Later in 1923 , Armstrong was appointed postmaster of the Strathcona ( south side ) Post Office . He remained with the post office until he retired in January 1937 . At the time of his retirement he was serving as postmaster of the south post office . In his years with the post office , he served a total of 14 years as postmaster . The Armstrong Drug Store would later go through multiple owners until its closing on December 10 , 1993 .

= = Personal life = =

Armstrong married Margaret Irene McFarlane in 1893 at Greenock ( Bruce County ) , Ontario . They had one daughter , Helen Laverne Armstrong . After Margaret died , George remarried to Jessie Mathieson at Elora , Ontario in 1897 . With her he had a son and daughter , William Sloan Seale Armstrong and Jessie Eileen Armstrong Watson . He was a member of a hospital board , the Edmonton Exhibition Board and the Masonic Order . He was affiliated with the Presbyterian Church and later the United Church of Canada , attending Robertson United Church in Edmonton , where he served as an elder . Politically , he aligned himself with the Conservative Party of Canada . In his free time he enjoyed the sports of baseball and football . He died at a hospital in Edmonton on June 9 , 1947 at the age of 80 , after an illness of two weeks . He was survived by his wife and children as well as a brother . He was later interred at the Edmonton Cemetery after his funeral held at Robertson United Church . His wife Jessie died in 1952 and was interred next to him . The Edmonton Historical Board states that Armstrong was remembered as " hardworking , fair and honest person who served our city well during a time of rapid change and growth " .

Armstrong Industrial , an Edmonton industrial park located in the northwestern part of the city near the Yellowhead Trail , is named in his honour . His former residence , located at 10050 117 Street in Edmonton was designated as a Heritage Building by the Edmonton Historical Board .

= Arizona State Route 85 =

State Route 85 ( SR 85 ) is a 128 @.@ 86 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 207 @.@ 38 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Arizona . The highway runs from the United States @-@ Mexico border near Lukeville to the north ending at Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) in Buckeye . The highway also intersects I @-@ 8 in Gila Bend and serves as a connector between I @-@ 8 and I @-@ 10 and for travelers between Phoenix and Yuma as well as San Diego . SR 85 between I @-@ 10 and I @-@ 8 , as well as I @-@ 8 between SR 85 and I @-@ 10 in Casa Grande , is touted as a bypass of the Phoenix area for long @-@ distance travelers on I @-@ 10 .

SR 85 was established in 1936 as a route between Gila Bend and Ajo . It was extended southward to the US @-@ Mexico border in 1955 , and extended northward to Phoenix when it replaced U.S. Route 80 ( US 80 ) in 1977 . The northern end of the highway was realigned in 1994 onto the connecting highway between I @-@ 10 and Buckeye . The remaining portion of the highway between Buckeye and Phoenix was gradually turned over to the cities and county along the route during the 1990s with the final portion turned over in 2001 .

= = Route description = =

The southern terminus of SR 85 is located at the United States @-@ Mexico border near Lukeville in Pima County . The road continues across the border into Mexico to the town of Sonoita as Mexican Federal Highway 8 . SR 85 heads north from the border as a two @-@ lane road , passing through the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument . The highway leaves the monument boundary and heads to a junction with SR 86 in Why . SR 86 heads east from this junction towards Tucson and southeastern Arizona . SR 85 heads northwest from this junction to the town of Ajo . From Ajo , the highway heads north and enters the Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range . While within the range , the highway enters Maricopa County . After the highway passes through the range , it continues towards the north to a junction with I @-@ 8 in Gila Bend . After passing I @-@ 8 , the highway intersects the business loop of I @-@ 8 and turns towards the east to run concurrently with business loop along Pima Street in Gila Bend . The two highways split , with the business loop heading towards the southeast and SR 85 heading northeast providing access to Gila Bend Municipal Airport

SR 85 continues north from Gila Bend towards the Phoenix Metropolitan Area . This stretch of highway north of Gila Bend is a part of the National Highway System . The highway passes near the western edge of the Sonoran Desert National Monument and also provides access to the Buckeye Hills Recreational Area . SR 85 continues northward to a crossing of the Gila River as it nears Buckeye . The highway intersects Buckeye Road which is where the original routing of US 80 and later SR 85 followed into Phoenix before being rerouted onto its current alignment . The highway continues towards the north , crossing over the Buckeye Canal before reaching its northern terminus at exit 112 on I @-@ 10 .

= = History = =

The first numbered highway along the SR 85 corridor was established in 1927 between Gila Bend and Phoenix as US 80 . At the time , it was only paved from Phoenix to Hassayampa . Although not paved between Hassayampa and Gila Bend , it was an improved road . This original routing of US 80 still exists as Old US 80 west of the SR 85 alignment . A dirt road between Gila Bend and Ajo did exist at this time , but it was not a part of the state highway system . By 1935 , the entire route of US 80 between Gila Bend and Phoenix had been paved . The road south of Gila Bend had also been improved to a gravel road .

In 1936 , SR 85 was established , but it only extended as far north as Gila Bend and as far south as Ajo . By 1938 , SR 85 had been paved as well as the portion between Ajo and Why that would eventually become part of SR 85 . The portion between Why and the border with Mexico began showing up on maps at this time as a gravel road . In 1943 , the portion of the highway between Ajo and Why was added to the state highway system , but as SR 86 , when it was extended west from Tucson to Ajo . In 1955 , the highway was extended to Lukeville at the United States @-@ Mexico border with an overlap with SR 86 between Ajo and Why when a county road was added to SR 85 .

In 1973 , the connector between I @-@ 10 and Baseline Road was established , and was redesignated in 1978 as a spur route of SR 85 . As the old , indirect US 80 was removed from Arizona , SR 85 was extended north in 1977 over the old alignment of US 80 to Buckeye and extended east to Phoenix . Portions of the route in Buckeye and Phoenix were turned over to their respective cities for maintenance in 1990 . The following year , a portion of the highway between Avondale and Phoenix was turned over to Maricopa County for maintenance . Also in 1991 , the overlap between SR 85 and SR 86 was eliminated and the western terminus of SR 86 was changed to its junction with Route 85 in Why . In 1994 , the northern end of SR 85 was moved onto the SR 85 Spur that connected to I @-@ 10 and the remaining portions along the old alignment to the east were redesignated as a temporary route of SR 85 . In 1999 , the portion of the old route in Avondale was turned over to the city for maintenance . The portion of the old route around the state capitol complex , the last remaining section of the old route between Phoenix and Buckeye , was turned over to the city of Phoenix in 2001 .

= = Future = =

The segment of SR 85 between Buckeye and Gila Bend is a connector between I @-@ 8 and I @-@ 10 , and serves both as a connector from I @-@ 8 from San Diego , California to Phoenix . This segment is being upgraded to a divided highway , and is planned to become a freeway . Most of the four @-@ lane road upgrades have already been completed .

In 2010 an environmental study into building a freeway to freeway interchange in Gila Bend from SR 85 to I @-@ 8 was completed by ADOT and the Federal Highway Administration . The study found no significant impact on the local environment and outlined a finalized full freeway standard design , bypassing the I @-@ 8 Business / Maricopa Road intersection SR 85 currently traverses through . A diamond interchange Exit 121 is planned at Maricopa Road / I @-@ 8 Business along with a second diamond interchange slightly northeast of the proposed Exit 121 .

= = Major intersections = =

The mileposts north of Gila Bend reflect the mileage of old US 80 in proximity to the California state line .

= Rugby union at the Summer Olympics =

Rugby union has been a men 's medal sport at the modern Summer Olympic Games , being played at four of the first seven competitions . The sport debuted at the 1900 Paris games where the gold medal was won by the host nation . It was subsequently featured at the London games in 1908 , the Antwerp games in 1920 and the Paris games in 1924 . The United States is the most successful nation in Olympic rugby tournaments , having won the gold medal in both 1920 and 1924 ; France has the most medals , one gold ( in 1900 ) and two silvers ( in 1920 and 1924 ) .

Shortly after the 1924 games , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) dropped rugby union as an Olympic sport . Since then there have been numerous attempts to bring the sport back to the Olympic programme . In October 2009 the IOC voted at its session in Copenhagen to include the sevens version of the sport in the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro . The event made its debut in an Olympic programme at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics .

= = Inclusion = =

The sport was introduced by Pierre de Coubertin , who is famous for reviving the modern Olympics . He also helped to establish rugby in France , refereeing the first domestic French club championship in 1892 and France 's first international , on New Year ’ s Day , 1906 , at Parc des Princes . Coubertin formed the IOC in 1894 , but rugby union was not featured until the II Olympiad .

= = = 1900 = = =

Three National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) , France , Germany and Great Britain , entered teams at the 1900 games . The German and British teams were not national teams in the current sense of the word : Moseley Wanderers RFC represented Great Britain and the Frankfurt Club represented Germany . Rules were also different from today 's ; 3 points , not 5 , were awarded for tries and 4 , not 3 , were given for a drop goal . Also , 4 points were awarded for a goal from mark , which would be reduced to 3 points in 1905 and eliminated completely in 1977 . Points for penalties and conversions , 3 and 2 respectively , were the same as in the modern game .

France won the gold , beating Great Britain 27 points to 8 and defeating Germany 27 points to 17 . Other sources list the German team as second , because of the points difference , but no such determination was made in 1900 . 6 @,@ 000 people watched the game between France and Great Britain , which was the largest crowd at the games . Constantin Henriquez , a player on the French team , is the first known coloured athlete to compete in the Olympic Games .

= = = 1908 = = =

Rugby union was not played at the 1904 games in St. Louis , nor at the 1906 Intercalated Games , but was included in 1908 , when the Olympics were held in the sport 's native country . The Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) was involved in the organization of the sport at this edition of the Olympics . Like the 1900 games , three teams entered : Australasia ( representing Australia and New Zealand ) , France , and hosts Great Britain ( which included the whole of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ) . France pulled out prior to the commencement of the tournament , being unable to field a representative team . Australasia was represented by the Wallabies , who were already on tour in Britain . As the best English and Welsh players were on tour in New Zealand at the time , Great Britain was represented by the Cornwall county team , who were chosen by the RFU as an appropriate side after they defeated Durham in the 1907 English county championship . The choice of Cornwall was controversial , as only three of their players had ever represented England and the Wallabies had defeated them 18 points to five .

As expected , Australasia defeated Great Britain , claiming the gold medal , the score being 32 points to three . The match at the White City Stadium was played under poor conditions , in fog and on a slippery field . Two of the Australian team members would later win another Olympic gold medal . Danny Carroll would win another rugby gold with the United States in 1920 , while Sydney Middleton would win a gold medal in rowing at the 1912 Games , where rugby was not on the programme . The sport also failed to appear on the provisional schedule of the 1916 Summer Olympics , which were cancelled due to World War I.

= = = 1920 = = =

A campaign to send an American side to the 1920 games in Antwerp started in California after a Berkeley rugby union touring party returned from British Columbia undefeated in 1920 . The United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) granted permission for entry . A pool of players from Stanford , Berkeley , and Santa Clara made up the squad . 1908 champion Danny Carroll , a player @-@ coach at Stanford at the time , was the team 's most prominent member . When the U.S. arrived in Antwerp , the Czechoslovakian and Romanian teams had withdrawn , leaving only France and the United States . The English RFU had decided not to enter a team , so as not to interfere with the start of the English domestic season .

The only match was played in rain in front of around 20 @,@ 000 spectators . The U.S. , featuring many players new to the sport of rugby , caused a shock by winning the only match eight points to zero , all points being scored in the second half . One of the U.S. team members , Morris Kirksey , took home two more medals from Antwerp , finishing second to Charles Paddock in the 100 meters dash , and anchoring the winning 4 × 100 meters relay team .

= = = 1924 = = =

The sport was again included in the subsequent 1924 games in Paris . The USOC decided to send a team in order to defend their gold medal . Along with the U.S. and the host nation , Romania entered . The American team was again made up of mainly Californian players , seven of whom were members of the 1920 team . The U.S. squad departed on a seven @-@ day voyage to England on an ocean liner from New York City .

The U.S. defeated Romania 37 to 0 in front of a crowd of 6 @,@ 000 . France then defeated Romania 61 to 3 and entered the final game as favorites . The gold medal game was played on 18 May in front of 21 @,@ 000 spectators at the Colombes venue , which had a large wire fence built around the field for the game . The U.S. defeated France 17 to 3 , becoming the only team to win gold twice in the sport . At the final whistle the pitch was invaded and the French team , aided by the police , did their best to protect their opponents . The medal ceremony took place with police protection – gold for the U.S. , silver for France , and bronze for Romania .

Rare vintage footage of the 1924 Gold Medal match was included in the rugby documentary , A Giant Awakens : the Rise of American Rugby . 6 + +

= = Exclusion = =

The pitch invasion at the 1924 Paris Olympics had given rugby a poor image and this , together with the problems of attracting sufficient teams to make it a viable sport and the desire to include more individual and women 's events , spelled the death knell for rugby at the Olympics .

Baron Pierre De Coubertin stepped down as head of the Olympic Movement after 1925 and with his departure the sport lost one of its major advocates . In 1928 the IOC turned down a request to stage rugby at the Amsterdam games . An exhibition tournament was held at the 1936 Berlin Games , with France , Germany , Italy and Romania competing . In what was , to date , the last rugby match played at the Olympics , France beat Germany in the final 19 to 14 .

In 1976 , 22 African countries and Guyana boycotted the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , after their demand to have New Zealand excluded was not met . A New Zealand rugby team had toured South Africa , which had been banned from the Olympics since 1964 because of its apartheid politics . Rugby union not being an Olympic sport , the IOC declined to exclude New Zealand .

= = Efforts for re @-@ inclusion = =

Italy in 1960 , the Soviet Union in 1980 , and South Korea in 1988 made requests to have rugby union brought back . The 1980 request did not pass , and the 1988 games came close but failed to see the sport 's admission , which was backed by the International Rugby Football Board ( now , World Rugby ( WR ) ) .

Apart from supporting the individual host cities ' requests , the IRB did not focus its own efforts on returning the sport to the Olympics until the early 1990s , when efforts began to reunite the two movements with a series of informal meetings between the then IRB Secretary , Keith Rowlands , and the British Olympic Association Secretary , Dick Palmer . In 1994 , when Vernon Pugh QC of Wales was elected Chairman of the IRB , the march towards Olympic recognition began in earnest . Pugh convinced the IRB Council that Olympic membership – initially as a non @-@ participation sport – would be beneficial to rugby and offer the IRB member unions membership of their National Olympic Committees . Many European Federations , such as France , Italy and Romania , had been members of their National Olympic Committees for decades . The demand to get rugby back in the Olympics mounted as more rugby nations from Africa , Asia , Oceania and the Americas joined the IRB , because it was a sport seen as providing a realistic medal opportunity for a number of smaller nations .

A significant step in the process of acceptance back into the Olympic Movement was achieved at a ceremony held in Cardiff in November 1994 , when the IRB was officially confirmed as a Recognised International Federation of the IOC . At that ceremony , International Olympic Committee President , Juan Antonio Samaranch , pointed out that rugby 's history and values were very much in tune with the Olympic philosophy and traditions . This historic meeting in Cardiff led to IRB representation at annual IOC meetings and consideration for inclusion in the programme of future Olympic Games . In 2002 , a plan was presented to induct rugby sevens , golf and the Chinese martial art of wushu .

Sevens was one of five sports that submitted a proposal to the IOC at a meeting in Singapore for inclusion in the 2012 games . The IOC stated that no sport would be added unless others were dropped . The IRB was confident that the sport would finally be included in the official Olympic programme . However , the selection of two sports out of the five nominees as potential 2012 sports went to squash and karate , as determined by a voting procedure .

Most recently , rugby sevens competed with golf for two available spaces in the 2016 Olympics . The final decision was made at the IOC Session in Copenhagen in October 2009 . The IRB used a number of high @-@ profile people and events to influence the IOC to include sevens at the 2016 games . In March 2009 , two senior delegates from the IOC attended the Rugby World Cup Sevens in Dubai at the invitation of the IRB . The event attracted 78 @,@ 000 fans over the three days and saw Wales crowned Men ’ s World Champions and Australia won the first ever Women 's World Cup .

Along with the World Cup , the IRB enlisted some of rugby ’ s biggest names to assist in the bid . In March 2009 , Jonah Lomu and Lawrence Dallaglio were announced as ambassadors for the bid and in April 2009 Waisale Serevi was unveiled as an ambassador to coincide with the Oceania National Olympic Committees ' general assembly . May 2009 saw the IRB announce that they would drop the Rugby World Cup Sevens in order to improve the chances of the sport being included . The benefit of this move would be to make the Olympics the premier event in international rugby sevens .

As well as rugby sevens , baseball and softball , which were dropped from the Olympic programme in 2005 , karate , squash , golf and roller sports ( inline speed skating ) were all seeking to be included in the 2016 games and leaders of the seven sports made formal presentations to the IOC executive board in June 2009 . A new system was in place at this session in which a sport now needs only a simple majority rather than the two @-@ thirds majority that was required before .

On 13 August 2009 it was announced that the IOC executive board was recommending rugby sevens for inclusion in the 2016 Olympic Games and on 9 October 2009 the full IOC , at its 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen , voted to include Rugby Sevens in the 2016 games .

Separate competitions for men and women will be held , using a similar format to the existing IRB Sevens World Series . The IRB had originally proposed including 12 teams of each sex , the same number as other team ball sports events . During the IRB 's presentation at the IOC Session , two IOC members asked why only 12 teams were included . IRB Chief Executive Mike Miller responded , " We followed the guidance of the Executive Members of the IOC , but if the IOC feels we should have more teams , we will add more . "

= = Results = =

= = = Games = = =

= = = Cumulative = = =

= = Nations = =

Only players who participated in at least one match are counted .

= = Notable rugby players involved in the Olympics = =

A number in other fields have also been notable rugby players , these include :

Pierre de Coubertin , founder of the modern Olympics , was a rugby fan and referee of the first ever French championship rugby union final on 20 March 1892 between Racing Club de France and Stade Français .

Jean Bouin , France and track events .

Stan Harris

Eric Liddell , Scotland and track events .

Chris MacKintosh

Heather Moyse , Canada and gold in Olympic bobsleigh .

James Cecil Parke , Ireland and track events ( also represented Ireland in cricket and golf , and as well as competing at Wimbledon and in the Davis Cup )

Noel Purcell , Ireland and gold in Olympic water polo – the first Olympic internationalist to represent two countries , Great Britain and the Irish Free State .

David Robertson ( golfer )

Jacques Rogge , Belgium international and former IOC president .

Constantin Henriquez , Haitian rugby player who won gold for France .

Attie van Heerden

Danny Crates , who has carried the torch twice at the Olympics , and is a notable Paralympian , also plays competitive rugby .

Kevin O 'Flanagan , Ireland international . Represented Ireland on the International Olympic Committee

Victor Costello , who competed for Ireland in the shot put at the 1992 Games in Barcelona before winning 39 caps for the Ireland rugby union team .

= United States Senate election in New York , 2000 =

The United States Senate election in New York in 2000 was held on November 7 , 2000 . First Lady of the United States Hillary Rodham Clinton , the first First Lady to run for political office , defeated Congressman Rick Lazio . The general election coincided with the presidential election .

The race began in November 1998 when four @-@ term incumbent New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement . Both the Democratic Party and Republican Party sought high @-@ profile candidates to compete for the open seat . By early 1999 Clinton and Mayor of New York City Rudolph Giuliani were the likely respective nominees . Clinton and her husband , President Bill Clinton , purchased a house in Chappaqua , New York , in September 1999 ; she thereby became eligible for the election , although she faced characterizations of carpetbagging since she had never resided in the state before . The lead in statewide polls swung from Clinton to Giuliani and back to Clinton as the campaigns featured both successful strategies and mistakes as well as dealing with current events . In late April and May 2000 , Giuliani 's medical , romantic , marital , and political lives all collided in a tumultuous four @-@ week period , culminating in his withdrawing from the race on May 19 .

The Republicans chose lesser @-@ known Congressman Rick Lazio to replace him . The election included a record $ 90 million in campaign expenditures between Clinton , Lazio , and Giuliani and national visibility . Clinton showed strength in normally Republican upstate areas and a debate blunder by Lazio solidified Clinton 's previously shaky support among women . Clinton won the election in November 2000 with 55 percent of the vote to Lazio 's 43 percent .

= = An open seat draws high @-@ profile candidates = =

When four @-@ term New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement in November 1998 , his previously safe Senate seat became open in the 2000 U.S. Senate election . Both parties tried to find high @-@ profile candidates to run for it .

New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani , who was prevented by term limits from running for mayoral reelection in 2001 , immediately indicated interest . Due to his high profile and visibility , Giuliani was supported by the state Republican Party , even though he had irritated many by endorsing incumbent Democratic Governor Mario Cuomo over Republican George Pataki in 1994 . Giuliani became the presumptive Republican nominee , and by April 1999 had formed a formal exploratory committee for a Senate run . There were still possible Republican primary opponents . Rick Lazio , a Congressman representing Suffolk County on Long Island , was raising money and had a candidacy announcement scheduled for August 16 ; he had openly discussed a primary against Giuliani , believing his more conservative record would be appealing to Republican primary voters . In early August , under pressure from state and national Republican figures , Pataki endorsed Giuliani . Pataki prevailed upon Lazio to forgo his candidacy , which Lazio agreed to despite frustration that Giuliani had still not officially announced that he was running ; Lazio said , " If the mayor wants to be a candidate , I think he needs to get into this race . It 's time to put the soap opera aside and step up to the plate . " Nassau County Congressman Pete King also considered running and had raised some funds .

New York Congresswoman Nita Lowey was the candidate first expected to be the Democratic nominee , while other mentioned possible candidates included Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Andrew Cuomo , New York State Comptroller Carl McCall , and New York Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney . State Democratic figures were concerned that neither Lowey nor the others had the star power to rival Giuliani , and that the seat would be lost . Late in 1998 , prominent Democratic politicians and advisors , including New York Representative Charles Rangel , urged First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton to run for the New York Senate seat . An unprecedented action if she did it , Clinton spent considerable time mulling over the idea while Lowey waited in the wings . Her political advisors told her the race would be difficult and some of them told her she would lose . She waited for the impeachment proceedings of Bill Clinton to conclude , which it did with his acquittal on February 12 , 1999 .

= = Clinton 's early campaign = =

On February 16 , 1999 , the First Lady 's office announced that she was considering running for the Senate position . Once it was clear Clinton was going to run , Lowey stepped aside , although she would be disappointed at the lost opportunity . On July 7 , 1999 , Clinton formally announced an exploratory committee for the Senate run ; the setting was Moynihan 's farm in Pindars Corners , in rural Delaware County . Bill Clinton was less than enthusiastic about her candidacy . The staging of the event was brokered by the Clintons ' political consultant Mandy Grunwald . Hillary Clinton embarked upon a " listening tour " of all parts of New York after her entrance into the race . She planned to visit all 62 counties in New York , talking to New Yorkers in small @-@ group settings according to the principles of retail politics . During the race , she spent considerable time campaigning in traditionally Republican upstate regions . Clinton faced charges of carpetbagging , since she had never resided in the State of New York nor directly participated in state politics prior to her Senate race .

Meanwhile , in September 1999 , the Clintons purchased a $ 1 @.@ 7 million , 11 @-@ room , Dutch Colonial style home in Chappaqua , New York , north of New York City . Even the commonplace activity of house hunting leading up to this was the subject of considerable media attention ; coverage of personal lives would be the norm in this contest of two " electrifying and polarizing figures " ( as one reporter put it ) . In November 1999 , Hillary Clinton announced that she would set aside most of her official duties as First Lady in order to take up residency in New York and pursue her campaign . Her move @-@ in took place in January 2000 , with the house furnished with many of the couple 's possessions from their Arkansas days . It became the first time since Woodrow Wilson 's first wife died in 1914 that a president lived in the White House without a spouse .

The early stages of her campaign were not without mistakes , and as she later wrote , " Mistakes in New York politics aren 't easily brushed aside . " In a much @-@ publicized move , Clinton donned a New York Yankees baseball cap at a June 1999 event when she had been a lifelong fan of the Chicago Cubs . This brought her much criticism , and Thomas Kuiper would later write an anti @-@ Clinton book titled : I 've Always Been a Yankees Fan : Hillary Clinton in Her Own Words . Clinton said she had to develop an American League rooting interest , since fans of the Cubs were not expected to root for the American League Chicago White Sox . In her 2003 autobiography , she said that putting on the hat had been a " bad move " , but reiterated what had been reported in the press prior to the incident , that she had been " a die @-@ hard Mickey Mantle fan ; " the book included a photograph of her with a Yankees cap on from 1992 .

More seriously , on November 11 , 1999 , at the dedication of a U.S.-funded health program in the West Bank , she exchanged kisses with Suha Arafat , wife of Palestinian President Yasser Arafat , after Suha Arafat had delivered a speech claiming that Israel had deliberately poisoned Palestinians through environmental degradation and the use of " poisonous gas " . Some Israeli supporters said that Clinton never should have kissed the wife of the Palestinian leader , especially after such inflammatory remarks . The following day , Clinton denounced Suha Arafat 's allegations , and said that Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat had told her Suha Arafat had been referring to ' tear gas ' and not ' poison gas ' . The kiss became a campaign issue , especially with Jewish voters . Clinton said it as a formality akin to a handshake , saying that to not have done so would have caused a diplomatic incident . Clinton later wrote that the live Arabic @-@ to @-@ English translation had failed to convey the accurate nature of her remarks : " Had I been aware of her hateful words , I would have denounced them on the spot . "

Somewhat surprisingly , Clinton faced an erosion of support from women voters during her campaign , with her numbers declining throughout 1999 . This was partly a typical pattern seen with women candidates where they have an early surge of female support , which then wears off , and it was partly due to her early campaign stumbles . But it also reflected the particular set of mixed feelings that women had towards Clinton 's marriage and the ambition and the power she derived from it . The problem was especially acute among some female demographics ; one of her longtime advisers later said , " Women in the educated professional class ? They fucking couldn 't stand her . We could never figure out why . We had psychologists come in . "

Clinton 's campaign to all counties , carried by a Ford conversion van , helped to defuse the carpetbagger issue , with many New York residents saying that Clinton " seems like one of us . " She discussed local issues such as price supports for the dairy industry , fares for air travel , college tuition levels , and the brain drain in parts of the state . Her political positions were well matched to the different constituencies in the state that she targeted . In a January 2000 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , she established a rapport with the host that would continue throughout her Senate years and into her 2008 presidential campaign . Clinton formally announced her official candidacy in Purchase , New York in February 2000 , adopting the simple name " Hillary " for her campaign literature .

Distrustful of the press since her husband 's 1992 presidential campaign and her early days as First Lady , she imposed limits on her availability to the press van following her . Associated Press reporter Beth Harpaz later recounted a typical day from this time : " But we 'd been told there 'd be no ' avail ' today , and we 'd accepted it . That didn 't prevent me from feeling slightly humiliated . I was so worn down and so exasperated by the lack of access and the lack of news in this campaign that I 'd given up fighting . "

= = Early campaign of Giuliani = =

An early January 1999 Marist Institute of Public Opinion poll showed Giuliani trailing Clinton by 10 points . By January 2000 , the Marist poll showed Giuliani up by 9 points . Giuliani 's tactics involved intentionally baiting the Clinton campaign with deliberate overstatements , keeping them off balance and behind in the response cycle . Giuliani emphasized his depiction of Clinton as a carpetbagger . He made a one @-@ day visit to Little Rock , Arkansas , where he announced he would fly the Arkansas state flag over New York 's City Hall . When Hillary Clinton visited New York from Washington , he said , “ I hope she knows the way . I hope she doesn ’ t get lost on one of the side streets . ” Giuliani 's campaign prepared a 315 @-@ page opposition research dossier that went back to her time at Wellesley College ; it included eleven pages of what they termed " Stupid Actions and Remarks " . The Giuliani campaign had no problems raising money , getting over 40 percent of its funds from out @-@ of @-@ state and outraising Clinton overall two @-@ to @-@ one .

The Giuliani campaign showed some structural weaknesses . So closely identified with New York City , he had somewhat limited appeal to naturally Republican voters in Upstate New York . The Farmersville Garbage Scandal was indicative of his lower levels of support upstate . By late December 1999 , Clinton adapted to Giuliani 's psychological warfare , saying in response to one such gambit , " I can ’ t be responding every time the mayor gets angry . Because that ’ s all I would do . " A February 2000 attempt by Giuliani to capitalize on a Clinton campaign event 's accidental playing of Billy Joel 's suburban drug tale " Captain Jack " led to more ridicule for him than for her .

On March 11 , 2000 , Giuliani and Clinton met face @-@ to @-@ face for the first time since the campaigning began , at the New York Inner Circle press dinner , an annual event in which New York politicians and the press corps stage skits , roast each other and make fun of themselves , with proceeds going to charity . Giuliani was on stage in male disco garb spoofing John Travolta in Saturday Night Fever , but also appeared in drag in taped video clips that reworked the " Rudy / Rudia " theme of a past Inner Circle dinner , as well as in an exchange with Joan Rivers that sought to make fun of Clinton . Other performers ' skits made fun of Clinton 's Yankees claim and the infidelity of her husband .

The New York Police Department 's fatal shooting of Patrick Dorismond on March 15 , 2000 inflamed Giuliani 's already strained relations with the city 's minority communities , and Clinton seized on it as a major campaign issue . By April , reports showed Clinton gaining upstate and generally outworking Giuliani , who stated that his duties as mayor prevented him from campaigning more . He gave priority to city duties over campaign activities . Some Giuliani aides and national Republican figures concluded that his interest in the campaign was flagging , as although he was desirous of winning in political combat against a Clinton , he was by nature an executive personality and the prospect of serving as one of a hundred legislators was unappealing to him .

By this time , Clinton was 8 to 10 points ahead of Giuliani in the polls . In retrospect , The New York Times would write that the battle so far between the two had comprised " a blistering year of mental gamesmanship , piercing attacks , contrasts in personalities and positions , and blunders , played out by two outsize political figures in a super @-@ heated atmosphere . "

= = A tumultuous four weeks = =

Giuliani 's marriage to his wife , broadcast journalist and actress Donna Hanover , had been distant since 1996 , and the two were rarely seen in public together . There had been no formal announcement of any change in their relationship , although Hanover had indicated that she and their children would not move to Washington if Giuliani won the race . Beginning in October 1999 , a new woman was being spotted at mayoral functions . By March 2000 , Giuliani had stopped wearing his wedding ring and was being seen more in the company of this other woman , including at the Inner Circle press dinner , the St. Patrick 's Day parade , and town hall meetings , but it was not yet fully clear whether the relationship was personal or professional . While this woman had become a frequent subject of insider talk among the New York political circle , she had not been mentioned in the press .

On April 20 Hanover announced that she would soon be taking over the lead role in Eve Ensler 's controversial play The Vagina Monologues . Political observers speculated that Hanover was partly engaging in a political act against her husband , as Ensler was a friend and supporter of Hillary Clinton and the role would not go over well with social conservatives within the Republican Party . Giuliani declined to say whether he would attend one of her performances . On April 22 , the New York Post obtained photographs of Giuliani openly strolling on a Manhattan street with the other woman after they left a restaurant , but did not have more than a first name for her ; the Post sat on the story , but it was clear the relationship was a personal one .

On April 26 , television channel NY1 reported that Giuliani had undergone a second round of tests for prostate cancer at Mount Sinai Medical Center ; the same disease had led to the death of his father . On April 28 , Giuliani held a news conference to announce that he did in fact have prostate cancer , but it was in an early stage . He was unsure of which of several types of treatment he might undergo , and that decision would impact whether he could stay in the senate race or not . Hanover was not present at the conference , but issued a note saying she would support him in his decision process .

As Giuliani mulled over his medical options , on May 1 Hanover announced that she was postponing her appearance in The Vagina Monologues due to " personal family circumstances . " On May 2 the New York Daily News published a brief item about Giuliani 's other woman , without name or description . On May 3 the New York Post finally published its photographs of Giuliani and the woman , now identified as Judith Nathan , leaving a restaurant together , under the front page headline " Rudy 's Mystery Brunch Pal is Upper East Side Divorcée " . ( Some observers felt that Giuliani , known for his ability to manipulate the New York media , had been eager for news of the relationship to come out . ) Later that day , Giuliani responded to a barrage of questions on the subject at a news conference by acknowledging Judith Nathan publicly for the first time , calling her " a very good friend " and expressing his annoyance that her privacy was being invaded . The next days were filled with New York media coverage on Nathan 's background and on the relationship . On May 6 Hanover held an unusually @-@ located news conference at the back of St. Patrick 's Cathedral before the funeral of Cardinal John O 'Connor ; visibly trembling , she said , " I will be supportive of Rudy in his fight against his illness , as this marriage and this man have been very precious to me . " The following day half the press tried to stake out Nathan 's known locations while the rest pestered Nathan 's hometown relatives in Hazleton , Pennsylvania ; Giuliani looked weak in a public appearance .

On May 10 , Giuliani held what The New York Times described as an " extraordinary , emotional news conference " in Bryant Park to announce that he was seeking a separation from Hanover , saying , " This is very , very painful . For quite some time it 's probably been apparent that Donna and I lead in many ways independent and separate lives . " Regarding Nathan , Giuliani said " I 'm going to need her now more than maybe I did before , " making reference to his battle with cancer and her background in nursing . Regarding the senate race , he again did not commit to a decision , saying , " I don 't really care about politics right now . I 'm thinking about my family , the people that I love and what can be done that 's honest and truthful and that protects them the best . I 'm not thinking about politics . Politics comes at least second , maybe third , maybe fourth , somewhere else . It 'll all work itself out some way politically . " Giuliani had , however , neglected to inform Hanover in advance of his announcement ; her reaction was described as distraught . Three hours later , she held her own news conference at Gracie Mansion , where she said , " Today 's turn of events brings me great sadness . I had hoped to keep this marriage together . For several years , it was difficult to participate in Rudy 's public life because of his relationship with one staff member . " In this , she was making reference to Cristyne Lategano , the former communications director for Giuliani ; Vanity Fair had reported in 1997 that Lategano and Giuliani were having an affair , which both of them had denied . Hanover continued , " Beginning last May , I made a major effort to bring us back together . Rudy and I re @-@ established some of our personal intimacy through the fall . At that point , he chose another path . "

State Republican leaders , who until now had avoided talk of replacements for Giuliani should he not run , now gave more attention to the matter , with the state party convention coming up on May 30 . Former possible contenders Rick Lazio and Pete King immediately indicated they were available ; other names mentioned included Wall Street financier Theodore J. Forstmann and Governor Pataki , although the latter indicated no interest . Giuliani continued to ponder his senate race decision ; when he had dinner with Nathan on May 12 , they were trailed by a flock of photographers . Giuliani canceled campaigning and fundraising trips to upstate New York and California on May 13 , suggesting he would not run , but then resumed fundraising and suggested he was inclined towards running on May 15 . Two Republican county chairmen became upset at the indecision , saying , " Like Waiting for Godot , we have Waiting for Rudy , " and , " We need a decision . Like tomorrow would be nice . Because this is getting ridiculous . " A top state Republican said , " He seem [ s ] to like the attention . He seems to be going through some sort of catharsis in public . And we 're like psychiatrists watching it . I can 't quite figure it out . I don 't think anybody can . " Clinton , meanwhile , said as little as possible about the situation , preferring to let Giuliani 's drama play out on its own ; on May 17 , as he huddled with his doctors over whether to choose surgery or radiation as his treatment while facing conflicting political advice from his aides , she won the unanimous approval of delegates to the Democratic Party state convention at the Pepsi Arena in Albany , New York , giving a constrained acceptance speech because she did not know her general election opponent .

Finally , on May 19 , Giuliani held what The New York Times again described as " an emotional , riveting news conference " that " reached a new level of introspection " to announce that he was dropping out of the senate race : " This is not the right time for me to run for office . If it were six months ago or it were a year from now or the timing were a little different , maybe it would be different . But it isn 't different and that 's the way life is . " He added that , " I used to think the core of me was in politics , probably . It isn 't . When you feel your mortality and your humanity you realize that , that the core of you is first of all being able to take care of your health . " He said that he would instead devote the remainder of his mayoralty trying to overcome the hostile relations he had with many of the city 's minority groups .

= = A change of Republicans : Lazio = =

While previous Republican nominee candidates and fellow Long Island Congressmen Rick Lazio and Pete King had both indicated an interest in replacing Giuliani , upon Giuliani 's withdrawal the state party quickly rallied around Lazio , who had more campaign funds and who was viewed as a potentially strong candidate . In particular , Governor Pataki — who never cared much for Giuliani to begin with — was strongly in favor of Lazio , and praised him as " fresh , unencumbered challenger " to Clinton . This also caused a shuffle in New York 's unique third @-@ party ballot @-@ line alignments : the Liberal Party of New York , which was previously set to run Giuliani ( whom they had supported in all three of his mayoral races ) , now switched to Clinton , while the Conservative Party of New York , which had previously been loath to endorse the socially liberal Giuliani ( and was set to nominate former Westchester Congressman Joe DioGuardi ) lined up behind Lazio . Lazio accepted the unanimous approval of delegates to the Republican Party state convention at a hotel ballroom in Buffalo on May 30 .

Clinton now faced a lesser @-@ known candidate in Lazio . While a relative moderate among House Republicans , Lazio had frequently supported former House Speaker Newt Gingrich , a largely despised figure among many New Yorkers . Lazio did bring to the table an ethnic suburban background familiar to many New Yorkers , and had a reputation as an energetic campaigner .

One formality left were New York 's late @-@ in @-@ the @-@ season primary elections on September 12 , which in this case merely served to ratify the state party conventions ' choices . Lazio won unopposed , while Clinton won 82 percent of the vote in easily defeating unknown Manhattan doctor Mark McMahon , who ran on the grounds that " the Clintons have tried to hijack the Democratic Party . " For her part , Clinton said that she was " surprised , in a way [ to see her name in the voting booth ] . I stood there for a minute , staring at my name . " In any case , the general election was already well underway .

= = Democratic primary results = =

= = Republican primary = =

= = = Polling = = =

= = General election = =

= = = Polling = = =

= = General election campaign = =

The contest drew considerable national attention and both candidates were well @-@ funded . By the end of the race , Democrat Clinton and Republicans Lazio and Giuliani had spent a combined $ 90 million , the most of any U.S. Senate race in history . Lazio outspent Clinton $ 40 million to $ 29 million , with Clinton also getting several million dollars in soft money from Democratic organizations . Among Clinton antagonists circles , direct mail @-@ based fundraising groups such as the Emergency Committee to Stop Hillary Rodham Clinton sprung up , sending out solicitations regarding the " carpetbagging " issue : just as one Clinton leaves office , another one runs .

Clinton secured a broad base of support , including endorsements from conservation groups and organized labor , but notably not the New York City police union which endorsed Lazio while firefighters supported Hillary . While Clinton had a solid base of support in New York City , candidates and observers expected the race to be decided in upstate New York where 45 percent of the state 's voters live . During the campaign , Clinton vowed to improve the economic picture in upstate New York , promising that her plan would deliver 200 @,@ 000 New York jobs over six years . Her plan included specific tax credits with the purpose of rewarding job creation and encouraging business investment , especially in the high @-@ tech sector . She called for targeted personal tax cuts for college tuition and long @-@ term care . Lazio faced a unique tactical problem campaigning upstate . The major issue there was the persistently weak local economy , which Lazio hoped to link to his opponent 's husband 's tenure in office . Attacks on the state of the upstate economy were frequently interpreted as criticism of incumbent Republican governor George Pataki , however , limiting the effect of this line of attack .

Opponents continued to make the carpetbagging issue a focal point throughout the race and during debates . Talk radio hammered on this , with New York @-@ based Sean Hannity issuing a daily mantra , " Name me three things Hillary Clinton has ever done for the people of New York ! " Clinton 's supporters pointed out that the state was receptive to national leaders , such as Robert F. Kennedy who was elected to the Senate in 1964 despite similar accusations . In the end , according to exit polls conducted in the race , a majority of the voters dismissed the carpetbagging issue as unimportant .

During the campaign , Independent Counsel Robert Ray filed his final reports regarding the long @-@ running Whitewater , " Travelgate " , and " Filegate " investigations of the White House , each of which included specific investigations of Hillary Clinton actions . The reports exonerated her on the files matter , said there was insufficient evidence regarding her role in Whitewater , and said that she had made factually false statements regarding the Travel Office firings but there was insufficient evidence to prosecute her . Although The New York Times editorialized that the release of the reports seemed possibly timed to coincide with the Senate election , in practice the findings were not seen as likely to sway many voters ' opinions .

A September 13 , 2000 debate between Lazio and Clinton proved important . Lazio was on the warpath against soft money and the amounts of it coming from the Democratic National Committee into Clinton 's campaign , and challenged Clinton to agree to ban soft money from both campaigns . He left his podium and waved his proposed paper agreement in Clinton 's face ; many debate viewers thought he had invaded her personal space and as a result Clinton 's support among women voters solidified .

Late in the campaign Lazio criticised Clinton for accepting campaign donations from various Arab groups in the wake of the USS Cole attack . This issue caused former New York Mayor Ed Koch to take out ads telling Lazio to " stop with the sleaze already , " and did not change the dynamic of the race .

= = Results = =

Per New York State law , Clinton and Lazio totals include their minor party line votes : Liberal Party of New York and Working Families Party for Clinton , Conservative Party for Lazio .

= = = Analysis = = =

Clinton won the election on November 7 with 55 % of the vote to Lazio 's 43 % , a difference larger than most observers had expected . Clinton won the traditionally Democratic base of New York City by large margins , and carried suburban Westchester County , but lost heavily populated Long Island , part of which Lazio represented in Congress . She won surprising victories in Upstate counties , such as Cayuga , Rensselaer , and Niagara , to which her win has been attributed .

In comparison with other results , this 12 % margin was smaller than Gore 's 25 % margin over Bush in the state Presidential contest , was slightly larger than the 10 % margin by which fellow New York senator Charles Schumer defeated incumbent Republican Al D 'Amato in the hotly contested 1998 race , but was considerably smaller than the 47 % margin by which Senator Schumer won reelection in 2004 against little @-@ known Republican challenger Howard Mills . The victory of a Democrat in the Senate election was not assured , because in recent decades the Republicans had won about half the elections for governor and senator .

Lazio 's bid was handicapped by the weak performance of George W. Bush in New York in the 2000 election , but it is also clear Hillary Clinton had made substantial inroads in upstate New York prior to Lazio 's entry into the race . Exit polls also showed a large gender gap with Clinton running stronger than expected among moderate women and unaffiliated women .

= = Post @-@ election charges = =

= = = Hasidic pardons = = =

In January 2001 , two months after Hillary Clinton 's election to the Senate , President Clinton pardoned four residents of the New Square Hasidic enclave in Rockland County , New York , who had been convicted of defrauding the federal government of $ 30 million by establishing a fictitious religious school . New Square had voted almost unanimously for Hillary Clinton in the New York Senate race . A lawyer following the matter stated that even if Hillary Clinton had promised to lobby her husband for clemency in exchange for the town 's votes — a claim for which there was no proof — it would be difficult to establish a crime had taken place : " Politicians make promises all the time . That 's nothing new — or illegal . " Hillary Clinton acknowledged sitting in on a post @-@ election meeting discussing possible clemency for the four , but said she had played no part in her husband 's decision .

A federal investigation launched to investigate various Clinton pardons , closed its investigation of the New Square matter in June 2002 by taking no action against Bill Clinton , Hillary Clinton , or any residents of New Square .

= = = Hollywood fundraiser = = =

Hillary Clinton 's former finance director , David Rosen , was indicted on January 7 , 2005 on campaign finance charges related to a fund @-@ raising event produced by Peter F. Paul . Paul , a convicted drug dealer who would soon after be convicted on stock fraud charges after being extradited from Brazil , stated that he spent $ 1 @.@ 2 million to produce the August 12 , 2000 Hollywood Gala Salute to President William Jefferson Clinton event , which was both a tribute to honor President Clinton and a fundraiser for the First Lady 's 2000 Senate campaign . The Justice Department indictment charged Rosen with filing false reports with the Federal Election Commission by reporting only $ 400 @,@ 000 in contributions . On May 27 , 2005 , the jury acquitted Rosen on all counts . On January 5 , 2006 it was reported that Clinton 's campaign group agreed to pay a $ 35 @,@ 000 fine related to the underreporting of the fundraiser 's expenses .

Peter Paul has also filed a civil suit in this matter , Paul v. Clinton . On April 10 , 2006 , the judge in charge of the case removed Hillary Clinton as a defendant , citing a lack of evidence . However , she may still be called to testify as a witness in the case . The removal was upheld by the California Second District Court of Appeal on October 16 , 2007 .

Meanwhile , by the time of Hillary Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign , a 13 @-@ minute video produced by Paul and describing his various allegations against Hillary Clinton had become quite popular on the Internet , gaining 1 @.@ 4 million hits on Google Video and about 350 @,@ 000 on YouTube in a single week in October 2007 .

= = Legacy = =

Clinton 's victory would establish her as an effective campaigner and an electoral force on her own , able to capture Republican and independent votes and overcome her polarizing image . She would easily win re @-@ election in 2006 , and in 2007 began her presidential campaign for 2008 .

Lazio gave up his House seat to run for Senate . Following his defeat , which set a record for the most money spent in a losing Senate effort , he took positions in the corporate world and avoided electoral politics until becoming a candidate in New York 's 2010 gubernatorial election . However , he was defeated by a wide margin in the Republican primary .

Giuliani would undergo treatment for his cancer and eventually recover ; he would also divorce Donna Hanover and eventually marry Judith Nathan . After his campaign withdrawal , his political future looked uncertain at best . But less than a year after the senate general election , the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attacks took place , with Giuliani still mayor . Giuliani 's performance in the aftermath of September 11 earned him many accolades and resurrected his political prospects . After a successful stint in the private sector , in 2007 he also began his presidential campaign for 2008 .

Throughout much of 2007 , Clinton and Giuliani led in national polls for their parties ' respective nominations , and media reports often looked back to the 2000 " race that wasn 't " as a preview of what might lie in wait for the entire nation in 2008 . Such extrapolating ended with the Giuliani campaign 's precipitous decline and January 2008 withdrawal . Clinton as well failed to gain the 2008 nomination and , in June 2008 , she finished in a close second place to Illinois Senator Barack Obama .

In December 2008 , Lowey would have another chance at the Senate seat , when Clinton was nominated for U.S. Secretary of State by President @-@ elect Obama and Lowey was considered a front @-@ runner to be named as her appointed replacement . But Lowey withdrew from consideration , as in the intervening years she had gained enough seniority to become one of the powerful " cardinals " on the House Appropriations Committee and did not want to relinquish that position . When Caroline Kennedy announced her interest in the vacancy , comparisons were drawn to Clinton in 2000 , with both being famous people seeking to hold elective office for the first time . Others pointed out that Clinton had won election to the office while Kennedy would first be appointed . In any case , Kennedy 's effort soon faltered , in part due to not having the same desire or willingness to work for the seat as Clinton had had , and she soon withdrew as abruptly as she had entered .

Kirsten Gillibrand received the appointment , and attention then turned to who would run against her in the 2010 Senate special election . By November 2009 , Giuliani was seriously considering a run for his old would @-@ have @-@ been Senate seat , but the following month he announced he was not running for it or anything else in 2010 , possibly signalling an end to his political career .

= The Boat Race 1981 =

The 127th Boat Race took place on 4 April 1981 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by former Oxford rower Ronnie Howard , it was won by Oxford who passed the finishing post eight lengths ahead of Cambridge , their largest margin of victory since 1898 . The race saw Oxford coxed by Sue Brown , the first female cox in the history of the event .

In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and in the Women 's Boat Race , Oxford were victorious .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by a canvas in the previous year 's race . However Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 57 . The race was sponsored for fifth time by Ladbrokes .

The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .

Christopher Dodd writing in The Guardian noted Oxford 's aggressiveness during the preparations for the race , suggesting that they were " set to humiliate their opponents if they possibly can . " Dodd went on to predict that Oxford would win by their greatest margin since the 1898 race . Meanwhile , Cambridge had reorganised their seating order the week before the race . Oxford 's boat was named after Russell Crockford who had rowed in Oxford 's successful 1978 and 1979 races . He was killed in a car accident the previous year on his way to a regatta in Australia .

Umpire Ronnie Howard modified the starting arrangements , making the boats commence the race closer together to dissuade the coxes steering into one another from the start . He warned both coxes that should they foul , he would disqualify them .

= = Crews = =

Sue Brown was selected to cox the Oxford boat , and became the first female competitor in the history of the Boat Race . Although she had learned to cox at Wadham , she had already been selected to represent Great Britain in the Women 's coxed fours at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow . She had impressed Oxford coach Dan Topolski who chose her for the Dark Blues . Her selection caused a furore ; according to Dodd , " Sue Brown must have passed before more shutters than anyone except for Lady Diana Spencer " . She was advised by Colin Moynihan who had coxed Oxford to their largest victory of the century in the 1977 race . Boris Rankov was making his fourth appearance , but this time as a junior fellow of St Hugh 's , rather than as an undergraduate at Corpus Christi . In doing so , he became the first representative of a women 's college in the men 's Boat Race .

The Oxford crew weighed an average of 13 st 8 lb ( 86 @.@ 0 kg ) , 1 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 68 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . The race saw the return of no fewer than twelve former Blues , six in each crew . Only Richard Yonge , Richard Emerton and Brown for Oxford and R. Stephens , M. Clark and Mike Cowie for Cambridge were new to the race . Graeme Hall was the Cambridge finishing coach , while Oxford 's Dan Topolski took over that role from Steve Royle two weeks prior to the race .

= = Race = =

Oxford were strong pre @-@ race favourites ; Ladbrokes themselves quoted Oxford at odds of five @-@ to @-@ one on to win . Cambridge won the toss for the first time in seven years and elected to start on the Surrey station . The race started at 1 pm under umpire Howard 's guidance . Both crews rating equally off the start , Oxford took an early lead and lead by nine seconds by the Mile Post , allowing her to move the Dark Blue boat in front of Cambridge . Pushing her crew to outrate Cambridge , Oxford extended their lead to 10 seconds by Hammersmith Bridge , 14 seconds by Chiswick Steps , 18 seconds by Barnes Bridge and 23 seconds by the finishing post . Oxford won their sixth consecutive victory by eight lengths in a time of 18 minutes 11 seconds , the largest margin of victory since the Cambridge won the 1973 race by thirteen lengths , and the largest margin of victory in the 20th century for the Dark Blues .

In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by five lengths , their second consecutive victory . In the 36th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Oxford triumphed , their second consecutive victory .

= = Reaction = =

Oxford cox Brown avoided the traditional soaking in the Thames . She later commented : " I steered extremely badly , but we still won . " Her coach Topolski said " She did a brilliant job . " Dodd , writing in The Guardian , described Oxford 's victory as " crushing " following their " undramatic and calculated performance " . Jim Railton of The Times was impressed : " Without a doubt it is one of the finest crews Oxford have ever produced , arguably the best . "

= Launch Party =

" Launch Party " is the fifth and sixth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifty @-@ eighth and fifty @-@ ninth episode overall . The episode was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by Ken Whittingham . It first aired in the United States on October 11 , 2007 on NBC .

In this episode , Dunder Mifflin prepares for the launch of their new website . Dwight tries to outsell the website , Andy makes a move for Angela , and Michael kidnaps a pizza delivery boy ( Kevin McHale ) .

= = Plot = =

In the opening scene , Michael has arranged a meeting to discuss making the Quarterly Report more exciting , unaware that the office workers are all more interested in the DVD screensaver , and believes their disappointment whenever the bouncing box on the screensaver doesn 't make it into a corner are reactions to his statements . Eventually , the box does make it into a corner , and the cheering employees all leave , to his confusion .

Dunder Mifflin is preparing a party for the launch of their new website " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " . Since Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) doesn 't want to go to the launch party , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) invites Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , who makes Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) take her place . Only after they reach New Jersey does Jim realize that Michael received an " invitation " to a chat room , not the actual party . Jim also reveals that he turned down the Corporate job that Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) accepted . Michael returns to Scranton dejected and attempts to plan a better party . This irritates party planner Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , who has already been in an exceptionally irritable mood . She viciously and patronizingly takes out her frustrations on fellow Party Planning Committee member Phyllis , who quits the committee in frustration .

Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) decides to compete against the website to see who can make more sales . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) keeps a running tally of reams sold , blowing an airhorn each time Dwight makes a sale . Irritated by the distraction , Jim and Pam plot a prank . They send Dwight instant messages pretending to be the company 's computer system , taunting Dwight to believe it has achieved self @-@ awareness . Dwight wins the challenge , but when he gloats to Angela about his victory , she rejects him outright and makes it clear that they are broken up for good . She also asks Pam to set her up with a single friend of hers . Pam , feeling sorry for Dwight , sends another message as the computer acknowledging him as a superior being . Andy later sets up a conference call with some of his old Cornell friends to serenade Angela with Take a Chance on Me ; she doesn 't agree to date him , but appears to be somewhat charmed by the spectacle .

Michael finally realizes that Ryan doesn 't respect him , and once he gets online for the party 's chat room he snaps that Dwight single @-@ handedly outsold DMI and curses at Ryan . But his emotional reactions haven 't stopped for the night : he is angered after everyone complains that he confused the office 's favorite pizza place ( Alfredo 's Pizza Cafe , which is a real restaurant in Scranton ) with a terrible pizza place ( Pizza by Alfredo , which is fictional ) . When his coupon is then refused , he takes a stand for justice and holds the teenaged delivery driver ( Kevin McHale ) hostage , with both he and Dwight acting out their frustrations about Ryan and Angela , respectively . After some time , Michael realizes he is breaking the law and lets the kid go , and then heads up to crash the party in NYC and get some sushi , with Dwight joining him . They get to enjoy a little leftover food , but Michael 's most cheered when one of the younger Corporate workers says they liked his rant against Ryan and " It was funny to see Ryan embarrassed by all that " , and heads home in good spirits .

= = Production = =

" Launch Party " was the sixth episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham . Whittingham had previously directed " Health Care " , " Michael 's Birthday " , " The Convention " , " The Merger " , and " Phyllis ' Wedding " . " Launch Party " was written by Jennifer Celotta , making it the sixth episode written by her .

According to Jennifer Celotta , the idea for the first scene of the episode where the office workers are watching a logo bounce around a television screen , came when the writers were in a room watching the DVD logo bounce around the television screen , and were arguing about whether it would ever hit the corner .

= = Reception = =

" Launch Party " received a 5 @.@ 2 Nielsen Rating and an 8 % Share . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 91 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 7 / 11 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic .

" Launch Party " received mixed reviews from critics . TV Squad 's Jay Black wondered why the writers " feel the need to veer off into increasingly more ridiculous places " , especially because The Office is " hailed by critics and adored by fans for its ability to find humor in the smallest pieces of real @-@ life human interaction " . Black did say that except for the kidnapping , he " thought tonight 's episode was the best of the season . " Travis Fickett of IGN wrote that " Launch Party " was " a very entertaining episode with some terrific moments . " Fickett did say that with all the hour @-@ long episodes " things start to feel stretched and some scenes take on a sense of redundancy and certain storylines seem to peter out before they even get going . "

= French battleship Courbet ( 1911 ) =

Courbet was the lead ship of her class , the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy . She was completed before World War I and named in honour of Admiral Amédée Courbet . She spent the war in the Mediterranean , helping to sink the Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser Zenta in August 1914 . She spent the rest of the war providing cover for the Otranto Barrage that blockaded the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea . Although upgraded several times before World War II , she was not deemed to be a first @-@ class battleship and spent most of the interwar period as a gunnery training ship .

Upon the German invasion of France , beginning on 10 May 1940 , Courbet was hastily rearmed . She supported Allied troops in the defence of Cherbourg during June , later that month taking refuge in England . As part of Operation Catapult , she was seized in Portsmouth by British forces on 3 July and was turned over to the Free French a week later . She was used as a patrol vessel depot ship and an anti @-@ aircraft ship there until 31 March 1941 when she was disarmed and hulked . Her engines and boilers were removed in 1944 to prepare her for use as a breakwater during the Normandy landings in June 1944 . She was scrapped where she lay after the war .

= = Description = =

Courbet was 166 metres ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 27 metres ( 88 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 04 metres ( 29 ft 8 in ) at the bow . She displaced 23 @,@ 475 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 100 long tons ) at standard load and 25 @,@ 579 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 180 long tons ) at full load . She proved to be rather wet in service as she was bow @-@ heavy because of the superimposed turrets forward .

Courbet had four propeller shafts powered by four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , rated at 28 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 880 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Niclausse boilers provided steam for her turbines . These boilers were coal @-@ burning with auxiliary oil sprayers . She had a designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , although she reached 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) during trials . She carried up to 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) of coal and 906 long tons ( 921 t ) of oil and could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) .

Courbet 's main armament consisted of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) Mle 1910 45 @-@ calibre guns mounted in six twin gun turrets , with two turrets superimposed fore and aft , and one on each flank of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried twenty @-@ two 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) Mle 1910 guns , which were mounted in casemates . Four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted , two on each beam . She was also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) submerged Modèle 1909 torpedo tubes with twelve torpedoes .

Courbet 's waterline armoured belt extended well below the waterline as the French were concerned about protection from underwater hits . Her main armour was also thinner than that of her British or German counterparts , but covered more area . It was 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick between the fore and aft turrets and tapered to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . It extended 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 ft 10 in ) below the normal waterline . Above the main belt was another belt , 180 mm thick , that covered the sides , and the secondary armament , up to the forecastle deck , 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) deep , between the fore and aft turrets . The conning tower had armour 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main gun turrets had 290 mm ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) of armour on their faces , 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on their sides and roofs 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Their barbettes had 280 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) of armour . There was no anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead although there was a longitudinal bulkhead abreast the machinery spaces that was used either as a coal bunker or left as a void .

= = Career = =

Courbet was built by the Arsenal de Lorient , at Lorient . Her keel was laid down on 1 September 1910 and she was launched on 23 September 1911 . She was completed on 19 November 1913 and finished her trials before World War I began the following year .

= = = World War I = = =

Courbet joined the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron of the French Mediterranean Fleet , at Toulon , upon commissioning in 1913 . She became the flagship of Vice @-@ Amiral Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère , commander of the 1st Squadron , after the beginning of the war until 12 April 1915 . Lapeyrère decided immediately on a sweep into the Adriatic to surprise the Austrian vessels enforcing a blockade of Montenegro and the Anglo @-@ French force , which included her sister ship Jean Bart , succeeded in cutting off and sinking the Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser Zenta in an engagement off Antivari on 16 August 1914 , although her accompanying destroyer managed to escape . She spent most of the rest of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until U @-@ 12 hit Jean Bart on 21 December with a torpedo . This forced the battleships to fall back to either Malta or Bizerte to cover the Otranto Barrage . After the French occupied the neutral Greek island of Corfu in 1916 she moved forward to Corfu and Argostoli , but her activities were very limited as much of her crew was used to man anti @-@ submarine ships . Before the end of the war she was fitted with seven 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) Mle 1918 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . These guns were adaptations of the famous French Mle 97 75 @-@ mm field gun .

= = = Interwar years = = =

Courbet served as Vice @-@ Amiral Charlier 's flagship between 6 June 1919 and 20 October 1920 . The following year she became a gunnery training ship at Toulon , but she suffered a serious boiler fire in June 1923 that required repairs , so she was given the first of her upgrades between 9 July 1923 and 16 April 1924 , at La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . This included replacing one set of boilers with oil @-@ fired boilers , trunking together her two forward funnels , increasing the maximum elevation of the main armament from 12 ° to 23 ° , removal of her bow armour to make her more seaworthy , the installation of a fire @-@ control director , with a 4 @.@ 57 metres ( 15 ft 0 in ) rangefinder , atop the new tripod foremast as well as the installation of an experimental 7 @.@ 6 metres ( 24 ft 11 in ) rangefinder on top of her conning tower . She had another boiler fire in August 1924 and remained under repair for the rest of the year , but resumed her duties as a gunnery training ship upon her return from the dockyard .

She was refitted again between 15 January 1927 and 12 January 1931 . This was much more extensive than her earlier refit as another set of boilers was converted to oil @-@ firing , her high and medium pressure direct @-@ drive turbines were replaced by geared turbines and her fire @-@ control systems were comprehensively upgraded . A large cruiser @-@ type fire @-@ control director was added atop the foremast with a 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m coincidence rangefinder and a 3 @-@ metre ( 9 ft 10 in ) stereo rangefinder . The rangefinder above the conning tower was replaced by a duplex unit carrying two 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinders and another 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinder was added in an armoured hood next to the main mast . Two directors for the secondary guns were added on the navigation bridge , each with a 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) coincidence rangefinder . A 8 @.@ 2 metres ( 26 ft 11 in ) rangefinder was added to the roof of ' B ' turret , the second one from the bow . Her Mle 1918 AA guns were exchanged for Mle 1922 guns and they were provided with three 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders , one on top of the duplex unit on the conning tower , one on ' B ' turret and one in the aft superstructure . The 75 @-@ mm guns had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 5 @.@ 93 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 1 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) at a rate of fire of 8 – 18 rounds per minute and had a maximum effective ceiling of 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) .

She was transferred from the gunnery school to the navigation school in 1937 , before her final refit between 1 April 1937 and 19 September 1938 that removed her torpedo tubes and overhauled her boilers . By 1939 she reverted to her role as a gunnery training ship , but she was ordered to Brest and Quiberon with her sister Paris upon the outbreak of World War II .

= = = World War II = = =

Courbet and her sister Paris formed a Fifth Squadron at the beginning of the war . They were transferred to the Atlantic to continue their training duties without interference . Both ships were ordered restored to operational status on 21 May 1940 by Amiral Mord and they were given six Hotchkiss 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) twin machine gun mounts and two single 13 @.@ 2 @-@ mm Browning machine guns at Cherbourg . Courbet was ordered to provide gunfire support to the defenders of Cherbourg against the advancing 7th Panzer Division and covered the evacuation of the town by the Allies , although the lack of spotting aircraft meant that she was not particularly effective in that role .

Courbet sailed for Portsmouth on 20 June . She was seized there , as part of Operation Catapult , by British forces on 3 July and a week later was turned over to the Free French , who used her as a depot and an anti @-@ aircraft ship in Portsmouth until 31 March 1941 when she was disarmed . Up to April 1944 she was deployed as a target ship in Scotland . At Loch Striven she was initially used as a target vessel for the " Highball " trials . " Highball " was a smaller version of " Upkeep " used in the Dambuster Raid . She remained in use as a depot and target ship until she was earmarked for use as a " Gooseberry " breakwater at Sword Beach during the Battle of Normandy . She had to be towed from Weymouth on 7 June by the British tugboats HMRT Growler and HMRT Samsonia as her engines and boilers had been removed earlier and replaced with concrete . She was scuttled on 9 June and was hit by Neger manned torpedoes during the nights of 15 – 16 and 16 – 17 August . She was scrapped in place after the war .

= I 'm That Chick =

" I 'm That Chick " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . A disco track with influences of R & B , it was written by Carey , Johntá Austin and production duo Stargate ( Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor E. Hermansen ) . It contains elements of a song called " Off the Wall " originally performed by Michael Jackson . Rod Temperton , the songs composer , received a songwriting for " I 'm That Chick " as result . The track was positively received amongst most music critics , many of whom called it the best song on the album and praised is disco composition . Carey performed " I 'm That Chick " on The Hills season premiere party , the 2008 Fashion Rocks , Canadian Idol , and included it on the set @-@ list of her eighth concert tour , The Elusive Chanteuse Show ( 2014 ) . It peaked at number 82 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .

= = Recording and composition = =

" I 'm That Chick " was written by Mariah Carey , Johntá Austin and production duo Stargate ( Mikkel S. Eriksen and Tor E. Hermansen ) for Carey 's eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . It was produced by Carey for Maroon Entertainment and by Stargate on behalf of Delirious Blacksmith Management Ltd . Copyright is held by Rye Songs which is administered by Songs of Universal ( BMI ) / Zomba Songs / Sony ATV Publishing Ltd . / EMI Music Publishing / Naked Under My Clothes / Chrysalis Music ( ASCAP ) . The song contains elements of " Off the Wall " , written by Rod Temperton in 1980 and originally performed by Michael Jackson . Temperton received as songwriting credit as a result . " Off the Wall " is published by RodSongs and administered by Almo Music Corp ( ASCAP ) . The track was recorded by Eriksen and Brian Garten at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and Honeysouth Studios in Miami , and mixed by Phil Tan for Riotproof Productions Ltd. at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta . Tan was assisted Josh Houghkirk , All instrumentation was provided for and performed by Eriksen and Hermansen . Carey performed background vocals along with Johnson and MaryAnn Tatum .

It is a disco song with R & B influences The Guardian 's Alex Macpherson noted that the R & B element borrowed from 2008 trend in the genre of using a time signature of 44 . He thought that the disco style of the song was reminiscent of some of Carey 's compositions in the beginning of her career , and believed that it was not a coincidence that Carey 's album shares its name with one released by Giorgio Moroder , a disco and EDM DJ and producer , 1979 . Carey employs a " gritty " but " effortless " " feathery vocal approach " on the track , similar to that of Jackson 's on " Off the Wall " .

= = Reception = =

Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe declared " I 'm That Chick " as the best track on the album . PopMatters writer Evan Sawdey wrote " the few times that she is handed a truly effortless stunner on E = MC2 , she absolutely knocks it out of the park " with regard to " I 'm That Chick " and " Side Effects " . He continued to write that the former " could very well be the disc ’ s highlight " , but felt that Carey sounded like an unknown popstar . However , Jayanthi Daniels of The New York Sun was critical of " I 'm That Chick " as well as " Side Effects " , describing them as " throwaway pop tracks " on a hip @-@ hop album . The Advocate 's Sara Levy called described the track as " irresistible " and a " coy surprise " , while Nick Levine of Digital Spy similarly wrote that it is " irresistible disco candy . " Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle felt that the " Off the Wall " sample " breathed life " into the track , writing that the only things which are missing are " roller skates and short @-@ shorts " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine gave a detailed evaluation of the song 's composition , comparing it to Carey 's 2001 soundtrack album Glitter and to Janet Jackson 's 2008 song " Feeback " :

'I 'm That Chick ' is a retro treatsicle in the best , most Glitter @-@ iest sense . It 's pinker than Pepto @-@ Bismol and just as soothing , and for whatever reason , Mariah 's fudged enunciation on the chorus turns ' I 'm that chick you like ' into ' I 'll have chicken , lite . ' The triumph of the song is that , when all of our dance @-@ floor divas these days seem to throw one disco @-@ descendant banger on their otherwise hip @-@ hop @-@ hybrid LPs almost out of obligation , ' I 'm That Chick ' doesn 't feel even as tokenistic as Janet 's ' Feedback ' ( which I like more , but only out of context ) .

= = Live performances = =

On March 25 , 2008 , Carey was featured as the special guest performer at The Hills season premiere party , an event marking the start of a span of ten episodes airing in between season three and four . Carey performed " Touch My Body " , " I 'm That Chick " and " We Belong Together " . After the performance , Carey received strong praise from the program 's cast members , with Lauren Conrad saying " I 've always been a huge Mariah fan , and she 's just so beautiful and talented ' , while Whitney Port and Audrina Patridge referred to Carey as " an amazing singer " , while claiming to have listened to her music from a young age . On July 22 , 2008 , Carey was announced as one of the performers at the 2008 Fashion Rocks ceremony . At the event on September 6 , 2008 , the event opened with a live performance of " Just Stand Up " , a charity single in which Carey partook alongside other female artists including Carrie Underwood . Carey later performed " I 'm That Chick " alongside several male dancers , opening the song with a spontaneous a cappella of the track 's chorus to positive critical response . A writer from Marie Claire complimented the performance , describing the rendition as " true glamtastic Mariah style " . A few days later , Carey reprised her performance of " I 'm That Chick " on Canadian Idol , along with " We Belong Together " . The track was included on the set @-@ list Carey 's eighth concert tour The Elusive Chanteuse Show in 2014 .

= = Charts = =

= Expo 67 =

The 1967 International and Universal Exposition or Expo 67 , as it was commonly known , was a general exhibition , Category One World 's Fair held in Montreal , Quebec , Canada , from April 27 to October 29 , 1967 . It is considered to be the most successful World 's Fair of the 20th century with the most attendees to that date and 62 nations participating . It also set the single @-@ day attendance record for a world 's fair , with 569 @,@ 500 visitors on its third day .

Expo 67 was Canada 's main celebration during its centennial year . The fair had been intended to be held in Moscow , to help the Soviet Union celebrate the Russian Revolution 's 50th anniversary ; however , for various reasons , the Soviets decided to cancel , and Canada was awarded it in late 1962 .

The project was not well supported in Canada at first . It took the determination of Montreal 's mayor , Jean Drapeau , and a new team of managers to guide it past political , physical and temporal hurdles . Defying a computer analysis that said it could not be done , the fair opened on time .

After Expo 67 ended in October 1967 , the site and most of the pavilions continued on as an exhibition called Man and His World , open during the summer months from 1968 until 1984 . By that time , most of the buildings — which had not been designed to last beyond the original exhibition — had deteriorated and were dismantled . Today , the islands that hosted the world exhibition are mainly used as parkland and for recreational use , with only a few remaining structures from Expo 67 to show that the event was held there .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

The idea of hosting the 1967 World Exhibition dates back to 1956 , but it was in 1958 that Conservative Senator Mark Drouin suggested during his speech at the Brussels Exhibition that Canada should host a World Exhibition to celebrate its centennial . The exposition was offered first to Toronto but politicians there rejected the idea . However , Montreal 's mayor , Sarto Fournier , backed the proposal , allowing Canada to make a bid to the Bureau International des Expositions ( BIE ) . At the BIE 's May 5 , 1960 meeting in Paris , Moscow was awarded the fair after five rounds of voting that eliminated Austria 's and then Canada 's bids . In April 1962 , the Soviets scrapped plans to host the fair because of financial constraints and security concerns . Montreal 's new mayor , Jean Drapeau , lobbied the Canadian government to try again for the fair , which they did . On November 13 , 1962 , the BIE changed the location of the World Exhibition to Canada , and Expo 67 went on to become the fourth @-@ best attended BIE @-@ sanctioned world expositions , after Shanghai , Osaka , and Paris .

Several sites were proposed as the main Expo grounds . One location that was considered was Mount Royal Park , to the north of the downtown core . But it was Drapeau 's idea to create new islands in the St. Lawrence river , and to enlarge the existing Saint Helen 's Island . The choice overcame opposition from Montreal 's surrounding municipalities , and also prevented land speculation .

= = = Key people = = =

Expo did not get off to a smooth start ; in 1963 , many top organizing committee officials resigned . The main reason for the resignations was Mayor Drapeau 's choice of the site on new islands to be created around the existing St. Helen 's Island and also that a computer program predicted that the event could not possibly be constructed in time . Another more likely reason for the mass resignations was that on April 22 , 1963 , the federal Liberal government of Prime Minister Lester Pearson took power . This meant that former Prime Minister John Diefenbaker 's Progressive Conservative government appointees to the board of directors of the Canadian Corporation for the 1967 World Exhibition were likely forced to resign .

Canadian diplomat Pierre Dupuy was named Commissioner General , after Diefenbaker appointee Paul Bienvenu resigned from the post in 1963 . One of the main responsibilities of the Commissioner General was to attract other nations to build pavilions at Expo . Dupuy would spend most of 1964 and 1965 soliciting 125 countries , spending more time abroad than in Canada . Dupuy 's ' right @-@ hand ' man was Robert Fletcher Shaw , the deputy commissioner general and vice @-@ president of the corporation . He also replaced a Diefenbaker appointee , C.F. Carsley , Deputy Commissioner General . Shaw was a professional engineer and builder , and is widely credited for the total building of the Exhibition . Dupuy hired Andrew Kniewasser as the general manager . The management group became known as Les Durs - the tough guys - and they were in charge of creating , building and managing Expo . Les Durs consisted of : Jean @-@ Claude Delorme , Legal Counsel and Secretary of the Corporation ; Dale Rediker , Director of Finances ; Colonel Edward Churchill , Director of Installations ; Philippe de Gaspé Beaubien , Director of Operations , dubbed " The Mayor of Expo " ; Pierre de Bellefeuille , Director of Exhibitors ; and Yves Jasmin , Director of Information , Advertising and Public Relations . To this group the chief architect Édouard Fiset was added . All ten were honoured by the Canadian government as recipients of the Order of Canada , Companions for Dupuy and Shaw , Officers for the others .

Jasmin wrote a book , in French , La petite histoire d 'Expo 67 , about his 45 @-@ month experience at Expo and created the Expo 67 Foundation ( available on the web site under that name ) to commemorate the event for future generations .

As historian Pierre Berton put it , the cooperation between Canada 's French- and English @-@ speaking communities " was the secret of Expo 's success — ' the Québécois flair , the English @-@ Canadian pragmatism . ' " However , Berton also points out that this is an over @-@ simplification of national stereotypes . Arguably Expo did , for a short period anyway , bridge the ' Two Solitudes.'

= = = Montebello conference produces theme = = =

In May 1963 , a group of prominent Canadian thinkers — including Alan Jarvis , director of the National Gallery of Canada ; novelists Hugh MacLennan and Gabrielle Roy ; J. Tuzo Wilson , geophysicist ; and Claude Robillard , town planner — met for three days at the Seigneury Club in Montebello , Quebec . The theme , " Man and His World " , was based on the 1939 book entitled Terre des Hommes ( translated as Wind , Sand and Stars ) by Antoine de Saint @-@ Exupéry . In Roy 's introduction to the Expo 67 corporation 's book , entitled Terre des Hommes / Man and His World , she elucidates the theme :

In Terre des Hommes , his haunting book , so filled with dreams and hopes for the future , Antoine de Saint @-@ Exupéry writes of how deeply moved he was when , flying for the first time by night alone over Argentina , he happened to notice a few flickering lights scattered below him across an almost empty plain . They " twinkled here and there , alone like stars .... " In truth , being made aware of our own solitude can give us insight into the solitude of others . It can even cause us to gravitate towards one another as if to lessen our distress . Without this inevitable solitude , would there be any fusion at all , any tenderness between human beings . Moved as he was by a heightened awareness of the solitude of all creation and by the human need for solidarity , Saint @-@ Exupéry found a phrase to express his anguish and his hope that was as simple as it was rich in meaning ; and because that phrase was chosen many years later to be the governing idea of Expo 67 , a group of people from all walks of life was invited by the Corporation to reflect upon it and to see how it could be given tangible form .

The organizers also created seventeen theme elements for Man and his World :

Du Pont Auditorium of Canada : The philosophy and scientific content of theme exhibits were presented and emphasized in this 372 seat hall .

Habitat 67

Labyrinth

Man and his Health

Man in the Community

Man the Explorer : Man , his Planet and Space ; Man and Life ; Man and the Oceans ; Man and the Polar Regions

Man the Creator : The Gallery of Fine Arts ; Contemporary Sculpture ; Industrial Design ; Photography .

Man the Producer : Resources for Man ; Man in Control ; Progress .

Man the Provider

= = = Construction begins = = =

Construction started on August 13 , 1963 , with an elaborate ceremony hosted by Mayor Drapeau on barges anchored in the St. Lawrence River . Ceremonially , construction began when Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson pulled a lever that signalled a front @-@ end loader to dump the first batch of fill to enlarge Saint Helen 's Island , and Quebec premier Jean Lesage spread the fill with a bulldozer . The 25 million tons of fill needed to construct the islands was coming from the Montreal Metro 's excavations , a public works project that was already under construction before Expo was awarded to Montreal . Expo 's initial construction period mainly centred on enlarging Saint Helen 's Island , creating the artificial island of Notre Dame Island and lengthening and enlarging the Mackay Pier which became the Cité du Havre . While construction continued , the land rising out of Montreal harbour was not owned by the Expo Corporation yet . After the final mounds of earth completed the islands , the grounds that would hold the fair were officially transferred from the City of Montreal to the corporation on June 20 , 1964 . This gave Colonel Churchill only 1042 days to have everything built and functioning for opening day . To get Expo built in time , Churchill used the then new project management tool known as the critical path method ( CPM ) . On April 28 , 1967 , opening day , everything was ready , with one exception : Habitat 67 , which was then displayed as a work in progress .

Building and enlarging the islands , along with the new Concorde Bridge built to connect them with the site @-@ specific mass transit system known as the Montreal Expo Express , plus a boat pier , cost more than the Saint Lawrence Seaway project did only five years earlier : this was even before any buildings or infrastructure were constructed . With the initial phase of construction completed , it is easy to see why the budget for the exhibition was going to be larger than anyone expected . In the fall of 1963 , Expo 's general manager , Andrew Kniewasser , presented the master plan and the preliminary budget of $ 167 million for construction : it would balloon to over $ 439 million by 1967 . The plan and budget narrowly passed a vote in Pearson 's federal cabinet , passing by one vote , and then it was officially submitted on December 23 , 1963 .

= = = Logo = = =

The logo was designed by Montreal artist Julien Hébert . The basic unit of the logo is an ancient symbol of man . Two of the symbols ( pictograms of " man " ) are linked as to represent friendship . The icon was repeated in a circular arrangement to represent " friendship around the world " . The logotype is lower @-@ case Optima font . It did not enjoy unanimous support from federal politicians , as some of them tried to kill it with a motion in the Canadian House of Commons .

= = = Theme songs = = =

The official Expo 67 theme song was composed by Stéphane Venne and was titled : " Hey Friend , Say Friend / Un Jour , Un Jour " . Complaints were made about the suitability of the song , as its lyrics mentioned neither Montreal nor Expo 67 . The song was selected from an international competition with over 2 @,@ 200 entries from 35 countries .

However , the song that most Canadians associate with Expo was written by Bobby Gimby , a veteran commercial jingle writer who composed the popular Centennial tune " Ca @-@ na @-@ da " . Gimby earned the name the " Pied Piper of Canada " .

The theme song " Something to Sing About " , used for the Canadian pavilion , had been written for a 1963 television special . The Ontario pavilion also had its own theme song : " A Place to Stand , A Place to Grow " , which has evolved to become an unofficial theme song for the province .

= = = Expo opens = = =

Official opening ceremonies were held on Thursday afternoon , April 27 , 1967 . The ceremonies were an invitation @-@ only event , held at Place des Nations . Canada 's Governor General , Roland Michener , proclaimed the exhibition open after the Expo flame was ignited by Prime Minister Pearson . On hand were over 7 @,@ 000 media and invited guests including 53 heads of state . Over 1 @,@ 000 reporters covered the event , broadcast in NTSC Colour , live via satellite , to a worldwide audience of over 700 million viewers and listeners .

Expo 67 opened to the public on the morning of Friday , April 28 , 1967 , with a space age @-@ style countdown . A capacity crowd at Place d 'Accueil participated in the atomic clock @-@ controlled countdown that ended when the exhibition opened precisely at 9 : 30 a.m. EST . An estimated crowd of between 310 @,@ 000 and 335 @,@ 000 visitors showed up for opening day , as opposed to the expected crowd of 200 @,@ 000 . The first person through the Expo gates at Place d 'Accueil was Al Carter , a 41 @-@ year @-@ old jazz drummer from Chicago , who was recognized for his accomplishment by Expo 67 's director of operations Philippe de Gaspé Beaubien . Beaubien presented Carter with a gold watch for his feat .

On opening day , there was considerable comment on the uniform of the hostesses from the UK Pavilion . The dresses had been designed to the then @-@ new miniskirt style , popularized a year earlier by Mary Quant .

In conjunction with the opening of Expo 67 , the Canadian Post Office Department issued a 5 ¢ stamp commemorating the fair , designed by Harvey Thomas Prosser .

= = = Entertainment , Ed Sullivan Show , and VIPs = = =

The World Festival of Art and Entertainment at Expo 67 featured art galleries , opera , ballet and theatre companies , orchestras , jazz groups , famous Canadian pop musicians and other cultural attractions . Many pavilions had music and performance stages , where visitors could find free concerts and shows . Most of the featured entertainment took place in the following venues : Place des Arts , Expo Theatre , Place des Nations , La Ronde , and Automotive Stadium .

The La Ronde amusement park was always intended to be a lasting legacy of the fair . Most of its rides and booths were permanent . When the Expo fairgrounds closed nightly , at around 10 : 00 p.m. , visitors could still visit La Ronde , which closed at 2 : 30 a.m.

In addition , The Ed Sullivan Show was broadcast live on May 7 and May 21 from Expo 67 . Stars on the shows included America 's The Supremes , Britain 's Petula Clark and Australia 's The Seekers .

Another attraction was the Canadian Armed Forces Tattoo 1967 at the Autostad in Montreal .

The fair was visited by many of the most notable people of the day , including Canada 's monarch , Queen Elizabeth II , Lyndon B. Johnson , Princess Grace of Monaco , Jacqueline Kennedy , Robert F. Kennedy , Ethiopia 's emperor Haile Selassie , Charles de Gaulle , Bing Crosby , Harry Belafonte , Maurice Chevalier , Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Marlene Dietrich . Musicians like Thelonious Monk , Grateful Dead , Tiny Tim , The Tokens and Jefferson Airplane entertained the crowds .

= = = Problems = = =

Despite its successes , there were problems : Front de libération du Québec militants had threatened to disrupt the exhibition , but were inactive during this period . Vietnam war protesters picketed during the opening day , April 28 . American President Lyndon B. Johnson 's visit became a focus of war protesters . Threats that the Cuba pavilion would be destroyed by anti @-@ Castro forces were not carried out . In June , the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict in the Middle East flared up again in the Six Day War , which resulted in Kuwait pulling out of the fair in protest to the way Western nations dealt with the war . The president of France , Charles De Gaulle , caused an international incident on July 24 when he addressed thousands at Montreal City Hall by yelling out the now famous words " Vive Montréal ... Vive le Québec ... Vive le Québec Libre ! "

In September , the most serious problem turned out to be a 30 @-@ day transit strike . By the end of July , estimates predicted that Expo would exceed 60 million visitors , but the strike cut deeply into attendance and revenue figures , just as the fair was cruising to its conclusion . Another major problem , beyond the control of Expo 's management , was guest accommodation and lodging . Logexpo was created to direct visitors to accommodations in the Montreal area , which usually meant that visitors would stay at the homes of people they were unfamiliar with , rather than traditional hotels or motels . The Montreal populace opened their homes to thousands of guests . Unfortunately for some visitors , they were sometimes sent to less than respectable establishments where operators took full advantage of the tourist trade . Management of Logexpo was refused to Expo and was managed by a Quebec provincial authority . Still , Expo would get most of the blame for directing visitors to these establishments . But overall , a visit to Expo from outside Montreal was still seen as a bargain .

= = = Expo ends = = =

Expo 67 closed on Sunday afternoon , October 29 , 1967 . The fair had been scheduled to close two days earlier , however a two @-@ day extension granted by the International Exhibitions Bureau allowed it to continue over the weekend . On the final day 221 @,@ 554 visitors added to the more than 50 million ( 50 @,@ 306 @,@ 648 ) that attended Expo 67 at a time when Canada 's population was only 20 million , setting a per @-@ capita record for World Exhibition attendance that still stands . Starting at 2 : 00 p.m. , Expo Commissioner General Pierre Dupuy officiated over the medal ceremony , in which participating nations and organizations received gold and silver medallions , and over the ceremony in which national flags were lowered in the reverse order to which they had been raised , with Canada 's flag lowered first and Nigeria 's lowered last . After Prime Minister Pearson doused the Expo flame , Governor General Michener closed Expo at Place des Nations with the mournful spontaneous farewell : " It is with great regret that I declare that the Universal and International Exhibition of 1967 has come to an official end . " All rides and the minirail were shut down by 3 : 50 p.m. , and the Expo grounds closed at 4 : 00 p.m. , with the last Expo Express train leaving for Place d 'Accueil at that time . A fireworks display , that went on for an hour , was Expo 's concluding event .

Expo performed better financially than expected . Expo was intended to have a deficit , shared between the federal , provincial and municipal levels of government . Significantly better @-@ than @-@ expected attendance revenue reduced the debt to well below the original estimates . The final financial statistics , in 1967 Canadian dollars , were : revenues of $ 221 @,@ 239 @,@ 872 , costs of $ 431 @,@ 904 @,@ 683 , and a deficit of $ 210 @,@ 664 @,@ 811 .

= = Pavilions = =

Expo 67 featured 90 pavilions representing Man and His World themes , nations , corporations , and industries including the U.S. pavilion , a geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller . Expo 67 also featured the Habitat 67 modular housing complex designed by architect Moshe Safdie , which was later purchased by private individuals and is still occupied .

The most popular pavilion was the Soviet Union 's exhibit . It attracted about 13 million visitors . Rounding out the top five pavilions , in terms of attendance were : the Canadian Pavilion ( 11 million visitors ) , the United States ( 9 million ) , France ( 8 @.@ 5 million ) , and Czechoslovakia ( 8 million ) .

The participating countries were

Countries conspicuously absent were Spain , South Africa , the People 's Republic of China , and many South American countries .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Man and His World ( 1968 @-@ 1984 ) = = =

After 1967 , the exposition struggled for several summer seasons as a standing collection of international pavilions known as " Man and His World " . However , as attendance declined , the physical condition of the site deteriorated , and less and less of it was open to the public . After the 1971 season , the entire Notre Dame Island site closed and three years later completely rebuilt around the new rowing and canoe sprint ( then flatwater canoeing ) basin for Montreal 's 1976 Summer Olympics . Space for the basin , the boathouses , the changing rooms and other buildings was obtained by demolishing many of the former pavilions and cutting in half the area taken by the artificial lake and the canals .

In 1976 , a fire destroyed the acrylic outer skin of Buckminster Fuller 's dome , and the previous year the Ontario pavilion was gutted by a major fire . With the site falling into disrepair , and several pavilions left abandoned and vandalized , it began to resemble ruins of a futuristic city .

In 1980 the Notre Dame Island site was reopened ( primarily for the Floralies ) making both islands simultaneously accessible again , albeit only for a brief time . Minor thematic exhibitions were held at the Atlantic pavilion and Quebec pavilion ( and continued even several years beyond ) . After the 1981 season , the Saint Helen 's Island site permanently closed , shutting out the majority of attractions . Man and His World was able to continue in a limited fashion with the small number of pavilions left standing on Notre Dame Island . However , the few remaining original exhibits closed permanently in 1984 .

= = = Park and surviving relics = = =

After the Man and His World summer exhibitions were discontinued , with most pavilions and remnants demolished between 1985 and 1986 , the former site for Expo 67 on Saint Helen 's Island and Notre Dame Island was incorporated into a municipal park run by the city of Montreal . In 2000 , the park was renamed from Parc des Îles to Parc Jean @-@ Drapeau , after Mayor Jean Drapeau , who had brought the exhibition to Montreal . In 2006 , the corporation that runs the park also changed its name from the Société du parc des Îles to the Société du parc Jean @-@ Drapeau . Two prominent buildings remain in use on the former Expo grounds : the American pavilion 's metal @-@ lattice skeleton from its Buckminster Fuller dome , now enclosing an environmental sciences museum called the Montreal Biosphère ; and Habitat 67 , now a condominium residence . Also , the French and Quebec pavilions now form the Montreal Casino . La Toundra Hall is part of the surviving structural remains of the Canadian pavilion . It is now a special events hall with dining facilities available , while another part of the pavilion serves as the administration building of Parc Jean @-@ Drapeau ( Katimavik 's distinctive inverted pyramid and much of the rest of the Canadian pavilion were dismantled during the 1970s ) .

Place des Nations , where the opening and closing ceremonies were held , remains however in an abandoned and deteriorating state . The Jamaican , Tunisian and Korean pavilion ( roof only ) and the CIBC banking centre also survive . In Cite du Havre the Expo Theatre , Administration and Fine Arts buildings remain . Other remaining structures include sculptures , lampposts and landscaping . The Montreal Metro subway station Berri Uqam still has a " Man and His World " logo and welcome sign above the pedestrian tunnel entrance to the yellow line . La Ronde survives , and since 2001 it has been leased to the New York amusement park company Six Flags . The Alcan Aquarium built for the Expo remained in operation for a number of decades until its closure in 1991 . The Expo 67 parking lot was converted into Victoria STOLport , an experimental short @-@ take off airport for a brief time in the 1970s .

Another attraction on today 's Notre Dame Island site is the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve race track that is used for the Canadian Grand Prix . The Olympic basin is used by many local rowing clubs . A beach was built on the shores of the remaining artificial lake . There are many acres of parkland and cycle paths on both Saint Helen 's Island and the western tip of Notre Dame Island . The site has been used for a number of events such as a BIE @-@ sponsored international botanical festival , Les floralies . The young trees and shrubs planted for Expo 67 are now mature . The plants introduced during the botanical events have flourished also .

= = = Expo 's lasting effects = = =

In a political and cultural context , Expo 67 was seen as a landmark moment in Canadian history . In 1968 , as a salute to the cultural impact the exhibition had on the city , Montreal 's Major League baseball team , the Expos ( now the Washington Nationals ) , was named after the event . 1967 was also the year that invited Expo guest Charles De Gaulle , on July 24 , addressed thousands at Montreal City Hall by yelling out the now famous words : " Vive Montréal ... Vive le Québec ... Vive le Québec Libre ! " ( See Vive le Québec libre speech ) . De Gaulle was rebutted in Ottawa by Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson : " Canadians do not need to be liberated , Canada will remain united and will reject any effort to destroy her unity . " In the years that followed , the tensions between the English- and French @-@ speaking communities would continue . As an early 21st @-@ century homage to the fair , satirists Bowser and Blue wrote a full @-@ length musical set at Expo 67 called The Paris of America , which ran for six sold @-@ out weeks at Centaur Theatre in Montreal in April and May 2003 .

Expo 67 was one of the most successful World Exhibitions , and is still regarded fondly by Canadians . In Montreal , 1967 is often referred to as " the last good year " before economic decline , Quebec sovereignism ( seen as negative from a federalist viewpoint ) , deteriorating infrastructure and political apathy became common . In this way , it has much in common with the 1964 @-@ 65 New York World 's Fair . In 2007 , a new group , Expo 17 , was looking to bring a smaller @-@ scale — BIE sanctioned — exposition to Montreal for Expo 67 's 50th anniversary and Canada 's sesquicentennial in 2017 . Expo 17 hoped a new world 's fair would regenerate the spirit of Canada 's landmark centennial project .

= = In popular culture = =

• An episode of the 1970s television series Battlestar Galactica , " Greetings from Earth Part 2 " , was filmed at the Expo site in 1979 . The Expo structures were used to represent a city on an alien world where the people had all been killed by a long @-@ ago war .

• The 1979 film Quintet , was shot entirely on the site of Expo during winter months , using abandoned pavilions and other ruins to portray a post @-@ apocalyptic landscape .

= = = Multimedia = = =

CBC Archives A look at the transit labour strike ( audio )

CBC Digital Archives - Expo 67 : Montreal Welcomes the World

Expo 67 - A Virtual Experience , from the website of Library and Archives Canada

Historica Minutes TV Commercial Canadian Heritage

Impressions of Expo 67 , National Film Board of Canada

= = = Other websites = = =

The Expo 67 Foundation

Expo 67 in Montreal 's extensive photo collection about the fair

Photos of 140 pavilions at Expo 67

Architecture at Expo 67

Everything you want to know about the Expo 67

The Films of Expo 67 , from Time magazine

Canadian Film Encyclopedia : Films at Expo 67

Expo 67 at ExpoMuseum

Australia at Expo 67 Montreal

Expo 67 in Montreal photo collection and links

The Expo 67 miscellany collection at Hagley Museum and Library includes a variety of publications and ephemera associated with the 1967 International and Universal Exposition .

Expo ' 67 records , 1967 , held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division , New York Public Library for the Performing Arts

= British Aerospace Sea Harrier =

The British Aerospace Sea Harrier is a naval short take @-@ off and vertical landing / vertical take @-@ off and landing jet fighter , reconnaissance and attack aircraft ; the second member of the Harrier Jump Jet family developed . It first entered service with the Royal Navy in April 1980 as the Sea Harrier FRS1 and became informally known as the " Shar " . Unusual in an era in which most naval and land @-@ based air superiority fighters were large and supersonic , the principal role of the subsonic Sea Harrier was to provide air defence of Royal Navy aircraft carriers .

The Sea Harrier served in the Falklands War , both of the Gulf Wars , and the Balkans conflicts ; on all occasions it mainly operated from aircraft carriers positioned within the conflict zone . Its usage in the Falklands War was its most high profile and important success , where it was the only fixed @-@ wing fighter available to protect the British Task Force . The Sea Harriers shot down 20 enemy aircraft during the conflict with one lost to enemy ground fire . They were also used to launch ground attacks in the same manner as the Harriers operated by the Royal Air Force .

The Sea Harrier was marketed for sales abroad , but by 1983 India was the only operator other than Britain after sales to Argentina and Australia were unsuccessful . A second , updated version for the Royal Navy was made in 1993 as the Sea Harrier FA2 , improving its air @-@ to @-@ air abilities and weapons compatibilities , along with a more powerful engine ; this version continued manufacture until 1998 . The aircraft was withdrawn from service early by the Royal Navy in 2006 . The Sea Harrier remained in service for another decade with the Indian Navy until its retirement in 2016 thus ending the career of the historic British jet .

= = Development = =

In the post @-@ war era , the Royal Navy began contracting in parallel with the break @-@ up of the British Empire overseas and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Nations , reducing the need for a larger navy . By 1960 , the last battleship , HMS Vanguard , was retired from the Navy , having been in service for less than fifteen years . Perhaps the biggest sign of the new trend towards naval austerity came in 1966 , when the planned CVA @-@ 01 class of large aircraft carriers destined for the Royal Navy was cancelled . During this time , requirements within the Royal Navy began to form for a vertical and / or short take @-@ off and landing ( V / STOL ) carrier @-@ based interceptor to replace the de Havilland Sea Vixen . Afterward , the first V / STOL tests on a ship began with a Hawker Siddeley P.1127 landing on HMS Ark Royal in 1963 .

A second concept for the future of naval aviation emerged in the early 1970s as the first of a new class of " through deck cruisers " was planned . These were very carefully and politically designated as cruisers to deliberately avoid the term " aircraft carrier " , in order to increase the chances of funding from a hostile political climate against expensive capital ships , they were considerably smaller than the previously sought CVA @-@ 01 . These ships were ordered as the Invincible class in 1973 , and are now popularly recognised as aircraft carriers . Almost immediately upon their construction , a ski @-@ jump was added to the end of the 170 @-@ metre deck , enabling the carriers to effectively operate a small number of V / STOL jets . The Royal Air Force 's Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR1s had entered service in April 1969 . A navalised variant of the Harrier was developed by Hawker Siddeley to serve on the upcoming ships , this became the Sea Harrier . In 1975 , the Royal Navy ordered 24 Sea Harrier FRS.1 ( standing for ' Fighter , Reconnaissance , Strike ' ) aircraft , the first of which entered service in 1978 . During this time Hawker Siddeley became part of British Aerospace through nationalisation in 1977 . By the time the prototype Sea Harrier was flown at Dunsfold on 20 August 1978 the order had been increased to 34 . The Sea Harrier was declared operational in 1981 on board the first Invincible class ship HMS Invincible , and further aircraft joined the ageing HMS Hermes aircraft carrier later that year .

Following their key role in the 1982 Falklands War , several lessons were learned from the aircraft 's performance , which led to approval for an upgrade of the fleet to FRS.2 ( later known as FA2 ) standard to be given in 1984 . The first flight of the prototype took place in September 1988 and a contract was signed for 29 upgraded aircraft in December that year . In 1990 , the Navy ordered 18 new @-@ build FA2s , at a unit cost of around £ 12 million , four further upgraded aircraft were ordered in 1994 . The first aircraft was delivered on 2 April 1993 .

= = Design = =

The Sea Harrier is a subsonic aircraft designed to fill strike , reconnaissance and fighter roles . It features a single Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus turbofan engine with two intakes and four vectorable nozzles . It has two landing gear on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear on the wings . The Sea Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying weapons and external fuel tanks . Use of the ski jump allowed the aircraft to take off from a short flight deck with a heavier loadout than otherwise possible , although it can also take off like a conventional loaded fighter without thrust vectoring from a normal airport runway .

The Sea Harrier was largely based on the Harrier GR3 , but was modified to have a raised cockpit with a " bubble " canopy for greater visibility , and an extended forward fuselage to accommodate the Ferranti Blue Fox radar . Parts were changed to use corrosion resistant alloys or coatings were added to protect against the marine environment . After the Falklands War , the Sea Harrier was fitted with the new anti @-@ ship Sea Eagle missile .

The Sea Harrier FA2 featured the Blue Vixen radar , which was described as one of the most advanced pulse doppler radar systems in the world ; the Blue Fox radar was seen by some critics as having comparatively low performance for what was available at the time of procurement . The Blue Vixen formed the basis for development of the Eurofighter Typhoon 's CAPTOR radar . The Sea Harrier FA2 also carried the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missile , the first UK aircraft to be provided with this capability . An upgraded model of the Pegasus engine , the Pegasus Mk 106 , was used in the Sea Harrier FA2 ; in response to the threat of radar @-@ based anti aircraft weapons electronic countermeasures were added . Other improvements included an increase to the air @-@ to @-@ air weapons load , look @-@ down radar , increased range , and improved cockpit displays .

The cockpit in the Sea Harrier includes a conventional centre stick arrangement and left @-@ hand throttle . In addition to normal flight controls , the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectorable nozzles . The nozzles point rearward with the lever in the forward position for horizontal flight . With the lever back , the nozzles point downward for vertical takeoff or landing . The usefulness of the vertical landing capability of the Sea Harrier was demonstrated in an incident on 6 June 1983 , when Sub Lieutenant Ian Watson lost contact with the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious and had to land Sea Harrier ZA176 on the foredeck of the Spanish cargo ship Alraigo .

In 2005 , although already timetabled to be retired , a Sea Harrier was modified with an ' Autoland ' system to allow the fighter to perform a safe vertical landing without any pilot interaction . Despite the pitching of a ship posing a natural problem , the system was designed to be aware of such data , and successfully performed a landing at sea in May 2005 .

= = Operational history = =

= = = Royal Navy = = =

= = = = Entry into service = = = =

The first three Sea Harriers were a development batch and were used for clearance trials . The first production aircraft was delivered to RNAS Yeovilton in 1979 to form an Intensive Flying Trials Unit ( also known as 700A Naval Air Squadron ) . In March 1980 the Intensive Flying Trials Unit became 899 Naval Air Squadron and would act as the landborne headquarters unit for the type . The first operational squadron 800 Naval Air Squadron was also formed in March 1980 initially to operate from HMS Invincible before it transferred to HMS Hermes . In January 1981 , a second operation squadron 801 Naval Air Squadron was formed to operate from HMS Invincible .

= = = = Falklands War = = = =

Sea Harriers took part in the Falklands War of 1982 , flying from the aircraft carriers HMS Invincible and HMS Hermes . The Sea Harriers performed the primary air defence role with a secondary role of ground attack ; the RAF Harrier GR3 provided the main ground attack force . A total of 28 Sea Harriers and 14 Harrier GR3s were deployed in the theatre . The Sea Harrier squadrons shot down 20 Argentine aircraft in air @-@ to @-@ air combat with no air @-@ to @-@ air losses , although two Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire and four to accidents . Out of the total Argentine air losses , 28 % were shot down by Harriers .

A number of factors contributed to the failure of the Argentinian fighters to shoot down a Sea Harrier . Although the Mirage III and Dagger jets were faster , the Sea Harrier was considerably more manoeuvrable . Moreover , the Harrier employed the latest AIM @-@ 9L Sidewinder missiles and the Blue Fox radar . Contrary to contemporary reports that " viffing " proved decisive in dogfights , the maneuver was not used by RN pilots in the Falklands as it was only used in emergencies against enemies unfamiliar with the aircraft . The British pilots had superior air @-@ combat training , one manifestation of which was that they thought they noticed Argentinian pilots occasionally releasing weapons outside of their operating parameters . This is now thought to have been Mirages releasing external fuel tanks rather than weapons , and turning away from conflict with the Sea Harrier . This later reduced their capability to fight an effective campaign against the Sea Harrier due to reduced range and lack of external fuel tanks .

British aircraft received fighter control from warships in San Carlos Water , although its effectiveness was limited by their being stationed close to the islands , which severely limited the effectiveness of their radar . The differences in tactics and training between 800 Squadron and 801 Squadron has been a point of criticism , suggesting that the losses of several ships were preventable had Sea Harriers from Hermes been used more effectively .

Both sides ' aircraft were operating in adverse conditions . Argentine aircraft were forced to operate from the mainland because airfields on the Falklands were only suited for propellor @-@ driven transports . In addition , fears partly aroused by the bombing of Port Stanley airport by a British Vulcan bomber added to the Argentinians ' decision to operate them from afar . As most Argentine aircraft lacked in @-@ flight refuelling capability , they were forced to operate at the limit of their range . The Sea Harriers also had limited fuel reserves due to the tactical decision to station the British carriers out of Exocet missile range and the dispersal of the fleet . The result was that an Argentine aircraft could only allow five minutes over the islands to search and attack an objective , while a Sea Harrier could stay near to 30 minutes waiting in the Argentine approach corridors and provide Combat Air Patrol coverage for up to an hour .

The Sea Harriers were outnumbered by the available Argentinian aircraft , and were on occasion decoyed away by the activities of the Escuadrón Fénix or civilian jet aircraft used by the Argentine Air Force . They had to operate without a fleet early warning system such as AWACS that would have been available to a full NATO fleet in which the Royal Navy had expected to operate , which was a significant weakness in the operational environment . However , it is now known that Chile did provide early radar warning to the Task Force . The result was that the Sea Harriers could not establish complete air superiority and prevent Argentine attacks during day or night , nor could they completely stop the daily C @-@ 130 Hercules transports ' night flights to the islands . A total of six Sea Harriers were lost during the war to either enemy fire , accidents or mechanical failure . The total aggregate loss rate for both the Harriers and Sea Harriers on strike operations was 2 @.@ 3 % .

= = = = Operations in the 1990s = = = =

The Sea Harrier saw action in war again when it was deployed in the 1992 – 1995 conflict in Bosnia , part of the Yugoslav Wars . It launched raids on Serb forces and provided air @-@ support for the international taskforce units conducting Operations Deny Flight and Deliberate Force against the Army of Republika Srpska . On 16 April 1994 , a Sea Harrier of the 801 Naval Air Squadron , operating from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal , was brought down by a Igla @-@ 1 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile fired by the Army of Republika Srpska while attempting to bomb two Bosnian Serb tanks . The pilot , Lieutenant Nick Richardson , ejected and landed in territory controlled by friendly Bosnian Muslims .

It was used again in the 1999 NATO campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in Operation Allied Force , Sea Harriers which operated from HMS Invincible frequently patrolled the airspace to keep Yugoslavian MiGs on the ground . They were also deployed to Sierra Leone on board HMS Illustrious in 2000 , which was itself part of a Royal Navy convoy to supply and reinforce British intervention forces in the region .

= = = = Retirement = = = =

The Sea Harrier was withdrawn from service in 2006 and the last remaining aircraft from 801 Naval Air Squadron were decommissioned on 29 March 2006 . The plans for retirement were announced in 2002 by the Ministry of Defence . The aircraft 's replacement , the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , was originally due in 2012 , the MoD arguing that significant expenditure would be required to upgrade the fleet for only six years of service . By March 2010 , the F @-@ 35 's introduction had been pushed back to 2016 at the earliest , with the price doubled . The decision to retire the Sea Harrier early has been criticised by some officers within the military .

Both versions of Harrier experienced reduced engine performance ( Pegasus Mk 106 in FA2 – Mk 105 in GR7 ) in the higher ambient temperatures of the Middle East , which restricted the weight of payload that the Harrier could return to the carrier in ' vertical ' recoveries . This was due to the safety factors associated with aircraft " land @-@ on " weights . The option to install higher @-@ rated Pegasus engines would not have been as straightforward as on the Harrier GR7 upgrade and would have likely been an expensive and slow process . Furthermore , the Sea Harriers were subject to a generally more hostile environment than land @-@ based Harriers , with corrosive salt spray a particular problem . A number of aircraft were retained by the School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose .

The Royal Navy 's Fleet Air Arm would continue to share the other component of Joint Force Harrier . Harrier GR7 and the upgraded Harrier GR9 were transferred to Royal Navy squadrons in 2006 , but were retired prematurely a few years later due to budget cuts . The UK plans to purchase the STOVL F @-@ 35B to be operated from the Royal Navy 's Future Queen Elizabeth @-@ class aircraft carrier . Although withdrawn from active Royal Navy service , Sea Harriers are used to train naval aircraft handlers at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations .

= = = Indian Navy = = =

In 1977 , the Indian government approved of plans to acquire the Sea Harrier for the Indian Navy ; prior to this , rumours reportedly were circulating of a potential Indian purchase of the Soviet V / STOL @-@ capable Yak @-@ 36 . The BAE Sea Hawk was phased out from the Indian Navy in 1978 , in preparation for the purchase of Sea Harriers . In November 1979 , India placed its first order for six Sea Harrier FRS Mk 51 fighters and two T Mk 60 Trainers ; the first three Sea Harriers arrived at Dabolim Airport on 16 December 1983 , and were inducted the same year . Ten more Sea Harriers were purchased in November 1985 ; eventually a total of 30 Harriers were procured , 25 for operational use and the remainder as dual @-@ seat trainer aircraft . Until the 1990s , significant portions of pilot training was carried out in Britain due to limited aircraft availability .

The introduction of the Sea Harrier allowed for the retirement of India 's previous carrier fighter aircraft , the Hawker Sea Hawk , as well as for the Navy 's aircraft carrier , INS Vikrant ( ex @-@ HMS Hercules ) , to be extensively modernised between 1987 and 1989 . India has operated Sea Harriers from both the aircraft carriers INS Vikrant and INS Viraat ( ex @-@ HMS Hermes ) . The Sea Harrier allowed several modern missiles to be introduced into naval operations , such as the British anti @-@ ship Sea Eagle missile , and the French Matra Magic missile for air @-@ to @-@ air combat . Other ordnance has included 68 mm rockets , runway @-@ denial bombs , cluster bombs , and podded 30 mm cannons .

There have been a significant number of accidents involving the Sea Harrier ; this accident rate has caused approximately half the fleet to be lost with only 11 fighters remaining in service . Following a crash in August 2009 , all Sea Harriers were temporarily grounded for inspection . Since the beginning of operational service in the Indian Navy , seven pilots have died in 17 crashes involving the Sea Harrier , usually during routine sorties .

In 2006 , the Indian Navy expressed interest in acquiring up to eight of the Royal Navy 's recently retired Sea Harrier FA2s in order to maintain their operational Sea Harrier fleet , Neither the Sea Harrier FA2 's Blue Vixen radar , the radar warning receiver or AMRAAM capability was proposed to be included ; certain US software would be also be uninstalled prior to shipment . By October 2006 , reports emerged that the deal had not materialised due to the cost of airframe refurbishment .

In 2006 , the Indian Navy was in the process of upgrading up to 15 Sea Harriers in collaboration with Israel by installing the Elta EL / M @-@ 2032 radar and the Rafael ' Derby ' medium @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air BVR missile . This will enable the Sea Harrier to remain in Indian service until beyond 2012 , and also see limited service off the new carriers it will acquire by that time frame . By 2009 , crashes had reduced India 's fleet to 12 ( from original 30 ) . India plans to introduce larger aircraft carriers that can operate Russian MiG @-@ 29K carrier fighters from their flight decks to replace the Sea Harrier .

The Sea Harriers operated from INS Viraat for the last time on 6 March 2016 . On 11 May 2016 , a ceremony was held at INS Hansa , Dabolim , Goa to commemorate the phasing out of Sea Harriers from INAS 300 ( " White Tigers " ) . Sea Harriers and MiG 29Ks performed an air display at the ceremony , marking the final flight of the Sea Harriers in the Indian Navy . INAS 300 subsequently inducted MiG 29K / Kub fighters to replace the retired Sea Harrier fleet .

= = Variants = =

Sea Harrier FRS.1

57 FRS1s were delivered between 1978 and 1988 ; most survivors converted to Sea Harrier FA2 specifications from 1988 .

Sea Harrier FRS.51

Single @-@ seat fighter , reconnaissance and attack aircraft made for the Indian Navy , similar to the British FRS1 . Unlike the FRS1 Sea Harrier , it is fitted with Matra R550 Magic air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . These aircraft were later upgraded with the Elta EL / M @-@ 2032 radar and the Rafael Derby BVRAAM missiles .

Sea Harrier F ( A ) .2

Upgrade of FRS1 fleet in 1988 , featuring the Blue Vixen Pulse @-@ Doppler radar and the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missile .

= = Operators = =

India

Indian Navy

Indian Naval Air Arm ( 1983 @-@ 2016 )

United Kingdom

Royal Navy

Fleet Air Arm ( 1978 – 2006 )

= = Survivors = =

A number of surviving Sea Harrier airframes are held by museums and private owners , and some others are at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose . The following is an incomplete list of some of the surviving aircraft .

India

One BAe Sea Harrier FRS 51 ( IN @-@ 621 ) preserved at the Naval Aviation Museum ( India ) in Goa , India .

United Kingdom

Nine Sea Harrier FA2s - XZ440 , ZD579 , ZE690 , ZE692 , ZH797 , ZH798 , ZH802 , ZH803 , ZH813 - are still used by the School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose , as of November 2012

Four Sea Harriers ZD611 , ZH804 and ZH811 are stored at RNAS Culdrose , as of 2012 .

Sea Harrier FA2 ZE694 is exhibited at the Midland Air Museum , Coventry .

Two Sea Harriers , an FRS1 XZ493 / 001 / N and an FA2 ( XZ499 ) are also on public display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum at Yeovilton .

Sea Harrier FA2 ZH796 moved to Cosford DSAE in April 2014

Sea Harrier FRS1 / FA2 ZA176 is preserved at the Newark Air Museum

Sea Harrier FRS1 / FA2 XZ457 is restored and on public display at Boscombe Down Aviation Collection

Sea Harrier FA2 ZA195 is displayed at the Tangmere Military Aviation Museum

Sea Harrier FA2 XZ459 is preserved by a private owner near Shoreham Airport .

Sea Harrier T.8 ZD992 was written off in an accident at Yeovilton on 16 November 2000 but was later restored to non @-@ airworthy condition by Everett Aero in Suffolk and is now believed to be privately owned in the Manchester area .

United States

Sea Harrier FA2 serial number XZ439 , Hawker @-@ Siddeley build number 912002 Nalls Aviation St Mary 's County , Maryland . The former Royal Navy Sea Harrier FA2 was purchased in 2006 by Art Nalls , who spent the next two years restoring it to flying condition . In December 2007 , it was damaged in a hard landing , while undergoing testing at Naval Air Station Patuxent River and had to be repaired . The aircraft made its first public appearance at an air show in Culpeper , Virginia in October 2008 . The aircraft is the only privately owned , civilian @-@ flown Harrier in the world . Nalls recently purchased Sea Harrier T.8 ZD993 .

= = Specifications ( Sea Harrier FA2 ) = =

Data from Wilson , Bull , Donald Spick

General characteristics

Crew : 1

Length : 46 ft 6 in ( 14 @.@ 2 m )

Wingspan : 25 ft 3 in ( 7 @.@ 6 m )

Height : 12 ft 2 in ( 3 @.@ 71 m )

Wing area : 201 @.@ 1 ft ² ( 18 @.@ 68 m ² )

Empty weight : 14 @,@ 052 lb ( 6 @,@ 374 kg )

Max. takeoff weight : 26 @,@ 200 lb ( 11 @,@ 900 kg )

Powerplant : 1 × Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus turbofan , 21 @,@ 500 lbf ( 95 @.@ 64 kN )

Performance

Maximum speed : 635 knots ( 735 mph , 1 @,@ 182 km / h )

Combat radius : 540 nmi ( 620 mi , 1 @,@ 000 km )

Ferry range : 1 @,@ 740 nmi ( 2 @,@ 000 mi , 3 @,@ 600 km )

Service ceiling : 51 @,@ 000 ft ( 16 @,@ 000 m )

Rate of climb : 50 @,@ 000 ft / min ( 250 m / s )

Armament

Guns : 2 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) ADEN cannon pods under the fuselage , with 130 rounds each

Hardpoints : 4 × under @-@ wing pylon stations , and 1 fuselage pylon on centerline plus 2 attach points for gun pods with a total capability of 8 @,@ 000 lb ( 3 @,@ 630 kg ) of payload .

Rockets : 4 × Matra rocket pods with 18 SNEB 68 mm rockets each

Missiles : Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles :

AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder

AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM

R550 Magic ( Sea Harrier FRS51 )

Air @-@ to @-@ surface missile :

ALARM anti @-@ radiation missile ( ARM )

Martel missile ARM

Anti @-@ ship missiles :

Sea Eagle

Bombs : A variety of unguided iron bombs ( including 3 kg and 14 kg practice bombs ) .

Others :

reconnaissance pods or

2 × auxiliary drop tanks for ferry flight or extended range / loitering time

Avionics

Ferranti Blue Vixen all @-@ weather airborne radar

BAE Systems AD2770 Tactical Air Navigation System

Thales MADGE Microwave Airborne Digital Guidance Equipment

Allied Signal AN / APX @-@ 100 mk12 IFF

= = Notable appearances in media = =

The Harrier 's unique characteristics have led to it being featured a number of films and video games .

= Pied currawong =

The pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) is a medium @-@ sized black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island . One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera , it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of the family Artamidae . Six subspecies are recognised . It is a robust crowlike bird averaging around 48 cm ( 19 in ) in length , black or sooty grey @-@ black in plumage with white undertail and wing patches , yellow irises , and a heavy bill . The male and female are similar in appearance . Known for its melodious calls , the species ' name currawong is believed to be of indigenous origin .

Within its range , the pied currawong is generally sedentary , although populations at higher altitudes relocate to lower areas during the cooler months . It is omnivorous , with a diet that includes a wide variety of berries and seeds , invertebrates , bird eggs and juvenile birds . It is a predator which has adapted well to urbanization and can be found in parks and gardens as well as rural woodland . The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas , although mature forests are preferred for breeding . Roosting , nesting and the bulk of foraging take place in trees , in contrast with the ground @-@ foraging behaviour of its relative , the Australian magpie .

= = Taxonomy = =

The pied currawong was first described by English ornithologist George Shaw in 1790 as Coracias strepera , although Strepera was adopted as a generic name . Its binomial names were derived from the Latin strepera , meaning " noisy " , and graculina for resembling a jackdaw . Pied crow @-@ shrike is an old vernacular name from colonial days , and the term " pied " refers to two or more colors in blotches . Other common names include pied chillawong , currawang , charawack , kurrawack , tallawong , tullawong , mutton @-@ bird , Otway forester , and pied afternoon @-@ tea bird . The onomatopoeic term currawong itself is derived from the bird 's call . However , the exact origin of the term is unclear ; the most likely antecedent is the word garrawaŋ from the indigenous Jagera language from the Brisbane region , although the Darug word gurawaruŋ from the Sydney basin is a possibility . Yungang as well as Kurrawang and Kurrawah are names from the Tharawal people of the Illawarra region .

Its closest relative is the black currawong ( S. fuliginosa ) of Tasmania , which has sometimes been considered a subspecies . Together with the larger grey currawong ( S. versicolor ) , they form the genus Strepera . Although crow @-@ like in appearance and habits , currawongs are only distantly related to true crows , and instead belong to the family Artamidae , together with the closely related Australian magpie and the butcherbirds . The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature . Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between woodswallows and butcherbirds in 1985 , and combined them into a Cracticini clade , which became the family Artamidae .

= = = Subspecies = = =

Six subspecies are currently recognised , characterised principally by differences in size and plumage . There is a steady change to the birds ' morphology and size the further south they are encountered , with lighter and more greyish plumage , larger body size , and a shorter bill . Southerly populations also show more white plumage in the tail , with less whiteness on the wing .

S. g. graculina is the nominate form , found from the Sydney region north to the Burdekin River in northern Queensland .

S. g. ashbyi , ( critically endangered ) , the western Victorian pied currawong , was described by Australian amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews in 1913 . It is threatened by hybridization with the neighbouring subspecies nebulosa whose range is expanding westwards . A 2000 estimate placed the number of breeding birds at around 250 . It resembles subspecies nebulosa , with sooty plumage , a long tail and a short bill . There is some doubt over whether ashbyi , which is little known , is a distinct subspecies or a colour morph of nebulosa . It is thought to have evolved after the two populations became separated by basalt plains in western Victoria , with the return of trees after the abandonment of regular Aboriginal burning in the late 18th century contributing to the remixing of populations . Hybrid forms have been identified in the Grampians and Yarra Valley .

S. g. crissalis , ( vulnerable ) the Lord Howe currawong was described by English naturalist Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1877 . It appears to have adapted well to human habitation on Lord Howe Island , though the population is small overall , somewhere around 70 – 80 birds . Although regarded as a subspecies , it has yet to be studied with molecular DNA techniques , which may lead to it being reclassified as a separate species .

S. g. magnirostris is found on the Cape York Peninsula to the Normanby River in northern Queensland . First described by Henry Lake White in 1923 , it has a longer and heavier bill and shorter tail than the nominate subspecies . It has been little studied to date .

S. g. robinsoni is found on the Atherton Tableland in northeastern Queensland . First described by Gregory Mathews in 1912 , it is combined with magnirostris by some authors . Little researched , it appears to be smaller than other subspecies .

S. g. nebulosa , found in southeastern New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory and central Victoria , is very similar to the nominate subspecies but has a shorter bill , longer tail and larger wing . Its upperparts are sooty black , a little paler than the nominate subspecies , and underparts sooty black to slate @-@ grey . The white patch on the primary flight feathers is also smaller . It was first defined in 1999 by ornithologists and bird taxonomists Richard Schodde and Ian Mason . There is a hybrid zone with subspecies graculina in southern and central New South Wales , from Eden north to the Illawarra region and stretching northwest to the Blue Mountains .

= = Description = =

The pied currawong is generally a black bird with white in the wing , undertail coverts , the base of the tail and most visibly , the tip of the tail . It has yellow eyes . Adult birds are 44 – 50 cm ( 17 – 20 in ) in length , with an average of around 48 cm ( 19 in ) ; the wingspan varies from 56 to 77 cm ( 22 to 30 in ) , averaging around 69 cm ( 27 in ) . Adult males average around 320 g ( 11 oz ) , females 280 g ( 10 oz ) . The wings are long and broad . The long and heavy bill is about one and a half times as long as the head and is hooked at the end . Juvenile birds have similar markings to adults but have softer and brownish plumage overall , although the white band on the tail is narrower . The upperparts are darker brown with scallops and streaks over the head and neck , and the underparts lighter brown . The eyes are dark brown and the bill dark with a yellow tip . The gape is a prominent yellow . Older birds grow darker until adult plumage is achieved , but juvenile tail markings only change to adult late in development . Birds appear to moult once a year in late summer after breeding . The pied currawong can live for over 20 years in the wild .

= = = Voice = = =

Pied currawongs are vocal birds , calling when in flight and at all times of the day . They are more noisy early in the morning and in the evening before roosting , as well as before rain . The loud distinctive call has been translated as Kadow @-@ Kadang or Curra @-@ wong . Birds also have a loud , high @-@ pitched whistle , transcribed as Wheeo . The endemic Lord Howe Island subspecies has a distinct , more melodious call .

= = = Similar species = = =

The smaller white @-@ winged chough has similar plumage but has red eyes and is found mainly on the ground . Australian crow and raven species have white eyes and lack the white rump , and the similar @-@ sized Australian magpie has red eyes and prominent black and white plumage . The larger grey currawong is readily distinguished by its lighter grey overall plumage and lack of white feathers at the base of the tail . In northwestern Victoria , the black @-@ winged currawong ( subspecies melanoptera of the grey ) does have a darker plumage than other grey subspecies , but its wings lack the white primaries of the pied currawong .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The pied currawong is common in both wet and dry sclerophyll forests , rural and semi @-@ urban environments throughout eastern Australia , from Cape York Peninsula to western Victoria and Lord Howe Island , where it occurs as an endemic subspecies . In general , the pied currawong is sedentary , although some populations from higher altitudes move to areas of lower elevation in winter . However , evidence for the extent of migration is conflicting , and the species ' movements have been little studied to date . It has adapted well to European presence , and has become more common in many areas of eastern Australia , with surveys in Nanango , Queensland , Barham , New South Wales , Geelong , Victoria , as well as the Northern Tablelands and South West Slopes regions in New South Wales , all showing an increase in population . This increase has been most marked , however , in Sydney and Canberra since the 1940s and 1960s respectively . In both cities , the species had previously been a winter resident only , but now remains year @-@ round and breeds there . They are a dominant species and common inhabitant of Sydney gardens . More recently still , a survey of the population of pied currawongs in southeastern Queensland between 1980 and 2000 had found the species had become more numerous there , including suburban Brisbane . One 1992 survey reported the total number of pied currawongs in Australia had doubled from 3 million birds in the 1960s to 6 million in the early 1990s .

The pied currawong is able to cross bodies of water of some size , as it has been recorded from Rodondo Island , which lies 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) off the coast of Wilsons Promontory in Victoria , as well as some offshore islands in Queensland . It has disappeared from Tryon , North West , Masthead and Heron Islands in the Capricorn Group on the Great Barrier Reef . The presence of the Lord Howe subspecies is possibly the result of a chance landing there .

The pied currawong 's impact on smaller birds that are vulnerable to nest predation is controversial : several studies have suggested that the species has become a serious problem , but the truth of this widely held perception was queried in a 2001 review of the published literature on their foraging habits by Bayly and Blumstein of Macquarie University , who observed that common introduced birds were more affected than native birds . However , predation by pied currawongs has been a factor in the decline of Gould 's petrel at a colony on Cabbage Tree Island , near Port Stephens in New South Wales ; currawongs have been reported preying on adult seabirds . Their removal from the islands halted a decline of the threatened petrels . Furthermore , a University of New England study published in 2006 reported that the breeding success rates for the eastern yellow robin ( Eopsaltria australis ) and scarlet robin ( Petroica boodang ) on the New England Tablelands were improved after nests were protected and currawongs culled , and some yellow robins even re @-@ colonised an area where they had become locally extinct . The presence of pied currawongs in Sydney gardens is negatively correlated with the presence of silvereyes ( Zosterops lateralis ) .

The species has been implicated in the spread of weeds by consuming and dispersing fruit and seed . In the first half of the twentieth century , pied currawongs were shot as they were considered pests of corn and strawberry crops , as well as assisting in the spread of the prickly pear . They were also shot on Lord Howe Island for attacking chickens . However , they are seen as beneficial in forestry as they consume phasmids , and also in agriculture for eating cocoons of the codling moth .

= = Behaviour = =

Pied currawongs are generally tree @-@ dwelling , hunting and foraging some metres above the ground , and thus able to share territory with the ground @-@ foraging Australian magpie . Birds roost in forested areas or large trees at night , disperse to forage in the early morning and return in the late afternoon . Although often solitary or encountered in small groups , the species may form larger flocks of fifty or more birds in autumn and winter . On the ground , a pied currawong hops or struts .

During the breeding season , pied currawongs will pair up and become territorial , defending both nesting and feeding areas . A 1994 study in Sydney 's leafy northern suburbs measured an average distance of 250 m ( 820 ft ) between nests , while another in Canberra in 1990 had three pairs in a 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) segment of pine @-@ tree lined street . Territories have been measured around 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 ha in Sydney and Wollongong , although these were restricted to nesting areas and did not include a larger feeding territory , and 7 @.@ 9 ha in Canberra . Pied currawongs vigorously drive off threats such as ravens , and engage in bill @-@ snapping , dive @-@ bombing and aerial pursuit . They adopt a specific threat display against other currawongs by lowering the head so the head and body are parallel to the ground and pointing the beak out forward , often directly at the intruder . The male predominates in threat displays and territorial defence , and guards the female closely as she builds the nest .

Flocks of birds appear to engage in play ; one routine involves a bird perching atop a tall tree , pole or spire , and others swooping , tumbling or diving and attempting to dislodge it . A successful challenger is then challenged in its turn by other birds in the flock .

The pied currawong bathes by wading into water up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) deep , squatting down , ducking its head under , and shaking its wings . It preens its plumage afterwards , sometimes applying mud or soil first . The species has also been observed anting .

= = = Feeding = = =

The pied currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , eating fruit and berries as well as preying on many invertebrates , and smaller vertebrates , mostly juvenile birds and bird eggs . Currawongs will hunt in trees , snatching birds and eggs from nests , as well as insects and berries from trees . They also hunt in the air and on the ground . Insects predominate in the diet during summer months , and fruit during the winter . They will often scavenge , eating scraps and rubbish and can be quite bold when seeking food from people , lingering around picnic areas and bird @-@ feeding trays . Beetles and ants are the most common types of insects consumed . Pied currawongs have been recorded taking mice , as well as chickens and turkeys from farms . The pied currawong consumes fruit , including a wide variety of figs , such as the Moreton Bay ( Ficus macrophylla ) , Port Jackson ( F. rubiginosa ) , Banyan ( F. virens ) and Strangler fig ( F. watkinsiana ) , as well as lillypillies ( Syzygium species ) , white cedar ( Melia azedarach ) , plum pine ( Podocarpus elatus ) , and geebungs ( Persoonia species ) . Other fruit is also sought after , and currawongs have been known to raid orchards , eating apples , pears , strawberries , grapes , stone fruit , citrus , and corn . Pied currawongs have been responsible for the spread of the invasive ornamental Asparagus aethiopicus ( often called A. densiflorus ) in the Sydney area , the weedy privet species Ligustrum lucidum and L. sinense , and firethorn species Pyracantha angustifolia and P. rogersiana around Armidale .

Birds forage singly or in pairs in summer , and more often in larger flocks in autumn and winter , during which time they are more likely to loiter around people and urban areas . They occasionally associate with Australian magpies ( Cracticus tibicen ) or common starlings ( Sturnus vulgaris ) when foraging . Birds have also been encountered with grey currawongs ( S. versicolor ) and satin bowerbirds ( Ptilinorhynchus violaceus ) . The species has been reported stealing food from other birds such as the Australian hobby ( Falco longipennis ) , collared sparrowhawk ( Accipiter cirrocephalus ) , and sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo ( Cacatua galerita ) . Pied currawongs will also harass each other . A 2007 study conducted by researchers from the Australian National University showed that white @-@ browed scrubwren ( Sericornis frontalis ) nestlings became silent when they heard the recorded sound of a pied currawong walking through leaf litter .

= = = Breeding = = =

Although found in many types of woodland , the pied currawong prefers to breed in mature forests . It builds a nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees in spring ; generally eucalypts are chosen and never isolated ones . It produces a clutch of three eggs ; they are a light pinkish @-@ brown colour ( likened by one author to that of silly putty ) with splotches of darker pink @-@ brown and lavender . Tapered oval in shape , they measure about 30 mm × 42 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) . The female broods alone . The incubation period is not well known , due to the difficulty of observing nests , but observations indicate around 30 days from laying to hatching . Like all passerines , the chicks are born naked , and blind ( altricial ) , and remain in the nest for an extended period ( nidicolous ) They quickly grow a layer of ashy @-@ grey down . Both parents feed the young , although the male does not begin to feed them directly until a few days after birth .

The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) parasitizes pied currawong nests , laying eggs which are then raised by the unsuspecting foster parents . The eggs closely resemble those of the currawong hosts . Pied currawongs have been known to desert nests once cuckoos have visited , abandoning the existing currawong young , which die , and a channel @-@ billed cuckoo has been recorded decapitating a currawong nestling . The brown goshawk ( Accipiter fasciatus ) and lace monitor ( Varanus varius ) have also been recorded taking nestlings .

= Love in This Club =

" Love in This Club " is a song by American R & B singer Usher . Featuring rapper Young Jeezy , it was released on February 22 , 2008 as the lead single from Usher 's fifth studio album , Here I Stand . The song was written by Usher , Polow da Don , Young Jeezy , Darnell Dalton , Ryon Lovett , Lamar Taylor and Keith Thomas , and produced by da Don with a Las Vegas @-@ inspired synth @-@ driven beat . Its lyrics refer to seducing someone in a nightclub . The song was originally leaked by da Don prior to its release .

" Love in This Club " received mixed reviews from critics , who praised the song 's production , but criticized it for its slow tempo and lack of originality . The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 as well as the New Zealand Singles Chart , while appearing on multiple other record charts . The accompanying music video , which received a nomination at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , features cameo appearances from several musicians . In the video , R & B singer Keri Hilson plays Usher 's love interest in a club . Usher performed the song at the 2008 BET Awards , as well as on several television programs . A remix of the song , titled " Love in This Club Part II " , features Beyoncé and Lil Wayne .

= = Background = =

Atlanta @-@ based music producer Polow da Don was inspired to create a beat during his weekend stay in Las Vegas for the MTV Video Music Awards . He said of the song , " If you listen to the beat , the synths and everything has a [ Las ] Vegas feel to it . Making love in the club , people in [ Las ] Vegas are kinda wild . " He also noted its Euro influences . When he finished working on the material , da Don felt it fit for Usher , hoping that it would keep female listeners interested in Usher 's music , as his popularity had declined among women since his marriage to stylist Tameka Foster in July 2007 . Da Don and Usher wrote the track with rapper Young Jeezy , Darnell Dalton , Ryon Lovett , Lamar Taylor and Keith Thomas , and it was recorded at Zac Recording , Atlanta and Hitland Studios , Alpharetta .

It was not originally planned for Young Jeezy to appear on the track . After hearing " Love in This Club " , he wanted to contribute to it . Da Don was skeptical , but recorded Young Jeezy 's verse . He played the new version to Usher who , enjoying the new version , allowed the verse to stay . Usher has since called Young Jeezy " one of the greatest rappers of our generation " . According to Alabama rapper Gucci Mane , it was initially intended that he feature on the track , rather than Young Jeezy .

= = Composition = =

" Love in This Club " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B slow jam , with a brass bassline , and shuddering synth @-@ driven beats that have been called " space age " and " sex @-@ drenched " by critics . It contains hip @-@ hop influences . Rap @-@ Up likened the song to Lil Jon 's song , " Lovers and Friends " , on which Usher appeared , while Fraser McAlpine of BBC Radio 1 wrote that it features vague similarities to " No Woman , No Cry " by Bob Marley . According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation at Musicnotes.com , the song is written in common time with a tempo of 70 beats per minute and follows the chord progression of C major – E minor – A minor – F major .

About.com 's Mark Edward Nero wrote that " on the song , Usher talks about a lust so immediate , so powerful , that it makes him want to get down [ and have sex ] right then and there " . The song 's chorus consists of the hook , " I wanna make love in this club " . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called the lyrics of the song " libidinous " .

= = Release and critical reception = =

Early in 2008 , several songs for Usher 's fifth studio album leaked into the Internet , including " Love in This Club " . Usher called the incident an " internal conspiracy " because it was unofficially released beyond his awareness . This also happened to the lead single " Yeah ! " off his 2004 album Confessions , which was intentionally leaked by its producer , Lil Jon , in 2003 . Polow da Don later told that he had leaked " Love in This Club " , echoing Lil John 's actions . He felt the song would be a hit , but that " it was so much back @-@ and @-@ forth between Usher and his record label " and he was tired of waiting on " label politics " . The song was released for sale on February 22 , 2008 .

The production of " Love in This Club " was praised by the Los Angeles Times , as was Usher 's vocal effort . Andy Kellman of Allmusic and Jonathan Tjarks of Austin360.com noted the song as a standout from Here I Stand . Blender rated the song two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , calling it too safe and lethargic . Digital Spy 's Nick Levine enjoyed the song , but noted its lack of originality . Jim Farber from Daily News was not impressed , writing " ' Love in This Club ' doesn 't sound like a club anthem at all . It 's too slow and quiet , and ... its smeary synth hook sounds like a planed @-@ down version of a Justin Timberlake hit . "

Young Jeezy 's addition received clashing responses from reviewers . Billboard 's Sophie Baratta was not impressed with the verse , but called the song " a catchy tune " . Bill Lamb of About.com praised the rapper 's effort , but expected better from Usher after a four @-@ year break since Confessions , writing that he is " retread [ ing ] territory familiar to fans of Akon and T @-@ Pain " , awarding the song two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars . BBC Radio 1 's Fraser McAlpine rated the song four stars out of five , but called Young Jeezy 's rap " growling " and " wheezy " .

This single ranked at number one on the " 10 Best Singles of 2008 " list by American magazine Entertainment Weekly , while Time 's Josh Tyrangiel placed it at number eight on its 2008 " Songs of Summer " list . MTV News listed the song as the fifth @-@ best R & B tune of the year , and it won the Ozone Award for Best Rap / R & B Collaboration . On " The 50 Sexiest Songs of All Time " , compiled by Billboard in 2010 , " Love in Thus Club " placed at number twenty @-@ seven .

= = Chart performance = =

" Love in This Club " debuted at number eighty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated March 1 , 2008 . The next week it moved to number fifty @-@ one , due to high airplay . The song continued to receive many spins , and in its third week it reached the top of the Hot 100 , gaining the ' Airplay Gainer ' honor the same week . Replacing " Low " by Flo Rida and T @-@ Pain , " Love in This Club " also sold 198 @,@ 000 downloads in that week . On April 5 , 2008 , the song was again named the ' Airplay Gainer ' , however it was shifted from the number @-@ one spot by Leona Lewis ' " Bleeding Love " , having spent three weeks atop the chart . It fell off on June 7 , having spent twelve weeks on the chart . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , the song first appeared on February 23 , 2008 at number fifty @-@ one making it the highest debut of the week . On April 12 it replaced Keyshia Cole 's " I Remember " at number one . After four weeks " Love in This Club " was moved from the top spot by Lil Wayne 's " Lollipop " . The song also reached number four on the Pop 100 , and has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . On the year @-@ end charts for 2008 , it was ranked number eight on the Hot 100 , number fifteen on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and number thirteen on the Pop 100 . It was also ranked number eighty @-@ five on the 2000s ' Hot 100 list , and number ninety @-@ nine on the decade @-@ end Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . As of August 1 , 2010 , " Love in This Club " has sold 2 @,@ 453 @,@ 000 units , according to Nielsen Soundscan .

Internationally , the song reached the top ten of numerous singles charts . It reached number six on the Canadian Hot 100 , number four on the UK Singles Chart , number eight on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , number three on the Irish Singles Chart , and number five on the Japan Hot 100 , and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Having been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand , it also topped the New Zealand Singles Chart , replacing " No Air " by Jordin Sparks and Chris Brown on May 5 , 2008 . After one week it was removed by Brown 's " Forever " , and was certified platinum on June 1 , 2008 . The single also found chart success in Europe , reaching number three on the European Hot 100 Singles . In individual countries , " Love in This Club " attained top @-@ ten places in Flanders , France , Germany , Norway , Slovakia , Sweden and Switzerland . It also appeared on the singles charts of Austria , Wallonia , Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Hungary , and the Netherlands . In 2008 , " Love in This Club " sold 5 @.@ 6 million digital downloads worldwide .

= = Music video = =

In February 2008 Usher said that the song 's music video would be shot " very soon " . Directed by the Brothers Strause , it features cameo appearances from Keri Hilson , Kanye West , Diddy , Nelly , Rick Ross and Robin Thicke . Hilson plays Usher 's love interest in the video . Usher 's then @-@ wife , Tameka Foster , worked as the stylist on the video set . It was alleged that Foster was upset with Hilson playing the love interest in the video , and , according to a person on the set , " Tameka dressed Keri very badly – she looked like an extra . " However , Usher 's manager , Benny Medina , reported that " Keri could not have been happier with Tameka 's choices in the styling " .

The music video starts with Usher waking up inside an empty nightclub . He calls out to see if anyone is there and sees Hilson , whom he follows into a room full of people dancing as a disc jockey starts playing music . Usher chases Hilson around the club , who at times mysteriously vanishes . The two dance intimately throughout the video at the club 's bar , dance floor and lounge . Its choreography was likened to Janet Jackson 's " Rhythm Nation " routine . The video concludes with the club burning down and Usher waking up in a valley . The storyline is continued in the " Moving Mountains " clip . During the video Usher is shown using a Sony Ericsson W350i Walkman , as part of Usher 's endorsement of the company .

The music video premiered on MTV on April 7 , 2008 , and was the fourteenth @-@ most streamed video on MTV.com in 2008 , and was nominated as the Best Male Video at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards . However , it lost to Chris Brown 's " With You " video .

= = Live performances = =

Usher sang " Love in This Club " with Young Jeezy at reality television show The Hills ' third season finale on May 12 , and again , by himself , at the finale of the sixth season of Dancing with the Stars on May 20 , 2008 . On June 23 , 2008 , at the opening of the 2008 BET Awards , Usher performed the song . Usher also appeared on television shows The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Good Morning America , where he performed the song .

= = Remix = =

A remix , " Love in This Club Part II " , was released as the second single from Here I Stand in April 2008 . Featuring vocals from R & B singer Beyoncé and rapper Lil Wayne , the sequel samples The Stylistics ' " You Are Everything " , and has a slower tempo than the original . It appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 , the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , the Canadian Hot 100 and the ARIA Singles Chart .

= = Track listings = =

= = Credits = =

Source :

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = Cover versions = =

The track was covered live by Welsh band The Automatic and was released on the 2008 compilation Radio 1 's Live Lounge – Volume 3 .

German group The Baseballs covered the song for their debut album Strike ! in 2009 .

The track was also covered by American pop punk band , The Summer Set , on their second EP , Meet Me on the Left Coast . It was released in 2008 and titled ' L.I.T.C ' .

= Banagher =

Banagher ( Beannchar na Sionna in Irish ) is a town in Republic of Ireland , located in the midlands on the western edge of County Offaly in the province of Leinster , on the banks of the River Shannon . The name Banagher comes from its Irish name , which translates to English as " the place of the pointed rocks on the Shannon " . Banagher was a town of 3 @,@ 000 people at the height of its economic growth in the mid @-@ 19th century . The current population is just over half of that figure , at about 1 @,@ 600 . Banagher has an important strategic position on the River Shannon , and was long one of the few crossing points between the provinces of Leinster and Connacht . It thus became a natural focus for many great historical buildings , including a 19th @-@ century Martello Tower and a number of important castles around the town , which were built in the 14th and 15th centuries .

The town used to be the focus of thriving river business and was an important stop on the Dublin to Limerick navigation . It supported a number of large industries , most notably a maltings and distillery , which are now defunct . Tourism has supplanted this to a certain extent with a modern marina providing support for river cruisers and watersports facilities and the town is an important angling centre , with particular attraction for pike anglers . Banagher is the centre of the Shannon Callows , grassy meadows which flood in winter and provide living space for myriads of waterfowl .

A number of notable literary figures have stayed at Banagher , including Anthony Trollope , who used the town as an inspiration for his first novel The Macdermots of Ballycloran and Charlotte Brontë who married a curate who was raised in Banagher . The town is the source of the well @-@ known phrase : " Well , that beats Banagher ! "

= = Governance and administrative units = =

Banagher lies in the local council area of Offaly County Council . Local authorities have responsibility for such matters as planning , local roads , sanitation , and libraries . The Council is an elected body of 21 members with councillors elected from four electoral areas in the county . Banagher lies in the Birr electoral area , which can return 5 members to the council .

The town lies in the Barony of Garrycastle ( Garraí an Chaisleáin ) and was in the poor law union of Birr . Divided by the road to Birr from Eyrecourt , its eastern part lies in the townland of Curraghavarna and Portavrolla and its western part in the townland of Banagher or Kylebeg .

Banagher is in the Roman Catholic parish of Gallen and Rynagh ( Reynagh ) which lies in the diocese of Ardagh and Clonmacnoise . The diocese is in the Archdiocese of Armagh in the ecclesiastical province of Armagh . It is in the Church of Ireland parish group of Clonfert Cathedral which is in the Diocese of Limerick and Killaloe , part of the ecclesiastical province of Dublin .

= = History = =

It is thought that St. Rynagh ( also Reynagh , Rinagh ) , who founded Banagher and after whom the parish is named , was a sister of St. Finnian of Clonard . According to research , they came from a place near New Ross in County Wexford . It is known that contact was maintained between Rynagh 's Wexford home and her foundation at Banagher ; and her mother came to live there . It is recorded that Reynagh 's mother , Talech , or Talacia , became Abbess of the Banagher convent . The death of St. Finnian is assigned to 563 , but there does not seem to be any authoritative statement as to the date of St. Rynagh 's death , although according to St. Rynagh 's Parish Church in Banagher , St. Rynagh died about 610 . The place of her burial is uncertain but it is likely to have been in either Banagher or Kilmacduagh near Gort , the monastery founded by her son , St. Colman .

= = = Origins = = =

The settlement that grew to become Banagher , originated at a ford on the east bank of the River Shannon . The river banks and surrounding countryside were flood @-@ free all year round . Travellers intending to cross the Shannon converged on this point along tracks which were the forerunners of the modern roads , and a community grew at this crossing point .

Many of the early travellers were pilgrims . North @-@ west of Banagher , on the Connacht side of the river , was the monastic establishment of Clonfert , with the more famous Clonmacnoise a short distance further north . Not far to the south @-@ west on the same side was another monastic foundation , at Meelick . At Meelick , the three provinces , Leinster , Munster and Connacht meet and just south of Banagher in the direction of Birr , the four dioceses of Clonmacnoise , Meath , Killaloe and Clonfert meet .

= = = Military history = = =

At Banagher , there are ridges on both sides of the river and roads were built along these many centuries ago . The first bridge was built over the Shannon at that point as early as 1049 . It was a place of great strategic importance because the Shannon and its lowlands provided a natural barrier between Connacht and Leinster . An army that wanted to cross the river had few choices ; apart from Banagher , the only other suitable places were Athlone , Shannonbridge and Portumna .

The importance of Banagher as a military position on the Shannon and on the highway from Leinster and Munster to Connacht was early appreciated by the English , whose forces seized it about the middle of the 16th century , coming up the river to do so . They constructed some fortifications which they called Fort Frankford ( later Fort Falkland ) and held the place in spite of the fact that the part of Offaly for some miles around Banagher was in the hands of the MacCoghlan clan . The MacCoghlans , aided by boundaries of bog and river , held their territories against all comers for about 500 years , even maintaining a footing by open defiance well into the 17th century . Garry Castle , Clonony Castle , and Moystown Castle are remains of MacCoghlan strongholds . Sometime after 1554 , when Queen Mary married Philip II of Spain , Offaly County was named King 's County in honour of Philip , but it is doubtful if the royal jurisdiction extended to any of the MacCoghlan areas except Banagher . Ultimately , the MacCoghlans were overthrown and their lands were planted by order of James I issued in 1621 .

The town was incorporated by charter of Charles I on 16 September 1628 . The corporation was allowed to elect two members to Parliament and hold two fairs per year , amongst other wide @-@ ranging powers .

In 1628 , a permanent military garrison was established which continued with slight interruptions until 1863 . The defences were further strengthened and it was officially named Fort Falkland , after Henry Cary , 1st Viscount Falkland who was Lord Deputy of Ireland from 1622 – 29 . The forces of the Confederate Catholics took Banagher in 1642 , but it was retaken by the Cromwellian Army in 1650 , under the command of Henry Ireton , Cromwell 's son @-@ in @-@ law . By 1652 the Cromwellian conquest was completed and the transplantation of the Catholic land holders to Connacht began in 1654 . The lands from which they were expelled were divided among the adventurers and the soldiers of Cromwell 's army .

During the Williamite Wars of 1690 – 1691 , the garrison espoused the cause of James II in contrast with that of Birr , which took the side of William . A stone bridge across the Shannon was erected in 1685 , and a Williamite army advancing from Birr in 1690 attempted to break it down but abandoned the attempt as too risky in consequence of the presence of Sarsfield 's Army on the Connacht side . A broken arch of this bridge is still to be seen on that side a few yards below the present bridge of seven arches , which was erected by the Commissioners for the Improvement of Navigation of the Shannon in 1841 – 1843 . The square tower on the lower side of the bridge at the Galway end was erected to protect the old bridge , as was the Salt Battery , with emplacements for four cannons facing west and north , a few hundred yards from town along the Crank Road .

The Irish garrison remained in Banagher without further molestation until the Battle of Aughrim , after which Banagher was evacuated . The English re @-@ occupied the town , where they remained until the middle of the 19th century , when Banagher ceased to be a garrison town .

= = = Economic growth = = =

In the 17th century , Banagher was the centre of a flourishing woollen trade . In 1699 , the impost placed on the export of woollen goods to England practically killed the woollen trade . At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 , an embargo placed on the export of foodstuffs to the American Colonies dealt another blow to the trade of Banagher . In 1780 , the British Parliament withdrew all these restrictions and Banagher 's economy began to improve rapidly .

From 1800 to 1847 , Banagher enjoyed a period of prosperity unequalled in its history . Corn growing had long been one of the chief agricultural activities of the district and the opening of the Grand Canal at the end of the 18th century gave easy access to Dublin and Limerick and brought cheap and efficient water transport to the district . Banagher became the outlet for the grain raised in a wide area round the town , and the Banagher corn market on Fridays was one of the largest of its kind in Ireland .

The canal arrived at Shannon Harbour in 1804 , and the water transport facilities stimulated the growth of existing industries and encouraged the establishment of new ones . Neat two and three @-@ storey houses were built on each side of the road in Banagher to provide shops and dwellings for the merchants and other people who came to live there for the canal business . In 1834 , there was a distillery , a brewery , two tanyards , a malthouse and corn mills in full operation in the town . Several craftsmen carried on industries in smaller workshops and in their homes . With the increase in trade and manufactures went a corresponding increase in population . In 1800 , the population was estimated at 1500 ; in 1841 , it was 2836 , and in 1846 , it was estimated at 3000 .

= = = Decline = = =

Contrasted with the flourishing state of trade in the first half of the 19th century is the rapid and sustained decline during the second half . In the period of 40 years from 1841 to 1881 , the population fell from 2836 to 1192 , a loss of over 57 % . By the end of the century , all that remained of the major industries of the town was the malthouse of F.A. Waller & Co . , while all smaller industries had vanished completely .

Various causes contributed to this decline . The abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846 allowed the free importation of grain into these islands . Unable to compete with foreigners , the Irish farmer turned his land to pasture and grew only sufficient grain for his own use . The Banagher corn trade rapidly declined , and would have completely vanished were it not that barley growing was kept alive by Waller 's malthouse . The clearances in East Galway in the years immediately succeeding the Great Irish Famine adversely affected the trade of the town while the smaller industries were unable to compete against the highly organised industries of Britain .

The opening of Banagher Railway station in 1884 , as the terminus of the 29 km ( 18 mi ) Clara to Banagher branch of the Great Southern & Western Railway Company , brought some improvement , with a number of passenger and goods trains every day . However , the fuel crisis of 1947 caused passenger services to be withdrawn from the line and it closed altogether in 1963 . Although the site of the station is now covered by the marina , the trackway can still be seen , minus the track , at the gateway at the eastern corner of the marina .

= = Geography = =

Banagher is situated in north @-@ west County Offaly on the east bank of the River Shannon . It is 106 km ( 66 mi ) south west of Dublin , 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) south east of Ballinasloe , 27 km ( 17 mi ) south of Athlone and 85 km ( 53 mi ) north east of Limerick . It provides a crossing point between Offaly in Leinster and Galway in Connacht . Although Banagher is located in the flood @-@ plain of the River Shannon , the town itself was developed on high ground and remains virtually flood @-@ free all year round . North of Lough Derg , the River Shannon has a very shallow gradient and regularly floods parts of the surrounding countryside . The resultant wet grassland area , known as the Shannon Callows , is an internationally recognised wild bird and wildlife habitat and is classified as a Special Area of Conservation .

The country on either side of the Shannon in the Offaly @-@ Galway area has been described as " reminiscent of the Fens , cut off and intersected by waterways , by the wide meandering Shannon itself , by its tributaries , the Suck , the Brosna and the Little Brosna and by the Grand Canal ; traversed by a maze of narrow roads . "

The travel writer and biographer , James Pope @-@ Hennessy , described the River Shannon at Banagher in September in his biography of Anthony Trollope : " The month of September in Banagher , and all along the Shannon banks , is visually a glorious one , with golden autumn mornings , the low sun making long shadows of the houses in the street . At dusk the whole river reflects the varied sunsets as the days draw in – effects of palest pink , for instance , striped by cloudy lines of green , or an horizon aflame with scarlet and orange light . "

The Slieve Bloom Mountains lie to the south of Banagher and the town is surrounded by the great bogs of the midlands , particularly to the east and west . The River Brosna is a major tributary of the River Shannon and meets the Shannon at Shannon Harbour , three kilometres north of Banagher .

= = = Climate = = =

Banagher has a temperate climate . Average daily high temperatures are 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) in July and 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) in January . Precipitation , at an average of 804 mm per annum , is similar to that in much of the midlands and east of Ireland , and is significantly less than the precipitation on the west coast , which averages between 1000 mm and 1250 mm per annum .

= = = Wildlife = = =

In autumn and winter , the extensive flood plain of the Shannon Callows supports a large number of waders , swans , wildfowl and other bird life . The most obvious of all Shannon birds is the mute swan . Also seen are the coot , moorhen and little grebe ( or dabchick ) . The kingfisher is widespread as are the meadow pipit and pied wagtail . The area has one of the largest concentrations of breeding waders in Ireland including lapwing , redshank , sandpiper and godwit .

The corncrake can be seen at the bridge of Banagher in the summer . Once a common summer visitor to Ireland , corncrakes have suffered drastic population declines over the last few decades and are threatened with global extinction . Conservation efforts have focused on changing harvesting times to avoid the nesting season , May to August . The hay meadows of the callows support large numbers of these birds – one of the few places in the world where this globally threatened species is still common .

In winter , the resident bird population is increased by visitors from north @-@ east Europe , in particular the widgeon and Greenland white @-@ fronted goose . Riverside mammals are seen frequently and otters , mink and fox are common . Trout and salmon are less common in the Shannon than they once were , however pike is still plentiful and attracts many anglers .

= = Demographics = =

Banagher was extensively planted by the English , particularly during the periods 1621 – 1642 and 1650 – 1690 . The plantations had a profound impact on Ireland in several ways . The first was the destruction of the native ruling classes and their replacement with the Protestant Ascendancy , of British @-@ origin ( mostly English ) Protestant landowners . Their position was buttressed by the Penal Laws , which denied political and land @-@ owning rights to Roman Catholics . The dominance of this class in Irish life persisted until the late 18th century , and it voted for the Act of Union with Britain in 1800 . As a result , by the early 20th century , Banagher had a mix of Irish of native descent and Irish of English descent and supported two churches , one Catholic and one Protestant , both of which still exist .

During the late 1960s to the early 1980s , a number of German , Dutch and Swiss settlers were attracted to Banagher , mainly because of its proximity to the River Shannon and associated lifestyle . A number of these are still resident in Banagher . As with the majority of towns and cities in Ireland , Banagher has seen an influx of foreign nationals , mostly of Eastern European origin , in recent years and these now make up just over 10 % of the population .

According to the 2011 Census , Banagher has a population of 1 @,@ 653 with 801 male and 852 female residents . This marks a 1 @.@ 0 % increase in population on the 2006 Census .

= = Economy = =

The demise of the once thriving canal and maltings businesses brought about a serious decline in Banagher 's fortunes , including a significant population decrease . However , a number of businesses kept many people in the locality employed during lean times . The most notable of these was Bord na Móna , a semi @-@ state company founded in 1946 to manage the harvesting of peat from Ireland 's bogs , the most extensive of which are located in the midlands . However , the advancement of mechanised harvesting , the exhaustion of the bogs and the closure of a number of peat @-@ fired power stations , means that this is no longer a significant employer in the region . Green Isle Foods had a facility just outside Banagher and provided good employment during the 1970s and 1980s . It was taken out of production some years ago and is now used as a storage facility only . The largest industry in Banagher these days is Banagher Precast Concrete Limited , a company specialising in precast concrete structures . The company employs approximately 50 people and was one of the largest concrete firms in the country , employing over 400 people at its peak in 2008 . It has supplied components for many major projects , including the Aviva Stadium , Croke Park , Channel Tunnel , the Dublin Port Tunnel , Thomond Park and the Limerick Tunnel . Other notable employers include Banagher Sawmills and the cruise liner businesses located at the marina .

= = Transportation = =

Banagher is an important crossing point on the River Shannon and consequently experiences a large volume of through traffic . Two regional roads meet in Banagher ; the R356 , which links the N62 and N65 national primary roads and is known as Harbour Street in Banagher and the R439 which links Birr with Banagher and is known as Main Street in Banagher . Harbour Street leads to the road to Shannon Harbour and Main Street begins at the hill at the southern entrance to the town and leads down to the bridge crossing the Shannon .

A railway station opened in Banagher in 1884 as the terminus for the Clara to Banagher line of the Great Southern & Western Railway Company . It operated both a passenger and goods service until 1947 , when the passenger service was withdrawn . The station closed completely in 1963 .

Banagher was once a main centre for river transportation on the Shannon system . River transportation fell into decline with the advent of rail and road transportation improvements . Banagher is still a major centre for river cruisers , with a number of hire companies operating from an extensive and modern marina .

= = Culture = =

= = = Banagher Fair = = =

As part of the charter of incorporation of 1628 , the corporation was given powers to : " hold two fairs , one on the Feast of St. Philip and Jacob , the other on the Feast of St. Simon and Jude , each to continue for two days . " These feast days equated to 1 May and 28 October . However , a fair was already in existence in Banagher since 1612 and was held in September . These three fairs were certainly still in existence in the mid @-@ 1830s , as they were described in a government @-@ commissioned report in 1835 .

The fairs established by the first corporation continued to gain in size and importance during the 18th century and the early part of the 19th century . In 1826 , the enormous number of 43 @,@ 000 sheep was offered for sale at the September fair , with three @-@ quarters of that number being sold . Pigot 's Directory of 1824 described the workings of the fair : " ... and there are three fairs ; the principal one commences on the 15 September and continues for four days , the first for sheep , the second for horned cattle , the third for horses , and the last day is the country fair for linen , woollens and other merchandise . "

It seems that the fair held in September was the main fair and is the one that has survived to the present . Pope Hennessy described the granting of the charter by Charles I which " empowered them to hold the famous Banagher Great Fair , at which everything from cattle and sheep to boots and basket chairs was on sale . This Fair , the greatest in all the Irish Midlands , began on September 15 and lasted four days . The line of horses tethered on each side of Banagher Main Street stretched from the Shannon river bridge to the crossroads two and a half miles outside the town known as Tailor 's Cross . "

The fair had achieved an international reputation by the early 20th century and a local newspaper report of 1909 states " The Banagher Great Fair was a huge success and among those present were Senor Gelline of Milan to make purchase on behalf of the Italian Government , while Mr. Rodzanko bought for the Russian Government . " The report also stated that " Eighty @-@ nine wagons of horses were entrained at Banagher Railway Station ... this representing in round numbers about 500 horses . "

= = = Architecture , buildings and structures = = =

= = = = Banagher Bridge = = = =

The first bridge that is known to have been built at this point was erected as a " spacious stone bridge of 18 arches " by Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair ( Anglicised Roderic O 'Connor ) , the King of Connacht , around 1049 . However , medieval sources tell of a " bridge of 27 arches of divers ( e ) architectural form , each different from its fellow " , which stood here for over 500 years . A stone bridge of 17 arches was certainly constructed in 1685 and this was detailed in profile drawings by Thomas Rhodes in 1833 . The bridge of 1685 featured prominently in the Williamite War in Ireland of the 17th century and was used by Patrick Sarsfield to retreat to Connacht after his ambush of a Williamite convoy at Ballyneety in Co . Limerick during the Siege of Limerick . Because of its affording Sarsfield and his army a method of advance and retreat , the old bridge was often referred to as Sarsfield 's Bridge . This bridge was blown up in 1843 by gunpowder by a section of the Corps of Royal Engineers . The abutment of this bridge can still be seen adjacent to Cromwell 's Castle on the Connacht side of the river .

The present bridge of seven arches was erected by the Commissioners for the Improvement of Navigation of the Shannon in 1841 – 1843 . The engineer was Thomas Rhodes , one of the commissioners of the Shannon Navigation , whose name can be seen on many of the bridges over the Shannon and on surviving lock mechanisms , notably at Victoria and Athlone locks . This bridge was reconstructed and widened jointly by Offaly County Council and Galway County Council in 1971 . Their work included replacing massive stone parapets on either side of the bridge with aluminium railings , and the removal of a swivel arch which had allowed passage for masted boats .

A heritage review of the bridges of County Offaly in 2005 described Banagher Bridge as of national heritage significance , of high architectural merit and demonstrative of mid @-@ 19th century construction work by a government body . It states " This is the only six @-@ arch masonry span in the county . It is an interesting contrast with the 1750s bridge at Shannonbridge . Although both are approximately the same length , Banagher Bridge achieves the crossing with fewer spans ( six as opposed to 16 ) . It also has the longest masonry arch spans of all the county 's bridges , averaging 17 @.@ 88 m " .

All of the castellations around and near the bridge were built to protect it , including Cromwell 's Castle , The Salt Battery ( Fort Eliza ) , Fort Falkland and the Martello Tower . However , the guns mounted on these forts could be used to destroy the bridge if necessary , as well as to bombard attacking forces on the river .

A narrow quay passes under the old swivel section of the bridge from Waller 's Quay to the marina . A well @-@ worn handrail offers the pedestrian some protection against a slip into the river . This rail has been known as the Duke 's Rail since in 1897 the then Duke of York , later to become George V , paid a state visit to Ireland . The royal party travelled up @-@ river from Portumna on the steamship Countess of Mayo . Disembarking at Waller 's Quay , the Duke was received by Lord Rosse , the Lord Lieutenant of King 's County . The party had to traverse the narrow quay under the bridge to get to Banagher Railway Station , and undoubtedly made good use of the Duke 's Rail . The stretch of the Shannon from Portumna to Banagher was known for some time after as the Duke of York 's Route .

= = = = Barracks = = = =

This former constabulary barracks was built around 1800 . Irregular in plan and now in ruins , it comprises a partially roughcast rendered rubble limestone enclosing wall with a cut stone segmental @-@ headed entrance to the east and is situated to the south of the River Shannon , adjacent to the bridge . Remains of structures within the enclosure include a barrel @-@ vaulted powder magazine built around 1806 , with a gun platform above . These walls are thought to be the perimeter walls of Fort Falkland from 1642 . According to Pigot 's Directory of 1824 , the barracks housed two companies of foot , had apartments for three officers , a bomb and waterproof magazine and an artillery battery mounting three 12 @-@ pound guns . The Directory also states that the barracks was formerly a nunnery ( possibly that of Saint Rynagh , which would have been founded around 580 ) and communicated with Saint Rynagh 's Old Abbey by a subterranean passage of some 400 yards . Although the British garrison had left the town in 1863 , the barracks was looted and burned shortly after the signing of the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty of 1921 – 22 .

= = = = Bow @-@ fronted Georgian houses = = = =

Banagher has two bow @-@ fronted Georgian buildings dating from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 18th century and both are listed as protected structures . One is a detached seven @-@ bay , two @-@ storey building , called Crank House , due to its location on the corner of Main Street and Crank Road . It was restored in the early 1990s by the Offaly West Enterprise Co @-@ operative Society and opened in 1992 . It now houses an exhibition hall , tourist office , retail and enterprise units and a hostel . It was formerly used as the headquarters for Crann , an NGO dedicated to planting native trees and protecting Ireland 's woodlands . It is now used by the West Offaly Partnership as a Community Enterprise Centre .

The second of these buildings is a terraced , three @-@ bay , three @-@ storey house with an adjoining four @-@ bay , two @-@ storey coach house , which still has its original limestone carriage arch . It has been used as a hotel since the early 19th century and was home to Anthony Trollope during his stay in Banagher in the 1840s . It has a prominent location next to the marina and close to the bridge . Long called The Shannon Hotel , the name was changed to The Royal Shannon in the 1990s . It has ceased to trade as a hotel and is now falling into neglect .

= = = = Charlotte 's Way = = = =

Charlotte 's Way , formerly known as Hill House , is located in a prominent setting close to Saint Paul 's Church of Ireland church . This house was once the home of Charlotte Brontë 's husband , Mr. Nicholls , who returned to Banagher after Charlotte 's death . Nicholls remarried and lived at Hill House until his death in 1906 . The house was sold to a Major Bell in 1919 . He died in 1944 and his wife inherited the property . Florence Bell died in 1959 . This connection to Brontë , one of the most renowned writers of the 19th century , is revealed in its present name , giving the house cultural interest . It is a detached three @-@ bay two @-@ storey house , built in 1753 , with a gabled central bay to the façade with modern porch and single @-@ bay two @-@ storey wing to the south and two @-@ bay two @-@ storey wing to the north . It is now used as a bed and breakfast and visitors can enjoy its restored appearance and sense the history of a place connected in a curious way with the Brontë family .

= = = = Cromwell 's Castle = = = =

The structure that stands on what is known locally as the Canal Bank , called Cromwell 's Castle , primarily derives its current form from the Napoleonic Wars . Similar to the Martello Tower that stands opposite it , on the same bank of the river , Cromwell 's Castle was largely reconstructed as a defensive position to repel any invading fleet coming upstream towards Banagher . The English had established a number of forts on the Leinster bank of the river , including Fort Frankford and , later , Fort Falkland ( see Military History ) . The garrison at Fort Falkland was overrun by the forces of the Confederate Catholics in 1642 but was recaptured by Cromwell 's army in 1650 . The Cromwellians established a new fortification on the Connacht bank of the river leading up to the plantation of Connacht in 1654 . The castle was modified in 1817 to enable it to mount artillery with a platform for a 24 @-@ pound traversing gun constructed on its roof . Its interior became a powder magazine and housed a garrison of 20 soldiers .

Having fallen somewhat into disrepair , the structure came under the care of the Banagher Branch of the Offaly Historical Society in the 1980s and considerable restoration work has been undertaken since then . The Canal Bank on which it stands , is the property of the people of Banagher and is held in trust as a public amenity . Considerable works around the castle have also taken place and the castle , park and riverside walk are open to the public .

= = = = Cuba Court = = = =

Cuba Court , also known as Cuba House , was a house dating from the 1730s and may have been constructed by one George Frazer , a former Governor of Cuba and perhaps to a design of Sir Edward Lovett Pearce , who designed the Irish Houses of Parliament in Dublin . It is certainly known to have been constructed with money from the sugar plantations in Cuba . In his biography of Anthony Trollope , James Pope @-@ Hennessy describes Cuba Court as " a fine example of an Irish country @-@ house of the mid @-@ eighteenth century in the manner of the Dublin architect , Pierce ( sic ) . The building contained ... two circular rooms ... and an avenue of lime trees led to the front door . " The Belfast writer , Maurice Craig , in his 1976 book Classic Irish Houses of the Middle Size , describes Cuba Court as " perhaps the most splendidly masculine house in the whole country . " Towards the end of the 18th century , Cuba Court was the home of Denis Bowes Daly , who was a prominent member of the local ascendancy . Prior to his death in 1821 he had leased Cuba Court to the Army Medical Board on a 61 @-@ year lease . The building was little used as a hospital and the Medical Board was quite happy to give it up to the Commissioners of Education for the purpose of the Royal School , which had eventually been established as a result of the Royal Charter of 1621 .

Charlotte Brontë spent her honeymoon at Cuba Court in 1854 following her marriage to Arthur Bell Nicholls ( See Charlotte Brontë ) . She noted of Cuba Court : " It is very large and looks externally like a gentleman 's country seat – within most of the rooms are lofty and spacious , and some – the drawing room and dining room are handsomely and commodiously furnished . The passages look desolate and bare – our bedroom , a great room of the ground floor , would have looked gloomy when we were shown into it but for the turf fire that was burning in the wide old chimney . "

During the 1820s , the Royal School at Cuba Court was attended by Sir William Wilde , who later married the poet Jane Francesca Agnes Elgee . The couple had two sons : Willie and Oscar Wilde , and a daughter , Isola Francesca , who died in childhood . Another pupil at the school was William Bulfin , the journalist and writer associated with Argentina through his work Tales of the Pampas , who attended in the 1870s . His son , Eamon Bulfin was one of the main participants in the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin and was sentenced to death , but this was commuted to deportation to Argentina where he had been born .

Due to the Irish policy on rates at the time , the house was unroofed in 1946 and this hastened its demise . Pope Hennessy described Cuba Court in 1971 : " Like so many of Ireland 's great houses , Cuba Court is now being slowly but deliberately demolished . The lime trees have long since been hacked down . " In spite of this , it was described as " a superb ruin that could tell the history of Ascendancy Ireland " , as late as 1979 . It was eventually acquired by a local businessman and demolished in the 1980s . Craig describes the loss of Cuba Court as " particularly to be lamented " . A development of four houses was built on the site at Cuba Avenue in 2003 . An archaeological survey revealed nothing of significance .

= = = = Fort Eliza = = = =

Fort Eliza , also known as The Salt Battery , is a freestanding five @-@ sided four @-@ gun battery , constructed around 1812 , and standing on the east side of the River Shannon . Three sides face the river and were formed of broad parapets . The other two sides meet at the rear salient angle at a guardhouse , which is now ruined . The battery is surrounded by a dry moat , with the entrance originally across a drawbridge close to the guardhouse . At the centre of the enclosure was the brick @-@ vaulted powder magazine . This fort , combined with Cromwell 's Castle , the Martello tower and Fort Falkland would have protected both the town and the river crossing from all angles .

= = = = Martello Tower = = = =

Martello towers ( or simply Martellos ) are small defensive forts built in several countries of the British Empire during the 19th century , from the time of the Napoleonic Wars onwards . They stand up to 40 feet ( 12 m ) high ( with two floors ) and typically had a garrison of one officer and 15 – 25 men . Their round structure and thick walls of solid masonry made them resistant to cannon fire , while their height made them an ideal platform for a single heavy artillery piece , mounted on the flat roof and able to traverse a 360 ° arc . Fear of an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte reached panic proportions amongst the authorities in Ireland and England in 1804 and the first towers were built in Ireland that year .

In case an invasion fleet tried to sail up the River Shannon , two towers were built on the middle reaches of the river to defend its crossing points . One of these was located at Meelick and the other at Banagher . The tower at Banagher is located on the west ( Galway ) bank of the river and measures 36 feet ( 11 m ) in diameter and height . The tower was described in 1970 as having " ... no corbels , a ridge around the top , much vegetation growing around it , and its general condition is fair . "

= = = = Memorials and sculptures = = = =

A memorial in the form of a stone Celtic Cross is situated at the eastern side of the town . It is known as the Barnes & McCormack Memorial and dedicated to two local men who were executed in Birmingham in 1940 for their involvement in the Coventry Explosion of 1939 in which five people died . The executions caused a public outcry in Britain and internationally as the men had admitted to constructing the bomb , which was intended to be used to destroy a power station , but claimed not to be involved in planting it . The cross was erected in 1963 by The Barnes & McCormack Memorial Committee in association with The National Graves Committee and bears an inscription in both Irish and English : " In commemoration of Staff Captain James McCormack and Company Captain Peter Barnes , Irish Republican Army , who for love of country , were executed by the British Government at Winson Green Prison , Birmingham on the 7th February 1940 . " The monument was sculpted by Desmond Broe of Dublin and features images of the two men , a female head representing Ireland and symbols of the four provinces .

In December 2011 the Zimbabwean artist , Parazai Havatitye , a sculptor who specialises in wood carving , created a sculpture from a tree stump , entitled The Musician , which is dedicated to the musician Johnny McEvoy , who was born in Banagher in 1945 . The sculpture is located on the main road , at the gate of the marina .

= = = Places of worship = = =

Arising from its history as a plantation garrison town , Banagher has active Catholic and Church of Ireland communities . The lane between Market Square and Pucka Lane ( formerly Queen Street ) is called Church Lane and it is here that the first church in Banagher was sited . The 6th @-@ century abbey of St. Rynagh is now in ruins . This church later became the Church of the Blessed Mary in the 16th century , and was also known as the Church of Banagher . According to tradition , the Cross of Banagher once stood next to a crystal spring in the Market Square . The surviving sandstone shaft of the cross was found in the churchyard by a Birr antiquarian named Thomas Cooke in the 1840s and was in reasonable condition then as he described it in great detail in an article in the Transactions of the Kilkenny Archaeological Society in 1853 . The stone that he found appears to have been part of a sepulchral or commemorative cross , set up at Banagher well to record the death of Bishop William O 'Duffy , who was killed by a fall from his horse in 1297 . Cooke had become so perturbed by the deterioration of the stone by 1852 that he had it removed to his residence in Birr . It is now housed in the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin .

The Church of Ireland community had worshipped at the old church , which was in a ruinous state by 1829 when the new St. Paul 's Church was built at the top of the hill , overlooking the town . The new Catholic church of St. Rynagh 's had been constructed some three years earlier and on land given by the Armstrongs , the most influential and wealthiest Protestant family in the area , who consistently and energetically advocated Catholic Emancipation and repeal of the Penal Laws . This situation demonstrated the friendly relations that existed between the two communities in Banagher during those difficult times for Catholics in Ireland .

St. Rynagh 's Church houses a work by the well @-@ known German sculptor , Imogen Stuart , called The Madonna and Child , a mandorla carved in 1974 . The most outstanding feature of St. Paul 's Church is the Window of the Resurrection , a stained @-@ glass window commemorating the Bell family that was originally intended for Westminister Abbey in London .

= = = Literature and the arts = = =

Banagher has a thriving poetry scene and an annual poetry festival called Readings from the Pallet takes place in local bars . The town was one of the settings for the series Pure Mule , as featured on RTÉ television . The mini @-@ series was an RTÉ production and shot in 2005 in Banagher , Birr and Tullamore . The series was favourably received by the critics , although some locals maintain that it portrays Midlanders in a bad light . The series won four IFTA awards in 2005 .

Johnny McEvoy is a well known singer and songwriter of the country and Irish genre who was born in Banagher in 1945 . He has had a number of chart hits since the 1960s and has toured extensively , both in Ireland and abroad .

The internationally renowned folk @-@ singer Roger Whittaker took up residence in Banagher for about 10 years until 2006 . During the time he purchased and renovated Lairakeen House .

Mark Boylan is a singer / songwriter from Banagher . He was born in 1997 and first came to prominence when he wrote the theme song for the 2011 Cheltenham horse racing festival in England . The song is entitled The Festival and it received over 40 @,@ 000 views on YouTube . Boylan went on to write a song for one of the biggest horse races in the world , The Breeders ' Cup . He performed the song at the event which took place at Churchill Downs in Louisville , Kentucky on 4 November 2011 . The proceeds of the song went to the Permanently Disabled Jockeys Fund ( PDJF ) and the song was made available through the iTunes medium .

In the past Banagher was noted for a number of crafts , including pottery and a popular pottery company , called Crannóg Pottery , was established at the West End by Valerie Landon in the early 1950s . It closed down in the 1980s . The town has also had a number of well @-@ known writers staying for varying periods of time .

= = = = Anthony Trollope = = = =

Banagher 's greatest literary association is probably with Anthony Trollope , who became one of the most successful , prolific and respected English novelists of the Victorian era . Trollope had been employed by the General Post Office in 1835 and was sent to Ireland in September 1841 at the age of 26 . Trollope had had an unhappy life up to that point and remarked in his autobiography : " This was the first good fortune of my life . " After landing in Dublin on 15 September , he travelled by canal @-@ boat to Shannon Harbour and then on to Banagher , arriving on 16 September , which coincided with the second day of the annual Great Fair . Although very much smaller than the town of Birr , which is only eight miles away , Banagher had been chosen as the base of a Postal Surveyorship , probably because its position on the Shannon offered easy access by can boat to Dublin and Limerick .

Trollope established himself at The Shannon Hotel , a long bow @-@ fronted Georgian building , which was over 100 years old at that time . The hotel , which still exists , is located at the bottom of the town , a mere one hundred yards from the river . The post office where Trollope worked was at the top of the town , which is only a matter of minutes on foot . Next to the post office was a two @-@ roomed bungalow which was used by the Postal Surveyor and his new deputy as their working headquarters . This building is often erroneously considered to have been the residence of Trollope himself .

Although Trollope 's initial knowledge of Ireland was limited , he soon discovered that the Irish were good @-@ humoured and clever – " ... the working classes very much more intelligent than those in England . They were not , as they were reputed to be , spendthrifts , but were economical , hospitable and kind . " Their chief defects , he judged , were that they could switch to being very perverse and very irrational , and that they were " but little bound by the love of truth . "

Trollope remained stationed at Banagher until late 1844 when he was transferred to Clonmel . It was while in Banagher that Trollope began to write his first novel , The Macdermots of Ballycloran . He had begun to contemplate this novel whilst walking outside Drumsna in County Leitrim where the ruins of Ballycloran House stood into the 1840s and were still there in the 1970s . Trollope had been up in Leitrim inspecting the accounts of an errant postmaster . He thought the ruins of Ballycloran " one of the most melancholy spots I had ever visited " and he later described it in the first chapter of his novel . Although , his first novel was initially unsuccessful , Trollope was undeterred and in all , went on to write forty @-@ seven novels , as well as dozens of short stories and a few books on travel . He returned to England in 1856 and by the mid @-@ 1860s had reached a fairly senior position within the Post Office hierarchy . Postal history credits him with introducing the pillar box ( the ubiquitous bright red mail @-@ box ) to Britain . Anthony Trollope died in London in 1882 and is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery .

= = = = Charlotte Brontë = = = =

Charlotte Brontë had a brief association with Banagher in the mid @-@ 1850s when she married one Arthur Bell Nicholls , her father 's curate . Nicholls was born of Scottish parents in County Antrim in 1818 . He was orphaned early and subsequently brought up by his uncle , Alan Bell , in Banagher . Alan Bell was headmaster at the Royal School at Cuba Court at that time . The couple honeymooned in Ireland and stayed at Cuba Court for a period in June 1854 . According to Pope Hennessy , Mrs. Nicholls disliked both Banagher and its inhabitants , although she greatly admired the surrounding countryside .

If Bell Nicholls was a poor unknown curate in England – in Banagher he was a member of a respectable family . In a letter quoted by Elizabeth Gaskell in her book The Life of Charlotte Brontë , Charlotte wrote : " My dear husband , too , appears in a new light in his own country . More than once I have had deep pleasure in hearing his praises on all sides . Some of the old servants and followers of the family tell me I am a most fortunate person ; for that I have got one of the best gentlemen in the country .... I trust I feel thankful to God for having enabled me to make what seems a right choice ; and I pray to be enabled to repay as I ought the affectionate devotion of a truthful , honourable man . "

In January 1855 , Brontë discovered she was pregnant . It was accompanied by severe illness and she died on 31 March 1855 , officially from tuberculosis . Mr. Nicholls remained with Brontë 's father for a further six years before returning to Banagher in 1861 , taking with him his wife 's portrait , her wedding dress ( of which a copy has been made ) , some of Charlotte 's letters and other mementoes . Forty years later , when the critic Clement Shorter prepared to write Charlotte Brontë and Her Circle , he found at Banagher among other relics , two diaries of Emily and Anne , in a tin box , and some of Charlotte 's minute childhood writings wrapped in newspaper at the bottom of a drawer .

= = = = James Pope Hennessy = = = =

James Pope @-@ Hennessy came to Banagher in 1970 to write his biography of Anthony Trollope . Pope Hennessy had published his first book , London Fabric in 1939 , for which he was awarded the Hawthornden Prize and was a well @-@ established biographer and travel writer by the time he arrived in Banagher . Among his more notable works were a biography of Queen Mary for which he was rewarded by being created a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1960 , Verandah ( 1964 ) a biography of his grandfather , the Irish colonial governor John Pope Hennessy and Sins of the Fathers ( 1967 ) , an account of the Atlantic slave traffickers .

Like Trollope before him , Pope Hennessy took rooms at The Shannon Hotel , near the river and set about trying to capture the essence of the town which had inspired Trollope 's first novel , The Macdermots of Ballycloran . He proved to be a very popular figure in the town , evidenced by the fact that he was asked to adjudicate at a local beauty pageant and the horse fair . Pope Hennessy gives particular mention to the Corcoran family , the proprietors of The Shannon Hotel in the 1960s and 1970s , for their help in the production of his work . They sold the hotel in 1977 .

Pope Hennessy stayed in Banagher from March 1970 to April 1971 and largely completed his study of Trollope during this time . The finished biography , Anthony Trollope , won the Whitbread Award for Biography in 1972 and is largely regarded as Pope Hennessy 's finest work since Queen Mary . Pope Hennessy grew very fond of Banagher and returned to stay at The Shannon Hotel a number of times before his premature death in 1974 . This is illustrated by his description of Banagher in Anthony Trollope : " ... in Trollope 's words , Banagher then seemed ' little more than a village ' . It retains a quality of friendly village life to this day and can have changed little since Trollope 's time , save that its population has declined to eleven hundred . "

= = = = Sir Jonah Barrington = = = =

Sir Jonah Barrington was born in 1760 near Abbeyleix in the Queen 's County ( Co . Laois ) . He was first elected to Parliament as a member for Tuam in 1790 . He lost this seat in 1798 and was elected as a member for Banagher in 1799 . He voted against the Act of Union in 1801 and as a result he was deprived of his £ 1 @,@ 000 a year sinecure in the Customs House and this also stopped his further advancement . In 1809 he published , in five parts , the first volume of the Historic Memoirs of Ireland . It is thought that he was induced to delay the second volume – the English government shrinking from the exposure of their conduct in carrying the Act of Union , and it was understood that to purchase his silence he was permitted to reside in France from about 1815 .

In 1827 , he published two volumes of Personal Sketches of His Own Times . In 1830 , by an address from both Houses of Parliament , he was removed from the Bench , in consequence of well @-@ proven misappropriation of public moneys . The third volume of Personal Sketches appeared in 1833 as did the delayed volume of his Historic Memoirs . This book was subsequently reproduced in a cheaper form as The Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation . His works are interesting , racy , and valuable – although his statements of fact cannot always be depended on – containing much of personal incident , related in a fascinating style . He died at Versailles on 8 April 1834 .

= = In popular culture = =

The town of Banagher is most likely the source of a phrase that is widely known in many English speaking countries in the world . " That beats Banagher ! " is a common reaction to something extraordinary or to describe something that surpasses everything . The most commonly proposed explanation is that Banagher was entitled to send two members to Parliament following its charter of incorporation in 1628 . It was known as an infamous pocket borough where the members were representative of the landed class , or indeed nominated by the local lord , without a vote taking place at all . When a member of the house spoke of a family ( or rotten ) borough , it was not unusual for someone to reply " Well , that beats Banagher ! "

An alternative explanation is suggested , whereby there was an Irish minstrel called Bannagher , who was famous for telling wonderful stories ; and a line from W.B. Yeats gives this theory some credence : " ' Well ' , says he , ' to gratify them I will . So just a morsel . But Jack , this beats Bannagher . ' " There is also an entry in Captain Francis Grose 's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue of 1785 which says : " He beats Banaghan ; an Irish saying of one who tells wonderful stories . Perhaps Banaghan was a minstrel famous for dealing in the marvellous " .

There are numerous uses of the phrase in literature , including Trollope 's The Kelly 's and the O 'Kellys ( 1848 ) , p . 221 ; James Joyce 's Finnegan 's Wake ( 1939 ) , p . 87 @.@ 31 ; James Plunkett 's Farewell Companions ( 1977 ) , p . 293 and Edna O 'Brien 's Down by the River ( 1996 ) , p . 1 .

The phrase has a riposte : " And Banagher beats the Devil ! " . The origins of this are more difficult to trace but it does feature in a work by the Irish writer Brian Oswald Donn @-@ Byrne , Messer Marco Polo ( 1925 ) , p . 25 , and it is in common usage in Ireland . Trollope asserted on his arrival in Ireland , " I was to live at a place called Banagher on the Shannon which I had heard of because of its having once been conquered , though it had heretofore conquered everything , including the Devil " . Interestingly , a John O 'Donovan , in an Ordnance Survey letter for King 's County in 1838 , attempts to trace the origins of the name Banagher . He states : " Of all the words which enter into Irish nomenclature Beannchair seems the most difficult of explanation " and goes on to say " This name ' beats the Devil . ' " M.F. Kenny in his 2003 book Marathon Marriage uses a story of the devil losing a game of cards to a blacksmith named Banagher at the Black Stile at Garry Castle on the road between Banagher and Birr , as an explanation for the phrase .

= = Education = =

St. Rynagh 's National School ( NS ) caters for children between the ages of 4 and 12 and accommodates approximately 200 students . Secondary education is provided by Banagher College ( Coláiste na Sionna ) , a multi denominational school under the responsibility of Laois and Offaly Education and Training Board . Banagher College is an amalgamation of La Sainte Union Secondary School and St. Rynagh 's Community College . La Sainte Union is a voluntary Catholic School run by the Sisters of La Sainte @-@ Union des Sacrés @-@ Coeurs , a congregation founded in France in 1826 by Abbé Jean @-@ Baptiste Debrabant to promote Christian education . The school was their first in Ireland and opened its doors in 1863 in a house on Main Street when the Abbé arrived with Mother Anatolie Badger and three sisters of the order .

St Rynagh 's CC , originally known as Banagher Vocational School , opened in 1953 with 40 students enrolling under the guidance of the first principal , Ms. Elsie Naughton . Amalgamation discussions began in 1999 and by November 2005 it was agreed that a new school be constructed on the La Sainte Union site . The school accommodates approximately 500 students .

= = Sport = =

Banagher is most associated with the game of hurling and is home to St. Rynagh 's GAA Club . The club was founded in 1961 and represents the parishes of Banagher and Cloghan , with hurling played at Banagher and football at Cloghan . St. Rynagh 's has won 16 Offaly Senior Hurling Championships ( Sean Robins Cup ) and dominated senior hurling in the county from the mid @-@ 1960s to the early 1990s . Outside of the county , St. Rynagh 's were the inaugural winners of the Leinster Senior Club Hurling Championship , in 1971 and have won the title on a further three occasions , 1973 , 1983 and 1994 . The club also contested the first All @-@ Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship final in 1971 , losing to Roscrea from County Tipperary . Three St. Rynagh 's players have captained the Offaly hurling team to All @-@ Ireland success , Padraig Horan in 1981 , Martin Hanamy in 1994 and Hubert Rigney in 1998 . A number of St. Rynagh 's players have also won All Stars – Martin Hanamy ( 3 ) , Aidan Fogarty ( 2 ) , Damien Martin , Padraig Horan , Hubert Rigney and Michael Duignan . Damien Martin was the goalkeeper on the first All Stars team in 1971 , effectively making him the first ever GAA All Star .

Banagher schools have won the All @-@ Ireland Vocational Schools Championship on seven occasions . Banagher College were the most recent winners of the senior championship in 2010 , with Banagher having won on three previous occasions , in 1985 , 1986 and 1989 . Banagher also won a junior championship in 1984 and St. Rynagh 's Banagher won a junior championship in 2004 .

In 1910 , Banagher won the Offaly Senior Football Championship title , playing as Banagher .

Soccer is popular in Banagher and the Banagher United club fields teams in the Midlands Senior and Junior Leagues .

A Billiards and Snooker Hall is located between The Shannon Hotel and the Marina and has an active membership . There is a Pitch & Putt course located adjacent to Cromwell 's Castle on the Canal Bank and part of the river on this bank has been enclosed to form a swimming pool . There is also an active Sub Aqua Club in the town .

= Guitar Hero : Van Halen =

Guitar Hero : Van Halen is the third and final band @-@ specific music rhythm game in the Guitar Hero series . As with the previous games Guitar Hero : Aerosmith and Guitar Hero : Metallica , the game features 25 songs from Van Halen along with 19 additional songs from selected artists that have been inspired by the group . The game was released in retail for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Wii systems on December 22 , 2009 , in North America , and in February 2010 for PAL regions . However , as part of a promotion with Guitar Hero 5 , the game was shipped to Guitar Hero 5 purchasers in North America prior to its retail release . The game was developed by Neversoft with Underground Development assisting Neversoft on developing the Xbox 360 port and published by Activision .

The game has received mostly negative reviews from critics , most of which consider the game 's quality to be greatly inferior to its predecessor , Guitar Hero : Metallica and other games of the series . The reviewers criticized the lack of former Van Halen members , Sammy Hagar , Michael Anthony and Gary Cherone , the limited tracks selected from Van Halen 's discography , the selection of other tracks included in the game , and the general lack of features introduced in the previous band @-@ centric games and Guitar Hero 5 .

= = Gameplay = =

Guitar Hero : Van Halen is similar to the preceding band @-@ centric game , Guitar Hero : Metallica , featuring support for four players in a single band on lead and bass guitar , drums , and vocals . The game is based off the engine originating from Guitar Hero World Tour , and thus does not feature the additions that are present in Guitar Hero 5 , such as drop @-@ in / drop @-@ out play .

Only the current members of the band — Eddie Van Halen , David Lee Roth , Alex Van Halen and Wolfgang Van Halen — are playable avatars in the game for the Van Halen songs ; former band members Sammy Hagar , Gary Cherone and Michael Anthony are not included . The band appear as they did in 2009 but , by completing challenges in the game , players can unlock their older appearances from the " spandex era [ … ] with the big hair and tight pants " . Despite not being alive during this period of the band 's history , Wolfgang Van Halen 's avatar has a retro outfit copied from the dice @-@ shirt @-@ and @-@ patchwork @-@ jeans getup worn by his father in the video for " Panama " .

A demo of the game was released to Xbox Live on December 9 , 2009 , featuring two Van Halen songs , " Eruption " and " Panama " , along with Weezer 's " Dope Nose " and Killswitch Engage 's " The End of Heartache " .

= = Development = =

While the game was formally announced by Activision on May 7 , 2009 , several sources reported a month earlier that Van Halen was in development . USK , the German software ratings board , posted a content rating for a Van Halen @-@ based game in the series . GameStop temporarily listed the game for pre @-@ order during the month of April . A list of Xbox 360 Achievements was posted to the Internet in early May .

Throughout September 2009 , people who purchased or preordered Guitar Hero 5 in the US were given a code which they could redeem to receive a free copy of Guitar Hero : Van Halen prior to its retail release . These copies began arriving to customers in early October for PlayStation 2 , Xbox 360 , and Wii players , while the PlayStation 3 version was delayed due to a printing error . The game came in a cardboard sleeve with cover art indicating that it was for promotional use .

= = Soundtrack = =

Like the other band @-@ centric Guitar Hero games , Guitar Hero : Van Halen includes 25 songs from the band Van Halen , including 3 guitar solos by Eddie Van Halen , in addition to 19 guest acts . The Van Halen songs in the game are taken during the time when David Lee Roth was in the band , and do not include any works during the period that Sammy Hagar and Gary Cherone were band members ; Activision 's head of music licensing , Tim Riley , notes that the lack of such material was not due to any demands or requests made by David Lee Roth . Riley also stated that most of the guest acts were selected by Wolfgang Van Halen , at the suggestion of Roth . The following songs are included in the game :

^ + Song contains both a single and double bass drums chart . ^ a Song is a guitar solo by Eddie Van Halen .

= = Reception = =

Early reviews of the promotional version of the game received by redeeming a code that came with Guitar Hero 5 were critical of the game . IGN 's Erik Brudvig rated the game 4 @.@ 9 / 10 , citing problems with the lack of relevance of Van Halen relative to the culture of the 2000s , including having their avatars based on their current appearances rather than that of their 80s heyday , the lack of songs from Sammy Hagar 's period in the band , and the lack of features since introduced with Guitar Hero 5 . Brudvig ultimately stated that those who got the game free through the Guitar Hero 5 promotion " got what they paid for " . Robert Workman of Game Daily was less critical of the title , but still noted that the game lacked features , including some mention of Hagar and Gary Cherone and songs from their period with the band , and felt that the title was below the quality of Guitar Hero : Metallica . Both Brudvig and Workman commented positively on the sound recordings and the note tracking of the Van Halen songs .

Guitar Hero : Van Halen reviews following its release were similarly negative . Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica considered the game 's limited coverage of the band 's history to be " a sadly revisionist and dishonest take " , and felt that the non @-@ Van Halen songs clashed with the band 's own material . Kuchera further pointed to Activision 's distribution strategy for the game , stating that he felt that giving the game away free with Guitar Hero 5 showed that Activision did not have confidence in the game . Philip Horton of The Telegraph was critical of the game 's song selection , the band 's modern appearance , and the lack of any additional extras compared with either the previous band @-@ centric games or Guitar Hero 5 , and described it as " the weakest offering in the series to date " . Kate Carter of The Guardian commented that the game is " neither one thing or the other " , as it neither succeeds at bringing anything new to the Guitar Hero series nor fully pays tribute to Van Halen . Computer and Video Games ' review complained about the " shoddy character models " and described it as " the laziest Guitar Hero yet " , and Nathan Meunier of GamePro said that while the Van Halen songs were good and challenging , the remaining tracks did not fit the theme of the game , and that " the lackluster presentation makes the game feel more like a glorified track pack than a true homage " .

Guitar Hero : Van Halen sold fewer than 75 @,@ 000 units across all platforms in North America from December 22 to 31 , 2009 , according to NPD Group . As of April 2010 , the game has sold fewer than 250 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , with only 95 @,@ 000 units sold in North America . These numbers do not include copies of the game distributed in conjunction with Guitar Hero 5 .

= Nancy Mitford =

Nancy Freeman @-@ Mitford CBE ( 28 November 1904 – 30 June 1973 ) , known as Nancy Mitford , was an English novelist , biographer and journalist . One of the renowned Mitford sisters and one of the " Bright Young People " on the London social scene in the inter @-@ war years , she is best remembered for her novels about upper @-@ class life in England and France and for her sharp and often provocative wit . She also established a reputation for herself as a writer of popular historical biographies .

Mitford enjoyed a privileged childhood as the eldest daughter of the Hon. David Freeman @-@ Mitford , later 2nd Baron Redesdale . Educated privately , she had no training as a writer before publishing her first novel in 1931 . This early effort and the three that followed it created little stir ; it was her two semi @-@ autobiographical postwar novels , The Pursuit of Love ( 1945 ) and Love in a Cold Climate ( 1949 ) , that established her reputation . Mitford 's marriage to Peter Rodd in 1933 proved unsatisfactory to both ( they divorced in 1957 after a lengthy separation ) , and during the Second World War she formed a liaison with a Free French officer , Gaston Palewski . He became the love of her life , although the pair were never a formal couple . After the war Mitford settled in France and lived there until her death , maintaining social contact with her many English friends through letters and regular visits .

During the 1950s Mitford was identified with the concept of " U " ( upper ) and " non @-@ U " language , whereby social origins and standing were identified by words used in everyday speech . She had intended this as a joke , but many took it seriously , and Mitford was considered an authority on manners and breeding — possibly her most recognised legacy . Her later years were bitter @-@ sweet , the success of her biographical studies of Madame de Pompadour , Voltaire and King Louis XIV contrasting with the ultimate failure of her relationship with Palewski . From the late 1960s her health deteriorated , and she endured several years of painful illness before her death in 1973 .

= = Life = =

= = = Family background and connections = = =

The Mitford family dates from the Norman era , when Sir John de Mitford held the Castle of Mitford in Northumberland . A later Sir John held several important public offices during the late 14th and early 15th centuries , and the family maintained a tradition of public service for many generations . In the 18th century William Mitford was a leading classical historian , responsible for the definitive history of ancient Greece . His great @-@ grandson Algernon Bertram Mitford , born in 1837 and known as " Bertie " , was a diplomat and traveller who held minor office in Disraeli 's second ministry , from 1874 to 1880 . In 1874 he married Clementina , the second daughter of David Ogilvy , 10th Earl of Airlie , a union that linked the Mitfords to some of Britain 's most prominent aristocratic families . Blanche Ogilvy , Clementina 's elder sister , became the wife of Sir Henry Montague Hozier , a soldier turned businessman . Their four children included daughters Clementine ( " Clemmie " ) , who in 1908 married the future British prime minister Winston Churchill , and Nellie who married Bertram Romilly . Both Hozier and Blanche were promiscuous , and it is generally accepted by historians and family members that Hozier was not Clemmie 's father , although he was registered as such . Blanche told her friend Lady Londonderry , shortly before Clemmie 's birth , that the father of the expected child was her own brother @-@ in @-@ law , Bertie Mitford ; most historians believe that other candidates for the paternity are more likely .

Bertie Mitford 's marriage produced five sons and four daughters . His career in government service ended in 1886 , when after the death of a cousin he inherited a considerable fortune . A condition of the inheritance was that he adopt the surname " Freeman @-@ Mitford " . He rebuilt Batsford House , the family 's country seat , served briefly as a Unionist MP in the 1890s , and otherwise devoted himself to books , writings and travel . In 1902 he was raised to the peerage as 1st Baron Redesdale , a re @-@ creation of a title that had previously been held in the family but had lapsed in 1886 .

= = = Ancestry = = =

= = = = Selective Mitford family tree = = = =

= = = Childhood = = =

= = = = Parentage = = = =

Nancy Mitford 's father , David Bertram Ogilvy Freeman @-@ Mitford , was Bertie Mitford 's second son , born on 13 March 1878 . After several years as a tea planter in Ceylon he fought in the Boer War of 1899 – 1902 and was severely wounded . In 1903 he became engaged to Sydney Bowles , the elder daughter of Thomas Gibson Bowles , known as " Tap " , a journalist , editor and magazine proprietor whose publications included Vanity Fair and The Lady . The couple were married on 16 February 1904 , after which they rented a house in Graham Street in West London . Bowles provided his son @-@ in @-@ law with a job , as business manager of The Lady magazine . David had little interest in reading and knew nothing of business ; thus , according to Nancy Mitford 's biographer Selena Hastings , " a less congenial post ... could hardly have been imagined " . He remained in this position for ten years . The couple 's first child , a daughter , was born on 28 November 1904 ; they had intended to call her Ruby , but after she was born they changed their minds and named her Nancy .

= = = = First years = = = =

Responsibility for Nancy 's day @-@ to @-@ day upbringing was delegated to her nanny and nursemaid , within the framework of Sydney 's short @-@ lived belief that children should never be corrected or be spoken to in anger . Before this experiment was discontinued , Nancy had become self @-@ centred and uncontrollable ; Hastings writes that her first years were " characterised by roaring , red @-@ faced rages " . Just before her third birthday , a sister , Pamela , was born ; the nanny 's apparent change of loyalty in favour of the new arrival was a further source of outrage to Nancy , and throughout their childhood and into young adulthood she continued to vent her displeasure on her sister .

In January 1909 a brother , Tom was born , and in June 1910 another sister , Diana , followed . That summer , to relieve the pressure on what was becoming an overcrowded nursery , Nancy attended the nearby Francis Holland School . The few months she spent there represented almost the whole of her formal schooling ; in the autumn the family moved to a larger house in Victoria Road , Kensington , after which Nancy was educated at home by successive governesses . Summers were spent at the family 's cottage near High Wycombe , in Buckinghamshire , or with the children 's Redesdale grandparents at Batsford Park . In the winter of 1913 – 14 David and Sydney visited Canada , prospecting for gold on a claim that David had purchased in Swastika , Ontario . It was here that their fifth child was conceived , a daughter born in London on 8 August 1914 and christened Unity .

= = = = War , Batsford Park and Asthall Manor = = = =

On the outbreak of the First World War on 4 August 1914 , David rejoined his regiment and was soon in France . In May 1915 , Clement , David 's older brother , was killed while serving with the 10th Royal Hussars , which made David heir to the Redesdale title and lands . On 17 August 1916 Bertie Mitford died ; David , still serving at the front , became the 2nd Baron Redesdale . Sydney quickly took possession of Batsford House , much of which had been shut up for many years , and occupied the portion of it that she could afford to heat . The children had the run of the house and grounds , and were taught together in the schoolroom . This was a source of frustration for Nancy , whose lively intelligence required greater stimulus . She spent many hours reading in the Batsford House library where , according to Hastings , the foundations of her intellectual life were laid .

The Redesdale estates were extensive , but uneconomical . At the end of the war Redesdale decided to sell Batsford Park and move his increasing family ( a fifth daughter , Jessica , had been born in September 1917 ) to less extravagant accommodation . The house was sold early in 1919 , together with many of its contents — including , to Nancy 's great dismay , much of its library . The new family home was Asthall Manor , a Jacobean mansion near Swinbrook in Oxfordshire . This was intended as a short @-@ term measure while a new house was built on land nearby . The family stayed in Asthall Manor for seven years , and it became the basis of many of the family scenes which Nancy was later to portray in her semi @-@ autobiographical novels .

Growing up proved a difficult process for Nancy . Unable to form a relationship with Pamela , the sister nearest to her in age , she was bored and irritated by her younger siblings , and vented her feelings by teasing and tormenting them . Although there was undoubtedly cruelty in her taunting — the other children , led by Tom , formed a " Leag ( sic ) against Nancy " — her teasing was also , according to the later reflections of her nephew Alexander Mosley : " a highly @-@ honed weapon to keep a lot of highly competitive , bright , energetic sisters in order . She used it ... as a form of self protection " . Not all her interactions with her siblings were hostile ; for their amusement she edited and produced a magazine , The Boiler , to which she contributed entertainingly gruesome murder stories .

In 1921 , after years of pleading for proper schooling , Nancy was allowed a year 's boarding at Hatherop Castle , an informal private establishment for young ladies of good family . Laura Thompson , in her biography of Nancy , describes Hatherop as not so much a school , " more a chaste foretaste of debutante life " . Here Nancy learned French and other subjects , played organised games and joined a Girl Guide troop . It was her first extended experience of life away from home , and she enjoyed it . The following year she was allowed to accompany four other girls on a cultural trip to Paris , Florence and Venice ; her letters home are full of expressions of wonder at the sights and treasures : " I had no idea I was so fond of pictures ... if only I had a room of my own I would make it a regular picture gallery " .

= = = Debutante and socialite = = =

Nancy 's eighteenth birthday in November 1922 was the occasion for a grand " coming @-@ out " ball , marking the beginning of her entry into Society . This was followed in June 1923 by her presentation at Court — a formal introduction to King George V at Buckingham Palace — after which she was officially " out " and could attend the balls and parties that constituted the London Season . She spent much of the next few years in a round of social events , making new friends and mixing with the " Bright Young People " of 1920s London . Nancy declared that " we hardly saw the light of day , except at dawn " . In 1926 Asthall Manor was finally sold . While the new house at Swinbrook was made ready , the female members of the family were sent for three months to Paris , a period which , says Hastings , began Nancy 's " lifelong love affair " with France .

Among Nancy 's new London friends was Evelyn Gardner who , Nancy informed her brother Tom , was engaged " to a man called Evelyn Waugh who writes , I believe , very well " . She and Waugh later developed a lasting friendship . Although she was now of age , her father maintained an aggressive hostility towards most of her male friends , particularly since , as Hastings remarks , these tended towards the frivolous , the aesthetic and the effeminate . Among them was Hamish St Clair Erskine , the second son of the 5th Earl of Rosslyn , an Oxford undergraduate four years Nancy 's junior . He was , according to Hastings , the least suitable partner of all , " the most shimmering and narcissistic of all the beautiful butterflies " — and the one most likely to offend Lord Redesdale . The pair met in 1928 and became unofficially engaged , despite his homosexuality ( of which Nancy may not have been aware ) . Against a backdrop of negativity from family and friends — Waugh advised her to " dress better and catch a better man " — the affair endured sporadically for several years .

= = = Incipient writer = = =

As a means of augmenting the meagre allowance provided by her father , Mitford began writing , encouraged by Waugh . Her first efforts , anonymous contributions to gossip columns in society magazines , led to occasional signed articles , and in 1930 The Lady engaged her to write a regular column . That winter , she embarked on a full @-@ length novel , Highland Fling , in which various characters — mostly identifiable among her friends , acquaintances and family — attend a Scottish house @-@ party which develops chaotically . The book made little impact when it was published in March 1931 , and she immediately began work on another , Christmas Pudding . Like the earlier novel , the plot centres on a clash between the " Bright Young People " and the older generation . Hamish Erskine is clearly identifiable in the character of " Bobby Bobbin " , and John Betjeman is the basis for the supporting role of Bobby 's tutor . The thinly disguised caricatures pervading the book shocked Lady Redesdale , who thought it could not possibly be published under Mitford 's own name .

The affair between Erskine and Mitford continued intermittently . While she often despaired of the relationship , she refused other offers of marriage , saying that she would " never marry anyone except Hamish . " In 1932 her plight was overshadowed by a family scandal involving her younger sister Diana , who had married Bryan Guinness in 1928 and was the mother of two young sons . In 1932 Diana deserted her husband to become the mistress of Sir Oswald Mosley , the leader of the British Union of Fascists , himself married with three children . Almost alone of her family , Mitford offered her sister support , regularly visiting her and keeping her up to date with family news and social gossip . Her own love affair with Erskine came to an abrupt end when , in June 1933 , he informed her that he intended to marry the daughter of a London banker . In a final letter after their parting , Mitford wrote to him : " I thought in your soul you loved me & that in the end we should have children & look back on life together when we are old " .

= = = Marriage , writing , politics = = =

Within a month of Erskine 's departure , Mitford announced her engagement to Peter Rodd , the second son of Sir Rennell Rodd , a diplomat and politician who was ennobled that year as Baron Rennell . According to Mitford 's friend Harold Acton , Rodd was " a young man of boundless promise ... he had abundant qualifications for success in any profession he deigned to choose " . Other biographers describe him as irresponsible , unfaithful , a bore and unable to hold down a regular job , and as the model for Waugh 's unscrupulous , amoral character Basil Seal from Black Mischief . They were married on 4 December 1933 , after which they settled into a cottage at Strand @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Green on the western edges of London . Mitford 's initial delight in the marriage was soon tempered by money worries , Rodd 's fecklessness and her dislike of his family .

In 1934 Mitford began her third novel , Wigs on the Green , a satire on Mosley 's fascist " Blackshirt " movement . Mitford herself had briefly flirted with this cause , although her enthusiasm was short @-@ lived and she soon became a vociferous opponent of fascism . When the novel was published in 1935 it made little critical impact , while seriously offending members of her own family , particularly her sisters Diana and Unity , both of whom were supporters of Mosley 's movement and devotees of the German dictator Adolf Hitler . Diana eventually forgave her , but the rift with Unity , who was outraged by her depiction in the book as the ridiculous " Eugenia Malmains " , was never fully healed .

By 1936 Mitford 's marriage was largely a sham . Rodd was engaged in an affair with the wife of a friend , a situation that continued into the new year , when the Mitford family was further shaken by the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Jessica 's elopement with her cousin Esmond Romilly . A rebellious ex @-@ Wellington schoolboy and avowed Communist , Romilly had been invalided home after fighting on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War . The young couple were traced to Bilbao ; Mitford was despatched to bring them home , but failed to persuade them , and they were married in May .

Through the winter of 1937 – 38 Mitford 's main literary task was editing the letters of her cousins the Stanleys of Alderley , with whom she was connected through her great @-@ grandmother Blanche Airlie . Her preoccupation with this project — nine or ten hours a day , she informed her friend Robert Byron — further damaged her relationship with Rodd , who resented the time thus spent . Nevertheless , in the summer of 1938 she discovered she was pregnant . She hoped for a girl : " 2 Peter Rodds in 1 house is unthinkable " , but in September she miscarried . Early in 1939 Rodd left for the South of France , to work with the relief organisations assisting the thousands of Spanish refugees who had fled from General Franco 's armies in the final stages of the civil war . In May Mitford joined him , and spent several weeks there as a relief worker . She was much affected by what she saw : " I have never cried so much in all my life " . The experience hardened her anti @-@ fascism to the extent that she wrote : " I would join hands with the devil himself to stop any further extension of the disease " .

Having rejected the political extremes within her family , Mitford affected a stance of moderate socialism , though as Hastings points out , without much depth or conviction . Many of her writings — for example , her introductions to the Stanley letter collections , and her " U – non @-@ U " essay of 1955 — are staunch defences of aristocratic traditions and values .

= = = Second World War = = =

The outbreak of war in September 1939 divided the Mitford family . Nancy and Rodd supported the war ; the Romillys had by this time departed for America , while the others either hoped for an Anglo @-@ German détente or , as with Unity , were openly pro @-@ Nazi . Unity was in Munich when war was declared ; in despair she attempted suicide by shooting herself in the head . She survived , and was sent home through neutral Switzerland . Mosley and Diana , who had married secretly in 1936 , were detained under Defence Regulation 18B . Nancy , in full anti @-@ fascist mode , had described her sister to the British Intelligence agency MI5 as " a ruthless and shrewd egotist , a devoted fascist and admirer of Hitler [ who ] sincerely desires the downfall of England and democracy in general . " During the " phoney war " of 1939 – 40 , Nancy was briefly an Air Raid Precautions ( ARP ) driver , and later worked shifts at a first @-@ aid post in Paddington . She drew on these experiences in her fourth novel , Pigeon Pie , a comedy about spying . It was published by Hamish Hamilton in May 1940 , at a time when there was little public appetite for lighthearted war satire , and the book was a commercial failure .

In April 1940 Mitford suffered her second miscarriage . Shortly afterwards Rodd , who had been commissioned into the Welsh Guards , departed overseas . Alone in London , Mitford moved to the family 's Rutland Gate house where she remained during the London blitz . The main house had been requisitioned to provide a refuge for Jewish families evacuated from the bombed areas of the East End . Mitford spent much of her time looking after these families , " so hard @-@ working , clean and grateful " . A brief affair with a Free French officer , André Roy , resulted in a third pregnancy . Mitford again miscarried , with complications that led , in November 1941 , to a hysterectomy . After convalescence , at a loose end , she began working as an assistant at the Heywood Hill bookshop in Curzon Street . The shop became the centre of Mitford 's daily activities , and was a favoured meeting place for London 's literati . In September 1942 she met Gaston Palewski , a French colonel attached to General Charles de Gaulle 's London staff . She found him fascinating , and he became the love of her life — though her feelings were never fully reciprocated — and an inspiration for much of her future writing . For the sake of Mitford 's reputation the affair was pursued with discretion , before Palewski left for Algeria in May 1943 . Thereafter the relationship was conducted mainly by letters and occasional phone calls , since Palewski was only intermittently in England before the end of the war .

Pigeon Pie 's failure had cooled Mitford 's desire to write , but in 1944 , with Waugh 's encouragement , she began planning a new novel . In March 1945 she was given three months ' leave from the shop to write it . The Pursuit of Love is a heavily autobiographical romantic comedy in which many of her family and acquaintances appear in thin disguises . Despite the distraction of learning that her brother Tom had died fighting in Burma , she finished the book and , in September , went to Paris . Ostensibly this was to establish a French branch of Heywood Hill but in reality she wished to be close to Palewski , who was now a member of de Gaulle 's postwar provisional government . She was back in London in December 1945 for the publication of The Pursuit of Love which was , Hastings records , " an instant and phenomenal success ... the perfect antidote to the long war years of hardship and austerity , providing the undernourished public with its favourite ingredients : love , childhood and the English upper classes " . The book sold 200 @,@ 000 copies within a year of publication , and firmly established Mitford as a best @-@ selling author .

= = = Move to Paris = = =

At the end of the war Rodd returned home , but the marriage was essentially over ; although remaining on friendly terms , the couple led separate lives . Mitford 's visit to France in late 1945 had revived her longing to be there , and in April 1946 , having given up working in the shop the previous month , she left London to make her permanent home in Paris ; she never lived in England again . She was a prolific letter writer , and kept contact with her large cohort of friends by a voluminous correspondence . According to Hastings , she developed many of her friendships far further on paper than she could have done through normal social intercourse .

= = = = Rue Monsieur = = = =

During her first 18 months in Paris Mitford lived in several short @-@ term lodgings while enjoying a hectic social life , the hub of which was the British Embassy under the regime of the ambassador , Duff Cooper , and his socialite wife Lady Diana Cooper . Eventually Mitford found a comfortable apartment , with a maid , at No. 7 rue Monsieur on the Left Bank , close to Palewski 's residence . Settled there in comfort , she established a pattern to her life that she mostly followed for the next 20 years , her precise timetable determined by Palewski 's varying availability . Her socialising , entertaining and working were interspersed with regular short visits to family and friends in England and summers generally spent in Venice .

In 1948 Mitford completed a new novel , a sequel to The Pursuit of Love she called Love in a Cold Climate , with the same country house ambience as the earlier book and many of the same characters . The novel 's reception was even warmer than that of its predecessor ; Waugh was one of the few critics to qualify his praise — he thought the descriptions were good but the conversations poor . In 1950 she translated and adapted André Roussin 's play La petite hutte ( " The Little Hut " ) , in preparation for its successful West End début in August , The Times 's critic noted the " habit of speech at once colloquial and unexpected which instantly declares itself the creation of Miss Mitford . " The play ran for 1 @,@ 261 performances , and provided Mitford with a steady £ 300 per month in royalties . The same year The Sunday Times asked her to contribute a regular column , which she did for four years . This busy period in her writing life continued in 1951 with her third postwar novel , The Blessing , another semi @-@ autobiographical romance this time set in Paris , in which an aristocratic young Englishwoman is married to a libidinous French marquis . Harold Acton deems it her most accomplished novel , " permeated with her joyous love of France " . This time Waugh ( to whom the book was dedicated ) had no criticism ; he found the book " admirable , deliciously funny , consistent and complete , by far the best of your writings " .

Mitford then began her first serious non @-@ fiction work , a biography of Madame de Pompadour . The general view of the critics , when the book was published in March 1954 , was that it was " marvellous entertainment , if hardly to be taken as history " . The historian A.J.P. Taylor likened Mitford 's evocation of 18th @-@ century Versailles to " Alconleigh " , the fictitious country house that formed the background to her recent best @-@ selling novels , a comparison that she found offensive .

= = = = Noblesse Oblige = = = =

In 1954 Alan Ross , a University of Birmingham professor of linguistics , devised the terms " U " and " Non @-@ U " to differentiate the speech patterns of the social classes in England . " U " indicated upper @-@ class usage , and " Non @-@ U " the conventions of the lower strata of society . His article , in a learned Finnish journal and with an illustrative glossary , used The Pursuit of Love to exemplify upper @-@ class speech patterns . In a spirit of mischief , Mitford incorporated the U and Non @-@ U thesis into an article she was writing for Encounter on the English aristocracy . Although this aspect formed only a small section of Mitford 's article , when it was published in September 1955 it caused a major stir . Few recognised the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek aspect ; Mitford received hundreds of letters from worried readers desperate to know if they were snobs or merely " common " . The level of anxious or amused interest was sustained to such an extent that in 1956 Hamish Hamilton reproduced the article in a short book , entitled Noblesse Oblige . The book also included an abbreviated version of Ross 's original article , and contributions from Waugh , Betjeman , Peter Fleming and Christopher Sykes , It was a tremendous success ; as Lovell records , " ' U and Non @-@ U ' was the buzz phrase of the day ... Nancy 's comments made her the arbiter of good manners for several generations " . Thompson notes the irony that the U and Non @-@ U labels , perhaps Mitford 's best @-@ known legacy , were not her own but were borrowed for the purpose of a " tease " .

= = = = Later career = = = =

In October 1957 Palewski was appointed as France 's ambassador to Italy . Mitford 's meetings with him , which had become increasingly rare because of his many political and social commitments , were now reduced to a single visit a year , supplemented with occasional letters . Mitford mainly concealed her true feelings on this separation , although one acquaintance noted her increasingly " savage " teasing of friends , which was perhaps a safety valve : " If she would only tell one she is unhappy one would do what one could to comfort her " . In March 1958 Mitford 's father , Lord Redesdale , died . After the cremation , she informed her sister Jessica , " the ashes were done up in the sort of parcel he used to bring back from London , rich thick brown paper & incredibly neat knots " .

Meanwhile Mitford had completed her latest book , Voltaire in Love , an account of the love affair between Voltaire and the Marquise du Châtelet . She considered it her first truly grown @-@ up work , and her best . Published in 1957 , it sold well , was taken seriously by the critics and was warmly praised by Mitford 's friends . Its writing had been hampered by painful headaches arising from her apparently failing eyesight and worries that she might be going blind . The problem was resolved after a visit to the opthalmic surgeon Patrick Trevor @-@ Roper , who gave her new spectacles : " It is heavenly to be able to read for a long time on end & now I see how handicapped I was when doing Voltaire " . She then returned to writing fiction , with Don 't Tell Alfred , in which she revived Fanny Wincham , the narrator of The Pursuit of Love and Love in a Cold Climate , and placed her in a Paris setting as wife of the British ambassador . Several characters familiar from the earlier novels appear in minor roles . The book , published in October 1960 , was popular with the public , but received indifferent reviews . Some of Mitford 's friends disliked it , and she decided she would write no more fiction .

In August 1962 Palewski was appointed a minister in Georges Pompidou 's government , and returned to Paris . This did not mean more regular or frequent meetings , and the affair with Mitford continued at arm 's length . In April 1963 Mitford was in England for the wedding of her cousin Angus Ogilvy to Princess Alexandra . A month later she was back for the funeral of her mother , Lady Redesdale , who died on 25 May . Mitford 's friends were dying , too , " in middle age " , she informed her long @-@ time friend Violet Hammersley . The premature deaths included that of Evelyn Waugh , who died on 10 April 1966 . Mitford saw the kindness and humour concealed behind his hostile public image , and said after his death : " What nobody ever remembers about Evelyn is everything with him was jokes . Everything " . Thompson calls their relationship " one of the great literary friendships of the twentieth century " .

Amidst these personal upheavals Mitford continued writing . In 1964 she began work on The Sun King , a biography of King Louis XIV . Her publishers decided to issue it as a lavishly illustrated " coffee table " book . When it was published in August 1966 , among the many tributes to the book was that of President de Gaulle , who recommended it to every member of his cabinet . By this time , Mitford 's relationship with Palewski had become dormant , and she recognised that the best days would never return . Under pressure from her landlords to leave her rue Monsieur apartment — they had raised her rent " exorbitantly " — she decided to leave Paris and buy herself a house in Versailles .

= = = Final years = = =

Mitford moved to No. 4 rue d 'Artois , Versailles , in January 1967 . The modest house had a half @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 2 hectare ) garden , which soon became one of her chief delights . In 1968 she began work on her final book , a biography of Frederick the Great . While confined at home in March 1969 after a series of illnesses she learned from a newspaper announcement that Palewski had married the Duchesse de Sagan , a rich divorcée . Mitford had long accepted that Palewski would never marry her . Nevertheless , she was deeply hurt by the news , although she affected a typical nonchalance . Shortly after , she entered hospital for the removal of a tumour . After the operation she continued to suffer pain , although she was able to continue working on her book . In October 1969 she undertook a tour of East Germany , to visit former royal palaces and battlefields . She finished the book , but in April 1970 was back in hospital for further tests , which did not lead to either a diagnosis or effective treatment .

Frederick the Great was published later in 1970 to a muted reception . Mitford 's remaining years were dominated by her illness , although for a time she enjoyed visits from her sisters and friends , and working in her garden . In April 1972 the French government made her a Chevalier of the Légion d 'Honneur , and later that year the British government appointed her a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) . She was delighted by the former honour , and amused by the latter — which she remembered Waugh had called an " insult " and turned down . At the end of 1972 she entered the Nuffield Clinic in London , where she was diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma , a cancer of the blood . She lived for another six months , unable to look after herself and in almost constant pain , struggling to keep her spirits up . She wrote to her friend James Lees @-@ Milne : " It 's very curious , dying , and would have many a drôle amusing & charming side were it not for the pain " . She died on 30 June 1973 at her home in the rue d 'Artois and was cremated in Versailles , after which her ashes were taken to Swinbrook for burial alongside her sister Unity .

= = Writings = =

= = = Fiction = = =

Mitford had no training as a writer or journalist ; her style , particularly in the pre @-@ war novels , is chatty and informal , much as in her letters . She may have inherited some of her natural wit and sharpness of expression from her maternal grandfather Thomas Bowles , who in his youth during the Franco @-@ Prussian War had provided dispatches which Acton describes as " extremely graphic and amusing " . Mitford 's fiction , based on upper @-@ class family life and mores , belongs to the genre of the comedy of manners . Her protagonists — typically , intelligent women surrounded by eccentric characters determined to find life amusing — are broadly autobiographical . It is unsurprising , says Thompson , that Mitford should first attempt to write a novel in the early 1930s , since many of her friends were doing the same thing . What is surprising , Thompson adds , is the ease with which she found a publisher for this first book . Perhaps , says Thompson , her publishers Thornton Butterworth " liked the idea of this pretty , well @-@ connected girl who wrote in the style du jour " . Mitford was later embarrassed by her prewar novels ; Rachel Cooke , writing on their reissue in 2011 , believes she had no reason to be : " There is a special kind of energy here , and its engine is the admirable and irresistible commitment of a writer who would rather die than be boring " .

Critics generally place the postwar novels in a different league from the earlier efforts ; Cooke describes The Pursuit of Love as " an immaculate novel that soars many miles above what came before " . In Acton 's view it and its companion volume Love in a Cold Climate present an entirely authentic picture of country house life in England between the wars , and will long be consulted by historians of the period . In these later novels Zoë Heller of the Daily Telegraph hears in the prose , behind a new level of care and artfulness . " the unmistakeable Mitford trill , in whose light , bright cadences an entire hard @-@ to @-@ shock and easy @-@ to @-@ bore view of life is made manifest " . At times a more serious undertone , contrasting with the " bright , brittle , essentially ephemeral " nature of her early works , becomes evident ; Olivia Laing in the Guardian , discerns " a faint and beguiling pessimism about love 's pursuit and its consequences " beneath the light superficiality .

The Blessing has provoked a more divided response . Waugh 's judgement was that those who criticised the book were " lazy brutes ... [ who ] ... can 't bear to see a writer grow up " . More recently , Philip Hensher and others have argued that although the novel is immensely enjoyable and that Mitford 's " marvellous voice " is undiminished , she is on less sure ground with her " Frenchness " than with the English country house ambience , and her picture of France as the embodiment of everything civilised is less than convincing . Similar mixed comments greeted Mitford 's final novel , Don 't Tell Alfred , Waugh again hailing it as her best , " clamouring for a sequel " . In this judgement he was largely alone ; other critics perceived in the anecdotal framework of the book an uncertainty as to what it was about . An American reviewer wondered what parts were to be taken seriously : " What exactly goes on ? ... Can you always tell an Etonian , even when he goes beat ? Is all modern architecture a fraud ? Do U @-@ people really talk this way ? " Similar questions were raised in the Times Literary Supplement 's review , in relation to Mitford 's fictional output as a whole : " Would she have been a better novelist if she had ' tried harder ' , gone in further , dropped the pose of amateurishness , cut the charm , looked beyond the worlds that she knew and , more importantly , loved ? "

= = = Biographical works = = =

The gift for vivid characterisation , which Mitford developed in her fiction , was used to full effect in her four biographical works . In the first of these , Madame de Pompadour , she followed Waugh 's advice not to write for experts but to fashion " a popular life like Strachey 's Queen Victoria " , with " plenty of period prettiness " . This remained her yardstick in her subsequent biographical writings . Her own description of Voltaire in Love is " a Kinsey report of his romps with Mme de Châtelet and her romps with Saint @-@ Lambert and his romps with Mme de Boufflers ... I could go on for pages " . Acton thought The Sun King the most entertaining introduction to the subject in the English language . Mitford 's informal style was remarked on by the literary critic Cyril Connolly , who wrote that her facility for transforming unpromising source material into readable form was a skill that any professional historian might envy . The historian Antonia Fraser considered Mitford an important contributor to the " remorseless process by which historical and biographical sales have soared since 1950 " .

= = = Journalism , letters and other works = = =

Mitford did not regard herself as a journalist : nevertheless , her articles were popular , particularly those she contributed on Paris life to The Sunday Times . Thomson describes this series as " a more sophisticated version of A Year in Provence , bringing France to the English in just the way that they most like it " . Thompson adds that although Mitford was always a competent writer , it is in her letters , with their freedom of expression and flights of fancy , that her true character emerges . Many have been published within collections ; they are , according to The Independent 's reviewer : " a delight , full of the sparks of an abrasive and entertaining wit , refreshingly free from politeness " .

= = List of works = =

( Publisher details are for first publication only )

= = = Novels = = =

Highland Fling . London : Thornton Butterworth . 1931 . OCLC 12145781 .

Christmas Pudding . London : Thornton Butterworth . 1932 . OCLC 639867174 .

Wigs on the Green . London : Thornton Butterworth . 1935 . OCLC 5728619 .

Pigeon Pie . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1940 . OCLC 709966771 .

The Pursuit of Love . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1945 . OCLC 857990796 .

Love in a Cold Climate . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1949 . OCLC 563596524 .

The Blessing . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1951 . OCLC 752807050 .

Don 't Tell Alfred . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1960 . OCLC 757838847 .

= = = Biographical = = =

Madame de Pompadour . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1954 . OCLC 432649137 .

Voltaire in Love . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1957 . OCLC 459588409 .

The Sun King . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1966 . OCLC 229419330 .

Frederick the Great . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1970 . ISBN 0 @-@ 241 @-@ 01922 @-@ 2 .

= = = Drama = = =

The Little Hut . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1951 . OCLC 317377443 . ( Play , translated and adapted from André Roussin 's La petite hutte )

= = = As editor = = =

The Ladies of Alderley : Letters 1841 – 1850 . London : Chapman & Hall . 1938 . OCLC 408486 .

The Stanleys of Alderley : Letters 1851 – 1865 . London : Chapman & Hall . 1939 . OCLC 796961504 .

Noblesse oblige : An inquiry into the identifiable characteristics of the English aristocracy . London : Hamish Hamilton . 1956 . OCLC 219758991 . The book includes Mitford 's essay " The English Aristocracy " , first published in Encounter , September 1955

= = = Collections of letters = = =

Mosley , Charlotte ( ed . ) ( 1993 ) . Love from Nancy : The Letters of Nancy Mitford . London : Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 53784 @-@ 8 .

Mosley , Charlotte ( ed . ) ( 1996 ) . The Letters of Nancy Mitford and Evelyn Waugh . London : Hodder & Stoughton . ISBN 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 63804 @-@ 4 .

Smith , John Saumarez ( ed . ) ( 2004 ) . The Bookshop at 10 Curzon Street : Letters between Nancy Mitford and Heywood Hill 1952 – 73 . London : Frances Lincoln . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7112 @-@ 2452 @-@ 0 .

Mosley , Charlotte ( ed . ) ( 2007 ) . The Mitfords : Letters Between Six Sisters . London : Fourth Estate . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84115 @-@ 790 @-@ 0 .

= = = Other works = = =

Mitford was a prolific writer of articles , reviews , essays and prefaces , some of which were published in two collections : The Water Beetle ( Hamish Hamilton , 1962 ) and A Talent to Annoy ( Hamish Hamilton , 1986 ) . Her translation of Madame Lafayette 's romantic novel La Princess de Clèves was published in America in 1950 , but was heavily criticised .

= Amphicoelias =

Amphicoelias ( / ˌæmfᵻˈsiːliəs / , meaning " biconcave " , from the Greek αμφι , amphi : " on both sides " , and κοιλος , koilos : " hollow , concave " ) is a genus of herbivorous sauropod dinosaur that is probably synonymous with the genus Diplodocus . It includes what has sometimes been estimated to be the largest dinosaur specimen ever discovered , originally named " A. fragillimus " . Based on surviving descriptions of a single fossil bone , scientists had over the years estimated A. fragillimus to have been the longest known animal at 58 metres ( 190 ft ) in length , with potentially a mass of up to 122 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 135 short tons ) . However , because the only fossil remains were lost at some point after being studied and described in the 1870s , evidence survived only in drawings and field notes . More recent analysis of the surviving evidence , and the biological plausibility of such a large land animal , has suggested that the enormous size of this animal were over @-@ estimates due partly to typographical errors in the original 1878 description .

= = Description = =

The type species of Amphicoelias , A. altus , was named by paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in December 1877 ( though not published until 1878 ) for an incomplete skeleton consisting of two vertebrae , a pubis ( hip bone ) , and a femur ( upper leg bone ) . Cope also named a second species , A. fragillimus , in the same paper . However , all subsequent researchers have considered A. fragillimus to be a synonym of A. altus . Even by 1881 however , it was recognized that A. altus could not be distinguished from other genera , as the features described by Cope were misinterpreted and are widespread . In 1921 , Osborn and Mook assigned additional bones to A. altus — a scapula ( shoulder blade ) , a coracoid ( shoulder bone ) , an ulna ( lower arm bone ) , and a tooth . Henry Fairfield Osborn and Charles Craig Mook noted the overall close similarity between Amphicoelias and Diplodocus , as well as a few key differences , such as proportionally longer forelimbs in Amphicoelias than in Diplodocus . The dentition of Amphicoelias is homodont . Its teeth are shaped like long slender cylindrical rods , are spaced apart and project forward towards the front of the mouth . The femur of Amphicoelias is unusually long , slender , and round in cross section ; while this roundness was once thought to be another distinguishing characteristic of Amphicoelias , it has since been found in some specimens of Diplodocus as well . A. altus was also similar in size to Diplodocus , estimated to be about 25 m ( 82 ft ) long . While most scientists have used these details to distinguish Amphicoelias and Diplodocus as separate genera , at least one has suggested that Amphicoelias is probably the senior synonym of Diplodocus .

= = History = =

Amphicoelias fragillimus was collected by Oramel Lucas , a fossil collector employed by E. D. Cope , shortly after he was hired by Cope in 1877 . Lucas discovered a partial vertebra ( the neural arch and spine ) of the new sauropod species in Garden Park , north of Cañon City , Colorado , close to the quarry that yielded Camarasaurus . The vertebra was in poor condition , but astonishingly large , measuring 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) up to 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) in height . Lucas shipped the specimen to Cope in the spring or early summer of 1878 , and Cope published it as the holotype specimen ( catalogue number AMNH 5777 ) of a new species , A. fragillimus , that August . The name derives from the Latin fragillimus ( " very fragile " ) , referring to the delicateness of the bone produced by very thin laminae ( vertebral walls ) . As revealed in Cope 's notebooks , which he recorded based on Lucas ' report on excavation site locations in 1879 , the specimen came from a hill south of the Camarasaurus quarry now known as " Cope 's Nipple . " While Cope originally wrote that the site belonged to the Dakota Formation ( mid @-@ Cretaceous in age ) , the presence of dinosaurs such as Camarasaurus in the same rocks indicates that they probably belong to the Morrison Formation , which places the age of the site at 150 million years ago in the late Jurassic period , specifically the Tithonian age .

The gigantic bones attributed to A. fragillimus have often been ignored in summaries of the largest dinosaurs partly because , according to various subsequent reports , the whereabouts of both the vertebra and the femur are unknown , and all attempts to locate them have failed . Carpenter , in 2006 , presented a possible scenario for the disappearance of the A. fragillimus specimens . As Cope noted in his description , the neural arch bone material was very fragile , and techniques to harden and preserve fossil bone had not yet been invented ( Cope 's rival , paleontologist O.C. Marsh , was the first to use such chemicals , in the early 1880s ) . Carpenter observed that the fossil bones known from the A. fragillimus quarry would have been preserved in deeply weathered mudstone , which tends to crumble easily and fragment into small , irregular cubes . Therefore , the bone may have crumbled badly and been discarded by someone at the American Museum of Natural History ( possibly even by Cope himself ) soon after he illustrated it in rear view for his paper . Carpenter suggested that this may explain why Cope drew the vertebra in only one view , rather than from multiple angles as he did for his other discoveries .

In 1994 , an attempt was made to relocate the original quarry where A. fragillimus and other species had been found , using ground @-@ penetrating radar in an attempt to image bones still buried in the ground . This attempt failed because the fossilized mudstone bones were the same density as the surrounding rock , making it impossible to differentiate the two . A study of the local topography also showed that the fossil @-@ bearing rock strata was severely eroded , and probably was so at the time Lucas made his discovery of A. fragillimus , indicating that a majority of the skeleton was gone by the time the vertebra and femur were recovered .

Cope 's description of A. fragillimus has been met with skepticism , with some researchers noting that there were typographical errors in his measurements . For example , the measurement units are given in ( obviously incorrect ) centimeters rather than millimeters . Carpenter argued that there is every reason to take Cope at his word , noting that the paleontologist 's reputation was at stake . The discovery took place during the Bone Wars , and Cope 's rival Marsh , who was " ever ready to humiliate " Cope , never called the claims into question . Marsh was known to have employed spies to monitor Cope 's discoveries , and may have even had confirmation of the enormous size of the Amphicoelias fragillimus bones . Paleontologists Henry Fairfield Osborn and C.C. Mook in 1921 , as well as John S. McIntosh in 1998 , also accepted Cope 's data without question in published reviews . In 2015 , Woodruff and Foster published an analysis of the evidence and circumstances surrounding the publication and interpretation of A. fragillimus .

= = Size = =

Producing an estimate of the complete size of A. fragillimus requires scaling the bones of better @-@ known species of diplodocid ( a family of extremely long and slender sauropods ) in the assumption that their relative proportions were similar . In his original paper , Cope did this by speculating on the size of a hypothetical A. fragillimus femur ( upper leg bone ) . Cope noticed that in other sauropod dinosaurs , specifically A. altus and Camarasaurus supremus , the femora were always twice as tall as the tallest dorsal vertebra , and estimated the size of an A. fragillimus femur to be 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) tall .

In 1994 , using the related Diplodocus as a reference , Gregory S. Paul estimated a femur length of 3 @.@ 1 to 4 metres ( 10 to 13 ft ) for A. fragillimus . The 2006 re @-@ evaluation of A. fragillimus by Ken Carpenter also used Diplodocus as a scale guide , finding a femur height of 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 14 to 15 ft ) . Carpenter went on to estimate the complete size of A. fragillimus , though he cautioned that relative proportions in diplodocids could vary from species to species . Assuming the same proportions as the well @-@ known Diplodocus , Carpenter presented an estimated total length of 58 m ( 190 ft ) , which he noted fell within the range presented by Paul in 1994 ( 40 to 60 metres ( 130 to 200 ft ) ) . Carpenter pointed out that even the lowest length estimates for A. fragillimus were higher than those for other giant sauropods , such as the diplodocid Supersaurus ( 32 @.@ 5 metres ( 107 ft ) ) , the brachiosaurid Sauroposeidon ( 34 metres ( 112 ft ) ) , and the titanosaur Argentinosaurus ( 30 metres ( 98 ft ) ) . Carpenter presented more speculative , specific proportions for A. fragillimus ( again , based on a scaled @-@ up Diplodocus ) , including a neck length of 16 @.@ 75 metres ( 55 @.@ 0 ft ) , a body length of 9 @.@ 25 metres ( 30 @.@ 3 ft ) , and a tail length of 32 metres ( 105 ft ) . He estimated the total forelimb height at 5 @.@ 75 metres ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) and hind limb height at 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) , and the overall height ( at the highest point on the back ) at 9 @.@ 25 metres ( 30 @.@ 3 ft ) . By comparison the blue whale , which is on average the longest living creature , reaches 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in length .

While A. fragillimus was relatively thin , its enormous size still made it very massive . Weight is much more difficult to determine than length in sauropods , as the more complex equations needed are prone to greater margins of error based on smaller variations in the overall proportions of the animal . Carpenter used Paul 's 1994 estimate of the mass of Diplodocus carnegii ( 11 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 11 @.@ 3 long tons ; 12 @.@ 7 short tons ) ) to speculate that A. fragillimus could have weighed up to 122 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 120 @.@ 5 long tons ; 134 @.@ 9 short tons ) . The heaviest blue whale on record weighed about 190 metric tons ( 190 long tons ; 210 short tons ) , and the heaviest dinosaur known from reasonably good remains , Argentinosaurus , weighed 80 to 100 metric tons ( 79 to 98 long tons ; 88 to 110 short tons ) , although if the size estimates can be validated , it could still be lighter than Bruhathkayosaurus , which has been estimated to have weighed 126 metric tons ( 124 long tons ; 139 short tons ) , but is also known from highly fragmentary remains .

Other unpublished estimates have appeared online . A paleoartist on DeviantArt estimated the length of A. fragillimus to be around 73 m ( 240 ft ) , based on a linear scaling of a 26 @.@ 25 meter long , 11 @.@ 5 tonne Diplodocus , assuming that A fragillimus was 2 @.@ 79 times larger in linear dimension . In 2010 , Mike Taylor addressed the issue of A. fragillimus 's size on the blog SV @-@ POW ( Sauropod Vertebrae Picture of the Week ) . Based on comparisons to A. altus and to Diplodocus , he estimated that it may have been around 49 m ( 161 ft ) long and 78 @.@ 5 tonnes . However , he concluded with the disclaimer that it is impossible to determine with any degree of certainty at all how large A. fragillimus was in reality because of the lack of accurate information .

= = Classification and species = =

Edward Drinker Cope described his finds in two 1878 issues of the American Naturalist , and assigned them to the new genus Amphicoelias . He placed it in a unique family , Amphicoeliidae , though this is now considered a nomen oblitum ( forgotten name ) . The genus is usually assigned to the family Diplodocidae , though some modern analyses have found it at the base of the larger group Diplodocoidea or as a diplodocid incertae sedis ( uncertain placement ) . The first named species in the genus , Amphicoelias altus ( holotype specimen AMHD 5764 ) , was discovered by Cope in 1877 . But while it is only represented by a partial skeleton , there are enough diagnostic characteristics to provisionally define the genus . A. altus is known from better remains , but is smaller than A. fragillimus . Cope also named a second species in 1878 : Amphicoelias latus .

The third named Amphicoelias species , A. fragillimus , was known only from a single , incomplete 1 @.@ 5 m tall neural arch ( the part of a vertebra with spines and processes ) , either last or second to last in the series of back vertebrae , D ( dorsal ) 10 or D9 . Based only on an illustration published in 1878 , this vertebra would have measured 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) tall in life . However , it has been argued that the scale bar in the published description contained a typographical error , and the fossil vertebra was in fact only 1 @.@ 38 metres ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) tall . In addition to this vertebra , Cope 's field notes contain an entry for an " [ i ] mmense distal end of femur ” , located only a few tens of meters away from the giant vertebra . It is likely that this undescribed leg bone belonged to the same individual animal as the neural spine .

In 2010 , a monograph was made available , but not formally published , by Henry Galiano and Raimund Albersdorfer in which they referred a fourth species to Amphicoelias , as " A. brontodiplodocus " based on several complete specimens found in the Dana Quarry of Big Horn Basin , Wyoming and held in a private collection . The specific name referred to their hypothesis based on these specimens that nearly all Morrison diplodocid species are either growth stages or represent sexual dimorphism among members of the genus Amphicoelias , but this analysis has been met with skepticism and the publication itself has been disclaimed by its lead author , explaining that it is " obviously a drafted manuscript complete with typos , etc . , and not a final paper . In fact , no printing or distribution has been attempted " .

Osborn and Mook , in 1921 , provisionally synonymized the three species , sinking A. latus into Camarasaurus supremus , and suggesting also that A. fragillimus is just a very large individual of A. altus , a position which most subsequent studies , including McIntosh 1998 , Foster ( 2007 ) , and Woodruff and Foster ( 2015 ) have agreed with . Carpenter ( 2006 ) disagreed about the synonymy of A. altus and A. fragillimus , however , citing numerous differences in the construction of the vertebra also noted by Cope , and suggested these differences are enough to warrant a separate species or even a separate genus for A. fragillimus . However , he went on to caution that the validity of A. fragillimus as a separate species is nearly impossible to determine without the original specimen to study . Although Amphicoelias latus is clearly not Amphicoelias , it is probably synonymous with Camarasaurus grandis rather than C. supremus because it was found lower in the Morrison Formation and the deeply concave articular faces on the caudal vertebrae are more consistent with C. grandis .

In 2007 , John Foster suggested that the differences usually cited to differentiate Amphicoelias altus from the more well known Diplodocus are not significant and may be due to individual variation . Foster argued that Amphicoelias is probably the senior synonym of Diplodocus , and that if further research bears this out , the familiar name Diplodocus would need to be abandoned in favor of Amphicoelias , as was the case with Brontosaurus and its senior synonym Apatosaurus . In 2015 , Woodruff and Foster reiterated this conclusion , stating that there is only one species of Amphicoelias and that it could be referred to Diplodocus as Diplodocus altus . They considered the name Amphicoelias to be a nomen oblitum . It has also been hypothesized that Amphicoelias should be considered an apatosaurine , and therefore should be placed in the subfamily Apatosaurinae .

The following cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson ( 2015 ) instead shows A. altus outside Diplodocinae .

= = Paleobiology = =

In his 2006 re @-@ evaluation , Carpenter examined the paleobiology of giant sauropods , including Amphicoelias , and addresses the question of why this group attained such a huge size . He pointed out that gigantic sizes were reached early in sauropod evolution , with very large sized species present as early as the late Triassic Period , and concluded that whatever evolutionary pressure caused large size was present from the early origins of the group . Carpenter cited several studies of giant mammalian herbivores , such as elephants and rhinoceros , which showed that larger size in plant @-@ eating animals leads to greater efficiency in digesting food . Since larger animals have longer digestive systems , food is kept in digestion for significantly longer periods of time , allowing large animals to survive on lower @-@ quality food sources . This is especially true of animals with a large number of ' fermentation chambers ' along the intestine which allow microbes to accumulate and ferment plant material , aiding digestion . Throughout their evolutionary history , sauropod dinosaurs were found primarily in semi @-@ arid , seasonally dry environments , with a corresponding seasonal drop in the quality of food during the dry season . The environment of Amphicoelias was essentially a savanna , similar to the arid environments in which modern giant herbivores are found , supporting the idea that poor @-@ quality food in an arid environment promotes the evolution of giant herbivores . Carpenter argued that other benefits of large size , such as relative immunity from predators , lower energy expenditure , and longer life span , are probably secondary advantages .

The Morrison Formation environment in which Amphicoelias lived would have resembled a modern savanna , though since grass did not appear until the Late Cretaceous , ferns were probably the dominant plant and main food source for Amphicoelias . Though Engelmann et al . ( 2004 ) dismissed ferns as a sauropod food source due to their relatively low caloric content , Carpenter argued that the sauropod digestive system , well adapted to handle low @-@ quality food , allows for the consumption of ferns as a large part of the sauropod diet . Carpenter also noted that the occasional presence of large petrified logs indicate the presence of 20 – 30 m ( 66 – 98 ft ) tall trees , which would seem to conflict with the savanna comparison . However , the trees are rare , and since tall trees require more water than the savanna environment could generally provide , they probably existed in narrow tracts or " gallery forests " along rivers and gulleys where water could accumulate . Carpenter speculated that giant herbivores like Amphicoelias may have used the shade of the gallery forests to stay cool during the day , and done most of their feeding on the open savanna at night .

= Kesha =

Kesha Rose Sebert ( born March 1 , 1987 ) ( formerly stylized as Ke $ ha ) is an American singer , songwriter , and rapper . In 2005 , at age 18 , Kesha was signed to producer Dr. Luke 's label Kemosabe Records . Her breakthrough came in early 2009 after appearing on American rapper Flo Rida 's number @-@ one single " Right Round " . Her debut album , Animal , and her first extended play , Cannibal , were released in 2010 . Kesha 's music and image propelled her to immediate commercial success , with Animal debuting as the number @-@ one album in the United States . She also achieved two number @-@ one singles , " Tik Tok " and " We R Who We R " , and a string of top @-@ ten singles from the album and its re @-@ release . At the same time , she continued to write songs for other artists , including " Till the World Ends " for Britney Spears . Warrior , her second studio album , was released in December 2012 , spawning Kesha 's eighth top @-@ ten single with " Die Young " , and her ninth and tenth Top 40 hits with " C 'Mon " and " Crazy Kids " . " Tik Tok " is among the best @-@ selling digital singles in history , selling over 14 million units internationally .

Influenced by various genres and artists , Kesha primarily draws inspiration from music of the 1980s ; Madonna , Queen , and Beck have been cited as instrumental to her music . After experimenting with country , pop rock , and electronic music , Kesha stuck with the latter . Thematically , her music generally revolves around escapism , partying , individuality , supernatural moments , rebellion , and grief . Kesha has been involved with animal rights and LGBT activism . She has received several awards and nominations , including her win for MTV Europe Music Award for Best New Act in 2010 . As of November 2013 , she has reportedly sold over 33 million records ( albums , tracks , and ringtones ) in the United States and 60 million records worldwide .

= = Early life = =

Kesha was born in Los Angeles , California . Her mother , Patricia Rose " Pebe " Sebert , is a singer @-@ songwriter who co @-@ wrote the 1978 single " Old Flames Can 't Hold a Candle to You " with Hugh Moffatt for Joe Sun , made popular by country music artist Dolly Parton on her 1980 album Dolly , Dolly , Dolly . Pebe , a single mother , struggled financially while supporting herself , Kesha , and Kesha 's older brother Lagan ; they relied on welfare payments and food stamps to get by . When Kesha was an infant , Pebe would often have to look after her onstage while performing . Kesha says she has no knowledge of her father 's identity . However , a man named Bob Chamberlain who called himself her father approached Star magazine in 2011 with pictures and letters , claiming them as proof that they had been in regular contact as father and daughter before she turned 19 . Her mother is of German and Hungarian ( from Szentes ) descent . One of Kesha 's great @-@ grandfathers was Polish .

Pebe moved the family to Nashville , Tennessee , in 1991 after securing a new publishing deal for her songwriting . Pebe frequently brought Kesha and her brothers along to recording studios and encouraged Kesha to sing when she noticed Kesha 's vocal talent . Kesha attended Franklin High School and Brentwood High School , but claimed that she did not fit in , explaining that her unconventional style ( e.g. , homemade purple velvet pants and purple hair ) did not endear her to other students . She played the trumpet and later the saxophone in the marching band in school , and described herself in an interview with NPR as being a diligent student . After attaining a near @-@ perfect score on her SATs , she was offered a full scholarship at Barnard College , but instead chose to drop out before graduation to pursue her music career .

In addition to taking songwriting classes , Kesha was also taught how to write songs by Pebe , and they would often write together when she returned home from high school . Kesha began recording demos which Pebe would give to people she knew . Kesha was also in a band with Lagan . Kesha and Pebe co @-@ wrote the song " Stephen " together when Kesha was 16 , Kesha then tracked down David Gamson , a producer that she admired , from Scritti Politti who agreed to produce the song . She dropped out of school at 17 , after being convinced by Dr. Luke and Max Martin to return to Los Angeles to pursue a music career , and earned her GED after . Around this time , Pebe answered an ad by reality series The Simple Life , looking for an " eccentric " family to host Paris Hilton and Nicole Richie . The episode aired in 2005 . Luke and Martin had received one of Kesha 's demos from Samantha Cox , senior director of writer / publisher relations at Broadcast Music Incorporated , and were impressed . Two of the demos were described in a cover story for Billboard , the first " a gorgeously sung , self @-@ penned country ballad " and the second " a gobsmackingly awful trip @-@ hop track " where Kesha raps ad lib for a minute when she runs out of lyrics near the end . Dr. Luke stated in an interview for the story that it was the latter track that caught his attention , saying " when you 're listening to 100 CDs , that kind of bravado and chutzpah stand out . "

= = Life and career = =

= = = 2005 – 09 : Career beginnings = = =

In 2005 , at 18 , Kesha was signed to Dr. Luke 's label , Kemosabe Entertainment , and his music publishing company , Prescription Songs . Kemosabe Records is owned by Sony Music Entertainment and is located in Los Angeles , California . Sony Music Entertainment partnered with Dr. Luke to create Kemosabe Records . Some artists that have signed with Kemosabe Records are Juicy J , Rock City , Zara Larsson , Lil Bibby and many others . Kesha later sang background vocals for Paris Hilton 's single , " Nothing in This World " . Dr. Luke became preoccupied with other incoming projects , having enjoyed success writing and producing for pop star Kelly Clarkson 's album , Breakaway . Kesha then signed with David Sonenberg 's management company , DAS Communications Inc . , in 2006 , hardly interacting with Dr. Luke after that . DAS was tasked with obtaining a major label record deal for Kesha in a year 's time in exchange for 20 percent of her music income , with her having the option of ending the relationship if they failed . She worked with several writers and producers while at the company and ended up co @-@ writing Australian pop group The Veronicas ' single , " This Love " with producer Toby Gad . While furthering her career in studio , Kesha earned her living as a waitress . While struggling to get by , she began stylizing her name as Ke $ ha , explaining the dollar sign as an ironic gesture .

Kesha appeared in the video for her friend Katy Perry 's single " I Kissed a Girl " , and sang background vocals for the Dr. Luke @-@ produced song , " Lace and Leather " by Britney Spears in 2008 . DAS soon attracted the attention of songwriter and A & R Kara DioGuardi , who wanted to sign Kesha to Warner Bros. Records . The deal fell through due to her existing contract with Dr. Luke 's label . In September , she terminated her contract with DAS , reuniting with Dr. Luke . Kesha gained exposure in the mainstream media in early 2009 after appearing on rapper Flo Rida 's number one single , " Right Round " . The collaboration happened by accident ; she had walked into a recording session for the song with Flo Rida and Dr. Luke . Flo Rida wanted a female voice for the song ; Dr. Luke then suggested Kesha for the part . Flo Rida liked the end result so much that they did two more tracks . However , she is not credited for her feature on the United States release of " Right Round " and did not collect any money for the part . She also refused to appear in the video , explaining to men 's magazine Esquire that she wanted to make a name for herself on her own terms .

= = = 2009 – 11 : Breakthrough and Animal = = =

After failing to negotiate with Lava Records and Atlantic Records in 2009 , Kesha signed a multi @-@ album deal with RCA Records through Dr. Luke 's imprint . Having spent the previous six years working on material for her debut album , she began putting finishing touches to the album with Luke and Max Martin . For the album , she wrote 200 songs . The album was executive produced by Luke , who produced the majority of the songs with Martin , and producers Benny Blanco and Ammo . The album is primarily of the electropop genre with beats and synths , marking a shift in sound for Luke from then on from his signature pop @-@ rock productions . Animal debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 when it was released in January 2010 . It was certified platinum in the United States and had sold two million albums worldwide by September . The lead single of the album , " Tik Tok " , broke the record in the United States for the highest single week sales , selling 610 @,@ 000 digital downloads , the highest ever by a female artist since tracking began in 2003 . It spent nine weeks at number one and became the longest running number one by a female artist on her debut single since Debby Boone and " You Light Up My Life " in 1977 . As of 2015 , " Tik Tok " has sold about 15 million copies , becoming the second best @-@ selling single in the digital history – being the most sold single in history by a female solo artist . Subsequent singles from the album , " Blah Blah Blah " , " Your Love Is My Drug " and " Take It Off " achieved similar commercial success each reaching the top ten in Australia , Canada , and the United States . Kesha was also featured on two top ten singles by musician Taio Cruz and electro @-@ pop duo 3OH ! 3 .

Kesha 's deliberately unpolished aesthetic and juvenile stage persona , which she described as her own personality " times ten " , quickly made her a deeply polarizing figure . Some of her critics found her output to be unsophisticated , while others felt that she was manufactured and lacked credibility . Kesha 's former managers from DAS Communications Inc. filed a lawsuit later that month , seeking $ 14 million from Kesha and $ 12 million from Luke for commissions on her RCA Records deal , alleging that she had extended the deadline for them to get her a major record label contract and squeezed them out of her career under pressure from Dr. Luke . Kesha launched her own lawsuit in October , citing the California @-@ exclusive Talent Agencies Act and asking the California Labor Commissioner to declare her contract with DAS void because it had acted as an unlicensed talent agent while procuring work for her in California , where only licensed agents can do so . The case was settled in 2012 before the release of her second album . Kesha held a benefit concert on June 16 , 2010 where all proceeds went to aid victims of the May 2010 Tennessee floods from her hometown Nashville . She raised close to $ 70 @,@ 000 from the event . She was a supporting act on the summer North American leg of Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour and was awarded Best New Act at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards . In November 2010 , Animal was re @-@ released with a companion extended play , Cannibal . The lead single taken from Cannibal , " We R Who We R " debuted at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 . With two number ones and four top ten hits , Kesha was named Hot 100 Artist of 2010 by Billboard , with " Tik Tok " topping the year @-@ end chart . The follow @-@ up single from Cannibal , " Blow " charted in the top ten on the Hot 100 . As of June 2011 , she has accumulated almost 21 million digital single downloads in the United States alone . In February 2011 , Kesha embarked on her first headlining world tour , Get Sleazy . The tour was expanded with a summer leg due to the first leg selling out and spanned three continents . Kesha also co @-@ wrote the song " Till the World Ends " for American popstar Britney Spears and she was featured on the remix of the song along with rapper Nicki Minaj . After meeting Kesha at the 2010 Grammy Awards and guesting at a number of her concerts , rock singer Alice Cooper asked her to write lyrics for and vocally perform as a devil character for their duet track , " What Baby Wants " , on Cooper 's album , Welcome 2 My Nightmare .

Kesha was named rights group Humane Society of the United States 's first global ambassador for animal rights , for which she is expected to bring attention to such practices as cosmetics testing on animals and shark finning . Kesha received the Wyler Award presented by The Humane Society as a celebrity or public figure who increases awareness of animal issues via the media . She received the award March 23 , 2013 at The 2013 Genesis Awards Benefit Gala . She also appeared alongside rock singer Iggy Pop in a campaign for PETA , protesting the clubbing of baby seals in Canada and later wrote on behalf of the organization to fast food chain McDonald 's over the conditions of their slaughterhouses .

= = = 2012 – 13 : Warrior and hiatus = = =

Kesha 's second studio album , Warrior was released on November 30 , 2012 . She began writing for the album while on her own headlining tour in 2011 . The album featured productions from her main collaborators Dr. Luke and Max Martin , as well as a song by Wayne Coyne , the lead singer of the alternative band The Flaming Lips . Coyne had reached out to Kesha for a collaboration after hearing that she was a fan of the band . Besides working on Kesha 's album , they recorded the song " 2012 ( You Must Be Upgraded ) " for the band 's album , The Flaming Lips and Heady Fwends . To coincide with the release of the album , Kesha released an illustrated autobiography , My Crazy Beautiful Life through Touchstone Books in November 2012 . The first single taken from Warrior was " Die Young " . The song debuted at number thirteen on Billboard Hot 100 and eventually peaked at number 2 . The song also charted across Europe and the Anglosphere and reached the top ten in Australia , Canada , and Belgium . " C 'Mon " , the album 's second single , underperformed commercially ; only peaking at 27 on Billboard Hot 100 and ending her string of top ten hits on the chart . Despite this , " C 'Mon " continued Kesha 's streak of top ten hits ( with nine ) on the Mainstream Top 40 Pop Songs chart graphed by Billboard . In March 2013 , Kesha announced the Warrior Tour , which will support the album . The North American leg was co @-@ headlined with rapper Pitbull . Kesha 's third single from Warrior , " Crazy Kids " , was released in April 2013 and also under @-@ performed , peaking at number 40 on the Hot 100 , number 19 on Mainstream Top 40 , yet did achieve massive success in South Korea and Belgium peaking at numbers 2 , and 5 in those countries respectively . A TV series documentary , Kesha : My Crazy Beautiful Life began airing on MTV in April 2013 .

In July 2013 , The Flaming Lips announced that they hoped to release a full @-@ length collaborative album with Kesha , called Lipsha , although it was eventually cancelled in the winter of the same year . Kesha sent a message to a fan expressing how it was out of her control and that she wanted to release the material , even for free , saying that she did not care about the money . On October 7 , 2013 , Kesha and Pitbull released a collaboration , " Timber " , produced by Luke , which was an international commercial success and became Kesha 's third number @-@ one and her eleventh top 10 single on the Hot 100 chart .

= = = 2014 – present : Personal struggles and lawsuit = = =

In January 2014 , Kesha checked into rehab , following this she chose to use her birth name in favor of her previous moniker , using a normal " s " instead of the symbol " $ " . In June 2014 , Kesha claimed a seat as an Expert in ABC 's Rising Star alongside Brad Paisley and Ludacris .

In October 2014 , Kesha sued producer Dr. Luke for alleged sexual assault and battery , sexual harassment , gender violence , emotional abuse , and violation of California business practices which had occurred over 10 years working together . The lawsuit went on for about a year before Kesha sought a preliminary injunction to release her from Kemosabe Records . On February 19 , 2016 , New York Supreme Court Justice Shirley Kornreich ruled against Kesha 's request . On April 6 , 2016 , Judge Shirley Kornreich rejected all of Kesha 's claims against Dr Luke .

On June 13 , 2015 , Kesha headlined LA ! Pride 2015 Presented by Christopher Street West in West Hollywood , California . On August 4 , 2015 , Kesha signed with SESAC Inc . Kesha guest starred in the second season of the U.S. television series Jane the Virgin , which aired on October 12 , 2015 . The singer played Annabelle , Jane 's hostile neighbor . As of August 2015 , Kesha has released little information about her upcoming third studio album . In her August 2014 Teen Vogue cover interview , Kesha revealed she had recorded 14 new songs while in rehab . On November 2 , 2014 , a new song written by Kesha titled " Lover " , reportedly from Kesha 's upcoming third studio album , was uploaded to Schpilkas ' SoundCloud , who produced the track alongside Spookey Ruben . The track was later included on Ruben 's album " Welsh Rarebits " . On June 10 , 2015 , Kesha posted a photo to Instagram that supposedly teased the title of her upcoming single " Child of the Moon " , but the photo has since been removed . Kesha also spoke about the song in her Teen Vogue interview , saying that it had a " Stevie Nicks @-@ witchy vibe " . In December 2015 , Kesha revealed that she had formed a country music and classic rock @-@ influenced band called Yeast Infection and performed a live show with the band in Nashville on December 23 .

Kesha appeared during Zedd 's slot at the 2016 Coachella festival to perform " True Colors " , a track from Zedd 's second studio album . The cameo marked her first high profile public performance since her ongoing legal battle with Dr. Luke . A studio version of the collaboration was released as a single on April 29 , 2016 . Kesha covered Bob Dylan 's song " It Ain 't Me Babe " at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards .

= = Artistry = =

= = = Musical style and image = = =

Kesha wrote or co @-@ wrote every song on her first two albums and considers herself a songwriter primarily , writing for artists including Britney Spears and Miley Cyrus . She possesses a " strong , sneering vibrato " , with a distinct yodel @-@ like quality to her voice ; she employs actual yodeling on the songs , " Tik Tok " and " Cannibal " . Having previously done country , pop rock , and electro , she had a clear idea of the synthpop sound that she wanted for her debut album . The genre was popular at the time , with many of her peers releasing similar output as well . Both of her albums are of the genre with catchy hooks and synthesized productions often compared to pop singer Dev by music critics , creating misunderstandings among the fans of the two . " Party at a Rich Dude 's House " and " C U Next Tuesday " have 1980s derived backing , while " Stephen " begins with " Kansas @-@ style vocal harmonies " . With the lyrics , " Oh my Nicolas Cage , you 're so old / you 're prehistoric / you 're like a dinosaur / D @-@ I @-@ N @-@ O @-@ S @-@ A @-@ you are a dinosaur " , " Dinosaur " follows a verse @-@ chorus formula , reminiscent of " Girlfriend " ( 2007 ) by Avril Lavigne and " Hollaback Girl " ( 2005 ) by Gwen Stefani ; the song uses the overt symbolism of dinosaurs , carnivory , and other primitive motifs to tell the story of an older man who preys on younger women . According to Kesha , the song is based on true events . While her vocals on Animal were heavily processed with auto @-@ tune , often to produce rapid stuttering or over @-@ pitch corrected vocal effects , leading to questions on vocal talent , she expressed confidence in her abilities , showing some of her vocal talent in the ballads " Animal " and " Hungover " on the album .

Kesha 's second studio album Warrior used considerably less autotune , although it still showed in a number of songs . The album 's piano and guitar @-@ driven ballads such as " Love Into The Light " , " Wonderland " and " Past Lives " display Kesha 's vocal ability . Kesha also uses a trademark talky " white @-@ girl " rapping style with exaggerated discordant phrasing and enunciation . Her vocal technique has led her to be credited as a rapper , a topic she disagreed with until fellow rappers André 3000 , Wiz Khalifa , and Snoop Dogg endorsed her . On the subject , she said : " The first time someone called me a rapper , I started laughing . I was shocked , and thought it was hilarious . It 's crazy and funny to me . " The New York Times said Kesha " threatens to become the most influential female rapper of the day , or at least the most popular . Pretending Kesha isn 't a rapper is no longer feasible . " " Crazy Kids " and " C 'Mon " took greater shifts into " party rap " . Most of her lyrics chronicle her relationships and partying ; the lighthearted subject matter of the latter and her unfiltered language saw many critics criticizing her for releasing frivolous and crass music . Jonah Weiner of Slate , however , stated that her jarring lyrics allowed her songs to become more memorable . In " Blah Blah Blah " and " Boots & Boys " , she objectifies men to poke fun at how male fronted rock bands and rappers can get away with objectifying women and not vice versa . The title track to her debut , " Animal " , is more aspirational and is intended to inspire people to embrace their individuality . Much more experimental than Animal , her second album , Warrior , contains dubstep elements and explores erotic experiences Kesha encountered with ghosts on the song , " Supernatural " . Overall , Kesha said the theme of Warrior is magic .

Critics praised Warrior for its rock music influences , despite the album being deeply rooted in technopop . Applauding the album 's rock sound , Rolling Stone called the album Kesha 's rock manifesto . Rock icons The Flaming Lips , Iggy Pop , and Alice Cooper have collaborated with Kesha , endorsing her as a rock singer . Cooper told Billboard , " I immediately looked at her and went , ' This girl is not a pop diva . She 's a rock singer . ' She would much rather be the female Robert Plant than the next Britney Spears . " The A.V. Club noted that Warrior proved Kesha a capable vocalist and songwriter . The Washington Post said that the album the is " pure fun " , acknowledging her proneness for finding good hooks despite her sometimes vapid lyricism .

= = = Influences = = =

Kesha 's musical influences consist of hip hop , punk rock , crunkcore , glam rock , 1980s pop , dance music and classic country . Her country influences of Dolly Parton and Johnny Cash come from her mother 's country songwriting , while her older brother exposed her to hip @-@ hop and punk bands , Fugazi , Dinosaur Jr. and the Beastie Boys . She has additionally cited Beck , Queen , David Bowie , Led Zeppelin , Madonna , Elton John , Aaron Neville , Britney Spears , Bob Dylan , The Damned , The Velvet Underground , Blondie and graffiti artist Banksy as influences . She credits her straightforward story @-@ based lyrics to her love for the honest storytelling style of country music , while the title track from her debut album was created with music from alternative rock bands The Flaming Lips and Arcade Fire in mind . She singled out the Beastie Boys as a major influence , telling Newsweek that she had always wanted to be like them and aspired to make " youthful , irreverent anthems " as well . She called her debut album , Animal , an homage to the Beastie Boys ' Licensed to Ill and credited the creation of the rap driven " Tik Tok " to her love for the Beastie Boys ' rap music . For her first headlining tour , Kesha wanted to emulate the stage theatrics of Iggy Pop 's performances . She listed Pop 's The Idiot as well as Led Zeppelin and AC / DC as inspirations for her second studio album , Warrior , intended to feature 1970s rock inspired music . Warrior , to this effect , includes a collaboration with Pop himself .

She draws inspiration from classic films as well . Her stage makeup is characterized by dramatic glitter makeup at her right eye , inspired by A Clockwork Orange . The video for " Your Love is My Drug " features animated sequences inspired by the The Beatles ' film , Yellow Submarine , while the Get Sleazy tour was described as having a " post @-@ apocalyptic Mad Max vibe . "

= = Personal life = =

Kesha is a vegetarian and an ordained minister , having been ordained online . She also has performed legal commitment ceremonies for both gay and heterosexual couples . She talked about her sexual orientation with Seventeen magazine in 2013 , " I don 't love just men . I love people . It 's not about a gender . " She made a similar statement to Out magazine in 2010 , when she confessed to simply " liking people " : " I wouldn ’ t say I ’ m gay or straight . I don ’ t like labeling things anyway . "

On January 3 , 2014 , Kesha checked into Timberline Knolls Residential Treatment Center , the rehab facility in Lemont , Illinois , for eating disorder treatment . Kesha 's mother Pebe Sebert confirmed that the eating disorder Kesha was suffering with is bulimia nervosa and that she had been struggling with it since she was signed . She also alleged that Dr. Luke was partly the cause of Kesha 's eating disorder , saying that Luke had allegedly told her to lose weight after he signed her , comparing the shape of her body to a refrigerator . Sebert asserted that this had caused Kesha 's disorder to worsen . Kesha had completed her treatment on March 6 , 2014 , after spending two months in rehab .

= = Discography = =

Animal ( 2010 )

Warrior ( 2012 )

= = Tours = =

Headlining

Get Sleazy Tour ( 2011 )

North American Tour 2013 ( with Pitbull ) ( 2013 )

Warrior Tour ( 2013 – 15 )

Mad Decent Block Party ( 2016 )

Residency shows

Kesha Live at Intrigue ( 2016 )

Opening act

Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 )

= = Filmography = =

Bravo Supershow ( 2007 )

Walt Disney 's Princess Ke $ ha ( 2011 )

Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 )

Jem and the Holograms ( 2015 )

Bad Moms ( 2016 )

= The Devil Wears Nada =

" The Devil Wears Nada " is the fifth episode of the twenty @-@ first season of The Simpsons . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 2009 . In the episode , Marge and a group called the " Charity Chicks " pose for a history @-@ oriented calendar in hopes of raising money for charity , but Marge becomes the talk of the town due to the erotic poses she made after a few drinks of red wine . Meanwhile , Carl is chosen as the newest supervisor at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , and hires Homer to be his personal assistant .

The episode was written by Tim Long and directed by Nancy Kruse . It was broadcast soon after the character Marge had appeared on the cover of Playboy , though there was no connection between the episode and the cover ; the idea for the episode was conceived first , and Marge 's appearance was due to an unrelated offer from Playboy . Since airing , " The Devil Wears Nada " has received mixed reviews from television critics . It was watched by approximately 9 @.@ 04 million viewers during its original broadcast . Clips showing the satirical appearances of French president Nicolas Sarkozy and his wife Carla Bruni in the episode became Internet hits in France , with hundreds of thousands of views on Dailymotion and YouTube .

= = Plot = =

The episode opens at a retirement party for the current Sector 7G supervisor at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . Just as Homer , Lenny , and Carl are celebrating their freedom from supervision , plant owner Mr. Burns arrives and chooses Carl as the new supervisor , after quickly deducing that he is the only semi @-@ competent employee of the three . Meanwhile , in an effort to raise money , Marge and her " Charity Chicks " philanthropic group decide to follow the Springfield Police Department 's lead and pose for a history @-@ themed " sexy " calendar . At the photo studio , however , Marge does not want to show any skin . The photographer loosens her up with red wine , and she ends up revealing more than she planned . Marge and her erotic poses are soon the hottest talk in town .

Back at the plant , Carl makes Homer his new executive assistant . That evening , Marge 's libido pumped up by the male population 's positive feedback on her calendar is running high , but Homer is too overworked and exhausted to satisfy her . This becomes an unhappy trend , and Marge feels ignored . Homer tries to make up for it by taking Marge out to a hotel . During their attempt to have a romantic night together , Homer receives a phone call from Carl who tells him they are going to Paris on a business trip . When Homer leaves the Simpsons ' house the next morning , a frustrated Marge throws a mallet after his retreating taxicab , and she accidentally knocks out neighbor Ned Flanders instead and invites him and his children over for a family dinner by way of apology .

In Paris , Carl is having a great time flirting with a beautiful woman , and he reveals to Homer that he plans to extend their stay indefinitely . Homer is devastated , and walks forlornly through the streets where everything reminds him of Marge . Back in Springfield , Bart and Lisa bail on Marge 's dinner , and Ned shows up alone because Rod and Todd have been grounded . The innocent dinner soon turns romantic , and Marge and Ned nearly kiss , until Marge catches sight of her wedding photo in Ned 's glasses and realizes that it would be wrong . Homer , meanwhile , has forced Carl to give him his old job back by revealing that the woman Carl has been flirting with is actually Carla Bruni , the wife of Nicolas Sarkozy , the President of France . Homer arrives home just as Marge is bidding Ned goodnight , and Homer and Marge make love , undisturbed at last .

= = Production = =

" The Devil Wears Nada " was written by Tim Long and directed by Nancy Kruse . It is partly based on the film The Devil Wears Prada , especially the scenes that feature an overworked and over @-@ utilized Homer . The episode aired soon after the character Marge had appeared on the cover of the real @-@ life adult magazine Playboy . Executive producer Al Jean told the Toronto Sun that this episode was " a little bit of a reference to Marge 's recent encounter with Playboy " . Jean explained , though , that the writers came up with the storyline for " The Devil Wears Nada " over a year before the episode aired and they did not know back then that Marge would become a Playboy cover girl . Jean said that was " an independent offer from Playboy . But we thought , to be smart , we should probably have the episode and Marge 's cover come out around the same time . " In regards to Marge 's explicit plotline in the episode , Jean commented that the Simpsons staff is " always a bit nervous when we push the boundaries or do something unusual and I usually think that 's where we do our best stuff , and this episode is definitely one of those cases . "

= = Reception = =

During the episode 's original broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on November 15 , 2009 , it was watched by approximately 9 @.@ 04 million viewers . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 4 @.@ 2 rating ( up 2 % from the previous episode ) and a 10 % share . It was the second @-@ highest rated television series in the 8 : 00 p.m. timeslot , following Football Night in America , which received a 5 @.@ 3 rating and 15 @.@ 1 million viewers .

Since airing , " The Devil Wears Nada " has received mixed reviews from television critics . AOL TV 's Jason Hughes was positive about it , commenting that " everything about the episode worked , from Marge 's sexy calendar to Ned Flanders ' role in the final moments . " He added that he thought the episode featured " the heart I felt was missing all season . The love between Homer and Marge dominated this episode , coming in equal strength from both sides . " Hughes concluded that " The Devil Wears Nada " featured " good moments for humor " and that it was " perfectly balanced , written and executed " .

Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was less positive , giving the episode a C + rating . He commented that because there have already been so many episodes about Homer and Marge 's marital troubles , it becomes more difficult every time to make the episodes emotional . VanDerWerff added that " while the flip side of the usual husband / wife sexual dynamics had a few promising jokes in it and while there were the usual funny sight gags and one @-@ liners , the entirety of the episode felt stale . [ ... ] There 's no way Homer or Marge will ever cheat on each other , and that makes a story like this essentially boring . " IGN 's Robert Canning gave the episode a rating of 6 @.@ 2 out of 10 , calling it disappointing . He commented that he enjoyed the first act of the episode because it had a lot of potential storylines , but it went downhill from there and became boring . Canning added : " This was another case of the series returning to familiar storylines . It 's tough to get away from this one — trouble in the bedroom — as they are a married couple and this is , essentially , a sitcom . Unfortunately , ' The Devil Wears Nada ' doesn 't give the story anything new . " Similarly to VanDerWerff , Canning did not find the episode enjoying because it was obvious that Marge and Ned would not have " a night of passion " since " Marge is too loving a wife and Ned is too good a Christian " .

= = = Reaction in France = = =

" The Devil Wears Nada " features the satirical appearances of French president Nicolas Sarkozy and his wife Carla Bruni . In the episode , Carl is approached by Bruni at a reception at Élysée Palace , the official residence of the president , where she tells him that she wants " to make love , right now . " Homer later reveals to Carl that the woman he has been seeing is Bruni , and threatens to tell Sarkozy if he does not get his old job back . Carl does not believe Homer will tell , so Homer calls Sarkozy ( who is seen eating cheese and drinking red wine in his office with Bruni ) . Sarkozy answers the phone saying " You 're getting cosy with Sarkozy . " At this point , Carl gives in , and Homer hangs up the phone .

Unlike other high @-@ ranking politicians such as Tony Blair , who have guest starred on The Simpsons , the couple did not actually lend their voices to the show and the appearances were made without their permission . Agence France @-@ Presse wrote that as a result , it was a " harsher " parody in comparison to the parodies on the show of people that have provided their own voices . The Daily Mail described Bruni 's portrayal in the episode as a " sex @-@ mad femme fatale " and " chain @-@ smoking man @-@ eater " , and the French newspaper Le Figaro said she was characterized as " a nymphomaniac with an exaggerated French accent " . Bruni had previously attracted media attention in the United States because of her many reported partners and lovers . A reporter for The Times in Paris , Charles Bremner , wrote that her " sulphurous former image as the girlfriend of rock stars and celebrities was mocked by [ the episode ] . "

Clips on YouTube and Dailymotion showing Sarkozy 's and Bruni 's appearances were viewed hundreds of thousands of times in France , becoming Internet hits . According to Agence France @-@ Presse , the cameos " passed largely unnoticed in France until Friday [ November 22 ] , when news websites started linking to pirated clips of the episode , creating a buzz which saw more than 117 @,@ 000 fans linking to the DailyMotion site alone . " As of Saturday November 23 , the Dailymotion clip had received 440 @,@ 000 hits . Reactions to the clips were mixed from the French viewers . The Daily Mail wrote that a spokesman working for the Élysée Palace said in November 2009 that " they had no comment to make on the latest mockery of their first couple " . Bruni 's spokeswoman did not respond to requests for comment either , but Bremner reported that Bruni " laughed when asked about the programme " .

The French news website Rue 89 commented that the episode provided the writers with a good opportunity to mock all the French clichés , including the accent , the cheese , the cheek kissing between men , and the supposed nymphomania . This was not the first time that France had been made fun of on The Simpsons . For example , the writers had previously come up with the derogatory phrase " cheese @-@ eating surrender monkeys " as a description of the French people , and had made fun of the French in the first season episode The Crepes of Wrath .

= Ocean Rain =

Ocean Rain is the fourth studio album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen . It was released on 4 May 1984 and reached number four on the UK Albums Chart , number 87 on the United States Billboard 200 , number 41 on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums and number 22 on the Swedish chart . Since 1984 the album has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry . Ocean Rain includes the singles " The Killing Moon " , " Silver " and " Seven Seas " .

The band wrote the songs for the new album in 1983 . In early 1984 they recorded most of the album in Paris using a 35 @-@ piece orchestra , with other sessions taking place in Bath and Liverpool . Receiving mixed reviews the album was originally released as an LP and a cassette in May 1984 before it was reissued on CD in August . The album was reissued on CD in 2003 , along with the other four of the band 's first five studio albums , having been remastered and expanded before again being reissued in 2008 with a live bonus disc . The artwork for the album was designed by Martyn Atkins and the photography was by Brian Griffin . Echo & the Bunnymen played a number of concerts in 2008 where they performed Ocean Rain in full and with the backing of an orchestra .

= = Background = =

Following the poor reception of Echo & the Bunnymen 's third album , 1983 's Porcupine , the band recorded the single " Never Stop " . The title track of the single was produced by Hugh Jones , who had produced the band 's second album , 1981 's Heaven Up Here . The single introduced a new sound for the band with an expanded arrangement including congas , marimbas , violins and cellos . After " Never Stop " was released on 8 July 1983 the band toured the Outer Hebrides in Scotland before two successful concerts at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 18 and 19 July . Also that month , the band was filmed by RPM Productions for the Channel 4 documentary series Play at Home . Filmed in a café used by the band they recorded acoustic versions of two old songs , " Stars Are Stars " and " Villiers Terrace " , as well as two new songs , " The Killing Moon " and " Silver " , for their episode of Play at Home titled Life at Brian 's .

After spending some time in Liverpool writing new songs for the album , the band recorded their sixth session for John Peel 's radio show on BBC Radio 1 on 6 September 1983 . The songs recorded were " Nocturnal Me " , " Ocean Rain " , " My Kingdom " and " Watch Out Below " , which would all later appear on the band 's fourth album Ocean Rain – " Watch Out Below " was later renamed " The Yo Yo Man " . When the band 's John Peel session was broadcast on 10 October 1983 , the punk zine Jamming said , " [ The songs ] hint at a readjustment and a period of new positive recovery . "

Echo & the Bunnymen were booked to headline a two @-@ week youth festival at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon on the evening of 23 October 1983 . Due to a high demand for tickets a matinee performance was added . The matinee concert at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon saw the live debut of " The Killing Moon " , " Seven Seas " and " Silver " . With representatives from the band 's record company and lead singer Ian McCulloch 's mother in the audience , the performance was nervous and uncertain ; although the evening performance , without the record company representatives and McCulloch 's mother , was much improved .

At the end of 1983 Echo & the Bunnymen recorded a live special called A Crystal Day for the Channel 4 programme The Tube . Ignoring their old material , the band played " The Killing Moon " , " Nocturnal Me " , " Ocean Rain " – which had now developed into a ballad – and an early version of " Thorn of Crowns " called " Cucumber " .

= = Recording and music = =

The band recorded and self @-@ produced " The Killing Moon " – which was released on 20 January 1984 – at Crescent Studio in Bath , Somerset . After catching a cold , McCulloch completed the recording of the vocals for the song at Amazon Studio in Liverpool , where de Freitas also completed the drumming . The band then went to Paris where they were booked into Les Studios des Dames and Studio Davout . Henri Loustau , the engineer at des Dames , assisted on the string passages and Adam Peters provided the string arrangements and played cello and piano . McCulloch , not happy with the lead vocals he had recorded in Paris , re @-@ recorded most of the vocals at Amazon Studio in Liverpool .

Continuing the band 's prominent use of strings – which began with the 1982 single " The Back of Love " – they recorded Ocean Rain using a 35 @-@ piece orchestra . Lead guitarist Will Sergeant said , " We wanted to make something conceptual with lush orchestration ; not Mantovani , something with a twist . It 's all pretty dark . ' Thorn of Crowns ' is based on an eastern scale . The whole mood is very windswept : European pirates , a bit Ben Gunn ; dark and stormy , battering rain ; all of that . " During recording De Freitas used xylophones and glockenspiels in addition to his usual percussion , bass player Les Pattinson used an old reverb machine at des Dames and Sergeant 's solo on " My Kingdom " was played using a Washburn acoustic guitar which he distorted through a valve radio .

= = Cover = =

As with their previous albums , the album cover was designed by Martyn Atkins and the photography was by Brian Griffin . With the band wanting to continue the elemental theme of the previous three albums , the photograph used on the front cover of the album is a picture of the band in a rowing boat which was taken inside Carnglaze Caverns , Liskeard , Cornwall . In his 2002 book Turquoise Days : The Weird World of Echo & the Bunnymen , author Chris Adams describes the cover as " a perfect visual representation of arguably the Bunnymen 's finest album " .

The picture on the front cover of the original album was kept for the 2003 reissue . However , the design was altered slightly by graphic designer Rachel Gutek of the design company guppyart . This release contains an expanded booklet written by music journalist Max Bell giving the background to the album . The booklet contains a number of photographs which are credited to Sergeant and Pattinson .

= = Releases = =

Ocean Rain was first released on 4 May 1984 as an LP and on cassette by Korova in Europe . It was subsequently released by Sire Records in the United States on 14 May and on CD in Europe and the United States on 24 August 1984 . The album was marketed as " the greatest album ever made " and McCulloch later said it was because they believed it was . Although he also said it was meant as a joke when he said , " That wasn 't my idea ! I was on the phone to [ Rob Dickins , managing director of Warner Bros. ] , just joshing and I said ' Oh , it 's the greatest album ever made . ' And he used it on the poster . " In a 2005 interview for Record Collector magazine , Sergeant asked , " Why not ? " . After wondering " what all the fuss was about " , he went on to ask , " Doesn 't every band think that way when they 've got a new record out ? "

Along with the other four of the band 's first five albums , Ocean Rain was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 – these releases were marketed as 25th anniversary editions . Eight bonus tracks were added to the album : " Angels and Devils " , which had been recorded at The Automatt in San Francisco , was the B @-@ side to the single " Silver " and was produced by The Bunnymen and Alan Perman ; five Life at Brian 's – Lean and Hungry tracks ( " All You Need Is Love " , " The Killing Moon " , " Stars Are Stars " , " Villiers Terrace " and " Silver " ) which had been recorded for the Channel 4 programme Play at Home ; and two live tracks ( " My Kingdom " and " Ocean Rain " ) which were recorded for A Crystal Day , a Channel 4 special for The Tube . The Life at Brian 's – Lean and Hungry track , " Silver " , and the two A Crystal Day tracks had previously been unreleased .

The reissued album in 2003 was produced by Andy Zax and Bill Inglot . A collector 's edition was released in October 2008 which , while still including " Angels and Devils " , replaced the bonus tracks of the 25th anniversary edition with the extended 12 @-@ inch single versions of " Silver " and " The Killing Moon " . The collector 's edition also includes a bonus disc containing a recording of the band 's 1983 Royal Albert Hall concert .

There were three tracks from the original Ocean Rain album which have been released as singles . The first of these was " The Killing Moon " which was released on 20 January 1984 . The second single was " Silver " which was released on 13 April 1984 . The final single to be released from the original album was " Seven Seas " which was released on 6 July 1984 . This was the first time Echo & the Bunnymen have released more than two singles from one album .

= = Reception = =

The album was released to mixed reviews . Describing Echo & the Bunnymen 's change from the more rock sound of their previous albums to the lighter sound of Ocean Rain , music journalist Max Bell said in his 1984 review for The Times newspaper , " This time vocalist Ian McCulloch has tempered his metaphysical songs with a romantic sweetness and the band 's melodies are more to the fore . Acoustic guitars , brushes and sparingly used keyboards all add to the album 's optimistic warmth and there is a consistency of atmosphere in songs like ' Seven Seas ' and ' Silver ' , the current single , which justifies the departure . "

However , Rolling Stone described the album as " too often a monochromatic dirge of banal existential imagery cloaked around the mere skeleton of a musical idea " . Saying that the album had some nifty choruses and nice atmospheres , the review went on to say it " evinces too little melodic development and too much tortured soul @-@ gazing " . In his 1984 review for NME , Biba Kopf said , " ... Ocean Rain has been designed to buttress the notion of the group 's importance . Not unnaturally the results have the opposite effect . " He went on to criticise McCulloch 's lyrics , which he described as " tired juxtapositions of mysterious buzzwords , nonsense , and banality " , and the music , " mellotron @-@ style wash of strings and bleating wood winds " .

Ocean Rain reached number four on the UK Albums Chart in its first week of release and stayed on the chart for 26 weeks . In the United States it entered the Billboard 200 at number 172 on 9 June 1984 and stayed on the chart for 11 weeks , reaching a peak of number 87 . It entered the Canadian RPM 100 Albums chart at number 89 before it reached a peak of number 41 . Staying on the Swedish chart for three weeks the album reached a peak of number 22 . As of 1984 , Ocean Rain has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for having sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies .

Of the singles from the album ; " The Killing Moon " , which was released on 20 January 1984 , reached number nine on the UK Singles Chart and number seven on the Irish Singles Chart ; " Silver " , released on 13 April 1984 , reached number 30 on the UK Singles Chart and number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart ; and " Seven Seas " , released on 6 July 1984 , reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart and number 10 on the Irish Singles Chart .

= = Legacy = =

The album still attracts mixed critical commentary . In a highly positive retrospective review on AllMusic , Jason Ankeny gave the album a 5 @-@ star rating . He described the album as " dramatic and majestic " , praising the " sweeping string arrangements and hauntingly evocative production . " He felt that in comparison to the band 's album Porcupine , the " conventional and simple structural parameters " of Ocean Rain made it Echo & the Bunnymen 's " most beautiful and memorable effort " and he asserted that " The Killing Moon " was the band 's " unrivalled pinnacle " .

When reissued in 2003 , Andrew Harrison in Blender described the album as " a portrait of splendid derangement with spectacular orchestrations " . Mojo said the album had " effervescent songs , sympathetically orchestrated " .

In his 2005 book Rip It Up and Start Again : Post Punk 1978 – 1984 , British music journalist Simon Reynolds describes the album as " lush , orchestrated and [ ... ] overtly erotic " . Mark Blacklock , in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , wrote that the album 's confidence , lush strings , romance , warmth and poetry , means that " it stands the test of time better than any other Bunnymen album " .

Among less positive commentaries , Pitchfork described the album as being " stuffed with queasy midtempo tracks and bizarre orchestration " although they did say that the album was not impenetrable , ultimately giving it an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . Reviewing the collector 's edition for the BBC , Chris Jones described the album as " the point where the cracks began to show , but were masked with such beauty as to hardly matter " . Jones went on to say how the 35 @-@ piece orchestra helped on tracks such as " Nocturnal Me " but made others , such as " The Yo @-@ Yo Man " , " flounder under the weight of intrusive arrangements " .

= = Ocean Rain tour = =

On 16 September 2008 , Echo & the Bunnymen played a concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London playing the album with the backing of a 16 @-@ piece orchestra . Two similar concerts subsequently took place at Radio City in New York City on 1 October 2008 and at the Liverpool Echo Arena on 27 November 2008 . These concerts were played with a 10 @-@ piece orchestra which was conducted by Rupert Christie . The posters used to advertise the concerts have the image of the band from the cover of the album overlaying an image of the venue . Further concerts took place in Europe and North America during 2009 .

The concerts were received well . Simon O 'Hagan , reviewing the London concert in The Independent , described it as " a moving , memorable evening " and went on to describe McCulloch 's voice as " torn silk " and " magnificent " . Giving the London concert five out of five stars , Angus Batey , writing in The Guardian , described " The Killing Moon " as a " dizzying high " which was " topped by ' Ocean Rain ' itself , where the strings are held back until the end of the second verse so that they hit with a euphoric punch of almost physical intensity , sunny melodic optimism piercing the lyrics ' chiaroscuro of storm clouds and ' blackest thoughts ' . " However , Adam Sweeting , for The Daily Telegraph , said the orchestra " often didn 't add much beyond a vague sonic sludge " .

Reviewing the New York concert for Rolling Stone , Jim Allen described Radio City as an " appropriately dramatic , grandiose setting " , and added that McCulloch " was in fine voice , growling and sneering wondrously " . Reviewing the Liverpool concert , Jade Wright wrote in the Liverpool Echo that McCulloch " was on form – one part Lou Reed , one part Oliver Reed , with a bit of Jim Morrison thrown in for good measure . "

= = Track listing = =

All tracks written by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch , Les Pattinson and Pete de Freitas except where noted .

= = Personnel = =

= Washington State Route 161 =

State Route 161 ( SR 161 ) is a 36 @.@ 25 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 58 @.@ 34 km ) state highway serving Pierce and King counties in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway begins at SR 7 southwest of Eatonville and travels north as Meridian Avenue to Puyallup , becoming concurrent with SR 512 and SR 167 . SR 161 continues northwest as the Enchanted Parkway to end at an intersection with SR 18 in Federal Way , west of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) . The highway serves the communities of Graham and South Hill before reaching Puyallup and the communities of Edgewood , Milton , and Lakeland South before reaching Federal Way .

SR 161 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering , replacing three Secondary State Highways ( SSHs ) : Secondary State Highway 5D ( SSH 5D ) and SSH 5G , both established in 1937 , and SSH 5N , established in 1955 . SSH 5D served as a connector between Federal Way and Puyallup and SSH 5G served as a connector between Puyallup and South Hill . SSH 5N connected Eatonville to South Hill and was extended south towards La Grande in 1967 . SR 161 was moved onto a bypass of Puyallup in the 1980s and formed concurrencies with SR 167 and SR 512 as a result . As of 2013 , projects to expand the highway in Edgewood and Milton and adding new offramps at the I @-@ 5 and SR 18 interchange are in progress .

= = Route description = =

SR 161 begins southwest of Eatonville and north of La Grande in rural Pierce County at an intersection with SR 7 . The highway travels northeast to pass the Charles Lathrop Pack Experimental and Demonstration Forest and cross the Little Mashel River into Eatonville . The roadway crosses the Mashel River into Downtown Eatonville , turning north onto Mashell Avenue and later Washington Avenue . SR 161 turns west onto Meridian Avenue north of Eatonville High School and leaves the city on a two @-@ lane highway . Meridian Avenue continues north through rural Pierce County , passing Clear Lake and Tanwax Lake , before entering the community of Graham and crossing a Tacoma Rail line near Graham @-@ Kapowsin High School . SR 161 travels north and passes South Hill and Pierce County Airport ( Thun Field ) before entering Puyallup . The highway turns northwest at the South Hill Mall onto 31st Avenue and intersects the SR 512 freeway in a partial cloverleaf interchange , beginning a 3 @.@ 41 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 49 km ) concurrency .

SR 161 and SR 512 travel north on a freeway in Puyallup , intersecting Meridian Street at the Puyallup Fairgrounds and Pioneer Avenue at a partial cloverleaf interchange . After the intersection with Pioneer Avenue , the freeway travels over a BNSF rail line that serves Puyallup Station and crosses the Puyallup River before a trumpet interchange with SR 167 . At the interchange , SR 512 ends and SR 161 northbound turns west on a 1 @.@ 83 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 95 km ) wrong @-@ way concurrency with SR 167 , designated as traveling southbound . SR 161 turns north onto Meridian Avenue at Fort Malone as SR 167 travels south into Downtown Puyallup , and the highway continues north and crosses a Union Pacific rail line . Meridian Avenue continues north into to form the boundary between Edgewood and Milton , where the highway intersects Milton Way , the former route of SR 514 . SR 161 turns northwest into King County as the Enchanted Parkway , passing through Lakeland South and Wild Waves Theme Park before crossing over I @-@ 5 . The Enchanted Parkway turns north into Federal Way and ends at an intersection with SR 18 , located between SR 99 and I @-@ 5 .

Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 340 and 99 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly in the Puyallup area .

= = History = =

SR 161 was formed during the 1964 highway renumbering as the successor to SSH 5N from Primary State Highway 5 ( PSH 5 ) north of La Grande to South Hill , SSH 5G from South Hill to U.S. Route 410 ( US 410 ) in Puyallup , and SSH 5D from US 410 north of Puyallup to US 99 Federal Way . The highway was also concurrent with US 410 , signed in 1926 , between the eastern end of SSH 5G in Downtown Puyallup and the southern end of SSH 5D . SSH 5D and SSH 5G were established during the creation of the Primary and secondary state highways in 1937 , and SSH 5N was established in 1955 to Eatonville and extended south to PSH 5 near La Grande in 1967 after SR 161 was created . SR 161 , including the concurrency with US 410 , was signed into law in 1970 as a highway extending from SR 7 near Eatonville to US 99 . US 410 was replaced with an extension of SR 167 in the Tacoma area and US 12 east of the Cascade Mountains in 1967 and the highway was shortened from US 99 to SR 18 in 1971 .

SR 161 was moved east onto a bypass of Puyallup , creating concurrences with SR 512 and SR 167 , in the late 1980s , and designated , within King County , as the Enchanted Parkway in 1987 as the last major revision to the highway . A freeway extension to SR 167 between Tacoma and Puyallup has been proposed since the 1990s and would create a new interchange with SR 161 north of the Puyallup River , but as of 2013 the freeway has not been built . The eastbound ramps at end of the concurrency between SR 161 and SR 167 was realigned in late 2008 to reduce congestion and started recent improvements to the highway . WSDOT is widening the Enchanted Parkway through the Edgewood and Milton area from 2 lanes to 4 lanes with wider shoulders and sidewalks to be completed by 2027 . The interchange between I @-@ 5 and SR 18 is being reconstructed in Federal Way , with a new flyover ramp from westbound SR 18 to SR 161 being completed in September 2012 . Another ramp , from southbound I @-@ 5 to SR 161 , is under construction .

= = Major intersections = =

= Glutinoglossum glutinosum =

Glutinoglossum glutinosum , commonly known as the viscid black earth tongue or the glutinous earthtongue , is a species of fungus in the family Geoglossaceae ( the earth tongues ) . Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , it has been found in northern Africa , Asia , Europe , and North America . Although previously thought to exist in Australasia , collections made from these locations have since been referred to new species . G. glutinosum is a saprophytic species that grows on soil in moss or in grassy areas . The smooth , nearly black , club @-@ shaped fruitbodies grow to heights ranging from 1 @.@ 5 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The head is up to 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) long , and the stipes are sticky . Several other black earth tongue species are quite similar in external appearance , and many can be reliably distinguished only by examining differences in microscopic characteristics , such as spores , asci , and paraphyses . First described in 1796 as a species of Geoglossum , the fungus has gone through several changes of genera in its taxonomic history . It was placed in its current genus , Glutinoglossum , in 2013 .

= = Taxonomy = =

The fungus was first officially described in 1796 as Geoglossum glutinosum by Dutch mycologist Christiaan Hendrik Persoon , who proposed several defining characteristics , including the black color ; the smooth , compressed , club @-@ shaped head ( clavula ) with grooves ; and the somewhat curved and glutinous stipe . In 1908 , Elias Judah Durand transferred it to Gloeoglossum , a genus he circumscribed to contain species with paraphyses ( filamentous , sterile cells interspersed between the asci ) present as a continuous gelatinous layer on the stipe ; Gloeoglossum has since been reduced to synonymy with Geoglossum . In 1942 Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai thought the species should be in Cibalocoryne , a genus name used earlier by Frigyes Ákos Hazslinszky , and so published Cibalocoryne glutinosa . Later authors thought Cibalocoryne to be ambiguous , and the name was synonymized with Geoglossum . Persoon also described the species Geoglossum viscosum ( 1801 ) and the variety Geoglossum glutinosum var. lubricum ( 1822 ) , but both of these taxa were placed into synonymy with G. glutinosum by Elias Judah Durand in 1908 .

The species was transferred by Vincent Hustad and colleagues to the newly created genus Glutinoglossum in 2013 when molecular analysis revealed that it and the species G. heptaseptatum formed a well @-@ defined clade in the Geoglossaceae . In 2015 , Hustad and Andrew Miller published an emended description of G. glutinosum with a narrower range of spore dimensions , suggesting that material collected in Australia and New Zealand represent unique species , which they referred to G. australasicum and G. exiguum . These species , along with G. americanum and G. methvenii , were added to Glutinoglossum in 2015 . Hustad and Miller noted their new spore size range for G. glutinosum were more closely aligned with those given by Durand in his measurements of Persoon 's type specimen .

The specific epithet glutinosum is derived from the Latin word gluten , meaning " glue " . The species is commonly known as the " viscid black earth tongue " or the " glutinous earthtongue " .

= = Description = =

The club @-@ shaped fruitbodies , which have a distinct blackish head and a more lightly colored stipe ( dark brown ) , grow to heights ranging from 1 @.@ 5 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) . The head is up to 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) tall and ranges in shape from fuse @-@ shaped to narrowly ellipsoidal to nearly cylindrical , and is somewhat compressed on the sides . The nearly black , somewhat waxy head has a vertical groove down the middle . The stipe has a glutinous , dark grey @-@ brown surface .

The spores are smooth and cylindrical , sometimes with a slight swelling in the middle , and sometimes slightly curved ; they measure 59 – 65 by 4 – 5 µm . G. glutinosum spores have between two and seven septa , although three is most typical in mature specimens . The thin @-@ walled asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical to narrowly club @-@ shaped , eight @-@ spored , and typically measure 200 – 265 µm long by 12 – 16 µm wide . Ascospores occupy about the upper two @-@ thirds to three @-@ quarters of the ascus , leaving a hyaline ( transparent ) base . The paraphyses , hyaline at the base and brown in the upper regions , are 4 – 11 µm wide , and longer than the asci . Cells at the end of the paraphyses are pear @-@ shaped ( piriform ) or spherical , brownish , and measure 8 – 10 µm wide . The sticky material on the stipe is a gelatinous matrix made of a layer of paraphyses .

Although black earth tongue species are generally not worth eating , Charles McIlvaine opined in his 1902 work One Thousand American Fungi that , if stewed , G. glutinosum is " delicious . "

= = = Similar species = = =

Geoglossum nigritum is similar in appearance to Glutinoglossum glutinosum , but lacks a slimy stipe . Trichoglossum species , such as the common T. hirsutum , have a velvety surface texture acquired from thick @-@ walled bristles called setae . Several other earth tongue species are roughly similar in external appearance to G. glutinosum , and can be difficult to distinguish from that species without considering distribution and microscopic characteristics such as the size and shape of the asci , ascospores , and paraphyses . Geoglossum peckianum and G. uliginosum can develop a glutinous stipe ; the former has spores measuring 90 – 120 by 6 – 7 µm with 14 septa , while the latter has spores that are 60 – 80 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 µm with 7 septa . The Australasian species Glutinoglossum methvenii is distinguished from G. glutinosum by its short , stout ascospores ( mostly measuring 70 – 80 by 5 – 6 µm ) and the presence of curved to hooked paraphyses tips . G. australasicum , the most abundant Glutinoglossum species in Australasia , has asci measuring 205 – 270 by 17 – 20 µm , while those of G. exiguum are 165 – 260 by 13 @.@ 5 – 17 µm . The latter species tends to have smaller fruitbodies , up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) tall .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Glutinoglossum glutinosum is a saprophytic species . Its fruitbodies grow scattered on soil in moss beds or in grassy areas . North American collections are typically associated with hardwoods , while European collections are often made in pasture and dune slacks . The fungus has been used as an indicator of medium @-@ quality grassland in the UK . In India , it has been encountered on the soil of oak forests , and among mosses on stony slopes at an elevation of 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) .

A widely distributed species , Glutinoglossum glutinosum has been recorded from northern Africa ( Macaronesia and Morocco ) , Asia ( Bhutan , China , India , Japan , and the Philippines ) and Europe . It is listed as vulnerable in Switzerland . In Bulgaria , where it is considered critically endangered , threats to G. glutinosum include " habitat changes as result of agriculture activities ( crops , livestock ) , atmospheric and land pollution , drought , global warming . " In a preliminary Regional Red List of Dutch macrofungi , G. glutinosum was considered threatened , and it was noted that before 1970 , the fungus was " rather common " , compared to " rather rare " after that year . The North American distribution includes Canada , the United States , and Mexico .

Although G. glutinosum was previously thought to have occurred in Australia and New Zealand , later examination and genetic analysis of collections from these locations showed the material to belong to what have since been described as the new species G. australasicum or G. exiguum .

= Phil Nevin =

Phillip Joseph Nevin ( born January 19 , 1971 ) is an American professional baseball manager for the Reno Aces , the Arizona Diamondbacks ' Triple @-@ A affiliate in the Pacific Coast League . He spent twelve seasons as a player in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) from 1995 through 2006 , playing for the Houston Astros , Detroit Tigers , Anaheim Angels , San Diego Padres , Texas Rangers , Chicago Cubs , and Minnesota Twins .

Nevin attended California State University , Fullerton where he played college baseball for the Cal State Fullerton Titans team . He led the Titans to the championship game in the 1992 College World Series ( CWS ) , after which he was named the CWS Most Outstanding Player and won the Golden Spikes Award . Chosen with the first @-@ overall pick in the 1992 Major League Baseball draft , Nevin went on to play in MLB for seven teams across 12 seasons . He was selected to appear in the 2001 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game .

After retiring , Nevin stayed involved in baseball . He briefly went into broadcasting , then managed the unaffiliated Orange County Flyers for a season . He managed the Class AA Erie SeaWolves and the Class AAA Toledo Mud Hens in the Tigers organization before joining the Diamondbacks organization in 2014 , managing the Aces .

= = Playing career = =

= = = Amateur career = = =

Nevin attended El Dorado High School in Placentia , California . After graduating , he was selected by the Los Angeles Dodgers in the third round of the 1989 Major League Baseball draft with the 82nd overall selection . He decided to attend California State University , Fullerton after turning down an offer that included a signing bonus of $ 100 @,@ 000 .

A two @-@ sport star , Nevin played American football and baseball for the Cal State Fullerton Titans , competing in the Big West Conference of NCAA Division I. He was a punter and placekicker on the Cal State Fullerton Titans football team . He was named an All @-@ American placekicker his freshman year for the Titans as he connected successfully on his first nine field goal attempts and finished the year with a 15 @-@ for @-@ 21 field goal percentage . His longest field goal of the season was 54 yards ( 49 m ) . In his junior year , he averaged 40 @.@ 9 yards ( 37 @.@ 4 m ) per punt .

For the Cal State Fullerton Titans baseball team , Nevin batted .358 with 56 runs batted in ( RBI ) as a freshman . The Titans won the conference championship and reached the 1990 College World Series ( CWS ) that year . The Titans lost two games in the 1990 CWS , however , and were eliminated . Nevin batted .335 in his sophomore season . As a junior , he batted .391 with 20 home runs and 71 RBI , winning the Big West Conference Triple Crown . Collegiate Baseball and Baseball America named Nevin the College Player of the Year . He credited his past CWS experience with allowing him to remain calm .

In three seasons at Cal State Fullerton , Nevin had a .364 average with 39 home runs and 184 RBI . He led the Titans to the finals of the 1992 CWS , where the Titans lost to the Pepperdine Waves baseball team , which represented the West Coast Conference . Despite the loss , Nevin was voted the CWS Most Outstanding Player after he batted 10 @-@ for @-@ 19 with two home runs and 11 RBI . He also won the Golden Spikes Award , given to the best amateur player in the nation .

= = = Draft = = =

The Houston Astros chose Nevin with the first overall pick in the 1992 Major League Baseball draft . Hal Newhouser , a scout for the Astros , had evaluated Derek Jeter extensively prior to the draft . Convinced that Jeter would anchor a winning team , Newhouser lobbied team management to select Jeter , and quit in protest over the Astros ' decision to take Nevin instead . The Astros believed that Jeter would insist on a salary bonus of at least $ 1 million to forgo his college scholarship for a professional contract . Signing bonuses given to the best player in the draft were increasing rapidly . Todd Van Poppel , regarded by many at the time the first pick of the 1990 MLB draft , signed for $ 1 @.@ 2 million , while the 1991 MLB draft 's first pick , Brien Taylor , signed for $ 1 @.@ 55 million after insisting he would otherwise enroll in college . Meanwhile , the Astros were unable to sign their first @-@ round draft pick in 1991 , John Burke , who insisted on a bonus of $ 500 @,@ 000 as the sixth overall selection . Consequently , the Astros passed on Jeter in the draft .

Bill Wood , the Astros ' general manager , said the team believed Nevin was close to a major @-@ league level and would require little development in minor league baseball . As evidence for this , the Astros pointed to Nevin 's training with the wooden bats used in professional baseball in an effort to prepare himself for the transition from metal bats . The Astros believed he would be a solid power hitter and have a strong work ethic . Nevin also did not intend to seek a signing bonus approaching those received by Van Poppel and Taylor . The Astros decided to employ Nevin as a third baseman . Not wanting to draw out his contract negotiations , Nevin signed with Houston in June , receiving a $ 700 @,@ 000 bonus .

= = = International career = = =

Nevin tried out for the United States national baseball team in the summer of 1990 to play in that year 's Goodwill Games and World University Baseball Championship ( WUBC ) . To prepare for those tournaments , the team played a series against Japan and a game in Cuba . Nevin played second and third base for Team USA in 13 of its 22 games , batting .229 . The team released him before the Goodwill Games and WUBC as it cut players to meet the roster maximum . Nevin was also considered for the 1991 Pan American Games .

Nevin tried out for Team USA again before the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . The team embarked on a 30 @-@ game tour and 38 @-@ city exhibition @-@ game schedule in the United States before leaving for Spain . He made the team and served as its starting third baseman throughout the tournament . Olympic coach Ron Fraser called Nevin an excellent player and student of the game . The United States finished fourth out of eight teams in the Olympics .

= = = Professional career = = =

= = = = Prospect years ( 1992 – 1997 ) = = = =

Nevin traveled with the Astros at the end of their 1992 season but was not on the team 's roster . The Astros sent Nevin to the instructional Arizona Fall League during the off @-@ season . Before the 1993 season , Baseball America ranked Nevin as the 30th @-@ best prospect in baseball .

The Astros considered sending Nevin to the Jackson Generals of the Class AA Texas League to start his professional career . The team also considered promoting him directly to the major leagues , skipping the minor leagues entirely . At the Astros ' spring training in 1993 , Nevin batted .350 and showed good power hitting . The Astros weighed bringing Nevin to Houston for Opening Day as they sought to add a right @-@ handed batter to complement the left @-@ handed power of Luis Gonzalez , Steve Finley and Eric Anthony and make the team less vulnerable to left @-@ handed pitching . But with Ken Caminiti in the first year of a three @-@ year contract to play as the starting third baseman , Nevin had nowhere to play defensively . The Astros assigned him to the Class AAA Tucson Toros of the Pacific Coast League , one level below the major leagues , where he made his professional debut .

While Nevin was with the Toros , the Astros asked Toros manager Rick Sweet to play Nevin as a left fielder , which would allow the Astros to promote Nevin sooner , as he and Caminiti could play different positions . Veteran first baseman Jim Lindeman served as Nevin 's mentor , helping him keep his composure under significant attention and pressure to perform . Nevin started the 1993 season with a .247 batting average , but batted .309 with baserunners in scoring position and had 49 RBI . By July , he had made ten starts in left field , without committing an error . The Astros , however , were concerned that Nevin did not apply the level of intensity he had in " clutch " situations to cases where there were no baserunners and the score was not close .

Nevin 's intensity almost got the best of him during a June 1993 game with Tucson . He was taunted by a man seated in the front row , and nearly attempted to jump into the stands to confront the fan before he was restrained by teammates . The fan was arrested .

Nevin played third base and left field in 1993 . He batted .286 that season , with 10 home runs and 91 RBI . He had a .359 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) and .413 slugging percentage ( SLG ) . Baseball America rated him the 24th best prospect before the 1994 season . He returned to Tucson that year , posting a .263 batting average with 12 home runs and 71 RBI . He had a .343 OBP , and .393 SLG . Nevin also played first base . His major @-@ league debut , however , was delayed both by his defense ( 61 errors in his first two seasons ) and the MLB 1994 – 95 work stoppage .

The Astros traded Caminiti to the San Diego Padres before the 1995 season . With Caminiti no longer blocking his path to the major leagues , Nevin hoped he would be named the Astros ' starting third baseman . But the Astros did not invite him to spring training . Nevin attributed the snub to his refusal to work out with replacement players during the work stoppage . Not wanting to be seen as " scabs " by the Major League Baseball Players Association , minor league players who felt they would play in MLB after the resolution of the strike felt pressure to avoid playing with replacement players , while career minor @-@ leaguers were happy to get a taste of the major leagues . When prospects including Nevin and Billy Wagner refused to play with the replacement players , Astros ' general manager Bob Watson issued an ultimatum , saying anyone who refused to play in the team 's first exhibition game would be sent out of camp until further notice and be held in breach of contract . The Astros sent Nevin back to Tucson to start the 1995 season , while Dave Magadan started at third base on Opening Day . The Astros also planned to use Shipley and Chris Donnels at third base .

With the Toros in 1995 , Nevin 's batting average improved to .291 . He also posted a .367 OBP , and .463 SLG , while contributing seven home runs and 41 RBI . The Astros promoted him on June 10 , 1995 , and he made his major @-@ league debut a day later . Nevin played 18 games for the Astros during the 1995 season . He struggled with the Astros , however , batting .117 with no home runs , one RBI , a .221 OBP , and .133 SLG in 60 at @-@ bats . When he learned of his demotion to Tucson on July 5 in Colorado , Nevin cursed at Watson and Astros manager Terry Collins . After Watson called for an apology , Nevin said he would use the incident as a learning experience in controlling his temper .

The Astros acquired pitcher Mike Henneman from the Detroit Tigers for a player to be named later on August 10 ; Nevin was identified as the player five days later . In 1996 , Nevin played in Class AA for the Tigers with the Jacksonville Suns of the Southern League , where he was converted into a catcher .

= = = = Recovering from earlier struggles ( 1998 – 2001 ) = = = =

After the 1997 season , the Tigers traded Nevin and catcher Matt Walbeck to the Anaheim Angels , where Collins was manager , for minor league player Nick Skuse . After an injury to starting catcher Todd Greene , Collins gave Nevin the opportunity to compete for the starting job with Walbeck . Nevin , by then well known for his volatile temper , tore off his jersey while arguing balls and strike calls with the home plate umpire in a 1998 game .

Before the 1999 season , the Angels traded Nevin and minor league player Keith Volkman to the San Diego Padres . Nevin made a late @-@ career break with the Padres , appearing in 100 games for the first time during the 1999 season . He then had the best offensive years of his career : he hit 31 home runs with a .916 on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) during the 2000 season . He was named to the National League All @-@ Star team in 2001 , when he hit 41 home runs with 126 RBI and had a .976 OPS . He also led major @-@ league third basemen in errors , however , with 27 , and had the lowest fielding percentage of all major league third basemen ( .930 ) .

= = = = Injuries and final seasons ( 2002 – 2006 ) = = = =

Nevin in 2002 played first base , which was considered his strongest defensive position . But injuries shortened his 2002 and 2003 seasons . In 2002 , he missed time with a strained left elbow . Three games after returning from the elbow injury , he broke his arm diving for a ground ball , causing him to miss another six weeks . After being heckled by a fan during a September 2002 game , Nevin gave the fan the finger , for which he apologized .

Nevin suffered a dislocated shoulder in spring training in 2003 while making a diving catch . He had surgery on his left shoulder and returned to the Padres in June . The Padres acquired Rondell White to replace Nevin , and White went on to have an All @-@ Star season in left field . Ryan Klesko filled in at first base and rookie Sean Burroughs played well at third base , Nevin 's favorite position . Nevin offered to be used in a utility role , alternating with White , Klesko , and Burroughs , as well as Xavier Nady in right field . In 2004 , Nevin had more than 100 RBI for the third time in his career , but underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair torn cartilage in his right knee in July .

Nevin was often frustrated with the dimensions of Petco Park . He hit a double during a 2004 game that he believed would have been a home run in other stadiums ; when he reached second base , he pointed toward Padres ' general manager Kevin Towers ' suite and threw down his helmet , resulting in a postgame argument . Towers said the two had a " love @-@ hate " relationship .

Two nights after San Diego Padres management informed Nevin that Xavier Nady would replace him as the starting first baseman , Nevin rejected a trade to the Baltimore Orioles for Sidney Ponson on July 25 , 2005 . Nevin exercised a clause in his contract that gave him the right to block transactions that would send him to any of eight franchises , one of which was the Orioles . He was instead traded on July 30 , a day before the non @-@ waiver trade deadline , to the Texas Rangers for Chan Ho Park , whose salary the Rangers wanted to dump . In his first thirteen games with the Rangers , the team posted a 1 – 12 record as Nevin batted 5 @-@ for @-@ 44 . That put his season batting average under .200 , known as the " Mendoza Line " . The Rangers benched Nevin in September , giving his starts to prospect first baseman Adrian Gonzalez after the team was eliminated from playoff contention . In his first game back in the lineup on September 24 , his average dropped to .182 . He refuted opinions that he was losing bat speed .

Nevin had one year remaining on a contract worth $ 9 million . Manager Buck Showalter said that despite Nevin 's benching at the end of the 2005 season , he was his starting designated hitter for the 2006 season . Despite hopes that help from renowned hitting coach Rudy Jaramillo and the hitter @-@ friendly Ameriquest Field would increase Nevin 's offensive production in 2006 , he continued to struggle . He batted .216 with nine home runs and 31 RBI in 46 games . The Rangers promoted rookie Jason Botts on May 23 , and Botts began to receive Nevin 's playing time .

Nevin had only two hits in his last 32 at @-@ bats with the Rangers , though both of them were home runs . The Chicago Cubs sought a slugging first baseman to replace the injured Derrek Lee , and the Rangers traded Nevin to Chicago on May 31 , 2006 . The Rangers received second baseman and outfielder Jerry Hairston , Jr. in return . The Rangers also agreed to pay the difference in the two players ' salaries . On August 31 , the deadline for trades of players who had cleared waivers , the Cubs traded Nevin to the Twins for cash and a player to be named later . To make room for Nevin , Twins ' outfielder Shannon Stewart was placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list .

With the Twins , Nevin stopped worrying about his statistics and enjoyed playing in a pennant race . Nevin appeared in the MLB postseason for the first time in his career with the Twins in 2006 . The Twins were swept by the Oakland Athletics in three games ; Nevin appeared in one of the three games , batting 0 @-@ for @-@ 3 .

= = Post @-@ playing career = =

Unsigned at the beginning of the following season , Nevin announced his retirement on May 12 , 2007 . During his twelve @-@ season career , Nevin had a .270 batting average with 208 home runs and 743 RBI in 1 @,@ 217 games . After retiring , Nevin joined the Padres ' pre @-@ game radio show . He also joined ESPN as an analyst for the college baseball regionals during the College World Series .

Two seasons removed from his playing career , Nevin decided to return to baseball as a manager in 2008 . That December , he was named the manager of the Orange County Flyers in the independent Golden Baseball League ( GBL ) . The Flyers finished with a 37 – 39 record in 2009 , fourth in the five @-@ team GBL . Nevin planned to return to the Flyers in 2010 , but a chance meeting at baseball 's winter meetings led to Nevin 's hiring as manager of the Erie SeaWolves , the Class @-@ AA minor @-@ league affiliate of the Detroit Tigers . He replaced the previous manager , Tom Brookens after Brookens was promoted to the Tigers ' major @-@ league first @-@ base coach .

Nevin managed the SeaWolves for one season . On November 11 , 2010 , Nevin was named manager of the Toledo Mud Hens , the Tigers ' Class AAA minor league affiliate . He is considered a potential future MLB manager . Catcher Omir Santos described his managing the Mud Hens as " like having a big league manager in [ Class AAA ] . " On August 31 , 2013 , Nevin was fired after the team 's final home game of the season . Nevin 's record as manager was 192 – 238 ; the team never finished higher than third in the International League 's West division .

The Arizona Diamondbacks named Nevin as manager of the Reno Aces , their Class AAA affiliate , for the 2014 season . In his first season with Reno , he guided the Aces to a Pacific Coast League @-@ best 81 @-@ 63 record and an eventual Pacific Coast League Championship Series berth . After the season , the Astros interviewed Nevin for their open managerial position . However Nevin remained the manager of the Reno Aces for the 2015 season and returned as manager in 2016 .

= = Personal life = =

Nevin 's first daughter , Koral , was born during his freshman year at Cal State Fullerton ; he is no longer in a relationship with Koral 's mother . He met his wife , Kristin , at Cal State Fullerton . The couple have two children together ; though they were separated during the late 1990s , the couple reconciled . His son , Tyler Nevin , was drafted by the Colorado Rockies as the 38th pick in the 2015 MLB draft .

Nevin lives in the Heritage Estates neighborhood of Poway , California , along with San Diego sporting figures including Bruce Bochy and LaDainian Tomlinson . The neighborhood suffered significant damage in the October 2007 California wildfires .

Nevin hosted a baseball camp for children aged six through 16 in 2010 .

= Body Language ( Kylie Minogue album ) =

Body Language is the ninth studio album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue , released on 10 November 2003 by Parlophone . Following the massive commercial success of her eighth studio album Fever ( 2001 ) , Minogue enlisted a diverse group of writers and producers to aid in creating a new album , including Cathy Dennis , Dan Carey , Emiliana Torrini , Johnny Douglas and Mantronix among others . Influenced by the musical works of the 1980s and artists like Prince and Scritti Politti , Body Language musically differs from Minogue 's previous albums , which mainly featured disco @-@ oriented dance @-@ pop tracks , and instead explores genres like synthpop , electroclash , R & B , and hip hop . Many tracks in Body Language contain references to songs from the 1980s and lyrically , the album touches upon themes of enjoyment , flirting , and sex .

Three singles were released from Body Language . " Slow " was released as the lead single in November 2003 and was a commercial success , peaking at number one on the singles charts of Australia , Denmark , Spain and the United Kingdom . " Red Blooded Woman " was released as the second single in March 2004 and reached the top five in Australia and the United Kingdom . " Chocolate " was released as the final single in June 2004 and peaked inside the top 10 in the United Kingdom . Minogue performed at a one @-@ off concert show held at entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo , London , on 15 November 2003 to mark the release of the album . No tickets were publicly made available for sale and only fans with invitations were allowed to attend the show , which was entitled " Money Can 't Buy " .

Upon its release , Body Language received generally favourable to mixed reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented Minogue for experimenting with new genres and the overall production of the album . Some critics , however , opined that many songs lacked catchy material and were not suitable for dancing . Commercially , Body Language performed well , although it was not as successful as Fever . It peaked at number two on the albums chart of Australia and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In the United Kingdom , Body Language peaked at number six and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Elsewhere , the album performed well in Austria and Switzerland . Body Language became notable for displaying another change in Minogue 's persona and is cited as an example of her numerous " reinventions " .

= = Background and development = =

In October 2001 , Minogue released her eighth studio album Fever . The disco and Europop @-@ influenced dance @-@ pop album became an international commercial success , debuting at number one on the record charts of Minogue 's native Australia and the United Kingdom . It was Minogue 's first album to be released in the United States since her second studio album Enjoy Yourself ( 1989 ) , and became her biggest commercial success in the region after peaking at number three on the Billboard 200 chart . Fever was certified seven @-@ times platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , five @-@ times platinum in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , and platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . With worldwide sales over six million copies , Fever became Minogue 's highest selling album to date . The success of the album , particularly in the US , was credited to the commercial impact of its lead single " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " , which reached number one in 40 countries , including every European country except Finland , and Australia and New Zealand . " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " sold over five million copies worldwide , becoming Minogue 's highest selling single to date and also one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time .

Soon , Minogue began work on her ninth studio album Body Language . Aiming to create a dance @-@ pop album inspired by electronic music from the 1980s , Minogue enlisted collaborators such as Cathy Dennis , Dan Carey , Emiliana Torrini , Johnny Douglas and Mantronix . In an interview with VH1 , Minogue explained how 1980s music , had influenced her , saying :

" I first got into pop music in ' 81 , I 'd say . It was all about Prince , Adam [ and ] the Ants , that whole New Romantic period . Prior to that , it was the Jackson 5 , Donna Summer , and my dad 's records – the [ Rolling ] Stones and Beatles . The influence we used on Body Language was more mid- ' 80s , specifically Scritti Politti "

Talking further about Scritti Politti , a British post @-@ punk band , Minogue reminisced about her collaboration with the band 's frontman Green Gartside , who provides vocals on the track " Someday " , saying , " To this day I haven 't met him ! I left a message on his answering machine , saying , " Hi , it 's Kylie ! I just wanted to say thanks so much ! You sound brilliant ! " " After Dark " was co @-@ written by Dennis , who had previously co @-@ written " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " for Minogue . Torrini , who co @-@ wrote " Slow " , revealed how she was approached for writing the song , saying " It was like I had just accidentally walked into the line of fire with , " Hey ! You There ! It was all quite surreal . I still think Kylie 's people were trying to call Jamelia , and they just got the wrong number . It 'd be much more funny if that is how it actually happened " . The recording of Body Language took place during the summer of 2003 , in locations such as London , Ireland , and Spain .

= = Musical styles and lyrical content = =

Inspired by music from the 1980s , Body Language deviates from Minogue 's usual disco @-@ influenced dance @-@ pop style , evident on albums like Light Years ( 2000 ) and Fever , and instead explores genres like synthpop , electroclash , club and R & B. In comparison to her previous work , Body Language is a " slower @-@ burning record " and begins with the song " Slow " , a " minimal " and simple track which serves as a primary example of the synthpop @-@ styled production of the album . Adrien Begrand from PopMatters compared it to " More More More " , the opening track of Fever , saying " In contrast to the pulsating , hi @-@ hat driven dance beat of Fever 's " More More More " , Body Language gets off to a more understated start " . Other synthpop songs on the album include " Still Standing " and " Promises " , which make use of " buzzing , low synth lines driving the beats , and chord flourishes that sound straight out of 1984 " . The former track also displays influences of nu @-@ disco and club music . Many songs on Body Language are influenced by R & B and hip hop music , two genres Minogue newly experimented with on the album . " Red Blooded Woman " " blends the 1980s sound with an almost garage @-@ like beat " and contains a " Boy ! Boy ! " hook and " la la la " bridge . Critics felt its production was similar to that by American hip hop and R & B producer Timbaland . Elements of funk are also present and are notably clear on tracks like " Sweet Music " and " I Feel For You " . " Secret ( Take You Home ) " received considerable coverage as it features a " coquettish " rap section delivered by Minogue . Body Language also contains ballads such as the quiet storm @-@ influenced " Chocolate " and " Obsession " . Minogue 's vocal delivery on the album is mostly seductive and breathy in tone , such as in songs like " Slow " and " Chocolate " , although the track " Obsession " features raspy vocals .

Critics noted references and similarities to 1980s pop music throughout the album . Adrien Begrand from PopMatters found the hook of " Sweet Music " similar to those in songs by Prince and INXS . " Still Standing " was described by Helen Pidd from The Guardian as " a magnificent blend of Prince 's " Kiss " and Peter Gabriel 's " Sledgehammer " " . " Red Blooded Woman " contains a reference to British band Dead or Alive 's 1985 song " You Spin Me Round ( Like a Record ) " , in the line " You got me spinning round , round , round , round like a record " . The title of " I Feel For You " is the same as the 1979 / 1984 song by Prince and Chaka Khan , although it is not a cover of the song . " Secret ( Take You Home ) " directly refers to urban contemporary band Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam 's 1984 song " I Wonder If I Take You Home " , both in its title and refrain . The line of the song in which Minogue sings " don 't confuse emotions with the pleasure principle " also refers to American recording artist Janet Jackson 's 1987 song " The Pleasure Principle " .

Lyrically , Body Language touches upon themes like enjoyment , flirting , sex , and " partying like it 's 1987 all over again " . In an interview with VH1 , Minogue was asked why the lyrics on the album " sound more personal than they might have been a few years ago " , and she responded by saying " Some of that could be just chance ! I wrote lyrics that were intensely personal to me on an album a few years ago . Maybe people know me better now , and therefore , if a songwriter pitches me a song , they might tailor it [ to fit me ] . I get the lyrics of a tune and interpret them my way " . Although the lyrics of " Slow " seem like an invitation to the dance floor , Minogue revealed that " it 's about how time and space have a different meaning when you meet someone [ you really like ] " . In " Sweet Music " , Minogue sings about the " magic of the modern singer / producer partnership " in lines like " I think we 're on to something / Your taste it mirrors mine / So hot and in the moment " and " Let 's make this demo right " . The song also makes use of double entendre in some lines . Similarly , " Chocolate " is " packed with saccharine innuendo " . " Secret ( Take You Home ) " contains various metaphors that compare flirting and sex to car racing . Ballads like " Obsession " deal with issues of loss and the ending of a relationship .

= = Release = =

Body Language was released on 14 November 2003 in Australia , while in the United Kingdom it was released three days later . In the United States , Body Language was released on 10 February 2004 . The cover art of the album , as well as other promotion shoots , show Minogue striking a pose in a black and white striped crop top , which reveals her midriff , and low @-@ cut pants . Her appearance is similar to that of French actress and singer Brigitte Bardot , who was regarded as the " first foreign @-@ language star ever to attain a level of international success comparable to America 's most popular homegrown talents " and one of the best known sex symbols of the 1950s and 1960s , frequently cited as the " archetypal sex kitten " and " sex goddess " . Minogue described the promotion shoots as " the perfect mix of coquette , kitten and rock ' n ' roll " , and revealed that " We shot it on location in the South of France , so it was [ easy to ] channel the spirit of [ Brigitte ] Bardot . She 's a great iconic reference , particularly that period where she was working with Serge Gainsbourg " . The title of the album was taken from a line from the song " Slow " in which Minogue sings " Read my body language " .

= = = Singles = = =

" Slow " was released on 3 November 2003 as the lead single from Body Language . The song garnered critical acclaim , with Minogue 's breathy and seductive vocal delivery receiving particular praise . Commercially , the single was a success . It debuted at number one on both the Australian Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart . In the latter region , it became Minogue 's seventh number one single and made her a record @-@ holding female artist for spending the longest duration as a UK chart topper . Elsewhere , it reached number one in Denmark , Spain , and on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . In Australia , " Slow " was certified platinum by the ARIA for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . The accompanying music video for " Slow " was directed by Baillie Walsh and was shot in Barcelona , Spain . It features Minogue and a number of beach models performing synchronised choreography to the song while sunbathing next to the Piscina Municipal de Montjuïc swimming pool .

" Red Blooded Woman " was released as the second single on 10 March 2004 . Critics praised its radio @-@ friendly sound and lyrical content . The song performed well on charts , peaking at numbers four and five in Australia and the United Kingdom , respectively . An accompanying music video for the song was directed in Los Angeles by Jake Nava , and features Minogue performing dance routines in various locations .

" Chocolate " was released as the third and final single on 28 June 2004 . It received mixed reviews from critics , some of whom praised its sensual nature but criticised Minogue 's vocals for being over @-@ processed . The song was a moderate commercial success , peaking at number six in the United Kingdom but narrowly missing the top 10 in Australia . It became Minogue 's 27th single to peak inside the top 10 in the UK . Dawn Shadforth , who had previously directed the video for " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " , collaborated on the music video for " Chocolate " which sees Minogue and a number of backup dancers performing a ballet @-@ like dance routines as a tribute to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer musicals .

= = = Promotion = = =

A one @-@ off concert show was held at entertainment venue Hammersmith Apollo , London , on 15 November 2003 to mark the release of Body Language . The show was entitled " Money Can 't Buy " as no tickets were publicly made available for sale and only fans with invitations were allowed to attend the concert . The 75 @-@ minute long concert cost one million pounds to set up and display manufacturer Barco was hired to provide LED displays as backdrops to Minogue 's performances . The singer wore five different costumes during the show which were designed by fashion houses like Chanel , Balenciaga , and Helmut Lang . 4000 seats were made available for viewing the show and while most were reserved for invited guests , some tickets were auctioned at a charity ball for the " Full Stop " campaign by the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children ( NSPCC ) . The show was directed by Minogue 's stylist and friend William Baker , with musical arrangement and choreography being handled by Steve Anderson and Michael Rooney , respectively . The setlist of the concert show was composed primarily of songs from Body Language ; other songs were taken from Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) , Light Years , and Fever . The show was split in four acts : " Paris By Night , " " Bardello " , " Electro " and " On Yer Bike " . " Still Standing " and " Red Blooded Woman " were performed in the first act , " After Dark " and " Chocolate " in the second , " Slow " and " Obsession " in the third , and " Secret ( Take You Home ) " in the last . The performances were recorded for inclusion in the DVD recording of the event , which was released as Body Language Live on 12 July 2004 . The DVD was certified platinum and gold in Australia and the United Kingdom , respectively .

= = Critical reception = =

Body Language received generally positive to mixed reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Body Language received an average score of 62 based on 17 reviews which indicates that the album received " generally favourable reviews " . Chris True from AllMusic complimented Minogue for expanding her " horizons " and felt that the album was consistent and worked as a " piece " , calling it " stylish without being smarmy , retro without being ironic " . He favoured the overall production of the album and praised Minogue for displaying a " sense of class " , which he felt was lacking in the work of female artists like Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , and Madonna ; he concluded by labelling Body Language a " near perfect pop record " and " what may well be the best album of her [ Minogue 's ] career " . Keith Caulfield from Billboard was also positive in his review and complimented Minogue for selecting a talented creative team , saying " The sexy , solid set is glued together by danceable beats and Minogue 's knack for picking great songs and producers . " The The Irish Times review of the song called the album a " worthy successor to 2001 's smash hit Fever , a supremely danceable collection of electro @-@ pop songs that 's clearly in thrall to the 80s " and complimented Minogue 's versatile vocal delivery . Ethan Brown from New York was greatly impressed by opening track " Slow " , and commented that most of the songs on the album " mimic its sound , none of the other songs on Body Language comes close to the achievement of " Slow " " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt Body Language was a better album than Fever , calling it " less immediate and more experimental , a midway point between the alternative / electronica of 1997 's Impossible Princess and Minogue 's more mainstream post @-@ millennium work " , and praised it for being cohesive . He also complimented Minogue 's " willingness to try something new – even if it 's within the confines of dance @-@ pop – is what 's made her an international sensation 15 years running " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone favoured the sensual nature of the album , calling it " fantastic " and that " At thirty @-@ five , she 's ten times hotter than she was ten years ago – on Body Language , Kylie Minogue definitely sounds like she has a few more tricks stored on her hard drive than Britney [ Spears ] or Christina [ Aguilera ] " .

Chris Willman from Entertainment Weekly called it Minogue 's " Madonna @-@ meets @-@ Mirwais move " and felt that her exploration of new genres is " ludicrously enjoyable " , although he opined that the album was " synthetic " and " all Body [ sic ] no soul " . Helen Pidd from The Guardian favoured the blend of 1980s musical styles on the album , but felt that it lacked danceable songs , saying " Problem is , as with the majority of other tracks – including , most disappointingly , the Dennis @-@ penned " After Dark " – you would be hard pushed to dance to it , which could well be Body Language 's downfall " . John Robinson from NME gave Body Language an overall positive review and called it " an extremely tastefully done , soulful modern r 'n'b record " , but felt that it " fails to live up to its predecessor [ Fever ] " . Likewise , Adrien Begnard from PopMatters felt that Body Language lacked the " undeniably catchy " material which was present in Fever , but praised the overall production and the first half of the album ; he concluded that " Even though Body Language is a bit of a misstep for Minogue , there 's a sense of class to it " and that " Britney [ Spears ] could learn a thing or two " . The Spin review of the album commented that Minogue " wears the ' 80s well " and praised the dance @-@ oriented songs on the tracklist , although they criticised the ballads and pointed out that " [ at times ] Minogue 's vocals are so over @-@ processed that they barely seem to exist at all " . On the other hand , Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club opined that the ballads " work " and concluded that " Body Language shows Minogue as a surprisingly impressive presence in spurts , but she sounds better with her pleasure engine revving at full purr " .

= = Commercial performance = =

Although Body Language was not as much of a commercial success as Fever , it performed well nonetheless . In Minogue 's native Australia , Body Language entered and peaked at number two on the albums chart and spent a total of 18 weeks on the chart . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified the album double @-@ platinum for shipping 140 @,@ 000 units in the country . In the United Kingdom , the album entered and peaked at number six on the UK Albums Chart . It remained inside the top 10 for one week , and for two weeks in the top 20 . In total , it stayed on the chart for a total of 30 weeks . Body Language was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 units .

Elsewhere , Body Language peaked at number 23 on the Austrian Albums Chart and was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for selling 7 @,@ 500 units . In the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium , it peaked at number 10 on the Ultratop chart and spent a total of 17 weeks on the chart . It became Minogue 's first album to reach the top 10 in the region . Body Language entered and peaked at number eight on the Swiss Albums Chart , and spent a total of 17 weeks on the chart . In this region , the IFPI certified it gold for selling 20 @,@ 000 units . In the United States , Body Language debuted at number 42 on the Billboard 200 chart with " meagre " first @-@ week sales of 43 @,@ 000 units . According to Nielson SoundScan , Body Language had sold 177 @,@ 000 units in the US as of March 2011 .

= = Legacy = =

Following its release , Body Language was considered to be an example of Minogue 's constant " reinventions " . During this period , Minogue was often referred to as " Bardot Kylie " due to the Brigitte Bardot @-@ inspired look she sported on the cover , and Body Language was seen as a step forward from the " slick , minimalist and postmodern " image she had adopted during the release of Fever . Chris True from AllMusic regarded the album as " another successful attempt [ by Minogue ] at broadening her sound ( with electro and hip @-@ hop for instance ) and winning more fans " . Later in his review of Minogue 's tenth studio album X ( 2007 ) , he remarked that " By the time of 2004 's Body Language , Kylie Minogue was seemingly unassailable , with three hit albums , a number of hit singles , and a recharged career that only a few years before had seemed precarious at best " . In 2006 , Larissa Dubecki from The Age commented that " Kylie has beaten her early detractors by inhabiting almost a dozen identities , from the " singing budgie " who emerged from Neighbours to score her first hit single with a cover of the Little Eva classic " Locomotion " in 1987 , to the 1960s ingenue of her most recent album , 2003 's Body Language " . She used the title " Eurotrash princess " to describe Minogue during this period .

In 2004 , Minogue was nominated for " Best Female Artist " at the 18th Annual Australian Recording Industry Association Music Awards and Body Language was nominated for " Best Pop Release " . At the 2004 Brit Awards , the singer received her third @-@ consecutive nomination for " Best International Female Solo Artist " . At the 47th Grammy Awards ceremony held in the year 2005 , lead single " Slow " was nominated for " Best Dance Recording " , and in 2012 , Minogue picked the song as her all @-@ time favourite song from her 25 years in music .

= = Track listing = =

Notes

^ a signifies a vocal and additional producer

= = Personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Body Language .

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= Heather Mills =

Heather Anne Mills ( born 12 January 1968 ) is an English media personality .

Mills came to public attention in 1993 , when a collision with a police motorcycle in London resulted in the amputation of her left leg below the knee . She continued to model using a prosthetic limb and sold her story to a tabloid newspaper .

Her relationship with Sir Paul McCartney brought further public attention in the year 2000 . They married in June 2002 and Mills gave birth to Beatrice Milly McCartney on 28 October 2003 . The couple separated in 2006 and finalised their divorce in 2008 .

After her marriage to McCartney , Mills became involved in animal rights advocacy and as of 2012 is a patron of Viva ! ( Vegetarians ' International Voice for Animals ) and the Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation . She is also vice @-@ president of the Limbless Association and skied in the British disabled ski team 's development squad in 2013

= = Early life = =

Heather Mills was born in Aldershot , Hampshire , to John " Mark " Francis Mills , a former British paratrooper , and his wife , Beatrice Mary Mills , née Finlay , who was the daughter of a colonel in the British Army . Her father was adopted at age seven and grew up in Brighton , where his foster parents had a grocery shop , although his foster @-@ father also worked as a mechanic for a Grand Prix racing team . Her mother was born in India , during World War II , but was educated at English boarding schools . They met at Newcastle University , and were married against the wishes of Finlay 's father , who did not attend the wedding and only saw his daughter once more before he died .

Beatrice spoke several languages and played the piano , and Mark played banjo and guitar , liked photography ( winning an Evening Standard award ) , and took part in numerous sports . He was very fond of animals ( working for the RSPCA for a time ) , and Mills remembered her family always having a dog and a cat , as well as once having a pet goose and a white nanny goat that was allowed to roam the house owned by Mark 's parents in Libanus , near Brecon .

The Mills family spent their holidays in Libanus and also lived there for a time . When Mills was six years old , the family moved north to Alnwick , in Northumberland , but moved shortly after to a block of flats in Washington , Tyne and Wear , and then on to Cockshott Farm , in Rothbury , Northumberland . She attended Usworth Grange Primary school , and then Usworth Comprehensive school in Washington . She visited Usworth Comprehensive in 2003 , as guest of honour at a prize @-@ giving event and to support the school against plans for its closure .

Mills later wrote that she was kidnapped and sexually assaulted by a swimming pool attendant when she was eight years old , but her next @-@ door neighbour , Margaret Ambler , who was sexually abused by the swimming pool attendant , alleged that Mills ' story was " nothing what she made it out to be " , that Mills was never a victim , and the pool attendant did not commit suicide , as Mills had written . Although having received a letter from Mills offering £ 10 @,@ 000 to stop a court case , Ambler complained that the story had caused her deep discomfort by bringing the incident to national attention , so she sued for breach of privacy , accepting an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement of £ 5 @,@ 000 in compensation , and £ 54 @,@ 000 legal costs .

Beatrice left home when Mills was nine years old , which left her , her older brother Shane , and her younger sister , Fiona , in the care of their father . Mills said that her father once threw her brother against a window for making a mess on the carpet with crayons . The window broke and her brother had to be taken to hospital , where their father explained that the boy had fallen on some glass in the garden . Fiona said : " Our family were always short of money and our father demanded that we find food and clothes so we turned to shoplifting , learnt to hide from the bailiffs and became experts at domestic duties . I ’ m not ashamed to say that we were forced to steal because when you are a young child , you ’ d rather do that than face a beating from your father " . ( Their father disputed his daughters ' allegations that he was violent towards them , later releasing home movies of family holidays in Wales , showing Mills playing happily ) .

= = London and modelling = =

When her father was jailed for 18 months after being convicted of fraud , she left home with her sister to live with her mother and partner ( Crossroads actor Charles Stapley ) , in Clapham , London , although her brother went to Brighton to live with his paternal grandparents . She later wrote that at the age of 15 she ran away to join a funfair , and then lived in a cardboard box under Waterloo Station for four months , although Stapley denied this by saying that she occasionally left home at weekends to travel with a young man who worked for a funfair in London . During her stated period of homelessness , her school records indicate that she and her sister were both enrolled at Usworth comprehensive in Tyne and Wear until April 1983 , and then at Hydeburn Comprehensive , in Balham , on 6 June 1983 , where they both stayed until 2 July 1984 . She remembered that a teacher at the Hydeburn once said , " there 's no hope for her at all " , and that she left school with no academic qualifications . In the same year , her father had another daughter , Claire Mills , with a new partner . Mills worked for a croissant shop , but was sacked , and vowed " never to work for anyone else again " . She later wrote that the owner of a jewellery shop in Clapham gave her a job on Saturdays , but Jim Guy , the owner of Penrose Jewellers , later stated : " Everything she wrote about me was lies , I never gave her a job ; she just hung around and made tea . She told me her father was dead . The only thing that was true was she nicked stuff from the shop " , which Guy said was worth £ 20 @,@ 000 . She admitted that she had stolen some gold chains and sold them to buy a moped , and when Guy reported the theft , she was put on probation .

Alfie Karmal ( the son of a Palestinian father and Greek mother ) was ten years older than Mills when they met in 1986 . Karmal bought her new clothes and Cartier jewellery , and paid for cosmetic surgery when she complained that her breasts were sagging . She later said that she had had a breast reduction operation , reducing her bra size from a 34E to a 34C. so Karmal , who had moved into the computer industry , set up a model agency for her , ExSell Management , although it was not successful . In 1987 , Mills went to live in Paris , telling Karmal that a cosmetics company had given her a modelling contract , but became the mistress of millionaire Lebanese businessman George Kazan for two years and took part in a photo session for a stills @-@ only German sex education manual called Die Freuden der Liebe ( The Joys of Love ) . She also modelled for full @-@ frontal nude photographs .

After returning to London , Mills asked Karmal to marry her . Karmal said yes , but on one condition : " I told her I couldn 't marry her until she did something about her compulsive lying , and she agreed to see a psychiatrist for eight weeks . She admitted she had a problem and said it was because she 'd been forced to lie as a child by her father " . Although Mills proposed to Karmal , she later said that every man she has been out with " has asked me to marry him within a week " . While married to Karmal , she suffered two ectopic pregnancies , so Karmal paid for her to go on holiday to Croatia with his children and ex @-@ wife ( with whom Mills had become friends ) in 1990 , but Mills ended up living with her ski instructor , Miloš Pogačar , shortly before the Croatian War began . Mills then set up a refugee crisis centre in London , helping over 20 people to escape the war . She drove by herself to deliver donations to Croatia , taking modelling assignments in Austria on the way to pay for the trip , later saying that she " worked on the front line in a war zone in the former Yugoslavia for two years where there were mines everywhere that weren 't marked " . Karmal and Mills were divorced and Mills was later engaged to Raffaele Mincione ( a bond dealer for the Industrial Bank of Japan ) in 1993 .

= = Accident and amputees = =

On 8 August 1993 , Mills and Mincione walked to the corner of De Vere Gardens and Kensington Road , London , but while crossing Kensington Road , Mills was knocked down by a police motorcycle ( the last in a convoy of three ) , which was responding to an emergency call . Mills suffered crushed ribs , a punctured lung , and the loss of her left leg 6 inches below the knee ; a metal plate was later attached to her pelvis . In October 1993 , she had another operation which further shortened her leg . Mills was awarded £ 200 @,@ 000 by the police authority as recompense for her injuries , even though the police motorcyclist , PC Osbourne , was later cleared by magistrates of driving without due care and attention . After the accident , Mills sold her story to the News of the World , and gave other interviews , saying she earned £ 180 @,@ 000 . She used the money to set up the Heather Mills Health Trust ( existed 2000 – 2004 ) which delivered prosthetic limbs to people , particularly children , who had lost limbs after stepping on landmines . Mills often shows people her prosthetic leg , once taking it off during an interview on the American talk show Larry King Live , in 2002 .

Mills booked herself into the Hippocrates Health Institute in Florida , which put her on a raw food vegan diet , using wheat grass and garlic poultices to heal her wound . After an operation , Mills discovered that she had been previously identified as having an O rhesus negative blood type , when in fact she was A rhesus negative , which had interfered with her attempts to follow the so @-@ called blood type diet . As her prosthetic leg had to be replaced on a regular basis ( because the size of the amputated stump kept changing as it healed ) , she had the idea to collect thousands of discarded prosthetic limbs for amputees in Croatia . Mills persuaded the Brixton prison governor to get inmates to dismantle and pack the prosthetic limbs before being transported , which resulted in 22 @,@ 000 amputees obtaining limbs in addition to the Croatian citizens who were already supplied with prosthetic limbs by the Croatian Institute for Health Insurance , which paid for the fitting of limbs and rehabilitation of patients . The first convoy of limbs arrived in Zagreb in October 1994 and Mills travelled with the convoy to film interviews with some of the recipients for the Good Morning with Anne and Nick daytime TV show . She received an award in 2001 from Croatia 's prime minister for the money she raised to help clear that country of landmines .

With the help of ghostwriter Pamela Cockerill , Mills wrote a book about her experience titled Out on a Limb ( 1995 ) , which was republished in the United States as A Single Step ( 2002 ) . Extracts from Out on a Limb were serialised in The Daily Mail in March 2000 . Mills handed all the proceeds from the book to Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield , and stated that it was one of " the few charities that 100 % of their donations goes to clear minefields and survivor assistance " . In 1995 , Mills got engaged to British media executive Marcus Stapleton , after being together for only 16 days , and was then engaged to respected documentary filmmaker Chris Terrill in 1999 , after only 12 days in Cambodia , where they were making a film about landmines . Mills ended their relationship five days before their planned wedding day , later telling friends in the media that she had called the wedding off because Terrill was gay , an MI6 agent , and that his mission was to sabotage her anti @-@ landmine work . Terrill had once told Mills that he had been interviewed by the intelligence services when he was thinking of a career with the Foreign Office , but later said , " I soon realised that Heather [ Mills ] had a somewhat elastic relationship with the truth , which she was able to stretch impressively sometimes " . Terrill also claims that although Mills said she was a vegetarian at the time , she often cooked her speciality dish , Lancashire hotpot , which contains lamb , for him ; and her ex sister @-@ in @-@ law , Dianna Karmal , claims that Mills only became a vegetarian after meeting McCartney .

In 2003 , the Open University awarded her an honorary doctorate for her philanthropic work on behalf of amputees . She continues to campaign , in addition to promoting the distribution of prostheses around the world and has been involved with the development of the Heather Mills McCartney Cosmesis , which gives amputees in America the chance to wear a Dorset Orthopaedic cosmesis , without having to travel to the UK . Mills is also vice @-@ president of the Limbless Association . In 2004 , she received a " Children in Need " award from the annual International Charity Gala in Düsseldorf and in the same year , the University of California , Irvine , gave her their 2004 Human Security Award and created the Heather Mills McCartney Fellowship in Human Security to support graduate students conducting research on pressing human security issues . She is a former Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Association Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield programme .

= = Relationship with Paul McCartney = =

Mills met McCartney at the Dorchester Hotel , during the Pride of Britain Awards event in April 1999 , which McCartney had attended to present an award to an animal rights activist . Mills presented the Outstanding Bravery Award to Helen Smith ; also making an appeal on behalf of the Heather Mills Health Trust . McCartney also presented an award dedicated to his late wife , Linda McCartney . McCartney talked to Mills about donating to her charity – later giving her £ 150 @,@ 000 . In the autumn of 1999 , Mills and her sister recorded " VO ! CE " ; a song they wrote to raise funds for Mills ' charity , with McCartney agreeing to sing backing vocals . After recording the song in Greece ( where Mills ' sister lived , running the independent label Coda Records ) , the sisters stayed overnight at McCartney 's estate in Peasmarsh , Sussex , in early November , where McCartney added vocals to the song . Having sparked the interest of the tabloids about his appearances with Mills at events , McCartney appeared publicly beside her at a party in January 2000 to celebrate her 32nd birthday .

While on holiday in the Lake District , McCartney proposed to Mills on 23 July 2001 , giving her a £ 15 @,@ 000 diamond and sapphire ring he had purchased in Jaipur , India , while they were both there on holiday .

= = = Marriage = = =

Mills and McCartney were married on 11 June 2002 , four years after McCartney 's first wife had died of breast cancer . The McCartney – Mills wedding was an elaborate ceremony at Castle Leslie ( once the home of Shane Leslie ) , in the village of Glaslough in County Monaghan , Ireland . A song specially composed by McCartney , called " Heather " , was played , which had been included on the 2001 album , Driving Rain .

Mills said that she liked to cook traditional ( but meat @-@ free ) Christmas dinners for McCartney and as many of his family as possible , and that McCartney had encouraged her to give up her self @-@ confessed addiction to chocolate and Snickers bars . When asked by chat @-@ show host Larry King ( in 2003 ) , how life was with McCartney , Mills replied " Great , really great , " but also said that she was surprised at how tidy McCartney was : " He always cleans up before the cleaner comes . So I said for a while that 's crazy , but what 's good is if I cook the dinner , he 'll clean everything up . "

In 2003 , McCartney played a concert in Red Square , Russia . Vladimir Putin gave the couple a tour of the Kremlin . McCartney later said that Mills ' contribution was giving him an acrylic fingernail to protect a finger on his left hand that often bled after playing guitar . McCartney admitted that Mills inspired him , as " Being in love with her makes me want to write songs " , such as " Too Much Rain " on Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , and " See Your Sunshine " ( " She makes me feel glad / I want her so bad " ) from Memory Almost Full . Another composition inspired by Mills was used as the bridal march at their wedding .

During a Parkinson chat show on 22 February 2003 , host Michael Parkinson asked if it was because of McCartney that Mills did not give any interviews , and she replied that she wanted to protect McCartney , his children , and their privacy . On the same show she said that her previous ectopic pregnancies had damaged her fertility , and that her chances of getting pregnant were small , although the couple announced that they were expecting their first child in May 2003 . Mills gave birth to Beatrice Milly McCartney on 28 October 2003 , who was named after Mills ' mother , and McCartney 's aunt . It was later revealed that Mills had suffered a miscarriage in the first year of marriage to McCartney . Mills was invited by Larry King to interview Paul Newman , which was broadcast by CNN on 17 April 2004 . McCartney had arranged for Newman to be interviewed by Mills , but critical reactions to the show were mixed . Mills appeared on other TV programmes , such as BBC1 's Question Time and GMTV , and persuaded McCartney to join her on ITV 's Who Wants To Be A Millionaire ?

= = = = Split = = = =

After some time apart , Mills and McCartney separated on 17 May 2006 . In November 2007 , Mills gave a number of interviews , saying that the breakdown of the marriage was caused by her husband 's daughter , Stella , whom she described as " jealous " and " evil " . Mills had previously talked with New York magazine , saying Stella had once issued a press release confirming how much she liked her new stepmother , although Stella 's publicist denied that such a statement had ever been issued .

After dismissing Anthony Julius , a Mishcon de Reya lawyer , Mills stated she would represent herself in the upcoming divorce hearing , with help from her sister Fiona , David Rosen ( a solicitor @-@ advocate ) , and Michael Shilub , an American attorney . In leaked documents , Mills complained that McCartney was often drunk , smoked cannabis , stabbed her with a broken wine glass , pushed her over a table , and pushed her into a bathtub when she was pregnant . Referring to her part in the marriage , Mills said that she had been a full @-@ time wife , mother , lover , confidante , business partner and psychologist to McCartney . McCartney 's lawyers studied Mills ' book : Life Balance : The Essential Keys to a Lifetime of Wellbeing ( published on 25 May 2006 ) , as it contradicted many of her claims , such as when she praised McCartney for " Bringing me breakfast in bed every morning , no matter how he feels , and I do the dinner , so we ’ ve got that agreement . It ’ s thoughtfulness " . Mills ' father reconciled with his daughter after meeting her and McCartney , when they introduced him to his granddaughter , Beatrice . After their separation , he said that it " took guts to represent yourself at the High Court " , and that he was proud of his daughter , even though he thought she would be " torn to shreds " by McCartney 's lawyers .

= = = Divorce = = =

The case was heard in court 34 at the Royal Courts of Justice in London . At the start of the proceedings Mills asked for £ 125 million , but McCartney offered £ 15 @.@ 8 million . Before the court case , Mills had employed the accountancy firm Lee and Allen to examine McCartney 's publishing company , business assets and properties , saying that she had a tape recording of McCartney admitting his true worth , but the presiding judge , Mr Justice Bennett , turned down numerous requests for information by Lee and Allen .

The hearing took six days , finishing on 18 February 2008 , with the judgment being made public on 17 March 2008 . Mills was eventually awarded a lump sum of £ 16.5m , together with assets of £ 7.8m , which included the properties she owned at the time . The total was £ 24 @.@ 3 million , plus payments of £ 35 @,@ 000 per annum , for a nanny and school costs for their daughter . In his judgment , Justice Bennett stated : " The husband 's evidence was , in my judgment , balanced . He expressed himself moderately though at times with justifiable irritation , if not anger . He was consistent , accurate and honest . But I regret to have to say I cannot say the same about the wife 's evidence . Having watched and listened to her give evidence , having studied the documents , and having given in her favour every allowance for the enormous strain she must have been under ( and in conducting her own case ) I am driven to the conclusion that much of her evidence , both written and oral , was not just inconsistent and inaccurate but also less than candid . Overall she was a less than impressive witness . " The divorce was granted on 12 May 2008 , and the preliminary divorce decree was finalised six weeks later . She later considered trying to have the injunction lifted that stopped her talking publicly about the case , as the sections released were against her wishes , saying that it would " perhaps be better for the public to see everything " .

Long before the decision , Mills talked about McCartney : " I will never get over it . I will always love Paul . He is the father of my child , but I just have to move on and deal with it and there is nothing I can do ... I have never spoken badly about my husband . I never will , he is the father of my child " . After the judgement was issued , however , she said to the press , " I can 't say if Paul is cruel . For the sake of my daughter , I can 't say that but my sister thinks he is . " This statement to the press was accompanied by her sister , Fiona Mills , saying " I just think he didn 't need to put her through this . I just think it is really sad . Why can 't he look after the mother of his child ? " She continued , " He wants to make himself look good , " she said . " To him the most important person is him . It has been a nightmare and I am not exaggerating . "

During their marriage she was known as Heather Mills McCartney , but after her divorce she reverted to Heather Mills , although she should still be correctly referred to as Lady McCartney ; as the former wife of a knight , she technically retains that title . She was addressed as such by Lord Justice Leveson , during the Leveson Inquiry .

= = Media image and criticism = =

Mills ' relationship with McCartney triggered considerable media interest , but after her divorce , the attitude of the British media was hostile . Mills frequently accuses the press of misquoting her , and of using material out of context to give a negative impression of her , telling the Evening Standard that the claims that she had married McCartney for his money were more hurtful than losing her leg .

Mills has been accused by several newspapers of having embellished her life story . A journalist with the same name , Heather Mills , then at The Observer , accused Mills of impersonating her for over a year in the late 1990s , showing people cuttings of articles the journalist had written , which helped Mills secure a job presenting The General , a BBC TV programme about Southampton General Hospital . There were also doubts about Mills ' claim that she had been nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize ( because the Heather Mills Health Trust had given away thousands of prosthetic limbs to landmine victims ) , but the nomination cannot yet be proven because the identities of all nominees remain secret for 50 years .

Stapely ( Mills ' stepfather ) disputed Mills ' statement that her mother had nearly lost a leg in a car crash , after Mills said , " her leg was only hanging on by a tiny flap of skin and flesh ... miraculously the surgeons managed to insert a metal plate and reattach it " . Stapely said that Mills ' mother had suffered a leg injury after a car crash , but recovered and was " a keen tennis player " and that Mills , " is simply a very confused woman for whom reality and fantasy have become blurred " .

Mills said that she had once been asked to stand for parliament by the three main political parties , and had been offered a peerage in 2001 ( to become Baroness Mills ) by the then British Prime Minister , Tony Blair , and a certain " Lord Macdonald " . An ITV documentary ( McCartney vs McCartney : The Ex Files ) interviewed three Lord Macdonalds , but not one of them could remember ever meeting Mills . British journalist Jasper Gerard , to whom Mills made the claims , also says she told him that she had cancelled a meeting with Bill Clinton in case her endorsement affected a US election outcome . Mills stated that she was once awarded the Outstanding Young Person of the Year award by the British Chambers of Commerce , but did not challenge newspapers after they discovered there was no such award .

In October 2006 , Mills announced her intention to sue The Daily Mail , The Sun and the Evening Standard . All the newspapers said that their stories " were obtained by proper methods and in accordance with good journalistic practice " . The Sun , which regularly refers to Mills as " Mucca " – a play on McCartney 's nickname " Macca " – responded by asking her to " tick the boxes " on a series of allegations the newspaper had made , stating , " It is not clear what exactly she plans to sue us about " . Underneath the questions , The Sun listed six allegations about her , with a blank box beside each one . The words beside the boxes read : " Hooker , Liar , Porn Star , Fantasist , Trouble Maker , Shoplifter " .

In December 2006 , Mills told the BBC that she had received death threats , and on 17 December 2006 , police stated that a " non @-@ specific threat " had been made to her safety . This led to more criticism that she was calling out the emergency services too often . In March 2007 , Kevin Moore , Chief Superintendent of Sussex Police , said that Mills was running " the risk of being treated as the little boy who cried wolf " , and added , " We do have to respond to a disproportionate high volume of calls from Heather Mills McCartney because of the situations she finds herself in , and this is regrettable as it takes officers away from other policing matters " . Mills responded that the police had told her to contact them whenever she was being harassed .

During a 5 @-@ day trial in July 2007 , it was revealed that Mills had been physically assaulted by Jay Kaycappa in Brighton . Kaycappa was a notorious paparazzo trying to photograph Mills while on shifts for a national newspaper and a regional press agency . Kaycappa , who had 132 previous criminal convictions , including perverting the course of justice , obtaining property by deception , driving offences and using ten aliases , was found guilty and sentenced to a 140 @-@ hour community order and ordered to pay Mills £ 100 , plus £ 1 @,@ 000 court costs .

During several interviews in October 2007 , Mills accused the media of giving her " worse press than a paedophile or a murderer " . She also criticised the media over the treatment of Diana , Princess of Wales – who , according to Mills , was " chased and killed " by paparazzi – and of Kate McCann . Immediately before giving these interviews , her PR adviser , Phil Hall ( the ex @-@ Editor of the News of the World ) , quit . In 2008 , a survey commissioned by Marketing magazine showed Mills as one of the top five most hated celebrity women , along with Amy Winehouse , Victoria Beckham and Kerry Katona .

In December 2008 , the Channel 4 television comedy series Star Stories broadcast a satirical mockumentary of Mills ' life story from her point of view . In 2009 , after petitioning the Press Complaints Commission in the UK about being lied about in the press , five British tabloids ( The Sun , The Daily Express , News of the World , Sunday Mirror and Daily Mirror ) publicly apologised to Mills about printing false , hurtful or defamatory stories about her . Another tabloid ( the Daily Mail ) , sent a private letter of apology . Mills has complained that over 4 @,@ 400 abusive articles about her have been published .

= = = Criticism of press coverage = = =

In 2002 , Mills accepted damages of £ 50 @,@ 000 plus costs from the Sunday Mirror , after a false report that the Charity Commission had investigated her about the money she raised for the Indian earthquake victims appeal in 2001 . The extent and nature of the British press coverage of Mills has been criticised , as in May 2003 , when Guardian columnist Matt Seaton wrote a piece declaring " There is little that is edifying in the symbolic lynching of Heather . The poisonous judgmentalism that drives it is in the worst tradition of small town gossip . It is prurient , spiteful , hypocritical , and we should cry ' shame ' on it " . Publicist Mark Borkowski wrote in the Independent on Sunday , on 23 March 2008 : " Not since the cult of Myra Hindley have we encountered so much vitriol aimed at one woman " . Feminist writer Natasha Walter has compared the coverage to that of Britney Spears . Terence Blacker wrote that public figures who are young , female , pretty and fair @-@ haired , are often subjected to public bullying which is explained as " intense media interest " , such as Diana , Princess of Wales , Paula Yates , Ulrika Jonsson and Mills .

Kira Cochrane , in The Guardian , said that " every misogynist epithet available " has been used against Mills . " She has somehow become the vessel through which it is acceptable for both pundits and the public to express their very worst feelings about women " . Joan Smith , writing in The Independent , said that newspaper " Bullies love a weakling " ; quoting the Daily Mirror 's front page headline : " Lady Liar " and The Sun newspaper writing " Pornocchio " over Mills ' face ( in reference to Pinocchio 's nose getting longer when he lied and her past photographs ) . Smith went on to say that Mills had " dreamt of becoming the wife of a famous man but did not realise that he had fantasies of his own , marrying an attractive younger woman when he hadn 't got over the loss of his first wife . Mills behaved foolishly when the marriage failed but she does not deserve the treatment she has had in the mass @-@ market press . It is merciless bullying of an unstable , vulnerable woman " . In 2009 , Mills reported a bogus charity had been set up to extract information about her marriage . News Corp , owned by Rupert Murdoch , is alleged to have set up the sting . The British tabloid newspaper the Daily Mirror ran the headline " Macca marriage to Heather was mistake of the decade " following an interview McCartney gave to Q magazine . McCartney immediately moved to deny this statement and then went on to publicly print the original transcript on his official website to prove the Daily Mirror article was false .

Celia Larkin , writing on 12 February 2012 in the Irish Sunday Independent , said " There was something very satisfying about Heather Mills finally having her voice heard above the roar of the Red Tops . If you actually take the time to listen to Mills , I mean listen , not just read what 's written about her , you 'll see she is a strong , sincere , independent woman . She didn 't lie down under the weight of McCartney 's fame and wealth , she continued to plough her own furrow , campaigning for her charities , maintaining a strong individuality . And that , it seems , is the greatest sin of all . Is it any wonder she was reduced to tears in the October 2007 GMTV interview ? Did we feel sympathy for her then ? No . ' Heather Mills has Melt Down ' screamed the headlines , so now she had lost her marbles to boot . And if that wasn 't enough , Carole Malone of the Sunday Mirror , one of the papers that was relentless in its attacks on Mills , accused her of staging an act on live TV in order to further her cause in the upcoming divorce hearing . How cruel can you get ? "

= = = Phone hacking and Leveson Inquiry = = =

On 5 May 2011 , The Guardian reported that Mills had met with officers from the London Metropolitan Police who showed her evidence , seized from private investigator Glenn Mulcaire , which could form the basis of a claim against the News of the World for breach of privacy over alleged phone hacking . Mills ' name and private mobile phone number were listed in Mulcaire 's notes along with those of her friends and associates . Mills later alleged that a journalist working for the Mirror Group had admitted to her in 2001 that he had hacked her phone .

Appearing as a witness at the Leveson Inquiry on 9 February 2012 , Mills was asked under oath if she had ever made a recording of Paul McCartney 's phone calls or answer phone messages and had ever played it to Piers Morgan or " anybody else " , she replied , " Never , ever . " Giving evidence in December 2011 , Morgan , who bragged in a newspaper column for the Daily Mail in 2006 about hearing the message , refused to say who had played him the recorded message of the call , saying he was protecting a source . Mills told the inquiry that Morgan was " a man that has written nothing but awful things about me for years and would have relished telling the inquiry if I had played a personal voicemail message to him . " In the official findings of his Inquiry , Lord Justice Leveson said Morgan 's testimony under oath on phone hacking was " utterly unpersuasive . This was not , in any sense at all , a convincing answer " and " What it does , however , clearly prove is that he was aware that it was taking place in the press as a whole and that he was sufficiently unembarrassed by what was criminal behaviour that he was prepared to joke about it . " ( see the testimony : [ 1 ] )

= = Activism = =

In 2005 , Mills became a patron of the British animal rights organisation Viva ! , and the Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation , which are both run by Juliet Gellatley . In 2006 , Mills and Gellatley attended a debate on fur at the Oxford Union , where she presented a video depicting the skinning of a dog . She posed with her own dog in an anti @-@ fur advertisement for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) , which read : " If you wouldn 't wear your dog , please don 't wear fur " .

In March 2006 , Mills and McCartney travelled to Canada to bring attention to the country 's annual seal hunt . Sponsored by the Humane Society of the United States , they complained that the hunt was inhumane , and called on the Canadian government to put an end to it . Their arrival on the floes sparked much attention in Newfoundland and Labrador , where 90 per cent of the sealers live . Mills and McCartney protested against seals being clubbed to death , pierced with boat hooks and sometimes skinned alive . Newfoundland and Labrador 's Premier , Danny Williams , debated the issue with them on Larry King Live , the issue being that seals are no longer hunted that way , and have not been for a while . Mills joined a Viva ! film team at a pig farm in Somerset , in February 2007 , to publicise the use of restrictive farrowing crates , which are used for sows who are suckling piglets . A video of the investigation was made available on the Internet .

Mills 's relationship with PETA ended in 2007 , when McCartney 's daughter , Mary , said she would not continue to take photographs for the organisation if Mills was involved with them . A PETA representative told the New York Post : " Heather 's exposé of the Chinese fur industry remains one of the most popular videos on our site , but we don 't have any imminent campaigns planned with her " .

Mills spoke in Hyde Park , London , on 19 November 2007 . Mills said : " Eighty per cent of global warming comes from livestock and deforestation . I 'm not telling people to go vegan overnight . But if they stop drinking their cows ' milk lattes , maybe this sort of thing won 't have to happen " .

In 2008 , an old video surfaced of Mills wearing a mink coat she had owned in 1989 , but explained to reporters that she had bought it years before becoming involved in animal rights organisations or vegetarianism . Although she had separated from McCartney , Mills said : " It 's only since I met Paul [ McCartney ] that I really got to understand how vegetarianism not only benefits your health massively but also makes a huge difference to the planet , to animals , and to feeding the world . " In August 2008 , she was honoured by the organisation Farm Animal Rights Movement ( FARM ) , with the Celebrity Animal Activist Award , presented at the Animal Rights National Conference . On 28 August 2009 , at the Celebrity Catwalk event in Hollywood , Mills showed off her new " recycled clothes from charity shops " range , called Be @ one . After her divorce , Mills pledged to give a " large portion " of her £ 24 @.@ 3 million divorce settlement to Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield , but the charity has not received any to date . In June 2008 , Mills was asked to talk at a New York party about the cruelty of puppy farms and to promote her book about animals , but was angry about the guests speaking over her speech , saying : " Listen up at the back . I haven ’ t been up for 24 hours and flew here from London to be ignored " . Mills 's publicist of four years , Michele Elyzabeth , stopped representing her on 25 July 2008 .

= = Commercial interests = =

On 4 July 2009 , Mills opened a vegan restaurant called VBites at Hove Lagoon , Hove , Sussex . Mills is quoted as saying that she intends it to be the first in a worldwide chain of vegan restaurants . Whilst promoting the restaurant , Mills gave an interview to the BBC , stating that she 'd been very proactive in the building stages and now that it was open , would give as much time to it as she could – working it around her charity work . In May 2013 she sold the restaurant premises to local record producer Fatboy Slim and opened a new , enlarged VBites in East Street in Brighton .

In 2009 , Mills bought the vegan food company VBites Foods ( then known as Redwood Foods ) . The company in Corby , Northamptonshire , sells 50 meat @-@ free products under the brand names Cheatin ' , VegiDeli and Cheezly . In 2014 products sold under the brand " Wot no Dairy " were recalled , because it was revealed that they contained traces of dairy and were dangerous for those with dairy intolerance .

Mills was one of the celebrity performers competing on the US television series Dancing with the Stars in 2007 , with dancing partner Jonathan Roberts . On 21 December 2009 , she was revealed as one of the contestants on the fifth series of Dancing on Ice , being paired with Matt Evers .

= = Artistic recognition = =

Mills was part of a series of body cast sculptures by the contemporary British sculptor , Louise Giblin in 2012 .

= = British Paralympic ski team = =

In May 2011 , Hello ! magazine ran an article about her ambitions for the 2014 Paralympic Games as well as her efforts to stay fit and healthy with her vegan lifestyle following the accident .

On 17 December 2013 , it was announced that Mills would miss the 2014 Olympics in Sochi , Russia . She was asked to leave due to a fall out and complaints about her behaviour towards officials .

= = Present life = =

On 4 June 2010 , a claim for compensation alleging sexual and maternity discrimination and unfair dismissal was brought by Sara Trumble , who had been employed as a nanny for Mills ' daughter since April 2004 . The case was dismissed at Ashford Employment Tribunal Centre , Kent , with the tribunal concluding that all of Trumble 's claims were unfounded . Employment judge Steven Vowles said that " Mills ' kindness towards Miss Trumble showed that she genuinely cared about her as both an employee and a friend " .

= Harry Bassett =

Harry Bassett ( 1868 – 1878 ) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse , winner of the 1871 Belmont Stakes and an outstanding racehorse of the 19th century . He also won a number of other stakes races , and was named the Champion male of his age group in 1870 , 1871 and 1872 . He was retired to stud duties in New Jersey when his five @-@ year racing career ended , having recorded 23 wins from 36 starts . Harry Bassett died in New Jersey in 1878 and was inducted into the United States Racing Hall of Fame in 2010 .

= = Breeding and early life = =

Harry Bassett was a chestnut stallion , foaled on 27 April 1868 , that was sired by Lexington and out of the mare Canary Bird . Canary Bird was by the imported stallion Albion and out of the mare Panola , who was sired by the imported stallion Ainderby . Canary Bird 's second dam , or maternal grandmother , was the imported mare Sweetbriar by Recovery . Harry Basset was bred either by R. A. Alexander or by A. J. Alexander , both of the Woodburn Stud of Woodburn , Kentucky , and was the second of Canary Bird 's foals . He was sold at the 1869 S. D. Bruce yearling sale to trainer David McDaniel for $ 315 .

= = Racing career = =

Harry Bassett was trained by his owner David McDaniel ; his jockey was W. Miller . As a two @-@ year @-@ old he won the 1870 Nursery Stakes at Pimlico Race Course , the Central Stakes , the Kentucky Stakes , and the Saratoga Stakes . He made a total of four starts as a two @-@ year @-@ old of which he won three , placing third in the other .

Harry Bassett won the fifth running of the Belmont Stakes in 1871 at Jerome Park Racetrack in a time of 2 minutes 56 seconds . He carried 110 pounds ( 50 kilograms ) pounds in the race , and won $ 5 @,@ 400 ( approximately $ 107 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) for his owner . The race was run on June 10 over a distance of 1 5 ⁄ 8 miles ( 13 furlongs / 2 @,@ 600 meters ) on a fast track . Harry Bassett won by three lengths from the second placed finisher Stockwood ; the third place went to August Belmont 's By The Sea . This was the first of three consecutive wins of the Belmont Stakes by David McDaniel as both owner and trainer , as he went on to win the 1872 race with Joe Daniels and the 1873 race with Springbok .

As a three @-@ year @-@ old , Harry Bassett also won the Jerome Handicap , the Travers Stakes , the Reunion Stakes , the Kenner Stakes , the Champion Stakes and the Jersey Derby . He was undefeated in nine starts at age three .

During his three @-@ year @-@ old year Harry Bassett started 11 times and won eight , finishing second in the remaining three . At four he increased his win record to 14 , with wins in the Westchester Cup and a victory in a 2 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) heat , before he was beaten in the Monmouth Cup by Longfellow . He then won the 2 1 ⁄ 4 mile Saratoga Cup , in which he defeated Longfellow . His jockey in that race was James Rowe , Sr. , who went on to become a leading trainer for James R. Keene . At age five , Harry Bassett started eight times , winning two , placing second in two , and third once . At six , he started four times , winning once and placing third once .

Harry Bassett 's racing career spanned five years and ended with 23 wins from 36 starts ; he finished second five times and third three times . His total earnings on the racetrack were $ 55 @,@ 920 ( approximately $ 1 @,@ 046 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . He was awarded the title of Champion Two @-@ Year @-@ Old Male in 1870 , the title of Champion Three @-@ Year @-@ Old Male in 1871 , and the Champion Older Horse title in 1872 .

= = Stud record = =

When his racing career ended Harry Bassett was retired to McDaniel ’ s stud farm in Trenton , New Jersey , where he sired stakes winners such as Bowstring and Lettina out of the imported mare Letty by imported Australian . Lettina won the Young America Stakes , the Jackson Stakes and the Ladies Stakes in 1881 , when she was two years old .

Harry Bassett died on October 27 , 1878 at McDaniel 's farm in New Jersey . He was inducted into the United States ' National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 2010 .

= SM UB @-@ 13 =

SM UB @-@ 13 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine was probably sunk by a British mine net in April 1916 .

UB @-@ 13 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 13 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 13 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched in March 1915 and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 13 in April .

UB @-@ 13 spent her entire career in the Flanders Flotilla and sank 11 merchant ships , about half of them British fishing vessels . In March 1916 , UB @-@ 13 was responsible for sinking the Dutch ocean liner Tubantia , raising the ire of the Dutch public . Tubantia was the largest neutral vessel sunk during the war and among the 30 largest ships sunk by U @-@ boats . On 24 April 1916 , UB @-@ 13 was sunk with all hands .

= = Design and construction = =

After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .

UB @-@ 13 was part of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered UB @-@ 9 to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 13 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 7 November . As built , UB @-@ 13 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 13 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .

UB @-@ 13 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 13 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .

After work on UB @-@ 13 was complete at the Weser yard , she was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In February 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 13 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 13 was assembled and launched on 8 March , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .

= = Early career = =

The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 13 on 6 April 1915 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Walter Gustav Becker , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . On 26 April , UB @-@ 13 joined the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 13 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .

Submarines of the Flanders Flotilla sank over 14 @,@ 000 tons of merchant vessels in June 1915 , and UB @-@ 13 's first ship sunk , Dulcie , contributed almost one @-@ seventh of that total . The British steamer Dulcie , listed at 2 @,@ 033 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was headed from Dunston for Le Havre with a load of coal when Becker torpedoed her 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Aldeburgh . One man on Dulcie lost his life in the attack . Dulcie was the only ship sunk by UB @-@ 13 in June .

On 27 and 28 July , Becker and UB @-@ 13 sank three British fishing vessels while patrolling between 15 and 30 nautical miles ( 28 and 56 km ; 17 and 35 mi ) off Lowestoft . All three of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 16 , and sunk with explosives .

In response to American demands after German submarines had sunk the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September , the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , issued orders suspending the first offensive on 18 September . His directive ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . On 20 February 1916 , under the command of Kapitänleutnant Karl Neumann , who replaced Becker in December 1915 , UB @-@ 13 captured a Belgian ship named Z10 David Marie and retained her as a prize . There are no further details about where Z10 David Marie was taken or her final disposition , but other ships captured as prizes by Flanders boats were sailed into Zeebrugge by prize crews .

= = Second submarine offensive = =

By early 1916 , the British blockade of Germany was beginning to have an effect on Germany and her imports . The Royal Navy had stopped and seized more cargo destined for Germany than the quantity of cargo sunk by German U @-@ boats in the first submarine offensive . As a result , the German Imperial Navy began a second offensive against merchant shipping on 29 February . The final ground rules agreed upon by the German Admiralstab were that all enemy vessels in Germany 's self @-@ proclaimed war zone would be destroyed without warning , that enemy vessels outside the war zone would be destroyed only if armed , and — to avoid antagonizing the United States — that enemy passenger steamers were not to be attacked , regardless of whether in the war zone or not . The day after the beginning of the second offensive , Neumann and UB @-@ 13 sank four more fishing smacks northeast of Lowestoft . All four ships were boarded and sunk in the same manner as the three sunk the previous July . Shortly after , Neumann was transferred to command UB @-@ 2 in early March , and was replaced by Oberleutnant zur See Arthur Metz , who had been in command of UB @-@ 17 for the preceding month .

= = = SS Tubantia = = =

Shortly after 02 : 30 on 16 March , a torpedo from UB @-@ 13 struck the starboard side of the neutral Dutch ocean liner Tubantia , which was at anchor near the North Hinder Lightship , about 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) off the Dutch coast . The Royal Holland Lloyd ( Dutch : Koninklijke Hollandsche Lloyd ) ship had been fully illuminated , with her name spelled out in electric lights between the twin funnels . Distress calls from Tubantia were heeded and all 80 passengers and 294 crew were rescued by three nearby ships before the ship foundered . Tubantia was the largest neutral ship sunk during the war , and among the 30 largest ships sunk by U @-@ boats .

Germany initially tried to implicate British mines or torpedoes , but relented when confronted with evidence that it was one of their own torpedoes — which had been assigned to UB @-@ 13 — that had sunk Tubantia . The Germans , however , presented a forged log from UB @-@ 13 that showed her nowhere near Tubantia at the time of the attack . Further , they reported , UB @-@ 13 had fired that specific torpedo at a British warship on 6 March — ten days before Tubantia was sunk — which would have been under her previous commander , Kapitänleutnant Neumann . The U.S. Minister to the Netherlands , Henry van Dyke , writing in Fighting for Peace in 1917 , called this explanation " amazing " and derided it :

This certain U @-@ boat had fired this particular torpedo at a British war @-@ vessel somewhere in the North Sea ten days before the Tubantia was sunk . The shot missed its mark . But the naughty undisciplined little torpedo went cruising around in the sea on its own hook for ten days waiting for a chance to kill somebody . Then the Tubantia came along and the wandering @-@ Willy torpedo promptly , obstinately , ran into the ship and sank her . This was the explanation . Germany was not to blame .

The Dutch public was furious at what they believed a hostile German act , which caused German diplomats to spread rumors of an impending British invasion of the Netherlands to divert the unwanted attention .

Amidst all of the denials and diplomatic wrangling over Tubantia 's sinking , UB @-@ 13 continued to sink ships . On 31 March , off Lowestoft , Metz and UB @-@ 13 sank the Norwegian steamer Memento . The 1 @,@ 076 GRT ship was carrying a load of coke destined for Porsgrunn when she went down with one crewman . Twelve days later , in the Kentish Knock area , UB @-@ 13 sank the Danish ship Proeven . The 276 @-@ ton sailing vessel was the last ship sunk by UB @-@ 13 .

= = Sinking = =

On the evening of 23 April 1916 , UB @-@ 13 departed Zeebrugge for a patrol off the mouth of the Thames and was never heard from again . Author Dwight Messimer , in his book Verschollen : World War I U @-@ boat Losses , reports that the British had deployed a new explosive anti @-@ submarine net at position 51 ° 33 ′ N 2 ° 45 ′ E in the early morning hours of 24 April . He suggests that it was possible UB @-@ 13 had set off some of the contact mines on the net , or possible that the submarine had struck a mine in one of the many British minefields off the Flemish coast . However , according to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , in their book The German Submarine War , 1914 – 1918 , UB @-@ 13 fouled the anchor cable of the British naval drifter Gleaner of the Sea on 24 April , and was depth charged by E.E.S .. Then for good measure , the British destroyer Afridi deployed explosive sweeps against the submarine . Whatever the specific cause of her demise , all seventeen crewmen on board the submarine were killed .

= = Summary of raiding history = =

= I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas =

I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas is a live CD / DVD by American R & B recording artist , Beyoncé . It was filmed at the Encore Theater , Las Vegas by Ed Burke , on August 2 , 2009 , during a stint of Beyoncé 's worldwide I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) . It features performances of over 30 songs , including her solo material , her recordings with the girl group Destiny 's Child as well as behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . The album was made available in DVD and 2 CD / DVD deluxe format on November 23 , 2009 , and in Blu @-@ ray format on December 15 , 2009 . It was directed by Nick Wickham and produced by Emer Patten .

Footage from the DVD titled Beyoncé – I Am ... Yours , aired on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on November 26 , 2009 . The special featured behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Beyoncé 's I Am ... Tour and it was watched by over 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . The album was also promoted by being broadcast on Channel 4 in the UK and re @-@ released in the form of a live instrumentals album . Upon its release , I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas received positive reviews from music critics , who generally praised the acoustic live performances of the songs . Beyoncé 's vocals , the intimate performances , and the narrating story of the album were also complimented . The live version of " Halo " ( 2009 ) , which is featured on the album , was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Grammy Awards .

The album stayed at the top of the US Billboard Top Music Video chart for eight weeks , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies . It became Beyoncé 's second number one DVD in the US and it has spent fifty two weeks on the Top Music Video chart . The album was also successful on the DVD and albums charts across the world and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for selling over 15 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Background and synopsis = =

On August 2 , 2009 , Beyoncé had a revue titled I Am ... Yours at the Encore Theater , in Wynn Las Vegas during a stint on her worldwide I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) . Her performance was backed by her all @-@ female band , Suga Mama , and an orchestra . The show was choreographed by Beyoncé and Frank Gatson Jr . Regarding her I Am ... Yours revue , Beyoncé said , " I 've always wanted to perform in Las Vegas , I 've always wanted to do my own show there , because a lot of the icons that I look up to had amazing shows in Las Vegas . I thought if I 'm going to have my own Las Vegas show , it has to be right and it has to have heart and soul and it has to be something memorable ... My whole objective here is for people to see what they don 't get to see . Just give me my band , give me a stage , some cool smoke and lights and you see the sweat , you see the pain , you see the love , you see the soul and it 's about music . "

The show begins with a narrator introducing Beyoncé to the audience . She appears from the back of the theater performing " Hello " . She greets the audience and makes her way towards the stage as she continues to perform . At the stage , Beyoncé sings " Halo " . Next , she performs " Irreplaceable " and interacts with the audience . She later moves into an acoustic medley , performing a down @-@ tempo version of " Sweet Dreams " , " Dangerously in Love 2 " and " Sweet Love " ( originally recorded by Anita Baker ) . The medley leads into " If I Were a Boy " ( which contains excerpts from " You Oughta Know " ) and " Scared of Lonely " . The show continues with a performance of " That 's Why You 're Beautiful " , intertwined with excerpts from " The Beautiful Ones " ( originally recorded by Prince ) , " Satellites " , and " Resentment " . The first act concludes with Beyoncé performing a jazz @-@ fused " Déjà Vu " . Before the next act begins , three dancers appear and perform a tap sequence called " Bebop " .

Beyoncé begins the second act by telling the story of her career , starting from when she was nine years old to her then @-@ latest album I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . Beyoncé highlights one of the very first songs she remembers learning was Michael Jackson 's " I Wanna Be Where You Are " . She continues with a medley of Destiny 's Child 's hits songs , including " No No No " , " Bug a Boo " , " Bills , Bills , Bills " , and " Say My Name " whilst in between the songs , she talks about the story behind them . The medley leads into " Work It Out " and " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde , as she begins to talk about the start her solo career . As the set continues , Beyoncé explains how her record company felt her debut album did not have " one " hit song . She sarcastically remarks , " I guess they were kinda right ... I had five . " Beyoncé goes on to perform " Crazy in Love " ( reminiscent of " Proud Mary " by Tina Turner ) , " Naughty Girl " and " Get Me Bodied " . As the show draws to a close , Beyoncé performs " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ; she then exits the stage after thanking the audience for their presence .

= = Development = =

After Beyoncé finished her I Am ... Yours revue , several publications reported that a live album containing the performance of the revue would be released . In early November 2009 , it was announced that she would be releasing a concert performance DVD and live CD titled I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas . The DVD features performances from the I Am ... Yours revue containing performances of over 30 songs , including Beyoncé 's solo material as well as her recordings with the girl group Destiny 's Child . Exclusive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage was also placed on the album ; part of which was later added on Beyoncé 's 2011 video album Live at Roseland : Elements of 4 . According to Music World Entertainment president and CEO , Mathew Knowles , the decision to release I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas was prompted by the way the music was presented in the digital world and because " the live experience is becoming more important " . He added that the live performances show the ability of the artists to entertain live , something that , according to him , " Beyoncé has proven [ ... ] time after time " . The album was directed by Nick Wickham and produced by Emer Patten . It was filmed by Ed Burke and executively produced by Beyoncé , Mathew Knowles and Sheira Rees @-@ Davies .

= = Release and promotion = =

The album was available in DVD and a 2 CD / DVD deluxe edition on November 23 , 2009 , and in Blu @-@ ray format on December 15 , 2009 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray editions feature the entire concert ( split into three parts ) , as well as over 23 minutes of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage , while the two CDs include only the audio from the main performances . On November 26 , 2009 , ABC Network aired a one @-@ hour television special called Beyoncé – I Am ... Yours at 9 : 00 PM / EST . A one @-@ minute trailer of the special was posted online on November 12 , 2009 ; it showed Beyoncé during her I Am ... Tour , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage including rehearsals , as well as personal videos . According to USA Today , the special was watched by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . Entertainment Weekly 's Brad Wete commented that she " danced her tail off " during the special . John Griffiths of Us Weekly reviewed the special positively , calling it " shimmery ... mostly culled from her lavish concert " . He added that she further " dishes about her career , shows off her childhood home videos , belts out her hits and more . " The show was broadcast on Channel 4 in the UK on December 25 , 2009 . A live instrumentals album of the songs performed on the revue was released at Amazon.com and the iTunes Store on September 28 , 2010 . Several videos of the live performances of " Halo " , " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " and " Scared of Lonely " were released in MTV Latin America . These videos were used to promote the album in Latin America as well as the television special titled " MTV World Stage : Beyoncé Live from Las Vegas " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

Tanya Remekie of Rap @-@ Up felt that the album contains a " show @-@ stopping event as Sasha Fierce and Bey [ oncé ] come out to play " . She finished her review by writing that the " Broadway @-@ fashioned narration of her life story , told through song and dance .. shares her magical story . " During a review of the album , the writers of People magazine rated it with three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars and wrote that it " offers nicely subdued versions of her hits " , further describing the show as a " magic " . Another writer of the same publication praised the album , writing that " You 'll get to know Beyoncé like never before " . Similarly , a writer of Eye Weekly called the album " extraordinary " , before adding that it is " the chance to experience her ( Beyoncé ) up close and personal " . A writer of Us Weekly said that to see Beyoncé 's " fiereceness " , people should listen to her album I Am ... Sasha Fierce or buy the DVD I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas to see the live experience . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman awarded I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas a rating of four out of five stars , describing it as a " theatrical production worthy of Vegas , with Beyoncé and her large backing band energetically rolling [ through Beyoncé 's songs ] " . He noted that " what makes I Am ... Yours stand apart from a typical live @-@ album cash @-@ in is the mostly unexpected covers that are weaved into the set . " Kellman finished his review by writing , " As live albums go , this is not quite destined to be one of those all @-@ time classics ; a couple missing songs and a little too much talk aside , however , the fans couldn ’ t ask for more . "

Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic praised the intimacy of the concert and the acoustic versions of the songs . A writer of The Boston Globe also gave I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas a positive review , comparing it with Sin City . He commended the jazz interlude , the acoustic rearrangements of the songs , and the " charming B [ eyoncé ] telling her life story in [ the ] song [ s ] " . Darryl Sterdan of the website Jam ! also compared the album with Sin City and commented : " Only Beyoncé would think an ' intimate ' theatre gig should include her massive all @-@ girl band , an orchestra , lasers , dancers , costume changes and a wind machine to keep her hair blowing majestically . And only Beyoncé could pull it all together as superbly as she does in this 98 @-@ minute ... show " . Grading I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas with an A- and calling it the " best live concert film of the year " , David Burger of The Salt Lake Tribune concluded , " Instead of a traditional retread of her hits , she narrates and emotionally sings her way through a souful musical journey that takes her from her first audition song to the mega @-@ hits she unleashed this past year ... This is a thrilling tour de force . "

Likewise , Mike Diver of BBC Online reviewed the album positively , praising the narrating story of the performances , calling it " polished , [ and ] professional " . Diver further noted that Beyoncé 's vocals " peak and dip , tremble and roar , mercifully without ever hitting Mariah Carey levels of skull @-@ rattling intensity " . He added that the album would look predictable because it was an " entirely second @-@ guessable affair with each movement telegraphed and every realigned arrangement ( bombast turned down , jazz and funk switched up ) meeting the listener 's expectations head on " . The Huffington Post 's Mike Ragogna compared Beyoncé with Diana Ross during the concert , adding , " Beyoncé 's I Am ... Yours is a satisfying decade @-@ and @-@ then @-@ some retrospective that reveals the artist 's interesting back story with a personal warmth " . Nate Chinen of The New York Times noted that the album documents a smaller show than the other ones Beyoncé usually makes . He further stated , " But the stagecraft — wind machines , lasers , arena lighting — keeps a viewer at a worshipful remove ... Of course Beyoncé has always fared better with declaration than with disclosure , framing her sentiments as actions . Still , the old @-@ fashioned extravagance of this production ... feels like some kind of honesty : it 's a sincere gesture from a show @-@ business savant . "

= = = Recognition = = =

Before the release of I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas , Rap @-@ Up listed it as one of the " most notable releases " for the fall of 2009 . Likewise , MTV News placed the album on its list of " Holiday Album Preview " . USA Today 's Mike Snider also mentioned it on his list of " Music @-@ video DVDs that make worthy gifts this season " comparing its acoustic style to the VH1 Storytellers series . Jay Lustig of New Jersey On @-@ Line listed I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas in two of his lists of most notable albums in the fourth quarter of 2009 . Mark Edward Nero of the website About.com put it in his list of " 2009 Holiday Gift Guide for R & B Fans " . The live performance of " Halo " ( 2009 ) , which is featured on the album , was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Grammy Awards . The live recording charted at number fifty @-@ eight on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . On The Village Voice 's 2009 Pazz & Jop albums list , the DVD was ranked at number 1 @,@ 643 .

= = Chart performance = =

I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas debuted at number one on the US Billboard Top Music Video chart , becoming Beyoncé 's second number @-@ one DVD in that country . The following week , it fell to number two , but later rebounded to the top where it stayed for the next seven consecutive weeks . It spent ten weeks inside the top five – eight of them at the top . In 2009 , the album sold 99 @,@ 000 copies in the US , making it the sixth best @-@ selling music DVD of the year . As of December 29 , 2010 it had sold 162 @,@ 000 units in the US , and ranked at number fifteen on the DVD year @-@ end chart of 2010 . It additionally became the best @-@ selling music video of 2010 in the US . It was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping over 200 @,@ 000 copies . I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas spent a total of fifty two weeks on the chart .

Outside the US , I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas peaked at number eleven on the Australian DVD Chart and on the Australian Urban Albums Chart . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting sales of over 15 @,@ 000 copies . It became the forty @-@ fourth best @-@ selling DVD of 2010 in Australia . On the New Zealand Music DVD Chart , the album peaked at number six . I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas debuted at number twenty four on the UK R & B Albums Chart on December 19 , 2009 . The next week it fell at number thirty one , and it was last seen in the top forty of the chart on January 2 , 2010 , at number thirty three .

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits and personnel adapted from Allmusic and album 's liner notes .

= = Release history = =

= 2012 ( film ) =

2012 is a 2009 American science fiction disaster film directed by Roland Emmerich . It stars John Cusack , Chiwetel Ejiofor , Amanda Peet , Oliver Platt , Thandie Newton , Danny Glover , and Woody Harrelson . The film was produced by Centropolis Entertainment and distributed by Columbia Pictures . Filming began in August 2008 in Vancouver , although it was originally planned to be filmed in Los Angeles . The plot follows novelist Jackson Curtis as he attempts to bring his family to refuge , amidst the events of a geological and meteorological super @-@ disaster . The film includes references to Mayanism , the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar , and the 2012 phenomenon in its portrayal of cataclysmic events unfolding in the year 2012 .

After a prolonged marketing campaign comprising the creation of a website from the point of view of the main character , and a viral marketing website on which filmgoers could register for a lottery number to save them from the ensuing disaster , the film was released internationally on November 13 , 2009 . Critics gave 2012 mostly mixed reviews , praising its special effects and dark tone compared to Emmerich 's other work , but criticizing its screenplay and 158 @-@ minute length . However , it was a huge commercial success , and one of the highest @-@ grossing films of 2009 .

= = Plot = =

In 2009 , American geologist Adrian Helmsley visits astrophysicist Satnam Tsurutani in India and learns that neutrinos from a massive solar flare are heating the Earth 's core . In Washington , D.C , Helmsley presents his information to White House Chief of Staff Carl Anheuser , who takes him to meet the President .

In 2010 , U.S. President Thomas Wilson and other international leaders begin a secret project to ensure humanity 's survival . The G8 nations , plus China , start building nine enormous arks , capable of carrying 100 @,@ 000 people each , near Cho Ming , Tibet , in the Himalayas . A Buddhist monk named Nima is evacuated while his brother Tenzin joins the Ark project . Funding is raised by selling tickets for € 1 billion per person . By 2011 , valuable items are moved to the arks with the help of art expert and First Daughter Dr. Laura Wilson .

In 2012 , struggling science fiction writer Jackson Curtis is a chauffeur in Los Angeles for Russian billionaire Yuri Karpov . Jackson 's former wife Kate , and their children Noah and Lilly , live with Kate 's boyfriend , plastic surgeon Gordon Silberman . Jackson takes Noah and Lilly camping in Yellowstone National Park . When they find an area fenced off by the U.S. Army , Jackson takes his kids over the fence . They are caught and taken to see Adrian , who recognizes Jackson from his works , all of which he has read . Released from military custody , they meet Charlie Frost , who hosts a radio show from the park .

That night , after the military evacuates from Yellowstone , Jackson watches Charlie 's video of Charles Hapgood 's theory that polar shifts and the Mesoamerican Long Count Calendar predict that the 2012 phenomenon will occur . Charlie tells Jackson that anyone who plotted to inform the public was killed . Shortly after Jackson and the kids return home , earthquakes begin devastating California ; Jackson heeds Charlie 's warning and rents a private plane . He rescues his family as the Earth crust displacement begins and escape Los Angeles with the plane as the entire state of California sinks into the Pacific Ocean .

The group flies to Yellowstone to retrieve a map from Charlie displaying the location of the arks . They escape as the Yellowstone Caldera erupts spectacularly ; Charlie stays behind to broadcast the eruption and is killed . The group later lands in Las Vegas to find a larger plane ; they meet Yuri , his twin sons , Alec and Oleg , girlfriend Tamara and pilot Sasha . Sasha and Gordon fly them out in an available Antonov An @-@ 500 aircraft as the Yellowstone ash cloud destroys Las Vegas .

Helmsley , Anheuser and Laura Wilson are flying to the Arks aboard Air Force One . Knowing that his daughter would survive , President Wilson martyrs himself by remaining in the capital to address the nation one last time as billions being killed by devastating earthquakes and megatsunamis worldwide . With the entire presidential line of succession gone , Anheuser assumes the post of acting commander @-@ in @-@ chief , despite not being a part of it .

When the group reaches China , the plane runs out of fuel . Sasha continues flying the plane as the others escape using a Bentley Continental Flying Spur stored in the cargo hold . Sasha is killed when the plane crashes ; the others are spotted by helicopters from the Chinese army . Yuri and his sons , possessing tickets , are taken to the Arks , leaving the Curtis family , Tamara and Gordon behind . The remaining group are picked up by Nima and taken to the Arks with his grandparents . With the help of Tenzin , they stow away on Ark 4 , where the United States contingent is aboard . As a megatsunami topples over the Himalayas and approaches the site , an impact driver becomes lodged in the gears of the Ark 's doors , preventing a boarding gate from closing , which in turn prevents the ship from starting its engines . In the ensuing chaos , Yuri , Tamara and Gordon are killed . Tenzin is injured while Ark 4 begins filling with water and is set adrift . Jackson and Noah dislodge the impact driver , and the crew regains control of the Ark before it smashes into Mount Everest . Jackson reunites with his family , and he and Kate reconcile .

Twenty @-@ seven days later as waters recede ; the three arks approach the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa where the Drakensberg mountain range has emerged , now the " Tallest Mountain Range on Earth " . Adrian starts a relationship with Laura while Jackson and Kate rekindle their relationship .

= = = Alternate ending = = =

An alternate ending is featured on the DVD release of the film . After Captain Michaels , the captain of Ark 4 , announces that they are heading to the Cape of Good Hope , he tells Adrian that he has a phone call waiting for him . Adrian discovers that his father Harry is still alive . Harry tells his son that he , Tony ( whose arm is in a sling ) , and some of the passengers and crew survived the megatsunami that struck the Genesis . Captain Michaels states that they should have a visual on the ocean @-@ liner shortly . After Kate thanks Laura for taking care of Lily , Laura tells Jackson that she liked his book . Jackson then gives Noah his cell phone back which he recovered during Ark 4 's flooding . Lily then announces that she sees an island . The Arks arrive at the shipwrecked Genesis and the survivors on the beach .

= = Cast = =

= = Production = =

The credits cite the bestselling book Fingerprints of the Gods by author Graham Hancock as inspiration for the film , and in an interview with the London magazine Time Out , Emmerich states : " I always wanted to do a biblical flood movie , but I never felt I had the hook . I first read about the Earth 's Crust Displacement Theory in Graham Hancock 's Fingerprints of the Gods . "

Director Emmerich and composer @-@ producer Harald Kloser had an extremely close relationship and also co @-@ wrote a spec script entitled 2012 , which was marketed to major studios in February 2008 . Nearly all studios met with Emmerich and his representatives to hear the director 's budget projection and story plans , a process that the director had previously gone through with the films Independence Day ( 1996 ) and The Day After Tomorrow ( 2004 ) . Later that month , Sony Pictures Entertainment won the rights for the spec script , planning to distribute it under Columbia Pictures and was produced for less than budgeted . According to Emmerich , the film was eventually produced for about $ 200 million .

Filming was originally scheduled to begin in Los Angeles , California , in July 2008 but instead commenced in Kamloops , Savona , Cache Creek and Ashcroft in British Columbia , Canada . Due to the possible 2008 Screen Actors Guild strike , filmmakers set up a contingency plan for salvaging the film . Uncharted Territory , Digital Domain , Double Negative , Scanline , Sony Pictures Imageworks and others were hired to create computer animated visual effects for 2012 .

Although the film depicts the destruction of several major cultural and historical icons around the world , Emmerich stated that the Kaaba was also considered for selection . Kloser opposed the idea out of fear that a fatwā might be issued against him .

= = = Marketing = = =

The film was promoted in a marketing campaign by a fictional organization , the " Institute for Human Continuity " ; this entailed a fictitious book written by Jackson Curtis entitled Farewell Atlantis , and streaming media , blog updates and radio broadcasts from the apocalyptic zealot Charlie Frost on his website This Is The End .

On November 12 , 2008 , the new studio released the first teaser trailer for 2012 that showed a tsunami surging over the Himalayas and interlaced a purportedly scientific message suggesting that the world would end in 2012 , and that the world 's governments were not preparing its population for the event . The trailer ended with a message to viewers to " find out the truth " by searching " 2012 " on search engines . The Guardian criticized the marketing effectiveness as " deeply flawed " and associated it with " websites that make even more spurious claims about 2012 " .

The studio also launched a viral marketing website operated by the fictional Institute for Human Continuity , where filmgoers could register for a lottery number to be part of a small population that would be rescued from the global destruction . David Morrison of NASA received over 1000 inquiries from people who thought the website was genuine , and condemned it . " I 've even had cases of teenagers writing to me saying they are contemplating suicide because they don 't want to see the world end , " he said . " I think when you lie on the internet and scare children to make a buck , that is ethically wrong . " Another viral marketing website promotes Farewell Atlantis , a fictional suspense novel about the events of 2012 .

Comcast had also organized a " roadblock campaign " to promote the film , where a two @-@ minute scene from the film was broadcast across 450 American commercial television networks , local English @-@ language and Spanish @-@ language stations , and 89 cable outlets within a ten @-@ minute window between 10 : 50 PM EDT / PDT and 11 : 00 PM EDT / PDT on October 1 , 2015 . The scene featured the destruction of Los Angeles and ended with a cliffhanger , with the entire 5 @-@ minute @-@ 38 @-@ second clip made available on Comcast 's Fancast web site . The trade newspaper Variety estimated that , " The stunt will put the footage in front of 90 % of all households watching ad @-@ supported TV , or nearly 110 million viewers . When combined with online and mobile streams , that could increase to more than 140 million " .

= = Soundtrack = =

The original score for the film was composed by Harald Kloser and Thomas Wander . Singer Adam Lambert contributed a song for the film titled " Time for Miracles " and expressed his gratitude for the opportunity in an interview with MTV .

The film 's soundtrack consists of 24 tracks , and it includes the songs " Fades Like a Photograph " by Filter and " It Ain 't the End of the World " , performed by George Segal and Blu Mankuma , which were featured in the film . The trailer music was Master of Shadows by Two Steps From Hell .

= = Release = =

2012 was released on November 13 , 2009 .

According to the studio , the film could have been completed for the summer release date , but the date change would give more time to the production . The film was released on November 13 , 2009 in Sweden , Canada , Denmark , Mexico , India and the United States , and was released on November 13 , 2009 in Japan .

The DVD and Blu @-@ ray for 2012 was released on March 2 , 2010 . The 2 @-@ Disc Blu @-@ ray Edition includes over 90 minutes of special features , including Adam Lambert 's music video " Time for Miracles " , and a Digital Copy for PSP , PC , Mac & iPod . The European release date of 2012 on DVD was March 2 , 2010 ; it includes the same special features as the North American version .

A limited 3D version was re @-@ released exclusively in select Cinemex theaters in Mexico in February 2010 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Box office = = =

2012 earned $ 166 @,@ 112 @,@ 167 in North America and $ 603 @,@ 567 @,@ 306 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 769 @,@ 679 @,@ 473 . Worldwide , it is the fifth highest @-@ grossing 2009 film and the fifth highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Sony / Columbia , behind Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy and Skyfall . It is also the second highest @-@ grossing film directed by Roland Emmerich , behind Independence Day ( 1996 ) . On its worldwide opening weekend , it made $ 230 @.@ 5 million , marking the fourth @-@ largest opening both of 2009 and for Sony / Columbia .

In North America , it grossed $ 65 @,@ 237 @,@ 614 on its first weekend , ranking number one . Its opening is the fourth largest for a disaster film . The film grossed $ 166 @,@ 112 @,@ 167 in total .

Outside North America , it is the 28th highest @-@ grossing film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing 2015 film , and the second highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Sony / Columbia , after Skyfall . It earned $ 165 @.@ 2 million on its opening weekend , which ranks as the 14th largest opening . Its largest opening was recorded in France and the Maghreb region ( $ 18 @.@ 0 million ) . In total earnings , its three highest @-@ grossing territories after North America are France and the Maghreb region ( $ 44 @.@ 0 million ) , Japan ( $ 42 @.@ 6 million ) , and Germany ( $ 37 @.@ 7 million ) .

= = = Critical response = = =

Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes shows that only 39 % of 238 critics gave the film a positive review , with a rating average of 5 out of 10 . The site 's consensus is that " Roland Emmerich 's 2012 provides plenty of visual thrills , but lacks a strong enough script to support its massive scope and inflated length . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 1 – 100 reviews from film critics , gave the film a 49 rating score based on 34 reviews .

Roger Ebert was enthusiastic about the film , giving it 3 ½ stars out of 4 , saying it " delivers what it promises , and since no sentient being will buy a ticket expecting anything else , it will be , for its audiences , one of the most satisfactory films of the year " . Both Ebert and Claudia Puig of USA Today called the film the " mother of all disaster movies " . In contrast , Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film a negative review and compared it to Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen : " Beware 2012 , which works the dubious miracle of almost matching Transformers 2 for sheer , cynical , mind @-@ numbing , time @-@ wasting , money @-@ draining , soul @-@ sucking stupidity . "

= = = Accolades = = =

= = = North Korean ban = = =

North Korea had reportedly banned possession or viewing of the film . The year 2012 was the 100th anniversary of the birth of the nation 's founder , Kim Il @-@ sung , and has been designated by the North Korean government as " the year for opening the grand gates to becoming a rising superpower " . Thus a movie depicting the year in a negative light was found to be offensive by the North Korean government . Several people in North Korea had reportedly been arrested for possessing or viewing imported copies of the movie and charged with " grave provocation against the development of the state . "

= = Canceled television spin @-@ off = =

In 2010 , Entertainment Weekly announced that there had been a plan for a spin @-@ off television series entitled 2013 that would have served as a follow @-@ up to the film . Executive producer of 2012 Mark Gordon told EW that " ABC will have an opening in their disaster @-@ related programming after Lost ends , so people would be interested in this topic on a weekly basis . There 's hope for the world despite the magnitude of the 2012 disaster as seen in the film . After the movie , there are some people who survive , and the question is how will these survivors build a new world and what will it look like . That might make an interesting TV series . " However , plans were later scrapped due to future budget concerns . This would have been Emmerich 's third film to get a spinoff , the first being Stargate ( with its TV series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , Stargate Infinity , Stargate Atlantis , Stargate Universe ) , and the second being Godzilla ( with its cartoon sequel Godzilla : The Series ) .

= New York State Route 306 =

New York State Route 306 ( NY 306 ) is a north – south state highway in western Rockland County , New York , in the United States . NY 306 runs from NY 59 in the hamlet of Monsey to U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) in Ladentown , on the western boundary of the village of Pomona . The road is currently 5 @.@ 33 miles ( 8 @.@ 58 km ) long ; however , it originally extended south to the New Jersey state line and north to Willow Grove Road ( former NY 210 ) when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .

= = Route description = =

NY 306 begins at NY 59 in the Ramapo hamlet of Monsey and proceeds north as Main Street through part of the business district of Monsey . After passing Maple Avenue in the Jewish village of Kaser , NY 306 becomes Monsey – Ladentown Road for the rest of its run . NY 306 quickly leaves the small village and reenters the town of Ramapo .

Roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Kaser , NY 306 intersects County Route 74 ( CR 74 ) . Ramapo High School is located just east of NY 306 on CR 74 . NY 306 then passes a fairly large cemetery called Church of the West Hempstead Cemetery . NY 306 continues north past CR 80 , and enters the village of Wesley Hills . There it passes a small shopping center , and proceeds into residential areas . Finally , NY 306 enters Pomona at CR 86 . The route ends shortly afterward at US 202 .

= = History = =

When NY 306 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it extended from the New Jersey state line in the south to Willow Grove Road ( then part of NY 210 ) in the north via East Saddle River Road , Monsey – Ladentown Road , and Call Hollow Road . NY 306 was truncated to its current northern terminus at US 202 in Ramapo ( now part of the village of Pomona ) c . 1939 and to its modern southern end at NY 59 in Monsey c . 1962 . The former extensions of NY 306 are now largely maintained by Rockland County as CR 73 ( East Saddle River Road ) and CR 75 ( Call Hollow Road north of the Ramapo town line ) . The current southern terminus of NY 306 in Monsey was the proposed southwestern terminus of the Spring Valley Bypass , a bypass of NY 45 and NY 59 that was never built .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in Rockland County .

= Coming Home ( Diddy – Dirty Money song ) =

" Coming Home " is a song by American rapper and producer Diddy and his band Dirty Money , from their debut album Last Train to Paris ( 2010 ) . It was released on November 21 , 2010 , as the album 's fourth single . The contemporary hip @-@ hop pop song was written by Jermaine Cole , Diddy , Jay @-@ Z , Alex da Kid and Skylar Grey . Kid and Jay @-@ Z produced the song while Grey featured vocals on the song 's chorus . Jay @-@ Z and Kid gifted the song to Diddy for Last Train to Paris . Autobiographically written , " Coming Home " is inspired by moments in Diddy 's life , the loss of his close friend , The Notorious B.I.G and references to classic songs by Dionne Warwick , McFadden & Whitehead and Smokey Robinson & the Miracles .

Critics praised the redemptive ballad for the personal themes and lyrics which were a snapshot of Diddy 's life . Praise was also given for Grey 's soft vocals which complemented the warmth of the song . An accompanying music video , directed by Rich Lee , follows the trio wandering through the desert in search of home only to find burned belongings and the shell of a home . Singled out as one of the album 's highlights , " Coming Home " was promoted with live TV performances including at the American Music Awards on November 21 , 2010 , the WWE Tribute to the Troops concert , and the March 10 , 2011 episode of American Idol which marked the first live performance of the song featuring Skylar Grey .

To date , " Coming Home " is Diddy @-@ Dirty Money 's most successful single and the highest charting single from Last Train to Paris . Aside from amassing one million digital sales , it peaked at number eleven on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and number nine in Canada . Internationally , the single topped both Belgium Ultratip charts and the Swiss Singles Chart , as well as reaching top five in the UK . This comes in addition to breaking onto the A @-@ playlists on British urban music radio and mainstream radio , and topping the UK R & B Singles chart for three consecutive weeks .

= = Inspiration and composition = =

" Coming Home " is a downtempo hip @-@ hop and pop song , that opens with a " simple piano intro " and a " delicate vocal verse from Skylar Grey " . It was written by Diddy , Skylar Grey , Jay @-@ Z , J.Cole , and Alex " da Kid " Grant , and produced by Jay @-@ Z and Grant . When speaking to Kid about what he wanted , Diddy said , " I want a beat that makes me feel like a white man in a basement in Atlanta " . Diddy later called " Coming Home " a gift from Jay @-@ Z and Kid . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , by EMI Music Publishing , the song was written in the key of D major with a time signature of common time and a tempo of 69 beats per minute . It follows the basic chord progression of G – D – Bm – F ♯ m . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV noted that the concept and theme of the song were similar to events in Diddy 's life , " referencing mistakes he has made in the past and that he wants to put behind him . " Rodriguez also noted the song 's tribute to The Notorious B.I.G , in the line " I miss you , B.I.G. " The chorus features vocals from the group 's female members , Kalenna Harper and Dawn Richards , as well as background vocals from fellow Bad Boy Records recording artist Cassie . The trio use a vocal range of A3 – A4 . Grey also sings some of the vocals , predominately during the song 's opening chorus .

Rap @-@ Up magazine reflected on the lyrics of the song , calling them a personal reflection of Diddy 's life and career thanks to lines like " What am I ‘ posed to do when the club lights come on / It ’ s easy to be Puff , but it ’ s harder to be Sean / What if my twins ask why I ain ’ t married their mom ? " Scott Schetler from AOL Radio Blog noted how Diddy referenced a different popular song in each verse . Lamb particularly noted the strong autobiographical lyrics , and the references to the 1979 hit song " Ain 't No Stoppin ' Us Now " by McFadden & Whitehead . Other songs referenced include Dionne Warwick 's " A House Is Not a Home " ( 1964 ) and Smokey Robinson & the Miracles ' " The Tears of a Clown " ( 1970 ) . Rodriguez said " Diddy do [ es ] some soul @-@ searching in his rhymes as the chorus echoes his need for salvation . "

Lamb compared the song to Diddy 's early releases , saying that " ' Coming Home ' [ welcomes ] Diddy back to the upper ranks of pop @-@ oriented hip hop artists " . Additionally , Diddy told MTV that although the track had autobiographical elements , it was part of the album 's " conceptual love story narrated by his character " . When asked by Live Lounge 's Trevor Nelson what " Coming Home " was based on , Diddy said :

" Coming Home " goes to everybody out there who 's going through a struggle or obstacle . I 've been lost in life , I 'm still lost in life in these sense of trying to find your way back to that person who your grandmother or father wanted you to be . Sometimes you get lost through drug addiction or you break up with up your partner or remission from cancer etc. you struggle to find your way back to yourself . That 's what " Coming Home " is about .

= = Critical reception = =

Upon release , " Coming Home " was generally met with a positive reception from music critics , who praised the autobiographical lyrics and composition of Skylar Grey 's vocals with the Alex da Kid and Jay @-@ Z production . Becky Bain of Idolator wrote , " We have to give some credit to Diddy ( or Jay @-@ Z , if he did indeed write [ the lyrics ] ) for dropping some truly introspective lyrics instead of the usual not @-@ so @-@ subtle Cîroc vodka promotions . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly agreed , and noted " Coming Home " as one of Last Train to Paris ' highlights , saying it was a " must download " as the album 's only " redemptive ballad " . Jim Farber of the New York Daily News also noted the song 's redemptive themes . He said ' Coming Home ' is the " only song which breaks the flow " of Last Train to Paris , " Diddy confesses to everything from bad parenting to fear of commitment . It 's an interesting moment but an unnecessary one . " Meanwhile , About.com 's Bill Lamb awarded the song four out of five stars , calling it the first " pop hit single " in a long time " [ which ] matches the size of his public persona " . He praised the " beautifully sung chorus by Skylar Grey " and Diddy 's deep " autobiographical lyrics " . Lamb noted that the song " didn 't have the same intensity of emotional impact " other Alex da Kid productions ( Eminem 's " Love the Way You Lie " ) but it did " deliver a warmth and sense of hope that is a good match with the current holiday season . " A reviewer from Sound Savvy said " The latest single ' Coming Home ' is another example of some of the great work found on the album . ... it ’ s a heartfelt anthem of triumph and survival – somber but not depressing . "

= = Chart performance = =

" Coming Home " premiered on October 31 , 2010 , just prior to the fourth game of the Baseball World Series . It made its U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart debut at number sixty @-@ one on December 11 , 2010 , three weeks after its release . In its third week on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , the single experienced a 92 % increase in sales , which amounted to 65 @,@ 000 copies . As a result , the song vaulted from number forty @-@ four to number seventeen on the Digital Songs chart causing the single to move from number fifty @-@ one to twenty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart , number nine on the U.S. Pop Songs , number seven on the Canadian Hot 100 chart , and number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also peaked at number fifteen on the Radio Songs . Consequently , " Coming Home " outperformed all of the group 's previous singles on the Hot 100 and Digital Songs charts . Additionally , " Coming Home " also peaked higher than two of the three songs mentioned in the lyrics . " Ain 't No Stoppin ' Us Now " by McFadden & Whitehead reached number thirteen , while Dionne Warwick 's " A House Is Not a Home " only reached number seventy @-@ nine . The song experience some crossover success , including on the Rap Songs chart where it reached number twenty @-@ one . By the end of January 2011 , " Coming Home " had sold one million digital copies in the United States . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 19 and 2 × platinum on May 17 , 2011 .

Internationally , the single got off to a strong start in Belgium , debuting on both the Flanders Tip and Wallonia Tip charts at number twenty @-@ six . " Coming Home " would later top both Tip charts , before impacting on the main Ultratop charts . On the Flanders Ultratop Singles chart , the song peaked at number seventeen , while on the Wallonia chart it peaked at number twenty @-@ seven . " Coming Home " debuted in Switzerland at number forty @-@ eight , and dropped seven places to number fifty @-@ five in its second week . In its third week , the single rose fifteen places to number forty , and then continued to rise , eventually reaching number one on the Swiss Singles Chart . As a result of reaching number one , " Coming Home " is Diddy 's highest charting single in Switzerland in fourteen years ; his last number one in Switzerland was " I 'll Be Missing You " with Faith Evans and 112 in 1997 . " Coming Home " made its Australian Singles Chart debut at number forty @-@ nine and is thus the first single from Diddy @-@ Dirty Money to chart within the top @-@ fifty . It is since peaked at number four , and number two on the Australian Urban Singles Chart . The single had equal success in Germany , peaking at number four for two weeks .

" Coming Home " was also successful in other territories too , also peaking in the top @-@ ten in Austria , France , Ireland , New Zealand and Poland . On December 15 , 2010 the single was added to the playlists on British mainstream radio and a week later to the playlists on British urban music radio . Following its release , " Coming Home " debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Diddy 's most successful single in that country since 2006 's " Come to Me " with Nicole Scherzinger . Additionally the single topped the UK R & B Chart and as a consequence , " Coming Home " is Diddy @-@ Dirty Money 's most successful single in the United Kingdom . In its second week , the single held on to its position of number four on the singles chart , which came in addition to maintaining its position at the top of the UK R & B Singles chart for three consecutive weeks . According to a press release by Interscope Records , as of March 25 , 2011 , " Coming Home " has sold 1 @.@ 8 million digital downloads worldwide .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

The accompanying music video made its worldwide premiere through E ! Online on November 29 , 2010 . It was filmed entirely in the Mojave Desert , just outside Palm Springs , CA . The video was the first of three released in the three weeks counting down to the album 's release . Album cuts " Somebody to Love Me " and " Ass on the Floor " ( featuring Swizz Beatz ) received video releases on December 10 and December 13 , respectively . " Coming Home " was directed by Rich Lee and according to Steven Gottlieb , of Video Static , the theme drew comparisons to some of Diddy 's earliest work . " ' Coming Home ' has Diddy choppering onto a dry lake bed which is dotted by the charred remains of a luxurious lifestyle . "

= = = Synopsis = = =

" Coming Home " starts with scenes of a black helicopter flying over the desert . In some of the shots , Diddy can be seen looking out on to the horizon . As the song progresses into its main verses , the camera follows Diddy walking through the desert . In the background and foreground , the fire @-@ damaged remnants of a home such as a TV set , fur coats and a stereo system are scattered across the landscape . During the chorus Dawn Richard and Kalenna Harper take place in front of the camera , walking behind Diddy miming Grey 's words . Later in the clip , during the second verse , Diddy sits in a burned out building singing to himself . Outside , a burned out vehicle is parked . Then during the song 's bridge , red smoke surrounds Diddy as the helicopter , from the opening scene , comes to land . However , this time Richard and Harper are seated inside waiting for Diddy . As the song fades , the helicopter flies over the desert toward the horizon .

= = = Reception = = =

Staff from E ! Online seemed impressed with the video 's concept and choice of background scenery . They said " what better place for some introspection than the desert , right ? No sexy bikini @-@ clad ladies or blue @-@ haired Nicki Minajs to distract you , and when you 're done , just call up the helicopter to pick you up ( Pro tip : Hang your leg outside of the chopper for extra cool points . ) " . Stephen Gottlieb from Video Static said " It 's a nice bookend with Diddy 's – then Puff Daddy – first solo video , " Can 't Nobody Hold Me Down , " which featured him and Mase introducing an era of big budget hip @-@ hop while driving a Rolls convertible across the desert . " While Ed Easton Jr. from 92 @.@ 3 Now FM drew comparisons to Diddy 's earlier video for his 1997 hit single " Been Around the World " , thus awarding the video six out of ten . However Easton was annoyed with the number of videos being released and said that fans were waiting for the actual album to be released .

= = Live performances and usage in media = =

Diddy @-@ Dirty Money performed the song live for the first time at the 2010 American Music Awards on November 21 , 2010 . For the performance the group were joined on stage by a full orchestra , with Diddy dressed in all @-@ black but the other half of the group dressed in white gowns . The group reprised this performance on the December 4 , 2010 airing of Saturday Night Live along with the debut performance of the next scheduled single " Ass On the Floor " . On December 14 , 2010 the group performed " Coming Home " on two separate occasions . First Diddy appeared on daytime chatshow , The View , for an interview and was then joined by Richard and Harper to perform " Coming Home " then later the trio performed on the Late Show with David Letterman . Four days later , the group performed the ballad at the WWE Tribute to the Troops concert . On January 20 , 2011 , The group performed the song live in the United Kingdom , on the Radio 1 Live Lounge . Diddy @-@ Dirty Money then returned to the United States , where they performed " Coming Home " for the first time with Skylar Grey , on season ten of American Idol , on March 10 , 2011 . The song was used as entrance music by UFC Light Heavyweight champion Jon Bones Jones before his successful title defense against Quinton Rampage Jackson . Also , during the pre @-@ game introductions for the New York Knicks ' 2010 @-@ 11 NBA game against the Milwaukee Bucks on February 23 , 2011 ( and home debut of newly acquired Syracuse Orange alumnus Carmelo Anthony ) , the song was used in a pre @-@ game video , welcoming Melo " home " ( he started his NBA career with the Denver Nuggets after leaving the Orange ) to New York . There is also a kid / teen @-@ friendly version of the song performed by the cast of Nickelodeon 's popular TV show iCarly , which can be heard on the show 's second soundtrack , entitled iSoundtrack II . It was the official theme song to WWE 's WrestleMania 29 , and at the event , Sean Combs and Skylar Grey performed it live in front of a sold out venue of 80 @,@ 676 in MetLife Stadium . Though not used as the official theme song , " Coming Home " has been used in almost every advertisement for the ABC drama series Resurrection . On December 4 , 2013 , The Fast and the Furious team released a tribute video to Paul Walker after the actor 's untimely death , which contained excerpts from Coming Home . On December 30 , 2014 newly hired Michigan Wolverines head football coach Jim Harbaugh was introduced to the public during a brief halftime ceremony with the song playing as he walked onto center court . On October 28 , 2014 , an instrumental was a part of the Cleveland Cavaliers pre @-@ game introductions as it was the first game back in Cleveland for LeBron James since 2010 . As Dwyane Wade returned to his hometown of Chicago in 2016 , a video using the song was created to mark the occasion .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

" Coming Home " was recorded at Chalice Recording Studios and End of Era Studios in Los Angeles , California .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = Radio and release history = =

= = = Radio adds = = =

= = = Purchasable release = = =

= Cardiff Blues vs Leicester Tigers ( 2008 – 09 Heineken Cup ) =

The second semi @-@ final of the 2008 – 09 Heineken Cup , the premier European club rugby union competition , saw Cardiff Blues take on Leicester Tigers at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff on 3 May 2009 . The scores were level after regular time and neither team was able to score during extra time , resulting in the first ever penalty shoot @-@ out in a professional rugby match . Both teams missed one of their first five kicks , taking the shoot @-@ out to sudden death . Both teams were successful with their kicks in the first two rounds of sudden death , before Martyn Williams missed Cardiff 's eighth kick allowing Jordan Crane to hit the winner .

In regular time , Cardiff took an early lead with a penalty before Leicester 's Scott Hamilton scored a converted try and they kicked another penalty . Cardiff scored three further penalties to put them back into the lead , before another successful penalty by Leicester gave them a one @-@ point lead going into half @-@ time . Early in the second half , Geordan Murphy scored another try for Leicester , which again was converted and kicked two more penalties to extend their lead to 26 – 12 with 20 minutes remaining . Leicester then had two players sent to the sin bin , and Cardiff scored two tries in the last 10 minutes of regular time , first by Jamie Roberts and then Tom James , with both conversions successful to bring the scores level at 26 – 26 and take the game into extra time .

Following the match , there was criticism of the format used for the penalty shoot @-@ out , specifically the way that the game was decided by kicks at goal attempted by players who wouldn 't ordinarily kick the ball during a rugby match . One journalist commented that was a " ludicrous " way of deciding a game , while another believed it had turned the semi @-@ final into a " pantomime " and was an " unnecessarily demeaning way " of deciding a winner . A review was promised by tournament organisers , and changes were made to the format ahead of the following season 's tournament , though no other Heineken Cup match ever needed to be decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out .

= = Background = =

Cardiff Blues had been the only team to finish the pool stage of the Heineken Cup unbeaten during the 2008 – 09 season , which saw them given top seeding for the quarter @-@ finals . This meant that they would have a home quarter @-@ final against the second @-@ best runners @-@ up from the pool stage , Toulouse . Cardiff won the quarter @-@ final 9 – 6 .

Leicester lost two games during the pool stage , but amassed sufficient points to finish as the top side in the pool and to be seeded fourth , which meant they were given the last of the home draws against the fifth @-@ seeded side , Bath . Leicester beat Bath 20 – 15 to reach the semi @-@ final .

In a draw made prior to the quarter @-@ finals , it was determined that the winner of the match between Cardiff and Toulouse would have home country advantage , meaning that they could choose any venue in their own country for the semi @-@ finals , provided it was not their designated home ground . The winner of the match between Leicester and Bath was drawn against them as the away team . Cardiff elected to stage the game at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff , which is located adjacent to their usual Cardiff Arms Park ground and has a much larger capacity of 74 @,@ 500 , compared to the 12 @,@ 500 capacity of the Arms Park . Cardiff had already moved their quarter @-@ final game against Toulouse to the Millennium Stadium , despite being able to use their own ground at that stage of the competition , to take advantage of the increased capacity .

= = Regular time = =

Cardiff suffered an early setback when their captain , Paul Tito , was injured after nine minutes and had to be replaced . Ben Blair gave Cardiff the lead with a penalty kick before the 15 @-@ minute mark , but Leicester were then awarded three penalties in quick succession due to infringements by Cardiff . For each , Julien Dupuy elected to attempt a kick at goal , but was unsuccessful with all three attempts . Leicester 's first score came in the form of a try from Scott Hamilton after 21 minutes , following a line break by Toby Flood , who then drew two defenders towards him before passing the ball to Hamilton . The try was converted by Dupuy , and a successful Dupuy penalty kick on 24 minutes made the score 10 – 3 to Leicester . Cardiff hit back with three successful penalty kicks of their own , one from Blair and two from Leigh Halfpenny , before Dupuy successfully kicked another penalty just before half @-@ time to give Leicester a 13 – 12 lead at the break .

After half @-@ time , Leicester increased their lead with a converted try from Geordan Murphy after 45 minutes and two more penalties from Dupuy extended Leicester 's lead further to 26 – 12 going into the last 20 minutes . Flood left the field due to an injury and was replaced by Aaron Mauger . Leicester then had two players sent to the sin bin in quick succession . First , Craig Newby was shown a yellow card on 62 minutes for killing the ball during a Cardiff attack , and then Geordan Murphy was shown a yellow card on 68 minutes for what was adjudged to be a deliberate knock @-@ on during another Cardiff attack . Leicester did not concede during Newby 's absence , but shortly after his return and with Murphy still off the pitch in the sin bin , Cardiff 's Jamie Roberts scored a try with Ben Blair successfully kicking the conversion from within five metres of the touchline . At the restart , Cardiff gathered the ball and Roberts made a break from within 22 metres of Cardiff 's own goal line before passing to Tom James , who ran 60 metres to score a try in almost exactly the same place as Roberts . Blair again kicked the conversion from the touchline to tie the scores at 26 – 26 with three minutes remaining . With no further scores , the match went into extra time .

= = Extra time = =

This was the second occasion a Heineken Cup semi @-@ final match had gone to extra time – it had only previously been required in the match between Toulouse and Brive in 1998 . Extra time consisted of two halves of 10 minutes each . A winner would be decided only if one team 's score was higher than the other at the end of extra time , not by the " first to score " system used in some other sports . The rules also provided a tiebreaker if the scores were level after extra time ; the team that had scored the most tries in the match would be the winner . In the event , neither team made any score during extra time , and both had scored the same number of tries during the match , which meant that the match would be decided by a penalty shoot @-@ out , the first time such an occurrence had happened in a professional rugby match .

In the final minute of extra time , Leicester medical staff indicated they needed to make a blood injury replacement for Dan Hipkiss , and elected to bring Julien Dupuy , who had been substituted in the last 10 minutes of regular time , back onto the field as the replacement . The match officials requested the Leicester physiotherapist demonstrate an open wound by wiping the blood from the cut , and satisfied the injury was legitimate , allowed the replacement . With the penalty shoot @-@ out approaching , Cardiff decided to use a substitution to bring Ceri Sweeney , an experienced goal @-@ kicker , onto the field in place of Jamie Roberts .

= = Penalty shoot @-@ out = =

The rarity of a penalty shoot @-@ out in rugby meant that no standard format existed and tournament organisers were left to devise their own rules on the format a shoot @-@ out would take in the event it was required , such as the positions the kicks would be taken from , the type of kick used and the number and order of players who would participate . In the case of the Heineken Cup , the rules set by organisers European Rugby Cup ( ERC ) prescribed a format closely resembling that used in soccer matches . Each team would alternately take five place kicks , each from the same position on the 22 @-@ metre line , directly in front of the posts . Each kick had to be taken by a different player from the 15 players that were present on the pitch at the end of extra time . In the event the scores were level after the five kicks , " sudden death " would take place , with each team alternately taking a kick until a round occurred where one team was successful with their kick and the other team missed . Again , each kick was required to be taken by a different player , starting with players that had yet to take a kick in the first part of the shoot @-@ out . If no winner had been decided after all 15 players had attempted a kick , the process would continue with each player eligible to take a kick again until all 15 players had made another attempt .

Cardiff won the coin toss and elected to kick first . Ben Blair and Julien Dupuy , the goal @-@ kickers used during the match were the first to attempt kicks for their respective sides , were both successful . The teams then nominated other players on their team who had experience at goal @-@ kicking , both teams being successful with their second and third kicks . Cardiff 's fourth player Ceri Sweeney , was also an experienced goal @-@ kicker and was successful ; however , Leicester selected Johne Murphy , who was not a regular kicker , and he missed to make the score 4 – 3 after four of the five rounds . This meant if Cardiff were successful with their next kick , they would have an unassailable lead and would win the match . With no more experienced goal kickers to choose from , winger Tom James stepped up to take the kick , but missed , allowing Leicester the chance to draw level . Scott Hamilton scored with his kick to bring the scores to 4 – 4 after five kicks and take the shoot @-@ out to sudden death . The teams were both successful with their next two kicks , including Craig Newby for Leicester who was the first forward to take a kick in the shoot @-@ out . With all seven backs having already attempted a kick , Cardiff were required to select a forward player for their eighth kick , and chose flanker Martyn Williams . He missed , giving Leicester the chance to win the match if they were successful with their eighth kick . Number 8 Jordan Crane was selected for the attempt and was successful , resulting in Leicester winning the shoot @-@ out 7 – 6 and advancing to the 2009 Heineken Cup Final .

= = Match details = =

= = Post @-@ match reaction = =

Martyn Williams remained in the dressing room for 90 minutes after the game , and when he emerged opted not to speak to the media . He later did give his reaction , expressing his opinion that the format was a bit of a lottery and observed " somebody was going to miss – I 've just got to live with the fact that it was me . " He also credited several of the victorious Leicester players who had commiserated with him after the game and others who had sent messages of support to him . Jordan Crane said after the match that he had felt calm prior to taking his kick , as Williams ' miss meant that in the event Crane also missed , the scores would remain level and sudden death would continue . Tom James who had missed a kick earlier in the shoot @-@ out which would have won the match for Cardiff said that " gutted is the only word that properly describes how I am feeling " .

A number of outlets expressed disappointment at the penalty shoot @-@ out , in particular the way that Martin Williams , who as a flanker who would not ordinarily take a kick at goal , had been to " blame " for Cardiff 's loss . The Guardian 's Paul Rees expressed the opinion that asking forwards to take kicks at goal " is demanding something not only unnatural but untried and it turned a rousing semi @-@ final into a pantomime , an unnecessarily demeaning way of settling the issue . " Brendan Gallagher writing in The Daily Telegraph noted that only three or four players on a rugby team would kick the ball during a match in a meaningful way , and said it was " ludicrous that a game should be decided by emphasising that particular skill " . He also questioned what would have happened in the event the shoot @-@ out continued and the game been decided between props Martin Castrogiovanni and Gethin Jenkins , both considered amongst the finest players in their position but never ordinarily being required to kick the ball at goal . Chris Hewett expressed similar views in The Independent , observing that Martyn Williams " lost the game by failing to perform a task outside the skill @-@ set of the majority of players " and commenting that " short of asking a cat to bark , it is hard to imagine anything more preposterous . "

In light of the criticism , tournament organisers ERC agreed to review the penalty shoot @-@ out system , although they confirmed that they had already considered and dismissed some other possible ways of deciding matches , including replaying the game , having a ' next try wins ' rule in extra time , reducing the number of players on the pitch periodically in extra time to create more space and deciding the game on a coin toss . The format for the penalty shoot @-@ out was changed prior to the following season 's tournament , removing the requirement for all players on the field ( including forwards ) to participate , however for the remainder of its existence , the Heineken Cup retained the penalty shoot @-@ out as the final system for deciding a winner if required . No other Heineken Cup match needed to use it .

In August 2009 , Martin Offiah , who was working as a pundit for broadcaster Sky Sports during the match , spoke to the News of the World , stating that he believed the blood replacement in the final minute of extra time where Julien Dupuy returned to the field " looked very suspicious and , in light of what happened in the previous round with Harlequins , I think Hipkiss and Leicester should be called to question . " Leicester coach Richard Cockerill responded that the replacement was within the laws of the game and that the club had done nothing illegal . ERC confirmed that the match commissioner had spoken to the referee regarding the incident and on the basis that the referee was satisfied , no further action was required . Cardiff also confirmed that they were satisfied that no wrongdoing had taken place and would not seek any further action .

= Movement for the Intellectually Disabled of Singapore =

MINDS ( Movement for the Intellectually Disabled of Singapore ) is a voluntary welfare organisation based in Singapore , that provides services for the intellectually disabled . They run four special schools and a centre called MINDSville @ Napiri which offers therapy and residential care . Other MINDS services include sheltered workshops , social enterprises , weekly activities , and trust fund management . Founded in 1962 , MINDS is among the largest charities in Singapore , with a staff of 420 helping 2400 beneficiaries . MINDS generates yearly expenses of 21 million Singapore dollars , as of 2005 . Two other organisations , the Association for Persons with Special Needs ( formerly the Association for the Educationally Subnormal ) and Special Olympics Singapore , originated as MINDS projects .

= = History = =

In 1960 , the Singapore Children 's Society initiated several educational and training programmes for intellectually disabled children , leading to the formation of the Singapore Association for Retarded Children ( SARC ) in 1962 . Beginning with only two teachers and 26 students in a single classroom in Towner Road , the new association rapidly expanded over the 1960s , building special schools at Margaret Drive and Jurong , a sheltered workshop at Geylang , a residential home at Tampines as well as their main administration centre , Lee Kong Chian Centre . SARC started a subcommittee for services for those with less severe intellectual disabilities in 1971 and a youth volunteering group the year after ; the subcommittee was split into an independent organisation , the Association for the Educationally Subnormal ( AESN ) , in 1976 . In 1983 SARC launched the first early intervention programme in Singapore , prompting other organisations to follow suit and set up an adjunct subcommittee that became Special Olympics Singapore .

Since the term " retarded " had acquired negative connotations and the organisation had started services for adults , SARC changed their name to the Movement for the Intellectually Disabled of Singapore ( MINDS ) in 1985 . In 1987 , the organisation benefitted by being primarily funded from The Community Chest of Singapore , and in 1993 MINDS became the largest voluntary welfare organisation in Singapore , with AESN in second place . Relocation of the MINDS special schools , from premises of closed @-@ down primary schools to new buildings with customised facilities , began in 1998 . The association started their first social enterprise , a car washing service along Pasir Panjang Road , in 2001 . Their residential homes and training centres were merged into the MINDSville @ Napiri centre , which opened in 2007 , and the relocation programme was completed two years later .

= = Activities = =

MINDS runs four special schools for intellectually disabled students aged 4 to 18 , who are taught various life skills , such as personal grooming and money management . They are also taken on outings to learn how to handle common tasks , such as buying groceries and taking public transport . Students undergo physiotherapy , pre @-@ vocational training , as well as basic instruction in some mainstream academic subjects , including languages , mathematics , art , and science . To help the intellectually disabled gain employment , MINDS trains them for simple sorting and packing jobs at sheltered workshops , then negotiates contracts with potential employers : for example , some were hired by Singapore Airlines to recycle headsets . The organisation also manages several social enterprises , including a thrift shop , a car washing service , a food catering company , and a performing arts troupe , that increase employment opportunities for the intellectually disabled .

Under the MINDS Trusteeship Scheme , parents of the intellectually disabled can deposit their savings into a trust account , safeguarded by the public trustee , and after they die , MINDS ensures the money is used to fund caregiving of the beneficiary . Other MINDS services , including counselling , behaviour therapy and rehabilitation , are concentrated at their integrated service centre called MINDSville @ Napiri . The centre contains a nursing home for adults with high support needs , another home for intellectually disabled children from broken families , and a hostel , which provides flexible accommodation options for clients who need less @-@ intensive care . In addition , volunteers from the MINDS Youth Group conduct weekly educational , social , and recreational activities , such as swimming classes and singing sessions , for around 170 intellectually disabled people .

= = Management = =

MINDS is one of the oldest and largest voluntary welfare organisations in Singapore , with 420 staff , 2400 beneficiaries , and yearly expenses of S $ 21 million Singapore dollars . Their primary source of funding is the Community Chest of Singapore , with programme fees , their social enterprises , corporate sponsorships and public donations making up their secondary sources . The organisation is headed by President Conrad Campos and CEO Keh Eng Song , who lead a 15 @-@ member executive committee with four subcommittees that meet monthly to discuss problems and plan new programmes . MINDS has won several awards , including the 2001 President 's Social Service Award from the National Council of Social Service and the 2010 Singapore Health Award ( Gold ) by the Health Promotion Board .

= Yankee Hotel Foxtrot =

Yankee Hotel Foxtrot is the fourth album by Chicago @-@ based rock band Wilco . The album was completed in 2001 , but Reprise Records , a Warner Music Group label , refused to release it . Wilco acquired the rights to the album when they subsequently left the label . In September 2001 , Wilco streamed the entire album for free on their website . Wilco signed with Nonesuch Records ( another Warner label ) in November of that year , and the album was officially released on April 23 , 2002 .

Yankee Hotel Foxtrot was a critical and commercial success , and is their best selling album , with over 500 @,@ 000 copies sold in the U.S. and topping the Pazz and Jop critics ' poll for 2002 . The album reached number 13 on the Billboard top 200 chart . Critical success ensued , and the album was widely listed among the greatest albums of the 2000s in many popular publications , including 3rd place in Rolling Stone 's 100 Best Albums of the 2000s . It was Wilco 's first album with drummer Glenn Kotche , and the last with multi @-@ instrumentalist and songwriter Jay Bennett .

In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked the album at number 493 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time .

= = Context = =

Wilco was touring to promote Mermaid Avenue Vol . II in May 2000 when Jeff Tweedy was invited to play at the Noise Pop festival in Chicago . The festival promoter offered to pair Tweedy with a collaborator of his choosing , and Tweedy decided to perform with Jim O 'Rourke . Tweedy frequently played O 'Rourke 's album Bad Timing in his car while he traveled during the previous winter . O 'Rourke was an accomplished producer as well as a musician , and had produced over 200 albums by the time that Tweedy requested the collaboration . O 'Rourke offered the services of drummer Glenn Kotche , and the trio performed at Double Door for the festival on May 14 , 2000 . Tweedy enjoyed the performance so much that he suggested that the trio record an album together . They chose the name Loose Fur , and recorded six songs during the following summer .

By the end of the year , Wilco had recorded enough demo tracks to release a fourth studio album ( the working title was Here Comes Everybody ) , but the band was unhappy with some of the takes of the songs . This was attributed to the inflexibility of Ken Coomer 's drumming . According to American Songwriter Magazine , " Virtually every attempt the singer made to steer Coomer toward the percussive sound he had envisioned for the record sparked a fight . " The band decided to bring Glenn Kotche into the studio to record with the band . Wilco officially replaced Coomer with Kotche in January 2001 , a decision originally proposed by Tweedy and almost immediately approved by the rest of the band .

Wilco guitarist Jay Bennett recorded the entire album with Chris Brickley , and agreed with Tweedy that O 'Rourke would be a good choice to mix the album , after a failed attempt by Bennett and Brickley to mix a few of the songs at CRC and after hearing O 'Rourke 's " audition mix " . One of the conflicts , exhibited in the film I Am Trying to Break Your Heart : A Film About Wilco , was over the ten @-@ second transition between " Ashes of American Flags " and " Heavy Metal Drummer " . Bennett attempted to explain to Tweedy that there were several slightly different ways to approach the transition , each of which would yield slightly different results , but Tweedy explained that he just wanted the problem fixed , and was not concerned with understanding the different approaches . Bennett focused on the individual songs , while Tweedy focused on larger conceptual and thematic issues — a tried and true division of labor that had worked well on the four releases on which they co @-@ wrote the material . In order to achieve the band 's musical goals , Tweedy invited Jim O 'Rourke into the studio to mix " I Am Trying to Break Your Heart " ( sample ) , and the results impressed the band members . O 'Rourke was then asked to mix the rest of the album .

The cover of the album is a picture of Marina City in the band 's adopted hometown of Chicago . The album was named after a series of letters in the phonetic alphabet that Tweedy had heard on the Irdial box set The Conet Project : Recordings of Shortwave Numbers Stations . On the fourth track of the album Phonetic Alphabet - Nato , a woman repeats the words " Yankee Hotel Foxtrot " numerous times ; a clip from this Numbers Station transmission was placed in the Yankee Hotel Foxtrot song " Poor Places " . Irdial sued Wilco for copyright infringement , and a settlement was reached out of court .

After the album 's completion , Tweedy decided to remove Bennett from the band . The album was completed in 2001 , and Tweedy believed it to be ready for release .

= = = I Am Trying to Break Your Heart = = =

Los Angeles photographer Sam Jones contacted Wilco in 2000 about producing a documentary film about the creation of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Jones shot over 80 hours of footage for I Am Trying to Break Your Heart ( named after the opening song of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot ) beginning on the day that Coomer was dismissed from the band . The footage was edited down to 92 minutes , and the film was released to theaters in 2002 . The documentary has received generally positive reviews .

= = Dismissal from Reprise Records = =

In 2001 , AOL merged with Time Warner to form AOL Time Warner . Time Warner 's market share of the music industry had dropped by almost five percent from the mid @-@ 1990s , and the new executives ordered the termination of 600 jobs . One of those jobs was Reprise Records president Howie Klein , who had been a big supporter of Wilco on the label . Klein 's dismissal placed head A & R representative David Kahne in charge of the decision whether to release Yankee Hotel Foxtrot .

Josh Grier , Wilco 's lawyer , was able to negotiate a buy @-@ out of the band from Reprise . The band would keep the rights to the album if they paid Reprise $ 50 @,@ 000 . Before Wilco could accept the deal , Reprise called the band and changed their offer to give the band the rights to Yankee Hotel Foxtrot for free . Despite Reprise 's efforts to accommodate Wilco 's departure , the process marred public relations after an article in the Chicago Tribune described what had happened .

Wilco had planned on releasing Yankee Hotel Foxtrot on September 11 , 2001 , but Tweedy did not want a change in record labels to significantly delay the release of the album . Within weeks of being released from the label and Jay Bennett leaving the band , MP3s of all tracks from the album began to appear on file sharing networks . In a decision aimed at discouraging the downloading of lower quality unlicensed MP3s and having some control over how the album was distributed , on September 18 , 2001 , Wilco began streaming the entirety of the album on their official website . The wilcoworld.net website registered over 50 @,@ 000 hits that day , eight times as much as typical daily traffic . Traffic to the website quadrupled the normal traffic over the next few months . The following tour was a success financially , and members of Wilco observed that fans sang along with unreleased songs from the album .

= = Release on Nonesuch Records = =

Both independent and major record labels bid for the right to release Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , including Artemis Records and Nonesuch Records . Tweedy denied the bids of record labels that did not have a roster of signed artists that matched his liking . He also decided to ignore small independent companies because he wanted to be able to put the album out for a large audience and felt that they would be unable to produce more than 100 @,@ 000 records . Wilco decided to sign with AOL Time Warner subsidiary Nonesuch Records in November 2001 , basing the decision on the label 's small size and artist @-@ friendly atmosphere . In the end , Wilco recorded and produced Yankee Hotel Foxtrot with Reprise , received the rights to the album for free , and then sold it back to a different AOL Time Warner affiliate .

Yankee Hotel Foxtrot was commercially released by Nonesuch Records on April 23 , 2002 . The album sold 55 @,@ 573 copies during its first week of release , peaking on the Billboard 200 album chart at number 13 . The album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and has sold over 590 @,@ 000 units .

The More Like the Moon EP ( also called Bridge and Australian EP ) was originally released as a bonus disc to the Australian version of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . The EP comprised six songs that were recorded but not released during the Yankee Hotel Foxtrot sessions including a re @-@ working of " Kamera " . On the one @-@ year anniversary of the release of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , Wilco uploaded the EP onto their official website , and offered it for free to anyone who purchased the album . The band would later allow anyone to download the EP for free off the website , regardless of whether they had purchased the full @-@ length album .

= = Reception = =

The album received widespread acclaim upon release , including positive reviews from media outlets such as Rolling Stone and BBC Music . Yankee Hotel Foxtrot was voted as the best album of the year in The Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics poll . Brent Sirota of Pitchfork Media gave the album a perfect 10 rating , noting that the album was " simply a masterpiece . " David Fricke of Rolling Stone praised its resemblance to psychedelia while Allmusic writer Zac Johnson lauded its musical complexity .

There are more favorable reviews : E ! Online gave the album an A and said that its " rich , exotic flavor gets more intense the longer you chew on it . " Stylus Magazine called it " a great album , and an outstanding place for prospective new Wilco fans to start . " Neumu.net gave it nine stars out of ten and called it " a fierce record " . Almost Cool gave it a score of 8 @.@ 75 out of ten and said , " I 'm not sure if it 's the work by O 'Rourke or the progression of the group ( or a little of both ) , but this disc is so multi @-@ layered that it 's easy to hear new things many many times after the first listen . " Billboard gave it a favorable review and called it " a more adventurous and rewarding release " . The Austin Chronicle gave it four stars out of five and said that " After a while -- a familiarity period if you will -- it becomes clear that these songs are not only fully realized , they 're damn near brilliant . " Playlouder gave it four stars out of five and called it " The most worth @-@ the @-@ wait long @-@ awaited album in the world ... ever ? Could be ... " Uncut also gave the album four stars out of five and said , " The most common description of this much @-@ discussed album over the past few months is that YHF is Americana 's Kid A. In truth , it 's more successful than that . " Blender likewise gave it four stars out of five and stated : " Tweedy whittles down the arrangements and drops in enough experimental nuances to make the whole thing sound refreshingly lo @-@ fi . " Q likewise gave it four stars and called it " battered , bonkers and bewitching in equal parts " and that it " at last finds Wilco 's ' interesting ' phase become downright fascinating . " Yahoo ! Music UK gave it eight stars out of ten and said , " Tweedy takes conventional songforms birthed on his acoustic guitar and scrambles them completely , reassembled into fractured , dissonant epics with the help of the reliably brilliant Jim O 'Rourke . "

Shortly after its online release , Peter Buck of R.E.M. acclaimed the album as " their best yet . "

Trouser Press was one of the few major media outlets that did not give the album a good review , instead giving it an average review and stating that " more time spent in the songwriting lab might have yielded material more suitable to the evident studio effort invested and brought Wilco closer to making a truly great album . " Robert Christgau gave the album a one @-@ star honorable mention rating , describing the music as " purty " but stating that he found the lyrics and vocals in general to be boring .

Though Yankee Hotel Foxtrot was recorded before the September 11 , 2001 attacks , critics perceived references in the album to the attacks . For example , Jeff Gordinier of Entertainment Weekly compared the two towers of Marina City to the World Trade Center towers . Also containing similar themes are the songs " War on War " and " Ashes of American Flags " which contains the line " I would like to salute the ashes of American flags . " The song " Jesus , Etc . " also contains these lyrics : " Tall buildings shake , Voices escape singing sad sad songs ... Voices whine , Skyscrapers are scraping together , your voice is smoking . "

The album was voted as the 100th " Greatest Album Ever " in a 2006 Q Magazine poll . In 2008 , Rolling Stone critic Tom Moon listed Yankee Hotel Foxtrot among the 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .

Yankee Hotel Foxtrot found a place on many lists of the greatest albums of the 2000s . Rolling Stone ranked the album at number three on its list of the 100 Best Albums of the Decade . Pitchfork Media put the album at number four on the Top 200 Albums of the 2000s . The alternative music website also named " Poor Places " and " Jesus , Etc . " as the 147th and 61st best songs of the decade , respectively . Paste named the album the second @-@ best album of the decade .

= = Track listing = =

All lyrics written by Jeff Tweedy , all music composed by Jeff Tweedy and Jay Bennett except where noted .

= = Personnel = =

Credits according to liner notes .

= = = Wilco = = =

Jeff Tweedy - vocals , guitar , programming , harmonica

Jay Bennett – programming , guitar , piano , keyboards , synthesizers , organ , bass , drums , percussion , lap steel , glockenspiel , vibraphone , bells , vocals

John Stirratt – bass , vocals

Leroy Bach - piano , guitar , organ , glockenspiel , vibraphone , bass , percussion , horns

Glenn Kotche - drums , percussion , hammered dulcimer , siren , chimes

Horns and strings arranged by Jeff Tweedy and John Stirratt

= = = Additional personnel = = =

Ken Coomer - additional drums and percussion

Fred Lonberg @-@ Holm – cello

Craig Christiansen - programming , keyboards , synthesizers , percussion , autoharp , harmonium

Jessy Greene - violin , viola

Steve Rooke – mastering

Chris Brickley – engineering , mixing

Jim O 'Rourke – acoustic guitar , electric guitar , piano , keyboards , toy piano , stylophone , engineering , mixing

Wilco – producer

Sam Jones – photography

= 1948 Summer Olympics torch relay =

The 1948 Summer Olympics torch relay was run 17 – 29 July 1948 , prior to the 1948 Summer Olympics , held in London , United Kingdom . The relay was nicknamed the " relay of peace " . It was only the second occasion that a torch relay was held for the Olympics ; the first was at the 1936 Summer Olympics .

There were three types of torches designed for use on the relay : a standard solid fuel powered torch made of aluminium , a special butane gas torch used onboard HMS Whitesand Bay , and a final torch used to enter Empire Stadium that was made of stainless steel and powered by a magnesium candle .

The route itself was initially designed to be a direct one from Olympia to Wembley , taking in Italy , Switzerland and France . Belgium and Luxembourg were added to the route after those countries requested it . It was expected that the Greek part of the relay would be 750 kilometres ( 470 mi ) , but was reduced to 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) due to concerns over security . After the 12 @-@ day journey , the torch arrived at the Empire Stadium only thirty seconds later than expected .

= = Background = =

Despite hosting the 1908 Summer Olympics , the 1948 Games was the first London @-@ based games to have a torch relay after it was introduced at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin . Former British athlete David Cecil , 6th Marquess of Exeter , and the rest of the organising committee for the 1948 Games agreed to continue the tradition begun by the previous games , and run a torch relay for a second time .

= = Relay elements = =

= = = Torch = = =

Each of the torches contained a solid fuel tablet made of hexamine and 6 % naphthalene ( following torch running tests in May 1947 ) that fuelled the flame itself . The solid fuel increased the distance each runner could run to 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) over flat terrain , decreasing the number of torches needed to be produced , which in turn reduced the cost of the relay . There were eight tablets loaded into each torch , with the bottom tablets pushed up by the use of a spring . The design increased the burning time of each torch up to around fifteen minutes , an increase from the four @-@ minute torches of the 1936 Olympics . The torch itself was designed by Ralph Lavers , with the brief that it should be " inexpensive and easy to make , of pleasing appearance and a good example of British craftmanship " . The torches were made from aluminium , with a long shaft holding a cup that contained the burner . " With thanks to the bearer " was written on the cup of the torch itself , along with the Olympic rings . The torches for the Greek leg of the relay were shipped to the Mediterranean aboard HMS Liverpool , along with a purpose built torch for the leg aboard a Royal Navy vessel from Corfu to Italy .

A differently designed torch was used for the final leg . It was made of stainless steel and was fueled by magnesium in order to ensure that the flame showed up properly during the opening ceremony . It was also designed by Ralph Lavers , with the frame for the torch created by EMI , and the magnesium candle supplied by Wessex Aircraft Engineering . Neither the suppliers nor designer charged a fee for the final torch .

= = = Planned torch route = = =

Key

* As planned

Source : The Official Report of the Organising Committee for the XIV Olympiad

= = = Torch route = = =

While the general negotiation with other countries and the specific route were handled by the Organising Committee for the Games , the detailed organisation was delegated to a subgroup led by F.W. Collins . Due to cost implications , the extensive route conducted by the 1936 Games was ruled out . Instead , the simplest route from Olympia to London was to be used , going by sea to Italy and then run through Switzerland and France . The route was modified only when Luxembourg and Belgium both requested that the torch travel their territories . A longer Greek route was planned , but reduced from an expected 750 kilometres ( 470 mi ) down to 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) due to concerns over instability in the country and a lack of security .

The torch lighting ceremony took place on 17 July 1948 in Olympia , Greece . As with the 1936 Summer Olympic relay , the torch relay was begun by focusing the sun 's rays onto kindling using a parabolic reflector , which then lit the first torch . The kindling was conducted by a Girl Guide leader from Pyrgos , Elis . She was only chosen the previous evening due to the unsettled state of the country ; the Athenian girl who was trained for the ceremony was unable to travel to Olympia . In a symbolic gesture , the first runner , Corporal Dimitrelis of the Greek Army , laid down his arms and removed his military uniform before taking his torch in hand . The kindling material for the first torch was handed over as a gift from the Chairman of the Greek Olympic Committee to Collins , for Princess Elizabeth . It was then run to the Greek coast at Katakolo , where at 7 pm it boarded the Greek destroyer Hastings bound for the island of Corfu . It stayed overnight in the city of Corfu , and boarded HMS Whitesand Bay at 1 : 30 pm the following day where the flame was switched to a specially equipped butane gas torch in order to ensure that there was a 48 @-@ hour lifespan available for the flame , despite the crossing only being expected to take 22 hours .

The ship dropped the torch off in Bari at 12 : 30 pm on 19 July . It was run north through several Italian cities before crossing the Simplon Pass into Brig , Switzerland on 23 July . From there it was run west until leaving the country at Perly @-@ Certoux , and entering France at Saint @-@ Julien @-@ en @-@ Genevois . The route then detours from the direct route to take in Luxembourg and into Belgium before re @-@ entering France at Lille on 28 July , finally departing the country at Calais . HMS Bicester carried the torch across the English Channel to Dover , arriving at 8 : 25 pm on 28 July . It travelled through several towns in the South East of England until it arrived at Wembley , where it arrived only thirty seconds late after the entire journey . That delay may have only been in the final few hundred yards of the relay down Olympic Way outside of Empire Stadium as the pressure of the crowds on the torch carrier and their escorts reduced the pace to walking speed . Special celebrations were held at each border crossing , and at Pierre de Coubertin 's tomb in Lausanne , Switzerland .

It was agreed for a secondary Olympic Flame to be lit in Torquay during the games , and a secondary torch relay was conducted to take the flame from Wembley south to the coast to Torquay . The arrangements were the same as from Dover to Wembley but in reverse .

= 2011 – 12 Washington Capitals season =

The 2011 – 12 Washington Capitals season was the franchise 's 38th season in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Washington finished the year as the seventh place team in the Eastern Conference . In the opening round of the playoffs , they matched up with the defending Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins . Due to injuries , the Capitals were forced to play rookie goaltender Braden Holtby . Washington 's defeat of the Bruins marked the first time in NHL history in which all seven games of a series were decided by one goal . Facing the East 's top seed in the Conference Semifinals , Washington was defeated in seven games by the New York Rangers . Holtby was lauded for his playoff performance , where he recorded a .935 save percentage and was credited with putting Washington in a position to win each game .

Washington won their first seven games , setting a franchise record for consecutive victories to start a season . Shortly after , however , an early season slump prompted the benching of offensive star players Alexander Ovechkin and Alexander Semin in separate games . The moves failed to produce results , and Head Coach Bruce Boudreau was eventually replaced by Dale Hunter . Boudreau 's firing came seven days after he won his 200th game as an NHL head coach , achieving the feat faster anyone in NHL history . Under Hunter , the Capitals battled the Florida Panthers for the Southeast Division title , ultimately losing out on their fifth @-@ straight division title on the final day of the season . Two days after Washington 's playoff elimination , Hunter stepped down as head coach ; Adam Oates was hired as his replacement .

Individually , Alexander Ovechkin and Dennis Wideman were named to the All @-@ Star Game . Due to a suspension for a reckless hit , however , Ovechkin elected not to attend the game to avoid being a distraction . Four Capitals were named one of the NHL 's weekly three stars – a total of five times throughout the season . Three players made their NHL debut , while Mike Knuble played in his 1,000th game .

= = Off @-@ season = =

During the off @-@ season , the Capitals made several player changes . One of the players that was not retained by the team , Matt Bradley , started a controversy with his comments from a radio interview in Ottawa . In the interview , Bradley said his former team was " a little bit too nonchalant and guys weren ’ t disciplined the way they should have been , " which he claimed were the two biggest reasons why the team was not able to advance past the second round of the Stanley Cup playoffs . He later stated that Head Coach Bruce Boudreau did not give the most ice time to players who were playing well , but went with his star players . He further noted that Boudreau was a " great coach " who had been put in a tough position . When asked to point out examples , Bradley stated that Alexander Semin " could easily be the best player in the league , " but he " just doesn ’ t care , " further noting , " When you 've got a guy like that , you need him to be your best player , or one of your best players , and when he doesn 't show up , you almost get the sense that he wants to be back in Russia . " Semin 's agent came to his client 's defense , stating he " always cares . " Teammate Mike Knuble noted that because Semin speaks limited English , the language barrier affects the way that he is perceived , further noting that the interview comments were something Bradley regretted . When asked about the comments , former Capitals forward David Steckel stated that , " It 's not like he went out and told lies . " Bradley later apologized for his comments in an interview with the Sun Sentinel .

Including Bradley , the Capitals lost six players who played for them in the playoffs , as well as back @-@ up goaltender Semyon Varlamov . [ note 1 ] To replace some of the departed players , Washington traded its 2011 first round draft pick to the Chicago Blackhawks for veteran winger Troy Brouwer , who was a member of the Blackhawks ' Stanley Cup championship team in 2010 . They then signed Joel Ward as a free agent , adding grit and the hopes that he could duplicate his 2011 playoff success . Ward scored seven goals and 13 points in 12 playoff games with the Nashville Predators , after scoring 10 goals and 29 points in 80 regular season games . In net , they added veteran Tomas Vokoun , who was considered to be one of the top goaltenders in the 2011 free agent class . He signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 5 million contract , well below his believed market value , to have a chance at winning the Stanley Cup . After making these and other off @-@ season moves , the Capitals were over the NHL salary cap . The expectation was that defenseman Tom Poti would not be able to play due to injury and Washington would be forced to place him on long @-@ term injured reserve , where his $ 2 @.@ 9 million salary would not count against the cap total . Unexpectedly , Poti told the Capitals that he would be ready to play by training camp . Poti , however , failed his medical exam prior to training camp and was placed on long @-@ term injured reserve .

= = Regular season = =

= = = October – November = = =

In the season opener against the Carolina Hurricanes , Boudreau made a " surprise " decision to start goaltender Michal Neuvirth . Boudreau stated that the reason behind his decision was a reward for Neuvirth 's hard work in training camp . Prior to the Capitals ' second game , Neuvirth sustained a bruised foot and was unable to play . In his Capitals debut , Vokoun struggled , allowing five goals on 28 shots , but nevertheless Washington won the game 6 – 5 in a shootout . In the post @-@ game interview , Vokoun blamed himself for the high number of goals and thanked his teammates for getting him the win in a game he should have lost . Vokoun rebounded in his second game , making 39 saves in a 3 – 2 win over the Pittsburgh Penguins . He continued his strong play and was named the NHL 's third star of the week ending October 23 and helped the Capitals to a franchise @-@ record seven game winning streak to start a season .

After losing two straight games , Washington was down 4 – 3 to the Anaheim Ducks in the final minutes of the game . With the goaltender pulled , Boudreau decided to play the third line of Joel Ward , Brooks Laich and Jason Chimera with Nicklas Backstrom as the extra attacker . Boudreau stated that he was " playing a hunch " by leaving star forward Alexander Ovechkin on the bench . The move paid off , however , as Backstrom scored to force overtime . He also scored the game winner in overtime assisted by Ovechkin . When asked about being left on the bench in a post @-@ game interview , Ovechkin stated that Laich 's line deserved to be on the ice – though the video showed Ovechkin visibly upset about being left on the bench . The following day , Ovechkin stated that he was upset about not being on the ice in the final minutes , but that he understood Boudreau 's decision . The Hockey News ' Ken Campbell applauded the benching of Ovechkin stating that in the past Boudreau had shown a willingness to continually put his star players out on the ice despite how they were playing and accepted the consequences . Campbell noted the move was Boudreau " addressing his most glaring problem as a coach " .

Following the benching incident , the Capitals went 2 – 5 – 0 leading up to their November 21 game against the Phoenix Coyotes . [ note 2 ] For the game , Boudreau again made headlines for not playing one of his star players , this time making Alexander Semin a healthy scratch ( a non @-@ dressing player ) . Semin led the team in penalties @-@ in @-@ minutes ( PIMs ) , as well as being tied for second in the NHL with 14 minor penalties . Boudreau previously benched Semin for the second half of a game against the New Jersey Devils after the winger had taken two minor penalties and was deemed not focused . Washington defeated Phoenix in the game 4 – 3 . NBC 's Mike Halford echoed Campbell 's statement when discussing the benching of Semin , commenting that it was a " bold move " and the latest in a series of messages sent by Boudreau . Halford further questioned if the new stance would eventually cost Boudreau his job .

The benchings did not produce the desired results , however , as the Capitals lost six of eight games , with Ovechkin scoring only one goal during the same stretch . As a result , Washington fired Boudreau on November 28 and replaced him with former Capitals captain Dale Hunter . Hunter was the head coach of the Ontario Hockey League 's ( OHL ) London Knights when he was hired . During his time with London , he set an OHL record for fastest coach to 300 and 400 career wins . The Capitals lost Hunter 's coaching debut 2 – 1 to the St. Louis Blues . The following day , Boudreau spoke to the media about being fired , stating that General Manager George McPhee made the " right decision at the time " and that despite speculation , he did not feel that Ovechkin was a problem , stating that he " worked as hard and tried as hard as he could . "

= = = December – January = = =

The Capitals did not give Hunter his first NHL win until his third game , a 3 – 2 win over the Ottawa Senators that broke a four @-@ game losing streak . Brooks Laich scored the game @-@ winning goal just 12 seconds into the overtime period . The goal would prove to be the fastest overtime goal scored during the 2011 – 12 NHL regular season . In the rematch four days later , Ovechkin appeared to spear Senators forward Chris Neil . Following a Neil hit on Ovechkin , the pair skated up the ice , whereupon Neil fell to the ice following the alleged spear . Neil was given an unsportsmanlike conduct penalty for diving . A spearing penalty , if called , would have resulted in a five @-@ minute major penalty and a game misconduct . Later in the game , Ovechkin scored the eventual game @-@ winning goal , his first goal in six games . When asked about the incident after the game , Neil described it as a " pitchfork in the gut , " while Ovechkin stated he was " not the type of guy who spears players . " The following day , a league spokesman stated that Ovechkin would not be suspended or fined for the incident .

The December 28 game against the New York Rangers marked the return of fourth line forward Jay Beagle , who previously missed 31 games with a concussion suffered in a fight against the Pittsburgh Penguins ' Arron Asham . The fight itself had generated a minor controversy , as Asham , an experienced fighter , made celebratory gestures after knocking out Beagle , who was in his first career NHL fight . Several Capitals expressed their displeasure with Asham after the game , while Asham himself later called his actions " classless . " Beagle 's work ethic in his return was called contagious by teammate Matt Hendricks , and he helped the Capitals to a 4 – 1 victory .

In late December , Ovechkin went on a seven @-@ game point streak that featured the two @-@ point games in the final four games of the streak . In conjunction with the point streak , he scored eight goals in nine games . [ note 3 ] Washington went 5 – 1 – 1 during the streak , which was eventually snapped in a 5 – 2 loss to the San Jose Sharks on January 7 . In the game prior to the streak being snapped , Capitals ' defenseman Mike Green returned from a groin injury that had kept him out of the lineup for 23 games . Washington defeated the Calgary Flames 3 – 1 in the contest , which moved their record to 9 – 0 – 0 with Green in the line @-@ up . However , the news coming out of the game was not all good . During the game , the Capitals ' leading scorer , Nicklas Backstrom , was elbowed in the head by the Flames ' Rene Bourque . Backstrom underwent concussion testing , which proved inconclusive ; he suffered from what was described as " concussion @-@ like symptoms " and was eventually placed on the injured reserve . For his actions , Bourque was suspended five games for delivering the elbow . Compounding the Capitals ' injury problem was the loss of Mike Green in just his second game back ; he re @-@ injured his groin during the contest and was placed on the long @-@ term injured reserve . During a game against the Pittsburgh Penguins , Ovechkin delivered a hit to Pittsburgh defenseman Zbynek Michalek . On the hit , Ovechkin launched himself into Michalek 's shoulder , where the force of the hit caused Ovechkin to make contact with Michalek 's head . Later in the game , Michalek delivered an elbow to the back of Matt Hendricks ' head , driving it into the glass . The following day , it was announced that Ovechkin was suspended for three games for the reckless hit despite not receiving a penalty on the play during the game . Vice President of Player Safety Brendan Shanahan stated the length of the suspension took into account that Ovechkin was a repeat offender , having been suspended twice before and fined twice as well . It also took into consideration that Michalek was not injured on the play . Despite his own actions , Michalek avoided a fine or suspension . Without Ovechkin , Backstrom or Green , Washington nonetheless defeated defending Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins in the final game before the All @-@ Star break to move into first place in the Southeast Division .

Washington had two players named to the NHL All @-@ Star Game . Despite having a poor season by his standards , Alexander Ovechkin was named to the Game . However , due to his suspension , Ovechkin announced that he did not want to be a distraction at the game ; he was " not comfortable " going , and declined to attend the All @-@ Star weekend . Dennis Wideman was the Capitals ' other All @-@ Star representative . He recorded 34 points heading into the break while averaging over 24 minutes of ice time per game .

= = = February – April = = =

Washington started the second half of the season with a 2 – 2 – 1 record . In their next game , against the Winnipeg Jets , the Capitals lost a two @-@ goal lead late in the game , eventually losing in a shootout . The loss knocked the Capitals out of first place in their division and they dropped from third to ninth in the conference . Washington lost their next two games before defeating the Southeast Division @-@ leading Florida Panthers 2 – 1 . The game marked goaltender Tomas Vokoun 's first game in Florida after leaving the team as a free agent in the off @-@ season . With the win , Washington moved two points behind the Panthers . Despite being close , however , Washington could not build any momentum , later losing their next three games before closing out the month of February on a three @-@ game win streak .

Washington continued its inconsistent play into the month of March , losing three games before going on a four @-@ game winning streak leading up to another game against the Winnipeg Jets . During the loss to the Jets , Vokoun re @-@ aggravated a reoccurring groin injury ; he had been dealing with the injury since late February , and it forced him out of the lineup . Braden Holtby was recalled to serve as the team 's back @-@ up . During Vokoun 's absence , Ovechkin began a goal @-@ scoring streak , notching nine goals in seven games , culminating in a two @-@ goal performance during a 3 – 0 victory over the Minnesota Wild . The scoring steak helped Ovechkin to be named NHL 's third star of the week . The win moved the Capitals into the eighth and final playoff spot . They did not remain there long , however , as their next game was a lost 5 – 1 to the Buffalo Sabres , who passed Washington for eighth place . The following game , against the Boston Bruins , Vokoun returned to action , but played only 18 : 25 before the same injury forced him from the game . Although the Capitals won the game , it was Vokoun 's final game of the season as well as his last as a Capital , with Vokoun later describing the injury as a " pretty severe [ groin ] tear . " Washington 's final game of March marked the return of Nicklas Backstrom , who had missed 40 games with a concussion . The Capitals won the game 3 – 2 in a shootout , moving them back into eighth place .

Entering April , the Capitals had a chance to clinch a playoff spot against the Tampa Bay Lightning . The game was tied 2 – 2 with 1 : 03 remaining when Steven Stamkos scored , leading Tampa to the eventual 4 – 2 victory . Facing the Division @-@ leading Panthers in their next game , Washington succeeded in clinching a playoff spot with a 4 – 2 win of their own . The victory also gave the Capitals a chance at winning their Division in their final game . During the game , Neuvirth was hurt when former Capital Marco Sturm fell on top of him while he was making a save . Neuvirth left after the incident and did not return . Neuvirth suffered a lower body injury and was not ready to return for the final game or the start of the playoffs . Washington won its final game of the year behind a 35 @-@ save performance from Holtby , clinching at least the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference pending the outcome of Florida ’ s game . A win by the Panthers in their final game , however , prevented Washington from winning their fifth @-@ straight Division title and moving into the third playoff seed .

= = Playoffs = =

Finishing the regular season as the seventh seed , Washington was matched up with the defending champion Boston Bruins . As Tomas Vokoun and Michal Neuvirth were still injured , the Capitals were forced to start Braden Holtby in Game 1 . Through the first two periods , Boston was in control of the game , out @-@ shooting Washington 26 – 7 . Despite the disparity in shots , the game remained tied 0 – 0 after regulation . Washington lost the game shortly into overtime . They rebounded to tie the series when Nicklas Backstrom scored in double overtime of game two . Through the first two games of the series , Holtby stopped 72 of 74 Bruins ' shots . In Game 3 , the two teams again looked to be heading to overtime tied 3 – 3 late in the third when Backstrom took a penalty . Zdeno Chara scored on the man advantage with under two minutes remaining , giving Boston the win . After the game ended , Backstrom was given a match penalty for intent to injure following a cross @-@ check to Rich Peverley . Backstrom received a one @-@ game suspension for his actions . Without Backstrom in Game 4 , the Capitals evened the series with a 2 – 1 victory that featured a 44 @-@ save performance from Holtby . The Capitals took their first lead in the series thanks to a Troy Brouwer power @-@ play goal with 1 : 27 left in regulation of game five . Facing elimination , Boston did not trail throughout Game 6 and was in position to win late in the third . However , an Alexander Ovechkin goal led to overtime , were Tyler Seguin scored to force a seventh and deciding game . Game 7 went to overtime , where a dump @-@ in attempt was blocked by Mike Knuble , giving him a breakaway . He took a backhand that was stopped by Boston 's Tim Thomas . Joel Ward followed the play and scored the game @-@ winning goal on the rebound . With Washington 's victory in the series , Holtby became just the third rookie goaltender in NHL history to defeat the reigning Stanley Cup champions . It was also the first playoff series in NHL history which all seven games were decided by one goal .

In the second round , Washington was matched up with the top @-@ seeded New York Rangers . After losing Game 1 by giving up two goals in a 1 : 30 span , Washington took a 2 – 0 lead in Game 2 , only to have the Rangers come back and tie the score in the third period . The Capitals , however , won the game on an Ovechkin power @-@ play goal late in the third . Game 3 was a triple @-@ overtime contest that ended when Marian Gaborik scored to give New York a 2 – 1 win . The 114 : 41 game was the 20th longest game in NHL history , and Washington 's third @-@ longest game in franchise history . Washington evened the series in Game 4 with a one @-@ goal win . In the win , Ovechkin was benched for the majority of the third period , where after the tilt , he noted that the most important thing was that the Capitals won the game . Washington looked to be heading for their first series lead as Game 5 was coming to an end . The Capitals were leading 2 – 1 with 21 @.@ 3 seconds remaining when Joel Ward took a double minor penalty for high @-@ sticking . On the ensuing power play , Brad Richards scored with 6 @.@ 6 seconds left in regulation to tie the game . The Rangers remained on the power play to start the overtime period , with Ward serving the second half of his double minor when Marc Staal scored to give New York the win . Facing elimination in Game 6 , Washington took the lead 1 : 28 into the game on an Ovechkin power play tally . They did not trail in the game and won 2 – 1 to force Game 7 . Ovechkin 's goal was the 30th of his post @-@ season career , which tied him for the Capitals all @-@ time franchise record with Peter Bondra . In the deciding game , Brad Richards scored 1 : 32 into the first period helping New York to the eventual 2 – 1 victory and the series win . Holtby finished the playoffs with a 1 @.@ 95 goals against average , a .935 save percentage and was praised for his " breakout " performance while being credited with giving the Capitals a " chance to win every game . "

= = Post @-@ season = =

Two days after the loss , Head Coach Dale Hunter stepped down for personal reasons . General Manager George McPhee announced that he would take his time considering candidates to replace Hunter . The search lasted a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before the team hired former NHL and Capitals star , Adam Oates . The intention was to have a coach that combined the up @-@ tempo style implored by Bruce Boudreau and the " defense first " system of Hunter . McPhee said of the hiring " you try to get the smartest guy in the room " and he believed Oates was that person . Ovechkin noted that he was excited to play under a coach he believed would bring more offense back to Washington 's system . Oates ' hiring came on the same day that he was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame as a player .

= = Standings = =

= = = Divisional standings = = =

= = = Conference standings = = =

Divisions : AT – Atlantic , NE – Northeast , SE – Southeast

x – Qualified for playoffs , y – Clinched division , z – Clinched conference ( and division )

= = Schedule and results = =

= = = Pre @-@ season = = =

= = = Regular season = = =

= = = Playoffs = = =

Key : Win Loss Clinch Playoff Series Eliminated from playoffs

= = Player statistics = =

= = = Skaters = = =

Note : GP

= Games played ; G =

Goals ; A

= Assists ; Pts =

Points ; + / −

= Plus / Minus ; PIM =

Penalty Minutes

= = = Goaltenders = = =

Note : GP

= Games Played ; Min =

Time On Ice ( minutes ) ; W

= Wins ; L =

Losses ; OT

= Overtime Losses ; GA =

Goals Against ; GAA = Goals Against Average ; SA = Shots Against ; SV

= Saves ; Sv % =

Save Percentage ; SO = Shutouts

= = Awards and records = =

Entering the season , Boudreau had amassed 189 wins in 309 NHL games . The win total put him on track to surpass Don Cherry as the fastest head coach to reach 200 NHL victories . After reaching 199 wins , Washington went on a four @-@ game losing streak before finally earning Boudreau the milestone win . Despite the losing streak , Boudreau registered his 200th win in 326 games , eclipsing Cherry 's previous mark of 341 games . While Boudreau set the record , he had the advantage of overtime and shootout victories , which did not exist during Cherry 's coaching career . Boudreau was fired seven days after setting the record .

Besides Ovechkin 's March and Vokoun 's third star award , Washington had players named NHL weekly stars three other times . Backstrom was named a third star after recording four points in two games . John Carlson earned third star honors with back @-@ to @-@ back three @-@ point games and finishing the week with seven points . Ovechkin received the first of his two star awards by scoring eight points in six games in January .

= = = Awards = = =

= = = Record = = =

= = = Milestones = = =

= = Transactions = =

Going into the off @-@ season , there was concern over the future of goaltender Semyon Varlamov . Washington had given the restricted free agent a qualifying offer , giving the Capitals the right to match any other NHL offers or receive draft pick compensation if they did not match . Though Washington had control of his negotiating rights , Varlamov indicated that he would leave the NHL to play in the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) . He stated that while he wanted to play in the NHL , he did not want to be a back @-@ up . If Varlamov left the League , Washington would not receive any compensation but would retain his NHL rights . In the KHL , a war for Varlamov 's services was developing . Lokomotiv Yaroslav claimed to retain Varlamov 's KHL rights and wanted to sign him to a contract around $ 2 million a season . Alternatively , SKA Saint Petersburg filed a complaint with the KHL , stating his rights were not owned because his original contract with Yaroslav predated the formation of the KHL and was therefore invalid . Before the situation could be resolved , the Capitals traded Varlamov 's rights to the Colorado Avalanche for a first round pick in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft , along with a conditional second @-@ round selection 2012 or 2013 . Following the trade , team owner Ted Leonsis noted that Varlamov " wanted assurances that we couldn ’ t make to him . " He was disappointed , but wished Varlamov well with Colorado . The Avalanche then signed the goaltender to a three @-@ year , $ 8 @.@ 5 million contract , thus keeping him in the NHL .

= = = Trades = = =

= = 2011 draft picks = =

The 2011 NHL Entry Draft was held in St. Paul , Minnesota , on June 24 and 25 . Heading into the draft , the Capitals had only five picks due to a variety of trades , which was tied for the fewest in franchise history . Believing that they had prospect depth in their organization and not seeing an available player who could help immediately , Washington traded their first round pick for Troy Brouwer . With just late round selections remaining , the Capitals decided to take players that required time to develop . Three of their four picks were in , or set to attend , college . Fourth @-@ round pick Steffen Soberg , the lone player not attending college , played in the GET @-@ ligaen , Norway 's highest level of competition . At the 2011 IIHF World U18 Championships , he posted the second @-@ highest save percentage in the tournament and was considered one of Norway 's top three players , though no Norwegian goaltender has ever played an NHL game .

source :

Draft notes

The Capitals ' first @-@ round pick in the draft was traded to the Chicago Blackhawks in exchange for Troy Brouwer .

The Capitals ' second @-@ round pick in the draft , along with Brian Pothier and Oskar Osala , was traded to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for Joe Corvo in 2010 .

The Capitals ' third @-@ round pick in the draft , along with Jake Hauswirth , was traded to the Florida Panthers in exchange for Dennis Wideman .

= Cris and Cru Kahui homicides =

The deaths of brothers Christopher Arepa and Cru Omeka Kahui ( 20 March 2006 – 18 June 2006 ) , two New Zealand infants from a Māori family who died in Auckland 's Starship Children 's Hospital after being admitted with serious head injuries , highlighted the fact that Māori children are more than twice as likely to die as a result of abuse than non @-@ Māori and that New Zealand ranks fifth highest among OECD nations for child deaths due to maltreatment according to a 2003 UNICEF report .

Their family initially refused to cooperate with police in the homicide investigation into the children 's deaths . The father , 21 @-@ year @-@ old , Christopher Sonny Kahui was charged with their murder . His defence was that the mother was responsible for the deaths . After a six @-@ week trial , the jury took just one minute to acquit him .

A coroner 's report released in July 2012 concluded that the children 's injuries occurred " whilst they were in the sole custody , care and control of their father " .

= = Before deaths = =

Chris and Cru Kahui were the two survivors of triplets born prematurely at 29 weeks on 20 March 2006 at the National Women 's Hospital in Grafton , New Zealand . They spent six weeks at the Kidz First neonatal intensive care unit at Middlemore Hospital . During this time , nurses and social workers at the facility had informally raised concerns with a Department of Child , Youth and Family Services worker , as the parents , Chris Kahui and Macsyna King , did not spend a lot of time with the babies . According to the hospital , parents not visiting is not considered child abuse , but was a " cause for concern " .

Because the infants were still technically patients of Middlemore Hospital , hospital workers regularly visited the family home . During their last visit to the hospital , Chris and Cru were reported to be healthy and well @-@ fed . However , an autopsy showed that the infants had suffered fractured ribs in an incident prior to the fatal injuries .

= = Deaths = =

On 13 June , the infants ' mother , Macsyna King , returned to the house after being away overnight . She found that the boys suffered extensive bruises , and that their grandfather , William " Banjo " Kahui , had performed cardiopulmonary resuscitation on them . Police said the grandfather was not the only person in the house at the time . According to former MP John Tamihere , a member of the Kahui extended family had said " a young relative " was caring for the babies the day they were fatally injured . King and her husband took their children to the family G.P. , who ordered immediate hospitalisation for the infants . The Coroner made a finding that Chris Kahui refused to take the children to hospital , running away from the family car and leaving a distraught Macsyna King carrying two babies in their carriers into the hospital on her own . Doctors immediately discovered that the infants had serious brain injuries . After the infants were transferred to Starship Hospital , hospital workers notified the police . The Kahui infants were ultimately taken off life support , with Cru being the first to die at 5 a.m. on 18 June . Chris died at 6 : 45 p.m. later in the day . The deaths resulted in an initial serious assault investigation by the New Zealand Police before charges were upgraded to homicide .

Both infants had suffered skull fractures from blunt force trauma and Chris Kahui had a broken femur . An orthopaedic specialist told The Sunday Star @-@ Times that in order to break the femur of a baby , the bone would have to bend at a 90 degree angle , ruling out an accidental cause of the injury .

The bodies were released to the family on 21 June and taken to the Manurewa marae for a tangihanga ( funeral rites ) . They were buried at the Manukau City cemetery on 24 June .

While the infants were in hospital , Child , Youth and Family removed a 12 @-@ month @-@ old brother Shane and their female cousin Cayenne , aged six months from two rented Housing New Zealand homes — one in Clendon , the other in Mangere — where the Kahui babies had lived . Police said they were treated in hospital for injuries resulting from " neglect " . They had been found to be malnourished and " dirty " . According to the Herald on Sunday newspaper , the two children were to be returned to the family in September 2006 . But neither the parents or so @-@ called " Tight 12 " of family members who initially refused to cooperate with police , would be their caregivers .

= = Homicide investigation = =

The police believe that , while the infants were in hospital prior to their deaths , the family was uncooperative with any investigation . Pita Sharples , the co @-@ leader of the Māori Party , said the family had agreed to talk to police on 26 June , but this did not happen . Following the deaths , Sharples said he was disgusted by the Kahui family 's behaviour . He claimed some members of the family were more interested in going " to the pub and have a drink " than coming forward to police . Prime Minister Helen Clark said it was " absolutely shocking " for the family to hide behind the funeral while everyone in the country was " shocked and revolted " by the injuries . There were even reports that gang members were threatening the Kahui family in utu ( or revenge ) over their refusal to speak .

After refusing to speak to police in the week after the death , police went to family homes on 27 June . At least four family members , including the children 's mother and aunt , were escorted to police stations . By 4 July , at least 20 extended family members were questioned , as well as 90 medical practitioners and staff who were in contact with the babies . Forensic scientists removed items such as clothing from the Kahui homes . By September , police said that the family was no longer " stone @-@ walling " their inquiries , but a prima facie case had yet to be established . Sunday News reported on 17 September that the list of suspects was down to three and an arrest was imminent . This was followed by a police statement nine days later stating that they now knew who was responsible for the deaths . However , other family members could still be charged with related crimes .

Two half @-@ sisters of the infants ' mother Macsyna King , appeared on TVNZ 's Sunday 23 July episode . They claimed that Macsyna and her brother , Robert King , had told them the name of the killer . TVNZ censored the name when one of the women said it , but the gender was revealed to be male . The infants ' paternal grandmother , who appeared the next day on TV3 's Campbell Live , contradicted this information , stating that the killer was female .

The homes where the babies lived were also home to at least nine adult occupants , eight of whom were on some form of social welfare . They may have been receiving payments totalling between $ 845 and $ 1395 a week , depending on their age and circumstances . Work and Income New Zealand launched an investigation to see whether all the payments were legitimate . Two instances of substantiated benefit fraud were found for one individual . The Clendon house had been occupied for two to three months , but neighbours had not noticed that babies were living there . According to the neighbours , Tuesday and Thursday nights were " party nights , " as this was when benefit payments were received . Loud music and fighting were often heard . One neighbour said that a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old female appeared on their doorstep at 3 : 30 a.m. one morning after she said an older man at the Clendon house attempted to sexually assault her .

= = = Murder arrest = = =

The 1 October edition of the Sunday Star @-@ Times newspaper published an interview with the infants ' father , Chris Kahui . Kahui said that he did not kill his sons , but if Police could not find anyone else , " I go down for something I didn 't do " . Investigators called Kahui 's interview with the police on 3 October a " major development " .

On 26 October , a " carload of detectives " had gone to several addresses looking for Chris Kahui , who was brought in for questioning . At 10 p.m. , it was announced in a press conference that a 21 @-@ year @-@ old man had been arrested and charged with the murder of the infants , and would appear in the Manukau District Court the next day . No other family members faced charges with relation to the deaths .

Contrary to this , the Sunday News reported on 31 December 2006 that , according to an unnamed source , a second arrest was expected . Neither the exact charges that would be laid nor the relationship of the person to the infants were revealed . Three weeks later the same newspaper said four people involved in the investigation had been summoned to the appear at the Manukau district court on 24 January . Sources told the newspaper that the new charges relate to dead infants and a pre @-@ school child . One of those to be charged was Macsyna King , the mother of Chris and Cru . None of these charges eventuated .

According to the Herald on Sunday , the Microsoft Word file containing the press release announcing the arrest of Kahui had actually been created five days earlier , and the last edit was the day before the arrest . In the same article , the Herald reported the Police were questioning whether Kahui was actually the biological father of the infants . DNA tests later confirmed that he was the father .

= = = Court appearances = = =

Kahui appeared in the Number One court of the Manukau District Court on 27 October for a two @-@ minute hearing , where he was formally charged with murder . He was asked not to plead ; however , outside the court , Kahui 's lawyer , Lorraine Smith , said her client would " fight the charges " . He was remanded in police custody until 10 November when he was freed on bail . A pre @-@ depositions hearing was held 17 January .

A second pre @-@ depositions hearing was intended to take place on 21 March . This was so his lawyer could read 60 files of evidence collected by police , and for a medical expert from Australia to become available . This second hearing was delayed because the defence was still waiting for the medical report from Australia . The depositions hearing was finally set for 18 June , with a brief court appearance on 18 April . This date was later changed to sometime on 13 August .

Kahui was found not guilty on Thursday 22 May 2008 , after only one minute of deliberation by the jury . The officer who led the police investigations into the murders , Detective Inspector John Tims , said he was " disappointed " at the verdict , finding " no evidence to support a charge against any other person and that includes the mother , Macsyna King " . He acknowledged the prosecutor , who had " said in his opening and closing address that there is no new evidence to support a charge being laid against the mother , Macsyna King " . No charges were laid against Macsyna King .

Kahui 's lawyer has threatened to lodge a complaint with the Police Complaints Authority over Police handling of the prosecution of her client for the murder of Chris and Cru Kahui .

= = Coroner 's report = =

Coroner Gary Evans released a report into the deaths of the children in July 2012 . He found that the twins had suffered the brain injuries which led to their deaths during the afternoon or early evening of 12 June 2006 , at a time " whilst they were in the sole custody , care and control of their father " , Chris Kahui . He said there was no evidence or fact to support that injuries being caused by the children 's mother , Macsyna King . Chris Kahui , who gave evidence to the coroner 's inquest , attempted to prevent the publication of the report .

= Frank Underwood ( House of Cards ) =

Francis J. " Frank " Underwood is a fictional character and the protagonist of the American version of House of Cards . He is portrayed by Kevin Spacey . He is a variation of Francis Urquhart , the protagonist of the British novel and television series House of Cards , from which the American Netflix series is adapted . He is married to Claire Underwood ( Robin Wright ) , but also had a sexual relationship with Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) in season 1 . He made his first appearance in the series ' pilot episode , " Chapter 1 " .

Underwood is from Gaffney , South Carolina . He graduated from The Sentinel , a fictionalized version of The Citadel , The Military College of South Carolina , and Harvard Law School . Some of Underwood 's dialogue throughout the series is presented in a direct address to the audience , a narrative technique that breaks the fourth wall . The character speaks with a Southern accent . During season 1 , he is the Democratic Majority Whip in the United States House of Representatives . In season 2 , he is the newly appointed Vice President of the United States , before becoming President of the United States in the season finale .

Frank is described as manipulative , conniving , Machiavellian , sociopathic , and even evil . Throughout the series , he manipulates and destroys several people for his own ends , and commits murder twice .

Spacey has received positive reviews for his portrayal of Frank Underwood , but the character itself has been criticized for it 's repetitive nature and one dimensionality . Spacey shared the distinction of being among the first three leading web @-@ television roles to be nominated for Primetime Emmy Awards at the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Spacey has also been nominated for two Golden Globe Awards , winning one , and five Screen Actors Guild Awards , including two cast nominations and including two wins , for his performance .

= = Background and description = =

= = = Early life = = =

Francis J. Underwood was born on November 5 , 1959 to Catherine and Calvin T. Underwood in Gaffney , South Carolina . He is an only child . He was raised in impoverished circumstances , with the threat of bank foreclosure on their farm they lived on . He entered the The Sentinel , a military school in Charleston , South Carolina , loosely based on The Citadel , The Military College of South Carolina , in 1976 of which he was nearly expelled from due to suffering grades after he volunteered for a U.S. Senate campaign in 1980 , however , he graduated soon after and was accepted into Harvard Law School that fall . Despite poor grades at The Sentinel , he was able to graduate from law school in 1984 . He had a homosexual relationship with his friend from military school , Tim Corbet , during his first year of law school . Underwood was raised Christian , but privately holds God in complete contempt .

= = = Family = = =

Underwood 's great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , Corporal Augustus Elijah Underwood , was a Confederate soldier who served in the 12th South Carolina Infantry Regiment of McGowan 's Brigade at the Battle of Spotsylvania . He served at the Bloody Angle on May 12 , 1864 , during the Civil War and was killed by a bludgeon to the back of the head from his own regiment during the middle of the night . Underwood is fascinated by his ancestry . When Underwood fell in a coma following an assassination attempt , Augustus appears in several of his hallucinations . However , he dismisses the Confederacy as weak and calls their cause of preserving the institution of slavery " asinine " . His great @-@ great grandfather was two when Augustus was killed .

His father , Calvin T. Underwood , was a peach farmer in his home town of Gaffney who died at the age of 43 of a heart attack . The Underwoods lived in poverty , and nearly lost the farm when Frank was a child ; to get a bank loan and avoid foreclosure , his father attended a meeting of the Ku Klux Klan , of which the bank manager was a member . Underwood speaks fondly of his father in public , but this is a political ploy ; in his asides to the audience , Underwood describes his father as a weak man who accomplished nothing with his life . He even urinates on his father 's grave in season 3 . Despite disliking his father , however , Underwood was influenced by him . Calvin was an abusive alcoholic , and caused his wife and son years of misery . Underwood has said that when he was 13 , he walked in on his father putting a shotgun in his mouth . Calvin asked him to pull the trigger , which he refused to do . He has stated that his biggest regret is not killing his father when he had the chance .

= = = Political career = = =

= = = = South Carolina Legislature = = = =

Underwood was elected at the age of 25 to the South Carolina State Senate as one of the youngest members in the state 's legislative history after graduating from Harvard in 1984 . He was re @-@ elected to the state senate at 29 in 1988 for his second , and last , term as a State Senator .

= = = = Representative Election = = = =

Underwood was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1990 as a Democratic representative for the 5th Congressional District of South Carolina , being sworn in around January 1991 . He won another 11 consecutive elections , winning his final term in 2012 . He was elected Whip for the Democratic Party in 2005 , serving as House Majority Whip between 2005 and 2013 .

Often , Underwood 's thoughts throughout the series are presented in a direct address to the audience , a narrative technique known as breaking the fourth wall . Immediately prior to starring in House of Cards , Spacey had starred in a production of William Shakespeare 's Richard III as Richard III of England , a character that serves as a partial basis for both Urquhart and Underwood . His last name is derived from Oscar Underwood , who served as the first Democratic House Minority Whip from about 1900 to 1901 . Among his few vices are smoking cigarettes . He has a hobby of playing video games ; when the Secret Service cuts off his online gaming service after he becomes Vice President , he takes up creating model figurines .

Spacey viewed portraying Underwood for a second season as a continuing learning process . " There is so much I don ’ t know about Francis , so much that I 'm learning ... I 've always thought that the profession closest to that of an actor is being a detective ... We are given clues by writers ... Then you lay them all out and try to make them come alive as a character who ’ s complex and surprising , maybe even to yourself . "

Underwood 's sexuality is ambiguous throughout much of the first two seasons ; he has sexual liaisons with both men and women , but he is never explicitly identified by any sexual label . Before Season 2 , various sources speculated about his homosexuality . It is revealed in " Chapter 8 " he had an experience with homosexuality in college . Underwood and Claire are never depicted having sex in season 1 . Slate journalist Hanna Rosin noted : if Frank and Claire Underwood were a real @-@ life Washington couple and they were found each to be having an affair , he would be accused of being " secretly gay , turned on by women only when he can use them for a pure power play " . Other sources make no definite stance on Underwood 's sexuality , but hypothesize that he is not sexually attracted to Claire . In season 2 , Underwood is involved in a threesome with Claire and Secret Service agent Edward Meechum ( Nathan Darrow ) , while in season 3 , there is a moment of sexual tension between Underwood and his biographer , Tom Yates ( Paul Sparks ) . The same season , however , also features the only scene in the series in which Underwood and Claire have sex exclusively with each other .

According to Time television critic James Poniewozik , by the end of the first episode , it becomes clear that Underwood both literally and figuratively uses meat as his metaphor of choice . He may begin a day with a celebratory rack of ribs , because " I 'm feelin ' hungry today ! " , and he depicts his life with meat metaphors . For example , he describes the White House Chief of Staff with grudging admiration : " She ’ s as tough as a two @-@ dollar steak " and plans to destroy an enemy the way " you devour a whale . One bite at a time " . He also endures a tedious weekly meeting with House leaders , as he tells the audience , by " [ imagining ] their lightly salted faces frying in a skillet . "

Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter notes that , in Season 2 , with Underwood 's new position as Vice President , " He 's got more power now and that means he instills more fear in his enemies " . At one point during the season , he states " The road to power is paved with hypocrisy and casualties . I need to prove what the vice president is capable of . " Underwood and Claire " continue their ruthless rise to power as threats mount on all fronts . "

= = = Underwood vs. Urquhart = = =

Underwood is an Americanized version of the original BBC series lead character Francis Urquhart , a Machiavellian post @-@ Margaret Thatcher Chief Whip of the Conservative Party . Urquhart employs deceit , cunning , murder , and blackmail to influence and pursue the office of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . According to series producer Beau Willimon , the change in last name stemmed from the " Dickensian " feeling and " more legitimately American " sounding resonance of the name ' Underwood ' . Whereas Urquhart is an aristocrat by birth , Underwood is a self @-@ made man . Urquhart was one of television 's first antiheroes , whereas Underwood follows the more recent rash of antiheroes that includes Tony Soprano of The Sopranos , Walter White of Breaking Bad , and Dexter Morgan of Dexter . However , unlike most other antiheroes , Underwood is not forced into immorality either by circumstance ( White ) , birth ( Soprano ) or upbringing ( Morgan ) . In his review of Season 2 , Slant Magazine 's Alan Jones writes that Underwood is evil by choice . Although the character is based on the BBC show 's lead character , in interviews during the writing and filming of season 2 , creator and showrunner Willimon said that he used Lyndon B. Johnson as a source of themes and issues addressed in House of Cards . Unlike the right @-@ wing Urquhart , who leads the Conservative Party , the center @-@ left Underwood is a member of the Democratic Party , but cares little for ideology in favor of " ruthless pragmatism " in furthering his own political influence and power .

= = = Relationship with Claire Underwood = = =

Stelter described Frank and Claire Underwood as a " scheming " couple . Michael Dobbs , the author of the trilogy of novels upon which the British miniseries is based , compares the compelling nature of their relationship favorably to the characters in the original miniseries , and likens them to Macbeth and Lady Macbeth . Underwood has strong feelings for Claire , and frequently plots with her at night . He says , " I love that woman . I love her more than sharks love blood . " While Underwood is Machiavellian , Claire , like Lady Macbeth , encourages her husband to do whatever is necessary to seize power . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post describes her as an ice @-@ queen wife . She encourages his vices while noting her disapproval of his weakness , saying , " My husband doesn ’ t apologize ... even to me . " Her overt encouragement gives a credibility to their symbiosis . Smith says " The Underwoods have proven themselves almost robotic in their pursuit of power . " Upon viewing a four @-@ episode preview of season 2 , Goodman says the series " ... sells husband and wife power @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs couple ... as a little too oily and reptilian for anyone 's good . " Willimon notes that " What 's extraordinary about Frank and Claire is there is deep love and mutual respect , but the way they achieve this is by operating on a completely different set of rules than the rest of us typically do . " Los Angeles Times critic Mary McNamara makes the case that House of Cards is a love story on many levels , but most importantly between Underwood and Claire . It is a story about a man who will commit almost any crime imaginable while in pursuit of power and a political wife who gives him the encouragement to pursue that power .

Underwood and Claire engage in a threesome with their Secret Service bodyguard Edward Meechum at one point in season 2 , but have otherwise largely given up intramarital and extramarital sex in favor of their pursuit of power . International Business Times critic Ellen Killoran notes that this may relate back to Underwood 's quotation of Oscar Wilde to Zoe Barnes in Season 1 : " A great man once said , ' everything is about sex except sex . Sex is about power . ' " Avoiding sex may retain the balance of power in their relationship . His relationship with Claire is the epicenter of season 2 .

= = = Relationship with Zoe Barnes = = =

Underwood develops an intimate relationship with Washington Herald and Slugline reporter Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , with Claire 's knowledge . As the show begins , Barnes is desperate to rise from covering the Fairfax County Council beat to covering what 's going on behind the veil of power in the Capitol hallways . " By the end of the first episode , Barnes is among the cadre of Underwood 's accomplices . They begin a relationship , with Barnes promising to earn his trust and not " ask any questions " in return for his supplying her with sensitive political information . Toward the end of Season 1 , she ends their personal relationship and begins investigating his connection to Congressman Peter Russo 's apparent suicide ( Underwood had in fact killed him by locking him in his car in a closed garage ) . Underwood ultimately kills Barnes in the season 2 premiere , by pushing her in front of an oncoming Washington Metro train after she begins to follow clues related to the murder .

= = = Relationship with Edward Meechum = = =

Underwood is fond of the head of his Secret Service detail , Edward Meechum ( Nathan Darrow ) , and it is hinted several times that they harbor unacknowledged sexual feelings for each other . When Meechum stumbles upon Underwood watching pornography , Underwood and Claire joke about there being sexual chemistry between the two men . Shortly after Underwood becomes vice president , he , Claire and Meechum have a threesome .

Meechum remains Underwood 's bodyguard once he becomes the president , and there does not appear to be any continuing sexual relationship . Meechum remains fiercely loyal , however ; he warns Underwood 's biographer Tom Yates ( Paul Sparks ) not to write anything that would damage Underwood 's reputation . In season 4 , Underwood traces Meechum 's hand with a marker on one of the walls of the White House when he wants to replace a confederate painting ; Meechum suggests he put up something he likes instead .

When Lucas Goodwin shoots Underwood during a campaign event , Meechum trades fire with the assassin , and both are killed instantly . Meechum 's death is one of the tragedies Claire mentions in a press briefing for a gun control bill she is sponsoring , and Underwood has him buried in Arlington National Cemetery , a rare privilege for a Secret Service agent . When Underwood recovers and finds that Meechum 's hand tracing has been painted over , he expresses grief and regret at the loss to Claire , who says that Meechum was one of the few people who truly understood them .

= = = Breaking the fourth wall = = =

Spacey summed up Underwood 's relationship with the viewer - i.e. whenever he breaks the fourth wall - as being like that of a " best friend " and " the person [ he trusts ] more than anyone . " Because of this , his asides to the viewer serves as an indication of Underwood 's true feelings and intentions - typically when he is feigning politeness and courtesy to people whom he despises . In the season 2 premiere , after having gone the whole episode without doing so , Underwood addresses the viewer directly , saying , " Did you think I had forgotten you ? Perhaps you hoped I had . " In addition , in season 3 , after an argument with Claire that ends with her storming out on him , he looks directly at the viewer and snaps , " What 're you lookin ' at ? ! " For the first four seasons , Underwood was the only character to break the fourth wall until the very end of the fourth season , during which his wife Claire - though silent - addresses the camera directly with Frank .

= = Biography = =

= = = Season 1 = = =

At the start of the show , Underwood is a Democratic Majority Whip in the House of Representatives , where he has represented South Carolina 's 5th congressional district since 1990 .

Underwood is passed over for an appointment as United States Secretary of State even though he had been promised the position after ensuring the election of Colorado Governor Garrett Walker ( Michel Gill ) as President . Walker 's Chief of Staff Linda Vasquez ( Sakina Jaffrey ) gives him this news prior to the January 2013 United States presidential inauguration . With the aid of Claire , and his fiercely loyal Chief of Staff Doug Stamper ( Michael Kelly ) , Underwood uses his position as House Whip to seek retribution . He quickly allies with Washington Herald reporter Zoe Barnes ( Kate Mara ) , whom he uses to undermine his rivals via the press . The viciousness of Underwood 's manipulations escalates over the course of the season . He befriends Pennsylvania Rep. Peter Russo ( Corey Stoll ) , encouraging him to quit drinking and run for Governor of Pennsylvania ; then his underlings create enough pressure in the race to push Russo into publicly falling off the wagon and ruining his career , and finally murders him and makes it look like suicide . He then persuades Vice President Jim Matthews ( Dan Ziskie ) to resign so he can run for the office he previously held , Governor of Pennsylvania , the race being wide open following Russo 's death . In the season finale , " Chapter 13 " , Underwood is appointed Vice President to replace Matthews .

= = = Season 2 = = =

Underwood assumes the position of Vice President of the United States . Over the course of the season , he " faces challenges from similarly ambitious businessmen , the Chinese government and Congress itself " as he continues to pursue his political aspirations . His plotline revolves around battles with billionaire Raymond Tusk ( Gerald McRaney ) , involving Chinese money laundering . Over the course of the season his biggest challenges are the institutional power of the Office of the President and Tusk 's power as a billionaire industrialist .

He finds new rivals in Tusk , who seeks to maintain his position as Walker 's right @-@ hand adviser against Underwood 's intrusion , and his former communications director , Remy Danton ( Mahershala Ali ) , who is now a lobbyist working with Tusk .

At the beginning of the season , Underwood is trying to erase all links to Russo 's death . Thus , he kills Barnes by shoving her in front of an oncoming Washington Metro train , and frames her colleague and lover Lucas Goodwin ( Sebastian Arcelus ) for cyberterrorism . Another early task for newly promoted Underwood is finding his own replacement as House Majority Whip . He supports Jacqueline Sharp ( Molly Parker ) , a military veteran and third @-@ term Representative from California , although he refrains from offering public backing .

Toward the end of the season , Underwood orchestrates Walker 's downfall . He secretly leaks the details of the money laundering , for which Walker is blamed . While publicly supporting Walker , Underwood works behind the scenes to have him impeached , with Sharp 's help . In the season finale , " Chapter 26 " , Walker resigns , and Underwood succeeds him as President of the United States .

= = = Season 3 = = =

Season 3 begins with Underwood 's presidency off to a rocky start : six months into his term , he is unpopular with the public , and Congress is blocking his attempts to move legislation forward . He plans to secure his legacy with an ambitious jobs bill , America Works , but the Democratic Congressional leadership refuses to support it ; they also tell him that they will not support him if he seeks the presidential nomination in the next election . To make matters worse , Claire 's nomination for United States Ambassador to the United Nations is defeated after she makes a gaffe during a Senate nomination hearing .

Underwood announces that he will not run for reelection , and advocates for America Works , which he intends to pay for by stripping entitlement programs . He fails to get the jobs bill through Congress and uses that as a reason to renege on his promise to not run in 2016 . Solicitor General Heather Dunbar ( Elizabeth Marvel ) announces that she will seek the presidential nomination , and actually gives Underwood a battle . Underwood convinces Sharp to get married so she can announce her candidacy , for the sole reason of sapping women ’ s votes from Dunbar , at which point she will withdraw and accept the nomination for VP . After the presidential debate , where Underwood attacks Dunbar and Sharp , she announces her withdrawal from the race , and gives her support to Dunbar . Ultimately , however , Underwood wins the Iowa caucuses .

Meanwhile , the Underwoods ' marriage is faltering . Underwood gives Claire the ambassador job in a recess appointment , but she is forced to resign in order to solve a diplomatic crisis . Claire begins to question whether she still loves her husband , and they get into an ugly fight in which he tells her that she is nothing without him . Season 3 ends with Claire leaving Underwood as he prepares for the New Hampshire primary .

= = = Season 4 = = =

Underwood trails Dunbar in the polls , eventually losing the New Hampshire primary . Realizing that he needs Claire to win , he persuades her to come back by promising to support her run for a Senate seat in Texas . However , he sandbags her prospective candidacy by endorsing a political ally 's daughter , in order to keep Claire focused on his campaign . On the day of the South Carolina primary , Claire retaliates by arranging for two compromising photos to be leaked : one of Underwood 's father with a Klansman , and one of Underwood posing with a Confederate Civil War re @-@ enactor , putting his campaign in jeopardy . Underwood deduces that Claire was behind the leaks , and confronts her . Claire calmly admits what she did , and puts forth a proposition : that she run as his vice president . He angrily rejects the idea .

Lucas Goodwin is released from prison and , seeking revenge for Barnes ' death , shoots Underwood at a campaign rally , hitting him in the liver . He also mortally wounds Meechum , who manages to kill him before succumbing to his wounds . Underwood is rushed to the hospital for immediate surgery , rendering him in a coma . It is soon discovered that he needs a liver transplant . Stamper manages to bump him to the top of the transplant list , and he survives . Once he recovers , he agrees to let Claire run as his vice president .

After Dunbar drops out of the race due to the discovery of a meeting she 'd had with Goodwin a few days before the attempt on Underwood 's life , Underwood begins planning to maneuver Claire into the VP spot and to use the NSA to illegally obtain voter information and spy on the Republican nominee , Will Conway ( Joel Kinnaman ) . This happens while Underwood and Claire advocate for a controversial gun control bill for the sole purpose of creating an atmosphere divisive enough to weed out potential running mates . During the resulting open convention , Underwood intimidates the front @-@ runner , Secretary of State Catherine Durant ( Jayne Atkinson ) , into surrendering her delegates , and uses the public sympathy from Claire 's mother 's death to ensure that he and Claire are nominated .

When American extremists loyal to the terrorist group Islamic Caliphate Organization ( ICO ) kidnaps a suburban family , Underwood allows Conway to negotiate with them , making his opponent look like a hero - and then releases NSA data that proves Conway illegally influenced Congress . Soon afterward , however , Underwood is hit with two crises at once : ICO 's leader orders his followers to kill one of the hostages , while journalist Tom Hammerschmidt ( Boris McGiver ) exposes Underwood 's crimes in the Washington Herald . Facing disgrace and possible impeachment , Underwood decides to declare war on ICO and allow the public to see the hostage die in order to distract from the scandal and create an atmosphere of widespread fear that he and Claire can exploit in the weeks before the election .

= = Critical response = =

= = = Season 1 = = =

The New York Times ' David Itzkoff called Underwood a " scheming politician " who does " some of the most evil and underhanded things imaginable " . Brian Stelter of The New York Times said Underwood " … is on a quest for power that ’ s just as suspenseful as anything on television . " New York Daily News critic Don Kaplan says " … conniving Congressman Frank Underwood , is easily one of the most complex antiheroes on TV — except he ’ s not on TV " . David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle describes the character as one who " all but salivates over the chance to use his considerable power to gain more power , especially if it involves pulling the rug out from under some colleagues and the wool over the eyes of others . "

Andrew Davies , the producer of the original UK TV series , feels that Underwood lacks the " charm " of the original character , Francis Urquhart .

The Independent praised Spacey 's portrayal as a more " menacing " character , " hiding his rage behind Southern charm and old @-@ fashioned courtesy , " while The New Republic noted that " When Urquhart addressed the audience , it was partly in the spirit of conspiratorial fun . His asides sparked with wit . He wasn 't just ruthlessly striving , he was amusing himself , mocking the ridiculousness of his milieu . There is no impishness about Spacey ’ s Frank Underwood , just numb , machine @-@ like ambition . Even his affection for his wife is a calculation . "

Poniewozik praises Underwood 's accent , saying " Spacey gives Underwood a silky Southern accent you could pour over crushed ice and sip with a sprig of mint on Derby Day . " Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal describes the accent as a " mild but sometimes missing Carolina accent " . Time listed Frank Underwood among the 11 most influential fictional characters in 2013 .

= = = Season 2 = = =

According The Kansas City Star 's Smith , " Frank hasn ’ t changed , and neither has his brand of Machiavellian political theater " and " Spacey has lost none of his smarmy magnetism as the cartoonish villain " . According to Variety 's Brian Lowry , " Kevin Spacey ’ s showy performance as an unscrupulous politician " is foremost among the show 's strengths , but the show 's weakness is the " failure to present its scheming protagonist with equally matched foes " . Lowry feels that as conniving as Underwood is , it is unfathomable that " nobody else in a town built on power seems particularly adept at recognizing this or combating him " . Goodman says " Spacey is nothing if not constantly magnetic " . The delayed use of the fourth wall is perceived as clever . Alison Willmore of Indiewire says that " Unlike Walter White or Tony Soprano , Frank feels at peace with his ruthless pragmatism and what he does in pursuit of power , and reminds us of the fact in his asides to the camera ... he may be a ruthless sociopath , but there 's something to admire there " . However Willmore noted that Frank became lighter in season 2 noting that the season was " ... delivered with more of a wink by Frank than before . "

Poniewozik notes that " It also remains a delight to watch Spacey pump the humid breath of life into House of Cards ’ arid Capitol chill . If only his character weren ’ t so dominant of his surroundings as well . One reason the series ’ movements can feel so mechanical is that , so far , no one seems nearly in Underwood ’ s league : not the adversaries he battles directly , nor the sad sacks that he gulls without their even knowing it . " Chuck Barney of the San Jose Mercury News notes that the preview episodes show that " Frank 's " Survivor " -like back @-@ stabbing is beginning to feel a bit repetitive . " and that his lack of an adversarial foil has become an issue : " ... things always seem to fall neatly into place for him . Even his showdowns with the president ( Michel Gill ) come off as one @-@ sided ... " Verne Gay of Newsday notes that " Frank Underwood has no remorse , no superannuated sense of Washington tradition or decorum , and certainly no second thoughts . He is TV 's perfect monster of the moment - a compleat malefactor , with a pleasing honey @-@ toned drawl . "

Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times says " By positing a Johnsonesque power broker and master schemer who wields cabalistic influence behind the scenes , House of Cards assigns order and purpose to what , in real life , is too often just an endless , baffling tick @-@ tack @-@ toe stalemate . " NPR 's Eric Deggans says that Underwood " blends velvety charm and mesmerizing menace like no other character on television " .

New York Observer critic Drew Grant notes that although the series aired during the golden age of dramatic antiheroes , Underwood 's villainy has become trite : " House of Cards is a good reminder , however , that there is a reason Iago wasn ’ t the center of Othello . Unrelenting , unexplained cruelty can be as pedantic as constant kindness . "

However , Hitfix reviewer , Alan Sepinwall was highly critical of Spacey 's performance and accused him of " hamming it up " and " phoning it in on a not very good show to begin with " .

= = = Season 3 = = =

Reviews for season 3 of House of Cards were mostly positive . However , a few critics found the Underwood character was becoming repetitive : the critical consensus on the review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes held that , " Season three introduces intriguing new political and personal elements to Frank Underwood 's character , even if it feels like more of the same for some . " Ed Power of The Daily Telegraph wrote , " Everyone in House of Cards has an agenda - a secret twitching in the attic . The thrill , and the horror , may lie in the degree to which we catch reflections of real life in its dark , cool contours . "

Some critics opined that the Underwood character is less interesting once he achieves his goal of becoming president and actually has to govern . " You could take the show seriously just as long as you didn ’ t have to take it seriously , as long as it only took place in the dream world of imaginary fantasy politics , " wrote Aaron Bady of The New Republic , who compared Underwood unfavorably with Josiah Bartlett of The West Wing . " But when a cartoon becomes president , it starts to look too fake to be real , but too real to be a cartoon . Frank plays the role of President Bartlett , a cartoon president doing things that would actually , in reality , be kind of great . But Bartlett was too good to be true , and the old Frank was too evil to be true . President Underwood is just too dull to be a fantasy , and so the props take center stage . "

Critics continued to praise Spacey 's performance , however . Don Kaplan of The New York Daily News wrote , " Underwood ’ s bottomless appetite for dark dealing keeps Spacey so deliciously detestable you can ’ t help but keep rooting for the bad guy to win . "

= = = Season 4 = = =

In season 4 , Jacob Solworthy wrote in his review of the first six episodes of season four : " Until now , ' House of Cards ' has centred on the character 's outward expression of power -- not to mention his hunger for it -- but the writers have shrewdly stripped that back , instead focusing on the character 's internal fears in a way not dissimilar from Tony 's dream sequences in ' The Sopranos ' , " he later added , " You 'll never root for Frank more than you do by the end of these six episodes . "

On the other hand , Daniel Fienberg from The Hollywood Reporter was critical of Spacey 's performance , writing : " Spacey 's performance , which at least had an appealingly theatrical extravagance when the series began , has grown less enjoyable . Having reached a pinnacle , there 's no way to root for Frank 's striving anymore , if you ever were , but House of Cards has yet to commit to urging us to root for Frank 's downfall . "

There was also considerable mention of the evolution of Underwood 's relationship with Claire . " [ T ] heir partnership has morphed into an entirely professional exercise , with a shared lust for power having supplanted more conventional matrimonial bonds , " wrote Brian Lowry of Variety . The Atlantic 's Spencer Kornhaber remarked , however , that the utter ruthlessness displayed by Underwoods in the season finale may have represented a " jump the shark " moment for the series : " The Underwoods have murdered a politician and a journalist , and some innocents have also been collateral damage to their activities . Now , though , they ’ ve set out to maintain their power at the cost of mass casualties . Netflix hasn ’ t said how many seasons are to come , but it ’ s hard to imagine the show being watchable for all that much longer now that this rubicon of despicability has been crossed . "

Some compared Underwood 's storyline in season 4 to the 2016 U.S. presidential election . Brian Moyland of The Guardian wrote , " ' House of Cards ' has never felt like the real presidency : Frank Underwood is evil incarnate , bumping off junior Congressmen and pushing journalists in front of trains . But now that , in real life , we 're in the throes of such a bizarre presidential race , his machinations are starting to look almost viable . There are several parallels between Underwood 's re @-@ election campaign and the 2016 campaigns of Donald Trump , Ted Cruz , Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders . "

= = = Awards and nominations = = =

At the 3rd Critics ' Choice Television Awards , Spacey was nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series for his portrayal of Underwood .

On July 18 , 2013 , Netflix earned the first Primetime Emmy Award nominations for original online only web television for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards . Three of its web series , Arrested Development , Hemlock Grove , and House of Cards , earned nominations . For the first time , three Primetime Emmy nominations for lead roles were from web television series : Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series to Spacey for his portrayal of Frank Underwood , Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series to Robin Wright for her portrayal of Claire Underwood , and Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series to Jason Bateman for his portrayal of Michael Bluth in Arrested Development . Spacey submitted " Chapter 1 " for consideration to earn his nomination . Spacey also earned a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Television Series Drama and a Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series nominations .

In season 2 , Spacey won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Series Drama at the 72nd Golden Globe Awards and Screen Actors Guild Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series at the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards , as well as nominations for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards and a Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding by an Ensemble in a Drama Series .

In season 3 , Spacey was nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards , his third nomination for the role . He also was nominated for both Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 22nd Screen Actors Guild Awards .

The season 4 performance earned a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards .

= Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement =

Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement is a poem written by English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1796 . Like his earlier poem The Eolian Harp , the poem discusses Coleridge 's understanding of nature and his married life , which was suffering from problems that developed after the previous poem . Overall , the poem focuses on humanity 's relationship with nature in its various aspects ranging from experiencing an Edenic state to having to abandon a unity with nature in order to fulfill a moral obligation to humanity . The discussion of man 's obligation to each other leads into a discussion on the difference between the life of a philosopher and the life of a poet . By the end of the poem , the narrator follows the philosophical path in a manner similar to what Coleridge sought to do . The response to the poem from critics was mostly positive with many of them emphasizing the religious aspects of the poem in their analysis .

= = Background = =

After marrying Sarah Fricker in autumn 1795 , Coleridge left their home at Clevedon and began to travel throughout England in order to meet with various philosophers and political theorists . In part , he was trying to meet with people so he could raise subscriptions for his various works . During this time , he would write home constantly to his pregnant wife and was concerned about her state of health . His feelings of guilt , along with a fever that he treated with laudanum , affected him greatly and caused him to express these feelings in a letter to Josiah Wade on 10 February 1796 : " My past life seems to me like a dream , a feverish dream ! all one gloomy huddle of strange actions , and dim @-@ discovered motives ! Friendships lost by indolence , and happiness murdered by mismanaged sensibilities . "

After the letter , Coleridge returned to his wife who was now living with her family at Redcliffe Hill , Bristol . As he wrote The Eolian Harp to commemorate coming to his home at Clevedon , Coleridge composed Reflections on Having Left a Place of Retirement on leaving it . The poem was not included in Coleridge 's 1796 collection of poems as it was probably still incomplete , but it was published in the October 1796 Monthly Magazine under the title Reflections on Entering into Active Life . A poem Which Affects Not to be Poetry . Reflections was included in Coleridge 's 28 October 1797 collection of poems and the collections that followed . Of his early poems , Coleridge believed that Reflections was his best .

= = Poem = =

The poem begins with an idealisation of a " Valley of Seclusion " :

In the open air

Our Myrtles blossom 'd ; and across the porch

Thick Jasmins twined : the little landscape round

Was green and woody , and refresh 'd the eye .

It was a spot which you might aptly call

The Valley of Seclusion ! ( lines 4 – 9 )

The poem continues with a goodbye to the valley and asks if his life of pleasure was appropriate :

I was constrain 'd to quit you . Was it right ,

While my unnumber 'd brethren toil 'd and bled ,

That I should dream away the entrusted hours

On rose @-@ leaf beds , pampering the coward heart

With feelings all too delicate for use ? ( lines 44 – 48 )

The narrator describes the reasons why he is leaving Clevedon along with the allowance of remembering his former life there after his work is done :

I therefore go , and join head , heart , and hand ,

Active and firm , to fight the bloodless fight

Of Science , Freedom , and the Truth in CHRIST .

Yet oft when after honourable toil

Rests the tir 'd mind , and waking loves to dream

My Spirit shall revisit thee , dear Cot ! ( lines 60 – 65 )

= = Themes = =

The themes of Reflections are connected to Coleridge 's The Eolian Harp as the scene for both is the same . The land of Clevedon is praised and seen full of life , and it serves as contrast to escaping from the real world into fantasy and pondering about the abstract . Both poems also describe Coleridge 's relationship with his wife and feelings of sexual desire . The imagination aspects of the poem represent an unwillingness to accept nature on its own and rejects the conclusion of The Eolian Harp . Although the land of Clevedon can bring one closer to God , one cannot just simply exist in such an area but must seek out truth .

Feeling the need to seek out truth creates a separation between the mind of a poet and the mind of a philosopher . The poem reconciles the two by allowing the pursuer of truth to reflect on his time of simply enjoying nature and God 's presence . However , the philosopher aspect is dominant and the individual must go out and try to help humanity . Nature can be soothing , but the narrator must reject the Edenic quality of nature because such a state is not yet appropriate . The Edenic imagery figures into many of Coleridge 's poems and is reinforced with the image of myrtle trees and takes on many forms within his poetry . In Reflections , to dwell in an Edenic state is a paradise in which the narrator leaves voluntarily because he cannot ignore the problems of the world like a coward . Instead , the individual is compelled to join with humanity and even the lowest form of benefiting humanity is superior to doing nothing at all .

The image of nature and other themes reappears in Fears in Solitude ( 1798 ) . The later poem recreates the " Valley of Seclusion " image in the form of a dell . Even the image of a passerby looking in on the cottage found in Reflection is repeated . Similarly , the compulsion to enter into the world and help humanity is included , but it is altered from being motivated by guilt to a warning message against a possible invasion from outside forces . As such , Fears in Solitude does not seek to leave the location to help humanity , but to stay as a protector over his family .

In Coleridge 's own life , he tried to follow the path of the philosopher , but the 10 July 1834 entry in Table Talk admits that he was unable to do so : " so I own I wish life and strength had been spared to me to complete my Philosophy . For , as God hears me , the originating , continuing , and sustaining wish and design in my heart were to exalt the glory of his name ; and , which is the same thing in other words , to promote the improvement of humanity . But visum aliter Deo , and his will be done . "

In terms of Coleridge 's marriage , Reflections differs from The Eolian Harp by saying that there were problems within the marriage , especially with it distracting Coleridge from nature and the world outside of the home that he shared with his wife . The poem expresses feelings of solitude and confinement , and there is a difference between the worlds inside and outside of the cottage in a similar manner to the focus found within Coleridge 's Kubla Khan . This is especially true with a focus from the private to the public spheres . Within the outside world , the poem 's narrator is separate from humanity , but his focus is ever on humanity and contains both a religious and political component . The image of " One Life " within the poem compels him to abandon the sensual pleasures of the cottage and to pursue a path of helping humanity .

= = Critical response = =

The Critical Review saw favor with " To the River Otter " and Reflections in their review of the 1797 collection of Coleridge 's poem . The July review claims that the poem " evince a feeling heart . The comparison between the weeping eyes of a humane friend and the unmoved face of another equally benevolent , and the contrast between the latter and those who merely affect sympathy , are well drawn . "

During the 20th century , Virginia Radley declares that Reflections " although not so striking in imagery as is the ' Eolian Harp , ' still has much to recommend it in this respect [ ... ] The impression left with the reader that the cottage and its surroundings are inestimably lovely , quiet , and peaceful is a paramount one , while the dead lines [ ... ] do not move the reader at all , except to make him wonder if the move from Clevedon for the cause of humanity was a necessary one . " Richard Haven argues that the poem 's image of the moral path is weak because " the returned traveller can only dismiss his ascent to another mode of being as a pleasant but useless memory " .

Anthony Harding believes " it is important to recognize that it steps outside the idyllic but circumscribed scene of ' The Eolian Harp ' , and admits the impossibility , in a fallen world , of human self @-@ sufficiency . " Oswald Doughty states that the " most important additions " to Coleridge 's 1797 edition of poems included Reflections . Richard Holmes points out that both Reflections and The Eolian Harp " mark a new stage in Coleridge 's exploration of the sacred relations between man and nature , which gradually become more serious and impassioned as they carry increasingly theological implications behind his Romanticism . "

= HMS Pioneer ( R76 ) =

HMS Pioneer was a Colossus @-@ class aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy during World War II . She was modified whilst under construction into an aircraft maintenance carrier . The ship arrived in Australia in mid @-@ 1945 to support operations by the British Pacific Fleet against Japanese forces . She supported the British attacks on the Japanese Home Islands from mid @-@ June until the end of the war in August from a base in the Admiralty Islands . The ship and her facilities were used to help repair Hong Kong 's infrastructure in late 1945 and she returned to the UK in early 1946 . Pioneer was immediately placed in reserve upon her arrival and she was sold in 1954 for scrap .

= = Design , description and construction = =

The Colossus @-@ class carriers were intended to meet a shortage of naval flight decks . Their design was based on that of the Illustrious @-@ class aircraft carriers , but modified to permit rapid construction in commercial yards . Pioneer was not completed to her original design ; the success of the maintenance aircraft carrier Unicorn prompted modification of the ship , whilst under construction , to an aircraft maintenance ship without aircraft catapults .

Pioneer had an overall length of 695 feet ( 211 @.@ 8 m ) , a beam of 80 feet 4 inches ( 24 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) at deep load . She displaced 12 @,@ 000 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 t ) at standard load . Each of the ship 's two sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one propeller shaft . Steam was supplied by four Admiralty three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers operating at a pressure of 400 psi ( 2 @,@ 758 kPa ; 28 kgf / cm2 ) . The turbines were designed for a total of 40 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave Pioneer a speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . The ship carried 3 @,@ 196 long tons ( 3 @,@ 247 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 8 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 700 km ; 9 @,@ 800 mi ) at 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) .

In order to maximize space for workshops and stores , the ship 's arresting gear and catapult were not fitted ; two large deckhouses were added to port of the island and on the rear of the flight deck . The ship had a single hangar , 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 33 m ) high . Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by two aircraft lifts ( elevators ) ; each measured 34 by 45 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m × 13 @.@ 7 m ) . Two large cranes were mounted on the flight deck to move aircraft and stores to and from the flight deck . The ship carried two small self @-@ propelled lighters to allow unflyable aircraft to be transferred between ships or to shore facilities . Bulk petrol storage consisted of 98 @,@ 600 imperial gallons ( 448 @,@ 000 l ; 118 @,@ 400 US gal ) . The ship 's crew totaled 854 , plus 222 in her aircraft repair department .

The ship was equipped with six quadruple mounts for the 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk VIII gun ( " pom @-@ pom " ) . These gun mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of + 80 ° . The Mk VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) 0 @.@ 91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute . She was also fitted with 19 Bofors 40 mm autocannon in single mounts . The Bofors fired a 0 @.@ 719 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 326 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 890 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . It had a rate of fire of about 120 rounds per minute and a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . All of the guns were mounted on the flight deck , not in sponsons on the side of the hull like her half @-@ sisters that were completed as aircraft carriers . Each " pom @-@ pom " mount was provided with a separate fire @-@ control director fitted with a Type 262 gunnery radar .

Pioneer was ordered on 7 August 1942 under the name Ethalion , but was renamed Mars later in 1942 . She was laid down at Vickers @-@ Armstrong in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness on 2 December and was launched on 20 May 1944 The ship was renamed Pioneer in July 1944 after the decision had been made to convert her to an aircraft maintenance ship. and was completed on 8 February 1945 .

= = Service = =

After working up , Pioneer sailed for Australia on 30 March 1945 . She arrived in Sydney on 13 May and was transferred to Manus Island , in the Admiralty Islands , on 21 June to prepare for operations off Japan . She was still there when Japan surrendered on 15 August and had repaired 24 aircraft since her arrival . Pioneer arrived in Hong Kong in late September to help with the rebuilding of the colony 's infrastructure . Her sailors restored power , telephone service and repaired trains and buses . She made one trip back to Manus , but was back in Hong Kong in late November . The ship sailed for Sydney the following month and departed for the UK on 17 February 1946 . Upon her arrival , she was placed in reserve . Pioneer was sold to Thomas W. Ward Ltd for scrap in September 1954 and broken up in Inverkeithing .

= Pythagorean theorem =

In mathematics , the Pythagorean theorem , also known as Pythagoras ' theorem , is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right triangle . It states that the square of the hypotenuse ( the side opposite the right angle ) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides . The theorem can be written as an equation relating the lengths of the sides a , b and c , often called the " Pythagorean equation " :

<formula>

where c represents the length of the hypotenuse and a and b the lengths of the triangle 's other two sides .

Although it is often argued that knowledge of the theorem predates him , the theorem is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Pythagoras ( c . 570 – c . 495 BC ) as it is he who , by tradition , is credited with its first recorded proof . There is some evidence that Babylonian mathematicians understood the formula , although little of it indicates an application within a mathematical framework . Mesopotamian , Indian and Chinese mathematicians all discovered the theorem independently and , in some cases , provided proofs for special cases .

The theorem has been given numerous proofs – possibly the most for any mathematical theorem . They are very diverse , including both geometric proofs and algebraic proofs , with some dating back thousands of years . The theorem can be generalized in various ways , including higher @-@ dimensional spaces , to spaces that are not Euclidean , to objects that are not right triangles , and indeed , to objects that are not triangles at all , but n @-@ dimensional solids . The Pythagorean theorem has attracted interest outside mathematics as a symbol of mathematical abstruseness , mystique , or intellectual power ; popular references in literature , plays , musicals , songs , stamps and cartoons abound .

= = Pythagorean proof = =

The Pythagorean Theorem was known long before Pythagoras , but he may well have been the first to prove it . In any event , the proof attributed to him is very simple , and is called a proof by rearrangement .

The two large squares shown in the figure each contain four identical triangles , and the only difference between the two large squares is that the triangles are arranged differently . Therefore , the white space within each of the two large squares must have equal area . Equating the area of the white space yields the Pythagorean Theorem , Q.E.D.

That Pythagoras originated this very simple proof is sometimes inferred from the writings of the later Greek philosopher and mathematician Proclus . Several other proofs of this theorem are described below , but this is known as the Pythagorean one .

= = Other forms of the theorem = =

As pointed out in the introduction , if c denotes the length of the hypotenuse and a and b denote the lengths of the other two sides , the Pythagorean theorem can be expressed as the Pythagorean equation :

<formula>

If the length of both a and b are known , then c can be calculated as

<formula>

If the length of the hypotenuse c and of one side ( a or b ) are known , then the length of the other side can be calculated as

<formula>

or

<formula>

The Pythagorean equation relates the sides of a right triangle in a simple way , so that if the lengths of any two sides are known the length of the third side can be found . Another corollary of the theorem is that in any right triangle , the hypotenuse is greater than any one of the other sides , but less than their sum .

A generalization of this theorem is the law of cosines , which allows the computation of the length of any side of any triangle , given the lengths of the other two sides and the angle between them . If the angle between the other sides is a right angle , the law of cosines reduces to the Pythagorean equation .

= = Other proofs of the theorem = =

This theorem may have more known proofs than any other ( the law of quadratic reciprocity being another contender for that distinction ) ; the book The Pythagorean Proposition contains 370 proofs .

= = = Proof using similar triangles = = =

This proof is based on the proportionality of the sides of two similar triangles , that is , upon the fact that the ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar triangles is the same regardless of the size of the triangles .

Let ABC represent a right triangle , with the right angle located at C , as shown on the figure . Draw the altitude from point C , and call H its intersection with the side AB . Point H divides the length of the hypotenuse c into parts d and e . The new triangle ACH is similar to triangle ABC , because they both have a right angle ( by definition of the altitude ) , and they share the angle at A , meaning that the third angle will be the same in both triangles as well , marked as θ in the figure . By a similar reasoning , the triangle CBH is also similar to ABC . The proof of similarity of the triangles requires the triangle postulate : the sum of the angles in a triangle is two right angles , and is equivalent to the parallel postulate . Similarity of the triangles leads to the equality of ratios of corresponding sides :

<formula>

The first result equates the cosines of the angles θ , whereas the second result equates their sines .

These ratios can be written as

<formula>

Summing these two equalities results in

<formula>

which , after simplification , expresses the Pythagorean theorem :

<formula>

The role of this proof in history is the subject of much speculation . The underlying question is why Euclid did not use this proof , but invented another . One conjecture is that the proof by similar triangles involved a theory of proportions , a topic not discussed until later in the Elements , and that the theory of proportions needed further development at that time .

= = = Euclid 's proof = = =

In outline , here is how the proof in Euclid 's Elements proceeds . The large square is divided into a left and right rectangle . A triangle is constructed that has half the area of the left rectangle . Then another triangle is constructed that has half the area of the square on the left @-@ most side . These two triangles are shown to be congruent , proving this square has the same area as the left rectangle . This argument is followed by a similar version for the right rectangle and the remaining square . Putting the two rectangles together to reform the square on the hypotenuse , its area is the same as the sum of the area of the other two squares . The details follow .

Let A , B , C be the vertices of a right triangle , with a right angle at A. Drop a perpendicular from A to the side opposite the hypotenuse in the square on the hypotenuse . That line divides the square on the hypotenuse into two rectangles , each having the same area as one of the two squares on the legs .

For the formal proof , we require four elementary lemmata :

If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other , each to each , and the angles included by those sides equal , then the triangles are congruent ( side @-@ angle @-@ side ) .

The area of a triangle is half the area of any parallelogram on the same base and having the same altitude .

The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of two adjacent sides .

The area of a square is equal to the product of two of its sides ( follows from 3 ) .

Next , each top square is related to a triangle congruent with another triangle related in turn to one of two rectangles making up the lower square .

The proof is as follows :

Let ACB be a right @-@ angled triangle with right angle CAB .

On each of the sides BC , AB , and CA , squares are drawn , CBDE , BAGF , and ACIH , in that order . The construction of squares requires the immediately preceding theorems in Euclid , and depends upon the parallel postulate .

From A , draw a line parallel to BD and CE . It will perpendicularly intersect BC and DE at K and L , respectively .

Join CF and AD , to form the triangles BCF and BDA .

Angles CAB and BAG are both right angles ; therefore C , A , and G are collinear . Similarly for B , A , and H.

Angles CBD and FBA are both right angles ; therefore angle ABD equals angle FBC , since both are the sum of a right angle and angle ABC .

Since AB is equal to FB and BD is equal to BC , triangle ABD must be congruent to triangle FBC .

Since A @-@ K @-@ L is a straight line , parallel to BD , then rectangle BDLK has twice the area of triangle ABD because they share the base BD and have the same altitude BK , i.e. , a line normal to their common base , connecting the parallel lines BD and AL . ( lemma 2 )

Since C is collinear with A and G , square BAGF must be twice in area to triangle FBC .

Therefore , rectangle BDLK must have the same area as square BAGF

= AB2 .

Similarly , it can be shown that rectangle CKLE must have the same area as square ACIH =

AC2 .

Adding these two results , AB2 + AC2

= BD × BK + KL × KC

Since BD =

KL , BD × BK + KL × KC

= BD ( BK + KC ) =

BD × BC

Therefore , AB2 + AC2 = BC2 , since CBDE is a square .

This proof , which appears in Euclid 's Elements as that of Proposition 47 in Book 1 , demonstrates that the area of the square on the hypotenuse is the sum of the areas of the other two squares . This is quite distinct from the proof by similarity of triangles , which is conjectured to be the proof that Pythagoras used .

= = = Proofs by dissection and rearrangement = = =

We have already discussed the Pythagorean proof , which was a proof by rearrangement . The same idea is conveyed by the leftmost animation below , which consists of a large square , side a + b , containing four identical right triangles . The triangles are shown in two arrangements , the first of which leaves two squares a2 and b2 uncovered , the second of which leaves square c2 uncovered . The area encompassed by the outer square never changes , and the area of the four triangles is the same at the beginning and the end , so the black square areas must be equal , therefore a2 + b2 = c2 .

A second proof by rearrangement is given by the middle animation . A large square is formed with area c2 , from four identical right triangles with sides a , b and c , fitted around a small central square . Then two rectangles are formed with sides a and b by moving the triangles . Combining the smaller square with these rectangles produces two squares of areas a2 and b2 , which must have the same area as the initial large square .

The third , rightmost image also gives a proof . The upper two squares are divided as shown by the blue and green shading , into pieces that when rearranged can be made to fit in the lower square on the hypotenuse – or conversely the large square can be divided as shown into pieces that fill the other two . This way of cutting one figure into pieces and rearranging them to get another figure is called dissection . This shows the area of the large square equals that of the two smaller ones .

= = = Einstein 's proof by dissection without rearrangement = = =

Albert Einstein gave a proof by dissection in which the pieces need not get moved . Instead of using a square on the hypotenuse and two squares on the legs , one can use any other shape that includes the hypotenuse , and two similar shapes that each include one of two legs instead of the hypotenuse . In Einstein 's proof , the shape that includes the hypotenuse is the right triangle itself . The dissection consists of dropping a perpendicular from the vertex of the right angle of the triangle to the hypotenuse , thus splitting the whole triangle into two parts . Those two parts have the same shape as the original right triangle , and have the legs of the original triangle as their hypotenuses , and the sum of their areas is that of the original triangle . Because the ratio of the area of a right triangle to the square of its hypotenuse is the same for similar triangles , the relationship between the areas of the three triangles holds for the squares of the sides of the large triangle as well .

= = = Algebraic proofs = = =

The theorem can be proved algebraically using four copies of a right triangle with sides a , b and c , arranged inside a square with side c as in the top half of the diagram . The triangles are similar with area <formula> , while the small square has side b − a and area ( b − a ) 2 . The area of the large square is therefore

<formula>

But this is a square with side c and area c2 , so

<formula>

A similar proof uses four copies of the same triangle arranged symmetrically around a square with side c , as shown in the lower part of the diagram . This results in a larger square , with side a + b and area ( a + b ) 2 . The four triangles and the square side c must have the same area as the larger square ,

<formula>

giving

<formula>

A related proof was published by future U.S. President James A. Garfield ( then a U.S. Representative ) . Instead of a square it uses a trapezoid , which can be constructed from the square in the second of the above proofs by bisecting along a diagonal of the inner square , to give the trapezoid as shown in the diagram . The area of the trapezoid can be calculated to be half the area of the square , that is

<formula>

The inner square is similarly halved , and there are only two triangles so the proof proceeds as above except for a factor of <formula> , which is removed by multiplying by two to give the result .

= = = Proof using differentials = = =

One can arrive at the Pythagorean theorem by studying how changes in a side produce a change in the hypotenuse and employing calculus .

The triangle ABC is a right triangle , as shown in the upper part of the diagram , with BC the hypotenuse . At the same time the triangle lengths are measured as shown , with the hypotenuse of length y , the side AC of length x and the side AB of length a , as seen in the lower diagram part .

If x is increased by a small amount dx by extending the side AC slightly to D , then y also increases by dy . These form two sides of a triangle , CDE , which ( with E chosen so CE is perpendicular to the hypotenuse ) is a right triangle approximately similar to ABC . Therefore , the ratios of their sides must be the same , that is :

<formula>

This can be rewritten as <formula> , which is a differential equation that can be solved by direct integration :

<formula>

giving

<formula>

The constant can be deduced from x

= 0 , y =

a to give the equation

<formula>

This is more of an intuitive proof than a formal one : it can be made more rigorous if proper limits are used in place of dx and dy .

= = Converse = =

The converse of the theorem is also true :

For any three positive numbers a , b , and c such that a2 + b2

= c2 , there exists a triangle with sides a , b and c , and every such triangle has a right angle between the sides of lengths a and b .

An alternative statement is :

For any triangle with sides a , b , c , if a2 + b2 =

c2 , then the angle between a and b measures 90 ° .

This converse also appears in Euclid 's Elements ( Book I , Proposition 48 ) :

" If in a triangle the square on one of the sides equals the sum of the squares on the remaining two sides of the triangle , then the angle contained by the remaining two sides of the triangle is right . "

It can be proven using the law of cosines or as follows :

Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a , b , and c , with a2 + b2

= c2 . Construct a second triangle with sides of length a and b containing a right angle . By the Pythagorean theorem , it follows that the hypotenuse of this triangle has length c =

√ a2 + b2 , the same as the hypotenuse of the first triangle . Since both triangles ' sides are the same lengths a , b and c , the triangles are congruent and must have the same angles . Therefore , the angle between the side of lengths a and b in the original triangle is a right angle .

The above proof of the converse makes use of the Pythagorean Theorem itself . The converse can also be proven without assuming the Pythagorean Theorem .

A corollary of the Pythagorean theorem 's converse is a simple means of determining whether a triangle is right , obtuse , or acute , as follows . Let c be chosen to be the longest of the three sides and a + b > c ( otherwise there is no triangle according to the triangle inequality ) . The following statements apply :

If a2 + b2

= c2 , then the triangle is right .

If a2 + b2 > c2 , then the triangle is acute .

If a2 + b2 < c2 , then the triangle is obtuse .

Edsger Dijkstra has stated this proposition about acute , right , and obtuse triangles in this language :

sgn ( α + β − γ ) =

sgn ( a2 + b2 − c2 ) ,

where α is the angle opposite to side a , β is the angle opposite to side b , γ is the angle opposite to side c , and sgn is the sign function .

= = Consequences and uses of the theorem = =

= = = Pythagorean triples = = =

A Pythagorean triple has three positive integers a , b , and c , such that a2 + b2 = c2 . In other words , a Pythagorean triple represents the lengths of the sides of a right triangle where all three sides have integer lengths . Evidence from megalithic monuments in Northern Europe shows that such triples were known before the discovery of writing . Such a triple is commonly written ( a , b , c ) . Some well @-@ known examples are ( 3 , 4 , 5 ) and ( 5 , 12 , 13 ) .

A primitive Pythagorean triple is one in which a , b and c are coprime ( the greatest common divisor of a , b and c is 1 ) .

The following is a list of primitive Pythagorean triples with values less than 100 :

( 3 , 4 , 5 ) , ( 5 , 12 , 13 ) , ( 7 , 24 , 25 ) , ( 8 , 15 , 17 ) , ( 9 , 40 , 41 ) , ( 11 , 60 , 61 ) , ( 12 , 35 , 37 ) , ( 13 , 84 , 85 ) , ( 16 , 63 , 65 ) , ( 20 , 21 , 29 ) , ( 28 , 45 , 53 ) , ( 33 , 56 , 65 ) , ( 36 , 77 , 85 ) , ( 39 , 80 , 89 ) , ( 48 , 55 , 73 ) , ( 65 , 72 , 97 )

= = = Incommensurable lengths = = =

One of the consequences of the Pythagorean theorem is that line segments whose lengths are incommensurable ( so the ratio of which is not a rational number ) can be constructed using a straightedge and compass . Pythagoras 's theorem enables construction of incommensurable lengths because the hypotenuse of a triangle is related to the sides by the square root operation .

The figure on the right shows how to construct line segments whose lengths are in the ratio of the square root of any positive integer . Each triangle has a side ( labeled " 1 " ) that is the chosen unit for measurement . In each right triangle , Pythagoras 's theorem establishes the length of the hypotenuse in terms of this unit . If a hypotenuse is related to the unit by the square root of a positive integer that is not a perfect square , it is a realization of a length incommensurable with the unit , such as √ 2 , √ 3 , √ 5 . For more detail , see Quadratic irrational .

Incommensurable lengths conflicted with the Pythagorean school 's concept of numbers as only whole numbers . The Pythagorean school dealt with proportions by comparison of integer multiples of a common subunit . According to one legend , Hippasus of Metapontum ( ca . 470 B.C. ) was drowned at sea for making known the existence of the irrational or incommensurable .

= = = Complex numbers = = =

For any complex number

<formula>

the absolute value or modulus is given by

<formula>

So the three quantities , r , x and y are related by the Pythagorean equation ,

<formula>

Note that r is defined to be a positive number or zero but x and y can be negative as well as positive . Geometrically r is the distance of the z from zero or the origin O in the complex plane .

This can be generalised to find the distance between two points , z1 and z2 say . The required distance is given by

<formula>

so again they are related by a version of the Pythagorean equation ,

<formula>

= = = Euclidean distance in various coordinate systems = = =

The distance formula in Cartesian coordinates is derived from the Pythagorean theorem . If ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) are points in the plane , then the distance between them , also called the Euclidean distance , is given by

<formula>

More generally , in Euclidean n @-@ space , the Euclidean distance between two points , <formula> and <formula> , is defined , by generalization of the Pythagorean theorem , as :

<formula>

If Cartesian coordinates are not used , for example , if polar coordinates are used in two dimensions or , in more general terms , if curvilinear coordinates are used , the formulas expressing the Euclidean distance are more complicated than the Pythagorean theorem , but can be derived from it . A typical example where the straight @-@ line distance between two points is converted to curvilinear coordinates can be found in the applications of Legendre polynomials in physics . The formulas can be discovered by using Pythagoras 's theorem with the equations relating the curvilinear coordinates to Cartesian coordinates . For example , the polar coordinates ( r , θ ) can be introduced as :

<formula>

Then two points with locations ( r1 , θ1 ) and ( r2 , θ2 ) are separated by a distance s :

<formula>

Performing the squares and combining terms , the Pythagorean formula for distance in Cartesian coordinates produces the separation in polar coordinates as :

<formula>

using the trigonometric product @-@ to @-@ sum formulas . This formula is the law of cosines , sometimes called the Generalized Pythagorean Theorem . From this result , for the case where the radii to the two locations are at right angles , the enclosed angle Δθ = π / 2 , and the form corresponding to Pythagoras 's theorem is regained : <formula> The Pythagorean theorem , valid for right triangles , therefore is a special case of the more general law of cosines , valid for arbitrary triangles .

= = = Pythagorean trigonometric identity = = =

In a right triangle with sides a , b and hypotenuse c , trigonometry determines the sine and cosine of the angle θ between side a and the hypotenuse as :

<formula>

From that it follows :

<formula>

where the last step applies Pythagoras 's theorem . This relation between sine and cosine is sometimes called the fundamental Pythagorean trigonometric identity . In similar triangles , the ratios of the sides are the same regardless of the size of the triangles , and depend upon the angles . Consequently , in the figure , the triangle with hypotenuse of unit size has opposite side of size sin θ and adjacent side of size cos θ in units of the hypotenuse .

= = = Relation to the cross product = = =

The Pythagorean theorem relates the cross product and dot product in a similar way :

<formula>

This can be seen from the definitions of the cross product and dot product , as

<formula>

with n a unit vector normal to both a and b . The relationship follows from these definitions and the Pythagorean trigonometric identity .

This can also be used to define the cross product . By rearranging the following equation is obtained

<formula>

This can be considered as a condition on the cross product and so part of its definition , for example in seven dimensions .

= = Generalizations = =

= = = Similar figures on the three sides = = =

A generalization of the Pythagorean theorem extending beyond the areas of squares on the three sides to similar figures was known by Hippocrates of Chios in the 5th century BC , and was included by Euclid in his Elements :

If one erects similar figures ( see Euclidean geometry ) with corresponding sides on the sides of a right triangle , then the sum of the areas of the ones on the two smaller sides equals the area of the one on the larger side .

This extension assumes that the sides of the original triangle are the corresponding sides of the three congruent figures ( so the common ratios of sides between the similar figures are a : b : c ) . While Euclid 's proof only applied to convex polygons , the theorem also applies to concave polygons and even to similar figures that have curved boundaries ( but still with part of a figure 's boundary being the side of the original triangle ) .

The basic idea behind this generalization is that the area of a plane figure is proportional to the square of any linear dimension , and in particular is proportional to the square of the length of any side . Thus , if similar figures with areas A , B and C are erected on sides with corresponding lengths a , b and c then :

<formula>

<formula>

But , by the Pythagorean theorem , a2 + b2

= c2 , so A + B =

C.

Conversely , if we can prove that A + B

= C for three similar figures without using the Pythagorean theorem , then we can work backwards to construct a proof of the theorem . For example , the starting center triangle can be replicated and used as a triangle C on its hypotenuse , and two similar right triangles ( A and B ) constructed on the other two sides , formed by dividing the central triangle by its altitude . The sum of the areas of the two smaller triangles therefore is that of the third , thus A + B =

C and reversing the above logic leads to the Pythagorean theorem a2 + b2 = c2 .

= = = Law of cosines = = =

The Pythagorean theorem is a special case of the more general theorem relating the lengths of sides in any triangle , the law of cosines :

<formula>

where θ is the angle between sides a and b .

When θ is 90 degrees ( π / 2 radians ) , then cosθ = 0 , and the formula reduces to the usual Pythagorean theorem .

= = = Arbitrary triangle = = =

At any selected angle of a general triangle of sides a , b , c , inscribe an isosceles triangle such that the equal angles at its base θ are the same as the selected angle . Suppose the selected angle θ is opposite the side labeled c . Inscribing the isosceles triangle forms triangle ABD with angle θ opposite side a and with side r along c . A second triangle is formed with angle θ opposite side b and a side with length s along c , as shown in the figure . Thābit ibn Qurra stated that the sides of the three triangles were related as :

<formula>

As the angle θ approaches π / 2 , the base of the isosceles triangle narrows , and lengths r and s overlap less and less . When θ

= π / 2 , ADB becomes a right triangle , r + s =

c , and the original Pythagorean theorem is regained .

One proof observes that triangle ABC has the same angles as triangle ABD , but in opposite order . ( The two triangles share the angle at vertex B , both contain the angle θ , and so also have the same third angle by the triangle postulate . ) Consequently , ABC is similar to the reflection of ABD , the triangle DBA in the lower panel . Taking the ratio of sides opposite and adjacent to θ ,

<formula>

Likewise , for the reflection of the other triangle ,

<formula>

Clearing fractions and adding these two relations :

<formula>

the required result .

The theorem remains valid if the angle <formula> is obtuse so the lengths r and s are non @-@ overlapping .

= = = General triangles using parallelograms = = =

Pappus 's area theorem is a further generalization , that applies to triangles that are not right triangles , using parallelograms on the three sides in place of squares ( squares are a special case , of course ) . The upper figure shows that for a scalene triangle , the area of the parallelogram on the longest side is the sum of the areas of the parallelograms on the other two sides , provided the parallelogram on the long side is constructed as indicated ( the dimensions labeled with arrows are the same , and determine the sides of the bottom parallelogram ) . This replacement of squares with parallelograms bears a clear resemblance to the original Pythagoras 's theorem , and was considered a generalization by Pappus of Alexandria in 4 A.D.

The lower figure shows the elements of the proof . Focus on the left side of the figure . The left green parallelogram has the same area as the left , blue portion of the bottom parallelogram because both have the same base b and height h . However , the left green parallelogram also has the same area as the left green parallelogram of the upper figure , because they have the same base ( the upper left side of the triangle ) and the same height normal to that side of the triangle . Repeating the argument for the right side of the figure , the bottom parallelogram has the same area as the sum of the two green parallelograms .

= = = Solid geometry = = =

In terms of solid geometry , Pythagoras 's theorem can be applied to three dimensions as follows . Consider a rectangular solid as shown in the figure . The length of diagonal BD is found from Pythagoras 's theorem as :

<formula>

where these three sides form a right triangle . Using horizontal diagonal BD and the vertical edge AB , the length of diagonal AD then is found by a second application of Pythagoras 's theorem as :

<formula>

or , doing it all in one step :

<formula>

This result is the three @-@ dimensional expression for the magnitude of a vector v ( the diagonal AD ) in terms of its orthogonal components { vk } ( the three mutually perpendicular sides ) :

<formula>

This one @-@ step formulation may be viewed as a generalization of Pythagoras 's theorem to higher dimensions . However , this result is really just the repeated application of the original Pythagoras 's theorem to a succession of right triangles in a sequence of orthogonal planes .

A substantial generalization of the Pythagorean theorem to three dimensions is de Gua 's theorem , named for Jean Paul de Gua de Malves : If a tetrahedron has a right angle corner ( like a corner of a cube ) , then the square of the area of the face opposite the right angle corner is the sum of the squares of the areas of the other three faces . This result can be generalized as in the " n @-@ dimensional Pythagorean theorem " :

Let <formula> be orthogonal vectors in ℝn . Consider the n @-@ dimensional simplex S with vertices <formula> . ( Think of the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional simplex with vertices <formula> not including the origin as the " hypotenuse " of S and the remaining ( n − 1 ) -dimensional faces of S as its " legs " . ) Then the square of the volume of the hypotenuse of S is the sum of the squares of the volumes of the n legs .

This statement is illustrated in three dimensions by the tetrahedron in the figure . The " hypotenuse " is the base of the tetrahedron at the back of the figure , and the " legs " are the three sides emanating from the vertex in the foreground . As the depth of the base from the vertex increases , the area of the " legs " increases , while that of the base is fixed . The theorem suggests that when this depth is at the value creating a right vertex , the generalization of Pythagoras 's theorem applies . In a different wording :

Given an n @-@ rectangular n @-@ dimensional simplex , the square of the ( n − 1 ) -content of the facet opposing the right vertex will equal the sum of the squares of the ( n − 1 ) -contents of the remaining facets .

= = = Inner product spaces = = =

The Pythagorean theorem can be generalized to inner product spaces , which are generalizations of the familiar 2 @-@ dimensional and 3 @-@ dimensional Euclidean spaces . For example , a function may be considered as a vector with infinitely many components in an inner product space , as in functional analysis .

In an inner product space , the concept of perpendicularity is replaced by the concept of orthogonality : two vectors v and w are orthogonal if their inner product <formula> is zero . The inner product is a generalization of the dot product of vectors . The dot product is called the standard inner product or the Euclidean inner product . However , other inner products are possible .

The concept of length is replaced by the concept of the norm | | v | | of a vector v , defined as :

<formula>

In an inner @-@ product space , the Pythagorean theorem states that for any two orthogonal vectors v and w we have

<formula>

Here the vectors v and w are akin to the sides of a right triangle with hypotenuse given by the vector sum v + w . This form of the Pythagorean theorem is a consequence of the properties of the inner product :

<formula>

where the inner products of the cross terms are zero , because of orthogonality .

A further generalization of the Pythagorean theorem in an inner product space to non @-@ orthogonal vectors is the parallelogram law :

<formula>

which says that twice the sum of the squares of the lengths of the sides of a parallelogram is the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals . Any norm that satisfies this equality is ipso facto a norm corresponding to an inner product .

The Pythagorean identity can be extended to sums of more than two orthogonal vectors . If v1 , v2 , ... , vn are pairwise @-@ orthogonal vectors in an inner @-@ product space , then application of the Pythagorean theorem to successive pairs of these vectors ( as described for 3 @-@ dimensions in the section on solid geometry ) results in the equation

<formula>

= = = Sets of m @-@ dimensional objects in n @-@ dimensional space = = =

The broadest generalization of the Pythagorean theorem , introduced by Donald R. Conant and William A. Beyer , applies to a wide range of objects and sets of objects in any number of dimensions . Specifically , the square of the measure of an m @-@ dimensional set of objects in one or more parallel m @-@ dimensional flats in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space is equal to the sum of the squares of the measures of the orthogonal projections of the object ( s ) onto all m @-@ dimensional coordinate subspaces .

In mathematical terms :

<formula>

where :

<formula> is a measure in m @-@ dimensions ( a length in one dimension , an area in two dimensions , a volume in three dimensions , etc . ) .

<formula> is a set of one or more non @-@ overlapping m @-@ dimensional objects in one or more parallel m @-@ dimensional flats in n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space .

<formula> is the total measure ( sum ) of the set of m @-@ dimensional objects .

<formula> represents an m @-@ dimensional projection of the original set onto an orthogonal coordinate subspace .

<formula> is the measure of the m @-@ dimensional set projection onto m @-@ dimensional coordinate subspace <formula> . Because object projections can overlap on a coordinate subspace , the measure of each object projection in the set must be calculated individually , then measures of all projections added together to provide the total measure for the set of projections on the given coordinate subspace .

<formula> is the number of orthogonal , m @-@ dimensional coordinate subspaces in n @-@ dimensional space ( Rn ) onto which the m @-@ dimensional objects are projected ( m ≤ n ) :

<formula>

For example , for a set of one or more two @-@ dimensional parallel objects in three @-@ dimensional space , m

= 2 and n =

3 . Therefore , the coordinate subspace calculation for this scenario is : x

= 3 ! / 2 ! ( 3 @-@ 2 ) ! =

3 * 2 * 1 / 2 * 1 * 1

= 6 / 2 =

3

Thus , three coordinate planes ( xy @-@ plane , xz @-@ plane , and yz @-@ plane ) are required to capture the necessary projections for calculating the area of the set . If the set contained one @-@ dimensional parallel line segments instead , three coordinate axes ( x , y , and z ) , rather than planes , would be needed to capture the projections for calculating the length of the set .

= = = = Applied to sets containing a single object = = = =

This generalized formula can be applied in the simplest case to a single one @-@ dimensional object , a line segment , in two @-@ dimensional space . The animation illustrates this case with a line segment shown in blue and its projections onto the x- and y- axes shown in green . The lengths of the projections squared and added together are equal to the length of the original line segment squared . This produces the familiar Pythagorean theorem formula :

<formula>

where c is the length of the original line segment , a is the length of the segment projected onto the x @-@ axis , and b is the length of the segment projected onto the y @-@ axis . In the animation , a2

= 27 , b2 =

9 , and c2 = 36 . Bringing the line segment together with its coordinate projections forms the traditional right triangle .

Similarly , for any two @-@ dimensional object in three @-@ dimensional space , the formula can be stated as :

<formula>

where D is the area of a specified two @-@ dimensional object , A is the area of the object 's projection onto the xy @-@ coordinate plane , B is the area of the object 's projection onto the xz @-@ coordinate plane , and C is the area of the object 's projection onto the yz @-@ coordinate plane .

The animation showing a blue three @-@ by @-@ three square object in three dimensions of space illustrates this application of the generalization to an object of more than one dimension . As the orientation of the object changes , the proportions of the green coordinate plane projections adjust accordingly , so the squares of the areas of the projections always add up to the same value : the square of the area of the original object . In this case , the sum of the squares of the projection areas always add up to 81 .

= = = = Applied to sets containing multiple objects = = = =

The generalization applies equally to sets of multiple objects , as long as they are in the same plane or parallel planes . The measures of the objects in such a set can be added together and essentially treated as a single object . The multiple line @-@ segment animation illustrates the generalization applied to a set of three one @-@ dimensional objects in three dimensions of space . In this case , two sequential line segments exist in parallel to a third line segment . Because lines are one @-@ dimensional , the coordinate subspaces onto which they are projected must also be one @-@ dimensional . Thus , projections appear on the coordinate axes rather than on the coordinate planes . The lengths of the projected line segments on a given axis are summed , then squared , then added to the total lengths squared on the other axes . The result is the squared sum of the lengths of the original line segments . For the sake of simplicity , when projections are single points of zero length , they are not shown , since they do not affect the calculations .

The generalization applies to flat objects of any shape , regular or irregular . The multi @-@ object animation illustrates the use of the generalization on a set of several different objects in different planes – in this case , a triangle and a circle on one plane , and a flat cat on a parallel plane ( shown in blue ) . Projections of the set are shown in green on the coordinate plane subspaces . Objects shown initially upright in the yz @-@ plane are subsequently tilted in parallel . Again , regardless of set orientation , the result remains the same . On each coordinate plane subspace , the areas of object projections are calculated individually ( to avoid miscalculations due to projection overlap ) , then added together to produce the total projection area of the set on that plane . The projection set area is then squared for each coordinate plane . The sum of all projection set areas squared is always equal to the original set area squared .

= = = = Applied in any number of dimensions = = = =

This generalization holds regardless of the number of dimensions involved . The volume squared for a three @-@ dimensional object or set can be calculated by summing the squares of the volumes of the associated three @-@ dimensional projections onto three @-@ dimensional subspaces . Any number of dimensions is valid for the set as long as one uses the same number of dimensions for the coordinate subspaces and projections .

It is the built @-@ in symmetry of the Cartesian coordinate system where coordinates are orthogonal vectors of unit length in flat Euclidean space that allows this generalization to apply so broadly .

= = = Non @-@ Euclidean geometry = = =

The Pythagorean theorem is derived from the axioms of Euclidean geometry , and in fact , the Pythagorean theorem given above does not hold in a non @-@ Euclidean geometry . ( The Pythagorean theorem has been shown , in fact , to be equivalent to Euclid 's Parallel ( Fifth ) Postulate . ) In other words , in non @-@ Euclidean geometry , the relation between the sides of a triangle must necessarily take a non @-@ Pythagorean form . For example , in spherical geometry , all three sides of the right triangle ( say a , b , and c ) bounding an octant of the unit sphere have length equal to π / 2 , and all its angles are right angles , which violates the Pythagorean theorem because a2 + b2 ≠ c2 .

Here two cases of non @-@ Euclidean geometry are considered — spherical geometry and hyperbolic plane geometry ; in each case , as in the Euclidean case for non @-@ right triangles , the result replacing the Pythagorean theorem follows from the appropriate law of cosines .

However , the Pythagorean theorem remains true in hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry if the condition that the triangle be right is replaced with the condition that two of the angles sum to the third , say A + B = C. The sides are then related as follows : the sum of the areas of the circles with diameters a and b equals the area of the circle with diameter c .

= = = = Spherical geometry = = = =

For any right triangle on a sphere of radius R ( for example , if γ in the figure is a right angle ) , with sides a , b , c , the relation between the sides takes the form :

<formula>

This equation can be derived as a special case of the spherical law of cosines that applies to all spherical triangles :

<formula>

By expressing the Maclaurin series for the cosine function as an asymptotic expansion with the remainder term in big O notation ,

<formula>

it can be shown that as the radius R approaches infinity and the arguments a / R , b / R , and c / R tend to zero , the spherical relation between the sides of a right triangle approaches the Euclidean form of the Pythagorean theorem . Substituting the asymptotic expansion for each of the cosines into the spherical relation for a right triangle yields

<formula>

The constants a4 , b4 , and c4 have been absorbed into the big O remainder terms since they are independent of the radius R. This asymptotic relationship can be further simplified by multiplying out the bracketed quantities , cancelling the ones , multiplying through by − 2 , and collecting all the error terms together :

<formula>

After multiplying through by R2 , the Euclidean Pythagorean relationship c2 = a2 + b2 is recovered in the limit as the radius R approaches infinity ( since the remainder term tends to zero ) :

<formula>

For small right triangles ( a , b < < R ) , the cosines can be eliminated to avoid loss of significance , giving

<formula>

= = = = Hyperbolic geometry = = = =

In a hyperbolic space with uniform curvature − 1 / R2 , for a right triangle with legs a , b , and hypotenuse c , the relation between the sides takes the form :

<formula>

where cosh is the hyperbolic cosine . This formula is a special form of the hyperbolic law of cosines that applies to all hyperbolic triangles :

<formula>

with γ the angle at the vertex opposite the side c .

By using the Maclaurin series for the hyperbolic cosine , cosh x ≈ 1 + x2 / 2 , it can be shown that as a hyperbolic triangle becomes very small ( that is , as a , b , and c all approach zero ) , the hyperbolic relation for a right triangle approaches the form of Pythagoras 's theorem .

For small right triangles ( a , b < < R ) , the hyperbolic cosines can be eliminated to avoid loss of significance , giving

<formula>

= = = = Very small triangles = = = =

For any uniform curvature K ( positive , zero , or negative ) , in very small right triangles ( | K | a2 , | K | b2 < < 1 ) with hypotenuse c , it can be shown that

<formula>

= = = Differential geometry = = =

On an infinitesimal level , in three dimensional space , Pythagoras 's theorem describes the distance between two infinitesimally separated points as :

<formula>

with ds the element of distance and ( dx , dy , dz ) the components of the vector separating the two points . Such a space is called a Euclidean space . However , in Riemannian geometry , a generalization of this expression useful for general coordinates ( not just Cartesian ) and general spaces ( not just Euclidean ) takes the form :

<formula>

which is called the metric tensor . ( Sometimes , by abuse of language , the same term is applied to the set of coefficients gij . ) It may be a function of position , and often describes curved space . A simple example is Euclidean ( flat ) space expressed in curvilinear coordinates . For example , in polar coordinates :

<formula>

= = History = =

There is debate whether the Pythagorean theorem was discovered once , or many times in many places , and the date of first discovery is uncertain , as is the date of the first proof . According to Joran Friberg , a historian of mathematics , evidence indicates that the Pythagorean Theorem was well @-@ known to the mathematicians of the First Babylonian Dynasty ( 20th to 16th centuries BC ) , which would have been over a thousand years before Pythagoras was born . ( Yale 's Institute for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage 's 3 @-@ D scan of a cuneiform tablet depicting the proof is one of their mostly widely used images . ) Other sources , such as a book by Leon Lederman and Dick Teresi , mention that Pythagoras discovered the theorem , although Teresi subsequently stated that the Babylonians developed the theorem " at least fifteen hundred years before Pythagoras was born . " The history of the theorem can be divided into four parts : knowledge of Pythagorean triples , knowledge of the relationship among the sides of a right triangle , knowledge of the relationships among adjacent angles , and proofs of the theorem within some deductive system .

Bartel Leendert van der Waerden ( 1903 – 1996 ) conjectured that Pythagorean triples were discovered algebraically by the Babylonians . Written between 2000 and 1786 BC , the Middle Kingdom Egyptian Berlin Papyrus 6619 includes a problem whose solution is the Pythagorean triple 6 : 8 : 10 , but the problem does not mention a triangle . The Mesopotamian tablet Plimpton 322 , written between 1790 and 1750 BC during the reign of Hammurabi the Great , contains many entries closely related to Pythagorean triples .

In India , the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra , the dates of which are given variously as between the 8th and 5th century BC , contains a list of Pythagorean triples discovered algebraically , a statement of the Pythagorean theorem , and a geometrical proof of the Pythagorean theorem for an isosceles right triangle . The Apastamba Sulba Sutra ( c . 600 BC ) contains a numerical proof of the general Pythagorean theorem , using an area computation . Van der Waerden believed that " it was certainly based on earlier traditions " . Carl Boyer states that the Pythagorean theorem in Śulba @-@ sũtram may have been influenced by ancient Mesopotamian math , but there is no conclusive evidence in favor or opposition of this possibility .

With contents known much earlier , but in surviving texts dating from roughly the 1st century BC , the Chinese text Zhou Bi Suan Jing ( 周髀算经 ) , ( The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven ) gives a reasoning for the Pythagorean theorem for the ( 3 , 4 , 5 ) triangle — in China it is called the " Gougu Theorem " ( 勾股定理 ) . During the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC to 220 AD ) , Pythagorean triples appear in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art , together with a mention of right triangles . Some believe the theorem arose first in China , where it is alternatively known as the " Shang Gao Theorem " ( 商高定理 ) , named after the Duke of Zhou 's astronomer and mathematician , whose reasoning composed most of what was in the Zhou Bi Suan Jing .

Pythagoras , whose dates are commonly given as 569 – 475 BC , used algebraic methods to construct Pythagorean triples , according to Proclus 's commentary on Euclid . Proclus , however , wrote between 410 and 485 AD . According to Thomas L. Heath ( 1861 – 1940 ) , no specific attribution of the theorem to Pythagoras exists in the surviving Greek literature from the five centuries after Pythagoras lived . However , when authors such as Plutarch and Cicero attributed the theorem to Pythagoras , they did so in a way which suggests that the attribution was widely known and undoubted . " Whether this formula is rightly attributed to Pythagoras personally , [ ... ] one can safely assume that it belongs to the very oldest period of Pythagorean mathematics . "

Around 400 BC , according to Proclus , Plato gave a method for finding Pythagorean triples that combined algebra and geometry . Around 300 BC , in Euclid 's Elements , the oldest extant axiomatic proof of the theorem is presented .

= = In popular culture = =

The Pythagorean theorem has arisen in popular culture in a variety of ways .

John Aubrey in his Brief Lives records of Thomas Hobbes that " He was forty years old before he looked on geometry ; which happened accidentally . Being in a gentleman 's library Euclid 's Elements lay open , and ' twas the forty @-@ seventh proposition * in the first book . He read the proposition . ' By G , ' said he , ' this is impossible ! ' So he reads the demonstration of it , which referred him back to such a proof ; which referred him back to another , which he also read . Et sic deinceps , that at last he was demonstratively convinced of that truth . This made him in love with geometry . "

Hans Christian Andersen wrote in 1831 a poem about the Pythagorean theorem : Formens Evige Magie ( Et poetisk Spilfægteri ) .

A verse of the Major @-@ General 's Song in the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera The Pirates of Penzance , " About binomial theorem I 'm teeming with a lot o ' news , With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse " , makes an oblique reference to the theorem .

The Scarecrow in the film The Wizard of Oz makes a more specific reference to the theorem . Upon receiving his diploma from the Wizard , he immediately exhibits his " knowledge " by reciting a mangled and incorrect version of the theorem : " The sum of the square roots of any two sides of an isosceles triangle is equal to the square root of the remaining side . Oh , joy ! Oh , rapture ! I 've got a brain ! "

In 2000 , Uganda released a coin with the shape of an isosceles right triangle . The coin 's tail has an image of Pythagoras and the equation α2 + β2 = γ2 , accompanied with the mention " PYTHAGORAS MILLENNIUM " .

Greece , Japan , San Marino , Sierra Leone , and Suriname have issued postage stamps depicting Pythagoras and the Pythagorean theorem .

In Neal Stephenson 's speculative fiction Anathem , the Pythagorean theorem is referred to as ' the Adrakhonic theorem ' . A geometric proof of the theorem is displayed on the side of an alien ship to demonstrate the aliens ' understanding of mathematics .

= Signs and Wonders ( The X @-@ Files ) =

" Signs and Wonders " is the ninth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 23 , 2000 . It was written by Jeffrey Bell , directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Signs and Wonders " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 5 , being watched by 13 @.@ 86 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the Church of God with Signs and Wonders , a church where the Bible is read literally , and punishment is dealt deftly , after a small town church is the site of a number of ritualistic @-@ like murders . But soon the agents realize that the difference between the peaceful religious and the fanatics may not be very much at all .

Bell wished to write a " down @-@ and @-@ dirty " horror story about a snake @-@ handling church . Furthermore , Bell wanted the true antagonist of the episode to remain hidden until the very end . In order to do this , the script was written so that Mulder suspected the wrong individual . According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz , the theme of the episode was " intolerance can be good " , in some cases . The episode used live rattlesnakes ; at any one time , there were between six and fifty snakes on the set .

= = Plot = =

In Blessing , Tennessee , Jared Chirp , while attempting to flee his home , is attacked by rattlesnakes inside his car and killed . Federal agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , after conferring with the completely ordinary Reverend Mackey , go to Reverend Enoch O 'Connor 's church , Church of God with Signs and Wonders , where Biblical literalism is stressed and snakes are used during his services . As such , O 'Connor becomes the prime suspect . Later , a woman named Iris , tells Reverend Mackey that she feels guilty because Jared called her on the night he died in order to talk to his girlfriend , Gracie . Iris , however , refused because Gracie was in bed . Later that night , Iris is bitten when her staple remover turns into a snake ; she promptly goes into the bathroom to clean up but is killed when snakes appear everywhere in the bathroom .

Gracie is questioned by Mulder and Scully about O 'Connor because she is a former member of his church . The two agents discover that she is , in fact , O 'Connor 's daughter and was kicked out of his congregation and home when she became pregnant . The agents go back to O 'Connor 's church and Scully is attacked by O 'Connor , who attempts to stick her head in a box of snakes . He is promptly arrested . Later , while in his cell , he is attacked by snakes in his cell , but is not killed . O 'Connor later wakes up in the hospital and is visited by Gracie . O 'Connor then takes Gracie and leaves the hospital . Reverend Mackey tells Mulder and Scully that Enoch O 'Connor is the father of Gracie 's child .

Meanwhile , O 'Connor takes Gracie back to his church and baptizes her . Suddenly , she goes into labor and gives birth to live snakes . O 'Connor goes to Mackey 's church and attempts to kill him , but Mulder intervenes and saves Mackey . In the ambulance , Gracie tells Scully that Mackey was the real murderer , and the father of Gracie 's baby . He killed everyone to keep the fact that he was the father a secret and in order to destroy O 'Connor . Back at the church , Mulder realizes O 'Connor was innocent all along , but Mackey summons snakes who promptly attack Mulder . Luckily , Scully is able to break down the door and save Mulder . Mackey , unfortunately , disappears to Connecticut , changes his name to Reverend Wells , and starts another church . The episode ends with a snake coming out of Mackey 's mouth and eating a mouse .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

" Signs and Wonders " was written by The X @-@ Files staff writer Jeffrey Bell . Bell had long desired to write a " down @-@ and @-@ dirty " horror story for the series . In addition , he had informally studied the practice of snake handling , concluding that " anything involving snakes would be scary and I saw the church stuff as something that would be really fascinating . " However , unlike most stories featuring the radical religious , the theme of the episode was that in certain circumstances , " intolerance can be good " , according to executive producer Frank Spotnitz .

Bell " wanted the snake church people to end up being the good guys . " However , the trick would be to disguise the real bad guys in plain sight . According to Bell , " The way the shows usually work out , Mulder is the one to figure out who the bad guys are . So I went into the story meeting with the idea of having Mulder being wrong . Because Mulder believes so strong it 's the other guy , it helped hide the true identity of the bad guy from the audience . "

During the snake handling scene at the Church of God with Signs and Wonders , the song being sung by the congregation is called " May Glory Protect Us " . The song was written by executive producer Paul Rabwin , who was heavily involved in the episode 's music production . Rabwin later noted , " I auditioned a bunch of gospel songs [ to episode director Kim Manners ] . I told him I could write one that was better and he told me to go for it . And I did . [ … ] Kim loved it . [ … ] It was a great tribute that he was able to ask me and accept my opinion on it . "

= = = Casting and filming = = =

The casting for " Signs & Wonders " was " rather unorthodox " . In order to prevent ophidiophobia from hitting the actors on the day of filming , live rattlesnakes were brought in during the casting sessions . Strangely enough , many of the actors were " thrilled " about holding the snakes , according to Kim Manners . He later noted that " the funny thing was that the actors couldn 't wait to hold the rattlesnakes [ … ] but we were still nervous . " In addition , Michael Childers , who portrayed Reverend O 'Connor , was actually the son of a real life snake preacher . Manners later noted that " he had gone to church as a child and handled snakes . "

A series of safety meetings were scheduled in order to prevent accidents on the set . One of the items on the agenda was finding the closest hospital to the set , according to make @-@ up effects coordinator John Vulich . Furthermore , several of the cast and crew members had a fear of snakes , including Manners , David Duchovny , and John Shiban . During one of the days that the show was being prepped , a snake wrangler brought several live rattlesnakes to the set , but one escaped . It was eventually found behind Manners ' desk . In order to prevent future accidents , the mouths of the snakes were sutured shut .

= = = Special effects = = =

At any one time , there were between six and fifty snakes on the set . During the scene where Mulder is attacked , fifteen live snakes were used . However , Duchovny was " not within blocks " of the shot and a stunt double was used . Several faux @-@ body parts were used to simulate snake bites . One of the fake arms , which was used for Mulder , was recycled from the sixth season episode " Dreamland " . A false stomach was created for Tracy Middendorf , who portrayed Gracie , to give the illusion that live snakes were wriggling inside of her .

At one point in the episode , Expulsion from the Garden of Eden , a famous painting by Italian Early Renaissance artist Masaccio appears in the background . Because the painting contains nudity , Fox 's network executives took issue with the scene , forcing the show to edit out the genitalia on the painting . Paul Rabwin later noted that " the network executive censors didn 't feel it was appropriate for us to show all the details [ ... ] course , they could see people giving birth to hundreds of snakes , but that 's OK . " On the seventh season DVD special features , the painting is erroneously attributed to the famed Michelangelo .

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Signs and Wonders " first aired in the United States on January 23 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 5 , with a 12 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 13 @.@ 86 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 30 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 61 million viewers , making it the eighth most watched episode that week .

The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Kenneth Silber from Space.com wrote a very positive review of the episode , writing , " ' Signs and Wonders ' is a clever episode whose serpentine plot twists will leave many viewers genuinely surprised . Although a bit overly reliant on the alleged shock value of snakes , the episode establishes , more firmly than any before it , the demonic nature of some of the powers at work in The X @-@ Files . " Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 5 out of 5 stars and called the episode , " one of the scariest episodes of season 7 " before noting that the episode " really creeped me out . " However , other reviews were more mixed . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two noted that , despite several very " cool " images — such as Gracie birthing snakes and a man oozing reptile venom — the episode " doesn 't really seem to stand for anything . " Shearman and Pearson further criticized putting " religion in the crosshair " and concluded that the episode was " just your everyday sliver of supernatural hokum . "

Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris criticized the polarization of religion viewed in the episode , noting that " although ' Signs and Wonder 's purports to be an examination of different modes of faith , it offers a pessimistic — and distorted view of religion . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a mixed review , writing " I have always been the type of person who admires the creative attempt , even if the attempt isn 't a complete success . [ … ] This is precisely the mindset I 'm feeling after watching ' Signs and Wonders ' . I admire the attempt to spook me , to offer up conflicting views of religion and righteousness , even if I 'm not completely sure what the point of it all was . " Nevertheless , Kessenich praised the snake attack scenes and the episode 's occasional quips of humor . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C + " . Despite writing that the snake attack scenes were " surprisingly horrifying " and that the episode contained " plenty [ of elements ] to recommend " , he was critical about the lack of explanation behind Mackey . Although he had a positive opinion of the first 30 minutes , he wrote that the " last 10 minutes just sink everything good the episode has going , and in a way that hurts everything that came before . "

= Cody Hodgson =

Cody Douglas Hodgson ( born February 18 , 1990 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centreman currently an unrestricted free agent who most recently played for the Milwaukee Admirals in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) while under contract to the Nashville Predators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .

Hodgson played at the major junior level for four seasons with the Brampton Battalion of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . After being selected tenth overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft by the Vancouver Canucks , Hodgson won the William Hanley Trophy ( OHL 's most sportsmanlike player ) , Red Tilson Trophy ( OHL player of the year ) and the CHL Player of the Year Award , as well as First Team All @-@ Star honours for the 2008 – 09 season . While training in the 2009 off @-@ season , Hodgson suffered a back injury that required a year for him to fully recover . In 2010 – 11 , he played his professional rookie season with the Canucks ' minor league affiliate , the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . The season also marked his debut at the NHL level with the Canucks and he went on to participate in the team 's run to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . During his rookie season the subsequent year , Hodgson was dealt to the Buffalo Sabres at the 2012 trade deadline .

Hodgson has represented Canada at two International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) – sanctioned events , winning gold and leading tournament scoring at both – the 2008 IIHF World U18 Championships and 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . In 2007 , he won a gold medal with Ontario at the Canada Games . He also represented Canada at the 2007 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , finishing fourth .

= = Early life = =

Hodgson was born in Toronto , Ontario , to Marie and Chris Hodgson . His father is the president of the Ontario Mining Association and a former Ontario provincial Progressive Conservative cabinet minister in Premier Mike Harris 's government , while his mother is the executive director of a day care . He has an older brother , Clayton , and two younger sisters . His sister Charlotte attends the University of Western Ontario and Caroline attends Belmont University in Nashville , Tennessee . Both girls played organized hockey in Markham , Ontario . Hodgson grew up in Haliburton , Ontario , with his family until they moved to Markham , Ontario , in 1998 . The family would return in the summers to their cottage on Haliburton Lake .

Hodgson began playing organized hockey at age four in Haliburton . Playing for the Ontario Minor Hockey Association ( OMHA ) ' s Haliburton Huskies , he was teammates with Matt Duchene . The two were childhood friends and played together throughout their minor and junior careers , including with the Brampton Battalion and on Canada 's national under @-@ 18 and under @-@ 20 teams . His family was also friends with Jeff Skinner 's family growing up in Markham . Hodgson played bantam hockey with the Toronto Jr . Canadiens of the Greater Toronto Hockey League ( GTHL ) , captaining a team that included four other eventual 2008 NHL draftees – Alex Pietrangelo , Tyler Cuma , Josh Brittain and Stefan Della Rovere . His tenure with the team included a provincial championship . Hodgson then joined the OMHA 's Markham Waxers , competing with their bantam team in 2004 – 05 , then at the midget level in 2005 – 06 . He recorded a 511 @-@ point campaign over 31 games in his midget season , while also recording one assist over two games with the club 's Junior A side . During his tenure with the Waxers program , he played alongside future NHL players Steven Stamkos and Michael Del Zotto . Hodgson had also played alongside Stamkos on annual summer teams , starting at the age of 11 .

Hodgson attended Buttonville Public School and Unionville High School in Markham , the latter of which he helped win numerous hockey tournaments . Following his draft by the Vancouver Canucks , Hodgson was accepted into the business program at York University for the 2008 fall semester . However , due to missing classes from his commitments to the Canucks ' training camp and a subsequent university staff strike , he placed his academics on hiatus .

In December 2009 , Hodgson was chosen to be the city of Markham 's official torchbearer for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . The torch passed through Markham on its way to Vancouver on December 17 , 2009 , on day 49 of the cross @-@ country relay .

= = Playing career = =

= = = Brampton Battalion = = =

Hodgson was drafted 17th overall by the Brampton Battalion in the 2006 OHL Priority Selection . The following season , he joined the Battalion wearing number 19 in honour of his favourite hockey player growing up , Steve Yzerman of the Detroit Red Wings . He led the team in rookie scoring with 23 goals and 46 points . He added four points in four playoff games as the Battalion were eliminated by the Barrie Colts in the first round .

In his second season with Brampton , Hodgson improved to 85 points in 68 games , second in team @-@ scoring , behind centre John Hughes . He was chosen to the Eastern Conference squad in the 2008 OHL All @-@ Star Classic and scored one goal . Hodgson added five goals in five playoff games , as Brampton was eliminated in the opening round for the second @-@ straight season by Barrie .

Heading into the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , Hodgson was ranked ninth among North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . He went on to be chosen tenth overall by the Vancouver Canucks . Scouting reports and former coaches emphasized Hodgson 's hockey sense and character , while Canucks General Manager Mike Gillis cited his leadership as a strong factor in drafting him . After the 2007 – 08 season , OHL coaches had voted him the smartest player in the Eastern Conference . As his skating was considered a weakness , he spent the subsequent off @-@ season training to improve it .

Hodgson was expected to compete for a roster spot on the Canucks immediately after being drafted . He was then signed to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract worth the rookie maximum of $ 2 @.@ 625 million on October 5 , 2008 . However , the next day , he was sent back to Brampton for the 2008 – 09 season .

Upon his return , Hodgson was named the ninth captain in Battalion team history . He succeeded forward Thomas Stajan , who served as captain for the start of the season while Hodgson competed in the NHL pre @-@ season . Stajan himself had just replaced defenceman John de Gray , who had turned professional .

Chosen to represent the OHL in the 2008 ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge in November , Hodgson recorded a hat @-@ trick and added an assist in the first of two games against Russia ; he was chosen as game MVP . He went on to complete the month of November with 27 points in 13 games to be named OHL Player of the Month . Hodgson had also been chosen as the OHL Player of the Week for the week ending on November 9 after scoring nine points in three games . After a second Player of the Week recognition , scoring seven points in three games for the week ending February 1 , 2009 , Hodgson participated in the 2009 OHL All @-@ Star Classic . Joined by teammates Matt Duchene , Evgeny Grachev and Thomas McCollum for the Eastern Conference , Hodgson received player of the game honours after a five @-@ point effort in an 11 – 6 win . He recorded a hat @-@ trick , along with Western Conference representative Justin DiBenedetto , to tie Scott Barney , who first scored three goals in 1999 , for the OHL All @-@ Star Game record . Hodgson 's five points also tied the All @-@ Star Game record for most points ( shared by five others ) . He recorded another record later in the month with a 23 @-@ game point @-@ scoring streak , registering 17 goals , 23 assists and 40 points in that span . The streak was both a Battalion club record and OHL season @-@ high .

Hodgson finished the season with 43 goals and 92 points in 53 games , fourth in League scoring . The annual OHL coaches poll distinguished Hodgson as the smartest player ( for the second consecutive season ) , the hardest worker , the best on faceoffs and the best penalty killer . In addition to OHL First All @-@ Star Team honours , he was awarded both the William Hanley Trophy as the League 's most sportsmanlike player and the Red Tilson Trophy as OHL player of the year . The media voted Hodgson ahead of forward John Tavares and goaltender Mike Murphy for the Tilson award . Hodgson was then distinguished over fellow major junior league MVP 's Brett Sonne of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) and Nicola Riopel of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) as the CHL Player of the Year .

Early in the subsequent playoff season , Hodgson received his second OHL Player of the Month recognition for March ( 26 points in 11 games ) . He helped the Battalion advance to the OHL Finals , where they lost the J. Ross Robertson Cup to the Windsor Spitfires . He led his team with 31 points in the post @-@ season .

Following the Battalion 's playoff elimination , Hodgson was assigned to the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , for their 2009 playoff run . Making his professional debut with the Moose in Game 1 of the semi @-@ finals against the Houston Aeros , he notched an assist on the game 's first goal for his first professional point . He followed up with his first professional goal the next night , a wrist shot against Aeros goaltender Nolan Schaefer , in a 5 – 2 victory . While Hodgson started on the fourth line for the Moose , he quickly moved his way up to the second line with fellow Canucks first @-@ round pick Michael Grabner . Advancing past the Aeros , Moose Head Coach Scott Arniel chose not to play Hodgson in Game 4 of the Calder Cup Finals against the Hershey Bears . Arniel explained the decision was attributed to fatigue on Hodgson 's part from a lengthy season in the juniors ( including the 2009 World Juniors and a lengthy OHL playoff run ) . He returned the next game to help the Moose stave off elimination with a goal in a 3 – 2 Game 5 victory . Manitoba went on to lose the Calder Cup in Game 6 by a 4 – 1 score . Hodgson 's assisted on the Moose 's lone tally by Mário Bližňák .

Preparing for the Canucks ' training camp for the 2009 – 10 season , Hodgson injured his back while working out in the summer . The injury , which was misdiagnosed as a bulging disc in his lower back , caused him to miss two months of summer training . After being cleared to play by Canucks team doctors on September 11 , 2009 , and a back specialist in Toronto , Hodgson was again expected to secure a roster spot during training camp . After struggling in six pre @-@ season games , he was returned to the Brampton Battalion on September 29 in the final round of team cuts .

Hodgson subsequently sought a third opinion regarding his back at the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio . In response , then @-@ Canucks Head Coach Alain Vigneault publicly speculated whether Hodgson was simply having a hard time being cut and was trying to " roll the [ blame ] in another direction . " Despite having been cleared earlier to play in the pre @-@ season by two sets of doctors , the Cleveland Clinic judged him unfit to play for a month . Previously undetected nerve damage in one leg was also revealed . Due to Hodgson 's misdiagnosis , which was not corrected until a year later , subsequent treatment and rehabilitation was designed for a bulging disc , which further aggravated his real injury – a muscle strain .

After missing the first 50 games of the 2009 – 10 OHL season , Hodgson returned to the Battalion line @-@ up on February 4 , 2010 , recording two assists in a 4 – 2 win against the Erie Otters . Following his return , he declared he would no longer be training in the off @-@ season with Canucks Director of Player Development Dave Gagner , under whose supervision he suffered his back injury . Combined with the Canucks doctors ' initial misdiagnosis and Vigneault 's disparaging comments regarding Hodgson following the NHL pre @-@ season , there was speculation in the media of a possible conflict between Hodgson and the Canucks organization . General Manager Mike Gillis , however , dismissed such speculation .

Eight days after his OHL return , Hodgson suffered another injury , breaking a toe on his right foot while blocking a shot against the Sudbury Wolves . Initial X @-@ rays came up negative and he continued playing for nine more games before a second X @-@ ray revealed a hairline fracture in one his right metatarsal bones . Missing the Battalion 's final five regular season games , he finished the campaign with eight goals and 20 points over 13 contests . Despite missing the majority of the season , he was voted as the smartest player in the Eastern Conference for the third consecutive year in the OHL coaches poll .

Hodgson returned to the Brampton line @-@ up for the opening game of the 2010 playoffs , scoring the game @-@ winning goal against the Kingston Frontenacs . In Game 5 of the series , he scored his 20th career playoff goal in the OHL , surpassing Wojtek Wolski for the all @-@ time lead among Battalion players . The Battalion eliminated the Frontenacs in seven games before themselves being ousted in four games by Barrie in the second round . Hodgson completed the post @-@ season with ten points in 11 games , second in team @-@ scoring to Sean Jones . He admitted publicly after the playoffs that his health " was never 100 percent " during the 2009 – 10 season .

The Battalion 's playoff elimination marked the end of Hodgson 's four @-@ year OHL career . He left Brampton ranked second on the club 's all @-@ time scoring list behind Wojtek Wolski in regular season goals ( 114 ) , assists ( 129 ) , points ( 243 ) , powerplay goals ( 46 ) and shorthanded goals ( 7 ) , while ranking first in game @-@ winning goals ( 23 ) . In playoff games , he left as the all @-@ time leader in goals ( 20 ) , assists ( 30 ) and points ( 50 ) .

Following his 2009 – 10 OHL season , it was expected Hodgson would join the Manitoba Moose for a second consecutive AHL playoff season . However , after being assessed by Canucks team doctors , his broken toe was judged to have not yet fully healed and he was not cleared for AHL assignment . Hodgson additionally believed that he had re @-@ injured his back while colliding head @-@ first into the boards during Game 7 of the opening playoff round . He underwent an MRI in the off @-@ season , which uncovered the misdiagnosed bulging disc to be a muscle strain instead . With the Canucks ' consent , he trained in the off @-@ season with former NHL player Gary Roberts , who had himself overcome a back injury during his career .

= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =

After challenging for a Canucks roster spot once again during the team 's 2010 training camp , Hodgson was assigned to the Manitoba Moose . He scored his first regular season AHL goal against goaltender Peter Delmas of the Hamilton Bulldogs on October 22 , 2010 . With the score tied 3 – 3 after overtime , Hodgson added a shootout goal to help the Moose win the game . Later , in December 2010 , Hodgson suffered a broken orbital bone after he was high @-@ sticked by teammate Lee Sweatt during a Moose practice . Eight days after returning to Manitoba 's line @-@ up , Hodgson earned his first NHL call @-@ up to Vancouver .

Hodgson made his NHL debut on February 1 , 2011 , in a 4 – 1 win against the Dallas Stars . Centring the fourth line and playing on the second powerplay unit , he registered two shots in over nine minutes of ice time . The following day , he scored his first career NHL goal against Ilya Bryzgalov in a 6 – 0 win against the Phoenix Coyotes . In his third game , he recorded his first career NHL assist on a goal by Christian Ehrhoff against the Chicago Blackhawks ; Vancouver won 4 – 3 . After appearing in his first five NHL games , Hodgson was returned to the Moose on February 11 . Team management explained to the media his call @-@ up was a means to introduce him to NHL play and that they were more comfortable having him continue developing in the AHL with first @-@ line minutes and a bigger role with the Moose . However , with the team 's fourth @-@ line centre role unfilled ( Alain Vigneault had been using natural winger Tanner Glass in that position ) , he was called back to Vancouver within ten days . Hodgson played three more games for the Canucks before the team acquired fourth @-@ line centre Maxim Lapierre from the Anaheim Ducks at the trade deadline on February 28 . Hodgson was subsequently sent back down to Manitoba . He completed his professional rookie season with 30 points in 52 AHL games – ranking fifth in Moose scoring – and two points in eight NHL games .

At the end of the regular season , Hodgson was called up to the Canucks for the 2011 playoffs . He registered his first NHL playoff point in Game 2 of the opening round against the Chicago Blackhawks , assisting on a goal by defenceman Alexander Edler in a 4 – 3 win . Hodgson drew in and out of the line @-@ up throughout the post @-@ season , appearing in 12 of the Canucks ' 25 @-@ game playoff run , which ended in a Game 7 loss to the Boston Bruins in the Stanley Cup Finals .

During the off @-@ season , Canucks centre Ryan Kesler underwent hip surgery , sidelining him for the start of the 2011 – 12 campaign . With the centre position on the second line vacant , Hodgson competed with the newly @-@ acquired Andrew Ebbett to temporarily replace Kesler . After being cut in his previous three training camps with the team , Hodgson emerged with the second @-@ line position to start the season . After wearing 39 on his jersey the previous season as a rookie , Hodgson switched to 9 , a number historically associated in the NHL with high @-@ profile players . He had previously spoken to team trainers regarding the number , but decided having the number is " something you have to earn [ by ] mak [ ing ] the team first . " When Kesler returned to the team 's line @-@ up six games into the season , Hodgson was moved to the right wing to remain on the second line , before settling in as the team 's third @-@ line centre . On December 10 , 2011 , Hodgson left a game against the Ottawa Senators after a hit from opposing forward Nick Foligno left him unsteadily skating back to the bench . Hodgson was reportedly uninjured , as Vigneault told media he was kept out of the contest for precautionary measures .

Ranking fifth among NHL rookies in scoring by January 2012 , he was selected as one of 12 first @-@ year players to participate in the NHL All @-@ Star Game SuperSkills Competition in Ottawa , Ontario . He was designated to Team Chara during the All @-@ Star Draft and went on to participate in one SuperSkills event , the shooting accuracy segment . Hitting all four targets in 20 @.@ 929 seconds , he lost the rookie heat to Matt Read of the Philadelphia Flyers , who had a time of 14 @.@ 011 seconds . Hodgson 's time ranked fifth among the eight players who participated in the event . Canucks teammates Henrik Sedin , Daniel Sedin and Alexander Edler joined Hodgson in Ottawa as NHL All @-@ Stars , though they competed against him in the SuperSkills Competition as part of Team Alfredsson . Following the NHL All @-@ Star weekend , Hodgson was named the League 's Rookie of the Month for January after having recorded ten points ( six goals and four assists ) over 11 games , first among Canucks and NHL first @-@ year players .

Playing behind Henrik Sedin and Ryan Kesler on the Canucks ' depth chart at centre , Hodgson earned limited ice @-@ time with the Canucks . By mid @-@ season , his success as a rookie led many in the media to question the 10 – 12 minutes of ice time Alain Vigneault routinely allotted him per game .

= = = Buffalo Sabres = = =

Minutes before the NHL trade deadline on February 27 , 2012 , Hodgson was dealt , along with defenceman Alexander Sulzer , to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for fellow rookie forward Zack Kassian and defenceman Marc @-@ André Gragnani . Canucks General Manager Mike Gillis acknowledged the trade as an effort to balance his team out by trading Hodgson 's skill and finesse in return for Kassian 's size and toughness . Analysts from TSN and The Vancouver Sun also echoed the sentiment , commenting that while the Canucks gained elements in Kassian that were required to succeed in the playoffs , Hodgson 's skill set reflected the style of play that Vancouver 's success was based upon .

In a telephone interview with TSN shortly after the trade , Hodgson told reporters he was " in shock , " adding that " It 's tough to leave Vancouver . " There were , however , reports in the media that Hodgson had asked for a trade from the Canucks , an allegation that Mike Gillis neither confirmed nor denied . The reaction in the Vancouver media was largely of surprise that Gillis would trade away a well @-@ performing rookie . Vancouver Sun columnist Iain MacIntyre declared it " a stunner " and " one of the most unpopular trades in Vancouver in years . " Another Sun article likened the deal to a lopsided 1996 trade between the Canucks and Pittsburgh Penguins in which two first @-@ round prospects of opposite playing styles – the skilled Markus Näslund and the larger , more aggressive Alek Stojanov – were exchanged . Näslund went on to become the Canucks ' all @-@ time leading goal- and point @-@ scorer , while the latter had a short career in the minor leagues .

Hodgson made his Sabres debut two days after the trade , registering four shots on goal and 16 minutes of ice time in a 2 – 0 win against the Anaheim Ducks . After going pointless in his first ten games with Buffalo , Hodgson recorded two assists in a 7 – 3 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning on March 19 . Two nights later , he scored his first two goals as a Sabre in a game against the Montreal Canadiens . Leaving Vancouver gave Hodgson a larger on @-@ ice role , earning nearly five minutes more ice time per game as a Sabre . Completing his first NHL season with the Sabres , he finished with 41 points ( 19 goals and 22 assists ) over 83 games . He ranked fifth in League rookie scoring and first in power play goals ( 7 ) , despite earning less ice time than his first @-@ year peers ( his 13 minutes and 49 seconds per game averaged the least among the top 14 rookie scorers ) . As a team , the Sabres then failed to qualify for the 2012 playoffs , finishing ninth in the Eastern Conference . Hodgson was assigned to the AHL 's Rochester Americans immediately before the 2012 – 13 NHL lock @-@ out took effect .

Hodgson signed a six @-@ year , $ 25 @.@ 5 million extension with the Sabres on September 11 , 2013 .

In the second year of his contract extension with the Sabres in the 2014 – 15 season , Hodgson suffered the worst season in his professional career , contributing with just 6 goals and 13 points in 78 outings for the cellar @-@ dwelling Sabres . With the option to buy @-@ out his contract at a lower rate due to his age , on June 29 , 2015 , the Sabres , in the midst of a rebuild , placed Hodgson on unconditional waivers in order for a release to free agency .

= = = Nashville Predators = = =

On the opening day of free agency , Hodgson signed a one @-@ year contract with the Nashville Predators . Hodgson made the opening night roster of the Predators to begin the 2015 – 16 season . He was used primarily in a depth role , centering the fourth @-@ line . After posting 8 points in 39 games , Hodgson was placed on waivers by the Predators on January 13 , 2016 . Hodgson passed through waivers unclaimed and was subsequently assigned to AHL affiliate , the Milwaukee Admirals the following day . Hodgson was not offered a new contract by the club , and became an unrestricted free agent on July 1 .

= = International play = =

Hodgson first competed internationally for Canada at the 2007 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament in Hodonín , Czech Republic , and Piešťany , Slovakia . Although favoured to win the tournament , Canada finished in fourth place . He scored two goals in the 5 – 4 bronze medal game loss to Russia . In total , Hodgson contributed a team @-@ high five points in four games , tied with Steven Stamkos . Hodgson also represented Ontario later that year at the 2007 Canada Winter Games , winning gold over Manitoba 6 – 4 in the gold medal game .

Hodgson next represented Canada at the 2008 IIHF World U18 Championships in Kazan , Russia . Playing in the quarter @-@ finals against Finland , Hodgson was named player of the game after scoring the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory . Hodgson finished with a tournament @-@ high 12 points in seven games , leading Canada as team captain to its second IIHF World U18 gold medal with an 8 – 0 victory over tournament host Russia . He was chosen as one of Canada 's three top players by tournament coaches , along with forward Jordan Eberle and goaltender Jake Allen .

In his third year of junior , Hodgson was selected to compete in the 2009 World Junior Championships with Team Canada in Ottawa . He was chosen as an alternate captain to defenceman Thomas Hickey . In the second round @-@ robin game against Kazakhstan , Hodgson accumulated six points ( two goals and four assists ) , coming within one point of the single @-@ game Canadian record held by Michael Cammalleri and Dave Andreychuk . In the following round @-@ robin game against the United States , he scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 7 – 4 win to lead Team Canada to first place in their pool and a bye to the semi @-@ finals . Facing Sweden in the final game , Hodgson scored two goals – one on the powerplay and an empty @-@ netter – and one assist to overtake John Tavares as the tournament leading scorer with five goals and 11 assists for 16 points in six games . Team Canada defeated Sweden 5 – 1 to capture the gold medal while Hodgson was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . Returning from the tournament , Hodgson was asked to drop the ceremonial faceoff for a Toronto Maple Leafs game against the Florida Panthers on January 6 , 2009 .

Leading up to the 2010 World Junior Championships in Saskatchewan , Hodgson was named to Team Canada 's selection camp roster on December 2 , 2009 , despite not yet playing in an OHL game during the 2009 – 10 season due to a back injury . However , he notified Hockey Canada five days later that his back was not yet ready and that he would not participate in the selection camp .

= = Career statistics = =

= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =

= = = International = = =

= = Awards = =

= = Records = =

OHL All @-@ Star Classic record ; most goals , single @-@ game ( 3 ) in 2009 ( tied with Justin DiBenedetto , 2009 ; and Scott Barney , 1999 )

OHL All @-@ Star Classic record ; most points , single @-@ game ( 5 ) in 2009 ( tied with five others )

Brampton Battalion franchise record ; point @-@ scoring streak ( 23 games ) in 2008 – 09 ( 17 goals , 23 assists , 40 points )

Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most game @-@ winning goals , all @-@ time ( 23 )

Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most playoff goals , all @-@ time ( 20 )

Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most playoff assists , all @-@ time ( 30 )

Brampton Battalion franchise record ; most playoff points , all @-@ time ( 50 )

= Simba =

Simba ( from the Swahili word for lion ) is a fictional character who appears in The Lion King franchise . Introduced in Walt Disney Animation 's 32nd animated feature film The Lion King ( 1994 ) , the character subsequently appears in its sequels The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) .

Simba was created by screenwriters Irene Mecchi , Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton . While Mark Henn served as Simba 's supervising animator as a cub , Ruben A. Aquino animated the character as he appears as an adult .

Although considered an original character , Simba was inspired by the character Bambi from Disney 's Bambi ( 1942 ) , as well as the stories of Moses and Joseph from the Bible . Additionally , several similarities have been drawn between Simba and Prince Hamlet from William Shakespeare 's tragedy of the same name . In 1997 , The Lion King was adapted into Broadway musical , with actors Scott Irby @-@ Ranniar and Jason Raize originating the roles of the cub and adult Simbas , respectively .

= = Development = =

= = = Conception = = =

The idea for The Lion King originated from Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg in 1989 and was originally conceived under the title King of the Jungle . The story , which has been compared to Bambi ( 1942 ) , was jokingly referred to as " Bambi in Africa " because of the similarities between the two films and their respective main characters . Co @-@ director Rob Minkoff said that both films are " more true @-@ life adventure than mythical epic . " Though considered an original coming @-@ of @-@ age story that follows the life of Simba as he grows up and " tak [ es ] on the responsibility of adulthood , " co @-@ directors Roger Allers and Minkoff drew inspiration from other sources . In particular , the biblical figures Moses and Joseph served as creative inspiration for the character . Producer Don Hahn said that , like them , Simba is " born into royalty , is then exiled , and has to return to claim [ his ] kingdom . "

Several film and entertainment critics have noted similarities and parallels between the stories of The Lion King and William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet , and their protagonists . Allers said that these similarities were not initially intentional and came as a surprise to the filmmakers themselves ; they noticed the similarities only after the story was established and they eventually decided to pursue it . According to Hahn , " When we first pitched the revised outline of the movie ... someone in the room announced that its themes and relationships were similar to Hamlet . Everyone responded favorably to the idea that we were doing something Shakespearean , so we continued to look for ways to model our film on that all @-@ time classic . "

Screenwriter Jonathan Roberts said that , in a musical , songs are used to convey a character 's emotions and " I wants . " Composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice wrote the song " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " in order to give Simba a medium through which he can express his desire to become King of the Pride Lands . Roberts said , " It 's a way for storytellers to move the story and deliver the direction of the character . "

= = = Voice = = =

Matthew Broderick provided the speaking voice of Adult Simba . The first actor to be assigned to The Lion King , Broderick learned of the role while he was on vacation in Ireland , where he received a telephone call from his agent informing him that the directors were interested in casting him as Simba . At the time , Broderick was well known for portraying the title character in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ( 1986 ) . The directors decided to cast him as Simba because they felt that he was " perfect " for the role ; according to producer Don Hahn , Broderick 's voice resembled " the kind of character who could be irresponsible and likeable , but you also felt that he could come back in a very heroic way . " Jonathan Taylor Thomas , who was starring as Randy Taylor on the television sitcom Home Improvement at the time , was cast as the speaking voice of Young Simba . His appearance and personality would later serve as creative inspiration for supervising animator Mark Henn .

Though Broderick is a trained Broadway singer , he was not up to the task , and neither was non @-@ singer Thomas , so Toto lead singer Joseph Williams and actor Jason Weaver were hired to dub their respective singing voices . Williams ' voice is heard on the song " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " . Impressed by Weaver 's performance as a young Michael Jackson in the miniseries The Jacksons : An American Dream , songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice recruited him to record " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " and " Hakuna Matata " while the film was still in its early stages of production . As directors , Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff worked closely with the actors in order to ensure credible performances . As is frequently done in animated films , the filmmakers videotaped the actors while they recorded their dialogue , allowing the animators to incorporate their specific mannerisms into the designs of their characters .

= = = Characterization and animation = = =

When The Lion King was green @-@ lit , its concept and story were not well received by studio employees . To guarantee the release of at least one successful film , Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg divided the studio into two separate projects : The Lion King and Pocahontas ( 1995 ) , with Pocahontas expected to be the more successful of the two . Because of this assumption , the majority of the studio 's more seasoned animators gravitated towards Pocahontas because The Lion King was deemed a " risk " , while less experienced animators were assigned to work on The Lion King . Co @-@ director Rob Minkoff received this positively , saying that this decision " gave a lot of newer animators a chance to step up to leadership roles . "

The role of animating Simba was divided between Mark Henn and Ruben A. Aquino . While Henn served as the supervising animator of Simba as a cub , credited as Young Simba , Aquino was placed in charge of animating the character as he appears as an adult . The Lion King was Disney 's first animated feature film to feature a cast of quadrupeds since Oliver & Company ( 1988 ) . According to Aquino , animating four @-@ legged creatures is difficult because the artists are faced with the task of drawing " twice as many legs ... as you do with human characters " and must also attribute to them both human and animal @-@ like qualities . For assistance , Aquino drew influence from previous animated films that feature four @-@ legged creatures as their main characters , citing Bambi , Lady and the Tramp ( 1955 ) and The Jungle Book ( 1967 ) as his main sources of inspiration .

Before The Lion King , Henn 's experience as a supervising animator was limited to predominantly female characters ; he had just recently completed work on Ariel from The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Belle from Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Jasmine from Aladdin ( 1992 ) . When he became involved with The Lion King , Henn initially expressed interest in animating the film 's villain , Scar , because he wanted to do " something different . " However , producer Don Hahn felt that he was better suited for animating Simba . Henn approaches animating new characters by " put [ ting himself ] into the character ’ s situation . " Simba proved to be a challenge because Henn was faced with the task of creating an animated character who would both appear and behave like a real lion cub . To achieve this , Henn visited zoos , sketched and studied live lion cubs that were brought into the studio for research , and frequently consulted with wildlife experts .

When it came time to animate Simba during the " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " musical sequence , Henn felt it essential that the character remain on all fours at all times , despite the fact that he is meant to be dancing . In terms of personality , Henn aimed to depict Simba as a " cocky , confident character " at the beginning of the film , who must eventually mature and learn to take responsibility . The animators would often observe and document the voice actors while they recorded their dialogue , using their movements and mannerisms as a visual aid . Actor Jonathan Taylor Thomas , who provided the voice of Young Simba , served as inspiration for the design and personality of Simba . Henn said , " I loved watching Jonathan Taylor Thomas when he was a boy on Home Improvement , and getting to meet him and observe him . " Although Aquino was responsible for animating the majority of Simba 's adult sequences , Henn animated the character 's first appearance as an adult that occurs near the end of the " Hakuna Matata " musical number .

= = Appearances = =

= = = The Lion King = = =

Released in theaters in 1994 , The Lion King marks Simba 's first appearance . All the animals in the Pride Lands gather at the foot of Pride Rock to commemorate the birth of Simba , who will eventually succeed to the throne and take his father Mufasa 's place as king . Furious by the fact that he is no longer next in line , Simba 's jealous uncle Scar refuses to attend the ceremony . While Simba grows into a rambunctious lion cub who frequently boasts about the fact that he will someday rule over the Pride Lands , Scar secretly plots against him .

Scar plots regicide and familicide against Simba and Mufasa by luring Simba into a vast gorge , where he triggers a wildebeest stampede . Notified by Scar that Simba is in danger , Mufasa rushes to his aid and manages to place him safely on a ledge . Weakened and unable to pull himself up the steep slope to safety , Mufasa asks his brother for assistance . However , Scar 's true nature is revealed and he betrays Mufasa , throwing him into the gorge where he is killed by the fall .

Convinced by Scar that he is responsible for his father 's death , Simba runs away to a distant jungle where he is befriended by Timon and Pumbaa , who teach him to ignore his past and avoid his responsibilities . There , he grows into a handsome young lion , while Scar wreaks havoc on the Pride Lands . When Simba is discovered by his childhood friend Nala several years later , she confronts him , warning him of Scar 's tyranny and begging him to return home . Afraid of facing his past , Simba refuses until a wise mandrill named Rafiki leads him to Mufasa 's ghost , who convinces him to return home and reclaim his kingdom from Scar .

Simba returns to the Pride Lands and finds them barren because their natural resources have been squandered and abused by Scar . After witnessing Scar strike his mother Sarabi , Simba orders Scar to resign . At first thrown by the fact that he is alive , Scar soon regains composure and forces Simba to reveal that he is responsible for Mufasa 's death , while cornering him at the edge of Pride Rock , hoping to subject him to a similar fate as his father . Having grown overconfident , Scar finally reveals to Simba that he killed Mufasa . Furious , Simba tackles Scar and forces him into announcing this to the pride , initiating a battle between Simba 's pride of lionesses , Timon , & Pumbaa and Scar 's army of hyenas . Simba eventually defeats Scar and throws him into a pit , where he is cornered and killed by the hyenas , who have had enough of Scar treating them like slaves . Simba then takes his rightful place as king . When the kingdom returns to its former glory , the animals welcome the birth of King Simba and Queen Nala 's first born .

= = = The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride = = =

A direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel released in 1998 , Simba 's Pride takes place shortly after the events of the first film , depicting Simba and Nala as king and queen of the Pride Lands . In a ceremony at Pride Rock , the Pride Lands commemorate the birth of Simba and Nala 's daughter Kiara , whom Simba is overprotective of . He discovers that Kiara has disobeyed him by visiting the forbidden Outlands , home to an enemy pride of Scar 's followers known as the Outsiders , and befriending a young member of the pride named Kovu . After a close confrontation with Kovu 's mother Zira , the leader of the Outsiders and Scar 's most loyal follower , Simba separates the two and reminds Kiara of her responsibilities as the future queen . Meanwhile , Zira plots to manipulate Kovu to exact revenge on Simba for Scar 's death .

Several years later , Simba grants a young adult Kiara 's request to embark on her first hunt , but has Timon and Pumbaa follow her in secret . Realizing this , Kiara rebels and pursue her hunt outside of the Pride Lands , where she nearly falls victim to a wildfire . Kiara is rescued by Kovu , who returns her to the Pride Lands , which is actually part of Zira 's plan to overthrow Simba . Saying that he has left the Outsiders , Kovu asks Simba to let him join his pride . Simba reluctantly accepts , but distrusts Kovu because of his similarities to Scar , and continues to treat him ruthlessly . That night , Simba has a nightmare about attempting to save his father Mufasa from falling into the stampede but is stopped by Scar who turns into Kovu and throws Simba off the cliff into the stampede .

While Kiara and Kovu 's friendship continues to grow , Simba , encouraged by Nala , attempts to show Kovu kindness by spending a day with him . Realizing that Kovu is beginning to side with Simba because of his love for Kiara , Zira ambushes and attacks Simba . Convinced by Zira that Kovu is responsible for the ambush , Simba exiles him and forbids Kiara to see him , but she makes her father realize that he is acting irrationally and finds Kovu . When a battle ensues between the Pride Landers and the Outsiders , Kiara and Kovu arrive and stops them . When a furious Zira attacks Simba , she is intercepted by Kiara , causing the two to fall over the edge of a cliff . Having landed safely on a ledge , Kira offers to help Zira , who is struggling to hang on . However , Zira , consumed by her resentment towards Simba , declines her assistance and falls into the raging water below . Simba finally approves of Kiara 's love for Kovu and reconciles with his daughter , and accepts the two lions as future king and queen .

= = = The Lion King 1 ½ = = =

In The Lion King 1 ½ , a direct @-@ to @-@ video followup released in 2004 , Simba appears as a less prominent character because the film 's primary focus is on Timon and Pumbaa 's behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role and involvement in The Lion King , in which they appear as supporting characters . Although the two films technically share the same story and timeline , the plot of The Lion King 1 ½ focuses more on Timon and Pumbaa . The meerkat and warthog unknowingly coexist alongside Simba , and the story fills in the two characters ' backstories and events that lead up to their long @-@ lasting friendship , coinciding with and often initiating the events that affect Simba 's life during the first film . These events include the commemorative bow that occurs during the opening " Circle of Life " musical number and the collapsing of the animal tower that takes place during " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King . " The film also explores , in further detail , the relationship among the three characters as Timon and Pumbaa struggle to raise Simba as adoptive " parents " and disapprove of his relationship with Nala , portraying Simba as he grows from an energetic young lion cub , into an incorrigible teenager and , finally , an independent young lion .

= = = Timon & Pumbaa and television = = =

The success of The Lion King and popularity of its characters led to the production of Timon & Pumbaa , an animated television series starring Timon and Pumbaa . Simba makes several appearances , including one episode in which Timon drags him out to try to revive Pumbaa 's lost memory .

In the episode " Congo On Like This , " Timon and Pumbaa ( especially Timon ) suspect that Simba has reverted to his carnivorous nature . The episode " Shake Your Djibouti " again features Simba , when Timon and Pumbaa are forced to train him to protect them from a laboratory monster . Another episode , entitled " Rome Alone , " shows Simba being captured by Romans and forced into gladiatorial battle with another lion named Claudius . Simba makes brief appearances in " Once Upon a Timon " , " Zazu 's Off @-@ By @-@ One Day " , and " Beethoven 's Whiff " . He also appears in a music video of " The Lion Sleeps Tonight " .

Simba was featured as a guest in the animated series House of Mouse , in which he alternates between cub and adult .

= = = The Lion Guard = = =

In November 2015 , a new series called The Lion Guard was released . Set in the middle of the timeline of The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , it features Kion who is the son and youngest child of Simba and Nala .

= = = Broadway musical = = =

The success of The Lion King led to the production of a Broadway musical based on the film . Directed by Julie Taymor , with a book by Irene Mecchi and Roger Allers , The Lion King premiered at the New Amsterdam Theatre on November 13 , 1997 , where it ran for nine years until being moved to the Minskoff Theatre on June 13 , 2006 . The role of Simba was originated by Scott Irby @-@ Ranniar and Jason Raize , with Irby @-@ Ranniar portraying Young Simba and Raize portraying Adult Simba .

Raize auditioned for the role of Adult Simba after hearing that Taymor was looking to cast an actor who was of " unidentifiable ethnicity . " Raize revealed in an interview that there was a lot of competition for the role because the musical required " triple @-@ threat work -- singing , dancing and acting -- that you don 't get to such an extent in other shows . It was more the sense of who can take the challenge and not be daunted by the task . " Raize , who instantly felt that he " had a connection with Simba , " eventually won the role with the approval of Taymor and choreographer Garth Fagan , with Fagan admiring the fact that Raize was " willing to try , to fail , and then to try again . " Once cast , Raize found it difficult to maintain Taymor 's " sense of duality " because Simba is " both man and beast . " He said , " The tendency is to sacrifice one for the other , but you can 't . " Although hundreds of children auditioned for the role of Young Simba , the casting process was far less grueling for Irby @-@ Ranniar who , according to Taymor , simply " walked in and he had the part . "

= = = Miscellaneous = = =

= = = = Books = = = =

In 1994 , a six @-@ volume book set titled The Lion King : Six New Adventures were released . Set after the events of the first film , they featured a cub named Kopa , who was the son of Simba and Nala .

= = = = Merchandising and video games = = = =

As part of the franchise 's merchandising , Simba has appeared in various The Lion King @-@ related products . The character 's likeness has been used in and adapted into a variety of items , including plush toys and figurines , clothing , bedding , household decor and appliances . The success of the Broadway musical has also lead to its own line of merchandising , including the Simba beanbag doll , based on the character 's appearance and costume in the Broadway show .

Since the film 's 1994 debut , Simba has appeared as a playable character in a variety of video game releases , both directly and indirectly associated with the franchise . The character 's first appearance as a video game character was in The Lion King , which was released by Virgin Interactive on November 1 , 1994 , for the video game platforms Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Sega Game Gear , Nintendo Entertainment System and PC . The game follows the plot of the original film and features Simba as both a cub and an adult .

On December 28 , 2000 , Activision released The Lion King : Simba 's Mighty Adventure for Game Boy Color and PlayStation . The game encompasses 10 levels and incorporates the plot of both The Lion King and The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride as " Simba ... matures from a precocious cub to an adult lion . " Simba also appears as a playable character in Disney Interactive Studios ' Disney 's Extreme Skate Adventure , released on September 3 , 2003 , for Game Boy Advance , PlayStation 2 , GameCube and Xbox , and Disney Friends , released for Nintendo DS on February 26 , 2008 . Additionally , Simba appears in the Square Enix Kingdom Hearts video game franchise as a friend and ally of the series ' main character , Sora .

= = = = Walt Disney Parks and Resorts = = = =

Live versions of Simba appear in the Lion King musical and in the parades and shows at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts .

Simba was also the main character in " Legend of the Lion King , " a former Fantasyland attraction in Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom , which retold the story of the film using fully articulated puppets . Other Disney attractions that have featured Simba include the Mickey 's PhilharMagic 3D show and the Hong Kong Disneyland version of It 's a Small World .

He appears as one of the main characters at Epcot 's Land Pavilion 12 @-@ minute edutainment film Circle of Life : An Environmental Fable .

= = Reception and legacy = =

= = = Critical response = = =

Although The Lion King itself has garnered Universal acclaim from film critics , reception towards Simba has been generally mixed . The Christian Science Monitor 's David Sterritt hailed Simba as " a superbly realized character , " specifically praising the scene in which the character " faces discipline by his dad after his adventure with the hyenas . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Simba " has been given a marvelously expressive face " to the point of which " He seems more human than the Ken and Barbie types featured in Aladdin and The Little Mermaid . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described " the father @-@ son relationship " shared by Simba and Mufasa as " movingly rendered , " while About.com 's David Nusair wrote , " it ’ s the touching father / son stuff that lies at the heart of the movie that cements The Lion King 's place as an utterly timeless piece of work . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews enjoyed the fact that the film focuses more on the story of Simba himself as opposed to the romantic relationship developing between the character and Nala . However , Berardinelli criticized Matthew Broderick 's vocal performance , describing it as " nondescript . " Rob Humanick of Slant Magazine hailed the fact that " it 's never laid on [ Simba ] that his time as king will directly correspond with the eventual passing of his father " as one of the film 's " most important facets . " However , he criticized The Lion King 's characters , describing them as well @-@ designed but " lazy and troublesome . " The Austin Chronicle 's Robert Faires felt that Simba and the other Lion King characters , though " true " , were simply unoriginal retreads of preceding animated characters who were " swiped from other Disney cartoons . "

Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the character a negative review . Labeling Timon and Pumbaa the only interesting characters in The Lion King , Hinson questioned Simba 's role as the film 's hero . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times agreed , " A movie 's heroes may have their names above the title , but often as not it 's the sidekicks who get the real work done . " Turan went on to pan Simba , describing him as " irritatingly callow . " Chris Hick of the Deseret News complained about the fact that Simba and the other " characters in The Lion King are not as warm and fuzzy as other Disney animated features , " crediting this with making " the film a bit tougher to warm [ up ] to . " ComingSoon.net strongly panned Simba as a lead character , writing , " typically for Disney animated fare , it 's the hero who is the weak link being both blandly designed and blandly performed . " Acknowledging the character 's Shakespearean origins , The Baltimore Sun 's Stephen Hunter gave Simba a negative review , writing , " Alas ... Simba stands in for Hamlet , but he 's a lot less complicated ; in fact , he 's less complicated than Morris the Cat or Sylvester . " Hunter continued , " Simba the Exile is even less interesting than Simba the Prince . " Christopher Null of Contactmusic.com was critical of Weaver 's performance as the singing voice of Young Simba , writing , " If there 's anything annoying about the film , it 's the singing . Young Simba sounds like a young Michael Jackson ... You almost don 't want him to succeed . " However , Null reacted more positively towards Broderick 's performance .

Despite the character 's mixed reception , several critics have awarded specific praise to Broderick for his portrayal of Simba , including the San Francisco Chronicle 's Peter Stack and The Washington Post 's Desson Howe . Annette Basile of Filmink described Broderick 's performance as " excellent , " while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called it " sumptuous . " Digital Spy 's Mayer Nissim described Broderick 's portrayal of Simba as " wonderful . "

= = = Impact and popularity = = =

During the film 's opening number , " Circle of Life " , Rafiki introduces a newborn Simba to the crowd of animals gathered at the foot of Pride Rock by holding him high above their heads while parents Mufasa and Sarabi look on . Since the film 's 1994 release , this scene has grown to iconic status . In November 2002 , singer Michael Jackson sparked controversy by holding his son over the protective railing of a hotel balcony in Berlin . The event was witnessed by a large crowd of spectators who were watching from below . Some sources have claimed that Jackson was harmlessly attempting to emulate the scene from The Lion King .

When Kate Middleton , Duchess of Cambridge went into labor with hers and Prince William 's baby in July 2013 , the idea that the couple should reenact the famous scene from The Lion King became quite popular among Twitter users . Radio journalist Darren Simpson reportedly tweeted , " when your baby arrives please re @-@ enact the scene from the Lion King " . Shortly after Middleton gave birth to a boy , England native Tommy Peto initiated a petition asking the couple to welcome their baby by having the Archbishop of Canterbury emulate the scene by holding him over the balcony of Buckingham Palace . Ultimately , the idea was deemed " outside the responsibility of the government " and was declined .

The scene has found itself the subject of both reference and parody in various forms of media , such as in the film George of the Jungle ( 1997 ) . In what is almost an exact replica of the scene , George , portrayed by actor Brendan Fraser , takes the place of both Rafiki and Mufasa by standing at the tip of Pride Rock and presenting his young son to a crowd of onlooking animals , accompanied by wife Ursula , portrayed by Leslie Mann .

During the season 3 finale of Once upon a Time the main character Emma Swan asked her parents Snow White and Prince charming ) that they aren 't going to hold up her yet unnamed baby brother like in the Lion King Since the release of The Lion King in 1994 , the name " Simba " has increased in use and popularity among dog and cat owners . According to Comcast in 2010 , the use of Simba as a dog name reemerged in popularity in 2009 after experiencing a noticeable decline in 2001 , ranking the name ninth out of 10 on its list of " Top 10 Trendiest Dog Names of the Year . " In May 2013 , Yahoo ! Lifestyle included the name on its list of " Trendiest Dog Names . " According to YouPet , Simba is the 17th most popular cat name out of 100 candidates . Care2 included Simba in its article " All @-@ around Cool Cat Names , " while DutchNews.nl reported that Simba ranks among the country 's most popular cat names as of July 2013 . In its list of " Top Popular Pet Names , " BabyNames.com placed Simba at number 64 on its list of most popular dog names out of the 100 that were considered .

= Altrincham =

Altrincham ( / ˈɒltrɪŋəm / OL @-@ tring @-@ əm ) is a market town in Trafford , Greater Manchester , England , south of the River Mersey about 8 miles ( 13 km ) southwest of Manchester city centre , 3 miles ( 5 km ) south @-@ southwest of Sale and 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of Warrington . At the 2001 UK census , it had a population of 41 @,@ 000 increasing to 52 @,@ 419 at the 2011 census .

Historically part of Cheshire , Altrincham was established as a market town in 1290 , a time when the economy of most communities was based on agriculture rather than trade , and there is still a market in the town today . Further socioeconomic development came with the extension of the Bridgewater Canal to Altrincham in 1765 and the arrival of the railway in 1849 , stimulating industrial activity in the town . Outlying villages were absorbed by Altrincham 's subsequent growth , along with the grounds of Dunham Massey Hall , formerly the home of the Earl of Stamford , and now a tourist attraction with three Grade I Listed Buildings and a deer park .

Altrincham today is an affluent commuter town , partly because of its transport links . The town has a strong middle class presence ; there has been a steady increase in Altrincham 's middle classes since the 19th century . It is also home to Altrincham F.C. and three ice hockey clubs , Manchester Storm , Altrincham Aces and Trafford Tornados . Altrincham 's population increased to 45 @,@ 809 in 2011 .

= = History = =

Local evidence of prehistoric human activity exists in the form of two Neolithic arrowheads found in Altrincham , and further afield , a concentration of artefacts around Dunham . The remains of a Roman road , part of one of the major Roman roads in North West England connecting the legionary fortresses of Chester ( Deva Victrix ) and York ( Eboracum ) , run through the Broadheath area . As it shows signs of having been repaired , the road was in use for a considerable period of time . The name Altrincham first appears as " Aldringeham " , probably meaning " homestead of Aldhere 's people " . As recently as the 19th century it was spelt both Altrincham and Altringham .

Until the Normans invaded England , the manors surrounding Altrincham were owned by the Saxon thegn Alweard ; after the invasion they became the property of Hamon de Massey , though Altrincham is not mentioned in the Domesday Book . The earliest documented reference to the town is from 1290 , when it was granted its charter as a Free Borough by Baron Hamon de Massey V. The charter allowed a weekly market to be held , and it is possible that de Massey established the town to generate income through taxes on trade and tolls . This suggests that Altrincham may have been a planned market town , unusual during the Middle Ages , when most communities were agricultural . Altrincham was probably chosen as the site of the planned town rather than Dunham – which would have been protected by Dunham Castle – because its good access to roads was important for trade .

Altrincham Fair became St James 's Fair or Samjam in 1319 and continued until 1895 . Fair days had their own court of Pye Powder ( a corruption of the French for " dusty feet " ) , presided over by the mayor and held to settle disputes arising from the day 's dealings . By 1348 the town had 120 burgage plots – ownership of land used as a measure of status and importance in an area – putting it on a par with the Cheshire town of Macclesfield and above Stockport and Knutsford . The earliest known residence in Altrincham was The Knoll , on Stamford Street near the centre of the medieval town . An 1983 excavation on the demolished building , made by South Trafford Archaeological Group , discovered evidence that the house dated from the 13th or 14th century , and that it may have contained a drying kiln or malting floor . During the English Civil War , men from Altrincham fought for the Parliamentarian Sir George Booth . During the war , armies camped on nearby Bowdon Downs on several occasions .

In 1754 , a stretch of road south of Altrincham , along the Manchester to Chester route , was turnpiked . Turnpikes were toll roads which taxed passengers for the maintenance of the road . Further sections were turnpiked in 1765 from Timperley to Sale , and 1821 from Altrincham to Stockport . The maintenance of roads passed to local authorities in 1888 , although by then most turnpike trusts had already declined . The connection of the Bridgewater Canal to Altrincham in 1765 stimulated the development of market gardening , and for many years Altrincham was noted for its vegetables . By 1767 , warehouses had been built alongside the canal at Broadheath , the first step in the development of Broadheath as an industrial area and the beginning of Altrincham 's industrialisation . The canal was connected in 1776 to the River Mersey , providing the town not only with a water route to Manchester , but also to the Irish Sea .

Moves to connect the town to the UK 's railway network gained pace in 1845 , when the Act of Parliament for the construction of the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway ( MSJAR ) was passed . The first train left Altrincham early on 20 July 1849 , carrying 65 passengers . The MSJAR had two stations in the town : Altrincham , on Stockport Road , and Bowdon – though not actually in Bowdon – on Lloyd Street / Railway Street . Both were replaced in 1881 by Altrincham & Bowdon station on Stamford New Road . The London and North Western Railway 's station at Broadheath , on the town 's northern edge , was opened in 1854 , while a further connection was created on 12 May 1862 by the Cheshire Midland Railway ( later the Cheshire Lines Committee ) , who opened their line from Altrincham to Knutsford .

With its new railway links , Altrincham and the surrounding areas became desirable places for the middle classes and commuters to live . Professionals and industrialists moved to the town , commuting into Manchester . While some travelled daily by coach , the less well – to – do commuted by express or " flyer " barges from Broadheath . Between 1851 and 1881 the population increased from 4 @,@ 488 to 11 @,@ 250 . Broadheath 's industrial area , covering about 250 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) , was founded in 1885 by Harry Grey , 8th Earl of Stamford , to attract businesses . By 1900 Broadheath had its own docks , warehouses and electricity generating station . The site 's proximity to rail , canal and road links proved attractive to companies making machine tools , cameras and grinding machines . The presence of companies like Tilghmans Sand Blast , and the Linotype and Machinery Company , established Broadheath as an industrial area of national standing . By 1914 , 14 companies operated in Broadheath , employing thousands of workers . One of those was the Budenberg Gauge Company . Linotype also created 172 workers ' homes near its factory , helping cater for the population boom created by Broadheath 's industrialisation . Between 1891 and 1901 the population of Altrincham increased by 35 per cent , from 12 @,@ 440 to 16 @,@ 831 .

From the turn of the 20th century to the start of the Second World War , there were few changes in Altrincham . Although the town was witness to some of the Luftwaffe 's raids on the Manchester area , it emerged from the war relatively unscathed , and as with the rest of Britain , experienced an economic boom . This manifested itself in the construction of new housing and the 1960s rebuilding of the town centre . However , during the 1970s employment at Broadheath declined by nearly 40 per cent .

= = Governance = =

Altrincham became a Free Borough , a self @-@ governing township , when it was granted a charter in June 1290 by the Lord of the Manor , Hamon de Massey V. The charter allowed for the creation of a merchants ' guild , run by the town 's burgesses to tax people passing through the borough . Burgesses were free men who lived in the town . The borough was ruled by a Court Leet and elected a mayor since at least 1452 . Amongst the court 's responsibilities were keeping the public peace and regulating the markets and fairs .

The borough was not one of those reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 , and continued to exist under the control of the Lord of the Manor and the Court Leet until its final abolition in 1886 . The Public Health Act of 1848 led to the creation of Altrincham 's Local Board of Health in 1851 to address the unsanitary conditions created by the town 's growing population – the first such board in Trafford .

The local board was reconstituted as an urban district council in the administrative county of Cheshire under the Local Government Act 1894 . Altrincham Urban District was expanded in 1920 when parts of Carrington and Dunham Massey Civil Parishes were added . A further expansion took place in 1936 ; Timperley Civil Parish was abolished and most of its area incorporated into Altrincham UD . At the same time , there was a minor exchange of areas with Hale Urban District ; a minor addition from Bowdon Urban District ; and a further substantial portion of Dunham Massey Civil Parish was added . In 1937 the urban district was granted a charter of incorporation and became a municipal borough . The new borough was granted armorial bearings which featured heraldic references to the Masseys and Earls of Stamford . With the passage of the Local Government Act 1972 , the administrative counties and municipal boroughs were abolished and Altrincham became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester on 1 April 1974 .

Trafford Council is responsible for the administration of local services , such as education , social services , town planning , waste collection and council housing . The area is divided into seven electoral wards : Altrincham , Bowdon , Broadheath , Hale Barns , Hale Central , Timperley , and Village . These wards have 21 out of the 63 seats on the Trafford Council ; as of the 2014 local elections fifteen of these seats were held by the Conservative Party , three by the Labour Party , and three by the Liberal Democrats . Altrincham was in the eponymous parliamentary constituency which was created in 1885 . This lasted until 1945 when it was replaced by Altrincham and Sale . In 1997 , this in turn became part of the newly created constituency of Altrincham and Sale West . Since its formation , Altrincham and Sale West has been represented in the House of Commons by the Conservative MP , Graham Brady . This is one of only two Conservative seats in Greater Manchester .

= = Geography = =

At 53 ° 23 ′ 2 ″ N 2 ° 21 ′ 17 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 3838 , − 2 @.@ 3547 ) , Altrincham is on the southwestern edge of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , immediately south of the town of Sale , and 8 miles ( 13 km ) southwest of Manchester city centre . It lies in the northwest corner of the Cheshire Plain , just south of the River Mersey . The Bridgewater Canal passes through the Broadheath area of the town . Altrincham 's drinking water is supplied by United Utilities . The local bedrock consists mainly of Keuper Waterstone , a type of sandstone , and water retrieved from those rocks is very hard and often saline , making it undrinkable . The town 's climate is generally temperate , with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom ; whereas both annual rainfall and average hours of sunshine are slightly below the average for the UK .

Along with Sale , Stretford and Urmston , Altrincham is one of the four major urban areas in Trafford . The Altrincham area , as defined by Trafford Council , comprises the south of Trafford . In addition to the town of Altrincham , it includes the villages of Timperley , Bowdon , Hale and Hale Barns . The Broadheath area of the town was a light industrial centre until the 1970s and is now a retail park . The most densely populated part of the town is around the town centre , with the less populated areas and more green space further from the centre of town in villages such as Bowdon and Hale . The Oldfield Brow area lies on the outskirts of the town beside the Bridgewater Canal and close to Dunham Massey .

= = Demography = =

As of the 2001 UK census , the town of Altrincham had a total population of 40 @,@ 695 . Of its 27 @,@ 900 households , 38 @.@ 7 per cent were married couples living together . 30 @.@ 4 per cent contained one person , 8 @.@ 2 per cent co @-@ habiting couples and 9 @.@ 0 per cent lone parents .

The town 's population density is 10 @,@ 272 inhabitants per square mile ( 3 @,@ 966 / km2 ) , with 94 @.@ 8 males for every 100 females . Of those aged 16 to 74 , 21 @.@ 7 per cent had no academic qualifications , similar to the 21 @.@ 3 per cent in all of Trafford , but lower than the 28 @.@ 9 per cent in England . At 4 @.@ 6 per cent , Altrincham has a low proportion of non @-@ white people . Asians are the area 's largest ethnic minority , at 1 @.@ 3 per cent of the population .

In 1931 , 14 @.@ 6 per cent of Altrincham 's population was middle class , slightly higher than the figure for England and Wales , which was 14 per cent . By 1971 this gap had increased to 28 @.@ 8 per cent compared to 24 per cent nationally , while the town 's working class population had declined , from 30 @.@ 3 per cent in 1931 ( 36 per cent in England and Wales ) to 18 @.@ 6 per cent ( 26 per cent nationwide ) . The remainder comprised clerical and skilled manual workers . This change in social structure was similar to that seen across the nation – although biased towards the middle classes – making Altrincham the middle @-@ class town it is today .

= = = Population change = = =

According to the hearth tax returns from 1664 , the township of Altrincham had a population of about 636 , making it the largest of the local settlements ; this had increased to 1 @,@ 692 in 1801 . In the first half of the 19th century , the town 's population increase by 165 per cent , higher than 89 per cent across England and 98 per cent in the Trafford area . The growth of the settlement was a result of the Industrial Revolution , and although Altrincham was one of the fastest growing townships in the Trafford area , but paled in comparison to new industrial areas such as Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Hyde , and Manchester . In the second half of the 19th century , Altrincham 's population grew by 275 per cent , higher than the 235 per cent for Trafford and 69 per cent nationally in the same period . This was due to the late industrialisation of the area and the introduction of the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway in 1849 . The table below details the population change since 1801 , including the percentage change since the last census .

= = Economy = =

Historically , Altrincham was a market town and the two main areas of employment were agriculture and market trade . Although the town went into decline in the 15th century , it recovered and the annual fairs lasted until the mid @-@ 19th century and the market still continues . During the Industrial Revolution , Altrincham grew as an industrial town , particularly the Broadheath area , which was developed into an industrial estate . In 1801 there were four cotton mills in Altrincham , part of its textile industry , although they had closed by the 1851 census . The decline of the textile industry in Altrincham mirrored the decline of the industry in the Trafford area as a result of a lack of investment and the development of more established industrial areas such as Manchester , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , and Oldham . During the late 19th and early 20th centuries , heavier industries moved into Broadheath , providing local employment . The area steadily declined during the second half of the 20th century , with employment at Broadheath falling from 8 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 between 1960 and 1970 . Despite the presence of retailers such as Tesco , Sainsbury 's and Marks & Spencer in the town , a new Asda superstore in Broadheath , and redevelopment schemes costing over £ 100 million , Altrincham 's 15 @.@ 5 per cent level of employment in retail is below the national average of 16 @.@ 9 per cent . Altrincham , with its neighbours Bowdon and Hale , is said to constitute a " stockbroker belt " , with well @-@ appointed dwellings in an area of sylvan opulence .

The historic market town developed as a residential area in the 19th century although it retains its retail heritage in the Old Market Place ( a conservation area ) and a new pedestrianised shopping centre . The retail districts of the town have more recently fallen victim to decline due to competition from the nearby Trafford Centre and a regenerated Manchester city centre . In 2006 Trafford Metropolitan Borough Council unveiled plans for a £ 1 @.@ 5 million redevelopment for the town centre . The renovation will create 146 @,@ 000 square feet ( 13 @,@ 600 m2 ) of new retail space and 203 @,@ 000 square feet ( 18 @,@ 900 m2 ) of refurbished space , providing 349 @,@ 000 square feet ( 32 @,@ 400 m2 ) in total .

Construction on Altair , a £ 100 million development on Oakfield Road , is expected to begin in 2013 . The scheme includes a hotel , offices , shops and eating places , and is expected to create 2 @,@ 000 permanent jobs . A further £ 20 million is earmarked for a refurbishment of the nearby Altrincham Interchange . A 2010 survey found that despite being in one of the country 's most affluent areas , nearly a third of the shops in Altrincham were vacant ; Trafford council attributed the high number ( 78 ) to the effects of the recession and plans to refurbish Stamford House , which left most of its shops unused .

According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents in Altrincham was 18 @.@ 4 per cent property and business services , 16 @.@ 0 per cent retail and wholesale , 12 @.@ 1 per cent manufacturing , 10 @.@ 7 per cent health and social work , 8 @.@ 3 per cent education , 8 @.@ 3 per cent transport and communications , 5 @.@ 8 per cent finance , 5 @.@ 7 per cent construction , 4 @.@ 2 per cent hotels and restaurants , 4 @.@ 2 per cent public administration and defence , 0 @.@ 8 per cent agriculture , 0 @.@ 8 per cent energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 2 per cent mining , and 4 @.@ 6 per cent other . This was roughly in line with national figures , except for the town 's relatively high percentage of workers in property and business services . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 5 @.@ 3 per cent looking after home or family , 4 @.@ 3 per cent permanently sick or disabled , 3 @.@ 2 per cent students without jobs , 2 @.@ 2 per cent students were with jobs , and 2 @.@ 4 per cent economically inactive for other reasons . The 2 @.@ 2 per cent unemployment rate of Altrincham was low compared with the national rate of 3 @.@ 3 per cent .

= = Culture = =

= = = Landmarks and attractions = = =

The Old Market Place is thought to stand on the site of the original town settlement . Now a registered conservation area it consists of a series of part timber @-@ framed buildings echoing the wattle and daub constructions of the original houses and burgage plots . The cobblestone paving was replaced in 1896 . The Buttermarket which stood in the area near the Old Market Place from the 17th century until the late 19th century was also the site for dispensing early local justice . A courtroom , stocks and whipping post saw public floggings take place there until the early 19th century . The whipping post and stocks were restored as a tourist attraction by local traders in the 1990s . However the Buttermarket area was also a site of religious importance , since prospective brides and grooms are thought to have declared their intentions here . In 1814 Thomas de Quincey described the Old Market Place in his Confessions of an English Opium Eater while travelling from Manchester to Chester . He noted how little the place had changed since his visit 14 years earlier at the age of three , and that " fruits , such as can be had in July , and flowers were scattered about in profusion : even the stalls of the butchers , from their brilliant cleanliness , appeared attractive : and bonny young women of Altrincham were all tripping about in caps and aprons coquettishly disposed " . Another of Altrincham 's attractions is the historic market , set up over 700 years ago when the town was first established .

Of the 21 conservation areas in Trafford , ten are in Altrincham : The Downs , The Devisdale , Bowdon , Ashley Heath , Goose Green , Old Market Place , Sandiway , George Street , the Linotype Housing Estate and Stamford New Road . On the town 's outskirts is the 18th @-@ century Dunham Massey Hall , surrounded by its 250 @-@ acre ( 1 km2 ) deer park , both now owned by the National Trust . The hall is early Georgian in style , and along with its stables and carriage house , is a Grade I listed building .

Royd House was built between 1914 and 1916 , by local architect Edgar Wood , as his own residence . It has a flat concrete roof , a concave façade , and is faced in Portland red stone and Lancashire brick . It is regarded as one of the most advanced examples of early 20th @-@ century domestic architecture , and is referenced in architectural digests . It has been a Grade I listed building since 1975 , one of six such buildings in Trafford . The Grade II listed clock outside the main transport interchange was built in 1880 .

The 16 @-@ acre ( 6 @.@ 5 ha ) Stamford Park was designed by landscape gardener John Shaw . It opened to the public in 1880 , as a sports park with areas for cricket and football . The land was donated by George Grey , the 7th Earl of Stamford , and is now owned and run by Trafford Council . The park is listed as Grade II on the Register of Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England , and has won a bronze award from the Greenspace award scheme .

= = = Events and venues = = =

Altrincham has two theatres , the Altrincham Garrick Playhouse and the Club Theatre . The Altrincham Garrick group was formed in 1913 . The Garrick held the world stage premier of Psycho in 1982 . In 1998 , it received a grant of £ 675 @,@ 000 from the National Lottery as part of a £ 900 @,@ 000 redevelopment of the theatre , which was completed in 1999 . The Club Theatre group began in 1896 , as the St Margaret 's Church Institute Amateur Dramatics Society . It provides a venue for the Trafford Youth Theatre production each year , and it runs the Hale One Act Festival , an annual week @-@ long event started in 1972 . The club has received awards from both the Greater Manchester Drama Federation and the Cheshire Theatre Guild . Altrincham also had Greater Manchester 's only Michelin starred restaurant , the Juniper .

= = = Sports = = =

Altrincham F.C. , nicknamed " The Robins " , were founded in 1903 and play home matches at Moss Lane . The club plays in the Vanarama Conference , the fifth tier of English football . In the 1970s and 1980s Altrincham F.C. built a reputation for " giant @-@ killing " acts against Football League teams in FA Cup matches . The club has knocked out Football League opposition on a record 16 occasions , including a 1986 victory against top @-@ flight Birmingham City . Altrincham won the forerunner of the Football Conference in its first two seasons , but was denied election to the Football League on both occasions , falling a single vote short in 1980 . Altrincham have since had mixed fortunes . Relegated to the Northern Premier League in 1997 , the club earned promotion two years later , but suffered a second relegation after a single season in the Conference . In the 2010 – 11 season Altrincham were relegated to Conference North .

Altrincham is one of the few towns in North West England with an ice rink , and has had an ice hockey team since 1961 , when Altrincham Ice Rink was built in Broadheath . The Altrincham Aces ( later renamed the Trafford Metros ) played from 1961 until 2003 , when Altrincham Ice Rink closed . The town then had a three @-@ year period without a rink or ice hockey team , until construction of the 2 @,@ 500 capacity Altrincham Ice Dome was completed . Manchester Phoenix , a club having a professional presence in the English Premier Ice Hockey League and an extensive junior development aspect , relocated to the Ice Dome during the 2006 – 07 season , having withdrawn from competition two years earlier due to the high cost of playing matches at Manchester 's MEN Arena . In 2009 the Manchester Phoenix English National Ice Hockey League team was renamed Trafford Metros , bringing the old Altrincham team 's name back into use . When not being used by Phoenix the Altrincham Ice Dome is open to the public for ice skating .

Founded in 1897 , Altrincham Kersal RUFC plays rugby union in North One , the competition below the National Leagues , and is amongst the top 80 clubs in England . Altrincham has been promoted five times in the past ten seasons . The club has produced England and Sale Sharks players Mark Cueto and Chris Jones and continues to produce players for the Sale Jets . Altrincham and District Athletics Club was founded in 1961 , and provides training facilities for track and field , road running , cross @-@ country running and fell running . Seamons Cycling Club was formed in 1948 in the area of Altrincham known locally as Seamons Moss .

= = Education = =

As Altrincham was part of the Bowdon parish , children from the township may have gone to the 16th @-@ century school established at Bowdon ; before that point , the town had no formal education system . A salt merchant from Dunham Woodhouses founded a school at Oldfield House intended for 40 boys aged 8 – 11 from the surrounding area . Sunday schools were set up in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Altrincham 's increasing population prompted the founding of more schools during the early 19th century and by 1856 the town had 9 schools , 1 college , and 23 teachers . The introduction of compulsory education during the second half of the 19th century increased the demand for schools , and by 1886 Altrincham had 12 church schools and 8 private schools .

Responsibility for local education fell to Cheshire County Council in 1903 . Loreto Convent , the County High School for Girls , and Altrincham County High School for Boys , were founded in 1909 , 1910 , and 1912 respectively . Although still open these schools have since changed their names to Altrincham Grammar School for Girls , Altrincham Grammar School for Boys , and Loreto Grammar School . Altrincham received evacuees during the Second World War , and it was in this period that St. Ambrose College was founded .

Altrincham now has eighteen primary schools , one special school and eight secondary schools , including five grammar schools ; the Trafford district maintains a selective education system assessed by the Eleven Plus exam . Several of Altrincham 's secondary schools have specialist status : Altrincham College of Arts ( arts ) ; Altrincham Grammar School for Boys ( language ) ; Altrincham Grammar School for Girls ( language ) ; Blessed Thomas Holford Catholic College ( maths and computing ) ; Loreto Grammar School ( science and maths ) ; and St. Ambrose College ( maths and computing ) . Altrincham College of Arts , Altrincham Grammar School for Boys , Altrincham Grammar School for Girls , Blessed Thomas Holford Catholic College , Loreto Grammar School , and St. Ambrose College were all rated as outstanding in their most recent Ofsted reports . Brentwood Special School is a mixed school for 11- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds who have special needs or learning difficulties .

= = Religion = =

During the medieval and post @-@ medieval periods the township of Altrincham was part of Bowdon parish . Low population density meant that the town did not have a church until the Anglican church established a chapel of ease in 1799 . Nonconformists were also present in Altrincham ; Methodists set up a chapel in 1790 , and Baptists built one in the 1870s . Irish immigrants in the 1830s and 1840s also returned Roman Catholicism to the area , the first Roman Catholic church built in Altrincham being St Vincent 's , in 1860 .

Several churches in Altrincham are deemed architecturally important enough to be designated Grade II listed buildings . These are Christ Church , the Church of St Alban , the Church of St George , the Church of St John the Evangelist and Trinity United Reformed Church . Of the nine Grade II * listed buildings in Trafford , three are in Altrincham : the Church of St Margaret , the Church of St John the Divine and Hale Chapel in Hale Barns . As of the 2001 UK census , 78 @.@ 8 per cent of Altrincham 's residents reported themselves as being Christian , 1 @.@ 1 per cent Jewish , 1 @.@ 1 per cent Muslim , 0 @.@ 4 per cent Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 per cent Buddhist and 0 @.@ 1 per cent Sikh . The census recorded 12 @.@ 1 per cent as having no religion , 0 @.@ 2 per cent with an alternative religion , while 6 @.@ 1 per cent did not state a religion . Altrincham is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury , and the Church of England Diocese of Chester . The nearest synagogue , belonging to Hale and District Hebrew Congregation , is on Shay Lane in Hale Barns .

= = Transport = =

Construction of the Manchester South Junction and Altrincham Railway began in 1845 . The line was opened in October 1849 , with services from Manchester London Road via Sale to Altrincham . In 1931 it became one of Great Britain 's first electrified railway lines , with a 1,500V DC overhead line . At the same time a new Altrincham station was opened on the same line , at Navigation Road , serving housing developments in the area . By 1937 , 130 train services ran daily between Manchester and Altrincham . The line was renovated in the early 1990s to form part of the Manchester Metrolink light rail system . Broadheath railway station served the northern part of Altrincham between 1853 and 1962 , on the line from Manchester , via Lymm to Warrington .

Altrincham Interchange is one of the Metrolink 's termini . The interchange has been refurbished , and now includes a brand new footbridge , with 3 lifts to cope with increased passenger demands , including a larger scale ticket office , and modern bus interchange . The redeveloped interchange is now going through finishing touches , with just the lifts to be completed . The new Interchange is a modern design building that looks fantastic and is helping to regenerate Altrincham city centre as the new building has helped to transform the surrounding area . The Interchange connects the town to several locations in Greater Manchester , such as Sale and Bury . The service also includes Navigation Road station . Metrolink services leave around every six minutes , between 07 : 15 and 19 : 30 on weekdays , and less frequently at other times . National Rail services link the Altrincham and Navigation Road stations with Chester via Northwich , and with Manchester via Stockport . Altrincham Interchange , next to the railway station , is a hub for local bus routes . Manchester Airport , the largest in the UK outside London , is 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the southeast of the town , and is connected via the Manchester Picadilly – Crewe line . There are plans in the future to create a new link between Manchester Airport and the Mid Cheshire Line , which Altrincham Interchange is a station on . Recently the Metrolink completed connections to this airport and opened the line 12 months early , but this is not a direct connection from the Metrolink line at Altrincham Interchange

= = Notable people = =

The artist Helen Allingham , born in 1848 , lived in Altrincham and then Bowdon during her childhood years . Alison Uttley wrote the Little Grey Rabbit books while living in Bowdon . Dramatist Ronald Gow lived there in his youth and later taught at the local grammar school . The town was also the birthplace of the film and television actress Angela Cartwright . Ian Brown and John Squire of The Stone Roses both attended Altrincham Grammar School for Boys , and Paul Young of Sad Café and Mike and the Mechanics lived in Altrincham until his death in 2000 .

Hewlett Johnson , later known as the " Red Dean " of Canterbury , was curate , and later vicar of St Margaret 's in the town from 1904 to 1924 .

The Lancashire and England Test cricketer Paul Allott was born in Altrincham .

Edward Kinder Bradbury was born ( 16 August 1881 ) in the town , he was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry and ability in organising the defence of ' L ' Battery against heavy odds at Nery on 1 September 1914 . Altrincham born Bill Speakman received the Victoria Cross for valour in 1951 in the Korean War . Sir Michael Pollock , an officer in the Royal Navy who rose to the position of First Sea Lord , was born in Altrincham .

= Towson United Methodist Church =

Towson United Methodist Church is a large United Methodist Church in the historic Baltimore County , Maryland suburb of Towson . Its past , rooted in 19th century America , and subsequent growth in the two centuries since then , have closely paralleled the nation 's political and sociological trends . It was a congregation split asunder in 1861 on the eve of the American Civil War in a border state of divided loyalties , which eventually reunited and built a church in the post @-@ World War II era of the 1950s , a time of reconciliation and rapid growth by mainline Protestant denominations , especially in the more affluent suburbs .

The 1 @,@ 000 @-@ member church , currently pastored by Rev. Roderick Miller , has a number of community outreach programs , including an accredited child care center and a Boy Scout troop , and actively supports a home for unwed mothers , overseas missions , and Habitat for Humanity projects . The congregation worships in a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ seat sanctuary built in 1958 . The large building 's prominent 235 @-@ foot ( 72 m ) spire and cupola , a landmark visible for miles from the nearby Baltimore Beltway ( Interstate 695 ) , has been called " the beacon of Towson " .

Towson United Methodist Church is located on Hampton Lane at interchange # 27B of the Baltimore Beltway and Dulaney Valley Road ( Md . Route 146 ) , one @-@ half mile ( one km ) west of Hampton National Historic Site . The church 's land was originally part of the vast 18th century Hampton estate .

= = History = =

= = = The beginning ; 1750s – 1850s = = =

First settled by brothers William and Thomas Towson in 1752 , the hamlet now bearing their name remained mostly farmland until the 1830s , with no churches and little more than a roadside inn / tavern for travelers on York Road ( now Md . Route 45 ) . In the 1790s , Rebecca Dorsey Ridgely , the wife of Charles Ridgely III and described as an ardent Methodist , began holding prayer meetings at the Ridgelys ' grandiose Hampton Mansion , located one @-@ half mi ( one km ) east of the present church site . By 1825 , the first Sunday School was started in a private home near a blacksmith 's shop on York Road . In 1839 , the citizenry of sparsely populated Towsontown , as the village was called by then , built the tiny community 's first church in a wooded location north of Joppa Road and east of Dulaney Valley Road . The site was previously used for a powder magazine built by Gen. Nathan Towson prior to the British attack on Baltimore in September 1814 , during the War of 1812 . Called Epsom Chapel , the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 m2 ) structure was built of stones salvaged from the arsenal . Led by Methodist Episcopal minister Daniel Helpler , Epsom Chapel was dedicated and opened for Towsontown 's first public church service on Sunday , November 10 , 1839 . In line with Methodist practice of the time in rural areas , circuit rider ministers would travel on horseback to preach to the villagers at Epsom Chapel . With the designation of Towson as the county seat in 1854 , the town began to grow more rapidly . The small chapel was shared with other denominations until the 1870s , when Towson 's increasing population spurred the construction of larger churches .

= = = Division and separate churches ; 1860s – 1950s = = =

The Methodist movement was growing rapidly in pre @-@ Civil War America , but was beset by disputes about slave @-@ holding and the rule over the church by bishops , resulting in a formal split into two groups in 1844 . The faction in favor of giving church authority to a hierarchy of bishops called themselves the Methodist Episcopal Church and took an anti @-@ slavery stance in the north . Those in opposition formed the Methodist Protestant Church in the United States . As the impending Civil War loomed over the nation in the 1850s , local Towson Methodists continued to worship together at Epsom Chapel .

This ended in 1861 , when a reed organ was purchased for Epsom Chapel , sparking a disagreement over the use of musical instruments in worship . A minority opposed to the idea joined the southern @-@ leaning Methodist Protestant Church , withdrawing from Epsom Chapel to worship at Towson 's Odd Fellows Hall during the Civil War . In 1867 , the Methodist Protestants returned to Epsom Chapel , but met separately on Sunday afternoons .

= = = = Towson Methodist Episcopal Church ( First Methodist Church ) = = = =

The northern @-@ leaning Methodist Episcopal congregation , which continued worshiping at Epsom Chapel during the Civil War , began building their own church nearby , with the laying of a cornerstone on August 14 , 1869 . The Towson Methodist Episcopal ( M.E. ) Church , a neo @-@ Gothic brick structure , was located on York Road next to the present Prospect Hill Cemetery , one block north of the intersection with Joppa and Dulaney Valley Roads . Designed by Edmund George Lind and built at a cost of $ 29 @,@ 000 , the 350 @-@ seat church was completed and dedicated on October 26 , 1871 .

The M.E. Church 's eighty @-@ seven members soon found themselves in financial difficulties , however , having gone heavily in debt to build their new sanctuary . The chairman of the church 's building committee had advanced his personal funds to complete the construction , thereafter becoming embroiled in years of litigation with the church . By 1874 , the church was drawing larger crowds under then @-@ pastor Joseph Stitt , who was described as an " excellent leader of singing " . An afternoon Sunday school session was particularly popular , " principally devoted to learning new hymns , which attracted many of the young people of the town , especially the young men " , noted one account . When the ME church held its twenty @-@ fifth anniversary celebration in 1896 , it opened with prayer and a piano concert , " favored with a beautiful selection sung by Mrs. Randolph Murphy " , said a contemporary report .

Although the two Methodist congregations had remained estranged since the split in 1861 , both groups did come together in 1895 for a " Great Revival " in Towson . The joint services were attended by throngs and the " preaching was with power " , newspapers commented . At the beginning of the 20th century , the increasingly large and prosperous congregation added eleven stained glass windows to the M.E. church , including Christ the Good Shepherd by Heinrich Hofmann . In 1921 , a new pipe organ was installed by M. P. Möller .

= = = = Towson Methodist Protestant Church ( Second Methodist Church ) = = = =

The Methodist Protestant group continued to use Epsom Chapel until 1908 , when they built a $ 6 @,@ 000 church seating 150 persons at the corner of Allegheny and Bosley Avenues . Located in the heart of Towson near the County Circuit Courthouse , the Towson Methodist Protestant Church was constructed of stone with a slate roof and a bell tower .

With the merger in 1939 of the Methodist Episcopal ( M.E. ) and Methodist Protestant ( M.P. ) denominations in the U.S. , Towson 's Methodist Episcopal and Methodist Protestant churches were known thereafter as First Methodist Church and Second Methodist Church , respectively .

= = = The reunited church ; 1950s – present = = =

Following the reunification of the two branches of Methodism in 1939 , First Methodist Church and Second Methodist Church of Towson continued as separate entities for another thirteen years . After the end of World War II in 1945 , mainline Protestant church attendance increased significantly in the U.S. By early 1952 , faced with facilities fast becoming inadequate for the burgeoning population of suburbia in the postwar period and with a boom in modern commercial development of Towson 's core area starting to displace older buildings , the two churches formed a joint committee to evaluate a merger . The committee recommended that the two churches become one , concluding :

" The properties of the First and Second Churches are located in close proximity to each other ... the identical objectives , program and methods of work of the two churches , will continue to make competition and overlapping inevitable ... by pooling their resources and unifying ... they can better serve the community and the Kingdom of God " . — Joint Committee Report , 1952

In April 1952 , more than ninety years after the two churches split , the congregations of both finally voted to reunite , merging on June 1 , 1952 , and adopting the name Towson Methodist Church . The members of both Methodist churches then began worshiping together at the First Methodist Church . Plans to construct a much larger building with ample parking were announced when the two churches merged and 16 acres ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) of undeveloped land , originally part of the Ridgelys ' Hampton estate and north of the planned alignment of the Baltimore Beltway ( I @-@ 695 ) , were purchased soon thereafter from Goucher College .

A groundbreaking ceremony was held on October 7 , 1956 , and construction of the new church was completed by the John K. Ruff Company in May 1958 , with a service of dedication held on May 11 , 1958 . A crowd of 1 @,@ 250 attended the ceremonies in the new sanctuary , with an overflow of 550 persons watching by closed @-@ circuit television in the lower level Fellowship Hall .

The old First M.E. Church structure adjacent to Prospect Hill Park Cemetery on McCurdy Avenue ( now Investment Place ) and York Road was abandoned and eventually demolished in 1965 . An illuminated display of the stained glass windows in the former church is located in the foyer of the current building . The Second M.P. Church structure was sold in 1954 to the Women 's Club of Towson and still stands today — in 2005 , the building was resold to an office development firm and is now used by an insurance agency . The erstwhile Epsom Chapel eventually became a meeting hall for Boy Scout troops in the 1920s – 1930s . It was subsequently abandoned and finally demolished in 1952 to make way for construction of a parking lot for the old Hutzler 's department store , now a Barnes & Noble store near the present Macy 's department store and Towson Town Center mall . No trace of Epsom Chapel exists today , except for an historical marker placed near the site by the Baltimore County Historical Society , designating it as the " cradle of Methodism in Towson " .

The current name , Towson United Methodist Church , was adopted in 1968 to reflect the merger in that year of the Methodist and Evangelical United Brethren denominations in the U.S. On Pentecost Sunday , May 11 , 2008 , the fiftieth anniversary of the present sanctuary 's completion was celebrated by a reenactment of the original May 11 , 1958 , dedication service .

= = Current building and facilities = =

Towson United Methodist Church is an L @-@ shaped structure , with the main sanctuary on a north @-@ south axis . Designed by architect J. Alfred Hamme and completed in 1958 , the church is built of red brick in the Georgian architectural style , with a prominent , floodlighted spire surmounted by a 9 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) porcelain enamel gold cross visible at 3 – 5 mi ( 5 – 8 km ) distance on the Beltway . The imposing front facade is of cut stone from Pennsylvania , with the 18 @-@ foot ( 5 m ) high main entranceway capped by a curved stone pediment . Inside , the sanctuary has three aisles with a rear balcony and can accommodate up to one thousand persons . Rows of Corinthian columns standing on 4 @-@ foot ( 122 cm ) bases flank the pews along both side aisles . The pulpit and doors are made of mahogany .

The 3 @-@ story east @-@ west wing has classrooms , offices , a chapel , and the John D. Hoffman library featuring an exhibit of memorabilia and historical artifacts along with archival records . Construction of the church cost $ 950 @,@ 000 in 1958 ( equivalent to almost $ 7 million in 2008 ) , not including the expense of land acquisition .

= = = Organ and carillon = = =

Towson United Methodist Church has a 3 @-@ manual , 49 @-@ rank Casavant pipe organ of 2 @,@ 516 pipes , including seven ranks of 16 ft. pipes and tubular chimes . It was dedicated in memory of S. Clayton Seitz by then @-@ organist John Duwane Hoffman on May 11 , 1958 . Hoffman , the church 's esteemed virtuoso organist and Minister of Music between 1957 – 1988 , was a graduate of Union Theological Seminary 's renowned Master of Sacred Music degree program , after having earned Bachelor of Music and Master of Music degrees at the University of Denver . At Union , Hoffman studied the organ with Clarence Dickinson and Vernon De Tar . In addition to serving as the church 's organist and choral director , Hoffman was professor of organ at Towson State University . He died unexpectedly on July 4 , 1988 of complications following heart bypass surgery . The church library is named in his memory . Hoffman was succeeded by Kathie Metz , a graduate of Marshall University , as Director of Music and Organist 1988 – 2012 . The current Director of Music and Organist since July , 2013 , is Douglas Hollida . An ordained minister , Rev. Hollida studied music at Shepherd University , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree , and then earned a Master of Divinity degree from Trinity Episcopal School for Ministry . World @-@ famous concert organists who have performed at the church 's organ include Pierre Cochereau , Flor Peeters , and Marilyn Mason .

A 2 @-@ octave Schulmerich electronic carillon of twenty @-@ five bells was installed in the tower in June 1958 . It was played from the organ console by a carillonneur on Sunday mornings before and after services , as well as on special occasions , such as Christmas Eve and as part of the traditional noontime nationwide peal of church bells on the Fourth of July . Hymns were also played daily on the carillon by a music roll until it was discontinued in the 1990s .

= = = Renovation and expansion project = = =

Towson United Methodist Church is in the midst of a $ 3 million phased renovation and expansion project started in 2006 . In the first phase , completed in 2007 , an elevator and additional facilities were installed for improved disabled accessibility , along with a new fire sprinkler system and replacement of the building 's climate control system ( HVAC ) . Additional classrooms in an expanded education wing are planned in future phases of a multiyear master plan adopted by the church in 2005 .

To help fund the future works , the church announced plans in January 2008 to sell 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 14 @,@ 000 m2 ) of undeveloped , wooded property it owns on Hampton Lane to Shelter Development Corp. for construction of a senior citizen housing complex . A zoning change application was submitted to Baltimore County officials to allow sixteen residential units per acre ( current zoning limits density to two residential units per acre ) for a total of 80 – 100 beds . The Hampton Improvement Association , representing neighboring Hampton , Maryland residents , said they " ... oppose [ d ] zoning changes that would allow higher density residential development and require trees to be knocked down " . Then @-@ pastor David Cooney told the Baltimore Sun , " We entered into this with Shelter , believing this is a good use for the land — that this is a good company and a needed service " . In the face of community objections , however , Shelter and the church subsequently announced on March 3 , 2008 , that the development plans had been dropped . A Shelter official said that his company and Towson United Methodist Church had jointly come to the conclusion that " this is not something we are going to pursue " . Pastor Cooney said , " It had become clear that we weren 't going to be able to reach a compromise and we certainly don 't want to be at war with our neighbors " . In the wake of the plan 's shelving , the president of the Hampton Improvement Association told the Towson Times that his group wishes to work with Towson United Methodist Church to find an alternative use for the land besides commercial development , as they " don 't want to preclude the church from trying to get some money out of it . " In April 2008 , Dr. Cooney said that the church " did not set out to sell this land ; the proposal came to us , and we have no other plans to sell or develop the land " .

= = Ministry = =

Roderick J. Miller is Lead Pastor of Towson United Methodist Church , succeeding David S. Cooney in July , 2011 . Miller grew up in Pennsylvania , where he graduated from Allegheny College in 1976 , receiving a B.A. in Religion . He then studied at Wesley Theological Seminary in Washington , D.C. , earning a Master of Divinity degree in 1982 . While ministering at Union Chapel United Methodist Church in Joppa , Maryland , Miller continued his postgraduate studies , receiving a Doctor of Ministry degree in Church Revitalization from Chicago 's McCormick Theological Seminary in 1992 . He was later Lead Pastor at Bethany UMC church in Ellicott City , Maryland ( 1994 – 2005 ) , after which he was named Director of Connectional Ministries for the denomination 's Baltimore @-@ Washington Conference , serving in that role 2005 – 2011 .

The mission statement of Towson United Methodist Church is : " To proclaim the Word of God and to make disciples of Jesus Christ " . The church 's staff of twelve includes assistant ministers , directors of music and education , and building and administrative personnel . It is a part of the denomination 's Baltimore @-@ Washington Conference ( district ) . In addition to Sunday morning worship services , the 1 @,@ 200 member congregation participates in graded Sunday school classes , various adult Bible study classes , youth activities , and a midweek " Praise , Prayer & Healing " service . The music program includes both adult and youth choirs , as well as handbell ringers . The church 's Alleluia Singers , a 50 – voice ensemble of high school @-@ age young people , sings frequently for weekly worship services and tours the eastern U.S. each summer .

= = = Previous ministers = = =

David Cooney was Senior Pastor of Towson United Methodist Church between September 1 , 2001 – June 30 , 2011 . He earned a Master of Divinity degree from Wesley Theological Seminary and a Ph.D. from Iliff School of Theology in Denver , Colorado . He is the son of Rev. C. Douglas Cooney ( 1928 – 2003 ) , who was also a Methodist minister at various churches , including the First Methodist Church of Hyattsville , Maryland , as well as an official of the Methodist denomination .

Other former senior ministers of Towson Methodist Church and its predecessor First Methodist Church , with their years of appointment , are :

= = = Community outreach = = =

Towson United Methodist Church sponsors a Boy Scout troop , overseas missions , the Susanna Wesley House for unwed mothers , and actively participates in Habitat for Humanity projects . Over the years , members of the Towson Methodist Men 's group and Women 's Society of Christian Service ( now United Methodist Women ) have supported Meals on Wheels , the League of Women Voters , and Head Start , as well as serving as volunteers at local hospitals and the Maryland School for the Blind . For more than thirty years , the church has hosted a weekly meeting of Alcoholics Anonymous .

The large size of the sanctuary and its convenient location make it well @-@ suited for community gatherings attracting sizable crowds , such as concerts by the Handel Choir of Baltimore . The church hosts an annual memorial service for fallen Baltimore County firefighters and rescue personnel . Senior Baltimore County officials , including the County Executive and Fire Chief , participate in the service 's memorial wreath laying and the tolling of a bell , as part of the commemoration . Nationally @-@ known guest speakers , such as Tony Campolo and Millie Dienert , have also spoken there .

Towson United Methodist Church started the Hampton Lane Child Development Center in 1978 . An accredited child care center , it now serves approximately fifty children ages 2 – 5 years old .

= Lovejoy Columns =

The Lovejoy Columns , located in Portland , Oregon , United States , supported the Lovejoy Ramp , a viaduct that from 1927 to 1999 carried the western approach to the Broadway Bridge over the freight tracks in what is now the Pearl District . The columns were painted by Greek immigrant Tom Stefopoulos between 1948 and 1952 . In 1999 , the viaduct was demolished but the columns were spared due to the efforts of the architectural group Rigga . For the next five years , attempts to restore the columns were unsuccessful and they remained in storage beneath the Fremont Bridge .

In 2005 , two of the original columns were resited at Northwest 10th Avenue between Everett and Flanders Streets . The Regional Arts & Culture Council was searching for photographs showing the murals in their original location for an ongoing restoration project . In 2006 , Randy Shelton reconstructed the artworks on the columns using the photographs for reference .

= = Description and history = =

The Lovejoy Columns supported the Lovejoy Ramp , a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 610 m ) viaduct that stretched from Northwest 14th Avenue and Lovejoy Street to the Broadway Bridge . It was constructed in 1927 – 1928 . Between 1948 and 1952 , Athanasios Efthimiou " Tom " Stefopoulos ( died 1971 ) , a Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway night watchman , artist and master calligrapher in the copperplate style , drew upon the columns in chalk and later painted them . His work was spontaneous and not commissioned . Stefopoulos painted Greek mythology and Americana imagery in a calligraphic style ; the designs depicted " fanciful " owls , landscapes " bedecked with homespun aphorisms " , and ancient Greek philosopher Diogenes of Sinope navigating the streets of Athens with a lantern . He painted around a dozen murals , though photographic evidence does not exist for each of them . The paintings became a local landmark and quickly gained Stefopoulos notoriety and media coverage .

In the late 1990s , developer Homer Williams persuaded the city to demolish the viaduct to open up dozens of blocks in the redeveloping Pearl District . Preservation efforts began immediately . In 1998 , Georgiana Nehl completed a painting of the columns called Guardians : Under the Lovejoy Ramp to " catch a small flavor of these ' guardians , ' while they were still in place in their surprising location — before they were lost in the name of progress " . In 1999 , James Henderson took a series of photographs of the remaining pigments of the original paintings ; he recorded the murals using cross @-@ polarized lighting and used digital enhancement to restore the colors . The Regional Arts & Culture Council administers at least six of Henderson 's photographs , which were printed in 2002 and each called Lovejoy Column .

= = = Demolition = = =

The viaduct was removed in 1999 , but the architectural group Rigga persuaded the city to preserve the paintings and the columns . Rigga said that if the murals had been removed from the columns , " much of their magic would be lost " . The City of Portland 's Office of Transportation earmarked funds to remove ten columns ; an ad hoc committee called Friends of the Columns was formed to raise money for their storage , restoration and public display , which was estimated to cost $ 460 @,@ 000 . City Commissioner Charlie Hales said , " Saving the Lovejoy columns and the artwork provides a real bridge between the rich history of this industrial area and its future as a residential neighborhood . I am pleased that we are able to save these columns and look forward to them being placed on some of the park spaces in the River District . " According to the James M. Harrison Art and Design Studio , " Extracting the columns both captured the space created by Tom and preserved a ruin that would continue to tell a story . The fragile paintings preserved the mighty concrete . " During the next five years , attempts by the city , and non @-@ profit and entrepreneurial groups to restore the columns were unsuccessful . Boora Architects ' Northwest Marshall Street Pedestrian Bridge Feasibility Study ( 2001 ) , funded by the Portland Development Commission , proposed installing the columns at the intersection of Northwest 9th Avenue and Naito Parkway .

The columns were featured in a 2003 article by the Getty Conservation Institute called " The Conservation of Outdoor Contemporary Murals " , which described best practices for preserving murals and included photographs of the columns during the demolition phase , with conservator J. Claire Dean assessing one of them . From August 10 to September 4 , 2004 , Portland @-@ based artist and filmmaker Vanessa Renwick exhibited a paper and video installation called Lovejoy Lost , featuring camera work by her and Gus Van Sant , for the PDX Window Project .

In November 2004 , Willamette Week reported that the columns were being held at a storage yard at Northwest 14th Avenue and Savier Street , beneath the Fremont Bridge . The paper said , " [ h ] alf @-@ covered in blue tarps , their rusted steel girders sticking out of concrete like veins from a freshly amputated arm , they await the political momentum to rescue them from rot " . Real estate developer John Carroll hoped to site the columns at the Elizabeth Lofts , but former Rigga member James Harrison said he was reluctant to believe it would happen , given their history . Harrison told Willamette Week , " [ t ] hese things can turn on a dime " .

= = = Resiting = = =

Carroll 's and Harrison 's efforts were realized in 2005 when two of the ten original columns were resited at Northwest 10th Avenue between Everett and Flanders streets . The 29 @,@ 000 lb ( 13 @,@ 000 kg ) columns featured a majority of Stefopoulos ' paintings . Harrison reportedly watched with " something like fatherly joy " during the installation and said , " [ w ] e 're installing a ruin " . Carroll said displaying the columns as public art " will preserve an element of the city ’ s past for current and future generations " and acknowledged support from the neighborhood , Friends of the Columns and the Portland Development Commission . The Regional Arts & Culture Council was searching for photographs showing the murals in their original location for a restoration project , which would be completed the following summer . In 2006 , the columns were reconstructed from the photographs by Randy Shelton . The City of Portland 's Bureau of Planning said the resited columns " [ celebrate ] a period in the district ’ s history , showcasing the art for a broader audience " .

An event called " Public Space Invasion " was held in the plaza containing the columns in 2011 , inviting guests to " explore the legal limits of Portland 's more peculiar public spaces " . It advertised " crafts among the condos " and the opportunity to " picnic beside a freeway " . In 2013 , a bicycle tour called " Lovejoy Columns and Tom " focused on the conservation of the columns , the " almost forgotten history " of Stefopoulos and the rise of the Pearl District . The tour was narrated by Harrison on behalf of Friends of the Columns and guided by " Portland 's Museum Lady " Carye Bye ; it raised money for a gravestone for Stefopoulos ' unmarked grave at Rose City Cemetery . It included a guided tour at the Hellenic @-@ American Cultural Center and Museum , which was exhibiting Master Penworks of Tom Stefopoulos to view pen @-@ and @-@ ink art by Stefopoulos . It also included a viewing of Renwick ’ s unfinished film Lovejoy and an optional visit to Stefopoulos ' grave . In her documentary , Renwick chronicled the effort to save the columns and restore the paintings .

= = Depictions and reception = =

The Daily Journal of Commerce called the columns a Portland " urban legend " . According to Richard Speer of Willamette Week , " generations of Portlanders grew up counting the Lovejoy columns as one of the city 's most unique attractions " . Speer also said the columns were once " postcard favorites and seemed as much a part of the city 's landscape as the Hawthorne Bridge " and have an " endearing , perspectiveless style " . The murals appeared in Van Sant 's film Drugstore Cowboy ( 1989 ) , Foxfire ( 1996 ) and a music video by Elliott Smith .

The resited columns have been included in published walking tours of Portland . In her 2006 book Walking Portland : 30 Tours of Stumptown 's Funky Neighborhoods , Historic Landmarks , Park Trails , Farmers Markets , and Brewpubs , Becky Ohlsen said , " Whatever you make of the artwork , the inspired effort that went into preserving it — not to mention the awesome spectacle of those massive columns ripped free , their rebar guts exposed to the air — is damned impressive " .

= The Boat Race 1870 =

The 27th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on the 6 April 1870 . Cambridge won by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 22 minutes 4 seconds , their first victory since the 1860 race .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge by three lengths in the previous year 's race and led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's ten .

Cambridge were coached by George Morrison who had also coached them in 1869 . He had rowed in the 1859 , 1860 and 1861 races and had also acted as a non @-@ rowing president for the 1862 race , yet the previous year 's decision to engage a member of the opposing university was greeted with consternation and considered by many Cantabrigians as " a disgrace to the Club " . Morrison had also coached Oxford six times previously . Oxford 's coach was Frank Willan , who had rowed in four victories for the Dark Blues between the 1866 and the 1869 race . He also rowed for Oxford against Harvard University in 1869 . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .

= = Crews = =

The two sets of rowers averaged the same weight , at 11 st 13 @.@ 25 lb ( 75 @.@ 7 kg ) each . Oxford 's crew contained four Blues , two of whom ( S. D. Darbishire and W. D. Benson ) were rowing in their third consecutive race . Similarly , Cambridge saw four of the 1869 crew return including the Cambridge University Boat Club president John Goldie and John Dale .

= = Race = =

According to Drinkwater , despite Oxford being " manifestly the weaker crew " , they were pre @-@ race favourites based on their " prestige " . A report in The Graphic noted that only two steamers were present , following the race , one carrying the umpire , the other to transport the Edward , Prince of Wales ( who later became King Edward VII ) and the Francis , Prince of Teck amongst others .

Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Cambridge took an early lead even though their stroke rate was lower than that of the Dark Blues , and led by three @-@ quarters of a length by the time the crews shot Hammersmith Bridge . Oxford stayed in touch for the next 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) but following a spurt , they almost levelled the race by Chiswick Eyot . Cambridge 's stroke John Goldie led a surge to pull back ahead of Oxford , and despite their best efforts , Oxford could not recover . Cambridge won by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 22 minutes 4 seconds . The victory was Cambridge 's first since the 1860 race , and brought the overall record to 16 – 11 in Oxford 's favour .

= Marco Kartodikromo =

Marco Kartodikromo ( 1890 – 18 March 1932 ) , also known by his pen name Mas Marco , was an Indonesian journalist and writer .

Born to a low @-@ ranking priyayi ( noble ) family in Blora , Dutch East Indies , Kartodikromo 's first employment was with the national railway . Disgusted by the racism shown there , in 1911 he moved to Bandung and found work as a journalist for Medan Prijaji . The following year he moved to Surakarta and worked with two publications , Saro Tomo and Doenia Bergerak ; he soon began to write pieces critical against the Dutch colonial government , which led to his arrest . After a period as a correspondent in the Netherlands , Kartodikromo continued his journalism and critique of the government ; he also wrote several pieces of fiction . Involved with the Communist Party of Indonesia , after a 1926 communist @-@ led revolt Kartodikromo was exiled to Boven @-@ Digoel prison camp in Papua . He died in the camp of malaria in 1932 .

Kartodikromo , who preferred writing in Malay , experimented with new phrasings at a time when the state @-@ owned publisher Balai Pustaka was attempting to standardise the language . According to literary critic Bakri Siregar , he was the first Indonesian writer to openly criticise the Dutch colonial government and the traditional form of feudalism practised in the country . For this vocal criticism , the Dutch government decried him as a " crazy " man who could spark unrest among the native populations .

= = Biography = =

= = = Early life and career = = =

Kartodikromo was born in Blora , Central Java , Dutch East Indies , in 1890 to a low @-@ ranking priyayi ( noble ) family . At the age of fifteen , he took up a job at the Nederlandsch @-@ Indische Spoorweg , the national railway company of the Indies , in Semarang . In 1911 he chose to leave the company as he was disgusted by its racist policies , including the use of race as a basis for the amount paid in wages .

Kartodikromo made his way to Bandung , West Java , where he found employment at Medan Prijaji , a newspaper run by Tirto Adhi Soerjo . When the paper was closed by the Dutch , in 1912 Kartodikromo went to Surakarta . There , he joined Sarekat Islam , an organisation of Muslim merchants , and found employment at the Sarekat Islam @-@ backed weekly Saro Tomo . In 1914 he took lead of the magazine Doenia Bergerak . The paper was the mouthpiece of the Native Indonesian Journalists ' Group ( Inlandse Journalisten Bond ) , which Kartodikromo led and had helped establish with Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Darnakoesoemo . That same year , he published the three @-@ volume work Mata Gelap ( Dark Eyes ) ; this led to a long polemic between Doenia Bergerak and the Chinese @-@ owned Tjoen Tjioe in Surabaya due to perceived racism .

While with Doenia Bergerak , Kartodikromo wrote an attack on the Dutch Advisor on Native Affairs R.A. Rinkes ; in his editorial , he wrote that the Dutch loved themselves far more than the natives they were subjugating . On 26 January 1915 , Kartodikromo came under investigation by the Justice Office of the Dutch East Indies for publishing several further anti @-@ Dutch editorials . The journalist unsuccessfully attempted to raise money to protest this at the Dutch parliament in The Hague . He was convicted of revolutionary activity and sentenced to nine months at Mlaten Prison ; however , due to public outcry he was released after 100 days . When Doenia Bergerak went bankrupt , Kartodipuro then headed the Saro Tomo .

= = = Further career , exile , and death = = =

Kartodikromo was soon chosen by Goenawan , chief editor of the daily Pantjaran Warta , to go to the Netherlands as a correspondent . In his five months there at the end of 1916 and beginning of 1917 , the journalist published Boekoe Sebaran Jang Pertama ( The First Publication Book ) . After his return to Indonesia , he became an editor for Pantjaran Warta and based himself in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) . Within a month he was imprisoned again for his writing .

On 21 February 1918 Kartodikromo was released from prison . He moved to Semarang and became a commissioner of the Sarekat Islam with Semaun ; he also joined the newspaper Sinar Djawa ( later Sinar Hindia ) . In a conference that year , Kartodikromo stated that there were two kinds of press in Indonesia : the " black press " ( pers item ) , which struggled against the imperialistic Dutch ; and the " white press " ( pers putih ) , which worked to subjugate the Indonesian people .

In 1918 he published Student Hidjo ( Student Green ) , which told of a young Indonesian student who falls in love while studying in the Netherlands despite already having a fiancée in Indonesia . The work , originally published as a serial , was novelised in 1919 . Also in 1918 he published a collection of poems , Sair @-@ sair Rempah ( Poems on Spices ) .

Kartodikromo published another novel , Matahariah , in 1919 . It was based on the life of the Dutch spy Mata Hari . On 15 December 1919 , Kartodikromo left Sinar Hindia and took a position as head of Soero Tamtomo , published by the Forestry Union Staff Union Wono Tamtomo . He was imprisoned for six months for one of his writings , Sjairnja Sentot ( Sentot 's Poem ) , with the paper . In 1921 Kartodikromo moved to Salatiga and became involved with the press there . He was sentenced to two years in a Batavian prison for another of his writings .

In 1924 , Kartodikromo published Rasa Merdika ( A Sense of Independence ) , which dealt with a young man who goes against his priyayi father , a tool of the Dutch colonial government , and tries to find personal independence . Another novel , Cermin Buah Keroyalan ( Mirror of the Fruit of Royalty ) , and stage play , Kromo Bergerak ( Kromo is Moving ) , were published not long after .

Kartodikromo was exiled to Boven @-@ Digoel , Papua , in 1926 for his writings and involvement in the 1926 revolt led by the Communist Party of Indonesia . He died there of malaria on 18 March 1932 .

= = Themes and styles = =

Most of Kartodikromo 's fictional works took place in Bandung or Surabaya . He was an early Indonesian example of the social realist movement . Like most nationalist writers at the time , Kartodikromo preferred writing in Malay ( the predecessor of modern Indonesian ) rather than his native Javanese ; however , he did write several pieces in Javanese . While the state @-@ owned publisher Balai Pustaka was attempting to standardise Malay , Kartodikromo experimented with the language , using words , phrases , and scenes which had never before been used .

Socialist literary critic Bakri Siregar writes that Kartodikromo drew on his experiences while visiting the Netherlands in writing Studen Hidjo . He also writes that , unlike writers published by Balai Pustaka , Kartodikromo was heavily against the " white superiority " which the Dutch impressed upon native Indonesians ; this was achieved through showcasing the " depravity of bourgeois morals and the Dutch colonials . "

= = Reception = =

Due to his vocal criticism of the Dutch , the East Indies government banned Kartodikromo 's books several times . In response to his critiques in Doenia Bergerak , they described him as a " crazy " man who could spark unrest among the native populations . Kartodikromo himself enjoyed baiting the colonial government , reportedly inviting his readers to work together and criticise the Dutch for their " mismanagement and caprice " .

Siregar described Kartodikromo as the first Indonesian writer to openly criticise the Dutch colonial government and the traditional form of feudalism practised in the country ; he also notes that the writer was the first Indonesian to consciously depict class struggles in his works . As Siregar considered Indonesian literature to have been born from a nationalist understanding , he considered Marco one of the first truly Indonesian writers .

Hendrik Maier , a lecturer at Leiden University , writes that Kartodikromo was " primarily inspired by dreams and ideals " , noting that the writer intended to create a community of politically aware Indonesians to work against the colonial government in solidarity and equality . Kartodikromo described his ideal political state as having " sama rata sama rasa " ( " the same standards , the same feelings " ) .

= = Works = =

Mata Gelap ( Dark Eyes ; 1914 ; novel in three volumes )

Sair @-@ sair Rempah ( Poems on Spices ; 1918 ; poetry anthology )

Student Hidjo ( Student Green ; 1918 ; novel )

Rasa Merdika ( A Sense of Independence ; 1924 ; novel )

Cermin Buah Keroyalan ( Mirror of the Fruit of Royalty ; 1924 ; novel )

Kromo Bergerak ( Kromo is Moving ; 1924 ; stage play )

= Sharptooth houndshark =

The sharptooth houndshark , or spotted gully shark ( Triakis megalopterus ) , is a species of houndshark , belonging to the family Triakidae , found in shallow inshore waters from southern Angola to South Africa . Favoring sandy areas near rocky reefs and gullies , it is an active @-@ swimming species that usually stays close to the bottom . This robust shark reaches 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) in length and has characteristically large , rounded fins ; the pectoral fins in particular are broad and sickle @-@ shaped in adults . It also has a short , blunt snout and long furrows around its mouth . This species is gray or bronze in color above , with variable amounts of black spotting .

Mainly active at night , the sharptooth houndshark feeds mostly on crustaceans , bony fishes , and cephalopods . It has been observed gathering in groups in shallow water during summertime , possibly for reproductive purposes . This species is aplacental viviparous , meaning that the unborn young are sustained mainly by yolk . Females give birth to 6 – 12 pups between late May and August , on a two- or three @-@ year cycle . The sharptooth houndshark is often hooked by recreational anglers , and some are also captured on commercial bottom longlines . Because of its small range , its low growth and reproductive rates , it is very vulnerable to overfishing . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has therefore listed this species as Near Threatened .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

Scottish zoologist Andrew Smith originally described the sharptooth houndshark as a species of Mustelus in 1839 , as part of his work Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa . His account was based on two specimens caught off the Cape of Good Hope , South Africa . Smith named the shark megalopterus , from the Greek mega ( " large " ) and pteron ( " wing " ) , referring to its large fins . Another common name for this shark is " sweet William " .

Later authors have reassigned the sharptooth houndshark to the genus Triakis , more specifically to the subgenus Cazon alongside the sharpfin houndshark ( T. acutipinna ) and the spotted houndshark ( T. maculata ) . A 2006 phylogenetic study by J. Andrés López and colleagues , based on four protein @-@ coding gene sequences , found that this species did not group with the leopard shark ( T. semifasciata ) . Instead , it and the flapnose houndshark ( Scylliogaleus quecketti ) formed a clade within the Mustelus lineage . This result suggests that the two subgenera of Triakis — Cazon and Triakis — may not be closely related , which would warrant a redefinition of the genus .

= = Description = =

The sharptooth houndshark is a stout @-@ bodied species with a short , thick , and blunt snout . The nostrils are widely spaced and preceded by lobe @-@ like flaps of skin that do not reach the mouth . The horizontally oval eyes have ridges underneath and are equipped with nictitating membranes . The large mouth bears long , deep furrows at the corners , with those on the lower jaw almost meeting in the middle . The teeth are small and tightly packed to form pavement @-@ like surfaces . Each tooth has a rounded , molar @-@ like base that rises to a sharp , upright central cusp ; rarely , a pair of barely developed lateral cusplets may also be present . There are five pairs of gill slits .

The fins are distinctively large and rounded at the tips . The pectoral fins of adults are broad and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) . The dorsal fins have nearly vertical trailing margins , with the first originating over the pectoral fin rear tips . The second dorsal fin is about three @-@ quarters as high as the first . The anal fin is much smaller than the second dorsal fin and originates well behind it . The short , thick caudal peduncle lacks notches at the caudal fin origins . The caudal fin has a small but well @-@ defined lower lobe and a longer upper lobe with a ventral notch near the tip . The skin is often loose . This species is dark gray to bronze above and white below . Young sharks are mostly unmarked , while adults vary from plain to densely covered with irregular black spots . It may reach 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) in length and 40 kg ( 88 lb ) in weight . Females grow larger than males .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The range of the sharptooth houndshark is limited to the coastal waters of southern Africa , from southern Angola to the Eastern Cape ( or rarely KwaZulu @-@ Natal ) in South Africa . This locally common species inhabits sandy habitats such as bays ; it can be found from the surf zone to a depth of 50 m ( 160 ft ) , but the majority are found no deeper than 10 m ( 33 ft ) . It generally swims just barely above the bottom , favoring flat areas near rocky reefs or gullies , and seldom rises into open water .

= = Biology and ecology = =

The sharptooth houndshark is a highly active species , though it can sometimes be found resting inside rocky crevices . It mainly hunts at night and has been known to pursue prey almost onto the shore . The pointed cusps of its teeth allow it to grasp slippery prey , while their broad bases allow it to crush hard @-@ shelled prey . This shark feeds on a variety of crustaceans ( crabs , slipper lobsters , and spiny lobsters ) , bony fishes ( including morwongs , sea catfishes , drums , and porgies ) , and cephalopods ( in particular Octopus vulgaris ) . Sharks and rays ( including catsharks and guitarfishes ) and their egg capsules are a minor food source for larger individuals . Off South Africa , the most important prey species is the crab Plagusia chabrus . Its dietary composition changes with age : young sharks under 1 @.@ 0 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long subsist almost completely on crabs , while larger sharks consume more bony fishes and cephalopods , as well as a greater variety of prey overall . This shark has been observed deviating from its nocturnal habits to feed on chokka squid ( Loligo reynaudii ) during their mass spawnings . The broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) is known to prey on this species .

During the summer , the sharptooth houndshark forms groups in shallow water . These aggregations are particularly well @-@ documented in False Bay and may be related to reproduction , given the presence of many pregnant females . It is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos nourished mainly by yolk . Mature females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteruses . Litters of 6 – 12 pups are birthed between late May and August , following a gestation period of some 20 months . Larger females tend to produce larger litters . The length at birth has been variously estimated as 30 – 32 cm ( 12 – 13 in ) and 42 – 44 cm ( 17 – 17 in ) by different sources ; pups within a single litter may vary in size by up to 30 % . Females apparently reproduce either every two years or every three years , depending on whether she has ovarian eggs developing during the pregnancy that would allow her to mate again within a few months of giving birth . The sharptooth houndshark is a slow @-@ growing species , with both sexes following a similar growth pattern . Males mature sexually at 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long and 11 – 13 years of age , while females mature sexually at 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long and 15 – 16 years of age . The maximum lifespan is at least 25 years .

= = Human interactions = =

Harmless to humans , the sharptooth houndshark adapts well to captivity and has been displayed in public aquariums . It is frequently caught by recreational anglers from shore or ski @-@ boats ; it is edible but rarely eaten . Small numbers are also caught incidentally by a commercial demersal longline fishery targeting the school shark ( Galeorhinus galeus ) in the Gansbaai and False Bay region . The meat from sharks caught in the fishery is either made into biltong or jerky and sold locally , or exported fresh or frozen to Italy and Taiwan . Although in South Africa the sharptooth houndshark is listed as a noncommercial species and thus cannot be harvested commercially , it is often mistaken for the common smooth @-@ hound ( Mustelus mustelus ) by fishers . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the sharptooth houndshark as Near Threatened . This species is highly susceptible to even moderate levels of fishing pressure , due to its restricted range , slow growth rate , and low fecundity . The fact that most sharks caught by fishers are immature is an additional source of concern .

= 1933 Cuba – Brownsville hurricane =

The 1933 Cuba – Brownsville hurricane was one of two storms in the 1933 Atlantic hurricane season to reach the intensity of a Category 5 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It formed on August 22 off the west coast of Africa , and for much of its duration it maintained a west @-@ northwest track . The system intensified into a tropical storm on August 26 and into a hurricane on August 28 . Passing north of the Lesser Antilles , the hurricane rapidly intensified as it approached the Turks and Caicos islands . It reached Category 5 status and its peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) on August 31 . Subsequently , it weakened before striking northern Cuba on September 1 with winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . In the country , the hurricane left about 100 @,@ 000 people homeless and killed over 70 people . Damage was heaviest near the storm 's path , and the strong winds destroyed houses and left areas without power . Damage was estimated at $ 11 million .

After exiting from Cuba , the hurricane entered the Gulf of Mexico and restrengthened . On September 2 , it re @-@ attained winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . Initially the hurricane posed a threat to the area around Corpus Christi , Texas , and the local United States Weather Bureau forecaster advised people to stay away from the Texas coastline during the busy Labor Day Weekend . Officials declared martial law in the city and mandated evacuations . However , the hurricane turned more to the west and struck near Brownsville early on September 5 with winds estimated at 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . It quickly dissipated after causing heavy damage in the Rio Grande Valley . High winds caused heavy damage to the citrus crop . The hurricane left $ 16 @.@ 9 million in damage and 40 deaths in southern Texas .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origins of the hurricane were from a tropical disturbance near the west coast of Africa on August 20 . Two days later , the system organized enough to be classified a tropical depression just southwest of Cape Verde . For the next few days , the system moved west @-@ northwestward with little change in intensity . It is estimated the depression strengthened into a tropical storm on August 26 , about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . Initially , the storm was elongated , although beginning on August 28 it began to intensify more quickly . That night , the storm attained hurricane status , and many nearby ships reported gale force winds .

On August 29 , the hurricane passed north of the Lesser Antilles as it approached the southeastern Bahamas . It underwent rapid deepening : in a 24 ‑ hour period beginning late on August 29 , the winds increased from 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . It also became a small storm , as Grand Turk Island reported winds of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) while the hurricane passed slightly to the north on August 30 . At 0130 UTC the next day , a ship near Mayaguana reported a barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( 27 inHg ) and hurricane @-@ force winds . The pressure would ordinarily suggest winds of 152 mph ( 245 km / h ) , but because it was not reported in the eye and the storm was smaller than normal , the winds were estimated at 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . The hurricane 's winds rank as a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , one of two such storms in the 1933 season .

After maintaining peak winds for about 12 hours , the hurricane began weakening as it passed through the southern Bahamas . At around 1200 UTC on September 1 , the hurricane made landfall on northern Cuba near Sagua La Grande , with winds of about 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . The eye moved along the northern coast of Cuba , crossing over Matanzas . Shortly thereafter the storm exited into the Straits of Florida , and late on September 1 the hurricane passed about 16 mi ( 26 km ) north of Havana . After entering the Gulf of Mexico , the hurricane restrengthened , and a ship reported a pressure of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) late on September 2 ; this suggested winds of about 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . The hurricane turned more to the west on September 3 , and as it approached southern Texas it weakened slightly as it decelerated . At 0400 UTC on September 5 , the hurricane made its final landfall on South Padre Island in southern Texas , with winds estimated at 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . It quickly weakened over land as it crossed into northeastern Mexico , and the storm dissipated late on September 5 .

= = Impact = =

Throughout its path , the hurricane killed at least 179 people collectively in the Turks and Caicos Islands , Cuba , and south Texas . It first affected the Turks and Caicos , producing winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) on Grand Turk .

Before the hurricane struck Cuba , officials warned of the impending storm , and military workers warned people to remain indoors . About 4 @,@ 000 people evacuated the coastal town of Isabela on three trains specifically run for the residents . In Havana , business owners secured their properties in anticipation of the storm . Most of the deaths from the hurricane occurred in northern Cuba . Winds of over 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) affected the coastline , and Havana reported maximum winds of 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) . There , the winds downed power lines and uprooted trees . High waves flooded six blocks of the city with up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water , entering the cellars of some homes . East of Havana in Cárdenas , high waves destroyed the aqueduct , while high winds severely damaged the local sugar industry . A nearby coastal town 20 mi ( 32 km ) east of Cárdenas was described as being " virtually leveled by the storm " in news reports . In Cienfuegos along the southern coast , the hurricane destroyed many ships and piers . High waves washed four ships ashore , one of which damaged another ship . High winds destroyed hundreds of houses and damaged many others along the storm 's path . About 100 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , many of whom lacking food or medical supplies . In the interior of the country , the hurricane dropped rainfall that flooded rivers and towns . Damage was estimated at $ 11 million , and a report published in 2003 indicated that there were about 70 deaths in the country ; however , newspaper accounts from shortly after the hurricane indicated there were around 100 deaths . After the storm , police officers were deployed to maintain order . Officers shot and killed five people caught looting in Havana , although the deaths were not included in the overall death toll . Officials deployed trucks to pick up wounded citizens .

While the hurricane was over the Bahamas late on August 30 , the United States Weather Bureau issued storm warnings for southern Florida . Two days later , the storm struck Cuba and passed south of the state , producing peak winds of 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) in Key West . The winds caused little damage ; however , high waves destroyed a sea wall and washed onto a coastal roadway . High waves also sank a boat , killing three people .

Three days before the hurricane made its final landfall , officials at the Weather Bureau in Brownsville issued a warning to all stations along the Texas coast , declaring that it was " uncertain where tropical storm in Gulf will reach coast line , but all persons should be warned to remain away from inaccessible places on Texas coast over week end . " The early warning was to prevent travelers from being on the Texas beaches on Labor Day Weekend . As a result , an official at the Corpus Christi Weather Bureau office estimated that the warning " probably saved thousands of lives . " Early on September 4 about a day before landfall , the Weather Bureau issued a hurricane warning from Corpus Christi to Freeport and storm warnings for other locations along the Texas coast . When the storm 's westward motion became more apparent , the hurricane warning was dropped north of Corpus Christi and extended southward to Brownsville . Officials in Corpus Christi declared martial law before the storm struck and ordered mandatory evacuations of low @-@ lying areas . Shelters opened in the city , and many businesses closed .

When the storm moved across the area , winds were estimated at 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) in Brownsville , with gusts to 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . High tides were reported along the coast , and the storm surge reached 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) near Brownsville . The tides flooded portions of Corpus Christi about 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) deep , sinking boats and damaging piers . Storm @-@ generated waves destroyed 20 buildings in one settlement . The storm destroyed the causeway from Padre Island to Flour Bluff , and there were over 40 breaches in the island , some up to a mile wide . The storm dropped heavy rainfall from southern Texas through northeastern Mexico , peaking at over 15 @.@ 0 in ( 380 mm ) at a station near Mercedes ; the total was one of four 24 ‑ hour precipitation records set by the storm . The rains from the storm and two previous hurricanes led to a large increase in tropical butterfly species across the area . Throughout the Rio Grande Valley , the strong winds destroyed about 90 % of the citrus crop . Overall , the hurricane left $ 16 @.@ 9 million in damage and 40 deaths , mostly in Cameron County . However , none of the deaths were in Brownsville or Corpus Christi , which was credited to the advance warning . Damage was less than expected in Corpus Christi , and many business owners who lost revenue sent letters of outcry to the Weather Bureau Headquarters ; however , the Bureau determined that the evacuations and warnings were warranted given the storm 's threat .

= Tom Swift =

Tom Swift is the main character of five series of American juvenile science fiction and adventure novels that emphasize science , invention and technology . First published in 1910 , the series total more than 100 volumes . The character was created by Edward Stratemeyer , the founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate , a book @-@ packaging firm . Tom 's adventures have been written by various ghostwriters , beginning with Howard Garis . Most of the books are credited to the collective pseudonym " Victor Appleton " . The 33 volumes of the second series use the pseudonym Victor Appleton II for the author . For this series , and some of the later series , the main character is " Tom Swift , Jr . " New titles have been published as recently as 2007 . Most of the various series emphasized Tom 's inventions . The books generally describe the effects of science and technology as wholly beneficial , and the role of the inventor in society as admirable and heroic .

Translated into many languages , the books have sold more than 30 million copies worldwide . Tom Swift has also been the subject of a board game and a television series .

Several famous people , including Steve Wozniak and Isaac Asimov , have cited " Tom Swift " as an inspiration . Several inventions , including the Taser , have been inspired allegedly by Swift 's fictional inventions . " TASER " is said to be an acronym for " Thomas A. Swift 's Electric Rifle . "

= = Inventions = =

In his various incarnations , Tom Swift , usually a teenager , is inventive and science @-@ minded , " Swift by name and swift by nature . " Tom is portrayed as a natural genius . In the earlier series , he is said to have had little formal education , the character modeled originally after such inventors as Henry Ford , Thomas Edison , and aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss . For most of the five series , each book concerns Tom 's latest invention , and its role either in solving a problem or mystery , or in assisting Tom in feats of exploration or rescue . Often Tom must protect his new invention from villains " intent on stealing Tom 's thunder or preventing his success , " but Tom is always successful in the end .

Many of Tom Swift 's fictional inventions described actual technological developments . Tom Swift Among the Diamond Makers ( 1911 ) was based on Charles Parsons 's attempts to synthesize diamonds using electric current . Tom Swift and His Photo Telephone was published in 1912 . One source claims the process for sending photographs by telephone was not developed until 1925 . However , the first commercial wired telefax service was established in 1865 , more than a decade before the invention of the telephone . Tom Swift and His Wizard Camera ( 1912 ) features a portable movie camera , not invented until 1923 according to one source . However , many early movie cameras were portable by one man , and a hand @-@ held home movie camera for semi @-@ professional work was designed in 1921 by Emanuel Goldberg . One source mentions Tom Swift and His Electric Locomotive ( 1922 ) was published two years before the Central Railroad of New Jersey began using the first diesel electric locomotive ; however , the book refers to a purely electrical locomotive powered from overhead lines , of the sort that began regular service during the late 19th century . The house on wheels that Tom invents for 1929 's Tom Swift and His House on Wheels pre @-@ dated the first house trailer by a year , but post @-@ dates the widespread use of Romany caravans for living by about a century . Tom Swift and His Diving Seacopter ( 1952 ) features a flying submarine similar to one planned by the United States Department of Defense four years later in 1956 , but this book was published more than a decade after the Soviet flying submarine project began and nearly 50 years after Jules Verne 's 1904 novel Master of the World featured a flying submarine . Other inventions of Tom 's have not happened , such as the device for silencing airplane engines that he invents in Tom Swift and His Magnetic Silencer ( 1941 ) . In any case , technical ideas are often described speculatively by newspapers and magazines for many years prior to commercial realization .

= = Authorship = =

The character of Tom Swift was conceived about 1910 by Edward Stratemeyer , founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate , a book @-@ packaging business , although the name " Tom Swift " was first used in 1903 by Stratemeyer in Shorthand Tom the Reporter ; Or , the Exploits of a Bright Boy . Stratemeyer invented the series to capitalize on the market for children 's science adventure . The Syndicate 's authors created the Tom Swift stories by first preparing an outline with the plot elements , followed by drafting and editing the detailed manuscript . The books were published using the house pseudonym " Victor Appleton " . Edward Stratemeyer and Howard Garis wrote most of the volumes of the original series ; Stratemeyer 's daughter , Harriet Stratemeyer Adams , wrote the last three volumes . The first Tom Swift series ended 1941 .

In 1954 , Harriet Adams created the Tom Swift , Jr. series , which was published using the pseudonym " Victor Appleton II " as author . The main character Tom Swift , Junior , was described as the son of the original Tom Swift . Most of the stories were outlined and plotted by Adams . The texts were written by various writers , among them William Dougherty , John Almquist , Richard Sklar , James Duncan Lawrence , Tom Mulvey and Richard McKenna . The Tom Swift , Jr . , series ended in 1971 .

A third series was begun in 1981 and lasted until 1984 . The rights to the Tom Swift character , along with the Stratemeyer Syndicate , were sold in 1984 to publishers Simon & Schuster . They hired New York City book packaging business Mega @-@ Books to produce further series . Simon & Schuster produced two other Tom Swift series : one , published from 1991 to 1993 , and the Tom Swift , Young Inventor series , begun in 2006 .

= = Series = =

The longest @-@ running series of books to feature Tom Swift is the first , which consists of forty volumes . Tom Swift ( technically Tom Swift , Jr . ) was also the name of the protagonist of the 33 volumes of the Tom Swift , Jr . Adventures , the 11 volumes of the third Tom Swift series , the 13 volumes of the fourth , and a half @-@ dozen more for the most recent series , Tom Swift , Young Inventor , for a total of 103 volumes for all the series . In addition to publication in the United States , Tom Swift books have been published extensively in England , and translated into Norwegian , French , Icelandic , and Finnish .

= = = Original series ( 1910 – 1941 ) = = =

In the original series , Tom Swift lives in fictional Shopton , New York . He is the son of Barton Swift , the founder of the Swift Construction Company . Tom 's mother is deceased , but the housekeeper , Mrs. Baggert , functions as a surrogate mother . Tom usually shares his adventures with close friend Ned Newton , who eventually becomes the Swift Construction Company 's financial manager . For most of the series , Tom dates Mary Nestor . It has been suggested that his eventual marriage to Mary led to the series ' demise , as young boys found a married man harder to identify with than a young , single one ; however , after the 1929 marriage the series continued for 12 more years and eight further volumes . Regularly appearing characters include Wakefield Damon , an older man , whose dialogue is characterized by frequent use of such whimsical expressions as " Bless my brakeshoes ! " and " Bless my vest buttons ! "

The original Tom Swift has been claimed to represent the early 20th @-@ century conception of inventors . Tom has no formal education after high school ; according to critic Robert Von der Osten , Tom 's ability to invent is presented as " somehow innate " . Tom is not a theorist but a tinkerer and , later , an experimenter who , with his research team , finds practical applications for others ' research ; Tom does not so much methodically develop and perfect inventions as find them by trial and error .

Tom 's inventions are not at first innovative . In the first two books of the series , he fixes a motorcycle and a boat , and in the third book he develops an airship , but only with the help of a balloonist . Tom is also at times unsure of himself , asking his elders for help ; as Von der Osten puts it , " the early Tom Swift is more dependent on his father and other adults at first and is much more hesitant in his actions . When his airship bangs into a tower , Tom is uncharacteristically nonplussed and needs support . " However , as the series progresses , Tom 's inventions " show an increasingly independent genius as he develops devices , such as an electric rifle and a photo telephone , further removed from the scientific norm " . Some of Tom 's inventions are improvements of then @-@ current technologies , while other inventions were not in development at the time the books were published , but have since been developed .

= = = Second series ( 1954 – 1971 ) = = =

In this series , presented as an extension and continuation of the first , the Tom Swift of the original series is now the CEO of Swift Enterprises , a four @-@ mile @-@ square enclosed facility where inventions are conceived and manufactured . Tom 's son , Tom Swift , Jr . , is now the primary inventive genius of the family . Stratemeyer Syndicate employee Andrew Svenson described the new series as based " on scientific fact and probability , whereas the old Toms were in the main adventure stories mixed with pseudo @-@ science " . Three Ph.D.s in science were hired as consultants to the series to ensure scientific accuracy . The younger Tom does not tinker with motorcycles ; his inventions and adventures extend from deep within the Earth ( in Tom Swift and His Atomic Earth Blaster [ 1954 ] ) to the bottom of the ocean ( in Tom Swift and His Diving Seacopter [ 1956 ] ) to the moon ( in Tom Swift and the Race to Moon [ 1958 ] ) and , eventually , the outer solar system ( in Tom Swift and His Cosmotron Express [ 1970 ] ) . Later volumes of the series increasingly emphasized the extraterrestrial " space friends " , as they are termed throughout the series . The beings appear as early as the first volume of the series , Tom Swift and His Flying Lab ( 1954 ) . The Tom Swift , Jr . , Adventures were less commercially successful than the first series , selling 6 million copies total , compared with sales of 14 million copies for the first series .

In contrast to the earlier series , many of Tom Jr . ' s inventions are designed to operate in space , and his " genius is unequivocally original as he constructs nuclear @-@ powered flying labs , establishes outposts in space , or designs ways to sail in space on cosmic rays " . Unlike his father , Tom Jr. is not just a tinkerer ; he relies on scientific and mathematical theories , and , according to critic Robert Von der Osten , " science [ in the books ] is , in fact , understood to be a set of theories that are developed based on experimentation and scientific discussion . Rather than being opposed to technological advances , such a theoretical understanding becomes essential to invention . "

Tom Swift , Jr . ' s Cold War @-@ era adventures and inventions are often motivated by patriotism , as Tom repeatedly defeats the evil agents of the fictional nations " Kranjovia " and " Brungaria " , the latter a place that critic Francis Molson describes as " a vaguely Eastern European country , which is strongly opposed to the Swifts and the U.S. Hence , the Swifts ' opposition to and competition with the Brungarians is both personal and patriotic . "

= = = Third series ( 1981 – 1984 ) = = =

The third Tom Swift series differs from the first two in that the setting is primarily outer space , although Swift Enterprises ( located now in New Mexico ) is occasionally mentioned . Tom Swift explores the universe in the starship Exedra , using a faster @-@ than @-@ light drive he has reverse @-@ engineered from an alien space probe . He is aided by Benjamin Franklin Walking Eagle , a Native American who is Tom 's co @-@ pilot , best friend , and an expert computer technician , and Anita Thorwald , a former rival of Tom 's who now works with him as a technician and whose right leg has been rebuilt to contain a miniature computer .

This series maintains only an occasional and vague continuity with the two previous series . Tom is called the son of " the great Tom Swift " and said to be " already an important and active contributor to the family business , the giant multimillion @-@ dollar scientific @-@ industrial complex known as Swift Enterprises " . However , as critic Francis Molson indicates , it is not explained whether this Tom Swift is the grandson of the famous Tom Swift of the first series or still the Tom Swift , Jr . , of the second .

The Tom Swift of this third series is less of an inventor than his predecessors , and his inventions are rarely the main feature of the plot . Still , according to Molson , " Tom the inventor is not ignored . Perhaps the most impressive of his inventions and the one essential to the series as a whole is the robot he designs and builds , Aristotle , which becomes a winning and likeable character in its own right . " The books are slower @-@ paced than the Tom Swift , Jr. adventures of the second series , and include realistic , colloquial dialogue . Each volume begins where the last one ended , and the technology is plausible and accurate .

= = = Fourth series ( 1991 – 1993 ) = = =

The fourth series featuring Tom Swift ( again a " Jr . " ) is set mostly on Earth ( with occasional voyages to the Moon ) ; Swift Enterprises is now located in California . In the first book , The Black Dragon , it 's mentioned that Tom is the son of Tom Swift Sr. and Mary Nestor . The books deal with what Richard Pyle describes as " modern and futuristic concepts " and , as in the third series , feature an ethnically diverse cast of characters .

Like the Tom Swift , Jr. series , the series portrays Tom as a scientist as well as an inventor whose inventions depend on a knowledge of theory . The series differs from previous versions of the character , however , in that Tom 's inventive genius is portrayed as problematic and sometimes dangerous . As Robert Von der Osten argues , Tom 's inventions for this series often have unexpected and negative repercussions .

a device to create a miniature black hole which casts him into an alternative universe ; a device that trains muscles but also distorts the mind of the user ; and a genetic process which , combined with the effect of his black hole , results in a terrifying devolution . Genius here begins to recapitulate earlier myths of the mad scientist whose technological and scientific ambitions are so out of harmony with nature and contemporary science that the results are usually unfortunate .

The series features more violence than previous series ; in The Negative Zone , Tom blows up a motel room to escape the authorities .

There was a derivative of this series featuring Tom Swift and the Hardy Boys called A Hardy Boys & Tom Swift Ultra Thriller that was published from 1992 to 1993 , and only had 2 volumes released . Both books dealt with science fictional topics ( time travel and aliens landing on earth ) .

= = = Fifth series ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =

The fifth series , " Tom Swift , Young Inventor " , returns Tom Swift to Shopton , New York , with Tom as the son of Tom Swift and Mary Nestor , the names of characters of the original Tom Swift series . The series features inventions that are close to current technology " rather than ultra @-@ futuristic " . " Tom Swift , Young Inventor " , goes to the sea to test his new invention .

= = Other media = =

Parker Brothers produced a Tom Swift board game in 1966 , although it was never widely distributed , and the character has appeared in one television show . Various Tom Swift radio programs , television series , and movies were planned and even written , but were either never produced or not released .

= = = Film and television = = =

As early as 1914 , Edward Stratemeyer proposed making a Tom Swift movie , but no such movie was made . A Tom Swift radio series was proposed in 1946 . Two scripts were written , but , for unknown reasons , the series was never produced . A television pilot show for a series to be called The Adventures of Tom Swift was filmed in 1958 , featuring Gary Vinson . However , legal problems prevented the pilot 's distribution , and it was never broadcast ; no copies of the pilot are known to exist , though the pilot script is available . Twentieth Century Fox planned a Tom Swift feature movie in 1968 , to be directed by Gene Kelly . A script was written and approved , and filming was to have begun during 1969 . However , the project was canceled owing to the poor reception of the movies Doctor Dolittle and Star ! ; a $ 500 @,@ 000 airship that had been built as a prop was sold to an amusement park . Yet another movie was planned in 1974 , but , again , was cancelled . Scripts were also written for a proposed television series involving both Tom Swift Jr. and his father , the hero of the original book series . Glen A. Larson wrote an unproduced television pilot show entitled " TS , I Love You : The Further Adventures of Tom Swift " in 1977 , as well . This series was to be combined with a Nancy Drew series , a Hardy Boys series , and a Dana Girls series . Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys were eventually combined into a one @-@ hour program with alternating episodes .

A Tom Swift media project finally came to fruition in 1983 when Willie Aames appeared as Tom Swift along with Lori Loughlin as Linda Craig in a television special , The Tom Swift and Linda Craig Mystery Hour , which was broadcast on July 3 . It was a ratings failure . In 2007 , digital studio Worldwide Biggies acquired movie rights to Tom Swift. and announced plans to release a feature film and video game , followed by a television series . As of 2015 , these plans had not come to fruition .

= = Claims of racism = =

It has been suggested that the book Tom Swift and His Electric Rifle contains heavy racism , depicting Africans as brutish , uncivilized animals , and the white protagonist as their paternal savior .

In the book , as in America today , the black people are rendered as either passive , simple and childlike , or animalistic and capable of unimaginable violence . They are described in the book at various points as " hideous in their savagery , wearing only the loin cloth , and with their kinky hair stuck full of sticks " , and as " wild , savage and ferocious ... like little red apes " . "

= = Cultural Influence = =

The Tom Swift books have been credited with assisting the success of American science fiction and with establishing the edisonade ( stories focusing on brilliant scientists and inventors ) as a basic cultural myth . Tom Swift 's adventures have been popular since the character 's inception in 1910 : by 1914 , 150 @,@ 000 copies a year were being sold and a 1929 study found the series to be second in popularity only to the Bible for boys in their early teens . By 2009 , Tom Swift books had sold more than 30 million copies worldwide .

The series ' writing style , which was sometimes adverb heavy , suggested a name for a type of adverbial pun promulgated during the 1950s and 1960s , a type of wellerism known as " Tom Swifties " . Originally this kind of pun was called a " Tom Swiftly " in reference to the adverbial usage , but over time has come to be called a " Tom Swifty . " Some examples are : " ' I lost my crutches , ' said Tom lamely " ; and " ' I 'll take the prisoner downstairs ' , said Tom condescendingly . "

Tom Swift 's fictional inventions have apparently inspired several actual inventions , among them Lee Felsenstein 's " Tom Swift Terminal " , which " drove the creation of an early personal computer known as the Sol " , and the taser . The name " taser " was originally " TSER " , for " Tom Swift Electric Rifle " . The invention was named for the central device in the story Tom Swift and His Electric Rifle ( 1911 ) ; according to inventor Jack Cover , " an ' A ' was added because we got tired of answering the phone ' TSER . ' "

A number of scientists , inventors , and science fiction writers have also credited Tom Swift with inspiring them , including Ray Kurzweil , Robert A. Heinlein , and Isaac Asimov . The Tom Swift , Jr. adventures were Steve Wozniak 's favorite reading as a boy and inspired him to become a scientist . According to Wozniak , reading the Tom Swift books made him feel " that engineers can save the world from all sorts of conflict and evil " .

Gone with the Wind author Margaret Mitchell said she read the series as a child .

= Nannygate =

" Nannygate " is a popular term for the 1993 revelations that caused two of President Bill Clinton 's choices for United States Attorney General to become derailed .

In January 1993 , Clinton 's nomination of corporate lawyer Zoë Baird for the position came under attack after it became known that she and her husband had broken the law by employing two illegal aliens from Peru as a nanny and chauffeur for their young child . They had also failed to pay Social Security taxes for the workers until shortly before the disclosures . While the Clinton administration thought the matter was relatively unimportant , the news elicited a firestorm of public opinion , most of it against Baird . Within eight days , her nomination lost political support in the U.S. Congress and was withdrawn .

The following month , Clinton 's choice of federal judge Kimba Wood for the job was leaked to the press , but within a day it became known that she too had employed an undocumented immigrants to look after her child . Although Wood had done so at a time when this was legal , and had paid Social Security taxes for the worker , the disclosures were enough to cause the immediate withdrawal of Wood from consideration . The Clinton administration then said that the hiring practices for household help would be examined for all of the more than thousand presidential appointments under consideration , causing the whole process to slow down significantly . Determined to choose a woman for the Attorney General post , Clinton finally selected state prosecutor Janet Reno , who was confirmed and served through all eight years of the administration .

The Nannygate matter caused wealthy Americans to ask each other if they too had a " Zoë Baird problem " , as the hiring of undocumented workers and the paying of household help off the books were both commonplace . Two fault lines , gender and class , were exposed in the discussion over Nannygate : in the former , a double standard was seen wherein female appointees faced a greater risk of being questioned and disqualified based upon their childcare arrangements , while in the latter , affluent professional women who could afford live @-@ in childcare arrangements were seen as trying to get away with an illegal act . Nannygate @-@ type controversies have subsequently affected other political appointees both in the U.S. and in other countries .

= = The Baird nomination = =

President @-@ elect Bill Clinton had vowed to assemble an administration that " looked like America " , and it was widely assumed that one of the major cabinet posts would go to a woman . In particular , he wanted to nominate one for the position of United States Attorney General , something women 's political action groups were also requesting . No woman had previously served in this post . His choice , whose nomination was announced on December 24 , 1992 , was Zoë Baird , a 40 @-@ year @-@ old senior vice president and general counsel at Aetna Life and Casualty Company who had previously worked in the Justice Department during the Carter administration .

Little known before the nomination ( Clinton had not met her until their interview ) , Baird was a skilled networker who had been the protégé of several powerful Washington insiders , including Clinton transition team leader Warren Christopher and once @-@ and @-@ future White House Counsel Lloyd Cutler . Picking Baird gave Clinton the ability to satisfy the women 's groups ' desires while still showing independence by not choosing one of their preferred selections . Despite the lack of familiarity and getting a lukewarm response from some Clinton backers – those in the legal public interest community said " Zoë who ? " and her corporate sympathies discouraged liberals – Baird was expected to gain confirmation in the U.S. Senate . Baird and her husband , Yale Law School professor Paul Gewirtz , had a three @-@ year @-@ old son .

On January 14 , 1993 , a page @-@ one story in The New York Times broke the news that Baird had hired a married pair of illegal aliens from Peru , Lillian and Victor Cordero , between 1990 and 1992 . The Peruvian woman served as the nanny for Baird 's son and the Peruvian man as a part @-@ time driver . Furthermore , Baird had not paid Social Security taxes for the couple , until making a lump @-@ sum payment earlier in January 1993 . Baird had brought forward this information willingly to transition officials and authorities performing background checks ; she said that she had thought that the fact that they were sponsoring the couple for citizenship made the hiring acceptable , and that they could not pay the taxes for people who were not yet in the country legally . ( Baird 's immigration lawyer would dispute some aspects of exactly when the sponsorship request took place . )

This was the first time a presidential cabinet nominee had faced such an issue . While the Clinton transition team had found out about the matter during their vetting of Baird , they had underestimated the seriousness of its impact . Their attitude about Baird 's infraction was that it was a technical violation and that ' Everybody does it ' . Clinton operatives initially thought the Baird revelation was no big deal and would quickly lose the attention of the media and public .

Employment of illegal aliens was not uncommon at the time , but in Baird 's case it was especially bad public relations , since the Attorney General was in charge of the Immigration and Naturalization Service ( INS ) . Baird 's wealth – she made $ 500 @,@ 000 a year in her job and together with her husband had a combined income of $ 600 @,@ 000 – made her , in the context of the early 1990s recession , an unsympathetic figure to not be paying taxes . Moreover , Baird and Gewirtz had been wealthy enough to afford legal child care , but instead had paid the Corderos $ 250 a week plus board , well below minimum wage . The news brought about an immediate and large @-@ scale negative reaction . As Guardian U.S. correspondent Martin Walker later wrote , " [ Baird and Gewirtz ] were the overpaid yuppies and ubiquitous lawyers whom American voters had come to resent . "

On January 16 , Baird paid $ 2 @,@ 900 in fines for the infractions to the INS . This was on top of the $ 8 @,@ 000 in back Social Security taxes she had paid earlier . George Stephanopoulos , the transition communications director , said that " President @-@ elect Clinton has complete confidence in Zoë Baird . "

Some in the Clinton inner circle persisted in believing that Baird 's offense was akin to a traffic ticket in seriousness , but Democratic senators told them otherwise ; Senate Judiciary Committee chair Joe Biden of Delaware likened it more to a " freeway crash . "

Baird met with Biden twice , both times leaving his office in tears , although Biden publicly stated that he did not think the matter would prevent her nomination . Baird actually had more immediate support from ranking member Orrin Hatch , who called it " no big deal . " This reflected a considerable degree of Republican support for Baird , as they decided she was more in tune with their stance on some issues than a replacement would likely be .

Appearing before the Judiciary Committee on January 19 , Baird apologized for having knowingly broken the law : " In my hope to find appropriate child care for my son , I gave too little emphasis to what was described to me as a technical violation of law . " She added that , " People are fairly questioning if there are classes of individuals who hold themselves above the law . I do not . " Baird 's statement that her husband had handled many of the legal issues surrounding the Corderos ' employment drew little support for her . Overall , the questioning of Baird was tougher from Democrats on the committee than Republicans , again reflecting the latter 's support for Baird . At the close of the initial testimony , Baird 's confirmation still seemed quite possible .

As the inauguration of Bill Clinton took place on January 20 , the nomination crisis was reaching its final phase , with Biden telling Clinton at a luncheon following the ceremony that the next day or two would be crucial . But political and public opposition continued to mount . Calls opposing the nomination flooded the switchboards of members of Congress . Senator David Boren of Oklahoma reported getting a thousand calls to his office , with 80 percent of them against the nomination . Senator Paul Simon of Illinois also received a thousand calls . Senator Patrick Leahy of Vermont said , " In 18 years in the Senate , I had never seen so many telephone calls , spontaneously , in such a short period . "

Television crews staked out the New Haven home of Baird . As one top Senate official later stated , " There were phone calls to offices , local editorials . The people were just way ahead of us . " The issue created a firestorm on conservative talk radio , then emerging as a potent force in American politics . Talker Rush Limbaugh was especially involved in the issue , for instance weighing in to say that Baird 's " blame @-@ it @-@ on @-@ the @-@ husband " defense was a " feminazi " ploy . A USA Today / CNN / Gallup poll showed that 63 percent of the American public did not think Baird should be confirmed ; the reaction was broad , with majorities of Republicans and Democrats , men and women , and young and old all opposing it .

Clinton faced a choice of either quickly jettisoning her , and risk appearing weak , or defiantly continuing to back her , and opposing a popular groundswell ; he opted to wait and see a little more . There was also much confusion about when exactly Clinton had learned of the Baird problem , with Christopher saying he had informed Clinton of it in some manner during the transition and Clinton saying he had not . This led to a " What did the President know and when did he know it " grilling of Stephanopoulos on January 21 during his first news conference as White House Communications Director . The treatment of Stephanopoulos got rough and his evasive answers bordered on nonsense .

A second round of Judiciary Committee hearings were also taking place on January 21 , and by then , Baird was politically isolated , with no major groups coming to her defense . A growing number of senators came out in opposition to Baird during the day , including two Republican members of the Judiciary Committee and influential centrist Democrats John Breaux of Louisiana and David Boren of Oklahoma . Baird gamely continued to smile and testify well into the evening , but as Stephanopoulos later wrote , " She didn 't know it yet , but she was toast . " Biden called Clinton and told him the nomination was lost .

On January 22 , 1993 , two days after Clinton had assumed the presidency , the White House announced in the middle of the night the withdrawal of Baird 's nomination .

Clinton now publicly stated that he had been informed of Baird 's hiring of the illegal aliens after discussing the position with her but before actually nominating her . He had not halted the process to gain all information but rather had erred by going through with the nomination in order to meet a self @-@ imposed Christmas deadline for naming his cabinet . On January 23 , Anna Quindlen used the term " Nannygate " in her syndicated column and it soon gained wide @-@ scale use .

While Lillian and Victor Cordero had done their jobs well ( before hiring them , Baird had made several attempts to employ U.S. citizens , but none had worked out ) , on January 22 the INS said it sought to question them and very likely deport them . The couple had previously separated and were about to be divorced . Lillian Cordero agreed to leave the country and return to Peru , under a 30 @-@ day " voluntary departure " program . Victor Cordero first went into hiding , hoping to stay in the country ; his lawyer said he had been in the wrong place at the wrong time and that , " He doesn 't understand why he 's being singled out . " But by January 29 , he too had voluntarily left the U.S. for Peru . Neither of them ever appeared in the media . Although illegal domestics were rarely deported unless they had been involved in crimes , the INS maintained that the couple were treated no differently than any other illegal aliens who were brought to their attention .

= = The Wood near @-@ nomination = =

On February 4 , 1993 , the Clinton White House made it known via deliberate background statements to several major newspapers that 49 @-@ year @-@ old United States federal judge Kimba Wood of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York would be his new choice for Attorney General . However , no official announcement or nomination was being made , pending the completion of background checks and to gauge reaction to the pick . White House officials indicated that First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton had insisted that the position still be filled by a woman . Wood , who was prominent in New York social circles , was married to Time magazine writer Michael Kramer and the couple had a six @-@ year @-@ old son .

However , later that day , investigations by the office of the White House Counsel and the FBI background check were completed , and Clinton and the White House learned that she had employed an illegal immigrant to look after her son , even though she had done it when it was still legal to do so . The immigrant , from Trinidad , had been hired in March 1986 , several months before enactment of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 made hiring of illegal aliens unlawful . The nanny obtained legal status in December 1987 , and overall worked for Wood for seven years .

Clinton decided the nomination could not go forward , and the next day , February 5 , Wood publicly withdrew herself from consideration .

The case was different from the Baird one in that Wood had not broken immigration law and had paid Social Security taxes for the person . Nevertheless , the White House feared reaction from Congress and the public , as well as that from radio and television talk shows , in the apparent , if not actual , repetition of the Baird controversy , and asked Wood to withdraw . A further burden was the disclosure that while she was a student in London , Wood had trained for five days as a Playboy bunny . The White House was annoyed with Wood , because they said that when they had initially asked her if she had a " Zoë Baird problem , " she had responded in the negatory . Allies of Wood gave a starkly different account and said that she had been fully forthcoming about the details of her dealings with the immigrant . According to a Gallup Poll , 65 percent of the American public did not think Wood should have been forced down .

= = Other Clinton appointees = =

One of the few men to make the short list for the Attorney General selection , Washington lawyer Charles Ruff , was ruled out of consideration by the White House on February 6 , because he had not paid Social Security taxes for years for a woman who cleaned his house .

On February 8 , Stephanopoulos broadened the scope of the affair by announcing that the past hiring of an illegal alien would " probably be disqualifying " for applicants to any of the 1 @,@ 100 presidential appointments that were subject to confirmation by the Senate . As one White House official said , " If you ever knowingly hired an illegal alien , that 's a killer . If you hired someone who was legal but didn 't pay Social Security taxes , you 're probably O.K. , but only if you come clean and pay the back taxes . "

Several Clinton appointees then came forward . Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown said he had failed to pay the taxes for a maid . The Brown case attracted a fair amount of attention , with 40 percent of Americans thinking he should step down as a result ( he did not ) . Secretary of Transportation Federico Peña said he would pay back taxes owed for a part @-@ time babysitter . Other appointees said they had examined their records and were clean . Stephanopoulos himself came under attention , but said the cleaner he had hired was from a cleaning company . The matter resulted in a slowdown of hiring for all positions , in what Secretary of Defense Les Aspin called a " chilling effect " . One @-@ third of the nominations for the U.S. State Department were held up while being examined for the question .

Some other female Clinton cabinet @-@ level appointees escaped Nannygate by virtue of their personal circumstances . Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala was unmarried with no children , while Secretary of Energy Hazel O 'Leary and Ambassador to the United Nations Madeleine Albright had children that were grown . Carol Browner , Clinton 's pick for Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency and someone who did have a young child , avoided Nannygate problems by simply never having used a nanny .

= = The Reno nomination = =

On February 11 , 1993 , Janet Reno was nominated for the post . Clinton had known of her since her days with the groundbreaking Miami Drug Court , where as state attorney she had worked with public defender and Clinton brother @-@ in @-@ law Hugh Rodham , but otherwise although qualified for the job had no federal experience and was relatively obscure . Reno was 54 years old , had never married and had no children , and , as Clinton later wrote , " Public service was her life . " Without the chance of a nanny problem , and with her mowing her own lawn reducing the chances for an immigrant problem , Reno was the perfect choice after the Baird and Wood failures . In addition , Reno 's down @-@ to @-@ earth image contrasted with the wealthy corporate lawyer Baird and the socially prominent Wood . ( Reno would instead face something often experienced by unmarried woman of her age , speculation about her sexual orientation . )

In making the announcement , Clinton said that he had considered men for the post and that " I never felt hamstrung by any commitment , even though I did want to name a woman Attorney General . " When asked how he would have handled the selection were he to do it all over again , Clinton responded , " I would have called Janet Reno on November 5th . "

Reno was unanimously confirmed by the Senate on March 11 , 1993 , and thus became the first female Attorney General .

Reno remained Attorney General through both of Clinton 's terms as president . Wood remained a federal judge . While the ramifications of Nannygate persisted , Baird herself quickly returned to public obscurity . Clinton subsequently appointed Baird to the Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board , and in his 2004 memoir reiterated that the fault for the failed nomination had been his , not hers . Baird hired an American citizen to be her next nanny .

= = Political and cultural impact = =

The Nannygate matter did some damage to the Clinton administration politically . A cover of Time magazine , featuring a half @-@ portrait of Baird , was titled " Clinton 's First Blunder " and subtitled " How a popular outcry caught the Washington elite by surprise " . The Baird nomination was emblematic of other difficulties Clinton had during the transition period and his early days in office , including most prominently the dropping of a promised middle @-@ class tax cut and resistance to his proposal to allow gays in the military . Stephanopoulos later wrote that " We should have never let the Baird nomination get as far as it did , but our systems failed us at every crucial step . " And the timing of the announcement of the Wood withdrawal detracted attention from the signing of the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 , the first legislative achievement of the Clinton administration . While a Gallup Poll showed that only 22 percent of the public said that Clinton 's difficulties in naming someone for Attorney General decreased their confidence in his ability to lead the country , overall , Clinton experienced the highest disapproval ratings at the start of any presidency since such polling began . His " presidential honeymoon " period was thus extremely brief .

Clinton 's desire to appoint a woman to the post engendered some criticism for devaluing the position to an affirmative action post , and Stephanopoulos later conceded that " we put ourselves in a box " . The failure of the Baird and Wood picks , along with Lani Guinier 's failed nomination ( for unrelated reasons ) to Assistant Attorney General for Department of Justice Civil Rights Division a few months later , made Congressional Democrats cautious in endorsing future Clinton personnel choices . When federal judge Stephen Breyer was first considered for a U.S. Supreme Court vacancy in mid @-@ 1993 , he was not selected , in part because he too had a ' Zoë Baird problem ' ( he would be nominated and confirmed the following year , following another vacancy ) .

The Baird case became the first national scandal over child @-@ care arrangements , but the situation that these nominees faced was in part at least a common one to Americans . Two @-@ thirds of American women with school @-@ age children were in the workforce and three @-@ fifths of married men with children had working wives . They all needed some form of day care , and with there being no organized or subsidized day care system in the U.S. , many families turned to arrangements within the underground economy . That this administration ran into this problem was considered ironic , given that Bill and Hillary Clinton were the first dual @-@ career couple to occupy the White House .

Once the Nannygate matter broke into the news , the question " Do you have a Zoë Baird problem ? " became frequently asked by Americans of each other in casual conversation , with many answers being in the affirmative . U.S. Census Bureau and Internal Revenue Service data indicated that only one @-@ quarter of people who employed household help paid Social Security taxes to the workers , and that even figure may have been higher than the real one due to people not responding to surveys honestly . Most of those doing the hiring did not think about breaking the law or getting caught .

Meanwhile , Baird had graduated within a matter of hours from anonymity to dubious icon . One employment agency head who only hired legal household workers said , " You have no idea , the frustration , sitting here , knocking your head against the wall , trying to do what 's right . And then you have a Zoë Baird who exposes the fact that everybody else is breaking the law . " The phrase " to have a Zoë Baird problem " became rooted in the vocabulary of the American professional and political classes .

The matter exposed the practices of the barely underground economy of wealthy households and largely illegal immigrant suppliers . The owner of one Manhattan nanny agency stated , " It 's just a reality of life that without the illegal girls , there wouldn 't be any nannies , and the mommies would have to stay home and mind their own kids . " The practice had grown as both married women with children and single working mothers entered the workforce in large numbers during the 1980s , with the extended hours and long commutes of many professional positions further exacerbating it . The Irish and Central and South American immigrant population of domestic workers was augmented by those from the Philippines , China , Ireland , or Poland . People hiring nannies often preferred illegal aliens , who were thought to be easier to find , considerably less expensive , and more loyal if they worked out and easier to fire if they did not . As one Floral Park , Queens , woman said , " I want someone who cannot leave the country , who doesn 't know anyone in New York , who basically does not have a life . I want someone who is completely dependent on me and loyal to my family . " Americans themselves were largely unwilling to do the jobs .

While some men were affected by Nannygate , most of the public commentary revolved around its effect on women . The February 10 , 1993 , op @-@ ed page of The New York Times , which carried considerable Nannygate coverage in general , was exclusively devoted towards discussing it as a women 's issue . The press themselves came in for some criticism in this respect , with the group Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting complaining that the Times and other media outlets focused on the effect of Nannygate on white , upper @-@ middle @-@ class women , and excluded the perspective of the actual immigrant childcare workers . Stuart Taylor , Jr . , in his March 1993 piece " Inside the Whirlwind : How Zoë Baird Was Monstrously Caricatured for the Smallest of Sins , Pounded by Press and Popular Righteousness , and Crucified by Prejudice and Hypocrisy " for The American Lawyer , concluded that Baird was done in by a political @-@ media culture bent on populism and symbolic blood sport and that she was penalized for being honest . He also said Baird had fallen victim to " the cold , capricious cruelty of fate " .

Two fault lines , gender and class , were exposed in the debate over Nannygate : in the former , a double standard was seen wherein female appointees faced a greater risk of being questioned and disqualified based upon their childcare arrangements , while in the latter , wealthy or upper middle @-@ class professional women who could afford live @-@ in childcare arrangements were seen as trying to get away a white @-@ collar criminal act . In particular , the competing gendered narratives revolved around whether the affluent Baird was considered " one of us " by women . Baird failed to gain support from some feminists , who believed that as a protégé of powerful Washington insiders , she had not paid her feminist dues . University of Michigan scholar Diane Sampson , publishing in a collection entitled " Bad " Mothers : The politics of blame in twentieth @-@ century America , saw Baird as trying to establish motherhood as a ' site ' in elaborating her qualifications for Attorney General during her confirmation hearings , an effort that was subverted by her affluence and her earning far more than her husband did . Sampson concluded that " The dissonance between Baird 's rhetorical stance and her lived life was jarring " and that her case presented " culturally accepted signifiers of a bad mother " .

A modified and fictionalized account of the Baird nomination formed the core of Wendy Wasserstein 's 1996 play An American Daughter , which was later made into a 2000 television film . Wasserstein saw the episode , as well as what happened to Wood , as an example of double standards and sexism , and used it as a vehicle to explore the nature and status of American feminism as of the 1990s . She said of its role in illustrating feminist issues , " I mean , if Nannygate hadn 't existed , what a great thing to make up as a way of talking about it . " An American Daughter became one of Wasserstein 's most ambitious works , and also her most political .

Mary Romero , Professor of Justice Studies at Arizona State University , discussed the class aspect in a new 2002 edition of her classic work Maid in the U.S.A .. She saw Nannygate as a follow @-@ on to the long @-@ running " servant problem " , and illustrated how labor and immigration laws were still structured so as to benefit employers rather than employees . Taunya Lovell Banks , Professor of Equality Jurisprudence at University of Maryland School of Law , saw Nannygate as also having a racial dimension , in that it illustrated how the professional class exploited domestic workers of color .

In the wake of Nannygate , effective 1995 Congress changed the way taxes for household help are filed , creating a Form 1040 Schedule H that shifting the federal reporting burden from separate documents onto the main return for income taxes . ( The new regulations still were more focused on employers than domestic employees . ) The full procedure for handling payments of Social Security and Medicare taxes , as well as state and federal unemployment insurance premiums , for household and child @-@ care help remained quite complex , however , and over the following two decades , self @-@ help articles were published with titles such as " How to Avoid Your Very Own Nannygate " and " Time to Come Clean " and with admonitions like " we all know what happened to Kimba Wood and Zoë Baird . "

= = Later instances = =

Later instances of political problems caused by the hiring of nannies that were in some way illegal have also been dubbed " Nannygate " , both in the U.S. and outside it .

In 2001 , President George W. Bush nominated Linda Chavez for Secretary of Labor . She was the first Hispanic woman nominated to a United States cabinet position . However , she withdrew from consideration after it was revealed that she had given money to a one @-@ time illegal immigrant from Guatemala who lived in her home more than a decade earlier . Chavez 's claims that she had been engaged in an act of charity and compassion rather than employment , and that she was now the victim of the " politics of personal destruction " , were not enough to save her nomination . The Chavez case did further illustrate the question of the status of female illegal aliens in households across the nation .

In December 2004 , Bernard Kerik was nominated by President Bush to succeed Tom Ridge as United States Secretary of Homeland Security . After a week of press scrutiny , Kerik withdrew his nomination , saying that he had unknowingly hired an undocumented worker and had not paid her taxes . The Times wrote that " the curse of Nannygate " had returned to claim a fourth high @-@ level victim . As Jim Gibbons was campaigning for Governor of Nevada in 2006 , it was brought to light that more than ten years earlier , he and his wife Dawn Gibbons had employed an illegal immigrant as a housekeeper and babysitter . Gibbons went on to win the election anyway . By 2009 and the stepping down of Nancy Killefer as nominee for Chief Performance Officer of the United States at the beginning of the Obama administration , at least ten top @-@ level cabinet or other federal appointees had run into trouble over failure to pay the " Nanny Tax " . Despite the possible peril it brought , most Americans were still paying their nannies off the books . The problem recurred in the 2010 California gubernatorial election , where candidate Meg Whitman lost despite spending over $ 140 million of her own money . Her campaign was seriously damaged during its final two months by the revelation that she had employed an illegal immigrant as a nanny and housekeeper , and by the alleged manner in which she treated ( and fired ) the housekeeper .

David Blunkett , a British politician , ran into political trouble for fast tracking a visa application for his family 's nanny in 2004 . In 2006 , the Minister affair at the announcement of the Reinfeldt cabinet in Sweden included the quick resignations of Maria Borelius , a Swedish trade minister who had hired a live @-@ in nanny without paying taxes , and Cecilia Stegö Chilò , the Swedish culture minister , who also hired a live @-@ in nanny without paying taxes . The matter was widely reported by the international press , with the Financial Times dubbing it " Nannygate " . In 2009 , Canadian member of parliament Ruby Dhalla was accused of having employed nannies without proper work permits as required of anyone hiring foreign nationals under the federal caregiver program , and some newspaper headline writers dubbed the resulting controversy as " Nannygate " . The 2013 arrest of Devyani Khobragade , Deputy Consul General of the Consulate General of India in New York City , charged with committing visa fraud and providing false statements in order to gain entry to the United States for her nanny , was referred by some in the American press as " Nannygate " .

= Royal Gold Cup =

The Royal Gold Cup or Saint Agnes Cup is a solid gold covered cup lavishly decorated with enamel and pearls . It was made for the French royal family at the end of the 14th century , and later belonged to several English monarchs before spending nearly 300 years in Spain . It has been in the British Museum since 1892 , where it is normally on display in Room 40 , and is generally agreed to be the outstanding surviving example of late medieval French plate . It has been described as " the one surviving royal magnificence of the International Gothic age " ; and according to Thomas Hoving , former director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , " of all the princely jewels and gold that have come down to us , this is the most spectacular — and that includes the great royal treasures . "

The cup is made of solid gold , stands 23 @.@ 6 cm ( 9 @.@ 25 inches ) high with a diameter of 17 @.@ 8 cm ( 6 @.@ 94 inches ) at its widest point , and weighs 1 @.@ 935 kg ( 4 @.@ 26 lb ) . It has a cover that lifts off , but the triangular stand on which it once stood is now lost . The stem of the cup has twice been extended by the addition of cylindrical bands , so that it was originally much shorter , giving the overall shape " a typically robust and stocky elegance . " The original decorated knop or finial on the cover has been lost , and a moulding decorated with 36 pearls has been removed from the outer edge of the cover ; a strip of gold with jagged edges can be seen where it was attached . Presumably it matched the one still in place round the foot of the cup .

The gold surfaces are decorated with scenes in basse @-@ taille enamel with translucent colours that reflect light from the gold beneath ; many areas of gold both underneath the enamel and in the background have engraved and pointillé decoration worked in the gold . In particular the decoration features large areas of translucent red , which have survived in excellent condition . This colour , known as rouge clair , was the most difficult to achieve technically , and highly prized for this and the brilliance of the colour when it was done successfully . Scenes from the life of Saint Agnes run round the top of the cover and the sloping underside of the main body . The symbols of the Four Evangelists run round the foot of the cup , and there are enamel medallions at the centre of the inside of both the cup and the cover . The lower of the two added bands contains enamel Tudor roses on a diapered pointillé background ; this was apparently added under Henry VIII . The upper band has an engraved inscription filled in with black enamel , with a barrier of laurel branches in green to mark off the end of the inscription from its beginning .

The cup came to the British Museum with a custom @-@ made hexagonal case of leather on a wood frame , with iron lock , handles and mounts . This was either made at the same time or soon after the cup , and has incised and stamped foliate decoration and a blackletter inscription : YHE.SUS.O.MARYA.O.MARYA YHE SUS .

= = Provenance = =

There is no firm evidence as to the date and circumstances of the creation of the cup . It is first clearly documented in an inventory from 1391 of the valuables belonging to Charles VI of France ( reigned 1380 – 1422 ) , surviving in two copies in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . This lists :

A hanap of gold , all its cover well and richly enamelled on the outside with the life of Madame St Agnes ; and the cresting of the foot is garnished with 26 pearls , and the crown around the cover with 36 pearls ; and the finial of the said cover ( is ) garnished with four sapphires , three balas rubies and fifteen pearls . And it weighs 9 marcs 3 ounces of gold. and the said hanap rests on a stand of gold in the form of a tripod , and in the middle of the tripod is represented Our Lady in a sun on a ground of clear red , and the three feet of the tripod are formed by three winged dragons . The said hanap and cover were given to the king by monseigneur the duc de Berry on his journey into Touraine in the year 91 .

John , Duke of Berry ( 1340 – 1416 ) was Charles VI 's uncle and a powerful figure in the kingdom , as well as the most famous and extravagant collector and commissioner of art of his day . He is still best known for commissioning the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry , the famous International Gothic illuminated manuscript , and also commissioned the Holy Thorn Reliquary , now in the British Museum . The young king Charles had been forced to remove his uncle from governorships after the latter 's rapacious conduct had led to unrest , and the meeting in 1391 marked their reconciliation after a period of bad relations . Lavish gifts among the Valois court circle were routine , and on this occasion Berry had special reason to be generous .

The cup appears in another inventory of Charles V in 1400 , and then is not recorded until it appears as the property of another royal uncle , and collector , John of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Bedford ( 1389 – 1435 ) , son of Henry IV , who was briefly Regent of both France and England for his infant nephew Henry VI . How he acquired the cup is not known , but he would have received many gifts from Charles VI , and had both lent the king money and bought from him things such as the library of the Palais du Louvre , in the uneasy period when Charles had made peace with the English and made Henry V his heir . After the death of his brother Henry V , Bedford struggled to stem the resurgent French resistance , which was energised by Joan of Arc . He died in Normandy in 1435 , leaving Henry VI as his heir . The cup is more briefly described as the first item in a list of valuables received from Bedford 's estate prepared for Henry VI 's minister Cardinal Henry Beaufort , but the tripod is not mentioned , some of the jewels are missing , and the subject is misidentified as the life of Saint Suzanna not Saint Agnes . For some reason it does not appear in a royal inventory of 1441 ; Jenny Stratford suggests that this was because Beaufort still had it at this point . Another possibility is that it had been pawned , as it was in 1449 and again in 1451 , on both occasions to finance England 's increasingly unsuccessful efforts to hold on to French territory ;

The cup first appears in the records of the new Tudor dynasty under Henry VIII in 1521 . By now the cover had lost the finial " garnished with four sapphires , three balas rubies and fifteen pearls " described in Charles VI 's inventory and had a new one of gold in the form of a closed , or " imperial " crown . This matches a propaganda drive at this time by Henry to assert England as an " empire " , a contemporary sense meaning a state recognising no superior , though the Great Seal of England had already used a closed crown since 1471 . Other uses had probably been found for the jewels of the old finial ; it is assumed that the lower band with the Tudor roses was added in Henry 's reign , as part of a programme of adding Tudor badges to possessions inherited from earlier dynasties , which covered tapestries , illuminated manuscripts and buildings such as King 's College Chapel in Cambridge . The cup is described in inventories in 1532 and after Henry 's death in 1547 , and then under Elizabeth I it was inventoried in 1574 and 1596 .

When James I succeeded to the English throne in 1603 , one of his first priorities was to end the Anglo @-@ Spanish War , which had been dragging on since 1585 . A Spanish delegation arrived for the Somerset House Conference , which concluded with a treaty signed in 1604 . The leader of the Habsburg diplomats was Juan Fernández de Velasco , 5th Duke of Frías and Constable of Castile . The upper extension to the stem of the cup has a Latin inscription that translates as :

This cup of solid gold , a relic of the sacred treasure of England and a memorial to the peace made between the kings , the Constable Juan de Velasco , returning thence after successfully accomplishing his mission , presented as an offering to Christ the Peacemaker .

The gift of " some 70 items of silver and gold plate " by James to the Constable , of which the cup was the most notable item , is documented on both the English and Spanish sides ; the Constable wrote an account of his mission on his return , which mentions the gift from James . The Constable had previously presented both James and the queen with elaborate cups , among other valuable gifts . According to Pauline Croft , " With his usual over @-@ generosity the king gave the departing envoys around half the large gold vessels from the royal possessions he had inherited from Elizabeth . The Constable himself received a stupendous gift of plate , including possibly the most venerable item in the collection , known as " the Royal Gold Cup of the Kings of France and England . " In 1610 the Constable gave the cup to a convent in Medina de Pomar , near Burgos , as the inscription describes . His deed of gift survives , and records that the gift was on condition that the cup was never alienated by the convent . A marginal note on the deed , in the Constable 's own handwriting , records that he had obtained the permission of the Archbishop of Toledo , Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas , for the cup to be used as a ciborium , or container for consecrated hosts . By this period a rule of the church normally forbade the use of vessels decorated on their inner surface as ciboria .

The cup stayed in the convent until 1882 when the nuns were short of funds and wanted to sell it . It was at some point during this period that the pearl border to the cover and the Tudor finial were removed . The nuns decided they would get a better price in Paris than in Spain , and the cup was entrusted to Simon Campo , a priest , who took it to Paris and approached several leading dealers and collectors . There had been a spate of forgeries of medieval objects , and the Parisians were suspicious , until one , Baron Jerome Pichon , researched the second added cylinder and was sufficiently convinced that this was the cup documented in 1604 to make a rather low offer , which was accepted . In the course of his researches the baron had contacted the current Duke of Frías , who had supplied useful information , and then initially congratulated the buyer on his purchase . However , on looking further into the matter the duke realized that the sale was contrary to the 1610 deed of gift he had discovered in the family archives , and sued in the French courts to recover the cup .

The duke eventually lost his case in 1891 , enabling a further sale that had been set up by Baron Pichon to proceed . This was to the leading firm of Messrs. Wertheimer of Bond Street in London , where the cup was seen by Augustus Wollaston Franks , who had been Keeper of British and Mediaeval Antiquities and Ethnography at the British Museum since 1866 , and was president of the Society of Antiquaries . Samson Wertheimer agreed " with much public spirit " to sell the cup to the British Museum for the £ 8 @,@ 000 ( £ 790 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) it had cost the firm . Franks was worried by the new American collectors such as J. P. Morgan , and in 1891 wrote to Sir Henry Tate , of Tate Gallery fame : " A very wonderful gold cup has appeared returned to this country after an absence of 287 years , and I am anxious to see it placed in the National Museum and not removed to America . " He tried to get wealthy individuals to subscribe £ 500 ( £ 49 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) each , but even with a grant of £ 2 @,@ 000 from HM Treasury could not raise the price . He was forced to put up £ 5 @,@ 000 of his own money temporarily while he continued to try to get smaller amounts from others , and succeeded in 1892 when the Treasury agreed to contribute the final £ 830 ; " to Franks this was his greatest acquisition , and the one of which he was most proud . " Apart from the Treasury , the £ 500 contributors were Franks and Wertheimer , the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths , Charles Drury Edward Fortnum , the Duke of Northumberland , Lord Savile , Lord Iveagh and the Earl of Crawford . In 1901 Morgan succeeded in buying the Lindau Gospels in London , which the museum had also wanted .

= = Creation , context and survival = =

Much the most prominent decoration on the cup is the cycle of scenes from the life of Saint Agnes , which is rarely depicted in such detail in art . However , there was one outstanding devotee of the saint in the period : King Charles V of France , Berry 's older brother and Charles VI 's father . Charles V was born in 1338 on Saint Agnes ' feast day , January 21 , and is recorded as owning at least 13 works of art featuring her , including a different gold cup enamelled with scenes from her life ( both are recorded in the 1391 inventory ) . Until recent decades the generally accepted hypothesis was that Berry ordered the cup as a present for his brother in 1380 , to be ready for his birthday in January 1381 . When the king died in September 1380 , Berry had retained it for a decade before presenting it to Charles VI .

However , in 1978 Ronald Lightbown , Keeper of Metalwork at the V & A Museum , rejected this theory on stylistic grounds , considering that the cup must have been created only shortly before it appeared in Charles VI 's inventory in 1391 . He says that " in 1380 figure @-@ style was a softly undulating , flowing style , with slender elongated figures and much use of serpentine or curving folds in the drapery , and with trailing dresses ending in sinuous Gothic hem @-@ lines " — a style that can be seen in the miniature of the coronation of Charles VI in 1380 illustrated above . In contrast , Lightbown says " the figures on the cup are broad , some might even be called stocky , with soft drapery of cylindrical form , or of smooth , tight outlines . The folds are tubular and the hems of the robes are straight with no waving , trailing outlines . The style in fact is the ' Italianate ' manner which developed in France as a result of contact with ' trecento ' art , and not the purely Northern Gothic International manner . " This view was rejected in 1981 by Neil Stratford , former Keeper of Medieval and Later Antiquities at the British Museum , who pointed to a number of manuscript illuminations in a similar style that date from earlier than 1390 . John Cherry , another former Keeper of the medieval collections at the British Museum , still presents the older dating in a work of 2010 , and the British Museum website dates the cup to " about 1370 – 1380 " .

Another traditional assumption , based on the language of the inventories and shared by almost all writers , was that the cup was a piece of secular plate , for use at table , or display on a buffet beside it . The buffet of the period was more like a modern Welsh dresser or shop display unit , with receding shelves for displaying on important occasions all the plate of the household that was not in use . Neil Stratford suggests that the cup was only used to drink from on special occasions , including St Agnes ' feast day , while Lightbown remarks that at over four pounds in weight the cup is much too heavy to drink from conveniently . However John Cherry , noting the exclusively religious subjects depicted ( including that on the lost tripod stand ) considers that the cup may have been intended as a ciborium from the start . It might have been used either to accompany in its carrying case the duke on his tours of his many castles and palaces , or perhaps for his foundation of the Saint Chapelle at his capital of Bourges , intended to rival the king 's Sainte @-@ Chapelle in Paris and his brother 's foundation at Champmol in Dijon .

The four sons of King John II of France — Charles V , Louis I , Duke of Anjou ( 1339 – 1384 ) , Berry and Philip the Bold , Duke of Burgundy ( 1342 – 1404 ) — all spent huge sums on works in gold and silver , as well as on other works of art . Although it is Berry who is especially remembered as a patron , partly because he specialized in illuminated manuscripts which have little value in their materials , it was his brother Louis of Anjou who was the " most passionately interested in the goldsmith 's art " ; he had over 3 @,@ 000 pieces of plate at one point . These included wholly secular pieces with sculptures in enamel that can only be imagined by comparison : in terms of technique to the handful of reliquaries , like the British Museum 's Holy Thorn Reliquary , that have survived from the period , and in terms of subject matter to tapestries and illuminations . However , in 1381 Anjou melted down almost all his plate to finance a war to pursue his claim to the Kingdom of Naples . According to the sculptor and goldsmith Lorenzo Ghiberti , writing seventy years later , one of Anjou 's goldsmiths , called Gusmin and " a most skillful sculptor , of great talent " , was so affected by the destruction of his life 's work that he joined an eremetic monastic order and lived out his days in silence . The Royal Gold Cup was " probably not exceptional as to size or decoration " in this milieu ; once " but one member of a class , it now stands alone " . An inventory of Charles V records 25 gold cups weighing between five and fifteen marcs ; this is slightly over nine without its stand . Smaller gold cups are recorded in sets of a dozen , of which Charles V had three . The largest items were the great table ornaments , in the shape of ships , called nefs , of which Charles V had five , the heaviest weighing over 53 marcs .

Berry died in 1416 with no male heir , and deeply in debt . Those of his works in precious metal and jewels that had not already gone to his creditors were mostly seized by the English when they took Paris in July 1417 . This was the first of a number of periods that saw the large @-@ scale destruction of goldsmiths ' work that the cup escaped , but thousands of other pieces did not , a survival that Brigitte Buettner finds " almost miraculous " . In particular , the move to Spain in 1604 enabled it to avoid the dispersal and destruction of the English Crown Jewels and royal collection of plate under the English Commonwealth .

As a secular piece the cup would be an almost unique survival at this level of quality , " the one representative left to us of medieval secular plate in its most sumptuous development " . Although French plate in silver and gold was made in great quantities , and at a high level of quality , " French silver made prior to the early 19th century is probably scarcer than that of any other European country . " The cost of even very skilled labour was low compared to that of the materials , and in the absence of any reliable way of either depositing or investing money , it was turned into lavish objects , in the knowledge that it might well need to be sold or melted down to finance some future project . If it survived long enough to become old @-@ fashioned it was likely to be melted down and remodelled in a new style .

There are only four other known survivals , secular or religious , of basse taille enamel on gold , one the small Salting Reliquary , also in the British Museum , and none as fine as the cup . The " King John Cup " in King 's Lynn , of ca . 1340 , silver @-@ gilt with transparent enamel , is the best example of basse @-@ taille work probably made in England ; the metalwork expert Herbert Maryon describes this and the Royal Gold Cup as the " two examples of outstanding merit , unsurpassed in any collection . " However it is unclear if most of the enamel at King 's Lynn is original . The closest comparison to the Royal Gold Cup is perhaps the silver @-@ gilt Mérode Cup of about 1400 , which is the only surviving medieval example of plique á jour enamel , a difficult technique which creates a see @-@ through effect like stained glass . A silver @-@ gilt cup in the Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam of before 1376 has no enamels or gems , and a different shape , but offers an interesting comparison as it has a tripod stand with winged grotesques as legs , a short stem , and the cover has both an elaborate finial and a raised decorated strip around the rim , so that all the altered aspects of the Royal Gold Cup are present .

= = Iconography = =

The cycle of scenes from the life of Saint Agnes , and that of her foster @-@ sister Saint Emerentiana , follows the traditional story of Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine ; the most popular compilation of hagiographies of the age , whose wording corresponds to some of the inscriptions in banderoles or scrolls that explain the scenes . Other texts are quotations from the Latin Vulgate Bible , mostly derived from the liturgy for St Agnes ' feast day , and it has been suggested that the two rings of pearls also reflect the language of the chants for these services . It seems likely that clerical advice was taken , at least over the texts used in the inscriptions . It is tempting to relate the depiction of the story , with its " distinct and vivid tableaux , well suited to adaptation for performance " to medieval drama , often a source for iconography , but the fragmentary records mention no dramas on the life of St Agnes that are close in time or place to the origin of the cup .

Agnes and her sister were virgins of Rome in the time of the Emperor Constantine , though all figures are shown in contemporary 14th @-@ century dress . The story begins on the inside of the bowl , which has a round medallion showing St Agnes kneeling before a bearded figure , representing her teacher , wearing a chaperon . She holds a book inscribed Miserere mei Deus sancte ( " Have pity on me , Holy God " ) , while a banderole says In corde meo abscondi eloquia tua ut non peccem tibi ( " Thy words have I hid in my heart that I might not sin against thee " . Psalms 119 : 11 ) . The top of the cover continues the story up to Agnes ' martyrdom in five scenes , shown with a continuous groundline from which small rocks rise up to demarcate the scenes ; on the base trees perform this function . Sunrays radiate from the centre of the cover above all the scenes ; the red enamel which once filled these is nearly all lost .

In the first scene the two girls are returning from school , Agnes accompanied by her punning attribute , a lamb with a cruciform halo , and carrying a martyr 's palm . They are accosted by Procopius , the young son of the Prefect of Rome , who has fallen in love with Agnes and shows her an open casket of jewels to persuade her to marry him . The inside of the casket is white , the only colour of opaque enamel in the original work , used only for a few highlights like the tiny area of the host held by Christ on the inside of the cover . Agnes rejects him , with the words Illi sum desponsata cui angeli serviunt ( " I am betrothed to him who the angels serve " ) in a banderole above . In the Caxton her rejection is unequivocal and not polite , and she points out that her heavenly fiancé has promised her much better jewels . The Prefect stands behind his son , and in the next scene has sentenced her to serve in a brothel for being a Christian who refuses to sacrifice to the goddess Vesta . Caxton 's Legend fills in the intervening action :

Then made she of the bordel her oratory , ... All they that entered made honour and reverence to the great clearness that they saw about St. Agnes , and came out more devout and more clean than they entered . At last came the son of the provost with a great company for to accomplish his foul desires and lusts . And when he saw his fellows come out and issue all abashed , he mocked them and called them cowards . And then he , all araged , entered for to accomplish his evil will . And when he came to the clearness , he advanced him for to take the virgin , and anon the devil took him by the throat and strangled him that he fell down dead .

In the next scene on the cup , Agnes stands outside the sentry box @-@ like brothel , looking down at the Prefect 's son who has been strangled to death by the devil crouched over him ; a banderole reads Quo modo cecidisti qui mane oriebaris ( " How has thou fallen that risest in the morning " , Isaiah 14 : 12 ) , and the Prefect looks on sadly .

In the following scene Agnes has been moved by the Prefect 's grief , and prayed for the son to be restored to life , which an angel has done . The repentant Procopius kneels before her , while she leans down to tell him Vade amplius noli peccare ( " Go forth and sin no more " ; from John 8 : 11 ) . However the result of the miracle was that ( in William Caxton 's translation ) " the bishops of the idols made a great discord among the people , so that all they cried : Take away this sorceress and witch that turned men 's minds and alieneth their wits " . The Prefect is now sympathetic to Agnes but fears he will lose his position if he does nothing , so leaves the matter in the hands of another official ; the two are seen talking together , with words from Luke 23 : 4 Nihil invenio cause in eam ( " I find no cause against her " ) above . The last scene shows her martyrdom ; she was sentenced to be burned but the flames part away from her so that finally the magistrate orders her killed by a spear . Her last words , from Luke 23 : 46 , are In manus tuas domine commendo animam meam ( " Into your hands , O Lord , I commend my spirit " ) .

The scenes continue on the underside of the bowl , starting with Agnes ' burial . A pall is being laid over her sarcophagus , whose red enamel has significant losses , which reveal clearly the engraved lines beneath . A tonsured priest with an aspergil for sprinkling holy water and an acolyte with a cross attend , with Emerentiana with halo to the left , and Agnes ' mother to the right . The banderole above says Ecce quod concupivi iam teneo ( " Behold what I have desired I now possess " ) . In the next scene pagans have arrived to disrupt the burial , and only Emerentiana has stayed , kneeling in prayer as she is pelted with rocks . The inscription reads Veni soror mea mecum in gloria ( " Come with me my sister into glory " ) . She dies , and the following scene shows the two martyrs , accompanied by two other unnamed female martyrs ( in the source " a great multitude of virgins clad in vestments of gold and silver " ) , as they appear in a vision to Agnes ' friends eight days after her death , as they gather round her sarcophagus , into which Emerentiana 's body has also been placed .

The next scene shows the sarcophagus with Constantina , the daughter of the Emperor Constantine , asleep on top of it , wearing a crown . She has been afflicted with leprosy , and heard of the vision at Agnes ' tomb , and come to pray there . The presence at left of a young man on crutches , not in the source , suggests that others are doing the same . The sleeping woman beside the tomb is either another such , or an attendant on the princess . As Constantina sleeps , Agnes , holding her lamb , appears to her , saying Si in xpm ( Christum ) credideris sanaberis ( " If you believe in Christ you will be healed " , an adaptation of the text in the source ) . In the final scene , the cured , and baptized , Constantina tells her crowned father the story , with the inscription Hec est virgo sapiens una de numero prudencium ( " This is a wise virgin , one of the number of the prudent " ) .

The inside of the cover has a circular enamel medallion with worked gold borders , showing a half @-@ length Christ making a blessing gesture and holding a chalice with a host inside . Around him is a sun @-@ like aureole in red . Below the two added cylinders on the stem , the four traditional symbols of the Evangelists run round the sloping foot of the cup , in pairs facing each other , above a green ground area . Lightbown notes this as " another sign of care for naturalistic effect " .

= = Construction and techniques = =

Each of the cover , main body , and foot of the cup is made of an inner and outer plate , and the enamelled medallions inside the cover and bowl were made separately before attachment . The enamel areas may have been designed by the goldsmith , or an artist more used to painting on panels or in manuscripts may have produced drawings . A number of names of goldsmiths appear in records of the period , but in contrast to many contemporary manuscripts , the few surviving goldsmith 's pieces are not signed or marked and cannot be matched to any names . Not a single maker 's name is recorded for the more than 3 @,@ 000 items in precious metal in the inventory mentioned above of the possessions of Berry 's brother Anjou . High quality courtly work like the cup is conventionally assigned to Paris in the absence of other stylistic evidence ; this is where other documentary sources locate the main concentration of goldsmiths .

The process for creating the basse @-@ taille enamel areas began by marking the outline of the design and the main internal outlines on the gold with a tool called a " tracer " . Then the interior area was worked with chasing tools , hammering and punching rather than cutting , to form a shallow recess to hold the enamel . The more important parts of the design were modelled by varying the depth of the surface to produce different intensities of colour when the translucent enamel was added ; the gold under folds of drapery often rises near the surface to create a paler highlight . In many of the recessed areas decoration was added by either engraving or punching which would show through the translucent enamel , or to facet the background so the reflections change as the viewing angle changes slightly . In these last @-@ mentioned areas cutting tools were used . Most of the background outside the enamelled areas was decorated in the same way . After the enamel was added and fired the surfaces were cleaned up , made good and polished , including removing by scraping any bumps showing through on the reverse of the metal .

The enamel lies flush with the gold surfaces ; it was a preparation of finely ground glass paste applied with great care to the prepared recessed areas , and then fired . Different colours of enamel meet each other with a neat boundary , which was achieved by firing one colour with a retaining border of gum tragacanth before adding the next . The difficulty was increased by the application of tints of a different colour to a base shade of enamel before firing , so that the added colour blends gradually into the background colour around the edges of the tinted area . This is especially used on " flux " , or colourless enamel , as in the ground areas , rocks and trees . Flux was also used for flesh areas as on a gold background it darkens slightly when fired to a suitable colour for skin . The rouge clair or " ruby glass " red , used so effectively here , was made by adding tiny particles of copper , silver and gold to the glass ; here scientific tests have shown that copper was used . After firing the enamel was polished flush with the surrounding metal . The technique had been known to the Ancient Romans ( see the Lycurgus Cup , also in the British Museum ) , but was lost at the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century . The added cylinders use opaque enamel , except for the red on the Tudor roses , which is translucent rouge clair , of a similar composition to the original reds . Translucent enamel is more fragile than opaque , and medieval survivals in good condition are very rare .

= Giant freshwater stingray =

The giant freshwater stingray ( Himantura polylepis , also widely known by the junior synonym H. chaophraya ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in large rivers and estuaries in Indochina and Borneo , though historically it may have been more widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia . One of the largest freshwater fish in the world , this species grows upwards of 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) across and may reach 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) in weight . It has a relatively thin , oval pectoral fin disc that is widest anteriorly , and a sharply pointed snout with a protruding tip . Its tail is thin and whip @-@ like , and lacks fin folds . This species is uniformly grayish brown above and white below ; the underside of the pectoral and pelvic fins bear distinctive wide , dark bands on their posterior margins .

Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the giant freshwater stingray inhabits sandy or muddy areas and preys on small fishes and invertebrates . Females give live birth to litters of one to four pups , which are sustained to term by maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . This species faces heavy fishing pressure for meat , recreation , and aquarium display , as well as extensive habitat degradation and fragmentation . These forces have resulted in substantial population declines in at least central Thailand and Cambodia . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the giant freshwater stingray as Endangered .

= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =

The first scientific description of the giant freshwater stingray was authored by Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker in an 1852 volume of the journal Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen . His account was based on a juvenile specimen 30 cm ( 12 in ) across , collected from Jakarta , Indonesia . Bleeker named the new species polylepis , from the Greek poly ( " many " ) and lepis ( " scales " ) , and assigned it to the genus Trygon ( now a synonym of Dasyatis ) . However , in subsequent years Bleeker 's description was largely overlooked , and in 1990 the giant freshwater stingray was described again by Supap Monkolprasit and Tyson Roberts in an issue of the Japanese Journal of Ichthyology . They gave it the name Himantura chaophraya , which came into widespread usage . In 2008 , Peter Last and B. Mabel Manjaji @-@ Matsumoto confirmed that T. polylepis and H. chaophraya refer to the same species , and since Bleeker 's name was published earlier , the scientific name of the giant freshwater stingray became Himantura polylepis . This species may also be called the giant freshwater whipray , giant stingray , or freshwater whipray .

There is a complex of similar freshwater and estuarine Himantura in South Asia , Southeast Asia , and Australasia that are or were tentatively identified with H. polylepis . The Australian freshwater Himantura were described as a separate species , H. dalyensis , in 2008 . The freshwater Himantura in New Guinea are probably H. dalyensis rather than H. polylepis , though confirmation awaits further study . Trygon fluviatilis from India , as described by Nelson Annandale in 1909 , closely resembles and may be conspecific with H. polylepis . On the other hand , comparison of freshwater whipray DNA and amino acid sequences between India and Thailand has revealed significant differences . Finally , additional research is needed to assess the degree of divergence amongst populations of H. polylepis inhabiting various drainage basins across its distribution , so as to determine whether further taxonomic differentiation is warranted .

In terms of the broader evolutionary relationships between the giant freshwater whipray and the rest of the family Dasyatidae , a 2012 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial DNA reported that it was most closely related to the porcupine ray ( Urogymnus asperrimus ) , and that they in turn formed a clade with the mangrove whipray ( H. granulata ) and the tubemouth whipray ( H. lobistoma ) . This finding adds to a growing consensus that the genus Himantura is paraphyletic .

= = Description = =

The giant freshwater stingray has a thin , oval pectoral fin disc slightly longer than wide and broadest towards the front . The elongated snout has a wide base and a sharply pointed tip that projects beyond the disc . The eyes are minute and widely spaced ; behind them are large spiracles . Between the nostrils is a short curtain of skin with a finely fringed posterior margin . The small mouth forms a gentle arch and contains four to seven papillae ( two to four large at the center and one to four small to the sides ) on the floor . The small and rounded teeth are arranged into pavement @-@ like bands . There are five pairs of gill slits on the ventral side of the disc . The pelvic fins are small and thin ; mature males have relatively large claspers .

The thin , cylindrical tail measures 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 5 times as long as the disc and lacks fin folds . A single serrated stinging spine is positioned on the upper surface of the tail near the base . At up to 38 cm ( 15 in ) long , the spine is the largest of any stingray species . There is band of heart @-@ shaped tubercles on the upper surface of the disc extending from before the eyes to the base of the sting ; there is also a midline row of four to six enlarged tubercles at the center of the disc . The remainder of the disc upper surface is covered by tiny granular denticles , and the tail is covered with sharp prickles past the sting . This species is plain grayish brown above , often with a yellowish or pinkish tint towards the fin margins ; in life the skin is coated with a layer of dark brown mucus . The underside is white with broad dark bands , edged with small spots , on the trailing margins of the pectoral and pelvic fins . The tail is black behind the spine . The giant freshwater stingray reaches at least 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) in width and 5 @.@ 0 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) in length , and can likely grow larger . With reports from the Mekong and Chao Phraya Rivers of individuals weighing 500 – 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 300 lb ) , it ranks among the largest freshwater fishes in the world .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The giant freshwater stingray is known to inhabit several large rivers and associated estuaries in Indochina and Borneo . In Indochina , it occurs in the Mekong River to potentially as far upstream as Chiang Khong in Thailand , as well as in the Chao Phraya , Nan , Mae Klong , Bang Pakong , Prachin Buri and Tapi Rivers . In Borneo , this species is found in the Mahakam River in Kalimantan and the Kinabatangan and Buket Rivers in Sabah ; it is reportedly common in the Kinabatangan River but infrequently caught . Though it has been reported from Sarawak as well , surveys within the past 25 years have not found it there . Elsewhere in the region , recent river surveys in Java have not recorded its presence , despite the island being the locality of the species holotype . Historical records from Myanmar , the Ganges River in India , and the Bay of Bengal ( the latter two as Trygon fluviatilis ) have similarly not been corroborated by any recent accounts .

Disjunct populations of the giant freshwater stingray in separate river drainages are probably isolated from one another ; though the species occurs in brackish environments , there is no evidence that it crosses marine waters . This is a bottom @-@ dwelling species that favors a sandy or muddy habitat . Unexpectedly , it can sometimes be found near heavily populated urban areas .

= = Biology and ecology = =

The diet of the giant freshwater stingray consists of small fishes and invertebrates such as crustaceans and molluscs , which it can detect using its electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini . Individuals can often be seen at the edge of the river , possibly feeding on earthworms . Parasites documented from this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium asnihae , A. etini , A. masnihae , A. saliki , A. zainali , Rhinebothrium abaiensis , R. kinabatanganensis , and R. megacanthophallus . The giant freshwater stingray is viviparous , with the developing embryos nourished initially by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) provided by the mother . This species does not appear to be diadromous ( migrating between fresh and salt water to complete its life cycle ) . Observed litter sizes range from one to four pups ; newborns measure around 30 cm ( 12 in ) across . Pregnant females are frequently found in estuaries , which may serve as nursery areas . Males mature sexually at approximately 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) across ; female maturation size and other life history details are unknown .

= = Human interactions = =

The giant freshwater stingray is not aggressive , but it merits caution as its sting is sheathed in toxic mucus and is capable of piercing bone . Across its range , this species is caught incidentally by artisanal fishers using longlines , and to a lesser extent gillnets and fish traps . It is reputedly difficult and time @-@ consuming to catch ; a hooked ray may bury itself under large quantities of mud , becoming almost impossible to lift , or drag boats over substantial distances or underwater . The meat and perhaps the cartilage are used ; large specimens are cut into kilogram pieces for sale . Adults that are not used for food are often killed or maimed by fishers regardless . In the Mae Klong and Bang Pakong Rivers , the giant freshwater stingray is also increasingly targeted by sport fishers and for display in public aquariums . These trends pose conservation concerns ; the former because catch and release is not universally practiced and the post @-@ release survival rate is unknown , the latter because this species does not survive well in captivity .

The major threats to the giant freshwater stingray are overfishing and habitat degradation resulting from deforestation , land development , and damming . The construction of dams also fragments the population , reducing genetic diversity and increasing the susceptibility of the resulting subpopulations to extinction . Due to its low reproductive rate , the giant freshwater stingray is not resilient to anthropogenic pressures . In central Thailand and Cambodia , the population is estimated to have been reduced by 30 – 50 % over the past 20 – 30 years , with declines as severe as 95 % in some locations . The size of rays caught has decreased significantly as well ; for example , in Cambodia the average weight of a landed ray has dropped from 23 @.@ 2 kg ( 51 lb ) in 1980 to 6 @.@ 9 kg ( 15 lb ) in 2006 . The status of populations in other areas , such as Borneo , is largely unknown . As a result of documented declines , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Endangered overall , and as Critically Endangered in Thailand . In the 1990s , the Thai government initiated a captive breeding program at Chai Nat to bolster the population of this and other freshwater stingray species until the issue of habitat degradation can be remedied . However , by 1996 the program had been put on hold .

= Live action role @-@ playing game =

A live action role @-@ playing game ( LARP ) is a form of role @-@ playing game where the participants physically act out their characters ' actions . The players pursue goals within a fictional setting represented by the real world while interacting with each other in character . The outcome of player actions may be mediated by game rules or determined by consensus among players . Event arrangers called gamemasters decide the setting and rules to be used and facilitate play .

The first LARPs were run in the late 1970s , inspired by tabletop role @-@ playing games and genre fiction . The activity spread internationally during the 1980s and has diversified into a wide variety of styles . Play may be very game @-@ like or may be more concerned with dramatic or artistic expression . Events can also be designed to achieve educational or political goals . The fictional genres used vary greatly , from realistic modern or historical settings to fantastic or futuristic eras . Production values are sometimes minimal , but can involve elaborate venues and costumes . LARPs range in size from small private events lasting a few hours to large public events with thousands of players lasting for days .

= = Terminology = =

LARP has also been referred to as live role @-@ playing ( LRP ) , interactive literature , and free form role @-@ playing . Some of these terms are still in common use ; however , LARP has become the most commonly accepted term . It is sometimes written in lowercase , as larp . The live action in LARP is analogous to the term live action used in film and video to differentiate works with human actors from animation . Playing a LARP is often called larping , and one who does it is a larper .

= = Play overview = =

The participants in a LARP physically portray characters in a fictional setting , improvising their characters ' speech and movements somewhat like actors in improvisational theatre . This is distinct from tabletop role @-@ playing games , where character actions are described verbally . LARPs may be played in a public or private area and may last for hours or days . There is usually no audience . Players may dress as their character and carry appropriate equipment , and the environment is sometimes decorated to resemble the setting . LARPs can be one @-@ off events or a series of events in the same setting , and events can vary in size from a handful of players to several thousand .

Events are put on for the benefit of the players , who take on roles called player characters ( PCs ) that the players may create themselves or be given by the gamemasters . Players sometimes play the same character repeatedly at separate events , progressively developing the character and its relations with other characters and the setting .

Arrangers called gamemasters ( GMs ) determine the rules and setting of a LARP , and may also influence an event and act as referees while it is taking place . The GMs may also do the logistical work , or there may be other arrangers who handle details such as advertising the event , booking a venue , and financial management . Unlike the GM in a tabletop role @-@ playing game , a LARP GM seldom has an overview of everything that is happening during play because numerous participants may be interacting at once . For this reason , a LARP GM 's role is often less concerned with tightly maintaining a narrative or directly entertaining the players , and more with arranging the structure of the LARP before play begins and facilitating the players and crew to maintain the fictional environment during play .

Participants sometimes known as the crew may help the GMs to set up and maintain the environment of the LARP during play by acting as stagehands or playing non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) who fill out the setting . Crew typically receive more information about the setting and more direction from the GMs than players do . In a tabletop role @-@ playing game , a GM usually plays all the NPCs , whereas in a LARP , each NPC is typically played by a separate crew member . Sometimes players are asked to play NPCs for periods of an event .

Much of play consists of interactions between characters . Some LARP scenarios primarily feature interaction between PCs . Other scenarios focus on interaction between PCs and aspects of the setting , including NPCs , that are under the direction of the GMs .

= = History = =

LARP does not have a single point of origin , but was invented independently by groups in North America , Europe , and Australia . These groups shared an experience with genre fiction or tabletop role @-@ playing games , and a desire to physically experience such settings . In addition to tabletop role @-@ playing , LARP is rooted in childhood games of make believe , play fighting , costume parties , roleplay simulations , Commedia dell 'arte , improvisational theatre , psychodrama , military simulations , and historical reenactment groups such as the Society for Creative Anachronism .

The earliest recorded LARP group is Dagorhir , which was founded in 1977 in the United States and focuses on fantasy battles . Soon after the release of the movie Logan 's Run in 1976 , rudimentary live role @-@ playing games based on the movie were run at US science fiction conventions . In 1981 , the International Fantasy Gaming Society ( IFGS ) started , with rules influenced by Dungeons & Dragons . IFGS was named after a fictional group in the 1981 novel Dream Park , which described futuristic LARPs . In 1982 , the Society for Interactive Literature , a predecessor of the Live Action Roleplayers Association ( LARPA ) , formed as the first recorded theatre @-@ style LARP group in the US .

Treasure Trap , formed in 1982 at Peckforton Castle , was the first recorded LARP game in the UK and influenced the fantasy LARPs that followed there . The first recorded LARP in Australia was run in 1983 , using the science fiction Traveller setting . In 1993 , White Wolf Publishing released Mind 's Eye Theatre , which is still played internationally and is probably the most commercially successful published LARP . The first German events were in about 1994 ( other sources claim 1992 or 1991 ) , with fantasy LARP in particular growing quickly there , so that since 2001 , two major German events have been run annually that have between 3000 and 7000 players each and attract players from around Europe .

Today , LARP is a widespread activity internationally . Games with thousands of participants are run by for @-@ profit companies , and a small industry exists to sell costume , armour and foam weapons intended primarily for LARP .

= = Purpose = =

Most LARPs are intended as games for entertainment . Enjoyable aspects can include the collaborative creation of a story , the attempt to overcome challenges in pursuit of a character 's objectives , and a sense of immersion in a fictional setting . LARPs may also include other game @-@ like aspects such as intellectual puzzles , and sport @-@ like aspects such as fighting with simulated weapons .

Some LARPs stress artistic considerations such as dramatic interaction or challenging subject matter . Avant @-@ garde or arthaus events have especially experimental approaches and high culture aspirations and are occasionally held in fine art contexts such as festivals or art museums . The themes of avant @-@ garde events often include politics , culture , religion , sexuality and the human condition . Such LARPs are common in the Nordic countries but also present elsewhere .

In addition to entertainment and artistic merit , LARP events may be designed for educational or political purposes . For example , the Danish secondary school Østerskov Efterskole uses LARP to teach most of its classes . Language classes can be taught by immersing students in a role @-@ playing scenario in which they are forced to improvise speech or writing in the language they are learning . Politically themed LARP events may attempt to awaken or shape political thinking within a culture .

Because LARP involves a controlled artificial environment within which people interact , it has sometimes been used as a research tool to test theories in social fields such as economics or law . For example , LARP has been used to study the application of game theory to the development of criminal law .

= = Fiction and reality = =

During a LARP , player actions in the real world represent character actions in an imaginary setting . Game rules , physical symbols and theatrical improvisation are used to bridge differences between the real world and the setting . For example , a rope could signify an imaginary wall . Realistic @-@ looking weapon props and risky physical activity are sometimes discouraged or forbidden for safety reasons . While the fictional timeline in a tabletop RPG often progresses in game @-@ time , which may be much faster or slower than the time passing for players , LARPs are different in that they usually run in real @-@ time , with game @-@ time only being used in special circumstances .

There is a distinction between when a player is in character , meaning they are actively representing their character , and when the player is out @-@ of @-@ character , meaning they are being themselves . Some LARPs encourage players to stay consistently in character except in emergencies , while others accept players being out @-@ of @-@ character at times . In a LARP , it is usually assumed that players are speaking and acting in character unless otherwise noted , which is the opposite of normal practice in tabletop role @-@ playing games . Character knowledge is usually considered to be separate from player knowledge , and acting upon information a character would not know may be viewed as cheating .

While most LARPs maintain a clear distinction between the real world and the fictional setting , pervasive LARPs mingle fiction with modern reality in a fashion similar to alternate reality games . Bystanders who are unaware that a game is taking place may be treated as part of the fictional setting , and in @-@ character materials may be incorporated into the real world .

= = Rules = =

Many LARPs have game rules that determine how characters can affect each other and the setting . The rules may be defined in a publication or created by the gamemasters . These rules may define characters ' capabilities , what can be done with various objects that exist in the setting , and what characters can do during the downtime between LARP events . Because referees are often not available to mediate all character actions , players are relied upon to be honest in their application of the rules .

Some LARP rules call for the use of simulated weapons such as foam weapons or airsoft guns to determine whether characters succeed in hitting one another in combat situations . In Russian LARP events , weapons made of hard plastic , metal or wood are used . The alternative to using simulated weapons is to pause role @-@ play and determine the outcome of an action symbolically , for example by rolling dice , playing rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors or comparing character attributes .

There are also LARPs that do without rules , instead relying on players to use their common sense or feel for dramatic appropriateness to cooperatively decide what the outcome of their actions will be .

= = Genres = =

LARPs can have any genre , although many use themes and settings derived from genre fiction . Some LARPs borrow a setting from an established work in another medium ( e.g. , The Lord of the Rings or the World of Darkness ) , while others use settings based on the real world or designed specifically for the LARP . Proprietary campaign settings , together with rulesets , are often the principal creative asset of LARP groups and LARP publishers .

LARPs set in the modern day may explore everyday concerns , or special interests such as espionage or military activity . Such LARPs sometimes resemble an Alternate Reality Game , an Assassin game , or a military simulation using live combat with airsoft , laser tag , or paintball markers . LARPs can also be set in historical eras or have semi @-@ historical settings with mythological or fantastical aspects incorporated .

Fantasy is one of the most common LARP genres internationally and is the genre that the largest events use . Fantasy LARPs are set in pseudo @-@ historical worlds inspired by fantasy literature and fantasy role @-@ playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons . These settings typically have magic , fantasy races , and limited technology . Many fantasy LARPs focus on adventure or on competition between character factions . In contrast , science fiction LARPs take place in futuristic settings with high technology and sometimes with extraterrestrial life . This describes a broad array of LARPs , including politically themed LARPs depicting dystopian or utopian societies and settings inspired by cyberpunk , space opera and post @-@ apocalyptic fiction .

Horror LARPs are inspired by horror fiction . Popular subgenres include zombie apocalypse and Cthulhu Mythos , sometimes using the published Cthulhu Live rules . The World of Darkness , published by White Wolf Publishing , is a widely used goth – punk horror setting in which players usually portray secretive supernatural creatures such as vampires and werewolves . This setting can be played using Mind 's Eye Theatre , which is a set of LARP rules also published by White Wolf . World of Darkness LARPs are usually played in a chronicle , a series of short events held at regular intervals , and are also popular at conventions . An international chronicle is run by White Wolf 's official fan club , the Camarilla .

= = Styles = =

LARP events have a wide variety of styles that often overlap . Simple distinctions can be made regarding the genre used , the presence of simulated weapons or abstract rules , and whether players create their own characters or have them assigned by gamemasters . There is also a distinction between scenarios that are only run once and those that are designed to be repeatable . A number of other common classifications follow .

Theatre @-@ style , or freeform , LARP is characterised by a focus on interaction between characters that are written by the gamemasters , not using simulated weapons for combat , and an eclectic approach to genre and setting . Events in this style typically only last a few hours and require relatively little preparation by players and are sometimes played at gaming conventions . Some murder mystery games where players are assigned characters and encouraged to roleplay freely also resemble theatre @-@ style LARP .

Some very large events known as fests ( short for festival ) have hundreds or thousands of participants who are usually split into competing character factions camped separately around a large venue . There are relatively few fests in the world , all based in Europe and Canada ; however , their size means that they have a significant influence on local LARP culture and design . At the other end of the size scale , some small events known as linear or line @-@ course LARPs feature a small group of PCs facing a series of challenges from NPCs and are often more tightly planned and controlled by GMs than other styles of LARP .

While some LARPs are open to participants of all ages , others have a minimum age requirement . There are also youth LARPs , specifically intended for children and young people . Some are run through institutions such as schools , churches , or the Scouts . Denmark has an especially high number of youth LARPs .

= = Cultural significance = =

Roleplaying may be seen as part of a movement in Western culture towards participatory arts , as opposed to traditional spectator arts . Participants in a LARP cast off the role of passive observer and take on new roles that are often outside of their daily life and contrary to their culture . The arrangers of a LARP and the other participants act as co @-@ creators of the game . This collaborative process of creating shared fictional worlds may be associated with a broader burgeoning " geek " culture in developed societies that is in turn associated with prolonged education , high uptake of information technology and increased leisure time . In comparison to the mainstream video @-@ game industry , which is highly commercialized and often marketed towards a male audience , LARP is less commoditized , and women actively contribute as authors and participants .

LARP is not well known in most countries and is sometimes confused with other role @-@ playing , reenactment , costuming , or dramatic activities . While fan and gamer culture in general has become increasingly mainstream in developed countries , LARP has often not achieved the same degree of cultural acceptability . This may be due to intolerance of the resemblance to childhood games of pretend , a perceived risk of over @-@ identification with the characters , and the absence of mass marketing . In US films such as the 2006 documentary Darkon , the 2007 documentary Monster Camp , and the 2008 comedy Role Models , fantasy LARP is depicted as somewhat ridiculous and escapist , but also treated affectionately as a " constructive social outlet " . In the Nordic countries , LARP has achieved a high level of public recognition and popularity . It is often shown in a positive light in mainstream media , with an emphasis on the dramatic and creative aspects . However , even in Norway , where LARP has greater recognition than in most other countries , it has still not achieved full recognition as a cultural activity by government bodies .

Communities have formed around the creation , play and discussion of LARP . These communities have developed a subculture that crosses over with role @-@ playing , fan , reenactment , and drama subcultures . Early LARP subculture focused on Tolkien @-@ like fantasy , but it later broadened to include appreciation of other genres , especially the horror genre with the rapid uptake of the World of Darkness setting in the 1990s . Like many subcultures , LARP groups often have a common context of shared experience , language , humour , and clothing that can be regarded by some as a lifestyle .

LARP has been a subject of academic research and theory . Much of this research originates from role @-@ players , especially from the publications of the Nordic Knutepunkt role @-@ playing conventions . The broader academic community has recently begun to study LARP as well , both to compare it to other media and other varieties of interactive gaming , and also to evaluate it in its own right .

It has been speculated that LARP may one day evolve into a major industry in the form of location @-@ based games using ubiquitous computing .

= = In popular culture = =

Films

Dream Park ( 1981 )

Mazes and Monsters ( 1982 )

Role Models ( 2008 )

The Wild Hunt ( 2009 )

Lloyd the Conqueror ( 2011 )

Knights of Badassdom ( 2014 )

Documentaries

Darkon ( 2006 )

Monster Camp ( 2007 )

Television

LARPing was featured in an episode of the animated American TV series American Dad ! titled " The Nova Centauris @-@ burgh Board of Tourism Presents : American Dad " , which was originally broadcast by TBS on May 2 , 2016 . In it Steve and his friends pretend they are a colony of " moisture farmers " , and his mother , Francine , joins in their game .

LARPing is parodied as FCLORPing ( short for Foam and Cardboard Legitimate Outdoor Role @-@ Playing ) in the Gravity Falls episode " Dungeons , Dungeons and More Dungeons " .

= Friday ( Rebecca Black song ) =

" Friday " is a song by American singer Rebecca Black , written and produced by Los Angeles record producers Clarence Jey and Patrice Wilson . It was released on March 14 , 2011 , by ARK Music Factory as Black 's debut single . The song features a rap verse from Wilson , which was uncredited on the single . Its music video caught a sudden surge of hits after Mystery Science Theater 3000 and Rifftrax comedian Michael J. Nelson called it " the worst video ever made " on Twitter and the song was featured on the Tosh.0 blog . The song 's reception was highly negative , mainly because of its songwriting and Black 's singing performance .

The original video was removed from YouTube on June 16 , 2011 due to legal disputes between ARK Music and Black herself . By then , it had already amassed more than 166 million views , with over 3 @.@ 2 million " dislikes " ( 88 % of total ratings ) from YouTube users . The video was uploaded to YouTube again on September 16 , 2011 . ( The video currently has 2 @.@ 08 million " dislikes " — 79 % of total ratings — on YouTube . ) Since the growth in popularity of the song and video , there have been numerous parody videos and remixes . Forbes stated that the notoriety of the song is another sign of the power of social media — specifically Twitter , Facebook , and Tumblr , in this instance — in the ability to create " overnight sensations . "

= = Background and production = =

" Friday " co @-@ writer Patrice Wilson , a worker at Ark Music Factory , explained that he wrote the lyrics " on a Thursday night going into a Friday . I was writing different songs all night and was like , ' Wow , I 've been up a long time and it 's Friday . ' And I was like , wow , it is Friday ! "

An Ark Music Factory client told Black 's mother about the company 's production services in late 2010 ; Black was 13 at the time , and living in Anaheim Hills , California . Black 's mother , Georgina Kelly , paid Ark Music $ 4 @,@ 000 for a song and accompanying video that included a choice of two pre @-@ written songs . According to Kelly , the payment covered one half or less of the production costs of the music video , and Black 's family could have paid nothing in exchange for giving up all rights to the song . Black chose " Friday " , as " the other song was about adult love – I haven 't experienced that yet . I felt like it was my personality in that song . " Ark Music extensively used the pitch @-@ correcting software Auto @-@ Tune . Although Kelly had some doubts over the quality of the lyrics , Black assured her that " I sang it as they wrote it , Mom . "

= = Composition = =

" Friday " uses the 50s progression , an I @-@ vi @-@ IV @-@ V chord progression that many popular songs have used such as " Heart and Soul " and " Unchained Melody " . It is performed in the key of B major at a tempo of 112 beats per minute . According to Randy Lewis of Los Angeles Times , the familiar structure contributes to the song 's catchiness , making it what others have called an earworm . The song also sees Black on a harmony track . In a review for Rolling Stone , writer Matthew Perpetua described the vocals as having " a peculiar tonality that inadvertently highlights the absurdity of boilerplate pop lyrics , " adding that the tone in the refrain " sounds unlike anything else in pop music . " He noted the sound as being not entirely agreeable to listen to , but stated that Black ultimately ends up " sounding like a distinct singer with an alluring sort of anti @-@ charisma . " The lyrics of the song speak about " hanging out with friends and having fun . " Paul Asay of Plugged In noted that lyrics reflect the happenings of a day , in the life of a teenager like Black , like eating breakfast and going to school . " She 's excited ' cause it 's Friday . Which means a weekend full of possibility awaits , " he concluded .

= = Critical reception = =

The song has received almost universally negative reviews from music critics , mainly because of its poorly @-@ written lyrics , instrumentation , and Black 's singing voice . It was rumored to be hated because of the gimmick Black pulled on YouTube during the YouTube Rewind 2011 , where her song was " Number One " . Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo ! Music asked if it could be " the worst song ever . " On March 29 , 2011 , it surpassed Justin Bieber 's " Baby " as the most disliked YouTube video , with 1 @.@ 16 million negative votes , and once had over 3 million " dislikes " , accounting for 88 % of the total ratings of the video . The video was later removed , though it has since been officially re @-@ uploaded . The co @-@ writer and producer of " Friday " , Clarence Jey said about the song that " the concept we feel seems to have crossed a lot of boundaries , for the better or worse . " Observers have called it " bizarre , " " inept , " and " hilariously dreadful . " The song and Black herself were " savaged " on social networks across the Internet , while being seen as a " YouTube laughing stock . " On YouTube , the video was met with negative comments and video responses , including comments interpreted as " violent " . Kevin Rutherford , a columnist for Billboard magazine , wrote , " Black 's video for ' Friday ' is one of those rare occurrences where even the most seasoned critics of Internet culture don 't know where to begin . From the singing straight out of Auto @-@ Tuned hell to lyrics such as ' Tomorrow is Saturday / And Sunday comes afterwards / I don 't want this weekend to end ' and a hilariously bad rap about passing school buses , ' Friday ' is something that simply must be seen and heard to be fully appreciated . " Many other reviewers also singled out the lyrics in particular for criticism , which were described as " overly simple and repetitive " by TNT Magazine . Jim Edwards of BNET and Doug Gross of CNN both noted that the rap break from the considerably older rapper was " creepy . " Time ranked it number two on a list of " Top 10 Songs with Silly Lyrics . "

Despite the overwhelmingly negative reviews , a few reviewers had positive things to say about the song and video . Entertainment Weekly writer Joseph Lynch noted that there was " something sickeningly catchy about this tune that keeps you coming back for more . " Rolling Stone 's Perpetua stated , " When you see this video , you immediately notice everything that it does ' wrong ' , but it actually gets a lot of things about pop music right , if just by accident . " OK ! Magazine also noted that " some are calling the 13 @-@ year @-@ old signed singer the next Justin Bieber . " After watching the video , singer Chris Brown said : " Honest opinion ? It was great . I 'll be jammin ' to it on Friday , Friday . " Fellow teenage singer Miley Cyrus denied that she had criticized Black , saying " I am a fan " and that she sang " Friday " while driving . Simon Cowell praised Black , saying " I love her [ and ] the fact that she 's gotten so much publicity . People are so upset about the song , but I think it 's hysterical . [ ... ] Anyone who can create this much controversy within a week , I want to meet . I love people like that . " He observed that " any song to do with the weekend annoys you . It reminds me of ' Saturday Night ' ... It 's what we call a ' hair @-@ dryer song , ' a song girls sing into their hair dryers as they 're getting ready to go out . But the fact that it 's making people so angry is brilliant . " Cowell advised Black not to " listen to anyone over the age of 18 . I 'm being deadly serious . Whatever she 's done has worked . Whether you like her or not , she 's the most talked @-@ about artist in America right now . Nobody over the age of 18 should understand her or like her . So she should just do it her way . "

On May 6 , 2012 , Patrice Wilson released his sequel to the song " Friday " , titled " Happy " , focusing on Saturdays . In December 2013 , Rebecca Black released her own sequel , entitled " Saturday " .

= = Chart performance = =

By March 21 , 2011 , the " Friday " music video had been viewed more than 30 million times on YouTube . Forbes estimated that as of that date , Black and ARK Music had earned $ 20 @,@ 000 from YouTube 's revenue @-@ sharing program , and Billboard estimated iTunes sales of approximately 43 @,@ 000 copies , roughly equivalent to $ 26 @,@ 700 in royalties . Within a week after being released on iTunes , it had jumped to 19 on their sales chart , on March 19 , 2011 . " Friday " debuted on the US Hot Digital Songs chart at number 57 and went on to peak at number 38 . " Friday " debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 33 on March 21 , 2011 . The song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 72 and rose to 58 the next week . It sold 87 @,@ 000 copies in the United States over its first two weeks and has gone on to sell 442 @,@ 000 copies , as of December 2013 . The song also received airplay in Sweden . In the United States , it was played 12 times from March 16 to 22 , considered low for a Hot 100 song . Despite the song 's strong performance elsewhere , Georgina Kelly claimed in late March 2011 that her daughter had not received any money from the song 's sales to that point in time , saying " We haven 't received a dime from anywhere . "

= = Music video = =

= = = Development and summary = = =

The concept for the music video is based on the lyrics and presented as a typical Friday for Black . She wakes up and goes to school , meeting her friends on the way . In the evening , after debating whether to sit in the front or back of a convertible , Black and her friends ride the car to a party at 7 : 45 pm . Patrice Wilson appears near the end of the song to deliver a short rap . The video was shot on January 6 , 2011 at Black 's father 's house with friends and family as extras , and requiring multiple takes over 12 hours . Some of those extras became stars in their own right ; her friends Benni Cinkle , Amanda Cooper and Hayley Grodt . Ark Music , according to Black 's parents , cautioned them and her that they should not expect her to become famous . Black hoped that her friends and family would enjoy watching the video on YouTube and that it would perhaps help her to later begin a singing career .

= = = Reception = = =

The video was posted on February 10 , 2011 and received 4 @,@ 000 views , enough to please Black , before comedian Michael J. Nelson 's Twitter account and a Tosh.0 blog post , " Songwriting Isn ’ t for Everyone " , drew attention to it on March 11 , 2011 , turning the video into a viral hit . Criticism of the song 's lyrics , the use of Auto @-@ Tune on Black 's vocals , as well as the content of the video also caused it to become viral . On May 9 , 2011 , comments became subject to prior approval for posting . Two days later , commenting was disabled altogether and archives removed . By June 15 , 2011 , the video had more than 166 million views , and 3 @.@ 2 million " dislikes " from YouTube users against just 454 @,@ 000 " likes " . It also peaked in the top 20 most watched YouTube videos of all time . After Ark Music attempted to begin charging $ 2 @.@ 99 to watch the video a limited number of times on YouTube in June , Black asked YouTube to take the video down .

After reading the harsh reviews of " Friday " , Black said that " those hurtful comments really shocked me . " Ark Music offered to take the video down from YouTube , but Black refused the offer , saying that she did not wish " to give the haters the satisfaction that they got me so bad I gave up . " Black 's father has accompanied her in public to guard against potential accosters . In response to criticism over the song 's significant use of Auto @-@ Tune , Black performed an acoustic version during an interview with ABC News , which earned over 180 @,@ 000 dislikes on YouTube ( 84 % of total ratings ) by November 2011 . Later in the interview Black 's mother , Kelly , stated that she was " angry and upset " after Black was brought to tears by comments , such as " I hope you go cut yourself and die " and " ' I hope you cut yourself and get an eating disorder so you 'll look pretty . " Black said , however , that soon she was able to ignore such comments , and asked Justin Bieber , her idol , to perform a duet with her . Although Bieber has not released an official announcement regarding the offer , he posted on Twitter " sunday comes after saturday ? weird . " Bieber later sang part of the chorus at one of his concerts . Rolling Stone 's Perpetua again praised Black after the interview and said , " She is actually a pretty decent singer . [ ... ] She is a total sweetheart . [ ... ] Black comes off as a well @-@ adjusted , happy and grateful kid . " He also pointed out Black 's intention to donate part of the profits from the song to school arts programs and relief efforts in Japan following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . Benni Cinkle , who became known as " that girl in pink " and appears during the second verse of the video , released her own song entitled " Can You See Me Now " and created an anti @-@ bullying organization ( That Girl In Pink Foundation ) due to the negative response she got from " Friday " .

The video for " Friday " was later placed at number one in the NME list of " 50 Worst Music Videos " .

= = = Controversy = = =

Not long after the " Friday " video went viral on YouTube , Black and her mother , Georgina Kelly , got into legal issues with Ark Music over rights to the song . In a March 29 , 2011 letter from Kelly 's lawyer to Ark Music , it was alleged that Ark Music failed to fulfill the terms of their November 2010 agreement by not giving her the song and video 's master recordings , by claiming Black as exclusively signed to the label , and by exploiting the song without permission – for example , selling a " Friday " ringtone . While Wilson stated that Kelly " will get the masters and the song ... [ t ] hey can have it all " , and agreed that Black was not exclusive to Ark , his attorney claimed that Ark owns the copyright for the song and the November agreement is invalid . In June 2011 , Ark Music Factory started charging $ 2 @.@ 99 to watch the music video on YouTube . Black 's initial response was through a message through her Twitter account saying : " Thanks for all the messages regarding the $ 2 @.@ 99 fee added to Friday video , I have nothing to do with this ! ! "

On June 16 , 2011 , YouTube took down the official video for " Friday " . Instead a message in place of the video read : " This video is no longer available due to a copyright claim by Rebecca Black . Sorry about that . " A spokesman for Rebecca Black said her legal team had asked YouTube to take the video down because of an ongoing legal dispute with the song 's producers Ark Music Factory . Ark Music Factory responded by saying it was disappointed that Black decided to have the video pulled from YouTube despite the two parties being in " good faith negotiations " . It added : " There 's been an ongoing , open dialogue with our company . So we were blindsided to get a ' Take Down Notice ' alleging copyright infringement instead of a call or e @-@ mail from Rebecca 's representatives . Our use of the video has fully been authorized ( as evidenced by four uninterrupted months and 160 million @-@ plus viewings without objection ) by both Ms. Black and the copyright holder . Regardless , we are going to continue to take the high road and work out the complaint as soon as possible , so that the million @-@ plus people who watch Friday for free each day can continue to enjoy the video . " On September 16 , 2011 , the video was restored to YouTube , on Black 's official channel .

= = Cover versions and popular culture = =

= = = Glee Cast cover = = =

A cover version was released by the cast of season two of the television series Glee . The cast performed it on the show as well . The official release features cast members Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Artie ( Kevin McHale ) and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) on vocals , as part of the prom festivities on the " Prom Queen " episode that aired on May 10 , 2011 . Series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy explained to The Hollywood Reporter the use of the viral hit as a tribute to popular culture . He said : " There ’ s a rule for it that 's explained in the show . The Glee Club is hired to perform songs for the prom and they were told by the principal to please do popular songs that the kids know . " Murphy noted that Glee 's " Friday " cover offers a different take since it 's sung by males for other 17 @-@ year olds . The show pays tribute to pop culture and , love it or hate it , that song is pop culture . "

Charts

= = = Other versions and performances = = =

On April 1 , 2011 , " Friday " was performed by Stephen Colbert , Jimmy Fallon , Taylor Hicks and The Roots on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . The New York Knicks City Dancers joined in . Jimmy Fallon released " Friday " as part of his 2012 Warner Records album , Blow Your Pants Off , which featured high profile acts such as Paul McCartney and Bruce Springsteen . The album won Best Comedy Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards .

The song has also been covered in a recording by Richard Cheese , and live in concerts by Todd Rundgren , Nick Jonas , Katy Perry , and Justin Bieber . Singer Katy Perry performed the song on selected dates during her California Dreams Tour , including at the Rod Laver Arena , Newcastle Entertainment Centre , TD Garden , Air Canada Centre and the 1stBank Center . During the August 5 concert at the Nokia Theatre L.A. Live , Rebecca Black joined Perry onstage , performing the song as a duet .

Numerous parodies of " Friday " have been uploaded to YouTube and become viral in their own right . Conan O 'Brien and Andy Richter also made a joint parody entitled " Thursday " on the Conan show on TBS . The YouTube phenomenon Bad Lip Reading was launched when an anonymous music and video producer replaced the audio to the " Friday " video with new music and lyrics about gang fighting . " Gang Fight " , released in March 2011 , earned Bad Lip Reading a million hits and thousands of subscribers , with many spoofs soon following .

Black appears as herself in the music video of Katy Perry 's single " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " . She appears as the host of a party in the house next door to that of " Kathy Beth Terry " . At the end of the video , " Terry " attempts to blame the excesses of the party ( which had subsequently moved to her own house ) on Black , only for her parents ( Corey Feldman and Debbie Gibson ) to disbelieve her .

ARK Music Factory launched its " Ark 's TGI Friday Covers " project , showcasing cover versions of " Friday " by well @-@ known artists alongside other user @-@ submitted tributes , re @-@ works , and parodies of the song / video and inviting users to submit their versions for relaying through Ark Music Factory 's site . In November 2012 , multiple outlets suggested that Nicole Westbrook was " the new Rebecca Black " , on release of Patrice Wilson 's " It 's Thanksgiving " . Kohl 's Department Stores used a modified version of the song as its 2011 Black Friday advertising jingle . The hook " It 's Friday , Friday , gotta get down on Friday " was changed to " It 's Black Friday , Black Friday , Gotta go to Kohl 's on Black Friday " .

Black made her national television debut by performing a mash @-@ up of the song along with her second single , " My Moment " , during America 's Got Talent 's result night for the YouTube Special round on August 10 , 2011 . The round featured various acts who have auditioned via YouTube . Rebecca Black sang an acoustic version of the song on Good Morning America . Rebecca performed Friday along with " My Moment " , live in Suncorp Place , Sydney as a part of Telstra 's 4G LTE network launch . She also sang " Friday " live on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno .

= = Charts = =

= Homeless ( Leona Lewis song ) =

" Homeless " is a song by British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis from her debut studio album , Spirit ( 2007 ) . The song was written by Swedish songwriter Jörgen Elofsson and produced by Steve Mac . Musically , it is an R & B Power ballad , with instrumentation consisting of a piano and a guitar . The song 's lyrics revolve around Lewis singing about waiting for her boyfriend to come home to where she is waiting for him , but feels homeless without him . The song garnered mixed reviews from music critics , some of whom praised Lewis 's vocal performance but criticized its composition . Upon the release of Spirit , the song debuted at number 173 on the UK Singles Chart on the strength of digital download sales . Lewis performed " Homeless " at the annual WXKS @-@ FM Boston KISS Concert in 2008 , along with " Bleeding Love " and " Better in Time " . It was also included on the set list of The Labyrinth tour in 2010 .

= = Composition = =

" Homeless " was written by Swedish songwriter Jörgen Elofsson , and produced by Steve Mac . It is an R & B power ballad , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 50 seconds . The song was composed on common time in the key of B minor at 68 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by a piano and a guitar . Lewis 's vocal range spans nearly two octaves from low note of A3 to the high note of B5 . The song 's lyrics revolve around Lewis singing about waiting for her boyfriend to come home to where she is waiting for him , but feels homeless without his presence . The opening lyrics are " Wait here for you to call me / For you to tell me that ev 'rything 's a big mistake . " Nick Levine for Digital Spy described Lewis 's vocals in the lyric " In this cold I 'm walking aimless , feeling helpless " as " a tour de force of despair and misery " .

= = Critical reception = =

The song garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Matt O 'Leary for Virgin Media complimented " Homeless " as well as " I Will Be " , and wrote that when the emphasis is laid purely on the singer 's vocals without too much " glossy production trappings " , her " uniqueness is allowed to shine . " Levine was critical of " Homeless " in general , but praised some of its compositional elements . Although he thought that the song was " almost unbearably bleak " , Levine praised the long note which Lewis sustains during the bridge , and wrote that " the 12 @-@ second ' eeeeeeyeeaayaaaaay ' that jump @-@ starts the crescendo of ' Homeless ' is one of the most dazzling pop moments of the year . " Kitty Empire for The Guardian wrote , " Lewis ' voice is impressively elastic throughout but lacks any grit or style . It is too perfect , jumping up ladders of notes on ' Homeless ' , never catching , never breaking . " A reviewer for The Sun described " Homeless " a " string @-@ drenched , tear @-@ jerker . "

= = Live performances = =

Lewis performed " Homeless " for the first time at the annual WXKS @-@ FM Boston KISS Concert in 2008 , along with " Bleeding Love " and " Better in Time " . It was also included on the set list of her The Labyrinth tour in 2010 , and performed as the fifteenth song . The song was later included on the The Labyrinth Tour Live from The O2 DVD . The set was decorated in the style of a forest ; acrobats performed as they were hanging from the ceiling on large pieces of fabric while Lewis wore a light pink sequined dress and barefoot .

= = Track listing = =

Standard version ( 2007 )

" Homeless " – 3 : 50

Deluxe edition ( 2008 )

" Homeless ( 2008 version ) " – 3 : 50

The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2

" Homeless " ( Live from the 02 ) – 4 : 09

= = Credits = =

Songwriting – Jörgen Elofsson

Production – Steve Mac

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Spirit , Sony BMG , J Records , Syco .

= = Charts = =

Upon the release of Spirit , " Homeless " debuted at number 173 on the strength of digital download sales in the chart issue released on 24 November 2007 .

= Until the Quiet Comes =

Until the Quiet Comes is the fourth studio album by American electronic producer Flying Lotus , released on September 26 , 2012 , by Warp Records . After releasing his 2010 album Cosmogramma , Flying Lotus continued his creative partnership with bassist Thundercat and worked with him on music that led to the album . For Until the Quiet Comes , he drew on African percussion and psychedelic musical influences , human @-@ subconscious and dream world concepts , and different mixing techniques and dynamics . He recorded for two years at his home in Los Angeles primarily using an Ableton Live sequencer along with other instruments and software , and recorded with guest vocalists including Erykah Badu , Thom Yorke , Laura Darlington , and Niki Randa .

An electronic jazz album , Until the Quiet Comes features free jazz elements , varying musical tones , contracting scale , and shifts in feel . Its songs are sequenced together and characterized by ghostly vocal production , irregular drum beats , pulsating percussive textures , trembling basslines , trilled synthesizers , and fluctuating samples . The album has a journey @-@ like concept and dreamy musical narrative , which Flying Lotus conceived through astral projection and felt could be interpreted uniquely by listeners . Music writers interpret it as a musical accompaniment to dreams , as well as emotional introspection by Flying Lotus .

Until the Quiet Comes was promoted with two singles and a short film featuring music from the album . Flying Lotus also embarked on a supporting international tour during October to November 2012 , performing at venues in North America and abroad . The album debuted at number 34 on the US Billboard 200 and sold 13 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Until the Quiet Comes received rave reviews from music critics , who praised its complex music and Flying Lotus ' sound engineering .

= = Background = =

In 2010 , Flying Lotus released his third album Cosmogramma to critical acclaim and mainstream exposure . He recorded the album while grieving his mother 's death , and titled it as a reference to his late great @-@ aunt Alice Coltrane . The album showcased his dense , loose mix of electronic and live instrumentation with avant @-@ garde jazz , dance , and hip hop influences . During its recording , he developed a creative relationship with contributing bassist Thundercat , a member of his Brainfeeder record label . They continued working together on Flying Lotus ' 2010 EP Pattern + Grid World , which continued the dense electronic style of Cosmogramma . They developed more musical ideas together , from which Flying Lotus culled and produced for Thundercat 's debut album The Golden Age of Apocalypse in 2011 .

For Until the Quiet Comes , Flying Lotus was inspired by African percussion music and psychedelic bands such as Silver Apples , Can , Stereolab , Portishead , and Gentle Giant . He also returned to listening to the music of his relatives Alice and John Coltrane after listening excessively to austere electronica while recording Cosmogramma . Musically , he wanted to avoid repeating himself and chose a more minimal direction for the album , seeking to eschew the " strange sense of urgency " of Cosmogramma 's music for " tension and release " . He elaborated on his direction for the album in an interview for The National , saying that " I think I 'd have been in a bad position if I tried to recreate the same energy as I did on Cosmogramma – like , go in further . How about we pull back , try to do something that gets to the core of the emotional sentiment . Not so grand , more intimate . But still have the core of what it is . "

Conceptually , Flying Lotus pursued human @-@ subconscious and dream world themes . He sought to tone down Cosmogramma 's grandiose , universal concept and create a timeless , journey @-@ like work with Until the Quiet Comes , from which he felt listeners could interpret their own stories . He imagined himself astral projecting when conceiving the album and tried to translate ideas from fiction he had read into music , including holographic universes , metaphysics , New Age philosophy , and astrodynamics . In conceiving a narrative for the album , he drew on Joseph Campbell 's hero 's journey literary theory to introduce a world , characters , and situations musically . He characterized the album as both " a collage of mystical states , dreams , sleep and lullabies " , and " a children 's record , a record for kids to dream to " . He clarified the idea in an interview for Spin as " that whole experience of being innocent in this new world that you don 't really understand . I imagined Little Nemo on a flying bed floating over the city , and this is the soundtrack to it . " Flying Lotus felt more confident in his ideas and as a recording artist after striving to distinguish himself from his contemporaries on previous albums .

= = Recording and production = =

Flying Lotus started working on Until the Quiet Comes at his home in Mount Washington , Los Angeles , which featured more acoustic space than his previous house in Echo Park . He recorded the album for two years , using a spacious room there as a recording studio . He revisited scrapped ideas from the sessions for Thundercat 's debut album and revised their direction for Until the Quiet Comes . The song " Hunger " developed from a demo he had recorded for the soundtrack to one of the Twilight films , and " Sultan 's Request " was performed live by Flying Lotus for three years before the album . For " Electric Candyman " , he used a beat he had prepared for sessions that ultimately fell through with Burial , and he used a five @-@ year @-@ old recording with Samiyam for the second half of " The Nightcaller " .

Flying Lotus recorded Until the Quiet Comes in a three @-@ part process — first composing rought drafts for songs , then refining them for several months with additional instrumentation to make them substantial , and finally mixing the songs for a cohesive album . Unlike with his previous work , he concentrated on his music 's dynamics rather than just its production when working on the album . Interested in music theory and arrangements , he started taking piano lessons at the beginning of the album 's recording to learn more chords and progressions . Rather than emphasize conventional song structure elements such as hooks and choruses , Flying Lotus composed instrumentals that he found to be more intellectual and less danceable than Cosmogramma and treated them as the basis of tracks when recording the album . He also recorded melodic refrains to evoke feelings of childlike innocence on songs .

Flying Lotus worked primarily with an Ableton Live music sequencer through his MacBook Pro laptop . At his home studio , he had upgraded monitors acquired from after his move there , and various digital and analog instruments , including a drum kit , a Fender Rhodes piano , Wurlitzer electric pianos , Access Virus and Minimoog Voyager synthesizers , a drum machine , three Mac Powerbooks , and a DSP unit . He played drums without quantizing them and referred to the personal library of samples he had amassed over his career while producing the album . He recorded the song " Dream to Me " the day after purchasing a microKORG synthesizer . He ultimately recorded over 60 songs for the album before editing them down .

To attain certain dynamics on songs , Flying Lotus studied different mixing techniques and switched software midway through the album 's recording . He later cited the switch as the reason for the album 's completion being overdue , although he felt that it was productive to challenge himself as a student of music . Flying Lotus employed a trial and error approach to mixing and applied his new knowledge of compression to attain a more satisfactory result before the album 's master . He also sought to limit distracting frequencies and segues in favor of more important sounds throughout the album . To make certain sounds more affecting , he used the side @-@ chain compression technique to trigger compression of different organ , strings , and bass sounds upon a drum kick on a song . He said of his production and the music 's dynamic range in an interview for Electronic Musician , " I 've been learning to bring things down before I even start . I 'll start composing a track at like – 8dB , then I have all this headroom to play with afterward . I 've learned how to tuck and limit things , learned to EQ before you limit . "

As with his previous releases , Until the Quiet Comes was mastered by engineer Daddy Kev at his Echo Chamber Studio in Eagle Rock . He used a Pro Tools 9 workstation and various EQ plug @-@ ins on his Mac Pro , while working at a 24 @-@ bit , 96 kHz audio quality to comply with iTunes ' " Mastered for iTunes " regulations . To preserve the tracks ' original dynamics , Daddy Kev used a signal chain that processed both digital and analog signals . He found the mastering process to be " very intimate " and likened it to " giving birth " for Flying Lotus , saying in an interview , " We may go through multiple mixes so a certain 808 can sit right in the pocket for him , and while he 's finishing his edits its my job to boost just the right things by a decibel or two , and keep things sonically correct . " He used both professional and club @-@ oriented amplifiers and monitors to minimize harmonic distortion and maintain Flying Lotus ' minimalist aesthetic , which , along with his need to find a quiet mental space , inspired the album 's title : " I wanted to set people up to this idea , before they even heard it , that the quiet was a key word in the whole thing ... [ A ] part of pulling it back is some kind of growing up . "

= = = Collaborations = = =

Flying Lotus collaborated with other musicians for additional elements on songs . He worked with instrumentalist and musical director Miguel Atwood Ferguson to incorporate strings arrangements to songs . Thundercat played live bass on nine of the album 's songs . To develop basslines for songs , Flying Lotus had Thundercat 's bass plugged into a DI unit of a FireWire interface as he improvised riffs to Flying Lotus ' suggestions . Flying Lotus captured flat @-@ levelled bass ideas into the interface , which allowed him to manipulate their tone and integrate them with digital instruments and samples on songs . He attributes the continuity of the album 's music to Thundercat 's bass playing . For certain tracks on the album , Flying Lotus wanted to use vocalists that would " see their sound as texture as opposed to the song " , and said of this preference in an interview for Vibe , " Sometimes singers overdo it so that you only focus on the voice , which is cool sometimes , but it 's my record – I 'm producing it – so the songs should be about the track as a whole . The people that are my favorites are ones who have such a respect for what 's already there . They don 't try to approach it thinking they 're going to turn it into a song , but rather going to add to it . "

Flying Lotus enlisted other vocalists , including Thom Yorke on " Electric Candyman " , Laura Darlington on " Phantasm " , Erykah Badu on " See Thru to U " , and Thundercat on " DMT Song " . Yorke wanted to be involved with the album after collaborating on " ... And the World Laughs with You " for Cosmogramma , and exchanged his vocals via email . Flying Lotus admired him for knowing " when things work and [ when ] they don 't . He doesn 't bullshit in that way . He spends his time wisely . I wish I could say that about a lot more people . " He met Badu through Thundercat , who had played in her backing band and collaborated with her on The Golden Age of Apocalypse , and started working on her own upcoming album while recording Until the Quiet Comes . Flying Lotus also planned to work with Jonny Greenwood , but the collaboration fell through . Instead , he appropriated music from one of Greenwood 's film soundtracks for the song " Hunger " , for which Greenwood is credited as composer .

= = Composition = =

Until the Quiet Comes is characterized by varying musical tones , contracting scale , both consonant and dissonant sounds , counterpoint , and shifts in feel . Its complex , diverse soundscapes deviate from popular music song forms and employ contrast and improvisational adjustments in mood , structure , and time signature . Darryl Kirchner of The Huffington Post notes an emphasis on timbre throughout the album . Mark Richardson of Pitchfork observes Flying Lotus " putting a smaller frame around each individual part " throughout the album 's shifts and finds the " energy " to be " just as strong " as on his previous albums , but " concentrated into a smaller space . " Although he finds it less " imposing " than its predecessor , Thomas May of musicOMH comments that " Until the Quiet Comes is like a chamber concerto to Cosmogramma 's symphony " , noting " an increased sense of space and separation " on the former .

Songs on the album incorporate ghostly vocal production , winding basslines , uptempo drum @-@ and @-@ bass fills , broad orchestral elements , pulsating percussive textures , bright keyboards , trilled synthesizers , and fluctuating samples . They are sequenced together and exhibit a diminishing pace from the end of one track to the start of another . Joe Tacopino of Rolling Stone views that the album 's guest vocalists " float into [ Flying Lotus 's ] realm like visitors , just as fragile and malleable as the other elements he employs . This reiterates the album 's feel as one complete story , instead of disparate songs . " Vincent Pollard of Exclaim ! comments that most of the vocals are " used as subtle textures " and observes Flying Lotus " employing more organic tropes in his digital mix " . He incorporates horn arrangements and live drum patterns , while his programmed beats evoke the " in the pocket " drumming of percussionists such as Rashied Ali . The songs also exhibits Flying Lotus ' characteristic mix of skittering , muffled percussion atop slightly irregular drum beats , accompanied by Thundercat 's trembling basslines .

Stylistically , the album eschews Flying Lotus ' hip hop roots for jazz influences , including free form jazz tonality and undertones , and jazz @-@ based time signatures and patterns . Gabrielle Ahern of CMJ calls it " a moody , electronic version of experimental jazz . " Jonny Ensall of Time Out views the album as " a digital jazz record which pushes hip hop beats and R & B melodies into bold , new syncopated and atonal territory . " Tony Ware of Electronic Musician attributes " certain chord choices and the interest in astral mystical states that permeates Until the Quiet Comes " to Flying Lotus ' " family lineage " of jazz musicians . Uncut finds it " often reminiscent of his auntie 's work " , while Consequence of Sound 's Derek Staples perceives a " free jazz aesthetic " similar to " his great @-@ uncle John Coltrane 's Ascension " , viewing both albums as " exercise [ s ] in dense rhythmic layers and melodic dissonance . " The album also repurposes elements of pop , soul , fusion , and psychedelia in a modern classical fashion . Q describes the album as " a lush , almost psychedelic mood piece . " Lucy Jones of NME attributes the album 's " meander [ ing ] and experiment [ ing ] " to a progressive rock influence .

= = = Concept and interpretations = = =

Until the Quiet Comes has been described as having a dreamy musical narrative by Uncut , and Mojo , who called it " quite literally , a dream album " . Andy Beta from Spin likened it to the " dreams within dreams within dreams " concept from the 2010 film Inception . Karen Lawler of State said " if the limbo between awake and sleeping , dreams and nightmares could be expressed through music , this album might well be it . " Jeff Weiss , writing in LA Weekly , felt the record had a loose concept that " surrounds the nocturnal visions of a child lost in spacedust dreams " and likens it to a narcotic film in the vein of Little Nemo and Michel Gondry , writing that " swirling voices seem like clouds communing . Snare crashes mimic obscene villains . Hard beats propel chase scenes . Basslines gurgle like goofy dancing sidekicks . Erykah Badu plays the all @-@ powerful good witch . Thom Yorke guests as the gnomish sorcerer with the seraphic yawp . "

In the opinion of Will Ryan from Beats Per Minute , Until the Quiet Comes was another " journey " concept work by Flying Lotus , but distinguished it as an introspective , " subconscious " journey following the " temporal " journey idea of his 2006 debut 1983 , the " geographical " 2008 album Los Angeles , and the " cosmic " , " out @-@ and @-@ out musical " Cosmogramma . Rory Gibb from The Quietus wrote that the narrative on this album veered into " the corridors " of Flying Lotus ' " own mind " , interpreting his guest vocalists as " disembodied phantoms , reanimated figments of his imagination stripped of agency and directed to their roles by [ his ] subconscious . " Gibb argued that Until the Quiet Comes was " an important and significant album " partly for engaging with " grand narratives " such as " the shifting identities of both humans and electronic music forms in a digital age " , and " the internet 's erosion of memory processes " .

Reef Younis of Clash perceived an emotional context to the album , writing that , " where [ Flying Lotus ] grieved on Cosmogramma , he believes on Until The Quiet Comes and there 's a burgeoning sense of hope and coherence and optimism " . Arnold Pan of PopMatters calls Until the Quiet Comes " a subliminal soundtrack to the postmodern experience of everyday life " and views that Flying Lotus ' subtle , " sentient and sensual " details throughout the album 's music represent " an undertone of yearning emotion and even soulfulness that separates [ his ] aesthetic on Quiet from that of other producer @-@ types who may be just as proficient , technically speaking . "

= = = Songs = = =

The opening track " All In " incorporates bells , kick and snare drums , shakers , harps , guitar , and electric bass . It features a reverberating , high @-@ pitched note , whose discordant sound is subsequently offset by keyboard flourishes and cursory snare drums . Lilting background vocals during the song 's melodic section lead to a bass kick and aggressive drum patterns . The wistful " Getting There " expands on the previous track with a basic drum kick , emotional vocals by Niki Randa , Sonar blip sounds , chimes , and a walking bassline . It has heavy emphasis on the first and third beat of every measure . " Until the Colours Come " contains modulated synthesizers . " Heave ( n ) " features bright , round keyboards , jazz and electronica elements , and tonal shading . Mark Richardson of Pitchfork views that the music from " All In " to " Heave ( n ) " comprise an opening section on the album that " functions as a sort of miniature suite of downtempo jazz . "

" Tiny Tortures " features echoing , tendrillar guitar , minimal glitch sounds , and post @-@ rock melodies . The song begins with a skeletal , irregular rhythm , comprising a digital wood block , snare drum , and hissing cymbals , that is subsequently contrasted by Thundercat 's harmonic bass runs . " All the Secrets " has a new @-@ age sound and features Casiotone breakdowns , deftly timed vocal samples , restless drumming , poignant piano , and post @-@ dub elements . " Sultan 's Request " has a square wave bassline , tense synthesizers , and transitioning pitches and textures , spanning from a low @-@ end drop to an upper register of high @-@ pitched samples and steady hand claps . " Putty Boy Strut " features an alien critter voice , complex drum programming , and acousmatic jazz guitars . It concludes with a brief violin section .

" See Thru to U " incorporates jazz fusion and funk styles . It features a loose arrangement , tom @-@ tom drums , hi @-@ hats , double bass , and tribal rhythms . Erykah Badu 's vocals on the song are distorted and layered into loose , overlapping patterns , scat arrangements , and high @-@ pitched vocal runs . " DMT Song " and " Nightcaller " serve as the album 's centerpiece . The former song , titled after the natural psychedelic compound dimethyltryptamine , incorporates jazz @-@ funk and light tenor to chorused falsetto vocals by Thundercat . It transitions into " The Nightcaller " , which has analog 4 / 4 percussion , piercing synthesizers , and interplay between Thundercat 's bass and virtuosic cello . The song 's smooth , muffled beat climaxes as a euphoric crescendo . The densely textured title track features expressive bass playing by Thundercat , continuous gong and handclaps , and J Dilla @-@ like keyboard . " Only If You Wanna " is a futuristic jazz trio piece with both digital and analog sounds . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman delineates the songs from " See Thru to U " to " Only If You Wanna " as the album 's most musically connected and " least divisible " section .

" Electric Candyman " has a dreamy R & B style and features distant , cooing vocals by Thom Yorke , a rattling drum sample , ghostly drones , and anthropoid shrieks . Yorke chants on the song , " look into my mirror and say my name " , a reference to the titular character in the 1992 film Candyman . Flying Lotus said of his vocals on the song , " I like it when he gets into that spooky pocket . People are like , that doesn 't sound like Thom , make it sound more like Thom – but I 'm like , it 's my album . " The electro @-@ acoustic " Phantasm " contains slinky vocals by Laura Darlington , metronome clicks , oscillating string arrangements , and agitated downtempo sounds . " me Yesterday / / Corded " features bright arpeggios , twisted bass grooves , and a subsuming vocal chorus . Flying Lotus characterizes the song as a reflection of his past emotions . " Dream to Me " has overlapping synthesizers and serves as an exodus in the album 's conceptual arc .

= = Release and promotion = =

First released in Japan on September 26 , 2012 , as a CD , Until the Quiet Comes was made available on all formats — CD , vinyl , and digital — on October 2 by Warp Records . It was also made available for streaming online from September 26 to October 2 , the date of its release in North America . Until the Quiet Comes was sent as a single 47 @-@ minute digital track to music critics who would be reviewing it . Flying Lotus intended for the album to be listened as a whole instead of skimmed through by listeners . During October , he appeared at several release events , including in @-@ store appearances , signings , DJ sets , and interview sessions at music venues and retailers . In its first week of release , Until the Quiet Comes debuted at number 34 on the Billboard 200 , selling 13 @,@ 000 copies . By October 7 , 2012 , it had sold 14 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album also debuted at number 34 on the UK Albums Chart , and became Flying Lotus ' highest @-@ charting record in the United Kingdom . In Belgium , it charted for four weeks , peaking at number 26 .

Two singles were released in promotion of Until the Quiet Comes . Lead single " See Thru to U " was released on August 16 , 2012 , as a digital download on iTunes . It was accompanied by the release of an abstract music video online . On September 17 , Flying Lotus released a teaser video called Small Moments , in which previews of the album 's songs were accompanied by mysterious , botanical imagery . " Putty Boy Strut " was released on September 19 with an accompanying animated , robot @-@ themed video by Cyriak . A music video for " Tiny Tortures " was released on November 29 and featured Elijah Wood playing a depressed man without a right arm who envisions objects in his room recreating his arm , but is revealed to be torturing himself .

Flying Lotus released a short film on September 6 to promote Until the Quiet Comes . It was titled after the record and directed by Kahlil Joseph , who shot it in 35 mm film at the Nickerson Gardens housing project in Watts , Los Angeles and incorporated three songs from the album — " See Thru to U " , " Hunger " , and " Getting There " . The film was intended to be a tragic depiction of urban life featuring Joseph 's interpretations of innocence , violence , and death . It begins with an African @-@ American youth 's death , segues into a scene of affection shared among other African @-@ American males , and concludes with the shooting of another , whose death is reversed to the effect of a dance . A scene in the film also features an inner city youth wearing a shirt bearing the words " J Dilla Changed My Life " , an allusion to the influence of J Dilla on Flying Lotus . The film received praise from critics , and its viral success led to Warp Records ' decision to pitch it to a music video network ; it was ultimately accepted and aired by MTV2 . Hilton Als of The New Yorker called the film " an amalgamation of horrifying beauty " and wrote of Joseph 's use of rewind , " the character ’ s fall becomes a kind of dance — for life . "

= = = Tour = = =

On September 23 , Flying Lotus performed at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles . He then embarked on an international tour for the album during October to November 2012 , playing 11 concert dates in North America and eight dates abroad , including Europe and Japan . He performed strictly with his laptop , and excluded takes of songs he had recorded with Miguel Atwood Ferguson 's string quartet , feeling that the strings would not translate live . Along with his own material , Flying Lotus included remixes of other artists ' songs in his live sets , including Jay @-@ Z , Alicia Keys , and Kanye West .

Flying Lotus felt that his grasp on new mixing techniques helped make his live shows more " evolved and changed a little bit " , saying in an interview for Exclaim ! , " It 's more dynamic . But still a party ! Not like my albums , [ which ] are more like personal exchange ; [ live ] it 's nice to have that social experience . " Reviewing his performance at Danforth Music Hall , Now magazine observed a " resoundingly maximal aesthetic and sound " that was " way more bombastic EDM " than the album 's " IDM abstraction " , citing as an example his mixing of " the recognizable with the weird , like when Kanye West 's Mercy gave way to the hand @-@ claps of Quiet cut Putty Boy Strut . " Flying Lotus also worked with longtime collaborator Dr. Strangeloop to create collage @-@ like imagery during the shows , including geometric visuals synched to the performed music . Joshua P. Ferguson of Time Out wrote of the visual effects in Flying Lotus ' performance at Metro Chicago , " all manner of Tron @-@ like halos , expanding and contracting orbs , starscapes and unidentifiable amorphous globs of color raced , shot and oozed their way across screens placed both in front of and behind Flying Lotus . "

= = Critical reception = =

Until the Quiet Comes received rave reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 83 , which indicates " universal acclaim " , based on 36 reviews . It was dubbed " the sound of the future " by NME magazine 's Lucy Jones , and a " masterpiece of sound engineering " by Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman commented that Flying Lotus " not only peels away layers from his sound but organizes his tracks into a gracefully flowing sequence " on what is " his most accessible and creative release yet . " Filter magazine 's Kyle Lemmon found his musicianship deft and the songs invariably " vaporous and angelic or menacing and silhouetted . " Thomas May of musicOMH praised both the difficult concept and its execution : " With an unprecedented melodic disposition and busy yet rarely cluttered arrangements , this album possesses remarkable poise and balance in the face of its fearsome complexity . " Drowned in Sound 's Jazz Monroe said that it may ultimately be Flying Lotus ' best album because of his ability to " close the schism between the true avant @-@ garde and the leftfield mainstream " . Arnold Pan of PopMatters said that his amalgamated music is achieved with admirable ease and lucidity , as Flying Lotus " conducts a master class on both how to create flow as well as how to maintain it through an entire album . "

In a mixed review , Alex Macpherson from The Guardian found the record to be " packed full of ideas " on tracks that " feel less like fully fleshed @-@ out compositions than lightly drawn sketches started , but not always finished " . State magazine 's Karen Lawler said that its songs are " too short for any single musical concept to fully develop . " Will Hermes of Rolling Stone complimented Flying Lotus ' " taste for 21st @-@ century soul jazz with swarming high @-@ end displays " and stated , " It all adds up to something so captivating that vocal guests ... can get a little lost . Although maybe that 's the point " . Although he found its " complicated brilliance " less " boisterous " than Cosmogramma , Jonah Bromwich of The A.V. Club felt that the album " does a better job than its predecessor of weaving together the tangled strands of " disparate styles and concluded , " after multiple listens , the album reveals itself to be as nuanced , as subtle , and a lot more digestible " .

= = Track listing = =

Notes

( add . ) denotes additional production .

" Hunger " incorporates elements from " Guitar 12 " by Jonny Greenwood .

= = Personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .

Sam Baker – composer

Brandon Coleman – keyboards

Gene Coye – drums

Daddy Kev – mastering

Laura Darlington – composer , vocals

Dorian Concept – keyboards

Erykah Badu – composer , vocals

Miguel Atwood Ferguson – strings

Flying Lotus – composer , producer

Jonny Greenwood – composer

The Integration Players – strings

Dan Kitchens – photography

Austin Peralta – composer , keyboards

Niki Randa – composer , vocals

Stephen Serrato – art direction , design

Thundercat – bass guitar , composer , vocals

Thom Yorke – composer , vocals

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= George Eyre =

Sir George Eyre KCB KCMG ( d . 15 February 1839 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy who saw service during the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , eventually rising to the rank of Vice @-@ Admiral of the Red .

Eyre served with James King in the Caribbean during the American War of Independence , seeing action in a number of engagements . With the conclusion of the war , he was based at times at Halifax , and later off the South American coast and in the Mediterranean . With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars , Eyre served in the Mediterranean and was involved in the Siege of Toulon , before being given his first command , the 14 @-@ gun brig @-@ sloop HMS Speedy . The command was short @-@ lived , and Speedy was chased down and captured by a large French fleet . Taken into captivity , Eyre and his men endured harsh conditions until being exchanged back to Britain . Acquitted for the loss of his ship and given a new command , Eyre went out to the West Indies , but returned to Britain in 1799 and saw little further employment until 1806 , when he joined the Mediterranean fleet and was active off the coast of Spain , supporting Spanish resistance to the French .

In 1809 he went to the Adriatic and took part in the campaign there , helping to capture several islands . He launched an assault on Santa Maura and was wounded during the operations . After participating in the blockade of Corfu he returned to the Spanish coast and resumed operations there in support of the Spanish partisans . Returning to England again in 1811 , he went ashore and was not actively employed for the rest of the Napoleonic Wars , though he received a knighthood and was later appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . He returned to service in 1823 , commanding the South American station during a time of particular diplomatic difficulties , and on returning home in 1826 retired ashore owing to illness . He died in 1839 .

= = Family and early life = =

George Eyre was born the fourth and youngest son of politician Anthony Eyre , who had represented the constituency of Boroughbridge in a number of parliaments , and his wife , Judith Letitia . George 's elder brother , Anthony Hardolph Eyre , also entered politics and represented Nottinghamshire during the 1800s . George attended Harrow School and after spending several months at an academy in Chelsea , entered the navy in 1782 . His first ship was the 44 @-@ gun HMS Resistance , under the command of Captain James King . They went out to Jamaica escorting a convoy , and remained in the area for the rest of the American War of Independence .

On 2 March 1783 , while sailing in company with HMS Duguay Trouin , two ships were discovered anchored in Turks Island passage . On being spotted the two ships cut their cables and stood to the southwest , upon which Resistance promptly gave chase . The rearmost ship , carrying 20 guns , sprang her main topmast , and surrendered after Resistance came up and fired a broadside . She then gave chase to the other , carrying 28 guns , and after enduring fire from her stern chasers , came alongside and the Frenchman promptly surrendered . The ships were discovered to be two transports that had taken troops to Turks Island , garrisoning it with 530 men . One of the ships , the 28 @-@ gun Coquette was commanded by the Marquis de Grasse , nephew of the Comte de Grasse . One or two days later Resistance fell in with a small squadron under Captain Horatio Nelson , consisting of HMS Albemarle , HMS Tartar , HMS Drake and the armed ship Barrington . Nelson decided to attack the recently garrisoned Turks Island , and 250 men were landed under the cover of supporting fire from the ships . The French were found to be heavily entrenched , and the British withdrew after being unable to dislodge them .

With the end of the war Eyre returned to England with King aboard HMS Diamond , but soon rejoined the Resistance and went out to Halifax to join Sir Charles Douglas . As Douglas ' flagship spent most of her time in port , Eyre was sent out to cruise on other ships , including HMS Mercury under Captain Stanhope , and HMS Atalanta under Captain Thomas Foley . Eyre returned to Britain with Resistance in 1786 , and the following year joined the 44 @-@ gun HMS Adventure under Captain Francis Parry . Parry went out as commodore to Guinea , but ill @-@ health obliged him to resign his command , and Eyre went to Newfoundland aboard Captain Trigge 's HMS Nautilus . Eyre joined Admiral Lord Howe 's flagship HMS Queen Charlotte during the Spanish Armament , and in November 1790 was promoted to lieutenant . He then joined HMS Scipio under Captain Edward Thornbrough , and after Scipio was paid off , HMS Aquilon under Captain Robert Stopford , in which he sailed to the Mediterranean .

= = French Revolutionary Wars = =

On the outbreak of war with France in 1793 Eyre was appointed to HMS St George , the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral John Gell , a relation of Eyre 's . He was present at the capture of a French privateer and her Spanish registered prize St Jago . St George went on to join Admiral Lord Hood 's fleet at Gibraltar , and went with him to Toulon . Eyre took an active part in the Siege of Toulon , volunteering to command the detachment of marines landed from St George and sent to defend Fort La Malgue . He went from there to command the battery at Fort Pharon , and after some time attracted Hood 's attention with his good service . Hood appointed him to his flagship HMS Victory . After the fall of Toulon and the British evacuation he was advanced to commander and appointed to command the sloop HMS Speedy , succeeding Commander George Cockburn , who had been appointed to command HMS Inconstant . He assisted in the capture of Bastia , and was then ordered to join HMS Diadem off Nice .

= = = Capture = = =

While making his way there he ran into the French fleet on 9 June , the French having sailed from Toulon some days earlier and headed east along the coast . Despite pressing on sail Speedy was overrun and captured . Eyre was taken aboard one of the French ships , and later transferred to the flagship of the fleet 's commander , Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Martin . Martin asked him if he had heard of the decree from the National Convention which declared that ' no quarter should be given to either the English or the Hanoverians ' . Eyre replied that they had not , on which he was told by Martin that " ... I must tell you that it is now un guerre à mort [ a war to the death ] ; and if I had been the first to come alongside of you , I should have instantly sent you to the bottom . " At this point the main British fleet was seen approaching , and Eyre was hurried back to the first ship he had been brought onto , and the French hurried into Gourjean roads , taking Speedy and the captured British crew with them .

Eyre and the crew were landed and marched to Antibes , where they were imprisoned with the crew of a Sardinian frigate that had been captured the day before Speedy . The crew had been imprisoned on Martin 's flagship Sans Culotte and had been severely treated , with their captain , Ross , not being allowed to wash or shave . The British were placed in a dungeon at Antibes , with only straw to lie on , awaiting the decision of the authorities . After three weeks in this state , they were marched to Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence and were confined in the prison there . After a month imprisoned in Aix , Maximilien Robespierre fell and the Reign of Terror came to an end . The British were paroled . Eyre and the officers were taken to Romans , in Dauphiné where Eyre remained until May 1795 when he was released in exchange for a French officer . He faced a court @-@ martial for the loss of Speedy , but was honourably acquitted .

= = = West Indies = = =

Eyre was next appointed to command the sloop HMS Albacore , before being made post @-@ captain on 6 June 1796 and given command of the 20 @-@ gun HMS Prompte . He went out with Sir Hugh Cloberry Christian to the West Indies and took part in the reduction of Saint Lucia . While there he was appointed by Sir Hyde Parker to command the 44 @-@ gun HMS Regulus and carried out a number of cruises , capturing several prizes and winning himself riches and recognition . While cruising off Puerto Rico on 11 July 1798 Eyre located five merchant ships at anchor under a shore battery at Aguada , and decided to attempt to capture or destroy them . The ship 's boats were sent in under Lieutenants Good and Holman while Regulus and a prize schooner stood close by to support them . The wind failed however , and neither ship could get near enough to support them , but Lieutenant Good pressed on , and boarded the ships . With no wind he was unable to bring them all out , and so destroyed the two he was unable to sail out . British casualties , despite being under fire for the whole operation , amounted to one man wounded . Eyre returned to Britain in September 1799 , transporting Vice @-@ Admiral Richard Rodney Bligh .

= = Napoleonic Wars = =

= = = Spanish coast = = =

Eyre was then unemployed for a while , with the exception of a brief period in temporary command of HMS San Josef from 11 February to 18 March 1801 , succeeding Thomas Hardy and in turn being succeeded by William Wolseley . He finally received a posting in July 1806 when he was appointed to the 64 @-@ gun HMS Ardent , but was soon moved to command the newly built 74 @-@ gun HMS Magnificent . Magnificent initially served with the Channel Fleet , which was then under Admiral Lord St Vincent , before going out to the Bay of Biscay with Sir Eliab Harvey 's squadron . Eyre moved to the Mediterranean in June 1807 , coming under Lord Collingwood 's orders while based off Cadiz . With the Spanish rising on 2 May 1808 and the surrender of the French squadron in Cadiz on 14 June , Collingwood sent Eyre to patrol off Toulon . Shortly afterwards he was sent to Rosas to support the Spanish there , and several days later evacuated Lord Cochrane and his garrison from Fort Trinidad .

= = = Adriatic = = =

Eyre was next appointed by Lord Collingwood to take command of the squadron in the Adriatic in April 1809 , a command that then consisted of three ships of the line and seven or eight frigates . In October 1810 he was sent with Magnificent , HMS Belle Poule and HMS Kingfisher to join Captain John William Spranger 's squadron and assist in the capture of Cephalonia , Zante and Cerigo , part of a long running campaign in the Adriatic . Santa Maura initially remained in French hands , and became a base for small cruisers which were an annoyance to the British forces . Eyre resolved to attack and capture it and together with General John Oswald and troops of the 35th Regiment of Foot made a landing on 22 March 1810 . The French withdrew to a citadel , protected by three redoubts , which the British attacked . During the heavy fighting Eyre was hit in the head by a musket ball and knocked to the ground , narrowly avoiding death as three other balls passed through his clothing . Eyre handed over command of the expedition to Captain James Brisbane of HMS Belle Poule while he recovered , and was well enough to resume command on 25 March . The British forced the French to surrender on 16 April , the British casualties being seven dead and 39 wounded . Eyre was personally thanked by Admirals Sir George Martin and Sir Charles Cotton , and the Lords of the Admiralty .

With the islands secure Eyre enforced the blockade of Corfu . On 6 February 1811 he encountered an enemy relief convoy bound from Otranto to Corfu , consisting of 25 ships . Eyre captured 22 of them , carrying grain , ordnance and 500 troops . Eyre also stationed several frigates in the northern part of the Adriatic under the command of Captain William Hoste . Hoste went on to win a significant victory over a French squadron under Bernard Dubourdieu at the Battle of Lissa . Eyre spent a total of two years commanding the station , the time spent almost constantly at sea , only briefly putting into port to refit and replenish supplies . He was succeeded in the post by Captain Charles Rowley and went to join the fleet of Toulon . On the occasion of his departure his subordinate , James Brisbane wrote

= = = Return to Spain = = =

The Mediterranean fleet was by now under Sir Edward Pellew , and Eyre was sent to the Spanish coast to support the Spanish forces fighting the French . Eyre was particularly active off the coast of Valencia and evacuated the garrison of Oropesa del Mar , earning the thanks of General Joaquín Blake y Joyes . On being ordered back to England in 1811 Pellew also wrote a private letter of thanks , following on from his earlier declaration that ' I have to express my complete approbation of Captain Eyre 's methods , and have much satisfaction of employing the services of that most excellent officer in the aid of the Valencia patriots . ' Eyre arrived in England in 1812 , his health having been affected by his five years on a foreign station , and requested and received permission to go ashore . As a mark of his services in the Adriatic and off Spain he was knighted by King George III . Eyre was appointed a Colonel of Marines on 4 June 1814 and was nominated as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath following the expansion of the order on 12 January 1815 .

= = Flag rank and South America = =

Eyre was promoted to rear @-@ admiral on 12 August 1819 and shortly afterwards received an offer from Lord Melville to take command of the Cape and St Helena stations , but was unable to accept owing to matters of a personal nature . In 1823 he was able to accept the offer of the command of the South American station , at a time when several of the former Spanish colonies were declaring independence . Eyre was able to successfully manage delicate diplomatic and military duties , and was able to protect British rights and possessions in the area during periods of upheaval . His actions in the region included signing treaties with Spain and Portugal involving the prevention of illegal slave trafficking . He stepped down after the expiration of his posting and was succeeded by Admiral Sir Robert Otway .

= = Family and later life = =

Eyre returned to Britain , arriving at Spithead on 10 December 1826 , and was almost immediately offered command of a squadron fitting out for Lisbon . The changes in climate had brought on an attack of gout , and on being informed that as Sir Thomas Hardy 's squadron was already on the spot , he was at liberty to refuse the offer . Eyre did so , and retired ashore . He appears to have had no further commands , and was advanced to vice @-@ admiral in 1830 . He had married Georgiana Cooke , the daughter of Sir George Cooke , 7th Baronet , at Doncaster on 1 November 1800 , with whom he had a family of eight children , including two sons named George @-@ Hardolf and William . Sir George Eyre died on 15 February 1839 at the rectory , Carlton , Derbyshire .

= Queer Eye =

Queer Eye is an American reality television series that premiered on the cable television network Bravo during July 2003 . The program 's name was changed from Queer Eye for the Straight Guy after the third season to generalize the scope of its content . The series was created by executive producers David Collins and Michael Williams along with their producing partner David Metzler ; it was produced by their production company , Scout Productions .

The series is premised on and uses the stereotypes that homosexual ( " queer " ) men are superior in matters of fashion , style , personal grooming , interior design and culture . In each episode , the team of five homosexual men known collectively as the " Fab Five " perform a " makeover " ( in the parlance of the show , a " make @-@ better " ) on a person , usually a heterosexual ( " straight " ) man , revamping his wardrobe , redecorating his home and offering advice on grooming , lifestyle and food .

Queer Eye for the Straight Guy debuted during 2003 , and quickly became a surprise success . The success of the series resulted in merchandising , franchising of the concept internationally , and a woman @-@ oriented spin @-@ off , Queer Eye for the Straight Girl . Queer Eye won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program during 2004 . The series ' name was abbreviated to Queer Eye at the beginning of its third season to represent the show 's change from making over only heterosexual men to including women and homosexual men . Queer Eye ended production during 2006 June and the final ten episodes were broadcast during October 2007 . The series ended October 30 . During September 2008 , the Fine Living Network briefly aired Queer Eye in syndication .

= = The " Fab Five " = =

Ted Allen : " Food and Wine Connoisseur " , expert on alcohol , beverages , food preparation and presentation .

Kyan Douglas : " Grooming Guru " , expert on hair , grooming , personal hygiene , and makeup .

Thom Filicia : " Design Doctor " , expert on interior design and home organization .

Carson Kressley : " Fashion Savant " , expert on clothing , fashion and personal styling .

Jai Rodriguez : " Culture Vulture " , expert on popular culture , relationships and social interaction .

= = Production = =

Producers Collins and Metzler were given approval by Bravo to develop Queer Eye after the ratings success the network experienced when it counterprogrammed a marathon of its 2002 series Gay Weddings at the same time as Super Bowl XXXVII during 2003 January . The pilot episode was filmed in Boston , Massachusetts during June 2002 . Of the eventual Fab Five , only Kressley and Allen appeared . The culture , design and grooming roles were filled by James Hannaham , Charles Daboub , Jr. and Sam Spector , respectively .

The pilot was delivered to Bravo during September 2002 , and was well received in audience testing . Soon thereafter NBC purchased Bravo and ordered 12 episodes of the series . NBC promoted the show extensively , including billboard campaigns and print advertisements in national magazines .

Kyan Douglas and Thom Filicia joined the show for these episodes , along with Blair Boone in the role of " culture guy . " Boone filmed two episodes ( which were broadcast as the second and third episodes and for which he was credited as a " guest culture expert " ) but was replaced by Rodriguez beginning with production of the third episode . Each episode was shot over a span of four days and edited to create the perception that the events of the episode took place in a single day .

= = Format = =

The majority of Queer Eye episodes use the same basic format . The episode begins with the Fab Five in an SUV ( usually in New York City , where the series was based ) discussing their heterosexual subject . The Five review details of the subject 's personal life and note problems in their various areas of expertise . The Five usually have a specific event for which they plan to prepare the subject . These included everything from throwing a backyard barbecue for friends to preparing to ask for a salary increase to proposing marriage .

Upon arriving at the subject 's home , the Fab Five go through his belongings , performing a running commentary of catty remarks about the state of his wardrobe , home decor , cleanliness and grooming . They also speak with the subject and family members to get an idea of the sort of style they like and their goals for the experience and to discuss the planned event .

The remainder of the first half of the episode follows the Fab Five as they escort the subject to various locales to select new furniture and clothes . Often , Ted demonstrates how to select and prepare food for a particular dish that the subject will prepare for the special event , Kyan takes him for spa treatments and a new haircut . Each such segment includes a style tip superimposed on the screen , summarizing in a sentence or two the style issues addressed in the segment . Interspersed with this are interview segments in which friends and family members of the subject discuss his style issues .

In the next section , the subject returns to a completely redecorated home and models articles of his new wardrobe for the Fab Five . Each of the Five offer final words of advice and encouragement , accompanied by supplies of grooming products , food and kitchenware and in some cases expensive electronics items such as entertainment centers and computers .

The final section follows the subject as he prepares for the special event , with the Fab Five watching edited footage of his preparations and critiquing how well or how poorly he followed their advice . Finally , the subject is followed through the event itself , with the Five again performing a running commentary and the subject often expressing his deep gratitude to the Fab Five for their counsel . A final tip from each of the Fab Five , usually relating to one of the topics covered in the episode , plays just before the credits .

Special episodes of Queer Eye that deviated from this formula included episodes in which the Fab Five journeyed outside the greater New York area , including shows filmed in England , Texas , and Las Vegas . In two episodes , the Fab Five made over homosexual men ( both of which aired during June , Gay Pride Month , during 2004 and 2006 ) and in one episode made over a female @-@ to @-@ male transgender person . The show also featured makeovers of members of the Boston Red Sox after their 2004 World Series victory , several holiday specials and in the final season , a " Mister Straight Guy " pageant featuring subjects from the series ' history .

= = Popular and critical response = =

Queer Eye for the Straight Guy debuted on July 15 , 2003 and the series quickly attained high ratings , maximizing during September of that year with 3 @.@ 34 million viewers per episode . The popularity of the series established the Fab Five as media celebrities , with high @-@ profile appearances at the Emmys and a " make @-@ better " of Jay Leno and his The Tonight Show set in August of that year . Fab Five members parlayed their celebrity into endorsement deals , notably Thom Filicia 's becoming the spokesperson for Pier 1 Imports .

The American press almost universally complimented the series and the Fab Five . Out magazine listed the Fab Five in its " OUT 100 " , the " greatest gay success stories " of 2003 . Instinct magazine declared Kressley one of the " Leading Men " of 2004 .

The series attracted criticism for making generalizations about sexual identity , namely that homosexual men are inherently more fashionable and stylish than heterosexuals . Among those making this critique were Tom Shales in the Washington Post ( " stereotypes on parade " ) , Richard Goldstein in Village Voice ( " Haven 't fags always been consigned to the role of body servant ? " ) and United States Congressman Barney Frank speaking to the New York Post ( " The notion that gay men have a superior fashion sense is not true and it 's damaging . It 's perfectly possible to enjoy that show and say , look at those clever homosexuals . What they do with hair ! And not support gays at all . " ) . Anthropologist Lionel Tiger described the program as typical of a widespread acceptance of insulting heterosexual men : " Heteromales are the last group it is acceptable to bash as a class . The homosexual fellows on Queer Eye seem to provide riveting hilarity to especially female viewers . What if there were 5 Swedes telling Kenyans how to live elegantly and fashionably ? What if 5 Catholics told Jews how to dress , decorate , and court ? The program is degraded and degrading , Cheap Shots for A Humiliated Guy . "

With the success of the first season , original " culture guy " Blair Boone sued the show for breach of contract , claiming he should be paid not just for two episodes but for the season that he had been contracted to film .

The popularity of the series inspired a number of parodies . Comedy Central hosted a satirical television series named Straight Plan for the Gay Man , which featured four heterosexual men teaching homosexual men how to be more ( stereotypically ) straight , redecorating their homes with neon beer signs and teaching them about sports . South Park spoofed the show and its hosts in the episode " South Park Is Gay ! " , in which the protagonists learn that the Fab Five are actually evil Crab People trying to control the world by converting heterosexual men into metrosexuals .

Queer Eye won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Reality Program during 2004 and was nominated for another Emmy in the same category during 2005 . The series also received GLAAD Media Awards for Outstanding Reality Program during 2004 and 2005 , and was nominated for a third during 2006 .

In the second season , ratings decreased , averaging about 1 @.@ 8 million viewers per episode with an average 804 @,@ 000 viewers in the important 18 @-@ 40 demographic . New episodes continued to be broadcast for two more seasons . Bravo confirmed during early 2007 that Queer Eye had been cancelled . The remaining fifth season episodes were billed as Queer Eye : The Final Season and aired twice weekly beginning October 2 , 2007 .

= = Spin @-@ off series = =

During January 2005 , Scout Productions premiered a spin @-@ off series titled Queer Eye for the Straight Girl , set in Los Angeles . It featured a cast of four lifestyle experts ( three men and a woman known as the " Gal Pals " ) who performed makeovers for women . The show was cancelled after one season .

= = International adaptations = =

Queer Eye 's American success caused television networks in several countries to syndicate the American episodes , with a number of countries creating their own local versions of Queer Eye for broadcast in their countries . However , few of these homegrown versions have proven as successful as the original and most did not last long before cancellation . Licensing of the format is managed by NBCUniversal .

NBCU licensed television producer David Hedges and his UK production house vialondon.tv to produce local versions for Europe , with Flextech 's Living channel doing the same to produce the United Kingdom 's version after a first attempt at a UK production by Making Time was abandoned .

The first episode of the Finnish version , Sillä silmällä created controversy , not for the homosexual content but for the blatant product placement considered to be a transgression of a Finnish law against " hidden advertising " .

= = Merchandising = =

= = = Soundtrack = = =

The soundtrack for Queer Eye for the Straight Guy was released February 10 , 2004 , in the USA . It reached number one on the electronic music chart , number two on the soundtrack charts and the top 40 in the Billboard 200 album chart . In Australia , the soundtrack was released for the Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras and the popularity of the series in Australia resulted in the soundtrack scoring the top 10 of the Australian album chart on March 8 , 2004 . It was certified gold in Australia during March 2004 . The song " Superstar " by Jamelia from the soundtrack also went to number one on the Australian singles charts in the same week , and the theme song of the show , " All Things ( Just Keep Getting Better ) " by Widelife , went to the top 20 that same month . " All Things " would score a 2005 Juno Award for " Dance Recording of the Year " for Widelife ( Rachid Wehbi & Ian Nieman ) . Rob Eric was the executive producer for the album .

= = = = Track listing = = = =

" All Things ( Just Keep Getting Better ) " – Widelife with Simone Denny

" Good Luck " – Basement Jaxx featuring Lisa Kekaula

" Slow " ( Chemical Brothers Mix ) – Kylie Minogue

" Move Your Feet " – Junior Senior

" You Promised Me ( Tu Es Foutu ) " – In @-@ Grid

" Superstar " – Jamelia

" Everybody Wants You to Emerge " – Fischerspooner / Billy Squier

" Sunrise " ( Jason Nevins Remix ) – Duran Duran

" Never Coming Home " ( Gonna Live My Life Remix ) – Sting

" An Area Big Enough to Do It In " – Prophet Omega

" You 're So Damn Hot " – OK Go

" Extraordinary " – Liz Phair

" Are You Ready for Love " – Elton John

" Five Gay Men in One House " – Jai Rodriguez and Ted Allen

" All Things ( Just Keep Getting Better ) " ( music video )

= = = Books = = =

A tie @-@ in book titled Queer Eye for the Straight Guy : The Fab 5 's Guide to Looking Better , Cooking Better , Dressing Better , Behaving Better and Living Better was published during 2004 by Clarkson Potter / Publishers , an imprint of Random House .

= = = DVD releases = = =

Several DVDs were released in conjunction with the series . Kressley , Filicia and Allen each had individual releases emphasizing their topics of expertise . Douglas and Rodriguez were featured together in a single DVD focused on grooming . Additional DVD releases include Queer Eye for the Red Sox ( featuring the team makeover episode ) and a multi @-@ disc box set .

= Nothhelm =

Nothhelm ( sometimes Nothelm ; died 739 ) was a medieval Anglo @-@ Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury . A correspondent of both Bede and Boniface , it was Nothhelm who gathered materials from Canterbury for Bede 's historical works . After his appointment to the archbishopric in 735 , he attended to ecclesiastical matters , including holding church councils . Although later antiquaries felt that Nothhelm was the author of a number of works , later research has shown them to be authored by others . After his death he was considered a saint .

= = Early life = =

Nothhelm was a contemporary of Boniface and Bede , whom he supplied with correspondence from the papal library following a trip to Rome . He also researched the history of Kent and the surrounding area for Bede , supplying the information through the abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury . Before his appointment to the archbishopric , he was the archpriest of the Saxon @-@ built St Paul 's Cathedral , London .

= = Archbishop = =

Named to the see of Canterbury in 735 , Nothhelm was consecrated the same year . Pope Gregory III sent him a pallium in 736 . He may have been appointed by Æthelbald , King of Mercia , whose councilor he was . Whether or not he owed his appointment to Æthelbald , Nothhelm was one of a number of Mercians who became Archbishop of Canterbury during the 730s and 740s , during a time of expanding Mercian influence . He held a synod in 736 or 737 , which drew nine bishops ; the meeting adjudicated a dispute over the ownership of a monastery located at Withington . A significant feature of this synod was the fact that no king attended , but yet the synod still rendered judgement in the ownership even without secular oversight , which was more usual .

Nothhelm oversaw the reorganisation of the Mercian dioceses which took place in 737 . The archbishop consecrated Witta as Bishop of Lichfield and Totta as Bishop of Leicester . The diocese of Leicester was firmly established by this action , although earlier attempts had been made to establish a bishopric there . In 738 , Nothhelm was a witness on the charter of Eadberht I , the King of Kent .

Bede addressed his work In regum librum XXX quaestiones to Nothhelm , who had asked the thirty questions on the biblical book of Kings that Bede answered . Bede 's work De VIII Quastionibus may have been written for Nothhelm . While he was archbishop , Boniface wrote to him , requesting a copy of the Libellus responsionum of Pope Gregory I for use in Boniface 's missionary efforts . Boniface also asked for information on when the Gregorian mission to England arrived in England . This text of the Libellus responsionum has been the subject of some controversy , with the historian Suso Brechter arguing that the text was a forgery created by Nothhelm and a Roman archdeacon . The historian Paul Meyvaert has refuted this view , and most historians incline towards the belief that the text is genuine , although it is not considered conclusively proven .

= = Death and legacy = =

Nothhelm died on 17 October 739 @.@  and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral . He is considered a saint , and his feast day is 17 October . The antiquaries and writers John Leland , John Bale , and Thomas Tanner all felt that Nothhelm was the author of various works , but later research has shown them to be authored by other writers . A verse eulogy for Nothhelm , of uncertain date , survives in a 16th @-@ century manuscript now at the Lambeth Palace library .

= Duff Cooley =

Duff Gordon " Sir Richard " Cooley ( March 29 , 1873 – August 9 , 1937 ) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned 17 seasons , 13 of which were spent in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Cooley , an outfielder and first baseman , had a career batting average of .294 in 1 @,@ 317 games played . He compiled 849 runs , 1 @,@ 579 hits , 180 doubles , 102 triples , 26 home runs , and 557 runs batted in ( RBI ) . In Major League history , he is tied in 148th place for most all @-@ time triples and , his 224 career stolen bases , place him equal 279th on the all @-@ time list . Cooley made his Major League debut at the age of 20 , and spent the majority of his career there , but he also appeared in minor league baseball . After breaking his leg with the Tigers in 1905 , he was replaced with future Hall of Fame outfielder Ty Cobb . Cooley , nicknamed " Sir Richard " due to his aristocratic manner , was listed as standing 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) and weighing 158 pounds ( 72 kg ) .

= = Career = =

Cooley was born on March 29 , 1873 , in Leavenworth , Kansas . He began his Major League career in 1893 , playing for Topeka , Kansas , before playing for the St. Louis Browns of the National League ( NL ) . Although the seventh youngest player in the league during his first season , he batted .346 , which remained a career @-@ high . Defensively , Cooley was a utility player , starting at multiple positions for the Cardinals . On September 30 of 1873 , Cooley recorded six hits against the Boston Beaneaters . He played for St. Louis in 1894 , nearly doubling his at bats ( 206 ) and games played ( 54 ) .

Cooley played more regularly in 1895 and averaged 4 @.@ 2 at bats per game throughout the season . One of the most successful batters on the team , he had the highest batting average at .342 and led the Cardinals in hits , triples , runs scored and total bases . His slugging ( .466 ) and on @-@ base plus slugging ( .851 ) percentages remained the highest of his career . His 20 triples and 264 total bases were both the fifth @-@ highest total in a season for the Cardinals franchise from between the years of 1892 when they entered the NL to 1920 , which marked the end of the Dead @-@ ball era . At the end of the year , he had played 133 games , two behind Major League leader and teammate , Joe Quinn . Offensively , Cooley tied for seventh in most hits and finished fourth in triples .

At the beginning of the 1896 season , Cooley continued to play for the Browns . However , after 40 games in which he had a .307 batting average , he was moved to the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for Joe Sullivan , Tuck Turner , and an unknown sum of money . The Phillies , under manager Billy Nash , finished 62 – 68 , eighth in the NL . Cooley remained with the Phillies in 1897 , when he tied with Fred Tenney , George Van Haltren , and Gene DeMontreville for the MLB lead in at @-@ bats . Cooley led his team in runs scored and stolen bases , and finished third , behind Ed Delahanty and Nap Lajoie , in hits . The following two seasons , playing for Philadelphia , he hit .312 in 1898 and .276 in 1899 , before he was purchased by the Pittsburgh Pirates for US $ 1 @,@ 000 in April 1900 . In his only season with the Pirates , Cooley recorded a batting average of .201 , the worst of his career . He also compiled 30 runs , 50 hits , and 22 RBI .

After being purchased by the Boston Beaneaters in 1901 , Cooley made his minor @-@ league debut for the Syracuse Stars of Syracuse , New York . After recording a team @-@ high in batting average and slugging percentage , Cooley was promoted to the Major League Beaneaters . Next season , under manager Al Buckenberger , Cooley played in 135 games , more than double the previous year for the Beaneaters . He finished the year eighth in the NL in both hits and total bases , and third in doubles .

Cooley remained with the Beaneaters for the following two seasons , hitting .289 in 1903 . On June 20 , 1904 , Cooley hit for the cycle ( a single , double , triple , and home run in the same game ) , becoming the second Beaneater to do so . Cooley finished the 1904 season with six total errors , five in the outfield and one at first base . Cooley 's 70 RBIs were eighth most in the NL . After the season , in October 1904 , he was selected off the Beaneater 's waivers by the Detroit Tigers .

In his final Major League season , Cooley played in 97 games before breaking his leg , which led to Ty Cobb , a future inductee to the National Baseball Hall of Fame taking his place as center fielder for the rest of the season . He was sold to the Beaneaters following the 1905 season , but decided to retire instead .

= = After MLB = =

Following his retirement from baseball , Cooley moved to Dallas and began to work as a salesman . In his final years , he battled alcoholism , which partially contributed to his death from heat stroke in Dallas on August 9 , 1937 . By then , he and his wife Louise were divorced and he left no children . Cooley was buried in Grove Hill Memorial Park in Dallas .

= England expects that every man will do his duty =

" England expects that every man will do his duty " was a signal sent by Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson , 1st Viscount Nelson , from his flagship HMS Victory as the Battle of Trafalgar was about to commence on 21 October 1805 . Trafalgar was a decisive naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars . It gave the United Kingdom control of the seas , removing all possibility of a French invasion and conquest of Britain . Although there was much confusion surrounding the wording of the signal in the aftermath of the battle , the significance of the victory and Nelson 's death during the battle led to the phrase becoming embedded in the English psyche , and it has been regularly quoted , paraphrased and referenced up to the modern day .

= = Signals during the battle = =

As the British fleet closed with the opposing combined fleets of France and Spain , Lord Nelson signalled all the necessary battle instructions to his ships . Aware of the momentousness of events to come , Lord Nelson felt that something extra was required . He instructed his signal officer , Lieutenant John Pasco , to signal to the fleet , as quickly as possible , the message " England confides [ i.e. is confident ] that every man will do his duty . " Pasco suggested to Nelson that expects be substituted for confides , since the former word was in the signal book , whereas confides would have to be spelt out letter @-@ by @-@ letter . Nelson agreed to the change ( even though it produced a less trusting impression ) :

His Lordship came to me on the poop , and after ordering certain signals to be made , about a quarter to noon , he said , ' Mr. Pasco , I wish to say to the fleet , ENGLAND CONFIDES THAT EVERY MAN WILL DO HIS DUTY ' and he added ' You must be quick , for I have one more to make which is for close action . ' I replied , ' If your Lordship will permit me to substitute the confides for expects the signal will soon be completed , because the word expects is in the vocabulary , and confides must be spelt , ' His Lordship replied , in haste , and with seeming satisfaction , ' That will do , Pasco , make it directly.'

Thus , at around 11 : 45 a.m. on 21 October 1805 , the most famous naval signal in British history was sent . The exact time the signal was sent is not known ( one account puts it as early as 10 : 30 ) , as the message was repeated throughout the fleet , but Pasco puts it at " about a quarter to noon " and logs from other ships of the line also put it close to this time .

The signal was relayed using the numeric flag code known as the " Telegraphic Signals of Marine Vocabulary " , devised in 1800 by Rear Admiral Sir Home Popham , and based on the signal books created earlier by Admiral Lord Howe . This code assigned the digits 0 to 9 to ten signal flags , which were used in combination . Code numbers 1 – 25 represented letters of the alphabet ( omitting J and with V = 20 before U = 21 ) ; higher numbers were assigned meanings by a code book . The code numbers are believed to have been hoisted on the mizzenmast , one after another , with the " telegraphic flag " also being flown to show that the signals employed Popham 's code . As well as digit flags , the code used " repeat " flags so that only one set of digits was needed ; thus the word " do " , coded as " 220 " , used a " 2 " flag , a " first repeat " flag here serving as a second 2 , and a " 0 " flag . The word " duty " was not in the codebook ( and was not replaced as " confides " had been ) , so had to be spelt out , and the whole message required twelve " lifts " . It is believed that it would have taken about four minutes . A team of four to six men , led by Lt. Pasco , would have prepared and hoisted the flags onboard Lord Nelson 's flagship HMS Victory . The message shows one of the shortcomings of Popham 's code — even the two @-@ letter " do " required three flags hoisted for the signal . It is reported that a great cheer went up as the signal was hoisted and repeated throughout the fleet .

The message " engage the enemy more closely " was Nelson 's final signal to the fleet , sent at 12 : 15 p.m. , before a single British cannon had been fired at the enemy . This message was signalled using the telegraphic flag and flags 1 and 6 . Nelson ordered this signal hauled up and kept aloft . It remained up until shot away during the battle .

= = After the battle = =

Almost immediately , the signal began to be misquoted . A number of ships in the fleet recorded the signal as " England expects every man to do his duty " ( omitting that and replacing will with to ) . This version became so prevalent that it is recorded on Nelson 's tomb in St. Paul 's Cathedral . The word that is also omitted on the version around the base of Nelson 's Column , as seen in the photo above . However , the Victory 's log and the accounts of signal officer John Pasco and Henry Blackwood ( captain of the frigate Euryalus ) , both present at the preparation of the signal , agree on the form given here . On 26 December 1805 , The Times newspaper in London reported the signal as ; " England expects every officer and man to do his duty this day " . In 1811 , the tenor John Braham composed a song , " The Death of Nelson " , including the words of the signal . The song became popular almost immediately and was performed throughout the British Empire during the 19th century . To make the words fit the metre , they were altered to " England expects that every man this day will do his duty " . This version of the wording is also persistent .

Between 1885 and 1908 it was believed that the signal had been sent using the 1799 code book , as in 1885 it was pointed out that this had not been replaced until 1808 . In 1908 it was discovered , the Admiralty had , in fact , changed the signal code in November 1803 , after the 1799 version had been captured by the French , and new code books had been issued to Nelson 's fleet at Cadiz in September , 1805 . As a result , books published between these two dates show the signal using the wrong flags .

The signal is still hoisted on the Victory at her dry dock in Portsmouth on Trafalgar Day ( 21 October ) every year , although the signal flags are displayed all at once , running from fore to aft , rather than hoisted sequentially from the mizzenmast .

= = = Similar signals = = =

Nelson 's famous signal has been imitated in other navies of the world . Napoleon ordered the French equivalent , " La France compte que chacun fera son devoir " , to be displayed on French vessels . At the opening of the Battle of Plattsburgh in September 1814 , Commodore Thomas MacDonough of the U.S. Navy flew the signal " Impressed seamen call on every man to do his duty " , referring to the fact that impressment of U.S. mariners had been a popular cause of the War of 1812 . Before the Battle of Tsushima , Japanese Admiral Togo ( who had studied naval science in England from 1871 to 1878 ) signalled to his fleet : " The fate of the Empire depends upon today 's battle : let every man do his utmost " .

= = Later uses = =

Charles Dickens quotes it in Chapter 43 of Martin Chuzzlewit :

" ... as the poet informs us , England expects Every man to do his duty , England is the most sanguine country on the face of the earth , and will find itself continually disappointed . "

In Lewis Carroll 's The Hunting of the Snark , the Bellman says :

" For England Expects — I forbear to proceed . Tis a maxim tremendous , but trite . "

In Ogden Nash 's collection of poems I 'm a Stranger Here Myself ( 1938 ) there is a short poem " England Expects " .

During the Second World War , an Admiralty propaganda poster intended to increase industrial production on the home front , carried the slogan ; " Britain expects that you too , this day , will do your duty " . Nelson 's flag signal was hoisted by the Royal Navy monitor , HMS Erebus at the start of the bombardment for the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 .

It was also referenced by Margaret Thatcher during her crucial speech to the cabinet which finally persuaded them to rally behind her over the divisive issue of the poll tax . Further afield , it has been adapted by James Joyce in his novel , Ulysses , such as " Ireland expects that every man this day will do his duty " .

In the United States , former Secretary of the Navy of the United States of America Gordon R. England wore a tie with the flags representing the famous quote when he visited naval vessels .

Today " England expects ... " is often adapted for use in the media , especially in relation to the expectations for the victory of English sporting teams . Such is the sentence 's connotation with sport that a recent book on the history of the England national football team by James Corbett was entitled England Expects . A BBC Scotland television drama also bears its name .

= Waddesdon Road railway station =

Waddesdon Road railway station , called Waddesdon railway station before 1922 , was a small halt in open countryside in Buckinghamshire , England . It was opened in 1871 as part of a short horse @-@ drawn tramway to assist with the transport of goods from and around the Duke of Buckingham 's extensive estates in Buckinghamshire and to connect the Duke 's estates to the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway at Quainton Road . In 1872 the line was expanded and converted for passenger use , becoming known as the Brill Tramway . In 1899 the operation of the line was taken over by the London @-@ based Metropolitan Railway .

In 1933 the Metropolitan Railway was taken into public ownership to become the Metropolitan line of the London Underground , and despite its rural setting Waddesdon Road station became a part of the London Transport system . The new management could not see a future for the line as a financially viable passenger route , and Waddesdon Road , along with the rest of the former Brill Tramway , was closed in late 1935 .

The station was heavily used for the transport of construction materials during the building of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor in the 1870s and 1880s , but aside from that it saw little use . The station was inconveniently sited and served by few passenger trains , and other more frequently served stations were in easy walking distance . In 1932 , the last full year of operations prior to the Metropolitan Railway being taken into public ownership , the station was used for only 281 passenger journeys and generated just £ 4 of passenger revenue .

= = Brill Tramway = =

On 23 September 1868 the small Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & BR ) was opened . It ran south from the London and North Western Railway 's Oxford to Bletchley line at Verney Junction , via Quainton Road railway station , to connect with the Great Western Railway at Aylesbury .

The 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos served as Chairman of the London and North Western Railway from 1852 to 1861 and had a long interest in railways . In the early 1870s he decided to build a light railway to carry goods between his estates in Buckinghamshire and the A & BR 's line at Quainton Road . The first stage of the line , known as the Wotton Tramway , was a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) line from Quainton Road via Wotton to a coal siding at Kingswood , and opened on 1 April 1871 . Intended for use by horse trams , the line was built with longitudinal sleepers to avoid horses tripping on the sleepers .

Lobbying from residents and businesses in the nearby town of Brill led to an extension being built in 1872 from Wotton to Brill railway station , at the foot of Brill Hill three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) from the hilltop town of Brill itself . Two mixed trains each day were introduced in each direction , and the line was renamed the Brill Tramway . The Duke bought two Aveling and Porter traction engines modified to work as locomotives for the line , each with a top speed of 8 miles per hour ( 13 km / h ) , although a speed limit of 5 miles per hour ( 8 km / h ) was enforced .

The Duke died in 1889 , and in 1894 the trustees of his estate set up the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company ( O & ATC ) with the intention of extending the line from Brill to Oxford . On 1 September 1894 London 's Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) reached Aylesbury , and shortly afterwards connected to the A & BR line , with local MR services running via Quainton Road to Verney Junction from 1 April 1894 . Through trains from the MR 's London terminus at Baker Street commenced on 1 January 1897 . From 1 December 1899 the MR leased the Brill Tramway from the O & ATC and took over the operation of services on the line , although the Tramway continued to be owned by the O & ATC .

= = Services = =

Waddesdon Road was the first station out from the Quainton Road junction station , in open countryside immediately north of Akeman Street ( the A41 road after 1919 ) , about 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Quainton Road , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of the town of Waddesdon , and 1 @,@ 300 yards ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Waddesdon Manor . The station was initially built with a single low wooden platform , primarily intended for loading and unloading freight . After the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the MR introduced a single Brown Marshall passenger carriage on the line ; at this time , a short section of platform was raised to conventional height to allow access to the higher doors on the new carriage .

Initially known as " Waddesdon Road Siding " , the station was renamed " Waddesdon " shortly after opening . On 1 October 1922 the nearby Waddesdon Manor railway station , on the Metropolitan Railway southeast of Quainton Road , was renamed " Waddesdon " and the former Waddesdon station was renamed " Waddesdon Road " in an effort to reduce confusion .

The station was heavily used during the construction of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor in the 1870s and 1880s . The brickworks at Brill sent 25 @,@ 000 bricks per week along the Brill Tramway , and 7 @,@ 000 tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of Bath Stone were shipped from Corsham . Aside from goods traffic associated with the building of Waddesdon Manor , the station was little used other than for shipping milk from nearby farms to Aylesbury and London . Inconveniently sited away from any nearby towns and villages , and with the far more frequently served Quainton Road and Waddesdon Manor stations within easy walking distance , the station saw very little passenger use . In 1932 , the last year of private operation , Waddesdon Road station saw only 281 passengers and made only £ 4 ( about £ 300 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts over the entire year .

Limited by poor quality locomotives and bumpy , cheaply laid track which followed the contours of the hills , trains ran very slowly in the area : in 1882 trains took 13 minutes to travel the short distance from Waddesdon Road to Quainton Road , and 57 minutes from Waddesdon Road to Brill . From 1872 to 1894 the station was served by two passenger trains per day in each direction , and between 1895 and 1899 the number was increased to three per day . Following the 1899 transfer of services to the Metropolitan Railway , the station was served by four trains per day in each direction until closure in 1935 . Improvements to the line carried out at the time of the transfer to the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad , and the improved locomotives of the Metropolitan Railway , reduced journey times from Waddesdon Road to Quainton Road and Brill to 6 minutes and 22 minutes respectively .

= = Closure = =

On 1 July 1933 the Metropolitan Railway , and all of London 's other underground railways except the small Waterloo & City Railway , were taken into public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) . As a consequence , despite its distance from London , Waddesdon Road station became part of the London Underground network .

By this time the Brill Tramway was losing significant sums of money . Goods traffic had dwindled , and unlike other areas served by the former Metropolitan Railway there had not been a growth in population and thus passenger numbers remained low . Frank Pick , Managing Director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB , planned to move the new London Underground away from goods services to concentrate solely on serving passengers . He saw the lines beyond Aylesbury to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes , concluding that over £ 2 @,@ 000 ( about £ 130 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) would be saved by closing the Brill Tramway . As a result , the LPTB decided to abandon all passenger services beyond Aylesbury .

The Brill Tramway was closed on 1 December 1935 , with the last trains running on 30 November . Upon the withdrawal of London Transport services the railway and stations reverted to the control of the by now almost dormant Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company . With no funds and no rolling stock of its own the O & ATC was unable to operate the line , and on 2 April 1936 the entire infrastructure of the line was sold at auction ; the most expensive lot sold was the 37 @-@ yard ( 34 m ) platform of Waddesdon Road station , which fetched £ 7 10s ( about £ 1 @,@ 070 in 2016 ) . Excluding the station houses at Westcott and Brill , which were sold separately , the auction raised £ 112 10s ( about £ 6 @,@ 890 in 2016 ) in total . No trace of the buildings at Waddesdon Road remains , but the former trackbed is now a public footpath known as the Tramway Walk .

Metropolitan line passenger trains ceased to run north of Aylesbury from 6 July 1936 . London and North Eastern Railway services ( British Rail from 1948 ) continued to run from London 's Marylebone station over the line to Verney Junction via Quainton Road until March 1963 , and the LPTB continued to maintain and to operate freight services over the Verney Junction line until 6 September 1947 . After the withdrawal of services from London , Verney Junction station remained open to serve trains on the Oxford – Bletchley line . It was closed following the withdrawal of services between Oxford and Cambridge from 1 January 1968 .

= Son of Three =

" Son of Three " is a song by the American group the Breeders that was written and sung by band member Kim Deal . The original version of the composition was recorded at Grandmaster Recording Ltd. in Hollywood , and was released in May 2002 on the album Title TK . The Breeders — who then consisted of Kim Deal , Kelley Deal , Jose Medeles , Richard Presley , and Mando Lopez — later re @-@ recorded " Son of Three " at a different Hollywood studio as Title TK 's third European single . This subsequent recording is shorter and faster than the album track , and matches how they were playing the song in concert in 2002 .

The " Son of Three " single was released in September 2002 on 4AD , and reached No. 72 in the United Kingdom . The single includes a live performance of the group 's 1992 song " Safari " and a cover of Nerf Herder 's theme from the Buffy the Vampire Slayer television series . Deal , a Buffy fan , also negotiated to have the Breeders appear in an episode of the show . Critics have praised both the album and single versions of " Son of Three " .

= = Recording = =

The original version of " Son of Three " appeared on the Breeders ' 2002 album Title TK . While most of the album 's tracks were recorded by Steve Albini at his Electrical Audio studio in Chicago , " Son of Three " is one of two songs from a session recorded by Mark Arnold and Andrew Alekel at Grandmaster Recording Ltd. in Hollywood . The composition was written by Kim Deal , who also sang on the track . The other musicians who played on the recording were Kim 's sister Kelley Deal on guitar and vocals ; Richard Presley on guitar ; Mando Lopez on bass and guitar ; and Jose Medeles on percussion .

Following the release of Title TK 's first two singles , " Off You " and " Huffer " , a third single was requested for the European market . For this purpose , the Breeders decided to record a new version of " Son of Three " . The session , which took place in July 2002 at Track Record Studios in North Hollywood , was fit in during a short break between a European and a US concert tour . This recording is faster than the album version , and reflects the sound of the group 's live performances of the song in 2002 . The engineers for this session were Ai Fujisaki and Justin Hamilton , with additional engineering credited to Marc Arnold .

The sound of " Son of Three " has been described as " dark punk " , and elsewhere as a " garage symphony of bubblegum grunge , woo @-@ woo gurly harmonies and body @-@ snatching sci @-@ fi eeriness " . One interviewer in 2002 described the lyrics of " Son of Three " as " motorific " , noting the numerous references to driving in the song and throughout the Title TK album . The song 's lyrics include lines such as " No more time on the meter " , " Cross another county line " , and " Are we there ? "

The second track on the three @-@ song single , " Buffy Theme " , was also recorded at the July 2002 session . This composition was originally performed by the group Nerf Herder , whose version was included on Buffy the Vampire Slayer : The Album . It was written by Nerf Herder members Dennis , Grip , and Sherlock . Kim and Kelley Deal were both fans of the Buffy the Vampire Slayer television show and had been playing " Buffy Theme " in concert in the first half of 2002 . At some point after the July recording session , Kim Deal telephoned Buffy musical supervisor John King to ask whether the Breeders could be on the show . On November 5 , the group appeared on the episode " Him " , in which they performed " Son of Three " and " Little Fury " . The Breeders ' " Buffy Theme " was also later included on the album Buffy the Vampire Slayer : Radio Sunnydale .

The final track on the " Son of Three " single , " Safari " , written by Deal , was recorded in concert at the Melkweg music venue in Amsterdam in June 2002 as part of the Leiksekade Live radio show . The original studio version of the song had been released on the Breeders ' Safari EP in April 1992 .

= = Release and reception = =

Title TK came out on May 20 – 21 , 2002 , and the " Son of Three " single on September 2 of that year . The single reached No. 72 on the UK Singles Chart . The album and single versions of " Son of Three " have mostly been well received by critics . AllMusic 's Heather Phares calls the Title TK track " sweet [ and ] playfully spiky " , while Will Bryant of Pitchfork cites it as a " standout " of the album , that " get [ s ] the job done " . PopMatters ' Matt Cibula reports " rockin ' ... hard " to the song and comments on the originality of the lyrics , such as the line “ If I find the door / I am the son of Go ” . A reviewer at Contactmusic.com describes the single version of " Son of Three " as " special " , and for NME 's Stephen Dalton , it is a " jewel " . Richard Garnett of Leeds Music Scene similarly praises the track , commenting that " the beefy descending bass line is enough to send shivers " .

Critical appraisal of the single 's B @-@ sides has been mixed . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic characterizes the Breeders ' " Buffy Theme " as " wonderful " . Garnett calls the track " cheap " , noting its short running time ( 1 minute 14 seconds ) . For Dalton , the recording amounts to " a comedy cover " , and the live version of " Safari " is " inessential " . By contrast , the Contactmusic.com reviewer rates this performance of " Safari " as " fantastic " .

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two . =

Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two ( stylized as ef - a fairy tale of the two . ) is a two @-@ part Japanese adult visual novel series by Minori for Windows PCs . The first game in the series , Ef : The First Tale , was released on December 22 , 2006 , and the second game , Ef : The Latter Tale , was released on May 30 , 2008 . The opening video for the game was animated by Makoto Shinkai , and a majority of the music was produced by Tenmon , who has worked in the past with Shinkai and Minori . Female character design was by Naru Nanao of Da Capo fame , while male character design was by 2C Galore .

Before the release of Ef : The First Tale , a manga based on the overall story was serialized between 2005 and 2015 starting in Dengeki Comic Gao , but later transferred to Dengeki Daioh . In addition , a light novel was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comptiq from July 2006 to July 2008 . A 12 @-@ episode anime adaptation titled Ef : A Tale of Memories was produced by Shaft and aired between October and December 2007 . A second season of the anime titled Ef : A Tale of Melodies aired 12 episodes between October and December 2008 .

On September 26 , 2010 , it was announced that MangaGamer had acquired the rights of the visual novel for a worldwide English release , in partnership with the translation group No Name Losers . The English version of the two games were released in 2012 and 2013 . The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed both Ef anime series .

= = Gameplay = =

The gameplay requires little interaction from the player as most of the duration of the game is spent simply reading the text that appears on the screen which represents either dialogue between the various characters or the inner thoughts of the protagonist . The player has a chance to assume the role of four protagonists , two in each Ef : The First Tale and Ef : The Latter Tale . Each protagonist is paired with a heroine , and each scenario in the original PC versions of the visual novels includes scenes with sexual content . These scenes are removed or modified in the PlayStation 2 port .

Every so often , the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options . The time between these points is variable and can occur anywhere from a minute to much longer . Gameplay pauses at these points and depending on which choice the player makes , the plot will progress in a specific direction . There are four main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . The plot lines carry on from each other in a linear fashion . The game can end prematurely if the player makes the wrong decisions . When this occurs , the player must go back to a previously saved spot and choose different decisions .

For Ef , Minori attempted to create a movie @-@ like experience , using a lot of animated two @-@ dimensional computer graphics presented from various angles . Instead of presenting the visuals straight @-@ on with a character 's image in the middle of the screen and the character being the main focus , the character images in the Ef series are off @-@ center and appear closer to " event " computer graphics ( CGs ) in typical visual novels . These types of CGs occur at certain pivotal times in a visual novel 's story and are meant to be artistic and much more detailed than normal visuals .

= = Plot and characters = =

Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two consists of two parts . The first part is titled Ef : The First Tale and primarily consists of the story of Hiro Hirono , Miyako Miyamura , Kyosuke Tsutsumi , Kei Shindo , and Yuko Amamiya . It consists of a prologue and two main chapters with Miyako as the focus for the first chapter , and Kei for the second . This is followed by the second part of the story , Ef : The Latter Tale , which primarily deals with the story of Renji Aso , Chihiro Shindo , Shuichi Kuze , Mizuki Hayama , and Yu Himura . The second part consists of two more main chapters and an ending chapter , with Chihiro as the focus for the third chapter , and Mizuki for the fourth . Bringing the two parts together forms the all @-@ encompassing Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two . The story is set in the town Otowa ( 音羽 ) .

= = = Ef : The First Tale = = =

Prologue

Yuko Amamiya ( 雨宮 優子 , Amamiya Yūko , voiced by : Yumiko Nakajima ( Japanese ) , Carli Mosier ( English ) ) , a mysterious girl dressed like a nun , and Yu Himura ( 火村 夕 , Himura Yū , voiced by : Kōichi Tōchika ( Japanese ) , David Matranga ( English ) ) , a mysterious gentleman who is somehow attached to the church where Yuko first appears , are having a reunion in a church during Christmas time . Despite her attire , Yuko is not affiliated with the church . She always appears generally out of nowhere , and disappears just as quickly in various places throughout the story to talk with Hiro or other characters and give them advice . Yuko and Yu reminisce about the past and remember events of the previous year around the same time at the beginning of the first chapter of the story . Yuko hints of events that are revealed throughout Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two . After the conclusion of the first chapter , the story cycles back to the prologue and the talk between Yuko and Yu . Yuko ends with her talk about the events in the first chapter . At the end of the second chapter , the story shifts again to the scene with Yuko and Yu . Yuko finishes her talk on the events from the second chapter and says that she misses talking to Hiro , Kyosuke , and their friends . Their talk ends with allusions to the continuation of the story , Ef : The Latter Tale .

First chapter

The first chapter 's protagonist is Hiro Hirono ( 広野 紘 , Hirono Hiro , voiced by : Hiro Shimono ( Japanese ) , Greg Ayres ( English ) ) , an already established manga author despite still attending high school . Due to the pressures of his work , he often skips school and puts most of his time into his job as a manga artist of shōjo manga under the pseudonym " Nagi Shindo " ( 新堂 凪 , Shindō Nagi ) . Writing manga causes him to lose interest in school and focuses mainly on his work in order to earn an income , as usually he does not have much money as it is . While out one Christmas night , a purse snatcher rushes past Hiro on a bike and soon Miyako Miyamura ( 宮村 みやこ , Miyamura Miyako , voiced by : Hiroko Taguchi ( Japanese ) , Luci Christian ( English ) ) appears , chasing after the purse thief , taking Hiro 's bike without asking to pursue the culprit . She ends up destroying his bike , and later hangs out with him for the rest of the night .

Hiro later meets Miyako again at school , and learns that she is a student of the same year there , but in a different class ; she too does not attend classes much because she finds them boring . Miyako has an energetic personality and enjoys doing unorthodox things . She eventually starts to become attracted to Hiro after they start spending more time together , but during this time Hiro 's childhood friend Kei Shindo ( 新藤 景 , Shindō Kei , voiced by : Junko Okada ( Japanese ) , Brittney Karbowski ( English ) ) begins to feel left out and a love triangle develops between the three students . She is attracted to Hiro , and becomes jealous when she finds out how much time he is spending with Miyako Miyamura . Hiro and Miyako eventually become a couple , despite Kei 's feelings for him .

Second chapter

The second chapter begins several months after the end of the first . It is now summer , and the story focuses on a new protagonist named Kyosuke Tsutsumi ( 堤 京介 , Kyōsuke Tsutsumi , voiced by : Yūki Tai ( Japanese ) , Chris Patton ( English ) ) . Kyosuke is an acquaintance of Hiro 's and happens to be in the same grade and school . He has a passion for filming , and constantly carries a digital video recorder around with him . On Christmas night , he saw Kei Shindo , who is the main heroine of the second chapter , running down the street and tried to get a shot of her , but a truck passed by , so he could not get a clean shot of the mystery girl . After thinking about the mystery girl , he ends up quitting the film club and agrees with his girlfriend to break up .

One day , while filming near the gymnasium , Kyosuke catches sight of Kei practicing basketball for her school 's girl 's basketball team and becomes infatuated by her image . He desires to cast Kei in an amateur film he is making for an upcoming film festival . Occupied with thoughts of Kei , he sets out determined to get closer to Kei by becoming better friends with Hiro , Kei 's childhood friend . Kei is one year younger than Hiro and she attends the same school as him too . After being asked to be cast in one of his films , Kei initially refuses Kyosuke 's offer , but agrees to watch some of his previous films . While initially put off by the films , she eventually comes to like aspects of his work . After hanging out together more , the two eventually fall in love and go out together .

= = = Ef : The Latter Tale = = =

Prologue

Ef : The Latter Tale begins once again with Yuko Amamiya and Yu Himura in the middle of a reunion in a church during Christmas time . Yuko tells Yu how she has influenced people in two separate stories ( from Ef : The First Tale ) . After she is done with this , she asks him to tell her about the people he has influenced . Yu starts to tell his first story , that of Chihiro Shindo ; the third chapter begins . Like Yuko , Yu also abruptly appears out of nowhere and disappears just as mysteriously . He often gives advice and warnings to Renji and others . Yu is close to Chihiro and takes care of her . After the conclusion of the third chapter , the story goes back to Yuko and Yu with Yu ending his recount of the third chapter , and goes on to talk about how he and Yuko were separated in the past . Yu starts his recount of the events from the fourth chapter . At the end of the fourth chapter , the story shifts one final time back to Yuko and Yu . Up to this point the two have been recounting individual tales to each other . The meaning of the overall title Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two is revealed to be in connection with Yuko and Yu .

Third chapter

Like the first chapter , the third chapter is also set in winter , but now focuses on another protagonist named Renji Aso ( 麻生 蓮治 , Asō Renji , voiced by : Motoki Takagi ( Japanese ) , Clint Bickham ( English ) ) who is half German , half Japanese . One day , he goes to an abandoned train station in town he would often frequent to read at since it is so quiet there and meets a girl wearing an eyepatch over her left eye and sitting alone named Chihiro Shindo ( 新藤 千尋 , Shindō Chihiro , voiced by : Natsumi Yanase ( Japanese ) , Monica Rial ( English ) ) . Chihiro is the younger twin sister of Kei Shindo from Ef : The First Tale and the main heroine of the third chapter in the story . Despite them being mutually shy , Renji comes back to see her at the station every day after school and quickly becomes friends with her . Renji later learns that she has a severe case of anterograde amnesia , where she can only remember 13 hours ' of memory at a time , aside from the events before the accident that led to her current state , which she can recall perfectly . Now , she carries a diary with her which she writes in every day the events of that day so that the next day , after she had forgotten everything , she will be able to remind herself of what happened the previous day . Ironically , she has a fantastic memory of anything that happened that is less than thirteen hours old .

Renji also finds out that it is her dream to write a fantasy novel , but due to her condition has never been able to get far . Renji loves to read novels , and after discussing it with Chihiro , he collaborates with her to see if he can finally make her dream come true . Through the process of writing the novel , the two eventually become very close and they fall in love with each other . As the story progresses and more of the novel is written , Renji soon discovers that the novel is an allegory for Chihiro 's life and how she sees the world around her due to the state of her limited memory .

Fourth chapter

Shuichi Kuze ( 久瀬 修一 , Kuze Shūichi , voiced by : Kenji Hamada ( Japanese ) , Illich Guardiola ( English ) ) is the main protagonist of the fourth chapter in the story . He is an older man who is a professional violinist . He had been studying abroad in Germany for a time , and comes back to where Ef 's story takes place . Shuichi is a neighbor of Renji 's and is good friends with him despite the age difference . Shuichi knows Yu Himura and Chihiro as well , but she forgets Shuichi due to her condition . He meets the main heroine from the fourth chapter of the story named Mizuki Hayama ( 羽山 ミズキ , Hayama Mizuki , voiced by : Mai Goto ( Japanese ) , Hilary Haag ( English ) ) after being introduced by Renji 's mother . She goes to an affiliated school and admires Kei greatly as someone who is older than she is ; in fact , Mizuki is also on her school 's girl 's basketball team . She greatly enjoys reading shōjo manga . She has a straightforward attitude and likes to be frank towards others , especially to Kei . She initially comes to Otowa to visit her older cousin Renji , and this is when she meets Shuichi . Shuichi keeps to himself that he is dying of a special case of neurosis , of which Mizuki is aware of , but even though she tries to get closer to him , he forcibly pushes her away and rejects her affections . Mizuki becomes depressed and obtains Chihiro 's diary . Casually reading it , she finds Yu 's name which she recognizes from her past . Mizuki goes to the church to find Yu , but the chapter ends shortly after .

= = Development and release history = =

Planning for Ef started in 2004 headed by Nobukazu Sakai ( also known as nbkz ) , who is the main producer for Minori . The director for Ef was Mikage , who was also one of the main scenario writers along with Yū Kagami . Character design for Ef was headed by two artists , Naru Nanao who drew the female characters , and 2C Galore who drew the males . The opening movie animation was done via a collaboration between the animation studio Ajia @-@ do Animation Works and Makoto Shinkai . Music in the Ef series was provided by Tenmon , who was the sole composer for Ef : The First Tale , and was accompanied by Eiichirō Yanagi for additional music used in Ef : The Latter Tale . It cost Minori over 100 million yen to produce the Ef series .

A fan disc entitled Ef : First Fan Disc was initially released during Comiket 72 between August 11 and August 13 , 2007 ; the disc , playable on a PC was later sold in retail stores starting on August 25 , 2007 . The disc , unlike the normal visual novels in the series , did not contain adult content , and offered a glimpse into the world of Ef , though only touched on points from Ef : The First Tale , the first game in the series . Ef : The First Tale was released as an adult game for the PC on December 22 , 2006 . The second game in the series , Ef : The Latter Tale was released on May 30 , 2008 . MangaGamer released both games in English : Ef : The First Tale was released on July 27 , 2012 and Ef : The Latter Tale was released on December 20 , 2013 .

A game demo of Ef : The First Tale is available via a free download at Getchu.com 's special website for Ef : The First Tale . A second fan disc entitled Ef : Second Fan Mix , released as a preview of Ef : The Latter Tale , was initially released at during Comiket 73 on December 29 , 2007 ; the disc , playable on a PC , was later sold in retail stores starting on February 8 , 2008 . A PlayStation 2 port combining The First Tale and The Latter Tale was released on April 29 , 2010 published by Comfort . A fan disc titled Tenshi no Nichiyōbi " Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two " Pleasurable Box . ( 天使の日曜日 " ef - a fairy tale of the two " Pleasurable Box . ) was released on September 17 , 2010 .

= = Adaptations = =

= = = Print media = = =

A manga adaptation titled Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two began serialization in the April 2005 issue of the shōnen manga magazine Dengeki Comic Gao ! sold on February 27 , 2005 , published by MediaWorks . The manga ended serialization in the April 2008 issue Dengeki Comic Gao ! at 35 chapters , but continued serialization in the June 2008 issue of ASCII Media Works ' manga magazine Dengeki Daioh sold on April 21 , 2008 . After a lengthy hiatus , the manga ended serialization in the March 2015 issue . The story was written by Mikage and Yū Kagami , two scenario writers of Minori , and illustrated by Juri Miyabi . Ten tankōbon volumes were published under ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki Comics imprint between February 27 , 2006 and January 27 , 2015 .

A series of 24 short side @-@ stories in a light novel form were serialized under the title Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two Another Tale in Kadokawa Shoten 's seinen magazine Comptiq between the July 2006 and July 2008 issues sold on June 10 , 2006 and June 10 , 2008 , respectively . The stories are written by the same scenario staff as with the original games and manga , and illustration is handled by Naru Nanao , 2C Galore , and Mitsuishi Shōna . The chapters of Another Tale were released in a single volume on February 27 , 2009 entitled Another Tales .. Another two separate light novels , under the general title Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two , were published by Fujimi Shobo on October 25 , 2007 . They were written by Yū Kagami , and illustrated by Kinusa Shimotsuki . The first novel was a novelization of Miyako 's route , and the second was centered around Kei 's route .

The Ef series , encompassing the visual novels and anime adaptation , was the only Minori title to receive coverage in an entire issue of Dengeki G 's Festival ! Deluxe , a special edition version of Dengeki G 's Magazine which is published by ASCII Media Works ; the issue in question was the first , and was published on November 30 , 2007 . Along with information pertaining to Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two and Ef : A Tale of Memories , the magazine came bundled with an ergonomic mousepad , a small cell phone cleaner which can also attach to a cell phone , and an ID card / pass case .

= = = Radio shows and drama CDs = = =

There are two Internet radio shows for Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two The first , entitled Omoshiro Minori Hōsōkyoku ( おもしろミノリ放送局 ) , was broadcast between October 13 , 2006 to June 1 , 2007 every Friday and was produced by Onsen , Cospa , and Minori . The show contained thirty @-@ three episodes and was mainly used to promote the visual novels . In this way , the promotion mainly entailed news about the series and any updates related to the visual novels while also discussing points about the games themselves . The second radio broadcast began on June 8 , 2007 called Yumiko & Yūna no Ef Memo Radio ( ゆみこ & ゆうなのえふメモらじお ) . This broadcast is mainly used to promote the anime series which entails reporting on updates related to the anime and goods for the anime including musical CDs or DVDs .

A set of four drama CDs were released by Frontier Works based on the series between October 2006 and April 2007 . A special edition drama CD was released on November 21 , 2007 , and another special drama CD was released on January 1 , 2008 . The first print release of the special edition CD will contain comments from the cast . The drama CDs used the same female cast as with the games and anime versions ( albeit under assumed names ) , but the two males that appeared in the dramas , Hiro and Kyosuke , had different voice actors in respect to the anime version . Hiro was voiced by Takashi Shōman , and Kyosuke was by Shō Shiroki .

= = = Anime = = =

On August 24 , 2007 , a short prologue for an Ef anime series was released as a DVD . The prologue was a teaser which introduced the characters and some conflict that would appear in the series . The anime series , under the title Ef : A Tale of Memories , aired 12 episodes on Chiba TV between October 7 and December 22 , 2007 . The anime was produced by Shaft and directed by Shin Ōnuma who volunteered for the job when it was offered . Even though the script for Ef : The Latter Tale was finished at the time of the anime 's production , in order to direct the anime from the viewer 's standpoint , Shin Ōnuma himself never read it . However , Katsuhiko Takayama who wrote the screenplay for the anime , had read the script . Each episode ends with a still image drawn by Japanese illustrators of anime , manga , and visual novels . The first letter in each episode 's title , plus the " coda " title of the last episode , can be brought together to form " Euphoric Field " . The series was released in six limited and regular edition DVD compilations , each containing two episodes . The first DVD volume was released on December 7 , 2007 , and the sixth DVD was released on May 9 , 2008 . A second season entitled Ef : A Tale of Melodies aired 12 episodes between October 7 and December 22 , 2008 in Japan . The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed both Ef anime series . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc box sets of Ef : A Tale of Memories were released on January 31 , 2012 in North America with an English dub , and the Ef : A Tale of Melodies box sets were released on March 20 , 2012 .

= = Music = =

The opening theme song for Ef : The First Tale is " Yūkyū no Tsubasa " ( 悠久の翼 , Eternal Feather ) by Hitomi Harada which was released as a maxi single called " Eternal Feather " on October 27 , 2006 . For Ef : The Latter Tale , the opening theme is " Emotional Flutter " , and the ending theme is " Ever Forever " ; the single containing the two themes was released on April 11 , 2008 . Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two 's original soundtrack , Alato , was released on February 27 , 2009 containing three CDs . The PlayStation 2 version released by Comfort will include an image song CD in the game disc , which will contain a song called " Echt Forgather " by Hitomi Harada .

The opening theme for Ef : A Tale of Memories , starting with episode three , is the English version of " Euphoric Field " by Tenmon featuring Elisa . The first episode used a background music track for the opening theme , and the second and tenth episodes had no opening theme ; the English version of " Euphoric Field " was also used for the ending theme in episode two . The Japanese version of " Euphoric Field " was used as the opening theme for the twelfth episode . The opening theme single was released on October 24 , 2007 by Geneon . The first ending theme for the anime is " I 'm here " by Hiroko Taguchi which was used for episodes one , three , seven , and ten ; the single for the song ( entitled " Adagio by Miyako Miyamura " ) was also released on October 24 , 2007 by Geneon . The second ending theme , " Kizamu Kisetsu " ( 刻む季節 , Carving Season ) by Junko Okada , was used for episodes four , five , and nine , and the single ( entitled " Vivace by Kei Shindo " ) was released on November 21 , 2007 . The third ending theme , " Sora no Yume " ( 空の夢 , Sky 's Dream ) by Natsumi Yanase , was used for episode six , eight , and eleven , though the second verse of the song was used in that episode ; the single ( entitled " Andante by Chihiro Shindo " ) was released on December 21 , 2007 . A remix of the visual novel 's theme song called " Yūkyū no Tsubasa 07.mix " ( 悠久の翼 07.mix , Eternal Feather 07.mix ) sung by Yumiko Nakajima was used as the ending theme in episode twelve . The single for this ( entitled " Yūkyū no Tsubasa 07.mix / Euphoric Field live.mix " ) was released on September 26 , 2008 . The first original soundtrack for the anime series ( Espressivo ) was released on February 8 , 2008 , and the second ( Fortissimo ) was released on April 2 , 2008 .

The opening theme of Ef : A Tale of Melodies is the English version of " Ebullient Future " , also by Tenmon featuring Elisa , with the sixth episode featuring the instrumental version and episode eleven with the second verse . The opening sequence is shown to change many times ; episode ten contains no opening , but a piano remix of the song was used as the ending for that same episode . Episode twelve uses the Japanese version of the song , with a different opening sequence . The first ending theme is called " Egao no Chikara " ( 笑顔のチカラ , Strength of Smiles ) by Mai Goto and was used in episode two through five , seven , and the second verse was used in episode eleven . The second ending theme is called " Negai no Kakera " ( 願いのカケラ , Pieces of Wish ) by Yumiko Nakajima which was used in episode six , nine , and the second verse was used in episode eight . The song " A moon filled sky . " by Mai Goto was featured at the end of episode eleven and a new Japanese version of the opening sequence of the first season was inserted in the same episode . Episode twelve uses the song " Ever Forever OG.mix " sung by the voice actresses of all the major female characters . The singles for " Ebullient Future " and " Egao no Chikara " ( the latter entitled " Fermata by Mizuki Hayama " ) were released on November 5 , 2008 and the single for " Negai no Kakera " ( entitled " Fine by Yuko Amamiya " ) was released on November 26 , 2008 . The first original soundtrack for the series ( Elegia ) was released on December 26 , 2008 while the second original soundtrack ( Felice ) was released on February 27 , 2009 .

= = Reception = =

In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the fifty best bishōjo games were released . Out of 249 titles , Ef : A Fairy Tale of the Two ranked 23rd with 11 votes , tying with Muv @-@ Luv Alternative and Snow . The first game in the Ef series , Ef : The First Tale , was the highest selling game for the month of December 2006 on Getchu.com , and dropped to 19th in the ranking the following month . Also , Ef : The First Tale was the fourth most widely sold game of 2006 on Getchu.com despite it being released with a little over a week left in 2006 . In the January 25 , 2007 issue of the Japanese gaming magazine PC News , it was reported that Ef : The First Tale was the fifth @-@ highest selling game of 2006 with 40 @,@ 843 units sold . Across the national ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan , Ef : The First Tale premiered at number two , and ranked twice more at number five and 32 . From mid @-@ April to mid @-@ May 2008 , Ef : The Latter Tale ranked fourth in national PC game pre @-@ orders in Japan . Ef : The Latter Tale ranked first in terms of national sales of PC games in Japan in May 2008 , and ranked at 30th on the same ranking the following month .

Theron Martin of Anime News Network reviewed the Blu @-@ ray edition of Ef : A Tale of Memories , where he praised the anime series for not resorting to " even a whiff of the supernatural " , and called the way in which characters behave as " largely believable " . The anime received a mostly positive review from Bradley Meek THEM Anime Reviews . Bradley appreciated the animation , saying that " It does wonders for the mood in the series , adding a tangible layer of mysticism and fantasy . " However , he criticized the series being " cheesy and melodramatic more often than not . " He concluded the review saying , " Despite some laughable melodrama , the raw emotions and Shaft 's hypnotic animation makes ef ~ a tale of memories ~ a memorable romance . The plotting is slow , though , so it 's not for people with short attention spans . "

= Social identity theory =

A social identity is the portion of an individual 's self @-@ concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group . As originally formulated by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and the 1980s , social identity theory introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to explain intergroup behaviour .

Social identity theory is best described as a theory that predicts certain intergroup behaviours on the basis of perceived group status differences , the perceived legitimacy and stability of those status differences , and the perceived ability to move from one group to another . This contrasts with occasions where the term " social identity theory " is used to refer to general theorizing about human social selves . Moreover , and although some researchers have treated it as such , social identity theory was never intended to be a general theory of social categorization . It was awareness of the limited scope of social identity theory that led John Turner and colleagues to develop a cousin theory in the form of self @-@ categorization theory , which built on the insights of social identity theory to produce a more general account of self and group processes . The term social identity approach , or social identity perspective , is suggested for describing the joint contributions of both social identity theory and self @-@ categorization theory .

= = Aspects = =

= = = The interpersonal @-@ intergroup continuum = = =

Social identity theory states that social behavior will vary along a continuum between interpersonal behavior and intergroup behaviour . Completely interpersonal behaviour would be behaviour determined solely by the individual characteristics and interpersonal relationships that exists between two or more people . Completely intergroup behaviour would be behaviour determined solely by the social category memberships that apply to two or more people .

The authors of social identity theory state that purely interpersonal or purely intergroup behaviour is unlikely to be found in realistic social situations . Rather , behaviour is expected to be driven by a compromise between the two extremes . The cognitive nature of personal vs. social identities , and the relationship between them , is more fully developed in self @-@ categorization theory . Social identity theory instead focuses on the social structural factors that will predict which end of the spectrum will most influence an individual 's behaviour , along with the forms that that behavior may take .

= = = Positive distinctiveness = = =

A key assumption in social identity theory is that individuals are intrinsically motivated to achieve positive distinctiveness . That is , individuals " strive for a positive self @-@ concept " . As individuals to varying degrees may be defined and informed by their respective social identities ( as per the interpersonal @-@ intergroup continuum ) it is further derived in social identity theory that " individuals strive to achieve or to maintain positive social identity " . It should be noted that the precise nature of this strive for positive self @-@ concept is a matter of debate ( see the self @-@ esteem hypothesis ) .

Both the interpersonal @-@ intergroup continuum and the assumption of positive distinctiveness motivation arose as outcomes of the findings of minimal group studies . In particular , it was found that under certain conditions individuals would endorse resource distributions that would maximize the positive distinctiveness of an ingroup in contrast to an outgroup at the expense of personal self @-@ interest .

= = = Positive distinctiveness strategies = = =

Building on the above components , social identity theory details a variety of strategies that may be invoked in order to achieve positive distinctiveness . The individual 's choice of behaviour is posited to be dictated largely by the perceived intergroup relationship . In particular the choice of strategy is an outcome of the perceived permeability of group boundaries ( e.g. , whether a group member may pass from a low status group into a high status group ) , as well as the perceived stability and legitimacy of the intergroup status hierarchy . The self @-@ enhancing strategies detailed in social identity theory are detailed below . Importantly , although these are viewed from the perspective of a low status group member , comparable behaviours may also be adopted by high status group members .

= = = = Individual mobility = = = =

It is predicted that under conditions where the group boundaries are considered permeable individuals are more likely to engage in individual mobility strategies . That is , individuals " disassociate from the group and pursue individual goals designed to improve their personal lot rather than that of their ingroup " .

= = = = Social creativity = = = =

Where group boundaries are considered impermeable , and where status relations are considered reasonably stable , individuals are predicted to engage in social creativity behaviours . Here , low @-@ status ingroup members are still able to increase their positive distinctiveness without necessarily changing the objective resources of the ingroup or the outgroup . This may be achieved by comparing the ingroup to the outgroup on some new dimension , changing the values assigned to the attributes of the group , and choosing an alternative outgroup by which to compare the ingroup .

= = = = Social competition = = = =

Here an ingroup seeks positive distinctiveness via direct competition with the outgroup in the form of ingroup favoritism . It is considered competitive in that in this case favoritism for the ingroup occurs on a value dimension that is shared by all relevant social groups ( in contrast to social creativity scenarios ) . Social competition is predicted to occur when group boundaries are considered impermeable , and when status relations are considered to be reasonably unstable . Although not privileged in the theory , it is this positive distinctiveness strategy that has received the greatest amount of attention .

= = Development = =

= = = Historical background = = =

By the late 1920s the collectivist perspective had all but disappeared from mainstream social psychology . Around the time of the first formal statement of social identity theory , Tajfel wrote this on the state of social psychology :

" Thus , social categorization is still conceived as a haphazardly floating ' independent variable ' which strikes at random as the spirit moves it . No links are made or attempted , between the conditions determining its presence and mode of operation , and its outcomes in widely diffused commonalities of social behaviour . Why , when and how is social categorisation salient or not salient ? What kind of shared constructions of social reality , mediated through social categorization , lead to a social climate in which large masses of people feel they are in long @-@ term conflict with other masses ? What , for example , are the psychological transitions from a stable to an unstable social system ? " ( Original emphasis , p . 188 )

Thus , social identity theory in part reflects a desire to reestablish a more collectivist approach to social psychology of the self and social groups .

= = Implications = =

= = = Ingroup favoritism = = =

In @-@ group favoritism ( also known as " ingroup bias " , despite Turner 's objections to the term ) is an effect where people give preferential treatment to others when they are perceived to be in the same ingroup . Social identity attributes the cause of ingroup favoritism to a psychological need for positive distinctiveness and describes the situations where ingroup favoritism is likely to occur ( as a function of perceived group status , legitimacy , stability , and permeability ) . It has been shown via the minimal group studies that ingroup favoritism may occur for both arbitrary ingroups ( e.g. a coin toss may split participants into a ' heads ' group and a ' tails ' group ) as well as non @-@ arbitrary ingroups ( e.g. ingroups based on cultures , genders , sexual orientation , and first languages ) .

Continued study into the relationship between social categorization and ingroup favoritism has explored the relative prevalences of the ingroup favoritism vs. outgroup discrimination , explored different manifestations of ingroup favoritism , and has explored the relationship between ingroup favoritism and other psychological constraints ( e.g. , existential threat ) .

= = Controversies = =

= = = Self @-@ esteem hypothesis = = =

Social identity theory proposes that people are motivated to achieve and maintain positive concepts of themselves . Some researchers , including Michael Hogg and Dominic Abrams , thus propose a fairly direct relationship between positive social identity and self @-@ esteem . In what has become known as the " self @-@ esteem hypothesis " , self @-@ esteem is predicted to relate to in @-@ group bias in two ways . Firstly , successful intergroup discrimination elevates self @-@ esteem . Secondly , depressed or threatened self @-@ esteem promotes intergroup discrimination . Empirical support for these predictions has been mixed .

Some social identity theorists , including John Turner , consider the self @-@ esteem hypothesis as not canonical to social identity theory . In fact , the self @-@ esteem hypothesis is argued to be conflictual with the tenets of the theory . It is argued that the self @-@ esteem hypothesis misunderstands the distinction between a social identity and a personal identity . Along those lines , John Turner and Penny Oakes argue against an interpretation of positive distinctiveness as a straight forward need for self @-@ esteem or " quasi @-@ biological drive toward prejudice " . They instead favour a somewhat more complex conception of positive self @-@ concept as a reflection of the ideologies and social values of the perceiver . Additionally , it is argued that the self @-@ esteem hypothesis neglects the alternative strategies to maintaining a positive self @-@ concept that are articulated in social identity theory ( i.e. , individual mobility and social creativity ) .

= = = Positive @-@ negative asymmetry = = =

In what has been dubbed the Positive @-@ Negative Asymmetry Phenomenon , researchers have shown that punishing the out @-@ group benefits self @-@ esteem less than rewarding the in @-@ group . From this finding it has been extrapolated that social identity theory is therefore unable to deal with bias on negative dimensions . Social identity theorists , however , point out that for ingroup favouritism to occur a social identity " must be psychologically salient " , and that negative dimensions may be experienced as a " less fitting basis for self @-@ definition " . This important qualification is subtly present in social identity theory , but is further developed in self @-@ categorization theory . Empirical support for this perspective exist . It has been shown that when experiment participants can self @-@ select negative dimensions that define the ingroup no positive – negative asymmetry is found .

= = = Intergroup similarity = = =

It has been posited that social identity theory suggests that similar groups should have an increased motivation to differentiate themselves from each other . Subsequently , empirical findings where similar groups are shown to possess increased levels of intergroup attraction and decreased levels of in @-@ group bias have been interpreted as problematic for the theory . Elsewhere it has been suggested that this apparent inconsistency may be resolved by attending to social identity theory 's emphasis on the importance of the perceived stability and legitimacy of the intergroup status hierarchy .

= = = Predictive power = = =

Social identity theory has been criticised for having far greater explanatory power than predictive power . That is , while the relationship between independent variables and the resulting intergroup behaviour may be consistent with the theory in retrospect , that particular outcome is often not that which was predicted at the outset . A rebuttal to this charge is that the theory was never advertised as the definitive answer to understanding intergroup relationships . Instead it is stated that social identity theory must go hand in hand with sufficient understanding of the specific social context under consideration . The latter argument is consistent with the explicit importance that the authors of social identity theory placed on the role of " objective " factors , stating that in any particular situation " the effects of [ social identity theory ] variables are powerfully determined by the previous social , economic , and political processes " .

= = = SIT @-@ lite = = =

Some researchers interpret social identity theory as drawing a direct link between identification with a social group and ingroup favoritism . For example , Charles Stangor and John Jost state that " a main premise of social identity theory is that ingroup members will favour their own group over other groups " . This interpretation is rejected by other researchers . For example , Alex Haslam states that " although vulgarized versions of social identity theory argue that ' social identification leads automatically to discrimination and bias ' , in fact … discrimination and conflict are anticipated only in a limited set of circumstances " . The likening of social identity theory with social competition and ingroup favouritism is partly attributable to the fact that early statements of the theory included empirical examples of ingroup favouritism , while alternative positive distinctiveness strategies ( e.g. , social creativity ) were at that stage theoretical assertions . Regardless , in some circles the prediction of a straightforward identification @-@ bias correlation has earned the pejorative title " social identity theory @-@ lite " .

= SMS Jagd =

SMS Jagd was an aviso of the Imperial German Navy , the second and final member of the Wacht class . She had one sister ship , Wacht . Jagd was laid down in 1887 at the AG Weser shipyard , launched in July 1888 , and commissioned in June 1889 . She served in the German fleet for the next fifteen years , until she was withdrawn from active duty in 1904 . Thereafter , she was used as a harbor ship . In 1910 , she was stricken from the naval register and hulked . She was later used as a torpedo training platform until 1920 , when she was sold for scrapping .

= = Design = =

Jagd was 85 @.@ 5 meters ( 281 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 66 m ( 31 @.@ 7 ft ) and a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 74 m ( 12 @.@ 3 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 499 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 475 long tons ; 1 @,@ 652 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two angled 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 860 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 300 km ; 3 @,@ 290 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Jagd had a crew of 7 officers and 134 enlisted men .

As built , the ship was armed with three 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) K L / 35 gun placed in single pivot mounts . The guns were supplied with a total of 180 rounds of ammunition . Jagd also carried three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , one mounted submerged in the bow and the other two in deck @-@ mounted launchers on the broadside . In 1891 , four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns in single mounts were added . The ship was the first German aviso to carry armor : a 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) thick deck , along with 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) of armor plating for the conning tower .

= = Service history = =

Jagd was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1887 . She was launched on 7 July 1888 , after which fitting @-@ out work was completed . The finished ship was commissioned into the German fleet on 25 June 1889 . She served in the fleet starting in 1889 . Jagd served in the Training Squadron in 1891 as a torpedo boat flotilla leader , along with the avisos Blitz and Pfeil . During the annual summer exercises , the Training Squadron served as the hostile fleet , and conducted a mock attack on the harbor at Kiel . In 1893 , Jagd was assigned as the dispatch vessel for the II Division of the Maneuver Squadron . During the 1896 annual maneuvers , Jagd was assigned to the I Division .

She was transferred to the I Division in 1897 , where she participated in the annual fleet exercises in August and September . After the conclusion of the maneuvers , the Maneuver Squadron returned to its home port in Wilhelmshaven . She served in the defending squadron during the August – September 1900 maneuvers . In 1904 , Jagd was withdrawn from active service and used as a harbor ship . Jagd was stricken from the naval register on 14 May 1910 and subsequently hulked . She was based in Friedrichsort outside Kiel and used as a firing platform for torpedo training until she was broken up for scrap in 1920 at Rüstringen .

= William Shirley =

William Shirley ( 2 December 1694 – 24 March 1771 ) was a British colonial administrator who was the longest @-@ serving governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay ( 1741 – 1749 and 1753 – 1756 ) and then Governor of the Bahamas ( 1760 – 1768 ) . He is best known for his role in organizing the 1745 Siege of Louisbourg during King George 's War , and for his role in military affairs during the French and Indian War . He spent most of his years in the colonial administration of North America working to defeat New France , but his lack of formal military training led to political difficulties and his eventual downfall .

Politically well connected , Shirley began his career in Massachusetts as advocate general in the admiralty court , and quickly became an opponent of Governor Jonathan Belcher . He joined with Belcher 's other political enemies to bring about Belcher 's recall , and was appointed Governor of Massachusetts Bay in Belcher 's place . He successfully quieted political divisions within the province , and was able to bring about united action against New France when King George 's War began in 1744 . The successful Siege of Louisbourg , which Shirley had a major role in organizing , was one of the high points of his administration .

After King George 's War Shirley became mired in disputes over funding and accounting for the war effort , and returned to England in 1749 to deal with political and legal matters arising from those disputes . He was then assigned to a commission established by Great Britain and France to determine the colonial borders in North America . His hard @-@ line approach to these negotiations contributed to their failure , and he returned to Massachusetts in 1753 .

Military matters again dominated Shirley 's remaining years in Massachusetts , with the French and Indian War beginning in 1754 . Shirley led a military expedition to reinforce Fort Oswego in 1755 , and became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , North America upon the death of General Edward Braddock . His difficulties in organizing expeditions in 1755 and 1756 were compounded by political disputes with New York politicians , and over military matters with Indian agent Sir William Johnson . These disagreements led to his recall in 1757 as both Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief and as governor . In his later years he served as governor of the Bahamas , before returning to Massachusetts , where he died .

= = Early life = =

William Shirley , the son of William and Elizabeth Godman Shirley , was born on 2 December 1694 at Preston Manor in East Sussex , England . He was educated at Pembroke College , Cambridge , and then read law at the Inner Temple in London . In 1717 his grandfather died , leaving him Ote Hall in Wivelsfield and some funds , which he used to purchase a clerkship in London . About the same time he married Frances Barker , with whom he had a large number of children . He was called to the bar in 1720 . Although his inheritance had been substantial ( about £ 10 @,@ 000 ) , he cultivated an expensive lifestyle , and suffered significant financial reverses in the depression of 1721 . The financial demands of his large family ( he and Frances had eight children by 1731 ) prompted him to seek an appointment in the North American colonies . His family was connected by marriage to the Duke of Newcastle , who became an important patron and sponsor of Shirley 's advancement , and to that of Arthur Onslow , the Speaker of the House of Commons . Armed with letters of introduction from Newcastle and others ( but no appointment ) , Shirley arrived in Boston , Massachusetts in 1731 .

= = Advocate general = =

Shirley was initially received with indifference by Massachusetts Governor Jonathan Belcher , who refused him patronage positions that became available . In 1733 Shirley sought to secure from David Dunbar the commission as the crown surveyor general , but Dunbar eventually decided to retain the office . Influence from Newcastle eventually yielded Shirley a position as advocate general in the admiralty court . Belcher resisted further entreaties from Newcastle to promote Shirley , and Shirley began using his position to actively prosecute Belcher supporters whose illegal logging activities came under his jurisdiction .

Shirley also made common cause with Samuel Waldo , a wealthy merchant and major landowner in the province eastern district ( present @-@ day Maine ) where Belcher 's lax enforcement of timber @-@ cutting laws was harming his business with the Royal Navy . In 1736 Shirley sent his wife to London to lobby on his behalf against Belcher . Waldo also eventually went to London ; the combination of Shirley 's connection to Newcastle and Waldo 's money soon made inroads in the colonial administration . When these were joined by discontented New Hampshire interests ( Belcher was also governor of New Hampshire ) , a full @-@ scale offensive was launched in the late 1730s to unseat Belcher . This included at least one forged letter on the part of Belcher opponents in an attempt to discredit the governor , which Shirley denounced . By 1738 Newcastle was in a dominant position in not just the colonial administration , but also in the British government as an opponent of Prime Minister Sir Robert Walpole , and he actively encouraged Belcher 's opponents .

In 1739 the Privy Council reprimanded Belcher , voted to separate the Massachusetts and New Hampshire governorships , and began debating the idea of replacing the governor . The exact reasons for Belcher 's dismissal have been a recurring subject of scholarly interest , due to the many colonial , imperial , and political factors at play . Two principal themes within these analyses are Belcher 's acquisition of many local enemies , and the idea that good imperial governance in London eventually required his replacement . Before the issues of 1739 most of the efforts to unseat Belcher had failed : Belcher himself noted in that year that " the warr I am ingag 'd in is carrying on in much the same manner as for 9 years past . " Historian Stephen Foster further notes that someone as powerful as Newcastle was at the time generally had much weightier issues to deal with than arbitrating colonial politics . In this instance , however , imperial and colonial considerations coincided over the need for Massachusetts to provide a significant number of troops for Newcastle 's proposed West Indies expedition in the War of Jenkins ' Ear . In April 1740 Newcastle in effect offered Shirley the opportunity to prove , in the light of Belcher 's political difficulties , that he could more effectively raise troops than the governor could . Shirley consequently engaged in recruiting , principally outside Massachusetts ( where Belcher refused his offers of assistance , understanding what was going on ) , and deluged Newcastle with documentation of his successes while Belcher was preoccupied with a banking crisis . Newcastle handed the issue off to Martin Bladen , secretary to the Board of Trade and a known Belcher opponent . The Board of Trade then apparently decided , based on the weight of the extant evidence , that Belcher needed to be replaced . In April 1741 the Privy Council approved William Shirley 's commission as governor of Massachusetts , and Benning Wentworth 's commission as governor of New Hampshire was issued the following June .

= = Governor of Massachusetts = =

When Shirley assumed the governorship of Massachusetts in August 1741 , he was immediately confronted with a currency crisis . The province had been suffering for many years with inflation caused by issuance of increasing quantities of paper currency . Late in Belcher 's tenure , competing banking proposals had been made in a bid to address the issue , and a popular proposal for a bank secured by real estate had been enacted . This bank ( the controversy over it having contributed to Belcher 's recall ) had been dissolved by an Act of Parliament , and Shirley had to negotiate the dissolution of the bank 's assets and reclamation of the notes it had issued . In this process , which occupied the rest of 1741 , Shirley deftly navigated legislation through the provincial assembly that provided a schedule for redeeming the bank 's currency without causing the bank 's principal owners to collapse under a deluge of redemptions .

With rising tensions Shirley acted to strengthen the military defenses of the colony . He created a series of volunteer militia companies along the frontier . These included Burke 's Rangers and Gorham 's Rangers which became the model for Shirley 's more famous creation Roger 's Rangers .

= = = Outbreak of war = = =

Britain captured Acadia from France in Queen Anne 's War ( 1702 – 1713 ) , but the Treaty of Utrecht left Cape Breton Island in French hands , and did not clearly demarcate a boundary between New France and the British colonies on the Atlantic coast . To protect the crucial passageway of the Saint Lawrence River into the heart of New France , France built a strong fortress at Louisbourg on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island .

When Shirley took office , relations between France and Britain were strained , and there was a possibility that Britain would be drawn into the War of the Austrian Succession , which had started on the European mainland in 1740 . Shirley was able to finesse his restrictions on the production of paper currency to achieve an updating of the province 's defences , and in 1742 requested permission from the Board of Trade for the printing of additional currency should war break out . This permission was granted in 1743 , along with a warning that war with France was likely . France declared war against Britain in March 1744 , and forces from Louisbourg raided the British fishing port of Canso on the northern end of mainland Nova Scotia before its residents were aware they were at war . French privateers also began preying on British and colonial vessels . British colonial governors along the coast , including Shirley , sent colonial guard ships and authorized their own privateers in response , neutralizing the French activity .

Canso was used by New England fishermen , and as such its fall was of interest to Massachusetts . Shirley had , prior to its capture , received a request for assistance from the lieutenant governor of Nova Scotia , Paul Mascarene , for support in the defence of Annapolis Royal . In response to the fall of Canso and a second , urgent request from Mascarene , Shirley promptly despatched two companies of volunteers to Annapolis Royal . The timely arrival of these troops in early July broke up a siege .

John Bradstreet , who had been captured at Canso and held prisoner at Louisbourg , returned to New England in a prisoner exchange , and gave a detailed report to Shirley that emphasised the weaknesses of the French fort . William Vaughn , who owned several businesses in Maine that were vulnerable to raids from New France , toured New England advocating an expedition to capture Louisbourg . Shirley and other leaders in New England and New York sent letters to colonial authorities in London seeking support for such an expedition , citing the vulnerable conditions at Louisbourg . Vaughn and Bradstreet wanted to attack Louisbourg that winter with an all @-@ colonial force . Shirley doubted the practicality of that plan , but in January 1745 submitted it to the provincial assembly ( General Court ) , which declined to support the plan , but did request that Britain undertake an attack on Louisbourg .

Vaughn continued to advocate for a quick all @-@ American expedition , enlisting the support of fishing captains , merchants and 200 " principal gentlemen " of Boston . Shirley called the General Court into session to discuss the matter once more , and the proposal was submitted to a committee chaired by William Pepperrell . The committee reported favourably on the plan , and it was approved by a single vote when several opponents were absent from the chamber .

Shirley appointed a reluctant William Pepperrell to command the expedition , William Vaughn was appointed colonel , but without a command position , and John Bradstreet was appointed as a military advisor to Pepperrell . Shirley requested support for the expedition from Peter Warren , commodore of the Royal Navy squadron in the West Indies , but Warren declined due to the strenuous objections of his captains . This news arrived in Boston just as the expedition was preparing to leave .

Despite the absence of support from the Royal Navy , the New England expedition set out in March 1745 for Louisbourg . More than 4 @,@ 000 men on more than 90 transports ( mainly fishing boats and coastal traders ) , escorted by six colonial guard ships , descended on Canso , where the expedition waited for the ice to clear from Gabarus Bay , the site just south of Louisbourg that had been chosen for the troop landing . Starting on 22 April the expedition was joined by four Royal Navy warships under the command of Commodore Warren , who received orders ( issued in January , but not received until after his previous refusal ) to assist the expedition .

= = = Siege of Louisbourg = = =

The provincial forces began landing at Gabarus Bay on 30 April , and laid siege to the fortress while the British ships blockaded the harbour . The Americans began suffering battle losses , while the British naval officers , who had a low opinion of American soldiers , grew increasingly critical of the American efforts . Warren tried to exert control over the provincial troops , but Pepperrell resisted him . Louisbourg surrendered on 17 June . The Americans lost 180 men in combat , to disease or at sea during the siege , while the Royal Navy ships did not fire on the fortress , and lost just one sailor . As the victors settled into occupation of Louisbourg , friction grew between the Americans and the British . The terms of surrender guaranteed the French in all of their possessions ; there was no plunder for the American troops . On the other hand , the Royal Navy had captured several rich French prizes , and British sailors on shore leave bragged to the Americans about how rich they were going to be from their shares .

The American troops had signed up to capture Louisbourg , and expected to go home after siege ended . The British government , who had believed that the provincial troops were incapable of capturing Louisbourg on their own , had made no plans to send British troops to take over occupation of the fortress . When it become evident that British troops would not be relieving the provincials until after winter had passed , Governor Shirley travelled to Louisbourg to raise the morale of the troops . His first speech to the troops had little effect , and some troops were close to mutiny . In a second speech Shirley promised to send home more troops immediately , and provide higher pay and better supplies for those who stayed until spring . Honors from the British government were sparse ; Pepperrell was made a baronet , he and Shirley were made colonels in the British Army with the right to raise their own regiments , and Warren was promoted to rear admiral .

= = = Aborted campaign = = =

Shirley had engaged in the Louisbourg campaign primarily as a way to ensure British interests in the Atlantic fisheries . The victory , however , made him expand his vision to encompass the possibility of capturing all of New France . After capturing the French fort he wrote to Newcastle , proposing a series of expeditions to gain control of all of North America as far west as the Mississippi River , starting with one that would go up the Saint Lawrence from Louisbourg . Upon his return to Boston , Shirley began making preparations for such an expedition . In May 1746 he received plans for London outlining an attempt on Quebec using Royal Navy and provincial forces , while a second expedition was to attack Fort Saint @-@ Frédéric on Lake Champlain . Shirley stepped up recruiting in Massachusetts and asked neighboring governors to contribute men and resources to the effort . Expected support from Britain never arrived , however , and the 1746 expeditions were called off .

While waiting for definite word from London of plans for 1747 Shirley beefed up the province 's western defenses , and in the spring of 1747 he began sending supplies to the Hudson River valley in anticipation of a move toward Fort Saint @-@ Frédéric . Word then arrived from Newcastle that the British establishment would not support any expeditions against New France . The drop in military spending that resulted had negative consequences on the Massachusetts economy , harming Shirley 's popularity .

Shirley personally profited from the supply activities surrounding the Louisbourg expedition . In 1746 he used the funds to purchase an estate in Roxbury , on which he built an elaborate mansion , now known as the Shirley @-@ Eustis House . Before the building was complete his wife died of a fever in August 1746 ; she was interred in King 's Chapel .

= = = Impressment crisis = = =

While Governor Shirley was at Louisbourg trouble had been brewing between the Royal Navy and the people of Boston . The Navy had long sought to press Americans into service on its ships . Impressment was a long @-@ standing practice in Britain , but its application in America was resisted by the colonists . In 1702 Fort William on Castle Island had fired on HMS Swift as it tried to leave Boston Harbour with six recently impressed men aboard . As a result of American complaints ( reinforced by British merchants ) , Parliament in 1708 banned impressment in the American colonies . Navy leaders argued that the American exemption from impressment had been in force only during Queen Anne 's War , which ended in 1713 . In practice , Royal Navy captains had to apply to colonial governors for a license to press men . In late November 1745 a fight between a press gang and some sailors staying in a boarding house in Boston left two of the sailors with fatal injuries . Two members of the press gang were charged with murder and convicted , but were released when the indictment was found invalid .

Two years later Commodore Charles Knowles , who served as Governor of Louisbourg after its capture , had a large number of seamen from Boston harbour impressed for service in his squadron . A mob of more than 300 men seized three naval officers and a deputy sheriff and beat the sheriff . The mob then went to Governor Shirley 's house , demanding the release of the men impressed by Knowles . Shirley tried to call out the militia , but they did not respond . Shirley did succeed in getting the naval officers into his house , and the mob eventually left . Later in the day Shirley went to the Town House to meet the people . The mob , now consisting of several thousand people , attacked the Town House , breaking many windows in the building . Shirley spoke to the mob and promised to present their demands to Commodore Knowles . The mob left , intending to find a Royal Navy ship to burn .

After Shirley had returned home that afternoon , the mob , which had seized another naval officer and several petty officers , returned to his house . Shirley ordered a number of armed men who were protecting his house to fire at the mob , but William Pepperrell was able to stop Shirley 's men from firing and to persuade the mob to leave . In the meantime , Commodore Knowles threatened to bombard Boston with his squadron . It was only after the Massachusetts Council adopted resolutions in support of the demands of the mob that the situation became quieter in Boston . The mob eventually released its hostages and Knowles released the impressed seamen .

= = = Compensation and currency = = =

Another issue of contention was compensation to the American colonies by Britain for the costs of the expedition against Louisbourg and the long occupation by American troops until the British Army finally took over . This presented Shirley with a problem , because the expedition 's leaders , including his former ally Samuel Waldo , grossly inflated their claimed costs . Waldo used Shirley 's unwillingness to openly act against him to begin his own efforts to topple the governor . Shirley was only able to forestall this effort by promising the colonial administration that he would achieve financial stability in the province by retiring its paper currency .

The British government was also slow in responding to requests for compensation . While waiting for a response , the question of how to use any compensation was debated in provincial newspapers and pamphlets . Some , such as Samuel Adams ( father of the famous American Revolution leader ) , advocated placing the money in London banks to serve as backing for the paper currency issued by the colonies . Others , including William Douglass and Thomas Hutchinson , speaker of the General Court , favoured using the compensation to redeem the paper currency and give Massachusetts a hard currency . In 1748 the Treaty of Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle returned Louibourg to France , with Massachusetts still awaiting compensation for its seizure .

In the meantime , Governor Shirley had been trying to finance a campaign to capture Fort St. Frédéric ( at present @-@ day Crown Point , New York ) , for which he issued more paper money . The campaign was abandoned when the colonies failed to support it , but the resulting inflation helped turn supporters of Shirley against him . The loss of Louisbourg increase public dissatisfaction with Shirley , who seen as complicit in British scheming against the American colonies . Even William Pepperrell joined the large number of citizens calling for Shirley 's removal . Samuel Adams edited and Gamaliel Rogers and Daniel Fowle published The Independent Advertiser , which regularly criticised the British government and Shirley 's administration . The paper published several of Shirley 's letters to officials in Britain that were critical of Americans , and regularly called for the governor 's removal . William Douglass , a prominent physician in Boston , wrote a series of pamphlets ( published by Rogers and Fowle ) attacking Shirley , Commodore Knowles , and the whole conduct of the campaign for Louisbourg and its occupation . Both Shirley and Knowles sued Douglass for libel , but lost their cases in court .

Shirley 's conflict with Samuel Waldo over expenses eventually reached a high pitch : Shirley had successfully attached some of Waldo 's assets in legal action , which Waldo had countered with further legal action . Shirley appealed these actions to London , and was granted permission ( received in August 1749 ) to travel to London to deal with the matter . He sailed for Britain in September 1749 , just before the long promised compensation reached Boston . Under legislation shepherded by Thomas Hutchinson , the specie delivered was used to retire the paper currency . While Shirley was abroad , Hutchinson , Andrew Oliver , and others served as his surrogates , and he carefully instructed Lieutenant Governor Spencer Phips to not give his enemies opportunities to manoeuvre in his absence .

= = European interlude = =

In London Shirley met with Newcastle and the colonial secretary , the Duke of Bedford to discuss colonial matters and his situation . Newcastle ordered the military books of Waldo and Pepperrell to be scrutinized ; the analysis was found to confirm Shirley 's position . Shirley 's accounts were also examined , and were found to be " made up with great exaction " , " more conformable to his Majesty 's orders ... than any other of the colonies . "

Shirley also communicated political concerns over which he and New York Governor George Clinton had commiserated . While he was in London , word arrived that Clinton wanted to leave his post . Shirley applied to Newcastle for the job , but was turned down . Newcastle may have been upset with Shirley , who had accepted an unexpected offer from Bedford to participate in a commission established to delineate the boundaries between the British and French territories in North America . The commission was set to meet in Paris , and Shirley saw it as an opportunity to advance his expansionist views . Newcastle and Bedford were at the time involved in a political struggle , and Newcastle was unhappy that Shirley had accepted Bedford 's offer . Shirley was able to convince Newcastle that his experience and position would be of use in the negotiations .

The commission met in Paris , and Shirley was accompanied by William Mildmay , a somewhat mild @-@ mannered merchant , as cocommissioner . Shirley adopted a hard line in the negotiations , arguing in a technical and lawyerly fashion for an expansive reading of British territory ; he claimed all territory east of a line from the Kennebec River north to the Saint Lawrence River , while the French claimed all of that area except peninsular Nova Scotia . Shirley 's approach served to harden negotiating positions and bogged the commission 's work down in minutiae . When Mildmay complained of this to London , Bedford rebuked Shirley for spending too much effort on trivialities . While the negotiations dragged on , both French and British operatives were actively expanding their interests in the Ohio River valley , raising tensions .

In 1751 Shirley incited a minor scandal when he married Julie , the young daughter of his Paris landlord . He was recalled to London after Mildmay complained that Shirley was taking actions without consulting him . Shirley returned to London convinced that the French needed to be driven from North America . Mildmay attempted to continue the negotiations , believing that he could overcome Shirley 's previous obstructionism , but the negotiations ended in failure .

Shirley renewed his application for the New York governorship , but was snubbed by Newcastle , who was upset over Shirley 's marriage . He was instead ordered to return to Massachusetts . This he did , leaving his wife in London . It is unclear if they ever saw each other again : biographer John Schutz believes they did not , but family lore is that they were reunited after Shirley left the Massachusetts governorship .

= = Return to Massachusetts = =

The opposition in Massachusetts to Shirley had died down while he was in England and Paris . Shirley soon had to deal with the increasing conflict on the frontier with French Canada . Tensions had been increasing , particularly in the Ohio Country , where British and French traders were coming into conflict . When ( false ) rumors reached Boston in 1754 of French military activity on the province 's northern frontier ( Maine ) , Shirley was quick to organize an expedition to the Kennebec River to bolster the area 's defenses . This expedition erected Fort Halifax in what is now Winslow , Maine . News of hostilities in the Ohio Country brought further urgency to that matter , as well as attendance at a planned conference of colonies at Albany , New York . Because of the urgency , and the support of politically powerful Maine landowners , Shirley 's relationship with the provincial assembly was relatively good . Shirley instructed the provincial representatives to the Albany Conference to seek a colonial union , but the provincial assembly ( along with those of other provinces ) rejected the conference 's proposals .

= = = Seven Years War : 1755 campaigns = = =

Shirley was approached by Nova Scotia Governor Charles Lawrence for assistance in dealing with the French threat on that province 's frontiers , suggesting that the collaborate on military actions there . Shirley and Lawrence believed their proposed expedition would also require assistance from Britain , and sent letters requesting the same . At the same time they ramped up preparations in anticipation of the request being approved . Shirley was also ordered to activate and recruit for his regiment , which was to serve in Braddock 's force . Because he could not leave the province he sent one of his sons to New York to recruit troops there ; Massachusetts men were being drafted for the Nova Scotia expedition . He furthermore revived the idea of an expedition against Fort St. Frédéric , although he limited the first year 's action to the establishment of a fort at the southern end of Lake George , and sought to draw the leaders of neighboring colonies to assist in the operation . He mollified New York 's Acting Governor James DeLancey , who was generally hostile to Massachusetts interests , by proposing that the expedition be led by New York 's Indian Commissioner , Colonel William Johnson . Johnson was at first reluctant , but Shirley was able to convince him to take the command .

Since the French and Indian War had become a matter of imperial concern , two British Army regiments under General Edward Braddock were sent to America . In written exchanges , Braddock announced his intention to use this force against Fort Duquesne in the Ohio Country , while Shirley unsuccessfully lobbied him to instead target Fort Niagara . At a conference of governors and military leaders in April 1755 Shirley favorably impressed Braddock . Braddock declared that Duquesne would be his target , but he authorized Shirley to take his regiment and that of Sir William Pepperrell to Fort Niagara , and confirmed Johnson 's command of the Lake George campaign . Braddock 's instructions only gave Shirley the vaguest command over Johnson , which was to later become a source of trouble . The two northern expeditions were to be made without logistical assistance from the regular army .

From the conference Shirley traveled to New York City , where he negotiated with merchants for supplying his expedition . The frosty relationship he had with Governor DeLancey continued ; the DeLanceys objected to what they saw as Massachusetts interference in their provincial affairs . When Shirley moved to prevent New York agent Oliver DeLancey from recruiting in Connecticut , it caused a stink and threatened to derail planning for the New York expeditions . Shirley then created a breach with Johnson by attempting to siphon troops from Johnson 's command to increase his own force for the Fort Niagara expedition . The antagonism was furthered by the fact that the two expeditions were competing for supplies from the same sources , and was also exacerbated by ongoing border disputes between the provinces .

When Shirley and Johnson met in July 1755 before their respective expeditions set off , tension between the two men continued , and Johnson delayed decisions on assigning Indian auxiliaries to Shirley 's campaign , observing that much of the expedition was traveling through friendly Iroquois territory , where they would not yet be needed . Shirley took offense at this as an act of insubordination . Believing he outranked Johnson , Shirley next sought to bypass the Indian agent and negotiate directly with the tribes for recruits , but Johnson and his subordinates actively opposed the move . The Iroquois also objected to the presence of Shirley 's recruiting agent , Colonel John Lydius , with whom they had outstanding issues over past land transactions . The situation was not made easier by the fact that neither Johnson nor Shirley had ever commanded expeditions of the size and scope proposed .

Shirley 's expedition reached Fort Oswego in mid @-@ August . The trek up the Mohawk River had been slowed by low water , and it was being incompetently supplied , resulting in a shortage of provisions . Shirley learned en route that General Braddock had died in the aftermath of the 13 July Battle of the Monongahela , which also claimed the life of Shirley 's son William . As a result , he became temporary commander @-@ in @-@ chief of North American forces . His expedition then became bogged down at Fort Oswego by the need to improve its defenses , and the ongoing provisioning crisis . In a council on 18 September it was decided to proceed with plans to reach Fort Niagara , but one week later the decision was reversed . Shirley returned to Albany , preoccupied with the need to manage the entire British war effort on the continent .

William Johnson 's expedition fared little better than Shirley 's . He reached the southern end of Lake George , where his forces had an inconclusive encounter with French forces on 8 September , and began work on Fort William Henry . Rumors of French movements brought a flurry of activity in November , but when the opposition failed to materialize , much of Johnson 's force abandoned the camp to return home . Shirley had to pressure New England 's governors to assign militia to the new posting for the winter .

In Nova Scotia , Governor Lawrence had easily captured Fort Beauséjour , and had then embarked on what has since become known as the Great Expulsion , the forcible removal of more than 12 @,@ 000 Acadians from Nova Scotia . When some of the ships carrying the Acadians entered Boston Harbor in early December 1755 , Shirley ordered that they not disembark . For three winter months , until March 1756 , the Acadians remained on the ships , where half died from the cold weather and malnutrition .

= = = Seven Years War : 1756 campaigns = = =

During the winter of 1755 – 56 Shirley 's feud with Johnson continued . Johnson , who was being advised by Thomas Pownall , continued to assert his exclusive authority over interactions with Indians , and renewed complaints about Shirley 's interference in recruiting for the 1755 campaign . In one letter Johnson wrote that Shirley had " become my inveterate enemy " who would do everything he could " to blast if he can my character . " Johnson made common cause with the DeLanceys ( to whom he was related by marriage ) in their dislike of Shirley . They all fed unflattering reports to the new New York governor , Sir Charles Hardy , who forwarded them on to London . Shirley was unaware of this looming threat to his authority .

As commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Shirley made a grandiose proposal for the 1756 campaign season in November 1755 , continuing the routes of attack begun in 1755 and adding an expedition to Quebec via the Kennebec River . However , the complaints against him had reached the Duke of Newcastle , who felt he needed someone less embroiled in controversies with other leaders in charge of military matters in North America . British leaders had also received intercepted letters destined for France that some believed might have been written by Shirley , in part because he married a Frenchwoman . Thomas Pownall traveled to London in early 1756 and further denounced Shirley to the colonial administration . Shirley did not learn of these matters until April 1756 , by which time the British leadership had already decided to replace him as commander @-@ in @-@ chief .

While waiting for his replacement ( Lord Loudoun ) Shirley made every effort to advance supplies and reinforcements to the Fort Oswego garrison , which had been on short rations for the winter , and whose supply line had been interrupted by the Battle of Fort Bull in March 1756 . He continued to mobilize resources and personnel for at least the Oswego and Lake George efforts , but his authority was waning due to widespread knowledge of his replacement . Military affairs continued to deteriorate on the New York frontier before Loudoun finally arrived in July 1756 ; Fort Oswego fell to the French on 10 August .

Although Shirley had been removed as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , he retained the Massachusetts governorship . He expected to lose even that post not long after his return to Boston in August . However , no replacement had yet been named , and Loudoun saw either Shirley 's interference or ineffectiveness in all that was wrong on the New York frontier . He also raised detailed questions about Shirley 's war @-@ related expenditures , which he ( and later historians ) concluded was poorly @-@ disguised patronage spending . Loudoun and Shirley argued over many issues , including Shirley 's continuance of military preparations after January 1756 , when Loudoun 's commission was issued . Shirley pointed out that British leadership could hardly expect preparations to cease in the interval between Loudoun 's commission and his arrival to take command . While he waited for a replacement to be announced , Shirley took depositions , gathered evidence to support his version of affairs , and worked to close his financial affairs down . ( Loudoun was of the opinion that Shirley delayed his departure intentionally as a political maneuver . ) He sailed for England in October 1756 . Shirley would be formally replaced by Thomas Pownall in 1757 .

= = Later life = =

Upon his arrival in London , Shirley was received by Newcastle and other sympathetic figures , but Newcastle had been forced from office by the poor showing in the war , and Shirley 's ongoing disagreements with Loudoun meant he was unlikely to receive another North American posting . Newcastle then withdrew his support from Shirley over a hearing into matters disputed between Loudoun and Shirley . Shirley was not granted formal hearings on other aspects of his conduct , and managed to convince Newcastle to overlook the matter of his " muddled " accounts . His prospects brightened when Loudoun and Pownall were both damaged by the continued poor military performance in North America ( notably the debacle of the Siege of Fort William Henry in August 1757 , which resulted in Loudoun 's recall ) . These failures served to rehabilitate Shirley and bring him back into Newcastle 's good graces .

In late 1758 Shirley was commissioned as Governor of the Bahamas . This was followed in early 1759 with a promotion to lieutenant general . After a lengthy passage , Shirley arrived in the Bahamas on 31 December , when his ship was wrecked on a reef in the islands . He eventually arrived without incident or injury at Nassau and assumed the reins of power . His rule was quiet ; dealing with smugglers in the islands was the major issue demanding the governor 's attention . In part to combat illicit trade he lobbied the London government that Nassau be established as a free port . Although he was influential in this regard , Nassau did not receive this status until after he left office . He also oversaw renovations to the governor 's mansion , and promoted the construction of churches with funding from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel . In 1765 , after his wife 's death , he took his children to England so that they could be properly cared for . He returned to the islands , where he had to deal with protests of the recently enacted Stamp Act . When he proposed the use of the stamps on official documents to the local assembly , the reaction in opposition was so visceral that Shirley dissolved the body . By the time the next assembly met , the Stamp Act had been repealed .

His health failing , Shirley was eventually replaced as governor by his son Thomas , who was appointed in November 1767 and arrived to assume office the following year . Shirley sailed for Boston , where he took up residence in his old house in Roxbury with his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law . There he died on 24 March 1771 . After a state funeral , he was interred in King 's Chapel .

= = Family and legacy = =

His son Thomas became a major general in the British army , was created a baronet in 1786 , and served , after his posting to the Bahamas , as Governor of Dominica and Governor of the Leeward Islands . He died in 1800 . Another son , William Jr . , was killed in 1755 at the Battle of the Monongahela whilst serving with Edward Braddock . Shirley 's daughter Anne married John Erving , a member of the Massachusetts Governor 's Council .

Shirley built a family home in Roxbury between 1747 and 1751 . He sold it to his daughter and son @-@ in @-@ law , Eliakim Hutchinson , in 1763 . It later came into the hands of William Eustis , Governor of Massachusetts in the 19th century . Now known as the Shirley @-@ Eustis House , it still stands at 33 Shirley Street . It has largely been restored and is a museum open to the public .

The town of Shirley , Massachusetts was founded during his term as Massachusetts governor . The Winthrop , Massachusetts geographical feature Shirley Point and the former feature Shirley Gut are named for him . Shirley helped to establish a cod fishery in Winthrop in 1753 . Shirley is also the namesake of Shirley Street in Halifax , Nova Scotia ( which is parallel to Pepperell Street , named after William Pepperell ) .

= = Works = =

Shirley , William ( 1746 ) . Letter to the Duke of Newcastle , with a Journal of the Siege of Louisburg . London : E. Owen . OCLC 753169340 .

Shirley , William ; Alexander , William ( 1758 ) . The Conduct of Major Gen. William Shirley briefly stated . London : R. and J. Dodsley . OCLC 10899657 .

Shirley , William ( 1912 ) . Lincoln , Charles Henry , ed . Correspondence of William Shirley , Volume 1 . New York : Macmillan . OCLC 1222698 .

Shirley , William ( 1912 ) . Lincoln , Charles Henry , ed . Correspondence of William Shirley , Volume 2 . New York : Macmillan . OCLC 1222698 .

= 1925 Florida tropical storm =

The 1925 Florida tropical storm was the deadliest tropical cyclone to impact the United States that did not become a hurricane . The fourth and final storm of the season , it formed as a tropical depression on November 27 near the Yucatán Peninsula , the system initially tracked southeastward before turning north as it gradually intensified . After skirting western Cuba on November 30 , the storm reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) before striking central Florida on December 1 . Within hours , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean . The system moved onshore once more on December 2 in North Carolina before turning east , away from the United States . On December 5 , the system is presumed to have dissipated offshore .

Throughout the system 's existence , it was responsible for 73 fatalities , most of which resulted from offshore incidents . The worst loss of life took place off East Coast , where the 30 crewmen of the American SS Catopazi drowned . Property damage amounted to $ 3 million , $ 1 million of which was in Jacksonville .

= = Meteorological history = =

The 1925 Florida tropical storm was first identified on November 27 , 1925 as a tropical depression situated to the southeast of the Yucatán Peninsula , nearly a month after the official end of the hurricane season . Situated over 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) waters , the system slowly intensified , attaining tropical storm status roughly 12 hours after forming , as it drifted towards the southeast before abruptly turning north @-@ northwestward . Throughout November 30 , the storm quickly strengthened as it brushed the western tip of Cuba with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , the storm turned northeastward and intensified to peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . The lowest known barometric pressure attained by the storm was 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 38 inHg ) as it moved inland . Within hours of reaching this strength , the storm made landfall just south of Fort Myers , Florida early on December 1 as it began to transition into an extratropical cyclone . The storm was originally thought to have moved ashore as a minimal hurricane , thus becoming the latest @-@ landfalling hurricane in United States history . However , a reanalysis in 2011 lowered the peak winds . While crossing the Florida peninsula , the storm briefly weakened as it completed its transition ; however , once back over water , it re @-@ intensified .

Off the coast of The Carolinas , the former tropical storm became a large and powerful extratropical cyclone , attaining peak winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) along with a pressure of 979 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 91 inHg ) , measured by the USS Patoka . Gale force winds extended to at least New Jersey , where winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) were recorded . Throughout December 2 , the storm gradually slowed as it tracked roughly parallel to the East Coast . Later that day , the system moved onshore again , this time between Wilmington and Cape Hatteras , with winds equivalent to a minimal hurricane . A strong area of high pressure located over the Canadian Maritimes caused the system to turn towards the east @-@ southeast . Over the following few days , the storm gradually weakened as it moved away from North Carolina . By December 5 , the storm was no longer identifiable and is presumed to have dissipated offshore . However , a monthly weather review published in 1925 that documented the system indicated that the cyclone continued towards the east , eventually impacting Bermuda and the Azores . Later analysis in 2009 concluded that a separate extratropical low , which formed near the remnants of the storm , was responsible for inclement weather in both areas .

= = Impact = =

From November 28 to November 30 , the storm brought light rains to most of eastern Cuba . Although the cyclone had tropical storm @-@ force winds at the time , the highest recorded wind in Cuba was 12 mph ( 18 km / h ) in Havana and only 0 @.@ 22 in ( 5 @.@ 58 mm ) of rain fell in the city . The Swan Islands , off the northern coast of Honduras , recorded 2 @.@ 36 in ( 59 @.@ 94 mm ) of precipitation during a three @-@ day span .

= = = United States = = =

During its passage through Florida , the storm produced torrential rain over coastal cities , peaking in Miami at 14 @.@ 08 in ( 358 mm ) . The storm caused significant property and crop damage along the Gulf Coast of Florida . Trees , power lines , and telegraph wires were knocked down by high winds along the Suwannee River . Communication throughout southern Florida was severed as miles of telegraph wires were downed during the evening of November 30 . Structures previously considered safe from storms due to their location over 100 ft ( 30 @.@ 4 m ) inland sustained significant damage , probably from storm surge . Beaches along the Atlantic coast also sustained considerable damages from the storm . Four people were killed near Tampa in two separate incidents . The first occurred when a house collapsed on three men , pinning them to the ground . The second incident occurred after a woman ran outside her home and was struck by a tree limb . At least 12 workmen were killed and 38 others injured after the bunkhouse they were sleeping in collapsed due to high winds . The facility in which they were working in also sustained $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage from a fire ignited by the cyclone . Throughout Florida , property loses were estimated at $ 3 million , with $ 1 million in Jacksonville alone . Damages to the citrus industry were also significant , with total losses exceeding $ 600 @,@ 000 . Losses in Miami amounted to $ 250 @,@ 000 as up to 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) inundated the city for more than two days .

Shipping incidents resulting from the storm caused several deaths . A schooner carrying seven people sunk , killing all its occupants . A tug boat sank off the coast of Mobile , Alabama while towing a lumber barge ; the fate of the crew is unknown . A ship named the American SS Catopazi sank between Charleston , South Carolina and the northern coast of Cuba , with all 30 crew members lost . Near Daytona Beach , a vessel carrying 2 @,@ 000 cases of liquor sank along with all six crewmen . The last incident , involving a yacht , occurred off the coast of Georgia . The ship sank near Savannah , Georgia with the 12 crew members drowning . The total loss of life at sea was at least 55 . Shipping throughout the East Coast was crippled by the storm as vessels were forced to seek shelter at port .

Due to the large size of the storm as an extratropical cyclone , gale and storm warnings in force from Beaufort , North Carolina to Eastport , Maine . In North Carolina , heavy rains and strong winds were reported along the coast . Near record high water rises were recorded around Wilmington . Cape Hatteras was temporarily isolated from the surrounding areas as the high winds from the storm knocked down power lines throughout the area . Several buildings along the coast and numerous boats sustained considerable damage . As far north as New Jersey , gale @-@ force winds produced by the powerful extratropical storm caused significant damage and killed at least two people . Large swells and high winds throughout New Jersey , southern New York and Connecticut resulted in significant damage . Along the coast of Long Island , large waves resulted in severe beach erosion which threatened to undermine homes . Parts of Coney Island were inundated by the increased surf , damaging homes and businesses . Several barges in nearby marinas were torn from their moorings and swept out to sea . In Sandy Hook , several workmen were nearly killed after a building collapsed amidst high winds . Minor precipitation was recorded throughout Rhode Island , peaking at 0 @.@ 62 in ( 16 mm ) .

= Joan Curran =

Joan Elizabeth Curran ( 26 February 1916 – 10 February 1999 ) was a Welsh scientist who played important roles in the development of radar and the atomic bomb during the Second World War . She invented chaff , a radar countermeasure technique credited with reducing losses among Allied bomber crews . She also worked on the development of the proximity fuse and the electromagnetic isotope separation process for the atomic bomb .

= = Early life = =

Joan Elizabeth Strothers was born on 26 February 1916 in Swansea , Wales , the daughter of an optician , Charles William Strothers , and his wife , Margaret Beatrice , née Millington . She was educated at Swansea Girls ' High School , and in 1934 won an open scholarship to Newnham College , Cambridge . In 1935 , she rowed for the ladies ' university eight , in the first real Women 's boat race against Oxford . She gained an honours degree in physics , which was not awarded because it was before women were allowed Cambridge degrees . In her seventies , in 1987 , she was honoured with the degree of Doctor of Laws honoris causa by the University of Strathclyde .

Strothers , who " had the scientific equivalent of gardening green fingers " , was awarded a government grant to study for a higher degree , and elected to go to the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge , where she joined Sam Curran in a team under the direction of Philip Dee . She soon established a reputation for " extreme dexterity and being outstandingly neat and skilful in the deployment of equipment . " In 1939 , Dee proposed that the team spend a month at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough Airfield . They arrived on 1 September 1939 . Two days later , Britain declared war on Germany , and Britain entered the Second World War .

= = Second World War = =

Instead of returning to the Cavendish , the team moved to Exeter , where Dee and three others worked on developing rockets as anti @-@ aircraft weapons , while Strothers and Curran joined a group under John Coles working on the development of the proximity fuse . Strothers was based at Leeson House and Durnford School . She and Curran developed a workable fuse , which was codenamed VT , an acronym of " Variable Time fuze " . The system was a small , short @-@ range , Doppler radar that used a clever circuit . However , Britain lacked the capacity to mass @-@ produce the fuze , so the design was shown to the United States by the Tizard Mission in late 1940 . The Americans perfected and mass @-@ produced the fuse . In due course , these proximity fuses arrived in the United Kingdom , where they played an important part in the defence of the kingdom against the V @-@ 1 flying bomb .

Strothers married Curran on 7 November 1940 . Soon afterwards they were transferred to the Telecommunications Research Establishment near Swanage , where Sam worked on centimetric radar , while Joan joined the Counter Measures Group in an adjoining lab . It was with this group , at Swanage , and later at Malvern , that Joan devised the technique that was codenamed Window , which is also known as chaff . She tried various types of radar reflectors , including wires and sheets , before settling on strips of tin foil 1 to 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide and 25 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) long that could be scattered from bombers , thus disrupting the enemy 's radar . Window was first employed in Operation Gomorrah , a series of raids on Hamburg , and resulted in a much lower loss rate than usual . As part of Operation Taxable on 5 – 6 June 1944 , Window was dropped by Avro Lancasters of 617 Squadron to synthesise a phantom invasion force of ships in the Straits of Dover and keep the Germans unsure as to whether the brunt of the Allied assault would fall on Normandy or in the Pas de Calais area . R. V. Jones later declared : " In my opinion , Joan Curran made an even greater contribution to victory , in 1945 , than Sam . "

In early 1944 the Currans were part of a group of British scientists invited to go to the US to take part in the Manhattan Project – the Allied project to develop an atomic bomb . They joined the British Mission at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory in California , headed by Mark Oliphant , a distinguished Australian scientist that Joan knew from the Cavendish Laboratory . Oliphant also acted as de facto deputy to Ernest Lawrence , the director of the Radiation Laboratory . The mission of the laboratory was to develop the electromagnetic isotope separation process to create enriched uranium for use in atomic bombs .

While at Berkeley , Joan gave birth to her first child , a daughter , Sheena , who was born severely mentally handicapped . They later had three sons , all of whom went on to complete a PhD .

= = Later life = =

After the war ended , Sam took up an offer from Dee to become Professor of Natural Philosophy at Glasgow University . In Glasgow , the Currans , together with a few friends , set up the Scottish Society for the Parents of Mentally Handicapped Children ( Enable ) , which eventually grew to 100 branches and more than 5000 members . Later , when Joan was a member of the Greater Glasgow Health Board and the Scottish Special Housing Association , the needs of the disabled were always at the forefront of her mind , and she did much to promote their welfare . She took a close interest in the work of the Council for Access for the Disabled and helped improve the range of facilities , especially for disabled university students .

Sam worked at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston on the development of the British hydrogen bomb from 1955 to 1959 . He returned to Glasgow in 1959 as principal the Royal College of Science and Technology . When it became the University of Strathclyde in 1964 , the first new university in Scotland in 384 years , he became its first Principal and Vice Chancellor . While her husband was Principal , Joan founded the Strathclyde Women 's Group and became its president .

During the war the Polish 1st Armoured Division had been based in Scotland , establishing ties between the community and Poland . Joan promoted a special relationship with the Technical University of Lodz , and also devoted care and attention to the children 's hospital of that city . Later she established the Lady Curran Endowment fund for overseas , particularly Polish , students .

Sam died on 25 February 1998 . While gravely ill with cancer in 1998 , Joan unveiled a memorial plaque in Barony Hall , Glasgow , to commemorate her husband , and it was announced that the walled garden at Ross Priory , on Loch Lomondside , was to be named in her honour , and the Joan Curran Summer House would be built there . Joan died on 10 February 1999 , and was cremated at the Daldowie Crematorium . Her daughter , Sheena , three sons and three grandsons survived her .

= The Last Temptation of Krust =

" The Last Temptation of Krust " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 22 , 1998 . It was written by Donick Cary and directed by Mike B. Anderson . Comedian Jay Leno makes a guest appearance . In the episode , Bart convinces Krusty the Clown to appear at a comedy festival organized by Jay Leno , but Krusty 's old material does not go over well with the audience and he receives bad reviews . He briefly retires from comedy but returns with a new , more well received gimmick . He soon returns to his old ways , selling out to a motor @-@ vehicle company .

The production team 's decision to write an episode about stand @-@ up comedy was influenced by comedy festivals . The writing staff initially had trouble getting Krusty 's offensive bad jokes through network censors , but convinced them this was simply a way to emphasize his old and dated comedic material . The " Canyonero " sequence was modeled after Ford commercials and was given its own segment at the end of the episode because the production staff liked it so much . The episode was highlighted by USA Today in a review of The Simpsons ' ninth season and received positive reviews in The Washington Times , the Evening Herald , and in books on The Simpsons .

= = Plot = =

Krusty is persuaded by Bart to appear at a comedy festival organized by Jay Leno . His old @-@ fashioned and outdated material fails to impress the audience when compared with the more trendy comedians also appearing . After reading a critical review of his act in the press , Krusty decides to go on a " bender to end all benders " and a montage sequence shows him getting drunk . After Bart finds him passed out on Ned Flanders ' lawn , he enlists the help of Leno to clean him up . Krusty holds a press conference to announce his retirement and in short order launches into a bitter tirade against modern @-@ day comedians . The audience finds Krusty 's rant hysterically funny and he subsequently announces his return to comedy .

Krusty is inspired to return to doing low @-@ key events , where he structures a new image for himself as a stand @-@ up comedian who tells the truth , criticizes commercialism , and refuses to sell out to corporate America . He also changes his appearance , sporting a dark sweater and tying his hair in a ponytail . Observing his newfound popularity , two marketing executives try to persuade Krusty to endorse a new sport utility vehicle called the Canyonero . Although he tries to resist , he eventually succumbs to the lure of money . After promoting the Canyonero at a comedy performance in Moe 's Tavern , he is booed off stage by the patrons . He finally admits to himself that comedy is not in his blood and selling out is . The episode ends with an extended advertisement for the Canyonero , as Krusty and Bart leave Moe 's tavern in Krusty 's new SUV .

= = Production = =

In the DVD commentary for The Simpsons ' ninth season , writer Donick Cary stated that the inspiration for the idea of an episode about stand @-@ up comedy came out of comedy festivals at the time . Executive producer Mike Scully said that the writers had difficulty getting Krusty 's offensive bad jokes through the network censors . The stereotypical jokes were allowed because the writers convinced the network censors that viewers would understand it was simply emphasizing Krusty 's dated comedic material .

Mike B. Anderson stated that at least three different acts of material were written and animated for Krusty 's comeback stand @-@ up appearance at Moe 's Tavern . It was not until the editing process that the material used was decided upon . The episode was still being animated three weeks before it was due to air and the production process moved frantically shortly before completion . The Canyonero sequence was originally planned to be displayed during the closing credits . The production team liked the scene so much that they did not want it to be obscured by the credits and gave it its own segment at the end of the episode .

= = Cultural references = =

In addition to Jay Leno , other real @-@ life comedians that portrayed themselves in the episode include Steven Wright , Janeane Garofalo , Bobcat Goldthwait , and Bruce Baum , whose appearance helped increase his popularity . Krusty 's " Krustylu Studios " is a spoof on the company Desilu studios , set up by Lucille Ball and her husband Desi Arnaz , where the series Star Trek was once filmed . During Krusty 's " bender to end all benders " montage , he is seen drinking out of and vomiting into the Stanley Cup . The National Hockey League sent a letter regarding this scene . Mike Scully described it as a " kind of a cease and desist " , but the production staff decided not to cut the scene from the episode . Krusty attends the coffee shop Java the Hut , a reference to the Star Wars character Jabba the Hutt .

= = = Canyonero = = =

The " Canyonero " song and visual sequence was modeled after Ford commercials . The sequence is a parody of a commercial for a sport utility vehicle and Hank Williams Jr. sings a song about the Canyonero accompanied by country guitar music and whip cracks . The song " Canyonero " closely resembles the theme to the 1960s television series Rawhide . This episode was the first appearance of the Canyonero , which again appeared in the season 10 episode " Marge Simpson in : " Screaming Yellow Honkers " " . The " Canyonero " song is included on the 1999 soundtrack album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons .

Chris Turner wrote positively of the Canyonero spoof piece in Planet Simpson : How a Cartoon Masterpiece Defined a Generation , calling it " a brilliant parody of an SUV ad " . In an article in the journal Environmental Politics Steve Vanderheiden commented that the Canyonero reflected an " anti @-@ SUV " stance by The Simpsons . Vanderheiden wrote : " Even the popular animated television series ‘ The Simpsons ’ joined the anti @-@ SUV fray in 1998 , featuring a mammoth vehicle called the ‘ Canyonero ’ ( marketed with the jingle : ‘ Twelve yards long , two lanes wide / Sixty @-@ five tons of American pride ! ’ ) , which promised to help the family transcend its mundane station @-@ wagon existence but instead brought only misery . " The term " Canyonero " has since been used in the news media to refer critically to large trucks and SUVs . In an article in the San Francisco Chronicle about SUV owners , Vicki Haddock wrote " SUV owners have become something of a punch line , succinctly captured in a " Simpsons " parody touting the apocryphal Canyonero " . In a 2006 article , Seth Jayson of The Motley Fool compared the wording in a Ford advertisement myFord Owner Magazine to this episode , writing : " the unholiest of unholies is the writing , which is so thick with absurd adspeak , you 'd think it was written by the crew at The Onion or The Simpsons – especially that episode where Krusty starts shilling for the Canyonero . " In a 2004 article in the Chicago Tribune , Jim Mateja noted that people have pointed out a similarity between the GMC Canyon and the Canyonero . When contacted , GMC responded that the GMC is a pickup truck , while the Canyonero is a parody of an SUV . Joshua Dowling of The Sun Herald described the philosophy of the Ford F @-@ 250 as " The Canyonero comes to life " .

= = Reception = =

In its original broadcast , " The Last Temptation of Krust " finished 21st in ratings for the week of February 16 – 23 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , The World 's Scariest Police Chases , and King of the Hill .

In 2006 , USA Today highlighted the episode in a review of The Simpsons ninth season . In his review of the season nine DVD , Joseph Szadkowski of The Washington Times noted : " Among the 22 @-@ minute gems found in the set , I most enjoyed ... [ Krusty 's ] work with Jay Leno . " Mark Evans of the Evening Herald wrote : " ' The Last Temptation of Krust ' is a winner for its title alone as Krusty the clown becomes a satiric ' alternative ' comedian but then sells out by advertising the Canyonero SUV road hazard . " Alan Sepinwall wrote positively of the episode in The Star @-@ Ledger , citing the Canyonero sequence as " the real reason to watch " the episode and that " It 's an oversize vehicle that will create oversized laughs . " Some sources mistakenly refer to this episode as " The Last Temptation of Krusty " .

In the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood characterized the episode as " a good twist on the never @-@ ending Krusty story " and suggested that while " Jay Leno turns in a nice cameo [ ... ] the show is stolen by the advert for the Canyonero " . The authors also praised Krusty 's " ponytail and black sweater " look . In the DVD audio commentary for " The Last Temptation of Krust " , Leno said that he believed the essence of comedy clubs was depicted very well in the episode and referred to Krusty 's remodeled appearance as " [ George ] Carlin post @-@ Vegas act " . He also appreciated Krusty 's poke at Leno 's use of news headlines on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and said that he could not figure out whether parts of the episode were making fun of him or complimenting him . William Irwin 's The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer references a scene from the episode as an example of Marge 's passive resistance , her moral influence on Lisa , and her value as a role model for her children .

= Reg Saunders =

Reginald Walter " Reg " Saunders , MBE ( 7 August 1920 – 2 March 1990 ) was the first Aboriginal Australian to be commissioned as an officer in the Australian Army . He came from a military family , his forebears having served in the Boer War and the First World War . Enlisting as a soldier in 1940 , he saw action during the Second World War in North Africa , Greece and Crete , before being commissioned as a lieutenant and serving as a platoon commander in New Guinea during 1944 – 45 . His younger brother Harry also joined the Army , and was killed in 1942 .

After the war , Saunders was demobilised and returned to civilian life . He later served as a company commander with the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) during the Korean War , where he fought at the Battle of Kapyong . Saunders left the Army in 1954 and worked in the logging and metal industries , before joining the Office of Aboriginal Affairs ( later the Department of Aboriginal Affairs ) as a liaison officer in 1969 . In 1971 , he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) for his community service . He died in 1990 , aged 69 .

= = Early life = =

Saunders was born near Purnim on the Framlingham Aboriginal Reserve in western Victoria on 7 August 1920 . He was a member of the Gunditjmara people . His father , Chris , was a veteran of the First World War , having served as a machine gunner in the Australian Imperial Force . One of his uncles , William Reginald Rawlings , who was killed in action and after whom Saunders was named , had been awarded the Military Medal for service with the 29th Battalion in France . Another ancestor , John Brook , fought with the Victorian Rifles and the Australian Commonwealth Horse in the Boer War . Saunders ' mother died in 1924 from complications caused by pneumonia while giving birth to her third child , a girl who also died . After this , his father moved to Lake Condah in Victoria , with Reg and his younger brother , Harry , born in 1922 . As their father undertook various labouring jobs , the two boys were raised largely by their grandmother .

Saunders attended the local mission school at Lake Condah , where he did well in maths , geometry and languages . His father , meanwhile , taught Reg and Harry about the bush , and encouraged them to read Shakespeare and Australian literature . After completing eight years of schooling , Saunders earned his merit certificate . His formal education thus ended , he went to work at the age of 14 as a millhand in a sawmill . Employers regularly withheld payments for Aboriginal labourers at this time , but Saunders refused to work unless he was paid his full entitlement , and his employer relented . He worked and furthered his education until 1937 , when he went into business with his father and brother , operating a sawmill in Portland , Victoria ; the sawmill was destroyed in a bushfire in 1939 .

= = Second World War = =

Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Saunders was determined to serve in the armed forces . Patriotism and his family 's history of soldiering both played a major part in his decision . His father suggested that he wait six months ; according to Reg , " They were talking about this war being all over in six months with the Maginot Line and all the other garbage that we were told ... But we waited six months and the duck season was over so there was no more shooting to do except go to war " . Saunders enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force on 24 April 1940 , joining up with friends he had made while playing Australian rules football . The armed forces later adopted a policy to accept only persons " substantially of European origin or descent " , but at the time Saunders encountered no barriers to his enlistment . He recalled that his fellow soldiers " were not colour @-@ conscious " , and that during training in northern Queensland his white mates would sit alongside him in the " Aboriginal " section of movie theatres . His natural leadership qualities gained him temporary promotions in quick succession : within six weeks of enlistment he was a lance corporal , and after three months he made sergeant .

After completing his training , Saunders was allocated to an infantry unit , the 2 / 7th Battalion , which was serving overseas in North Africa at the time . Upon reaching the 2 / 7th , Saunders reverted to the rank of private . His first experience of war came fighting the Italians around Benghazi . In early April 1941 , the 6th Division , to which the 2 / 7th belonged , was sent to Greece to help defend against a German invasion . Following a series of withdrawals , the battalion was evacuated on 26 April , embarking upon the Costa Rica at Kalamata . It was originally bound for Alexandria , but after the ship was attacked in Suda Bay by German aircraft and began to sink , the men of the 2 / 7th , including Saunders , were picked up by several British destroyers and disembarked on the island of Crete . The 2 / 7th was subsequently allocated to the island 's defending garrison .

Following the invasion of Crete in May 1941 , the 2 / 7th Battalion was initially employed in a coastal defence role , before taking part in the fighting around Canea . After this , it took part in a devastating bayonet charge at 42nd Street , along with the New Zealand Maori Battalion , which killed almost 300 Germans and briefly checked their advance . It was during this battle that Saunders killed his first opponent : " ... I saw a German soldier stand up in clear view about thirty yards [ 30 m ] away . He was my first sure kill ... I can remember for a moment that it was just like shooting a kangaroo ... just as remote . " As the Allies began to evacuate the island , the 2 / 7th was called upon to carry out a series of rearguard actions in order to allow other units to be taken off the island . After the final Allied ships departed the island on 1 June 1941 , the battalion was left behind . As a result , many of its men were taken prisoner , though some were able to evade capture by hiding out in the hills and caves around the island . Adopting Cretan dress , learning the dialect , and enlisting the help of local inhabitants , Saunders managed to remain hidden for eleven months .

Saunders was among a party of men evacuated from Crete by a British submarine in May 1942 , and returned to Australia in October . He rejoined his old unit , the 2 / 7th Battalion , which had re @-@ formed in Palestine and been brought back to Australia along with the rest of the 6th Division to help defend against the threat posed by Japan 's entry into the war . In November 1942 , Saunders ' younger brother Harry , who had enlisted shortly after him in 1940 , was killed in action while serving in New Guinea with the 2 / 14th Battalion . When Harry had joined up , Reg recalled , " I was angry because I was the only one that was supposed to go . ... with two of us there , one of us was going to get killed ... " The elder Saunders subsequently served in New Guinea as well , fighting in the Salamaua – Lae campaign in mid @-@ 1943 where , having again been promoted temporary sergeant , he took over command of a platoon when its commander was wounded in action . For his leadership , he was recommended for a commission by his commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Henry Guinn . When Guinn told him of his plan , Saunders laughed and said , " I don 't want to be an officer ... I 'd rather be Regimental Sergeant Major " . Guinn responded , " Christ , they don 't make boys RSMs " .

Saunders went before an officer selection board that had been set up on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland , where the units of the 6th Division had been based following their return from New Guinea . The interview panel on the board consisted of three senior officers – all experienced infantry battalion commanders – who were tasked with determining a candidate 's suitability for commissioning as an infantry officer . Saunders was found to be an acceptable candidate and posted to an officer training unit in Seymour , Victoria . Upon completion of the 16 @-@ week course , he was promoted to lieutenant in November 1944 , becoming the first Aboriginal commissioned officer in the Australian Army . The precedent of his commissioning had caused the Army some concern due to its " special significance " , and as a result the paperwork for its confirmation was eventually sent to the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Thomas Blamey , for approval . Nevertheless , Blamey is reported to have " insisted upon following the usual procedure " , believing that there should be no difference in the way Saunders ' commission should be treated to any other soldier who had completed the necessary training . The story garnered much press coverage in Australia , most of it favourable , if in parts paternalistic .

After his promotion was confirmed , Saunders returned to New Guinea and , although it was contrary to policy , rejoined his old battalion . He subsequently took part in the Aitape – Wewak campaign , commanding a platoon until the end of the war . Due to the discriminatory laws in force at the time , Saunders had fewer rights as a citizen than the white Australians he led . He was wounded in the knee by Japanese gunfire during fighting around Maprik , and was hospitalised for three weeks as a result .

= = Interbellum and Korean War = =

Saunders was discharged from the Army on 5 October 1945 , following the end of the Second World War . Returning to Australia , he volunteered for service in Japan with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force , but the government would not accept Aborigines for the operation . Saunders spoke publicly against this policy , calling it " narrow @-@ minded and ignorant " ; the wartime restriction on non @-@ European enlistments in the armed forces was not lifted until 1949 . Saunders moved to Melbourne with his family , which by this time consisted of his wife Dorothy , whom he had married in 1944 , and their three young children . Dorothy had served in the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force during the war . Saunders recalled that he " had a hard time after the war ... and poor old Dotty , she , you know , didn 't know what the hell to make of it " . Facing discrimination that he had rarely encountered as a soldier , he worked in the ensuing years as a tram conductor , a foundry worker , and a shipping clerk .

In August 1950 , the government called for Second World War veterans to serve in the Korea War as part of the specially raised ' K ' Force . Saunders volunteered and returned to the Army as a lieutenant . After training at Puckapunyal , Victoria , and in Japan , he arrived in Korea in November 1950 . He served with the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 3 RAR ) , initially as a platoon commander in A Company . In February 1951 , he took charge of A Company when its commander was wounded ; he was subsequently given command of C Company . Promoted to captain , Saunders led C Company during the Battle of Kapyong in April , when 3 RAR and a Canadian battalion held off a Chinese division north @-@ east of the South Korean capital Seoul . Frustrated by the conduct of the war prior to Kapyong , he afterwards recorded that , " At last I felt like an Anzac and I imagine there were 600 others like me " . The 3rd Battalion was awarded a US Presidential Unit Citation for its part in the action . Saunders himself was recommended for a decoration but turned it down . Leading a Vickers machine gun platoon at the Battle of Maryang San in October , he reportedly shared the following exchange with a fellow 3 RAR officer : as they surveyed the forbidding mountain before them , Saunders ' companion remarked , " No country for white men " , to which Saunders replied , " It 's no country for black men , either " . He returned to Australia in November 1951 .

= = Later life = =

In 1953 the Returned and Services League ( RSL ) , a veterans organisation , recommended Saunders for inclusion in the official Australian contingent to the coronation of Elizabeth II ; the Federal government rejected the suggestion on the grounds that including Saunders would have meant excluding an officer who had been previously selected . Following his service in the Korean War , Saunders remained in the Army overseeing training for national servicemen at Puckapunyal . Away from active service , however , he soon became dissatisfied and in 1954 was discharged at his own request . The same year , he married an Irish nurse , Pat Montgomery ; his first marriage had broken down soon after he returned from Korea .

Saunders went to work in the logging industry in Gippsland , after which he moved to Sydney , where he was employed by the Austral Bronze Company . Seen by many as a role model and spokesman for Aboriginal Australians , in 1969 Saunders took up a position in the Office of Aboriginal Affairs as one of its first liaison officers . Among his tasks was promulgating information on recently legislated Federal funding for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander businesses and schooling , following up on recommendations made to government departments , and liaising with Aboriginal welfare groups . He later stated , " I felt a sense of leadership of Aboriginal people and a desire to do something about the Aboriginal situation " . His community work was recognised in the Queen 's Birthday Honours of June 1971 when he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the Civil Division . He continued to serve with the Department of Aboriginal Affairs in Canberra until retiring in 1980 . In July 1985 he was appointed to the Council of the Australian War Memorial , and held this position until his retirement . He was also involved in the RSL , though he fell out with leaders Alf Garland and Bruce Ruxton over Garland 's suggestion that Aborigines be blood @-@ tested to determine their entitlement to government benefits . " They can take all the blood they want from me , " Saunders declared in a 1986 interview , " and they 'll never find out what I am – least of all an Aborigine – bloody stupid ! "

During his two marriages , both of which ended in divorce , Saunders fathered ten children , two of whom predeceased him . Having suffered recent heart trouble , he died on 2 March 1990 . His ashes were scattered on Lake Condah , traditional territory of the Gunditjmara people . Of Saunders ' children , one of his sons followed him into the Army , while four of his daughters married soldiers . His son Christopher portrayed him in a 1978 episode of the television series The Sullivans .

= = Memorials = =

On 14 December 2001 , Saunders was honoured with the dedication of Reg Saunders Way , which passes through the Canberra suburbs of Campbell and Russell , in a ceremony attended by the Secretary of Defence , Dr Allan Hawke , and the Chief of the Defence Force , Admiral Chris Barrie . Saunders was also commemorated with a room in the Canberra Services Club , and by the RSL 's Captain Reg Saunders Scholarship . The Australian War Memorial holds Saunders ' medals and several personal effects in its national collection , along with an official portrait and several photographs .

= Hurricane Cosme ( 1989 ) =

Hurricane Cosme was an unusually large tropical cyclone that made landfall in south @-@ western Mexico in June 1989 . The third tropical storm and second hurricane of the 1989 Pacific hurricane season , Cosme formed on June 19 from a tropical wave , the storm initially moved westward before being upgraded into Tropical Storm Cosme . It ultimately intensifying into a Category 1 hurricane . Cosme turned northward and made landfall near Acapulco during the night of June 21 . It rapidly weakened over land . The storm caused excessive rainfall on land , leading to deadly and destructive flooding . It is estimated that 30 people died in the hurricane .

= = Meteorological history = =

In early June 1989 , a tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa and traversed the Atlantic Ocean , eventually crossing into the eastern North Pacific . Initially , several centers of circulation were associated with the system . Continuing organize , the storm is estimated to have attained tropical depression status at 0000 UTC on June 18 . The depression was broad and lacked substantial thunderstorm activity . However , it did have respectable outflow and banding . It moved towards the west and intensified into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on June 20 , 48 hours after being classified .

Upon being named , Cosme meandered and remained nearly stationary as it continued to intensify . It became a hurricane midday UTC on June 21 ; this upgrade was delayed in real time . At this time , the hurricane accelerated towards the north . As the cyclone approached the coast of Mexico , it reached maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 979 millibars .

During the night of June 21 , Cosme made landfall just east of Acapulco . It moved inland and quickly deteriorated , weakening into a tropical storm shortly after coming ashore . It trekked northward through eastern Mexico and further diminished into a tropical depression before becoming indistinguishable south of Brownsville , Texas on June 23 . Tropical Storm Allison 's development in the Gulf of Mexico was partially related to residual conditions from Cosme 's remnants .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Prior to the hurricane 's landfall , Mexican officials evacuated nearly 260 people from low @-@ lying areas near Acapulco . Ports in the region were also closed several days before the storm and remained closed for two days after as a precaution . In addition , flash flood watches and warnings were issued . Cosme brought heavy rains , which killed at least 30 people due to drowning . Many adobe homes were destroyed , but the specific cost of damage is unknown . The highest rainfall recorded in relation to Cosme was 16 @.@ 1 in ( 410 mm ) in San Bartolo Yautepec , Mexico . Many mountainous areas received rainfall in excess of 7 in ( 180 mm ) and most other areas received 1 in ( 25 mm ) . High winds produced by the storm damaged numerous trees and power lines throughout the affected areas . Authorities in Acapulco stated that there were no major damage or injuries from the storm , with only one hotel sustaining minor damage .

= Hurricane Greta – Olivia =

Hurricane Greta – Olivia was one of six Atlantic hurricanes to cross over Central America into the eastern Pacific while remaining a tropical cyclone . The seventh named storm of the 1978 Atlantic hurricane season , Greta formed from a tropical wave just northwest of Trinidad on September 13 , and despite being in a climatologically unfavorable area , gradually intensified while moving west @-@ northwestward . On September 16 , it became a hurricane south of Jamaica . Two days later , the well @-@ defined eye approached northeastern Honduras but veered to the northwest . After reaching peak winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) that day , Greta weakened while paralleling the northern Honduras coast just offshore . On September 19 , it made landfall on Belize near Dangriga and quickly weakened into a tropical depression while crossing Guatemala and southeastern Mexico . After entering the eastern Pacific , the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane and was renamed Olivia , which weakened before dissipating over Chiapas on September 23 .

Taking a similar path to Hurricane Fifi four years prior , Greta threatened to reproduce the devastating effects of the catastrophic storm ; however , damage and loss of life was significantly less than feared . In Honduras , about 1 @,@ 200 homes were damaged , about half of which in towns along the coastline . The storm damaged about 75 % of the houses on Roatán along the offshore Bay Islands , and there was one death in the country . In the Belize Barrier Reef , Greta downed trees and produced high waves , while on the mainland , there was minimal flooding despite a high storm surge . In Dangriga where it made landfall , the hurricane damaged or destroyed 125 houses and the primary hospital . In Belize City , a tornado flipped over a truck and damaged four houses . Damage in Belize was estimated at $ 25 million ( 1978 USD ) , and there were four deaths .

= = Meteorological history = =

A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa near Dakar , Senegal on September 7 . Moving westward across the Atlantic Ocean , the wave spawned an area of convection three days later , which gradually organized . On September 13 , the wave moved through the Windward Islands , producing wind gusts of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on Barbados . Later that day , it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression about 75 mi ( 120 km ) west @-@ northwest of Trinidad , based on ship and land reports . Though located in a climatologically unfavorable area , the depression intensified and continued to develop . A Hurricane Hunters flight on September 14 indicated that the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Greta to the north of the Netherlands Antilles .

After becoming a tropical storm , Greta intensified slowly due to a strong trough to the northwest , and with the South American coastline located to the south , the southerly inflow was disrupted . With a ridge to the north along the 30th parallel , the storm moved quickly west @-@ northwestward across the Caribbean . On September 16 , Greta intensified into a hurricane about 275 mi ( 443 km ) south of Jamaica . Shortly thereafter , the trough to the northwest weakened , which had been preventing the storm 's intensification . An increasingly well @-@ defined eye developed while approaching the coast of Honduras as the barometric pressure quickly dropped . Early on September 18 , the eyewall passed just offshore Cabo Gracias a Dios , the sparsely populated border between Honduras and Nicaragua The NHC described the eye as having " literally ricocheted off of the protruding northeast coast of Honduras " , thus sparing much of the country from the strongest winds . At 0710 UTC on September 18 , the Hurricane hunters observed a minimum pressure of 947 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) just off the northern Honduras coast , which was the basis for the estimated peak intensity of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) . This made it a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale .

Despite the proximity to land , Greta initially maintained a well @-@ defined structure . The hurricane continued generally west @-@ northwestward due to the ridge to the north , and initially was expected to enter the Bay of Campeche . After passing through the Bay Islands off northern Honduras , Greta weakened slightly while approaching Belize , and made landfall near Dangriga at 0000 UTC on September 19 , with winds of about 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . The calm of the eye was reported for three to five minutes there . Rapidly weakening over land , the hurricane deteriorated to tropical depression status over Guatemala within 12 hours of landfall . A large high pressure area from the Carolinas to the central Gulf of Mexico turned Greta southwestward toward the eastern Pacific Ocean . At 0000 UTC on September 20 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) took over responsibility for issuing advisories while Greta was 30 mi ( 50 km ) from the coast . Soon after , the depression emerged over the warm waters of the eastern Pacific and re @-@ intensified . At 0600 UTC , the depression re @-@ attained tropical storm status and was named Olivia by the EPHC , due to the storm entering the Pacific basin . After initially moving to the north , Olivia began executing a slow counterclockwise loop . Based on observations from nearby ships and radar , it is estimated Olivia attained hurricane status early on September 22 . While tracking towards the Mexican coastline , the system weakened below hurricane threshold ; between 1900 and 2000 UTC , Olivia made landfall about 60 mi ( 95 km ) east of Salina Cruz . Early on September 23 , Olivia dissipated over the Mexican state of Chiapas .

Hurricane Greta – Olivia was a rare crossover storm from the Atlantic to the Pacific , one of six to maintain tropical cyclone status during the crossing .

= = Impact = =

Early in its duration , Greta produced heavy rainfall in the Netherlands Antilles , but the strongest winds remained north of the island .

Late on September 17 when Greta 's eye was just offshore Honduras , the country 's government issued a hurricane warning for the eastern coastline . Around the same time , the Mexican government issued a hurricane warning for the eastern Yucatán peninsula , and on September 18 a hurricane warning was issued for the Belize and Guatemala coastlines . These advanced warnings helped reduce fatalities . In Puerto Castilla , Honduras , about 2 @,@ 000 people were evacuated in advance of the storm . The Honduran government put its military , police , and Red Cross on standby in advance of the storm , due to fears of a repeat of Hurricane Fifi in 1974 . However , unlike Fifi , which caused deadly floods in the region four years prior and took a similar track , Greta did not cause as significant river flooding in Honduras .

Across much of Greta 's track in Central America , the hurricane dropped locally heavy rainfall . When Greta passed just offshore northeastern Honduras , it produced sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in Puerto Lempira , with gusts to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Winds along the northern Honduras coast were diminished due to the eyewall passing to the north . In Honduras , meteorologists estimated that upwards of 15 in ( 380 mm ) of rain fell in mountainous regions . Many villages were isolated and communication with them was severely hampered . In Puerto Lempira , roughly 1 @,@ 500 of the town 's 7 @,@ 000 residents sought refuge in five large structures during the storm . In twelve communities along the coastline , military officials reported that 656 homes were destroyed , of which 278 were in Punta Potuca . In the offshore Bay Islands , the hurricane destroyed 26 houses on Guanaja , where many roofs were lost and several boats were destroyed . On nearby Roatán , about 75 % of the houses lost their roofs after experiencing wind gusts of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . There was one death in Honduras , and nationwide , the hurricane damaged about 1 @,@ 200 homes , washed out roads and bridges , and wrecked coconut and rice crops .

At Greta 's final landfall in Belize , the highest sustained winds were 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) in Belize City , with gusts to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) at Dangriga near the landfall location . On the offshore Ambergris Caye , winds reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , and there was heavy rainfall . On Half Moon Caye , the hurricane damaged the base of a lighthouse and knocked over several coconut trees . Along the Belize Barrier Reef , the hurricane downed palm trees and produced high waves , with significant wave heights of about 33 ft ( 10 m ) along Carrie Bow Caye . On the mainland , storm tides in Dangriga were 6 to 7 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal , which did not cause much flooding . The strong winds destroyed 50 houses there and unroofed a further 75 , including damage to the hospital . There were also disruptions to power and water service . About 90 % of the grapefruit crop was destroyed , and 50 % of the orange crop was lost . Tides were 2 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal in Belize City , which caused flooding in conjunction with swollen rivers . The United States embassy was flooded with about one foot of mud . There was little damage in the city , although a tornado in Belize City that damaged four houses and flipped over a truck . During the storm , the Belize International Airport was closed . Farther inland , strong winds caused heavy damage at Guanacaste National Park . Damage throughout Belize was estimated at $ 25 million ( 1978 USD ) , and there were four deaths . Three of the deaths were on offshore islands in areas without radios , and the other was due to electrocution .

= = Aftermath = =

Following the storm damage in Honduras , the country requested help from the United States . The Tactical Air Command had sent two squadrons to Central America in the middle of 1978 , and in response to the request from Honduras , two aircraft delivered over 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 45 @,@ 000 kg ) of cots , water , and generators ; the units also deployed a 13 – person crew who specialized in disaster relief . The aid was distributed by the Military of Honduras .

In late October 1978 , the United Methodist Church sent books and other supplies via aircraft to Belize , after a youth group rode out the storm there and desired to help residents . Despite the hurricane damage , the economy of Belize continued to grow after Greta struck , including an increase in banana production .

Although the National Hurricane Center does not consider it retired , the World Meteorological Organization lists Greta in its retired hurricane name list .

= Radiohead =

Radiohead are an English rock band from Abingdon , Oxfordshire , formed in 1985 . The band consists of Thom Yorke ( lead vocals , guitar , piano , keyboards ) , Jonny Greenwood ( lead guitar , keyboards , other instruments ) , Ed O 'Brien ( guitar , backing vocals ) , Colin Greenwood ( bass ) , and Phil Selway ( drums , percussion , backing vocals ) . They have worked with producer Nigel Godrich and cover artist Stanley Donwood since 1994 .

Radiohead released their debut single " Creep " in 1992 . It became a worldwide hit after the release of the band 's debut album , Pablo Honey ( 1993 ) . Their popularity and critical standing rose in the United Kingdom with the release of their second album , The Bends ( 1995 ) . Radiohead 's third album , OK Computer ( 1997 ) , propelled them to international fame ; with an expansive sound and themes of modern alienation , it is often acclaimed as a landmark record of the 1990s and one of the best albums of all time . The group 's next album Kid A ( 2000 ) marked a dramatic evolution in their style , as they incorporated influences from experimental electronic music , 20th @-@ century classical music , krautrock , and jazz . Despite initially dividing fans and critics , Kid A was later named the best album of the decade by Rolling Stone , Pitchfork and the Times . Amnesiac , recorded during the same sessions as Kid A , was released the following year .

Radiohead 's sixth album , Hail to the Thief ( 2003 ) , mixed rock and electronic music with lyrics inspired by the War on Terror , and was the band 's final album for their record label , EMI . Their subsequent releases have pioneered alternative release platforms such as pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want and BitTorrent . Radiohead released their seventh album , In Rainbows ( 2007 ) , as a download for which customers could set their own price , to critical and chart success . Their eighth album , The King of Limbs ( 2011 ) , an exploration of rhythm , was developed using extensive looping and sampling . Their ninth album , A Moon Shaped Pool ( 2016 ) , prominently featured Jonny Greenwood 's orchestral arrangements .

Radiohead have sold more than 30 million albums worldwide . Their work places highly in both listener polls and critics ' lists of the best music of the 1990s and 2000s . In 2005 , they were ranked 73rd in Rolling Stone 's list of " The Greatest Artists of All Time " ; Jonny Greenwood ( 48th ) and O 'Brien were both included in Rolling Stone 's list of greatest guitarists , and Yorke ( 66th ) in their list of greatest singers . In 2009 , Rolling Stone readers voted the group the second best artist of the 2000s .

= = History = =

= = = 1985 – 92 : Formation and first years = = =

The members of Radiohead met while attending Abingdon School , an independent school for boys in Abingdon , Oxfordshire . Guitarist and singer Thom Yorke and bassist Colin Greenwood were in the same year , guitarist Ed O 'Brien and drummer Phil Selway in the year above , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Jonny Greenwood two years below . In 1985 , they formed On a Friday , the name referring to the band 's usual rehearsal day in the school 's music room . Jonny was the last to join , first on harmonica and then keyboards , but soon became the lead guitarist ; he had previously been in another band , Illiterate Hands , with musician Nigel Powell and Yorke 's brother Andy Yorke . According to Colin , the band members picked their respective instruments " because we wanted to play music together , rather than just because we wanted to play that particular instrument . So it was more of a collective angle , and if you could contribute by having someone else play your instrument , then that was really cool . "

The band disliked the school 's strict atmosphere and found solace in the school 's music department . They credited their music teacher for introducing them to jazz , film scores , postwar avant @-@ garde music , and 20th @-@ century classical music . Colin said : " When we started , it was very important that we got support from him , because we weren 't getting any from the headmaster . You know , the man once sent us a bill , charging us for the use of school property , because we practiced in one of the music rooms on a Sunday . " Oxfordshire and the Thames Valley had an active independent music scene in the late 1980s , but it centred on shoegazing bands such as Ride and Slowdive . At one point , On a Friday featured a saxophone section .

Although all but Jonny had left Abingdon by 1987 to attend university , On a Friday continued to rehearse on weekends and holidays . At the University of Exeter , Yorke played with the band Headless Chickens , performing songs including future Radiohead material , and met artist Stanley Donwood , who would later create artwork for the band . In 1991 , On a Friday regrouped , sharing a house on the corner of Magdalen Road and Ridgefield Road , Oxford . They recorded demos such as Manic Hedgehog , and performed in Oxford , including more performances at the Jericho Tavern .

As On a Friday continued to perform live , record labels and producers became interested . Chris Hufford , Slowdive 's producer and the co @-@ owner of Oxford 's Courtyard Studios , attended an early On a Friday concert at the Jericho Tavern . Impressed , he and his partner Bryce Edge produced a demo tape and became On a Friday 's managers ; they remain Radiohead 's managers today . In late 1991 , after a chance meeting between Colin Greenwood and EMI A & R representative Keith Wozencroft at Our Price , the record shop where Colin Greenwood worked , the band signed a six @-@ album recording contract with EMI . At the request of EMI , the band changed their name ; " Radiohead " was taken from the song " Radio Head " on the Talking Heads album True Stories ( 1986 ) .

= = = 1992 – 94 : " Creep " , Pablo Honey and early success = = =

Radiohead recorded their debut release , the Drill EP , with Chris Hufford and Bryce Edge at Courtyard Studios . Released in May 1992 , its chart performance was poor . The band enlisted Paul Kolderie and Sean Slade , who had worked with US indie bands Pixies and Dinosaur Jr . , to produce their debut album , recorded quickly in an Oxford studio in 1992 . With the release of the " Creep " single later that year , Radiohead began to receive attention in the British music press , not all of it favourable ; NME described them as " a lily @-@ livered excuse for a rock band " , and " Creep " was blacklisted by BBC Radio 1 because it was deemed " too depressing " .

Radiohead released their debut album , Pablo Honey , in February 1993 . It stalled at number 22 in the UK charts , as " Creep " and its follow @-@ up singles " Anyone Can Play Guitar " and " Stop Whispering " failed to become hits . " Pop Is Dead " , a non @-@ album single , also sold poorly . Some critics compared the band 's early style to the wave of grunge music popular in the early 1990s , dubbing them " Nirvana @-@ lite " , and Pablo Honey failed to make a critical or a commercial splash upon its initial release . Despite shared influences with popular guitar acts , and some notice for Yorke 's falsetto , Radiohead toured only British universities and clubs .

In early 1993 , Radiohead began to attract listeners elsewhere . " Creep " had been played frequently on Israeli radio by influential DJ Yoav Kutner , and in March , after the song became a hit in that country , Radiohead were invited to Tel Aviv for their first live gig overseas . Around the same time , the San Francisco alternative radio station KITS added " Creep " to its playlist . Soon other radio stations along the west coast of the United States followed suit . By the time Radiohead began their first North American tour in June 1993 , the music video for " Creep " was in heavy rotation on MTV . The song rose to number two on the US modern rock chart , entered the lower reaches of the top 40 pop chart , and hit number seven in the UK Singles Chart when EMI rereleased it in the UK in September .

Unexpected attention for the single in America prompted EMI to improvise new promotional plans , and the band shuttled back and forth between continents , playing over 150 concerts in 1993 . Radiohead nearly broke up due to the pressure of sudden success as the Pablo Honey supporting tour extended into its second year . The band members described the tour as difficult to adjust to , saying that towards its end they were " still playing the same songs that [ they had ] recorded two years previously ... like being held in a time warp , " when they were eager to work on new songs .

= = = 1994 – 95 : The Bends , critical recognition and growing fanbase = = =

Radiohead began work on their second album in 1994 , hiring veteran Abbey Road Studios producer John Leckie . Tensions were high , with mounting expectations to deliver a follow @-@ up to match the success of " Creep " . Recording felt unnatural in the studio , with the band having over @-@ rehearsed the material . Seeking a change of scenery , they toured the Far East , Australasia and Mexico and found greater confidence performing their new music live . However , troubled by the fame he had achieved , Yorke became disillusioned with being " at the sharp end of the sexy , sassy , MTV eye @-@ candy lifestyle " he felt he was helping to sell to the world .

My Iron Lung , an EP and single released late in 1994 , was Radiohead 's reaction , marking a transition towards the greater depth they aimed for on their second album . It was their first time working with their future producer Nigel Godrich , then working under Leckie as an audio engineer . It was also Radiohead 's first collaboration with artist Stanley Donwood , who has produced all of their artwork since . Promoted through alternative radio stations , My Iron Lung 's sales were better than expected , and suggested for the first time that the band had found a loyal fanbase and were not one @-@ hit wonders .

Having introduced more new songs on tour , Radiohead finished recording their second album by year 's end , and released The Bends in March 1995 . The album was driven by dense riffs and ethereal atmospheres from the band 's three guitarists , with greater use of keyboards than their debut . It received stronger reviews for its songwriting and performances . While Radiohead were seen as outsiders to the Britpop scene that dominated media attention at the time , they were finally successful in their home country with The Bends , as singles " Fake Plastic Trees " , " High and Dry " , " Just " , and " Street Spirit ( Fade Out ) " made their way to UK chart success ; the latter song placed Radiohead in the top five for the first time . In 1995 , Radiohead again toured North America and Europe , this time in support of R.E.M. , one of their formative influences and at the time one of the biggest rock bands in the world . The buzz generated by such famous fans as R.E.M singer Michael Stipe , along with distinctive music videos for " Just " and " Street Spirit " , helped to sustain Radiohead 's popularity outside the UK .

" High and Dry " became a modest hit , but Radiohead 's growing fanbase was insufficient to repeat the worldwide success of " Creep " . The Bends peaked at 88 on the US album charts , which remains Radiohead 's lowest showing there . Nonetheless , Radiohead were satisfied with the album 's reception . Jonny Greenwood said : " I think the turning point for us came about nine or twelve months after The Bends was released and it started appearing in people 's [ best of ] polls for the end of the year . That 's when it started to feel like we made the right choice about being a band . " In later years , The Bends appeared in many publications ' lists of the best albums of all time , including Rolling Stone 's 2012 edition of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " at # 111 .

= = = 1995 – 98 : OK Computer and critical acclaim = = =

By late 1995 , Radiohead had already recorded one song that would appear on their next record . " Lucky " , released as a single to promote the War Child charity 's The Help Album , had come out of a brief session with Nigel Godrich , the young audio engineer who assisted on The Bends and produced a 1996 B @-@ side , " Talk Show Host " . The band decided to self @-@ produce their next album with Godrich 's assistance , and began work in early 1996 . By July they had recorded four songs at their rehearsal studio , Canned Applause , a converted apple shed in the countryside near Didcot , Oxfordshire .

In August 1996 , Radiohead toured as the opening act for Alanis Morissette . " It was silly money and it gave us a chance to work out everything live , " explained Colin Greenwood . " That , and the strangely perverse kick out of being these five men in black , scaring prepubescent American girls with our own brand of dark music . ' Paranoid Android ' used to have this appalling , ten @-@ minute , Brian Auger Hammond solo at the end of it , which went on and on , with Jonny just jamming . We 'd beg him not to do it . That was quite full @-@ on . There 'd be little children crying at the end , begging their parents to take them home . ( But ) I don 't think you could say that OK Computer is a reaction against the crass commercialism of the most successful solo artist in the world at the moment and her music . It 's a desperate bid on our behalf to emulate that crass commercialisation , which I think we 've singularly failed to do . "

They then resumed recording , not at a traditional music studio , but instead at St. Catherine 's Court , a 15th @-@ century mansion near Bath . The sessions were relaxed , with the band playing at all hours of the day , recording songs in different rooms , and listening to the Beatles , DJ Shadow , Ennio Morricone and Miles Davis for inspiration . Radiohead contributed " Talk Show Host " and the newly recorded " Exit Music ( For a Film ) " to Baz Luhrmann 's adaptation of Romeo + Juliet ( 1996 ) late in the year . Most of the rest of the album was complete by the end of 1996 , and by March 1997 , the record was mixed and mastered .

Radiohead released their third album , OK Computer , in June 1997 . Largely composed of melodic rock , the new record also found the band experimenting with song structures and incorporating ambient , avant garde and electronic influences , prompting Rolling Stone to call the album a " stunning art @-@ rock tour de force " . Radiohead denied being part of the progressive rock genre , but critics in the mid- ' 90s began to compare their work to Pink Floyd , a band whose early 1970s work influenced Greenwood 's guitar parts at the time . Some compared OK Computer thematically to Floyd 's best @-@ seller The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) , although Thom Yorke said the album 's lyrics had been inspired by observing the " speed " of the world in the 1990s . Yorke 's lyrics , embodying different characters , had expressed what one magazine called " end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ millennium blues " in contrast to the more personal songs of The Bends . According to journalist Alex Ross , the band had become " the poster boys for a certain kind of knowing alienation — as the Talking Heads and R.E.M. had been before . " OK Computer met with great critical acclaim , and Yorke admitted that he was " amazed it got the reaction it did . None of us fucking knew any more whether it was good or bad . What really blew my head off was the fact that people got all the things , all the textures and the sounds and the atmospheres we were trying to create . "

OK Computer was the band 's first number one UK chart debut , propelling them to commercial success around the world . Despite peaking at number 21 in the US charts , the album eventually met with mainstream recognition there , receiving the first Grammy Awards recognition of the band 's career , a win for Best Alternative Album and a nomination for Album of the Year . " Paranoid Android " , " Karma Police " and " No Surprises " were released as singles from the album , of which " Karma Police " was most successful internationally . In the same year , Radiohead became one of the first bands in the world to have a website , and developed a devoted online following ; within a few years , there were dozens of fan sites devoted to the band .

The release of OK Computer was followed by the " Against Demons " world tour . Grant Gee , the director of the " No Surprises " video , accompanied and filmed the band , releasing the footage in the 1999 documentary Meeting People Is Easy . The film portrays the band 's disaffection with the music industry and press , showing their burnout as they progressed from their first tour dates in mid @-@ 1997 to mid @-@ 1998 , nearly a year later . The film is also notable for documenting earlier versions of songs that were never released or were not released until years later , such as " How to Disappear Completely " , " Life in a Glasshouse " , " I Will " and " Nude " . The film was screened at festivals such as the 1999 Maryland Film Festival and had a limited theatrical release in select cities . During this time the band also released a music video compilation , 7 Television Commercials , as well as two EPs , Airbag / How Am I Driving ? and No Surprises / Running from Demons , that compiled their B @-@ sides from OK Computer singles .

= = = 1998 – 2002 : Kid A , Amnesiac and change in sound = = =

Radiohead were largely inactive following their 1997 – 1998 tour ; after its end , their only public performance in 1998 was at an Amnesty International concert in Paris . Yorke later said that during that period the band came close to splitting up , and that he had developed severe depression . In early 1999 , Radiohead began work on a follow @-@ up to OK Computer . Although the album 's success meant there was no longer any pressure or a deadline from their record label , tension during this period was high . Band members all had different visions for Radiohead 's future , and Yorke experienced writer 's block , influencing him toward a more abstract , fragmented form of songwriting . Radiohead secluded themselves with producer Nigel Godrich in studios in Paris , Copenhagen , and Gloucester , and in their newly completed studio in Oxford . Eventually , all the members agreed on a new musical direction , redefining their instrumental roles . After nearly 18 months , Radiohead 's recording sessions were completed in April 2000 .

In October 2000 Radiohead released their fourth album , Kid A , the first of two albums from these recording sessions . A departure from OK Computer , Kid A featured a minimalist and textured style with more diverse instrumentation , including the ondes Martenot , programmed electronic beats , strings , and jazz horns . It debuted at number one in many countries , including the US , where its debut atop the Billboard chart marked a first for the band , and the first US number one album by any UK act since the Spice Girls in 1996 . This success was attributed variously to marketing , to the album 's leak on the file @-@ sharing network Napster a few months before its release , and to advance anticipation based , in part , on the success of OK Computer . Although Radiohead did not release any singles from Kid A , promos of " Optimistic " and " Idioteque " received radio play , and a series of " blips " , or short videos set to portions of tracks , were played on music channels and released freely on the internet . The band had read Naomi Klein 's anti @-@ globalisation book No Logo during the recording , and they decided to continue a summer 2000 tour of Europe later in the year in a custom @-@ built tent free of advertising ; they also promoted Kid A with three sold @-@ out North American theatre concerts .

Kid A received a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Album and a nomination for Album of the Year in early 2001 . It won both praise and criticism in independent music circles for appropriating underground styles of music ; some mainstream British critics saw Kid A as a " commercial suicide note " , labelling it " intentionally difficult " and longing for a return to the band 's earlier style . Radiohead 's fans were similarly divided ; along with those who were appalled or mystified , there were many who saw the album as the band 's best work . Yorke , however , denied that Radiohead had set out to eschew commercial expectations , saying : " I was really , really amazed at how badly [ Kid A ] was being viewed ... because the music 's not that hard to grasp . We 're not trying to be difficult ... We 're actually trying to communicate but somewhere along the line , we just seemed to piss off a lot of people ... What we 're doing isn 't that radical . " The album has since been ranked one of the best of all time by publications including Rolling Stone , Time , Pitchfork , the Times and the Guardian .

Radiohead 's fifth album , Amnesiac , was released in June 2001 . It comprised additional tracks from the Kid A recording sessions , plus one track recorded after Kid A 's release , " Life in a Glasshouse " , featuring the Humphrey Lyttelton Band . Radiohead stressed that they saw Amnesiac not as a collection of B @-@ sides or " leftovers " from Kid A but an album in its own right . It topped the UK Albums Chart and reached number two in the US , being nominated for a Grammy Award and the Mercury Music Prize . Radiohead embarked on a world tour , visiting North America , Europe and Japan . " Pyramid Song " and " Knives Out " , Radiohead 's first singles since 1998 , were modestly successful . A live album , I Might Be Wrong : Live Recordings , released in November 2001 , features performances of seven songs from Kid A and Amnesiac , and the previously unreleased acoustic track " True Love Waits " .

= = = 2002 – 04 : Hail to the Thief and departure from EMI = = =

In July and August 2002 , Radiohead toured Portugal and Spain , playing a number of new songs . They recorded the new material in two weeks in a Los Angeles studio with Godrich , adding several tracks later in Oxford , where they continued their work into the next year . The band described the recording process as relaxed , in contrast to the tense sessions for Kid A and Amnesiac .

Radiohead 's sixth album , Hail to the Thief , was released in June 2003 , combining guitar rock with electronic music . Its lyrics were influenced by what Yorke called " the general sense of ignorance and intolerance and panic and stupidity " following the 2000 election of US President George W. Bush . The album debuted at number one in the UK and number three on the Billboard chart , and was eventually certified platinum in the UK and gold in the US . The singles " There There " , " Go to Sleep " and " 2 + 2 = 5 " achieved heavy circulation on modern rock radio . At the 2003 Grammy Awards , Radiohead were again nominated for Best Alternative Album , and producer Godrich and engineer Darrell Thorp received the Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album . In May 2003 , Radiohead embarked in on a world tour and headlined Glastonbury Festival . The tour finished in May 2004 with a performance at the Coachella Festival . A compilation of Hail to the Thief B @-@ sides , remixes and live performances , COM LAG ( 2plus2isfive ) , was released in April 2004 .

Radiohead 's six @-@ album record contract with EMI ended with the release of Hail to the Thief . In 2005 , Yorke told Time : " I like the people at our record company , but the time is at hand when you have to ask why anyone needs one . And , yes , it probably would give us some perverse pleasure to say ' Fuck you ' to this decaying business model . " In 2006 , the New York Times described Radiohead as " by far the world 's most popular unsigned band " .

= = = 2004 – 09 : Solo work , In Rainbows and " pay what you want " = = =

Following the Hail to the Thief tour , Radiohead went on hiatus to spend time with their families . Jonny Greenwood composed soundtracks for the films Bodysong ( 2004 ) and There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) . In July 2006 , Yorke released his debut solo album , The Eraser . He told Pitchfork : " I 've been in the band since we left school and never dared do anything on my own ... It was like , ' Man , I 've got to find out what it feels like , ' you know ? "

Radiohead began work on their seventh album in February 2005 with no record label . In an effort to " get out of the comfort zone " , they decided against involving producer Godrich , with whom they had recorded five albums , and hired producer Spike Stent . The collaboration with Stent was unsuccessful and ended in April 2006 . In September 2005 , Radiohead recorded " I Want None of This " for the War Child charity album Help : A Day in the Life . The album was sold online , with " I Want None of This " the most downloaded track , though it was not released as a single . In late 2006 , after touring Europe and North America with new material , the band resumed work with Godrich in London , Oxford and rural Somerset , England . Work was finished in June 2007 and the recordings were mastered the following month .

Radiohead 's seventh album , In Rainbows , was released through the band 's website in October 2007 as a download for any amount users wanted , including £ 0 — a landmark use of the pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want model for music sales . The pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want release , the first for a major act , made headlines worldwide and sparked debate about the implications for the music industry . According to Mojo , the release was " hailed as a revolution in the way major bands sell their music " , and the media 's reaction was " almost overwhelmingly positive " ; Time called it " easily the most important release in the recent history of the music business " . 1 @.@ 2 million downloads were reportedly sold by the day of release , but the band 's management did not release official sales figures , claiming that the internet @-@ only distribution was intended to boost later retail sales . Colin Greenwood explained the internet release as a way of avoiding the " regulated playlists " and " straitened formats " of radio and TV , ensuring fans around the world could all experience the music at the same time , and preventing leaks in advance of a physical release . O 'Brien said the self @-@ release strategy sold fewer records , but made more money for the band as there was no middleman . A special " discbox " edition of In Rainbows , including a second disc from the recording sessions , vinyl and CD editions of the album , and a hardcover book of artwork , was also sold and shipped in late 2007 .

In Rainbows was released physically in the UK in late December 2007 on XL Recordings and in North America in January 2008 on TBD Records , charting at number one both in the UK and in the US . The record 's retail success in the US – after having been legally available for months as a free download – was Radiohead 's highest chart success in that country since Kid A , while it was their fifth UK number one album . In Rainbows sold more than three million copies within one year . The album received critical acclaim for its more accessible sound and personal lyrics . It was nominated for the short list of the Mercury Music Prize and went on to win the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album . Their production team won the Grammy for Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package , while Radiohead received their third nomination for Album of the Year . Along with three other nominations for the band , Godrich 's production and the " House of Cards " music video also received nominations .

Radiohead released a number of singles from In Rainbows : " Jigsaw Falling into Place " in January 2008 , followed by " Nude " , which debuted at number 37 in the Billboard Hot 100 , Radiohead 's first song to make that chart since 1995 's " High and Dry " and their first top 40 hit in the US since " Creep " . In July they released a digitally @-@ shot video for " House of Cards " . " House of Cards " , along with " Bodysnatchers " , also received a single release on radio . In September the band announced a fourth single , " Reckoner " , and a remix competition similar to one organised for " Nude " . In April 2008 , Radiohead launched W.A.S.T.E. Central , a social networking service for Radiohead fans .

EMI released a greatest hits album , Radiohead : The Best Of , in June 2008 . The compilation was made without Radiohead 's input and only contains songs released under their recording contract with EMI . Yorke was critical of the release , saying : " There 's nothing we can do about it . The work is really public property now anyway , in my head at least . It 's a wasted opportunity in that if we 'd been behind it , and we wanted to do it , then it might have been good . " In August 2008 , EMI reissued " special editions " of OK Computer , Kid A , Amnesiac and Hail to the Thief as part of the " From the Capitol Vaults " series . From mid @-@ 2008 to early 2009 , Radiohead toured North America , Europe , Japan and South America to promote In Rainbows , and headlined the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2009 .

As social media began to expand , Radiohead gradually withdrew their public presence , with no promotional interviews or tours to promote new releases . Pitchfork wrote that around this time " their popularity became increasingly untethered from the typical formalities of record promotion , placing them on the same level as Beyoncé and Kanye West . "

= = = 2009 – 12 : The King of Limbs , two drummers and Toronto stage collapse = = =

In May 2009 , Radiohead began new recording sessions with Godrich . In August , they released " Harry Patch ( In Memory Of ) " , a tribute song to Harry Patch , the last surviving British soldier to have fought in World War I , with proceeds donated to the British Legion . Later that month , another new song , " These Are My Twisted Words " , was leaked via torrent , possibly by Radiohead themselves . It was released as a free download on the Radiohead website the following week . Yorke formed a new band to perform The Eraser live , Atoms for Peace , with musicians including Godrich and Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea ; the band played eight North American shows in 2010 .

In January 2010 , Radiohead played their only full concert of the year in the Los Angeles Henry Fonda Theater as a benefit for Oxfam . Tickets were auctioned , raising over half a million US dollars for the NGO 's 2010 Haiti earthquake relief . In June , Yorke and Jonny Greenwood performed a surprise set at Glastonbury Festival , performing Eraser and Radiohead songs . On 30 August , Selway released his debut solo album , Familial . In December , a fan @-@ made video of Radiohead 's Oxfam benefit performance was released via YouTube and torrent with Radiohead 's support and a " pay @-@ what @-@ you @-@ want " link to donate to Oxfam . In September 2010 , Radiohead released the soundboard recording of their 2009 Prague performance for use in another fan @-@ made concert video . The Radiohead for Haiti and Live in Praha videos were described as examples of the band 's openness to fans and positivity toward non @-@ commercial internet distribution .

Radiohead finished recording their eighth album , The King of Limbs , in January 2011 . Following the protracted recording and more conventional rock instrumentation of In Rainbows ( 2007 ) , Radiohead developed The King of Limbs by sampling and looping their recordings with turntables while incorporating ambient sounds . According to O 'Brien : " Rhythm is the king of limbs ! The rhythm dictates the record . It 's very important . " The album was announced on Valentine 's Day and self @-@ released on 18 February 2011 through the Radiohead website . It was followed by a retail release on CD and vinyl formats in March , and a special " newspaper album " edition in May .

The King of Limbs sold an estimated 300 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 copies through Radiohead 's website ; the retail edition debuted at number six on the United States Billboard 200 and number seven on the UK Albums Chart . It was nominated for five categories in the 54th Grammy Awards : Best Alternative Music Album , Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package , Best Short Form Music Video ( for " Lotus Flower " ) , Best Rock Performance ( " Lotus Flower " ) and Best Rock Song ( " Lotus Flower " ) . Two tracks not included on The King of Limbs but worked on during the same sessions , " Supercollider " and " The Butcher " , were released as a single for Record Store Day on 16 April 2011 . A series of King of Limbs remixes by various artists were compiled on TKOL RMX 1234567 , released in September 2011 .

To perform the rhythmically complex King of Limbs material live , Radiohead enlisted a second drummer , Clive Deamer , who has worked with Portishead and Get the Blessing . Selway said of the collaboration : " That was fascinating . One played in the traditional way , the other almost mimicked a drum machine . It was push @-@ and @-@ pull , like kids at play , really interesting . " With Deamer , Radiohead recorded a second From the Basement session , released as The King of Limbs : Live from the Basement in December 2011 . The performance included two new songs , " The Daily Mail " and " Staircase " , released as a double A @-@ side download single on 19 December 2011 . Deamer has joined Radiohead on subsequent tours .

On 24 June , Radiohead played a surprise performance on the Park stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival , performing songs from The King of Limbs before an audience for the first time . In September , they played two dates at New York City 's Roseland Ballroom and made American TV appearances including a one @-@ hour special episode of The Colbert Report and the season première of Saturday Night Live . In February 2012 , they began their first extended North American tour in four years , including dates in the United States , Canada and Mexico . While on tour , Radiohead spent a day working on new material at Jack White 's Third Man Records studio .

On 16 June 2012 , an hour before gates were due to open at Toronto 's Downsview Park for the final concert of Radiohead 's North American tour , the roof of the venue 's temporary stage collapsed , killing drum technician Scott Johnson and injuring three other members of Radiohead 's touring technical crew . The collapse also destroyed the band 's light show and much of their musical equipment . No band members were on stage . The concert was cancelled and Radiohead 's tour dates in Europe were postponed . After rescheduling the tour , Radiohead paid tribute to Johnson and their stage crew at their next concert , in Nîmes , France , in July . Yorke later wrote that finishing the tour after the collapse was his " biggest achievement so far " . In June 2013 , the Ontario Ministry of Labour charged Live Nation Canada Inc , Live Nation Ontario Concerts GP Inc , Optex Staging & Services Inc and an engineer with 13 charges under the Occupational Health and Safety Act . The hearing began in November 2015 .

= = = 2012 – present : Hiatus , further solo work , and A Moon Shaped Pool = = =

After the King of Limbs tour , during which the band performed several new songs , Radiohead entered hiatus again . In February 2013 , Yorke and Godrich 's band Atoms for Peace released a studio album , Amok . The pair made headlines that year for their criticism of the free music streaming service Spotify , which they believe cannot support new artists ; Yorke accused Spotify of only benefiting major labels with large back catalogues , and encouraged artists to build their own " direct connections " with audiences instead .

On 11 February 2014 , Radiohead released the Polyfauna app for Android and iOS phones , an " experimental collaboration " between the band and the British digital arts studio Universal Everything which uses musical elements and imagery from The King of Limbs . On 26 September 2014 , Yorke released his second solo album , Tomorrow 's Modern Boxes , and on 7 October , Selway released his second solo album , Weatherhouse . Jonny Greenwood composed the soundtrack for the Paul Thomas Anderson film Inherent Vice , released in October 2014 , featuring a new version of an unreleased Radiohead song , " Spooks " , performed by Greenwood and two members of Supergrass . In 2015 , Yorke contributed a soundtrack , Subterranea , to The Panic Office , an installation of Radiohead artwork in Sydney , Australia .

Radiohead began work on their ninth studio album with Godrich in September 2014 in France . In February 2015 , Greenwood told Pitchfork that Radiohead had changed their methods again , " working in limits " and using " very old and very new technology " together . In October , Radiohead sued their previous record label , Parlophone , for deductions made from downloads of their back catalogue . The following month , Junun , a collaboration between Greenwood , Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and Indian musicians , produced by Godrich , was released . It was accompanied by a documentary of the same name directed by Paul Thomas Anderson , for whom Greenwood has composed several film scores . On Christmas Day 2015 , Radiohead released a new song , " Spectre " , on the audio streaming site SoundCloud . It was written for the James Bond film of the same name , but was rejected , in Greenwood 's words , for being " too dark " .

In April 2016 , XL Recordings purchased Radiohead 's back catalogue from Warner Music Group ( WMG ) . The catalogue was recorded under Parlophone before Radiohead 's recording contract ended with the release of Hail to the Thief in 2003 , and sold approximately 115 @,@ 000 units in 2015 . As part of WMG 's purchase of Parlophone in 2013 , WMG made an agreement with the independent music label trade group Impala to reach distribution agreements with independent labels for the 11 @,@ 000 acquired acts , which required artist approval . XL Recordings has released the physical editions of every Radiohead release since In Rainbows , along with records by Atoms for Peace and some of Yorke 's solo work . As a result of the purchase , the " special editions " of the albums , issued by WMG in the mid @-@ 2000s without Radiohead 's approval , were removed from streaming services .

On 30 April , fans who had previously made orders from Radiohead received embossed cards with lyrics from a new song , " Burn the Witch " . On 1 May 2016 , Radiohead deleted all content from their website and social media profiles , replacing them with blank images , a move Pitchfork interpreted as symbolic of Radiohead 's re @-@ emergence . " Burn the Witch " was released as a download on 3 May , accompanied by a stop @-@ motion animated music video . On 6 May , Radiohead released another new download single , " Daydreaming " , accompanied by a music video directed by Paul Thomas Anderson ; the video was screened in 35 mm film in select cinemas .

Radiohead 's ninth studio album , A Moon Shaped Pool , was released digitally on 8 May 2016 , followed by physical versions on 17 June via XL Recordings . It includes several songs written some years earlier , including " True Love Waits " ( which dates to at least 1995 ) along with strings and choral vocals performed by the London Contemporary Orchestra and additional percussion from Deamer . The album was simultaneously released on paid streaming services including Tidal and Apple Music , but was not released on Spotify , a free service , until 17 June , six weeks later . Spotify had been in " advanced discussions " with Radiohead ’ s management and label to make A Moon Shaped Pool the first album available exclusively to Spotify 's paid subscribers , but the deal fell through , according to Spotify , due to technical hurdles . In Rainbows , the only other Radiohead album not previously available on Spotify , was added on 10 June .

Radiohead began a tour in support of A Moon Shaped Pool in May 2016 , joined again by Deamer , with performances in Europe , North America , and Japan . The physical release of the album was promoted with " Live From a Moon Shaped Pool " , which took place in participating record shops around the world . The event featured a " day @-@ long " audio stream , including playlists curated by Radiohead and a recording of their recent performance at the London Roundhouse , along with competitions , artwork , and other activities . Attendees in a record shop in Istanbul , Turkey , were attacked by a group of men who were angry that customers were drinking beer and playing music during Ramadan , the Muslim holy month of fast . Radiohead released a statement condemning the attacks and offering " love and support " to Istanbul fans .

= = Style and songwriting = =

Among Radiohead members ' earliest influences were Queen , Pink Floyd and Elvis Costello , post @-@ punk acts such as Joy Division , Siouxsie and the Banshees and Magazine , and significantly 1980s alternative rock bands such as R.E.M. , Pixies , the Smiths and Sonic Youth . By the mid @-@ 1990s , Radiohead began to adopt some recording methods from hip hop , inspired by the sampling work of DJ Shadow , and became interested in using computers to generate sounds . Other influences on the group include the jazz music of Miles Davis , Charlie Mingus and Alice Coltrane , the soundtracks of Ennio Morricone , 1960s rock groups such as the Beatles and the Beach Boys , and Phil Spector 's " wall of sound " production technique .

The electronic music of Kid A and Amnesiac was inspired by Yorke 's admiration for glitch , ambient techno and IDM as exemplified by Warp Records artists such as Autechre and Aphex Twin ; in 2013 , Yorke named Aphex Twin as biggest influence . The album also samples early computer music . The jazz of Charles Mingus , Alice Coltrane and Miles Davis , and 1970s krautrock bands such as Can and Neu ! , were other major influences during this period . Jonny Greenwood 's interest in 20th century classical music also had a role , as the influence of composers Krzysztof Penderecki and Olivier Messiaen was apparent ; for several songs on Kid A and later albums , Greenwood has played the ondes Martenot , an early electronic instrument popularised by Messiaen .

Recording In Rainbows , Radiohead members mentioned a variety of rock , electronic , hip hop and experimental musicians as influences , including Björk , M.I.A , Liars , Modeselektor and Spank Rock . In 2011 , Yorke denied that Radiohead had ever set out deliberately to change musical styles or to make " experimental music " , saying the band was " constantly absorbing music " and that a variety of musicians are always influencing their work . Drummer Clive Deamer , who has recorded and performed with Radiohead since 2012 , said that Radiohead did not see themselves as a rock band and felt their methodology had closer parallels with jazz : “ they deliberately try to avoid cliché and standard forms for the sake of the song ... Rock bands don ’ t do that . It ’ s far more like a jazz mentality . "

Since their formation , Radiohead have been lyrically and musically spearheaded by Yorke . Although Yorke is responsible for writing nearly all the lyrics , songwriting is a collaborative effort , with all the band members having roles in the process ; all the band 's songs are officially credited to " Radiohead " . Radiohead songs usually begin with a sketch by Yorke , which is harmonically developed by Jonny Greenwood before the other members develop their own parts . The Kid A and Amnesiac sessions brought about a change in Radiohead 's musical style and working method . Since their shift from conventional rock music instrumentation toward an emphasis on electronic sound , the members have gained flexibility and now regularly switch instruments depending on the particular song requirements . On Kid A and Amnesiac , Yorke played keyboard and bass , while Jonny Greenwood often played ondes Martenot rather than guitar , bassist Colin Greenwood worked on sampling , and O 'Brien and Selway branched out to drum machines and digital manipulations , also finding ways to incorporate their primary instruments , guitar and percussion , respectively , into the new sound . The relaxed 2003 recording sessions for Hail to the Thief led to a different dynamic in Radiohead , with Yorke admitting in interviews that his power in the band had been " absolutely unbalanced " and that he would " subvert everybody else 's power at all costs . But ... it 's actually a lot more healthy now , democracy @-@ wise , than it used to be . "

= = Collaborators = =

Radiohead have maintained a close relationship with a number of frequent collaborators . Producer Nigel Godrich made his name with Radiohead , working with the band as an audio engineer on The Bends and as their producer on every studio album afterwards . He has been dubbed the " sixth member " of the band , in an allusion to George Martin being called the " Fifth Beatle " . In 2016 , Godrich said of the collaboration : " I can only ever have one band like Radiohead who I 've worked with for this many years . That 's a very deep and profound relationship . The Beatles could only have ever had one George Martin ; they couldn 't have switched producers halfway through their career . All that work , trust , and knowledge of each other would have been thrown out of the window and they 'd have to start again . "

Graphic artist Stanley Donwood met Yorke when both were art students , and with Yorke has produced all of Radiohead 's album covers and visual artwork since 1994 . Donwood works in the studio with the band as they record , allowing the music to influence the artwork . He and Yorke won a Grammy in 2002 for the special edition of Amnesiac packaged as a library book .

Dilly Gent has been responsible for commissioning all Radiohead music videos since OK Computer , working with the band to find a director suitable for each project . Since Radiohead 's inception , Andi Watson has been their lighting and stage director , designing the visuals of live concerts , such as the carbon @-@ neutral " LED forest " of the In Rainbows tour . Radiohead 's chief live technician , Peter " Plank " Clements , has worked with the band since before The Bends , overseeing the setup of their instruments for studio recordings and live performances . Drummer Clive Deamer has performed and recorded with Radiohead since 2011 .

= = Band members = =

Colin Greenwood – bass guitar

Jonny Greenwood – guitar , keyboards , ondes Martenot , analogue synthesisers

Ed O 'Brien – guitar , backing vocals , percussion

Philip Selway – drums , percussion , backing vocals

Thom Yorke – lead vocals , guitar , keyboards , piano

Additional live members

Clive Deamer – drums , percussion , backing vocals ( 2011 – present )

= = Discography = =

Pablo Honey ( 1993 )

The Bends ( 1995 )

OK Computer ( 1997 )

Kid A ( 2000 )

Amnesiac ( 2001 )

Hail to the Thief ( 2003 )

In Rainbows ( 2007 )

The King of Limbs ( 2011 )

A Moon Shaped Pool ( 2016 )

= = Awards and nominations = =

= White @-@ eared titi =

The white @-@ eared titi ( Callicebus donacophilus ) , also known as the Bolivian titi or Bolivian gray titi , is a species of titi , a type of New World monkey , from eastern Bolivia and an area of western Brazil . The species has a range that extends east from the Manique River in Beni Department , Bolivia to southern Rondônia in Brazil . The southern end of its range includes forests around the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra .

It is a medium @-@ sized monkey with a grey back , orange underside and distinctive white ear tufts . It has an omnivorous diet , eating fruits , other plant materials and invertebrates . It is predated upon primarily by raptors , though felids and other monkey species have been known to attack the species . It is a monogamous species and lives in small groups of two to seven members consisting of the pair and their offspring . The family group has a home range of 0 @.@ 005 to 0 @.@ 14 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 0019 to 0 @.@ 0541 sq mi ) and the adults have a complex vocal repertoire to maintain their territory . It is also known for its characteristic twining of tails when groups are sitting together . White @-@ eared titis can live for more than 25 years in captivity .

The white @-@ eared titi population has a declining trend . The decline is believed to be mainly caused by human @-@ induced habitat loss and degradation . Despite this , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) classified the species as being of least concern in 2008 as it has shown adaptability to habitat disturbance and is found over a wide range .

= = Taxonomy = =

The white @-@ eared titi belongs to the New World monkey family Pitheciidae , which contains the titis ( Callicebus ) , saki monkeys ( Pithecia ) , bearded sakis ( Chiropotes ) , and uakaris ( Cacajao ) . It is a member of the subfamily Callicebinae , of which the only extant genus is Callicebus , containing all of the titi monkeys .

Although the exact position of species within the Callicebus genus is debated , the white @-@ eared titi has been placed within the subgenus Callicebus in the C. donacophilus group with the Rio Beni titi ( C. modestus ) , Rio Mayo titi ( C. oenanthe ) , Ollala brothers ' titi ( C. olallae ) , and white @-@ coated titi ( C. pallescens ) . The white @-@ coated titi has sometimes been considered a subspecies of the white @-@ eared titi , but they are treated as separate species in the latest edition of Mammal Species of the World .

= = Physical description = =

The white @-@ eared titi is a medium @-@ sized primate with grey to orange pelage . The species does not exhibit sexual dimorphism ; the male 's head and body length averages 311 millimetres ( 12 @.@ 2 in ) while females average 340 millimetres ( 13 in ) . The white @-@ eared titi 's fluffy tail is longer than the length of its head and body together . It typically has thick fur , with a dorsal side and limbs that vary in colour from grey agouti to orange agouti , with an orange underside and white ear tufts .

Body weight ranges from around 800 to 1 @,@ 200 grams ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 6 lb ) , with the female generally a little lighter . It has the dental formula 2 : 1 : 3 : 32 : 1 : 3 : 3 × 2 = 36 , meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors , one canine tooth , three premolars , and three molar teeth . The canine teeth are relatively short when compared with other New World monkeys . In captivity , the white @-@ eared titi has been known to live for over 25 years .

= = Behaviour = =

The white @-@ eared titi is cryptic , diurnal and known to live in small family groups . It is a monogamous species that is thought to mate for life and lives in groups that usually consist of two to seven members ; an adult pair and up to five young . Multi @-@ male groups have also been recorded . Offspring are carried by the male , and are always with them , except when feeding . Between the ages of two to four years , offspring will disperse from the natal group , with females leaving earlier than the males .

There is a strong bond between the adult mating pair , they stay close and carry out activities together . Either member of the pair may follow the other and leadership changes through the day . Evidence of the strength of the pair bond is shown by grooming , huddling together with their tails twined , nuzzling , and gentle grasping . Titi monkeys are highly territorial and when confronted with another family group , both will respond with threatening behaviour , males showing increased agitation towards intruding males . When not close together , the pair show a significant amount of distress and agitation .

Titi monkeys are well known for their vocal communication , and have a complex repertoire of calls . The calls can be divided into two categories : high @-@ pitched quiet calls and low @-@ pitched loud calls . Vocalisations are often combined and repeated to form sequences that are used to indicate distress , conflict , play , bonding , disturbance , and to strengthen territory . The high @-@ pitched quiet calls are mostly used when the monkeys are disturbed , but may also be used before or after group calling , while foraging , or to find other members of the group . The loud low @-@ pitched calls are mostly used in long distance group calling . Their function is to ensure adequate spacing between the home ranges of different family groups . These vocalisations are known as duets , and generally involve the male and female . If a neighbouring group is within earshot of these calls they will respond with their own duetting .

The white @-@ eared titi is arboreal , spending most of its time in the lower strata of the forest . It may enter the main canopy when travelling longer distances and may also cross small areas of open ground , though the latter is rare . During normal movement through its environment it is quadrupedal and mostly walks , clambers and leaps , but it can also bound and climb . It leaps small distances , no more than a few body lengths , between trees where vegetation is not thick enough to support its primary forms of locomotion . When travelling on the ground it is said to use a " bounding movement " whereby it leaps more than 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) off the ground . The titi monkey prefers branches which are less than 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter and its tail never touches the support it is on .

= = Ecology = =

There is relatively little known about the ecology of the white @-@ eared titi or even titi monkeys in general , and few studies have focused on the white @-@ eared titi . It is diurnal , commencing activity around sunrise and continuing until sunset . Food availability may influence activity times ; if there is an abundance of food in the warmer months when plants are fruiting titi monkeys may start earlier , or if there is a lack of food , titi monkeys may remain at the feeding tree into the evening . The titi monkey usually rests during the middle of the day and has two main feeding periods , in the morning and in the afternoon . It has an increased period of feeding towards the end of the day . In total , the titi monkey is active for an average of 11 @.@ 5 hours , 2 @.@ 7 hours of which is spent feeding . Titi monkeys sleep on branches at least 15 metres ( 49 ft ) above the ground . In the same manner as resting during the day , titi monkeys huddle together and twine tails to sleep .

Though there is little published research on the diet of the white @-@ eared titi , titi monkeys in general are omnivores that eat fruit , leaves , insects , and seeds . They mostly eat leaves , especially protein @-@ rich young leaves and leaf buds , so a significant period of the day is spent resting to digest the cellulose . They consume more than 100 different species of plants and fruit . Titi monkeys will also eat small insects ( ants , moths , butterflies , and their cocoons ) , spiders , and can catch flying prey if it comes close to them . During the dry season there is an increased feeding time on leaves , and during lactation it is thought insect consumption increases to augment the protein content of the diet .

The titi monkey may travel between 425 and 1 @,@ 152 m ( 1 @,@ 394 and 3 @,@ 780 ft ) during the day , and can maintain a home range of 0 @.@ 005 to 0 @.@ 14 km2 ( 0 @.@ 0019 to 0 @.@ 0541 sq mi ) . During the dry season there is less fruit available and therefore less need to travel large distances , so the day range may only be a third of the usual distance . Its home range is often shared with other primate species including marmosets , squirrel monkeys , capuchins , owl monkeys , howler monkeys , and spider monkeys . It is sometimes chased from feeding sites by larger species , and will generally try to avoid other primates .

= = = Habitat and distribution = = =

The white @-@ eared titi is found in tropical humid forests , preferring drier regions to more humid ones . It is found in riparian zones and gallery forests and is clearly associated with open habitats like grasslands and swampy grasslands . It is found in areas with dense vegetation , often choosing to inhabit the thickest parts of the forest . The species seems to be quite tolerant of habitat disturbance . In Bolivia , the white @-@ eared titi is found in the upper parts of the Mamoré , Grande , and San Miguel river basins , east of the Manique River in Beni and in the forests surrounding the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra . Its range extends north to southern Rondônia in Brazil .

= = Conservation status = =

The white @-@ eared titi is considered to be of least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) Red List . The species is not considered threatened due to its adaptability and abundance over a relatively wide range , and despite having a decreasing population trend the decline is not rapid enough to be placed in a threatened category . The species is also listed on CITES Appendix II .

The white @-@ eared titi 's main threat is deforestation and habitat loss due to agriculture . The area of greatest habitat loss is around the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra , but it still survives within the city limits and on the edges of many rural establishments . It has few natural predators and is proven to be adaptable to habitat disturbance . Farmland may surround and isolate areas of titi habitat which occasionally has positive benefits to the monkey . Farmers may prevent hunters on the land , thereby inadvertently protecting the species . It also appears that the titi monkey can cross open ground between forest fragments , and some groups can thrive in disturbed habitats near human activities . However , the fragmented habitats may prevent the establishment of new territories and decrease reproductive opportunities . Forest corridors to connect fragmented forests have been proposed as an effective means to help ensure the survival of the titi monkey . The white @-@ eared titi is found in the Beni Biological Station Biosphere Reserve and the Amboro National Park in Bolivia and benefits from the protection these reserves provide .

= Lamellerie 's expedition =

Lamellerie 's expedition was a French naval operation launched in February 1806 . Four French Navy frigates and a brig , all survivors of the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805 , attempted to break past the British blockade of Cadiz on 23 February 1806 , taking advantage of the withdrawal of the principal blockade squadron several months earlier at the start of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . Although the squadron was intercepted by elements of the British blockade force , Captain Louis @-@ Charles @-@ Auguste Delamarre de Lamellerie escaped with the four frigates by abandoning the slower brig , which was captured . During the next six months , Lamellerie 's squadron cruised the Atlantic , visiting Senegal , Cayenne and the West Indies but failing to cause any significant disruption to British trade .

On 27 July , as the squadron neared Rochefort , it was spotted by HMS Mars , a Royal Navy ship of the line stationed off the port to intercept French ships entering or leaving . Signalling to the rest of the British squadron , Captain Robert Dudley Oliver took Mars in pursuit , chasing the French squadron all through the night and into the next morning , by which time the frigate Rhin had fallen far behind the others . Recognising that Rhin was in danger of being captured , Lamellerie turned back to her defence with his main squadron but then changed his mind , turning once more and retreating to Rochefort as Oliver took possession of the heavily outgunned Rhin .

= = Background = =

On 21 October 1805 , the French and Spanish allied fleet was almost destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar by a Royal Navy fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Nelson . Among the scattered survivors of the Allied fleet were five French frigates , untouched during the action . With the rest of the surviving ships , the frigates anchored in Cadiz during the week that followed the battle and remained there for the rest of the year , contained in the harbour by a large British blockade squadron led by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth . In December 1805 however , Duckworth abandoned the station in search of a French squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand that was raiding British convoys off the Savage Islands . Although Allemand escaped Duckworth , the British admiral became embroiled in the Atlantic campaign of 1806 and did not return to Cadiz , eventually sailing to the Caribbean where he won the Battle of San Domingo on 6 February 1806 . In his absence , Duckworth 's squadron was replaced at Cadiz by ships grudgingly despatched from the Mediterranean Fleet , under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Collingwood .

The French Navy was concerned about its ships trapped in Cadiz and sought to bring them back to French harbours , particularly to make up for the heavy losses suffered in the Trafalgar Campaign . Therefore four frigates and a brig were prepared for sea under the most senior frigate captain , Captain Louis @-@ Charles @-@ Auguste Delamarre de Lamellerie of Hortense . These ships were to break out of Cadiz , conduct a six @-@ month raiding mission in the Atlantic to distract attention from the ongoing Atlantic campaign , and raid British merchant shipping . At the conclusion of the six months , Lamellerie was to return to Rochefort to join the French Atlantic Fleet .

= = Breakout = =

Word of Lamellerie 's preparations reached Collingwood , and he planned a ruse to lure the French frigate squadron out into open water . Withdrawing all the large vessels of the blockade squadron , Collingwood kept only the 36 @-@ gun frigate HMS Hydra and the 18 @-@ gun sloop HMS Moselle in position to create the impression that the principal blockading force had been driven off . This it was hoped would draw Lamellerie into an attack on the lone ships that would allow the rest of Collingwood 's squadron , hidden just beyond the horizon , to counterattack and annihilate the French squadron . However on 23 February a strong westerly wind blew up and the main squadron , Hydra and Moselle were all blown too far to the east . This was spotted by lookouts on shore and Lamellerie took the opportunity to leave port on 26 February , while the British ships were still out of position .

Lamellerie 's squadron was spotted late on 26 February by lookouts on Hydra and Captain George Mundy , supported by Captain John Surman Carden on Moselle , steered a parallel course in the hope of cutting off their advance . At 23 : 00 , Carden was detached to look for Collingwood and inform him of the location and direction of the French while Mundy continued to follow the enemy squadron . Although Hydra was now isolated and hopelessly outnumbered , Lamellerie made no effort to attack the British ship : he even failed to respond when the brig Furet , falling behind the larger and faster frigates , came within range of Hydra . Mundy opened fire at 04 : 30 , Lieutenant Dumay on Furet acknowledging that he was hopelessly outgunned and completely unsupported by immediately striking his colours . As Collingwood 's squadron was nowhere within sight and the French were rapidly pulling ahead , Mundy abandoned the chase , secured his prize and turned back eastwards as the French continued into the Atlantic . It is not known why Lamellerie fled from such an inferior force and allowed one of his ships to be captured without opposition : modern historian Richard Woodman describes his conduct as " astonishing , given the weakness of the opposition and [ the strength of his ] own combined force " , but in a separate work suggests that Lamellerie 's orders precluded any engagement until his force was safely off the coast .

= = Operations in the Atlantic = =

Following the escape from Cadiz , the remaining four ships of Lamellerie 's squadron sailed southwards , reaching the French African trading post of Senegal in March and then crossing the Atlantic to Cayenne , arriving on 27 March . Taking on fresh supplies , the squadron sailed from Cayenne on 7 April and operated with limited success against British merchant shipping in the Caribbean Sea , including 15 days cruising off Barbados . Retiring to the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico , Lamellerie resupplied his ships again in preparation for the journey back to France . The frigate squadron sailed on 18 May , leaving the Caribbean just as a large French squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez arrived .

= = = Capture of Rhin = = =

The journey back to France was largely uneventful , Lamellerie crossing the Atlantic during May , June and July without meeting any Royal Navy vessels . At 18 : 00 on 27 July however , at 47 ° 00 ′ N 07 ° 00 ′ W in the Bay of Biscay , the frigates were spotted by lookouts on the British ship of the line HMS Mars . Mars was a large and powerful ship , a veteran of Trafalgar that was operating as a scout for the squadron under Commodore Richard Goodwin Keats , detailed to blockade the French Atlantic port of Rochefort . Immediately giving chase , Captain Robert Dudley Oliver signaled from Mars to the nearest British ship HMS Africa , warning of the position and direction of the French . Africa passed this information on to Keats while Mars set all sail in pursuit of Lamellerie .

Running before the more powerful ship under all possible sail , the four French frigates gradually became separated from one another in the dark . Mars too was alone , Dudley easily outrunning the rest of his squadron but unable to catch the leading French ships . When dawn rose on 28 July , it was clear that Hortense and the other leading vessels were stretching the distance between themselves and Mars but that the rearmost French ship , the frigate Rhin was struggling to keep up . Realising that he was gaining on Rhin , Oliver continued pushing his ship forward and Lamellerie , recognising the danger to his rearmost frigate , turned his squadron about and bore down on the isolated ship of the line . Although Mars was far larger than any of the individual frigates , together they carried more guns and could have made an effective defence if handled efficiently . Determined to engage the French , Oliver continued to sail towards Lamellerie and at 15 : 00 the French captain suddenly reversed his direction and fled eastwards with his three faster ships , abandoning Rhin to Oliver .

By the time Lamellerie had turned away , the chase had traveled over 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ) from its original position and Rhin could no longer hold off the British ship . A fierce rain squall caused the frigate to roll and Oliver maintained the pursuit so that at 18 : 00 he was close enough to fire a single shot at Rhin , a warning of that a full broadside was to follow . Aware that his ship could not hope to withstand an attack from the ship of the line , Captain Michel Chesneau hauled down his flag and surrendered without a fight . Although the rest of Lamellerie 's ships were still within sight , the approaching night , increasingly stormy weather and the large number of prisoners of war to be transferred from the prize persuaded Oliver to give up any further pursuit . Lamellerie steered his remaining squadron along the coast , where it split up during the night . The following day Hortense and Hermione entered Bordeaux while Thémis was the only one of the squadron to reach its intended destination of Rochefort . Oliver secured his prize , but was so far from his station that he did not manage to rejoin Keats ' squadron until 31 July .

= = Aftermath = =

Rhin and the prisoners were taken to Britain , where the frigate was immediately fitted out as a Royal Navy ship under her old name as HMS Rhin . Oliver was commended for his perseverance and he and his men shared in the prize money from the frigate . In France , there appears to have been no condemnation of Lamellerie 's repeated failure to engage Royal Navy forces that in terms of weight of shot at least were the inferior of his squadron . In his official report he inaccurately claimed that his frigates had all been too badly damaged during the Atlantic cruise to consider fighting a ship of the line . He was later made a peer after the return of the French monarchy and remained in the French Navy for many years . In British histories his actions have been roundly condemned – William James accuses him of lying in his official despatches and wrote in 1827 : " What , then , but a misrepresentation of the facts could have saved this French commodore from being cashiered ? " , while Richard Woodman wrote in 1998 that " such apparent pusillanimity fed stories of British superiority against all odds and tended to breed a dangerous conceit " .

= = Order of battle = =

= The Witch 's Tales =

The Witch 's Tales was a pulp magazine edited by Tom Chadburn which published two issues in November and December 1936 . It was a companion to a radio program , called The Witch 's Tale , which had begun broadcasting in May 1931 . With the exception of the lead story in each issue , all the stories were reprints from the American edition of Pearson 's Magazine . Alonzo Deen Cole , who wrote the radio series , contributed one lead story , and provided the plot for the other . The authors of the reprint stories included George Daulton , Wardon Allan Curtis , William Hamilton Osborne , and John C. Haywood .

= = Publication history and contents = =

The Witch 's Tale was a radio program that began on American radio in May 1931 . A weekly anthology show , it was the first radio horror program , and soon became quite popular . In 1936 , the magazine The Witch 's Tales appeared as a companion to it , perhaps inspired by The Shadow , a successful pulp magazine which had also been launched as the companion of a radio program of the same name . The Witch 's Tales was published by The Carwood Publishing Co . , a small and relatively inexperienced firm . The named editor of the magazine was Alonzo Deen Cole , who wrote the radio episodes , but the editorial work was actually done by Tom Chadburn . Having both a pulp magazine and radio show act as vehicles for Cole 's work is an early example of the 21st century 's media industry 's approach , with content tied together across more than one media platform , but although Street & Smith demonstrated that this could be done successfully for The Shadow , Carwood did little to promote the radio show in the magazine , probably because of their inexperience . Only one more issue appeared , the following month ; it is unlikely that the publisher could have received sales data on the first issue by that time , so there may have been reasons other than poor sales for the magazine 's short run , perhaps including weak financing and distribution .

The first issue , dated November 1936 , led with " The Madman " , a story by Cole about a mad scientist . Cole 's work also appeared in the second issue with " Mrs. Hawker 's Will " . Originally an episode Cole had written for the radio show , it was adapted from the script for the magazine by Laurence D. Smith . All the other stories , from both issues , were reprinted from the American edition of Pearson 's Magazine . These included " The Monster of Lake LaMetrie " , by Wardon Allan Curtis , from 1899 ; " The Fountain of Youth " , by William Hamilton Osborne , and " Phantom of the Links " , by John C. Haywood , both from 1906 ; and " The Death @-@ Trap " , by George Daulton , which had originally appeared in 1908 . The reprints were good stories , in the opinion of Mike Ashley , and they often had science fiction themes : Curtis 's story involved the transplant of a man 's brain into the body of a prehistoric monster . Despite the relatively high quality of the material , the stories were not action @-@ oriented enough to have pleased a typical pulp magazine reader of the era .

= = Bibliographic details = =

The magazine 's two issues were dated November and December 1936 , and numbered as a single volume of two issues . The publisher was The Carwood Publishing Co . , of New York , and the editor was Tom Chadburn . The magazine was in bedsheet format , with 48 pages , and was priced at 15 cents .

= Djibouti women 's national football team =

Djibouti women 's national football team represents the country in international competitions . Football is organised by Fédération Djiboutienne de Football , with women 's football formally organised in the country in 2002 , and a national team was later created . The country has no women 's youth national teams . Djibouti has only played in one FIFA recognised match , which they lost to Kenya by a score of 7 – 0 . The team is unranked . The development of women 's football in the country faces both national and regional issues that impede the team 's potential success .

= = Background and history = =

The country became independent in 1977 . Fédération Djiboutienne de Football was founded in 1977 and joined FIFA in 1994 . Football is one of the most popular sports in the country . Women 's football development in Africa has to deal with several challenges that impact the ability to develop a high level of play , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in the society that occasionally allows for female specific human rights abuses . When high level women 's players are developed , many leave the country seeking greater opportunity in Northern Europe or the United States . Another issue facing women 's football in Africa is that most of the money for the game does not come from national football federations but instead from FIFA .

In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team . Djibouti was no exception : women 's football was not officially organised in the country until 2002 and then , only for players sixteen years and older . As of 2009 , there were only eight women 's clubs for these players in the country . There is a regional and national women 's competition , which was established in 2007 . The league provided the first opportunity for women outside the capital and major cities to play football . The country has a women 's national team but has no youth teams , meaning no U17 or U20 teams . 12 % of the money from the FIFA Financial Assistance Programme ( FAP ) is targeted at the technical development of the game , which includes women 's football , sport medicine and futsal . This compares to 11 % specifically set aside for men 's competitions and 10 % set aside for youth football . Between 1991 and 2010 , there was no FIFA FUTURO III regional course for women 's coaching . A FUTURO III regional course men 's coaching workshop was hosted in 2008 . In 2007 , there was a women 's football seminar held in the country . In 2007 , there was a FIFA MA course held for women / youth football .

= = Performance = =

Between 1977 and April 2012 , Djibouti women 's national football team played in only one FIFA sanctioned match . It was played in Nairobi on 26 March 2006 , with Kenya women 's national football team winning 7 – 0 , holding a lead of 4 – 0 over Djibouti at the half . The women 's national team has not competed at the Women 's World Cup . They played two non @-@ sanctioned games , one in 2004 and one in 2005 . In March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA and did not formally exist .

= L 'Arianna =

L 'Arianna ( English : Ariadne ) ( SV 291 ) , composed in 1607 – 1608 , was the second opera by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi . One of the earliest operas , it was first performed on 28 May 1608 , as part of the musical festivities for a royal wedding at the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga in Mantua . All the music is lost apart from the extended recitative known as " Lamento d 'Arianna " ( " Ariadne 's Lament " ) . The libretto , which survives complete , was written in eight scenes by Ottavio Rinuccini , who used Ovid 's Heroides and other classical sources to relate the story of Ariadne 's abandonment by Theseus on the island of Naxos and her subsequent elevation as bride to the god Bacchus .

The opera was composed under severe pressure of time ; the composer later said that the effort of creating it almost killed him . The initial performance , produced with lavish and innovative special effects , was highly praised , and the work was equally well received in Venice when it was revived under the composer 's direction in 1640 as the inaugural work for the Teatro San Moisè .

Rinuccini 's libretto is available in a number of editions . The music of the " Lamento " survives because it was published by Monteverdi , in several different versions , independently from the opera . This fragment became a highly influential musical work and was widely imitated ; the " expressive lament " became an integral feature of Italian opera for much of the 17th century . In recent years the " Lamento " has become popular as a concert and recital piece and has been frequently recorded .

= = Historical context = =

In about 1590 Claudio Monteverdi , born in Cremona in 1567 , secured a position as a viol player at the Mantuan court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga . Over the following ten years he advanced to become the duke 's maestro della musica . During that time , significant developments were taking place in the world of musical theatre ; in 1598 the work generally recognised as the first in the new genre of " opera " — Jacopo Peri 's Dafne — was performed in Florence . The duke was quick to recognise the potential of this new musical form , and its potential for bringing prestige to those willing to sponsor it .

As part of his duties to the Gonzaga court , Monteverdi was often required to compose or arrange music for staged performances . These works included a fully @-@ fledged opera , L 'Orfeo , written to a libretto by Alessandro Striggio the Younger and presented before the court on 24 February 1607 . This performance pleased the duke , who ordered a repeat showing for 1 March . A contemporary account records that the piece " could not have been done better ... The music , observing due propriety , serves the poetry so well that nothing more beautiful is to be heard anywhere " . Monteverdi was then required to write several pieces for performance at the wedding of the duke 's son and heir Francesco , planned for early May 1608 . These included a musical prologue for Battista Guarini 's play L 'idropica and a setting of the dramatic ballet Il ballo delle ingrate ( " Dance of the Ungrateful Ladies " ) , with a text by Ottavio Rinuccini . There was also to be an opera , though it was not initially certain that Monteverdi would provide this . Other works under consideration were Peri 's Le nozze di Peleo e Titede ( " The marriage of Peleus and Thetis " ) with a libretto by Francesco Cini , and a new setting of Dafne by Marco da Gagliano . In the event , the former was rejected and the latter designated for performance at the 1607 – 08 Carnival . The duke decreed that the wedding opera should be based on the myth of Arianna ( Ariadne ) , and that Rinuccini should write the text . Monteverdi was instructed to provide the music .

= = Creation = =

= = = Libretto = = =

At the time of his commission for L 'Arianna , Rinuccini was probably the most experienced and distinguished of all librettists . His writing career stretched back to 1579 , when he had written verses for the Florentine court entertainment Maschere d 'Amazzoni . He had become widely known through his verse contributions to the celebrated intermedi for Girolamo Bargagli 's play La Pellegrina ( The Pilgrim Woman ) , performed in May 1589 at the wedding of Ferdinando I de ' Medici and Christina of Lorraine . According to Gagliano , Rinuccini was a primary influence in the emergence of opera as a genre ; he adapted the conventions of his contemporary lyric poets to produce the librettos for two of the earliest operas , Dafne and Euridice — the latter set to music by both Peri and Giulio Caccini .

For his Arianna libretto Rinuccini drew on a variety of classical sources , notably the tenth book of Ovid 's Heroides , parts of the Carmina of Catullus , and the section in Virgil 's epic Aeneid dealing with Dido 's abandonment by Aeneas . He also used aspects of more recent literary works — Ludovico Ariosto 's Orlando Furioso , Torquato Tasso 's Gerusalemme liberata , and Giovanni Andrea dell ' Anguillara 's 1561 translation of Ovid 's Metamorphoses . The libretto was extended during the rehearsals when Carlo de ' Rossi , a member of the duke 's court , reported the Duchess Eleonora 's complaint that the piece was " very dry " and needed to be enriched with further action . The libretto published in Venice in 1622 takes the form of a prologue and eight scenes , although other arrangements of the text have been suggested . For example , the musicologist Bojan Bujić has posited an alternative of a prologue and five scenes .

= = = Composition = = =

Monteverdi probably began composing in late October or early November 1607 , since Rinuccini 's arrival in Mantua can be dated to 23 October . With rehearsals due to begin in the new year , Monteverdi composed the work in a hurry and under considerable pressure ; nearly 20 years later he was still complaining , in a letter to Striggio , of the hardships he had been made to suffer : " It was the shortness of time that brought me almost to death 's door in writing L 'Arianna " .

Monteverdi had apparently completed the score by early January , and rehearsals began . However , his work was not over as he was required to write further music when the work was extended after Rossi 's intervention . Among the material added or lengthened were the early scene between Venus and Cupid , and Jupiter 's blessing from heaven at the end of the opera . In March 1608 , well into the rehearsal period , the opera 's scheduled performance was jeopardised by the death , from smallpox , of the leading soprano Caterina Martinelli . Fortunately a replacement was to hand , a renowned actress and singer , Virginia Ramponi @-@ Andreini , known professionally as " La Florinda " , who was performing in Mantua . A courtier , Antonio Costantini , later reported that she learned the part of Arianna in six days . The musicologist Tim Carter suggests that Arianna 's lament may have been added to the opera at this late stage , to exploit La Florinda 's well @-@ known vocal capabilities .

= = Roles = =

The casting for the opera 's premiere is uncertain . While the participation of singers such as La Florinda and Francesco Rasi can be established , sources have speculated on the involvement of other singers . There are several versions of the published libretto ; the list of roles is taken from the publication by Gherardo & Iseppo Imberti , Venice 1622 .

= = Synopsis = =

The action is preceded by a brief prologue , delivered by Apollo . Venus and Cupid are then discovered , in conversation , on a desolate seashore . Venus informs Cupid that Duke Theseus of Athens , together with Ariadne , will soon be arriving on the island of Naxos on their way to Athens . They are fleeing from Crete , where the pair have been complicit in the slaying of Ariadne 's monster half @-@ brother , the Minotaur , in the labyrinth below the palace of her father , King Minos . Venus is aware that Theseus intends to abandon Ariadne on Naxos , and to proceed to Athens alone . Cupid offers to rekindle Theseus 's passion for Ariadne , but Venus has decided to unite her with the god Bacchus , and asks Cupid to arrange this .

Cupid conceals himself , as Theseus and Ariadne arrive on the island a short distance away . Ariadne muses over her disloyalty to her father , but declares her love for Theseus . She departs to find shelter for the night , after which a fishermen 's chorus compares her eyes with the stars of heaven . Theseus , alone with his counsellor , discusses his abandonment of Ariadne , and is advised that this decision is justified , as she will not be acceptable to the people of Athens as their ruler 's consort .

A chorus greets the dawn as Ariadne , after a troubled night 's sleep , returns to the shore with her companion , Dorilla , to find that Theseus has departed . Dorilla offers her comfort . In despair at the thought that Theseus will not return , Ariadne nevertheless decides to go to the landing area to wait for him . In a pastoral interlude a chorus sings of the joys of rural life , and expresses the hope that Theseus will not forget Ariadne . Primed by an envoy with the news that Ariadne is alone and sorrowing , the chorus again sings in sympathy with her . On the beach , Ariadne sings her lament for her lost love and prepares to kill herself . At this point fanfares are heard heralding an arrival , causing Ariadne to hope that it is Theseus returning . In another interlude the chorus empathises , but a second envoy announces that it is Bacchus who has arrived , having taken pity on Ariadne . A sung ballo celebrates the anticipated betrothal of Bacchus and Ariadne . In the final scene Cupid reappears , and Venus rises from the sea before Jupiter speaks his blessing from the heavens . The union is sealed as Bacchus promises Ariadne immortality in heaven , and a crown of stars .

= = Performance history = =

= = = Premiere : Mantua , 1608 = = =

The date of the Gonzaga wedding was repeatedly postponed , because of diplomatic problems which delayed the bride 's arrival in Mantua until 24 May . The wedding festivities began four days later ; L 'Arianna was performed on 28 May 1608 , the first of the several spectacular entertainments . A large temporary theatre had been built for the occasion ; according to the court 's chronicler Federico Follino this held 6 @,@ 000 people — a figure which Carter deems unlikely . Whatever its size , the arena could not hold everyone who wished to be present . Follino 's account records that although the duke had strictly limited the numbers from his household entitled to be there , many distinguished foreign visitors could not be seated and were obliged to crowd around the doors .

Although contained within a single stage set , the production was lavish , with 300 men employed to manipulate the stage machinery . Follino 's report described the set as " a wild rocky place in the midst of the waves , which in the furthest part of the prospect could be seen always in motion " . As the action began , Apollo was revealed " sitting on a very beautiful cloud ... which , moving down little by little ... reached in a short space of time the stage and ... disappeared in a moment " . Thereafter , all the performers proved excellent in the art of singing ; " every part succeeded more than wondrously " . Follino 's enthusiasm was echoed in other reports made by dignitaries to their own courts . The ambassador for the House of Este , who referred to the work as " a comedy in music " , mentioned in particular Andreini 's performance which , in her lament , " made many weep " , and that of Francesco Rasi , who as Bacchus " sang divinely " . Monteverdi 's fellow composer Marco da Gagliano wrote that Monteverdi 's music had " moved the entire audience to tears " . In all , the opera lasted for two and a half hours .

= = = Revival : Venice , 1639 – 40 = = =

Despite the positive reception accorded to L 'Arianna at its premiere , the duke did not request a second showing , as he had with L 'Orfeo the previous year " . The next hint of a performance of L 'Arianna is in 1614 , when the Medici court in Florence requested a copy of the score , presumably with the intention of staging it . There is , however , no record of any such performance there . Early in 1620 Striggio asked Monteverdi to send him the music for a projected performance in Mantua as part of the celebration for the Duchess Caterina 's birthday . Monteverdi went to the trouble and expense of preparing a new manuscript with revisions ; had he had more time , he informed Striggio , he would have revised the work more thoroughly . Hearing nothing further from the Mantuan court , Monteverdi wrote to Striggio on 18 April 1620 , offering to help with the staging . A month or so later , however , he learned that the duchess 's celebrations had been scaled back , and that there had been no performance of L 'Arianna .

There is some evidence to suggest a possible performance in Dubrovnik , in or some time after 1620 ; a Croatian translation of the libretto was published in Ancona in 1633 . However , the only known revival of the work came in Venice , in 1640 . Public theatre opera had come to the city in March 1637 , when the new Teatro San Cassiano opened with a performance of L 'Andromeda by Francesco Manelli . The popularity of this and other works led to more theatres converting their facilities for opera ; L 'Arianna was chosen to inaugurate the Teatro San Moisè as an opera house during the 1639 – 40 Carnival ( the precise date of this performance is not recorded ) . A revised version of the libretto had been published in 1639 , with substantial cuts and revisions from the 1608 version to remove passages too specifically linked to the Mantuan wedding . The composer , who was by then 73 years old , had acquired considerable prestige in Venice , having been director of music at St Mark 's Basilica since 1613 . The dedication in the revised and republished libretto describes him as " [ the ] most celebrated Apollo of the century and the highest intelligence of the heavens of humanity " . The opera was received with great enthusiasm by a Venetian audience already familiar with the lament , which had been published in the city in 1623 . Within a few weeks the theatre replaced L 'Arianna with Monteverdi 's new opera Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria , which proved an even greater success .

= = Loss = =

After the Venice revival of 1639 – 40 there are no further records of performances of L 'Arianna . Rinuccini 's libretto , which was published on several occasions during Monteverdi 's lifetime , has survived intact , but the opera 's music disappeared some time after 1640 , with the exception of Ariadne 's Scene 6 lament , known as Lamento d 'Arianna . In the loss of its music the opera shares the fate of most of Monteverdi 's theatrical works , including six of his other nine operas . Carter 's explanation for the high rate of attrition is that " memories were short and large @-@ scale musical works often had limited currency beyond their immediate circumstances " ; such music was rarely published and quickly discarded .

= = " Lamento d 'Arianna " = =

The lament was saved from oblivion by Monteverdi 's decision to publish it independently from the opera : first in 1614 as a five @-@ voice madrigal , then in 1623 as a monody , and finally in 1641 as a sacred hymn , Lamento della Madonna . The five @-@ voice adaptation was included in the composer 's Sixth Book of Madrigals ; there is evidence that this arrangement was made at the suggestion of an unnamed Venetian gentleman who thought that the melody would benefit from counterpoint . In 1868 the lament was published in Paris , and in 1910 the Italian composer Ottorino Respighi issued an edited , orchestral transcription .

In her analysis of the lament , the musicologist Suzanne Cusick asserts that " [ T ] o a large extent Monteverdi 's fame and historical status rested for centuries on the universal appreciation of his achievement in the celebrated lament [ which ] was among the most emulated , and therefore influential , works of the early 17th century " . In Cusick 's view Monteverdi " creat [ ed ] the lament as a recognizable genre of vocal chamber music and as a standard scene in opera ... that would become crucial , almost genre @-@ defining , to the full @-@ scale public operas of 17th @-@ century Venice " and she concludes by noting that the women of Mantua would have recognised the transformations enacted in the lament as representative of their own life stories . Monteverdi , she believes , sought to represent in music the eventual triumph of female piety over promiscuity : " Arianna 's gradual loss of her passionate self in the lament constitutes a public musical chastening of this incautious woman who dared to choose her own mate " . In her study The Recitative Soliloquy , Margaret Murata records that laments of this kind became a staple feature of operas until about 1650 , " thereafter more rarely until the total triumph of the aria around 1670 " . Mark Ringer , in his analysis of Monteverdi 's musical drama , suggests that the lament defines Monteverdi 's innovative creativity in a manner similar to that in which , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half centuries later , the " Prelude " and the " Liebestod " in Tristan und Isolde announced Wagner 's discovery of new expressive frontiers .

In its operatic context the lament takes the form of an extended recitative of more than 70 vocal lines , delivered in five sections divided by choral comments . Some of the wording is prefigured in the immediately preceding scene in which the First Envoy describes Arianna 's plight to a sympathetic chorus of fishermen . The lament depicts Arianna 's various emotional reactions to her abandonment : sorrow , anger , fear , self @-@ pity , desolation and a sense of futility . Cusick draws attention to the manner in which Monteverdi is able to match in music the " rhetorical and syntactical gestures " in Rinuccini 's text . The opening repeated words " Lasciatemi morire " ( Let me die ) are accompanied by a dominant seventh chord which Ringer describes as " an unforgettable chromatic stab of pain " ; Monteverdi was one of the first users of this musical device . What follows , says Ringer , has a range and depth " comparable to Shakespeare 's most searching soliloquies " . The words " Lasciatemi morire " are followed by " O Teseo , O Teseo mio " ( O Theseus , my Theseus " ) ; the two phrases represent Arianna 's contrasting emotions of despair and longing . Throughout the lament indignation and anger are punctuated by tenderness , until the final iteration of " O Teseo " , after which a descending line brings the lament to a quiet conclusion .

Among other composers who adopted the format and style of Arianna 's lament were Francesco Cavalli , whose opera Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo contains three such pieces ; Francesco Costa , who included a setting of Rinuccini 's text in his madrigal collection Pianta d 'Arianna ; and Sigismondo d 'India , who wrote several laments in the 1620s after the monodic version of Arianna 's lament was published in 1623 . Monteverdi himself used the expressive lament format in each of his two late operas , Il ritorno d 'Ulisse in patria and L 'incoronazione di Poppea , for the respective characters of Penelope and Ottavia . In 1641 Monteverdi adapted Arianna 's lament into a sacred song with a Latin text , " Pianto dell Madonna " , which he included in Selva morale e spirituale , the last of his works published during his lifetime .

= = Recordings , " Lamento d 'Arianna " = =

Many recordings are available of both the five @-@ voice madrigal and the solo voice version of the " Lamento " . The solo recordings include several versions which use a tenor or baritone voice . Among leading singers who have issued recordings are the sopranos Emma Kirkby and Véronique Gens , and the mezzo @-@ sopranos Janet Baker and Anne Sofie von Otter .

= = Editions = =

At least eight versions of the libretto were published between 1608 and 1640 . The following is a list of the known editions :

Aurelio et Ludovico Osanna , Mantua , 1608 . Publication of the text included in Federico Follini 's report of the 1608 performance ;

Heredi di Francesco Osanna , Mantua , 1608 . Possibly the text circulated to the audience at the 1608 performance ;

I. Giunti , Florence , 1608 ;

Bernardo Giunti , Giovan Battista Ciotti & Co . , Venice , 1608 ;

Ghirardo et Iseppo Imberti , Venice , 1622 ;

G. F. Gundulić , Ancona , 1633 . Croatian translation , prepared for possible performance in Dubrovnik c . 1620 . ( 5 scenes version ) ;

Angelo Salvadori , Venice , 1639 . Revised version prepared for the 1640 revival ;

Antonio Bariletti , Venice , 1640 .

= Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election , October 2015 =

An election for the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives took place on October 29 , 2015 , during the 114th U.S. Congress . The election was necessitated by the announcement of Speaker John Boehner 's resignation , set for October 30 . The Speaker of the House follows the Vice President in the line of succession to the presidency of the United States in accordance with the Presidential Succession Act .

Due to friction within the Republican Party caucus , Boehner decided to step down as speaker and resign his seat in Congress . He scheduled a Republican caucus non @-@ binding vote for speaker on October 8 , and a full floor vote on October 29 . Kevin McCarthy , the House Majority Leader and second @-@ in @-@ command to the Speaker , was initially viewed as the favorite to win the Speakership . However , due to the opposition of the Freedom Caucus , McCarthy dropped out of the race on October 8 , and the caucus vote was postponed .

Jason Chaffetz initially declared his candidacy to challenge McCarthy , and Bill Flores declared his candidacy after McCarthy withdrew , but both dropped out later to express their support for Paul Ryan , who entered the race after being widely viewed as a potential frontrunner . Daniel Webster of the Republican Party and former Speaker Nancy Pelosi of the Democratic Party were also declared candidates . Ryan won the rescheduled caucus vote on October 28 , and was elected Speaker of the House , receiving 54 @.@ 6 % of the House vote , on October 29 .

= = Background = =

= = = Process and conventions = = =

The Speaker of the United States House of Representatives is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives , and is second in the United States presidential line of succession , after the Vice President and ahead of the President pro tempore of the United States Senate . Though the Constitution does not require that the Speaker be an elected member of the House of Representatives , every Speaker to date has been elected from House membership .

The 435 members of the House of Representatives elect a Speaker by majority rule at the beginning of each session of the United States Congress , who serves until the end of the Congress . Typically , the election is a formality , as the majority party 's members vote as a bloc for their party 's previously @-@ chosen Speaker @-@ designate ( such as the speaker , majority leader , or minority leader from the previous term ) . Open elections are uncommon but have occurred . The last Speaker election to require multiple ballots occurred in 1923 .

= = = Speakership and resignation of John Boehner = = =

John Boehner , a member of the Republican Party from Ohio , served as the Majority Leader of the United States House of Representatives from February 2006 until January 2007 . As the Democratic Party assumed control of the House following the 2006 elections , Boehner served as Minority Leader from January 2007 until January 2011 . When Republicans reassumed control of the House of Representatives in January 2011 , Boehner was elected as Speaker , with the votes of all 241 of his fellow Republicans . In 2014 , some House Republicans reached out to Ben Carson about his interest in becoming Speaker should they be able to oust Boehner ; Carson declined , citing his impending candidacy for president . Boehner 's Republican opponents formed a congressional caucus , called the Freedom Caucus , in January 2015 to focus their opposition . Though Boehner was reelected as Speaker at the beginning of the 114th United States Congress that month , 25 conservative members of the Republican caucus did not vote for him . Daniel Webster , a Republican from Florida , received 12 votes .

Throughout 2015 , Boehner and the Freedom Caucus remained at odds . Boehner stripped his opponents of leadership posts and other perks , while the American Action Network , a group allied with Boehner , aired television ads against Freedom Caucus members in their home districts . Meanwhile , the Freedom Caucus opposing Boehner 's plans , forcing him to rely on Democratic votes to pass bills . Needing to pass a federal budget for the 2016 fiscal year beginning October 1 , the Freedom Caucus , now consisting of approximately 40 conservative Republicans affiliated with the Tea Party movement , threatened to block a resolution from passing unless it would defund Planned Parenthood and to initiate a vote to vacate the speakership if Boehner did not support their demands . The caucus sought the following promises : ( 1 ) the decentralization of the House Steering Committee , so that the Speaker and House Majority Leader are not solely in charge of committee assignments , ( 2 ) not supporting an increase in the U.S. debt ceiling without entitlement reform , ( 3 ) willingness to impeach John Koskinen , the Commissioner of Internal Revenue , and ( 4 ) passing spending bills approved by the caucus rather than a continuing resolution favored by Democrats in the United States Senate .

On July 28 , 2015 , Mark Meadows , a member of the Freedom Caucus from North Carolina , filed a motion to vacate the speakership , only the second time the motion had been filed . The next day , Boehner referred to the motion as " no big deal . " However , following continued pressure from the Freedom Caucus , and to avoid the vacation of his speakership , Boehner announced on September 25 that he would resign the Speakership and retire from Congress effective October 30 . Sources from his office indicated he chose to resign due to the increasing discord within the Republican caucus so that he could manage passage of a continuing resolution to fund the government and avoid a government shutdown .

= = Candidates = =

On September 28 , Kevin McCarthy of California , the House Majority Leader , and Webster announced that they would run for Speaker of the House . McCarthy was considered the presumptive favorite in the race . Jason Chaffetz , a Republican from Utah and the Chairman of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee , announced his candidacy on October 4 , claiming that McCarthy did not have the votes to win the election . Several Republicans urged Paul Ryan of Wisconsin , the running mate of Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election , to run for Speaker , but he declined , saying he is a " policy guy " with a preference to focus on his role as Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee .

Democrat Nancy Pelosi , who served as the Speaker from January 2007 through January 2011 , asked her Democratic colleagues for their vote in the election . Steny Hoyer , the House Minority Whip , said that he expects that the " overwhelming majority " of Democrats will vote for Pelosi . He said that if a Republican cannot get the votes needed , Democrats may consider their options .

On October 7 , the day before the Republican caucus scheduled a non @-@ binding vote for speaker , Ryan and former Vice President Dick Cheney endorsed McCarthy , as did 11 of the 13 House Republicans from Pennsylvania . The Freedom Caucus decided to endorse Webster in the race . Other Republicans said they would vote against McCarthy , including Thomas Massie of Kentucky , who called McCarthy " absolutely not an option " because of his previous role as Boehner 's " right @-@ hand man " . Also , Walter B. Jones , Jr. of North Carolina sent a letter to the Republican Conference Chairwoman Cathy McMorris Rodgers stating that any candidates for a leadership position with " misdeeds " should withdraw from the race . Jones has stated that his comment did not specifically refer to McCarthy , but it was widely seen as referring to rumors that McCarthy had been committing an extramarital affair with a fellow Representative , a rumor that both have denied ; the basis for such an allegation and interpretation is unclear .

Citing opposition from within the Republican Party , as well as fallout from controversial comments he made about the United States House Select Committee on Benghazi , McCarthy dropped out of the race on October 8 . Following McCarthy 's departure from the race , Republicans renewed their efforts to recruit Ryan as a candidate . Boehner personally called Ryan twice to ask him to run , and Chaffetz said that he would not run against Ryan if he chose to enter the race . Ryan also received calls from Mitt Romney and Trey Gowdy , among others , encouraging him to run for Speaker . Additional Ryan endorsements came from Wisconsin Senator Ron Johnson , 2016 Republican presidential frontrunner Donald Trump , and House Majority Whip Steve Scalise from Louisiana . On October 9 , close aides of Ryan confirmed that Ryan was reconsidering the possibility of a run .

A possible Ryan candidacy received support from the same Freedom Caucus that opposed Boehner and McCarthy , as Meadows said on October 11 that Ryan running would " definitely change the equation , " and Chairman Jim Jordan described Ryan as " a good man " and stated that the Freedom Caucus would view a Ryan run " favorably . "

Others who expressed their interest in running included Texas representatives Bill Flores and Michael McCaul , Georgia representative Lynn Westmoreland , Montana representative Ryan Zinke , and California representative and former Oversight Committee Chairman Darrell Issa . However , several candidates have made clear that they would only run if Ryan chooses not to , including Issa , McCaul , and Minnesota representative John Kline . On October 12 , Flores confirmed that he would run for Speaker . He stated that he would run only if Ryan stayed out of the contest .

Ryan held a closed @-@ door meeting with the Republican Caucus on October 20 , where he explained that he would run for Speaker if he could be guaranteed an overwhelming majority of the Republican caucus would support him . Specifically , Ryan requested an increased threshold for the political maneuver of vacating the Speakership , stated that he would not lessen the amount of time he spends with his family , and requested an official endorsement from the Freedom Caucus , Republican Study Committee , and The Tuesday Group by October 23 , before he could make his decision . Immediately after Ryan 's announcement , Chaffetz announced that he would be dropping out of the race to support Ryan . The next day , the Freedom Caucus held a vote to determine which of its members would support Ryan ; although the exact tally was not revealed , roughly two @-@ thirds of the caucus voted to endorse Ryan . Although this was shy of the 80 % vote needed for an official endorsement over Webster , both the caucus leaders and Ryan were satisfied with the result , and Ryan made efforts to move forward with a potential Speaker bid .

On October 22 , Ryan announced his bid for Speaker . Flores , who chairs the Republican Study Committee , dropped out of the race and endorsed Ryan . Mo Brooks of Alabama , a member of the Freedom Caucus , announced on the floor of the House on October 27 that Ryan had agreed not to advance immigration reform legislation while Barack Obama is President of the United States , or unless it meets the " Hastert Rule " , as it has the support of the majority of Republicans .

= = = Declared = = =

The following officially declared their candidacy :

Nancy Pelosi , ( Democratic Party ) , Minority Leader of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2011 ; 2003 – 2007 ) , United States representative for California 's 12th congressional district ( since 2013 ) , and Speaker of the United States House of Representatives ( 2007 – 2011 ) .

Paul Ryan , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Wisconsin 's 1st congressional district ( since 1999 ) , Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee ( since 2015 ) , Republican Party nominee for Vice President of the United States in the 2012 election .

Daniel Webster , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Florida 's 10th congressional district ( since 2013 ) .

= = = Publicly expressed interest = = =

The following publicly expressed interest in becoming candidates :

Darrell Issa , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for California 's 49th congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Oversight Committee ( 2011 – 2015 ) .

Newt Gingrich , ( Republican Party ) , Speaker of the United States House of Representatives ( 1995 – 1999 ) , House Minority Whip ( 1989 – 1995 ) , United States representative for Georgia 's 6th congressional district ( 1979 – 1999 ) .

Michael McCaul , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 10th congressional district ( since 2005 ) , Chairman of the House Homeland Security Committee ( since 2013 ) .

Mike Pompeo , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Kansas 's 4th congressional district ( since 2011 ) .

Lynn Westmoreland , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Georgia 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2007 ) .

Ryan Zinke , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Montana 's at @-@ large congressional district ( since 2015 ) .

= = = Received speculation = = =

The following received speculation about a possible candidacy in at least two reliable sources :

Diane Black , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Tennessee 's 6th congressional district ( since 2011 ) .

Mike Conaway , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 11th congressional district ( since 2005 ) .

Mike Kelly , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Pennsylvania 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2011 ) .

John Kline , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Minnesota 's 2nd congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Education Committee ( since 2011 ) .

= = = Withdrawn = = =

The following were candidates , but subsequently withdrew :

Jason Chaffetz , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Utah 's 3rd congressional district ( since 2008 ) , Chairman of the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform ( since 2015 ) ( Withdrew on October 20 , 2015 ; endorsed Paul Ryan ) .

Bill Flores , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 17th congressional district since 2011 . ( Withdrew on October 22 , 2015 ; endorsed Paul Ryan ) .

Kevin McCarthy ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for California 's 23rd congressional district ( since 2013 ) , Majority Leader of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2014 ) . ( Withdrew on October 8 , 2015 ) .

= = = Declined to run = = =

The following received some speculation about a possible candidacy , but subsequently ruled themselves out :

Marsha Blackburn , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Tennessee 's 7th congressional district ( since 2003 ) .

Trey Gowdy ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for South Carolina 's 4th congressional district ( since 2011 ) , Chairman of the House Benghazi Committee ( since 2014 ) .

Jeb Hensarling ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Texas 's 5th congressional district ( since 2003 ) , Chairman of the House Committee on Financial Services ( since 2013 ) .

Cathy McMorris Rodgers ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Washington 's 5th congressional district ( since 2005 ) , Chairman of the House Republican Conference ( since 2013 ) .

Peter Roskam , ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Illinois 's 6th congressional district ( since 2007 ) .

Steve Scalise ( Republican Party ) , United States representative for Louisiana 's 1st congressional district ( since 2008 ) , Majority Whip of the United States House of Representatives ( since 2014 ) .

= = Election = =

House Republicans planned to hold a non @-@ binding caucus vote on October 8 , followed by the official floor vote on October 29 . The winning candidate requires a 218 @-@ vote majority to win . Multiple ballots may be cast if the majority of the House cannot agree on a candidate . While McCarthy and Chaffetz both said they would vote for the winner of the caucus vote in the floor vote , Webster did not make the same promise .

Following McCarthy dropping out of the race on October 8 , the caucus vote was indefinitely postponed . Massie and Peter T. King referred to the House as a " banana republic . " Massie also criticized Boehner for postponing the election , saying they " called off the election because they didn ’ t like the result , " which was echoed by Tom Rice , Louie Gohmert , and Justin Amash . McMorris Rodgers and Conference Vice Chairwoman Lynn Jenkins defended Boehner , saying the matter was handled properly , as conference rules give him sole discretion . Rich Lowry of National Review asked McCarthy in a phone interview if the House was governable , to which McCarthy replied " I don ’ t know . Sometimes you have to hit rock bottom . " Charlie Dent , a Republican from Pennsylvania who had supported McCarthy , suggested that if Republicans are unable to agree on a candidate , the best option might be for a bipartisan coalition to select a Speaker .

Once it appeared certain that Ryan would run , and win an overwhelming majority of the caucus 's votes , Boehner rescheduled the Republican caucus vote for October 28 . Ryan won the nomination , defeating Webster 200 to 43 in the secret ballot voting . Blackburn and McCarthy each received one vote . The next day , Webster reportedly urged Republicans to vote for Ryan instead of him .

= = = Final result = = =

On October 29 , Ryan was elected Speaker with 236 of the 432 votes cast . Others receiving votes were Pelosi ( 184 ) , Webster ( 9 ) , Jim Cooper , John Lewis , and Colin Powell ( 1 each ) . Votes were cast by 432 of the 435 House members .

Following the election , Raúl Labrador , a Freedom Caucus member from Idaho , said that Paul will need to " realize the honeymoon is over and start bringing us some conservative policy , " and that " the final exam for Paul Ryan will be in January 2017 , when there is a Speaker election , and we will look at his body of work and determine whether he gets a passing grade or not . "

= Montana Vigilantes =

The history of vigilante justice and the Montana Vigilantes began in 1863 in what was at the time a remote part of eastern Idaho Territory . Vigilante activities continued , although somewhat sporadically , through the Montana Territorial period until the territory became the state of Montana in 1889 . Vigilantism arose because territorial law enforcement and the courts had very little power in the remote mining camps during the territorial period .

In 1863 – 1864 , Montana Vigilantes followed the model of the San Francisco Committee of Vigilance that existed in 1850s California to bring order to lawless communities in and around the gold fields of Alder Gulch and Grasshopper Creek . There are estimates that over 100 persons were killed in " road agent " robberies in the fall of 1863 . The Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch organized in December 1863 , and in the first six weeks of 1864 at least 20 road agents of the infamous Plummer gang , known as the " Innocents " , were captured and hanged by the organization . Formal territorial law reached Alder Gulch in late 1864 with the arrival of Territorial Judge Hezekiah L. Hosmer and vigilante activity ceased in the region .

As the gold fields of Alder Gulch and Grasshopper Creek declined in 1865 , prospectors and fortune seekers migrated to newly discovered areas in and around Last Chance Gulch ( now Helena , Montana ) . As lawlessness increased , vigilante justice continued there with the formation of the Committee of Safety in 1865 . During the period 1865 – 1870 , at least 14 alleged criminals were executed by Helena 's vigilantes . In 1884 , ranchers in Central and Eastern Montana resorted to vigilante justice to deal with cattle rustlers and horse thieves . The best @-@ known vigilante group in that area were " Stuart 's Stranglers " , organized by Granville Stuart in the Musselshell region . As formal law enforcement became more prevalent in the region , vigilantism fell into decline .

Vigilantism in pre @-@ territorial and territorial Montana has been written about , romanticized and chronicled in personal memoirs , biographies , documentary and scholarly works , film and fiction for well over a century . The first book published in Montana was Thomas J. Dimsdale 's 1866 first edition of The Vigilantes of Montana , which was compiled from a series of newspaper articles he wrote for the Montana Post in 1865 . Historical analysis of the period ranges from disrepute to heroism , with debates over whether the lack of any functioning justice system and the understanding of due process at the time meant the vigilantes acted in a way they thought was best for their communities or if modern standards of due process should govern analysis of their actions .

= = Bannack and Virginia City = =

On July 28 , 1862 , gold was discovered along Grasshopper Creek , a tributary of the Beaverhead River , in a remote part of eastern Idaho Territory , leading to the establishment of the town of Bannack . Bannack was a gold rush boomtown that was the first territorial capital of Montana Territory for a brief period after the territory was established in 1864 . Less than a year after the Grasshopper Creek find , on May 26 , 1863 , gold was discovered along Alder Gulch , a tributary creek northeast of the Ruby River that lies between the Tobacco Root Mountains and the Gravelly Range and 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Bannack . The Alder Gulch find became one of the largest placer mining gold fields in the western U.S. The mining settlements of Virginia City and Nevada City , Montana , which sprang up in Alder Gulch , boasted thousands of prospectors and fortune seekers by the end of 1863 . These new settlements generally lacked justice systems found in populated portions of the territory , such as in the territorial capital in Lewiston , Idaho . In 1863 , gold was the preferred form of currency in western frontier communities and had a value , fixed and guaranteed by the U.S. Government , of $ 20 @.@ 67 per ounce . Almost all economic transactions in western mining communities were accomplished with gold nuggets , flakes or dust as currency and not surprisingly , the more gold one had , the more wealth one possessed . During the early years of the territory , there was no secure way to transport wealth out of the region . The only means of transporting wealth out of the Alder Gulch gold fields was via horseback or slow moving wagons and stagecoaches on a limited number of trails and primitive roads leading south and west to Salt Lake City and San Francisco or east to Minnesota . Roads and trails leading to Alder Gulch included the Bozeman and Bridger Trails connecting to the Oregon Trail from the east , the Mullan Road from points west and from Fort Benton , Montana the head of navigation on the Missouri River and the Corinne Road from Corinne , Utah and points south . Additionally , there was a single track , 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) stage road that connected Alder Gulch with Bannack . Several commercial freight and two passenger stage companies — Peabody and Caldwell 's and A.J. Oliver 's — operated on this route . Stagecoaches had to stop at several different ranches during the trip to water and change horses , feed passengers and provide overnight lodging . One of these ranches , the Rattlesnake Ranch , was owned by Bill Bunton and Frank Parish , who were later hanged by the vigilantes as road agents and members of the Plummer gang .

= = = Road agents and the Plummer gang = = =

In a region where valuable gold was plentiful , transportation was insecure and effective law and order was lacking , travelers became easy prey for robbers . By late 1863 , thefts and murders along the routes in and around Alder Gulch had become common . In their writings about the vigilantes , Thomas Dimsdale and Nathaniel P. Langford estimated that at least 102 travelers were killed by robbers in the fall of 1863 . Many more travelers left the region and were never heard from again . As this became a more frequent occurrence locals began suspecting that these crimes were being carried out by a single group of outlaws , known as " road agents " , under the control of Bannack sheriff Henry Plummer . The gang became known as the Innocents because of their passwords , I am innocent .

= = = = Notorious robberies , attempted robberies and murders in 1863 = = = =

On October 13 , 1863 , Lloyd Magruder was killed by road agent Chris Lowrie . Magruder was an Idaho merchant leaving Virginia City with $ 12 @,@ 000 in gold dust from goods he had sold there . Several of the men he hired to accompany him back to Lewiston , Idaho were in fact criminals . Four other men in the party were also murdered in camp — Charlie Allen , Robert Chalmers , Horace Chalmers and William Phillips — by Lowrie , Doc Howard , Jem Romaine and William Page .

On October 26 , 1863 , the Peabody and Caldwell 's stage was robbed between the Rattlesnake Ranch and Bannack by two road agents believed to be Frank Parish and George Ives . Bill Bunton , the owner of the Rattlesnake Ranch who joined the stage at the ranch was also complicit in the robbery . The road agents netted $ 2 @,@ 800 in gold from the passengers and threatened them all with death if they talked about the robbery .

On November 13 , 1863 , a teenage Henry Tilden was in the employ of Wilbur Sanders and Sidney Edgerton to locate and corral some horses owned by Sanders and Edgerton . Near Horse Prairie , Tilden was confronted by three armed road agents . He was carrying very little money and was allowed to depart unmolested , but with the warning that if he talked , he would be killed . He did not heed the warning and told Sanders ' wife , Hattie and Sidney Edgerton that he had recognized one of the road agents as sheriff Henry Plummer . Although Tilden 's report was discounted because Plummer was respected , this incident led to increased suspicion in the region that Plummer was the leader of a gang of road agents .

On November 22 , 1863 , the A.J. Oliver stage was robbed on its way to Bannack from Virginia City by road agents George Ives , " Whiskey Bill " Graves and Bob Zachary . The robbery netted less than $ 1000 in gold and treasury notes . One of the victims , Leroy Southmayd made the mistake of reporting the robbery and identifying the road agents to Bannack Sheriff , Henry Plummer . Members of Plummer 's gang confronted Southmayd on his return trip to Virginia City , but Southmayd was cunning enough to avoid injury or death .

In November 1863 , Conrad Kohrs traveled to Bannack from Deer Lodge , Montana with $ 5000 in gold dust to buy cattle . A conversation with Sheriff Plummer in Bannack led Kohrs to believe he might be robbed while on the trail back to Deer Lodge . While in an overnight camp his associates located road agents George Ives and " Dutch John " Wagner surveying the camp , armed with shotguns . A day or two later , Kohrs was on horseback returning to Deer Lodge when Ives and Wagner gave chase . Kohrs ' horse proved the faster and he evaded confrontation before reaching the safety of Deer Lodge .

In early December 1863 , a three wagon freight outfit organized by Milton S. Moody was going to Salt Lake City from Virginia City . Among the seven passengers was John Bozeman . The freight wagons were carrying $ 80 @,@ 000 in gold dust and $ 1500 in treasury notes . While camped on Blacktail Deer Creek , road agents " Dutch John " Wagner and Steve Marshland entered the camp , armed and ready to rob the train . Members of the camp had armed themselves well and Wagner and Marshland were able to escape , claiming they were just looking for lost horses . Two days later , Wagner and Marshland were both wounded in an unsuccessful attempt to rob the wagon train as it crossed the Continental Divide at Rock Creek .

On December 8 , 1863 , Anton Holter ( who later became a Montana Power Company executive and had Holter Dam named for him ) , who was taking oxen to sell in Virginia City , survived an attempted robbery and murder . When road agents George Ives and Aleck Carter , whom Holter recognized , discovered Holter was not carrying any significant wealth , they tried to shoot him . He was able to avoid being shot and escaped into the brush .

= = = The failure of miners ' courts = = =

Prior to the creation of the Montana Territory on May 26 , 1864 , and the arrival of the territorial courts , the only court system available for the residents of Bannack and Virginia City were the informal miners ' courts . The miners ' courts were a vehicle of the organized mining districts to resolve mining claims and disputes between miners in the district . When confronted with a major crime such as murder , they usually proved ineffective at resolving the crime to the satisfaction of the community .

While there are not many accounts of early courts in Alder Gulch , probably due to their informality and short existence , John X. Beidler recalled a murder trial in the Virginia City miners ' court in his memoirs . The trial recalled by Beidler occurred in the fall of 1863 . It concerned the matter of the murder of J.W. Dillingham . The trial was held outside , due to the fact that every resident took part . In the end all three defendants were set free . The first , Charley Forbes , was freed after he gave an eloquent and sentimental speech about his mother . The other two , Buck Stinson and Haze Lyons , were convicted and set to be the first men executed in what would become the state of Montana . However , at what would be a very public hanging friends and sympathizers of Stinson and Lyons convinced the crowd to vote again on the execution . Two attempts at counting the vote were made according to Beidler . The first people voting ' hang ' were to walk up @-@ hill while those voting ' no hang ' were to walk down @-@ hill . This vote was rejected and the next attempt had four men form two gates and people would cast their vote by walking through the ' hang ' gate or the ' no hang ' gate . Beidler claims that friends of the condemned men simply walked through the ' no hang ' gate multiple times casting multiple fraudulent votes that possibly allowed two murderers to walk free .

On December 19 – 21 , 1863 , a public trial was held for George Ives , the suspected murderer of a young Dutch immigrant Nicholas Tiebolt . Hundreds of miners from around the area attended the 3 @-@ day , outdoor trial . George Ives was prosecuted by Wilbur F. Sanders and Ives was convicted and hanged on December 21 , 1863 . Sanders played a prominent role in Montana history and eventually became the first U.S. Senator from Montana when the territory gained statehood in 1889 . While the Ives trial resulted in an execution many residents were frustrated by a cumbersome process that could easily be manipulated . This sentiment is illustrated by a quote from Thomas Dimsdale who wrote the first published account of the Montana Vigilantes , originally written in 1865 as a series of articles for the Montana Post and later compiled into a book .

Another powerful incentive to wrong @-@ doing is the absolute nulity of the civil law in such cases . No matter what may be the proof , if the criminal is well liked in the community ' Not Guilty ' is almost certain to be the verdict , despite the efforts of the judge and prosecutor .

= = = Formation of the Vigilance Committee = = =

On December 23 , 1863 , two days after the Ives trial , a group of five Virginia City residents , led by Wilbur F. Sanders , and including Major Alvin W. Brockie , John Nye , Captain Nick D. Wall and Paris Pfouts organized the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch . The committee was organized similar to the earlier San Francisco Committee of Vigilance ( 1851 – 56 ) in California of which some of the Alder Gulch organizers were familiar with . The original committee oath signed by its earliest members was :

We the undersigned uniting ourselves in a party for the laudable purpos [ sic ] of arresting thievs [ sic ] & murderers & recovering stollen [ sic ] property do pledge ourselves upon our sacred honor each to all others & solemnly swear that we will reveal no secrets , violate no laws of right & never desert each other or our standard of justice so help us God as witness our hand and seal this 23 of December ad 1863

Paris Pfouts was elected as the president of the committee which drafted and adopted a comprehensive set of by @-@ laws establishing a formal structure and process . The by @-@ laws established the position of president , an executive officer , an executive committee , a secretary , treasurer and positions of captains and lieutenants of companies . The most relevant process contained in the by @-@ laws was :

It shall be the duty of members to attach themselves to some company and whenever any criminal act shall come to their knowledge to inform his Captain or Lieutenant of the same , when the officers so informed shall call together the members of his Company , ( unless the Company has chosen a committee for such purpose ) when they shall proceed to investigate the case , and elicit the facts and should the said company conclude that the person charged with any offense should be punished by the committee , the Captain or Lieutenant will first take steps to arrest the Criminal and then report same with proof to the Chief who will thereupon call a meeting of the Executive Committee and the judgement of such Executive Committee shall be final . The only punishment that shall be inflicted by this Committee is death .

= = = Prominent members = = =

Although the vigilance committee started as a small secret institution in Virginia City , knowledge of it soon spread in the territory and membership grew . As a secret organization , exact accounts of membership vary , but many members became prominent in the history of the territory and state . Among those who were members include Wilbur Sanders ( 1st U.S. Senator from Montana ( 1890 ) ) , Sidney Edgerton ( first Governor of Montana Territory ( 1864 ) ) , Nelson Story ( famous for his 1866 cattle drive from Texas to Bozeman and prominent Bozeman merchant ) , John Bozeman ( founder of Bozeman , Montana ( 1864 ) and the Bozeman Trail ) , Nathaniel P. Langford ( first Yellowstone National Park superintendent ( 1872 – 1877 ) ) , James Stuart ( brother of Granville Stuart , who would form the Stuarts ' Stranglers in 1884 ) , Tom Cover ( one of the Alder Gulch prospectors who discovered the first gold there and alleged murderer of John Bozeman ( 1867 ) ) and Thomas Dimsdale ( editor of Montana 's first newspaper , the Montana Post and author of The Vigilantes of Montana ( 1866 ) ) .

Due to the secret nature of the organization it is difficult to be sure when an execution was carried out by the vigilance committee or another group of motivated citizens . In the months following the Ives trial many suspected road agents were hanged . Notably , Henry Plummer , the sheriff of Bannack , who was suspected by many of being the ringleader of the road agents . The Montana Vigilantes hanged men using the testimony of other men who faced their imminent executions as the sole evidence . Of the few accounts of the early actions of the Alder Gulch Vigilantes , Beidler and Dimsdale are the most complete , although they give little information about the secret trials conducted by the vigilantes . Estimates vary , but noted vigilante historian Frederick Allen believes that between the years 1863 and 1865 somewhere from 15 to 35 people were killed due to the actions of the Alder Gulch vigilantes .

= = = Vigilante justice = = =

Over of course of approximately six weeks between December 1863 and February 1864 , vigilante companies located , arrested and executed suspected members of the Plummer road agent gang in Bannack , Virginia City and Hellgate , Montana .

= = = = Bannack = = = =

Shortly after its formation , the Vigilance Committee dispatched a posse of men to search for Aleck Carter , " Whiskey Bill " Graves and Bill Bunton , known associates of George Ives . The posse was led by vigilante Captain James Williams , the man who had investigated the Nicolas Tiebolt murder by George Ives . Near the Rattlesnake Ranch on the Ruby River , the posse located " Erastus Red " Yeager and George Brown , both suspected road agents . While traveling back to Virginia City , Yeager made a complete confession , naming the majority of the road agents in Plummer 's gang , including Henry Plummer . After obtaining the confession , Yeager and Brown were found guilty by the posse and summarily hanged from a cottonwood tree on the Lorrain 's Ranch on the Ruby River . On January 6 , 1864 , " Dutch John " Wagner , a road agent wounded in the Moody robbery was captured by vigilante Captain Nick Wall and Ben Peabody on the Salt Lake City trail . The vigilantes transported Wagner to Bannack where he was hanged on January 11 , 1864 . By this time , Yeager 's confession had mobilized vigilantes against Plummer and his key associates , deputies Buck Stinson and Ned Ray . Plummer , Stinson and Ray were arrested on the morning of January 10 , 1864 and summarily hanged . On January 11 , 1864 , " Greaser Joe " Pizanthia , a road agent on Yeager 's list , was located in his cabin just outside Bannack . A gunfight ensued that took the life of one vigilante , George Copley . Pizanthia 's cabin was bombarded with three shells from a mountain howitzer belonging to Sidney Edgerton . The bombardment severely wounded Pizanthia and he was shot and killed as he was removed from the wreckage of the cabin .

= = = = Virginia City = = = =

After Wagner 's execution on January 11 , 1864 , the vigilantes who were mostly men from Virginia City , returned there to deal with the remaining road agents in the Plummer gang . On the evening of January 13 , 1864 , the Vigilance Committee voted to arrest and hang six road agents believed to be living in Virginia City — Frank Parish , Boone Helm , Hayes Lyons , Jack Gallagher , George " Clubfoot " Lane and Bill Hunter . On the morning of January 14 , 1864 , five of the six road agents were located in town and arrested . They were all summarily hanged from a beam in a building under construction on Wallace Street . Bill Hunter escaped capture in Virginia City , but was later arrested at a cabin on the Gallatin River and was hanged from a Cottonwood tree on February 3 , 1864 .

After the January 14 , 1864 hangings , the vigilante companies left Virginia City in search of the remaining road agents on Yeager 's list . The first to be located was Steve Marshland holed up in a cabin on the Big Hole River and was hanged on January 16 , 1864 . A posse led by Captain Williams found Bill Bunton at his Cottonwood Ranch on the Ruby River and hanged him on January 18 , 1864 .

= = = = Hell Gate = = = =

After the Bunton execution , the vigilante companies regrouped and made a 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) ride to Hell Gate , Montana where they believed more road agents were hiding . In Hell Gate , Captain William 's vigilante company located and arrested Cyrus Skinner , Aleck Carter , and John Cooper . A vigilante trial of Skinner and Carter was held in the Worden and Higgins dry goods store on January 24 , 1864 . Both men were found guilty and hanged outside the store . Later that same day , Cooper was tried , convicted and hanged . On January 25 , 1864 , the vigilantes located Bob Zachary in a cabin outside of Hell Gate and George Shears in another cabin in the Bitterroot Valley . Zachary was brought to Hell Gate and hanged . Shears was hanged outside the cabin he was captured in . As the vigilante companies were leaving Hell Gate to return to Virginia City , they received word that " Whiskey Bill " Graves was at Fort Owen , Montana . Three vigilantes located and arrested him on January 26 , 1864 . He was hanged the same day .

= = = Known road agents executed by the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch = = =

Henry Plummer , sheriff of Bannack , executed in Bannack on January 10 , 1864

Erastus " Red " Yeager , road agent and messenger , executed along the Ruby River , January 4 , 1864

George Brown , road agent and gang secretary , executed along the Ruby River , January 4 , 1864

" Dutch John " Wagner , road agent , executed in Bannack , January 11 , 1864

Ned Ray , executed in Bannack , January 10 , 1864

Buck Stinson , executed in Bannack , January 10 , 1864

" Greaser Joe " Pizanthia , road agent , shot and killed in Bannack , January 11 , 1864

Frank Parish , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864

Boone Helm , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864

Jack Gallagher , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864

George " Clubfoot " Lane , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864

Hayes Lyon , road agent , executed in Virginia City , January 14 , 1864

Steve Marshland , road agent , executed near the Big Hole River , January 16 , 1864

Bill Bunton , road agent , executed at Cottonwood Ranch on the Clark Fork River , January 18 , 1864

Cyrus Skinner , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864

Aleck Carter , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864

Johnny Cooper , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 24 , 1864

Bob Zachary , road agent , executed in Hell Gate , January 25 , 1864

George Shears , road agent , executed in the Bitterroot Valley , January 25 , 1864

" Whiskey Bill " Graves , road agent , executed near Fort Owen , January 26 , 1864

Bill Hunter , road agent , executed in Gallatin Valley , February 3 , 1864

= = = Other executions = = =

An unknown 19 @-@ year @-@ old boy was hanged on February 17 , 1864 , in Virginia City for shooting an unarmed man in a tavern .

Chris Lowrie , Doc Howard , and Jem Romaine were convicted of the Magruder murders by a Idaho Territorial court in Lewiston and hanged on March 4 , 1864 , based on the testimony of William Page . Page was not executed .

On March 10 , 1864 , vigilantes hanged J.A. Slade in Virginia City for serious drunken behavior , breaches of the peace and reckless gun play that endangered the communities ' citizens .

James Brady was hanged by vigilantes in Nevada City on June 15 , 1864 , for shooting another man .

Jem Kelly was apprehended near present day Jackson , Idaho Territory on the Snake River by Montana vigilantes for a series of petty thefts in Alder Gulch . He was hanged on September 5 , 1864 , along the Snake River in Idaho Territory .

On September 17 , 1864 , vigilantes hanged John " The Hat " Dolan in Virginia City for stealing $ 700 from a roommate .

On October 31 , 1864 , vigilantes captured and hanged J.C. Rawley in Bannack for his alleged spying on behalf of the road agent gang in 1863 . This was the last execution performed by the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch .

= = = Banishments and escapes = = =

Another tactic employed by the vigilantes was banishment from the territory . It is unknown how many men were given the warning to leave the territory or suffer execution for their misdeeds . Alexander Toponce , a merchant in Bannack at the time believed the number of banishments was high but wrote this in his autobiography : Reminiscences of Alexander Toponce ( 1923 ) :

I don 't think they [ the vigilantes ] made any mistake in hanging anybody . The only mistake they made was about fifty percent of those whom they merely banished should have been hung instead , as quite a number of these men were finally hung .

Some of the road agents in Plummer 's gang or on Yeager 's list were able to escape vigilante justice by fleeing the territory . Notable among these men were Augustus " Gad " Moore , Billy Terwilliger , William Mitchell , Harvey Meade , " Rattlesnake Dick " , " Cherokee Bob " , Tex Caldwell , Jeff Perkins , Samuel Bunton , " Irwin of the Big Hole " , William Moore and Charles Reeves .

= = = Establishment of Territorial Law = = =

During the summer of 1864 , Hezekiah L. Hosmer , a lawyer from Ohio , was working for the U.S. House of Representative Committee on Territories . After working on the formation of Montana Territory for the committee , he was formally appointed as the first Chief Justice of Montana Territory . He arrived in Montana in October 1864 . Prior to the first session of the Territorial Legislature which convened on December 12 , 1864 , in Bannack , Hosmer announced that he was adopting Common Law as the primary criminal and civil law and Idaho 's Territorial Law as a basis for criminal and civil procedure . On December 5 , 1864 , Hosmer boldly convened a public Grand Jury session in Virginia City and announced that the vigilantes had served their purpose and from this day forward , unilateral actions by the vigilantes would be considered criminal acts .

= = Helena vigilantism , 1865 – 1870 = =

On July 14 , 1864 , four prospectors — John S. Cowan , John Crab , Bob Staley and Daniel Jackson — found gold in a small creek they named " Last Chance Gulch " . As word of the strike spread throughout the area , prospectors and fortune seekers , including many from Alder Gulch and Bannack , migrated to Last Chance Gulch and the town of Helena , Montana was founded . By the middle of 1865 , many prominent vigilantes of Alder Gulch , including Wilbur Sanders , John X. Biedler , and Anton Holter , had moved to Helena . When the territory was formed , three judicial districts were established . The First District belonged to Judge Hosmer and included the towns of Bannack , Virginia City , Nevada City and Deer Lodge . The Third District encompassed the towns around Helena . From July 1864 , until August 1865 , the only justice system was the miners ' court ; the Third District did not get its first chief judge until August 1865 , when Judge Lyman Munson arrived from the east .

On June 8 , 1865 , John Keene and Harry Slater , two men who had an unresolved quarrel from their days in Salt Lake City , spotted each other in Sam Greer 's saloon on Helena 's Bridge Street . Keene shot Slater in the head , killing him instantly . Keene surrendered himself to Helena sheriff George Wood and freely admitted his guilt in the shooting . A two @-@ day trial ensued where some members of the jury were known vigilantes from Alder Gulch . Since there was no official trial judge , Stephan Reynolds , a respected member of the Helena community , presided . At the end of the trial , the jury returned a unanimous guilty verdict and Keene was hanged from the lone pine tree just outside town . The large tree , one of few that remained in proximity to Helena because most had been cut down for lumber , became known as the " Old Hangman 's Tree " . Although Keene 's trial and execution was not considered vigilantism , the Helena community , similar to the Alder Gulch community in 1863 , felt the need to establish a more reliable means of law and order .

= = = Committee of Safety = = =

Vigilante justice in Helena followed a pattern similar to that of Alder Gulch . Immediately after Keene 's hanging , leading members of the Helena community established the Helena Committee of Safety , akin to the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch . Although no records of the committee 's membership or bylaws exist , Nathaniel Langford , who had been asked to lead the organization but declined ( he did serve on its Executive Committee ) , reflected in his book Vigilante Days and Ways , that crimes of horse stealing , murder , and highway robbery would be punishable by death .

In July 1865 , the Helena vigilantes captured Jack Silvie in Diamond City , Montana and charged him with various crimes of robbery . Prior to his execution by hanging from Helena 's " Hangman 's Tree " , Silvie confessed to being a member of the Virginia City road agents and to at least a dozen murders in the territory .

Shortly after Judge Lyman Munson 's arrival in Helena , he convened a Grand Jury on August 12 , 1865 . However , unlike Judge Hosmer in Alder Gulch , Munson made no remarks about vigilantism nor did he threaten vigilantes with prosecution if they continued their activities . The vigilantes showed little respect for Munson 's court and proceeded to carry out at least 14 executions in the next eight months . No member of Helena 's vigilantes was ever indicted by Munson 's grand jury for executions carried out by the Helena Committee of Safety . The last execution by the Helena vigilantes occurred on April 27 , 1870 when Joseph Wilson and Arthur Compton were hanged from the " Old Hangman 's Tree " for the robbery and attempted murder of George Leonard . The double hanging is significant because it was photographed at the time and the image , widely circulated , had the effect of seriously dampening public sentiment for vigilantism .

= = Pax Vigilanticus = =

By the 1870s Montana as a whole was experiencing what Montana historian Frederic Allen described as a " sort of pax vigilanticus " Allen claims this was due to the reputation for summary executions but also linked to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory . This drew many of the prospectors and camp followers out of Montana , reducing the sector of the population more closely associated with crime .

= = Stockmen 's associations = =

By the 1870s , cattle ranching and related livestock raising was a large and prosperous business in Montana . Cattle and horses were valuable commodities and always subject to rustling by thieves . After 1879 , with the threat from the Indian wars diminished on the plains of Montana , stock ranches and open range cattle ranching moved east into Central and Eastern Montana . The DHS ranch , owned by Samuel Hauser , Andrew Davis and Granville Stuart was established in 1879 in the Musselshell region of Central Montana and became one of the largest open range ranches in Montana .

The first stockmen 's association in Montana was formed in Virginia City in 1873 . The association was established to discuss branding standards , how to deal with rustling and how to influence the territorial legislature to pass laws favorable to the cattle industry . This association did not survive , but led to the creation of other organizations in subsequent years . In 1878 , the Montana Stock Association of Lewis and Clark County was organized . One of its prominent members , Ross Deegan , editorialized about the need for extralegal action if the territorial legislature did not enact laws to protect the cattle industry :

Will [ our legislators ] give us ... protection , or shall we be compelled against our wishes to become judges and executors of what we deem a proper penalty for the commission of such infringement upon the rights of property ?

In July , 1879 , a Territorial Stock Association was formed that ultimately spawned a number of small county or district based associations throughout Montana . By 1883 , the value of cattle in Montana was estimated at greater than $ 25 million and annual losses from rustling exceeded three percent . By the summer of 1884 , cattle men resorted to vigilatism to deal with rustlers and the first recorded hanging occurred at Fort Maginnis on July 3 , 1884 , when Reese Anderson , a DHS ranch foreman , and several other ranch hands hanged Sam McKenzie for horse thievery .

= = = Stuart 's Stranglers = = =

The hanging of Sam McKenzie and other citizen justice in early July 1884 prompted many thieves and rustlers to leave the territory . However , a large band of horse thieves still operated in the Musselshell region . With the tacit approval of the stockgrower 's associations , Granville Stuart organized a small intelligence network and mobilized forces to go after the thieves . The group included many of Stuart 's ranch hands and stock detectives employed by various stock associations . Known as " Stuart 's Stranglers " , the vigilantes were responsible for the recovery of dozens of stolen horses and the deaths of at least 18 thieves in July 1884 , by hanging , shootings or fire . The last hanging occurred on August 1 , 1884 . In July 1884 , Theodore Roosevelt who later became the 26th President of the United States , was operating a cattle ranch in Medora , North Dakota along the Little Missouri River in cooperation with cattle merchant Marquis de Mores . His ranch was suffering from rustling as well . Both Mores and Roosevelt offered their services to the Stranglers , but Stuart declined the offer to avoid the undue notoriety they would bring . From that point forward , stock detectives , employed by the various stock associations , took responsibility for enforcing stock laws and deterring rustling . Although there was minor public outrage about the killings , none of Stuart 's Stranglers were ever brought to trial for their actions and editorials in regional newspapers praised their efforts . General acclamation of Granville Stuart 's actions was reflected by his election as the first president of the Montana Stockgrower 's Association in late July 1884 .

= = 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 77 = =

The numerical symbol 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 77 has long been associated with Montana vigilantes . Its meaning is unclear though many theories have been put forward trying to explain what it symbolized , none conclusive , including references to the dimensions of a grave , the amount of time a miscreant had to leave town , assorted Masonic symbolism , details of membership structure , and a simple copying of the symbol from organizations in Colorado and California . Although it has been associated with vigilantes in Alder Gulch , this is not supported by historical evidence . The first documented evidence of use of the symbol in a vigilante scenario occurred in November 1879 in Helena when it was mentioned in a newspaper article . A 1914 dissertation noted that it was simply used as part of a meeting notice . It was incorporated into the uniform patch of the Montana Highway Patrol ( MHP ) in 1956 . MHP administrator Alex Stephenson designed the insignia and explained , " we chose the symbol to keep alive the memory of this first people 's police force . "

= = Historiography = =

The first written account of the vigilantes was Thomas Dimsdale 's Vigilantes of Montana which first appeared as a series of articles in 1865 editions of the Montana Post , Virginia City 's and Montana 's first newspaper . Dimsdale was a member of the Alder Gulch Vigilance Committee and editor of the Montana Post . His early accounts of the Alder Gulch vigilante events are widely cited and the book version of his articles , the first book published in Montana Territory in 1866 , has been extensively reprinted since its first edition .

The value of Dimsdale 's work lies in the fact that the volume at first a series of articles for his own paper , The Montana Post is exactly what it purports to be . Truth than fiction is ever stranger , and no glorified romance of the old west has ever succeeded in echoing like authenticity . What we have in The Vigilantes is the statement of fact before it becomes fiction , the unadorned moment in history before hearsay , the folk imagination , and the teller of tales weaves it into saga .

X. Biedler , one of the Alder Gulch and Helena vigilante enforcers wrote about his vigilante activities in his personal journals . They weren 't available until well after his death when Helen F. Sanders , the daughter @-@ in @-@ law of Wilbur Sanders finally got them published in 1957 . Nathaniel Langford , also a member of the vigilantes , explorer of the upper Yellowstone ( 1870 ) , first superintendent of Yellowstone National Park ( 1872 – 1877 ) , territorial tax collector ( 1864 – 1869 ) and author published Vigilante Days and Ways @-@ Pioneers of the Rockies in 1893 after he returned to his home in Minnesota . In a 1912 speech to the Montana Historical Society , western historian , Olin Wheeler provided positive commentary on the Alder Gulch vigilantes in a tribute to the life of Nathaniel Langford .

... Under the domination of the Vigilantes the desperadoes were hung or banished , crime was actually and swiftly punished , life and property were rendered safe , and society was rescued from a state of anarchy . Some of the best citizens in the territory were Vigilantes . ... Mr. Langford himself , happily , in the Introduction to his Vigilante Days and Ways and a most valuable chronicle of the time of which it treats , has presented a statement of facts and of arguments justifying the Vigilante methods , that is impartial , honest , cogent , forceful , and convincing to an open and discriminating mind . Honor and praise , instead of adverse criticism , are due those men , and no apologies are necessary for what they did and dared .

Another account , not published until 1982 , is that of former Montana Supreme Court Justice ( 1922 – 1935 ) Lew L. Callaway . Edited by his son Lew Callaway Jr . , Montana 's Righteous Hangmen : The Vigilantes in Action stems from Callaway 's association with vigilante Captain James William in the late 1800s . Lew Callaway wrote extensively about the vigilantes and his stories which add more intimate details about how the vigilantes operated are captured in this volume . Although some vigilante activities during this period were criticized by citizens and civic leaders , there was a general affirmation of their purpose and contribution to law and order in a growing territory . Mark C. Dillon 's Montana Vigilantes 1863 – 1870 Gold , Guns and Gallows ( 2013 ) concludes that given the lawless environment and criminal activity in Alder Gulch and Helena at the time , the lack of any functioning justice system and the understanding of due process at the time , the vigilantes acted in a way they thought was best for their communities . He contends that judging the vigilantes by today 's understanding and standards of due process is problematic .

Justice Dillon 's book is the first work of its kind that examines western vigilante history through the prism of substantive , procedural , and constitutional law , and the role that lawyers and judges ultimately played in restoring a credible system of criminal justice to the region by the end of the decade . ... Universities only publish books that survive rigorous peer reviews . Historian Paul R. Wylie , who was among the historians that reviewed Dillon 's manuscript , predicts that the book " will be the best work on the Montana Vigilantes , and will likely be around for years to come . " Wylie describes the book as having a " careful , informative , judicial approach [ that is ] well @-@ written and very readable , " and that to his knowledge , " there has never been a work in the area quite like this . "

In 2004 , Frederick Allen , a journalist and historian , published A Decent and Orderly Lynching : The Montana Vigilantes reviewed as an up @-@ to @-@ day balanced account of Montana 's vigilante history ( 1864 – 1870 ) . Allen 's book reinforces the motivations and methods of the earliest vigilantes in Alder Gulch while commenting on the growing disdain for vigilantism in the late 1860s . More generalist works on Montana history such as Merrill G. Burlingame 's The Montana Frontier ( 1942 ) and Michael P. Malone 's Montana @-@ A History of Two Centuries ( 1991 ) adequately summarize the vigilante period largely based on earlier accounts by Dimsdale , Langford and Biedler . Additionally , many topical histories of Montana , such as novelist and Montana historian Dan Cushman 's Montana : The Gold Frontier ( 1973 ) cover the vigilante period .

Some works published in the late 20th century about vigilante activity in Alder Gulch portray the vigilantes and their leaders as conspirators with political motives rather than restoring law and order , making an argument that victims were not afforded due process prior to their execution and evidence was insufficient to prove their guilt or innocence . Two works , of Ruth E. Mather and F. E. Boswell , Hanging the Sheriff @-@ A Biography of Henry Plummer ( 1987 , 1999 ) and Vigilante Victims : Montana 's 1864 Hanging Spree ( 1991 ) have been criticized as revisionist , and received poor reviews by Montana historians such as Michael P. Malone and Richard B. Roeder . Additional criticism came from later authors such as Mark C. Dillon and Carol Buchanan .

Mather , R. E. ; Boswell , F. E. ( 1987 ) . Hanging the Sheriff @-@ A Biography of Henry Plummer . Salt Lake City , Utah : University of Utah Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9663355 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 .

In Hanging the Sheriff , R. E. Mather and F. E. Boswell have radically redrawn the portrait of Sheriff Henry Plummer and effectively challenged the conventional justification of the Montana vigilantes of 1863 – 64 . The authors reject the vigilante defenders assertion that Plummer 's reign of terror necessitated the formation of a vigilance committee to bring law and order to the area . First , law had been established at Bannack through the miners ' court , Plummer 's election , and the arrival of Judge Edgerton in September 1863 . Second , Plummer 's alleged leadership of the road agents was based on an unsubstantiated and unexamined accusation .

Mather , R. E. ; F. E. Boswell ( 1991 ) . Vigilante Victims : Montana 's 1864 Hanging Spree . San Jose , CA : History West Publishing .

This is a " revisionist " history of the Vigilante movement that claims the road agents were victims of a plot perpetrated in a struggle for power between two factions , one favoring the North and the other favoring the South . It overlooks the cooperation between Pfouts , a strong Confederate , and Sanders , a Union abolitionist , in the leadership of the Vigilantes , and that Jack Gallagher was a Union sympathizer , while Boone Helm died shouting , " Hoorah for Jeff Davis ! "

Another account from John C. Fazio , who writes for the Cleveland Civil War Roundtable , contends that the Vigilance Committee of Alder Gulch had more to do with national politics than with dealing with criminals . He contends that Sidney Edgerton and Wilbur Sanders were pawns of Abraham Lincoln and other unionists who sought ways to rid Montana gold fields of southerners and confederate sympathizers . His views have been rebutted by novelist Carol Buchanan .

= = = Mock trial of Henry Plummer and Plummer 's pardon request = = =

On May 7 , 1993 , the Twin Bridges , Montana public schools organized a mock trial of Henry Plummer at the Madison County courthouse in Virginia City . The trial received national media attention . Adults and students role played events using the accounts of Dimsdale , X. Biedler and Langford . After a six hour trial , the jury of four men and eight women was in deadlock , 6 @-@ 6 . The student playing the role of Henry Plummer was told he was " free " . Based in part on the notoriety of the mock trial , academics sympathetic to the view that Plummer was innocent , petitioned the Montana Board of Pardons and Parole to grant Plummer a pardon . Although supported by a number of prominent historians and scholars , the pardon was denied by the board as Plummer had never actually been convicted of a crime in Montana and therefore the board was without jurisdiction to act .

= = Montana Vigilantes in media and literature = =

Ernest Haycox 's 1942 novel Alder Gulch depicts Bannack Sheriff Henry Plummer as a cold and calculating murderer and thief .

John Dehner played Henry Plummer in an episode of the 1950s western television series , Stories of the Century , starring and narrated by Jim Davis .

Montana Territory is a 1952 Western film starring Wanda Hendrix , Clayton Moore , Hugh Sanders and Lon McCallister . It is a classic western movie , with bandits , a corrupt sheriff [ Plummer ] and a hero who falls for a beautiful woman .

An episode of the TV series Overland Trail , The Montana Vigilantes aired in April 1960 .

In " Two for the Gallows " ( April 11 , 1961 ) of NBC 's Laramie , series character Slim Sherman ( John Smith ) is hired under false pretenses to take a " Professor Landfield " , played by Donald Woods , into the Badlands to seek gold . Landfield , however , is really Morgan Bennett , a member of the former Plummer gang who has escaped from prison .

The Missouri Breaks is a 1976 American western action film starring Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson that portrays rustling and retribution in 1880s eastern Montana .

Buchanan , Carol ( 2008 ) . God 's Thunderbolt : The Vigilantes of Montana . Charleston , SC : BookSurge Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 4196 @-@ 9709 @-@ 9 . — An historical fiction novel set in Alder Gulch , Montana 1863

Little , Michael Edward ( 2010 ) . Twelve Quiet Men : The Story of the Cowboy Vigilantes Known as Stuart 's Stranglers at War with the Outlaws of Montana and Dakota in 1884 . Inkwater Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 59299 @-@ 548 @-@ 9 . — an historical fiction novel .

Scottish folk act , The David Latto Band , wrote a song about the story of Henry Plummer called ' Plummer 's Song ' released on their 2012 eponymous debut album . The song was written from the viewpoint of a member of the Bannack community who had reservation about Plummer 's alleged crimes .

= Viewtiful Joe =

Viewtiful Joe ( ビューティフル ジョー , Byūtifuru Jō ) is a side scrolling beat ' em up video game developed by Team Viewtiful for the GameCube . It was originally released in 2003 as a part of the Capcom Five under director Hideki Kamiya and producer Atsushi Inaba . The game was later ported to the PlayStation 2 by the same design team under the name Clover Studio , subtitled Aratanaru Kibō ( 新たなる希望 , lit . " A New Hope " ) in Japan . The game 's story concerns Joe , an avid movie @-@ goer whose girlfriend Silvia is kidnapped during a film starring Joe 's favorite superhero , Captain Blue . Joe is shortly thereafter thrust into Movieland , where Silvia is taken by the villainous group known as Jadow . After accepting a special V @-@ Watch from Captain Blue , Joe transforms into the tokusatsu @-@ style persona " Viewtiful Joe " and sets out to rescue her .

The gameplay of Viewtiful Joe features traditional 2D platform side @-@ scrolling intermixed with 3D cel @-@ shaded graphics . Abilities known as " VFX Powers " grant the player special actions for combat and puzzle @-@ solving , such as slowing down or speeding up time . Viewtiful Joe was critically acclaimed for its unique visual style and gameplay , earning itself a number of awards from various media publications . A minor commercial success , the game spawned a few sequels with releases seen on other consoles such as the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) and Nintendo DS . An anime adaption of the game was also produced .

= = Gameplay = =

Viewtiful Joe 's core gameplay is similar to a traditional side @-@ scrolling beat ' em up . Taking control of Joe , the player is mostly limited to moving left , right , up , and down on a fixed 2D path . The game contains platforming elements such as the ability to jump and double jump . Combat consists of fighting multiple enemies on screen at once , with the enemies appearing from all directions , including the foreground and background . Joe has the ability to punch , kick , and dodge — which he can do by leaping upward or ducking . Dodging enemies ' attacks successfully temporarily dazes them , leaving them wide open for attack . The player has certain number of hit points in the form of " Life Marks " located above the VFX Gauge , which decrease whenever Joe takes damage . Health can be restored by picking up hamburgers .

Viewtiful Joe features unique gameplay elements in the form of Joe 's " Viewtiful Effects ( VFX ) Power " , which is designed to emulate camera tricks seen in films . VFX Power is used in both battling enemies and solving various puzzles . These three powers are limited by the " VFX Gauge " located at the top of the screen . Normally , the meter is full , giving the player access to Joe 's super powers via his Viewtiful Joe transformation . The meter slowly empties when an ability is in use . Once it depletes , Viewtiful Joe changes to normal Joe , lowering his attack and defense and leaving him temporarily devoid of VFX Power . The VFX Gauge automatically refills over time and can also be manually filled by picking up bottles of " VFX Juice " . The first VFX Power is " Slow " , which slows time , causing the player 's attacks to be more powerful , increasing Joe 's reflexes , and allowing him to dodge attacks more easily . The second VFX Power , " Mach Speed " , allows Joe to move at a faster speed , creating multiple after @-@ images of him when he unleashes a flurry of attacks on all enemies on the screen . It can additionally cause his attacks to envelop Joe in a temporary heat shield , rendering him immune to flame attacks and setting enemies on fire when struck . The last VFX Power , " Zoom In " , causes a camera close @-@ up of Joe , powering up his normal attacks , granting him a set of new attacks , and paralyzing all lesser foes in proximity to him . However , any damage dealt to Joe whilst zoomed in is increased too . Any two VFX Powers can be combined . The VFX Gauge can be extended by collecting a certain number of V @-@ Films present in each stage . The bar reverts to its normal length when a new stage begins .

Defeating enemies gives the player " V @-@ Points " in the form of small and large coins , while using special attacks gives them " V @-@ Marks " , or " Viewtifuls " , which can be converted into V @-@ Points . Viewtifuls can be quickly gained by using combos or long chains of attacks . For example , while using Slow , striking a dazed enemy sets up all other enemies on the screen for a chain reaction , causing all points accrued during the duration of Slow to be multiplied by the number of enemies struck . If used deftly , the player will accumulate a large number of Viewtifuls due to the multiplier effect called " X @-@ Bonus " . Each stage in Viewtiful Joe consists of several interconnected missions , or scenes , that the player must complete in order to advance . When completing the stage , the player is graded on the number of V @-@ Points earned , the amount of time taken , and how much damage Joe took . V @-@ Points can be used between stages to purchase new abilities , expendable weapons ( which include the " Voomerang " and " Shocking Pink Bombs " ) , more health , and health @-@ restorative items . Clearing the game on various difficulties allows players to play as different characters such as Silvia , Captain Blue and Alastor , with the PlayStation 2 version also allowing players to play as Devil May Cry 's Dante .

= = Plot = =

Viewtiful Joe is divided into seven stages , or " episodes " , interspersed with storyline cutscenes and bookended by an opening and ending cinematic . The setting is divided between Earth , or the real world , and " Movieland " , the game 's fictional world of films . The plot begins in a movie theatre on Earth in which the game 's central character Joe and his girlfriend Silvia are watching a tokusatsu drama starring the aged superhero Captain Blue . The movie 's antagonist , having seemingly defeated Captain Blue , suddenly reaches out of the screen and abducts Silvia , taking her into Movieland . Joe is likewise picked up and taken into Movieland by Captain Blue 's giant mecha . Inside the movie , Joe must rescue Silvia from the evil Jadow , the game 's organization of villains . To help him , Captain Blue entrusts him with a V @-@ Watch , a device Joe can use to transform into a superhero upon saying the word " henshin ( transform ) . " Joe promptly does so , inventing his own catchphrase : " Henshin @-@ a @-@ go @-@ go , baby ! "

With the guidance of Captain Blue , Joe fights his way through a number of Movieland 's locations such as cities , underground caves , an underwater base , and a submarine , often travelling via his trusty , robot aircraft " Six Machine " . One by one , Joe defeats the members of the Jadow , the game 's bosses . These include Dark Fiend Charles the 3rd , Iron Ogre Hulk Davidson , Aquatic Terror Gran Bruce , a doppelgänger of Viewtiful Joe , and Blade Master Alastor . Before fighting Alastor , he reveals that in order for the Jadow to break out of Movieland and into the land of humans , they need the " DNA of the Creator " , namely Silvia . Joe makes his way to her , trumping the Jadow 's leader Inferno Lord Fire Leo in combat , only to witness Silvia being kidnapped once again afterwards . Joe and Six Machine race off into outer space after her in the game 's final episode .

Finding Silvia atop the control room of a space station , Joe discovers that Captain Blue has been behind the plot the entire time . The former hero reveals that he is the creator of the film in which they currently exist and that he is Silvia 's seemingly @-@ deceased father . Transforming into the colossal robot King Blue , the villain proclaims that he will take Sylvia 's energy by force in order to break into the real world . Joe tells him off , telling him that he 's no hero . Joe summons a newly transformed mecha " Six Majin " , and the two engage in combat . When the fight ends , Captain Blue and Viewtiful Joe abandon their respective vehicles and face off in a final battle within the space station .

Joe is victorious , and Captain Blue , finally coming to his senses , thanks the young hero for stopping him . He explains that two decades earlier , Blue was a revolutionary film maker who was soon thought of as a fad . Wanting nothing more than to create heroes , Blue was sucked into one of his own films , allowing him to live out his dream as a hero . However , he had lost touch with reality and wanted revenge on the people who had betrayed him . As Captain Blue and Silvia embrace in a heartfelt reunion , the director tells Joe that the story is not complete . He snaps his fingers , and the space station 's onboard computer warns of a large number of UFOs heading towards Earth . Blue tells Joe that a hero will be needed twice more to save the world . Joe attempts to leave but not before Silvia requests a V @-@ Watch from her father and to accompany her boyfriend . Viewtiful Joe and a newly transformed Silvia head out to stop the impending threat together .

= = Development = =

Viewtiful Joe was developed by the design staff " Team Viewtiful " , a part of Capcom Production Studio 4 . The game was announced in late 2002 as part of the Capcom Five , a line @-@ up of five then @-@ upcoming GameCube games to introduce new content to the console . It was directed by Capcom alumnus Hideki Kamiya , whose previous credits include the planning of Resident Evil and Resident Evil 2 and the direction of Devil May Cry . It was produced by Atsushi Inaba , who previously worked on the Ace Attorney series and Steel Battalion . In its earliest stages of development , Viewtiful Joe went under the working title " Red Hot Man " , but the name was changed due to copyright conflicts with the American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers . Viewtiful Joe 's development team initially consisted of six people working under a twelve @-@ month deadline . As work continued , the size of the team grew , and development ended up taking a full 21 months to complete . The game was conceived as a " staff @-@ focused project " aimed at increasing the skill of its creators , specifically director Kamiya .

Inaba stated , " We wanted to create was a challenging game with stunning visuals and fluid gameplay " . As a lifelong fan of superheroes , Inaba 's aim was to combine traditional Japanese tokusatsu with American comic books . The character designs created by Kumiko Suekane were inspired specifically by 1960s and 1970s Japanese @-@ costumed tokusatsu television shows such as Kamen Rider and Ultraman . Graphically , the game adopted a 2D side @-@ scrolling style mixed with 3D cel @-@ shaded animation . Despite many games in the then @-@ modern industry shying away from 2D graphical formats , Inaba said , " We have been able to breathe new life into the genre because we are using a new stylistic way that hasn 't been seen before . " The team chose the GameCube as its platform because of their target audience and because it lent itself well to Viewtiful Joe 's gameplay .

The musical score for Viewtiful Joe was co @-@ composed by Masakazu Sugimori and Masami Ueda . It was released alongside the score for Viewtiful Joe 2 on a double album titled Viewtiful Joe + Viewtiful Joe 2 Original Soundtrack in Japan on 22 December 2004 by Suleputer . A music video is played within the game featuring a rap vocal song titled " Viewtiful World " composed by D.A.I. The video features a group of people , including Inaba himself , motion captured as some of the game 's characters . On 11 June 2003 , Avex released the video on DVD and released the song as a single . Both the North American and Japanese releases of Viewtiful Joe feature English voice acting in order to keep a " western comic book feel to [ the game ] . " Voice @-@ over work in Viewtiful Joe was provided by Soundelux Design Music Group . Voice actors for the game include Dee Bradley Baker , Christina Puccelli , Gregg Berger , Mikey Kelley , Roger Rose , and Kevin Michael Richardson . Director Hideki Kamiya provides the voice for Six Machine .

A budget re @-@ release of the game for the GameCube titled Viewtiful Joe : Revival was released in Japan in late 2003 , adding a " Sweet Mode " to decrease the difficulty setting from the original game 's " Kids Mode " . A PlayStation 2 port of Viewtiful Joe was released by Clover Studio in 2004 . It was released in Japan with the subtitle A New Hope . The release added the character Dante of Devil May Cry as an unlockable character . The PlayStation 2 version does not feature progressive scan seen in the GameCube version . The game was also re @-@ released under Nintendo 's GameCube Player 's Choice label in 2004 in North America and Europe .

It is said that Director Kamiya based Joe 's run animation on how he got to work , and the bosses of the game are based on Capcom executives .

= = Reception = =

= = = Reviews and sales = = =

Viewtiful Joe received positive reviews upon its release . The GameCube version of the game currently holds a GameRankings aggregate score of 92 % , while its PlayStation 2 port holds a score of 88 % . Metacritic lists the GameCube and PlayStation 2 versions of the game at 93 out of 100 and 90 out of 100 , respectively . The game 's graphics , gameplay , and challenge have all been common areas of praise among many reviewers . IGN gave Viewtiful Joe an " Outstanding " rating , noting that the beautiful cel @-@ shaded graphics and high @-@ intensity action make it one of the best action games on the GameCube and PlayStation 2 . Likewise , Eurogamer called it " imaginative , beautiful , engaging and above all else entertaining " . Game Informer praised it as " a completely original and highly entertaining work of art " . Criticisms about Viewtiful Joe have been few but consistent among reviews . IGN complained of the game 's lack of boss variety . GameSpy has concurred , noting that the bosses were too easy due to a powerful attack that the player can perform . Reviewers have also criticized the lack of progressive scan in the game 's PlayStation 2 port . IGN and Eurogamer have additionally pointed out that the PlayStation 2 port suffers slowdown in later stages of the game .

In Japan , the GameCube version of Viewtiful Joe sold through its initial shipment of less than 100 @,@ 000 copies during the week of its release . Preorders of the GameCube version sold out on Capcom 's North American website prior to its ship date , and Viewtiful Joe debuted as the tenth best @-@ selling game in the region . The PlayStation 2 version sold a poor 9 @,@ 912 units in its first week of release in Japan . Worldwide , sales of the game reached 275 @,@ 000 copies on the GameCube and 46 @,@ 000 on the PlayStation 2 . Sales of the game in both North America and Europe were lower than what Capcom had predicted , but due to its small budget , the game was considered by Inaba to be relatively successful commercially .

= = = Legacy = = =

Viewtiful Joe garnered a number of awards and nominations from various magazines , popular gaming websites , and video game award programs . IGN named Viewtiful Joe " GameCube Game of the Year " and " Best Action Game of 2003 " . At GameSpot 's Best of 2003 , the game was nominated for " Best Artistic Achievement in a Game " , " Coolest New Character " , " Best GameCube Game " , " Readers ' Choice Best GameCube Action Game " , and " Readers ' Choice GameCube Game of the Year " . It was also named the fourth @-@ best GameCube game of 2003 by GameSpy , winning the website 's " Most Stylish " award for the year . Viewtiful Joe won " Most Innovative Game Design " in Nintendo Power magazine 's 2003 Player 's Choice Awards . It won " GameCube Game of the Year " awards for 2003 from both USA Today and GMR . The game was nominated by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences for " Platform Action / Adventure Game of the Year " in 2003 and was nominated for three British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) Awards including " Best Design " , " Best Intro / Animation " , and " Best GameCube Game " . The game won " Unsung Hero Game of the Year " at the 2003 Golden Joystick Awards and " Best New Franchise " at the 2004 G @-@ Phoria awards . Finally , it was recognized at the 4th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards as one of three " Game Innovation Spotlights " .

Viewtiful Joe has been included in a number of " best games " lists in the years following its release . It was rated the 27th best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list in February 2006 and the 10th best game on the GameCube in its August 2008 issue reflecting on the top 20 games for each system . Both GameSpy and the G4 television program X @-@ Play named Viewtiful Joe the ninth best game of all time for the GameCube . In 2007 , Viewtiful Joe was named the 17th best GameCube game of all time in IGN 's feature reflecting on the system 's long lifespan . Later in 2007 , ScrewAttack listed the game at seventh on their Top 10 GameCube Games of All Time .

Viewtiful Joe was successful enough to establish a franchise , and a few other related media titles were released . Viewtiful Joe was followed by a direct sequel titled Viewtiful Joe 2 — released for both the GameCube and PlayStation 2 — and two spinoffs : Viewtiful Joe : Red Hot Rumble for the PSP and GameCube and Viewtiful Joe : Double Trouble ! for the Nintendo DS . An anime adaption of the game was produced by Group TAC , airing on the Japanese television station TV Tokyo beginning in 2004 and being licensed for US distribution by Geneon Entertainment in 2005 . A set of Viewtiful Joe trading figures was released by Agatsuma Entertainment in October 2005 , while a series of action figures made by Jazwares was released in July 2006 .

In 2004 , Capcom registered the domain name ViewtifulJoe3.com , suggesting another sequel . Shortly thereafter , the website was devoid of content . In January 2006 , Atsushi Inaba expressed interest in developing a title in the series for the Wii . However , as none of Clover Studio 's games proved to be an outstanding financial success , Capcom officially dissolved the subsidiary in March 2007 after the release of its final two games , Ōkami and God Hand . Its key members left to form a new company called Platinum Games . Capcom producer Jun Takeuchi commented at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International that there have been currently no plans to continue with the series , although Viewtiful Joe has appeared as a playable character in Capcom 's 2008 Wii fighting game Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All Stars and is a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 .

However , in 2012 , Platinum Games announced the development of The Wonderful 101 , then known as Project P @-@ 100 . This was the first project that reunited Kamiya and Inaba as director and producer on a title since the development of the Viewtiful Joe series . Furthermore , The Wonderful 101 uses the same tokusatsu thematics of the Viewtiful Joe series , and the two share a similar art style albeit different gameplay . This has led fans to hail The Wonderful 101 as a spiritual successor of sorts . The franchise would also later be featured in Archie Comics ' Worlds Unite crossover with several other Capcom and Sega series , taking place in the Sonic the Hedgehog and Mega Man comics .

= Constitutional history of Zimbabwe =

The constitutional history of Zimbabwe starts with the arrival of white people to what was dubbed Southern Rhodesia in the 1890s . The country was initially run by an administrator appointed by the British South Africa Company . The prime ministerial role was first created in October 1923 , when the country achieved responsible government , with Sir Charles Coghlan as its first Premier . The third Premier , George Mitchell , renamed the post Prime Minister in 1933 .

The Rhodesian Prime Minister acted as Head of His or Her Majesty 's Rhodesian Government , under the largely symbolic supervision of a British colonial Governor , until Rhodesia issued its unrecognised Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965 . British @-@ appointed figures such as the Governor were thereafter ignored by Salisbury . The unrecognised state 's system of government , however , remained otherwise unchanged , right down to its declared loyalty to Elizabeth II , which Britain did not acknowledge . This situation remained until March 1970 , when Rhodesia adopted a republican system of government . In republican Rhodesia , the Prime Minister instead nominally reported to the President .

The Prime Minister was responsible for nominating the other members of the government , chairing meetings of the Rhodesian Cabinet , and deciding when to call a new general election for the House of Assembly . He retained this role following the reconstitution of Rhodesia under black majority rule , first into Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 , then into Zimbabwe the following year . The Zimbabwean government was headed by a Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987 , when that post was superseded by an executive presidency . The former Prime Minister , Robert Mugabe , became President ; as of 2015 he retains this post .

= = 1890 – 1923 : British South Africa Company rule = =

= = = Context = = =

Having secured the Rudd Concession on mining rights from King Lobengula of Matabeleland on 30 October 1888 , Cecil Rhodes and his British South Africa Company were granted a Royal Charter by Queen Victoria in October 1889 . Under this charter , the Company was empowered to trade with indigenous rulers , form banks , own and manage land , and raise and run a police force . In return for these rights , the British South Africa Company would administer and develop any territory it acquired , while respecting laws enacted by extant African rulers , and upholding free trade within its borders . Though the Company made good on most of these pledges , the assent of Lobengula and other native leaders , particularly regarding mining rights , was often evaded , misrepresented or simply ignored . Lobengula reacted by making war on the new arrivals , their Tswana allies and the local Mashona people in 1893 . The resulting conflict ended with Lobengula 's torching of his own capital at Bulawayo , his death from smallpox in early 1894 , and the subsequent submission of his izinDuna ( advisors ) to the Company . Violent rebellion to the north @-@ east , in neighbouring Mashonaland , was forcibly put down by the Company during 1897 .

Following these victories , the British South Africa Company controlled a country equivalent to modern Zambia and Zimbabwe . This domain was initially referred to as " Zambesia " ( or Zambezia ) after the Zambezi , which bisected it ; however , the first immigrants almost immediately began instead calling their new home " Rhodesia " in honour of their Company benefactor , and this name was officially adopted in 1895 . Matabeleland and Mashonaland , both of which lay south of the Zambezi , were first formally referred to by Britain as " Southern Rhodesia " in 1898 , and were united under that name in 1901 . The areas to the river 's north , Barotziland @-@ North @-@ Western Rhodesia and North @-@ Eastern Rhodesia , were governed separately , and amalgamated in 1911 to form Northern Rhodesia .

= = = Company administrators = = =

The head of the southern territories ' government during this time was in effect the Company 's regional administrator . The first of these was appointed in 1890 , soon after the Pioneer Column 's establishment of Fort Salisbury , the capital , on 12 September that year . From 1899 , the administrator governed as part of a ten @-@ man Legislative Council , originally made up of himself , five other members nominated by the Company , and four elected by registered voters . The number of elected members rose gradually under Company rule until they numbered 13 in 1920 , sitting alongside the administrator and six other Company officials in the 20 @-@ member Legislative Council . The Company 's Royal Charter , which originally ran out in October 1914 , was renewed for a further ten years in 1915 .

The post of national administrator was held by three people , with three others holding the post while it only covered Mashonaland ; between 1898 and 1901 , a separate office existed in Matabeleland .

= = = Frontier politics : towards responsible government = = =

Southern Rhodesians of all races fought for Britain in the First World War , during which the Responsible Government Association ( RGA ) was formed in 1917 . By 1919 , Sir Charles Coghlan , a South African @-@ born Bulawayo lawyer , had become the RGA 's leader . The RGA sought self @-@ government for Southern Rhodesia within the British Empire — the same " responsible government " previously granted to Britain 's colonies in Australia , Canada , New Zealand and South Africa as a precursor to full dominion status — and opposed Southern Rhodesia 's proposed integration into the recently formed Union of South Africa . The accession of territories governed by the British South Africa Company was explicitly provisioned for by Section 150 of the South Africa Act 1909 , the British Act of Parliament which created the union in 1910 by consolidating the Empire 's Cape , Natal , Orange River and Transvaal Colonies into a unitary dominion . The Company originally stood against Southern Rhodesia 's addition , fearing the territory 's potential domination by Afrikaners , but changed its tune dramatically when , in 1918 , the Privy Council in London ruled that unalienated land in the Rhodesias was owned not by the Company but by the Crown .

The loss of the ability to raise funds through the sale of land hampered the Company 's ability to pay dividends to its shareholders , and caused its development of Southern Rhodesia to slow . Believing that membership in the union could help solve both problems , the Company now backed Southern Rhodesia 's incorporation as South Africa 's fifth province . However , this prospect proved largely unpopular among Southern Rhodesian settlers , most of whom wanted self @-@ government , and came to vote for the RGA in large numbers . In the 1920 Legislative Council election , the RGA won ten of the 13 seats contested . A referendum on the colony 's future was held on 27 October 1922 — at the suggestion of Winston Churchill , then Britain 's Colonial Secretary , continuing the initiative of his preprocessor Viscount Milner — and responsible government won the day by 59 % . Southern Rhodesia was duly annexed by the Empire on 12 September 1923 , and granted full self @-@ government on 1 October the same year . The new Southern Rhodesian government immediately purchased the land from the British Treasury for £ 2 million , and ten years later paid the same sum to the British South Africa Company for the country 's mineral rights .

= = 1923 – 1965 : colonial Prime Ministers = =

= = = Responsible government ; early years ( 1923 – 53 ) = = =

The RGA reorganised itself to become the governing Rhodesia Party , with Coghlan as Southern Rhodesia 's first Premier . The title was changed to Prime Minister in 1933 by George Mitchell , the third man to hold the office . In 1932 , the Southern Rhodesian leader was first invited to an Imperial Conference . Although Southern Rhodesia was not a dominion , it was seen elsewhere in the Empire as a sui generis case among Britain 's colonies , and worthy of inclusion , particularly as it was the only one which governed itself . Southern Rhodesian Prime Ministers thereafter became a regular fixture at such meetings and , from 1944 , at Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conferences .

The Rhodesia Party remained in power until September 1933 , when , despite narrowly topping the popular vote , it lost the month 's election , winning only nine of the 30 seats compared to the Reform Party 's 16 . Although the Reform Party was left @-@ wing in name , many of its leading members , including the new Prime Minister Dr Godfrey Huggins , were politically conservative ; the more rightist members of the party merged with the Rhodesia Party in 1934 to form the United Party , and , with Huggins at the helm , roundly defeated the rump left wing of the Reform Party to begin 28 years of uninterrupted stewardship .

Though uninvolved in foreign affairs , and therefore obliged to follow Britain 's lead , the colony enthusiastically supported the mother country during the Second World War , symbolically affirming the British declaration of war before any other part of the Empire . During the ensuing conflict over 26 @,@ 100 Southern Rhodesians of all races served in the armed forces , pro rata to white population a higher contribution of manpower than any other British colony or dominion , and more than the UK itself . George VI knighted Huggins in 1941 , and , with the war still ongoing , Britain made overtures towards dominion status . Huggins dismissed this , saying it was imperative to win the war first . The idea of dominionship was raised again in 1952 , but Salisbury once more did not pursue it , instead following the results of a referendum held early the next April to enter an initially semi @-@ independent Federation with the directly administered British colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland .

= = = As a territory in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ( 1953 – 63 ) = = =

A month after Southern Rhodesia , Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland formed the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in August 1953 , Huggins became the amalgamated body 's first Prime Minister . Salisbury was designated the Federal capital , and the United Party renamed itself the United Rhodesia Party . Garfield Todd took over as Southern Rhodesia 's Prime Minister . Huggins headed the Federal government for three years , then retired in November 1956 after a combined 23 years as a national leader . The United Rhodesia Party merged with the Federal Party to become the United Federal Party ( UFP ) in November 1957 , and the liberal Todd was voted out of office by the more right @-@ wing members of his party four months later , in February 1958 . He was replaced by Sir Edgar Whitehead . Todd led his own version of the United Rhodesia Party against the UFP and the Dominion Party in June the same year , but failed to win a single seat — the UFP won 17 of the 30 seats , with the Dominion Party taking the remainder .

Whitehead served as Prime Minister for the next four years , under Federal leader Roy Welensky , as black nationalist ambitions and changing international attitudes propelled the Federation towards collapse . In Southern Rhodesia , constitutional changes adopted in 1961 as the result of a referendum split the heretofore non @-@ racial ( though qualified ) electoral roll into graduated " A " and " B " rolls ; the latter had lower qualifications , and was intended to cater for prospective black voters who had previously not qualified .

This plan was given assent by the Southern Rhodesian and British governments , and initially enjoyed support from black nationalists in the country , though the latter soon reversed their stance , saying the changes did not go far enough . Some government members opposed this partitioning of the electorate , which essentially divided it along ethnic lines ; the UFP 's chief whip in the Federal assembly , Ian Smith , resigned in protest , saying the new system was " racialist " . Former Dominion Party leader Winston Field formed the pro @-@ independence Rhodesian Front ( RF ) in 1962 to contest that November 's Southern Rhodesian election , with Smith running as his deputy , and in a shock result won 35 of the 50 territorial " A " -roll seats . Field and Smith became Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister respectively , and remained in office after the Federation 's dissolution on the last day of 1963 .

= = = From Federation to UDI ( 1964 – 65 ) = = =

After the Federation broke up on 31 December 1963 , Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became independent during 1964 , respectively renamed Zambia and Malawi , and under black majority governments . Southern Rhodesia was denied the same under the ideal of " no independence before majority rule " that was newly ascendant in Britain and elsewhere . The RF was enraged by what it saw as British duplicity ; according to Field and Smith , Britain 's Deputy Prime Minister and First Secretary of State R. A. Butler had verbally promised " independence no later than , if not before , the other two territories " at a meeting in 1963 , in return for Salisbury 's help in winding up the Federation . Butler denied having said this .

Under severe pressure from his ministers to resolve this issue , Field travelled to England in March 1964 to pursue sovereign statehood , but returned empty @-@ handed a month later . He resigned his position on 13 April ; this came as no surprise to many government insiders , but appeared sudden to most sections of the general public . Smith promptly accepted the cabinet 's invitation to take over , though he expressed surprise at the nomination . A farmer and erstwhile British Royal Air Force pilot from the rural town of Selukwe , Smith was Southern Rhodesia 's first native @-@ born head of government . He immediately promised to take a harder line on independence than his predecessor .

Only two months into his premiership , Smith was deeply offended when Whitehall informed him that , for the first time since 1930 , Southern Rhodesia would not be represented at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference . Huggins described this in 1969 as tantamount to " kicking [ Southern Rhodesia ] out of the Commonwealth " . When Northern Rhodesia became Zambia on 24 October 1964 , Southern Rhodesia dropped " Southern " from its name , and initiated legislation to this effect . Britain refused assent two months later , saying that although the colony was self @-@ governing , it did not have the power to rename itself . Salisbury continued using the shortened name anyway .

The Rhodesian government , which remained predominantly white , contended that it had almost complete support from all races in its drive for full statehood ; in October 1964 , a national indaba ( tribal conference ) comprising 622 black representatives unanimously backed independence under the 1961 constitution , and a month later a general independence referendum yielded an 89 % " yes " vote for the same . Harold Wilson 's British Labour Cabinet did not give credence to either of these tests of opinion , and continued to insist on an immediate shift to majority rule before the granting of sovereign independence . Campaigning on an election promise of independence , the RF called a new general election for May 1965 , and won all 50 " A " -roll seats .

Negotiations between Smith and Wilson took place throughout the rest of the year , but repeatedly broke down ; between July and September , a parallel development concerned Rhodesia 's opening of a representative mission in Lisbon , which Britain opposed , but proved unable to stop . Soon after Smith visited London in October 1965 , Wilson resolved to curb his rival 's ambitions . During his own visit to Salisbury later that month , he proposed to safeguard future black representation in the Rhodesian parliament by withdrawing control over the Rhodesian parliamentary structure to London . Salisbury had held these powers since 1923 . This proved the last straw for Smith 's Rhodesian government , which issued the Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) on 11 November .

= = 1965 – 80 : UDI era = =

= = = Unrecognised state ( 1965 – 79 ) = = =

The Rhodesians modelled their independence document on that of the American Thirteen Colonies in 1776 , which remains the only other such proclamation in the history of the British Empire . According to UDI — which went unrecognised by Britain , the Commonwealth and the United Nations , all of which declared it illegal and imposed economic sanctions — the Rhodesian government still professed loyalty to Elizabeth II , whom it called the " Queen of Rhodesia " . The British @-@ appointed Governor , Sir Humphrey Gibbs , remained at his post in Salisbury , but was now ignored by the local government , which appointed its own " Officer Administrating the Government " to fill his ceremonial role . Smith represented Rhodesia in two abortive rounds of talks with Wilson , first aboard HMS Tiger in 1966 , then on HMS Fearless two years later . Under Rhodesia 's 1965 constitution , the Prime Minister remained at the head of Her Majesty 's Rhodesian Government until 2 March 1970 , when a republican constitution was adopted in line with the results of a referendum held the previous June . In the Republic of Rhodesia , the Prime Minister formally reported to the President .

Smith and the RF decisively won three more general elections during the 1970s . The Anglo @-@ Rhodesian Agreement of 1971 – 72 , which would have legitimised the country 's independence in Britain 's eyes , fell apart after a British test of Rhodesian national opinion reported most blacks to be against it . The Rhodesian Bush War , fought against the government by the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) , the respective guerrilla armies of the Maoist Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) and its Warsaw Pact @-@ aligned Marxist rival , the Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) , intensified soon after , starting with ZANLA 's attack on Altena and Whistlefield Farms in the country 's north @-@ east in December 1972 . After a strong security force counter @-@ campaign , the South African détente initiative of December 1974 introduced a ceasefire , which the security forces respected , and the guerrillas ignored . This shifted the course of the war significantly in the nationalists ' favour .

Mozambican independence under a communist government in 1975 further assisted the cadres , and exacerbated the Rhodesian government 's economic dependency on South Africa . Unproductive talks between Smith and the guerrilla leaders took place at Victoria Falls in 1975 , then in Geneva the following year . In March 1978 , the Internal Settlement was agreed between the government and moderate nationalist parties , the most prominent of which was Bishop Abel Muzorewa 's United African National Council ( UANC ) . The militant nationalist campaigns continued , however , and indeed extended to attacks on civilian aircraft : ZAPU shot down Air Rhodesia Flight 825 in September 1978 , then Air Rhodesia Flight 827 in February 1979 . ZANU and ZAPU boycotted the elections held per the Internal Settlement in April 1979 , which UN Security Council Resolution 448 called " sham elections ... [ held ] in utter defiance of the United Nations " . In these elections , the UANC won a majority in the new House of Assembly , with 51 of the 72 common roll seats ( for which universal suffrage applied ) and 67 % of the popular vote . The RF took all 20 of the seats elected by white voters and also provided eight non @-@ constituency members . All of this settled , Rhodesia became black majority @-@ ruled Zimbabwe Rhodesia on 1 June 1979 , with Muzorewa replacing Smith as Prime Minister .

= = = Internal Settlement ; interim British control ( 1979 – 80 ) = = =

With Muzorewa and the UANC in government , Zimbabwe Rhodesia failed to gain international acceptance . ZANU leader Robert Mugabe publicly damned Muzorewa 's new order , dismissing the bishop as a " neocolonial puppet " ; he pledged to continue ZANLA 's campaign " to the last man " . Muzorewa took office at the head of a UANC – RF coalition cabinet made up of 12 blacks and five whites . " Instead of the enemy wearing a white skin , he will soon wear a black skin , " said Mugabe , just before the bishop took over . The Bush War went on until December 1979 , when Salisbury , Whitehall and the revolutionary nationalists signed the Lancaster House Agreement in London . Zimbabwe Rhodesia came under the temporary control of Britain , and a Commonwealth monitoring force was convened to supervise fresh elections , in which ZANU and ZAPU would take part for the first time . ZANU won , and , with Mugabe as Prime Minister , formed the first government of Zimbabwe following its recognised independence on 18 April 1980 .

= = Since 1980 : Zimbabwe = =

= = = Prime Minister and ceremonial President ( 1980 – 87 ) = = =

Seven years into Mugabe 's premiership , Zimbabwe scrapped the white seats amid sweeping constitutional reforms in September 1987 . The office of Prime Minister was abolished in October ; Mugabe became the country 's first executive President two months later . Mugabe and the ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo signed a unity accord at the same time merging ZAPU into ZANU – PF with the stated goal of a Marxist – Leninist one @-@ party state .

= = = Executive President ( since 1987 ) = = =

= National Intercollegiate Band =

The National Intercollegiate Band ( NIB ) is a concert band , sponsored by honorary band fraternity and sorority Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma , that performs every two years at the national convention of the two organizations . Organized in 1947 , the NIB is the oldest national intercollegiate band in the United States , and is open to all collegiate band members regardless of membership in Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma .

Since 1953 , the National Intercollegiate Band has been the resident ensemble of Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma 's Commissioning Program , which has added thirty new works to the band repertoire since its inception and is the longest @-@ running commissioning program for wind band music in the United States .

The National Intercollegiate Band has performed under the baton of some of the most renowned wind band conductors in the history of the ensemble , including William Revelli , Frederick Fennell , James Croft , and others , several of whom have been honored as inductees into the National Band Association Hall of Fame of Distinguished Band Conductors .

= = History = =

= = = Early steps , 1922 – 1947 = = =

In 1922 , Kappa Kappa Psi announced its plan to hold the first national intercollegiate band contest in American history . A brief dispatch in the 1922 Baton explained , " Sometime within the next two years the Kappa Kappa Psi Fraternity will hold a National Intercollegiate Band Contest . This enterprise will be the first of its kind ever attempted . As Music ( sic ) is becoming the foremost Art in America , our Fraternity aims to assist in so spreading the good work . " This early announcement did not culminate in a contest , and the idea of a national intercollegiate band was not revisited again by Kappa Kappa Psi until the 1940s .

In the meantime , the first Kappa Kappa Psi @-@ sponsored intercollegiate band was established by F. Lee Bowling in 1933 , with musicians from the University of Colorado ( home of the Alpha Iota chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi ) , the University of Denver ( Alpha Lambda ) , Colorado State College of Agricultural and Mechanical Arts ( Kappa ) , Colorado State College of Education ( Alpha Theta ) , the Colorado School of Mines ( Xi ) , and the University of Utah participating . In 1934 , the University of Utah left the intercollegiate band and the University of Wyoming ( Alpha Nu ) took its place . The concerts held by this Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Band were sponsored by the local chapters of Kappa Kappa Psi and many members of the fraternity participated in the ensemble . The first concert of the Rocky Mountain Intercollegiate Band was held in February 1933 , and the band gave annual concerts during Denver Music Week . Bowling left the band 's managership in 1937 .

= = = National Intercollegiate Band established , 1947 = = =

Bowling was elected Grand President of Kappa Kappa Psi in 1941 and presented a plan to hold a national intercollegiate band concert , modeled after the Rocky Mountain intercollegiate bands . The delegation endorsed the plan , which was to be executed at the next biennial national convention in Stillwater in 1943 , the silver jubilee of the fraternity . However , due to World War II , the 1943 and 1945 national conventions were not held , and so the next biennial convention was held in 1947 . The first National Intercollegiate Band gave a concert on the evening of Friday , March 7 , 1947 . All delegates , officers , and visitors to the convention performed in the ensemble , which was augmented by Kappa Kappa Psi members from the Oklahoma A & M Symphonic Band so the band had a balanced instrumentation .

Grand First Vice @-@ President William A. Scroggs , founder of the fraternity , conducted the band in their first piece , Semper Fidelis . Max A. Mitchell , Grand Second Vice @-@ President , conducted Leonard Smith 's Spanish Caprice , a piece for band and solo cornet . Bohumil Makovsky , Past Grand President and Chairman of the Board of Trustees , conducted his march , Kappa Kappa Psi , and F. Lee Bowling conducted J. DeForest Cline 's Kappa Kappa Psi march . The 1947 NIB was recognized as the first @-@ ever intercollegiate band assembled with a national scope in the United States . Since 1947 , the fraternity has presented the F. Lee Bowling Participation Award to the college or university who has had the most students participate in the National Intercollegiate Band , regardless of membership in Kappa Kappa Psi or Tau Beta Sigma . In the case of a tie , multiple awards are presented .

The 1957 National Intercollegiate Band performed in the Salt Lake Tabernacle in Salt Lake City on August 24 , 1957 , under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel William F. Santelmann , retired director of the United States Marine Band . The band comprised 112 musicians from Utah , Florida , Maryland , Colorado , Ohio , Texas , Indiana , and New Mexico , and premiered Robert Russell Bennett 's new work Symphonic Songs for Band .

In 1969 , the fiftieth anniversary of Kappa Kappa Psi , there were enough performers to create two bands . The National Intercollegiate Symphonic Band , the top ensemble , was conducted by Norman Dello Joio and premiered his new work , Songs of Abelard . The Symphonic Band also performed several other Dello Joio works , including Scenes from the Louvre , Variants on a Mediaeval Tune , and Fantasies on a Theme by Haydn . The National Intercollegiate Concert Band was conducted by Past Grand President Jay L. Slaughter , and performed Makovksy 's Kappa Kappa Psi march and several other works .

= = = National Intercollegiate Marching Band , 2002 = = =

In June and July 2002 , Kappa Kappa Psi and Tau Beta Sigma sponsored the first National Intercollegiate Marching Band , which traveled to the French Riviera , including the cities of Nice , Grasse , Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , Cannes , Antibes , and the Principality of Monaco . The thirty @-@ five member band , directed by Past National President Dr. Michael Golemo , performed at Le Suquet in Cannes , in Nice , and in front of the Prince 's Palace of Monaco . Despite being billed as the " first biennial " intercollegiate marching band , the program was dissolved by the joint national councils after the inaugural trip due to its high cost and low attendance , which was believed to be caused by a fear of traveling abroad after the September 11 attacks .

= = Guest artists = =

= = = Featured composer = = =

In 1953 , Kappa Kappa Psi Grand President Hugh McMillen began the Commissioning Program to add new music to the band repertoire , beginning with a $ 500 commission of Don Gillis , who provided Ballet for Band for the NIB . The Commissioning Program is now the longest @-@ running commissioning program for wind band music in American history , and has produced works that have secured a place in the emerging band canon and have garnered critical acclaim , such as Robert Russell Bennett 's Symphonic Songs for Band and Karel Husa 's Concerto for Trumpet and Wind Orchestra .

= = = Guest conductors = = =

= = = Guest performers = = =

In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the National Intercollegiate Band featured professional guest artists as soloists with the band . Two of these , T. N. Retif and Raymond Crisara , were featured soloists in that year 's commissioned piece : Retif on Dello Joio 's Songs of Abelard and Crisara on Karel Husa 's Concerto for Trumpet and Wind Orchestra .

Sigurd Raschèr , saxophone ( 1967 )

Leonard B. Smith , cornet ( 1969 )

T. N. Retif , baritone voice ( 1969 )

John D. Mohler , clarinet ( 1971 )

Raymond Crisara , trumpet ( 1973 )

= Hurricane Lily ( 1971 ) =

Hurricane Lily was a short @-@ lived Category 1 hurricane of August 1971 that devastated the city of Puerto Vallarta in Mexico . Forming from an area of cloudiness associated with former Atlantic Tropical Storm Chloe , the storm slowly intensified , building to peak intensity just before landfall northwest of Manzanillo , Colima on August 31 . The hurricane quickly weakened and became extratropical . After leaving land , the extratropical remnants of Lily dissipated on September 1 . The storm 's movement close to land affected shipping due to the limited warning , which was partially set back due to difficulties in clarifying the hurricane 's position on radar from reconnaissance aircraft .

The hurricane was Puerto Vallarta 's worst in two decades and the second hurricane of the season to heavily impact Mexico after Hurricane Bridget . The storm caused the Cuale River to overflow its banks , inundating the downtown section of Puerto Vallarta with water that was up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep in some sections . The Mexican army flew in aid after trucks were blocked by flooded roads . The hurricane claimed three lives on the mainland and nine lives when a boat capsized .

= = Meteorological history = =

On August 25 , Tropical Storm Chloe made landfall on British Honduras ( present day Belize ) as a tropical depression . After dissipating , the remnants of the storm crossed into the Pacific Ocean , where they contributed to an area of shower activity that persisted over the Gulf of Tehuantepec . On August 28 , the tropical activity organized around a circulation which quickly developed into a tropical depression the same day . The depression was upgraded to a tropical storm on August 29 based on satellite presentation that depicted significant cirrus outflow and a comma – shaped cloud mass spanning 2 ° of latitude in diameter and was subsequently named Lily .

Following its upgrade to tropical storm intensity , Lily began developing a spiral cloud structure and heavy anticyclonic outflow on August 30 and was upgraded to a hurricane the same day . During its intensification , United States Air Force reconnaissance tried to fly into the hurricane , but penetration was rendered impossible due to the cumulonimbus clouds in the spiral bands , causing the aircraft to rely on radar readings , which showed an eye 40 miles ( 65 km ) in diameter . Following the flight , the hurricane turned to the north @-@ northwestward towards the Mexican coast . On August 31 , a ship called the Turrialba reported a 980 @-@ millibar ( 29 inHg ) sea – level pressure while in the eye of the hurricane . Shortly after the report , the hurricane peaked in intensity with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) just prior to landfall 30 miles ( 50 km ) northwest of Manzanillo . The cyclone quickly weakened overland , and after only six hours over land , its winds weakened to only 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) , a decline of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) and the cyclone became extratropical . The now – extratropical Lily continued to cross the Mexican coast , and shortly after emerging over water on September 1 , the cyclone dissipated .

= = Impact = =

The north @-@ northwestward track Lily took off the Mexican coast was not well @-@ forecast due in part to difficulties in interpreting the radar data from the reconnaissance flight . As a result , many ships got caught in hurricane @-@ force winds and high seas while trying to cross between it and the coastline . The Turrialba also reported that many exhausted tropical birds were taken aboard the ship while in the eye . The ship had to maneuver in order to avoid hitting other ships in the area . Another boat with twelve people aboard capsized off a beach near Puerto Vallarta while weathering wind gusts of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) from the hurricane . Nine aboard the ship were reported dead as a result , but four others were able to swim back to shore .

The hurricane was the worst to strike Puerto Vallarta in 20 years . 5 @,@ 000 people were evacuated due to the hurricane with an addition 500 people on vacation becoming stranded inside their hotels . At least 600 evacuees sought refuge in a customs house , with an additional 1000 more evacuating to an airport terminal . More evacuees sought shelter in schools and the city hall . Four major rivers , including the Cuale River , which flows into the city , overflowed their banks , inundating the city along with several neighboring communities . Some areas of downtown Puerto Vallarta were submerged in depths of up to 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) due to the flooding . Telephone lines in the city were suspended and highways were rendered impassable by the floods . One person died during a house collapse in the city and two others drowned . Another source reported five deaths from house collapses , although the post @-@ season report regards only three deaths in association with Lily in Mexico . The hurricane also passed over the nearby town of Barra de Navidad , where the residents took refuge inside the church of San Antonio . A local legend states that during the hurricane , the arms of Jesus Christ on the church 's crucifix broke and hung down . The moment the arms broke , the hurricane 's effects in the town stopped . The figure has since been known as the Christ of the Cyclone .

= = = Aftermath = = =

Relief efforts following the hurricane were mostly affected by the associated flooding . Trucks transporting food and medicine from the Jalisco state government were forced to turn back because of flooded roads . The army then decided on an aerial transport . This effort was hampered because , after three federal helicopters and Air Force planes touched down at the local airport , the road into the city was still flooded , meaning the aid could not be distributed .

Lily 's effects in Puerto Vallarta made it the second hurricane of the season to be declared the worst hurricane to strike a specific city in twenty or more years . The first was Hurricane Bridget , which struck Acapulco . Despite the damage , the name was not retired and was reused in 1975 , but due to a change in names lists in 1978 , the name Lily has not been used since .

= Fidel Castro =

Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz ( American Spanish : [ fiˈðel aleˈxandɾo ˈkastɾo ˈrus ] audio ; born August 13 , 1926 ) , commonly known as Fidel Castro , is a Cuban politician and revolutionary who governed the Republic of Cuba as Prime Minister from 1959 to 1976 and then as President from 1976 to 2008 . Politically a Marxist – Leninist and Cuban nationalist , he also served as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba from 1961 until 2011 . Under his administration Cuba became a one @-@ party communist state ; industry and business were nationalized , and state socialist reforms implemented throughout society .

Born in Birán as the son of a wealthy farmer , Castro adopted leftist anti @-@ imperialist politics while studying law at the University of Havana . After participating in rebellions against right @-@ wing governments in the Dominican Republic and Colombia , he planned the overthrow of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista , launching a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953 . After a year 's imprisonment , he traveled to Mexico where he formed a revolutionary group , the 26th of July Movement , with his brother Raúl Castro and Che Guevara . Returning to Cuba , Castro took a key role in the Cuban Revolution by leading the Movement in a guerrilla war against Batista 's forces from the Sierra Maestra . After Batista 's overthrow in 1959 , Castro assumed military and political power as Cuba 's Prime Minister . The United States was alarmed by Castro 's friendly relations with the Soviet Union , and unsuccessfully attempted to remove him by assassination , economic blockade , and counter @-@ revolution , including the Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961 . Countering these threats , Castro formed an alliance with the Soviets and allowed them to place nuclear weapons on the island , sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis – a defining incident of the Cold War – in 1962 .

Adopting a Marxist @-@ Leninist model of development , Castro converted Cuba into a one @-@ party socialist state under Communist Party rule , the first in the Western hemisphere . Reforms introducing central economic planning and expanding healthcare and education were accompanied by state control of the press and the suppression of internal dissent . Abroad , Castro supported anti @-@ imperialist revolutionary groups , backing the establishment of Marxist governments in Chile , Nicaragua , and Grenada , and sending troops to aid allies in the Yom Kippur War , Ethio @-@ Somali War , and Angolan Civil War . These actions , coupled with Castro 's leadership of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement from 1979 – 83 and Cuba 's medical internationalism , increased Cuba 's profile on the world stage and earned its leader great respect in the developing world . Following the Soviet Union 's dissolution in 1991 , Castro led Cuba into its " Special Period " and embraced environmentalist and anti @-@ globalization ideas . In the 2000s he forged alliances in the Latin American Pink Tide – namely with Hugo Chávez 's Venezuela – and signed Cuba to the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas . In 2006 he transferred his responsibilities to Vice @-@ President Raúl Castro , who formally assumed the presidency in 2008 .

Castro is a controversial and divisive world figure . He is decorated with various international awards , and his supporters laud him as a champion of socialism , anti @-@ imperialism , and humanitarianism , whose revolutionary regime secured Cuba 's independence from American imperialism . Conversely , critics view him as a totalitarian dictator whose administration oversaw multiple human @-@ rights abuses , an exodus of more than one million Cubans , and the impoverishment of the country 's economy . Through his actions and his writings he has significantly influenced the politics of various individuals and groups across the world .

= = Early life = =

= = = Youth : 1926 – 47 = = =

Castro was born out of wedlock at his father 's farm on August 13 , 1926 . His father , Ángel Castro y Argiz , was a migrant to Cuba from Galicia , Northwest Spain . He had become financially successful by growing sugar cane at Las Manacas farm in Birán , Oriente Province , and after the collapse of his first marriage , he took his household servant , Lina Ruz González - also of Spanish origin , as his mistress and later on second wife ; together they had seven children , among them Fidel . Aged six , Castro was sent to live with his teacher in Santiago de Cuba , before being baptized into the Roman Catholic Church aged eight . Being baptized enabled Castro to attend the La Salle boarding school in Santiago , where he regularly misbehaved , and so was sent to the privately funded , Jesuit @-@ run Dolores School in Santiago . In 1945 he transferred to the more prestigious Jesuit @-@ run El Colegio de Belén in Havana . Although Castro took an interest in history , geography and debating at Belén , he did not excel academically , instead devoting much of his time to playing sport .

In 1945 , Castro began studying law at the University of Havana . Admitting he was " politically illiterate " , he became embroiled in student activism , and the violent gangsterismo culture within the university . Passionate about anti @-@ imperialism and opposing U.S. intervention in the Caribbean , he unsuccessfully campaigned for the presidency of the Federation of University Students on a platform of " honesty , decency and justice " . Castro became critical of the corruption and violence of President Ramón Grau 's government , delivering a public speech on the subject in November 1946 that received coverage on the front page of several newspapers .

In 1947 , Castro joined the Party of the Cuban People ( Partido Ortodoxo ) , founded by veteran politician Eduardo Chibás . A charismatic figure , Chibás advocated social justice , honest government , and political freedom , while his party exposed corruption and demanded reform . Though Chibás lost the election , Castro remained committed to working on his behalf . Student violence escalated after Grau employed gang leaders as police officers , and Castro soon received a death threat urging him to leave the university ; refusing , he began carrying a gun and surrounding himself with armed friends . In later years anti @-@ Castro dissidents accused him of committing gang @-@ related assassinations at the time , but these remain unproven .

= = = Rebellion and Marxism : 1947 – 50 = = =

In June 1947 , Castro learned of a planned expedition to invade the Dominican Republic and overthrow the right @-@ wing military junta of Rafael Trujillo , a U.S. ally . Being President of the University Committee for Democracy in the Dominican Republic , Castro joined the expedition . The invasion force consisted of around 1 @,@ 200 troops , mostly Cubans and exiled Dominicans , and they intended to sail from Cuba in July 1947 . However , under U.S. pressure , Grau 's government stopped the invasion , although Castro and many of his comrades evaded arrest . Returning to Havana , Castro took a leading role in student protests against the killing of a high school pupil by government bodyguards . The protests , accompanied by a crackdown on those considered communists , led to violent clashes between activists and police in February 1948 , in which Castro was badly beaten . At this point his public speeches took on a distinctly leftist slant by condemning social and economic inequality in Cuba . In contrast , his former public criticisms had centered on condemning corruption and U.S. imperialism .

In April 1948 , Castro traveled to Bogotá , Colombia , with a Cuban student group sponsored by President Juan Perón 's Argentine government . There , the assassination of popular leftist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán Ayala led to widespread rioting and clashes between the governing Conservatives – backed by the army – and leftist Liberals . Castro joined the Liberal cause by stealing guns from a police station , but subsequent police investigations concluded that he had not been involved in any killings . Returning to Cuba , Castro became a prominent figure in protests against government attempts to raise bus fares . That year , he married Mirta Díaz Balart , a student from a wealthy family through whom he was exposed to the lifestyle of the Cuban elite . The relationship was a love match , disapproved of by both families , but Mirta 's father gave them tens of thousands of dollars to spend on a three @-@ month New York City honeymoon .

That same year , Grau decided not to stand for re @-@ election , which was instead won by his Partido Auténtico 's new candidate , Carlos Prío Socarrás . Prío faced widespread protests when members of the MSR , now allied to the police force , assassinated Justo Fuentes , a socialist friend of Castro 's . In response , Prío agreed to quell the gangs , but found them too powerful to control . Castro had moved further to the left , influenced by the Marxist writings of Karl Marx , Friedrich Engels , and Vladimir Lenin . He came to interpret Cuba 's problems as an integral part of capitalist society , or the " dictatorship of the bourgeoisie " , rather than the failings of corrupt politicians , and adopted the Marxist view that meaningful political change could only be brought about by proletariat revolution . Visiting Havana 's poorest neighborhoods , he became active in the student anti @-@ racist campaign .

In September 1949 , Mirta gave birth to a son , Fidelito , so the couple moved to a larger Havana flat . Castro continued to put himself at risk , staying active in the city ’ s politics and joining the September 30 Movement , which contained within it both communists and members of the Partido Ortodoxo . The group ’ s purpose was to oppose the influence of the violent gangs within the university ; despite his promises , Prío had failed to control the situation , instead offering many of their senior members jobs in government ministries . Castro volunteered to deliver a speech for the Movement on November 13 , exposing the government ’ s secret deals with the gangs and identifying key members . Attracting the attention of the national press , the speech angered the gangs , and Castro fled into hiding , first in the countryside and then in the U.S. Returning to Havana several weeks later , Castro lay low and focused on his university studies , graduating as a Doctor of Law in September 1950 .

= = = Career in law and politics : 1950 – 52 = = =

Castro co @-@ founded a legal partnership that primarily catered for poor Cubans , although it proved a financial failure . Caring little for money or material goods , Castro failed to pay his bills ; his furniture was repossessed and electricity cut off , distressing his wife . He took part in a high @-@ school protest in Cienfuegos in November 1950 , fighting with police in protest at the Education Ministry 's ban on student associations ; arrested and charged for violent conduct , the magistrate dismissed the charges . His hopes for Cuba still centered on Chibás and the Partido Ortodoxo , and he was present at Chibás ' politically motivated suicide in 1951 . Seeing himself as Chibás ' heir , Castro wanted to run for Congress in the June 1952 elections , though senior Ortodoxo members feared his radical reputation and refused to nominate him . Instead he was nominated as a candidate for the House of Representatives by party members in Havana 's poorest districts , and began campaigning . The Ortodoxo had considerable support and was predicted to do well in the election .

During his campaign , Castro met with General Fulgencio Batista , the former president who had returned to politics with the Unitary Action Party ; although both opposing Prío 's administration , their meeting never got beyond polite generalities . In March 1952 , Batista seized power in a military coup , with Prío fleeing to Mexico . Declaring himself president , Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections , describing his new system as " disciplined democracy " : Castro , like many others , considered it a one @-@ man dictatorship . Batista moved to the right , solidifying ties with both the wealthy elite and the United States , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups . Intent on opposing Batista , Castro brought several legal cases against the government , but these came to nothing , and Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the regime .

= = Cuban Revolution = =

= = = The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack : 1952 – 53 = = =

Castro formed a group called " The Movement " which operated along a clandestine cell system , publishing underground newspaper El Acusador ( The Accuser ) , while arming and training anti @-@ Batista recruits . From July 1952 they went on a recruitment drive , gaining around 1 @,@ 200 members in a year , the majority from Havana 's poorer districts . Although a revolutionary socialist , Castro avoided an alliance with the communist PSP , fearing it would frighten away political moderates , but kept in contact with PSP members like his brother Raúl . Castro stockpiled weapons for a planned attack on the Moncada Barracks , a military garrison outside Santiago de Cuba , Oriente . Castro 's militants intended to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base on July 25 , seizing control and raiding the armory before reinforcements arrived . Supplied with new weaponry , Castro intended to spark a revolution among Oriente 's impoverished cane cutters and promote further uprisings . Castro 's plan emulated those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks ; Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader José Martí .

Castro gathered 165 revolutionaries for the mission , ordering his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance . The attack took place on July 26 , 1953 , but ran into trouble ; 3 of the 16 cars that had set out from Santiago failed to get there . Reaching the barracks , the alarm was raised , with most of the rebels pinned down by machine gun fire . 4 were killed before Castro ordered a retreat . The rebels suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties , whilst the army suffered 19 dead and 27 wounded . Meanwhile , some rebels took over a civilian hospital ; subsequently stormed by government soldiers , the rebels were rounded up , tortured and 22 were executed without trial . Accompanied by 19 comrades , Castro set out for Gran Piedra in the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains several miles to the north , where they could establish a guerrilla base . Responding to the attack , Batista 's government proclaimed martial law , ordering a violent crackdown on dissent , and imposing strict media censorship . The government broadcast misinformation about the event , claiming that the rebels were communists who had killed hospital patients , although news and photographs of the army 's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente soon spread , causing widespread public and some governmental disapproval .

Over the following days , the rebels were rounded up ; some were executed and others – including Castro – transported to a prison north of Santiago . Believing Castro incapable of planning the attack alone , the government accused Ortodoxo and PSP politicians of involvement , putting 122 defendants on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice , Santiago . Acting as his own defense counsel , Castro cited Martí as the intellectual author of the attack and convinced the 3 judges to overrule the army 's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court , proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were accused – of " organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State " – was incorrect , for they had risen up against Batista , who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner . The trial embarrassed the army by revealing that they had tortured suspects , after which they tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further , claiming he was too ill . The trial ended on October 5 , with the acquittal of most defendants ; 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years . Castro was sentenced on October 16 , during which he delivered a speech that would be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me . Castro was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment in the hospital wing of the Model Prison ( Presidio Modelo ) , a relatively comfortable and modern institution on the Isla de Pinos .

= = = Imprisonment and the 26th of July Movement : 1953 – 55 = = =

Imprisoned with 25 comrades , Castro renamed his group the " 26th of July Movement " ( MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 ) in memory of the Moncada attack 's date , and formed a school for prisoners . He read widely , enjoying the works of Marx , Lenin , and Martí but also reading books by Freud , Kant , Shakespeare , Munthe , Maugham and Dostoyevsky , analyzing them within a Marxist framework . Corresponding with supporters , he maintained control over the Movement and organized the publication of History Will Absolve Me . Initially permitted a relative amount of freedom within the prison , he was locked up in solitary confinement after inmates sang anti @-@ Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954 . Meanwhile , Castro 's wife Mirta gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior , something he discovered through a radio announcement . Appalled , he raged that he would rather die " a thousand times " than " suffer impotently from such an insult " . Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings , with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito ; this angered Castro , who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment .

In 1954 , Batista 's government held presidential elections , but no politician stood against him ; the election was widely considered fraudulent . It had allowed some political opposition to be voiced , and Castro 's supporters had agitated for an amnesty for the Moncada incident 's perpetrators . Some politicians suggested an amnesty would be good publicity , and the Congress and Batista agreed . Backed by the U.S. and major corporations , Batista believed Castro to be no threat , and on May 15 , 1955 , the prisoners were released . Returning to Havana , Castro gave radio interviews and press conferences ; the government closely monitored him , curtailing his activities . Now divorced , Castro had sexual affairs with two female supporters , Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde , each conceiving him a child . Setting about strengthening the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , he established an 11 @-@ person National Directorate but retained autocratic control , with some dissenters labeling him a caudillo ( dictator ) ; he argued that a successful revolution could not be run by committee and required a strong leader .

In 1955 , bombings and violent demonstrations led to a crackdown on dissent , with Castro and Raúl fleeing the country to evade arrest . Castro sent a letter to the press , declaring that he was " leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me ... As a follower of Martí , I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them , to fight instead of pleading for them . " The Castros and several comrades traveled to Mexico , where Raúl befriended an Argentine doctor and Marxist @-@ Leninist named Ernesto " Che " Guevara . Fidel liked him , later describing him as " a more advanced revolutionary than I was . " Castro also associated with the Spaniard Alberto Bayo , who agreed to teach Castro 's rebels the necessary skills in guerrilla warfare . Requiring funding , Castro toured the U.S. in search of wealthy sympathizers , there being monitored by Batista 's agents , who allegedly orchestrated a failed assassination attempt against him . Castro kept in contact with the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 in Cuba , where they had gained a large support base in Oriente . Other militant anti @-@ Batista groups had sprung up , primarily from the student movement ; most notable was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil ( DRE ) , founded by José Antonio Echevarría . Antonio met with Castro in Mexico City , but Castro opposed the student 's support for indiscriminate assassination .

After purchasing the decrepit yacht Granma , on November 25 , 1956 Castro set sail from Tuxpan , Veracruz , with 81 armed revolutionaries . The 1 @,@ 200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh , with food running low and many suffering seasickness . At some points , they had to bail water caused by a leak , and at another , a man fell overboard , delaying their journey . The plan had been for the crossing to take 5 days , and on the Granma ’ s scheduled day of arrival , November 30 , MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members under Frank Pais led an armed uprising in Santiago and Manzanillo . However , the Granma 's journey ultimately lasted 7 days , and with Castro and his men unable to provide reinforcements , Pais and his militants dispersed after two days of intermittent attacks .

= = = Guerrilla war : 1956 – 59 = = =

The Granma ran aground in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas , close to Los Cayuelos , on December 2 , 1956 . Fleeing inland , its crew headed for the forested mountain range of Oriente 's Sierra Maestra , being repeatedly attacked by Batista 's troops . Upon arrival , Castro discovered that only 19 rebels had made it to their destination , the rest having been killed or captured . Setting up an encampment , the survivors included the Castros , Che Guevara , and Camilo Cienfuegos . They began launching raids on small army posts to obtain weaponry , and in January 1957 they overran the outpost at La Plata , treating any soldiers that they wounded but executing Chicho Osorio , the local mayoral ( land company overseer ) , who was despised by the local peasants and who boasted of killing one of Castro 's rebels . Osorio 's execution aided the rebels in gaining the trust of locals , although they largely remained unenthusiastic and suspicious of the revolutionaries . As trust grew , some locals joined the rebels , although most new recruits came from urban areas . With volunteers boosting the rebel forces to over 200 , in July 1957 Castro divided his army into three columns , commanded by himself , his brother , and Guevara . The MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members operating in urban areas continued agitation , sending supplies to Castro , and on February 16 , 1957 he met with other senior members to discuss tactics ; here he met Celia Sánchez , who would become a close friend .

Across Cuba , anti @-@ Batista groups carried out bombings and sabotage ; police responded with mass arrests , torture , and extrajudicial executions . In March 1957 , the DR launched a failed attack on the presidential palace , during which Antonio was shot dead . Frank País was also killed , leaving Castro the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 's unchallenged leader . Although Guevara and Raúl were well known for their Marxist @-@ Leninist views , Castro hid his , hoping to gain the support of less radical revolutionaries . In 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo , Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos , authoring the Sierra Maestra Manifesto , in which they demanded that a provisional civilian government be set up to implement moderate agrarian reform , industrialization , and a literacy campaign before holding multiparty elections . As Cuba 's press was censored , Castro contacted foreign media to spread his message ; he became a celebrity after being interviewed by Herbert Matthews , a journalist from the New York Times . Reporters from CBS and Paris Match soon followed .

Castro 's guerrillas increased their attacks on military outposts , forcing the government to withdraw from the Sierra Maestra region , and by spring 1958 , the rebels controlled a hospital , schools , a printing press , slaughterhouse , land @-@ mine factory and a cigar @-@ making factory . By 1958 , Batista was under increasing pressure , a result of his military failures coupled with increasing domestic and foreign criticism surrounding his administration 's press censorship , torture , and extrajudicial executions . Influenced by anti @-@ Batista sentiment among their citizens , the U.S. government ceased supplying him with weaponry . The opposition called a general strike , accompanied by armed attacks from the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 . Beginning on April 9 , it received strong support in central and eastern Cuba , but little elsewhere .

Batista responded with an all @-@ out @-@ attack , Operation Verano , in which the army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants , while 10 @,@ 000 soldiers commanded by General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra , driving north to the rebel encampments . Despite their numerical and technological superiority , the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare , and Castro halted their offensive using land mines and ambushes . Many of Batista 's soldiers defected to Castro 's rebels , who also benefited from local popular support . In the summer , the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 went on the offensive , pushing the army out of the mountains , with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago . By November , Castro 's forces controlled most of Oriente and Las Villas , and divided Cuba in two by closing major roads and rail lines , severely disadvantaging Batista .

Fearing Castro was a socialist , the U.S. instructed Cantillo to oust Batista . Cantillo secretly agreed to a ceasefire with Castro , promising that Batista would be tried as a war criminal , however Batista was warned , and fled into exile with over US $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on December 31 , 1958 . Cantillo entered Havana 's Presidential Palace , proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra to be President , and began appointing the new government . Furious , Castro ended the ceasefire , and ordered Cantillo 's arrest by sympathetic figures in the army . Accompanying celebrations at news of Batista 's downfall on January 1 , 1959 , Castro ordered the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 to prevent widespread looting and vandalism . Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns into Havana on January 2 , while Castro entered Santiago and gave a speech invoking the wars of independence . Heading toward Havana , he greeted cheering crowds at every town , giving press conferences and interviews .

= = = Provisional government : 1959 = = =

At Castro 's command , the politically moderate lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó was proclaimed provisional president , with Castro erroneously announcing he had been selected by " popular election " ; most of Urrutia 's cabinet were MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members . Entering Havana , Castro proclaimed himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency , setting up home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel . Castro exercised a great deal of influence over Urrutia 's regime , which was now ruling by decree . He ensured that the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy and that it attempted to remove Batistanos from positions of power by dismissing Congress and barring all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 from future office . He then pushed Urrutia to issue a temporary ban on political parties ; he repeatedly said that they would eventually hold multiparty elections . Although repeatedly denying that he was a communist to the press , he began clandestinely meeting members of the Popular Socialist Party to discuss the creation of a socialist state .

In suppressing the revolution , Batista 's government had killed thousands of Cubans ; at the time , Castro and influential sectors of the press put the death toll at 20 @,@ 000 , although more recent estimates place it between 1000 and 4000 . In response to popular uproar , which demanded that those responsible be brought to justice , Castro helped set up many trials , resulting in hundreds of executions . Although widely popular domestically , critics – in particular the U.S. press – argued that many were not fair trials . Castro responded that " revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts , but on moral conviction " . Acclaimed by many across Latin America , he traveled to Venezuela where he met with President @-@ elect Rómulo Betancourt , unsuccessfully requesting a loan and a new deal for Venezuelan oil . Returning home , an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out . He was infuriated that the government had left thousands unemployed by closing down casinos and brothels . As a result , Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned , going into exile in the U.S. and joining the anti @-@ Castro movement .

= = Premiership = =

= = = Consolidating leadership : 1959 – 60 = = =

On February 16 , 1959 , Castro was sworn in as Prime Minister of Cuba . In April he visited the U.S. on a charm offensive where he met Vice President Richard Nixon , whom he instantly disliked . Proceeding to Canada , Trinidad , Brazil , Uruguay and Argentina , Castro attended an economic conference in Buenos Aires , unsuccessfully proposing a $ 30 billion U.S.-funded " Marshall Plan " for Latin America . In May 1959 Castro signed into law the First Agrarian Reform , setting a cap for landholdings to 993 acres ( 402 ha ) per owner and prohibiting foreigners from obtaining Cuban land ownership . Around 200 @,@ 000 peasants received title deeds as large land holdings were broken up ; popular among the working class , it alienated the richer landowners . Castro appointed himself president of the National Tourist Industry , introducing unsuccessful measures to encourage African @-@ American tourists to visit , advertising Cuba as a tropical paradise free of racial discrimination . Judges and politicians had their pay reduced while low @-@ level civil servants saw theirs raised , and in March 1959 , Castro declared rents for those who paid less than $ 100 a month halved .

Although refusing to categorize his regime as socialist and repeatedly denying being a communist , Castro appointed Marxists to senior government and military positions . Most notably , Che Guevara became Governor of the Central Bank and then Minister of Industries . Appalled , Air Force commander Pedro Luis Díaz Lanz defected to the U.S. Although President Urrutia denounced the defection , he expressed concern with the rising influence of Marxism . Angered , Castro in turn announced his resignation as Prime Minister , blaming Urrutia for complicating government with his " fevered anti @-@ Communism " . Over 500 @,@ 000 Castro @-@ supporters surrounded the Presidential Palace demanding Urrutia 's resignation , which he submitted . On July 23 , Castro resumed his Premiership and appointed Marxist Osvaldo Dorticós as President .

Castro 's government emphasised social projects to improve Cuba 's standard of living , often to the detriment of economic development . Major emphasis was placed on education , and during the first 30 months of Castro 's government , more classrooms were opened than in the previous 30 years . The Cuban primary education system offered a work @-@ study program , with half of the time spent in the classroom , and the other half in a productive activity . Health care was nationalized and expanded , with rural health centers and urban polyclinics opening up across the island to offer free medical aid . Universal vaccination against childhood diseases was implemented , and infant mortality rates were reduced dramatically . A third part of this social program was the improvement of infrastructure . Within the first six months of Castro 's government , 600 miles of roads were built across the island , while $ 300 million was spent on water and sanitation projects . Over 800 houses were constructed every month in the early years of the administration in an effort to cut homelessness , while nurseries and day @-@ care centers were opened for children and other centers opened for the disabled and elderly .

Castro used radio and television to develop a " dialogue with the people " , posing questions and making provocative statements . His regime remained popular with workers , peasants , and students , who constituted the majority of the country 's population , while opposition came primarily from the middle class ; thousands of doctors , engineers and other professionals emigrated to Florida in the U.S. , causing an economic brain drain . Productivity decreased and the country 's financial reserves were drained within two years . After conservative press expressed hostility towards the government , the pro @-@ Castro printers ' trade union disrupted editorial staff , and in January 1960 the government ordered them to publish a " clarification " written by the printers ' union at the end of articles critical of the government . Castro 's government arrested hundreds of counter @-@ revolutionaries , many of whom were subjected to solitary confinement , rough treatment , and threatening behavior . Militant anti @-@ Castro groups , funded by exiles , the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , and the Dominican government , undertook armed attacks and set up guerrilla bases in Cuba 's mountains , leading to the six @-@ year War against the Bandits .

By 1960 , the Cold War raged between two superpowers : the United States , a capitalist liberal democracy , and the Soviet Union ( USSR ) , a Marxist @-@ Leninist socialist state ruled by the Communist Party . Expressing contempt for the U.S. , Castro shared the ideological views of the USSR , establishing relations with several Marxist @-@ Leninist states . Meeting with Soviet First Deputy Premier Anastas Mikoyan , Castro agreed to provide the USSR with sugar , fruit , fibers , and hides , in return for crude oil , fertilizers , industrial goods , and a $ 100 million loan . Cuba 's government ordered the country 's refineries – then controlled by the U.S. corporations Shell , Esso and Standard Oil – to process Soviet oil , but under U.S. pressure , they refused . Castro responded by expropriating and nationalizing the refineries . Retaliating , the U.S. cancelled its import of Cuban sugar , provoking Castro to nationalize most U.S.-owned assets on the island , including banks and sugar mills .

Relations between Cuba and the U.S. were further strained following the explosion of a French vessel , the Le Coubre , in Havana harbor in March 1960 . The ship carried weapons purchased from Belgium , the cause of the explosion was never determined , but Castro publicly insinuated that the U.S. government were guilty of sabotage . He ended this speech with " ¡ Patria o Muerte ! " ( " Fatherland or Death " ) , a proclamation that he made much use of in ensuing years . Inspired by their earlier success with the 1954 Guatemalan coup d 'état , in March 1960 , U.S. President Eisenhower authorized the CIA to overthrow Castro 's government . He provided them with a budget of $ 13 million and permitted them to ally with the Mafia , who were aggrieved that Castro 's government closed down their brothel and casino businesses in Cuba . On October 13 , 1960 , the U.S. prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba , initiating an economic embargo . In retaliation , the National Institute for Agrarian Reform INRA took control of 383 private @-@ run businesses on October 14 , and on October 25 a further 166 U.S. companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized . On December 16 , the U.S. ended its import quota of Cuban sugar , the country 's primary export .

In September 1960 , Castro flew to New York City for the General Assembly of the United Nations . Staying at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem , he met with journalists and anti @-@ establishment figures like Malcolm X. He also met Soviet Premier Nikita Khruschev , with the two publicly condemning the poverty and racism faced by Americans in areas like Harlem . Relations between Castro and Khrushchev were warm ; they led the applause to one another 's speeches at the General Assembly . Subsequently visited by Polish First Secretary Władysław Gomułka , Bulgarian Chairman Todor Zhivkov , Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and Indian Premier Jawaharlal Nehru , Castro also received an evening 's reception from the Fair Play for Cuba Committee .

Back in Cuba , Castro feared a U.S.-backed coup ; in 1959 his regime spent $ 120 million on Soviet , French , and Belgian weaponry and by early 1960 had doubled the size of Cuba 's armed forces . Fearing counter @-@ revolutionary elements in the army , the government created a People 's Militia to arm citizens favorable to the revolution , training at least 50 @,@ 000 civilians in combat techniques . In September 1960 , they created the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution ( CDR ) , a nationwide civilian organization which implemented neighborhood spying to detect counter @-@ revolutionary activities as well as organizing health and education campaigns , becoming a conduit for public complaints . By 1970 , a third of the population would be involved in the CDR , and this would come to rise to 80 % . Castro proclaimed the new administration a direct democracy , in which Cubans could assemble at demonstrations to express their democratic will . As a result , he rejected the need for elections , claiming that representative democratic systems served the interests of socio @-@ economic elites . U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter announced that Cuba was adopting the Soviet model of rule , with a one @-@ party state , government control of trade unions , suppression of civil liberties , and the absence of freedom of speech and press .

= = = Bay of Pigs Invasion and " Socialist Cuba " : 1961 – 62 = = =

In January 1961 , Castro ordered Havana 's U.S. Embassy to reduce its 300 staff , suspecting many to be spies . The U.S. responded by ending diplomatic relations , and increasing CIA funding for exiled dissidents ; these militants began attacking ships trading with Cuba , and bombed factories , shops , and sugar mills . Both Eisenhower and his successor John F. Kennedy supported a CIA plan to aid a dissident militia , the Democratic Revolutionary Front , to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro ; the plan resulted in the Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961 . On April 15 , CIA @-@ supplied B @-@ 26 's bombed 3 Cuban military airfields ; the U.S. announced that the perpetrators were defecting Cuban air force pilots , but Castro exposed these claims as false flag misinformation . Fearing invasion , he ordered the arrest of between 20 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 suspected counter @-@ revolutionaries , publicly proclaiming that " What the imperialists cannot forgive us , is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses " , his first announcement that the government was socialist .

The CIA and Democratic Revolutionary Front had based a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ strong army , Brigade 2506 , in Nicaragua . In the night from April 16 to 17 , Brigade 2506 landed along Cuba 's Bay of Pigs , and engaged in a firefight with a local revolutionary militia . Castro ordered Captain José Ramón Fernández to launch the counter @-@ offensive , before taking personal control himself . After bombing the invaders ' ships and bringing in reinforcements , Castro forced the Brigade 's surrender on April 20 . He ordered the 1189 captured rebels to be interrogated by a panel of journalists on live television , personally taking over questioning on April 25 . 14 were put on trial for crimes allegedly committed before the revolution , while the others were returned to the U.S. in exchange for medicine and food valued at U.S. $ 25 million . Castro 's victory was a powerful symbol across Latin America , but it also increased internal opposition primarily among the middle @-@ class Cubans who had been detained in the run @-@ up to the invasion . Although most were freed within a few days , many fled to the U.S. , establishing themselves in Florida .

Consolidating " Socialist Cuba " , Castro united the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , Popular Socialist Party and Revolutionary Directorate into a governing party based on the Leninist principle of democratic centralism : the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations ( Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas - ORI ) , renamed the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution ( PURSC ) in 1962 . Although the USSR was hesitant regarding Castro 's embrace of socialism , relations with the Soviets deepened . Castro sent Fidelito for a Moscow schooling , Soviet technicians arrived on the island , and Castro was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize . In December 1961 , Castro admitted that he had been a Marxist @-@ Leninist for years , and in his Second Declaration of Havana he called on Latin America to rise up in revolution . In response , the U.S. successfully pushed the Organization of American States to expel Cuba ; the Soviets privately reprimanded Castro for recklessness , although he received praise from China . Despite their ideological affinity with China , in the Sino @-@ Soviet Split , Cuba allied with the wealthier Soviets , who offered economic and military aid .

The ORI began shaping Cuba using the Soviet model , persecuting political opponents and perceived social deviants such as prostitutes and homosexuals ; Castro considered same @-@ sex sexual activity a bourgeois trait . Gay men were forced into the Military Units to Aid Production ( Unidades Militares de Ayuda a la Producción - UMAP ) ; after many revolutionary intellectuals decried this move , the UMAP camps were closed in 1967 , although gay men continued to be imprisoned . In 2010 , Castro took responsibility for this persecution , regretting it as a " great injustice " . By 1962 , Cuba 's economy was in steep decline , a result of poor economic management and low productivity coupled with the U.S. trade embargo . Food shortages led to rationing , resulting in protests in Cárdenas . Security reports indicated that many Cubans associated austerity with the " Old Communists " of the PSP , while Castro considered a number of them – namely Aníbal Escalante and Blas Roca – unduly loyal to Moscow . In March 1962 Castro removed the most prominent " Old Communists " from office , labelling them " sectarian " . On a personal level , Castro was increasingly lonely , and his relations with Guevara became strained as the latter became increasingly anti @-@ Soviet and pro @-@ Chinese .

= = = Cuban Missile Crisis and furthering socialism : 1962 – 68 = = =

Militarily weaker than NATO , Khrushchev wanted to install Soviet R @-@ 12 MRBM nuclear missiles on Cuba to even the power balance . Although conflicted , Castro agreed , believing it would guarantee Cuba 's safety and enhance the cause of socialism . Undertaken in secrecy , only the Castro brothers , Guevara , Dorticós and security chief Ramiro Valdés knew the full plan . Upon discovering it through aerial reconnaissance , in October the U.S. implemented an island @-@ wide quarantine to search vessels headed to Cuba , sparking the Cuban Missile Crisis . The U.S. saw the missiles as offensive ; Castro insisted they were for defense only . Castro urged Khrushchev to threaten a nuclear strike on the U.S. should Cuba be attacked , but Khrushchev was desperate to avoid nuclear war . Castro was left out of the negotiations , in which Khruschev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. commitment not to invade Cuba and an understanding that the U.S. would remove their MRBMs from Turkey and Italy . Feeling betrayed by Khruschev , Castro was furious and soon fell ill . Proposing a five @-@ point plan , Castro demanded that the U.S. end its embargo , withdraw from Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , cease supporting dissidents , and stop violating Cuban air space and territorial waters . Presenting these demands to U Thant , visiting Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , the U.S. ignored them , and in turn Castro refused to allow the U.N. ' s inspection team into Cuba .

In May 1963 , Castro visited the USSR at Khrushchev 's personal invitation , touring 14 cities , addressing a Red Square rally , and being awarded both the Order of Lenin and an honorary doctorate from Moscow State University . While there Castro was permitted to sign a Soviet R @-@ 16 intercontinental ballistic missile . Castro returned to Cuba with new ideas ; inspired by Soviet newspaper Pravda , he amalgamated Hoy and Revolución into a new daily , Granma , and oversaw large investment into Cuban sport that resulted in an increased international sporting reputation . Seeking to further consolidate control , in 1963 the government cracked down on Protestant sects in Cuba , with Castro labeling them counter @-@ revolutionary " instruments of imperialism " ; many preachers were found guilty of illegal U.S.-links and imprisoned . Measures were implemented to force perceived idle and delinquent youths to work , primarily through the introduction of mandatory military service , while in September the government temporarily permitted emigration for anyone other than males aged between 15 and 26 , thereby ridding the government of thousands of critics , most of whom were from upper and middle @-@ class backgrounds . In 1963 Castro 's mother died . This was the last time his private life was reported in Cuba 's press . In January 1964 , Castro returned to Moscow , officially to sign a new five @-@ year sugar trade agreement , but also to discuss the ramifications of the assassination of John F. Kennedy ; Castro had been deeply concerned by the assassination , believing that a far right conspiracy was behind it but that the Cubans would be blamed . In October 1965 , the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations was officially renamed the " Cuban Communist Party " and published the membership of its Central Committee .

Despite Soviet misgivings , Castro continued calling for global revolution , funding militant leftists and those engaged in national liberation struggles . Cuba 's foreign policy was staunchly anti @-@ imperialist , believing that every nation should control its own natural resources . He supported Che Guevara 's " Andean project " , an unsuccessful plan to set up a guerrilla movement in the highlands of Bolivia , Peru and Argentina , and allowed revolutionary groups from across the world , from the Viet Cong to the Black Panthers , to train in Cuba . He considered Western @-@ dominated Africa ripe for revolution , and sent troops and medics to aid Ahmed Ben Bella 's socialist regime in Algeria during the Sand war . He also allied with Alphonse Massemba @-@ Débat 's socialist government in Congo @-@ Brazzaville , and in 1965 Castro authorized Guevara to travel to Congo @-@ Kinshasa to train revolutionaries against the Western @-@ backed government . Castro was personally devastated when Guevara was subsequently killed by CIA @-@ backed troops in Bolivia in October 1967 and publicly attributed it to Che 's disregard for his own safety . In 1966 Castro staged a Tri @-@ Continental Conference of Africa , Asia and Latin America in Havana , further establishing himself as a significant player on the world stage . From this conference , Castro created the Latin American Solidarity Organization ( OLAS ) , which adopted the slogan of " The duty of a revolution is to make revolution " , signifying Havana 's leadership of Latin America 's revolutionary movement .

Castro 's increasing role on the world stage strained his relationship with the USSR , now under the leadership of Leonid Brezhnev . Asserting Cuba 's independence , Castro refused to sign the Treaty on the Non @-@ Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons , declaring it a Soviet @-@ U.S. attempt to dominate the Third World . Diverting from Soviet Marxist doctrine , he suggested that Cuban society could evolve straight to pure communism rather than progressing through various stages of socialism . In turn , Soviet @-@ loyalist Aníbal Escalante began organizing a government network of opposition to Castro , though in January 1968 , he and his supporters were arrested for allegedly passing state secrets to Moscow . However , recognising Cuba 's economic dependence on the Soviets , Castro relented to Brezhnev 's pressure to be obedient , and in August 1968 denounced the leaders of the Prague Spring and praised the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . Influenced by China 's Great Leap Forward , in 1968 Castro proclaimed a Great Revolutionary Offensive , closing all remaining privately owned shops and businesses and denouncing their owners as capitalist counter @-@ revolutionaries . The severe lack of consumer goods for purchase led productivity to decline , as large sectors of the population felt little incentive to work hard . This was exacerbated by the perception that a revolutionary elite had emerged consisting of those connected to the administration ; they had access to better housing , private transportation , servants , and the ability to purchase luxury goods abroad .

= = = Economic stagnation and Third World politics : 1969 – 74 = = =

Castro publicly celebrated his administration 's 10th anniversary in January 1969 ; in his celebratory speech he warned of sugar rations , reflecting the nation 's economic problems . The 1969 crop was heavily damaged by a hurricane , and to meet its export quota , the government drafted in the army , implemented a seven @-@ day working week , and postponed public holidays to lengthen the harvest . When that year 's production quota was not met , Castro offered to resign during a public speech , but assembled crowds insisted he remain . Despite the economic issues , many of Castro 's social reforms were popular , with the population largely supportive of the " Achievements of the Revolution " in education , medical care , housing , and road construction , as well as the policies of " direct democratic " public consultation . Seeking Soviet help , from 1970 to 1972 Soviet economists re @-@ organized Cuba 's economy , founding the Cuban @-@ Soviet Commission of Economic , Scientific and Technical Collaboration , while Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin visited in 1971 . In July 1972 , Cuba joined the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ( Comecon ) , an economic organization of socialist states , although this further limited Cuba 's economy to agricultural production .

In May 1970 , the crews of two Cuban fishing boats were kidnapped by Florida @-@ based dissident group Alpha 66 , who demanded that Cuba release imprisoned militants . Under U.S. pressure , the hostages were released , and Castro welcomed them back as heroes . In April 1971 , Castro was internationally condemned for ordering the arrest of dissident poet Heberto Padilla ; Padilla was freed , but the government established the National Cultural Council to ensure that intellectuals and artists supported the administration .

In 1971 , he visited Chile , where Marxist President Salvador Allende had been elected as the head of a left @-@ wing coalition . Castro supported Allende 's socialist reforms , but warned him of right @-@ wing elements in Chile 's military . In 1973 , the military led a coup d 'état and established a military junta led by Augusto Pinochet . Castro proceeded to Guinea to meet socialist President Sékou Touré , praising him as Africa 's greatest leader , and there received the Order of Fidelity to the People . He then went on a seven @-@ week tour visiting leftist allies : Algeria , Bulgaria , Hungary , Poland , East Germany , Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union , where he was given further awards . On each trip , he was eager to visit factory and farm workers , publicly praising their governments ; privately , he urged the regimes to aid revolutionary movements elsewhere , particularly those fighting the Vietnam War .

In September 1973 , he returned to Algiers to attend the Fourth Summit of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) . Various NAM members were critical of Castro 's attendance , claiming that Cuba was aligned to the Warsaw Pact and therefore should not be at the conference . At the conference he publicly broke off relations with Israel , citing its government 's close relationship with the U.S. and its treatment of Palestinians during the Israel @-@ Palestine conflict . This earned Castro respect throughout the Arab world , in particular from the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi , who became his friend and ally . As the Yom Kippur War broke out in October 1973 between Israel and an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria , Cuba sent 4 @,@ 000 troops to defend Syrian territory from Israeli incursions . Leaving Algiers , Castro visited Iraq and North Vietnam .

Cuba 's economy grew in 1974 as a result of high international sugar prices and new credits with Argentina , Canada , and parts of Western Europe . A number of Latin American states called for Cuba 's re @-@ admittance into the Organization of American States ( OAS ) , with the U.S. finally conceding in 1975 on Henry Kissinger 's advice . Cuba 's government underwent a restructuring along Soviet lines , claiming that this would further democratization and decentralize power away from Castro . Officially announcing Cuba 's identity as a socialist state , the first National Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held , and a new constitution adopted that abolished the position of President and Prime Minister . Castro remained the dominant figure in governance , taking the presidency of the newly created Council of State and Council of Ministers , making him both head of state and head of government .

= = Presidency = =

= = = Foreign wars and NAM Presidency : 1975 – 79 = = =

Castro considered Africa to be " the weakest link in the imperialist chain " , and at the request of Angolan President Agostinho Neto he ordered 230 military advisers into Southern Africa in November 1975 to aid Neto 's Marxist MPLA in the Angolan Civil War . When the U.S. and South Africa stepped up their support of the opposition FLNA and UNITA , Castro ordered a further 18 @,@ 000 troops to Angola , which played a major role in forcing a South African retreat . Traveling to Angola , Castro celebrated with Neto , Sékou Touré and Guinea @-@ Bissaun President Luís Cabral , where they agreed to support Mozambique 's Marxist @-@ Leninist government against RENAMO in the Mozambique Civil War . In February , Castro visited Algeria and then Libya , where he spent ten days with Gaddafi and oversaw the establishment of the Jamahariya system of governance , before attending talks with the Marxist government of South Yemen . From there he proceeded to Somalia , Tanzania , Mozambique and Angola where he was greeted by crowds as a hero for Cuba 's role in opposing apartheid South Africa . Throughout much of Africa he was hailed as a friend to national liberation from foreign dominance . This was followed with visits to Berlin and Moscow .

In 1977 the Ethio @-@ Somali War broke out over the disputed Ogaden region as Somalia invaded Ethiopia ; although a former ally of Somali President Siad Barre , Castro had warned him against such action , and Cuba sided with Mengistu Haile Mariam 's Marxist government of Ethiopia . He sent troops under the command of General Arnaldo Ochoa to aid the overwhelmed Ethiopian army . After forcing back the Somalis , Mengistu then ordered the Ethiopians to suppress the Eritrean People 's Liberation Front , a measure Castro refused to support . Castro extended support to Latin American revolutionary movements , namely the Sandinista National Liberation Front in its overthrow of the Nicaraguan rightist government of Anastasio Somoza Debayle in July 1979 . Castro 's critics accused the government of wasting Cuban lives in these military endeavors ; the anti @-@ Castro Center for a Free Cuba has claimed that an estimated 14 @,@ 000 Cubans were killed in foreign Cuban military actions . When U.S. state critics claimed that Castro had no right to interfere in these nations , he highlighted that Cuba had been invited into them , pointing out the U.S. ' own involvement in various foreign nations .

In 1979 , the Conference of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement ( NAM ) was held in Havana , where Castro was selected as NAM president , a position he held till 1982 . In his capacity as both President of the NAM and of Cuba he appeared at the United Nations General Assembly in October 1979 and gave a speech on the disparity between the world 's rich and poor . His speech was greeted with much applause from other world leaders , though his standing in NAM was damaged by Cuba 's abstinence from the U.N. ' s General Assembly condemnation of the Soviet war in Afghanistan . Cuba 's relations across North America improved under Mexican President Luis Echeverría , Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau , and U.S. President Jimmy Carter . Carter continued criticizing Cuba 's human rights abuses , but adopted a respectful approach which gained Castro 's attention . Considering Carter well @-@ meaning and sincere , Castro freed certain political prisoners and allowed some Cuban exiles to visit relatives on the island , hoping that in turn Carter would abolish the economic embargo and stop CIA support for militant dissidents . Conversely , his relationship with China declined , as he accused Deng Xiaoping 's Chinese government of betraying their revolutionary principles by initiating trade links with the U.S. and attacking Vietnam .

= = = Reagan and Gorbachev : 1980 – 89 = = =

By the 1980s , Cuba 's economy was again in trouble , following a decline in the market price of sugar and 1979 's decimated harvest . For the first time , unemployment became a serious problem in Castro 's Cuba , with the government sending unemployed youth to other countries , primarily East Germany , to work there . Desperate for money , Cuba 's government secretly sold off paintings from national collections and illicitly traded for U.S. electronic goods through Panama . Increasing numbers of Cubans fled to Florida , but were labelled " scum " and " lumpen " by Castro and his CDR supporters . In one incident , 10 @,@ 000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian Embassy requesting asylum , and so the U.S. agreed that it would accept 3 @,@ 500 refugees . Castro conceded that those who wanted to leave could do so from Mariel port . Hundreds of boats arrived from the U.S. , leading to a mass exodus of 120 @,@ 000 ; Castro 's government took advantage of the situation by loading criminals , the mentally ill , and suspected homosexuals onto the boats destined for Florida . The event destabilized Carter 's administration and in 1981 the right @-@ wing Ronald Reagan was elected U.S. President . Reagan 's administration adopted a hard @-@ line approach against Castro , making its desire to overthrow his regime clear . In late 1981 , Castro publicly accused the U.S. of biological warfare against Cuba by orchestrating a dengue fever epidemic .

Although despising Argentina 's right wing military junta , Castro supported them in the 1982 Falklands War against Britain and offered military aid to the Argentinians . Castro supported the leftist New Jewel Movement that seized power in Grenada in 1979 , befriending Grenadine President Maurice Bishop and sending doctors , teachers , and technicians to aid the country 's development . When Bishop was executed in a Soviet @-@ backed coup by hard @-@ line Marxist Bernard Coard in October 1983 , Castro condemned the killing but cautiously retained support for Grenada 's government . However , the U.S. used the coup as a basis for invading the island . Cuban soldiers died in the conflict , with Castro denouncing the invasion and comparing the U.S. to Nazi Germany . In a July 1983 speech marking the 30th anniversary of the Cuban Revolution , Castro condemned Reagan 's administration as a " reactionary , extremist clique " who were waging an " openly warmongering and fascist foreign policy " . Castro feared a U.S. invasion of Nicaragua and sent Ochoa to train the governing Sandinistas in guerrilla warfare , but received little support from the USSR .

In 1985 , Mikhail Gorbachev became Secretary @-@ General of the Soviet Communist Party . A reformer , he implemented measures to increase freedom of the press ( glasnost ) and economic decentralization ( perestroika ) in an attempt to strengthen socialism . Like many orthodox Marxist critics , Castro feared that the reforms would weaken the socialist state and allow capitalist elements to regain control . Gorbachev conceded to U.S. demands to reduce support for Cuba , with Soviet @-@ Cuban relations deteriorating . When Gorbachev visited Cuba in April 1989 , he informed Castro that perestroika meant an end to subsidies for Cuba . Ignoring calls for liberalization in accordance with the Soviet example , Castro continued to clamp down on internal dissidents and in particular kept tabs on the military , the primary threat to the government . A number of senior military officers , including Ochoa and Tony de la Guardia , were investigated for corruption and complicity in cocaine smuggling , tried , and executed in 1989 , despite calls for leniency . On medical advice given him in October 1985 , Castro gave up regularly smoking Cuban cigars , helping to set an example for the rest of the populace . Castro became passionate in his denunciation of the Third World debt problem , arguing that the Third World would never escape the debt that First World banks and governments imposed upon it . In 1985 , Havana hosted five international conferences on the world debt problem .

By November 1987 , Castro began spending more time on the Angolan Civil War , in which the Marxists had fallen into retreat . Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos successfully appealed for more Cuban troops , with Castro later admitting that he devoted more time to Angola than to the domestic situation , believing that a victory would lead to the collapse of apartheid . Gorbachev called for a negotiated end to the conflict and in 1988 organized a quadripartite talks between the USSR , U.S. , Cuba and South Africa ; they agreed that all foreign troops would pull out of Angola . Castro was angered by Gorbachev 's approach , believing that he was abandoning the plight of the world 's poor in favor of détente .

In Eastern Europe , socialist governments fell to capitalist reformers between 1989 and 1991 and many Western observers expected the same in Cuba . Increasingly isolated , Cuba improved relations with Manuel Noriega 's right @-@ wing government in Panama – despite Castro 's personal hatred of Noriega – but it was overthrown in a U.S. invasion in December 1989 . In February 1990 , Castro 's allies in Nicaragua , President Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas , were defeated by the U.S.-funded National Opposition Union in an election . With the collapse of the Soviet bloc , the U.S. secured a majority vote for a resolution condemning Cuba 's human rights violations at the United Nations Human Rights Commission in Geneva , Switzerland . Cuba asserted that this was a manifestation of U.S. hegemony , and refused to allow an investigative delegation to enter the country .

= = = Special Period : 1990 – 2000 = = =

With favourable trade from the Soviet bloc ended , Castro publicly declared that Cuba was entering a " Special Period in Time of Peace . " Petrol rations were dramatically reduced , Chinese bicycles were imported to replace cars , and factories performing non @-@ essential tasks were shut down . Oxen began to replace tractors , firewood began being used for cooking and electricity cuts were introduced that lasted 16 hours a day . Castro admitted that Cuba faced the worst situation short of open war , and that the country might have to resort to subsistence farming . By 1992 , Cuba 's economy had declined by over 40 % in under two years , with major food shortages , widespread malnutrition and a lack of basic goods . Castro hoped for a restoration of Marxism @-@ Leninism in the USSR , but refrained from backing the 1991 coup in that country . When Gorbachev regained control , Cuba @-@ Soviet relations deteriorated further and Soviet troops were withdrawn in September 1991 . In December , the Soviet Union was officially dismantled as Boris Yeltsin abolished the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and introducing a capitalist multiparty democracy . Yeltsin despised Castro and developed links with the Miami @-@ based Cuban American National Foundation . Castro tried improving relations with the capitalist nations . He welcomed Western politicians and investors to Cuba , befriended Manuel Fraga and took a particular interest in Margaret Thatcher 's policies in the UK , believing that Cuban socialism could learn from her emphasis on low taxation and personal initiative . He ceased support for foreign militants , refrained from praising FARC on a 1994 visit to Colombia and called for a negotiated settlement between the Zapatistas and Mexican government in 1995 . Publicly , he presented himself as a moderate on the world stage .

In 1991 , Havana hosted the Pan @-@ American Games , which involved construction of a stadium and accommodation for the athletes ; Castro admitted that it was an expensive error , but it was a success for Cuba 's government . Crowds regularly shouted " Fidel ! Fidel ! " in front of foreign journalists , while Cuba became the first Latin American nation to beat the U.S. to the top of the gold @-@ medal table . Support for Castro remained strong , and although there were small anti @-@ government demonstrations , the Cuban opposition rejected the exile community 's calls for an armed uprising . In August 1994 , Havana witnessed the largest anti @-@ Castro demonstration in Cuban history , as 200 to 300 young men threw stones at police , demanding that they be allowed to emigrate to Miami . A larger pro @-@ Castro crowd confronted them , who were joined by Castro ; he informed media that the men were anti @-@ socials misled by the U.S. The protests dispersed with no recorded injuries . Fearing that dissident groups would invade , the government organised the " War of All the People " defense strategy , planning a widespread guerrilla warfare campaign , and the unemployed were given jobs building a network of bunkers and tunnels across the country .

Castro believed in the need for reform if Cuban socialism was to survive in a world now dominated by capitalist free markets . In October 1991 , the Fourth Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held in Santiago , at which a number of important changes to the government were announced . Castro would step down as head of government , to be replaced by the much younger Carlos Lage , although Castro would remain the head of the Communist Party and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the armed forces . Many older members of government were to be retired and replaced by their younger counterparts . A number of economic changes were proposed , and subsequently put to a national referendum . Free farmers ' markets and small @-@ scale private enterprises would be legalized in an attempt to stimulate economic growth , while U.S. dollars were also made legal tender . Certain restrictions on emigration were eased , allowing more discontented Cuban citizens to move to the United States . Further democratization was to be brought in by having the National Assembly 's members elected directly by the people , rather than through municipal and provincial assemblies . Castro welcomed debate between proponents and opponents of the reforms , although over time he began to increasingly sympathise with the opponent 's positions , arguing that such reforms must be delayed .

Castro 's government diversified its economy into biotechnology and tourism , the latter outstripping Cuba 's sugar industry as its primary source of revenue in 1995 . The arrival of thousands of Mexican and Spanish tourists led to increasing numbers of Cubans turning to prostitution ; officially illegal , Castro refrained from cracking down on prostitution , fearing a political backlash . Economic hardship led many Cubans toward religion , both in the form of Roman Catholicism and Santeria . Although long thinking religious belief to be backward , Castro softened his approach to religious institutions and religious people were permitted for the first time to join the Communist Party . Although he viewed the Roman Catholic Church as a reactionary , pro @-@ capitalist institution , Castro organized a visit to Cuba by Pope John Paul II for January 1998 ; it strengthened the position of both the Cuban Church and Castro 's government .

In the early 1990s Castro embraced environmentalism , campaigning against global warming and the waste of natural resources , and accusing the U.S. of being the world 's primary polluter . In 1994 a ministry dedicated to the environment was established , and new laws established in 1997 that promoted awareness of environmental issues throughout Cuba and stressed the sustainable use of natural resources . By 2006 , Cuba was the world 's only nation which met the United Nations Development Programme 's definition of sustainable development , with an ecological footprint of less than 1 @.@ 8 hectares per capita and a Human Development Index of over 0 @.@ 8 . Castro also became a proponent of the anti @-@ globalization movement , criticizing U.S. global hegemony and the control exerted by multinationals . Castro maintained his devout anti @-@ apartheid beliefs , and at the July 26 celebrations in 1991 , he was joined onstage by the South African political activist Nelson Mandela , recently released from prison . Mandela praised Cuba 's involvement in battling South Africa in Angola and thanked Castro personally . He later attended Mandela 's inauguration as President of South Africa in 1994 . In 2001 he attended the Conference Against Racism in South Africa at which he lectured on the global spread of racial stereotypes through U.S. film .

= = = Pink tide : 2000 – 06 = = =

Mired in economic problems , Cuba would be aided by the election of socialist and anti @-@ imperialist Hugo Chávez to the Venezuelan Presidency in 1999 . Castro and Chávez developed a close friendship , with the former acting as a mentor and father @-@ figure to the latter , and together they built an alliance that had repercussions throughout Latin America . In 2000 , they signed an agreement through which Cuba would send 20 @,@ 000 medics to Venezuela , in return receiving 53 @,@ 000 barrels of oil per day at preferential rates ; in 2004 , this trade was stepped up , with Cuba sending 40 @,@ 000 medics and Venezuela providing 90 @,@ 000 barrels a day . That same year , Castro initiated Misión Milagro , a joint medical project which aimed to provide free eye operations on 300 @,@ 000 individuals from each nation . The alliance boosted the Cuban economy , and in May 2005 Castro doubled the minimum wage for 1 @.@ 6 million workers , raised pensions , and delivered new kitchen appliances to Cuba 's poorest residents . Some economic problems remained ; in 2004 , Castro shut down 118 factories , including steel plants , sugar mills and paper processors to compensate for the crisis of fuel shortages .

Cuba and Venezuela were the founding members of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas ( ALBA ) . ALBA sought to redistribute wealth evenly throughout member countries , to protect the region 's agriculture , and to oppose economic liberalization and privatization . ALBA 's origins lay in a December 2004 agreement signed between the two countries , and was formalized through a People 's Trade Agreement also signed by Evo Morales ' Bolivia in April 2006 . Castro had also been calling for greater Caribbean integration since the late 1990s , saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy . Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including : Antigua and Barbuda , Dominica , Suriname , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . This development makes Cuba the only country to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community .

In contrast to the improved relations between Cuba and a number of leftist Latin American states , in 2004 it broke off diplomatic ties with Panama after centrist President Mireya Moscoso pardoned four Cuban exiles accused of attempting to assassinate Castro in 2000 . Diplomatic ties were reinstalled in 2005 following the election of leftist President Martín Torrijos . Castro 's improving relations across Latin America were accompanied by continuing animosity towards the U.S. However , after massive damage caused by Hurricane Michelle in 2001 , Castro successfully proposed a one @-@ time cash purchase of food from the U.S. while declining its government 's offer of humanitarian aid . Castro expressed solidarity with the U.S. following the 2001 September 11 attacks , condemning Al Qaeda and offering Cuban airports for the emergency diversion of any U.S. planes . He recognized that the attacks would make U.S. foreign policy more aggressive , which he believed was counter @-@ productive .

In 1998 , Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien arrived in Cuba to meet Castro and highlight their close ties . He is the first Canadian government leader to visit the island since Pierre Trudeau was in Havana in 1976 . In 2002 , former U.S. President Jimmy Carter visited Cuba , where he highlighted the lack of civil liberties in the country and urged the government to pay attention to the Varela Project of Oswaldo Payá .

= = = Stepping down : 2006 – 08 = = =

Castro underwent surgery for intestinal bleeding , and on July 31 , 2006 delegated his presidential duties to Raúl Castro . In February 2007 , Raúl announced that Fidel 's health was improving and that he was taking part in important issues of government . Later that month , Fidel called into Hugo Chávez 's radio show Aló Presidente . On April 21 , Castro met Wu Guanzheng of the Chinese Communist Party 's Politburo , with Chávez visiting in August , and Morales in September . That month , the Non @-@ Aligned Movement held its 14th Summit in Havana , there agreeing to appoint Castro as the organisation 's president for a year 's term .

Commenting on Castro 's recovery , U.S. President George W. Bush said : " One day the good Lord will take Fidel Castro away " . Hearing about this , the atheist Castro ironically replied : " Now I understand why I survived Bush 's plans and the plans of other presidents who ordered my assassination : the good Lord protected me . " The quote would subsequently be picked up on by the world 's media . In a February 2008 letter , Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief at that month 's National Assembly meetings , remarking that " It would betray my conscience to take up a responsibility that requires mobility and total devotion , that I am not in a physical condition to offer " . On February 24 , 2008 , the National Assembly of People 's Power unanimously voted Raúl as president . Describing his brother as " not substitutable " , Raúl proposed that Fidel continue to be consulted on matters of great importance , a motion unanimously approved by the 597 National Assembly members .

= = Later years = =

= = = Retirement : 2008 – present = = =

Following his retirement , Castro 's health deteriorated ; international press speculated that he had diverticulitis , but Cuba 's government refused to corroborate this . He continued to interact with the Cuban people , published an opinion column titled " Reflections " in Granma , used a Twitter account , and gave occasional public lectures . In January 2009 Castro asked Cubans not to worry about his lack of recent news columns and failing health , and not to be disturbed by his future death . He continued meeting foreign leaders and dignitaries , and that month photographs were released of Castro 's meeting with Argentine President Cristina Fernández .

In July 2010 , he made his first public appearance since falling ill , greeting science center workers and giving a television interview to Mesa Redonda in which he discussed U.S. tensions with Iran and North Korea . On August 7 , 2010 , Castro gave his first speech to the National Assembly in four years , urging the U.S. not to take military actions against those nations and warning of a nuclear holocaust . When asked whether Castro may be re @-@ entering government , culture minister Abel Prieto told the BBC , " I think that he has always been in Cuba 's political life but he is not in the government ... He has been very careful about that . His big battle is international affairs . "

On April 19 , 2011 , Castro resigned from the Communist Party central committee , thus stepping down as party leader . Raúl was selected as his successor . Now without any official role in the country 's government , he took on the role of an elder statesman . In March 2012 , Pope Benedict XVI visited Cuba for three days , during which time he briefly met with Castro despite the Pope 's vocal opposition to Cuba 's government . Later that year it was revealed that along with Hugo Chávez , Castro had played a significant behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in orchestrating peace talks between the Colombian government and the far left FARC guerrilla movement to end the conflict which had raged since 1964 . During the North Korea crisis of 2013 , he urged both the North Korean and U.S. governments to show restraint . Calling the situation " incredible and absurd , " he maintained that war would not benefit either side , and that it represented " one of the gravest risks of nuclear war " since the Cuban missile crisis .

In December 2014 , Castro was awarded the Chinese Confucius Peace Prize for seeking peaceful solutions to his nation 's conflict with the U.S. and for his post @-@ retirement efforts to prevent nuclear war . In January 2015 , he publicly commented on the " Cuban Thaw " , an increased normalization between Cuba @-@ U.S. relations , by stating that while it was a positive move for establishing peace in the region , he mistrusted the U.S. government .

= = Political ideology = =

Castro proclaimed himself to be " a Socialist , a Marxist , and a Leninist " , and has publicly identified as a Marxist @-@ Leninist since December 1961 . As a Marxist , Castro sought to move Cuba from a capitalist state in which it was dominated by foreign imperialism to a socialist society and ultimately a communist society . Influenced by Guevara , he suggested that Cuba could evade most stages of socialism and progress straight to communism . Castro 's government was also nationalistic , with Castro declaring that " We are not only Marxist @-@ Leninists , but also nationalists and patriots " . Historian Richard Gott remarked that one of the keys to Castro 's success was in his ability to utilize the " twin themes of socialism and nationalism " and keep them " endlessly in play . " Castro describes Karl Marx and Cuban nationalist José Martí as his main political influences , although Gott believed that ultimately Martí remained more important than Marx in Castro 's politics . Castro described Martí 's political ideas as " a philosophy of independence and an exceptional humanistic philosophy " , and his supporters and apologists have repeatedly claimed great similarity between the two figures .

Biographer Volka Skierka described Castro 's government as a " highly individual , socialist @-@ nationalist " fidelista " system " , with Theodore Draper terming his approach " Castroism " , viewing it as a blend of European socialism with the Latin American revolutionary tradition . Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol has described Castro 's approach to politics as " totalitarian utopianism " , with a style of leadership that drew upon the wider Latin American phenomenon of the caudillo . Castro took a relatively socially conservative stance on many issues , opposing drug use , gambling , and prostitution , which he viewed as moral evils . Instead he advocated hard work , family values , integrity , and self @-@ discipline .

= = Personal and public life = =

Biographer Leycester Coltman described Castro as " fiercely hard @-@ working , dedicated [ , ] loyal ... generous and magnanimous " but noted that he could be " vindictive and unforgiving " . He asserted that Castro " always had a keen sense of humor and could laugh at himself " but could equally be " a bad loser " who would act with " ferocious rage if he thought that he was being humiliated . " Castro was well known for throwing tantrums , and could make " snap judgements " which he refused to back down from . Biographer Peter Bourne noted that Castro " suffers fools poorly " and that in his younger years he was intolerant of those who did not share his views . He claimed that Castro liked to meet with ordinary citizens , both in Cuba and abroad , but took a particularly paternal attitude toward Cubans , treating them as if " they were a part of his own giant family . " British historian Alex Von Tunzelmann commented that " though ruthless , [ Castro ] was a patriot , a man with a profound sense that it was his mission to save the Cuban people " .

Castro was known for his busy working hours , often only going to bed at 3 or 4 a.m. He preferred to meet foreign diplomats in these early hours , believing that they would be tired and he could gain the upper hand in negotiations . He described Ernest Hemingway as his favorite writer , and enjoyed reading but was uninterested in music . A sports fan , he also spent much of his time trying to keep fit , undertaking regular exercise . He took a great interest in gastronomy , as well as wine and whisky , and as Cuban leader was known to wander into his kitchen to discuss cookery with his chefs . Castro had a lifelong love of guns , and a preference for life in the countryside over the city . While various sources state that Castro has not enriched himself , instead living a life more modest than most Latin American presidents , his former bodyguard Juan Reinaldo Sánchez alleged that Castro lived in great luxury , with several houses and yachts which he has hidden from the Cuban populace .

Fidel Castro 's religious beliefs have been a matter of some debate ; he was baptized and raised a Roman Catholic but has commented that he is an atheist . He criticized use of the Bible to justify the oppression of women and Africans , but commented that Christianity exhibited " a group of very humane precepts " which gave the world " ethical values " and a " sense of social justice " , relating that " If people call me Christian , not from the standpoint of religion but from the standpoint of social vision , I declare that I am a Christian . " He has espoused the idea that Jesus Christ was a communist , citing the feeding of the 5000 and the story of Jesus and the rich young man as evidence .

= = = Public image = = =

Political scientist Paul C. Sondrol characterized Castro as " quintessentially totalitarian in his charismatic appeal , utopian functional role and public , transformative utilisation of power . " Unlike a number of other Soviet @-@ era communist leaders , Castro 's government did not intentionally construct a cult of personality around him , although his popularity among segments of the Cuban populace nevertheless led to one developing in the early years of his administration . By 2006 , the BBC reported that Castro 's image could frequently be found in Cuban stores , classrooms , taxicabs , and on national television . Throughout his administration , large throngs of supporters gathered to cheer at Castro 's fiery speeches , which typically lasted for hours and which were delivered without the use of written notes . During speeches Castro regularly cited reports and books he had read on a wide variety of subjects , including military matters , plant cultivation , filmmaking , and chess strategies .

For 37 years , Castro publicly wore nothing but olive @-@ green military fatigues , emphasizing his role as the perpetual revolutionary , but in the mid @-@ 1990s began wearing dark civilian suits and guayabera publicly as well . Within Cuba , Castro is often nicknamed " El Caballo " ( " The Horse " ) , a label attributed to Cuban entertainer Benny Moré which alludes to Castro 's well known womanizing during the 1950s and early 1960s , and during this period Castro himself was widely recognized as a sex symbol in Cuba .

= = = Family and friends = = =

Many details of Castro 's private life , particularly involving his family members , are scarce as such information is censored by state media . Castro 's biographer Robert E. Quirk noted that throughout his life , the Cuban leader had been " unable to form a lasting sexual relationship with any female . " Castro 's first wife was Mirta Díaz @-@ Balart , whom he married in October 1948 , and together they have a son , Fidel Ángel " Fidelito " Castro Díaz @-@ Balart , born in September 1949 . Díaz @-@ Balart and Castro divorced in 1955 , and she moved to Spain , although allegedly returned to Cuba in 2002 to live with Fidelito . Fidelito grew up in Cuba ; for a time , he ran Cuba 's atomic @-@ energy commission before being removed from the post by his father .

Fidel has five other sons by his second wife , Dalia Soto del Valle : Antonio , Alejandro , Alexis , Alexander " Alex " , and Ángel Castro Soto del Valle . While Fidel was married to Mirta , he had an affair with Natalia " Naty " Revuelta Clews , who gave birth to his daughter , Alina Fernández Revuelta . Alina left Cuba in 1993 , disguised as a Spanish tourist , and sought asylum in the U.S. , from where she has criticized her father 's policies . By an unnamed woman he had another son , Jorge Ángel Castro . Fidel has another daughter , Francisca Pupo ( born 1953 ) the result of a one night affair . Pupo and her husband now live in Miami . Castro often engaged in one night stands with women , some of whom were specially selected for him while visiting foreign allies . His sister Juanita Castro has been living in the United States since the early 1960s , and is an opponent of her brother 's regime .

While in power , Castro 's two closest male friends were the former Mayor of Havana Pepin Naranjo and his own personal physician , René Vallejo . From 1980 until his death in 1995 , Naranjo headed Castro 's team of advisers . Castro also had a deep friendship with fellow revolutionary Celia Sanchez , who accompanied him almost everywhere during the 1960s , and controlled almost all access to the leader . Castro was also a good friend of the Colombian novelist Gabriel García Márquez .

= = Reception and legacy = =

Historian and journalist Richard Gott considered Castro to be " one of the most extraordinary political figures of the twentieth century " , noting that he had become a " world hero in the mould of Garibaldi " to people throughout the developing world for his anti @-@ imperialist efforts . Bourne described Castro as " an influential world leader " who commanded " great respect " from individuals of all political ideologies across the developing world . Wayne S. Smith , former Chief of the US Interests Section in Havana , noted that in the early 21st century , Castro was met with " warm applause " throughout the Western Hemisphere due to his opposition to U.S. socio @-@ political dominance and for transforming Cuba from a " banana republic " into a nation with significant international influence . He has been awarded a wide variety of awards and honors from foreign governments , and has been cited as an inspiration for foreign leaders like Ahmed Ben Bella , and Nelson Mandela , who subsequently awarded him South Africa 's highest civilian award for foreigners , the Order of Good Hope . Bolivian President Evo Morales described him as " the grandfather of all Latin American revolutionaries " , while biographer Volka Skierka stated that " he will go down in history as one of the few revolutionaries who remained true to his principles . "

Castro has been heavily criticized by governments and human rights organizations in the Western world , and was widely despised throughout the U.S. He has been widely described as a " dictator " , although Castro has publicly refuted this label , stating that he constitutionally held less power than most heads of state and insisting that his regime allowed for greater democratic involvement in policy making than Western liberal democracies . Nevertheless , critics claim that Castro wielded significant unofficial influence aside from his official duties . Quirk stated that Castro wielded " absolute power " in Cuba , albeit not in a legal or constitutional manner , while Bourne claimed that power in Cuba was " completely invested " in Castro , adding that it was very rare for " a country and a people " to have been so completely dominated by " the personality of one man " . Sondrol suggested that in leading " a political system largely [ of ] his own creation and bearing his indelible stamp " Castro 's leadership style warranted comparisons with other totalitarian leaders like Mao Zedong , Joseph Stalin , Adolf Hitler , and Benito Mussolini .

Human rights advocacy groups have criticized Castro 's administration for committing human rights abuses . Human Rights Watch stated that his government constructed a " repressive machinery " which deprived Cubans of their " basic rights " . Castro has defended his government 's record on human rights , stating that the state must limit the freedoms of individuals and imprison those involved in counter @-@ revolutionary activity in order to protect the rights of the collective populace , such as the right to employment , education , and health care .

= 1896 Michigan Wolverines football team =

The 1896 Michigan Wolverines football team represented the University of Michigan in the 1896 college football season . They played their home games at Regents Field in Ann Arbor , Michigan and competed in the newly established Western Conference , later to be known as the Big Ten Conference . The team , with William Ward as head coach , started the season with nine consecutive wins in which the Wolverines outscored their opponents by a combined score of 256 to 4 . In the final game of the season , played on Thanksgiving Day at the Chicago Coliseum , the team lost a close game to Amos Alonzo Stagg 's University of Chicago team by a score of 7 – 6 . The 1896 Michigan – Chicago game was the first college football game played indoors , and the last portion of the game was also played under electric lights . Henry M. Senter was the team captain .

= = Preseason developments = =

Before the 1896 football season took the field , two developments occurred . First , Michigan joined the Western Inter @-@ collegiate Athletic Conference ( later renamed the Big Ten Conference ) . The 1896 season was the first for Michigan in conference play . Michigan 's three conference games in 1896 were against Purdue , Minnesota and Chicago . Second , William McCauley , who had led Michigan to a 17 – 2 – 1 record in two seasons as coach , resigned as Michigan 's football coach . Princeton graduate , William Ward , was hired to replace McCauley . Before leaving Ann Arbor in November 1896 , McCauley assisted Ward in coaching the 1896 team .

Michigan conducted tryouts for the 1896 football team at Sand Beach . The Michiganensian for 1897 reported on the group appearing for try @-@ outs as follows : " Never before had the Athletic field been so teeming with aspirants for foot @-@ ball honors . "

= = Schedule = =

= = Season summary = =

= = = Michigan 18 , Michigan State Normal 0 = = =

Michigan opened its 1896 season with a home game against Michigan State Normal , later known as Eastern Michigan University . The Wolverines won , 18 – 0 , scoring two touchdowns in the first half and a goal and a safety in the second half . The World of New York reported on the game as follows : " The University of Michigan opened its football season here this afternoon by a loosely played game with the Michigan State Normal eleven . Only four members of last year 's ' Varsity eleven were in the game , although four of them were on the ground ready to play . "

= = = Michigan 44 , Grand Rapids High School 0 = = =

Michigan played its second game of the season at home against the team from Grand Rapids High School , ( Now Grand Rapids Central High School [ Mich . ] ) . The game was played in halves of 20 and 10 minutes , and Michigan won easily by a score of 44 to 0 . A newspaper account of the game described Michigan 's performance as follows :

" Michigan is now rapidly rounding into form and the team played a much stronger game today than a week ago . Several of the new men did some creditable work , and the interference at all times was excellent . Hazen Pingree , at half , made several brilliant runs , and Hannan , at full , punted very well . Bennett , Wombacher , Palmer and Farnham also showed up well in the line . Grand Rapids was never able to gain and the ' varsity scored as she pleased . "

Michigan 's lineup in the game was Palmer ( left end ) , Giovanni " Count " Villa ( left tackle ) , Fred Baker ( left guard ) , John David Wombacher ( center ) , John W.F. Bennett ( right guard ) , Frederick Henninger ( right tackle ) , Thaddeus Farnham ( right end ) , Richards ( quarterback ) , Hazen Pingree ( right halfback ) , Thomas Jesse Drumheller and Steel ( left halfback ) , and William Caley and Hannan ( fullback ) .

= = = Michigan 28 , College of Physicians and Surgeons 0 = = =

Michigan 's third game of the season was a mid @-@ week match against the team from the College of Physicians and Surgeons in Chicago . The game was played in 15 minute halves at Ann Arbor 's Regents Field . Halfback Gustave Ferbert scored a touchdown " on a brilliant twenty @-@ yard run " in the first half , and Villa and Pingree scored two touchdowns each for Michigan . Steel and Hogg each added two goals after touchdown for Michigan . A newspaper account of the game described Michigan 's performance as follows :

" The game put up by Michigan was the best of the season . This was the first game in which the ' varsity work has been tried against a heavy team , but , as a rule , the interference was fast and sure and their team work good . Farnham , Pingree , Ferbert , and Villa carried off the honors for Michigan . "

Michigan 's line up against the Physicians and Surgeons was Palmer and Ayers ( left end ) , Giovanni Villa ( left tackle ) , Bert Carr ( left guard ) , John David Wombacher ( center ) , John W.F. Bennett ( right guard ) , Frederick Henninger ( right tackle ) , Thaddeus Farnham ( right end ) , J. DeForest Richards ( quarterback ) , Gustave Ferbert and Gordon ( left halfback ) , Hazen Pingree ( right halfback ) , Steel and James R. Hogg ( fullback ) .

= = = Michigan 66 , Rush Lake Forest 0 = = =

Michigan 's fourth game was played against Rush Lake Forest two days after the game against the Physicians and Surgeons team . Michigan compiled its highest point total of the season , winning the game 66 – 0 . Through the first four games of the season , Michigan had outscored its opponents by a combined tally of 156 to 0 .

= = = Michigan 16 , Purdue 0 = = =

The team traveled to Lafayette , Indiana to open its conference schedule against the Purdue Boilermakers and came away with a fifth straight shutout and a score of 16 – 0 . The game was played in front of a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 at Purdue 's Stuart Field . One newspaper described the game as " the most desperate game that has ever been played on Stuart Field " and concluded that " Michigan won by superior weight . " The same account noted that " the prettiest play of the game " was a 40 – yard run by Ferbert and has tackle by Marshall . Michigan 's scoring came on two touchdowns by Caley and one by Hogg . Michigan 's lineup was Loomis Hutchinson ( left end ) , Giovanni Villa ( left tackle ) , Carey ( left guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Bennett ( right guard ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Farnham ( right end ) , Greenleaf ( quarterback ) , Ferbert ( left halfback ) , Caley ( right halfback ) , and Hogg ( fullback ) .

= = = Michigan 44 , Lehigh 0 = = =

Michigan 's sixth opponent was the Lehigh Mountain Hawks . The game was played at the Detroit Athletic Club field in Detroit and ended in a sixth straight shutout by a one @-@ sided score of 44 – 0 . Michigan 's scoring came on seven touchdowns and five goals after touchown ( all five kicked by halfback Ferbert ) . During the 60 minutes of play , the ball was in Lehigh 's possession " not more than ten minutes , " and most of that was in the first half . One newspaper account stated that " the Eastern boys were outclassed from start to finish . " The same report gave the following account of the game :

" The team play of the University of Michigan was excellent and the interference as good as has ever been seen in this city . The star of the game was probably Ferbert , though the plays of Villa , Farnham , Henninger , and Caley were at times brilliant . ... The University of Michigan is celebrating the victory here tonight , and pointing proudly to the fact that the best Pennsylvania [ 1896 national champions ] could do against Lehigh was 32 to 0 . "

Michigan 's lineup in the Lehigh game was Thad Farnham ( left end ) , Giovanni " Count " Villa ( left tackle ) , Carr ( left guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Baker ( right guard ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Hutchinson ( right end ) , Howard Felver ( quarterback ) , Caley ( left halfback ) , Gustave Ferbert ( right halfback ) , and Hogg ( fullback ) .

The 1897 Michiganensian noted that the game was Lehigh 's worst defeat of the 1896 season and suggested that the game was important in measuring Michigan 's standing : " This was the only contest with an eastern team and furnished some basis for comparison . ... Comparison with the eastern leaders was necessarily indirect , but it can conservatively be said that at this time Michigan was playing in much the same form as the great eastern quartette . "

= = = Michigan 6 , Minnesota 4 = = =

The first close game of the season game in early November in a conference game against the Minnesota Golden Gophers in Minneapolis . In a game played in 35 minute halves at Athletic Field in Minneapolis , the Wolverines came away with the win by a score of 6 – 4 . Michigan came within ten yards of a touchdown five minutes into the game but did not score . The first half ended in a scoreless tie . When Michigan scored its touchdown in the second half , Michigan fans in the bleachers signaled the event with cowbells . Michigan 's touchdown was scored by fullback duffy and the goal after touchdown was kicked by Ferbert . Minnesota responded with a touchdown ( worth 4 points under 1896 rules ) , but the score came at the far corner of the field where a straight kick for the goal after touchdown ( worth 2 points ) was impossible . Accordingly , Minnesota attempted a double kick , kicking the ball first to the fullback Loomis . Loomis caught the ball so close to the goal posts that his kick for goal " was easily stopped by Michigan players . " The blocked kick was the difference in a close game . Michigan 's lineup was Hutchins ( right end ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Bennett ( right guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Carr ( left guard ) , Villa ( left tackle ) , Farnham ( left end ) , Felver ( quarterback ) , Caley ( right halfback ) , Ferbert ( left halfback ) , and Hogg and Duff at fullback .

= = = Michigan 10 , Oberlin 0 = = =

After the road game against Minnesota , the Wolverines defeated Oberlin College by a score of 10 – 0 in front of a crowd of 1 @,@ 000 spectators in Ann Arbor . An account of the game published in The World of New York reported : " Michigan put a substitute team against Oberlin to @-@ day and won by making two touchdowns in the first half . Oberlin forced the fighting towards the end of the game . "

= = = Michigan 28 , Wittenberg 0 = = =

In the final home game of the 1896 season , Michigan defeated Wittenberg College by a score of 28 – 0 . The game was described by the press as " a fine exhibition of football , " and the Wittenberg team was credited with playing " a sportsmanlike and fast game . " The game was played on " extremely muddy grounds " at Regents Field , but the conditions did not stop Michigan 's interference . Three minutes into the game , Michigan 's right end scored the first touchdown " on a pretty quarterback kick from the thirty yard line . " Michigan reportedly " found no trouble in gaining as she pleased , " scoring 18 points in the first half and 10 more in the second . Halfbacks Coley and Pingree each scored two touchdowns for Michigan . The game was played in halves of 20 and 15 minutes . Michigan 's lineup in the game was Farnham ( left end ) , Villa ( left tackle ) , Carr ( left guard ) , Wombacher ( center ) , Bennett ( right guard ) , Henninger ( right tackle ) , Greenleaf ( right end ) , Drumheller ( quarterback ) , Pingree and Gordon ( left halfback ) , Coley ( right halfback ) , and Hogg ( fullback ) .

Through the first nine games , Michigan was undefeated and had outscored its opponents by a combined score of 256 to 4 .

= = = Chicago 7 , Michigan 6 = = =

The final game of the season , to decide the Western Conference championship , matched Michigan against Amos Alonzo Stagg 's Chicago Maroons on Thanksgiving Day . Michigan lost the game , which was described as " one of the most desperately contested games ever played in Chicago , " by a score of 7 – 6 . The game featured " few trick plays , " as both teams relied on " straight , hard football . " Hazen Pingree , Jr . ( whose father , Hazen S. Pingree , had been elected Governor of Michigan three weeks earlier ) was the star of the game for Michigan , as one newspaper reported that Pingree 's effort " in the first half was the ' whole thing , ' the plucky little fellow seldom failing to make the required distance . " Pingree was unable to play in the second half , and Gustave Ferbert , who later became a millionaire in the Klondike Gold Rush , took over in the second half and " was equally effective . "

Chicago 's scoring came on a blocked punt resulting in a safety and a drop kick ( worth five points under the rules at the time ) by Clarence Herschberger from the 45 – yard line . Michigan 's sole touchdown came in the second half when Henninger was pushed into the endzone from the two @-@ yard line , and Ferbert " kicked and easy goal . " Michigan drove the ball to Chicago 's 20 – yard line late in the game , but Chicago recovered a fumble and " Michigan 's chances of victory were dashed . "

The Michiganensian described the defeat as follows :

" There had been every reason to expect a victory from Chicago . Michigan had played strong and consistent foot ball throughout her schedule – Chicago had been erratic and unsteady . But there is certainly no sport more full of surprises than foot @-@ ball , and the Thanksgiving Day contest of ' 96 furnished as sensational a surprise in as exciting a contest as had ever come off on a western gridiron . There was one great difference in the character of the play of the two teams . Michigan was playing her stock game of football , hard and steady , the game she could have been depended on to play at any time . Chicago seemed to have been trained and nerved to this one game . There could have been little doubt what the result of a series of contests would have been . But this one game , Chicago won by good generalship , by the most advantageous use of her greatest resource – a magnificent player in a telling place .

= = = = Indoor football = = = =

The most unusual feature of the Michigan @-@ Chicago game on Thanksgiving Day was that it was played indoors at the Chicago Coliseum and was " the first collegiate game of football played under a roof . " Adding to the novelty , as daylight turned to darkness , the field inside the Coliseum was lit with electric lighting . According to a newspaper account , the field grew dark in the second half , and play was halted for ten minutes to discuss whether play should continue . Play was resumed , and the lights were finally turned on after Michigan scored a touchdown .

The crowd was stated in varying press accounts to be either 15 @,@ 000 , or 20 @,@ 000 . Noting that the game was played in the same building " in which five months ago W. J. Bryan was nominated for the presidency , " the press proclaimed the experiment in indoor football to be a success :

" One thing at least was settled by the game , and that is , that indoor football is literally and figuratively speaking a howling success . The men had no trouble in catching punts , and football was played on its merits , without the handicaps of a wet field or a strong wind . Toward the end of the second half it got very dark , and the spectators were treated to a novelty in the shape of football by electric light . "

Another newspaper described the novelty of indoor football as follows :

" Indoor football is an innovation , but it promises to become a permanency for late games . While the other fields about Chicago were sloppy and the players were floundering about in the seas of mud , the athletes in the Coliseum played on dry surface and secure from the elements . A two @-@ inch layer of tan bark was placed over the hard earth , and there was no inconvenience from dust . None of the punts touched the beams overhead and spectators and players were captivated with the comfortable conditions under which the game was played . Darkness came on at 4 : 00 and the players were scarcely distinguishable for a time , but electric lights soon rendered each play distinct . "

= = Starting lineup = =

Ends

Henry Mortimer Senter ( captain ) , Houghton , Michigan

George Greenleaf , Brazil , Indiana

Thaddeus Loomis Farnham , Rosford , Ohio

Loomis Hutchinson , Ceresco , Michigan

Tackles

Frank Villa , Walla Walla , Washington

Frederick W. Henninger , Barberton , Ohio

Guards

Bert Carr , Cedar Springs , Michigan

John W. F. Bennett , Jackson , Michigan

Fred L. Baker , Hillsdale , Michigan

Center

John Wombacher , Joliet , Illinois

Quarterbacks

Thomas Jesse Drumheller , Walla Walla , Washington

Howard C. Felver , Batavia , Illinois

J. De Forest Richards

Fullbacks

James R. Hogg , Knoxville , Tennessee ( St. Albans Military Academy )

Ignatius M. Duffy , Ann Arbor , Michigan

Halfbacks

Gustave Herman Ferbert , Cleveland , Ohio

William Caley , Boulder , Colorado ( University of Colorado )

Hazen Stuart Pingree , Jr . ,

= = Coaching staff = =

Coach : William Ward

Assistant coach : William McCauley

Trainer : James Robinson , hired in 1896 from his position with the Manhattan Athletic Club

Manager : Ward W. Hughes

Assistant manager : Charles O. Cook

= Destination Moon ( comics ) =

Destination Moon ( French : Objectif Lune ) is the sixteenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was initially serialised weekly in Belgium 's Tintin magazine from March to September 1950 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1953 . The plot tells of young reporter Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock who receive an invitation from Professor Calculus to come to Syldavia , where Calculus is working on a top @-@ secret project in a secure government facility to plan a manned mission to the Moon .

Developed in part through the suggestions of Hergé 's friends Bernard Heuvelmans and Jacques Van Melkebeke , Destination Moon was produced following Hergé 's extensive research into the possibility of human space travel – a feat that had yet to be achieved – with the cartoonist seeking for the work to be as realistic as possible . During the story 's serialisation , Hergé established Studios Hergé , a Brussels @-@ based team of cartoonists to aid him on the project . Hergé concluded the story arc begun in this volume with Explorers on the Moon , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Critics have praised the illustrative detail of the book , but have expressed mixed views of the narrative . The story was adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .

= = Synopsis = =

Tintin , Snowy , and Captain Haddock travel to join Professor Calculus , who has been commissioned by the Syldavian government to secretly build a spacecraft that will fly to the Moon . Arriving at the Sprodj Atomic Research Centre , they meet the Centre 's managing director , Mr. Baxter , and Calculus ' assistant , the engineer Frank Wolff . After witnessing Calculus test out a new multiplex helmet for the planned mission , they are informed of the plan . Haddock is against the idea , but due to his hearing problems , Calculus instead hears him agreeing . An unmanned sub @-@ scale prototype of the rocket — the " X @-@ FLR6 " — is launched on a circumlunar mission to photograph the far side of the Moon and test Calculus 's nuclear rocket engine . Before the launch , the centre 's radar picks up a plane which drops three paratroopers near to the centre ; the incident coincides with the arrival of the police detectives Thomson and Thompson , who are initially mistaken for the intruders .

Tintin sets out to locate the spies , telling Haddock to follow from the base , as he suspects a spy is in the base . Wolff follows Haddock out of suspicion . When Tintin spots the paratroopers , he is shot before he is able to do anything . At the same time , the power goes out inside the base , and confusion ensues , with neither Haddock nor Wolff explaining clearly what happened .

This incident confirms the Centre 's suspicions that the paratroopers were agents of a foreign power , but Tintin fears that efforts to trace any leaked information would be futile . The rocket is successfully launched and orbits the moon as planned , but on its return it is then intercepted by an unknown foreign power , who have used the leaked information concerning the rocket 's radio control . However , Tintin had anticipated this and asked Calculus to rig a self @-@ destruct mechanism for the rocket . The centre destroys the rocket to prevent it from falling into enemy hands . Tintin reasons that there must have been an inside spy who leaked information to the paratroopers , but no suspects are found . Preparations are made for the manned expedition to the moon , but after an argument with Haddock , in which Haddock accuses Calculus of " acting the goat " , Calculus becomes irate and shows Haddock everything that has been built . However , in doing so , Calculus forgets to look where he is going , falls down a ladder and suffers amnesia .

After failing to bring his memory back through recent events , Haddock opts to use a violent shock to overcome Calculus ' amnesia , though his attempts repeatedly backfire . Eventually , after saying the phrase " acting the goat " , Haddock successfully triggers Calculus ' memories . After regaining his knowledge on the rocket , construction is eventually completed , and the final preparations are made . On the night of the launch , Haddock initially backs out , though after hearing Thomson and Thompson feeling he would be too old to go , he angrily declares he will go . The crew of the rock finally board the rocket , and later lose consciousness as the rocket successfully takes off , due to the sudden g @-@ force . However , despite attempting to make contact , the ground crew are unable to get through , with the book ending with the rocket flying towards the moon , with the ground crew repeatedly calling " Moon Rocket , are you receiving me ? " .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

Hergé first devised the idea of sending Tintin on a mission to the Moon while he was working on Prisoners of the Sun ( 1949 ) . His decision to move into the field of science fiction might have been influenced by his friendly rivalry with his colleague Edgar P. Jacobs , who had recently had success with his own science fiction comic , The Secret of the Swordfish ( 1950 – 53 ) . He decided that it would be a two @-@ volume story arc , as had proved successful with his earlier arcs , The Secret of the Unicorn ( 1943 ) and Red Rackham 's Treasure ( 1944 ) , and The Seven Crystal Balls ( 1948 ) and Prisoners of the Sun . He had initially intended on beginning this story after the culmination of Prisoners of the Sun , but both his wife Germaine Remi and his close friend Marcel Dehaye convinced him to proceed with Land of Black Gold ( 1950 ) , a story that he had previously left unfinished , instead .

Seeking advice on the story , Hergé consulted his friend Bernard Heuvelmans , who had authored the non @-@ fiction book L 'Homme parmi les étoiles ( " Man Among the Stars " ) ( 1944 ) . In autumn 1947 , Heuvelmans and Jacques Van Melkebeke developed a script for the story , which they gave to Hergé . This version based Calculus ' lunar expedition in a fictional location , Radio City , in the United States . It featured a return of Professor Decimus Phostle , a character who had previously appeared in The Shooting Star ( 1942 ) , but this time as an antagonist ; Phostle had sold the secrets of the mission in order to attain funds to buy a diamond for the actress Rita Hayworth . In early 1948 , Hergé produced two black @-@ and @-@ white pages of this version of the story before abandoning it . Hergé retained some elements of this original script in his finished version , namely the scenes in which Haddock drinks whiskey in a gravity @-@ free environment and that in which Haddock goes for a space walk and nearly becomes a satellite of Adonis , which appear on pages 5 and 8 of Explorers on the Moon . Nevertheless , Heuvelmans thought his influence on the story to be more significant , stating that " In going through the two books we [ he and Van Melkebeke ] really had the impression that it was what we had originally done at the beginning . In broad outline , that was it . "

Hergé hoped for the story to be as realistic as possible , and sought to eschew fantastical elements . In his own words , it contained " no moonmen , no monsters , no incredible surprises " . To ensure this realism , he collected a wide range of documents about rockets and space travel with which to conduct research . In this he was aided by Heuvelmans , who collected pictures of rockets and atomic research facilities for him . Hergé 's research archive included an article from the American magazine Collier 's which discussed how humanity could reach the moon , as well as books by Pierre Rousseau and Auguste Piccard . A further work that he used was L 'Astronautique ( 1950 ) , a book on putative space travel by the physicist Alexander Ananoff , with whom Hergé began a correspondence in April 1950 . He also visited the Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Charleroi 's Center for Atomic Research , striking up a subsequent correspondence with its director , Max Hoyaux . Hergé incorporated much of this technical information into the story , but juxtaposed it with moments of humour to make it more accessible to his young readership .

According to literary critics Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier , possible fictional influences on Hergé 's story include Jules Verne 's 1870 novel Around the Moon and the 1950 American film Destination Moon . Hergé was certainly inspired by a number of photographic stills from the Destination Moon film which had been published . The computer system at the Sprodj space centre was visually based upon the UNIVAC I , the first computer to be created for non @-@ military purposes . Hergé based his moon rocket on the designs of the V @-@ 2 rocket which had been developed by German scientists during World War II . The red @-@ and @-@ white checker pattern on Hergé 's rocket was based upon an illustration of a V @-@ 2 which Hergé had come upon in Leslie Simon 's 1947 book German Research in World War II . He commissioned the construction of a model rocket with detachable parts from his assistant Arthur Van Noeyen . He took the model to Paris where he showed it to Ananoff , asking him if it was realistic representation of what a moon rocket might look like . He and his then used the model from which to accurately sketch when producing the comic .

Hergé also inserted a cameo of Jacobs into the story , using him as the basis for a scientist that appears on page 40 of Destination Moon , a nod to Jacobs ' inclusion of a reference to Hergé in one of his Blake and Mortimer mysteries , The Mystery of the Great Pyramid ( 1954 ) .

= = = Publication = = =

Hergé announced the upcoming story with two consecutive covers of Tintin magazine each depicting the Moon . The story began serialisation in the Belgium 's Tintin magazine from 30 March 1950 , in the French language . It then began serialisation over the border in France , in that country 's edition of the magazine , from 11 May 1950 . During this time , there were changes to how Hergé conducted his work ; on 6 April 1950 , he established Studios Hergé as a public company . The Studios were based in his Avenue Delleur house in Brussels , with Hergé making a newly purchased country house in Céroux @-@ Mousty his and Germaine 's main abode . The Studios would provide both personal support to Hergé and technical support for his ongoing work . He hired Bob de Moor as his primary apprentice at the Studios in March 1951 .

The story was collected together and published by Editions Casterman as Objectif Lune in 1953 . The title had been Hergé 's own choice , having rejected Casterman 's suggestion of Tintin and the Nuclear Rocket . For publication in book form , the story was re @-@ coloured , with various changes being made ; for instance , in the serialised version , the uniforms worn by staff were green , and they are changed to blue for the book volume . A number of scenes were also deleted . Hergé sent a copy to Ananoff , with a message stating that " Your help , your knowledge , has been invaluable , enabling me to get my little characters to the Moon ... and to bring them back safe and sound . " An English @-@ language translation of the book was published in 1959 .

Marking the Apollo 11 Moon landings in 1969 , Hergé produced an illustration in which NASA astronaut arrived on the moon only to be greeted by Tintin carrying a sign welcoming him . That same year , the French magazine Paris Match commissioned him to produce a short comic documenting the Apollo 11 landings .

= = Critical analysis = =

Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier believed that the two @-@ part story " belongs " to Calculus , because his " cosmic vision moves the story forward " . They further expressed the opinion that Wolff was a unique character in the Adventures of Tintin , suggesting that he is akin to a character from a John le Carré novel . They felt that the moon adventure was " Hergé at his best ... a triumphant achievement on every level " , awarding both halves of the story five stars out of five . Harry Thompson described the entire moon adventure as " a technical masterpiece " as a result of its " uncannily accurate " depiction of the moon . Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline felt that the two moon adventures " mark a stage in the development of Hergé 's work " . Conversely , Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters was critical of the two @-@ part story arc , stating that they had " neither the liveliness and dynamism " of The Secret of the Unicorn @-@ Red Rackham 's Treasure , " nor the supernatural quality " of The Seven Crystal Balls @-@ Prisoners of the Sun .

In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès praised the Destination Moon @-@ Explorers on the Moon story arc for its " meticulous attention to scientific facts " , but added that this had also resulted in the story 's " rather pedagogical tone " . He added that in these stories , the main division was " no longer Good and Evil " as it had been in previous Adventures , but " Truth and Error " . Apostolidès opined that despite being a " fussy and somewhat ridiculous character " , through his scientific achievements Calculus grows to the " stature of a giant " in this arc , eclipsing Sir Francis Haddock ( from The Secret of the Unicorn ) as the series ' " founding ancestor " . He goes on to claim that in becoming the " sacred ancestor " , the voyage to the moon becomes " a mystical quest " with science as its guiding religion . Drawing comparisons between this arc and the Prisoners of the Sun story , he drew symbolic links between the scientific centre and the Inca Temple of the Sun , but noted that here Calculus was the " high priest " rather than the sacrificial victim as he had been in the previous story . Moving on to discuss the moon rocket in these stories , Apostolidès described it as a phallic object which penetrated the " virgin territory " of the moon . At the same time , he described the rocket as a " maternal belly " in which the space explorers slept .

Literary critic Tom McCarthy stated that in the Destination Moon @-@ Explorers of the Moon story arc , Calculus " embodies Hergé 's ... own wartime position , spun out into a post @-@ war environment " , representing a genius driven by his work whose activities are coincidental to national and political causes . He suggested that the scene in which Captain Haddock rides a pantomime hobby horse can be contrasted with the many scenes in which Haddock is thrown off of a horse 's back during the Adventures . McCarthy also interpreted the scene in which Calculus cries and tears at his hair in response to the rocket 's capture by the enemy as reflecting Hergé 's own anxieties at having his work published and reinterpreted by his readers . He was also of the opinion that several scenes in Destination Moon reflected recurring themes throughout the series ; he suggested that Haddock 's attempts at smuggling whisky into Syldavia echoed the smuggling of treasure in The Secret of the Unicorn , while the " correction " in which Thompson and Thomson were recognised as not being spies reflected a theme of corrections in the series . He also believed that there was an example of Hergé 's secret vulgarity within Destination Moon , with a diagram above Calculus ' head in one scene resembling buttocks .

= = Adaptation = =

In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based on Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . Destination Moon was the first to be adapted in the second animated series ; it was directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , a well @-@ known cartoonist who was to become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .

In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . Destination Moon was the fourteenth story to be adapted and was divided into two twenty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .

= Greg Skrepenak =

Gregory Andrew Skrepenak ( born January 31 , 1970 ) is a former Luzerne County , Pennsylvania commissioner , and retired professional American football offensive lineman in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the Los Angeles / Oakland Raiders and the Carolina Panthers . Skrepenak 's professional football career spanned the final three years the Raiders played in Los Angeles , California from 1992 @-@ 1994 and the first year they returned to Oakland , California in 1995 . Then , it continued with consecutive seasons ( 1996 and 1997 ) with the Carolina Panthers in which he did not miss a start .

Prior to his NFL experience Skrepenak had starred in the Big Ten football conference for the University of Michigan Wolverines as a two @-@ time All @-@ American , team captain , and four @-@ year starter from 1988 @-@ 1991 . Skrepenak played for four consecutive Big Ten Conference Champions , appeared in three Rose Bowls and won a Gator Bowl MVP . Previously he had been a scholar athlete at G. A. R. Memorial Junior Senior High School where he earned 12 varsity letters in football , basketball and baseball .

Skrepenak , who was born and raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , United States , was elected in 2003 to serve as the Luzerne County Commissioner , a position he held from January 2004 @.@  until December , 2009 . On December 17 , 2009 , Skrepenak signed a plea agreement to a charge of corruption . He would resign later that day . On August 6 , 2010 , Greg Skrepenak was sentenced to 24 months in federal prison .

= = Early life = =

Skrepenak was born and raised in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania , where he attended G. A. R. Memorial Junior Senior High School . In high school , he was an honor student who excelled in three sports : American football , basketball and baseball . In football , he earned All @-@ scholastic , All @-@ state , and All @-@ American recognition . In basketball , where he scored 1600 points , he was a four @-@ time All @-@ scholastic athlete and two @-@ time conference Most Valuable Player as well as a McDonald 's All @-@ American team nominee . In baseball , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ scholastic awardee and an MVP . As a result of his accomplishments he was inducted into the Luzerne County Sports Hall of Fame and the Pennsylvania State Sports Hall of Fame .

= = College = =

At the University of Michigan , Skrepenak was a two @-@ time All @-@ American , a two @-@ time " All Big Ten " selection and a two @-@ time " Big Ten Lineman of the Year " . Skrepenak , who wore # 75 for the Michigan Wolverines football program from 1987 to 1991 , was also recognized as a " Samaritan All @-@ American " for his community service . Number 75 for the Wolverines is described as the biggest player to have ever played for Michigan at 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) , 322 pounds ( 146 kg ) . As a four @-@ year starter , he set the school offensive line record with 48 starts . In addition , he helped his running backs set new standards in yards / carry for Michigan football . During his time at Michigan , Skrepenak played for four consecutive Big Ten Conference Champions , appeared in three Rose Bowls and won a Gator Bowl MVP . His teams under Bo Schembechler and Gary Moeller compiled a 29 – 2 – 1 Big Ten record and each of his teams ended the season ranked in the top 10 .

In the January 1991 Gator Bowl , Skrepenak and the entire offensive line , which included Dean Dingman , were named Most Valuable Player . Skrepenak helped the Michigan offense gain a record 715 yards of total offense in a 35 @-@ 3 victory over Mississippi in the Gator Bowl . This marked the culmination of a productive season in which the offensive line helped Jon Vaughn set the Michigan football record for career yards per carry ( minimum 200 attempts ) . Behind true senior Dingman and redshirt junior Skrepenak , redshirt sophomore Vaughn concluded his Michigan career that season with 1 @,@ 473 yards on 226 rushes for a career 6 @.@ 3 yards per attempt average , including 1 @,@ 416 yards on 216 rushes during the 1990 season .

In 1991 , he was a consensus All @-@ American . As the senior offensive captain , he was a finalist for both the Outland Trophy and the Lombardi Award . He was the January 1 , 1991 Gator Bowl co @-@ MVP and a Senior Bowl participant . The following season , he was a member of the offensive line that protected Elvis Grbac while he was connecting with Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard . Also during that season , Tyrone Wheatley set the Michigan freshman yards per carry ( minimum 50 attempts ) with 555 yards on 86 carries for a 6 @.@ 4 yards per attempt average behind Skrepenak after Dingman graduated . In 2000 , he was voted onto the Wolverine ’ s " All @-@ Century Team " .

= = Professional football = =

Skrepenak was drafted in the 1992 NFL Draft with the 32nd overall pick in the second round by the Los Angeles Raiders . He stayed with the franchise for four seasons , which included a relocation from Los Angeles to Oakland . During training camp of the 1993 NFL season he was moving into the starting lineup due to an injury to Gerald Perry . However , he was injured during his second preseason start when Charles Haley bull rushed him , which caused him to get tangled up between Jeff Hostetler and the turf and which resulted in a dislocated ankle joint that kept him out for the season . Skrepenak did not become a starter for the Raiders until midway through the 1994 NFL season when he replaced Bruce Wilkerson . He started the final 10 games of 1994 and the first 14 games of the 1995 NFL season before being benched toward the end of the season in favor of Robert Jenkins . Skrepenak was deactivated from the roster for the final two games of the season right before his contract expired . Officially , the deactivation was due to a combination of a rib injury and the flu , but some say it may have also been partially due to vocal play selection criticism . However , head coach Mike White and assistant coach Joe Bugel said the benching was merely a function of the full strength depth chart upon the return of Gerald Perry . Skrepenak was a vocal detractor on the organization after leaving the Raiders . Among the opinions Skrepenak expressed during his time with the Raiders was that the Raiders overemphasized slogans related to team history while setting penalty records as a team .

The Panthers signed him in the offseason after the 1995 NFL season as an unrestricted free agent . While he was a Panther , he and Blake Brockermeyer were considered the key components of the offensive line . He was the only Panther to start every game of both the 1996 and 1997 National Football League seasons . He was named to the Panther ’ s All @-@ Time Team . He was released from the team due to salary cap considerations . Skrepenak was rumored to be sought after by the Miami Dolphins in 1998 . However , he spent the year out of football . Skrepenak was in the Oakland Raiders ' 1999 summer camp , but during his comeback attempt he had to leave the Raiders camp in on August 10 , 1999 to attend to personal business back in Wilkes @-@ Barre for several days . Skrepenak was a supporter of the new Jon Gruden coaching administration upon his return to the Raiders despite the fact that he was not as highly paid or expected to start . Skrepenak was a popular offensive lineman with the Raiders and his spot was held in his absence with a special tribute by Steve Wisniewski and Mo Collins who both wore his jersey number in his absence . Skrepenak returned to camp for a few weeks . On August 31 , he was released .

During Skrepenak 's career , he played for only one playoff team . Coach , Dom Capers ' 1996 Carolina Panthers went 12 – 4 during the 1996 NFL season but lost to the Green Bay Packers in the National Football Conference Championship game of the 1996 @-@ 97 NFL playoffs . That season Skrepenak helped protect the team 's only Pro Bowler , quarterback Kerry Collins . Although Skrepenak missed the 1993 NFL season due to injury , Art Shell 's 1993 Los Angeles Raiders went 10 – 6 and advanced one round in the 1993 @-@ 94 NFL playoffs before losing to the Buffalo Bills . Skrepenak played offensive tackle during his years with the Raiders and offensive guard during his years with the Panthers . He has regularly played on the right side of the line .

= = Political career = =

He returned to Luzerne County , where his ancestry traces back several generations , upon retirement from football to raise his three children . He has since become involved in numerous community and political organizations and activities . He was elected to the Luzerne County Board of Commissioners in 2003 and has served as its chairman since January 6 , 2004 . His agenda is fighting drug abuse and crime . However , he has also earmarked $ 2 @.@ 5 million in Community Development funding for the Wilkes @-@ Barre Movies 14 Complex . He is also involved in bringing a new airport to Hazleton , Pennsylvania . Skrepenak co @-@ ordinates his efforts on emotional wellness with Wyoming County .

Skrepenak ran for re @-@ election in the November 6 , 2007 election . Skrepenak ran jointly with County Controller Maryanne Petrilla and the pair easily outdistanced the competition in the primary to gain the two nominations . Among the controversies during campaign were the use of debit cards for the commissioners based on a new policy effective September 2005 . Skrepenak 's expenses totalled $ 22 @,@ 139 @.@ 93 , including $ 3 @,@ 743 for gang @-@ related training in Los Angeles , California , $ 524 @.@ 08 for an accounting standards manual and $ 798 @.@ 63 for communications equipment .

Skrepenak had considered running for Don Sherwood 's United States House of Representatives seat that was contested and won by Chris Carney in the 2006 elections . He had admitted aspirations for higher office . However , after meetings with the National Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee he decided not to run for the United States Congress in the heavily Republican district . Congressman Sherwood 's defeat allowed the district to go Democratic for the first time since 1961 . Skrepenak was re @-@ elected by finishing among the top three in a contest for county commissioner . The unofficial results were Maryanne Petrilla ( D ) 33 @,@ 827 votes ( 29 % ) , Greg Skrepenak ( D / Inc . ) 32 @,@ 281 ( 27 % ) , Stephen Urban ( R / Inc . ) 27 @,@ 835 ( 24 % ) and Bill Jones ( R ) 24 @,@ 071 ( 20 % ) .

It was announced December 17 , 2009 , that Skrepenak was resigning his position with the Luzerne County Commissioners effective immediately . The resignation comes one day after a source said Skrepenak signed a plea agreement with the U.S. Attorney ’ s office as part of the ongoing pay to play corruption investigation being conducted in Luzerne County . Skrepenak stated that he resigned due to a clash between longtime cultural practices in county politics and the higher standards of public office and the law . Specifically , he was formally charged with accepting a $ 5 @,@ 000 bribe from a developer for voting to accept the developer 's project into a government funded tax incentive program .

On August 6 , 2010 , Greg Skrepenak was sentenced to 24 months in federal prison . United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines called for a 33- to 41 @-@ month sentence . However , his sentence was reduced for cooperation with an ongoing federal corruption probe . He was not granted leniency for charitable works , medical complications or devotion to family .

On June 12 , 2012 , Greg Skrepenak was released from a halfway house . He had been transferred from federal prison in Beckley , West Virginia to the halfway house in early April . Since then , he moved back and forth from the halfway house to his parent 's home in Dallas , Pennsylvania , with his parents and his children . He has been released from the custody of the U.S. Bureau of Prisons and is serving three years probation . Since his release , he has worked as a legal researcher for a Kingston law firm .

= Weinreb ketone synthesis =

The Weinreb – Nahm ketone synthesis is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry to make carbon – carbon bonds . It was discovered in 1981 by Steven M. Weinreb and Steven Nahm as a method to synthesize ketones . The original reaction involved two subsequent nucleophilic acyl substitutions : the conversion of an acid chloride into an N , O @-@ dimethylhydroxyamide , known as a Weinreb – Nahm amide , and subsequent treatment of this species with an organometallic reagent such as a Grignard reagent or organolithium reagent . Nahm and Weinreb also reported the synthesis of aldehydes by reduction of the amide with an excess of lithium aluminum hydride ( see amide reduction ) .

The major advantage of this method over addition of organometallic reagents to more typical acyl compounds is that it avoids the common problem of over @-@ addition . For these latter reactions , two equivalents of the incoming group add to form an alcohol rather than a ketone or aldehyde . This occurs even if the equivalents of nucleophile are closely controlled .

The Weinreb – Nahm amide has since been adopted into regular use by organic chemists as a dependable method for the synthesis of ketones . These functional groups are present in a large number of natural products and can be reliably reacted to form new carbon – carbon bonds or converted into other functional groups . This method has been used in a number of syntheses , including Macrosphelides A and B , Amphidinolide J , and Spirofungins A and B. ( See Scope below )

= = Mechanism = =

Weinreb and Nahm originally proposed the following reaction mechanism to explain the selectivity shown in reactions of the Weinreb – Nahm amide . Their suggestion was that the tetrahedral intermediate ( A below ) formed as a result of nucleophilic acyl substitution by the organometallic reagent is stabilized by chelation from the methoxy group as shown . This intermediate is stable only at low temperatures , requiring a low @-@ temperature quench .

This chelation is in contrast to the mechanism for formation of the over @-@ addition product wherein collapse of the tetrahedral intermediate allows a second addition . The mechanistic conjecture on the part of Weinreb was immediately accepted by the academic community , but it was not until 2006 that it was confirmed by spectroscopic and kinetic analyses .

= = Preparation = =

In addition to the original procedure shown above ( which may have compatibility issues for sensitive substrates ) , Weinreb amides can be synthesized from a variety of acyl compounds . The vast majority of these procedures utilize the commercially available salt N , O @-@ dimethylhydroxylamine hydrochloride [ MeO ( Me ) NH • HCl ] , which is typically easier to handle than the free amine .

Treatment of an ester or lactone with AlMe3 or AlMe2Cl affords the corresponding Weinreb amide in good yields . Alternatively , non @-@ nucleophilic Grignard reagents such as isopropyl magnesium chloride can be used to activate the amine before addition of the ester .

A variety of peptide coupling reagents can also be used to prepare Weinreb – Nahm amides from carboxylic acids . Various carbodiimide- , hydroxybenzotriazole- , and triphenylphosphine @-@ based couplings have been reported specifically for this purpose .

Finally , an aminocarbonylation reaction reported by Stephen Buchwald allows conversion of aryl halides directly into aryl Weinreb – Nahm amides .

= = Scope = =

The standard conditions for the Weinreb – Nahm ketone synthesis are known to tolerate a wide variety of functional groups elsewhere in the molecule , including alpha @-@ halogen substitution , N @-@ protected amino acids , α @-@ β unsaturation , silyl ethers , various lactams and lactones , sulfonates , sulfinates , and phosphonate esters . A wide variety of nucleophiles can be used in conjunction with the amide . Lithiates and Grignard reagents are most commonly employed ; examples involving aliphatic , vinyl , aryl , and alkynyl carbon nucleophiles have been reported . However , with highly basic or sterically hindered nucleophiles , elimination of the methoxide moiety to release formaldehyde can occur as a significant side reaction .

Nonetheless , the Weinreb – Nahm amide figures prominently into many syntheses , serving as an important coupling partner for various fragments . Shown below are key steps involving Weinreb amides in the synthesis of several natural products , including members of the immunosuppressant family of Macrosphelides , and the antibiotic family of Spirofungins .

= = Variations = =

Reaction of Weinreb – Nahm amides with Wittig reagents has been performed to avoid the sometimes harsh conditions required for addition of hydride reagents or organometallic compounds . This yields an N @-@ methyl @-@ N @-@ methoxy @-@ enamine that converts to the corresponding ketone or aldehyde upon hydrolytic workup .

Additionally , a one @-@ pot magnesium – halogen exchange with subsequent arylation has been developed , showcasing the stability of the Weinreb – Nahm amide and providing an operationally simple method for the synthesis of aryl ketones .

More unusual reagents with multiple Weinreb – Nahm amide functional groups have been synthesized , serving as CO2 and α @-@ diketone synthons .

Finally , Stephen G. Davies of Oxford has designed a chiral auxiliary that combines the functionality of the Weinreb amide with that of the Myers ’ pseudoephedrine auxiliary , allowing diastereoselective enolate alkylation followed by facile cleavage to the corresponding enantioenriched aldehyde or ketone .

= Through a Glass Darkly ( Koen novel ) =

Through a Glass Darkly is a 1986 historical fiction novel by American author Karleen Koen . A former magazine editor , Koen had never before written a novel and spent four years developing it while living as a housewife with her family . She sold the hardcover rights to Random House for $ 350 @,@ 000 , which was then a record for a new novelist . The circumstances behind the work 's publication led to Koen becoming the subject of much media attention in the late 1980s .

Koen 's story is set in the midst of the turbulent politics of the English and French aristocracy as well as the South Sea Bubble . The novel begins in 1715 England , when teenage protagonist Barbara Alderley becomes married to the handsome , older Earl Devane . Though in love with him , Barbara soon discovers a secret from his past that threatens to tear their relationship apart . Barbara must learn to navigate courtly intrigues and financial crises while experiencing personal tragedies .

Released on July 12 , 1986 by Random House , Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list . Critical reception was largely mixed , with reviewers focusing on the novel 's prose and attention to historical detail . It has been translated into more than ten languages .

= = Background = =

Through a Glass Darkly was the first novel written by American author Karleen Koen . She had previously been a reporter for the Houston Business Journal and also served as the editor of Houston Home & Garden before leaving to spend more time with her husband and two children . Desiring to once again have her name in print , Koen was persuaded by her husband to write a novel to help keep busy in between housework . At first sceptical at writing fiction , Koen began mentioning the idea at parties to avoid appearing as a mere housewife . " When you 're at home raising children your status is – well , there is no status , " Koen later recalled . Commencing the novel in 1980 , she wrote three long drafts during a four @-@ year period ; the final manuscript ultimately contained 1 @,@ 300 double @-@ spaced pages .

Koen found inspiration from her interest in the eighteenth century . Rather than use the " virginity @-@ sexual tango " trope of most historical romance novels , Koen sought to circumvent the " rules " of the genre and concentrate on characterization . Koen engaged in an intensive research period on the eighteenth century using approximately 300 books , which she often obtained from a local university 's library . She also traveled briefly to England and France . Koen found writing the novel to be " a very intense thing " and became very attached to her characters , even the villains . She sought to " hook the readers emotionally and make them care . I guess it 's soap opera ( but ) there 's a kind of sigh you heave when you finish a certain type of book . I wanted that sigh . " She added :

" The heroine is Barbara , and she is 15 when the novel opens and 21 years old at the end . It 's the story of her coming of age , her family , marriage and relationships . I left the exact place where all this happens rather nebulous , but the locale is southern England . It 's all created . The period was fascinating to research – I went through about 300 books . It was the age of Defoe , Pope , Swift and Addison and I lost myself in their time . "

To gain a publisher for her novel , she sent the manuscript to several literary agents she had discovered in Writer 's Digest . Though two turned her down , one agent , Jean Naggar , encouraged Koen to continue finishing the book , believing it to be " the launching of a major author . " Naggar mailed the manuscript to five major publishing companies , with Random House purchasing it for a " whopping " $ 350 @,@ 000 in August 1985 , which was at the time a record for a new novelist . Random House 's publisher , Howard Kaminsky , wanted to publish " Oprah Winfrey @-@ type books " in the " how @-@ to @-@ be @-@ the @-@ best @-@ you @-@ can @-@ be " genre . He reasoned , " I 'm sure that 's up there with the highest prices ever paid for the hardcover rights alone to a first novel . But then it is not that big a price when you consider that it 's such a deserving novel – and it will undoubtedly go for a very large amount in paperback later . "

= = Plot summary = =

In 1715 England , fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Barbara Alderley lives with her widowed grandmother , the Duchess of Tamworth , and her younger siblings on their family 's country Tamworth estate . Barbara 's indebted and calculating mother , Lady Diana Alderley , arrives to inform them of Barbara 's possible marriage to Roger Montgeoffry , Earl Devane , a former aide to the deceased Duke . Barbara is pleased with the news , believing herself to be in love with the handsome , wealthy , and popular earl despite his age ( nearly thirty years her senior ) .

Roger in turn desires Barbara 's dowry of land in London , which he hopes to develop into an opulent estate and townhouses ; she and her mother travel to London to make arrangements for the betrothal . Due to Diana 's greed , negotiations almost fall apart until the intervention of the Duchess results in Barbara and Roger finally marrying . The couple travel to Paris . While learning to navigate through Parisian society , Barbara remains in love with her husband but Roger has no thoughts at all for his young bride other than mere fondness .

Roger however has a secret : he once had a long @-@ term affair with the French aristocrat the Prince of Soissons , with whom he begins anew soon after arriving in Paris . Through the actions of courtiers jealous of Barbara 's devotion to Roger , pamphlets eventually spread about the affair . The young and naive Barbara is among the last to hear of it and breaks down in tears and shock .

The plot jumps forward to 1720 England , where the country is unknowingly approaching the South Sea Bubble economic collapse ; Barbara has separated from her husband and conducted affairs with several men in Paris and London . Still in love with Roger despite his affair , she is unhappy and becomes horrified when she discovers that one of her jealous lovers , Lord Charles Russel , killed Jemmy , a young nobleman who she accidentally slept with for one night .

Later , the bursting of the Bubble causes chaos and violence through London . Barbara 's only surviving sibling , Harry , is in severe debt and commits suicide ; many citizens blame Lord Devane , who helped run the South Sea Company , for the country 's finances . At the Tamworth estate , Barbara and Roger attempt a reconciliation but he collapses from an apoplexy soon after while evaluating his own precarious financial situation in London .

With the help of several of Roger 's friends , Barbara attempts to oversee his finances and takes him out of the still @-@ chaotic city . At Tamworth , Roger gradually becomes worse and dies . Stricken and in mourning , Barbara holds a public memorial in London for her deceased husband , despite being warned that it would draw attention to his estate during the Parliamentary inquest into the financial crisis . To give her peace , the Duchess develops a scheme of spiriting her granddaughter out of the country by having her visit their plantation in Virginia . The novel ends with Barbara and several servants leaving on a ship intended for the colonies .

= = = Main characters = = =

Barbara Alderley , Lady Devane – young , naive , devoted , and beautiful , she is the protagonist of the novel and Roger 's wife

Roger Montgeoffry , Earl Devane – wealthy , charismatic , handsome , and popular , he is Barbara 's husband and Philippe 's lover

Alice Saylor , Duchess of Tamsworth – the venerable dowager of the Saylor family , she is Diana 's mother and Barbara 's grandmother

Tony Saylor , Duke of Tamworth – young , shy , and kind , he is in love with his cousin Barbara

Lady Diana Alderley – calculating , cold , promiscuous , and greedy , she is mother to Barbara and Harry

Philippe , Prince of Soissons – a sophisticated and dangerous French aristocrat , he is Roger 's lover

Harry Alderley – impetuous and handsome , he is Barbara 's brother

Jane Ashford , later Cromwell – kind and serious , she is a childhood friend of Barbara 's and Harry 's early love

= = Themes = =

Through a Glass Darkly is a long , complex narrative that features more than 60 characters and at least 15 subplots . The title of the novel comes from the Bible verse 1 Corinthians 13 . Before she began writing it , Koen envisioned creating a story about the relationship between a young woman and an older man , a plot element riddled with emotional tension that required much planning and foresight . Koen also sought to create a story that featured issues relevant to contemporary women , such as the non @-@ existence of " legal rights . If a husband wanted to beat his wife to death he could do it , and if her parents didn 't care ... No birth control . If you had any normal sexual urges you were pregnant all the time , and half the women died in childbirth . Life was very violent and short and I just wanted to show how it was without getting up on a soapbox , so someone reading it would say , ' I 'm glad I live now . ' " According to Koen , another consistent theme throughout Through a Glass Darkly is how vital family is to our well @-@ being , family in this case being a loose term that does not necessarily equate to being biologically @-@ related . She was also interested in writing how people are connected to each other .

= = Release and reception = =

Through a Glass Darkly was first released in hardcover on July 12 , 1986 . Koen became known as the " unknown author who hit the jackpot " of a book that " everyone 's been talking about . " Media stories angled the book 's backstory as a " phenomenon , " particularly because it was purchased by a prestigious publisher at such a high price for a first time novelist . After its release , Koen began a seven @-@ city promotional tour that ended in late September 1986 . Avon Books paid more than twice Random House 's price to gain paperback rights , and released the novel on paperback on September 1 , 1987 . Even before it was officially published , Through a Glass Darkly landed on The New York Times Best Seller list , where it stayed for more than a year . It was translated into ten languages the year it was published . In February 1987 , People reported that " plans to turn the book into a big @-@ budget miniseries are also underway . "

= = = Critical reception = = =

After reviewing the hype surrounding the book , author Barbara Schaaf concluded that its prose " was first @-@ rate – literate and with flashes of timeless insight . Anyone who can take a 15 @-@ year @-@ old heroine ... and dash off over 700 pages just to get her to age 21 without losing the reader , has real talent . " Schaaf added that Koen has a " fine eye for art , architecture , fashion , manners and relays the everything , " though she critiqued the author for sometimes inserting too many historical details . She believed that the book especially shone in depicting the South Sea Bubble ; " most historical writers , " Schaaf opined , " neglect the economic background of their periods , regardless of its importance , and [ Koen 's ] grasp of a complicated situation makes it as fascinating as her descriptions of the sexual behavior of the upper and lower classes . "

People 's Harriet Shapiro declared that Through a Glass Darkly " is no run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill bodice buster , trade slang for bosom @-@ heaving historical romances . Koen paints a lavish , carefully researched portrait of a young woman 's turbulent coming of age in 18th @-@ century England and France . " Texas Monthly asserted that characterization was Koen 's greatest asset , though the story 's " sense of pacing falters " after two hundred pages . Another criticism was directed at the numerous monologues , which felt like having " commercials stacked toward the end of a late @-@ night TV movie . " Texas Monthly ended their review on a positive note , giving praise to the historical detail as well as the story 's ending , which the reviewer believed would encourage readers to buy the forthcoming sequel .

In a guest column for The New York Times , author Erica Jong called Koen 's work a " well @-@ researched , workmanlike historical novel [ ... ] of the sort that Kathleen Winsor or Thomas B. Costain used to write : packed with details of costume , architecture and cuisine , populated by rudimentary paper @-@ doll characters , full of undigested Continued on next page gobbets of research . " Jong shone a negative light on some of the characters , which she believed " seem [ ed ] derived from movies , mini @-@ series and other books " and overshadowed by the attention to historical detail . She concluded that " Koen 's publishers [ did ] her a disservice in presenting this rather routine and turgid book as though it were Gone With the Wind , " when it was actually a " well @-@ researched bodice @-@ ripper . "

Phoebe @-@ Lou Adams of The Atlantic gave a negative review and criticized the " enormous , gigantic , monstrous historical novel " for containing a protagonist who " suffers and suffers and suffers while innumerable soap @-@ opera types minuet about in fancy dress . The period is early eighteenth century , and the research underlying the gallimaufry is thorough beyond the call of duty . " In response to some bad attention her novel received , which she said " hurt like hell , " Koen noted the persistence of " in @-@ fighting " within the publishing industry . " Who reviews your book has a lot to do with the kind of review you get , " she said .

= United Airlines Flight 736 =

United Airlines Flight 736 was a daily U.S. transcontinental passenger flight operated by United Airlines that crashed on April 21 , 1958 , following a mid @-@ air collision . The aircraft assigned to Flight 736 , a Douglas DC @-@ 7 airliner carrying 47 persons , was flying at cruise altitude above Clark County , Nevada , en route to a stopover at Denver , Colorado , when it was struck by a United States Air Force fighter jet crewed by two pilots . The collision occurred at 8 : 30 a.m. in clear weather within a major commercial airway ; both aircraft fell out of control from 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) and crashed into unpopulated desert terrain southwest of Las Vegas , Nevada .

There were no survivors from either aircraft , and with 49 fatalities it remains the deadliest crash in the history of the Las Vegas Valley . Among the victims were a group of military personnel and civilian contractors involved with sensitive Department of Defense weapons systems . The loss of the group triggered new rules prohibiting similar groups engaged in critical projects from flying aboard the same aircraft .

The official investigation stated that cockpit visibility limitations played a role in the accident , but also faulted military and civilian aviation authorities for not taking measures to reduce well @-@ known collision risks that had existed for over a year within the confines of airways , despite numerous complaints from airline crews . The loss of United Airlines Flight 736 — part of a series of 1950s mid @-@ air collisions in American skies , including the well @-@ publicized 1956 Grand Canyon mid @-@ air collision — helped usher in widespread improvements in air traffic control within the United States .

= = Events leading to the accident = =

Flight 736 , a four @-@ engined DC @-@ 7 propliner with registration N6328C , departed Los Angeles International Airport at 7 : 37 a.m. on a flight to New York City with stops in Denver , Kansas City and Washington , D.C. On board were 42 passengers and five crew members ; Captain Duane M. Ward , 44 , First Officer Arlin Edward Sommers , 36 , Flight Engineer Charles E. Woods , 43 , and Stewardesses Pauline Mary Murray , 22 , and Yvonne Marie Peterson , 27 . Of the passengers on the flight , seven were military personnel and 35 were civilians .

Soon after takeoff the airliner was directed into airway " Victor 8 , " on a route that took it east over Ontario , California , and then northeast toward Las Vegas . The crew flew the DC @-@ 7 under instrument flight rules , controlled by Civil Aeronautics Authority ( CAA ) ground stations , at an authorized altitude of 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) toward the first stopover at Denver .

Approximately 8 minutes after the DC @-@ 7 had departed Los Angeles , a U.S. Air Force F @-@ 100F @-@ 5 @-@ NA Super Sabre jet fighter , serial number 56 @-@ 3755 , took off from Nellis Air Force Base near Las Vegas at 7 : 45 a.m. on a training flight with two pilots on board . In the front seat of the tandem cockpit was flight instructor and safety pilot Capt. Thomas N. Coryell , 29 , and behind him sat his student , 1st Lt. Gerald D. Moran , 24 , who as part of his training would spend the flight under a hood that blocked his view outside the aircraft , but allowed him to see his instrument panel .

The instructor had two @-@ way microphone communication with the student , and his duties were to instruct the student in the rear seat , monitor his performance and maintain a lookout for other aircraft . The F @-@ 100F had dual pilot control and the instructor could take over flying the jet at any time . The training flight involved a descent and approach to Nellis Air Force Base under simulated instrument meteorological conditions from an altitude of 28 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 500 m ) . The descent was to be a " teardrop pattern , " with the Las Vegas commercial radio station KRAM as the navigational fix , a process that was referred to as the " KRAM procedure . " The prescribed descent angle for the KRAM procedure was about five degrees .

At 8 : 14 a.m. the United Airlines crew radioed a routine position report over the Mojave Desert to notify controllers that they expected to arrive over McCarran Field near Las Vegas at 8 : 31 a.m. Air Force pilot Moran radioed the control tower at Nellis Air Force Base at 8 : 28 a.m. to report that he would now begin a procedural " jet penetration " descent to 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) . As the fighter descended , the airliner was approaching Las Vegas air space at about 312 knots ( 578 km / h ) on a heading of 23 degrees , flying straight @-@ and @-@ level within the confines of its designated airway . The CAA stations controlling the airliner were unaware of the fighter jet ; the Air Force controllers at Nellis Air Force Base directing the jet were unaware of the airliner .

= = Collision = =

At 8 : 30 a.m. , despite clear skies with excellent visibility of about 35 miles ( 56 km ) , the flight paths of the two aircraft intersected about 9 miles ( 14 km ) southwest of Las Vegas . The converging aircraft collided nearly head @-@ on at an altitude of 21 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 400 m ) at an estimated closure speed of 665 knots ( 1 @,@ 232 km / h ) .

The descending Air Force jet , flying at 444 knots ( 822 km / h ) , had clipped the airliner 's right wing with its own right wing , immediately sending both aircraft out of control . At the moment of collision the F @-@ 100F was in a 90 degree bank to the left at a down angle of about 17 degrees . One eyewitness to the collision stated that about two seconds before the collision the wings of the F @-@ 100F " dipped " ; another eyewitness said the fighter " swooped down " just before the impact . The witness descriptions and the extreme 90 degree bank of the fighter jet — far more than the 30 degrees outlined in the KRAM procedure — suggest an unsuccessful " last second " evasive action on the part of the Air Force crew .

Moments after the two planes collided , the only mayday distress call radioed by the United Airlines crew was heard at 8 : 30 a.m. plus 20 seconds . The crippled airliner — now missing about eight feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) of its right wing — trailed black smoke and flames as it spiraled earthward , and crashed into a then @-@ empty patch of desert outside the town of Arden . The nearly vertical impact and subsequent explosion instantly killed everyone on board .

The fighter jet — its right wing and right tailplane torn away by the collision — left a trail of fragments as it arced downward , and crashed west of the small community of Sloan into a hilly area of uninhabited desert , several miles south of the DC @-@ 7 crash site . At least one of the Air Force pilots was still in the jet when it hit the ground , but contemporary news reports differ on whether the other pilot managed an unsuccessful ejection at too low an altitude to survive , or stayed with the jet all the way to the ground . Witnesses reported seeing a parachute drifting away from the falling F @-@ 100F , leading to the hope that a pilot had ejected , but when the parachute was located it was determined to be a drag parachute that is meant to be deployed on landing to help slow the fighter down .

= = Investigations = =

At the request of the local sheriff and United Airlines , the Federal Bureau of Investigation sent fingerprint experts to help identify the human remains . The Los Angeles Times reported that among the dead were 13 civilian and military managers , engineers and technicians assigned to the American ballistic missile program . Articles in the Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal commemorating the 40th and 50th anniversaries of the crash reported that the FBI search went beyond fingerprint matching for identification ; the agents were also looking for any surviving sensitive papers relating to national security that the group of military contractors had carried on board in handcuffed briefcases . The same reports also said the crash prompted the military and defense industry to adopt rules to keep groups of technical people involved in the same critical project from traveling together on the same plane .

The Civil Aeronautics Board ( CAB ) conducted an investigation and published a report on the accident . The CAB ruled out the weather conditions and the airworthiness of the two planes as factors in the collision . The report stated the probable cause was the high rate of near head @-@ on closure , and that at high altitude , there were human and cockpit limitations involved . Analysis of the approach angles concluded that a metal frame support on the F @-@ 100 's windscreen " interfered seriously " with detection of the DC @-@ 7 , and a supporting pillar on the DC @-@ 7 's windshield may have hindered sighting the fighter . The CAB accident report also cited a failure of Nellis Air Force Base and the CAA to take measures to reduce a known collision exposure ; training exercises were allowed to be conducted for more than a year prior to the collision within the confines of several airways , even after numerous near @-@ misses with military jets had been reported by airline crews .

= = Legacy = =

The mid @-@ air collision involving United Airlines Flight 736 , and a second one a month later over Maryland , between a Capital Airlines airliner and another military jet , accelerated efforts in the United States to change the way air space was allocated to commercial and military flights .

On April 22 , 1958 , the day after United Airlines Flight 736 crashed , the CAB proposed an experiment in which it would set aside part of the air space from which would be barred all aircraft lacking specific clearance to enter it . All aircraft operating in the designated space would have to be equipped for instrument flight operations . According to the CAB there had been 159 mid @-@ air collisions in the years 1947 @-@ 1957 , and that in 1957 alone there were 971 near @-@ misses . The increased speed of aircraft and higher air traffic density made it harder to give pilots enough time to spot each other during flights . Therefore , the CAB said , " it is essential that positive control be extended to altitudes at 35 @,@ 000 feet and on additional routes as rapidly as practical . " At the time such control only existed between 17 @,@ 000 and 22 @,@ 000 feet on certain transcontinental airways .

In the wake of the two airliners lost in the April and May 1958 collisions , investigators from a House of Representatives committee — concerned about the lack of coordination between civil and military air traffic controllers — imposed a 60 @-@ day deadline on the CAB and the Air Force to establish new control procedures . The committee also said that eventually a single civil agency should be given the power to regulate all air space for all types of aircraft . Furthermore , the committee stated that military flying should be controlled in the vicinity of airways not only in instrument weather , but also in visual conditions .

Four months after 49 lives were lost in the worst aviation accident in the history of the Las Vegas region , the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 was signed into law . The act dissolved the CAA and created the Federal Aviation Agency ( FAA , later renamed Federal Aviation Administration ) . The FAA was given unprecedented and total authority over the control of American air space , including military activity , and as procedures and ATC facilities were modernized , airborne collisions gradually decreased in frequency . The Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal in a 50th anniversary article stated that the act " specifically referenced the crash of United 736 in ordering the creation of the FAA . "

The supersonic F @-@ 100 left a legacy of many crashes over its years of service ; nearly 25 percent were lost to accidents . In particular , 1958 was the most costly , with 47 F @-@ 100 pilots killed and 116 of the fighters destroyed , a loss rate averaging almost one every three days .

= = Legal aftermath = =

Following the collision at least 31 lawsuits seeking damages were brought against United Airlines , the U.S. Government , or both . On September 24 , 1958 , United Airlines filed for damages — based on the Federal Tort Claims Act — against the United States in the U.S. District Court for the District of Delaware . The airline alleged that the United States through its agents in the United States Air Force negligently operated the F @-@ 100F , and sought damages of US $ 3 @,@ 576 @,@ 698 . The court found neither crew was negligent for a failure to see and avoid each other , but held the United States was liable because of other negligence . The case was settled on December 17 , 1962 , with the United States agreeing to pay the airline $ 1 @.@ 45 million .

In another case , on January 8 , 1964 surviving relatives of two of the United Airlines crew were awarded a total of $ 343 @,@ 200 from the government , with U.S. District Court Judge Hatfield Chilson finding the Air Force pilots did not use " ordinary care " in operation of the fighter jet , and should have yielded the right of way to the DC @-@ 7 airliner . Chilson also criticized the Air Force for not coordinating instrument training flights with civilian instrument flight rules traffic , and for failing to schedule flights to minimize traffic congestion . The government appealed , and the relatives cross @-@ appealed to have their damage awards increased , but the earlier 1964 judgment was affirmed on September 30 , 1965 .

= = Nearby crash sites = =

The region where the United Airlines and Air Force aircraft went down has experienced other major airliner crashes . In 1942 movie star Carole Lombard and 21 others died in the mountainside crash of TWA Flight 3 , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) WSW of where United Airlines Flight 736 crashed . In 1964 , 29 people lost their lives when Bonanza Air Lines Flight 114 flew into a hilltop 5 miles ( 8 km ) SW of the United Airlines impact site ; the F @-@ 100F crashed in the same area of desert hills as the Bonanza Air Lines flight .

At both of those rugged , mountainous sites , salvage efforts removed the more accessible and valuable wreckage , but scattered and sometimes substantial portions of the TWA DC @-@ 3 and Bonanza Air Lines Fairchild F @-@ 27 were left behind , including the DC @-@ 3 's radial engines . The United Airlines DC @-@ 7 crash site , however , has been cleared of all but the smallest artifacts , and is threatened by development . In 1958 the site was at least a mile from the nearest paved road ; today the spot where the DC @-@ 7 hit is adjacent to a developed neighborhood near the intersection of Decatur Boulevard and Cactus Avenue . Five decades after the events of April 21 , 1958 , a small makeshift marker placed in the sandy soil was the only sign of the loss of United Airlines Flight 736 , but preliminary efforts were in motion to encourage public officials to build a permanent memorial to those who died .

= A Rugrats Passover =

" A Rugrats Passover " is the 26th and final episode of the third season of the American animated television series Rugrats , and its 65th episode overall . It was broadcast originally on April 13 , 1995 , on the cable network Nickelodeon . The plot follows series regulars Grandpa Boris and the babies as they become trapped in the attic on Passover ; to pass the time , Boris tells the Jewish story of the Exodus . During the episode the babies themselves reenact the story , with young Tommy portraying Moses , while his cousin Angelica represents the Pharaoh of Egypt .

" A Rugrats Passover " was directed by Jim Duffy , Steve Socki , and Jeff McGrath from the script by Peter Gaffney , Paul Germain , Rachel Lipman , and Jonathon Greenberg . The episode was conceived in 1992 when Germain responded to a Nickelodeon request for a Rugrats Hanukkah special by creating a Passover episode instead . The episode scored a 3 @.@ 1 Nielsen Rating , making it " the highest @-@ rated show in Nickelodeon 's history " , and received overwhelmingly positive reviews , including from Jewish community publications . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award , an Annie Award , and a CableACE Award . The episode also , however , attracted controversy , when the Anti @-@ Defamation League compared the artistic design of the older characters to anti @-@ Semitic drawings from a 1930s Nazi newspaper .

The episode made Rugrats one of the first animated series to focus on a Jewish holiday ; its success precipitated the creation of another special , " A Rugrats Chanukah " , which also attracted critical acclaim . A novelization of the episode was in 2007 exhibited at the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma .

= = Plot = =

As the episode opens , Tommy and Angelica Pickles and their parents are all gathering to celebrate the Passover Seder at the home of Didi 's parents , Boris and Minka Kropotkin . Stu and Angelica , who are Christians , both find Passover boring , and Angelica argues why she and her parents should be at the Seder at all , especially considering Boris and Minka aren 't actually related to them . Following an argument with Minka about what type of wine glasses they should use ( either the glasses that belonged to Minka 's mother or the ones that belonged Boris 's father ) , Boris storms out of the room ; the two families arrive and Didi tries comforting her mom , who believes Boris has run away .

Boris hasn 't reappeared by the time Tommy 's best friend , Chuckie Finster , and his dad , Chas , arrive to join the celebration ; when the Seder begins the children set off to search for Boris , eventually finding him in the attic . Boris explains that he felt bad about yelling at Minka , and had gone to look for her mother 's wine glasses , but had become locked inside when the door closed behind him ( it can 't open from the inside ) . Angelica tests the door , and inadvertently locks them all in again .

Angelica tells Boris that he 's not really missing anything and admits that she thinks that Passover 's a dumb holiday . Boris tries convincing her otherwise by telling her and the boys the story of the Exodus , hoping to improve their understanding of Passover . As he talks , Angelica imagines herself as the Pharaoh of Egypt , who commands the Hebrew slaves ( imagined as the other Rugrats and numerous other babies ) to throw their newborn sons into the Nile River . One Hebrew slave defies the order by putting her infant son , Moses ( imagined as Tommy ) , into a basket and setting the basket afloat in the river . The basket and baby are discovered by Pharaoh Angelica , who shows Moses around her palace and kingdom , and decides to make him her partner .

As Boris explains that the Pharaoh was unaware that Moses himself was actually a Hebrew , Chas enters the attic , looking for the children , and becomes locked in with the rest of them . He sits down and listens as Boris continues : years later , Boris says , Moses stood up for an abused Hebrew slave ( imagined as Chuckie ) , and was outed as a Hebrew . The episode then pictures Tommy as Moses fleeing to the desert , where he becomes a shepherd and forgets about Egypt and the Pharaoh , until the voice of God calls to him from a burning bush , telling him that he must free the Hebrews from slavery .

Moses confronts the Pharaoh and demands that she free the Hebrews . She refuses and calls her guards ( one of which was a kid named Justin , voiced by Dana Hill ) to drag Moses away ; he curses her kingdom with terrible plagues until she relents and allows Moses to leave with the enslaved Hebrews . As Boris is explaining how the Pharaoh deceives the Hebrews and prevents them from leaving , Angelica 's parents , Drew and Charlotte , arrive and become locked in with the others .

Boris resumes the story : the Pharaoh 's treachery causes Moses to curse her once more , this time with a plague on the first @-@ born children of Egypt . The Pharaoh , after realizing that she herself is a first @-@ born child , bargains with Moses : he can leave if he calls off this final plague . Moses hesitates at first , but complies and leads the Hebrews out of Egypt . The Pharaoh reneges on her promise ( after realizing that she set all of the Hebrews free ) and leads out her remaining army to pursue them .

Minka , Didi , and Stu arrive in the attic to find the group enthralled by the end of Boris 's story : Moses , cornered , calls down the power of God to part the Red Sea , which the Hebrews are approaching . They pass through the parted waters , which then crash back together behind them , engulfing the Pharaoh and her army . With the story over , the family gets up to finish the Seder only to see the wind blow the door shut , locking them all in . Boris decides to tell them another story , which Chas at first thinks is about how the Hebrews wandered the desert for forty years before finally reaching the Promised Land . Boris explains that it 's actually a story about how an aunt and uncle of his met at Passover Seder back in Russia .

= = Production = =

The episode 's inception in 1992 followed a call by Nickelodeon to the Rugrats production staff , pitching the concept of a special episode concerning Hanukkah . The crew agreed instead that a Passover special would offer both " historical interest " and a " funny idea " , so Paul Germain — founder of the series along with Arlene Klasky and Gábor Csupó — pitched the Passover idea instead .

Germain wrote the episode 's teleplay along with regular Rugrats writers Peter Gaffney , Rachel Lipman , and Jonathon Greenberg ; animators Jim Duffy , Steve Socki , and Jeff McGrath directed . While scripting the episode , now entitled " A Rugrats Passover " , the writers were forced to audit many elements of the portrayal of plagues , particularly the third one , so it could still be accessible to children and not too frightening . Though regular episodes of the series comprised two separate 15 @-@ minute segments , " A Rugrats Passover " had a special 22 @-@ minute format , occupying the show 's full network Rugrats slot . The show 's voice actors each spent from fifteen minutes to four hours in recording sessions for the episode .

The episode was released in several formats , including DVD and VHS . It appears on the video release A Rugrats Passover alongside features " Toys in the Attic " , and Rugrats Passover : Let My Babies Go . It is also featured on the Grandpa 's Favorite Stories video release , with the episode " The Return of Reptar " . Publisher Simon Spotlight in 1998 released a novelization of the episode , entitled Let My Babies Go ! A Passover Story , written by Sarah Wilson and featuring illustrations by Barry Goldberg .

= = Themes = =

" A Rugrats Passover " was unusual among contemporary animations in its attention to Jewish ritual and tradition . Its portrayal of a Seder dinner received press attention as a rare occurrence in children 's programming . The episode was also unusual among animated series for discussing the characters ' religious affiliations . It revealed Boris , Minka , and Didi 's adherence to Judaism , and compared it with the relative non @-@ participation of Stu and his side of the family . Chuckie and his father Chas , meanwhile , were portrayed as nonreligious yet inclusive and enthused to learn about the customs of the holiday .

As with other Rugrats episodes , " A Rugrats Passover " depicts " the innocence of a baby 's perception of the world , " emphasizing the young characters ' intense , childlike reactions to their environment . Creator Klasky identified the episode 's depiction of the Pickles family as " very loving , [ and ] basically functional " as strikingly different from the prevailing trends in contemporary television programming . Another episode element common to the series ' broader themes is its treatment of Angelica 's mother Charlotte , who throughout the episode is glued to her cell phone and engrossed in her business life , despite her professed desire to provide Angelica with an educational environment .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings and accolades = = =

" A Rugrats Passover " was broadcast originally on April 13 , 1995 , on the Nickelodeon television network . Repeats of the episode began that Saturday at 7 : 30 p.m. The episode received a Nielsen Rating of 3 @.@ 1 , with a 4 @.@ 8 % share of American audiences , making it the sixth most @-@ watched American telecast of the week . According to Catherine Mullally , Vice President and Executive Producer of Nickelodeon Video and Audio Works in 1995 , the episode was the highest Nielsen @-@ rated telecast in the network 's history . The episode was supplanted as Nickelodeon 's most @-@ viewed in 1998 , by another Rugrats special , when the Thanksgiving episode " The Turkey Who Came to Dinner " attracted 3 @.@ 7 million viewers ( 9 @.@ 4 / 28 ) .

The episode was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the category " Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , " but lost to The Simpsons episode " Lisa 's Wedding . " At the 23rd Annual Annie Awards it was nominated in the category " Best Individual Achievement for Writing in the Field of Animation , " but was beaten by the episode " The Tick vs. Arthur ’ s Bank Account " from Fox Kids ' animated series The Tick . In 1995 , it was Rugrats ' submission for a CableACE award ; it received a nomination but did not win .

= = = Critical response = = =

" A Rugrats Passover " received overwhelmingly positive reviews and became one of the series ' all @-@ time most popular episodes . John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times wrote of the episode " If not a first , it certainly is a rarity . " Ted Cox of the Daily Herald called the episode " among the best holiday TV specials ever produced . " Other reviews applauded the episode for its treatment of Judaism . Authors Michael Atkinson and Laurel Shifrin , in their book Flickipedia : Perfect Films for Every Occasion , Holiday , Mood , Ordeal , and Whim praised the episode for celebrating " secular Jewishness in the wisest and most entertaining fashion [ ... ] Grandpa Boris regales the kids with an epic , albeit abridged , Exodus story . " Halley Blair of Forward Magazine called the episode " a comical primer for getting children ready for upcoming seders , " and Danny Goldberg , in How The Left Lost Teen Spirit , noted that the episode 's Jewish themes were " clearly expressed in the context of a mass appeal entertainment . " Among many positive reviews of the episode in Jewish community publications , Gila Wertheimer of the Chicago Jewish Star said that the episode " will entertain children of all ages – and their parents . "

Joel Keller of AOL 's TV Squad , on the other hand , noted in 2006 that he " always hated " the episode , and resented that it was one of only two Passover @-@ themed television episodes he could find via a Google search .

= = = Anti @-@ Defamation League controversy = = =

" A Rugrats Passover , " along with other Rugrats episodes featuring Boris and Minka , attracted controversy when the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) claimed that the two characters resembled anti @-@ Semitic drawings that had appeared in a 1930s Nazi newspaper . Nickelodeon 's then @-@ president Albie Hecht , himself Jewish , professed himself dumbfounded by the criticism , calling it absurd . The controversy resurfaced in 1998 when the ADL criticized another appearance of Boris , this time reciting the Mourner 's Kaddish in a Rugrats comic strip published in newspapers during the Jewish New Year . Unlike Hecht , Nickelodeon 's new president Herb Scannell agreed with the criticism and apologized , promising never to run the character or the strip again .

= = = Legacy = = =

" A Rugrats Passover " has been Nickelodeon 's first programming about Passover ; the network went on to broadcast other episodes concerning Jewish traditions , including " Harold 's Bar Mitzvah " , a 1997 episode of Hey Arnold ! in which the character Harold Berman prepares for his Bar Mitzvah . Rugrats in turn produced a second Jewish holiday episode , this time to meet the network executives ' original Hanukkah special pitch . David N. Weiss , who had recently converted to Judaism , and J. David Stem collaborated to write the script , and Raymie Muzquiz directed . The episode , entitled " A Rugrats Chanukah , " was originally broadcast on December 4 , 1996 , on Nickelodeon and received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 in the Kids 2 – 11 demographic . Like " A Rugrats Passover , " it was critically acclaimed and became among the most popular episodes in the series .

In 2007 the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma opened an exhibition of Biblical images in art and pop culture , including a poster for Let My Babies Go ! A Passover Story , the picture book based on " A Rugrats Passover " . Other items highlighted in the gallery included a promotional poster for The Simpsons episode " Simpsons Bible Stories " and a vintage Superman comic book entitled " The Red @-@ Headed Beatle of 1000 B.C. , " featuring the character Jimmy Olsen 's time @-@ traveling adventures in the Biblical age .

= A1 ( Croatia ) =

The A1 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A1 ) is the longest motorway in Croatia , spanning 478 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 297 @.@ 6 mi ) . As it connects Zagreb , the nation 's capital , to Split , the second largest city in the country and the largest city in Dalmatia , the motorway represents a major north – south transportation corridor in Croatia and a significant part of the Adriatic – Ionian motorway . Apart from Zagreb and Split , the A1 motorway runs near a number of major Croatian cities , provides access to several national parks or nature parks , world heritage sites , and numerous resorts , especially along the Adriatic Coast . National significance of the motorway is reflected through its positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects as well as its importance to tourism in Croatia .

The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction separated by a central reservation . All intersections of the A1 motorway are grade separated . As the route traverses rugged mountainous and coastal terrain the route , completed as of 2014 , required 376 bridges , viaducts , tunnels and other similar structures , including the two longest tunnels in Croatia and two bridges comprising spans of 200 meters ( 660 ft ) or more . There are 33 exits and 26 rest areas operating along the route . As the motorway is tolled using a ticket system and vehicle classification in Croatia , each exit includes a toll plaza .

A motorway connecting Zagreb and Split was designed in the early 1970s , and a public loan was started in order to collect sufficient funds for its construction . However , due to political upheavals in Croatia and Yugoslavia , construction of the motorway was labeled a " nationalist project " and cancelled in 1971 . After Croatian independence and conclusion of the Croatian War of Independence , efforts to build the motorway were renewed and construction started in 2000 . The Zagreb – Split section of the route was completed by 2005 , while the first sections between Split and Dubrovnik opened in 2007 and 2008 . Construction costs incurred so far amount to 3 billion euro . The figure includes funds approved for construction work scheduled to be completed by 2013 . On the other hand , the amount does not include construction cost related to Lučko – Bosiljevo 2 section since that section was funded as a part of Rijeka – Zagreb motorway construction project through Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , current operator of that sector . The remainder of the A1 motorway , i.e. , the sections south of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange are operated by Hrvatske autoceste .

= = Route description = =

The A1 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A1 ) is a major north – south motorway in Croatia connecting the capital of the country , Zagreb , to the Dalmatia region , where the motorway follows a route parallel to the Adriatic coast . As a part of the road network of Croatia , it is a part of two major European routes : E65 Prague – Bratislava – Zagreb – Rijeka – Split – Dubrovnik and E71 Budapest – Zagreb – Karlovac – Bihać – Knin – Split . The motorway is of major importance to Croatia in terms of development of the economy ; especially tourism and as a transit transport route . This has been reflected by an accelerated development of regions connected by the A1 motorway . A part of the motorway is considered to be a segment of the Adriatic – Ionian motorway . Once the latter motorway 's connecting sections are completed , those currently spanned just by the Adriatic Highway as well as two @-@ lane roads in Slovenia and Albania , the A1 will achieve genuine importance as a transit route .

The motorway spans 478 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 297 @.@ 6 mi ) between Zagreb ( Lučko interchange ) and Ploče via Split . The route serves Karlovac via D1 , Gospić via D534 , Zadar via D8 and D424 and Šibenik via D533 . The A1 motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction along its entire length . The sole exception is Drežnik Viaduct where there are no emergency lanes . Almost all of the existing interchanges are trumpet interchanges , except for Lučko which is a stack . There are numerous rest areas along the motorway , providing various types of services ranging from simple parking spaces and restrooms to petrol stations , restaurants and hotels . As of June 2011 , the motorway has 33 interchanges , providing access to numerous towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . The ultimate southern terminus of the motorway has been established to be near Dubrovnik .

Between the Lučko and Bosiljevo 2 interchanges , the motorway follows Pan @-@ European corridor Vb , and is concurrent with the Zagreb – Rijeka motorway . The Bosiljevo 2 interchange distributes southbound A1 traffic flowing to Rijeka ( via the A6 motorway ) and to Split . That 67 @-@ kilometer ( 42 mi ) segment of the motorway is operated by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb , while the remainder of the motorway is operated by Hrvatske autoceste .

An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signaling devices , located in zones where driving conditions may vary — at interchanges , near viaducts , bridges , tunnels , and in zones where fog and strong wind are known to occur . The system comprises variable traffic signs used to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions and other information to motorway users .

The motorway route offers a scenic ride through rolling hills in the north , mountains in its central section , and along the Dalmatian coast in the south . It serves , either directly or via connecting roads , a large number of tourist destinations such as Bjelolasica in Gorski Kotar , a large number of Adriatic Sea resorts and several national parks and nature parks . In Lika region those are Plitvice Lakes National Park , Sjeverni Velebit National Park and Velebit Nature Park , while in Dalmatia the motorway serves Paklenica National Park , Telašćica Nature Park , Kornati National Park , Lake Vrana Nature Park , Krka National Park and Biokovo Nature Park . The route also provides links to a number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as Plitvice Lakes , Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik , Palace of Diocletian in Split and the Historic City of Trogir .

= = Toll = =

The A1 is a tolled motorway based on the vehicle classification in Croatia using a closed toll system integrated with the A6 motorway as the two connect in the Bosiljevo 2 interchange forming a unified toll system . Since the two motorways are operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb and Hrvatske autoceste , the toll collection system is operated jointly by the two operators . The toll is payable in Croatian kuna , euro , major credit and debit cards and using a number of prepaid toll collection systems including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operators and ENC – an electronic toll collection ( ETC ) which is shared at all motorways in Croatia ( except the A2 motorway ) and provides drivers use of dedicated lanes at toll plazas and a discounted toll rates .

The A1 north of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange is operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb and the rest is operated by Hrvatske autoceste , both of which do not report company toll income separately for individual sections of various motorways . Total toll income reported by Hrvatske autoceste in the first half of 2011 was 508 @.@ 1 million kuna ( 68 @.@ 3 million euro ) . This figure pertains to the A1 south of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange as well as all other motorways operated by Hrvatske autoceste , however the A1 represents the longest and the busiest tolled motorway operated by Hrvatske autoceste . Toll income reported by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb for the first half of 2011 is 191 @.@ 2 million kuna ( 25 @.@ 7 million euro ) . This sum includes company toll income generated elsewhere , however the A1 section represents the busiest section of the motorway network operated by Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb . Hrvatske autoceste and Autocesta Rijeka — Zagreb reported increase of the toll income compared to the same period of 2010 of 2 @.@ 2 % and 5 % respectively .

Summertime and holiday queues at Lučko mainline toll plaza can be considerable , a problem exacerbated during the usual weekend @-@ to @-@ weekend tourist stays at Croatia 's coastal resorts . In 2009 , in an effort to address the problem , the Lučko mainline toll plaza was expanded to 15 lanes , and a single additional 10 @-@ lane toll plaza was built for fast cashless toll collection in Demerje . The Demerje toll plaza is available via a motorway fork accessible to the A1 northbound traffic only . Vehicles using the Demerje toll plaza default to the original motorway route immediately past the Lučko mainline toll plaza , between the plaza and the Lučko interchange . The faster cashless system has raised the nominal capacity of the road from 2 @,@ 325 to 11 @,@ 150 vehicles per hour . As of September 2010 northbound traffic leaving the A1 must exit the tolled motorway network , since the existing Zagreb bypass is not tolled , and then re @-@ enter another tolled motorway . There are plans for the outer Zagreb bypass to be integrated into the tolled motorway network , as the ultimate solution for congestion at the Lučko toll plaza . That will require construction of a Horvati interchange south of the Lučko toll plaza .

= = Notable structures = =

A total of 361 structures — bridges , viaducts , flyovers , underpasses , passages , wildlife crossings , and tunnels — have been completed on the motorway between Zagreb and Vrgorac , and calculations indicate that 18 @.@ 6 percent of the route between Zagreb and Split is located on those structures , which is a quite considerable percentage for a motorway of this length . By June 2011 , Ravča @-@ Vrgorac section was completed , including 5 viaducts , 4 flyovers and a tunnel . An additional 15 structures were built on the section between Vrgorac and Ploče , plus on the connection towards the city of Ploče .

As of September 2010 , there are seven tunnels longer than 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) on the A1 motorway . The most notable among them are : the 5 @,@ 821 @-@ meter ( 19 @,@ 098 ft ) long Mala Kapela Tunnel between Ogulin and Brinje interchanges and the 5 @,@ 768 @-@ meter ( 18 @,@ 924 ft ) long Sveti Rok Tunnel between Sveti Rok and Maslenica interchanges . The Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels are not only the largest individual structures on the motorway but they are also the longest tunnels in Croatia . The tunnels separate three distinct climate zones . The Mala Kapela Tunnel spans between the continental climate of the central Croatia and the mountain climate of Lika , while the Sveti Rok Tunnel provides a link between Lika and its mountain climate and the Mediterranean climate of Dalmatia . Both of the Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels were originally operated as single tubes when they were opened for traffic in June 2005 until 30 May 2009 , when the second tubes of the tunnels were also opened for traffic . The other major tunnels on the A1 motorway are the 2 @,@ 300 @-@ meter ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) long Plasina Tunnel situated between Otočac and Perušić interchanges and the Grič , Brinje and Konjsko tunnels . Lengths of the latter three range between 1 @,@ 122 meters ( 3 @,@ 681 ft ) and 1 @,@ 542 meters ( 5 @,@ 059 ft ) .

The longest bridge on the A1 motorway is the 546 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 791 ft ) long Dobra Bridge spanning Dobra River near Karlovac . Other major bridges on the route are the Gacka , Miljanica and Dabar bridges — all of them longer than 350 meters ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) . Also , the A1 motorway comprises the 391 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 283 ft ) long Krka Bridge spanning Krka River and the 378 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 240 ft ) long Maslenica Bridge spanning Novsko Ždrilo strait . The Maslenica and Krka bridges are particularly significant as their respective main spans are 200 m ( 660 ft ) long .

The A1 motorway also comprises the longest viaduct in Croatia — the 2 @,@ 485 @-@ meter ( 8 @,@ 153 ft ) long Drežnik Viaduct situated between the Karlovac and Bosiljevo 1 interchanges . As of 2011 , there are six other major viaducts completed on the route – — the Kotezi Viaduct , Modruš 1 , Mokro Polje , Jezerane , Srijane and Rašćane viaducts . All of them are longer than 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) . The latest significant viaduct completed as a part of the Ravča – Vrgorac section is the Kotezi Viaduct at 1 @,@ 214 meters ( 3 @,@ 983 ft ) , surpassing all other viaducts on the route except for Drežnik Viaduct . A dispute concerning naming of the Viaduct arose one month prior to opening of the motorway section containing the viaduct , and the structure was even signposted as the Bunina Viaduct for several days in June 2011 , only to revert the name to the Kotezi Viaduct days prior to the opening ceremony itself . The section also comprises the 402 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 319 ft ) long Šare Viaduct .

= = History = =

The A1 motorway was originally designed in the early 1970s , albeit along a different route than the present Zagreb – Split motorway route . After suppression of the Croatian Spring and removal of the Croatian leadership that proposed and adopted the construction plan in 1971 , all the work related to the Zagreb – Split motorway was cancelled . The plans were revived in the 1990s and new designs were developed to include a motorway section built between Zagreb and Karlovac into the design so that the section could be shared between Zagreb – Split and Zagreb – Rijeka motorways . Construction work started in 2000 and the motorway reached Split by 2005 and was extended towards Dubrovnik later on . Both in the 1970s and in the 2000s , construction of the Zagreb – Split motorway was perceived to symbolize rebuilding of national unity .

= = = King Tomislav Motorway = = =

The Zagreb – Split motorway , now the A1 motorway , was one of three routes defined by the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Croatia on 5 March 1971 , as priority transport routes of Croatia that were to be developed as motorways . Originally the motorway was designed to follow a route from Zagreb to Bihać ( Bosnia and Herzegovina ) and then to Split via Knin . The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina issued its approval for the route in Bihać region in the same year . Construction of the motorway was initiated by a fundraising effort — a public loan . The funds gathered initially through the public loan were sufficient for construction of 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) of the motorway .

The 39 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometer ( 24 @.@ 4 mi ) long Zagreb – Karlovac section of the Zagreb – Rijeka motorway , now part of the A1 motorway , was completed in 1972 . Further construction of motorways from Zagreb to Rijeka and Split was suspended for the next 28 years following a political decision of the Croatian leadership , newly installed during Yugoslav suppression of the Croatian Spring , to " stop megalomaniac projects " . It is considered that the true reason for the cancellation of the works was that the motorway was considered to be a " nationalist " project . The conclusion is supported by the fact the road was spontaneously nicknamed King Tomislav Motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta kralja Tomislava ) by citizens investing their money through the public loan after the first king of medieval Croatia , who united Croatia as a single kingdom in 925 . The funds raised through the public loan were left unused for several months , then spent for construction of a road between Vrlika and Strmica via Knin , now a part of the D1 and D30 state roads . However , the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe recognized the route as the southernmost part of the Pyhrn route , giving it the designation E59 in 1975 . Subsequent reorganizations of the E @-@ road network , including the latest one in 2008 , transferred the route south of Zagreb to the E71 .

= = = Dalmatina = = =

In the beginning of the 1990s , construction of the motorway was further postponed because of onset of the Croatian War of Independence . The decade saw renewed discussion regarding construction of the motorway , including renewed considerations of its route . Soon , the originally devised route running through Bihać was set aside and two new routes were considered : One of them was a modified version of the original route , bypassing Bihać and running through the Plitvice Lakes region while the other was a completely new route further to the west via Gospić and Zadar , which was eventually accepted for construction . Both of the alternative routes proposed that the Zagreb – Karlovac motorway already completed in 1972 were to be used as the northernmost section of the Zagreb – Split and Zagreb – Rijeka motorways .

The A1 was a showpiece project of the Croatian government and a symbol of uniting the country . The first attempt to revive the project in earnest occurred in the 1993 , when the excavation of Sveti Rok Tunnel began . More comprehensive construction work started in 2000 and Karlovac – Vukova Gorica section opened in 2001 . In 2003 , the first sections not shared with the Zagreb – Rijeka Motorway were completed : Vukova Gorica – Mala Kapela Tunnel and Gornja Ploča – Zadar 2 . Mala Kapela Tunnel – Gornja Ploča , Zadar 2 – Pirovac and Vrpolje – Dugopolje sections opened in 2004 and Mala Kapela Tunnel itself and Pirovac – Vrpolje section opened in 2005 marking completion of the Zagreb – Split Motorway , culminating with the grand opening of Karlovac — Split section on 26 June 2005 .

Construction of the motorway along its Split – Dubrovnik sector started once the motorway sectors north of Split were complete , and the section between Split ( Dugopolje interchange ) and Šestanovac interchange opened on 27 June 2007 . The last sections to be completed to date are Šestanovac – Ravča , opened on 22 December 2008 , Ravča @-@ Vrgorac section opened on 30 June 2011 , and the Vrgorac @-@ Ploče section opened on 20 December 2013 . In the 2000s , as the motorway construction works were gradually progressing further south , the motorway earned its unofficial , yet widely used name — Dalmatina in Croatian press because it connected Zagreb to Dalmatia . In 2010 , Donja Zdenčina interchange was opened between Lučko and Jastrebarsko interchanges , and in June 2012 , Novigrad interchange opened bringing number of motorway exits to 33 .

= = = Construction cost = = =

The construction cost for the Bosiljevo 2 – Split ( Dugopolje interchange ) sector of the motorway was originally estimated by the government in 2001 and presented as " 3 x 3 x 3 " – that is , the 300 kilometers ( 190 mi ) of the motorway was to be completed in 3 years at a cost of 3 billion marks ( approximately 12 @.@ 65 billion kuna at the time , or approximately 1 @.@ 533 billion euros ) . In 2010 , Hrvatske autoceste reported that the average cost of one kilometer of Bosiljevo – Split motorway was 7 @.@ 1 million euro , which would mean that the total construction cost was 2 @.@ 21 billion euro for that 311 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 193 @.@ 5 mi ) long segment .

Construction cost incurred on the Dugopolje – Ploče sector of the motorway between 2005 and 2008 was reported at 4 @.@ 1 billion kuna and additional 1 @.@ 8 billion kuna of construction expenses are planned until the end of 2012 ( representing approximately 560 and 245 million euro , respectively ) . The latter figure includes construction of the D425 state road but it does not include full completion of the Vrgorac – Ploče section .

= = Further construction = =

The ultimate southern terminus of the motorway has been established by applicable legislation to be near Dubrovnik .

Hrvatske autoceste , operator of the southern portion of the A1 motorway , ordered the execution of design documents , feasibility and environmental impact studies for the Doli – Osojnik section of the motorway that is to be constructed near Dubrovnik . Commencement of construction on this section was originally scheduled for 2009 . Despite an official ceremony to mark commencement of construction works on the section , no works beyond design and study development has been carried out there .

The A1 motorway route between Ploče and Doli has not been fixed yet , as several options exist , all of which require the route to cross either an embayment of the Adriatic Sea or a part of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , the former being associated with construction of the 2 @,@ 404 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 887 ft ) Pelješac Bridge spanning the coast south of Ploče and the Pelješac peninsula . Construction of the bridge began in May 2008 , after a contract to build it was signed in 2007 . The bridge was originally scheduled to be completed by May 2012 . Pelješac Bridge construction contract worth 1 @.@ 94 billion Kuna ( c . 259 million Euro ) was cancelled due to lack of funds on 17 May 2012 . Construction of the bridge was significantly delayed and effectively suspended since 2010 for the same reason .

In April 2012 , government of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina proposed a route in Neum area to connect Ploče and Dubrovnik while serving Neum . That entails branching of the A1 motorway 7 to 8 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 0 miles ) west of Neum , one branch serving Neum and the other Dubrovnik . As of July 2012 no decision was reached on the section of the A1 route .

A planned modification of the existing route encompasses construction of a directional T interchange to replace the existing trumpet interchange built at Žuta Lokva . The new interchange is only planned to be built once the A7 motorway is completed between the Rijeka bypass and Žuta Lokva . It shall not feature any weaving , similar to the Bosiljevo 2 interchange of the A1 and A6 motorways .

= = Traffic volume = =

Traffic is regularly counted by means of traffic census at toll stations and reported by Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb and Hrvatske autoceste — the operators of the northern and the southern portions of the motorway respectively . The reported traffic volume gradually decreases as the motorway chainage increases and as it passes by various major destinations and the interchanges that serve them . Thus the greatest volume of traffic is registered between Jastrebarsko and Lučko interchanges – with 31 @,@ 432 vehicle annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , and 53 @,@ 216 vehicle average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) figures as that is the section closest to Zagreb . South of the Bosiljevo 2 interchange the first major drop of traffic volume is recorded on the A1 motorway , due to traffic transferring to the A6 motorway towards Rijeka . Other similar changes of the traffic volume are registered near Zadar ( served by Zadar 1 and Zadar 2 interchanges ) and Split served by Dugopolje interchange . Substantial variations observed between AADT and ASDT are normally attributed to the fact that the motorway carries significant tourist traffic . The seasonal increase traffic volume variations ranges 69 % on the busiest , Lučko – Jastrebarsko section to 160 % as measured on Sveti Rok – Maslenica section . The summer season traffic volume increase on the motorway is 120 % .

= = Rest areas = =

As of September 2010 , there are 26 rest areas operating along the A1 motorway , and additional rest areas are planned along the existing sections of the route and those sections under construction . Legislation provides for four types of rest areas designated as types A through D — A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or a motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodation ; D @-@ type rest areas offer parking spaces only , possibly some picnicking tables and benches and restrooms . Even though the rest areas found along the A1 motorway generally follow this ranking system , there are considerable variations as some of them offer extra services . The most notable example is Krka rest area — even though it has no filling station , there is , for instance , a restaurant available . The filling stations regularly have small convenience stores and some of them offer LPG fuel . EuroTest , an international association of 18 European automobile clubs spearheaded by German automobile club ADAC , surveyed three of the A1 motorway rest areas in 2009 : Krka , Lički Osik and Modruš ( in case of the latter , both eastbound and westbound ) . All of the rest areas were rated as very good , especially in terms of facilities offered .

The primary motorway operators Hrvatske autoceste ( HAC ) and Autocesta Rijeka – Zagreb lease the A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . As of September 2010 , there are five such rest area operators on the A1 motorway : INA , OMV , Tifon , Petrol and Crobenz . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease the fuel operations ; Tifon and Petrol operated rest areas have restaurants or hotels operated by Marché , a Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts subsidiary . All of the A1 motorway rest areas , except Stupnik and Jezerane , are accessible to both directions of the motorway traffic . The rest areas normally operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .

= = Exit list = =

= Typhoon Sarah ( 1959 ) =

Typhoon Sarah was among the deadliest typhoons on record in the western Pacific Ocean , killing around 2 @,@ 000 people . It formed during the peak of the busy 1959 Pacific typhoon season near Guam , and moved generally to the west @-@ northwest . Continued observations from the Hurricane Hunters allowed the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to track Sarah from its origins to its peak as a powerful typhoon , with maximum sustained winds estimated at 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) on September 15 . Shortly thereafter , the typhoon struck the small Japanese island of Miyako @-@ jima , where the barometric pressure fell to 908 @.@ 1 mbar ( 26 @.@ 82 inHg ) , the second @-@ lowest on record for the country . Sarah turned to the north and northeast , weakening from its peak intensity . On September 17 , the typhoon made landfall just west of Busan , South Korea with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , the nation 's strongest landfall at the time and only to be surpassed by Typhoon Maemi in 2003 . Sarah later became extratropical over the Japanese island of Hokkaido on September 18 , although the remnants persisted for several days , crossing into the Russian Far East and later dissipating on September 23 .

On Miyako @-@ jima , Sarah damaged all of the crops and destroyed about 6 @,@ 000 houses . Damage was estimated at $ 2 million , and there were seven deaths . The damage prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the " Miyakojima Typhoon " . However , the effects were worst in South Korea , and Sarah was described as the worst typhoon there in 50 years . Wind gusts there peaked at 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , the highest at the time in the country . High winds and waves heavily damaged the port of Busan . Nationwide , the storm destroyed over 14 @,@ 000 homes and left 782 @,@ 126 people homeless , causing over $ 100 million in damage . At least 669 people were killed in South Korea , and an additional 1 @,@ 200 fishermen were lost offshore the country . In Japan , widespread flooding killed 47 people and destroyed 16 @,@ 632 homes .

= = Meteorological history = =

On September 10 , a tropical disturbance persisted within the intertropical convergence zone near Pohnpei . When the Hurricane Hunters approached the system at 02 : 00 UTC on September 11 , they observed a center with several small circulations about 130 km ( 80 mi ) east of Guam . On that basis , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified the system as Tropical Depression Sarah . The depression passed near or just north of Guam , as tracked by radar . By late on September 11 , the Hurricane Hunters were reporting flight @-@ level winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Early on September 12 , the JTWC upgraded Sarah to a tropical storm after the circulation became better defined . The storm exhibited a parabolic trajectory that was slightly to the west of the typical September storm . It moved westward initially but gradually curved to the northwest . A Hurricane Hunters flight at 14 : 15 UTC on September 12 observed a 65 km ( 40 mi ) eye diameter , prompting the JTWC to upgrade Sarah further to typhoon status , with maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .

After becoming a typhoon , Sarah quickly intensified ; at 08 : 00 UTC on September 13 , the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Subsequent analysis estimated that the typhoon attained these winds at 00 : 00 UTC that day . At 12 : 00 UTC on September 14 , the JTWC estimated that Sarah intensified to the equivalent of a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , based on aircraft estimates . The typhoon intensified further , and late on September 14 the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , estimating surface winds of 315 km / h ( 195 mph ) . The intensity was adjusted slightly downward in a post @-@ analysis , with peak winds of 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) at 06 : 00 UTC on September 15 about 415 km ( 260 mi ) east of Taiwan . In addition , the typhoon attained a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) .

About three hours after Sarah reached peak winds , the typhoon moved directly over Miyako @-@ jima , an island of Japan east of Taiwan . Sarah weakened while curving to the north , and it passed west of Okinawa late on September 15 . The winds dropped quickly ; by 24 hours after peak intensity , Sarah 's winds had decreased from 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The typhoon turned and accelerated to the northeast toward the Korean peninsula , re @-@ intensifying slightly . By late on September 16 , the winds increased to 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) while Sarah passed just east of Jeju island . The typhoon weakened again to winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) by 00 : 00 UTC on September 17 . That day , Sarah made landfall a few miles west of Busan , South Korea at that intensity ; this made Sarah the strongest typhoon to strike the country since records began in 1904 , and it remained as such until Typhoon Maemi surpassed it in 2003 . The typhoon very quickly emerged into the Sea of Japan , its circulation becoming poorly defined . On September 18 , Sarah became extratropical after moving over the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido . The remnants continued to the northeast initially before turning sharply westward , passing over Sakhalin . The circulation progressed into Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East before turning back east . Former Typhoon Sarah struck Sakhalin a second time on September 20 while moving east @-@ southeastward . After passing through the Kuril Islands , the remnants of Sarah dissipated on September 23 .

= = Preparations and impact = =

Early in its duration , Sarah brought gusty winds and passing showers to Guam .

Shortly after reaching peak intensity , Sarah passed near the island of Miyako @-@ jima . The pressure there fell to 908 @.@ 1 mbar ( 26 @.@ 82 inHg ) , which was the lowest recorded for the station and the second @-@ lowest on record for Japan , both as of 2003 . The typhoon produced sustained winds of 196 km / h ( 122 mph ) and gusts up to 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) before the anemometer broke . The winds destroyed over 6 @,@ 000 homes and wrecked all of the crops . Sarah also left the island without power for an extended period of time after damaging power lines . The combination of high winds and rough seas destroyed a fishing pier and 670 m ( 2 @,@ 200 ft ) of seawall , as well as several tidal weirs . Sarah also sank four fishing boats and damaged seven others . On Miyako @-@ jima , Sarah killed seven people , injured 88 others , and left $ 2 million in damage . The heavy damage on the island prompted the Japan Meteorological Agency to give Sarah the special name of the " Miyakojima Typhoon " . Sarah was part of a series of typhoons striking the island in 1959 , causing food shortages that forced the population to change their diet . The storm brushed Okinawa with gusts of 135 km / h ( 84 mph ) .

Sarah was the worst typhoon to strike the Korean peninsula in 50 years . The peak wind gust in South Korea was 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , which was the highest for a typhoon at the time , with records dating back to 1904 ; as of 2010 , the value has fallen to the ninth place . Damage was heaviest at Busan where the storm struck . The port there sustained over $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage , and nearby American military bases had over $ 900 @,@ 000 in damage . Coastal floods washed away or damaged 15 @,@ 379 homes in the Busan area , leaving 25 @,@ 834 people homeless . The waves also damaged or sank 5 @,@ 400 boats . Nationwide , floods damaged 127 @,@ 000 hectares ( 313 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields . Throughout South Korea , Sarah destroyed over 14 @,@ 000 homes and left 782 @,@ 126 people homeless , thousands of whom were injured . The Ministry of Social Affairs estimated property damage at over $ 100 million , and the typhoon killed at least 669 people . After the storm , the CARE relief agency launched an appeal in the United States , collecting $ 18 @,@ 500 worth of shoes and underwear for storm victims . The Australian Red Cross also provided assistance to the country , including money , sheets , and blankets . Due to the ongoing Korean War and Sarah , South Korea lost much of its fishing fleet , resulting in diminished catches over the subsequent decades . The typhoon also caused a rise in the wholesale price index , in conjunction with political uncertainty .

A fleet of 46 boats left Oenarodo near Busan on August 28 to fish near Komundo Island . The fleet failed to return after the passage of Typhoon Sarah , and local newspapers reported all 1 @,@ 200 fishermen were lost .

Late in its duration , Sarah struck Hokkaido , producing a 6 m ( 20 ft ) storm surge at Taisei along the southwest coast that left behind a sediment layer 60 m ( 200 ft ) inland . Before the storm arrived , the United States evacuated plans from Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni to Misawa Air Base , although Sarah approached closer to the latter base . The storm affected much of the nation , flooding many communities , including 14 @,@ 360 houses . Across the country , the typhoon damaged 778 boats . The storm also damaged 3 @,@ 566 ha ( 8 @,@ 810 acres ) of crop fields . Nationwide , Sarah destroyed 16 @,@ 632 homes , injured 509 people , and killed 47 .

Overall , Typhoon Sarah caused around 2 @,@ 000 deaths , making it among the deadliest typhoons on record .

= Dunster Working Watermill =

Dunster Working Watermill ( also known as Castle Mill ) is a restored 18th century watermill , situated on the River Avill , close to Gallox Bridge , in the grounds of Dunster Castle in Dunster , Somerset , England . It is a Grade II * listed building .

The mill stands on a site where a mill was first recorded in the Domesday Book , but the present building was constructed around 1780 . It closed in 1962 but was restored in 1979 and is still used to grind flour . The equipment is powered by two overshot wheels . It is owned by the National Trust but operated as a tourist attraction by a private company .

= = History = =

At the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 there were two mills in Dunster . One which was called the Lower Mill was on the site of the present mill . In the 17th century there were both malt and oats mills but by 1721 one of these had been converted to a fulling mill . The present mill , which was built around 1780 and replaced the two former mills . In 1940 a bakery was added . The mill ground corn until World War II and then animal feed until it closed in 1962 .

It was restored to working order in 1979 , winning a conservation award in 1982 . The mill is still used to grind wheat flour . A cafe was opened in the buildings which used to be the wagon house and stables . Further restoration work , completed in 2007 , was funded by the Exmoor Sustainable Development Fund .

Although it is owned by the National Trust it is leased to a private company to run as a tourist attraction and an entrance charge applies to all visitors . The site is visited by around 10 @,@ 000 tourists a year and produces 6 – 8 tonnes of flour each year . The second waterwheel was restored and the collapsed wheel replaced in 2015 .

= = Architecture and machinery = =

The two storey building has a slate roof . To the south east a stone wall contains wrought iron gates in an arched gateway .

The grinding equipment is powered by a pair of overshot wheels , which transfer power to the crown wheel via a series of belts . This then drives the grinding stones and sack lift . There is a doorway on the first floor to allow material to be hoisted up the building .

An adapted winnowing machine is used to sift the flour produced by the millstones .

= German submarine U @-@ 64 ( 1939 ) =

German submarine U @-@ 64 was a Type IXB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . She was ordered by them in July 1937 . Her keel was laid down by AG Weser in Bremen in December 1938 . Following about nine months of construction , she was launched in September 1939 and formally commissioned into the Kriegsmarine in December .

U @-@ 64 had a very short career and sank no enemy vessels . Having left her home port of Wilhelmshaven for her first war patrol on 6 April 1940 , she was intercepted by Allied aircraft seven days later off the coast of Norway during the invasion of that country and was sunk by a bomb from a Fairey Swordfish aircraft of HMS Warspite ( 03 ) . Of her crew of 46 , eight men died and 38 escaped from the sinking submarine .

= = Construction and design = =

= = = Construction = = =

U @-@ 64 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 16 July 1937 as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles . Her keel was laid down on 15 December 1938 by AG Weser in Bremen as yard number 952 . She was launched on 20 September 1939 and commissioned on 16 December under the command of Kapitänleutnant Georg @-@ Wilhelm Schulz .

= = = Design = = =

German Type IXB submarines were slightly larger than the original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA . U @-@ 64 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 051 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 034 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 178 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 159 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 76 m ( 22 ft 2 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 60 m ( 31 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .

The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 3 knots ( 13 @.@ 5 km / h ; 8 @.@ 4 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 64 nautical miles ( 119 km ; 74 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 64 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .

= = Service history = =

U @-@ 64 went to sea on 6 April 1940 . For eight days , she roamed the North Sea in search of Allied convoys heading to Norway in support of the campaign centred around that country . During that time she encountered no enemy vessels . On 13 April , the eighth day of her first patrol , she was heaved @-@ to in the waters off Bjerkvik in Norway , and was struck by a 350 @-@ pound bomb from a British Fairey Swordfish aircraft of HMS Warspite ( 03 ) . Her deck was also riddled with machine @-@ gun fire . The U @-@ boat then sank to the bottom of the harbor , eight of her crew went down with her . The remaining 38 were able to escape the sinking vessel and were picked up by German mountain troops stationed ashore . They later formed the crew of U @-@ 124 .

= HMS Exeter ( 68 ) =

HMS Exeter was the second and last York @-@ class heavy cruiser built for the Royal Navy during the late 1920s . Aside from a temporary deployment with the Mediterranean Fleet during the Abyssinia Crisis of 1935 – 36 , she spent the bulk of the 1930s assigned to the Atlantic Fleet or the North America and West Indies Station . When World War II began in September 1939 , the ship was assigned to patrol South American waters against German commerce raiders . Exeter was one of three British cruisers that fought the German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee later that year in the Battle of the River Plate . She was extensively damaged during the battle and was under repair for over a year .

After her repairs were completed , the ship spent most of 1941 on convoy escort duties before she was transferred to the Far East after the start of the Pacific War in December . Exeter was generally tasked with escorting convoys to and from Singapore during the Malayan Campaign and continued on those duties in early February 1942 as the Japanese prepared to invade the Dutch East Indies . Later that month , she was assigned to the Striking Force of the joint American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command and took on a more active role in the defence of the Dutch islands . The culmination of this was her participation in the Battle of the Java Sea later in the month as the Allies attempted to intercept Japanese invasion convoys . Exeter was crippled early in the battle and did not play much of a role as she was forced to withdraw . Two days later , she attempted to escape inbound Japanese forces , but was intercepted and sunk by Japanese ships at the beginning of March in the Second Battle of the Java Sea .

Most of her crew survived the sinking and were rescued by the Japanese . About a quarter of them died during captivity . Her wreck was discovered in early 2007 .

= = Design and description = =

Exeter was ordered two years after her sister ship York and her design incorporated improvements in the light of experience with the latter . Her beam was increased by one foot ( 30 cm ) to cater for increases in topweight , and the boiler uptakes were trunked backwards from the boiler rooms , allowing for straight funnels further removed from the bridge rather than the raked funnels necessary in York to ensure adequate dispersal of the flue gasses . As the eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) gun turrets had proved not strong enough to accommodate the aircraft catapult originally intended , Exeter was given a pair of fixed catapults angled out from amidships in a ' V ' shape , with the associated crane placed to starboard . Consequently , the bridge was lowered ( that of York being tall to give a view over the intended aircraft ) , and was of a streamlined , enclosed design that was incorporated into later cruisers .

Exeter was slightly lighter than expected and displaced 8 @,@ 390 long tons ( 8 @,@ 520 t ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 620 long tons ( 10 @,@ 790 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 575 feet 1 inch ( 175 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 58 feet ( 17 @.@ 7 m ) and a draught of 20 feet 3 inches ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) . She was powered by four Parsons geared steam turbine sets , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The ship carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 900 long tons ( 1 @,@ 900 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 628 officers and ratings .

The ships mounted six BL eight @-@ inch MK VIII guns in three twin turrets . The turrets were designated ' A ' , ' B ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . Their secondary armament consisted of four QF four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk V anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . They also mounted two single two @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) light AA guns ( " pom @-@ poms " ) . The Yorks carried two triple torpedo tube above @-@ water mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes .

The York @-@ class cruisers lacked a full @-@ length waterline armour belt . The sides of Exeter 's boiler and engine rooms and the sides of the magazines were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour . The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) thick . The top of the magazines were protected by 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) of armour and their ends were 4 @.@ 375 inches ( 111 @.@ 1 mm ) thick . The lower deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) .

= = = Modifications = = =

In 1932 , Exeter had her side plating extended to enclose her open main deck as far back as the fore funnel . During that same refit , her pair of fixed catapults were finally installed for her embarked Fairey IIIF floatplanes . In 1934 – 35 , two quadruple mounts for Vickers 0 @.@ 5 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) AA machineguns replaced the pair of two @-@ pounder " pom @-@ poms " originally installed . About four years later , the catapults were replaced by a single revolving catapult and the ship now carried Supermarine Walrus amphibians .

While under repair in 1940 – 41 after her battle with the Admiral Graf Spee , the navy decided to upgrade her armament and fire @-@ control systems . The bridge was rebuilt and enlarged to accommodate a second High @-@ Angle Control System aft of the Director @-@ Control Tower ( DCT ) on top of the bridge , her single four @-@ inch AA guns were replaced with twin @-@ gun mounts for Mark XVI guns of the same calibre and a pair of octuple mounts for 40 mm " pom @-@ poms " were added abreast the aft superstructure . Enclosures ( " tubs " ) for single 20 mm Oerlikon guns were added to the roof of both ' B ' and ' Y ' turrets . The pole masts were replaced by stronger tripod masts because the Type 279 early @-@ warning radar had separate transmitting and receiving aerials , one at each masthead . In addition , a Type 284 fire @-@ control radar was fitted to the DCT .

= = Construction and career = =

Exeter , the fourth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was laid down on 1 August 1928 , launched on 18 July 1929 and completed on 27 July 1931 . The ship was then assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet , where she served between 1931 and 1933 . In 1934 she was assigned to the America and West Indies Station and remained there , aside from a temporary deployment to the Mediterranean during the Abyssinian crisis of 1935 – 36 , until 1939 .

= = = Second World War = = =

At the outbreak of the Second World War , she formed part of the South American Division with the heavy cruiser Cumberland , under Commodore Henry Harwood . The ship , commanded by Captain Frederick Bell , was assigned to Force G to hunt for German commerce raiders off the eastern coast of South America on 6 October 1939 . Three months later , Harwood ordered Exeter and the light cruiser Achilles to rendezvous with his own Ajax off the mouth of the River Plate , while Cumberland covered the Falkland Islands . The two other ships arrived on 12 December and Admiral Graf Spee spotted Exeter the following morning .

Captain Hans Langsdorff decided to engage the British and closed at full speed . Following British doctrine on how to engage ships like Admiral Graf Spee , Exeter operated as a division on her own , Achilles and Ajax as the other , to split the fire of the German ship . They were only partially successful as the ship concentrated her main armament of six 283 @-@ millimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) guns on Exeter and her secondary armament of eight 150 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns on the light cruisers . Langsdorff opened fire at Exeter at 06 : 18 with high @-@ explosive shells and she returned fire two minutes later at a range of 18 @,@ 700 yards ( 17 @,@ 100 m ) . The German ship straddled the British cruiser with her third salvo ; splinters from the near misses killed the crew of the starboard torpedo tubes and damaged both seaplanes . After eight salvos from Exeter , Admiral Graf Spee scored a direct hit on ' B ' turret that knocked it out of action and splinters from the hit killed all of the bridge personnel except three . Bell , wounded in the face , transferred to the aft conning position to continue the battle . His ship was hit twice more shortly afterwards , but her powerplant was not damaged and she remained seaworthy , although her aircraft had to be jettisoned .

At 06 : 30 , Langsdorff switched his fire to the light cruisers , but only inflicted splinter damage on them before some of Exeter 's torpedoes forced him to turn away at 06 : 37 to evade them . Her second torpedo attack at 06 : 43 was also unsuccessful . In the meantime , Langsdorff had switched his main guns back to the heavy cruiser and scored several more hits . They knocked out ' A ' turret , started a fire amidships that damaged the ship 's fire @-@ control and navigation circuits , and caused a 7 ° list with flooding . She remained in action until flooding disabled the machinery for ' Y ' turret at 07 : 30 . At 11 : 07 , Bell informed Harwood that Exeter had one eight @-@ inch and a four @-@ inch gun available in local control and that she could make 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . He ordered Bell to head to the Falklands for repair .

Exeter was hit by a total of seven 283 mm shells that killed 61 of her crew were and wounded another 23 . After all Exeter 's guns had been put out of action but she was still seaworthy , Bell planned to collide with the enemy , saying " I 'm going to ram the -------- . It will be the end of us but it will sink him too " . In return the ship had hit Admiral Graf Spee three times ; one shell penetrated her main armour belt and narrowly missed detonating in one of her engine rooms , but the most important one disabled her oil @-@ purification equipment . Without it , the ship was unlikely to be able to reach Germany . Several days later , unable to be repaired and apparently confronted by powerful Royal Navy reinforcements , Admiral Graf Spee was scuttled in Montevideo harbour .

Exeter made for Port Stanley for emergency repairs which took until January 1940 . She was repaired and modernised at Devonport Dockyard between February 1940 and March 1941 ; Captain W.N.T. Beckett relieved Bell on 12 December 1940 . On 10 March 1941 , the day Exeter was due to be re @-@ commissioned , Beckett died at Saltash Hospital from complications resulting from surgery related to injuries received earlier in his career . His replacement was Captain Oliver Gordon . On returning to the fleet , she was engaged on escort duty for Atlantic convoys , including the escort of Convoy WS @-@ 8B to the Middle East during the chase for the German battleship Bismarck . After the start of the Pacific War in December 1941 , the ship was transferred to the Far East .

Upon her arrival at Singapore on 13 January 1942 , Exeter was assigned to the ABDACOM naval force that was intended to defend the Dutch East Indies ( Indonesia ) from Japanese invasion . She spent the first several weeks of February escorting convoys in the East Indies . On 13 February , Allied reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese invasion convoys north of Bangka Island and the new commander of ABDA naval forces , Vice Admiral Conrad Helfrich of the Royal Netherlands Navy , was ordered to assemble the Allied Striking Force of Exeter and three Dutch and one Australian light cruisers at Oosthaven on the morning of 14 February . Escorted by six American and three Dutch destroyers , the force departed that afternoon . The Dutch Rear Admiral Karel Doorman , commanding the force , took his ships through the Gaspar Strait and then northwest towards Bangka Island . While passing through the strait , the Dutch destroyer Van Ghent struck a rock in poor visibility and another Dutch destroyer was tasked to take off her crew . The Japanese spotted the Allied ships around 08 : 00 and repeatedly attacked them . The first was a group of seven Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers from the light carrier Ryūjō that attacked Exeter with bombs around 10 : 30 . The blast from a near miss badly damaged her Walrus , but the ship was only damaged by splinters . They were followed shortly afterwards by a group of 23 Mitsubishi G3M " Nell " bombers from the Genzan Air Group that inflicted no damage as they dropped their bombs from high altitude . Another group of six B5Ns attacked without effect at 11 : 30 .

The repeated aerial attacks persuaded Doorman that further progress was unwise in the face of Japanese aerial supremacy and he ordered his ships to reverse course and head for Tanjung Priok at 12 : 42 . The attacks continued as 27 G3Ms of the Mihoro Air Group then bombed from high altitude . Seven more B5Ns attacked fruitlessly at 14 : 30 ; a half @-@ dozen more followed an hour later . The final attack was made by 17 Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bombers of the Kanoya Air Group shortly before dark . The Japanese attacks were almost entirely ineffectual , with no ship reporting anything more than splinter damage . In return Allied anti @-@ aircraft fire was moderately effective with most of the attacking bombers damaged by shell splinters . In addition one G4M crashed while attempting to land and another was badly damaged upon landing .

= = = = First Battle of the Java Sea = = = =

On 25 February , Helfrich ordered all available warships to join Doorman 's Eastern Striking Force at Surabaya . Exeter and the Australian cruiser Perth , escorted by three British destroyers , Jupiter , Encounter , and Electra , set sail at once , leaving behind one Australian cruiser and two destroyers that were short of fuel . After they had arrived the following day , Doorman 's entire force of five cruisers and nine destroyers departed Surabaya at 18 : 30 to patrol off Eastern Java in hopes of intercepting the oncoming invasion convoy which had been spotted earlier that morning . The Japanese were further north than he anticipated and his ships found nothing . His own ships were located at 09 : 35 on the following morning , 27 February , and were continuously tracked by the Japanese . Doorman ordered a return to Surabaya at 10 : 30 and his ships were attacked by eight bombers from the Kanoya Air Group at 14 : 37 . They claimed to have made two hits on Jupiter , but actually missed the British destroyer . Just as his leading ships were entering harbour , he received reports of enemy ships 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the north and Doorman ordered his ships to turn about to intercept them .

Aware of Doorman 's movements , the Japanese commander , Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi , detached the convoy 's two escorting destroyer flotillas , each consisting of a light cruiser and seven destroyers , to intercept the Allied ships in conjunction with his own pair of heavy cruisers , ( Nachi and Haguro ) , which were escorted by a pair of destroyers . His heavy cruisers opened fire at long range at 15 : 47 with little effect . The light cruisers and destroyers closed to ranges between 13 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 m ) and began firing Type 93 " Long Lance " torpedoes beginning at 16 : 03 . All of these torpedoes failed to damage their targets , although one torpedo hit Exeter and failed to detonate at 16 : 35 . Three minutes later , Haguro changed the course of the battle when one of her shells penetrated the British ship 's starboard aft twin four @-@ inch gun mount before detonating in the forward boiler room , knocking six of her boilers off @-@ line and killing 14 of her crew . The ship sheered out of line to avoid another torpedo and slowed , followed by all of the trailing cruisers . Perth laid a smoke screen to protect Exeter and the Allied ships sorted themselves into separate groups as they attempted to disengage . Exeter was escorted by one Dutch and all three British destroyers in one group and the other cruisers and the American destroyers formed the other group . The Japanese did not initially press their pursuit as they maneuvered to use their torpedoes against the crippled Exeter , which could only make 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) , and her escorts .

The Japanese began launching torpedoes beginning at 17 : 20 at ranges of 10 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 500 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 to 16 @,@ 900 m ) , but they all missed . For some reason , two Japanese destroyers continued to close before firing their torpedoes at 6 @,@ 500 yards ( 5 @,@ 900 m ) and Encounter and Electra pulled out of line to counter @-@ attack . They engaged Asagumo and Minegumo at close range as they closed . Asagumo was damaged by Electra , but the Japanese ship sank the British destroyer at 17 : 46 . In the meantime , Exeter continued south to Surabaya , escorted by Encounter and the Dutch destroyer Witte de With . Doorman 's repeated , unsuccessful , and ultimately fatal , attempts to reach the transports concentrated the Japanese on the task of protecting the transports and allowed the damaged British cruiser to reach harbour .

= = = = Second Battle of the Java Sea = = = =

The following day , after making temporary repairs and refuelling , Exeter , escorted by Encounter and the American destroyer Pope , was ordered to sail to Colombo , Ceylon , via the Sunda Strait . They departed on the evening of 28 February , but were intercepted by the Japanese heavy cruisers Nachi , Haguro , Myōkō and Ashigara and the destroyers Akebono , Inazuma , Yamakaze and Kawakaze on the morning of 1 March . About 08 : 00 , the British ships spotted two of the Japanese cruisers , one of which launched its spotting floatplanes . Two others were seen closing in , and both launched their aircraft before opening fire at about 09 : 30 . The Allied ships laid smoke and turned away to the east with the Japanese to their north and south . Exeter was able to reach a speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) before the first hit on her again detonated in a boiler room and knocked out all power around 11 : 20 . The Japanese destroyers closed in and fired a total of 18 torpedoes , which made a number of hits . Two of those from from the destroyer Inazuma were claimed as hits and Exeter quickly capsized and sank . Encounter and Pope were also lost ; Pope temporarily escaped the initial melee , only to be sunk by B5Ns a few hours later .

The Japanese rescued 652 of Exeter 's crew , including her captain , who became prisoners of war . Of these men , 152 died in captivity . The wreck was located and positively identified in February 2007 . Exeter lies in Indonesian waters , at a depth of about 200 feet ( 61 m ) , 90 miles ( 140 km ) north of Bawean Island – some 60 miles ( 97 km ) from the sinking position given by Gordon after the war .

= Pennsylvania Route 666 =

Pennsylvania Route 666 ( PA 666 ) is an east – west state route located in northwest Pennsylvania . The western terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the Hickory Township municipality of East Hickory , and its eastern terminus is at US 6 in the hamlet of Sheffield in the township of the same name . It cuts through most of Allegheny National Forest , and is therefore sparsely populated , with the largest settlement along the road being Endeavor . Its official name is the David Zeisberger Memorial Highway .

The route was assigned in the 1928 numbering of State Routes in Pennsylvania . The highway originally ended in Nebraska until being extended southward along other streets . The route was realigned in 1946 onto its present routing . The highway has remained the same since .

= = Route description = =

= = = East Hickory to Old PA 666 = = =

Pennsylvania Route 666 begins at an intersection with US 62 along the banks of the Allegheny River in East Hickory . The route progresses eastward , intersecting with East Hickory Road , a dead end street that is part of old US 62 . With trees and some homes surrounding the highway , PA 666 continues out of East Hickory and into Hickory Township . The highway heads into Queen , intersecting with two dead @-@ end streets before turning to the southeast . The route quickly leaves Queen , entering a heavily forested area . The trees around the highway are very dense and surround the highway for several miles . The southeastern motion that PA 666 was following becomes a steady east , with the highway making several changes in its direction . There is an intersection with a local road , Yellow Hammer Road , which has access to a small amount of civilization . The road however , is a loop , and merges in soon after . The route continues farther through the dense forestry , intersecting with a woods road . PA 666 continues farther to the southeast , entering a break in the dense forestry .

The break in forestry is short , and PA 666 continues , now fully to the south . There is another break as the highway approaches the intersection of Balltown Road and Dutch Hill Road . Hazelton Hill Road parallels to the south along the eastern @-@ direction highway and both turn southward soon afterward . When PA 666 turns back into the heavily forested area , Hazleton Hill Road turns in the other direction and the parallel ends . There is a small break in the forestry , for some homes , and the highway then begins to make its loop to the north . Paralleling the Tionesta Creek PA 666 intersects with some local roads , Pierson Hill and Salmon Creek Roads . After the bend in Kettlettville , Route 666 follows a short segment of an old alignment , deemed on maps as Old PA @-@ 666 . PA 666 now makes a steady path to the northeast along the creekbanks , and the dense forests return . The northeastern progression begins to change , and the highway begins a more northward direction . Continuing through the forestry , Route 666 begins to change to a more eastern direction , and in the process , leaving the creekbanks .

= = = Old PA 666 to Sheffield = = =

The eastern progression begins to convert to another northeastern one , eventually moving into Balltown . In Balltown , there is a break in the forestry for a small area of civilization . The route heads northward , running along the riverbanks once again , and enters the small municipality of Porkey , Pennsylvania . PA 666 leaves Porkey and makes a U @-@ shaped turn through the forestry . In the U is the municipality of Minister . Afterwards , the route 's progression is mainly eastward . The route , running along the riverbanks , turns to the southward , until turning eastward once again . The route continues into Howe Township and quickly leaves , turning to the northeast and into the dense forestry . Several miles later , the route actually makes a northwestern progression , but it is for a short time , and the highway goes back to a normal northeastern progression .

There are more and more gaps in the forestry and the highway enters Barnes . In Barnes , PA 666 intersects with PA 948 's northern terminus . After Barnes , the route becomes more civilized , and the highway passes more homes . Nearing its end , PA 666 re @-@ enters the forested area , leaving quickly . The highway terminates in Sheffield Township , at an intersection with US 6 .

= = History = =

PA 666 was assigned in the mass numbering of state routes in 1928 . This routing of PA 666 from Barnes to Nebraska , small municipalities in Forest and Warren Counties . After remaining intact for thirteen years , the highway was extended to Newmansville to terminate at PA 36 and PA 208 . This southern extension is now Newmansville Road , three quadrant routes , and two township roads . In 1946 , PA 666 was extended westward to East Hickory , with the extension to Newmansville being decommissioned .

Several highways numbered " 666 " have experienced high rates of sign theft . According to a 2008 report , this appears to not be the case with PA 666 with a PennDOT spokesperson saying few signs have been stolen .

= = Major intersections = =

= Effects of Hurricane Charley in South Carolina =

The effects of Hurricane Charley in South Carolina included $ 20 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage and 135 @,@ 000 power outages . Hurricane Charley lasted from August 9 to August 15 , and at its peak attained 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) winds , making it a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm made landfall in southwestern Florida at maximum strength , making it the strongest hurricane to hit the United States since Hurricane Andrew struck Florida twelve years before , in 1992 .

Before the storm , Governor Mark Sanford declared a state of emergency as Charley approached its final landfall and issued a mandatory evacuation for residents on barrier islands and in coastal locations . About 180 @,@ 000 people evacuated the Grand Strand . Peak winds in the state were clocked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Isle of Palms . The storm spawned winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Folly Beach and 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) in downtown Charleston . Numerous trees , tree limbs and electrical poles were knocked down in those regions . Flash flooding was also reported with rainfall peaking at over 7 in ( 180 mm ) . There were no fatalities .

= = Preparations = =

Prior to the storm , a tropical storm watch was issued for locations from the Altamaha sound , Georgia to the South Santee River on August 12 . The next day , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane watch from the Altamaha sound to the South Carolina – Georgia border . As Charley approached the region , a hurricane warning was issued for the entire area . A tornado watch was issued eastward from a line extending from Aiken to Lancaster County .

Governor Mark Sanford declared a state of emergency as Charley approached landfall and issued a mandatory evacuation for residents on barrier islands and in coastal locations in Georgetown and Horry Counties . In Georgetown County , this order was focused on residents and tourists east of U.S. Route 17 , likewise for Horry County . 180 @,@ 000 people evacuated the Grand Strand . Drawbridges in Beaufort and Charleston Counties were shut down , and bridges in Georgetown and Horry Counties were locked down . Hampton County requested 2 @,@ 000 sandbags , that were provided by the Department of Corrections . The Wateree Correctional Institution also filled 30 @,@ 000 sandbags for potential floods . State troopers directed traffic inland from Myrtle Beach . U.S. Route 501 used a lane reversal to allow for evacuations .

= = Impact = =

The first storm to make landfall in the state at hurricane intensity since Hurricane Hugo in 1989 , Hurricane Charley struck near Cape Romain , South Carolina as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) hurricane , moved offshore briefly , and made its final landfall near North Myrtle Beach as a minimal hurricane with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . With the landfalling system , five tornadoes were reported in the state . However , only two were confirmed ; one moved through the Francis Marion National Forest , downing trees along its path . Storm surge ranged from 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) – 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , although only minor beach erosion occurred . A buoy situated 41 nmi ( 47 mi ) southeast of Charleston recorded 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) seas and 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) winds .

Peak winds in the state were clocked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Isle of Palms . The storm spawned winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) at Folly Beach and 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) in downtown Charleston . Trees , limbs and electrical poles were knocked down in those regions . Trees were blown onto U.S. Route 17 in Mount Pleasant , and awnings were torn off of a few structures . A total of 2 @,@ 231 houses were damaged ; 2317 of these were severely damaged and 40 were destroyed . Two @-@ hundred and twenty @-@ one of those damaged were beach front structures on Sunset Beach . Businesses had broken windows , six hotels had roof and outer wall damage . This led to $ 30 million ( 2004 USD ) in hotel profit loss in Myrtle Beach , primarily along U.S. Route 17 .

As dry air from northern sections of the state wrapped into the circulation of the storm , a band of convection developed along a frontal boundary stretching from Newberry northward . Widespread rainfall peaking at over 7 in ( 180 mm ) fell to the west of the storm 's track . In downtown Charleston , 2 @.@ 09 in ( 53 mm ) of rainfall was reported , while in Hampton 1 @.@ 53 in ( 39 mm ) of rain fell . However , the bulk of the rainfall remained offshore . With the soil still saturated from Tropical Storm Bonnie , some flooding in low @-@ lying areas of Charleston County occurred . Up to 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water accumulated on South Carolina Route 17 and on local streets . Flash floods were also observed in Mount Pleasant . High winds spread vegetative debris , clogging storm drains and caused further flooding . A bridge in Union County washed out following rainfall from Charley and Tropical Storm Bonnie . 135 @,@ 000 customers were without power , and storm damage totaled $ 20 million ( 2004 USD ) .

Following the storm , Progress Energy Carolinas assembled 1 @,@ 200 tree and power line personnel to assist in damage recovery . Federal disaster funds were approved for the counties of Georgetown and Horry . The declaration covered damage to public property on August 14 – 15 . The funding covered state and local government costs for debris removal and emergency services related to the hurricane .

= Nandanar =

Nandanar ( also spelt as Nantanar ) , also known as Tirunalaippovar ( Thirunaalaippovar ) and Tiru Nalai Povar Nayanar , was a Nayanar saint , who is venerated in the Hindu sect of Shaivism . He is the only Dalit ( " untouchable " ) saint in the Nayanars . He is generally counted as the eighteenth in the list of 63 Nayanars . Like the other Nayanars , he was a devout devotee of the god Shiva .

The tale of Nandanar is retold numerous times in folk tales , folk music , plays , films and literature in Tamil society . While Nandanar is included in Nayanar list since the 8th century CE , the 12th century CE Periya Puranam gives a full hagiographical account of his life . The tale focuses on two miracles attributed to him . In Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur ; his prayers are said to have moved a giant stone bull , which still appears in the moved position in the temple . Nandanar is said to have ritually purified himself by fire at Thillai Nataraja Temple , Chidambaram . Nandar 's tale features in temple lore and religious literature related to both these temples . Gopalakrishna Bharati 's 19th century retelling of the saint 's life remains the basis of many later retellings . It expands the original narrative adding elements of oppression of the Dalit saint by higher castes . While higher caste retellings of the tale focus on the saint 's observance of caste norms , Dalits emphasize his exploitation and superior religiosity .

Apart from collective worship Nandanar enjoys being part of the Nayanars in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu , shrines depicted to Nandanar exist in both the sites of his miracles . The saint also became an icon of protest in Dalit rights movements .

= = Accounts of life = =

One of the most prominent Nayanars , Sundarar ( 8th century ) is the first to name Nandanar ( called Tirunalaipovar ) in literature , however Tirunalaipovar ( ' he who will go tomorrow ' ) relates to the tale of Nandanar longing to visit Chidambaram ; no details of his life are revealed . In the eleventh century , Nambiyandar Nambi devotes a stanza to Nandanar in his Tiruttondar Tiruvandhadhi while recalling the lives of the Nayanars . Tirunalaipovar is described as a Pulayar ( Pulaiya , Pulai ) who lived in Adanur . He is said to have visited Thillai Nataraja Temple , Chidambaram of his patron god Shiva " by God 's grace " and " three thousand Brahmins ( priests ) of Chidambaram saluted him . "

The earliest full ( and primary religious ) account of Nandanar 's life is found in the Tamil Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar ( 12th century ) , which is a hagiography of the 63 Nayanars , but it was the Nandanar Charitram by the Tamil poet Gopalakrishna Bharati ( 1810 – 1896 ) brought Nandanar 's tale to public attention . The Nandanar Charitam ( printed in 1861 ) , the magnum opus of Bharati , added new elements to Sekkizhar 's tale . Though it is unknown when he lived exactly , generally he is dated to 7th or 8th century CE .

= = = The Periya Puranam = = =

The Periya Puranam narrates that Nandanar belonged to Adanur ( Adanoor ) in the Chola kingdom . Presently , Adanur is located in Thanjavur district , in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . He was born in the Pulaiya caste , who were regarded " untouchables " ( see Dalits ) . They were agricultural labourers and singers . Another description considers Nandanar from the Dalit caste of Paraiyar , who served as labourers and were drummers as per the caste code .

Nandanar was born in poverty , in Pulaippadi , the Pulai slums of Adanur . He was a staunch devotee of the god Shiva , the patron god of Shaivism . He was a leather maker , who crafted drums and other musical instruments . He also served as a village servant , a watchman , a labourer as well as the " town crier " , who used to beat the drums . In Nandanar 's times , Dalits were not allowed to enter Hindu temples . So , Nandanar would stand outside a Shiva temple and sing the praises of Shiva and dance . However , he harboured a strong urge to pay his respects to the icon of Shiva at Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur . He stood outside the temple , but a huge stone Nandi ( the bull mount of Shiva , whose sculpture is generally seen in Shiva temples , facing Shiva in the garbhagriha - sanctum sanatorium ) blocked his path of vision . The compassionate Shiva ordered Nandi to move a little to side and the bull complied , allowing the Nayanar to see the central icon of Shiva , unobstructed . Nandanar cleaned up the surroundings of the temple and dug a pond ( which serves as the temple tank ) in honour of Shiva . He circumambulated the shrine and returned to Adanur .

Nandanar visited many temples of Shiva and served the god . Once , he longed to visit the Thillai Nataraja Temple of Chidambaram , which enshrines Shiva as Nataraja , the Lord of Dance . He used to say everyday that he will go the next day to Chidambaram , but never actually dared to step in the holy town , where he was prohibited entry . Thus , he came to be known as " Tiru @-@ Nalai @-@ povar " , ' he who will go tomorrow ' . Finally , Nandanar reached the boundary of Chidambaram , but feared to set foot in the town . He saw the smoke of fire sacrifices and heard the chants of the Vedic scriptures . Thinking about how he can see Nataraja 's dancing icon , the Nayanar circumambulated the town numerous times and finally succumbed to fatigue and slept . Shiva appeared in his dream and told Nandanar to enter the temple through a holy fire . The god also informed the Brahmin priests of Chidambaram to prepare a pyre . Next day , the Brahmins approached Nandanar as per the divine order .

Nandanar entered the holy fire chanting the name of Shiva and reappeared in a new purified form . He looked like a Brahmin sage , wearing matted hair ( characteristic of a Shaiva ) and the sacred thread worn by Brahmins across his chest . His body was smeared with sacred ash . The gods showered flowers on the Nayanar from heaven and the Brahmins cheered . With the Brahmins , Nandanar went in the garbhagriha and saw Nataraja . The Nayanar disappeared in the image of Nataraja and became one with Shiva .

The Periya Puranam version is interpreted as a Brahmanical narrative , where a particular Dalit is granted salvation by transforming into a Brahmin ; the superiority of the Brahmins is reinforced and the legitimacy of the ban of Dalits is not challenged .

P.Sampath , president of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front ( TNUEF ) and an office @-@ bearer politician from the Tamil Nadu unit of Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) ( known as CPI ( M ) ) , calls the Chidambaram fire @-@ trail as Brahmin propaganda to conceal the truth that Nandanar was burnt at the stake .

= = = The Nandanar Charitam = = =

Bharati was an ardent devotee of Shiva and wrote three operas in honour of various Nayanar saints . Though Bharati was himself an upper caste Brahmin , he was a crusader for the rights of the Dalits . While Sekkizhar exalts Nandanar 's devotion to Shiva , Bharati presents the grim reality of ostracization that the Nayanar suffered . Bharati 's Nandanar is " not a rebel , but only a protester " . The Nandanar Charitam focuses on the atrocities that Nandanar and Dalits as a whole had to suffer at the hands of upper castes . The opera Nandanar Charitam was embedded with the social message that Shiva grants emancipation irrespective of caste .

The play starts with the term " May I come " , a warning to higher @-@ caste people that Dalits had to cry out before entering any street , so as to not pollute the higher caste members . The Nayanar first clashes with his own Dalit brethren . They oppose his devotion for the Lord of Chidambaram , whom they call a Brahmin god . The Dalit elders — headed by Pariyakilavan — define his duties as a pariah and advise him to not confront caste rules . They tell him to worship the folk deities of the pariah , instead of Shiva , the god of Brahmanical Hinduism . The Dalits also feel that Nandanar needs to abide by the social norms and give up his taboo idea of entering a temple .

A villainous Brahmin landlord Vetiyar ( Vediyar ) appears in Bharati 's tale . He torments his bonded labourer Nandanar and chastises him repeatedly for trying to go beyond caste norms . Vetiyar sees Nandanar 's bhakti and desire to enter a temple " not only as undesirable and irreligious , but also as a serious threat to his social status . " Vetiyar refuses to grant him permission to Chidambaram and even resorts to violence . After much persuasion , the Brahmin relents on the condition that the saint do an impossible task of cultivating and harvesting the field in one night . Aided by Shiva 's attendant ganas , the saint completes the task . The Brahmin realizes the piety of the Nayanar , apologizes to him and lets him go .

Bharati retained the final confrontation with the Brahmins of Chidambaram and his ritual purification by fire . Bharati concludes in a poem saying that " it is said in the epics that the Lord worshipped by Gopalakrishna granted salvation even to Untouchables ! "

= = = Variants = = =

In stories of higher caste Hindus ( especially Brahmins ) , Nandanar is a Brahmin or God himself somehow trapped in the body of an untouchable and whose true form is revealed by the fire trial . Other tales focus on his strict adherence to caste norms , his obedience of his Brahmin master and his refusal to enter the holy temple as an untouchable .

The Dalits strongly believe in his piety and portray Brahmins as the root cause of all the misery of the Nayanar . Nandanar fits in the Dalit narrative that proves that their religiosity is on par or superior to the higher castes . They say that Nandanar was ' swallowed by God ' . The sashes round Nataraja 's waist are interpreted as the legs of the saint , who merged into the god .

The temple lore of Tirupunkur narrates that Shiva instructed his son Ganesha to aid Nandanar in digging the temple tank named Nandanar tirtha , after the saint . Another variant tells that Ganesha dug up the tank in the night so that Nandanar can bathe in its sacred waters before seeing Shiva in the temple .

In the early half of the 20th century , the novel Nandan , by A. Gopalasami Iyengar and G. Aravamudha Iyengar , includes reformist Brahmin characters that argue Nandan 's case against their peers . Nandan also echoes the reformist ideas of Hindu spiritual leaders like Ramanuja and Vivekananda , and progressive upper @-@ caste leaders .

The short story Puthiya Nandan by Pudhumaipithan ( 1906 @-@ 1948 ) places the classical tale of the Nayanar in a contemporary setting . While retelling Nandan 's ancient tale , it also alludes to the Dalit rights movements of Mahatma Gandhi and Periyar E. V. Ramasamy ( see Self @-@ Respect Movement ) .

Indira Parthasarathy 's Nandan Kathai ( 1978 ) builds the tale of Nandanar ( referred in the work as Nandan ) further , introducing two non @-@ Brahmin upper caste landholders , who are as ruthless as Bharati 's Vediyar . Nandanar is portrayed as a lover of art , rather than God . He wants to see the cosmic dance of Nataraja . A Devadasi called Abhirami also appears ; no significant female characters are found in earlier narratives . Indira is blunt in reprimanding the Dalits for not understanding Nandanar . Nandan Kathai is a quest for liberation of Dalits and women alike . Unlike earlier narratives , Indira 's tale is devoid of miracles and is a story of how Nandanar falls prey to a conspiracy . The Vediyar @-@ priest , the Vediyar @-@ landlord and the two non @-@ Brahmin upper caste landholders , hatch a plot to end Nandan . They make Nandanar believe that God harvested crop from the field , an allusion to the miracle of Vediyar 's impossible task in Bharati 's work . Then , they persuade him to organize a dance contest between Bharatnatyam , the high @-@ caste elites ' dance and the folk dance of the Dalits . Finally , in the climax , Nandanar agrees to undergo a fire @-@ trial , reassured by the earlier miracle , but he and Abhirami burn in the flames . The upper castes succeed in sending a warning to Dalits how trespassers of the caste code , longing for salvation , would be punished .

= = Celebration in Hindu religion = =

Nandanar is specially worshipped in the Tamil month of Purattasi , when the moon enters the Rohini nakshatra ( lunar mansion ) . He is depicted with a shaved head , folded hands ( see Anjali mudra ) with a kamandalu and a danda ( staff ) , like a seer . He receives collective worship as part of the 63 Nayanars . Their icons and brief accounts of his deeds are found in many Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu . Their images are taken out in procession in festivals .

A water tank in Chidambaram is considered sacred as it is believed to be the site of Nandanar 's fire @-@ purification . A " recently built " ( as mentioned in the 1992 book ) small shrine dedicated to the Nayanar , exists in south @-@ west part of the town , whose name means ' Nandanar has become the temple ' . A sculpture of Nandanar as a singer is found in the Chidambaram temple , besides another in Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram ( 12th century ) depicting him in the trail by fire .

Sundarar venerates Nandanar in the Tiruthonda Thogai , a hymn to Nayanar saints , calling him " Nalaippovan " , the " holy pilgrim " who will go tomorrow . An earlier hymn to Shiva praises the god who is served by Nalaippovan . The devotional poet Tyagaraja ( 1767 – 1847 ) also narrates the tale of Nandanar in his poems .

Devotional works dedicated to Nataraja of the Chidambaram temple narrate Nandanar 's tale . Umapathi Sivacharya 's Kunchitangristava ( early fourteenth century ) mentions Nandan 's legend . While another Sanskrit work Hemasabhanatha Mahatmya devotes its ninth chapter to the Nayanar . The Sthala Purana of the Nataraja temple called Chidambara Mahatmya praises the god as served by Nandan .

The Nandi in Sivalokanathar Temple , Tirupunkur is seen placed off centre as a testimony of Nandanar 's devotion and the miracle . A stone image of the saint is worshipped in the temple . The Dvarapalas ( gate @-@ keeper sculptures ) are depicted with his heads leaning downwards , said to be in honour of Nandanar . In 1959 , a shrine was created outside the Shiva temple , from where the stone image of Nandanar looks eternally at Shiva . Nandanar is depicted with his hands joined above his head , praying to Shiva . Scenes of Bharati 's opera and the local legend of Nandanar and Ganesha digging the temple tank are seen on the shrine .

= = Remembrance in society = =

Nandanar 's influence was and remains limited primarily to the Tamil @-@ speaking areas . The Christian missionary Rev. A. C. Clayton — who was " sympathetic " to the Dalit cause — used Nandanar 's narrative ( retold as The Legend of Nandan ) to suggest that bhakti ( devotion ) — which saw no distinction of class or caste — was the superior means to salvation than the jnana @-@ marga ( salvation by knowledge ) propagated by the Brahmins and also challenged the authority of the Brahmin orthodoxy .

Nandanar became " the hero of tales of caste protest " . The " Adi Dravida " ( Dalit ) leaders of the Self @-@ Respect Movement used Nandanar as an exemplar to prove that social superiority originates not from birth , but the qualities and deeds of people . In 2010 , Cadres of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front ( TNUEF ) and the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) under the leadership of P. Samath , protested to bring down the wall on the South Gate of the Chimdabaram temple , which was — as per a tale — built as Nandanar entered from the gate . The walled gate was the symbol of the oppression of the Dalit caste and caste discrimination , as per the protesters who demanded its demolition . The state government — which governs the temple currently — contented that the veracity of Nandanar 's tale and its connection to the walled Gate , can not be ascertained and thus , refused the protesters ' demands . Nandanar " continues to inspire them ( Dalits ) as a symbol of resistance and a hope of a better future " . However , young Dalits identify with recent Dalit leaders like B. R. Ambedkar and are unaware or uninterested in the " obedient Nandanar " . Ambedkar , himself had dedicated his book The Untouchables , to three Dalit saints , including Nandanar .

In speech in Chidambaram , Mahatma Gandhi called Nandanar , a true practitioner of Satyagraha , a means of Nonviolent resistance . Gandhi said : " Nanda broke every barrier and won his way to freedom , not by brag , not by bluster , but by the purest form of self @-@ suffering ... he shamed them [ his persecutors ] into doing justice by his lofty prayer , by the purity of his character , ... he compelled God Himself to descend and made Him open the eyes of his persecutors " .

Nandanar 's tale is retold numerous times through folk tales , plays , literature and art forms like Villu Paatu and " musical discourses " . A number of Tamil films , all titled Nandanar , recall Nandanar 's tale following Bharati 's version . Besides a silent film in 1923 , another silent film Nandanar , subtitled The Elevation of the Downtrodden , directed by P. K. Raja Sandow , in 1930 . The first talkie film on Nandanar was made in 1931 . The 1935 film featured K. B. Sundarambal , who also performed on stage as the Nayanar numerous times . The 1942 film , starring Dandapani Desikar in the lead , courted controversy for its overly Brahmin overtones and was banned in Kolar Gold Fields after protests by Dalits , however the ban was lifted after Desikar met and personally apologized to the Dalits for being part of the climax , which featured the fire @-@ purification . Another film on Nandanar was released in 1943 . Sundaram Balachander acted in the 1948 film . N. S. Krishnan presented the story as a " narrative art form " , while A. Padmanabhan released a small booklet on the saint 's life for children . C. T. Indra says that Nandanar was made immoral in legend and remembered over the years " as a strategy of public management of anxiety . ... In the Essentialist way , Nandan 's devotion was cited down the ages to play down the social inequities and play up his spiritual qualifications . "

= M249 light machine gun =

The M249 light machine gun ( LMG ) , formerly designated the M249 Squad Automatic Weapon ( SAW ) , and formally written as Light Machine Gun , 5 @.@ 56 mm , M249 , is the American adaptation of the Belgian FN Minimi , a light machine gun manufactured by the Belgian company FN Herstal ( FN ) . The M249 is manufactured in the United States by the local subsidiary FN Manufacturing LLC in South Carolina and is widely used in the U.S. Armed Forces . The weapon was introduced in 1984 after being judged the most effective of a number of candidate weapons to address the lack of automatic firepower in small units . The M249 provides infantry squads with the heavy volume of fire of a machine gun combined with accuracy and portability approaching that of a rifle .

The M249 is gas operated and air @-@ cooled . It has a quick @-@ change barrel , allowing the gunner to rapidly replace an overheated or jammed barrel . A folding bipod is attached near the front of the gun , though an M192 LGM tripod is available . It can be fed from both linked ammunition and STANAG magazines , like those used in the M16 and M4 . This allows the SAW gunner to use a rifleman 's magazines as an emergency source of ammunition in the event that he runs out of linked rounds .

M249s have seen action in every major conflict involving the United States since the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989 . Soldiers are generally satisfied with the weapon 's performance , though there have been reports of clogging with dirt and sand . Due to the weight and age of the weapon , the United States Marine Corps is fielding the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle with plans to partially replace the M249 in Marine Corps service .

The M249 is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a " Squad Assault Weapon " .

= = Development = =

In 1965 , the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps ' primary machine guns were the M2 Browning and M60 . The M2 was a large @-@ caliber heavy machine gun , usually mounted on vehicles or in fixed emplacements . The M60 was a more mobile medium machine gun intended to be carried with the troops to provide heavy automatic fire . Both were very heavy weapons and usually required a crew of at least two to operate efficiently . The Browning automatic rifle , the army 's main individual machine gun since its introduction in World War I , was phased out in 1957 with the introduction of the M14 rifle , which had a fully automatic mode . " Designated riflemen " in every squad were ordered to use their weapons on the fully automatic setting , while other troops were required to use their rifle 's semi @-@ automatic mode on most occasions to increase accuracy and conserve ammunition . Because the M14 and M16 rifles had not been designed with sustained automatic fire in mind , they often overheated or jammed . The 20 @-@ round and 30 @-@ round magazines of these weapons limited their sustained automatic effectiveness when compared to belt @-@ fed weapons .

The Army decided that an individual machine gun , lighter than the M60 , but with more firepower than the M16 , would be advantageous ; troops would no longer have to rely on rifles for automatic fire . Through the 1960s , the introduction of a machine gun into the infantry squad was examined in various studies . While there was a brief flirtation with the concept of a flechette- or dart @-@ firing Universal Machine Gun during one study , most light machine gun experiments concentrated on the Stoner 63 light machine gun , a modular weapon that could be easily modified for different purposes . The Stoner 63 LMG saw combat for a brief period in Vietnam with the USMC , and later on a wider scale with the U.S. Navy SEALs .

In 1968 , the Army Small Arms Program developed plans for a new 5 @.@ 56 mm caliber LMG , though no funds were allocated ( 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition was viewed as underpowered by many in the armed forces ) . Studies of improved 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition , with better performance characteristics , began . The earliest reference to studies of other caliber cartridges for the LMG did not appear until 1969 . In July 1970 , the U.S. Army finally approved development of an LMG , with no specified caliber . At this time , the nomenclature " Squad Automatic Weapon " ( SAW ) was introduced . Actual design of alternative cartridges for the LMG did not begin until July 1971 . A month later , Frankford Arsenal decided on two cartridge designs for the new LMG : a 6 mm cartridge and a new 5 @.@ 56 mm cartridge with a much larger case . Neither design was finalized by March 1972 , when the Army published the specifications document for the planned SAW . The 6 mm cartridge design was eventually approved in May that year . Prior to July 1972 , SAW development contracts were awarded to Maremont , Philco Ford , and the Rodman Laboratory at Rock Island Arsenal . These companies produced designs with Army designations XM233 , XM234 and XM235 respectively — X denoting " experimental " . Designs were required to have a weight of less than 9 @.@ 07 kg ( 20 lb ) including 200 rounds of ammunition , and a range of at least 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) .

When the time came for developmental and operational testing of the SAW candidates , three 5 @.@ 56 mm candidate weapons were included with the 6 mm candidates : the M16 HBAR , a heavy @-@ barrel variant of the M16 designed for prolonged firing ; the Fabrique Nationale de Herstal ( FN ) Minimi ; and the HK 23A1 . The initial round of tests ended in December 1974 . In February 1976 , the Minimi and Rodman XM235 SAW were selected for further development . At this time , opinions of the 6 mm cartridge were beginning to sour due to the logistical implications of providing yet another ammunition type to the infantry . In June , it was requested that the SAW specifications document be revised to emphasize standard 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition . In October , the requested revisions were approved , and bids were solicited for the conversion of the Rodman XM235 to 5 @.@ 56 mm . Production of the converted XM235 was awarded to Ford Aerospace , and its designation was changed to XM248 . A new M16 HBAR variant , the XM106 , was developed in 1978 , and soon after , Heckler & Koch lobbied to include a 5 @.@ 56 mm conversion of its HK 21A1 ( instead of the standard 7.62mm NATO ammunition it was built for ) in future SAW testing . The latter model was designated the XM262 . At this time , the Minimi received the designation XM249 . Testing of the four candidates resumed in April 1979 .

In May 1980 , the FN XM249 was selected as the best choice for future development on the grounds of performance and cost , while the HK XM262 reportedly came a close second . In September , FN was awarded a " maturity phase " contract for further development of the XM249 , and testing of the new weapon began in June 1981 . The official adoption took place on February 1 , 1982 .

The new gun entered U.S. Army service as the M249 squad automatic weapon in 1984 , and was adopted by the U.S. Marine Corps a year later . The U.S. production model has a different butt from that of the regular Minimi . It is manufactured in the FN factory in Columbia , South Carolina .

Although found to be reliable and accurate , the M249 was considered to present unacceptable hazards in the form of an exposed hot barrel and sharp edges . There were complaints that the front sight required special adjustment tools . On August 23 , 1985 , then @-@ U.S. Under Secretary of the Army James R. Ambrose suspended M249 production pending the development of the product improvement program ( PIP ) intended to fix these problems . Congress deleted funds for the M249 from the Fiscal Year 1986 defense budget , then retroactively set aside the program 's prior year 's funds from the M249 program for other purposes , including retirement and pay raises . Over 1 @,@ 100 M249s already issued were to remain in use , but be retrofitted with the PIP kit when it became available . Over 7 @,@ 000 remaining M249s were to stay in storage at depots until corrective changes could be made . The PIP kit was eventually developed and implemented , and production of the M249 resumed . In 1994 the M249 squad automatic weapon was re @-@ designated the M249 light machine gun .

= = Design details = =

The M249 is a belt @-@ fed light machine gun . It fires the 5 @.@ 56 × 45mm NATO cartridge , usually a combination of one M856 tracer and four M855 ball cartridges fed from M27 linked belts . Belts are typically held in a hard plastic or soft canvas box attached to the underside of the weapon .

It fires from an open bolt and is gas operated . When the trigger is pulled , the bolt and bolt carrier move forward under the power of the recoil spring . A cartridge is stripped from the belt , chambered , and discharged , sending a bullet down the bore . Expanding propellant gases are diverted through a hole in the barrel into a chamber . This pressure moves a piston providing the energy to extract and eject the spent casing as well as advance the belt and compress the recoil spring , thus preparing for subsequent shots . At 1 @,@ 041 mm ( 41 in ) long and 7 @.@ 5 kg ( 17 lb ) in weight ( 10 kg ( 22 lb ) including a 200 @-@ round belt and plastic ammo box ) , the M249 is a cumbersome weapon .

The barrel has a rifling twist rate of one turn in 180 mm ( 7 in ) . Because firing heats up the bore , the air @-@ cooled barrel is equipped with a mechanism to remove and replace the barrel assembly with a spare . A folding bipod with adjustable legs is attached near the front of the weapon , though there are provisions for hard @-@ mounting to a M192 Lightweight Ground Mount tripod or vehicle mount . The M249 provides accuracy approaching that of a rifle , combined with the sustained volume of fire of a machine gun . Its original gas regulator offered two different gas port sizes , allowing cyclic rates of fire of 725 @-@ rounds per minute ( r / min ) or 1 @,@ 000 r / min . The latter setting was intended for adverse conditions , such as an excessively dirty firearm or cold weather . The two @-@ position gas regulator was discarded as part of a product improvement program . Sustained rate of fire , the rate of fire at which the gunner can fire continuously without overheating , is approximately 85 r / min .

= = Operational history = =

The M249 LMG entered service in 1984 as the M249 SAW . Initial reactions to the gun were mixed : it fulfilled the light machine gun role well when fired from the ground , but was not as effective when fired from the shoulder or hip . It was praised for its extreme durability and massive firepower , though a number of areas for improvement were highlighted : the blank firing attachment fitted poorly , the bipod was very weak and broke easily , the sling attachment was awkward , and there were many slots and gaps which accumulated dirt . Some claimed that the heavy @-@ barrelled version of the M16 rifle was a more effective light machine gun .

The M249 SAW was not used heavily before the 1991 Gulf War , though it has been used in every major U.S. conflict since . American personnel in Somalia in 1993 , Bosnia in 1994 , Kosovo in 1999 , Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq since 2003 have been issued M249s . Surplus weapons were donated to Bolivia , Colombia and Tunisia .

Tactically , SAWs are either carried with a maneuvering unit and fired while handheld , or positioned to remain stationary and provide covering fire for other units . The usual load of ammunition carried for the weapon is 1 @,@ 000 @-@ rounds in five 200 @-@ round belts , although up to 500 extra rounds generally get loaded into 100 @-@ round soft pouches .

= = = Persian Gulf War = = =

A supply of 929 M249 SAWs was issued to personnel from the U.S. Army and USMC during the Persian Gulf War . Although exposure to combat was scarce , M249 gunners who were involved in fighting mainly used their weapons to provide cover fire for friendly maneuvering troops from fixed positions , rather than maneuvering with them . There were many complaints about the weapons clogging up with sand after prolonged use in the desert environment .

= = = Afghanistan = = =

The standard squad automatic weapon in Afghanistan is the M249 with PIP kit , which serves alongside its heavier counterpart , the M240 machine gun . Most M249s were given a collapsible buttstock immediately prior to the invasion to reduce its length and make the weapons more practical for parachuting and close @-@ quarters combat . Special Operations troops typically favor the shorter Para version of the weapon , which weighs much less .

A report entitled Lessons Learned in Afghanistan was released by Lieutenant Colonel Charlie Dean and SFC Sam Newland of the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Center in 2002 . They found that 54 % of SAW gunners had problems maintaining their weapons , and 30 % reported that the gun rusted easily . Soldiers reported ammunition boxes rattling and falling off . 80 % percent of soldiers surveyed were pleased with the weapon 's accuracy and lethality , yet only 64 % claimed they were " confident in their weapon " . Weapons clogging up with sand in the desert seems to be the main complaint .

= = = Iraq War = = =

The PIP and Para versions of the M249 have been used in the Iraq war since the invasion . By 2004 , many M249s had been in service for almost 20 years and were becoming increasingly unreliable . Soldiers were requesting replacements and new features , and there are reports of soldiers holding their weapons together with duct tape . The lethality of the 5 @.@ 56 mm ammunition has been called into question by reports of enemy soldiers still firing after being hit multiple times . As in previous conflicts , the sandy environment causes the M249s and other weapons to clog up and jam if they are not cleaned very regularly .

Operation Iraqi Freedom PEO Soldier Lessons Learned , a report on the performance of weapons in the Iraq War , was published by Lieutenant Colonel Jim Smith of the U.S. Army on May 15 , 2003 . Smith spoke positively of the M249 , claiming that it " provided the requisite firepower at the squad level as intended " . He praised the SPW variant , noting that its " short barrel and forward pistol grip allowed for very effective use of the SAW in urban terrain " . At the National Defense Industrial Association in 2007 , LTC Al Kelly of the 1st Battalion , 17th Infantry gave a presentation describing the M249 as having " good range , excellent reliability " and an " excellent tracer " . He said that a cloth pouch was preferred over the plastic box for holding linked ammunition , and that " knock @-@ down power is poor but is compensated by rate of fire " .

In December 2006 , the Center for Naval Analyses released a report on U.S. small arms in combat . The CNA conducted surveys on 2 @,@ 608 troops returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan over the past 12 months . Only troops who fired their weapons at enemy targets were allowed to participate . 341 troops were armed with M249 SAWs , making up 13 percent of the survey . 71 percent of M249 users ( 242 troops ) reported that they were satisfied with the weapon . 40 percent of users preferred feeding the SAW with the soft 100 @-@ round pouch , while 21 percent chose the soft and hard 200 @-@ round pouches each . 60 percent ( 205 troops ) were satisfied with handling qualities , such as handguards , size , and weight - of those dissatisfied , just under half thought that it was too heavy . M249 users had the lowest levels of satisfaction with weapon maintainability at 70 percent ( 239 troops ) , most due to the difficulty in removing and receiving small components and poor corrosion resistance . The SAW had the highest levels of stoppages at 30 percent ( 102 troops ) , and 41 percent of those that experienced a stoppage said it had a large impact on their ability to clear the stoppage and re @-@ engage their target . 65 percent ( 222 troops ) did not need their machine guns repaired while in theater . 65 percent ( 222 troops ) were confident in the M249 's reliability , defined as level of soldier confidence their weapon will fire without malfunction , and 64 percent ( 218 troops ) were confident in its durability , defined as level of soldier confidence their weapon will not break or need repair . Both factors were attributed to high levels of soldiers performing their own maintenance . 60 percent of M249 users offered recommendations for improvements . 17 percent of requests were for making the weapon lighter , and another 17 percent were for more durable belt links and drums , as well as other modifications , such as a collapsible stock .

= = Variants = =

M249 PIP

The product improvement program kit replaced the original steel tubular stock with a plastic stock based upon the shape of the heavier M240 machine gun . The change in stocks allowed for the addition of a hydraulic buffer system to reduce recoil . In addition , the dual gas port settings were reduced to only one ; variants with the product improvement kit can no longer fire at a higher cyclic speed . A handguard was added above the barrel to prevent burns , and the formerly fixed barrel changing handle was swapped for a folding unit . Certain parts were beveled or chamfered to prevent cutting soldiers ' hands and arms . Other changes involved the bipod , pistol grip , flash suppressor , and sights . Over the years , additional modifications have been introduced as part of the Soldier Enhancement Program and Rapid Fielding Initiative . These include an improved bipod , 100 – and 200 – round fabric " soft pack " magazines ( to replace the original plastic ammunition boxes ) , and Picatinny rails for the feed tray cover and forearm so that optics and other accessories may be added .

M249 Paratrooper

The M249 Paratrooper , often called " Para " , is a compact version of the gun with a shorter barrel and sliding aluminum buttstock based on that of the Minimi Para , so @-@ called because of its intended use by airborne troops . It is much shorter and considerably lighter than the regular M249 at 893 mm ( 35 in ) long and 7 @.@ 1 kg ( 16 lb ) in weight . The Army 's Rapid Fielding Initiative is in the process of replacing the original collapsible buttstock with an adjustable model based loosely on the design of the M4 carbine buttstock .

M249 Special Purpose Weapon

This lightweight and shorter version of the M249 is designed to meet USSOCOM special operations forces requirements . The barrel changing handle , magazine insertion well , and vehicle mounting lug all have been removed to reduce weight . As a result , the SPW cannot be mounted in vehicles or use M16 magazines . Picatinny rails were added to the feed cover and forearm for the mounting of optics , lasers , vertical foregrips , and other M4 SOPMOD kit accessories . The SPW has a detachable bipod . The SPW 's lightweight barrel is longer than that of the Para model , giving it a total length of 908 mm ( 36 in ) and a weight of 5 @.@ 7 kg ( 13 lb ) .

Mk 46 Mod 0

This is a variant of the special purpose weapon adopted by USSOCOM . The program , which led to both the Mk 46 and Mk 48 , was headed by the US Naval Special Warfare Command ( NAVSPECWAR ) . Like the SPW , the barrel changing handle , magazine insertion well , and vehicle mounting lugs have been removed to save weight . However , the Mk 46 retains the standard M249 plastic buttstock instead of the collapsible buttstock used on the SPW . The Picatinny rail forearm differs slightly from the SPW . The Mk 46 has the option of using the lighter SPW barrel or a thicker , fluted barrel of the same length .

Mk 48

This is a 7 @.@ 62 × 51mm NATO version of the Mk 46 , used by USSOCOM , when a heavier cartridge is required . It is officially classified as an LWMG ( Light Weight Machine Gun ) and was developed as a replacement for the Mk 43 Mod 0 / 1 . The M60 based machine guns are a great deal more portable than the heavier M240 based designs used elsewhere in the US military in the infantry medium machine gun role . However , the M60 based designs have a long history of insufficient reliability . Trials conducted through the mid @-@ 1990s led the US Army to replace its M60 with the M240B GPMGs . The M240B , however , weighs in at ≈ 27 @.@ 5 lb and is about 49 " long with the standard barrel . NAVSPECWAR was reluctant to give up the increased portability of the M60 ( ≈ 22 @.@ 5 lb , 37 @.@ 7 " OAL with the shortest " Assault Barrel " ) designs in spite of the M240 's increased reliability . A request was put in for a new machine gun in 2001 , and FN responded with a scaled @-@ up version of the M249 weighing in at ≈ 18 @.@ 5 lb with an OAL of ≈ 39 @.@ 5 " . The new design achieved much better reliability than the M60 @-@ based weapons while bettering its light weight and maintaining the same manual of arms as the already in @-@ use M249 . USSOCOM was slated to begin receiving deliveries of the new gun in August 2003 .

M249S

This is a semiautomatic version manufactured for the civilian sport shooting market . Derived from the fully automatic military firearm , this version shares most of the major components of the military models with the exception of the firing mechanism and the addition of welded internal components to prevent conversion to a fully automatic mode . Notably , this version retains the ability to be belt fed , an uncommon feature in civilian firearms .

= = Future = =

An extensive maintenance program intended to extend the service lives of M249s has been carried out to refurbish rifles , especially units that suffered from wear due to heavy use . In particular the warping of the receiver rails on the early @-@ models was a defect that occurred in heavily used first @-@ generation M249s . This defect however has been completely eliminated on later models and is no longer present on the current @-@ issue M249 , which has reinforced rails and full @-@ length welding rather than spot welding .

The U.S. Marine Corps tested the M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle , a lighter , magazine @-@ fed rifle to supplement and partially replace the M249 . With plans to buy up to 4 @,@ 100 IARs to complement and partially replace its 10 @,@ 000 M249s ( of which 8 @,@ 000 will remain in service ) held at platoon level , it has acquired 450 of the Heckler & Koch HK416 – based weapons for testing . The U.S. Army does not plan to introduce the IAR . Colonel Robert Radcliffe of the U.S. Army Infantry Research and Development Center stated that an automatic rifle with a magazine would lower the effectiveness and firepower of a squad . While the Marine Corps has 13 @-@ man squads , the Army organizes its soldiers into squads of nine and needs considerably more firepower from the squad machine gunners to make up the difference . The U.S. Army does , however , want to replace aging M249s with newer weapons . They are currently working on replacing the M249 's buttstock with a redesigned adjustable stock .

= Ursa Minor =

Ursa Minor ( Latin : " Smaller She @-@ Bear " , contrasting with Ursa Major ) , also known as the Little Bear , is a constellation in the Northern Sky . Like the Great Bear , the tail of the Little Bear may also be seen as the handle of a ladle , hence the North American name , Little Dipper : seven stars with four in its bowl like its partner the Big Dipper . It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century astronomer Ptolemy , and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Ursa Minor has traditionally been important for navigation , particularly by mariners , because of Polaris being the North Star .

Polaris , the brightest star in the constellation , is a yellow @-@ white supergiant and the brightest Cepheid variable star in the night sky , ranging from an apparent magnitude of 1 @.@ 97 to 2 @.@ 00 . Beta Ursae Minoris , also known as Kochab , is an aging star that has swollen and cooled to become an orange giant with an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 08 , only slightly fainter than Polaris . Kochab and magnitude 3 Gamma Ursae Minoris have been called the " guardians of the pole star " . Planets have been detected orbiting four of the stars , including Kochab . The constellation also contains an isolated neutron star — Calvera — and H1504 + 65 , the hottest white dwarf yet discovered , with a surface temperature of 200 @,@ 000 K.

= = History and mythology = =

In the Babylonian star catalogues , Ursa Minor was known as MAR.GID.DA.AN.NA , the Wagon of Heaven , Damkianna . It appeared on a pair of tablets containing canonical star lists that were compiled around 1000 BC , the MUL.APIN , and was one of the " Stars of Enlil " — that is , the northern sky . The possible origin of its name was its appearing to rotate like a wheel around the north celestial pole .

The first mention of Ursa Minor in Greek texts was by philosopher Thales of Miletus in the 6th century BC . He pointed out that it was a more accurate guide to finding true north than Ursa Major . This knowledge had reportedly come from the Phoenicians in the eastern Mediterranean , and the constellation bore the term Phoinikē . Homer had previously only referred to one " bear " , raising the question of what he saw the stars of Ursa Minor as , or whether they were recognized as a constellation at all .

Ursa Minor and Ursa Major were related by the Greeks to the myth of Callisto and her son Arcas , both placed in the sky by Zeus . In a variant of the story in which Boötes represents Arcas , Ursa Minor represents a dog . This is the older tradition , which explains both the length of the tail and the obsolete alternate name of Cynosura ( the dog 's tail ) for Polaris , the North Star . Cynosura is also described as a nurse of Zeus , honoured by the god with a place in the sky . An alternate myth tells of two bears that saved Zeus from his murderous father Kronos by hiding him on Mount Ida . Later Zeus set them in the sky , but their tails grew long from being swung by the god . Because Ursa Minor consists of seven stars , the Latin word for " North " ( i.e. , where Polaris points ) is septentrio , from septem ( seven ) and triones ( oxen ) , from seven oxen driving a plough , which the seven stars also resemble . This name has also been attached to the main stars of Ursa Major .

Ursa Minor has traditionally been important for navigation , particularly by mariners , because of Polaris being the North Star . Polaris is currently less than one degree away from the north celestial pole ( hence the alternative name Pole Star ) so its position in the sky is largely unaffected by the rotation of the Earth . From any point in the Northern Hemisphere the direction to Polaris is always north and its angular altitude is roughly equal to the latitude .

In Inuit astronomy , the three brightest stars — Polaris , Kochab and Pherkad — were known as Nuutuittut " never moving " , though the term is more frequently used in the singular to refer to Polaris alone . The Pole Star is too high in the sky at far northern latitudes to be of use in navigation .

= = Characteristics = =

Ursa Minor is bordered by Camelopardalis to the west , Draco to the west , and Cepheus to the east . Covering 256 square degrees , it ranks 56th of the 88 constellations in size . Ursa Minor is colloquially known in the US as the Little Dipper because its seven brightest stars seem to form the shape of a dipper ( ladle or scoop ) . The star at the end of the dipper handle is Polaris . Polaris can also be found by following a line through the two stars — Alpha and Beta Ursae Majoris — that form the end of the ' bowl ' of the Big Dipper , for 30 degrees ( three upright fists at arms ' length ) across the night sky . The four stars constituting the bowl of the Little Dipper are of second , third , fourth , and fifth magnitudes , and provide an easy guide to determining what magnitude stars are visible , useful for city dwellers or testing one 's eyesight .

The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the IAU ( International Astronomical Union ) in 1922 , is " UMi " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 22 segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 08h 41.4m and 22h 54.0m , while the declination coordinates range from the north celestial pole south to 65 @.@ 40 ° . Its position in the far northern celestial hemisphere means that the whole constellation is only visible to observers in the northern hemisphere .

= = Features = =

= = = Stars = = =

The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters alpha to theta to label the most prominent stars in the constellation , while his countryman Johann Elert Bode subsequently added iota to phi . Only lambda and pi remain in use , likely because of their proximity to the north celestial pole . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 39 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 .

Marking the Little Bear 's tail , Polaris , or Alpha Ursae Minoris , is the brightest star in the constellation , varying between apparent magnitude 1 @.@ 97 and 2 @.@ 00 over a period of 3 @.@ 97 days . Located around 432 light @-@ years away from Earth , it is a yellow @-@ white supergiant that varies between spectral types F7Ib and F8Ib , and has around 6 times the Sun 's mass , 2 @,@ 500 times its luminosity and 45 times its radius . Polaris is the brightest Cepheid variable star visible from Earth . It is a triple star system , the supergiant primary star having two yellow @-@ white main @-@ sequence star companions that are 17 and 2 @,@ 400 astronomical units ( AU ) distant and take 29 @.@ 6 and 42 @,@ 000 years respectively to complete one orbit .

Traditionally called Kochab , Beta Ursae Minoris at apparent magnitude 2 @.@ 08 is only slightly less bright than Polaris . Located around 131 light @-@ years away from Earth , it is an orange giant — an evolved star that has used up the hydrogen in its core and moved off the main sequence — of spectral type K4III . Slightly variable over a period of 4 @.@ 6 days , Kochab has had its mass estimated at 1 @.@ 3 times that of the Sun via measurement of these oscillations . Kochab is 450 times more luminous than the Sun and has 42 times its diameter , with a surface temperature of approximately 4 @,@ 130 K. Estimated to be around 2 @.@ 95 billion years old , give or take 1 billion years , Kochab was announced to have a planetary companion around 6 @.@ 1 times as massive as Jupiter with an orbit of 522 days .

Traditionally known as Pherkad , Gamma Ursae Minoris has an apparent magnitude that varies between 3 @.@ 04 and 3 @.@ 09 roughly every 3 @.@ 4 hours . It and Kochab have been termed the " guardians of the pole star " . A white bright giant of spectral type A3II @-@ III , with around 4 @.@ 8 times the Sun 's mass , 1 @,@ 050 times its luminosity and 15 times its radius , it is 487 ± 8 light @-@ years distant from Earth . Pherkad belongs to a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology . Also possibly a member of this class is Zeta Ursae Minoris , a white star of spectral type A3V , which has begun cooling , expanding and brightening . It is likely to have been a B3 main @-@ sequence star and is now slightly variable . At magnitude 4 @.@ 95 the dimmest of the seven stars of the Little Dipper is Eta Ursae Minoris . A yellow @-@ white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type F5V , it is 97 light @-@ years distant . It is double the Sun 's diameter , 1 @.@ 4 times as massive , and shines with 7 @.@ 4 times its luminosity . Nearby Zeta lies 5 @.@ 00 @-@ magnitude Theta Ursae Minoris . Located 860 ± 80 light @-@ years distant , it is an orange giant of spectral type K5III that has expanded and cooled off the main sequence , and has an estimated diameter around 4 @.@ 8 times that of the Sun .

Making up the handle of the Little Dipper are Delta and Epsilon Ursae Minoris . Just over 3 @.@ 5 degrees from the north celestial pole , Delta is a white main @-@ sequence star of spectral type A1V with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 35 , located 172 ± 1 light @-@ years from Earth . Bearing the proper name of Yildun , it has around 2 @.@ 8 times the diameter and 47 times the luminosity of the Sun . A triple star system , Epsilon Ursae Minoris shines with a combined average light of magnitude 4 @.@ 22 . A yellow giant of spectral type G5III , the primary is an RS Canum Venaticorum variable star . It is a spectroscopic binary , with a companion 0 @.@ 36 AU distant , and a third star — an orange main @-@ sequence star of spectral type K0 — 8100 AU distant .

Located close to Polaris is Lambda Ursae Minoris , a red giant of spectral type M1III . It is a semiregular variable varying from magnitudes 6 @.@ 35 to 6 @.@ 45 . The northerly nature of the constellation means that the variable stars can be observed all year : the red giant R Ursae Minoris is a semiregular variable varying from magnitude 8 @.@ 5 to 11 @.@ 5 over 328 days , while S Ursae Minoris is a long period variable that ranges between magnitudes 8 @.@ 0 and 11 over 331 days . Located south of Kochab and Pherkad towards Draco is RR Ursae Minoris , a red giant of spectral type M5III that is also a semiregular variable ranging from magnitude 4 @.@ 44 to 4 @.@ 85 over a period of 43 @.@ 3 days . T Ursae Minoris is another red giant variable star that has undergone a dramatic change in status — from being a long period ( Mira ) variable ranging from magnitude 7 @.@ 8 to 15 over 310 – 315 days to a semiregular variable . The star is thought to have undergone a shell helium flash — a point where the shell of helium around the star 's core reaches a critical mass and ignites — marked by its abrupt change in variability in 1979 . Z Ursae Minoris is a faint variable star that suddenly dropped 6 magnitudes in 1992 and was identified as one of a rare class of stars — R Coronae Borealis variables .

Eclipsing variables are star systems that vary in brightness because of one star passing in front of the other rather than from any intrinsic change in luminosity . W Ursae Minoris is one such system , its magnitude ranging from 8 @.@ 51 to 9 @.@ 59 over 1 @.@ 7 days . The combined spectrum of the system is A2V , but the masses of the two component stars are unknown . A slight change in the orbital period in 1973 suggests there is a third component of the multiple star system — most likely a red dwarf — with an orbital period of 62 @.@ 2 ± 3 @.@ 9 years . RU Ursae Minoris is another example , ranging from 10 to 10 @.@ 66 over 0 @.@ 52 days . It is a semidetached system , as the secondary star is filling its Roche lobe and transferring matter to the primary .

RW Ursae Minoris is a cataclysmic variable star system that flared up as a nova in 1956 , reaching magnitude 6 . In 2003 , it was still two magnitudes brighter than its baseline , and dimming at a rate of 0 @.@ 02 magnitude a year . Its distance has been calculated as 5 @,@ 000 ± 800 parsecs ( 16 @,@ 300 light @-@ years ) , which puts its location in the galactic halo .

Taken from the villain in The Magnificent Seven , Calvera is the nickname given to an X @-@ ray source known as 1RXS J141256.0 + 792204 in the ROSAT All @-@ Sky Survey Bright Source Catalog ( RASS / BSC ) . It has been identified as an isolated neutron star , one of the closest of its kind to Earth . Ursa Minor has two enigmatic white dwarfs . H1504 + 65 is a faint ( magnitude 15 @.@ 9 ) star that with the hottest surface temperature — 200 @,@ 000 K — yet discovered for a white dwarf . Its atmosphere , composed of roughly half carbon , half oxygen and 2 % neon , is devoid of hydrogen and helium — its composition unexplainable by current models of stellar evolution . WD 1337 + 705 is a cooler white dwarf that has magnesium and silicon in its spectrum , suggesting a companion or circumstellar disk , though no evidence for either has come to light . WISE 1506 + 7027 is a brown dwarf of spectral type T6 that is a mere 11 @.@ 1 + 2 @.@ 3

− 1 @.@ 3 light @-@ years away from Earth . A faint object of magnitude 14 , it was discovered by the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) in 2011 .

Kochab aside , three more stellar systems have been discovered to contain planets . 11 Ursae Minoris is an orange giant of spectral type K4III around 1 @.@ 8 times as massive as the Sun . Around 1 @.@ 5 billion years old , it has cooled and expanded since it was an A @-@ type main sequence star . Around 390 light @-@ years distant , it shines with an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 04 . A planet around 11 times the mass of Jupiter was discovered orbiting the star with a period of 516 days in 2009 . HD 120084 is another evolved star , this time a yellow giant of spectral type G7III , around 2 @.@ 4 times the mass of the Sun . It has a planet 4 @.@ 5 times the mass of Jupiter with one of the most eccentric planetary orbits ( with an eccentricity of 0 @.@ 66 ) , discovered by precisely measuring the radial velocity of the star in 2013 . HD 150706 is a sunlike star of spectral type G0V some 89 light @-@ years distant from the Solar System . It was thought to have a planet as massive as Jupiter at a distance of 0 @.@ 6 AU , but this was discounted in 2007 . A further study published in 2012 showed that it has a companion around 2 @.@ 7 times as massive as Jupiter that takes around 16 years to complete an orbit and is 6 @.@ 8 AU distant from its Sun .

= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =

Ursa Minor is rather devoid of deep @-@ sky objects . The Ursa Minor Dwarf , a dwarf spheroidal galaxy , was discovered by Albert George Wilson of the Lowell Observatory in the Palomar Sky Survey in 1955 . Its centre is around 225000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . In 1999 , Kenneth Mighell and Christopher Burke used the Hubble Space Telescope to confirm that it had a single burst of star formation that lasted around 2 billion years that took place around 14 billion years ago , and that the galaxy was probably as old as the Milky Way itself .

NGC 6217 is a barred spiral galaxy located some 67 million light @-@ years away , which can be located with a 10 cm ( 4 in ) or larger telescope as an 11th magnitude object about 2 @.@ 5 ° east @-@ northeast of Zeta Ursae Minoris . It has been characterized as a starburst galaxy , which means it is undergoing a high rate of star formation compared to a typical galaxy .

NGC 6251 is an active supergiant elliptical radio galaxy more than 340 million light @-@ years away from Earth . It has a Seyfert 2 active galactic nucleus , and is one of the most extreme examples of a Seyfert galaxy . This galaxy may be associated with gamma @-@ ray source 3EG J1621 + 8203 , which has high @-@ energy gamma @-@ ray emission . It is also noted for its one @-@ sided radio jet — one of the brightest known — discovered in 1977 .

= = = Meteor showers = = =

The Ursids , a prominent meteor shower that occurs in Ursa Minor , peaks between December 18 and 25 . Its parent body is the comet 8P / Tuttle .

= = = Chinese constellation = = =

The map of Ursa Minor in the Chinese constellation :

= Japanese settlement in Palau =

There is a small Japanese community in Palau , which mainly consists of Japanese expatriates residing in Palau over a long @-@ term basis . A few Japanese expatriates started to reside in Palau after it gained independence in 1994 , and established long @-@ term businesses in the country . Japanese settlement in Palau dates back to the early 19th century , although large scale Japanese migration to Palau did not occur until the 1920s , when Palau came under Japanese rule and administered as part of the South Pacific Mandate . Japanese settlers took on leading administrative roles in the Japanese colonial government , and developed Palau 's economy . After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , virtually all of the Japanese population was repatriated back to Japan , although people of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan descent were allowed to remain behind . People of Japanese @-@ Palauan descent constitute a large minority of Palau 's population as a result of substantial intermarrriage between the Japanese settlers and Palauans . They generally identify with , conforming to cultural norms and daily lives with the Palauans .

= = History = =

= = = Early years ( 1820 – 1945 ) = = =

The first recorded account of Japanese contact in Palau occurred in 1820 , when a coastal sailing ship was blown off course and eight surviving men spent five years in Palau until 1825 . Japanese traders began to establish settlements from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards , and by 1890 two Japanese trading stations had been established . Many of these traders married the daughters of local chieftains and raised local families . When Japan annexed Palau from Germany in 1914 , Japanese settlers and their descendants acted as state liaison officials and interpreters for the Japanese military administration .

A civilian government was established in 1922 with its headquarters at Koror , replacing the military administration . The civilian government initiated a programme to identify and collectivise unused land between 1923 and 1932 for redevelopment . Much of these land were used to build new industrial estates and expand towns to accommodate immigrants from Japan and Okinawa . In Japan , the government actively encouraged the Japanese and Okinawans to resettle in Micronesia , including Palau , and began establishing farming settlements . The first farming settlement was established at Ngaremlengui in 1926 , but the settlers encountered problems with its humid tropical environment and abandoned it by 1930 , although later settlements were established more successfully .

As the Great Depression resulted in massive unemployment in the late 1920s and 1930s , more Japanese and Okinawans migrated to Palau . Immigrants brought along their families and sought employment in various professions . The Japanese immigrants held administrative posts , while the Okinawans and a few Koreans worked as labourers in the agricultural , fishery and mining industries . By 1935 , the Japanese constituted at least 60 % of Palau 's population and were concentrated in urban areas such as Angaur and Koror . Some Japanese settlers took Palauan wives or mistresses , and there was a sizeable minority of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan children towards the later years of the Japanese administration .

The Japanese navy expanded their military facilities from 1937 onwards . More labourers from Japan and Korea were employed to construct the facilities to complete the facilities within a short period of time . The number of indentured labourers rose to more than 10 @,@ 000 throughout Micronesia , and placed a heavy strain on the islands ' scarce resources . Many Okinawan and Japanese labourers and permanent settlers were repartriated back to their homeland . Japanese men were conscripted into regular services , and Palauans who held administrative posts in the police force were reallocated jobs in the agricultural sector . The Japanese civilians played an important role in the islands ' propaganda activities . As food resources were cut off from Japan , many Japanese encountered greater difficulties in dealing with starvation than their Palauan counterparts , who were more knowledgeable with tropical survival skills .

= = = Recent years ( 1945 – present ) = = =

Following the Surrender of Japan to the Allied forces , Japanese military personnel and civilians were repatriated to Japan between 1945 and 1946 , although some 350 labourers and technicians were permitted to remain behind to carry out repair works to Palau 's infrastructure . However , offspring of Japanese @-@ Palauan intermarriages were allowed to remain , although a few migrated to Japan with their fathers . In the 1950s , Japanese @-@ Palauans formed an organisation , Sakura @-@ kai to assist Japanese @-@ Palauans and Japanese youths who were abandoned by their parents to search for their parents and kinsmen who were forcibly separated as a result of forced repatriation of Japanese settlers back to Japan . The organisation became a cultural organisation from the 1980s onwards , as most Japanese @-@ Palauans had reunited with their Japanese families or voluntarily chose to leave certain family separations as they were .

Palau 's interaction with Japan was kept to a minimal level during the post @-@ war years , although Okinawan fishermen occasionally visited Palau for catches from the 1960s onwards . A few Japanese nationals resettled in Palau in the 1970s , and married local Palauans . In the 1980s , Japanese businessmen set up businesses in Palau , and by 1995 there were 218 Japanese nationals residing in Palau . Of these , about half of them expressed a desire for permanent residency in Palau and a few married Palauan or Filipino women . However , the majority brought their families from Japan along , and maintained frequent contacts with Japan . Some settlers from the 1980s also consisted of former Japanese settlers who were repatriated back to Japan after World War II . Former settlers who returned to Palau usually consisted of individuals over 60 years of age , and often worked as tour guides or restaurateurs in Palau .

Many Japanese @-@ Palauans assumed key positions in the public service sector and politics . At least one ethnologist , Mark Peattie , suggested that the strong representation of Japanese @-@ Palauans in leading positions in society could be attributed to the mainstream Japanese education which they had received in their youth . Palau 's first president , Kuniwo Nakamura — who was half @-@ Japanese — fostered closer diplomatic ties between Japan and Palau during his Presidency . During a state visit to Japan in 1996 , Emperor Akihito personally received Nakamura , and the visit was commended by Palauans and Japanese alike . Nakamura 's visit prompted Japan to channel monetary aid to Palau to facilitate repair work on the Koror @-@ Babeldaob Bridge and securing special trade agreements with Japan .

= = Demographics = =

In the early years of civilian administration , the Japanese population consisted of about a few hundred individuals , and reached a little over 2 @,@ 000 by 1930 . The Japanese resident population increased at an exponential rate from the mid @-@ 1930s onwards , and there were about 15 @,@ 000 Japanese in Palau by 1938 , the vast majority of whom were concentrated in Koror . The influx of Japanese immigrants fuelled the development of Koror into a city by 1939 . The Palauans were quickly outnumbered by the Japanese , and constituted only about 16 percent of the city 's population in 1937 . The Japanese made up more than half of the islands ' population , as well as 27 % of Micronesia 's Japanese population in a 1938 census . A large minority of the Japanese populace consisted of Okinawan immigrants , as well as a few Koreans . Palau 's Japanese population was repatriated after the Japanese surrender , but people of Japanese @-@ Palauan descent remained behind and constitute a large minority of Palau 's population . A study done by the Sasakawa Pacific Island Nations Fund estimated that about 10 % of Palauans are born to a Japanese father and Palauan mother , the vast majority of whom were born before 1945 . Another study done by the Foundation for Advanced Studies in International Development from Japan in 2005 estimates that about 25 % of Palau 's populace have some Japanese ancestry .

The following table shows the increase in the Japanese population in Palau throughout the Japanese colonial era :

= = Language = =

During the Japanese colonial era , Japanese settlers mainly used Japanese in their daily discourse , and Japanese was the lingua franca used for communication between Japanese and Palauans . English was also recognised as a co @-@ official language along with Japanese , and many Japanese had at least some knowledge of the language as well . People of mixed Japanese @-@ Palauan heritage were more competent in Japanese than to Palauan , especially those who attended mainstream primary schools . The Japanese also introduced the use of the Katakana script in Palauan , which was also used in informal settings . After the Japanese surrender , the use of Japanese was discouraged in place of Palauan and English . Most Japanese @-@ Palauans use Palauan in their daily discourse in favour of Japanese or English , although Japanese was used more frequently among Japanese @-@ Palauans than to those that do not have Japanese ancestry . As the number of Japanese tourists increased during the 1990s , Japanese was introduced as an elective subject to Palauan schools and in elections .

= = Religion = =

State Shinto was heavily emphasised in the 1930s as a means to promote Japanese nationalism and acculturalisation of Palauans to Japanese norms . A few shrines were built around Palau during the 1930s . Of particular note was the completion of the Taisha Nanyo Jinja ( transliterally the Great Southern Shrine ) in November 1940 at Koror , which subsequently served as the central shrine in Micronesia . Civilian participation of Shinto rituals was heavily emphasised , which focused on Japanese cultural ideals and worship of the Japanese emperor . Shinto , Zen Buddhist and Tenrikyo missions were also encouraged to establish religious missions , and the first Buddhist temple in Palau was erected in 1926 , mainly to cater to the spiritual needs of the Japanese settlers . Early Japanese settlers reportedly built small Shinto shrines in agricultural colonies before the civilian government actively encouraged religious missionary activities in Palau .

Christian missions were initially given financial support by the Japanese civilian government and were encouraged to stamp out certain Animist rituals practiced by Palauans , but many were later imprisoned from the late 1930s onwards as the Japanese became suspicious of the missionaries ' involvement in espionage activities . After the war , many of these shrines were abandoned or demolished , and Japanese @-@ Palauans chose to adopt Christianity in favour of Buddhism or Shinto . In the 1980s and 1990s , miniature replicas of the Great Shinto Shrine , Peleliu and Angaur shrines were reconstructed . Unlike Shinto shrines during the Japanese colonial era , reconstructed shrines served as memorial sites for Japanese soldiers who in battles died during the Second World War , and are visited by Japanese tourists and family members of slain soldiers .

= = Society = =

= = = Racial segregation = = =

The Japanese civilian administration segregated the Japanese immigrants from the Palauans and adopted policies that were intended to protect the welfare of the Palauans . From the 1930s onwards , focus was later shifted towards providing more for the Japanese immigrants as the civilian administration faced difficulties in meeting the demands of an increasing immigrant population . Racial segregation was practiced in most sectors of society , but was more highly pronounced in the workforce and educational sectors . Palauans faced difficulties in getting employed in administrative positions in the workforce , which was dominated by Japanese settlers . In the educational sector , Japanese children attended mainstream primary schools ( shogakko ) whose lessons are based on the mainstream curriculum as with other schools on mainland Japan . Palauan children attended " public schools " ( logakko ) and attended lessons that focused on imparting skills for menial labour . Most students from " Public schools " dropped out after completing their elementary education and some children of Japanese fathers and Palauan mothers also faced difficulties in getting enrolled into primary schools , especially for those who were born out of wedlock .

= = = Mixed @-@ race descendants = = =

During the Japanese colonial @-@ era , a sizeable minority of mixed @-@ race Japanese @-@ Palauans emerged . Japanese @-@ Palauans were offsprings of intermarriages between Japanese men and Palauan women . Most of them lived in urban areas , and were brought up in accordance to Japanese norms and values and spoke Japanese in their daily lives . A few sought further education in Japan , and at the same time had limited knowledge of Palauan customs and language , although children that were born out of wedlock reportedly had a greater exposure to their matrilineal customs and spoke both Japanese and Palauan fluently . Although Japanese @-@ Palauan children were generally classified as Japanese in official figures and had access to Japanese social privileges , many reportedly faced discrimination when placed in Japanese and Palauan circles . In rural areas where Palauans formed higher concentrations , spouses and mistresses of Japanese men were shunned upon , and Palauan nationalists ( especially Modekngei ) actively discouraged mixed unions between Japanese men and Palauan women . The Japanese government encouraged such intermarriages , and provided social benefits to women who had married Japanese men . However , only unions with civilian men were recognised and military personnel were prohibited from marrying Palauan women , although they were allowed to keep mistresses . The civilian government suppressed unions between Palauan men and Japanese women , and there was only one known case of a union between a Palauan man and a Japanese woman during the Japanese colonial @-@ era .

After the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Japanese settlers were repatriated back to Japan , and male Japanese settlers who had raised Japanese @-@ Palauan families abandoned their families in favour of repatriation , reasoning that the offspring would be able to better adapt in Palau than in Japan . Many of these Palauan women raised their mixed @-@ race children singlehandedly , while others were abandoned and adopted by Palauan families . Some Japanese @-@ Palauan families migrated to Japan , but generally faced a cultural shock and petitioned to return to Palau after living in Japan for some years . Most petitions were allowed , although they were not allowed to bring their Japanese spouses along .

Second and third @-@ generation descendants of Japanese @-@ Palauans who were descended from earlier settlers generally chose to remain behind , although those who were raised in Japanese @-@ speaking families reportedly faced trouble conversing in Palauan . Most retained their Japanese surnames , but Japanese @-@ Paluans generally identified themselves as Palauans after the war . Second @-@ generation Japanese @-@ Palauans usually married Palauan women , and became assimilated with the local Palauan populace . In terms of self @-@ identification , Japanese @-@ Palauans usually emphasised their Japanese identities only on occasions when they associate with other Japanese , for instance when they participate in memorial services for Japanese soldiers who died during the Pacific War . Some Japanese @-@ Palauans also chose to be buried in Japanese cemeteries after their deaths , notably those in Koror .

= = Economy = =

The Japanese civilian administration encouraged Japanese businessmen and settlers to the expand phosphate mining and copra production , which came into commercial existence during the German colonial era . During this time , new infrastructure was built between towns — including road and harbour facilities , and electricity and sewerage lines were laid out . Immigration from Japan , Okinawa and Korea to Palau intensified as a result of new job opportunities . A state @-@ owned enterprise , Nanyo Kohatsu Kabushiki Kaisha ( South Seas Colonization Corporation ) was formed in 1936 to streamline the islands ' economic activities with the administration objective of developing the islands ' self @-@ sufficiency capabilities . In the late 1930s , Japanese pearl divers made regular visits to the Arafura Sea , and stopped by Palau from October to April . The influx of pearl divers from Japan led to the development of the island 's tourist industry , and some Japanese settlers from Saipan opened new cafés , geisha houses and liquor houses in Koror to cater to the pearl divers during their stopovers in between October to April .

When the Japanese surrendered in 1945 , Japanese business enterprises and organisations in Palau closed , effectively ending the Japanese influence on Palau 's economy . In the first two decades after the war , the American occupation government imposed strict trade restrictions with Japan . Contact with Japan was reestablished in the 1960s , starting with Okinawan fishermen who were granted fishing rights . Japanese tourists began to visit Palau in increasing numbers from the mid @-@ 1970s . The growing influx of tourists to Palau led to the restoration of heritage sites around Palau , particularly memorial sites and administrative buildings built in the Japanese era as well as Palauan longhouses to accommodate to the interests of Japanese tourists , which accounted for half of all visiting tourists . Many of Palau 's tourist sites were run and maintained by Palauan citizens of Japanese @-@ Palauan heritage , whose knowledge in Japanese and Palauan customs and languages helped to facilitate tour groups consisting of Japanese tourists .

= = Education = =

The Japanese Language School of Palau , a weekend supplementary programme , is in operation in Koror .

= = Notable people = =

Santy Asanuma , Senator

Elias Camsek Chin , former Vice President

Hersey Kyota , politician and diplomat

Kuniwo Nakamura , former President and foreign minister

Haruo Remeliik , former President

Peter Sugiyama , former politician

= Tropical Storm Zeta =

Tropical Storm Zeta was a late @-@ developing tropical storm over the central Atlantic that formed after the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season had officially ended ( on November 30 ) and continued into January 2006 . Becoming a tropical depression at approximately midnight on December 30 ( UTC ) , it became the record @-@ breaking thirtieth tropical cyclone of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and after intensifying into Tropical Storm Zeta six hours later , it became the season 's twenty @-@ seventh named storm . Zeta was one of only two Atlantic tropical cyclones to span two calendar years ( the other being Hurricane Alice in 1954 – 55 ) .

Zeta originated from an area of low pressure on December 29 , which previously developed within an upper @-@ level trough . After becoming a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center continually predicted it would weaken rapidly . Like the previous tropical cyclone , Hurricane Epsilon , Zeta defied these predictions . The storm reached its peak strength on January 2 , 2006 before finally dissipating on January 6 . As Zeta never approached land there was no impact from the storm other than minor shipping problems . Several ships encountered the storm , and several crews in the 2005 Atlantic Rowing Race were affected by rough seas and high winds .

= = Meteorological history = =

Tropical Storm Zeta originated from an upper @-@ level trough that interacted with a weakening frontal system in late @-@ December 2005 . By December 28 , the trough had developed into a low pressure area roughly 750 mi ( 1 @,@ 210 km ) west @-@ northwest of the Cape Verde Islands . The following day , a low @-@ level circulation developed and convective activity began to increase around the low . By December 30 , sufficient shower and thunderstorm activity had developed for the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as a tropical cyclone . Over the following several hours , convective banding developed around the storm 's center and by 0600 UTC , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Zeta , the record 28th tropical or subtropical cyclone to form during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . Operationally , however , the NHC did not begin issuing advisories on Zeta until 1700 UTC . Traveling slowly northwestward in response to a mid @-@ level low to the southwest , the storm gradually intensified in a region of favorable anticyclonic outflow .

By the afternoon of December 30 , dry air caused the system to become slightly disorganized and led forecasters to anticipate further weakening of the storm and dissipating within three days . The following day , a mid @-@ level ridge to the north caused Zeta turn westward before nearly stalling due to upper @-@ level westerlies . By this time , the storm attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) but increasing wind shear caused convection to become disorganized , resulting in a brief weakening period . Despite the shear , the shallow structure of Zeta allowed convection to regenerate and the storm gradually re @-@ intensified . Around 1800 UTC on January 1 , 2006 , Zeta attained its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) roughly 1 @,@ 035 mi ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) northwest of the Cape Verde Islands . By January 2 , the storm began tracking towards the southwest in response to a mid @-@ level trough located east of the storm . Tropical Storm Zeta continued to defy forecasts of weakening .

The effects of wind shear finally took their toll late on January 4 , and Zeta 's convection began to die down . This led to Tropical Storm Zeta weakening to a minimal tropical storm . The NHC continued to overestimate how quickly Zeta would dissipate and early on January 5 they operationally downgraded Zeta to a depression , which was later confirmed to have been an error . Zeta continued to move west @-@ northwestward , barely holding on to tropical storm status before becoming disorganized again . Zeta weakened into a tropical depression on January 6 and dissipated into a remnant later that day . With this transition , the very active 2005 hurricane season finally came to a close . The remnant low retained its identity for a further day before it dissipated 660 miles ( 1060 km ) southeast of Bermuda .

= = Impact and records = =

Several of the crews that were taking part in the 2005 Atlantic Rowing Race were affected with heavy seas and strong adverse winds from Tropical Storm Zeta . Several teams encountered winds up to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and large swells up to 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . Although battered by torrential rain and high winds , the direction of the winds assisted some of the ships in the race by speeding them closer to Antigua . One Welsh vessel was blown 25 mi ( 40 km ) off @-@ course , ending with an encounter with a 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) shark that battered their boat . The ship Liberty Star made several reports of strong winds from Tropical Storm Zeta , including one of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds early on December 31 , when the ship was about 45 miles ( 75 km ) north of the storm .

When Zeta formed at 0600 UTC on December 30 , it became the second latest @-@ forming tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Atlantic . Only Hurricane Alice of December 1954 formed later than Zeta , becoming a tropical storm around 1200 UTC . Additionally , Zeta became the second known Atlantic tropical cyclone , along with Alice , to exist in two calendar years . Tropical Storm Zeta also extended the record number of storms to form in the 2005 season to twenty @-@ eight , seven more than the previous record held by the 1933 season .

Although the storm affected several vessels during its existence , no land areas were threatened by Zeta . As a result , the NHC did not issue any tropical storm watches or warnings .

= Connor ( Angel ) =

Connor is a fictional character created by Joss Whedon and Tim Minear for the television series Angel . The character is portrayed as an infant by the triplets Connor , Jake , and Trenton Tupen and as a teenager by Vincent Kartheiser . Connor has a recurring role in season three , becomes a regular in season four , and has his last television appearance in the series finale as a guest star . He continues his story in the canonical comic book series Angel : After the Fall .

Within the series , Connor is the superhuman son of the title character Angel , who is a vampire . Introduced in the third season as a newborn , Connor is kidnapped and taken to a hell dimension in an act of revenge against his father . He returns as a battle @-@ hardened , disturbed teenager who has been raised to hate Angel . His consequent violent and estranged relationship with his father and increasing internal conflict making him shift alliances between protagonists and antagonists forms the storyline for his character . Towards the end of season four , events take their toll on Connor 's sanity , and his memories are rewritten to give him a normal life . The next time he appears in season five , Connor is a well @-@ adjusted person . At the return of his memories , Connor finally reconciles with Angel in the series finale . The comic book series follows Connor accepting his abilities and role of a hero in addition of maintaining a normal life as a college student .

Created to give Angel an " emotional " connection , the infant Connor was used to develop other characters . After he grows up , he initially becomes a tragic figure and foil for the protagonists before eventually evolving to a protagonist himself . Connor has received attention in academic texts related to family studies and masculinity in fiction . The character proved to be controversial among fans , while critics have given mixed views .

= = Appearances = =

= = = Television = = =

= = = = Season 3 = = = =

In a seemingly impossible event , vampires Angel and Darla had a child , the end result being Connor , a human with superhuman abilities . Connor is introduced in the episode " Lullaby , " when Darla sacrifices herself to give birth to him , by staking herself in the heart . Darla 's sacrifice for their son allows Angel to make peace with her . For the first few months of his life , Connor is jointly raised by Angel and his team , including Wesley and Cordelia , though he is constantly targeted by different factions . Connor is prophesied to destroy the time @-@ shifting demon lord Sahjhan . In attempt to negate the prophecy , he travels through time and rewrites the prophecy to read " The father will kill the son " in reference to Angel and Connor , and recruits Angelus 's nemesis Daniel Holtz whose family the vampire killed centuries ago with Darla . Wesley kidnaps the baby in a misguided effort to save his life from Angel , conveniently leading him into the hands of Holtz . Holtz steals the baby and is forced to escape to the hell dimension Quor 'Toth : Darkest of the dark world .

Holtz raises Connor as his son and instills him with a deep hatred of Angel , although revealed later that he also occasionally abuses Connor when training him out of his hatred towards Connor 's parents . As time runs more quickly in Quor 'Toth , Connor ages at an accelerated rate in relation to time on Earth . Surviving the hell , a teenage Connor returns with the goal of avenging the Holtz family by killing Angel . However , after failing in his first attempt on Angel 's life , Connor tentatively begins to reconcile with him . Fearful of the development , Holtz has himself killed by Justine Cooper in a manner that frames Angel for the action . In the finale " Tomorrow " , an enraged Connor seals Angel in a metal box and sinks him to the bottom of the ocean .

= = = = Season 4 = = = =

The opening episode " Deep Down " picks up three months after last season . Angel returns , and Holtz ' deception is revealed . Relations are shaky as Angel kicks Connor out of the house in punishment for sinking him , but secretly keeps a protective eye on him from afar . Stricken by the betrayal of his adoptive father and the apparent abandonment by his real one , Connor seeks solace in Cordelia 's arms . When an all @-@ powerful demon lord The Beast rises from the ground at the place he was born , Connor feels responsible . As The Beast causes fire to rain from the sky in an apparent apocalypse , Cordelia sleeps with Connor to give him some happiness before the end . While an apocalypse does not occur , Angel ( also in love with Cordelia ) doesn 't take kindly to the development , causing another rift between him and Connor . Unbeknownst to all , Cordelia is possessed to be with Connor by a cosmic entity , Jasmine , looking to give herself birth in this world through their union . As Cordelia becomes pregnant and manipulates Connor into helping her sacrifice an innocent girl for their child , his inhuman actions begin conflicting with his inner good , accelerating his already deteriorating mental health .

Jasmine arrives as a grown woman and immediately bewitches everyone to bask in immense joy and do her bidding . Connor is the only one left in misery because of sharing a blood link with her , which results in his further isolation . As Jasmine enacts her plans for world domination , Angel and his team break free from her spell . Caught between his father and daughter , Connor initially supports Jasmine against Angel , but this conflict , combined with the belief that neither truly cares about him , eventually makes him completely snap . Connor kills Jasmine after Angel manages to break her hold over the city but fails to kill her . An emotional wreck and attempting suicide , Connor wires himself , a comatose Cordelia , and shop full of innocent people to explosives . The season finale ( " Home " ) shows Angel desperate to save his son . Angel agrees to take over Wolfram & Hart in exchange for Connor 's life . As per the agreement , Connor is to have a whole new existence as an ordinary boy who is raised in a happy family . Other than Angel , everyone 's memories are rewritten to accommodate this new reality .

= = = = Season 5 = = = =

A few months after the events of season 4 , episode " Origin " shows Connor as the son of Laurence and Colleen Reilly . Connor crosses paths with Angel when the demon warlock Cyvus Vail draws him out to make him fulfill his destiny of killing Sahjhan . Angel informs Connor of his special abilities and helps prepare him for the fight , but he does not reveal that he is Connor 's real father . As the duel with Sahjhan begins , Connor is outmatched due to having forgotten his formidable fighting skills . Meanwhile , Wesley discovers Angel 's deception of altering reality . Distrusting Angel , Wesley shatters the Orlon Window , which restores Connor 's , Wesley 's , and Illyria 's memories . Remembering his old self and discovering that Sahjhan is directly responsible for all the pain he has endured , Connor slips to his original persona of ' demon @-@ killer ' and dispatches Sahjhan with ease .

In " Not Fade Away " the finale of the series , Angel visits Connor for coffee on the eve of his final battle with the Circle of the Black Thorn . Connor reveals that he remembers that Angel is his father . He tells Angel he is grateful for all he has done for him , but he prefers to leave it at that . When Angel fights Marcus Hamilton , Connor shows up to fight by his father 's side ( knowing that Angel wouldn 't do something so innocuous unless the world were about to end ) , saving Angel from being staked by Hamilton and helping him gain the upper hand . As the Senior Partners begin to exact their vengeance , Angel tells Connor to go home to his foster parents and assures him that as long as Connor is safe , the Partners can never destroy Angel .

= = = Literature = = =

The comic series Angel : After the Fall , picks up immediately after the events of the television series . Connor is shown sprinting home as ordered by Angel . He debates going back but gets drawn into the battle when the whole city is sent to hell by the Senior Partners . A veteran of hell , Connor takes it upon himself to provide sanctuary to humans and good demons . Along to help him are the benevolent werewolf Nina Ash , the mutant Gwen Raiden , and the vampire Spike . Connor also becomes much closer to Angel as he joins his newest battle to wrestle back control of the city from Demon Lords . Part of the story centers on Connor and Gwen 's romance , which ends when he discovers Gwen has betrayed the team .

Following the event , Gunn reverts Illyria to her demonic form , after which , Illyria decides to wholly collapse time and all existence . In an attempt to prevent Angel and his team from stopping Illyria , Gunn mortally wounds Connor . Connor pleads with Angel not to let the Senior Partners win and assures him that he is a good person despite being a vampire . Connor then dies in Angel 's arms . He is restored to life when Angel provokes Gunn into killing him , forcing the Senior Partners to turn back time to the moment of the original alleyway fight in the television finale . All those who died since the city was sent to hell come back to life and have their memories of the intervening time intact .

Spike : After the Fall , a companion piece to Angel : After the Fall , shows how Connor came about to form his alliance with Spike shortly after Los Angeles went to hell . Connor appears when Spike and Illyria are in a violent showdown with a group of demonic women . Catching the demonic leader off @-@ guard , he rescues the last human hostage and then has to be rescued by Spike . On their second encounter , the two strikes up a connection immediately leading to their joint crusade of saving the remaining humans . Connor is set to appear in the arcs of Angel and Faith .

Connor appears in the Family Reunion arc of Angel & Faith . ' Willow , on a quest to restore magic to herself and the world asks Angel and Faith to travel from London to LA with her so she can use the residual magic in Buffy 's scythe and Connor 's connection to Quor 'toth to reopen the tear in reality at the Hyperion Hotel to get to a dimension that has magic . Angel & Faith agree to this in order to gain the piece of Giles 's soul in the scythe , but will only help reopen the tear and go to Quor 'toth if Connor agrees to it . Connor is living a normal life as a college student studying social work with a girlfriend . Though initially disappointed Angel ignored his attempts to contact his father , Connor is glad to have Angel in his life and realizes that his normal life is precious , but he still wants Angel to be a part of it . Angel is genuinely proud of the man his son has become . Connor agrees that magic needs to be returned to the world as the most vulnerable in society are already starting to lose hope without it .

Once in Quor 'toth , Connor briefly falls back into more aggressive behavior before he is able to shake off the negative influences of the dimension . His fake magical memories of the childhood Wolfram & Hart created for him have faded since magic was taken from the world , but he has made enough real memories of a happy life to not fall back into his unstable behavior . Dog @-@ like demons of Quor 'toth came to fear and respect " The Destroyer " and overheard Holtz telling Connor about love . Generations of these demons expressed love and compassion in Connor 's name and were slaughtered for it . Connor , Angel , Faith and Willow are able to rescue the last few of these demons while fighting off the Old One that rules Quor 'toth and Willow sends the dog @-@ demons to a peaceful dimension .

Angel obtains the piece of Giles 's soul . Angel , Faith and Connor return to the Hotel just as the tear closes while Willow goes off on her own to find a new source of magic for Earth . Connor accepts Angel has important business to do in England , and wishes his father well . Angel agrees to spend a week in LA with his son before going back to London .

= = Character development = =

= = = Creation and casting = = =

The intent for Connor 's character was to put " Angel in an emotional space . " He was meant to give Angel more to live for than just the usual " day to day " living he was experiencing . " Plus , I just love the idea of this embarrassing effect of a one @-@ night stand , ” Joss Whedon explained in his decision to introduce Angel ’ s son . The character was given the Irish name Connor , meaning ‘ counselor ’ or ' helping warrior ' , to match Angel 's Irish ancestry . Three different babies , triplets Connor , Jake , and Trenton Tupen , were chosen to portray Connor so that none of them had to remain on the set for very long . Baby Connor was a main focus of season three , but the creators were well aware of the limitations of a baby character . With Connor ’ s initial role in plot decided , they came up with the concept of a ' teenage ' version for further appearances .

Vincent Kartheiser , then 23 , was looking for something more stable than the usual feature movies . He decided to audition after his agent sent him the role and tapes of all previous seasons . The producers wanted the character to be a surprise to audiences , so not even Kartheiser was informed that he was trying out for Angel 's son . Instead he auditioned for a character created for the purpose of audition , ‘ the Street Kid ’ , a normal teenager who had Angel as his guardian . " Right away everyone kind of had a good feeling about me joining the cast , " Vincent says . " It seemed that I just fit right in . " Kartheiser was excited after learning that his real role was ' Angel 's son , a demon killer from Quor 'toth . ’ He was confused about his portrayal , thinking that the character was to have a " living @-@ in @-@ the @-@ brush kind of ‘ failed being ’ attitude . " Instead , he was told to just " stand up straight , [ use a ] normal voice , " and let a regular boy come on . Vincent Kartheiser was initially contracted for three episodes with an option to pick him up further .

= = = Characterization = = =

Teenage Connor is an angry , brooding , intense , and volatile teenager who is vindictive towards Angel . Vincent Kartheiser described him as withdrawn and " not willing to open up to the group happiness everyone is so inclined to be part of " . He also highlighted his ' alienation ' of this world and resulting caution and unwillingness to trust others . Tim Minear further characterizes Connor by his strong need for family which " means everything to this kid because he 's never had one " and put emphasis on his " conflicted " personality triggered by his upbringing . David Fury and Minear also highlight Connor 's similarity to Angel . Fury worked on the resemblance of strength , fighting style , and personality . Minear compared their trait of accepting responsibility even in the worst times . Intending to show Connor as a formidable fighter , Kelly A. Manners described him as " quite the hunter , quite the killer . " Kartheiser notes him as " truly badass " , and jokingly compares his fighting style to that of ' Jackie Chan ' , He is attracted to women older than him , which becomes a running gag in the series .

Connor , despite being the son of two " vampires , " is meant to be " human " with otherwise super powers . Due to this , he wasn ’ t given the vampire makeup of the series . Kartheiser expresses his simultaneous joy and dismay at this , considering makeup an added benefit for the character and agreeing that the lack of it saved him much time . Connor was initially clad in clothes made of animal skin , and his attire was said to resemble ' Peter Pan ' and ' Robin Hood ' . He was also wearing , as a trophy , a necklace made of parts of demons he killed in hell . After he settles in this world , he drops the necklace and is given a more casual set of clothes : jeans , t @-@ shirts , and jackets . The concept behind Connor ’ s wardrobe was that , unconcerned with this world ’ s fashion sense , he " just took whatever was available . " Yet , one interviewer notices his clothing to be " conservative [ .. ] for somebody who 's never seen an advert " . Connor 's hairstyle at the start was short and choppy as if cut with a knife . Afterward he 's given a modern and cleaner look with longer , styled hair . Kartheiser was critical of the new hair style calling it ' David Cassidy hair @-@ do ' and feeling it was a ' little bit heavy ' .

Connor undergoes dramatic changes in season five . Very much an opposite to his earlier persona , the only features common with his previous self are his protectiveness of loved ones , attraction to older women , and later his fighting prowess . Otherwise he 's a prosperous , sweet young man , due to his fake memories of a happy childhood . Jeffrey Bell wanted to highlight Connor 's " well @-@ adjusted " mentality for this season . Vincent calls him a " happy " person and liked playing this version more because he has been playing the " brooding " version for a year and a half year . The comic book Connor develops in the same direction as he starts emerging a hero still keeping his pleasant personality . Joss Whedon characterizes the comic book Connor as " the closest thing to a superhero hell has ' because he has powers without any of the weaknesses of the vampire , and is well adjusted . Brain considers him " one of the coolest characters in any series or comics " .

= = = Story progression = = =

Characteristic to Joss Whedon 's characters , Connor goes through drastic changes with the series progression . Introduced as an ' impossible birth ' at the start of season three , as an infant the character still had little chance of his own development . So he became an agent for evolution of others ; Darla through him , redeems herself of her villainous acts spanning two television series , and Wesley transform from a goofy sidekick to a brooding anti @-@ hero . Once these developments came to fruition , the creators chose to upgrade Connor to a teen . Taking advantage of the fantasy genre , they were able to accelerate his growth within a few weeks of the show 's normal timeline , thus not affecting the ages of the rest of the characters and setting up stage for the next act . The middle of season three sees the infant kidnapped by Angel 's long @-@ term adversary Holtz , who takes Connor to a hell dimension where " time moves differently , " explains David Greenwalt . " We didn 't want to raise a baby for 18 years . "

Connor returns near the end of the season as a feral teenage warrior who is vindictive towards Angel . Connor 's age at his return is disputed : both the creators and episodes vary between putting him at 16 and 18 . Regarding Connor 's upbringing , Mere Smith elaborates that " Holtz has brought up Connor to hate his father , his father is the devil as far as Holtz is concerned and he tells Connor that " This development allowed the writers to explore a unique ' foil ' to protagonists because Connor was established to be " deep down " much like Angel himself . Minear goes on to explain with Smith that immediately following Connor 's return from hell , Angel had started " converting the boy to his side , " showing him that he 's no longer a bad guy . Just when Connor is bonding with Angel , Holtz kills himself upon sensing the danger of their reconciliation . This makes Connor back track and sets off a back and forth pattern that continues to repeat till the end of season four with Cordelia and then Jasmine taking Holtz ' position between father and son .

Much of Connor 's development in season three and four is his continuous shifting alliances between protagonists and antagonists ; he is unable to find his place or his purpose for being . Jeffrey Bell says that all the confusing and conflicting circumstances never allow Connor a break , which he thinks " makes him empathetic in midst of making all wrong choices " . Steven S. DeKnight says :

We really wanted to highlight [ .. ] that he is a tragic victim of circumstance . He never had a childhood , he 's been lied to and manipulated and in this episode we find out his whole reason for being was to bring this other thing into this world , so he 's been played his entire life . You really root for him to make the right decision in this one , but you know tragic figure he doesn 't .

Season four also sees the writers exploring teenage sexuality through him , in a small arc with Faith , with whom Steven S. DeKnight compares him in their characterization of misguided youth with superpowers ; and the overarching arc with his father 's love Cordelia . Jeffrey Bell states Arthurian Legend 's animosity between King Arthur , his son Mordred , and their love triangle with Guinevere as inspiration for the Connor @-@ Cordelia @-@ Angel plot line . Whedon notes that while he already has decided that Cordelia and Connor were going to have sex , the story had to be changed and move faster because Charisma Carpenter became pregnant . The Cordelia plot line additionally gave writers opportunity to explain Connor 's birth via Jasmine , a character brought in to replace Carpenter as final villain . Taking Jasmine as a base point the writers started connecting back the dots they 'd set up in previous seasons . In the words of DeKnight , " It 's always been the big mystery of how and why Darla and Angel have a child , ' cause vampires are sterile . We find out this miracle birth was created kind of like a secret ingredient all planned out to sleep with Cordelia and create this superbeing . "

Regarding the resolution of the character at season four and dropping of Kartheiser from regular cast , Minear says that they had an idea at the conception of teenage Connor that he would only last a season , and " it was time to end the character 's story " . But , they changed his original " violent , morbid " sendoff to a relatively happy one , citing their likability of actor and character as the reason . Also it was " nice to give someone a happy ending for once . " Kartheiser was satisfied with the sendoff , particularly because the issue between Angel and Connor was confronted :

That to me is the soul of the character . The name of the show is Angel so it all comes back to him . For Connor , everything stems from this place with Angel and Holtz , and when we got the opportunity for him to let that out , I think he came out of his tough shell and showed a little bit of his sensitivity . He showed that he was hurt by his father and that he was hurt by Holtz .

The last scene of Angel watching memory @-@ wiped Connor dine with his new family and slipping away quietly was Whedon 's idea , derived from 1937 's classic movie Stella Dallas :

" I 've given up my child . I see my child is happy , and does not know me , and I 'm happy . That is the thing that made Stella Darlas the greatest , the thing that made this episode work . "

Despite Whedon 's claim that the fourth season is a ‘ final statement ' for Connor , the character returns for a couple guests appearances in the fifth . This season sees a big development with a " well @-@ adjusted " Connor and the long @-@ due reconciliation of father and son ; Connor is able to accept and appreciate all Angel did for him after his memories return . Minear and Bell were open to and had mentioned the possibility of character 's return to Kartheiser at the end of season four . But following his return , Kartheiser isn 't sure if the re @-@ appearance was not only due to the necessity of tying up loose ends after the series was reckoned to be canceled . Originally Kartheiser was asked to appear for one episode " Origin " but the crew and Kartheiser enjoyed working with revamped Connor so much that " it became clear to [ them ] that he had to appear for the series finale " .

Connor again returns for Angel : After the Fall . Brian Lynch was initially confused about how to incorporate Connor into the story . It was Whedon who hit upon the arc that Connor would follow in the series . He said , " Connor 's a young kid , he 's got powers , he doesn 't have any of the bad things , he 's not a vampire , so maybe he would enjoy it , and maybe he would be the closest thing to a superhero hell has " . Well @-@ adjusted now , Connor is shown " fully embracing his qualities and role of a hero " for the comic series . Originally Lynch had planned for Nina Ash to be more involved in his storyline , but with time it became clear to him that Connor 's story is more about his relationship with Angel . So Nina fell to the wayside and Connor @-@ Angel went on to become a much closer father @-@ son unit . Connor also went from the character Lynch had the most trouble with to the character he enjoys writing most . Regarding Connor 's upcoming role in Angel & Faith , Whedon joked about time @-@ traveling him to the early 1960s and making him an ad executive , referencing Kartheiser ' s recent role in the critically acclaimed television series Mad Men . Author Christos Gage describes the necessity of Connor 's appearance with " otherwise Angel is just a deadbeat Dad ! "

In the Angel & Faith Comics , Connor returns in the " Family Reunion " arc , beginning with Issue # 11 . Willow telling Angel that she needs Connor to act as a compass to Quor 'toth , the world he grew up in , to help restore magic to the world . Connor is now a college student studying social work with a girlfriend named Natalie he 's been dating 3 months . He rapidly agrees to help Willow and a very reluctant Angel . Connor has seen the toll on society , especially the disenfranchised , that has occurred since magic seed was destroyed in Buffy Season 8 . With a blood ritual using Connor 's blood , Willow tears a fabric in reality to Quor 'toth and Willow , Faith , Angel , and Connor head into the " darkest of the dark worlds " .

= = Reception = =

= = = Merchandise = = =

Several pieces of merchandise , based on Angel television and comic series , featuring Connor have been released . These merchandise includes a few action figures , but more prominently novels and spin @-@ off comic books . Connor stars as a regular in After the Fall 's spin @-@ off Aftermath and one @-@ shot Angel Yearbook . He is the title character of Connor : Spotlight . Continuing his appearances in other media , Connor stars in novels Dark Mirror , Love and Death , and Monolith . These appearances , though a part of official merchandise , are not considered canon .

= = = Reviews = = =

The show 's cast and crew repeatedly praised Vincent Kartheiser for his professionalism and ability to bring much to his character . " You can bet the family fortune on this kid , he can really do it , " stated director Vern Gillum . Producer Tim Minear described Vincent as one of the main reasons of their avoidance of giving the character a ghastly send @-@ off as planned before , “ We ’ ve all grown so fond of the character and the actor that we didn ’ t want do that . ” Although fans and critics reception to Kartheiser ’ s portrayal of the disturbed teen was also very positive , the character and his storylines turned out to be controversial .

His sexual relationship with his surrogate mother , Cordelia , particularly evoked attention . Most responses to this couple were negative . Darkworlds.com 's columnist Amy Berner declared them a " finalist in the Most Disturbing Couple In Television History “ . In her academic essay " The Assassination of Cordelia Chase , " Jennifer Crusie complained that this plot line led to the destruction of Cordelia 's character . Charisma Carpenter herself , despite previously noted to have fun portraying the role , became critical of the storyline over time , declaring her character ’ s seduction of a teenage boy creepy . Yet , a few gave a positive response . Liz Gasto of Moviefreak.com included the Angel – Cordelia – Connor triangle in the plus points of fourth season . Underland.com praised the plot line as a " very King Arthur like tale of love and betrayal . " Another group was neutral towards the development . In his book Blood Relations : Chosen Families in Buffy and Angel , Jes Battis simply observed that the relationship completes the already present “ circuit of erotic incest within Buffy and Angel . ” Jean Lorrah , in her academic essay " A World Without Love : The Failure of Family in Angel , " agreed with previous statements , further noting that Connor is the product of a relationship with incestuous tones : ” Angel is seduced by Darla , formerly his sire ( mother ) , now his granddaughter [ .. ] Connor ’ s life , unbeknownst to either parent , has begun . ”

Connor ’ s characterization and main storyline with his father in season three and four received mixed to positive reviews . Ben from thescifichristian.com was not fond of the initial episodes with baby Connor because Angel wasted time “ baby @-@ talking , ” but he loved the development with teenage Connor , “ The [ third ] season ends with a great storyline as Connor returns [ .. ] and betrays Angel . ” Jes Battis praised the father / son dynamics and described as “ highly dramatic and ( engagingly perverse ) ” . Journalist Sarah D. Bunting called Connor " a frustrating character " and wrote that while she " gets where he is coming from " and his ” twitchy , PTSD @-@ ish interactions ring true " , they become old too quick due to lack of real development of character and the relationship with Angel for most of season four . Kartheiser himself expressed this development concern , but he said that " Towards the end of the season I was really happy about the chances I was getting . " This last statement is echoed in Jamie Pool 's review , who called the “ ending ” to Connor " emotionally satisfying " , despite noting him to not have been particularly endearing through most of the remaining season . S.Wiebe of eclipsemagazine.com , however , described Connor ’ s overall characterization " sharp " with " really intriguing sub @-@ textual material " and among the saving graces of the season . Strega of Television Without Pity , also praised the character 's psychology , " The thing I like most is that they 've not only created a teenager who doesn 't just feel like he 's the most alienated person in the world -- he actually is , " and " I love how unloved Connor [ thinks he ] is … ” Jean Lorrah described the Darla @-@ Angel @-@ Connor @-@ Jasmine arc as " surely one of the most ambitious story arcs any television show has ever attempted “ Stacey Abbott of PopMatters called the Darla @-@ Angel @-@ Connor storyline " provocative " and " pure family melodrama " . Cityofangels.com 's Tara DiLullo summed up :

" Vincent Kartheiser [ Connor ] had a challenging year playing Angel ’ s errant son , to say the least . While audiences may have hoped for a reconciliation between the two , it was never meant to be . Connor instead started and remained [ .. ] as petulant and unsympathetic as many teens are in real life . [ His pairing with ] Cordelia completely fouled just about everyone and made him the whipping boy for fan ire . But [ Vincent ] earns serious kudos for his amazing last inning transformation of Connor from brat to tragic figure worthy of pity and understanding in Peace Out and Home . That Vincent was able to redeem Connor in such a short time is a true feat in itself and it was singularly responsible for making the finale as heartbreaking and haunting as it ended up being . "

A revamped Connor received praise during the final season . Phoenix of cityofangel.com declared Connor 's return as “ triumphant ” , saying this “ shy , sweet , happy young man ” is the kid Angel always wanted , and “ for the audience , a version of the character finally worth liking and supporting . ” Roz Kaveney , in his essay " A Sense of the Ending : Schrödinger 's Angel , " praised the new Connor as a “ heroic youth ” . Writer Brian Lynch admitted that he did not love season four 's Connor , but that he " really liked him " in season five " when he came back and he was well adjusted . "

Connor 's name is often mentioned with Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's Dawn Summers younger sister to Buffy Summers similarly created to give a strong emotional connection to the titular character . Four years after the cancellation of Angel , IGN included Connor along with Dawn in their list of classic TV 's cliché of ‘ Adding a Kid ’ as a last @-@ ditch effort to save a dying show . However they refused to comment if his addition was a good or bad choice in order to avoid swamping themselves from irate fans of either side . David Hofstede in his book What Were They Thinking ? openly criticized Connor and Dawn ’ s addition , appointing them number No.98 in his list of " 100 Dumbest Events in Television History " .

Connor 's appearance as a regular in After the Fall , was initially met with dismay by some fans . IDW representative Chris Ryall responded to these complaints with optimism , assuring the fans that the character would win them over , just the way he has been , by the time the series end . True to his words , After The Fall ’ s Connor was received positively . Brian Lynch confirmed this in an interview , stating that Connor has not only been the most pleasantly surprising character for him to write , he has been the most surprising for the fans as well , " Connor was a great character on the TV show but , I don ’ t think he was ever a favorite . But he ’ s slowly but surely become one of the most popular characters in After The Fall , which is wonderful . " He further said that he himself like the character so much now , he wants to do a book called ' Son of Angel ' based on him .

= = = Analysis = = =

Connor has been analyzed and compared with other male characters of the series in terms of the presentation and evolution of masculinity in fiction . His sexual relation with his surrogate mother , coupled with his struggles to kill his father , led to numerous speculations that mythical Greek figure Oedipus was the inspiration for the character. and references to Arthurian Legend were also made . In Erin B. Waggoner 's book Sexual rhetoric in the works of Joss Whedon , he found it interesting that the ancient Oedipus complex continues to be used as a way to underscore one 's masculinity , but he added that " Connor is not the only one [ .. ] Angel , Wes , Spike and even Fred ( through Gunn ) kill father or father figures in order to come into their own as individuals . " Further citing Gwen 's role among Connor and Gunn in the comic series triangle , he observed the unrelenting use of women as a device for men to shore up .

Stacey Abbott of PopMatters cited David Greenwalt 's statement that " Angel is about how hard it is to be a man . " Greenwalt observed that the show raises questions about what it means to be a man and does this not only through the characterization of Angel but also the men around him . He said that like other male characters , taken alone Connor may seem a stereotypical teen boy , but considered with rest of the cast offers a complex image of modern masculinity . Greenwalt also compared Connor 's journey with others in terms of identity , which he considers a poignant theme within the series . He found it ironic that Connor who was " initially the most damaged of all the characters " , was the only one able to " reconcile his actions and new man existence together " and be at peace with himself in the end .

= Profumo affair =

The Profumo affair was a British political scandal that originated with a brief sexual relationship in 1961 between John Profumo , the Secretary of State for War in Harold Macmillan 's government , and Christine Keeler , a 19 @-@ year @-@ old would @-@ be model . In March 1963 , Profumo denied any impropriety in a personal statement to the House of Commons , but was forced to admit the truth a few weeks later . He resigned from the government and from Parliament . The repercussions of the affair severely damaged Macmillan 's self @-@ confidence , and he resigned as prime minister on health grounds in October 1963 . His Conservative Party was marked by the scandal , which may have contributed to its defeat by Labour in the 1964 general election .

When the Profumo – Keeler affair was first revealed , public interest was heightened by reports that Keeler may have been simultaneously involved with Captain Yevgeny Ivanov , a Soviet naval attaché , thereby creating a possible security risk . Keeler knew both Profumo and Ivanov through her friendship with Stephen Ward , an osteopath and socialite who had taken her under his wing . The exposure of the affair generated rumours of other scandals , and drew official attention to the activities of Ward , who was charged with a series of immorality offences . Perceiving himself as a scapegoat for the misdeeds of others , Ward took a fatal overdose during the final stages of his trial , which found him guilty of living off the immoral earnings of Keeler and her friend Mandy Rice @-@ Davies .

An inquiry into the affair by a senior judge , Lord Denning , indicated that there had been no breaches of security arising from the Ivanov connection , although Denning 's report was later condemned as superficial and unsatisfactory . Profumo subsequently sought private atonement as a volunteer worker at Toynbee Hall , an East London charitable trust . By 1975 he had been officially rehabilitated , although he did not return to public life . He died in 2006 .

Keeler found it difficult to escape the negative image attached to her by press , law and parliament throughout the Profumo affair . In various , sometimes contradictory accounts , she has challenged Denning 's conclusions relating to security issues . Ward 's conviction has been described by analysts as an act of Establishment revenge , rather than serving justice . In January 2014 his case was under review by the Criminal Cases Review Commission , with the possibility of a later reference to the Court of Appeal . Dramatisations of the Profumo affair have been shown on stage and screen .

= = Background = =

= = = Government and press = = =

In the early 1960s British news media were dominated by several high @-@ profile spying stories : the breaking of the Portland spy ring in 1961 , the capture and sentencing of George Blake in the same year and , in 1962 , the case of the Admiralty clerk , John Vassall , blackmailed into spying by the Soviets who threatened to expose his homosexuality . In October 1962 Vassall was jailed for 18 years . After suggestions in the press that Vassall had been shielded by his political masters , the responsible minister , Thomas Galbraith , resigned from the government pending inquiries . Galbraith was later exonerated by the Radcliffe inquiry , which sent two newspaper journalists to prison for refusing to reveal their sources for sensational and uncorroborated stories about Vassall 's private life . The imprisonment severely damaged relations between the press and the Macmillan government ; the New Statesman 's columnist Paul Johnson warned : " [ A ] ny Tory minister or MP ... who gets involved in a scandal during the next year or so must expect — I regret to say — the full treatment " .

= = = Profumo = = =

John Profumo was born in 1915 , of Italian descent . He first entered Parliament in 1940 as the Conservative member for Kettering , while serving with the Northamptonshire Yeomanry , and combined his political and military duties through the Second World War . He lost his seat in the 1945 general election , but was elected in 1950 for Stratford @-@ on @-@ Avon . From 1951 he held junior ministerial office in successive Conservative administrations . In 1960 , Macmillan promoted him to Secretary of State for War , a senior post outside the cabinet . After his marriage in 1954 to Valerie Hobson , one of Britain 's leading film actresses , he may have conducted casual affairs , using late @-@ night parliamentary sittings as his cover . Profumo 's tenure as war minister coincided with a period of transition in the armed forces , involving the end of conscription and the development of a wholly professional army . His performance was watched with a critical eye by his opposition counterpart George Wigg , a former regular soldier .

= = = Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies , and Astor = = =

Christine Keeler , born in 1942 , left school at 15 with no qualifications and took a series of short @-@ lived jobs in shops , offices and cafés . She aspired to be a model , and at 16 had a photograph published in Tit @-@ Bits magazine . In August 1959 , she found work as a topless showgirl at Murray 's Cabaret Club in Beak Street , Soho . This long @-@ established club attracted a distinguished clientele who , Keeler wrote , " could look but could not touch " . Shortly after starting at Murray 's , Keeler was introduced to a client , the society osteopath Stephen Ward . Captivated by his charm , she agreed to move into his flat , in a relationship she has described as " like brother and sister " — affectionate but not sexual . She left Ward after a few months to become the mistress of the property dealer Peter Rachman , and later shared lodgings with Mandy Rice @-@ Davies , a fellow Murray 's Club dancer three years her junior . The two girls left Murray 's , and attempted without success to pursue careers as freelance models . Keeler also lived for short periods with various boyfriends , but regularly returned to Ward , who had acquired a house in Wimpole Mews . There she met many of Ward 's friends , among them Lord Astor , a long @-@ time patient who was also a political ally of Profumo . She often spent weekends at a riverside cottage that Ward rented on Astor 's country estate , Cliveden , in Buckinghamshire .

= = = Ward and Ivanov = = =

Stephen Ward , born in Hertfordshire in 1912 , qualified as an osteopath in the United States . After the Second World War he began practising in Cavendish Square , London , where he rapidly established a reputation and attracted many distinguished patients . These connections , together with his personal charm , brought him considerable social success . In his spare time Ward attended art classes at the Slade school , and developed a profitable sideline in portrait sketches . In 1960 he was commissioned by The Illustrated London News to provide a series of portraits of national and international figures . These included members of the Royal family , among them Prince Philip and Princess Margaret .

Ward hoped to visit the Soviet Union to draw portraits of Russian leaders . To help him , one of his patients , the Daily Telegraph editor Sir Colin Coote , arranged an introduction to Yevgeny Ivanov ( anglicised as " Eugene " ) , listed as a naval attaché at the Soviet Embassy . British Intelligence ( MI5 ) knew from the double @-@ agent Oleg Penkovsky that Ivanov was an intelligence officer in the Soviet GRU . Ward and Ivanov became firm friends . Ivanov frequently visited Ward at Wimpole Mews , where he met Keeler and Rice @-@ Davis , and sometimes joined Ward 's weekend parties at the Cliveden cottage . MI5 considered Ivanov a potential defector , and sought Ward 's help to this end , providing him with a case officer known as " Woods " . Ward was later used by the British Foreign Office as a backchannel , through Ivanov , to the Soviet Union , and was involved in unofficial diplomacy at the time of the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis . His closeness to Ivanov raised concerns about his loyalty ; according to Lord Denning 's September 1963 report , Ivanov often asked Ward questions about British foreign policy , and Ward did his best to provide answers .

= = Origins = =

= = = Cliveden , July 1961 = = =

During the weekend of 8 – 9 July 1961 Keeler was among several guests of Ward at the Cliveden cottage . That same weekend , at the main house , John and Valerie Profumo were among the large gathering from the worlds of politics and the arts which Astor was hosting in honour of Ayub Khan , the president of Pakistan . On the Saturday evening , Ward 's and Astor 's parties mingled at the Cliveden swimming pool , which Ward and his guests had permission to use . Keeler , who had been swimming naked , was introduced to Profumo while trying to cover herself with a skimpy towel . She was , Profumo informed his son many years later , " a very pretty girl and very sweet " . Keeler did not know , initially , who Profumo was , but was impressed that he was the husband of a famous film star and was prepared to have " a bit of fun " with him .

The next afternoon the two parties reconvened at the pool , joined by Ivanov , who had arrived that morning . There followed what Lord Denning described as " a light @-@ hearted and frolicsome bathing party , where everyone was in bathing costumes and nothing indecent took place at all " . Profumo was greatly attracted to Keeler , and promised to be in touch with her . Ward asked Ivanov to accompany Keeler back to London where , according to Keeler , they had sex . Most commentators doubt this — Keeler was generally outspoken about her conquests , yet said nothing about sex with Ivanov until she informed a newspaper 18 months later .

On 12 July Ward reported on the weekend 's events to MI5 . He told Woods that Ivanov and Profumo had met and that the latter had shown considerable interest in Keeler . Ward also stated that he had been asked by Ivanov for information about the future arming of West Germany with atomic weapons . This request for military information did not greatly disturb MI5 , who expected a GRU officer to ask such questions . Profumo 's interest in Keeler was an unwelcome complication in their plans to use her in a honey trap operation against Ivanov , to help secure his defection . Woods therefore referred the issue to MI5 's director @-@ general , Sir Roger Hollis .

= = = Affair = = =

A few days after the Cliveden weekend , Profumo contacted Keeler . The affair that ensued was brief ; some commentators have suggested that it ended after a few weeks , while others believe that it continued , with decreasing fervour , until December 1961 . The relationship has been characterised by Keeler as an unromantic relationship without expectations , a " screw of convenience " , although she also states that Profumo hoped for a longer @-@ term commitment and that he offered to set her up in a flat . More than 20 years later , Profumo described Keeler in conversation with his son as someone who " seem [ ed ] to like sexual intercourse " , but who was " completely uneducated " , with no conversation beyond make @-@ up , hair and gramophone records .

The couple usually met at Wimpole Mews , when Ward was absent , although once , when Hobson was away , Profumo took Keeler to his home at Chester Terrace in Regent 's Park . On one occasion he borrowed a Bentley from his ministerial colleague John Hare and took Keeler for a drive around London , and another time the couple had a drink with Viscount Ward , the former Secretary of State for Air . During their time together , Profumo gave Keeler a few small presents , and once , a sum of £ 20 as a gift for her mother . Keeler maintains that although Stephen Ward asked her to obtain information from Profumo about the deployment of nuclear weapons , she did not do so . Profumo was equally adamant that no such discussions took place .

On 9 August Profumo was interviewed informally by Sir Norman Brook , the Cabinet Secretary , who had been advised by Hollis of Profumo 's involvement with the Ward circle . Brook warned the minister of the dangers of mixing with Ward 's group , since MI5 were at this stage unsure of Ward 's dependability . It is possible that Brook asked Profumo to help MI5 in its efforts to secure Ivanov 's defection — a request which Profumo declined . Although Brook did not indicate knowledge of Profumo 's relationship with Keeler , Profumo may have suspected that he knew . That same day , Profumo wrote Keeler a letter , beginning " Darling ... " , cancelling an assignation they had made for the following day . Some commentators have assumed that this letter ended the association ; Keeler insists that the affair ended later , after her persistent refusals to stop living with Ward .

= = Developing scandal = =

= = = Gordon and Edgecombe = = =

In October 1961 Keeler accompanied Ward to Notting Hill , then a run @-@ down district of London replete with West Indian music clubs and cannabis dealers . At the Rio Café they encountered Aloysius " Lucky " Gordon , a Jamaican jazz singer with a history of violence and petty crime . He and Keeler embarked on an affair which , in her own accounts , was marked by equal measures of violence and tenderness on his part . Gordon became very possessive towards Keeler , jealous of her other social contacts . He began confronting her friends , and often telephoned her at unsocial hours . In November Keeler left Wimpole Mews and moved to a flat in Dolphin Square , overlooking the Thames at Pimlico , where she entertained friends and perhaps clients . When Gordon continued to harass her he was arrested by the police and charged with assault . Keeler later agreed to drop the charge .

In July 1962 the first inklings of a possible Profumo @-@ Keeler @-@ Ivanov triangle had been hinted , in coded terms , in the gossip column of the society magazine Queen . Under the heading " Sentences I 'd like to hear the end of " appeared the wording : " ... called in MI5 because every time the chauffeur @-@ driven Zils drew up at her front door , out of her back door into a chauffeur @-@ driven Humber slipped ... " Keeler was then in New York with Rice @-@ Davies , in an abortive attempt to launch their modelling careers there . On her return , to counter Gordon 's threats , Keeler formed a relationship with Johnny Edgecombe , an ex @-@ merchant seaman from Antigua , with whom she lived for a while in Brentford , just west of London . Edgecombe was similarly possessive ; he and Gordon clashed violently on 27 October 1962 , when Edgecombe slashed his rival with a knife . Keeler broke with Edgecombe shortly afterwards because of his domineering behaviour .

On 14 December 1962 Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies were together at 17 Wimpole Mews when Edgecombe arrived , demanding to see Keeler . When he was not allowed in , he fired several shots at the front door . Shortly afterwards Edgecombe was arrested and charged with attempted murder and other offences . In brief press accounts , Keeler was described as " a free @-@ lance model " and " Miss Marilyn Davies " as " an actress " . In the wake of the incident , Keeler began to talk indiscreetly about Ward , Profumo , Ivanov and the Edgecombe shooting . Among those to whom she told her story was John Lewis , a former Labour MP whom she had met by chance in a night club . Lewis , a long @-@ standing enemy of Ward , passed the information to his one @-@ time parliamentary colleague George Wigg , who began his own investigation .

= = = Mounting pressures = = =

On 22 January 1963 the Soviet government , sensing a possible scandal , recalled Ivanov . Aware of increasing public interest , Keeler attempted to sell her story to the national newspapers . The Radcliffe tribunal 's ongoing inquiry into press behaviour during the Vassall case was making newspapers nervous , and only two showed interest in Keeler 's story : the Sunday Pictorial and the News of the World . As the latter would not join an auction , Keeler accepted the Pictorial 's offer of a £ 200 down payment and a further £ 800 when the story was published . The paper retained a copy of the " Darling " letter . The News of the World then alerted Ward and Astor — whose names had been mentioned by Keeler — and they in turn informed Profumo . When Profumo 's lawyers tried to persuade Keeler not to publish , the compensation she demanded was so large that Profumo 's lawyers considered charges of extortion . Ward informed the Pictorial that Keeler 's story was largely false , and that he and others would sue if it was printed , whereupon the paper withdrew its offer , although Keeler kept the £ 200 .

Keeler then gave details of her affair with Profumo to a police officer , who did not pass on this information to MI5 or the legal authorities . By this time , many of Profumo 's political colleagues had heard rumours of his entanglement , and of the existence of a potentially incriminating letter . Nevertheless , his denials were accepted by the government 's principal law officers and the Conservative Chief Whip , although with some private scepticism . Macmillan , mindful of the injustice done to Galbraith on the basis of rumours , was determined to support his minister , and took no action .

Edgecombe 's trial began on 14 March but Keeler , one of the Crown 's key witnesses , was missing . She had , without informing the court , gone to Spain , although at this stage her whereabouts were unknown . Her unexplained absence caused a press sensation . Every newspaper knew the rumours linking Keeler with Profumo , but refrained from reporting any direct connection ; in the wake of the Radcliffe inquiry they were , in Wigg 's later words , " willing to wound but afraid to strike " . They could only hint , by front @-@ page juxtapositions of stories and photographs , that Profumo might be connected to Keeler 's disappearance . Despite her absence the judge proceeded with the case ; Edgecombe was found guilty on a lesser charge of possessing a firearm with intent to endanger life , and sentenced to seven years ' imprisonment . A few days after the trial , on 21 March , the satirical magazine Private Eye printed the most detailed summary so far of the rumours , with the main characters lightly disguised : " Mr James Montesi " , " Miss Gaye Funloving " , " Dr Spook " and " Vladimir Bolokhov " .

= = = Personal statement = = =

The newly elected leader of the opposition Labour Party , Harold Wilson , was initially advised by his colleagues to have nothing to do with Wigg 's private dossier on the Profumo rumours . On 21 March , with the press furore over the " missing witness " at its height , the party changed its stance . During a House of Commons debate , Wigg used parliamentary privilege to ask the Home Secretary to categorically deny the truth of rumours connecting " a minister " to Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies and the Edgecombe shooting . He did not name Profumo , who was not in the House . Later in the debate Barbara Castle , the Labour MP for Blackburn , referred to the " missing witness " and hinted at a possible perversion of justice . The Home Secretary , Henry Brooke , refused to comment , adding that Wigg and Castle should " seek other means of making these insinuations if they are prepared to substantiate them " .

At the conclusion of the debate the government 's law officers and Chief Whip met , and decided that Profumo should assert his innocence in a personal statement to the House . Such statements are , by long @-@ standing tradition , made on the particular honour of the member and are accepted by the House without question . In the early hours of 22 March Profumo and his lawyers met with ministers and together agreed an appropriate wording . Later that morning Profumo made his statement to a crowded House . He acknowledged friendships with Keeler and Ward , the former of whom , he said , he had last seen in December 1961 . He had met " a Mr Ivanov " twice , also in 1961 . He stated : " There was no impropriety whatsoever in my acquaintanceship with Miss Keeler " , and added : " I shall not hesitate to issue writs for libel and slander if scandalous allegations are made or repeated outside the House . " That afternoon , Profumo was photographed at Sandown Park Racecourse in the company of the Queen Mother .

While officially the matter was considered closed , many individual MPs had doubts , although none openly expressed disbelief at this stage . Wigg later said that he left the House that morning " with black rage in my heart because I knew what the facts were . I knew the truth . " Most newspapers were editorially non @-@ committal ; only The Guardian , under the headline " Mr Profumo clears the air " , stated openly that the statement should be taken at its face value . Within a few days press attention was distracted by the re @-@ emergence of Keeler , in Madrid . She expressed astonishment at the fuss her absence had caused , adding that her friendship with Profumo and his wife was entirely innocent and that she had many friends in important positions . She claimed that she had not deliberately missed the Edgecombe trial but had been confused about the date . She was required to forfeit her recognizance of £ 40 , but no other action was taken against her .

= = Exposure = =

= = = Investigation and resignation = = =

Shortly after Profumo 's Commons statement , Ward appeared on Independent Television News , where he endorsed Profumo 's version and dismissed all rumours and insinuations as " baseless " . Ward 's own activities had become a matter of official concern , and on 1 April the Metropolitan Police began to investigate his affairs . They interviewed 140 of his friends , associates and patients , maintained a 24 @-@ hour watch on his home , and tapped his telephone — this last action requiring direct authorisation from Brooke . Among those who gave statements was Keeler , who contradicted her earlier assurances and confirmed her sexual relationship with Profumo , providing corroborative details of the interior of the Chester Terrace house . The police put pressure on reluctant witnesses ; Rice @-@ Davies was remanded to Holloway Prison for a driving licence offence and held there for eight days until she agreed to testify against Ward . Meanwhile , Profumo was awarded costs and £ 50 damages against the British distributors of an Italian magazine that had printed a story hinting at his guilt . He donated the proceeds to an army charity . This did not deter Private Eye from including " Sextus Profano " in their parody of Gibbon 's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire .

On 18 April Keeler was attacked at the home of a friend . She accused Gordon , who was arrested and held . According to Knightley and Kennedy 's account , the police offered to drop the charges if Gordon would testify against Ward , but he refused . The effects of the police inquiry were proving ruinous to Ward , whose practice was collapsing rapidly . On 7 May he met Macmillan 's private secretary , Timothy Bligh , to ask that the police inquiry into his affairs be halted . He added that he had been covering for Profumo , whose Commons statement was substantially false . Bligh took notes but failed to take action . On 19 May Ward wrote to Brooke , with essentially the same request as that to Bligh , to be told that the Home Secretary had no power to interfere with the police inquiry . Ward then gave details to the press , but no paper would print the story . He also wrote to Wilson , who showed the letter to Macmillan . Although privately disdainful of Wilson 's motives , after discussions with Hollis the prime minister was sufficiently concerned about Ward 's general activities to ask the Lord Chancellor , Lord Dilhorne , to inquire into possible security breaches .

On 31 May , at the start of the parliamentary Whitsun recess , the Profumos flew to Venice for a short holiday . At their hotel they received a message asking him to return as soon as possible . Believing that his bluff had been called , Profumo then told his wife the truth , and they decided to return immediately . They found that Macmillan was on holiday in Scotland . On Tuesday 4 June Profumo confessed the truth to Bligh , confirming that he had lied , and resigned from the government and from Parliament . Bligh informed Macmillan of these events by telephone . The resignation was announced on 5 June , when the formal exchange of letters between Profumo and Macmillan was published . The Times called Profumo 's lies " a great tragedy for the probity of public life in Britain " ; the Daily Mail recorded Profumo 's fall and disgrace as the price required when public figures fell short of the expected standards of integrity . The Daily Mirror hinted that not all the truth had been told , and referred to " skeletons in many cupboards " .

= = = Retribution = = =

Gordon 's trial for the attack on Keeler began on the day Profumo 's resignation was made public . He maintained that his innocence would be established by two witnesses who , the police told the court , could not be found . On 7 June , principally on the evidence of Keeler , Gordon was found guilty and sentenced to three years ' imprisonment . The following day , Ward was arrested and charged with immorality offences . On 9 June , freed from Profumo 's libel threats , The News of the World published " The Confessions of Christine " , an account which helped to fashion the public image of Ward as a sexual predator and probable tool of the Soviets . The Sunday Mirror ( formerly the Sunday Pictorial ) printed Profumo 's " Darling " letter .

In advance of the House of Commons debate on Profumo 's resignation , due 17 June , David Watt in The Spectator defined Macmillan 's position as " an intolerable dilemma from which he can only escape by being proved either ludicrously naïve or incompetent or deceitful — or all three " . Meanwhile , the press speculated about possible Cabinet resignations , and several ministers felt it necessary to demonstrate their loyalty to the prime minister . In a BBC interview on 13 June Lord Hailsham , holder of several ministerial offices , denounced Profumo in a manner which , according to The Observer 's reporter , " had to be seen to be believed " . Hailsham insisted that " a great party is not to be brought down because of a squalid affair between a woman of easy virtue and a proven liar " .

In the debate , Wilson concentrated almost exclusively on the extent to which the prime minister and his colleagues had been dilatory in not identifying a clear security risk arising from Profumo 's association with Ward and his circle . Macmillan responded that he should not be held culpable for believing a colleague who had repeatedly asserted his innocence . He mentioned the false allegations against Galbraith , and the failure of the security services to share their detailed information with him . In the general debate the sexual aspects of the scandal were fully discussed ; Nigel Birch , the Conservative MP for West Flintshire , referred to Keeler as a " professional prostitute " and asked rhetorically : " What are whores about ? " Keeler was otherwise branded a " tart " and a " poor little slut " . Ward was vilified throughout as a likely Soviet agent ; one Conservative referred to " the treason of Dr Ward " . Most Conservatives , whatever their reservations , were supportive of Macmillan , with only Birch suggesting that he should consider retirement . In the subsequent vote on the government 's handling of the affair , 27 Conservatives abstained , reducing the government 's majority to 69 . Most newspapers considered the extent of the defection significant , and several forecast that Macmillan would soon resign .

After the parliamentary debate , newspapers published further sensational stories , hinting at widespread immorality within Britain 's governing class . A story emanating from Rice @-@ Davies concerned a naked masked man , who acted as a waiter at sex parties ; rumours suggested that he was a cabinet minister , or possibly a member of the Royal Family . Malcolm Muggeridge in the Sunday Mirror wrote of " The Slow , Sure Death of the Upper Classes " . On 21 June Macmillan instructed Lord Denning , the Master of the Rolls , to investigate and report on the growing range of rumours . Ward 's committal proceedings began a week later , at Marylebone magistrates ' court , where the Crown 's evidence was fully reported in the press . Ward was committed for trial on charges of " living off the earnings of prostitution " and " procuration of girl under twenty @-@ one " , and released on bail .

With the Ward case now sub judice , the press pursued related stories . The People reported that Scotland Yard had begun an inquiry , in parallel with Denning 's , into " homosexual practices as well as sexual laxity " among civil servants , military officers and MPs . On 24 June the Daily Mirror , under a banner heading " Prince Philip and the Profumo Scandal " , dismissed what it termed the " foul rumour " that the prince had been involved in the affair , without disclosing the nature of the rumour .

Ward 's trial began at the Old Bailey on 28 July . He was charged with living off the earnings of Keeler , Rice @-@ Davies and two other prostitutes , and with procuring women under 21 to have sex with other persons . The thrust of the prosecution 's case related to Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , and turned on whether the small contributions to household expenses or loan repayments they had given to Ward while living with him amounted to his living off their prostitution . Ward 's approximate income at the time , from his practice and from his portraiture , had been around £ 5 @,@ 500 a year , a substantial sum at that time . In his speeches and examination of witnesses , the prosecuting counsel Mervyn Griffith @-@ Jones portrayed Ward as representing " the very depths of lechery and depravity " . The judge , Sir Archie Marshall , was equally hostile , drawing particular attention to the fact that none of Ward 's supposed society friends had been prepared to speak up for him . Towards the end of the trial , news came that Gordon 's conviction for assault had been overturned ; Marshall did not disclose to the jury that Gordon 's witnesses had turned up and testified that Keeler , a key prosecution witness against Ward , had given false evidence at Gordon 's trial .

After listening to Marshall 's damning summing @-@ up , on the evening of 30 July Ward took an overdose of sleeping tablets and was taken to hospital . On the next day he was found guilty in absentia on the charges relating to Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , and acquitted on the other counts . Sentence was postponed until Ward was fit to appear , but on 3 August he died without regaining consciousness .

= = Aftermath = =

Lord Denning 's report was awaited with great anticipation by the public . Published on 26 September , it concluded that there had been no security leaks in the Profumo affair and that the security services and government ministers had acted appropriately . Profumo had been guilty of an " indiscretion " , but no one could doubt his loyalty . Denning also found no evidence to link members of the government with associated scandals such as the " man in the mask " . He laid most of the blame for the affair on Ward , an " utterly immoral " man whose diplomatic activities were " misconceived and misdirected " . Although The Spectator considered that the report marked the end of the affair , many commentators were disappointed with its content . Young found many questions unanswered and some of the reasoning defective , while Davenport @-@ Hines , writing long after the event , condemns the report as disgraceful , slipshod and prurient .

After the Denning Report , in defiance of general expectations that he would resign shortly , Macmillan announced his intention to stay on . On the eve of the Conservative Party 's annual conference in October 1963 he fell ill ; his condition was less serious than he imagined , and his life was not in danger but , convinced he had cancer , he resigned abruptly . His successor as prime minister was Lord Home , who renounced his peerage and served as Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home . In the October 1964 general election the Conservative Party was narrowly defeated , and Wilson became prime minister . A later commentator opined that the Profumo affair had destroyed the old , aristocratic Conservative party : " It wouldn 't be too much to say that the Profumo scandal was the necessary prelude to the new Toryism , based on meritocracy , which would eventually emerge under Margaret Thatcher " . The Economist suggested that the Profumo affair had effected a fundamental and permanent change in relations between politicians and press . Davenport @-@ Hines posits a longer @-@ term consequence of the affair — the gradual ending of traditional notions of deference : " Authority , however disinterested , well @-@ qualified and experienced , was [ after June 1963 ] increasingly greeted with suspicion rather than trust " .

After expressing his " deep remorse " to the prime minister , to his constituents and to the Conservative Party , Profumo disappeared from public view . In April 1964 he began working as a volunteer at the Toynbee Hall settlement , a charitable organisation based in Spitalfields which supports the most deprived residents in the East End of London . Profumo continued his association with the settlement for the remainder of his life , at first in a menial capacity , then as administrator , fund @-@ raiser , council member , chairman and finally president . His charitable work was recognised when he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1975 . He was later described by Margaret Thatcher as a national hero , and was a guest at her 80th birthday celebrations in 2005 . His marriage to Valerie Hobson endured until her death in 1998 ; Profumo died , aged 90 , on 9 March 2006 .

In December 1963 Keeler admitted her perjury at Gordon 's June trial , and subsequently served six months in prison . Since then , after two brief failed marriages which produced two children , she has largely lived alone . Most of the considerable amount she made from newspaper stories was dissipated by lawyers ; during the 1970s , she said , " I was not living , I was surviving . " She has published several inconsistent accounts of her life , in which Ward has been variously represented as a " gentleman " , her truest love , a Soviet spy , and a traitor ranking alongside Philby , Burgess and Maclean . She has also claimed that Profumo impregnated her and that she subsequently underwent a painful abortion . Her portrait , by Ward , was acquired by the National Portrait Gallery in 1984 . Rice @-@ Davies enjoyed a more successful post @-@ scandal career , as nightclub owner , businesswoman , minor actress and novelist . She was married three times , in what she described as her " slow descent into respectability " . Of adverse press publicity she observed : " Like royalty , I simply do not complain " . Mandy Rice @-@ Davies died in December 2014 , aged 70 .

Ward 's role on behalf of MI5 was confirmed in 1982 , when the Sunday Times located his former contact " Woods " . Although Denning always asserted that Ward 's trial and conviction were fair and proper , most commentators believe that it was deeply flawed — an " historical injustice " according to Davenport @-@ Hines , who argues that the trial was an act of political revenge . One High Court judge said privately that he would have stopped the trial before it reached the jury . The human rights lawyer Geoffrey Robertson has campaigned for the case to be reopened on several grounds , including the premature scheduling of the trial , lack of evidence to support the main charges , and various misdirections by the trial judge in his summing up . Above all , the judge failed to advise the jury of the evidence revealed in the Gordon appeal that Keeler , the prosecution 's chief witness against Ward , had committed perjury at the Gordon trial . In January 2014 Ward 's case was being considered by the Criminal Cases Review Commission , which has the power to investigate suspected miscarriages of justice and refer cases to the Court of Appeal .

After his recall in January 1963 , Ivanov disappeared for several decades . In 1992 his memoirs , The Naked Spy , were serialised in The Sunday Times . When this account was challenged by Profumo 's lawyers , the publishers removed offending material . In August 2015 the i on Saturday newspaper published a preview of a forthcoming history of Soviet intelligence activities , by Jonathan Haslam . This book suggests that the relationship between Ivanov and Profumo was closer than the latter has admitted . It is alleged that Ivanov visited Profumo 's home , and that such was the slackness of security arrangements that the Russian was able to photograph sensitive documents left lying about in the minister 's study .

Keeler describes meeting Ivanov in Moscow , in 1993 ; she also records that he died the following year . Astor was deeply upset at finding himself under police investigation , and by the social ostracism that followed the Ward trial . After his death in 1966 Cliveden was sold . It became first the property of Stanford University , and later a luxury hotel . Rachman , who had first come to public notice as a sometime boyfriend of Keeler and Rice @-@ Davies , was revealed as an unscrupulous slum landlord ; the word " Rachmanism " entered English dictionaries as the standard term for landlords who exploit or intimidate their tenants .

= = Dramatisations = =

There have been several dramatised versions of the Profumo affair . The 1989 film Scandal featured Ian McKellen as Profumo and John Hurt as Ward . It was favourably reviewed , but the revival of interest in the affair upset the Profumo family . The focus of Hugh Whitemore 's play A Letter of Resignation , first staged at the Comedy Theatre in October 1997 , was Macmillan 's reactions to Profumo 's resignation letter , which he received while on holiday in Scotland . Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical Stephen Ward opened at London 's Aldwych Theatre on 3 December 2013 . Among generally favourable reviews , the Daily Telegraph 's critic recommended the production as " sharp , funny – and , at times , genuinely touching " . Robertson records that the script is " remarkably faithful to the facts " .

= Peter Lumsden =

General Sir Peter Stark Lumsden GCB CSI DL ( 9 November 1829 – 9 November 1918 ) was a British military officer who served in India . Born in Belhelvie , Aberdeenshire , he was the fourth son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB . He studied at Addiscombe Military Seminary , before officially joining military service as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry in 1847 . From 1852 to 1857 he served on the North @-@ West Frontier , where , among other activities , he participated in the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the capture of Tantya Tope in 1859 .

Following his time on the North @-@ West Frontier , Lumsden served as quartermaster general in 1860 during the Second Opium War , where he participated in the capture of both Tang @-@ ku and the Taku Forts . He was promoted to brevet @-@ lieutenant @-@ colonel , before giving his final act of military service in the Bhutan War of 1865 . He was promoted again to Adjutant @-@ General of the Indian Army in 1874 , and also acted as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Victoria for eleven years .

In 1883 , Lumsden was awarded a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and was appointed as a commissioner on the Council of India for 10 years . He represented Britain a year later at the Anglo @-@ Russian Commission for the demarcation of the north @-@ west boundary of Afghanistan , then acted as British representative on the Afghan Frontier Commission . After retiring from military service in 1893 , Lumsden served as a justice of the peace in his home county of Aberdeenshire , before dying on his 89th birthday , 9 November 1918 , in Dufftown , Banffshire .

= = Life and military career = =

= = = Early life and North @-@ West Frontier = = =

Peter Stark Lumsden was born at Belhelvie Lodge , Belhelvie , Aberdeenshire , on 9 November 1829 . He was trained at Addiscombe Military Seminary from the age of 20 , and entered the East India Company 's Bengal Army in 1847 as an ensign in the 60th Bengal Native Infantry . Between 1852 and 1857 he served on the North @-@ West Frontier in five expeditions against native tribes : the Mohmunds , the Ootman Khel , the Bori Afridis and the Miranzais . He was mentioned in despatches five times and awarded the special thanks of the Local and supreme Governments . From 1857 to 1858 he accompanied a special peace @-@ finding mission to Kandahar with his brother Harry Lumsden . He received thanks from the Government for his work , but returned to India to take part in the suppression of the Indian Mutiny . Lumsden next joined the Central India Field Force at Gwalior under General Sir Robert Napier , and , as assistant quartermaster general under Major @-@ General Hugh Rose , shared in the pursuit and capture of Tantya Tope in 1859 , when he was again mentioned in despatches .

= = = Second Opium War and Bhutan War = = =

Lumsden 's next period of active service was as quartermaster general on the staff of General Napier , who commanded the 2nd division of the expeditionary force to China during the Second Opium War , in 1860 . Lumsden took part in the operations of the Anglo @-@ French forces , including the action of Sin @-@ ho , the capture of Tang @-@ ku and the capture of the Taku Forts that led up to the advance on and occupation of Beijing . He was again mentioned in despatches and promoted to brevet @-@ Major and then brevet @-@ lieutenant @-@ colonel .

The final spell of active service in Lumsden 's military career was in the Bhutan War of 1865 : his later employment was on the staff and in political posts . He was deputy quartermaster general from 1864 to 1868 , and quartermaster general of the Indian Army from 1868 to 1873 . He was Acting Resident in Hyderabad , 1873 , and Adjutant @-@ General , India from 1874 to 1879 , when he was appointed Chief of the Staff in India . He also served for eleven years as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Victoria .

= = = Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War = = =

Lumsden served as Chief of Staff to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , General Sir F. P. Haines , during the Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War , for which he received the Order of the Bath . In 1884 , Lumsden returned to the North @-@ West frontier , when he was selected as British representative on the Anglo @-@ Russian Commission for the emarcation of the north @-@ west boundary of Afghanistan , but resigned and returned to England in 1885 after the Panjdeh Incident . He left London to represent the British at negotiations with Russia in selecting the Afghan Frontier Commission to determine the Afghan boundary .

Lumsden was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath and given a commissioner 's seat on the Council of India , which he occupied for a 10 @-@ year tenure from 1883 . In 1885 he wrote " Countries and Tribes Bordering on the Koh @-@ i @-@ Baba Range " , an article for the seventh volume of the journal Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography .

= = = Later life = = =

Following completion of his tenure on the Council of India , Lumsden retired from military service in 1893 . He was placed on the Unemployed Supernumerary List three years later and settled down on Buchromb , an estate that he had purchased near Dufftown . During this time he co @-@ wrote Lumsden of the Guides with G. R. Elsmie . The book detailed the role that his brother , Harry Burnett Lumsden , had played in founding The Corps of the Guides , a regiment of the British Indian Army . He identified himself with local affairs and served as a justice of the peace and as Deputy Lieutenant for Banffshire and Aberdeenshire . Lumsden died on 9 November 1918 in his estate at Dufftown , Banffshire .

= = Family = =

Lumsden was married to Mary Marriott in 1862 . His father was Colonel Thomas Lumsden CB , with one of his three older brothers being Harry Burnett Lumsden . Thomas Lumsden was a distinguished officer of the Bengal Horse Artillery who had served in the Nepal Campaign of 1814 and at the Siege of Hatrass and the capture of Kalunga in 1817 . Thomas was himself the son of Harry Lumsden , an advocate in Aberdeen who had bought an estate at Belhelvie . He returned home on leave from the Bengal Army in 1819 to marry Hay Burnett of Elrick , and went on to serve another 23 years in India before retiring to Belhelvie in 1842 . They had a total of six sons , of whom three emigrated to Canada and two ( Harry and Peter ) followed in their father 's footsteps by pursuing military careers in India .

= Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion =

Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion is a 1944 triptych painted by the Irish @-@ born British artist Francis Bacon . The canvasses are based on the Eumenides — or Furies — of Aeschylus 's Oresteia , and depict three writhing anthropomorphic creatures set against a flat burnt orange background . It was executed in oil paint and pastel on Sundeala fibre board and completed within two weeks .

The triptych summarises themes explored in Bacon 's previous work , including his examination of Picasso 's biomorphs and his interpretations of the Crucifixion and the Greek Furies . Bacon did not realise his original intention to paint a large crucifixion scene and place the figures at the foot of the cross .

The Three Studies are generally considered Bacon 's first mature piece ; he regarded his works before the triptych as irrelevant , and throughout his life tried to suppress their appearance on the art market . When the painting was first exhibited in 1945 it caused a sensation and established him as one of the foremost post @-@ war painters . Remarking on the cultural significance of Three Studies , the critic John Russell observed in 1971 that " there was painting in England before the Three Studies , and painting after them , and no one ... can confuse the two " .

= = Background = =

As an artist , Francis Bacon was a late starter . He painted sporadically and without commitment during the late 1920s and early 1930s , when he worked as an interior decorator and designer of furniture and rugs . He later admitted that his career was delayed because he had spent so long looking for a subject that would sustain his interest . He began to paint images based on the Crucifixion in 1933 , when his then @-@ patron Eric Hall commissioned a series of three paintings based on the subject . These abstract figurations contain formal elements typical of their time , including diaphanous forms , flat backgrounds , and surrealist props such as flowers and umbrellas . The art critic Wieland Schmied noted that while the early works are " aesthetically pleasing " , they lack " a sense of urgency or inner necessity ; they are beautiful , but lifeless " . The sentiment is echoed by Hugh Davies , who wrote that Bacon 's 1933 paintings " suggest an artist concentrating more on formal than on expressive concerns " . Bacon admitted that his early works were not successful ; they were merely decorative and lacking in substance . He was often harshly self @-@ critical during this period , and would abandon or destroy canvasses before they were completed . He abandoned the Crucifixion theme , then largely withdrew from painting in frustration , instead immersing himself in love affairs , drinking and gambling .

When he returned to the topic of the Crucifixion eleven years later , he retained some of the stylistic elements he had developed earlier , such as the elongated and dislocated organic forms that he now based on Oresteia . He continued to incorporate the spatial device he was to use many times throughout his career — three lines radiating from this central figure , which was first seen in Crucifixion , 1933 . Three Studies was painted over the course of two weeks in 1944 , when , Bacon recalled , " I was in a bad mood of drinking , and I did it under tremendous hangovers and drink ; I sometimes hardly knew what I was doing . I think perhaps the drink helped me to be a bit freer . " The painting was executed in a ground @-@ floor flat at 7 Cromwell Place , South Kensington in London . A large back room in the building had been converted into a billiard room by its previous occupant , artist John Everett Millais . It was Bacon 's studio by day ; at night , abetted by Eric Hall and Bacon 's childhood nanny Jessie Lightfoot , it functioned as an illicit casino .

Although he had been painting for almost twenty years , Bacon steadfastly insisted that Three Studies was the fons et origo of his career . He destroyed many of his earlier canvasses , and tried to suppress those that had left his studio . Bacon was emphatic that no pre @-@ 1944 images be admitted into his canon , and most of the early art critics agreed with this position . The early publications of John Russell and David Sylvester open with the 1944 triptych , and Bacon insisted to his death that no retrospective should feature paintings pre @-@ dating 1944 .

= = The triptych = =

The panels of Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion are painted on light Sundeala boards , a material Bacon was using at the time as an inexpensive alternative to canvas . Each bears a single taut sculptural form pitched against a harsh orange background . The orange hue displays inconsistently across the canvasses , due in part to the low level of oil in the paint , which resulted in varying rates of absorption into the board . The pallid flesh tones of the figures were achieved by overlaying grey and white brushstrokes , while the figures ' props were coloured using a variety of yellow , green , white , and purple tones .

The art critic Hugh Davies has suggested that of the three figures , that on the left most closely resembles a human form , and that it might represent a mourner at the cross . Seated on a table @-@ like structure , this limbless creature has an elongated neck , heavily rounded shoulders , and a thick mop of dark hair . Like its sister objects , the left @-@ hand figure is portrayed with layers of white and grey paint . The central figure 's mouth is positioned directly on its neck , rather than on a distinct face . It bares its teeth as if in a snarl , and is blindfolded by a drooping cloth bandage — a device likely drawn from Matthias Grünewald 's Mocking of Christ . This creature faces the viewer directly and is centralised by a series of converging lines radiating from the base of the pedestal .

Situated on an isolated patch of grass , the right @-@ hand figure 's toothed mouth is stretched open as if screaming , although David Sylvester has suggested that it may be yawning . Its mouth is open to a degree impossible for a human skull . The orange background of this panel is brighter than the hues rendered in the other frames , and the figure 's neck opens up into a row of teeth , while a protruding ear juts out from behind its lower jaw . This panel closely resembles an earlier painting by Bacon , Untitled , c . 1943 , which was thought destroyed until it re @-@ emerged in 1997 .

Inspection under infrared has revealed that the panels were heavily reworked during a number of revisions . The legs of the central figure are surrounded by small magenta horseshoe shapes , which infrared shows to have been first drafted as flowers . The area below the head is thickly coated with white and orange paint , while the inspection exposes a series of underlying curved brushstrokes used to compose a landscape , and a small distant reclining figure . When the canvas is unframed , a number of measuring marks are visible on the outer margin of board , indicating that the composition was carefully conceived .

Bacon said in a 1959 letter that the figures in Three Studies were " intended to [ be ] use [ d ] at the base of a large Crucifixion which I may still do . " By this , Bacon implied that the figures were conceived as a predella to a larger altarpiece . The biographer Michael Peppiatt has suggested that the panels may have emerged as single works , and that the idea of combining them as a triptych came later . There is little in the themes or styles of the three panels to suggest that they were originally conceived as a whole . Though they share the same orange background , Bacon had already used this colour in two prior pieces ; moreover , his oeuvre can be characterized by periods that are dominated by a single background colour . From the beginning of his career , Bacon preferred to work in series and found that his imagination was stimulated by sequences ; as he put it , " images breed other images in me . "

The Crucifixion itself is conspicuously absent , and there is no trace or shadow of its presence in the panels . Writing in 1996 , Wieland Schmied noted that the three Furies have replaced Christ and the two thieves crucified on either side of him . The form of the Furies is borrowed directly from Picasso 's late 1920s and mid @-@ 1930s pictures of biomorphs on beaches , in particular from the Spanish artist 's The Bathers ( 1937 ) . However , the eroticism and comedy of Picasso 's figures have been replaced by a sense of menace and terror derived in part from Matthias Grünewald 's Mocking of Christ .

= = Themes and style = =

Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion is a key precursor to Bacon 's later work , and he sustained its formal and thematic preoccupations throughout his career . The triptych format , the placement of figures behind glass in heavily gilded frames , the open mouth , the use of painterly distortion , the Furies , and the theme of the Crucifixion were all to reappear in later works . Bacon 's principal mode of expression is introduced : the subjects are anatomically and physically distorted , and the mood is violent , foreboding , and relentlessly physical . In other respects the triptych stands apart from other paintings in his oeuvre . It refers directly to its inspirations , and interprets the source material in an uncharacteristically literal manner . The triptych is further distinct in that its creatures are located in an outside space ; by 1948 , Bacon 's studies of heads and figures specifically emphasised their confinement in rooms or other closed spaces .

Although Bacon stated that he modelled the creatures on the Furies , the visual link to the sources is barely perceptible in his finished work . The mood and tone of the painting , however , is consistent with the agonized spirit of the Furies ' legend . They are traditionally depicted as ancient chthonic deities preoccupied with avenging patricide and matricide by hunting down and killing violent criminals . In Aeschylus ' The Oresteia , the title character is pursued by the Furies in revenge for the murder of his mother Clytemnestra . The saga tells the story of the decimation of the line of Atreus ; Clytemnestra had hacked to death her husband Agamemnon , and later slew Cassandra , who had foreseen the murders and declared : " Drunken , drunken with blood / To make them dare the more , a reveling rout / Is in the rooms which no man shall cast out , of sister Furies . "

Bacon did not seek to illustrate the narrative of the tale , however . He told the French art critic Michel Leiris , " I could not paint Agamemnon , Clytemnestra or Cassandra , as that would have been merely another kind of historical painting ... Therefore I tried to create an image of the effect it produced inside me . " Aeschylus ' phrase " the reek of human blood smiles out at me " in particular haunted Bacon , and his treatments of the mouth in the triptych and many subsequent paintings were attempts to visualise the sentiment . In 1985 , he observed that Aeschylus ' phrase brought up in him " the most exciting images , and I often read it ... the violence of it brings up the images in me , ' the reek of human blood smiles out at me ' , well what could be more amazing than that . "

Bacon was introduced to Aeschylus through T. S. Eliot 's 1939 play The Family Reunion , in which the protagonist Harry is haunted by " the sleepless hunters / that will not let me sleep " . In Eliot 's play , the Furies serve as embodiments of the remorse and guilt felt by Harry , who harbours a dark family secret , shared only with his sister . Bacon was captivated by Aeschylus ' play , and keen to learn more about Greek tragedy , although he said many times that he regretted being unable to read the original in Greek . In 1942 , he read the Irish scholar William Bedell Stanford 's Aeschylus in his Style , and found the theme of obsessive guilt in The Oresteia to be highly resonant . In 1984 , Bacon told Sylvester that although his painting 's subject matter did not have a direct relationship with the poet 's work , for him Eliot 's work " opened the valves of sensation " .

The mouth of the triptych 's central figure was also inspired by the nurse 's scream in film director Sergei Eisenstein 's Odessa Steps massacre sequence in The Battleship Potemkin ( 1925 ) . In 1984 , the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg confronted Bacon with a reproduction of the centre panel during the filming of a South Bank Show documentary , and observed that in his earlier career the artist seemed preoccupied with the physicality of the human mouth . Bacon replied , " I had always thought that I would be able to make the mouth with all the beauty of a Monet landscape though I never succeeded in doing so . " When Bragg asked why he thought he had failed , Bacon admitted , " It should be all much more colour , should have got more of the interior of the mouth , with all the colours of the interior of the mouth , but I didn 't happen to get it . "

Other than in Picasso 's exploration of the theme , the Crucifixion did not figure prominently in twentieth @-@ century painting . The Surrealists exploited its shock value , and it was used as a vehicle for blasphemy in isolated instances . Bacon often expressed his admiration for the manner in which old masters such as Cimabue treated the Crucifixion ; however , as with Picasso , he was more interested in tackling the subject from a secular , humanist point of view . For Three Studies , Bacon did not approach the Crucifixion as a Christian image per se , but rather found that the scene reflected a particular view of humanity he held . As he told David Sylvester : " it was just an act of man 's behaviour , a way of behaviour to another . "

The Passion of Christ became a central concern during the early development of Bacon 's work , and he returned to the subject throughout his career . When asked by critic Jean Clair why his Crucifixion scenes tended to comprise mainly " slaughter , butchery , mutilated meat and flesh " , Bacon replied , " that 's all the Crucifixion was , isn 't it ? ... Actually , you can 't think of anything more barbaric than the Crucifixion , and that particular way of killing somebody . " While Three Studies may have begun as an attempt to directly represent the Crucifixion scene , his explorations led him towards " something completely different " . Bacon came to regard the scene as an armature for exploring new ways of representing human behaviours and emotions . For him it amounted to a kind of self @-@ portraiture ; a vehicle for working on " all sorts of very private feelings about behaviour and about the way life is " .

Coming in 1944 , the triptych was often thought to be informed by the Second World War . Art critic Ziva Amishai @-@ Maisseles observes that the canvas reflects Bacon 's own confusion and ambivalence " towards manifestations of violence and power , both of which attracted and repulsed him simultaneously . "

= = Critical reaction = =

Three Studies was first shown at a joint exhibition at the Lefevre Gallery , London , in April 1945 , alongside work by Henry Moore and Graham Sutherland . Bacon was then unknown and it is likely that his painting was included at the request of Sutherland , his close friend at the time . The show opened just two months after the end of the Second World War , and John Russell has observed that the immediate post @-@ war period in British history was marked by an atmosphere of nostalgia and optimism — a sense that " everything was going to be alright , and visitors went into the Lefevre in a spirit of thanksgiving for perils honourably surmounted . "

Both the public and critics were unnerved by the sight of the work . Russell describes being shocked by " images so unrelievedly awful that the mind shut with a snap at the sight of them . Their anatomy was half @-@ human , half @-@ animal , and they were confined in a low @-@ ceilinged , windowless and oddly proportioned space . They could bite , probe , and suck , and they had very long eel @-@ like necks , but their functioning in other respects was mysterious . Ears and mouths they had , but two at least of them were sightless . " Writing for Apollo magazine , Herbert Furst recalled , " I , I must confess , was so shocked and disturbed by the Surrealism of Francis Bacon that I was glad to escape from this exhibition . Perhaps it was the red [ sic ] background that made me think of entrails , of an anatomy or a vivisection and feel squeamish . The triptych caused a sensation , and overnight turned Bacon into the most controversial painter in the country .

Reviewing for the New Statesman and Nation , Raymond Mortimer wrote that the panels " seems served from Picasso 's Crucifixion [ 1930 ] , but further distorted , with ostrich necks and button heads protruding from bags — the whole effect gloomily phallic , like Bosch without the humour . These objects are perched on stools , and depicted as if they were sculpture , as in the Picassos of 1930 . I have no doubt of Mr. Bacon 's uncommon gifts , but these pictures expressing his sense of the atrocious world into which we have survived seems [ to me ] symbols of outrage rather than works of art . If peace redresses him , he may delight as he now dismays . " Reflecting on the reaction of critics and the public , Bacon offered , " I 've never known why my paintings are known as horrible . I 'm always labelled with horror , but I never think about horror . Pleasure is such a diverse thing . And horror is too . Can you call the famous Isenheim altar a horror piece ? Its one of the greatest paintings of the Crucifixion , with the body studded with thorns like nails , but oddly enough the form is so grand it takes away from the horror . But that is the horror in the sense that it is so vitalising ; isn 't that how people came out of the great tragedies ? People came out as though purged into happiness , into a fuller reality of existence . "

More recently , the Irish author Colm Tóibín noted in 2006 that the triptych has retained its " genuinely startling " impact . Matthew Kieran wrote , in his 2005 essay on the painting , that " these frightened , blind , raging figures are visceral in their impact , jolting one into sensations of fright , horror , isolation and angst . We react to them as self @-@ conscious creatures , their postures and expressions revealing feelings of petrified isolation , searing horror , pain and blind confusion . " As of 2007 , Three Studies is part of the Tate Gallery 's permanent collection , having been donated by Bacon 's lover Eric Hall in 1953 .

= = Second Version of Triptych 1944 ( 1988 ) = =

See Second Version of Triptych 1944

Bacon often created second versions of his major paintings . In 1988 , he completed a near @-@ copy of the original Three Studies . At 78 × 58 inches ( 198 × 147 cm ) , this second version is more than twice the size of the original , and the orange background has been replaced by a blood @-@ red hue . The figures occupy a smaller proportion of the canvas than those of the 1944 version , a device which , according to the Tate Gallery 's catalogue , " plung [ es ] them into a deep void " .

Critical opinion was mixed ; the 1988 triptych drew criticism from those who felt that its more refined painting technique robbed the image of much of its power . Denis Farr suggested that while the second version 's larger scale gave it " a majestic quality which is highly effective " , its svelte presentation lessened its shock value . Critic Jonathan Meades felt that while the 1988 triptych was a more polished and painterly work , it lacked the rawness of the original .

Reflecting on Bacon 's tendency to revisit subject matter , Meades observed that " Bacon 's auto @-@ plagiarism in areas other than portraiture had less deleterious consequences . Nonetheless the 1988 version ( or near copy ) of the great 1944 Crucifixion Triptych is the lesser work : it is slicker , more polished and it evinces a greater ease with paint . The backgrounds are now elaborated , defined and bereft of the garish , grating poison orange of 1944 . " The art critic James Demetrion found that despite these differences , the second version still achieves the power and impact of the first .

= King @-@ Size Homer =

" King @-@ Size Homer " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 5 , 1995 . In the episode , Homer despises the nuclear plant 's new exercise program , and decides to gain 61 pounds ( 28 kg ) in order to claim a disability and work at home . Homer soon begins to experience the negative aspects of being obese , and his life starts falling apart .

The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Jim Reardon . Joan Kenley makes her second of three guest appearances on The Simpsons in the episode as the voice of the telephone lady . It features cultural references to world 's heaviest twins , the 1993 film What 's Eating Gilbert Grape , and the soft drink Tab . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics , and Empire named it the best episode of the show . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 0 , and was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .

= = Plot = =

Mr. Burns organizes a morning calisthenics program at the nuclear power plant , much to everyone 's delight but to the dismay of Homer ( the only worker who hates doing five minutes of light aerobic exercise ) . After learning that someone who is disabled can work from home , and thus be excluded from the exercise program , Homer tries to find a way to achieve this goal . Homer soon discovers that any employee that weighs 300 pounds ( 136 kg ) or more qualifies as disabled , and so he decides to gain the 61 pounds he needs to reach 300 . He begins eating excessively , despite Marge and Lisa 's repeated warnings that he could seriously endanger his health . With Bart 's help , Homer soon reaches his goal , and Mr. Burns installs a stay @-@ at @-@ home work terminal in the Simpson house .

Homer is given simple responsibilities but he still neglects his responsibilities as a safety inspector by simply typing " yes " every time the system prompts him . He also discovers he can no longer fit in his clothes , and he takes up wearing a muumuu as a result . Looking for shortcuts , he leaves his terminal , with a drinking bird to press the Y key to indicate " yes " on the keyboard and goes out to see a film . Refused admission because of his size , Homer is angered after the cinema manager and other members of the public tease him about his appearances . He immediately leaves , claiming that he is not food crazy and that overweight people are as hardworking as anyone else . Returning home , he discovers in his absence that the nodding drinking bird fell over and that a nuclear meltdown is about to take place at the plant unless the system is manually shut down . As he is unable to prevent it via the computer and unable to phone the plant and warn them because his fingers have become too fat to dial properly , Homer tries to run , skateboard , and drive to the plant , all of which fail as a result of his obesity . He eventually gets to the plant by stealing an ice cream truck . Homer arrives at the power plant and climbs up to reach the manual shutdown button , but ends up accidentally falling onto the gas store , blocking the release tube with the oversized lower half of his body and thus preventing the explosion . As a reward for turning the " potential Chernobyl " into a " mere Three Mile Island " , Mr. Burns gives Homer a medal and guarantees that he will make Homer thin once more after he gets decontaminated from the tank . But when Homer could not even do one sit @-@ up in their first work @-@ out session , Mr. Burns reluctantly decides to simply pay for liposuction instead , much to Homer 's delight .

= = Production = =

" King @-@ Size Homer " was written by Dan Greaney , and directed by Jim Reardon . It was the first episode Greaney wrote for The Simpsons . Prior to this episode he was working as a lawyer and was contemplating moving to Kiev , Ukraine , to work for a start @-@ up company . He said that this episode " saved " him from doing so . Greaney pitched some ideas to the writing staff , but none of them were any good , so then @-@ show runner Bill Oakley gave him the idea for this episode . Oakley had Greaney come to Hollywood to write it , and when Greaney showed the first draft to the staff , they liked it , so Oakley hired him .

The writers wanted the title of the episode to make Homer sound proud about his weight , so they decided to name it " King @-@ Size Homer " . Greaney really enjoyed working on the episode because Homer is constantly happy and goal oriented in it , instead of being a slob and " eating all the time " . The Simpsons animator David Silverman designed the fat Homer for the episode . There was a discussion about what Homer would wear when he became fat , and they decided to go with a muumuu dress . The writers were also discussing about how they were going to treat Homer 's fatness . They did not want Homer to come off as a " hog " , so they decided that the viewer should barely see him eating after he reaches his 300 pounds goal . As the writers were trying to figure out a way to get Homer back to his old weight by the end of the episode , someone suggested that Homer should feel bad about his obesity , and therefore become thin for Marge , but that idea was scrapped in early production . Action figurines based on fat Homer were made for the World of Springfield series shortly after the episode had aired .

Homer has a dream in which he is standing at the foot of a mountain with 300 pounds as the goal at the top . A pig wearing a tuxedo appears next to him in the dream , and motivates Homer to reach the top of the mountain . Homer takes a bite of the pig 's arm , and runs up the mountain . This scene was inspired by the cover of the " Sweetness and Light " issue of the National Lampoon magazine . The staff thought that Cary Grant would have been the ideal for the pig in Homer 's dream sequence , but he died nine years before the episode was made , so they used cast member Hank Azaria for that voice . Joan Kenley guest starred in the episode as the telephone lady who tells Homer : " The fingers you have used to dial are too fat . To obtain a special dialing wand , please mash the keypad with your palm now . " The staff flew her down from Northern California to record her part for the episode .

= = Cultural references = =

While Homer is in the clothes store , as the camera pans with him , two mannequins wearing similar outfits and riding on bikes are shown . These are based on Billy and Benny McCrary , the world 's heaviest twins who weighed over 700 pounds ( 318 kg ) each . They received fame after appearing in the The Guinness Book of World Records in a picture that depicts the twins riding their Honda motorcycles . Also Homer operates an Apple Lisa as his stay @-@ at @-@ home work terminal when the Apple Lisa was discontinued in 1986 . They would appear again in the same season in the episode " The Day the Violence Died " . The scene in which Bart and his friends observe the obese Homer through a window is based on a scene from the 1993 film What 's Eating Gilbert Grape .

Homer thinks that he can order the soft drink Tab by pressing the tab key on the keyboard . When Homer vents gas from a nuclear reactor , the gas destroys crops of corn . A farmer looks and says , " Oh no , the corn ! Paul Newman 's gonna have ma ' legs broke ! " This is in reference to the legend of Newman 's Own popcorn products , in which Newman threatened anyone who might attempt to steal his popcorn . At the cinema , Homer tries to watch the film Honk If You 're Horny , starring actor Pauly Shore and actress Faye Dunaway .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast , " King @-@ Size Homer " finished 45th ( tied with Grace Under Fire ) in the ratings for the week of October 30 to November 3 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 0 . The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week .

Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . In 2008 , Empire placed The Simpsons at the top of their list of " The 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time " , and noted " King @-@ Size Homer " as the show 's best episode , calling it " An unimprovable mix of sharp dialogue , hilarious sight gags and heart . " Kimberly Potts of AOL Television named the episode the seventh best episode of the show , while Michael Moran of The Times ranked it as the tenth best . " King @-@ Size Homer " appeared on The Star @-@ Ledger 's list of the ten best episodes on The Simpsons that represent the comic and emotional scope of the show . The Herald Sun put the episode at ninth place on their list of the top twenty episodes of The Simpsons , and highlighted the scene in which Homer is seen " commandeering an ice cream truck in a frantic dash to the nuclear plant to avoid an impending meltdown " . Todd VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine named the episode the show 's fifth best , stating " while there are a lot of funny jokes in this episode ( including Homer 's fingers that are too fat to dial ) , the best thing about it is the sight of Homer , weighing well over 300 pounds , dressed in a muumuu and a ' fat guy hat . ' The climax is a little forced and cartoon @-@ y ... but Homer 's weight gain works so well visually that the episode gets away with a lot more than it might . "

Dave Foster of DVD Times said : " The glee to which [ Homer ] takes to the challenge and the enthusiasm which Bart brings to the project show these two really do connect when the situation is oh so wrong , and the method in which the writers tackle the not @-@ always @-@ so @-@ obvious downsides to such a disability are both adult and astutely amusing . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be during Homer 's shopping trip to The Vast Waistband . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of A. DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and called it " one of the series ' more cynical episodes " , and said that it " pours on the laughs " . He continued by saying , " It 's amusing to see Homer 's pursuit of obesity , and it exploits his idiocy well . It lacks the expected mushiness about the plight of fat folks , though it does make a point about sensitivity in an understated way . " Despite the numerous laughs at Homer 's appearance from the staff of The Simpsons on the DVD audio commentary for the episode , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " this isn 't one of the best episodes . Homer 's at his most irritating and childish here — you really want Marge to beat him up . " They added that Homer 's antics with the computer , such as the scene in which he tries to find the any key , and Mr. Burns running exercise classes are the highlights of the episode .

Nick Offerman has cited this as his favorite Simpsons episode .

= Spring Creek Dam =

Spring Creek Debris Dam is an earthfill dam on Spring Creek , a tributary of the Sacramento River , in Shasta County in the U.S. state of California . Completed in 1963 , the dam , maintained by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , serves primarily to collect severe acid mine drainage stemming from the Iron Mountain Mine . The dam forms the Spring Creek Reservoir , less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . Spring Creek and South Fork Spring Creek flow into the reservoir from a 16 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 41 km2 ) watershed . The dam is directly upstream from the city of Keswick , California and the Keswick Reservoir . The operation is part of the Trinity River Division of the Central Valley Project .

The primary purpose of the Spring Creek Dam was to collect acid mine drainage from the old Iron Mountain Mine , which was heavily polluting Spring Creek and its tributaries . The dam was built in response to these pollutants that were contaminating the Sacramento River , the primary water supply for millions of Californians . Although the watershed is small in comparison to that of the Sacramento River , the stream is among the most polluted and acidic in the world .

The dam and reservoir , along with other treatment structures built at and below the mine , have successfully reduced the dry weather pollution of Spring Creek by up to ninety @-@ five percent . Problems , though , still occur mainly in the form of large uncontrolled spills from the reservoir . Several concerns about the structural integrity and safety of the dam , both physically and biologically , arose in the 1990s . Emergency releases from Shasta Lake , often in the value of thousands of acre feet of water , have occurred from time to time to dilute massive acid spills from the Spring Creek drainage .

= = History = =

= = = Mining = = =

The Iron Mountain Mine , the most productive copper mine in California in at least one point along its history , operated along the banks of two Spring Creek tributaries , upstream from the current dam site , from 1879 to the 1960s . The mine extracted iron ore , silver , gold , copper sulfide ore , and pyrite from a rock formation dating to approximately 780 @,@ 000 years ago . The potential of a mine at the site was discovered in 1860 , when two men , surveyor William Magee and settler Charles Camden , discovered an extensive iron ore deposit along one of the tributaries of Spring Creek . In 1879 , silver was also discovered at the site , and the mine was begun . The ownership was transferred to Mountain Mines Ltd . , a London company , in 1894 . At the very end of the 19th century , Iron Mountain Mine took blames for several fish kills in the Sacramento River . Nevertheless , mining activity continued , and by 1928 , 600 tons of ore were being extracted from the site per day .

The still continuing problem of Iron Mountain Mine runoff has once been described as :

... [ acid mine drainage is ] most vividly illustrated by the problems at the Iron Mountain Mine in California .

... release of this waste resulted in virtual elimination of aquatic life in many of the creeks surrounding the Iron Mountain Mine site .

... work is continuing on what is possibly the largest and most difficult acid mine drainage problem in the United States .

-P . Aarne Vesilind . Controlling Environmental Pollution , 2005

= = = Events prompting construction = = =

The construction of Shasta Dam and its afterbay ( regulating downstream dam ) , Keswick Dam , in 1943 and 1950 , respectively , severely impaired the capability of the Sacramento River to flush away pollutants from the mine . Acid mine drainage flowed , unfettered , down Spring Creek directly into the Keswick Reservoir , depositing contaminated sediment and turning a portion of the water a rusty red shade . Previously , the water would have continued down the creek into the river , and flushed to the Pacific Ocean . The pooling of the water , however , made it extremely difficult for the pollutants to be removed . From 1955 to 1962 , open pit mining began on the site . At its peak , the mine discharged 5 tons of iron , 650 pounds ( 290 kg ) of copper , and 1 @,@ 800 pounds ( 820 kg ) of zinc into the stream per day . By then , the water flowing down the drainage was so contaminated that it necessitated the construction of a holding dam , the Spring Creek Dam .

Spring Creek Dam was begun in 1961 , when a company named Gibbons and Reed was awarded the contract . The clearing operations began in July of that same year , and the dam was officially dedicated by the Bureau of Reclamation on September 12 , 1961 . Construction of the dam began on October 20 , 1961 , with the placing of the dam embankment , which at least partially consists of acidic sediment dredged from Spring Creek . Riprap was laid on the upstream face of the dam beginning November 9 of that year . In 1962 , a series of labor strikes impacted communities in the Central Valley , also affecting construction of the dam , which was temporarily halted on May 3 of that year . After work restarted on June 26 , pervious core material for the dam was soon out of supply , so impervious material was used to complete the dam core .

Eventually , the Iron Mountain Mine closed , but pollution continued and still continues , and in 1983 , the Iron Mountain Mine was listed on the National Priorities List . The Iron Mountain Mine is known for having the most acidic naturally found water content on Earth , with samples having up to a − 3 @.@ 6 pH value when tested in the early 1990s , which is roughly 100 times the acidity of battery acid . However , this pH value is only found inside and near the mine , as the average pH of water entering the Spring Creek Reservoir is 4 @.@ 12 .

= = = Storage expansion = = =

The Spring Creek Dam was later deemed " undersized " for the Spring Creek watershed , as the large flows of both natural drainage and acid mine drainage caused frequent uncontrollable spills at the dam . The spills contain many volatile components in acid mine drainage , which include the most acidic naturally occurring ( i.e. not in a laboratory ) water on Earth . Several alternatives were considered for remediating this problem :

Enlarge the Spring Creek Dam to create a reservoir three times its original size : This plan was considered , but never built , as the cost of it was estimated at US $ 75 million .

Partial capping ( covering ) of the site : The ore body in Iron Mountain was determined to be shallow , so this alternative was considered . However , the recurring high occurrence of fractures in the mountain made this inefficient , so it was also never implemented .

Construction of dams upstream : This proposal called for several dams upstream that would " reduce the watershed by 40 percent " , including a dam on Slickrock Creek , a branch of Spring Creek . This plan was implemented , removing the need for the dam enlargement .

Waste rock removal : Rock extracted from the mine was removed from tailings piles and disposed of in a compacted cell . In Boulder Creek , another tributary of Spring Creek , the acidity level has lowered slightly .

= = = Recent history = = =

In 1985 , it was found that water seepage into the foundations of the Spring Creek Dam could possibly cause its collapse . Shortly after the discovery , a controversy over the irregular spills of mine toxins from the dam began in the 1990s . Two years later , in March 1992 , an uncontrolled , unexpected spill of acidic water rushed from the dam down Spring Creek . This spill heavily contaminated the Keswick Reservoir and threatened the water supply of Redding , California . Despite the fact that the region was suffering from a drought , 77 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 95 @,@ 000 dam3 ) of water were released from Shasta Lake , which was only half full , to dilute the pollution . The loss of the water , which was badly needed by Central Valley agricultural users , was estimated at US $ 18 million .

A water treatment plant was built on a site named Minnesota Flats near the Iron Mountain Mine , using lime to balance the pH of the acid mine drainage . Water is also diverted from Slickrock Creek to the treatment site . Altogether , over 95 percent of toxins in the water are removed by the treatment process . Roughly 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of specialized acid @-@ resistant pipeline , with a cost of over US $ 1 million per mile , are included in the treatment process . Most water flowing directly from the mine has a pH level close to 1 ; the − 3 @.@ 2 pH mentioned earlier is only found in small amounts . Water is further diluted by natural flow in the tributaries and water diverted from nearby Clear Creek , however , the acidic water still requires treatment .

= = Hydrography = =

Spring Creek is a southeast @-@ flowing , 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) long tributary of the Sacramento River , receiving water from approximately 16 square miles ( 41 km2 ) of land . The creek begins in the Klamath Mountains above the Sacramento River drainage , and flows in a generally south @-@ east direction before turning south and sharply west into the Spring Creek Reservoir . From the reservoir , it continues due west until it empties directly into an arm of the Keswick Reservoir . The creek never actually runs by the mine . The acid mine drainage found in the creek is actually carried in by two smaller tributaries , which are Boulder Creek and Slickrock Creek . The former stream runs southeast from the north side of Iron Mountain Mine to Spring Creek , while the latter stream drains the south side of the mine and also flows southeast into Spring Creek . South Fork Spring Creek is a small tributary that flows west and north the Spring Creek Reservoir , but since its basin lies far from the mine , it receives no acid mine drainage . The inflow and outflow from the reservoir are highly erratic , ranging from 0 cubic feet ( 0 m3 ) per second to roughly 225 cubic feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m3 ) per second in a particular 10 @-@ day period from March to April .

Flat Creek , a small southeast @-@ flowing stream , rises in two forks and empties into the Sacramento River upstream of Spring Creek . The stream receives contaminated runoff from the Minnesota Flats Tailing Pile , but is not nearly as polluted or acidic as Spring Creek . Another stream , Rock Creek , rises in three forks and flows east to meet the Sacramento River downstream of Spring Creek and the Keswick Reservoir .

= = Dimensions and operations = =

The Spring Creek Dam is 196 feet ( 60 m ) high , 1 @,@ 110 feet ( 340 m ) long along its crest , and 1 @,@ 040 feet ( 320 m ) thick at its base . Its crest stands 816 feet ( 249 m ) above sea level . The reservoir is 795 feet ( 242 m ) above sea level at full pool and spillway crest level . When at full pool , the reservoir holds 5 @,@ 870 acre feet ( 7 @,@ 240 dam3 ) of water with a depth of roughly 184 feet ( 56 m ) . One spillway runs over the crest of the dam on the left bank of the canyon . The spillway is 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide , able to accommodate a water flow of 5 @,@ 260 cubic feet ( 149 m3 ) per second . The outlet works of the dam are located at the base , and can accommodate a water flow of 660 cubic feet ( 19 m3 ) per second . The Spring Creek Powerplant downstream of the dam generates up to 180 @,@ 000 kilowatts .

= = = Spring Creek Powerplant = = =

The Spring Creek Powerplant is located at the base of the Spring Creek Dam , and is actually supplied by flow from Whiskeytown Lake . The lake , formed by Whiskeytown Dam , is on Clear Creek , a drainage downstream along the Sacramento River from Spring Creek . Both streams run east into the river . The power plant was completed and began operations in 1964 , with a capacity of 150 @,@ 000 kW . The capacity was later upgraded to 180 @,@ 000 kW . The plant is a peaking power plant with two separate generators , generating power for operations and distributing excess power to the local power grid . Water from Whiskeytown Lake is diverted through the Spring Creek Tunnel , a conduit roughly 2 @.@ 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) long and 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) in diameter .

The Bureau of Reclamation gives a detailed report on the specifications of the generating plant :

The powerplant houses two 13.8kV generators each rated at 100 @,@ 000 kVA , .90 power factor , along with Francis turbines . Spring Creek Power Conduit conveys water from Whiskeytown Reservoir , located on Clear Creek , to the Spring Creek Powerplant . The Spring Creek power conduit varies in diameter between 5 @.@ 64 metres ( 18 @.@ 5 ft ) and 5 @.@ 18 metres ( 17 @.@ 0 ft ) and is about 4 @.@ 8 km ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) in length . The power conduit consists of Tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 , and Rock Creek Siphon . Twin penstocks take off from Tunnel No. 2 leading to the powerplant .

– U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , Trinity River Division of the Central Valley Project

= = = Spring Creek Reservoir = = =

Spring Creek Reservoir is the artificial lake formed behind the dam . The reservoir is used mostly for flood control storage , and is rarely filled to its 5 @,@ 870 acre feet ( 7 @,@ 240 dam3 ) capacity . During the dry season , water from Spring Creek pools in a small , stagnant pond retained behind the dam , depositing contaminated sediment and acidic mine waste in the reservoir space . When flows from the Shasta Dam , upstream on the Sacramento River , are sufficient to flush contaminated water away , water held in the reservoir is released through the outlet works into the Keswick Reservoir and the Sacramento River . Despite this operation strategy , the reservoir was eventually deemed inadequate for the watershed , and can be filled to capacity by a single heavy storm event . Uncontrollable spills frequently poured into the Sacramento River during floods , through the crest spillway of the dam , which lacks gates . As a result , numerous fish kills have occurred during these sudden releases of contaminants , a major one of which was in 1969 . Due to this consistent acid pollution from the reservoir , most large fish spawn downstream of Red Bluff Diversion Dam , a dam also on the Sacramento River near Red Bluff , California .

= = = Spillway and outlet works = = =

The Spring Creek Dam is able to release up to 5 @,@ 920 cubic feet ( 168 m3 ) of water per second from the Spring Creek Reservoir , through a crest spillway and outlet works . The spillway begins on the left bank of the dam at elevation 795 feet ( 242 m ) , and drops roughly 184 feet ( 56 m ) in vertical distance down the face of the dam into a stilling basin , before flowing into Spring Creek and into the Sacramento River . It is roughly 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide and can carry 5 @,@ 260 cubic feet ( 149 m3 ) per second . The outlet works tunnel through the dam from an elevation much lower than that of the spillway ; the conduit terminates at a culvert exit , a design commonly seen on storm drains but rarely seen on dams , at the base of the dam . The maximum capacity of the outlet works is 660 cubic feet ( 19 m3 ) per second .

= New Jersey Route 42 =

Route 42 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey within the Camden area . It runs 14 @.@ 28 mi ( 22 @.@ 98 km ) from an intersection with U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 Spur in Monroe Township , Gloucester County to an intersection with Interstate 76 and Interstate 295 in Bellmawr , Camden County . The route is a mix of freeway and divided four @-@ lane arterial road . The southern portion of Route 42 is a local arterial route and one of several highways comprising the Black Horse Pike , a road that runs from Camden to Atlantic City . The northern portion is a six- to eight @-@ lane freeway referred to locally as the North – South Freeway ( or simply the 42 Freeway ) that is directly connected to the Atlantic City Expressway . Major intersections along the route include the Atlantic City Expressway and the southern terminus of Route 168 in Turnersville , another intersection with Route 168 in Blackwood , and Route 41 and Route 55 in Deptford Township .

Route 42 was originally designated in 1927 to run along the Black Horse Pike between Ferry Avenue in Camden and the present U.S. Route 40 / U.S. Route 322 split in the McKee City section of Hamilton Township , Atlantic County . In 1953 , the southern terminus was cut back to its current terminus in the Williamstown section of Monroe Township to avoid the concurrency it shared with U.S. Route 322 . After the completion of the North – South Freeway between Bellmawr and Turnersville in 1959 , Route 42 was moved to this freeway , and the Black Horse Pike north of Turnersville became Route 168 .

The freeway portion of Route 42 has been improved many times . Construction work has commenced on a project known as the " I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection " , which is reconstructing the dangerous and congested Route 42 / Interstate 295 / Interstate 76 interchange in Bellmawr .

= = Route description = =

= = = Black Horse Pike = = =

Route 42 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 Spur in Monroe Township , Gloucester County where it heads to the north on the Black Horse Pike . For the first portion of the route , Route 42 is a divided four – lane arterial highway that intersects various local roads . Some intersections along this section feature jughandles . There are also many businesses lining the highway . The route crosses County Route 689 ( Berlin @-@ Cross Keys Road ) and enters Washington Township . It then intersects the northern terminus of County Route 555 ( Tuckahoe Road ) . After the intersection with County Route 555 , Route 42 intersects three more county routes : County Route 655 ( Fries Mill Road ) , County Route 639 ( Ganttown Road ) , and County Route 651 ( Greentree Road ) . The Atlantic City Expressway then starts to the right at an unnumbered intersection , Route 168 continues to the north on the Black Horse Pike , and Route 42 becomes the six – lane North – South Freeway .

= = = North – South Freeway = = =

Upon becoming the North – South Freeway , Route 42 crosses into Gloucester Township , Camden County and comes to the first numbered exit for County Route 705 , which provides access to Route 168 . Following that , the freeway reaches the County Route 673 ( College Drive ) interchange , serving Camden County College and the Gloucester Premium Outlets . County Route 534 interchanges with a southbound exit and northbound entrance and then Coles Road interchanges with a northbound exit and southbound entrance . Next , Route 42 encounters Exits 9B and 10A for Route 168 . Exit 9B serves northbound Route 168 and provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike , and Exit 10A serves southbound Route 168 . County Route 681 interchanges after Route 168 , with a southbound exit and northbound entrance , and Route 42 enters Gloucester County again in Deptford Township after crossing the South Branch of Big Timber Creek .

In Deptford Township , Route 41 interchanges with a northbound exit and an entrance in both directions . Past this interchange , County Route 544 interchanges with a southbound exit and an entrance in both directions . Both of these interchanges provide access to the Deptford Mall and , in the case of the Route 41 interchange , to Route 55 from northbound Route 42 since the northbound lanes have no direct access to Route 55 . Route 42 meets the northern terminus of the Route 55 freeway at Exit 13 with a southbound exit and northbound entrance then widens to eight lanes . Route 42 crosses the Big Timber Creek into Runnemede , Camden County , where it passes over the New Jersey Turnpike without an interchange . The freeway then enters Bellmawr , where it features right @-@ in / right @-@ out ramps with Leaf Avenue , that provide access to County Route 753 ( Creek Road ) . Route 42 then continues north to its terminus at Interstate 295 where the North – South Freeway becomes Interstate 76 , which heads to Camden and Philadelphia .

The North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 is a major route for daily commuters from southern New Jersey to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania via the Walt Whitman Bridge and Ben Franklin Bridge and weekend commuters from southeastern Pennsylvania to the southern Jersey Shore via Route 55 and the Atlantic City Expressway . Even though Route 42 ends at I @-@ 295 , the north – south Freeway is sometimes called " Route 42 " all the way to the Interstate 76 / Interstate 676 split .

Snow removal , litter control , and landscaping of Route 42 between the end of the Atlantic City Expressway and Interstate 295 is performed by the South Jersey Transportation Authority .

= = History = =

In 1927 , Route 42 was legislated to run along the Black Horse Pike , a road that traces its origins back to 1855 . In that year , the Camden and Blackwoodstown Turnpike Company was established by entrepreneurs who had helped create the White Horse Pike to build a gravel road that would run from Camden south to Blackwoodtown and eventually to Atlantic City , from Ferry Avenue in Camden to Route 48 ( now U.S. Route 40 ) in McKee City . By 1941 , U.S. Route 322 was assigned to follow the routing of Route 42 between Williamstown and McKee City . With the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , which eliminated long concurrencies between U.S. Routes and State Routes , the southern terminus of Route 42 was cut back to Williamstown to avoid the concurrency with U.S. Route 322 .

The North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 was originally planned as a parkway in 1932 that would run from the Ben Franklin Bridge in Camden to Atlantic City ; however , this proposal never materialized . In the late 1940s , the North – South Freeway was proposed by the New Jersey State Highway Department to run from the Ben Franklin Bridge to Turnersville . In the early 1950s , right @-@ of @-@ way for the freeway was acquired and actual construction of the freeway followed . The Route 42 freeway opened between Interstate 295 in Bellmawr and the Black Horse Pike in Blackwood in 1958 . It opened between the Black Horse Pike in Blackwood and Turnersville in 1959 . With the completion of the North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 , the Black Horse Pike north of Turnersville became Route 168 .

Following its completion , the North – South Freeway portion of Route 42 has seen many improvements . In 1965 , the freeway was widened to six lanes for most of its length with the northernmost part being widened to eight lanes due to the completion of the Atlantic City Expressway and development occurring along the route . The route had its interchange with Route 55 open in 1985 , when the Route 55 Freeway was opened from Route 42 to Route 41 to the south . Between 1996 and August 1999 , the route was widened to eight lanes between Interstate 295 and Route 55 in Deptford Township . In the early 2000s , the interchanges with Route 41 and County Route 544 in Deptford were rebuilt at a cost of $ 13 million to improve movements within the area . In October 2003 , the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) installed exit tabs along the stretch of the freeway portion of Route 42 . On August 27 , 2010 , an interchange opened at County Route 673 ( College Drive ) , providing better access to Camden County College .

= = Future = =

NJDOT has broken ground on the missing express connection between Interstate 295 and Route 42 to provide an easier connection between the Baltimore @-@ Washington Metropolitan Area and points south to Atlantic City and vice versa . The project , dubbed the I @-@ 295 / I @-@ 76 / Route 42 Direct Connection , will reconstruct the dangerous and congested Route 42 / Interstate 295 / Interstate 76 interchange , which currently requires traffic on I @-@ 295 to use 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ramps that merge onto the North – South Freeway for a short distance , among a series of other indirect connections . In 2007 , " Alternative D " for the reconstructed interchange was selected , calling for I @-@ 295 to cross over the North – South Freeway . This interchange is projected to cost $ 900 million . Construction began in 2013 and is scheduled to be complete in 2021 . NJDOT has long term plans for 2011 – 2020 to reconstruct the entire Route 42 freeway from the Atlantic City Expressway to I @-@ 295 .

On May 12 , 2009 , New Jersey Governor Jon S. Corzine and the Delaware River Port Authority , the agency which manages the PATCO Speedline , announced plans for a Camden @-@ Philadelphia BRT ( bus rapid transit system ) along the Route 42 freeway and the adjacent Route 55 freeway as part of a comprehensive transportation plan for South Jersey that would include a diesel light rail line between Camden and Glassboro , improvements to the Atlantic City Line , and enhanced connections to the Atlantic City International Airport .

= = Major intersections = =

= 47 Ursae Majoris c =

47 Ursae Majoris c ( abbreviated 47 UMa c ) , also named Taphao Kaew ( Thai : ตะเภาแก ้ ว , rtgs : Taphaokaeo , pronounced [ tā.pʰāw.kɛ ̂ ːw ] ) , is an extrasolar planet approximately 46 light @-@ years from Earth in the constellation of Ursa Major . The planet was discovered located in a long @-@ period around the star 47 Ursae Majoris . Its orbit lasts 6 @.@ 55 years and the planet has a mass at least 0 @.@ 540 times that of Jupiter .

In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Taphao Kaew for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Thai Astronomical Society of Thailand . Taphaokaeo was one of two sisters associated with a Thai folk tale .

= = Discovery = =

Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , 47 Ursae Majoris c was discovered by detecting changes in its star 's radial velocity caused by the planet 's gravity . This was done by measuring the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum .

At the time of discovery in 2001 , 47 Ursae Majoris was already known to host one extrasolar planet , designated 47 Ursae Majoris b . Further measurements of the radial velocity revealed another periodicity in the data unaccounted for by the first planet . This periodicity could be explained by assuming that a second planet , designated 47 Ursae Majoris c , existed in the system with an orbital period close to 7 years . Observations of the photosphere of 47 Ursae Majoris suggested that the periodicity could not be explained by stellar activity , making the planet interpretation more likely . The planet was announced in 2002 .

Further measurements of 47 Ursae Majoris failed to detect the planet , calling its existence into question . Furthermore , it was noted that the data used to determine its existence left the planet 's parameters " almost unconstrained " . A more recent study with datasets spanning over 6 @,@ 900 days came to the conclusion that while the existence of a second planet in the system is likely , periods around 2 @,@ 500 days have high false @-@ alarm probabilities , and gave a best @-@ fit period of 7 @,@ 586 days ( almost 21 years ) .

In 2010 , a study was published that determined that there are three giant planets orbiting 47 Ursae Majoris , including one at 2 @,@ 391 days that corresponds well with the original claims for 47 Ursae Majoris c .

= = Physical characteristics = =

Since 47 Ursae Majoris c was detected indirectly , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . Based on its high mass , the planet is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface .

= Pentemont Abbey =

Pentemont Abbey ( French : Abbaye de Penthemont , or Pentemont , or Panthemont , or Pantemont ) is a set of 18th and 19th century buildings at the corner of Rue de Grenelle and Rue de Bellechasse in the 7th arrondissement of Paris . The abbey was a Cistercian convent founded near Beauvais in 1217 and moved to its current site in Paris in 1672 at the behest of Louis XIV . A reconstruction of the abbey was initiated in 1745 by the Abbess Marie @-@ Catherine Béthisy de Mézières and work was completed in 1783 . In the late 18th century the abbey was one of the most prestigious educational institutions in Paris for daughters of the elite , including two of Thomas Jefferson 's . The abbey also provided rooms for ladies of good standing who were in search of rest , including Joséphine de Beauharnais when the case of her separation from her first husband was heard .

The abbey was disestablished during the French Revolution and the buildings were turned over to military use , first as the home of the National Guard , then the Imperial Guard , and later the Cent @-@ gardes . It continues to be occupied by the Ministère de la Défense with the exception of the former chapel , which since 1844 has been a Protestant church , the Temple Penthemont . In August 2014 the Ministry of Defence , facing budget cuts due to austerity policies , sold the buildings to a real estate investment trust , Foncière des 6ème et 7ème Arrondissements de Paris , with plans to move all ministry offices out of the abbey by the end of October , 2016 .

= = History = =

= = = Beauvais ( 1217 – 1672 ) = = =

Philip of Dreux , the famed crusader bishop of Beauvais , wished to found a convent of the Cistercian order . In 1217 he set aside an orchard southwest of Beauvais , on which were traced out the plans for construction , as well as seven arpents ( 6 @-@ 7 acres ) of vines . Philip died before the project was completed and his successor , Bishop Milo of Nanteuil , raised the rest of the funds , and it was completed in 1218 . Pope Gregory IX issued a bull from the Lateran Palace on the 8 June 1230 which sanctioned the new abbey and declared the funds raised for its endowment protected . The abbey took its name , meaning mountain slope , from its location at the foot of the Montagne de St @-@ Symphorien .

In 1554 the abbey provided refuge to Charlotte I de Monceaux , the abbess of the neighboring Abbey of Saint @-@ Paul , whose election as abbess was opposed by Henry II . She fled to Pentemont after the arrival of the king 's soldiers at her own abbey . However , they followed her to Pentemont and demanded by force that she renounce her position , a request to which she was compelled to accede .

In 1671 , after the abbey was damaged in a flood , and for economic and geographical reasons , the abbess Hélène de Tourville moved the abbey to Paris . At the time , the convent had twelve sisters . The previous building was demolished and returned to agricultural work as part of the Pentemont farm .

= = = Paris ( 1672 – 1790 ) = = =

In Paris the abbey took up residence in a former convent , recently suppressed , of the Sisters of the Incarnate Word , located on Rue de Grenelle at the current site of the abbey . The sisters dedicated themselves to the education of young women and later added rooms in which women of good standing could find rest . The abbey quickly acquired a distinguished reputation and by the time of its dissolution in 1790 had revenues of 58 @,@ 000 livres , a great sum for the era .

The final abbess , Marie III Catherine de Béthisy de Mézières , spent 45 years and a great deal of money rebuilding and expanding the abbey . A competition for plans for a reconstruction attracted multiple proposals including one from the royal architect , François II Franque , which drew praise from Denis Diderot in the Encyclopédie for its combination of grandeur and simplicity . The winning proposal , however , was from Pierre Contant d 'Ivry .

The many famous students educated at the abbey included the noted abbess and princess Louise Adélaïde de Bourbon , and Louise d 'Esparbès de Lussan , the mistress of the Count of Artois , the future Charles X of France . Thomas Jefferson 's daughters Martha and Mary were both educated at the Pentemont Abbey while he was Minister to France . Their entry into the school was sponsored by the wife of the Marquis de Lafayette . The future first lady Abigail Adams was shocked that Jefferson would send his girls to a Catholic school but he assured her that there were many Protestants at the abbey . Conditions were austere for the students , despite the presence of three princesses , with no fires until the water froze and a prohibition on speaking outside of class and recreation . Her time at the school led Martha , nicknamed Patsy , to write a letter to her father expressing her desire to become a nun . Jefferson quickly removed his daughters from the care of the convent .

The abbey also provided elegant apartments to highborn women seeking independence from families or difficult marriages . The ladies were free to come and go as they liked , with constraints on the hours allowed outside the convent , often had their children and servants with them , and spent their evenings socializing and commiserating in the abbey 's salons . One such resident was Joséphine de Beauharnais , the future Empress of France , during her separation from her first husband , Alexandre de Beauharnais . The court granted her temporary independence from her husband and required her to stay at Pentemont with her children at the expense of Alexandre . It is also speculated that James Smithson , the founder of the Smithsonian Institution , who was born in Paris the illegitimate son of the Duke of Northumberland , was born in the Pentemont Abbey , as it had strong connections to the Duke , whose illegitimate daughters it educated .

= = = State Property ( 1790 – 2015 ) = = =

= = = = Military = = = =

During the French Revolution , the Abbey was suppressed and its properties confiscated . The abbey 's affairs were wound down in 1791 @-@ 2 , with its properties in Beauvais sold to pay off state debt . With the abbey now state property it came to serve first as home to the National Guard , then the Imperial Guard . In 1835 , the building was expanded to Rue de Bellechasse which required the demolition of some parts of the original structure . Under the Second Empire the abbey served as the barracks of the Cent @-@ gardes Squadron , an elite cavalry unit that provided personal protection for Napoleon III and the Tuileries Palace .

In the twentieth century , Pentemont Abbey housed the Ministry of War Pensions , Bonuses and Benefits . In 1937 , a bunker was constructed underneath the Court of Honor including two stationary bicycles intended to provide electricity in case of power loss due to enemy bombardment . The courtyard has a war memorial that reads " From veterans to their comrades who gave their lives for their country . In memoriam . " It is also home to a number of commemorative plaques , including ones for André Maginot and Henri Frenay .

= = = = Protestant Church = = = =

The chapel was used to store grain during the Revolution and later hay when the army took over the abbey . After the Concordat of 1801 provided formal recognition of the Reformed Church in France , it was decided that three former Catholic churches in Paris be turned over to Reformed congregations , Saint @-@ Louis @-@ du @-@ Louvre , Sainte @-@ Marie @-@ des @-@ Anges , and the chapel of the Pentemont Abbey .

In 1598 , Protestant worship had been forbidden in Paris by the Edict of Nantes . In 1685 , the Edict of Fontainebleau made non @-@ Catholic services illegal in all of France . This inaugurated a long period of persecution for French Protestants though some in Paris were able to worship in the chapels of the Dutch and Swedish embassies . The handover of the chapel of the abbey as well as the other churches ushered in a new era of open Protestant worship in Paris .

The actual opening of the former abbey as a Reformed congregation was delayed by decades of bureaucratic obstacles as well as opposition during the Bourbon Restoration to turning over a former Catholic building to Protestant use . It was not until 1844 that architect Victor Baltard began work to convert the chapel into a Protestant church . He isolated the chapel from the rest of the building , added new doors in place of two of the previous windows , and converted the former choir to a nave . He also closed off the original entrance by adding a massive organ , built by Aristide Cavaillé @-@ Coll and installed in 1846 for the opening of the church . The organ has undergone various modifications over the years including a restoration from 2011 @-@ 14 to restore the remaining original elements . The church itself underwent restoration from 2005 @-@ 2007 commissioned by the City of Paris and accomplished by Benjamin Mouton , the chief architect of historic monuments , and the firm Aubert @-@ Labansat .

= = List of Abbesses of Pentemont = =

= = Gallery = =

= Dyspanopeus sayi =

Dyspanopeus sayi is a species of mud crab that is native to the Atlantic coast of North America . It has also become established outside its native range , living in Swansea Docks since 1960 , the Mediterranean Sea since the 1970s , the North Sea since 2007 and the Black Sea since 2010 . It can reach a carapace width of 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) , and has black tips to its unequal claws . It feeds on bivalves and barnacles , and is in turn eaten by predators including the Atlantic blue crab , Callinectes sapidus . Eggs are produced from spring to autumn , the offspring reach sexual maturity the following summer , and individuals can live for up to two years . The closest relative of D. sayi is D. texanus , which lives in the Gulf of Mexico ; the two species differ in subtle features of the genitalia and the last pair of walking legs .

= = Description = =

Dyspanopeus sayi is a small crab , similar in appearance to Eurypanopeus depressus . It reaches a maximum carapace width of 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) , with sexually mature females having a carapace 6 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) or more across . The carapace is roughly hexagonal , about 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 times as wide as long and strongly convex . It has a finely granular surface , and has a light covering of hair , especially towards the front and sides . The chelae ( claws ) are unequal : the right claw is stouter , and the left claw is narrower . The carapace is olive @-@ green to brown , but the tips of the claws are black .

= = Distribution = =

The natural range of D. sayi extends from the Baie des Chaleurs ( eastern Canada ) to the Florida Keys ( south @-@ eastern United States ) , where it lives from the intertidal zone down to depths of 46 metres ( 151 ft ) . It tolerates a wide range of temperatures and salinities .

D. sayi has also been recorded from a number of locations in Europe . The first sighting was in Swansea Docks , South Wales ( United Kingdom ) in 1960 , and the scientist who reported it , E. Naylor , believed there was " no doubt " that the species had arrived through trans @-@ Atlantic shipping . The first record from the Mediterranean Sea was made in 1993 , when the species was discovered in the Venetian Lagoon ( north @-@ eastern Italy ) , although it is thought to have been living there since the late 1970s . In 2007 , D. sayi was recorded from the North Sea coast of the Netherlands . It was discovered in the Black Sea in 2010 , living in Constanța harbour ( Romania ) , and in the Ebro delta of the Balearic Sea ( western Mediterranean Sea ) in 2012 .

= = Ecology = =

Dyspanopeus sayi lives predominantly on muddy bottoms , where it is a predator of bivalve molluscs . In its native environment , it hides among colonies of polychaetes to avoid being preyed on by the Atlantic blue crab , Callinectes sapidus . It is an important predator of the quahog , Mercenaria mercenaria , in Narragansett Bay , and of the barnacle Balanus improvisus in Delaware Bay . In the Adriatic Sea , it has been observed to feed on the striped venus clam , Chamelea gallina , and the introduced Asian date mussel , Musculista senhousia .

= = Life cycle = =

The life cycle of D. sayi begins with copulation , which normally takes place shortly after the female has moulted , while her exoskeleton is still soft . Spawning occurs within hours or days of copulation , and the eggs are brooded on the female 's pleopods ( swimmerets ) until they are ready to hatch . Females have been found carrying eggs from April to October ; in a study of crabs caught at Gloucester Point , Virginia in 1978 , females were observed to carry between 686 and 14 @,@ 735 eggs . The number of eggs increases with carapace width according to a power law ; extrapolation of the power law suggests that the largest D. sayi females are capable of carrying over 32 @,@ 000 eggs each .

At 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) , the eggs can take only 9 or 10 days to develop , and this increases to 16 days at temperatures of 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . The young crabs hatch as zoea larvae , and pass through three further zoeal stages and one megalopa before becoming juveniles . Juveniles are thought to reach maturity in the summer after they hatch . The total lifespan of an individual can be up to 2 years .

= = Taxonomy = =

The species had been noticed by the American zoologist Thomas Say , and formed part of the species he called " Cancer panope " – a junior homonym of " Cancer panope " Herbst , 1801 , which is itself a junior synonym of Sphaerozius scaber ( Fabricius , 1798 ) . In 1869 , Sidney Irving Smith described seven new species in the genus Panopeus , including " P. sayi " , in addition to the twelve species already placed in the genus at that time . Common names for the species include " Say 's mud crab " and " Say mud crab " .

Smith noted the similarity of the species to " Panopeus texanus " , which had been described ten years earlier by William Stimpson , and Smith considered that the two might be the same species . In 1880 , John Sterling Kingsley and Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards independently synonymised " P. sayi " with " P. texana " , which remained until Mary J. Rathbun moved both taxa to the genus Neopanope and re @-@ established Smith 's taxon as a subspecies of " N. texana " . She argued that the two taxa should be considered subspecies , as hybrids between them occurred , although the specimens she saw are now thought to be D. sayi .

In 1972 , Lawrence G. Abele re @-@ examined " N. texanus texanus " , " N. texanus sayi " and N. packardi , and concluded that they were all good species , and so re @-@ elevated " N. sayi " to the rank of species . In 1986 , Joel W. Martin and Abele placed N. texanus and N. sayi in a separate genus , Dyspanopeus , reaffirming their close relationship . However , P. texana only occurs in the Gulf of Mexico , and can be distinguished from P. sayi by the form of the fifth pereiopod ( last walking leg ) and that of the male gonopod .

= Field Spaniel =

The Field Spaniel is a medium @-@ sized breed dog of the spaniel type . They were originally developed to be all @-@ black show dogs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and were unpopular for work as a hunting dog . However , during the mid @-@ 20th century they were redeveloped as a longer @-@ legged dog that was more suitable to be used for field work . They are now considered to be a rare breed , and are registered as a Vulnerable Native Breed by The Kennel Club .

Their fur is darker than other spaniels and have no undercoat . Their coats come mostly in solid colours with some occasional markings on the chest . They can make good family dogs and are patient with children , but can require some sort of purpose , be it hunting or agility work in order to prevent them from becoming bored and destructive .

= = History = =

The Field Spaniel was originally developed for the show ring by competitors who were attempting to develop an all @-@ black Spaniel . Some of the breeding methods of those early developers were criticised ; one of the first breeders of the Field Spaniel , Thomas Jacobs , said of the origin ; " Much has been written and said on the purity of the breed ; deprecating the means I have adopted to produce them as calculated to alter a presumed type , and frequent missiles have at me and my dogs from behind the hedge . But where is the pure bred black spaniel we hear so much about ? Proof of the existence of the pure bred one ( if there ever was one ! ) has not been forthcoming . Like most sporting dogs , they are the result of different crosses . "

They were unpopular with sportsmen as the dark colours of the breed did not show up in hunting conditions , and the elongated and short shape of the early breed was not very practical for moving easily through cover . The low @-@ slung variety of Field Spaniel were developed by Phineas Bullock from dogs previously owned by Sir Francis Burdett , the secretary of the Birmingham Dog Show . Burdett was said to have owned a variety of black Cocker Spaniels . Bullock crossed the Field Spaniel with the Sussex Spaniel and the English Water Spaniel . In the 1870s he was very successful in the show ring with his variety of Field Spaniel ; however , it resulted in a dog that was almost exactly like a Sussex Spaniel with the exception of the head itself .

The dog who is considered to be the father of the modern English Cocker Spaniel is Ch . Obo , who was born in 1879 to a Sussex Spaniel father and a Field Spaniel mother . Obo 's son Ch . Obo II is considered to be the father of the modern American Cocker Spaniel , who was described as being only ten inches high with quite a long body .

By 1909 , the average weight of a Field Spaniel was 35 – 45 pounds ( 16 – 20 kg ) . Further mixing of the breed occurred with elements of the Basset Hound introduced . Various genetic health issues arose and action was taken in order to correct the problems within the breed . English Springer Spaniels were used to introduce healthier elements into the breed and resulted in the longer legged spaniel that we know today . Most of the modern breed can be traced to four dogs from the 1950s ; Colombina of Teffont , Elmbury Morwena of Rhiwlas , Gormac Teal , and Ronayne Regal .

The Field Spaniel remains a rare breed , even in the UK . In 2009 , a total of 51 dogs were registered with The Kennel Club and has been in steady decline since 2000 . Out of all the Spaniel breeds registered with The Kennel Club , the Field Spaniel has the lowest numbered registered year on year , with only the Sussex Spaniel coming a close second with 60 registrations in 2009 . This is compared to the English Springer Spaniel with 12 @,@ 700 and the English Cocker Spaniel with 22 @,@ 211 registrations in 2009 alone . In order to promote the breed , they have been registered as a Vulnerable Native Breed by The Kennel Club .

= = Description = =

= = = Appearance = = =

The standard size for a Field Spaniel is 17 – 18 inches ( 43 – 46 cm ) tall at the withers , and a weight of between 40 – 55 pounds ( 18 – 25 kg ) . This places it roughly between the English Cocker Spaniel and the English Springer Spaniel in size . Its long , silky coat comes in solid colours of black , liver , or roan . Tan points , white markings on the throat and the chest can be ticked or the same colour as the rest of the body .

They have a moderately long single coat with no undercoat . Feathering of the fur appears on the chest , belly , ears and on the back of the legs . The coat is not as heavy as that of a Cocker Spaniel but will require grooming in order to prevent mats from appearing in the fur . Docked tails were often used in working dogs , as poor blood flow left healing of the non docked tail difficult .

= = = Temperament = = =

The Field Spaniel can be a good family dog while it has a job to do . They are suitable for dog agility and hunting . Without some sort of purpose , the dog can often try to amuse itself and cause mischief . However , they are patient with children and like to stay close to their family . When socialised , they are good with other dogs . They are generally docile and independent , and are not as excitable as Cocker Spaniels . Stanley Coren 's The Intelligence of Dogs lists the breed as being above average in working intelligence .

= = Health = =

There are a few ocular conditions to which the Field Spaniel has a predisposition . These include cataracts , retinal atrophy and retinal dysplasia . Hip dysplasia has appeared in British lines of Field Spaniels . In a health survey conducted by the Kennel Club ( UK ) , the primary cause of death in Field Spaniels was cancer , with the second most frequent cause being old age . The median lifespan for the breed was found to be eleven years and eight months , which is five months higher than the median age for all dog breeds .

= Scandium =

Scandium is a chemical element with symbol Sc and atomic number 21 . A silvery @-@ white metallic d @-@ block element , it has historically been sometimes classified as a rare earth element , together with yttrium and the lanthanoids . It was discovered in 1879 by spectral analysis of the minerals euxenite and gadolinite from Scandinavia .

Scandium is present in most of the deposits of rare earth and uranium compounds , but it is extracted from these ores in only a few mines worldwide . Because of the low availability and the difficulties in the preparation of metallic scandium , which was first done in 1937 , applications for scandium were not developed until the 1970s . The positive effects of scandium on aluminium alloys were discovered in the 1970s , and its use in such alloys remains its only major application . The global trade of scandium oxide is about 10 tonnes per year .

The properties of scandium compounds are intermediate between those of aluminium and yttrium . A diagonal relationship exists between the behavior of magnesium and scandium , just as there is between beryllium and aluminium . In the chemical compounds of the elements in group 3 , the predominant oxidation state is + 3 .

= = Properties = =

= = = Chemical characteristics of the element = = =

Scandium is a soft metal with a silvery appearance . It develops a slightly yellowish or pinkish cast when oxidized by air . It is susceptible to weathering and dissolves slowly in most dilute acids . It does not react with a 1 : 1 mixture of nitric acid ( HNO3 ) and 48 % hydrofluoric acid ( HF ) , possibly due to the formation of an impermeable passive layer . Scandium turnings ignite in air with a brilliant yellow flame to form scandium ( III ) oxide .

= = = Isotopes = = =

In nature , scandium is found exclusively as the isotope 45Sc , which has a nuclear spin of 7 / 2 . Thirteen radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 46Sc , which has a half @-@ life of 83 @.@ 8 days ; 47Sc , 3 @.@ 35 days ; the positron emitter 44Sc , 4 h ; and 48Sc , 43 @.@ 7 hours . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives less than 4 hours , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives less than 2 minutes . This element also has five meta states , with the most stable being 44mSc ( t1 / 2 = 58 @.@ 6 h ) .

The isotopes of scandium range from 36Sc to 60Sc . The primary decay mode at masses lower than the only stable isotope , 45Sc , is electron capture , and the primary mode at masses above it is beta emission . The primary decay products at atomic weights below 45Sc are calcium isotopes and the primary products from higher atomic weights are titanium isotopes .

= = = Occurrence = = =

In Earth 's crust , scandium is not rare . Estimates vary from 18 to 25 ppm , which is comparable to the abundance of cobalt ( 20 – 30 ppm ) . Scandium is only the 50th most common element on Earth ( 35th most abundant in the crust ) , but it is the 23rd most common element in the Sun . However , scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals . Rare minerals from Scandinavia and Madagascar such as thortveitite , euxenite , and gadolinite are the only known concentrated sources of this element . Thortveitite can contain up to 45 % of scandium in the form of scandium ( III ) oxide .

The stable form of scandium is created in supernovas via the r @-@ process .

= = Production = =

The world production of scandium is in the order of 10 tonnes per year , in the form of scandium oxide . The demand is about 50 % higher , and both the production and demand keep increasing . In 2003 , only three mines produced scandium : the uranium and iron mines in Zhovti Vody in Ukraine , the rare earth mines in Bayan Obo , China , and the apatite mines in the Kola peninsula , Russia ; since then many other countries have built scandium @-@ producing facilities . In each case scandium is a byproduct from the extraction of other elements and is sold as scandium oxide .

To produce metallic scandium , the oxide is converted to scandium fluoride and reduced with metallic calcium .

Madagascar and Iveland @-@ Evje region in Norway have the only deposits of minerals with high scandium content , thortveitite ( Sc , Y ) 2 ( Si2O7 ) and kolbeckite ScPO4 · 2H2O , but these are not being exploited .

The absence of reliable , secure , stable , and long term production has limited commercial applications of scandium . Despite this low level of use , scandium offers significant benefits . Particularly promising is the strengthening of aluminium alloys with as little as 0 @.@ 5 % scandium . Scandium @-@ stabilized zirconia enjoys a growing market demand for use as a high efficiency electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells .

= = Compounds = =

Scandium chemistry is almost completely dominated by the trivalent ion , Sc3 + . The radii of M3 + ions in the table below indicate that the chemical properties of scandium ions have more in common with yttrium ions than with aluminium ions . In part because of this similarity , scandium is often classified as a lanthanide @-@ like element .

= = = Oxides and hydroxides = = =

The oxide Sc2O3 and the hydroxide Sc ( OH ) 3 are amphoteric :

Sc ( OH ) 3 + 3 OH − → Sc ( OH ) 3 −

6

Sc ( OH ) 3 + 3 H + + 3 H2O → [ Sc ( H2O ) 6 ] 3 +

The α- and γ- forms of scandium oxide hydroxide ( ScO ( OH ) ) , are isostructural with their aluminium oxide hydroxide counterparts . Solutions of Sc3 + in water are acidic because of hydrolysis .

= = = Halides and pseudohalides = = =

The halides , ScX3 , are very soluble in water where X = Cl , Br , or I , but ScF3 is insoluble . In all four halides , the scandium is 6 @-@ coordinated . The halides are Lewis acids ; for example , ScF3 dissolves in a solution containing excess fluoride ion to form [ ScF6 ] 3 − . The coordination number 6 is typical of Sc ( III ) . In the larger Y3 + and La3 + ions , coordination numbers of 8 and 9 are common . Scandium ( III ) triflate is sometimes used as a Lewis acid catalyst in organic chemistry .

= = = Organic derivatives = = =

Scandium forms a series of organometallic compounds with cyclopentadienyl ligands ( Cp ) , similar to the behavior of the lanthanides . One example is the chlorine @-@ bridged dimer , [ ScCp2Cl ] 2 and related derivatives of pentamethylcyclopentadienyl ligands .

= = = Uncommon oxidation states = = =

Compounds that feature scandium in the oxidation state other than + 3 are rare but well characterized . The blue @-@ black compound CsScCl3 is one of the simplest . This material adopts a sheet @-@ like structure that exhibits extensive bonding between the scandium ( II ) centers . Scandium hydride is not well understood , although it appears not to be a saline hydride of Sc ( II ) . As is observed for most elements , a diatomic scandium hydride has been observed spectroscopically at high temperatures in the gas phase . Scandium borides and carbides are non @-@ stoichiometric , as is typical for neighboring elements .

Lower oxidation states ( + 2 , + 1 , 0 ) have also been observed in organoscandium compounds .

= = History = =

Dmitri Mendeleev , who is referred to as the father of the periodic table , predicted the existence of an element ekaboron , with an atomic mass between 40 and 48 in 1869 . Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team detected this element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite . Nilson prepared 2 grams of scandium oxide of high purity . He named the element scandium , from the Latin Scandia meaning " Scandinavia " . Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev 's prediction , but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev .

Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture of potassium , lithium , and scandium chlorides , at 700 – 800 ° C. The first pound of 99 % pure scandium metal was produced in 1960 . Production of aluminium alloys began in 1971 , following a US patent . Aluminium @-@ scandium alloys were also developed in the USSR .

Laser crystals of gadolinium @-@ scandium @-@ gallium garnet ( GSGG ) were used in strategic defense applications developed for the Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ) in the 1980s and 1990s .

= = Applications = =

The addition of scandium to aluminium limits the grain growth in the heat zone of welded aluminium components . This has two beneficial effects : the precipitated Al3Sc forms smaller crystals than in other aluminium alloys , and the volume of precipitate @-@ free zones at the grain boundaries of age @-@ hardening aluminium alloys is reduced . Both of these effects increase the usefulness of the alloy . However , titanium alloys , which are similar in lightness and strength , are cheaper and much more widely used .

The alloy Al20Li20Mg10Sc20Ti30 is as strong as titanium , light as aluminium , and hard as ceramic .

The main application of scandium by weight is in aluminium @-@ scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry components . These alloys contain between 0 @.@ 1 % and 0 @.@ 5 % of scandium . They were used in the Russian military aircraft , specifically the MiG @-@ 21 and MiG @-@ 29 .

Some items of sports equipment , which rely on high performance materials , have been made with scandium @-@ aluminium alloys , including baseball bats and bicycle frames and components . Lacrosse sticks are also made with scandium . The American firearm manufacturing company , Smith & Wesson , produces revolvers with frames of scandium alloy and cylinders of titanium or carbon steel .

Dentists use erbium , chromium : yttrium @-@ scandium @-@ gallium garnet ( Er , Cr : YSGG ) lasers for cavity preparation and in endodontics .

The first scandium @-@ based metal halide lamps were patented by General Electric and initially made in North America , although they are now produced in all major industrialized countries . Approximately 20 kg ( as Sc2O3 ) of scandium is used annually in the United States for high @-@ intensity discharge lamps . One type of metal halide lamp , similar to the mercury @-@ vapor lamp , is made from Scandium iodide and sodium iodide . This lamp is a white light source with high color rendering index that sufficiently resembles sunlight to allow good color @-@ reproduction with TV cameras . About 80 kg of scandium is used in metal halide lamps / light bulbs globally per year .

The radioactive isotope 46Sc is used in oil refineries as a tracing agent . Scandium triflate is a catalytic Lewis acid used in organic chemistry .

= = Health and safety = =

Elemental scandium is considered non @-@ toxic , though extensive animal testing of scandium compounds has not been done . The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) levels for scandium ( III ) chloride for rats have been determined as 4 mg / kg for intraperitoneal and 755 mg / kg for oral administration . In the light of these results compounds of scandium should be handled as compounds of moderate toxicity .

= Interstate 70 in Utah =

Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) is a mainline route of the Interstate Highway System in the United States connecting Utah and Maryland . The Utah section runs east – west for 232 @.@ 15 miles ( 373 @.@ 61 km ) across the central part of the state . Richfield is the largest Utah city served by the freeway , which does not serve or connect any urban areas in the state . The freeway was built as part of a system of highways connecting Los Angeles and the northeastern United States . I @-@ 70 was the second attempt to connect southern California to the east coast of the United States via central Utah , the first being a failed attempt to construct a transcontinental railroad . Parts of that effort were re @-@ used in the laying out of the route of I @-@ 70 .

Unlike most Interstate Highways , much of I @-@ 70 in Utah was not constructed parallel to or on top of an existing U.S. Highway . Portions of I @-@ 70 were constructed in areas where previously there were no paved roads . Because it was built over an entirely new route , I @-@ 70 has many features that are unique in the Interstate Highway System . For example , the 110 miles ( 177 km ) between Green River and Salina makes up the longest distance anywhere in the Interstate Highway System with no motorist services . This same piece is noted as the longest highway in the United States built over a completely new route since the Alaska Highway , and the longest piece of Interstate Highway to open at a given time . The construction of the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 is listed as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System .

The choice of the route had a significant impact on the character and culture of the Sevier Valley . It has also been a motivating factor for environmentalists to create a new National Park along the path of the highway to protect scenic areas around the route . I @-@ 70 from Green River to Grand Junction , Colorado is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , making I @-@ 70 one of the few Interstate Highways to be named a National Scenic Byway . Attractions listed by the Federal Highway Administration for the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway on or near I @-@ 70 include , Arches National Park , Canyonlands National Park , Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry , Goblin Valley State Park and Westwater . The designation lists several side roads branching from I @-@ 70 that lead to dinosaur bones or footprints .

= = Route description = =

I @-@ 70 begins at a trumpet interchange with Interstate 15 , near Cove Fort . It then proceeds east over the Pavant Range , cresting at an unnamed summit with an elevation of 7 @,@ 076 feet ( 2 @,@ 157 m ) . The eastern descent from the Pavant range features bridges high above Clear Creek and its side canyons . The longest of these bridges is the Fish Creek bridge at 1 @,@ 180 feet ( 360 m ) long . The descent into Clear Creek features a brake check area and runaway truck ramp to aid truckers down the steep slope . The freeway then skirts the edge of Fremont Indian State Park before entering Sevier Valley .

= = = Sevier Valley = = =

I @-@ 70 serves as the main thoroughfare of the valley , the only area traversed by the freeway in the state with more than a few hundred residents . Richfield is the largest city along I @-@ 70 in the state . The highway enters the valley just north of Big Rock Candy Mountain , a mountain named for a song attributed to Harry McClintock . The highway proceeds northeast along the western edge of the valley , passing to the west of the communities of the valley , including Joseph , Monroe , Elsinore , and Richfield . As I @-@ 70 approaches Salina it cuts across the valley passing to the south of that town . The highway avoids the downtown areas of all of these cities . The portion between Richfield and Salina is the busiest , with an annual average daily traffic of 11 @,@ 535 vehicles in 2006 . In the Sevier Valley , I @-@ 70 was built parallel to U.S. Route 89 .

= = = Wasatch Plateau = = =

At Salina , US @-@ 50 joins I @-@ 70 , and the two highways run concurrent for the rest of the way through Utah . After leaving Salina I @-@ 70 departs on a 110 @-@ mile ( 177 km ) course to Green River . This is the longest distance in the Interstate Highway System with no motorist services . The route to Green River crosses two major geographic obstacles , the Wasatch Plateau and the San Rafael Swell .

I @-@ 70 ascends the Wasatch Plateau via Salina Canyon . The top of the canyon is the highest point of any of Utah 's Interstate Highways , although the elevation differs from source to source . The Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) has listed the elevation at 7 @,@ 923 feet ( 2 @,@ 415 m ) and 7 @,@ 886 feet ( 2 @,@ 404 m ) . Other maps have listed the figure 7 @,@ 980 feet ( 2 @,@ 432 m ) . At least one map has given this point a name , Emigrant Pass . This portion of I @-@ 70 is on protected lands as part of Fishlake National Forest . The freeway exits the Wasatch Plateau at Fremont Junction , the name of the junction of I @-@ 70 with State Route 10 .

= = = San Rafael Swell = = =

Between Fremont Junction and the junction of SR @-@ 24 near Green River , Interstate 70 crosses a geologic feature called the San Rafael Swell . The construction of the freeway through the swell is listed as one of the engineering marvels of the Interstate Highway System , with one engineer claiming this section as " one of the most significant highway construction feats of its time " . The construction of I @-@ 70 through the swell required boring through many solid rock canyons , cliffs , and mountains . The swell is noted for its sheer canyons and rock formations and is home to a large amount of exposed dinosaur remains . This includes the largest known collection of Jurassic period dinosaur remains at the Cleveland @-@ Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry at the north end of the swell .

The highway ascends the western edge of the swell on a steady slope loosely following the north rim of Devils Canyon . At the top of the grade is a view area with a view of Devils Canyon and an overlook of the country west of the swell . It then crosses Eagle Canyon via a pair of steel arch bridges . The eastbound bridge is 489 feet ( 149 m ) long and the westbound bridge is 523 feet ( 159 m ) long .

The highway then ascends Ghost Rock Summit , the highest point for I @-@ 70 inside the swell . At the summit is another view area overlooking the Little Grand Canyon of the San Rafael River . The summit is named for unusual rock formations nearby . The Ghost Rocks themselves are at 7 @,@ 405 feet ( 2 @,@ 257 m ) , although the freeway is slightly lower . I @-@ 70 meanders through a relatively flat portion of the swell until reaching Spotted Wolf Canyon , which provides the exit route to the swell . The eastern descent features one brake check area and two runaway truck ramps to aid trucks down . About halfway down is a view area of the canyon narrowing as it approaches the eastern escarpment of the swell , the San Rafael Reef . Just as the highway exits the swell it passes to the north of Goblin Valley State Park . The highway exits the swell near Green River .

= = = Book Cliffs = = =

West of Green River , US @-@ 6 and 191 join I @-@ 70 . Also at Green River , the freeway reaches the southern edge of the Book Cliffs , a mountain range which I @-@ 70 follows to Grand Junction , Colorado . This portion of I @-@ 70 is part of the Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway , recognized as a scenic byway by both the National Scenic Byways and Utah Scenic Byways programs . Listed attractions along the byway in the Green River area include Crystal Geyser , Capitol Reef National Park and Green River State Park .

From this point east the freeway is routed across a flat area between the Book Cliffs and the Colorado River , called Sagers Flat . Along the way it passes by the towns of Crescent Junction , Thompson Springs and Cisco . Natural features visible from this portion include Arches National Park and Castle Valley . Other listed attractions along the byway near this section include Canyonlands National Park and various areas with Morrison Formation , a layer of rock where dinosaur remains are common . I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 6 , and US @-@ 50 all enter Colorado concurrently . Where I @-@ 70 follows the Book Cliffs , it was built parallel to or on top of US @-@ 6 / 50 .

= = History = =

= = = Old Spanish Trail = = =

The first route through this portion of Utah was the Old Spanish Trail , a trade route between Santa Fe , New Mexico and Los Angeles , California . The trail was in common use before the Mexican @-@ American War in 1848 . Although the trail serves a different route than I @-@ 70 , they were both intended to connect southern California with points further east . I @-@ 70 generally parallels the route of the Old Spanish Trail west of Crescent Junction . I @-@ 15 south of the junction with I @-@ 70 also generally parallels the trail .

= = = Transcontinental railroads = = =

The first attempt to build a modern trade route through the area is credited to William Jackson Palmer , founder of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad ( D & RG ) . Palmer started a project in 1880 to make what had been a local railroad from Colorado into a transcontinental railroad empire . This would mean a second transcontinental railroad would be built across Utah . This would also place the D & RG in competition with the First Transcontinental Railroad , then operated by Union Pacific Railroad and Central Pacific Railroad .

Disagreements in the company led to two proposals . Both proposals called for extending the railroad west from Colorado as far as what is now Green River . West of Green River a " northern route " would extend the railroad towards Ogden , Utah , there connecting with the established Overland Route . This proposal was eventually completed as the Utah Division , loosely following the route of modern U.S. Route 6 across eastern Utah . This line soon became the main line of the D & RG and remains one of the main transcontinental rail arteries of the U.S , now operated by the Union Pacific Railroad as the Central Corridor .

The second proposal was a " southern route " that would continue due west from Green River and head towards Los Angeles , similar to the route of modern I @-@ 70 . This proposal would require extending the railroad farther west , to connect with what would become the Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad .

Due to disagreements in management and poor communication , construction began on both routes . It was soon obvious that the southern route was unfeasible given the remote area , technology available at the time and the rough terrain of the San Rafael Swell . The D & RG spent $ 217 @,@ 470 ( 1883 , equivalent to $ 4 @.@ 6 million in 2007 ) on the project before declaring it a failure . One of the accounts in the book Utah Ghost Rails states the railroad fired the lead surveyor , even though the workers had graded a path past the San Rafael Reef . This route today is a jeep trail . According to a sign placed by the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) , had the southern route succeeded it would have been the shortest transcontinental railroad in the U.S.

Construction resumed in 1901 on a portion of the southern route , to build a spur line to service coal mines on the Wasatch Plateau . The railroad branched from an existing line at Salina and traveled east up Salina Canyon . After the mines closed , the railroad bed was used to improve State Route 10 , between Salina and Fremont Junction . I @-@ 70 would later use the railroad bed for a path across the Wasatch Plateau .

= = = Plans for Interstate 70 = = =

By the time the Interstate Highway System was in the planning stages , no paved road had yet entered the San Rafael Swell . The established highway through the area was US @-@ 6 / US @-@ 50 which , like the railroad , entered Utah from Colorado and turned north around the swell .

As first proposed in 1956 , the western terminus of I @-@ 70 was Denver , Colorado . Officials from Colorado pressured the federal government to extend the plans for I @-@ 70 further west . After several discussions with Utah officials , Utah supported an extension that would follow US @-@ 6 / 50 ( now US @-@ 6 ) , to connect with I @-@ 15 at Spanish Fork . This proposal would connect the Salt Lake City area with Denver . While accepting the Colorado / Utah proposal , federal planners also decided to show a modified proposal , with the terminus of I @-@ 70 at Cove Fort , to planners at the Department of the Army . The planners opposed the extension to Salt Lake , but felt the modified proposal would benefit the U.S. Army , by providing a better connection to southern California . The new route would shorten the distance between Los Angeles and Denver by about 200 miles ( 320 km ) . The route to Cove Fort was approved on October 18 , 1957 . A general announcement was made , with no prior notice given to Utah officials of the modification . The commissioner of the Bureau of Public Roads later admitted that the lack of notice was intentional , fearing infighting if the bureau did not announce a final decision .

A state historian stated the news hit Utah " like a bombshell " . Except for the officials in Utah that represented the area , most opposed a freeway that would serve no populated areas in the state . The route was mocked as a public relations blunder and a " road to nowhere " . Utah officials attempted to revert plans to their preferred alternative , but later resigned to construct I @-@ 70 on the federally selected route . Governor George Dewey Clyde concluded , " Utah had no choice but to accept the Cove Fort routing , or have none at all . " Even attempts to route the freeway slightly north , to serve more cities in Emery County , were blocked . Federal planners insisted the freeway pass Green River on a southwest course and not turn north . Even today , there is no direct interstate link between Salt Lake and Denver . Motorists must choose between the two lane routes ( US @-@ 6 or US @-@ 40 ) or detour on I @-@ 80 through Wyoming .

= = = Construction = = =

With the plans for I @-@ 70 extended , a transcontinental route would again be attempted across the San Rafael Swell . The area west of Green River was so remote that survey crews followed wild horses with jeeps to survey parts of the route . According to a story told at the highway 's dedication , by an engineer who surveyed the highway , his group was approached by a sheep rancher and asked what they were doing . The rancher fell over laughing when he was told they were building a freeway .

The survey crew did not use the route of the railroad past the San Rafael Reef . However , they did use the route of the railroad across the Wasatch Plateau . The construction crews destroyed two of four tunnels when the bed was widened for the freeway . The two remaining tunnels are visible just south of the freeway and are used by a frontage road .

Some portions of I @-@ 70 over the Pavant Range and Wasatch Plateau were opened to traffic before the portion over the San Rafael Swell . These portions were temporarily signed as State Route 4 . The portion over the San Rafael Swell opened to traffic in 1970 , finally making the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 a drivable route .

Interstate 70 was dedicated on December 5 , 1970 , at the Ghost Rocks view area inside the swell , even though it would take another 20 years to fully complete the freeway . At the ceremony the mayors of cities recently made neighbors , including Grand Junction , Colorado , introduced themselves . Then Governor Calvin L. Rampton noted that I @-@ 70 was the longest road the U.S. had built over a completely new route since the Alaska Highway , during World War II . It was also noted this was the longest piece of the Interstate Highway System to open at a given time .

Initially only two lanes , now the eastbound lanes , through the swell were constructed . The official highway map for Utah noted the new freeway , but qualified its existence with the words " two lanes open " . The first portions of I @-@ 70 to be constructed to Interstate Highway standards were along the non @-@ disputed portion of the route east of Green River .

The Utah portion of I @-@ 70 was not completed to Interstate Highway standards until 1990 , when the second Eagle Canyon bridge was dedicated . A second dedication ceremony was held at the bridge declaring the Utah portion of I @-@ 70 complete . Archie Hamilton , one of three engineers who worked for Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) long enough to see I @-@ 70 progress from conception to completion , said the most memorable moment was seeing the excavation at Spotted Wolf Canyon . He said before construction began , he could stand in one spot and touch both sides of the canyon . To carve the first 8 miles ( 13 km ) through the canyon required excavating 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) of rock . It was estimated construction cost for the San Rafael Swell portion was $ 183 @.@ 5 million , $ 105 @.@ 5 million ( 1970 , $ 595 million in 2008 ) to build the first two lanes , and $ 78 million ( 1990 , $ 130 million in 2008 ) to construct the rest . At the 1970 dedication , it was noted the cost of land acquisition helped to offset the cost of the massive excavation . UDOT acquired the right of way to build the majority of I @-@ 70 from the BLM at the lowest cost per mile of any highway in Utah .

= = = Effect on rural Utah = = =

In 2002 , the Salt Lake Tribune interviewed the mayor of Richfield about the change I @-@ 70 brought to the Sevier Valley . Previously these were isolated farming communities , whose residents felt they were unaccustomed to the crime and other effects that a transcontinental highway can bring . Residents of Richfield soon started to call I @-@ 70 " Cocaine Lane " . The mayor stated that I @-@ 70 is a mixed blessing . He stated the highway is a boon to the hospitality industry and has made Richfield more accessible to other cities . However , the new road brought types of crime previously unknown to the city . The mayor lamented that after the completion of I @-@ 70 , many residents started locking their doors for the first time . The interview resulted from an event that served as a " wake @-@ up call " , that rural Utah is " not isolated from crime " . Panic ensued after the public witnessed Utah Highway Patrol troopers carrying away a suspect in handcuffs , while removing plastic bags and coolers full of body parts from the trunk of his car . The event caused a frenzy of people checking on their neighbors , fearing the murder victims were local residents . In 2007 , there were 11 violent crimes in Sevier County , a county of 19 @,@ 386 residents .

Green River is the largest , and only incorporated city directly served by I @-@ 70 in eastern Utah . Unlike the communities of the Sevier Valley , Green River was founded as a stopover for travelers along transcontinental arteries . The area was first used as a stopover for travelers navigating the Green River . Later the town was formed to serve travelers along the Old Spanish Trail and stagecoach mail routes . Green River was an established stopover by the time the railroad and later highways were built through the area .

= = = Effect on the San Rafael Swell = = =

Before the construction of I @-@ 70 the San Rafael Swell was relatively inaccessible and not well known or explored . There were , however , a few efforts to protect the swell as early as 1935 . Since the construction of the freeway the number of visitors to the swell has increased significantly , as the swell can now be accessed by automobile . As such , several groups are increasing efforts for protected status of the area , via National Park , National Monument or wilderness designation .

A major push occurred in 2002 when officials from Emery County , joined by Utah governor Mike Leavitt , petitioned President George W. Bush to use the authority of the Antiquities Act and create a San Rafael Swell National Monument . This effort lost momentum after the governor promised to honor the wishes of Emery County residents via a non @-@ binding referendum , which did not pass . Common reasons given by residents for opposing the designation included fear of the federal government restricting access and a repetition of events that occurred with the Grand Staircase @-@ Escalante National Monument . This monument was established in 1996 , by President Bill Clinton . In that case the monument was proposed at the federal level in secret . Boundaries were drawn without the consent or even knowledge of local residents . This incited anger and triggered a backlash in rural Utah .

Currently most of the swell is administered by the BLM and is not given special consideration . A small portion on the eastern edge is protected as Goblin Valley State Park , administered by the Utah Division of Parks and Recreation . Today the Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance continues to lobby for protection .

= = = Route number changes = = =

Before the formation of I @-@ 70 , there was a road over the Pavant Range numbered SR @-@ 13 that was similar to the route of I @-@ 70 . The highway , which largely still exists as a two @-@ lane road between SR @-@ 161 ( former US @-@ 91 ) at Cove Fort and US @-@ 89 at Sevier , had been taken over by the state on August 2 , 1912 , and assigned the label by the early 1920s as part of Utah 's initial highway numbering . In the Wasatch Plateau , the base for I @-@ 70 was derived from a portion of SR @-@ 10 . Both of these were transferred to State Route 4 , which was the state legislative designation for all of I @-@ 70 in Utah , in 1962 . U.S. Route 50 was changed to overlap with Interstate 70 through most of Utah in 1976 , with U.S. Route 6 remaining on its former route . In 1977 , Utah renumbered its state routes so that the legislative and signed numbers would match . With this change , the state designation for Interstate 70 is now State Route 70 .

= = Exit list = =

= Can 't Be Tamed ( song ) =

" Can 't Be Tamed " is a song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus for her third studio album of the same name ( 2010 ) . It was released on May 14 , 2010 by Hollywood Records as the lead single from the record . The song was written by Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Paul Neumann , and Marek Pompetzki , while production was handled by Armato and James . A Rockangeles remix version featuring rapper Lil Jon was included as a bonus track on digital editions of the album . According to Cyrus , " Can 't Be Tamed " describes a desire to break out and experience freedom . The lyrics deal with the themes of freedom and self @-@ expression , approached by sultry lyrics .

" Can 't Be Tamed " received generally positive responses by music critics . It also garnered commercial success . The song peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , and reached its highest peak at number five on both the Irish Singles Chart and New Zealand Singles Chart . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Robert Hales and follows Cyrus performing with backup dancers throughout a museum . Cyrus is first trapped in a giant cage , being observed by spectators ; she then escapes and trashes the museum . She has promoted " Can 't Be Tamed " by performing it at several venues , including a performance on Britain 's Got Talent that resulted in negative reactions from the media . The song is also a part of Cyrus ' second and third world tours , Gypsy Heart Tour and Bangerz Tour .

= = Background = =

" Can 't Be Tamed " was co @-@ written by Miley , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Paul Neumann , and Marek Pompetzki and produced by Armato and James . According to Cyrus , the track 's moral is to free yourself from any biding or hindrance , in particular application to women . Cyrus said the song 's message applies to different situations . Personally to her , " it is about being a cage and people looking at you . " As for others , she believed it could describe high school , in a situation where " someone feeling they have to be one way to be with a clique and they want to be who they are . A relationship , or whatever , it is just breaking out and feeling free . " Hollywood Records described " Can 't Be Tamed " as " a self @-@ empowering song in which Miley asserts that she has to stay true to herself in relationships " .

At four meetings throughout Europe , Cyrus ' manager , Jason Morey , presented the album Can 't Be Tamed to representatives from Universal Music Group ; the representatives confirmed what Hollywood Records in the United States had already decided , that the track would be released as the lead single . " Can 't Be Tamed " premiered on April 30 , 2010 on Cyrus ' official MySpace page ; it was officially released for airplay on May 3 , 2010 and released as a digital download on May 18 , 2010 . In May 2010 , Cyrus recorded the Rockangeles remix version of " Can 't Be Tamed " with rapper Lil Jon at Rock Mafia Studios in Santa Monica , California . Lil Jon said the collaboration was " crazy " and thought audiences would enjoy the remix . Cyrus added , " He just came in and let it out . It 's pretty rockin . " They believed Lil Jon gave the remix more energy than the original version had .

= = Composition = =

" Can 't Be Tamed " is a length of two minutes and 48 seconds . The song has been described as " grown @-@ up club sound " . The song is set in compound time of 12 / 8 and has a fast tempo of 118 beats per minute . It is written in the key of B minor and Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from A3 to D5 . Cyrus belts her way through the choruses , while some lines in the verses feature processed vocals with the use of auto @-@ tune . It follows the chord progression B5 – D – A. Driven by a dark , pounding beat and the heavy use of synths , " Can 't Be Tamed " ' s instrumentation relies on drum machine .

Written solely in first person , " Can 't Be Tamed " explores the themes of freedom and self @-@ expression , approached by sultry lyrics . It puts emphasis to how she cannot be changed or molded into being something she is not . In the verses , Cyrus addresses confidence and the attempt to discover for what she is yearning for , respectively . Choruses have Cyrus shouting the title and variations of it in a repetitive manner , against the beat of the song . Monica Herrera of Billboard interpreted the lyrics " If there was a question about my intentions , I 'll tell ya / I 'm not here to sell ya " to be an official declaration of rebellion in order to dispose herself of tween role @-@ model responsibilities . Likewise , various other critics believed " Can 't Be Tamed " spoke of her completely drawing away from the image she had developed through Hannah Montana , which first aired in March 2006 .

= = Critical reception = =

Critics typically reviewed " Can 't Be Tamed " favorably . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly felt the song was " not bad business for stationary cardio , but not the stuff year @-@ end top tens are made of , either . " She said it didn 't offer " major sensations " and found it similar to Christina Aguilera ’ s " Not Myself Tonight " ( 2010 ) . Greenblatt was also disappointed with the song 's rhyming in the lines , " I 'm not here to sell ya ' / Or tell you to go to hell " . Sonya Sorich of Ledger @-@ Enquirer said that while she anticipated some negative reception , " Can 't Be Tamed " was also a prime candidate for a guilty pleasure dance track . " Heather Phares of Allmusic referred to " Can 't Be Tamed " as " stomping " and selected it as one of the album 's best . Fraser McAlpine of BBC said that though the song has strong sexual undercurrents , Cyrus maintained classy throughout the track . " If Miley 's gonna weather the Ensexification Moment it 'll be because she 's doing it during a period of extrema GaGa , when videos are less about acreage of flesh and more about feathers and Victorian scientists . Oh , and because she 's got the songs and the voice , that always helps " , McAlpine concluded .

Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone rated the song three out of five stars and compared it to the musical styles of Rihanna . He added , " It 's no ' Party in the U.S.A. ' or ' See You Again , ' but the chorus packs plenty of electro @-@ fizz pizzazz " . Bill Lamb of About.com rated " Can 't Be Tamed " two and half out of five stars . He criticized the song for lyrics that headed into a " selfish territory " , however , believing it would have airplay success . Monica Herrera of Billboard gave " Can 't Be Tamed " a favorable review , writing , " But Cyrus knows how to proffer her sass . When she sneers , ' I 'm not a fake , it 's in my DNA , ' in pre @-@ emptive retaliation against her critics , she does it with the professionalism of a Disney @-@ groomed star . " Jarett Wieselman of The New York Post said he liked the song and that though he did not buy Cyrus ' " Party in the U.S.A. " ( 2009 ) , he feared he would not " be able to resist " buying " Can 't Be Tamed " . He said the song had a " naughty old school Britney Spears " vibe , called it " totally catchy " and predicted it would be a summer hit . Ailbhe Malone of The Irish Times wrote , " Miley ’ s taken a sexy electro @-@ edge . Less " Party in the U.S.A. " , more Party With My Parents Away , we like this . A LOT . "

= = Commercial performance = =

On the week ending June 5 , 2010 , " Can 't Be Tamed " became the week 's " hot shot debut " by entering and peaking at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling 191 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The sales marked Cyrus ' second @-@ best debut sales week , following " Party in the U.S.A. " , which sold 226 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week in August 2009 . With the appearance on the chart , the song became her fourth top ten debut on the Billboard Hot 100 , including a song credited to her alias Hannah Montana . In the following week , the song descended ten positions to number 18 . It spent its last week on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending August 7 , 2010 , spending a total of ten weeks on the chart . " Can 't Be Tamed " also peaked at number 16 on Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) . The song peaked at number six on the Canadian Hot 100 and spent a total of 14 weeks upon the chart . It also sold over a million copies in the US and was certified platinum by the RIAA .

The song also achieved commercial success in Australia and New Zealand . " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted at number 18 on the Australian Singles Chart on the week ending June 6 , 2010 . After six weeks of ascending the Australian Singles Chart , the song found a new peak at number 17 . In the succeeding week , it reached its peak at number 14 and spent 11 weeks on the chart . The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping over 35 @,@ 000 copies . On the week ending May 24 , 2010 , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted and peaked at number five on the New Zealand Singles Chart . It spent nine weeks ascending and descending the New Zealand Singles Chart before completely dropping from the chart on the week ending July 19 , 2010 . In Japan , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted at number 53 and peaked at number 12 . In the United Kingdom , " Can 't Be Tamed " debuted and peaked at number 13 on the week ending June 12 , 2010 . It spent eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart . The song peaked at number five on the Irish Singles Chart . In mainland Europe , " Can 't Be Tamed " maintained similar outcomes . It became Cyrus ' best @-@ charting single on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles , peaking at number 15 in July 2010 and surpassing " Party in the U.S.A. " , which peaked at number 17 in January 2010 . It peaked at number 15 on the French Singles Chart , number 15 on the Norwegian Singles Chart , and number 14 on the Spanish Singles Chart . It also charted within the top 30 in Austria and Germany and within the top 40 of Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background = = =

The music video for " Can 't Be Tamed " ' was directed by Robert Hales . The dance routines were choreographed by Jamal Sims , who also choreographed Cyrus ' " Hoedown Throwdown " . Cyrus and Sims conceived the plot for the video together and proposed it to Hales , who " envisioned it the way [ they ] did " . In regards to the video 's theme , Cyrus explained , " I think the video explains my life but it doesn 't exclude other people 's lives . It 's not just about how fabulous and glamorous and all this . It 's about the core of ' I don 't wanna be in a cage . I want to be free and do what I love ' " . The video was meant to transition Cyrus away from the good @-@ girl image she had developed through Hannah Montana . However , she believed her fans would be able to identify with the video 's message through their own circumstances ; for example , she believed that her desire to " stand out [ rather ] than fit in " was shared by teenagers hoping to break out of high school cliques . In an interview with the singer , Ryan Seacrest noted the video 's strong sexual appeal . Cyrus agreed that the video was sexy , though it was not supposed to be the premise : " The video isn 't about being sexy or who can wear the less clothes [ ... ] It 's about explaining the song and living the lyrics . " The music video has been viewed over 100 million times on vevo .

= = = Development and synopsis = = =

The music video was shot on April 10 and April 11 , 2010 at Sony Studios in Culver City , California . Over twenty female and twenty male backup dancers were used . The video casts Cyrus as an exotic songbird breaking out of its cage , symbolizing Cyrus as a singer breaking out of her good @-@ girl image . Prior to the shoot , Cyrus meticulously recorded her ideas for the video on paper . For example , she chose her back @-@ up dancers make @-@ up pallets and contemplated their outfits ; while she did not want her dancer 's bodies " to look like normal bodies " , she also did not want for them to wear scales as , according to her , it would make them resemble to be fish and look scary . Hales wanted Cyrus to resemble a bird without " actually having a beak " or otherwise being overly explicit , so Cyrus ' stylists invented bird @-@ like accessories . Among these were arm bands with long leather straps , feathered shoulder pads , and a feathered vest worn over a black leotard and thigh @-@ high black leather boots . Cyrus said she had originally worn a " completely different " outfit , but wasn 't " feeling it " the morning of the shoot . " So we made this one right there in the morning , and we added pieces throughout the day ... more leather and more feathers . I think it 's really fun and kept changing the look , " she said . Cyrus ' make @-@ up artist , Denika Bedrossian , focused on the singer 's eyes ; he used " rich jewel @-@ toned shades " and eyelashes with feathered tips to give Cyrus a " deep peacock eye " . In cut @-@ scenes , Cyrus wears a corset made of 2 @,@ 400 silver metal pieces and numerous peacock feathers . It was designed by The Blonds , debuted during their fall 2010 fashion show , and cost $ 25 @,@ 000 .

The video commences with formally dressed spectators entering a museum as a curator introduces " a creature so rare it was believed to be extinct . In captivity for the first time , the rarest creature on Earth , Avis Cyrus . White curtains are pulled down to reveal Cyrus , dressed in a black leotard and expansive black CGI wings , asleep in a giant bird nest locked inside a giant cage . Cyrus rises and approaches the audience , but a camera flash startles her and causes her to shield her face with her wings . The music starts , and Cyrus unveils herself again and joins a large group of feathered dancers . As Cyrus sings , she and the dancers escape the cage and prowl the museum , shattering museum exhibits as they pass them . They perform provocative dances both inside the cage and in darkened museum halls . Cut @-@ scenes feature Cyrus lying down , dressed in a silver corset attached to a bed of peacock feathers , or writhing alone in her nest in the cage . The video ends with Cyrus back in her cage and the museum empty and trashed .

= = = Reception = = =

The video premiered on May 4 , 2010 on E ! News . The video received generally positive reviews from critics . It also received numerous comparisons to videos by Britney Spears and Lady Gaga , though Cyrus said she " wanted it to be something different for a female artist " . Cristina Gibson of E ! described the video as " edgy " , similar to Cyrus ' video for " Party in the U.S.A. " , but " on steroids " . Tina Warren of MTV News said the video was a good step toward ridding Cyrus of her good @-@ girl image and gave the video a positive review , calling it " intriguing " and stating , " The video [ ... ] is actually quite magnetic and you can ’ t look away " . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly agreed . While he acknowledged the video " might be dark and a tad conceptually racy " , he claimed it was smart move . " She isn ’ t moving too fast , honestly [ ... ] it ’ s not like Miley is stripping or baring much skin " . Rather , Stransky said Cyrus had " some super @-@ fun dance moves " and " [ made ] a statement " , albeit a darker one . Chinese newspaper People 's Daily said the video featured " bold " costumes and " revealed Cyrus ' sexy side " . The website , Yahoo ! added the video to the list of " Worst Music Videos of 2010 " Daniel Rutledge of 3 News in New Zealand said Cyrus had made " it very clear she wishes to cast aside any resemblance to the Disney alter ego that made her famous and be regarded from now on as an adult singer . " Singaporean newspaper My Paper defended Cyrus against claims that the video was too provocative and reported , " If nothing else , this vid shows that Cyrus knows how to entertain , and marks the beginning of truly high @-@ quality videos . " Mary Elizabeth Williams of Salon.com offered a contrary opinion , stating that while Cyrus is a " talented singer [ who ] deserves to break out of her Disney mold " , the " Can 't Be Tamed " music video was poor . Williams said Cyrus has " talent galore " and " incredible pipes " , but her video was " predictable , derivative and dumb " due to its unoriginality . According to People magazine , online reaction to the music video has been greatly varied . " Fans and bloggers lit up the Web with comments ranging from ' stunning , gorgeous , fierce ' to ' wow way too much for someone her age ' " , the magazine reported . NME put the video at number 28 on their list of the " 50 Worst Music Videos Ever " .

= = Live performances = =

Cyrus first performed " Can 't Be Tamed " live on May 18 , 2010 on Dancing With the Stars . Donning the black leotard and accessories used in the music video , Cyrus appeared in a human @-@ sized cage and then performed throughout the stage with many costumed backup dancers ; Cyrus ' dancing was minimal . Her first performance of the song outside the United States was at the Rock in Rio concert in Lisbon , Portugal on May 29 , 2010 . Cyrus appeared on June 1 , 2010 at the Paris , France nightclub 1515 Club and on June 3 , 2010 on Britain 's Got Talent 's semifinals to perform " Can 't Be Tamed " . On the latter , Cyrus wore hot pants , fishnets and boots as she performed . Midway through the performance , Cyrus grabbed a female backup dancer , dipping her low , and simulated a kiss . The performance was met with negative reactions from the media and caused her to release a statement in which Cyrus promised she did not kiss the backup dancer . Cyrus wrote , " It is ridiculous that two entertainers can ’ t even rock out with each other without the media making it some type of story . I really hope my fans are not disappointed in me because the truth is I did nothing wrong . I got up there and did my job which is to perform to the best of my ability . " Cyrus later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concert in Madrid , Spain and the London , England nightclubs Heaven and G @-@ A @-@ Y. She has performed the track on Good Morning America , Late Show with David Letterman , MuchMusic Video Awards , and concert at the House of Blues in Los Angeles , California , which was streamed across over thirty websites owned by MTV Networks .

Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour . She also performed the song during her ongoing Bangerz Tour . She wore a black sequined bra and furry monochrome chaps with falconry gloves during the performance . She was also accompanied by an enormous replica of her dog , Floyd . The performance received positive reviews from critics .

= = Release history = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= Tokyo Tower =

Tokyo Tower ( 東京タワー , Tōkyō tawā ) is a communications and observation tower located in the Shiba @-@ koen district of Minato , Tokyo , Japan . At 332 @.@ 9 metres ( 1 @,@ 092 ft ) , it is the second @-@ tallest structure in Japan . The structure is an Eiffel Tower @-@ inspired lattice tower that is painted white and international orange to comply with air safety regulations .

Built in 1958 , the tower 's main sources of revenue are tourism and antenna leasing . Over 150 million people have visited the tower since its opening . FootTown , a four @-@ story building located directly under the tower , houses museums , restaurants and shops . Departing from there , guests can visit two observation decks . The two @-@ story Main Observatory is located at 150 metres ( 490 ft ) , while the smaller Special Observatory reaches a height of 249 @.@ 6 metres ( 819 ft ) .

The tower acts as a support structure for an antenna . Originally intended for television broadcasting , radio antennas were installed in 1961 , but the tower is now used to broadcast signals for Japanese media outlets such as NHK , TBS and Fuji TV . Japan 's planned digital television transition by July 2011 was problematic , however ; Tokyo Tower 's height , 332 @.@ 9 m ( 1 @,@ 092 ft ) was not high enough to adequately support complete terrestrial digital broadcasting to the area . A taller digital broadcasting tower , known as Tokyo Skytree , was completed on February 29 , 2012 .

= = Construction = =

A large broadcasting tower was needed in the Kantō region after NHK , Japan 's public broadcasting station , began television broadcasting in 1953 . Private broadcasting companies began operating in the months following the construction of NHK 's own transmission tower . This communications boom led the Japanese government to believe that transmission towers would soon be built all over Tokyo , eventually overrunning the city . The proposed solution was the construction of one large tower capable of transmitting to the entire region . Furthermore , because of the country 's postwar boom in the 1950s , Japan was searching for a monument to symbolize its ascendancy as a global economic powerhouse .

Hisakichi Maeda , founder and president of Nippon Denpatō , the tower 's owner and operator , originally planned for the tower to be taller than the Empire State Building , which at 381 meters was the highest structure in the world . However , the plan fell through because of the lack of both funds and materials . The tower 's height was eventually determined by the distance the TV stations needed to transmit throughout the Kantō region , a distance of about 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) . Tachū Naitō , renowned designer of tall buildings in Japan , was chosen to design the newly proposed tower . Looking to the Western world for inspiration , Naitō based his design on the Eiffel Tower in Paris , France . With the help of engineering company Nikken Sekkei Ltd . , Naitō claimed his design could withstand earthquakes with twice the intensity of the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake or typhoons with wind speeds of up to 220 kilometres per hour ( 140 mph ) .

The new construction project attracted hundreds of tobi ( 鳶 ) , traditional Japanese construction workers who specialized in the construction of high @-@ rise structures . The Takenaka Corporation broke ground in June 1957 and each day at least 400 laborers worked on the tower . It was constructed of steel , a third of which was scrap metal taken from US tanks damaged in the Korean War . When the 90 @-@ metre antenna was bolted into place on October 14 , 1958 , Tokyo Tower was the tallest freestanding tower in the world , taking the title from the Eiffel Tower by 13 metres . Despite being taller than the Eiffel Tower , Tokyo Tower only weighs about 4 @,@ 000 tons , 3 @,@ 300 tons less than the Eiffel Tower . While other towers have since surpassed Tokyo Tower 's height , the structure was still the tallest artificial structure in Japan until April 2010 , when the new Tokyo Skytree became the tallest building of Japan . It was opened to the public on December 23 , 1958 at a final cost of ¥ 2 @.@ 8 billion ( $ 8 @.@ 4 million in 1958 ) . Tokyo Tower was mortgaged for ¥ 10 billion in 2000 .

Planned as an antenna for telecommunications and brightly colored in accordance with the time 's Aviation Law , the tower 's two panoramic observatories are mostly frequented by tourists today ; the tower constitutes a clear reference point in the center 's chaotic skyline , forming a strong landmark , both night and day .

= = Maintenance = =

Every 5 years the tower is repainted in a process that takes about 12 months .

= = Functions = =

Tokyo Tower 's two main revenue sources are antenna leasing and tourism . It functions as a radio and television broadcasting antenna support structure and is a tourist destination that houses several different attractions . Over 150 million people have visited the tower in total since its opening in late 1958 . Tower attendance had been steadily declining until it bottomed out at 2 @.@ 3 million in 2000 . Since then , attendance has been rising , and it has recently been attracting approximately 3 million visitors per year . The first area tourists must visit upon reaching the tower is FootTown , a four @-@ story building stationed directly under the tower . Here , visitors can eat , shop and visit several museums and galleries . Elevators that depart from the first floor of FootTown can be used to reach the first of two observation decks , the two @-@ story Main Observatory . For the price of another ticket , visitors can board another set of elevators from the second floor of the Main Observatory to reach the final observation deck — the Special Observatory .

= = = Broadcasting = = =

Tokyo Tower , a member of the World Federation of Great Towers , is utilized by many organizations for various broadcasting purposes . The structure was originally intended for broadcasting television , but radio antennas were installed in 1961 because it could accommodate them . The tower now broadcasts analog television , digital television , radio and digital radio . Stations that use the tower 's antenna include :

NHK General TV Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 1 ( Analog )

NHK Educational TV Tokyo ( JOAB @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 2 ( Analog )

NHK Radio FM Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ FM ) : 82 @.@ 5 @-@ MHz

NHK Radio 1 AM Tokyo ( JOAK @-@ AM ) : 594 @-@ KHz

NHK Radio 2 AM Tokyo ( JOAB @-@ AM ) : 693 @-@ KHz

TV Asahi Tokyo ( JOEX @-@ TV ) : TV Asahi Analog Television / VHF Channel 10 ( Analog )

Fuji Television Tokyo ( JOCX @-@ TV ) : Fuji Television Analog / VHF Channel 8 ( Analog )

Tokyo Broadcasting System Television ( JORX @-@ TV ) : TBS Television / VHF Channel 6 ( Analog )

Nippon Television Tokyo ( JOAX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 4 ( Analog )

TV Tokyo ( JOTX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 12 ( Analog )

J @-@ WAVE ( JOAV @-@ FM ) : 81 @.@ 3 @-@ MHz

Tokyo FM ( JOAU @-@ FM ) : 80 @.@ 0 @-@ MHz

FM Interwave ( JODW @-@ FM ) : 76 @.@ 1 @-@ MHz

The University of the Air TV ( JOUD @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 16 ( Analog )

The University of the Air @-@ FM ( JOUD @-@ FM ) : 77 @.@ 1 @-@ MHz

Tokyo Metropolitan Television ( JOMX @-@ TV ) : VHF Channel 14 ( Analog )

Nikkei Radio Broadcasting Relay Antenna ( JOZ @-@ SW ) : 3 @.@ 925 @-@ MHz

Japan currently employs both analog and digital broadcasting , but by July 2011 all television broadcasting is to be digital . Tokyo Tower is not a reliable broadcasting antenna for completely digital broadcasting because the tower is not tall enough to transmit the higher frequency waves needed to areas surrounded by forests or high @-@ rise buildings . As an alternative , a new 634 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 2 @,@ 080 ft ) tower called the Tokyo Skytree was opened in 2012 . To make Tokyo Tower more appealing to NHK and five other commercial broadcasters who plan to move their transmitting stations to the new tower , Nihon Denpatō officials drafted a plan to extend its digital broadcasting antenna by 80 to 100 metres at a cost of approximately ¥ 4 billion ( US $ 50 million ) . Because these plans have not been realized , Tokyo Tower is expected to stop transmitting digital TV radio waves with the exception of Open University of Japan , who will continue to broadcast through the tower . FM radio stations will also continue to utilize the tower for broadcasting in the Tokyo area . Masahiro Kawada , the tower 's planning director , also pointed out the possibility of the tower becoming a backup for the Tokyo Skytree , depending on what the TV broadcasters want or need .

The tip of the antenna was damaged on March 11 , 2011 as a result of the Tōhoku earthquake . On July 19 , 2012 , the Tokyo Tower 's height shrank to 315 meters while the top antenna was repaired for damage sustained during the earthquake .

= = = Attractions = = =

= = = = FootTown = = = =

Located in the base of the tower is a 4 @-@ story building known as FootTown . The first floor includes the Aquarium Gallery , a reception hall , the 400 @-@ person @-@ capacity " Tower Restaurant " , a FamilyMart convenience store and a souvenir shop . This floor 's main attractions , however , are the three elevators that serve as a direct ride to the Main Observatory . The second floor is primarily a food and shopping area . In addition to the five standalone restaurants , the second floor 's food court consists of four restaurants , including a McDonald 's and a Pizza @-@ La .

FootTown 's third and fourth floors house several tourist attractions . The third floor is home to the Guinness World Records Museum Tokyo , a museum that houses life @-@ size figures , photo panels and memorabilia depicting interesting records that have been authenticated by the Guinness Book . The Tokyo Tower Wax Museum , opened in 1970 , displays wax figures imported from London where they were made . The figures on display range from pop culture icons such as The Beatles to religious figures such as Jesus Christ . A hologram gallery named the Gallery DeLux , a lounge and a few specialty stores are also located on this floor . Tokyo Tower 's Trick Art Gallery is located on the building 's fourth and final floor . This gallery displays optical illusions , including paintings and objects that visitors can interact with .

On the roof of the FootTown building is a small amusement park that contains several small rides and hosts live performances for children . On weekends and holidays , visitors can use the roof to access the tower 's outside stairwell . At approximately 660 steps , the stairwell is an alternative to the tower 's elevators and leads directly to the Main Observatory .

= = Appearance = =

Tokyo Tower requires a total of 28 @,@ 000 litres ( 7 @,@ 400 US gal ) of paint to completely paint the structure white and international orange , complying with air safety regulations . Before the tower 's 30th anniversary in 1987 , the only lighting on the tower were light bulbs located on the corner contours that extended from the base to the antenna . In the spring of 1987 , Nihon Denpatō invited lighting designer Motoko Ishii to visit the tower . Since its opening 30 years earlier , the tower 's annual ticket sales had dropped significantly , and in a bid to revitalize the tower and again establish it as an important tourist attraction and symbol of Tokyo , Ishii was hired to redesign Tokyo Tower 's lighting arrangement .

Unveiled in 1989 , the new lighting arrangement required the removal of the contour @-@ outlining light bulbs and the installation of 176 floodlights in and around the tower 's frame . From dusk to midnight , the floodlights illuminate the entire tower . Sodium vapor lamps are used from October 2 to July 6 to cover the tower in an orange color . From July 7 to October 1 , the lights are changed to metal halide lamps to illuminate the tower with a white color . The reasoning behind the change is a seasonal one . Ishii reasoned that orange is a warmer color and helps to offset the cold winter months . Conversely , white is thought a cool color that helps during the hot summer months .

Occasionally , Tokyo Tower 's lighting is changed to specific , unique arrangements for special events . The tower is specially lit for some annual events . Since 2000 , the entire tower has been illuminated in a pink light on October 1 to highlight the beginning of National Breast Cancer Awareness Month . The tower has also had a variety of special lighting arrangements for Christmas since 1994 . During New Year 's Eve , the tower lights up at midnight with a year number displayed on one side of the observatory to mark the arrival of the new year . Special Japanese events have also been cause to light the tower in several nontraditional ways . In 2002 , alternating sections of the tower were lit blue to help celebrate the opening of the FIFA World Cup in Japan . Alternating sections of the tower were lit green on Saint Patrick 's Day in 2007 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Japanese @-@ Irish relations . On a few occasions , Tokyo Tower has even been specially lit to correspond with corporate events . For example , the top half of the tower was lit green to correspond with the Japanese premiere of The Matrix Reloaded and different sections of the tower were lit red , white and black to commemorate the first day of sales of Coca @-@ Cola C2 . The tower was also uniquely lit for the new millennium in 2000 with Motoko Ishii again reprising her role as the designer . In December 2008 , Nihon Denpatō spent $ 6 @.@ 5 million to create a new nighttime illumination scheme — titled the " Diamond Veil " — to celebrate the tower 's 50th anniversary . The arrangement featured 276 lights in seven colors equally distributed across the towers four faces .

When employing specialty lighting on the tower , the Main Observatory often plays an important role . During the second international " White Band Day " on September 10 , 2005 , the tower was completely unlit except for the Main Observatory , which was lit with a bright white light . The resulting white ring represented the White Band referenced in the day 's name . The two floors of windows that make up the exterior of the Main Observatory are utilized to display words or numbers . When the tower employed unique lighting to commemorate terrestrial digital broadcasting first being available in the Kantō region on December 1 , 2005 , each side of the Main Observatory displayed the characters 地デジ ( chi deji , an abbreviation for 地上デジタル放送 chijō dejitaru hōsō terrestrial digital broadcasting ) . More recently , the observatory displayed both " TOKYO " and " 2016 " to stress Tokyo 's 2016 Olympic bid . Primitive images , such as hearts , have also been displayed using the observatory 's windows .

= = Mascots = =

The Tokyo Tower has two mascots named Noppon . They are two brothers : Older Brother , who wears blue dungarees , and Younger Brother , who wears red dungarees . They were " born " on December 23 , 1998 to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Tokyo Tower .

= = In popular culture = =

Just as the Eiffel Tower is often used in popular culture to immediately locate a scene in Paris , France , the Tokyo Tower is often used in the same way for Tokyo . It is used in anime and manga such as Tokyo Magnitude 8 @.@ 0 , Magic Knight Rayearth , Please Save My Earth , Cardcaptor Sakura , Digimon , Detective Conan , Sailor Moon , and Death Note . The tower is also frequently used in the Japanese kaiju ( giant monster ) film genre . It has been the location of the climactic battles between Godzilla , Mothra and King Kong ( King Kong Escapes ) wherein it is frequently destroyed and rebuilt . Based on the popular manga series by Ryōhei Saigan , the 2005 film Always Sanchōme no Yūhi was a nostalgic view of life in the neighbourhoods under the construction of the Tokyo Tower .

The Japanese culture and lifestyle television show Begin Japanology aired on NHK World , featuring a full episode on Tokyo Tower in 2008 .

= Camping ( Parks and Recreation ) =

" Camping " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 38th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 24 , 2011 . In the episode , the parks department goes on a camping trip to think of a way to follow up on the harvest festival , but Leslie struggles to come up with an idea . Meanwhile , Chris returns to Pawnee as the new city manager , as Ann continues trying to cope with their recent break @-@ up .

The episode was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Rob Schrab . It marked the reappearance of Rob Lowe , who was originally expected to depart the show after the episode " Indianapolis " after a recurring guest role , but instead joined the regular cast . " Camping " featured guest appearances by Phil Reeves as outgoing city manager Paul and Annie O 'Donnell as the owner of a bed and breakfast .

Prior to the episode 's broadcast , Rashida Jones said she liked the new storylines that had developed for Ann Perkins ' character , preferring that she remain single than simply get back together with Chris . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Camping " was seen by 5 @.@ 15 million household viewers , a 39 percent increase from the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising Jones ' performance and the new direction her character was taking .

= = Plot = =

During a press conference about the success of the recent Pawnee harvest festival , city manager Paul ( Phil Reeves ) suffers a massive heart attack . Chris ( Rob Lowe ) accepts an offer to work as acting city manager while Paul recovers from bypass surgery . Chris requests of Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) more large @-@ scale ideas to generate revenue , placing pressure on her to follow up the harvest festival , so she organizes a camping trip for the parks department to discuss ideas . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) feels awkward now that Chris is back ; the two previously dated , but Chris broke up with Ann in such a friendly manner that she did not initially realize it was a break @-@ up . Leslie invites Ann to the camping trip to help her feel better .

Nobody except Leslie really cares about the trip : Ron ( Nick Offerman ) just wants to fish , Ben ( Adam Scott ) failed to bring a tent , and Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) just wants to relax in his huge tent filled with luxury electronic items . Tom expresses confusion as to why Ben , a state auditor who had been helping with Pawnee 's financial problems , has not returned to his old job at Indianapolis ; Ben does not explain his reasons , but it is hinted he harbors romantic feelings for Leslie . Meanwhile , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) sets up a romantic tent for April ( Aubrey Plaza ) in the wrong campsite miles away , forcing him to trek through the wilderness to find everyone and leaving April miserable on the campsite without Andy . During brainstorming sessions , nobody produces any good ideas because they assume Leslie will think of one . However , she worriedly confides to Ann and Ben she cannot think of anything on the same level of the harvest festival .

Chris pays a visit during his nightly jog , and Ann leaves with him so they can clear the air . Over dinner , Chris once again acts so optimistic while discussing the break @-@ up that Ann thinks their relationship is back on and tries to kiss him , severely embarrassing her . Meanwhile , the camping trip proves unsuccessful and everybody decides to go home that night , but they are left without transportation because Tom and Ben have hooked all of their electronics to the van 's battery , draining it . Everybody hikes to a strange bed and breakfast filled with cats and dolls called The Quiet Corn , run by a strict old lady named Elsa Clack ( Annie O 'Donnell ) . Andy arrives and rebuilds the romantic tent in the yard for a flattered April . Leslie tells Ron about her mental block , worrying she will never again reproduce an idea better than harvest festival . Ron , recognizing how burnt out she is , solves Leslie 's problem by locking her in a bedroom and ordering her to get some sleep . With a rare full night 's sleep energizing her , Leslie wakes up with numerous big ideas that are well received by Chris .

= = Production = =

" Camping " was written by Aisha Muharrar and directed by Rob Schrab . It featured a guest appearance by Phil Reeves , who has played Pawnee township manager Paul Iaresco in several episodes dating back to the first season episode " Canvassing " . Paul 's departure from that position is used as a means to reintroduce Rob Lowe 's character , Chris Traeger . Lowe was originally expected to be a guest star departing from the show after the episode " Indianapolis " . However , after his original string of episodes were filmed , Lowe was signed as a permanent Parks and Recreation cast member , prompting the writers to find a way to reintroduce the character to the series . " Camping " also featured a guest appearance by New York @-@ based actress Annie O 'Donnell as Elsa Clack , owner of The Quiet Corn .

Prior to the episode 's broadcast , Rashida Jones said she liked the new storylines that had developed for Ann Perkins ' character , preferring that she remain single than simply get back together with Chris : " It was pretty embarrassing what Ann went through , so I think she kind of has to recover from that before anything else . And this is a good time for Ann to be single too , because she hasn 't been single ever on the show . I think she needs to do that a little bit . " Shortly after " Camping " first aired , a fake website for the bed and breakfast business The Quiet Corn was put up on the official NBC website , advertising the fictional establishment 's features , room amenities and meal services . During one scene in " Camping " , Tom refers to one of the gadgets in his tent as DJ Roomba , an iPod music player attached to an autonomous robotic vacuum cleaner . The gadget , built by Tom , was previously featured in the second season episode " Sweetums " .

= = Cultural references = =

Tom fills his tent with electronics and other extravagant items from Sky Mall , a chain of luxury item retail stores . He nicknames the tent " The Thunderdome " , named after the gladiator arena in the action film Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome ( 1985 ) . While watching TV inside his tent , Tom claims to be recording the Food Network show Cupcake Wars , the CBS police procedural drama NCIS : Los Angeles and the sixth season of the Bravo reality series Top Chef . Later , while pitching his idea for a Pawnee amphitheatre , Tom expresses hope it would entice performances from such rappers as Lil Wayne , Drake and Jay @-@ Z.

While searching for inspiration for an idea , Leslie reads from her dream journal and recalls a dream where she happily married ALF , the alien protagonist of a science fiction sitcom of the same name . Later , Leslie listens to the Len song " Steal My Sunshine " , which she calls a one @-@ hit wonder and compares to her own lack of ability to come up with a second idea . Ben cheers Leslie up and compliments her work ethic by calling her the " Energizer Bunny of city government . " During a later scene , Tom mockingly calls Ben the " white Urkel " , a reference to the archetype nerd character Steve Urkel from the comedy series Family Matters . Donna can be seen reading a book called Your Erogenous Zones .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

In its original American broadcast , " Camping " was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 15 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 5 share among all viewers and a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 7 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It constituted a 39 percent increase from the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " , which was seen by 4 @.@ 08 million household viewers , a low for the season . Parks and Recreation was defeated in its 9 : 30 p.m. timeslot by the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by an average 10 @.@ 1 million households ; the Fox crime drama Bones , which was seen by 8 @.@ 78 million households ; and CBS coverage of NCAA basketball , which was seen by 6 @.@ 82 million household . In network television , it beat only a repeat of the CW Network drama Nikita , which drew 1 @.@ 397 million households .

= = = Reviews = = =

" Camping " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators praising the performance of Rashida Jones and the new comedic direction her character was taking . Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com praised how the script featured the entire ensemble cast together , rather than in separate subplots like recent episodes . He also enjoyed the developments with Ann 's character , claiming it gave Jones more opportunities to shine than past episodes . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said she particularly enjoyed the jokes involving Jerry 's character , and said she enjoyed that Ann once again misinterpreted Chris , although she said the joke was predictable . Zap2it writer Rick Porter said the episode was not as funny as the previous episode , " Harvest Festival " , but said " if this is what qualifies as a ( slightly ) down episode for the show , then that 's the sign of a comedy that 's hitting for a very high average " . He particularly praised the " fantastic dynamic " that has developed between Rashida Jones and Rob Lowe . TV Squad writer Joel Keller said the camping trip was a good way to avoid making the show feel stale following " Harvest Festival " , and that the outdoors setting created strong potential for character @-@ driven jokes by putting them out of their elements .

Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the episode for highlighting each of its characters , all of whom he said were at their best except for April , who he said seemed out of place in the camping storyline . He also said he was glad Ann 's recent breakup with Chris " has allowed her true colors to shine through " . Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic called it a " tremendously enjoyable episode " and " mostly just a chance to sit back and spend time with these goofy , lovable individuals " . He praised the new storyline for Ann Perkins , claiming it created more comedic potential for Jones . Matt Fowler of IGN praised the performance of Rashida Jones and Chris Pratt , and called Leslie 's stress over failing to come up with a new idea a " great little story " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said " Camping " was not as funny as previous third season episodes but was still an enjoyable episode that he found more " slow and contemplative " , which he found indicative of the fact that the series was still on a strong track .

Steve Kandell of New York magazine compared it to the second season episode " Hunting Trip " , but said " Camping " was " somewhat more of a placeholder " . Kandell compared the characters ' pressure to meet the city 's expectations to those the show faces now that they have been renewed for a fourth season . ChicagoNow writer Andy Daglas called it " a fun episode , but also one that felt like sort of a pause , a chance to reset the pins " . He compared the pressure on Leslie to come up with an idea on the harvest festival to pressure on the show 's writing staff to follow up on the harvest festival story arc . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow called it funny and charming , but also a low point in the season following seven excellent episodes . He said it depended too much on the show 's romantic relationships , which he feels are growing stale , although he praised Rashida Jones 's performance and the focus on the strong platonic relationship between Leslie and Ron .

= Tiffany Doggett =

Tiffany " Pennsatucky " Doggett is a fictional character in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black , portrayed by Taryn Manning . Manning was offered the role without needing to audition . The character of Doggett is based on a real life prisoner ; a " young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck " . She is originally from Waynesboro , Virginia . Prior to her imprisonment , she is shown to be exchanging sexual favours for soda or money . Doggett is also known to have had five abortions . She is charged with shooting an abortion doctor and decides to hire a Christian lawyer ; this leads to Doggett becoming a born @-@ again Christian .

Doggett makes her first appearance in the fifth episode of the first season and is initially an antagonist . In her debut episode , she unsuccessfully attempts to hang up a cross in the prison chapel and expresses homophobic views . She has conflict with Alex Vause and Piper Chapman throughout the first season . In the second season , Doggett 's storyline revolves around her friendships with Sam Healy and Carrie " Big Boo " Black . This friendship with Big Boo continues into the third season . Big Boo comforts Doggett when she is feeling remorse for her abortions and when she is raped by a correctional officer . The character of Doggett has received mixed reviews from critics , though Manning 's performance has received positive feedback .

= = Creation and casting = =

Tiffany Doggett 's nickname " Pennsatucky " is derived from Pennsyltucky ; a pejorative term for the people from the rural western and central parts of Pennsylvania . The author , Piper Kerman , of the book , Orange Is the New Black : My Year in a Women 's Prison , which inspired Orange is the New Black describes the real life version of Pennsatucky as " a young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck " . Kerman further describes her as someone addicted to crack cocaine and dealing with the loss of custody of her child .

Taryn Manning , already an established actress , did not have to audition for the role of Doggett and was offered it . Manning , when speaking about this to Joshua Rotter of Download.com , said that she immediately accepted the offer " I loved it and didn 't need to look any further . I was sold . " To prepare for the role , Manning did some research on faith healing and evangelistic ceremonies . She also states that her inspiration for Doggett at least partly comes from the White family in the 2009 documentary film The Wild and Wonderful Whites of West Virginia . The only make @-@ up that Manning wears for her role as Doggett , in the first season , is on her teeth to create the effect of receding gums and missing teeth . From the second season onwards , however , Doggett has false teeth in place and so the teeth seen are Manning 's own .

= = Fictional background = =

Doggett is from Waynesboro , Virginia . After Doggett has her first period , her mother gives her advice about sex : " go on and let them [ referring to men ] do their business . " This leads to her , later in life , to have sex with men in exchange for soda or money . Her perspective of sex changes when she meets Nathan . Jonathon Dornbush , of Entertainment Weekly writes " [ Nathan ] wants them both to enjoy the experience [ of sex ] , and it opens Tiffany 's perception of relationships . " Nathan and his family move away , causing their relationship to end , and , almost immediately afterwards , Doggett is raped by an ex @-@ boyfriend .

Doggett has had five abortions . After having her fifth abortion , which takes place at an abortion clinic in Fishersville , Virginia , the nurse remarks " we should give you a punch card , get the sixth one free . " Doggett is so offended by this joke that she shoots the nurse with a shotgun . She agrees to have a Christian lawyer as it was likely to lead to a lighter sentence and her legal bills being paid for . Since she shot an abortion nurse , she became a ' hero ' of the pro @-@ life movement . Although her Christian faith was initially fake , at some point Doggett did become a Christian ; this was confirmed by Manning in an interview . Manning describes Doggett 's faith as " a hybrid of Christianity , Baptism , Presbyterian " .

= = Storylines = =

= = = Season 1 = = =

Doggett first appears in the fifth episode . She wishes to hang up a cross in Litchfield Penitentiary 's chapel but is refused permission . She ignores this and hangs her cross up on a light fixture ; this causes the entire fixture to fall down and hence damages the chapel 's ceiling . She also displays transphobia ; calling the transgender woman Sophia Burset ( played by Laverne Cox ) an ' abomination ' and ' it ' and blaming her for the damage to the chapel . Doggett has numerous clashes with Alex Vause ( played by Laura Prepon ) ; firstly Vause threatens to rape Doggett after growing tired of her complaining about Piper Chapman ( played by Taylor Schilling ) ; Doggett locks Vause in a dryer while she is helping Chapman to fix it and , lastly , Doggett snitches on Chapman and Vause for dancing provocatively with each other ; resulting in Chapman being placed in solitary confinement .

Chapman and Vause get revenge on Doggett and trick her into believing that she has faith healing powers , eventually culminating in her being sent to the psychiatric ward . Although Chapman aids in Doggett 's release from the psychiatric ward , Doggett still bears a grudge against her . Doggett 's lawyer encourages her to evangelize to Chapman instead and this leads to Chapman ' converting ' but then refusing to be baptized . Doggett sees this as disrespectful and expresses a wish to kill Chapman . The two have a confrontation at the end of the season 's final episode . Doggett attacks Chapman with a shiv made from a wooden cross ; Chapman throws Doggett to the ground and hits her repeatedly .

= = = Season 2 = = =

It is revealed in the third episode that Suzanne Warren ( played by Uzo Aduba ) is also involved in the fight at the end of season one . She punches Chapman in the face twice and knocks her unconscious ( Doggett is already unconscious at this stage ) . This gives the impression that Doggett and Chapman were evenly matched and therefore equally responsible . Following Doggett 's return to full health , she finds that her previous best friends , Leanne Taylor ( played by Emma Myles ) and Angie Rice ( played by Julie Lake ) , no longer want to be associated with her . This leaves Doggett seeking prison counsellor Sam Healy ( played by Michael J. Harney ) for comfort .

Following her friendships with Taylor and Rice continuing to deteriorate , Doggett forms friendships with Healy and Carrie " Big Boo " Black ( played by Lea DeLaria ) . Healy and Doggett unite to form " Safe Place " , a therapy group where prisoners can share their feelings in a confidential and supportive environment . " Safe Place " is short @-@ lived , however , and Healy decides to cancel the group indefinitely after Doggett fails to attend one of the sessions ; when he investigates her reason for non @-@ attendance , he finds her getting a hair cut from Burset . Doggett initially talks to Big Boo , an openly lesbian inmate , during a blackout in the prison as she believes that there is a secret ' gay agenda ' and she believes that Big Boo will give her the answers that she is seeking . Doggett 's physical appearance also changes in this season ; she has white false teeth , neater hair and her skin looks smoother .

= = = Season 3 = = =

In the first episode , Big Boo and Doggett 's friendship continues to develop . Seeing that Doggett bears strong feelings of guilt relating to the six abortions that she has had , Big Boo makes reference to the book Freakonomics , which suggests that crime rates in the 1990s fell because of Roe v. Wade . Following Lorna Morello ( played by Yael Stone ) being relieved of her duty of driving the prison van , the role is given to Doggett . She comes into contact with one of the new correctional officers called Charlie Coates ( played by James McMenamin ) . Coates is initially friendly towards Doggett . Despite relationships between prison staff and prisoners being forbidden , Coates kisses Doggett , against her will , after feeding some ducks . Following another outing , Coates gets in trouble with his boss Joe Caputo ( played by Nick Sandow ) for being late for count and is placed on probation . Doggett apologises for having caused him trouble , and he rapes her in the back of the prison van .

When Big Boo learns of the rape , she encourages Doggett to take revenge on Coates by making him unconscious and then raping him with a broomstick . Whilst they successfully drug Coates , neither of them are willing to violate him with the broomstick . In order to end contact with Coates , Doggett fakes a seizure on her next outing with him and is declared unfit for driving a van . She is replaced as prison van driver by another inmate , Maritza Ramos ( played by Diane Guerrero ) .

= = Critical commentary = =

Doggett was widely perceived to have been the series ' main antagonist in its first season . She was seen to be homophobic and racist ; one Cosmopolitan critic described her as ' vile ' . A critic for TV Insider described the first season Doggett as " terrifying , manipulative and so entirely unlikable " but also " hypnotic to watch " . Horatia Harrod 's review in the Daily Telegraph described Manning 's portrayal of Doggett as " brilliantly unhinged " . Other critics have praised the character , especially in the final episode of season one ; calling her " fantastic " , a " solid character " and " one of the best characters on the show " . Some also felt that Manning 's performance was worthy of an Emmy nomination .

Following the release of the first season of Orange is the New Black , Doggett received some criticism from different media . Writing for The American Conservative , B. D. McClay claimed that Doggett was a poor and inaccurate representation of American Christians ; " Pennsatucky is such an aggressively terrible character " and " her faith is neither well @-@ understood nor well @-@ drawn " . Laura Leonard of Christianity Today , supports Clay 's view and goes further to say " it was frustrating to see this one painful narrative represent Christian faith on OITNB , a show that masters other aspects of the melting pot so well " , speaking about Doggett 's background story and conflict with Chapman . Two critics for The A.V. Club also gave negative reviews of Doggett ; Todd VanDerWerff says that " Pennsatucky never really comes together as a character in the same way as some of the others on the show " and Myles McNutt opted to criticize the storyline of the final episode of the first season specifically , saying that it " [ treats ] her like a cartoon villain instead of a real character " . Betsy Leondar @-@ Wright accused the series ' creators of classism and said that Doggett was an " outrageous Redneck stereotype " .

Doggett 's rape storyline in the third season garnered much reaction , both positive and negative . Jada Yuan of Vulture described the rape scenes ( both the one in the flashback and the one involving correctional officer Coates ) as " heartbreaking " and praised episode director Jesse Peretz 's decision to keep the camera focused on Manning during the scenes . Megan Vick praised the ' transformation ' of the character of Doggett , calling it " the season ’ s breakout storyline and performance " . McNutt , who had been critical of Doggett in the first season , spoke positively about the rape storyline .

Marissa Higgins , writing for xoJane , contended that the show " didn 't accomplish anything with their portrayal of sexual assault " and said that she disliked the way that the story ended with Doggett effectively quitting her job as van driver in order to avoid further contact with Coates . Emma Eisenberg , of Salon , criticized the scenes depicting Doggett growing up in Waynesboro , as being " riddled with excessive Appalachian clichés " . She went further by calling Doggett 's mother unrealistic in her attitude towards sex : " the mothers I met [ near Waynesboro ] wanted their daughters to understand sex and to make informed choices " . Eisenberg claimed that , therefore , Doggett 's mother 's speech about sex − " it ’ s like a bee sting , in and out , over before you knew it was happening " − was not representative of people in Waynesboro at that time . Chloe Stillwell completely disagreed with Eisenberg and insisted that the character of Doggett was realistic : " Eisenberg 's argument completely misses the point that perhaps the show is trying to be as real as possible , and acknowledging that there are real life Pennsatuckies in this world isn 't to disenfranchise Appalachia . "

= Victoria Cross =

The Victoria Cross ( VC ) is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system . It is awarded for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " to members of the British armed forces . It may be awarded posthumously . It was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries , most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours . It may be awarded to a person of any military rank in any service and to civilians under military command although no civilian has received the award since 1879 . Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 , two thirds of all awards have been personally presented by the British monarch . These investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace .

The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War . Since then , the medal has been awarded 1 @,@ 358 times to 1 @,@ 355 individual recipients . Only 15 medals , 11 to members of the British Army , and four to the Australian Army , have been awarded since the Second World War . The traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol . Some research suggested a variety of origins for the material actually making up the medals themselves . Research has established that the metal for the medals came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855 .

Owing to its rarity , the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £ 400 @,@ 000 at auction . A number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross . The private collection of Lord Ashcroft , amassed since 1986 , contains over one @-@ tenth of all VCs awarded . Following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum , the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museum 's Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010 .

Beginning with the Centennial of Confederation in 1967 , Canada followed in 1975 by Australia and New Zealand developed their own national honours systems , separate and independent of the British or Imperial honours system . As each country 's system evolved , operational gallantry awards were developed with the premier award of each system , the VC for Australia , the Canadian VC and the VC for New Zealand being created and named in honour of the Victoria Cross . These are unique awards of each honours system , recommended , assessed , gazetted and presented by each country .

= = Origin = =

In 1854 , after 39 years of peace , Britain found itself fighting a major war against Russia . The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting , and the dispatches of William Howard Russell described many acts of bravery and valour by British servicemen that went unrewarded .

Before the Crimean War , there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces . Officers were eligible for an award of one of the junior grades of the Order of the Bath and brevet promotions while a Mention in Despatches existed as an alternative award for acts of lesser gallantry . This structure was very limited ; in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank . Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the immediate notice of the commanders in the field , generally members of the commander 's own staff .

Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank ; France awarded the Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour , established 1802 ) and The Netherlands gave the Order of William ( established in 1815 ) . There was a growing feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a man 's lengthy or meritorious service . Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign @-@ manual on 29 January 1856 ( gazetted 5 February 1856 ) that officially constituted the VC . The order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War .

Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class . The medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services . To maintain its simplicity , Queen Victoria , under the guidance of Prince Albert , vetoed the suggestion that the award be called The Military Order of Victoria and instead suggested the name Victoria Cross . The original warrant stated that the Victoria Cross would only be awarded to soldiers who have served in the presence of the enemy and had performed some signal act of valour or devotion . The first ceremony was held on 26 June 1857 where Queen Victoria invested 62 of the 111 Crimean recipients in a ceremony in Hyde Park , London .

It was originally intended that the VCs would be cast from the cascabels of two cannon that were captured from the Russians at the siege of Sevastopol . In 1990 Creagh and Ashton conducted a metallurgical examination of the VCs in the custody of the Australian War Memorial . Later , the historian John Glanfield , wrote that , through the use of x @-@ ray studies of older Victoria Crosses , it was determined that the metal used for VCs is from antique Chinese guns and not of Russian origin . Theories abound . One theory is that the cannon were originally Chinese weapons but the Russians captured them and deployed them at Sevastopol . However , there had been no hostilities between Russia and China for nearly 200 years before 1855 and no ready explanation of how such cannons would come to be in Sebastopol . They are indeed Chinese cannon : Creagh noted the existence of Chinese inscriptions on the cannon which are now barely legible due to corrosion . A more likely explanation is that these cannons were taken as trophies during Britain 's military intervention in China in the 1840s and held in the Woolwich repository . Whilst it had been suggested that the new medal be made of Sebastopol cannons , the Hancocks employees who went to cut metal picked the Chinese guns instead . There is no evidence that the VC guns have ever been near Sebastopol . It was also thought that some medals made during the First World War were composed of metal captured from different Chinese guns during the Boxer Rebellion . This is not so , however . The VCs examined by Creagh and Ashton both in Australia ( 58 ) and at the QE II Army Memorial Museum in New Zealand ( 14 ) spanned the entire time during which VCs have been issued and no compositional inconsistencies were found . It was also believed that another source of metal was used between 1942 and 1945 to create five Second World War VCs when the Sevastopol metal " went missing " . Creagh accessed the Army records at MoD Donnington in 1991 and did not find any gaps in the custodial record . The composition found in the WW2 VCs , amongst them those for Edwards ( Australia ) and Upham ( New Zealand ) , is similar to that for the early WW1 medals . This is likely to be due to the reuse of material from earlier pourings , casting sprues , defective medals , etc .

The barrels of the cannon in question are on display at Firepower - The Royal Artillery Museum at Woolwich . The remaining portion of the only remaining cascabel , weighing 358 oz ( 10 kg ) , is stored in a vault maintained by 15 Regiment Royal Logistic Corps at MoD Donnington . It can only be removed under armed guard . It is estimated that approximately 80 to 85 more VCs could be cast from this source . A single company of jewellers , Hancocks of London , has been responsible for the production of every VC awarded since its inception .

= = Appearance = =

The decoration is a bronze cross pattée , 1 39 / 64 " ( 41 mm ) high , 1 27 / 64 " ( 36 mm ) wide , bearing the crown of Saint Edward surmounted by a lion , and the inscription FOR VALOUR . This was originally to have been FOR THE BRAVE , until it was changed on the recommendation of Queen Victoria , as it implied that not all men in battle were brave . The decoration , suspension bar and link weigh about 0 @.@ 87 troy ounces ( 27 g ) .

The cross is suspended by a ring from a seriffed " V " to a bar ornamented with laurel leaves , through which the ribbon passes . The reverse of the suspension bar is engraved with the recipient 's name , rank , number and unit . On the reverse of the medal is a circular panel on which the date of the act for which it was awarded is engraved in the centre .

The Original Warrant Clause 1 states that the Victoria Cross " shall consist of a Maltese cross of bronze " . Nonetheless , it has always been a cross pattée ; the discrepancy with the Warrant has never been corrected .

The ribbon is crimson , 1 1 / 2 " ( 38 mm ) wide . The original ( 1856 ) specification for the award stated that the ribbon should be red for army recipients and dark blue for naval recipients . However the dark blue ribbon was abolished soon after the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918 . On 22 May 1920 King George V signed a warrant that stated all recipients would now receive a red ribbon and the living recipients of the naval version were required to exchange their ribbons for the new colour . Although the army warrants state the colour as being red it is defined by most commentators as being crimson or " wine @-@ red " .

= = Award process = =

The Victoria Cross is awarded for

... most conspicuous bravery , or some daring or pre @-@ eminent act of valour or self @-@ sacrifice , or extreme devotion to duty in the presence of the enemy .

A recommendation for the VC is normally issued by an officer at regimental level , or equivalent , and has to be supported by three witnesses , although this has been waived on occasion . The recommendation is then passed up the military hierarchy until it reaches the Secretary of State for Defence . The recommendation is then laid before the monarch who approves the award with his or her signature . Victoria Cross awards are always promulgated in the London Gazette with the single exception of the award to the American Unknown Soldier in 1921 . The Victoria Cross warrant makes no specific provision as to who should actually present the medals to the recipients . Queen Victoria indicated that she would like to present the medals in person and she presented 185 medals out of the 472 gazetted during her reign . Including the first 62 medals presented at a parade in Hyde Park on 26 June 1857 by Queen Victoria , nearly 900 awards have been personally presented to the recipient by the reigning British monarch . Nearly 300 awards have been presented by a member of the royal family or by a civil or military dignitary . About 150 awards were either forwarded to the recipient or next of kin by registered post or no details of the presentations are known .

The original Royal Warrant did not contain a specific clause regarding posthumous awards , although official policy was not to award the VC posthumously . Between the Indian Mutiny in 1857 and the beginning of the Second Boer War the names of six officers and men were published in the London Gazette with a memorandum stating they would have been awarded the Victoria Cross had they survived . A further three notices were published in the London Gazette in September 1900 and April 1901 for gallantry in the Second Boer War . In an exception to policy for the South Africa War 1899 – 1902 , six posthumous Victoria Crosses , three to the officers and men mentioned in the notices in 1900 and 1901 and a further three , the first official posthumous awards , were granted on 8 August 1902 . Five years later in 1907 , the posthumous policy was reversed and medals were sent to the next of kin of the six officers and men . The awards were mentioned in notices in the Gazette dating back to the Indian Mutiny . The Victoria Cross warrant was not amended to explicitly allow posthumous awards until 1920 , but one quarter of all awards for World War I were posthumous . Although the 1920 Royal Warrant made provision for awards to women serving in the Armed Forces , no women have been awarded a VC .

In the case of a gallant and daring act being performed by a squadron , ship 's company or a detached body of men ( such as marines ) in which all men are deemed equally brave and deserving of the Victoria Cross then a ballot is drawn . The officers select one officer , the NCOs select one individual and the private soldiers or seamen select two individuals . In all 46 awards have been awarded by ballot with 29 of the awards during the Indian Mutiny . Four further awards were granted to Q Battery , Royal Horse Artillery at Korn Spruit on 31 March 1900 during the Second Boer War . The final ballot awards for the army were the six awards to the Lancashire Fusiliers at W Beach during the landing at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 although three of the awards were not gazetted until 1917 . The final seven ballot awards were the only naval ballot awards with three awards to two Q @-@ Ships in 1917 and four awards for the Zeebrugge Raid in 1918 . The provision for awards by ballot is still included in the Victoria Cross warrant but there have been no further such awards since 1918 .

Between 1858 and 1881 the Victoria Cross could be awarded for actions taken " under circumstances of extreme danger " not in the face of the enemy . Six such awards were made during this period — five of them for a single incident during an Expedition to the Andaman Islands in 1867 . In 1881 , the criteria were changed again and the VC was only awarded for acts of valour " in the face of the enemy " . Due to this it has been suggested by many historians including Lord Ashcroft that the changing nature of warfare will result in fewer VCs being awarded .

= = = Colonial awards = = =

The Victoria Cross was extended to colonial troops in 1867 . The extension was made following a recommendation for gallantry regarding colonial soldier Major Charles Heaphy for action in the New Zealand land wars in 1864 . He was operating under British command and the VC was gazetted in 1867 . Later that year , the Government of New Zealand assumed full responsibility for operations but no further recommendations for the Victoria Cross were raised for local troops who distinguished themselves in action . Following gallant actions by three New Zealand soldiers in November 1868 and January 1869 during the New Zealand land wars , an Order in Council on 10 March 1869 created a " Distinctive Decoration " for members of the local forces without seeking permission from the Secretary of State for the Colonies . Although the governor was chided for exceeding his authority , the Order in Council was ratified by the Queen . The title " Distinctive Decoration " was later replaced by the title New Zealand Cross .

The question of whether recommendations could be made for colonial troops not serving with British troops was not asked in New Zealand , but in 1881 , the question was asked in South Africa . Surgeon John McCrea , an officer of the South African forces was recommended for gallantry during hostilities which had not been approved by British Government . He was awarded the Victoria Cross and the principle was established that gallant conduct could be rewarded independently of any political consideration of military operations . More recently , four Australian soldiers were awarded the Victoria Cross in Vietnam although Britain was not involved in the conflict .

Indian troops were not originally eligible for the Victoria Cross since they had been eligible for the Indian Order of Merit since 1837 which was the oldest British gallantry award for general issue . When the Victoria Cross was created , Indian troops were still controlled by the Honourable East India Company and did not come under Crown control until 1860 . European officers and men serving with the Honourable East India Company were not eligible for the Indian Order of Merit and the Victoria Cross was extended to cover them in October 1857 . It was only at the end of the 19th century that calls for Indian troops to be awarded the Victoria Cross intensified . Indian troops became eligible for the award in 1911 . The first awards to Indian troops appeared in the London Gazette on 7 December 1914 to Darwan Sing Negi and Khudadad Khan . Negi was presented with the Victoria Cross by King George V during a visit to troops in France . The presentation occurred on 5 December 1914 and he is one of a very few soldiers presented with his award before it appeared in the London Gazette .

= = = Separate Commonwealth awards = = =

Since the Second World War , most but not all Commonwealth countries have created their own honours systems and no longer participate in the British honours system . This began soon after the Partition of India in 1947 , when the new countries of India and Pakistan introduced their own systems of awards . The VC was replaced by the Param Vir Chakra ( PVC ) and Nishan @-@ e @-@ Haider ( NH ) respectively . Most if not all new honours systems continued to permit recipients of British honours to wear their awards according to the rules of each nation 's order of wear . Sri Lanka , whose defence personnel were eligible to receive the Victoria Cross until 1972 , introduced its own equivalent , the Parama Weera Vibhushanaya medal . Three Commonwealth realms — Australia , Canada and New Zealand — have each introduced their own decorations for gallantry and bravery , replacing British decorations such as the Victoria Cross with their own . The only Commonwealth countries that still can recommend the VC are the small nations , none of whose forces have ever been awarded the VC , that still participate in the British honours system .

With effect from 6 April 1952 , when the Union of South Africa instituted its own range of military decorations and medals , these new awards took precedence before all earlier British decorations and medals awarded to South Africans , with the exception of the Victoria Cross , which still took precedence before all other awards . The other older British awards continued to be worn in the order prescribed by the British Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood .

Australia was the first Commonwealth realm to create its own VC , on 15 January 1991 . Although it is a separate award , its appearance is identical to its British counterpart . Canada followed suit when in 1993 Queen Elizabeth signed Letters Patent creating the Canadian VC , which is also similar to the British version , except that the legend has been changed from FOR VALOUR to the Latin PRO VALORE This language was chosen so as to favour neither French nor English , the two official languages of Canada . New Zealand was the third country to adapt the VC into its own honours system . While the New Zealand and Australian VCs are technically separate awards , the decoration is identical to the British design , including being cast from the same Crimean War gunmetal as the British VC . The Canadian Victoria Cross also includes metal from the same cannon , along with copper and other metals from all regions of Canada .

Five of the separate VCs have so far been awarded . Willie Apiata received the Victoria Cross for New Zealand on 2 July 2007 , for his actions in the War in Afghanistan in 2004 . The Victoria Cross for Australia has been awarded four times . Mark Donaldson was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia on 16 January 2009 for actions during Operation Slipper , the Australian contribution to the War in Afghanistan . Ben Roberts @-@ Smith was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia on 23 January 2011 for actions in the Shah Wali Kot Offensive , part of the War in Afghanistan . Daniel Keighran was awarded the Victoria Cross for Australia on 1 November 2012 for his actions during the Battle of Derapet in Oruzgan Province , Afghanistan , on 24 August 2010 . A posthumous award was made to Corporal Cameron Baird for actions in Afghanistan in 2013 . A Canadian version has been cast that was originally to be awarded to the Unknown Soldier at the rededication of the Vimy Memorial on 7 April 2007 . This date was chosen as it was the 90th anniversary of the battle of Vimy Ridge but pressure from veterans ' organisations caused the plan to be dropped .

= = Authority and privileges = =

As the highest award for valour of the United Kingdom , the Victoria Cross is always the first award to be presented at an investiture , even before knighthoods , as was shown at the investiture of Private Johnson Beharry , who received his medal before General Sir Mike Jackson received his knighthood . Owing to its status , the VC is always the first decoration worn in a row of medals and it is the first set of post @-@ nominal letters used to indicate any decoration or order . Similar acts of extreme valour that do not take place in the face of the enemy are honoured with the George Cross , which has equal precedence but is awarded second because the GC is newer .

There is a widespread though erroneous belief that it is statutory for " all ranks to salute a bearer of the Victoria Cross " . There is no official requirement that appears in the official Warrant of the VC , nor in Queen 's Regulations and Orders , but tradition dictates that this occurs and as such the Chiefs of Staff will salute a Private awarded a VC or GC .

The Victoria Cross was at first worn as the recipient fancied . It was popular to pin it on the left side of the chest over the heart , with other decorations grouped around the VC . The Queen 's Regulations for the Army of 1881 gave clear instructions on how to wear it ; the VC had to follow the badge of the Order of the Indian Empire . In 1900 it was ordained in Dress Regulations for the Army that it should be worn after the cross of a Member of the Royal Victorian Order . It was only in 1902 that King Edward VII gave the cross its present position on a bar brooch . The cross is also worn as a miniature decoration on a brooch or a chain with mess jacket , white tie or black tie . As a bearer of the VC is not a Companion in an Order of Chivalry , the VC has no place in a coat of arms .

= = = Annuity = = =

The original warrant stated that NCOs and private soldiers or seamen on the Victoria Cross Register were entitled to a £ 10 per annum annuity . In 1898 , Queen Victoria raised the pension to £ 50 for those that could not earn a livelihood , be it from old age or infirmity . Today holders of the Victoria Cross or George Cross are entitled to an annuity , the amount of which is determined by the awarding government . Since 2015 , the annuity paid by the British Government is £ 10 @,@ 000 per year . This is exempted from tax for British taxpayers by Section 638 Income Tax ( Earnings and Pensions ) Act 2003 , along with pensions or annuities from other awards for bravery . In Canada under the Gallantry Awards Order , members of the Canadian Forces or people who joined the British forces before 31 March 1949 while domiciled in Canada or Newfoundland receive Can $ 3 @,@ 000 per year . Under Subsection 103 @.@ 4 of the Veterans ' Entitlements Act 1986 , the Australian Government provides a Victoria Cross Allowance . Until November 2005 the amount was A $ 3 @,@ 230 per year . Since then this amount has been increased annually in line with the Australian Consumer Price Index .

= = = Forfeited awards = = =

The original Royal Warrant involved an expulsion clause that allowed for a recipient 's name to be erased from the official register in certain wholly discreditable circumstances and his pension cancelled . King George V felt very strongly that the decoration should never be forfeited and in a letter from his Private Secretary , Lord Stamfordham , on 26 July 1920 , his views are forcefully expressed :

The King feels so strongly that , no matter the crime committed by anyone on whom the VC has been conferred , the decoration should not be forfeited . Even were a VC to be sentenced to be hanged for murder , he should be allowed to wear his VC on the scaffold .

The power to cancel and restore awards is still included in the Victoria Cross warrant but none has been forfeited since 1908 .

= = Recipients = =

A total of 1 @,@ 358 Victoria Crosses have been awarded since 1856 to 1 @,@ 355 men . There are several statistics related to the greatest number of VCs awarded in individual battles or wars . The greatest number of Victoria Crosses won on a single day is 24 , for deeds performed on 16 November 1857 in Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny . The greatest number won by a single unit during a single action is seven , to the 2nd / 24th Foot , for the defence of Rorke 's Drift , 22 – 23 January 1879 , during the Zulu War . The greatest number won in a single conflict is 628 , being for the First World War . There are only six living holders of the VC — four British , one Australian , one Gurkha — one award for the Second World War and four awards since ; in addition one New Zealander holds the Victoria Cross for New Zealand and four Australians hold the Victoria Cross for Australia . Eight of the then @-@ twelve surviving holders of the Victoria Cross attended the 150th Anniversary service of remembrance at Westminster Abbey on 26 June 2006 .

In 1921 the Victoria Cross was given to the American Unknown Soldier of the First World War ( the British Unknown Warrior was reciprocally awarded the US Medal of Honor ) . One VC is in existence that is not counted in any official records . In 1856 , Queen Victoria laid the first Victoria Cross beneath the foundation stone of Netley Military hospital . When the hospital was demolished in 1966 the VC , known as " The Netley VC " , was retrieved and is now on display in the Army Medical Services Museum , Mytchett , near Aldershot .

Three people have been awarded the VC and Bar , the bar representing a second award of the VC . They are : Noel Chavasse and Arthur Martin @-@ Leake , both doctors in the Royal Army Medical Corps , for rescuing wounded under fire ; and New Zealander Charles Upham , an infantryman , for combat actions . Upham remains the only combatant soldier to have received a VC and Bar . An Irishman , Surgeon General William Manley , remains the sole recipient of both the Victoria Cross and the Iron Cross . The VC was awarded for his actions during the Waikato @-@ Hauhau Maori War , New Zealand on 29 April 1864 while the Iron Cross was awarded for tending the wounded during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 . Royal New Zealand Air Force Flying Officer Lloyd Trigg has the distinction of being the only serviceman ever awarded a VC on evidence solely provided by the enemy , for an action in which there were no surviving Allied witnesses . The recommendation was made by the captain of the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 468 sunk by Trigg 's aircraft . Lieutenant Commander Gerard Roope was also awarded a VC on recommendation of the enemy , the captain of the Admiral Hipper , but there were also numerous surviving Allied witnesses to corroborate his actions .

The St Nazaire Raid or Operation Chariot on 28 March 1942 , a successful British amphibious attack on the heavily defended Normandie dry dock at St Nazaire in German @-@ occupied France , resulted in the award of five Victoria Crosses .

Since the end of the Second World War the original VC has been awarded 15 times : four in the Korean War , one in the Indonesia @-@ Malaysia confrontation in 1965 , four to Australians in the Vietnam War , two during the Falklands War in 1982 , one in the Iraq War in 2004 , and three in the War in Afghanistan in 2006 and 2012 . On 18 March 2005 , Lance Sergeant ( then Private ) Johnson Beharry of the 1st Battalion , Princess of Wales 's Royal Regiment became the first recipient of the VC since Sergeant Ian McKay in 1982 . Three VCs have been awarded since then in actions arising form the UK 's involvement in Afghanistan .

= = Public sales = =

Since 1879 , more than 300 Victoria Crosses have been publicly auctioned or advertised . Others have been privately sold . The value of the VC can be seen by the increasing sums that the medals reach at auction . In 1955 the set of medals awarded to Edmund Barron Hartley was bought at Sotheby 's for the then record price of £ 300 ( approximately £ 7100 in present @-@ day terms ) . In October 1966 the Middlesex Regiment paid a new record figure of £ 900 ( approximately £ 15100 in present @-@ day terms ) for a VC awarded after the Battle of the Somme . In January 1969 , the record reached £ 1700 ( £ 25200 ) for the medal set of William Rennie . In April 2004 the VC awarded in 1944 to Sergeant Norman Jackson , RAF , was sold at auction for £ 235 @,@ 250 . On 24 July 2006 , an auction at Bonhams in Sydney of the VC awarded to Captain Alfred Shout fetched a world record hammer price of A $ 1 million ( approximately £ 410 @,@ 000 at then exchange rates ) .

= = Thefts = =

Several VCs have been stolen and , being valuable , have been placed on the Interpol watch @-@ list for stolen items . The VC awarded to Milton Gregg , which was donated to the Royal Canadian Regiment Museum in London , Ontario Canada in 1979 , was stolen on Canada Day ( 1 July 1980 ) , when the museum was overcrowded and has been missing since . A VC awarded in 1917 to Canadian soldier Corporal Filip Konowal was stolen from the same museum in 1973 and was not recovered until 2004 .

On 2 December 2007 , nine VCs were among 100 medals stolen from locked , reinforced glass cabinets at the QEII Army Memorial Museum in Waiouru , New Zealand with a value of around NZD $ 20 million . Charles Upham 's VC and Bar was among these . A reward of NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 was posted for information leading to the recovery of the decorations and conviction of the thieves , although at the time there was much public debate about the need to offer reward money to retrieve the medals . On 16 February 2008 New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered .

= = Collections = =

= = = Ashcroft collection = = =

The VC collection of businessman and politician Lord Ashcroft , amassed since 1986 , contains 162 medals , over one @-@ tenth of all VCs awarded . It is the largest collection of such decorations . In July 2008 it was announced that Ashcroft was to donate £ 5 million for a permanent gallery at the Imperial War Museum where the 50 VCs held by the museum will be put on display alongside his collection . The Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum opened on 12 November 2010 containing a total of 210 VCs and 31 GCs .

= = = Australian War Memorial = = =

Prior to November 2010 , the largest collection of VCs on public display was held by the Australian War Memorial , whose collection includes all nine VCs awarded to Australians at Gallipoli . Of the 100 medals awarded to Australians ( 96 VCs , and 4 VCs for Australia ) , this collection contains around 70 medals , including 3 medals awarded to British soldiers ( Grady , 1854 ; Holbrook , 1914 ; and Whirlpool , 1858 ) , and 3 of the VCs for Australia ( Donaldson , 2008 ; Keighran , 2010 ; and Roberts @-@ Smith , 2010 ) .

= = = List of collections = = =

Museums with holdings of ten or more VCs include :

( note 1 = Many VCs are on loan to the museums and are owned by individuals and not owned by the museums themselves . )

= = Other = =

= = = Memorials = = =

In 2004 a national Victoria Cross and George Cross memorial was installed in Westminster Abbey close to the tomb of the Unknown Warrior . Westminster Abbey is a living monument to British history in that it contains monuments and memorials to central figures in British History including Isaac Newton , Charles Darwin and James VI & I. As such it was a significant honour for the VC to be commemorated in Westminster Abbey .

Canon William Lummis , MC , was a military historian who built up an archive on the service records and final resting places of Victoria Cross holders . This was then summarised into a pamphlet which was taken to be an authoritative source on these matters . However , Lummis was aware of short @-@ comings in his work and encouraged David Harvey to continue it . The result was Harvey 's seminal book Monuments to Courage . In 2007 the Royal Mail used material from Lummis ' archives to produce a collection of stamps commemorating Victoria Cross recipients .

It is a tradition within the Australian Army for soldiers ' recreational clubs on military bases to be named after a particular recipient of the Victoria Cross . Australia has a unique means of remembering recipients of the Victoria Cross . Remembrance Drive is a path through city streets and highways linking Sydney and Canberra . Trees were planted in February 1954 by Queen Elizabeth II in a park near Sydney Harbour and at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , marking either end of the route , with various plantations along the roadsides in memory of the fallen . Beginning in 1995 , 23 rest stop memorials named for Australian recipients of the VC from World War II onwards have been sited along the route , providing picnic facilities and public amenities to encourage drivers to take a break on long drives . 23 of the 26 memorial sites have been dedicated , with a further three reserved for the surviving VC recipients , including two of the newer Victoria Cross for Australia awards . Edward Kenna , VC , was honoured with the most recent rest stop on 16 August 2012 , having died in 2009 .

= = = In art = = =

The subject of soldiers earning the VC has been popular with artists since the medal 's inception . In particular are the fifty paintings by Louis William Desanges that were painted in the late 1850s and early 1860s . Many of these were exhibited at the Egyptian Gallery in Piccadilly , but in 1900 , they were brought together by Lord Wantage as the Victoria Cross Gallery and exhibited in the town of Wantage , Berkshire . Later the collection was broken up and many of the paintings were sent to the various regiments depicted . Some were damaged or destroyed . A number of the acts were also portrayed in a Second World War propaganda pamphlet , and the images commissioned by the Ministry of Information are presented in an online gallery available on the website of The National Archives .

= USS Philadelphia ( 1776 ) =

Philadelphia is a gunboat ( referred to in contemporary documents as a gundalow or gondola ) of the Continental Navy . Manned by Continental Army soldiers , she was part of a fleet under the command of General Benedict Arnold that fought the 11 October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island against a larger Royal Navy fleet on Lake Champlain . Although many of the American boats in the battle were damaged in the battle , Philadelphia was one of the few actually sunk that day . On the days following the main battle , most of the other boats in the American fleet were sunk , burned , or captured . She is one of a few such vessels used during the American Revolutionary War to be raised .

In 1935 , amateur military marine archaeologist Lorenzo Hagglund located her remains standing upright at the bottom of Lake Champlain , and had her raised . Bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution in 1961 , Philadelphia and associated artifacts are part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History , in Washington , D.C. , where curator Philip K. Lundeberg was responsible for arranging her initial display . The vessel is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a National Historic Landmark .

= = Background = =

The American Revolutionary War , which began in April 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord , widened in September 1775 when the Continental Army embarked on an invasion of the British Province of Quebec . The province was viewed by the Second Continental Congress as a potential avenue for British forces to attack and divide the rebellious colonies , and was at the time lightly defended . The invasion reached a peak on December 31 , 1775 , when the Battle of Quebec ended in disaster for the Americans . In the spring of 1776 , 10 @,@ 000 British and German troops arrived in Quebec , and General Guy Carleton , the provincial governor , drove the Continental Army out of Quebec and back to Fort Ticonderoga .

Carleton then launched his own offensive intended to reach the Hudson River , whose navigable length begins south of Lake Champlain and extends down to New York City . Control of the upper Hudson would enable the British to link their forces in Quebec with those in New York , recently captured in the New York campaign by Major General William Howe . This strategy would separate the American colonies of New England from those farther south and potentially quash the rebellion .

The only ships on the lake following the American retreat from Quebec were those of a small fleet of lightly armed ships that Benedict Arnold had assembled following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 . This fleet , even if it had been in British hands , was too small to transport the large British army to Fort Ticonderoga .

= = Fleet development = =

During their retreat from Quebec , the Americans carefully took or destroyed all ships on Lake Champlain that might prove useful to the British . When Arnold and his troops , making up the rear guard of the army , abandoned Fort Saint @-@ Jean , they burned or sank all the boats they could not use , and set fire to the sawmill and the fort . These actions effectively denied the British any hope of immediately moving onto the lake .

The two sides set about building fleets : the British at Saint @-@ Jean and the Americans at the other end of the lake in Skenesborough ( present @-@ day Whitehall , New York ) . While planning Quebec 's defenses in 1775 , General Carleton had anticipated the problem of transportation on Lake Champlain , and had requested the provisioning of prefabricated ships from Europe . Because of this planning , the British were able to assemble a fleet that significantly overpowered that of the Americans . In total , the British fleet ( 25 armed vessels ) had more firepower than the Americans ' 15 vessels , with more than 80 guns outweighing the 74 smaller American guns .

The American shipbuilding effort at Skenesborough was overseen by Hermanus Schuyler ( possibly a relation of Major General Philip Schuyler ) , and the outfitting was managed by military engineer Jeduthan Baldwin . Schuyler began work in April to produce boats larger and more suitable for combat than the small shallow @-@ draft boats known as bateaux that were used for transport on the lake . The process eventually came to involve General Benedict Arnold , who was an experienced ship 's captain , and David Waterbury , a Connecticut militia leader with maritime experience . Major General Horatio Gates , in charge of the overall defense of the lake , eventually asked Arnold to take more responsibility in the shipbuilding effort , because " I am intirely uninform 'd as to Marine Affairs . "

= = Construction of Philadelphia = =

Philadelphia was one of eight gundalows ( also called gondolas in contemporary documents ) constructed at Skenesboro . She was laid down early in July 1776 and launched in mid @-@ August . Constructed primarily of oak , she was larger than a bateaux at 53 ft 2 in ( 16 @.@ 21 m ) long with a beam of 15 ft 2 in ( 4 @.@ 62 m ) . She featured a single 36 @-@ foot ( 10 @.@ 97 m ) mast with square @-@ rigged sail and topsail , and mounted three cannons , one 12 @-@ pounder ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) facing forward and two 9 pounders ( 4 @.@ 1 kg ) facing port and starboard respectively . She also had mounting points for up to eight swivel guns , and was estimated by the Smithsonian to displace 29 long tons ( 32 @.@ 5 short tons ; 29 @.@ 5 t ) . Late in her construction General Arnold ordered that her aft deck be raised in order to accommodate a mortar . This modification was apparently undone after the mortar exploded during test firing at Fort Ticonderoga . In order to maintain equilibrium , ballast rocks were probably used in the aft portion of the boat once the mortar was removed . For the relative comfort of its crew , the boat had a canvas awning aft of the mast and fascines were probably lashed to its sides to diffuse musket fire aimed at the boat .

= = Service history = =

Philadelphia was placed in service under a Captain Rice shortly after she was completed . Late in August General Arnold assembled his fleet and cruised provocatively on the northern stretches of Lake Champlain . On September 23 , in anticipation of the larger British fleet 's arrival , he stationed his ships in Valcour Bay , the strait separating the western shore of the lake from Valcour Island . When the two forces clashed on October 11 , Philadelphia was under the command of Benjamin Rue , and was part of the formation Arnold established in the Valcour strait . Early in the six @-@ hour fight the 12 @-@ gun schooner USS Royal Savage ran aground and was burned . Toward dusk the British guns holed Philadelphia with a 24 @-@ pound ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) shot and she soon sank . Darkness ended the action , and Arnold was able to slip away during the night . Many of his remaining ships were burned , sunk , or captured over the next two days as the British pursued him toward Ticonderoga .

In sea trials of the replica Philadelphia II , the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum determined that the boat was not particularly maneuverable : contemporary accounts of sailing the vessels include reports that the gondolas skipped across the waters of the lake , blown by the wind , and needed safe shelter when winds were high .

= = Raising the wreck = =

In the 1930s , Lorenzo Hagglund , a veteran of World War I and a history buff , began searching the strait for remains of the battle . In 1932 he found the remains of Royal Savage 's hull , which he successfully raised in 1934 . Hagglund followed up his discovery of Royal Savage with the discovery of Philadelphia 's remains in 1935 , sitting upright on the lake bottom . He raised her that year ; in addition to the guns and hull , hundreds of other items were recovered from the vessel . These relics included shot , cooking utensils , tools , buttons , buckles and human bones .

Philadelphia was exhibited at various locations on Lake Champlain and the Hudson River before becoming a long @-@ term display at Exeter , New York . Lorenzo Hagglund spent years searching for other ships in Arnold 's fleet , and raised another gunboat in 1952 . Funding for a structure to house that find and the Royal Savage fell through , and that boat 's remains were eventually ruined through neglect and looting .

In the wake of that failure Hagglund approached the Smithsonian Institution to preserve Philadelphia , and in 1961 , bequeathed her and associated artifacts to that organization . According to the Whitehall Times , the remains had suffered more damage during their time above water than below . The boat and artifacts are now part of the permanent collection of the National Museum of American History , in Washington , D.C. She is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is designated a National Historic Landmark . She remains in precarious condition : as of 2001 the wood and iron fittings continued to show signs of deterioration despite attempts to stabilize them .

In 1997 , another pristine underwater wreck was located during a survey by the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum . Two years later it was conclusively identified as the gundalow Spitfire .

= Mundo Perdido , Tikal =

The Mundo Perdido ( Spanish for " Lost World " ) is the largest ceremonial complex dating from the Preclassic period at the ancient Maya city of Tikal , in the Petén Department of northern Guatemala . The complex was organised as a large E @-@ Group astronomical complex consisting of a pyramid aligned with a platform to the east that supported three temples . The Mundo Perdido complex was rebuilt many times over the course of its history . By AD 250 – 300 its architectural style was influenced by the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico , including the use of the talud @-@ tablero form . During the Early Classic period ( c . 250 – 600 ) the Mundo Perdido became one of the twin foci of the city , the other being the North Acropolis . From AD 250 to 378 it may have served as the royal necropolis . The Mundo Perdido complex was given its name by the archaeologists of the University of Pennsylvania .

The large plaza centred upon the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) and the ceremonial platform to the west ( 5C @-@ 53 ) is divided into two clearly demarcated areas referred to as the High Plaza and the Low Plaza . The High Plaza is the area around the Lost World Pyramid . It is closed on the south side by Structures 6C @-@ 24 and 6C @-@ 25 . A range of eight adjoining structures divide the High Plaza from the Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . On the north side , the Plaza is principally delimited by Structures 5D @-@ 77 , 5D @-@ 45 , 5D @-@ 46 , together with some smaller structures . The Low Plaza lies to the west of the Lost World Pyramid , centred upon Structure 5C @-@ 53 , a low platform . The Low Plaza is closed on its north side by the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) , which is the second largest structure in the whole complex . The complex has a surface area of approximately 60 @,@ 000 square metres ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .

Guatemalan archaeologists have made major discoveries in the Mundo Perdido since the 1970s . The National Tikal Project ( Proyecto Nacional Tikal ) investigated the Mundo Perdido from 1979 until 1985 , and partially restored the principal structures of the complex . The Mundo Perdido was the first architectural complex to be built at Tikal in the Preclassic period and the last to be abandoned during the Terminal Classic .

= = History = =

= = = Preclassic = = =

The Mundo Perdido underwent six phases of construction ; four of these date to the Preclassic and two to the Classic . Each construction phase produced a new version of the E @-@ Group ( the Lost World Pyramid and the East Platform ) . Evidence recovered from the Mundo Perdido dates back to the earliest years of occupation at Tikal in the Middle Preclassic prior to 700 BC , although these remains represent rubbish rather than structures . The complex began to take form around the end of the Middle Preclassic , around 600 BC , when structures started to be added to a series of artificially levelled surfaces or platforms . Gradually both the complexity and the height of the structures increased . The Lost World Pyramid and the East Platform together form an E @-@ Group that is the oldest architectural complex in Tikal . During the Late Preclassic a causeway was built to unite the Mundo Perdido with the North Acropolis ; this causeway channelled runoff rainwater into a canal that fed into the Temple Reservoir . About AD 100 , toward the end of the Late Preclassic , three temples were built upon the East Platform .

= = = Early Classic = = =

Around AD 250 , at the beginning of the Early Classic , the Mundo Perdido plaza was expanded westwards in order to make the Lost World Pyramid the centre of the complex rather than the western extreme . It was this construction phase that led to the Mundo Perdido achieving its final surface area of around 60 @,@ 000 square metres ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . After this the various structures in the Mundo Perdido were remodelled many times to match the architectural styles developing throughout the city .

A small platform was added to the East Platform in the Early Classic , the surface of the platform possesses a series of holes that may have supported banners . The platform covered a large pit that contained the bodies of seventeen sacrificial victims , including men , women and children , possibly sacrificed during a dedicatory ceremony for the platform itself . In the 4th century AD the first version of Structure 5D @-@ 82 was built , to the north of the East Platform . In the second half of the 4th century six tombs were built in the East Platform . Ceramic offerings in the tombs included effigy vessels representing monkeys and macaws . The high artistic and technical quality of the funerary offerings in these tombs identify the deceased as members of Tikal 's elite ; they may have been members of a line of the ruling dynasty that lost power among the political upheaval of the late 4th century and included the kings K 'inich Muwaan Jol and Chak Tok Ich 'aak I. With the entry of Siyaj K 'ak ' and the establishment of a new political order in the city , the focus of royal funerary rites was shifted from the Mundo Perdido to the North Acropolis .

From the 4th century through to the 6th century the use of talud @-@ tablero architecture became notable in the Mundo Perdido . In the 5th century the talud @-@ tablero form was applied to Structures 5C @-@ 51 and 5C @-@ 52 at the western limit of the complex , and 6C @-@ 24 on the south side . In the latter part of the 6th century or during the 7th century a fifth version of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple 5C @-@ 49 was built , with a new stairway and summit shrine .

= = = Late Classic = = =

During the 7th century there were significant changes to the East Platform , including a new version of Temple 5D @-@ 87 that faced away from the Mundo Perdido . Around AD 700 this version was sealed and another version built on top , making Temple 5D @-@ 87 one of the three highest structures in the Mundo Perdido . This new version created a new orienting axis in the complex , breaking the primary axis associated with the ancient E @-@ Group complex and its relationship with the old solar cult , thus marking a major change in the ceremonial use of the Mundo Perdido complex . It is about this same time that the twin pyramid complex came into use , demonstrating a major internal reorganisation of the city . During the Late Classic , access to the complex was gradually restricted by closing various access points with new structures , this included discontinuing the use of the causeway that had linked the complex with the North Acropolis since the Preclassic . A new palace complex was built in the northern section of the Mundo Perdido , developing during the 7th and 8th centuries AD ; This marked an important change in the use of the Mundo Perdido , which until then had been dedicated to purely ritual activities . The construction of the palace indicates the permanent inhabitation of the complex by an elite group , apparently involved in some way with the administration of the city .

The Mundo Perdido continued to serve as an important burial site during the 8th and 9th centuries . The final version of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple received three elite status burials , possibly members of the royal family to judge by the extremely high quality of the associated offerings . These burials have been dated to the second half of the 8th century , during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin II .

= = = Terminal Classic = = =

Tikal as a whole went into general decline during the Terminal Classic , with some parts of the city apparently being abandoned . The Mundo Perdido , however , continued to be a centre of vigorous ceremonial activity . Evidence of this continued activity in the complex includes burials and collections of ceramic and lithic artefacts , together with significant construction activity . The main Late Classic structures were fitted with new benches and a change to access routes to the complex took place . Activity was concentrated in the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido , perhaps because it was closest to the Temple Reservoir water supply . Some minor changes were made to the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple at this time . The greatest residential activity during the Terminal Classic took place in the vaulted palace immediately to the east of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( Structures 5C @-@ 45 through to 5C @-@ 47 ) . This activity included complex construction projects and indicates that the elite were still in residence immediately prior to the complete abandonment of the city . Further construction activity , in the form of structural strengthening , also took place in other structures in the northern sector , including Structures 5D @-@ 77 and 5D @-@ 82 . Ritual activity also continued , and the bottom half of Early Classic Stela 39 was placed in Temple 5D @-@ 86 on the East Platform and worshipped .

That a large population remained in residence in the north sector of Mundo Perdido during the Terminal Classic is evidenced by the quantity of burials of differing gender and age . Some were interred inside collapsed buildings or in casual graves . They were usually accompanied by very few funerary offerings , generally bone and lithic artefacts . The dense occupation of the north sector , which included elite activity , continued for at least a hundred years after the abandonment of the rest of Tikal and is perhaps linked to the nearby water supply and to continued ritual activity at Temple III . While the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido continued in use , the rest of the complex was partially abandoned . The occupation of the Mundo Perdido came to an end in the Terminal Classic and very few traces of Postclassic activity have been recovered , limited to a few ceramic finds in Structure 3D @-@ 43 to the north .

= = = Modern history = = =

The University of Pennsylvania carried out exploratory investigations of the Lost World Pyramid prior to the work undertaken by the Proyecto Nacional Tikal . These included test cores and trenches in the summit as well as the west and south sides . Exploratory tunnels excavated up to 27 metres ( 89 ft ) into the pyramid 's interior recovered surprisingly early ceramic fragments , which led to the complex becoming the focus of later investigations . A wide @-@ ranging programme of investigations of the Mundo Perdido was instigated by the newly formed Proyecto Nacional Tikal in September 1979 . The first operation carried out was the clearing of forest overgrowth from the Lost World Pyramid late that year . The main phase of investigations ran until 1982 , although test pitting and topographical surveys continued until 1984 . Both the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) and the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple were excavated and restored from 1980 through to 1982 . Soon after work started upon the Mundo Perdido in 1979 adverse weather conditions resulted in severe damage to various structures , including the collapse of the east face of the Lost World Pyramid , the northeast corner of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) and the north wall of Structure 5D @-@ 77 .

= = Structures = =

Archaeologist William R. Coe divided the Mundo Perdido complex into two clearly demarcated areas that he referred to as the High Plaza and the Low Plaza . The High Plaza is the area around the Lost World Pyramid . It is closed on the south side by Structures 6C @-@ 24 and 6C @-@ 25 . A range of eight adjoining structures divide the High Plaza from the Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . On the north side , the Plaza is principally delimited by Structures 5D @-@ 77 , 5C @-@ 45 , 5C @-@ 46 , together with some smaller structures . The Low Plaza lies to the west of the Lost World Pyramid , centred upon Structure 5C @-@ 53 , a low platform . The Low Plaza is closed on its north side by the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) , which is the second largest structure in the whole complex .

More recently , the Proyecto Nacional Tikal has defined the complex as an area divided into four plazas . The North , East and West Plazas are defined by their relationship to the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) while the South Plaza is on the south side of Structures 6C @-@ 25 and 6C @-@ 25 , themselves to the south of the Lost World Pyramid .

= = = E @-@ Group = = =

The original core of the Mundo Perdido was an E @-@ Group astronomical complex . The east stairway of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) was the observation point and the three original temples on the East Platform ( 5D @-@ 84 , 5D @-@ 86 and 5D @-@ 88 ) were markers used to plot the sunrise on the equinoxes and the solstices . Over the course of Tikal 's history the E @-@ Group underwent seven distinct construction phases , with the earliest dating to the end of the Middle Preclassic period .

= = = = Lost World Pyramid = = = =

The Lost World Pyramid ( Structure 5C @-@ 54 , also known as the Great Pyramid ) dates to the Late Preclassic . This structure is the focus of the Mundo Perdido complex ; it currently stands approximately 31 metres ( 102 ft ) high and has a maximum width across the base of 67 @.@ 5 metres ( 221 ft ) . The Lost World Pyramid was one of the most massive construction projects ever undertaken at Tikal . The pyramid is accessed via a stairway on the west side ; this was flanked by giant masks . The final version of the structure had stairways on both the east and west sides that extended to the top , with additional stairways on the north and south sides climbing only as far as the eighth of ten levels . This structure was one of the most massive buildings in the whole of Late Preclassic Mesoamerica and its construction used masonry blocks that measured over 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The pyramid was periodically rebuilt throughout its history , in common with the rest of the complex . The version now visible is the fifth version , dating to around AD 250 . When it was built it was the tallest structure in the entire city . The stepped levels of the pyramid have inset vertical panels that were forerunners of the talud @-@ tablero style ; these early tableros first made an appearance in the second half of the 3rd century AD when they were built into the fifth construction phase of the pyramid . The masks that once adorned the sides of the building are now so eroded that it is not possible to determine if they were anthropomorphic or zoomorphic . Traces of painted stucco on the final version of the pyramid reveal that at some point the exterior of the structure was painted blue and red .

The five versions of the Lost World Pyramid were each larger than the previous version . They were not built directly centred upon the preceding version due to the necessity of maintaining the E @-@ Group plaza area between the pyramid and the East Platform . This led to the destruction of the previous version 's east face each time a new version was superimposed over the older version .

= = = = = Phase 1 = = = = =

The earliest version of the pyramid was built at the end of the Middle Preclassic ; it was raised upon a 1 @.@ 42 @-@ metre ( 4 @.@ 7 ft ) deep infill that levelled the natural terrain . This earliest phase of construction has not survived in its entirety but is believed to have possessed three stepped levels with stairways on all four sides . It measured 23 @.@ 46 metres ( 77 @.@ 0 ft ) north @-@ south and stood 2 @.@ 94 metres ( 9 @.@ 6 ft ) high .

= = = = = Phase 2 = = = = =

The second version dates to the Late Preclassic , between 600 and 400 BC . At this time two adult males were interred without funerary offerings under the summit platform of the pyramid ( Burials PNT @-@ 002 and PNT @-@ 003 ) . Although they lacked associated offerings , the presence of cranial deformation and dental decoration suggests that the deceased may have been members of the elite . The investigating archaeologists of the Proyecto Nacional Tikal consider that the deceased themselves were a dedicatory offering upon construction of this newer version of the pyramid . The second version of the pyramid possessed four stepped levels and measured 37 @.@ 25 metres ( 122 @.@ 2 ft ) north @-@ south ; it stood 7 @.@ 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high .

= = = = = Phase 3 = = = = =

The third version was built between 400 and 200 BC as a part of the formal layout of the E @-@ Group . This version measured 37 @.@ 67 metres ( 123 @.@ 6 ft ) north @-@ south and stood 9 @.@ 46 metres ( 31 @.@ 0 ft ) high . The construction of the third version of the temple damaged the underlying second version and covered it completely . The third version was a radial pyramid with six stepped levels and a raised upper platform built from stone blocks that were not finished with stucco . This upper platform had rounded corners . The three lower levels of the pyramid had a talud ( sloping @-@ sided ) form , while the fourth had a tablero ( vertical @-@ sided ) form . The fifth level was of greater height and supported the weight of giant masks flanking the central stairways as they ascend the upper ( sixth ) level . The pyramid possessed auxiliary stairways that climbed the lower four levels , flanking the central stairways ; they ascended the fifth level in a modified form , such that they enclosed the giant masks between the auxiliary stairways and the central stairways on each side . Upon the upper platform was a 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high bench accessed via three steps on its east and west sides only . The third version pyramid was of high quality construction with complex architectural detail and fine quality stucco covering . Burial PNT @-@ 001 was discovered interred within the infill of the upper level of the fourth version of the pyramid ; it was accompanied by a number of offerings .

= = = = = Phase 4 = = = = =

The fourth version of the pyramid was built upon a much larger scale ; it was built sometime between 200 BC and 200 AD . It stood 18 metres ( 59 ft ) high and measured 60 metres ( 200 ft ) across . This represented the greatest leap in volume between successive versions of the pyramid . Once again it was a radial pyramid with auxiliary stairways ; the temple had at least eight stepped levels although archaeologists could not determine the exact number due to the destruction wrought upon the summit by the construction of the next ( fifth and final ) version . It possessed giant masks on the fifth stepped level . Due to the method of construction employed , with weight dispersed across the shorter sides of its stone blocks , the fourth version of the pyramid was structurally weak and it required periodic reinforcement . The architects soon realised their error and the architectural techniques used in the construction of the fourth version were never used again ; the fourth version itself remained in use for a relatively short period of time before being replaced by the fifth version .

= = = = = Phase 5 = = = = =

The fifth and final version of the Lost World Pyramid was built around 200 @-@ 300 AD . When excavated it was found to be poorly preserved due to the poor quality structural infill used in its construction ; its sides had subsided in a number of places . The final version of the pyramid had ten levels and stood 30 @.@ 7 metres ( 101 ft ) high . The pyramid measured 72 by 67 @.@ 5 metres ( 236 by 221 ft ) ( NS by EW ) through its central axis . This narrowed to 61 @.@ 3 by 56 @.@ 25 metres ( 201 @.@ 1 by 184 @.@ 5 ft ) measuring from corner to corner . These measurements make it the most massive construction project at Tikal . The fifth version of the pyramid started with 8 levels between 200 to 300 AD ; a ninth level was added in the 4th century and the tenth level sometime between the late 4th century and the early 6th century . Each of the stairways was flanked by large tablero panels . The 0 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) bench upon the summit faced west , breaking the long tradition that incorporated the pyramid within the ancient E @-@ Group . A large slab of slate measuring 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high by 0 @.@ 35 metres ( 1 @.@ 1 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 24 metres ( 0 @.@ 79 ft ) thick was found embedded in the bench ; it was highly eroded and may have been a stela that was erected upon the pyramid during the Late Classic . Large quantities of Early and Late Classic ceramic fragments were found upon the pyramid , demonstrating the continued importance of the structure within Tikal as a whole . A well @-@ preserved limestone model of an architectural complex was recovered from the upper east side of the pyramid ; it may originally have been deposited in a cache and represented a number of pyramids and a Mesoamerican ballcourt - the model does not match any known architectural group at Tikal itself .

= = = = East Platform = = = =

The East Platform divides the Mundo Perdido complex from the Plaza of the Seven Temples . The structures are numbered from 5D @-@ 82 at the north end through to 5D @-@ 89 where it joins with the south range . Although this is one of the earliest examples of architecture at Tikal , this platform began to take on its final form around AD 100 when the first versions of the three temples 5D @-@ 84 , 5D @-@ 86 and 5D @-@ 88 were built upon the basal platform . In the 5th century AD the platform was remodeled with a huge talud @-@ tablero .

Structure 5D @-@ 82 is the northernmost structure adjoining the East Platform . The first version of this building was built in the 4th century AD . This early version was a semicircular platform supporting a building that possessed a single chamber . This building was decorated with an elaborate stucco frieze decorated with anthropomorphic figures and glyphs . The central figure in the frieze is believed by archaeologists to represent the deity Itzamna .

Structure 5D @-@ 84 is towards the north end of the east range ; the structure has three rooms and is flanked by Structure 5D @-@ 83 to the north and Structure 5D @-@ 86 to the south . This is one of the earliest three structures to be built upon the east platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic .

Structure 5D @-@ 85 is a double platform that provides access to the Plaza of the Seven Temples .

Structure 5D @-@ 86 possesses the remains of giant masks on its facade . It has been dated to the Late Classic period . Stela 39 was found in this building . The first version of this building was raised upon the East Platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic period , at around AD 100 . The temple had three rooms arranged one behind the other ; the central chamber is the smallest and is particularly notable for the presence of two giant zoomorphic masks on either side of its doorway . This is the only example known from the Late Preclassic Maya world where such masks were placed inside a building , a practice that would become common in the Late Classic period . Iconographic analysis of these two masks suggest that they are an early form of Nu B 'alam Chac , a spirit protector of the city that was closely associated with warfare . The first royal tomb in the Mundo Perdido was installed in this structure during the transition between the Late Preclassic and Early Classic periods .

Structure 5D @-@ 87 is also known as the Temple of the Skulls ( Templo de las Calaveras in Spanish ) . It is the third largest temple in the Mundo Perdido complex . A new version of this temple was superimposed upon a preceding version during the 7th century AD . This new version faced away from the Mundo Perdido and possessed a single room with five doorways that faced onto the adjacent Plaza of the Seven Temples to the east . Around AD 700 , this version was sealed and a new version was built on top , at which time it became one of the highest structures in the Mundo Perdido . This version of the structure had a four @-@ level platform with an access stairway interrupted by a vaulted niche , as was the architectural style prevalent at Tikal during this time . The base of the niche was adorned with three sculpted skulls , one facing forwards and the two flanking skulls in profile .

Structure 5D @-@ 88 is a structure possessing three rooms . It was one of the first three temples to be built upon the East Platform towards the end of the Late Preclassic period .

Structure 5D @-@ 89 is another structure possessing three rooms .

= = = Northern sector = = =

= = = = Talud @-@ Tablero Temple = = = =

The Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( Structure 5C @-@ 49 ) is the second largest building in the Mundo Perdido . It is located on the north side of the west plaza , to the northwest of the Lost World Pyramid and directly north of the 5C @-@ 53 platform . The pyramid has a projecting stairway that rises to a summit shrine that possessed three corbel @-@ vaulted chambers and a roof comb ; the ceilings and roof comb had collapsed into the first two chambers prior to archaeological exploration . The ruined building currently stands over 22 metres ( 72 ft ) high ; with its summit shrine and roof comb intact it would have been taller . The Talud @-@ Tablero Temple was not investigated by the University of Pennsylvania and prior to its exploration by the Proyecto Nacional Tikal the summit shrine had served as the lair of a jaguar and was littered with the remains of its prey . The shrine has been badly damaged by multiple looters ' pits excavated in each of the interior chambers .

Three distinct construction phases are evident on the exterior of this pyramid . The first version of this pyramid was built in the latter half of the 3rd century AD ; it was built in a forerunner of the talud @-@ tablero style and had three levels . It stood 7 metres ( 23 ft ) tall with sides that measured 21 metres ( 69 ft ) at the base . It featured vertical unframed tableros that were painted black and a stairway flanked by balustrades . The stairway rose at an angle of 49 ° and projected 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) from the pyramid base . Three more construction phases took place in the Early Classic between AD 300 and 550 ; none of these three phases supported a masonry superstructure . Each of these phases was very similar , consisting mainly in an increase in the size of the building . Phase 2 had a basal surface area of 920 square metres ( 9 @,@ 900 sq ft ) ; the base of the third phase covered an area of 1 @,@ 065 square metres ( 11 @,@ 460 sq ft ) , this increased to 1 @,@ 240 square metres ( 13 @,@ 300 sq ft ) in the fourth construction phase . The second phase of construction took place in the 4th century in a local variation of the talud @-@ tablero style that only included framed tableros on the front of the pyramid , except for the upper level where the tableros extend around all four faces of the structure ; it had four stepped levels . The third phase of construction maintained the previous versions talud @-@ tablero variant and had five stepped levels . The fourth version of the pyramid once again had four stepped levels . The fifth phase of construction of this building took place between AD 550 and 700 and involved the construction of a new stairway on top of the previous version , although the older four @-@ level stepped pyramid with talud @-@ tablero sides was retained . The pyramid base now measured 37 metres ( 121 ft ) on each side . The stairway was widened by covering the balustrades and the pyramid was heightened by 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) by the addition of two more talud @-@ tablero @-@ style levels . This resulted in a base height of 16 @.@ 4 metres ( 54 ft ) ; a new summit shrine was built upon this , possessing three vaulted rooms and an elaborate roof comb . This construction phase took place around the same time that Temple V was built , the first of the major temples of Tikal , or slightly earlier . The shrine , in its final version , had three access doorways to the first chamber , which was 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide .

After AD 700 the pyramid served an important funerary function . Three elite burials have been excavated from the pyramid , two males and a female , accompanied by extremely high quality funerary offerings . The offerings include polychrome ceramics and objects crafted from shell , conch and mother of pearl that are inscribed with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic imagery . These associated finds are of sufficient quality that it is possible that the deceased were members of the royal family . The burials have been dated to the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin II , who ruled from AD 769 to 794 . During the Terminal Classic some minor changes were made to the temple chambers and there may have been structural reinforcement of the front of the temple . Although it is poorly preserved , the inside of the temple rooms were inscribed with graffiti that is likely to date to this time .

= = = = Palace = = = =

A three @-@ range palace complex is laid out in the form of a U in the northern portion of the Mundo Perdido . The three ranges are 5C @-@ 45 on the east side , 5C @-@ 46 on the south side and 5C @-@ 47 on the west side . All three ranges connect at the corners to form a single extended palace around a central courtyard with an area of 600 square metres ( 6 @,@ 500 sq ft ) ; the courtyard was open on the north side . This palace has furnished important information with regard to the Terminal Classic occupation the Mundo Perdido . The palace was built upon a Late Classic platform and gradually developed with the construction of the palace buildings in the 7th and 8th centuries AD . The structures each housed multiple corbel @-@ vaulted chambers . On two of the three structures the decorated facades faced outwards , although the buildings all opened onto the interior courtyard . During the 1500 @-@ year history of the Mundo Perdido complex , the palace was the only group of buildings in the entire complex that did not serve a uniquely ceremonial purpose .

Structure 5C @-@ 45 is the east range of a palace complex that also incorporates 5C @-@ 46 ( the south range ) and 5C @-@ 47 ( the west range ) . This structure was remodelled in the Terminal Classic with the closing of some doorways , addition of some benches and the construction of new sections with multiple doorways . Although Tikal was completely abandoned soon afterwards , this continuation in complex construction activity indicated that the elite residents were still inhabiting the palace at this time .

= = = Other structures = = =

Structure 5C @-@ 51 is on the western border of the complex . It was modelled in the talud @-@ tablero style in the 5th century AD .

Structure 5C @-@ 52 delimits the western extreme of the Mundo Perdido . In the 5th century AD it was built using the talud @-@ tablero style .

Structure 5C @-@ 53 is a low platform situated 33 metres ( 108 ft ) to the west of the Lost World Pyramid . The platform has access stairways on all four sides and has no sign of ever having supported any superstructure . Details of the sides of the platform suggest that its construction was influenced by Teotihuacan . The platform dates to the beginning of the Late Classic , around AD 600 .

Structure 6C @-@ 24 is a part of the south range of the Mundo Perdido . This is another building that was styled with talud @-@ tableros in the 5th century AD .

= = Monuments = =

Stela 39 is the broken bottom half of a stela that was found inside Temple 5D @-@ 86 , on the east @-@ west axis running through the East Platform from the Lost World Pyramid . The monument is sculpted on the front and back faces and was deliberately broken in ancient times and was moved inside the temple in order to save it . The front of the stela shows the bottom half of a person , who is identified as a ruler by his costume ; the back features two columns of hieroglyphs . The king depicted on the stela is Chak Tok Ich 'aak I , who governed in the 4th century AD . This king is standing over a bound captive ; the bearded captive appears to be a noble since he retains his clothing . The stela celebrates an event in AD 376 and appears to have been moved to the Mundo Perdido in relation to a funerary ceremony . The stela was possibly moved to the temple by king Yax Nuun Ayiin II to celebrate the changing of the 20 @-@ year k 'atun Maya calendrical cycle in AD 771 and thereby link himself to Chak Tok Ich 'aak I. It was placed directly over the most important of the late 4th century elite tombs . The stela continued to be worshipped in the Terminal Classic , as evidenced by the presence of polychrome ceramic offerings and incense burners .

= = Burials = =

Burial 5 was an elite burial interred in a stucco @-@ coated chamber under the rear chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The tomb had already been looted when it was discovered by archaeologists , with a looters trench cutting through the bench and floor of the shrine chamber above . The burial chamber measured 1 @.@ 77 by 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 8 by 2 @.@ 6 ft ) ( NS by EW ) and was 0 @.@ 87 metres ( 2 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The chamber contained the bones of an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old . Although the bones had been disturbed by the looters , it is likely that he had been laid out on his back with a north @-@ south orientation . A few broken ceramic remains among the looters ' debris dated the tomb to the late 8th century AD .

Burial 6 was a cist located under the first chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . It had been heavily looted , to an extent that it was not possible to determine if the scattered human remains of at least four people belonged to one burial or several . The bones belonged to two children and two young adult females and fragments of ceramic offerings were also identified .

Burial 7 was interred in a cist under the central chamber of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . Although it had already been looted when it was discovered by archaeologists , the prior collapse of the ceiling of the summit shrine of the pyramid protected a section of the tomb from the looters . The remains were those of an adult male with an artificially deformed skull ; he was laid out on his back with a north @-@ south orientation with the head towards the north . The funerary offering included three polychrome ceramics ; a tripod plate , a plate painted with the figure of a dancer and a vessel bearing the images of human figures and a jaguar . Burial 7 was immediately above the cist of Burial 9 .

Burial 8 was interred towards the rear of the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The deceased was a young adult male aged between 21 and 35 years old with an artificially deformed skull . He was buried near the surface lying on his side in a flexed position ; The remains were oriented north @-@ south and date to the Terminal Classic and were not accompanied by any funerary offering .

Burial 9 was interred in a cist immediately beneath Burial 7 in the Talud @-@ Tablero Temple ( 5C @-@ 49 ) . The chamber measured 2 @.@ 34 by 0 @.@ 64 metres ( 7 @.@ 7 by 2 @.@ 1 ft ) ( NS by EW ) . The remains were of an adolescent female lying on her back with her head towards the north . She was lying upon a layer of cinnabar mixed with blue and green pigments and was accompanied by a rich funerary offering . The offering included mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , jade and quartz beads , bone earspools inlaid with shell , shell figurines , glyphs crafted from shell , a jade pectoral crafted in the form of an anthropomorphic face , an alabaster bowl , a polychrome ceramic vessel decorated with human figures and a lengthy hieroglyphic text , a black bowl and a tripod plate decorated with an ajaw glyph .

Burial 21 was the first corbel @-@ vaulted tomb to be constructed in the Mundo Perdido ; it was placed within Structure 5D @-@ 86 . The deceased was interred upon the east @-@ west axis running through the centre of the E @-@ Group during the transition between the Late Preclassic and the Early Classic periods . The tomb was elite @-@ status and was perhaps the earliest royal burial in the Mundo Perdido . Any funerary offerings were removed during the 6th century AD during remodelling of the temple , at which time the offerings were redeposited under the third chamber of the shrine . The offerings included three polychrome plates with mammiform legs ; the painted designs on the plates perhaps have astronomical significance .

Burial PNT @-@ 001 dates to between 400 and 200 BC . It was inserted in a put among the infill of the upper level of the third version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) , 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) under the summit ( 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) including the summit bench ) . He was laid out upon a large rock lying face downwards . The deceased was a young adult male aged between 21 and 35 years who was aligned north @-@ south with the skull towards the south . Traces of cinnabar were found upon the bones . The body was accompanied by four ceramic vessels , five obsidian blades , a flint chisel , avian bones and some worked bone artefacts , among them an earspool . Although the burial could be a dedicatory offering due to its location upon the east @-@ west axis of the E @-@ Group , the high status offerings associated with it also open up the possibility that the deceased was a member of Tikal 's elite .

Burial PNT @-@ 002 was interred with Burial PNT @-@ 003 in the third stepped platform of the second version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) prior to the fourth platform being completed . The deceased was an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old ; he was found lying extended on his back with a southeast @-@ northwest orientation . Most of the bones were preserved to a certain degree ; although the skull was badly fragmented it was evident that artificial craneal deformation had taken place . One of the upper canine teeth was fitted with pyrite decoration ; the other canine had a crescent @-@ shaped hollow that had once held its decoration . The deceased had several items of shell jewellery .

Burial PNT @-@ 003 was interred at the same time as Burial PNT @-@ 002 . The deceased was an adult male aged between 36 and 55 years old ; he was lying face down with a northwest @-@ southeast orientation . The remains were very poorly preserved but the upper canines were both decorated with pyrite incrustations . The deceased was not accompanied by jewellery or funerary offerings .

Burial PNT @-@ 004 was interred under a low platform associated with the third version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) . It was deposited near the bedrock 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) under the platform without any funerary offerings . The remains are those of a young adult male between 21 and 35 years old who was laid on his right hand side in a flexed position with an east @-@ west orientation , with the head lying to the west . The remains were associated with three pieces of worked stone that had traces of stucco and red paint . The burial has been dated to around 300 BC .

Burial PNT @-@ 032 may have been a dedicatory offering upon construction of the fourth version of the Lost World Pyramid ( 5C @-@ 54 ) . It was buried at a depth of 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) without associated offerings . The remains were probably those of a female ; she was lying face down and oriented north @-@ south with the head pointing northwards . The remains were very poorly preserved but probably date to the early 1st century AD .

= A8 ( Croatia ) =

The A8 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A8 ) is a 64 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 39 @.@ 8 mi ) toll motorway in Croatia . It connects the A7 motorway near Rijeka with the road network in the Istrian peninsula via the Učka Tunnel . The road terminates at the Kanfanar interchange with the A9 motorway , which with the A8 motorway forms the Istrian Y road system . The motorway 's national significance is reflected in its positive economic impact on the cities and towns it connects , as well as its importance to tourism in Croatia . The importance of the motorway for tourism is particularly high during the summer tourist season , when its traffic volume increases by about 65 % .

The construction of the A8 motorway and the Istrian Y can be traced back to 1968 when the Croatian Parliament decided to build a modern road linking Istria with the rest of Croatia . Subsequently , a bond to fund the construction was issued . The construction work started in 1976 ; in 1981 the Učka Tunnel was finished and a 22 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) section of the route between Matulji and Lupoglav was completed as a single @-@ carriageway , two @-@ lane expressway . The Lupoglav @-@ Cerovlje portion was the next one to be completed , in 1988 . The route was extended to the Rogovići interchange between 1992 and 1998 , and the remaining section to Kanfanar was completed in 1999 as a two @-@ lane road . In 2011 , the expressway route started to be expanded gradually with the addition of a new carriageway and emergency lanes , eventually making most of it a controlled @-@ access highway ; the expansion of the route 's first section , between Kanfanar and Rogovići , was completed in October 2011 . The route 's full expansion to motorway standards – including six lanes and grade separation of all its interchanges – is scheduled by 2015 , when a second tube for the Učka Tunnel and a new route connecting the tunnel to the A7 motorway are planned . Construction slowed down in the 1990s due to a lack of funding ; therefore , a build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession for the Istrian Y was granted to the BINA Istra corporation for a period of 32 years .

All intersections found along the route are grade separated , except for a single at @-@ grade intersection currently regulated by traffic lights ; a new route is planned to bypass this intersection . As of June 2012 , there were ten exits and two service areas along the route . The motorway is currently toll @-@ free except for the Učka Tunnel and the Kanfanar @-@ Rogovići section . However , most of the motorway is potentially a toll road using a ticket system , with each exit including a toll plaza except those of Veprinac , Opatija , and Matulji . The toll system of the A8 / A9 Istrian Y is integrated : no ticket needs to be turned in , gotten , or exchanged when going from the A8 to the A9 or vice versa .

= = Route description = =

The A8 motorway is an east – west motorway in Croatia , crossing the eastern and central parts of Istria . It connects the Matulji interchange near Rijeka , the largest city on the northern Adriatic coast of Croatia , to Istria via the Kanfanar interchange situated in the area of the city of Rovinj . The motorway represents a link between the A7 and the A9 motorway — spanning between border of Slovenia and the cities of Rijeka and Pula , respectively . This part of the road network of Croatia is also part of European route E751 , consisting of the Koper – Kanfanar – Pula and Kanfanar – Rijeka sections . The route is economically important to Croatia , especially for tourism and as a cargo transport route . The road carries significant cargo and tourist traffic as the largest @-@ capacity road link between the Istrian and Kvarner Gulf regions and the nation 's capital , Zagreb . Most of the road has a design speed of 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) ; the part meeting full motorway standards has a design speed of 120 kilometres per hour ( 75 mph ) . The final segment of the route – between the Učka tunnel and the Matulji interchange – has a design speed of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) because of the mountainous terrain crossed and proximity of residential structures .

The route originates in the Kanfanar interchange with the A9 motorway and the D303 road in central Istria , east of Rovinj . From that point , the A8 proceeds east towards the Žminj exit ; there it turns north towards the Rogovići interchange with the D48 road . The latter represents the western approach to Pazin , the capital of Istria County . The A8 section between Kanfanar and Rogovići consists of four traffic lanes with a central reservation . Beyond the Rogovići interchange , the A8 changes direction once again , running generally to the northeast ; it acts as a bypass around Pazin . It goes through rough karst terrain that requires three major bridges with a total length of 949 metres ( 3 @,@ 114 ft ) ; the longest bridge is the Drazej viaduct , at 444 metres ( 1 @,@ 457 ft ) . The road then heads toward Cerovlje , running along and near the Pazinčica river valley and the Cerovlje valley ; this includes a 1 @,@ 330 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 360 ft ) bridge over the Pazinčica river . After Cerovlje the road runs for 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , through hilly terrain requiring bridges for about 10 % of the route , to the Lupoglav exit and an interchange with the D44 road . Past Lupoglav , after going over the Lupoglav – Raša railway line the A8 heads southeast , until it reaches the D500 road at the Vranja exit and the western entrance to the 5 @.@ 062 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 145 mi ) Učka Tunnel ; this is the third @-@ longest road tunnel in Croatia . The tunnel carries the route east , through part of the Učka mountain range . It represents the end of the easternmost section of the Istrian Y system ( comprising the A8 and the A9 motorways ) where a toll is charged ; consequently , there are toll plazas adjacent to both tunnel entrances . East of the tunnel , the route runs northeast to the Matulji interchange with the A7 motorway and the eastern terminus of the A8 motorway . This section contains the Opatija and Veprinac exits , serving Opatija , Ičići , Lovran and other Opatija Riviera resorts . The elevation of the route 's 11 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) segment east of the tunnel drops from 520 metres ( 1 @,@ 710 feet ) above sea level at the eastern portal of the Učka Tunnel to approximately 180 metres ( 590 feet ) above sea level adjacent to the Matulji interchange . An additional climbing lane is present along parts of this segment . Unlike all the other exits found along the route , the Opatija exit is an at @-@ grade intersection regulated by a traffic light , while the Veprinac exit is executed as a partial cloverleaf interchange . Overall , the A8 is 64 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 39 @.@ 8 miles ) long with 10 exits along the route . A significant portion of the route has no emergency lanes as yet , but lay @-@ bys are available intermittently along the route . The traffic lanes ' width varies along the route , being 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 feet ) wide in all sections except between Cerovlje and Lupoglav , where the traffic lanes are 3 @.@ 25 metres ( 10 @.@ 7 feet ) wide .

The bulk of the route runs through forested areas , especially near the Učka range and near Pazin , with agricultural land in between those areas – most of it located between the Ivoli and Lupoglav interchanges . The final section of the route , near Opatija and the A7 motorway , runs through coastal areas affected by urbanization . The route crosses no major watercourses , although creeks adjacent to or spanned by the route drain into the Pazinčica and Boljunčica rivers , or directly into the Adriatic Sea in the case of watercourses flowing down Učka 's eastern slopes . The Učka Tunnel contains a spring discovered during its construction and used for the water supply of Opatija ever since .

The route runs through an area subject to significant air temperature variations . The temperature extremes measured in the area of the route range from − 18 to 40 ° C ( 0 to 104 ° F ) , imposing substantial maintenance requirements . The weather patterns prevailing along the route include : an average of three to four days of snow cover , especially in the central parts of Istria ; high winds and gales east of the Učka Tunnel , recorded during , respectively , 15 and 54 days per year on average ; and fog in the areas west of the Učka mountains and around Pazin , respectively occurring 80 and 50 days per year on average .

An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is installed along the motorway . It consists of measuring ( of both traffic and weather ) , control ( e.g. , variable speed limits ) , and signalling devices located in zones where driving conditions may vary , such as at the interchanges , viaducts , bridges , and zones where fog or strong wind are known to occur . The system uses variable @-@ message signs to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions , and other information to motorway users . In the Učka Tunnel there are 83 security cameras , 538 fire detectors , 39 fire hydrants , 74 emergency stations , and five vehicle emergency lay @-@ bys ; the speed limit is 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) .

= = Tolls = =

The A8 is a toll road based on the Croatian vehicle classification using a ticket system — charging for use of the motorway based on distance travelled . The system was introduced as a unified toll charge system throughout the Istrian Y motorways in June 2011 . Consequently , vehicles using either the A8 or the A9 or switching between the two at the Kanfanar interchange are charged a toll only when they leave the Istrian Y system , no matter where their toll ticket was issued . Along the A8 motorway , a toll is charged only for using the Učka Tunnel and the Kanfanar – Rogovići section ; the remaining sections of the motorway are toll @-@ free as of June 2012 . Despite this , toll tickets are issued and collected at all exits with toll plazas . For instance , vehicles traveling between Rogovići and Vranja interchanges are issued toll tickets and are required to stop at toll plazas when entering and leaving the A8 , but they are not charged for using the route . The toll charge for travelling the entire length of the motorway ranges from 36 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 4 @.@ 80 ) for passenger cars to 205 @.@ 00 kuna ( € 27 @.@ 33 ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll can be paid in either Croatian kuna or euros using major credit cards , debit cards and several prepaid toll collection systems , including various types of smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC ; the last is an electronic toll collection system that is shared between all motorways in Croatia except the A2 , providing drivers with discounted toll rates and dedicated lanes at toll plazas .

In 2010 , BINA Istra ( the operator of the motorway ) collected € 38 million in revenues while its expenditure reached € 230 million . In the first half of 2011 , however , BINA Istra reported 65 @.@ 8 million kuna ( € 8 @.@ 9 million ) of income in the first half of 2011 , without VAT . This income represented a 30 @.@ 8 percent increase compared to the same period in the previous year . ( The figure includes income from the entire Istrian Y system , i.e. , both the A8 and A9 motorways . ) Most of this increase is attributed to the introduction of a closed toll system along the routes , replacing an open toll system in which a toll was charged only at the Mirna Bridge ( along the A9 motorway ) and the Učka Tunnel . In 1999 , the Croatian government negotiated amendments to the BINA Istra concession contract . These amendments allow the government to determine tolls along the A8 and A9 motorways , and the government decided to eliminate tolls on traffic flowing along the two @-@ lane sections of the routes ; to compensate for this loss of income , the government subsidizes BINA Istra – for instance , in 2012 it is expected to receive a 165 million kuna ( c . € 22 million ) subsidy . By the end of 2010 , the subsidy paid to BINA Istra reached a total of 1 @.@ 3 billion kuna ( c . € 173 million ) ; at the time , it was estimated that a further sum of 1 @.@ 9 billion kuna ( c . € 253 million ) may be paid in annual subsidies between 2011 and 2027 , when the concession contract expires . BINA Istra estimates the total investment value of the construction it has carried out or planned on the A8 and A9 routes at one billion euros .

= = History = =

The construction of the A8 motorway ( and the Istrian Y as a whole ) has its origin in 1968 , when the Croatian Parliament endorsed a petition by Istrian legislators for the construction of a modern road between the peninsula and the rest of Croatia . Subsequently , Istrian municipalities started a public bond to fund the construction of the Učka Tunnel . This construction happened between 1976 and 1981 , including the construction of a 22 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) route section between Matulji and Lupoglav .

The Y shape formed by the A8 and the A9 routes was originally defined by highway planning documents decided upon in Rijeka and Istria , subsequently incorporated in highway planning documents of the Republic of Croatia in 1988 . Lupoglav – Cerovlje was the next section to be completed , in 1988 . The A8 route was extended to the Rogovići interchange between 1992 and 1998 and the remaining section to Kanfanar was completed in 1999 .

As the construction was comparatively slow due to a lack of funding , a motorway concession for the A8 and A9 motorways was granted to BINA Istra for a period of 32 years . The build @-@ operate @-@ transfer concession agreement mandated construction , maintenance and management of the route and its upgrade to motorway standards ; this requirement included the building of dual carriageways when the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) reached 10 @,@ 000 vehicles per day or when the average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) reached 16 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The latter was achieved in 2005 and the motorway upgrade started in 2008 , even though the AADT at the time was only 8 @,@ 500 vehicles . The A8 expansion was commenced by the operator , BINA Istra , immediately following a similar expansion of the A9 ; on the latter , the entire route was widened except for the two largest bridges , for which the expansion was postponed . The expansion of the A8 was initially limited to the Kanfanar – Rogovići section because the remainder of the route required additional permits and consequently an extended preparation period . On 29 October 2011 , the Kanfanar – Rogovići section was upgraded to motorway standards , including four traffic lanes , and the route 's designation changed from B8 to A8 ( as required by legislated standards ) . The construction performed along the section entailed deep and long cuts requiring temporary traffic stoppages due to explosive blasting .

= = Future = =

The government of Croatia and BINA Istra have agreed on a further expansion of the A8 route ; additional carriageway and emergency lanes will be constructed between the Rogovići and Matulji interchanges , including the second Učka Tunnel tube . As of 2010 , this construction was scheduled to finish by late 2014 or early 2015 . The 45 @-@ kilometre ( 28 mi ) section is expected to cost c . 300 million euros . As of October 2011 , it was in the design development stage , while appropriate permits were expected to be issued in the summer of 2012 . In 2003 , the government also proposed to build a new route between the Učka Tunnel and the Matulji interchange in order to bypass the Opatija exit with its at @-@ grade intersection , the only one of the route ; the changes would also limit the longitudinal grade of the route to 4 @.@ 9 % and increase the design speed to 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 miles per hour ) . The new route is planned to intersect with the A7 motorway west of the Matulji interchange ( where the A8 currently ends ) , in a proposed Matulji 2 interchange , with two additional interchanges ( Anđeli and Frančići ) planned between Veprinac and the new terminus . The existing Veprinac interchange is scheduled for reconstruction for an additional carriageway . The new section is expected to be 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) long ; it will be part of the Rijeka transport hub , aimed at improving the road , rail and sea transport facilities in and around Rijeka .

= = Traffic volume = =

Traffic levels are regularly determined and reported by BINA Istra , operator of the motorway , and published by Hrvatske ceste . In 2010 the traffic volume was only measured in two sections : in the Učka Tunnel and between Lupoglav and Cerovlje . In 2011 , traffic counting was started in each section of the A8 between Kanfanar interchange and the Učka Tunnel using the toll ticket counts . As of June 2012 , only the ASDT figures for 2011 have been published . The largest AADT volume was recorded in the Učka Tunnel ; it represents the only high @-@ performance link between Istria and the rest of the Croatian motorway network .

The differences between the AADT and ASDT traffic volumes in 2010 are attributed to the motorway 's carriage of substantial tourist traffic to the Adriatic Sea resorts along the Istrian peninsula . On average , the A8 motorway 's ASDT is at least 65 % more than the AADT . The largest increase of the ASDT relative to the AADT , 68 % , is observed in the Veprinac – Vranja section ( which includes the Učka Tunnel ) . During the summer of 2007 , an ASDT of 14 @,@ 000 was observed in the tunnel , prompting BINA Istra to consider preparing to construct the second tunnel tube . BINA Istra expects the motorways it manages to carry more than 20 @,@ 000 vehicles per day during the peak tourist season periods .

= = Exit list = =

= = Service areas = =

As of June 2012 , there were two service areas along the A8 route . Croatian legislation identifies four types of service areas designated " A " through " D " : Type A service areas have a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or motel ; Type B service areas lack lodgings but are otherwise identical to Type A ; Type C service areas , which are very common , include a filling station and a café ( with waiters serving beverages , sandwiches , and snacks , but not full meals ) , but no restaurants or accommodations ; and Type D service areas only offer parking spaces , restrooms , and possibly picnicking tables and benches ( with an additional Type D1 also having a seasonal eating establishment ) . The service area filling stations frequently have small convenience stores , and some of them offer LPG fuel .

BINA Istra , the primary operator of the route , leases the type A , B , and C service areas to various operators through public tenders . As of September 2011 , INA was the rest @-@ area operator on the A8 and the A9 motorways . The service area operators are not permitted to sublease the fuel operations , but can sublease other parts of the service areas . The A8 's service areas are accessible from both sides of the motorway and operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .

= Lil Freak =

" Lil Freak " is a song by American recording artist Usher , taken from his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond . Featuring guest vocals by Trinidadian recording artist Nicki Minaj , the song was written by her , Usher , Ester Dean , Blac Elvis and Polow da Don , the latter two producing the track . Its hook is based on a manipulated sample of American soul musician Stevie Wonder 's 1973 hit , " Living for the City " . " Lil Freak " was released as the second single from the album in the United States and Canada on March 2 , 2010 .

Carrying a dark tone , composed of heavy bass beats derived from R & B and hip hop music , the lyrics are about the thrill of orchestrating a ménage à trois in a club . The song received positive reviews from critics who complimented its sensual nature . It peaked at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and eight on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , becoming Usher 's 16th top ten hit on the latter chart . The song 's accompanying music video has a secret society concept , dealing with an underground club , playing on the storyline of the song .

= = Background = =

In an interview with MTV News when asked if he was just entertaining , Usher said the song was based on real life , stating , " Yeah , I mean , I wrote about it . It happens in this day and time . Those are the best chicks to be friends with , honestly . " Usher reiterated his statements in another interview with Access Hollywood , and when asked if he thought the racy lyrics would raise eyebrows , he said it would , commenting that that was an objective of the song . Usher also said that the work was like the dichotomy of Raymond v. Raymond , distinguishing one world from another , as in " playing the nice guy " or " showing the other side . " Before official release , the song was leaked onto the Internet in December 2009 .

= = Composition = =

The song is midtempo , with supported by heavy bass beats produced by Polow da Don , which Prefix Magazine called " Jurrasic Park synths " . Chris Ryan of MTV News said " Usher pairs off with current queen MC Nicki Minaj , and the two glide over Polow Da Don 's minimal bass beat . " Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog said that the " heavy back @-@ beat tune confirms Usher 's old ways : " Yeah you the business / So What 's the business / Don 't be shy , I 'm just talkin ' to you girl . " Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media called the heavily manipulated " Living for the City " sample , " a monstrous swirl of orchestral exoticism " . Minaj makes several puns in her lines , one of them referring to Santa Claus 's reindeer in a runthrough which Prefix Magazine reviewed negatively . She also refers to P. Diddy and Cassie in her lines , that she 's " plotting on how I can take Cassie away from Diddy " .

= = Critical reception = =

Critics positively received the song , complimenting Minaj 's cameo and the track 's production and lyrics . Andrew Winistorfer of Prefix Magazine thought that Usher should have gone with " Lil Freak " as the album 's first big single , saying , " It ( OMG ) doesn 't come close to matching the filthy heights of " Little Freak [ sic ] ... " He also said the song was " by a wide margin , the best track to be leaked from Usher 's long @-@ delayed Raymond vs. Raymond album " . In his initial reaction , he pointed out flaws of the song , but said that the song " could become unavoidable if it gets traction on radio " . Chris Ryan of MTV News called the song , " slick , sexy hip @-@ hop @-@ infused R & B done to its finest " . He also called the song " nothing short of freak nasty , " and " is so full of sexy sexuality that it 's enough to make Tiger Woods blush " . Vibe magazine commented that " wedding ring is definitely off on this Usher cut " , and that Nicki Minaj stole the scene in the song . Pitchfork Media commented favourably on the songs explicit nature , stating the song " isn 't some R. Kelly @-@ esque devotional hymn to sexual addiction " , and that " The whole towering mess makes a drunken 3 a.m. threesome sound like the most epic endeavor anyone could hope for .. " The review also compared the song to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " , stating , " it pushes into " Cry Me a River " territory for the same reason that " Cry Me a River " transcended : the gigantic , operatic backing track " .

= = Chart performance = =

On the week ending March 20 , 2010 , " Lil Freak " debuted at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 . It then fell to 66 , but rebounded ten spots to 56 , and later peaked at 40 on the chart . The song 's appearance on the Hot Digital Songs and Hot 100 Airplay charts at number 31 and 37 , respectively , helped stabilize its stay on the Hot 100 . " lil Freak " charted at number 28 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs months before its release due to it being leaked on the Internet . It eventually peaked at eight , and was Usher 's third straight top ten hit on the chart , and 16th overall . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it has sold 508 @,@ 000 units in the US as of October 3 , 2010 . Internationally , " Lil Freak " reached 109 on the UK Singles Chart . Usher performed the song in the United Kingdom on The Graham Norton Show on June 7 , 2010 .

= = Music video = =

= = = Background and concept = = =

Usher and Minaj shot the music video on March 9 , 2010 in Los Angeles with director Taj Stansberry , represented by Leah Harmony and Ciarra Pardo . In an interview with Vibe , Stansberry commented on the video 's sex appeal and the pairing of Usher and Minaj , stating , " This probably has the potential to be [ his sexiest video ever ] . Usher ’ s one of the best entertainers in the world , then you have Nicki Minaj who ’ s fresh on the scene . Put them together and there ’ s just sparks , it was real good . " When asked about the music video 's concept would redefine the word " freak " , commenting :

" My general idea was to take the word and show its many faceted sides , twisting and turning it to where there ’ s really no distinguishing between one freak and another . Usher went there . When you ’ re engaging in sexual activity , there are many transitions and this is not about what they look like literally , but what they look like metaphorically . It ’ s about luring people into a situation . Because you have your thoughts on a ménage à trois , but then we ’ re doing it in a non @-@ obvious way . "

On Minaj and her pairing with Usher , Stansberry said , " [ Nicki ] had a few looks that I really liked . She played the part , but still was her . If you really listen to her words in the song , you can kinda visualize her outfit . " Stansberry also confirmed that R & B singer Ciara and singer @-@ actor Jamie Foxx would make appearances in the video . In an interview with MTV News on the set of her video for " Massive Attack " , Minaj said that " The video is freaky . And it 's a great concept , a great story line , " Minaj told MTV News . " It felt just like one of the sequels to Saw . It was dope . " Stating that the video had a " secret society " concept , Usher told Access Hollywood that the place symbolized locations where people use to get away from pressures , and also said the movie Eyes Wide Shut was some sort of inspiration of the video . On March 22 , 2010 a thirty second preview of the music video was surfaced onto the internet . Two days later on March 24 , 2010 , Usher premiered the full music video on BET 's 106 & Park .

= = = Synopsis and reception = = =

The video begins with a woman walking in an underground tunnel , and she enters and elevator with Minaj , sporting a Cruella de Vil hairstyle , and other women . The elevator goes to what MTV News calls " Usher 's underground playground , " then soon finds Usher against a wall . A laptop is shown , and the video goes on to show people who are there , including Ciara playing a casino game . Then , girls are performing choreography on poles , as Usher sings his verses on the wall in the tunnel . Nicki Minaj then comes to sing her verse and starts talking to the unknown woman who was in the tunnel with Usher , and then Minaj guides the woman somewhere . Foxx makes appears near the end of the video , with a red light on him . Usher sings the rest of the song on the wall in the tunnel with choreography from the women , until the video fades out .

BET Sound Off complimented the video and that it stuck to the storyline of the song , stating " there 's only but so much you can do with a video like this " without the video being banned , being labelled offensive , or " resemble a video we ’ ve already seen . "

= = Credits and personnel = =

Songwriting - Usher Raymond , Nicki Minaj , Polow da Don , Blac Elvis , Ester Dean , Stevie Wonder

Production - Blac Elvis , Polow da Don

Recording - Jay Stevenson

Mixing - Jaycen Joshua , assisted by Giancarlo Lino

Contains a sample from " Living For The City " , written and performed by Stevie Wonder , courtesy of Motown Records .

Source

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Parks and Recreation ( season 1 ) =

The first season of Parks and Recreation originally aired in the United States on the NBC television network between April 9 and May 14 , 2009 . Produced by Deedle @-@ Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios , the series was created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur , who served as executive producers with Howard Klein .

The comedy series focuses on Leslie Knope ( Amy Poehler ) , the deputy director of the parks and recreation department of the fictional town of Pawnee , Indiana . The season consisted of six 22 @-@ minute episodes , all of which aired at 8 : 30 p.m. on Thursdays . Daniels and Schur conceived the show when NBC officials asked Daniels to produce a spin @-@ off of his comedy series The Office , on which Schur was a writer . During development , the creators decided the new show would be a stand @-@ alone series , though it would share the mockumentary style of The Office . Like that show , Parks and Recreation encouraged improvisation among its cast members .

Early test screenings were poor , and many critics and industry observers were skeptical about the show 's chances of success . The first season received generally mixed reviews , and several commentators found it too similar to The Office . The premiere episode was watched by 6 @.@ 77 million households , but the viewership declined almost every week in the Nielsen ratings . A season low of 4 @.@ 25 million households watched the final episode , " Rock Show " . Despite the low rating , " Rock Show " received the best reviews of the season and convinced some critics that the series had finally found the right tone .

= = Cast = =

= = = Main = = =

Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope , the deputy director of the Pawnee parks department , who has not let politics dampen her sense of optimism ; her ultimate goal is to become President of the United States . She has a strong love for her home town of Pawnee , and desires to use her position to improve it .

Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins , a nurse who begins a friendship with Leslie after she and her collaborate to turn an empty pit next to Ann 's house into a park . She slowly becomes more involved in the Pawnee government due to her friendship with Leslie .

Paul Schneider as Mark Brendanawicz , a city planner with the Pawnee municipal government . He has long been disillusioned with government after being unable to achieve his career ambitions . Leslie harbors a strong crush on Mark due to a romantic encounter they had several years ago , but Mark does not return her feelings . Mark assists Leslie with her plan to turn the pit next to Ann 's house into a park , despite believing that the plan has no chance of success .

Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , Leslie 's self @-@ absorbed and underachieving subordinate . While he is an employee at the parks department , he cares little about his job , and is instead more focused on his entrepreneurial ambitions . He takes great pride in his personal appearance and regularly pursues women despite being married .

Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson , the cynical director of the parks department and Leslie 's boss . Due to his incredibly negative view of politics , he regularly works to make his department as inefficient as possible . This leads him to butt heads with Leslie on a number of occasions , as her philosophy regarding politics is the polar opposite . Despite that , both he and Leslie have a large amount of respect for one another .

Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate , a young apathetic intern at the parks department . She cares little for her internship , and often shows annoyance at having to complete tasks . Due to her rebellious and emotionless attitude , she is often annoyed by her co @-@ workers , especially Leslie .

= = = Recurring = = =

Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer , Ann 's boyfriend and lead singer of a band called " Mouse Rat " . Before the start of the series , Andy falls into the pit next to Ann 's house and breaks both his legs . This leads Ann to advocate for the pit to be filled in , beginning her friendship with Leslie . Andy is shown to be immature and lazy , making Ann pamper him non @-@ stop due to his broken legs .

Jim O 'Heir as Jerry Gergich , an incompetent and widely ridiculed employee at the parks department .

Retta as Donna Meagle , the no @-@ nonsense office manager at the parks department .

Pamela Reed as Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , Leslie 's mother . Marlene is a successful politician and figure in Pawnee 's school system . Due to her success , Leslie constantly strives to impress her mother , despite the fact that Marlene has low expectations regarding her daughter 's success .

= = = Guest stars = = =

Alison Becker as Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep , a newspaper journalist for The Pawnee Journal .

Brian Huskey as Morgan , a sex offender .

Jim Meskimen as Martin Housely , an MC at many special events around Pawnee .

Lennon Parham as Kate Speevak , a mother who opposes the construction of Leslie 's park .

Phil Reeves as Paul Iaresco , the Pawnee city manager who supports Leslie 's plan for a new park .

Ian Roberts as Ian Winston , an angry citizen who complains about lewd behavior in one of Pawnee 's parks .

Cooper Thornton as Dr. Harris , Ann 's boss at Pawnee 's hospital .

Jama Williamson as Wendy Haverford , a surgeon and Tom 's attractive wife .

= = Episodes = =

† denotes an extended episode .

= = Production = =

= = = Crew = = =

Deedle @-@ Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios produced the first season of Parks and Recreation ; series creators Greg Daniels and Michael Schur were executive producers with Howard Klein . Dana Gould , Morgan Sackett and Amy Poehler produced , and Tucker Cawley and Norm Hiscock served as consulting producers . Daniel J. Goor was the executive story editor for the season , and Rachel Axler was a story editor . Dean Holland , an editor on The Office , also worked as an editor on Parks and Recreation 's first season . Mike Scully , a former executive producer and show runner for The Simpsons , joined Parks and Recreation as a consulting producer starting with the episode " Boys ' Club " . Cawley left the show at the end of the first season to create the short @-@ lived ABC sitcom Hank , starring Kelsey Grammer . Gould left to focus on his stand @-@ up career . The other producers all returned for the second season . Allison Jones , who worked as a casting director for The Office , served in the same capacity for Parks and Recreation , along with Nancy Perkins , for whom the character Ann Perkins was named .

The pilot episode was directed by Greg Daniels , and the season finale was directed by Michael Schur , his debut in the position . Other directors included Seth Gordon , director of the documentary The King of Kong : A Fistful of Quarters ; Jeffrey Blitz , who had directed numerous episodes of The Office ; Michael McCullers , co @-@ writer of the first two Austin Powers films , who directed Poehler in the comedy film Baby Mama ; and Beth McCarthy Miller , a longtime television director who worked with Poehler on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . Daniels and Schur wrote the pilot episode , and the rest of the season 's episodes were written by Axler , Goor , Hiscock , Cawley and Alan Yang .

= = = Cast = = =

A principal cast of six actors received star billing in the show 's first season . Poehler portrayed the lead character , Leslie Knope , the naive but well @-@ meaning , eager @-@ to @-@ please deputy director of the parks and recreation department of the fictional town of Pawnee , Indiana . Also among the cast were Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , a sarcastic parks department employee , and Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins , a nurse who befriends Leslie and tries to help her turn a giant construction pit into a park . Daniels and Schur intended to cast Ansari and Jones ( who previously appeared in The Office as Karen Filippelli ) from the series ' earliest stages of development , but the ultimate Parks and Recreation concept did not coalesce until they learned Poehler would be available to star . After her recruitment , the general concept of the series was established and the script for the pilot episode was written .

Nick Offerman portrayed Ron Swanson , the director of the parks and recreation department , and Aubrey Plaza played April Ludgate , a sarcastic and uninterested college intern . The part was written specifically for Plaza . After meeting her , casting director Allison Jones told Schur , " I just met the weirdest girl I 've ever met in my life . You have to meet her and put her on your show . " Schur of meeting her , " Aubrey came over to my office and made me feel really uncomfortable for like an hour , and immediately I wanted to put her in the show , " although the writers were not immediately sure what direction her character would take . Rounding out the main cast was Paul Schneider , best known for his work in independent films such as Lars and the Real Girl and The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford . He was cast as Mark Brendanawicz , a city planner and Leslie 's unrequited love interest . She still harbors feelings for Mark from a one @-@ night sexual encounter years ago . Schneider said that early in the season he was insecure in the role because he was still trying to figure out the character 's motivations . Chris Pratt played Andy Dwyer , Ann 's well @-@ intentioned but lazy and simple @-@ minded boyfriend . Although Pratt appeared in every episode of season 1 , he was credited as guest star until the second season , when he was promoted to the main cast . Andy was originally supposed to appear only in the first season , but the producers liked Pratt so much that , almost immediately after casting him , they decided to make Andy a regular character if the show was renewed .

Jim O 'Heir and Retta made regular appearances as Jerry Gergich and Donna Meagle , two fellow employees at the Pawnee parks and recreation department . The personalities of the two characters did not become developed until the second season , but Schur said the Parks and Recreation staff liked the actors so decided to include them in the show and " figured we 'd work it out later " . Pamela Reed made several appearances as Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , Leslie 's mother and an important figure in the Pawnee school system . Seth Gordon , who directed Reed in her first episode , " Canvassing " , said she improvised a great deal during her audition , creating many elements that helped define Marlene 's character . Jama Williamson appeared in " Rock Show " as Wendy , the attractive surgeon wife of Tom Haverford . Wendy would make numerous appearances in season 2 , during which it was revealed that the Haverfords have a green card marriage . Eric Edelstein guest starred in two season 1 episodes , " Canvassing " and " Boys ' Club " , as Lawrence , a disgruntled neighbor of Andy 's .

= = = Conception = = =

Immediately after Ben Silverman was named co @-@ chairman of NBC 's entertainment division in 2007 , he asked Greg Daniels to create a spin @-@ off of The Office , the half @-@ hour comedy Daniels adapted from the British comedy of the same name , created by Ricky Gervais . Daniels co @-@ created Parks and Recreation with Michael Schur , who had been a writer on The Office . Like Daniels , Schur had previously worked on the NBC sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . The two spent months considering ideas for the new series and debating whether to make it a stand @-@ alone show rather than a spin @-@ off . According to Daniels , they eventually abandoned the original spin @-@ off plan because they " couldn 't find the right fit " . They considered a series about a local government official trying to rebuild a political career following a humiliating public spectacle , but ultimately abandoned the idea . However , it was ultimately incorporated into the backstory for Ben Wyatt , the character played by Adam Scott who was added late in the second season .

After Poehler agreed to play the lead , they decided the show would revolve around an optimistic bureaucrat in small @-@ town government . The idea was partly inspired by the portrayal of local politics on the HBO drama series The Wire , as well as the renewed interest in and optimism about politics stemming from the 2008 United States presidential election . The staff was also drawn to the idea of building a show around a female relationship , namely Leslie Knope and Ann Perkins . Reports that Daniels and Schur were developing a show together led to press speculation that it would , in fact , be a spin @-@ off of The Office . The producers insisted their new series would be entirely independent . Nevertheless , their concept for it shared several elements with The Office , particularly the mockumentary approach , which allows the actors to look at and directly address the camera . The new show would also include documentary @-@ style interviews , in which the characters speak one @-@ on @-@ one with the camera crew about the day 's events . Again as with The Office , the new series would be scripted but improvisation would be encouraged among the actors .

The series was scheduled as a mid @-@ season replacement and rushed into production to meet the premiere date of April 9 , 2009 . As a result , when the series was featured at a panel during the January 2009 television critics press tour , NBC did not have a finished episode to screen , only a copy of the pilot script available for review . Some of the parts were still not cast and the series , which did not yet have a name , was referred to as The Untitled Amy Poehler Project or TUAPP . The name Public Service was considered , but ultimately rejected because network officials did not want to be accused of mocking the idea . In a commercial that aired during NBC 's Super Bowl coverage in February , it was announced that the series would be called Parks and Recreation .

= = = Writing = = =

The show 's writers spent time researching local California politics and attending Los Angeles City Council meetings . Schur said they observed that many community hearings were attended only by those opposed , often angrily , to the proposals under consideration . This confirmed his existing impression : " I 've been to some community meetings in my life , and it is often this feeling of utter sparseness . That nobody cares . " The depiction of public hearings in several Parks and Recreation episodes was inspired by this perspective , which was also the basis for the entire " Canvassing " episode . Schur asked urban planners in Claremont , California , whether efforts to turn a construction pit into a park could realistically take several months or longer . They told him that was entirely plausible , and that they had recently broken ground on a park that had been in various planning stages for 18 years . Schur said the pit project was conceived as a device to bring all the characters together , which was partially inspired by the way various characters in The Wire were brought together to work toward a common goal or project . The writers originally envisioned the pit becoming a park only in the series finale , although those plans were later changed and the pit was filled in during the second season .

The Pawnee residents vocally opposed to Leslie 's park proposal were based on real @-@ life California residents the show 's producers encountered who fought the construction of parks in their hometowns . One such group , the Committee for a Better Park , was actually opposed to parks in general , and the deceptiveness of their name and mission inspired the producers ' writing for those characters . The Parks and Recreation staff worked with a number of consultants familiar with local government work , including Scott Albright , a California city planner who provided feedback for the Mark Brendanawicz character . Inspiration for Ron Swanson came from an encounter Schur had in Burbank with an elected official , a Libertarian who favored minimal government and admitted , " I don 't really believe in the mission of my job . "

Daniels and Schur wrote the script for the pilot episode in mid @-@ 2008 . The original script portrayed Leslie and Mark as slightly less likable than they appeared in the final draft . For example , in the premiere episode , Mark asks Ron to greenlight the park because he is inspired by Leslie 's optimism and wants to help her . In the original script , Mark intervened because he was attracted to Ann and wanted an excuse to keep seeing her . The characters were made more likable in response to feedback the episode received from focus groups and press tour screenings . The first season episodes were written and developed relatively quickly after each other , and Schur said the staff was treating the entire six @-@ episode season as if it was one television pilot . When the season concluded , the writers had not decided what would happen with the developing romantic plotlines between Leslie and Mark , or Mark and Ann .

Parks and Recreation involves a mixture of written dialogue and comedic improvisation . In one example from the pilot episode , Aziz Ansari 's character attempts to flirt with Rashida Jones 's when she speaks at a parks and recreation public forum . Ansari continued to improvise long after completing his scripted dialogue . In the season 's final episode , " Rock Show " , Andy goes through a list of the previous names of his rock band . About half the band names used in the episode came directly from the script , but after actor Chris Pratt made up one on the spot , the directors encouraged him to keep improvising . Pratt said he went through about 200 fake band names during the take .

= = = Filming = = =

Parks and Recreation faced early production delays because Poehler was pregnant when she signed on ; filming had to be postponed until she gave birth . Principal photography began on February 18 , 2009 . The show was filmed in Southern California , and the construction pit featured throughout the season was dug by the episode 's producers at an undeveloped property in Van Nuys , a district of Los Angeles . The producers went door @-@ to @-@ door in the neighborhood , seeking residents ' permission for the dig . The pit was guarded 24 hours a day , and paparazzi regularly came to the set to take photos of the actors during filming . The exterior of the Pawnee government building , and several of the hallway scenes , were shot at Pasadena City Hall . The parks and recreation department interiors , as well as the Town Hall courtyard , were filmed on a sound stage . The set 's windows were outfitted with water systems to simulate falling rain , and the windowsills included fake pigeons . Scenes set in playgrounds and elsewhere outdoors were filmed on location in Los Angeles , and the public forum scenes in the premiere episode were filmed in one of the city 's middle schools .

Schur said the Parks and Recreation producers approach each episode as if they are filming a real documentary . They typically shoot enough for a 35- or 40 @-@ minute episode , then cut it down to 22 minutes , using the best material . Due to the improvisational acting and hand @-@ held camerawork , a great deal of extra footage is shot that must be discarded for the final cut . According to Poehler , " For every show , there could probably be a second show of stuff we 've edited out . " The original cut of the 22 @-@ minute pilot was 48 minutes long . The producers film about nine pages of the script each day , a large amount by U.S. television standards .

Although the series shares a mockumentary style with The Office , Daniels and Schur sought to establish a slightly different tone in the camerawork of the pilot episode . The one @-@ on @-@ one interviews , for example , sometimes feature two separate camera angles on the same person ; the footage is intercut to create the final version of the scene . This technique was inspired by The Five Obstructions , a 2003 experimental documentary directed by Lars Von Trier and Jørgen Leth , which Daniels watched at the suggestion of actor Paul Schneider . Parks and Recreation also makes frequent use of the jump cut technique . For instance , one scene in the pilot episode repeatedly jump cuts between brief clips in which Leslie seeks permission from Ron to pursue the pit project . Early in the season , editor Dean Holland developed a technique that would be used throughout the series . During a scene in " The Reporter " in which Leslie reacts to quotes read to her by the journalist , Poehler improvised a number of jokes , many of which were ultimately going to be cut from the episode . Holland thought they were all funny , so he created a brief montage intercutting several of the lines . The producers sought to lend authenticity to the fictional Pawnee setting by incorporating real @-@ life Indiana elements . They contacted the Bloomington – based Upland Brewing Company and asked for empty beer bottles and labels to be used as background props .

The six episodes of the first season aired Thursdays at 8 : 30 p.m. The premiere was shown between two season 5 episodes of The Office : " Dream Team " and " Michael Scott Paper Company " . " The Reporter " was originally supposed to be the season 's second episode , but the schedule was changed and " Canvassing " , originally planned as the third episode , was shown second instead .

= = Reception = =

= = = Reviews = = =

The first season of Parks and Recreation started to receive criticism before the premiere episode aired . According to a March 18 , 2009 , report that was leaked to television journalist Nikki Finke , focus groups responded poorly to a rough @-@ cut version of the pilot . Many focus group members felt the show was a " carbon copy " of The Office . Some found it predictable , slow paced and lacking in character development , and felt the beginning of the episode needed to better explain the setting and plot . Some viewers said the show lacked strong male characters , particularly a " datable " lead . On the other hand , viewers said the show 's portrayal of government bureaucracy was " very believable " and had the potential to generate amusing situations . While Poehler 's character drew mixed comments , the actress herself was " well liked " . The early feedback left many critics and industry observers skeptical about the show 's chances of success . In response to the leak , Ben Silverman , co @-@ chairman of NBC Entertainment , said the feedback on rough cuts is usually negative , even with ultimately successful shows . Schur said that the pilot had been completely re @-@ edited at least four times since the focus group described in the report were held .

The first season received generally mixed to negative reviews . Many critics said the series was too similar to The Office and its mock documentary style . In particular , several commentators said the naive and well @-@ meaning Leslie Knope character too closely resembled The Office protagonist Michael Scott , the well @-@ intentioned but dimwitted manager of a paper company sales office . Maureen Ryan , television reviewer for the Chicago Tribune , said Parks and Recreation surpassed the Friends spin @-@ off Joey as the " worst example of NBC 's tendency to extend its franchises well beyond what is desirable or logical . " Daniels said of the comparisons between Leslie Knope and Michael Scott , " My sense is that if we had built ' Parks and Recreation ' around a 90 @-@ year @-@ old Maasai warrior people would still have said , ' He reminds me of Michael Scott ' . There was just no way to escape it . " Poehler acknowledged that there was some validity to the comparisons , but felt that the series overcame them with the production of " Rock Show " : " I think it was something we had to work through in the beginning , and I ’ m kind of hoping we ’ re on the other side of that and people will start to judge the show on its own , for what it is and realize it ’ s just a completely different world in a similar style . "

Salon.com writer Jonah Weiner said of the first season , " Each episode wound up more or less the same way , with the humiliation of Poehler 's quixotic , adorably doofy bureaucrat " . Some critics said the show 's characters and overall tone were too mean @-@ spirited in the early episodes . While reviewers praised various cast members in individual episodes , some said the supporting characters in general needed to be more fully developed and provided with better material . Several wrote that some of the subplots were too predictable and risked becoming stale , such as Leslie 's long @-@ standing crush on Mark and the question of whether Andy and Ann would keep dating . Others said Leslie was too unintelligent and ditzy . Schur said that was not the intention of the writers , and the feedback prompted changes to the character in the second season . Years after the first season ended , Schur said he believed much of the early criticism stemmed from the fact that audiences were not yet familiar with the characters , and he believed viewers who revisited the episodes enjoyed them more because they had gotten to know the characters better as the series progressed .

Not all reviews were negative . Several commentators said the show had potential , and pointed out that early episodes of The Office had been flat before the series found its footing . The finale , " Rock Show " , received the best reviews of the season . Several commentators declared that Parks and Recreation had finally found the right tone both generally and for the Leslie Knope character in particular . Several reviewers , even those who did not enjoy the show , applauded Poehler 's comedic abilities and said her talent , timing and likability helped elevate the series above some of its flaws . Reviewers also said they particularly liked Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford , and Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer . Some commentators approved of the Pawnee setting as offering a good opportunity to satirize small @-@ town government and politics .

= = = Ratings = = =

Parks and Recreation 's premiere was seen in 6 @.@ 77 million households . Media outlets described this as a solid result , comparable to the average Nielsen ratings for 30 Rock , another Thursday @-@ night show on NBC . However , viewership declined almost every week over the rest of the season , culminating in a season low of 4 @.@ 25 million households for the final episode . The average first season viewership was 5 @.@ 45 million households per episode . The Office experienced similarly poor ratings during its first season and later became a success . However , the low viewership presented a greater challenge for Parks and Recreation because NBC now trailed CBS , ABC and Fox in the ratings , and the move of comedian Jay Leno from The Tonight Show to a variety show in NBC 's 10 p.m. weeknight slot left less room on the network 's primetime schedule .

Retta said acting during the first season was stressful because it was unclear how long the show would stay on the air , due to the poor reviews and ratings . Likewise , Chris Pratt said there was a constant feeling among the Parks staff that the show could be canceled at any time : " At the end of season one Parks and Rec , you hug the people really , really fucking tight because you just don 't know . "

= = DVD release = =

The first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . The DVD included all six episodes , as well as an " Extended Producer 's Cut " of the season finale , " Rock Show " . The disc also included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode , as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes .

= Millennium ( season 1 ) =

The first season of the serial crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium commenced airing in the United States on October 25 , 1996 , concluding on May 16 , 1997 , and consisting of twenty @-@ two episodes . It tells the story of retired FBI Agent Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) . Black has moved to Seattle , Washington with his family and has begun working with a mysterious organization known only as the Millennium Group . He investigates cases with members of the Group and the Seattle Police Department , contributing his remarkable capability of relating to the monsters responsible for horrific crimes . He finds that his daughter has inherited the same " gift " that he has , while the cases become increasingly more personal .

Critics received season one well . Although the show got the highest number of viewers for a pilot episode for the Fox Network at the time , it steadily dropped in the ratings , which led to it losing the Sunday slot to its sister show , The X @-@ Files . The main cast of the show were Henriksen as Frank Black and Megan Gallagher as Catherine Black .

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

The original idea behind Millennium came from an episode of The X @-@ Files Chris Carter had written about a serial killer . The episode got Carter thinking about the " monsters " who lurked in the shadows . Later , he started to flesh out a character which would become Frank Black , but he was busy working with other projects at the time . In the mid @-@ 1990s , after the success of The X @-@ Files , the Fox Network asked Carter if he could create another show for them .

Originally , the show was planned to include a new " murder mystery " each week , at the same time having a comprehensive storyline . So Carter created the idea of the new millennium , which could give the show its own " feel " . He felt he " could capitalise " and at the same time have a new murder mystery every week with a " millennial " twist to it . He also wanted to explore " evil " , not the " scientific approach " which was the psychological explanation of " evil " . Carter wanted to explore evil through an " unscientific approach " , an exploration where " the Bible " played an important role . While clearly stating that the show was not supposed to be heavily grounded in religious text , he felt in many ways that the Bible explained " things on various levels " and " not just in the modern scientific way . "

= = = Casting and characters = = =

Chris Carter had envisioned Lance Henriksen portraying the character of Frank Black , long before he was ever contacted . Although Carter 's colleagues responded positively to the selection , the Fox Network wanted someone younger to take the lead part . Fox asked William Hurt to play the lead role , but after finding out that Hurt had no interest in acting on television , Henriksen got the part .

When Henriksen first got the script , he mistook it for a film because of its " powerful " story . He was not fond of the idea of participating in a television project . Henriksen contacted Carter about the character ; his first question was " How are you going to make this hero a hero ? I mean , it is so dark , how are you going to handle this ? " Carter replied saying that Frank was a hero because he was able to " stand @-@ up " against all of this . Henriksen was also worried about the dark " feel " of the show , saying that all shows needs some glimpse of light at the end of the tunnel . According to Carter " The yellow house " was the light , which Henriksen later agreed upon .

Studio executive Ken Horton was very pleased with Megan Gallagher 's acting experiences . After winning the audition , she was given a " secret script " . Reacting positively towards the script , she later met up with Carter and David Nutter .

= = Critical reception = =

Peter Wunstorf was nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for his work on the pilot episode . Lance Henriksen was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for his portrayal of Frank Black but lost to E.R. performer , Anthony Edwards . Co @-@ star Brittany Tiplady was later nominated for a Young Artist Award but failed to win . The show itself was nominated for a People 's Choice Award in the category " Favorite Television New Dramatic Series " but did not win . Robert McLachlan was nominated and won a Canadian Society of Cinematographers in 1997 .

The first season was received well by critics . Keith Uhlich of Salon magazine called the season and series " Carter 's greatest series " , and that , " television work always improves in retrospect ; his seemingly haphazard , on @-@ the @-@ fly narratives become more coherent when taken out of the hellish , commercial break @-@ happy context wherein they spawned " . Paul Katz of Entertainment Weekly said , " Despite the unapologetic bleakness " of the show , it was Lance Henriksen performance that was the " real killer " . Mark Rahner from The Seattle Times said the " X @-@ Files follow @-@ up was uncompromisingly grim , fascinating , cinematically crafted " , and that the show was " years ahead " of such " forensic mysteries " as CSI : Crime Scene Investigation . USA Today writer Matt Roush said " With nightmare visions of bleeding walls , charred bodies , decapitations and a grisly live burial " , the show took a new " grim view " on " drama " .

Although the season premiere received good ratings , the series gradually lost viewers as they were reportedly " turned off by the morose and unnerving story lines . "

= = Main cast = =

= = = Starring = = =

Lance Henriksen as Frank Black

Megan Gallagher as Catherine Black

= = = Recurring = = =

Terry O 'Quinn as Peter Watts

Brittany Tiplady as Jordan Black

Stephen J. Lang as Det . Bob Giebelhouse

Bill Smitrovich as Lt. Robert Bletcher

= = Episodes = =

= Algonquin Hotel =

The Algonquin Hotel is a historic hotel located at 59 West 44th Street in Manhattan ( New York , New York ) . The hotel has been designated as a New York City Historic Landmark .

The 181 @-@ room hotel , opened in 1902 , was designed by architect Goldwin Starrett . It was originally conceived as a residential hotel but was quickly converted to a traditional lodging establishment . Its first owner @-@ manager , Frank Case ( who bought the hotel in 1927 ) , established many of the hotel 's traditions . Perhaps its best @-@ known tradition is hosting literary and theatrical notables , most prominently the members of the Algonquin Round Table .

= = History = =

The Algonquin Hotel was originally designed as an apartment hotel , whose owner planned to rent rooms and suites on year @-@ long leases . When few leases sold , the owner decided to turn it into a hotel which he was originally going to name " The Puritan " . Frank Case , upon discovering that Algonquian tribes had been the first residents of the area , persuaded the owner to christen it " The Algonquin " instead .

Case took over the lease on the hotel in 1907 and bought the property on which the building sat in 1927 for US $ 1 million . Case remained owner and manager of the hotel until his death in June 1946 . In October that year , The Algonquin was purchased by Ben Bodne of Charleston , South Carolina for just over US $ 1 million . Bodne undertook an extensive restoration and renovation effort . Bodne sold the hotel in 1987 to a group of Japanese investors and the Algonquin changed hands a number of times before ending up with Miller Global Properties in 2002 . Following a two @-@ year , US $ 3 million renovation , the hotel was sold again in 2005 to HEI Hospitality .

HEI has affiliated it with Marriott International where it is part of Marriott ’ s Autograph Collection brand .

= = The Algonquin Round Table = =

In June 1919 the hotel became the site of the daily meetings of the Algonquin Round Table , a group of journalists , authors , publicists and actors who gathered to exchange bon mots over lunch in the main dining room . The group met almost daily for the better part of ten years . Some of the core members of the " Vicious Circle " included Franklin P. Adams , Robert Benchley , Heywood Broun , Marc Connelly , Jane Grant , Ruth Hale , George S. Kaufman , Neysa McMein , Dorothy Parker , Harold Ross , Robert E. Sherwood and Alexander Woollcott .

The Algonquin Round Table – a group of notorious literary figures ( mostly critics ) who made The Algonquin their daily meeting place – set forth to implement significant literary styles in the early 1900s .

At the end of World War I , Vanity Fair writers and Algonquin regulars Dorothy Parker , Robert Benchley , and Robert E. Sherwood started meeting for lunch at The Algonquin . Alexander Woollcott , acerbic critic and war correspondent , received a warm welcome from literary friends in 1919 . They gathered in the Rose Room that afternoon ; one person enjoyed the event enough to request that it become a daily event . That same request prompted a daily exchange of ideas and opinions shared between highly esteemed literary figures . George S. Kaufman , Heywood Broun , and Edna Ferber were also a part of this August assembly ; these individuals influenced writers like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway . They founded The New Yorker magazine ; all hotel guests receive free copies to this day .

Frank Case , owner of the hotel , ensured a daily luncheon for the talented group of young writers by treating them to free celery and popovers ; more importantly , they were provided with their own table and waiter . Edna Ferber , Franklin P. Adams , George S. Kaufman , Heywood Broun , and Marc Connelly eventually joined the group , expanding its membership . All members were affiliated with the Algonquin Round Table , although they referred to themselves as the Vicious Circle .

Visitors often request to dine at the actual “ round table ” where members originally met for decades .

= = The Oak Room = =

The Oak Room at the Algonquin was long one of New York City 's premier cabaret nightclubs . Opened in 1939 ( as the Oak Room Supper Club ) , it was soon closed on account of World War II , reopened as a regular venue in 1980 , and closed for good in 2012 . ( Before 1939 , it had been called the Pergola Room and was the first meeting place of what became the Algonquin Round Table ) .

Legendary European chanteuse Greta Keller was the room 's first star . When Donald Smith reopened the Oak Room in 1980 , the first regular and star was singer @-@ pianist Steve Ross . Other performers who have appeared at the Oak Room include Julie Wilson , Mary Cleere Haran , Karen Akers , KT Sullivan , Barbara Carroll , Sandy Stewart , Bill Charlap , Diana Krall , Jessica Molaskey , and John Pizzarelli . Andrea Marcovicci performed there over a span of 25 years , sometimes with her mother Helen Marcovicci ( né Stuart ) , becoming effectively an Algonquin institution . The Oak Room helped launch the careers of Harry Connick Jr. and Michael Feinstein . Sylvia Syms collapsed and died on stage there during a performance in 1992 .

With its oak panels and other decor recalling an earlier time , the heyday of cabaret , the Oak Room was small , intimate , and expensive ( at least $ 100 per person , more if one had dinner , except for matinees ) , and was not a big moneymaker for the Algonquin . Part of the space occupied by the former Oak Room was used to enlarge the Blue Bar , the rest was converted into a private breakfast room for Marriott Reward Elite customers .

= = Traditions = =

The hotel has a tradition of keeping a cat that has the run of the hotel . The practice dates to the 1930s , when Frank Case took in a stray male cat that was initially named " Rusty . " Hotel lore says actor John Barrymore suggested the cat needed a more " dignified " name , so the cat was renamed " Hamlet . " Nowadays , whenever the hotel has a male cat , he 's named Hamlet ; but if the hotel has a female cat , she 's named " Matilda . " The current Algonquin cat , a Matilda , is a Ragdoll that was named 2006 cat of the year at the Westchester ( New York ) Cat Show . Visitors can spot Matilda on her personal chaise longue in the lobby ; she can also be found in her favorite places : behind the computer on the front desk , or lounging on a baggage cart . The doormen feed her and the general manager 's executive assistant answers Matilda 's e @-@ mail . During 2011 , Matilda was temporarily confined to an upper floor or to the limits of a leash tethered to the check @-@ in desk , due to a directive from the city Department of Health . As of late 2011 , Matilda has been confined to the non @-@ food areas of the lobby by an electronic pet fence .

Although the Algonquin was " dry " even before Prohibition ( Case closed the hotel bar in 1917 and had harsh words for those who ran speakeasies ) , the hotel does have an eponymous cocktail , composed of rye whiskey , Noilly Prat and pineapple juice . More recently , a newer drink has hit the Algonquin 's menu , the $ 10 @,@ 000 Martini or " Martini on the Rock , " consisting of a martini of the buyer 's choice with a single piece of " ice , " a diamond , at the bottom of the glass . The martini was developed to mark completion of a major 29 @-@ day renovation that closed the hotel for the first time since its opening . Hoy Wong was a notable bartender at the hotel and was the oldest person to hold such a position in the state , serving at the Algonquin for 30 years until retiring in 2009 , well past the age of 90 .

In keeping with Frank Case 's long @-@ standing tradition of sending popovers and celery to the more impoverished members of the Round Table , the Algonquin offers lunch discounts to struggling writers . Formerly , writers on tour could stay one night at the hotel free in exchange for an autographed copy of their book , although the practice has been amended to include a discount on standard room rates .

= = Landmark status = =

The Algonquin Round Table , as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged there , helped earn the hotel its status as a New York City Historic Landmark . The hotel was so designated in 1987 . In 1996 the hotel was designated a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA . The organization 's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel .

= Pilot ( Devious Maids ) =

" Pilot " is the series premiere to the Lifetime series Devious Maids . The pilot had been ordered by ABC on January 31 , 2012 and cast during the following two months . Filming began in March . ABC declined to pick up the pilot on May 14 , but Lifetime did so on June 22 , ordering 13 episodes . Although most of the cast had been selected by this time three additional regular supporting characters were added in November 2012 for inclusion in the pilot and the continuing series . The series was once proposed to be a spinoff of Desperate Housewives , but is not one .

The episode revolves around the murder of a Latina maid in Beverly Hills and the introduction of her cadre of associates who are also Latina maids . The maids are shown in their employment surroundings with their upper class employers who play supporting roles . The main character is not actually a maid but rather the mother of the primary murder subject who poses as a maid to gain entrance into the world where she might find clues to prove her son 's innocence .

The pilot episode was released online in both Spanish and English on June 9 , 2013 , before its television debut on June 23 . The episode , which was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Paul McGuigan , debuted with a 1 @.@ 99 rating . The episode was the first episode of any television series with an all Latina leading cast , but the roles as maids was controversial due to its presentation of Latinas in stereotypical roles . Nonetheless , critical feedback was generally positive .

= = Plot = =

In the opening scene , Evelyn Powell ( Rebecca Wisocky ) gives her maid Flora ( Paula Garces ) the following warning " I think what you people do is heroic ... You wash clothes you can 't afford . You polish silver you will never dine with . ... I am in awe of your determination to succeed in this great country of ours . That said , if you don 't stop screwing my husband , I 'm going to have you deported . " Subsequently a season @-@ long story arc around which the show revolves begins with Flora 's murder .

Flora was stabbed by a mysterious figure while scrawling a rape claim that accuses Evelyn 's husband Adrian Powell ( Tom Irwin ) . She manages to drag herself to the pool during a lavish party and falls in . At her funeral , her four maid friends Zoila ( Judy Reyes ) , Valentina ( Edy Ganem ) , Rosie ( Dania Ramirez ) and Carmen ( Roselyn Sanchez ) agree not to divulge their knowledge of the infidelity and its circumstances .

The employer of Zoila and her daughter Valentina , Genevieve Delatour ( Susan Lucci ) , is enduring emotional distress . For both personal reasons and out of concern for Genevieve , Valentina comes up with the idea that Genevieve 's son Remi ( Drew Van Acker ) should return to live at home rather than University of Southern California campus housing in order to help stabilize his mother . Zoila eventually recognizes and tries to temper Valentina 's romantic interest in Remi .

Meanwhile , Rosie is fighting for her young son to join her from Mexico while working for the self @-@ absorbed Spence ( Grant Show ) and Peri ( Mariana Klaveno ) . Along with Sam Alexander ( Wolé Parks ) and Odessa Burakov ( Melinda Page Hamilton ) Carmen is a staff member for Latino music star Alejandro Rubio ( Matt Cedeño ) who she is trying to convince to help her start her music career . Marisol ( Ana Ortiz ) , who is not really a maid , successfully interviews to be the fifth maid for the show as an employee of second wife Taylor ( Brianna Brown ) and Michael ( Brett Cullen ) , who hires her despite objections from Taylor .

= = Background and production = =

The teleplay and story were written by series creator Marc Cherry , and the episode was directed by Paul McGuigan . Most filming occurred in and around Los Angeles . Cherry created the show with a multiple female lead dynamic that was similar to his previous success , Desperate Housewives . His first job in Hollywood was as a personal assistant , allowing him to relate to the maid characters to some degree . He felt that Devious Maids provided a vehicle to deal with themes that Desperate Housewives did not , while being very different than the similarly themed Downton Abbey , due to Downton 's historic nature . The format of the show that was pitched to ABC was as a spinoff of Desperate Housewives . While Roselyn Sanchez 's character Carmen appeared as a gardener in the final episode of Desperate Housewives , " Finishing the Hat " , the final version that was produced is not strictly a spinoff .

ABC ordered the pilot based on the Mexican telenovela Ellas son la Alegría del Hogar ( translation : " They Are the Home 's Joy " , which is sometimes referred to as The Disorderly Maids Of The Neighborhood ) , on January 31 , 2012 . Dania Ramirez was the first lead cast member to be cast , being announced on February 15 . Ana Ortiz joined the cast as the central character on February 17 . On February 23 , both Sanchez and Judy Reyes were added to the cast . When Edy Ganem was announced in the cast on March 2 the show was still described as centering on the other four maids ( Ortiz , Reyes , Sanchez and Ramirez ) .

Rebecca Wisocky , who joined the cast on February 23 , had previously guest starred on Desperate Housewives as Bree Van de Kamp 's mother . She had shot the final season episode , " Women and Death " less than a month before testing for Devious Maids . Most of the other supporting roles were filled in in March : Brianna Brown ( March 6 ) ; Susan Lucci , Drew Van Acker and Brett Cullen ( all March 9 ) ; Mariana Klaveno and Grant Show ( both March 12 ) ; and Tom Irwin ( March 16 ) ; By March 21 , filming had begun in Beverly Hills . Brown was considered for the show after she impressed executive producer Sabrina Wind with her 2011 season 1 guest appearance on Homeland .

Eva Longoria was announced as an executive producer on March 26 . She had worked previously with Cherry on Desperate Housewives , and was hired to add perspective to the Latina roles . ABC Studios gave Cherry permission to start making senior staffing offers for the show on May 1 , which was perceived as an indication that the show would be picked up .

On May 14 , 2012 , the pilot was not picked up by ABC for the 2012 – 13 United States network schedule . On June 22 , Lifetime picked up the pilot with a thirteen @-@ episode order . The network stated that they were " thrilled to be getting into business with one of entertainment ’ s true visionaries . This show and Marc Cherry ’ s unique story telling voice perfectly articulate Lifetime ’ s strategy of attracting top @-@ tier creatives with their most original and exciting projects . " Wolé Parks was added to the cast in a regular role on November 21 . Melinda Page Hamilton and Matt Cedeño were added to the cast in recurring roles with the promise of promotion if the show got picked up for a second season on November 26 . Both were expected to appear in the pilot episode .

The episode was marketed as an important milestone in television history because it was the debut of the first television show with an all Latina leading cast . However , in the days leading up to the debut , there was controversy surrounding the concept of having Latina actresses glorify the stereotypical roles of maids , nannies and gardeners . On May 3 , Tanisha Ramirez criticized the show in The Huffington Post as a wasted opportunity , but executive producer Longoria countered that the show presents " modern day woman 's view on universal themes . " Cosmopolitan for Latinas editor Michelle Herrera Mulligan responded to Longoria by calling the show an " insulting disgrace " . Cherry defended the show for its substantive themes : " Devious Maids deals with themes of racism , classism and immigration . These women all work in the homes of rich people , but they have goals and dreams that are much greater than the people they work for realize . "

The pilot episode was released online in both Spanish and English on June 9 , 2013 , before its television debut on a variety of platforms , including myLifetime.com and the Lifetime video watch app . The first two episodes were available on Lifetime . In the weeks before its June 23 premiere , the cast members were scheduled to host screenings around the country : Ramirez and Sanchez on June 4 in Miami , Reyes and Ganem on June 6 in Dallas , and Ortiz and Lucci on June 11 in Chicago . The show 's premier party was held in Los Angeles on June 17 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

The episode first aired on June 23 , 2013 in the United States , debuting with a 1 @.@ 99 rating in the 10PM ( Eastern Time Zone ) time slot . In the adults 18 @-@ 49 viewer demographic , Devious Maids posted a 0 @.@ 65 rating , which lagged the 0 @.@ 74 rating for The Client List 's season finale the week before in the same time slot for Lifetime . Cable television shows in the same time slot included the Mad Men season 6 finale , " In Care Of " , on AMC ( which drew a 2 @.@ 69 rating ) , Falling Skies on TNT ( 3 @.@ 59 rating ) . The shows ratings were modest compared to other Lifetime drama series debuts such as Drop Dead Diva , The Client List and Army Wives , which all had ratings close to 3 million . Approximately one third of the Devious Maids viewership for the pilot ( 662 @,@ 000 ) were from the Lifetime network 's target demographic of women ages 25 – 54 . The pilot attracted higher ratings in subsequent weeks .

= = = Reviews = = =

The show resembles Desperate Housewives in many ways , including having a " pilot " that revolves around a death , according to Daily News critic David Hinckley . Hinckley states that the pilot presents each of the five main characters in a way that makes them intriguing , while tackling contemporary issues with a mix of comedy and drama . Hinckley lauded the show by saying " ... a Cherry drama rises or falls on the pretty simple test of whether it ’ s fun , and ' Devious Maids ' has the right stuff to get to there . " Alessandra Stanley , the chief television critic for The New York Times , at first described the show as a " landmark " where the rich " Beverly Hills employers are mere foils for the real heroines , who are poor , Hispanic and striving : desperate housekeepers . " Stanley felt that servant heroines are a bit of an overused perspective in 2013 as is the use of tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor . After describing the evolution of maid , butler and nanny roles on television , Stanley notes that this was not a show that depicts " how the other half really lives " , but rather " an over @-@ the @-@ top dramedy " .

Robert Bianco of USA Today felt the show benefited from not being picked up by ABC , where it would have been in the shadow of Desperate Housewives , and from being scheduled as summer television , where its competition was weak . Bianco believed that the various storylines were gracefully woven together in the scenes of the episode . Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette described the show as a guilty pleasure . Owen stated that although the show was not original for following Desperate Housewives ' path , it was good summer entertainment that managed to slip in a bit of " social satire " . Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times panned the show 's pilot , describing it as " a silly , hyperactive version of Downton Abbey " , although she acknowledged that the episode had elements of The Great Gatsby ( the opening murder ) and West Side Story ( the schoolgirl crush ) . San Francisco Chronicle critic David Wiegand said " the pilot episode may not break any new ground , but it 's energetic and funny " . He also noted that " it 's a hoot the first time we see the maids get the better of their shallow , self @-@ absorbed bosses ... " , but he felt that this theme might lack the depth to retain audience interest .

= Dassault Rafale =

The Dassault Rafale ( French pronunciation : ​ [ ʁafal ] , literally meaning " gust of wind " , and " burst of fire " in a more military sense ) is a French twin @-@ engine , canard delta wing , multirole fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation . Equipped with a wide range of weapons , the Rafale is intended to perform air supremacy , interdiction , aerial reconnaissance , ground support , in @-@ depth strike , anti @-@ ship strike and nuclear deterrence missions . The Rafale is referred to as an " omnirole " aircraft by Dassault .

In the late 1970s , the French Air Force and Navy were seeking to replace and consolidate their current fleets of aircraft . In order to reduce development costs and boost prospective sales , France entered into an arrangement with four other European nations to produce an agile multi @-@ purpose fighter . Subsequent disagreements over workshare and differing requirements led to France 's pursuit of its own development program . Dassault built a technology demonstrator which first flew in July 1986 as part of an eight @-@ year flight @-@ test programme , paving the way for the go @-@ ahead of the project . The Rafale is distinct from other European fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely built by one country , involving most of France 's major defence contractors , such as Dassault , Thales and Safran .

Many of the aircraft 's avionics and features , such as direct voice input , the RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar and the optronique secteur frontal infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) sensor , were domestically developed and produced for the Rafale programme . Originally scheduled to enter service in 1996 , the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post @-@ Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities . The aircraft is available in three main variants : Rafale C single @-@ seat land @-@ based version , Rafale B twin @-@ seat land @-@ based version , and Rafale M single @-@ seat carrier @-@ based version .

Introduced in 2001 , the Rafale is being produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier @-@ based operations in the French Navy . The Rafale has been marketed for export to several countries , and it has been selected for purchase by the Indian Air Force , the Egyptian Air Force , and the Qatar Air Force . The Rafale has been used in combat over Afghanistan , Libya , Mali , Iraq and Syria . Several upgrades to the weapons and avionics of the Rafale are planned to be introduced by 2018 .

= = Development = =

= = = Origins = = =

In the mid @-@ 1970s , both the French Air Force ( Armée de l 'Air ) and Navy ( Marine nationale ) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service . Because their requirements were similar , and to reduce cost , both departments issued a common request for proposal . In 1975 , the French Ministry of Aviation initiated studies for a new aircraft to complement the upcoming and smaller Dassault Mirage 2000 , with each aircraft optimised for differing roles .

In 1979 , the French company Dassault joined the MBB / BAe " European Collaborative Fighter " ( ECA ) project which was renamed the " European Combat Aircraft " . The French company contributed the aerodynamic layout of a prospective twin @-@ engine , single @-@ seat fighter ; however , the project collapsed in 1981 due to differing operational requirements of each partner country . In 1983 , the " Future European Fighter Aircraft " ( FEFA ) programme was initiated , bringing together Italy , Spain , West Germany , France and the United Kingdom to jointly develop a new fighter , although the latter three had their own aircraft developments .

A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the other four countries . Around 1984 France reiterated its requirement for a carrier @-@ capable version and demanded a leading role . It also insisted on a swing @-@ role fighter that was lighter than the design favoured by the other four nations . West Germany , the UK and Italy opted out and established a new EFA programme . In Turin on 2 August 1985 , West Germany , the UK and Italy agreed to go ahead with the Eurofighter , and confirmed that France , along with Spain , had chosen not to proceed as a member of the project . Despite pressure from France , Spain rejoined the Eurofighter project in early September 1985 . The four @-@ nation project eventually resulted in the development of the Eurofighter Typhoon .

= = = Design phase and prototype = = =

In France , the government proceeded with its own programme . The French Ministry of Defence required an aircraft capable of air @-@ to @-@ air and air @-@ to @-@ ground , all @-@ day and adverse weather operations . Unlike other contemporary European fighter projects that required some level of international collaboration and cost @-@ sharing , France was the sole developer of the Rafale 's airframe , avionics , propulsion system and armament , and as such the aircraft was to replace a multitude of aircraft in the French Armed Forces . The Rafale would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of specialised platforms , including the Jaguar , Mirage F1C / CR / CT , Mirage 2000C / -5 / N in the Armée de l 'air , and the F @-@ 8P Crusader , Étendard IVP / M and Super Étendard in the Aéronavale .

During October – December 1978 , prior to France 's joining of the ECA , Dassault received contracts for the development of project ACT 92 ( Avion de Combat Tactique , meaning " Tactical Combat Airplane " ) . The following year , the National Office for Aviation Studies and Research began studying the possible configurations of the new fighter under the codename Rapace ( meaning " Bird of Prey " ) . By March 1980 , the number of configurations had been narrowed down to four , two of which had a combination of canards , delta wings and a single vertical tail @-@ fin . In October 1982 , the French Ministry of Defence announced that Dassault would build a technology demonstrator named Avion de Combat expérimental ( Experimental Combat Airplane ) , in short ACX . France wanted to collaborate with West Germany and the UK on the project , but was prepared to build the ACX by itself . In 1984 , the government decided to proceed with a combat variant of the ACX due to the conflicting technical criteria of the respective FEFA participant nations .

The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large @-@ delta winged fighter , with all @-@ moving canards , embodying fly @-@ by @-@ wire ( FBW ) flight control system . Construction of the demonstrator commenced in March 1984 , even before a contract was signed with the DGA , France 's defence procurement agency . The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint @-@ Cloud , and took its maiden flight on 4 July 1986 from Istres @-@ Le Tubé Air Base in southern France . During the one @-@ hour flight , the project 's chief test pilot Guy Mitaux @-@ Maurouard took the aircraft to an altitude of 11 @,@ 000 metres ( 36 @,@ 000 ft ) and a speed of Mach 1 @.@ 3 . The 9 @.@ 5 @-@ tonne ( 21 @,@ 000 lb ) demonstrator stopped in 300 metres ( 980 ft ) upon landing .

Throughout the flight test programme , the Rafale A performed numerous day and night take @-@ offs and landings aboard the carriers Clemenceau and Foch to investigate the pilot 's field of view during carrier operations . It reached a speed of Mach 2 ( 2 @,@ 450 km / h ; 1 @,@ 522 mph ; 1 @,@ 322 @.@ 9 kn ) and a height of 13 @,@ 000 metres ( 42 @,@ 000 ft ) . The demonstrator was initially powered by General Electric F404 @-@ GE @-@ 400 afterburning turbofans from the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , instead of the Snecma M88 , to reduce the risk that often comes with a first flight , and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme . It was not until May 1990 when the M88 replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator to enable the aircraft to reach Mach 1 @.@ 4 and demonstrate supercruise , or sustained supersonic flight without use of afterburners . After 865 flights with four pilots , Rafale A was retired in January 1994 .

At the time of the Rafale A 's maiden flight , France entered unsuccessful talks with Belgium , Denmark , the Netherlands and Norway about a possible collaboration on the Rafale as a multinational project ; at the time , Belgium was reportedly interested in the Rafale B. In June 1987 , Prime Minister Jacques Chirac declared that the country would proceed with the US $ 30 billion project . Subsequently , on 21 April 1988 , the French government awarded Dassault a contract for four Rafale prototypes : one Rafale C , two Rafale Ms and one Rafale B. The first out of an expected 330 Rafales was scheduled to enter service in 1996 . However , the fall of the Berlin Wall , which signalled the end of the Cold War , as well as the need to reduce the national deficit , compelled the French government to drastically reduce its defence budget ; the 1994 budget for the Rafale programme was cut by some US $ 340 million . This reduced the size of the Rafale orders , which Dassault and other companies involved claimed impeded production management and led to higher costs , and delayed the entry of the aircraft into service . The French Air Force was reorganised , the Mirage 5F was completely phased out and a total of 55 Mirage F1Cs were upgraded to a tactical fighter configuration , redesignated as Mirage F1CT . The budget cuts prolonged the Rafale 's development considerably .

During the Rafale A flight test programme , the French government in 1989 looked at the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet as a potential replacement for the rapidly aging F @-@ 8 Crusader , which had been serving since the 1950s . The French Navy entered talks regarding the purchase of second @-@ hand F / A @-@ 18s with Australia , Canada and the US , after the decision was made not to upgrade the Crusaders . The US Navy agreed to supply two F / A @-@ 18s to the French Navy for " interoperability testing " aboard the French aircraft carrier Foch . The French government did not proceed with a purchase of the twin @-@ engine fighter .

= = = Testing = = =

To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft , the Air Force required two variants : the single @-@ seat " Rafale C " ( chasseur , meaning " fighter " or literally " hunter " ) and the " Rafale B " ( biplace , or two @-@ seater ) . The prototype of the C model ( designated C01 ) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991 , signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aimed to test the M88 @-@ 2 engines , man @-@ machine interface and weapons , and expand the flight envelope . Due to budget constraints , the second single @-@ seat prototype was never built .

The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator , it was smaller and more stealthy due to the gold @-@ coated canopy , a re @-@ design of the fuselage @-@ fin joint , and the addition of radar @-@ absorbent materials ( RAM ) . This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite and other materials , which both reduced the radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) and weight . Moreover , Dassault opted to reject variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake , which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight . The B01 , the only prototype of the two @-@ seat B variant , made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993 . It was 350 kilograms ( 770 lb ) heavier than the single @-@ seater , but carried 400 litres ( 110 US gal ) less fuel . The aircraft was used for weapon @-@ systems testing . Later it was tasked with validating weapon separation and , specifically , the carriage of heavy loads . The aircraft 's typical loadout consisted of two 2 @,@ 000 @-@ litre ( 530 US gal ) external tanks , two Apache / Scalp cruise missiles , in addition to four air @-@ to @-@ air missiles .

The Navy , meanwhile , sought a carrier @-@ based aircraft to supersede its fleet of ageing Étendard IPVMs , F @-@ 8P Crusaders and Super Étendard Modernisés . While the Navy initially modernised the Crusaders , in the long term , the requirement was met with the navalised Rafale M. The M01 , the naval prototype , first flew on 12 December 1991 , followed by the second on 8 November 1993 . Since France had no land @-@ based catapult test facility , catapult trials were initially carried out between during July – August 1992 and early the following year , at NAS Lakehurst in New Jersey . The aircraft then carried out trials aboard the carrier Foch in April 1993 . Flown by Dassault 's chief test pilot , Yves Kerhervé , M02 made its maiden flight in November that year , while the first prototype completed the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December 1993 .

The Rafale M features a greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the additional stresses of naval landings , an arrestor hook , and " jump strut " nosewheel , which only extends during short takeoffs , including catapult launches . It also features a built @-@ in ladder , carrier @-@ based microwave landing system , and the new fin @-@ tip Telemir system for syncing the inertial navigation system to external equipment . Altogether , the naval modifications of the Rafale M increase its weight by 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) compared to other variants . The Rafale M retains about 95 percent commonality with Air Force variants including , although unusual for land @-@ based aircraft , being unable to fold its multi @-@ spar wings to reduce storage space . The size constraints were offset by the introduction of Charles de Gaulle , France 's first nuclear @-@ powered carrier , which was considerably larger than previous carriers , Foch and Clemenceau .

= = = Production and upgrades = = =

Initially , the Rafale B was to be just a trainer , but the Gulf War showed that a second crew member was invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions . Therefore , in 1991 the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two @-@ seater , announcing that the variant would constitute 60 percent of the Rafale fleet . The service originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales , but this was initially revised downwards to 234 aircraft , made up of 95 " A " and 139 " B " models " , and later to 212 aircraft . The Navy , meanwhile , had 60 Rafales on order , down from 86 due to budget cuts . Of the 60 , 25 would be M single @-@ seaters and 35 two @-@ seat Ns , though the two @-@ seater was later cancelled .

Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992 , but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty . Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defence and Dassault agreed on a 48 @-@ aircraft ( 28 firm and 20 options ) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007 . A further order of 59 F3 Rafales was announced in December 2004 . In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180 .

During the Rafale 's design phase , Dassault took advantage of Dassault Systèmes ' CATIA ( Computer Aided Three @-@ dimensional Interactive Application ) , a three @-@ dimensional computer @-@ aided design , manufacture and engineering software suite that would become standard across the industry . CATIA enabled digitisation and efficiency improvements throughout the Rafale programme , as it implemented recently developed processes such as digital mockup and product data management . It consisted of 15 GB databases of each of the Rafale 's components , assisting with various aspects of the design , manufacture and through @-@ life support .

According to the French magazine L 'Usine nouvelle , apart from several non @-@ sensitive components sourced from the United States , the Rafale is manufactured almost entirely in France . Different elements are produced in numerous factories across the country , and final assembly takes place near Bordeaux – Mérignac Airport . For example , the flight control surfaces are fabricated in Haute @-@ Savoie , the wings and avionics in Gironde , the centre fuselage in Val @-@ d 'Oise , and the engines in Essonne . Roughly 50 percent of the Rafale is produced by Dassault and the other half divided between two major partners , Thales and Safran , who rely on a network of 500 subcontractors . Altogether , the programme employs 7 @,@ 000 workers . As of 2012 , the fabrication process of each fighter took 24 months , with an annual production rate of eleven aircraft .

Deliveries of the Rafale 's naval version were a high priority to replace the Navy 's considerably aged F @-@ 8 Crusaders , and so the first production model for the French Navy undertook its first flight on 7 July 1999 . Their first naval deployment was in 2002 on board Charles de Gaulle ; by March 2002 , the aircraft carrier was stationed in the Gulf of Oman , where its complement of Rafales undertook training operations . In December 2004 , the Air Force received its first three F2 standard Rafale Bs at the Centre d 'Expériences Aériennes Militaires ( CEAM , i.e. the Military Air Experiment Centre ) at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan , where they were tasked to undertake operational evaluation and pilot conversion training .

The total programme cost , as of FY2013 , was around € 45 @.@ 9 billion , which translated to a unit programme cost of approximately € 160 @.@ 5 million . This figure takes in account improved hardware of the F3 standard , and which includes development costs over a period of 40 years , including inflation . The unit flyaway price as of 2010 was € 101 @.@ 1 million for the F3 + version .

In 2008 , French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launch miniaturised satellites . In 2011 , upgrades under consideration included a software radio and satellite link , a new laser @-@ targeting pod , smaller bombs and enhancements to the aircraft 's data @-@ fusion capacity . In July 2012 , fleetwide upgrades of the Rafale 's battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced .

In January 2014 , Defence Minister Jean @-@ Yves Le Drian announced that € 1 billion is allocated towards the development of the F3R standard . The standard will see the integration of the Meteor BVR missile , among other weapons and software updates . The standard is to be validated by 2018 . The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force 's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later .

= = Design = =

= = = Overview = = =

The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level of agility ; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close @-@ coupled canard to maximize manoeuvrability . The aircraft is capable of withstanding from − 3.6g to 9g ( 10.5g on Rafale solo display and a maximum of 11g can be reached in case of emergency ) . The Rafale is an aerodynamically unstable aircraft and uses digital fly @-@ by @-@ wire flight controls to artificially enforce and maintain stability . The aircraft 's canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115 knots ( 213 km / h ; 132 mph ) ; while in flight , airspeeds as low as 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) have been observed during training missions . According to simulations by Dassault , the Rafale has sufficient low speed performance to operate from STOBAR @-@ configured aircraft carriers , and can take off using a ski @-@ jump with no modifications .

Although not a full @-@ aspect stealth aircraft , the cost of which was viewed as unacceptably excessive , the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) and infrared signature . In order to reduce the RCS , changes from the initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail @-@ fin , fuselage reshaping , repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft 's wing , and the extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards . 70 % of the Rafale 's surface area is composite . Many of the features designed to reduce the Rafale 's visibility to threats remain classified .

= = = Cockpit = = =

The Rafale 's glass cockpit was designed around the principle of data fusion – a central computer intelligently selects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simpler command and control . The primary flight controls are arranged in a hands @-@ on @-@ throttle @-@ and @-@ stick ( HOTAS ) -compatible configuration , with a right @-@ handed side @-@ stick controller and a left @-@ handed throttle . The seat is inclined rearwards at an angle of 29 ° to improve g @-@ force tolerance during manoeuvring and to provide a less restricted external pilot view . An intelligent flight suit worn by the pilot is automatically controlled by the aircraft to counteract in response to calculated g @-@ forces .

Great emphasis has been placed on pilot workload minimisation across all operations . Among the features of the highly digitised cockpit is an integrated direct voice input ( DVI ) system , allowing a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by spoken voice commands , simplifying the pilot 's access to many of the controls . Developed by Crouzet , the DVI is capable of managing radio communications and countermeasures systems , the selection of armaments and radar modes , and controlling navigational functions . For safety reasons , DVI is deliberately not employed for safety @-@ critical elements of the aircraft 's operation , such as the final release of armaments .

For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors across the aircraft , the cockpit features a wide @-@ angle holographic head @-@ up display ( HUD ) system , two head @-@ down flat @-@ panel colour multi @-@ function displays ( MFDs ) as well as a central collimated display . These displays have been strategically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment . Some displays feature a touch interface for ease of Human – computer interaction ( HCI ) . A head @-@ mounted display ( HMD ) for target controlling , while optional according to customer preferences , can also be integrated . The cockpit is fully compatible with night vision goggles ( NVG ) .

In the area of life @-@ support , the Rafale is fitted with a Martin @-@ Baker Mark 16F " zero @-@ zero ” ejection seat , capable of operation at zero speed and zero altitude . An on @-@ board oxygen generating system , developed by Air Liquide , eliminates the need to carry bulky oxygen canisters . The Rafale 's flight computer has been programmed to counteract pilot disorientation and to employ automatic recovery of the aircraft during negative flight conditions . The auto @-@ pilot and autothrottle controls are also integrated , and are activated by switches located on the primary flight controls .

= = = Avionics and equipment = = =

The Rafale core avionics systems employ an integrated modular avionics ( IMA ) , called MDPU ( modular data processing unit ) . This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as the flight management system , data fusion , fire control , and the man @-@ machine interface . The total value of the radar , electronic communications and self @-@ protection equipment is about 30 percent of the cost of the entire aircraft . The IMA has since been installed upon several upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters , and incorporated into the civilian airliner , the Airbus A380 . According to Dassault , the IMA greatly assists combat operations via data fusion , the continuous integration and analysis of the various sensor systems throughout the aircraft , and has been designed for the incorporation of new systems and avionics throughout the Rafale 's service life .

The Rafale features an integrated defensive @-@ aids system named SPECTRA , which protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats , developed as a joint venture between Thales and MBDA . Various methods of detection , jamming , and decoying have been incorporated , and the system has been designed to be highly re @-@ programmable for addressing new threats and incorporating additional sub @-@ systems in the future . Operations over Libya were greatly assisted by SPECTRA , allowing Rafales to perform missions independently from the support of dedicated Suppression of Enemy Air Defences ( SEAD ) platforms .

The Rafale 's ground attack capability is heavily reliant upon sensory targeting pods , such as Thales Optronics 's Reco New Generation / Areos reconnaissance pod and Damocles electro @-@ optical / laser designation pod . Together , these systems provide targeting information , enable tactical reconnaissance missions , and are integrated with the Rafale 's IMA architecture to provide analysed data feeds to friendly units and ground stations , as well as to the pilot . Damocles provides targeting information to the various armaments carried by the Rafale and is directly integrated with the Rafale 's VHF / UHF secure radio to communicate target information with other aircraft . It also performs other key functions such as aerial optical surveillance and is integrated with the navigation system as a FLIR .

The Damocles designation pod were described as " lacking competitiveness " when compared to rivals such as the Sniper and LITENING pods ; so work began on an upgraded pod , designated Damocles XF , with additional sensors and added ability to transmit live video feeds . A new Thales targeting pod , the Talios , was officially unveiled at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show and is expected to be integrated on the Rafale by 2018 . Thales ' Areos reconnaissance pod is an all @-@ weather , night @-@ and @-@ day @-@ capable reconnaissance system employed on the Rafale , and provides a significantly improved reconnaissance capability over preceding platforms . Areos has been designed to perform reconnaissance under various mission profiles and condition , using multiple day / night sensors and its own independent communications datalinks .

= = = Radar and sensors = = =

The Rafale was first outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi @-@ mode radar . Thales claims to have achieved increased levels of situational awareness as compared to earlier aircraft through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long @-@ range interception , as well as real @-@ time generation of three @-@ dimensional maps for terrain @-@ following and the real @-@ time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting . In early 1994 , it was reported that technical difficulties with the radar had delayed the Rafale 's development by six months . In September 2006 , Flight International reported the Rafale 's unit cost had significantly increased due to additional development work to improve the RBE2 's detection range .

The RBE2 AA active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar now replaces the previous passively scanned RBE2 . The RBE2 AA is reported to deliver a greater detection range of 200 km , improved reliability and reduced maintenance demands over the preceding radar . A Rafale demonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours as of December 2011 . By December 2009 , production of the pre @-@ series RBE2 AA radars was underway . In early October 2012 , the first Rafale equipped with an RBE2 AA radar arrived at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base for operational service ( the development was described by Thales and Dassault as " on time and on budget " ) . By early 2014 , the first Air Force front @-@ line squadron were supposed to receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar , following the French Navy which was slated to receive AESA @-@ equipped Rafales starting in 2013 .

To enable the Rafale to perform in the air supremacy role , it includes several passive sensor systems . The front @-@ sector electro @-@ optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal ( OSF ) , developed by Thales , is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths . The OSF enables the deployment of infrared missiles such as the MICA at beyond visual range distances ; it can also be used for detecting and identifying airborne targets , as well as those on the ground and at sea . Dassault describes the OSF as being immune to jamming and capable of providing covert long @-@ range surveillance . In 2012 , an improved version of the OSF was deployed operationally .

= = = Armaments and standards = = =

Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ( " France 1 " ) standard , these had been equipped for the air @-@ to @-@ air interceptor combat duties , but lacked any armaments for air @-@ to @-@ ground operations . Later deliveries were to the " F2 " standard , which added the capability for conducting both air @-@ to @-@ ground and reconnaissance operations ; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in May 2006 . Starting in 2008 onwards , Rafale deliveries have been to the nuclear @-@ capable F3 standard , and it has been reported that all aircraft built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s .

F3 standard Rafales are capable of undertaking many different mission roles with a range of equipment , namely air defence / superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , and precision ground attacks typically using SCALP EG cruise missiles and AASM Hammer air @-@ to @-@ surface armaments . In addition , anti @-@ shipping missions could be carried out using the AM39 Exocet sea skimming missile , while reconnaissance flights would use a combination of onboard and external pod @-@ based sensor equipment . Furthermore , the aircraft could conduct nuclear strikes when armed with ASMP @-@ A missiles . In 2010 , France ordered 200 MBDA Meteor beyond @-@ visual @-@ range missiles which will greatly increase the distance at which the Rafale can engage aerial targets when the missile enters service .

For compatibility with armaments of varying types and origins , the Rafale 's onboard store management system is compliant with MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1760 , an electrical interface between an aircraft and its carriage stores , thereby simplifying the incorporation of many of their existing weapons and equipment . The Rafale is typically outfitted with 14 hardpoints ( only 13 on Rafale M version ) , five of which are suitable for heavy armaments or equipment such as auxiliary fuel tanks , and has a maximum external load capacity of nine tons . In addition to the above equipment , the Rafale carries the 30 mm GIAT 30 DEFA cannon and can be outfitted with a range of laser @-@ guided bombs and ground @-@ attack munitions . According to Dassault , the Rafale 's onboard mission systems enable ground attack and air @-@ to @-@ air combat operations to be carried out within a single sortie , with many functions capable of simultaneous execution in conjunction with another , increasing survivability and versatility .

= = = Engines = = =

The Rafale is fitted with two Snecma M88 engines , each capable of providing up to 50 kN ( 11 @,@ 250 lbf ) of dry thrust and 75 kN ( 16 @,@ 900 lbf ) with afterburners . The engines feature several advances , including a non @-@ polluting combustion chamber , single @-@ crystal turbine blades , powder metallurgy disks , and technology to reduce radar and infrared signatures . The M88 enables the Rafale to supercruise while carrying four missiles and one drop tank .

Qualification of the M88 @-@ 2 engine ended in 1996 and the first production engine was delivered by the end of the year . Due to delays in engine production , some of the early Rafales were temporarily powered by the General Electric F404 engine . In May 2010 , a Rafale flew for the first time with the M88 @-@ 4E engine , an upgraded variant with greater thrust and lower maintenance requirements than the preceding M88 @-@ 2 . The engine is of a modular design for ease of construction and maintenance and to enable older engines to be retrofitted with improved subsections upon availability , such as existing M88 @-@ 2s being upgraded to M88 @-@ 4E standard . There has been interest in more powerful M88 engines by potential export customers , such as the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) . As of 2007 , a thrust vectoring variant of the engine designated as M88 @-@ 3D was also under development .

= = Operational history = =

= = = France = = =

= = = = Aéronavale = = = =

In December 2000 , the French Naval Aviation ( Aéronavale ) , the air arm of the French Navy , received its first two Rafale M fighters . On 18 May the following year , the squadron Flottille 12F , which had previously operated the F @-@ 8 Crusader , became the first squadron to operate the Rafale after it was officially re @-@ activated prior to the delivery of the sixth Rafale . Flottille 12F immediately participated in Trident d ’ Or aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle with warships from ten other nations . During the maritime exercise , the Navy tested the Rafale 's avionics during simulated interceptions with various foreign aircraft , in addition to carrier take @-@ offs and landings . After almost four years of training , the Rafale M was declared operational with the French Navy in June 2004 .

The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks . On 4 June 2010 , during an exercise on USS Harry S. Truman ( CVN @-@ 75 ) , a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its engine replaced on board an American aircraft carrier .

In 2002 , the Rafales were first deployed to a combat zone ; seven Rafale Ms embarked aboard Charles de Gaulle of the French Navy during " Mission Héraclès " , the French participation in " Operation Enduring Freedom " . They flew from the aircraft carrier over Afghanistan , but the F1 standard precluded air @-@ to @-@ ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action . In June 2002 , while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea , Rafales conducted several patrols near the India @-@ Pakistan border .

= = = = French Air Force = = = =

Rafales were delivered to the French Air Force several years after the naval variant , initially with the Centre d ’ Expériences Aériennes Militaires ( French Air Force Evaluation Centre ) at Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base in the trials and training role . By this time , it was expected that Escadron de Chasse ( Fighter Squadron ) 1 / 7 at Saint @-@ Dizier would receive a nucleus of 8 – 10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006 , in preparation for full operational service ( with robust air @-@ to @-@ air and stand off air @-@ to @-@ ground precision attack capabilities ) starting from mid @-@ 2007 ( when EC 1 / 7 would have about 20 aircraft , 15 two @-@ seaters and five single @-@ seaters ) .

In 2007 , after a " crash program " enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser @-@ guided bombs , in view of engaging them in Afghanistan . Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe in Tajikistan , while the three others were Rafale Marine of the Navy on board Charles De Gaulle . The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007 , and the first GBU @-@ 12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan , marking the operational début of the Rafale . Between January 2009 and December 2011 , a minimum of three Rafales were stationed at Kandahar International Airport to conduct combat operations in support of NATO ground forces .

On 19 March 2011 , French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan , in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 ; initial targets were artillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city of Benghazi . The Rafale could operate in Libya without the support of SEAD aircraft , using the onboard SPECTRA self @-@ defence system instead . On 24 March 2011 , it was reported that a Rafale had destroyed a Libyan Air Force G @-@ 2 / Galeb light attack / trainer aircraft on the runway .

During the conflict , Rafales typically conducted six @-@ hour sorties over Libyan airspace , carrying an armament of four MICA air @-@ to @-@ air missiles , four or six AASM " Hammer " bombs , a Thales Damoclès targeting pod and two drop tanks ; these patrols required multiple aerial refuelling operations per sortie from coalition tanker aircraft . The AASM precision @-@ guidance weapon system , using bombs weighing between 125 kilograms ( 280 lb ) and 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , allowed the Rafale to conduct high @-@ altitude bombing missions . Reportedly , Rafale crews preferred to use GPS @-@ guided munitions due to greater reliability and range . Storm Shadow SCALP weapons were deployed on only one or two sorties , including one against a Libyan airbase at Al @-@ Jufra . In 2011 , aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that the Rafale 's performance in Libya is likely to be pivotal to its export future , reporting that the Rafale had maintained a high operational rate throughout the deployment . Hoyle also noted that the Libyan combat experience had caused several urgent operational requirements to present themselves , such as the need for a lighter ground @-@ attack munition and to modify the AASM weapon to be more effective in the close air support role .

In January 2013 , the Rafale took part in " Opération Serval " , the French military intervention in support to the government of Mali against the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa . The first mission was carried out on 13 January , when four Rafales took off from an airbase in France to strike rebel training camps , depots and facilities in the city of Gao , eastern Mali . Subsequent airstrikes in the following days by Rafale and Mirage fighters were reportedly instrumental in the withdrawal of Islamist militant forces from Timbuktu and Douentza . Both Rafale and Mirage 2000D aircraft used in the conflict have been based outside of North Africa , making use of aerial refuelling tanker aircraft to fly long range sorties across Algerian airspace and into Mali .

In August 2013 , it was proposed that France may halve the number of Rafales to be delivered over the next six years for a total of 26 aircraft to be delivered during this period ; foreign export procurements have been viewed as critical to maintain production under this proposal . While production would be slowed , France would still receive the same number of Rafales overall .

In September 2014 , Rafales began flying reconnaissance missions over Iraq as part of Opération Chammal , France 's contribution to the international effort to combat Islamic State ( IS ) militants . Six ( later nine ) Rafales were initially tasked with identifying IS positions in support of US airstrikes , flying from Al Dhafra Air Base , UAE . On 18 September , Rafales joined American operations in conducting attacks , launching four strikes near the Northern Iraqi town of Zumar that destroyed a logistics depot and killed dozens of IS fighters .

In December 2015 , American and French military officials reportedly discussed the possibility of French naval Rafale Ms flying combat missions from a US Navy Nimitz @-@ class aircraft carrier as soon as January 2017 . This would enable continued French Navy operations against ISIL while Charles de Gaulle undergoes its year and a half @-@ long major refit , scheduled to begin in early 2017 . Although Rafales have launched and landed on U.S. carriers to demonstrate interoperability , it would be the first time they would fly combat missions from one . As many as 18 Rafale Ms could be deployed on a carrier , although some room would have to be made for French Navy support crews familiar with maintaining the Rafale , as well as for spare parts and munitions .

= = = Egypt = = =

In November 2014 , it was reported by several sources , including the French newspaper La Tribune that Egypt was in negotiations with France to purchase 24 to 36 Rafales , subject to the financing agreement . By February 2015 , the two countries were negotiating a loan from France 's export credit agency to reach an export agreement for up to 24 Rafale fighters . Egypt hoped to complete deal quickly to have aircraft on display at the inauguration of the Suez Canal expansion in August 2015 .

On 16 February 2015 , Egypt became the Rafale 's first international customer when it officially ordered 24 Rafales , as part of a larger deal ( including a FREMM multipurpose frigate and a supply of missiles ) worth US $ 5 @.@ 9 billion ( € 5 @.@ 2 billion ) . In July 2015 , the official ceremony , marking the acceptance by Egypt of its first 3 Rafales , was held at the Dassault Aviation flight test center in Istres . In January 2016 , Egypt received three more Rafales for a total of six fighters . All six aircraft are two @-@ seat models and were diverted from delivery to the French Air Force ; Egypt 's order has 8 single @-@ seat models and 16 two @-@ seaters . In June 2016 , it was reported that Egypt is in negotiations with Dassault to acquire 12 additional Rafales for a total of 36 .

= = = Qatar = = =

From January 2011 the Qatar Emiri Air Force evaluated the Rafale alongside the Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , the Boeing F @-@ 15E , the Eurofighter Typhoon , and the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II to replace its then inventory of Dassault Mirage 2000 @-@ 5s . By June 2014 , Dassault had claimed it was close to signing a contract with Qatar for 72 Rafales . On 30 April 2015 , Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani announced to French President François Hollande that Qatar will order 24 Rafale with an option to buy additional 12 more aircraft . The € 6 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 7 @.@ 02 billion ) deal for 24 Rafales was signed on 4 May .

= = = India = = =

The Rafale was one of the six aircraft competing in the Indian MRCA competition for 126 multirole fighters . Originally , the Mirage 2000 had been considered for the competition , but Dassault withdrew it in favour of the Rafale . In February 2011 , French Rafales flew demonstrations in India , including air @-@ to @-@ air combat against Su @-@ 30MKIs . In April 2011 , the Indian Air Force ( IAF ) shortlisted the Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the US $ 10 @.@ 4 billion contract . On 31 January 2012 , the IAF announced the Rafale as the preferred bidder . It was proposed that 18 Rafales would be supplied to the IAF by 2015 in fly @-@ away condition , while the remaining 108 would be manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited ( HAL ) in India under transfer of technology agreements . The contract for 126 Rafales , services , and parts may have been worth up to US $ 20 billion .

The deal stalled due to disagreements over production in India . Dassault refused to take responsibility for the 108 HAL @-@ manufactured Rafales , as it had reservations about the ability of HAL to accommodate the complex manufacturing and technology transfers of the aircraft . Instead , Dassault said it would have to negotiate two separate production contracts by both companies . The Indian Defence Ministry instead wanted Dassault to be solely responsible for the sale and delivery of all 126 aircraft . In May 2013 , The Times of India reported that negotiations were " back on track " , with plans for the first 18 Rafales to be delivered in 2017 . Another point of contention was a provision where Dassault was to reinvest 50 percent of the deal 's earnings into India 's defence sectors , either through purchases or technological expertise . In March 2014 , the two sides were reported to have agreed that the first 18 aircraft would be delivered to India in flying condition and that the remaining 108 would be 70 percent built by HAL . In December 2014 , it was reported that India and France expect to sign a contract by March 2015 .

In April 2015 , during Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's visit to Paris , India requested the rapid delivery of 36 Rafales in fly @-@ away condition . Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated that these will be inducted into the IAF within two years . India officially withdrew the 126 @-@ aircraft MMRCA tender on 30 July 2015 . Shortly after , India and France missed the July target of finalizing the 36 @-@ aircraft agreement . The previously @-@ agreed @-@ upon terms in April totaled US $ 8 billion for 36 aircraft costing $ 200 million each , with an offset requirement of 30 percent of the deal 's value for France to reinvest in India 's defense sector and create infrastructure in India for the Rafale to operate . India is insisting on a 50 percent offset and two bases , which France says will increase price and require separate infrastructure and two sets of maintenance , training , and armament storage facilities .

In January 2016 , the Indian government directed the Indian Navy to undertake detailed briefings with Dassault regarding the Rafale , in a potential start to procurement of the naval version for its aircraft carriers . The government wants commonalities between logistics and spares for fighters with the Navy and Air Force , which could lead to a buy of 54 naval fighters . As of June 2016 , negotiations were ongoing .

= = = Potential operators = = =

Analysts view the relatively quick series of 84 orders from Egypt , India and Qatar as being influenced by the Arab Spring and uncertainty of US involvement in the Middle East .

= = = = Canada = = = =

The Rafale has been amongst various aircraft proposed to meet Canada 's need for a modern jet fighter to replace the aging McDonnell Douglas CF @-@ 18 Hornet of the Royal Canadian Air Force . In 2005 , according to Canada.com , a report compiled by Canada 's Defence Department reviewing several competing aircraft had noted concerns over the Rafale 's interoperability with US forces ; Dassault had also then been unable to confirm engine performance during cold weather conditions . In July 2010 , the Canadian government announced the replacement for the CF @-@ 18 was to be the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , as the country has been a partner in the Joint Strike Fighter program since 1997 and a Tier 3 partner for the F @-@ 35 since 2002 .

Then in December 2012 , the Canadian government announced that the purchase of the F @-@ 35 had been abandoned due to greatly escalating costs , and that a fresh procurement process would begin . In January 2013 , Dassault responded to a request for information from the Canadian government and announced its readiness to enter a future competition for a future fighter procurement . Various aircraft are to be considered to meet the requirement , including the F @-@ 35 . In January 2014 , it was reported that Dassault offered a contract with full transfer of technology to allow Canada to perform its own support and upgrades , thereby lowering long @-@ term service costs .

= = = = Finland = = = =

In June 2015 , a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the so @-@ called HX program to replace the Finnish Air Force 's current fleet of F / A @-@ 18 Hornets . The group recognises five potential types : Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , Dassault Rafale , Eurofighter Typhoon , Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen .

In December 2015 Finnish MoD sent a letter to Great Britain , France , Sweden and the United States where it informed that the fighter project was launched in the Defence Forces . The goal of the project is to replace the Hornet fleet , which will be decommissioned as of 2025 , with multi @-@ role fighters . The project has been named as HX Fighter Program . Dassault Rafale is mentioned in the letter as a potential fighter for the program . The request for information concerning the HX Fighter Program will be sent at the latest in March 2016 . A call for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to take place in 2021 .

= = = = Malaysia = = = =

The Rafale is one of contenders for the replacement of the Royal Malaysian Air Force 's ( RMAF ) Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 . The RMAF is looking to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighter aircraft with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 84 billion to US $ 2 @.@ 46 billion ) . The other competitors for the program are the Eurofighter Typhoon , Boeing F / A @-@ 18 / F Super Hornet and Saab JAS 39 Gripen .

= = = = United Arab Emirates = = = =

In 2009 , the United Arab Emirates Air Force was interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar , and advanced air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . In October 2011 , Dassault was confident that a US $ 10 @-@ billion deal for up to 60 Rafale aircraft would be signed . However , Deputy Supreme Commander of the Union Defence Force , Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan , in November 2011 called the French offer " uncompetitive and unworkable " ; France had in 2010 asked the UAE to pay US $ 2 @.@ 6 billion of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale . Consequently , the UAE started to explore a purchase of the Eurofighter Typhoon or the F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet .

The newspaper La Tribune reported in February 2012 , that the UAE was still considering the US $ 10 @-@ billion deal for 60 Rafales . Interoperatibility among the Gulf air forces has led to renewed interest in the Rafale from Qatar and Kuwait . In January 2013 , President Hollande stated that he would be discussing the potential sale of Rafale to the UAE during an official visit . In December 2013 , it was announced that UAE had decided not to proceed with a deal for the supply of defence and security services , including the supply of Typhoon aircraft . In September 2014 it was announced that the UAE could acquire 40 Rafales in addition to upgrades to its existing Mirage 2000s . In November 2015 , Reuters reported that Major General Ibrahim Nasser Al Alawi , commander of the UAE Air Force and Air Defence , had confirmed that the UAE was in final negotiations to purchase 60 Rafales .

= = = Failed bids = = =

The Rafale has been marketed for export to various countries . Various commentators and industry sources have highlighted the high cost of the aircraft as detrimental to the Rafale 's sales prospects . Its acquisition cost is roughly US $ 100 million ( 2010 ) , while its operational cost hovers around US $ 16 @,@ 500 ( 2012 ) for every flight @-@ hour . The Saab JAS Gripen , in comparison , costs only US $ 4 @,@ 700 per flight @-@ hour to operate . According to a 2009 article by the Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis , unlike the American government and its relationship with Boeing and Lockheed Martin , the lack of communication between the French government and Dassault has hampered a worldwide cooperative sales effort , as demonstrated by the case with Morocco in 2007 .

= = = = Brazil = = = =

In June 2008 , the Brazilian Air Force issued a request for information on the following aircraft : F / A @-@ 18E / F Super Hornet , F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon , Rafale , Su @-@ 35 , Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon . In October 2008 , the Brazilian Air Force selected three finalists for F @-@ X2 – Dassault Rafale , Gripen NG and Boeing F / A @-@ 18E / F. On 5 January 2010 , media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders based on unit and operating costs . In February 2011 , the press announced that the new president of Brazil , Dilma Rousseff , had decided in favour of the American F @-@ 18 . After much delay due to budget constraints , in December 2013 the Brazilian government selected the Gripen NG in a US $ 5 billion deal to equip the country 's air force .

= = = = Singapore = = = =

In 2005 , the Republic of Singapore Air Force embarked on its Next Generation Fighter ( NGF ) programme to replace its fleet of ageing A @-@ 4SU Super Skyhawks . A number of options were considered and the Defence Science & Technology Agency ( DSTA ) conducted a detailed technical assessment , as well as simulations and other tests to determine the final selection . Following this , the original list of competitors was reduced to the final two – Dassault Rafale and the F @-@ 15SG Strike Eagle . In December 2005 , Singapore ordered 12 F @-@ 15SG aircraft . According to Defense Industry Daily , one major reason for the selection was that , while the Rafale had superior aerodynamics , it lacked the range and a capable radar , and had insufficient weapons and sensor integration .

= = = = Switzerland = = = =

In February 2007 , it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its Northrop F @-@ 5 Tiger IIs . The one @-@ month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approximately 30 evaluation flights . The Rafale along with the JAS 39 Gripen and the Typhoon were to be evaluated . Although a leaked Swiss Air Force evaluation report revealed that the Rafale won the competition on technical grounds , on 30 November 2011 , the Swiss Federal Council announced that it was planning to buy 22 Gripen NGs due to the aircraft 's lower acquisition and maintenance costs . Due to a referendum , this purchase never happened .

= = = = Libya = = = =

In January 2007 , the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya sought 13 – 18 Rafales " in a deal worth as much as US $ 3 @.@ 24 billion " . In December 2007 , Saif al @-@ Islam Gaddafi declared Libya 's interest in the Rafale , but no order was placed . French Rafales later came to Libya as part of the international military intervention during the 2011 Libyan civil war .

= = = = Kuwait = = = =

In February 2009 , French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales . In October 2009 , during a visit to Paris , the Kuwaiti Defence Minister expressed his interest in the Rafale and said that he was awaiting terms from Dassault . Islamist lawmakers in the Kuwaiti national assembly threatened to block such a purchase , accusing the Defence Minister of lack of transparency and being manipulated by business interests . In January 2012 , the French Defence Minister said that both Kuwait and Qatar were waiting to see if the UAE first purchased the Rafale and that Kuwait would look to buy 18 – 22 Rafales . However , on 11 September 2015 , Eurofighter announced that an agreement had been reached with Kuwait for the supply of 28 Eurofighter Typhoons .

= = = = Others = = = =

In 2002 , the Republic of Korea Air Force chose the F @-@ 15K Slam Eagle over the Dassault Rafale , Eurofighter Typhoon and Sukhoi Su @-@ 35 for its 40 aircraft F @-@ X Phase 1 fighter competition .

During 2006 , while there was potentially trouble with Anglo @-@ American negotiations over the F @-@ 35 Lightning II , there was talk of purchasing the Rafale M for the British Royal Navy . However , in May 2012 , after having abandoned the F @-@ 35B STOVL version in favour of the F @-@ 35C CATOBAR variant in October 2010 , the UK reverted to purchasing the F @-@ 35B .

In late 2007 , La Tribune reported that a prospective US $ 2 @.@ 85 billion sale to Morocco had fallen through , the government selecting the F @-@ 16C / D instead . While French Defense Minister Herve Morin labelled the aircraft as overly sophisticated and too costly , defense analysists have said that miscalculations of the offer price by the DGA and hesitations about financing were detrimental to the negotiations .

In February 2009 , France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars . In December 2012 , Oman placed an order for 12 Typhoons , after reports surfaced that the country had preference for the fighter in 2010 .

= = Variants = =

Rafale A

Technology demonstrator , first flying in 1986 .

Rafale D

Dassault used this designation ( D for discrète ) in the early 1990s to emphasise the new semi @-@ stealthy design features .

Rafale B

Two @-@ seater version for the French Air Force .

Rafale C

Single @-@ seat version for the French Air Force .

Rafale M

Carrier @-@ borne version for the French Naval Aviation , which entered service in 2001 . For carrier operations , the M model has a strengthened airframe , longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose @-@ up attitude , larger tailhook between the engines , and a built @-@ in boarding ladder . Consequently , the Rafale M weighs about 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) more than the Rafale C. It is the only non @-@ US fighter type cleared to operate from the decks of US carriers , using catapults and their arresting gear , as demonstrated in 2008 when six Rafales from Flottille 12F integrated into the USS Theodore Roosevelt Carrier Air Wing interoperability exercise .

Rafale N

Originally called the Rafale BM , was a planned missile @-@ only two @-@ seater version for the Aéronavale . Budgetary and technical constraints have been cited as grounds for its cancellation .

Rafale R

Proposed reconnaissance @-@ oriented variant .

Rafale DM

Two @-@ seater version for the Egyptian Air Force .

Rafale EM

Single @-@ seat version for the Egyptian Air Force .

= = Operators = =

Egypt

Egyptian Air Force – 6 Rafale DMs are in service in January 2016 . ( 24 on order )

France

A total of 180 have been ordered out of a planned 286 , with an option for another 9 . Approximately 150 are confirmed to be delivered by 2019 . As of 2015 , 135 had been delivered .

French Air Force – 91Saint @-@ Dizier – Robinson Air Base

Escadron de Chasse 01 @-@ 007 " Provence " ( 2006 – present ) multirole fighter

Escadron de Chasse 01 @-@ 091 " Gascogne " ( 2009 – present ) nuclear strike

Escadron de Transformation Rafale 02 @-@ 092 " Aquitaine " ( October 2010 – present , French Air Force Operational Conversion Unit ( OCU ) jointly operated by French Air Force and French naval Aviation )

Mont @-@ de @-@ Marsan Air Base

Escadron de Chasse 02 @-@ 030 " Normandie @-@ Niemen " ( 2012 – present ) multirole fighter

Escadron de Chasse et d 'Expérimentation 05 @-@ 330 " Côte d 'Argent " ( 2004 – present ) tactics development and evaluation

Al Dhafra Air Base , UAE

Escadron de Chasse 03 @-@ 030 " Lorraine " ( 2010 – present ) multirole fighter

French Navy – 44Naval Air Base Landivisiau

Flottille 11F ( 2011 – present ) multirole carrier fighter

Flottille 12F ( 2001 – present ) multirole carrier fighter

Flottille 17F ( to convert in mid @-@ 2016 ) multirole carrier fighter

India

Indian Air Force – 36 to be ordered . Final contract to be signed .

Qatar

Qatar Air Force – 24 on order

= = Accidents = =

On 6 December 2007 , a French Air Force twin @-@ seat Rafale crashed during a training flight . The pilot , who suffered from spatial disorientation , was killed in the accident .

On 24 September 2009 , after unarmed test flights , two French Navy Rafales returning to the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle , collided in mid @-@ air about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the town of Perpignan in southwest France . One test pilot , identified as François Duflot , was killed in the accident , while the other was rescued .

On 28 November 2010 , a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea . This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan . The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by a rescue helicopter from the carrier . Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due to confusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks .

On 2 July 2012 , during a joint exercise , a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle plunged into the Mediterranean Sea . The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by an American search and rescue helicopter from the carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower .

= = Specifications = =

Data from Dassault Aviation , Superfighters , French Navy , International Directory of Military Aircraft

General characteristics

Crew : 1 – 2

Length : 15 @.@ 27 m ( 50 @.@ 1 ft )

Wingspan : 10 @.@ 80 m ( 35 @.@ 4 ft )

Height : 5 @.@ 34 m ( 17 @.@ 5 ft )

Wing area : 45 @.@ 7 m ² ( 492 ft ² )

Empty weight :

10 @,@ 300 kilograms ( 22 @,@ 700 lb ) ( B )

9 @,@ 850 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 720 lb ) ( C ) ( )

Loaded weight : 15 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 33 @,@ 000 lb ) ( )

Max. takeoff weight : 24 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 54 @,@ 000 lb ) ( B / C / D ) ( )

Powerplant : 2 × Snecma M88 @-@ 2 turbofans

Dry thrust : 50 @.@ 04 kN ( 11 @,@ 250 lbf ) each

Thrust with afterburner : 75 @.@ 62 kN ( 17 @,@ 000 lbf ) each

Fuel capacity : 4 @,@ 700 kg ( 10 @,@ 360 lb ) internal

Performance

Maximum speed : High altitude : Mach 1 @.@ 8 ( 1 @,@ 912 km / h , 1 @,@ 032 knots )

Low altitude : Mach 1 @.@ 1 ( 1 @,@ 390 km / h , 750 knots )

Supercruise : Up to Mach 1 @.@ 4

Range : 3 @,@ 700 + km ( 2 @,@ 000 + nmi ) with 3 drop tanks

Combat radius : 1 @,@ 852 + km ( 1 @,@ 000 + nmi ) on penetration mission

Service ceiling : 15 @,@ 235 m ( 50 @,@ 000 ft )

Rate of climb : 304 @.@ 8 + m / s ( 60 @,@ 000 + ft / min )

Wing loading : 328 kg / m ² ( 67 @.@ 1 lb / ft ² )

Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 988 ( 100 % fuel , 2 EM A2A missile , 2 IR A2A missile ) version B

Maximum g @-@ load : + 9 / – 3 @.@ 6 g

Armament

Guns : 1 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) GIAT 30 / M791 autocannon with 125 rounds

Hardpoints : 14 for Air Force versions ( Rafale B / C ) , 13 for Navy version ( Rafale M ) with a capacity of 9 @,@ 500 kg ( 20 @,@ 900 lb ) external fuel and ordnance and provisions to carry combinations of :

Missiles :

Air @-@ to @-@ air :

Magic II

MBDA MICA IR or EM

MBDA Meteor in the future

Air @-@ to @-@ ground :

MBDA Apache

MBDA Storm Shadow / SCALP @-@ EG

AASM @-@ Hammer ( SBU @-@ 38 / 54 / 64 )

GBU @-@ 12 Paveway II , GBU @-@ 22 Paveway III , GBU @-@ 24 Paveway III , GBU @-@ 49 Enhanced Paveway II

AS @-@ 30L

Air @-@ to @-@ surface :

MBDA AM 39 @-@ Exocet anti @-@ ship missile

MBDA CVS401 @-@ Perseus in the future

Nuclear Deterrence :

ASMP @-@ A nuclear missile

Other : Thales Damocles targeting pod

Thales AREOS ( Airborne Recce Observation System ) reconnaissance pod

Thales TALIOS multi @-@ function targeting pod in the future ( F3R Standard )

Up to 5 drop tanks

Buddy @-@ buddy refuelling pod

Avionics

Thales RBE2 @-@ AA AESA radar

Thales SPECTRA Electronic Warfare system .

Thales / SAGEM @-@ OSF Optronique Secteur Frontal infra @-@ red search and track ( IRST ) system .

= A Journey =

A Journey is a memoir by Tony Blair of his tenure as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . Published in the UK on 1 September 2010 , it covers events from when he became leader of the Labour Party in 1994 and transformed it into " New Labour " , holding power for a party record three successive terms , to his resignation and replacement as Prime Minister by his Chancellor of the Exchequer , Gordon Brown . Blair donated his £ 4 @.@ 6 million advance , and all subsequent royalties , to the British Armed Forces charity The Royal British Legion . It became the fastest @-@ selling autobiography of all time at the bookstore chain Waterstones . Promotional events were marked by antiwar protests .

Two of the book 's major topics are the strains in Blair 's relationship with Brown after Blair allegedly reneged on the pair 's 1994 agreement to step down as Prime Minister much earlier , and his controversial decision to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Blair discusses Labour 's future after the 2010 general election , his relations with the Royal Family , and how he came to respect President George W. Bush . Reviews were mixed ; some criticised Blair 's writing style , but others called it candid .

Gordon Brown was reportedly unhappy over Blair 's comments about him , while David Runciman of The London Review of Books suggested there were episodes from Blair 's troubled relationship with his Chancellor that were absent from A Journey . Labour politician Alistair Darling said the book demonstrates how the country can be changed for the better when a government has a clear purpose , while the New Zealand Listener suggested Blair and his contemporaries had helped to write New Labour 's epitaph . Some families of servicemen and women who were killed in Iraq reacted angrily , with one antiwar commentator dismissing Blair 's regrets over the loss of life . Shortly after the release of A Journey , the screenwriter of the 2006 film The Queen , which depicts Blair 's first months in office , accused Blair of plagiarising a conversation with Elizabeth II from him .

= = History = =

In March 2010 , it was reported that Blair 's memoirs , under the title The Journey , would be published in September . Gail Rebuck , chairman and chief executive of Random House , announced that the memoirs would be published by Hutchinson in the United Kingdom . She predicted that the book would " break new ground in prime ministerial memoirs just as Blair himself broke the mould of British politics . " Preliminary images of the book 's cover , showing Blair in an open @-@ neck shirt , were released . In July , the memoir was retitled as A Journey ; one publishing expert speculated that it was changed to make Blair appear " less messianic " . The publisher did not give any reason . It was announced the book would be published by Knopf in the United States and Canada under the title A Journey : My Political Life ; and in Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , and India by Random House . It was also released as an audiobook , read by Blair available for download and on 13 compact discs with a playing time of 16 hours . The book was published in the United Kingdom on 1 September .

Before the launch , Blair announced that he would give the £ 4.6m advance and all royalties from his memoirs to a sports centre for injured soldiers . In an interview with Jonathon Gatehouse , he conceded , " You wouldn 't be human if you didn 't feel both a sense of responsibility and a deep sadness for those who have lost their lives . That responsibility stays with me now , and will stay with me for the rest of my life . You know , I came to office as prime minister in 1997 , focusing on domestic policy and ended up in four conflicts – Sierra Leone , Kosovo , Afghanistan and Iraq . And it does change you , and so it should . " BBC political correspondent Norman Smith said Blair 's severest critics would see the donation as " guilt money " for taking the UK to war against Iraq in 2003 . The father of a soldier killed there decried the donation as " blood money " , while the father of another serviceman who died said Blair had a " guilty conscience . " A spokesperson for the Stop the War Coalition supported with the donation , but added , " No proportion of Tony Blair 's massive and ill @-@ gotten fortune can buy him innocence or forgiveness . He took this country to war on a series of lies against the best legal advice and in defiance of majority opinion . " A spokesman for Blair said that it had long been his intention to give the money to a charity ; he added aiding soldiers undergoing rehabilitation at the Battle Back Challenge Centre was " his way of honouring their courage and sacrifice . " The announcement was welcomed by Chris Simpkins , director general of The Royal British Legion , who said , " Mr Blair 's generosity is much appreciated and will help us to make a real and lasting difference to the lives of hundreds of injured personnel . "

= = Synopsis = =

A Journey covers Blair 's time as leader of the Labour Party and then British Prime Minister following his party 's victory at the 1997 general election . His tenure as Labour leader begins in 1994 following the death of his predecessor , John Smith , an event Blair claims to have had a premonition about a month before Smith died . Blair believes he will succeed Smith as Labour leader rather than Gordon Brown , who is a strong contender for the job . Blair and Brown subsequently reach an agreement whereby Brown will not run against Blair for the position , and will succeed him later . But it leads to a difficult working relationship , which is discussed at length . He likens them both to " a couple who loved each other , arguing over whose career should come first . " To him , Brown is a " strange guy " with " zero " emotional intelligence .

Having been elected as leader Blair moves the Labour Party to the political centre ground , repackaging it as " New Labour " , and goes on to win the 1997 general election . At his first meeting with Elizabeth II following his election as Prime Minister Blair recalls the Queen telling him , " You are my tenth prime minister . The first was Winston . That was before you were born . " Within a few months his government must deal with the aftermath of the death of Diana , Princess of Wales , and following the Princess 's funeral , Elizabeth II tells Blair that lessons must be learned from the way things have been handled . Social occasions with the Queen are also recalled , including a gathering at Balmoral Castle where Prince Philip is described manning the barbecue while Elizabeth II dons a pair of rubber gloves to wash up afterwards .

From the outset Blair 's government plays a significant role in the Northern Ireland peace process , during which Blair admits to using " a certain amount of creative ambiguity " to secure an agreement , claiming the process would not have succeeded otherwise . He says that he stretched the truth " on occasions past breaking point " in the run @-@ up to the 2007 power @-@ sharing deal which enabled the return of devolved legislative powers from Westminster to the Northern Ireland Executive . Both Gerry Adams and Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin are praised for the part they played in the peace process .

One of the themes that dominates the latter part of Blair 's time in office is his decision to join US President George W. Bush in committing troops to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the aftermath of which he describes as a " nightmare " , but that he believes to have been necessary because Saddam Hussein " had not abandoned the strategy of WMD [ weapons of mass destruction ] , merely made a tactical decision to put it into abeyance " . He would make the same decision again with regard to Iran , warning that if that country develops nuclear weapons it will change the balance of power of the Middle East , to the region 's detriment . Blair believes some problems in Iraq still require a " resolution " and will fester if left unattended . Of the war dead he says , " I feel desperately sorry for them , sorry for the lives cut short , sorry for the families whose bereavement is made worse by the controversy over why their loved ones died , sorry for the utterly unfair selection that the loss should be theirs . " A year on from the invasion he hopes Bush will win a second term as US President : " I had come to like and admire George , " he writes .

In 2003 , Blair promises his Chancellor , Gordon Brown that he will resign before the next general election , but later changes his mind . Brown subsequently attempts to blackmail him , threatened to call for a Labour Party inquiry into the 2005 Cash for Honours affair during an argument over pension policy . Brown succeeds Blair as Labour Party leader and Prime Minister in 2007 . But while Blair praises Brown as a good Chancellor and a committed public servant , he believes his decision to abandon the New Labour policies of the Blair years leads to the party 's 2010 election defeat . However , Brown is right to restructure British banks and introduce an economic stimulus after the financial crisis .

The book closes with a final chapter offering a critique of Labour Party policy , and discusses its future . Blair warns Brown 's successor that if Labour is to remain electable they should continue with the policies of New Labour and not return to the left @-@ wing policies of the 1980s : " I won three elections . Up to then , Labour had never even won two successive full terms . The longest Labour government had lasted six years . This lasted 13 . It could have gone on longer , had it not abandoned New Labour . "

= = Publication = =

Within hours of its launch A Journey became the fastest @-@ selling autobiography of all time at bookseller Waterstones , where it sold more copies in one day than Peter Mandelson 's The Third Man : Life at the Heart of New Labour had done in its first three weeks earlier that year . It debuted at the top of Amazon.co.uk 's British best @-@ seller list . Within a week , Nielsen BookScan said that 92 @,@ 000 copies of A Journey had been sold in the United Kingdom , the best opening week for an autobiography since the company began keeping figures in 1998 . The New York Times reported that in the United States , an initial print run of 50 @,@ 000 copies had been extended by another 25 @,@ 000 , with the book set to debut at Number 3 on The New York Times hardcover best @-@ seller list . Andrew Lake , Waterstones ' political buyer , said , " Nothing can compare to the level of interest shown in this book . You have to look at hugely successful fiction authors such as Dan Brown or JK Rowling to find books that have sold more quickly on their first day . Mandelson may remain the prince but Blair has reclaimed his title as king , certainly in terms of book sales .

Blair recorded a series of promotional interviews for radio and television for , among others , the Arabic television network Al Jazeera , the ITV1 daytime magazine programme This Morning , and BBC Two , which aired an hour @-@ long interview with the journalist and political commentator Andrew Marr . He was in Washington , D.C. on the day of the UK launch to participate in peace talks with Middle East leaders and attend a White House dinner with Barack Obama , Hillary Clinton , and Israeli and Palestinian leaders . The British newspaper The Independent reported that Blair 's visit to the United States was a coincidence , and not an attempt to be out of the United Kingdom when the book was published . When Blair arrived for his first book signing at a leading bookshop on O 'Connell Street , Dublin on 4 September , demonstrators heckled , jeered and threw eggs and shoes at him . One activist posed as a purchaser to attempt a citizen 's arrest of Blair for war crimes . Protestors clashed with Irish police and tried to push over a security barrier outside the shop . The demonstrators — anti @-@ war protestors and Irish republicans opposed to the peace process — called queuing customers " traitors " and " West Brits " . Four people were arrested during the incident .

Several days after the launch of the book , Blair appeared on the series premiere of ITV1 's breakfast television programme Daybreak , where he criticised the Dublin protestors as a small minority given undue media attention . Since the book was selling well , and given fears that protesters would also be present at a forthcoming book signing in London on 8 September , he expressed doubts over whether that event was justifiable or worth the inevitable disruption . Later in the day it was confirmed the signing at Waterstones in Piccadilly would not go ahead . A spokesman for Blair announced that a planned launch party for the book scheduled for the Tate Modern would take place despite plans by the Stop the War Coalition to demonstrate . However , the following day this event was also cancelled as a result of threats of disruption by campaigners . In subsequent weeks , a number of media organisations reported that copies of A Journey were being moved from autobiographical sections in bookshops to sections on crime and horror . More than 10 @,@ 000 people had joined a Facebook page calling for that action .

= = Reception = =

= = = In the United Kingdom = = =

A Journey drew a mixed reception from critics . Financial Times editor Lionel Barber called it " part psychodrama , part treatise on the frustrations of leadership in a modern democracy ... written in a chummy style with touches of Mills & Boon " . He wrote that it made Blair seem " likable , if manipulative ; capable of dissembling while wonderfully fluent ; in short , a brilliant modern politician ( whatever his moans about the media ) . " Writing in The Independent on Sunday , Geoffrey Beattie said A Journey offered an understanding of Blair 's " underlying psychology . " John Rentoul , author of the Blair biography Tony Blair Prime Minister , was equally positive , giving particular praise to the chapter on the Iraq War . " The chapter on Iraq is tightly argued in some detail , which may persuade those with open minds to recognise that the decision to join the US invasion was a reasonable , if not very successful , one , rather than a conspiracy against life , the universe and everything decent , " he said . Mary Ann Sieghart , writing for The Independent said , " whatever its faults , and toe @-@ curling passages , [ A Journey ] has many good lessons on how to succeed in both opposition and government .

Other reviewers were less positive . The political journalist and author Andrew Rawnsley was critical of Blair 's writing style in The Observer . " It is Tony Blair 's boast that he wrote every word in longhand ' on hundreds of notepads ' . That I believe , " he wrote . " He was the most brilliant communicator of his era as a platform speaker or television interviewee , but he can be a ghastly writer . Anyone thinking about taking this journey needs to be given a travel advisory : much of the prose is execrable ... I could say that it is a pity that Tony Blair did not employ a ghostwriter to prettify the prose and organise his recollections more elegantly . " Rawnsley does , though , praise the book as being " a more honest political memoir than most and more open in many respects than I had anticipated . " Julian Glover , a columnist in The Guardian , said that " no political memoir has ever been like this : a book written as if in a dream — or a nightmare ; a literary out @-@ of @-@ body experience . By turns honest , confused , memorable , boastful , fitfully endearing , important , lazy , shallow , rambling and intellectually correct , it scampers through the last two decades like a trashy airport read . " The Sunday Telegraph was extremely critical of Blair 's writing style . " If Blair wants to tell you a funny story , he makes the mistake of signalling in advance that you should be laughing — what happened was ' hilarious ' , his first weekend at Balmoral was ' utterly freaky ' — thereby strangling the anecdote at birth . The book , like its author , is slightly embarrassing . " In the journal History Today , Archie Brown , Emeritus Professor of Politics at Oxford University was critical of what he believed to be Blair 's flawed sense of leadership , but had praise for the chapter on the Northern Ireland peace process : " Blair 's role in the Northern Ireland settlement was perhaps his single most noteworthy achievement . His account of it is also the best chapter in a book which , even by the standards of memoirists who fancy themselves to be remarkable leaders , is strikingly egocentric . "

= = = In the United States = = =

Reviews in the US sounded similar themes . In The New Yorker , British novelist John Lanchester called A Journey " a detailed account of scrambling , scraping , horse @-@ trading , bluffing , and fudging the way to a deal — a remarkable combination of the ramshackle and the historic . " Fareed Zakaria of the The New York Times Book Review praised Blair for his openness in the publication . " When speaking about the challenges of his first term in office , Blair writes honestly and openly , " the newspaper said . " The style is not the elegant Oxbridge prose that might have been expected of a former prime minister but one filled with Americanisms . It is breezy , informal and candid enough to keep the reader thoroughly engaged . " However , Zakaria attacked Blair 's " sweeping generalizations " about terrorism .

Writing in The Washington Post , Leonard Downie , Jr . , former editor of that paper , called the work a " notably wistful memoir " and is generally positive about its content : " Toward the end of this well @-@ written and perhaps unintentionally self @-@ revealing memoir , Tony Blair , who was Britain 's prime minister during an eventful decade from 1997 to 2007 , insists he is ' trying valiantly not to fall into self @-@ justifying mode — a bane of political memoirs . ' But he has done just that . " Tim Rutton of the Los Angeles Times also gave the memoirs a favourable review , declaring it " a political biography of unusual interest . "

= = = Internationally = = =

There are fewer reviews from newspapers outside the United Kingdom and United States , but those available are generally positive . Writing for Australia 's The Sydney Morning Herald Alexander Downer , who served as Foreign Minister in the Government of John Howard gave A Journey a favourable review : " His [ Blair 's ] commitment to humanity is sincere and convincing , and his personality infectiously amiable with a delightful sense of self @-@ deprecating humour . " Konrad Yakabuski , a senior political writer for Canada 's The Globe and Mail was also positive : " If Tony Blair has not continued to agonize over the tough decisions of his prime ministership , he does a pretty good job of persuading otherwise in A Journey . " India 's English language daily The Hindu said of the book , " It is by no means a confessional memoir but a brave attempt with only patchy success at self @-@ justification . "

= = Political reaction = =

The Queen reportedly felt a " profound sense of disappointment " in Blair for breaking with protocol by revealing in his memoirs sensitive details of private conversations he had with her during his time as Prime Minister . A spokesman for Buckingham Palace told a newspaper , " No prime minister before has ever done this and we can only hope that it will never happen again . " The Sunday Express claimed , quoting " renowned Royal biographer Hugo Vickers " and other " Royal insiders " , that because of the book 's contents , Elizabeth II would withhold granting Blair the Order of the Thistle , an honour which is bestowed at the sovereign 's personal prerogative and normally given almost automatically to leaders of Scottish descent after leaving office . Gordon Brown was said to be " seething " and " dismayed " over the criticism he received from Blair in the book , but had told aides not to criticise it . Ed Balls , a Brown ally who served in his government as Secretary of State for Children , Schools and Families said , " It would have been much better if the memoirs had been a celebration of success rather than recriminations . In that sense I thought it was all a bit sad . It was so one @-@ sided . I didn 't think it was comradely . "

Several more of Blair 's former colleagues and political opponents also commented on the book . Former Conservative minister Norman Tebbit wrote in The Daily Telegraph , " A Journey seems to be dominated by Blair 's anxiety to be seen as a great political leader who changed his country for the better . In fact it is , as I suppose all such books are to some extent , entirely about justifying himself and blaming others . " However , Tebbit admitted he had not read the book at the time of writing about it and based his opinion on media coverage . Writing in The Guardian , Alistair Darling , who was Chancellor under Gordon Brown , said that he " read with wry amusement how Tony Blair felt after much agonising that he couldn 't sack his Chancellor . History has a habit of repeating itself . " He concluded that the book was " a good read and shows us what can be done when we have confidence , clarity and a clear sense of purpose : we can win and change the country for the better . " Labour Member of Parliament Tom Harris said that the book " will be a reminder that opposition doesn 't have to be permanent , and that great things can be accomplished by a Labour government , but only if we have a leader capable of appealing to voters beyond our own party 's core . " Of Blair , he said , " There are still many , many Labour Party members who remember Blair as an election @-@ winning genius who , in office , was popular for an awful lot longer than he was unpopular . " Ed Miliband , then vying for the vacant position of Labour Party leader , said on the day of publication , " I think it is time to move on from Tony Blair and Gordon Brown and Peter Mandelson and to move on from the New Labour establishment and that is the candidate that I am at this election who can best turn the page . I think frankly most members of the public will want us to turn the page . " He was elected as Leader of the Labour Party several weeks later .

Some families of servicemen and servicewomen who were killed in Iraq reacted angrily to the book , in which Blair does not apologise for the invasion . " I can 't regret the decision to go to war . I can say never did I guess the bloody , destructive and chaotic nightmare that unfolded — and that too is part of the responsibility , " he says in the book . Reg Keys , whose son Tom Keys was killed in Iraq in 2003 , said that the book was " just crocodile tears from Blair . " Keys said , " The tears he claims to have shed are nothing like the tears I and my wife have shed for our son . They are nothing like the tears that tens of thousands of Iraqis have shed for their loved ones . They don 't even come close to it . They seem to me like crocodile tears . It is a cynical attempt to sanitise his legacy . " A spokesperson for Military Families Against the War said that Blair 's expression of regret over the loss of life was " completely meaningless . " The spokesperson added , " He has to prove his regret and giving money to charity doesn 't come close . He is giving a minuscule amount compared to the cost of war and rehabilitation of injured soldiers . It is laughable . "

Some of the dialogue Blair uses to describe his first meeting with Elizabeth II led to accusations of plagiarism from Peter Morgan , who wrote The Queen , set during the first few months of Blair 's premiership . Blair recalls his first meeting with Elizabeth II in which she tells him , " You are my 10th prime minister . The first was Winston . That was before you were born . " In the film , Helen Mirren 's fictionalised Elizabeth II says almost exactly the same thing . Morgan said it had been purely his own imagination .

= = Other accounts of the Blair years = =

Some commentators offered comparisons between A Journey and accounts of the Blair years written by other senior members of his government , particularly on Blair 's relationship with Gordon Brown . David Goodhart of Prospect Magazine wrote that in both Peter Mandelson 's memoir The Third Man and the first volume of Alastair Campbell 's Diaries ( 1994 – 97 ) , " Blair is important , but a rather weak figure buffeted by events and by Gordon Brown . In Blair 's own account , A Journey ( in which Mandelson features hardly at all , and Gordon Brown only at the end ) it is of course very different . Almost everything is driven forward by him ; the new Labour project was not imminent in Britain 's political history — it had to be shaped and moulded . " A similar theme was echoed by David Runciman in The London Review of Books , where he reflected that Mandelson 's memoirs " provide a much more complete account of the Blair / Brown relationship " , including details of Operation Teddy Bear , an aborted plot from 2003 to curb Brown 's increasing influence as Chancellor by dividing the Treasury to create a separate Office of Budget and Delivery that would be controlled directly by the Cabinet Office .

Writing for the journal British Politics , academic Mark Garnett provided a detailed analysis of the Blair and Mandelson memoirs , observing that while A Journey gives a more in @-@ depth account of what he termed " contemporary British government " , The Third Man is a more satisfying read : " The Third Man was a worthwhile effort for Peter Mandelson 's reputation , while Tony Blair has journeyed in vain . " The New Zealand Listener , on the other hand , suggested that A Journey and other memoirs written by prominent architects of New Labour had helped to seal its doom after David Miliband – the preferred candidate of all three as Brown 's successor – failed to be elected to the position : " All three backed David Miliband , and however much Miliband tried to distance himself – I 'm not New Labour , I 'm Next Labour – these three books and the publicity that surrounded them showed he had New Labour dye all over his hands . David was beaten to the leadership by his younger brother , Ed ( a man who lacked , as Blair himself might put it , the New Labour baggage ) , by a whisker – just over 1 % . And at a stroke , it 's clear these great , vocal proselytisers of New Labour have unwittingly written its epitaph . "

= Aaron Loup =

Aaron Christopher Loup ( born December 19 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball relief pitcher for the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball . He stands 6 feet 0 inches ( 183 cm ) and weighs 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) . Born in Raceland , Louisiana , Loup played baseball at Hahnville High School and Tulane University , where he led his teams to several state playoff appearances and recorded a five @-@ hit shutout . He was drafted by the Blue Jays out of Tulane in the ninth round of the 2009 draft .

After playing for three years with minor @-@ league affiliates for the Toronto Blue Jays and even being chosen for the 2012 Eastern League All @-@ Star Game , Loup was called up to the Blue Jays as a replacement for Luis Pérez and retired all six batters he faced . He was later voted the 2012 Toronto Blue Jays Rookie of the Year by the Toronto chapter of the Baseball Writers Association of America ( BBWAA ) . Loup pitched 11 ⁄ 3 innings on Opening Day in 2013 , and would go on to win his first major league game on April 10 against the Detroit Tigers . He recorded his first two major league saves on April 12 and June 2 , and led the Blue Jays to a win in an 18 @-@ inning game on June 8 after a pair of groundouts .

Loup is a southpaw whose pitching drastically improved after coaches told him to become a sidearm pitcher . His fastball has been noted as particularly effective against both left- and right @-@ handed batters , but he continues to struggle with a changeup . Manager John Gibbons does not view Loup as a long reliever , but rather as a " situational , one @-@ inning guy . " He is known for his " relaxed " personality , which has improved after spending time with his teammates .

= = Early life = =

Loup was born December 19 , 1987 , in Raceland , Louisiana . His father and grandfather influenced his baseball interest the most when he was young , and he says that it was " just all baseball all the time " , with " a little football " . Loup said that when he was thirteen , " My dad had me in the backyard almost every day — or at least it seemed that way . I was always doing something , whether it was pitching off the mound or hitting in the cage . I wanted to play baseball and knew that I needed to work hard to get there . As a kid , I needed to be reminded of that sometimes . " His baseball role models growing up were Greg Maddux , John Smoltz , and Tom Glavine .

Loup played baseball at Hahnville High School , where he led the Hahnville Fighting Tigers to four state playoff appearances . As a sophomore , he threw a complete @-@ game no @-@ hitter against Terrebonne High School . He then attended Tulane University , where he majored in digital design and played for the Tulane Green Wave from freshman year until his junior year , when he was drafted by the Toronto Blue Jays . As a freshman for the Green Wave , he held a 4 @.@ 37 earned run average ( ERA ) and 36 strikeouts in 35 innings . As a sophomore , he held a 5 @.@ 66 ERA in 472 ⁄ 3 innings , as well as pitching a perfect game of relief on April 26 , 2008 . Before being drafted in his junior year , he had thrown 571 ⁄ 3 innings .

= = Professional career = =

= = = Draft = = =

The Blue Jays drafted Loup in the ninth round of the 2009 Major League Baseball Draft . Loup had shown a strong performance when he was playing for the Tulane Green Wave and was the second Green Wave player to be drafted . Loup said of the event , " I had 20 people text message me before I even heard anything and then my phone rang and I got the call . It 's exciting . They told me they would call me as soon as the draft was over and we would discuss details , so hopefully everything will shake out . "

= = = Minor league career = = =

After the draft , Loup played for the Gulf Coast League Blue Jays in 2009 . In the 2009 season , he held a 3 @.@ 86 ERA and 19 strikeouts in 161 ⁄ 3 innings . In 2010 , he was moved up to the Lansing Lugnuts , one of the Class A affiliates of the Blue Jays , where he held a 4 @.@ 54 ERA and 73 strikeouts in 731 ⁄ 3 innings . On June 22 , 2010 , Loup was chosen a Mid @-@ Season All @-@ Star . He missed the last two months of the season with an unknown injury and began 2011 on the disabled list . In 2011 , he was moved to the Dunedin Blue Jays , the Class A @-@ Advanced Blue Jays affiliate , where he held a 4 @.@ 66 ERA and 56 strikeouts in 652 ⁄ 3 innings .

In 2012 , Loup joined the New Hampshire Fisher Cats , the double @-@ A affiliate of the Toronto Blue Jays . There , he boasted 36 Eastern League appearances , a 2 @.@ 84 ERA , and 43 strikeouts in 441 ⁄ 3 innings . After his teammate Sam Dyson was promoted to the Blue Jays , Loup was Dyson 's replacement for the Minor League Baseball 2012 Eastern League All @-@ Star Game .

= = = Toronto Blue Jays = = =

= = = = 2012 = = = =

Loup began 2012 with the Fisher Cats . In the 2012 season , the Toronto Blue Jays used 32 different pitchers due to frequent injuries , and Loup was among these . He was called up to replace Luis Pérez on July 14 after Pérez tore his ulnar collateral ligament . In his debut , Loup retired all six batters he faced .

On August 3 , Loup became the first pitcher in Blue Jays history to bat in an American League game , grounding out to begin the top of the 15th against the Oakland Athletics . Loup closed out the season posting a 0 @-@ 2 record with a 2 @.@ 64 ERA and 21 strikeouts in 302 ⁄ 3 innings . The Toronto chapter of the Baseball Writers Association of America ( BBWAA ) named him the Toronto Blue Jays 2012 Rookie of the Year that November .

= = = = 2013 = = = =

Though he was considered one of the front @-@ runners , there was still much competition for one of the limited 2013 bullpen spots as a relief pitcher . His main competition was seen as Brett Cecil and J. A. Happ . John Gibbons said , " How it best fits the team , how it all stacks up down there is really what it 's going to come down to . But we 're going to go with the best guy , not because guys are out of options . " Reportedly , Loup learned that he had acquired one of the bullpen spots when Gibbons walked by his locker and said , " Oh , hey Loup — you made the team . "

Loup pitched 1 1 ⁄ 3 innings of relief for the Blue Jays against the Cleveland Indians on Opening Day . On April 10 , in a game against the Detroit Tigers , Loup recorded his first career win . On April 12 , Loup recorded his first major league save in a game against the Kansas City Royals . He would later record a second major league save in a game against the San Diego Padres on June 2 . On April 20 , Loup committed a two @-@ run throwing error in the eleventh inning against the New York Yankees . During the first two months of the Blue Jays ' lackluster 2013 season , Loup and other relief pitchers helped to keep the Blue Jays from more defeats . Loup was the ninth and final pitcher in an eighteen @-@ inning game against the Texas Rangers on June 8 . The game , which was the longest in Blue Jays history , resulted in a win after Loup gained a pair of groundouts . In another game against the Rangers on June 14 , Loup pitched in the eighth inning and participated in a shutout . Loup ended the 2013 season with a 4 – 6 record , 2 @.@ 47 ERA and 53 strikeouts in 691 ⁄ 3 innings .

= = = = 2014 = = = =

Loup was one of eight pitchers in the bullpen for the Blue Jays ' 2014 opening day . On April 20 , Loup walked three consecutive batters for the first time in his career , and took the loss as the Blue Jays fell to the Cleveland Indians 6 – 4 . On May 3 , the Blue Jays announced that Loup would replace Sergio Santos as the team 's closer until Casey Janssen returned from injury . After walking as many batters in three months as he had the entire last season , Loup regained confidence after pitching the last few innings of a game on June 4 that went from a 3 – 2 lead to an 8 – 2 win against the Detroit Tigers .

= = = = 2015 = = = =

Loup took the loss in the Blue Jays ' second game of the 2015 season . Entering with a 3 – 1 lead against the New York Yankees in the eighth inning , he loaded the bases without recording an out . All three runners would come in to score and Toronto would lose , 4 – 3 . On April 12 , Loup pitched 12 ⁄ 3 perfect innings against the Orioles , taking the win by a score of 10 – 7 . Loup experienced ineffectiveness throughout the season , posting an ERA over 5 @.@ 00 into August . Following a 3 – 1 win over the Yankees on August 16 , Loup was optioned to the Triple @-@ A Buffalo Bisons . He was recalled on September 1 .

= = = = 2016 = = = =

On January 15 , 2016 , Loup and the Blue Jays avoided salary arbitration by agreeing to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 05 million contract . Loup began the 2016 season on the disabled list with a left forearm flexor strain . He began a rehab assignment with the Dunedin Blue Jays on May 14 . On May 21 , he was moved up to the Buffalo Bisons to continue rehabbing the injury .

= = = Scouting report = = =

= = = = Defense = = = =

Due to his non @-@ ideal size as a pitcher , some have seen issues in Loup 's stamina and durability . His pitches can also come across as " a bit too hittable . " He is , however , especially effective when pitching against left @-@ handed batters . In 2013 , Loup was viewed by the Blue Jays ' manager John Gibbons as " not necessarily a long guy ; he 's more a situational , one @-@ inning guy . " Despite his shortcomings , Loup has the lowest walk rate among all major league pitchers who have pitched at least seventy innings since 2012 , having walked only 2 @.@ 6 % of the batters he has faced . His consistency and endurance have made Loup the Blue Jays ' most @-@ used reliever , and he says " I 'm one of those guys that if my body would let me , I would pitch every day . "

The Baseball Cube 's player ratings , which are based solely on statistics on a scale from 0 @-@ 100 , gave Loup a 69 for control , a 62 for " K @-@ rating " , or strikeouts compared to batters faced , a 62 for efficiency , and a 52 for " vsPower " , or home runs compared to batters faced .

= = = = Pitching style = = = =

Loup is a left @-@ handed pitcher , or southpaw . He struggled at first with pitching until minor league pitching instructor Dane Johnson and Dunedin pitching coach Darold Knowles told him to lower his arm and become more of a sidearm pitcher . Now , as he pitches , he tracks a plane from his ear to his shoulder , which also helped his effectiveness against left @-@ handed batters . His slider and fastball improved drastically , but his changeup continued to struggle , and Loup says that he is still a little inconsistent with it . He can throw a low @-@ 90s " breaking " fastball that is just as effective against right @-@ handed batters as left @-@ handed batters . John Farrell , a previous Toronto Blue Jays manager , said that it was " [ Loup 's ] poise and his presence that allows him to maintain not only composure , but the ability to execute . " Blue Jays ' bullpen coach Pat Hentgen says that Loup " keeps things simple , he doesn 't over @-@ think . He stays aggressive . He 's got a lot of guts , goes right after hitters and you combine all those things and you 're going to have the success that he 's had . " One reporter compared Loup to Bran Flakes , stating that " [ y ] ou know exactly what you 're going to get from him every time he takes the mound and he 's not going to add any excitement to any situation . "

= = Personal life = =

Loup married his high school sweetheart Leigh Ann . The couple have one child , a daughter named Sophie Harper Loup , born the weekend of August 24 , 2013 . Loup went on the paternity list for the Blue Jays on August 23 , 2013 , but was called back on August 26 due to the three @-@ day paternity list limit . Loup and his wife spend the off @-@ season at Loup 's Louisiana home . An avid bowhunter , Loup prefers hunting deer with a compound bow . He has also been known to fish and hunt with a gun in the off @-@ season . He is known for having a more quiet and reserved personality , but he says that he has become " a little more comfortable " with his teammates by spending time and " connecting " with them , which he says contributes to his success .

= System Shock 2 =

System Shock 2 is a first @-@ person action role @-@ playing survival horror video game for Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux , designed by Ken Levine and co @-@ developed by Irrational Games and Looking Glass Studios . Originally intended to be a standalone title , its story was changed during production into a sequel to the 1994 PC game System Shock ; the alterations were made when Electronic Arts — who owned the System Shock franchise rights — signed on as publisher . System Shock 2 was released on August 11 , 1999 , in North America .

The game takes place on board a starship in a cyberpunk depiction of 2114 . The player assumes the role of a soldier trying to stem the outbreak of a genetic infection that has devastated the ship . Like System Shock , gameplay consists of combat and exploration . It incorporates role @-@ playing system elements , in which the player can develop skills and traits , such as hacking and psionic abilities .

System Shock 2 received positive reviews , but failed to meet commercial sales expectations . Many critics later determined that the game was highly influential in subsequent game design , particularly on first @-@ person shooters , and considered it far ahead of its time . It has been included in several " greatest games of all time " lists . In 2007 , Irrational Games released a spiritual successor to the System Shock series , titled BioShock , to critical acclaim and strong sales . System Shock 2 had been in intellectual property limbo following closure of Looking Glass Studios . Night Dive Studios were able to secure the rights to game and System Shock franchise in 2013 to produce an updated version of System Shock 2 for modern personal computers . OtherSide Entertainment announced in December 2015 that they have been licensed the rights from Night Dive Studios to produce a sequel , System Shock 3 .

= = Gameplay = =

Like in its predecessor , System Shock , gameplay in System Shock 2 is an amalgamation of the action role @-@ playing game and survival horror genres . The developers achieved this gameplay design by rendering the experience as a standard first @-@ person shooter and adding a character customization and development system , which are considered as signature role @-@ play elements . The player uses melee and projectile weapons to defeat enemies , while a role @-@ playing system allows the development of useful abilities . Navigation is presented from a first @-@ person view and complemented with a heads @-@ up display that shows character and weapon information , a map , and a drag and drop inventory .

The backstory is explained progressively through the player 's acquisition of audio logs and encounters with ghostly apparitions . At the beginning of the game the player chooses a career in a branch of the Unified National Nominate , a fictional military organization . Each branch of service gives the player a set of starting bonuses composed of certain skills , though may thereafter freely develop as the player chooses . The Marine begins with bonuses to weaponry , the Navy officer is skilled in repairing and hacking , and the OSA agent gets a starting set of psionic powers .

The player can upgrade their skills by using " cyber @-@ modules " given as rewards for completing objectives such as searching the ship , and then spend them at devices called " cyber @-@ upgrade units " to obtain enhanced skills . Operating system ( O / S ) units allow one @-@ time character upgrades to be made ( e.g. permanent health enhancement ) . An in @-@ game currency called " nanites " may be spent on items at vending machines , including ammunition supplies and health packs . " Quantum Bio @-@ Reconstruction Machines " can be activated and reconstitute the player for 10 nanites if they die inside the area in which the machine resides . Otherwise , the game ends and progress must be resumed from a save point . The player can hack devices , such as keypads to open alternate areas and vending machines to reduce prices . When a hack is attempted , a minigame begins that features a grid of green nodes ; the player must connect three in a straight row to succeed . Optionally , electronic lock picks , called " ICE @-@ picks " , can be found that will automatically hack a machine , regardless of its difficulty .

Throughout the game , the player can procure various weapons , including melee weapons , pistols , shotguns , and alien weapons . Non @-@ melee weapons degrade with use and will break if they are not regularly repaired with maintenance tools . There are a variety of ammunition types , each of which is most damaging to a specific enemy . For example , organic enemies are vulnerable to anti @-@ personnel rounds , while mechanical foes are weak against armor @-@ piercing rounds . Similarly , energy weapons cause the most damage against robots and cyborgs , and the annelid @-@ made exotic weaponry is particularly harmful to organic targets . Because ammunition is scarce , to be effective the player must use it sparingly and carefully search rooms for supplies .

The game includes a research function . When new objects are encountered in the game , especially enemies , their organs can be collected and , when combined with chemicals found in storage rooms , the player can research the enemies and thus improve their damage against them . Similarly , some exotic weapons and items can only be used after being researched . OSA agents effectively have a separate weapons tree available to them . Psionic powers can be learned , such as invisibility , fireballs and teleportation .

= = Plot = =

= = = Backstory = = =

In 2072 , after the Citadel Station 's demise , TriOptimum 's attempts to cover up the incident were exposed to the media and the corporation was brought up on charges from multiple individuals and companies for the ensuing scandal . The virus developed there killed the station 's population ; the ruthless malevolent A.I supercomputer named SHODAN controlled , and eventually destroyed the Citadel Station in hopes of enslaving and destroying humanity . After a massive number of trials , the company went bankrupt and their operations were shut down . The United Nations Nominate ( UNN ) , a UN successor , was established to combat the malevolence and corruption of power @-@ hungry corporations , including TriOptimum .

In 2100 , 28 years later , the company 's failed stocks and assets were bought by a Russian oligarch named Anatoly Korenchkin , a former black market operator who sought to make money in legitimate ways . He re @-@ licensed and restored the company to its former status in the following decade . Along with producing healthcare and consumer products , Korenchkin signed weapons contracts with various military organizations , private and political @-@ owned . The new UNN was almost virtually powerless with Korenchkin exercising control over them .

In January 2114 , 42 years after the Citadel events and 12 years into rebuilding TriOptimum , the company created an experimental FTL starship , the Von Braun , which is now on its maiden voyage . The ship is also followed by a UNN space vessel , the Rickenbacker , which is controlled by Captain William Bedford Diego , son of Edward Diego , the Citadel Station 's infamous commander and public hero of the Battle of the Boston Harbor during the Eastern States police action . Because the Rickenbacker does not have an FTL system of its own , the two ships are attached for the trip . However , Korenchkin was egoistical enough to make himself the captain of the Von Braun despite being inexperienced

In July 2114 , 5 months into the journey , the ships respond to a distress signal from the planet Tau Ceti V , outside the Solar System . A rescue team is sent to the planet 's surface where they discover strange eggs ; these eggs , found in an old ejection pod , infect the rescue team and integrate them into an alien communion known as the Many . The infection eventually spreads to both ships and the ships are overrun with the virus . The virus overruns most of the crew .

= = = Plot = = =

Owing to a computer malfunction , the remaining soldier awakens with amnesia in a cryo @-@ tube on the medical deck of the Von Braun , being implanted with an illegal cyber neural interface . He is immediately contacted by another survivor , Dr. Janice Polito , who guides him to safety before the cabin depressurizes . She demands that he meets her on deck 4 of the Von Braun . Along the way , the soldier battles the infected crew members . The Many also telepathically communicate with him , attempting to convince him to join them . After restarting the ship 's engine core , the soldier reaches deck 4 and discovers that Polito is dead . He is then confronted by SHODAN . It is revealed she has been posing as Polito to gain the soldier 's trust .

SHODAN mentions that she is responsible for creating the Many through her bioengineering experiments on Citadel Station . The Hacker , who created her , ejected the grove that contained her experiments to prevent them contaminating Earth , an act that allowed part of SHODAN to survive in the grove . The grove crash @-@ landed on Tau Ceti V. While SHODAN went into forced hibernation , The Many evolved beyond her control . SHODAN tells the soldier that his only chance for survival lies in helping destroy her creations . Efforts to regain control of XERXES , the main computer on the Von Braun , fail . SHODAN informs the soldier that destroying the ship is their only option , but he must transmit her program to the Rickenbacker first . While en route , the soldier briefly encounters two survivors , Tommy Suarez and Rebecca Siddons , who flee the ship aboard an escape pod .

With the transfer complete , the soldier travels to the Rickenbacker and learns both ships have been enveloped by the infection 's source , a gigantic mass of bio @-@ organic tissue . The soldier enters the biomass and destroys its core , stopping the infection . SHODAN congratulates him and tells of her intentions to merge real space and cyberspace through the Von Braun 's faster @-@ than @-@ light drive . The soldier confronts SHODAN in cyberspace and defeats her . The final scene shows Tommy and Rebecca receiving a message from the Von Braun . Tommy responds , saying they will return and noting that Rebecca is acting strange . Rebecca is shown speaking in a SHODAN @-@ like voice , asking Tommy if he " likes her new look " , as the screen fades to black .

= = History = =

= = = Development = = =

Development of System Shock 2 began in 1997 when Looking Glass Studios approached Irrational Games with an idea to co @-@ develop a new game . The development team were fans of System Shock and sought to create a similar game . Early story ideas were similar to the novella Heart of Darkness . In an early draft , the player was tasked with assassinating an insane commander on a starship . The original title of the game , according to its pitch document , was Junction Point . The philosophy of the design was to continue to develop the concept of a dungeon crawler , like Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss , in a science fiction setting , the basis for System Shock . However , the press mistook System Shock to be closer to a Doom clone which was cited for poor financial success of System Shock . With Junction Point , the goal was to add in a significant role @-@ playing elements and a persistent storyline as to distance the game from Doom .

The title took 18 months to create with a budget of $ 1 @.@ 7 million and was pitched to several publishers , until Electronic Arts — who owned the rights to the Shock franchise — responded by suggesting the game become a sequel to System Shock . The development team agreed ; Electronic Arts became the publisher and story changes were made to incorporate the franchise . The project was allotted one year to be completed , and to compensate for the short time frame , the staff began working with Looking Glass Studio 's unfinished Dark Engine , the same engine used to create Thief : The Dark Project .

The designers included role @-@ playing elements in the game . Similar to Ultima Underworld , another Looking Glass Studios project , the environment in System Shock 2 is persistent and constantly changes without the player 's presence . Paper @-@ and @-@ pencil role @-@ playing games were influential ; the character customization system was based on Traveller 's methodology and was implemented in the fictional military branches which , by allowing multiple character paths , the player could receive a more open @-@ ended gameplay experience . Horror was a key focus and four major points were identified to successfully incorporate it . Isolation was deemed primary , which resulted in the player having little physical contact with other sentient beings . Secondly , vulnerability was created by focusing on a fragile character . Last were the inclusion of moody sound effects and " the intelligent placement of lighting and shadows " . The game 's lead designer , Ken Levine , oversaw the return of System Shock villain SHODAN . Part of Levine 's design was to ally the player with her , as he believed that game characters were too trusting , stating " good guys are good , bad guys are bad . What you see and perceive is real " . Levine sought to challenge this notion by having SHODAN betray the player : " Sometimes characters are betrayed , but the player never is . I wanted to violate that trust and make the player feel that they , and not [ only ] the character , were led on and deceived " . This design choice was controversial with the development team .

Several problems were encountered during the project . Because the team comprised two software companies , tension emerged regarding job assignments and some developers left the project . Additionally , many employees were largely inexperienced , but in retrospect project manager Jonathan Chey felt this was advantageous , stating " inexperience also bred enthusiasm and commitment that might not have been present with a more jaded set of developers . " The Dark Engine posed problems of its own . It was unfinished , forcing the programmers to fix software bugs when encountered . In contrast , working closely with the engine code allowed them to write additional features . Not all setbacks were localized ; a demonstration build at E3 was hindered when it was requested all guns be removed from the presentation due to then @-@ recent Columbine High School massacre .

= = = Release = = =

A demo for the game , featuring a tutorial and a third of the first mission , was released on August 2 , 1999 . Nine days later , System Shock 2 was shipped to retailers . An enhancement patch was released a month later and added significant features , such as co @-@ operative multiplayer and control over weapon degradation and enemy respawn rates . A port was planned for the Dreamcast but was canceled .

= = = End @-@ of @-@ support and source code leak = = =

Around 2000 , with the end @-@ of @-@ support for the game by the developer and publisher , remaining bugs and compatibility with newer operating systems and hardware became a growing problem . To compensate the missing support , some fans of the game became active in the modding community to update the game . For instance , the " Rebirth " graphical enhancement mod replaced many low @-@ polygonal models with higher quality ones , a " Shock Texture Upgrade Project " increased the resolution of textures , and an updated level editor was released by the user community . In 2009 , a complete copy of System Shock 2 's Dark Engine source code was discovered in the possession of an ex @-@ Looking Glass Studios employee who was at the time continuing his work for Eidos Interactive . In late April 2010 , a user on the Dreamcast Talk forum disassembled the contents of a Dreamcast development kit he had purchased . In 2012 significant unofficial updates for System Shock 2 ( and other Dark Engine @-@ based games ) were published .

= = = Intellectual property debacle and re @-@ release = = =

The intellectual property ( IP ) rights of System Shock 2 were caught for years in complications between Electronic Arts and Meadowbrook Insurance Group ( a subsidiary of Star Insurance Company ) , the entity that acquired the assets of Looking Glass Studios on their closure , though according to a lawyer for Star Insurance , they themselves have since acquired the lingering intellectual property rights from EA .

In October 2012 Stephen Kick of Night Dive Studios , seeking to bring the game to modern systems , started negotiations with the rights holders and was able to secure the rights . Kick worked with GOG.com for a timed @-@ exclusive release on their digital distribution website on February 2013 , where the game was the most requested to be added to the catalog . This version , considered by GOG.com to be a " collector 's edition " , includes updates to the original game to make it work on modern systems while still allowing user @-@ made modifications to be applied , and contains additional material such as the game 's soundtrack , maps of the Von Braun , and the original pitch document for the game . The update rights also allowed a Mac OS X version of System Shock 2 to be subsequently released on June 18 , 2013 through GOG.com. The title was later also available on Steam on May 10 , 2013 . On April 2014 a Linux version was also released .

Since then , Night Dive Studios also acquired the rights to System Shock , releasing an enhanced version of the game in September 2015 . Kick has reported they have acquired full rights to the series since then .

= = Reception = =

System Shock 2 received over a dozen awards , including seven " Game of the Year " prizes . Reviews were very positive and lauded the title for its hybrid gameplay , moody sound design , and engaging story . System Shock 2 is regarded by critics as highly influential , particularly on first @-@ person shooters and the horror genre . In a retrospective article , GameSpot declared the title " well ahead of its time " and stated that it " upped the ante in dramatic and mechanical terms " by creating a horrific gameplay experience . Despite critical acclaim , the title did not perform well commercially ; only 58 @,@ 671 copies were sold by April 2000 .

Several publications praised the title for its open @-@ ended gameplay . With regard to character customization , Trent Ward of IGN stated the best element of the role @-@ playing system was allowing gamers to " play the game as completely different characters " , and felt this made each play @-@ through unique . Erik Reckase writing for Just Adventure agreed , saying " There are very few games that allow you [ to ] play the way you want " . Alec Norands of Allgame believed that the different character classes made the game “ diverse enough to demand instant replayability " . Robert Mayer from Computer Games Magazine called System Shock 2 " a game that truly defies classification in a single genre " , and ensured that " the action is occasionally fast @-@ paced , it 's more often tactical , placing a premium on thought rather than on reflexes . "

A number of critics described the game as frightening . Computer and Video Games described the atmosphere as " gripping " and guaranteed readers they would " jump out of [ their ] skin " numerous times . Allgame found the sound design particularly effective , calling it “ absolutely , teeth @-@ clenchingly disturbing " , while PC Gamer 's William Harms christened System Shock 2 as the most frightening game he had ever played . Some critics found the weapon degradation system to be irritating , and members of the development team have also expressed misgivings about the system . The role @-@ playing system was another point of contention ; GameSpot described the job system as " badly unbalanced " because the player can develop skills outside their career choice . Allgame felt similarly about the system , saying it " leaned towards a hacker character " .

Along with Deus Ex , Sid Shuman of GamePro christened System Shock 2 " [ one of the ] twin barrels of modern [ first @-@ person shooter ] innovation " , owing to its complex role @-@ playing gameplay . IGN writer Cam Shea referred to the game as " another reinvention of the FPS genre " , citing the story , characters , and RPG system . PC Zone lauded the game as a " fabulous example of a modern @-@ day computer game " and named it " a sci @-@ fi horror masterpiece " . The title has been inducted into a number of features listing the greatest games ever made , including ones by GameSpy , Edge , Empire , IGN , GameSpot and PC Gamer . IGN also ranked System Shock 2 as the 35th greatest first @-@ person shooter of all time . SHODAN has proven to be a popular character among most critics , including IGN , GameSpot and The Phoenix .

= = Sequel = =

System Shock 2 has amassed a cult following , with fans asking for a sequel . On January 9 , 2006 , GameSpot reported that Electronic Arts had renewed its trademark protection on the System Shock name , leading to speculation that System Shock 3 might be under development . Three days later , Computer and Video Games reported a reliable source had come forward and confirmed the title 's production . Electronic Arts UK made no comment when confronted with the information . PC Gamer UK stated the team behind The Godfather : The Game ( EA Redwood Shores ) was charged with its creation . Ken Levine , when asked whether he would helm a third installment , replied " that question is completely out of my hands " . He expressed optimism at the prospect of System Shock 3 , but revealed that EA had not shown interest in his own proposal for a sequel , and was not optimistic with regards to their abilities . Electronic Arts did not confirm a new title in the series and allowed the System Shock trademark registration to lapse . Redwood Shores ' next release was 2008 's Dead Space , a game with noted similarities in theme and presentation to the System Shock series .

In November 2015 , Night Dive Studios , after acquiring the rights for the System Shock franchise , stated they are considering developing a third title in the series . In December 2015 , OtherSide Entertainment , a studio founded by former Looking Glass Studios designer Paul Neurath , announced they were developing System Shock 3 with rights granted to them by Night Dive Studios . OtherSide had acquired rights to make sequels to System Shock some years before this point , but did not have the rights to the series name , which Night Dive was able to provide . The sequel will feature Terri Brosius reprising her voice for SHODAN , and will include work from original System Shock concept artist Robb Waters . Warren Spector , the producer of the first System Shock , announced in February 2016 that he has joined OtherSide Entertainment and will be working on System Shock 3 .

= = = Spiritual successors = = =

In 2007 , Irrational Games — briefly known as 2K Boston / 2K Australia — released a spiritual successor to the System Shock series , entitled BioShock . The game takes place in an abandoned underwater utopian community destroyed by the genetic modification of its populace and shares many gameplay elements with System Shock 2 : reconstitution stations can be activated , allowing the player to be resurrected when they die ; hacking , ammo conservation , and exploration are integral parts of gameplay ; and unique powers may be acquired via plasmids , special abilities that function similarly to psionics in System Shock 2 . The two titles also share plot similarities and employ audio logs and encounters with ghostly apparitions to reveal backstory . In BioShock Infinite , Irrational Games included a gameplay feature called " 1999 Mode " , specifically in reference to System Shock 2 's release year , designed to provide a similar game experience , with a higher difficulty and long @-@ lasting effects of choices made , that would remind players of System Shock 's unforgiving nature .

= Battle of Plataea =

The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece . It took place in 479 BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia , and was fought between an alliance of the Greek city @-@ states , including Sparta , Athens , Corinth and Megara , and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.

The previous year the Persian invasion force , led by the Persian king in person , had scored victories at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium and conquered Thessaly , Boeotia , Euboea and Attica . However , at the ensuing Battle of Salamis , the Allied Greek navy had won an unlikely but decisive victory , preventing the conquest of the Peloponnesus . Xerxes then retreated with much of his army , leaving his general Mardonius to finish off the Greeks the following year .

In the summer of 479 BC the Greeks assembled a huge ( by ancient standards ) army and marched out of the Peloponnesus . The Persians retreated to Boeotia and built a fortified camp near Plataea . The Greeks , however , refused to be drawn into the prime cavalry terrain around the Persian camp , resulting in a stalemate that lasted 11 days . While attempting a retreat after their supply lines were disrupted , the Greek battle line fragmented . Thinking the Greeks in full retreat , Mardonius ordered his forces to pursue them , but the Greeks ( particularly the Spartans , Tegeans and Athenians ) halted and gave battle , routing the lightly armed Persian infantry and killing Mardonius .

A large portion of the Persian army was trapped in its camp and slaughtered . The destruction of this army , and the remnants of the Persian navy allegedly on the same day at the Battle of Mycale , decisively ended the invasion . After Plataea and Mycale the Greek allies would take the offensive against the Persians , marking a new phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Although Plataea was in every sense a resounding victory , it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance ( even at the time ) as , for example , the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or the Spartan defeat at Thermopylae .

= = Background = =

The Greek city @-@ states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499 – 494 BC . The Persian Empire was still relatively young and prone to revolts by its subject peoples . Moreover , Darius was an usurper and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . The Ionian Revolt threatened the integrity of his empire , and he thus vowed to punish those involved ( especially those not already part of the empire ) . Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece . A preliminary expedition under Mardonius , in 492 BC , to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re @-@ conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom of Persia , the latter which had been a Persian vassal as early as the late 6th century BC . An amphibious task force was then sent out under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC , using Delos as an intermediate base at , successfully sacking Karystos and Eretria , before moving to attack Athens . However , at the ensuing Battle of Marathon , the Athenians won a remarkable victory , resulting in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia .

Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece . However , he died before the invasion could begin . The throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I , who quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece , including building two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont . In 481 BC Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water as a gesture of their submission , but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta ( both of whom were at open war with Persia ) . Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states . A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed ( hereafter referred to as " the Allies " ) . This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states in attendance were still technically at war with each other .

The Allies initially adopted a strategy of blocking land and sea approaches to southern Greece . Thus , in August 480 BC , after hearing of Xerxes ' approach , a small Allied army led by Spartan King Leonidas I blocked the Pass of Thermopylae , while an Athenian @-@ dominated navy sailed to the Straits of Artemisium . Famously , the massively outnumbered Greek army held Thermopylae against the Persian army for three days before being outflanked by the Persians , who used a little @-@ known mountain path . Although much of the Greek army retreated , the rearguard , formed of the Spartan and Thespian contingents , was surrounded and annihilated . The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium , consisting of a series of naval encounters , was up to that point a stalemate ; however , when news of Thermopylae reached them , they also retreated , since holding the straits of Artemisium was now a moot point .

Following Thermopylae the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities that had not surrendered , Plataea and Thespiae , before taking possession of the now @-@ evacuated city of Athens . The Allied army , meanwhile , prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth . Xerxes wished for a final crushing defeat of the Allies to finish the conquest of Greece in that campaigning season ; conversely , the allies sought a decisive victory over the Persian navy that would guarantee the security of the Peloponnese . The ensuing naval Battle of Salamis ended in a decisive victory for the Allies , marking a turning point in the conflict .

Following the defeat of his navy at Salamis , Xerxes retreated to Asia with the bulk of his army . According to Herodotus , this was because he feared the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges , thereby trapping his army in Europe . He thus left Mardonius , with handpicked troops , to complete the conquest of Greece the following year . Mardonius evacuated Attica and wintered in Thessaly ; the Athenians then reoccupied their destroyed city . Over the winter there seems to have been some tension among the Allies . The Athenians in particular , who were not protected by the Isthmus but whose fleet was the key to the security of the Peloponnese , felt hard done by and demanded that an allied army march north the following year . When the Allies failed to commit to this , the Athenian fleet refused to join the Allied navy in the spring . The navy , now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides , thus skulked off Delos , while the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos , both sides unwilling to risk battle . Similarly , Mardonius remained in Thessaly , knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless , while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponnese .

Mardonius moved to break the stalemate by trying to win over the Athenians and their fleet through the mediation of Alexander I of Macedon , offering peace , self @-@ government and territorial expansion . The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was also on hand to hear the offer , and rejected it :

The degree to which we are put in the shadow by the Medes ' strength is hardly something you need to bring to our attention . We are already well aware of it . But even so , such is our love of liberty , that we will never surrender .

Upon this refusal , the Persians marched south again . Athens was again evacuated and left to the enemy . Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis . Athens , along with Megara and Plataea , sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance and threatening to accept the Persian terms if it was not given . According to Herodotus , the Spartans , who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus , delayed making a decision until they were persuaded by a guest , Chileos of Tegea , who pointed out the danger to all of Greece if the Athenians surrendered .

= = Prelude = =

When Mardonius learned of the Spartan force , he completed the destruction of Athens , tearing down whatever was left standing . He then retreated towards Thebes , hoping to lure the Greek army into territory that would be suitable for the Persian cavalry . Mardonius created a fortified encampment on the north bank of the Asopus river in Boeotia covering the ground from Erythrae past Hysiae and up to the lands of Plataea .

The Athenians sent 8 @,@ 000 hoplites , led by Aristides , along with 600 Plataean exiles to join the Allied army . The army then marched in Boeotia across the passes of Mount Cithaeron , arriving near Plataea , and above the Persian position on the Asopus . Under the guidance of the commanding general , Pausanias , the Greeks took up position opposite the Persian lines but remained on high ground . Knowing that he had little hope of successfully attacking the Greek positions , Mardonius sought to either sow dissension among the Allies or lure them down into the plain . Plutarch reports that a conspiracy was discovered among some prominent Athenians , who were planning to betray the Allied cause ; although this account is not universally accepted , it may indicate Mardonius ' attempts of intrigue within the Greek ranks .

Mardonius also initiated hit @-@ and @-@ run cavalry attacks against the Greek lines , possibly trying to lure the Greeks down to the plain in pursuit . Although having some initial success , this strategy backfired when the Persian cavalry commander Masistius was killed ; with his death , the cavalry retreated .

Their morale boosted by this small victory , the Greeks moved forward , still remaining on higher ground , to a new position nearer more suited for encampment and better watered . The Spartans and Tegeans were on a ridge to the right of the line , the Athenians on a hillock on the left and the other contingents on the slightly lower ground between . In response , Mardonius brought his men up to the Asopus and arrayed them for battle ; However , neither the Persians nor the Greeks would attack ; Herodotus claims this is because both sides received bad omens during sacrificial rituals . The armies thus stayed camped in their locations for eight days , during which new Greek troops arrived . Mardonius then sought to break the stalemate by sending his cavalry to attack the passes of Mount Cithaeron ; this raid resulted in the capture of a convoy of provisions intended for the Greeks . Two more days passed , during which time the supply lines of the Greeks continued to be menaced . Mardonius then launched another cavalry raid on the Greek lines , which succeeded in blocking the Gargaphian Spring , which had been the only source of water for the Greek army ( they could not use the Asopus due to the threat posed by Persian archers ) . Coupled with the lack of food , the restriction of the water supply made the Greek position untenable , so they decided to retreat to a position in front of Plataea , from where they could guard the passes and have access to fresh water . To prevent the Persian cavalry from attacking during the retreat , it was to be performed that night .

However , the retreat went awry . The Allied contingents in the centre missed their appointed position and ended up scattered in front of Plataea itself . The Athenians , Tegeans and Spartans , who had been guarding the rear of the retreat , had not even begun to retreat by daybreak . A single Spartan division was thus left on the ridge to guard the rear , while the Spartans and Tegeans retreated uphill ; Pausanias also instructed the Athenians to begin the retreat and if possible join up with the Spartans . However , the Athenians at first retreated directly towards Plataea , and thus the Allied battle line remained fragmented as the Persian camp began to stir .

= = The opposing forces = =

= = = The Greeks = = =

According to Herodotus , the Spartans sent 45 @,@ 000 men — 5 @,@ 000 Spartiates ( full citizen soldiers ) , 5 @,@ 000 other Lacodaemonian hoplites ( perioeci ) and 35 @,@ 000 helots ( seven per Spartiate ) . This was probably the largest Spartan force ever assembled . The Greek army had been reinforced by contingents of hoplites from the other Allied city @-@ states , as shown in the table . Diodorus Siculus claims in his Bibliotheca historica that the number of the Greek troops approached one hundred thousand .

According to Herodotus , there were a total of 69 @,@ 500 lightly armed troops — 35 @,@ 000 helots and 34 @,@ 500 troops from the rest of Greece ; roughly one per hoplite . The number of 34 @,@ 500 has been suggested to represent one light skirmisher supporting each non @-@ Spartan hoplite ( 33 @,@ 700 ) , together with 800 Athenian archers , whose presence in the battle Herodotus later notes . Herodotus tells us that there were also 1 @,@ 800 Thespians ( but does not say how they were equipped ) , giving a total strength of 108 @,@ 200 men .

The number of hoplites is accepted as reasonable ( and possible ) ; the Athenians alone had fielded 10 @,@ 000 hoplites at the Battle of Marathon . Some historians have accepted the number of light troops and used them as a population census of Greece at the time . Certainly these numbers are theoretically possible . Athens , for instance , allegedly fielded a fleet of 180 triremes at Salamis , manned by approximately 36 @,@ 000 rowers and fighters . Thus 69 @,@ 500 light troops could easily have been sent to Plataea . Nevertheless , the number of light troops is often rejected as exaggerated , especially in view of the ratio of seven helots to one Spartiate . For instance , Lazenby accepts that hoplites from other Greek cities might have been accompanied by one lightly armoured retainer each , but rejects the number of seven helots per Spartiate . He further speculates that each Spartiate was accompanied by one armed helot , and that the remaining helots were employed in the logistical effort , transporting food for the army . Both Lazenby and Holland deem the lightly armed troops , whatever their number , as essentially irrelevant to the outcome of battle .

A further complication is that a certain proportion of the Allied manpower was needed to man the fleet , which amounted to at least 110 triremes , and thus approximately 22 @,@ 000 men . Since the Battle of Mycale was fought at least near @-@ simultaneously with the Battle of Plataea , then this was a pool of manpower which could not have contributed to Plataea , and further reduces the likelihood that 110 @,@ 000 Greeks assembled before Plataea .

The Greek forces were , as agreed by the Allied congress , under the overall command of Spartan royalty in the person of Pausanias , who was the regent for Leonidas ' young son , Pleistarchus , his cousin . Diodorus tells us that the Athenian contingent was under the command of Aristides ; it is probable that the other contingents also had their leaders . Herodotus tells us in several places that the Greeks held council during the prelude to the battle , implying that decisions were consensual and that Pausanias did not have the authority to issue direct orders to the other contingents . This style of leadership contributed to the way events unfolded during the battle itself . For instance , in the period immediately before the battle , Pausanias was unable to order the Athenians to join up with his forces , and thus the Greeks fought the battle completely separated from each other .

= = = The Persians = = =

According to Herodotus , the Persians numbered 300 @,@ 000 and were accompanied by troops from Greek city states that supported the Persian cause ( including Thebes ) . Herodotus admits that no one counted the latter , but he guesses that there were about 50 @,@ 000 of them .

Ctesias , who wrote a history of Persia based on Persian archives , claimed there were 120 @,@ 000 Persian and 7 @,@ 000 Greek soldiers , but his account is generally garbled ( for instance , placing this battle before Salamis , he also says there were only 300 Spartans , 1000 perioeci and 6000 from the other cities at Plataea , perhaps confusing it with Thermopylae ) .

Diodorus Siculus claims in his Bibliotheca historica that the number of the Persian troops was some five hundred thousand .

The figure of 300 @,@ 000 has been doubted , along with many of Herodotus ' numbers , by many historians ; modern consensus estimates the total number of troops for the Persian invasion at around 250 @,@ 000 . According to this consensus , Herodotus ' 300 @,@ 000 Persians at Plataea would self @-@ evidently be impossible . One approach to estimating the size of the Persian army has been to estimate how many men might feasibly have been accommodated within the Persian camp ; this approach gives figures of between 70 @,@ 000 and 120 @,@ 000 men . Lazenby , for instance , by comparison with later Roman military camps , calculates the number of troops at 70 @,@ 000 , including 10 @,@ 000 cavalry . Meanwhile , Connolly derives a number of 120 @,@ 000 from the same @-@ sized camp . Indeed , most estimates for the total Persian force are generally in this range . For instance , Delbrück , based on the distance the Persians marched in a day when Athens was attacked , concluded that 75 @,@ 000 was the upper limit for the size of the Persian army , including the supply personnel and other non @-@ combatants .

= = Strategic and tactical considerations = =

In some ways the run @-@ up to Plataea resembled that at the Battle of Marathon ; there was a prolonged stalemate in which neither side risked attacking the other . The reasons for this stalemate were primarily tactical , and similar to the situation at Marathon ; the Greek hoplites did not want to risk being outflanked by the Persian cavalry and the lightly armed Persian infantry could not hope to assault well @-@ defended positions .

According to Herodotus , both sides wished for a decisive battle that would tip the war in their favor . However , Lazenby believed that Mardonius ' actions during the Plataea campaign were not consistent with an aggressive policy . He interprets the Persian operations during the prelude not as attempts to force the Allies into battle but as attempts to force the Allies into retreat ( which indeed became the case ) . Mardonius may have felt he had little to gain in battle and that he could simply wait for the Greek alliance to fall apart ( as it had nearly done over the winter ) . There can be little doubt from Herodotus ' account that Mardonius was prepared to accept battle on his own terms , however . Regardless of the exact motives , the initial strategic situation allowed both sides to procrastinate , since food supplies were ample for both armies . Under these conditions , the tactical considerations outweighed the strategic need for action .

When Mardonius ' raids disrupted the Allied supply chain , it forced the Allies to rethink their strategy . Rather than now moving to attack , however , they instead looked to retreat and secure their lines of communication . Despite this defensive move by the Greeks , it was in fact the chaos resulting from this retreat that finally ended the stalemate . Mardonius perceived this as a full @-@ on retreat , in effect thinking that the battle was already over , and sought to pursue the Greeks . Since he did not expect the Greeks to fight , the tactical problems were no longer an issue and he tried to take advantage of the altered strategic situation he thought he had produced . Conversely , the Greeks had , inadvertently , lured Mardonius into attacking them on the higher ground and , despite being outnumbered , were thus at a tactical advantage .

= = The battle = =

Once the Persians discovered that the Greeks had abandoned their positions and appeared to be in retreat , Mardonius decided to set off in immediate pursuit with the elite Persian infantry . As he did so , the rest of the Persian army , unbidden , began to move forward . The Spartans and Tegeans had by now reached the Temple of Demeter . The rearguard under Amompharetus began to withdraw from the ridge , under pressure from Persian cavalry , to join them . Pausanias sent a messenger to the Athenians , asking them to join up with the Spartans . However , the Athenians had been engaged by the Theban phalanx and were unable to assist Pausanias . The Spartans and Tegeans were first assaulted by the Persian cavalry , while the Persian infantry made their way forward . They then planted their shields and began shooting arrows at the Greeks , while the cavalry withdrew .

According to Herodotus , Pausanias refused to advance because good omens were not divined in the goat sacrifices that were performed . At this point , as Greek soldiers began to fall under the barrage of arrows , the Tegeans started to run at the Persian lines . Offering one last sacrifice and a prayer to the heavens in front of the Temple of Hera , Pausanias finally received favourable omens and gave the command for the Spartans to advance , whereupon they also charged the Persian lines .

The numerically superior Persian infantry were of the heavy ( by Persian standards ) sparabara formation , but this was still much lighter than the Greek phalanx . The Persian defensive weapon was a large wicker shield and they used short spears ; by contrast , the hoplites were armored in bronze , with a bronze shield and a long spear . As at Marathon , it was a severe mismatch . The fight was fierce and long , but the Greeks ( Spartans and Tegeans ) continued to push into the Persian lines . The Persians tried to break the Greeks ' spears by grabbing hold of them , but the Greeks responded by switching to swords . Mardonius was present at the scene , riding a white horse , and surrounded by a bodyguard of 1 @,@ 000 men ; while he remained , the Persians stood their ground . However , the Spartans closed in on Mardonius ; a Spartan soldier named Arimnestus saw him astride his horse , picked up a large rock off the ground and threw it hard at Mardonius ; it hit him squarely in the head , killing him . With Mardonius dead , the Persians began to flee ; although his bodyguard remained , they were annihilated . Herodotus claims that the reason for their discomfort was a lack of armour . Quickly the rout became general , with many Persians fleeing in disorder to their camp . However , Artabazus ( who had earlier commanded the Sieges of Olynthus and Potidea ) , had disagreed with Mardonius about attacking the Greeks , and he had not fully engaged the forces under his command . As the rout commenced , he led these men ( 40 @,@ 000 , according to Herodotus ) away from the battlefield , on the road to Thessaly , hoping to escape eventually to the Hellespont .

On the opposite side of the battlefield the Athenians had triumphed in a tough battle against the Thebans . The other Greeks fighting for the Persians had deliberately fought badly , according to Herodotus . The Thebans retreated from the battle , but in a different direction from the Persians , allowing them to escape without further losses . The Allied Greeks , reinforced by the contingents who had not taken part in the main battle , then stormed the Persian camp . Although the Persians initially defended the wall vigorously , it was eventually breached ; the Persians , packed tightly together in the camp , were slaughtered by the Greeks . Of the Persians who had retreated to the camp , scarcely 3 @,@ 000 were left alive .

According to Herodotus , only 43 @,@ 000 Persians survived the battle . The number who died , of course , depends on how many there were in the first place ; there would be 257 @,@ 000 dead by Herodotus ' reckoning . Herodotus claims that the Greeks as a whole lost only 159 men . Furthermore , he claims that only Spartans , Tegeans and Athenians died , since they were the only ones who fought . Plutarch , who had access to other sources , gives 1 @,@ 360 Greek casualties , while both Ephorus and Diodorus Siculus tally the Greek casualties to over 10 @,@ 000 .

= = Accounts of individuals = =

Herodotus recounts several anecdotes about the conduct of specific Spartans during the battle .

Amompharetus : The leader of a battalion of Spartans , he refused to undertake the night @-@ time retreat towards Plataea before the battle , since doing so would be shameful for a Spartan . Herodotus has an angry debate continuing between Pausanias and Amompharetus until dawn , whereupon the rest of the Spartan army finally began to retreat , leaving Amompharetus ' division behind . Not expecting this , Amompharetus eventually led his men after the retreating Spartans . However , another tradition remembers Amompharetus as winning great renown at Plataea , and it has thus been suggested that Amompharetus , far from being insubordinate , had instead volunteered to guard the rear .

Aristodemus : The lone Spartan survivor of the slaughter of the 300 at the Battle of Thermopylae had , with a fellow Spartiate , been dismissed from the army by Leonidas I because of an eye infection . However , his colleague had insisted on being led into battle , partially blind , by a helot . Preferring to return to Sparta , Aristodemus was branded a coward and suffered a year of reproach before Plataea . Anxious to redeem his name , he charged the Persian lines by himself , killing in a savage fury before being cut down . Although the Spartans agreed that he had redeemed himself , they awarded him no special honour , because he failed to fight in the disciplined manner expected of a Spartan .

Callicrates : Considered the " most beautiful man , not among the Spartans only , but in the whole Greek camp " , Callicrates was eager to distinguish himself that day as a warrior but was deprived of the chance by a stray arrow that pierced his side while standing in formation . When the battle commenced he insisted on making the charge with the rest , but collapsed within a short distance . His last words , according to Herodotus , were , " I grieve not because I have to die for my country , but because I have not lifted my arm against the enemy . "

= = Aftermath = =

According to Herodotus , the Battle of Mycale occurred on the same afternoon as Plataea . A Greek fleet under the Spartan king Leotychides had sailed to Samos to challenge the remnants of the Persian fleet . The Persians , whose ships were in a poor state of repair , had decided not to risk fighting and instead drew their ships up on the beach at the feet of Mount Mycale in Ionia . An army of 60 @,@ 000 men had been left there by Xerxes and the fleet joined with them , building a palisade around the camp to protect the ships . However , Leotychides decided to attack the camp with the Allied fleet 's marines . Seeing the small size of the Greek force , the Persians emerged from the camp but the Greek hoplites again proved superior and destroyed much of the Persian force . The ships were abandoned to the Greeks , who burned them , crippling Xerxes ' sea power and marking the ascendancy of the Greek fleet .

With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale , the second Persian invasion of Greece was over . Moreover , the threat of future invasion was abated ; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again , over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished .

The remnants of the Persian army , under the command of Artabazus , tried to retreat back to Asia Minor . Travelling through the lands of Thessaly , Macedonia and Thrace by the shortest road , Artabazus eventually made it back to Byzantium , though losing many men to Thracian attacks , weariness and hunger . After the victory at Mycale , the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges , but found that this had already been done . The Peloponnesians sailed home , but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians . The Persians in the region , and their allies , made for Sestos , the strongest town in the region , and the Athenians laid siege to them there . After a protracted siege Sestos fell to the Athenians , marking the beginning of a new phase in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , the Greek counterattack . Herodotus ended his Histories after the Siege of Sestos . Over the next 30 years the Greeks , primarily the Athenian @-@ dominated Delian League , would expel ( or help expel ) the Persians from Macedon , Thrace , the Aegean islands and Ionia . Peace with Persia came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias , finally ending a half @-@ century of warfare .

= = Significance = =

Plataea and Mycale have great significance in ancient history as the battles that decisively ended the second Persian invasion of Greece , thereby swinging the balance of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars in favour of the Greeks . They kept Persia from conquering all of Greece , although they paid a high price by losing many of their men . The Battle of Marathon showed that the Persians could be defeated , and the Battle of Salamis saved Greece from immediate conquest , but it was Plataea and Mycale that effectively ended that threat . However , neither of these battles is nearly as well known as Thermopylae , Salamis or Marathon . The reason for this discrepancy is not entirely clear ; it might , however , be a result of the circumstances in which the battle was fought . The fame of Thermopylae certainly lies in the doomed heroism of the Greeks in the face of overwhelming numbers ; and Marathon and Salamis perhaps because they were both fought against the odds , and in dire strategic situations . Conversely , the Battles of Plataea and Mycale were both fought from a relative position of Greek strength , and against lesser odds ; the Greeks , in fact , sought out battle on both occasions .

Militarily , the major lesson of both Plataea and Mycale ( since both were fought on land ) was to re @-@ emphasise the superiority of the hoplite over the more lightly armed Persian infantry , as had first been demonstrated at Marathon . Taking on this lesson , after the Greco @-@ Persian Wars the Persian empire started recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries . One such mercenary expedition , the " Anabasis of the 10 @,@ 000 " as narrated by Xenophon , further proved to the Greeks that the Persians were militarily vulnerable even well within their own territory , and paved the way for the destruction of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great some decades later .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Monuments to the battle = = =

A bronze column in the shape of intertwined snakes ( the Serpent column ) was created from melted @-@ down Persian weapons , acquired in the plunder of the Persian camp , and was erected at Delphi . It commemorated all the Greek city @-@ states that had participated in the battle , listing them on the column , and thus confirming some of Herodotus ' claims . Most of it still survives in the Hippodrome of Constantinople ( present @-@ day Istanbul ) , where it was carried by Constantine the Great during the founding of his city on the Greek colony of Byzantium .

= = = Ancient sources = = =

Herodotus ( 1920 ) . The Histories. with an English translation by A. D. Godley . Cambridge : Harvard University Press . At the Perseus Project of the Tufts University .

Ctesias , Persica ( excerpt in Photius 's epitome )

Diodorus Siculus ( 1967 ) . Library. in Twelve Volumes with an English Translation by C. H. Oldfather . Cambridge , Mass . ; London . At the Perseus Project of the Tufts University .

Plutarch , Aristides

Xenophon , Anabasis

= = = Modern sources = = =

Delbrück , Hans . History of the Art of War Vol I. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 6584 @-@ 4

Holland , Tom . Persian Fire . Abacus , 2005 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 349 @-@ 11717 @-@ 1

Green , Peter . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1970 ; revised ed . , 1996 ( hardcover , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20573 @-@ 1 ) ; 1998 ( paperback , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20313 @-@ 5 ) .

Gibbon , Edward . The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8095 @-@ 9235 @-@ 7

Lazenby , JF . The Defence of Greece 490 – 479 BC . Aris & Phillips Ltd . , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 591 @-@ 7

Fehling , D. Herodotus and His " Sources " : Citation , Invention , and Narrative Art . Translated by J.G. Howie . Arca Classical and Medieval Texts , Papers , and Monographs , 21 . Leeds : Francis Cairns , 1989 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 905205 @-@ 70 @-@ 0

Connolly , P. Greece and Rome at War , 1981 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84832 @-@ 609 @-@ 5

Finley , Moses ( 1972 ) . " Introduction " . Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War ( translated by Rex Warner ) . Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044039 @-@ 9 .

Roisman , Joseph ; Worthington , Ian ( 2011 ) . A Companion to Ancient Macedonia . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 44 @-@ 435163 @-@ 7 .

Shepherd , William ( 2012 ) . Plataea 479 B.C. ; The most glorious victory ever seen . Osprey Campaign Series # 239 . Osprey Publishing . Illustrator : Peter Dennis . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84908 @-@ 554 @-@ 0

= Henry Martyn =

Henry Martyn ( 18 February 1781 – 16 October 1812 ) was an Anglican priest and missionary to the peoples of India and Persia . Born in Truro , Cornwall , he was educated at Truro Grammar School and St John 's College , Cambridge . A chance encounter with Charles Simeon led him to become a missionary . He was ordained a priest in the Church of England and became a chaplain for the British East India Company .

Martyn arrived in India in April 1806 , where he preached and occupied himself in the study of linguistics . He translated the whole of the New Testament into Urdu , Persian and Judaeo @-@ Persic . He also translated the Psalms into Persian and the Book of Common Prayer into Urdu . From India , he set out for Bushire , Shiraz , Isfahan , and Tabriz .

Martyn was seized with fever , and , though the plague was raging at Tokat , he was forced to stop there , unable to continue . On 16 October 1812 he died . He was remembered for his courage , selflessness and his religious devotion . In parts of the Anglican Communion he is celebrated with a Lesser Festival on 19 October .

= = Early life = =

Martyn was born in Truro , Cornwall . His father , John Martyn , was a " captain " or mine @-@ agent at Gwennap . As a boy , he was educated at Truro grammar school under Dr. Cardew and he entered St John 's College , Cambridge , in the autumn of 1797 , and was senior wrangler and first Smith 's prizeman in 1801 . In 1802 , he was chosen as a fellow of his college .

He had intended to go to the bar , but in the October term of 1802 he chanced to hear Charles Simeon speaking of the good done in India by a single missionary , William Carey , and some time afterwards he read the life of David Brainerd , a missionary to the Native Americans . He resolved , accordingly , to become a missionary himself . On 22 October 1803 , he was ordained deacon at Ely , and afterwards priest , and served as Simeon 's curate at the Church of Holy Trinity , taking charge of the neighbouring parish of Lolworth .

= = Missionary work = =

Martyn wanted to offer his services to the Church Missionary Society , when a financial disaster in Cornwall deprived him and his unmarried sister of the income their father had left for them . It was necessary for Martyn to earn an income that would support his sister as well as himself . He accordingly obtained a chaplaincy under the British East India Company and left for India on 5 July 1805 . On his voyage to the East , Martyn happened to be present at the British conquest of the Cape Colony on 8 January 1806 . He spent that day tending to the dying soldiers and was distressed by seeing the horrors of war . He would come away feeling that it was Britain 's destiny to convert , not colonize , the world . He wrote in his diary :

I prayed that … England whilst she sent the thunder of her arms to distant regions of the globe , might not remain proud and ungodly at home ; but might show herself great indeed , by sending forth the ministers of her church to diffuse the gospel of peace .

= = = India = = =

Martyn arrived in India in April 1806 , and for some months he was stationed at Aldeen , near Serampur . In October 1806 , he proceeded to Dinapur , where he was soon able to conduct worship among the locals in the vernacular , and established schools . In April 1809 , he was transferred to Cawnpore , where he preached to British and Indians in his own compound , in spite of interruptions and threats from local non @-@ Christians .

He occupied himself in linguistic study , and had already , during his residence at Dinapur , been engaged in revising the sheets of his Hindustani version of the New Testament . He now translated the whole of the New Testament into Urdu also , and into Persian twice . He translated the Psalms into Persian , the Gospels into Judaeo @-@ Persic , and the Book of Common Prayer into Urdu , in spite of ill @-@ health and " the pride , pedantry and fury of his chief munshi Sabat . " Ordered by the doctors to take a sea voyage , he obtained leave to go to Persia and correct his Persian New Testament . From there , he wanted to go to Arabia , and there compose an Arabic version . On 1 October 1810 , having seen his work at Cawnpore rewarded on the previous day by the opening of a church , he left for Calcutta , from where he sailed on 7 January 1811 for Bombay . The ship reached port on his thirtieth birthday .

= = Final voyage and death = =

From Bombay he set out for Bushire , bearing letters from Sir John Malcolm to men of position there , as also at Shiraz and Isfahan . After an exhausting journey from the coast he reached Shiraz , and was soon plunged into discussion with the disputants of all classes , " Sufi , Muslim , Jew , and Jewish Muslim , even Armenian , all anxious to test their powers of argument with the first English priest who had visited them . " He next traveled to Tabriz to attempt to present the Shah with his translation of the New Testament , which proved unsuccessful . Sir Gore Ouseley , the British ambassador to the Shah , was unable to bring about a meeting , but did deliver the manuscript . Although Martyn could not present the Bible in person , the Shah later wrote him a letter :

In truth ( said the royal letter of thanks to the ambassador ) through the learned and unremitted exertions of the Reverend Henry Martyn it has been translated in a style most befitting sacred books , that is in an easy and simple diction ... The whole of the New Testament is completed in a most excellent manner , a source of pleasure to our enlightened and august mind .

At this time , he was seized with fever , and after a temporary recovery , had to seek a change of climate . He set off for Constantinople , where he intended to return on furlough to England to regain his strength and recruit help for the missions in India . On 12 September 1812 , he started with two Armenian servants and crossed the Aras River . Urged on from place to place by their Tatar guide , they rode from Tabriz to Erivan , from Erivan to Kars , and from Kars to Erzurum . They departed Erzurum and though the plague was raging at Tokat , he was forced to stop there , unable to continue . He wrote his final journal entry on 6 October . It read , in part :

Oh ! when shall time give place to eternity ? When shall appear that new heaven and new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness ? There , there shall in no wise enter in any thing that defileth : none of that wickedness which has made men worse than wild beasts , none of those corruptions which add still more to the miseries of mortality , shall be seen or heard of any more .

On 16 October 1812 he died and was given a Christian burial by Armenian clergy .

He was heard to say , " Let me burn out for God " . An indication of his zeal for the things of God .

= = Legacy = =

His devotion to his tasks won him much admiration in Great Britain and he was the hero of a number of literary publications . Thomas Babington Macaulay 's Epitaph , composed early in 1813 , testified to the impression made by his career :

An institution was established in his name in India , called the Henry Martyn Institute : An Interfaith Centre for Reconciliation and Research , Hyderabad , India . John McManners wrote in his Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity that Martyn was a man remembered for his courage , selflessness and his religious devotion . In parts of the Anglican Communion he is celebrated with a Lesser Festival on 19 October .

The Henry Martyn Trust based in Cambridge , England can trace its history back to 1897 , at a time of great enthusiasm in Cambridge for overseas missions , when an appeal was launched for a ' Proposed Missionary Library for Cambridge University ' , to be housed in the Henry Martyn Hall , erected ten years previously .

The Henry Martyn Library opened in the Hall in 1898 , and there it remained as a small collection of missionary biographies and other books until 1995 . The evolution of the Henry Martyn Library into the present Henry Martyn Centre began in 1992 , when Canon Graham Kings , now Bishop of Sherborne , was appointed as the first Henry Martyn Lecturer in Missiology in the Cambridge Theological Federation .

In 1999 the Centre became an Associate Institute of the Cambridge Theological Federation , one of the largest providers of theological education in the United Kingdom .

Today , the Centre continues to seek to promote the study of mission and world Christianity , developing strong links with mission study centres around the world and fulfilling the same aim that was stated by the founders of the Library in 1897 .

= Carl Hans Lody =

Carl Hans Lody , alias Charles A. Inglis ( 20 January 1877 – 6 November 1914 ; name occasionally given as Karl Hans Lody ) , was a reserve officer of the Imperial German Navy who spied in the United Kingdom in the first few months of the First World War .

He grew up in Nordhausen in central Germany and was orphaned at an early age . After embarking on a nautical career at the age of 16 , he served briefly in the Imperial German Navy at the start of the 20th century . His ill health forced him to abandon a naval career , but he remained in the naval reserve . He joined the Hamburg America Line to work as a tour guide . While escorting a party of tourists , he met and married a German @-@ American woman , but the marriage broke down after only a few months . His wife divorced him and he returned to Berlin .

In May 1914 , two months before war broke out , Lody was approached by German naval intelligence officials . He agreed to their proposal to employ him as a peacetime spy in southern France , but the outbreak of the First World War on 28 July 1914 resulted in a change of plans . In late August , he was sent to the United Kingdom with orders to spy on the Royal Navy . He posed as an American — he could speak English fluently , with an American accent — using a genuine U.S. passport purloined from an American citizen in Germany . Over the course of a month , Lody travelled around Edinburgh and the Firth of Forth observing naval movements and coastal defences . By the end of September 1914 , he was becoming increasingly worried for his safety as a rising spy panic in Britain led to foreigners coming under suspicion . He travelled to Ireland , where he intended to keep a low profile until he could make his escape from the UK .

Lody had been given no training in espionage before embarking on his mission and within only a few days of arriving he was detected by the British authorities . His un @-@ coded communications were detected by British censors when he sent his first reports to an address in Stockholm that the British knew was a postbox for German agents . The British counter @-@ espionage agency MI5 , then known as MO5 ( g ) , allowed him to continue his activities in the hope of finding out more information about the German spy network . His first two messages were allowed to reach the Germans but later messages were stopped , as they contained sensitive military information . At the start of October 1914 , concern over the increasingly sensitive nature of his messages prompted MO5 ( g ) to order Lody 's arrest . He had left a trail of clues that enabled the police to track him to a hotel in Killarney , Ireland , in less than a day .

Lody was put on public trial — the only one held for a German spy captured in the UK in either World War — before a military court in London at the end of October . He did not attempt to deny that he was a German spy . His bearing in court was widely praised as forthright and courageous by the British press and even by the police and MO5 ( g ) officers who had tracked him down . He was convicted and sentenced to death after a three @-@ day hearing . Four days later , on 6 November 1914 , Lody was shot at dawn by a firing squad at the Tower of London in the first execution there in 167 years . His body was buried in an unmarked grave in East London . When the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in 1933 , it declared him a national hero . Lody became the subject of memorials , namesake for a destroyer ship eulogies and commemorations in Germany before and during the Second World War .

= = Early life and career = =

Carl Hans Lody was born in Berlin on 20 January 1877 . His father was a lawyer in government service who served as mayor of Oderberg in 1881 . The Lody family subsequently moved to Nordhausen , where they lived at 8 Sedanstrasse ( today Rudolf @-@ Breitscheid @-@ Strasse ) . Lody 's father served as deputy mayor there in 1882 but died in June 1883 after a short illness and his mother died in 1885 . He was fostered for a time by a couple in Leipzig before entering the orphanage of the Francke Foundations in nearby Halle .

Lody began an apprenticeship at a grocery store in Halle in 1891 , before moving to Hamburg two years later to join the crew of the sailing ship Sirius as a cabin boy . He studied at the maritime academy in Geestemünde , qualifying as a helmsman , and immediately afterwards served with the Imperial German Navy for a year between 1900 and 1901 . Subsequently joining the First Naval Reserve , he enlisted as an officer on German merchant ships . In 1904 he returned to Geestemünde , where he successfully obtained a captain 's licence . He fell seriously ill with what he later said was a stomach abscess , " caused from a very badly cured typhoid attack of fever from which I suffered in Italy on account of the bad water at Genoa . " An operation was required , which weakened his left arm and his eyesight . As Lody put it , " Consequently , my career as a seaman was closed as soon as I discovered that , and my doctor told me that I could not go any further . "

Lody found alternative employment with the Hamburg America Line , which had inaugurated a personally guided tour service for wealthy travellers going from Europe to America . Lody became a tour guide responsible for looking after these clients , and in this capacity visited European countries , including Britain . During one such tour he met a German @-@ American woman named Louise Storz , the 23 @-@ year @-@ old adoptive daughter of a wealthy beer brewer , Gottlieb Storz of Omaha , Nebraska . Louise 's tour included several European countries , including Germany ; by its conclusion she and Lody were engaged . After visiting Lody 's family in Berlin , the couple travelled to the United States . They were married on 29 October 1912 in what the Omaha Daily Bee described as " a ' society ' wedding " :

The home was beautifully decorated with chrysanthemums , palms and ferns . The ceremony and the details that preceded it were elaborate . About seventy @-@ five guests attended . After an extended western honeymoon tour Mr. and Mrs. Lody established a residence at the Clarinda .

Despite the high profile of the wedding the couple lived together for only two months . Lody sought to obtain a position in the Storz Brewing Company but he lacked expertise in brewing . As the local Omaha Daily Bee newspaper put it , " Here he was in the United States with a wife to support and no position in sight . " He found a job working as a clerk for the Union Pacific Railroad for under $ 100 a month . Two months after they were married , Louise brought suit for divorce , charging that Lody had " beat [ en ] her , inflicting serious wounds to her body . " Lody left for Berlin shortly thereafter ; over six months later , he unexpectedly returned with a German lawyer to contest the suit in the Douglas County courts . The suit was withdrawn without explanation a few days later ; Lody returned to Berlin . The two sides apparently reached an amicable settlement ; in February 1914 the divorce suit was reinstated and Lody agreed not to contest it . The divorce was granted the following month .

The military historian Thomas Boghardt suggests that the Storz family did not approve of the match , and may have pressured the couple to separate . Lody said later that his former father @-@ in @-@ law gave him $ 10 @,@ 000 , possibly as compensation . The failed marriage had a lasting effect on Lody . He wrote in 1914 : " My feelings run riot when I can permit myself to review the dramatic events of the last three years and what is to be the probable climax of it all . "

= = Beginning of espionage career = =

On his return to Germany , Lody settled in Berlin , living in what he described as " well to do circumstances " . He stayed in the Adlon , the city 's most fashionable luxury hotel , while his sister Hanna lived with her doctor husband in the prosperous suburb of Westend in Charlottenburg . As tensions grew across Europe in the first half of 1914 , German naval intelligence – the Nachrichten @-@ Abteilung , or " N " – set out to recruit potential agents . Lody already had links with the service . During his time with the Imperial German Navy , Lody had served under Arthur Tapken , who later became N 's first director . The German Imperial Admiralty Staff , or Admiralstab , listed Lody as a possible recruitment target before the outbreak of war . The naval authorities regarded Hamburg America Line ( HAL ) employees such as Lody as ideal recruits because of their expertise in naval matters and presence in ports worldwide . The HAL had collaborated with the Admiralstab since the 1890s . The relationship became so close that in July 1914 , just before the outbreak of the war , the HAL 's director Albert Ballin told the Admiralstab that he would " place myself and the organisation subordinate to me at your Excellency 's disposal as best as possible . "

On 8 May 1914 , Fritz Prieger , the director of N , contacted Lody to ask whether he was willing to serve as a naval agent . Lody replied that he was " honoured " by Prieger 's trust and would serve at Prieger 's disposal . Within three weeks Lody had signed a formal agreement to operate as a " tension traveller " in southern France – an agent who would report back to Berlin in times of heightened international tensions . The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June and the subsequent July Crisis precipitated the outbreak of World War I on 28 July .

With the United Kingdom declaring war in support of France and Belgium , Prieger sent Lody to Britain as a war agent . Lody was ordered to base himself in the Edinburgh – Leith area and monitor British naval movements . He was to travel along the Scottish coast and report on the warships stationed there ; " If or when Mr. Lody comes to know that a naval battle has taken place , he will enquire as much and unobtrusively as possible regarding losses , damage etc . " His orders reflected the Admiralstab 's belief that the war would be decided by a single major naval battle .

To communicate with his handlers , Lody was instructed to write to certain addresses in Christiania ( now Oslo ) , Stockholm , New York and Rome . He acquired an American emergency passport in the name of Charles A. Inglis , a genuine document obtained from the US Embassy in Berlin . When Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August , newly imposed restrictions prevented foreigners from leaving Germany without travel documents . Embassies and consulates throughout the country experienced a rush of visitors as foreigners sought emergency passports ; these had to be submitted to the German Foreign Ministry to obtain exit permits for neutral Denmark or the Netherlands . One such applicant was the real Charles A. Inglis , whose passport went missing – lost , it was claimed , although in fact the Foreign Ministry had appropriated it for Lody 's use . As the passport lacked security features such as the holder 's photograph or fingerprints , being merely a single @-@ sheet document , it was well @-@ suited for use by a spy . Lody said later that he had received it in the post from his superiors at N. He was also given £ 250 in British banknotes , 1 @,@ 000 Danish krone and 1 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone to finance his mission to the UK , where he would travel via Denmark and Norway .

Gustav Steinhauer , the head of N 's British section , later wrote that he had met Lody shortly before the latter 's departure , and spoken with him on a couple of occasions . Steinhauer had been active in Britain shortly before the outbreak of war , and was keen to give Lody advice on the difficulties he would face :

When you are in England , Lody , you are not in Germany or France with a neutral frontier close at hand to assist your escape . You will have to get through a port , and it will not be easy ... It will mean death if you are in the slightest degree careless . You must remember that all foreigners will be watched everywhere . Your correspondence will be opened and your luggage will be ransacked . They will go over your passport with a microscope to see that it is not forged and they will make you notify every change of address that you have .

To Steinhauer 's apparent surprise , Lody appeared nonchalant about the danger that he was about to go into . " Well , after all , one might as well die that way as any other , " Lody said , according to Steinhauer ; " I shall be rendering the Fatherland a service and no other German can do more than that . " At a final meeting at the Anhalter Bahnhof in Berlin , Steinhauer repeated his warnings , but Lody " only laughed at me and told me my fears were groundless . " Steinhauer regarded Lody 's ability to carry out his mission as " practically nil " and warned the Chief of Naval Intelligence not to send him to the UK , but the warning went unheeded . He recalled that " as he had specially volunteered for the task – and I must admit there were very few people in Berlin just then anxious to accompany him – they allowed him to go . "

As Steinhauer noted in his autobiography , the UK was a dangerous environment for a foreign agent . Only five years previously , the country had not had a dedicated counter @-@ espionage organisation . In 1909 a series of spy scares fanned by the press led to the establishment of the Secret Service Bureau , jointly headed by Captain Vernon Kell and Lieutenant @-@ Commander Mansfield Cumming . They soon split their responsibilities ; Kell took charge of counter @-@ espionage , while Cumming focused on foreign intelligence . These two divisions of the Secret Service Bureau eventually became two independent intelligence agencies , MI5 and MI6 . The Bureau quickly identified a list of possible German agents in the UK . Just before the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914 , Chief Constables across Britain and Ireland were instructed to arrest suspects in their areas . This was done quickly and a number of German agents were caught , crippling German intelligence operations in the UK at a crucial moment in the war . Steinhauer himself had been lucky to escape arrest ; he was known by name to the British authorities and he had been spying on the Royal Navy in Scotland as recently as late June 1914 .

= = Scotland = =

Lody embarked on his mission " so hastily that he did not even have time to learn a code that might have assisted him to get his messages through " , according to Steinhauer Posing as an American tourist , Lody left Berlin on 14 August , travelling via Denmark to the Norwegian port of Bergen . There he boarded a ship that took him to Newcastle , arriving on the evening of 27 August . He took a train to the North British Hotel ( now the Balmoral Hotel ) adjacent to Edinburgh Waverley railway station . On 30 August , he sent a telegram from Edinburgh 's main post office to an Adolf Burchard at 4 Drottninggatan , Stockholm – a cover address for a German agent in Sweden . The message said : " Must cancel Johnson very ill last four days shall leave shortly " and was signed " Charles " . As it was an overseas telegram , he had to sign for it with his full ( alias ) name .

The Secret Service Bureau 's counter @-@ espionage section had by now become part of the War Office 's Directorate of Military Operations and was known as MO5 ( g ) . At the outbreak of war it instituted widespread censorship of letters and telegrams sent abroad . From 4 August all mails from the UK to Norway and Sweden had been brought to London for examination to identify any being sent to suspect addresses . Fatally for Lody , MO5 ( g ) was already aware that the Stockholm address was that of a German agent , and was watching for correspondence using the " Johnson " formula employed in Lody 's telegram . " Burchard " was later identified as a German agent by the name of K. Leipziger . After Lody sent his telegram to " Burchard " , exposing his " Charles Inglis " alias on the telegram form , MO5 ( g ) ' s Letter Interception Unit conducted a back @-@ tracking exercise to find any other messages sent to the same place . One of MO5 ( g ) ' s censors later described the scene at Salisbury House in London , where the Letter Interception Unit was based :

Several names were written on a large blackboard which hung on the wall , plainly visible , and we had to keep a sharp look @-@ out for any mention of these in letters we read . The names were those of persons suspected of sending information to Germany via neutral countries . In addition , a short sentence was scribbled up on this board : ' Johnson is ill ' . The Admiralty knew that somewhere in Britain a German officer was travelling about who intended to use this formula to convey the news of certain movements of the British fleet .

The " Johnson " telegram reached its destination and was only identified retrospectively by the British authorities . It was said to have indicated the presence of four British battleships , though the censors took its meaning to be that " he was being watched and in danger & would have to leave Edinburgh which he did later on . "

Having inadvertently exposed his assumed identity , Lody 's subsequent communications came under close scrutiny by MO5 ( g ) . He left his Edinburgh hotel on 1 September , and moved to a boarding @-@ house in Drumsheugh Gardens , where he gave his name as Charles A. Inglis of New York City and paid as a weekly boarder . Three days later he sent a letter in English to the same Stockholm address , enclosing an envelope with a second letter , in German and addressed to Berlin . This was intercepted by the British authorities , opened , photographed , sealed again and sent on to Sweden . A post @-@ war report by MI5 , the successor organisation to MO5 ( g ) , explains that it was treated this way " in the hope of learning more . "

In this instance MO5 ( g ) was happy to let Lody 's letters go through as they contained information that was wildly misleading and caused serious ( and needless ) worry to the German High Command . Lody had heard the widespread rumour that thousands of Russian troops with " snow on their boots " had passed through Scotland en route to the Western Front , and relayed it to his controllers in Berlin :

Will you kindly communicate with Berlin at once by wire ( code or whatever system at your disposal ) and inform them that on Sept . 3rd great masses of Russian soldiers have passed through Edinburgh on their way to London and France . Although it must be expected that Berlin has knowledge of these movements , which probably took its start at Archangel , it may be well to forward this information . It is estimated here that 60 @,@ 000 men have passed , numbers which seem greatly exaggerated . I went to the depot [ station ] and noticed trains passing through at high speed , blinds down . The landing in Scotland took place at Aberdeen . Yours very truly Charles .

Lody 's information was entirely inaccurate and had been gleaned , as he was to admit at his trial , purely from rumours : " I heard it in the boarding @-@ house and I heard it in the barber 's shop . " His second letter , in German , was addressed to " Herr Stammer " at German naval intelligence in Courbierestrasse , Berlin , and contained details of British naval losses and vessels stationed at Leith and Grangemouth . He had obtained details of the naval vessels simply by climbing Calton Hill in Edinburgh and observing the panorama from the summit , and by taking a promenade along the seafront at Grangemouth , used by thousands of citizens as a popular excursion . He was worried about the risks that he was taking and stated in his letter that he would not go near any place where he could be challenged , or where barricades and restrictions prevented access . His lack of training or preparation meant that these letters , like all of his communications , were written with no attempt at concealment whatsoever – no code or invisible ink – and were composed entirely en clair in ordinary written English or German .

On 7 September , Lody went to a cycle shop at Haymarket Terrace to hire a bicycle . He told the owner 's daughter that he was an American from New York who was sojourning in Edinburgh after the outbreak of war had spoiled a holiday in Europe . He was staying there for a few days while he waited for a berth to become available on a ship to America , as all the transatlantic vessels were fully booked with returnees . He said that he wanted to cycle to places around Edinburgh such as Rosyth and Queensferry and arranged to hire a bicycle . The owner 's daughter warned him that some roads were now guarded and he should stop immediately if challenged by a sentry , to which he replied , " Oh , I am only going to be cycling about for pleasure ! "

For the next week , Lody followed a routine of staying in his room until noon , going out for the afternoon and returning between 5 and 7 pm . He sometimes went out on his bicycle again in the evening . He spent his time looking for information and on 14 September sent a second envelope to Stockholm . This time it was merely a wrapper containing a second envelope , inside which was a letter addressed to the editor of a Berlin newspaper , Ullstein Verlag , in which Lody said :

Enclosed cutting from the Edinburgh The News of the World . Typical for the English way of causing ill @-@ feeling and at the same time characteristic of the perfect ignorance of journalists in this country regarding the difference between military weapons and military tools . But this does not make any difference , the population here believe everything . Yours truly Nazi .

This too was intercepted and photographed but , as it was a relatively harmless letter , it was forwarded on while the British authorities continued to monitor Lody 's communications in the hope of finding out more about the German espionage network . The day after sending it , on 15 September , Lody travelled to London to reconnoitre the city 's war preparations . Travelling light , he stayed for two nights at the Ivanhoe Hotel in Bloomsbury ( now the Bloomsbury Street Hotel ) and set to work finding information about the security measures at public buildings . He said later that he had not actually observed the buildings himself but had obtained cuttings from newspapers , which he intended to send to Berlin . He also wrote a report on 16 September , but claimed that he had never sent it – it was never found by the British – as he felt that it was poorly written .

Lody returned to Edinburgh on 17 September , taking the train from King 's Cross to Edinburgh . He met a young Scottish woman , Ida McClyment , gave her his card and talked with her a while before going into another carriage to smoke . There he overheard a conversation between two men , one apparently a submariner travelling to the naval base at Rosyth and the other a sailor who talked about Harwich . Lody later professed his surprise at how the two men were " talking in a rather free way , considering the present times " . One of the men talked about the difficulties of serving on a submarine , while the other asked Lody : " What country are you ? Are you from the other side ? " Lody replied , " Yes , I am an American . " They began discussing the war and talked about the recent sinking of the cruiser HMS Pathfinder , which had become the first ship ever to be sunk by a torpedo fired by a submarine . The sailor told Lody , " We are going to put out mines as the Germans have done so . We have a big surprise in store for the Germans . " Lody was not convinced and , after shaking hands with the sailor , left the smoking car .

Lody went back to his lodgings at Drumsheugh Gardens and continued to walk and cycle around the area . He made the acquaintance of two girls he met on Princes Street and went out with them on a couple of evenings . He gave up cycling after an accident on 25 September , in which he collided with a bicycle being ridden by one of his landlady 's friends while riding from Peebles to Edinburgh , causing her " some little injury " . He returned his damaged bicycle to the shop where he had rented it .

On 27 September , Lody wrote another letter in German to " Burchard " , enclosing press cuttings about the chivalry of British seamen and the sinking of the cruisers HMS Aboukir , Cressy and Hogue . The letter included a good deal of detailed information about naval movements and fortifications , such as the artillery defences of North Berwick , Kinghorn and North and South Queensferry . It was clear by now to Lody that his mission was not going successfully . The decisive naval battle that the German Admiralty had anticipated had not happened , and Lody was becoming increasingly fearful for his personal security . He said later :

I was in Edinburgh and I had nothing to do , and simply spent my time . I was terribly nervous . I was unaccustomed to it , and I was frightened walking about Edinburgh . I had this suit made . I was frightened to go about .

The environment in Lody 's boarding @-@ house was becoming increasingly hostile ; his hosts were growing suspicious of him . Their doubts grew as the ongoing espionage scare progressed . He had stayed there for more than three weeks and his evasive answers when questioned about when he expected to leave did not satisfy them . When they said that his accent appeared to be " more German than American " , he knew it was time to go . He wrote in his letter of 27 September that " the fear of espionage is very great and every day I see some Germans going to Redford Barracks under the escort of a soldier ... It is advisable for me to vanish for a few days , and to change my place of abode . I can only hope that my telegraphic and letter information have duly arrived . " He told his controllers that he would go to Ireland , disembarking at Dublin as it was the only Irish port not closed to foreigners . Despite his hopes , his letter was intercepted by the British ; this time it was retained as the information therein was of genuine military value .

= = Journey to Ireland and capture = =

Lody left his boarding @-@ house hastily on the morning of 27 September and stayed overnight at the Roxburgh Hotel in Edinburgh . He left some of his luggage there , telling the manageress that he would be away for about eight days , and travelled the next day to Liverpool , where he took a room at the London and North Western Hotel on Lime Street . He bought a ticket to Ireland and took the SS Munster to Dublin via Kingstown ( now Dún Laoghaire ) . It stopped at Holyhead in Anglesey , where an immigration official challenged Lody . His American travel documents proved sufficient to demonstrate his bona fides , and he proceeded on his way .

Lody 's controllers realised that his mission was not going according to plan and attempted to get in touch with him to provide assistance . A letter dated 8 September was sent to Charles A. Inglis c / o Thomas Cook , Edinburgh , but he never collected it , and may never have been aware of it . Another German agent , Paul Daelen , was ordered to go to Britain and provide Lody with a new cover address . Daelen reached England too late . Lody had already travelled to Ireland without giving his controllers a means of contacting him .

During his journey to Ireland , Lody met a Minneapolis doctor , John William Lee , who had been studying eye , ear , nose and throat diseases in Vienna before the outbreak of war had compelled him to leave . Lee was planning to travel back to New York aboard the RMS Baltic , leaving Queenstown ( now Cobh ) on 7 October , and intended to spend a few days exploring Ireland before his departure . Lody asked where Lee was planning to stay in Dublin ; Lee told him that it would probably be the Gresham Hotel on Sackville Street , to which Lody replied , " All right , let 's go there . " They travelled together to the hotel , booked into separate rooms , had dinner together and went to the Empire Theatre . Lody told Lee that he had been based in Germany working for an American adding @-@ machine company . When the conversation turned to the war , Lody opined that the German army was a very well @-@ trained body of strong @-@ bodied and enduring men , and that it would be hard to beat them . The following day they had breakfast together and went for a walk in Phoenix Park .

While Lee was exchanging some money at Thomas Cook on 30 September , Lody wrote a further letter in German to " Burchard " , clarifying his reasons for coming to Ireland and describing what he had seen on his journey . He explained :

I think it is absolutely necessary to disappear for some time because several people have approached me in a disagreeable manner . That does not happen to me only , but several Americans here have told me that they are sharply watched . Fear of espionage is very great and one smells a spy in every stranger .

Lody described anti @-@ Zeppelin precautions he had heard about in London and provided details of the conversions of the Cunard Line steamships RMS Aquitania and Lusitania for their wartime service , which he had seen while in Liverpool . Once again the letter was intercepted by the British and not allowed to go forward to Stockholm . Lody and Lee spent another evening in Dublin before going on a day @-@ trip by coach to Glendalough to see the lough and the surrounding countryside . On 2 October they parted with an agreement to meet again in Killarney the following day . Lee travelled to Drogheda , where he stayed overnight , while Lody went straight to Killarney and found a room at the Great Southern Hotel ( now the Malton Hotel ) .

Lody was unaware that his latest letters had galvanised the British authorities into action . They had hitherto been content with merely monitoring his communications but the militarily significant content of his most recent letters caused them to consider him now to be a serious threat . It did not take them long to catch up with him . His lack of even basic security precautions had left the authorities with a trail of clues that enabled them to track him down in less than a day .

While Lody was travelling to Killarney on the morning of 2 October , an Edinburgh City Police detective was ordered to enquire at hotels for a person named Inglis . The detective found that Lody had stayed at the Roxburgh Hotel and was shown his luggage , which still had a label attached bearing the name and address Charles A. Inglis , Bedford House , 12 Drumsheugh Gardens . An interview with the proprietor of the boarding @-@ house where Lody had stayed enabled the police to reconstruct his movements , while the manageress of the Roxburgh was able to tell them that he had gone to Ireland .

The police sent a report to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Vernon Kell of MO5 ( g ) on the same day to summarise their findings , and put a constant watch on the Roxburgh in case Lody returned . In the meantime , MO5 ( g ) contacted the Irish Sea ports to find whether Lody had passed through them . Affirmative answers came back from Liverpool and Holyhead . Later that same afternoon MO5 ( g ) sent a telegram to the Assistant Inspector General of the Royal Irish Constabulary in Dublin , which read :

Suspected German Agent believed to be passing in name of CHARLES INGLIS as American Subject travelled from Edinburgh after 26 Sept via Liverpool & Holyhead where his passport noted and name taken . Stayed last night Gresham Hotel Dublin believed moving on to Belfast . Should be arrested and all documents seized minutest search necessary probably has code with him . Important to get specimens of his handwriting if possible . Kindly wire result .

The RIC made the investigation a top priority and replied to London at 7 @.@ 23 pm on 2 October :

Dr John Lea [ sic ] of United States arrived in Dublin on 29th with Charles Inglis and stayed at same hotel Inglis has gone to the Country today Lea will join him there tomorrow should he be arrested also description 35 years five feet eight sallow complexion darkened cropped moustache . Had a letter from Austria with him . Inspector General RIC .

At 9 @.@ 45 pm , District Inspector Cheeseman of the RIC arrived at the Great Southern Hotel in Killarney with a group of constables . He found Lody 's name in the visitors ' book and went to his room , but did not find him there . Returning to the foyer , Cheeseman saw Lody entering the hotel . He said : " Mr. Inglis , I presume ? " to which Lody replied , " Yes , what do you want ? " Cheeseman asked him to come to his hotel room and noted that Lody looked upset and frightened . He arrested Lody under the provisions of the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 ( DORA ) as a suspected German agent , prompting Lody to exclaim , " What is this ? Me , a German agent ? Take care now ; I am an American citizen . " When he was searched , his American identity documents were found along with £ 14 in German gold , 705 Norwegian krone and a small notebook . The latter listed British ships that had been sunk in the North Sea , names and addresses in Hamburg and Berlin and a possible cypher key . It also included copies of the four letters that he had sent to Stockholm . His bag contained a jacket that contained a tailor 's ticket reading " J. Steinberg , Berlin , C.H. Lody , 8 @.@ 5 @.@ 14 " .

Throughout all this , Lody 's demeanour was relatively calm after the initial shock . Cheeseman observed that Lody only appeared uneasy when his notebook was being examined ; the inspector later commented that Lody was not the usual class of man he was accustomed to dealing with , but admitted that he had never met a man under precisely similar circumstances . Cheeseman had been educated in Germany , knew the language and felt able to recognise a German accent ; he noticed that Lody 's American accent slipped from time to time , presumably due to stress , and became convinced that the man was German .

Lee was also arrested but was released without charge after two days when the investigation cleared him of any involvement in Lody 's espionage . He complained about his treatment and the British authorities ' refusal to let him see an American consul , and promised to take the matter up with the US State Department on his return . An MO5 ( g ) officer named R.H. Price smoothed things over with him on his release on 4 October , explaining what had prompted his arrest and paying his fare back to his hotel . Price reported , " I think he was quite soothed and he shook hands with me on parting . " Lee was unaware that the police had already recommended that both he and " Inglis " should be court @-@ martialled and shot if found guilty .

= = Legal complications = =

Lody was taken back to London where he was detained in Wellington Barracks under the watch of the 3rd Battalion , the Grenadier Guards . A meeting of the Cabinet on 8 October decided to try him for " war treason " , a decision that has been described as " legally , very curious " by the legal historian A. W. B. Simpson . He was not charged with espionage under either of the two relevant statutes , the Official Secrets Act 1911 or DORA . The principal reason lay in the wording of the Hague Convention of 1907 , which states : " A person can only be considered a spy when , acting clandestinely or on false pretences , he obtains or endeavours to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent , with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party . " Lody was operating in the British Isles , outside the zone of operations , and was therefore not covered by this definition . Such circumstances had been anticipated by the most recent edition of the British Manual of Military Law , published in February 1914 , which recommended that individuals in such cases should be tried for war treason : " Indeed in every case where it is doubtful whether the act consists of espionage , once the fact is established that an individual has furnished or attempted to furnish information to the enemy , no time need be wasted in examining whether the case corresponds exactly to the definition of espionage . "

War treason as defined by the Manual covered a very wide range of offences , including " obtaining , supplying and carrying of information to the enemy " or attempting to do so . Its application in Lody 's case , rather than the government relying on DORA , was the result of a misunderstanding by the War Office . It had been misinformed in August 1914 that an unidentified German had been captured with a radio transmitter and interned in Bodmin Prison . In fact , no such person existed , but the story led Lord Kitchener , the Secretary of State for War , to ask the Lord Chancellor , Lord Haldane , for advice on how the supposed spy should be dealt with . Haldane stated that the individual should be put before a court martial and executed if found guilty . He wrote :

If an alien belligerent is caught in this country spying or otherwise waging war he can , in my opinion , be Court Martialled and executed . The mere fact that he is resident here and has what is popularly called a domicile is not enough ... When war breaks out an alien becomes prima facie an outlaw ... if he is a spy or takes up arms ... and he becomes a person without legal rights . By international law he must have a trial before punishment but the trial may be by Court Martial . He cannot invoke the jurisdiction of the civil courts .

This theory was relied upon by the Cabinet and the Army Council , which ordered on 9 August that Lody was to be tried by a court martial . There was some confusion about whether Haldane had really meant a court martial rather than a military tribunal , and the Adjutant General questioned whether DORA had limited the maximum punishment for espionage to penal servitude for life , rather than the death penalty . Further confusion was caused by the fact that Lody 's identity had not yet been fully established . If he really was an American citizen , he was not an " alien belligerent " and could not be court martialled .

On 21 October 1914 the Cabinet decided that Lody should be handed over to the civil police and tried by the High Court . After Lody then made a statement voluntarily admitting his real name and his status as a German subject , the Cabinet determined the following day that the original plan would be followed after all . The venue for the court martial was to be the Middlesex Guildhall in Parliament Square ; Major General Lord Cheylesmore would preside , sitting with eight other officers . In hindsight , according to Simpson , it is doubtful whether the charge and eventual sentence were lawful . A later revision of the Manual of Military Law rejected the view that a spy commits a war crime and alluded to the Lody case in suggesting that war treason was not an applicable charge in such cases . Simpson comments that " it is fairly plain that Lody 's execution was unlawful under domestic and international law . " This objection was not raised during Lody 's trial but it would not have done him any good in any case , as there was no appeal for a decision made by a court martial . In the event , Lody 's trial was unique . No other spies captured in Britain were tried for war treason under international law . DORA was amended in November 1914 to permit a death sentence to be imposed . All of the subsequent 26 courts martial of accused spies were heard under DORA , resulting in 10 executions .

Another question that arose was whether Lody 's trial should be held in public or in camera . Captain Reginald Drake , MO5 ( g ) ' s head of counter @-@ espionage , wanted Lody to be tried secretly so that he could implement " an ingenious method for conveying false information to the enemy which depended on their not knowing which of their agents had been caught . " He was overruled , as the British Government believed that it would be more advantageous to publicise the threat of German spies to remove any doubt in the public mind that German espionage posed a serious threat in the UK . It was hoped that this would also generate support for the intelligence and censorship apparatus that was rapidly taking shape and would deter possible imitators . In the event , Lody 's was the only spy trial in either World War held in public in the UK . In pursuing this policy the Government sacrificed the chance to " turn " captured spies and turn them into assets for the British intelligence services . It was an opportunity that was taken in the Second World War when the highly successful Double @-@ Cross System was implemented .

= = Trial = =

The court martial was held over three days between Friday 30 October and Monday 2 November . Lody was charged with two offences of war treason concerning the two letters he had sent from Edinburgh on 27 September and Dublin on 30 September . In both letters , the charge sheet stated that Lody had sought " to convey to a belligerent enemy of Great Britain , namely Germany " information relating to the UK 's defences and preparations for war . He pleaded not guilty to both charges . He made an immediate impression on observers when he first appeared in court . The Daily Express reporter described him as :

a South German in appearance – a short , well @-@ built man of thirty @-@ eight [ sic - actually 37 ] , with a broad , low forehead that slopes backward , black hair parted in the middle and brushed backward , a broad , short nose , large , deep @-@ set , dark eyes with a look of keen intelligence in their depths , and tight @-@ set lips .

Sir Archibald Bodkin , the Director of Public Prosecutions , set out the case for the prosecution . The evidence was overwhelming ; the prosecution case highlighted the contents of Lody 's notebook and the luggage that he had left at the Roxburgh Hotel , and called a series of witnesses , including the elderly Scottish woman who ran the boarding @-@ house in which he had stayed in Edinburgh and the fashionably dressed Ida McClyment , who caused a stir when she described her meeting with Lody aboard the London to Edinburgh train . Bodkin did not read the incriminating letters aloud , due to the sensitivity of their content , but described them in general terms . The witnesses testified about their interactions with Lody and identified him as the man who had posed as " Charles A. Inglis " , though the proprietress of the Edinburgh boarding @-@ house experienced some difficulty . When she " was asked if she could see ' Charles A. Inglis ' in court , [ she ] looked everywhere except at the dock . Lody , who was sitting , stood up and gently waved his hands to attract her attention , while he smiled broadly and almost broke into laughter at the absurdity of the situation . "

Late on 30 October , Lody wrote to a friend in Omaha to tell him about his feelings before he began his defence . He told his friend :

I am prepared to make a clean breast of all this trouble , but I must protect my friends in the Fatherland and avoid as much possible humiliation for those who have been near and dear to me .

I am in the Tower [ sic – actually Wellington Barracks ] . Hourly while I am confined here an unfriendly guard paces the corridor . My counsellor [ George Elliot QC ] is an attorney of standing , but I ofttimes feel that he is trying to do his duty to his country rather than defend his client . Next week I shall know my fate , although there can hardly be a doubt as to what it is to be . I have attended to such legal matters as were necessary , but whether my wishes will ever be carried out I do not know .

You may have an opportunity to say a word to some of those for whom I feel an interest . Ask them to judge me not harshly , When they hear of me again , doubtless my body shall have been placed in concrete beneath this old tower , or my bones shall have made a pyre . But I shall have served my country . Maybe some historian will record me among the despised class of war victims … Doubtless my demise shall be heralded as that of a spy , but I have spiritual consolation . Others have suffered and I must accept the reward of fate .

The second day of the trial was interrupted when a young man whom The Times described as being " of foreign appearance " was arrested and removed from the court on the orders of Captain Reginald " Blinker " Hall , the Director of Naval Intelligence . The interloper was one Charles Stuart Nairne , an Irishman and former Royal Navy lieutenant whom Hall spotted in the public gallery and considered to be " either a lunatic or a very dangerous person " . As Nairne was being removed into military custody , he attempted to shake Lody 's hand in the dock .

Lody was then called to give evidence . It was revealed to the public for the first time that he was an officer in the Imperial German Navy and that he had been ordered by a superior officer to spy in Britain . When he was asked for the name of that individual , his composure temporarily deserted him , as The Times ' reporter recorded :

For the space of perhaps half a minute the prisoner hesitated , and then , in a voice broken by gradually deepening emotion , said , " I have pledged my word not to give that name . I cannot do it . Where names are found in my documents I certainly do not feel I have broken my word , but that name I cannot give . I have given my word of honour . "

The prisoner sobbed a moment , then turned pale , and gazed before him in a dazed manner . Recovering his self @-@ possession he said , " I beg pardon ; my nerves have given way . " A glass of water was handed up to the prisoner .

Lody stated that he had been sent to the UK " to remain until the first [ naval ] encounter had taken place between the two Powers , and to send accurate information as regards the actual losses of the British Fleet " , as well as to observe what he could of Fleet movements off the coast . The court martial went into an in camera session while sensitive evidence was being heard . Lody claimed that he had asked in August to be erased from military service on the grounds of poor health and to be allowed to travel to the United States . This was refused , he went on , but a member of naval intelligence whom he had previously never met coaxed him into undertaking a mission in the UK on the condition that he could go to the US afterwards . Lody told the tribunal that he was not pressured but that " I have never been a coward in my life and I certainly would not be a shirker " , and that he had persisted with his mission because " once a man has promised to do a thing he does it , that is the understanding . " His services were provided " absolutely as an honour and free " , while he had never intended to be a spy : " I was pressed for secret service , but not as a spy – oh , no . If that would have been mentioned to me at Berlin I surely would have refused . The word in the sentence , I do not think it goes together . " He claimed that he had " pledged my word of honour " not to name his controller .

Little of this was true , but at the time the British had no way of knowing this . The files of the Admiralstab in Berlin show that he was approached by N , rather than volunteering for intelligence service , entered their employment as early as May 1914 ( rather than in August as he claimed ) , received regular pay rather than being unpaid , and intended to return to Berlin on completing his mission . It is unknown whether he really had any intention of going to the US , and there is no indication from the Admiralstab files that he had been asked to keep his controller 's name a secret . After hearing Lody 's evidence the court martial was adjourned until the following Monday .

On the final day of the court martial , 2 November 1914 , the prosecution and defence put forward their final arguments . Lody 's counsel argued for mitigation on the grounds that Lody had " [ come ] to this country actuated by patriotic German motives , entirely paying his own expenses and carrying his life in his hands , to fulfil the mandate of his supporters . " As one newspaper report put it ,

He wished to go down to his final fate as a brave man , an honest man , and as an open @-@ hearted man . There was no suggestion of an attempt at pleading for mercy or for favourable treatment . " Englishmen will not deny him respect for the courage he has shown , " said Mr. Elliott . " His own grandfather , an old soldier , held a fortress against Napoleon … He knows that he carried his life in his hands , and he stands before the Court in that spirit … And he will face the decision of the Court like a man . " Lody was asked if he had any statement to make but said , " I have nothing more to say . "

The finding of guilt and sentence of death were pronounced in camera , without Lody present , before the court martial was adjourned .

= = Execution = =

No public announcement was made of the court martial 's verdict . Instead , the following day , the General Officer Commanding London District was sent instructions ordering the sentence to be promulgated on 5 November , with Lody being told , and for the sentence to be carried out at least 18 hours later . Great secrecy surrounded the proceedings which , when combined with the short timeframe , caused problems for the GOC in finding a suitable place of execution . He contacted Major @-@ General Henry Pipon , the Major of the Tower of London , to tell him :

I have been directed to carry out the execution of the German Spy who has been convicted by General Court Martial . The time given me has been short , so short that I have had only a few hours to arrange and have been directed to keep it secret . Under the circumstances the Tower is the only possible place and has been approved by the War Office .

While the Tower may have been " the only possible place " , in some respects it was a strange choice . It had not been used as a state prison for many years and the last execution there – that of Lord Lovat , the Jacobite rebel – had taken place in 1747 . It was one of London 's most popular tourist attractions , recording over 400 @,@ 000 visitors a year by the end of the 19th century , and remained open to tourists even on the day of Lody 's execution . During the Tower 's heyday , executions had been carried out in the open air on Tower Hill or Tower Green , but Lody 's execution was to take place at the Tower 's rifle range located in the eastern part of the Outer Ward between Martin and Constable Towers , behind the Outer Curtain wall and out of public sight . The Tower 's custodians , the Yeomen Warders ( " Beefeaters " ) , had long since become tourist guides rather than active @-@ duty soldiers , so eight men were selected from the 3rd Battalion , to carry out the sentence .

Lody was informed of his impending execution on the evening of 5 November and was brought to the Tower in a police van . According to the Daily Express , he " received the news calmly and with no sign of surprise . " He was held in the Casemates on the west side of the Tower , an area where the Yeoman Warders now live . His last meal was probably prepared by one of the Warders ' wives , as the Tower had no proper accommodation or dining facilities for prisoners . While at the Tower he wrote a couple of final letters . One was addressed to the Commanding Officer of the 3rd Battalion to thank his captors for their care of him :

Sir ,

I feel it my duty as a German officer to express my sincere thanks and appreciation towards the staff of officers and men who were in charge of my person during my confinement .

Their kind and considered treatment has called my highest esteem and admiration as regards good fellowship even towards the enemy and if I may be permitted , I would thank you for making this known to them .

The Guards apparently never saw the letter ; the Adjutant General instead directed the letter to be placed in a War Office file rather than being sent to the regiment .

Lody also wrote a letter to his sister , which was published posthumously in the Frankfurter Zeitung newspaper , in which he told her and his other relatives :

My dear ones ,

I have trusted in God and He has decided . My hour has come , and I must start on the journey through the Dark Valley like so many of my comrades in this terrible War of Nations . May my life be offered as a humble offering on the altar of the Fatherland .

A hero 's death on the battlefield is certainly finer , but such is not to be my lot , and I die here in the Enemy 's country silent and unknown , but the consciousness that I die in the service of the Fatherland makes death easy .

The Supreme Court @-@ Martial of London has sentenced me to death for Military Conspiracy . Tomorrow I shall be shot here in the Tower . I have had just Judges , and I shall die as an Officer , not as a spy .

Farewell . God bless you ,

Hans .

Lody also left instructions that his ring was to be forwarded to his ex @-@ wife , which was carried out after his execution .

At dawn on the morning of 6 November 1914 , in cold , foggy and bleak weather , Lody was fetched from his cell by the Assistant Provost @-@ Marshal , Lord Athlumney . He asked , " I suppose that you will not care to shake hands with a German spy ? " , to which the reply came , " No . But I will shake hands with a brave man . " A small procession formed up for the short journey to the rifle range , comprising Lody and his armed escort , the Tower 's Chaplain and the eight @-@ man firing squad . John Fraser , one of the Yeoman Warders , witnessed it and later described it :

Nobody liked this sort of thing . It was altogether too cold @-@ blooded for an ordinary stomach ( particularly that of a soldier , who hates cold @-@ bloodedness ) to face with equanimity , and it is not too much to say that , of that sad little procession , the calmest and most composed member was the condemned man himself .

For the Chaplain , in particular , it was a bad time . He had never had a similar experience , and his voice had a shake in it as he intoned the solemn words of the Burial Service over the living form of the man it most concerned . . .

The escort and the firing @-@ party , too , were far from comfortable , and one could see that the slow march suitable to the occasion was getting badly on their nerves . They wanted to hurry over it , and get the beastly business finished .

But the prisoner walked steadily , stiffly upright , and yet as easily and unconcernedly as though he was going to a tea @-@ party , instead of to his death . His eyes were upturned to the gloomy skies , and his nostrils eagerly drank in the precious air that was soon to be denied them . But his face was quite calm and composed – almost expressionless .

At the rifle range Lody was strapped into a chair . He refused to have his eyes bandaged , as he wished to die with his eyes open . A few moments later the inhabitants of the Tower heard " the muffled sound of a single volley " . His body was taken away to be buried in an unmarked grave in the East London Cemetery in Plaistow . The War Office issued a terse announcement of the execution a few days later on 10 November : " Sentence is duly confirmed . "

= = Reaction = =

Lody 's courageous demeanour in court produced widespread sympathy and admiration , a development that neither side had anticipated . Even his captors were captivated ; although MO5 ( g ) had recommended his execution as early as 3 October , by the time the trial was over , Kell was said by his wife to have considered Lody a " really fine man " of whom Kell " felt it deeply that so brave a man should have to pay the death penalty for carrying out what he considered to be his duty to his country . " Sir Basil Thomson of Scotland Yard commented that " there was some difference of opinion as to whether it was sound policy to execute spies and to begin with a patriotic spy like Lody . " According to Robert Jackson , the biographer of Lody 's prosecutor Sir Archibald Bodkin , Lody 's " bearing and frankness when caught so impressed Britain 's spy @-@ catchers and prosecutors that they talked about trying to get the Government to waive the internationally recognised rule that spies caught in wartime automatically are put to death . Only the certainty that Germany would not be as merciful to our own spies made them refrain . " Thomson also paid tribute to Lody in his 1937 book The Scene Changes :

Lody won the respect of all who came into contact with him . In the quiet heroism with which he faced his trial and his execution there was no suspicion of play @-@ acting . He never flinched , he never cringed , but he died as one would wish all Englishmen to die – quietly and undramatically , supported by the proud consciousness of having done his duty .

Lody 's conduct was contrasted favourably with the German spies captured after him , many of whom were nationals of neutral countries , who followed him to the execution chair . Lady Constance Kell commented that " most of the agents employed by the Germans worked only for the money they gained and were regarded with utter contempt " . Similarly , Thomson described " the scum of neutral spies " , of whom he said , " we came to wish that a distinction could have been made between patriotic spies like Lody and the hirelings who pestered us through the ensuing years " . Shortly after Lody 's death he was described in the House of Commons as " a patriot who had died for his country as much as any soldier who fell in the field . "

The British and German publics also took a positive view of Lody . His trial became something of a celebrity occasion ; as The New York Times observed , on the first day , " many fashionably dressed women thronged the galleries of the courtroom " and the final day was attended by " many leaders of London society as well as by prominent jurists , politicians , and military and naval men . " The Daily Express opined that " one cannot withhold a tribute to his daring resourcefulness and inflexible courage " and called Lody " one of the cleverest spies in Steinhauer 's service " , though it advised its readers to bear in mind that he was " a most dangerous spy . "

Louise Storz , Lody 's former wife , received his ring in early December along with a letter from him . She refused to disclose its contents , saying , " It is his last message to me and in no way concerns anyone else . The ring had also been our wedding ring . " She spoke of her reaction to his death in an interview in November 1914 with The Kansas City Star while visiting Excelsior Springs , Missouri . She said :

My nerves are completely upset and I have come to this quiet place where I hope to escape even the loving sympathy of my many friends in Omaha . I want to forget . But the awfulness of such a fate , I fear , I cannot soon erase from my memory ... He was so fine in so many ways . Of fine learning , an accomplished linguist , and of high courage . He used to talk entrancingly of his love and devotion to his country . It must have been a beautiful thing , according to his way of thinking , to die if need be for his Fatherland . But I want to forget . I owe it to myself and my parents to call the chapter closed .

Her father refused to comment , saying that his interest in the Lody case was " only a passing one " . A rumour had it that the German government paid Louise Storz $ 15 @,@ 000 in compensation for her ex @-@ husband 's death , but she denied this in 1915 .

In Germany , Lody 's home town of Nordhausen planted an oak tree in his memory . Newspaper commentary was limited ; the first article about the case that The Times noted was only published around 19 November , in the Frankfurter Zeitung , in which a pseudonymous columnist suggested that the British might have been tempted to show Lody mercy : " I myself am convinced that the noble manliness with which this strong German composure bore itself before the Court touched the heart of the Judge , that the Judge said " If only we English had many such Hans Lodys ! " and that Hans Lody lives ... We shall not forget him , for he staked his country more than his life – his name and his honour . " A death notice was published in early December in the Stuttgarter Neues Tagblatt , stating that he had " died the hero 's death for the Fatherland in England , November 6 " .

Lody 's death produced a low @-@ key response from the German government . The Admiralstab recommended at the end of 1914 that he should be awarded a posthumous Iron Cross , Second Class , and argued that the recruitment of naval agents would be assisted if espionage could be rewarded with such a prestigious medal . The Kaiser agreed , though not without some reluctance .

The bravery Lody exhibited during his trial and execution was praised by many post @-@ war British writers . Sir George Aston , writing in his 1930 book Secret Service , called on his readers to " pay a tribute to a real German spy of the highest type ... Karl Lody " , while John Bulloch commented in his 1963 history of MI5 that Lody 's bearing made him " something of a hero even in the country against which he was working . " E.T. Woodhall , a former detective , collected accounts from officers who had been involved in the investigation and wrote in 1932 : " They are unanimous in their admiration for his manly and brazen qualities , but they all criticise his amazing lack of caution ... He was admired by everybody for his bravery and straightforward , patriotic devotion to his country . "

Lody may have had more complex motives than simple patriotism . Thomas Boghardt notes the " exceptional " way in which Lody bore himself at his trial , pointing out that " virtually all other German agents accused of espionage understandably tried to deny or minimise their involvement with N " . Boghardt had the advantage of being able to review the Admiralstab 's files on the case and highlights " small but important changes " , or rather discrepancies , between Lody 's statements in court and the facts preserved in the case files . As Boghardt puts it ,

All this suggests that Lody was less concerned with averting a harsh sentence than he was with projecting a certain image of himself , that of a patriot who , despite his reluctance to join the secret service , rendered his fatherland a final service before starting a new life in America ; in short , a ' man of honour ' rather than a traitorous spy . Until his death , Lody conformed superbly to this image ... During the last weeks of his life , Lody tried to shatter the negative image usually attached to spies , and in this regard he was utterly successful .

Lody , suggests Boghardt , " had accepted his trial and probable execution as a form of expiation for events that had occurred long before his becoming a secret agent . " He raises the possibility that Lody was motivated by what had happened two years earlier in Omaha , when Lody had responded to the accusations of being a wife @-@ beater by declaring that he would " defend the honour of a gentleman " . Boghardt comments that " his eagerness to display his honour may indicate a concern that others doubted this very quality in him . While presenting himself to the world as a man of honour and accepting his fate courageously , Lody may have found comfort and strength in the thought that whoever had doubted his honour previously would now be persuade otherwise . "

= = From spy to national hero = =

During the Nazi era , Lody 's memory was appropriated by the new regime to promote a more muscular image of German patriotism . An elaborate commemoration of his death was held in Lübeck on 6 November 1934 , when flags across the city flew at half @-@ mast and bells tolled between 6 @.@ 45 and 7 am , the time of his execution . Later that day a memorial was unveiled at the Burgtor gateway near the harbour , depicting a knight in armour with a closed visor ( representing Lody ) , with his hands fettered ( representing captivity ) and a serpent entwining his feet ( representing betrayal ) . Below it an inscription was set into the gate 's brickwork , reading " CARL HANS LODY starb für uns 6 @.@ 11 @.@ 1914 im Tower zu London " ( " Carl Hans Lody died for us 6 @.@ 11 @.@ 1914 in the Tower of London " ) .

During the unveiling ceremony , which was attended by Lody 's sister and representatives of the present Reichsmarine and old Imperial German Navy , the road leading from the gateway to the harbour was also renamed " Karl @-@ Hans @-@ Lody @-@ Weg " . On the same day , officers from the Hamburg @-@ America Line presented city officials with a ship 's bell bearing the inscription " In Memory of Karl Hans Lody " , to be rung each 6 November at the time of his death . After World War II , when Lübeck was part of the British Zone of Occupation , the statue was taken down and the niche in which it stood was bricked up , though the inscription was allowed to remain and is still visible today .

Lody was further memorialised in 1937 when the newly launched destroyer Z10 was christened Hans Lody . Other ships in the same class were also given the names of German officers who had died in action . The ship served throughout the Second World War in the Baltic and North Sea theatres , survived the war and was captured by the British in 1945 . After a few years in Royal Navy service she was scrapped in Sunderland in 1949 .

Lody was also the subject of literary and stage works ; a hagiographic biographical account , Lody – Ein Weg um Ehre ( Lody – One Way to Honour ) , was published by Hans Fuchs in 1936 and a play called Lody : vom Leben und Sterben eines deutschen Offiziers ( Lody : the life and death of a German officer ) , by Walter Heuer , premiered on Germany 's National Heroes ' Day in 1937 . It depicts Lody as brave and patriotic but clumsy , leaving a trail of clues behind him as he travels in the UK : wearing clothes marked " Made in Germany " , writing naval secrets on the back of a bus ticket which he loses and a Scotland Yard detective finds , coming to attention when an orchestra in London plays the German naval anthem , arousing suspicion when he calls for German wine while writing secret reports to Berlin , and leaving incriminating letters in the pockets of suits which he sends to be pressed . Lody is arrested in London and sentenced to death . Offered a chance to escape , he refuses and drinks a glass of wine with the firing squad , toasting Anglo @-@ German friendship . He is led out to his execution , saying his final words : " I shall see Germany once more – from the stars . " The Dundee Evening Telegraph described the storyline as " quaint " .

The Lodystraße in Berlin was named in his honour .

= = Burial = =

The 17 @-@ year @-@ old Bertolt Brecht wrote a eulogy to Lody in 1915 in which he imagined the purpose behind the spy 's death :

The reality was very different . Lody 's body was buried in an unmarked common grave in the East London Cemetery in Plaistow along with seventeen other men – ten executed spies and seven prisoners who died of ill @-@ health or accidents . It was not until 1924 that the grave received a marker , at the instigation of the German Embassy . Lody 's relatives were visiting it once a year and enquired whether his body could be exhumed and buried in a private grave . The War Office agreed , providing that the body could be identified , but the Foreign Office was more reluctant and pointed out that a licence for exhumation would have to be authorised by the Home Office . The Lody family placed a white headstone and kerb on the grave some time around 1934 .

In September 1937 the German government again requested that Lody 's body be exhumed and moved to a separate grave . This proved impractical for several reasons ; he had been buried with seven other men , each coffin had been cemented down and the lapse of time would make identification very difficult . Instead , the British Imperial War Graves Commission suggested that a memorial should be constructed in another part of the cemetery to bear the names of all the German civilians who were buried there . The proposal met with German agreement and the memorial was duly installed . During the Second World War , Lody 's original headstone was destroyed by misaimed Luftwaffe bombs . It was replaced in 1974 .

One further proposal was made to rebury Lody in the 1960s . In 1959 the British and German governments agreed to move German war dead who had been buried in various locations around the UK to a new central cemetery at Cannock Chase in Staffordshire . The German War Graves Commission ( VDK ) asked if it would be possible to disinter Lody 's body and move it to Cannock Chase . By that time , the plot had been reused for further common graves , buried above Lody 's body . The VDK was told that it would not be possible to disinter the other bodies without the permission of the relatives , which would have been an almost impossible task where common graves were concerned . The proposal was abandoned and Lody 's body remains at Plaistow .

= Ontario Highway 77 =

King 's Highway 77 , commonly referred to as Highway 77 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . One of three highways within Essex County , Highway 77 serves to interconnect Highway 3 near Leamington with Highway 401 near Tilbury . Prior to 1998 , the highway extended south into Leamington , ending at the former routing of Highway 3 and Highway 18 . This section was turned over to Essex County and renamed Erie Street . The speed limit on Highway 77 is 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) in most places , dropping to 50 km / h in built @-@ up areas . It is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .

= = Route description = =

Due to the flat topography of Essex County , the land use surrounding Highway 77 is almost entirely agricultural . Soil conditions in Essex are ideal for farming , and as a result very few natural areas can be found in the county . Many streams have been diverted to irrigate the endless farmland to either side of the highway . Relief from the plain is provided only by the few hamlets along the route . In addition , Lake Erie and Lake St Clair are both a short distance from Highway 77 .

Highway 77 begins at the Leamington Bypass , north of the city of the same name . The western section of Highway 3 shares its eastern terminus with Highway 77 ; from there it travels west towards Windsor . Several greenhouses are visible near the southern end of the highway , a small percentage of the 610 hectares ( 1 @,@ 500 acres ) of land occupied by them in the Leamington area . Point Pelee National Park , the southernmost point in Canada , is also nearby .

The highway runs 11 @.@ 5 km ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) north through Mount Carmel and Blytheswood to the village of Staples before turning to the east . It continues in this direction for 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) before returning to its northward orientation . North of there , the highway passes to the east of the Comber and District Historical Society Museum . The museum , which focuses on the history of agriculture , was established in the former Maple Grove Schoolhouse , which was built in 1894 . Pressing north to Highway 401 , it passes Middle Road ( once Highway 98 ) in the centre of Comber . Highway 401 provides access to Windsor and the United States to the west , and to the town of Tilbury and city of Chatham – Kent to the east . To the north , the road continues as Essex County Road 35 to Stoney Point on the shores of Lake Huron .

Traffic levels along Highway 77 vary , but are generally low . The busiest section of the highway lies at the southern end between Leamington and Blythesville , with an average of 6 @,@ 000 vehicles travelling it per day . North of that , traffic drops considerably to 3 @,@ 000 vehicles , but increases approaching Comber and Highway 401 to around 4 @,@ 500 .

= = History = =

The Highway 77 designation was first applied on August 5 , 1936 to a road running southeast from Rodney , Ontario to Highway 3 at New Glasgow . On December 5 , 1957 , the highway was transferred to Elgin County and is now known as Elgin County Road 103 . The current Highway 77 was designated between Leamington and Highway 401 on April 1 , 1963 . The southern end followed present @-@ day Erie Street south through the city to Talbot Road . At the time , Highway 3 travelled along that road ; Highway 77 continued south of Talbot Road as Highway 18 . In early December 1999 , the Leamington Bypass of Highway 3 opened . The southern terminus of Highway 77 was subsequently truncated by 1 @.@ 7 km ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) to end at the new bypass .

= = Major intersections = =

The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 77 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Essex County .

= Chambersburg , Pennsylvania =

Chambersburg is a borough in the South Central region of Pennsylvania , United States . It is 13 miles ( 21 km ) miles north of Maryland and the Mason @-@ Dixon line and 52 miles ( 84 km ) southwest of Harrisburg in the Cumberland Valley , which is part of the Great Appalachian Valley . Chambersburg is the county seat of Franklin County . According to the United States Census Bureau the 2010 population was 20 @,@ 268 . When combined with the surrounding Greene , Hamilton , and Guilford Townships , the population of Greater Chambersburg is 52 @,@ 273 . Chambersburg is at the core of the Chambersburg , PA Micropolitan Statistical Area which includes surrounding Franklin County . The population of the Chambersburg Micropolitan Area in 2010 was 149 @,@ 618 .

Chambersburg 's settlement began in 1730 when water mills were built at the confluence of Conococheague Creek and Falling Spring Creek that now run through the center of the town . Its history includes episodes relating to the French and Indian War , the Whiskey Rebellion , John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry , and the American Civil War . The borough was the only major northern community burned down by Confederate forces during the war .

Chambersburg is located along the Lincoln Highway , U.S. 30 , between McConnellsburg and Gettysburg , Pennsylvania and along U.S. 11 , the Molly Pitcher Highway , between Shippensburg , Pennsylvania , and Hagerstown , Maryland . Interstate 81 skirts the borough to its east . The town also lies approximately midpoint on US Route 30 between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia with the local geography reflecting both flatter areas like Philadelphia and mountainous areas like Pittsburgh .

= = History = =

= = = European settlement = = =

Native Americans living or hunting in the area during the 18th century included the Iroquois , Lenape and Shawnee . " Falling Spring " was first settled by Benjamin Chambers , a Scots @-@ Irish immigrant , in 1730 , who started a grist mill and saw mill by a then @-@ 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) high waterfall where Falling Spring Creek joined Conococheague Creek . The creek provided power to the mills , and the settlement was known as " Falling Spring . "

On March 30 , 1734 , Chambers was issued a " Blunston license " for 400 acres ( 160 ha ) , from a representative of the Penn family , but European settlement in the area was of questionable legality until the treaty ending the French and Indian War , because not all Indian tribes with land claims had signed treaties . The Penn family encouraged settlement in the area in order to strengthen its case in a border dispute with the Maryland Colony , which had resulted in hostilities known as Cresap 's War . This dispute was not settled until 1767 and the surveying of the border known as the Mason @-@ Dixon line . Chambers traveled to England to testify in support of Penn 's claims . To maintain peace with the Indians , European settlers were sometimes removed from the nearby area . In May 1750 , Benjamin Chambers participated in removing settlers from nearby Burnt Cabins , which took its name from the incident .

The area was officially part of Chester County , then Lancaster , and then Cumberland until it became part of the newly established Franklin County in 1784 .

The Great Wagon Road connecting Philadelphia with the Shenandoah Valley passed nearby . In 1744 , it was completed through Harris 's Ferry , Carlisle , Shippensburg , and Chambersburg to the Potomac River .

In 1748 a local militia was formed for protection against Indians , with Benjamin Chambers being named colonel .

Chambersburg was on the frontier during the French and Indian War . The area 's population dropped from about 3 @,@ 000 in 1755 at the start of the war to about 300 , with most settlers not returning until after 1764 when the peace treaty was signed . Benjamin Chambers built a private stone fort during the war , which was equipped with two 4 pounder cannons and fighting occurred nearby . Because Chambers 's fort was otherwise lightly defended , the authorities attempted to remove the cannons to prevent them from being captured by Indians and used against other forts . The attempted removal was unsuccessful , and one of the cannons was used to celebrate Independence Day in 1840 . The Forbes Road and other trails going to Fort Pitt passed nearby as well . The Forbes Road developed into part of the main road connecting Pittsburg and Philadelphia , and much later into US 30 , and Chambersburg developed as a transportation hub at the crossroads of Forbes Road and the Great Wagon Road .

Fighting continued in the area after the war , most notably the Enoch Brown school massacre during Pontiac 's Rebellion and the Black Boys rebellion against British troops at Fort Loudon .

The first settlers were Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterians and German Protestants came soon afterward . Quakers and English Protestants , who made up a large proportion of early Pennsylvania settlers , did not often move as far west as Chambersburg . Blacks lived in Chambersburg almost from the start of settlement . Benjamin Chambers owned a black female slave sometime before the French and Indian War and twenty slaves were recorded as taxable property in 1786 .

The earliest church was established by Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterians in 1734 . Chambers gave land to the congregation in 1768 , requiring only a single rose as annual rent . Later land was given to the First Lutheran Church ( 1780 ) and Zion Reformed Church ( organized in 1780 ) under the same agreement , and these churches came to be known as the " Rose Rent Churches . " A Catholic community organized in 1785 . The Jewish cemetery dates back to 1840 . The Mt . Moriah First African Baptist Church dates to 1887 .

The town was first laid out in 1764 , and lots were advertised for sale on July 19 in Benjamin Franklin 's Pennsylvania Gazette

Notice is hereby given to the Public , that there is a town is laid out on Conegogig Creek , on both sides of the Great Falling Spring , where is falls into said creek , by Benjamin Chambers , of Cumberland County . Lots may be had on reasonable terms and Firm Deeds granted for them by said Chambers : the day appointed for drawing of said lots is the 28th day of June inst .. which is a Thursday . The situation of this town is very good for water and stone , both free and marble , and sand all handy to the spot , and a well timbered part of the country adjoining it ; within said town is a good Gistmill , Sawmill , and Grindstones going by water . The articles of the Town shall be read on the day appointed for the drawing of the Lots , and the terms of the sale published by me

= = = 1775 – 1858 = = =

In June 1775 , soon after the Battle of Lexington , local troops were raised to fight the British in the American Revolution under the command of Benjamin Chambers 's eldest son Captain James Chambers , as part of the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment . These troops were among the first non @-@ New Englanders to join the siege of Boston , arriving on August 7 , 1775 . James Chambers fought for seven years during the revolution , reaching the rank of Colonel of Continental troops on September 26 , 1776 . His two brothers , William and Benjamin , Jr . , each served for much of the war and reached the rank of Captain . James Chambers commanded local troops at the Battle of Long Island , and at White Plains , Trenton , Princeton , Brandywine , Germantown and Monmouth . He was part of the rear guard covering the retreat from Brooklyn , and was wounded at the Battle of Brandywine while facing Hessian troops under General Knuphausen at Chadds Ford .

During the Whiskey Rebellion , local citizens raised a liberty pole in support of the rebels , and to protest conscription of soldiers to put down the rebellion . Nevertheless , these citizens were censured in a town meeting and removed the pole the next day . President George Washington , while leading United States troops against the rebels , came through town on the way from Carlisle to Bedford , staying overnight on October 12 , 1794 . According to tradition , Washington lodged with Dr. Robert Johnson , a surgeon in the Pennsylvania line during the Revolution . This march was one of only two times that a sitting president personally commanded the military in the field . ( The other was after President James Madison fled the British occupation of Washington , D.C. during the War of 1812 . ) After sending the troops toward Pittsburgh from Bedford under General Henry " Light Horse Harry " Lee , Washington returned through Chambersburg sometime between October 21 – 26 . James Chambers was appointed a Brigadier General of Militia during the Whiskey Rebellion .

Chambersburg was incorporated on March 21 , 1803 , and declared the County Seat when the State Assembly established a formal government . The first courthouse was John Jack 's tavern on the Diamond ( town square ) in 1784 , with a permanent courthouse built in 1793 , and the first county jail built 1795 . The " Old Jail " was built in 1818 , survived the fire of 1864 and is the oldest jail building in Pennsylvania . It was originally used as the sheriff 's residence and had the longest continuous use of any jail in the state , operating until 1971 . Today the Old Jail is a museum and home to the Franklin County – Kittochtinny Historical Society . The county 's gallows still stand in the jail 's courtyard .

Much of the town 's growth was due to its position as a transportation center , first as the starting point on the Forbes Road to Pittsburgh . The U.S. Congress placed Chambersburg on the Philadelphia @-@ Pittsburgh postal road in 1803 . The road was rebuilt as the Chambersburg @-@ Bedford Turnpike in 1811 . The Cumberland Valley Railroad was built in 1837 and was the area 's center of economic activity for nearly 100 years . Until the completion of the Pennsylvania Railroad 's main line in 1857 , the fastest route from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia was by stagecoach from Pittsburgh to Chambersburg , and then by train to Philadelphia .

= = = Civil War era = = =

= = = = Underground railroad / John Brown = = = =

By 1859 , Chambersburg was a stop on the Underground Railroad . John Brown stayed in an upstairs room at Mary Ritner 's boarding house between June and October , 1859 while preparing for his raid on Harpers Ferry . Several of his fellow raiders stayed in the house as well , and four of them escaped capture and briefly visited the house after the raid . The house still stands at 225 East King Street . While in Chambersburg Brown posed as Dr. Isaac Smith , an iron mine developer , and bought and stored weapons under the guise of mining equipment .

Brown ( using the name John Smith ) and John Henry Kagi met with Frederick Douglass and Shields Green at an abandoned quarry outside of town to discuss the raid on August 19 . According to Douglass 's account , Brown described the planned raid in detail and Douglass advised him against it . Douglass also provided $ 10 from a supporter , and had helped Green – a future raider – locate Brown .

= = = = First two Confederate occupations , selective burnings = = = =

During the American Civil War on October 10 , 1862 , Confederate Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart , with 1 @,@ 800 cavalrymen , raided Chambersburg , destroying $ 250 @,@ 000 of railroad property and taking 500 guns , hundreds of horses , and at least " eight young colored men and boys . " They failed , however , to accomplish one of the main targets of the raid : to burn the railroad bridge across the Conococheague Creek at Scotland , five miles ( 8 km ) north of town .

During the early days of the 1863 Gettysburg Campaign , a Virginia cavalry brigade under Brig. Gen. Albert G. Jenkins occupied the town and burned several warehouses and Cumberland Valley Railroad structures and the bridge at Scotland . From June 24 – 28 , 1863 , much of the Army of Northern Virginia passed through Chambersburg en route to Carlisle and Gettysburg , and Robert E. Lee established his headquarters at a nearby farm .

= = = = Burning of entire town 1864 = = = =

The following year , Chambersburg was invaded for a third time , as cavalry , dispatched from the Shenandoah Valley by Jubal Early , arrived . On July 30 , 1864 , a large portion of the town was burned down by Brig. Gen. John McCausland for failing to provide a ransom of $ 500 @,@ 000 in U.S. currency , or $ 100 @,@ 000 in gold . Among the few buildings left standing was the Masonic Temple , which had been guarded under orders by a Confederate mason . Norland , the home of Republican politician and editor Alexander McClure , was burned even though it was well north of the main fire .

One black Chambersburg resident was killed when Confederates refused to allow him to leave his burning house . Another man was asked by the Confederates if he had ever educated " niggers " ; after replying that he had , the Confederates burned his house as well . Subsequently , " Remember Chambersburg " soon became a Union battle cry .

= = = Civil War Legacy = = =

= = = = General Jubal Early accused of war crimes : flees the United States = = = =

Lieutenant General Jubal Early was accused of war crimes for ordering the burning of Chambersburg . When the Army of Northern Virginia surrendered on April 9 , 1865 , Early escaped to Texas by horseback , where he hoped to find a Confederate force still holding out . He proceeded to Mexico , and from there , sailed to Cuba and Canada . Living in Toronto , he wrote his memoir , A Memoir of the Last Year of the War for Independence , in the Confederate States of America , which focused on his Valley Campaign . The book was published in 1867 .

= = = = Reconstruction of town = = = =

The town was rebuilt with a combination of state and private funding . Many new buildings were erected quickly and were not initially built to the original standards .

It took more than 30 years to fully restore the town 's housing stock to pre @-@ Civil War standards .

= = = = Formation of first school for orphaned children of soldiers killed in the Civil War = = = =

Due to an incident where two children of dead Union soldiers came begging for food to the doors of Chambersburg residents , the first school in Pennsylvania was created to serve children of Veterans orphaned due to war . The Governor of the state eventually established 69 additional such schools across the state . The original school in Chambersburg was renamed " The Scotland School for Veterans Children " in the 1890s .

The school remained open until 2010 and graduated more than 10 @,@ 000 children during its lifetime .

= = = = Early memorialization of Civil War = = = =

Memorial Fountain , built in the center of the diamond to honor the Civil War soldiers , was dedicated on July 17 , 1878 with fifteen thousand people in attendance .

A statue of a Union soldier stands next to the fountain , facing south to guard against the return of southern raiders .

= = = = Contemporary memorialization = = = =

To this day , the Civil War burning of Chambersburg remains a part of the town 's historic identity and yearly memorial events are held .

Chambersburg has also recently been the subject of study on how people have historically perceived and responded to war tragedies .

= = = National Register of Historic Places = = =

The following places in Chambersburg are on the National Register of Historic Places :

= = = Historic images = = =

Colorized photographs taken from a series of 22 postcard views mailed in 1921 .

= = Geography = =

According to the United States Census Bureau , Chambersburg has a total area of 6 @.@ 8 square miles ( 17 @.@ 6 km2 ) , all land . The elevation is 617 feet ( 188 m ) above sea level . Chambersburg is located in the Cumberland Valley next to the Appalachian Mountains . It also sits right outside of Caledonia State Park , a 1 @,@ 125 @-@ acre ( 455 ha ) park with fishing and hunting areas and hiking trails , including a section of the Appalachian Trail . Also outside of Chambersburg is Michaux State Forest , a 85 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) forest . Both of these places provide recreation for residents .

Conococheague Creek , a noted trout stream , runs through the center of town . It is a tributary of the Potomac River . The northernmost reach of the Potomac watershed is a few miles north of town .

Chambersburg has a cold climate , according to the United States Department of Energy . The area receives anywhere from 38 to 42 inches ( 970 to 1 @,@ 070 mm ) of precipitation per year . And Chambersburg falls within the warmest part of the Humid Continental Climate with some characteristics in the summer of a Humid Subtropical Climate , but bears much more characteristics of the former . The average January low is 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) and the average high is 37 ° F ( 3 ° C ) . The average July high is 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) and the average low is 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) .

= = Demographics = =

As of the census of 2000 , there were 17 @,@ 862 people , 7 @,@ 722 households , and 4 @,@ 386 families residing in the borough . The population density was 2 @,@ 601 @.@ 3 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 003 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 8 @,@ 305 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 209 @.@ 5 per square mile ( 466 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the borough was 86 @.@ 43 % White , 7 @.@ 56 % African American , 0 @.@ 18 % Native American , 0 @.@ 87 % Asian , 0 @.@ 05 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 08 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 83 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6 @.@ 38 % of the population .

There were 7 @,@ 722 households , out of which 24 @.@ 1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 41 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 11 @.@ 7 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 43 @.@ 2 % were non @-@ families . 37 @.@ 5 % of all households were made up of individuals , and 16 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 16 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 83 .

In the borough the population was spread out , with 20 @.@ 8 % under the age of 18 , 9 @.@ 1 % from 18 to 24 , 26 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 20 @.@ 6 % from 45 to 64 , and 22 @.@ 7 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 40 years . For every 100 females there were 81 @.@ 7 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 77 @.@ 1 males .

The median income for a household in the borough was $ 32 @,@ 336 , and the median income for a family was $ 40 @,@ 352 . Males had a median income of $ 31 @,@ 803 versus $ 21 @,@ 548 for females . The per capita income for the borough was $ 19 @,@ 278 . About 9 @.@ 8 % of families and 12 @.@ 9 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 18 @.@ 3 % of those under age 18 and 9 @.@ 1 % of those age 65 or over .

The population stood at 7 @,@ 863 in 1890 ; 8 @,@ 864 in 1900 ; 11 @,@ 800 in 1910 ; 13 @,@ 171 in 1920 ; and 14 @,@ 852 in 1940 . It was estimated to be around 18 @,@ 000 people in January 2008 .

= = Economy = =

The surrounding area has a large farming population , including many Amish and Mennonite families . Franklin County 's largest crop is corn ( maize ) with 579 farms that cover 29 @,@ 916 acres ( 12 @,@ 107 ha ) of land . Franklin also has 344 wheat farms and 299 barley farms which combined cover 14 @,@ 063 acres ( 5 @,@ 691 ha ) . Manufacturing in Chambersburg includes machinery production , metal fabrication , and food processing according to the 1997 Economic Census of Franklin County . The largest sectors by payroll were manufacturing companies such as T B Wood 's Inc . , Manitowoc cranes , retail trade , and health care and social assistance . Despite suburban growth , much of the economy of the area is still largely based on agriculture .

Retail stores such as Wal @-@ Mart and Lowe 's serve the population with jobs and basic needs . The Chambersburg Mall with four anchor stores and about fifty smaller stores is located in the unincorporated village of Scotland , about four miles ( 6 km ) north of town on Interstate 81 . Chambersburg 's retail sector has grown quickly since 2006 with the opening of Target , Petsmart , Michaels , and Kohls near the newly built Exit 17 of Interstate 81 . Several restaurants new to the region have also opened , including Sonic , Starbucks , T.G.I. Fridays , Red Robin , Fuddruckers , Ruby Tuesday , Panera Bread , Chipotle , Texas Roadhouse , Olive Garden , and Longhorn Steakhouse .

The city 's location on Interstate 81 within 100 miles ( 160 km ) of both Washington , D.C. and Baltimore , Maryland encourages trucking and distribution businesses . The Letterkenny Army Depot five miles ( 8 km ) north of town is a major employer . Camp David also employs Chambersburg residents . In 2004 Chambersburg had a per capita personal income ( PCPI ) of $ 28 @,@ 208 , below the national average of $ 33 @,@ 050 .

= = Culture = =

Chambersburg is part of small town America . Recreation includes hunting , sports events such as baseball games at Henninger Field , and high school football games . The town also hosts a professional football team , the Chambersburg Cardinals , that plays in the Gridiron Developmental Football League . People in the area speak in Pittsburgh English or with a Central Pennsylvania accent , over @-@ pronouncing " O 's " and " I 's " . Caledonia State Park provides an area for outdoor activities , with the park especially busy on July 4 .

The Capitol Theatre was opened as a movie palace on Main Street in 1927 . In 2003 , it reopened as the Capitol Theatre Center and is home to the Capitol Theatre Main Stage and Auditorium , Chambersburg Council for the Arts , Caledonia Theatre Company , Chambersburg Ballet Theatre School , and Chambersburg Community Theatre . In 2009 , Chambersburg ranked among Newsmax magazine 's list of the " Top 25 Most Uniquely American Cities and Towns , " a piece written by current CBS News travel editor Peter Greenberg . In determining his ranking , Greenberg cited the Capitol Theatre .

Wilson College is home to the Cumberland Valley School of Music , a local school offering private instruction on various musical instruments . It offers a wide range of lessons , classes , workshops , and summer camps , as well as presenting numerous recitals and concerts in Thomson Hall . CVSM sponsors a children 's chorus ( the Cumberbunds ) , a community band , a community orchestra , a concert jazz band , and the New Horizons Band , for adults age 50 or older .

Journalist David Brooks in 2001 used Chambersburg and Franklin County to typify Republican “ Red America . ” According to Brooks , there is little obvious income inequality and people don ’ t define their place in society by their income level . They value the work ethic and are anti @-@ union , anti @-@ welfare , pro @-@ free market , and religious social conservatives .

= = Government = =

The municipal government operates under the Pennsylvania Borough Code , with the Town Council holding both legislative and executive authority . The ten councilmen are elected from five wards ; two from each ward with staggered four @-@ year terms . The Mayor administers the Police Department and can cast tie @-@ breaking votes on the Council . Other departments are administered by the Borough Manager .

Darren Brown became Mayor on January 6 , 2014 .

As of January 2016 , the town councilmen are :

Samantha J. Bietsch , 2nd Ward ( R )

Sharon A. Bigler , 4th Ward ( D )

Jeremy D. Cate , 4th Ward ( D )

Allen B. Coffman , 1st Ward ( R ) ( Council President )

Louisa C. Cowles , 3rd Ward ( D )

Herbert R. Dolaway , 5th Ward ( D )

Alice C. Elia , 1st Ward ( D )

Kathy J. Leedy . 3re Ward ( D )

John " Sean " A. Scott III , 2nd Ward ( D )

Heath E. Talhelm , 5th Ward ( D ) ( Council Vice President )

Chambersburg is part of the 9th Congressional District of Pennsylvania and represented by Bill Shuster ( R ) in the House of Representatives , and by Pat Toomey ( R ) , and Bob Casey , Jr . ( D ) in the Senate .

= = Education = =

= = = Wilson College = = =

Wilson College is a private , Presbyterian @-@ related , liberal arts women 's college founded in 1869 and named for its first major donor , Sarah Wilson of Chambersburg . The college has 800 students and is known for its Women With Children , Veterinary Medical Technician , and Equestrian programs . Once an all women 's school , it currently is co @-@ education . In 2009 , the school opened the first " green " campus building in Chambersburg , PA . The building is part of the science and technology department and features a full @-@ length waterfall in the lobby . The waterfall begins on the third floor and ends in the basement of the building .

= = = Public schools = = =

Chambersburg Area Senior High School ( CASHS ) is a public school with around 2 @,@ 400 students in grades 9 – 12 , drawn from the borough of Chambersburg and the surrounding townships of Hamilton , Greene , Lurgan , Letterkenny and Guilford . CASHS is accredited by the Middle States Association and has occupied its current facilities since 1955 . Principal Dr. Barry Purvis was recognized as the 2006 High School Principal of the Year by the Pennsylvania Association of Elementary and Secondary School Principals .

Until August 2011 , J. Frank Faust Junior High School was the only public junior high school for eighth and ninth grade students of the Chambersburg Area School District . It served about 1400 students . J. Frank Faust is now a middle school for Chambersburg area students in the north . CAMS NORTH . It has 6th through 8th grade .

Chambersburg Area Middle School SOUTH was the only middle school , but as of August 2011 , it became CAMS SOUTH , 6th through 8th grade . During the 2001 – 02 school year , CAMS was recognized with the Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence by the United States Department of Education , the highest award an American school can receive .

The Franklin County Career and Technology Center is also located in Chambersburg . FCCTC is a school designated for students and adults to learn vocational trades while still learning core subjects in school . The school offers training in about 20 – 30 different concentrations . There are currently six different school districts with students attending FCCTC : Chambersburg , Fannett @-@ Metal , Greencastle @-@ Antrim , Shippensburg , Tuscarora , and Waynesboro .

The Chambersburg school district includes seventeen elementary schools . Many school are being upgraded , rebuilt , or closed because of out @-@ of @-@ date buildings and lack of space . As of July 2008 , the current School Board President is Stanley Helman . Other members include Anne Boryan , Renee Sharpe , Norman Blowers , Lori Leedy , Fred Rice , Dave Schiamanna , and Joe Tosten . One seat is currently being filled after the resignation of the previous board president , Dr. Thomas Orndorff .

= = = Scotland School for Veterans ' Children = = =

The Scotland School for Veterans ' Children ( SSVC ) was a state owned school that offered tuition @-@ free residential education programs for children of Pennsylvania residents who are veterans or are currently serving in the U.S. armed forces . Scotland School had an original founding date of 1863 . It was founded as a result of two orphaned children going door to door begging for food . They knocked on the door of then governor , Andrew Gregg Curtin . Governor Curtin and his wife realized there was a forgotten group of people resulting from the American Civil War , the orphaned children of soldiers . Governor Curtin set up 70 schools across the state and they became known as the ' Soldier 's Orphan Schools ' . As students graduated , the student bodies of the schools began to decline and in 1895 all of the schools closed saved one , the one located in Scotland . The name was changed to Scotland School for Veteran 's Children . The purpose was then changed to provide an education to any child of any veteran , whether that veteran was living or deceased . Because of this new purpose and subsequent name change , the founding date of the school was changed to 1895 . It was located about four miles ( 6 km ) north of Chambersburg in the unincorporated village of Scotland and had about 300 students in grades 3 – 12 . The school was established in 1895 as the Pennsylvania Soldiers Orphans Industrial School . Over 10 @,@ 000 students have been educated at the school . The 186 @-@ acre ( 75 ha ) campus contains about 70 buildings including residential cottages . In 2009 , Governor Ed Rendell removed funding for the school in the year 's state budget , thereby forcing the school to close .

= = = Private schools = = =

Private schools include Corpus Christi , a Catholic school with 310 students and over 20 teachers and Cumberland Valley Christian School , a private Christian kindergarten through twelfth grade academy located in Chambersburg . Cumberland Valley Christian School is affiliated with the Open Door Church and has approximately four hundred students . Other private schools include the Montessori Academy of Chambersburg ( 22 months @-@ 12th grade , non @-@ sectarian ) and Shalom Christian Academy ( K @-@ 12 , Mennonite affiliation ) , and several elementary schools with Mennonite , Baptist , Brethren , Christian Science , and other religious orientations .

= = = Library = = =

Coyle Free Library has roots going back to 1891 , when a library of 166 books was organized by the local Afternoon Club . A member of the club , Blanche Coyle , left a bequest of $ 30 @,@ 435 in 1915 to construct a library building . The building was completed in 1924 , located at the corner of Second and Queen Streets . Later the library was made part of the Franklin County Library and began to receive funds from the County and State , though the Afternoon Club still donated funds though at least 1979 . The building it currently occupies is a former post office .

= = Media = =

= = = Newspapers = = =

The Chambersburg Public Opinion is the only daily newspaper published in town , and has weekday circulation about 17 @,@ 000 . It was founded in 1869 and is now owned by Gannett .

= = = Television and radio = = =

Television reception can be poor because of the surrounding mountains . WJAL , a family oriented station broadcasts from Chambersburg , and Harrisburg PBS station WITF @-@ TV rebroadcasts via low @-@ powered translator W38AN . Franklin County is included in Harrisburg DMA . All Harrisburg TV stations are available off air and on cable . WHTM is the first network affiliated television station to establish a bureau in Chambersburg . WHAG @-@ TV , WWPB , and WWPX , broadcast from nearby Hagerstown , Maryland .

Chambersburg shares a radio market , the 165th largest in the United States , with Waynesboro , Pennsylvania , and Hagerstown , Maryland .

= = Sister city = =

Gotemba , Shizuoka , Japan

= = Notable people = =

Betty Andujar , Texas politician

Philip Berlin , inventor of the railroad sleeping car .

D. Dudley Bloom , United States Navy officer and American businessman

George K. Brady , United States Army officer . Briefly commander of the Department of Alaska .

Ike Brookens , MLB player in 1975 with the Detroit Tigers .

Tom Brookens , MLB player from 1979 – 1990 , played third @-@ base for the 1984 World Series Champion Detroit Tigers

Revolutionary War soldier Margaret Corbin , known as " Captain Molly "

Abolistionist publisher Martin Delany , who in 1865 became the first African @-@ American field officer in the U.S. Army , was educated in Chambersburg in the 1830s .

Gus Dorner Major League Baseball pitcher ( 1902 – 1909 ) .

Henry Burchard Fine ( 1858 – 1928 ) was a dean at Princeton University and mathematician .

Baseball Hall of Famer Nellie Fox was born and lived just west of town in St. Thomas Township .

Patrick Gass ( 1771 – 1870 ) , the last surviving member of the Lewis and Clark expedition , was born just outside Chambersburg ( Falling Spring ) .

Kenton Harper , Virginia newspaper editor and Confederate army general during the Civil War , born and raised in Chambersburg

The Rev. John Grier Hibben , later President of Princeton University , served as pastor of Falling Spring Presbyterian Church , 1888 – 1891 .

Stephen D. Houston , a renowned Mayanist scholar , epigrapher , and anthropologist was born in Chambersburg in 1958 .

Archbishop John Hughes of New York lived in Chambersburg between 1817 and 1819 before going on to Mount St. Mary 's University . His family is buried at the Corpus Christi Church Cemetery in Chambersburg .

Journalist and author Gwen Ifill spent a portion of her childhood in Chambersburg while her father was pastor at St. James A.M.E. Church .

Alexander McClure , editor of the Franklin Repository from 1852 – 1864

David Fullerton Robison , a U.S. Representative , who in 1859 died of National Hotel disease , was born here

Joseph Winters an African @-@ American inventor and abolitionist , moved to Chambersburg in 1830 .

= Soldier ( Destiny 's Child song ) =

" Soldier " is a song by American recording group Destiny 's Child featuring American rappers T.I. and Lil Wayne . Columbia Records released " Soldier " as the second single from Destiny 's Child 's fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) on December 7 , 2004 . The artists co @-@ wrote the song with Sean Garrett and Rich Harrison ; the latter co @-@ produced it with Destiny 's Child members Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland . A Southern hip hop mid @-@ tempo song , it lyrically describes each members ' favorite type of male love interest .

" Soldier " received mostly positive reviews from music critics who praised its composition and the trio 's vocal performances , but criticized the lyrical content . The song received a nomination in the category for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards and won a Best R & B / Soul Single by a Group , Band or Duo award at the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . A commercial success , " Soldier " peaked within the top five in six European countries and in Australasia further being certified gold in the countries in the latter region . In the US , it peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and topped the Hot Dance Club Songs further receiving a Platinum certification by the RIAA .

The black @-@ and @-@ white music video directed by Ray Kay featured cameo appearances by several rappers and singers . It was nominated at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards under the category of Best Group Video . The band performed " Soldier " on several televised appearances in 2004 and 2005 and included it on the set list of their final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... And Lovin ' It ( 2005 ) . Both Beyoncé and Rowland performed the song during their solo tours after Destiny 's Child 's disbandment . The song was sampled in many songs by different artists , most notably by Nelly on his single " Grillz " ( 2005 ) .

= = Background and release = =

" Soldier " was written by the artists along with Sean Garrett and Rich Harrison ; the latter co @-@ produced it with Destiny 's Child members Beyoncé and Kelly Rowland . The guest verses from Lil Wayne and T.I. made them the only featured artists on the album . " Soldier " was recorded by Jim Caruana at Sony Music Studios in New York City in 2004 . It was mixed by Dexter Simmons and mastered by Tom Coyne .

Garrett initially wrote " Soldier " in a taxi while going to the studio where the band worked on Destiny Fulfilled ; he sang the hook to the members afterwards and they liked it . Garrett further revealed about his collaboration with the group , " I loved how Destiny 's Child evolved and became this really incredible pop group but I wanted to introduce them to the hood from the perspective of having the world look at them in a different way ... What was great about that was they all liked guys from the streets . Each verse was a representation of the guy they were actually into . " During an interview with MTV News , Rowland said that with " Soldier " each member wanted to talk about their preference for a man during their solo verses , the place where he lives and his physical appearance . Beyoncé stated that as the song had a " Southern feel " and beat , they wanted to collaborate with Lil Wayne and T.I. who according to her added " rawness , realness and edge to the song " . During an interview in 2014 , Lil Wayne discussed his contribution in the song , " That set me off . Them little eight bars right there , that got me there boy . If you ask me why , it was Beyoncé . That shit was big . " " Soldier " was included on the group 's compilation albums # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Playlist : The Very Best of Destiny 's Child ( 2012 ) .

= = Composition = =

" Soldier " is a mid @-@ tempo Southern hip hop song ; Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine further found elements of Crunk & B music while Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times noted electropop elements in its composition . Discussing the song musically , Kitty Empire from The Observer classified it as a " ghetto anthem @-@ in @-@ waiting that echoes the Southern bent of much contemporary hip hop " . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Soldier " was composed using common time in the key of C minor with a pulsing hip hop tempo of 75 beats per minute . The vocal elements span from the low note of G3 to the high note of F5 . The song is instrumentally complete with ticking staccato synths , fractured , syncopated keyboard instruments , organ stabs , and off @-@ kilter kick drums . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan felt that its beat was similar to materials by Dr. Dre . Dimitri Ehrlich from Vibe found major influence of Jay @-@ Z in " Soldier " further saying that " T.I. and Lil Wayne ... seem like stand @-@ ins for Hova " .

Lyrically , " Soldier " is a continuation of the previous song on Destiny Fulfilled , " Lose My Breath " . As the singers feel that their man does not fulfill them in the way they want , they tell him " I need a soldier " , further " upping their standards " . They request their man to be a " thug " , proclaiming their love for " country boys " ; their preference include a " soldier " who is " street " and " hood " . MacPherson further felt that the trio cruised the ghetto for suitable men with " Soldier " , an " ode to gangsta love " . Corey Moss of MTV felt that the song was one of the most personal moments on Destiny Fulfilled in the sense that Beyoncé 's then @-@ relatively secret relationship with rapper Jay @-@ Z was acknowledged " on record for the first time " . Moss further elaborated , " Albeit minor , her [ Beyoncé 's ] verse ( about falling for a guy from the BK , as in Jay 's Brooklyn stomping grounds ) offers a rare moment of commentary on the couple , which has thus far only been chronicled by tabloid photographers . " The song opens with T.I. rhyming lines and glorifying the profound love " between a thug and a thugette " . As the song progresses , each member of Destiny 's Child describes their own favorite type of man , later harmonizing together for the chorus . Midway through the song , Lil Wayne 's verse contains a reference to rapper B.G .. Williams is the last artist to sing her solo lines , which were described as " the sexiest " by Rashod Ollisong of The Baltimore Sun .

= = Critical reception = =

Stephen Thomas Erlewine from the website AllMusic described " Soldier " as one of the " hard @-@ driving dance cuts " of Destiny Fulfilled further choosing it as a highlight . Similarly , Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine wrote in his review that " [ The album ] shoots its load quickly , although just as effectively : ' Lose My Breath ' and ' Soldier ' are stunning , both displaying the Beyoncé trademark of creepily submissive lyrics matched with dominatrix vocals and arrangements to superb effect . " MacPherson continued praising the song 's slow " contemptuous grind " and the singers ' vocal delivery further concluding that T.I. and Wayne " get comprehensively owned " . The New York Times writer Kelefa Sanneh described the track as part of the album 's " lovable " material and went on saying , " [ it ] takes a ludicrous premise ... and turns it into sharp , coldblooded electro @-@ pop " . Andy Battaglia writing for The A.V. Club felt that the song and " Cater 2 U " " make sassy end @-@ runs around notions of womanly subservience , but their best musical moments hide in tiny melismatic twirls instead of hooks " . The Guardian writer Caroline Sullivan described the track as " juddering " while BBC 's Nick Reynolds called it " good fun " . In a review of the song , Tom Breihan , an editor of Pitchfork Media , wrote that " Soldier " would have been a " perfectly acceptable album track " on The Writing 's on the Wall ( 1999 ) , but noted that its sound was different from the songs played on mainstream pop radio . Praising the trio for their vocal performances , he continued :

" ' Soldier ' might not carry with it the shock of the new , but it 's still a nice little single ... The women of Destiny 's Child don 't sound the slightest bit convincing singing about how they need thug boyfriends , but they wind their voices around a gorgeous hook exactly as well as they always have . T.I. and Lil Wayne stop by , not saying anything but sounding cool and tough and unflappable doing it . It 's pretty good , but don 't expect it to set your world on fire . "

Barbara Ellen of The Observer said the song was " of the exemplary standard " of the band 's previous albums , Survivor ( 2001 ) and The Writing 's on the Wall . Describing it as an " overt bid for street cred " , Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Sinclair felt that T.I and Lil Wayne " bring little to the party " with their contribution to the song . Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz writing for Billboard magazine felt that the group " cemented their street and chart credibility " with the song . Another reviewer from the same magazine felt that the band 's " personal transition from teen @-@ dom to womanhood " was most evident on " Soldier " and two other songs from the album . Jenny Eliscu from Rolling Stone wrote in her review , " It 's a hot track , even if the message feels affected coming from these church girls . " For the same reason , Vibe writer Dimitri Ehrlich described it as a Broadway show tune about thug life . Gil Kaufman from MTV News described the song as a " bouncy homage to thug love that featured the signature DC mix of urban grit and slick production " . Rashod Ollisong writing for The Baltimore Sun gave a more mixed review for the song , writing " It is catchy , but the beat is trite , and the lyrical message is downright trifling " before adding that it glorifies a " warped " image of black masculinity which he heavily criticized . He further argued that the group " should put more thought into their lyrics " due to the background and image each member created throughout their career .

= = = Recognition and accolades = = =

" Soldier " won in the category for Best R & B / Soul Single by a Group , Band or Duo during the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards . At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards , the song received a nomination for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration but lost to " Numb / Encore " ( 2004 ) by Jay @-@ Z and Linkin Park . At the 23rd Annual ASCAP Pop Music Awards , " Soldier " was recognized as one of the Most Performed Songs in 2005 along with the group 's other song " Lose My Breath " . The following year it was one of the Award Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at the 2006 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards .

In 2013 , Lindsey Weber from Vulture put " Soldier " at number nine on her list of the top 25 songs by Destiny 's Child . Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra also included the song in his 2013 list of the band 's best songs . The same year it was ranked at number 64 on a list complied by Andrew Noz from Complex magazine of Lil Wayne 's 100 best songs . Similarly , Emily Exton from VH1 listed " Soldier " at the 19th position of T.I. ' s 20 best songs praising his " hot intro verse " . On the occasion of Beyoncé 's 32nd birthday , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz from Billboard included " Soldier " at number 15 on the list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " .

= = Chart performance = =

After debuting on the chart for the week ending November 20 , 2004 , " Soldier " moved to number 41 on the US Billboard Hot 100 the following week . For the week ending December 10 , the single moved from number 14 to ten becoming the band 's tenth single to enter the top ten of the chart . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending February 12 , 2005 becoming the second single from the album to peak at that position . It fell from the top ten of the chart for the issue dated March 5 , 2005 after its position of number eight the previous week , thus spending a total of nine weeks in the first ten positions . Having spent a total of 23 weeks on the chart , " Soldier " was last seen at number 32 . The single was also successful on several other Billboard charts ; on the Hot Dance Club Songs it debuted at number 51 on the chart issue dated January 15 , 2004 and managed to peak at number one in its sixth week of charting for the issue dated February 26 , 2005 . " Soldier " further peaked at numbers three and four on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Mainstream Top 40 charts respectively for the chart issues dated January 1 , 2005 and February 12 , 2005 . On May 18 , 2005 the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold for selling 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . Its ringtone was further certified platinum on June 14 , 2006 for shipment of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .

" Soldier " was commercially successful in countries across Europe peaking within the top ten in six countries . On the Danish Singles Chart , it peaked at number five in its first week of charting on March 4 , 2005 . Having spent a total of ten weeks on that chart , of which four were in the top ten , it fell off on May 13 . In Finland , the song debuted at number seven which further became its peak position in two weeks of charting . In Switzerland , " Soldier " debuted at number 15 on February 20 , 2004 and peaked at number ten after two weeks . It spent an additional week at that position and fell off the chart after 12 weeks . In the UK , the single debuted at number four on the UK Singles Chart on the issue dated February 19 , 2005 . It gradually descended the chart , spending a total of seven weeks . On the Irish Singles Chart , the single debuted and peaked at number six on February 10 , 2005 . It also charted on other European charts , most notably at numbers 12 and 29 on the Spanish and French Singles Chart respectively .

In Australia , " Soldier " debuted and peaked at number three on the ARIA Singles Chart on February 20 , 2005 . It fell to numbers seven and eight respectively in the following two weeks and descended the chart for ten additional weeks before falling off on May 15 , 2005 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) awarded the single with a gold certification in 2005 for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies in that country . " Soldier " had a similar success on the New Zealand Singles Chart where it peaked at number four on February 21 , 2005 and remained at that position for the following three weeks . It further spent the following four weeks in the top ten of the chart and fell off on May 23 , 2005 . In 2005 , the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified it gold for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies in that country .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Soldier " was filmed by Norwegian director Ray Kay and was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , becoming the band 's first clip using that technique . It marked the first time the group worked with Kay . During an interview , they praised him for shooting the scenes in a fast and convenient way , further describing the experience as " wonderful " . The video features cameo appearances by seven singers and rappers : Beyoncé 's sister Solange Knowles , Lloyd , Bow Wow , Ginuwine , Ice Cube , WC and Young Jeezy .

The video opens with Destiny 's Child walking between two rows of males interwined with close @-@ up shots of each member 's face . T.I. appears rapping his part wearing a hat , sunglasses and chains . As the song progresses , the members are seen dancing along with the males in the background who also pose for the camera . During the middle of the video , the girls are seen walking with leashed dogs in their hands and Lil Wayne appears rapping his part afterwards . The camera focuses on each member during their solo part in the song as they perform a dance choreography and lip @-@ sync the lyrics . During the end of the video , as the group sings the lines " known to carry big things " , they rub the belly of Solange Knowles who was pregnant at the time of shooting . The clip ends with the girls holding the previously seen dogs in their hands . Throughout the visual , shots of three cars with different registrations are shown – a Cadillac from Georgia with the words " Da Durty " , another car from New York City with the words " BK Style " and a third car from California with the word " Crenshaw " .

The music video was released on MTV on November 8 , 2004 . It is also featured on the DualDisc editions of the albums # 1 's and Destiny Fulfilled as well as on the bonus DVD of the Destiny Fulfilled Tour edition . VH1 aired the video during the program Pop @-@ Up Video on November 11 , 2011 along with trivial commentary . In 2013 it was included on the album Destiny 's Child Video Anthology which contained every music video the group had filmed during their career . Vulture 's Lindsay Weber described the clip as " camouflage @-@ heavy " . The video was nominated at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards under the category of Best Group Video but lost to Green Day 's " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " ( 2004 ) .

= = Live performances = =

In late 2004 , the group performed " Soldier " with T.I. during MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) . At BET 's 106 & Park Destiny 's Child performed " Soldier " on November 15 , 2004 . At the beginning of the performance , Michelle Williams fell onstage during the group 's entrance . Williams addressed the incident during an interview in 2014 , saying , " I had no choice but to get up and act like it didn 't happen . Because of YouTube - 10 years later , at least once a week , somebody brings it to my attention . " She added that it would be the last time she discussed the incident and acknowledged that although " it lives on forever " a lot of " great things " have happened to her since then . On November 16 , 2004 another performance of the song was during the television show Good Morning America . Destiny 's Child appeared on CBS ' The Early Show on December 8 , 2004 and sang " Soldier " . The group performed the song again in early February 2005 at the British show Top of the Pops . At the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 they sang " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " . Destiny 's Child also performed " Soldier " during the concert Rockin ' the Corps in April 2005 with the performance being featured on a DVD .

In 2005 , " Soldier " was added to the set list of Destiny 's Child 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It . The group performed it against a backdrop of the American flag dressed in leather clothes taken from Beyoncé 's clothing line House of Deréon . The live rendition contained a sample from the song " Shout It Out " from the soundtrack of the film Drumline . Denise Sheppard writing for Rolling Stone felt that the drumline @-@ affected version performed during the concert was " for the delighted , largely female crowd " . While reviewing a concert in the UK , Adenike Adenitire of MTV News praised the group 's surprising look inspired by Mad Max noting that they proved " that you don 't need baggy jeans and a bandanna to be street " . Similarly , Barbara Ellen from The Observer felt that the look was emulating " all the Mad Max movies at once " . The song was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour in that city for which T.I. and Wayne joined the band onstage performing their parts .

Following the group 's disbandment , both Beyoncé and Rowland included " Soldier " in the set list of their respective solo tours . The former performed it with her male background dancers during a Destiny 's Child medley at The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) along with a snippet of Soulja Boy 's " Crank That ( Soulja Boy ) " ( 2007 ) . It was subsequently included on the singer 's live DVD The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) dubbed as " Soldier Boy Crank Mix " . Rowland performed " Soldier " during her headlining concert tour Ms. Kelly Tour ( 2007 ) , on several dates during Chris Brown 's F.A.M.E. Tour ( 2011 ) where she appeared as a supporting act and during the co @-@ headlining Lights Out Tour ( 2013 ) with The @-@ Dream . She also performed " Soldier " on August 26 , 2010 during a promotional concert in New York City and at the Australian Supafest festival in April 2012 backed by male dancers .

= = Usage as sample = =

In 2005 , American rapper Nelly sampled " Soldier " for his song " Grillz " ( 2005 ) featuring Paul Wall , and Ali & Gipp from the album Sweatsuit ( 2005 ) . Mike Schiller from PopMatters wrote that Jermaine Dupri 's production on the song was " uncharacteristically fantastic , finding a down ' n ' dirty groove in the unlikely source material of Destiny 's Child 's ' Soldier ' " . The following year " Only God " from JME 's instrumental mixtape Boy Better Know - Edition 4 : Tropical ( 2006 ) sampled the song . Hip hop artist DJ Drama used a sample of the song in " Grillz Gleamin ' " featuring Lil ' Scrappy , Bohagon , Diamond and Princess from his album Gangsta Grillz : The Album ( 2007 ) . " Soldier " was also sampled one more time for " Body Marked Up " ( 2009 ) by Willy Northpole , the first single from his debut album Tha Connect .

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the album Destiny Fulfilled .

Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams

Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles and Kelly Rowland

Recording : Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , New York City

Additional vocals : Tom Tapley and Fabian Marasciullo

Audio mixing : Dexter Simmons

Additional Pro Tools Editing : Rommel Nino Villanueva

Audio mastering : Tom Coyne

= = Track listing = =

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= SM U @-@ 40 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =

SM U @-@ 40 or U @-@ XL was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 40 , built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard , was launched in April 1917 and commissioned in August .

She had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .

During her service career , U @-@ 40 sank three ships and damaged two others , sending a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 GRT to the bottom . U @-@ 40 was at Fiume at war 's end and was surrendered at Venice in March 1919 . She was granted to Italy as a war reparation and broken up the following year .

= = Design and construction = =

Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .

After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .

U @-@ 40 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 40 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .

U @-@ 40 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .

U @-@ 40 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) after funds for her purchase were raised and donated to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by the Östereichischen Flottenverein . She was laid down on 8 August 1916 at the Pola Navy Yard , and launched on 21 April 1917 .

= = Service career = =

U @-@ 40 underwent diving trials on 3 July 1917 , reaching a depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) . One month later , on 4 August , the SM U @-@ 40 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Johann Krsnjavi . Previously in command of U @-@ 11 , Krsnjavi was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old native of Djakovo ( the present @-@ day Đakovo in Croatia ) .

U @-@ 40 departed on her first patrol on 5 August , sailing through the Brioni islands . Two days out , the submarine came under attack by two aircraft . Bombs from the two planes damaged one of U @-@ 40 's fuel tanks but the U @-@ boat was able to continue to her Mediterranean patrol area . There , east of Malta , she unsuccessfully attacked a steamer on the 15th . Four days later — a little more than two weeks after the U @-@ boat 's commissioning — Krsnjavi and U @-@ 40 achieved their first kills . Gartness , a British steamer of 2 @,@ 422 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was transporting manganese ore , lead , and arsenic from Ergasteria for Middlesbrough when torpedoed by U @-@ 40 some 140 nautical miles ( 260 km ) southeast of Malta . The ship 's master and twelve other crewmen were killed in the attack .

Ten days later , after a rendezvous with sister boat U @-@ 32 in the Ionian Sea , U @-@ 40 damaged the collier Clifftower in a torpedo attack . Clifftower , carrying a load of coal from Newcastle , suffered no casualties in the attack . After successfully passing through the Otranto Barrage on 31 August , U @-@ 40 concluded her first patrol when she docked at Cattaro on 3 September . On 15 October , U @-@ 40 set out from Cattaro on her next patrol . She spent two days , 16 to 18 October , patrolling off Durazzo . Departing there , she headed for her assigned patrol area off Port Said . On 20 October , two aircraft from Corfu forced Krsnjavi to make an emergency dive , but the U @-@ boat escaped damage . On 25 October , U @-@ 40 encountered a severe storm that damager one of her fuel tanks . Three days later , Krsnjavi ordered the boat back to port when the gyrocompass broke . The boat made Cattaro on 1 November and underwent repairs there over the next five weeks .

Departing from Cattaro on her third patrol on 10 December , Krsnjavi steered the boat to her patrol area : cruising the Mediterranean between Alexandria and Malta . The first day of the new year brought U @-@ 40 's next success . On 1 January 1918 , the 5 @,@ 134 GRT Sandon Hall , a British steamer headed from Basra to London with a cargo of linseed oil and dates , was sent to the bottom 22 nautical miles ( 41 km ) north @-@ northeast of Linosa . A torpedo attack two days later on another steamer produced no result . Having exhausted her supply of torpedoes , U @-@ 40 headed back to port . On 6 January , the U @-@ boat 's deck gun was used to destroy a floating mine . The following day the boat was fired upon by three drifters of the Otranto Barrage but safely returned to Cattaro on 8 January .

After two month at Cattaro , Krsnjavi lead U @-@ 40 out on her fourth patrol on 5 March . The U @-@ boat came under attack on consecutive days while headed into the Mediterranean . On 9 March , two destroyers forced her to crash dive , while the following day a pair of aircraft did the same . Nine days later , U @-@ 40 torpedoed the Canadian steamer Lord Ormonde , but only damaged the 3 @,@ 914 @-@ ton ship . On 20 March , U @-@ 40 sent the Greek cargo ship Antonios M. Theophilatos and her load of ammunition to the bottom . U @-@ 40 launched an unsuccessful torpedo attack on a steamer in a convoy on 23 March . U @-@ 40 ended her patrol on 2 April at Cattaro . Gibson and Prendergast report on the claim of the Italian torpedo boat Ardea that she had depth charged and sunk U @-@ 40 in the Adriatic on 26 April . As Gibson and Prendergast note , U @-@ 40 did not sink that day , discrediting the report . U @-@ 40 did depart from Cattaro for Pola at the end of May to undergo repairs for the next two months .

U @-@ 40 departed from Pola on 5 August , but developed a leak a few days out and put in at Cattaro on 10 August . The U @-@ boat returned to Pola about two weeks later and remained there until October . While at Pola , command of U @-@ 40 passed to Linienschiffsleutnant Wladimir Pfeifer on 19 September . The 27 @-@ year @-@ old native of Leskovec ( in present @-@ day Slovenia ) , was previously in command of U @-@ 17 and had , like Krsnjavi , also served a stint as commander of U @-@ 11 . On 19 October , U @-@ 40 departed Pola and eventually arrived at Fiume , where she remained through the end of the war . The U @-@ boat was taken to Venice on 23 March 1919 , where she was surrendered to the Italians as a war reparation . She was scrapped at Venice the following year . In her 15 @-@ month service career , U @-@ 40 sank three ships with a combined tonnage of 9 @,@ 838 , and damaged two others .

= = Ships sunk or damaged = =

* damaged but not sunk

= Battle of Marathon =

The Battle of Marathon ( Greek : Μάχη τοῦ Μαραθῶνος , Machē tou Marathōnos ) took place in 490 BC , during the first Persian invasion of Greece . It was fought between the citizens of Athens , aided by Plataea , and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes . The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia , under King Darius I , to subjugate Greece . The Greek army decisively defeated the more numerous Persians , marking a turning point in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars .

The first Persian invasion was a response to Greek involvement in the Ionian Revolt , when Athens and Eretria had sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule . The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis , but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses . In response to this raid , Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria . According to Herodotus , Darius asked for his bow , he placed an arrow upon the string and he discharged it upwards towards heaven , and as he shot into the air he said : " Zeus , grant me to take vengeance upon the Athenians ! " . Also he charged one of his servants , to say to him , every day before dinner , three times : " Master , remember the Athenians . "

At the time of the battle , Sparta and Athens were the two largest city states . Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC , Darius began plans to subjugate Greece . In 490 BC , he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean , to subjugate the Cyclades , and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria . Reaching Euboea in mid @-@ summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean , the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria . The Persian force then sailed for Attica , landing in the bay near the town of Marathon . The Athenians , joined by a small force from Plataea , marched to Marathon , and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon . The Athenians also sent a message asking for support to the Spartans . However , at the time the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for refusing to aid the Athenians .

The Greeks could not hope to face the superior Persian cavalry ; however , the location chosen was surrounded by marshes and mountains and so the cavalry was unable to join the main Persian army . Miltiades , the Greek general , ordered a general attack against the Persians . He reinforced his flanks , luring the Persians ' best fighters into his centre . The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians , routing them . The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships , and large numbers were slaughtered . The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece , and the Persian force retreated to Asia . Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . After Darius died , his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece , which finally began in 480 BC .

The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten ; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to begin at Marathon . The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans , as they had heavily relied on Sparta previously . This win was largely due to the Athenians , and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them . Since the following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization , which has been enduringly influential in western society , the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in European history .

The battle is perhaps now more famous as the inspiration for the marathon race . Although thought to be historically inaccurate , the legend of the Greek messenger Pheidippides running to Athens with news of the victory became the inspiration for this athletic event , introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics , and originally run between Marathon and Athens .

= = Background = =

The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt , the earliest phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . However , it was also the result of the longer @-@ term interaction between the Greeks and Persians . In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic , but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , the Persian King Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . Even before the Ionian Revolt , Darius had begun to expand the empire into Europe , subjugating Thrace , and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia . Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of ancient Greece may have been inevitable . However , the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire , and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability . Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean , and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt .

The Ionian Revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos , a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras . In the aftermath , Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power , but before he could do so , Aristagoras abdicated , and declared Miletus a democracy . The other Ionian cities followed suit , ejecting their Persian @-@ appointed tyrants , and declaring themselves democracies . Aristagoras then appealed to the states of mainland Greece for support , but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops .

The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances , beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC .

In 510 BC , with the aid of Cleomenes I , King of Sparta , the Athenian people had expelled Hippias , the tyrant ruler of Athens . With Hippias 's father Peisistratus , the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias 's rule . Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap , Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him . In the meantime , Cleomenes helped install a pro @-@ Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens , in opposition to Cleisthenes , the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family , who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens . Cleisthenes , however , found himself being politically defeated by a coalition led by Isagoras and decided to change the rules of the game by appealing to the demos ( the people ) , in effect making them a new faction in the political arena . This tactic succeeded , but the Spartan King , Cleomenes I , returned at the request of Isagoras and so Cleisthenes , the Alcmaeonids and other prominent Athenian families were exiled from Athens . When Isagoras attempted to create a narrow oligarchic government , the Athenian people , in a spontaneous and unprecedented move , expelled Cleomenes and Isagoras . Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens ( 507 BC ) , and at breakneck speed began to reform the state with the aim of securing his position . The result was not actually a democracy or a real civic state , but he enabled the development of a fully democratic government , which would emerge in the next generation as the demos realized its power . The new @-@ found freedom and self @-@ governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias , or any form of outside subjugation , by Sparta , Persia , or anyone else .

Cleomenes was not pleased with events , and marched on Athens with the Spartan army . Cleomenes 's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle , but fearing the worst , the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis , to request aid from the Persian empire . Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him an ' earth and water ' , a traditional token of submission , to which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced . They were , however , severely censured for this when they returned to Athens . At some later point Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens . This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens . The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action , but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant . The Athenians indignantly declined , and instead resolved to open war with Persia . Having thus become the enemy of Persia , Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt . The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example the Athenians had set no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt , especially since the cities of Ionia were originally Athenian colonies .

The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt . Whilst there , the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes , marching to Sardis and burning the lower city . This was , however , as much as the Greeks achieved , and they were then repelled and pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen , losing many men in the process . Despite the fact that their actions were ultimately fruitless , the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius 's lasting enmity , and he vowed to punish both cities . The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade ( 494 BC ) all but ended the Ionian Revolt , and by 493 BC , the last hold @-@ outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet . The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire 's border to the islands of the eastern Aegean and the Propontis , which had not been part of the Persian dominions before . The pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves ; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria .

In 492 BC , after the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed , Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Mardonius . Mardonius re @-@ conquered Thrace and compelled Alexander I of Macedon to make Macedon a client kingdom to Persia , before the wrecking of his fleet brought a premature end to the campaign . However , in 490 BC , following the successes of the previous campaign , Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes , ( son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled ) and Datis , a Median admiral . Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor . The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire , to punish Naxos ( which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC ) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed . After island @-@ hopping across the Aegean , including successfully attacking Naxos , the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer . The Persians then proceeded to besiege , capture and burn Eretria . They then headed south down the coast of Attica , en route to complete the final objective of the campaign — punish Athens .

= = Prelude = =

The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica , and landed at the bay of Marathon , roughly 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Athens , on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias ( who had accompanied the expedition ) . Under the guidance of Miltiades , the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians , the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon , and prevent the Persians moving inland . At the same time , Athens 's greatest runner , Pheidippides ( or Philippides in some accounts ) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens . Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia , a sacrosanct period of peace , and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose ; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days . The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being , although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1 @,@ 000 hoplites from the small city of Plataea ; a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians , and won unending Athenian gratitude to Plataea .

For approximately five days the armies therefore confronted each other across the plain of Marathon in stalemate . The flanks of the Athenian camp were protected either by a grove of trees , or an abbatis of stakes ( depending on the exact reading ) . Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer , the delay worked in favor of the Athenians . There were ten Athenian strategoi ( generals ) at Marathon , elected by each of the ten tribes that the Athenians were divided into ; Miltiades was one of these . In addition , in overall charge , was the War @-@ Archon ( polemarch ) , Callimachus , who had been elected by the whole citizen body . Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the strategoi , each taking in turn a day to command the army . He further suggests that each strategos , on his day in command , instead deferred to Miltiades . In Herodotus 's account , Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians ( despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians ) , but strangely , chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack . This passage is undoubtedly problematic ; the Athenians had little to gain by attacking before the Spartans arrived , and there is no real evidence of this rotating generalship . There does , however , seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon , and the battle ; Herodotus , who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack , may have made a mistake whilst seeking to explain this delay .

As is discussed below , the reason for the delay was probably simply that neither the Athenians nor the Persians were willing to risk battle initially . This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did . Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians ( and the other sources confirm this ) , but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans . There are two main theories to explain this .

The first theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason , and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking . This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus ' account of the battle , and an entry in the Suda dictionary . The entry χωρίς ἰππεῖς ( " without cavalry " ) is explained thus :

The cavalry left . When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat , the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left . And when Miltiades realized that , he attacked and thus won . From there comes the above @-@ mentioned quote , which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle .

There are many variations of this theory , but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry was re @-@ embarked on the ships , and was to be sent by sea to attack ( undefended ) Athens in the rear , whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon . This theory therefore utilises Herodotus ' suggestion that after Marathon , the Persian army re @-@ embarked and tried to sail around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly ; however , according to the theory this attempt would have occurred before the battle ( and indeed have triggered the battle ) .

The second theory is simply that the battle occurred because the Persians finally moved to attack the Athenians . Although this theory has the Persians moving to the strategic offensive , this can be reconciled with the traditional account of the Athenians attacking the Persians by assuming that , seeing the Persians advancing , the Athenians took the tactical offensive , and attacked them . Obviously , it cannot be firmly established which theory ( if either ) is correct . However , both theories imply that there was some kind of Persian activity which occurred on or about the fifth day which ultimately triggered the battle . It is also possible that both theories are correct : when the Persians sent the cavalry by ship to attack Athens , they simultaneously sent their infantry to attack at Marathon , triggering the Greek counterattack .

= = = Date of the battle = = =

Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the lunisolar calendar , of which each Greek city @-@ state used a variant . Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the proleptic Julian calendar which is much used by historians as the chronological frame . Philipp August Böckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on September 12 , 490 BC in the Julian calendar , and this is the conventionally accepted date . However , this depends on when exactly the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens . In that case the battle took place on August 12 , 490 BC .

= = Opposing forces = =

= = = Athenians = = =

Herodotus does not give a figure for the size of the Athenian army . However , Cornelius Nepos , Pausanias and Plutarch all give the figure of 9 @,@ 000 Athenians and 1 @,@ 000 Plataeans ; while Justin suggests that there were 10 @,@ 000 Athenians and 1 @,@ 000 Plataeans . These numbers are highly comparable to the number of troops Herodotus says that the Athenians and Plataeans sent to the Battle of Plataea 11 years later . Pausanias noticed on the monument to the battle the names of former slaves who were freed in exchange for military services . Modern historians generally accept these numbers as reasonable .

= = = Persians = = =

According to Herodotus , the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes . Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army , only saying that they were a " large infantry that was well packed " . Among ancient sources , the poet Simonides , another near @-@ contemporary , says the campaign force numbered 200 @,@ 000 ; while a later writer , the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200 @,@ 000 infantry and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry , of which only 100 @,@ 000 fought in the battle , while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion ; Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300 @,@ 000 , as does the Suda dictionary . Plato and Lysias give 500 @,@ 000 ; and Justinus 600 @,@ 000 .

Modern historians have proposed wide ranging numbers for the infantry , from 20 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 with a consensus of perhaps 25 @,@ 000 ; estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1 @,@ 000 .

However , the lower end of that range contradicts the statement by Herodotus of a " large infantry that was well packed " . The 25 @,@ 000 fighting force by no means could be neither " large " nor intimidating to the eyes of the 11 @,@ 000 Greeks especially in the scenario ( see below ) that half of the Persian force circumnavigated cape Sounion to take Athens by surprise , leaving thus on the field a force almost equal numerically with Miltiades ' army . Probably the 25 @,@ 000 is the army that remained after the split of the Persian army , raising the size of the initial landing army in 50 @,@ 000 combatants .

To this force furthermore some adjustments must be made :

a ) In the hypothesis ( less likely ) that the 600 ships of Herodotus represent the entire Persian naval force ( both the combat and the troop @-@ transporting fleets ) and each ship carried a total crew of 230 @-@ 240 ( considering the 30 additional marines that Herodotus mentions ) we have a minimum of 138 @,@ 000 to 144 @,@ 000 personnel . It is unlikely that the Persians gathered such a fleet to just ferry across the Aegean only 50 @,@ 000 combatants , especially after making an effort to pack 30 marines more to each vessel .

In order to curry supplies for 2 months and ferry their 1 @,@ 800 strong cavalry , the Persians should have had in addition 200 supply ships and 70 horse @-@ transports ( see below ) ; thus a 870 @-@ strong fleet .

On the composition of the fleet in Marathon the following examples should be also considered :

-The Persian fleet that invaded Greece 10 years later ( 480 BC ) had 1207 triremes and 3000 transports .

-The Athenian fleet on the Sicilian expedition ~ 60 years later ( 415 BC ) had 40 % transports .

-The Punic fleet that campaigned against the Sicilian Greeks ~ 80 years later ( 406 BC ) had 120 triremes and 1000 transports ( siege of Selinous , siege of Acragas ) and again 400 triremes and 600 transports in 396 BC ( siege of Syracuse ) .

b ) In all the aforementioned cases the transport fleet were at least equal in size - if not larger - than the combat fleet . In the following ( more likely ) hypothesis the transport fleet will be the 2 / 3 of the 600 @-@ strong combat fleet representing thus the 30 % of the total ( 400 transports over 1 @,@ 370 ships ) :

Here is to be noted that the ships ' oarsmen and sailors were armed each with a light shield , a short sword and a helmet . Leather armors and missile weapons were also frequent . They were serving as light infantry and skirmishers when the ships were to be captured and - in rare occasions ( i.e. Battle of Naupactus 429 BC ) - in the main battlefield .

Because ancient historians are usually referring to the combat fleet of a naval force when they don 't mention the troop @-@ transports separately ( as in this case ) a possible breakdown of the Persian fleet in Marathon could be the following :

-600 combat ships ( aphraktae or open triremes ) . Represented the main fighting vessel in naval battles . They were called " open " because they had their upper deck almost completely removed in order to lighten and gain speed and maneuverability . They were carrying usually 30 @-@ 40 marines ( as in the Ionian Greek fleets and the Persian fleet ) but in some rare cases these force could be further more reduced in just 14 marines ( Athenian triremes during the city 's heyday of naval power ) to additionally increase speed . The triremes in Marathon were packed with 30 additional marines , for the purposes of the campaign . Thus :

Crew : 170 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 60 marines .

( x600 ships : 109 @,@ 200 crew ; 36 @,@ 000 marines )

-400 troop @-@ transports ( kataphraktae or closed triremes ) . Specially modified triremes where the two lower rows of oarsmen were removed and an upper deck was added in order to house more land troops . With less oarsmen and additional weight , those triremes were slow and heavy ; thus totally useless in naval combat and in need of escort .

Crew : 70 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 160 land troops .

( x400 ships : 34 @,@ 000 crew ; 64 @,@ 000 land troops )

-70 cavalry @-@ transports ( modified kataphraktae triremes ) .

Crew : 70 oarsmen , 15 sailors and officers , 25 horses with their riders and complete gear .

( x70 ships : 5 @,@ 950 crew ; 1 @,@ 750 cavalry )

-300 supply ships . They were normal merchant ships that were carrying supplies ( mostly grain ) during wars . A 250 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army needs 250 tons of supplies daily ( 5 ships ) .

Crew : 22 oarsmen , 10 sailors , 50 tons of supplies ( grain ) .

( x300 ships : 6 @,@ 600 oarsmen ; 3 @,@ 000 sailors ; 15 @,@ 000 tons of supplies , enough for 2 months )

TOTAL : 257 @,@ 500 - > 155 @,@ 750 oarsmen and sailors ; 100 @,@ 000 soldiers and marines ; 1 @,@ 750 cavalry ; 1 @,@ 370 ships . Thus the account of the near @-@ contemporary Simonides ( 200 @,@ 000 men ) must be closest to the truth . The Greeks however fought half of that force in Marathon , on September 490 BC ( ~ 50 @,@ 000 foot @-@ soldiers and marines ) .

NOTE : The Persian fleet campaigned during the long Greek summer ( 5 months ) . They didn 't need to have more than 60 days of supplies because they could replenish their scores of provision in various ways ( through trade , pillaging or conquest ) . The fall of Eretria a few weeks earlier , in late summer just after the collecting of the crops , should have provided plenty of supplies to the Persians . The island of Euboea ( on which Eretria stands ) was at the time the main grain supplier for Athens . Furthermore , the fear of being low on supplies by the end of the campaigning season , drove the Persians to attempt the surprise attack on Athens by circumnavigating cape Sounion with half of their army .

= = Strategic and tactical considerations = =

From a strategic point of view , the Athenians had some disadvantages at Marathon . In order to face the Persians in battle , the Athenians had to summon all available hoplites ; and even then they were still probably outnumbered at least 2 to 1 . Furthermore , raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders , and thus any secondary attack in the Athenian rear would cut the army off from the city ; and any direct attack on the city could not be defended against . Still further , defeat at Marathon would mean the complete defeat of Athens , since no other Athenian army existed . The Athenian strategy was therefore to keep the Persian army pinned down at Marathon , blocking both exits from the plain , and thus preventing themselves from being outmaneuvered . However , these disadvantages were balanced by some advantages . The Athenians initially had no need to seek battle , since they had managed to confine the Persians to the plain of Marathon . Furthermore , time worked in their favour , as every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer . Having everything to lose by attacking , and much to gain by waiting , the Athenians remained on the defensive in the run up to the battle . Tactically , hoplites were vulnerable to attacks by cavalry , and since the Persians had substantial numbers of cavalry , this made any offensive maneuver by the Athenians even more of a risk , and thus reinforced the defensive strategy of the Athenians .

The Persian strategy , on the other hand , was probably principally determined by tactical considerations . The Persian infantry was evidently lightly armoured , and no match for hoplites in a head @-@ on confrontation ( as would be demonstrated at the later battles of Thermopylae and Plataea . ) Since the Athenians seem to have taken up a strong defensive position at Marathon , the Persian hesitance was probably a reluctance to attack the Athenians head @-@ on .

Whatever event eventually triggered the battle , it obviously altered the strategic or tactical balance sufficiently to induce the Athenians to attack the Persians . If the first theory is correct ( see above ) , then the absence of cavalry removed the main Athenian tactical disadvantage , and the threat of being outflanked made it imperative to attack . Conversely , if the second theory is correct , then the Athenians were merely reacting to the Persians attacking them . Since the Persian force obviously contained a high proportion of missile troops , a static defensive position would have made little sense for the Athenians ; the strength of the hoplite was in the melee , and the sooner that could be brought about , the better , from the Athenian point of view . If the second theory is correct , this raises the further question of why the Persians , having hesitated for several days , then attacked . There may have been several strategic reasons for this ; perhaps they were aware ( or suspected ) that the Athenians were expecting reinforcements . Alternatively , since they may have felt the need to force some kind of victory — they could hardly remain at Marathon indefinitely .

= = Battle = =

The distance between the two armies at the point of battle had narrowed to " a distance not less than 8 stadia " or about 1 @,@ 500 meters . Miltiades ordered the two tribes that were forming the center of the Greek formation , the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides , to be arranged in the depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes at their flanks were in ranks of eight . Some modern commentators have suggested this was a deliberate ploy to encourage a double envelopment of the Persian centre . However , this suggests a level of training that the Greeks were thought not to possess . There is little evidence for any such tactical thinking in Greek battles until Leuctra in 371 BC . It is therefore possible that this arrangement was made , perhaps at the last moment , so that the Athenian line was as long as the Persian line , and would not therefore be outflanked .

When the Athenian line was ready , according to one source , the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades : " At them " . Herodotus implies the Athenians ran the whole distance to the Persian lines , a feat under the weight of hoplite armory generally thought to be physically impossible . More likely , they marched until they reached the limit of the archers ' effectiveness , the " beaten zone " ( roughly 200 meters ) , and then broke into a run towards their enemy . Another possibility is that they ran up to the 200 meter @-@ mark in broken ranks , and then reformed for the march into battle from there . Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way ; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed primarily of missile troops . All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians ; " ... in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal , seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run , having neither cavalry nor archers " . Indeed , based on their previous experience of the Greeks , the Persians might be excused for this ; Herodotus tells us that the Athenians at Marathon were " first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it , for up until then just hearing the name of the Medes caused the Hellenes to panic " . Passing through the hail of arrows launched by the Persian army , protected for the most part by their armour , the Greek line finally collided with the enemy army . Holland provides an evocative description :

The enemy directly in their path ... realised to their horror that [ the Athenians ] , far from providing the easy pickings for their bowmen , as they had first imagined , were not going to be halted ... The impact was devastating . The Athenians had honed their style of fighting in combat with other phalanxes , wooden shields smashing against wooden shields , iron spear tips clattering against breastplates of bronze ... in those first terrible seconds of collision , there was nothing but a pulverizing crash of metal into flesh and bone ; then the rolling of the Athenian tide over men wearing , at most , quilted jerkins for protection , and armed , perhaps , with nothing more than bows or slings . The hoplites ' ash spears , rather than shivering ... could instead stab and stab again , and those of the enemy who avoided their fearful jabbing might easily be crushed to death beneath the sheer weight of the advancing men of bronze .

The Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies on the flanks , before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre , which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre . The battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships , pursued by the Greeks . Some , unaware of the local terrain , ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned . The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships , and managed to capture seven ships , though the majority were able to launch successfully . Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus , brother of the playwright Aeschylus , who was also among the fighters , charged into the sea , grabbed one Persian trireme , and started pulling it towards shore . A member of the crew saw him , cut off his hand , and Cynaegirus died .

Herodotus records that 6 @,@ 400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield , and it is unknown how many more perished in the swamps . The Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11 . Among the dead were the war archon Callimachus and the general Stesilaos .

= = Conclusions = =

There are several explanations of the Greek success . Most scholars believe that the Greeks had better equipment and used superior tactics . According to Herodotus , the Greeks were better equipped ; however , they did not use bronze armour at this time , but that of leather or linen . The phalanx formation proved successful , because the hoplites had a long tradition in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , whereas the Persian soldiers were accustomed to a very different kind of conflict . At Marathon , the Athenians thinned their centre in order to make their army equal in length to the Persian army , not as a result of a tactical planning . It seems that the Persian centre tried to return , realizing that their wings had broken , and was caught in the flanks by the victorious Greek wings . Lazenby believes that the ultimate reason for the Greek success was the courage the Greeks displayed :

Marathon was won because ordinary , amateur soldiers found the courage to break into a trot when the arrows begun to fall , instead of grinding to a halt , and when surprisingly the enemy wings fled , not to take the easy way out and follow them , but to stop and somehow come to the aid of the hard pressured centre .

= = Aftermath = =

In the immediate aftermath of the battle , Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly . As has been discussed above , some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle . Either way , the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat , and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens . The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides . The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing , and seeing that the opportunity was lost , the Persians turned about and returned to Asia . Connected with this episode , Herodotus recounts a rumour that this manoeuver by the Persians had been planned in conjunction with the Alcmaeonids , the prominent Athenian aristocratic family , and that a " shield @-@ signal " had been given after the battle . Although many interpretations of this have been offered , it is impossible to tell whether this was true , and if so , what exactly the signal meant . On the next day , the Spartan army arrived at Marathon , having covered the 220 kilometers ( 140 mi ) in only three days . The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon , and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory .

The dead of Marathon were buried on the battlefield . On the tomb of the Athenians this epigram composed by Simonides was written :

Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι

χρυσοφόρων Μήδων ἐστόρεσαν δύναμιν

Fighting at the forefront of the Greeks , the Athenians at Marathon

laid low the army of the gilded Medes .

In the meanwhile , Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece . The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC , and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium . However , defeat at the Battle of Salamis would be the turning point in the campaign , and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea .

= = Significance = =

The defeat at Marathon barely touched the vast resources of the Persian empire , yet for the Greeks it was an enormously significant victory . It was the first time the Greeks had beaten the Persians , proving that the Persians were not invincible , and that resistance , rather than subjugation , was possible .

The battle was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy , showing what might be achieved through unity and self @-@ belief ; indeed , the battle effectively marks the start of a " golden age " for Athens . This was also applicable to Greece as a whole ; " their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries , during which western culture was born " . John Stuart Mill 's famous opinion was that " the Battle of Marathon , even as an event in British history , is more important than the Battle of Hastings " . It seems that the Athenian playwright Aeschylus considered his participation at Marathon to be his greatest achievement in life ( rather than his plays ) since on his gravestone there was the following epigram :

Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει

μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας ·

ἀλκὴν δ ’ εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι

καὶ βαθυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος

This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide ,

Euphorion 's son and fruitful Gela 's pride .

How tried his valor , Marathon may tell ,

And long @-@ haired Medes , who knew it all too well .

Militarily , a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx . This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks ; since each city @-@ state fought in the same way , the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious . Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops , and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle . The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry ( the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea ) , but used in the right circumstances , it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon .

= = Legacy = =

= = = Legends associated with the battle = = =

The most famous legend associated with Marathon is that of the runner Pheidippides / Philippides bringing news to Athens of the battle , which is described below .

Pheidippides ' run to Sparta to bring aid has other legends associated with it . Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta ( or perhaps on his return journey ) . Pan asked why the Athenians did not honor him and the awed Pheidippides promised that they would do so from then on . The god apparently felt that the promise would be kept , so he appeared in battle and at the crucial moment he instilled the Persians with his own brand of fear , the mindless , frenzied fear that bore his name : " panic " . After the battle , a sacred precinct was established for Pan in a grotto on the north slope of the Acropolis , and a sacrifice was annually offered .

Similarly , after the victory the festival of the Agroteras Thysia ( " sacrifice to the Agrotéra " ) was held at Agrae near Athens , in honor of Artemis Agrotera ( " Artemis the Huntress " ) . This was in fulfillment of a vow made by the city before the battle , to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict . The number was so great , it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled . Xenophon notes that at his time , 90 years after the battle , goats were still offered yearly .

Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw the phantom of King Theseus , the mythical hero of Athens , leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians , and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile fighting for the Athenians , along with the twelve Olympian gods and other heroes . Pausanias also tells us that :

They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress . Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement . When the Athenians made enquiries at the oracle , the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus ( " he of the Plough @-@ tail " ) as a hero .

Another tale from the conflict is of the dog of Marathon . Aelian relates that one hoplite brought his dog to the Athenian encampment . The dog followed his master to battle and attacked the Persians at his master 's side . He also informs us that this dog is depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile .

= = = Marathon run = = =

According to Herodotus , an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistance before the battle . He ran a distance of over 225 kilometers ( 140 miles ) , arriving in Sparta the day after he left . Then , following the battle , the Athenian army marched the 40 kilometers ( 25 miles ) or so back to Athens at a very high pace ( considering the quantity of armour , and the fatigue after the battle ) , in order to head off the Persian force sailing around Cape Sounion . They arrived back in the late afternoon , in time to see the Persian ships turn away from Athens , thus completing the Athenian victory .

Later , in popular imagination , these two events became confused with each other , leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events . This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle , to announce the Greek victory with the word " nenikēkamen ! " ( Attic : νενικήκαμεν ; we 've won ! ) , whereupon he promptly died of exhaustion . Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to Herodotus ; actually , the story first appears in Plutarch 's On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD , who quotes from Heracleides of Pontus 's lost work , giving the runner 's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles . Lucian of Samosata ( 2nd century AD ) gives the same story but names the runner Philippides ( not Pheidippides ) . It should be noted that in some medieval codices of Herodotus the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides and in a few modern editions this name is preferred .

When the idea of a modern Olympics became a reality at the end of the 19th century , the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event , recalling the ancient glory of Greece . The idea of organizing a ' marathon race ' came from Michel Bréal , who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens . This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin , the founder of the modern Olympics , as well as the Greeks . This would echo the legendary version of events , with the competitors running from Marathon to Athens . So popular was this event that it quickly caught on , becoming a fixture at the Olympic games , with major cities staging their own annual events . The distance eventually became fixed at 26 miles 385 yards , or 42 @.@ 195 km , though for the first years it was variable , being around 25 miles ( 40 km ) — the approximate distance from Marathon to Athens .

= = = Ancient sources = = =

= = = Modern studies = = =

= = = Historiography = = =

Fink , Dennis L. The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship : Research , Theories and Controversies since 1850 ( McFarland , 2014 ) . 240 pp. online review

= Glenrothes =

Glenrothes ( listen ; / ɡlɛnˈrɒθᵻs / , glen @-@ ROTH @-@ iss ; Scottish Gaelic : Gleann Ràthais ) is a town situated in the heart of Fife , in east @-@ central Scotland . It is located approximately 30 miles ( 48 km ) from both Edinburgh , which lies to the south and Dundee to the north . The town had a population of 39 @,@ 277 in 2011 as recorded by the census , making it the third largest settlement in Fife and the 18th most populous settlement in Scotland . The name Glenrothes comes from its historical link with the Earl of Rothes who owned much of the land upon which the new town has been built ; " Glen " ( Scottish for valley ) was added to the name to avoid confusion with Rothes in Moray and in recognition that the town lies in a river valley . The motto of Glenrothes is " Ex terra vis " , meaning " Out of the earth , strength " , which dates back to the founding of the town .

Planned in the late 1940s as one of Scotland 's first post @-@ second world war new towns its original purpose was to house miners who were to work at a newly established coal mine , the Rothes Colliery . Following the failure of the mine the town developed as an important industrial centre in Scotland 's Silicon Glen between 1961 and 2000 with several major electronics and hi @-@ tech companies setting up facilities in the town . The Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) , a non @-@ departmental public body , was established to develop , manage and promote the new town . The GDC supported by the local authority oversaw the governance of Glenrothes until the wind @-@ up of the GDC in 1995 , after which all responsibility was transferred to Fife Council .

Glenrothes is the administrative capital of Fife containing both the Fife Council and Police Scotland Fife Division headquarters . Home to Fife 's main concentration of specialist manufacturing and engineering companies , several organisations have their global headquarters based in Glenrothes . Public services and service industries are also important to the town 's economy . Major employers include Bosch Rexroth ( hydraulics manufacturing ) , Brand Rex ( fibre optics manufacturing ) , Fife College ( education ) and Raytheon ( defence and electronics ) . Glenrothes is unique in Fife as the majority of the town 's centre is contained indoors , within Fife 's largest indoor shopping centre , the Kingdom Shopping Centre .

The town has won multiple horticultural awards in the " Beautiful Scotland " and " Britain in Bloom " contests for the quality of its parks and landscaping . It has numerous outdoor sculptures and artworks , a result of the appointment of town artists in the early development of the town . Public facilities include a regional sports and leisure centre , two golf courses , major parks , a civic centre and theatre and a college campus . The A92 trunk road provides the principal access to the town passing through Glenrothes and connecting it to the wider Scottish motorway and trunk road network . A major bus station is located in the town centre providing regional and local bus services to surrounding settlements .

= = History = =

= = = Toponymy = = =

The name Rothes comes from the association with the north @-@ east Scotland Earl of Rothes , family name Leslie . The Leslie family historically owned much of the land upon which Glenrothes has been built and their family name gave the adjacent village of Leslie its name . Glen ( from the Scottish Gaelic word ' gleann ' meaning valley ) was added to prevent confusion with Rothes in Moray and to reflect the location of the town within the Leven valley .

The different areas ( precincts ) of Glenrothes have been named after the hamlets already established ( e.g. Cadham , Woodside ) , the farms which once occupied the land ( e.g. Caskieberran , Collydean , Rimbleton ) or historical country houses in the area ( e.g. Balbirnie , Balgeddie , Leslie Parks ) .

= = = Glenrothes new town = = =

Glenrothes was designated in 1948 under the New Towns ( Scotland ) Act 1946 as Scotland 's second post @-@ war new town . The case for developing the new town was partially driven by a national energy strategy created by the British Government following the Second World War . The concept was further advanced in a report produced in 1946 by Sir Frank Mears to the Central and South @-@ East Scotland Planning Committee . This made the case for a new town in the Leslie @-@ Markinch area to support growth in the coal mining industry in Fife .

The planning , development , management and promotion of the new town was the responsibility of the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) , a quango appointed by the Secretary of State for Scotland . The corporation board consisted of eight members including a chairman and deputy chairman . The first meeting of the GDC was in Auchmuty House , provided by Tullis Russell on 20 June 1949 .

The original plan was to build a new settlement for a population of 32 @,@ 000 to 35 @,@ 000 people . The land which Glenrothes now occupies was largely agricultural and once contained a number of small rural communities and the hamlets of Cadham and Woodside which were established to house workers at local paper mills . Originally proposals for the new town would have centred it on Markinch ; however the village 's infrastructure was deemed unable to withstand the substantial growth required to realise a new town and there was considerable local opposition to the proposal . Leslie and Thornton were also considered as possible locations , again meeting local opposition , and eventually an area of 5 @,@ 320 acres ( 2 @,@ 153 ha ) between all of these villages was zoned for the new town 's development . Much of the historical Aytoun , Balfour , Balgonie and Rothes estates were included in Glenrothes ' assigned area along with the historical country houses Balbirnie House , Balgeddie House and Leslie House .

Prior to the development of Glenrothes the main industries in the area were papermaking , coal mining and farming . Tullis Russell was the largest paper manufacturer in the area and operated from its site for over 200 years . Other paper manufacturers established operations at the Fettykil and Prinlaws Mills at Leslie to the west of the town , and Dixons Mill at Markinch in the east . The location of the mills was strategic to capitalise on the natural energy provided by the River Leven .

The Rothes Colliery , the new coal mine associated with the town 's development , was built on land to the west of Thornton , an established village south of Glenrothes . The mine which was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1957 was promoted as being a key driver in the economic regeneration of central Fife . However , un @-@ stemmable flooding and geological problems in the area combined with a lessening demand for coal nationally had a significant impact on the viability of the mine which resulted in its eventual closure in 1965 . Ironically , miners who had worked in older deep pits in the area had fore @-@ warned against the development of the Rothes Pit for this very reason .

The coal mine 's closure almost resulted in further development of Glenrothes being stopped . However shortly following the closure Central Government decided to change the town 's role by appointing Glenrothes as one of the economic focal points for Central Scotland as part of a National Plan for economic growth and development . The Glenrothes Development Corporation were successful in attracting a plethora of light industries and modern electronics factories to the town as a consequence . The first big overseas electronic investor was Beckmans Instruments in 1959 followed by Hughes Industries in the early 1960s . A number of other important companies followed establishing Glenrothes as a major industrial hub in Scotland 's Silicon Glen . During the middle of the 1970s , the town also became the headquarters of Fife Regional Council ; effectively the county town of Fife , taking over the role from Cupar .

Unlike the other post @-@ war Scottish new towns ; Cumbernauld , East Kilbride , Irvine or Livingston , Glenrothes was not originally to be a Glasgow overspill new town , although it did later take this role . It was however populated in the early 1950s , in part , by families moving from the declining coalfield areas of Scotland .

Major industrial estates were developed to the south of Glenrothes , largely due to the proximity to the proposed East Fife Regional Road ( A92 ) which was developed in 1989 giving dual carriageway access to the main central Scotland road network . The Silicon Glen era peaked in the 1990s with Canon developing their first UK manufacturing plant at Westwood Park in Glenrothes in 1992 . ADC Telecommunications , a major American electronics company , established a base at Bankhead in early 2000 with the promise of a substantial number of jobs . By 2004 both companies had closed their Glenrothes operations with the promised jobs growth never materialising to any substantial level . The electronics industrial sector in Glenrothes and most of central Scotland was dependent upon an inward investment strategy that led to almost 43 % of employment in foreign @-@ owned plants which were susceptible to changes in global economic markets . Around the start of the 21st century , a decline in major electronics manufacturing in Scotland impacted on the town 's economy and as a result the industrial base of the town was forced to diversify for the second time in it 's short history .

by 1995 the GDC left a lasting legacy on the town by overseeing the development of 15 @,@ 378 houses , 5 @,@ 174 @,@ 125 square feet ( 480 @,@ 692 m2 ) of industrial floorspace , 735 @,@ 476 square feet ( 68 @,@ 328 m2 ) of office floorspace and 576 @,@ 977 square feet ( 53 @,@ 603 m2 ) of shopping floorspace . Since the winding up of the GDC Glenrothes continues to serve as Fife 's principal administrative centre and serves a wider sub @-@ regional area as a major centre for services and employment .

In 2008 Canadian artist and researcher Sylvia Grace Borda chose to holiday for a week in Glenrothes to explore , as was perceived , " an area considered by many Scots as uninteresting and unworthy of documentation " . She was curious to explore the town as if she were a late @-@ 1960s photographer of common places following on from a similar study of East Kilbride new town . The outcome was the production of a series of images which the artist believes contradict how some Scots would ' see ' Glenrothes , and reinforce the observation that it often takes a visitor to see what others take for granted . Just as in real time , it is too easy to rush by the everyday . The work sought to position itself so the everyday environment can cause the viewer pause and to regard the commonplace as extraordinary .

Glenrothes gained national publicity in 2009 by winning a Carbuncle Award following an unofficial contest operated by Urban Realm and Carnyx Group which was set up to criticise the quality of built environments in Scotland . The judges of the contest awarded Glenrothes the category of the most dismal place in Scotland for its " depressed and investment starved town centre " . This generated mixed views from locals and built environment professions alike .

By contrast in 2010 the town has won awards for being the " Best Kept Large Town " and the most " Clean , sustainable and beautiful community " in Scotland in the Beautiful Scotland competition and was the winner in the " large town " category in the 2011 Royal Horticultural Society Britain in Bloom competition . The town continued its horticultural success by achieving further Gold awards in the 2013 and 2014 UK finals .

In 2011 Historic Scotland completed an assessment of the town art in Glenrothes , ultimately awarding listed building status to a number of artworks scattered throughout the town . The organisation also gave positive recognition to Glenrothes ' significant role in helping to create the idea of art being a key factor in creating a sense of place .

Glenrothes ' place and importance in the history and development of Scotland has been enshrined in the Great Tapestry of Scotland , which was unveiled in 2013 in the Scottish Parliament . The Glenrothes panel shows various pieces of the town 's public artworks , along with visual references to its important industrial heritage associated originally with coal mining and later as a major centre for " Silicon Glen " industries .

= = Governance = =

In the early years of the creation of the new town the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) with input from the local authority , then Fife County Council , oversaw the governance of the new town . In the early 1990s the then Conservative UK Government established a wind @-@ up order for all of the UK 's new town development corporations . Responsibilities for the assets , management and governance of all of the new towns were to be transferred to either private sector companies or to the local authorities or other government organisations . The GDC was finally wound up in 1995 after which responsibility for Glenrothes was largely transferred to Fife Council with some assets such as the Kingdom Shopping Centre , industrial and office units sold off to private sector companies .

Glenrothes is represented by a number of tiers of elected government . North Glenrothes Community Council and Pitteuchar , Stenton and Finglassie Community Council form the lowest tier of governance whose statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government . Glenrothes now lies within one of the 32 council areas of Scotland . Fife Council is the executive , deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance in the region and has its main headquarters based in Glenrothes . Council meetings take place in Fife House ( formerly known as Glenrothes House ) in the town centre . The west wing of the building was built by the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) as their offices in 1969 , which was later used as the headquarters of Fife Regional Council . Since the last Scottish election in 2012 , Fife Council is governed by a minority Labour Party , claiming a total of 35 seats , with the support of Conservative Party and Independent Councillors .

Glenrothes forms part of the county constituency of Glenrothes , electing one Member of Parliament ( MP ) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first past the post system . Peter Grant of the Scottish National Party is the MP for Glenrothes after being elected in the 2015 general election . For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament , Glenrothes forms part of the Mid Fife and Glenrothes constituency following the 2011 Scottish elections . This newly formed constituency replaces the former Central Fife constituency taking in the Leven , Largo and Kennoway ward and excluding the Buckhaven , Methil and Wemyss Villages ward . Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) by the first past the post system of election , and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation . Following the 2016 Scottish Elections the constituency is represented by Jenny Gilruth MSP of the Scottish National Party who replaces now retired Tricia Marwick former Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament .

= = Geography = =

Glenrothes lies in mid @-@ Fife between the agricultural " Howe of Fife " in the north and east and Fife 's industrial heartland in the south and west . The neighbouring settlements are Coaltown of Balgonie , Leslie , Markinch and Thornton . The boundaries of the town are virtually indistinguishable between its neighbouring small towns and villages forming a contiguous urban area . The villages of Kinglassie , Milton of Balgonie and Star of Markinch are located slightly further away and are physically separated from Glenrothes by farmland . Kirkcaldy , a traditional industrial centre is the next nearest large town and lies approximately 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the south of the town . Glenrothes is also located equidistant from two of Fife 's other principal settlements , Dunfermline and St Andrews , at 19 miles ( 31 km ) and 21 miles ( 34 km ) away . Two of Scotland 's major cities , Edinburgh and Dundee , are located almost equidistantly from Glenrothes at 32 miles ( 51 km ) and 27 miles ( 43 km ) away , respectively . The smaller Scottish city of Perth is located 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the northwest .

The northern parts of the settlement lie upland on the southern fringes of the Lomond Hills Regional Park . The central parts of the town extend between the southern edge of the River Leven valley ; a substantial green space which passes east west through the town , and the Warout Ridge . Southern parts of Glenrothes are largely industrial and are situated on land which gently slopes south towards the Lochty Burn and the village of Thornton . The height above mean sea level at the town centre is 300 feet ( 91 m ) . Temperatures in Glenrothes , like the rest of Scotland , are relatively moderate given its northern latitude . Fife is a peninsula , located between the Firth of Tay in the north , the Firth of Forth in the south and the North Sea in the east . Summers are relatively cool and the warming of the water over the summer results in warm winters . Average annual temperatures in Glenrothes range from a maximum of 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) to a minimum of 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) .

A linked network of semi @-@ natural landscape areas throughout the town allow for a mix of biodiversity with different flora and fauna and wildlife habitats . Areas of ancient woodland are found in Riverside Park and Balbirnie Park , both of which are also designated historic gardens and designed landscapes . Balbirnie Park is renowned for having a large collection of rhododendron species . Protected wildlife species found in the Glenrothes area include red squirrels , water voles and various types of bats . Landscape areas also act as natural drainage systems , reducing the likelihood of flooding in the built up areas of the town , with rainwater flows channelled to the River Leven , or to the Lochty Burn . Landscape planning has also ensured that Glenrothes ' road network , with particular focuses on the town 's many roundabouts , provides green networks throughout the town .

= = = Built environment and urban form = = =

Careful consideration was given to the form and infrastructure of the town , focusing on the creation of individual suburban type neighbourhoods ( precincts ) , each with their own architectural identity . Engineers , planners , builders and architects were tasked with creating not only good quality mass @-@ produced housing but green spaces , tree planting , wildlife corridors and soft and hard landscaping . This was seen as an equally important part of the process , helping to provide a sense of place and connection to the land that a New Town was felt to need in order to become a successful place where people would want to live and raise children . Separating industry as far as possible from housing areas in planned industrial estates was a key element of early plans . This was at the time seen as an important change from the " chaotic " , congested and polluted industrial towns and cities of the previous centuries where cramped unsanitary housing and dirty industries were built in close proximity to one another . The vision for Glenrothes was to provide a clean , healthy and safe environment for the town 's residents .

The settlement has been purposely planned using a series of masterplans . Development of Glenrothes started in Woodside in the east and progressed westwards . The first town masterplan was implemented as far as South Parks and Rimbleton housing precincts . Early residential precincts were based on Ebenezer Howard 's Garden City philosophy , using relatively tried and tested principles of town planning and architecture which is reflected in their housing styles and layouts . The first town masterplan sub @-@ divided the town 's designated area into self @-@ contained residential precincts with their own primary schools , local shops and community facilities .

A second town masterplan was developed in the late 1960s following Glenrothes ' change of role and was to accommodate an increased population target of 50 @,@ 000 @-@ 70 @,@ 000 . New areas of land in the north and south of the designated area were brought into production for new development . The road network was upgraded to deal with projected increases in car ownership and new housing estates were developed to the west , then to the south and finally to the north of the designated area .

The housing precincts of the 1960s and 1970s , developed under the second masterplan , departed slightly from the garden city ideals instead adopting Radburn principles ; separating as far as practical footpaths from roads . The housing precincts were designed to better accommodate increases in car ownership which increased significantly from the 1960s onwards . The townscape changed in this period with a mixture of higher densities , more contemporary architectural styles and new development layouts . Terraced housing and flats were predominantly developed with the fronts of houses designed to face onto public footpaths and open spaces . Car parking was kept either to the rear of properties or in parking bays located nearby in efforts to reduce the likelihood of road accidents occurring . Housing precincts from the 1980s onwards were largely developed by the private sector with the majority of this housing developed in low density suburban cul @-@ de @-@ sacs . Landscaping around the town included the blending of housing into the northern hillside through the use of structural planting and tree belts .

= = = Geology = = =

The Glenrothes area 's geology is predominantly made up by glacial deposits with the subsoil largely consisting of boulder clay with a band of sand and gravel in the area to the north of the River Leven . The river valley largely comprises alluvium deposits and there are also igneous intrusions of olivine dolerite throughout the area . Productive coal measures were largely recorded in the southern parts of Glenrothes , approximately south of the line of the B921 Kinglassie road . These coal measures form part of the East Fife coalfield and prior to 1962 the deposits there were to be worked by the Rothes Colliery , until it was found that there were severe issues with water penetration and subsequent flooding . Smaller limestone coal outcrops that had been historically worked were recorded around the Balbirnie and Cadham / Balfarg areas with the land that is now Gilvenbank Park found particularly to be heavily undermined .

= = Demography = =

In 1950 the population in the Glenrothes designated area was approximately 1 @,@ 000 people who were located in the hamlets of Woodside and Cadham and in the numerous farm steadings that were spread throughout the area . Population growth in the early phases of the town was described as being slow due to the dependence on the growth of work places at the Rothes Colliery . In 1960 the town population was shown to have increased to 12 @,@ 499 people rising to 28 @,@ 098 by 1969 . The town experienced its greatest levels of population growth between 1964 and 1969 with an average inward migration level of 1 @,@ 900 persons per annum . In 1981 Glenrothes ' population was estimated to have risen to 35 @,@ 000 and at the time the GDC was disbanded in 1995 it was estimated that the town 's population stood at just over 40 @,@ 000 people .

The 2001 census recorded the population of Glenrothes at 38 @,@ 679 representing 11 % of Fife 's total population . The 2011 census recorded a 1 @.@ 5 % population rise to 39 @,@ 277 . The total population in the wider Glenrothes area was estimated at 50 @,@ 701 based on 2013 mid @-@ year estimates from the National Records of Scotland . The number of households in Glenrothes in 2011 was recorded at 16 @,@ 910 ; 64 @.@ 5 % of which were owned . The age groups from 30 @-@ 44 year olds ( 20 @.@ 2 % ) and 45 @-@ 59 year olds ( 21 @.@ 3 % ) form the largest portion of the population . 16 @-@ 29 year olds made up 16 @.@ 6 % of the town 's population .

A study undertaken by Heriot @-@ Watt University in 2008 showed a local average gross weekly wage of £ 450 in the Glenrothes area , against a Fife average of £ 449 and a Scottish average of £ 468 . Wages are reflective of the type of jobs available locally , including higher than average employment in manufacturing and the public sector . The working age population of the town in 2011 was 29 @,@ 079 . The percentage of population economically active in Glenrothes was recorded at 68 @.@ 2 % in 2011 .

The number of Jobseekers Allowance ( JSA ) claimants at January 2016 in the Glenrothes area was 722 representing a 2 @.@ 2 % rate . This compares with 825 JSA claimants in January 2015 representing an annual drop of 103 claiments . Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation ( SIMD ) figures indicate that Auchmuty , Cadham , Collydean , Macedonia and Tanshall areas in Glenrothes fall within the 10 @-@ 15 % banding of deprived communities in Scotland . Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation figures in 2012 records the percentage of local population that is employment deprived at 14 @.@ 5 % against a Fife and Scottish Average of 12 @.@ 8 % . The percentage of the local population that is income deprived in 2012 was recorded at 15 @.@ 7 % against a Fife and Scottish average of 13 @.@ 4 % .

= = Economy = =

The Glenrothes area 's economy predominantly comprises manufacturing and engineering industries , health and public sector jobs and service sector jobs . The number of people employed in Glenrothes is around 24 @,@ 700 ; approximately 15 % of the 163 @,@ 000 jobs in Fife . Glenrothes is recognised for having the main concentration of specialist manufacturing and engineering companies in Fife . There are a total of 46 " Top 200 Fife Businesses " located in Glenrothes and there was a recorded 532 @,@ 100 square metres ( 5 @,@ 727 @,@ 477 sq ft ) of industrial and business floorpace within the town 's employment areas following a survey carried out in 2014 with the largest concentrations of premises in the south of the town and in around the town centre . Major employment areas in Glenrothes include : Bankhead , Eastfield , Pentland Park , Queensway , Southfield , Viewfield , Westwood Park and Whitehill .

= = = Manufacturing and engineering industries = = =

In 2011 manufacturing accounted for almost 15 % of employment in Glenrothes . A number of high tech industrial companies are located in the town largely specialised in electronics manufacturing . These are what remain of the clustering of Silicon Glen operations in the area which has gradually reduced and consolidated since the peak in the late 1990s . Remaining companies specialised in this sector include Brand Rex which specialises in the development of fibre optic cabling , Compugraphics which develops photomasks for the microelectronics sector , Raytheon which specialises in electronics for the defence industry , Regenersis which provides technology repair and test services and Semefab which produces Micro Electric Mechanical Systems ( MEMS ) . Other major companies which have established a base in Glenrothes include Bosch Rexroth ( hydraulics manufacturing ) and FiFab ( precision engineering ) . Indian beverages group Kyndal entered into a joint venture with John Fergus & Co Ltd to establish a new Scotch whisky distillery and bonded warehouse facility in Glenrothes . The new distillery , named Inchdairnie , focuses on exporting to markets in India , Africa and the Far East . It opened in May 2016 creating 15 new jobs as well as generating new exports worth a predicted £ 3 @.@ 6 million to Scotland over the next three years . It is located at Whitehill Industrial Estate adjacent to Fife Airport .

= = = Public sector = = =

A number of public service agencies and authorities are based in Glenrothes contributing to the town 's administrative centre function . Police Scotland has established its Fife Division headquarters in Glenrothes at Viewfield . HM Revenue and Customs , Kingdom Housing Association and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency ( SEPA ) also have offices in Glenrothes at Pentland Park ; a business park within the town . Fife College is also a key employer in Glenrothes with a large campus based at Stenton Road adjacent to Viewfield Industrial Estate . Fife Council is a major employer in the locality with its prominent local authority headquarters building located in Glenrothes town centre . Many of the other council departments are contained in a number of the town centre 's office blocks and a major depot and office facility is located at Bankhead .

= = = Retail and service sectors = = =

Retail jobs accounted for approximately 11 % of the total number of jobs in the local economy in 2011 . The majority of shopping , retail services and administrative facilities in Glenrothes are concentrated in the town centre ( central business district ) . The Kingdom Centre provides the main shopping element of the town centre containing approximately 120 shop units and is anchored by a Dunnes department store . Community and commercial leisure facilities within the shopping centre include the Rothes Halls complex ; the town 's theatre , library , civic and exhibition centre . A cinema , restaurant , pub and bingo hall complex are located adjacent to the shopping centre at Carrick Gate / Church Street . Ten @-@ pin bowling facilities will also be available in the town centre with an announcement to refurbish and reopen the former Fraser bowling alley facility at Albany Gate .

The town centre has expanded beyond its original boundaries into the adjacent Queensway employment area . A number of commercial operators including the town 's major supermarkets and a large bingohall complex are located in Queensway . The town 's largest retail employers are Asda and Morrisons , which both trade from large stores at Queensway . A retail park has also been constructed at the Saltire Centre , approximately half of a mile ( 1 km ) to the southwest of the town centre .

Other types of service industries also add to the town 's economic mix , with large single employers being in the ' accommodation and food services ' sector which accounted for around 4 % of the town 's total jobs . Balbirnie House Hotel and Balgeddie House Hotel are the largest hotel operators in the immediate area . The Golden Acorn Hotel and pub is located at the eastern end of the town centre on North Street . Finance and professional employed represent 15 @.@ 6 % of the total number of jobs in the town .

= = = Regeneration and future development = = =

A Glenrothes town centre action plan has been developed to create a vision for the wider town centre area . This was informed by a summit that was held in March 2013 which was attended by representatives of the local business community , voluntary groups and other individuals with an interest in the future of Glenrothes Town Centre . In May 2013 , it was agreed at Glenrothes Area Committee to approve the Glenrothes Town Centre Action Plan . A range of projects are being delivered to assist in the regeneration of the town centre . New development is being proposed at sites on North Street and at the eastern entrance of the Kingdom Shopping Centre .

Glenrothes is to be home to the UK 's First 100 % Green Data Centre which is to be built at Queensway Business Park . This has been hailed as an extremely significant economic development for the area and a strategically important part of Scotland 's IT infrastructure as a whole . The £ 40 million development will create over 300 construction jobs during the build process and up to 50 full time posts created on completion , including technical and operational staff . The facility will be the first of its kind in the UK drawing its energy from a renewable source with power coming directly from the RWE biomass plant in the town . Queensway Data Centre will accommodate up to 1500 high performance computer racks offering the highest levels of resilience and data security . The facility will be built to a BREEAM outstanding standard with a power usage effectiveness rating of less than 1 @.@ 15 .

In Mid @-@ 2015 Tullis Russell Papermakers , a stalwart to the local area economy for around 200 years , went into administration . The Scottish Government and Fife Council established a Fife Taskforce , involving key partners , to support economic growth and employment creation , with particular focus on Glenrothes and Central Fife , to help mitigate the effects of job losses and put in place appropriate support for a sustainable future for the area . Around £ 6 million has been set aside to support the Fife Taskforce ’ s Action Plan which will include projects such as the Queensway Green Technology Park . This supports plans for the regeneration of Queensway Industrial Estate to develop a modern business and technology park which can utilise the proximity to RWE ’ s Biomass Power Generation facility and to the Green Data Centre . A Glenrothes Enterprise Hub is another project to be established which will create a dedicated “ one @-@ stop shop ” approach to develop an entrepreneurial culture and improve overall performance of new enterprises in the local economy .

= = Culture and community = =

In 1968 Glenrothes was the first town in the UK to appoint a town artist . This is now recognised as playing a significant role , both in a Scottish and in an international context , in helping to create the idea of art being a key factor in creating a sense of place . Two town artists , David Harding ( 1968 – 78 ) and Malcolm Robertson ( 1978 – 91 ) , were employed in the lifetime of the GDC . Both artists , supported by a number of assistants , created a large variety of artworks and sculptures that are scattered throughout the town . Other artists have also contributed to the creation of the town 's artworks . The first sculpture erected in Glenrothes was " Ex Terra " , created by Benno Schotz . " The Good Samaritan " sculpture in Riverside Park was produced by Edinburgh @-@ based sculptor , Ronald Rae , who was commissioned by the GDC to produce a piece of art work in celebration of the town 's 40th anniversary in 1988 .

The town has won numerous awards locally and nationally for the quality of its landscaping ; something that is promoted by the " Take a Pride in Glenrothes " ( TAPIG ) group . The Glenrothes Development Corporation devoted around one third of land in Glenrothes to the provision of open space . As a consequence the town has numerous parks , the largest being Balbirnie Park , Carleton Park , Gilvenbank Park , Riverside Park , and Warout Park . The Lomond Hills Regional Park borders and enters the town to the north and east .

The Rothes Halls complex is the town 's main theatre , exhibition , conference and civic centre venue . The town 's central library and a cafe also form part of the complex . When the new town of Glenrothes began construction , a number of small venues served the community for entertainment purposes . However , despite frequent requests from the community , no plan for a larger @-@ scale theatre or community hall made it past the planning stages . By the 1970s , calls from the community and District Council for an entertainment venue increased . In 1972 , a working party was formed to investigate potential sites and designs for such a building ; designs for a town centre complex were agreed upon , but financial constraints meant they were not followed through . In 1983 , proposals were put forward for what would become Rothes Halls . Again , financial constraints delayed construction , but in 1993 the building was finally constructed , offering state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art facilities and some of the biggest , most flexible theatre spaces available in Fife . The Rothes Halls was officially opened by actor and director Richard Wilson on 30 November 1993 . Since then , Rothes Halls has played host to a vast range of local , national and international shows ; popular music and entertainment acts , and amateur societies have all performed there .

The Glenrothes & Area Heritage Centre established a permanent base in November 2013 following a series of successful temporary exhibitions held previously in the town centre . The heritage centre is run by local volunteers and operates from a shop unit in the Kingdom Shopping Centre . It focuses on the history of the Glenrothes area from a period between the early 19th century to the late 20th century .

Glenrothes Hospital is a community hospital located in the Forresters Lodge area to the northwest of the town centre . Opened in October 1981 the hospital has over 80 nursing staff and over 60 beds , as well as around 20 day hospital beds . Glenrothes Hospital provides a wide range of services including ; speech and language therapy , occupational therapy , physiotherapy , dietetics , district nurses , health visitors , podiatry , hospital pharmacy and x @-@ ray services . There is , however , no accident and emergency service within this hospital .

A war memorial was constructed in Glenrothes in 2007 following the deaths of two local Black Watch soldiers in Iraq . Prior to this Glenrothes was in the unusual position of not being able to host its own Remembrance Sunday commemorations . Unlike traditional memorials , the Glenrothes war memorial consists of two interlinking rings of standing stones .

There are a number of social clubs and organisations operating within Glenrothes which contribute to the cultural and community offerings of the town . These include an art club , various youth clubs , a floral art club , amateur theatre groups , a choral society and a variety of sports clubs . Glenrothes hosts an annual gala which is held at Warout Park and has a variety of family activities including a dog show , highland dancing and a travelling funfair with stalls . Summer and winter festivals were held in Riverside Park in 2012 . The summer festival included sporting events along with arts and crafts , food stalls and fairground shows . The winter festival coincided with bonfire night celebrations and included the town 's annual fireworks display which was previously held at Warout Park . Markinch and Thornton each host an annual Highland Games and the other surrounding villages host their own annual gala days and festivals .

The town has a large variety of established sports facilities including two 18 @-@ hole golf courses ( Glenrothes and Balbirnie ) , a football stadium at Warout and a major sports complex , the Michael Woods Sports and Leisure Centre . The new centre was named after the late SNP Councillor Michael Woods in a controversial decision taken by the Glenrothes Area Committee in 2012 . The sports centre was recognised for its architectural quality in the 2014 Scottish Property Awards , coming second place in the Architectural Excellence Award for Public Buildings .

The local football club is the Glenrothes F.C. , a junior side who play at Warout Park . Glenrothes also has a rugby club based at Carleton Park and a cricket club who play at Riverside Park . The Road Running Festival in Glenrothes is the largest annual sporting event in the town with over 1500 people of all ages and levels of fitness taking part and has been held annually since 1983 . The town is also an established destination in hosting the BDO British International Championships for darts which are held annually at the town 's CISWO club .

Glenrothes has a twin @-@ town link with Böblingen , a city in Baden @-@ Württemberg in Germany since 1971 . As early as 1962 a local councillor had suggested that the town might " twin " with a town on the Continent . Some years later a friendship grew up between teachers at Glenrothes High School and the ' Gymnasium ' in Böblingen which eventually led to the twinning of the towns . Since then there have been a number of exchanges on official , club and personal levels .

Famous people associated with the town include the actor Dougray Scott who grew up in Glenrothes and attended Auchmuty High School . Douglas Mason , known as one of the engineers of the " Thatcher revolution " and the " father of the poll tax " set up home in Glenrothes in the 1960s and spent most of his adult life living there . Henry McLeish , the former First Minister of Scotland lived in Glenrothes , having been brought up in nearby Kennoway . Glenrothes town centre is home to the building involved in the notorious Officegate scandal , which ultimately led to McLeish 's resignation as First Minister in 2001 .

= = Landmarks = =

The most prominent landmarks in Glenrothes are the River Leven Bridge , the Tullis Russell factory chimneys , Raeburn Heights ; a residential tower block and Fife House ; an office block , both of which sit at the western corners of the town centre . The River Leven Bridge , which spans Riverside Park and carries the town 's Western Distributor Road , is a cable @-@ stayed bridge that was completed in 1995 . The bridge was designed by Dundee @-@ based Nicoll Russell Studios , Architects and was commissioned by the Glenrothes Development Corporation ( GDC ) as a landmark creating a gateway into Riverside Park that could be seen from further afield . The bridge was constructed by Balfour Beatty Construction ( Scotland ) and it was the first reinforced @-@ concrete cable @-@ stayed structure ever built in the UK .

A number of Glenrothes ' artworks and sculptures act as landmarks at major gateways into the town , such as the " Giant Irises " at Leslie Roundabout , and the Glenrothes " Gateway Totum " at Bankhead Roundabout . Former town artist Malcolm Robertson produced the " Giant Irises " sculpture as Glenrothes ' contribution to the Glasgow Garden Festival . The sculpture was the winner of the John Brown Clydebank award for the " Most Original and Amusing Artifact " and following the festival , it was re @-@ erected at Leslie Roundabout . A number of other sculptures were relocated in 2011 to more visually prominent locations around the town creating new landmarks . Four pieces of Glenrothes artworks have been awarded listed status by Historic Scotland . " Ex Terra " has been listed at Category B and the " The Birds " , " The Henge " and " Work " ( or Industry , Past and Present ) at Category C. Historic Scotland has also produced a website , a video and an information brochure dedicated to the Glenrothes town art .

Glenrothes is home to the remains of ancient stone circles which can be seen at Balbirnie and Balfarg in the northeast of the town . The Balfarg henge was constructed around 3,000BC and contains the remnants of a stone circle which has been partly reconstructed . The henge was excavated between 1977 and 1978 prior to the development of a new housing estate . The Balbirnie henge which is only located approximately 500m away from Balfarg was excavated between 1970 and 1971 . In order to allow widening of the A92 the stones were moved a short distance to a new location at North Lodge and reconstructed as nearly as possible in the original way . The stone circle has been carbon dated as being from the bronze age . It is thought that the Balbrinie stone circle and the Balfarg circle once formed part of a larger ceremonial complex .

There are a number of former stately homes located in Glenrothes . Balbirnie House , the category @-@ A listed Georgian former home of the Balfour family , was bought along with its grounds in 1969 by the GDC from the Balfour family to be developed as Balbirnie Park and golf course . The house was later occupied and restored by the GDC in 1981 , to stop the property falling into disrepair . This led to potential interest and the house was converted into a four @-@ star hotel in 1989 . The B @-@ listed former stable block of the house was converted into a craft centre . Balgeddie House , a C @-@ Listed former Edwardian residence of Sir Robert Spencer Nairn located in the northwest of the town , has also been converted into a high quality hotel . Leslie House , the category @-@ A listed 17th century former home of the Leslie family , became a care home for the elderly in 1945 ; owned by the Church of Scotland . The building was in the process of being renovated , when the interior and roof of the house were destroyed by a fire in February 2009 . This has put the redevelopment on hold . Much of the former grounds of Leslie House have been used to create Riverside Park . Collydean precinct hosts a ruin of a 17th @-@ century house called Pitcairn House which was built for and first occupied by Archibald Pitcairne famous Scottish physician .

The town is also home to a number of churches which act as important landmarks as a result of their unique architectural styles and sometimes their locations at key road junctions . The three earliest churches are now listed buildings . These are St. Margaret 's Church in Woodside ( category C listed ) , St. Paul 's RC Church in Auchmuty ( category A listed ) , and St. Columba 's Church on Church Street ( category A listed ) in the town centre . St. Paul 's RC was designed by architects Gillespie , Kidd and Coia . In 1993 it was listed as one of sixty key monuments of post @-@ war architecture by the international conservation organisation DoCoMoMo . The church sits at a junction between two main distributor roads . St Columba 's Church , designed by architects Wheeler & Sproson , underwent significant restoration in 2009 . Internally the church contains a large mural created by Alberto Morrocco titled ' The Way of the Cross ' , which was completed in 1962 . Externally the church with its distinctive triangular iron bell tower and Mondrian inspired stain glass windows acts as a landmark at the south @-@ western gateway to the town centre .

One other local landmark of worthy mention is Balgonie Castle , located east of Glenrothes on the south bank of the River Leven near Milton of Balgonie and Coaltown of Balgonie . The castle keep dates from the 14th century , and the remaining structures were added piecemeal until the 18th century . The keep has been recently restored , although other parts of the castle are roofless ruins . The castle was awarded category A listing in 1972 by Historic Scotland .

= = Education = =

Early precincts in the town were served by their own primary schools which were to be provided on the basis of one school for every 1 @,@ 000 houses . The first primary school to be opened in Glenrothes was Carleton Primary School , built in 1953 in Woodside . In total thirteen primary schools were developed in the town , twelve of which are non @-@ denominational and one which serves catholic pupils . In February 2014 Fife Council 's Executive Committee voted to close one of Glenrothes ' primary schools at Tanshall . This was done as part of a wider school estate review which sought to reduce costs . The closure has faced considerable local opposition and the proposals were called @-@ in by the Scottish Government , but it was subsequently announced that the closure of the school would go ahead as planned .

There are three secondary schools in Glenrothes , the earliest of which is Auchmuty High School , opened in 1957 . Secondary Schools were to be provided on the basis of one school for every 4 @,@ 000 houses . Glenwood High School was built in 1962 to serve the western precincts . Prior to 1966 older pupils had to attend schools in neighbouring towns to continue " Higher " examinations as Auchmuty and Glenwood only provided for pupils at junior secondary level . Glenrothes High School was built in 1966 to accommodate pupils at a higher level . However changes in the education system nationally meant that both Auchmuty and Glenwood were raised to full high school status in the 1970s . Auchmuty High School serves the east and southern parts of Glenrothes as well as the villages of Markinch , Coaltown of Balgonie and Thornton . As part of the £ 126 million Building Fife 's Future Project a replacement for Auchmuty was completed and opened to pupils in 2013 . Glenrothes High School serves the central and northern areas in the town . Glenwood High School serves the western parts of Glenrothes and the villages of Leslie and Kinglassie . Catholic pupils in Glenrothes attend St Andrew 's High School in neighbouring Kirkcaldy .

Further education in the town is provided at Fife College ; created in August 2013 from the merger between the former Adam Smith College and Carnegie College which was based in Dunfermline . Construction of a Glenrothes college campus began in the early 1970s , originally specialising in paper manufacturing , mechanical engineering and electrical engineering courses . A second institute known as FIPRE ( Fife Institute of Physical and Recreational Education ) was built adjacent catering for sport and physical education as well as providing a sports centre for the town . The Glenrothes campus of the college is located at Stenton Road in Viewfield . A smaller campus also exists within the Southfield Industrial Estate . The Stenton Road Campus was significantly extended in 2010 with the development of the " Future Skills Centre " . This centre includes new departments in engineering , construction , renewables and science to cater for emerging industries specialising in renewable energy and low carbon technologies as well as provide training for major engineering projects .

= = Transport = =

Glenrothes has a planned road network with original masterplans establishing the principle that " through traffic " be bypassed around the housing precincts by a network of " Freeway " and " Highway " distributor roads . These would connect each precinct to the purposely designed town centre and to the industrial estates . Another element that was adopted was the use of roundabouts at junctions instead of traffic lights which would allow traffic to flow freely .

The town has direct dual @-@ carriageway access to the M90 via the A92 Trunk Road . The A92 passes north / south through the town and connects Glenrothes with Dundee in the north and Dunfermline in the southwest where it merges with the M90 . This gives Glenrothes a continuous dual @-@ carriageway link to Edinburgh and the major central Scotland road networks , whilst much of the route north to Dundee remains a single @-@ carriageway . Local campaigners have for a number of years sought the upgrade of the A92 north of Glenrothes . The A911 road passes east / west through the town and connects it with Levenmouth in the east and Milnathort and the M90 in the west . The B921 Kinglassie Road , described in early masterplans as the Southern Freeway , links Glenrothes to the former mining communities of Cardenden and Kinglassie , and to Westfield . The route is a dual carriageway between Bankhead Roundabout and as far west as Fife Airport . Early masterplans show that this route was originally intended to be upgraded to provide dualled connections to the A92 Chapel junction in Kirkcaldy , however this has never been implemented .

The town has a major bus station in the town centre providing frequent links to the cities of Dundee , Edinburgh , Glasgow and Perth as well as to surrounding towns and villages . Two railway stations on the edge of the main town serve the Glenrothes area - Glenrothes with Thornton railway station and Markinch railway station . Glenrothes is home to an airfield , Fife Airport ( ICAO code EGPJ ) , which is used for general aviation with private light aircraft . Edinburgh Airport is the nearest international airport to Glenrothes , Dundee Airport operates daily flights to London , Birmingham and Belfast .

A purposely designed pedestrian and cycle system was also created using a network of ring and radial routes throughout the town . This includes a near three mile continuous linear cycle path , called Boblingen Way , which extends across the length of Glenrothes , from Leslie in the west , to Woodside in the east . Glenrothes is connected to the National Cycle Network via Route 766 which runs north from Kirkcaldy to north of Glenrothes , linking to the wider network via Route 76 and Route 1 .

= Liberum veto =

The liberum veto ( Latin for " the free veto " ) was a parliamentary device in the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the Sejm ( legislature ) to force an immediate end to the current session and nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting Sisto activitatem ! ( Latin : " I stop the activity ! " ) or Nie pozwalam ! ( Polish : " I do not allow ! " ) . The rule was in place from the mid @-@ 17th to the late 18th century in the Sejm 's parliamentary deliberations . It was based on the premise that since all Polish noblemen were equal , every measure that came before the Sejm had to be passed unanimously . The principle of liberum veto was a key part of the political system of the Commonwealth , strengthening democratic elements and checking royal power , going against the European @-@ wide trend of having a strong executive ( absolute monarchy ) .

Many historians hold that the principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system — particularly in the 18th century , when foreign powers bribed Sejm members to paralyze its proceedings — and the Commonwealth 's eventual destruction in the partitions of Poland and foreign occupation , dominance and manipulation of Poland for the next 200 years or so . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy . " In the period of 1573 – 1763 , about 150 sejms were held , out of which about a third failed to pass any legislation , mostly due to liberum veto . The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from this apparent paralysis .

= = History = =

= = = Origin = = =

This rule evolved from the principle of unanimous consent , which derived from the traditions of decision @-@ making in the Kingdom of Poland , and developed under the federative character of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . Each deputy to a Sejm was elected at a sejmik ( the local sejm for a region ) and represented the entire region . He thus assumed responsibility to his sejmik for all decisions taken at the Sejm . Since all noblemen were considered equal , a decision taken by a majority against the will of a minority ( even if only a single sejmik ) was considered a violation of the principle of political equality .

At first , the dissenting deputies were often convinced or cowed back to withdraw their objections . Also , in its early manifestation , the rule was used to strike down only individual laws , not to dissolve the chamber and throw out all measures passed . For example , as historian Władysław Czapliński describes in the Sejm of 1611 context , some resolutions were struck down , but others passed . From the mid @-@ 17th century onward , however , an objection to any item of Sejm legislation from a deputy or senator automatically caused other , earlier adopted legislation to be rejected . This was because all legislation adopted by a given Sejm formed a whole .

It is commonly , and erroneously , believed that a Sejm was first disrupted by means of liberum veto by a Trakai deputy , Władysław Siciński , in 1652 . In reality , he only vetoed the continuation of the Sejm 's deliberations beyond the statutory time limit . He had , however , set up a dangerous precedent . Over the proceedings of the next few sejms , the veto was still occasionally overruled , but the acceptance of it was gradually extended . It was fewer than 20 years later , in 1669 , in Kraków , that the entire Sejm was prematurely disrupted on the strength of the liberum veto before it had finished its deliberations . This was done by the Kiev deputy , Adam Olizar . The practice spiraled out of control , and in 1688 the Sejm was dissolved before the proceedings had begun or the Marshal of the Sejm was elected .

= = = Zenith = = =

During the reign of John III Sobieski ( 1674 – 1696 ) , half of Sejm proceedings were scuttled by the veto . The practice also spread from the national Sejm to local sejmik proceedings . In the first half of the 18th century , it became increasingly common for Sejm sessions to be broken up by liberum veto , as the Commonwealth 's neighbours – chiefly Russia and Prussia — found this a useful tool to frustrate attempts at reforming and strengthening the Commonwealth . By bribing deputies to exercise their vetoes , Poland 's neighbours could derail any measures not to their liking . The Commonwealth deteriorated from a European power into a state of anarchy . Only a few Sejms were able to meet during the reign of the House of Saxony in Poland ( 1696 – 1763 ) , the last one in 1736 . Only eight out of 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II ( 1697 – 1733 ) passed legislation . For a period of 30 years around the reign of Augustus III , only one session was able to pass legislation ( 1734 – 1763 ) . The government was near collapse , giving rise to the term " Polish anarchy " , and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates .

Disruption of the Commonwealth governance caused by the liberum veto was highly significant . In the period of 1573 – 1763 , about 150 Sejms where held , of which 53 failed to pass any legislation . Historian Jacek Jędruch notes that out of the 53 disrupted Sejms , 32 were disrupted due to liberum veto .

= = = Final years = = =

The 18th century saw an institution known as a " confederated sejm " evolve . It was a parliament session that operated under the rules of a confederation . Its primary purpose was to avoid disruption by the liberum veto , unlike the national Sejm , which was paralyzed by the veto during this period . On some occasions , a confederated sejm was formed of the whole membership of the national Sejm , so that the liberum veto would not operate there .

The second half of the 18th century , marking the age of the Enlightenment in Poland , also witnessed an increased trend aiming at the reform of the inefficient governance of the Commonwealth . Reforms of 1764 – 1766 improved the proceedings of the Sejm . They introduced majority voting for non @-@ crucial items , including most economic and tax matters , and outlawed binding instructions from sejmiks . The road to reform was not easy , as conservatives , supported by foreign powers , opposed most of the changes , attempting to defend liberum veto and other elements perpetuating the inefficient governance , most notably through the Cardinal Laws of 1768 .

The liberum veto was finally abolished by the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , adopted by a confederated sejm , which permanently established the principle of majority rule . The achievements of that constitution , however – which historian Norman Davies called " the first constitution of its kind in Europe " — were undone by another confederated sejm , meeting at Grodno in 1793 . That Sejm , under duress from Russia and Prussia , ratified the Second Partition of Poland , anticipating the final disappearance of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian state two years later .

= = Significance = =

Harvard political scientist Grzegorz Ekiert , assessing the history of the liberum veto in the Kingdom of Poland , 1569 @-@ 1795 , concludes :

The principle of the liberum veto preserved the feudal features of Poland 's political system , weakened the role of the monarchy , led to anarchy in political life , and contributed to the economic and political decline of the Polish state . Such a situation made the country vulnerable to foreign invasions and ultimately led to its collapse .

Political scientist Dalibor Roháč noted that the " principle of liberum veto played an important role in [ the ] emergence of the unique Polish form of constitutionalism " and acted as a significant constraint on the powers of the monarch by making the " rule of law , religious tolerance and limited constitutional government ... the norm in Poland in times when the rest of Europe was being devastated by religious hatred and despotism . " It was seen as one of the key principles of the Commonwealth political system and culture , the Golden Liberty .

At the same time , historians hold that the principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system and Commonwealth 's eventual downfall . Deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers , or simply content to believe they were living in some kind of " Golden Age " , for over a century paralysed the Commonwealth 's government , stemming any attempts at reform . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy . " Wagner echoed him thus : " Certainly , there was no other institution of old Poland which has been more sharply criticized in more recent times than this one . " .

= = Modern parallels and popular culture = =

A 2004 Polish collectible card game , Veto , set in the background of a royal election during an election sejm , is named after this procedure .

Until the early 1990s , IBM had a decision @-@ making process called " non @-@ concur " in which any department head could veto a company @-@ wide strategy if it didn 't fit in with his department 's outlook . This effectively turned IBM into several independent fiefdoms . " Non @-@ concur " was eliminated by CEO Louis Gerstner who was brought in to revive the declining company .

= The Boat Race 1865 =

The 22nd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 8 April 1865 . Oxford won by four lengths in a time of 21 minutes 24 seconds . The race , described as " one of the most sensational races in this history " thus far , was umpired by Joseph William Chitty . It was the first time that a crew had won the Boat Race having been behind at Hammersmith Bridge .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1864 race by nine lengths , with Oxford leading overall with eleven victories to Cambridge 's ten .

Cambridge were coached by their non @-@ rowing president J. G. Chambers ( who had rowed in the 1862 and 1863 races ) , while Oxford 's coach was G. Morrison ( who had rowed for Oxford three times as well as being a non @-@ rowing president in 1862 ) . Both university boats were constructed by J. & S. Salter of Oxford using cedar wood . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .

= = Crews = =

The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 11 @.@ 25 lb ( 74 @.@ 8 kg ) , 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their Light Blue opposition . Cambridge saw the return of five former Blues , including the cox Francis Archer and number four Robert Kinglake , both of whom had represented the university twice before . Three of Oxford 's crew had rowed in the previous year 's race .

= = Race = =

Both crews had initially returned to the boathouses upon the instruction of their boat club president 's who had demanded the steamers stay behind the start . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Following an indifferent start from both crews , Cambridge took the lead , and were a length ahead by Bishop 's Creek . To avoid the steamers pressing from behind , the Light Blue cox Archer steered his boat to the middle to the river , while his counterpart , Charles Tottenham , manoeuvred too close to the bank , resulting in a two @-@ length lead for Cambridge by Craven Cottage . By the Crab Tree pub , the lead was three lengths . Despite dominating the race , by the time the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford had reduced the lead to three @-@ quarters of a length , and at The Doves pub , the lead was down to half a length .

Soon after the Oxford boat overlapped their opponents yet Cambridge pushed away again before Chiswick Eyot where the Dark Blues once began to overlap the Light Blues ' stern . Cambridge 's stroke Lawes reacted and pushed to keep the lead , but by Chiswick Church the crews were level . Oxford 's better line in the river saw them draw away rapidly from Cambridge , whereupon the Light Blues were regarded as " falling to pieces " . Oxford 's lead at Barnes Bridge was around three lengths , and by the time they passed the finishing line they had won by four lengths in a time of 21 minutes 24 seconds , securing the Dark Blue 's fifth consecutive win and taking the overall record to 12 – 10 in their favour . Drinkwater suggested that , of the 22 races conducted thus far , it was " one of the most sensational races in this history " , while Burnell described it as a " splendid race " .

= Mount Vesuvius =

Mount Vesuvius ( pronunciation : / vᵻˈsuːviəs / ; Italian : Monte Vesuvio [ ˈmonte veˈzuːvjo ] , Latin : Mons Vesuvius [ mõːs wɛˈsʊwɪ.ʊs ] ; also Vesevus or Vesaevus in Roman sources ) is a stratovolcano in the Gulf of Naples , Italy , about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore . It is one of several volcanoes which form the Campanian volcanic arc . Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure .

Mount Vesuvius is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the Roman cities of Pompeii , Herculaneum , and several other settlements . That eruption ejected a cloud of stones , ash , and fumes to a height of 33 km ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) , spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 1 @.@ 5 million tons per second , ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy released by the Hiroshima bombing . At least 1 @,@ 000 people died in the eruption . The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus .

Vesuvius has erupted many times since and is the only volcano on the European mainland to have erupted within the last hundred years . Today , it is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because of the population of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 people living nearby and its tendency towards explosive ( Plinian ) eruptions . It is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world .

= = Mythology = =

Vesuvius has a long historic and literary tradition . It was considered a divinity of the Genius type at the time of the eruption of 79 AD : it appears under the inscribed name Vesuvius as a serpent in the decorative frescos of many lararia , or household shrines , surviving from Pompeii . An inscription from Capua to IOVI VESVVIO indicates that he was worshipped as a power of Jupiter ; that is , Jupiter Vesuvius .

The historian Diodorus Siculus relates a tradition that Hercules , in the performance of his labors , passed through the country of nearby Cumae on his way to Sicily and found there a place called " the Phlegraean Plain " ( phlegraion pedion , " plain of fire " ) , " from a hill which anciently vomited out fire ... now called Vesuvius . " It was inhabited by bandits , " the sons of the Earth , " who were giants . With the assistance of the gods he pacified the region and went on . The facts behind the tradition , if any , remain unknown , as does whether Herculaneum was named after it . An epigram by the poet Martial in 88 AD suggests that both Venus , patroness of Pompeii , and Hercules were worshipped in the region devastated by the eruption of 79 . Mount Vesuvius was regarded by the Romans as being devoted to the hero and demigod Hercules .

= = Origin of the name = =

Vesuvius was a name of the volcano in frequent use by the authors of the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire . Its collateral forms were Vesaevus , Vesevus , Vesbius and Vesvius . Writers in ancient Greek used Οὐεσούιον or Οὐεσούιος . Many scholars since then have offered an etymology . As peoples of varying ethnicity and language occupied Campania in the Roman Iron Age , the etymology depends to a large degree on the presumption of what language was spoken there at the time . Naples was settled by Greeks , as the name Nea @-@ polis , " New City " , testifies . The Oscans , a native Italic people , lived in the countryside . The Latins also competed for the occupation of Campania . Etruscan settlements were in the vicinity . Other peoples of unknown provenance are said to have been there at some time by various ancient authors .

Some theories about its origin are :

From Greek οὔ

= " not " prefixed to a root from or related to the Greek word σβέννυμι =

" I quench " , in the sense of " unquenchable " .

From Greek ἕω

= " I hurl " and βίη " violence " , " hurling violence " , * vesbia , taking advantage of the collateral form .

From an Indo @-@ European root , * eus- < * ewes- < * ( a ) wes- , " shine " sense " the one who lightens " , through Latin or Oscan .

From an Indo @-@ European root * wes =

" hearth " ( compare e.g. Vesta )

= = Physical appearance = =

Vesuvius is a distinctive " humpbacked " mountain , consisting of a large cone ( Gran Cono ) partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera caused by the collapse of an earlier and originally much higher structure called Monte Somma . The Gran Cono was produced during the eruption of AD 79 . For this reason , the volcano is also called Somma @-@ Vesuvius or Somma @-@ Vesuvio .

The caldera started forming during an eruption around 17 @,@ 000 ( or 18 @,@ 300 ) years ago and was enlarged by later paroxysmal eruptions ending in the one of AD 79 . This structure has given its name to the term " somma volcano " , which describes any volcano with a summit caldera surrounding a newer cone .

The height of the main cone has been constantly changed by eruptions but is 1 @,@ 281 m ( 4 @,@ 203 ft ) at present . Monte Somma is 1 @,@ 149 m ( 3 @,@ 770 ft ) high , separated from the main cone by the valley of Atrio di Cavallo , which is some 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) long . The slopes of the mountain are scarred by lava flows but are heavily vegetated , with scrub and forest at higher altitudes and vineyards lower down . Vesuvius is still regarded as an active volcano , although its current activity produces little more than steam from vents at the bottom of the crater . Vesuvius is a stratovolcano at the convergent boundary where the African Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate . Layers of lava , scoria , volcanic ash , and pumice make up the mountain . Their mineralogy is variable , but generally silica @-@ undersaturated and rich in potassium , with phonolite produced in the more explosive eruptions .

= = Formation = =

Vesuvius was formed as a result of the collision of two tectonic plates , the African and the Eurasian . The former was subducted beneath the latter , deeper into the earth . As the water @-@ saturated sediments of the oceanic African plate were pushed to hotter depths in the earth , the water boiled off and caused the melting point of the upper mantle to drop enough to create partial melting of the rocks . Because magma is less dense than the solid rock around it , it was pushed upward . Finding a weak place at the Earth 's surface it broke through , producing the volcano .

The volcano is one of several which form the Campanian volcanic arc . Others include Campi Flegrei , a large caldera a few kilometres to the north west , Mount Epomeo , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) to the west on the island of Ischia , and several undersea volcanoes to the south . The arc forms the southern end of a larger chain of volcanoes produced by the subduction process described above , which extends northwest along the length of Italy as far as Monte Amiata in Southern Tuscany . Vesuvius is the only one to have erupted within recent history , although some of the others have erupted within the last few hundred years . Many are either extinct or have not erupted for tens of thousands of years .

= = Eruptions = =

Mount Vesuvius has erupted many times . The famous eruption in 79 AD was preceded by numerous others in prehistory , including at least three significantly larger ones , the best known being the Avellino eruption around 1800 BC which engulfed several Bronze Age settlements . Since 79 AD , the volcano has also erupted repeatedly , in 172 , 203 , 222 , possibly 303 , 379 , 472 , 512 , 536 , 685 , 787 , around 860 , around 900 , 968 , 991 , 999 , 1006 , 1037 , 1049 , around 1073 , 1139 , 1150 , and there may have been eruptions in 1270 , 1347 , and 1500 . The volcano erupted again in 1631 , six times in the 18th century , eight times in the 19th century ( notably in 1872 ) , and in 1906 , 1929 , and 1944 . There has been no eruption since 1944 , and none of the post @-@ 79 eruptions were as large or destructive as the Pompeian one .

The eruptions vary greatly in severity but are characterized by explosive outbursts of the kind dubbed Plinian after Pliny the Younger , a Roman writer who published a detailed description of the 79 AD eruption , including his uncle 's death . On occasion , eruptions from Vesuvius have been so large that the whole of southern Europe has been blanketed by ash ; in 472 and 1631 , Vesuvian ash fell on Constantinople ( Istanbul ) , over 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) away . A few times since 1944 , landslides in the crater have raised clouds of ash dust , raising false alarms of an eruption .

= = = Before AD 79 = = =

Scientific knowledge of the geologic history of Vesuvius comes from core samples taken from a 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) plus bore hole on the flanks of the volcano , extending into Mesozoic rock . Cores were dated by potassium – argon and argon – argon dating . The mountain started forming 25 @,@ 000 years ago . Although the area has been subject to volcanic activity for at least 400 @,@ 000 years , the lowest layer of eruption material from the Somma mountain lies on top of the 40 @,@ 000 ‑ year ‑ old Campanian Ignimbrite produced by the Campi Flegrei complex , and was the product of the Codola Plinian eruption 25 @,@ 000 years ago .

It was then built up by a series of lava flows , with some smaller explosive eruptions interspersed between them . However , the style of eruption changed around 19 @,@ 000 years ago to a sequence of large explosive plinian eruptions , of which the 79 AD one was the most recent . The eruptions are named after the tephra deposits produced by them , which in turn are named after the location where the deposits were first identified :

The Basal Pumice ( Pomici di Base ) eruption , 18 @,@ 300 years ago , VEI 6 , saw the original formation of the Somma caldera . The eruption was followed by a period of much less violent , lava producing eruptions .

The Green Pumice ( Pomici Verdoline ) eruption , 16 @,@ 000 years ago , VEI 5 .

The Mercato eruption ( Pomici di Mercato ) – also known as Pomici Gemelle or Pomici Ottaviano – 8000 years ago , VEI 6 , followed a smaller explosive eruption around 11 @,@ 000 years ago ( called the Lagno Amendolare eruption ) .

The Avellino eruption ( Pomici di Avellino ) , 3800 years ago , VEI 5 , followed two smaller explosive eruptions around 5 @,@ 000 years ago . The Avellino eruption vent was apparently 2 km west of the current crater , and the eruption destroyed several Bronze Age settlements of the Apennine culture . Several carbon dates on wood and bone offer a range of possible dates of about 500 years in the mid @-@ 2nd millennium BC . In May 2001 , near Nola , Italian archaeologists using the technique of filling every cavity with plaster or substitute compound recovered some remarkably well @-@ preserved forms of perishable objects , such as fence rails , a bucket and especially in the vicinity thousands of human footprints pointing into the Apennines to the north . The settlement had huts , pots , and goats . The residents had hastily abandoned the village , leaving it to be buried under pumice and ash in much the same way that Pompeii was later preserved . Pyroclastic surge deposits were distributed to the northwest of the vent , travelling as far as 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from it , and lie up to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep in the area now occupied by Naples .

The volcano then entered a stage of more frequent , but less violent , eruptions until the most recent Plinian eruption , which destroyed Pompeii .

The last of these may have been in 217 BC . There were earthquakes in Italy during that year and the sun was reported as being dimmed by a haze or dry fog . Plutarch wrote of the sky being on fire near Naples and Silius Italicus mentioned in his epic poem Punica that Vesuvius had thundered and produced flames worthy of Mount Etna in that year , although both authors were writing around 250 years later . Greenland ice core samples of around that period show relatively high acidity , which is assumed to have been caused by atmospheric hydrogen sulfide .

The mountain was then quiet ( for 295 years , if the 217 BC date for the last previous eruption is true ) and was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards , except at the top which was craggy . The mountain may have had only one summit at that time , judging by a wall painting , " Bacchus and Vesuvius " , found in a Pompeiian house , the House of the Centenary ( Casa del Centenario ) .

Several surviving works written over the 200 years preceding the 79 AD eruption describe the mountain as having had a volcanic nature , although Pliny the Elder did not depict the mountain in this way in his Naturalis Historia :

The Greek historian Strabo ( ca 63 BC – AD 24 ) described the mountain in Book V , Chapter 4 of his Geographica as having a predominantly flat , barren summit covered with sooty , ash @-@ coloured rocks and suggested that it might once have had " craters of fire " . He also perceptively suggested that the fertility of the surrounding slopes may be due to volcanic activity , as at Mount Etna .

In Book II of De architectura , the architect Vitruvius ( ca 80 – 70 BC - ? ) reported that fires had once existed abundantly below the mountain and that it had spouted fire onto the surrounding fields . He went on to describe Pompeiian pumice as having been burnt from another species of stone .

Diodorus Siculus ( ca 90 BC – ca 30 BC ) , another Greek writer , wrote in Book IV of his Bibliotheca Historica that the Campanian plain was called fiery ( Phlegrean ) because of the mountain , Vesuvius , which had spouted flame like Etna and showed signs of the fire that had burnt in ancient history .

= = = Eruption of AD 79 = = =

In the year of 79 AD , Mount Vesuvius erupted in one of the most catastrophic and famous eruptions of all time . Historians have learned about the eruption from the eyewitness account of Pliny the Younger , a Roman administrator and poet .

Mount Vesuvius spawned a deadly cloud of stones , ash and fumes to a height of 33 km ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) , spewing molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 1 @.@ 5 Mt / s , ultimately releasing a hundred thousand times the thermal energy released by the Hiroshima bombing . The towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed by pyroclastic flows and the ruins buried under dozens of feet of tephra .

= = = = Precursors and foreshocks = = = =

The 79 AD eruption was preceded by a powerful earthquake seventeen years beforehand on February 5 , AD 62 , which caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples , and particularly to Pompeii . Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted . The deaths of 600 sheep from " tainted air " in the vicinity of Pompeii indicates that the earthquake of 62 may have been related to new activity by Vesuvius

The Romans grew accustomed to minor earth tremors in the region ; the writer Pliny the Younger even wrote that they " were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania " . Small earthquakes started taking place on 20 August 79 becoming more frequent over the next four days , but the warnings were not recognised .

= = = = Scientific analysis of the eruption = = = =

Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details but have the same overall features . The eruption lasted two days . The morning of the first day was perceived as normal by the only eyewitness to leave a surviving document , Pliny the Younger . In the middle of the day an explosion threw up a high @-@ altitude column from which ash began to fall , blanketing the area . Rescues and escapes occurred during this time . At some time in the night or early the next day pyroclastic flows in the close vicinity of the volcano began . Lights were seen on the mountain interpreted as fires . People as far away as Misenum fled for their lives . The flows were rapid @-@ moving , dense and very hot , knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path , incinerating or suffocating all population remaining there and altering the landscape , including the coastline . These were accompanied by additional light tremors and a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples . By evening of the second day the eruption was over , leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly .

The latest scientific studies of the ash produced by Vesuvius reveals a multi @-@ phase eruption . The initial major explosion produced a column of ash and pumice ranging between 15 and 30 kilometres ( 49 @,@ 000 and 98 @,@ 000 ft ) high , which rained on Pompeii to the southeast but not on Herculaneum upwind . The chief energy supporting the column came from the escape of steam superheated by the magma , created from ground water seeping over time into the deep faults of the region .

Subsequently the cloud collapsed as the gases expanded and lost their capability to support their solid contents , releasing it as a pyroclastic surge , which reached Herculaneum but not Pompeii . Additional explosions reinstituted the column . The eruption alternated between Plinian and Peléan six times . Surges 3 and 4 are believed by the authors to have destroyed Pompeii . Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross @-@ bedding formations , which are not produced by fallout .

Another study used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of roof @-@ tile and plaster fragments collected around Pompeii to estimate equilibrium temperature of the pyroclastic flow . The magnetic study revealed that on the first day of the eruption a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) fell for several hours . It heated the roof tiles up to 140 ° C ( 284 ° F ) . This period would have been the last opportunity to escape .

The collapse of the Plinian columns on the second day caused pyroclastic density currents ( PDCs ) that devastated Herculaneum and Pompeii . The depositional temperature of these pyroclastic surges ranged up to 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) . Any population remaining in structural refuges could not have escaped , as the city was surrounded by gases of incinerating temperatures . The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs . These were as low as 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) .

= = = = The Two Plinys = = = =

The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus . Pliny the Younger describes , amongst other things , the last days in the life of his uncle , Pliny the Elder . Observing the first volcanic activity from Misenum across the Bay of Naples from the volcano , approximately 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) , the elder Pliny launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend . His nephew declined to join the party . One of the nephew 's letters relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle 's experiences . In a second letter the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle .

The two men saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above the mountain . This cloud and a request by messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elder Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed away to participate . His nephew attempted to resume a normal life , but that night a tremor awoke him and his mother , prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard . Further tremors near dawn caused the population to abandon the village and caused wave action in the Bay of Naples .

The early light was obscured by a black cloud through which shone flashes , which Pliny likens to sheet lightning , but more extensive . The cloud obscured Point Misenum near at hand and the island of Capraia ( Capri ) across the bay . Fearing for their lives , the population began to call to each other and move back from the coast along the road . A rain of ash fell , causing Pliny to shake it off periodically to avoid being buried . Later that same day the ash stopped falling and the sun shone weakly through the cloud , encouraging Pliny and his mother to return to their home and wait for news of Pliny the Elder .

Pliny 's uncle Pliny the Elder was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum , and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel . As the ship was preparing to leave the area , a messenger came from his friend Rectina ( wife of Tascius ) living on the coast near the foot of the volcano explaining that her party could only get away by sea and asking for rescue . Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the coast . He continued in his light ship to the rescue of Rectina 's party .

He set off across the bay but in the shallows on the other side encountered thick showers of hot cinders , lumps of pumice and pieces of rock . Advised by the helmsman to turn back he stated " Fortune favors the brave " and ordered him to continue on to Stabiae ( about 4 @.@ 5 km from Pompeii ) .

Pliny the Elder and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the mountain . After staying overnight , the party was driven from the building by an accumulation of material , presumably , tephra , which threatened to block all egress . They woke Pliny , who had been napping and emitting loud snoring . They elected to take to the fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from rockfall . They approached the beach again but the wind prevented the ships from leaving . Pliny sat down on a sail that had been spread for him and could not rise even with assistance when his friends departed . Though Pliny the Elder died , his friends ultimately escaped by land .

In the first letter to Tacitus , Pliny the Younger suggested that his uncle 's death was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous , sulphurous gas that wafted over the group . However , Stabiae was 16 km from the vent ( roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated ) and his companions were apparently unaffected by the fumes , and so it is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause , such as a stroke or heart attack . His body was found with no apparent injuries on the next day , after dispersal of the plume .

= = = = Casualties from the eruption = = = =

Along with Pliny the Elder , the only other noble casualties of the eruption to be known by name were Agrippa ( a son of the Herodian Jewish princess Drusilla and the procurator Antonius Felix ) and his wife .

By 2003 , around 1 @,@ 044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii , with the scattered bones of another 100 . The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum ( 300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980 ) . What percentage these numbers are of the total dead or the percentage of the dead to the total number at risk remain completely unknown .

Thirty @-@ eight percent of the 1 @,@ 044 were found in the ash fall deposits , the majority inside buildings . These are thought to have been killed mainly by roof collapses , with the smaller number of victims found outside of buildings probably being killed by falling roof slates or by larger rocks thrown out by the volcano . The remaining 62 % of remains found at Pompeii were in the pyroclastic surge deposits , and thus were probably killed by them – probably from a combination of suffocation through ash inhalation and blast and debris thrown around . In contrast to the victims found at Herculaneum , examination of cloth , frescoes and skeletons show that it is unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause . Herculaneum , which was much closer to the crater , was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction , but was buried under 23 metres ( 75 ft ) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges . It is likely that most , or all , of the known victims in this town were killed by the surges .

People caught on the former seashore by the first surge died of thermal shock . No boats have been found , indicating they may have been used for the earlier escape of some of the population . The rest were concentrated in arched chambers at a density of as high as 3 persons per square metre . As only 85 metres ( 279 ft ) of the coast have been excavated , the casualties waiting to be excavated may well be as high as the thousands .

= = = Later eruptions from the 3rd to the 19th century = = =

Since the eruption of 79 AD , Vesuvius has erupted around three dozen times . It erupted again in 203 , during the lifetime of the historian Cassius Dio . In 472 , it ejected such a volume of ash that ashfalls were reported as far away as Constantinople . The eruptions of 512 were so severe that those inhabiting the slopes of Vesuvius were granted exemption from taxes by Theodoric the Great , the Gothic king of Italy . Further eruptions were recorded in 787 , 968 , 991 , 999 , 1007 and 1036 with the first recorded lava flows . The volcano became quiescent at the end of the 13th century and in the following years it again became covered with gardens and vineyards as of old . Even the inside of the crater was filled with shrubbery .

Vesuvius entered a new phase in December 1631 , when a major eruption buried many villages under lava flows , killing around 3 @,@ 000 people . Torrents of boiling water were also ejected , adding to the devastation . Activity thereafter became almost continuous , with relatively severe eruptions occurring in 1660 , 1682 , 1694 , 1698 , 1707 , 1737 , 1760 , 1767 , 1779 , 1794 , 1822 , 1834 , 1839 , 1850 , 1855 , 1861 , 1868 , 1872 , 1906 , 1926 , 1929 , and 1944 .

= = = Eruptions in the 20th century = = =

The eruption of April 7 , 1906 , killed more than 100 people and ejected the most lava ever recorded from a Vesuvian eruption . Italian authorities were preparing to hold the 1908 Summer Olympics when Mount Vesuvius erupted , devastating the city of Naples . Funds were diverted to the reconstruction of Naples , requiring a new location for the Olympics to be found .

The last major eruption was in March 1944 . It destroyed the villages of San Sebastiano al Vesuvio , Massa di Somma , Ottaviano , and part of San Giorgio a Cremano . From March 18 to 23 , 1944 , lava flows appeared within the rim . There were outflows . Small explosions then occurred until the major explosion took place on March 18 , 1944 .

At the time of the eruption , the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) 340th Bombardment Group was based at Pompeii Airfield near Terzigno , Italy , just a few kilometres from the eastern base of the mountain . The tephra and hot ash damaged the fabric control surfaces , the engines , the Plexiglas windscreens and the gun turrets of the 340th 's B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers . Estimates ranged from 78 to 88 aircraft destroyed .

The eruption could be seen from Naples . Different perspectives and the damage caused to the local villages were recorded by USAAF photographers and other personnel based nearer to the volcano .

= = = The future = = =

Large plinian eruptions which emit lava in quantities of about 1 cubic kilometre ( 0 @.@ 24 cu mi ) , the most recent of which overwhelmed Pompeii , have happened after periods of inactivity of a few thousand years . Subplinian eruptions producing about 0 @.@ 1 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 024 cu mi ) , such as those of 472 and 1631 , have been more frequent with a few hundred years between them . Following the 1631 eruption until 1944 every few years saw a comparatively small eruption which emitted 0 @.@ 001 – 0 @.@ 01 km ³ of magma . It seems that for Vesuvius the amount of magma expelled in an eruption increases very roughly linearly with the interval since the previous one , and at a rate of around 0 @.@ 001 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 00024 cu mi ) for each year . This gives an approximate figure of 0 @.@ 06 cubic kilometres ( 0 @.@ 014 cu mi ) for an eruption after 60 years of inactivity .

Magma sitting in an underground chamber for many years will start to see higher melting point constituents such as olivine crystallising out . The effect is to increase the concentration of dissolved gases ( mostly steam and carbon dioxide ) in the remaining liquid magma , making the subsequent eruption more violent . As gas @-@ rich magma approaches the surface during an eruption , the huge drop in pressure caused by the reduction in weight of the overlying rock ( which drops to zero at the surface ) causes the gases to come out of solution , the volume of gas increasing explosively from nothing to perhaps many times that of the accompanying magma . Additionally , the removal of the higher melting point material will raise the concentration of felsic components such as silicates potentially making the magma more viscous , adding to the explosive nature of the eruption .

The government emergency plan for an eruption therefore assumes that the worst case will be an eruption of similar size and type to the 1631 VEI 4 one . In this scenario the slopes of the mountain , extending out to about 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from the vent , may be exposed to pyroclastic flows sweeping down them , whilst much of the surrounding area could suffer from tephra falls . Because of prevailing winds , towns to the south and east of the volcano are most at risk from this , and it is assumed that tephra accumulation exceeding 100 kg / m ² – at which point people are at risk from collapsing roofs – may extend out as far as Avellino to the east or Salerno to the south east . Towards Naples , to the north west , this tephra fall hazard is assumed to extend barely past the slopes of the volcano . The specific areas actually affected by the ash cloud will depend upon the particular circumstances surrounding the eruption .

The plan assumes between two weeks and 20 days ' notice of an eruption and foresees the emergency evacuation of 600 @,@ 000 people , almost entirely comprising all those living in the zona rossa ( " red zone " ) , i.e. at greatest risk from pyroclastic flows . The evacuation , by trains , ferries , cars , and buses is planned to take about seven days , and the evacuees will mostly be sent to other parts of the country rather than to safe areas in the local Campania region , and may have to stay away for several months . However , the dilemma that would face those implementing the plan is when to start this massive evacuation , since if it is left too late then thousands could be killed , while if it is started too early then the precursors of the eruption may turn out to have been a false alarm . In 1984 , 40 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from the Campi Flegrei area , another volcanic complex near Naples , but no eruption occurred .

Ongoing efforts are being made by the government at various levels ( especially of Campania ) to reduce the population living in the red zone , by demolishing illegally constructed buildings , establishing a national park around the whole volcano to prevent the future construction of buildings and by offering sufficient financial incentives to people for moving away . One of the underlying goals is to reduce the time needed to evacuate the area , over the next 20 or 30 years , to two or three days .

The volcano is closely monitored by the Osservatorio Vesuvio in Naples with extensive networks of seismic and gravimetric stations , a combination of a GPS @-@ based geodetic array and satellite @-@ based synthetic aperture radar to measure ground movement , and by local surveys and chemical analyses of gases emitted from fumaroles . All of this is intended to track magma rising underneath the volcano . No magma has been detected within 10 km of the surface , and so the volcano is classified by the Observatory as at a Basic or Green Level .

= = Vesuvius today = =

The area around Vesuvius was officially declared a national park on June 5 , 1995 . The summit of Vesuvius is open to visitors and there is a small network of paths around the mountain that are maintained by the park authorities on weekends .

There is access by road to within 200 metres ( 660 ft ) of the summit ( measured vertically ) , but thereafter access is on foot only . There is a spiral walkway around the mountain from the road to the crater .

= = Funiculì , Funiculà = =

The first funicular cable car on Mount Vesuvius opened in 1880 . It was later destroyed by the 1944 eruption . " Funiculì , Funiculà " , a famous Neapolitan song with lyrics by journalist Peppino Turco set to music by composer Luigi Denza , commemorates its opening .

= Grey 's Anatomy ( season 6 ) =

The sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on September 24 , 2009 , and concluded on May 20 , 2010 . The season was produced by ABC Studios , in association with ShondaLand Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company ; the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes . Actors Ellen Pompeo , Sandra Oh , Katherine Heigl , and Justin Chambers reprised their roles as surgical residents Meredith Grey , Cristina Yang , Izzie Stevens , and Alex Karev , respectively . Heigl was released from her contract in the middle of the season , while T.R. Knight did not appear as George O 'Malley , because Knight was released from his contract at the conclusion of season five . Main cast members Patrick Dempsey , Chandra Wilson , James Pickens , Jr . , Sara Ramirez , Eric Dane , Chyler Leigh , and Kevin McKidd also returned , while previous recurring star Jessica Capshaw was promoted to a series regular , and Kim Raver was given star billing after the commencement of the season .

The season follows the story of surgical interns , residents and their competent mentors , as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen . It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital , located in Seattle , Washington . A major storyline of the season is the characters adapting to change , as their beloved co @-@ worker Stevens departed following the breakdown of her marriage , O 'Malley died in the season premiere — following his being dragged by a bus , and new cardiothoracic surgeon Teddy Altman is given employment at the hospital . Further storylines include Shepherd being promoted to chief of surgery , Seattle Grace Hospital merging with the neighboring Mercy West — introducing several new doctors , and several physicians lives being placed into danger — when a grieving deceased patient 's husband embarks on a shooting spree at the hospital , seeking revenge for his wife 's death .

The series ended its sixth season with 13 @.@ 26 million viewers , ranking # 17 in terms of ratings , the lowest the series had ever ranked up to then . The season received mixed critical feedback , with the season 's premiere and finale given heavier critical acclaim , in contrast to the middle . The season was one of the least acclaimed in terms of awards and nominations , being the show 's only season not to warrant a Primetime Emmy nomination . Despite the negative aspects of ratings and awards , the season managed to receive a spot on Movieline 's top ten list . Buena Vista released the season onto a DVD box @-@ set , being made available to regions 1 and 2 .

= = Cast = =

The sixth season had thirteen roles receiving star billing , with twelve of them returning from the previous season , one of whom previously in a recurring guest capacity . The regulars portray the surgeons from the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital as new rivalries and romantic relationships begin to develop after the hospital 's merger with Mercy West . Meredith Grey , a surgical resident and the protagonist of the series , is portrayed by Ellen Pompeo . Fellow residents Cristina Yang , Izzie Stevens and Alex Karev are portrayed by Sandra Oh , Katherine Heigl and Justin Chambers , respectively . Attending general surgeon Miranda Bailey was portrayed by Chandra Wilson whose main storylines throughout the season focus on her divorce and the development of new romantic relationships . Seattle Grace Hospital 's Chief of Surgery and general surgeon Richard Webber was portrayed by James Pickens , Jr . , who returns to alcoholism after being sober for twenty years .

Sara Ramirez acted as bisexual orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres , Eric Dane played womanizer plastic surgeon Mark Sloan , Kevin McKidd continued his portrayal of trauma surgeon Owen Hunt , while Patrick Dempsey acted as chief of neurosurgery Derek Shepherd . Meredith 's half @-@ sister and second @-@ year surgical resident Lexie Grey was portrayed by Chyler Leigh . After having previously appeared in a multi @-@ episode arc in a guest star capacity in the show 's fifth season , Jessica Capshaw began receiving star billing in the season 's premiere episode in the role of attending pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins , love interest to Callie Torres . The ninth episode of the season marked the introduction of the new chief of cardiothoracic surgery Teddy Altman , portrayed by Kim Raver , whose mysterious romantic past with Owen Hunt develops into one of the season 's main stories . Starting with the nineteenth episode of the season , Raver began receiving star billing .

The sixth season introduces several new recurring characters who start to develop progressive and expansive storylines throughout the season . Mercy West surgical residents Reed Adamson , Charles Percy , April Kepner and Jackson Avery were portrayed by Nora Zehetner , Robert Baker , Sarah Drew and Jesse Williams , respectively . Jason George portrayed Miranda Bailey 's love interest , anesthesiologist Ben Warren . Thatcher Grey ( Jeff Perry ) and Sloan Riley ( Leven Rambin ) have been part of the season 's main story arcs , while numerous episodic characters have made guest appearances : Sara Gilbert as Kim Allen , Demi Lovato as Haley , Marion Ross as Betty , Mandy Moore as Mary Portman , Ryan Devlin as Bill Portman , Nick Purcell as Doug , Michael O 'Neill as Gary Clark , Danielle Panabaker as Kelsey , Adrienne Barbeau as Jodie Crawley , Héctor Elizondo as Mr. Torres , Amy Madigan as Dr. Wyatt , and Missi Pyle as Jasmine . Former series regular Kate Walsh returned to the series as a special guest star , portraying neonatal surgeon and obstetrician @-@ gynecologist Addison Montgomery .

= = Production = =

The season was produced by Touchstone Television ABC Studios , The Mark Gordon Company , Shondaland and was distributed by Buena Vista International , Inc .. The executive producers were creator Shonda Rhimes , Betsy Beers , Mark Gordon , Krista Vernoff , Rob Corn , Mark Wilding , Joan Rater and James D. Parriott . The regular directors were Shonda Rhimes , Krista Vernoff , Stacy McKee , William Harper , Debora Cahn , Allan Heinberg and Peter Nowalk . At the conclusion of season five , T.R. Knight was released from his contract , following a disagreement with Rhimes . When asked to make a ' flashback ' appearance in season six , Knight declined . Heigl 's appearances in the season were sporadic , seeing Stevens depart and return twice . Although she was scheduled to appear in the final five episodes of the season , Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early , and made her final appearance on January 21 , 2010 . Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family , and did not think it would be respectful to Grey 's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again . The season 's two @-@ hour opener showed the doctors of Seattle Grace Hospital , grieving the loss of their deceased friend , O 'Malley . The special 's writer , Vernoff , commented : " It ’ s heartbreaking . I fell in love with George , like many of you did , in season one . "

The ninth episode of the season , " New History " , saw the arrival of Altman , which ended up forming a love triangle between her , Hunt , and Yang . Raver commented on this : " She was in Iraq with Owen . She 's a cardiac surgeon . She 's really good at what she does . There 'll be some interesting stuff between Teddy , Cristina , and Owen . " The episode 's writer , Heinberg , offered his insight :

" Teddy 's arrival at Seattle Grace unleashes all manner of complications for Owen , Cristina , and herself . Cristina ’ s immediately suspicious that Owen and Teddy were more than friends during their time together in Iraq . Teddy confesses to Owen that she apparently misread their mutual history , and walks away from him , mortified . And Owen ’ s left haunted by Teddy ’ s confession , now forced to re @-@ examine his own history -- and his feelings for both Teddy and Cristina .

" I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked " saw the departure of Stevens , following the breakdown of her marriage with Karev . Series ' writer Joan Rater commented on this : " Izzie getting the clean scan back gives Alex the freedom to leave . Because he never would have left her when she was sick , he 's a good guy . And I 'm not saying that Alex ever consciously thought , I can ’ t leave her while she 's sick , but now that she 's not , now that she seems like she ’ s going to get better , it just comes to him . He deserves more . He 's a good guy and he deserves more . But loving Izzie showed him that he can be good , is good . So it was a little gift . And when he tells Izzie he 's done , he 's not bitter or angry , he 's just done . " The writing of the two @-@ part season six finale , caused struggle to Rhimes . She elaborated on this :

= = Reception = =

Grey 's Anatomy 's sixth season opened up to 17 @.@ 04 million viewers with a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Although the rating was a 1 % decrease from season five 's opener , it managed to rank first for its time @-@ slot and the entire night , in terms of both ratings and viewership , and served as the season 's most viewed episode . " Sympathy for the Parents " was the season 's least viewed episode , and up to that point , the series ' as well , garnering only 9 @.@ 87 million viewers . The season 's finale garnered 16 @.@ 13 million viewers , and received a 6 @.@ 2 / 18 rating , ranking first for its time @-@ slot and the entire night , in terms of both ratings and viewership . Although the finale was a success for the night , it was a 1 % decrease from season five 's finale , but served as the season 's second most viewed episode . Overall , the season ranked at # 17 for the year , and had an average of 13 @.@ 26 million viewers , a 5 % decrease from the previous season 's ranking .

The season received mixed reviews among television critics . Speaking of the premiere , Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV noted that the special foreshadowed a " very dark " season , adding : " The talk between George 's mom and one of the surgeons [ Torres ] proved to be one of the more heart @-@ breaking scenes in an episode that in itself is heartbreaking enough . " In contrast , Kelly West of TV Blend was critical of the premiere , writing : " I don ’ t think based on the first episode that we can say that Grey ’ s is headed in a new direction , nor do I think the writers are making much of an effort to bring the series back to the greatness that was its earlier seasons . That said , this is Grey ’ s Anatomy and with that comes the usual drama , sex , love and whacky medical mysteries thrown in the mix to keep things moving . If that ’ s what you ’ re looking for , I think you ’ ll enjoy the season premiere just fine . " Capshaw 's performance this season was praised , with The TV Addict calling her " immensely likeable " . Although " Sympathy for the Parents " was the least viewed episode , TV Fanatic called the episode " touching " , praising Chambers ' performance . TV Fanatic 's reaction to the season was fairly mixed , with Steve Marsi saying that Grey 's Anatomy was facing an identity crisis after viewing " Give Peace a Chance " . He said that : " Still popular but lacking its past magic , it 's trying to decide what to become . All we can say is that if it becomes what we saw 12 hours ago , we are all for it . Last week saw the doctors plunging into ER @-@ style chaos with 12 different doctors giving 12 different accounts of one case . Last night , we saw something else equally unusual . " He praised Patrick Dempsey 's performance , saying : " Again , it was a single case that took up the entire hour , but instead of 12 doctors ' version of events , the focus was largely on just one , and the best one : Dr. Derek Shepherd . Patrick Dempsey 's McDreamy character may be eye candy , but he 's got substance . Last night 's episode proved that in spades , and was one of the series ' best in some time . "

The season 's finale Death And All His Friends was highly praised . Marsi gave the episode five stars , and expressed that it may have been the best episode of the series , adding : " The writing and acting were absolutely stellar , and may lead to many Emmy nominations , but even more impressively , despite a killing spree , it remained distinctly Grey 's . Some of the back @-@ and @-@ forths between the characters were truly memorable , and some of the developments so heartbreaking that we don 't even know where to begin now . Seriously , the Season 6 finale left us laying awake afterward thinking about everything , a feeling we haven 't had from Grey 's in years and rarely achieved by any program . " John Kubicek of BuddyTV also noted that the finale was the best episode , adding : " [ It was ] two of the best hours of television all year . It was certainly the best Grey 's Anatomy has ever been , which is saying a lot since I 'd written the show off for the past few years . No show does a big traumatic event like Grey 's Anatomy , and the shooter gave the show license for heightened drama with five major characters being shot over the two hours . It was emotional , expertly paced and had me in tears for most of the finale . " Entertainment Weekly wrote , " At any rate , now you can at least see where it all began . And while you ’ re still pondering how Grey ’ s can still be so damn good sometimes , "

The season was one of the least acclaimed of the series , in terms of awards and nominations . Despite not being nominated for a Primetime Emmy , the show received two Creative Arts Emmy Awards : Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup For A Series , Miniseries , Movie Or A Special for " How Insensitive " and Outstanding Makeup For A Single @-@ Camera Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) for " Suicide is Painless " . The season also received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series at the GLAAD Media Awards . Wilson was awarded the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing in a Dramatic Series for her directing in " Give Peace a Chance " . The season also ranked at # 10 on Movieline 's top ten list .

= = Episodes = =

The number in the " No. in series " column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the " No. in season " column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live . The sixth season 's episodes are altogether 1032 minutes in length .

= = Ratings = =

= = = Live + SD ratings = = =

= = DVD Release = =

= 1899 Carrabelle hurricane =

The 1899 Carrabelle hurricane caused significant damage in the Dominican Republic and the Florida Panhandle . The second tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the 1899 Atlantic hurricane season , the storm was first observed south of the Dominican Republic on July 28 , 1899 . Shortly thereafter , it made landfall in Azua Province , Dominican Republic with an intensity equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on July 29 , the system weakened to a tropical storm , shortly before emerging into the Atlantic Ocean . It then moved west @-@ northwestward and remained at the same intensity for the next 24 hours . The storm made landfall near Islamorada , Florida on July 30 . It then brushed Southwest Florida before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico . The storm began to re @-@ intensify on July 31 and became a hurricane later that day . Early on August 1 , it peaked with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , several hours before making landfall near Apalachicola , Florida at the same intensity . The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated over Alabama on August 2 .

In the Dominican Republic , three large schooners were wrecked at Santo Domingo ; only one crew member on the three vessels survived . " Great " damage was reported along coastal sections of the country while a loss of telegraph service impacted most of interior areas . In Florida , damage in the city of Carrabelle was extensive , where only nine houses remained . Losses in the city reached approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1899 USD ) . At least 57 shipping vessels were destroyed ; damage from these ships collectively totaled about $ 375 @,@ 000 . Additionally , 13 lumber vessels were beached . Many boats at the harbor and the wharfs in Lanark were wrecked ; large portions of stores and pavilions in the city were damaged . The towns of Curtis Mill and McIntyre were completely destroyed , while the resort city of St. Teresa suffered significant damage . Overall , seven deaths were confirmed in Florida and losses in the state reached at least $ 1 million .

= = Meteorological history = =

A " violent hurricane " was first observed near the south coast of Hispaniola at 1200 UTC on July 27 . Within the next six hours , the storm made landfall in Azua Province , Dominican Republic with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) – equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on July 28 , it weakened to tropical storm while moving northwestward across northern Haiti . A few hours later , the storm emerged into the Atlantic near Port @-@ de @-@ Paix . The system maintained intensity for over 24 hours as it moved northwestward and parallel to the north coast of Cuba . At 1000 UTC on July 30 , the storm made landfall in Islamorada , Florida on Upper Matecumbe Key with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It weakened slightly and then moved just offshore or struck the mainland portion of Monroe County , Florida . Early on July 31 , the storm began to re @-@ strengthen while entering the eastern Gulf of Mexico .

HURDAT – the North Atlantic hurricane database – indicated that the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on July 31 . Further deepening occurred , with the storm becoming a Category 2 hurricane early on August 1 . Later that day , the hurricane made landfall between Carrabelle and Eastpoint , Florida with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . Reports at landfall indicate that the storm was small , spanning a diameter of only 40 miles ( 64 km ) . At 1800 UTC on August 1 – about an hour after it moved inland – a weather station measured the storm 's minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Early on August 2 , it weakened to a tropical storm and then a tropical depression several hours later . Shortly thereafter , it dissipating over southern Alabama .

= = Impact = =

News reports indicate that a " violent " hurricane struck the Dominican Republic on July 28 . Three large schooners were wrecked at Santo Domingo ; only one crew member on the three vessels survived . " Great " damage was reported along coastal sections of the country , while a loss of telegraph service impacted most of interior areas .

Due to " somewhat threatening " weather conditions on July 30 and July 31 , advisories were issued to stations across Florida , warning of the potential for strong winds . As a result , 40 vessels , coasting schooners , and spongers remained at port in Cedar Key . According to the displayman at Cedar Key , " they [ the ships and sailors ] would have sailed and some would have been lost " had they not received warnings .

At the time of the storm , it was described as " the most disastrous cyclone that ever visited this section of Florida " . Losses from the storm in Florida reached at least $ 1 million . The city of Carrabelle was devastated as only nine houses in the city remained . According to the mayor , about 200 families were left homeless . The New York Times stated that , " Carrabelle is literally wiped from the map . " Losses in the city reached approximately $ 100 @,@ 000 . One fatality occurred in Carrabelle when a house collapsed on a woman ; numerous other people in the area sustained injuries . At least 57 shipping vessels were destroyed , including 14 barques , 40 small boats , and 3 pilot boats . Losses for these ships collectively totaled about $ 375 @,@ 000 . At the Chattahoochee , then known as River Junction , a mass meeting of citizens was held on August 4 to collect money for the victims of the storm in Carrabelle .

Additionally , 13 lumber vessels were beached . A 30 mile ( 48 km ) portion of the Carrabelle , Tallahassee and Georgia Railroad was washed away . A passenger train was blown over 100 yards from the track , injuring many passengers . Many boats at the harbor and the wharfs in Lanark were wrecked . The local summer resort of Lanark Inn was blown into the Gulf of Mexico . Large portions of stores and pavilions in the city were damaged . At McIntyre , virtually the entire town was destroyed , except for only two mill boilers . The city of Curtis Mill was completely destroyed . Additionally , the resort city of St. Teresa suffered significant damage . A total of fifteen ships either destroyed or beached at Dog Island , including the Benjamin C. Cromwell and James A. Garfield . At least 15 people were reported missing . Six drowning deaths were confirmed in association with this storm .

= Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) =

Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is the debut studio album by the American hip hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan , released November 9 , 1993 , on Loud Records and distributed through RCA Records . Recording sessions for the album took place during 1992 to 1993 at Firehouse Studio in New York City , and it was mastered at The Hit Factory . The album 's title originates from the martial arts film The 36th Chamber of Shaolin ( 1978 ) . The group 's de facto leader RZA , also known as Prince Rakeem , produced the album entirely , utilizing heavy , eerie beats and a sound largely based on martial @-@ arts movie clips and soul music samples .

The distinctive sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) created a blueprint for hardcore hip hop during the 1990s and helped return New York City hip hop to national prominence . Its sound also became greatly influential in modern hip hop production , while the group members ' explicit , humorous , and free @-@ associative lyrics have served as a template for many subsequent hip hop records . Serving as a landmark record in the era of hip hop known as the East Coast Renaissance , its influence helped lead the way for several other East Coast hip hop artists , including Nas , The Notorious B.I.G. , Mobb Deep , and Jay @-@ Z.

Despite its raw , underground sound , the album had surprising chart success , peaking at number 41 on the US Billboard 200 chart . By 1995 , it was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America , and has sold over two million copies in the United States . Initially receiving positive reviews from most music critics , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is widely regarded as one of the most significant albums of the 1990s , as well as one of the greatest hip hop albums ever .

= = Background and recording = =

In the late 1980s , cousins Robert Diggs , Gary Grice , and Russell Jones formed a group named Force of the Imperial Master , also known as the All in Together Now Crew . Each member recorded under an alias : Grice as The Genius , Diggs as Prince Rakeem or The Scientist , and Jones as The Specialist . The group never signed to a major label , but caught the attention of the New York rap scene and was recognized by rapper Biz Markie . By 1991 , The Genius and Prince Rakeem were signed to separate record labels . The Genius released Words from the Genius ( 1991 ) on Cold Chillin ' Records and Prince Rakeem released Ooh I Love You Rakeem ( 1991 ) on Tommy Boy Records . Both were soon dropped by their labels . Embittered but unbowed , they took on new monikers ( The Genius became GZA while Prince Rakeem became RZA ) and refocused their efforts . RZA discussed the matter in their release The Wu @-@ Tang Manual ( 2005 ) , stating " [ Tommy Boy ] made the decision to sign House of Pain over us . When they dropped me , I was thinking , ' Damn , they chose a bunch of whiteboy shit over me . ' "

RZA began collaborating with Dennis Coles , latter known as Ghostface Killah , another rapper from the Stapleton Projects apartment complex in Staten Island . The duo decided to create a hip hop group whose ethos would be a blend of " Eastern philosophy picked up from kung fu movies , watered @-@ down Nation of Islam preaching picked up on the New York streets , and comic books . "

Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) was recorded at Firehouse Studio in New York City from 1992 to 1993 . The album was produced , mixed , arranged , and programmed by RZA , and was mastered at The Hit Factory in New York City by Chris Gehringer . Because of an extremely limited budget , the group was only able to record in a small , inexpensive studio ; with up to eight of the nine Wu @-@ Tang members in the studio at once , the quarters were frequently crowded . To decide who appeared on each song , RZA forced the Wu @-@ Tang rappers to battle with each other . This competition led to the track " Meth Vs . Chef " , a battle between Method Man and Raekwon over the rights to rap over RZA 's beat ; this track was left off the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album but surfaced on Method Man 's debut , Tical ( 1994 ) .

= = Title significance = =

The true meaning of the album 's title is not well known or understood . According to a Five Percent philosophy , known as the Supreme Mathematics , the number 9 means " to bring into existence , " and this meant everything to the group 's debut album . The group was made of 9 members , each of whom had 4 chambers of the heart , which are 2 atria , and 2 ventricles . All of this is the root for " 36 Chambers " , being that 9 x 4

= 36 .

In reference to the 1978 kung fu film The 36th Chamber of Shaolin that the group enjoyed watching , the Clan considered themselves as lyrical masters of the 36 chambers , and arrived onto the rap scene while appearing to be ahead , and more advanced over others , with " knowledge of 36 chambers of hip hop music when everyone else in hip hop was striving to attain the knowledge of 35 lessons . " Also , while the human body has 108 pressure points ( 1 + 0 + 8 =

9 ) , only the Wu @-@ Tang martial artists learned and understood that 36 of those pressure points are deadly ( 9 + 36

= 45 ) ( 4 + 5 =

9 ) The lyrics and rhymes of the 9 members are to be considered as 36 deadly lyrical techniques for pressure points . All of this is the basis for the album title , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) , being that 9 members x 4 chambers = 36 . However , this is just a theory ; the true significance of the title is not definitively known .

= = Music and lyrics = =

= = = Production = = =

Group leader RZA produced Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) by creating sonic collages from classic soul samples and clips from martial arts movies such as Shaolin and Wu Tang ( 1981 ) . He complemented the rappers ' performances with " lean , menacing beats that evoked their gritty , urban surroundings more effectively than their words , " according to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic . The use of soul samples and various esoteric clips , and the technique by which RZA employed them in his beats , was unique and largely unprecedented in hip hop . The gritty sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is due , at least in part , to the use of cheap equipment to produce the album .

Many critics argue that the minimalist means of production plays directly into the appealing " street " quality that makes the album a classic , including Ben Yew , who stated , " Because [ RZA ] didn 't have the best mixing or recording equipment , the album is wrought with a ' dirty ' quality — the drums have more bass and are more hard @-@ hitting than they are crisp and clean ; the samples have an eerie , almost haunting type of echo ; and the vocals , because each member 's voice is already aggressive and gritty , perfectly match the production . " Although Ol ' Dirty Bastard is given co @-@ production credit on " Da Mystery of Chessboxin ' " and Method Man is co @-@ credited for " Wu @-@ Tang Clan Ain 't Nuthing ta F ' Wit , " critics and admirers universally credit RZA with developing a " dusty yet digital production style [ that ] helped legitimize the use of more diverse sample sources to the hardcore New York rap massive , breaking away from James Brown based beats and embracing a style that turned the Underdog theme into the menacing coda for a group of underground terrorists . "

= = = Lyrics = = =

Enter the Wu Tang ushered in a new standard for hip hop at a time when hip hop music was dominated by the jazz @-@ influenced styles of A Tribe Called Quest , the Afrocentric viewpoints of Public Enemy , and the rising popularity of West Coast gangsta rap . The album 's explicit , humorous and free @-@ associative lyrics have been credited for serving as a template for many subsequent hip hop records . Rolling Stone described the album as possessing an aesthetic that was " low on hype and production values [ and ] high on the idea that indigence is a central part of blackness . " While the lyrical content on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang generally varies from rapper to rapper , the basic themes are the same — urban life , martial arts movies , comic book references , and marijuana — and the setting is invariably the harsh environment of New York City . The lyrics have a universally dark tone and seem at times to be simply aggressive cries . AllMusic contributor Steve Huey praises the lyricists for their originality and caustic humor , stating " Some were outsized , theatrical personalities , others were cerebral storytellers and lyrical technicians , but each had his own distinctive style ... Every track on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is packed with fresh , inventive rhymes , which are filled with martial arts metaphors , pop culture references ( everything from Voltron to Lucky Charms cereal commercials to Barbra Streisand 's " The Way We Were " ) , bizarre threats of violence , and a truly twisted sense of humor . "

With the exception of " Method Man " and GZA 's " Clan in da Front " , every song features multiple rappers contributing verses of varying lengths . The verses are essentially battle rhymes , mixed with humor and outsized tales of urban violence and drug use . There is some debate about whether the lyrics on 36 Chambers are properly classified as gangsta rap or something else entirely . In a Stylus Magazine review , writer Gavin Mueller evokes the bleakness of the Wu @-@ Tang world view :

[ T ] he lyrics reach back to New York 's own Rakim : dense battle rhymes potent with metaphors . Each Wu MC links his rhymes to crime and violence , allowing his preoccupations to surface subtly and indirectly , rather than spouting off overt gangsta @-@ isms designed to shock ... The hood imagery of the lyrics is utterly pervasive and uncompromising , immersing the listener in a foreign land smack in the middle of New York . There is no celebration here , and little hope .

All nine original Wu @-@ Tang Clan members contribute vocals on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang . Masta Killa only appears on one track , contributing the last verse of " Da Mystery of Chessboxin , ' " but all the other rappers appear on at least two songs . Method Man and Raekwon are the most prolific of the group , featured on eight tracks . Though the performers have widely differing techniques , the chemistry between them is a key ingredient of the album 's success . Pitchfork Media asserts that " Half the charm is in the cast 's idiosyncrasies : ODB 's hovering sing @-@ song , Raekwon 's fake stutter , Ghostface 's verbal tics , Method Man 's hazy , dusted voice . "

= = Singles = =

" Protect Ya Neck " and " Tearz " were the first tracks recorded by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan . " Protect Ya Neck " is a free @-@ associative and braggadocious battle rap featuring eight of the nine Wu @-@ Tang members , and " Tearz " tells stories of a little kid getting shot ( RZA 's little brother ) , and another one who contracts HIV after having unprotected sex . They were independently released as the " Protect Ya Neck " / " After Laughter Comes Tears " single , which RZA financed by demanding $ 100 ( USD ) from each rapper who wanted a verse on the A @-@ side . The single was re @-@ released in a much larger pressing , with " Method Man " as the B @-@ side .

" Method Man " reached number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 17 on the Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart . " Method Man " gained significant airplay partly for its catchy refrain , which copies the refrain of Hall & Oates ' " Method of Modern Love " ( " The M @-@ E @-@ T @-@ H @-@ O @-@ D ... Man " ) .

" C.R.E.A.M. " , featuring Raekwon and Inspectah Deck , was the second single from the album and the first new A @-@ side to be released after the group signed with Loud / RCA . Its lyrics deal with the struggle of poverty and the desire to earn money by any means . It was the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's most successful single , reaching number 60 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 8 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart . The single topped the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart . " Can It Be All So Simple " , featuring Ghostface Killah and Raekwon , was the album 's third single . The single failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number 24 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart in 1994 . A remix of the song was included on Raekwon 's debut solo album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... ( 1995 ) .

The group made music videos for the three A @-@ sides and for " Method Man " , " Da Mystery of Chessboxin ' " , and " Wu @-@ Tang Clan Ain 't Nuthing ta Fuck Wit " . As the group 's profile increased , the quality of their videos improved ; though the " Protect Ya Neck " video resembled a home movie , later videos were directed by rising hip hop music video director Hype Williams . The videos received almost no airplay on MTV , but were extremely popular on video @-@ by @-@ request channels such as The Box . Touré wrote in his 1993 Rolling Stone review that " in Brooklyn , N.Y. , right now and extending back a few months , the reigning fave is the Wu @-@ Tang Clan , who are to the channel what Guns N ' Roses are to MTV . "

= = Reception = =

= = = Initial reaction = = =

Upon its release , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) received rave reviews from most music critics . In an article for The Source , The Ghetto Communicator wrote " This record is harsh , but so is the world that we live in . For B @-@ boys n 'girls who come from the core of the hard , this is the hip @-@ hop album you 've been waiting for " . Rolling Stone 's review was decidedly ambivalent , praising the album 's sound , but noting that " Wu @-@ Tang ... are more ciphers than masterful creations . In refusing to commodify themselves , they leave blank the ultimate canvas — the self . " Entertainment Weekly was more enthusiastic , giving the album an A , and writing that " With its rumble jumble of drumbeats , peppered with occasional piano plunking , Enter has a raw , pass @-@ the @-@ mike flavor we haven 't heard since rap was pop 's best @-@ kept secret . " Robert Christgau found the Wu @-@ Tang Clan " grander " and " goofier " than their West Coast contemporaries and concluded , " Expect the masterwork this album 's reputation suggests and you 'll probably be disappointed--it will speak directly only to indigenous hip hoppers . Expect a glorious human mess , as opposed to the ominous platinum product of their opposite numbers , and you 'll realize the dope game isn 't everyone 's dead @-@ end street " .

Music journalist Touré declared of the album , that " This is hip @-@ hop you won 't find creeping up the Billboard charts but you will hear booming out of Jeep stereos in all the right neighborhoods . " However , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang had surprising chart success , despite its raw , underground sound . It peaked at number 41 on the Billboard 200 chart and reached number eight on Billboard 's Top R & B / Hip Hop Albums chart . The album continued to sell steadily and was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 15 , 1995 .

= = = Retrospect = = =

Since its release , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has risen in stature to become one of the most highly regarded albums in hip hop . The album was originally given a rating of 4 @.@ 5 mics out of 5 in The Source magazine in 1994 ; however , it was given a classic 5 mic rating in a later issue of the magazine . Similar to The Source , XXL magazine gave the album a classic rating of " XXL " in its retrospective 2007 issue . In the book Spin Alternative Record Guide ( 1995 ) , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) has a critical rating of 8 / 10 from Spin . In 2003 , Rolling Stone named the album among the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " , asserting that " East @-@ coast hip @-@ hop made a return in 1993 . " The magazine later listed it as one of the " Essential Albums of the 90s " and " 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time . " The Source cited Enter the Wu @-@ Tang as one of the " 100 Best Rap Albums " , while also naming " Protect Ya Neck / Method Man " and " C.R.E.A.M. " among the " 100 Best Rap Singles " . MTV declared it among " The Greatest Hip @-@ Hop Albums of All Time " , while Blender named the album among the " 500 CDs You Must Own " . Oliver Wang , author of Classic Material : The Hip @-@ Hop Album Guide described it " as timeless an album as hip @-@ hop has ever seen . "

Publications based outside of the United States have acclaimed 36 Chambers as well ; Australia 's Juice magazine placed it at number 40 on its list of " 100 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s " , and Les Inrockuptibles ranked it number 59 on a list of " The 100 Best Albums 1986 – 1996 " . In naming Enter the Wu @-@ Tang one of the 50 best albums of the 1990s , Pitchfork Media staff member Rollie Pemberton summed up the album 's critical recognition by writing :

This is the sound of accidental fame . Something as unique and unusual as this record isn 't supposed to find itself at the height of commercial viability ; it 's supposed to smolder underground , hidden from the view of mainstream America , who surely would not be ready for such a challenge . But America was ready , in part because this one challenged convention , not listeners . Sure , its sloppy drum programming , bizarre song structures , and unpolished sound quality disturbed commercial rap purists , but the talent was so inherent and obvious , and the charisma so undeniable , that it propelled the Wu @-@ Tang Clan to the height of the rap game , and today stands not just as the hip @-@ hop classic that introduced the concept of obscure thematic characters ( each member 's name references old kung @-@ fu movies ) , but also bridged the gap between traditional old @-@ school sensibilities and the technical lyricism of today .

In 2010 , Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .

= = Legacy and influence = =

= = = East Coast hip hop = = =

Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) is one of the most influential albums in hip hop history . Adam Heimlich of the New York Press considers the album a touchstone of hardcore hip @-@ hop , a gritty , stripped @-@ down , dark and violent subgenre of hip hop and the signature sound of New York City 's rap scene during the mid @-@ 1990s . He writes that , " the Wu @-@ Tang Clan ... all but invented 90s New York rap , back when the notion of an East Coast gangsta still meant Schoolly D or Kool G. Rap .... [ They ] designed the manner and style in which New York artists would address what Snoop and Dre had made rap 's hottest topics : drugs and violence . " As the album helped return New York City hip hop to national prominence , a new generation of New York rappers , many of them inspired by the Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's example , released a flurry of classic albums that later became known as the East Coast Renaissance . Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has been recognized by critics as a landmark album in the movement . AllMusic indicates that the success of the album paved the way for Nas , The Notorious B.I.G. Mobb Deep and Jay @-@ Z.

At the time of the album 's release , mainstream hip hop was dominated by West Coast hip hop . Enter the Wu Tang ( along with the critically acclaimed Illmatic and the commercial success of Ready to Die ) was able to shift the emphasis away from the melodious , synthesizer @-@ driven G @-@ funk and restore interest into the East Coast hip hop scene . According to one columnist , " When Enter the Wu @-@ Tang : The 36 Chambers first graced the pages of rap lore in 1993 , Dr. Dre 's funk @-@ filled , West Coast gangster rap dominated the business . Though this initial dominance was difficult to overcome , Wu @-@ Tang still managed to carve out a piece of rap history . "

= = = Hip hop production = = =

RZA 's production on Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's debut album had a profound and significant influence on subsequent hip hop producers . The distinctive sound of Enter the Wu @-@ Tang has been credited for creating a blueprint for hardcore hip hop in the mid @-@ 1990s . Blackfilm.com asserts that Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's production formula " transformed the sound of underground rap into mainstream formula , and virtually changed the face of contemporary music as popsters once knew it . " Many successful rap producers have admitted to the influence of RZA 's beats on their own production efforts . 9th Wonder , a producer and former member of Little Brother , is one of many whose vocal sampling styles are inspired by RZA . The album 's reliance on soul music samples was novel at the time , but 21st century producers such as The Alchemist , Kanye West and Just Blaze now rely on this technique . According to Allmusic , the production on two Mobb Deep albums , The Infamous and Hell on Earth ( 1996 ) , are " indebted " to RZA 's early production with Wu @-@ Tang Clan .

= = = Subsequent Wu @-@ Tang work = = =

Following Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's success , the individual members of the group negotiated and signed solo contracts with a variety of different labels : Method Man signed with Def Jam , Ol ' Dirty Bastard with Elektra , GZA with Geffen Records , and Ghostface Killah with Epic Records . This expansion across the music industry was an element of RZA 's stated plan for industry @-@ wide domination , wherein " All Wu releases are deemed to be 50 percent partnerships with Wu @-@ Tang Productions and each Wu member with solo deal must contribute 20 percent of their earnings back to Wu @-@ Tang Productions , a fund for all Wu members . "

On Enter the Wu @-@ Tang 's effect on the group and the music industry , the Milwaukee Journal 's Aaron Justin @-@ Szopinski wrote " The Wu showed us that a hip @-@ hop group can control its own destiny in the tangled web of the industry . It owns publishing rights , controls its samples and has 90 % influence over its career . And that control , that outlook for the future , is what makes it the best . " Wu @-@ Tang Clan have produced four subsequent group albums since Enter the Wu @-@ Tang , including Wu @-@ Tang Forever ( 1997 ) , which is certified as a quadruple platinum record . None of the subsequent Wu @-@ Tang Clan albums have garnered the critical accolades that their debut was accorded .

In 2013 , the group reunited , at the behest of RZA , for an album and tour celebrating the 20th anniversary of the album 's release . The album was titled A Better Tomorrow and the tour included dates throughout the United States , Europe and Russia . All original members of the group who performed on Enter the Wu @-@ Tang participated in both the tour and reunion album , excepting Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who died in 2004 .

= = Track listing = =

= = = CD = = =

Tracks 1 – 5 are on the Shaolin Sword side of the album and tracks 6 – 12 are on the Wu @-@ Tang Sword side .

An asterisk ( * ) indicates international version bonus track

= = = Vinyl / cassette = = =

The vinyl and cassette track order is slightly different to that of the CD :

= = Personnel = =

Credits for Enter the Wu @-@ Tang ( 36 Chambers ) adapted from AllMusic .

= = Charts = =

= = = Album = = =

= = = Singles = = =

= = Accolades = =

The information regarding accolades attributed to Enter the Wu @-@ Tang is taken from AcclaimedMusic.net , except for lists with additional sources .

( * ) designates lists that are unordered .

= Barn owl =

The barn owl ( Tyto alba ) is the most widely distributed species of owl , and one of the most widespread of all birds . It is also referred to as the common barn owl , to distinguish it from other species in its family , Tytonidae , which forms one of the two main lineages of living owls , the other being the typical owls ( Strigidae ) . The barn owl is found almost everywhere in the world except polar and desert regions , Asia north of the Himalayas , most of Indonesia , and some Pacific islands .

Phylogenetic evidence shows that there are at least three major lineages of barn owl , one in Eurasia and Africa , one in Australasia and one in the Americas , and some highly divergent taxa on islands . Some authorities further split the group , recognising up to five species , and further research needs to be done to clarify the position . There is a considerable variation between the sizes and colour of the approximately 28 subspecies but most are between 33 and 39 cm ( 13 and 15 in ) in length with wingspans ranging from 80 to 95 cm ( 31 to 37 in ) . The plumage on head and back is a mottled shade of grey or brown , the underparts vary from white to brown and are sometimes speckled with dark markings . The face is characteristically heart @-@ shaped and is white in most subspecies . This owl does not hoot , but utters an eerie , drawn @-@ out shriek .

The barn owl is nocturnal over most of its range , but in Britain and some Pacific islands , it also hunts by day . Barn owls specialise in hunting animals on the ground and nearly all of their food consists of small mammals which they locate by sound , their hearing being very acute . They mate for life unless one of the pair gets killed , when a new pair bond may be formed . Breeding takes place at varying times of year according to locality , with a clutch , averaging about four eggs , being laid in a nest in a hollow tree , old building or fissure in a cliff . The female does all the incubation , and she and the young chicks are reliant on the male for food . When large numbers of small prey are readily available , barn owl populations can expand rapidly , and globally the bird is considered to be of least conservation concern . Some subspecies with restricted ranges are more threatened .

= = Taxonomy and etymology = =

The barn owl was one of several species of bird first described in 1769 by the Tyrolean physician and naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in his Anni Historico @-@ Naturales . He gave it the scientific name Strix alba . As more species of owl were described , the genus name Strix came to be used solely for the wood owls in the typical owl family Strigidae , and the barn owl became Tyto alba in the barn owl family Tytonidae . The name literally means " white owl " , from the onomatopoeic Ancient Greek tyto ( τυτώ ) for an owl – compare English " hooter " – and Latin alba , " white " . The bird is known by many common names which refer to its appearance , call , habitat , or its eerie , silent flight : white owl , silver owl , demon owl , ghost owl , death owl , night owl , rat owl , church owl , cave owl , stone owl , monkey @-@ faced owl , hissing owl , hobgoblin or hobby owl , dobby owl , white @-@ breasted owl , golden owl , scritch owl , screech owl , straw owl , barnyard owl , and delicate owl . " Golden owl " might also refer to the related golden masked owl ( T. aurantia ) . " Hissing owl " and , particularly in the UK and in India , " screech owl " , refers to the piercing calls of these birds . The latter name is also applied to a different group of birds , the screech @-@ owls in the genus Megascops .

The ashy @-@ faced owl ( T. glaucops ) was for some time included in T. alba , and by some authors its populations from the Lesser Antilles still are . Based on DNA evidence , König , Weick & Becking ( 2009 ) recognised the American Barn Owl ( T. furcata ) and the Curaçao Barn Owl ( T. bargei ) as separate species . They also proposed that T. a. delicatula should be split off as a separate species , to be known as the eastern barn owl , which would include the subspecies T. d. sumbaensis , T. d. meeki , T. d. crassirostris and T. d. interposita . However , the International Ornithological Committee has doubts about this and states that the split of Tyto delicatula from T. alba " may need to be revisited " . Some island subspecies are occasionally treated as distinct species , a move which should await further research into barn owl phylogeography . According to Bruce in the Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn @-@ owls to Hummingbirds , " a review of the whole group [ is ] long overdue " . Molecular analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows a separation of the species into two clades , an Old World alba and a New World furcata , but this study did not include T. a. delicatula which the authors seem to have accepted as a separate species . A high amount of genetic variation was also found between the Indonesian T. a. stertens and other members of the alba clade .

The barn owl has a wider distribution than any other species of owl . Many subspecies have been proposed over the years but several are generally considered to be intergrades between more distinct populations . Twenty to thirty are usually recognised , varying mainly in body proportions , size and colour . Island forms are mostly smaller than mainland ones , and those inhabiting forests have darker plumage and shorter wings than those occurring in open grasslands . Barn owls range in colour from the almost beige @-@ and @-@ white nominate subspecies , erlangeri and niveicauda , to the nearly black @-@ and @-@ brown contempta .

In the Handbook of Birds of the World , Volume 5 : Barn @-@ owls to Hummingbirds , the following subspecies are listed :

= = Description = =

The barn owl is a medium @-@ sized , pale @-@ coloured owl with long wings and a short , squarish tail . There is considerable size variation across the subspecies with a typical specimen measuring about 33 to 39 cm ( 13 to 15 in ) in overall length , with a wingspan of some 80 to 95 cm ( 31 to 37 in ) . Adult body mass is also variable with male owls from the Galapagos weighing 260 g ( 9 @.@ 2 oz ) while male Pacific barn owls average 555 g ( 19 @.@ 6 oz ) . In general , owls living on small islands are smaller and lighter , perhaps because they have a higher dependence on insect prey and need to be more manoeuvrable . The shape of the tail is a means of distinguishing the barn owl from typical owls when seen in the air . Other distinguishing features are the undulating flight pattern and the dangling , feathered legs . The pale face with its heart shape and black eyes give the flying bird a distinctive appearance , like a flat mask with oversized , oblique black eyeslits , the ridge of feathers above the beak somewhat resembling a nose .

The bird 's head and upper body typically vary between pale brown and some shade of grey ( especially on the forehead and back ) in most subspecies . Some are purer , richer brown instead , and all have fine black @-@ and @-@ white speckles except on the remiges and rectrices ( main wing feathers ) , which are light brown with darker bands . The heart @-@ shaped face is usually bright white , but in some subspecies it is brown . The underparts , including the tarsometatarsal ( lower leg ) feathers , vary from white to reddish buff among the subspecies , and are either mostly unpatterned or bear a varying number of tiny blackish @-@ brown speckles . It has been found that at least in the continental European populations , females with more spotting are healthier than plainer birds . This does not hold true for European males by contrast , where the spotting varies according to subspecies . The beak varies from pale horn to dark buff , corresponding to the general plumage hue , and the iris is blackish brown . The talons , like the beak , vary in colour , ranging from pink to dark pinkish @-@ grey and the talons are black .

On average within any one population , males tend to have fewer spots on the underside and are paler in colour than females . The latter are also larger with a strong female T. alba of a large subspecies weighing over 550 g ( 19 @.@ 4 oz ) , while males are typically about 10 % lighter . Nestlings are covered in white down , but the heart @-@ shaped facial disk becomes visible soon after hatching .

Contrary to popular belief , the barn owl does not hoot ( such calls are made by typical owls , like the tawny owl or other members of the genus Strix ) . It instead produces the characteristic shree scream , ear @-@ shattering at close range , an eerie , long @-@ drawn @-@ out shriek . Males in courtship give a shrill twitter . Both young and old can hiss like a snake to scare away intruders . Other sounds produced include a purring chirrup denoting pleasure , and a " kee @-@ yak " , which resembles one of the vocalisations of the tawny owl . When captured or cornered , the barn owl throws itself on its back and flails with sharp @-@ taloned feet , making for an effective defence . In such situations it may emit rasping sounds or clicking snaps , produced probably by the beak but possibly by the tongue .

= = Distribution = =

The barn owl is the most widespread landbird species in the world , occurring in every continent except Antarctica . Its range includes all of Europe ( except Fennoscandia and Malta ) , most of Africa apart from the Sahara , the Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia , Australia , many Pacific Islands , and North , Central and South America . In general it is considered to be sedentary , and indeed many individuals , having taken up residence in a particular location , remain there even when better foraging areas nearby become vacant . In the British Isles , the young seem largely to disperse along river corridors and the distance travelled from their natal site averages about 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) .

In continental Europe the distance travelled is greater , commonly somewhere between 50 and 100 kilometres ( 31 and 62 mi ) but exceptionally 1 @,@ 500 km ( 932 mi ) , with ringed birds from the Netherlands ending up in Spain and in Ukraine . In the United States , dispersal is typically over distances of 80 and 320 km ( 50 and 199 mi ) , with the most travelled individuals ending up some 1 @,@ 760 km ( 1 @,@ 094 mi ) from the point of origin . Movements in the African continent include 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) from Senegambia to Sierra Leone and up to 579 km ( 360 mi ) within South Africa . In Australia there is some migration as the birds move towards the northern coast in the dry season and southward in the wet , and also nomadic movements in association with rodent plagues . Occasionally , some of these birds turn up on Norfolk Island , Lord Howe Island or New Zealand , showing that crossing the ocean is not beyond their capabilities . In 2008 , barn owls were recorded for the first time breeding in New Zealand . The barn owl has been successfully introduced into the Hawaiian island of Kauai in an attempt to control rodents , however it has been found to also feed on native birds .

= = Behaviour and ecology = =

Like most owls , the barn owl is nocturnal , relying on its acute sense of hearing when hunting in complete darkness . It often becomes active shortly before dusk and can sometimes be seen during the day when relocating from one roosting site to another . In Britain , on various Pacific Islands and perhaps elsewhere , it sometimes hunts by day . This practice may depend on whether the owl is mobbed by other birds if it emerges in daylight . However , in Britain , some birds continue to hunt by day even when mobbed by such birds as magpies , rooks and black @-@ headed gulls , such diurnal activity possibly occurring when the previous night has been wet making hunting difficult . By contrast , in southern Europe and the tropics , the birds seem to be almost exclusively nocturnal , with the few birds that hunt by day being severely mobbed .

Barn owls are not particularly territorial but have a home range inside which they forage . For males in Scotland this has a radius of about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) from the nest site and an average size of about 300 hectares . Female home ranges largely coincide with that of their mates . Outside the breeding season , males and females usually roost separately , each one having about three favoured sites in which to conceal themselves by day , and which are also visited for short periods during the night . Roosting sites include holes in trees , fissures in cliffs , disused buildings , chimneys and haysheds and are often small in comparison to nesting sites . As the breeding season approaches , the birds move back to the vicinity of the chosen nest to roost .

The barn owl is a bird of open country such as farmland or grassland with some interspersed woodland , usually at altitudes below 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) but occasionally as high as 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in the tropics . This owl prefers to hunt along the edges of woods or in rough grass strips adjoining pasture . It has an effortless wavering flight as it quarters the ground , alert to the sounds made by potential prey . Like most owls , the barn owl flies silently ; tiny serrations on the leading edges of its flight feathers and a hairlike fringe to the trailing edges help to break up the flow of air over the wings , thereby reducing turbulence and the noise that accompanies it . Hairlike extensions to the barbules of its feathers , which give the plumage a soft feel , also minimise noise produced during wingbeats . The behaviour and ecological preferences may differ slightly even among neighbouring subspecies , as shown in the case of the European T. a. guttata and T. a. alba that probably evolved , respectively , in allopatric glacial refugia in southeastern Europe , and in Iberia or southern France .

= = = Diet and feeding = = =

The diet of the barn owl has been much studied ; the items consumed can be ascertained from identifying the prey fragments in the pellets of indigestible matter that the bird regurgitates . Studies of diet have been made in most parts of the bird 's range , and in moist temperate areas over 90 % of the prey tends to be small mammals , whereas in hot , dry , unproductive areas , the proportion is lower , and a great variety of other creatures are eaten depending on local abundance . Most prey is terrestrial but bats and birds are also taken , as well as lizards , amphibians and insects . Even when they are plentiful and other prey scarce , earthworms do not seem to be consumed .

In North America and most of Europe , voles predominate in the diet and shrews are the second most common food choice . Mice and rats form the main foodstuffs in the Mediterranean region , the tropics , sub @-@ tropics and Australia . Barn owls are usually more specialist feeders in productive areas and generalists in drier areas . On the Cape Verde Islands , geckos are the mainstay of the diet , supplemented by birds such as plovers , godwits , turnstones , weavers and pratincoles , and on a rocky islet off the coast of California , a clutch of four young were being reared on a diet of Leach 's storm petrel ( Oceanodroma leucorhoa ) . In Ireland , the accidental introduction of the bank vole in the 1950s led to a major shift in the barn owl 's diet : where their ranges overlap , the vole is now by far the largest prey item . Locally superabundant rodent species in the weight class of several grams per individual usually make up the single largest proportion of prey . In the United States , rodents and other small mammals usually make up ninety @-@ five percent of the diet and worldwide , over ninety percent of the prey caught .

The barn owl hunts by flying slowly , quartering the ground and hovering over spots that may conceal prey . It may also use branches , fence posts or other lookouts to scan its surroundings , and this is the main means of prey location in the oil palm plantations of Malaysia . The bird has long , broad wings , enabling it to manoeuvre and turn abruptly . Its legs and toes are long and slender which improves its ability to forage among dense foliage or beneath the snow and gives it a wide spread of talons when attacking prey . Studies have shown that an individual barn owl may eat one or more voles ( or their equivalent ) per night , equivalent to about twenty @-@ three percent of the bird 's bodyweight . Excess food is often cached at roosting sites and can be used when food is scarce .

Small prey is usually torn into chunks and eaten completely including bones and fur , while prey larger than about 100 g ( 4 oz ) , such as baby rabbits , Cryptomys blesmols , or Otomys vlei rats , is usually dismembered and the inedible parts discarded . Contrary to what is sometimes assumed , the barn owl does not eat domestic animals on any sort of regular basis . Regionally , non @-@ rodent foods are used as per availability . On bird @-@ rich islands , a barn owl might include some fifteen to twenty percent of birds in its diet , while in grassland it will gorge itself on swarming termites , or on Orthoptera such as Copiphorinae katydids , Jerusalem crickets ( Stenopelmatidae ) or true crickets ( Gryllidae ) . Bats and even frogs , lizards and snakes may make a minor but significant contribution to the diet ; small Soricomorpha like Suncus shrews may be a secondary prey of major importance .

The barn owl has acute hearing , with ears placed asymmetrically . This improves detection of sound position and distance and the bird does not require sight to hunt . The facial disc plays a part in this process , as is shown by the fact that with the ruff feathers removed , the bird can still locate the source in azimuth but fails to do so in elevation . Hunting nocturnally or crepuscularly , this bird can target its prey and dive to the ground , penetrating its talons through snow , grass or brush to seize small creatures with deadly accuracy . Compared to other owls of similar size , the barn owl has a much higher metabolic rate , requiring relatively more food . Weight for weight , barn owls consume more rodents — often regarded as pests by humans — than possibly any other creature . This makes the barn owl one of the most economically valuable wildlife animals for agriculture . Farmers often find these owls more effective than poison in keeping down rodent pests , and they can encourage barn owl habitation by providing nest sites .

= = = Breeding = = =

Barn owls living in tropical regions can breed at any time of year , but some seasonality in nesting is still evident . Where there are distinct wet and dry seasons , egg @-@ laying usually takes place during the dry season , with increased rodent prey becoming available to the birds as the vegetation dies off . In arid regions , such as parts of Australia , breeding may be irregular and may happen in wet periods , triggered by temporary increases in the populations of small mammals . In temperate climates , nesting seasons become more distinct and there are some seasons of the year when no egg @-@ laying takes place . In Europe and North America , most nesting takes place between March and June when temperatures are increasing . The actual dates of egg @-@ laying vary by year and by location , being correlated with the amount of prey @-@ rich foraging habitat around the nest site and often with the phase of the rodent abundance cycle . An increase in rodent populations will usually stimulate the local barn owls to begin nesting ; thus , even in the cooler parts of its range , two broods are often raised in a good year .

Females are ready to breed at ten to eleven months of age although males sometimes wait till the following year . Barn owls are usually monogamous , sticking to one partner for life unless one of the pair dies . During the non @-@ breeding season they may roost separately , but as the breeding season approaches they return to their established nesting site , showing considerable site fidelity . In colder climates , in harsh weather and where winter food supplies may be scarce , they may roost in farm buildings and in barns between hay bales , but they then run the risk that their selected nesting hole may be taken over by some other , earlier @-@ nesting species . Single males may establish feeding territories , patrolling the hunting areas , occasionally stopping to hover , and perching on lofty eminences where they screech to attract a mate . Where a female has lost her mate but maintained her breeding site , she usually seems to manage to attract a new spouse .

Once a pair @-@ bond has been formed , the male will make short flights at dusk around the nesting and roosting sites and then longer circuits to establish a home range . When he is later joined by the female , there is much chasing , turning and twisting in flight , and frequent screeches , the male 's being high @-@ pitched and tremulous and the female 's lower and harsher . At later stages of courtship , the male emerges at dusk , climbs high into the sky and then swoops back to the vicinity of the female at speed . He then sets off to forage . The female meanwhile sits in an eminent position and preens , returning to the nest a minute or two before the male arrives with food for her . Such feeding behaviour of the female by the male is common , helps build the pair @-@ bond and increases the female 's fitness before egg @-@ laying commences .

Barn owls are cavity nesters . They choose holes in trees , fissures in cliff faces , the large nests of other birds such as the hamerkop ( Scopus umbretta ) and , particularly in Europe and North America , old buildings such as farm sheds and church towers . Buildings are preferred to trees in wetter climates in the British Isles and provide better protection for fledglings from inclement weather . Trees tend to be in open habitats rather than in the middle of woodland and nest holes tend to be higher in North America than in Europe because of possible predation by raccoons ( Procyon lotor ) . No nesting material is used as such but , as the female sits incubating the eggs , she draws in the dry furry material of which her regurgitated pellets are composed , so that by the time the chicks are hatched , they are surrounded by a carpet of shredded pellets . Oftentimes other birds such as jackdaws ( Corvus monedula ) nest in the same hollow tree or building and seem to live harmoniously with the owls .

Before commencing laying , the female spends much time near the nest and is entirely provisioned by the male . Meanwhile , the male roosts nearby and may cache any prey that is surplus to their requirements . When the female has reached peak weight , the male provides a ritual presentation of food and copulation occurs at the nest . The female lays eggs on alternate days and the clutch size averages about five eggs ( range two to nine ) . The eggs are chalky white , somewhat elliptical and about the size of bantam 's eggs , and incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid . While she is sitting on the nest , the male is constantly bringing more provisions and they may pile up beside the female . The incubation period is about thirty days , hatching takes place over a prolonged period and the youngest chick may be several weeks younger than its oldest sibling . In years with plentiful supplies of food , there may be a hatching success rate of about 75 % . The male continues to copulate with the female when he brings food which makes the newly hatched chicks vulnerable to injury .

The chicks are at first covered with greyish @-@ white down and develop rapidly . Within a week they can hold their heads up and shuffle around in the nest . The female tears up the food brought by the male and distributes it to the chicks . Initially these make a " chittering " sound but this soon changes into a food @-@ demanding " snore " . By two weeks old they are already half their adult weight and look naked as the amount of down is insufficient to cover their growing bodies . By three weeks old , quills are starting to push through the skin and the chicks stand , making snoring noises with wings raised and tail stumps waggling , begging for food items which are now given whole . The male is the main provider of food until all the chicks are at least four weeks old at which time the female begins to leave the nest and starts to roost elsewhere . By the sixth week the chicks are as big as the adults but have slimmed down somewhat by the ninth week when they are fully fledged and start leaving the nest briefly themselves . They are still dependent on the parent birds until about thirteen weeks and receive training from the female in finding , and eventually catching , prey .

= = = Moulting = = =

Feathers become abraded over time and all birds need to replace them at intervals . Barn owls are particularly dependent on their ability to fly quietly and manoeuvre efficiently , and in temperate areas their prolonged moult lasts through three phases over a period of two years . The female starts to moult while incubating the eggs and brooding the chicks , a time when the male feeds her so she does not need to fly much . The first primary feather to be shed is the central one , number 6 , and it has regrown completely by the time the female resumes hunting . Feathers 4 , 5 , 7 and 8 are dropped at a similar time the following year and feathers 1 , 2 , 3 , 9 and 10 in the bird 's third year of adulthood . The secondary and tail feathers are lost and replaced over a similar timescale , again starting while incubation is taking place . In the case of the tail , the two outermost tail feathers are first shed followed by the two central ones , the other tail feathers being moulted the following year .

In temperate areas , the male owl moults rather later in the year than the female , at a time when there is an abundance of food , the female has recommenced hunting and the demands of the chicks are lessening . Unmated males without family responsibilities often start losing feathers earlier in the year . The moult follows a similar prolonged pattern to that of the female and the first sign that the male is moulting is often when a tail feather has been dropped at the roost . A consequence of moulting is the loss of thermal insulation . This is of little importance in the tropics and barn owls here usually moult a complete complement of flight feathers annually . The hot @-@ climate moult may still take place over a long period but is usually concentrated at a particular time of year outside the breeding season .

= = = Predators and parasites = = =

Predators of the barn owl include large American opossums ( Didelphis ) , the common raccoon , and similar carnivorous mammals , as well as eagles , larger hawks and other owls . Among the latter , the great horned owl ( Bubo virginianus ) in the Americas and the Eurasian eagle @-@ owl ( B. bubo ) are noted predators of barn owls ( though there is little evidence for predation on wild birds by great horned owls ) . In Europe , the chief diurnal predators are the northern goshawk ( Accipiter gentilis ) and the common buzzard ( Buteo buteo ) . The goshawk and the eagle owl are on the increase because of the greater protection these birds now receive .

When disturbed at its roosting site , an angry barn owl lowers its head and sways it from side to side , or the head may be lowered and stretched forward and the wings drooped while the bird emits hisses and makes snapping noises with its beak . A defensive attitude involves lying flat on the ground or crouching with wings spread out .

Barn owls are hosts to a wide range of parasites . Fleas are present at nesting sites and externally the birds are attacked by feather lice and feather mites which chew the barbules of the feathers and which are transferred from bird to bird by direct contact . Blood @-@ sucking flies such as Ornithomyia avicularia are often present , moving about among the plumage . Internal parasites include the fluke Strigea strigis , the tape worm Paruternia candelabraria , several species of parasitic round worm and spiny @-@ headed worms in the genus Centrorhynchus . These gut parasites are acquired when the birds feed on infected prey which provide intermediate hosts for the parasites . There is some indication that female birds with more and larger spots have a greater resistance to external parasites . This is correlated with smaller bursae of Fabricius , glands associated with antibody production , and a lower fecundity of the blood @-@ sucking fly Carnus hemapterus that attacks nestlings .

= = = Lifespan = = =

Unusually for such a medium @-@ sized carnivorous animal , the barn owl exhibits r @-@ selection , producing large number of offspring with a high growth rate , many of which have a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood . While wild barn owls are thus decidedly short @-@ lived , the actual longevity of the species is much higher – captive individuals may reach twenty years of age or more . But occasionally , a wild bird reaches an advanced age . The American record age for a wild barn owl is eleven and a half years , while a Dutch bird was noted to have reached an age of seventeen years , ten months . Another captive barn owl , in England , lived to be over twenty @-@ five years old . Taking into account such extremely long @-@ lived individuals , the average lifespan of the barn owl is about four years , and statistically two @-@ thirds to three @-@ quarters of all adults survive from one year to the next . However , the mortality is not evenly distributed throughout the bird 's life , and only one young in three manages to live to its first breeding attempt .

The most significant cause of death in temperate areas is likely to be starvation , particularly over the autumn and winter period when first year birds are still perfecting their hunting skills . In northern and upland areas , there is some correlation between mortality in older birds and adverse weather , deep @-@ lying snow and prolonged low temperatures . Collision with road vehicles is another cause of mortality , and may result when birds forage on mown verges . Some of these birds are in poor condition and may have been less able to evade oncoming vehicles than fit individuals would have been . Historically , many deaths were caused by the use of pesticides , and this may still be the case in some parts of the world . Collisions with power @-@ lines kill some birds and shooting accounts for others , especially in Mediterranean regions .

= = Status and conservation = =

Barn owls are relatively common throughout most of their range and not considered globally threatened . However , locally severe declines from organochlorine ( e.g. , DDT ) poisoning in the mid @-@ 20th century and rodenticides in the late 20th century have affected some populations , particularly in Europe and North America . Intensification of agricultural practices often means that the rough grassland that provides the best foraging habitat is lost . While barn owls are prolific breeders and able to recover from short @-@ term population decreases , they are not as common in some areas as they used to be . A 1995 – 1997 survey put their British population at between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 breeding pairs , out of an average of about 150 @,@ 000 pairs in the whole of Europe . In the USA , barn owls are listed as endangered species in seven Midwestern states , and in the European Community they are considered a Species of European Concern .

In some areas , it may be an insufficiency of suitable nesting sites that is the factor limiting barn owl numbers . The provision of nest boxes under the eaves of buildings and in other locations can be very successful in increasing the local population . In Malaysia , large areas of rainforest were felled to make way for oil palm plantations and with few tree cavities for breeding , the barn owl population , with its ability to control rodent pests , diminished . The provision of two hundred nest boxes in a trial saw almost one hundred percent occupancy and as the programme expanded , the plantations supported one of the densest barn owl populations in the world . Similarly , providing nesting boxes has increased the number of barn owls in rice @-@ growing areas of Malaysia where the rodents do much damage to the crop . However , although barn owl numbers have increased in both these instances , it is unclear as to how effective this biological control of the rats is as compared to the trapping and baiting that occurred previously .

Common names such as " demon owl " , " death owl " , or " ghost owl " show that traditionally , rural populations in many places considered barn owls to be birds of evil omen . Consequently , they were often persecuted by farmers who were unaware of the benefit these birds bring . The Canary barn owl is particularly at risk , and as late as 1975 , hunting by fearful locals was limiting the population on Fuerteventura where only a few dozen pairs remain . On Lanzarote a somewhat larger number of these birds still seem to exist , but altogether this particular subspecies is precariously rare : Probably less than three hundred and perhaps fewer than two hundred individuals still remain . Similarly , the birds on the western Canary Islands which are usually assigned to the nominate subspecies have declined much , and here wanton destruction seems still to be significant . On Tenerife they seem relatively numerous but on the other islands , the situation looks about as bleak as on Fuerteventura . Due to their assignment to the nominate subspecies , which is common in mainland Spain , the western Canary Islands population is not classified as threatened .

In the United Kingdom , the " Barn Owl Nest Box Scheme " is promoted by the World Owl Trust and has many participants in local areas such as Somerset , where a webcam has been set up inside a nest box in which seven young were reared in 2014 . Another barn owl nest box live @-@ streaming webcam located in California , United States has proved popular online . In May 2012 , it was revealed that farmers in Israel and Jordan had , over a period of ten years , replaced pesticides with barn owls in a joint conservation venture called " Project Barn Owl " .

= Loch Arkaig treasure =

The treasure of Loch Arkaig , sometimes known as the Jacobite gold , was a large amount of specie provided by Spain to finance the Jacobite rising in Scotland in 1745 , and rumoured still to be hidden at Loch Arkaig in Lochaber .

= = Background = =

In 1745 , Prince Charles Edward Stuart ( Bonnie Prince Charlie ) arrived in Scotland from France and claimed the thrones of Scotland , England and Ireland , in the name of his father James Stuart ( the Old Pretender ) . Although Charles asserted that his venture was supported by Louis XV of France , and that the arrival of French forces in Scotland was imminent , in truth France had little intention to intervene on the Stuarts ' behalf . However , some limited financial support was supplied by both Spain and the Pope .

Spain pledged some 400 @,@ 000 livres ( or Louis d 'Or ) per month for the Jacobite cause . However , getting this money to the rebel army was the difficulty . The first instalment ( sent via Charles ' brother Henry who was resident in France ) was dispatched in 1745 . The French sloop Hazard ( renamed the Prince Charles ) successfully landed its monies on the west coast of Scotland . Unfortunately for the Jacobites , the riches were soon captured by Clan Mackay , who were loyal to King George II , in the Skirmish of Tongue .

= = Treasure arrives = =

In April 1746 , the ships Mars and Bellona arrived in Scotland with 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 livres ( another Spanish instalment , plus a large French supplement ) . However , on learning of the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Culloden on 16 April , the ships left , unloading only the Spanish money at Loch nan Uamh , Arisaig on 30 April ( the same place from where the prince had disembarked the year before , and would later embark for France ) . Thus , seven caskets of Spanish gold arrived in Scotland . As the Jacobite cause was by then lost , with the army scattered and the prince and his lieutenants in hiding , the money was to be used to assist the Jacobite clansmen ( then being subjected to the brutalities of the government forces of the Duke of Cumberland ) and to facilitate the escape of leading Jacobites to the continent .

Six caskets ( one having been stolen by McDonald of Barrisdale 's men ) were brought to Loch Arkaig ( just north of Fort William ) and hidden . Their secret was entrusted to Murray of Broughton , one of the Jacobite fugitives . Murray began the distribution to clan chiefs , but when he was apprehended by the government ( and later turned state 's evidence ) the treasure was entrusted first to Lochiel , the chief of Clan Cameron , and then to Macpherson of Cluny , head of Clan Macpherson . Cluny was hiding in a cave at Ben Alder , which came to be known as " the cage " , and when Charles briefly joined him there , Cluny had control of the money , which was still hidden at Arkaig .

= = Treasure hunt = =

Charles finally escaped Scotland in the French frigate L 'Heureux and arrived back in France in September 1746 . However , the fate of the money is not as clear . Cluny is believed to have retained control of it , and during his long years as a fugitive was at the centre of various futile plots to finance another uprising . Indeed , he remained in hiding in his Highland " cage " for the next eight years . Meanwhile , a cash @-@ strapped Charles was constantly looking for his money and at least some of it came to him later , paying for the minting of a campaign medal in the 1750s . However , it is said that all of the gold was never recovered . Charles , years later , accused Cluny of embezzlement . Whatever the case , the gold became a source of discord and grievance among the surviving Jacobites .

In 1753 , Archibald Cameron — Lochiel 's brother , who was acting as secretary to the Old Pretender — was sent back to Scotland to locate the treasure . However , whilst staying secretly at Brenachyle by Loch Katrine , he was betrayed ( apparently by the notorious " Pickle " , a Hanoverian spy ) and arrested . He was charged under the Act of Attainder for his part in the 1745 uprising and sentenced to death , being drawn and then hanged on 7 June 1753 , at Tyburn ( the last Jacobite to be executed ) .

The trail then goes cold . However , the Stuarts ' papers ( now in the possession of Queen Elizabeth II ) record a host of claims , counter @-@ claims and accusations among the Highland chiefs and Jacobites in exile , as to the fate of the monies . The historian Andrew Lang ( who was one of the first people to research the papers since Walter Scott secured them for the crown ) recorded , in his book Pickle the Spy ( 1897 ) , the sordid tale , and the involvement of both the prince and his father in trying to locate the monies . The Stuart papers also include an account from around 1750 , drawn up in Rome by Archibald Cameron , which indicates that Cluny had not or could not account for all of it .

According to Clan Cameron records , some French gold coins were found buried in nearby woods in the 1850s .

= = In fiction = =

The " Arkaig treasure " is featured in Nigel Tranter 's historical fiction novel Gold for Prince Charlie .

The missing treasure features in Neil Munro 's novel Children of the Tempest , a love story set in the Outer Hebrides in the late 18th century . Published originally in 1903 , rev.ed 2002 .

= History of Indiana =

The history of human activity in Indiana , a US state in the Midwest , began with migratory tribes of Native Americans who inhabited Indiana as early as 8000 BC . Tribes succeeded one another in dominance for several thousand years and reached their peak of development during the period of Mississippian culture . The region entered recorded history in the 1670s when the first Europeans came to Indiana and claimed the territory for the Kingdom of France . After France ruled for 100 years ( with little settlement in this area ) , it was defeated by Great Britain in the French and Indian War ( Seven Years ' War ) and ceded its territory east of the Mississippi . Britain held the land for more than twenty years , until after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War . At that time , Britain ceded the entire trans @-@ Allegheny region , including what is now Indiana , to the new United States .

The United States government divided the trans @-@ Allegheny region into several new territories . The largest of these was the Northwest Territory , which was progressively divided into several smaller territories by the United States Congress . In 1800 , the Indiana Territory was the first new territory established from a portion of the Northwest Territory . The territory grew in population and development until it was admitted to the Union in 1816 as the nineteenth state , Indiana . Following statehood , the newly established state government laid out on an ambitious plan to transform Indiana from a segment of the frontier into a developed , well populated , and thriving state . The state 's founders initiated a program that led to the construction of roads , canals , railroads , and state @-@ funded public schools . Despite the noble aims of the project , profligate spending ruined the state 's credit . By 1841 the state was near bankruptcy and forced to liquidate most of its public works . By its new constitution of 1851 , it restricted rights of free blacks and excluded them from the suffrage . During the 1850s , the state 's population grew to exceed one million . The ambitious program of its founders was realized as Indiana became the fourth @-@ largest state in terms of population , as measured by the 1860 census .

Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the Union during the American Civil War . Indiana was the first western state to mobilize for the war , and its soldiers participated in almost every engagement during the war . Following the Civil War , Indiana remained politically important as it became a critical swing state in U.S. Presidential elections . It helped decide control of the presidency for three decades . During the Indiana Gas Boom of the late 19th century , industry began to develop rapidly in the state . The state 's Golden Age of Literature began in the same time period , increasing its cultural influence . By the early 20th century , Indiana developed into a strong manufacturing state and attracted numerous immigrants and internal migrants to its industries . It experienced setbacks during the Great Depression of the 1930s . Construction of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway , expansion of the auto industry , urban development , and two wars contributed to the state 's industrial growth . During the second half of the 20th century , Indiana became a leader in the pharmaceutical industry due to the innovations of companies such as Eli Lilly .

= = Early civilizations = =

Following the end of the last glacial period , Indiana 's topography was dominated by spruce and pine forests and was home to mastodon , caribou , and saber @-@ toothed cats . While Northern Indiana had been covered by glaciers , Southern Indiana remained unaltered by the ice 's advance , leaving plants and animals that could sustain human communities . Indiana 's earliest known inhabitants were Paleo @-@ Indians . Evidence exists that humans were in Indiana as early as the Archaic stage ( 8000 – 6000 BC ) . Hunting camps of the nomadic Clovis culture have been found in Indiana . Carbon dating of artifacts found in the Wyandotte Caves of Southern Indiana shows humans mined flint there as early 2000 BC . These nomads ate quantities of freshwater mussels from local streams , as shown by their shell mounds found throughout southern Indiana .

The Early Woodland period in Indiana came between 1000 BC and 200 AD and produced the Adena culture . It domesticated wild squash and made pottery , which were large cultural advances over the Clovis culture . The natives built burial mounds ; one of this type has been dated as the oldest earthwork in Anderson 's Mounds State Park .

Natives in the Middle Woodland period developed the Hopewell culture and may have been in Indiana as early as 200 BC . The Hopewells were the first culture to create permanent settlements in Indiana . About 1 AD , the Hopewells mastered agriculture and grew crops of sunflowers and squash . Around 200 AD , the Hopewells began to construct mounds used for ceremonies and burials . The Hopewells in Indiana were connected by trade to other native tribes as far away as Central America . For unknown reasons , the Hopewell culture went into decline around 400 and completely disappeared by 500 .

The Late Woodland era is generally considered to have begun about 600 AD and lasted until the arrival of Europeans in Indiana . It was a period of rapid cultural change . One of the new developments — which has yet to be explained — was the introduction of masonry , shown by the construction of large , stone forts , many of which overlook the Ohio River . Romantic legend used to attribute the forts to Welsh Indians who supposedly arrived centuries before Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean . Archaeologists and other scholars have found no evidence for that theory and believe that the cultural development was engendered by the Mississippian culture .

= = = Mississippians = = =

Evidence suggests that after the collapse of the Hopewell , Indiana had a low population until the rise of the Fort Ancient and Mississippian culture around 900 AD . The Ohio River Valley was densely populated by the Mississippians from about 1100 to 1450 AD . Their settlements , like those of the Hopewell , were known for their ceremonial earthwork mounds . Some of these remain visible at locations near the Ohio River . The Mississippian mounds were constructed on a grander scale than the mounds built by the Hopewell . The agrarian Mississippian culture was the first to grow maize in the region . The people also developed the bow and arrow and copper working during this time period .

Mississippian society was complex , dense , and highly developed ; the largest Mississippian city of Cahokia ( in Illinois ) contained as many as 30 @,@ 000 inhabitants . They had a class society with certain groups specializing as artisans . The elite held related political and religious positions . Their cities were typically sited near rivers . Representing their cosmology , the central developments were dominated by a large central mound , several smaller mounds , and a large open plaza . Wooden palisades were built later around the complex , apparently for defensive purposes . The remains of a major settlement known as Angel Mounds lie east of present @-@ day Evansville . Mississippian houses were generally square @-@ shaped with plastered walls and thatched roofs . For reasons that remain unclear , the Mississippians disappeared in the middle of the 15th century , about 200 years before the Europeans first entered what would become modern Indiana . Mississippian culture marked the high point of native development in Indiana .

It was during this period that American Bison began a periodic east – west trek through Indiana , crossing the Falls of the Ohio and the Wabash River near modern @-@ day Vincennes . These herds became important to civilizations in southern Indiana and created a well @-@ established Buffalo Trace , later used by European @-@ American pioneers moving west .

Before 1600 , a major war broke out in eastern North America among Native Americans ; it was later called the Beaver Wars . Five American Indian Iroquois tribes confederated to battle against their neighbors . The Iroquois were opposed by a confederation of primarily Algonquian tribes including the Shawnee , Miami , Wea , Pottawatomie , and the Illinois . These tribes were significantly less advanced than the Mississippian culture that had preceded them . The tribes were semi @-@ nomadic , used stone tools rather than copper , and did not create the large @-@ scale construction and farming works of their Mississippian predecessors . The war continued with sporadic fighting for at least a century as the Iroquois sought to dominate the expanding fur trade with the Europeans . They achieved this goal for several decades . During the war , the Iroquois drove the tribes from the Ohio Valley to the south and west . They kept control of the area for hunting grounds .

As a result of the war , several tribes , including the Shawnee , migrated into Indiana , where they attempted to resettle in land belonging to the Miami . The Iroquois gained the military advantage after they were supplied with firearms by the Europeans . With their superior weapons , the Iroquois subjugated at least thirty tribes and nearly destroyed several others in northern Indiana .

= = = European contact = = =

When the first Europeans entered Indiana during the 1670s , the region was in the final years of the Beaver Wars . The French attempted to trade with the Algonquian tribes in Indiana , selling them firearms in exchange for furs . This incurred the wrath of the Iroquois , who destroyed a French outpost in Indiana in retaliation . Appalled by the Iroquois , the French continued to supply the western tribes with firearms and openly allied with the Algonquian tribes . A major battle — and a turning point in the conflict — occurred near modern South Bend when the Miami and their allies repulsed a large Iroquois force in an ambush . With the firearms they received from the French , the odds were evened . The war finally ended in 1701 with the Great Peace of Montreal . Both Indian confederacies were left exhausted , having suffered heavy casualties . Much of Ohio , Michigan and Indiana was left depopulated as many tribes fled west to escape the fighting .

The Miami and Pottawatomie nations returned to Indiana following the war . Other tribes , such as the Algonquian Lenape , were pushed westward into the Midwest from the East Coast by encroachment of European colonists . Around 1770 the Miami invited the Lenape to settle on the White River . The Shawnee arrived in present @-@ day Indiana after the three other nations . These four nations were later to be participants in the Sixty Years ' War , a struggle between native nations and European settlers for control of the Great Lakes region . Hostilities with the tribes began early . The Piankeshaw killed five French fur traders in 1752 near the Vermilion River . But the tribes also traded successfully with the French for decades .

= = Colonial period = =

French fur traders from Canada were the first Europeans to enter Indiana , beginning in the 1670s . The quickest route connecting the New France districts of Canada and Louisiana ran along Indiana 's Wabash River . The Terre Haute highlands were once considered the border between the two French districts . This made Indiana a vital part of French lines of communication and trade routes . The French established Vincennes as a permanent settlement in Indiana during European rule , but the population of the area remained primarily Native American . As French influence grew in the region , Great Britain , competing with France for control of North America , came to believe that control of Indiana was important to halt French expansion on the continent .

= = = France = = =

The first European outpost within modern Indiana was Tassinong , a French trading post established in 1673 near the Kankakee River . French explorer René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle came to the area in 1679 , claiming it for King Louis the XIV of France . La Salle came to explore a portage between the St. Joseph and Kankakee rivers , and Father Ribourde , who traveled with La Salle , marked trees along the way . The marks survived to be photographed in the 19th century . In 1681 , La Salle negotiated a common defense treaty between the Illinois and Miami nations against the Iroquois .

Further exploration of Indiana led to the French establishing an important trade route between Canada and Louisiana via the Maumee and Wabash rivers . The French built a series of forts and outposts in Indiana as a hedge against the westward expansion of the British colonies from the east coast of North America and to encourage trade with the native tribes . The tribes were able to procure metal tools , cooking utensils , and other manufactured items in exchange for animal pelts . The French built Fort Miamis in the Miami town of Kekionga ( modern Fort Wayne , Indiana ) . France assigned Jean Baptiste Bissot , Sieur de Vincennes , as the first agent to the Miami at Kekionga .

In 1717 , François @-@ Marie Picoté de Belestre established the post of Ouiatenon ( modern Lafayette , Indiana ) to discourage the Wea from coming under British influence . In 1732 , François @-@ Marie Bissot , Sieur de Vincennes , established a similar post near the Piankeshaw in the town that still bears his name . Although the forts were garrisoned by men from New France , Fort Vincennes was the only outpost to maintain a permanent European presence until the modern day . Jesuit priests accompanied many of the French soldiers into Indiana in an attempt to convert the natives to Christianity . The Jesuits conducted missionary activities , lived among the natives and learned their languages , and accompanied them on hunts and migrations . Gabriel Marest , one of the first missionaries in Indiana , taught among the Kaskaskia as early as 1712 . The missionaries came to have great influence among the natives and played an important role in keeping the native tribes allied with the French .

During the French and Indian War , the North American front of the Seven Years ' War in Europe , the British directly challenged France for control of the region . Although no pitched battles occurred in Indiana , the native tribes of the region supported the French . At the beginning of the war , the tribes sent large groups of warriors to support the French in resisting the British advance and to raid British colonies . Using Fort Pitt as a forward base , British commander Robert Rogers overcame the native resistance and drove deep into the frontier to capture Fort Detroit . The rangers moved south from Detroit and captured many of the key French outposts in Indiana , including Fort Miamis and Fort Vincennes . As the war progressed , the French lost control of Canada after the fall of Montreal . No longer able to effectively fight the British in interior North America , they lost Indiana to British forces . By 1761 the French were entirely forced out of Indiana . Following the French expulsion , the native tribes , led by Chief Pontiac , confederated in an attempt to rebel against the British without French assistance . While Pontiac was besieging British @-@ held Fort Detroit , other tribes in Indiana rose up against the British . They were forced to surrender Fort Miamis and Fort Ouiatenon . In 1763 , while Pontiac was fighting the British , the French signed the Treaty of Paris and ceded control of Indiana to the British .

= = = Great Britain = = =

When the British gained control of Indiana , the entire region was in the middle of Pontiac 's Rebellion . During the next year , British officials negotiated with the various tribes , splitting them from their alliance with Pontiac . Eventually , Pontiac lost most of his allies , forcing him to make peace with the British on July 25 , 1766 . As a concession to Pontiac , Great Britain issued a proclamation that the territory west of the Appalachian Mountains was to be reserved for Native Americans . Despite the treaty , Pontiac was still considered a threat to British interests , but after he was murdered on April 20 , 1769 , the region saw several years of peace .

After Britain established peace with the natives , many of the former French trading posts and forts in the region were abandoned . Fort Miamis was maintained for several years because it was considered to be " of great importance " , but even it was eventually abandoned . The Jesuit priests were expelled , and no provisional government was established ; the British hoped the French in the area would leave . Many did leave , but the British gradually became more accommodating to the French who remained and continued the fur trade with the Native American nations .

In 1768 , a treaty was negotiated between several of the British colonies and the Iroquois . The Iroquois sold their territorial claims to the colonies as part of the treaty . The company created to hold that claim was named the Indiana Land Company , the first recorded use of the word Indiana . The claim was disputed by the colony of Virginia , which did not participate in the treaty because it already laid claim to the land through its royal charter . In 1773 , the territory of Indiana was brought under the administration of Province of Quebec to appease its French population . The Quebec Act was listed as one of the Intolerable Acts the Thirteen Colonies cited as a reason for the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War . The thirteen colonies thought themselves entitled to the territory for their support of Great Britain during the French and Indian War , and were incensed that it was given to the enemy the colonies had been fighting .

Although the United States gained official possession of the region following the conclusion of the American Revolution , British influence on its Native American allies in the region remained strong , especially near Fort Detroit . This influence caused the Northwest Indian War , which began when British @-@ influenced native tribes refused to recognize American authority and were backed in their resistance by British merchants in the area . American military victories in the region and the ratification of the Jay Treaty , which called for British withdrawal from the region 's forts , caused a formal evacuation , but the British were not fully expelled from the area until the conclusion of the War of 1812 .

= = = United States = = =

After the outbreak of the American Revolution , George Rogers Clark was sent from Virginia to enforce its claim to much of the land in the Great Lakes region . In July 1778 , Clark and about 175 men crossed the Ohio River and took control of Kaskaskia , Vincennes , and several other villages in British Indiana . The occupation was accomplished without firing a shot because Clark carried letters from the French ambassador stating that France supported the Americans . These letters made most of the French and Native American inhabitants of the area unwilling to support the British .

The fort at Vincennes , renamed Fort Sackville by the British , had been abandoned years earlier and no garrison was present when the Americans occupied it . Captain Leonard Helm became the first American commandant at Vincennes . To counter Clark 's advance , the British under Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton reoccupied Vincennes with a small force . In February 1779 , Clark arrived at Vincennes in a surprise winter expedition and retook the town , capturing Hamilton in the process . This expedition secured most of southern Indiana for the United States .

In 1780 , emulating Clark 's success at Vincennes , French officer Augustin de La Balme organized a militia force of French residents to capture Fort Detroit . While marching to Detroit , the force stopped to sack Kekionga . The delay proved fatal when the expedition met the warriors of the Miami tribe under Miami Chief Little Turtle along the Eel River , and the entire force was killed or captured . Clark organized another assault on Fort Detroit in 1781 , but it was aborted when Chief Joseph Brant captured a significant part of Clark 's army at a battle known as Lochry 's Defeat , near present @-@ day Aurora , Indiana .

Other minor skirmishes occurred in Indiana , including the battle at Petit Fort in 1780 . In 1783 , when the war came to an end , Britain ceded the entire trans @-@ Allegheny region to the United States — including Indiana — in the peace treaty negotiated in Paris .

Clark 's militia was under the authority of the state of Virginia , and although a continental flag was flown over Fort Sackville , the area was governed as Virginia territory until the state gave it to the United States federal government in 1784 . Clark was awarded large tracts of land in southern Indiana for his service in the war and modern Clark County is named in his honor .

= = Indiana Territory = =

In 1785 , the Northwest Indian War began . In an attempt to end the native rebellion , the Miami town of Kekionga was attacked unsuccessfully by General Josiah Harmar and Northwest Territory Governor Arthur St. Clair . St. Clair 's Defeat is the worst defeat of the U.S. Army by Native Americans in history , leaving almost the entire army dead or captured . The defeat led to the appointment of General " Mad Anthony " Wayne who organized the Legion of the United States and defeated a Native American force at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 . In 1795 , the Treaty of Greenville was signed and a small part of eastern Indiana was opened for settlement . Fort Miami at Kekionga was occupied by the United States , who rebuilt it as Fort Wayne . After the treaty , the powerful Miami nation considered themselves allies with the United States . The war ended hostilities with the Native Americans , leaving them victorious in 31 of the 37 recorded incidents involving white settlers during the 18th century .

The Northwest Territory was formed by the Congress of the Confederation on July 13 , 1787 , and included all land between the Appalachian Mountains , the Mississippi River , the Great Lakes and the Ohio River . This single territory became the states of Ohio , Michigan , Indiana , Illinois , Wisconsin , and part of eastern Minnesota . The act established an administration to oversee the territory and had the land surveyed in accordance with The Land Ordinance of 1785 . At the time the territory was created , there were only two American settlements in what would become Indiana : Vincennes and Clark 's Grant . The population of the northwest included fewer than 5 @,@ 000 Europeans . The Native American population was estimated to be near 20 @,@ 000 , but may have been as high as 75 @,@ 000 .

On July 4 , 1800 , the Indiana Territory was established out of Northwest Territory in preparation for Ohio 's statehood . The Indiana Land Company , which still held claim to Indiana , had been dissolved by a United States Supreme Court decision in 1798 . The name Indiana meant " Land of the Indians " , and referred to the fact that most of the area north of the Ohio River was still inhabited by Native Americans . ( Kentucky , South of the Ohio River , had been a traditional hunting ground for tribes that resided north of the river , and early American settlers in Kentucky referred to the North bank as the land of the Indians . ) Although the company 's claim was extinguished , Congress used their name for the new territory . The Indiana Territory contained present day Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , Wisconsin and part of Minnesota . Those areas were separated out in 1805 and 1809 . The first Governor of the Territory was William Henry Harrison , who served from 1800 until 1813 . Harrison County was named in honor of Harrison , who later become the ninth President of The United States . He was succeeded by Thomas Posey who served from 1813 until 1816 .

The first capital was established in Vincennes where it remained for thirteen years . After the territory was reorganized in 1809 , the legislature made plans to move the capital to Corydon to be more centralized with the population . Corydon was established in 1808 on land donated by William Henry Harrison . The new capitol building was finished in 1813 and the government quickly relocated following the outbreak of war on the frontier .

As the population of the territory grew , so did the people 's exercising of their freedoms . In 1809 , the territory was granted permission to fully elect its own legislature for the first time . Before that , Governor Harrison appointed the legislature . Although Article 6 of the Northwest Ordinance had prohibited slavery , it had existed in the region since French rule . In addition , settlers from the Upper South occupied areas along the Ohio River , bringing slaves with them . They wanted to have it be legal in the territory , but others from the northern states opposed the expansion of slavery into this region . The anti @-@ slavery party won a strong majority in the first election . Governor Harrison was at odds with the new legislature , which proceeded to overturn the indenturing and pro @-@ slavery laws he had enacted . Slavery remained the defining issue in the state for the decades to follow . In these early decades , although the legislature did not encourage free blacks to settle here , it extended suffrage to them .

= = = War of 1812 = = =

The first major event in the territory was the resumption of hostilities with the Indians . Unhappy with their treatment since the peace of 1795 , the native tribes , led by the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa , formed a coalition against the Americans . Tecumseh 's War started in 1811 when General William Henry Harrison led his army to rebuff aggressive movements of Tecumseh 's confederation . The war continued until the Battle of Tippecanoe which firmly ended the Native American uprising and allowed the Americans to take full control of all of Indiana . The Battle earned Harrison national fame , and the nickname " Old Tippecanoe " .

The war between Tecumseh and Harrison merged with the War of 1812 when the remnants of the Indian Confederation allied with the British in Canada . The Siege of Fort Harrison is considered to be the United States ' first land victory during the war . Other battles that occurred in the modern state of Indiana include the Siege of Fort Wayne , the Pigeon Roost Massacre and the Battle of the Mississinewa . The Treaty of Ghent , signed in 1814 , ended the war and relieved American settlers from their fears of the nearby British and their Indian allies . This marked the end of hostilities with the Native Americans in Indiana . Of the 58 recorded incidents between Native Americans and the United States in Indiana during the 19th century , 43 were Indian victories .

= = Statehood = =

In 1812 , Jonathan Jennings defeated Harrison 's chosen candidate and became the territory 's representative to Congress . Jennings immediately introduced legislation to grant Indiana statehood , even though the population of the entire territory was under 25 @,@ 000 , but no action was taken on the legislation because of the outbreak of the War of 1812 .

Posey had created a rift in the politics of the territory by supporting slavery , much to the chagrin of opponents like Jennings , Dennis Pennington , and others who dominated the Territorial Legislature and who sought to use the bid for statehood to permanently end slavery in the territory .

= = = Founding = = =

In early 1816 , the Territory approved a census and Pennington was named to be the census enumerator . The population of the territory was found to be 63 @,@ 897 , above the cutoff required for statehood . A constitutional convention met on June 10 , 1816 , in Corydon . Because of the heat of the season , the delegation moved outdoors on many days and wrote the constitution beneath the shade of a giant elm tree . The state 's first constitution was completed on June 29 , and elections were held in August to fill the offices of the new state government . In November Congress approved statehood .

Jennings and his supporters had control of the convention and Jennings was elected its president . Other notable delegates at the convention included Dennis Pennington , Davis Floyd , and William Hendricks . Pennington and Jennings were at the forefront of the effort to prevent slavery from entering Indiana and sought to create a constitutional ban on it . Pennington was quoted as saying " Let us be on our guard when our convention men are chosen that they be men opposed to slavery " . They succeeded in their goal and a ban was placed in the new constitution . But , persons already held in bondage stayed in that status for some time . That same year Indiana statehood was approved by Congress . While settlers did not want slavery , they also wanted to exclude free blacks , and established barriers to their immigration to the state .

Jonathan Jennings , whose motto was " No slavery in Indiana " , was elected governor of the state , defeating Thomas Posey 5 @,@ 211 to 3 @,@ 934 votes . Jennings served two terms as governor and then went on to represent the state in congress for another 18 years . Upon election , Jennings declared Indiana a free state . The abolitionists won a key victory in the 1820 Indiana Supreme Court case of Polly v. Lasselle ; slavery was finally extinct by 1830 .

As the northern tribal lands gradually opened to white settlement , Indiana 's population rapidly increased and the center of population shifted continually northward . Indianapolis was selected to be the site of the new state capital in 1820 because of its central position within the state . The city founders assumed the White River would serve as a major transportation artery ; however , the waterway was too sandy for navigation . In 1825 , Indianapolis replaced Corydon as the seat of government . The government became established in the Marion County Courthouse as the second state capital building .

= = = Early development = = =

The National Road reached Indianapolis in 1829 , connecting Indiana to the Eastern United States . It was also about this time that citizens of Indiana became known as Hoosiers and the state took on the motto " Crossroads of America " . In 1832 , construction began on the Wabash and Erie Canal , a project connecting the waterways of the Great Lakes to the Ohio River . Railroads soon made the canal system obsolete . These developments in transportation served to economically connect Indiana to the Northern East Coast , rather than relying solely on the natural waterways which connected Indiana to the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast states .

In 1831 , construction on the third state capitol building began . This building , designed by the firm of Ithiel Town and Alexander Jackson Davis , had a design inspired by the Greek Parthenon and opened in 1841 . It was the first statehouse that was built and used exclusively by the state government .

The state suffered from financial difficulties during its first three decades . Jonathan Jennings attempted to begin a period of internal improvements . Among his projects , the Indiana Canal Company was reestablished to build a canal around the Falls of the Ohio . The Panic of 1819 caused the state 's only two banks to fold . This hurt Indiana 's credit , halted the projects , and hampered the start of new projects until the 1830s , after the repair of the state 's finances during the terms of William Hendricks and Noah Noble . Beginning in 1831 , large scale plans for statewide improvements were set into motion . Overspending on the internal improvements led to a large deficit that had to be funded by state bonds through the newly created Bank of Indiana and sale of over nine million acres ( 36 @,@ 000 km ² ) of public land . By 1841 the debt had become unmanageable . Having borrowed over $ 13 million , the equivalent to the state 's first fifteen years of tax revenue , the government could not even pay interest on the debt . The state narrowly avoided bankruptcy by negotiating the liquidation of the public works , transferring them to the state 's creditors in exchange for a 50 % reduction in the state 's debt . The internal improvements began under Jennings paid off as the state began to experience rapid population growth that slowly remedied the state 's funding problems . The improvements led to a fourfold increase in land value , and an even larger increase in farm produce .

During the 1840s , Indiana completed the removal of the Native American tribes . The majority of the Potawatomi voluntarily relocated to Kansas in 1838 . Those who did not leave were forced to travel to Kansas in what came to be called the Potawatomi Trail of Death , leaving only the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians in the Indiana area . The majority of the Miami tribe left in 1846 , although many members of the tribe were permitted to remain in the state on lands they held privately under the terms of the 1818 Treaty of St. Mary 's . The other tribes were also convinced to leave the state voluntarily through the payment of subsidies and land grants further west . The Shawnee migrated westward to settle in Missouri , and the Lenape migrated into Canada . The other minor tribes in the state , including the Wea , moved westward , mostly to Kansas .

By the 1850s , Indiana had undergone major changes : what was once a frontier with sparse population had become a developing state with several cities . In 1816 , Indiana 's population was around 65 @,@ 000 , and in less than 50 years , it had increased to more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 inhabitants .

Because of the rapidly changing state , the constitution of 1816 began to be criticized . Opponents claimed the constitution had too many appointed positions , the terms established were inadequate , and some of the clauses were too easily manipulated by the political parties that did not exist when then constitution was written . The first constitution had not been put to a vote by the general public , and following the great population growth in the state , it was seen as inadequate . A constitutional convention was called in January 1851 to create a new one . The new constitution was approved by the convention on February 10 , 1851 , and submitted for a vote to the electorate that year . It was approved and has since been the official constitution .

= = = Religion = = =

Frontier Indiana was prime ground missionary for the Second Great Awakening , with a never @-@ ending parade of camp meetings and revivals . Baptist church records show an intense interest in private moral behavior at the weekly meetings , including drinking and proper child @-@ rearing practices . The most contentious issue was antimission controversy , in which the more traditional elements denounced missionary societies as unbiblical .

Eastern Presbyterian and Congregational denominations funded an aggressive missionary program , 1826 – 55 , through the American Home Missionary Society ( AHMS ) . It sought to bring sinners to Christ and also to modernize society promoted middle class values , mutual trust among the members , and tried to minimize violence and drinking . The frontierspeople were the reformees and they displayed their annoyance at the new morality being imposed on society . The political crisis came in 1854 @-@ 55 over a pietistic campaign to enact " dry " prohibition of liquor sales . They were strongly opposed by the " wets , " especially non @-@ churched , the Catholics , Episcopalians , the antimissionary elements , and the German recent arrivals . Prohibition failed in 1855 and the moralistic pietistic Protestants switched to a new , equally moralistic cause , the anti @-@ slavery crusade led by the new Republican Party .

= = Education = =

For a list of institutions , see Category : Universities and colleges in Indiana .

The earliest institutions of education in Indiana were missions , established by French Jesuit priests to convert local Native American nations . The Jefferson Academy was founded in 1801 as a public university for the Indiana Territory , and was reincorporated as Vincennes University in 1806 , the first in the state .

The 1816 constitution required that Indiana 's state legislature create a " general system of education , ascending in a regular gradation , from township schools to a state university , wherein tuition shall be gratis , and equally open to all " . It took several years for the legislature to fulfill its promise , partly because of a debate about whether a new public university should be founded to replace the territorial university . The 1820s saw the start of free public township schools . During the administration of William Hendricks , a plot of ground was set aside in each township for the construction of a schoolhouse .

The state government chartered Indiana University in Bloomington in 1820 as the State Seminary . Construction began in 1822 , the first professor was hired in 1823 , and classes were offered in 1824 .

Other state colleges were established for specialized needs . They included Indiana State University , established in Terre Haute in 1865 as the state normal school for training teachers . Purdue University was founded in 1869 as the state 's land @-@ grant university , a school of science and agriculture . Ball State University was founded as a normal school in the early 20th century and given to the state in 1918 .

Public colleges lagged behind the private religious colleges in both size and educational standards until the 1890s . Asbury College ( now Depauw University ) was Methodist . Wabash College was Presbyterian ; they led the Protestant schools . The University of Notre Dame , founded by Rev Edward Sorin in 1842 , proclaims itself as a prominent Catholic college . Indiana lagged the rest of the Midwest with the lowest literacy and education rates into the early 20th century .

= = Transportation = =

In the early 19th century , most transportation of goods in Indiana was done by river . Most of the state 's estuaries drained into the Wabash River or the Ohio River , ultimately meeting up with the Mississippi River , where goods were transported to and sold in St. Louis or New Orleans .

The first road in the region was the Buffalo Trace , an old bison trail that ran from the Falls of the Ohio to Vincennes . After the capitol was relocated to Corydon , several local roads were created to connect the new capitol to the Ohio River at Mauckport and to New Albany . The first major road in the state was the National Road , a project funded by the federal government . The road entered Indiana in 1829 , connecting Richmond , Indianapolis , and Terre Haute with the eastern states and eventually Illinois and Missouri in the west . The state adopted the advanced methods used to build the national road on a statewide basis and began to build a new road network that was usable year @-@ round . The North @-@ South Michigan Road was built in the 1830s , connecting Michigan and Kentucky and passing through Indianapolis in the middle . These two new roads were roughly perpendicular within the state and served as the foundation for a road system to encompass all of Indiana .

In 1832 , the state began construction on the Wabash and Erie Canal . The canal was started at Lake Erie , passed through Fort Wayne , and connected to the Wabash River . This new canal made water transport possible from New Orleans to Lake Erie on an internal route rather than sailing around the whole of the Eastern United States and entering through Canada . Other canal projects were started , but all were abandoned before completion due to the state 's foundering credit after the devaluation of the bonds .

The first railroad in Indiana was built in Shelbyville in the late 1830s . The first major line was completed in 1847 , connecting Madison with Indianapolis . By the 1850s , the railroad began to become popular in Indiana . The railroad brought major changes to Indiana and enhanced the state 's economic growth . Although Indiana 's natural waterways connected it to the South via cities such as St. Louis and New Orleans , the new rail lines ran East @-@ West , and connected Indiana with the economies of the northern states . As late as mid @-@ 1859 , no rail line yet bridged the Ohio or Mississippi rivers . Because of an increased demand on the state 's resources and the embargo against the Confederacy , the rail system was mostly completed by the end of the American Civil War .

= = Suffrage and racial discrimination = =

Indiana put further restrictions on blacks , prohibiting them from testifying in court in a case against a white man . The new constitution of 1851 expanded suffrage for white males , but excluded blacks from suffrage . While the state did not have legal segregation , it excluded black children from public schools as a matter of custom .

= = = Temperance movement = = =

Temperance became a part of the evangelical Protestant initiative during Indiana 's pioneer era and early statehood . Many Hoosiers freely indulged in drinking locally distilled whiskey on a daily basis , with binges on election days and holidays , and during community celebrations Reformers announced that the devil was at work and must be repudiated . A state temperance society formed in 1829 and local temperance societies soon organized in Indianapolis , Fort Wayne , and Logansport . By the 1830s pietistic ( evangelical ) Protestants and community leaders had joined forces to curb consumption of alcohol . In 1847 the Indiana General Assembly passed a local option bill that allowed a vote on whether to prohibit alcohol sales in a township . The liquor issue pitted wets and drys in stable uncompromising coalitions that formed a main theme of Hoosier politics into the 1930s .

By the 1850s Indiana 's Republican party , whose adherents tended to favor the temperance movement , began challenging the state 's Democrats , who supported personal freedom and a limited federal government , for political power . Early temperance legislation in Indiana earned only limited and temporary success . In 1853 Republicans persuaded the state legislature to pass a local option law that would allow township voters to declare their township dry , but it was later deemed unconstitutional . In 1855 a statewide prohibition law was passed , but it met the same fate as the local option . In the decades to come Protestant churches , especially the Methodists , Baptists , Presbyterians , Disciples of Christ , Quakers , and women 's groups would continue to support temperance efforts and gave strong support to the mostly dry Republican Party . The Catholics , Episcopalians and Lutherans stood opposed and gave strong support to the wet Democratic Party .

= = Civil War = =

Indiana , a free state and the boyhood home of Abraham Lincoln , remained a member of the Union during the American Civil War . Indiana regiments were involved in all the major engagements of the war and almost all the engagements in the western theater . Hoosiers were present in the first and last battles of the war . During the war , Indiana provided 126 infantry regiments , 26 batteries of artillery , and 13 regiments of cavalry to the cause of the Union .

In the initial call to arms issued in 1861 , Indiana was assigned a quota of 7 @,@ 500 men — a tenth of the amount called — to join the Union Army in putting down the rebellion . So many volunteered in the first call that thousands had to be turned away . Before the war ended , Indiana contributed 208 @,@ 367 men to fight and serve in the war . Casualties were over 35 % among these men : 24 @,@ 416 lost their lives in the conflict and over 50 @,@ 000 more were wounded .

At the outbreak of the war , Indiana was run by a Democratic and southern sympathetic majority in the state legislature . It was by the actions of Governor Oliver Morton , who illegally borrowed millions of dollars to finance the army , that Indiana could contribute so greatly to the war effort . Morton suppressed the state legislature with the help of the Republican minority to prevent it from assembling during 1861 and 1862 . This prevented any chance the Democrats might have had to interfere with the war effort or to attempt to secede from the Union .

= = = Raids = = =

Two raids on Indiana soil during the war caused a brief panic in Indianapolis and southern Indiana . The Newburgh Raid on July 18 , 1862 , occurred when Confederate officer Adam Johnson briefly captured Newburgh by convincing the Union troops garrisoning the town that he had cannon on the surrounding hills , when in fact they were merely camouflaged stovepipes . The raid convinced the federal government that it was necessary to supply Indiana with a permanent force of regular Union Army soldiers to counter future raids .

The most significant Civil War battle fought in Indiana was a small skirmish during Morgan 's Raid . On the morning of July 9 , 1863 , Morgan attempted to cross the Ohio River into Indiana with his force of 2 @,@ 400 Confederate cavalry . After his crossing was briefly contested , he marched north to Corydon where he fought the Indiana Legion in the short Battle of Corydon . Morgan took command of the heights south of Corydon and shot two shells from his batteries into the town , which promptly surrendered . The battle left 15 dead and 40 wounded . Morgan 's main body of troopers briefly raided New Salisbury , Crandall , Palmyra , and Salem . Fear gripped the capitol , and the militia began to form there to contest Morgan 's advance . After Salem , however , Morgan turned east , raiding and skirmishing along this path and leaving Indiana through West Harrison on July 13 into Ohio , where he was captured .

= = = Aftermath = = =

The Civil War had a major effect on the development of Indiana . Before the war , the population was generally in the south of the state , where many had entered via the Ohio River , which provided a cheap and convenient means to export products and agriculture to New Orleans to be sold . The war closed the Mississippi River to traffic for nearly four years , forcing Indiana to find other means to export its produce . This led to a population shift to the north where the state came to rely more on the Great Lakes and the railroad for exports .

Before the war , New Albany was the largest city in the state , mainly because of its river contacts and extensive trade with the South . Over half of Hoosiers with over $ 100 @,@ 000 lived in New Albany . During the war , the trade with the South came to a halt , and many residents considered those of New Albany as too friendly to the South . The city never regained its stature . It was stilled as a city of 40 @,@ 000 with its early @-@ Victorian Mansion @-@ Row buildings remaining from the boom period .

= = Post @-@ Civil War era = =

= = = Economic growth = = =

Ohio River ports had been stifled by an embargo on the Confederate South and never fully recovered their economic prominence , leading the south into an economic decline . By contrast , northern Indiana experienced an economic boom when natural gas was discovered in the 1880s , which directly contributed to the rapid growth of cities such as Gas City , Hartford City , and Muncie where a glass industry developed to utilize the cheap fuel . The Indiana gas field was then the largest known in the world . The boom lasted until the early 20th century , when the gas supplies ran low . This began northern Indiana 's industrialization .

The development of heavy industry attracted thousands of European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , as well as internal migrants , both black and white , from the rural and small town South . These developments dramatically altered the demographics of the state . Indiana industrial cities were among the destinations of the Great Migration . After World War II , industrial restructuring and the shifts in heavy industry resulted in Indiana 's becoming part of the Rust Belt .

In 1876 , chemist Eli Lilly , a Union colonel during the Civil War , founded Eli Lilly and Company , a pharmaceutical company . His initial innovation of gelatin @-@ coating for pills led to a rapid growth of the company that eventually developed as Indiana 's largest corporation , and one of the largest corporations in the world . Over the years , the corporation developed many widely used drugs , including insulin , and it became the first company to mass @-@ produce penicillin . The company 's many advances made Indiana the leading state in the production and development of medicines .

Charles Conn returned to Elkhart after the Civil War and established C.G. Conn Ltd . , a manufacturer of musical instruments . The company 's innovation in band instruments made Elkhart an important center of the music world , and it became a base of Elkhart 's economy for decades . Nearby South Bend experienced continued growth following the Civil War , and became a large manufacturing city centered around the Oliver Farm Equipment Company , the nation 's leading plow producer . Gary was founded in 1906 by the United States Steel Corporation as the home for its new plant .

The administration of Governor James D. Williams proposed the construction of the fourth state capitol building in 1878 . The third state capitol building was razed and the new one was constructed on the same site . Two million dollars was appropriated for construction and the new building was completed in 1888 . The building was still in use in 2008 .

The Panic of 1893 had a severely negative effect on the Hoosier economy when many factories closed and several railroads declared bankruptcy . The Pullman Strike of 1894 hurt the Chicago area and coal miners in southern Indiana participated in a national strike . Hard times were not limited to industry ; farmers also felt a financial pinch from falling prices . The economy began to recover when World War I broke out in Europe , creating a higher demand for American goods . Despite economic setbacks , advances in industrial technology continued throughout the last years of the 19th and into the 20th century . On July 4 , 1894 , Elwood Haynes successfully road tested his first automobile , and opened the Haynes @-@ Apperson auto company in 1896 . In 1895 , William Johnson invented a process for casting aluminum .

= = = Political battleground = = =

During the postwar era , Indiana became a critical swing state that often helped decide which party controlled the presidency . Elections were very close , and became the center of frenzied attention with many parades , speeches and rallies as election day approached ; voter turnout ranging over 90 % to near 100 % in such elections as 1888 and 1896 . In remote areas , both sides paid their supporters to vote , and occasionally paid supporters of the opposition not to vote . Despite allegations , historians have found very little fraud in national elections .

To win the electoral vote , both national parties looked for Indiana candidates for the national tickets ; a Hoosier was included in all but one presidential election between 1880 and 1924 .

In 1888 , Indiana Senator Benjamin Harrison , grandson of territorial Governor William Henry Harrison , was elected President after an intense battle that attracted more than 300 @,@ 000 partisans to Indianapolis to hear him speak from his famous front porch . Fort Benjamin Harrison was named in his honor . Five Hoosiers were elected as Vice @-@ President . The most recent was Dan Quayle , elected in 1988 .

= = = High culture = = =

The last decades of the 19th century began what is known as the " golden age of Indiana literature " , a period that lasted until the 1920s . Edward Eggleston wrote The Hoosier Schoolmaster ( 1871 ) , the first best seller to originate in the state . Many other followed , including Maurice Thompson 's Hoosier Mosaics ( 1875 ) , and Lew Wallace 's Ben @-@ Hur ( 1880 ) . Indiana developed a reputation as the " American heartland " following several widely read novels beginning with Booth Tarkington 's The Gentleman from Indiana ( 1899 ) , Meredith Nicholson 's The Hoosiers ( 1900 ) , and Thompson 's second famous novel , Alice of Old Vincennes ( 1900 ) . James Whitcomb Riley , known as the " Hoosier Poet " and the most popular poet of his age , wrote hundreds of poems celebrating Hoosier themes , including Little Orphant Annie . A unique art culture also began developing in the late 19th century , beginning the Hoosier School of landscape painting and the Richmond Group of impressionist painters . The painters were known for their use of vivid colors and artists including T. C. Steele , whose work was influenced by the colorful hills of southern Indiana . Prominent musicians and composers from Indiana also reached national acclaim during the time , including Paul Dresser whose most popular song , " On the Banks of the Wabash , Far Away " , was later adopted as the official state song .

= = = Prohibition and woman suffrage = = =

By the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , prohibition and woman suffrage had become the major reform issues in the state . Although supporters and their opponents closely linked the two movements , temperance received a broader hearing than the efforts toward equal suffrage . While the congregations of Protestant churches in Indiana supported temperance , few provided a forum for discussions on women 's voting rights .

The drive for woman suffrage began in the 1870s , and was sponsored by the leaders of the prohibition movement , especially the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union ( WCTU ) . The Indiana chapter of the WCTU was formed in 1874 with Zerelda G. Wallace as its first president . The Indiana branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association was re @-@ established in 1869 . In 1878 May Wright Sewall founded the Indianapolis Equal Suffrage Society , and fought for world peace before the nation plunged into World War I. Several Indiana women also became temperance leaders and took an active role in the movement .

The first major effort to give women the right to vote in all non @-@ federal elections attempted to amend the state constitution . It passed by both houses of the state legislature in 1881 ; however , the bill failed to pass in the next legislative session in 1883 as state law required . Temperance efforts fared little better . In 1881 the Indiana chapter of the WCTU , along with organizations participating in the Indiana Grand Council of Temperance , successfully lobbied the Indiana General Assembly to pass an amendment to the state constitution to prohibit the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages in the state , but the Indiana Liquor League and a Democratic majority in the state legislature killed the bill in the legislative session in 1883 . Following these legislative defeats woman suffrage and prohibition became sensitive issues in local politics as the Democrats rallied the opposition . In German strongholds such as Fort Wayne , opposition to prohibition and woman suffrage was strong until World War I. As one historian notes , " within German workingclass family traditions , women in particular were sharply defined in terms of family responsibilities . Suffrage and women 's rights ran counter to deep social and religious traditions that placed women in a subservient relationship to men . " Renewed interest in woman suffrage did not occur until the end of the century , while prohibition crusaders continued to press for legislative action .

To gain political power in favor of prohibition legislation , a state Prohibition Party was formed in 1884 ; however , it was never able to effectively mobilize a significant force of voters within the state . Many temperance advocates continued to work within the more established political parties . One legislative success occurred in 1895 , when the state legislature passed the Nicholson law , a local option law authored by S. E. Nicholson , a Quaker minister who served in the state legislature and was a leader of the national Anti @-@ Saloon League . The League became a political powerhouse , mobilizing pietistic Protestant voters ( that is , members of the major denominations except Lutherans and Episcopalians ) to support dry legislation . The Nicholson law allowed voters in a city or township to file a remonstrance that would prevent an individual saloon owner from acquiring a liquor license . Additional legislative efforts to extend the Nicholson law and achieve statewide prohibition in Indiana would not occur until the early twentieth century .

In May , 1906 , in Kokomo , a meeting was called to try to revive the defunct Indiana suffragist movement . An Indiana Auxiliary of the National American Woman Suffrage Association was formed and officers were elected . The officers included : Sarah Davis , President ; Laura Schofield , first vice @-@ president ; Anna Dunn Noland , second vice @-@ president ; Mrs. E. M. Wood , secretary ; Marion Harvie Barnard , treasurer ; and Jane Pond and Judge Samuel Artman , auditors .

= = = High profile crime = = =

Hoosiers were fascinated with crime and criminals . Some historians have argued that the popularity of bandits and their exploits in robbing banks and getting away with murder derived from working class resentment against the excesses of the Gilded Age . A group of brothers from Seymour , who had served in the Civil War , formed the Reno Gang , the first outlaw gang in the United States . The Reno Gang , named for the brothers , terrorized Indiana and the region for several years . They were responsible for the first train robbery in the United States which occurred near Seymour in 1866 . Their actions inspired a host of other outlaw gangs who copied their work , beginning several decades of high @-@ profile train robberies . Pursued by detectives from the Pinkerton Detective Agency , most of the gang was captured in 1868 and lynched by vigilantes . Other notorious Hoosiers also flourished in the post @-@ war years , including Belle Gunness , an infamous " black widow " serial killer . She killed more than twenty people , most of them men , between 1881 and her own murder in 1908 .

In response to the Reno Gang and other criminals , several white cap groups began operating in the state , primarily in the southern counties . They began carrying out lynchings against suspected criminals , leading the state to attempt to crack down on their practices . By the turn of the 20th century , they had become so notorious that anti @-@ lynching laws were passed and in one incident the governor called out the militia to protect a prisoner . When the white caps showed up to lynch him , the militia opened fire , killing one and wounding eleven . Vigilante activity decreased following the incident , and remained low until the rise of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s .

Crime stories grabbed the headlines in the 1920s and 1930s . After Prohibition took effect in 1920 until its demise in 1933 , it opened up a financial bonanza for criminal activity , especially underground bootlegging and the smuggling of liquor into Chicago , Gary , South Bend , Fort Wayne , Indianapolis , Evansville and other thirsty cities . Enforcement was haphazard ; the Anti @-@ Saloon League was more of a lobbying agency and never rallied community support for enforcement . The KKK called for punishment of bootleggers and set up the " Horse Thief Detective Association " ( HTDA ) to make extra @-@ legal raids on speakeasies and gambling joints . It seldom cooperated with law enforcement or the state or federal courts . Instead gave enforcement a bad name . Arthur Gillom , a Republican elected state attorney general over Klan opposition in 1924 , did not tolerate its extra @-@ legal operations . Instead , " He stressed the dangers of citizens relinquishing their constitutional rights and personal freedoms , and emphasized the importance of representative government ( at all levels ) , states ' rights , and the concept of separation of church and state . " When Rev. Shumaker proposed that " personal liberty had to be sacrificed in order to save people , " Gilliom replied that surrendering power and individual freedoms was a slippery slope to centralized government and tyranny .

John Dillinger , a native of Indianapolis , began his streak of bank robberies in Indiana and the Midwest during the 1920s . He was in prison 1924 to 1933 . After a return to crime , Dillinger was returned to prison the same year , but escaped with the help of his gang . His gang was responsible for multiple murders and the theft of over $ 300 @,@ 000 . Dillinger was killed by the FBI in a shootout in Chicago in 1934 .

= = Twentieth century = =

= = = Economic modernization = = =

Although industry was rapidly expanding throughout the northern part of the state , Indiana remained largely rural at the turn of the 20th century with a growing population of 2 @.@ 5 million . Like much of the rest of the American Midwest , Indiana 's exports and job providers remained largely agricultural until after World War I. Indiana 's developing industry , backed by inexpensive natural gas from the large Trenton Gas Field , an educated population , low taxes , easy access to transportation , and business @-@ friendly government , led Indiana to grow into one of the leading manufacturing states by the mid @-@ 1920s .

The state 's central location gave it an dense network of railroads . The line most identified with the state was the Monon Line . It provided passenger service for students en route to Purdue , Indiana U. and numerous small colleges , painted its cars in school colors , and was especially popular on football weekends . The Monon was merged into larger lines in 1971 , closed its passenger service , and lost its identity . Entrepreneurs built an elaborate " interurban " network of light rails to connect rural areas to shopping opportunities in the cities . They began operation in 1892 , and by 1908 there were 2 @,@ 300 miles of track in 62 counties . The automobile made the lines unprofitable unless the destinaction was Chicago . By 2001 the " South Shore " was the last one ; it still operating from South Bend to Chicago .

In 1907 , Indiana became the first state to adopt eugenics legislation , that allowed the involuntary sterilization of dangerous male criminals and the mentally defectives . It was never put in effect and in 1921 Indiana became the first state to rule such legislation unconstitutional when the Supreme Court of Indiana acted . A revised eugenics law was passed in 1927 , and it remained in effect until 1974 .

The Indianapolis Motor Speedway complex was built in 1909 , inaugurating a new era in history . Most Indiana cities within 200 miles of Detroit became part of the giant automobile industry after 1910 . The Indianapolis speedway was a venue for auto companies to show off their products . The Indianapolis 500 quickly became the standard in auto racing as European and American companies competed to build the fastest automobile and win at the track . Industrial and technological industries thrived during this era , George Kingston developed an early carburetor in 1902 ; in 1912 , Elwood Haynes received a patent for stainless steel .

= = = Statewide prohibition = = =

In the first two decades of the twentieth century the Indiana Anti @-@ Saloon League ( IASL ) , formed in 1898 as a state auxiliary of the national Anti @-@ Saloon League , and the Woman 's Christian Temperance Union successfully organized pressure on Indiana politicians , especially members of the Republican party , to support the dry cause . The IASL , although not the first organization to take up the dry crusade in Indiana , became a key force behind efforts at attaining passage of statewide prohibition in early 1917 , and rallied state support for ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1919 . The IASL 's success , under the leadership of Edward S. Shumaker , an ordained Methodist minister , made it a model for the League 's other state organizations . Shumaker made clear to politicians he did not care whether they drank , but insisted they vote for dry laws or face defeated in the next election by dry voters .

In 1905 passage of the Moore amendment expanded the state 's Nicholson local option law to apply to all liquor license applicants within a local township or city ward . The next step was to seek countywide prohibition . The IASL appealed to the general public , holding large rallies in Indianapolis and elsewhere , to support a county option law that would provide a more restrictive ban on alcohol . In September 1908 Indiana governor J. Frank Hanly , a Methodist , Republican , and teetotaler , called for a special legislative session to establish a county option that would allow county voters to prohibit alcohol sales throughout their county . The state legislature passed the bill with only a narrow margin . By November 1909 seventy of Indiana 's ninety @-@ two counties were dry . In 1911 a Democratic legislative majority replaced the county option with the Proctor law , a less @-@ geographically restrictive local option , and the number of dry counties was reduced to twenty @-@ six . Despite the setback prohibition advocates continued to lobby legislators for support . In December 1917 several temperance organizations formed the Indiana Dry Federation to fight the politically powerful liquor interests , with the IASL joining the group a short time later . The Federation and the League vigorously campaigned for statewide prohibition , which the Indiana General Assembly adopted in February 1917 . Subsequent legal challenges delayed implementation of statewide prohibition until 1918 , when a court ruled in June that Indiana 's prohibition law was constitutionally valid .

On January 14 , 1919 , Indiana became the twenty @-@ fifth state to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment , which mandated nationwide prohibition . Three days later Nebraska became the thirty @-@ sixth state to ratify the amendment , providing the two @-@ thirds majority of states required to amend the U.S. Constitution . With the beginning of nationwide Prohibition on January 17 , 1920 , after formal ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment the previous day , efforts turned to enforcement of the new law . Protestant support for Prohibition remained intense in Indiana in the 1920s . Shumaker and the IASL lead a statewide grassroots campaign that successfully passed a new prohibition law for the state . Sponsored by Indiana representative Frank Wright and known as the Wright bone @-@ dry law , it was enacted in 1925 . The Wright law was part of a national trend toward stricter prohibition legislation and imposed severe penalties for alcohol possession .

The Great Depression and the election of Democratic party candidates in 1932 ended widespread national support for Prohibition . Franklin D. Roosevelt , who included repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment as a major issue of his presidential campaign in 1932 , made good on his promise to American voters . On December 5 , 1933 , the Twenty @-@ first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and ended nationwide Prohibition . However , Indiana 's legislature continued to regulate alcohol within the state through allocation of state liquor licenses and prohibition of sales on Sunday .

= = = Women 's activism = = =

Middle @-@ class Indiana women learned organizational skills through the suffrage and temperance movements . By the 1890s they were applying their new skills to the needs of their home communities , by organizing women 's clubs , the combined literary activity with social activism focused on such needs as public health , sanitation , and good schools . The women increasingly learn to focus their energies on obtainable objectives through specialized local organizations . In Lafayette , for example , the suffragists concentrated in the Lafayette Franchise League , while those oriented toward social concerns worked through the Lafayette Charity Organization Society ( LCOS ) , the Free Kindergarten and Industrial School Association ( FKISA ) , and the Martha Home .

Middle class black women activists were organized through their Baptist and Methodist churches , and under the leadership of Hallie Quinn Brown formed a statewide umbrella group , the Indiana Association of Colored Women 's Clubs . They sponsored 56 clubs in 46 cities in the state , with 2000 members by 1933 , and a budget of over $ 20 @,@ 000 . Most members were public school teachers or hairdressers , as well as women active and local business in the black community , and in government positions . They affiliated with the National Federation of Afro @-@ American Women , headed by Mrs. Booker T. Washington , and became part of her husband 's powerful network of black activists . One of the most prominent member in Indiana was Madame C. J. Walker of Indianapolis , who owned a nationally successful business selling beauty and hair products for black women . Club meetings focused on home @-@ making classes , research and statistics regarding the status of blacks in Indiana and nationwide , suffrage , and anti @-@ lynching activism . The local clubs operated rescue missions , nursery schools , and educational programs .

= = = Floods = = =

Between March 23 and March 27 , 1913 , Indiana and more than a dozen other states experienced major flooding during the Great Flood of 1913 ; it was Indiana 's worst flood disaster up to that time . The weather system that created the unprecedented flooding arrived in Indiana on Sunday , March 23 , with a major tornado at Terre Haute . In four days , rainfall topped nine inches in southern Indiana , more than half of it falling within a twenty @-@ four @-@ hour period on March 25 . Heavy rains , runoff , and rising rivers resulted in extensive flooding in northeast , central , and southern Indiana . Indiana 's flood @-@ related deaths were estimated at 100 to 200 , with flood damage estimated at $ 25 million ( in 1913 dollars ) . State and local communities handled their own disaster response and relief . The American Red Cross , still a small organization at that time , established a temporary headquarters in Indianapolis and served the six hardest @-@ hit Indiana counties . Indiana governor Samuel M. Ralston appealed to Indiana cities and other states for relief assistance and appointed a trustee to receive relief funds and arrange for distribution of supplies . Independent organizations , such as the Rotary Club of Indianapolis and others , helped with local relief efforts .

= = = World War I = = =

Hoosiers were divided about entering World War I. Before Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and tried to enlist Mexico as a military ally in 1917 , most Hoosiers wanted the U.S. to be neutral in the war . Support for Britain came from professions and businessmen . Opposition came from churchmen , women , farmers and Irish Catholics and German @-@ American elements . They called for neutrality and strongly opposed going to war to rescue the British Empire . Influential Hoosiers who opposed involvement in the war included Democratic Senator John W. Kern , and Vice President Thomas R. Marshall . Supporters of military preparedness included James Whitcomb Riley and George Ade . Most of the opposition dissipated when the United States officially declared war against Germany in April 1917 , but some teachers lost their jobs on suspicion of disloyalty , and public schools could no longer teach in German . Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs , from Terre Haute , went to federal prison for encouraging young men to evade the draft .

The Indiana National Guard was federalized during WWI ; many units were sent to Europe . A separate organization , the Liberty Guard , had been formed in 1910 , primarily for social purposes : members marched in parades and at patriotic events . Governor Samuel Ralston had to call out the Liberty Guard in November 1913 to put down a growing workers strike in Indianapolis . By 1920 , the state decided to formalize this group , renaming it the Indiana Civil Defense Force and supplying it with equipment and training . In 1941 , the unit was named the Indiana Guard Reserve ; it effectively became a state militia . During World War II , it was again federalized and members were called up by the federal government .

Indiana provided 130 @,@ 670 troops during the war ; a majority of them were drafted . Over 3 @,@ 000 men died , many from influenza and pneumonia . To honor the Hoosier veterans of the war , the state began construction of the Indiana World War Memorial .

= = = Twenties and the Great Depression = = =

The war @-@ time economy provided a boom to Indiana 's industry and agriculture , which led to more urbanization throughout the 1920s . By 1925 , more workers were employed in industry than in agriculture in Indiana . Indiana 's greatest industries were steel production , iron , automobiles , and railroad cars .

Scandal erupted across the state in 1925 when it was discovered that over half the seats in the General Assembly were controlled by the Indiana Ku Klux Klan , including members of three political parties . The Klan pushed an anti @-@ Catholic legislative agenda , including a ban on parochial education . During the 1925 General Assembly session , Grand Dragon D. C. Stephenson boasted , " I am the law in Indiana . " Stephenson was convicted for the murder of Madge Oberholtzer that year and sentenced to life in prison . After Governor Edward L. Jackson , whom Stephenson helped elect , refused to pardon him , Stephenson began to name many of his co @-@ conspirators . This led the state 's making a string of arrests and indictments against political leaders , including the governor , mayor of Indianapolis , the attorney general , and many others . The crackdown effectively rendered the Klan powerless .

During the 1930s , Indiana , like the rest of the nation , was affected by the Great Depression . The economic downturn had a wide @-@ ranging negative impact on Indiana . Urbanization declined . Governor Paul V. McNutt 's administration struggled to build from scratch a state @-@ funded welfare system to help the overwhelmed private charities . During his administration , spending and taxes were cut drastically in response to the Depression . The state government was completely reorganized . McNutt also enacted the state 's first income tax . On several occasions , he declared martial law to put an end to worker strikes .

During the Great Depression , unemployment exceeded 25 % statewide . Southern Indiana was hard hit , and unemployment topped 50 % during the worst years . The federal Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) began operations in Indiana in July 1935 . By October of that year , the agency had put 74 @,@ 708 Hoosiers to work . In 1940 , there were still 64 @,@ 700 people working for agency . The majority of these workers were employed to improve the state 's infrastructure : roads , bridges , flood control projects , and water treatment plants . Some helped index collections of libraries , and artists were employed to create murals for post offices and libraries . Nearly every community had a project to work on .

During the 1930s , many local businesses collapsed , several railroads went bankrupt , and numerous small rural banks folded . Manufacturing came to an abrupt halt or was severely cut back due the dwindling demand for products . The Depression continued to negatively affect Indiana until the buildup for World War II . The effects continued to be felt for many years thereafter .

= = = World War II = = =

The economy began to recover in 1933 , but unemployment remained high among youth and older workers until 1940 , when the federal government built up supplies and armaments going into World War II .

Indiana participated in the mobilization of the nation 's economy and resources . Domestically , the state produced munitions in an army plant near Sellersburg . The P @-@ 47 fighter @-@ plane was manufactured in Evansville at Republic Aviation . The steel produced in northern Indiana was used in tanks , battleships , and submarines . Other war @-@ related materials were produced throughout the state . Indiana 's military bases were activated , with areas such as Camp Atterbury reaching historical peaks in activity .

The population was highly supportive of the war efforts . The political left supported the war ( unlike World War I , which Socialists opposed . ) The churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914 . The Church of God , based in Anderson , had a strong pacifist element , reaching a high point in the late 1930s . The Church regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked . Anti @-@ Communist sentiment has since kept strong pacifism from developing in the Church of God . Likewise the Quakers , with a strong base near Richmond , generally regarded World War II as a just war and about 90 % served , although there were some conscientious objectors . The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism , but the federal government was much less hostile than before . The churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation . Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs . Although the young women pacifists were not liable to the draft , they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism ; many worked in mental hospitals .

The state sent nearly 400 @,@ 000 Hoosiers who enlisted or were drafted . More than 11 @,@ 783 Hoosiers died in the conflict and another 17 @,@ 000 were wounded . Hoosiers served in all the major theaters of the war . Their sacrifice was honored by additions to the World War Memorial in Indianapolis , which was not finished until 1965 .

Tens of thousands of women volunteered for war service , through agencies such as the Red Cross . Representative was Elizabeth Richardson of Mishawaka . She served coffee and doughnuts to combat soldiers in England and France from a Red Cross clubmobile . She died in a plane crash in 1945 in France .

= = 21st century = =

Central Indiana was struck by a major flood in 2008 , leading to widespread damage and the evacuations of hundreds of thousands of residents . It was the costliest disaster in the history of the state , with early damage estimates topping $ 1 billion .

In 2012 , Indiana 's exports totaled US $ 34 @.@ 4 billion , a record high for the state . The rate of export growth in 2012 was faster in Indiana than it was for the Nation .

= Mongol siege of Kaifeng =

In the Mongol siege of Kaifeng from 1232 to 1233 , the Mongol Empire captured Kaifeng , the capital of the Jurchen Jin dynasty . The Mongols and Jurchens had been at war for nearly two decades , beginning in 1211 after the Jurchens refused the Mongol offer to submit as a vassal . Ögedei Khan sent two armies to besiege Kaifeng , one led by himself , and the other by his brother Tolui . Command of the forces , once they converged into a single army , was given to Subutai who led the siege . The Mongols arrived at the walls of Kaifeng on April 8 , 1232 .

The siege deprived the city of resources , and its residents were beset with famine and disease . Jurchen soldiers defended the city with fire lances and bombs of gunpowder , killing many Mongols and severely injuring others . The Jurchens tried to arrange a peace treaty , but the assassination of a Mongol diplomat foiled their efforts . Emperor Aizong , the Jurchen emperor , fled the city for the town of Caizhou . The city was placed under the command of General Cui Li , who executed the emperor 's loyalists and promptly surrendered to the Mongols . The Mongols captured Kaifeng on February 26 , 1233 , and looted the city . The dynasty fell two years later after the suicide of Aizong and the capture of Caizhou in 1234 .

= = Background = =

Genghis Khan was declared Khaghan in 1206 . The Mongols had united under his leadership , and defeated the rival tribes of the steppes . In the same period , China was divided into three separate states . In the north , the Jurchen Jin dynasty controlled Manchuria and all of China north of the Huai River . The Tangut Western Xia ruled parts of the western China , while the Song Dynasty reigned over the south . The Mongols subjugated Western Xia in 1210 . In that same year , the Mongols renounced their vassalage to the Jin . Hostilities between the Jin and Mongols had been building up . The Mongols coveted the prosperity of Jurchen territory . They may have also harbored a grudge against the Jin for assassinating Ambaghai , one of Genghis ' predecessors , and for the Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's rude behavior to Genghis when Wanyan Yongji was still a Jurchen prince .

The Mongols learned that a famine had struck the Jin , and invaded in 1211 . Two armies were dispatched by the Mongols into Jurchen territory , with one under the command of Genghis . The Jin built up its armies and reinforced its cities in preparation for the Mongol incursion . The Mongol strategy was based on capturing small settlements and ignoring the fortifications of major cities . They looted the land and retreated in 1212 . The Mongols returned the next year and besieged Zhongdu , the capital of the Jin , in 1213 . The Mongols were not able to penetrate the walls of the city in the Battle of Zhongdu , but intimidated the Jin emperor into paying tribute . They withdrew in 1214 . Later in the year , fearing another siege , the Jin moved their capital from Zhongdu to Kaifeng . The Mongols besieged Zhongdu once more in 1215 once they learned that the Jin court had fled from the city . The city fell on May 31 , and by 1216 , large swaths of Jin territory were under Mongol control .

Meanwhile , the Jin had been afflicted by multiple revolts . In Manchuria , the Khitans , under the leadership of Yelü Liuge , declared their independence from the Jin and allied with the Mongols . Yelü was enthroned a puppet ruler subordinate to the Mongols in 1213 , and given the title emperor of the Liao Dynasty . The Jurchen expedition sent against him commanded by Puxian Wannu was not successful . Wannu , realizing the Jin dynasty was on the verge of collapse , rebelled and declared himself king of Dazhen in 1215 . Further south , rebellions had broken out in Shandong beginning with Yang Anguo 's revolt in 1214 . The rebels were known as Red Coats , from the color of the uniforms they wore starting in 1215 . After the fall of Zhongdu in 1215 , the Mongols downsized their war effort against the Jin , and shifted their resources in preparation for the invasion of Central Asia . The Jurchens tried to make up for their territorial losses to the Mongols by invading the Song in 1217 . The invasion was fruitless , so the Jin wanted to negotiate for peace , but the Song rebuffed the offers . By 1218 , Jurchen diplomats were prohibited from traveling to the Song . The Mongol war against the Jurchens had subsided , but not stopped , and went on through the early 1220s under the command of the general Muqali . Muqali died from sickness in 1223 , and the Mongol campaigns against the Jin wound down . The Jin settled for peace with the Song , but the Song continued to assist the Red Coats insurgency against the Jin . Genghis Khan fell ill and died in 1227 . Ögedei was his successor , and he renewed the war against the Jin in 1230 .

= = Siege of Kaifeng = =

Two Mongol armies were dispatched in 1230 to capture the Jin capital of Kaifeng , then named Bian . The plans were to have one army approach the city from the north , while the second attacked from the south . Ögedei Khan headed the army based in Shanxi and his brother Tolui commanded the army stationed in Shaanxi . An illness incapacitated Ögedei and Tolui , and they relinquished their roles in the campaign . Ögedei later regained his health , but Tolui died the next year . Subutai led the combined Mongol forces once the two armies converged in late 1231 and early 1232 . The Mongols reached the Yellow River on January 28 , 1232 , and began amassing around Kaifeng on February 6 . They besieged the city on April 8 .

The Jurchens tried to end the siege by negotiating a peace treaty . There was some progress towards an agreement in the summer of 1232 , but the assassination of the Mongol diplomat Tang Qing and his entourage by the Jurchens made further talks impossible . The Jin grew desperate . They had enlisted most of the available men in the empire to either defend Kaifeng or fight against the Mongols on the front lines . While the negotiations were ongoing , a plague was devastating the population of the city . Starvation was rampant . The supplies stored in Kaifeng were running out , even with what had been forcibly seized from people . The city 's political disintegration created unfounded fears that there was an internal threat . Several residents of the city were executed on the suspicion that they were traitors .

The defense of the city did not collapse immediately . The Jin held out for months before the city fell . The Jurchen emperor was afforded the opportunity to escape in late 1232 , and departed with a retinue of court officials . He left the governance of the city to the General Cui Li and moved to the city of Guide in Henan on February 26 , 1233 , then Caizhou on August 3 . The retreat of the emperor was ruinous to the morale of the soldiers defending the city . In the wake of the emperor 's departure , Cui ordered the execution of those loyal to the emperor who had remained in the city . He realized that prolonging the siege was suicidal , and offered to surrender to the Mongols . Cui opened the gates of Kaifeng and the Mongols were let into the city . He was later killed outside of battle in a personal dispute , for insulting the wife of someone under his command .

The Mongols looted the city when it fell , but atypical to most sieges in the time period , they permitted trade . The richest residents of the city sold their luxury belongings to Mongol soldiers for critically needed food supplies . Male members of the royal family residing in the city were captured and executed .

= = Military technology = =

Historian Herbert Franke observed in his assessment of the battle that the siege is significant for historians of military technology . Many of the details of the siege are known to historians , based on a comprehensive account of the battle compiled by a Jin official living in the besieged city . The Jurchens fired explosives , propelled by trebuchets , at the opposing army . A contemporaneous record of the battle recounts the process by which the bombs were launched . First , a soldier ignited the fuse . The rope of the trebuchet was pulled , launching the bomb into the air . The bomb produced a large explosion the moment it landed , inflicting damage that could penetrate armor . The explosion sometimes sparked a fire on the grass of the battlefield , which could burn a soldier to death , even if he survived the initial blast . The bombs were more primitive than modern explosives , and occasionally they would fail to detonate or detonated too early . Mongol soldiers counteracted the bombs by digging trenches leading up to the city , which they covered with shielding made of cowhide , to protect from the explosives fired overhead . The Jurchen official reports , in a translation provided by historian Stephen Turnbull :

Therefore the Mongol soldiers made cowhide shields to cover their approach trenches and men beneath the walls , and dug as it were niches , each large enough to contain a man , hoping that in this way the troops above would not be able to do anything about it . But someone suggested the technique of lowering the thunder crash bombs on iron chains . When these reached the trenches where the Mongols were making their dugouts , the bombs were set off , with the result that the cowhide and the attacking soldiers were all blown to bits , and not even a trace being left behind .

The infantry of the Jin were armed with fire lances . The fire lance was a spear , with a tube of gunpowder attached to it . The mixture contained , besides the gunpowder ingredients of sulfur , charcoal , and saltpeter , ground porcelain and iron filings . The flame that shot from the lance reached a distance of three meters . The heated tinder that ignited the weapon was stored in a small iron box toted by the Jurchen soldiers in battle . Once the gunpowder was consumed , the fire lance could be wielded like a normal spear , or replenished by a new tube filled with gunpowder .

The bombs and fire lances of the Jin were the only two weapons of the Jurchens that the Mongols were wary of facing . The Jurchen deployment of gunpowder was extensive , but it is not certain if the Mongols had acquired gunpowder from the Jurchens before this point . Herbert Franke maintains that gunpowder was in the arsenal of both combatants , but Turnbull believes that only the Jurchens made use of it . The Mongols loaded their catapults with large stones or bombs of gunpowder , which were fired at the Jin fortifications . The barrage inflicted casualties in the city and had a psychological impact on the soldiers operating the Jurchen trebuchets .

= = Historical significance = =

The siege of Kaifeng crippled the Jin dynasty , but did not destroy it . The penultimate emperor of the dynasty , Emperor Aizong , had evaded capture , but was left destitute after the siege . He sent his diplomats to entreat the neighboring Song Dynasty for help . They warned that the Mongols would invade the Song once the Jin fell , and requested supplies from the Song . The Song refused the offer . The Song , who had fought multiple wars against the Jin , resented the Jurchens for their conquest of northern China decades earlier . Instead of aiding the Jin , the Song allied with the Mongols . They cooperated militarily and captured the last of the cities still controlled by the Jin . In December 1233 , the Mongols besieged Caizhou , where Aizong had fled to from Kaifeng . The emperor was unable to escape the town under siege , and resorted to suicide . On February 9 , 1234 , the Mongols broke through the defenses of Caizhou . Emperor Mo , Emperor Aizong 's intended successor , resided in the same town and was killed in battle soon after . His reign lasted less than two days , from February 9 to his death in February 10 . The Jin dynasty ended with the fall of Caizhou .

= Rymdkapsel =

Rymdkapsel is a 2013 minimalist real @-@ time strategy video game by indie developer Grapefrukt , the studio of Martin Jonasson . Players build a space station using tetromino pieces while managing resources and minions , defending against attacks , and extending the base towards four monoliths at the edges of the level . The game was built over a year and a half and was inspired by the base @-@ building aspects of the Command & Conquer series . It was Jonasson 's first full game as an indie developer . Rymdkapsel was released on May 7 , 2013 for PlayStation Mobile , and was later ported to iOS , Android , Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux . Reviewers gave the game generally favorable reviews , where they appreciated its simplicity and challenge , but not its brevity and slow start .

= = Gameplay = =

Players build a space station on a flat plane using tetromino @-@ shaped floors that represent rooms . Rectangular workers generate the resources to build more spaces by working in these rooms . The workers occasionally must defend the base against attackers , who come in waves of increasing difficulty . The player can have the workers research four TMA @-@ 1 @-@ style monoliths for additional shield , speed , and generator upgrades . Rooms are used for special purposes : mineral mining ( extractors ) , growing food ( gardens ) , cooking it ( kitchens ) , making workers ( quarters ) , and creating power ( reactors ) . The goal is to flourish and protect the station 's inhabitants , but there are three concrete objectives : research all four monoliths , survive 28 waves , and research all monoliths in under 45 minutes . The game ends if all workers are killed . There is a tutorial , but no story . The player is not specifically told about the endgame goals .

= = Development = =

In 2012 , Grapefrukt developer Martin Jonasson began to make a space station game that considered what he found enjoyable and least stressful about real @-@ time strategy games . The game coalesced as he revised and removed features over the course of its year and a half of development . Rymdkapsel was written in Haxe , a programming language similar to ActionScript 3 that let Jonasson use the same code base for iOS , Android , and PC releases . He had used the language for years and had been making games for 20 years , primarily with Adobe Flash . Jonasson left his web development job in 2010 to " go indie " , and Rymdkapsel was his " first full @-@ time game " . The game 's name translates as " space capsule " in the Swedish language , which Jonasson liked as a title for its uniqueness and foreign overtones , though he acknowledged that the name was difficult for English speakers and made the game hard to find in the App Store .

He began the game after the 2012 Game Developers Conference as a weeklong diversion from another project , and slowly iterated into a full version . Jonasson started to prototype a game about a space station with a hull breach that releases the station 's occupants into outer space . Within a day , he built a feature where players could build the station using tetromino blocks . He liked this direction better than the hull breach , and abandoned the latter idea by the end of prototyping . He built the room construction mechanics within a day , and to make the construction more challenging , later added three different resources to be spent towards room construction . When the resources did not " look as interesting " as he wanted , he added minions to defend the station . The minions — shown as small white boxes — have retained their original design . It is an example of the minimalist design theme that pervades the work . Jonasson has said that he kept the artificial intelligence " a bit stupid on purpose " ( doing things such as stealing food intended for other minions ) because he found their actions " a bit adorable " . He otherwise removed the features he felt were not vital to the game . Jonasson then added " conflict " to the game by putting the minions in danger of being removed .

Jonasson 's game design was inspired by real @-@ time strategy game Command & Conquer , where he enjoyed managing his home base but not attacking the enemy . He designed the game to last 45 minutes , which he felt to be a proper length , whereupon the difficulty ramps up to require station defense over base construction . He felt that it was reasonable to reach all four monoliths within that time to be ready for the endgame sequence , and that the limit made players expand outwards rather than keeping the station small and easy to defend . The sole map is hand @-@ balanced , which made him reluctant to fulfill player requests to randomize it . He also considered adding a " zen " mode , which would pressure the player less . The music was composed by Niklas Ström .

The game was released on May 7 , 2013 for PlayStation Vita and PlayStation Mobile . It was later included as a prize for completing " quests " in a Sony E3 2013 promotion . It is available on Android via the PlayStation Mobile app . The iOS and Android releases were released on July 25 , 2013 . Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux versions were released on January 30 , 2014 .

= = Reception = =

The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Critics compared Rymdkapsel 's gameplay to Tetris and SimCity . Of its visual style , The New York Times published that the game makes others in the real @-@ time strategy genre " feel needlessly garnished " . Reviewers generally appreciated the game 's simplicity and challenge , but not its brevity and slow start . IGN 's Steve Watts thought that the game made too many " design concessions " to its minimalism , though he considered the style " gorgeous " , and felt that he was never fully in control of his base . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell said that the game 's minimalism extended to its core gameplay , where the player should strive to " play the game less and less " . Joseph Leray of TouchArcade described the game 's balance and pacing as " impeccable " . He gave Rymdkapsel a perfect score and wrote that it felt as if it were custom @-@ made for iOS . Bryan Vore of Game Informer criticized the game 's lack of features and thought that it " fizzled out with no fanfare " as a " creative " idea but without sufficient " polish " . The Verge 's Trent Wolbe called the soundtrack " a minimalist achievement " . Jonasson announced that the game had sold 200 @,@ 000 copies as of December 2 , 2013 , due in large part to its inclusion in a Humble Bundle sale .

= Beefsteak ( banquet ) =

A beefsteak is a type of banquet in which sliced beef tenderloin is served to diners as all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat finger food . The dining style originated in 19th @-@ century New York City as a type of working @-@ class celebration but went into a decline in the mid @-@ 20th century . Resurrected by caterers in New Jersey , the beefsteak banquet style is now popular in that state 's Bergen and Passaic counties , and is enjoying a revival in New York City , where the style originated , due to the reemergence of a biannual beefsteak in Brooklyn .

= = Origins = =

Beefsteak banquets originated among the working class of New York City in the mid @-@ 1800s as celebratory meals or " testimonials " . The meal would generally be set up by an organization wishing to laud or raise money for politicians , newly promoted friends , or celebrities . Tammany Hall regularly threw beefsteaks as political fundraisers , often enough that it was a large portion of beefsteak business in New York and " when Tammany Hall [ got ] a setback , beefsteaks [ got ] a setback " . Sophie Tucker and Bill Robinson had beefsteaks thrown for them in the 1930s .

Early beefsteaks were held in a relaxed , men @-@ only atmosphere , with diners sitting on crates and eating with their fingers off of rough , improvised tables in saloons , rental halls , or residential basements . Food and drink were the focus of the evening , and entertainment often consisted simply of those present telling stories and singing amongst themselves . Brass bands were sometimes hired .

= = = Early organization = = =

Though the centerpiece of beefsteak culture was indisputably the frenzied consumption of beef and beer , with diners eating with their fingers and drinking with abandon , serving styles varied . 1930s @-@ era beefsteaks could be grouped into two styles , referred to by Joseph Mitchell in a 1939 The New Yorker article as " East Side " and " West Side " and roughly corresponding to the geographic separation of New York City into the same @-@ named areas . Each group claimed to Mitchell to have originated beefsteak banquets and to have the most authentic serving and eating styles .

" East Side " beefsteaks were largely patronized by the working @-@ class and immigrants , and the center of the East Side beefsteak world was at First Avenue and Nineteenth Street in Manhattan . East Side beefsteaks were heavily meat @-@ centered , with courses consisting of items like sliced beef short loin , beef kidneys , and ground beef trimmings ( referred to as " hamburgers " ) . One East Side beefsteak was reported to have consisted of " 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 400 kg ) of steak , 1 @,@ 500 pounds ( 680 kg ) of lamb chops , 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) of hamburger and 1 @,@ 300 pounds ( 590 kg ) of kidneys wrapped with bacon . "

" West Side " beefsteaks , on the other hand , were often thrown at " gentlemen @-@ only " establishments centered on Eleventh Avenue and 23rd Street . West Side beefsteaks tended more toward expansive menus , with courses including crab meat , lamb chops , and baked potatoes to go along with the beef loin . Diners at West Side beefsteaks were allowed to use disposable forks for some courses , but were expected to eat the beef course with their fingers .

= = = Dining style = = =

Both schools of thought in New York agreed that eating with one 's fingers and not being afraid to get messy were integral to the culture of the beefsteak . No matter which type of beefsteak a diner attended , the main course was beef loin dipped in butter @-@ based sauce and served thinly sliced on rounds of bread ( day @-@ old bread , at East Side beefsteaks ; fresh toast , at West Side ) . Napkins were considered unnecessary ; diners generally wore aprons with which they could wipe the grease off their hands . Food was dispatched from the kitchen laid out on trays and waiters continued bringing out trays until diners could literally eat no more ( In his New Yorker article , Joseph Mitchell quotes one man as saying , " I 'm so full I 'm about to pop . Push those kidneys a little nearer , if you don 't mind . " ) . Beer flowed freely during banquets in pre @-@ prohibition years .

= = Evolution = =

With the passing of the 18th and 19th amendments to the U.S. Constitution , in 1919 and 1920 , respectively , the traditional men @-@ only , beer @-@ soaked format of the beefsteak began to change . Politicians began including newly enfranchised women voters in their beefsteak banquets after the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment , and with the attendance of women came corresponding social niceties . Cocktails , popularized by illicit drinkers during Prohibition , replaced pitchers of beer , and " fruit cups [ , ] and fancy salads " were soon added to beefsteak menus . Orchestras were hired in place of old @-@ fashioned brass bands and storytellers , and the long @-@ forbidden knives and forks began to appear on beefsteak tables . By the 1930s , according to Joseph Mitchell , beefsteaks were no longer the manly , messy affairs they had once been ; they were now closer to formal meals in which beef and bread happened to feature heavily . The cheerful gluttony of the past was tempered by female sensibilities ; " women , " Mitchell reported , " do not esteem a glutton , and at a contemporary beefsteak it is unusual for a man to do away with more than six pounds of meat and thirty glasses of beer . "

In 1938 , " Hap " Nightingale , a butcher in Clifton , New Jersey , began catering parties in his area according to the old @-@ time beefsteak formula . He offered a set , all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat menu of French fries and sliced beef tenderloin on bread . His business thrived locally , and the company has since been passed down through ensuing generations of Nightingales , all of whom continued to adhere to the tried @-@ and @-@ true formula .

= = Current practice = =

The modern beefsteak banquet hews fairly closely to the early @-@ 1900s model , although the expansive selections found at an old @-@ fashioned " West Side " beefsteak have been tapered down to beef , fried potatoes , and tossed salad . Butter is sometimes replaced by margarine , and a pasta course makes an occasional appearance , but attendees at beefsteaks still expect to be fed mostly abundant quantities of beef tenderloin . Modern beefsteak attendees often follow an unspoken protocol to leave their bread slices uneaten . Piling them up in front of one 's plate instead of consuming them " saves valuable stomach capacity for more beef while simultaneously serving as an informal scorekeeping system " .

= = Modern distribution = =

Beefsteak banquets have largely vanished from New York City , where they originated , but remain widespread in Bergen and Passaic counties in New Jersey . The institution is now almost entirely limited to these areas , save for a popular biannual beefsteak held in Brooklyn ; while residents of Bergen and Passaic counties consider them an ingrained part of regional culture and regularly stage beefsteak fundraisers ( caterers interviewed in a New York Times article stated that they " put on about 1 @,@ 000 of them in the region [ in 2007 ] " ) , across the county line in Essex County , for example , they remain nearly unheard of .

Regis High School ( a Jesuit school on the Upper East Side ) hosts an annual alumni affair ( Jug Night ) featuring traditional East Side beefsteak fare .

Political fundraiser beefsteak banquets are no longer common in New Jersey ; beefsteaks now usually raise money for fire departments , policemen 's benevolent associations , and other charitable organizations . Nostalgia for beefsteaks among foodies continues , and gourmet beefsteaks are sometimes staged by New York @-@ area restaurants .

Since 2009 , two Wesleyan University graduates , Andrew Dermont and Derek Silverman , have thrown a biannual " beefsteak for beefsteak 's sake " in Brooklyn , to revive the tradition of the beefsteak banquet in its place of origin , New York City .

= Fermium =

Fermium is a synthetic element with symbol Fm and atomic number 100 . It is a member of the actinide series . It is the heaviest element that can be formed by neutron bombardment of lighter elements , and hence the last element that can be prepared in macroscopic quantities , although pure fermium metal has not yet been prepared . A total of 19 isotopes are known , with 257Fm being the longest @-@ lived with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days .

It was discovered in the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952 , and named after Enrico Fermi , one of the pioneers of nuclear physics . Its chemistry is typical for the late actinides , with a preponderance of the + 3 oxidation state but also an accessible + 2 oxidation state . Owing to the small amounts of produced fermium and all of its isotopes having relatively short half @-@ lives , there are currently no uses for it outside of basic scientific research .

= = Discovery = =

Fermium was first discovered in the fallout from the ' Ivy Mike ' nuclear test ( 1 November 1952 ) , the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb . Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium , 244

94Pu : this could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium @-@ 238 nucleus followed by two β − decays . At the time , the absorption of neutrons by a heavy nucleus was thought to be a rare process , but the identification of 244

94Pu raised the possibility that still more neutrons could have been absorbed by the uranium nuclei , leading to new elements .

Element 99 ( einsteinium ) was quickly discovered on filter papers which had been flown through the cloud from the explosion ( the same sampling technique that had been used to discover 244

94Pu ) . It was then identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co @-@ workers at the University of California at Berkeley . They discovered the isotope 253Es ( half @-@ life 20 @.@ 5 days ) that was made by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium @-@ 238 nuclei – which then underwent seven successive beta decays :

<formula>

Some 238U atoms , however , could capture another amount of neutrons ( most likely , 16 or 17 ) .

The discovery of fermium ( Z

= 100 ) required more material , as the yield was expected to be at least an order of magnitude lower than that of element 99 , and so contaminated coral from the Enewetak atoll ( where the test had taken place ) was shipped to the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley , California , for processing and analysis . About two months after the test , a new component was isolated emitting high @-@ energy α @-@ particles ( 7 @.@ 1 MeV ) with a half @-@ life of about a day . With such a short half @-@ life , it could only arise from the β − decay of an isotope of einsteinium , and so had to be an isotope of the new element 100 : it was quickly identified as 255Fm ( t =

20 @.@ 07 ( 7 ) hours ) .

The discovery of the new elements , and the new data on neutron capture , was initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions . Nevertheless , the Berkeley team were able to prepare elements 99 and 100 by civilian means , through the neutron bombardment of plutonium @-@ 239 , and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements . The ' Ivy Mike ' studies were declassified and published in 1955 .

The Berkeley team had been worried that another group might discover lighter isotopes of element 100 through ion bombardment techniques before they could publish their classified research , and this proved to be the case . A group at the Nobel Institute for Physics in Stockholm independently discovered the element , producing an isotope later confirmed to be 250Fm ( t1 / 2 = 30 minutes ) by bombarding a 238

92U target with oxygen @-@ 16 ions , and published their work in May 1954 . Nevertheless , the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized , and with it the prerogative to name the new element in honour of the recently deceased Enrico Fermi , the developer of the first artificial self @-@ sustained nuclear reactor .

= = Isotopes = =

There are 19 isotopes of fermium listed in NUBASE 2003 , with atomic weights of 242 to 260 , of which 257Fm is the longest @-@ lived with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days . 253Fm has a half @-@ life of 3 days , while 251Fm of 5 @.@ 3 h , 252Fm of 25 @.@ 4 h , 254Fm of 3 @.@ 2 h , 255Fm of 20 @.@ 1 h , and 256Fm of 2 @.@ 6 hours . All the remaining ones have half @-@ lives ranging from 30 minutes to less than a millisecond . The neutron @-@ capture product of fermium @-@ 257 , 258Fm , undergoes spontaneous fission with a half @-@ life of just 370 ( 14 ) microseconds ; 259Fm and 260Fm are also unstable with respect to spontaneous fission ( t1 / 2 = 1 @.@ 5 ( 3 ) s and 4 ms respectively ) . This means that neutron capture cannot be used to create nuclides with a mass number greater than 257 , unless carried out in a nuclear explosion . As 257Fm is an α @-@ emitter , decaying to 253Cf , and no fermium isotopes undergo beta minus decay ( which would produce isotopes of the next element , mendelevium ) , fermium is also the last element that can be prepared by a neutron @-@ capture process .

= = Production = =

Fermium is produced by the bombardment of lighter actinides with neutrons in a nuclear reactor . Fermium @-@ 257 is the heaviest isotope that is obtained via neutron capture , and can only be produced in nanogram quantities . The major source is the 85 MW High Flux Isotope Reactor ( HFIR ) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee , USA , which is dedicated to the production of transcurium ( Z > 96 ) elements . In a " typical processing campaign " at Oak Ridge , tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium , milligram quantities of berkelium and einsteinium and picogram quantities of fermium . However , nanogram and microgram quantities of fermium can be prepared for specific experiments . The quantities of fermium produced in 20 – 200 kiloton thermonuclear explosions is believed to be of the order of milligrams , although it is mixed in with a huge quantity of debris ; 40 picograms of 257Fm was recovered from 10 kilograms of debris from the ' Hutch ' test ( 16 July 1969 ) .

After production , the fermium must be separated from other actinides and from lanthanoid fission products . This is usually achieved by ion exchange chromatography , with the standard process using a cation exchanger such as Dowex 50 or TEVA eluted with a solution of ammonium α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate . Smaller cations form more stable complexes with the α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate anion , and so are preferentially eluted from the column . A rapid fractional crystallization method has also been described .

Although the most stable isotope of fermium is 257Fm , with a half @-@ life of 100 @.@ 5 days , most studies are conducted on 255Fm ( t1 / 2

= 20 @.@ 07 ( 7 ) hours ) as this isotope can be easily isolated as required as the decay product of 255Es ( t1 / 2 =

39 @.@ 8 ( 12 ) days ) .

= = Synthesis in nuclear explosions = =

The analysis of the debris at the 10 @-@ megaton Ivy Mike nuclear test was a part of long @-@ term project , one of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high @-@ power nuclear explosions . The motivation for these experiments was as follows : synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture . The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux , and nuclear explosions are the most powerful neutron sources , providing densities of the order 1023 neutrons / cm2 within a microsecond , i.e. about 1029 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . In comparison , the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 × 1015 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris , as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the U.S. The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis , as soon as possible , from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests . Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium , those were not found after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll .

The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site , as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes . Apart from traditional uranium charges , combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried , as well as a mixed plutonium @-@ neptunium charge . They were less successful in terms of yield that was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy @-@ element charges . Isolation of the products was found to be rather problematic , as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing rocks under the great depth of 300 – 600 meters , and drilling to such depth in order to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes .

Among the nine underground tests , which were carried between 1962 and 1969 and codenamed Anacostia ( 5 @.@ 2 kilotons , 1962 ) , Kennebec ( < 5 kilotons , 1963 ) , Par ( 38 , kilotons , 1964 ) , Barbel ( < 20 kilotons , 1964 ) , Tweed ( < 20 kilotons , 1965 ) , Cyclamen ( 13 kilotons , 1966 ) , Kankakee ( 20 @-@ 200 kilotons , 1966 ) , Vulcan ( 25 kilotons , 1966 ) and Hutch ( 20 @-@ 200 kilotons , 1969 ) , the last one was most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements . In the dependence on the atomic mass number , the yield showed a saw @-@ tooth behavior with the lower values for odd isotopes , due to their higher fission rates . The major practical problem of the entire proposal was however collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast . Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 × 10 − 14 of the total amount and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude . Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 10 − 7 of the total charge . The amount of transuranium elements in this 500 @-@ kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0 @.@ 4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test . This observation demonstrated the highly nonlinear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock . In order to accelerate sample collection after explosion , shafts were drilled at the site not after but before the test , so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter , through the shafts , to collecting volumes near the surface . This method was tried in the Anacostia and Kennebec tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material , but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling ; whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short @-@ lived isotopes , it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides .

Although no new elements ( apart from einsteinium and fermium ) could be detected in the nuclear test debris , and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low , these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories . So 6 × 109 atoms of 257Fm could be recovered after the Hutch detonation . They were then used in the studies of thermal @-@ neutron induced fission of 257Fm and in discovery of a new fermium isotope 258Fm . Also , the rare 250Cm isotope was synthesized in large quantities , which is very difficult to produce in nuclear reactors from its progenitor 249Cm – the half @-@ life of 249Cm ( 64 minutes ) is much too short for months @-@ long reactor irradiations , but is very " long " on the explosion timescale .

= = Natural occurrence = =

Because of the short half @-@ life of all isotopes of fermium , any primordial fermium , that is fermium that could be present on the Earth during its formation , has decayed by now . Synthesis of fermium from naturally occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth crust requires multiple neutron capture , which is an extremely unlikely event . Therefore , most fermium is produced on Earth in scientific laboratories , high @-@ power nuclear reactors , or in nuclear weapons tests , and is present only within a few months from the time of the synthesis . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium did occur naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so .

= = Chemistry = =

The chemistry of fermium has only been studied in solution using tracer techniques , and no solid compounds have been prepared . Under normal conditions , fermium exists in solution as the Fm3 + ion , which has a hydration number of 16 @.@ 9 and an acid dissociation constant of 1 @.@ 6 × 10 − 4 ( pKa = 3 @.@ 8 ) . Fm3 + forms complexes with a wide variety of organic ligands with hard donor atoms such as oxygen , and these complexes are usually more stable than those of the preceding actinides . It also forms anionic complexes with ligands such as chloride or nitrate and , again , these complexes appear to be more stable than those formed by einsteinium or californium . It is believed that the bonding in the complexes of the later actinides is mostly ionic in character : the Fm3 + ion is expected to be smaller than the preceding An3 + ions because of the higher effective nuclear charge of fermium , and hence fermium would be expected to form shorter and stronger metal – ligand bonds .

Fermium ( III ) can be fairly easily reduced to fermium ( II ) , for example with samarium ( II ) chloride , with which fermium coprecipitates . The electrode potential has been estimated to be similar to that of the ytterbium ( III ) / ( II ) couple , or about − 1 @.@ 15 V with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode , a value which agrees with theoretical calculations . The Fm2 + / Fm0 couple has an electrode potential of − 2 @.@ 37 ( 10 ) V based on polarographic measurements .

= = Toxicity = =

Although few people come in contact with fermium , the International Commission on Radiological Protection has set annual exposure limits for the two most stable isotopes . For fermium @-@ 253 , the ingestion limit was set at 107 becquerels ( 1 Bq is equivalent to one decay per second ) , and the inhalation limit at 105 Bq ; for fermium @-@ 257 , at 105 Bq and 4000 Bq respectively .

= Hurricane Bob =

Hurricane Bob was one of the costliest hurricanes in New England history . The second named storm and first hurricane of the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season , Bob developed from an area of low pressure near The Bahamas on August 16 . The depression steadily intensified , and became Tropical Storm Bob late on August 16 . Bob curved north @-@ northwestward as a tropical storm , but re @-@ curved to the north @-@ northeast after becoming a hurricane on August 17 . As such , it brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina on August 18 and August 19 , and subsequently intensified into a major hurricane ( Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . After peaking in intensity with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , Bob weakened slightly as it approached the coast of New England .

Bob made landfall twice in Rhode Island as a Category 2 hurricane on August 19 , first on Block Island and then in Newport . Upon doing so , it became the only hurricane to make landfall in the contiguous United States during the 1991 season . Moving further inland , Bob rapidly weakened , and deteriorated to a tropical storm while emerging into the Gulf of Maine . Shortly thereafter , Bob made landfall in Maine as a strong tropical storm early on August 20 . Bob entered the Canadian province of New Brunswick a few hours later , where it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . By August 21 , the remnants of Bob crossed Newfoundland and re @-@ emerged into the open Atlantic Ocean . The remnants traveled a long distance across the northern Atlantic Ocean , and finally dissipated west of Portugal on August 29 .

Bob left extensive damage throughout New England in its wake , totaling approximately $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1991 USD , $ 2 @.@ 61 billion 2016 USD ) . This made it the second costliest United States hurricane at the time ; as of 2013 , it ranked thirty @-@ second in the category . In addition , seventeen fatalities were reported in association with Bob . The loss of life and most of the damage occurred as a result of high winds and rough seas . There were six confirmed tornadoes during its passage . Bob is the most recent hurricane to hit the New England states directly as a hurricane .

= = Meteorological history = =

Hurricane Bob originated from the remnants of a frontal trough to the southeast of Bermuda on August 12 . The system tracked towards the southwest and later west towards the Bahamas . By August 15th , satellite analysis of the system found a weak low pressure area a couple hundred miles east of the Bahamas . Operationally , the system was not declared a tropical depression until 0600 UTC on August 16 after a reconnaissance mission into the storm found a closed circulation and flight level winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . After post @-@ storm analysis , it was determined that the low had developed into a depression around 0000 UTC . Several hours after being designated , the system began to develop convective banding features . Roughly 18 hours after being declared a depression , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded it to a tropical storm , giving it the name Bob . At this time , Bob was situated roughly 140 mi ( 225 km ) northeast of Nassau , Bahamas . The storm tracked slowly towards the northwest in response to the deep layer mean flow it was embedded within .

A deepening trough over the eastern United States was forecast to turn the storm toward the north on August 16 . This turn took place earlier than forecasters anticipated . The storm slowly intensified as convection was displaced from the center of circulation ; however , upper @-@ level outflow was well @-@ defined and intensification of the storm was expected as it tracked over the Gulf Stream . Later that day , Bob began to consolidate and a reconnaissance plane recorded hurricane @-@ force winds at 1719 UTC , following this reading , the NHC upgraded the storm to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Shortly after , the hurricane began to turn towards the north @-@ northeast in response to a subtropical ridge over the Atlantic and the trough over the southeastern United States .

By August 18 , the NHC noted that the hurricane was asymmetrical , having uneven distribution of the wind radii . Later that day , deep convection continued to form and an eye later appeared on satellite imagery . Early the next day , the eye became increasingly defined as the center of Bob passed roughly 35 mi ( 55 km ) from the North Carolina coastline . By 0600 UTC , Hurricane Hunters recorded flight level winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) , corresponding to surface winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . At this time , the barometric pressure of the storm also decreased to 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) , the lowest pressure recorded during the storm . After attaining this intensity , the hurricane tracked quickly northeast at 25 mph ( 35 km / h ) , steered by the trough over the southeast United States , an upper @-@ level cutoff low over the Great Lakes Region and the subtropical ridge over the Atlantic .

The track of Bob by August 19 was similar to that of Hurricane Carol in 1954 , another major hurricane that impacted New England . Significantly cooler sea surface temperatures in the path of the hurricane resulted in weakening , leading to the eye becoming cloud @-@ filled . Later on August 19 , the western portion of the eyewall brushed the eastern tip of Long Island . Around 1800 UTC , the center of Bob made landfall near Newport , Rhode Island with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . The storm quickly weakened as it tracked through Rhode Island and Massachusetts before entering the Gulf of Maine . Around 0130 UTC on August 20 , the now weakened Tropical Storm Bob made another landfall near Rockport , Maine with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .

Later that day , Bob had crossed through Maine and part of New Brunswick , Canada and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence . Around 1800 UTC , the former hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Early the next day , the storm passed over northern Newfoundland before re @-@ entering the Atlantic Ocean . Rapidly tracking eastward , the storm briefly weakened to the equivalent of a tropical depression on August 22 . After restrengthening to tropical storm @-@ force winds , the remnants of Bob turned towards the southeast and slowed . Once more , the extratropical system weakened to the equivalent of a tropical depression ; however , it did not re @-@ intensify . The storm slowly tracked towards the east before dissipating off the coast of Portugal on August 29 .

= = Preparations = =

= = = Watches and warnings = = =

Several hours after the declaration of Tropical Storm Bob on August 16 , the Government of the Bahamas issued a tropical storm warning for the northwestern Bahamas , between the islands of Andros and Eleuthera . After the storm turned northward , this warning was discontinued as tropical storm @-@ force winds were no longer expected to affect the islands . Shortly before Bob was upgraded to a hurricane on August 17 , the NHC issued a hurricane watch for coastal areas of North Carolina between Little River Inlet northward to Virginia Beach , Virginia . Roughly four hours after this watch , it was upgraded to a hurricane warning . A new hurricane watch was issued late on August 17 , encompassing areas between Virginia Beach northward to Cape Henlopen , Delaware . This watch was also upgraded to a warning on August 18 as Bob paralleled the Mid @-@ Atlantic coastline . During the afternoon hours , a tropical storm warning was declared for areas in the lower Chesapeake Bay area , including Norfolk , Virginia .

A new , extensive hurricane warning was issued late on August 18 as forecasts showed Bob moving directly over southern New England . The warning covered areas between Cape Henlopen , Delaware to Plymouth , Massachusetts , including Long Island and Long Island Sound . Early on August 19 , all watches and warnings south of Cape Lookout , North Carolina were discontinued and the hurricane warning was extended northward to encompass areas south of Eastport , Maine . The Canadian Hurricane Centre began issuing warnings for Atlantic Canada later that day . Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were placed under wind and heavy rain warnings . By the morning of August 20 , all watches and warnings in the United States were discontinued ; however , a brief tropical storm warning was declared for coastal Maine between Rockland and Eastport before the remnants of Bob moved through eastern Canada . The advisories for Atlantic Canada were later discontinued after the system moved out of the region .

= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic states and the Carolinas = = =

Following the issuance of a hurricane warning in North Carolina on August 17 , mandatory evacuation orders were declared for the outermost islands in the state . Local police assisted significant traffic as an estimated 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 people left the region . At the height of the evacuations , delays in some places exceeded three hours . Despite the large number of evacuees , an additional 50 @,@ 000 people were estimated to have stayed home and wait out the storm . Several bridges in the area were shut down prior to Bob 's arrival as hurricane @-@ force winds were likely to create life @-@ threatening conditions on them . The National Park Service in the state also shut down campgrounds across the Outer Banks . An evacuation shelter was also opened in Carteret County .

In Virginia , 125 planes were relocated from Langley Air Force Base to Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton , Ohio . Roughly 400 people evacuated from coastal areas in Maryland , and stores in Ocean City reported a substantial increase in sales related to storm preparation . Further north in New Jersey , casinos prepared sandbags to protect the structures and tape to cover windows .

In Suffolk County , New York , emergency officials were unsure of whether or not to issue evacuation orders for residents along coastal areas . This contemplation led to " mixed messages " on the ability of the government being sent to the public . By the evening of August 19 , the evacuation order was not issued ; however , the county was placed under a state of emergency and disaster centers were opened . The American Red Cross opened four shelters on Long Island that housed 800 people during the storm .

= = = New England and Canada = = =

Prior to Bob 's arrival in New England , officials in Connecticut and Rhode Island declared a state of emergency in anticipation of significant damage . All state workers in the area were told to go home early and prepare for the storm . The Connecticut Legislature canceled a session on the state 's budget and Governor Lowell P. Weicker , Jr. activated the emergency operations center . Submarines stationed in Groton left port and waited out the storm under water . Airplane and train service was disrupted throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and New England in relation to Bob . The American Red Cross opened 23 shelters in 16 communities in Connecticut . In neighboring Rhode Island , the agency set up 40 shelters , and there were an additional 25 shelters unaffiliated with the agency . About 3 @,@ 500 people statewide evacuated , including 2 @,@ 000 on Block Island . Several people injured themselves while preparing for the storm .

In Massachusetts , thousands of residents evacuated Cape Cod , leading to an 11 mi ( 18 km ) backup on the Sagamore Bridge . There were nine shelters set up in the region , which became overcrowded with evacuees . There were about 50 @,@ 000 people who left their homes statewide , of which 6 @,@ 500 went to shelters . On Martha 's Vineyard , electronic stores reported their best business sales in years , with supplies of D @-@ batteries being cleaned off the shelves . Many residents purchased these as well as battery @-@ powered radios and flashlights . President George H. W. Bush , staying at his home in Kennebunkport , Maine , evacuated to Pease Air Force Base in New Hampshire . To avoid possible risks by using helicopter , he drove by motorcade to the base . During this time , portions of Interstate 95 were closed to allow him direct access to the Air Force base ; however , this created many miles of backup as thousands of residents moved inland . Eight shelters were opened in New Hampshire , and about 5 @,@ 200 people – mostly tourists – evacuated the coastline . There were 49 shelters opened in neighboring Maine , and about 8 @,@ 600 people evacuated along the coastline in York County .

In the Bay of Fundy , fishermen were urged to return to port in fears of large swells from Hurricane Bob .

= = Impact = =

Throughout the east coast of the United States , Hurricane Bob produced moderate rainfall and substantial damage . Damage totaled about $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1991 USD ) . That included about $ 700 million through cleanup costs , uninsured losses , and food claims . That made it , at the time , the second costliest United States hurricane , although the total was due to the storm passing through a densely populated region . As of 2010 , Hurricane Bob ranked as the 22nd costliest tropical cyclone in the United States mainland . Across its track , the hurricane left 2 @.@ 1 million people without power . There were six confirmed tornadoes , along with thirteen unconfirmed tornadoes .

= = = Carolinas and Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =

As the center of the Hurricane Bob passed several hundred miles east of South Carolina with only slight effects on the state . However , the storm produced large swells that caught a swimmer in Myrtle Beach in strong undertow ; this swimmer drowned to death .

A crew of three sailed from Little River ( Horry County , South Carolina ) en route to Rhode Island . The hurricane destroyed the mast , leaving the crew stranded over the open ocean in shark @-@ infested waters . After 12 days , the United States Coast Guard rescued the three .

On 18 August 1991 , Hurricane Bob brushed the Outer Banks of North Carolina , bringing strong winds and heavy rains . Although a maximum of 5 @.@ 30 inches ( 135 mm ) of rain fell at the National Weather Service office building at Cape Hatteras , little heavy rain fell inland of the Outer Banks . One person was killed in the state in relation to Bob , and damage from the storm was estimated at $ 8 million ( 1991 USD ) . The community of Duck , North Carolina , received the highest recorded onshore sustained winds in the state , 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) , whereas the highest gusts reached 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) at Cape Hatteras . Diamond Shoal Light recorded a sustained wind of 85 @.@ 0 knots ( 157 @.@ 4 km / h ; 97 @.@ 8 mph ) with a gust of 106 @.@ 7 knots ( 197 @.@ 6 km / h ; 122 @.@ 8 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 962 @.@ 1 millibars ( 962 @.@ 1 hPa ) on the evening of 18 / 19 August 1991 . Cape Hatteras also recorded a storm surge of 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 6 ft ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 40 m ) .

Flooding was reported throughout the Outer Banks in relation to the heavy rains and storm surge of the storm . The storm required the shutdown of North Carolina Highway 12 , the only highway connecting the area to the mainland , isolating those who decided to stay behind . Many residents lost power as numerous power lines fell from strong winds . Six brief tornadoes , ranging between F0 and F1 on the Fujita scale , struck the state within squall lines in the outer rainbands of Hurricane Bob. were recorded . Four tornadoes in Dare County , North Carolina , caused $ 256 @,@ 000 in damage . Near Cape Hatteras , wind severely damaged one structure , which lost its roof and some siding .

As the hurricane passed east of Virginia , it produced minimal rainfall and wind gusts of up to 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) . No one reported damage beyond some minor beach erosion in Sandbridge , Virginia Beach , Virginia .

In Ocean City , Maryland , a brief period of heavy rainfall caused street flooding . High waves caused minimal beach erosion and overwash along the coastline .

High tides to 5 @.@ 9 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) occurred along the Delaware coastline .

Farther north , the storm caused widespread beach erosion along the Jersey Shore , while heavy rains caused street flooding .

The heaviest rains outside New England fell in Bridgehampton , New York , where 7 @.@ 18 inches ( 182 mm ) fell during the passage of the storm . Two reported tornadoes struck Long Island . High winds destroyed apple , corn , and peach fields along Long Island . After a dry summer , the sudden deluge wrecked potato crops , resulting in $ 20 million in crop damage ; , about one @-@ sixth of the agricultural output of the region . High winds caused power outages for 477 @,@ 765 Long Island Lighting Company customers for a period of nearly five days . Most power outages occurred in the East End . One person died in a car accident while a traffic light was offline , and another person died when a falling tree struck a train conductor . The high waves destroyed fish nets offshore and caused beach erosion and the widespread destruction of boats along the coast . Statewide damage totaled over $ 75 million .

= = = New England = = =

Before Bob made landfall in New England , it passed directly over Block Island , Rhode Island . Stations on the island recorded gusts to 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) near the upper end of their range , indicating that the winds were likely stronger . On the mainland , winds peaked at 90 mph ( 144 km / h ) in Narragansett . In the state , the storm surge — the rise of water above the normal tide — was 6 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) in the capital city of Providence , while the peak storm tide — the rise of water including the normal high tide — was 16 @.@ 5 ft ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) at the mouth of the Sakonnet River . At the latter location , the estimate was based on high @-@ water marks , which included wave effects . The high waves resulted in extensive beach erosion along the state 's coastline , which washed out several roads in Coventry . There was flooding reported along the Pocasset River . Rainfall in the state peaked at 7 @.@ 13 in ( 181 mm ) in North Foster . In Rhode Island , where the hurricane made landfall , Bob caused about 200 @,@ 000 power outages ; about 60 % of residents in the state and southeastern Massachusetts were left without power . During the storm , treatment plants spilled over 100 million tons of sewage due to overflow into Narragansett Bay . Damage totaled over $ 115 million .

While moving over Rhode Island , the strong winds of Bob extended westward into Connecticut , peaking at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) near Groton ; there , a gust of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) was reported . High winds downed trees in every county in the state , although wind damage was heaviest in the southeastern portion near the coast . Overall there were about 315 @,@ 000 people left without power in Connecticut . A man in Sterling died after being struck by a falling tree limb . The highest storm surge was 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in New London . Coastal flooding was limited to New London County , although coastal damage was minimal . One woman died while on a capsized sailboat . In Norwich , a rainfall total of 6 @.@ 22 in ( 158 mm ) was reported , which was the statewide peak . Flooding was minor , limited to streams and small rivers . Total damage in the state was estimated around $ 49 million , including $ 4 @.@ 5 million in crop damage . There was one death due to a fire that occurred during the storm 's passage , and there were five other deaths across the state .

The most significant area affected by Bob was Massachusetts , where over $ 1 billion in damage occurred . A C @-@ MAN station in Buzzards Bay recorded winds every hour and observed peak sustained winds of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) , along with gusts to 89 mph ( 143 km / h ) . Sustained winds in the state peaked at 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) in Provincetown , and there was an unofficial report of a gust of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) in Brewster . The highest rainfall total in the state was 7 @.@ 06 in ( 179 mm ) in Westfield . Storm surges in the state were most significant along Buzzards Bay , peaking at 5 @.@ 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in New Bedford and Woods Hole . High waves eroded the beach around Chatham Light , leaving behind a 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) cliff . Other locations , including southward @-@ facing shores along Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket , lost 50 ft ( 15 m ) of beach from erosion . Boat damage was significant in the region . The hurricane left over 500 @,@ 000 people without power , including all of Cape Cod . Damage was heaviest from Buzzards Bay eastward to Cape Cod , and at least 61 houses were destroyed . Damage was also extensive to apple and peach orchards across these areas , and agricultural damage was estimated around $ 10 million . The state also suffered $ 69 million in damage to public property .

Although it remained offshore of the state , Bob produced strong winds in New Hampshire , with gusts reaching 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at Pease Air National Guard Base . Mount Washington experienced 7 @.@ 46 in ( 189 mm ) of precipitation during the storm 's passage . Both the Lovell and Contoocook rivers experienced flooding due to the storm , and widespread flooding occurred in urban areas in the south and central portions of the state . There were two deaths in the state , one from an automobile accident and the other due to a capsized boat . High winds downed widespread trees and power lines , causing 30 @,@ 000 people to lose power statewide . Damage was estimated around $ 2 million . In neighboring Vermont , the highest rainfall report was 4 @.@ 27 in ( 108 mm ) in Vernon .

Although moving across Maine as a tropical storm , Bob still maintained strong winds , producing gusts to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Portland . A station in Wiscasset reported a gust of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) before it was blown away , and another station recorded a gust of 93 mph ( 150 km / h ) . A total of 169 @,@ 200 customers lost power during the hurricane , some of whom remaining without electricity for a week . There was a tornado reported in St. Albans , which downed multiple trees , damaged a few houses , and moved a boathouse three blocks away ; its status as a tornado was not confirmed . As it passed the region , the storm produced a 2 @.@ 77 ft ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) storm tide . The heaviest rainfall nationwide from the hurricane fell at the Portland International Jetport , where 8 @.@ 24 in ( 209 mm ) fell during its passage . This contributed to August 1991 being the wettest month on record in Portland . At the time , its 24 ‑ hour rainfall total of 7 @.@ 83 in ( 199 mm ) was the highest on record , although it was surpassed in October 1996 by an extratropical system fueled by Hurricane Lili . The rains from Bob led to a record flow rate along the Presumpscot River , although that record was also surpassed by the 1996 system . River flooding washed out five bridges and roads across southwestern Maine . One man died due to being swept away by floodwaters , and another died in the ocean while on a life raft . A total of 700 houses were affected by the storm , including one that was destroyed and three that sustained major damage . Damage in the area around Portland totaled over $ 25 @.@ 7 million , and there were three deaths .

= = = Atlantic Canada = = =

After causing severe damage in the United States , the remnants of Hurricane Bob moved into Atlantic Canada . The highest rainfall amount in the country was 4 @.@ 37 in ( 111 mm ) in northern New Brunswick . St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador recorded a record 1 inch ( 26 mm ) of rainfall during the storm 's passage . Gusty winds were observed across the region , and winds reached 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) in Digby , Nova Scotia . In Nova Scotia , two 17 @-@ year @-@ old girls were washed out to sea near Cape Forchu after being caught in rough swells produced by the storm . Rescue officials quickly began searching operations ; however , it was later confirmed that the two had drowned . In Fredericton , New Brunswick , tropical storm @-@ force winds downed trees and power lines , resulting in scattered power outages . Lightning associated with strong storms also reportedly struck some trees in the area . A two @-@ story home in Pointe @-@ Verte collapsed due to high winds . In Petit @-@ Rocher , five fishing boats sank after being overwhelmed by large swells at port . Firefighters in the area were surveying the town all night on August 20 , checking for downed power lines and trees . Power outages were also reported on Prince Edward Island . The storm left about $ 1 million in damage ( 1991 CAD ) on Grand Manan Island in the Bay of Fundy .

= = Aftermath = =

Following the storm 's passage , the Long Island Lighting Company used 165 workers to restore the power outages on Long Island . In Connecticut , state officials deployed about 200 trucks to remove debris on roads . The Massachusetts National Guard was activated to assist in relief efforts . In Rhode Island , a man was killed while repairing damage caused by Bob . Beaches in the state re @-@ opened by five days after the storm . The hurricane mixed the waters in Long Island Sound and prevented the algae bloom that happened in previous summers . In the days after Bob , the Commonwealth Electric Company brought electricians from outside the company and put their own workers on 16 ‑ hour shifts to restore power across Massachusetts . Most Massachusetts residents , excluding those living on Cape Cod , had their power restored within five days . The hurricane struck toward the end of the summer , which significantly impacted the tourism season already in the midst of a recession . The New England coast was affected by a powerful nor 'easter known as the Perfect Storm about two months after the hurricane struck the region . Some locations experienced worse damage from the October storm than from Bob .

Due to the high damage from Hurricane Bob , president George H.W. Bush declared the following states as disaster ( in order ) : Rhode Island , Massachusetts , Maine , Connecticut , New Hampshire , and New York . Damage in Maine was insufficient to qualify for individual family assistance . Instead , the declaration allocated federal funding to reimburse cities for debris removal , repairing damaged public buildings , and other municipal expenses for each of the states . Despite the declaration , the federal government did not immediately provide aid to the affected region . This was partially due to President Bush considering the storm a " disaster but not an emergency " , which therefore required cuts from other budgets to offset the relief aid . This was in opposition to the Democratic @-@ controlled Congress , who requested an expedited process . Because of its impact , the name Bob was retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 1992 , and will never be used again for an Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with " Bill " in the 1997 season .

= Banjo @-@ Tooie =

Banjo @-@ Tooie is a platform video game developed by Rare and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 . It was first released on 19 November 2000 in North America and on 12 April 2001 in Europe , and later re @-@ released as an Xbox Live Arcade game for the Xbox 360 on 29 April 2009 . It is the second instalment in the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series and serves as a sequel to the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie . The story of the game follows series protagonists Banjo and Kazooie as they attempt to stop the plans of antagonist Gruntilda and her two sisters from vapourising the inhabitants of the game 's world .

Development of the game started in June 1998 , directly after the release of its predecessor . Several new features were cut from the game due to time constraints and limitations of the Nintendo 64 hardware . Banjo @-@ Tooie features levels that are significantly larger than those of its predecessor and requires the player to complete various challenges such as solving puzzles , collecting items , and defeating bosses . It also includes a multiplayer mode where up to four players can compete in several minigames . Upon release , the game sold more than three million copies and received critical acclaim from video game critics . The game is also included in the Rare Replay video game compilation , released for the Xbox One in 2015 .

= = Gameplay = =

Similar to its predecessor Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Banjo @-@ Tooie features three @-@ dimensional worlds containing items to be collected . Among the items are golden jigsaw pieces , called Jiggies , that are used to complete jigsaw puzzles that unlock the levels . Instead of exploring the hub world in search of incomplete puzzle boards as in Banjo @-@ Kazooie , a singular board is used within a temple where Master Jiggywiggy resides . Whenever the player has obtained the number of Jiggies required , a timed puzzle @-@ completion challenge can be played , after which Jiggywiggy grants access to each world . Each puzzle challenge requires more Jiggies than the last .

Musical notes return in Banjo @-@ Tooie , but are now used to learn new moves from Bottles ' brother , the drill sergeant Jamjars , who assumes Bottles ' role from the first game . All of Banjo and Kazooie 's moves from the first game are immediately accessible in Banjo @-@ Tooie , and the player can acquire several new moves such as first @-@ person aiming , new egg types , and the ability to play as Banjo and Kazooie separately , with each gaining moves they can only use while on their own . Mumbo Jumbo also returns , this time as a playable character who can venture out into each world and use specific magic spells to help Banjo and Kazooie proceed . Taking over Mumbo 's previous role of transforming the duo into different forms is Humba Wumba , a Native American woman who acts as Mumbo 's rival .

Another feature introduced in Banjo @-@ Tooie is the direct connections between its worlds . In Banjo @-@ Kazooie the titular duo would be transported to each level via special doors in Gruntilda 's lair , but in Banjo @-@ Tooie the levels are physically connected at multiple points and are effectively extensions of the Isle o ' Hags hub world . In addition , the train Chuffy can be used to migrate minor characters between worlds which contain stations . The game also includes a multiplayer mode where up to four players can play each of the game 's single @-@ player minigames in customisable competitions .

= = Plot = =

Two years following Gruntilda 's first defeat by Banjo and Kazooie , the two are playing poker with their friends Mumbo Jumbo and Bottles in Banjo 's house . Meanwhile , Gruntilda 's sisters Mingella and Blobbelda arrive in a large digging machine , the Hag 1 , and destroy the boulder trapping Gruntilda with a magical spell . Unfortunately Gruntilda 's time spent underground has rotted her flesh away and reduced her to a skeleton . Seeking revenge , Gruntilda destroys Banjo 's house before fleeing with her sisters . Banjo , Kazooie , and Mumbo escape the house , but Bottles , who stays behind believing it is all a joke , gets caught in the blast and is killed . The three remaining friends swear to track Gruntilda down and put an end to her plans .

Following the witches ' trail , Banjo and Kazooie arrive at Jinjo Village on the Isle o ' Hags , where King Jingaling , king of all the Jinjos , explains that his subjects were frightened away by the Hag 1 and scattered throughout the island . He gives the two their first Jiggy as a token of gratitude to help find them . Meanwhile , Gruntilda 's sisters introduce her to a cannon called the " Big @-@ O @-@ Blaster " ( B.O.B. ) that can suck the life force from any given target . They test B.O.B. on King Jingaling , who consequently is turned into a zombie . Gruntilda plans to charge B.O.B. long enough to blast the entire island and use the stolen life force to restore her body . The witch 's most loyal minion , Klungo , is sent out to hinder Banjo and Kazooie in their progress by fighting them , but after taking many beatings from Gruntilda as punishment for losing to them , Klungo eventually abandons her and sides with Banjo and Kazooie .

Finally reaching Gruntilda 's fortress at Cauldron Keep , Banjo and Kazooie confront the witch and her sisters in a trivia quiz show named the Tower of Tragedy Quiz in which losing competitors will be flattened under one @-@ tonne weights . Mingella and Blobbelda lose to Banjo and Kazooie , getting crushed , but Gruntilda escapes . Banjo and Kazooie then reverse the effects of B.O.B. , resurrecting both King Jingaling and Bottles , who celebrate at Bottles ' house along with Klungo . Banjo and Kazooie enter the top of the fortress and defeat Gruntilda , destroying most of her body and the Hag 1 along with her . The two return to Bottles ' house with their remaining friends ( Jamjars , Mumbo , and Wumba ) to find that everyone else has celebrated without them , much to their disappointment . They instead head to Cauldron Keep and play a game of hacky @-@ sack with Gruntilda 's head , who vows to have her revenge .

= = Development = =

Banjo @-@ Tooie was developed by Rare and designed by Gregg Mayles , who previously worked on Banjo @-@ Kazooie . Development of the game started in June 1998 . Some features that were originally cut during the development of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , such as some of its worlds and a multiplayer game mode , were instead integrated into Banjo @-@ Tooie . An additional world set in a castle was planned , but due to time constraints , it was scrapped during development and assets from it were used in constructing Cauldron Keep . The game features roughly 150 total characters , including enemies and non @-@ playable characters .

Originally , Rare planned to include an additional mode , called Bottles ' Revenge , where a second player could play as an undead version of Bottles and take control of enemy characters to hinder Banjo in his quest , with the players swapping roles if the enemy character managed to defeat Banjo . The idea was ultimately scrapped because the developers ran out of time to debug it , despite admitting that " it did work rather well " . However , it would later serve as the inspiration behind the " Counter Operative " multiplayer mode in Perfect Dark . Bosses were originally to be able to be controllable by the second player as well , but the only boss that the developers had working when they dropped the mode was the third boss , ' Old King Coal ' . The developers also planned to implement a feature , called " Stop ' N ' Swop " , that would have allowed data to be transferred from Banjo @-@ Kazooie to Banjo @-@ Tooie so that players could unlock additional bonuses in Banjo @-@ Tooie . However , due to hardware limitations of the Nintendo 64 system , the feature was ultimately dropped . It is , however , included in the Xbox Live re @-@ release . Despite this , Rare decided to include at least some of the additional bonuses within the game .

The music was composed by Grant Kirkhope , who previously worked as the main composer for Perfect Dark , Donkey Kong 64 , and Banjo @-@ Kazooie . As Banjo @-@ Tooie was a larger game than its predecessor , Kirkhope had twice the memory space in the game 's cartridge for sound effects and music . Kirkhope initially had to pause his work on Banjo @-@ Tooie to work on other projects first , but ultimately the music score for the game was completed on time . Like the original , the themes heard in the game were designed to be interactive , which dynamically change to reflect the player 's location . Due to the game having larger memory space Kirkhope was able to combine two MIDI files to channel different fades of music when the player moves to different locations . The developers initially aimed for a fourth quarter 1999 release , but the game was ultimately delayed . Banjo @-@ Tooie was presented at the 2000 Electronic Entertainment Expo and released on 20 November 2000 . The game supports the Nintendo 64 Rumble Pak .

= = Reception = =

Upon release , Banjo @-@ Tooie was critically acclaimed and sold more than three million copies worldwide . Johnny Liu of Game Revolution considered Banjo @-@ Tooie to be a worthy successor to Banjo @-@ Kazooie and highlighted the scale of its worlds . Also commenting on the scale , GamePro remarked that the game is so large that players might lose their way and forget what they are supposed to do . Similarly , Jes Bickham of GamesRadar described Banjo @-@ Tooie as a game that requires a massive time @-@ investment on the player 's part , saying that " Keeping track of what you can do next , or where you can re @-@ visit to get something new , requires either a photographic memory or copious note @-@ taking " .

In a very positive review , Nintendo Power referred to Banjo @-@ Tooie as " the perfect cross between Donkey Kong 64 and Banjo @-@ Kazooie " , noting that it features less backtracking between levels that " [ Donkey Kong 64 ] over @-@ ambitiously played to the hilt " . The publication also stated that " If there 's one disappointment , it 's the halfhearted resolve of the Ice Key mystery introduced two years ago in Banjo @-@ Kazooie . " Shane Satterfield , writing for GameSpot , praised the game 's level design and progression , stating that the constant collecting of Jiggies " keeps the controller glued to your hand and your eyes in a fixed gaze " .

The graphics of the game were declared to be some of the best on the Nintendo 64 due to their rich textures , long drawing distance , and real @-@ time shadow generation , but were also criticised for their inconsistent frame rate during certain points in the game . Despite this , Satterfield noted that the action level of the game was normally low enough that it " does not significantly distract from the experience " . Liu of Game Revolution said that the graphics were " beautiful " , but admitted that the game did not meet the same level of awe as its predecessor . Despite the praise , Mark Green of N64 Magazine felt that although Banjo @-@ Tooie delivers " a decent complement of clever puzzles and enjoyable run @-@ and @-@ jump moments , it does not " feel as fresh or as exciting " as previous Rare platformers . The game earned the GameSpot 's Best Platform Game accolade for 2000 .

= = Re @-@ releases = =

An Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie , developed by 4J Studios , was released for the Xbox 360 on 29 April 2009 . This version features a smoother frame rate and high @-@ definition graphics , and supports the " Stop ' N ' Swop " connectivity with the Xbox Live Arcade version of its predecessor , allowing players to unlock the bonuses included in the original Nintendo 64 version as well as new content related to the Xbox 360 . The Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie received mixed to favourable reviews from video game critics , featuring an aggregate score of 73 out of 100 at Metacritic . In 2015 , the Xbox Live Arcade version of the game was included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One .

= Hit ' Em Up =

" Hit ' Em Up " is a diss song by rap artist Tupac Shakur ( 2Pac ) , featuring his group the Outlawz . It is the B @-@ side to the single " How Do U Want It " , released on June 4 , 1996 , from the album All Eyez on Me . The song ’ s lyrics contain vicious insults to several East Coast rappers , chief among them , Shakur 's former friend turned rival , The Notorious B.I.G. , also known as Biggie Smalls . The song was recorded in Los Angeles , California at Can Am Studios in May 1996 . Reporter Chuck Philips , who interviewed Shakur at Can Am , described the song as " a caustic anti @-@ East Coast jihad in which the rapper threatens to eliminate Biggie , Sean Combs ( Puffy ) , and a slew of Bad Boy artists and other New York acts . " The song was produced by long @-@ time collaborator Johnny " J " and samples the bassline from " Don 't Look Any Further " by Dennis Edwards and interpolates " Get Money " by Biggie Smalls group Junior M.A.F.I.A. , which used the Dennis Edwards sample as well . The video , itself described as infamous , includes impersonations of Biggie , Puffy and Lil ' Kim .

" Hit ' Em Up " had a large role in exacerbating the East Coast – West Coast hip hop rivalry . Following its release , the East Coast rappers insulted in the song responded through tracks of their own . The controversy surrounding the song is due in part to Shakur ’ s murder only three months after its release .

The song is widely considered by the American hip hop community as one of the greatest " diss tracks " ever recorded due to its explicit lyrical content and the seriousness of violent intent by Shakur and his colleagues towards their competitors .

= = Origins = =

" Hit ' Em Up " was written and recorded in Can Am Studios in Los Angeles , California in May 1996 . For the song , Shakur recruited the members of the former group Dramacydal whom he had worked with previously , and was eager to work with again . Together , the rappers ( along with other associates ) formed the original lineup of the Outlawz . The first and third verses are performed by Shakur , while the second verse is performed by Hussein Fatal , the fourth by Yaki Kadafi and the fifth by E.D.I. Mean .

The ferocity of Shakur 's raging vocals , as said by long @-@ time collaborator and producer of " Hit ' Em Up " Johnny " J " , was entirely authentic . He explained that Shakur was initially fueled by his anger against Biggie and Bad Boy Records for the belief that they had a role in the November 30 , 1994 ambush and attack on Shakur . He claimed that Biggie and his crew knew of his shooting and wanted him dead . Shakur used this fury , which Johnny " J " described as " superhuman " , to attack Biggie and other East Coast rappers . Johnny " J " also stated that he had never seen Shakur so angry and that the words he rapped were in no way an act , describing the recording process as the most " hard @-@ core he had ever done . " Although he was very happy with the work he had put into it and the resulting song , Johnny " J " went on to say that he had no desire to work on anything of that magnitude again .

Shakur was also enraged by Biggie 's release of " Who Shot Ya ? " provocatively only months after the shooting incident , and although it did not mention Shakur 's name , he believed it was directed towards him , but it was not . Shakur admitted to releasing " Hit ' Em Up " as a response to " Who Shot Ya ? " In a Vibe interview , the rapper called out Sean “ Puffy ” Combs and Biggie Smalls and accused both of them for setting him up , or obtaining knowledge of the attack , and not cautioning him . He also singled out business men James Rosemond ( " Jimmy Henchman " ) , and Jacques Agnant ( " Haitian Jack " ) of orchestrating the assault . Shakur announced the names of his ostensible conspirators to Kevin Powell , a journalist for Vibe ; however , to mask their true identities , Vibe referred to Henchman as “ Booker , ” and Jack as “ Nigel ” in the published interview . Persons familiar with the interview say they used different names after the magazine received threats from Henchman . A former Vibe editor denied receiving threats , but neglected to explain why the magazine substituted aliases for Henchman and Haitian Jack .

Henchman promised Shakur $ 7 @,@ 000 to duo with Lil Shawn , a rapper whom the business man represented at that time . In a 2008 article by Philips , Henchman was implicated in organizing the assault , and in 2012 by his long @-@ time friend Dexter Isaac , who confessed to attacking Shakur on Henchman 's orders . He was confirmed as a source for Philip 's earlier story and in Henchman 's own confession according to prosecutors at his 2012 trial .

= = Composition = =

The lyrics in " Hit ' Em Up " were aimed primarily at Biggie and Puffy . Shakur viciously insults Biggie throughout , the first line by Shakur is " That 's why I fucked your bitch , you fat motherfucker " , and threatens retaliation in " Hit ' Em Up " , saying " Now you 're about to feel the wrath of a menace . " He also used the song as a platform to express his belief that Biggie was guilty of stealing his style of rapping , and was merely imitating his lifestyle . This notion is addressed in the verse in " Now it 's all about Versace , you copied my style . " He also touches topically on their early friendship with the line " Biggie , remember when I used to let you sleep on the couch ? " and their subsequent fallout . Towards the end of the song Tupac disses Mobb Deep , saying " Don 't one of you niggas got sickle cell or something ? You fucking with me , nigga you fuck around and get a seizure or a heart attack " , referring to Prodigy , a member of Mobb Deep , suffering from sickle cell disease . Mobb Deep responded by releasing Drop a Gem on ' Em , which was released shortly after Tupac 's death , however recorded before . " Hit ' Em Up " features much profanity and was issued a Parental Advisory label , using the word " fuck " and " motherfucker " over 35 times in the song .

The bassline in " Hit ' Em Up " is taken from the 1984 Dennis Edwards song " Don 't Look Any Further " . The chorus of " Hit ' Em Up " is a play on the chorus of Junior M.A.F.I.A 's " Player 's Anthem . " The phrase " take money " is repeated throughout the song , which is a play on Junior M.A.F.I.A 's recent release " Get Money " , which is also the beat used in " Hit ' Em Up " . Faith Evans , who at the time was Biggie 's estranged wife , was reportedly seen with Shakur after a public breakup with Biggie . Journalist Chuck Philips spotted Faith Evans at Can Am when he interviewed Shakur a year earlier in 1995 . People at the studio told the reporter that Faith Evans also contributed — that the R & B chanteuse recorded one or more “ Take Money ” background vocals that would appear on “ Hit Em Up . ” In his October 1995 interview of the rapper , Philips remembered in 2012 , " I was so unaware of the bi @-@ coastal rap war that I suspected nothing when Faith Evans appeared with Shakur at Can Am . The estranged wife of Biggie was recording background vocals for " Wonder Why They Call U Bitch " , a song which was at the time yet to be released . According to Shakur she had given him gifts of clothing , which he offered as proof of a relationship in an interview . Using this against Biggie in " Hit ' Em Up " , Shakur continued to fuel the rumors of a sexual relationship with Evans in the song 's line " You claim to be a player , but I fucked your wife . " Claims of an affair with Evans appear three times in the song .

Shakur also attacked many other people associated with Bad Boy Records and with Biggie , such as Lil ' Kim and Junior M.A.F.I.A. He exclaimed that their lifestyle and what they rapped about were fraudulent , and that they were not from the streets . He believed that they were only perpetuating the drama and did not understand the situation they were getting into . Bronx rapper Chino XL was also insulted for vulgar comments he made about Shakur on his song " Riiiot ! " . In the original recording , Shakur also insulted Jay Z at the ending segment , but removed it after being convinced by Outlawz members that Carter had nothing to do with the conflict between Death Row and Bad Boy . After Jay Z 's debut album ( which featured Biggie on " Brooklyn 's Finest " ) was subsequently released after " Hit ' Em up " , Shakur included Jay Z amongst the many other East Coast rappers to be insulted in his next studio album .

= = Music video = =

The music video for " Hit ' Em Up " was filmed in a warehouse off Slauson Avenue near Fox Hills Mall in Los Angeles in May 1996 . It was filmed by the production company Look Hear Productions . Shakur raps in a white room with The Outlawz , as well as in purple @-@ caged room and a black room with bullet holes in the background . TV monitors in the background show clips of Shakur , Puffy , and Biggie Smalls , and even clips from the video " Made Niggaz . " The video featured actors who were recalled from their prior roles in the music video for " 2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted " to impersonate some of those who were attacked in " Hit ' Em Up . " This included Biggie , whose stand @-@ in stares dully into the camera and sports a Kangol and jacket , similar to one Biggie would wear . During the moments where Shakur raps about his claimed affair with Evans , the Biggie impersonator crouches near the camera while Shakur yells in his face . Puffy is also impersonated , appearing with a high @-@ top fade and leaning towards the camera , lowering and raising his sunglasses .

During the shooting of the video , Shakur was engaged in an argument with someone , who was heard telling him " You 'll get shot . " His armed bodyguard assured him that he had nothing to worry about . He also broke up a fight involving his friend Muta during the filming , and fired a production assistant on set . The assistant was answering Shakur 's pager and returning his personal calls without his consent . Many callers were confused or angry that a female assistant was answering Shakur 's calls . The assistant had mistakenly lost the pager , and with Shakur already growing wary of her , fired her for that reason .

Like the song , the video for " Hit ' Em Up " has also been called " infamous " . The pro @-@ West Coast track 's music video featured the members crushing buildings in Manhattan , which was already done in another pro @-@ West Coast music video for " New York , New York " by Tha Dogg Pound earlier . The music video for " Hit ' Em Up " can be found on Tupac : Live at the House of Blues DVD .

= = Release and reception = =

Upon finishing the recording of the song , Shakur felt very positively about the track , saying the " song is going to be playing in every club . Deejays are calling from everywhere , wanting to get a piece of this . " " Hit ' Em Up " appeared first as a B @-@ side , on the single " How Do U Want It " , by Shakur featuring The Outlawz . On June 4 , 1996 under the label Death Row Records , " Hit ' Em Up " was released on compact disc , 12 @-@ inch , and a 45 RPM . The original cover for the single had Puffy 's head on a snake 's body , and Biggie 's head on a pig 's . It also appeared posthumously on several compilations , including the 2004 release of Shakur 's last recorded live performance , Live at the House of Blues . " Hit ' Em Up " was also remixed on Nu @-@ Mixx Klazzics . Upon its release , " Hit ' Em Up " received frequent radio airplay , which was attributed to the public interest in the ongoing feud and radio stations ' desire to garner high ratings . However , some radio stations , such as the Los Angeles @-@ based KPWR , refused to play it . The follow @-@ up to " Hit ' Em Up " was the song " Bomb First ( My Second Reply ) " .

" Hit ' Em Up " has been called " controversial , " " infamous , " " disturbing , " and " brutal . " Shakur 's insults against virtually the entire East Coast scene of rappers were said to be ferocious . The song , along with " Dear Mama , " has been viewed as one of Shakur 's songs that resonated with and was spoken of the most by young people . Some felt that " Hit ' Em Up " showcased Shakur ranting and raving like a fool , and J.R. Reynolds of Billboard called it horrendous , noting that Shakur revealed his true colors upon recording the song . He also went on to say that although sympathetic to the shooting , " Hit ' Em Up " had " fan [ ned ] the flames of hatred ... and affect [ ed ] an entire black culture 's psyche " ; he called the song " repugnant and unacceptable . " Among associates of Shakur , it was called a " bad @-@ luck song . " Los Angeles radio director Bruce St. James called the song " the be @-@ all , end @-@ all , curse @-@ word , dirty @-@ lyric , violent song of all time " [ sic ] . Game 's manager has called it the best diss record . Documentary filmmaker Carl Weston believed that " most people in Biggie 's shoes would have wanted to at least hurt Tupac " in a Spin magazine interview .

Among musicians , the song drew criticism from singer Dionne Warwick , and disapproval from fellow rappers Kool Moe Dee and Chuck D , as written in their book There 's a God on the Mic : The True 50 Greatest MCs . They felt that although Shakur was one of the most substantive rappers of that period , he had gone too far with " Hit ' Em Up , " causing some of Shakur 's fans to turn on him , according to the two rappers .

= = = Aftermath = = =

Shakur and the Death Row crew attended a boxing match in Las Vegas , where he was murdered in 1996 . In retrospect of the events which ensued only a few months afterward , the song has been viewed as the turning point in the feud between Shakur and Biggie , where things were said and sung which could never be taken back during the remainder of Shakur 's life . This has led to it being dubbed as the beginning of the war between the East Coast and the West Coast , and the centerpiece in what became the most venomous battle in rap history .

In 2002 , Chuck Philips reported that the Crips ' Orlando Anderson pulled the trigger that killed Shakur and Biggie helped pay for the gun . Although Biggie 's family produced computerized receipts to show that Biggie was in the studio at the time of the murder , The New York Times called the evidence " inconclusive " noting :

The pages purport to be three computer printouts from Daddy 's House , indicating that Wallace was in the studio recording a song called Nasty Boy on the afternoon Shakur was shot . They indicate that Wallace wrote half the session , was In and out / sat around and laid down a ref , shorthand for a reference vocal , the equivalent of a first take . But nothing indicates when the documents were created . And Louis Alfred , the recording engineer listed on the sheets , said in an interview that he remembered recording the song with Wallace in a late @-@ night session , not during the day . He could not recall the date of the session but said it was likely not the night Shakur was shot . " We would have heard about it , " Mr. Alfred said . "

Philips ' article was based on police affidavits and court documents as well as interviews with investigators , witnesses to the crime and members of the Southside Crips who had never before discussed the killing outside the gang . As Assistant Managing Editor of the LA Times Mark Duvoisin wrote : " Philips ' story has withstood all challenges to its accuracy , ... [ and ] remains the definitive account of the Shakur slaying . "

" Hit ' Em Up " has been studied by and with academics , and it has been used as a part of a series of lessons for building the means to communicate with younger people . Its main role in these lessons is to define anger in rap music . Biggie was shot and killed six months after Shakur 's death .

= = Response = =

= = = From Biggie = = =

After hearing " Hit ' Em Up " Biggie continued proclaiming his innocence in the shooting incident . He also remarked that the song " Who Shot Ya ? " was written before Shakur was shot and thus , was not about him . Regarding the lyrics aimed at his wife Faith , Biggie expressed an inability to find merit in what Shakur had claimed . He believed that Shakur intended to attack him through Faith , although he remained unsure of whether an encounter between them had occurred . Ultimately , he thought that if something had occurred it was none of his business , and that Shakur should not have publicly disclosed this information in a song . Biggie responded to this matter in a similar fashion to " Hit ' Em Up " , rapping in a joint release by himself and Jay @-@ Z in the song " Brooklyn 's Finest " , where he says " If Faye have twins , she 'd probably have two Pacs . Get it ? Tupac 's ? " Shortly after the release of " Hit ' Em Up " , Evans went on the radio and denied that she had been with Shakur .

= = = From other artists = = =

Puffy had trouble understanding the sheer rage Shakur had expressed for Biggie in " Hit ' Em Up " . He also responded by reinforcing his and Biggie 's innocence regarding the shooting and went on to say that prior to the incident they " were friends " , and that they " would have never done nothing to hurt him . " In an interview with Vibe Magazine concerning Shakur 's allegations of Biggie and Puffy having prior knowledge of the ambush , Puffy stated :

He ain 't mad at the niggas that shot him ; he knows where they 're at . He knows who shot him . If you ask him , he knows , and everybody in the street knows , and he 's not stepping to them , because he knows that he 's not gonna get away with that shit . To me , that 's some real sucker shit . Be mad at everybody , man ; don 't be using niggas as scapegoats . We know that he 's a nice guy from New York . All shit aside , Tupac is a nice , good @-@ hearted guy .

Lil ' Kim responded on the original version of her song " Big Momma Thang " , which was aimed at Biggie 's wife , Faith Evans , and Shakur . Junior M.A.F.I.A. recorded a music video for the song " Get Money " , which has been regarded as a diss to Shakur . Biggie denies these claims , stating : " It 's just a video ; ain 't nobody got no time to make no diss on nobody . " Lil ' Cease said after the release that Biggie still had love for Shakur , and even respected him . The attack on Mobb Deep came as a response for their involvement on the song " L.A L.A " by Capone @-@ N @-@ Noreaga , which was a retaliation to Snoop Dogg and Tha Dogg Pound 's song " New York , New York " music video in which members of Tha Dogg Pound and Death Row are seen knocking down buildings in New York City . Mobb Deep responded to Shakur with the track " Drop a Gem on ' em " . It was first released as a promotional single , and later appeared on their album Hell on Earth . Lyrically , it did not specifically name Shakur , but it did allude to the shooting incident . It has also been noted for erroneously stating the cost of the assets Shakur had taken from him during the shooting incident . Bronx rapper King Sun also responded to Shakur with " New York Love ( All Eyez On Sun ) " .

= = Appearances = =

" Hit ' Em Up " was originally featured as a B @-@ side on Shakur 's single " How Do U Want It " . In 1998 , it was released on Shakur 's first compilation album , Greatest Hits . A remix of the song was featured on Nu @-@ Mixx Klazzics ( 2003 ) , where the intro lyrics from the originally explicit version and the main lyrics from the edited radio version . A live version of the song was included on the 2005 release of Tupac : Live at the House of Blues . " Hit ' Em Up " was first released on Death Row Greatest Hits , and was again released as a live recording on the 2004 album 2Pac Live .

In the second half of Eminem 's song " Quitter " , the rapper attempts to remake " Hit ' Em Up " and in itself is a diss track aimed towards Everlast . Eminem has support from D12 on his version like the Outlawz supported Shakur on the original . Khia used the song 's beat and part of the hook in her song " Hit ' Em Up " , which is a diss to female rappers Trina and Jacki @-@ O. " What I Think About You " by Bow Wow uses a reinterpolation of " Hit ' Em Up " and is a diss song to fellow rapper Soulja Boy Tell ' em .

= Maryland Route 413 =

Maryland Route 413 ( also known as MD 413 or Route 413 ) is a 14 @.@ 61 @-@ mile ( 23 @.@ 51 km ) state highway in Somerset County in the U.S. state of Maryland . The route runs from a dead end at Crisfield 's city dock , which is located on the Tangier Sound , northeast to U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Westover . It is the main highway leading into Crisfield , and is known as Crisfield Highway for much of its length . The highway travels through mostly rural areas of farms and woods as well as the communities of Hopewell , Marion Station , and Kingston . It is a two @-@ lane undivided road for most of its length ; a portion of the road in Crisfield is a four @-@ lane road that follows a one @-@ way pair . MD 413 is part of two scenic routes : Blue Crab Scenic Byway and the Beach to Bay Indian Trail , both are Maryland Scenic Byways .

The Crisfield – Westover Road was one of the original state roads marked for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission . The highway was paved in the 1910s and designated MD 413 in 1927 . MD 413 was relocated starting in the late 1930s to a new alignment parallel to the Eastern Shore Railroad line that made Crisfield the " Seafood Capital of the World . " The relocation began in Crisfield and was completed to Westover in 1950 . The old alignment of MD 413 was designated MD 667 . The state highway was expanded to a divided highway in the mid @-@ 1950s in Crisfield . The railroad track was abandoned in 1976 and later removed , but traces of the railroad remain along MD 413 's modern alignment .

= = Route description = =

MD 413 begins at the city dock on the waterfront in Crisfield at the intersection with Dock Street , heading to the northeast . It begins on a four @-@ lane boulevard with a median , and is known as West Main Street , fronting local businesses in the downtown area . After Seventh Street , Main Street leaves MD 413 , and the boulevard 's two carriageways become known as Richardson Avenue northbound and Maryland Avenue southbound . At this point the road begins to front mostly homes on Maryland Avenue , while on Richardson Avenue it runs past and homes and businesses , such as gas stations and restaurants . On a gentle curve , Chesapeake Avenue intersects the northbound carriageway , providing access to the southern beginning of MD 667 .

Before leaving the city , the route intersects MD 460 , also known as Hall Highway , immediately accessible only from the southbound carriageway . MD 460 provides a direct link to McCready Memorial Hospital . Access to that route from northbound MD 413 is given by Wynfall Avenue , which the road intersects farther south . Very soon after , it intersects MD 358 ( Jacksonville Road ) , which heads north , and Somerset Avenue , which heads south . Past the MD 358 intersection , the road narrows to two travel lanes with the median becoming a left turn lane as many businesses and side streets front the road . The route becomes the Crisfield Highway , which it is known as for the remainder of its journey . After intersecting Silver Lane , the left turn lane closes , and MD 413 becomes a rural , two @-@ lane highway with full shoulders , exiting Crisfield 's corporate limits just north of the Sherwin – Williams ( former Rubberset ) entrance and continuing past the old site of Carvel Hall Cutlery .

Upon leaving Crisfield , MD 413 passes through a mix of woodland and farmland . In Hopewell , MD 667 intersects the highway , and after clearing some modest wooded development up to and slightly beyond the Holland Crossing Road intersection , the route enters heavy woodland . It passes a man @-@ made pond before intersecting MD 667 again . Both routes parallel each other on the way into the community of Marion Station , straddling the old railroad bed . Both routes are intersected by Davis Road and Tulls Corner Road / Charles Cannon Road , after which MD 667 turns almost due east , with MD 413 heading through a small neighborhood outside the center of Marion .

Past Marion , the route resumes northeast through woods and farms with some residences along the route . Approaching Kingston , MD 413 intersects Lovers Lane . After this , a long curve to the north @-@ northeast begins , which ends just south of Kingston Lane and the center of Kingston . Beyond Kingston , the route crosses the Big Annemessex River and travels past a tree farm . After passing through a forest , two side roads lead to the Somerset County Health Department and the Somerset Intermediate School , with the pavement 's striping reconfigured to accommodate left turns at the two close intersections .

As the road nears Westover , it passes by the Great Hope Golf Course and shortly after intersects MD 361 ( Fairmount Road ) . Here , the road meets Old Westover @-@ Marion Road , a former routing of the highway . Passing through the development of Westover , MD 413 intersects MD 673 ( Sam Barnes Road ) , a short connector route to US 13 southbound to Pocomoke City . From US 13 northbound , MD 673 serves as the connection to MD 413 southbound . Past MD 673 , the highway passes through farmland . MD 413 heads through some woods and crosses the Back Creek of the Manokin River before coming to end at an intersection with US 13 .

MD 413 is part of the Blue Crab Scenic Byway , which consists of various roads in the lower Eastern Shore of Maryland . It is also part of the Beach to Bay Indian Trail , a Maryland Scenic Byway that connects Ocean City on the Atlantic Ocean to Smith Island in the Chesapeake Bay and is noted by signs along the route .

= = History = =

Crisfield grew to prominence as the " Seafood Capital of the World " and became the second largest city in Maryland by 1904 thanks to an extension of the Eastern Shore Railroad to the city in 1866 instigated by the city 's namesake , John W. Crisfield . The city 's importance led to the Crisfield – Westover Road being designated one of the original state roads nominated for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state road was paved from the eastern city limits of Crisfield ( the present western terminus of MD 667 ) to Hopewell and from Westover to Kingston in 1913 . The segment between Kingston and Marion was completed in 1915 . The state road was completed when the final section was completed between Hopewell and Marion by 1920 . MD 413 received its number in the original assignment of state route numbers in 1927 . Within the city of Crisfield , Maryland Avenue was constructed between Main Street and Somerset Avenue , Chesapeake Avenue was brought into the state highway system within the city limits , and Main Street was improved and brought into the state highway system between the city pier and Maryland Avenue around 1935 .

Starting in the mid @-@ 1930s , MD 413 was relocated to an alignment paralleling the Crisfield Secondary Branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad . The first portion of MD 413 was relocated in 1935 in conjunction with the relocation of US 13 between Princess Anne and Westover . MD 413 was moved from Sam Barnes Road and Sign Post Road to its present alignment between US 13 and Old Westover – Marion Road in Westover . The first section of the present straight highway between Crisfield and Westover was constructed in 1938 and 1939 from the eastern city limits of Crisfield ( near the intersection with MD 358 ) to Hopewell . The bypassed portion of MD 413 and subsequent bypassed segments were designated MD 667 . The section of the new alignment between Hopewell and Marion was completed in 1942 . The Marion – Westover portion of the realignment was completed in 1950 .

MD 413 was expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway between the city pier and the eastern city limits of Crisfield in 1956 . Between the city pier and Maryland Avenue , the divided highway replaced the path of the railroad ; the railroad 's terminus was moved to a new pier to the north . North of the Main Street portion of the divided highway , the railroad track separated the two directions of MD 413 : Maryland Avenue formed the northbound lanes while Richardson Avenue was brought into the state highway system to comprise the southbound lanes . The two directions of MD 413 were divided by an operating railroad track until the Crisfield Secondary Branch was abandoned with the formation of Conrail in 1976 .

= = Junction list = =

The entire route is in Somerset County .

= Miniopterus aelleni =

Miniopterus aelleni is a bat in the genus Miniopterus that occurs on Anjouan in the Comoros and in northern and western Madagascar .

It is a small brown bat ; its forearm length is 35 to 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) . The long tragus ( a projection in the outer ear ) has a broad base and a blunt or rounded tip . The uropatagium ( tail membrane ) is sparsely haired . The palate is flat , and there are distinct diastemata ( gaps ) between the upper canines and premolars .

Populations of this species have historically been included in Miniopterus manavi , but evidence published in 2008 and 2009 indicates that M. manavi is a complex of five separate species , including the newly described M. aelleni . M. aelleni has been found in forests and caves in karstic areas . Its distribution overlaps that of M. griveaudi , also formerly included in M. manavi .

= = Taxonomy = =

In a 1995 contribution to Faune de Madagascar on Malagasy bats , Randolph Peterson and colleagues listed four species of Miniopterus on Madagascar and the nearby Comoros , including the small Miniopterus manavi with a broad distribution on both Madagascar and the Comoros . However , during the first decade of the 21st century , molecular studies have revealed that Miniopterus , a widespread genus in the Old World , is much more species @-@ rich than previously thought . A 2008 study comparing sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and D @-@ loop markers found two distinct , unrelated groups within the supposed M. manavi from the Comoros ; both groups were also found on Madagascar . The next year , Steven Goodman and colleagues revisited the group with more extensive sampling on Madagascar . They separated three species within the former " M. manavi " : M. manavi itself in the Central Highlands , M. griveaudi ( previously a subspecies of M. manavi ) on Anjouan , Grande Comore , and northern and western Madagascar , and the newly described Miniopterus aelleni on Anjouan and northern and western Madagascar . The specific name aelleni honors Prof. Villy Aellen of the Natural History Museum of Geneva , who has done much research on African bats . Within M. aelleni , Goodman and colleagues found some differentiation ( 3 @.@ 4 % sequence divergence in cytochrome b sequences ) between individuals from Montagne d 'Ambre in northern Madagascar and those from Anjouan and Ankarana , near Montagne d 'Ambre ; the cytochrome b divergence between M. aelleni and other Malagasy Miniopterus is 7 to 10 % .

Later in 2009 , Goodman and colleagues described two more species of M. manavi @-@ like Malagasy Miniopterus : M. brachytragos from northern Madagascar and M. mahafaliensis from the southwest . On the basis of cytochrome b sequences , they found that M. aelleni was most closely related to a clade of M. brachytragos , M. manavi , and another recently described Malagasy species , M. petersoni . The five recognized species of M. manavi @-@ like bats are not each other 's closest relatives , but apparently acquired their similarities through convergent evolution . At some places ( for example , Namoroka ) four cryptic species of M. manavi @-@ like bats , including M. aelleni , occur together .

= = Description = =

Miniopterus aelleni is a small , brown Miniopterus species . The head may be slightly lighter in color than the body . Some hairs on the underparts have buff tips . Miniopterus griveaudi is similar in color , but M. manavi is darker and M. brachytragos and M. mahafaliensis are lighter . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is long and has a broad base with a crest at the side , and ends in a blunt to slightly rounded tip . In M. manavi and M. griveaudi , in contrast , the base is narrower , in M. mahafaliensis , the sides of the tragus are parallel , and M. brachytragus has a short , blunt tragus sparsely covered with hair . The wing membrane is also brown , but the uropatagium is lighter . The wing membrane and uropatagium are attached to the upper leg at the same level , above the ankle . The uropatagium is sparsely covered with thin , but clearly visible hairs . In contrast , M. manavi , M. mahafaliensis , and M. brachytragos have densely covered uropatagia and that of M. griveaudi is almost naked . Individuals from Anjouan have significantly shorter hindfeet than those from Madagascar , but otherwise the two populations cannot be distinguished on the basis of external characteristics .

In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is short and line @-@ shaped , but longer than in other manavi @-@ like species . The central groove in the nasal depression is relatively narrow . The frontal bones are rounded and bear a well @-@ developed sagittal crest . Further back on the braincase , the lambdoid crest is also prominent . The middle part of the palate is flat , as in M. manavi but unlike in M. brachytragos , M. griveaudi , and M. mahafaliensis , which have a curved palate . At the palate 's back margin is a long , thin posterior palatal spine . Miniopterus aelleni has 36 teeth in the dental formula 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 ( two incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in both upper toothrows and three incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars in the lower toothrows ) . As is characteristic of Miniopterus , the first upper premolar ( P2 ; P1 and P3 are missing ) is smaller and more simplified than the second ( P4 ) . There are clear diastemata ( gaps ) between the upper canine ( C1 ) and P2 and between P2 and P4 , which are weaker or absent in M. griveaudi and M. manavi . Behind C1 , the toothrows are about parallel , not divergent as in M. manavi . The third upper molar ( M3 ) is more compressed than in M. manavi and M. griveaudi . In some measurements of the skull and teeth , Anjouan specimens are larger than those from Madagascar .

The animal has a karyotype of 46 chromosomes , with a total of 50 major arms on the autosomes ( non @-@ sex chromosomes ) . The karyotype is conserved among species of Miniopterus ; the number of chromosomes and arms is identical in M. aelleni , the Malagasy M. griveaudi and M. gleni , and even the Asian M. fuliginosus .

= = Distribution and ecology = =

Miniopterus aelleni is known to live from 4 to 225 m ( 13 to 738 ft ) above sea level in northern and western Madagascar , at 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) on Montagne d 'Ambre , northern Madagascar , and from 220 to 690 m ( 720 to 2 @,@ 260 ft ) on Anjouan in the nearby Comoros . On Madagascar , it has been recorded in forest and caves in karst areas ; its distribution broadly overlaps that of M. griveaudi and the two have been found in the same roost sites on several occasions . On Anjouan , M. aelleni is less common than M. griveaudi ; there , it is known from four specimens only , all collected in 2006 . These come from two nearby sites : a rocky area near a river and a disturbed forest . These animals , collected in late November , were in reproductive condition , with two females pregnant and a third lactating . M. griveaudi were reproductively active at the same time , suggesting that the reproductive seasons of the two do not differ significantly . Although some ecological and behavioral data has been published on Miniopterus manavi , the recognition of several cryptic species within this group , more than one of which may occur in any given locality , renders the association of these data with any of the individual species uncertain ; however , species of Miniopterus generally feed on insects . Because M. aelleni is widespread and occurs in many protected areas on Madagascar , Goodman and colleagues inferred that its conservation status is secure .

= Not Your Kind of People =

Not Your Kind of People is the fifth studio album by American @-@ Scottish alternative rock band Garbage . It was released on May 11 , 2012 through the band 's own record label , Stunvolume . The album marks the return of the band after a seven @-@ year " hiatus " that started with previous album Bleed Like Me . Guitarist Duke Erikson said at the launch of the record that " working with Garbage again was very instinctual . Like getting on a bicycle ... with three other people . " The band emphasized that they did not want to reinvent themselves , but embrace their sonic identity , reflecting their classic sound whilst updating it for 2012 . Although Shirley Manson 's morose dispositions have a presence on the record , many of the songs share a more optimistic outlook on life , influenced by some of Manson 's personal experiences during their hiatus .

Recorded mostly at various recording studios in California , Not Your Kind of People was produced by Garbage , and was engineered and mixed by Billy Bush . The album contains bass guitar parts recorded by Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen while Finnish actress Irina Björklund performs the musical saw on one track . Both daughters of band @-@ members Steve Marker and Butch Vig laid down vocals on the album 's title track . Photos for the album package were shot by Autumn de Wilde at the Paramour Mansion in Silver Lake , Los Angeles .

Not Your Kind of People was preceded by the release of " Blood for Poppies " as the lead single internationally , while in the United Kingdom , " Battle in Me " was marketed as the album 's lead single . The album also spawned three more singles , " Automatic Systematic Habit " , " Big Bright World " , and " Control " . Not Your Kind of People received a generally positive reception from critics . It debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 , at number 10 on the UK albums chart , peaked at number three on Billboard 's Independent Albums chart and topped the Alternative Albums chart .

= = Background = =

Garbage decided to take a hiatus in 2005 , following the troubled production of their fourth studio album Bleed Like Me and cutting short the album 's promotional tour . Aside from a reunion in 2007 to compose new tracks for the compilation Absolute Garbage , the band members found themselves involved in various projects , with Butch Vig producing Green Day , Foo Fighters , and Muse , while singer Shirley Manson recorded an unreleased solo album and made her professional acting debut as a series regular on Terminator : The Sarah Connor Chronicles .

In 2009 , Vig and Manson met at the funeral of Pablo Castelaz , the six @-@ year @-@ old son of Dangerbird Records founder Jeff Castelaz , and had a conversation where , according to Vig , " we felt like we had some unfinished business , and we realized how precious life is and how important music has been in our lives . " Manson suggested calling guitarists Duke Erikson and Steve Marker to get together and write some songs . One week later , the group informally convened in Los Angeles , where they laughed , drank , and reminisced of the old days , leaving behind the tensions among them and general weariness that was partly responsible for their 2005 breakup ; they set up their equipment and " started fucking around . " " We were all pleased to notice on the first day there just didn 't seem to be any personal tensions , " Vig recalled . " Enough time had passed that any sort of weirdness or tension that had risen between us all had dissipated . So it was easy . There was no one telling us what to do . We weren 't signed to a label . We were between managers . So we made this on our own terms . " In that session , the group wrote the song " Battle In Me " .

In mid @-@ 2010 , the entire group were in Los Angeles for a birthday , where Manson suggested they book a studio and spend time writing . Along with Garbage 's long time engineer and Manson 's husband Billy Bush , the band , as Bush described , " hung out for a couple weeks , drank some wine and played a bunch of music ” . Three or four song ideas came together during this time . " But we didn 't go right into making @-@ a @-@ record mode " , Erikson recalled . " It took a bit of time for us to realize that we were going to make an album . " Erikson described reconvening as a piecemeal process , saying that it informally began with the first phone conversations among them since their hiatus , as they discussed playing together again . After convening , and composing and performing song ideas together through multiple sessions , they then decided to move forward with the band and embark on a full @-@ length album . The project took off in February 2011 , when Manson called Vig proposing to reunite the band and try making a new record . Manson convoked the group out of an eagerness " to make loud music again " . " I 'm a loud person " , she proclaimed ; " I love noise and aggression . I crave contact . I needed to make that connection again . I think we all did . To get something back up when there was absolutely no momentum took a Herculean effort on everybody 's part . It 's like pulling yourself out of mud . Even to stand back up and say ' we 're going to take another swing at this ' was a scary feeling , and I 'm proud of us for trying . It 's much easier to stay at home . ”

The band members stated that following the troublesome final years signed to Geffen Records , being an independent act again helped improve their mood and approach , with Vig remarking , " There were no expectations ; no one even knew we were recording . So it was all under the radar and pretty casual and we all felt inspired after having that amount of time off ... when we started writing songs , they came fast and furious . We probably wrote 24 , 25 songs over the course of a couple of months . Marker commented that " the business stuff ends up taking over some of that fun . We got really bogged down in people 's expectations of what we were supposed to be doing , being on bigger record labels and stuff . With all that behind us , it was suddenly exciting again and it felt a lot like it did when we first formed , which was really just sort of a fun idea that we had . " Manson added , " People at record companies live in fear of being wrong . Music cannot thrive in that environment . It is an unruly art form . You can 't keep treating it like sausage meat . You have to let it morph and move and breathe . "

Manson stated that eliminating the corporate pressure and indifference , as well as the band having a relaxed approach to the making of the record was pivotal for a healthy regroup , writing and recording process . " We didn 't put any pressure on ourselves to finish an album ... We just took our time and got together in two @-@ week blocks of time - any longer than that I 'm sure we would have started getting on each others ' nerves . So we did two weeks and then we 'd take some time off and then when everybody felt ready we 'd get back in [ the studio ] again . As a result , I think everybody really enjoyed our time together and really plugged in " , she remarked . Never much enjoying being in a studio , Manson relished the record @-@ making process this time around .

= = Recording = =

Unlike the previous albums , which were done at Vig 's Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin , Not Your Kind of People was mostly recorded in Los Angeles , where both Vig and Manson live . Smart was only used for some of Erikson 's parts , as he was the only bandmember still in Wisconsin . The working process was also different ; while the previous records had the band gathering for an entire year at Smart Studios , the band would instead work two weeks per month in Los Angeles , with Erikson and Marker flying in from Wisconsin and Colorado , respectively , then spend another two weeks in their home studios while e @-@ mailing ideas back and forth to develop songs . Manson would also visit Vig 's GrungeIsDead studio to experiment with vocals . Then they would get back together in the studio , which according to Marker " would be fun again because we hadn 't seen these people for a couple of weeks . "

The first recordings were done in two weeks of jam sessions at The Pass in Studio City . The band then moved to Bush 's studio Red Razor Sounds at Atwater Village , where the engineer did a rough mix of the tracks . Vig declared that the album 's mood emerged from the combination of the " trashy and lo @-@ tech " studio which he compared to a small clubhouse with the band 's ProTools and samplers . The band had a looser approach to recording and mixing compared to the " nano @-@ editing " of Version 2 @.@ 0 .

The band worked on estimatedly " 25 or 26 songs " during the album sessions ; While a few were still " bits and pieces " , Vig stated they might finish them as further bonus tracks , B @-@ sides , or as part of an EP at a later point . Erikson said that the bonus tracks of the deluxe edition are songs that were not ready in time to join the regular track list . He also said that while most songs were new compositions , some were old ideas , such as the " 10 years old or something " track " Show Me " . Throughout the recording sessions for the album , the band mentioned several song titles via Facebook and Twitter ; these included : " Alone " , " Animal " , " Choose Your Weapon " , " Time Will Destroy Everything " and " T.R.O.U.B.L.E. " . Manson confirmed on Twitter that " Animal " became " The One " , a song from the deluxe version , while " Time Will Destroy Everything " was released as the b @-@ side to the band 's 2014 Record Store Day single , " Girls Talk " .

= = Composition and style = =

According to Vig , Not Your Kind of People evokes ambient vibes of Garbage 's first two albums , Garbage and Version 2 @.@ 0 : " There 's lots of elements of things we 've always loved : noisy guitars , big electronic beats , atmospheric film moments " , adding that the band " wanted to make a record sound like something that we want to hear when we 're driving the car . " While the record was reminiscent " vibe @-@ wise " of the band 's early work , the production aimed for a rawer sound , instead of cleaning up the sound through computers , to " capture a performance " and " sound kind of trashy and for the songs to blow out a little bit . " Vig said , " we tried to leave a lot of the performance raw on this album . A lot of the songs , we sort of throw paint at the wall and some of it sticks and some of it drips off . " He explained that the group avoided reinventing themselves : " We wanted to just embrace exactly who we are and what we like to do and just sort of update it sonically for 2012 . For better or worse , when we approach a song , it 's going to end up sounding like Garbage . I think we have a strong sonic identity , and I think that 's an asset these days . " Manson similarly noted that what mattered most was the record sounding authentic to who they are as a band . Manson considered that while the record recalled the band 's classic sound " it fits in with radio programming right now " ; She said that they are interested in also reaching a new generation and , regarding their distinct sound , " We don 't sound like anyone else on the radio . Much to our surprise there hasn 't been another band like ours since we came off the road . "

Like the band 's earlier releases , the album features a variety of guitar configurations as well as electronic synths . Erikson said that initially they gather with the standard guitar @-@ bass @-@ drum and keyboard gear , and as they pass around different ideas and implement them the songs take form in any which way a session takes them . " Once we started on the album proper , it became a Garbage record , which is any number of approaches to writing a recording . There were no rules , certainly " , he explained . A song like " Automatic Systematic Habit " features more electronics than guitars , and " Big Bright World " , a guitar @-@ heavy song , involves configurations that make some of the guitars sound like synths . Guitar parts are normally divvied between guitarists Marker and Erikson . Erikson said it comes down to " Whoever comes up with what at any given time . There 's no job description as far as lead guitar / rhythm guitar . It 's just whoever has an idea as a articular [ sic ] moment . It 's usually about 50 / 50 " . Erikson and Marker used a variety of guitars and pedals , old , new , and defective .

Vig recalled that the title " Not Your Kind of People " came to him when he was stuck in a traffic jam in Los Angeles ; he texted Manson the idea for a title and she loved it . Manson wrote all the lyrics that night , and the next day the four of them gathered with acoustic guitars and wrote the music to the song in about half an hour . Manson explained that the album title Not Your Kind of People was " a call to arms in a way to anyone who feels like we do about the world " , saying that " it can be great to be outsider . " She felt that this applied to them as the band " never fit into a music scene " and that " in my life I 've never been an insider . " Manson also described the title as " a two @-@ fingered salute to people who reject or criticize us " , stating the band was " only really interested in people who share our outlook " as she considered that their fans were " the people who connect with what you 're saying and how you say it . "

Most of the lyrics were written by Manson as she included and filtered some of her bandmates ' ideas on songwriting . " It was a very do @-@ it @-@ yourself , homemade thing when it comes down to it " , Erikson explained ; " We all pitch in . Shirley had just as many comments on the guitar parts or the sound of the guitars as anybody else , and likewise , if we don 't like a lyric , we say it right away . " Many songs have a more optimistic view in life , inspired by Manson overcoming a desire to quit music after the death of her mother and realizing how important her work is to her . Darker themes still appear as Manson described herself as " enthusiastic and passionate , but I do see death marching toward me . " " Blood for Poppies " came " from a lot of things " , Manson said ; " It 's really an analogy for a story I read about Afghanistan and the opium wars over there ... it 's from a few stories , one about a platoon of soldiers in Afghanistan and the other about the opium wars . I use that as a backdrop for a story about maintaining sanity in an out @-@ of @-@ control place . " " [ It 's about ] remaining sane , when faced with insanity " , she added . " I Hate Love " criticized " the commercialized idea of love and what pain that puts us through " along with " knowing that there will be no more torture in your life than really , truly loving somebody who doesn 't love you back . " Manson also incorporated some self @-@ confidence and knowledge of her personality achieved during acting classes , in which she accepted that " was never going to be the cheerleader or the beautiful , conventional girl who fits in everywhere . "

" Big Bright World " contains a lyrical sample from the poem " Do not go gentle into that good night " by Dylan Thomas . Both daughters of Steve Marker and Butch Vig laid down vocals on the album 's title track . Finnish actress Irina Björklund performs the musical saw on " Sugar " . " Beloved Freak " includes a sample of Klaus Nomi , as the group felt the artist fit Manson 's lyrics about " people being an outsider , feeling like a freak , and not fitting in and trying to come to terms with that it 's okay to feel like you 're an outsider . "

KROQ @-@ FM and MTV Buzzworthy described the sound of the album as electronic rock ; The Huffington Post noted " the band has maintained their signature dark , driving , trip @-@ hoppy sound " , while Jason Heller of The A.V. Club wrote that " the group 's shoegaze influences are more in vogue now than they were 15 years ago . "

= = Release and promotion = =

A post on Garbage 's Facebook page on January 23 , 2012 announced that the band launched their own record label , Stunvolume , to self @-@ release their new studio album , distributed in the United States by Fontana . Overseas distribution deals were made with Cooperative Music , Liberator Music , Sony Music Japan and Universal Canada . On March 7 , 2012 , Garbage confirmed the album track listing via YouTube . Four further tracks recorded for the deluxe edition were confirmed later in a press release issued through the band 's own label . In the United Kingdom , 250 copies of the deluxe edition were signed by Garbage and issued as part of the Record Store Day campaign . The album had a worldwide release date of May 14 , 2012 . At the launch of the record , guitarist Duke Erikson said that " working with Garbage again was very instinctual . Like getting on a bicycle ... with three other people " ; Erikson added , " We haven 't felt this good about a Garbage record since the last one . " Los Angeles @-@ based studio SMOG Design handled the album 's artwork and creative campaign , featuring band photographs by Autumn de Wilde . According to Duke Erikson , for the cover " there was some art that we wanted to do but we didn 't want to spend what the artist wanted us to " , so instead of " a very colorful and complex cover " they opted to go the other way and be simplistic , with only a lowercase " g " .

= = = Singles = = =

" Blood for Poppies " was confirmed as the lead single to launch the album . The song was made available for free digital download from the group 's website after it leaked online early . A digital single was confirmed for release in Australia ; while a limited edition 7 " single , backed with an exclusive remix by Butch Vig , was distributed to independent record stores across North America to mark Record Store Day on April 21 , 2012 . " Battle In Me " was confirmed as the lead @-@ single exclusively for the United Kingdom . A limited edition 7 " vinyl was issued on April 21 to mark Record Store Day , while a proper commercial release followed on May 7 , 2012 . To promote the album , " Automatic Systematic Habit " was released as a free download through iTunes in the US on May 8 , 2012 . " Big Bright World " was released as the album 's second single in Australia on June 1 , 2012 . On July 8 , Manson announced that " Control " was the band 's next US single .

= = = Songs in other media = = =

In the same year of release , " Blood for Poppies " appeared in an episode of True Blood titled " Whatever I Am , You Made Me " , while " Control " was used in the 2012 video game The Amazing Spider @-@ Man and featured in the launch trailer of the game . The song also appeared in the season 4 episode of The Vampire Diaries " Bring It On " . " Sugar " appeared in an episode of The Following , and the title track " Not Your Kind of People " was later featured in its entirety in the trailer and soundtrack for Metal Gear Solid V : The Phantom Pain .

= = World tour = =

In late 2011 , Garbage announced their return to touring upon the release of Not Your Kind of People , marking the band 's first live performances since 2007 , and their first tour since 2005 . " Thinking about going back on the road is both thrilling and terrifying in equal measure , " Manson stated , " ... but we 've always enjoyed a little pain mixed in with our pleasure . " Manson considered that self @-@ reflection helped change the way the group approached touring , and , as a result , " we 're playing the best shows of our career . " Eric Avery , who performed with the band during their Bleed Like Me tour , rejoined them as the tour bassist . The band played concerts throughout North and South America , Europe , Oceania and Asia .

= = Critical reception = =

Not Your Kind of People received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , it received a weighted average score of 63 based on 28 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . In his review for The Guardian , Dave Simpson gave the album four out of five stars , stating that it " returns to the blueprint of their first two , best albums " while lessening the electronics and augmenting the crunchy guitars , with a contemporary production . He praised the title track , deeming it a " surprise " and a " beautiful , otherworldly cross between a John Barry Bond theme and a David Bowie outsider anthem . " Cameron Adams of The Courier @-@ Mail wrote that " musically , they still find that sweet spot between Motown and Nirvana , via the Pretenders and Prodigy " , and considered it " refreshing " that the band is " still pushing pop music to its darkest limits . "

AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that unlike their previous two albums , " there is no grappling with new sounds and styles , only an embrace of the thick aural onslaught of " Stupid Girl " and " Vow " . He complimented Manson 's " keenly aware lyrics " and said that their hooks are efficiently delivered while " no flab in either the composition or production " is evident . He summarized the album " as a simultaneous testament and revival of their strengths " , but " what once was futuristic now sounds nostalgic . " Tim Grierson wrote in The About Group that out of the many ' 90s bands that reunited in the last few years , " none have done it with as much gusto as Garbage " as they " return with their sexy , edgy vibe intact " and Manson " sounds as ferocious and bruised as ever . "

The Bangkok Post noted that the band " stick [ s ] firmly to their ' 90s alt @-@ rock guns . " Their " fuzzy @-@ guitar / catchy @-@ hook formula continues to dominate the album " and amidst the fuzz and electronics , " the title @-@ track , Sugar and Beloved Freak do offer moments of ( relatively ) quiet bliss " — songs that " refreshingly showcase the essence of Manson 's voice " . It is proposed however that , apart from older , devoted 90 's fans , the album probably won 't connect with contemporary audiences . In his review for Time , Adam Kivel likewise stated that the album is most likely to resonate with fans of 90 's alternative fusion , characterizing it as " an anomaly " in the current musical climate and not likely to gain significant radio @-@ play . Lindsay Zoladz of Pitchfork Media summarized the album as " a statement from a band that 's stuck , combatively , to its guns . The times have changed but Garbage haven 't , and now , for better and for worse , they 've at last become alternative to everything . "

NME writer Rick Martin , despite hearing " flashes of their previous class " proving " they haven 't completely lost their confrontational electro @-@ rock streak " , considered too much of it " pedestrian , anodyne and utterly unremarkable " , and wondered " why they ever ditched the near @-@ perfect mid- ' 90s FM rock of " Stupid Girl " . " BBC Music writer Tom Hocknell felt that the band 's relocation to L.A. made " no discernible difference to the band 's sound " but that " despite occasional lapses into overproduced mess , the surprise here is their enthusiasm . " Similarly , Jamie Carson of Clash disapproved of the production , calling it " pompousness " and " annoying " , and Mark Davison of No Ripcord remarked that " for all the interesting noises that the band have come up with ... the production really doesn 't do them any favours , cramming them into a fairly narrow space and stripping them almost entirely of any sense of atmosphere " , concluding that the album is nonetheless " enjoyable , and will probably go down better than their last two releases . "

Not Your Kind of People was listed at number 44 on Rolling Stone 's list of the top 50 albums of 2012 .

= = Commercial performance = =

In the United States , Not Your Kind of People was released exclusively through iTunes during its first week , and debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 with 19 @,@ 000 digital copies sold in its first week . In its second week , the album rose to number 13 with sales of over 22 @,@ 000 copies . As of June 2016 , the album has sold 98 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In the United Kingdom , it became the band 's fifth top @-@ 10 studio album when it entered the UK Albums Chart at number 10 with first @-@ week sales of 8 @,@ 310 copies . The album also debuted at number 33 on the Japanese Oricon chart , selling 1 @,@ 983 copies .

= = Track listing = =

All songs written and composed by Garbage .

= = Personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of the deluxe edition of Not Your Kind of People .

= = Charts = =

= = Release history = =

= Playtex =

Playtex is an American brand name for undergarments , baby products , gloves , feminine products and sunscreen . It was founded in 1947 , when International Latex Corporation ( ILC ) created a division named Playtex to produce and sell latex products . Playtex was the first to advertise undergarments on national television in 1955 and the first to show a woman wearing only a bra from the waist @-@ up in a commercial in 1977 .

Playtex @-@ branded tampons were introduced in the 1960s and became the primary competition to incumbent Tampax . Playtex invented the plastic tampon applicator in 1973 . It was one of the tampon manufacturers that were sued for aggressively advertising over @-@ absorbent tampons , which led to toxic shock syndrome .

Playtex was acquired by Esmark in 1975 , and then by Beatrice Foods in 1985 . A year later it was acquired for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion and its cosmetics brands were sold to Revlon . In 1988 , Playtex split into two companies , Playtex Apparel Inc. and Playtex Products LLC . Playtex Apparel was sold to Sara Lee in 1991 , and to HanesBrands in 2007 .

= = History = =

= = = Early history = = =

Abram Nathaniel Spanel founded Playtex 's predecessor , the International Latex Corporation ( ILC ) , in 1932 to produce latex products , like bathing caps , swimwear and baby pants . ILC moved to Dover , Delaware , in 1939 , making it the first large , non @-@ agricultural business in the city .

ILC did not produce apparel for adults until the introduction of the Living Girdle in 1940 , after patenting a method of manufacturing latex girdles that would not tear at the seams if they had a small tear or hole . The Living Girdle was advertised with images of mobility and comfort , such as women playing tennis or leaping while wearing it , though the solid rubber girdle was actually very uncomfortable .

During World War II , the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the Japanese invasion of Malaysia cut off Allied manufacturers from their largest sources of latex . As supplies ran out and demand for consumer products fell , ILC halted production ; sales would not resume until 1946 . The company almost went out of business during the war , so it created an industrial division to find government and military applications for latex . Playtex was founded in 1947 as one of four divisions ILC re @-@ organized into . Its name was a portmanteau of " play " and " latex " , reflecting its focus on latex products . Playtex 's marketing in the post @-@ war era was influential in creating the shift from custom @-@ tailored undergarments to manufactured sizes . For example , the company introduced large floor displays with fitting charts , so women could find the right size without a custom fitting .

In 1954 , ILC was sold to Stanley Warner Corporation for $ 15 million ( $ 132 million in modern dollars ) . The following year , it was the first to advertise under @-@ garments on network television . In 1962 , the industrial division of Playtex was awarded a contract to develop space suits for the Apollo mission to the moon . Two years prior to the 1969 moon landing that used its latex suits , Playtex 's industrial division was spun off , eventually becoming ILC Dover .

Playtex created a consumer products subsidiary , Playtex Products Inc . , in 1960 , which produced baby products , tampons and other consumer goods . It introduced and patented the first plastic tampon applicator in 1973 . By 1975 , the five largest tampon manufacturers began competing with multimillion @-@ dollar advertising budgets and Playtex became the primary competitor to market @-@ leader Tampax . Playtex introduced a scented tampon that was advertised with the slogan , " When you 're wearing a tampon you don 't worry about odor . But should you ? " It added a warning label saying that some women may experience irritation from the chemicals after complaints were raised by Planned Parenthood . Tampon manufacturers , including Playtex , were sued for aggressively advertising and competing over absorbency , when some studies found that excessive absorbency leads to toxic shock syndrome . In 1985 , a judge offered to reduce an $ 11 million verdict against Playtex , if they admitted their super @-@ plus tampons were killing women and recalled them .

= = = Joel Smilow era = = =

Joel Smilow became chief executive officer ( CEO ) of Playtex in 1969 and was associated with the company through five owners . The company was acquired by Esmark in 1975 for $ 210 million ( $ 924 million in modern dollars ) .

By the early 1980s , Playtex controlled 25 percent of the market for bras , giving it the largest market @-@ share in the industry . In 1982 Playtex acquired the skin and hair products brand , Jhirmack Enterprises Inc . , for $ 28 @.@ 3 million . ( $ 69 @.@ 4 million in modern dollars ) . Three years later Esmark sold Playtex to Beatrice Foods . Four years later an investor group led by Smilow bought Playtex for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion ( $ 2 @.@ 7 billion in modern dollars ) . To help fund the acquisition , the company 's cosmetics brands , Max Factor , Almay and Halston , were sold to Revlon for $ 345 million . ( $ 690 million in modern dollars ) .

The following year , the National Association of Broadcasters ( NAB ) relaxed rules regarding partial nudity on television , which previously forced undergarment manufacturers to use mannequins in their commercials , despite bathing suits and equally revealing swimwear being allowed . Playtex was the first to advertise with a live model wearing only a bra from the waist up . This attracted criticisms from members of the American Family Association and the Eagle Forum . The New York Times called the ads , " totally inoffensive " and CBS 's spokesman said they were " well done , tasteful and not exploitative . "

Ownership of the remaining apparel and consumer products divisions were split among the company 's leadership ( 28 percent ) , BCI Holdings ( 20 percent ) , Drexel Burnham ( 19 percent ) and institutional investors ( 33 percent ) . The following year the company attempted to sell the Family Products division to Johnson and Johnson but the deal fell through .

In 1988 Playtex split into two companies , Playtex Apparel and Playtex Family Products , in a series of financial transactions totaling $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . The transactions allowed Smilow to buy out other Playtex shareholders and put ownership of the brand into two separate investment groups that were owned by Smilow and other Playtex executives . In 1990 Playtex Products acquired cosmetics brand Maybelline for $ 300 million . ( $ 543 million in modern dollars ) . The next year Smilow sold Playtex Apparel to the Sara Lee Corporation , transferring the Bali , Hanes , and Cross Your Heart brands for $ 571 million , ( $ 992 million in modern dollars ) but keeping the Playtex Family Products Corporation .

In November of that year , Sara Lee also bought a 25 percent stake in Playtex Family Products for $ 62 @.@ 5 million . ( $ 109 million in modern dollars ) . Playtex Products Inc. went public in 1994 . In 1995 , another 40 percent of Playtex Products Inc. was sold to Haas Wheat & Harrison Investment Partners for $ 180 million ( $ 280 million in modern dollars ) .

= = = Recent history = = =

Playtex Products continued to erode Tampax 's ' market share throughout the late 20th century . The two companies had divided the market almost evenly by the late 1990s . Both makers increased profits primarily by reducing the tampon count per box , and prepared to enter emerging markets , particularly in Asia , where many women still used homemade pads . In 1997 Procter & Gamble ( P & G ) , makers of Always sanitary napkins and pantiliners , bought Tambrands for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion , its largest acquisition up to that point , returning to the tampon sector almost two decades after pulling Rely from the market over Toxic Shock Syndrome concerns .

Due to its strong advantage among younger women , and baby boomers reaching menopause , Playtex continued to gain market share on Tampax . After extensive market research , Tampax reversed that trend with the 2002 introduction of Pearl , with an applicator designed to be as visually appealing as it was functional , and making the brand once again appealing to teens .

Playtex responded by litigating . In one suit , it alleged patent infringement over Pearl 's applicator design . It also alleged that advertising claiming Tampax Pearl had better leakage protection and comfort than Gentle Glide was false . Playtex won a verdict prohibiting Tampax from making claims of superiority , until the decision was reversed in 2007 , when Tampax made improvements in materials and manufacturing .

In 2006 , Sara Lee spun off its clothing sector into HanesBrands Inc . , which now runs the Playtex apparel business . The next year Playtex Products acquired the Hawaiian Tropic sunscreen company for $ 83 million . Later that year Playtex Products was acquired by Energizer Holdings for $ 1 @.@ 16 billion . Playtex Products was sued in 2008 , when a mother accused the company of not adequately disclosing their baby bottles contained bisphenol A. After Canada considered banning the chemical , the company took it out of their bottles the following year . In 2008 , Playtex Products was acquired by Energizer Holdings .

In 2013 , the Playtex intimate apparel brand launched a $ 10 million integrated marketing campaign called " Be Uniquely You . " This 360 rebranding included new bra styles and packaging and a strong presence in social media and national TV ads . The new campaign was created by KraftWorks NYC , their primary advertising agency since 2002 .

= = Organization = =

The Playtex trademark is owned by Playtex Marketing Corp. in the United States and Canada . They license the trademark to HBI Branded Apparel Enterprise ( a subsidiary of Hanesbrands ) for Playtex @-@ branded apparel and Playtex Products Inc ( a subsidiary of Energizer Holdings ) for baby products , gloves and feminine products . Hanesbrands and Energizer Holdings each own a fifty percent interest in Playtex Marketing Corp. Hanesbrands also owns the rights to the brand name for use with apparel internationally , except in Europe and South Africa , where DBA Apparel ( itself acquired by Hanes in 2014 ) sells Playtex @-@ branded apparel products . Playtex Products LLC is managed under the Personal Care Division of Energizer Holdings .

= = Products = =

According to Energizer Holdings ' 2012 annual report , Playtex Products LLC is the largest producer of household gloves , hand wipes and sunscreen , as well as the second largest producer of tampons in the US . The best @-@ selling Playtex tampon is the Gentle Glide brand , which was first introduced in 1973 . It also manufactures the Playtex Sport tampon , which targets young athletes . Both brands are sold in regular , super and super @-@ plus absorbency . Playtex had a 29 percent share of a $ 550 million market for tampons in 1994 and a 30 percent share of a $ 780 million market by 2000 .

Historically baby products were a small portion of Playtex Products ' revenues , but by 2000 they made up 38 percent of the company 's revenues . As of that year it had a 60 percent share of the market for " sippy cups " and an 84 percent share of the market for disposable baby @-@ bottle liners . Other baby products include Chubs Baby Wipes , Baby Magic toiletries ( until 2007 ) , and Diaper Genie . Playtex Products also manufactures the Banana Boat and Hawaiian Tropic sunscreen brands , household gloves , diaper pails , cleansing cloths and the Ortho @-@ Pro and Binky pacifiers .

Playtex @-@ branded apparel products sold by Hanesbrands include bras , panties and shapewear . According to Hanesbrands , Playtex is the fourth largest brand by revenue in its portfolio . The brand has the strongest loyalty among customers who prioritize fit . As of 2002 , Playtex was the second most popular brand of bras . In addition to panties and shapewear , Playtex bra brands include :

Cross Your Heart

Eighteen @-@ hour bra

Playtex Secrets

Full support

Everyday basics

The company has been producing and marketing the Cross Your Heart bra since 1954 under the slogan that it " lifts and separates , " a phrase that is now well known in popular culture . The Eighteen Hour bra has been marketed on the premise of comfort since the 1970s .

= Solo ( Boyd novel ) =

Solo is a James Bond continuation novel written by William Boyd . It was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 26 September 2013 in hardback , e @-@ book and audio editions , and in the US by HarperCollins on 8 October 2013 .

The plot centres on Bond 's mission to the civil war in the fictional country of Zanzarim — a thinly veiled version of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War — where he meets the local MI6 contact , Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant , and a Rhodesian mercenary , Kobus Breed . After being shot by Ogilvy @-@ Grant , Bond tracks both people to Washington on a revenge mission , finally establishing that Breed is drug trafficking heroin into the US .

Boyd closely based his version of the Bond character on Fleming 's , and eschewed any of the film versions . The novel is set in 1969 — six years after Fleming 's last work was set — and Bond is 45 years old . Boyd was raised in Nigeria and used his experiences during the civil war to provide the location for the novel . He has been a Bond fan since his youth and , in preparation for writing the novel he read all the Bond stories in chronological order . It took 18 months to write the novel , with some friction between Boyd and the Fleming estate over the portrayal of Bond .

Solo received mixed reviews , with a number of critics pointing to the convoluted and unstirring plot . Other critics saw the book as being equal with , or superior to , Fleming 's stronger novels . The book sold well , appearing in the top ten @-@ selling book lists in the UK .

= = Plot = =

After celebrating his 45th birthday alone at The Dorchester , Bond is sent to Zanzarim to bring a speedy end to the civil war in the country which has seen the delta region of the country split to form the Democratic Republic of Dahum . Before leaving for Africa , Bond visits Gabriel Adeka — the rebel leader 's brother — who runs AfriKIN , a London @-@ based charity who send aid to Dahumni children ; Gabriel tells Bond that he is not in contact with his brother Solomon , as the pair have fallen out .

On his arrival in Zanzarim , Bond is aided by a local agent who introduces herself as Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant . The two travel from the capital city to the rebel enclave , but are attacked shortly before reaching their destination and taken captive by Kobus Breed , a mercenary assisting the rebels . The group are attacked on their return journey and Ogilvy @-@ Grant goes missing in the confusion , while Bond escapes .

Bond proceeds to the enclave , where he is met by Breed , who accepts Bond 's cover as a journalist . Bond meets Solomon Adeka and realises that the leader will shortly die of cancer : his mission to kill Adeka is needless . Bond sees supply flights of arms and equipment coming into the country , all funded by billionaire Hulbert Linck ; the aeroplanes all show the AfriKIN name on the fuselage . When Adeka dies a few days later , Bond tries to leave the country on one of the supply flights , but is confronted by Breed and Blessing , who both shoot him and leave him to die .

Bond is saved by a journalist he befriended and returns to the UK , where he spends time in a military hospital . After discharging himself , he decides to go on a revenge mission against Breed and Ogilvy @-@ Grant . Discovering AfriKIN has relocated to Washington DC , Bond travels to the US and tracks down both of them at the AfriKIN offices . While conducting surveillance against the company , Bond is briefly detained by Brigham Leiter — nephew of Felix — of the CIA , who explains Ogilvy @-@ Grant also works for the CIA .

Bond meets Ogilvy @-@ Grant , who assures him that she shot to wound him in order that Breed would not shoot them both . The following day Bond watches a mercy flight bringing in maimed and injured Zanzarimi children ; he dines alone and returns to his hotel to find that Breed has killed Ogilvy @-@ Grant .

Bond attacks the house where Breed is staying with the children , and incapacitates the mercenary , leaving him for dead . He establishes that the children are being used as drug mules to smuggle raw heroin into the country and locates Solomon Adeka , who had not been killed in Africa , but been turned into a heroin addict in order to control him . Adeka 's older brother had been killed in London , ensuring Solomon became chief of the tribe whose lands held massive amounts of oil : as he was an addict , these rights were signed away in favour of Hulbert Linck . Linck was killed by the CIA during the raid on the house .

= = Characters and themes = =

The central character of the novel is James Bond , the fictional MI6 agent created by Ian Fleming . The author , William Boyd modelled his version of the character on Fleming 's version , which Boyd identified as being very different from the version seen in the films . Solo is set in 1969 — six years after Fleming 's last work was set — and the novel begins with Bond celebrating his 45th birthday . Boyd altered aspects of the character , making him " an older , wiser Bond " ' ; while having coffee on the King 's Road , Bond 's " advancing age lends an undertone of poignancy to his almost detached observation of the bra @-@ less , mini @-@ skirted cavalcade " . Boyd 's version of Bond is " more impulsive , less emotionally guarded , and also more sadistic " than Fleming 's , and he has the facility for extreme violence : Bond 's " casual sexism has gone , to be replaced by a flaring lust that teeters on the edge of being out of control , and has to be reined in " .

The primary antagonist of the novel is Kobus Breed , a mercenary with a disfigured face and a permanently weeping eye who had previously served with the Rhodesian Light Infantry in Matabeleland ; Olen Steinhauer , writing in The New York Times thinks the scarred villain to be " an obligatory nod toward the requirements of the Bond formula " . Some writers are unimpressed with Breed ; Robert Crampton of The Sunday Times thinks that the character " feels more like a henchman than a proper power @-@ crazed villain . He has menace , but no ambition . You wait for the evil genius to turn up — but he never does " , while David Sexton in the London Evening Standard thinks the character " lacks charisma " , and David Connett in the Sunday Express considers him " a colourless character in comparison with factual and fictional counterparts " . The journalist Geoffrey Wansell in the Daily Mail disagreed and Breed , along with a second villain , millionaire Hulbert Linck , were as strong as some of Fleming 's villains ; Steinhauer also thought that the novel 's villains were realistic , " motivated by simple greed yet clever enough to be legitimately dangerous " . There are two main female characters in Solo — a horror film actress , Bryce Fitzjohn and the local MI6 contact Efua Blessing Ogilvy @-@ Grant ; rather like many of Fleming 's female characters , both are " determined females who are not to be patronised by Bond " .

The main theme of the novel is revenge . Bond is stopped from leaving Zanzarim by Breed and subsequently shot and badly wounded by Ogilvy @-@ Grant ; he tracks down the pair to Washington and attempts to get his revenge from the pair . According to the Sunday Business Post , " this is where the author comes into his own , along with our hero , and it 's all taken up a notch . " Associated with the revenge is treachery : it is a subject that recurred through Fleming 's works , and Boyd uses it to provide a motive for Bond 's mission of revenge .

= = Background = =

On 31 March 2012 Boyd announced at the Oxford Literary Festival that he was working on a novel set in Africa . Boyd had lived in Nigeria — " where his mother was a teacher and his father a doctor " — during the Nigerian Civil War , which " had a profound effect on him . " On 11 April 2012 the Fleming estate announced that Boyd would write a Bond novel to follow Jeffery Deaver 's 2011 novel Carte Blanche . The civil war , over the attempted secession by Biafra from Nigeria , was the location for Solo , although Boyd renamed this as the fictional Zanzarim .

On 15 April 2013 Boyd announced the book 's title at the London Book Fair . The announcement was part of the " Author of the Day " event at the English Pen Literary Café . Selected press were invited to the event and were given a brief opportunity to question Boyd about the book 's title . Boyd believes the short title is " strikingly apt " for the novel . He remarked that " titles are very important " to him , and that as soon as he " wrote down Solo on a sheet of paper I saw its potential . Not only did it fit the theme of the novel perfectly , it 's also a great punchy word , instantly and internationally comprehensible , graphically alluring and , as an extra bonus , it 's strangely Bondian in the sense that we might be subliminally aware of the ' 00 ' of ' 007 ' lurking just behind those juxtaposed O 's of SOLO " .

For background Boyd read all the Bond stories in chronological order ; and had researched Fleming and the literary Bond 's background . Boyd was a child when his father introduced him to Fleming 's works . As a result , Boyd found himself also becoming fascinated with Ian Fleming . He told reporters that he was interested in Bond as a human being . " Bond is not just a superhero . He has flaws , he has weaknesses , he makes mistakes . ... That was Fleming 's genius . " The novel is set in 1969 when Bond is 45 ; Boyd intentionally picked the year , further adding that " there are no gimmicks , it 's a real spy story . " Boyd criticised how the filmmakers have portrayed Bond onscreen as a " cartoon character " ; he also believes that Bond should be " troubled and a massive boozer . " The novel reflects Boyd 's view , where Bond " drinks enough to float a boat . He drinks so much you wonder that he ever has the time or inclination to do anything else " .

The writing process took 18 months and Boyd was required to run synopses and drafts through the Fleming estate , a process he described as " benevolent surveillance " . The process was not always smooth , and the author had a number of arguments with the estate over the portrayal of Bond : " they were concerned about Bond being seen as an assassin , but I would argue Bond is sent on an assassination mission in at least four Fleming books " , with further issues over Bond 's relationship with M.

Boyd described writing the book as " tremendous fun " and a " once in a lifetime challenge " , but admitted that he had to take it " really , really seriously . " After completing the writing process , Boyd commented that he did not " attempt to write as pastiche Fleming novel ... it 's my own voice ; I 'm dealing with things and subjects I am interested in ... it is very much my novel ; it just features these characters invented by Fleming .

= = Release and reception = =

Solo was launched on 25 September 2013 at the Dorchester Hotel . Seven copies of the book were signed by Boyd , were collected by seven Jensen Interceptors and were then flown by British Airways to Amsterdam , Edinburgh , Zurich , Los Angeles , Delhi , Cape Town and Sydney . The book was released into the shops on 26 September 2013 ; the hardcover book was published by Jonathan Cape and was 336 pages long and cost £ 18 @.@ 99 . An e @-@ book edition was also released , as was an audio book , narrated by Dominic West . The hardcover edition was released in the US by HarperCollins on 8 October 2013 for $ 26 @.@ 99 .

The jacket was designed by Suzanne Dean , the creative director at Random House . The book 's dust jacket featured die @-@ cut bullet holes , while the hardcover binding featured " burn marks " under the holes . Dean commented that she took inspiration from the 1960s in her design , and was influenced by the graphic designers Saul Bass , Paul Rand and Alvin Lustig .

= = = Reviews = = =

The novel sold nearly 9 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , although that was 48 % down on Deaver 's 2011 novel Carte Blanche , and even further behind Sebastian Faulks 's 2008 book Devil May Care . By 10 October the London Evening Standard listed the books as number one on the London 's Bestsellers list , and in the two weeks of 5 and 12 October 2013 was shown as number 3 in the UK fiction best sellers list , dropping to fourth place on 19 October 2013 .

Solo received mixed reviews . A number of reviewers , including Robert McCrum in The Guardian , David Mills in The Sunday Times and Olen Steinhauer in The New York Times , all considered the book to be equal with , or superior to , Fleming 's stronger novels . Steinhauer considered that it was Boyd 's description of the Zanzarim civil war that gave the novel its " greatest power " , but he also thought there was a " neat metafictional trick " by connecting Bond 's wartime experiences with 30 Assault Unit — a British Commando unit developed by Fleming . The connection was also picked up by Geoffrey Wansell , reviewing for the Daily Mail , who saw the tribute paid to Fleming as a " masterstroke " , in a novel that he thought " brings back the real Bond , triumphantly " . Writing in The Guardian , Richard Williams saw Boyd using some similar phrasing of Fleming 's , while also including " gestures of independence " with his own ideas . The result , Williams considers , is a story that " entertains far more than it exasperates " .

Much of the criticism about the novel focuses on the plot ; Jon Stock , writing in The Daily Telegraph , thought that although Boyd used details in the same way Fleming did that would appeal to Bond aficionados , the book was based on " a curiously unstirring plot " , which was also " convoluted " . The National 's Nick Leech also noted the use of details , but considered that this led to " a pedantic , meandering narrative " which led to " an underwhelming finale " . Writing in the London Evening Standard , David Sexton agreed , calling the book a " rather inattentive novel " , that was a " lame outing " in the Bond canon . David Connett was another who saw flaws in the novel , calling it " anaemic stuff " , although it was " far superior to the last effort to breathe life into a Bond novel by Jeffery Deaver " .

= = Adaptations = =

On 30 September 2013 Solo was the chosen work for Book at Bedtime on BBC Radio 4 . The work was read by Paterson Joseph ; the book was adapted by Libby Spurrier and was broadcast in ten episodes .

= Middlesbrough F.C. =

Middlesbrough Football Club ( / ˈmɪdəlzbrə / ) is a professional association football club based in Middlesbrough , North Yorkshire , England . Formed in 1876 , they have played at the Riverside Stadium since 1995 , their second ground since turning professional in 1889 . They played at Ayresome Park for ninety @-@ two years , from 1903 to 1995 .

They were one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992 . The club 's main rivals are Sunderland and Newcastle United . There is also a rivalry with Yorkshire club Leeds United .

The club 's highest league finish to date was third in the 1913 – 14 season and they have only spent two seasons outside of the Football League 's top two divisions . The club came close to folding in 1986 after experiencing severe financial difficulties before it was saved by a consortium led by then board member and later chairman Steve Gibson . Middlesbrough were deducted three points for failing to fulfil a fixture against Blackburn Rovers in the 1996 – 97 Premier League season and subsequently relegated . They were promoted the following season and spent eleven seasons in the top division before being relegated again in 2009 .

Middlesbrough won the League Cup in 2004 , the club 's first and only major trophy . They reached the 2006 UEFA Cup Final , but were beaten by Spanish side Sevilla . After seven years in the Championship , Middlesbrough secured promotion to the Premier League in 2016 after finishing in second place .

The club 's traditional kit is red with white detailing . The various crests throughout the club 's history , the most recent of which was adopted in 2007 , incorporate a lion rampant .

= = History = =

They won the FA Amateur Cup in 1895 and again in 1898 . The club turned professional in 1889 , but reverted to amateur status in 1892 . They turned professional permanently in 1899 . After three seasons , they won promotion to the First Division , where they would remain for the next 22 years .

In 1903 , the club moved to Ayresome Park , their home for the next 92 years . In 1905 , the club sanctioned the transfer of Alf Common for £ 1 @,@ 000 , a record fee . Over the next few years , their form fluctuated greatly , rising to sixth in 1907 – 08 before dropping to 17th two seasons later . The club rose to their highest league finish to date , third , in 1913 – 14 . The First World War soon intervened and football was suspended . Before league football resumed , Middlesbrough won the Northern Victory League , but the team were unable to maintain their previous form and finished the 1919 – 20 season in mid @-@ table . They remained in the First Division for the next few seasons , but were relegated in 1923 – 24 after finishing bottom , 10 points adrift of their nearest rivals . Three seasons later , they won the Division Two title . During that season , debutant George Camsell , who had signed from Third Division North side Durham City the previous season , finished with a record 59 league goals , which included nine hat tricks . He would continue as top scorer for each of the next ten seasons . Their tenure back in the top flight lasted only one season , and the club were relegated . They were promoted at the first attempt in 1928 – 29 , winning another Second Division title . The club remained in the First Division until 1954 .

The decade before the war saw the emergence of Wilf Mannion and George Hardwick , both of whom would go on to become England internationals in the years ahead . Middlesbrough climbed to fourth in the last full season before the Second World War and were expected to challenge for the title next season , but the war intervened . After the war , the club was unable to recover the form of the previous seasons and hovered around mid @-@ table and exited in the early rounds of the FA Cup . Soon afterwards the team began to falter , eventually suffering relegation in 1953 – 54 . This was the start of a 20 @-@ year spell outside the top division , but saw the emergence of one of the club 's top goalscorers , Brian Clough , who scored 204 goals in 222 games , before he left for Sunderland . Over that period , Middlesbrough maintained reasonable progress in the Second Division but were never serious contenders for promotion . After a fourth @-@ place finish in 1962 – 63 , the club endured a steady decline and were relegated to the Third Division for the first time in their history in 1966 .

New manager Stan Anderson returned the club to the second flight at the first attempt . Middlesbrough would not finish below ninth during the next eight seasons . By 1974 , Jack Charlton had taken over as manager and guided the team back to the top flight . They ensured promotion as early as 23 March , and with eight games of the season left , they became runaway champions , finishing with a record 65 points . Middlesbrough won their first silverware as a professional side in the 1975 – 76 season , lifting the Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup in its inaugural season after a two @-@ legged final win over Fulham .

The club experienced severe financial difficulties during the mid @-@ 1980s . Middlesbrough were dropping down the table , and finished 19th in the 1984 – 85 season . In April 1986 the club had to borrow £ 30 @,@ 000 from the PFA to pay wages . The final game of the season saw Middlesbrough relegated to the Third Division again . That summer , the club called in the Provisional Liquidator and shortly afterwards , the club was wound up and the gates to Ayresome Park were padlocked . Without the £ 350 @,@ 000 capital required for Football League registration , a new rule , it seemed inevitable that the club would fold permanently . However , Steve Gibson , a member of the board at the time , brought together a consortium and with 10 minutes to spare before the deadline , they completed their registration with the Football League for the 1986 – 87 season . Following the registration came both a change of club crest and a change of the official company name to Middlesbrough Football and Athletic Club ( 1986 ) Ltd .

Over the next two seasons , Middlesbrough gained successive promotions into Division Two and then into Division One . The next season though , they came straight back down to Division Two , and with it came the then British transfer record move of Gary Pallister to Manchester United for £ 2 @.@ 3 million . Despite constant promotion and relegation , Middlesbrough were founding members of the FA Premier League for the 1992 – 93 season .

Player @-@ manager Bryan Robson , from Manchester United , took charge in 1994 and Middlesbrough were brought back into national attention . Following promotion to the Premier League and high @-@ profile purchases like diminutive Brazilian Juninho , many considered Middlesbrough were on the way up . However , a difficult 1996 – 97 season was compounded by a deduction of three points imposed just after Christmas , as punishment for the club 's failure to fulfil a fixture against Blackburn , which ultimately resulted in relegation . Without the points deduction , the club would have had enough points to avoid the drop . At the same time , the club managed to reach both the League and FA Cup finals for the first time , but lost out in both . Despite being in the second tier they were again runners up in the League Cup final the next year .

Despite losing high profile players Fabrizio Ravanelli and Juninho due to relegation , Middlesbrough were promoted back to the Premiership at the first attempt in 1998 . The following season saw them settle well and they enjoyed a 12 @-@ game unbeaten run midway through 1998 – 99 , including a 3 – 2 win at Old Trafford in January during which they took a 3 – 0 lead . It was United 's only home defeat during their treble winning season . Middlesbrough continued to stay secure in mid @-@ table the following season , thanks mainly to the goals of Hamilton Ricard and the signings of big name players such as Paul Ince and Christian Ziege . In 2000 – 01 they had a brief relegation scare that was solved with the arrival of Terry Venables as co @-@ manager , and a 3 – 0 win away at Arsenal in April was the team 's best result . The trend of buying European stars continued with the acquisitions of Christian Karembeu and Alen Bokšić .

Bryan Robson left the club before the start of 2001 – 02 season , having served as manager for seven years , and was replaced by Manchester United assistant coach Steve McClaren . The following seasons saw Premiership security maintained as Middlesbrough slowly improved and were seen as a tough side to beat when playing at the Riverside Stadium . During McClaren 's reign , Middlesbrough achieved their highest Premier league placing of 7th in the 2004 – 05 season .

The 2003 – 04 season was the most successful in the club 's history as they finally won a major trophy after beating Bolton 2 – 1 in the League Cup final under manager Steve McClaren . This success also ensured that Middlesbrough would qualify for Europe – the UEFA Cup – for the first time , in which they reached the last 16 . UEFA Cup qualification was achieved for the second consecutive year after a dramatic 1 – 1 away draw with Manchester City thanks to a late penalty save from Mark Schwarzer in the last game of the season .

Middlesbrough reached the 2006 UEFA Cup Final in Eindhoven , following two comebacks from 3 – 0 down in the rounds preceding it , but lost 4 – 0 to Sevilla . Following the cup final , McClaren left to head up the England team , and captain Gareth Southgate took over . Despite not having the coaching qualifications , he was allowed to continue after receiving special dispensation . During the 2007 – 08 season , Southgate broke Middlesbrough 's record transfer fee , paying £ 13 @.@ 6 million for Brazilian striker Afonso Alves . Southgate 's first two seasons saw the club finish in 12th and 13th places . He oversaw the club reaching the quarter finals of the FA Cup for three seasons , but the club was relegated to the Football League Championship on the last day of the 2008 – 09 season . Southgate was sacked in October 2009 , and replaced by Gordon Strachan . At the time of Southgate 's dismissal , Boro were fourth in the Championship and only one point away from the automatic promotion spot , but their form under Strachan was significantly worse and they finished mid @-@ table .

Despite starting the 2010 – 11 campaign as promotion favourites , the club endured a disappointing start to the season securing only one point in five away games . Having slipped to 20th in the Championship following a home defeat to rivals Leeds , Strachan resigned on 18 October . A week later , Tony Mowbray was confirmed as the new manager . Having staved off the threat of relegation , Mowbray successfully transformed Boro 's fortunes , eventually guiding them to a top @-@ half finish . Boro ended the season top of the form table after four consecutive league wins , the first such run since 1998 . However , despite a magnificent first half of the season , Boro failed to capitalise , and finished seventh in the league , missing out on the play @-@ offs by five points and one position .

Following a poor run of form of two wins in 12 games in the 2013 – 14 campaign , on 21 October 2013 , nearly three years after his arrival , Tony Mowbray left the club with immediate effect . Aitor Karanka , a former Spanish defender and assistant coach at Real Madrid to José Mourinho became the new Middlesbrough manager on 13 November 2013 , signing a two @-@ year contract . He became the first non @-@ British manager at the club , which finished the season 12th in the final league standings .

In his first full season in charge Middlesbrough finished fourth and thus qualified for the 2015 Football League play @-@ offs . After seeing off Brentford 5 – 1 on aggregate in the semi @-@ final , the club lost 0 – 2 to Norwich City at the Wembley Stadium in the final . Under Karanka 's tutelage Patrick Bamford , on loan from Chelsea , won the Championship Player of the Year award for the 2014 – 15 Football League Championship . Middlesbrough were promoted back to the Premier League after finishing second in the Championship in the 2015 / 16 season , drawing 1 @-@ 1 with Brighton & Hove Albion on the final day of the season .

= = = Overall = = =

Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system : 60

Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system : 44

Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system : 2

Seasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system : 0

As of season 2015 / 16 .

= = Colours and crest = =

Middlesbrough 's original home kit upon election to the Football League in 1899 was a white home shirt with blue shorts and they did not adopt their colours of red and white until later that season . Previous kits included a white shirt with a blue and white polka dotted collar from around 1889 . The Middlesbrough kit has remained broadly the same over the years with a red shirt and socks and either red or white shorts . The distinctive broad white stripe across the chest was introduced by Jack Charlton in 1973 ( following an attempt to change the home shirt to a Leeds United @-@ style white shirt ) and brought back for a one @-@ off in 1997 – 98 and then again for the 2000 – 01 and 2004 – 05 seasons due to popular demand . The club subsequently announced in December 2007 that the club would allow the fans to decide via an online and text vote whether the white band should return for the following season . On 8 January 2008 the club announced that the white band was to return , with 77 @.@ 4 % of voters voting in its favour , with the fans to choose the final shirt design from a selection of three designs , of which the winner was announced on 7 May 2008 .

The Middlesbrough crest has gone through four changes since the formation of the club . Initially , the badge was simply the town of Middlesbrough 's crest with a red lion instead of a blue lion in order to fit in with the club 's colours . Following the adoption of the white band on the shirts in 1973 , only the red lion remained with the letters " M.F.C " underneath in red . This was further adapted following the reformation of the club in 1986 to a circular crest with the lion in the middle and the words " Middlesbrough Football Club 1986 " around the circle in order to reflect this new era . In 2007 , Middlesbrough changed their crest again , this time with the lion inside a shield and the words " Middlesbrough Football Club 1876 " underneath . The club stated that this was to reflect the club 's long history and not just their post @-@ liquidation status .

= = Kit information = =

= = Stadium = =

After formation in 1876 , and with the club still amateurs , Middlesbrough 's first two years of football were played at Albert Park in Middlesbrough . After seeing the damage being caused by players and supporters , the Park Committee ordered the club to find an alternate venue . The club moved to Breckon Hill , behind the former Middlesbrough College longlands site , after agreeing to rent the land from its owner . However , two years later in 1880 , the owner increased the rent and the club decided to move . They moved into the Linthorpe Road Ground in 1882 , home at the time of Middlesbrough Cricket Club . The cricket club departed in 1893 – 94 to move to the Breckon Hill field , and Middlesbrough Football Club became sole users of the ground .

With the club 's growing size , and entry to the Football League , they had to move to a new ground in 1903 , Ayresome Park . It was designed by Archibald Leitch and would be the club 's home for the next 92 years . Following the Taylor Report in 1990 , the ground either needed modernising or the club needed a new stadium . The club decided on the latter , and moved out at the end of the 1994 – 95 season . It was used as a training ground during 1995 – 96 , before it was demolished in 1997 and a housing estate built in its place . The club now trains at a £ 7 million complex at Rockliffe Park , in Hurworth , on the outskirts of Darlington .

The Riverside Stadium , named by the supporters of the club after a vote , became the club 's home in 1995 . It was the first stadium to be built in line with the Taylor Report 's recommendations on all @-@ seater stadia for clubs in the top two divisions of the English football league system . It was originally a 30 @,@ 000 seater stadium , constructed at a cost of £ 16 million , before it was expanded in 1998 to a capacity of 35 @,@ 100 for an extra £ 5 million .

Since then , several reorganisations of the Riverside Stadium have taken place . At the start of the 2013 – 14 season , away fans were moved from behind the goal in the South stand to the South East corner , whilst home fans are now situated behind both goals to help create a better atmosphere inside the stadium . A giant TV screen was also installed at the back of the South @-@ East corner , replacing the older style scoreboards attached to the North and South stand roofs . For the start of the 2016 @-@ 17 season ( and return to the Premier League ) the club had to improve the stadium 's broadcasting facilities and floodlighting in order to meet current Premier League requirements . As a result of these changes , the current stadium capacity has been reduced to 33 @,@ 746 . The club also took the opportunity to move the main camera gantry to the back of the East stand where it will now face the main West stand .

Average attendances at Middlesbrough matches have fluctuated over the past several years , moving from a 2004 – 05 high average of 32 @,@ 012 to a low of 26 @,@ 092 in 2006 – 07 , then up again to 28 @,@ 428 in 2008 – 09 . Following relegation to the Championship attendances have dipped , although the crowd of 23 @,@ 451 which saw Middlesbrough 's first Championship game against Sheffield United represents far higher gates than is usual for the division , and indeed larger than those of some Premier League clubs . The club attracted an average of 24 @,@ 627 for their 2015 / 16 promotion season from the Championship to the Premier league .

= = Supporters = =

Traditionally supporters come from Middlesbrough itself and towns in the immediate area . Middlesbrough have one of the highest proportions in Britain of locally born season ticket holders at 80 % , and one of the highest proportions of female fans at 20 % . A survey at the start of the 2007 – 08 season found Middlesbrough supporters were the seventh loudest set of fans in the Premier League .

Middlesbrough Official Supporters Club , which features its own team in the local football league , has links with supporters ' clubs across the globe . The largest supporters ' clubs include the Official Supporters ' Club , the Middlesbrough Disabled Supporters ' Association , Yarm Reds , Red Faction and Middlesbrough Supporters South .

Middlesbrough supporters ' main rivals are Sunderland ( with whom they contest the Tees – Wear derby ) , Newcastle United ( with whom they contest the Tyne – Tees derby ) , and Leeds United , a fact confirmed by planetfootball.com 's 2004 survey , . Carlisle United see Middlesbrough as their biggest rivals , but Middlesbrough supporters have not reciprocated , as they do not see Carlisle as a top three rival .

The nickname Smoggies was first used as a derogatory term by opposing supporters ; it relates to the industrial air pollution ( smog ) that used to hang over the town , but it was later used by Middlesbrough fans in a somewhat self @-@ deprecating manner before finally being adopted as a badge of pride by supporters of the club . An example of this can be seen on the banners carried to away games stating " Smoggies on Tour " . Middlesbrough fans were notably praised by UEFA Chief Executive Lars @-@ Christer Olsson after their behaviour during the 2005 – 06 UEFA Cup campaign . He commended that :

You have the satisfaction of knowing that , although your team did not win the game , your supporters present in Eindhoven proved to the world that football fans can turn a match into a friendly , violence @-@ free celebration .

Middlesbrough fans had also been praised by Cleveland Police for their behaviour in previous rounds , particularly in the light of aggravation prior to and during the match at Roma .

= = Media relations = =

Middlesbrough were the first football club in the world to launch its own TV channel – Boro TV . The first broadcasts were tied to the club 's first ever major cup final appearance in 1997 , a full year ahead of Manchester United 's MUTV , which still claims to be the first in the world . The channel was the brainchild of then NTL marketing director , Peter Wilcock . The programme became synonymous with former Middlesbrough star Bernie Slaven and radio commentator Alastair Brownlee who proveed to be as popular on TV as they were on radio . Its programmes were not live initially but were pre @-@ recorded and hosted by local radio / TV broadcaster & Boro fan , Dave Roberts . Boro TV went on to claim another first when in August 2001 it become the first English football club to broadcast time @-@ delayed full @-@ match footage of their league games on their own channel . Boro TV ran through NTL cable television until July 2005 . The club now show match highlights through a subscription @-@ based scheme on their official website .

Middlesbrough 's official matchday programme , Redsquare , was Programme Monthly 's 2006 – 07 Programme of the Year . There are numerous other fanzines available , most notably Fly Me to the Moon , formed in September 1988 following Bruce Rioch 's quote to Tony Mowbray , stating " If I had to go to the moon I 'd want him by my side " .

= = Community = =

Middlesbrough Football Club in the Community ( MFCIC ) was founded in 1995 by club chairman Steve Gibson and is one of the largest community @-@ based football schemes in the United Kingdom . It is run separately from the football club but receives support from both the club in terms of providing players , staff , stadium facilities and PR in the matchday programme and other publications , as well as support from other local organisations .

Since 2002 , the club and MFCIC have also run the Middlesbrough Enterprise Academy , a scheme which helps local children improve their entrepreneurial skills and increase their awareness of business planning and finance . In March 2008 , plans were announced by the Premier League to roll out the scheme nationally amongst all Premier League clubs .

It was announced in December 2007 that Middlesbrough football club had carried out more community work during 2006 – 07 than any other Premier League club , rising from second place the previous year , with the club making 318 appearances – almost twice the Premier League average of 162 . They were in the top two for community appearances again in 2007 – 08 , with 374 – a 17 % increase on the previous season .

Middlesbrough 's mascot is Roary the Lion . The club runs Roary 's Children 's Charity Fund which purchases items for local children 's charities .

In 2009 , steel producer Corus Group announced the possibility that it would mothball its Teesside plant , with up to 4 @,@ 000 employees and contractors facing redundancy , after a consortium of steel magnates walked away from a 10 @-@ year deal . Middlesbrough Football Club helped with the " Save Our Steel " campaign by hosting dozens of steel workers and their families as they marched around the ground , promoted the campaign via the stadium 's PA system , scoreboards and in match day programmes , while players wore T @-@ shirts during warm @-@ ups promoting the campaign . Chairman Steve Gibson said :

" Middlesbrough Football Club exists for the community , for the people of Teesside — and the closure of the steel plants threatens to rip the heart out of our community . We cannot stand by and allow that to happen . We want the steelworkers and their families to know that we are behind them and will help their campaign in any way we can ... We like to think that the football club is the flagship of Teesside . Well this is our town and these are our people and we have to do what we can to help them . "

= = Honours = =

= = = Domestic = = =

= = = = League = = = =

Second Division / Division One / Championship :

Winners ( 4 ) : 1926 – 27 , 1928 – 29 , 1973 – 74 , 1994 – 95

Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 1901 – 02 , 1991 – 92 , 1997 – 98 , 2015 – 16

Play @-@ off winners ( 1 ) : 1987 – 88

Football League Third Division :

Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1966 – 67 , 1986 – 87

Northern League :

Winners ( 3 ) : 1893 – 94 , 1894 – 95 , 1896 – 97

Runners @-@ up ( 3 ) : 1890 – 91 , 1891 – 92 , 1897 – 98

= = = = Cup = = = =

League Cup

Winners ( 1 ) : 2003 – 04

Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1996 – 97 , 1997 – 98

FA Cup

Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1996 – 97

FA Amateur Cup

Winners ( 2 ) : 1895 , 1898

Full Members Cup

Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1990

FA Youth Cup

Winners ( 1 ) : 2004

Runners @-@ up ( 2 ) : 1990 , 2003

= = = International = = =

UEFA Cup

Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06

Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup

Winners ( 1 ) : 1976

Kirin Cup

Winners ( 1 ) : 1980

= = Club staff = =

As of 20 July 2016

= = Players = =

= = = Current squad = = =

Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .

= = = = Out on loan = = = =

Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .

= = = Reserves and Academy = = =

= = Notable players = =

= = = Middlesbrough Legends = = =

These 10 players were voted for by fans as part of a campaign with the Evening Gazette .

= = = Top appearances = = =

These players made more than 430 appearances during their time at the club . The number in brackets indicates the number of appearances in all competitions .

= = = Top goalscorers = = =

These players scored more than 140 goals during their time with the club . The number in brackets indicates the number of goals scored in all competitions .

= = = Player of the Year award winners = = =

= = = Football League 100 Legends = = =

The Football League 100 Legends is a list of 100 legendary football players produced by The Football League in 1998 , to celebrate the 100th season of League football .

= = = English Football Hall of Fame = = =

The English Football Hall of Fame is housed at The National Football Museum in Preston , England . The Hall aims to celebrate and highlight the achievements of top English Footballers and Footballers who have played in England . These players appeared for or managed Middlesbrough at some point in their careers .

= = = Scottish Football Hall of Fame = = =

The following former Middlesbrough players and managers have been inducted into the Scottish Football Hall of Fame .

= = Managers = =

The following are all the full @-@ time Middlesbrough managers since the club turned professional in 1899 .

= Government of the Han dynasty =

The Han dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) of ancient China was the second imperial dynasty of China , following the Qin dynasty ( 221 – 206 BC ) . It was divided into the periods of Former Han ( 202 BC – 9 AD ) and Later Han ( 25 – 220 AD ) , briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) of Wang Mang . The capital of Western Han was Chang 'an , and the capital of Eastern Han was Luoyang . The emperor headed the government , promulgating all written laws , serving as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces , and presiding as the chief executive official . He appointed all government officials who earned a salary of 600 bushels of grain or more ( though these salaries were largely paid in coin cash ) with the help of advisors who reviewed each nominee . The empress dowager could either be the emperor 's actual or symbolic mother , and was in practice more powerful than the emperor , as she could override his decisions . The emperor 's executive powers could also be practiced by any official upon whom he bestowed the Staff of Authority . These powers included the right to execute criminals without the imperial court 's permission .

Near the beginning of the dynasty , semi @-@ autonomous regional kings rivaled the emperor 's authority . This autonomy was greatly diminished when the imperial court enacted reforms following the threats to central control like the Rebellion of the Seven States . The End of the Han dynasty came about during a time of civil , military and religious upheaval , which resulted in the period of Three Kingdoms .

The highest officials in the central bureaucracy , who provided advisory , censorial , executive , and judicial roles in governing the empire , consisted of cabinet members known as the Excellencies , heads of large specialized ministries known as the Nine Ministers , and various metropolitan officials of the capital region . Distinguished salary @-@ ranks were granted to officials in the bureaucracy , nobles of the imperial family , concubines of the harem , and military officers of the armed forces .

Local government divisions , in descending order by size , were the province , commandery , county , and district . Local fiefs of the nobility included the kingdom , which was modeled largely upon the regular commandery , as well as the marquessate , modelled largely upon the regular county . Although the central government 's monopolies on salt , iron , and liquor eventually failed and were relinquished back to private production , the government successfully nationalized the issuing of coin currency through its imperial mint , which lasted from 113 BC until the end of the dynasty . The conscription system for commoners as non @-@ professional soldiers was reduced in size in favor of a volunteer army and a substitution tax by Eastern Han . A small professional standing army existed throughout Western and Eastern Han . During times of crisis , the volunteer army increased in size , but large militias were raised and certain officer titles were revived for temporary use .

= = Salaries = =

During the Han dynasty , the power a government official exercised was determined by his annual salary @-@ rank , measured in grain units known as dan ( 石 , a unit of volume , approximately 35 litres ( 0 @.@ 99 US bsh ) ) . However , approximately half an official 's salary in grain was made in payments of cash coins , the standard of which , after 119 BC , was the wushu ( 五銖 ) coin measuring 3 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 11 oz ) . The other half of an official 's salary consisted of unhusked grain and husked grain measured in hu ( 觳 , approximately 20 L / 676 oz ) ; since one hu of unhusked grain was equal to 100 coins and one hu of husked grain was equal to 160 coins , the conversion ratio for unhusked grain to husked grain was 10 to 6 ( see table below ) . The most senior officials in central government earned a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary . The officials who oversaw nine specialized ministries each earned the Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan rank , while the magistrate of a county earned a 600 @-@ dan rank . Occasionally , emperors bestowed luxurious gifts of wine , foodstuffs , and silk clothes upon high officials . These gifts , in some generous cases , could equal as much as half the value of the officials ' standard annual salary . Aged officials were often retired from service and given a pension . Below is a table outlining salaries measured in coin cash , unhusked grain , and husked grain for the highest to lowest @-@ paid officials in Han officialdom :

= = Central government = =

= = = Emperor = = =

= = = = Qin 's imperial model = = = =

Qin Shi Huang , the first ruler of the Qin dynasty , established China 's imperial system of government in 221 BC after unifying the Seven Warring States through conquest , bringing to an end the Warring States period . For a time , the rulers of the warring states claimed nominal allegiance to an overlord king of the Zhou dynasty ( c . 1050 – 256 BC ) , yet the Zhou kings ' political power and prestige was less than that of later Chinese emperors . The imperial system fell apart after the fall of Qin in 206 BC . However , following Han 's victory over Chu , the King of Han reestablished the imperial system and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) .

The Han system of imperial government borrowed many of its core features from the regime established by the Qin dynasty . For example , Gaozu 's Chancellor Xiao He ( d . 193 BC ) integrated much of the statutes of the Qin law code into the newly compiled Han law code . Yet Gaozu 's establishment of central control over only a third of the empire — the other two @-@ thirds of territory was controlled by semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms — strayed from Qin 's imperial model which gave the emperor direct control over all of China . However , a series of reforms eventually stripped away any vestiges of the kingdoms ' independence . Han emperors thereafter enjoyed full and direct control over China , as had the first Qin emperor . The Han court 's gradual move towards reestablishing central control can also be seen in its monetary policy . While the Qin regime installed a nationwide standard currency , the early Western Han regime oscillated between abolishing and legalizing private mints , commandery @-@ level mints , and kingdom @-@ level mints issuing various coins . In 113 BC the Han court finally established the central government 's monopoly control over the issuance of a standard , nationwide currency .

= = = = Roles , rights , and responsibilities = = = =

The emperor , who enjoyed paramount social status , was the head of the government administration . His rule was virtually absolute , although civil officials , representing the competing interests of different state organs , scrutinized his decisions . Although the Grand Commandant had a nominal role as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , the emperor served as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the armed forces . The emperor had the sole right to appoint central government officials whose salary @-@ rank was 600 @-@ dan or higher . The emperor also appointed the leading officials at the provincial , commandery , and county levels of government . Appointees to office were usually recommended men from the commanderies , family relatives of high officials , or student graduates of the Imperial University . This institution was established in 124 BC , and provided a Confucian @-@ based education for those entering civil service .

The emperor had the exclusive right to modify the law code and issue new laws in the form of imperial edicts ( zhao 詔 ) and decrees ( ling 令 ) . However , he often accepted the decisions and reforms suggested by his chief judicial minister , the Commandant of Justice . The emperor also acted as the supreme judge . Any lawsuits which a county administration , then commandery administration , and then Minister of Justice could not resolve were deferred to the emperor .

The emperor 's role as supreme judge could be temporarily duplicated by any official he designated in times of emergency or in distant borderlands where central government had little influence . This entailed a symbolic conferral of power , which was embodied in the Staff of Authority ( Jiezhang 節杖 ) . Roughly 2 m ( 6 ft ) in height and decorated with ribbons , the Staff of Authority was often granted to an official with a specific errand , such as acting on behalf of the emperor as ambassador to a foreign country , appointing civilians to office , or immediately promoting a deserving military officer on the field of battle . Moreover , it granted its bearer the authority to sentence criminals and political rebels with execution without notifying the court first .

During the Qin dynasty , the first Qin emperor 's legitimacy to rule was ultimately decided by his ability to conquer others . However , by the time of Wang Mang 's ( r . 9 – 23 AD ) reign , the Mandate of Heaven was considered the only legitimate source of imperial authority . This concept was given greater prominence after the state officially sponsored the worship of Heaven over that of the Five Powers in 31 BC . Moreover , the philosophy of the scholar Dong Zhongshu ( 179 – 104 BC ) , which held that a dynasty 's rule on earth was bound to greater cosmological cycles in the universe , was officially sponsored by the Han court from Emperor Wu 's ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) reign onward . The emperor was expected to behave according to proper ritual , ethics , and morals , lest he incur the wrath of Heaven and bring an end to his reign . He became the highest priest in the land . By performing certain religious rites and rituals , the emperor acted as a sacred link between Heaven and Earth .

= = = = Court conferences = = = =

Although the emperor held supreme power , he more often sought the advice of his cabinet and other ministers before making decisions and when revoking them . He often assembled leading officials for debates or discussions on policy , known as court conferences ( tingyi 廷議 ) . Various issues were debated at these gatherings , such as installment of new emperors , enfeoffment of nobles , the establishment of new ancestral temples , reforms to the state religion , the monetary or tax systems , management of government monopolies on salt and iron ( when they existed during Western Han ) , the introduction of new laws or the repeal of old ones , complex lawsuits , or whether or not to declare war on a foreign country or accept peaceful negotiation . Although the emperor could reject the decisions reached by his court conference , he did so at the risk of alienating his leading ministers . More often than not , he was forced to accept the majority consensus of his ministers , whose individual opinions were equally tallied regardless of their standing or salary @-@ rank .

= = = Empress dowager = = =

When the emperor died without officially appointing a successor , his widow , the empress dowager , had the sole right to appoint one of the late emperor 's surviving sons or relatives to the position . Most often the successor chosen in this fashion was a minor , thus the empress dowager served as regent over the government . A high @-@ status male relative , usually a father or brother , would assume control of the Imperial Secretariat . Even when an emperor reached his majority and became an active ruler , he often sought the advice and acceptance of the empress dowager on policy decisions ; she also had the right to override his decisions . The empress dowager was protected by the Minister of the Guards , yet if her faction — the consort clan — was removed from power , he was then responsible for keeping her under house arrest .

= = = Grand Tutor = = =

The post of Grand Tutor ( Taifu 太傅 ) , although given the highest civil status below the emperor , was not regularly occupied . The role was considered an honorary rather than substantive office . In Western Han , a Grand Tutor was supposedly appointed at the beginning of each emperor 's reign , and was not replaced until that emperor 's death . However , only four Grand Tutors were appointed between 202 BC – 6 AD . In contrast , during Eastern Han , a new Grand Tutor was appointed when every emperor except Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146 – 168 AD ) had a Grand Tutor installed at the beginning of their reigns . The Grand Tutor 's salary @-@ rank was unspecified in literary sources , although it was likely higher than the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan rank . The Grand Tutor was nominally in charge of providing a young emperor with moral guidance , but it is doubtful that this role was ever taken seriously or formally conducted . The post often served to deliberately block someone from obtaining a more important post , such as one of the Excellencies , while Grand Tutors were usually elder statesmen chosen for their age rather than merits ( so they would die off quickly after being appointed ) .

= = = Excellencies = = =

= = = = Title variations = = = =

The Excellencies ( gong , literally translated as " dukes " ) were the foremost officials in central government who formed the cabinet during both Western and Eastern Han . For most of Western Han , the Excellencies were the Chancellor ( Chengxiang 丞相 ) , the Imperial Counselor ( Yushi dafu 御史大夫 ) , and the Grand Commandant ( Taiwei 太尉 ) . The Great Commandant 's post was irregularly filled , and it was retitled to Grand Marshal ( Da sima 大司馬 ) in 119 BC . In 8 BC , the post of Imperial Counselor was abolished in favor of a Grand Excellency of Works ( da sikong 大司空 ) , and by 1 BC the Chancellor 's post was abolished and replaced by the Grand Excellency Over the Masses ( da situ 大司徒 ) . On 8 June , 51 AD the prefix " Grand " ( 大 ) was removed from the titles of the Excellency over the Masses and Excellency of Works , while the Grand Marshal was reinstated with the original title of Grand Commandant , and would remain so for the rest of Eastern Han . The exact salary figures for the Excellencies before 8 BC are unknown , although from that year forward they were given a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary @-@ rank , in addition to periodic gifts which further boosted their incomes .

= = = = Chancellor = = = =

During Western Han , the Chancellor was the chief civil official . The duties of the chancellery were divided between a Right Chancellor ( 右丞相 ) and Left Chancellor ( 左丞相 ) between 196 and 180 BC . After 180 BC , the Left Chancellor 's post was merely titular and its incumbent had no real authority . The Western Han Chancellor oversaw state finances , logistics for military campaigns , registers for land and population , maps of the empire 's territories , annual provincial reports , high @-@ profile lawsuits , and drafted the government budget . The Chancellor could directly appoint officials who were ranked 600 @-@ dan or below , while he was also able to recommend nominees to the emperor for recruitment to the senior roles in central government . The Chancellor was held responsible for the actions of officials he recommended and appointed , yet he could also punish inadequate officials without the emperor 's consent .

Whenever the emperor was absent from a court conference but sought its advice , he relied on the chancellor to direct it and inform him of the resulting majority opinion . If the attending ministers were split into opposing factions of roughly equal size , the chancellor would listen to the positions of both sides and count the exact number of ministers who supported either opposing opinion .

The Palace Writers ( Zhongshu 中書 ) were originally palace eunuch secretaries ( Zhongshu guan 中書官 ) from Emperor Wu 's reign until 29 BC , when they were staffed by regular officials . They usurped much of the Chancellor 's powers by the end of the Western Han . The position of Chancellor was abolished for much of Eastern Han and replaced by the Excellency over the Masses . However , in 208 AD the Excellency of Works Cao Cao ( 155 – 220 AD ) assumed the revived post of Chancellor while acting as the de facto ruler over the court of Emperor Xian ( r . 189 – 220 AD ) . Cao Cao also abolished the Grand Commandant and Excellency of Works while reinstating the Imperial Counselor .

= = = = Imperial Counselor = = = =

During Western Han the Imperial Counselor , also known as the Grandee Secretary and Imperial Secretary , was considered the second @-@ ranking official below the Chancellor . Like the Chancellor , he exercised censorial powers over provincial officials who also sent him annual reports . His primary duty was to uphold disciplinary procedures for officials ; he could investigate even those attached to the chancellery and the imperial palace . Since one of his main functions was to prevent abuse of authority , his jurisdiction over officialdom tended to overlap with that of the Chancellor 's . His subordinates included the Imperial Clerks ( Shiyushi 侍御史 ; also known as Attending Secretaries ) , led by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk ( Yushi zhongcheng 禦史中丞 ; also known as the Palace Assistant Secretary ) . They were often sent out into the provinces to investigate possible wrongdoing on the part of local officials .

The Imperial Counselor transmitted and received imperial edicts to and from the chancellery and also presented officials ' memorials to the throne . During Western Han , the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's office was located within the walls of the palace . He had the authority to investigate attendants and eunuchs of the palace and to reject improperly written memorials before submission to the Imperial Counselor . The Masters of Writing under the Minister Steward then processed these memorials before they were sent to the throne . The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's proximity to the emperor during Eastern Han allowed him to surpass the authority of his nominal superior , the Excellency of Works , yet his Western @-@ Han @-@ era power to inspect local provincial authorities was removed . The Minister Steward — who was supervised by the Imperial Counselor ( and later Excellency of Works ) — became the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk 's new superior by early Eastern Han . The Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk also managed the Imperial Library in both Western and Eastern Han , this duty being transferred to a subordinate of the Minister of Ceremonies in 159 AD .

= = = = Grand Commandant = = = =

The Grand Commandant ( also known as the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ) was the head commander of the military in Western Han , yet his office was irregularly filled ( from 205 – 202 BC , from 196 – 195 BC , from 189 – 177 BC , from 154 – 150 BC , and in 140 BC ) . After 119 BC , the generals Huo Qubing ( d . 117 BC ) and Wei Qing ( d . 106 BC ) simultaneously held the title until their deaths , but when the post was revived in 87 BC it became politicized when conferred as a regent 's title for Huo Guang ( d . 68 BC ) . The regent was thus considered one of the Three Excellencies , although he was not technically part of the cabinet .

The Grand Commandant 's office witnessed significant changes during the Eastern Han . Wang Mang separated the regent 's role from the Grand Commandant 's post during the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 AD ) , since he did not want an active regent for his regime . This was retained by Eastern Han , while the third Grand Commandant of Eastern Han appointed in 51 AD transformed his ministry into a primarily civilian one . Although the Eastern @-@ Han Grand Commandant shared the same salary @-@ rank as the other two Excellencies who were nominally considered his equals , he was nonetheless given de facto privilege as the most senior civil official . However , his censorial jurisdiction now overlapped with the other two Excellencies ( i.e. he was able to investigate the same officials in central and local government ) , who shared an advisory role to the emperor ( policy suggestions could be submitted independently or jointly by all three cabinet members ) . His various bureaus handled appointment , promotion , and demotion of officials , population registers and agriculture , the upkeep of transportation facilities , post offices , and couriers , civil law cases , granary storage , and military affairs . He was also given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of Ceremonies , Minister of the Household , and Minister of the Guards .

= = = = Excellency over the Masses = = = =

The Excellency over the Masses ( also known as the Minister over the Masses ) shared the same censorial and advisory roles as the other two Excellencies , the Excellency of Works and Grand Commandant . Like his previous counterpart , the Chancellor , he must have been responsible for drawing up the annual budget , although contemporary sources fail to mention this point . Aside from the court conference , the Great Conference of leading officials across the empire was conducted by his ministry . The Chancellor 's bureaus were also retained by the Excellency over the Masses , and were nearly identical to that of the new Eastern @-@ Han Grand Commandant 's bureaus . He was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister Coachman , Minister of Justice , and Minister Herald .

= = = = Excellency of Works = = = =

The Excellency of Works , also known as the Minister of Works , was less powerful than his previous counterpart , the Imperial Counselor . This official 's advisory and censorial responsibilities coincided with those of two other Excellencies , forming a tripartite cabinet arrangement . Unlike the abolished Imperial Counselor , he was given the specialized role of overseeing public works projects throughout the empire . The Excellency of Works was responsible for the construction of city walls , towns , canals , irrigation ditches , dykes and dams , and other structural engineering projects . The Court Architect supervised only imperial building projects . The Excellency of Works made annual reports to the throne about the progress of local administrations ' conduct of construction projects . He was given formal powers to supervise three of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of the Imperial Clan , Minister of Finance , and Minister Steward .

= = = Nine Ministers = = =

The Nine Ministers , who were supervised by the Three Excellencies but not direct subordinates of the cabinet , each headed a specialized government ministry and held a salary @-@ rank of Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . Along with the tripartite cabinet members , these ministers usually attended court conferences .

= = = = Minister of Ceremonies = = = =

The Minister of Ceremonies ( Taichang 太常 ) also known as Grand Master of Ceremonies , was the chief official in charge of religious rites , rituals , prayers , and the maintenance of ancestral temples and altars . The role 's title was changed to Upholder of Ceremonies ( Fengchang 奉常 ) from 195 to 144 BC before reverting to the original title . Although his main concern was to link the emperor with the supernatural world and Heaven , he was also given the task of setting educational standards for the Imperial University ( est . 124 BC ) and the academic chairs ( boshi 博士 ) who specialized in the Five Classics , the canon of Confucianism .

One of the Minister of Ceremonies ' many subordinates was the Court Astronomer ( Taishi ling 太史令 ; also known as the Prefect Grand Astrologer ) , who made astronomical observations and drafted the annual lunisolar calendar . The Court Astronomer also upheld a literacy test of 9 @,@ 000 characters for nominees aspiring to become subordinate officials for either the Minister Steward or Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk . These nominees were often recommended subordinates of commandery @-@ level Administrators . Other subordinates of the Minister of Ceremonies reported illegal acts at ancestral temples , prepared sacrificial offerings of food and wine at shrines and temples , and arranged for the music and dancing that accompanied ceremonies .

= = = = Minister of the Household = = = =

The Minister of the Household ( Guangluxun 光祿勳 ) , also known as Superintendent of the Household and Supervisor of Attendants , was originally titled the Prefect of the Gentlemen of the Palace ( Lang zhongling 郎中令 ) before 104 BC . He was responsible for the emperor 's security within the palace grounds , external imperial parks , and wherever the emperor made an outing by chariot . However , to ensure that the emperor 's entire safety was not entrusted to a single officer , the subordinates of the Minister of the Guards were given sole right to patrol the palaces ' entrances and walls while the eunuchs guarded the emperor 's private apartments and harem . Three of the five cadet corps commanded by the Minister of the Household were actually armed civilian nominees serving a period of probation before appointment to a government office ; the other two corps were composed of imperial bodyguards who were never appointed to civilian offices . The former were often recommended by commandery @-@ level Administrators as Filial and Incorrupt , while others could be relatives of high officials in central government . The Minister of the Household oversaw subordinate court advisors ( Yi Lang 議郎 / 议郎 ） who advised the emperor and engaged in scholarly debates . They were allowed to openly criticize the emperor , participate in provincial inspections , and conduct mourning ceremonies for recently deceased kings and marquesses while installing their successors . Internuncios ( Yezhe 謁者 ) , led by a Supervisor of the Internuncios ( Yezhe puye 謁者僕射 ) , were subordinates of the Minister of the Household who participated in state ceremonies , condoled on behalf of the emperor for recently deceased officials , inspected public works and military camps along the frontiers , and acted as diplomats to the semi @-@ autonomous fiefs and non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese peoples along the borders .

= = = = Minister of the Guards = = = =

The Minister of the Guards ( Weiwei 衛尉 ) was also known as Commandant of the Guards ) , and briefly as the Prefect of the Palace Grandees ( Zhong da fuling 中大夫令 ) during Emperor Jing of Han 's reign ( r . 157 – 141 BC ) before reverting to the original title . This Minister was responsible for securing and patrolling the walls , towers , and gates of the imperial palaces . The duties of his ministry were carried out by prefects , one of whom controlled the gates where nominees for office were received and officials sent memorials to the throne . To control and monitor the flow of traffic through the palace gates , the prefects used a complex passport system involving wooden and metal tallies . During an emergency , the tallies were collected and no @-@ one was allowed to enter unless they breached the gates by force . The guards were conscripted peasants who served for a year 's term as soldiers and were invited to attend a celebratory feast hosted by the emperor before demobilization .

= = = = Minister Coachman = = = =

The Minister Coachman ( Taipu 太僕 ) , also known as the Grand Coachman , was responsible for the maintenance of imperial stables , horses , carriages and coachhouses for the emperor and his palace attendants , and for the supply of horses for the armed forces . His latter duty entailed the supervising of large breeding grounds of frontier pastures , tended by tens of thousands of government slaves . By the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) these contained 300 @,@ 000 warhorses intended for use in campaigns against the nomadic Xiongnu Confederation . Some of the Minister Coachman 's subordinates managed stables outside the capital city . These stables housed Ferghana horses that were imported or gathered as tribute from Central Asian countries .

In Eastern Han — possibly due to the Coachman 's influence over the transport of arms — a prefect in charge of manufacturing bows , crossbows , swords , and armor for the military was transferred from the Minister Steward 's ministry to that of the Minister Coachman .

= = = = Minister of Justice = = = =

The Minister of Justice ( Tingwei 廷尉 ) , also known as the Commandant of Justice , and was known as the Grand Judge ( Dali 大理 ) between 144 BC and 137 BC and again between 1 BC and c . 25 AD . He was the chief official in charge of upholding , administering , and interpreting the law . Only the emperor , in his role as judge , was superior to this minister . The Minister of Justice was the supreme civil @-@ appointed judge for cases deferred to the capital from provincial lawsuits . His judicial powers , however , were similar to those of the Chancellor . He could recommend changes to the law code and the granting of general amnesties to those charged with crimes . His ministry was responsible for maintaining the Imperial Prison , where trials were conducted , and carrying out executions . It is unknown whether he oversaw all of the twenty @-@ six prisons in Western Han Chang 'an , which were built to house convicted ex @-@ officials . However , during Eastern Han , the Imperial Prison in Luoyang was the only prison managed by the Minister of Justice .

= = = = Minister Herald = = = =

The Minister Herald ( Dahonglu 大鴻臚 ) was also known as the Grand Herald ; he was also called the Director of Guests ( Dianke 典客 ) between 202 BC and 144 BC and Prefect Grand Usher ( Daxingling 大行令 ) between 144 BC and 104 BC . He was the chief official in charge of receiving honored guests , such as nobles and foreign ambassadors , at the imperial court . Alongside the Minister of the Imperial Clan , his ministry oversaw the inheritance of titles and fiefs by condoling on behalf of the emperor at kings ' funerals and memorializing the posthumous names of kings and marquises . The Minister Herald 's office received the annual reports from the commanderies and kingdoms when they arrived in the capital at the beginning of the year , before passing them on to the Excellencies . His subordinates acted as seating guides and ushers for officials , nobles , and foreign delegates at imperial ceremonies and sacrifices . One of his subordinates maintained living quarters for officials in the commanderies and kingdoms who were traveling to the capital . While the Minister Herald had always conducted the formal reception of foreign envoys and enlisted the aid of interpreters , his powers in matters of foreign affairs were expanded further when the post of Director of Dependent States was abolished in 28 BC . However , by Eastern Han his duties involving the affairs of Dependent States were transferred to local administrations along the borders .

= = = = Minister of the Imperial Clan = = = =

While eight of the Nine Ministers could be of commoner origin , the post of Minister of the Imperial Clan ( Zongzheng 宗正 ) , also known as the Director of the Imperial Clan , was always occupied by a member of the imperial family . He oversaw the imperial court 's interactions with the empire 's nobility and extended imperial family , such as granting fiefs and titles . His ministry was responsible for record @-@ keeping of all nobles , a register being updated at the beginning of each year . When a serious infraction was committed by a member of the imperial family , the Minister of the Imperial Clan was the first high official to be notified before the emperor , who made the ultimate decision about any possible legal action . This minister 's subordinates heard grievances of imperial family members and informed them about new ordinances . Unlike kings and marquesses , who were not responsible to any of the Nine Ministers , imperial princesses and their fiefs were kept under surveillance by the Minister of the Imperial Clan .

= = = = Minister of Finance = = = =

The Minister of Finance ( Da sinong 大司農 ) was also called the Grand Minister of Agriculture , and before 144 BC , was known as Clerk of the Capital for Grain ( Zhisu neishi 治粟內史 ) . This minister was the central government 's treasurer for the official bureaucracy and the armed forces . While the Chancellor drafted the state budget , the Minister of Finance was responsible for funding it . He was in charge of storing the poll taxes , which were gathered in coin cash , and land tax , which was gathered as a proportion of farmers ' annual crop yields . He was also responsible for setting the standards for units of measurement . In addition to reviewing tax collections , he could implement policies for price control exacted on certain commercial commodities .

During Western Han , the Minister of Finance 's powers were limited to the public treasury , the Minister Steward being responsible for the emperor 's private wealth . However , in Eastern Han , the responsibilities for the public treasury and the emperor 's private wealth were amalgamated and entrusted solely to the Minister of Finance , which later proved disastrous when handled by irresponsible emperors such as Ling ( r . 168 – 189 AD ) . During Western Han , the Minister of Finance managed the government 's monopolized salt and iron agencies , which were abolished during Eastern Han and transferred to local administrations and private entrepreneurship . He also managed the government 's brief monopoly over liquor from 98 – 81 BC , before it was returned to private production . Although the Minister Steward and then the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed the imperial mint for issuing standard coins during Western Han , in Eastern Han the imperial mint was transferred to the office of the Minister of Finance .

= = = = Minister Steward = = = =

The Minister Steward ( Shaofu 少府 ) , also known as the Privy Treasurer and Small Treasurer , served the emperor exclusively , providing him with entertainment and amusements , proper food and clothing , medicine and physical care , valuables and equipment . For this purpose he was given responsibility for the emperor 's personal finances during Western Han , yet this responsibility was transferred to the Minister of Finance during Eastern Han . Although he was not a castrated eunuch , many of his subordinates were , since his ministry managed the imperial harem housing concubines . His secretaries were headed by a Prefect of the Masters of Writing ( Shangshu ling 尚書令 ) . The secretaries were responsible for relaying all written messages to the emperor , official correspondence with Excellencies , senior ministers , provincial authorities , common people who submitted memorials to the throne , and non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese peoples within and outside the empire . Since the Masters of Writing were not eunuchs , and thus not allowed into the imperial harem , Emperor Wu established an all @-@ eunuch office of secretaries for the inner palace , which was abolished in 29 BC .

The Minister Steward had many subordinates , including the Court Physician ( Taiyi ling 太醫令 ) , also known as the Prefect Grand Physician , who checked the emperor 's health every morning and accompanied him on imperial hunting trips . The Court Provisioner ( Taiguan ling 太官令 ) , also known as the Prefect Grand Provisioner , was responsible for managing the kitchen , its cooks , and supplying food for the emperor . Other subordinates managed the weaving houses which supplied the clothes for the emperor , the workshops which produced wares , utensils , and funerary items for the emperor , and the imperial parks and gardens where the emperor could hunt and attend outings . The Bureau of Music ( Yuefu 樂府 ) was overseen by the Minister Steward and was in charge of musical performances at imperial ceremonies and entertaining the emperor with folk songs gathered from throughout the empire ; it was disbanded in 7 BC and its musicians transferred to the Minister of Ceremonies .

= = = Staffs of the heir apparent , empress , and harems = = =

When a Liu @-@ family relative of an emperor — usually a princely son — was designated as his heir apparent , he was provided living quarters within the palace and a personal staff which was not disbanded until he became the next emperor . During Western Han , the staff had two divisions : one was led by educators of the heir apparent , known as the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent ( ranked 2000 – dan ) and Junior Tutor of the Heir Apparent ( ranked 2000 – dan ) , the other led by a Supervisor of the Household ( ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) . During Eastern Han , the Grand Tutor of the Heir Apparent lost his administrative role but remained the chief educator and was promoted in rank to Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ; the Junior Tutor remained an administrator with a salary @-@ rank of 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . The post of Supervisor of the Household was abolished . Other Western Han staff offices of the heir apparent were abolished during Eastern Han , such as the Chief of the Kitchen and the Household Prison of the Heir Apparent . If he reached adulthood , the heir apparent could be married to a principal wife who led a harem of his concubines .

The empress , the legal wife of the emperor , also had an area of the palace separate from that of the emperor 's private apartments , where the empress was expected to spend every fifth night with the emperor . Both the empress and the heir apparent received an income from the taxes of forty counties . She also had a Supervisor of the Household ( ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) , and many other subordinates , either male eunuchs or female maids , who took care of domestic needs . The concubines of the harem were subordinates of the empress and were ranked below her in fourteen grades by the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han ( r . 49 – 33 ) . However , the founder of Eastern Han abolished the fourteen salary @-@ ranks in favor of three ranks with no definite salary ; instead , the concubines were irregularly granted gifts . The chief concubine of Western Han , the Brilliant Companion , shared the same salary @-@ rank as the Chancellor , while the concubine ranked just below her , the Favorite Beauty , shared the same salary @-@ rank as any one of the Nine Ministers .

= = = Metropolitan offices = = =

The metropolitan areas of both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang were governed and secured by several officials and officers . The county and municipal divisions of the capital cities were governed by a Prefect ( Ling 令 ) . The Prefect was also responsible for a prison and could arrest officials of high rank . The Colonel of the City Gates ( Chengmen xiaowei 城門校衛 ) commanded the garrisons at the twelve city gates , each guarded by a captain , in both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang .

= = = = Bearer of the Mace = = = =

The Bearer of the Mace ( Zhi jinwu 執金吾 ) was also known as the Bearer of the Gilded Mace . This official , whose title had been Commandant of the Capital ( Zhongwei 中尉 ) before 104 BC , maintained law and order in the capital city — excluding the imperial palaces — in both Western Han Chang 'an and Eastern Han Luoyang . During Western Han , his salary @-@ rank was Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , thus his prestige was similar to that of the Nine Ministers . However , during Eastern Han his salary @-@ rank was reduced from Fully 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan to Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan .

While his subordinates were on constant patrol , the Bearer of the Mace personally inspected the city three times each month . He was responsible for the military arsenal as well as disaster relief efforts during floods and fires . The Bearer of the Mace had a large staff of subordinates during Western Han , whose posts were abolished or transferred elsewhere during Eastern Han . This included the abolition of the Captains of the Standard Bearers , and the emperor 's entourage became responsible for clearing the roadways when the emperor left the palace and hoisting colored standards to signal his return .

= = = = Court Architect = = = =

The Court Architect ( Jiangzuo dajiang 將作大匠 ) was in charge of the construction , maintenance , and repair of imperial palace halls , government halls , temples , grave tumuli , buildings in funerary parks , roads leading out of the capital , and flood control works . His salary @-@ rank was 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . He directed the efforts of conscripted corvée laborers until this duty was transferred to the ministry of the newly created Excellency of Works in 8 BC . The Court Architect 's subordinates were responsible for gathering timber for carpenters and stone for masons . Although his office existed at the establishment of Eastern Han , it was abolished in 57 AD and his duties were transferred to an Internuncio in the Ministry of the Household . However , the post was reinstated in 76 AD with the original salary @-@ rank , yet many of his subordinates remained abolished . Since most buildings were constructed from wood , with ceramic roof tiles , a large workforce was needed to maintain buildings that fell into disrepair . The restoration of the Imperial University during Emperor Shun 's ( r . 125 – 144 AD ) reign required 100 @,@ 000 laborers to work for a year under the supervision of the Court Architect .

= = = = Colonel Director of Retainers = = = =

The Colonel Director of Retainers ( Sili xiaowei 司隸校尉 ) , also known as Colonel of Censure and Colonel Director of Convict @-@ Laborers , was originally called the Director of Retainers ( Sili 司隸 ) . His task was to supervise 1 @,@ 200 convicts in their construction of roads and canals . In 91 BC , an unsuccessful five @-@ day rebellion in Chang 'an was instigated by Crown Prince Liu Ju ( d . 91 BC ) and his mother Empress Wei Zifu ( d . 91 BC ) , who had been accused of witchcraft and black magic . For this event , Emperor Wu prefixed " colonel " to the Director of Retainers ' title in 89 BC , promoting him to the salary @-@ rank 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , and granted him the Staff of Authority , allowing him to arrest and punish those allegedly practicing witchcraft .

Following the crisis , the Colonel Director of Retainers retained his privileged possession of the Staff of Authority and was granted the same investigative and censorial powers as the Chancellor and Imperial Counselor over officialdom . He routinely inspected the conduct of officials in the capital region and seven nearby commanderies . His investigative powers matched those of a provincial Inspector , although his Staff of Authority made him more powerful than the latter . The Colonel Director of Retainers was a personal servant of the emperor , answering only to him , allowing the emperor to greatly enhance his control over the bureaucracy . However , the Staff of Authority was removed from the Colonel in 45 BC , limiting his powers to inspection , investigation , and impeachment and he was distinguished from a provincial Inspector only by a higher salary @-@ rank . The office of Colonel Director of Retainers was abolished in 9 BC , and reinstated once more as the Director of Retainers in 7 BC . He was now a subordinate of the new Excellency of Works and supervised convicts in public works projects , like his early Western Han counterpart . In Eastern Han , the Colonel Director of Retainers was reappointed without the Staff of Authority , with powers to inspect the capital region , but his salary @-@ rank was reduced from 2000 – dan to Equivalent to 2000 – dan .

= = = = Superintendent of Waterways and Parks = = = =

The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks ( Shuiheng duwei 水衡都尉 ) was also known as the Chief Commandant of Waterways and Parks , and was once a subordinate of the Minister Steward until 115 BC , when he , and other former subordinates of that ministry , became independent officers . His salary @-@ rank was equivalent to 2000 – dan . The Superintendent of Waterways and Parks managed a large imperial hunting park located outside Chang 'an , including its palaces , rest stops , granaries , and cultivated patches of fruit and vegetable gardens , which , along with game meat , provided food for the emperor 's household . He also collected taxes from commoners using the park 's grounds and transmitted these funds to the Minister Steward , who managed the emperor 's finances . One of the Superintendent 's subordinates supervised convicted criminals in their care of the park 's hunting dogs .

In 115 BC the central government 's mint was transferred from the Minister Steward 's ministry to the park managed by the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks . In 113 BC the central government closed all commandery @-@ level mints ; private minting had previously been outlawed in 144 BC . The Superintendent 's imperial mint in the park outside Chang 'an had the sole right to issue coinage throughout the empire . However , Emperor Guangwu of Han ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) abolished the Superintendent of Waterways and Parks and revived his post annually during autumn to conduct a ritual sacrifice . The imperial mint became the responsibility of the Minister of Finance and the imperial park located outside Eastern @-@ Han Luoyang was administered by a prefect .

= = = = Director of Dependent States = = = =

The Director of Dependent States ( Dian shuguo 典屬國 ) , whose salary @-@ rank was 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , was responsible for embassies to foreign countries and nomadic peoples along Han 's borders and the annual exchange of hostages — usually foreign princes — submitted to the Han court . Dependent States ( Shuguo 屬國 ) were first established in 121 BC and composed mostly non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese nomadic tribes and confederations who surrendered after negotiation or armed conflict and accepted Han suzerainty . They served as a buffer between Han territory and hostile tribes , such as the Xiongnu , and as a means to quell tribes in the Ordos Desert . The Han court appointed a Commandant ( Duwei 都尉 ) , also known as Chief Commandant , ranked Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , to govern the non @-@ Han @-@ Chinese populations of each Dependent State . The Director of Dependent States ' title was abolished in 28 BC ; his duties and his subordinates , the Commandants , became the responsibilities of the Minister Herald . The Protectorate of the Western Regions , established in 60 BC , which conducted foreign affairs with the oasis city @-@ states in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia , was not the responsibility of the Director of Dependent States .

= = Local government = =

= = = Provincial authorities = = =

The Han Empire was divided by hierarchical political divisions in the following descending order : provinces ( zhou ) , commanderies ( jun ) , and counties ( xian ) . This model of local government was adopted from the previous government structure of the Qin dynasty .

A Han province consisted of a group of commanderies , the administrations of which were subject to scrutiny and inspection by centrally appointed officials . These were the Inspectors ( Cishi 刺史 ) , also known as the Circuit Inspector , who were first appointed in 106 BC at a salary @-@ rank of 600 @-@ dan . In Western Han they were supervised by the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and were subordinates of the Imperial Counselor . Aside from the province @-@ sized capital region which was entrusted to the Colonel Director of Retainers from 89 – 9 BC , there were thirteen provinces during Western Han . Eventually , the title of Inspector was changed to Governor ( Mu 牧 ; literally " Shepherd " ) , a post with a considerably higher salary @-@ rank of 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . From 5 – 1 BC , this post was reverted to Inspector , but was once again re @-@ titled Governor , who was now responsible to all Three Excellencies .

During early Eastern Han , the loss of Han 's control over the Ordos Desert prompted the Han court to reduce the provinces to twelve — excluding the capital region — in 35 AD . In that year , the Inspectors @-@ cum @-@ Governors were still appointed by the central government , but their staffs were recruited from local administrations where they were transferred . By 42 AD , the title Governor once more became Inspector , who remained the head of provincial authorities until 188 AD . In 188 AD , at the urging of the official Liu Yan , Emperor Ling reinstated the office of Governor , yet some of the provinces were still administered by Inspectors ; this arrangement remained in place until the end of the Han dynasty in 220 AD . A key difference between the roles was that an Inspector had no executive powers and only an advisory role , whereas a Governor could execute decisions on his own behalf . There were exceptions to this rule . If banditry or rebellion simultaneously arose in several commanderies under his jurisdiction at once , the Inspector was authorized to raise troops throughout all commanderies under his watch and lead this united force as commander to quell the disruption .

Both the Inspector and Governor were responsible for inspecting commandery @-@ level Administrators and their staffs , as well as the semi @-@ autonomous kingdoms and their staffs . They evaluated officials on criteria of competence , honesty , obedience to the imperial court , adherence to the law , their treatment of convicts , and any signs of extortion , nepotism , or factionalism . These reports were submitted to the Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk and Imperial Counselor during Western Han , but by Eastern Han these reports were submitted to each of the Three Excellencies . The reports were then used to promote , demote , dismiss , or prosecute local officials .

= = = Commandery administration = = =

There were thirteen commanderies , including the capital region , and ten kingdoms at the beginning of Western Han . Many kingdoms were reduced in size and the empire 's territory expanded through conquest . By 2 AD there were eighty @-@ three commanderies and twenty kingdoms containing an aggregate total of approximately 58 million people according to the census . A commandery consisted of a group of counties and was governed by an Administrator ( Taishou 太守 ) , also known as Grand Administrator , who was appointed by the central government and earned a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan salary @-@ rank . The Administrator was the civil and military leader of the commandery . He was not allowed to govern over his native commandery .

An Administrator was assisted by one or several Commandants ( Duwei 都尉 ) also known as Chief Commandant , who handled all local military affairs such as raising militias , suppressing bandit groups , and building beacon towers . The Commandants ' salary @-@ rank was Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . After 30 AD , all Commandants who were not located in distant frontier commanderies were abolished , yet if the commandery was located along borders where raids and armed incursions by hostile nomadic groups were frequent , he was still appointed . A Commandant in an interior commandery could only be appointed temporarily to deal with crises as they arose . Each commandery also had secretaries , a treasurer , and an Official in Charge of Accounts who submitted annual reports to the imperial court on the Administrator 's performance .

Many of the Administrators ' duties were seasonal , such as inspections of counties every spring to check on agriculture and maintain roads , bridges , dikes and other public works . In the fall he sent subordinates into the counties to report whether local criminal lawsuits had been conducted fairly . He was responsible for recommending worthy nominees , known as Filial and Incorrupt , to the capital at the end each year during winter ; the nominees would then be considered for an appointment to a central or local government office . This followed a system of quotas for each of the commanderies that was first established during Emperor Wu 's reign , when two Filial and Incorrupt men from each commandery were sent to the capital . This was changed in 92 AD to one man for every 200 @,@ 000 households in a commandery . After the Commandants of interior commanderies were abolished , the Administrators assumed their duties , yet they were still not allowed to raise militias , mobilize troops , or send troops outside their commandery without permission frm the central government .

= = = County administration = = =

The nationwide census conducted in 2 AD , listed 1 @,@ 587 counties . The Han county was the smallest political division containing a centrally appointed official . In larger counties of about 10 @,@ 000 households he was known as the Prefect ( Ling 令 ) ; in smaller counties he was known as the Chief ( Zhang 長 ) . Depending on the size of the county , the Prefect 's salary @-@ rank was 600 @-@ dan or 1 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , while a Chief was ranked at 300 @-@ dan or 500 @-@ dan . Due to their judicial role , historian Rafe de Crespigny does not differentiate between Prefects and Chiefs , referring to both as magistrate . The county 's head civil servants , usually respected scholars or elders in their local communities , were appointed directly by the Magistrate .

A county Magistrate was in charge of maintaining law and order , storing grain in case of famine , registering the populace for taxation , mobilizing conscripted commoners for corvée labor projects , supervising public works , renovating schools , and performing rituals . They were also given the duty to act as judge for all lawsuits brought to the county court . The judicial jurisdictions of the commandery Administrator and county Magistrate overlapped , so it was generally agreed that whoever arrested a criminal first would try him or her . Under Emperor Wu , commanderies and kingdoms operated public schools , and although counties could operate their own public schools , not all of them did .

The county was further divided into districts , each consisting of at least several hamlets grouped together ; typically a community of approximately one hundred families . A chief of police was assigned to each district by the county Magistrate . A county Magistrate heavily relied on the cooperation of local elders and leaders at the district level ; these carried out much of the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of arbitrating disputes in their communities , collecting taxes , and fighting crime .

= = = Kingdoms , marquisates , and fiefs of princesses = = =

A Han kingdom was much like a commandery in size and administration , except it was officially , and after 145 BC , nominally , the fief of a relative to the emperor , including brothers , uncles , nephews , and sons — excluding the heir apparent . The policy of awarding kingdoms only to imperial relatives was gradually adopted by the founder Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) , as many of the early kings were non @-@ relatives who were leading officers during the Chu @-@ Han contention ( 206 – 202 BC ) . Kingdoms were usually inherited by the king 's eldest son born to his queen .

The number of kingdoms fluctuated between Western and Eastern Han , but there were never fewer than eight nor greater than twenty @-@ five . In the early Western Han , the kingdoms accounted for approximately two @-@ thirds of the empire . The imperial court ruled over the commanderies located in the western third of the empire , while kings ruled their fiefs with little or no central government intervention . The administrative staffs of each kingdom paralleled the model of central government , as each kingdom had a Grand Tutor ( ranked 2000 – dan ) , Chancellor ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) , and Imperial Secretary ( 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan ) . No kingdom was allowed to have a Grand Commandant , since they were not allowed to initiate war campaigns on their own behalf . Although the kingdoms ' Chancellors were appointed by the imperial court , the king had the right to appoint all other officials in his fief .

The power of the kings declined after the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC ; the number of kingdoms and their sizes were reduced . An imperial edict in 145 BC removed the kings ' rights to appoint officials above the salary @-@ rank of 400 @-@ dan , and all officials ranked higher than this were appointed directly by the central government . Excluding the kingdom @-@ level Minister Coachman , the kingdoms ' Nine Ministers and Imperial Counselors were abolished . The Chancellor , now the equivalent of a commandery Administrator , was retained , although he was still appointed by the central government . After these reforms , the kings were no longer administrative heads and merely took a portion of the taxes collected by the government in their kingdoms as personal income . Charles Hucker notes that after this transformation of kingdoms and marquessates into virtual commanderies and counties , respectively , a " ... fully centralized government was achieved " for the first time since the Qin dynasty .

Han society below the level of kings was divided into twenty ranks , which awarded certain privileges such as exemption from certain laws , the nineteenth being a marquess and the twentieth being a full marquess — the difference being the former was only given a pension while the latter was given a marquessate ( houguo 侯國 ) — typically the size of a county . If the kings ' sons were grandsons of the emperor , they were made full marquesses ; if not , they were considered commoners . However , this rule was changed in 127 BC so that all the kings ' sons were made full marquesses . It is unknown whether early Western @-@ Han marquessates enjoyed the same level of autonomy as early Western @-@ Han kingdoms ; by 145 BC , all marquessates ' staff were appointed by the central government . The marquess had no administrative role over his marquessate ; he merely collected a portion of the tax revenues . His Chancellor was the equivalent of a county Prefect .

The emperor 's sisters and daughters were made either senior princesses , who shared the same rank as kings , or princesses , who shared the same rank as full marquesses ; a princess 's fief was typically the size of a county . The husband of a princess was ranked as a marquess . The daughters of kings were also princesses , but their fiefs were typically the smaller size of county districts , and could not be inherited by sons . Unlike the fiefs of kings and marquesses , the staffs of the princesses ' fiefs answered directly to one of the Nine Ministers : the Minister of the Imperial Clan .

= = Military = =

= = = Conscripted soldiers and militias = = =

Upon reaching the age of twenty @-@ three , male commoners became eligible for conscription into the armed forces ( zhengzu 正卒 ) for one year of training and one year of service ; the year of service could be served until the age of fifty @-@ six . Conscripts were trained , and would serve in one of three branches of the military : infantry , cavalry , or naval marine . The year of service could take the form of soldiering at frontier garrisons protecting the borders against nomadic enemies , serving as guards in the courts of kings or as guards under the Minister of the Guards in the capital . By 155 BC , the minimum age for conscription was lowered to twenty . During Emperor Zhao of Han 's ( r . 87 – 74 BC ) reign , the minimum age was raised to twenty @-@ three , but after his reign it was once again reduced to twenty .

Although this system of conscription survived into Eastern Han , conscription could be avoided upon payment of a commutable tax .

The government also exempted those who presented authorities with a slave , a horse , or grain . In the system of twenty ranks bestowed on commoners and nobles alike , those of the ninth rank and above were exempt from military service . To compensate for the loss of manpower , the Eastern Han government favored the recruitment of a largely volunteer army . Many other soldiers in Eastern Han were convicted criminals who commuted their sentences by joining the army . Mercenaries eventually comprised much of the capital guard , while foreign nomadic tribes were often employed to guard the frontiers .

After their year of active service , Western Han @-@ era soldiers were demobilized and sent home , where they were obligated to join the local militia that convened every eighth month of the year . This obligation was intended to curb local and regional warlordism that nonetheless became prevalent by the end of Han . Militias dismissed members who reached the age of fifty @-@ six . By Eastern Han , the obligation upon retired soldiers to join local militias was removed .

= = = Standing army and army reserves = = =

The non @-@ professional conscripted soldiers who served a one @-@ year term under the Minister of the Guards belonged to the Southern Army ( Nanjun 南軍 ) . Non @-@ conscripted , professional soldiers belonged to a standing army known as the Northern Army ( Beijun 北軍 ) . The Northern Army 's main purpose was to defend the capital , but it was sometimes required to repel foreign invasions . The Northern Army is first mentioned in Han records in about 180 BC , yet little is known of its command structure at that time . Several decades later , Emperor Wu reformed the Northern Army 's officer corps so that its command was shared by five Colonels ( Xiaowei 校尉 ) who each ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan and commanded a regiment . Emperor Wu also appointed three other Colonels , ranked 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , whose forces were considered an extension of the Northern Army yet were stationed far outside the capital at strategic passes . Each of the eight Colonels was assisted by a Major ( Sima 司馬 ) who was ranked at 1 @,@ 000 @-@ dan . Professional soldiers could also be found in agricultural garrisons established in the Western Regions , such as those led by the Wu and Ji Colonels ( Wuji xiaowei 戊己校尉 ) , who were ranked Equivalent to 600 @-@ dan and were based at the Turpan oasis .

During Eastern Han , the conscripted army largely gave way to a volunteer army . The conscripted army under the Minister of the Guards was no longer referred to as the Southern Army . The Northern Army was retained , although it was reformed so that there were five Colonels instead of eight . The Eastern Han @-@ era Colonels of the Northern Army were also demoted to the rank of Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan .

According to Eastern Han @-@ era sources , the Northern Army was a relatively small fighting force of between 3 @,@ 500 and 4 @,@ 200 professional soldiers , each regiment consisting of approximately 750 soldiers and 150 junior officers . To aid this force , Emperor Guangwu established a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ soldier unit of army reserves in Liyang County along the Yellow River in 43 AD , while two other reserve units were created in 110 AD ; these were headed by a Commandant ( the same title used for the commandery @-@ level military officer ) . The main purpose of these reserve units was to position Han troops at strategic passes to guard the lower Wei River against Xiongnu , Wuhuan , and Tibetan tribes .

= = = Wartime militia and officers = = =

During peacetime and war , the command structure of the Northern Army remained the same . However , during times of great conflict and crisis , the raising of large militias required the appointment of many new officers with various titles , which were often bestowed as honorary titles to officials during times of peace . Large divisions were led by a General ( Jiangjun 將軍 ) whose rank depended on status ; divisions were divided into a number of regiments commanded by a Colonel , and sometimes by a Major . Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains , who ranked Equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ dan , while companies were further divided into platoons .

= Subtropical cyclone =

A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical and an extratropical cyclone .

As early as the 1950s , meteorologists were unclear whether they should be characterized as tropical or extratropical cyclones . They were officially recognized by the National Hurricane Center in 1972 . Subtropical cyclones began to receive names from the official tropical cyclone lists in the North Atlantic , South @-@ west Indian Ocean and South Atlantic basins .

There are two definitions currently used for subtropical cyclones . Across the north Atlantic and southwest Indian ocean , they require central convection fairly near the center and a warming core in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere . Across the eastern half of the northern Pacific , they require a mid @-@ tropospheric cyclone to cut off from the main belt of the westerlies and only a weak surface circulation . Subtropical cyclones have broad wind patterns with maximum sustained winds located farther from the center than typical tropical cyclones , and have no weather fronts linked into their center .

Since they form from initially extratropical cyclones which have colder temperatures aloft than normally found in the tropics , the sea surface temperatures required for their formation are lower than the tropical cyclone threshold by 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , lying around 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . This also means that subtropical cyclones are more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the North Atlantic hurricane season . Subtropical cyclones are also observed to form in the South Atlantic ; South Atlantic subtropical cyclones are observed in all months .

= = History of term = =

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s , the term semi @-@ tropical and quasi @-@ tropical were used for what would become known as subtropical cyclones . The term subtropical cyclone merely referred to any cyclone located in the subtropical belt near and just north of the horse latitudes . Intense debate ensued in the late 1960s , after a number of hybrid cyclones formed in the Atlantic Basin . In 1972 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) finally designated these storms as subtropical cyclones in real @-@ time , and updated the hurricane database to include subtropical cyclones from 1968 through 1971 . The term " neutercane " began to be used for small subtropical cyclones which formed from mesoscale features , and the NHC began issuing public statements during the 1972 Atlantic hurricane season employing that classification . This name was not noted as controversial in contemporary news reports , but it was dropped less than a year later . Recent articles , published after the year 2000 , have suggested that the name " neutercane " was considered sexist in the 1970s , but there do not appear to be any published reports from that period making this claim .

= = Naming = =

In the North Atlantic basin , subtropical cyclones were initially named from the NATO phonetic alphabet list in the early to mid @-@ 1970s . In the intervening years of 1975 – 2001 , subtropical storms were either named from the traditional list and considered tropical in real @-@ time , or used a separate numbering system . Between 1992 and 2001 , two different numbers were given to subtropical depressions or subtropical storms , one for public use , the other one for NRL and NHC reference . For example , Hurricane Karen in 2001 was initially known as Subtropical Storm One as well as AL1301 ( or 13L for short ) . In 2002 , the NHC began giving numbers to subtropical depressions and names to subtropical storms from the same sequence as tropical cyclones . From 2002 onwards , Subtropical Depression 13L would be known as Subtropical Depression Thirteen instead . Hurricane Gustav of 2002 was the first Subtropical Storm to receive a name but became tropical shortly after naming . Subtropical Storm Nicole , from the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the first subtropical storm that did not become tropical since the policy change . A subtropical storm from the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season also did not become tropical , but was not named since it was not recognized until post @-@ season analysis . In the southern Indian ocean , subtropical cyclones are also named once winds reach tropical storm , or gale , force . Since 2011 , subtropical storms in the South Atlantic Ocean are named by the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center .

= = Formation = =

Subtropical cyclones form in a wide band of latitude , mainly south of the 50th parallel in the northern hemisphere . Due to the increased frequency of cyclones which cut off from the main belt of the westerlies during the summer and fall , subtropical cyclones are significantly more frequent across the North Atlantic than the northwestern Pacific ocean . In the eastern half of the north Pacific ocean and north Indian ocean , the older subtropical cyclone definition term is still used , which requires a weak circulation forming underneath a mid to upper @-@ tropospheric low which has cut off from the main belt of the westerlies during the cold season ( winter ) . In the case of the north Indian ocean , the formation of this type of vortex leads to the onset of monsoon rains during the wet season . In the southern hemisphere , subtropical cyclones are regularly observed across southern portions of the Mozambique Channel .

Most subtropical cyclones form when a deep cold @-@ core extratropical cyclone drops down into the subtropics . The system becomes blocked by a high latitude ridge , and eventually sheds its frontal boundaries as its source of cool and dry air from the high latitudes diverts away from the system . Temperature differences between the 500 hPa pressure level , or 5 @,@ 900 meters ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) above ground level , and the sea surface temperatures initially exceed the dry adiabatic lapse rate , which causes an initial round of thunderstorms to form at a distance east of the center . Due to the initial cold temperatures aloft , sea surface temperatures usually need to reach at least 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) for this initial round of thunderstorms . The initial thunderstorm activity moistens up the environment around the low , which destabilizes the atmosphere by reducing the lapse rate needed for convection . When the next shortwave or upper level jet streak ( wind maximum within the jet stream ) moves nearby , convection reignites closer to the center and the system develops into a true subtropical cyclone . The average sea surface temperature that helps lead to subtropical cyclogenesis is 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . If the thunderstorm activity becomes deep and persistent , allowing its initial low level warm core to deepen , tropical cyclogenesis is possible . The locus of formation for North Atlantic subtropical cyclones is out in the open ocean ; the island of Bermuda is regularly impacted by these systems .

The South Atlantic environment for formation of subtropical cyclones has both stronger vertical wind shear and lower sea surface temperatures , yet subtropical cyclogenesis is regularly observed in the open ocean in the South Atlantic . A second mechanism for formation has been diagnosed for South Atlantic subtropical cyclones : lee cyclogenesis in the region of the Brazil Current .

= = = Transition from extratropical = = =

By gaining tropical characteristics , an extratropical low may transit into a subtropical depression or storm . A subtropical depression / storm may further gain tropical characteristics to become a pure tropical depression or storm , which may eventually develop into a hurricane , and there are at least three cases of tropical storms transforming into a subtropical storm ( Hurricane Klaus in 1984 , Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 and Tropical Storm Lee in 2011 ) . Generally , a tropical storm or tropical depression is not called subtropical while it is becoming extratropical , after hitting either land or colder waters . This transition normally requires significant instability through the atmosphere , with temperature differences between the underlying ocean and the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere requiring over 20 ° C , or 72 ° F , of contrast in this roughly 5 @,@ 900 meters ( 19 @,@ 400 ft ) layer of the lower atmosphere . The mode of the sea surface temperatures that subtropical cyclones form over is 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . Transition from subtropical cyclones into tropical cyclones occurs only in very rare cases over the South Atlantic Ocean , such as Hurricane Catarina in 2004 .

= = Characteristics = =

These storms can have maximum winds extending farther from the center than in a purely tropical cyclone and have no weather fronts linking directly to the center of circulation . The maximum recorded wind speed for a subtropical storm is 33 m / s ( 119 km / h , 65 knots , or 74 mph ) , also the minimum for a hurricane . In the Atlantic Basin , the United States NOAA classifies subtropical cyclones similarly to their tropical cousins , based on maximum sustained surface winds . Those with winds below 18 m / s , 65 km / h , 35 knots , or 39 mph are called subtropical depressions , while those at or above this speed are referred to as subtropical storms .

Subtropical cyclones are also more likely than tropical cyclones to form outside of a region 's designated hurricane season . North Atlantic examples include Subtropical Storm Alex ( which became Hurricane Alex ) in mid @-@ January of the 2016 Atlantic hurricane season , Subtropical Storm Ana ( which became Tropical Storm Ana ) in late April of the 2003 hurricane season , Subtropical Storm Andrea in early May and Subtropical Storm Olga ( which became Tropical Storm Olga ) in mid @-@ December of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , and Subtropical Storm Beryl ( which became Tropical Storm Beryl ) in late May of the 2012 hurricane season . Diagrams which depict a cyclone 's phase depict subtropical cyclones with a shallow warm core and as asymmetric systems , similar to tropical cyclones which have begun the transition to an extratropical cyclone .

= = Types = =

= = = Upper @-@ level low = = =

The most common type of subtropical storm is an upper @-@ level cold low with circulation extending to the surface layer and maximum sustained winds generally occurring at a radius of about 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) or more from the center . In comparison to tropical cyclones , such systems have a relatively broad zone of maximum winds that is located farther from the center , and typically have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection .

= = = Mesoscale low = = =

A second type of subtropical cyclone is a mesoscale low originating in or near a frontolyzing zone of horizontal wind shear , also known as a dying frontal zone , with radius of maximum sustained winds generally less than 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) . The entire circulation may initially have a diameter of less than 160 kilometers ( 99 mi ) . These generally short @-@ lived systems may be either cold core or warm core , and in 1972 this type of subtropical cyclone was referred to as a " neutercane " .

= = Kona storm = =

Kona storms ( or Kona lows ) are deep cyclones that form during the cool season of the central Pacific ocean . A definition change in the term during the early 1970s makes categorization of the systems more complex , as many kona lows are extratropical cyclones , complete with their own weather fronts . Those across the northeast Pacific ocean consider them subtropical cyclones as long as a weak surface circulation is present . Kona is a Hawaiian term for leeward , which explains the change in wind direction for the Hawaiian Islands from easterly to southerly when this type of cyclone is present .

= = Australian East Coast Lows = =

Australian east coast lows ( known locally as east coast lows and sometimes as east coast cyclones ) are extratropical cyclones , the most intense of these systems have many of the characteristics of subtropical cyclones . They develop between 25 ˚ south and 40 ˚ south and within 5 ˚ of the Australian coastline , typically during the winter months . Each year there are about ten " significant impact " maritime lows . Explosive cyclogenesis is seen on average just once per year , but these storms cause significant wind and flood damage when they occur . Australian east coast cyclones vary in size from mesoscale ( approximately 10 km to 100 km ) to synoptic scale ( approximately 100 km to 1 @,@ 000 km ) . These storms which mostly affect the south east coast should not be confused with Australian region tropical cyclones which typically affect the northern half of the continent .

= The Orb =

The Orb are an English electronic music group known for spawning the genre of ambient house . Founded in 1988 by Alex Paterson and KLF member Jimmy Cauty , the Orb began as ambient and dub DJs in London . Their early performances were inspired by ambient and electronic artists of the 1970s and 1980s , most notably Brian Eno and Kraftwerk . Because of their trippy sound , the Orb developed a cult following among clubbers " coming down " from drug @-@ induced highs . The Orb has maintained their drug @-@ related and science fiction themes despite personnel changes , including the departure of Cauty and other Orb members Kris Weston , Andy Falconer , Simon Phillips , Nick Burton and Andy Hughes . Paterson has been the only permanent member , continuing to work as the Orb with the Swiss @-@ German producer Thomas Fehlmann and , later , with Killing Joke 's Martin " Youth " Glover and Tim Bran of Dreadzone .

Alex Paterson prides the Orb on manipulating obscure samples beyond recognition on their albums and concerts ; his unauthorised use of other artists ' works has led to disputes with musicians , most notably with Rickie Lee Jones . During their live shows of the 1990s , the Orb performed using digital audio tape machines optimised for live mixing and sampling before switching to laptops and digital media . Despite changes in performance method , the Orb maintained their colourful light shows and psychedelic imagery in concert . These visually intense performances prompted critics to compare the group to Pink Floyd .

The Orb 's critical and commercial success in the United Kingdom peaked in the early 1990s with the albums The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld and U.F.Orb , the latter of which reached # 1 on the British album charts in 1992 . This success led to its infamous appearance on Top of the Pops , where the group showcased their quirky style by playing chess ( an interest of Paterson 's since his early youth ) while the group 's single " Blue Room " ran in the background . The Orb 's mid @-@ 1990s albums were met with mixed reactions from British critics ; their work received praise from American publications such as Rolling Stone . The group experimented with vocalists on the next two albums , which critics generally described as bland and uninspired . The Orb then shifted gears to a minimal techno style spearheaded by member Thomas Fehlmann , releasing their new material on the record label Kompakt .

= = History = =

= = = 1988 – 1990 : Paterson & Cauty = = =

Alex Paterson began his music career in the early 1980s as a roadie for the post @-@ punk rock band Killing Joke , for whom his childhood friend Martin " Youth " Glover played bass . After leaving Killing Joke in 1986 , Paterson met future KLF member Jimmy Cauty and the duo began DJ @-@ ing and producing music together under the name The Orb . Paterson and Cauty 's first release was a 1988 acid house anthem track , " Tripping on Sunshine " , released on the German record compilation Eternity Project One . The following year , the Orb released the Kiss EP , a four @-@ track EP based on samples from New York City 's KISS FM . It was released on Paterson and Glover 's new record label WAU ! Mr. Modo Records , which they created out of a desire to maintain financial independence from larger record labels . After spending a weekend of making what Paterson described as " really shit drum sounds " , the duo decided to abandon beat @-@ heavy music and instead work on music for after @-@ hours listening by removing the percussion tracks . Paterson and Cauty began DJ @-@ ing in London and landed a deal for the Orb to play the chill out room at London nightclub Heaven . Resident DJ Paul Oakenfold brought in the duo as ambient DJs for his " The Land of Oz " event at Heaven . Though the Orb 's Monday night performances had only several hardcore followers initially , their chill @-@ out room act grew popular over the course of their six @-@ month stay to the point that the room was often packed with around 100 people . The Orb 's performances became most popular among weary DJs and clubbers seeking solace from the loud , rhythmic music of the dancefloor . The Orb built up melodies using multitrack recordings linked to multiple record decks and a mixer . The group incorporated many CDs , cassettes , and BBC sound effects into the act , often accompanied with pieces of popular dance tracks such as " Sueño Latino . " Though the group used a variety of samples , they avoided heavy rhythm and drums so that the intended ambient atmosphere was not disrupted . Most often , the group played dub and other chill @-@ out music , which it described as ambient house for the E generation .

Throughout 1989 the Orb , along with Martin Glover , developed a music production style that incorporated ambient music with a diverse array of samples and recordings . The British music press later labelled the music ambient house . The culmination of the group 's musical work came toward the end of the same year when they recorded a session for John Peel on BBC Radio 1 . The track , then known as " Loving You , " was largely improvisational and featured a wealth of sound effects and samples from science fiction radio plays , nature sounds , and Minnie Riperton 's " Lovin ' You . " For its release as a single on the record label Big Life , the Orb changed the title to " A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules from the Centre of the Ultraworld . " Upon the single 's release , Riperton 's management forced Big Life to remove the unlicensed Riperton sample , ensuring that only the initial first @-@ week release of the single contained the original vocals of Minnie Riperton ; subsequent pressings used vocals from a sound @-@ alike . Despite its running time of 22 minutes , the sample @-@ laden single reached # 78 on the British singles charts . Soon thereafter , the Orb were commissioned by Dave Stewart to remix his top @-@ 20 single " Lily Was Here . " The group obliged and were soon offered several more remix jobs from artists including Erasure and System 7 .

In 1990 , Paterson and Cauty held several recording sessions at Cauty 's studio , Trancentral . When offered an album deal by Big Life , the Orb found themselves at a crossroads : Cauty preferred that the Orb release their music through his KLF Communications label , whereas Paterson wanted to ensure that the group did not become a side @-@ project of the KLF . Because of these issues , Cauty and Paterson split in April 1990 , with Paterson keeping the name the Orb . As a result of the break @-@ up , Cauty removed Paterson 's contributions from the in @-@ progress recordings and released the album as Space on KLF Communications . Also out of these sessions came the KLF album Chill Out , on which Paterson appeared in an uncredited role .

Following the split , Paterson began working with Youth on the track " Little Fluffy Clouds " . The group incorporated samples from Steve Reich 's Electric Counterpoint . The signature of the piece centres around the repeated phrases sampled from the voice of singer / songwriter Rickie Lee Jones , her spaced @-@ out childlike ramble taken from a promotional CD released by Geffen records for her 1989 Flying Cowboys CD . In it she muses on the picturesque images of clouds from her Arizona childhood .

= = = 1991 – 1994 : Paterson & Weston = = =

In 1991 , Paterson invited freelance studio engineer Andy Falconer to join the Orb . He was closely followed by studio engineer Kris " Thrash " Weston . Steve Hillage , who Paterson had met while DJ @-@ ing in London , also joined as a guitarist . Along with producer Thomas Fehlmann , the Orb completed several additional tracks for their first album , The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld . At least six studios and twenty outside musicians were used during the three weeks of recording . Falconer 's and Weston 's technical abilities and Hillage 's guitar work allowed the group to craft panoramic sounds portraying aspects of space travel , including the launch of Apollo 11 . Adventures sold well in the United Kingdom and received praise for its balance of ambient music , house music , and sampling . Retrospectively , Adventures is considered ground @-@ breaking for changing the way musicians view sampling and as a vital work for the genres of ambient and dance music . The completion of Adventures saw the departure of Andy Falconer , whose last contribution was to one of the Orb 's Peel Sessions . To promote the release of an edited single @-@ disc version for an American release on Mercury Records , the Orb embarked on their first tour of the United States beginning in Phoenix , Arizona , in October 1991 .

In late 1991 and early 1992 , Paterson and Weston wrote their next single , " Blue Room " . Assisting with the recording was bassist Jah Wobble , keyboardist Miquette Giraudy , and guitarist Hillage . Despite its playing time of almost 40 minutes , " Blue Room " entered the British charts at # 12 and peaked at # 8 , making it the longest track to reach the charts . The Orb promoted this single with a " legendary avant @-@ garde " performance on Top of the Pops where Patterson and Weston played a game of chess in space suits while footage of dolphins and an edited version of " Blue Room " ran in the background . In July 1992 , U.F.Orb was released featuring " Blue Room " and , in the US release , the Orb 's next single , " Assassin " . Weston integrated his technical and creative expertise with Paterson 's Eno @-@ influenced ambience on U.F.Orb , combining " drum and bass rhythms " with " velvet keyboards " and " rippling synth lines " . U.F.Orb reached # 1 on the British album charts to the shock of critics , who were surprised that fans had embraced what journalists considered to be progressive rock . Despite the Orb 's success , Paterson and Weston preferred to avoid personal publicity and instead allow their music to be the focus of attention . Because of this partial anonymity and the Orb 's rotating membership , they are often recognised as more of a musical collective than a " band " .

Over the next year and a half , Paterson and Weston continued to produce new material , but releases stalled when Paterson began to feel that Big Life was trying to dictate the direction of the Orb 's music . This led to intense disagreements with Big Life and the Orb soon left the label to sign a deal with Island Records . Their first release on Island Records was the live album Live 93 , which gathered highlights from their recent performances in Europe and Asia . It featured the live crew of Paterson , Weston , producers Nick Burton and Simon Phillips , as well as audio engineer Andy Hughes , who had stepped in previously when Weston had decided to stop touring . The Orb 's first studio production on Island Records was Pomme Fritz , a chaotic EP noted for its heavy use of strange samples and its lack of conventional harmonies . Though Pomme Fritz reached # 6 on the British charts , critics panned it as " doodling " . Island Records " hated it " and " didn 't understand it at all " , according to Paterson . Soon after production finished on Pomme Fritz , Paterson , Weston , and Orb contributor Thomas Fehlmann joined with Robert Fripp to form the group FFWD as a side project . FFWD released a single self @-@ titled album on Paterson 's Inter @-@ Modo label , which Fehlmann later described as " an Orb track which became so long that it became a whole album ! " . Due to this aimlessness , FFWD lacked an artistic goal and disbanded after a single release . Soon after the release of FFWD in August 1994 , Weston suddenly left the Orb . Paterson claimed that Weston 's departure was due to his desire to have more control in the Orb . In an interview with i @-@ D , Weston attributed the split to Paterson , saying that Paterson " didn 't do his 50 per cent of the work . " Paterson reaffirmed the status of the Orb saying , " The Orb is the Orb , and nothing can change that " , and continued work with Hughes and Fehlmann .

= = = 1995 – 2001 : Paterson , Fehlmann & Hughes = = =

Following Weston 's departure from the Orb , Thomas Fehlmann joined as a full @-@ time studio member , but did not always participate in live performances . Paterson , Hughes , and Fehlmann then finished producing the album Orbus Terrarum , on which Paterson and Weston had been working . Orbus Terrarum , released in 1995 , featured more " earthbound " and " organic " sounds than their previous trippy science @-@ fiction @-@ themed music . Orbus Terrarum suffered , as Paterson described it , " a good kicking " at the hands of the British press , who described it as " generic " and a low point for Paterson 's creativity . Orbus Terrarum alienated many of the group 's fans , and only reached # 20 on the British charts . American critics gave it great acclaim , including Rolling Stone who made it their album of the month , citing its symphonic flow coupled with the Orb 's " uniquely British wit " . After a long world tour , the Orb , with Andy Hughes and Steve Hillage , settled down to produce their next album , Orblivion — the process of which saw a return to their spacey sounds . Though Orblivion was recorded in May 1996 , it was not released until almost a year later , due to Island Records ' desire to promote it as a follow up to U2 's techno @-@ rock album Pop . Orblivion sold well in Europe as well as the United States , where it reached the Billboard Top 200 . The first Orblivion single , " Toxygene " , was the highest charting single by the Orb , reaching # 4 in the United Kingdom on 8 February 1997 . Despite high sales , Orblivion received a lukewarm reception from the British press . As with Orbus Terrarum , Orblivion was better received by American critics , including Rolling Stone , who praised its " contrast of chaos and euphony " . Meanwhile , the stresses of touring sat heavily on Paterson ; he considered retiring the Orb , but continued touring and producing . In 1997 the band sold their studio Joe 's Garage to the Godfrey brothers of Morcheeba .

Paterson and Fehlmann , along with usual collaborators Hughes , Nick Burton , and Phillips , wrote and produced Cydonia for a planned 1999 release . Featured on the album were appearances from Robert Fripp , John Roome ( Witchman ) , and Fil Le Gonidec , one of the Orb 's live performers . Singers Nina Walsh and Aki Omori appeared on two tracks each , providing vocals and co @-@ writing lyrics with Paterson . Paterson felt that this new direction of songwriting for the Orb was more similar to the experimental work of Orbus Terrarum than to the techno @-@ pop of Orblivion . Island Records was in a period of restructuring due to its recent purchase by Universal Music Group , and Cydonia was not released until 2001 . Upon release , critics noted that Cydonia merged pop , trance , and ambient @-@ dub music , which they felt to be a conglomeration of bland vocals and uninventive ambience that lacked the appeal of the Orb 's earlier work . NME harshly described it as " a stillborn relic , flawed throughout by chronically stunted ambitions " and describing its only appropriate audience to be " old ravers " seeking nostalgia . The Orb were generally regarded by the British press as past their prime and an " ambient dinosaur " out of place in the current dance music environment . After the release of Cydonia , Hughes left the group for undisclosed reasons , becoming " another acrimonious departure from the Orb " according to The Guardian .

= = = 2001 – 2004 : Paterson , Fehlmann & Phillips = = =

In 2001 , Alex Paterson formed the record label Badorb.com as an outlet for Orb members ' side projects . To promote both Badorb.com and Cydonia , the Orb toured internationally , including their first visit to the United States in four years . NME described the Orb 's tour as " charming " and that they were " freed from the Floydian pretensions that dogged the band throughout the mid- ' 90s . "

The Orb , now composed of Paterson , Phillips , and Fehlmann , with guest John Roome , accepted an invitation to join the Area : One concert tour with Moby , Paul Oakenfold , New Order and other alternative and electronic artists . Though the Orb were paired with more mainstream artists during the tour such as Incubus , Paterson and Fehlmann made their next releases a series of several low @-@ key EPs for German label Kompakt in 2002 . The Orb found critical success on Kompakt ; but Badorb.com collapsed soon after releasing the compilation Bless You . Badorb.com had released fourteen records over the course of fourteen months from artists including Guy Pratt ( Conduit ) , Ayumi Hamasaki , and Takayuki Shiraishi , as well as the Orb 's three @-@ track Daleth of Elphame EP . Though Badorb.com was an internet @-@ based record label , they only sold vinyl releases ( with one exception , the Orb EP ) , which Paterson later remarked was a poor idea because " not many people ... have record players " .

Though their musical style had changed somewhat since the 1990s , the Orb continued to use their odd synthetic sounds on 2004 's Bicycles & Tricycles , to mixed reviews . The Daily Telegraph praised Bicycles & Tricycles as being " inclusive , exploratory , and an enjoyable journey " ; other publications dismissed it as " stoner dub " and irrelevant to current electronic music . Like Cydonia , Bicycles & Tricycles featured vocals , including female rapper MC Soom @-@ T who added a hip hop contribution to the album . The Orb left Island Records and released the album on Cooking Vinyl and Sanctuary Records . To promote the album , the band began a UK tour with dub artist Mad Professor . Though the Orb still pulled in large crowds , The Guardian noted that they lacked the intensity found in their earlier performances .

= = = 2004 – 2007 : Paterson & Fehlmann , The Transit Kings = = =

After two more EPs on Kompakt , the Orb ( now composed of only Paterson and Fehlmann ) released Okie Dokie It 's The Orb on Kompakt , which featured new material in addition to tweaked versions of their previous Kompakt output . By this stage , Allmusic observed , Thomas Fehlmann had become the primary creative figure in the Orb , " inhibiting Alex Paterson 's whimsical impulses " . Because of this , Okie Dokie was considerably more focused and less " goofy " than Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles . Fehlmann 's trademark hypnotic loops and delays made him the centre of Okie Dokie production and , according to Pitchfork Media , made it " difficult to say where [ Paterson ] is in the picture " . The Orb 's releases with Kompakt gained them back much of their musical credibility with the press and showed that they could " age gracefully " .

In August 2006 , the founders of the Orb - Paterson and Cauty - released Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God , their debut album as the Transit Kings with Guy Pratt and Pratt 's associate , Dom Beken . The album featured appearances from Smiths ' guitarist Johnny Marr and comedian Simon Day . Beken described Living in a Giant Candle Winking at God as " self @-@ consciously musically written and less sample @-@ based " compared to the members ' previous work . Living had been in production since 2001 , but due to members ' other obligations , it was delayed for several years . The album received mixed critical reactions , with reviewers such as The Sun comparing the album favourably to the music of DJ Shadow and Röyksopp while other publications , such as The Times , called it " Orb @-@ lite " and proclaimed it to be " Deep Forest @-@ style sludge " . Soon after the album 's release , Cauty left the Transit Kings on " extended leave " , leaving the project in indefinite limbo . Paterson and Beken reunited in 2008 as High Frequency Bandwidth , an ambient hip hop group on the Malicious Damage label .

= = = 2007 – present = = =

The Orb 's next studio album , The Dream , was released in Japan in 2007 and the following year in the United States and United Kingdom . Fehlmann is absent on The Dream and Paterson was instead reunited with Martin Glover and joined by Tim Bran of Dreadzone . The album saw a return to the Orb 's sounds of the early 1990s , with peculiar vocals and playful samples . The Orb also brought in jazz and house music singer Juliet Roberts and guitarist Steve Hillage .

After July 2006 re @-@ release of The Orb 's Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld 3 @-@ CD Deluxe Edition , 2007 and 2008 saw releases of expanded 2 @-@ CD editions of the band 's subsequent regular studio records : U.F.Orb , Pomme Fritz EP , Orbus Terrarum , Orblivion and Cydonia . In late 2008 a double @-@ cd compilation of BBC Radio 1 sessions called The Orb : Complete BBC Sessions 1989 @-@ 2001 was released .

In May 2009 , the British Malicious Damage Records ( run by the members of Killing Joke ) announced the release of the Orb 's ninth regular studio album Baghdad Batteries ( Orbsessions Volume III ) on 11 September 2009 . A reunification of Paterson and long @-@ term collaborator Thomas Fehlmann who last worked together on Okie Dokie It 's the Orb on Kompakt , the album was promoted with a launch party with Paterson and Fehlmann performing the whole album live at The @-@ Situation Modern in Clapham , England on 10 September . A track " Chocolate Fingers " was uploaded onto the label 's MySpace profile . The 11 @-@ track album is said to be the third in the Orbsessions series , although unlike the first two outtakes parts composed of brand new material , recorded at Fehlmann 's Berlin studio .

In March 2010 Internet station Dandelion Radio broadcast a seventeen and a half minute long Orb session track by Patterson and Fehlmann on the Andrew Morrison show . This new track was titled " Battersea Bunches " and was a remixed version of the soundtrack to a short movie of the same title by Mike Coles and Alex Patterson - a film installation to be seen at London ’ s Battersea Power Station on 1 June 2010 as part of an evening of art and music . The film and its soundtrack ( together with remixes ) were later released as the CD / DVD album C Batter C on 11 November 2011 .

In mid @-@ 2010 Alex Paterson teamed up with Youth aka Martin Glover to compile a retrospective compilation album of tracks from the WAU ! Mr Modo label . The album titled Impossible Oddities is set to be released on CD and double Vinyl on 25 October 2010 via Year Zero records .

The Orb released the Metallic Spheres album in October 2010 , featuring David Gilmour of Pink Floyd . It was released by Columbia Records .

In 2011 Alex Paterson teamed up with electronic producer Gaudi and vocalist Chester for the creation of their experimental and ongoing collaborative project SCREEN , releasing the album " We are Screen " by Malicious Damage Records .

In 2012 the Orb worked with dub musician Lee " Scratch " Perry to produce a reggae @-@ infused album titled The Observer In The Star House , which was recorded in Berlin over a period of several months and features the single " Golden Clouds " . The title song was based on an earlier version of Little Fluffy Clouds , with the lyrics rewritten by Perry reflecting his childhood in Jamaica and the property Golden Clouds near his home .

In 2013 the Orb performed with the Kakatsisi drummers of Ghana on the West Holts stage at Glastonbury Festival .

= = Themes and influences = =

= = = Inspiration = = =

The Orb 's members have drawn from an assortment of influences in their music . The Orb 's central figure , Alex Paterson , had early musical tastes and influences which included King Tubby , Alice Cooper , Prince , Kraftwerk , and T.Rex. Among these , Paterson cites Kraftwerk as one of the most important , claiming they created the foundation from which all modern dance music has been built . While in Brixton with Martin Glover as a teenager , Paterson was also exposed to a large amount of reggae music , such as The Mighty Diamonds , The Abyssinians , and Bob Marley . The reggae influence on Paterson and the Orb can readily be heard in tracks such as the single " Perpetual Dawn " and U.F.Orb 's " Towers of Dub " . The earliest ambient influences of the Orb came in 1979 during Paterson 's roadie days with Killing Joke . While with the band in Neuss , Paterson listened to Brian Eno 's Music for Films while on LSD and watched " the Ruhr steel works explode in the distance " , noting that " [ t ] he scene seemed to be taking place in the music as well " . The same night , Paterson was also inspired while listening to Cluster 's Grosses Wasser and found that the steel works ' " huge metal arms were crushing molten rocks in time to the music " , which was something he 'd " never seen , or heard , anything like it before " . Along with Cluster and Kraftwerk , Paterson was also influenced by other German experimental music from Can and composer Karlheinz Stockhausen . Modulations calls Paterson 's music a " maximal " version of Brian Eno 's " minimal " ambience , though according to Paterson , Eno resents Paterson 's use of his music as an influence .

The Orb have often been described as " The Pink Floyd of the Nineties " , but Paterson has stated that their music is more influenced by experimental electronic music than progressive rock of the 1970s . He has noted though that the Pink Floyd album Meddle was influential to him as a child in the 1970s . The psychedelic prog @-@ rock similarities have led critics to describe the Orb as hippie revivalists ; Paterson has strongly rejected the tag , claiming that even as a youth , he was " one of those punks who hated hippies " .

During production of Cydonia and Bicycles & Tricycles , Paterson 's biggest influences were drum and bass and trip hop music , as seen on the tracks " Ghostdancing " , " Thursday 's Keeper " , and " Aftermath " . The Orb 's more recent influences consist largely of German techno producers , such as Triola , who were inspired by the Orb 's earlier work . Paterson cites the music of Kompakt as one of his primary modern influences and claims it to be among the best modern ambient music .

= = = Imagery = = =

Imagery has always been an important part of the Orb 's persona . This is most prominent during live performances , where they often project surreal images against onstage screens . Common images include morphing faces , futuristic cityscapes , and aliens . They have long associated their act with absurd symbology with images such as floating pigs . This has carried over to their music videos , most of which are spacy , brightly coloured montages of surreal images including astronauts , clouds , and neon dolphins . Because of their use of psychedelic images at shows , the Orb 's shows are frequently compared to those of Pink Floyd , who also used in @-@ show imagery and films . Paterson cites Godfrey Reggio 's and Philip Glass 's film Koyaanisqatsi as a primary influence to their concert imagery .

The Orb 's album art features much of the same imagery as their live act . Graphic design group The Designers Republic created the cover art for the earlier work , including Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld , U.F.Orb , and the singles from those two albums . For their next album , the Orb poked fun at their Pink Floyd comparisons with the cover of Live 93 featuring a floating stuffed sheep over the Battersea Power Station , which had appeared on the cover of Pink Floyd 's Animals . The artwork found in Badorb.com releases was similar to the Orb 's odd artwork of the mid @-@ 1990s , as it was stylistically similar and contained little writing . Paterson has also dabbled in the creation of cover art himself , designing the cover of Okie Dokie It 's The Orb on Kompakt .

= = = Science fiction and space = = =

Some of the more prominent motifs in the Orb 's work are outer space and science fiction , including alien visitations , space flight , and mind control . These have included the use of samples from serious sources such as NASA transmissions to comedic clips from films like Woody Allen 's Sleeper . U.F.Orb especially expressed a fascination with alien life with its bizarre sound samples and in the album 's title itself . The title of its most popular single , " Blue Room " , is a reference to the supposed Blue Room of Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base , which was investigated as a possible UFO evidence holding room . Their 2001 album is named after the Cydonia Mensae region of Mars . Due to Paterson 's focus on science fiction and astronomical phenomena , The Guardian described Paterson as " pop [ music ] ' s primary spokesperson on aliens " .

= = Techniques , technology , live performances = =

In the Orb 's early DJ events in the 1980s , Paterson and Cauty performed with three record decks , a cassette player , and a CD player all of which were mixed through an Akai 12 @-@ track mixer . They used their equipment to harmonise recorded music and sound effect samples into an " endless sound continuum " for audiences of worn out dancers . Even after the Orb began producing original material , they kept the same sample @-@ heavy model for live acts by spontaneously integrating obscure samples into their pre @-@ recorded tracks . During promotional tours for Adventures Beyond the Ultraworld and U.F.Orb , they performed using a digital audio tape machine and experimented with other media sources such as dubplates . The tape machines held individual chords , rhythms , and basslines for each composition , allowing the Orb to reprocess them and mimic the act of DJ @-@ ing . Members could then easily improvise with these samples and manipulate them using sound effect racks . Often , the Orb had a live musician accompanying them , such as Steve Hillage on guitar . Their shows in the early 1990s would often be three hours of semi @-@ improvised , continuous music featuring a wealth of triggered samples , voices , and pre @-@ recorded tracks which were barely identifiable as the original piece .

The Orb began performing regularly at the Brixton Academy in the early 1990s , where they used the high ceilings and large space for their " well @-@ suited amorphous sound " , frequently performing their newest and more experimental pieces there . Andy Hughes took Weston 's place at live performances after the 1993 tour , though Weston did reappear for the Orb 's concert at the rainy Woodstock ' 94 . The Orb played for late night raves on the first two nights of Woodstock ' 94 in addition to artists including Aphex Twin , Orbital , and Deee @-@ Lite . The next year , the Orb 's touring group consisted of Paterson , Hughes , Nick Burton on percussion , and Simon Phillips on bass . This ensemble of live performers and electronic music created a " cacophony " of " gigantic , swarming sounds " . Though the Orb 's performances use much onstage equipment and many props , Paterson prefers to present them as " a non @-@ centralised figure of amusement on stage " .

The Orb used ADAT recorders for performances from 1993 to 2001 and utilised large 48 @-@ track decks , which Paterson described as being a " studio onstage " . They hooked synthesisers , such as the ARP 2600 , to MIDI interfaces to recreate specific sounds that appeared on their albums . The Orb 's methods of studio music creation changed as well . For more recent albums such as Cydonia , they used inexpensive equipment such as Korg 's Electribe products , which Paterson described as employing more of a " bedroom techno " approach . Despite their use of laptops during performances and in @-@ studio computers , Paterson says that he still cherishes vinyl and does not find purchasing CDs or downloading music to be nearly as satisfying .

= = = Sampling and remixing = = =

One of the Orb 's most notable contributions to electronic music is their idea of blurring the distinction between sampling and remixing . Albums such as Pomme Fritz , though released as a piece of original work , consist largely of manipulated samples . Conversely , the Orb 's remixes typically use only small sections of the original track , most notably in the case of their single " Toxygene " . " Toxygene " was originally commissioned as a remix of Jean Michel Jarre 's " Oxygene 8 " from Oxygene 7 @-@ 13 . The Orb " obliterated it " and reassembled only a few fragments for their remix , much to the chagrin of Jarre , who reportedly refused to release it ; The Orb released the track themselves under the name " Toxygene " , which further irritated Jarre , to whom Paterson retorted " The French are always five years behind us , anyway . " In statements made after the release of " Toxygene " , Jarre denied that he rejected the original remix because of disliking it .

Other artists have become agitated due to the Orb sampling their work , though Paterson jokingly suggests that " [ t ] hey don 't know the half of it . " Paterson says that he finds a " beauty " and a " cleverness " with slipping unlicensed samples into compositions without anyone recognizing it . Even though fans often try to guess the origins of many of the samples , Paterson states that they are rarely correct and that they would " die " if they discovered , for example , where the drums on " Little Fluffy Clouds " originated from . He has said that record labels have cautioned him , " Don 't tell anyone where you got your samples until we get them cleared ! " .

The Orb have used a wide variety of audio clips from sources ranging from McCarthy era speeches to prank phone calls by Victor Lewis @-@ Smith to David Thewlis ' apocalypse @-@ driven rant from the film Naked . Paterson obtains many samples from recording TV and radio for hours at a time and picking out his favourite clips . He and other members of the Orb record nature sounds for use on albums , especially FFWD and Orbus Terrarum . The Orb 's combination of ambient music and sampling from lower fidelity audio sources often creates a " fuzzy texture " in the sound quality , depersonalising the Orb 's music . The Orb are lauded for their " Monty Python @-@ esque levity " in their use of audio samples , though NME asserts that Paterson " sabotage [ s ] his majestic soundscapes " with " irritatingly zany " sounds .

The Orb has been a prolific remixing team , having completed over 80 commissioned remixes since 1989 . Even during periods of label conflict and contractual limbo , the Orb found steady work remixing for artists including Depeche Mode , Lisa Stansfield , and Front 242 . The Orb 's remixes from the early and mid @-@ 1990s feature a large number of comical samples , Progressive @-@ Sounds describe them as " ahead of their time " and NME notes them as " not entirely incompatible with contemporary chilling . " Some pieces , such as their Bee Gees cover collaboration with Robbie Williams , received criticism for being " beyond a joke " for their use of strange noises . The Orb 's remix of Nine Inch Nails ' " The Perfect Drug " , too , was described as " silly " , as they made it sound like Trent Reznor was " drowning in his bathtub " . Though Paterson maintains that much of the Orb 's remix work is done to support other artists , he admits some of their remixes for major artists were performed so that they could " pay the bills " .

= = Discography = =

The Orb 's Adventures Beyond The Ultraworld ( 1991 )

U.F.Orb ( 1992 )

Pomme Fritz ( 1994 )

Orbus Terrarum ( 1995 )

Orblivion ( 1997 )

Cydonia ( 2001 )

Bicycles & Tricycles ( 2004 )

Okie Dokie It 's the Orb on Kompakt ( 2005 )

The Dream ( 2007 )

Baghdad Batteries ( Orbsessions Volume III ) ( 2009 )

Metallic Spheres ( 2010 )

C Batter C ( 2011 )

The Orbserver in the Star House ( 2012 )

More Tales from the Orbservatory ( 2013 )

Moonbuilding 2703 AD ( 2015 )

= The Boat Race 1948 =

The 94th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1948 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by the former rower Claude Taylor , Cambridge won by five lengths in a record time of 17 minutes and 50 seconds , beating the existing record set in the 1934 race . The victory , their second in a row , took the overall record in the race to 50 – 43 in Cambridge 's favour .

= = Background = =

The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1947 race by ten lengths , and led overall with 50 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .

Oxford 's coaches were R. E. Eason ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1924 race ) , J. H. Page and D. T. Raikes ( who represented Oxford in the 1920 , 1921 and 1922 races ) . Cambridge were coached by F. E. Hellyer ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1910 and 1911 races ) , Kenneth Payne ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races ) , Harold Rickett ( a Light Blue three times between 1930 and 1932 ) and Peter Haig @-@ Thomas ( a four @-@ time Light Blue between 1902 and 1905 ) . The umpire for the race was the former Cambridge rower Claude Taylor who had represented the Light Blues in the 1901 , 1902 and 1903 races .

The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian anticipated a close race : " the prospects of Oxford and Cambridge for this year 's University Boat @-@ race on Saturday have now become much more even " . His counterpart at The Times was in agreement : " it really seems that whichever crew gets off best in the first two minutes will probably win the race . "

= = Crews = =

The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 9 @.@ 375 lb ( 80 @.@ 3 kg ) , 1 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 62 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw three rowers return to the crew with Boat Race experience , including their stroke A. P. Mellows . Oxford 's boat also contained three former Blues , J. R. W. Gleave , P. N. Brodie and A. J. R. Purssell , all of whom were making their third appearances . Three of the participants were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's G. C. Fisk and W. W. Woodward , and Cambridge 's Brian Harrison were all from Australia .

= = Race = =

Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race was started at 3 : 30 p.m. by Taylor . The Light Blues out @-@ rated their opponents from the start but soon after their number six , Paul Bircher " caught a crab " , allowing Oxford to take a half @-@ length lead which they extended to three @-@ quarters of a length by Craven Steps . Despite having stopped to allow Bircher to recover his oar , Cambridge drew level and were over a quarter of a length ahead by the time the crews passed the Mile Post , yet nine seconds off record pace and rowing into a head wind . Cambridge were a length ahead at Harrods Furniture Depository and drew clear as the boats passed below Hammersmith Bridge .

As the crews passed the HMS Stork training ship , Cambridge began to draw away and were two lengths ahead by Chiswick Steps . With a strong tailwind along Corney Reach , the Light Blues continued to pull ahead and passed below Barnes Bridge four lengths ahead , and six seconds ahead of the course record . Cambridge passed the finishing post five lengths ahead in a time of 17 minutes 50 seconds . The victory , Cambridge 's second in a row , and third in the last four races , took the overall record in the race to 50 – 43 in their favour . The special correspondent writing in The Observer called it " the maddest Boat Race for years " . The Times 's rowing correspondent suggested it was " a great triumph for the Cambridge coaches , who so often seem able to produce something out of the bag which has not been apparent in practice . " Writing in The Manchester Guardian , the rowing correspondent noted that it was " strange that Cambridge had never shown anything like this form in practice " .

= Bobby Pulido =

Jose Roberto Pulido Jr . ( born April 25 , 1971 ) , known professionally as Bobby Pulido , is an American singer , songwriter , guitarist , and actor . He is credited for introducing Tejano music to a youthful crowd and became a teen idol and one of the most influential Tejano recording artists among Mexican American teenagers .

Pulido debuted on the music scene in 1995 as the lead vocalist of his eponymous band . That same year he signed a recording contract with EMI Latin and released his debut album , Desvelado . The album peaked at number nine on the United States Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and at number three on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . The title track of Desvelado launched Pulido as a popular Tejano musician , but he was criticized by veteran musicians , who believed he was successful in the genre because of his father Roberto Pulido 's established music career .

Enséñame ( 1996 ) , which peaked at number two on the Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart , earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year and the Lo Nuestro Award for Regional Mexican New Artist of the Year . In 1998 , he performed to a sold @-@ out Auditorio Coca @-@ Cola in Monterrey , becoming the first Tejano musician to do so . He also became the youngest recipient to be awarded the Orgullo de la Frontera by the Fiestas Mexicanas in February 1999 . By 2000 , the popularity of Tejano music was declining , resulting in Pulido 's subsequent albums to not chart anywhere . Despite this , in 1998 he won Male Entertainer of the Year , which he won three consecutive times .

In 2003 , Pulido made his acting debut by starring in the made @-@ for @-@ television film La Decada Furiosa . He also appeared in the telenovelas Fuego en La Sangre and Qué pobres tan ricos . His album Enfermo de Amor ( 2007 ) was commercially unsuccessful , and he took a three @-@ year hiatus . Pulido returned to music in March 2010 and released an album titled Dias de Ayer ; he also returned to acting and guest @-@ starred in the film Noches Con Platanito . Aside from music and film , Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua in July 1996 . Pulido filed for divorce in September 2013 , after having fathered three sons with Anzaldua .

= = Life and career = =

= = = 1971 – 94 : Early life and career beginnings = = =

Jose Roberto Pulido Jr. was born on April 25 , 1971 , in Edinburg , Texas . He is the youngest child of Roberto Pulido , an award winning Tejano music singer ; and Diana Montes , daughter of Tejano musician Mario Montes . Known as Bobby Pulido , he attended Edinburg High School and joined the school 's mariachi group before joining his father 's band Los Clásicos as their saxophonist and backup vocalist . In 1994 , EMI Latin released a compilation album titled Branding Icons , which featured Pulido with his father on the song " Contigo " . Pulido was accepted at St. Mary 's University , where he studied business management as his major . After the album 's release in 1994 , he decided to leave college and pursue a singing career in the Tejano market , during what is now known as the genre 's golden age .

= = = 1995 – 99 : Debut album and commercial success = = =

Pulido started his own band with guitarist Gilbert Trejo , bassist Mike Fox , drummer and cousin Jimmy Montes , keyboardist Rey Gutierrez , and Frank Caballero serving as the band 's accordionist . Initially , Pulido received criticism from veteran Tejano musicians , who believed the singer was " riding on the hard @-@ earned reputation " of his father 's established music career . In May 1995 , Pulido signed a recording contract with EMI Latin and released his debut album Desvelado that September . Then @-@ president of EMI Latin Jose Behar told Billboard the company had " high hopes " for the singer in the country music market . His debut single " No Se Por Que " peaked at number 33 on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in December 1995 . Desvelado debuted at number 44 on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , the title track was second single released and debuted at number 21 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in the week of February 3 , 1996 , and Pulido became a popular Tejano recording artist . In April 1996 , the album peaked at number nine on the Top Latin Albums chart and number three on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . John Lannert of Billboard magazine called Pulido 's chart position " impressive " and called the singer a " fast @-@ rising artist " . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) the same year , signifying shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units in the U.S. Pulido ended 1996 as the eighth best @-@ selling regional Mexican artist and Desvelado ended the year as the eleventh best @-@ selling regional Mexican album . The album reached sales of 100 @,@ 000 units by the end of 1999 . At the 1996 Tejano Music Awards , Pulido tied first place with Eddie Gonzales for Best New Rising Male Tejano Artists .

In July 1996 , Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua and took a short career hiatus . He continued promoting his second studio album Enséñame , which was released a month after his marriage . Billboard called Enséñame a " rousing " ranchera and " infectious " cumbia @-@ flavored recording , and said it believed Pulido was aiming to follow Emilio Navaira , who wanted to crossover and become a country music artist . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News said Pulido 's vocals were " much improved " over his previous work . Enséñame peaked at number ten on the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Albums and number two on the U.S. Billboard Regional Mexican Albums chart . It also produced three top @-@ twenty Regional Mexican Airplay tracks ; " Enséñame " , " Se Murió De Amor " , and " La Rosa " . The album earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year and the Lo Nuestro Award for Regional Mexican New Artist of the Year . Pulido along with Mexican singer Graciela Beltrán , American urban quintets the Barrio Boyzz , Tejano musicians Emilio Navaira , Pete Astudillo , and Jennifer Peña recorded " Viviras Selena " for the 1997 soundtrack to the biopic film about Selena , who was called the Queen of Tejano music and was killed in March 1995 . By 1997 , Pulido was being credited for introducing Tejano music to a much younger audience in the U.S. , among other Tejano novitiates .

In 1998 , Pulido released his third studio album Llegaste a Mi Vida , which peaked at number two on the Regional Mexican Albums chart and at number eleven on the Top Latin Albums chart . The only single to appear on the Latin singles chart , " Pedire " , peaked at number 28 on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . Pulido 's album won five of twelve nominations at the 1998 Tejano Music Awards ; winning Male Vocalist of the Year , Male Entertainer of the Year , Tejano Crossover Song of the Year for " ¿ Dónde Estás ? " , and Tejano Album of the Year . The same year , Desvelado and Llegaste a Mi Vida , each sold 100 @,@ 000 units in Mexico — an unprecedented milestone for the singer . In September 1998 , Pulido released his first live album En Vivo : Desde Monterrey Mexico , which was recorded on April 24 , 1998 , The album became the singer 's fourth top @-@ ten U.S. recording and peaked at number 21 on the Top Latin Albums chart. in a sold @-@ out concert at the Auditorio Coca @-@ Cola in Monterrey , becoming the first Tejano grupo musician to do so . In March 1999 , he released his fourth studio album El Cazador , which produced the top @-@ thirty Regional Mexican Airplay single " Cantarle a Ella " . Pulido became the youngest recipient to be awarded the Orgullo de la Frontera from the Fiestas Mexicanas in February 1999 . In an April 1999 interview , Pulido expressed interest in recording a Latin pop album and said he was not interested in crossing over and recording English @-@ language albums .

= = = 2000 – 09 : Decline in popularity , acting debut , and hiatus = = =

By 2000 , Tejano music 's dwindling popularity was thought to have recovered but it failed to do so ; music critics believed veteran Tejano artists such as Emilio Navaira , Selena , Mazz , Michael Salgado , and Pulido dominated the airwaves in the U.S. and that old @-@ school singers were not able to compete . That year , Pulido became a teen idol among Mexican American teenage girls and one of the most influential Tejano recording artists to the same demographic . In March 2000 , he released Zona de Peligro , which was less successful than his previous albums , peaking at number 48 on the Top Latin Albums chart . None of its singles were commercially successful , but Pulido won the Tejano Music Award for Male Entertainer of the Year — his third consecutive win . According to musicologist Guadalupe San Miguel , Tejano musicians beginning in the late 20th century and into the early 21st century were indistinguishable from each other . Pulido released his sixth studio album Siempre Pensando En Ti in March 2001 ; it fared less well commercially , peaking at number 50 on the Top Latin Albums chart . The album became Pulido 's last recording to impact a music chart on Billboard . In 2002 , Pulido organized the Celebrity Golf Classic , a benefit charity that raised US $ 50 @,@ 000 for the Easter Seals program . McAllen mayor Leo Montalvo announced at the event that November 2 , 2002 , would be " Bobby Pulido Day " .

That June , Pulido released an eponymous album titled Bobby , which spawned the top 40 U.S. single " Vanidosa " that failed to appear on any music chart and was his final single . He recorded a cover version of Mexican singer Juan Gabriel 's 1999 single " Se Me Olvidó Otra Vez " , which was included on Bobby . His next albums , Montame ( 2003 ) and Vive ( 2005 ) , failed to chart , ending his eight @-@ year presence on Billboard . In 2003 , Pulido made his acting debut in the telenovela television movie La Decada Furiosa , in which he played himself . Two years later , he appeared as a guest on the reality television show Big Brother México . Pulido performed and recorded " Ya Ves " for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! in April 2005 . His next album , Enfermo de Amor , was released in August 2007 . AllMusic editor Evan Gutierrez complimented Pulido 's use of mixing genres without " [ pushing ] the envelope very far " , and said the album " sound [ s ] fresh rather than repetitive " . He called the title track " waltzing " , " Una Más " a roots rock recording , and " Desvelado Acústico " a " sophisticated acoustic " Latin pop track . However , Gutierrez said the album was lacking and its production quality was " not quite top @-@ notch " . After the album 's release , Pulido guest @-@ starred in three episodes of the telenovela series Fuego en La Sangre as himself .

= = = 2010 – present : Return to music and acting = = =

Pulido returned to recording music in 2010 and released Dias de Ayer in March that year . The album earned Pulido a nomination for the Tejano Music Award for Male Vocalist of the Year ; the first time since 2003 . Two years later , he released Lo Mio , his first album on Apodaca Records . In 2013 , Pulido recorded with former Aventura vocalist Henry Santos on Santos ' song " No Sé Vivir Sin Tí " . The same year , Pulido returned to acting and guest @-@ starred as himself in two episodes of the telenovela Noches Con Platanito ( 2013 – 15 ) . In 2014 , he landed a regular , minor role as himself in the telenovela Qué pobres tan ricos . In November 2015 , Pulido released " No Es Como Tú " , a track from his twelfth studio album , Hoy . The album is Pulido 's first as sole songwriter for any of his albums . Pulido told Mexican newspaper Publimentero that Hoy will be released as a strategic plan to " help fight the war " on physical music consumption ; he is against the digital age of downloading and music streaming in the popular market . The album was expected to be released only through Pulido 's social networking sites to combat piracy . In a May 2016 concert , Pulido performed " Si No Te Hubiera Conocido " , a song he recorded with Miguel Luna that was shelved and forgotten during his career .

= = Personal life = =

Pulido married Eliza Anzaldua in July 1996 . They had three sons ; Remy Pulido ( born 1996 ) , Darian Pulido ( born 1998 ) , and Trey Pulido ( born 2005 ) . However , Pulido filed for divorce in September 2013 , after 17 years of being married and four months of separation . He currently resides in Miami , Florida and enjoys working out , eating healthily , and playing golf ; his favorite pastime is playing guitar and he finds composing songs therapeutic .

During his musical career , Pulido 's fans questioned his sexuality ; he said he is not homosexual but rumors that he had slept with men continue to circulate . Pulido spoke to a Mexican television news program in 2013 , and told viewers he is heterosexual and that he has gay fans , which he said did not concern him . In April 2010 , media outlets questioned Pulido after he released a music video in which he plays a stereotypical gay male ; the singer said he wanted to " try something different [ in his music videos ] " and defended his gay followers , saying he nothing against the LGBT community . After American Latin pop singer Ricky Martin publicly announced his homosexuality , Pulido defended Martin 's choice , saying " he is living his dreams " .

Pulido has been an outspoken opponent of the 2016 U.S. presidential candidate and Republican presumptive nominee Donald Trump . On his Instagram account , Pulido uploaded a picture of himself " urinating " on Trump 's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .

= = Discography = =

= = Filmography = =

= Siege of Port Royal ( 1707 ) =

The Siege of Port Royal in 1707 was two separate attempts by English colonists from New England to conquer Acadia ( roughly the present @-@ day Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) by capturing its capital Port Royal ( now Annapolis Royal ) during Queen Anne 's War . Both attempts were made by colonial militia , and were led by men inexperienced in siege warfare . Led by Acadian Governor Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase , the French troops at Port Royal easily withstood both attempts , assisted by irregular Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy outside the fort .

The first siege began on June 6 , 1707 , and lasted 11 days . The English colonel , John March , was able to establish positions near Port Royal 's fort , but his engineer claimed the necessary cannons could not be landed , and the force withdrew amid disagreements in the war council . The second siege began August 22 , and was never able to establish secure camps , owing to spirited defensive sorties organized by Acadian Governor Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase .

The siege attempts were viewed as a debacle in Boston , and the expedition 's leaders were jeered upon their return . Port Royal was captured in 1710 by a larger force that included British Army troops ; that capture marked the end of French rule in peninsular Acadia .

= = Background = =

Port Royal was the capital of the French colony of Acadia almost since the French first began settling the area in 1604 . It consequently became a focal point for conflict between English and French colonists in the next century . It was destroyed in 1613 by English raiders led by Samuel Argall , but eventually rebuilt . In 1690 it was captured by forces from the Province of Massachusetts Bay , although it was restored to France by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick .

= = = French preparations = = =

With the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702 , colonists on both sides again prepared for conflict . Acadia 's governor , Jacques @-@ François de Monbeton de Brouillan , had , in anticipation of war , already begun construction of a stone and earth fort in 1701 , which was largely completed by 1704 . Following a French raid on Deerfield on the Massachusetts frontier in February 1704 , the English in Boston organized a raid against Acadia the following May . Led by Benjamin Church , they raided Grand Pré and other Acadian communities . English and French accounts differ on whether Church 's expedition mounted an attack on Port Royal . Church 's account indicates that they anchored in the harbour and considered making an attack , but ultimately decided against the idea ; French accounts claim that a minor attack was made .

When Daniel d 'Auger de Subercase became governor of Acadia in 1706 , he went on the offensive , encouraging Indian raids against English targets in New England . He also encouraged privateering from Port Royal against English colonial shipping . The privateers were highly effective ; the English fishing fleet on the Grand Banks was reduced by 80 percent between 1702 and 1707 , and some English coastal communities were raided .

= = = New England preparations = = =

English merchants in Boston had long traded with Port Royal , and some of this activity had continued even after the war began . Some of these merchants , notably Samuel Vetch , were closely associated with Massachusetts Bay 's Governor Joseph Dudley , and by 1706 outrage began growing in the colonial assembly over the matter . Vetch chose to deal with these allegations by going to London to press a case for a military expedition against New France , while Dudley , who had previously requested such support without response , chose to demonstrate his anti @-@ French sentiment by organizing an expedition against Port Royal using mostly colonial resources . In March 1707 he revived an idea he had first developed in 1702 that called for provincial militia to man an expedition supported by resources of the Royal Navy that were locally available . His proposal was approved by the assembly on 21 March . Colonial popular opinion was divided on the need for the expedition : some ministers argued in its favour from the pulpit , while Cotton Mather " Pray 'd God not to carry his people hence . "

Massachusetts raised two full regiments , totalling nearly 1 @,@ 000 men ; New Hampshire provided 60 men , Rhode Island provided 80 , and a company of Indians from Cape Cod was also recruited . Recruiting was difficult in Massachusetts due to the lack of enthusiasm for the endeavour , and authorities were forced to draft men to fill the ranks . Connecticut was also asked to contribute to the expedition , but declined , citing bad feelings over the return of Port Royal by treaty after its capture in 1690 . The force , which was placed under the command of Massachusetts Colonel John March , totalled 1 @,@ 150 soldiers and 450 sailors , and was carried by a fleet of 24 ships , including the 50 gun man of war Deptford under the command of Captain Charles Stuckley , and the 24 gun colonial Province Galley of Cyprian Southack . ( March took a former prisoner of the Maliseet , John Gyles as his translator . )

= = First siege = =

The English fleet arrived outside the channel of the Port Royal harbour on June 6 , and troops were landed the next day . Governor Subercase 's defence force at the time consisted of 100 troupes de la marine that had fortuitously been reinforced by the recent arrival of another 60 who were due to take command of a recently built frigate . Just hours before the English arrival he had also welcomed about 100 Abenaki Indians led by the young Bernard @-@ Anselme d 'Abbadie de Saint @-@ Castin . As soon as the English ships were spotted , Subercase also called out the local militia , mustering about 60 men .

Colonel March landed with about 700 men to the north of the fort , and another 300 to its south under the command of Colonel Samuel Appleton , with the goal of establishing a siege line around the fort . Both forces were landed too far from the fort and spent the rest of the day marching toward it . Subercase sent a small force to the south on the morning of the 8th , who were driven back toward the fort by Appleton . Subercase himself led a larger contingent to the north , where he established an ambush at a river March 's force would have to cross . After a sharp battle in which Subercase 's horse was shot out from under him , the defenders were pushed back into the fort .

The New Englanders established camps about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the fort . Subercase sent parties out of the fort to harass English foraging parties , giving rise to rumors that additional militia forces were en route from northern Acadia . The English managed to advance their lines closer to the fort , but their engineer , Colonel John Redknap , did not believe the expedition 's heavy cannons could be landed safely , because they " must pass within command of the fort " . This led to disagreements between March , Redknap , and Stuckley which spelled the end of the expedition . After a final assault on June 16 , which French accounts describe as a failed attempt to take the fort , and English accounts say was merely an attempt to destroy some buildings outside the fort , the expedition embarked on its ships and sailed off on the 17th . March directed the fleet to sail for Casco Bay ( near present @-@ day Portland , Maine ) .

= = Interlude = =

From Casco Bay Colonel March sent a letter to Boston , in which he laid the blame for the expedition 's failure on Stuckley and Redknap . News of the failure preceded his messengers , and they were met upon their arrival by a jeering crowd of women and children . Colonel Redknap , one of the messengers , was able to convince Governor Dudley that he had acted within his orders , and blame was generally attached to March for the failure . Dudley issued orders to March that the fleet should stay put , with all men remaining aboard under penalty of death , while his council considered the next step . Dudley eventually sent reinforcements and a three @-@ man commission ( including two militia colonels and John Leverett , a lawyer with no military experience ) to oversee affairs , and ordered the expedition to make a second attack . Despite the orders , desertion from the fleet was high , and the forces was reduced to about 850 when it sailed for Port Royal in late August . Colonel March resigned the expedition command and was replaced by Colonel Francis Wainwright .

Governor Subercase was forewarned of the second attempt , and had erected additional defenses to impede the attackers ' approaches . He was also reinforced by the fortuitous arrival of the Intrepide , a French frigate under the command of Pierre Morpain . His crew was added to the defences , and captured prize ships he brought with him provided needed provisions for the fort .

= = Second siege = =

The English fleet arrived near Port Royal on August 21 , and Wainwright landed his troops about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) below ( south of ) the fort the next day and marched them to a position about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the fort . This area , where March had previously camped , was one of the areas near which Subercase had thrown up additional defensive earthworks . On August 23 Wainwright sent a detachment of 300 to clear a path for the heavy cannon ; this attempt was repulsed by forces sent out by Subercase to harass them . Using guerrilla @-@ style tactics and fire from the fort 's cannons , they forced the English to retreat to their camp . This defeat apparently had a significant effect on English morale ; Wainwright wrote that his camp was " surrounded with enemies and judging it unsafe to proceed on any service without a company of at least one hundred men . " In what was probably the most serious clash , an English party cutting brush was ambushed by a French and Indian force , and nine of the party were killed . The situation got so bad in the English camp that on the 27th they withdrew to a camp protected by their ships ' guns . The camp was not properly fortified , and the Englishmen were constantly subjected to sniping and attacks from swarming French and Indians . When Wainwright made a second landing at another point on August 31 , Subercase himself led 120 soldiers out of the fort . About 70 men engaged the New Englanders in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , which was fought with axes and musket butts . Saint @-@ Castin and almost 20 of his men were wounded while five others were killed . The next day , September 1 , the English reembarked on their ships , and sailed back to Boston . The French in their reports claimed to have killed as many as 200 men , but English sources claim only about 16 killed and 16 wounded in the siege .

= = Aftermath = =

The expedition 's return to Boston was also met with jeers . Dudley 's commissioners were sarcastically called " the three Port Royal worthies " and " the three champions " . Dudley 's reports of the affair minimized its failings , pointing out that many plantations around Port Royal had been destroyed during the two sieges . Dudley also refused to make inquiries into the expedition 's failure , fearing the blame would be placed on him .

Subercase , concerned that the British might return the following year , worked to strengthen the fortifications at Port Royal . He also built a small warship to assist in the colony 's defenses , and convinced Morpain to raid New England shipping . The privateer was so successful that by the end of 1708 Port Royal was overcrowded with prisoners from the captured prizes .

None of this ultimately helped save Port Royal from the next attack , since France failed to send any significant support , while the British mobilized larger and better @-@ organized forces . Samuel Vetch , with support from Dudley , Boston merchants , and the New England fishing community , successfully lobbied Queen Anne for military support for an expedition to conquer all of New France in 1709 . This prompted the colonists to mobilize in the expectation that troops would arrive from England ; their efforts were aborted when the promised military support failed to materialize . Vetch and Francis Nicholson returned to England in its aftermath , and again secured promises of military support for an attempt on Port Royal in 1710 . In the summer of 1710 a fleet arrived in Boston carrying 400 marines . Augmented by colonial regiments , this force successfully captured Port Royal after a third siege in 1710 .

= Survivor Series ( 2007 ) =

Survivor Series ( 2007 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on November 18 , 2007 , at the American Airlines Arena in Miami , Florida . It was presented by THQ 's WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008 . It was the 21st annual Survivor Series and starred wrestlers from the Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW brands .

The show 's seven matches showcased prominent WWE wrestlers , who acted out the franchise 's stories in and out of the ring . The main event featured SmackDown wrestlers in a Hell in a Cell match , in which the ring was surrounded by a roofed steel structure . In this match , World Heavyweight Champion Batista defeated The Undertaker to retain his title . In Raw 's main match , Randy Orton defeated Shawn Michaels in a singles match , while in ECW 's prime match , ECW Champion CM Punk defeated John Morrison and The Miz in a Triple Threat match to retain the title . Two matches were on the undercard . The first was a singles match , in which The Great Khali defeated Hornswoggle . The other featured Team Triple H ( Triple H , Jeff Hardy , Rey Mysterio and Kane ) defeating Team Umaga ( Umaga , Mr. Kennedy , Montel Vontavious Porter , Finlay and Big Daddy V ) in an inter @-@ brand five @-@ on @-@ four Survivor Series elimination tag team match .

Survivor Series helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 1 @.@ 2 million , through ticket sales and pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . It received mixed critical reviews by various independent sources , including Canadian Online Explorer and the Pro Wrestling Torch . After its release on DVD , the event peaked at number five on Billboard 's Video Sales chart , before it fell off the chart after ten weeks .

= = Background = =

Survivor Series was the culmination of various scripted plots and storylines . For three months before the event , several professional wrestling matches and scripted plots were played out on WWE programming ( Raw , Friday Night SmackDown ! , and ECW on Sci Fi ) to create feuds between various wrestlers , casting them as villains and heroes . Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW were also the names of WWE 's televised brands – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a specific program , thus each brand promoted distinct matches .

The main narrative for Survivor Series from the SmackDown brand continues the events that unfolded at WrestleMania 23 , WWE 's April pay @-@ per @-@ view , in which The Undertaker defeated Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship . Over the course of several months , the two wrestlers fought in various matches over the title , which eventually involved Edge . The Undertaker was billed as having been injured in one of these matches in May , in which Edge had won the title . During The Undertaker 's absence , Edge was legitimately injured , and The Great Khali won the championship in a Battle Royal , in which wrestlers were eliminated until one remained as the winner . At Unforgiven , WWE 's September pay @-@ per @-@ view event , The Undertaker returned to WWE , while Batista won the World Heavyweight Title from The Great Khali . Afterwards , the original feud between the two wrestlers was restarted and culminated into a standard wrestling match , known in professional wrestling as a singles match , at WWE 's October pay @-@ per @-@ view event Cyber Sunday ; Batista won this match and retained his title . On the November 2 , 2007 episode of Friday Night SmackDown ! , a rematch was advertised in a Hell in a Cell match , in which both wrestlers would fight in a ring surrounded by a roofed steel structure at Survivor Series .

The prime rivalry scripted from the Raw brand continued a storyline that extended from Cyber Sunday , between WWE Champion Randy Orton and Shawn Michaels over Orton 's title . At Cyber Sunday , Michaels was chosen by the WWE fans , via online voting , to face Orton for the title , though , Orton retained his title via disqualification . A rematch was promoted for Survivor Series on the October 29 , 2007 edition of Raw , in which Michaels would face Orton for his title . Afterwards , Michaels and Orton fought in different match types over the weeks leading to Survivor Series . On the episode of Raw before Survivor Series , Michaels and Orton met " Face to Face " in a scripted confrontation , in which Orton attacked Michaels .

The prime storyline on the ECW brand featured ECW Champion CM Punk , John Morrison , and The Miz . Morrison and Punk 's rivalry revolved over the outcome of their match at Vengeance : Night of Champions , WWE 's June pay @-@ per @-@ view event , in which Morrison defeated Punk to win the ECW Title . Punk sought revenge , but Morrison defeated Punk in two championship matches ; however , Punk won the title from Morrison on the September 4 , 2007 episode of ECW on Sci fi . At Cyber Sunday , The Miz was voted online by fans to challenge Punk for the ECW Title , though , Punk defeated Miz to retain his title . A Triple Threat match was announced for Survivor Series on the November 13 , 2007 episode of ECW on Sci @-@ Fi , in which Punk would defend his title against Morrison and Miz , and the first wrestler to gain a pinfall or submission would win the match and the title .

In a narrative extending to the September 10 , 2007 episode of Raw , in which Hornswoggle , a dwarf , was announced as Vince McMahon 's illegitimate son . In this storyline , McMahon did not like the fact that Hornswoggle was his son , and as a result , he promoted matches in which Hornswoggle faced much larger opponents . As part of this storyline , McMahon announced that The Great Khali , who was billed as standing at 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 24 m ) , would face Hornswoggle at Survivor Series . In a promotional in @-@ ring segment on the episode of Friday Night SmackDown ! before the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , Khali and Hornswoggle weighed in for their match , in which Khali weighed double the weight of Hornswoggle ; this was a segment created by McMahon to humiliate his son . As a Survivor Series tradition , every event features an inter @-@ brand 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series elimination tag team match . Announced via WWE.com , WWE 's official website , Team Triple H ( Triple H , The Hardy Boyz ( Matt and Jeff ) , Rey Mysterio , and Kane would face Team Umaga ( Umaga , Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) , Finlay , Big Daddy V , and Mr. Kennedy ) .

= = Event = =

= = = Preliminary matches = = =

The pay @-@ per @-@ view began with the ECW Championship Triple Threat match , in which CM Punk defended his title against John Morrison and The Miz . Throughout the match , The Miz and Morrison double @-@ teamed Punk , however , Miz turned his back on Morrison by attacking him . After Miz tossed Morrison over the top ring ropes onto ringside , Punk lifted Miz onto his shoulders and hit the Go To Sleep . He then pinned Miz to retain his ECW Title . The next scheduled match was an inter @-@ brand 10 @-@ Diva tag team match , in which the team of Kelly Kelly , Torrie Wilson , Mickie James , Maria , and Michelle McCool faced Victoria , Beth Phoenix , Melina , Layla , and Jillian Hall . Phoenix 's team had the advantage over James ' team , until James was tagged into the match . She attacked Melina with her forearm and kissed her before kicking her in the head . James then pinned her to earn the victory for her team . Next was a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship , in which the champions , Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch defended against Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes . At one point , Holly hit Cade with his forearm , and sent Cade and himself onto ringside . In the ring , Murdoch flipped over Rhodes ' back and pulled him down to the mat to perform the " Ace of Spades " . Successfully pinning Rhodes , Murdoch retained the World Tag Team Championship for his team .

The fourth match was the five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series Elimination Tag team match between Team Triple H and Team Umaga . Before the event , it was announced that Matt Hardy would be unable to compete in the match due to a scripted injury . Kane was the first wrestler eliminated off of Team Triple H , after a Big Daddy V elbow drop . Umaga then pinned Rey Mysterio after the " Samoan Spike " . Only Jeff and Triple H remained for their team , while MVP was Team Umaga 's first elimination ; Jeff Hardy eliminated him after a " Twist of Fate " . Team Umaga 's second elimination occurred after Big Daddy V accidentally dropped an elbow on Mr. Kennedy , which led to a pinfall by Triple H. Big Daddy V was Team Umaga 's third elimination , which occurred after Hardy and Triple H hit a Double DDT . Finlay and Umaga were then eliminated via pinfall , after a " Pedigree " to Finlay , and a " Swanton " to Umaga . As a result , Team Triple H won . The Great Khali versus Hornswoggle was the next scheduled match . At one point , Hornswoggle tried to hit Khali with a shillelagh , but Khali slapped Hornswoggle down to the mat . The match ended via disqualification , after Finlay , Hornswoggle original caretaker , entered the ring and hit Khali in the head with his own shillelagh .

= = = Main event matches = = =

The sixth match was Raw 's main match , in which Randy Orton faced Shawn Michaels for Orton 's WWE Championship . In this stipulated match , Michaels was banned from using his signature move , " Sweet Chin Music " , while Orton was unable to get disqualified , and if either man broke those stipulations he would have lost the WWE Championship match . Because Michaels was banned from using the superkick , his signature maneuver , Michaels attempted various submission moves , such as the Sharpshooter , Crossface , and ankle lock . Eventually , Michaels , attempted to perform his superkick , but to prevent himself from losing the match , he stopped , which then allowed Orton to hit an RKO . Successfully pinning Michaels , Orton retained his WWE Title .

The main event from SmackDown was the event 's final match , in which World Heavyweight Champion Batista defended his title against The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match . At one point , Batista hit the The Undertaker with a Batista Bomb through a table . Batista then attempted to pin The Undertaker but he only got a two count . The Undertaker then hit Batista with a Tombstone Piledriver . He pinned Batista but Batista kicked out at two . The Undertaker then hit another Tombstone Piledriver on top of the steel ring steps . The Undertaker pinned Batista , and as the referee counted the pin , Edge , dressed as a cameraman , pulled the referee out of the ring , and hit The Undertaker with the camera he was holding and then positioned Undertaker 's head on top of the steel steps . Edge then slammed a folding chair across the back of The Undertaker 's head . While the referee re @-@ entered the ring , Edge dragged Batista onto The Undertaker , and as a result , Batista pinned The Undertaker and retained his World Heavyweight Title . After the match Edge came back into the ring and struck The Undertaker in the head as he was sitting up .

= = Aftermath = =

After Survivor Series , Randy Orton was scripted into a feud with Chris Jericho , who made his return to WWE after a two @-@ year hiatus . The following night on Raw , the evolving feud culminated into a match being promoted for Armageddon , WWE 's December pay @-@ per @-@ view . At Armageddon , Orton retained his WWE Title . After Batista retained his World Heavyweight Championship , Edge was scripted into a rivalry with him over his title . Eventually , The Undertaker was also placed in feud , which led to the advertising of a Triple Threat match at Armageddon for the title . At Armageddon , Edge won the World Heavyweight Championship . Due to the events that occurred at Survivor Series , a match was announced between Finlay and The Great Khali for Armageddon . Finlay prevailed at Armageddon via pinning The Great Khali . After surviving their Elimination tag team match , Triple H and Jeff Hardy were promoted into a match for Armageddon , in which the winner would win the opportunity to challenge for the WWE Championship . At Armageddon , Hardy defeated Triple H. Because Beth Phoenix and Mickie James were the leaders of their teams at Survivor Series , a feud evolved from this , which culminated into a match at Armageddon over Phoenix 's WWE Women 's Championship . Phoenix retained her title at Armageddon .

= = = Reception = = =

The American Airlines Arena usually has a capacity of 19 @,@ 600 , which was reduced for Survivor Series due to production purposes . From an approximate attendance of 12 @,@ 000 and 341 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , Survivor Series helped WWE earn $ 19 @.@ 9 million in pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue versus $ 18 @.@ 7 million the previous year ; this was confirmed by WWE in its 2007 fourth quarter financial report . Although Survivor Series helped WWE 's revenue , it earned 42 @,@ 000 less buys than the previous year 's Survivor Series .

In addition , the pay @-@ per @-@ view received mixed reviews . Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk of Canadian Online Explorer 's SLAM ! Sports – Wrestling rated the entire event 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 points . They also rated Raw and SmackDown 's main event an 8 out of 10 points . J.D. Dunn of 411Mania stated that the event was " The best WWE PPV since Backlash . " Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch , a professional wrestling newsletter operated since 1987 , reported that the main event was " disappointing " and that " WWE set expectations too high for the Cell . " He rated the Raw main event 3 out of 5 points , while rating the SmackDown main event 2 @.@ 25 out of 5 points . Survivor Series was released on DVD on December 26 , 2007 by WWE Home Video , and it was distributed by Genius Products . The DVD debuted on Billboard 's Video Sales chart on January 19 , 2008 at number five . It spent nine more weeks on the chart , before it fell off the chart at number 20 .

= = Results = =

Survivor Series elimination match

= More Demi Moore =

More Demi Moore or the August 1991 Vanity Fair cover was a controversial handbra nude photograph of the then seven @-@ months pregnant Demi Moore taken by Annie Leibovitz for the August 1991 cover of Vanity Fair to accompany a cover story about Moore .

The cover has had a lasting societal impact . Since the cover was released , several celebrities have posed for photographs in advanced stages of pregnancy , although not necessarily as naked as Moore . This trend has made pregnancy photos fashionable and created a booming business . The photograph is one of the most highly regarded magazine covers of all time , and it is one of Leibovitz 's best known works .

The picture has been parodied several times , including for advertising Naked Gun 33 ⅓ : The Final Insult ( 1994 ) . This led to the 1998 Second Circuit fair use case Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp. In addition to being satirically parodied and popularizing pregnancy photographs , there was also backlash . Critics rated it grotesque and obscene , and it was also seriously considered when Internet decency standards were first being legislated and adjudicated . Others thought it was a powerful artistic statement .

In each of the subsequent two years , Moore made follow @-@ up cover appearances on Vanity Fair , the first of which propelled Joanne Gair to prominence as a trompe @-@ l 'œil body painter .

= = Background = =

In 1991 , Demi Moore was a budding A @-@ list film star who had been married to Bruce Willis since 1987 . The couple had had their first child Rumer Willis in 1988 , and they had hired three photographers for an audience of six friends for the delivery . In 1990 , she had starred in that year 's highest @-@ grossing film , Ghost , for which she was paid $ 350 @,@ 000 , and she had earned $ 2 million for 1991 roles in The Butcher 's Wife , Mortal Thoughts and Nothing But Trouble . Following the photo , she would earn $ 3 million for her 1992 role in A Few Good Men and $ 5 million apiece for roles in The Scarlet Letter ( 1995 ) and Disclosure ( 1994 ) .

Annie Leibovitz had been chief photographer at Rolling Stone from 1973 until 1983 , when she moved to Vanity Fair . In 1991 , she had the first mid @-@ career show , Annie Leibovitz Photographs 1970 @-@ 1990 , ever given a photographer by the National Portrait Gallery in Washington , D.C. , with a similarly titled accompanying book . The show traveled to New York City at the International Center of Photography for a showing that would run until December 1 , 1991 .

= = Details = =

The photograph was one of several taken by Leibovitz of seven @-@ months pregnant 28 @-@ year @-@ old Moore , then carrying the couple 's second daughter , Scout LaRue . The photographs ranged from Moore in lacy underwear and spiked high heels , to a revealing peignoir . The final selection had Moore wearing only a diamond ring . Joanne Gair worked on make @-@ up for the shoot . Samuel Irving Newhouse , Jr . , chairman of Conde Nast Publications , was very supportive of the chosen cover despite the potential for lost sales . Tina Brown , Vanity Fair editor , quickly realized that there would be harsh backlash for regular distribution of the magazine ; the issue had to be wrapped in a white envelope with only Moore 's eyes visible . Some editions had a brown wrapper that implied naughtiness . However , Brown viewed the image as a chance to make a statement about the decade of the 1990s after a decade dominated by power suits . Approximately 100 million people saw the cover .

The use of a pregnant sex symbol was in a sense an attempt to combat the pop culture representations of the anathema of the awkward , uncomfortable , and grotesquely excessive female form in a culture that values thinness . Leibovitz ' candid portrayal drew a wide spectrum of responses from television , radio and newspaper personalities and the public at large ranging from complaints of sexual objectification to celebrations of the photograph as a symbol of empowerment . One of the judges in Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp. stated that the image evoked Botticelli 's Birth of Venus . The contemporary retrospective view of some is that this photograph is " high art " . The intent of the photograph was to portray pregnancy with a celebrity in a way that was bold , proud and understated in a " anti @-@ Hollywood , anti @-@ glitz " manner . It was successful in some regards as many perceived it as a statement of beauty and pride . However , many took offense and the cover drew unusually intense controversy for Vanity Fair in the form of ninety @-@ five television spots , sixty @-@ four radio shows , 1 @,@ 500 newspaper articles and a dozen cartoons . Some stores and newsstands refused to carry the August issue , while others modestly concealed it in the wrapper evocative of porn magazines .

The photo is not only considered one of Leibovitz 's most famous , but also an almost mythical representation . It is considered emblematic of Si Newhouse 's reputation for " newsy features and provocative photos . " It is the first photo mentioned in the New York Times review of Leibovitz 's exhibition Annie Leibovitz : A Photographer 's Life , 1990 @-@ 2005 at the Brooklyn Museum and it is contrasted with another of her female pregnancy photographs ( of Melania Trump ) .

A year later , Moore still did not understand the controversy that caused photos of a naked , pregnant woman to be viewed as morally objectionable . Moore stated that , " I did feel glamorous , beautiful and more free about my body . I don 't know how much more family oriented I could possibly have gotten . " She considered the cover to be a healthy " feminist statement . " In 2007 , Moore stated that the picture was not originally intended for publication . She had posed in a personal photo session , not a cover shoot . Leibovitz has had personal photo sessions of Moore and all of her daughters .

= = = Cover story = = =

One journalist 's professional account of the cover story describes it as " relentlessly long " , and a second journalist 's description is that it is a " very long profile " . The article discussed the then three @-@ year @-@ old Rumer Willis and husband Bruce Willis . Willis and Moore discuss each other in the article . The article also spends three pages recounting her life . The article spent little time on her next film , The Butcher 's Wife or the baby inside her , Scout LaRue Willis .

= = Legal issues = =

= = = Naked Gun 33 ⅓ = = =

The photograph was parodied on several occasions , including the computer @-@ generated Spy magazine version , which placed Willis ' head on Moore 's body . In Leibovitz v. Paramount Pictures Corp. , Leibovitz sued over one parody featuring Leslie Nielsen , made to promote the 1994 film Naked Gun 33 ⅓ : The Final Insult . In the parody , the model 's body was used and " the guilty and smirking face of Mr. Nielsen appeared above " . The teaser said " Due this March " . The case was dismissed in 1996 because the parody relied " for its comic effect on the contrast between the original " .

In a parody ruling the court must determine whether a work is transformative in a way that gives a new expression , meaning or message to the original work . In this case , the court ruled that the " ad may reasonably be perceived , as commenting on the seriousness and even pretentiousness of the original . " It also ruled that the ad differed from the original " in a way that may , reasonably , be perceived as commenting , through ridicule on what a viewer might reasonably think is the undue self @-@ importance conveyed by the subject of the Leibovitz photograph . "

= = = Other issues = = =

When the Internet arose as a popular and important medium and the United States Supreme Court issued a ruling on the Communications Decency Act of 1996 ( CDA ) , Moore 's image was described as a sort of litmus test to determine if the law could be reasonably applied in the current environment by the trial court . When John Paul Stevens ' rendered an opinion over a year later , the image was still on the minds of legal scholars .

Fifteen years later the photo continued to be parodied . In 2006 , graffiti artist Banksy used a Simpsons @-@ like character to replace Moore 's head for a promotion in Los Angeles , California . He illegally posted the parody around Los Angeles to promote his website and his exhibition .

= = Follow @-@ ups = =

In the Demi 's Birthday Suit August 1992 issue of Vanity Fair , Moore was shown on the cover in the body painting photo by Joanne Gair . The painting is a memorable example of modern body painting artwork . It made Gair an immediate pop culture star as the most prominent body paint artist , which prompted consideration for an Absolut Vodka Absolut Gair ad campaign . The 1992 cover , which required a thirteen @-@ hour sitting for Gair and her team of make @-@ up artists , was a commemoration of the August 1991 photo . Leibovitz could not decide where to shoot , and reserved two mobile homes , four hotel rooms and five houses .

In December 1993 , Moore was again on the cover of Vanity Fair , but this time she was dressed in two straps and a large red bow and was sitting on David Letterman 's lap while he was dressed up as Santa Claus .

Other celebrities have since posed nude or semi @-@ nude while in advanced pregnancy , including Christina Aguilera and Britney Spears whose billboard advertisements led to great controversy . Newsweek referred to the pose more than a decade later , and The New York Times coined " demiclad " for the nude pregnant handbra pose . Eventually , Vogue and Harper 's Bazaar included pregnant cover models , and Star included a pregnant foursome of Katie Holmes , Gwen Stefani , Gwyneth Paltrow and Angelina Jolie . They also had a " Bump Brigade " of Jennie Garth , Maggie Gyllenhaal and Sofia Coppola . Vogue had a very pregnant 37 @-@ year @-@ old Brooke Shields on the cover of its April 2003 issue . By the time Linda Evangelista appeared pregnant ( and clothed ) on the August 2006 cover of Vogue , pregnancy was not the emphasis of the story . However , even at the end of 2007 appearing bare @-@ bellied and pregnant on the cover of a magazine , as Aguilera did for Marie Claire , was still considered a derivative of Moore 's original . When Melania Trump appeared in American Vogue , she held in esteem as a model of maternity fashion by Anna Wintour . A commemoration of the photo was a self @-@ portrait by Leibovitz in which she appeared in profile and pregnant for her A Photographer 's Life exhibition . Myleene Klass posed for a similar nude pregnant photo for Glamour magazine in 2007 .

= = Legacy = =

The photo has had long cultural and social impact in the U.S. Many women feel that the rush of celebrities taking pregnant photos has made taking such photos glamorous for pregnant mothers . As the photos have become more common on magazine covers the business of documenting pregnancies photographically has boomed . Furthermore , the photo is critically acclaimed . Almost fifteen years after its publication the American Society of Magazine Editors listed it as the second best magazine cover of the last forty years .

= Big Girls Don 't Cry ( book ) =

Big Girls Don 't Cry : The Election that Changed Everything for American Women is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book written by American journalist Rebecca Traister and published by Free Press . The book discusses women 's contributions to and experiences of the 2008 United States presidential election . Traister places particular focus on four main political figures — Hillary Clinton , Sarah Palin , Michelle Obama and Elizabeth Edwards — as well as women in the media , including Katie Couric , Rachel Maddow , Tina Fey and Amy Poehler . She also describes her personal experience of the electoral campaign and her shift from supporting John Edwards to Hillary Clinton .

Traister began writing about the presidential election while working as a political columnist for Salon ; her coverage for Salon provided much of the book 's content . She aimed to write an account of the election from a feminist perspective , focusing on events that she felt were otherwise underreported in the media . The book was generally well received by critics .

= = Background = =

Rebecca Traister described the 2008 presidential election as " a completely gripping narrative " during which " everything in America was busted open " , but was disappointed by the way it was covered in the mainstream media . She felt that some " big stories " — such as Hillary Clinton becoming the first woman to win an American presidential primary — had been underreported , and that many misogynistic and racist remarks made by commentators had gone unnoticed . By writing the book , she wanted to defend the feminist perspective of the election against its Democrat and progressivist critics " who continue to write off concern with these issues " . Asked about what she intended for readers to [ take away from ] the book , Traister said :

I want those people who lived through the 2008 election — and in many cases suffered through it , on one end or the other — to think about the history that we all made and we all witnessed . I really want those of us who were pained by it or who were exhausted by it to understand the way that living through that election changed our country . Because I believe it did .

Traister chose the title Big Girls Don 't Cry when it was suggested by a friend , before she began writing the book ; she thought it was " the perfect ironic reference to Hillary [ Clinton ] ' s ( non- ) crying moment in New Hampshire " , as well as a reference to her own response of " gulp [ ing ] out sobs " when Clinton lost the Democratic primary . She said that , after interviewing women who described crying at various moments during the election , " I realized that the title was more prophetic than I knew " . Some of Traister 's political views expressed in the book contradict those she expressed when writing for Salon , such as her support for Clinton and her defense of Michelle Obama in the book ; throughout the book she describes the transformations of her opinions .

= = Content = =

Big Girls Don 't Cry is divided into twelve chapters , telling a roughly chronological recount of the 2008 election , interwoven with Traister 's own experiences and perspectives as well as analysis from other political commentators . She focuses on four key women involved in the election : Hillary Clinton , Sarah Palin , Michelle Obama and Elizabeth Edwards .

In 2008 Clinton , a Senator and candidate for the Democratic Party presidential nomination , became the first American woman to win a presidential primary . Traister discusses Clinton 's political campaign , which did not focus on her gender , and the misogynistic reactions she received from the media and political opponents . She argues that the Democratic Party 's lack of response to the sexism of Clinton 's opponents led a large number of liberal female voters to abandon the party , and blames Mark Penn for advising Clinton not to advertise herself as a feminist . Although she originally supported John Edwards ' candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination , she became a strong supporter of Clinton .

Palin was the Republican Party nominee for Vice President and then @-@ Governor of Alaska . Traister criticises Palin 's " faux feminism " , as she claimed to be a feminist despite running under a party whose policies did not align with feminist ideals , and claims that her strong conservatism led Clinton supporters to back Barack Obama rather than John McCain after Clinton 's withdrawal from the race . Despite this , Palin was celebrated by Republican women voters ; Traister argues that this inspired a wave of feminism which focused on political empowerment but neglected other values such as reproductive rights .

Traister also discusses the wives of men involved in politics : Michelle Obama , the wife of Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama , and Elizabeth Edwards , the wife of John Edwards , another candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination . Traister contrasts the Obamas ' relationship with that of Hillary and ex @-@ President Bill Clinton . She argues that Michelle Obama 's candidness led many women voters to feel they had more in common with her than Hillary Clinton . She compares Elizabeth Edwards ' public image to that of Michelle Obama and Hillary Clinton , and criticizes her for " enabl [ ing ] her husband 's deception " about his extramarital affair .

In addition to female political figures , Traister also discusses women in the media who played influential roles in the election coverage . These include Rachel Maddow , whose political commentary led to a surge in her popularity ; television journalist Katie Couric , who led a critical interview with Sarah Palin ; and Tina Fey and Amy Poehler , who parodied Palin and Clinton , respectively , in several Saturday Night Live skits .

The book is written from a feminist perspective ; Traister recounts her own experiences with the women 's liberation movement , identifying with neither second @-@ wave nor third @-@ wave feminism . She notes the various responses to the election and candidates from different generations of feminists , and argues that for older feminists the main priority was the election of a female President , while younger women were less inclined to automatically vote for a female candidate . She concludes that the 2008 election marked the year that " the women 's liberation movement found thrilling new life " .

= = Reception = =

Big Girls Don 't Cry was deemed a New York Times Notable Book of 2010 and the winner of the Ernesta Drinker Ballard Book Prize .

It also received positive reviews from critics . In a review for Foreign Affairs , Walter Russell Mead described Traister as " one of the most powerful voices in a new generation of American feminist writers " , while Liesl Schillinger of The New York Times called the book " a passionate , visionary and very personal account " of the 2008 election . Maureen Corrigan of NPR praised the " superb " book , and concluded that " Girls , these days , can not only run for president ; they can brilliantly analyze presidential campaigns , too . " The Washington Post critic Connie Schultz felt that at times Traister 's writing at times seemed to " alienate every female reader over 40 " , but wrote that the book was " in its best parts ... a raw and brave memoir " . A writer for Kirkus Reviews praised Traister 's arguments and summarized the book as " nuanced look at how the recent election shaped — and was shaped by — gender " . Lynda Obst wrote for The Atlantic that the book served as a satisfying explanation to " mystified " Obama supporters " what the hell all the crying was about " after Clinton conceded from the Democratic primary . Slate reviewer Hanna Rosin questioned the relevance of some chapters but overall concluded that " Traister can be clever , caustic , wickedly funny , and as cynical as the next blogger , but it 's always clear that in her heart she cares . "

= Sabre Wulf =

Sabre Wulf a 1984 action @-@ adventure game by Ultimate Play the Game and the first game of the Sabreman series . The player , as Sabreman , navigates a 2D jungle flip @-@ screen maze aiming to reconstruct an amulet and escape . The maze is divided into 256 edge @-@ to @-@ edge screens filled with colourful flora and enemies that spawn randomly . Ultimate released the game for the ZX Spectrum in 1984 at an above @-@ average price to combat piracy . The game 's premium packaging became a company standard . Ultimate , a developer known for its secrecy , had finished Sabre Wulf 's sequels in advance of its release , but withheld them for marketing purposes . They were swiftly released the same year . Ultimate hired outside developers to make Sabre Wulf ports for the BBC Micro , Commodore 64 , and Amstrad CPC platforms , and the game was subsequently included in multiple compilation releases , including the 2015 Ultimate and Rare retrospective Rare Replay .

Reviewers lauded the game 's graphics and found its gameplay similar to Ultimate 's previous release , Atic Atac , though preferred Sabre Wulf . Reviewers also noted the game 's difficulty . It was recommended in several gaming publications and won " Best Maze Game " in the 1984 Crash Reader Awards . Sabre Wulf was a financial success and reached the top of the format charts . It was listed in multiple lists of top Spectrum games . It introduced the Sabreman character , who has recurred throughout Ultimate and Rare intellectual properties , and the Sabreman game series .

= = Gameplay = =

The player , as the adventurer Sabreman , must fight their way through a 2D jungle and reconstruct an amulet in order to leave . After collecting four pieces of the ACG Amulet ( Ashby Computers & Graphics , the developer 's former name ) , the player can bypass the gatekeeper guarding the cave exit , which leads to the game 's sequel , Underwurlde . Sabre Wulf is presented as a flip @-@ screen maze with paths bordered by tropical flora . The player only views a single small and static area of the maze at any time . When the player character reaches the edge of the screen , the next section of the maze loads . There are 256 screens in the maze . The player does not receive any explicit guidance on how to play and is left to decipher the game 's objectives through trial and error . Sabre Wulf 's graphics fill the full screen with no interface , inventory , or damage indicators apart from a high score meter in the top corner . Sabreman can eat orchid power @-@ ups , which bloom for only a few seconds . He turns the colour of the orchid and receives one of five abilities : some are helpful , like invulnerability or faster walking speed , and others impair him , such as slower walking speed , or reversed controls . Sabreman also collects treasure and extra lives scattered throughout the maze .

The Sabre Wulf map is drawn in a 16 by 16 grid populated by attacking enemies and bordered by landforms . The player swings Sabreman 's sabre with the push of the joystick 's fire button to defeat enemies that spawn in random locations on @-@ screen . Enemies include spiders , scorpions , snakes , bats , indigenous people , sleeping hippos , and a fast wolf ( the titular Sabre Wulf ) . Some enemies , such as the hippos , flee when hit . The sword does not affect the wolf or cave guardians . An indestructible bushfire appears and pursues the player who idles for too long in the same screen . Apart from the jungle , the game 's settings include mountains and lakes .

The game begins with an electronic rendition of classical music composed by Bach . The Spectrum and Commodore 64 versions have an optional two @-@ player mode in which players take turns controlling Sabreman .

= = Development = =

Ultimate Play the Game , the developer of Sabre Wulf , was known for its secrecy , distance from game development circles , and reticence to reveal details about their development practices and upcoming games . Little is known about their process apart from that they used Sage IV computers . They also preferred to develop for the ZX Spectrum 's Z80 microprocessor and chose to outsource development for other platforms , such as those that ran 6502 microprocessors . After releasing Atic Atac at the end of 1983 , Ultimate went silent until it ran teaser advertisements for Sabre Wulf in April 1984 . ( The company rarely depicted actual gameplay in their advertisements . ) They had already prepared Knight Lore , the third game in the Sabreman series , before the character 's introduction in Sabre Wulf . Ultimate founders Tim and Chris Stamper withheld Knight Lore for about a year because they felt Sabre Wulf would not have sold as well once players saw the former 's graphical advancements . ( Knight Lore became known as a seminal work in British gaming history and an iconic game of the 1980s for its popularization of the isometric platformer format . )

Ultimate released Sabre Wulf for the ZX Spectrum in 1984 and the other Sabreman titles soon followed . Sabre Wulf was Ultimate 's first game to use what would become the company 's standard price and mysterious , unadorned packaging . Ultimate nearly doubled its usual retail price in what they saw as a " bold step " to combat piracy . They expected legal owners to be more protective over letting friends copy their more expensive copies . Ultimate had seen competitor prices slowly increasing and felt that their full price was fair for their time invested . The game retailed in a high @-@ quality , big cardboard box with a glossy instruction manual , which were both upgrades over regular game packaging . It became Ultimate 's standard packaging for new games . The company 's game packaging was nondescript and showed no screenshots of the in @-@ game world . Ultimate 's games did not display internal credits , and they hired outside developers to complete Sabre Wulf ports for other consoles . Paul Proctor wrote the BBC Micro conversion , and in 1985 , Greg Duddle wrote the Commodore 64 conversion , which was licensed under Firebird . Sabre Wulf later appeared in the 1985 compilation They Sold a Million , a collection of Spectrum games that had together sold a million units . When the compilation was released for the Amstrad CPC , Sabre Wulf was converted for the platform and eventually released in a standalone edition . Sabre Wulf also appeared alongside Underwurlde , its sequel , in a Commodore 64 pack , and in the August 2015 Xbox One compilation of 30 Ultimate and Rare titles , Rare Replay .

= = Reception = =

Reviewers appreciated the game 's graphics and found its gameplay similar to Ultimate 's previous game , Atic Atac — particularly in its opening sequence and maze format — though reviewers preferred Sabre Wulf . Critics also noted the game 's difficulty and above @-@ average pricing . Sabre Wulf was a selected recommendation in Crash ( July 1984 ) , Personal Computer Games ( August 1984 ) , and Popular Computing Weekly ( June 1984 ) . The game was named " Best Maze Game " in the 1984 Crash Readers Awards . Retro Gamer reported that Ultimate 's new pricing strategy was a success and that Sabre Wulf broke the company 's sales records and reached the top of the format charts , though Computer and Video Games ( CVG ) reported in December 1984 that Sabre Wulf had sold only 30 @,@ 000 copies — not as many as the company 's prior games . Eurogamer reported that 350 @,@ 000 units were sold in total .

Crash confirmed rumors that the game was similar to Atic Atac , but declared Sabre Wulf the better of the two , and predicted that they would have similar legacies . Crash wrote that their inability to intuit Sabreman 's current inventory or resistance to damage added to the game 's mystique , and that Ultimate was particularly skilled at not giving hints but leaving sufficient clues through the game 's design . Personal Computer Games found one such tip : that the indigenous enemies will play a sound when they align both horizontally and vertically with a piece of the amulet . In a similar experience , Popular Computing Weekly slowly learned to use rather than avoid the orchids . CVG described the game 's instructions as " cryptic " . Crash had high praise for the colourful and detailed graphics and animations , as well as the sound . One of their staff called it " a Software Masterpiece " . The magazine 's chief complaints were of a bug in two @-@ player mode and of the game 's high price , nearly double the average . They predicted that the cost may lead to more piracy . A year later , in 1985 , Crash repeated that Sabre Wulf was among the top games available for the Spectrum . They added that the game did not feel antiquated and that comparisons to Atic Atac at its launch were unfair , similar to calling any two text adventures identical . They received more mail in praise of Sabre Wulf in 1984 than for any other game .

CVG wrote that Sabre Wulf carried Ultimate 's momentum from Jetpac and Atic Atac . In their opinion , Sabre Wulf had the best graphics on the Spectrum , with graphical detail that surpassed what previous reviewers thought was possible . In describing the game 's difficulty , CVG mentioned the narrow window in which sword swings register as enemy hits . Their Commodore 64 review two years later approved of the port and said that the game remained a classic . They recommended drawing a map of the maze , without which it was easy to get lost . Personal Computer Games found that many of Sabre Wulf 's 256 screens were repeated from elsewhere in the game world . Sinclair User liked how the hippo enemies forced the player to vary their hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay style . They thought that the game 's price was too high and noted that while Sabre Wulf had some flicker issues , it altogether met Ultimate 's high quality benchmarks .

A retrospective review from Retro Gamer said that Sabre Wulf was " essentially an interactive maze " packed with colour and hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay . They likened the game 's colour choice and setting to what the magazine considered Ultimate 's best arcade game , Dingo ( 1983 ) . Retro Gamer disliked Sabreman 's inability to hit enemies above or below him . Eurogamer 's Peter Parrish found the game 's collision detection imprecise as well . In The Routledge Companion to Video Game Studies , Simon Niedenthal used Sabre Wulf as an example of games that maximized the limited colour palette of 8 @-@ bit computers . He described its colours as pure , with a glow like stained glass and a strong figure – ground contrast against the Spectrum 's black background .

= = Legacy = =

The Spectrum release was included in multiple lists of top games for the platform . Parrish ( Eurogamer ) wrote that the game was " much @-@ beloved " in a retrospective review . Sabre Wulf was the first of four titles in the Sabreman series for the ZX Spectrum . Retro Gamer wrote that the Sabreman character was memorable both in name and appearance , and fit the " 8 @-@ bit hero " archetype : an ordinary human with a hat and exaggerated nose . The last , unreleased game in the Spectrum Sabreman series , Mire Mare , was planned to have been similar to Sabre Wulf in gameplay . Rare , the successor to Ultimate , later released the side @-@ scrolling platformer Sabre Wulf for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 that had Sabreman enlist jungle animals to solve the Sabre Wulf 's puzzles . It was not received well by fans . Elements from the original Sabre Wulf appear in other games , including Rare 's Jet Force Gemini . Retro Gamer considered Sabreman 's recurrence to be proof that Rare was interested in the character and series .

= Fasci Siciliani =

The Fasci Siciliani [ ˈfaʃʃi sitʃiˈljani ] , short for Fasci Siciliani dei Lavoratori ( Sicilian Workers Leagues ) , were a popular movement of democratic and socialist inspiration , which arose in Sicily in the years between 1889 and 1894 . The Fasci gained the support of the poorest and most exploited classes of the island by channeling their frustration and discontent into a coherent programme based on the establishment of new rights . Consisting of a jumble of traditionalist sentiment , religiosity , and socialist consciousness , the movement reached its apex in the summer of 1893 , when new conditions were presented to the landowners and mine owners of Sicily concerning the renewal of share cropping and rental contracts .

Upon the rejection of these conditions , there was an outburst of strikes that rapidly spread throughout the island , and was marked by violent social conflict , almost rising to the point of insurrection . The leaders of the movement were not able to keep the situation from getting out of control . The proprietors and landowners asked the government to intervene , and Prime Minister Francesco Crispi declared a state of emergency in January 1894 , dissolving the organizations , arresting its leaders and restoring order through the use of extreme force . Some reforms followed , including workmen 's compensation and pension schemes . The suppression of the strikes also led to an increase in emigration .

= = Characteristics = =

The Fasci movement was made up of a federation of scores of associations that developed among farm workers , tenant farmers , and small sharecroppers as well as artisans , intellectuals , and industrial workers . The immediate demands of the movement were fair land rents , higher wages , lower local taxes and distribution of misappropriated common land . Between 1889 and 1893 some 170 Fasci were established in Sicily . According to some sources the movement reached a membership of more than 300 @,@ 000 by the end of 1893 . The Fasci constituted autonomous organizations with their own insignia ( red rosettes ) , uniforms and sometimes even musical bands , and their own local halls for reunions and congresses . They were called Fasci ( Fascio literally means bundle ) because everyone can break a single stick , but no one can break a bundle of sticks .

While many of the leaders were of socialist or anarchist leanings , few of their supporters were true revolutionaries . Nevertheless , the peasants who assembled into the Fasci were eager for social justice and convinced that a new world was about to be born . A crucifix hung beside the red flag in many of their meeting @-@ places , and portraits of the King beside those of the revolutionaries Garibaldi , Mazzini and Marx . Cheers for the King were often heard in their marches that almost resembled quasi @-@ religious processions . Many of the Fasci were part of the Italian Workers ' Party ( Partito dei Lavoratori Italiani , the initial name of the Italian Socialist Party ) that had been founded at a conference in Genoa on August 14 , 1892 .

The rural Fasci in particular were a curious phenomenon : both ancient and modern . They combined millenarian aspirations with urban intellectual leadership often in contact with workers ’ organizations and ideas in the more industrialized Northern Italy . According to the Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm , the Fasci were millenarian insofar as the socialism preached by the movement was seen by the Sicilian peasantry as a new religion , the true religion of Christ – betrayed by the priests , who were on the side of the rich – that foretold the dawn of a new world , without poverty , hunger and cold , in accordance with God ’ s will . The Fasci , which included many women , were encouraged by the messianic belief that the start of a new reign of justice was looming and the movement spread like an epidemic .

= = Foundation and rapid growth = =

The Fasci were the result of the revolt of the Sicilian peasants against the introduction of capitalist relationships into the rural economy aggravated by the world depression in agriculture of the 1880s . The agrarian crisis between 1888 and 1892 led to a steep decrease in wheat prices . The island ’ s main sources of wealth – wine , fruit and sulphur – suffered a heavy blow . The dominant landowning class channeled most of the economic burden on to the peasantry , in the form of higher rents and discriminatory local taxation . As social tension rose , a handful of young and hitherto quite unknown socialist intellectuals – many of them recent graduates of Palermo University – seized their opportunity . The movement grew under the first government of Prime minister Francesco Crispi ( 1887 @-@ 1891 ) and coincided with unpopular tax increases and ratification of a series of laws curtailing personal freedom . The Italian economy had been sliding into a deep recession since the late 1880s . New protective tariffs had been introduced in 1887 on agricultural and industrial goods , followed by a trade war with France , which badly damaged Italian commerce and affecting Italy ’ s agricultural exports , the only potentially dynamic economic sector of southern Italy . Many farmers suffered severely .

The first official Fascio was founded on May 1 ( Labour Day ) , 1891 , in Catania by Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida . ( An earlier Fascio was set up in Messina on March 18 , 1889 , but was dormant after its founder , Nicola Petrina , was arrested in July of that year and not released until 1892 . Another reason why the first Fascio of Messina – formed after the example of the Fasci operai [ Workers leagues ] constituted in Central and North Italy from 1871 – did not develop was that it brought together not individual workers but the workers ' associations of the city , which retained their independence , their status and economic orientation . ) Other leaders included Rosario Garibaldi Bosco in Palermo , Nicola Barbato in Piana dei Greci , Bernardino Verro in Corleone , and Lorenzo Panepinto in Santo Stefano Quisquina . While the ruling elite depicted the men of the Fasci as treasonous socialists , communists and anarchists seeking to overthrow the monarchy ; in fact many were devout Catholics and monarchists . The movement sometimes had a messianic nature , characterised by statements as " Jesus was a true socialist and wanted just what the Fasci were demanding . " Nicola Barbato was known as " the workers ' apostle . "

The keenest socialist among the Fasci leaders was Garibaldi Bosco . In August 1892 he attended the Socialist party ’ s congress at Genoa and on his return obediently purged his fascio of its anarchist and other non @-@ socialist members . His ideal of a united democratic front was shared by the father of Sicilian socialism , Napoleone Colajanni . The leader in Catania , De Felice , also maintained contact with leading anarchists like Amilcare Cipriani . On these and other important issues there was much friction between Catania and Palermo .

Crispi was replaced by Antonio Di Rudinì in February 1891 , who was succeeded by Giovanni Giolitti in May 1892 . On January 20 , 1893 , when peasants of Caltavuturo occupied communal land that they claimed was theirs , local authorities killed 13 and wounded 21 in the Caltavuturo massacre . Disturbances continued throughout the year . The Fasci started out as urban movements , animated by artisans , which evolved into a more popular and combative mass movement with the adherence of sulphur miners , and in a later stage with the involvement of peasants and sharecroppers . In the autumn of 1893 , labour conflicts in the cities and the mines came together with the protests and claims of the farmers . The movement reached its greatest breadth in the manifestations against taxes , involving the lowest tiers of the city and the countryside , becoming difficult , if not impossible , to control by its leaders .

= = Initial success = =

From its initial origins in Eastern Sicily , especially in Catania , the movement got its real impetus with the establishment of the Fascio of Palermo on June 29 , 1892 . The Leagues rapidly radiated over all Sicily . In the spring of 1893 the leaders of the movement decided to carry their propaganda to the peasants and miners of the countryside . Between March and October the number of fasci grew from 35 to 162 with more than 200 @,@ 000 members .

On May 21 – 22 , 1893 , a Congress was held in Palermo attended by 500 delegates from nearly 90 leagues and socialist circles . A Central Committee was elected , composed of nine members : Giacomo Montalto for the province of Trapani , Nicola Petrina for the province of Messina , Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida for the province of Catania , Luigi Leone for the province of Siracusa , Antonio Licata for the province Agrigento , Agostino Lo Piano Pomar for the province of Caltanissetta , Rosario Garibaldi Bosco , Nicola Barbato and Bernardino Verro for the province of Palermo . The Congress decided that all Leagues were obliged to join the Italian Workers ' Party ( Partito dei Lavoratori Italiani ) , the predecessor of the PSI .

In July 1893 a peasant conference at Corleone drafted model agrarian contracts for labourers , sharecroppers and tenants and presented them to the landowners . When those refused to negotiate , a strike against landowners and against state taxes broke out over a large part of western Sicily . The so @-@ called Patti di Corleone ( Corleone Covenants ) , are considered by historians to be the first trade union collective contract in capitalist Italy . In September the state authorities intervened and some of the landowners were persuaded to capitulate . Elsewhere the strike continued until November 1893 . Railwaymen of Catania and Palermo , the sulphur @-@ miners and many other workers followed their example winning higher wages or better working conditions .

In October 1893 , a congress of miners was held in Grotte in the Province of Agrigento which was attended by some 1 @,@ 500 people , including workers and small producers . The miners demanded that the minimum age to be raised to 14 years for those who worked in the sulfur mines , the decrease of working hours and setting a minimum wage . Small producers demanded measures to avoid exploitation by large owners . The minimum @-@ age measure was meant to improve the situation for the carusi , minors that worked in conditions of near @-@ slavery that sparked public outrage and inspired many complaints .

The successful struggle convinced the Sicilian ruling elite that the " upheaval " had to be stopped . They were seized by panic and some even demanded the closing of all schools to halt the spread of subversive doctrines . Prefects and frightened local councils bombarded Rome with requests for the immediate suppression of the Fasci . Despite the heavy pressure from the King , the army and conservative circles in Rome , however , Giolitti would neither treat strikes – which were not illegal – as a crime nor dissolve the Fasci nor authorise the use of firearms against popular demonstrations . His policy was “ to allow these economic struggles to resolve themselves through amelioration of the condition of the workers ” and not to interfere in the process .

= = Rising tensions = =

Nonetheless , Giolitti acknowledged the need to stifle the agitation . From May 1893 onwards , leaders of the Fasci were arrested occasionally and police and military reinforcements were sent to Sicily . In the autumn of 1893 the leadership lost control over the Fasci and the popular agitation got out of hand . Peasant squatters seized land , violent crowds demonstrated for work and against local misgovernment , tax offices were burnt down and clashes with the police grew more frequent and bloody . The violent social conflict almost rose to the point of insurrection . The proprietors and landowners asked the government to intervene .

However , his attitude could not be maintained . Landowners were infuriated by the unwillingness of the government to use force , while the peasants were annoyed by the unwillingness to redistribute land from the latifundia . Landowners matched the strike with a lockout , and many peasants , probably a majority in the strike centres , were left without tenancies when the planting season ended in mid @-@ December . In December 1893 the failure of the Giolitti government to restore public order gave rise to a general demand that Crispi should return to power . Giolitti had to resign on November 24 , 1893 , as a result of the Banca Romana scandal .

In addition to the unrest in Sicily , a wave of rioting spread through Italy in August 1893 , triggered by the killing of a number of migrant workers in the salt pans of Aigues Mortes in southern France escalated into a more generalized working @-@ class revolt supported by anarchists and violent riots in Rome and Naples . Italy seemed to be slipping to a revolution . By the time Crispi returned to power in December 1893 , Italy appeared to many to be on the brink of collapse . Crispi promised important measures of land reform for the near future . He was not blind to the misery and the need for social reform . Before 1891 he had been the patron of the Sicilian working @-@ class and many of their associations had been named after him . Colajanni , the chief architect of Giolitti ’ s fall by exposing the Banca Romana scandal , was first offered the Ministry of Agriculture , which he refused , then sent to Sicily on a mission of appeasement .

Crispi ’ s good intentions got lost in the outcry for strong measures . In the three weeks of uncertainty before the government was formed , the rapid spread of violence drove many local authorities to defy Giolitti ’ s ban on the use of firearms . In December 1893 , 92 peasants lost their lives in clashes with the police and army . Government building were burned as well as flour mills and bakeries that refused to lower their prices when taxes were lowered or abolished . Eleven people were killed on December 10 , 1893 , in Giardinello after a rally that asked for the abolition of taxes on food and disbandment of the local field guards ( guardie campestri ) . The protestors carried the portrait of the King taken from the municipality and burned tax files . On December 17 , 1893 , many people were wounded when troops fired on a manifestation in Monreale . Another 11 protestors were killed in Lercara Friddi on December 25 . On January 1 , 1894 , 20 people were killed and many wounded in Gibellina and Pietraperzia . On January 2 , there two dead in Belmonte Mezzagno and the next day 18 dead and many wounded in Marineo . Two days after , on January 5 , thirteen dead and many wounded closed the series in Santa Caterina .

The disorders were not the product of a revolutionary plot , but Crispi chose to believe otherwise . On the basis of dubious documents and reports , Crispi claimed that there was an organised conspiracy to separate Sicily from Italy ; the leaders of the Fasci conspired with the clerics and were financed by French gold , and war and invasion were looming .

= = Crackdown = =

On January 3 , 1894 , Crispi declared a state of siege throughout Sicily . Army reservists were recalled and General Roberto Morra di Lavriano was dispatched with 40 @,@ 000 troops . The old order was restored through the use of extreme force , including summary executions . The Fasci were outlawed , the army and the polices killed scores of protesters , and hundreds wounded . Thousands of militants , including all the leaders , were put in jail or sent into internal exile . Some 1 @,@ 000 persons were deported to the penal islands without trial . All working @-@ class societies and cooperatives were dissolved and freedom of the press , meeting and association was suspended . A solidarity revolt of anarchists and republicans in the Lunigiana was crushed as well . The government also seized the opportunity to ' revise ' the electoral registers . In Catania 5 @,@ 000 of the 9 @,@ 000 electors were struck off .

Exactly in the early days of January a meeting of the Central Committee of the Fasci took place in Palermo to discuss the position of the movement . Two sharply contrasting positions emerged . De Felice Giuffrida , known for his anarchist tendencies , supported the need to take advantage of the situation of unrest to provoke a revolution on the island . However , the majority took an opposite view , arguing the need to proceed peacefully . A revolt was not only inappropriate , but it would be detrimental to the movement . The meeting condemned the violent incidents in various parts of the island , and launched an appeal to stay calm and not to retaliate . In the end De Felice Giuffrida accepted the position of the majority . But the die was cast for the authorities to arrest De Felice , Montalto , Petrina , and others . Garibaldi Bosco , Barbato and Verro were arrested on board the steamship Bagnara that was about to leave for Tunis .

On February 28 , 1894 Crispi presented the " evidence " for a widespread conspiracy in parliament : the so @-@ called " International Treaty of Bisacquino " , signed by the French Government , the Czar of Russia , Giuseppe De Felice , the anarchists and the Vatican , with the goal to detach Sicily from the rest of the country and put it under a Franco @-@ Russian protectorate . The Radical deputy Felice Cavallotti ridiculed the conspiracy of Crispi , poking fun at " the famous treaty between the Emperor of Russia , the President of the French Republic , and Mr De Felice " . The so @-@ called " Treaty of Bisacquino " was so named not because it was signed in the Sicilian town , but because it had been invented by the Director of Public Safety of Bisacquino , the Neapolitan Sessi .

= = Trial in Palermo = =

The trials against the central committee of the Fasci that took place in Palermo , in April and May 1894 , were the final blow to the movement . In spite of an eloquent defence , which turned the Court into a political platform and thrilled every socialist in the country , they were condemned to heavy sentences of imprisonment . On May 30 , 1894 , the leaders of the movement received their sentence : Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida to 18 years and Rosario Bosco , Nicola Barbato and Bernardino Verro to 12 years in jail .

“ In front of you , ” Barbato told the judges , “ we provided the documents and evidence of our innocence . My friends thought it necessary to support their defence legally ; I will not do so . Not because I have no confidence in you , but it is the law that does not concern me . So I do not defend myself . You have to sentence : we are the elements that destroy your sacred institutions . You have to sentence : it is logical , human . I will always pay tribute to your loyalty . But we say to our friends outside : do not ask for pardon , do not ask for amnesty . Socialist civilization should not begin with an act of cowardice . We demand a condemnation , we do not ask for mercy . Martyrs are more useful to the holy cause than any propaganda . Condemn us ! ”

The heavy sentence aroused strong reactions in Italy and in the United States . In Palermo a group of students went to the Teatro Bellini and asked the orchestra to perform the hymn of Garibaldi . And the theatre applauded . In March 1896 , after Crispi had to resign due to the humiliating defeat of the Italian army at Battle of Adwa in Ethiopia during First Italo @-@ Ethiopian War , the new government under Prime minister Antonio Di Rudinì recognized the excessive brutality of the repression . Many Fasci members were pardoned and released from jail . Di Rudinì made it clear though that a reorganization of the Fasci would not be tolerated . After their release , De Felice , Barbato and Bosco were met by a large crowd of supporters in Rome , who released the horses form their carriage and dragged them to the hotel , cheering for socialism and denouncing Crispi .

= = Aftermath = =

The brutal repression backfired to some extent . The Fasci leaders used the military tribunals to make impassioned and well @-@ reported speeches in their defence . The tribunals were too repressive and revolted the Liberal consciences of many Northern Italians . In an attempt to regain his former ' left wing ' , Crispi introduced a bill in July 1894 to take over large estates and uncultivated land . The idea was to rent out the land on long leases in medium @-@ sized holdings and leaseholders would be given reduced credit and tax concessions . While the bill failed to convince the Radicals and democrats of Crispi 's good intentions , it angered the Sicilian landowners . After the suppression of the Fasci those were now unwilling to make any concessions . Under the leadership of Di Rudiní , they battled against the bill . When Crispi fell from power after Adwa in March 1896 , their proponent Di Rudiní became Prime Minister and the Sicilian landowners were safe .

Nevertheless , the revolt inspired social reforms . In 1898 two measures of social legislation were passed by the minister of the treasury of Di Rudini ’ s cabinet , Luigi Luzzatti . The industrial workmen ’ s compensation scheme from 1883 was made obligatory with the employer bearing all costs ; and a voluntary fund for contributory disability and old age pensions was created .

Many former adherents of the Fasci left Sicily . Life had grown hard and employment difficult to find because of their involvement with the movement . For those in Sicily who wanted to change their life for the better in those days , there were only two alternatives : rebel or emigrate . After the failure of the rebellion many peasants had no choice but to vote with their feet and opted for emigration . Others remained , and a year later , in 1895 , protests against unjust taxes and about the issue of communal land resumed in many towns in Sicily . The disbandment of troop had to be postponed .

According to Hobsbawm , the Fasci were a prime example of primitive agrarian movement that became modern by aligning itself with socialism and communism . Many of its leaders continued in the Socialist Party and continued the struggle for land rights and land reform once they were released . Despite the 1894 defeat , permanent movements were set up in some areas of Sicily using modern socialist models of organisation .

With the dissolution of the Fasci , the unrest on Sicily did not subside . In January 1898 , peasants demanding work and bread ransacked the town hall in Siculiana . In the fall of 1901 , Sicilian peasants – following the example of numerous agrarian strikes that were affecting the whole of Italy – again set off a wave of agrarian unrest , conscious of the fact that in a way they resumed " the march abruptly interrupted in 1894 by the repression of the Fasci . " Just as the Fasci movement , one of the main goals of the 1901 strikes and was a revision of the land leases to undermine the economic power of the gabellotti . After the First World War the communist movement In Sicily built on the incipient organisational structures of the Fasci , such as during the Biennio Rosso . The Fasci inspired social struggle in Sicily well into the 1950s .

= = The role of women = =

The role of women in the Fasci siciliani was substantial , but is regularly overlooked in historical accounts . Women were often at the forefront of demonstrations and strikes , taking the word in meetings and conferences . During municipal elections they made sure that men were going to vote ( women did not have the right to vote at the time ) . They patrolled the taverns to prevent the men from betraying the duty of militancy with bottles of wine . They also took care of many organizational aspects and were particularly active in proselytizing for the movement , decorating the stage of the rallies , preparing ceremonies such as the inauguration opening of the flag of the Fasci , and welcoming the leaders who came to the towns with flowers .

Women were among the most ardent . In some municipalities the women organized themselves into women 's sections and in others even in exclusively female Fasci . The strongest and most numerous presence of women was in the Fascio of Piana degli Albanesi , where over a thousand of the 3 @,@ 500 members were women in a town of 9 @,@ 000 inhabitants . For the Fasci the women abandoned the Church , but not the religious sentiment , to protest against the priests , who had tried to frighten them and isolate them with the threat of excommunication . In Piana the women organised a boycott of annual religious procession in protest of the priest ’ s opposition to the movement in 1893 .

At the congress in Palermo in May 1893 where the union of all the Fasci in Sicily was decided , Maria Cammarata , of the Fascio of Piana , urged the audience to ensure the registration of women . The presence and political sophistication of the female representatives at the congress surprised the editor of the Giornale di Sicilia : " I could not believe it myself . They spoke loudly and clearly , with ease and astonishing courage . " One of the most prominent women was Marietta De Felice Giuffrida , the daughter of Giuseppe de Felice Giuffrida – one of the founders of the movement . Only 14 years old , she accompanied her father throughout Sicily to help him setting up Fasci in the interior . She was " extraordinarily animated by the spirit of socialism , who spoke to the people with a fervour of a missionary , and because of her sex and age , she commanded the fascination of the masses . "

The authorities watched the Fasci closely and in a report to the government in Rome noticed that the female Fasci in Piana , Belmonte Mezzagno and San Giuseppe Jato should be considered as dangerous . The women had developed " highly successful propaganda activities and revolutionary agendas , through which they exercised considerable influence on the other fasci in the region . "

= = Mafia involvement = =

Some historians emphasize that the leagues were engaged in class struggle against a coalition of landowners and mafiosi and ignore evidence of strategic alliances between the Fasci and the Mafia . The leagues were not only led by socialists and anarchists ; some were run by local gentry and mafiosi . The Mafia bosses Vito Cascioferro and Nunzio Giaimo led the Fasci in Bisacquino in alliance with Verro . The Mafia was sometimes needed to enforce flying pickets with credible threats of violence and to make the strike costly to landowners by destroying their property .

In order to give the strike teeth and to protect himself from harm , Verro became a member of a Mafia group in Corleone , the Fratuzzi ( Little Brothers ) . However , during the great strike of the Fasci in September 1893 , the Fratuzzi mobilized to boycott it , providing the necessary manpower to work on the lands that the peasants refused to cultivate . Since then Verro broke away from the mafiosi , and – according to police reports – became their most bitter enemy . He was killed by the Mafia in 1915 when he was the mayor of Corleone .

= = In literature and film = =

Luigi Pirandello 's 1913 novel I vecchi e i giovani ( The Old and the Young ) retraces the history of the failure and repression of the Fasci Siciliani in the period from 1893 @-@ 94 . Although Pirandello was not an active member of this movement , he had close ties of friendship with some of its leading ideologists : Rosario Garibaldi Bosco , Enrico La Loggia , Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida and Francesco De Luca .

The film Il giorno di San Sebastiano ( Saint Sebastian 's Day ) ( 1993 ) , directed by Pasquale Scimeca , is based on the Caltavuturo massacre on January 20 , 1893 , when during the celebration of Saint Sebastian , a firing squad killed 15 peasants who claimed their right to state @-@ owned land . It won a Golden Globe and was presented at the Venice film festival . The play , a monologue depicting a peasant woman whose husband was killed in the events at Caltavuturo , was written by Rosario Garibaldi Bosco and first performed on February 2 , 1893 , in Palermo to raise money for the victims .

= 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( United States ) =

The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was a Ranger light infantry company of the United States Army active during the Korean War . As a small special forces unit , it specialized in irregular warfare .

Four Airborne Ranger Companies were formed in the fall of 1950 . They were trained and graduated on November 15 . By the end of 1950 , the 1st , 2nd , and 4th Companies had deployed early for combat in Korea . The 3rd Ranger Company had been drawn upon heavily to replace training losses of the deploying companies . It received 80 trainees and completed a second cycle of Ranger training at the Ranger Training Center at Fort Benning , Georgia . The company deployed to South Korea in March 1951 and was assigned to the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division for four months , where it was used as a reconnaissance and scouting unit , probing North Korean People 's Volunteer Army positions . The company is known for its " Battle of Bloody Ridge " on 11 April where , on its first mission , it was able to push back the opposing force . The company later supported the 3rd Infantry Division at the Battle of the Imjin River .

Later in the summer , the company was used as a stealth " target acquisition " force , infiltrating Chinese positions and spotting concentrations of troops and equipment for artillery attack . The company was deactivated on 1 August 1951 , and was merged with the U.S. 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team alongside all other Ranger units .

= = Origins = =

With the 25 June 1950 outbreak of the Korean War , the North Korean People 's Army had invaded the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) with 90 @,@ 000 well @-@ trained and equipped troops who had easily overrun the smaller and more poorly equipped Republic of Korea Army . The United States ( U.S. ) and United Nations ( UN ) began an intervention campaign to prevent South Korea from collapsing . The U.S. troops engaged the North Koreans first at the Battle of Osan , being badly defeated on 5 July by the better @-@ trained North Koreans . From then on , the U.S. and UN saw a steady stream of defeats until they had been pushed back to the tip of the peninsula , into a 140 @-@ mile ( 230 km ) -long fortification dubbed Pusan Perimeter by August . At the same time , North Korean agents began to infiltrate behind UN lines and attack military targets and cities .

UN units , spread out along the Pusan Perimeter , were having a difficult time repelling these units as they were untrained in combating guerrilla warfare . North Korean special forces units such as the NK 766th Independent Infantry Regiment had defeated ROK troops and used irregular warfare tactics effectively , prompting Army Chief of Staff General J. Lawton Collins to order the creation of an elite force which could " infiltrate through enemy lines and attack command posts , artillery , tank parks , and key communications centers or facilities . " All U.S. Army Ranger units had been disbanded after World War II because they required time @-@ consuming training , specialization , and expensive equipment .

With the defeat of the NK 766th Regiment at the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong , and the strength of U.S. infantry units in question , U.S. commanders felt recreating Ranger units was essential . In early August , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter was beginning , the Eighth United States Army , in command of all US forces in Korea , ordered Lieutenant Colonel John H. McGee , the head of its G @-@ 3 Operations miscellaneous division , to create a new experimental Army Ranger unit , the Eighth Army Ranger Company . In the meantime , the Ranger Training Center was established at Fort Benning , Georgia .

= = = Organization = = =

With the successful development of the Eighth Army Ranger Company as a " test " unit for the United States Army to bring back Army Ranger units , additional Ranger companies were ordered . The companies were small light infantry special forces units which specialized in infiltration and irregular warfare .

The new 3rd Army Ranger Infantry Company was formulated based on the Table of Organization and Equipment documents of Ranger units in World War II , all of which had been deactivated . The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company was organized into three platoons . A headquarters element of five men oversaw the platoons . However , due to lack of battalion support for clerical , transportation , supply and mess kitchen support , 3rd company had to acquire the personnel , vehicles , and other equipment needed to support their operations . This resulted in the involvement of considerably more highly trained personnel than the five called for by the TOE . Each platoon had three squads of ten men each , with a platoon sergeant and assistant platoon sergeant ( a.k.a platoon guide ) . Each squad had two fireteams of five men each and one man in each fireteam carried a M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle . The BAR was the largest weapon in the platoon . The 60mm M2 mortars , the 57mm recoilless rifles , and the M20 Super Bazookas were carried on the company M35 2 ½ ton cargo truck but seldom used . The company was authorized two vehicles ; an M38 Jeep and an M35 2 ½ ton cargo truck . The company was more heavily armed than the Eighth Army Ranger Company but less in strength and fire power than standard infantry companies . Like the other numbered Ranger companies , its organization called for five officers and 107 enlisted men in three platoons .

The troops for the Ranger company were to be Airborne qualified , so the Ranger Training Center heavily recruited troops from the 82nd Airborne Division and 11th Airborne Division who had already completed United States Army Airborne School . In spite of this , only one Ranger operation in the conflict ever required an airborne landing . At the first Airborne Ranger graduation in November 1950 , each Ranger was given a black and gold Ranger Tab as a shoulder sleeve insignia . A few days later , each Ranger was issued a blue and white tab and instructed to sew it above the Ranger Tab . The Airborne Ranger Companies then in Korea were deactivated on August 1 , 1951 . They were merged into the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team to bring them back up to strength with airborne @-@ qualified combat @-@ experienced replacements . The 187th had been moved to Kyushu , Japan ’ s southern island to take on a ( then Top Secret ) mission to save the UN negotiators at Kaesong , North Korea . All of the Ranger officers and top NCO ’ s met in a mess hall at Camp Chickamauga , Beppu , Kyushu , Japan . Some of the senior NCOs had been WWII Rangers . At this meeting , they designed a scroll @-@ type patch similar to the WWII Ranger patches . In the center , was Ranger on top and Airborne underneath . On the left was the company number . On the right was “ Co . ” . At a later date , back in the states , more patches were made with Airborne on top and Ranger underneath .

= = History = =

= = = Formation and training = = =

Of a pool of 5 @,@ 000 applicants , the Ranger Training School selected 22 officers and 314 enlisted men for the first three Ranger companies on 2 October , which were entirely white . A fourth , all African @-@ American company was organized several days later . The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company ( Airborne ) was organized on 9 October 1950 , assuming the lineage of A Company of the 3rd Ranger Battalion . It had an initial strength of 135 enlisted men and five officers . The unit was formally activated on 25 October 1950 at Fort Benning . It was placed under command of Captain Jesse Tidwell and Bob Channon , who would be later promoted to Captain and in December , 1950 , to executive officer .

The Rangers trained extensively in reconnaissance , long @-@ range patrols , setting up roadblocks , land navigation , camouflage , concealment , and adjusting indirect fire . They undertook frequent live fire exercises , many at night , simulating raids , ambushes and infiltrations . The Rangers trained 60 hours per week and ran 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) each day and frequently held 20 miles ( 32 km ) speed marches , which were considered traditions for Ranger training from World War II . The training for the numbered companies included much of the program used by second lieutenant Ralph Puckett to train the Eighth Army Ranger Company . In spite of a 30 percent dropout rate , most of the men completed the course and graduated 15 November 1950 .

While the 1st , 2nd and 4th Ranger Company each embarked for Korea shortly after their training was complete , the 3rd Ranger Company was retained at Fort Benning , to train the next cycle of Rangers along with the 5th , 6th , 7th and 8th Ranger Company . After providing fillers to 1st and 4th companies to cover their training losses , the 3rd had 40 men left . In mid @-@ December , they took an additional 80 men from 7th Company and completed a second cycle of Ranger training . This proved beneficial to the 3rd Company , as it was given cold @-@ weather training alongside the 5th and 8th companies at Fort Carson , Colorado . After the first training cycle was complete ; the Ranger units already in Korea had not received this training and were thus unprepared for the Korean winter . The 3rd Company also received additional training which better prepared it for combat , including tactics of the People 's Volunteer Army , which the other companies had learned in battle and tracer designation of targets during night attacks . They also received 57mm M18 Recoilless Rifles , however , these were kept on the cargo truck due to the necessity to break up a rifle team to man a crew @-@ served weapon , which didn 't happen . The entire company was trained to be their own forward observers for artillery . In March 1951 , the 3rd , 5th , and 8th Companies sailed for Korea , a trip which was fraught with frequent discipline problems as the Rangers continuously got into fights with U.S. Marines on board the troopship while en route . After spending one night in Kobe , Japan , the next morning they sailed for Pusan , South Korea .

= = = Bloody Nose Ridge = = =

The Rangers arrived in Korea on 24 March . They disembarked from the Army Transport Ship at Pusan . After spending a night or two there , all three companies continued on to Inchon on an LST Landing Ship , Tank , arriving at Inchon on 31 March . There , 3rd Airborne Ranger Company separated from its sister companies and was attached to the US 3rd Infantry Division near the Imjin River , where the division was engaged in an intense battle with Chinese forces , attempting to push them further north .

The 3rd Ranger Company entered action on 11 April , part of a tank @-@ infantry task force conducting aggressive reconnaissance in a wide valley near the river . Encountering a village , the 3rd Platoon cleared the village and killed two Chinese stragglers . After the lead elements of the tank company and the 3rd Platoon had taken the Kantongyon village , the tank company commander wanted to move his company west into the center of the valley before continuing north . Captain and now Executive Officer , Bob Channon was near the rear of the company column . CO , Jess Tidwell , riding with the tank Co , called Channon on the radio and instructed him to come up and take control of the 1st and 2nd Platoons . By the time Channon reached the two platoons , they were crossing over two small hills just north of Kantongyon . As they crossed over one of the hills , Channon and his radio operator were wounded by Chinese mortar rounds . Channon took the radio from Walker , who was now incapacitated , and joined the two platoons at the bottom of the hill . Channon then called Jess Tidwell for instructions , who responded , “ move out when the tanks move out . ” Two tanks had passed through a gap in the hills and were in front of them . Soon , the two tanks moved out at high speed to join their company in the center of the valley . As the Rangers started to move forward , toward the nose of a ridge from which the fire was coming about 700 @-@ 800 yards ahead , they began taking casualties from machine gun and rifle fire . About 100 yards out from the ridge , they received a heavy mortar barrage , resulting in a number of them being wounded . Channon also received a couple of burp gun rounds to his lower left leg . Shortly after , a couple of light tanks arrived . Pete Hamilton ( 1st Plt Ldr ) and Channon crawled up on the tanks , bore @-@ sighted the guns on the machine guns and blew them away . About 30 yards out from a Chinese trench at the base of the ridge nose , they received a heavy volley of grenades . Abandoning protocol ( once you start a charge , you are not supposed to hit the ground ) , Channon , knowing that he ’ d have no trouble getting his Rangers up again , had them hit the ground . When they got up , the Rangers took the ridge nose in a bayonet and grenade fight . When their position was secure , Platoon Sergeant Barber reported that they only had eight Rangers capable of continuing on . Pete Hamilton had been too seriously wounded to continue . Channon called Tidwell for instructions and was instructed to join the tanks and the 3rd Platoon in the center of the valley . The 2nd Platoon had been supporting the 1st Platoon with enfilade fire on the hill from their left flank . Channon put the 2nd Platoon in the lead , followed by the remnant of the 1st Platoon . The tanks and the 3rd Platoon had moved up the center of the wide valley and were more than a thousand yards to the northwest . Fortunately , after about 300 yards of sniper fire from higher on the ridge to their right , they were able to gain cover from a 3 @-@ 4 foot field dyke , and then joined the 3rd Platoon in the center of the valley . Channon moved the company up around the tanks on a small hill ahead . The tank company commander then moved the tanks up to the final objective for the day about 300 @-@ 400 yards ahead . Jess Tildwell was with him , so Channon brought the company up to that small hill and got it organized . Bob Scully , Channon 's third radio operator for the day , was wounded when a mortar round hit . Jess Tildwell had Channon get on a tank with other wounded for the trip back to clearing station . On the way back Channon noticed that there was more than a two thousand yard gap before they saw any fighting elements . So before continuing on , he had a jeep take him to the tank battalion CP . He strongly suggested the gap be closed before dark , which was done and 3rd Company was replaced on line . In addition to those wounded who were able to continue on , four Rangers were killed along with 25 wounded and evacuated in this first engagement .

The company then advanced up the valley under sniper and artillery fire until it located and destroyed a Chinese communications and supply center at the end , before returning to 3rd Infantry Division lines . In all , they had killed over 100 Chinese in this fight , and the division commanders considered the mission a success in spite of the high casualty count . In this action , the Rangers adopted a new motto , " Die Bastard , die ! " [ 1 ] They also picked up the nickname “ Cold Steel Third ” , when division commander Major General Seoul , who was observing the action with other senior officers , was heard to say , “ There go my Rangers . They like that cold steel . ”

= = = Imjin River missions = = =

Despite suffering over 50 percent casualties by this time and with few reinforcements , 3rd Ranger Company remained on the line , and was used as a reconnaissance element for the division . As the 3rd Infantry Division advanced , pressing gains from the Chinese , the company was used to guard a vital bridge over the Hantan River . It then massed with several combat engineers and other division elements to form Task Force Rogers . The task force then probed north searching for Chinese concentrations , but did not encounter any Chinese troops .

On 19 April , the Chinese conducted a counteroffensive in the 3rd Infantry Division sector , first striking to the east , followed by a feint that struck near the Rangers ' position . The task force was assigned to rescue a group of five 3rd Division tanks that had been disabled 8 miles ( 13 km ) inside Chinese territory . Advancing , they suppressed a Chinese ambush before the Chinese could attack , and advanced under mortar attack and took the hills surrounding the tanks . They then returned the stranded tanks to UN lines at a cost of two wounded .

On 22 April , the Rangers , tanks and engineers conducted another probe of the Chinese positions , to ensure they could not launch a surprise attack on nearby Republic of Korea Army formations . Encountering two Chinese companies dug in at a hill with one route of attack , Tidwell ordered a surprise attack on the hill , which was successful in pushing Chinese forces off the outlying fortifications .

It then moved to reinforce the British 29th Infantry Brigade , which was cut off on Hill 235 after ROK troops folded under attack . After two days of intense fighting and foot marching , the Rangers moved to relieve the British troops , despite itself being at only 67 percent strength . Encountering heavy resistance , they were initially unable to break through Chinese formations to relieve the British .

Chinese forces counterattacked , destroying a 3rd Infantry Division tank column sent to assist the Rangers and attacking the 3rd Ranger Company from three sides , as they dug into a hill . Though the Rangers eventually were forced to withdraw , the defense of the Rangers , the US 3rd Division and the British 29th Brigade had broken the momentum of the Chinese offensive .

= = = Target acquisition unit = = =

The 3rd Infantry Division then moved to the offensive , in early May 1951 they were used to scout for Chinese concentrations and then call in artillery to destroy them . These actions have been viewed by historians as one of few instances where Rangers in Korea were effectively employed , used as a stealthy infiltration force for terrain too difficult for conventional units .

On 11 May , with Chinese forces slackening their offensive , 3rd Ranger Company was recalled to Kimpo Airfield for parachute proficiency training , above the objections of the 3rd Infantry Division commanders who considered the company invaluable . The company spent several weeks in division reserve , and undertook various missions such as convoy security and guarding command posts , as well as surveillance and visiting patrols behind the front lines . In one of these rearguard actions , the Rangers evacuated a rundown village only to have one member of the unit , Corporal Dave Rauls , captured by three Chinese infiltrators .

By 17 June , the company was returned to the front and operated again as a target acquisition unit . Paired with 3rd Infantry Division 's reconnaissance company , an artillery battery and a forward air control party , they became known as " Task Force Ferret . " Positioned 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) ahead of the main division positions , the unit was also placed to warn the rest of the lines should the Chinese attack . By this time , however , the front lines in the battle had begun to largely stabilize , and as both armies fortified stationary positions , the Rangers infiltration abilities became unusable .

= = = Final mission and disbandment = = =

In July , the division was holding on the " Iron Triangle , " strategically important and defensible ground . In an attempt to strengthen its forces , the 3rd Infantry Division evacuated hills 682 and 717 at the southern base of the triangle , positioning the Rangers to appear as if they were still manned the hills . After eight days of patrols , Tidwell ordered an aggressive patrol to strike Chinese positions . Over three nights , they ambushed four Chinese patrols , causing several casualties and suffering few of their own .

On 10 July , the U.S. Army ordered the deactivation of all of its Ranger companies . The Army noted that the Ranger companies were only an exercise directed by The Pentagon which was complete . The 3rd Ranger Company was deactivated on 1 August 1951 in Korea . Like many of the other Ranger units , most of the Ranger veterans were folded into the 187th Airborne Regimental Combat Team , where their airborne skills could be used . Still , Operation Tomahawk was the last airborne jump of the war .

= = Awards and decorations = =

The 3rd Ranger Infantry Company was awarded three campaign streamers and two unit citations for its service in the Korean War . In 1953 , the unit was again designated A Company of the 3rd Battalion , 75th Ranger Regiment , that unit carries on the 3rd Ranger Company 's lineage .

= Varagavank =

Varagavank ( Armenian : Վարագավանք , " Monastery of Varag " ; Turkish : Yedi Kilise , " Seven Churches " ) was an Armenian monastery on the slopes of Mount Varag ( Erek Dağı ) , 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) southeast of the city of Van , in eastern Turkey .

The monastery was founded in the early 11th century by Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes , the Armenian King of Vaspurakan , on a preexisting religious site . Initially serving as the necropolis of the Artsruni kings , it eventually became the seat of the archbishop of the Armenian Church in Van . The monastery has been described as one of the great monastic centers of the Armenian church by Ara Sarafian and the richest and most celebrated monastery of the Lake Van area by Robert H. Hewsen .

During the Armenian Genocide , in April – May 1915 , the Turkish army attacked , burned , and destroyed much of the monastery . Much of it was destroyed in the 1960s , although good sections are barely extant .

= = History = =

= = = Origins = = =

According to tradition , in the late 3rd century St. Rhipsime hid the remnant of the True Cross she wore on her neck at the site of the monastery . In 653 , when the location was discovered , Catholicos Nerses III the Builder built the Church of Surb Nshan ( Holy Seal ) . It is described by Robert H. Hewsen as " a simple hermitage " . Catholicos Nerses also established the Feast of the Holy Cross of Varag ( Վարագա սուրբ խաչի տոն ) , celebrated by the Armenian Apostolic Church on the Sunday nearest to September 28 , always two weeks after the Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross .

Queen Khushush , the daughter of Armenian King Gagik I and spouse of Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes , the future Artsruni King of Vaspurakan , built a church at the site in 981 dedicated to the Holy Wisdom ( Surb Sopi ) . In the late medieval period it was converted into a castle and was known as Berdavor ( " berd " means " fortress " in Armenian ) . The Church of Surb Hovhannes ( Saint John ) was built to the north in the 10th century .

= = = Foundation and medieval period = = =

The monastery itself was founded by Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes early in his reign ( 1003 – 24 ) to house a relic of the True Cross that had been kept on the site since Rhipsime . In 1021 , when Vaspurakan fell to Byzantine rule , Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes took the relic to Sebastia , where the following year his son Atom founded the Surb Nshan Monastery . In 1025 , following his death , Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes was buried at Varagavank and the True Cross was returned to the monastery . Fearing an attack by Muslims , Varagavank Father Ghukas took the True Cross in 1237 to the Tavush region of northeastern Armenia . There he settled in the Anapat monastery , which was renamed Nor Varagavank ( " New Varagavank " ) . In 1318 the Mongols invaded the region and ransacked the monastery . All the churches were destroyed except St. Hovhannes , which had an iron door and was where the monks hid . Between 1320 and the 1350s the monastery was completely restored .

= = = Modern period = = =

Persian Shah Tahmasp I ransacked the monastery in 1534 . In 1648 along with other buildings in the region , Varagavank was destroyed by an earthquake . Its restoration began immediately thereafter by monastery father Kirakos who found financial support among the wealthy merchants in Van . According to the 17th @-@ century historian Arakel of Tabriz four churches were restored and renovated .

The architect Tiratur built a square @-@ planned gavit ( narthex ) west of Church of Surb Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) in 1648 . It functioned as a church during the 19th century , called Surb Gevorg . To the west of the narthex was a 17th @-@ century three @-@ arched open @-@ air porch ; to the north was Church of Surb Khach ( Holy Cross ) ; while to the south was the 17th @-@ century Church of Surb Sion . Urartian cuneiform inscriptions were used as lintels on their western entrances .

Suleyman , the prince of Hoşap Castle , invaded the monastery in 1651 , looting it of its Holy Cross , manuscripts and treasures . The cross was later repurchased and it was added to the Tiramayr Church of Van in 1655 . The monastery declined in the late 17th century , and in 1679 many of its treasures were sold due to economic difficulties . Archbishop Bardughimeos Shushanetsi renovated the monastery in 1724 .

In 1779 father Baghdasar vardapet decorated the narthex walls with frescoes of King Abgar , Empire Theodosius , Saint Gayane , Saint Rhipsime , Khosrovidukht , and Gabriel . According to Murad Hasratyan , the unknown painter had fused together the styles of Armenian , Persian , and Western European art .

= = = = 19th century = = = =

A wall was built around the monastery in 1803 , and fourteen years later , the Church of Surb Khach ( Holy Cross ) was completely renovated and converted into a depository of manuscripts by archbishop Galust . In 1832 Tamur pasha of Van robbed the monastery 's treasures and strangled the father Mktrich vardapet Gaghatatsi to death . In 1849 Gabriel vardapet Shiroyan restored the Church of Sion , which had been destroyed by an earthquake , and converted it into a wheat warehouse .

Mkrtich Khrimian , the future head of the Armenian Church , became father of Varagavank in 1857 and made the monastery effectively independent and subordinate only to the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople . He founded a printing house and began publishing Artsiv Vaspurakani ( " The Eagle of Vaspurakan " ) , the first newspaper in historical Armenia , which was published between 1858 and 1864 . He also established a modern school . The school taught subjects such as theology , music , grammar , geography , Armenian studies and history ; the prominent novelist Raffi was briefly one of the teachers . The school produced its first graduates in 1862 .

During the Hamidian massacres of 1896 the monastery was sacked and robbed , while some teachers and students were killed . According to a contemporary report by an American at Van , " Varak , the most famous and historic monastery in all this [ Van ] region , which has weathered the storms of centuries is almost certain to go [ on fire ] . "

= = = Sacking and abandonment = = =

Early in 1915 — during the early stages of the Armenian Genocide — Turkish government forces laid siege to Van , while the local Armenians organized self @-@ defense in what became the most notable resistance to the Turkish campaign of deportations and massacres . During most of April , the monastery was held by Armenians , but was captured and burnt by the Turks some time in late April and early May . The date of the burning of the monastery is contested . An April 27 , 1915 a message sent to " To Americans , or any Foreign Consul " by missionaries Clarence Ussher and Ernest Yarrow said that " From our window we could plainly see Shushantz afire on its mountain @-@ side and Varak Monastery , with its priceless store of ancient manuscripts , going up in smoke . " Missionary Elizabeth Barrows Ussher , Clarence 's wife , wrote in her diary that the monastery was attacked by 200 cavalry and foot soldiers on April 30 , but they were repulsed . She gave May 4 as the day when the monastery was burned . American missionary teacher Grace H. Knapp recounted , however , that " On the 8th May we saw the place in flames , and Varak Monastery near by , with its priceless ancient manuscripts , also went up in smoke . "

Van Governor Djevdet Bey ordered the Erzerum Battalion , composed of 300 cavalrymen and 1 @,@ 000 militiamen equipped with cannons , to attack Varag on May 8 . The 250 Armenian defenders were overwhelmed , and the monastery 's collections of medieval manuscripts burned and destroyed .

= = Current state = =

A significant number of the structures surviving the 1915 destruction were destroyed in the 1960s . As of 2006 the monastery 's remains were used a barn . According to historian Ara Sarafian , as of 2012 , " good sections have just barely survived until our days . " Dr. Jenny B. White , a scholar on Turkey , wrote in 2013 that on her visit the remains of the monastery " consisted of nothing more than a few brick vaults used to house goats amid a clutch of tumbledown Kurdish homes . " The best @-@ preserved section of the monastery is the church of Surb Gevorg ( St. George ) , which is now looked after by a caretaker . The dome is partly collapsed and contains some traces of surviving frescoes . The dome of the church of Surb Nshan is entirely gone .

In February 2010 , following the renovation of the Holy Cross Cathedral at Akdamar Island in Lake Van , Halil Berk , the Deputy Governor of Van Province , announced that the Governor 's Office sought to restore Varagavank and the Ktuts monastery at Çarpanak Island . In June of that year , the governor also stated that the monastery at Çarpanak Island and Varagavank would be renovated " in the near future . " In October 2010 Radikal reported that a nearby mosque , built in 1997 , would be demolished to make room for the restoration of Varagavank .

The monastery was damaged as a result of the 2011 Van earthquake . According to Ara Sarafian , " parts of the main church collapsed , while other parts were significantly weakened . Old cracks got bigger , new ones appeared . " Turkish engineers reportedly inspected it and announced that they would commence restoration work in the spring of 2012 . Sarafian wrote that " such promises have been made in the past and one needs to be a little skeptical . The current state of the church makes such work much harder than at any time in the past . " He noted in a 2012 article that the local and provincial governments supported the preservation and restoration of the monastery . In October 2012 , the artist Raffi Bedrosyan , who contributed to the restoration of the St. Giragos Church in Diyarbakır , stated that he had hoped to restore Varagavank and added that " Both Ankara and Van agreed to launch the restoration project , but social and natural obstacles delayed the process . "

= = = Ownership = = =

Taraf reported in September 2012 that the monastery is owned by the Turkish journalist and media executive Fatih Altaylı . In an interview Altaylı told the newspaper that the monastery belonged to his grandfather and he inherited it from his father . The monastery was confiscated during the Armenian Genocide . A group of Armenians in Turkey , led by the activist Nadya Uygun started a petition asking him to " Apply to the Armenian Patriarchate of Turkey and transfer the title deed of the church to the concerned [ Armenian community ] foundation . " Altayli told Agos that he is ready to give it to the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople , but no government authority has approached him to respond to his offer to give back the church to its owners , and that they displayed no interest in cooperating . Revolutionary Socialist Workers ' Party ( DSİP ) activists demonstrated in early October 2012 before the Habertürk headquarters in Beyoğlu , Istanbul demanding the return of the monastery land to the Armenians . As of September 2014 there was no progress .

= = Architecture and manuscripts = =

The monastery was composed of six churches , gavit , narthex ( nakhasrah ) and other structures . The main church of Varagavank was called Surb Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) . It dated to the 11th century and was similar in plan to the prominent Saint Hripsime Church in Vagharshapat . The earliest structure was on the southern part of the ensemble and was known as Surb Sopia ( 10th century ) . Queen Khushush left an inscription ( dated 981 ) on its western wall .

In the 10th century Queen Mlke , the wife of Gagik I , presented the monastery the " Gospel of Queen Mlke " ( arm ) , one of the best known Armenian illuminated manuscripts . In the 14th – 16th centuries the monastery became a major center of manuscript production . A number of Varagavank manuscripts are now kept at the Matenadaran in Yerevan .

= = Cultural references = =

Raffi mentions the monastery in volume two of the novel Sparkles ( « Կայծեր » , 1883 – 87 ) . The prominent poet Hovhannes Tumanyan wrote an article about the monastery in 1910 on the fiftieth anniversary of Mkrtich Khrimian becoming father of Varag and the monastery 's subsequent revival as a great center of education and culture .

= = European visitors = =

Austen Henry Layard ( 1853 ) : " ... the large Armenian convent of Yedi Klissia , or the seven churches , built of substantial stone masonry , and inclosing a spacious courtyard planted with trees . [ ... ] The church , a substantial modern edifice , stand within the courtyard . Its walls are covered with pictyres as primitive in design as in execution . "

Henry Fanshawe Tozer ( 1881 ) : " ... the broken Varak Dagh formed a noble object on the further side of the plain . In one of the upper valleys of the last @-@ named mountain lies an important monastery , which is the residence of the archbishop , and has a good school . "

H. F. B. Lynch ( 1893 ) : " The monastery of Yed Kilisa , situated on the slopes of that mountain , is the most frequented of the numerous cloisters in the neighbourhood ... "

= = Gallery = =

= British cavalry during the First World War =

The British cavalry were the first British Army units to see action during the First World War . Captain Hornby of the 4th ( Royal Irish ) Dragoon Guards is reputed to have been the first British soldier to kill a German soldier , using his sword , and Drummer Edward Thomas of the same regiment is reputed to have fired the first British shot shortly after 06 : 30 on 22 August 1914 , near the Belgian village of Casteau . The following Battle of Mons was the first engagement fought by British soldiers in Western Europe since the Battle of Waterloo , ninety @-@ nine years earlier . In the first year of the war in France nine cavalry brigades were formed for three British cavalry divisions . Other regiments served in six brigades of the two British Indian Army cavalry divisions that were formed for service on the Western Front . Three regiments also fought in the campaign in Mesopotamia , the only other theatre of the First World War where British cavalry served .

The doctrine of the British cavalry had been highly influenced by their experiences in the Second Boer War fifteen years earlier , during which one commander had preferred using irregular units to the professional cavalry regiments . By necessity , cavalry doctrine had changed since then , with emphasis being placed on dismounted firepower and covering fire from the flanks , using machine guns and attached artillery , to support cavalry charges . Cavalrymen dominated the higher command positions within the British Army during the war . The only officers to command the British Expeditionary Force on the Western Front were both cavalrymen , while the original commander of the British Cavalry Division went on to command the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the Palestine Campaign , and another cavalryman became the Chief of the Imperial General Staff . Altogether on the Western Front , five of the ten officers who commanded the five British armies were provided by the cavalry , while another ten commanded corps , and twenty @-@ seven served as divisional commanders .

Among other decorations for their valour , eight cavalrymen were awarded the Victoria Cross , Britain 's highest award for bravery in the face of the enemy . Three of the awards came in the first month of the war . All but one of the thirty @-@ two British regular army cavalry regiments fought in a recognised theatre of war , either on the Western Front or in the Mesopotamia Campaign , during which over 5 @,@ 600 cavalrymen were killed , including several senior officers .

= = Background = =

The traditional role of cavalry in war is scouting — gathering information about the enemy 's location , strength , and movements — while denying the enemy the same information about one 's own forces . Other tasks include raiding into enemy territory and damaging their infrastructure and economy while avoiding conflict with enemy forces . On the field of battle , cavalry were expected to charge into and break up enemy infantry and cavalry formations . The prestige gained by participating in a cavalry charge was such that additional officers would attempt to join one whenever possible . Notable examples of this include Louis Nolan of the 15th Hussars joining the Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War and Winston Churchill of the 4th Hussars joining the 21st Lancers for their charge during the Battle of Omdurman .

The normal peacetime British Army cavalry formation was the brigade , but twice a cavalry division had been formed . The first time was during the Anglo @-@ Egyptian War in 1882 . The second was during the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1901 ) in South Africa , the last major conflict fought by the British Army before the First World War . During the fighting in South Africa , it was the 7 @,@ 000 @-@ strong colonial mounted contingent , not the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ strong regular cavalry , that led the way in tactical development . They were better trained , better armed , and more efficient , if only because they had been correctly trained to use the right weapons and tactics for the conflict . Since 1880 British cavalrymen had been armed with only carbines and swords , although some carried a lance ; it was not until 1903 that the cavalry were issued rifles , the same ones used by the rest of the army . The regular cavalry regiments were considered so poor in quality that General Sir Redvers Henry Buller , commanding the advance into Northern Natal , left his six cavalry regiments behind at Ladysmith , trusting in the irregular mounted forces to carry out patrols in their stead .

Their Boer opponents taught not only the cavalry but the whole army some lessons . In one engagement at Dronfield , 150 Boers held off the British cavalry division , which was then supported by several artillery batteries , and at Bergendal seventy @-@ four men held up the entire British Army . So effective were their tactics that they forced the British cavalry , if only for a short time , to leave their swords and lances behind and concentrate on their firepower . This proved to the British Army the value of a full size rifle over a carbine . Soon the cavalry were practising working dismounted and advancing in open order . Their change in tactics was evidenced during the charge at Klip Drift . On their way to relieve the siege of Kimberley , the cavalry used their horses and rifles instead of swords and lances to get behind the defending Boers . The charge was later described as " an ideal cavalry operation , but not a cavalry charge as the term is generally understood . " Nevertheless , it would prove to be the last time that a full British cavalry division conducted a mounted charge .

Following the Boer War there were calls for the disbandment of the cavalry by such notable persons as the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Forces Lord Roberts and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle . Between 1900 and 1903 the cavalry 's share of the army budget was cut from six to under 4 @.@ 5 per cent , and recruiting for the cavalry was suspended for a year . Added to this , the Commonwealth Defence Act 1903 proposed a force of nine brigades formed by a militia , with six of the brigades planned to be mounted infantry known as light horse . In the same year , Lord Roberts appointed Robert Baden @-@ Powell of the 5th Dragoon Guards to the position of Inspector General of Cavalry , a surprising choice as Roberts had earlier described him as being " certainly not a General " . Within the year , Baden @-@ Powell was endorsing a change in policy , recommending that instead of countering an enemy charge with a countercharge of their own , the cavalry should dismount and engage them with rifle fire . For cavalry to survive , by necessity British cavalry doctrine had to change , as the emphasis was now on dismounted firepower and cavalry charges that were supported by covering fire from the flanks , by their own machine guns , and the guns of the Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) . To support this change in policy , cavalrymen were now required to do two hours rifle or sword practice a day . This made them just as proficient as the infantry with their rifles . In 1908 one regiment , the 14th Hussars , recorded having 354 marksmen , 212 first class shots , thirty @-@ five second class , and only four third class shots .

The resulting reforms helped shape the cavalry 's contribution to the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) , which was established with one cavalry division supported by two brigades of horse artillery . All would be trained for the mounted charge but would also be armed with rifles , the only major power to do so . The cavalry regiments were armed with Maxim Machine Guns , although these were replaced by Vickers Machine Guns from 1912 . More than anything else , the issue of entrenching tools that were carried on the troop packhorses demonstrated how much the cavalry 's doctrine had changed since the Boer Wars .

= = Organisation = =

In 1914 , prior to the start of the First World War , there were just over 15 @,@ 000 cavalrymen serving in thirty @-@ one British Army cavalry regiments . There were three Household Cavalry regiments and twenty @-@ eight line cavalry regiments consisting of seven dragoon guards , three dragoon , twelve hussar , and six lancer regiments . In the British Army the term " cavalry " was only used for regular army units . The other mounted regiments in the army , which were part of the Territorial Force reserve , were the fifty @-@ five yeomanry regiments and three special reserve regiments of horse . Several of the cavalry regiments , amounting to 6 @,@ 000 men , were serving overseas in British India , South Africa , and Egypt . Twelve of the regiments based in Great Britain were assigned to four cavalry brigades , three regiments per brigade , identified as being part of the cavalry division for the BEF . After the declaration of war in August 1914 , the cavalry joined the rest of the BEF in France , together with a fifth independent cavalry brigade , formed from three un @-@ brigaded regiments then based in England . British cavalry brigades were a third larger than French and German brigades , which only had two regiments . To provide a reconnaissance force for the six infantry divisions , two regiments the 15th Hussars and the 19th Hussars were split up with one squadron being assigned to each infantry division . Also in August 1914 , a thirty @-@ second regiment , the Household Cavalry Composite Regiment , was formed from three squadrons that were drawn from each of the Household Cavalry regiments ; its existence proved short @-@ lived as it was disbanded on 11 November 1914 , with its manpower returning to their parent regiments .

Early in the war twenty @-@ four reserve cavalry regiments were formed to provide training to recruits for the cavalry and yeomanry regiments . Only four of them saw any combat — the 6th , 8th , 9th , and 10th Reserve Cavalry Regiments — all during the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin . The 6th Reserve Cavalry Regiment , with thirty @-@ five officers and 851 other ranks , was the largest unit then available to Dublin commander Brigadier General William Lowe of the 7th Dragoon Guards .

= = = Commanders = = =

The cavalry were well represented among the British Army 's higher ranks , with five of the ten officers who would command the five armies on the Western Front being cavalrymen . The two commanders of the BEF during the First World War , Field Marshals John French and Douglas Haig , came from the 19th Hussars and 7th Hussars respectively . William Robertson , 3rd Dragoon Guards , who rose in rank from private to field marshal , was the Quartermaster General , then Chief of Staff of the BEF before becoming the Chief of the Imperial General Staff in December 1915 .

Edmund Allenby , 6th Dragoons , who started the war as the commander of the Cavalry Division , went on to command the Cavalry Corps , then V Corps , the Third Army , and the Egyptian Expeditionary Force . He was replaced as commander of the Third Army by Julian Byng , 10th Hussars , who had previously commanded the Canadian Corps . Hubert Gough of the 16th Lancers , known before the war for his involvement in the Curragh incident mutiny , started the war as a brigade commander , became the commander of the I Corps , then the Fifth Army . He was replaced by William Birdwood , 12th Lancers , who had previously commanded the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Gallipoli Campaign . Charles Briggs , 1st Dragoon Guards , commanded the British Salonika Army . William Peyton , 15th Hussars , commanded the Western Desert Force during the Senussi Campaign . He later transferred to the Western Front , where he was temporarily commander of the Fifth Army before taking over command of the X Corps .

Philip Chetwood , 19th Hussars , commanded the XX Corps in Allenby 's Egyptian Expeditionary Force . Charles Kavanagh , 10th Hussars , commanded the I Corps and the Cavalry Corps . Hugh Fanshaw , 19th Hussars , commanded the Cavalry Corps and the V Corps . Beauvoir De Lisle , 1st Dragoons , commanded both the XIII and XV Corps . Michael Rimington 6th Dragoons , commanded the Indian Cavalry Corps . Altogether during the First World War , the British cavalry provided ten corps and twenty @-@ seven divisional commanders .

= = = Divisions and brigades = = =

The original cavalry division consisted of a ninety @-@ six man headquarters , as well as 6 @,@ 872 cavalrymen in four brigades , 1 @,@ 682 artillerymen in four artillery batteries , 191 men in a Royal Engineers field squadron and another 206 men in the engineers signal squadron , twenty @-@ six men in an Army Service Corps headquarters , and four field ambulances with 496 men . This made a total of 9 @,@ 269 men , 9 @,@ 518 horses , 425 wagons , twenty @-@ three cars , 412 bicycles , eighteen motorcycles , twenty @-@ four 13 @-@ pounder guns , and twenty @-@ four Vickers machine guns . It was a large force when mounted , but when asked to serve dismounted , the cavalry division was only the equivalent of two weakened infantry brigades , with less artillery than an infantry division . It did , however , have a higher allocation of artillery compared to foreign cavalry divisions .

By September 1914 , the cavalry division was numbered the 1st Cavalry Division . It was joined by the 2nd Cavalry Division , which had been formed on 6 September , and the 3rd Cavalry Division , formed on 29 September . By the end of the year another six British cavalry regiments ( as well as artillery and support elements ) , which had been in India , were now in France serving in two cavalry divisions that were part of the British Indian Army . The 1st Indian Cavalry Division arrived in November and the 2nd Indian Cavalry Division in December . They were renumbered the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions in December 1916 . Although they were numbered , to prevent confusion with similar numbered British and Indian brigades , the latter were generally known by their names : for example , the Mhow Cavalry Brigade instead of the 5th ( Mhow ) Cavalry Brigade for example . The three British and two Indian cavalry divisions now came under the command of the British Cavalry Corps and the Indian Cavalry Corps .

By the end of 1915 , after several occasions when the British had to temporarily dismount regiments and send them into the front lines , an establishment for the Dismounted Cavalry Division was created . The three British cavalry divisions each formed a dismounted cavalry brigade , with the 1st Brigade being raised from the 1st Division , and so on . The cavalry brigades formed a dismounted cavalry battalion , numbered after their parent brigades , so the 9th Cavalry Brigade formed the 9th Dismounted Battalion , for example . The cavalry regiments each formed one dismounted company and a machine gun section for their battalion . However , the Dismounted Cavalry Division , with only three brigades , was smaller than an infantry division , which had four brigades . This disadvantage was felt throughout the formation , with the dismounted cavalry brigade only having three battalions instead of the four in an infantry formation , and the dismounted cavalry battalion only having three , albeit larger , companies as opposed to the four of an infantry battalion . There was one other divisional @-@ sized formation raised in 1916 that contained British cavalry regiments . This was the Imperial Cavalry Division , which served in the campaign in Mesopotamia . This was another British Indian Army division , and like all Indian divisions , it had one British regiment per brigade .

By April 1915 the British Army had formed nine cavalry brigades , serving in three cavalry divisions . A cavalry brigade headquarters had seven officers and forty @-@ seven men , which controlled three cavalry regiments , a battery of six 13 @-@ pounder guns provided by the Royal Horse Artillery , and a signals troop from the Royal Engineers . When dismounted , one man in four would be assigned to hold the horses ; therefore a brigade 's rifle fire was only equivalent to an infantry battalion . By now only three British cavalry regiments were not serving on the Western Front , having remained in India on internal security duties . These were the 7th Hussars , 14th Hussars , and the 21st Lancers . When the two hussar regiments left for the Mesopotamia Campaign in 1915 , only one regiment , the 21st Lancers , remained . They did , however , see action on the North West Frontier , winning one of the eight Victoria Crosses awarded to British cavalrymen during the war .

In March 1916 the two cavalry corps were disbanded and the five divisions were assigned to the five British armies . A skeleton corps staff was retained to allow for the re @-@ establishment of a new corps if one was required , which did happen the following September . At the same time , Gough was appointed as the Inspector General of Training of Cavalry Divisions . The cavalry divisions went through a period of training , re @-@ organisation , and issuance of new equipment . One of the major changes was the withdrawal of the regiments ' machine guns for their concentration in newly formed brigade machine gun squadrons , each of twelve sections with two machine guns to a section . The division also received a Light Armoured Car Battery equipped with six Rolls Royce Armoured Cars . The training covered topics such as how to cross trench systems using mobile bridging equipment , tactics to employ against an entrenched enemy , blowing up and filling in trenches , and skill at arms , including machine guns and bayonet fighting .

= = = The cavalry regiment = = =

The 1914 British cavalry regiment was composed of twenty @-@ six officers and 523 other ranks . The commanding officer was a lieutenant colonel , with a major as the second in command ; other officers in the headquarters were an adjutant , quartermaster , signals officer , medical officer , and a veterinary officer . The other ranks included one warrant officer , thirty @-@ seven senior non commissioned officers , twenty @-@ two artificers , six trumpeters , and 457 privates , or twenty @-@ seven officers and 598 other ranks in the regiments based in India .

Of these men , forty @-@ eight were part of the regimental headquarters , and twenty @-@ seven , armed with two Vickers Machine Guns , were assigned to the machine gun section . In 1909 the School of Musketry proposed that each regiment should have six machine guns , but this was declined for " financial reasons " . The remaining 474 men were in the regiment 's three squadrons , four troops per squadron . Commanded by a major with a captain as the second in command , a squadron had 158 men , six officers , a squadron sergeant major , a squadron quartermaster sergeant , eight sergeants , two trumpeters , six artificers , and 134 other ranks . Each troop had one officer , two sergeants , one artificer , and thirty other ranks . Regiments in India had four squadrons with 173 men in each squadron .

To look after the regiment 's horses , attached to the regimental headquarters , was a veterinary officer , a quartermaster sergeant farrier ( also responsible for killing wounded or sick horses ) , a saddler sergeant , and a saddle @-@ tree maker . Each squadron had two saddlers , one a sergeant , and each troop had a shoeing smith . The regiment had 528 riding horses , seventy @-@ four draught horses , six pack horses , eighteen carts or horse @-@ drawn wagons , and fifteen bicycles .

British cavalry were armed with a 1908 pattern sword ; lancers were armed with a 9 @.@ 1 feet ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) lance with a steel head mounted on an ash stave . Cavalrymen were also armed with Lee – Enfield rifles , unlike their French and German counterparts , who were only armed with a shorter range carbine . As the war progressed , the cavalrymen were issued with brodie helmets , hand grenades , trench mortars , and Hotchkiss light machine guns . The replacement of the Vickers Guns with the Hotchkiss , issued one per troop , greatly increased the firepower of the cavalry regiments . Like the infantry , cavalrymen were dressed in a khaki uniform , with a service dress cap . Instead of infantry webbing , they carried their ammunition in a bandolier . The French cuirassiers , by comparison , would not have looked out of place in the Napoleonic Wars ; they still wore blue and red uniforms with breast and back metal plates and plumed brass @-@ steel helmets . While the Germans had a standard field grey uniform , their uhlans still wore Polish style czapka helmets and tunics with plastron fronts , while the hussars wore frogged jackets and the cuirassiers had steel spiked helmets .

= = = Casualties = = =

Although the trench warfare on the Western Front was dominated by the artillery and infantry , the cavalry still suffered 5 @,@ 674 dead and 14 @,@ 630 other casualties . For comparison , one infantry regiment — the Northumberland Fusiliers — had 16 @,@ 000 casualties . Unlike the huge losses in the infantry regiments , only ten cavalry regiments suffered over 200 dead . The 3rd Dragoon Guards , with 333 dead , had the most killed , while the 7th Hussars had eighty dead , one less than the 21st Lancers , which had remained in India throughout the war . The dead included one major general , eleven brigadier generals , but only twenty @-@ eight of the 1 @,@ 161 lieutenant colonels killed during the war were from the cavalry , several of those after having assumed command of an infantry battalion .

= = Aftermath = =

The British Army tried to learn the lessons of the First World War and incorporate them into its doctrine . In the 1920s and much of the 1930s , the General Staff tried to establish a small , mechanised , professional army ; one result was the Experimental Mechanized Force . There was also a general reduction in the army , which resulted in the cavalry branch being reduced in numbers , with several famous regiments being amalgamated . In the Household Cavalry , the 1st and 2nd Life Guards became the Life Guards . In the line cavalry , sixteen regiments were amalgamated , becoming eight new regiments . The 3rd and 6th Dragoon Guards became the 3rd Carabiniers ( Prince of Wales 's Dragoon Guards ) , and the 5th Dragoon Guards and the 6th Dragoons became the 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards . The other amalgamations used their previous regimental numbers as part of their new regimental names . The new regiments were the 4th / 7th Royal Dragoon Guards , the 13th / 18th Royal Hussars , the 14th / 20th King 's Hussars , the 15th / 19th The King 's Royal Hussars , the 16th / 5th The Queen 's Royal Lancers , and finally the 17th / 21st Lancers .

Although mechanisation of the British cavalry was well advanced by 1939 , there was still a 1st Cavalry Division that served in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign during the Second World War . Eventually all the cavalry regiments were mechanised and became part of the Household Cavalry and the Royal Armoured Corps . There is still one regiment that retains their horses , the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment , which together with the Household Cavalry Regiment was formed from the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals , which was itself an amalgamation of the Royal Horse Guards ( Blues ) and the 1st ( Royal ) Dragoons .

= = British cavalry regiments , brigades , and divisions = =

Other units that served in British cavalry , brigades , divisions and corps during the war

= Skeptic 's Toolbox =

Held every August since 1992 , the Skeptic 's Toolbox was formed by psychologist and now @-@ retired University of Oregon professor Ray Hyman . The workshop , held over four days , focuses on making people into better critical thinkers by investigating a central theme . The attendees are broken up into groups and given tasks that they must work on together and present in front of the entire group on the last day . The Skeptic 's Toolbox is sponsored by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .

= = History = =

Hyman created the Skeptic 's Toolbox in 1989 to teach people how to be better skeptics . He tells James Underdown that " we were putting out more fires by skeptics than by believers ... they were going overboard " . The first toolbox was in Buffalo , NY with himself , James Alcock and Steve Shaw ( now called Banachek ) . With the exception of one year when the toolbox was held in Boulder , Colorado , the toolbox has been held at the University of Oregon in Eugene . In general , the faculty likes to keep the numbers at about 90 in order to give everyone personalized attention , and allow everyone the chance to participate . At the 1993 Toolbox , " More than a hundred people participated , from 19 states , Canada , and Hong Kong , and their enthusiasm continued to grow with each passing day , ending on the fifth day with what appeared to be a unanimous ' If only we had more time ! ' " .

In 1997 Skeptical Inquirer Magazine announced that CFI would begin offering an academic certificate for students in a three @-@ year program . Students needed to complete 30 units in academic work as well as in workshops . The two certificates offered were Humanistic Studies and Science and the Paranormal , attending The Skeptic 's Toolbox would satisfy one of the workshop requirements .

= = Methodology and focus = =

While critical thinking is the overall focus , lectures designed around the theme focus on the specialties of the faculty . A reporter for the Register @-@ Guard attended the 2003 toolbox and wrote of his experience hearing lectures on post traumatic stress syndrome , graphology , repressed memory court cases , communication with the dead , healing through prayer , traditional Chinese medicine and psychic dogs . All that and Jerry Andrus 's display of optical illusions too . The goal of the Toolbox is to " help skeptics add to their arsenal of tools and techniques with which to both guard against deception and properly evaluate paranormal claims " . Learning how to communicate with believers is also considered important : " Skeptics search for truths , believers tend to want validation of their experiences " .

Getting the skeptical message across to believers was a focus at the 1993 event . Faculty felt that non @-@ skeptics might be more receptive if attendees understood how they were perceived by others . " Many people view skeptics as die @-@ hard cynics and debunkers , even as enemies of free speech . Nonskeptics often hear only the " COP " in CSICOP " .

In 2010 , interviewed by D. J. Grothe , Hyman explained , " give people the tools to think , help them to become better thinkers " . Mentalist Bob Fellows performed at the second conference and told the audience , " The effect ( of a magic trick ) on audiences who ( believe the trick is real magic ) can be enormously powerful . And when deceit is involved , they can be potentially harmful as well " . Hyman felt that it was necessary to teach attendees with a " case @-@ based approach ... concrete examples as a first step toward extracting broad examples ... ( giving ) the benefit of context " to the learning experience .

= = Faculty of the Toolbox = =

Loren Pankratz - A founding faculty member of the Skeptic 's Toolbox , Pankratz explained to Harriet Hall , about the beginnings of the Toolbox , " Ray Hyman , Jerry Andrus and I were meeting together once a month or so and we decided that maybe the three of us could put a Toolbox together . "

Barry Beyerstein - " One of the many enjoyable tasks I undertake for CSICOP is to lecture in Ray Hyman 's annual summer workshop at the University of Oregon . Not only is it the towering presence of Ray himself , and the joy of observing the sheer brainpower of my fellow faculty at work , it is also the people , literally from around the world , who enroll in this and other CSICOP functions that keep me from suffering that occupational hazard ' skeptic 's burnout . ' They are a remarkable lot , genuinely nice people committed to critical thinking and leaving the place a bit better than they found it . They make me very pleased that my fate was to become a skeptical inquirer . "

Harriet Hall - Prior to attending the Toolbox as a student , Hall had been a " passive skeptic " , " I hadn 't done any writing ... Ray Hyman and Wally Sampson encouraged me to try my hand at writing , one thing led to another and now I 'm on the faculty of the Skeptic 's Toolbox . "

Lindsay Beyerstein - She started attending the Skeptic 's Toolbox when she was 14 ; her father Barry Beyerstein strongly influenced her involvement in the skeptical movement . " It 's sorta funny , the skeptics ' movement is now finally old enough , it 's like Scientology , we have second gen ! " She recounts , " I was always involved with my Dad in skeptical meetings ... " We would have family newsletter @-@ stuffing nights ( for the BC Skeptics ) . " instead of hiring babysitters her father would take Lindsay to his media interviews . " Does Satanic music cause suicide ? Out @-@ of @-@ body experiences ... it was always something new and different . "

James Alcock - " Ray and I and a magician by the name of Steve Shaw , now known as Banachek did the very first Toolbox in Buffalo ... a little while later Ray asked me if I could come out here to this group . " Ray stated " It took a long while to get Jim out here , but finally we managed it . "

= = Other = =

Gallery of photos

= Marty Mayberry =

Marty Mayberry ( born 9 February 1986 ) is a double leg amputee LW3 classified Paralympic alpine skier from Australia . He lost both legs after contracting meningococcal disease when he was sixteen years old . His experiences led him to study medicine , and he attended Griffith University and the University of Sydney where he pursued health science courses . Beyond the classroom , he has written a paper on Meningococcal disease , worked part @-@ time on research about the disease , and talked about his experiences at a conference . While at a music festival , he met his future wife whom he married in June 2010 .

Having started out as an able @-@ bodied skier , Mayberry took up the disability sport . He made his national team debut in 2005 , and went on to represent Australia at the 2006 Winter Paralympics the following year , when he did not medal . With the aid of a prosthesis , adjustments were made to his skiing legs , and he competed in several skiing competitions during 2007 , 2008 and 2009 . He was selected for the Australian 2010 Winter Paralympics team at a ceremony in Canberra in November 2009 . Between then and the start of the Games , he participated in a few more competitions , including one where he picked up a gold medal , and participated in a national team training camp . He was selected as Australia 's flag bearer for the opening ceremony . In competition , he earned a silver medal in the men 's downhill standing event , finished 24th in the Super @-@ G , was disqualified from the slalom , and failed to finish in the giant slalom . Following the games , he retired from skiing .

= = Personal = =

Mayberry was born on 9 February 1986 , and grew up in Byron Bay , New South Wales , where he attended Byron Bay High School . By 2009 , he resided in Queensland , and was living in Yeerongpilly , Queensland by 2010 . In June 2010 , he married. a woman he met at a music festival .

Following a high school ski trip when he was in year 11 , Mayberry contracted meningococcal disease at the age of 16 , and this resulted in double below the knee amputations . He was in a coma for two weeks as a result of the disease , and , when he woke up at [ [ Lismore Base

Hospital ] ] , learned his legs had been amputated . One of the things that motivated him to keep going during rehabilitation was the opportunity for sports .

Mayberry studied health sciences at Griffith University , and medicine at the University of Sydney . He went into medicine partly because of his illness during high school . He relocated to Sydney with his fiance to do so not long before the start of the 2009 — 2010 ski season . In August 2010 , he was the opening speaker at the Amanda Young Foundation Meningococcal Conference , and in 2010 and 2011 , worked part @-@ time at the Kids Research Institute at the Children 's Hospital at Westmead , where he was in contact with " Robert Booy in his research on the psycho @-@ social impact of meningococcal B on families . " He wrote up his experiences in dealing with meningococcal infection in the Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health .

He lives by Gandhi 's quote " Be the change you want to see in the world " .

= = Skiing = =

Mayberry is an LW3 classified skier who competes in standing events using a pair of artificial legs . Prior to contracting meningococcal , he was involved with skiing . He was back to competing at it on the disability side by 2004 . When fully kitted out , he looks like an able @-@ bodied skier , and is capable of skiing faster than 110 kilometres per hour ( 68 mph ) . He received support for his skiing from the Australian Institute of Sport , New South Wales Institute of Sport and the Australian Government Sports Training Grants program .

Mayberry has won medals at IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup events and the Paralympic Games . He made his Australian national team debut in 2005 at the European Cup Finals , and went on to represent Australia the following year at the 2006 Torino Games where he failed to medal in the four men 's standing events he competed in . He finished 33rd in the downhill , 21st in the Giant Slalom , 19th in the Slalom and did not finish in the Super G. Mayberry attributed his poor performance at the 2006 Games to his prosthetic legs , which " just didn 't feel right during the speed events in Italy . " Following those Games , he worked with prosthetist Peter Farrand to develop new legs that would address the problems in Italy . Continuing to ski following the 2006 Games , he earned a gold medal at a World Cup event in 2007 in Slalom , and earned a bronze medal in slalom event at a 2008 World Cup competition .

During Australia 's 2009 — 2010 summer , Mayberry was based in Europe and North America for training . At the 2009 World Championships , he had a pair of sixth places finished in the Super G and downhill events . That year , at a Spanish hosted IPC World Cup , he crashed in the giant slalom event and did not score a time . He was officially named to the Australian 2010 Winter Paralympics team in November 2009 . A ceremony was held in Canberra with Australian Paralympic Committee president Greg Hartung and Minister for Sport Kate Ellis making the announcement . Mayberry was selected to the largest Winter Paralympics team that Australia had ever sent to the Games .

In 2010 , he was the only elite skier with his type of disability in his classification . At the second to last World Cup event before the 2010 Games , on a course in Vancouver , Canada , he won a silver medal in the downhill with a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 02 . In Aspen , Colorado , at the last World Cup event before the 2010 Games , he won a gold medal in the downhill event . Prior to the start of the Games , he participated in a national team training camp in Vail , Colorado before the Aspen hosted World Cup . He and the rest of Australia 's para @-@ alpine team arrived in the Paralympic village on 9 March 2010 .

As a 24 @-@ year @-@ old , Mayberry competed in five events in the 2010 Paralympic games : downhill , super G , super combined , giant slalom , and slalom . His parents were in Vancouver to watch him compete . Mayberry won a silver medal in the men 's standing downhill event where he tied with another skier , and had a combined time of 1 : 22 @.@ 78 He finished 24th in the Super @-@ G , was disqualified from the slalom event after missing a gate , and did not finish in the Giant Slalom . Following the Games , he returned with the team to Sydney , where he attended a press conference at Sydney International Airport . He won an Australian Institute of Sport Sport Achievement Award in 2010 . By September 2010 , he had retired from elite skiing , one of several 2010 Winter Paralympic skiers to retire following the games . Others who retired at the same time he did included Shannon Dallas and Bart Bunting .

= Red Museum =

" Red Museum " is the tenth episode of the second season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 1994 . It was written by Chris Carter , directed by Win Phelps , and featured guest appearances by Mark Rolston , Paul Sand , Bob Frazer , and Robert Clothier . The episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " Red Museum " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 , being watched by 9 @.@ 9 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics , with many noting the episode 's complexity as a detractor .

The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder and Scully travel to Wisconsin after several teens are found wandering in the woods in their underwear with “ He Is One ” scrawled on their backs . However , the duo soon stumble upon a strange cult of vegetarian “ walk @-@ ins . ”

Originally , the episode was slated to be a crossover episode with the CBS show Picket Fences . However , the networks nixed the idea before any filming could begin . A facet of the episode , that the adherents of the Red Museum believe that the year 2012 will bring about the dawning of The New Age , is later referenced in the series ' finale " The Truth " , seven seasons later .

= = Plot = =

Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are called in to investigate a number of kidnappings in Delta Glen , Wisconsin where local teenagers are recovered half @-@ naked and drugged with either the phrase " He is one " or " She is one " written on their backs . Meeting with Sheriff Mazeroski , the agents initially suspect a nearby cult , the Church of the Red Museum , which was founded by vegetarian Richard Odin . Mulder , Scully and Mazeroski attend a ceremony of the Red Museum , causing Mulder to believe that they are walk @-@ ins , people whose souls have been taken over by someone else . One of the kidnap victims claims to have felt an animal spirit enter him .

The girlfriend of Mazeroski 's son , Rick , is the latest to be found , and her blood is found to contain an unknown alkaloid substance and high levels of scopolamine , a controlled substance . This appears to link her to Odin , a former doctor . Meanwhile , the agents meet an old man who points to a pair of men injecting growth serum into cattle , which he believes is at the cause of the trouble . That night , local doctor Jerrold Larson is killed in a plane crash . An investigation of the site turns up shipping orders that trace back to the kidnapped teens . One of the men injecting the cows is murdered by the Crew Cut Man . The other , a peeping tom named Gerd Thomas , is revealed to be the kidnapper after the agents find a hidden supply of videotapes in the home of one of the victims . Thomas claims that Larson had been turning the children into " monsters " with the drugs he had been injecting in them , which he claims to be unknown .

Meanwhile , Rick is murdered by the Crew Cut Man . Having passed by him on the road , Scully recognizes him as the assassin who killed Deep Throat . Her toxicology results on the victims show what she thinks is the mysterious substance known as " Purity Control " . Mulder theorizes that Larson had been injecting the children with alien DNA , and convinces Mazeroski to round up all of the children who had been receiving treatment from Larson and hide them with the Church of the Red Museum . Mulder tracks the Crew Cut Man down at a beef processing plant that he is about to destroy . While Mulder wants him alive , Mazeroski kills him as revenge for Rick 's murder .

Scully reports that the Crew Cut Man had no records on file with the FBI or other agencies . The material injected into the cows and children is found to be an unknown substance . All the children who were inoculated came down with a flu @-@ like illness while those in the Church of the Red Museum did not , causing her to think they were a control group . Scully declares the case open and unsolved .

= = Production = =

This episode was originally intended to be a crossover episode with the CBS show Picket Fences , which was set in another town in Wisconsin . David E. Kelley , the series creator of Picket Fences , and Chris Carter , the series creator of The X @-@ Files , were talking in a parking lot and thought it might be interesting to have Mulder and Scully visit Rome , Wisconsin for an X @-@ Files episode . Unlike a traditional crossover , the two shows would be shot with different viewpoints and one would be aired as an X @-@ Files episode and the other as an episode of Picket Fences . Ultimately , CBS decided against the crossover and both episodes created ended up becoming stand @-@ alones . Executive producer Robert Goodwin said of the experience " I spent days on the phone with a producer of Picket Fences . We spent days organizing our schedules . Then at the very last minute , of course , we found out that no one had told CBS , and they said ' Forget it . We 're having enough trouble on Friday nights without publicizing The X @-@ Files . ' It 's too bad . " The Picket Fences episode intended to be part of the crossover was called " Away in the Manger " and aired the week following " Red Museum . " While every reference to Picket Fences has been purged from the X @-@ Files episode , there still are some small winks left in the Picket Fences episode referring to the happenings at the X @-@ Files , including a mention of Dr. Larson . Ladner , British Columbia served as a location for Delta Glen , while the beef processing plant was shot in a facility in Cloverdale , with the local employees being used for the butchering and cleaning up scenes .

Producer Glen Morgan was disappointed with the resolution regarding the Crew Cut Man , saying " My feeling is that to bring this guy back , his presence should have been better developed , and he 's shot off screen . I thought ' Geez , this is the guy who killed Deep Throat , who the audience loved , and it 's kind of tossed away . ' The episode just seems like half of one thing for a while , then half of something else . I think that was a curious choice for Chris [ Carter ] . He wanted to take a real left turn , but I 'd rather have seen a whole episode about that guy showing up and Mulder getting back at him . " X @-@ Files writer James Wong also had a negative view of the episode , saying " I think that was one of the most confusing episodes I 've ever seen . It had some really neat ideas in it , but I don 't think it pulled together finally . "

The episode is the first in the series to mention the concept of walk @-@ ins , a plot device that would later be used five seasons later , when the truth about Samantha 's abduction was finally revealed to Mulder . It should also be noted that the adherents of the Red Museum believed that the year 2012 will bring about the dawning of The New Age . In the series ' finale , " The Truth , " it is revealed to Mulder by the Cigarette Smoking Man that the alien colonists plan to colonize the earth on December 22nd , 2012 . Despite the developments in the show 's mythological plot arc , this 2012 reference is the first explicit reference to the date of the planned colonization , a date that is only finally confirmed in the series finale — both to Mulder and the audience — seven seasons later . "

= = Broadcast and reception = =

" Red Museum " premiered on the Fox network on December 9 , 1994 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 9 @.@ 9 million households .

The episode received mostly mixed to negative reviews from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave " Red Museum " a B , noting that the episode was " creative if convoluted . " Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club criticized the way " Red Museum " was written , writing that the episode , " tries the neat trick of combining what appears to be a [ Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week ] ep with mythos ; the results are intriguing , but not entirely successful . " He concluded that the episode was " good " but ultimately " forgettable . " Critical Myth 's John Keegan gave the episode 5 / 10 , criticizing the complexity of the plot . He wrote that " Fairly quickly , The X @-@ Files gained a reputation for episodes that were so convoluted and confusing that few people could make sense of them . This episode stands as one of the shining examples of that trend , and it ’ s only appropriate that the episode was written by Chris Carter . "

= Henry Chadwick ( theologian ) =

Henry Chadwick , KBE , FBA ( 23 June 1920 – 17 June 2008 ) was a British academic and Church of England priest . A former Dean of Christ Church Cathedral , Oxford – and as such , head of Christ Church , Oxford – he also served as Master of Peterhouse , Cambridge , becoming the first person in four centuries to have headed a college at both universities .

A leading historian of the early church , Chadwick was appointed Regius Professor at both the universities of Oxford and Cambridge . He was a noted supporter of improved relations with the Roman Catholic Church , and a leading member of the Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission ( ARCIC ) . An accomplished musician , having studied music to degree level , he took a leading part in the revision and updating of hymnals widely used within Anglicanism , chairing the board of the publisher , Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd . , for twenty years .

= = Family and early life = =

Born in Bromley , Kent , Henry Chadwick was the son of a barrister ( who died when Chadwick was five ) and a music @-@ loving mother . He had a number of accomplished siblings : Sir John Chadwick served as the British Ambassador to Romania , and the Revd William Owen Chadwick and his other brother also became priests . Despite this , it was one of his sisters he would later describe as " the brightest of us all " . Chadwick was educated at Eton College , where he became a King 's Scholar . Although he did not show much aptitude as a Grecian , his lifelong love of music made its first appearance and resulted in his receiving organ lessons from Henry Ley .

After leaving Eton , he went to Magdalene College , Cambridge , on a music scholarship , and was expected to make music his career . A highlight of his undergraduate musical career was playing a two piano arrangement of Chabrier 's España with Boris Ord , then organist of King 's College , Cambridge . However , Chadwick chose to further his interest in Evangelical Christianity , which had existed from his school days . He graduated in 1941 and began his theological training in 1942 , at Ridley Hall , Cambridge , being ordained deacon by the Archbishop of Canterbury , in Canterbury Cathedral , in 1943 and priest by the Bishop of Dover in 1944 . He served a curacy at the Evangelical parish of Emmanuel , Croydon , arriving towards the end of the Second World War , as Croydon was attacked by German V @-@ weapons , which provided a difficult pastoral challenge . From there , he became an assistant master at Wellington College . He married Peggy in 1945 .

= = Academic career = =

= = = Cambridge = = =

Chadwick became a Fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , with his appointment as Chaplain in 1946 , and in 1950 advanced to the position of Dean . His rising academic reputation was confirmed in 1953 with the publication of a project had occupied him since the days of his curacy — his new translation of Origen 's Contra Celsum , with introduction and notes . He had by now made himself an expert in Patristic Greek ; only an inexactness in philology marking his earlier abandonment of Greek for music . Also in 1953 he was appointed co @-@ editor ( with Hedley Sparks ) of the Journal of Theological Studies and continued editing it until 1985 . He held the university appointment of Hulsean Lecturer from 1954 – 6 .

= = = Oxford = = =

Chadwick moved to Oxford in 1959 , to take up the position of Regius Professor of Divinity ( and with it the associated canonry at Christ Church Cathedral ) at the relatively young age of 39 . He was named a Fellow of the British Academy ( FBA ) soon after , and in 1962 Gifford Lecturer at the University of St Andrews lecturing on Authority in the Early Church . He gave a second series of lectures in 1963 – 4 , on Authority in Christian Theology . 1963 also saw him appointed to an early Anglican inquiry into the issues surrounding the ordination of women . In the 1960s , along with scholars like E. R. Dodds , Peter Brown , and John Matthews , Chadwick helped make Oxford a centre in the developing study of Late Antiquity . He clarified the classical philosophical roots of Christian thinkers from Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria to Augustine of Hippo , and set about raising academic standards within the theology department — in particular making the degree of Doctor of Divinity ( DD ) into a genuine research degree , as opposed to an honorary award made to senior clerics who had produced a volume of sermons . 1967 saw the publication of his most widely read work , The Early Church , published under the Pelican imprint of Penguin Books . He was disappointed that he was allowed to include so few footnotes in the original publication , and correspondingly delighted when the publishers of a German edition requested additional notes for their translation . That same year he was appointed to a Church of England doctrine commission investigating " The place of the Articles in the Anglican tradition and the question of Subscription and Assent to them " , which produced its report in July 1968 ready for that year 's Lambeth Conference . The report ultimately led to changes in the doctrinal affirmations required of Church of England clergy at their ordination or on taking up new appointments . In 1968 he was appointed a vice @-@ president of the British Academy .

In 1969 , Chadwick was appointed Dean of Christ Church , uniquely a dual role as a cathedral dean and head of a college . This period was not entirely happy ; a scholarly ability to see all sides of a question , along with an ingrained desire not to upset his colleagues , sometimes made it hard for him to make a quick or firm decision . However , during his time as Dean the college benefited from a continued programme of renovation with internal changes that provided more student accommodation . The position gave Chadwick the chance to influence the musical direction of the cathedral . In The Independent newspaper , obituary writer Andrew Louth notes that at the retirement of Sydney Watson as organist , when he and Chadwick played piano duets together Chadwick 's technique was the equal of Watson 's . The new organist , Simon Preston , had ambitious plans for improving musical standards , and Chadwick was pleased to be able to support these , not least by raising funds for a new organ .

Chadwick also found time to contribute to the administration of the wider university , serving on the Hebdomadal Council , as a Delegate of Oxford University Press , as one of the curators of the Bodleian , and as Pro @-@ Vice @-@ Chancellor 1974 – 5 . It was during this period that he began to participate in the discussions of the Anglican – Roman Catholic International Commission ( ARCIC ) ; he was a member of the commission 1969 – 81 and again 1983 – 90 @.@  his early Evangelical sympathies having been tempered over time , helped by his friendship with Edward Yarnold , Master of Campion Hall . He was a master of the Anglican approach of producing statements capable of a range of interpretations to enable common ground to be reached , this worked well for simpler historical differences , but did not always impress the Roman Catholic members of the commission when it came to questions of ecclesiology and church authority . He was also able to use his historical background to put forward summaries of early church positions on a variety of subjects , and he had a true desire to establish consensus on the basis of the principles revealed by this research . Although his scholarly output suffered from the pressures on his time , he was editor of Oxford Early Christian Texts ( from 1970 ) , and was able to work on two major monographs , Priscillian of Avila : the occult and the charismatic in the early Church ( published 1976 ) and Boethius : the consolations of music , logic , theology and philosophy ( published 1981 ) . The second of these in particular allowing him to draw on the full range of his interests .

= = = Return to Cambridge = = =

In 1979 , Chadwick resigned the deanship , returning to Cambridge to take up the Regius Chair of Divinity . Additionally , he became a Syndic of Cambridge University Press , a Fellow of Magdalene , and was installed as an honorary canon of Ely Cathedral . He gained a reputation as a popular lecturer in Cambridge , and between 1982 and 1983 gave the Sarum Lectures in Oxford , for which his subject was Augustine of Hippo . Edited , these lectures became the basis for his 1986 book , Augustine . He retired from the professorship in 1983 and settled in Oxford .

After four years in retirement , he received an unexpected invitation to become Master of Peterhouse in 1987 , thus becoming the first person in over four centuries to lead a college at both Oxford and Cambridge . Chadwick 's second appointment as head of a college proved a happier experience than his first . The college had been experiencing some problems following the admission of the first female students , to which some fellows were implacably opposed , making their displeasure known at High Table . Chadwick insisted on civility , which coupled with the retirement of some of the fellows , ensured an improvement in the atmosphere within the college . This continued after his second retirement ( again to Oxford ) in 1993 . He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1989 Queen 's Birthday Honours . In 1991 he published a new translation of Augustine 's Confessions , with extensive notes revealing Augustine 's debt to Plotinus .

Chadwick also edited Oxford Early Christian Studies ( from 1990 ) . With his brother Owen , he edited The Oxford History of the Christian Church ( 12 vols . , 1981 – 2010 ) . His own volumes in this series were The Church in Ancient Society : from Galilee to Gregory the Great ( 2001 ) and East and West : The Making of a Rift in the Church : From Apostolic Times until the Council of Florence ( 2005 ) . His final work was to have been on Photios I of Constantinople , research for which covered many of his interests , particularly classical learning and Christianity , and ecumenism . Some of his material on the topic was published in East and West . He was also an Editorial Advisor of Dionysius . He died in Oxford on 17 June 2008 .

= = Reputation and recognition = =

Writing in an obituary for The Guardian , the then Archbishop of Canterbury , Rowan Williams , wrote , " ' The Anglican church , ' it was said , ' may not have a Pope , but it does have Henry Chadwick . ' " and further described him as an " aristocrat among Anglican scholars " . Other obituaries and appreciations describe how he was generous with his time and knowledge , and always ready to point students in the right direction . The Independent credits his capacious memory and a personal library of around 20 @,@ 000 books as the foundation of his broad scholarship . According to The Times , when reviewing others ' writing he was usually generous , though capable of a courteous demolition job when well @-@ deserved .

A capable preacher , though doubtful of his ability when preaching to a non @-@ academic congregation , Chadwick was well regarded as a lecturer and companion at High Table . However , a natural shyness could give him a rather remote air . On an American lecture tour , he noticed three young women who came to every lecture , but took no notes . At the end of lectures he asked the women how they had enjoyed them , to be told that they had no real interest in the subject itself , but they loved to hear him speak . The character of the college provost in the A Staircase in Surrey novels of Christ Church colleague J. I. M. Stewart was based on that of Chadwick .

Chadwick held honorary degrees from the universities of Glasgow , Uppsala , Yale , Leeds , Manchester , Surrey , Chicago , Harvard , Jena and the Augustinian University of Rome . He was made an honorary fellow of Queens ' College , Cambridge , in 1958 , just before he took up his Oxford Chair ; and of Magdalene College , Cambridge , in 1962 . He also treasured a stole given to him by Pope John Paul II in 1982 , and this was placed on his coffin during his funeral at Christ Church on 25 June 2008 . Two Festschriften were made in his honour , one for his contributions to the study of church history ( Christian Authority , ed . Gillian Evans , 1988 ) , the other for his ecumenical work ( The Making of Orthodoxy , ed . Rowan Williams , 1989 ) . In addition to his work on ARCIC he was involved in similar conversations with the Eastern Orthodox Churches . In 1974 Ladbrokes had Chadwick at odds of 7 – 1 for appointment as the next Archbishop of Canterbury ; his brother Owen was at 6 – 1 . In 1984 The Times reported that both brothers were reputed to have turned down more than one bishopric .

Chadwick 's love of music led him to serve for twenty years as chairman of the council of Hymns Ancient & Modern Ltd . During this time the company expanded its scope . From producing the hymnbooks Hymns Ancient and Modern ( A & M ) , and The English Hymnal , it also took ownership of Canterbury Press , SCM Press , and the Church Times , leading to jokes that Chadwick was an ecclesiastical Rupert Murdoch . He was heavily involved in the editorial process leading to the supplements to A & M , 100 Hymns for Today , More Hymns for Today , Worship Songs Ancient and Modern , and Hymns Ancient and Modern New Standard , which combined the best of the original book with that from the supplements into a single volume , and also the most recent revision , Common Praise . He had particularly argued for the inclusion of the Spiritual , Steal Away , and this was amongst the music used at his funeral .

= = Publications = =

Chadwick published over 125 books , monographs , articles etc . Mentioned in obituaries as being particularly notable are :

Origen : Contra Celsum ( 1953 )

Early Christian Thought and The Classical Tradition : Studies in Justin , Clement , and Origen ( Oxford , 1966 )

Priscillian of Avila : The Occult and the Charismatic in the Early Church ( 1976 )

Augustine ( Past Masters , Oxford , 1986 )

Saint Augustine : Confessions ( Translation , introduction , notes . Oxford , 1991 )

The Early Church ( The Penguin History of the Church , 1967 revised 1993 )

The Church in Ancient Society : From Galilee to Gregory the Great ( Oxford History of the Christian Church , 2001 )

East and West : the making of a rift in the Church ( History of the Christian Church , 2003 )

= Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European root =

The roots of the reconstructed Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European language ( PIE ) are basic parts of words that carry a lexical meaning , so @-@ called morphemes . PIE roots usually have verbal meaning like " eat " or " run " . Roots never occur alone in the language . Complete inflected words like verbs , nouns or adjectives are formed by adding further morphemes to a root .

= = Word formation = =

Typically , a root plus a suffix forms a stem , and adding an ending forms a word .

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For example , * bʰéreti ' he carries ' can be split into the root * bʰer- ' to carry ' , the suffix * -e- ' imperfective aspect ' and the ending * -ti ' present tense , third person singular ' .

The suffix is sometimes missing , which has been interpreted as a zero suffix . Words with zero suffix are termed root verbs and root nouns . Beyond this basic structure , there is the nasal infix , a present tense marker , and reduplication , a sort of prefix with a number of grammatical and derivational functions .

= = = Finite verbs = = =

Verbal suffixes , including the zero suffix , convey grammatical information about tense and aspect , two grammatical categories that are not clearly distinguished . Present and aorist are universally recognised , while some of the other aspects remain controversial . Two of the four moods , the subjunctive and the optative , are also formed with suffixes , which sometimes results in forms with two consecutive suffixes : * bʰér @-@ e @-@ e @-@ ti > * bʰérēti ' he would carry ' , with the first * e being the present tense marker , and the second the subjunctive marker . Reduplication can mark the present and the perfect .

Verbal endings convey information about grammatical person , number and voice . The imperative mood has its own set of endings .

= = = Nouns and adjectives = = =

Nouns usually derive from roots or verb stems by suffixation or by other means ( see the morphology of the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European noun for some examples ) . This can hold even for roots that are often translated as nouns : * ped- , for example , can mean ' to tread ' or ' foot ' , depending on the ablaut grade and ending . Some nouns like * agʷn @-@ o- ' lamb ' or * h ₂ ster- ' star ' , however , do not derive from verbal roots . In any case , the meaning of a noun is given by its stem , whether this is composed of a root plus a suffix or not . This leaves the ending , which conveys case and number .

Adjectives are also derived by suffixation of ( usually verbal ) roots . An example is * ǵn ̥ h ₁ -tó @-@ s ' begotten , produced ' from the root * ǵenh ₁ - ' to beget , to produce ' . The endings are the same as with nouns .

= = = Infinitives and participles = = =

Infinitives are verbal nouns and , just like other nouns , are formed with suffixes . It is not clear whether any of the infinitive suffixes reconstructed from the daughter languages ( * -dʰye- , * -tu- , * -ti- , among others ) was actually used to express an infinitive in PIE .

Participles are verbal adjectives formed with the suffixes * -ent- ( active imperfective and aorist participle ) , * -wos- ( perfect participle ) and * -mh ₁ no- or * -m ( e ) no- ( mediopassive participle ) , among others .

= = Shape of a root = =

In its base form , a PIE root consists of a single vowel , preceded and followed by consonants . Except for a very few cases , the root is fully characterized by its consonants , while the vowel may alternate in accordance with inflection or word derivation . Thus , the root * bʰer- can also appear as * bʰor- , with a long vowel as * bʰēr- or * bʰōr- , or even unsyllabic as * bʰr- , in different grammatical contexts . This process is called ablaut .

In linguistic works , * e is used to stand in for the various ablaut grades that the vowel may appear in . Some reconstructions also include roots with * a as the vowel , but the existence of * a as a distinct vowel is disputed ; see Indo @-@ European ablaut : a @-@ grade . The vowel is flanked on both sides by one or more consonants ; the preceding consonants are the onset , the following ones are the coda .

The onset and coda must contain at least one consonant ; a root may not begin or end with the ablaut vowel . Consequently , the simplest roots have an onset and coda consisting of one consonant each . Such simple roots are common ; examples are : * deh ₃ - ' to give ' , * bʰer- ' to carry ' , * dʰeh ₁ - ' to put ' , * dʰew- ' to run ' , * h ₁ ed- ' to eat ' , * h ₂ eḱ- ' sharp ' , * ped- ' to tread ' , * sed- ' to sit ' , * wes- ' to clothe ' . Roots can also have a more complex onset and coda , consisting of a consonant cluster ( multiple consonants ) . These include : * dʰwes- ' to breathe ' , * h ₁ rewdʰ- ' red ' , * h ₂ erh ₃ - ' to plough ' , * h ₃ reǵ- ' straight ' , * leyǵ- ' to bind ' , * prews- ' to freeze ' , * srew- ' to flow ' and * swep- ' to sleep ' , * wleykʷ- ' to moisten ' . The maximum number of consonants seems to be five , as in * strengʰ- ' to twine ' .

Early PIE scholars reconstructed a number of roots beginning or ending with a vowel . The latter type always had a long vowel ( * dʰē- ' to put ' , * bʰwā- ' to grow ' , * dō- ' to give ' ) , while this restriction did not hold for vowel @-@ initial roots ( * ed- ' to eat ' , * aǵ- ' to drive ' , * od- ' to smell ' ) . Laryngeal theory can explain this behaviour by reconstructing a laryngeal following the vowel ( * dʰeh ₁ - , * bʰweh ₂ - , * deh ₃ - , resulting in a long vowel ) or preceding it ( * h ₁ ed- , * h ₂ eǵ- , * h ₃ ed- , resulting in a short vowel ) . These reconstructions obey the mentioned rules .

= = = Sonority hierarchy = = =

When the onset or coda of a root contains a consonant cluster , the consonants in this cluster must be ordered according to their sonority . The vowel constitutes a sonority peak , and the sonority must progressively rise in the onset and progressively fall in the coda .

PIE roots distinguish three main classes of consonants , arranged from high to low sonority :

Non @-@ labial sonorants * l , * r , * y , * n , denoted collectively as R.

Labial sonorants * w * m , denoted collectively as M.

Obstruents , denoted collectively as * C. These include three subgroups :

Plosives ( voiceless * p * t * ḱ * k * kʷ , voiced * b * d * ǵ * g * gʷ and aspirated * bʰ * dʰ * ǵʰ * gʰ * gʷʰ ) , denoted collectively as * P.

The sibilant * s .

The laryngeals * h ₁ * h ₂ * h ₃ , denoted collectively as H.

The following rules apply :

A consonant closer to the main vowel must have a higher sonority than the consonant further away . Thus , consonants in the onset must follow the order CMR , and the reverse RMC in the coda , giving CMReRMC as the full root shape . Roots with a different order of sonority , like * * mter- or * * resl- , are not allowed .

Only one member of each sonority class may appear in the onset or coda . Thus , roots like * * wmek- , * * lekt- or * * peyl- are not allowed .

Strangely , laryngeals can also occur in the coda before a sonorant , as in * peh ₂ w- ' small ' .

= = = Obstruent clusters = = =

The obstruent slot of an onset or coda may consist of multiple obstruents itself . Here , too , only one member of each subgroup of obstruents may appear in the cluster ; a cluster may not contain multiple laryngeals , sibilants or plosives .

The rules for the ordering within a cluster of obstruents are somewhat different , and do not fit into the general sonority hierarchy :

* s may appear only before a plosive , not after it . Thus , * speḱ- ' to observe ' , * steh ₂ - ' to stand ' and * strew- ' to spread ' are valid roots . * * tser- and * * ḱeps- are not . Plosives are automatically devoiced when preceded by * s in the onset .

A laryngeal may appear before or after any obstruent other than another laryngeal . Examples are * keh ₂ p- ' to grab ' , * peth ₂ - ' to fly ' .

In several roots , an unusual phenomenon called s @-@ mobile occurs , where some descendants include a prepended * s while other forms lack it . There does not appear to be any particular pattern ; sometimes forms with * s and without it even occur side by side in the same language .

= = = Further restrictions = = =

PIE abided by the general cross @-@ linguistic constraint against the co @-@ occurrence of two similar consonants in a word root . In particular , no examples are known of roots containing two plain voiced plosives ( * * ged- ) or two glides ( * * ler- ) . A few examples of roots with two fricatives , two nasals , or two glides ( * h ₂ eh ₃ - , * nem- etc . ) can be reconstructed , but they were rare as well . An exception , however , were the voiceless and voiced aspirated plosives , which relatively commonly co @-@ occurred ( e.g. * peth ₂ - ' to fly ' , * dʰegʷʰ- ' to burn ' ) . In particular , roots with two voiced aspirates were more than twice as common than could be expected to occur by chance .

An additional constraint prohibited roots containing both a voiced aspirated and a voiceless plosive ( * * tebʰ- ) , unless the latter occurs in a word @-@ initial cluster after an * s ( e.g. * stebʰ- ' to stiffen ' ) . Taken together with the abundance of * DʰeDʰ @-@ type roots , it has been proposed that this distribution results from a limited process of voice assimilation in pre @-@ PIE , where a voiceless stop was assimilated to a voiced aspirate , if another one followed or preceded within a root .

= = = Exceptions = = =

Some roots cannot be reconstructed with an ablauting * e , an example being * bʰuH- ' to grow , to become ' . Such roots can be seen as generalized zero grades of forms like * * bʰweH- , and thus follow the phonotactical rules .

Some roots like * pster- ' to sneeze ' or * pteh ₂ k- ' to duck ' do not appear to follow these rules . This might be due to incomplete understanding of PIE phonotactics or to wrong reconstructions . * pster- , for example , might not have existed in PIE at all , if the Indo @-@ European words usually traced back to it are onomatopoeias .

Thorn clusters are sequences of a dental ( * t * d * dʰ ) plus a velar plosive ( * k * g * gʰ etc . ) . Their role in PIE phonotactics is unknown . Roots like * dʰgʷʰei- ' to perish ' apparently violate the phonotactical rules , but are quite common .

= = Lexical meaning = =

The meaning of a reconstructed root is conventionally that of a verb ; the terms root and verbal root are almost synonymous in PIE grammar . This is because , apart from a limited number of so @-@ called root nouns , PIE roots overwhelmingly participate in verbal inflection through well @-@ established morphological and phonological mechanisms . Their meanings are not always directly reconstructible , due to semantic shifts that led to discrepancies in the meanings of reflexes in the attested daughter languages . Many nouns and adjectives are derived from verbal roots via suffixes and ablaut .

Nevertheless , some roots did exist that did not have a primary verbal derivation . Apart from the aforementioned root nouns , the most important of these were the so @-@ called Caland roots , which had adjectival meaning . Such roots generally formed proterokinetic adjectives with the suffix * -u- , thematic adjectives in * -ró- and compounding stems in * -i- . They included at least * h ₁ rewdʰ- ' red ' , * h ₂ erǵ- ' white ' , * dʰewb- ' deep ' and * gʷreh ₂ - ' heavy ' .

Verbal roots were inherently imperfective ( durative , present ) or perfective ( punctual , aoristic ) . To form a verb from the root 's own aspect , verb endings were attached directly to the root , either with or without a thematic vowel . The " other " aspect , if it was needed , would then be a so @-@ called " characterised " stem , as detailed in Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European verb . The characterised stems are often different in different descendants , which suggests that they did not yet exist in PIE proper .

= = Creation of new roots = =

Roots were occasionally created anew within PIE or its early descendants . A variety of methods have been observed .

= = = Root extensions = = =

Root extensions are additions of one or two sounds , often plosives , to the end of a root . These extensions do not seem to change the meaning of a root , and often lead to variant root forms across different descendants . The source and function of these extensions is not known .

For * ( s ) tew- ' to push , hit , thrust ' , we can reconstruct :

* ( s ) tewk- > Ancient Greek τύκος ( túkos ) ' hammer'

* ( s ) tewg- > English stoke ( Germanic k goes back to PIE * g . )

* ( s ) tewd- > Vedic tudáti ' beats'

= = = Sonorant metathesis = = =

When the root contains a sonorant , the zero grade is ambiguous as to whether the sonorant should be placed before the ablaut vowel or after it . Speakers occasionally analysed such roots the " wrong " way , and this has led to some roots being created from existing ones by swapping the position of the sonorant .

An example of such a pair of roots , both meaning ' to increase , to enlarge ' :

* h ₂ weg- > Gothic wahsjan , Ancient Greek aéksō .

* h ₂ ewg- > Gothic aukan , Latin augeō , Lithuanian áugti .

Another example concerns the root ' sky ' :

* dyew- > Ancient Greek Zeus , Latin diēs , Sanskrit dyú .

* deyw- > Latin dīvus , Old Prussian deiwis , Sanskrit devá .

= M @-@ 14 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 14 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the southeastern portion of the US state of Michigan . Entirely freeway , it runs for 22 @.@ 250 miles ( 35 @.@ 808 km ) to connect Ann Arbor with Detroit by way of a connection with Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) . The western terminus is at a partial interchange with I @-@ 94 west of Ann Arbor . From there , the freeway curves around the north side of Ann Arbor and runs concurrently with US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) . East of that section , M @-@ 14 passes through woodlands and fields in Washtenaw County . In Wayne County , the freeway returns to a suburban area of mixed residential neighborhoods and light industrial areas . It crosses two different rivers and a pair of rail lines as it approaches Detroit 's inner suburbs , where it terminates at an interchange between I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 275 .

When the state 's highway system was first signed in 1919 , there was a different M @-@ 14 that ran the length of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan . This was later replaced by a pair of different US Highways in the 1920s and 1930s . Another M @-@ 14 was designated that lasted until the 1940s . The current highway dates back to 1956 when it was designated along a series of roads that previously carried US 12 . During the 1960s and 1970s , M @-@ 14 was moved to the freeway alignment it currently uses ; sections of the former route are still maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) as unsigned highways .

= = Route description = =

The western terminus of M @-@ 14 is west of Ann Arbor , at exit 171 on I @-@ 94 . This is a partial interchange ; only traffic from eastbound I @-@ 94 can access eastbound M @-@ 14 , and traffic from westbound M @-@ 14 must follow westbound I @-@ 94 . From this junction , M @-@ 14 runs northeasterly through suburban Scio Township . The freeway is bordered by residential subdivisions to the southeast and woodlands to the northwest . M @-@ 14 curves around to the east through an interchange that has ramps that connect Miller and Maple roads ; the ramps connect to Maple Road through a pair of roundabouts . As it approaches the Huron River , the freeway has an interchange with Business US 23 ( Bus . US 23 ) ; the two highways merge and run concurrently to the north over the river . Bus . US 23 / M @-@ 14 then has an ususual right @-@ in / right @-@ out interchange that uses short connector roads to provide access to Barton Drive on the north side of the river . The freeway then continues north to an interchange with US 23 . The business loop ends there , and M @-@ 14 turns eastward to follow the US 23 freeway around the north side of Ann Arbor .

The US 23 / M @-@ 14 freeway runs for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before US 23 turns southward to run between Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti while M @-@ 14 continues east through Ann Arbor Township past Domino 's Farms , the office complex for Domino 's Pizza that was to be the home to Tom Monaghan 's Leaning Tower of Pizza . East of that complex , M @-@ 14 runs through woodlands and fields north of the community of Dixboro . The freeway turns northeasterly after the interchange with M @-@ 153 . At the Napier Road underpass , M @-@ 14 crosses into Wayne County .

Once across the county line , the M @-@ 14 freeway runs through residential subdivisions from the western Detroit suburbs . There is an interchange for Beck Road as M @-@ 14 turns back to the east . The freeway crosses a rail line operated by CSX Transportation The freeway passes Ford Motor Company 's Sheldon Road Plant near the Sheldon Road interchange . There is a crossing for another CSX rail line near the bridges over the River Rouge by the St. Johns Golf Course . The freeway through this area curves around a bit north of its previous course . As M @-@ 14 nears the Livonia city line , it meets an interchange with I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 275 that marks the eastern terminus of M @-@ 14 in Plymouth Township .

M @-@ 14 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 14 were the 86 @,@ 500 vehicles daily east of the Sheldon Road interchange in Plymouth Township ; the lowest counts were the 26 @,@ 641 vehicles per day west of the Miller Road interchange . All of M @-@ 14 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

= = = Previous designations = = =

In July 1919 , M @-@ 14 was signed on a north – south route that ran most of the length of the Lower Peninsula , beginning at the Ohio state line south of Hudson to end three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of downtown Cheboygan . It mostly followed the path of present @-@ day US 127 , I @-@ 75 and M @-@ 27 . This edition of M @-@ 14 was truncated in November 1926 when the US Highway System was formed . From the Jackson area north to Lansing , it was US 127 ; from Lansing to Cheboygan , it was US 27 . In 1930 , US 127 was rerouted to replace the remainder of M @-@ 14 when US 223 was created . Right afterwards , M @-@ 14 was designated from Battle Creek to Edmore . This designation of M @-@ 14 was eliminated when M @-@ 66 was rerouted to replace it in the mid @-@ 1940s .

= = = Current designation = = =

In 1956 , the portion of US 12 from the west side of Ann Arbor into Detroit was rerouted from surface streets to new stretches of freeways running south of Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti . The former route of US 12 , much of which was known as Plymouth Road , was retained as a trunkline and redesignated M @-@ 14 . In 1964 , a northern bypass connecting US 23 with M @-@ 153 was completed , and M @-@ 14 was rerouted onto the new freeway ; the highway still ran through Ann Arbor along routes now designated Bus . US 23 and Business Loop I @-@ 94 . The following year , the freeway was extended to its present western terminus at I @-@ 94 , and M @-@ 14 is removed from the business routes and transferred to the expressway .

In 1977 , when the Jeffries Freeway ( I @-@ 96 ) was completed , M @-@ 14 was shortened to have its eastern terminus at I @-@ 275 exit 28 in Plymouth Township , and the portion of Plymouth Road within the city of Detroit was returned to local control . The portion of Plymouth Road – Ann Arbor Road between I @-@ 275 and the city boundary with Redford Township was retained as an unsigned trunkline , maintained by the state to this day . In 1979 , the final segment of the M @-@ 14 freeway , between M @-@ 153 and I @-@ 275 was completed . The former route of M @-@ 14 in Washtenaw County along Plymouth – Ann Arbor Road was returned to local control . The portion of Ann Arbor Road from the Wayne County line east to I @-@ 275 also became an unsigned state trunkline , also still maintained by MDOT .

= = Exit list = =

= The Ghost Network =

" The Ghost Network " is the third episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer David H. Goodman and supervising producer J. R. Orci , and was directed by Frederick E. O. Toye . The episode follows the Fringe team 's investigation into a bus that was filled with amber , encasing the people inside . They discover a man named Roy ( Zak Orth ) who predicted it and other similar events , and Walter realizes Roy has connections to a past experiment he did over twenty years ago , called the " Ghost Network " .

The episode was important in the show 's evolution , as the writers noted that Roy was the first guest character the audience could get emotionally invested in . " The Ghost Network " also included their quest to explain seemingly impossible and weird phenomenon through a real scientific explanation from Walter 's past research .

It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 23 , 2008 . An estimated 9 @.@ 42 million viewers watched the episode on its first broadcast . It received mixed reviews , with many believing the show to be finally finding its legs , while others worried over the ongoing formulaic storylines featured in each episode .

= = Plot = =

A man named Roy McComb ( Zak Orth ) confesses to his priest that he sees visions of bad things , including a bus where everyone is going to die . Simultaneously with this scene , a man enters a bus , unleashes a canister emitting gaseous fumes , and steals a backpack before quickly getting off . The Fringe team arrives soon after , only to find the fumes have hardened into an amber @-@ like substance , trapping and killing those inside . Walter ( John Noble ) studies the substance and concludes it started out as a gas and then solidified , suffocating the passengers . While looking at a victim 's video footage , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) discovers a backpack is missing , and traces it back to one of the victims , a Federal employee with undercover connections to a drug cartel . They interview her " handler " , who comes to identify her body . The Fringe team finds out about Roy , and search through his apartment , believing he is behind the bus and other Pattern @-@ related terror attacks . They soon realize all of his drawings are dated before the incidents took place , despite the fact that several of them were never made public . In an interrogation , Roy tells Charlie ( Kirk Acevedo ) he 's been receiving his visions for nine months , roughly when they began seeing Pattern @-@ related attacks .

Meanwhile , they trace the substance to Massive Dynamic . Olivia interviews Massive Dynamic executive Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) , who tells her the substance has been seen in an attack before . Walter suspects Roy is psychic and runs tests on him before realizing Roy has some kind of magnetic compound in his blood . This leads Walter to recall he and his old lab partner William Bell had conducted research on creating a " Ghost Network " to secretly communicate messages from one person to another in an otherwise undetectable frequency range . During this research , Roy was one of his past test subjects . Walter further theorizes that someone else has perfected his research , and that Roy is overhearing secret messages from some of the people behind the terrorist attacks . Olivia and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) arrive at his old house to find equipment needed to tap into Roy 's mind .

Using the equipment , they are able to intercept messages in Latin detailing an upcoming exchange at South Station in an hour . They realize the handler removed a small crystalline disk from the Federal agent 's hand when he identified her body , and that he is now going to exchange it for something else . Olivia intercepts the man , who is killed before she can talk to him . She chases another man involved in the exchange , who commits suicide in front of a bus after giving them a briefcase containing the disc . Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) secretly gives the disc to Nina for analysis , while Roy is sent home , as they believe he will no longer see visions because the Ghost Network has been compromised .

= = Production = =

= = = Writing = = =

Executive producer Jeff Pinkner decided he wanted fellow executive producer David H. Goodman and supervising producer J. R. Orci to collaborate in writing the episode ; Goodman wrote the first half , while Orci wrote the rest of the episode . The two later worked together on only one other episode , " The Equation " . Frederick E. O. Toye directed the episode , as he had worked previously with the writers on Alias . The writers had the idea for a couple of weeks of Olivia walking into an apartment and discovering walls covered with drawings of events that " no man could possibly have known about " . They wanted to take " urban myths or legends of strange events " and come up with a fringe science equivalent ; this led them to creating the story of Roy , a man with seemingly " psychic " abilities , which they then expanded by offering a real scientific explanation in the form of Walter 's past research . In the show 's early development , the producers were also unsure about how other aspects should be developed , such as Joshua Jackson 's character Peter . For instance , in " The Ghost Network " , they debated whether or not Peter would break into his childhood home before finally " stalling and just let him do it " ; Orci came up with Peter 's explanation to Olivia , that he used to live there so it wasn 't really breaking in .

= = = Casting = = =

The character Roy McComb was played by actor Zak Orth . Roy 's name was inspired from Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind . The writers noted in the audio commentary that Roy was the first guest character the audience could get emotionally invested in . They wanted the actor to shave off his head in preparation for the experimentation scene in Walter 's lab , but Orth successfully " begged " them to change their minds . When casting for the part of Grant , the writers looked for a man similar in appearance to previous character John Scott ( Mark Valley ) , as they wanted " to play into whatever Olivia 's feelings about how she was or was not betrayed by John " . Peter Hermann won the part .

= = = Filming = = =

Orci came up with the idea to start the episode in a church 's confessional , while the ambered scene on the bus was originally scripted to take place on a subway ; one of the writers felt the bus " let you see more of the city " . Early in the show 's creation the writers were trying to figure out what Fringe could be , and ultimately chose " big crazy event [ s ] " at the start of each episode that would catapult its plot and drive its characters . They felt the bus scene essentially achieved this . When creating the scene on the bus when the gas canister is released , the crew sat on a bus that was really driving through the streets of New York City ; director Frederick Toye called the shooting " Student film style , run and gun " . To shoot the three scenes of the bus in the tunnel , the crew looked at a variety of locations before choosing a tunnel near the United Nations headquarters on the east side of Manhattan . As it was a busy area , they had to shoot at night and then attempt to make it appear to be daytime , as the scenes were set during the day . They had a limited schedule to shoot all three scenes , and despite never having seen the tunnel before , the production crews had 8 @-@ 9 hours to quickly set up the massive set and leave enough time to shoot the scenes before dawn approached . To simulate being encased in amber , the actors had to pretend they were frozen .

The episode marked the first time composer Michael Giacchino worked with assistant Chad Seiter on a Fringe episode . Seiter would continue to score the rest of the season 's first half . Joshua Jackson 's character briefly plays the piano in a scene near the end of the episode , and it is really Jackson playing . The writers noted in the audio commentary that Jackson can actually play the piano , and that when he receives musical scenes , he learns the piece ( s ) beforehand to be able to play it for the scene .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

" The Ghost Network " first aired in the United States on September 23 , 2008 . The episode 's broadcast was watched by an estimated 9 @.@ 42 million viewers in the US .

= = = Reviews = = =

The episode received mixed reviews . A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with a B , explaining that while he thought it was " much more fun " than the previous week 's episode and enjoyed Peter 's expanded presence , he was growing slightly wearied by the " hint @-@ dropping " of Peter 's past . Murray thought the climax was " so exciting " that he was willing " to forgive the fact that this is the third week in a row that Walter 's big idea has involved some kind of communication with the unconscious " . Jon Lachonis from UGO Networks compared it negatively to the pilot , as he thought " [ ' The Ghost Network ' ] struggled with the aspects that it really needed to prove itself in " . Lachonis also had problems with the villains ' logic , such as needing to kill a bus full of people to get at one person , rather than confront her alone later , though he understood they " just needed something weird to headline the show " . IGN 's Travis Fickett rated it 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , writing that he thought it was a solid episode because the " characters are coming together nicely , the story is better than last week 's – but already it seems the show is hitting a formula " . Fickett expressed worriment that Fringe would eventually become too formulaic , much like the first season of Smallville , and concluded his review by calling Fringe " a solid show , but [ not ] exceptional yet " .

Critics did however praise John Noble 's consistent performance as Walter Bishop , with Jon Lachonis calling it " still fantastically done " . Writing for Mania.com , Stephen Lackey thought that though the episode wasn 't perfect , Fringe had finally seemed to hit its stride , as its " mix of humor and darker storytelling ... is starting to come together nicely " . Lackey concluded his review by expressing his " excitement " at watching Fringe get better and better , and thought the show could become the best new series of the year if it continued to improve with each episode . Another UGO writer , Alex Zalben , compared " The Ghost Network " to the similarly @-@ plotted The X @-@ Files film The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe . Zalben wrote , " Man , that X @-@ Files movie was just no good . Fringe wins . "

= Breathing ( Jason Derulo song ) =

" Breathing " is a song recorded by American recording artist Jason Derulo for his second studio album , Future History ( 2011 ) . It was written by Derulo , Jacob Luttrell , Lauren Christy , Julian Bunetta , Krassimir Tsvetanov Kurkchiyski , Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace , while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. " Breathing " was initially released as one of four promotional singles for the album in September 2011 . It was later released to contemporary hit radio in Australia on October 24 , 2011 , and elsewhere from January 31 , 2012 , as the third single from Future History . Musically , " Breathing " is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house , and features " tribal vocal chorales " in the background . It samples the song " Pilentze Pee " , which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir . Lyrical inspiration for the song came from the death of Derulo 's cousin , who died in 2011 .

" Breathing " garnered positive reviews by many music critics , most of whom praised the production . The song attained moderate chart success , where it peaked inside the top @-@ ten on the singles charts in Australia , Austria , Bulgaria , Germany , Slovakia and Switzerland . Additionally , it reached the top @-@ thirty in France , the Netherlands , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . The song peaked at number 28 on the US Pop Songs chart . " Breathing " was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley , and features Derulo in an abandoned warehouse , as well as other scenes of him shirtless in a blue tinted room . Derulo performed " Breathing " live at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song has been covered by British recording artist Cher Lloyd .

= = Background and release = =

" Breathing " was written by Jason Derulo , Jacob Luttrell , Lauren Christy , Julian Bunetta , Krassimir Tsvetano Kurkchiyski , Shope Trad and Folksong Thrace , while production of the song was helmed by DJ Frank E. The track was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles , with assistance by Erik Madrid and Chris Galland . Luttrell and Frank E played keyboards on the song , and the drums and synth programming was handled by Frank E. During an interview with Digital Spy , Derulo revealed that the inspiration for " Breathing " came from the death of his cousin , who died in 2011 . He stated , " That song means a lot to me as it 's serious and heartfelt " . Derulo further explained that " Breathing " was heavily influenced by African chants , eurodance and rock guitar .

" Breathing " was released digitally worldwide on September 9 , 2011 , as the third promotional single for Future History . The song later impacted contemporary hit radios in Australia on October 24 , 2011 , as the third official single from the album . In the United States , " Breathing " was sent to contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio playlists on January 31 , 2012 . In Germany , it was made available as a CD single on February 24 , 2012 . In the United Kingdom , a CD single and digital EP , which contains the album version , an instrumental version and three remixes of " Breathing " , was released on February 26 , 2012 .

= = Composition and lyrics = =

" Breathing " is three minutes and fifty @-@ four seconds long . It is a Eurodance song that displays influences of electro and house . " Breathing " is written in the key of B ♭ minor and is set in common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute . Derulo 's vocal range spans from the note of F4 to the note of F6 . The song features " tribal vocal chorales " in the background , and samples the song " Pilentze Pee " , which is sung by the Bulgarian State Television Female Vocal Choir . The song contains lyrical content about winning back a past love . " Breathing " opens with a " slow build @-@ up of synths and a quick club beat " before Derulo sings : " I only miss you when I 'm breathing / I only miss you when my heart is beating / You are the color that I 'm bleeding / I only miss you when I 'm breathing . " Scott Shetler of PopCrush noted that he appears to be screaming the vocals during the chorus line : " I only miss you when I 'm breathing " , writing that " his final note [ is ] stretched out for several seconds " .

= = Critical reception = =

" Breathing " received positive reviews from music critics . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the song as " hypnotic " and " an impressive club pumper " . He praised " Breathing " for being a perfect tribute to Derulo 's late cousin . Nicole James of MTV Buzzworthy viewed the song as a " more subtle route " than the album 's previous promotional single " Pick Up the Pieces " . She praised Derulo for knowing " how to make a dance song " and wrote that " Breathing " is the type of song you would add " to your Girls ' Night Out playlist " . Aaron @-@ Spencer Charles of Metro wrote that the song is " an anthem for the clubs " that fans of pop and dance music would love . Pete Rivas of The AU Review praised the song 's hook and likened its catchy production to the album 's other two singles " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " It Girl " Scott Shetler and other reviewers of PopCrush wrote that " ' Breathing ' is a song we could definitely get down to in a club " . Ben Chalk of MSN Music viewed " Breathing " as one of the standout tracks on Future History . He concluded by writing that in the song , " Derulo 's energy overshadows the kitchen sink production and inane lyrics " . Meena Rupani of DesiHits noted that " Breathing " is " more tribal " than his previous singles . Rupani also noted Derulo 's continuation of past themes , " as he tries to romance the ladies with his cheesy lyrics but also keep the guys dancing in the clubs with the beats " .

= = Chart performance = =

In Australia , " Breathing " debuted at number 36 on the ARIA Singles Chart on November 14 , 2011 . It peaked at number nine in its fifth week on the chart , becoming Derulo 's sixth top @-@ ten single in that country . " Breathing " also charted on the Australian Urban Singles Chart at number four . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . " Breathing " debuted at number 37 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on December 12 , 2011 . It ascended to number 30 in its third week , but descended the chart for the following two weeks . " Breathing " managed to peak at number 28 in its sixth week . In the United States , " Breathing " peaked at number 28 on the Pop Songs chart , but failed to impact the Billboard Hot 100 .

" Breathing " achieved commercial success in Europe . It peaked at number one on the Bulgarian Airplay Chart , and number four on the Slovak Airplay Chart . In Austria , " Breathing " debuted at number 43 on February 10 , 2012 , and peaked at number eight in its fifth week on the chart . It peaked at number five on the German Singles Chart , becoming Derulo 's third top @-@ ten single in that country . The song was certified gold by The Federal Association of Music Industry ( BVMI ) , denoting shipments of 150 @,@ 000 copies . In Switzerland , " Breathing " debuted at number 33 on March 11 , 2012 . It descended to number 50 in its second week on the chart , but managed to peak at number seven in its seventh week . The song was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . " Breathing " peaked at number 19 on the Irish Singles Chart and spent a total of 10 weeks in the chart . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 101 on January 28 , 2012 , and ascended to number 49 the following week . It managed to peak at number 25 in its seventh week on the chart . " Breathing " also charted on the UK R & B Singles Chart at number nine .

= = Promotion = =

= = = Music video = = =

The accompanying music video for " Breathing " was directed by Colin Tilley and premiered exclusively on PopCrush.com on November 3 , 2011 . The video begins with Derulo on the balcony of a building at night , as well as scenes of him sitting in an old chair surrounded by cobwebs inside an industrial warehouse . There are then scenes which feature Derulo standing shirtless in a dark , blue @-@ tinted room , digitally showing the insides of his body to show the intensity of his emotion . After the first chorus , Derulo then rises out of the chair and begins to dance . During the bridge , Derulo is shown kissing his former love interest , before several female backup dancers join him to perform choreography in the final chorus . Aaron @-@ Spencer Charles of Metro noted that the video had " some impressive footwork and a great ' straight jacket ' dance move with the choreographed piece with female dancers . " A reviewer for 4Music also praised Derulo 's dance routines in the video . Contessa Gayles of AOL Music described the video as " creepy " and compared it to Rihanna 's " Disturbia " ( 2008 ) video .

= = = Live performances and cover versions = = =

On November 6 , 2011 , Derulo performed " Breathing " at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song was part of a set list , which also included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " It Girl " . Holly Thomas of the Daily Mail praised his set , writing that " Jason Derulo gave a steamy performance " . In 2012 , British recording artist Cher Lloyd performed a cover of " Breathing " as part of the set list for her Sticks and Stones Tour .

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes for Future History .

= = Charts and certifications = =

= = Release history = =

= = = Promotional single = = =

= = = Single release = = =

= Scottish art in the eighteenth century =

Scottish art in the eighteenth century is the body of visual art made in Scotland , by Scots , or about Scottish subjects , in the eighteenth century . This period saw development of professionalisation , with art academies were established in Edinburgh and Glasgow . Art was increasingly influenced by Neoclassicism , the Enlightenment and towards the end of the century by Romanticism , with Italy becoming a major centre of Scottish art .

The origins of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting are in the capriccios of Italian and Dutch landscapes undertaken by James Norie and his sons . These were further developed by Jacob More , who added a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape . Alexander Nasmyth helped found the Scottish landscape tradition and was highly influential as a teacher in Edinburgh on the subsequent generation of artists . John Knox linked it with the Romantic works of Walter Scott and was one of the first artists to take an interest in the urban landscape of Glasgow . Aberdeen @-@ born John Alexander and William Mossman were the leading portrait artists of the first half of the century . Allan Ramsay emerged as the leading portrait painter of the mid @-@ century and to the royal family , noted for his intimate representations . Towards the end of the century Henry Raeburn emerged as the leading portraitist and one of the first artists to spend the majority of their career in Scotland , extending his range to leading figures of the Enlightenment and most famous for his depiction of the Skating Minister .

Neoclassicism was pioneered by Gavin Hamilton and his proteges , the brothers John and Alexander Runciman , and David Allan . Alexander Runciman pioneered historical painting and Alan helped develop genre art , both of which would be taken up by Scottish artists in the next century . After the Acts of Union in 1707 there was very little patronage for large and expensive works of art in Scotland . With the growth of civic development there was an increasing demand for public statuary and the portrait bust also became popular . Commissions of new statuary tended to be made in relatively cheap lead and even more economical painted or gilded plaster . From the late eighteenth century there are a handful of examples of work from Scottish artists .

= = Background = =

= = = Professionalisation = = =

Many Scottish painters of the early part of the eighteenth century remained largely artisans . Roderick Chalmers ' ( fl . 1709 – 30 ) painting The Edinburgh Trades ( 1720 ) shows the artist himself , perhaps ironically , among the glaziers , wrights and masons of the burgh . Thomas Warrender ( fl . 1673 – 1713 ) produced the Allegorical Still Life ( after 1708 ) , of a letter board that seems to be a commentary on the union of 1707 , but he made his living as a house decorator , working closely with architects , including William Adam . He may have trained James Norie ( 1684 – 1757 ) , who with his sons James ( 1711 – 36 ) and Robert ( d . 1766 ) , painted the houses of the peerage with Scottish landscapes that were pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . They tutored many artists and have been credited with the inception of the tradition of Scottish landscape painting that would come to fruition from the late eighteenth century . The painters Allan Ramsay ( 1713 – 84 ) , Gavin Hamilton ( 1723 – 98 ) , the brothers John ( 1744 – 68 / 9 ) and Alexander Runciman ( 1736 – 85 ) , Jacob More ( 1740 – 93 ) and David Allan ( 1744 – 96 ) , mostly began in the tradition of the Nories , but were artists of European significance , spending considerable portions of their careers outside Scotland . Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) was the most significant artist of the period to pursue his entire career in Scotland , born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 .

In 1729 there was an attempt to found a school of painting in Edinburgh as the Academy of St. Luke , named after the Renaissance Accademia di San Luca in Rome . Its sponsors were the elder Norie , the poet Allan Ramsay and William Adam . Its president was George Marshall , a painter of still lives and portraits , and its treasurer was the engraver Richard Cooper . Other members included Cooper 's student Robert Strange , the two younger Nories , the portrait painters John Alexander ( c . 1690 @-@ c . 1733 ) and Allan Ramsay , son of the poet ( 1713 – 84 ) . The success of the group was limited by its associations with Jacobitism , with Strange printing bank notes for the rebels . The Foulis Academy was founded in Glasgow in 1754 by the printmaking brothers Robert and Andrew Foulis , and in Edinburgh the Board of Trustees for Fisheries , Manufactures and Improvements in Scotland established the Trustees Drawing Academy in 1760 , indicating that art was now part of civic life and not just aristocratic patronage .

The growing importance of art can be seen in the post of Royal Painter and Limner , created in 1702 for George Ogilvie . The duties included " drawing pictures of our [ Monarch 's ] person or of our successors or others of our royal family for the decorment of our houses and palaces " . However , from 1723 to 1823 the office was a sinecure held by members of the Abercrombie family , not necessarily connected with artistic ability .

= = = Intellectual trends = = =

All the major painters of the period were to varying degrees influenced by forms of Neoclassicism , which revived Greek and Roman form of artistic expression . Italy became an important point of reference for Scottish artists , with over fifty artists and architects known to have travelled there in the period 1730 – 80 as part of a Grand Tour , to paint , sample the art and learn from Italian masters . With so many artists visiting or resident , Rome became almost a " Third Academy ) " for Scots . In the second half of the century Scots became the major figures in the trade in antique sculpture , particularly Gavin Hamilton , Colin Morison ( 1732 – 1801 ) and James Byres ( 1734 – 1817 ) , making them the arbiters of British taste in this area . However , the only major Scottish collection of marble before the nineteenth century was that of James Johnstone , 2nd Marquess of Annandale .

Scottish artists in the later eighteenth century were strongly influenced by the Enlightenment , which stressed rationalism and human inquiry , of which Scotland was a major centre of influence . Artists like Alan Ramsey formed The Select Society , with philosophers David Hume and Adam Smith and produced his Dialogue on Taste , which made a major contribution to the study of aesthetics . Scotland also played a major part in the origins of the Romantic movement through the publication of James Macpherson 's Ossian cycle , which was proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics . Fingal , written in 1762 , was speedily translated into many European languages , and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European , and especially in German literature , influencing Herder and Goethe .

= = Forms = =

= = = Landscape = = =

The origins of the Scottish landscape painting tradition are in the Nories ' capriccios or pastiches of Italian and Dutch landscapes . Jacob More , having trained with the Nories , moved to Italy in 1773 and is chiefly known as a landscape painter . This period saw a shift in attitudes to the Highlands and mountain landscapes in general , from viewing them as hostile , empty regions occupied by backwards and marginal people , to interpreting them as aesthetically pleasing exemplars of nature , occupied by rugged primitives , which were now depicted in a dramatic fashion . Produced before his departure to Italy , More 's series of four " Falls of Clyde " ( 1771 – 73 ) paintings have been described by art historian Duncan Macmillan as treating the waterfalls as " a kind of natural national monument " and has been seen as an early work in developing a romantic sensibility to the Scottish landscape .

Alexander Nasmyth visited Italy and worked in London , but returned to his native Edinburgh for most of his career . He produced work in a large range of forms , including his portrait of Romantic poet Robert Burns , which depicts him against a dramatic Scottish background , but he is chiefly remembered for his landscapes and is described in the Oxford Dictionary of Art as " the founder of the Scottish landscape tradition " . He was also a highly influential teacher at the Trustees Drawing Academy in Edinburgh . The work of John Knox ( 1778 – 1845 ) continued the theme of landscape , directly linking it with the Romantic works of Walter Scott . He was also among the first artists to take a major interest in depicting the urban landscape of Glasgow . Alexander Runciman was probably the first artist to paint Scottish landscapes in watercolours in the more romantic style that was emerging towards the end of the century .

= = = Portraiture = = =

Aberdeen @-@ born John Alexander and William Mossman were the leading portrait artists of the first half of the century . John Alexander was born in Aberdeen and was a great grandson of portrait painter George Jamesone . He studied in London and Rome , returning to Scotland about 1720 . His younger contemporary William Mossman ( 1700 – 71 ) was also from Aberdeen and studied in Rome . Both worked predominately in the north @-@ east around their home city , but also painted many of the figures of early @-@ Enlightenment Edinburgh . Alexander 's best known work included the portrait of George Drummond the Lord Provost of Edinburgh ( 1756 ) , who had been responsible for the creation of the New Town in Edinburgh and the Royal Infirmary , which is shown in the background of the painting . Mosman 's work included his portrait of John Campbell of the Bank ( 1749 ) , who was chief cashier of the Royal Bank of Scotland and a Whig , but who is depicted in the recently forbidden Highland Dress . Because of his Jacobite sympathies Alexander was forced to leave for the continent after the rebellion of 1745 , and in Rome he made a living painting the Jacobite expatriates who congregated there , before his return a few years later .

Allan Ramsay studied in Sweden , London and Italy before basing himself in Edinburgh , where he established himself as a leading portrait painter to the Scottish nobility and he undertook portraits of many of the major figures of the Scottish Enlightenment , including his friend the philosopher David Hume and the visiting Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau . After a second visit to Italy he moved to London in 1757 and from 1761 he was Principal Painter in Ordinary to George III . He now focused on royal portraits , often presented by the king to ambassadors and colonial governors . His work has been seen as anticipating the grand manner of Joshua Reynolds , but many of his early portraits , particularly of women , are less formal and more intimate studies .

The leading portrait painter of the second half of the century was Henry Raeburn ( 1756 – 1823 ) . He was the first significant artist to pursue his entire career in Scotland . Born in Edinburgh and returning there after a trip to Italy in 1786 , he is most famous for his intimate portraits of leading figures in Scottish life , going beyond the aristocracy to lawyers , doctors , professors , writers and ministers , adding elements of Romanticism to the Grand Manner tradition of Joshua Reynolds . The most famous painting attributed to him is The Reverend Robert Walker Skating on Duddingston Loch , known as The Skating Minister . He became a knight in 1822 and the King 's painter and limner in 1823 , marking a return to the post being associated with the production of art .

= = = Neoclassism and genre painting = = =

Gavin Hamilton spent almost his entire career in Italy and emerged as a pioneering neoclassical painter of historical and mythical themes , including his depictions of scenes from Homer 's Iliad , as well as having been an informal tutor to British artists , early archaeologist and antiquarian . Many of his works can be seen as Enlightenment speculations about the origins of society and politics , including the Death of Lucretia ( 1768 ) , an event thought to be critical to the birth of the Roman Republic . His classicism would be a major influence on French artist Jacques @-@ Louis David ( 1748 – 1825 ) .

John and Alexander Runciman both gained reputations as painters of mythological and historical themes . They travelled to Italy , where they worked with Hamilton . John died in 1768 / 9 and Alexander returned home . His most widely known work , distributed in etchings , was mythological . His version of The Origin of Painting ( 1773 ) , depicting Pliny 's story of a young Corinthian woman outlining a shadow on the wall , has her hand guided by Cupid , suggesting the ultimate motivation for art was love . The same theme was painted by another of Hamilton 's proteges , David Allan , two years later . In the late eighteenth century Ossian became a common subject for Scottish artists , and works were undertaken by Alexander Runciman and David Allan among others .

Alexander also produced one of the earliest examples of a Scottish historical painting , showing the escape of Mary , Queen of Scots from Loch Leven Castle , which would become a major form in the nineteenth century . Allan returned to Edinburgh in 1780 , became director and master of the Academy of Arts in 1786 . Here he produced his most famous work , with illustrations of themes from Scottish life , earning him the title of " the Scottish Hogarth " . These included Highland Wedding , Blair Athol ( 1780 ) and illustrations for the elder Allan Ramsey 's Gentle Shepherd ( 1788 ) . These themes would be taken up by David Wilkie ( 1785 – 1841 ) , often noted as the founder of the British tradition of genre painting .

= = = Sculpture = = =

After the Acts of Union in 1707 the royal family spent very little time in , or money on , Scottish palaces and many Scottish nobles followed the royal court to England , tending to invest in sculpture for their residences in London , rather than their estates in Scotland . With the growth of civic development there was an increasing demand for public statuary , often with the patronage of a public institution , such as the lead figure of George II at the newly founded Royal Infirmary , Edinburgh in 1753 or the figure of the judge Duncan Forbes for the Outer Parliament House in 1752 . The portrait bust , designed for interior display , also became popular . By the middle of the century statuary were preferred to painted portraits among the aristocracy .

As in England , commissions of new statuary tended to be made in relatively cheap lead and even more economical painted or gilded plaster . The plasterwork of John Cheere 's yard in London was particularly in demand . Also important was the work from the yard of John Bacon ( 1740 – 99 ) who produced a monument for Robert Dundas ( d . 1787 ) at Borthwick Church and one for Mrs Allardyce ( d . 1787 ) at West Church , Aberdeen . Bacon was also a partner in Mrs Eleanor Coade 's Artificial Stone Manufactory at Lambeth in London . This produced a buff coloured ceramic that could be moulded to provide fine detail , and be fired in sections , but was impervious to frost and fire . Much cheaper than carved stone , Coade stone was used for sphinxes , balustrading , capitals , coat of arms , tablets , ornamental vases , church monuments and fonts . It was used extensively by the Adam brothers , particularly in the houses they built in Scotland , such as Cullen , Banff , Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , Dunbar Castle , East Lothian , Register House , Edinburgh , Gosford House , East Lothian and Wedderburn , Berwickshire . As well as supplying sculpture , candelabra and cippi , the Adam family supplied designs to the Carron Company , founded in 1759 , which produced a wide range of iron products , including stoves , safes , vases and tablets .

From the late eighteenth century there are a handful of examples of work from Scottish artists . These included statues of druids on the portico of Penicuik House carved by one " Willie Jeans " in 1776 ; the marble bust of James Gillespie by the obscure Robert Burn ( fl . 1790 – 1816 ) and the bronze figure in Roman armour at the City Chambers , Edinburgh , which may represent Charles Edward Stuart or Louis XV . James Tassie ( 1735 – 99 ) was born in Glasgow and trained as a stonemason . He attended the Foulis Academy , before moving to Dublin and then London . He developed a formula for making casts in vitreous paste and manufactured casts of antique carved gems . He also produced portrait medallions and among his sitters were many leading figures in Scottish intellectual life , such as Adam Smith , David Hume and Henry Raeburn . His medallions were popular when produced in Wedgwood jasper and were used by the Carron Company to be cast in iron .

= Clathrus ruber =

Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family , and the type species of the genus Clathrus . It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn , the basket stinkhorn , or the red cage , alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches . The fungus is saprobic , feeding off decaying woody plant material , and is usually found alone or in groups in leaf litter on garden soil , grassy places , or on woodchip garden mulches . Although considered primarily a European species , C. ruber has been introduced to other areas , and now has a wide distribution that includes northern Africa , Asia , Australia , and North and South America . The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century , but was not officially described until 1729 .

The fruit body initially appears like a whitish " egg " attached to the ground at the base by cords called rhizomorphs . The egg has a delicate , leathery outer membrane enclosing the compressed lattice that surrounds a layer of olive @-@ green spore @-@ bearing slime called the gleba , which contains high levels of calcium that help protect the fruit body during development . As the egg ruptures and the fruit body expands , the gleba is carried upward on the inner surfaces of the spongy lattice , and the egg membrane remains as a volva around the base of the structure . The fruit body can reach heights of up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The color of the fruit body , which can range from pink to orange to red , results primarily from the carotenoid pigments lycopene and beta @-@ carotene . The gleba has a fetid odor , somewhat like rotting meat , which attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores . Although the edibility of the fungus is not known with certainty , its odor would deter most from consuming it . C. ruber was not regarded highly in tales in southern European folklore , which suggested that those who handled the mushroom risked contracting various ailments .

= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =

Clathrus ruber was illustrated as early as 1560 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Nomenclator Aquatilium Animantium — Gesner mistook the mushroom for a marine organism . It appeared in a woodcut in John Gerard 's 1597 Great Herball , shortly thereafter in Carolus Clusius ' 1601 Fungorum in Pannoniis Observatorum Brevis Historia , and was one of the species featured in Cassiano dal Pozzo 's museo cartaceo ( " paper museum " ) that consisted of thousands of illustrations of the natural world .

The fungus was first described scientifically in 1729 , by the Italian Pier Antonio Micheli in his Nova plantarum genera iuxta Tournefortii methodum disposita , who gave it its current scientific name . The species was once referred to by American authors as Clathrus cancellatus L. , as they used a system of nomenclature based on the former American Code of Botanical Nomenclature , in which the starting point for naming species was Linnaeus 's 1753 Species Plantarum . The International Code for Botanical Nomenclature now uses the same starting date , but names of Gasteromycetes used by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his Synopsis Methodica Fungorum ( 1801 ) are sanctioned and automatically replace earlier names . Since Persoon used the specific epithet ruber , the correct name for the species is Clathrus ruber . Several historical names of the fungus are now synonyms : Clathrus flavescens , named by Persoon in 1801 ; Clathrus cancellatus by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and published by Elias Fries in 1823 ; Clathrus nicaeensis , published by Jean @-@ Baptiste Barla in 1879 ; and Clathrus ruber var. flavescens , published by Livio Quadraccia and Dario Lunghini in 1990 .

Clathrus ruber is the type species of the genus Clathrus , and is part of the group of Clathrus species known as the Laternoid series . Common features uniting this group include the vertical arms of the receptacle ( fruit body ) that are not joined together at the base , and the spongy structure of the receptacle . According to a molecular analysis published in 2006 , out of the about 40 Phallales species used in the study , C. ruber is most closely related to Aseroe rubra , Clathrus archeri , Laternea triscapa , and Clathrus chrysomycelinus .

The generic name Clathrus is derived from Ancient Greek κλειθρον or " lattice " , and the specific epithet is Latin ruber , meaning " red " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " basket stinkhorn " , the " lattice stinkhorn " , or the " red cage " . It was known to the locals of the Adriatic hinterland in the former Yugoslavia as veštičije srce or vještičino srce , meaning " witch 's heart " . This is still the case in parts of rural France , where it is known as cœur de sorcière .

= = Description = =

Before the volva opens , the fruiting body is egg @-@ shaped to roughly spherical , up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , with a gelatinous interior up to 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick . White to grayish in color , it is initially smooth , but develops a network of polygonal marks on the surface prior to opening as the internal structures expand and stretch the peridium taut . The fruit body , or receptacle , bursts the egg open as it expands ( a process that can take as little as a few hours ) , and leaves the remains of the peridium as a cup or volva surrounding the base . The receptacle ranges in color from red to bright pink to pale orange , and it is often lighter in color approaching the base . The color appears to be dependent upon the temperature and humidity of the environment . The receptacle consists of a spongy network of " arms " interlaced to make meshes of unequal size . At the top of the receptacle , the arms are up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , but they taper down to smaller widths near the base . A cross @-@ section of the arm reveals it to be spongy , and made up of one wide inner tube and two indistinct rows of tubes towards the outside . The outer surface of the receptacle is ribbed or wrinkled . There are between 80 and 120 mesh holes in the receptacle . The unusual shape of the receptacle has inspired some creative comparisons : David Arora likened it to a whiffleball , while the German Mycological Society — who named C. ruber the 2011 " Mushroom of the Year " — described it as " like an alien from a science fiction horror film " .

A considerable variation in height has been reported for the receptacle , ranging from 8 to 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall . The base of the fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by rhizomorphs ( thickened cords of mycelia ) . The dark olive @-@ green to olive @-@ brown , foul @-@ smelling sticky gleba covers the inner surface of the receptacle , except near the base . The odor — described as resembling rotting meat — attracts flies , other insects , and , in one report , a scarab beetle ( Scarabaeus sacer ) that help disperse the spores . The putrid odor — and people 's reaction to it — have been well documented . In 1862 Mordecai Cubitt Cooke wrote " it is recorded of a botanist who gathered one for the purpose of drying it for his herbarium , that he was compelled by the stench to rise during the night and cast the offender out the window . " American mycologist David Arora called the odor " the vilest of any stinkhorn " . The receptacle collapses about 24 hours after its initial eruption from the egg .

The spores are elongated , smooth , and have dimensions of 4 – 6 by 1 @.@ 5 – 2 µm . Scanning electron microscopy has revealed that C. ruber ( in addition to several other Phallales species ) has a hilar scar — a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium via the sterigma . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are six @-@ spored .

= = = Similar species = = =

Clathrus ruber may be distinguished from the closely related tropical species C. crispus by the absence of the corrugated rims which surround each mesh of the C. crispus fruit body . The phylogenetically close species C. chrysomycelinus has a yellow receptacle with arms that are structurally simpler , and its gleba is concentrated on specialized " glebifers " located at the lattice intersections . It is known only from Venezuela to southern Brazil . Clathrus columnatus has a fruit body with two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns , joined together at the apex .

= = = Edibility and folklore = = =

Although edibility for C. ruber has not been officially documented , its foul smell would dissuade most individuals from consuming it . In general , stinkhorn mushrooms are considered edible when still in the egg stage , and are even considered delicacies in some parts of Europe and Asia , where they are pickled raw and sold in markets as " devil 's eggs " . However , an 1854 report provides a cautionary tale to those considering consuming the mature fruit body . Dr. F. Peyre Porcher , of Charleston , South Carolina , described an account of poisoning caused by the mushroom :

" A young person having eaten a bit of it , after six hours suffered from a painful tension of the lower stomach , and violent convulsions . He lost the use of his speech , and fell into a state of stupor , which lasted for forty @-@ eight hours . After taking an emetic he threw up a fragment of the mushroom , with two worms , and mucus , tinged with blood . Milk , oil , and emollient fomentations , were then employed with success . "

British mycologist Donald Dring , in his 1980 monograph on the Clathraceae family , wrote that C. ruber was not regarded highly in southern European folklore . He mentions a case of poisoning following its ingestion , reported by Barla in 1858 , and notes that Ciro Pollini reported finding it growing on a human skull in a tomb in a deserted church . According to John Ramsbottom , Gascons consider the mushroom a cause of cancer ; they will usually bury specimens they find . In other parts of France it has been reputed to produce skin rashes or cause convulsions .

= = Ecology , habitat , and distribution = =

Like most of the species of the Phallales order , Clathrus ruber is saprobic — a decomposer of wood and plant organic matter — and is commonly found fruiting in mulch beds . The fungus grows alone or clustered together near woody debris , in lawns , gardens , and cultivated soil .

Clathrus ruber was originally described by Micheli from Italy . It is considered native to southern and central continental Europe , as well as Macaronesia ( the Azores and the Canary Islands ) , western Turkey , North Africa ( Algeria ) , and western Asia ( Iran ) . The fungus is rare in central Europe , and is listed in the Red data book of Ukraine .

The fungus has probably been introduced elsewhere , often because of the use of imported mulch used in gardening and landscaping . It may have extended its range northwards into the British Isles or been introduced in the nineteenth century . It now has a mainly southerly distribution in England and has been recorded from Cornwall , Devon , Dorset , Somerset , the Isle of Wight , Hampshire , Sussex , Surrey , and Middlesex . In Scotland , it has been recorded from Argyll . It is also known from Wales , the Channel Islands , and Ireland . The fungus also occurs in the United States ( California , Florida , Georgia , Virginia , North Carolina , and New York ) , Canada , Mexico , and Australasia . The species was also reported from South America ( Argentina ) . In China , it has been collected from Guangdong , Sichuan , Guizhou , and Tibet . Records from Japan are referable to Clathrus kusanoi ; records from the Caribbean are probably of C. crispus .

= = Biochemistry = =

Like other stinkhorn fungi , C. ruber bioaccumulates the element manganese . It has been postulated that this element plays a role in the enzymatic breakdown of the gleba with simultaneous formation of odorous compounds . Compounds like dimethyl sulfide , aldehydes , and amines — which contribute to the disagreeable odor of the gleba — are produced by the enzymatic decarboxylation of keto acids and amino acids , but the enzymes will only work in the presence of manganese . A chemical analysis of the elemental composition of the gelatinous outer layer , the embryonic receptacle and the gleba showed the gelatinous layer to be richest in potassium , calcium , manganese , and iron ions . Calcium2 + stabilizes the polysaccharide gel , protecting the embryonic receptacle from drying out during the growth of the egg . Potassium is required for the gelatinous layer to retain its osmotic pressure and retain water ; high concentrations of the element are needed to support the rapid growth of the receptacle . The high concentration of elements suggests that the gelatinous layer has a " placenta @-@ like " function — serving as a reservoir from which the receptacle may draw upon as it rapidly expands .

Pigments responsible for the orange to red colors of the mature fruit bodies have been identified as carotenes , predominantly lycopene and beta @-@ carotene — the same compounds responsible for the red and orange colors of tomatoes and carrots , respectively . Lycopene is also the main pigment in the closely related fungus Clathrus archeri , while beta @-@ carotene is the predominant pigment in the Phallaceae species Mutinus caninus , M. ravenelii , and M. elegans .

= Garamond =

Garamond is a group of many old @-@ style serif typefaces , originally those designed by Claude Garamond and other 16th century French designers , and now many modern revivals . Though his name was written as ' Garamont ' in his lifetime , the typefaces are invariably spelled ' Garamond ' .

Garamond worked as an engraver of punches , the masters used to stamp matrices , the moulds used to cast metal type . He worked in the tradition of what is now called old @-@ style serif letter design , that produced letters with a relatively organic structure resembling handwriting with a pen but with a slightly more structured and upright design . Although Garamond himself remains considered an eminent figure in French printing of the sixteenth century , historical research over the last century has increasingly placed him in context as one artisan among several active at a time of rapid production of new typefaces in sixteenth @-@ century France , operating within a pre @-@ existing tradition defined by the work of printers of the preceding half @-@ century , in particular Aldus Manutius and his punchcutter Francesco Griffo . Therefore , the term Garamond may be understood to mean typefaces based on the appearance of early modern French printing , not necessarily specifically Garamond 's work .

Some distinctive characteristics in Garamond 's letters are the small eye of the ' e ' and the bowl of the a , which has a sharp hook upwards at top left . The ' M ' is slightly splayed . The x @-@ height ( height of lower @-@ case letters ) is low , especially at larger sizes , making the capitals large relative to the lower case , while the top serifs on the ascenders of letters like ' d ' have a downward slope and rise subtly above the cap height . Garamond typefaces are popular and often used , particularly for printing body text and books .

Since around 1910 , many modern revivals of Garamond and related typefaces have been developed . Among these , the roman ( regular ; upright ) versions of Adobe Garamond , Granjon , Sabon , and Stempel Garamond are directly based on Garamond 's work . It is common to pair these with italics based on those created by his contemporary Robert Granjon , who was well known for his proficiency in this genre . However , many ' Garamond ' revivals are actually based on the work of a later punch @-@ cutter , Jean Jannon , whose work was for some years misattributed to Garamond .

Modern Garamond revivals also often add a matching bold and ' lining ' numbers at the height of capital letters , neither of which were used in Garamond 's time . The most common digital release of Garamond is Monotype Garamond . Bundled with many Microsoft products , it is a revival of Jannon 's work .

= = History = =

= = = Garamond 's life and career = = =

Garamond designed type in the ' roman ' , or upright style , in italic , and Greek . In the period of Garamond 's early life roman type had been displacing the blackletter or Gothic type which was used in much ( although not all ) early French printing .

The roman designs of Garamond which are his most imitated were based on a typeface cut in 1495 – 1496 for the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius by Francesco Griffo . This was first used in the book De Aetna , a short work by poet and cleric Pietro Bembo which was Manutius ' first printing in the Latin alphabet after a long series of publications of classics of Greek literature that had won him an international reputation . Historian Beatrice Warde has assessed De Aetna as something of a pilot project , a small book printed to an even higher standard than Manutius ' norm .

French typefounders of the 16th century assiduously examined Manutius 's work ( and , it is thought , De Aetna in particular ) as a source of inspiration . De Aetna was printed using a mixture of alternate characters , perhaps as an experiment , and several of these are all found in Robert Estienne 's printing of the 1530s ; typefaces created by Antoine Augereau ( who may have been Garamond 's mentor ) only use those letters preferred in Manutius ' later printing , indicate that other Manutius books were examined as a source of inspiration separately . This examination extended to in some cases copying his first ' M ' shown in De Aetna which had no serif pointing out of the letter at top right , a design considered very eccentric . ( It has been suggested to be the result of defective casting , especially since Manutius ' later fonts do not show it . )

The period from 1520 to around 1560 , encompassing Garamond 's career , was an extremely busy period for typeface creation . Many fonts were created , some apparently for exclusive use by a specific printer , others sold or traded between them . Many engravers were active over this time , including Garamond himself , Granjon , Guillaume Le Bé , Antoine Augereau , Simon de Colines , Pierre Hautin and others , creating typefaces not just in the Latin alphabet , but also in Greek and Hebrew for scholarly use . This period saw the creation of a pool of high @-@ quality punches and matrices that would supply the French printing industry , to a large extent , for the next two centuries .

Garamond was born perhaps around 1510 , but very little is known about his life or work before 1540 . He worked for a variety of employers on commission , creating punches for publishers and the government . Garamond 's typefaces were popular abroad , and replaced Griffo 's original roman type at the Aldine Press in Venice . He also worked as a publisher and bookseller . While his italics have been considered less impressive than his roman typefaces , he was one of the early printers to establish the modern tradition that the italic capitals should slope as the lower case does , rather than remain upright as Roman square capitals do .

Garamond designed type for the Greek alphabet from early in his career , but these , the Grecs du roi fonts created for the government around 1540 , are very different to his Latin designs : they attempt to simulate the elegant handwriting of Cretan scribe Angelo Vergecio and include a vast variety of alternate letters and ligatures to achieve this . This style is impractical for modern setting of body text , since it requires careful manual choice of characters for every word . Several ' Garamond ' releases such as Adobe 's contain Greek designs that are either a compromise between Garamond 's upright Latin designs and his slanted Greek ones or primarily inspired by his Latin designs .

Garamond died in 1561 and his punches and matrices were sold off by his widow . Purchasers included the Le Bé type foundry in Paris run by the family of Guillaume Le Bé , Christophe Plantin of Antwerp , and the Frankfurt foundry often referred to by historians as Egenolff @-@ Berner . The chaotic sales caused problems , and Le Bé 's son wrote to Plantin 's successor Moretus offering to trade matrices so they could both have complementary type in a range of sizes . Egelhoff @-@ Berner brought out a specimen in 1592 of types by Garamond and others , which would later be a source for many Garamond revivals .

Plantin 's collection of original Garamond punches and matrices survives at the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum in Antwerp , together with many other typefaces collected by Plantin from other typefounders of the period . The collection has been used extensively for research , for example by historians Harry Carter and Hendrik Vervliet . Carter 's son Matthew would later describe his research as helping to demonstrate " that the finest collection of printing types made in typography 's golden age was in perfect condition ( some muddle aside ) [ along with ] Plantin 's accounts and inventories which names the cutters of his types . "

While some records such as Plantin 's exist of what exact types were cut by Garamond himself , many details of his career remain uncertain , with initial opinion of his date of birth as around 1480 being substituted by much later estimates more recently . A document called the Le Bé Memorandum ( based on the memories of Guillaume Le Bé , but collated by one of his sons around 1643 ) suggests that Garamond finished his apprenticeship around 1510 . This is considered unlikely by modern historians since his mother was still alive when he died in 1561 and little is known of him before around 1540 .

It has been suggested that the first Roman types designed by Claude Garamond were a set created for Robert Estienne and first used by him around 1530 @-@ 3 , that were the first typefaces used in Paris to copy the Manutius model . However , Vervliet , Mosley and the French ministry of culture 's history of Garamond 's career suggest that these ' Estienne typefaces ' were not designed by Garamond and that his career began somewhat later . Vervliet suggests that the creator of this set of typefaces to a unified design may have been a ' Master Constantin ' , recorded in the Le Bé Memorandum as a master type designer of the period before Garamond but about whom nothing is otherwise known and to whom no obvious other body of work can be ascribed . If so , his disappearance from history ( perhaps due to an early death , since all his presumed work appeared in just three years from 1530 to 1533 ) may have allowed Garamond 's reputation to develop in the following decade . The Le Bé Memorandum does however attribute them to Garamond ; Vervliet notes that attributions of the Estienne type to Garamond do begin quite early but suggests that this may be a mistake caused by his later reputation , and because the Estienne typefaces remained proprietary Le Bé might not have been knowledgeable about their source .

= = = Jean Jannon = = =

In 1621 , sixty years after Garamond 's death , the French printer Jean Jannon released a specimen of typefaces that had some characteristics similar to the Garamond designs . The French Royal Printing Office ( Imprimerie Royale ) appears to have bought matrices from him in 1641 . ( The contract is actually made for one ' Nicholas Jannon ' , which historians have concluded to be a simple mistake . ) Despite the purchase , it is not clear that the office ever much used Jannon 's type : historian James Mosley has reported being unable to find books printed by the Imprimerie that use more than a few specific sizes of italic , although " it is not easy to prove a negative " . His type would later be misattributed to Garamond . Jannon wrote in his specimen that :

Seeing that for some time many persons have had to do with the art [ of printing ] who have greatly lowered it ... the desire came upon me to try if I might imitate , after some fashion , some one among those who honourably busied themselves with the art , [ men whose deaths ] I hear regretted every day [ Jannon mentions some eminent printers of the previous century ] ... and inasmuch as I could not accomplish this design for lack of types which I needed ... [ some typefounders ] would not , and others could not furnish me with what I lacked [ so ] I resolved , about six years ago , to turn my hand in good earnest to the making of punches , matrices and moulds for all sorts of characters , for the accommodation both of the public and of myself .

Jannon 's career took place during a politically tense period . Jannon was a Protestant in mostly Catholic France , and began his career as printer for the Protestant Academy at Sedan in what is now north @-@ eastern France before taking up punchcutting , in his thirties by his report . Sedan the time enjoyed an unstable independence as a principality at a time when the French government had conceded through the Edict of Nantes to allowing a complicated system of restricted liberties for Protestants . While acknowledging his talent and commissioning equipment from him , as documented by the surviving purchase order , it is known that authorities in 1644 raided an office in Caen where he had been commissioned to do printing . Warde initially assumed that this was the source of the Jannon materials in the Imprimerie Nationale before the government 's purchase order from Jannon came to light . Jannon 's types and their descendants are recognizable by the triangular serifs on the top left of such characters as ' m ' , ' n ' and ' r ' , which have a very steep slant in Jannon 's design compared to Garamond 's . The italics are also very different to Garamond 's own or Granjon 's , being much more ornate .

By the nineteenth century , Jannon 's matrices had come to be known as the Caractères de l 'Université ( Characters of the University ) . It has sometimes been claimed that this term was an official name designated for the Jannon type by Cardinal Richelieu , while Warde in 1926 more plausibly suggested it might be a garbled recollection of Jannon 's work with the Sedan Academy , which operated much like a university despite not using the name . Carter in the 1970s followed this conclusion . Mosley , however , concludes that no report of the term ( or much use of Jannon 's type at all ) exists before the nineteenth century , and it may originate from a generic term of the previous century simply meaning older or more conservative typeface designs , perhaps those preferred in academic publishing .

= = = After Jannon = = =

The old @-@ style typefaces of Garamond and his contemporaries and successors remained in use in printing for over two hundred years after Garamond 's death , and became influential on Dutch printing during the period known as Dutch golden age , when Dutch printing was itself very influential across Europe . Dutch printers and punchcutters , however , sometimes favoured more solid , darker designs than Garamond 's .

Old @-@ style serif typefaces by Garamond and his colleagues finally fell out of use with the arrival of what is now called the Didone style of printing in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries , promoted by the Didot family in France and others . This favoured a much more geometric , constructed style of letter which could show off the increasingly refined paper and printing technologies of the period . Mosley comments :

The upheavals of the Revolution coincided with the major shift in the style of printing types that is associated with the family of Didot , and the stock of old materials abruptly lost its value , except as scrap . Punches rust , and the copper of matrices is recyclable . All traces of the early types that had been in the hands of the trade typefounders like Le Bé , Sanlecque and Lamesle in Paris vanished completely . No relics of them were saved anywhere , except in commercial centres that had become relative backwaters , like Antwerp , where the Plantin @-@ Moretus printing office piously preserved the collection of its founder ... the term caractères de l 'Université became attached by default to the set of apparently early matrices that had survived , its provenance forgotten , in the mixed stock of materials of the national printing @-@ office .

Garamond 's reputation remained respected , even by members of the Didot family whose type designs came to dominate French printing .

= = = Revival era = = =

A revival of interest in ' old @-@ style ' serif typefaces took place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century . This saw a revival of the Imprimerie royale typefaces ( the office was now called the Imprimerie nationale following the end of the French monarchy ) , which , unlike Garamond 's own work , had survived in Paris . The attribution came to be considered certain by the Imprimerie 's director Arthur Christian .

Early revivals were often based directly on the Imprimerie nationale types , one of the first by Peignot and then by American Type Founders . These revivals could be made using pantograph machine engraving systems , which gave a cleaner result than historic typefaces whose master punches had been hand @-@ carved out of steel , and allowed rapid development of a large range of sizes . In addition , the new hot metal typesetting technology of the period created increasing availability and demand for new fonts . Among hot metal typesetting companies , Monotype 's branches in Britain and the United States brought out separate versions , and the American branch of Linotype licensed that of ATF .

A number of historians began in the early twentieth century to question if the Imprimerie nationale Latin @-@ alphabet type was really the work Garamond as the Grecs du Roi undoubtedly were . Doubt was raised by French historian Jean Paillard , but he died in the First World War soon after publishing his conclusions in 1914 and his work remained little @-@ read . ATF 's historian Henry Lewis Bullen secretly doubted that the ' Garamond ' his company was reviving was really Garamond 's work , noting that he had never seen it in a sixteenth @-@ century book . He discussed his concerns with ATF junior librarian Beatrice Warde , who would later move to Europe and become a prominent writer on printing advising the British branch of Monotype .

In a 1926 paper published on the British typography journal The Fleuron , Beatrice Warde revealed her discovery that the Imprimerie nationale type had been created by Jean Jannon , something she had discovered by examining printing credited to him in London and Paris and through reading the work of Paillard .

By the time Warde 's article was published some revivals had been released that were more authentic revivals of Garamond 's work , based on period books and printing specimens . The German company Stempel brought out a crisp revival of the original Garamond typefaces in the 1920s , inspired by a rediscovered specimen from the Egenolff @-@ Berner foundry in Frankfurt , as did Linotype in Britain .

= = Timeline = =

= = = The Renaissance = = =

1470 – first book printed in France , by a Swiss / German team at the Sorbonne , Paris . Early books printed in France use type of a blackletter design or influenced by it .

1496 – Aldus Manutius publishes De Aetna , a short text of poetry that serves as his first printing in the Latin alphabet . Its new ' roman ' metal type sets a standard imitated by French printers .

= = = Late Renaissance = = =

1510 – Garamond may have been born around this time .

1530 – Robert Estienne begins to publish in a new and more elegant style of ' roman ' type , influenced by De Aetna with its asymmetrical ' M ' . These typefaces were once attributed to Garamond . Vervliet has argued that they are not by Garamond , but notes that the attribution of them to him begins quite early .

1541 – Garamond is advanced money to cut the Grecs du Roi type .

1561 – Death of Garamond .

1563 – Christophe Plantin buys matrices and other equipment in Paris at auction , some from Garamond 's widow , for his partnership in Antwerp . Other equipment is bought by other Parisian and German printers ; a specimen sheet identifying his types is issued by a Frankfurt foundry in 1592 .

1560 – 70s – The work of Garamond and his contemporaries becomes very influential in the Low Countries and western Germany . A decline sets into the production of new typefaces , probably mostly due to simple saturation of the market with typefaces of acceptable quality , and possibly also due to economic and religious factors causing the emigration of printers and typefounders to other countries . Typefounding now a clearly separate industry to printing .

= = = Early modern period = = =

1580 – birth of Jannon

1621 – Jannon issues a specimen of his type .

1640 – Jannon leaves Sedan for Paris .

1641 – foundation of the Imprimerie Royale , which buys matrices from Jannon

1644 – Jannon 's printing office in Caen is raided by authorities concerned that he may have been publishing banned material . Jannon is not imprisoned , but returns to Sedan .

1658 – death of Jannon

= = = Eighteenth century = = =

1756 – Parisian printer Jean @-@ Pierre Fournier , who had inherited the Le Bé foundry , writes of his collection of vintage type that " I own the foundry of Garamond , the Le Bé family and Granjon . I shall be happy to display my punches and matrices to all those who are lovers of true beauty ... these are the types that made the reputations of the Estiennes , Plantin and the Elzevirs . " However , his extensive collections are dispersed after his death in 1783 and ultimately ' traditional ' old @-@ style type falls out of use in France .

= = = Early revival era = = =

Late nineteenth century – revival in interest in ' old @-@ style ' typefaces such as the Caslon type ( 1730s , England ) and that of Jenson ( 1470s , Venice ) .

1912 – revival of the Imprimerie Royale ( now Imprimerie nationale , following the revolution ) type by the Peignot foundry .

1914 – Jean Paillard publishes a book arguing that the Imprimerie nationale type was not created by Garamond but his work attracts little attention . He is killed serving in the First World War a few months later .

1920 – a copy of the 1592 Berner specimen of typefaces is published in facsimile .

1923 – ATF issue a specimen of their Garamond revival , in development for several years prior . ATF 's historian Henry Bullen privately tells Beatrice Warde , then a junior librarian , that he suspects that Garamond had nothing to do with the type , since he had never seen it in a contemporary book , but has no better candidate for its creator . Warde subsequently moves to Europe , becoming a freelance writer on printing and adviser to Monotype in London .

1925 – Based on the Egelhoff @-@ Berner specimen , Stempel Garamond is released in Germany : later also released by Linotype , it is the first Garamond revival actually based on his work .

1923 – Monotype Garamond is published based on the Imprimerie nationale type .

1926 – Warde discovers and reveals that the Imprimerie nationale type was created by Jannon , and that all revivals based on it are not directly based on Garamond 's work .

= = Contemporary versions = =

= = = Based on Garamond 's design = = =

= = = = Adobe Garamond = = = =

Released in 1989 , Adobe Garamond is designed by Robert Slimbach for Adobe Systems , based on a Roman type by Garamond and an italic type by Robert Granjon . The font family contains regular , semibold , and bold weights and was developed through viewing fifteenth @-@ century equipment at the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum . Its quite even , mature design attracted attention on release for its authenticity to Garamond 's work , a contrast to the much more aggressive ITC Garamond popular at the time . The OpenType version of the font family was released in 2000 as Adobe Garamond Pro , with enhanced support for its alternate glyphs such as ligatures , small caps and italic swash capitals , and is sold through Adobe 's Typekit system . It is one of the most popular versions of Garamond in books and fine printing .

= = = = Garamond Premier = = = =

Slimbach started planning for a second interpretation of Garamond after visiting the Plantin @-@ Moretus Museum in 1988 , during the production of Adobe Garamond . His visit there led him to conclude that Garamond could not be truly revived digitally unless in a set of optical sizes , with adaptations in the design for different sizes of text . Unable to create such a large range of styles practically with the technology and business requirements of the 1980s , he completed the project in 2005 with several optical sizes , each designed in four weights ( regular , medium , semibold and bold , with an additional light weight for display sizes ) using the OpenType font format . It features glyph coverage for Central European , Cyrillic and Greek characters including polytonics . Professor Gerry Leonidas , an expert in Greek @-@ language printing , described it in 2005 as " bar none , the most accomplished typeface you can get for complex Greek texts " . Adobe executive Thomas Phinney described it as a " modernized interpretation " different to their earlier Garamond , which remains on sale .

= = = = Stempel Garamond = = = =

A hot @-@ metal period adaptation created by the Stempel Type Foundry in the inter @-@ war period , and released through Linotype in other countries , that has remained popular . It is sharp , somewhat angular design with a crisp hook rather than a teardrop at top left of the ' a ' . Stempel Garamond has relatively short descenders , allowing it to be particularly tightly linespaced . An unusual feature is the digit 0 , which has reversed contrast , with the thickest points of the number on the top and bottom of the digit .

= = = = Sabon = = = =

Sabon is a Garamond revival designed by Jan Tschichold in 1964 , jointly released by Linotype , Monotype and Stempel in 1967 . It is named after Jacques Sabon , who introduced Garamond 's types to German printing . An unusual feature of many releases of Sabon is that the italic , based on Granjon 's work , is wider than most normal italics , at the same width as the roman style . This suited the hot metal typesetting machines of the period . Later Sabon versions , such as Jean François Porchez 's Sabon Next , have not always maintained this principle .

= = = = EB Garamond = = = =

Released in 2011 by Georg Duffner , EB Garamond is a free software version of Garamond released under the Open Font License and available through Google Fonts . Duffner based the design on a specimen printed by Egelnoff @-@ Berner in 1592 , with italic and Greek characters based on Robert Granjon 's work , as well as the addition of Cyrillic characters and OpenType features such as swash italic capitals and schoolbook alternates . It is intended to include multiple optical sizes , as of 2014 including fonts based on the 8 and 12 point forms on the 1592 specimen . It has been described as " one of the best open source fonts " by prominent typeface designer Erik Spiekermann . As of February 2016 , no bold weight has yet been released .

= = = = URW + + Garamond No. 8 = = = =

Garamond No. 8 is a freeware version of Garamond contributed by URW + + to the Ghostscript project , based on Stempel Garamond . Featuring a bold weight , small capitals , optional text figures and automatic ligature insertion , it is particularly popular in the TeX community and is also included on some Linux distributions . Originally released as a PostScript Type 1 , it has been converted into the TrueType format , usable by most current software . It is distributed under the AFP license , which allows it to be used freely ( without support ) but not sold or have its distribution charged for .

= = = = Granjon = = = =

Despite the name , Granjon , by the English branch of Linotype , is based on the original Garamond roman with a Granjon italic . ( Warde commented " It would seem that Garamond 's name , having so long been used on a design he never cut , is now by stern justice left off a face which is undoubtedly his . " )

= = = Based on Jannon 's design = = =

= = = = ATF Garamond / Garamond No. 3 = = = =

American Type Founders created a revival of the Imprimerie Nationale typefaces around 1919 – 1923 , designed in @-@ house by its design department led by Morris Fuller Benton . It received a first sumptuous showing , marketed especially towards advertisers , in ATF 's 1923 specimen book . Also involved in the revival was book designer T.M. Cleland , who created a set of matching borders and ornaments . The design gained its current name in a more practical hot metal adaptation licensed to and marketed by Linotype 's American branch from around 1936 ; the number distinguished it from Stempel 's version and other variants which Linotype also sold . It was the style of Garamond preferred by prominent designer Massimo Vignelli . A variant is used by Deutsche Bahn , and the original ATF Garamond on which it was based has also been revived .

= = = = Monotype Garamond = = = =

Monotype 's 1922 design , based on Jannon 's work in the Imprimerie Nationale , is bundled with many Microsoft products . Its italic , faithful to Jannon 's , is extremely calligraphic , with a very variable angle of slant and flourishes on several lower @-@ case letters . Its commercial release is more extensive than the basic Microsoft release , featuring additional features such as swash capitals and small capitals , although like many pre @-@ digital fonts these are only included in the regular weight . Popular in the metal type era , its digitisation has been criticised for having too light a colour on the page for body text if printed with many common printing systems . This is a known problem with many Monotype digitisations of the period . Some publicity art for it in the metal period was created by a young Rodney Peppé . Monotype 's 1933 guide to identifying their typefaces noted the asymmetrical T , the sharp triangular serif at top left of m , n , p and r , and a q unlike the p , with a point at top right rather than a full serif .

= = = = Garamont = = = =

A revival by Frederic Goudy for the American branch of Monotype , the name chosen to differ from other revivals . An elegant sample created by Bruce Rogers was shown in a spring 1923 issue of Monotype 's magazine . It like Monotype Garamond features a large range of swash characters , based on Imprimerie Nationale specimen sheets .

Mosley has described it as " a lively type , underappreciated I think . " LTC 's digitisation deliberately maintained its eccentricity and irregularity true to period printing , avoiding perfect verticals . In 1923 , Morison at the British branch of Monotype thought it somewhat florid in comparison to the version of his branch which he considered a personal project , noting in a 1923 letter to American printer Daniel Berkeley Updike that " I entertain very decided opinions about this latest of Mr. Goudy 's achievements ... a comparison leaves me with a preference for our version . " He added that he " could not bring myself to believe " that Garamond himself had cut the swash capitals that " Mr. Goudy has done his best to reproduce " .

= = = = Jannon = = = =

František Štorm 's 2010 revival with optical sizes is one of the few modern revivals of Jannon 's work . Štorm also created a matching sans @-@ serif companion design , Jannon Sans .

= = = Related fonts = = =

As one of the most popular typefaces in history , a number of designs have been created that are influenced by Garamond 's design but follow different design paths .

= = = = ITC Garamond = = = =

ITC Garamond was created by Tony Stan in 1975 , and follows ITC 's house style of unusually high x @-@ height . It was initially intended to serve as a display version but was used for text , in which its tight spacing and high x @-@ height gives it a somewhat hectoring appearance . As a result , it has proven somewhat controversial among designers ; it is generally considered poorly @-@ proportioned for body text . It remains the corporate font of the California State University system in printed text . As seen below , it was also modified into Apple Garamond which served as Apple 's corporate font from 1984 until replacement with Myriad . Publishers using it included O 'Reilly Media and French publisher Actes Sud .

= = = = Cormorant = = = =

An open @-@ source adaptation of Garamond intended for display sizes , designed by Christian Thalmann and co @-@ released with Google Fonts . It features a delicate style suitable for printing at larger sizes , and considerable contrast in stroke weight in its larger sizes . Thalmann added several unusual alternate designs such as an upright italic and unicase styles , as well as exaggerated , highly slanting accents .

= = = = Claude Sans = = = =

A humanist sans @-@ serif based on the letterforms of Jannon 's type , created by Alan Meeks and published by Letraset and later ITC .

= = In popular culture = =

This list focuses on notable references to Garamond or his typefaces , not including the extremely large number of books printed in them .

In Umberto Eco 's novel Foucault 's Pendulum , the protagonists work for a pair of related publishing companies , Garamond and Manuzio , both owned by a Mister Garamond .

Garamond is the name of a character in the Wii game Super Paper Mario . He appears in the world of Flopside ( the mirror @-@ image of Flipside , where the game begins ) . He is a prolific and highly successful author , unlike his Flipside counterpart , Helvetica ( a probable recognition of the relative suitability of the two fonts for use in book typesetting ) .

For many years the masthead of British newspaper The Guardian used " The " in Garamond and " Guardian " in bold Helvetica .

A condensed variant of ITC Garamond was adopted by Apple in 1984 upon the release of the Macintosh , known as Apple Garamond . This was a proprietary font not publicly available , less condensed than the publicly released ITC Garamond Condensed .

One of the initial goals of the literary journal Timothy McSweeney 's Quarterly Concern was to use only a single font : Garamond 3 . The editor of the journal , Dave Eggers , has stated that it is his favourite font , " because it looked good in so many permutations — italics , small caps , all caps , tracked out , justified or not . "

In Robin Sloan 's fantasy novel Mr. Penumbra 's 24 @-@ Hour Bookstore several character names derive from historical figures associated with the Garamond typeface .

= = = Printer ink claim = = =

It has been claimed that Garamond uses much less ink than Times New Roman at a similar point size , so changing to Garamond could be a cost @-@ saver for large organizations that print large numbers of documents , especially if using inkjet printers . Garamond , along with Times New Roman and Century Gothic , has been identified by the GSA as a " toner @-@ efficient " font .

This claim has been criticised as a misinterpretation of how typefaces are actually measured and what printing methods are desirable . Monotype Garamond , the version bundled with Windows , has a generally smaller design at the same notional point size compared to Times New Roman and quite spindly strokes , giving it a more elegant but less readable appearance . To make letters , especially the lower @-@ case , as high as in an equivalent setting of Times New Roman , the text size must be increased , counterbalancing any cost savings . Thomas Phinney , an expert on digital fonts , noted that the effect of simply swapping Garamond in would be compromised legibility : " any of those changes , swapping to a font that sets smaller at the same nominal point size , or actually reducing the point size , or picking a thinner typeface , will reduce the legibility of the text . That seems like a bad idea , as the percentage of Americans with poor eyesight is skyrocketing . " Professional font designer Jackson Cavanaugh commented " If we 're actually interested in reducing waste , just printing less – using less paper – is obviously more efficient . "

= = Gallery = =

= Texas Recreational Road 8 =

Recreational Road 8 ( RE 8 ) is a Recreational Road located in McMullen County in the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) in length , and connects Texas State Highway 72 ( TX 72 ) to the community of Calliham and Choke Canyon State Park . The roadway travels through rural areas and central Calliham . Calliham was first laid out in 1922 , and a road first appeared in the location of RE 8 by 1940 . Farm to Market Road 99 ( FM 99 ) was designated in the location of RE 8 in 1954 . Recreational Road 8 was officially designated in June of 1981 , after FM 99 was relocated . The highway was cancelled and relocated in 1983 . The highway is currently the only route to deviate from the recreational road criteria .

= = Route description = =

RE 8 begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with TX 72 south of the unincorporated community of Calliham . The highway proceeds as a two @-@ lane , paved road , traveling northward toward Calliham . As it travels through mainly rural areas , the route intersects a small dirt road before entering the southern portion of Calliham . The road intersects Fletcher Street and continues past several houses , traveling parallel to Naylor Street for a short distance before it intersects Ritcher Street , where it bends northeastward and continues . The road passes a large RV park and intersects Deer Trail before continuing past several houses . It proceeds to its northern terminus , an intersection with Quail Run Road at the edge of Choke Canyon State Park . A long park road continues north into the park , providing access to several campgrounds and recreational areas .

The highway is maintained by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) . Part of the job of the TxDOT is to measure traffic along the highway . These counts are taken using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles that travel along a portion of the highway . The TxDOT usually measures AADT near an intersection . In 2011 , the highway 's AADT was 530 vehicles , taken at a point just north of the intersection with TX 72 . This was an increase from the previous year , when the count was just 330 vehicles , which was taken at the same point . This was a decrease from 2009 , when the AADT for the route was 390 vehicles . No portion of the roadway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . RE 8 is currently the only route in the Recreational Road system to deviate from the system criteria . The TxDOT defines a Recreatonal Road as a route which travels " to a recognized recreational area " , while RE 8 serves Choke Canyon State Park .

= = History = =

The community of Calliham was first settled in 1918 , and was known as Guffeyola . The settlement was a simple camp city , but boomed in 1922 when oil was discovered nearby . In 1923 , due to the rapid expansion , J. W. Stephenson laid out the plan for the townsite for the community , which contained all roads and sites . The community continued to expand into the 1930s . By 1940 , an unimproved dirt road connected central Calliham to camps north of the community . The road crossed the Frio River on a concrete bridge , and had a single cattle guard located on its course . By 1951 , the road 's first block from its southern terminus was improved to a graded , bituminous surface , made up of crushed rock and asphalt . On October 28 , 1952 , FM 2153 was designated along the course of the highway , for a length of approximately 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) . On October 13 , 1954 , the Texas Transportation Commission ( TTC ) cancelled FM 2153 , and extended FM 99 over its course . The designation was officially passed by the Texas State Highway Department 's Administration Circle on December 1 , 1954 .

By 1956 , the entire length of the highway had been graded and resurfaced with crushed rock , as well as being minorly straightened . Between then and 1961 , the route was listed as being a Federal Aid Secondary Road , its surface was improved to bituminous , the bridge over the Frio River was replaced , and the road 's course was minorly straightened . On March 27 , 1981 , FM 99 was approved to be relocated around the location of the newly created Choke Canyon Reservoir . The relocation was officially designated on June 15 , 1981 . On April 3 , 1981 , RE 8 was approved to be designated over the relocated portion of FM 99 . The designation was made official the same day FM 99 was relocated . On June 29 , 1983 , the TTC approved the cancellation and redesignation of RE 8 , and on August 18 , 1983 the redesignation was approved . The route was shifted to its present location , with a total length of about 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) . In 1988 , Calliham was shifted southward from the Choke Canyon Reservoir , causing RE 8 to be shortened by about 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire route is in McMullen County .

= U.S. Route 223 =

US Route 223 or US Highway 223 ( US 223 ) is a diagonal ( northwest – southeast ) United States Numbered Highway lying in the states of Michigan and Ohio . The southernmost section is completely concurrent with the US 23 freeway , including all of the Ohio segment . It connects US 23 in the south near Toledo , Ohio , with US 127 south of Jackson , Michigan . The highway passes through farmland in southern Michigan and woodland in the Irish Hills . Including the concurrency on the southern end , US 223 is 46 @.@ 34 miles ( 74 @.@ 58 km ) in total length .

The highway designation was created in 1930 out of the southern end of US 127 . Three sets of reroutings through Adrian have resulted in the creation of two different business loops through the city . A change proposed in the 1960s and implemented in the 1970s shifted the southern end of US 223 to replace M @-@ 151 and then run along the US 23 freeway between Whiteford Township , Michigan , and Sylvania , Ohio . Since the 1980s , US 223 no longer reaches Toledo , instead feeding into the freeway system for the city . Changes proposed and enacted into law in the 1990s would upgrade the highway as an Interstate Highway . Congress has designated this corridor as part of Interstate 73 ( I @-@ 73 ) , although neither state intends at this time to complete the freeway .

= = Route description = =

US 223 starts at an interchange in with State Route 51 ( SR 51 ) and SR 184 in Sylvania on the northwest side of the Toledo , Ohio metropolitan area . Although unsigned by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) along the US 23 freeway , US 223 runs concurrently around two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 0 km ) to the Ohio – Michigan state line . Once across the border , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) has signed both numbers along the freeway . The two highways ' designations follow the freeway northward through rural farmland . At exit 5 , US 223 separates from the freeway and turns west along an extension of St. Anthony Road .

The highway continues westward through the farmland as a two @-@ lane road to the Monroe – Lenawee county line . US 223 meets its former routing and turns northwesterly along Lansing Road , crossing a branch of the Indiana & Ohio Railway . US 223 runs parallel to the Adrian & Blissfield Railroad that branches off southwest of the highway . Both the highway and rail line run northwesterly into Blissfield . The two cross while US 223 runs along Adrian Street through downtown , and the highway makes its first crossing of the River Raisin before leaving downtown . The second crossing is in Palmyra northwest of Blissfield .

US 223 returns to a due west track as it crosses a branch of the Norfolk Southern Railway , and the roadway approaches the outskirts of Adrian . The highway runs along the southern city limits for Adrian as it meets M @-@ 52 . The only business loop for US 223 runs north of this intersection with M @-@ 52 into downtown Adrian while US 223 continues through this secondary business corridor south and west of town . US 223 crosses Beaver Creek and then intersects M @-@ 34 on the western city line in a residential section of Adrian . As US 223 crosses fully into the city of Adrian , it continues northwesterly , then turns due west at the intersection were it meets its business loop 's western terminus . Outside of town , the highway cross through more farmland continuing to northwestern Lenawee County .

US 223 passes out of flat farmlands into the Irish Hills region as the highway runs northeast of Manitou Beach as the roadway rounds the northern shore of Devils Lake . The Irish Hills region has gently rolling hills that transition to forests from farms . Southeast of Somerset US 223 meets US 127 and ends . The entire highway in both Ohio and Michigan is listed on the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

As early as 1912 , the Ohio section of what is now US 223 was shown on maps as SR 54 , however the road was not signed with the number at the time . The Michigan section carried two numbers when the signs were erected by July 1 , 1919 . The segment from Somerset to Adrian was M @-@ 80 , and the remainder in Michigan was M @-@ 34 . Ohio signed its highways , including SR 54 , by July 1923 .

When the United States Numbered Highway System debuted on November 11 , 1926 , these highways were all used as part of the southern end of US 127 , which started in Lansing , Michigan , and ended in Toledo at the time . In 1930 , US 127 south of Somerset was rerouted to replace M @-@ 14 to the state line and extended to end in Cincinnati , Ohio . The section of US 127 between Somerset and Toledo was then renumbered US 223 , making the highway a spur of US 23 .

The routing of US 223 was changed through Adrian in 1935 , shifting the highway along different streets through town . Another change in 1942 through Adrian led to the creation of the first business loop through the city . This version of the business loop lasted until the main highway was moved a second time in 1956 . With this subsequent move , the business loop designation was shifted to its current location .

Michigan first started converting US 23 into a freeway in 1957 . Several years later , the state first proposed a realignment of US 223 in 1965 . This change would reroute the highway to replace M @-@ 151 in southern Monroe County , and use the US 23 freeway to connect to Sylvania , Ohio . The Michigan State Highway Department truncated M @-@ 151 in 1965 , eliminating the section that ran eastward through Samaria to US 25 south of Monroe . The remainder of the US 223 realignment change was made in 1977 when Michigan shifted its segment of US 223 over M @-@ 151 as previously proposed . Instead of running south through Ottawa Lake , US 223 continued east to the US 23 freeway and south into Ohio .

The last major change occurred when ODOT truncated US 223 at exit 234 . The city of Toledo and the state proposed the change in late 1985 to simplify travel in the area . The section of US 223 from Sylvania into downtown Toledo was used for an extension of SR 51 when the change was made between 1985 and 1987 . A local regional planning group in Michigan proposed upgrading the section of US 223 through Lenawee County in 1990 , citing increased congestion and accidents in the previous five years . The commission also supported upgrades to the highway because it was the main route between the Jackson and Toledo areas . Subsequent upgrades during 2000 added passing lanes near Palmyra and 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) of roads were resurfaced .

= = Future = =

The original defined alignment of I @-@ 73 would have run along I @-@ 75 to Detroit . However , Congress amended that definition in 1995 to have a branch along the US 223 corridor to south of Jackson and the US 127 corridor north to I @-@ 75 near Grayling . From Grayling it would use I @-@ 75 to Sault Ste . Marie . Except south of Jackson , where the existing highways are two @-@ lane roads and a section of road north of Lansing where the freeway reverts to a divided highway , this corridor is mostly a rural four @-@ lane freeway . While there are no immediate plans to convert the section of US 127 between St. Johns and Ithaca to freeway , MDOT continues to purchase parcels for right @-@ of @-@ way to be used for future upgrades .

MDOT included using the US 223 corridor as one of its three options to build I @-@ 73 in 2000 . The others included using the US 127 corridor all the way into Ohio with a connection to the Ohio Turnpike or using US 127 south and a new freeway connection to US 223 at Adrian . MDOT abandoned further study of I @-@ 73 after June 12 , 2001 , diverting remaining funding to safety improvement projects along the corridor . The department stated there was a " lack of need " for sections of the proposed freeway , and the project website was closed down in 2002 . According to press reports in 2011 , a group advocating on behalf of the freeway is working to revive the I @-@ 73 project in Michigan . According to an MDOT spokesman , " to my knowledge , we ’ re not taking that issue up again . " The Lenawee County Road Commission is not interested in the freeway , and according to the president of the Adrian Area Chamber of Commerce , " there seems to be little chance of having an I @-@ 73 link between Toledo and Jackson built in the foreseeable future . "

In 2012 , MDOT announced a construction project along the US 23 / US 223 freeway in southern Monroe County what would rebuild the northbound lanes of the freeway between exits 1 and 5 in addition to improving the interchange ramps in the area . The interchange between US 223 the freeway at exit 5 will also be upgraded to contain a pair of roundabouts in a configuration known as a dumbbell interchange .

= = Major intersections = =

= = Business loop = =

Business US Highway 223 ( Bus . US 223 ) is a business route running through downtown Adrian , Michigan . It is also currently the highest numbered and signed business routing in the state of Michigan . Both Business Spur I @-@ 375 ( BS I @-@ 375 ) and Capitol Loop currently exist but BS I @-@ 375 is not signed and the Capitol Loop , while inventoried as Connector 496 does not use that number on signs .

The current routing of Bus . US 223 marks the second time the designation has been used in the Adrian area . The first was created in 1942 when the first bypass of Adrian was constructed . This bypass was built along Cadmus Road at Treat Highway west to M @-@ 52 ( Adrian Highway ) . US 223 then ran along M @-@ 52 to connect with the previous routing . Bus . US 223 was designated along Church , Center , Beecher and Treat streets , the former routing of US 223 through downtown . This incarnation of Bus . US 223 would survive until March 26 , 1956 when another new bypass of Adrian was built . The first Bus . US 223 was deleted to allow the designation to be used on the routing of the first US 223 bypass . This first bypass became the current alignment of Bus . US 223 .

In the current routing , Bus . US 223 follows M @-@ 52 ( Adrian Highway / Main Street ) and a former route of US 223 through downtown . The southern terminus is at US 223 at an intersection with M @-@ 52 near downtown Adrian . The business loop follows M @-@ 52 north into downtown on Main Street . At Church Street , the Bus . US 223 turns northwest and follows that street to Maumee Street . The loop follows Maumee Street west out of the center of town back to the main highway . The northern terminus of Bus . US 223 is an intersection with US 223 northwest of downtown Adrian .

Major intersections

The entire highway is in Lenawee County .

= Ralph Richardson =

Sir Ralph David Richardson ( 19 December 1902 – 10 October 1983 ) was an English actor who , along with his contemporaries John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier , dominated the British stage of the mid @-@ 20th century . He worked in films throughout most of his career , and played more than sixty cinema roles . From an artistic but not theatrical background , Richardson had no thought of a stage career until a production of Hamlet in Brighton inspired him to become an actor . He learned his craft in the 1920s with a touring company and later the Birmingham Repertory Theatre . In 1931 he joined the Old Vic , playing mostly Shakespearean roles . He led the company the following season , succeeding Gielgud , who had taught him much about stage technique . After he left the company , a series of leading roles took him to stardom in the West End and on Broadway .

In the 1940s , together with Olivier and John Burrell , Richardson was the co @-@ director of the Old Vic company . There , his most celebrated roles included Peer Gynt and Falstaff . He and Olivier led the company to Europe and Broadway in 1945 and 1946 , before their success provoked resentment among the governing board of the Old Vic , leading to their dismissal from the company in 1947 . In the 1950s , in the West End and occasionally on tour , Richardson played in modern and classic works including The Heiress , Home at Seven , and Three Sisters . He continued on stage and in films until shortly before his sudden death at the age of eighty . He was celebrated in later years for his work with Peter Hall 's National Theatre and his frequent stage partnership with Gielgud . He was not known for his portrayal of the great tragic roles in the classics , preferring character parts in old and new plays .

Richardson 's film career began as an extra in 1931 . He was soon cast in leading roles in British and American films including Things to Come in the 1930s , The Fallen Idol and The Heiress in the 1940s , and Long Day 's Journey into Night and Doctor Zhivago in the 1960s . He received nominations and awards in the UK , Europe and the US for his stage and screen work from 1948 until his death , and beyond , with a posthumous Academy Award nomination for his final film , Greystoke .

Throughout his career , and increasingly in later years , Richardson was known for his eccentric behaviour on and off stage . He was often seen as detached from conventional ways of looking at the world , and his acting was regularly described as poetic or magical .

= = Life and career = =

= = = Early years = = =

Richardson was born in Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , the third son and youngest child of Arthur Richardson and his wife Lydia ( née Russell ) . The couple had met while both were in Paris , studying with the painter William @-@ Adolphe Bouguereau . Arthur Richardson had been senior art master at Cheltenham Ladies ' College from 1893 .

In 1907 the family split up ; there was no divorce or formal separation , but the two elder boys , Christopher and Ambrose , remained with their father and Lydia left them , taking Ralph with her . The ostensible cause of the couple 's separation was a row over Lydia 's choice of wallpaper for her husband 's study . According to John Miller 's biography , whatever underlying causes there may have been are unknown . An earlier biographer , Garry O 'Connor , speculates that Arthur Richardson might have been having an extramarital affair . There does not seem to have been a religious element , although Arthur was a dedicated Quaker , whose first two sons were brought up in that faith , whereas Lydia was a devout convert to Roman Catholicism , in which she raised Ralph . Mother and son had a variety of homes , the first of which was a bungalow converted from two railway carriages in Shoreham @-@ by @-@ Sea on the south coast of England .

Lydia wanted Richardson to become a priest . In Brighton he served as an altar boy , which he enjoyed , but when sent at about fifteen to the nearby Xaverian College , a seminary for trainee priests , he ran away . As a pupil at a series of schools he was uninterested in most subjects and was an indifferent scholar . His Latin was poor , and during church services he would improvise parts of the Latin responses , developing a talent for invention when memory failed that proved useful in his later career .

In 1919 , aged sixteen , Richardson took a post as office boy with the Brighton branch of the Liverpool and Victoria insurance company . The pay , ten shillings a week , was attractive , but office life was not ; he lacked concentration , frequently posting documents to the wrong people as well as engaging in pranks that alarmed his superiors . His paternal grandmother died and left him £ 500 , which , he later said , transformed his life . He resigned from the office post , just in time to avoid being dismissed , and enrolled at the Brighton School of Art . His studies there convinced him that he lacked creativity , and that his draughtsmanship was not good enough .

Richardson left the art school in 1920 , and considered how else he might make a career . He briefly thought of pharmacy and then of journalism , abandoning each when he learned how much study the former required and how difficult mastering shorthand for the latter would be . He was still unsure what to do , when he saw Sir Frank Benson as Hamlet in a touring production . He was thrilled , and felt at once that he must become an actor .

Buttressed by what was left of the legacy from his grandmother , Richardson determined to learn to act . He paid a local theatrical manager , Frank R Growcott , ten shillings a week to be a member of his company and be taught the craft of an actor . He made his stage debut in December 1920 with Growcott 's St Nicholas Players at the St Nicholas Hall , Brighton , a converted bacon factory . He played a gendarme in an adaptation of Les Misérables , and was soon entrusted with larger parts including Banquo in Macbeth and Malvolio in Twelfth Night .

= = = Early career = = =

The heyday of the touring actor @-@ manager was nearing its end but some companies still flourished . As well as Benson 's , there were those of Sir John Martin @-@ Harvey , Ben Greet , and , only slightly less prestigious , Charles Doran . Richardson wrote to all four managers : the first two did not reply ; Greet saw him but had no vacancy ; Doran engaged him , at a wage of £ 3 a week . Richardson made his first appearance as a professional actor at the Marina Theatre , Lowestoft , in August 1921 , as Lorenzo in The Merchant of Venice . He remained with Doran 's company for most of the next two years , gradually gaining more important roles , including Banquo in Macbeth and Mark Antony in Julius Caesar .

Doran 's company specialised in the classics , principally Shakespeare . After two years of period costumes Richardson felt the urge to act in a modern work . He left Doran in 1923 and toured in a new play , Outward Bound by Sutton Vane . He returned to the classics in August 1924 , in Nigel Playfair 's touring production of The Way of the World , playing Fainall . While on that tour he married Muriel Hewitt , a young member of Doran 's company , known to him as " Kit " . To his great happiness , the two were able to work together for most of 1925 , both being engaged by Sir Barry Jackson of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre for a touring production of The Farmer 's Wife . From December of that year they were members of the main repertory company in Birmingham . Through Jackson 's chief director , the veteran taskmaster H K Ayliff , Richardson " absorbed the influence of older contemporaries like Gerald du Maurier , Charles Hawtrey and Mrs Patrick Campbell . " Hewitt was seen as a rising star but Richardson 's talents were not yet so apparent ; he was allotted supporting roles such as Lane in The Importance of Being Earnest and Albert Prossor in Hobson 's Choice .

Richardson made his London debut in July 1926 as the stranger in Oedipus at Colonus in a Sunday @-@ night performance at the Scala Theatre , with a cast including Percy Walsh , John Laurie and D A Clarke @-@ Smith . He then toured for three months in Eden Phillpotts 's comedy Devonshire Cream with Jackson 's company led by Cedric Hardwicke .

When Phillpotts 's next comedy , Yellow Sands , was to be mounted at the Haymarket Theatre in the West End , Richardson and his wife were both cast in good roles . The play opened in November 1926 and ran until September 1928 ; with 610 performances it was the longest London run of Richardson 's entire career . During the run Muriel Hewitt began to show early symptoms of encephalitis lethargica , a progressive and ultimately fatal illness .

Richardson left the run of Yellow Sands in March 1928 and rejoined Ayliff , playing Pygmalion in Back to Methuselah at the Royal Court Theatre ; also in the cast was a former colleague from the Birmingham Repertory , Laurence Olivier . The critics began to notice Richardson and he gained some favourable reviews . As Tranio in Ayliff 's modern @-@ dress production of The Taming of the Shrew , Richardson played the character as a breezy cockney , winning praise for turning a usually dreary role into something richly entertaining . For the rest of 1928 he appeared in what Miller describes as several unremarkable modern plays . For much of 1929 he toured South Africa in Gerald Lawrence 's company in three period costume plays , including The School for Scandal , in which he played Joseph Surface . The sole venture into musical comedy of his career was in Silver Wings in the West End and on tour . It was not a personal triumph ; the director 's final injunction to the company was , " For God 's sake don 't let Richardson sing " . In May 1930 Richardson was given the role of Roderigo in Othello in what seemed likely to be a prestigious production , with Paul Robeson in the title role . The biographer Ronald Hayman writes that though a fine singer , " Robeson had no ear for blank verse " and even Peggy Ashcroft 's superb performance as Desdemona was not enough to save the production from failure . Ashcroft 's notices were laudatory , while Richardson 's were mixed ; they admired each other and worked together frequently during the next four decades .

= = = Old Vic , 1930 – 32 = = =

In 1930 Richardson , with some misgivings , accepted an invitation to join The Old Vic company . The theatre , in an unfashionable location south of the Thames , had offered inexpensive tickets for opera and drama under its proprietor Lilian Baylis since 1912 . Its profile had been raised considerably by Baylis 's producer , Harcourt Williams , who in 1929 persuaded the young West End star John Gielgud to lead the drama company . For the following season Williams wanted Richardson to join , with a view to succeeding Gielgud from 1931 to 1932 . Richardson agreed , though he was not sure of his own suitability for a mainly Shakespearean repertoire , and was not enthusiastic about working with Gielgud : " I found his clothes extravagant , I found his conversation flippant . He was the New Young Man of his time and I didn 't like him . "

The first production of the season was Henry IV , Part 1 , with Gielgud as Hotspur and Richardson as Prince Hal ; the latter was thought by The Daily Telegraph " vivacious , but a figure of modern comedy rather than Shakespeare . " Richardson 's notices , and the relationship of the two leading men , improved markedly when Gielgud , who was playing Prospero , helped Richardson with his performance as Caliban in The Tempest :

He gave me about two hundred ideas , as he usually does , twenty @-@ five of which I eagerly seized on , and when I went away I thought , " This chap , you know , I don 't like him very much but by God he knows something about this here play . " ... And then out of that we formed a friendship .

The friendship and professional association lasted until the end of Richardson 's life . Gielgud wrote in 1983 , " Besides cherishing our long years of work together in the theatre , where he was such an inspiring and generous partner , I grew to love him in private life as a great gentleman , a rare spirit , fair and balanced , devotedly loyal and tolerant and , as a companion , bursting with vitality , curiosity and humour . " Among Richardson 's other parts in his first Old Vic season , Enobarbus in Antony and Cleopatra gained particularly good notices . The Morning Post commented that it placed him in the first rank of Shakespearean actors . At the beginning of 1931 Baylis re @-@ opened Sadler 's Wells Theatre with a production of Twelfth Night starring Gielgud as Malvolio and Richardson as Sir Toby Belch . W. A. Darlington in The Daily Telegraph wrote of Richardson 's " ripe , rich and mellow Sir Toby , [ which ] I would go many miles to see again . "

During the summer break between the Old Vic 1930 – 31 and 1931 – 32 seasons , Richardson played at the Malvern Festival , under the direction of his old Birmingham director , Ayliff . Salaries at the Old Vic and the Festival were not large , and Richardson was glad of a job as an extra in the 1931 film Dreyfus . As his wife 's condition worsened he needed to pay for more and more nursing ; she was looked after in a succession of hospitals and care homes .

Succeeding Gielgud as leading man at the Old Vic , Richardson had a varied season , in which there were conspicuous successes interspersed with critical failures . James Agate was not convinced by him as the domineering Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew ; in Julius Caesar the whole cast received tepid reviews . In Othello Richardson divided the critics . He emphasised the plausible charm of the murderous Iago to a degree that Agate thought " very good Richardson , but indifferent Shakespeare " , whereas The Times said , " He never stalked or hissed like a plain villain , and , in fact , we have seldom seen a man smile and smile and be a villain so adequately . " His biggest success of the season was as Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Both Agate and Darlington commented on how the actor transformed the character from the bumbling workman to the magically changed creature on whom Titania dotes . Agate wrote that most of those who had played the part hitherto " seem to have thought Bottom , with the ass 's head on , was the same Bottom , only funnier . Shakespeare says he was ' translated ' , and Mr Richardson translated him . " With Sybil Thorndike as a guest star and Richardson as Ralph , The Knight of the Burning Pestle was a hit with audiences and critics , as was a revival of Twelfth Night , with Edith Evans as Viola and Richardson again playing Sir Toby , finishing the season to renewed praise .

= = = West End and Broadway = = =

Richardson returned to the Malvern Festival in August 1932 . He was in four plays , the last of which , Bernard Shaw 's Too True to Be Good , transferred to the New Theatre in London the following month . The play was not liked by audiences and ran for only forty @-@ seven performances , but Richardson , in Agate 's phrase , " ran away with the piece " , and established himself as a West End star . In 1933 he had his first speaking part in a film , playing the villain , Nigel Hartley , in The Ghoul , which starred Cedric Hardwicke and Boris Karloff . The following year he was cast in his first starring role in a film , as the hero in The Return of Bulldog Drummond . The Times commented , " Mr Ralph Richardson makes Drummond as brave and stupid on the screen as he is in print . "

Over the next two years Richardson appeared in six plays in London ranging from Peter Pan ( as Mr Darling and Captain Hook ) to Cornelius , an allegorical play written for and dedicated to him by J B Priestley . Cornelius ran for two months ; this was less than expected , and left Richardson with a gap in engagements in the second half of 1935 . He filled it by accepting an invitation from Katharine Cornell and Guthrie McClintic to play Mercutio in their production of Romeo and Juliet on a US tour and on Broadway . Romeo was played by Maurice Evans and Juliet by Cornell . Richardson 's performance greatly impressed American critics , and Cornell invited him to return to New York to co @-@ star with her in Macbeth and Antony and Cleopatra , though nothing came of this .

In 1936 London Films released Things to Come , in which Richardson played the swaggering warlord " The Boss " . His performance parodied the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini so effectively that the film was immediately banned in Italy . The producer was Alexander Korda ; the two men formed a long and mutually beneficial friendship . Richardson later said of Korda , " Though not so very much older than I am , I regarded him in a way as a father , and to me he was as generous as a prince . " In May 1936 Richardson and Olivier jointly directed and starred in a new piece by Priestley , Bees on the Boatdeck . Both actors won excellent notices , but the play , an allegory of Britain 's decline , did not attract the public . It closed after four weeks , the last in a succession of West End productions in which Richardson appeared to much acclaim but which were box @-@ office failures . In August of the same year he finally had a long @-@ running star part , the title role in Barré Lyndon 's comedy thriller , The Amazing Dr Clitterhouse , which played for 492 performances , closing in October 1937 .

After a short run in The Silent Knight , described by Miller as " a Hungarian fantasy in rhymed verse set in the fifteenth century " , Richardson returned to the Old Vic for the 1937 – 38 season , playing Bottom once again and switching parts in Othello , playing the title role , with Olivier as Iago . The director , Tyrone Guthrie , wanted to experiment with the theory that Iago 's villainy is driven by suppressed homosexual love for Othello . Olivier was willing to co @-@ operate , but Richardson was not ; audiences and most critics failed to spot the supposed motivation of Olivier 's Iago , and Richardson 's Othello seemed underpowered . O 'Connor believes that Richardson did not succeed with Othello or Macbeth because of the characters ' single @-@ minded " blind driving passion – too extreme , too inhuman " , which was incomprehensible and alien to him . It was for the same reason , in O 'Connor 's view , that he never attempted the title roles in Hamlet or King Lear .

Richardson made his television debut in January 1939 , reprising his 1936 stage role of the chief engineer in Bees on the Boatdeck . His last stage part in the 1930s was Robert Johnson , an Everyman figure , in Priestley 's Johnson Over Jordan directed by Basil Dean . It was an experimental piece , using music ( by Benjamin Britten ) and dance as well as dialogue , and was another production in which Richardson was widely praised but which did not prosper at the box @-@ office . After it closed , in May 1939 , he did not act on stage for more than five years .

= = = Second World War = = =

At the outbreak of war Richardson joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve as a sub @-@ lieutenant pilot . He had taken flying lessons during the 1930s and had logged 200 hours of flying time , but , though a notoriously reckless driver , he admitted to being a timid pilot . He counted himself lucky to have been accepted , but the Fleet Air Arm was short of pilots . He rose to the rank of lieutenant @-@ commander . His work was mostly routine administration , probably because of " the large number of planes which seemed to fall to pieces under his control " , through which he acquired the nickname " Pranger " Richardson . He served at several bases in the south of England , and in April 1941 , at the Royal Naval Air Station , Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent , he was able to welcome Olivier , newly commissioned as a temporary sub @-@ lieutenant . Olivier rapidly eclipsed Richardson 's record for pranging .

In 1942 , on his way to visit his wife at the cottage where she was cared for by a devoted couple , Richardson crashed his motor @-@ bike and was in hospital for several weeks . Kit was at that point mobile enough to visit him , but later in the year her condition worsened and in October she died . He was intensely lonely , though the comradeship of naval life was some comfort . In 1944 he married again . His second wife was the actress Meriel Forbes , a member of the Forbes @-@ Robertson theatrical family . The marriage brought him lifelong happiness and a son , Charles ( 1945 – 98 ) , who became a television stage manager .

During the war Richardson compered occasional morale @-@ boosting shows at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere , and made one short film and three full @-@ length ones , including The Silver Fleet , in which he played a Dutch Resistance hero , and The Volunteer , a propaganda film in which he appeared as himself .

Throughout the war Guthrie had striven to keep the Old Vic company going , even after German bombing in 1942 left the theatre a near @-@ ruin . A small troupe toured the provinces , with Sybil Thorndike at its head . By 1944 , with the tide of the war turning , Guthrie felt it time to re @-@ establish the company in a London base , and invited Richardson to head it . Richardson made two stipulations : first , as he was unwilling to seek his own release from the forces , the governing board of the Old Vic should explain to the authorities why it should be granted ; secondly , that he should share the acting and management in a triumvirate . Initially he proposed Gielgud and Olivier as his colleagues , but the former declined , saying , " It would be a disaster , you would have to spend your whole time as referee between Larry and me . " It was finally agreed that the third member would be the stage director John Burrell . The Old Vic governors approached the Royal Navy to secure the release of Richardson and Olivier ; the Sea Lords consented , with , as Olivier put it , " a speediness and lack of reluctance which was positively hurtful . "

= = = Old Vic , 1944 – 47 = = =

The triumvirate secured the New Theatre for their first season and recruited a company . Thorndike was joined by , among others , Harcourt Williams , Joyce Redman and Margaret Leighton . It was agreed to open with a repertory of four plays : Peer Gynt , Arms and the Man , Richard III and Uncle Vanya . Richardson 's roles were Peer , Bluntschli , Richmond and Vanya ; Olivier played the Button Moulder , Sergius , Richard and Astrov . The first three productions met with acclaim from reviewers and audiences ; Uncle Vanya had a mixed reception . The Times thought Olivier 's Astrov " a most distinguished portrait " and Richardson 's Vanya " the perfect compound of absurdity and pathos " . Agate , on the other hand , commented , " ' Floored for life , sir , and jolly miserable ' is what Uncle Vanya takes three acts to say . And I just cannot believe in Mr Richardson wallowing in misery : his voice is the wrong colour . " In 1945 the company toured Germany , where they were seen by many thousands of Allied servicemen ; they also appeared at the Comédie @-@ Française theatre in Paris , the first foreign company to be given that honour . The critic Harold Hobson wrote that Richardson and Olivier quickly " made the Old Vic the most famous theatre in the Anglo @-@ Saxon world . "

The second season , in 1945 , featured two double @-@ bills . The first consisted of Henry IV , Parts 1 and 2 . Olivier played the warrior Hotspur in the first and the doddering Justice Shallow in the second . He received good notices , but by general consent the production belonged to Richardson as Falstaff . Agate wrote , " He had everything the part wants – the exuberance , the mischief , the gusto . ... Here is something better than virtuosity in character @-@ acting – the spirit of the part shining through the actor . " As a teenager , the director Peter Hall saw the production ; he said fifty years later , " Of the performances I 've seen in my life I 'm gladdest I saw that . " In the second double bill it was Olivier who dominated , in the title roles of Oedipus Rex and The Critic . Richardson took the supporting role of Tiresias in the first , and the silent , cameo part of Lord Burleigh in the second . After the London season the company played both the double @-@ bills and Uncle Vanya in a six @-@ week season on Broadway .

The third , and final , season under the triumvirate was in 1946 – 47 . Olivier played King Lear , and Richardson , Cyrano de Bergerac . Olivier would have preferred the roles to be cast the other way about , but Richardson did not wish to attempt Lear . Richardson 's other roles in the season were Inspector Goole in An Inspector Calls , Face in The Alchemist and John of Gaunt in Richard II , which he directed , with Alec Guinness in the title role .

During the run of Cyrano , Richardson was knighted , to Olivier 's undisguised envy . The younger man received the accolade six months later , by which time the days of the triumvirate were numbered . The high profile of the two star actors did not endear them to the new chairman of the Old Vic governors , Lord Esher . He had ambitions to be the first head of the National Theatre and had no intention of letting actors run it . He was encouraged by Guthrie , who , having instigated the appointment of Richardson and Olivier , had come to resent their knighthoods and international fame . Esher terminated their contracts while both were out of the country , and they and Burrell were said to have " resigned " .

Looking back in 1971 , Bernard Levin wrote that the Old Vic company of 1944 to 1947 " was probably the most illustrious that has ever been assembled in this country " . The Times said that the triumvirate 's years were the greatest in the Old Vic 's history ; as The Guardian put it , " the governors summarily sacked them in the interests of a more mediocre company spirit " .

= = = International fame = = =

For Richardson , parting company with the Old Vic brought the advantage of being free , for the first time , to earn substantial pay . The company 's highest salary had been £ 40 a week . After his final Old Vic season he made two films in quick succession for Korda . The first , Anna Karenina , with Vivien Leigh , was an expensive failure , although Richardson 's notices in the role of Karenin were excellent . The second , The Fallen Idol , had notable commercial and critical success , and won awards in Europe and America . It remained one of Richardson 's favourites of his films . In Miller 's words , " Carol Reed 's sensitive direction drew faultless performances not just from Ralph as Baines ( the butler and mistakenly suspected murderer ) , but also from Michèle Morgan as his mistress , Sonia Dresdel as his cold @-@ hearted wife , and especially from Bobby Henrey as the distraught boy , Felipe . "

Richardson had gained a national reputation as a great actor while at the Old Vic ; films gave him the opportunity to reach an international audience . Unlike some of his theatre colleagues , he was never condescending about film work . He admitted that film could be " a cage for an actor , but a cage in which they sometimes put a little gold " , but he did not regard filming as merely a means of subsidising his much less profitable stage work . He said , " I 've never been one of those chaps who scoff at films . I think they 're a marvellous medium , and are to the stage what engravings are to painting . The theatre may give you big chances , but the cinema teaches you the details of craftsmanship . " The Fallen Idol was followed by Richardson 's first Hollywood part . He played Dr Sloper , the overprotective father of Olivia de Havilland in The Heiress , based on Henry James 's novel Washington Square . The film did not prosper at the box @-@ office despite good reviews , an Academy Award for Best Actress for Havilland , and nominations for the director ( William Wyler ) and Richardson .

The Heiress had been a Broadway play before it was a film . Richardson so liked his part that he decided to play it in the West End , with Ashcroft as Sloper 's daughter Catherine . The piece was to open in February 1949 at Richardson 's favourite theatre , the Haymarket . Rehearsals were chaotic . Burrell , whom Richardson had asked to direct , was not up to the task – possibly , Miller speculates , because of nervous exhaustion from the recent traumas at the Old Vic . With only a week to go before the first performance , the producer , Binkie Beaumont , asked him to stand down , and Gielgud was recruited in his place . Matters improved astonishingly ; the production was a complete success and ran in London for 644 performances .

After one long run in The Heiress , Richardson appeared in another , R C Sherriff 's Home at Seven , in 1950 . He played an amnesiac bank clerk who fears he may have committed murder . He later recreated the part in a radio broadcast , and in a film version , which was his sole venture into direction for the screen . Once he had played himself into a role in a long run , Richardson felt able to work during the daytime in films , and made two others in the early 1950s beside the film of the Sherriff piece : Outcast of the Islands , directed by Carol Reed , and David Lean 's The Sound Barrier , released in 1951 and 1952 respectively . For the latter he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor . With his characteristic liking for switching between modern roles and the classics , his next stage part was Colonel Vershinin in Three Sisters in 1951 . He headed a strong cast , with Renée Asherson , Margaret Leighton and Celia Johnson as the sisters , but reviewers found the production weakly directed , and some felt that Richardson failed to disguise his positive personality when playing the ineffectual Vershinin . He did not attempt Chekhov again for more than a quarter of a century .

In 1952 Richardson appeared at the Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon Festival at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre ( forerunner of the Royal Shakespeare Company ) . His return to Shakespeare for the first time since his Old Vic days was keenly anticipated , but turned out to be a serious disappointment . He had poor reviews for his Prospero in The Tempest , judged too prosaic . In the second production of the festival his Macbeth , directed by Gielgud , was generally considered a failure . He was thought unconvincingly villainous ; the influential young critic Kenneth Tynan professed himself " unmoved to the point of paralysis , " though blaming the director more than the star . Richardson 's third and final role in the Stratford season , Volpone in Ben Jonson 's play , received much better , but not ecstatic , notices . He did not play at Stratford again .

Back in the West End , Richardson was in another Sherriff play , The White Carnation , in 1953 , and in November of the same year he and Gielgud starred together in N C Hunter 's A Day by the Sea , which ran at the Haymarket for 386 performances . During this period , Richardson played Dr Watson in an American / BBC radio co @-@ production of Sherlock Holmes stories , with Gielgud as Holmes and Orson Welles as the evil Professor Moriarty . These recordings were later released commercially on disc .

In late 1954 and early 1955 Richardson and his wife toured Australia together with Sybil Thorndike and her husband , Lewis Casson , playing Terence Rattigan 's plays The Sleeping Prince and Separate Tables . The following year he worked with Olivier again , playing Buckingham to Olivier 's Richard in the 1955 film of Richard III . Olivier , who directed , was exasperated at his old friend 's insistence on playing the role sympathetically .

Richardson turned down the role of Estragon in Peter Hall 's premiere of the English language version of Samuel Beckett 's Waiting for Godot in 1955 and later reproached himself for missing the chance to be in " the greatest play of my generation " . He had consulted Gielgud , who dismissed the piece as rubbish , and even after discussing the play with the author , Richardson could not understand the play or the character . Richardson 's Timon of Athens in his 1956 return to the Old Vic was well received , as was his Broadway appearance in The Waltz of the Toreadors for which he was nominated for a Tony Award in 1957 . He concluded the 1950s with two contrasting West End successes , Robert Bolt 's Flowering Cherry , and Graham Greene 's The Complaisant Lover . The former , a sad piece about a failed and deluded insurance manager , ran for 435 performances in 1957 – 58 ; Richardson co @-@ starred with three leading ladies in succession : Celia Johnson , Wendy Hiller and his wife . Greene 's comedy was a surprise hit , running for 402 performances from June 1959 . Throughout rehearsals the cast treated the love @-@ triangle theme as one of despair , and were astonished to find themselves playing to continual laughter . During the run , Richardson worked by day on another Greene work , the film Our Man in Havana . Alec Guinness , who played the main role , noted " the object @-@ lesson in upstaging in the last scene between Richardson and Noël Coward " , faithfully captured by the director , Carol Reed .

= = = 1960s = = =

Richardson began the 1960s with a failure . Enid Bagnold 's play The Last Joke was savaged by the critics ( " a meaningless jumble of pretentious whimsy " was one description ) . His only reason for playing in the piece was the chance of acting with Gielgud , but both men quickly regretted their involvement . Richardson then went to the US to appear in Sidney Lumet 's film adaptation of Long Day 's Journey into Night , alongside Katharine Hepburn . Lumet later recalled how little guidance Richardson needed . Once , the director went into lengthy detail about the playing of a scene , and when he had finished , Richardson said , " Ah , I think I know what you want – a little more flute and a little less cello " . After that , Lumet was sparing with suggestions . Richardson was jointly awarded the Cannes Film Festival 's Best Actor prize with his co @-@ stars Jason Robards Jr and Dean Stockwell .

Richardson 's next stage role was in a starry revival of The School for Scandal , as Sir Peter Teazle , directed by Gielgud in 1962 . The production was taken on a North American tour , in which Gielgud joined the cast as , he said , " the oldest Joseph Surface in the business " . A revival of Six Characters in Search of an Author in 1963 was judged by the critic Sheridan Morley to have been a high @-@ point of the actor 's work in the 1960s . Richardson joined a British Council tour of South Africa and Europe the following year ; he played Bottom again , and Shylock in The Merchant of Venice .

For his next four stage productions , Richardson was at the Haymarket . Father Carving a Statue ( 1964 ) by Graham Greene was short @-@ lived . He had a more reliable vehicle in Shaw 's You Never Can Tell ( 1966 ) in which he played the philosopher @-@ waiter William , and in the same year he had a great success as Sir Anthony Absolute in The Rivals . The critic David Benedictus wrote of Richardson 's performance , " ... he is choleric and gouty certainly , the script demands that he shall be , but his most engaging quality , his love for his son in spite of himself , shines through every line . " In 1967 he again played Shylock ; this was the last time he acted in a Shakespeare play on stage . His performance won critical praise , but the rest of the cast were less well received .

Interspersed with his stage plays , Richardson made thirteen cinema films during the decade . On screen he played historical figures including Sir Edward Carson ( Oscar Wilde , 1960 ) , W E Gladstone ( Khartoum , 1966 ) and Sir Edward Grey ( Oh ! What a Lovely War , 1969 ) . He was scrupulous about historical accuracy in his portrayals , and researched eras and characters in great detail before filming . Occasionally his precision was greater than directors wished , as when , in Khartoum , he insisted on wearing a small black finger @-@ stall because the real Gladstone had worn one following an injury . After a role playing a disabled tycoon and Sean Connery 's father in Woman of Straw , in 1965 he played Alexander Gromeko in Lean 's Doctor Zhivago , an exceptionally successful film at the box office , which , together with The Wrong Box and Khartoum , earned him a BAFTA nomination for best leading actor in 1966 . Other film roles from this period included Lord Fortnum ( The Bed @-@ Sitting Room , 1969 ) and Leclerc ( The Looking Glass War , 1969 ) . The casts of Oh ! What a Lovely War and Khartoum included Olivier , but he and Richardson did not appear in the same scenes , and never met during the filming . Olivier was by now running the National Theatre , temporarily based at the Old Vic , but showed little desire to recruit his former colleague for any of the company 's productions .

In 1964 Richardson was the voice of General Haig in the twenty @-@ six @-@ part BBC documentary series The Great War . In 1967 he played Lord Emsworth on BBC television in dramatisations of P G Wodehouse 's Blandings Castle stories , with his wife playing Emsworth 's bossy sister Constance , and Stanley Holloway as the butler , Beach . He was nervous about acting in a television series : " I 'm sixty @-@ four and that 's a bit old to be taking on a new medium . " The performances divided critical opinion . The Times thought the stars " a sheer delight ... situation comedy is joy in their hands " . The reviewers in The Guardian and The Observer thought the three too theatrical to be effective on the small screen . For television he recorded studio versions of two plays in which he had appeared on stage : Johnson Over Jordan ( 1965 ) and Twelfth Night ( 1968 ) .

During the decade , Richardson made numerous sound recordings . For the Caedmon Audio label he re @-@ created his role as Cyrano de Bergerac opposite Anna Massey as Roxane , and played the title role in a complete recording of Julius Caesar , with a cast that included Anthony Quayle as Brutus , John Mills as Cassius and Alan Bates as Antony . Other Caedmon recordings were Measure for Measure , The School for Scandal and No Man 's Land . Richardson also recorded some English Romantic poetry , including The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and poems by Keats and Shelley for the label . For Decca Records Richardson recorded the narration for Prokofiev 's Peter and the Wolf , and for RCA the superscriptions for Vaughan Williams 's Sinfonia antartica – both with the London Symphony Orchestra , the Prokofiev conducted by Sir Malcolm Sargent and the Vaughan Williams by André Previn .

Richardson 's last stage role of the decade was in 1969 , as Dr Rance in What the Butler Saw by Joe Orton . It was a conspicuous failure . The public hated the play and made the fact vociferously clear at the first night .

= = = 1970 – 74 = = =

In 1970 Richardson was with Gielgud at the Royal Court in David Storey 's Home . The play is set in the gardens of a nursing home for mental patients , though this is not clear at first . The two elderly men converse in a desultory way , are joined and briefly enlivened by two more extrovert female patients , are slightly scared by another male patient , and are then left together , conversing even more emptily . The Punch critic , Jeremy Kingston wrote :

At the end of the play , as the climax to two perfect , delicate performances , Sir Ralph and Sir John are standing , staring out above the heads of the audience , cheeks wet with tears in memory of some unnamed misery , weeping soundlessly as the lights fade on them . It makes a tragic , unforgettable close .

The play transferred to the West End and then to Broadway . In The New York Times Clive Barnes wrote , " The two men , bleakly examining the little nothingness of their lives , are John Gielgud and Ralph Richardson giving two of the greatest performances of two careers that have been among the glories of the English @-@ speaking theater . " The original cast recorded the play for television in 1972 .

Back at the Royal Court in 1971 Richardson starred in John Osborne 's West of Suez , after which , in July 1972 , he surprised many by joining Peggy Ashcroft in a drawing @-@ room comedy , Lloyd George Knew My Father by William Douglas @-@ Home . Some critics felt the play was too slight for its two stars , but Harold Hobson thought Richardson found unsuspected depths in the character of the ostensibly phlegmatic General Boothroyd . The play was a hit with the public , and when Ashcroft left after four months , Celia Johnson took over until May 1973 , when Richardson handed over to Andrew Cruickshank in the West End . Richardson afterwards toured the play in Australia and Canada with his wife as co @-@ star . An Australian critic wrote , " The play is a vehicle for Sir Ralph ... but the real driver is Lady Richardson . "

Richardson 's film roles of the early 1970s ranged from the Crypt Keeper in Tales from the Crypt ( 1972 ) to the Caterpillar in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland ( 1972 ) and Dr Rank in Ibsen 's A Doll 's House ( 1973 ) . The last of these was released at the same time as an American film of the same play , starring Jane Fonda ; the timing detracted from the impact of both versions , but Richardson 's performance won good reviews . In The Observer , George Melly wrote , " As for Sir Ralph as Dr Rank , he grows from the ageing elegant cynic of his first appearance ( it 's even a pleasure to watch him remove his top hat ) to become the heroic dying stoic of his final exit without in any way forcing the pace . " In 1973 Richardson received a BAFTA nomination for his performance of George IV in Lady Caroline Lamb , in which Olivier appeared as Wellington .

= = = 1975 – 83 = = =

Peter Hall , having succeeded Olivier as director of the National Theatre , was determined to attract Ashcroft , Gielgud and Richardson into the company . In 1975 he successfully offered Richardson the title role in Ibsen 's John Gabriel Borkman , with Ashcroft and Wendy Hiller in the two main female roles . The production was one of the early successes of Hall 's initially difficult tenure . The critic Michael Billington wrote that Hall had done the impossible in reconciling the contradictory aspects of the play and that " Richardson 's Borkman is both moral monster and self @-@ made superman ; and the performance is full of a strange , unearthly music that belongs to this actor alone . "

Richardson continued his long stage association with Gielgud in Harold Pinter 's No Man 's Land ( 1975 ) directed by Hall at the National . Gielgud played Spooner , a down @-@ at @-@ heel sponger and opportunist , and Richardson was Hirst , a prosperous but isolated and vulnerable author . There is both comedy and pain in the piece : the critic Michael Coveney called their performance " the funniest double @-@ act in town " , but Peter Hall said of Richardson , " I do not think any other actor could fill Hirst with such a sense of loneliness and creativity as Ralph does . The production was a critical and box @-@ office success , and played at the Old Vic , in the West End , at the Lyttelton Theatre in the new National Theatre complex , on Broadway and on television , over a period of three years .

After No Man 's Land , Richardson once again turned to light comedy by Douglas @-@ Home , from whom he commissioned The Kingfisher . A story of an old love affair rekindled , it opened with Celia Johnson as the female lead . It ran for six months , and would have lasted much longer had Johnson not withdrawn , leaving Richardson unwilling to rehearse the piece with anyone else . He returned to the National , and to Chekhov , in 1978 as the aged retainer Firs in The Cherry Orchard . The notices for the production were mixed ; those for Richardson 's next West End play were uniformly dreadful . This was Alice 's Boys , a spy and murder piece generally agreed to be preposterous . A legend , possibly apocryphal , grew that during the short run Richardson walked to the front of the stage one night and asked , " Is there a doctor in the house ? " A doctor stood up , and Richardson sadly said to him , " Doctor , isn 't this a terrible play ? "

After this débâcle the rest of Richardson 's stage career was at the National , with one late exception . He played Lord Touchwood in The Double Dealer ( 1978 ) , the Master in The Fruits of Enlightenment ( 1979 ) , Old Ekdal in The Wild Duck ( 1979 ) and Kitchen in Storey 's Early Days , specially written for him . The last toured in North America after the London run . His final West End play was The Understanding ( 1982 ) , a gentle comedy of late @-@ flowering love . Celia Johnson was cast as his co @-@ star , but died suddenly just before the first night . Joan Greenwood stepped into the breach , but the momentum of the production had gone , and it closed after eight weeks .

Films in which Richardson appeared in the later 1970s and early 1980s include Rollerball ( 1975 ) , The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1977 ) Dragonslayer ( 1981 ) in which he played a wizard and Time Bandits ( 1981 ) in which he played the Supreme Being . In 1983 he was seen as Pfordten in Tony Palmer 's Wagner ; this was a film of enormous length , starring Richard Burton as Richard Wagner and was noted at the time , and subsequently , for the cameo roles of three conspiratorial courtiers , played by Gielgud , Olivier and Richardson – the only film in which the three played scenes together . For television , Richardson played Simeon in Jesus of Nazareth ( 1977 ) , made studio recordings of No Man 's Land ( 1978 ) and Early Days ( 1982 ) , and was a guest in the 1981 Morecambe and Wise Christmas Show . His last radio broadcast was in 1982 in a documentary programme about Little Tich , whom he had watched at the Brighton Hippodrome before the First World War .

Richardson 's final role was Don Alberto in Inner Voices by Eduardo De Filippo at the National in 1983 . The direction was criticised by reviewers , but Richardson 's performance won high praise . He played an old man who denounces the next @-@ door family for murder and then realises he dreamt it but cannot persuade the police that he was wrong . Both Punch and The New York Times found his performance " mesmerising " . After the London run the piece was scheduled to go on tour in October . Just before that , Richardson suffered a series of strokes , from which he died on 10 October , at the age of eighty . All the theatres in London dimmed their lights in tribute ; the funeral Mass was at Richardson 's favourite church , the Church of our Lady of the Assumption and St Gregory , in Soho ; he was buried in Highgate Cemetery ; and the following month there was a memorial service in Westminster Abbey .

Richardson 's last films – one for television and two for the cinema – were released after his death . These were Witness for the Prosecution , in which he played the barrister Sir Wilfrid Robarts , co @-@ starring with Deborah Kerr and Diana Rigg ; Give My Regards to Broad Street , with Paul McCartney ; and Greystoke , a retelling of the Tarzan story . In the last , Richardson played the stern old Lord Greystoke , rejuvenated in his latter days by his lost grandson , reclaimed from the wild ; he was posthumously nominated for an Academy Award . The film bears the superscription , " Dedicated to Ralph Richardson 1902 – 1983 – In Loving Memory "

= = Character and reputation = =

As a man , Richardson was on the one hand deeply private and on the other flamboyantly unconventional . Frank Muir said of him , " It 's the Ralphdom of Ralph that one has to cling to ; he wasn 't really quite like other people . " In Coveney 's phrase , " His oddness was ever startling and never hardened into mere eccentricity . " Richardson would introduce colleagues to his ferrets by name , ride at high speed on his powerful motor @-@ bike in his seventies , have a parrot flying round his study eating his pencils , or take a pet mouse out for a stroll , but behind such unorthodox behaviour there was a closely guarded self who remained an enigma to even his closest colleagues . Tynan wrote in The New Yorker that Richardson " made me feel that I have known this man all my life and that I have never met anyone who more adroitly buttonholed me while keeping me firmly at arm 's length . "

Richardson was not known for his political views . He reportedly voted for Winston Churchill 's Conservative party in 1945 , but there is little other mention of party politics in the biographies . Having been a devoted Roman Catholic as a boy , he became disillusioned with religion as a young man , but drifted back to faith : " I came to a kind of feeling I could touch a live wire through prayer " . He retained his early love of painting , and listed it and tennis in his Who 's Who entry as his recreations .

Peter Hall said of Richardson , " I think he was the greatest actor I have ever worked with . " The director David Ayliff , son of Richardson 's and Olivier 's mentor , said , " Ralph was a natural actor , he couldn 't stop being a perfect actor ; Olivier did it through sheer hard work and determination . " Comparing the two , Hobson said that Olivier always made the audience feel inferior , and Richardson always made them feel superior . The actor Edward Hardwicke agreed , saying that audiences were in awe of Olivier , " whereas Ralph would always make you feel sympathy ... you wanted to give him a big hug . But they were both giants . "

Richardson thought himself temperamentally unsuited to the great tragic roles , and most reviewers agreed , but to critics of several generations he was peerless in classic comedies . Kenneth Tynan judged any Falstaff against Richardson 's , which he considered " matchless " , and Gielgud judged " definitive " . Richardson , though hardly ever satisfied with his own performances , evidently believed he had done well as Falstaff . Hall and others tried hard to get him to play the part again , but referring to it he said , " Those things I 've done in which I 've succeeded a little bit , I 'd hate to do again . "

A leading actor of a younger generation , Albert Finney , has said that Richardson was not really an actor at all , but a magician . Miller , who interviewed a large number of Richardson 's colleagues for his 1995 biography , notes that when talking about Richardson 's acting , " magical " was a word many of them used . The Guardian judged Richardson " indisputably our most poetic actor " . For The Times , he " was ideally equipped to make an ordinary character seem extraordinary or an extraordinary one seem ordinary " . He himself touched on this dichotomy in his variously reported comments that acting was " merely the art of keeping a large group of people from coughing " or , alternatively , " dreaming to order " .

Tynan , who could be brutally critical when he thought Richardson miscast , nevertheless thought there was something godlike about him , " should you imagine the Almighty to be a whimsical , enigmatic magician , capable of fearful blunders , sometimes inexplicably ferocious , at other times dazzling in his innocence and benignity " . Harold Hobson wrote , " Sir Ralph is an actor who , whatever his failure in heroic parts , however short of tragic grandeur his Othello or his Macbeth may have fallen , has nevertheless , in unromantic tweeds and provincial hats , received a revelation . There are more graceful players than he upon the stage ; there is none who has been so touched by Grace . "

= Battle of Halmyros =

The Battle of Halmyros , known by older scholars as the Battle of the Cephissus or Battle of Orchomenos , was fought on 15 March 1311 between the forces of the Frankish Duchy of Athens and its vassals under Walter of Brienne and the mercenaries of the Catalan Company , resulting in a devastating victory for the Catalans .

Engaged in conflict with their original employers , the Byzantine Empire , the Catalan Company had traversed the southern Balkans and arrived in southern Greece in 1309 . The new Duke of Athens , Walter of Brienne , hired them to attack the Greek ruler of neighbouring Thessaly . Although the Catalans conquered much of the region for him , Walter refused to pay them the salaries owed , and prepared to forcibly expel them from their gains . The two armies met at Halmyros in southern Thessaly ( or at the Boeotic Cephissus , near Orchomenos , according to an earlier interpretation ) . The Catalans were considerably outnumbered and weakened by the reluctance of their Turkish auxiliaries to fight . The Company did have the advantage of selecting the battleground , positioning themselves behind marshy terrain , which they further inundated with water . On the Athenian side , many of the most important lords of Frankish Greece were present and Walter , a prideful man and confident in the prowess of his heavy cavalry , proceeded to charge headlong against the Catalan line . The marsh impeded the Frankish attack and the Catalan infantry stood firm . The Turks , seeing that battle was joined in earnest , re @-@ joined the Company , and the Frankish army was routed ; Walter and almost the entire knighthood of his realm fell in the field . As a result of the battle , the leaderless Duchy of Athens was taken over by the Catalans , who ruled that part of Greece until the 1380s .

= = Background = =

In 1309 , the Burgundian noble Walter of Brienne was selected as the Duke of Athens in Frankish Greece after the death of Guy II de la Roche . At that time the Greek world was in turmoil owing to the actions of the Catalan Company . These were a group of mercenaries , veterans of the War of the Sicilian Vespers , originally hired by the Byzantine Empire against the Turks in Asia Minor . Soon , however , mutual suspicion and quarrels brought about an open conflict ; evicted from their base in Gallipoli in 1307 , the Catalans marched west through Thrace and Macedonia , until , pressed by Byzantine troops under Chandrenos , they entered Thessaly in early 1309 .

The arrival of the marauding Company , some 8 @,@ 000 strong , in Thessaly caused concern to the region 's Greek ruler , John II Doukas . Having just availed himself of the death of Guy II to throw off the tutelage of the Dukes of Athens , John turned to Byzantium and the other Greek principality , the state of Epirus , for aid . Defeated by the Greeks , the Catalans agreed to pass peacefully through Thessaly to the south , towards the Frankish principalities of southern Greece . Walter of Brienne , who in his youth had fought against the Catalans in Italy , spoke Catalan and had gained the Catalans ' respect , now hired the Company for six months against the Greeks , at a high price : four ounces of gold for every heavy cavalryman , two for every light cavalryman and one for every infantryman , with two months ' payment in advance . Turning back , the Catalans captured the town of Domokos and some thirty other fortresses , and plundered the rich plain of Thessaly , forcing the Greek states to come to terms with Walter .

The Catalans gave Walter a remarkable success , which brought him accolades and financial rewards from Pope Clement V , but the Duke now declined to fulfil his end of the deal and pay the remaining four months ' pay . Instead , Walter picked the best 200 horsemen and 300 Almogavar infantry from the Company , paid them their arrears and gave them land so that they would remain in his service , while ordering the rest to hand over their conquests and depart his lands . In response , the Catalans offered to recognize him as their lord if they were allowed to keep some of the land they had taken to establish themselves , but Walter rejected their proposal and began preparations to expel them by force . To this purpose , the Duke of Athens assembled a large army , comprising his own feudatories — among them the most prominent were Albert Pallavicini , Margrave of Bodonitsa , Thomas III d 'Autremencourt , Lord of Salona and Marshal of Achaea , and the barons of Euboea , Boniface of Verona , George I Ghisi and John of Maisy — as well as reinforcements sent from the other principalities of Frankish Greece .

= = Battle = =

Three sources report in some detail on the events before and during the battle , all of them drawing on first @-@ hand Catalan accounts and reflecting the Catalan point of view : the near @-@ contemporary chronicle of Ramon Muntaner , the Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea , and the account found in the history of the Byzantine writer Nikephoros Gregoras ( ca . 1359 ) . According to the Chronicle of the Morea , the Catalan army comprised 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and 4 @,@ 000 infantry , at least 1 @,@ 100 of whom were Turkish prisoners captured during their previous campaigns , and whose skill as archers they had come to value . Many of these Turks had even converted to Christianity . The sources differ on the size of Walter 's army : Gregoras reports 6 @,@ 400 cavalry and 8 @,@ 000 infantry , the Aragonese version of the Chronicle of the Morea puts it at more than 2 @,@ 000 cavalry and 4 @,@ 000 infantry , while Ramon Muntaner asserts that it comprised 700 knights and 24 @,@ 000 infantry , mostly native Greeks . Modern scholars consider these numbers to be clearly exaggerated , but they do suggest that the Athenian army had numerical superiority over the Catalans .

Ramon Muntaner and Gregoras place the site of the battle at the Boeotic Cephissus , which resulted in the identification of the battle with that locality in older literature , including the standard history of Frankish Greece by William Miller , but also repeated in more recent works . The Chronicle of the Morea on the other hand places the battle at " Halmyros " , apparently the town of the same name in southern Thessaly . William Miller rejected this identification on the basis of the topography described by Muntaner , but the discovery of a 1327 letter by the Venetian statesman Marino Sanudo , which was not published until 1940 and which also places the battle at Halmyros , has altered the scholarly consensus , and Halmyros is now the commonly accepted site of the battle .

Faced with a numerically superior , but less experienced enemy , the Company assumed a defensive position , taking care to select a battleground that favoured them . They chose a naturally strong position , protected by a swamp which , according to Gregoras , they further enhanced by digging trenches and inundating them with water diverted from the nearby river . The Catalans themselves took up positions on dry ground behind the swamp , arranging themselves in a solid line , but the sources give no further details as to their exact disposition . The Athenian army on the other hand assembled at Lamia . On 10 March 1311 , Walter of Brienne composed his testament there and led his army forth . On the eve of battle , the 500 Catalans in the Duke 's service , stricken by conscience , went to him and asked for leave to rejoin their old comrades @-@ in @-@ arms , saying that they would rather die than fight against them . Walter reportedly gave them permission to leave , replying that they were welcome to die with the others . At the same time , however , the Catalans ' Turkish auxiliaries took up a separate position nearby , thinking the quarrel was a pretext arranged by the Company and the Duke of Athens to exterminate them .

Walter was reputed for his bravery , bordering on recklessness , and was confident of success , as evidenced by his haughty reply to the 500 mercenaries . Walter 's pride and arrogance , combined with his numerical advantage and his innate belief in the superiority of heavy noble cavalry over infantry , led him to fatally underestimate his opponent and order a charge across even such an adverse terrain . Impatient for action , according to Muntaner Walter formed a cavalry line of 200 Frankish knights " with golden spurs " , followed by the infantry , and placed himself with his banner in the vanguard . The Frankish attack failed , but the reason is unclear ; Muntaner 's description is short and provides no details , while Gregoras states that the heavy Frankish cavalry got completely stuck in the mud , with the Almogavars , lightly armed with swords and darts , dispatching the knights , encumbered by their heavy armour . This is the commonly accepted version among scholars as well . The Chronicle of the Morea on the other hand implies that the battle was hard @-@ fought , which as military historian Kelly DeVries notes seems to contradict Gregoras , and that the marsh possibly simply reduced the impact of the charge instead of bogging it down entirely . What is clear is that the Catalans held , and that the Duke and most of his men fell . As the two lines clashed , the Turkish auxiliaries , reassured that this was not a ruse , descended from their camp upon the Athenian army , panicking and routing what remained of it .

Gregoras reports that 6 @,@ 400 cavalrymen and 8 @,@ 000 infantrymen fell in the battle , the same number he gives for Walter 's forces . According to Muntaner , 20 @,@ 000 infantrymen were killed , and only two of the seven hundred knights survived the battle , Roger Deslaur and Boniface of Verona . Like the numbers for the overall number of troops involved in the battle , these numbers are unverifiable and probably exaggerated , but they are nevertheless indicative of the scale of the Athenian defeat . In addition , other senior members of the Frankish nobility are known to have survived : Nicholas Sanudo , later Duke of the Archipelago , managed to escape the battlefield , and a few others such as Antoine le Flamenc , who is known to have participated in and survived the battle , were probably captured and later ransomed . Walter 's head was severed by the Catalans , and many years later was taken to Lecce in Italy , where his son buried him in the Church of Santa Croce .

= = Aftermath = =

According to DeVries , the battle was " significant and perhaps even could be defined as decisive " . Almost the entire Frankish elite of Athens and its vassal states lay dead in the field , and when the Catalans moved onto the lands of the Duchy , there was scant resistance : the Greek inhabitants of Livadeia immediately and willingly surrendered their strongly fortified town , for which they were rewarded with the rights of Frankish citizens ; Thebes , the capital of the Duchy , was abandoned by many of its inhabitants , who fled to the Venetian stronghold of Negroponte , and plundered by the Catalan troops ; and finally Athens itself was surrendered to the victors by Walter 's widow , Joanna of Châtillon . The entirety of Attica and Boeotia passed peacefully into the hands of the Catalans , and only the lordship of Argos and Nauplia in the Peloponnese remained in the hands of Brienne loyalists . The Catalans ' Turkish allies however refused the offer to settle in the Duchy , and instead , taking their share of the booty , departed to return to Asia Minor , only to be attacked and almost annihilated by the joint forces of the Byzantines and the Genoese as they were trying to cross the Dardanelles a few months later .

Lacking a leader of stature , the Catalan Company turned to their two distinguished captives : at first they asked Boniface of Verona , whom they knew and respected , to lead them , but after he declined , they chose Roger Deslaur instead . Deslaur proved unequal to the task , however , and the hostility of Venice and the other Frankish states compelled the Catalans to seek a powerful protector . Thus they turned to Frederick II of Sicily , who appointed his son Manfred as Duke of Athens . In reality , the Duchy was governed by a succession of vicars @-@ general appointed by the Aragonese Crown , often cadet members of the Aragonese royal family . The most successful of the vicars @-@ general , Alfonso Fadrique , expanded the Duchy into Thessaly , establishing the Duchy of Neopatras in 1319 . The Catalans consolidated their rule and survived a Briennist attempt to recover the Duchy in 1331 – 32 . In the 1360s , the twin duchies were plagued by internal strife , including a quasi @-@ war with Venice , and increasingly felt the threat of the Ottoman Turks , but another Briennist attempt to launch a campaign against them in 1370 – 71 came to naught . It was not until 1379 – 80 that Catalan rule faced its first major setback , when the Navarrese Company conquered Thebes and much of Boeotia . Finally , in 1386 – 88 , the ambitious lord of Corinth , Nerio I Acciaioli , captured Athens and claimed the Duchy for himself from the Crown of Aragon . With his capture of Neopatras in 1390 , the era of Catalan rule in Greece came to an end .

= = = Primary = = =

Lady Goodenough , ed . ( 1920 – 21 ) . The Chronicle of Ramon Muntaner ( PDF ) . London : Hakluyt Society .

Morel @-@ Fatio , Alfred , ed . ( 1885 ) . Libro de los fechos et conquistas del principado de la Morea compilado por comandamiento de Don Fray Johan Ferrandez de Heredia , maestro del Hospital de S. Johan de Jerusalem - Chronique de Morée aux XIIe et XIVe siècles , publiée & traduite pour la première fois pour la Société de l 'Orient Latin par Alfred Morel @-@ Fatio . Geneva : Jules @-@ Guillaume Fick .

Migne , Jacques Paul , ed . ( 1865 ) . Nicephori Gregorae , Byzantinae Historiae Libri XXXVII . Patrologia Graeca , vol . 148 . Paris : Garnier .

= = = Secondary = = =

DeVries , Kelly ( 1996 ) . Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century . Woodbridge : Boydell Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 85115 @-@ 567 @-@ 7 .

Fine , John Van Antwerp ( 1994 ) . The Late Medieval Balkans : A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 472 @-@ 08260 @-@ 5 .

Lock , Peter ( 2006 ) . The Routledge Companion to the Crusades . London and New York : Routledge . ISBN 1 @-@ 135 @-@ 13137 @-@ 6 .

Miller , William ( 1908 ) . The Latins in the Levant , a History of Frankish Greece ( 1204 – 1566 ) . New York : E.P. Dutton and Company .

Nicol , Donald MacGillivray ( 1993 ) . The Last Centuries of Byzantium , 1261 – 1453 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 43991 @-@ 4 .

Setton , Kenneth M. ( 1975 ) . " The Catalans in Greece , 1311 – 1388 " . In Hazard , Harry W. A History of the Crusades , Volume III : The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries . Madison , Wisconsin : University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 167 – 224 . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 06670 @-@ 3 .

Setton , Kenneth M. ( 1976 ) . The Papacy and the Levant ( 1204 – 1571 ) , Volume I : The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries . Philadelphia , Pennsylvania : DIANE Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 87169 @-@ 114 @-@ 0 .

Topping , Peter ( 1975 ) . " The Morea , 1311 – 1364 " . In Hazard , Harry W. A History of the Crusades , Volume III : The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries . Madison , Wisconsin : University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 104 – 140 . ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 06670 @-@ 3 .

= Give Me a Ring Sometime =

" Give Me a Ring Sometime " is the first episode of the American situation comedy Cheers . Written by Glen and Les Charles and directed by James Burrows , the episode first aired September 30 , 1982 on NBC . The pilot episode introduces the employees of bar Cheers : Sam Malone , Diane Chambers , Coach Ernie Pantusso , and Carla Tortelli ; and regular customers : Norm Peterson and Cliff Clavin . In this episode , Diane , brought in by fiancé Sumner Sloan , meets the employees and patrons of the bar . When she realizes that her fiancé has left her alone in the bar , Diane accepts Sam 's offer to be the bar 's waitress to start over .

In the original script the employees were the principal characters , and Norm and Cliff were not included . Later revisions added Norm and Cliff , and scenes were restructured and rewritten . Originally , Cheers ' set would be a hotel , but it was ultimatelly changed to a bar . Ratings were low when the episode first aired , but were moderately successful in reruns . It has been critically praised over the years , and earned its writers awards for Best Writing in 1983 .

= = Plot = =

As owner Sam Malone opens the bar , a professor Sumner Sloane ( Michael McGuire ) and his Boston University student fiancée Diane Chambers are the first customers . They are planning to go to Barbados to be married , but do not have a wedding ring ; Sumner leaves to get the ring from his ex @-@ wife . While she waits , Diane learns about the other people in the bar . Sam is an ex @-@ baseball player and a recovering alcoholic . Waitress Carla Tortelli is a bitter divorcée with four children . Male patrons are playing a " body sweat in movies " trivia game , which repulses Diane . Sumner returns a few hours later , suggesting Cool Hand Luke as a " sweaty " movie and telling Diane he could not get his ex @-@ wife 's ring . His ex @-@ wife calls the bar with a change of heart , and Sumner leaves Diane again .

Diane and Sam argue about Sumner , and Sam pointedly tells her Sumner is probably on a plane with his ex @-@ wife . Diane calls the airport to change their flight reservation , and finds out that " Mr. and Mrs. Sloane " have already used it . Heartbroken , she prepares to go home before realizing that her job as Sumner 's teaching assistant is gone . Out of pity , Sam offers her a job at Cheers as a waitress . Because of her educational background , Diane initially refuses ; however , when she remembers a number of orders ( including special requests ) from a table she reluctantly accepts the job . The following day , Diane 's first customer is an international tourist ( Erik Holland ) , asking for his lost luggage .

= = Casting = =

The pilot introduces employees of the bar , Cheers , in Boston , Massachusetts in order of appearance :

Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) is a recovering alcoholic , a former baseball player , a bartender and the owner of Cheers .

Diane Chambers ( Shelley Long ) is a college student and " bar misfit " who is abandoned by her fiancé , Sumner Sloane . She becomes a waitress at the end of the episode .

Ernie Pantusso ( Nicholas Colasanto ) is a " forgetful " , " gravelly @-@ voiced bartender " , nicknamed " Coach " because he was Sam 's coach during his career as a relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox .

Carla Tortelli ( Rhea Perlman ) is a bitter , " wisecracking , cynical waitress " and divorcée whose husband , Nick , abandons her and her four children .

The creators rejected the idea of casting a star such as Mary Tyler Moore , and sought actors who were previously unknown to the public . They interviewed almost 1 @,@ 000 people for the four principal roles : Sam Malone , Diane Chambers , Carla Tortelli , and " Coach " Ernie Pantusso . Steve Kolzak ( credited as Stephen Kolzak ) cast the original characters . According to Danson , Rhea Perlman was the first to be cast . Former umpire Ron Luciano auditioned for Coach ; however , the producers " wanted an experienced actor " . Robert Prosky , who later appeared as Rebecca Howe 's ( Kirstie Alley ) Navy father in the 1992 Cheers episode " Daddy 's Little Middle @-@ Aged Girl " and an author in the 1996 Frasier episode " A Crane 's Critique " , turned down the role of Coach . Actor @-@ director Nicholas Colasanto won the role .

Auditions were held for Sam and Diane . Three pairs were tested : William Devane and Lisa Eichhorn , Fred Dryer and Julia Duffy , and Ted Danson and Shelley Long . Before the show premiered Danson appeared in 1979 's The Onion Field ; Long appeared in 1982 's Night Shift , starring Henry Winkler of Happy Days . Fred Dryer later appeared as Dave Richards , a sportscaster friend of Sam 's , in " Sam at Eleven " in 1982 . Sam Malone was originally " a former wide receiver for the New England Patriots " , and Fred Dryer was considered for the role because he was a football player . However , NBC executives liked test scenes with Danson and Long so the creators chose them instead , making Sam a former relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox . Ed O 'Neill also auditioned for the role of Sam Malone .

We had some surprises . Some actors were terrific by themselves but not in concert with others . Each actor read the same scene . Everyone got the same chance . We were looking for actors who could make us laugh by being loyal to the characters . Then we matched them up .

Two customers were introduced :

Norm Peterson ( George Wendt ) , recognized by everyone in the bar , enters for a quick drink .

Cliff Clavin ( John Ratzenberger ) appears for a conversation with other male patrons about bar trivia .

George Wendt and John Ratzenberger originally auditioned for the role of " George " , and Wendt was cast . In the original script , George was Diane 's first customer at the end of the episode . Annoyed with Diane 's long @-@ winded explanation of how she became a waitress , he delivered his one @-@ word line : " Beer ! " After Wendt was cast , the writers revised the script ; his role evolved into Norm Peterson , the first onscreen customer to enter the bar and " [ badgering ] Diane rather than the other way around " . After Wendt was cast , Ratzenberger suggested to the producers that a know @-@ it @-@ all character be added ; this led to the creation of another character , Cliff Clavin .

One character who was cut from the pilot episode was an unpleasant , racist , wheelchair @-@ bound old woman named Mrs. Littlefield , supposedly a regular customer of Cheers , who was intended to be a recurring character . Her lines were filmed as part of a rough cut of the pilot . However , the producers decided to cut the character out of the episode , as they found her character did not mesh with other characters or with the overall tone of the show . Nevertheless , the uncredited actress who played her can still be seen as a background performer in a few scenes . Some sources credit this actress as Elaine Strich , although the unidentified actress who is still seen on camera looks nothing like Stritch . In answer to a question about the actress , Cheers writer / producer Ken Levine has stated on his blog " that was not Elaine Stritch " The producers ultimately decided to eliminate Mrs. Littlefield completely from the show from that point forward , necessitating changes to some yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ filmed scripts for the first few episodes .

Three other bar patrons have speaking roles in the completed episode : John P. Navin , Jr. portrays a teenage boy in the cold open , Erik Holland has a brief bit as Diane 's first customer , and Ron Frazier appears as a barfly who stands at the bar near Cliff ( and who offers " Ben Hur " as his choice for the sweatiest movie ever made . )

= = Production = =

The creators of Cheers ( and the crew of Taxi ) , co @-@ writers Glen and Les Charles and director James Burrows , created a sitcom project in 1981 . Initially set in a hotel , the setting changed to a hotel bar and finally a " Boston neighborhood bar " . The show was filmed not in a pub , but on Stage 25 of the Paramount Studios lot . Cheers ' set was inspired by the Bull & Finch Pub in Boston , now known as Cheers Beacon Hill ( pictured , right ) . A Boston bar was chosen because of its " interior [ made out of ] brick , polished mahogany , and brass " ; the city was chosen because it is " cosmopolitan " , " a great sports town " and was not previously explored on television . Because the creators are sports fans , an athletic element was added to the bar . Burrows said that the show was intended to be about a bar which people visit for more than drinks .

Jokes from earlier scripts were used . In one scene , Carla Tortelli orders a phone caller to do something about their unruly children . When one of the bartenders suggests hiring a babysitter , Carla replied that the caller was the babysitter . The cast did not know the ending of the pilot episode during production , since the final draft of the script was dated April 16 , 1982 .

= = Reception = =

= = = Ratings = = =

The NBC premiere lineup on September 30 , 1982 consisted of ( beginning at 8 : 00 pm Eastern and Pacific Time ) Fame , Cheers , Taxi and Hill Street Blues . Cheers debuted at 9 : 00 pm against the two @-@ hour season premiere of Magnum , P.I. and the one @-@ hour season premiere of Too Close for Comfort . It finished in 60th place ( out of 63 programs ) , with a 9 @.@ 6 Nielsen rating . In Alaska , it premiered on October 14 , 1982 at 8 : 00 pm AKT . On December 23 , 1982 the episode was rerun , receiving an 11 @.@ 5 rating and finishing 57th out of 68 programs airing from December 20 – 26 , 1982 .

= = = Critical reaction = = =

When the episode originally aired in 1982 , Fred Rothenberg of the Associated Press called it an introduction to a " new wise @-@ cracking comedy " , " a warm and wacky companion of a television show , a delightful place to spend idle time , [ and ] a five @-@ star watering hole " known as Cheers . Television and radio critic Mike Drew said it was not great but " funnier [ ... ] with cute lines [ ... ] than " any other sitcom , even those ( like Archie Bunker 's Place on TV and Duffy 's Tavern on radio ) set in bars . Fred L. Smith of The News and Courier found this episode similar to Taxi : " Both are set in a place of business − Cheers at a [ Boston bar ] , Taxi at a [ New York taxi company ] — both have a sensible guy and a pretty , preppy girl as main characters — Ted Danson and Shelley Long in Cheers and Judd Hirsch and Marilu Henner in Taxi — and both are wacky comedies . " He found it " amusing " ; some jokes , funny ; many others , forced ; and the number of " weird characters " in the show greater than their real @-@ life bar counterparts .

In 2009 , Lex Walker on the Just Press Play website found this episode " sadder and more sentimental " than funny ; the episode focuses " less on character development and more on " Diane restarting her life as a waitress after the loss of love , and he said it contradicts " what [ Cheers ] will grow to be " . Nevertheless , he called the episode a true introduction to the series and considered the intertwining stories of Sam and his friends the series ' premise . In 2010 , Robin Raven from Yahoo ! Voices called it one of her top five Cheers episodes . In 2011 , Austin Lugar from The Film Yap website called it the " best " . IGN ranked it number nine of the top ten Cheers episodes .

= = = Awards = = =

At the 1983 Primetime Emmy Awards , writers and co @-@ creators Glen and Les Charles won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series for this episode . The brothers also received a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay - Episodic Comedy . The episode earned production designer Richard Sylbert and set decorator George Gaines an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Art Direction for a Series ( won by Tales of the Gold Monkey ) .

= = = Home media = = =

The first home media release of the episode was a VHS cassette in the United States on September 29 , 1993 . It was part of the initial launch of seven cassettes by Paramount Home Video . One volume contained only the pilot episode itself , while each of other six volumes contained two episodes . The episode was released on Region 1 DVD as part of the season one box on May 20 , 2003 , and as part of Fan Favorites : The Best of Cheers on March 6 , 2012 .

= SS Kommandøren =

SS Kommandøren was a steel @-@ hulled passenger / cargo steamship built in Norway in 1891 . She served as a communications link between the regional capital of Western Norway , Bergen , and the various communities of Sogn og Fjordane county .

Following the 9 April 1940 German invasion of Norway , she was requisitioned by the Norwegian authorities and carried troops for the Norwegian war effort until the forces in Western Norway ceased fighting on 2 May 1940 .

After a brief stint in German service , she returned to her civilian duties later in 1940 , and was accidentally torpedoed and sunk by a German E @-@ boat in Bergen on 29 March 1945 .

= = Construction and characteristics = =

Kommandøren was one of four passenger / cargo steamships built for Nordre Bergenhus Amts Dampskibe at Norwegian shipyards around the turn of the 20th century . The four ships were constructed to supplement four smaller vessels built decades earlier at British shipyards . In addition to Kommandøren , which was seen as the flagship of the company 's fleet , Lærdal , Balder and Stavenes were built between 1876 and 1904 . The company sailed on cargo / passenger routes in Western Norway . Kommandøren was the largest of the new @-@ builds , and was considered the grandest of the company vessels .

Delivered on 30 June 1891 , Kommandøren was yard number 132 at Akers Mekaniske Værksted in Kristiania ( modern @-@ day Oslo ) , Norway . The steel @-@ hulled ship measured 433 gross register tons ( GRT ) , had a length of 50 @.@ 8 metres ( 167 ft ) , a beam of 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) and a draught of 3 @.@ 9 metres ( 13 ft ) . Her 600 indicated horsepower / 116 nominal horsepower 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion steam engine could propel the ship at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Kommandøren cost the company NOK 264 @,@ 000 to build and could take up to 249 passengers .

Although much newer than the first ships operated by Nordre Bergenhus Amts Dampskibe , Kommandøren and the three other ships were only around 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) faster than the mid @-@ 19th century vessels used by the company .

The new ship was named Kommandøren by Nordre Bergenhus amt county council , after the affectionate nickname of the county 's shipping company 's first executive director , Hugo Lous , who had held the rank of kommandørkaptein ( English : commander ) in the Royal Norwegian Navy . To name the new ship after the executive director was an unusual decision , as most Norwegian ships of the era were named after place names , historical figures or royalty .

Built not only to carry people and cargo between the towns and villages of Western Norway , but also for the tourist trade , Kommandøren was fitted with a comparatively luxurious first class section . The 10 @-@ cabin , 36 @-@ bed , first class featured a smoking salon , a women 's salon and a dining salon for the first class passengers and ship officers . A promenade deck gave views in all directions . The third class passengers had two salons , one on the main deck and one on the orlop ( lowest ) deck . On Kommandøren , the third class section was expanded and improved in comparison with earlier vessels , after complaints from passengers to the county council . The third class section of Kommandøren was described by the newspaper Sogns Tidende as " large , spacious and almost comfortably equipped . Kommandøren was home ported in Bergen . She had her maiden passenger voyage from Bergen to Sogn on 5 July 1891 .

= = Passenger / cargo and tourist service = =

In the summer season , Kommandøren served the tourist trade in Sogn , while she sailed the regular passenger / cargo routes during the winter months . Kommandøren was generally used as an express route ship , often carrying patients on their way to treatment . Amongst the cargo carried by was often live animals , including horses , cattle and sheep . During one of her trips , Kommandøren ran aground on 20 October 1900 near Tjugum in Balestrand . The ship was also at times employed to transport important dignitaries in the region , like she did in September 1920 , when she brought politicians to Vik to inspect the area for a proposed railway project . Shortly after delivery , in September 1892 , Kommandøren provided transport support to a large @-@ scale Norwegian Army field exercise in Western Norway . She was tasked with transporting troops from Gudvangen to Lærdalsøyri after the completion of the exercises .

In 1910 , Kommandøren was modernized at Stavanger Støberi & Dok in Stavanger , gaining a new boiler for the steam engine and being painted white . In January the next year , she ran aground at Rongevær in the Fensfjord . She ran aground again in 1913 , in Herdlefjorden , and again in Bårdsundet off Tysnesøy in 1928 .

A rebuild in 1922 saw the ship 's well deck built over , creating a flush deck profile . In 1930 the ship was refurbished and modernized . By this time , Kommandøren measured 543 GRT and 315 NRT .

Kommandøren ran aground yet again in April 1938 , when she ran into the island Segløya while en route from Skjerjehamn to Eivindvik . The incident caused severe damage to the bottom of the hull .

= = Second World War = =

= = = Norwegian Campaign = = =

= = = = Troop ship = = = =

When Norway was invaded by Nazi Germany on 9 April , Kommandøren was not in the areas immediately captured by the invading Germans . She was thus able to continue her service in the Sognefjord for much of the month of April 1940 . On 9 April 1940 , Kommandøren was en route to Bergen , but was stopped at Høyanger and ordered to Sogn to assist in the mobilization of Norwegian Army units to oppose the Germans .

Kommandøren was directed to transport troops from Dingja via several smaller villages to Nordeide and Gudvangen . Together with the steamer Gudvangen , she set out in the early morning of 10 April to retrieve troops . Kommandøren and the other ships of the company fleet were later praised by the regional police commander for their important role in the successful mobilization in Sogn og Fjordane .

= = = = Bombing in the Sognefjord = = = =

On 25 April 1940 , Kommandøren steamed in the Sognefjord , carrying regular passengers , as well as a load of around 100 soldiers bound for Gudvangen and Voss for service with the Norwegian Army 's 4th Division . The soldiers brought in that day belonged to an older age group not called up in the initial mobilization drive . While en route from Vik to Balestrand , the steamer was bombed and strafed by a German bomber . The bombs did not hit the ship , and the machine gun bullets only did minor damage and caused no casualties .

After calling at Balestrand , Kommandøren proceeded to Leikanger , where the soldiers on board disembarked . While Kommandøren was docked at Leikanger , the village was attacked by a German aircraft . The aircraft dropped 11 bombs in three series on the area , before strafing people and cars on the ground . Amongst the targets were the soldiers unloaded by Kommandøren , the troops being on the march to nearby Hermansverk . The attack killed a travelling salesman from Bergen outright , and wounded a 16 @-@ year @-@ old local boy and the boy 's mother , restaurateur Isak Roksvåg from Kommandøren and the ship 's captain , Thorvald Johannessen . While on the way to hospital in Lærdal with Kommandøren , Captain Johannessen died from his wounds .

= = = = End of the campaign = = = =

For the remaining week of the fighting in South Norway , Kommandøren was docked at Kvamsøya , immobilized by a damaged axle . As part of the ceasefire agreement accepted by the Norwegians in Western Norway in the evening of 1 May 1940 , Kommandøren was to be handed over to the Germans , along with the ferry Lærdal and 40 smaller boats . The transfer of the ships occurred at Lærdal on 2 May , and the ceasefire was announced on 3 May . The Germans used Kommandøren and the other vessels for a limited period to transport troops to occupy various places in Western Norway . When released by the Germans , Kommandøren was repaired before re @-@ entering service .

= = = During the German occupation = = =

By the autumn of 1940 , Kommandøren was back in regular service , providing an important link between Bergen and the smaller town and villages in the region . By 1944 , Kommandøren had been assigned the code letters LEGO .

She remained in service until 8 February 1945 , when she ran aground in the Alverstraumen narrows . Kommandøren remained aground for five weeks , and was filled by sea water before being salvaged and towed to Bergen to await repairs . Although the ship 's hull was intact , the interior and engine were heavily water damaged .

= = = Sinking = = =

During the night of 29 March 1945 , Kommandøren was docked at the remains of Søndre Nykirkekai in Bergen . At around 01 : 00 the ship was struck by one of two torpedoes accidentally fired by a German torpedo boat anchored on the opposite side of Vågen bay . The torpedo explosion threw debris from Kommandøren over a wide area , and left the ship lying on the harbour bed . Only the mast and a section of the bow remained above water . The midship and aft sections of the ship were completely destroyed by the torpedo . The only crew member on board at the time , Able Seaman Alf Larsen , was killed in the incident .

Before discovering that the incident had been caused by the accidental launch of two torpedoes by a drunken German crewman on the E @-@ boat S @-@ 13 , the German authorities in Bergen launched a search for saboteurs in the city . Kommandøren was the only total loss suffered by Fylkesbaatane i Sogn og Fjordane ( the formerly named Nordre Bergenhus Amts Dampskibe ) during the Second World War .

The wreck of Kommandøren was raised in April 1946 and towed to Kjøkkelvik in Askøy . Kommandøren was sold for scrap in November 1946 .

= Warren County , Indiana =

Warren County lies in western Indiana between the Illinois state line and the Wabash River in the United States . According to the 2010 census , the population was 8 @,@ 508 . The county seat is Williamsport .

Before the arrival of non @-@ indigenous settlers in the early 19th century , the area was inhabited by several Native American tribes . The county was officially established in 1827 and was the 55th county to be formed in Indiana .

It is one of the most rural counties in the state , with the third @-@ smallest population and the lowest population density at about 23 inhabitants per square mile ( 8 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . The county has four incorporated towns with a total population of about 3 @,@ 100 , as well as many small unincorporated communities . The county is divided into 12 townships which provide local services .

Much of the land in the county is given over to agriculture , especially on the open prairie in the northern and western parts ; the county 's farmland is among the most productive in the state . Nearer the river along the southeastern border , the land has many hills , valleys , and tributary streams and is more heavily wooded . Agriculture , manufacturing , government , education , and health care each provide substantial portions of the jobs in the county . Four Indiana state roads cross the county , as do two U.S. Routes and one major railroad line .

= = History = =

In the centuries before the arrival of European settlers , the area that became Warren County was on the boundary between the Miami and Kickapoo tribes . By the late 18th century , many Miami had moved further south ; most of Indiana north of the Wabash was then occupied by the Potawatomi people . The first non @-@ indigenous settler in the area was probably Zachariah Cicott , a French @-@ Canadian who first traded with the Kickapoo and Potawatomi people around 1802 . When General William Henry Harrison took an army from Vincennes to the Battle of Tippecanoe in late 1811 , Cicott served as a scout ; the trail taken by Harrison 's army passed through the area that later became Warren County on its way to and from the battle site in Tippecanoe County . Following the War of 1812 , Cicott resumed his trading on the Wabash ; the state of Indiana was established in 1816 , and Cicott built a log house in 1817 at the location where he later founded the town of Independence . Other settlers came to the area , but probably not until around 1822 .

The county was established on March 1 , 1827 , by the Indiana General Assembly . It was named for Dr. Joseph Warren , who was killed in 1775 at the Battle of Bunker Hill , in which he fought as a private because his commission as a general had not yet taken effect . The short @-@ lived town of Warrenton was the original Warren County seat , chosen by commissioners in March 1828 ; the next year an act was passed calling for the seat to be relocated , and in June 1829 it was moved to Williamsport .

The first county courthouse was a log house in Warrenton that belonged to ( and was occupied by ) Enoch Farmer , one of the county 's earliest settlers . When the county seat moved to Williamsport , a log house belonging to the town 's founder , William Harrison , served this purpose for several years . The first purpose @-@ built courthouse was completed in 1835 at a cost of $ 2 @,@ 000 ; in 1872 , it was replaced with a new building that cost $ 48 @,@ 000 . The third courthouse was built in 1886 , in a new section of town that grew around the newly constructed railroad . That building burned in 1907 , and the fourth and current Warren County courthouse was completed on the same site in 1908 at a cost of $ 115 @,@ 000 .

As the 19th century progressed , the United States government 's Indian removal policy pushed Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River . In 1830 , the Indian Removal Act was signed into law , and though that act did not directly address the Potawatomi people of Indiana , it led to several additional treaties that resulted in their removal . In what came to be known as the Potawatomi Trail of Death , about 860 Potawatomi Indians who had refused to leave were forced to move from Indiana to Kansas . On September 14 , 1838 , the group camped near Williamsport , and on September 15 they camped in the southwestern part of the county before moving into Illinois . Before reaching their destination in Kansas , over 40 of them had died , many of them children ; two children died and were buried at the second Warren County campsite .

When the county was established , the Wabash River was vital to transportation and shipping . Zachariah Cicott traded up and down the river , and cities like Attica , Perrysville , Baltimore and Williamsport were founded near the river 's banks and flourished because of it . In the 1840s , the Wabash and Erie Canal began to operate and provided even broader shipping opportunities , but the canal favored towns which were on the " right side " of the river ; the canal was on the Fountain County side , and towns like Baltimore dwindled as a result . Some towns , such as Williamsport and Perrysville , managed to participate in canal traffic through the use of side @-@ cuts that brought traffic from the canal across the river . When railroads were constructed starting in the 1850s , they in turn began to render the canals obsolete and allowed trade to reach towns that lacked water connections . The canal continued to be used through the early 1870s .

The first trains to run in Warren County operated on portions of the Toledo , Wabash and Western Railway ( later the Wabash Railroad ) in 1856 . The railroad entered the county near Williamsport and was built westward , reaching the western border at State Line City by 1857 . West Lebanon was the only other settlement near the railroad 's path , but the line bypassed it by about a mile ; the town subsequently moved northward to be nearer the station . In 1869 the Indianapolis , Bloomington and Western Railway was built across Mound Township in the southern part of the county . A few years later , in 1872 , a branch of the Chicago , Danville and Vincennes Railroad ( known as the " Pumpkin Vine Railroad " ) was built from Bismarck , Illinois , southeast through Warren County ; it was built specifically to carry coal from the mines south of Covington . A labor riot at the mines in the late 1870s interrupted the flow of coal , and this combined with the poor financial state of the railroad led to the removal of most of the track by 1880 ; the remaining portion was removed a few years later . At about this time , in the early 1880s , the Chicago and Indiana Coal Railroad began operating a north – south line through the county . It became part of the Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad but was abandoned in 1920 due to financial difficulties ; a new company operated the line as the Chicago , Attica and Southern Railroad starting in 1921 , but financial problems affected the new company as well and the rails were removed in 1946 . Another line , part of the New York Central Railroad , was built through the area in 1903 ; locally , it ran northeast from Danville into Warren County , then turned north through the small towns of Sloan and Stewart and continued north into Benton County . In the 1970s it became part of Penn Central , then Conrail ; operations on the line ceased in the 1990s and the tracks were removed , though a portion running north from Stewart remained and became the Bee Line Railroad which serves the grain processing facility in Stewart .

The Wabash Cannonball was a passenger train that ran on the Wabash Railroad between Detroit , Michigan and Saint Louis , Missouri , starting in 1949 . On September 19 , 1964 , the southbound Cannonball struck a truck loaded with concrete blocks at a crossing in Johnsonville . The driver of the truck was killed instantly , but although the train derailed , no other lives were lost . On the train , the driver and fireman were severely injured when the engine caught fire , and about half of the 50 passengers were injured . Over 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of track was torn out , and the damage was estimated at over $ 500 @,@ 000 . The last run of the Cannonball was in 1969 .

After peaking in the late 19th century , the county 's population declined during the 20th , in common with much of the rural Midwest . The widespread adoption of the automobile in the 1920s undercut small @-@ town businesses , which were threatened further by the Great Depression of the 1930s . World War II and the economic revival of the late 1940s and 1950s drew people to better jobs in growing regional cities , and this further diminished small towns . The population shrank again in the 1980s due largely to the effects of the " farm crisis " of low crop prices , high farmer debt and other economic causes .

The first county fair involved both Fountain and Warren counties and was held in Independence on September 6 and 7 , 1853 . In following years , the fair was held in Fountain County , and participation by Warren County farmers diminished . In 1856 , farmers in the northern part of the county held a fair just east of Pine Village , and this continued each year through 1864 . West Lebanon became the next site of the county fair , and it ran successfully through 1883 ; the fairgrounds just to the northwest of town were well @-@ developed . Later , the fair was held at the county seat of Williamsport , and this continues through the present day ; it is now a 4H fair .

One location in the county , near the small town of Kramer , once had an international reputation : the Hotel Mudlavia . Built in 1890 at a cost of $ 250 @,@ 000 , it drew guests from around the world to nearby natural springs that were said to have healing qualities . People such as James Whitcomb Riley , John L. Sullivan and Harry Lauder are known to have stayed at the hotel , which burned down in 1920 . Later , water from the springs was bottled and sold by Indianapolis @-@ based Cameron Springs company , which was acquired by the Perrier Group of America in 2000 for about $ 10 @.@ 5 million . As of 2008 the water was still being sold and was marketed under a variety of names .

= = Geography = =

The Wabash River , coming out of Tippecanoe County to the east , defines the southeastern border of the county ; the terrain here is hilly and wooded areas are common . Fountain County lies across the river . By contrast , the northwest region consists mainly of flat prairie farmland ; this continues in Benton County to the north . Along the western side of the county is the border with Vermilion County , Illinois . The small southern border is shared with the north end of the similarly named Indiana county of Vermillion . The state capital of Indianapolis lies about 70 miles ( 110 km ) to the southeast .

The highest free @-@ falling waterfall in the state , Williamsport Falls , is located in downtown Williamsport ; a stream named Fall Creek flows through the town and falls 90 feet ( 27 m ) over a sandstone ledge less than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) from the county courthouse . Northeast of Independence is the Black Rock Barrens Nature Preserve , a rare siltstone glade area that , with the adjacent Weiler @-@ Leopold Nature Reserve , supports a diversity of flora including sessile trillium , phlox and wild hyacinth in the moist lowlands and serviceberry , rue anemone , birdsfoot violet and yellow pimpernel on the drier slopes . Big Pine Creek is the county 's largest waterway after the Wabash River , and 10 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) segment of it is designated by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources as a state natural and scenic river and passes near Fall Creek Gorge Nature Preserve , an area of cascades and potholes .

According to the 2010 census , the county has a total area of 366 @.@ 40 square miles ( 949 @.@ 0 km2 ) , of which 364 @.@ 68 square miles ( 944 @.@ 5 km2 ) ( or 99 @.@ 53 % ) is land and 1 @.@ 72 square miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km2 ) ( or 0 @.@ 47 % ) is water . Elevations in the county range from 480 feet ( 150 m ) above sea level where the Wabash River enters Vermillion County to 830 feet ( 250 m ) in northeastern Prairie Township . The landscape consists mostly of flat or gently sloping moraine overlaying silty and loamy glacial till , except along the Wabash River where sand , gravel , sandstone and shale are exposed . Various forms of silt loam constitute most of the county 's soil and are conducive to agriculture . Forests cover about 14 % of the county , mainly around major waterways , and consist principally of deciduous hardwoods among which maple – beech and oak – hickory forests are the most common . The only coal mines in the county are located in the southeastern part of Steuben Township , near the Wabash River .

When the county was formed in 1827 , it was divided into four townships : Medina , Warren , Pike and Mound . Over the following decades , many changes were made to the township borders and eight new townships were created . Pine and Washington were the first of these , in March 1830 ; Steuben followed in 1834 . Liberty was formed in 1843 , Adams in 1848 , then Jordan in 1850 . Kent and Prairie were the last to be created , in 1864 . As of 2010 , Prairie Township , at 5 @.@ 4 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @.@ 1 / km2 ) , has the lowest population density ; it covers more area than any of the other townships — nearly 50 square miles ( 130 km2 ) — and contains no incorporated towns . The highest density is in Washington Township , which has 120 inhabitants per square mile ( 46 / km2 ) ; it includes Williamsport , the county 's largest town , and covers only about 20 square miles ( 52 km2 ) .

There are four incorporated towns in the county . The largest is Williamsport , which is on the western banks of the Wabash River in the eastern part of the county , just downstream of Attica ( which is on the east side of the river in Fountain County ) ; in 2010 , its population was 1 @,@ 898 — nearly one @-@ fourth of the county 's total . West Lebanon is about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Williamsport on State Road 28 , with a population of 723 . The town of Pine Village lies about 11 miles ( 18 km ) to the north of Williamsport where State Road 55 intersects State Road 26 , near the northern edge of the county ; 217 people live in Pine Village . State Line City is in the southwestern part of the county and shares its western border with the Illinois state line . A small Illinois community named Illiana lies immediately on the west side of the county road which runs along the state border ( and which is also a street between the two communities ) . State Line City is the smallest of the towns , with a population of 143 .

In addition to the incorporated towns , there are over a dozen small unincorporated communities in Warren County that are historical centers of activity . Now they consist mostly of dwellings , though several have churches and some still have small businesses . The small settlements of Hedrick , Pence and Stewart are in Jordan Township ; Stewart consists of a grain processing facility and a single residence . In Steuben Township , Johnsonville has a church and a handful of residences . Marshfield has an automotive body repair shop , a grain elevator and a church . Independence , platted in 1832 , is located on the site of a trading post set up by Zachariah Cicott . He is buried in a cemetery in Warren Township , just north of town . The township included the small settlement of Winthrop . Liberty Township has three unincorporated communities : Carbondale , Judyville and Kramer ( near the site of the Mudlavia Hotel ) . Several townships contain only a single settlement . Foster is the only one in Mound Township and has a motel and several houses . In the northeast corner of the county , Green Hill is Medina Township 's only settlement . Tab is the only settlement in Prairie Township ; most of this township is agricultural , and a large grain processing facility is Tab 's only remaining business . Pine Township 's only community is Rainsville .

Some settlements did not survive . The river town of Baltimore thrived and was a major center of trade until the river was overshadowed by the railroad for purposes of trade and transportation ; a single house , built long after the town 's heyday , is all that remains . Warrenton had a promising start as the first county seat , but it began to wane after the seat moved , and today no trace is left . Chesapeake was the first settlement in Steuben Township , but it faded away so early that even an 1883 county history has little to say on the subject . Brisco was never large , though it did have a school house from the 1850s through the 1920s . It likewise disappeared by the end of the 20th century . Chatterton had a school , a store and a post office , but it has disappeared even though the name continues to appear on maps . Other communities were planned but did not develop . Dresser was never much more than a collection of houses , though it did have a post office for a few years around the turn of the 20th century . The settlements of Kickapoo , Locust Grove , Sloan and Walnut Grove were similar in this respect . Point Pleasant never developed much beyond the founder 's residence and a liquor store , and was later described as a " paper town " .

= = Climate and weather = =

Warren County is in the humid continental climate region of the United States , as is most of Indiana . Its Köppen climate classification is Dfa , meaning that it is cold , has no dry season , and has a hot summer . From 1971 to 2000 , average temperatures in Indiana have ranged from a low of 26 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) in January to a high of 74 @.@ 3 ° F ( 23 @.@ 5 ° C ) in July , although a record low of − 33 ° F ( − 36 ° C ) was recorded in 1887 and a record high of 116 ° F ( 47 ° C ) was recorded in 1936 . Average monthly precipitation has ranged from 2 @.@ 27 inches ( 58 mm ) inches in February to 4 @.@ 46 inches ( 113 mm ) inches in May .

On April 17 , 1922 , a tornado touched down in Warren County . The town of Hedrick in southern Jordan Township was almost entirely destroyed , along with other buildings in the vicinity of the town , and several people were killed . From 1950 through 2009 , ten tornadoes were reported in Warren County ; none resulted in any deaths or injuries , but the total estimated property damage was over $ 3 million .

Warren County was affected by the Great Blizzard of 1978 which covered several states and was the worst blizzard on record for Indiana ; in late January , a record of snowfall of over 20 inches ( 51 cm ) fell locally , and high winds resulted in snowdrifts as high as 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Local schools were closed for up to seventeen days , and some residents were snowbound for as many as five days .

= = Transportation = =

There are no interstate highways in Warren County , although Interstate 74 passes less than half a mile ( 800 m ) from the southern border . About 20 miles ( 32 km ) of federal highways and 86 miles ( 138 km ) of state highways cross the county , as do about 550 miles ( 890 km ) of county roads . Of these , roughly a third are paved and the rest are topped with crushed gravel or packed dirt .

U.S. Route 41 enters from Benton County to the north and runs through the center of Warren County , veering to the east and crossing the Wabash River between Williamsport and Attica before continuing south . U.S. Route 136 passes through the far southern part of the county on its route between Covington and Danville , Illinois .

In the northern part of the county , Indiana State Road 26 begins at the Illinois border and passes through the town of Pine Village , where it intersects State Road 55 on its way from Oxford in the north to Attica in the south ; State Road 26 continues east through Lafayette and on to the Ohio border . Likewise , State Road 28 runs across the state from Illinois to Ohio ; it connects West Lebanon with Williamsport and continues east through Attica .

The four @-@ lane divided State Road 63 runs south from its northern terminus at U.S. Route 41 near the center of the county ; both reach Terre Haute about 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the south , but while Route 41 crosses to the east side of the river , State Road 63 remains on the west side . Construction on the current State Road 63 , which replaced the older two @-@ lane road and streamlined its route , began in the late 1960s and was completed by the early 1980s . The current two @-@ lane State Road 263 is a part of the original route of State Road 63 and forms a 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) business route that leaves its parent route , passes through West Lebanon and along the river , then rejoins its parent near the south edge of the county . A small portion of State Road 352 lies in the far northwestern corner of the county , following the county and state border north from State Road 26 for only about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before leaving Warren County and entering Benton County on its way through the small town of Ambia .

A Norfolk Southern Railway route connecting Danville , Illinois , with the city of Lafayette is the county 's busiest rail line , carrying about 45 freight trains each day . It enters Warren County at State Line City and passes northeast through the communities of Johnsonville , Marshfield , West Lebanon and Williamsport before exiting the county at Attica . Two short @-@ line railroads operate less frequently . The Bee Line Railroad is used principally for agricultural transportation and runs approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Stewart north through Tab and into southern Benton County where it joins the Kankakee , Beaverville and Southern . The 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) Vermilion Valley Railroad serves the Flex @-@ N @-@ Gate factory near Covington and runs west from the plant through the town of Foster to meet a CSX line in Danville .

The nearest airport is the small Vermilion Regional Airport , located 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) northeast of Danville , Illinois . Purdue University Airport is Indiana 's second busiest airport and is operated by Purdue University in neighboring Tippecanoe County to the northeast . Indianapolis International Airport is located about 90 miles ( 140 km ) to the southeast .

= = Economy = =

Warren County 's economy is supported by a labor force of approximately 4 @,@ 815 workers with an unemployment rate in July 2010 of 8 @.@ 8 % . Farming is a significant part of the economy , employing approximately 14 % of the county 's workers and supporting grain elevators in most towns . In some cases , the elevator is the town 's only formal business . The county 's farmland is highly productive and is among the top 10 % of Indiana counties in terms of crop yield per acre . In 2009 , 94 @,@ 700 acres ( 38 @,@ 300 ha ) of corn was planted and 93 @,@ 100 acres ( 37 @,@ 700 ha ) acres harvested , yielding an average of 187 bushels per acre ( 11 @.@ 7 metric tons per hectare ) for a total corn production of 17 @.@ 4 million bushels ( 441 @,@ 980 metric tons ) . Approximately 72 @,@ 000 acres ( 29 @,@ 000 ha ) of soybeans were planted , yielding 55 bushels per acre ( 3 @.@ 7 metric tons per hectare ) for a total of 3 @.@ 96 million bushels ( 107 @,@ 774 metric tons ) . Farmers also grew small amounts of hay ( 3 @,@ 700 acres ( 1 @,@ 500 ha ) ) and winter wheat , and held 3 @,@ 600 head of cattle . Roughly 86 % of the county 's 234 @,@ 413 acres ( 94 @,@ 864 ha ) is cropland .

About 14 % of the labor force works in the government sector for state and county services and schools ; in the non @-@ government sector , manufacturing is the largest industry at about 17 % of the labor force . The county has several industrial employers . Flex @-@ N @-@ Gate , an automobile parts assembly and warehouse facility , occupies the 750 @-@ acre ( 300 ha ) former Olin factory complex west of Covington . In Williamsport , industry includes TMF Center , which manufactures parts for construction equipment and trucking ; GL Technologies , which procures industrial tooling ; and Kuri @-@ Tec , which manufactures industrial hoses and accessories . Tru @-@ Flex Metal Hose in West Lebanon has made stripwound and corrugated flexible metal hose since 1962 ; Dyna @-@ Fab , also in West Lebanon , specializes in metal stampings and weldments . St. Vincent Hospital and a nursing home in Williamsport are also important local employers ; 9 @.@ 8 % of the county 's jobs relate to health care and social services .

Larger local economies in the more populous counties to the east and west offer additional employment and commerce , particularly in the cities of Lafayette and West Lafayette in Tippecanoe County and the city of Danville in Vermilion County , Illinois .

Electricity in the county comes from three providers . Duke Energy and the Warren County Rural Electric Membership Cooperative ( REMC ) serve most of the county , while the northern edge of the county receives power from NIPSCO .

= = Education and health care = =

The county 's four public schools are administered by the Metropolitan School District of Warren County . There is one junior – senior school in the system : Seeger Memorial Junior @-@ Senior High School north of West Lebanon , which was built in 1957 as part of the school consolidation effort . Seeger had an enrollment of 557 students during the 2014 – 15 school year and graduated 90 students the previous year . Warren Central Elementary School is co @-@ located with Seeger and served 305 students during the 2014 – 15 school year , while Williamsport Elementary School served 168 students and Pine Village Elementary School served 117 students .

There are no colleges or universities within Warren County , but there are several in nearby counties . Purdue University is a major undergraduate and graduate land @-@ grant university in West Lafayette , approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast in Tippecanoe County . The University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , another major research land @-@ grant university , is about 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the west . Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana has 23 campuses throughout the state ; the closest to Warren County is in Lafayette . Danville Area Community College is a public two @-@ year college located in neighboring Vermilion County , Illinois , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) southwest of Williamsport . Indiana State University is located about 60 miles south of West Lebanon , in Terre Haute , IN . ISU is one of the Princeton Review 's " Best in the Midwest , " and holds Carnegie classification as a research / doctoral university .

The towns of Williamsport and West Lebanon both have public libraries . The Williamsport @-@ Washington Township Public Library was built in 2002 and replaced the town 's 1917 Carnegie library ; the West Lebanon @-@ Pike Township Public Library is housed in the original 1916 Carnegie building , which was expanded in 2006 .

The county 's single hospital is St. Vincent Williamsport Hospital , a 16 @-@ bed acute care facility operated by Indianapolis @-@ based St. Vincent Health . The hospital includes a 24 @-@ hour emergency medical service and ambulance service . Williamsport also has a nursing home that provides health care and rehabilitation services primarily for seniors .

= = Notable people = =

George D. Wagner was raised on a farm near Green Hill in Medina Township , where his family moved when he was four years old . As an adult he became a prosperous farmer ; in 1856 he was elected to the Indiana House of Representatives , and he later served in the Indiana Senate . He fought in the Civil War on the Union side and was promoted to Brigadier General in 1863 . After the war , he moved to Williamsport and practiced law ; he died in 1869 at age 39 and is buried in Armstrong Cemetery north of Green Hill , near the farm where he was raised .

James Frank Hanly was born in Champaign County , Illinois in 1863 . He moved to Warren County in 1879 and worked as a school teacher from 1881 to 1889 , when he joined a local law office . He entered politics and served as Governor of Indiana from 1905 to 1909 . He was a strong supporter of prohibition and lectured widely on the subject after his time as governor . While traveling to such a lecture in 1920 , he died in an automobile accident in Ohio and is buried at Hillside Cemetery on the northeast side of Williamsport .

Fremont Goodwine was born in West Lafayette in 1857 . He attended Purdue University and was part of the original freshman class in 1874 , graduating in 1878 . He became a teacher , and later lived in Williamsport and served as the superintendent of education for Warren County , starting in 1887 . He was elected to a seat in the state senate in 1897 and continued there for 12 years ; he served as President pro tem of the senate for one session . He died in 1956 at the age of 99 .

Albert Lee Stephens , Sr. was born in State Line City in 1874 . He studied law in California and set up a private practice there , and later served in several legal positions before becoming a judge in 1919 . In 1935 he was nominated by Franklin D. Roosevelt to serve as a United States District Court judge in California . Two years later Roosevelt nominated him to a new seat as judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , and in 1957 he became chief judge . He died while still serving in 1965 , at age 91 .

Vernon Burge attended school in West Lebanon , where his father worked as a blacksmith . After graduation , he enlisted in the United States Army in 1907 and was assigned to the Balloon Attachment of the Signal Corps . He later became part of the first United States military aviation unit , and in 1912 he became the first American enlisted man to be certified as a military pilot .

Like George Wagner , Donald E. Williams grew up in Green Hill . He studied mechanical engineering at Purdue University , served as a pilot during the Vietnam War , then as a test pilot , and became a NASA astronaut in 1979 ; he flew on two Space Shuttle missions in the 1980s .

Stephanie White @-@ McCarty attended Seeger Memorial High School and was named 1995 Indiana Miss Basketball after setting a state scoring record while playing on the Seeger team . She went on to be part of Purdue University 's first NCAA women 's basketball championship team in 1999 , then began a five @-@ year career in the Women 's National Basketball Association .

= = Media = =

The first newspaper in the county was The Wabash Commercial , which was printed in Williamsport and started publication in the 1850s . A new owner changed the name to The Warren Republican in 1854 , the same year that the Republican Party was formed . It had several different owners until 1870 ; it was then published by a single owner for the next 40 years . Another paper called The Warren Review was started in 1891 and also had several owners until the two papers combined in 1914 as The Review Republican , which is now billed as " Warren County 's only newspaper " . It is now owned by Community Media Group which produces newspapers and other print distribution products in six states . West Lebanon also had several newspapers which began publication around the time of the Civil War . The most recent was The Gazette , which was printed from the late 1800s into the early 1900s ; before this there were several other papers printed under several different names as owners changed . As of 1912 , Pine Village had a newspaper called the Sentinel @-@ News . The Neighbor is a weekly paper serving Fountain and Warren counties .

The nearest major television market area is based in Indianapolis . The smaller Lafayette market area is closer and includes several broadcast stations that can be received in much of Warren County ; the Champaign , Illinois market area is closer to the southwestern portions of the county and is also in broadcast range . There are no radio stations based in Warren County , but several nearby areas have AM and FM stations that are in broadcast range . This includes Lafayette and Terre Haute in Indiana , and Danville and Champaign @-@ Urbana in Illinois .

= = Government = =

The county government is a constitutional body granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana and the Indiana Code . The seven @-@ member county council is the legislative branch of the county government and controls all spending and revenue collection . Representatives are elected from county districts . The council members serve four @-@ year terms and are responsible for setting salaries , the annual budget and special spending . The council also has limited authority to impose local taxes , in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval , excise taxes and service taxes . In 2010 , the county budgeted approximately $ 2 @.@ 2 million for the district 's schools and $ 2 @.@ 8 million for other county operations and services , for a total annual budget of approximately $ 5 million .

The executive body of the county consists of a board of commissioners . The three commissioners are elected from county districts in staggered four @-@ year terms . The commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council , collecting revenue , and managing the day @-@ to @-@ day functions of the county government .

The Warren Circuit Court serves as a trial court of general jurisdiction . It hears original disputes in civil , criminal , probate , juvenile , traffic and small claims cases . In most cases , court decisions can be appealed to the Indiana Court of Appeals or Supreme Court . The judge is elected to a term of six years , and is assisted by a clerk who is elected to a term of four years .

The county has several other elected offices , including sheriff , coroner , auditor , treasurer , recorder , surveyor and circuit court clerk . Each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government . Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations and be residents of the county .

Each of the townships has a trustee who administers rural fire protection and ambulance service , provides poor relief and manages cemetery care , among other duties . The trustee is assisted in these duties by a three @-@ member township board . The trustees and board members are elected to four @-@ year terms .

Based on 2000 census results , Warren County is part of Indiana 's 8th congressional district . Most of the county is in the 38th Indiana Senate district ; the exceptions are Warren and Washington townships , which are in the 23rd . The western portion of the county is in the 42nd Indiana House of Representatives district ; the eastern townships of Adams , Medina and Warren are in the 26th .

= = Demographics = =

As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 8 @,@ 508 people , 3 @,@ 337 households , and 2 @,@ 416 families residing in the county . The population density was 23 @.@ 3 inhabitants per square mile ( 9 @.@ 0 / km2 ) . There were 3 @,@ 680 housing units at an average density of 10 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 3 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the county was 98 @.@ 3 % white , 0 @.@ 1 % black or African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 0 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 2 % from other races , and 0 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0 @.@ 8 % of the population . In terms of ancestry , 27 @.@ 7 % were German , 11 @.@ 3 % were English , 10 @.@ 9 % were Irish , and 9 @.@ 2 % were American .

There were 3 @,@ 337 households , of which 31 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 59 @.@ 4 % were married couples living together , 8 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 27 @.@ 6 % were non @-@ families . 23 @.@ 1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 52 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 94 . The median age was 42 @.@ 4 years .

The median income for a household in the county was $ 49 @,@ 238 , and the median income for a family was $ 57 @,@ 990 . Males had a median income of $ 46 @,@ 731 versus $ 31 @,@ 064 for females . The per capita income for the county was $ 23 @,@ 670 . About 6 @.@ 9 % of families and 8 @.@ 8 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 13 @.@ 9 % of those under age 18 and 6 @.@ 3 % of those age 65 or over .

= 2011 Cofidis season =

The 2011 season for the Cofidis cycling team began in January at the Grand Prix d 'Ouverture La Marseillaise and ended in October at Paris – Tours . Cofidis was a UCI Professional Continental team in 2011 , meaning they had to be proactively selected by the organizers of UCI World Tour events , including each of the season 's Grand Tours , if they were to compete .

The team 's most successful rider in 2011 was David Moncoutié . The veteran Frenchman won the Tour Méditerranéen and Tour de l 'Ain overall crowns , as well as successes in the Vuelta a España . Moncoutié took a stage win and the King of the Mountains , each for the fourth straight year ( a new record for the mountains title ) . Sprinter Samuel Dumoulin was also a prolific winner , winning six races .

= = 2011 roster = =

Ages as of January 1 , 2011 .

= = One @-@ day races = =

The team was active in races which preceded those known as " classics " and the traditional start of the spring season . At the Grand Prix d 'Ouverture la Marseillaise , held in January as the first race of the season in France , El Fares rode to tenth place by finishing in the main field behind the solo winner . In February , Gallopin was the team 's best finisher at two of the races in the Vuelta a Mallorca series , coming ninth at the unofficial Trofeo Palma de Mallorca and tenth at the Trofeo Inca .

= = = Spring classics = = =

Duque took a high placing at the Gran Premio dell 'Insubria @-@ Lugano , finishing just off the podium in fourth place , coming home in a group that trailed two leading riders . At Kuurne – Brussels – Kuurne , a race which included most of the sport 's top teams , Petit finished ninth in a field sprint finish at the front of the race . Ista narrowly missed out on a victory at Le Samyn in early March . The race 's top finishers came across the finish line scattered , in groups of eight or fewer . Ista finished second , alone , 8 seconds back of solo winner Dominic Klemme . Two weeks later , Keukeilere finished fourth in a sprint at Nokere Koerse . Gallopin finished on the podium at Cholet @-@ Pays de Loire . Team Europcar 's Thomas Voeckler won the race with a late attack , with the peloton coming so close to catching him at the finish line that there was no time gap . Gallopin was first from the peloton for second overall . Vogondy rode to fourth place at the Route Adélie de Vitré , just missing the podium after figuring into a winning breakaway .

The team picked up their first single @-@ day win the same day as the more prestigious Tour of Flanders , in which they participated but were not especially competitive , with Duque in 19th their best finisher . The race they won was the inaugural Flèche d 'Emeraude , a new race in the UCI Europe Tour and the French Road Cycling Cup . Gallopin came first at the head of a field sprint in Saint @-@ Malo . Zingle figured into a winning breakaway at the Brabantse Pijl , the precursor to the Ardennes classics . He took seventh place , a minute and a half back of the winner Philippe Gilbert . Vogondy was sixth at the Tour du Finistère , finishing with a big main group behind two leaders .

Demaret took the team 's second single @-@ day win at the Tartu GP in late May . He was the best of a five @-@ rider breakaway at the front of the race , one which included teammate Taaramäe . That same day , Gallopin took sixth in a sprint finish to the Grand Prix de Plumelec @-@ Morbihan . The team 's last race of the early season was Halle – Ingooigem in June , where Sijmens rode to ninth place .

The team was not especially competitive at the spring season 's monument classics , coming in 37th at Milan - San Remo , 19th at the Tour of Flanders , 29th at Paris – Roubaix , and 57th at Liège – Bastogne – Liège . The team also sent squads to the Trofeo Laigueglia , Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , Gran Premio di Lugano , Les Boucles du Sud Ardèche , Dwars door Vlaanderen , E3 Prijs Vlaanderen – Harelbeke , Gent @-@ Wevelgem , Scheldeprijs , Paris – Camembert , the Grand Prix de Denain , the Amstel Gold Race , Tro @-@ Bro Léon , La Flèche Wallonne , the Eschborn @-@ Frankfurt City Loop , and the Tallinn @-@ Tartu GP , but finished no higher than 12th in any of these races .

= = = Fall races = = =

The team secured several high placings in the later season , but did not obtain any victories . In late July , the team took two of the top six placings at the Polynormande , with El Fares in second and Gallopin in sixth . El Fares had been part of a breakaway , and Gallopin first from the peloton four and a half minutes back . The result put Gallopin into the lead in the French Road Cycling Cup , the year @-@ long competition among French single @-@ day races where French riders , and those on French teams , can earn points . Cusin came eighth at the Tour du Doubs in September . Petit just missed out on the podium at the Grand Prix de Fourmies , finishing fourth in a large field sprint . He made the podium in a similar finish at Binche – Tournai – Binche in October , finishing third . Also in October , Dumoulin took ninth place at Paris – Bourges , from a selective sprint of ten riders . Duque was seventh in a leading group of thirteen at the Grand Prix de la Somme . Though he won only the one race , Gallopin 's consistent high finishes in the French single @-@ day races made him the overall victor of the season @-@ long French Road Cycling Cup , which he clinched after the Tour de Vendée .

The team sent squads to the Châteauroux Classic , the GP Ouest @-@ France , Paris – Brussels , the Grand Prix Cycliste de Québec , the Grand Prix Cycliste de Montréal , the Grand Prix de Wallonie , the Tour de Vendée , and Paris – Tours , but finished no higher than 11th in any of these races .

= = Stage races = =

The team got their first win of the season , in their first stage race , at the Étoile de Bessèges . Dumoulin made a late selection in stage 3 , joining nine other riders who finished just ahead of the rest of the peloton , and won the sprint to the finish line . Later in February , Moncoutié won the queen stage of the Tour Méditerranéen , finishing at Mont Faron . He had previously won stages there in 2003 and 2009 , but his win this year was enough to win him the race overall thanks to his time gap . The squad also won the teams classification . Dumoulin took another win later in February , in the first stage of the two @-@ day Tour du Haut Var . He stayed latched onto Rinaldo Nocentini 's wheel during the stage 's final climb , and came around him in the sprint .

Taaramäe took fourth overall at Paris – Nice in March , winning the youth classification with this performance , which was easily the strongest for an Estonian rider in the event 's history . Taaramäe turned in a similar strong ride at the two @-@ day , three @-@ stage Critérium International , finishing on the event 's final podium in third place , and securing the youth classification . At the concurrent Volta a Catalunya , Dumoulin took two stage wins . The first was in stage 5 , on an uphill false flat finish which Dumoulin felt suited him well . The second was more unexpected , in that it was a dead flat run in to the finish on wide roads , a more traditional field sprint . Dumoulin was delighted to win twice in front of some of the sport 's biggest stars , and stated that his next goal would be a major spring classic , perhaps the Amstel Gold Race . Dumoulin , however , was not a factor at the Amstel , finishing 104th , over eight minutes behind the winner .

In June , Maté won the final stage at the Route du Sud , coming best in a five @-@ man breakaway sprint . Keukeleire , a prolific winner in his neo @-@ pro season of 2010 but shut out in the first several months of 2011 , took his first win of the year in July at the Tour of Austria . He won a selective sprint at the end of stage 3 , finishing at the head of a 23 @-@ rider group that included the race 's top riders . It was also in that stage that Edet took the lead in the mountains classification . He went on to win it at the end of the race , holding off Skil – Shimano 's Alexandre Geniez by a single point .

The team took several wins in August . Dumoulin took a win in the first stage of Paris – Corrèze , breaking away near the end of the day to finish 4 seconds better than the main field . By finishing in the front group the next day , he secured overall victory in the two @-@ day event . On the same day Dumoulin secured Paris – Corrèze , Cusin narrowly defeated Saxo Bank – SunGard 's Matti Breschel at the end of stage 2 at the Tour of Denmark . After laying 28 seconds down in the overall classification before the final day at the Tour de l 'Ain , Moncoutié secured overall victory the next day . He missed out on the stage win to FDJ 's Thibaut Pinot , but by finishing only 3 seconds back he moved past previous race leader Wout Poels to win the event itself . Lastly , Gallopin took a stage at the Tour du Limousin . He took his second win of the season by breaking away from the peloton within stage 's final kilometer , and holding on for first by 6 seconds .

The team also sent squads to the Volta ao Algarve , Three Days of West Flanders , the Circuit de la Sarthe , the Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey , Four Days of Dunkirk , the Circuit de Lorraine , the Tour of Belgium , the Critérium du Dauphiné , the Tour of Slovenia , the Eneco Tour , the Tour du Poitou Charentes , and Circuit Franco @-@ Belge , but did not obtain a stage win , classification win , or podium finish in any of them .

= = Grand Tours = =

As a Professional Continental team , Cofidis needed to be selected by the organizers of any of the Grand Tours in order to participate . They were selected to ride the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España , but not the Giro d 'Italia .

= = = Tour de France = = =

The Amaury Sport Organisation announced the wildcard entries to the Tour de France in January , much earlier in than in past years . Cofidis , who had participated in the Tour every year of their existence , were among the four teams added to the 18 UCI ProTeams obligated to attend . After not racing the Tour in 2010 and indicating at the time that he may not return to it , Moncoutié decided instead to ride the 2011 Tour with hopes of winning the King of the Mountains title . The decision put a bit of doubt to his potential return to the Vuelta a España , notwithstanding the team needing a wildcard for that race as well , in spite of his three @-@ year string of winning the mountains classification at that race . Taaramäe , Dumoulin , El Fares , and Vogondy were also named to the squad .

Taaramäe finished near the front of the race on stage 1 atop the short Mont des Alouettes hill . He was distanced by stage winner Philippe Gilbert and eventual Tour de France winner Cadel Evans , but finished with the main front group six seconds back for eighth on the day . The team had a very poor team time trial , coming in 21st . They were second to last , ahead of Euskaltel – Euskadi , who are renowned for having weak time trialists on their roster , and only by 2 seconds . The result dropped Taaramäe down to 66th place . The squad was mostly quiet in the first half of the Tour , with Gallopin taking fourth in a field sprint to finish stage 5 and Dumoulin tenth in stage 10 their best finishes .

On stage 13 into Lourdes , which included a passage over the hors catégorie climb Col d 'Aubisque , Moncoutié figured into a ten @-@ man breakaway . Given the lack of overall threat in the group , the peloton did not mount a serious chase , meaning the stage winner would come from this group of ten . FDJ 's Jérémy Roy broke away from the group on the way up the climb . Moncoutié strenuously chased him , with Thor Hushovd following behind . The other breakaway riders all faded , finishing five minutes back on the stage . Roy crested the Aubisque first , and Moncoutié second . Hushovd , a rider known as a very strong descender , caught up with Moncoutié on the way down the Aubisque . With a short flat section still to race after the descent , Moncoutié and Hushovd worked cohesively as a chase group behind Roy . They caught and passed Roy 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the end of the stage , and Hushovd eventually dropped Moncoutié as well to be the solo stage winner ; Moncoutié finished second and Roy third . Moncoutié was roundly criticized by the French press for collaborating with Hushovd in the chase , with Roy ( a fellow Frenchman ) up the road . To that point in the Tour , no French rider had yet won a stage . Team manager Boyer defended Moncoutié , saying Hushovd was likely to surpass Roy and win any sprint at the end of the stage no matter what , and by working with him Moncoutié assured himself second place rather than falling to third .

Taaramäe took over the white jersey for best young rider from Rigoberto Urán on stage 18 . Urán finished a distant 27th on the day , seven minutes off the pace of stage winner Andy Schleck . Taaramäe 's eighth place , three minutes back of Schleck but four minutes the better of Urán , moved him into 11th place overall and into the best young rider 's position , by 33 seconds over Pierre Rolland . Rolland won the stage at Alpe d 'Huez the next day , with Taaramäe finishing 14th two minutes back . This gave Rolland an advantage of a minute and 33 seconds going into the stage 20 individual time trial , where Taaramäe 's skills are superior . Taaramäe indeed finished better than Rolland in the time trial , tenth to Rolland 's 21st , but gained only 48 seconds . This was insufficient to win back the white jersey before the final , largely ceremonial stage into Paris on the Tour 's final day . Taaramäe finished the Tour in 12th place overall , at a deficit of eleven and a half minutes to Tour champion Cadel Evans . Moncoutié was not a major factor in any classification , finishing 41st overall and 25th in the mountains classification . Given his result at just 24 years of age , and that he retains eligibility for the white jersey in the 2012 Tour de France , Boyer expressed that he was quite pleased with Taaramäe 's performance , and that he expected the Estonian to be a contender for the overall podium at the Tour within two or three years .

= = = Vuelta a España = = =

Cofidis was one of the four wildcard entries to the Vuelta a España . After a disappointing Tour de France , Moncoutié decided to ride the Vuelta in hopes of capturing his fourth consecutive King of the Mountains jersey at the Spanish Grand Tour , which would be a new record . While he had entered 2011 thinking it would likely be his last season as a professional rider , Moncoutié changed his mind about that as well and said he would " probably be part of the bunch in 2012 . " Taaramäe was also named to the team for the Vuelta .

The squad did slightly better in the stage 1 team time trial than they did in the equivalent stage at the Tour de France , coming 17th of 22 teams . Moncoutié secured a high placing on stage 6 , coming in ninth on the day with the lead chase group that finished behind four Liquigas – Cannondale riders at the head of the race . Taaramäe climbed with the race 's best riders on stage 9 , coming in seventh on La Covatilla . However , he was not any sort of overall threat – he was already over an hour down in the overall standings , having been in breakaways in stages 4 , 6 , and 8 which did not succeed and lost considerable time to the stage winner each day .

Moncoutié participated in a winning breakaway in stage 11 . Some 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the end of the stage , which concluded on a climb at Estación de Montaña Manzaneda , Moncoutié set out on a solo attack to win the stage . The attack was successful , and the veteran Frenchman won a Vuelta stage for the fourth consecutive year . He said after the stage that he rued falling short at Sierra Nevada , and had studied this course profile carefully to know when to attack to get away for victory . The result also moved Moncoutié up to second in the mountains classification , just a single point behind Ag2r – La Mondiale 's Matteo Montaguti . He took the jersey two days later on stage 13 by joining another winning breakaway . Montaguti had also made the breakaway , but he was unable to stay at the front of the race all day . Moncoutié took two second places and one win on the final three climbs of the day , resulting in a 12 @-@ point lead over Montaguti in the classification . The next day was another good one for the team . Taaramäe made the morning breakaway and held off the race 's top riders as they neared the front of the race . He held on for victory atop La Farrapona by 25 seconds ahead of eventual Vuelta champion Juan José Cobo in second , as all other members of the breakaway finished well back .

Moncoutié all but clinched his mountains classification triumph on stage 15 . While he finished nine minutes behind Cobo on Angliru , he won the day 's second climb to score ten mountain points and increase his lead over Montaguti to 22 points . He scored his final mountain classification points on stage 17 , ending with a total of 63 . Montaguti nearly reclaimed the jersey on stage 18 , when he made a breakaway and Moncoutié did not . Fortunately for Moncoutié , teammate Sijmens had made the escape group and kept Montaguti from maximum points on four of the five climbs . Given that riders who are not involved in a classification nor have teammates that are will generally not ride against someone who is , Sijmens ' presence in this breakway was effectively the only way Moncoutié could have retained the jersey . Moncoutié continued to lead Montaguti , by a score of 63 @-@ 56 . Neither rider scored again , and Moncoutié won his fourth consecutive mountains title , a first in Vuelta history . He was the team 's best overall finisher as well , but was not any real threat , coming in 37th overall at a deficit of over an hour to Cobo . Taaramäe , for his part , did not complete the Vuelta , abandoning on stage 17 .

= = Season victories = =

= James VI and I =

James VI and I ( 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 ) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death . The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states , with their own parliaments , judiciary , and laws , though both were ruled by James in personal union .

James was the son of Mary , Queen of Scots , and a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Henry VII , King of England and Lord of Ireland ( through both his parents ) , uniquely positioning him to eventually accede to all three thrones . James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months , after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour . Four different regents governed during his minority , which ended officially in 1578 , though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583 . In 1603 , he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland , Elizabeth I , who died without issue . He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years , a period known as the Jacobean era after him , until his death in 1625 at the age of 58 . After the Union of the Crowns , he based himself in England ( the largest of the three realms ) from 1603 , only returning to Scotland once in 1617 , and styled himself " King of Great Britain and Ireland " . He was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland . In his reign , the Plantation of Ulster and British colonisation of the Americas began .

At 57 years and 246 days , James 's reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors . He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England , including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament . Under James , the " Golden Age " of Elizabethan literature and drama continued , with writers such as William Shakespeare , John Donne , Ben Jonson , and Sir Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture . James himself was a talented scholar , the author of works such as Daemonologie ( 1597 ) , The True Law of Free Monarchies ( 1598 ) , and Basilikon Doron ( 1599 ) . He sponsored the translation of the Bible that was named after him : the Authorised King James Version . Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed " the wisest fool in Christendom " , an epithet associated with his character ever since . Since the latter half of the 20th century , historians have tended to revise James 's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch .

= = Childhood = =

= = = Birth = = =

James was the only son of Mary , Queen of Scots , and her second husband , Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley . Both Mary and Darnley were great @-@ grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor , the older sister of Henry VIII . Mary 's rule over Scotland was insecure , and she and her husband , being Roman Catholics , faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen . During Mary 's and Darnley 's difficult marriage , Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the Queen 's private secretary , David Rizzio , just three months before James 's birth .

James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle , and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland . He was baptised " Charles James " or " James Charles " on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle . His godparents were Charles IX of France ( represented by John , Count of Brienne ) , Elizabeth I of England ( represented by the Earl of Bedford ) , and Emmanuel Philibert , Duke of Savoy ( represented by ambassador Philibert du Croc ) . Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews , whom she referred to as " a pocky priest " , spit in the child 's mouth , as was then the custom . The subsequent entertainment , devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez , featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails ; the English guests took offence , thinking the satyrs " done against them " .

James 's father , Darnley , was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o ' Field , Edinburgh , perhaps in revenge for Rizzio 's death . James inherited his father 's titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross . Mary was already unpopular , and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn , 4th Earl of Bothwell , who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley , heightened widespread bad feeling towards her . In June 1567 , Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle ; she never saw her son again . She was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half @-@ brother , James Stewart , Earl of Moray , as regent .

= = = Regencies = = =

The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar , " to be conserved , nursed , and upbrought " in the security of Stirling Castle . James was crowned King of Scots at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude , Stirling , by Adam Bothwell , Bishop of Orkney , on 29 July 1567 . The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox . In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class , James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland . The Privy Council selected George Buchanan , Peter Young , Adam Erskine ( lay abbot of Cambuskenneth ) , and David Erskine ( lay abbot of Dryburgh ) as James 's preceptors or tutors . As the young king 's senior tutor , Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning . Buchanan sought to turn James into a God @-@ fearing , Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy , as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos .

In 1568 , Mary escaped from her imprisonment at Loch Leven Castle , leading to several years of sporadic violence . The Earl of Moray defeated Mary 's troops at the Battle of Langside , forcing her to flee to England , where she was subsequently imprisoned by Elizabeth . On 23 January 1570 , Moray was assassinated by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh . The next regent was James 's paternal grandfather Matthew Stewart , 4th Earl of Lennox , who was carried fatally wounded into Stirling Castle a year later after a raid by Mary 's supporters . His successor , the Earl of Mar , " took a vehement sickness " and died on 28 October 1572 at Stirling . Mar 's illness , wrote James Melville , followed a banquet at Dalkeith Palace given by James Douglas , 4th Earl of Morton .

Morton was elected to Mar 's office and proved in many ways the most effective of James 's regents , but he made enemies by his rapacity . He fell from favour when Frenchman Esmé Stewart , Sieur d 'Aubigny , first cousin of James 's father Lord Darnley and future Earl of Lennox , arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James 's powerful male favourites . Morton was executed on 2 June 1581 , belatedly charged with complicity in Lord Darnley 's murder . On 8 August , James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland . The king , then fifteen years old , remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year .

= = Rule in Scotland = =

Lennox was a Protestant convert , but he was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists who noticed the physical displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that Lennox " went about to draw the King to carnal lust " . In August 1582 , in what became known as the Ruthven Raid , the Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle , imprisoned him , and forced Lennox to leave Scotland . During his imprisonment , John Craig , whom James had personally appointed Royal Chaplain in 1579 , rebuked him so sharply from the pulpit ( 19 September 1582 ) for having issued a proclamation offensive to the clergy " that the king wept " .

After James was liberated in June 1583 , he assumed increasing control of his kingdom . He pushed through the Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk , and denounced the writings of his former tutor Buchanan . Between 1584 and 1603 , he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords , ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane who led the government until 1592 . An eight @-@ man commission known as the Octavians brought some control over the ruinous state of James 's finances in 1596 , but it drew opposition from vested interests . It was disbanded within a year after a riot in Edinburgh that was stoked by anti @-@ Catholicism led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow temporarily .

One last Scottish attempt against the king 's person occurred in August 1600 , when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven , the Earl of Gowrie 's younger brother , at Gowrie House , the seat of the Ruthvens . Ruthven was run through by James 's page John Ramsay and the Earl of Gowrie was himself killed in the ensuing fracas ; there were few surviving witnesses . James 's account of the circumstances was not universally believed , given his history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money .

In 1586 , James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England . That and the execution of his mother in 1587 , which he denounced as a " preposterous and strange procedure " , helped clear the way for his succession south of the border . Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless , and James was her most likely successor . Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy . During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588 , he assured Elizabeth of his support as " your natural son and compatriot of your country " .

= = = Marriage = = =

Throughout his youth , James was praised for his chastity , since he showed little interest in women . After the loss of Lennox , he continued to prefer male company . A suitable marriage , however , was necessary to reinforce his monarchy , and the choice fell on fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Anne of Denmark , younger daughter of Protestant Frederick II . Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589 , Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway . James sailed from Leith on hearing that the crossing had been abandoned , in what Willson calls " the one romantic episode of his life " , with a 300 @-@ strong retinue to fetch Anne personally . The couple were married formally at the Bishop 's Palace in Oslo on 23 November and returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590 , after stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe . By all accounts , James was at first infatuated with Anne and , in the early years of their marriage , seems always to have showed her patience and affection . The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood : Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , who died of typhoid fever in 1612 , aged 18 ; Elizabeth , later queen of Bohemia ; and Charles , his successor . Anne died before her husband in March 1619 .

= = = Witch hunts = = =

James 's visit to Denmark , a country familiar with witch @-@ hunts , sparked an interest in the study of witchcraft , which he considered a branch of theology . He attended the North Berwick witch trials , the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563 . Several people were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James 's ship , most notably Agnes Sampson .

James became obsessed with the threat posed by witches and wrote the Daemonologie in 1597 , a tract inspired by his personal involvement which opposed the practice of witchcraft and which provided background material for Shakespeare 's Tragedy of Macbeth . James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches . After 1599 , his views became more sceptical . In a later letter written in England to his son Prince Henry , James congratulates the Prince on " the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench . I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now @-@ a @-@ days prove but illusions , and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations " .

= = = Highlands and Islands = = =

The forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard . The king had subdued the organised military might of the Hebrides , but he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance . As a result , the 16th century became known as linn nan creach , the time of raids . Furthermore , the effects of the Reformation were slow to affect the Gàidhealtachd , driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the Central Belt .

In 1540 , James V had toured the Hebrides , forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him . There followed a period of peace , but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one another again . During James VI 's reign , the citizens of the Hebrides were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood . Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as " void of the knawledge and feir of God " who were prone to " all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis " . The Gaelic language , spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V , became known in the time of James VI as " Erse " or Irish , implying that it was foreign in nature . The Scottish Parliament decided that Gaelic had become a principal cause of the Highlanders ' shortcomings and sought to abolish it .

It was against this background that James VI authorised the " Gentleman Adventurers of Fife " to civilise the " most barbarous Isle of Lewis " in 1598 . James wrote that the colonists were to act " not by agreement " with the local inhabitants , but " by extirpation of thame " . Their landing at Stornoway began well , but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod . The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result , although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful . The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609 , which required clan chiefs to : send their heirs to Lowland Scotland to be educated in English @-@ speaking Protestant schools ; provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes ; outlaw bards ; and regularly report to Edinburgh to answer for their actions . So began a process " specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language , the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers . "

In the Northern Isles , James 's cousin Patrick Stewart , Earl of Orkney resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned . His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James , and the Earl and his son were hanged . Their estates were forfeited , and the Orkney and Shetland islands were annexed to the Crown .

= = = Theory of monarchy = = =

In 1597 – 98 , James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron ( Royal Gift ) , in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy . In the True Law , he sets out the divine right of kings , explaining that kings are higher beings than other men for Biblical reasons , though " the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon " . The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy , by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God , who would " stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him , for punishment of wicked kings " .

Basilikon Doron was written as a book of instruction for four year old Prince Henry and provides a more practical guide to kingship . The work is considered to be well written and perhaps the best example of James 's prose . James 's advice concerning parliaments , which he understood as merely the king 's " head court " , foreshadows his difficulties with the English Commons : " Hold no Parliaments , " he tells Henry , " but for the necesitie of new Lawes , which would be but seldome " . In the True Law , James maintains that the king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief , because kings arose " before any estates or ranks of men , before any parliaments were holden , or laws made , and by them was the land distributed , which at first was wholly theirs . And so it follows of necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws , and not the laws of the kings . "

= = = Literary patronage = = =

James was concerned in the 1580s and 1590s to promote the literature of the country of his birth . His treatise Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody was published in 1584 at the age of 18 . It was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue of Scots , applying Renaissance principles . He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music , seeing the two in connection .

In furtherance of these aims , he was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie among others , Montgomerie being a favourite of the King . James was himself a poet , and was happy to be seen as a practising member in the group .

By the late 1590s , his championing of his native Scottish tradition was diffused to some extent by the increasingly expected prospect of inheritance of the English throne . William Alexander and other courtier poets started to anglicise their written language , and followed the king to London after 1603 . James 's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the Scottish court made him a defining figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama , which reached a pinnacle of achievement in his reign , but his patronage of the high style in the Scottish tradition , which included his ancestor James I of Scotland , largely became sidelined .

= = Accession in England = =

Elizabeth I was the last of Henry VIII 's descendants , and James was seen as the most likely heir to the English throne through his great @-@ grandmother Margaret Tudor , who was Henry VIII 's oldest sister . From 1601 , in the last years of Elizabeth I 's life , certain English politicians — notably her chief minister Sir Robert Cecil — maintained a secret correspondence with James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession . Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to the English throne in March 1603 , with the Queen clearly dying . Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March , and James was proclaimed king in London later the same day .

On 5 April , James left Edinburgh for London , promising to return every three years ( a promise that he did not keep ) , and progressed slowly southwards . Local lords received him with lavish hospitality along the route and James was amazed by the wealth of his new land and subjects . James said that he was ' swapping a stony couch for a deep feather bed ' . At Cecil 's house , Theobalds , Hertfordshire , James was so in awe that he bought it there and then , arriving in the capital after Elizabeth 's funeral . His new subjects flocked to see him , relieved that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion . When he entered London on 7 May , he was mobbed by a crowd of spectators .

His English coronation took place on 25 July , with elaborate allegories provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson . An outbreak of plague restricted festivities , but " the streets seemed paved with men , " wrote Dekker . " Stalls instead of rich wares were set out with children , open casements filled up with women . "

The kingdom to which James succeeded was , however , not without its problems . Monopolies and taxation had engendered a widespread sense of grievance , and the costs of war in Ireland had become a heavy burden on the government . By the time of his succession , England had incurred a debt of £ 400 @,@ 000 .

= = Early reign in England = =

James survived two conspiracies in the first year of his reign , despite the smoothness of the succession and the warmth of his welcome : the Bye Plot and Main Plot , which led to the arrest of Lord Cobham and Sir Walter Raleigh , among others . Those hoping for governmental change from James were at first disappointed when he maintained Elizabeth 's Privy Councillors in office , as secretly planned with Cecil , but James shortly added long @-@ time supporter Henry Howard and his nephew Thomas Howard to the Privy Council , as well as five Scottish nobles .

In the early years of James 's reign , the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the government was tightly managed by the shrewd Robert Cecil , later Earl of Salisbury , ably assisted by the experienced Thomas Egerton , whom James made Baron Ellesmere and Lord Chancellor , and by Thomas Sackville , soon Earl of Dorset , who continued as Lord Treasurer . As a consequence , James was free to concentrate on bigger issues , such as a scheme for a closer union between England and Scotland and matters of foreign policy , as well as to enjoy his leisure pursuits , particularly hunting .

James was ambitious to build on the personal union of the Crowns of Scotland and England to establish a single country under one monarch , one parliament , and one law , a plan which met opposition in both realms . " Hath He not made us all in one island , " James told the English parliament , " compassed with one sea and of itself by nature indivisible ? " In April 1604 , however , the Commons refused his request to be titled " King of Great Britain " on legal grounds . In October 1604 , he assumed the title " King of Great Britain " by proclamation rather than statute , though Sir Francis Bacon told him that he could not use the style in " any legal proceeding , instrument or assurance " .

James achieved more success in foreign policy . Never having been at war with Spain , he devoted his efforts to bringing the long Anglo – Spanish War to an end , and a peace treaty was signed between the two countries in August 1604 , thanks to skilled diplomacy on the part of Robert Cecil and Henry Howard , now Earl of Northampton , which James celebrated by hosting a great banquet . Freedom of worship for Catholics in England , however , continued to be a major objective of Spanish policy , causing constant dilemmas for James , distrusted abroad for repression of Catholics while at home being encouraged by the Privy Council to show even less tolerance towards them .

= = = Gunpowder Plot = = =

A dissident Catholic , Guy Fawkes , was discovered in the cellars of the parliament buildings on the night of 4 – 5 November 1605 , the eve of the state opening of the second session of James 's first English Parliament . He was guarding a pile of wood not far from 36 barrels of gunpowder with which Fawkes intended to blow up Parliament House the following day and cause the destruction , as James put it , " not only ... of my person , nor of my wife and posterity also , but of the whole body of the State in general " . The sensational discovery of the Gunpowder Plot , as it quickly became known , aroused a mood of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons . Salisbury exploited this to extract higher subsidies from the ensuing Parliament than any but one granted to Elizabeth . Fawkes and others implicated in the unsuccessful conspiracy were executed .

= = King and Parliament = =

The co @-@ operation between monarch and Parliament following the Gunpowder Plot was atypical . Instead , it was the previous session of 1604 that shaped the attitudes of both sides for the rest of the reign , though the initial difficulties owed more to mutual incomprehension than conscious enmity . On 7 July 1604 , James had angrily prorogued Parliament after failing to win its support either for full union or financial subsidies . " I will not thank where I feel no thanks due " , he had remarked in his closing speech . " ... I am not of such a stock as to praise fools ... You see how many things you did not well ... I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty in time to come " .

As James 's reign progressed , his government faced growing financial pressures , due partly to creeping inflation but also to the profligacy and financial incompetence of James 's court . In February 1610 , Salisbury proposed a scheme , known as the Great Contract , whereby Parliament , in return for ten royal concessions , would grant a lump sum of £ 600 @,@ 000 to pay off the king 's debts plus an annual grant of £ 200 @,@ 000 . The ensuing prickly negotiations became so protracted that James eventually lost patience and dismissed Parliament on 31 December 1610 . " Your greatest error " , he told Salisbury , " hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall " . The same pattern was repeated with the so @-@ called " Addled Parliament " of 1614 , which James dissolved after a mere nine weeks when the Commons hesitated to grant him the money he required . James then ruled without parliament until 1621 , employing officials such as the merchant Lionel Cranfield , who were astute at raising and saving money for the crown , and sold baronetcies and other dignities , many created for the purpose , as an alternative source of income .

= = = Spanish Match = = =

Another potential source of income was the prospect of a Spanish dowry from a marriage between Charles , Prince of Wales , and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain . The policy of the Spanish Match , as it was called , was also attractive to James as a way to maintain peace with Spain and avoid the additional costs of a war . Peace could be maintained as effectively by keeping the negotiations alive as by consummating the match — which may explain why James protracted the negotiations for almost a decade .

The policy was supported by the Howards and other Catholic @-@ leaning ministers and diplomats — together known as the Spanish Party — but deeply distrusted in Protestant England . When Sir Walter Raleigh was released from imprisonment in 1616 , he embarked on a hunt for gold in South America with strict instructions from James not to engage the Spanish . Raleigh 's expedition was a disastrous failure , and his son Walter was killed fighting the Spanish . On Raleigh 's return to England , James had him executed to the indignation of the public , who opposed the appeasement of Spain . James 's policy was further jeopardised by the outbreak of the Thirty Years ' War , especially after his Protestant son @-@ in @-@ law , Frederick V , Elector Palatine , was ousted from Bohemia by the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II in 1620 , and Spanish troops simultaneously invaded Frederick 's Rhineland home territory . Matters came to a head when James finally called a Parliament in 1621 to fund a military expedition in support of his son @-@ in @-@ law . The Commons on the one hand granted subsidies inadequate to finance serious military operations in aid of Frederick , and on the other — remembering the profits gained under Elizabeth by naval attacks on Spanish gold shipments — called for a war directly against Spain . In November 1621 , roused by Sir Edward Coke , they framed a petition asking not only for war with Spain but also for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant , and for enforcement of the anti @-@ Catholic laws . James flatly told them not to interfere in matters of royal prerogative or they would risk punishment , which provoked them into issuing a statement protesting their rights , including freedom of speech . Urged on by the Duke of Buckingham and the Spanish ambassador Gondomar , James ripped the protest out of the record book and dissolved Parliament .

In early 1623 , Prince Charles , now 22 , and Buckingham decided to seize the initiative and travel to Spain incognito , to win the Infanta directly , but the mission proved an ineffectual mistake . The Infanta detested Charles , and the Spanish confronted them with terms that included the repeal of anti @-@ Catholic legislation by Parliament . Though a treaty was signed , the prince and duke returned to England in October without the Infanta and immediately renounced the treaty , much to the delight of the British people . Disillusioned by the visit to Spain , Charles and Buckingham now turned James 's Spanish policy upon its head and called for a French match and a war against the Habsburg empire . To raise the necessary finance , they prevailed upon James to call another Parliament , which met in February 1624 . For once , the outpouring of anti @-@ Catholic sentiment in the Commons was echoed in court , where control of policy was shifting from James to Charles and Buckingham , who pressured the king to declare war and engineered the impeachment of Lord Treasurer Lionel Cranfield , by now made Earl of Middlesex , when he opposed the plan on grounds of cost . The outcome of the Parliament of 1624 was ambiguous : James still refused to declare or fund a war , but Charles believed the Commons had committed themselves to finance a war against Spain , a stance which was to contribute to his problems with Parliament in his own reign .

= = King and Church = =

After the Gunpowder Plot , James sanctioned harsh measures to control non @-@ conforming English Catholics . In May 1606 , Parliament passed the Popish Recusants Act which could require any citizen to take an Oath of Allegiance denying the Pope 's authority over the king . James was conciliatory towards Catholics who took the Oath of Allegiance , and tolerated crypto @-@ Catholicism even at court . Henry Howard , for example , was a crypto @-@ Catholic , received back into the Catholic Church in his final months . On ascending the English throne , James suspected that he might need the support of Catholics in England , so he assured the Earl of Northumberland , a prominent sympathiser of the old religion , that he would not persecute " any that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the law " .

In the Millenary Petition of 1603 , the Puritan clergy demanded the abolition of confirmation , wedding rings , and the term " priest " , among other things , and that the wearing of cap and surplice become optional . James was strict in enforcing conformity at first , inducing a sense of persecution amongst many Puritans ; but ejections and suspensions from livings became rarer as the reign continued . As a result of the Hampton Court Conference of 1604 , a new translation and compilation of approved books of the Bible was commissioned to resolve discrepancies among different translations then being used . The Authorized King James Version , as it came to be known , was completed in 1611 and is considered a masterpiece of Jacobean prose . It is still in widespread use .

In Scotland , James attempted to bring the Scottish kirk " so neir as can be " to the English church and to reestablish episcopacy , a policy that met with strong opposition from presbyterians . James returned to Scotland in 1617 for the only time after his accession in England , in the hope of implementing Anglican ritual . James 's bishops forced his Five Articles of Perth through a General Assembly the following year , but the rulings were widely resisted . James left the church in Scotland divided at his death , a source of future problems for his son .

= = Favourites = =

James 's sexuality is a matter of dispute . Throughout his life James had close relationships with male courtiers , which has caused debate among historians about their exact nature . After his accession in England , his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth , as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth , nunc est regina Jacobus ( Elizabeth was King , now James is Queen ) .

Many of James 's biographers conclude that Esmé Stewart ( later Duke of Lennox ) , Robert Carr ( later Earl of Somerset ) , and George Villiers ( later Duke of Buckingham ) were his lovers . Restoration of Apethorpe Hall undertaken in 2004 – 08 revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers .

A few biographers of James argue that the relationships were not sexual . James 's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes " ye are bound in conscience never to forgive " , and James 's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children , as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages . Contemporary Huguenot poet Théophile de Viau observed that " it is well known that the king of England / fucks the Duke of Buckingham " . Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the King , writing to James many years later that he had pondered " whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham , where the bed 's head could not be found between the master and his dog " . Buckingham 's words may be interpreted as non @-@ sexual , in the context of seventeenth @-@ century court life , and remain ambiguous .

When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612 , he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum . Until Salisbury 's death , the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency ; from this time forward , however , James 's government entered a period of decline and disrepute . Salisbury 's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State , with his young Scottish favourite Robert Carr carrying out many of Salisbury 's former duties , but James 's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism .

The Howard party , consisting of Northampton , Suffolk , Suffolk 's son @-@ in @-@ law Lord Knollys , and Charles Howard , Earl of Nottingham , along with Sir Thomas Lake , soon took control of much of the government and its patronage . Even the powerful Carr fell into the Howard camp , hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Sir Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers . Carr had an adulterous affair with Frances Howard , Countess of Essex , daughter of the Earl of Suffolk , whom James assisted in securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr .

In summer 1615 , however , it emerged that Overbury had been poisoned . He had died on 15 September 1613 in the Tower of London , where he had been placed at the King 's request . Among those convicted of the murder were Frances and Robert Carr , the latter having been replaced as the king 's favourite in the meantime by Villiers . James pardoned Frances and commuted Carr 's sentence of death , eventually pardoning him in 1624 . The implication of the King in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James 's court with an image of corruption and depravity . The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619 .

= = Final year = =

After about the age of fifty , James suffered increasingly from arthritis , gout , and kidney stones . He also lost his teeth and drank heavily . The king was often seriously ill during the last year of his life , leaving him an increasingly peripheral figure , rarely able to visit London , while Buckingham consolidated his control of Charles to ensure his own future . One theory is that James may have suffered from porphyria , a disease of which his descendant George III of the United Kingdom exhibited some symptoms . James described his urine to physician Théodore de Mayerne as being the " dark red colour of Alicante wine " . The theory is dismissed by some experts , particularly in James 's case , because he had kidney stones which can lead to blood in the urine , colouring it red .

In early 1625 , James was plagued by severe attacks of arthritis , gout , and fainting fits , and fell seriously ill in March with tertian ague and then suffered a stroke . James finally died at Theobalds House on 27 March during a violent attack of dysentery , with Buckingham at his bedside . James 's funeral on 7 May was a magnificent but disorderly affair . Bishop John Williams of Lincoln preached the sermon , observing , " King Solomon died in Peace , when he had lived about sixty years ... and so you know did King James " .

James was buried in Westminster Abbey . The position of the tomb was lost for many years . The lead coffin was found in the Henry VII vault in the 19th century , during an excavation of many of the vaults beneath the floor .

= = Legacy = =

James was widely mourned . For all his flaws , he had largely retained the affection of his people , who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era . " As he lived in peace , " remarked the Earl of Kellie , " so did he die in peace , and I pray God our king [ Charles I ] may follow him " . The earl prayed in vain : once in power , Charles and Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure . James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes , such as the hunt ; and his later dependence on male favourites at a scandal @-@ ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth .

According to a tradition originating with anti @-@ Stuart historians of the mid @-@ seventeenth @-@ century , James 's taste for political absolutism , his financial irresponsibility , and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War . James bequeathed Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings , combined with a disdain for Parliament , which culminated in the execution of Charles and the abolition of the monarchy . Over the last three hundred years , the king 's reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Sir Anthony Weldon , whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s .

Other influential anti @-@ James histories written during the 1650s include : Sir Edward Peyton , Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts ( 1652 ) ; Arthur Wilson , History of Great Britain , Being the Life and Reign of King James I ( 1658 ) ; and Francis Osborne , Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James ( 1658 ) . David Harris Willson 's 1956 biography continued much of this hostility . In the words of historian Jenny Wormald , Willson 's book was an " astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author 's increasing hatred for his subject " . Since Willson , however , the stability of James 's government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign , as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war , have earned him a re @-@ evaluation from many historians , who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism .

Under James the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began , and the English colonisation of North America started its course with the foundation of Jamestown , Virginia , in 1607 . Cuper 's Cove , Newfoundland , was founded in 1610 . During the next 150 years , England would fight with Spain , the Netherlands , and France for control of the continent , while religious division in Ireland between Protestant and Catholic has lasted for 400 years . By actively pursuing more than just a personal union of his realms , he helped lay the foundations for a unitary British state .

= = Titles , styles , honours , and arms = =

= = = Titles and styles = = =

In Scotland , James was " James the sixth , King of Scotland " , until 1604 . He was proclaimed " James the first , King of England , France , and Ireland , defender of the faith " in London on 24 March 1603 . On 20 October 1604 , James issued a proclamation at Westminster changing his style to " King of Great Britain , France , and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . " The style was not used on English statutes , but was used on proclamations , coinage , letters , treaties , and in Scotland . James styled himself " King of France " , in line with other monarchs of England between 1340 and 1800 , although he did not actually rule France .

= = = Arms = = =

As King of Scots , James bore the ancient royal arms of Scotland : Or , a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter @-@ flory Gules . The arms were supported by two unicorns Argent armed , crined and unguled Proper , gorged with a coronet Or composed of crosses patée and fleurs de lys a chain affixed thereto passing between the forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or . The crest was a lion sejant affrontée Gules , imperially crowned Or , holding in the dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw a sceptre both erect and Proper .

The Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland under James was symbolised heraldically by combining their arms , supporters and badges . Contention as to how the arms should be marshalled , and to which kingdom should take precedence , was solved by having different arms for each country .

The arms used in England were : Quarterly , I and IV , quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or ( for France ) , 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland , this was the first time that Ireland was included in the royal arms ) . The supporters became : dexter a lion rampant guardant Or imperially crowned and sinister the Scottish unicorn . The unicorn replaced the red dragon of Cadwaladr , which was introduced by the Tudors . The unicorn has remained in the royal arms of the two united realms . The English crest and motto was retained . The compartment often contained a branch of the Tudor rose , with shamrock and thistle engrafted on the same stem . The arms were frequently shown with James 's personal motto , Beati pacifici .

The arms used in Scotland were : Quarterly , I and IV Scotland , II England and France , III Ireland , with Scotland taking precedence over England . The supporters were : dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned , supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent ( Cross of Saint Andrew ) and sinister the crowned lion of England supporting a similar lance flying a banner Argent a cross Gules ( Cross of Saint George ) . The Scottish crest and motto was retained , following the Scottish practice the motto In defens ( which is short for In My Defens God Me Defend ) was placed above the crest .

As royal badges James used : the Tudor rose , the thistle ( for Scotland ; first used by James III of Scotland ) , the Tudor rose dimidiated with the thistle ensigned with the royal crown , a harp ( for Ireland ) and a fleur de lys ( for France ) .

= = Issue = =

James 's queen , Anne of Denmark , gave birth to seven children who survived beyond birth , of whom three reached adulthood :

Henry , Prince of Wales ( 19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612 ) . Died , probably of typhoid fever , aged 18 .

Elizabeth ( 19 August 1596 – 13 February 1662 ) . Married 1613 , Frederick V , Elector Palatine . Died aged 65 .

Margaret ( 24 December 1598 – March 1600 ) . Died aged 1 .

Charles I ( 19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649 ) . Married 1625 , Henrietta Maria . Succeeded James I. Executed aged 48 .

Robert , Duke of Kintyre ( 18 January 1602 – 27 May 1602 ) . Died aged 4 months .

Mary ( 8 April 1605 – 16 December 1607 ) . Died aged 2 .

Sophia ( June 1607 ) . Died within 48 hours of birth .

= = Ancestry = =

= = = Family tree = = =

= = List of writings = =

The Essayes of a Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie , ( also called Some Reulis and Cautelis ) , 1584

His Majesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres , 1591

Lepanto , poem

Daemonologie , 1597

Newes from Scotland , 1591

The True Law of Free Monarchies , 1598

Basilikon Doron , 1599

A Counterblaste to Tobacco , 1604

An Apologie for the Oath of Allegiance , 1608

A Premonition to All Most Mightie Monarches , 1609

= Jahanpanah =

Jahanpanah ( Persian : جهان ‌ پناه ) was the fourth medieval city of Delhi established in 1326 – 1327 by Muhammad bin Tughlaq ( 1321 – 51 ) , of the Delhi Sultanate . To address the constant threat of the Mongols , Tughlaq built the fortified city of Jahanpanah ( meaning in Persian : “ Refuge of the World ” ) subsuming the Adilabad fort that had been built in the 14th century and also all the establishments lying between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri Fort . Neither the city nor the fort has survived . Many reasons have been offered for such a situation . One of which is stated as the idiosyncratic rule of Mohammed bin Tughlaq when inexplicably he shifted the capital to Daulatabad in the Deccan and came back to Delhi soon after .

The ruins of the city ’ s walls are even now discerned in the road between Siri to Qutub Minar and also in isolated patches behind the Indian Institute of Technology ( IIT ) , in Begumpur , Khirki Masjid near Khirki village , Satpula and many other nearby locations ; at some sections , as seen at Satpula , the fort walls were large enough to have few in built store rooms to stack provisions and armory . The mystery of the city ’ s precincts ( complex ) has unfolded over the years with later day excavations revealing a large number of monuments in the villages and colonies of South Delhi . Due to compulsions of urban expansion of the Capital City of Delhi , Jahanpanah is now part of the upscale urban development of South Delhi . The village and the wealth of ruins scattered all around are now enclosed by South Delhi suburbs of Panchshil Park South , Malviya Nagar , Adchini , the Aurobindo Ashram , Delhi branch and other smaller housing colony developments . It is hemmed in the North – South direction between the Outer Ring Road and the Qutb Complex and on the east – west direction by the Mehrauli road and the Chirag Delhi road , with Indian Institute of Technology located on the other side of the Mehrauli road as an important landmark .

= = Etymology = =

Jahanpanah ’ s etymology consists of two Persian words , جهان ‘ Jahan ’ , “ the world ” , and پناه ‘ panah ’ , “ shelter ” , thus “ Refuge of the World ”

= = History = =

Mohammed bin Tughlaq , son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq who built Tughlaqabad , constructed his new city of Jahanpanah between 1326 and 1327 by encircling the earlier cities of Siri and Lal Kot with 13 gates . But what remains of the city and Adilabad fort are large ruins , which leave much ambiguity and conjectures regarding its physical status as to why and when it was built by Tughlaq . Some of the structures which have survived partially are the Bijay Mandal ( that is inferred to have housed the Hazar Sutan Palace , now destroyed ) , Begumpur Mosque , Serai Shaji Mahal , Lal Gumbad , Baradari with other nearby structures and scattered swathes of rubble masonry walls . From Ibn Batuta ’ s chronicle of the period ( he lived in Delhi from 1333 – 41 ) it is inferred that Lal Kot ( Qutb complex ) was then the urban area , Siri was the military cantonment and the remaining area consisted of his palace ( Bijaymandal ) and other structures like mosques , etc .

Ibn Batuta has reasoned that Muhammad Shah wished to see a unified city comprising Old Delhi , Siri , Jahanpanah and Tughlaqabad with one contiguous fortification encompassing them but cost considerations forced him to abandon the plan halfway . In his chronicle , Batuta also stated that the Hazar Sutan Palace ( 1000 pillared palace ) , built outside the Siri fort limits but within the Jahanpanah city area , was the residence of the Tughlaq .

Hazar Sutan Palace was located within the fortified area of the Jahnapanah in Bijaya Mandal ( literal meaning in Hindi : ' victory platform ' ) . The grand palace with its audience hall of beautifully painted wooden canopy and columns is vividly described but it does no longer exists . The Fort acted as a safe haven for the people living between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri . Tughalqabad continued to act as Tughlaq ’ s centre of government until , for strange and inexplicable reasons , he shifted his capital to Daulatabad , however he returned after a short period .

= = = Adilabad = = =

Adilabad , a fort of modest size , built on the hills to the south of Tughlaqabad was provided with protective massive ramparts on its boundary around the city of Jahanpanah . The fort was much smaller than its predecessor fort , Tughlaqabad fort , but of similar design . Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) in its evaluation of the status of the fort for conservation has recorded that two gates ,

one with barbicans between two bastions on the south @-@ east and another on the south @-@ west . Inside , it , separated by a bailey , is a citadel consisting of walls , bastions and gates within which lay the palaces .

The fort was also known as ‘ Muhammadabad ’ , but inferred as a later day development . The two gates on the southeast and southwest of Adilabad fort had chambers at the lower level while the east and west gates had grain bins and courtyards at the upper floors . The fortifications built , linking with the other two city walls , was 12 m ( 39 @.@ 4 ft ) in thickness and extended to a length of 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . Another smaller fortress , called the Nai @-@ ka @-@ kot was also built at a distance of about 700 m ( 2 @,@ 296 @.@ 6 ft ) from Adilabad , with citadel and army camps , which are now seen only in ruins .

Tughlaq ’ s primary attention to infrastructure , particularly of water supply to the city , was also well thought out . A structure ( weir or tank ) with seven sluices ( Urdu : Satpula ) was built on a stream that flowed through the city . This structure called the Satpula is still existing ( though non – functional ) near Khirki village on the boundary walls of Jahanpanah . Similar structures had also been built at Tughlaqabad and Delhi in Hauz Khas Complex , thus covering the water supply needs of entire population of Jahanpanah .

= = = Begampur Mosque = = =

Now , remnants of the city lie scattered in Begumpur village , as a mute reminder of its ancient glory . The Begumpur Mosque , a vestige of the old city , of overall layout plan of 90 m × 94 m ( 295 @.@ 3 ft × 308 @.@ 4 ft ) size with the inner courtyard measuring 75 m × 80 m ( 246 @.@ 1 ft × 262 @.@ 5 ft ) , is said to be patterned on an Iranian design planned by the Iranian architect Zahir al @-@ Din al @-@ Jayush . A majestic building in the heart of the city with a pride of place played a pivotal role of serving as a madrasa , an administrative centre with the treasury and a mosque of large proportions serving as a social community hub surrounded by a market area . It has an unusual layout with three arch covered passages with a " three by eight " deep nine bay prayer hall on the west . Construction of this mosque is credited to two sources . One view is that it was built by Khan @-@ i @-@ Jahan Maqbul Tilangani , Prime Minister during Feroz Shah Tughlaq ’ s rule , who was also builder of six more masjids ( two of them in the close vicinity ) . The other view is that it was built by Tughlaq because of its proximity to Bijay Mandal and could probably be dated to 1351 A.D. , the year Tughlaq died here . In support of the second view , it is said that Ibn Batuta , the chronicler of the period ( till his departure from Delhi in 1341 A.D. ) had not recorded this monument . The Mosque considered an architectural masterpiece ( see pictures in gallery ) has three gates , one in each of the three covered passages , in North , East ( main gate ) and South directions . The west wall which has the Mihrab , has Toghluqi style tapering minarets flanking the central high opening covered by a big dome . The entire passageway of the west wall has twenty @-@ five arched openings . The Mihrab wall depicts five projections . The prayer hall has modest decorative carvings but the columns and walls are bland . The eastern gate approach is from the road level up a flight of steps to negotiate the raised plinth on which this unique mosque has been built with a four Iwan layout . Stone chajjas or eaves can also be seen on all the four arcades . The Northern entry with 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) raised entrance , probably linked the Mosque to the Bijayamandal Palace . The stucco plastering work on the mosque walls have lasted for centuries and even now show some tiles fixed on them at a few locations . The mosque was under occupation during Jahanpanah 's existence till the 17th century . In the later period , encroachers had occupied the mosque but were cleared by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) in 1921 . A shuttered by lane entry from the north has been interpreted as an approach that was used by the womenfolk of the Sultan 's family for attending prayers in the mosque .

= = = Bijay Mandal = = =

Bijay Mandal is a building with a layout plan of 74 m ( 242 @.@ 8 ft ) x82 m ( 269 @.@ 0 ft ) dimensions , with a well proportioned square dome . It cannot be categorized as a tower or a palace . It is a typical Toghlaqi structure with an octagonal plan built in rubble masonry ( with massive battered sloping walls on east , west and southern directions ) on a raised platform with door ways in each cardinal direction . The purpose of this unusual structure and the ruins of the Sar Dara Palace was described by Ibn Battuta as the palace with multiple chambers and the large public audience hall as the famed Hazar Sutan Palace . It was also interpreted as serving as an observation tower to monitor the activities of his troops . The ambience of the place presented it as place to relax and enjoy the scenic view of the environs . The inclined path around the monument was a walkway leading to the apartments of the Sultan . Two large openings in the living rooms of the floor were inferred as leading to the vaults or the treasury . On the level platform , outside the building in front of the apartment rooms , small holes equally spaced are seen , which have been inferred to be holes used to fix wooden pillars to hold a temporary shamiana ( pavilion ) or cover . The process of ushering people into the presence of the Sultan was devious and formal involving entry through semi – public places to private chambers to the audience hall . The debate on whether the Hazara Sutan Palace cited as existing during Allauddin Khilji reign and also during Togluq 's time are one and the same palace , has not been conclusive . A plausible hypothesis is that the stone hall of the palace was built by Allauddin Khilji while the tower adjoining the stone buildings was surely built by Mohammed bin Toghluq .

Archaeological excavations carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed treasures from the vaults in the buildings , which date the occupation of this monument during Feruz Shah ’ s reign and also by Sheikh Hasan Tahir ( a saint ) during Sikander Lodi ’ s rule at the beginning of the 16th century . Also , excavations done in 1934 have revealed wooden pillar bases attributed to the Hazar Sutan Palace . Within the close precincts of the Bijaymandal , a domed building is seen which has a unique architectural façade of two openings on each of its three sides , interpreted as an annex to another building ( based on underground passages seen in the adjoining structure ) . However , the purpose for which this dome was built is not known .

Kalusarai Masjid

Kalusarai Masjid is located 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 @.@ 4 ft ) to the north of the Bijaymandal but it is in a highly dilapidated state ( pictured ) needing urgent attention for restoration in view of its heritage monument status . At present , it is occupied as a residential complex by a few families . The Masjid was built by the famous builder of Mosques Khan @-@ i @-@ Jahan Maqbul Tilangani , Prime Minister during Feroz Shah Tughlaq ’ s reign , as one of his seven mosques ; built in the same architectural style as the other six built by him . But even now the visible decorations of the mihrab appear to be more intricate than in his other mosques . When built with rubble masonry and plastered , the mosque had seven arched openings as the frontage , three bays depth wise and crowned by a sequence of low domes in typical Toghluqi architectural style .

= = = Serai Shaji Mahal = = =

Further to the east of Begumpur Masjid , in the Serai Shahji village , Mughal period buildings are seen of which the Serai Shaji Mahal is a distinguishing monument . The area surrounding this is scattered with decrepit gates , graves and a large slum area . A little distance from this place is the tomb of Shiekh Farid Murtaza Khan , who during Emperor Akbar ’ s period , was credited with building a number of Serai 's , a mosque and Faridabad village , which is now the present – day large city in Haryana .

= = Other notable structures = =

Other notable structures in the Jahanpanah ’ s ambit of 20 ha ( 49 @.@ 4 acres ) area in close vicinity of the present day Panchshila Public School are the following :

The Lal Gumbad , was built as a tomb for Shaikh Kabbiruddin Auliya ( 1397 ) , a sufi saint who lived in the 14th century as a disciple of Sufi saint Shaikh Raushan Chiragh – i – Delhi . The dome tomb was built with red sandstone . It is considered to be a small size replica of the Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ’ s Tomb in Tughlaqabad . The gateway to the tomb has a pointed arch with marble bands . It is also called the Rakabwala Gumbad because dacoits had stolen the finial on the roof of the tomb by climbing up over the iron rungs ( called ' Rakab ' ) on its western wall . Apart from these structures , the four walls of a mosque also are within the compound wall of the tomb .

The Sadhana Enclave are features Baradari an arched hall . Thought to have been built in the 14th century or 15th century , it is in a fairly well preserved condition . A Lodi period tomb is also seen nearby .

Further away from the Sadhana enclave on its opposite side , in Shiekh Serai , three tombs are noted of which only one is well preserved , the squared domed tomb of Sheikh Alauddin ( 1541 – 42 ) . The tomb building is raised on twelve columns with perforated screens on the façade has a large dome , creating a drum with sixteen faces . The ceiling of the tomb is well decorated with medallions in plaster on the spandrel of arches and within the parapets a merlon design .

= = Conservation measures = =

Archaeological excavations were done by ASI in part of the fort walls at its junction with the eastern wall of Qila Rai Pithora . The excavations revealed rough and small stones in the foundations followed by an ashlar face in the exterior wall above ground . The ASI is presently involved in conservation activities of the wall , providing railings , environmental improvements and lighting of the area , at a cost of Rs 15 lakhs ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) .

= = Modern location = =

Jahanpanah 's ruins are mostly concentrated in South Delhi in the present suburbs of Kalu Sarai , Bijaymandal , Adchini , Begumpur village , IIT , Delhi crossing , Aurobindo Marg , Malviya Nagar , Panchsheel Enclave South , Sadhana Enclave , Press Enclave road , in the urban village of Chirag Delhi , Tuhghlaqabad and Qutub Minar . The ancient city walls are seen at a few locations , such as east of Khirki village near Satpula . The main approach road from Connaught Place to Qutub Minar complex passes through the IIT crossing at a distance of 14 @.@ 5 km ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) . The Outer Ring Road also crosses this road at IIT crossing . From this crossing , all the locations can be reached from the Aurobindo Marg diversion road next to the Essex Farms ( opposite to IIT , Delhi ) .

= = Gallery = =

= Roon @-@ class cruiser =

The Roon class was a pair of armored cruisers built for the German Imperial Navy after the turn of the 20th century . The class comprised Roon and Yorck , which closely resembled the earlier Prinz Adalbert @-@ class ships , but incorporated slight incremental improvements . The ships were easily distinguished from their predecessors by the addition of a fourth funnel . Like all of the armored cruisers built by Germany , they were intended to serve as station ships in Germany 's overseas possessions . The ships did not compare well with their British rivals .

The two ships served with the High Seas Fleet in the reconnaissance squadrons after they joined the fleet in 1905 – 1906 . At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , the ships served alongside the more powerful battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . While returning to port after a raid of the English coast on 16 December 1914 , Yorck struck German mines and sank with heavy loss of life . Roon was disarmed in 1916 and intended to be converted into a seaplane carrier , though this was never carried out . The ship was eventually broken up for scrap in 1921 .

= = Design = =

Design work on Roon and her sister ship Yorck was completed in 1901 . The design for the Roon class can be traced back to the first German armored cruiser , Fürst Bismarck , built between 1896 – 1900 , and the preceding Victoria Louise class of protected cruisers that came before it . The German armored cruisers were designed for overseas service , specifically to serve as station ships in the German colonies in Africa , Asia , and the Pacific .

Roon and her sister Yorck were improved versions of the preceding Prinz Adalbert class . The two ships were slightly larger and faster than the Prinz Adalbert class and had a slightly different armor layout ; the Roon class ships had thinner armor on the turret faces , and slightly thinner armored decks . They shared many of the same layout characteristics as the contemporary German pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , including a smaller main armament but heavier secondary battery than their foreign equivalents . As a result , they compared unfavorably with their British contemporaries . Taylor describes the ships as " poorly protected and not a successful class in service . "

= = = General characteristics = = =

The ships of the Roon class were 127 @.@ 3 meters ( 418 ft ) long at the waterline and 127 @.@ 8 m ( 419 ft ) overall . They had a beam of 20 @.@ 2 m ( 66 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 76 m ( 25 @.@ 5 ft ) . Roon and Yorck displaced 9 @,@ 533 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 382 long tons ; 10 @,@ 508 short tons ) normally , and 10 @,@ 266 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 104 long tons ; 11 @,@ 316 short tons ) at full load . Their hulls were constructed from transverse and longitudinal steel frames that formed a structure over which the steel hull plates were riveted . The hulls contained 12 watertight compartments and a double bottom that ran for 60 percent of the length of the ship .

Like the preceding Prinz Adalbert @-@ class ships , Roon and Yorck were good sea boats ; when the fuel bunkers were full they had a gentle motion . They also maneuvered well and were responsive to the helm . With the rudder hard over , the ships lost up to 60 percent speed . The ships ' casemates were placed too low , and as a result they were exceedingly wet ; the casemate guns were impossible to use in heavy seas . They had a metacentric height of 1 @.@ 04 m ( 3 @.@ 4 ft ) . The ships ' standard complements numbered some 35 officers and 598 enlisted men . While serving as a squadron flagship the crew was augmented by 13 officers and 62 men , and as a second command ship by 9 officers and 44 sailors .

= = = Propulsion = = =

Roon and Yorck were powered by the same engine system as the preceding class , three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines , each of which drove one of the ships ' three screws . The central screw was 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) in diameter , and the outer screws were 4 @.@ 8 m ( 16 ft ) . Steam was provided to the engines by 16 boilers built by Düsseldorf @-@ Ratinger Röhrenkesselfabrik ( Dürr ) . Each boiler had 4 fireboxes apiece for a total of 48 . The propulsion system produced 19 @,@ 000 ihp ( 14 @,@ 200 kW ) , which delivered a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ) . The ships had four turbo generators , which provided 260 kilowatts at 110 volts . The ships had a single rudder .

= = = Armament = = =

The ships ' primary armament consisted of four 21 @-@ centimeter ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) SK L / 40 guns mounted in two twin turrets , one fore and one aft . These guns fired a 108 @-@ kilogram ( 238 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell at a muzzle velocity of 780 meters ( 2 @,@ 560 ft ) per second , for a maximum range of 12 @,@ 300 m ( 13 @,@ 500 yd ) with their original maximum elevation of 16 degrees . The guns were later improved to 30 degrees , which extended the maximum range to 16 @,@ 200 m ( 17 @,@ 700 yd ) .

Secondary armament included ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in single turrets and casemates and fourteen 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns , also casemated . The 15 cm guns fired a 40 kg ( 88 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) per second . The guns could be elevated to 30 degrees , which provided a maximum range of 13 @,@ 900 m ( 15 @,@ 200 yd ) . The 8 @.@ 8 cm guns fired a 7 kg ( 15 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 770 m ( 2 @,@ 530 ft ) per second . These guns had a maximum elevation of 25 degrees and a range of 9 @,@ 100 m ( 10 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships were also equipped with four 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .

This armament was identical to that on the preceding Prinz Adalbert class , with the exception of ammunition stores . The Roon @-@ class ships carried 380 shells for the main battery , 1 @,@ 600 rounds for the 15 cm guns , and 2 @,@ 100 shells for the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns . The planned conversion for Roon to a seaplane carrier called for six 15 cm L / 45 guns and six 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak guns , with 2 @,@ 400 rounds , though this was never carried out .

= = = Armor = = =

Roon and Yorck were protected by Krupp cemented steel armor . At the waterline , their armored belt was 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships where the ships ' vitals were located . This was decreased slightly to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the central section of the belt . The belt was backed by 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) of teak planking . At the casemate deck the side armor was also 100 mm thick . The armored deck ranged in thickness from 40 – 60 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) and was connected to the belt by sloped armor that was 40 – 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .

The forward conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick roof . The rear conning tower was less well @-@ protected ; its sides were only 80 mm thick and its roof was 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick . The main battery gun turrets were armored with 150 mm thick steel plates on the sides and 30 mm thick roofs . The 15 cm turrets were protected by 100 mm thick sides and 80 mm thick gun shields .

= = Construction = =

Roon was laid down in 1902 at the Kiel Navy dockyard . She was launched on 27 June 1903 and completed on 5 April 1906 , at the cost of 15 @,@ 345 @,@ 000 marks . Yorck was laid down in February 1903 , at Blohm & Voss shipyard . Yorck was launched on 14 May 1904 and completed on 21 November 1905 at a cost of 16 @,@ 241 @,@ 000 marks . Roon was laid down as Ersatz Kaiser , as a replacement for the old armored frigate Kaiser , which had been renamed Uranus and used as a harbor ship . Yorck was ordered as Ersatz Deutschland to replace Deutschland , the sistership to Kaiser , which had renamed Jupiter and converted into a target ship .

= = Service history = =

= = = SMS Roon = = =

After commissioning into the fleet , Roon was assigned to the I Scouting Group . In 1908 , she served as the flagship for Rear Admiral Jacobsen in the second division . Roon served here until 1912 when she was replaced by the new battlecruiser Moltke .

At the start of World War I , Roon was serving as the flagship of the III Scouting Group . The ship participated in several actions during World War I , including the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , during which she served in the cruiser screen for the dreadnoughts of the High Seas Fleet . Roon also conducted operations against Russian forces in the Baltic Sea , including bombardments against the Russian positions at Libau in support of the army in May 1915 . The Battle of the Åland Islands took place between Roon and several other German cruisers and Russian forces led by the powerful cruiser Rurik. in July 1915 . In August Roon and Prinz Heinrich bombarded Russian positions in the Baltic and briefly engaged several Russian destroyers .

After 1916 , Roon was disarmed and used as a guard ship and floating barracks in Kiel until the end of the war . Design work commenced in 1916 to convert the ship into a seaplane carrier ; work was planned to last from 1917 to 1918 during a period of 20 months . The ship was struck from the naval register on 25 November 1920 and scrapped the following year at Kiel @-@ Nordmole .

= = = SMS Yorck = = =

Yorck also served in the I Scouting Group with her sister ship , in the second division . In 1908 , the ship won the annual " Kaiser 's Challenge Cups for Prize Firing " for the reconnaissance squadron . In 1911 , the ship came under the command of Franz von Hipper , who would go on to command the I Scouting Group during the war . Hipper held this position aboard Yorck from 1 October 1911 to 26 January 1912 . In early 1912 the ship was decommissioned and her crew was transferred to the new battlecruiser Seydlitz .

The ship had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of war , Yorck was brought out of the reserve fleet and joined her sistership Roon in the III Scouting Group . After the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby , the ship made a navigational error upon returning to the Jadebusen , and accidentally sailed into a German defensive minefield . The ship sank quickly and only 127 men of her complement of 629 were rescued . The wreck was cleared over several periods between 1929 and the mid @-@ 1980s . The first period of work lasted from 1929 – 30 ; work commenced briefly in 1965 . The final work on removing the ship began in 1982 .

= Haymarket affair =

The Haymarket affair ( also known as the Haymarket massacre or Haymarket riot ) was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4 , 1886 , at Haymarket Square in Chicago . It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for an eight @-@ hour day and in reaction to the killing of several workers the previous day by the police . An unknown person threw a dynamite bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting . The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians ; scores of others were wounded .

In the internationally publicized legal proceedings that followed , eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy . The evidence was that one of the defendants may have built the bomb , but none of those on trial had thrown it . Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years in prison . The death sentences of two of the defendants were commuted by Illinois governor Richard J. Oglesby to terms of life in prison , and another committed suicide in jail rather than face the gallows . The other four were hanged on November 11 , 1887 . In 1893 , Illinois ' new governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the remaining defendants and criticized the trial .

The Haymarket affair is generally considered significant as the origin of international May Day observances for workers . The site of the incident was designated a Chicago Landmark in 1992 , and a public sculpture was dedicated there in 2004 . In addition , the Haymarket Martyrs ' Monument at the defendants ' burial site in nearby Forest Park was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1997 .

" No single event has influenced the history of labor in Illinois , the United States , and even the world , more than the Chicago Haymarket Affair . It began with a rally on May 4 , 1886 , but the consequences are still being felt today . Although the rally is included in American history textbooks , very few present the event accurately or point out its significance , " according to labor studies professor William J. Adelman .

= = Background = =

Following the Civil War , particularly following the Depression of 1873 – 79 , there was a rapid expansion of industrial production in the United States . Chicago was a major industrial center and tens of thousands of German and Bohemian immigrants were employed at about $ 1 @.@ 50 a day . American workers worked on average slightly over 60 hours , during a six @-@ day work week . The city became a center for many attempts to organize labor 's demands for better working conditions . Employers responded with anti @-@ union measures , such as firing and blacklisting union members , locking out workers , recruiting strikebreakers ; employing spies , thugs , and private security forces and exacerbating ethnic tensions in order to divide the workers . Mainstream newspapers supported business interests , and were opposed by the labor and immigrant press . During the economic slowdown between 1882 and 1886 , socialist and anarchist organizations were active . Membership of the Knights of Labor , which rejected socialism and radicalism , but supported the 8 @-@ hour work day , grew from 70 @,@ 000 in 1884 to over 700 @,@ 000 by 1886 . In Chicago , the anarchist movement of several thousand , mostly immigrant , workers centered about the German @-@ language newspaper Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung ( " Workers ' Times " ) , edited by August Spies . Other anarchists operated a militant revolutionary force with an armed section that was equipped with guns and explosives . Its revolutionary strategy centered around the belief that successful operations against the police and the seizure of major industrial centers would result in massive public support by workers , revolution , destroy capitalism , and establish a socialist economy .

= = = May Day parade and strikes = = =

In October 1884 , a convention held by the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions unanimously set May 1 , 1886 , as the date by which the eight @-@ hour work day would become standard . As the chosen date approached , U.S. labor unions prepared for a general strike in support of the eight @-@ hour day .

On Saturday , May 1 , thousands of workers went on strike and rallies were held throughout the United States , with the cry , " Eight @-@ hour day with no cut in pay . " Estimates of the number of striking workers across the U.S. range from 300 @,@ 000 to half a million . In New York City the number of demonstrators was estimated at 10 @,@ 000 and in Detroit at 11 @,@ 000 . In Milwaukee , Wisconsin , some 10 @,@ 000 workers turned out . In Chicago , the movement 's center , an estimated 30 @,@ 000 @-@ to @-@ 40 @,@ 000 workers had gone on strike and there were perhaps twice as many people out on the streets participating in various demonstrations and marches , as , for example , a march by 10 @,@ 000 men employed in the Chicago lumber yards . Though participants in these events added up to 80 @,@ 000 , it is disputed whether there was a march of that number down Michigan Avenue led by anarchist Albert Parsons , founder of the International Working People 's Association [ IWPA ] and his wife Lucy and their children .

On May 3 , striking workers in Chicago met near the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company plant . Union molders at the plant had been locked out since early February and the predominantly Irish @-@ American workers at McCormick had come under attack from Pinkerton guards during an earlier strike action in 1885 . This event , along with the eight @-@ hour militancy of McCormick workers , had gained the strikers some respect and notoriety around the city . By the time of the 1886 general strike , strikebreakers entering the McCormick plant were under protection from a garrison of 400 police officers . Although half of the replacement workers defected to the general strike on May 1 , McCormick workers continued to harass strikebreakers as they crossed the picket lines .

Speaking to a rally outside the plant on May 3 , August Spies advised the striking workers to " hold together , to stand by their union , or they would not succeed . " Well @-@ planned and coordinated , the general strike to this point had remained largely nonviolent . When the end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ workday bell sounded , however , a group of workers surged to the gates to confront the strikebreakers . Despite calls for calm by Spies , the police fired on the crowd . Two McCormick workers were killed ( although some newspaper accounts said there were six fatalities ) . Spies would later testify , " I was very indignant . I knew from experience of the past that this butchering of people was done for the express purpose of defeating the eight @-@ hour movement . "

Outraged by this act of police violence , local anarchists quickly printed and distributed fliers calling for a rally the following day at Haymarket Square ( also called the Haymarket ) , which was then a bustling commercial center near the corner of Randolph Street and Desplaines Street . Printed in German and English , the fliers claimed that the police had murdered the strikers on behalf of business interests and urged workers to seek justice . The first batch of fliers contain the words Workingmen Arm Yourselves and Appear in Full Force ! When Spies saw the line , he said he would not speak at the rally unless the words were removed from the flier . All but a few hundred of the fliers were destroyed , and new fliers were printed without the offending words . More than 20 @,@ 000 copies of the revised flier were distributed .

= = = Rally at Haymarket Square = = =

The rally began peacefully under a light rain on the evening of May 4 . August Spies , Albert Parsons , and Samuel Fielden spoke to a crowd estimated variously between 600 and 3 @,@ 000 while standing in an open wagon adjacent to the square on Des Plaines Street . A large number of on @-@ duty police officers watched from nearby .

Paul Avrich , a historian specializing in the study of anarchism , quotes Spies as saying :

There seems to prevail the opinion in some quarters that this meeting has been called for the purpose of inaugurating a riot , hence these warlike preparations on the part of so @-@ called ' law and order . ' However , let me tell you at the beginning that this meeting has not been called for any such purpose . The object of this meeting is to explain the general situation of the eight @-@ hour movement and to throw light upon various incidents in connection with it .

Following Spies ' speech , the crowd was addressed by Parsons , the Alabama @-@ born editor of the radical English @-@ language weekly The Alarm . The crowd was so calm that Mayor Carter Harrison , Sr. , who had stopped by to watch , walked home early . Parsons spoke for almost an hour before standing down in favor of the last speaker of the evening , the British socialist Samuel Fielden , who delivered a brief ten @-@ minute address . Many of the crowd had already left as the weather was deteriorating .

A New York Times article , with the dateline May 4 , and headlined " Rioting and Bloodshed in the Streets of Chicago ... Twelve Policemen Dead or Dying " , reported that Fielden spoke for 20 minutes , alleging that his words grew " wilder and more violent as he proceeded " . Another New York Times article , headlined " Anarchy ’ s Red Hand " and dated May 6 , opens with : " The villainous teachings of the Anarchists bore bloody fruit in Chicago tonight and before daylight at least a dozen stalwart men will have laid down their lives as a tribute to the doctrine of Herr Johann Most . " It refers to the strikers as a " mob " and uses quotation marks around the term " workingmen " .

= = = = Bombing and gunfire = = = =

At about 10 : 30 pm , just as Fielden was finishing his speech , police arrived en masse , marching in formation towards the speakers ' wagon , and ordered the rally to disperse . Fielden insisted that the meeting was peaceful . Police Inspector John Bonfield , proclaimed :

I command you [ addressing the speaker ] in the name of the law to desist and you [ addressing the crowd ] to disperse .

A home @-@ made bomb with a brittle metal casing filled with dynamite and ignited by a fuse , was thrown into the path of the advancing police . Its fuse briefly sputtered , then the bomb exploded , killing policeman Mathias J. Degan with flying metal fragments and mortally wounding six other officers .

Witnesses maintained that immediately after the bomb blast there was an exchange of gunshots between police and demonstrators . Accounts vary widely as to who fired first and whether any of the crowd fired at the police . Historian Paul Avrich maintains that the police fired on the fleeing demonstrators , reloaded and then fired again , killing four and wounding as many as 70 people . What is not disputed is that in less than five minutes the square was empty except for the casualties . According to the May 4 New York Times demonstrators began firing at the police , who then returned fire . In his report on the incident , Inspector Bonfield wrote that he " gave the order to cease firing , fearing that some of our men , in the darkness might fire into each other " . An anonymous police official told the Chicago Tribune , " A very large number of the police were wounded by each other 's revolvers . ... It was every man for himself , and while some got two or three squares away , the rest emptied their revolvers , mainly into each other . "

In all , seven policemen and at least four workers were killed . Another policeman died two years after the incident from complications related to injuries received on that day . About 60 policemen were wounded in the incident . They were carried , along with some other wounded people , into a nearby police station . Police captain Michael Schaack later wrote that the number of wounded workers was " largely in excess of that on the side of the police " . The Chicago Herald described a scene of " wild carnage " and estimated at least fifty dead or wounded civilians lay in the streets . It is unclear how many civilians were wounded since many were afraid to seek medical attention , fearing arrest . They found aid where they could .

= = = Aftermath and red scare = = =

A harsh anti @-@ union clampdown followed the Haymarket incident . There was a massive outpouring of community and business support for the police and many thousands of dollars were donated to funds for their medical care and to assist their efforts . The entire labor and immigrant community , particularly Germans and Bohemians , came under suspicion . Police raids were carried out on homes and offices of suspected anarchists . Scores of suspects , many only remotely related to the Haymarket affair , were arrested . Casting legal requirements such as search warrants aside , Chicago police squads subjected the labor activists of Chicago to an eight @-@ week shakedown , ransacking their meeting halls and places of business . The emphasis was on the speakers at the Haymarket rally and the newspaper , Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung . A small group of anarchists were discovered to have been engaged in making bombs on the same day as the incident , including round ones like the one used in Haymarket Square .

Newspaper reports declared that anarchist agitators were to blame for the " riot " , a view adopted by an alarmed public . As time passed , press reports and illustrations of the incident became more elaborate . Coverage was national , then international . Among property owners , the press , and other elements of society , a consensus developed that suppression of anarchist agitation was necessary . While for their part , union organizations such as The Knights of Labor and craft unions were quick to disassociate themselves from the anarchist movement and to repudiate violent tactics as self @-@ defeating . Many workers , on the other hand , believed that men of the Pinkerton agency were responsible because of the agency 's tactic of secretly infiltrating labor groups and its sometimes violent methods of strike breaking .

= = Legal proceedings = =

= = = Investigation = = =

The police assumed that an anarchist had thrown the bomb as part of a planned conspiracy ; their problem was how to prove it . On the morning of May 5 , they raided the offices of the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung , arresting its editor August Spies , and his brother ( who was not charged ) . Also arrested were editorial assistant Michael Schwab and Adolph Fischer , a typesetter . A search of the premises resulted in the discovery of the " Revenge Poster " and other evidence considered incriminating by the prosecution .

On May 7 police searched the premises of Louis Lingg where they found a number of bombs and bomb @-@ making materials . Lingg 's landlord William Seliger was also arrested but cooperated with police and identified Lingg as a bomb maker and was not charged . An associate of Spies , Balthazar Rau , suspected as the bomber , was traced to Omaha and brought back to Chicago . After interrogation , Rau offered to cooperate with police . He alleged that the defendants had experimented with dynamite bombs and accused them of having published what he said was a code word , " Ruhe " ( " peace " ) , in the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung as a call to arms at Haymarket Square .

= = = The defendants = = =

Rudolf Schnaubelt , the police ’ s lead suspect as the bomb thrower , was arrested twice early on and released . By May 14 , when it became apparent he had played a significant role in the event , he had fled the country . William Seliger , who had turned state 's evidence and testified for the prosecution , was not charged . On June 4 , 1886 , seven other suspects , however , were indicted by the grand jury and stood trial for being accessories to the murder of Degan . Of these , only two had been present when the bomb exploded . Newspaper editor August Spies and Samuel Fielden had spoken at the peaceful rally and were stepping down from the speaker 's wagon in compliance with police orders to disperse just before the bomb went off . Two others had been present at the beginning of the rally but had left and were at Zepf 's Hall , an anarchist rendezvous , at the time of the explosion . They were : Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung typesetter Adolph Fischer and the well @-@ known activist Albert Parsons , who had spoken for an hour at the Haymarket rally before going to Zepf 's . Parsons , who believed that the evidence against them all was weak , subsequently voluntarily turned himself in , in solidarity with the accused . A third man , Spies 's assistant editor Michael Schwab ( who was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Schnaubelt ) was arrested since he was speaking at another rally at the time of the bombing ( he was also later pardoned ) . Not directly tied to the Haymarket rally , but arrested because they were notorious for their militant radicalism were George Engel ( who was at home playing cards on that day ) , and Louis Lingg , the hot @-@ headed bomb maker denounced by his associate , Seliger . Another defendant who had not been present that day was Oscar Neebe , an American @-@ born citizen of German descent who was associated with the Arbeiter @-@ Zeitung and had attempted to revive it in the aftermath of the Haymarket riot .

Of the eight defendants , five – Spies , Fischer , Engel , Lingg and Schwab – were German @-@ born immigrants ; a sixth , Neebe , was a U.S.-born citizen of German descent . Only the remaining two , Parsons and Fielden , born in the U.S. and England , respectively , were of British heritage .

= = = Trial = = =

The trial , Illinois vs. August Spies et al . , began on June 21 , 1886 , and went on until August 11 . The trial was conducted in an atmosphere of extreme prejudice by both public and media toward the defendants . It was presided over by Judge Joseph Gary . Judge Gary displayed open hostility to the defendants , consistently ruled for the prosecution , and failed to maintain decorum . A motion to try the defendants separately was denied . The defense counsel included Sigmund Zeisler , William Perkins Black , William Foster , and Moses Salomon . Selection of the jury was extraordinarily difficult , lasting three weeks , and nearly one thousand people called . All union members and anyone who expressed sympathy toward socialism were dismissed . In the end a jury of 12 was seated , most of whom confessed prejudice towards the defendants . Despite their professions of prejudice Judge Gary seated those who declared that despite their prejudices they would acquit if the evidence supported it , refusing to dismiss for prejudice . Eventually the peremptory challenges of the defense were exhausted . Frustrated by the hundreds of jurors who were being dismissed , a bailiff was appointed who selected jurors rather than calling them at random . The bailiff proved prejudiced himself and selected jurors who seemed likely to convict based on their social position and attitudes toward the defendants . The prosecution , led by Julius Grinnell , argued that since the defendants had not actively discouraged the person who had thrown the bomb , they were therefore equally responsible as conspirators . The jury heard the testimony of 118 people , including 54 members of the Chicago Police Department and the defendants Fielden , Schwab , Spies and Parsons . Albert Parsons ' brother claimed there was evidence linking the Pinkertons to the bomb . This reflected a widespread belief among the strikers .

Police investigators under Captain Michael Schaack had a lead fragment removed from a policeman 's wounds chemically analyzed . They reported that the lead used in the casing matched the casings of bombs found in Lingg 's home . A metal nut and fragments of the casing taken from the wound also roughly matched bombs made by Lingg . Schaack concluded , on the basis of interviews , that the anarchists had been experimenting for years with dynamite and other explosives , refining the design of their bombs before coming up with the effective one used at the Haymarket .

At the last minute , when it was discovered that instructions for manslaughter had not been included in the submitted instructions , the jury was called back , and the instructions were given .

= = = Verdict and contemporary reactions = = =

The jury returned guilty verdicts for all eight defendants . Before being sentenced , Neebe told the court that Schaack 's officers were among the city 's worst gangs , ransacking houses and stealing money and watches . Schaack laughed and Neebe retorted , " You need not laugh about it , Captain Schaack . You are one of them . You are an anarchist , as you understand it . You are all anarchists , in this sense of the word , I must say . " Judge Gary sentenced seven of the defendants to death by hanging and Neebe to 15 years in prison . The sentencing provoked outrage from labor and workers ' movements and their supporters , resulting in protests around the world , and elevating the defendants to the status of martyrs , especially abroad . Portrayals of the anarchists as bloodthirsty foreign fanatics in the press along with the 1889 publication of Captain Schaack 's sensational account , Anarchy and Anarchism , on the other hand , inspired widespread public fear and revulsion against the strikers and general anti @-@ immigrant feeling , polarizing public opinion .

In an article datelined May 4 , entitled " Anarchy ’ s Red Hand " , The New York Times had described the incident as the " bloody fruit " of " the villainous teachings of the Anarchists . " The Chicago Times described the defendants as " arch counselors of riot , pillage , incendiarism and murder " ; other reporters described them as " bloody brutes " , " red ruffians " , " dynamarchists " , " bloody monsters " , " cowards " , " cutthroats " , " thieves " , " assassins " , and " fiends " . The journalist George Frederic Parsons wrote a piece for The Atlantic Monthly in which he identified the fears of middle @-@ class Americans concerning labor radicalism , and asserted that the workers had only themselves to blame for their troubles . Edward Aveling remarked , " If these men are ultimately hanged , it will be the Chicago Tribune that has done it . " Schaack , who had led the investigation , was dismissed from the police force for allegedly having fabricated evidence in the case but was reinstated in 1892 .

= = = Appeals = = =

The case was appealed in 1887 to the Supreme Court of Illinois , then to the United States Supreme Court where the defendants were represented by John Randolph Tucker , Roger Atkinson Pryor , General Benjamin F. Butler and William P. Black . The petition for certiorari was denied .

= = = Commutations and suicide = = =

After the appeals had been exhausted , Illinois Governor Richard James Oglesby commuted Fielden 's and Schwab 's sentences to life in prison on November 10 , 1887 . On the eve of his scheduled execution , Lingg committed suicide in his cell with a smuggled blasting cap which he reportedly held in his mouth like a cigar ( the blast blew off half his face and he survived in agony for six hours ) .

= = = Executions = = =

The next day ( November 11 , 1887 ) four defendants — Engel , Fischer , Parsons , and Spies — were taken to the gallows in white robes and hoods . They sang the Marseillaise , then the anthem of the international revolutionary movement . Family members including Lucy Parsons , who attempted to see them for the last time , were arrested and searched for bombs ( none were found ) . According to witnesses , in the moments before the men were hanged , Spies shouted , " The time will come when our silence will be more powerful than the voices you strangle today . " In their last words , Engel and Fischer called out , " Hurrah for anarchism ! " Parsons then requested to speak , but he was cut off when the signal was given to open the trap door . Witnesses reported that the condemned men did not die immediately when they dropped , but strangled to death slowly , a sight which left the spectators visibly shaken .

= = = Identity of the bomber = = =

Notwithstanding the convictions for conspiracy , no actual bomber was ever brought to trial , " and no lawyerly explanation could ever make a conspiracy trial without the main perpetrator in the conspiracy seem completely legitimate . " Historians such as James Joll and Timothy Messer @-@ Kruse say the evidence points to Rudolph Schnaubelt , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Schwab , as the likely perpetrator . Howard Zinn , in A People 's History of the United States also pointed towards Schnaubelt , suggesting he was a provocateur , posing as an anarchist , who threw the bomb so police would have a pretext to arrest leaders of Chicago 's anarchist movement . However , Paul Avrich disputes this claim as being " sheer speculation and utterly without foundation . " Avrich argues that Schnaubelt 's appearance did not match the description of the bomber and that his behavior was inconsistent with either being the culprit or a mole .

= = = Documents = = =

An extensive collection of documents relating to the Haymarket affair and the legal proceedings related to it , The Haymarket Affair Digital Collection , has been created by the Chicago Historical Society

= = Pardon and historical characterization = =

Among supporters of the labor movement in the United States and abroad and others , the trial was widely believed to have been unfair , and even a serious miscarriage of justice . Prominent people such as novelist William Dean Howells ; celebrated attorney Clarence Darrow ; poet and playwright Oscar Wilde ; and playwright George Bernard Shaw strongly condemned it . On June 26 , 1893 , Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld , the progressive governor of Illinois , himself a German immigrant , signed pardons for Fielden , Neebe , and Schwab , calling them victims of " hysteria , packed juries , and a biased judge " and noting that the state " has never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policeman , and the evidence does not show any connection whatsoever between the defendants and the man who threw it . " Altgeld also faulted the city of Chicago for failing to hold Pinkerton guards responsible for repeated use of lethal violence against striking workers . Altgeld 's actions concerning labor were used to defeat his reelection .

Soon after the trial , anarchist Dyer Lum wrote a history of the trial critical of the prosecution . In 1888 , George McLean , and in 1889 , police captain Michael Shack , wrote accounts from the opposite perspective . Awaiting sentencing , each of the defendants wrote their own autobiographies ( edited and published by Philip Foner in 1969 ) , and later activist Lucy Parsons published a biography of her condemned husband Albert Parsons . Fifty years after the event , Henry Davis , wrote a history , which was superseded in another scholarly treatment by Paul Avrich in 1984 , and a " social history " of the era by Bruce C. Nelson in 1988 . In 2006 , labor historian , James Green , wrote a popular history .

Christopher Thale writes in the Encyclopedia of Chicago that lacking credible evidence regarding the bombing , " ... the prosecution focused on the writings and speeches of the defendants . " He further notes that the conspiracy charge was legally unprecedented , the Judge was " partisan , " and all the jurors admitted prejudice against the defendants . Historian Carl Smith writes , " The visceral feelings of fear and anger surrounding the trial ruled out anything but the pretense of justice right from the outset . " Smith notes that scholars have long considered the trial a " notorious " " miscarriage of justice . " In a review somewhat more critical of the defendants , historian Jon Teaford concludes that " [ t ] he tragedy of Haymarket is the American justice system did not protect the damn fools who most needed that protection ... It is the damn fools who talk too much and too wildly who are most in need of protection from the state . " In 2011 , labor historian Timothy Messer @-@ Kruse published a history . Based on his examination of the trial transcripts and other archival material , he concludes there is abundant evidence connecting defendants to advocacy of violence and preparations for it . He argues that Chicago 's anarchists were indeed " part of an international terrorist network and did hatch a conspiracy to attack police with bombs and guns that May Day weekend " ; and he calls the evidence establishing the guilt of " most of the defendants " " overwhelming . " Moreover , Messer @-@ Kruse opines that the trial was fair " by the standards of the age " and the jury representative . According to him , " The tragic end of the story was the product not of prosecutorial eagerness to see the anarchists hang , but largely due to a combination of the incompetence of the defendant 's lawyers and their willingness to use the trial to vindicate anarchism rather than to save the necks of their clients . "

During the late 20th century , scholars doing research into the Haymarket affair were surprised to learn that much of the primary source documentation relating to the incident ( beside materials concerning the trial ) was not in Chicago , but had been transferred to then @-@ communist East Berlin .

= = Effects on the labor movement and May Day = =

The Haymarket affair was a setback for the American labor movement and its fight for the eight @-@ hour day . Yet it also can be seen as strengthening its resistance , especially in Chicago , where , as historian Nathan Fine points out , trade union activities continued to show signs of growth and vitality , culminating later in 1886 with the establishment of the Labor Party of Chicago .

Fine observes :

[ T ] he fact is that despite police repression , newspaper incitement to hysteria , and organization of the possessing classes , which followed the throwing of the bomb on May 4 , the Chicago wage earners only united their forces and stiffened their resistance . The conservative and radical central bodies – there were two each of the trade unions and two also of the Knights of Labor — the socialists and the anarchists , the single taxers and the reformers , the native born ... and the foreign born Germans , Bohemians , and Scandinavians , all got together for the first time on the political field in the summer following the Haymarket affair .... [ T ] he Knights of Labor doubled its membership , reaching 40 @,@ 000 in the fall of 1886 . On Labor Day the number of Chicago workers in parade led the country .

On the first anniversary of the event , May 4 , 1887 , the New @-@ York Tribune published an interview with Senator Leland Stanford , in which he addressed the consensus that " the conflict between capital and labor is intensifying " and articulated the vision advocated by the Knights of Labor for an industrial system of worker @-@ owned co @-@ operatives , another among the strategies pursued to advance the conditions of laborers . The interview was republished as a pamphlet to include the bill Stanford introduced in the Senate to foster co @-@ operatives .

Popular pressure continued for the establishment of the 8 @-@ hour day . At the convention of the American Federation of Labor ( AFL ) in 1888 , the union decided to campaign for the shorter workday again . May 1 , 1890 , was agreed upon as the date on which workers would strike for an eight @-@ hour work day .

In 1889 , AFL president Samuel Gompers wrote to the first congress of the Second International , which was meeting in Paris . He informed the world 's socialists of the AFL 's plans and proposed an international fight for a universal eight @-@ hour work day . In response to Gompers 's letter , the Second International adopted a resolution calling for " a great international demonstration " on a single date so workers everywhere could demand the eight @-@ hour work day . In light of the Americans ' plan , the International adopted May 1 , 1890 as the date for this demonstration .

A secondary purpose behind the adoption of the resolution by the Second International was to honor the memory of the Haymarket martyrs and other workers who had been killed in association with the strikes on May 1 , 1886 . Historian Philip Foner writes " [ t ] here is little doubt that everyone associated with the resolution passed by the Paris Congress knew of the May 1 demonstrations and strikes for the eight @-@ hour day in 1886 in the United States ... and the events associated with the Haymarket tragedy . "

The first international May Day was a spectacular success . The front page of the New York World on May 2 , 1890 , was devoted to coverage of the event . Two of its headlines were " Parade of Jubilant Workingmen in All the Trade Centers of the Civilized World " and " Everywhere the Workmen Join in Demands for a Normal Day . " The Times of London listed two dozen European cities in which demonstrations had taken place , noting there had been rallies in Cuba , Peru and Chile . Commemoration of May Day became an annual event the following year .

The association of May Day with the Haymarket martyrs has remained strong in Mexico . Mary Harris " Mother " Jones was in Mexico on May 1 , 1921 , and wrote of the " day of ' fiestas ' " that marked " the killing of the workers in Chicago for demanding the eight @-@ hour day " . In 1929 The New York Times referred to the May Day parade in Mexico City as " the annual demonstration glorifying the memory of those who were killed in Chicago in 1887 . " The New York Times described the 1936 demonstration as a commemoration of " the death of the martyrs in Chicago . " In 1939 Oscar Neebe 's grandson attended the May Day parade in Mexico City and was shown , as his host told him , " how the world shows respect to your grandfather " .

The influence of the Haymarket affair was not limited to the celebration of May Day . Emma Goldman , the activist and political theorist , was attracted to anarchism after reading about the incident and the executions , which she later described as " the events that had inspired my spiritual birth and growth . " She considered the Haymarket martyrs to be " the most decisive influence in my existence " . Her associate , Alexander Berkman also described the Haymarket anarchists as " a potent and vital inspiration . " Others whose commitment to anarchism crystallized as a result of the Haymarket affair included Voltairine de Cleyre and " Big Bill " Haywood , a founding member of the Industrial Workers of the World . Goldman wrote to historian Max Nettlau that the Haymarket affair had awakened the social consciousness of " hundreds , perhaps thousands , of people " .

= = Suspected bombers = =

While admitting none of the defendants were involved in the bombing , the prosecution made the argument that Lingg had built the bomb and two prosecution witnesses ( Harry Gilmer and Malvern Thompson ) tried to imply the bomb thrower was helped by Spies , Fischer and Schwab . The defendants claimed they had no knowledge of the bomber at all .

Several activists , including Dyer Lum ( a close associate of the defendants who wrote an account of the case in 1891 ) , Voltairine de Cleyre and Robert Reitzel , later hinted they knew who the bomber was . Writers and other commentators have speculated about many possible suspects :

Rudolph Schnaubelt ( 1863 – 1901 ) was an activist and the brother @-@ in law of Michael Schwab . He was at the Haymarket when the bomb exploded . Schnaubelt was indicted with the other defendants but fled the city and later the country before he could be brought to trial . He was the detectives ' lead suspect , and state witness Gilmer testified he saw Schnaubelt throw the bomb , identifying him from a photograph in court . Schnaubelt later sent two letters from London disclaiming all responsibility , writing , " If I had really thrown this bomb , surely I would have nothing to be ashamed of , but in truth I never once thought of it . " He is the most generally accepted and widely known suspect and figured as the bomb thrower in The Bomb , Frank Harris 's 1908 fictionalization of the tragedy . Written from Schnaubelt 's point of view , the story opens with him confessing on his deathbed . However , Harris 's description was fictional and those who knew Schnaubelt vehemently criticized the book .

George Schwab was a German shoemaker who died in 1924 . German anarchist Carl Nold claimed he learned Schwab was the bomber through correspondence with other activists but no proof ever emerged . Historian Paul Avrich also suspected him but noted that while Schwab was in Chicago , he had only arrived days before . This contradicted statements by others that the bomber was a well @-@ known figure in Chicago .

George Meng ( b. around 1840 ) was a German anarchist and teamster who owned a small farm outside of Chicago where he had settled in 1883 after emigrating from Bavaria . Like Parsons and Spies , he was a delegate at the Pittsburgh Congress and a member of the IWPA . Meng 's granddaughter , Adah Maurer , wrote Paul Avrich a letter in which she said that her mother , who was 15 at the time of the bombing , told her that her father was the bomber . Meng died sometime before 1907 in a saloon fire . Based on his correspondence with Maurer , Avrich concluded that there was a " strong possibility " that the little @-@ known Meng may have been the bomber .

An agent provocateur was suggested by some members of the anarchist movement . Albert Parsons believed the bomber was a member of the police or the Pinkertons trying to undermine the labor movement . However , this contradicts the statements of several activists who said the bomber was one of their own . Lucy Parsons and Johann Most rejected this notion . Dyer Lum said it was " puerile " to ascribe " the Haymarket bomb to a Pinkerton . "

A disgruntled worker was widely suspected . When Adolph Fischer was asked if he knew who threw the bomb , he answered , " I suppose it was some excited workingman . " Oscar Neebe said it was a " crank . " Governor Altgeld speculated the bomb thrower might have been a disgruntled worker who was not associated with the defendants or the anarchist movement but had a personal grudge against the police . In his pardoning statement , Altgeld said the record of police brutality towards the workers had invited revenge adding , " Capt. Bonfield is the man who is really responsible for the deaths of the police officers . "

Klemana Schuetz was identified as the bomber by Franz Mayhoff , a New York anarchist and fraudster , who claimed in an affidavit that Schuetz had once admitted throwing the Haymarket bomb . August Wagener , Mayhoff 's attorney , sent a telegram from New York to defense attorney Captain William Black the day before the executions claiming knowledge of the bomber 's identity . Black tried to delay the execution with this telegram but Governor Oglesby refused . It was later learned that Schuetz was the primary witness against Mayhoff at his trial for insurance fraud , so Mayhoff 's affidavit has never been regarded as credible by historians .

Thomas Owen was a carpenter from Pennsylvania . Severely injured in an accident a week before the executions , Owen reportedly confessed to the bombing on his deathbed by saying , " I was at the Haymarket riot and am an anarchist and say that I threw a bomb in that riot . " He was an anarchist and apparently had been in Chicago at the time but other accounts note that long before his accident he had said he was at the Haymarket and saw the bomb thrower . Owen may have been trying to save the condemned men .

Reinold " Big " Krueger was killed by police either in the melee after the bombing or in a separate disturbance the next day and has been named as a suspect but there is no supporting evidence .

A mysterious outsider was reported by John Philip Deluse , a saloon keeper in Indianapolis who claimed he encountered a stranger in his saloon the day before the bombing . The man was carrying a satchel and on his way from New York to Chicago . According to Deluse , the stranger was interested in the labor situation in Chicago , repeatedly pointed to his satchel and said , " You will hear of some trouble there very soon . " Parsons used Deluse 's testimony to suggest the bomb thrower was sent by eastern capitalists . Nothing more was ever learned about Deluse 's claim .

= = Burial and monument = =

Lingg , Spies , Fischer , Engel , and Parsons were buried at the German Waldheim Cemetery ( later merged with Forest Home Cemetery ) in Forest Park , Illinois , a suburb of Chicago . Schwab and Neebe were also buried at Waldheim when they died , reuniting the " Martyrs . " In 1893 , the Haymarket Martyrs ' Monument by sculptor Albert Weinert was raised at Waldheim . Over a century later , it was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior .

Throughout the 20th century , activists such as Emma Goldman chose to be buried near the Haymarket Martyrs ' Monument graves .

= = Haymarket memorials = =

In 1889 , a commemorative nine @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 meter ) bronze statue of a Chicago policeman by sculptor Johannes Gelert was erected in the middle of Haymarket Square with private funds raised by the Union League Club of Chicago . The statue was unveiled on May 30 , 1889 , by Frank Degan , the son of Officer Mathias Degan . On May 4 , 1927 , the 41st anniversary of the Haymarket affair , a streetcar jumped its tracks and crashed into the monument . The motorman said he was " sick of seeing that policeman with his arm raised " . The city restored the statue in 1928 and moved it to Union Park . During the 1950s , construction of the Kennedy Expressway erased about half of the old , run @-@ down market square , and in 1956 , the statue was moved to a special platform built for it overlooking the freeway , near its original location .

The Haymarket statue was vandalized with black paint on May 4 , 1968 , the 82nd anniversary of the Haymarket affair , following a confrontation between police and demonstrators at a protest against the Vietnam War . On October 6 , 1969 , shortly before the " Days of Rage " protests , the statue was destroyed when a bomb was placed between its legs . Weatherman took credit for the blast , which broke nearly 100 windows in the neighborhood and scattered pieces of the statue onto the Kennedy Expressway below . The statue was rebuilt and unveiled on May 4 , 1970 , to be blown up yet again by Weatherman on October 6 , 1970 . The statue was rebuilt , again , and Mayor Richard J. Daley posted a 24 ‑ hour police guard at the statue . This guard cost $ 67 @,@ 440 per year . In 1972 , it was moved to the lobby of the Central Police Headquarters , and in 1976 to the enclosed courtyard of the Chicago police academy . For another three decades the statue 's empty , graffiti @-@ marked pedestal stood on its platform in the run @-@ down remains of Haymarket Square where it was known as an anarchist landmark . On June 1 , 2007 , the statue was rededicated at Chicago Police Headquarters with a new pedestal , unveiled by Geraldine Doceka , Officer Mathias Degan 's great @-@ granddaughter .

In 1992 , the site of the speakers ' wagon was marked by a bronze plaque set into the sidewalk , reading :

" A decade of strife between labor and industry culminated here in a confrontation that resulted in the tragic death of both workers and policemen . On May 4 , 1886 , spectators at a labor rally had gathered around the mouth of Crane 's Alley . A contingent of police approaching on Des Plaines Street were met by a bomb thrown from just south of the alley . The resultant trial of eight activists gained worldwide attention for the labor movement , and initiated the tradition of ' May Day ' labor rallies in many cities . "

Designated on March 25 , 1992

Richard M. Daley , Mayor

On September 14 , 2004 , Daley and union leaders — including the president of Chicago 's police union — unveiled a monument by Chicago artist Mary Brogger , a fifteen @-@ foot speakers ' wagon sculpture echoing the wagon on which the labor leaders stood in Haymarket Square to champion the eight @-@ hour day . The bronze sculpture , intended to be the centerpiece of a proposed " Labor Park " , is meant to symbolize both the rally at Haymarket and free speech . The planned site was to include an international commemoration wall , sidewalk plaques , a cultural pylon , a seating area , and banners , but construction has not yet begun .

As of 2014 , a feature motion picture is being produced about the Haymarket affair , the events leading up to it , and its aftermath .

= = = Encyclopedia of Chicago = = =

Haymarket and May Day

Haymarket Riot Monument , 1889

Haymarket Monument , Waldheim Cemetery

Haymarket Memorial , 2005

= M @-@ 185 ( Michigan highway ) =

M @-@ 185 is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan that circles Mackinac Island , a popular tourist destination on the Lake Huron side of the Straits of Mackinac , along the island 's shoreline . A narrow paved road of 8 @.@ 004 miles ( 12 @.@ 881 km ) , it offers scenic views of the straits that divide the Upper and the Lower peninsulas of Michigan and Lakes Huron and Michigan . It has no connection to any other Michigan state trunkline highways — as it is on an island — and is accessible only by passenger ferry . The City of Mackinac Island , which shares jurisdiction over the island with the Mackinac Island State Park Commission ( MISPC ) , calls the highway Main Street within the built @-@ up area on the island 's southeast quadrant , and Lake Shore Road elsewhere . M @-@ 185 passes by several important sites within Mackinac Island State Park , including Fort Mackinac , Arch Rock , British Landing , and Devil 's Kitchen . Lake Shore Road carries the highway next to the Lake Huron shoreline , running between the water 's edge and woodlands outside the downtown area .

According to the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , M @-@ 185 is " the only state highway in the nation where motor vehicles are banned " . Traffic on it is by foot , on horse , by horse @-@ drawn vehicle , or by bicycle . Restrictions on automobiles date back to the 1890s , and since the ban , only a few vehicles have been permitted on the island other than the city 's emergency vehicles . The highway was built during the first decade of the 20th century by the state and designated as a state highway in 1933 . The highway was paved in the 1950s , and portions were rebuilt to deal with shoreline erosion in the 1980s . Until 2005 , it was the only state highway without any automobile accidents .

= = Route description = =

As a circular highway , M @-@ 185 has no specific termini ; the generally accepted starting point is at the mile 0 marker placed in front of the Mackinac Island State Park Visitor Center . The highway uses wooden markers to measure miles instead of the common metal signage ; these signs are erected by the MISPC , as MDOT does not install the standard state highway reassurance markers along this roadway . M @-@ 185 is one of only three state trunkline highways in Michigan on islands ; the others are M @-@ 134 on Drummond Island and M @-@ 154 on Harsens Island . No part of M @-@ 185 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . Over a half million people travel along the trunkline in a year .

Mackinac Island has been a tourist destination since the late 19th century . The island was the country 's second national park , after Yellowstone , until the land was given to Michigan in 1895 to become its first state park . M @-@ 185 has been recognized in the press for its unique role as the only state highway without car traffic in the United States by such publications as The Kansas City Star , the Chicago Tribune , the Toronto Star , and The Saturday Evening Post . In 2003 , it was named the " best scenic drive " in the state by The Detroit News . In 2008 , USA Today named the island one of the " 10 great places to get your feet back on the ground " as a car @-@ free destination , highlighting the unique status of M @-@ 185 in the process . The magazine Paraplegia News , in an article encouraging its readers to visit Mackinac Island , called the trek around the island on M @-@ 185 a " high priority " for visitors . The trip around the island " provides a photo opportunity at every bend in the path " , according to the PSA Journal , the official magazine of the Photographic Society of America .

= = = Along the harbor = = =

The beginning and ending of M @-@ 185 is marked at the intersection of Main and Fort streets next to the visitor center . That building is operated by the MISPC , but it was originally a US Coast Guard station . From its starting point , M @-@ 185 heads east between Marquette Park , at the base of Fort Mackinac , and the marina at Haldimand Bay . The roadway passes the Indian Dormitory ( Mackinac Art Center ) , as well as various hotels , bed and breakfast establishments , private residences and landmarks such as Sainte Anne 's Catholic Church , Mission Church and the Mission House . Main Street then turns northeasterly , passing Mission Point Resort ( the former Mackinac College ) , after which the road name changes to Lake Shore Road . Along this section of the trunkline , Shoreline Trail departs to the south and follows the water 's edge before returning to M @-@ 185 at the city 's water filtration plant .

= = = Around the island = = =

After rounding Mission Point , M @-@ 185 continues north @-@ northwesterly along the eastern shore of Mackinac Island , first passing Dwightwood Spring then the Arch Rock viewing area just beyond the mile 1 marker . The next two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of M @-@ 185 are relatively isolated and devoid of major landmarks as the highway rounds Hennepin Point and runs along Voyageur 's Bay . Other than a few picnic tables , the only feature between Arch Rock and mile 3 is the Lake Shore Nature Trail , a short interpretive trail on the inland side of the road . Just beyond mile 3 , Scott 's Shore Road , a short gravel @-@ surfaced connecting roadway between Lake Shore Road and Scott 's Road , departs inland near Point St. Clair . M @-@ 185 is bounded by the interior woods on one side and the beaches and rocky shores on the other through this area .

Mile 4 is situated at Point aux Pins at the northernmost point of the island . Here , M @-@ 185 turns southerly , passing the state boat dock and a nature center before coming to British Landing at the intersection with British Landing Road . The area is a popular stopping point for tourists biking or walking M @-@ 185 ; it is the location where British troops came ashore during the Battle of Mackinac Island during the War of 1812 . Located around British Landing are various amenities including restrooms , picnic tables , and a concession stand . M @-@ 185 continues along Maniboajo Bay and passes the mile 5 marker near Radisson Point .

The next area along M @-@ 185 is also sparsely developed as it passes along Griffin Cove . Other than a few newer residential developments , the sights are limited to Brown 's Brook , which features a picnic area and interpretive nature trail , and the views of the Mackinac Bridge as the trunkline rounds both Heriot and Perrot points . Between the markers for miles 6 and 7 is the Devil 's Kitchen , another popular tourist stopping point , at Jacker Point . Near mile 7 is the West Bluff Stairs leading up the bluff to Pontiac 's Lookout . Further along , there is a marker commemorating the filming of a scene from Somewhere in Time as well as views of the Grand Hotel . The building 's 660 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 200 m ) front porch is promoted as the " longest in the world " . Visible to the east of the hotel is Michigan 's second Governor 's Mansion , which is used as a summer retreat for the state 's chief executive . At this point , M @-@ 185 transitions back to the more developed portion of the island and the road name for the trunkline changes back to Main Street . Next to the roadway , a boardwalk runs from here into the downtown business district .

= = = Entering downtown = = =

The first landmark as the highway approaches downtown Mackinac Island is the island 's public school building . As it passes the island 's public library on the shoreline side of the street , Main Street makes a sweeping curve to the north at Windermere , or Biddle 's , Point to run through the downtown district . Other than the library , most of the city 's public buildings are actually situated along Market Street , one block behind Main Street . Three streets and a city park allow for connections between Main and Market streets . M @-@ 185 through downtown Mackinac Island passes through the major business district , featuring dozens of shops , restaurants and lodging establishments ; nearly a dozen of these outlets , feature the authentic Mackinac Island fudge made fresh daily during tourist season . The passenger ferry docks are all situated along Main Street in the downtown area . At the northeastern end of the downtown district , Main Street intersects Fort Street at the state park visitor center to complete its circuit of Mackinac Island .

= = History = =

The first city ordinances banning all motorized vehicles from the island were passed on July 6 , 1898 , with similar state park rules coming in 1901 . The residents complained after a doctor 's car scared their horses and caused carriage accidents , and these complaints prompted the ban . As such , other than a handful of emergency and utility vehicles as well as others by special , limited @-@ time permit , no cars or trucks are allowed on the island and no motorized vehicles appear on M @-@ 185 . Traffic on this highway is by foot , on horse , by horse @-@ drawn vehicle , or by bicycle ; M @-@ 185 is the only such state highway in the country " that allows no automobiles " . As a result , the roadside litter is picked up using a horse @-@ drawn wagon .

Lake Shore Road around the island was built between 1900 and 1910 by the state , and the M @-@ 185 designation was first assigned on July 12 , 1933 . The roadway was purpose @-@ built for non @-@ motorized use ; it is narrower than other state highways . During the 1950s , the state paved the road in asphalt . Since the 1970s , the MISPC has allowed snowmobiles to operate on Mackinac Island during the winter .

In the mid @-@ 1980s , rising water levels in Lake Huron endangered M @-@ 185 and bicyclists . The roadway was overwashed by waves from the lake during a storm on May 31 , 1985 ; the waves littered the road with gravel and dirt and raised fears of erosion . MDOT spent around $ 50 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 153 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) to install 2 @,@ 500 short tons ( 2 @,@ 200 long tons ; 2 @,@ 300 t ) of rock and filter cloth designed to prevent erosion . The expectation at the time was that Lake Huron could rise another 4 – 5 inches ( 10 – 13 cm ) that summer . Such a lake level increase prompted worries that the waves would wash away sections of the road . The lake had already washed away shoreline near Arch Rock ; there was at least 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of berm between the road and shoreline in the 1970s and by 1985 some sections had been reduced to just 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) . Storms later that year washed away sections of M @-@ 185 , removing huge chunks of asphalt . MDOT closed those stretches on July 7 , 1986 , after the Independence Day weekend , to fix the damage . Repairs were budgeted to replace the missing sections of roadway at a cost of $ 894 @,@ 366 ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 62 million in 2015 ) ; tourists were detoured inland , and uphill , to access the island 's various tourist attractions .

In 1979 , while filming Somewhere in Time , a car was brought on the island for Christopher Reeve 's character to drive . The next time that a vehicle was permitted on the island was on July 6 , 1998 , to commemorate the original ordinance that prohibited cars from Mackinac Island . A 1901 Geneva steam @-@ powered car toured the island and was exhibited in Marquette Park before being towed by horse back to British Landing .

MDOT obtained a $ 242 @,@ 000 grant ( equivalent to $ 354 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) from the Federal Highway Administration in 2002 to purchase conservation easements along M @-@ 185 . The land adjacent to the highway on the east side of the island is publicly owned while along the west it is mostly private . The grant allowed the MISPC and MDOT to either purchase the development rights to adjacent properties along Lake Shore Road , or the adjacent properties themselves .

The only known motor vehicle collision on Mackinac Island occurred on M @-@ 185 at the head of the Shepler passenger ferry dock on May 13 , 2005 , when the island 's fire truck slightly damaged the door on the island 's ambulance ; both vehicles were responding to a report from the ferryboat that an injured passenger required medical attention . Before this incident , it was the only state highway that " never had an automobile accident " according to the Toronto Star .

= = Major intersections = =

The entire highway is on Mackinac Island , which is located in Mackinac County . Milemarkers are posted in a counterclockwise fashion .

= Learie Constantine =

Learie Nicholas Constantine , Baron Constantine , ( 21 September 1901 – 1 July 1971 ) was a West Indian cricketer , lawyer and politician who served as Trinidad 's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and became the UK 's first black peer . He played 18 Test matches before the Second World War and took the West Indies ' first wicket in Test cricket . An advocate against racial discrimination , in later life he was influential in the passing of the 1965 Race Relations Act in Britain . He was knighted in 1962 and made a life peer in 1969 .

Born in Trinidad , Constantine established an early reputation as a promising cricketer , and was a member of the West Indies teams that toured England in 1923 and 1928 . Unhappy at the lack of opportunities for black people in Trinidad , he decided to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England , and during the 1928 tour was awarded a contract with the Lancashire League club Nelson . He played for the club with distinction between 1929 and 1938 , while continuing as a member of the West Indies Test team in tours of England and Australia . Although his record as a Test cricketer was less impressive than in other cricket he helped to establish a uniquely West Indian style of play . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1939 .

During the Second World War , Constantine worked for the Ministry of Labour and National Service as a Welfare Officer responsible for West Indians employed in English factories . In 1943 , the manager of a London hotel refused to accommodate Constantine and his family on the grounds of their race ; Constantine successfully sued the hotel company . Commentators recognise the case as a milestone in British Racial Equality . Constantine qualified as a barrister in 1954 , while also establishing himself as a journalist and broadcaster . He returned to Trinidad in 1954 , entered politics and became a founding member of the People 's National Movement , subsequently entering the Trinidad government as minister of communications . From 1961 to 1964 , he served as Trinidad 's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and , controversially , became involved in issues relating to racial discrimination , including the Bristol Bus Boycott . In his final years , he served on the Race Relations Board , the Sports Council and the Board of Governors of the BBC . Failing health reduced his effectiveness in some of these roles , and he faced criticism for becoming a part of the British Establishment . He died of a heart attack on 1 July 1971 , aged 69 .

= = Early life = =

Constantine was born in Petit Valley , a village close to Diego Martin in north @-@ west Trinidad , on 21 September 1901 , the second child of the family and the eldest of three brothers . His father , Lebrun Constantine , was the grandchild of slaves ; Lebrun rose to the position of overseer on a cocoa estate in Cascade , near Maraval , where the family moved in 1906 . Lebrun was famous on the island as a cricketer who represented Trinidad in first @-@ class cricket and toured England twice with a West Indian team . Constantine 's mother , Anaise Pascall , was the daughter of slaves , and her brother Victor , was also a Trinidad and West Indian first @-@ class cricketer ; a third family member , Constantine 's brother Elias , later represented Trinidad . Constantine wrote that although the family was not wealthy , his childhood was happy . He spent a lot of time playing in the hills near his home or on the estates where his father and grandfather worked . He enjoyed cricket from an early age ; the family regularly practised together under the supervision of Lebrun and Victor Pascall .

Constantine first went to the St Ann 's Government School in Port of Spain , then attended St Ann 's Roman Catholic School until 1917 . He displayed little enthusiasm for learning and never reached a high academic standard , but showed prowess at several sports and was respected for his cricketing lineage . He played for the school cricket team , which he captained in his last two years , by which time he was developing a reputation as an attacking batsman , a good fast @-@ medium bowler and an excellent fielder . His father prohibited him from playing competitive club cricket until 1920 for fear of premature exposure to top @-@ class opposition while too young ; in addition , he first wanted his son to establish a professional career . Upon leaving school Constantine joined Jonathan Ryan , a firm of solicitors in Port of Spain , as a clerk . This was a possible route into the legal profession ; however , as a member of the black lower @-@ middle class , he was unlikely to progress far . Few black Trinidadians at this time became solicitors , and he faced many social restrictions owing to his colour .

= = Cricket career = =

= = = Cricket in Trinidad = = =

In 1916 , before his father imposed a ban on competitive cricket , Constantine had played briefly for Shannon Cricket Club ; he returned to the club in 1920 . Initially , he appeared in the second team , but after scoring 50 runs in an hour during his third game , was promoted to the first eleven . Cricket in Trinidad at the time was divided along racial lines ; Shannon was mainly for black lower middle @-@ class players such as teachers or clerks . The club was competitive and highly motivated , partly as a reaction to the racial discrimination that its players and supporters encountered in their daily lives . Constantine 's cricket thrived in this atmosphere , and the club helped to form some of his political views . He particularly noticed that in Trinidadian and West Indian cricket , white and light @-@ skinned players were often favoured over black players of greater ability .

Constantine 's reputation continued to grow . An innings for Shannon in 1921 against renowned fast bowler George John received great local publicity , but according to the cricket writer and social historian C. L. R. James , this was the only time prior to 1928 that Constantine played in such an effective way . Constantine 's father , still a formidable player , did not put himself forward for selection into the Trinidad team in 1921 , in the hope that his son would replace him . The white captain of the Trinidad team , Major Bertie Harragin , recognised the younger Constantine 's promise , and selected him to play in Trinidad 's Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament match against British Guiana . Unfortunately , Constantine arrived late after a newspaper advertised the wrong starting time , and did not play . However , he made his first @-@ class debut in the following match , the final of the tournament , against Barbados on 21 September 1921 . He scored a duck in his first innings , batting at number eight in the batting order . After taking two wickets at a cost of 44 runs in Barbados ' only innings , he scored 24 in his second innings , batting at number three .

Constantine played for Trinidad in the next Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , in British Guiana in 1922 . Although in two games he scored only 45 runs and took four wickets , commentators considered his fielding in the covers to be exceptional , and he retained his place in the team largely as a fielder . Although Trinidad lost to Barbados in the final , the Barbados captain Harold Austin , who was also captain of the West Indies team , was impressed by Constantine . Mainly on the strength of his fielding , Austin secured Constantine 's selection for the 1923 West Indian tour of England ; it was a surprising choice , as there were other candidates who appeared to have stronger claims . By this time Constantine was working for Llewellyn Roberts , a larger solicitors ' practice which paid better . As his new employer 's longer working hours restricted Constantine 's cricket practice , when he was selected for the West Indies tour he resigned his position .

= = = Tour of England in 1923 = = =

The 1923 West Indies touring team played 21 first @-@ class matches in England , of which six were won , seven lost and the others drawn . The team 's relative success , and particularly the performance of leading batsman George Challenor , persuaded English critics that West Indies cricket was stronger than previously supposed ; this was instrumental in the promotion of the team to Test match status in 1928 . Challenor was the biggest individual success of the tour , but Constantine impressed English critics , through his style of play more than his statistical achievements . He played 20 first @-@ class matches on the tour , scoring 425 runs at an average of 15 @.@ 74 and taking 37 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 86 . Against Oxford University , he scored 77 , his maiden first @-@ class fifty ; his only other half century came against Derbyshire . He also took five wickets in an innings for the first time , in the match against Kent .

Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack recorded that his batting , while highly unorthodox in technique , could be very effective when he was in form . Wisden also noted that his bowling was fast . Several English players , including Jack Hobbs , singled out Constantine as an unusually talented cricketer on the strength of his performances in 1923 . Pelham Warner , a former England captain and influential journalist and administrator , described Constantine after the tour as the best fielder in the world ; his fielding was also praised by the press and in the pages of Wisden . James later wrote : " He is a success , but he has not set the Thames on fire , and , what is more , he hasn 't tried to . "

= = = Mid @-@ 1920s career = = =

John Arlott later commented that , on his first tour of England , Constantine " learnt much that he never forgot , by no means all of it about cricket : and he recognised the game as his only possible ladder to the kind of life he wanted . " When Constantine returned to Trinidad , he had no permanent job and little prospect of advancement in any suitable profession . He took several temporary jobs but was often forced to rely financially upon his family . However , his success had inspired him to pursue a career as a professional cricketer in England , and he began to practise to reach the required standard . Although he scored 167 for Shannon in 1924 , and took eight for 38 for Trinidad against Barbados , Constantine 's cricket was steady but not consistently successful . He was initially dropped from the West Indies team to face the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) touring team during 1926 , though he was recalled for the second match , once again at the insistence of Austin , who wanted a good cover fielder in the team . In the match Constantine was involved in an incident over short @-@ pitched bowling . The MCC fast bowlers had bowled short at the 49 @-@ year @-@ old Austin ; in retaliation , Constantine bounced the MCC captain , Freddie Calthorpe , and only stopped after James pointed out the diplomatic row which would follow if Calthorpe , a respected figure in the British establishment , was hit by the ball . Once more , Constantine 's performances were not statistically exceptional , but his style impressed critics and spectators , and he came top of the West Indies bowling averages .

A new , permanent job with Trinidad Leaseholds allowed Constantine to devote more time to cricket . Constantine realised that to succeed as a professional cricketer , he needed to improve ; his bowling lacked true speed and , when batting , he was often dismissed playing shots which were too adventurous . After his relative failure in 1926 , he increased his level of practice , improved his fitness and trained to become a slip fielder to conserve his energies for genuine fast bowling . In the trial matches before the 1928 tour of England , Constantine secured his place on the tour by taking five for 32 and scoring 63 . He left behind his wife Norma , whom he had married in 1927 , and his newly @-@ born daughter .

= = = Tour of England in 1928 = = =

Constantine 's main objective on the 1928 tour was to secure a contract to play cricket professionally in England . James wrote that Constantine " had revolted against the revolting contrast between his first @-@ class status as a cricketer and his third @-@ class status as a man ... The restraints imposed upon him by social conditions in the West Indies had become intolerable and he decided to stand them no longer . " According to James , Constantine would never have left Trinidad had he been able to live with " honour [ and ] a little profit " . In the tour 's opening first @-@ class match , against Derbyshire , Constantine began his second innings when the West Indians needed 40 runs to win ; in seven scoring shots , Constantine hit 31 runs and took the team to a two @-@ wicket victory . In the following match he scored his maiden first @-@ class century , 130 in 90 minutes , against Essex .

As the tour proceeded , Constantine continued his success ; the Middlesex game at Lord 's brought his name to the widest notice in cricket circles . Although struggling for fitness , he chose to play knowing that he was a star attraction in this high profile game . Middlesex batted first , and reached 352 before declaring the innings closed — Constantine bowled little owing to his injury — and the West Indies were struggling at 79 for five when Constantine came in to bat . He scored 50 in 18 minutes and reached 86 in under an hour , to avert his side 's follow @-@ on . In Middlesex 's second innings , Constantine took seven for 57 in a spell of extremely fast bowling and the county were dismissed for 136 . The West Indies needed 259 to win ; they looked likely to lose when Constantine returned to bat with the score 121 for five . He scored 103 in 60 minutes , hitting two sixes and 12 fours and guiding the West Indies to a three @-@ wicket victory . For players and spectators this was the defining match of Constantine 's career ; many years later , cricket writer E. W. Swanton suggested that there were few all @-@ round performances in the history of cricket to match it . Shortly after the game , Nelson , a cricket club in the Lancashire League , offered Constantine a professional contract .

The rest of Constantine 's 1928 tour was generally successful ; only in the three Test matches , the first played by the West Indies , was he less effective . Although he took the West Indies ' first wicket in Test cricket , dismissing Charlie Hallows , and finished with innings figures of four for 82 , he took only one more wicket during the remainder of the series and ended with five wickets at an average of 52 @.@ 40 ; with the bat , he scored 89 runs in six innings at 14 @.@ 83 . Even so , Jack Hobbs said that Constantine 's opening overs to him in the first Test were among the fastest he ever faced , Constantine believed his captain , Karl Nunes , over @-@ bowled him ; the pair did not get along well . When the tour ended , Constantine had scored more runs and taken more wickets and catches in first @-@ class games than any other tourist . He was second in the team 's batting averages with 1 @,@ 381 runs at 34 @.@ 52 , and led the bowling averages with 107 wickets at 22 @.@ 95 . It was the manner in which Constantine played which set him apart from the restrained form of cricket generally played in England at the time : his style , aggression and entertainment value made a big impression on the crowds . According to Peter Mason in his biography of Constantine , he established a unique style of West Indian cricket and possibly established the template for West Indian cricketers for years to come .

= = = Series against England and Australia = = =

At the end of the 1928 tour Constantine returned home and helped Trinidad to win the Intercolonial Tournament . He took 16 wickets in the two games and scored 133 in the final against Barbados , the highest score of his career and a record for Trinidad at the time . These were his last matches in the tournament , as the rules did not permit professional cricketers ( which he became when he signed for Nelson ) to take part . In 1929 Constantine played one match in Jamaica for a West Indies team against an English touring team and then travelled to Nelson to begin his professional career .

Constantine returned to the West Indies to face England ( represented by the MCC as was usual in those days ) in a four @-@ match Test series early in 1930 . The first Test was drawn ; Constantine scored few runs , but bowled for a long time and fielded well . After the game , he was awarded a bat for his contribution . Calthorpe , the MCC captain , criticised his use of short @-@ pitched bowling to a leg side field ; one such ball struck Andy Sandham , but Constantine only reverted to more conventional tactics after a request from the MCC manager . During the second Test Constantine scored a rapid 58 and took six wickets , but the West Indies lost by 167 runs . In the following match the West Indies recorded their first win in Test matches ; after centuries from George Headley and Clifford Roach , Constantine took four for 35 and five for 87 to secure the victory . Constantine was omitted from the final match in Jamaica , because inter @-@ island politics meant that selectors tended to pick players from the island hosting the Test . In the series , 29 players represented the West Indies and the team had a different captain in each match . In the three matches in which he played , Constantine scored 144 runs at 14 @.@ 40 and took 18 wickets at 27 @.@ 61 .

After his second season at Nelson , Constantine joined the first West Indies team to tour Australia in the 1930 – 31 season . The side felt some trepidation over how the black members of the side would be received , but the tour passed off without incident ; Constantine later praised the reception the team was accorded . The West Indians were captained by Jackie Grant , a white man who had played for Cambridge University but was unfamiliar with his team . Constantine considered this unsatisfactory , and felt it affected the team 's performances . The West Indies were heavily defeated in the five @-@ Test series , losing the first four matches before winning the last . Constantine achieved little in the series , scoring 72 runs at 7 @.@ 20 and taking eight wickets at 50 @.@ 87 . In other first @-@ class games , he was more successful and , although Headley performed very well , it was Constantine who proved most popular with spectators . Even before the Tests began , his fielding drew praise from the press and he was described in The Sydney Mail as the fastest bowler seen in Australia for years . Monty Noble , a former Australian captain , writing in the Sydney Sun described one innings of 59 runs as " sensational " and one of the best played in Australia since the war . Constantine scored a century in 52 minutes against Tasmania , played five other innings over fifty and took three five @-@ wicket returns . In 1950 Donald Bradman , who played against Constantine that season , described him as the greatest fielder he had seen . In all first @-@ class matches , Constantine scored 708 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 78 and took 47 wickets at 20 @.@ 21 ; he led the team 's bowling averages and came fourth in batting .

= = = Test series against England in 1933 and 1934 – 35 = = =

By now living in Nelson and barred from the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , Constantine played no first @-@ class cricket for two years . His contract with Nelson made him unavailable for much of the 1933 West Indies ' tour of England under Grant . Constantine never challenged Nelson over this ; some critics suggested he was swayed by the greater financial rewards the club provided . He appeared once for the tourists in May , scoring 57 in 27 minutes and taking four wickets in a victory over an MCC team at Lord 's . The West Indian board unsuccessfully tried to secure his release for the first Test match , which the West Indies lost heavily . After he took nine wickets in the tourists ' game against Yorkshire , Nelson gave him permission to appear in the second Test at Manchester .

During the previous winter , England had played Australia in the controversial Bodyline series in which the English bowlers were accused of bowling the ball on the line of leg stump . The deliveries were often short @-@ pitched with four or five fielders close by on the leg side waiting to catch deflections off the bat . The tactics were difficult for batsmen to counter and were designed to be intimidatory . In the 1933 English season , Bodyline was a sensitive subject . There had already been controversy in the tourists ' match against the MCC , during which Constantine and Manny Martindale , another West Indian fast bowler , were criticised in the press for bowling short . Frustrated by a slow pitch which he believed was intended to neutralise his fast bowlers , Grant had ordered Constantine to bowl Bodyline against Yorkshire , and decided to repeat the tactics in the second Test . The West Indies scored 375 , of which Constantine made 31 . When England replied , several batsmen were discomfited by the Bodyline bowling ; Wally Hammond was struck on the chin and retired hurt . Constantine and Martindale bowled up to four short deliveries each over so that the ball rose to head height ; occasionally they bowled around the wicket .

Although not as fast as he had been on the previous tour , Constantine was still capable of short bursts of very fast bowling . However , the slowness of the pitch reduced the effectiveness of the Bodyline tactics , and Constantine took one for 55 ; England 's captain Douglas Jardine , who had implemented the Bodyline tactics in Australia , batted for five hours to score his only Test century . The public disapproval expressed during and after the match was instrumental in turning English attitudes against Bodyline , something Constantine considered hypocritical . In the West Indies ' second innings Constantine 's innings of 64 in an hour ensured that the match was drawn . Nelson initially agreed to release him for the third Test , with Essex all @-@ rounder Stan Nichols to be Constantine 's substitute for the club team . When Jardine heard , he convinced the England selectors to include Nichols in the England team for the Test , the deal collapsed and Constantine did not play . Most critics believed that the West Indies underachieved in the Test series ; Constantine believed that one cause was the inadequacy of Grant as captain . In all first @-@ class games on the tour Constantine scored 181 runs at 20 @.@ 11 and took 14 wickets at 22 @.@ 14 .

Constantine worked in India as a cricket coach during 1934 , playing two matches in the Moin @-@ ud @-@ Dowlah Gold Cup Tournament . He was invited to play in the 1935 Test series against England in the West Indies , and although he arrived too late for the first Test , won by England , he played in the remaining three games of the series . In a match for Trinidad before the second Test , he and his brother Elias appeared together for the only time in a first @-@ class match , and shared a partnership of 93 . In the next Test Constantine scored 90 , his highest Test score . England needed 325 to win in the fourth innings , but lost early wickets . In the final stages of the match Constantine was warned by the umpire for bowling Bodyline , and Grant withdrew him from the bowling attack . After the crowd protested , Constantine returned to bowl ; with two balls of the match left , took the final English wicket . The West Indies won by 217 runs , with Constantine taking three for 11 ; in the match as a whole he scored 121 runs and took five wickets . The third Test was drawn , leaving the final Test to decide the series . After making a large total , the West Indies bowled England out twice to win by an innings and record their first Test series victory . As well as taking six wickets in the game , Constantine captained the team to victory after Grant injured an ankle on the last morning and asked Constantine to assume the leadership . Peter Mason writes : " Given the measures that the West Indian authorities had taken to ensure that no black man would ever captain a regional side , it was a great irony and a huge source of delight to Constantine that he should be the man to lead the team at the moment of their greatest achievement so far . " Once more , the press praised Constantine and hailed his achievements . In the series , he scored 169 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 80 and took 15 wickets at 13 @.@ 13 .

= = = Tour of England in 1939 = = =

Apart from one guest appearance for Barbados in a friendly match early in 1939 , Constantine did not play first @-@ class cricket after 1935 until the West Indies toured England in 1939 . Constantine had deliberately not signed a league contract in 1939 , to be available for the tour . However , he was unhappy with the playing strength of the touring team and the £ 600 he was offered in wages . He believed that the captain , Rolph Grant ( younger brother of Jackie ) , was unqualified for the job and had been appointed only because he was white . Constantine captained the side in one match , but was reprimanded by the West Indies board for not pursuing a win . The West Indies lost the three @-@ match Test series 1 – 0 against a very strong England side , although critics judged the overall playing record of the team to be good . In the three Tests , Constantine scored 110 runs at 27 @.@ 50 and took 11 wickets at 29 @.@ 81 , including five for 75 in the final Test .

By this time Constantine bowled generally at medium pace from a short run @-@ up . To compensate for his reduced pace he mixed up his bowling style , spinning the ball and bowling at speeds varying from slow to very fast . He bowled more overs than any other member of the team , and was the side 's leading wicket @-@ taker with 103 wickets in the season . His bowling average of 17 @.@ 77 placed him first in the team 's bowling averages and seventh in the English national averages . With the bat , Constantine scored 614 runs at 21 @.@ 17 ; Preston wrote that Constantine " often electrified onlookers with his almost impudent zest for runs " . His highest innings came in the final Test match when he scored 79 in an hour and hit 11 fours . Wisden commented : " Constantine , in the mood suggesting his work in Saturday afternoon League cricket , brought a welcome air of gaiety to the Test arena . He revolutionised all the recognised features of cricket and , surpass [ ed ] Bradman in his amazing stroke play . " For his all @-@ round performances during the season he was chosen as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year .

The third Test match , after which the tour was abandoned owing to the imminent outbreak of the Second World War , was Constantine 's last . In 18 Test matches between 1928 and 1939 he scored 635 runs at an average of 19 @.@ 24 , took 58 wickets at 30 @.@ 10 and held 28 catches . He played one more first @-@ class match when , in 1945 , he captained a team representing the " Dominions " against England at Lord 's . The match was narrowly won by the Dominions . Constantine , in the second innings , shared a partnership of 117 in 45 minutes with Keith Miller . He bowled very little , but ran out a batsman at a key point in the final innings . In all first @-@ class cricket , Constantine scored 4 @,@ 475 runs at 24 @.@ 05 and took 439 wickets at 20 @.@ 48 .

= = = Lancashire League cricketer = = =

In 1928 Constantine had signed an initial three @-@ year contract with Nelson , to play in the Lancashire League . The contract was worth £ 500 per season , plus performance bonuses and travelling expenses . He remained there until 1937 , an unusually long time for a professional to remain with one club . Constantine 's appearances boosted attendances and gate receipts for all Nelson 's matches , and was of great financial benefit to both the club and the League as a whole . In Constantine 's nine seasons at the club , Nelson never finished lower than second , won the league competition seven times and the knockout cup twice . In 1931 Constantine renewed his contract for £ 650 per season ; when in 1935 a rival league attempted to sign him , all the Lancashire League clubs contributed to his wage , which rose to £ 750 per year between 1935 and 1937 . This was far more than the then maximum wage for a professional footballer of £ 386 , or the £ 500 per season that a top county cricketer could potentially earn , and possibly made Constantine the best @-@ paid sportsman in the country . Consequently , he and his family enjoyed a good standard of living for the first time in their lives .

As Nelson 's professional , Constantine was immediately successful . Although he produced better figures in subsequent years , he considered his first season at Nelson the most enjoyable of his life , owing to the freedom and excitement of the cricket . In nine years at the club he scored 6 @,@ 363 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 65 and took 776 wickets at 9 @.@ 50 . His highest score was 192 , and his best bowling figures were ten wickets for ten runs . In each season except for 1932 , he averaged over 30 with the bat and in 1933 he scored 1 @,@ 000 runs at an average of over 50 . He took over 70 wickets every season and his bowling average never rose above 11 @.@ 30 ; in five seasons , he averaged under ten runs per wicket . In 1933 he took 96 wickets , his highest seasonal aggregate , and had he not missed two games to play for the West Indies touring team , would likely have completed the cricketer 's double ( 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets ) , an unprecedented feat in the league .

In the mid @-@ 1930s , representatives from Lancashire County Cricket Club twice approached Constantine with a view to him joining the club — his time in Nelson meant that he qualified to play for Lancashire , having lived in the county for the required time . There was a precedent for such a course , as the Australian Ted McDonald had joined Lancashire after playing as Nelson 's professional in the 1920s . In the case of Constantine nothing happened , as members of the Lancashire Board and , later , players in the team opposed the idea of a black man playing for the county . In any case Constantine preferred league cricket to what he perceived was the negativity and dullness of county cricket . He found the standard of play very high , stating : " Never in my life have I played harder than in Lancashire . " In his history of West Indies cricket , Michael Manley writes that league cricket at this time was intense and unrelenting , but : " it was in this special atmosphere of League cricket that Constantine was supreme . "

For the 1938 season , Constantine played for Rochdale in the Central Lancashire Cricket League , although he continued to live in Nelson . He received £ 812 for the season , and performed successfully , but did not enjoy the experience . The nature of the pitches was different in his new league ; furthermore , some of the players seemed resentful of his high earnings . There was also an incident of racial abuse which Constantine believed the Central Lancashire League committee effectively covered up . This season ended Constantine 's career in the Lancashire Leagues , although during the war he returned to play for Nelson as an amateur .

= = = Style and technique = = =

Swanton believed that Constantine was the first West Indian cricketer to make an impression on the British public : " he ... personified West Indian cricket from the first faltering entry in the Test arena in 1928 until the post @-@ war emergence of the trinity of Worrell , Weekes and Walcott . " Swanton continued : " There have been many all @-@ rounders with better records ... but it is hard to think of one who made a more sensational impact [ and ] impossible to imagine his superior as a fielder anywhere . " In 1934 Neville Cardus described Constantine as a " genius " and the " most original cricketer of recent years " . R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow called Constantine the most exciting cricketer to watch of all his contemporaries . This was partly because his style of cricket meant that he could alter the course of a match in a short space of time , although he developed his technique to minimise risk .

Constantine 's batting was based on good eyesight , quick reflexes and natural ability . He used his wrists to adjust the angle of the bat at the last second , allowing him to counter unexpected late movement of the ball . He batted by instinct and , according to Manley , " his every stroke [ owed ] more to energy than calculation " . He was capable of scoring rapidly against any standard of bowling , but rarely survived for long periods because he chose not to defend . His best shots were the cut , pull and hook . Critics believed that Constantine 's batting reached its peak once he became an accomplished league cricketer . By setting himself to master the variety of pitch conditions he encountered , and adopting a style of fast @-@ scoring and occasionally unorthodox batting , he became an adaptable and effective batsman in all forms of cricket , improvising where necessary to prevent bowlers getting on top .

As a cover @-@ point fielder Constantine was , according to Manley , " athletic , panther @-@ quick , sure handed and with an arm that could rifle the ball into the wicket @-@ keeper 's gloves like a bullet even from the deepest boundary " . Many critics considered him to be one of the best fielders of all time . As a bowler , Constantine accelerated from a relatively short run into what Manley calls an " explosive " delivery . James believes he reached his best form as a bowler in 1939 , using what he had learned in the leagues . By this time his varieties of spin , pace and flight made him effective even when conditions favoured the batsmen . Although Constantine 's Test bowling record was modest , this may to some extent reflect the poor standard of fielding in the early West Indies teams , in particular their propensity to drop catches .

Manley writes that wherever Constantine played he brought " style and humour : that aggressiveness that is somehow good @-@ natured and which is the distinctively West Indian quality in all sport . Constantine 's extrovert exuberance was , of course , more particularly Trinidadian than generally West Indian . Perhaps it is this last characteristic that gave him that special quality of panache which sets him apart from all other West Indian cricketers . "

= = Life in England = =

= = = Nelson = = =

During his time in Nelson , Constantine made a deep impression and remained a celebrity there even after leaving the town ; his general community involvement was such that a regional historian described him as a " local champion " . He appreciated the greater freedom he enjoyed in Nelson as compared with Trinidad , where racial issues predominated . Although Nelson suffered from the effects of the Depression , Constantine 's high earnings were never a source of resentment ; of his time in Nelson he wrote : " If I had not come ... I could not have been the person I am today ... I am a better citizen for the time I have spent in Nelson . "

Constantine 's first season was difficult ; both he and the residents of the town were at that stage uncertain of each other . Few black people had been seen in Nelson , and although some residents wrote welcoming letters , the Constantines also received racist and abusive ones . He quickly established boundaries over what he considered acceptable , permitting and even sharing small jokes over skin colour but protesting strongly at outright racism . John Arlott wrote : " [ Constantine ] fought discrimination against his people with a dignity firm but free of acrimony . " Although Constantine later attributed some of the initial uneasiness to ignorance , at the time he seriously considered returning to Trinidad after the first season . His wife persuaded him otherwise , pointing out the benefits from remaining to complete his contract . From 1930 Constantine found life more comfortable ; the family began to develop friendships and to engage in the social life of the town . They continued to visit Trinidad in the English winters , but Nelson became the family 's permanent home .

In 1931 the Constantines settled in a fairly prosperous , middle @-@ class area of Nelson , where they were to live until 1949 . During 1932 , they took C. L. R. James — who knew Constantine through having played cricket against him in Trinidad — as a lodger ; James had come to London but had run out of money . James was at the forefront of a growing West Indian nationalist movement , though Constantine had until then consciously avoided politics . Through James ' influence , Constantine realised that his position gave him opportunities to further the cause of racial equality and Trinidadian independence . He joined the League of Coloured Peoples , an organisation aiming to achieve racial equality for black people in Britain . He helped James to get a job with the Manchester Guardian , and in return , James helped Constantine to write his first book , Cricket and I , which was published in 1933 . Later commentators have identified Constantine 's book as an important step in West Indian nationalism , and an encouragement to future authors . At that time , James wrote , few active cricketers wrote books and " no one in the West Indies that I knew , cricketer or not , was writing books at all ; certainly none was being printed abroad . " Constantine and James drifted apart once the latter returned to London ; they remained in contact but did not always agree politically or morally . Mason believes , however that without Constantine 's assistance James may not have later established himself as a celebrated political writer .

= = = Career during the war = = =

During the war , Constantine continued his cricket career as a league professional ; also , as a popular player who could boost crowd attendances , he appeared in many wartime charity games . However , the war ended his career in top @-@ class cricket and signalled a change in his life 's priorities . Remaining in Nelson when the war started , he initially served as an Air Raid Precautions equipment officer , and as a billeting officer for incoming evacuees . After applying for a job with the Ministry of Labour , Constantine was offered a senior position as Welfare Officer by the Ministry of Labour and National Service .

Using his familiarity with life in England , and his high profile and status as a cricketer , Constantine became responsible for the many West Indians who had been recruited to work in factories in the north @-@ west of England for the duration of the war . Working mainly from Liverpool , he helped these men to adapt to their unfamiliar environment and to deal with the severe racism and discrimination which many of them faced . Constantine also worked closely with trade unions in an attempt to ease the fears and suspicions of white workers . He used his influence with the Ministry of Labour to pressurise companies who refused to employ West Indians , but generally preferred negotiation to confrontation , an approach that was often successful . Constantine 's wartime experiences caused him to increase his involvement in the League of Coloured Peoples , sometimes referring cases to them . He particularly took up the cause of the children of white women and black overseas servicemen ; these children were often abandoned by their parents . However , plans to create a children 's home for them came to nothing , leaving Constantine frustrated . He remained in his post until the summer of 1946 , latterly concerned with the repatriation of the West Indian workers at the end of the war . For his wartime work he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in 1947 .

During the war , at the request of the British government , Constantine made radio broadcasts to the West Indies , reporting on the involvement of West Indians in the war effort . As a result , he was often asked to speak on BBC radio about his life in England . His radio performances met with critical acclaim , and he became a frequent guest on radio panel shows ; he also took part in a film documentary , West Indies calling , in 1943 .

= = = Constantine v Imperial London Hotels = = =

In August 1943 Constantine played in a charity cricket match at Lord 's and had booked rooms for himself , his wife and daughter at the Imperial Hotel , London for four nights . He had been specifically told that his colour would not be an issue at the hotel . When he arrived on 30 July , he was told that they could only stay for one night because their presence might offend other guests . When Arnold Watson , a colleague of Constantine at the Ministry of Labour , arrived and attempted to intervene , he was told by the manager : " We are not going to have these niggers in our hotel , " and that his presence might offend American guests . Watson argued , to no avail , that not only was Constantine a British subject , he worked for the government . Eventually Watson persuaded Constantine to leave and stay at another hotel which , owned by the same company as the Imperial , proved to be welcoming . The Imperial Hotel incident affected Constantine deeply , both because of the involvement of his family and also because he was due to play cricket for a team representing the British Empire and Commonwealth .

In September questions were asked in the House of Commons about the incident , by which time Constantine had decided to take legal action . In June 1944 Constantine v Imperial London Hotels was heard in the High Court . Although there was no law against racial discrimination in Britain at the time , Constantine argued that the hotel had breached its contract with him . Constantine informed the court that the attitude of the hotel changed between his booking and arrival , owing to the presence of white American servicemen . The defence argued that they had met their contract by accommodating Constantine in another hotel and that he had left the Imperial voluntarily . The managing director of the hotel denied that racist language had been used . After two days of evidence , the judge found in Constantine 's favour , rejecting the defence 's arguments and praising the way Constantine had handled the situation . Although the law limited the award of damages against the hotel to five guineas , Constantine was vindicated . He did not pursue the case any further as he believed he had sufficiently raised the issue of racism in the public eye ; the case was widely reported in the press , and Constantine received great support from both the public and the government .

Although racial discrimination continued in England , this case was the first to challenge such practices in court . Critics regard it as a milestone in British racial equality in demonstrating that black people had legal recourse against some forms of racism . According to Mason , it " was one of the key milestones along the road to the creation of the Race Relations Act of 1965 . "

= = = Legal studies = = =

While living and playing cricket in Nelson before the war , Constantine had made plans for a future legal career . James helped him with his studies for a short time , and he later worked in a local solicitors ' office . In 1944 he enrolled as a student in the Middle Temple , London . To finance his studies , he continued his professional cricket career in Bradford until 1948 , and supplemented his income by coaching : at Trinity College , Dublin , in 1946 and in Ceylon in 1953 . Constantine also extended his work in journalism and broadcasting , as a cricket reporter and as a radio commentator when the West Indies toured England in 1950 . He also wrote several cricket books , probably with the help of a ghostwriter . Cricket in the Sun ( 1947 ) covered his career but also discussed the racism he had encountered and suggested then @-@ radical ideas for the future of cricket , such as a one @-@ day " world cup " . Cricketers ' Carnival ( 1948 ) , Cricket Crackers , Cricketers ' Cricket ( both 1949 ) and How To Play Cricket ( 1951 ) were more traditional cricket books , which included coaching tips and opinions .

In 1947 Constantine became chairman of the League of Coloured Peoples , a position he held until the League was discontinued in 1951 . In 1948 he was elected president of the Caribbean Congress of Labour , and between 1947 and 1950 was a member of the Colonial Office 's Colonial Social Welfare Advisory Committee . Also in 1950 , he became involved in a controversy over the interracial marriage of Seretse Khama , the future president of Botswana . Constantine lobbied the government on Khama 's behalf , organised meetings and even approached the United Nations . Little was achieved , and Constantine disapproved of the approach of the Labour government and its Prime Minister , Clement Attlee , but declined an opportunity to become a Liberal parliamentary candidate .

Constantine neither enjoyed his legal studies , nor found the work easy , but was determined to prove he could succeed . His wife kept him motivated , restricted visitors to avoid distractions and forced him to study , making him continue when he was several times tempted to give up . The family moved to London in 1949 ; between 1950 and 1954 , Constantine passed the required series of examinations , and in 1954 he was called to the bar by the Middle Temple .

Having turned down an offer in 1947 to return to his old employer , Trinidad Leaseholds , in 1954 Constantine agreed to join the same company as an assistant legal advisor . Uncertain about going back to Trinidad after living for 25 years in England , he nevertheless believed it was a good time to return , particularly as his daughter was moving there to marry . Before leaving England , he published his book Colour Bar ( 1954 ) , which addressed race relations in Britain and the racism he had experienced . It also discussed world @-@ wide racial oppression and how the lives of black people could be improved . At the time , according to Peter Mason , this was " an explosive , challenging , hard hitting tome , the more so because it came not from a known black militant but from someone who seemed so charming , so unruffled , so suited to British society " . Although not viewed as radical by black audiences , it was aimed at white British readers . The British press gave it mixed reviews and criticised him for unfairness in parts of the book ; other critics accused him of communist sympathies .

= = Return to Trinidad = =

When Constantine returned to Trinidad in late 1954 , he found a growing desire for independence from Britain . At Trinidad Leaseholds he felt isolated from other , mainly white , senior staff ; this drew him towards political involvement . Eric Williams , leader of the newly founded People 's National Movement ( PNM ) , was aware of Constantine 's popular appeal and recruited him . By January 1956 Constantine , with the full co @-@ operation and blessing of his employers , was party chairman and a member of its executive committee . Feeling that the PNM 's policies were in harmony with his views on improving the lives of black people , and encouraged by his wife , Constantine stood for election in the parliamentary constituency of Tunapuna in 1956 . He won a narrow victory , which his colleagues believed few in the party could have done , and resigned from Trinidad Leaseholds . The PNM formed a government , in which Constantine became the Minister of Communications , Works and Utilities .

In his ministerial role , Constantine promoted development of Trinidad 's road , rail , water and electricity infrastructure . However , in late 1958 he was accused of corruption , over a ship leasing deal . His angry response to the charge , in the Legislative Council , created a perception of arrogance among his colleagues , and suggested that he had not sufficiently adapted to parliamentary politics . According to Mason , the speech was a miscalculation which made the public , perhaps already sceptical of his commitment to Trinidad after so many years away , question his fitness for a ministerial role , a view increasingly held by commentators .

In the later 1950s , Constantine supported the campaign , led by James , to appoint West Indies cricket 's first black captain ; the success of black people like Constantine in attaining government positions while not permitted to captain the cricket team was a key factor in an ultimately successful campaign . While in government , Constantine assisted in the development of the West Indies Federation , as a step towards the independence of the islands , and his fame and familiarity with Britain played some part in the negotiations which led to Trinidad 's independence in 1962 . After he decided not to stand for re @-@ election in 1961 , Williams appointed him as Trinidad and Tobago 's first High Commissioner in London .

Peter Mason writes that Constantine 's political career in Trinidad was a success : he was efficient , active , respected and popular . Mason concedes that he was not a natural politician , often sensitive to criticism and that his experience abroad was a cause for mistrust in Trinidad , rather than seen as an advantage . Gerald Howat believes that Constantine 's political career , while not without successes , was undermined by several factors : his age , his over @-@ frequent references to his English experience , his rejection of political theorising and lack of debating skills . However , his personal popularity undoubtedly attracted support to the PNM .

= = Back to England = =

= = = High Commissioner = = =

Constantine began his role as High Commissioner in June 1961 . In the New Year 's Honours list for 1962 , he was knighted and became Sir Learie Constantine ; among other accolades he received at this time was the freedom of the town of Nelson . Mason notes that Constantine had now " passed firmly into the consciousness as a British treasure " . However , his tenure as High Commissioner ended in controversy . Constantine felt that his high profile required him to speak out on racial issues affecting all West Indian immigrants , not just Trinidadians . In April 1963 , when a Bristol bus company was refusing to employ black staff , Constantine visited the city and spoke to the press about the issue . His intervention assisted in a speedy resolution of the affair which , according to Mason , was crucial in persuading the British government of the need for a Race Relations Act . However , politicians in both Trinidad and Britain felt a senior diplomat should not be so closely involved in British domestic affairs , particularly as he acted without consulting his government . Williams effectively withdrew his support from Constantine , who decided not to continue as High Commissioner when his term expired in February 1964 .

Although as High Commissioner Constantine looked after his staff and was respected by other diplomats , Howat observes there is limited evidence that he was successful in the post : " In the one area in which he acted positively , he blundered — the Bristol affair . In the language of the game he loved ... his timing was wrong though he was full of good intentions " . Howat adds that he did not increase his stature or reputation during his term of office . Mason believes that " there was too much of the welfare officer about him and not enough of the government focused diplomat . "

= = = Final years = = =

For the remainder of his life , Constantine lived in London . He returned to legal practice and was elected an Honorary Bencher of the Middle Temple in 1963 , despite his limited experience . He also resumed work in journalism : he wrote and broadcast on cricket , race and the Commonwealth , and produced two more books : a coaching book The Young Cricketers Companion ( 1964 ) , and The Changing Face of Cricket ( 1966 ) which included his thoughts on modern cricket . He made his debut as a television cricket commentator , although his failing health and talkative style meant he was less successful than on the radio .

In 1965 Constantine became a founding member of the Sports Council , which aimed to develop sport in Britain . Two years later , he was appointed to the three @-@ person Race Relations Board , formed through the Race Relations Act , to investigate cases of racial discrimination . In this role he spoke out against the Commonwealth Immigrants Act , a stance that led to an offer from the Liberal Party , which he declined , to stand as parliamentary candidate for Nelson . Later , he was involved in an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate the release , after a military coup , of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa , the overthrown Prime Minister of Nigeria . Constantine was appointed to the BBC 's General Advisory Committee in 1966 and became a BBC Governor two years later , although declining health restricted his involvement . The following year the students of St Andrews University elected Constantine as Rector , but again his health prevented him performing effectively in this role . In his last years , Constantine was criticised for becoming part of the Establishment ; Private Eye mocked him , while the new generation of West Indian immigrants believed he was out of touch . More radical black spokesmen disapproved of his conciliatory approach to racist incidents .

Constantine was awarded a life peerage in 1969 , becoming the first black man to sit in the House of Lords ; there were rumours that Trinidad had prevented earlier attempts to ennoble him . He took the title of Baron Constantine of Maraval in Trinidad and Nelson in the County Palatine of Lancaster . His investiture attracted widespread media attention ; Constantine stated : " I think it must have been for what I have endeavoured to do to make it possible for people of different colour to know each other better and live well together . " He sat as a crossbencher in the House , but was well enough to make only one speech in his time there .

Although Constantine was reluctant to leave England , his poor health necessitated a return to Trinidad , but before he could do so he died of a heart attack , probably brought about by bronchitis , on 1 July 1971 . His body was flown to Trinidad , where he received a state funeral before being buried in Arouca . He was posthumously awarded Trinidad 's highest honour , the Trinity Cross . Later in the month , a memorial service was held in London in Westminster Abbey .

= = Family life = =

Constantine met his future wife , Norma Agatha Cox , in 1921 . She had little interest in cricket and , although their relationship developed during the early 1920s , she resented that he gave more time to cricket than he did to her . However , the relationship lasted and she began to take more of an interest in his sporting achievements . They were married on 25 July 1927 ; their only child , Gloria , was born in April 1928 . Throughout their marriage , his wife motivated him to continue his efforts to further his career and they remained close . Norma died two months after her husband in 1971 .

= = Personality = =

John Arlott describes Constantine as a man of " easy humour and essential patience ... His outlook was that of a compassionate radical and he maintained his high moral standards unswervingly . " E. W. Swanton writes : " None could call Lord Constantine a modest man , but gifts of warmth and friendliness as well as a shrewd brain and a ready tongue helped to make him one of the personalities of his time . " He did not get along with everyone ; he and England cricketer Wally Hammond feuded for nearly ten years over what Constantine perceived as a slight in 1925 – 26 . Subsequently , Constantine continually bowled short when he encountered Hammond on the field , until the pair made peace in the Old Trafford Test match of 1933 . After this , they pursued a more good @-@ natured rivalry and became quite friendly ; Hammond publicly expressed sympathy towards Constantine and other black West Indians for the discrimination that they faced .

In his earlier years , acquaintances believed Constantine was too conscious of colour . James wrote : " Many doors in England were open to him . That doors were closed to other West Indians seemed more important to him . " Michael Manley describes him as an extrovert who displayed great self @-@ belief in everything he did . He also notes that " Constantine was too long in England and perhaps too slight in Test @-@ match performance to make the impact on the Caribbean that he did on England . But he enchanted England . " Howat writes : " Cricket apart ... Constantine 's reputation must rest on his contribution to racial tolerance , his benevolent view of empire and Commonwealth , and his personal acceptance within the British ' establishment ' . In the end he was more English than Trinidadian and he needed that wider platform . "

= Ucu Agustin =

This is an Indonesian name which does not have a family name . The subject should be referred to as Ucu

Ucu Agustin ( born 19 August 1976 in Sukabumi , Indonesia ) is an Indonesian journalist , writer , and documentary filmmaker .

Educated in an Islamic boarding school , Ucu became interested in journalism after realising that there were many prostitutes from her hometown . Beginning in the print media , she moved to making documentaries after she saw a lack of opportunities for human interest pieces in newspapers . One of her first documentaries , Death in Jakarta , was produced with the help of funds from the Jakarta International Film Festival . Other documentaries include Ragat 'e Anak and Konspirasi Hening . She has also written several children 's books and short stories .

Ucu has been described as " one of Indonesia 's top documentary filmmakers " and often deals with social issues in her work . Ragat 'e Anak was screened at the Berlin International Film Festival in 2009 .

= = Early life , education and early career = =

Ucu was born in Sukabumi , West Java , on 19 August 1976 to a strict Muslim family . As a child , she studied in the Darunnajah Islamic boarding school in Jakarta for six years ; removed from the outside world , she felt shocked when she learned that many of the women in her hometown worked as prostitutes . This discovery led her to become more critical of the world around her and made her interested in journalism . Ucu later attended the Jakarta Islamic State University .

After graduation , Ucu began working with print media , contributing to Pantau magazine after publishing several short stories and articles elsewhere . Dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities for writing pieces dealing with social issues she later switched to audio @-@ visual media ; she has also cited the intense amount of editing that her works went through as a reason for the change , noting that there " always seemed to be a wide space between the reality that happened and the ' reality ' that was reported " .

Ucu also became active in writing . She published five Islamic @-@ themed children 's books in 2003 , insisting on receiving royalties rather than the standard flat rate . She has also written a short story , entitled " Lelaki yang Menetas di Tubuhku " ( " The Man That Hatched Inside My Body " ) , for inclusion in the lesbian @-@ themed short story collection Un Soir du Paris ( An Evening in Paris ) . The book also included stories by Clara Ng , Seno Gumira Ajidarma , and Agus Noor .

= = Filmmaking = =

Ucu 's first documentary was Pramoedya : Last Chapter . In 2005 , Ucu made the 28 @-@ minute documentary Death in Jakarta . This film , dealing with the experiences of poor people after a loved one dies in Jakarta , was inspired by her observations when passing Utan Kayu Public Cemetery in Utan Kayu , East Jakarta . It was produced after becoming one of four finalists in the Jakarta International Film Festival Script Development Competition . Ucu received Rp . 25 million ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) in prize money and was lent a camera by the competition ; it was her first time using a professional @-@ grade camera . In April of that year she released Kalau Kanakar ( If Kalakar ? ) , a short story collection .

Her next film , Ragat 'e Anak ( For The Sake of Children ) , dealt with the lives of two part @-@ time prostitutes in a cemetery in Tulungagung , East Java . The documentary was included in Pertaruhan ( At Stake ) , a compilation of works produced by the Kalyana Shira Foundation . In August 2006 , Ucu released a short story compilation , Dunia di Kepala Alice ( The World in Alice 's Head ) , and a novel , Being Ing . On 4 June 2009 , the Tulungagung government shut down the prostitution district as a result of the documentary ; in response , Ucu said that she regretted the decision .

Her next documentary , Konspirasi Hening ( Conspiracy of Silence ) was produced by Nia Dinata . It drew its title from a statement by Kartono Mohamad , former head of the Indonesian Doctors Association , that a " conspiracy of silence " had led to rules about healthcare being essentially unenforceable . The feature @-@ length film , Ucu 's first , explored healthcare issues in Indonesia by following the lives of three people , two who had suffered from malpractice and a poor man without access to healthcare .

In 2011 Ucu collaborated with Dinata again on Batik : Our Love Story , a documentary on the traditional textile batik . Dinata directed , while Ucu served as screenwriter . As of September 2011 , Ucu is working on three documentaries : Knocking The Door , about the Indonesian Bill for Public Information ; Thank You for Loving Me , about deforestation in Indonesia ; and Where Did You Go My Love , about kidnap victims .

Through the Cipta Media Bersama program , run by the Ford Foundation in collaboration with several other groups , in November 2011 Ucu received a Rp.700 million ( US $ 100 @,@ 000 ) grant to produce a new film . The film , entitled Tidak Bermula [ dan Tidak Berakhir ] dengan Berita ( Not Starting [ and Not Ending ] With News ) will compare the habits of the press during the death of former president Soeharto and the media in 2012 ; it is hoped to shed light on issues faced by the press in both periods and promote media literacy .

= = Themes = =

Ucu 's Islamic children 's books take a moderate stance .

Ika Krismantari , writing for The Jakarta Post , notes that Ucu tends to deal with " challenging " themes such as social injustice , healthcare , and gender inequality in her documentaries ; gender issues are present in most of her works . Ucu considers social justice and human rights other key themes of her works .

Ucu has noted that she hopes that viewers are influenced by the hard lives faced by the subjects , whom she calls " inspiring " . In September 2011 , she stated that she was most pleased with Death in Jakarta , Ragat 'e Anak , and Konspirasi Hening . Many of her documentaries are distributed online .

= = Reception = =

Krismantari describes Ucu as " one of Indonesia ’ s top documentary filmmakers " .

Ucu was one of the winners of the 2005 Jakarta International Film Festival Script Development Competition , which led to her being able to make Death in Jakarta . Pertaruhan , containing her documentary Ragat 'e Anak , was shown in the Panorama section of the Berlin International Film Festival in 2009 ; together with Laskar Pelangi ( also shown that year ) , it was the first Indonesian film shown in Panorama . Ucu went to Berlin with Dinata to attend the showing .

= = Personal life = =

Krismantari describes Ucu as being " a petite woman who can pack a fair punch " , in reference to Ucu 's 1 @.@ 55 m ( 5 ft 1 in ) frame and strong mind .

= = Filmography = =

Pramoedya : Last Chapter ( 2006 )

Death in Jakarta ( 2006 )

Nine Lives of A Women ( 2007 )

Women Behind the Cut ( 2008 )

An Unfinished One ( 2008 )

Ragat 'e Anak ( For The Sake of Children ; 2008 )

Waktu itu , Januari 2008 : Sebuah Catatan Kaki ( That Time , January 2008 : A Footnote ; 2009 )

Konspirasi Hening ( Conspiracy of Silence ; 2010 )

= Hurricane Howard ( 2004 ) =

Hurricane Howard was a powerful Category 4 hurricane which produced large swells along the coasts of the Baja California Peninsula and southern California . The eighth named storm of the 2004 Pacific hurricane season , Howard originated out of a tropical wave off the coast of Mexico on August 30 . Traveling towards the northwest , the storm gradually strengthened , becoming a hurricane on September 1 and reaching its peak intensity the following day with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . Decreasing sea surface temperatures then caused the storm to weaken . By September 4 , Howard was downgraded to a tropical storm . The next day , it degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area which persisted for another five days before dissipating over open waters .

Although the storm never made landfall , the fringe effects of the storm produced significant flooding across the Baja California Peninsula which damaged agricultural land and dozens of homes . Howard also produced large swells which reached 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 4 m ) along the Baja coastline and 10 ft ( 3 m ) along the California coastline . About 1 @,@ 000 lifeguard rescues took place in California due to the waves . Moisture from the storm also enhanced rainfall in parts of Arizona , leading to minor accumulations .

= = Meteorological history = =

Hurricane Howard began as a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 18 . The wave moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea with little associated convection . By August 26 , the wave produced disorganized convection as it moved through the western Caribbean , across Central America , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . Paralleling the southern coast of Mexico , the wave became increasingly organized and it was estimated that the tropical wave spawned a tropical depression around 1200 UTC on August 30 about 400 mi ( 645 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . Classified as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E , the system tracked west @-@ northwestward under the steering currents of a weak mid @-@ level ridge . In the hours after formation , the depression lacked a concentration of deep convection near the center . However , conditions favored eventual development , including warm sea surface temperatures and low amounts of wind shear .

Based on increased organization and the formation of banding features , it was estimated that the cyclone intensified into Tropical Storm Howard at 0000 UTC on August 31 . A mid @-@ level anticyclone located over southern California was steering the storm towards the northwest . Early on September 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) stated that Howard had an 80 percent chance of undergoing rapid intensification based on further development of the storm and a highly favorable environment around the cyclone . Based on the formation of an eye feature , the NHC upgraded Howard to a hurricane early on September 1 while the storm was located about 420 mi ( 675 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Colima . Later that day , the eye of Howard became apparent on satellite imagery , which organized into a pinhole eye surrounded by a ring of symmetric , deep convection . At 0600 UTC on September 2 , Howard was upgraded to a major hurricane — a storm with winds of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) or higher . Shortly after , the cyclone reached its peak intensity as a low @-@ end Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) while located about 410 mi ( 660 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Sur .

Not long after reaching peak intensity , the storm moved over cooler waters , causing the eyewall to deteriorate and cloud tops to warm . The next day , the eye of Howard disappeared from satellite imagery , leading to the cyclone being downgraded to a Category 2 hurricane . Continued deterioration of the system caused rapid weakening , with Howard being downgraded to a tropical storm by 1200 UTC on September 4 . Convection associated with the storm was separated from the center later that day . Early on September 5 , Howard was further downgraded to a tropical depression and later degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area about 265 mi ( 425 km ) west @-@ southwest of Punta Eugenia , Mexico . The remnants of the hurricane continued towards the northwest before turning towards the southwest the following day as it tracked along the southeast side of a ridge of high pressure . The low continued in this general direction until it dissipated on September 10 about 1 @,@ 150 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) west of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .

= = Preparations and Impact = =

Because Howard remained away from land no tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued . One ship , the Strong Virginian , reported sustained winds 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) at 0600 UTC on September 4 . Along the Baja California Peninsula , 16 – 18 ft ( 4 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 4 m ) swells were reported . All ships were required to remain at port due to the rough seas . Heavy rains in the mountainous and Pacific coastal areas of Baja California produced flooding which washed out several roads in San José del Cabo . The rains did help increase water levels in some reservoirs in Baja California . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 hectares of agricultural land was damaged by the storm and 48 households were damaged throughout four communities . State and federal authorities purchased temporary homes for those who needed shelter in the affected areas . The State Civil Protection in Mexico provided rehabilitation for a total of 393 homes affected by Howard .

Large swells produced by the storm resulted in about 1 @,@ 000 lifeguard rescues in Orange County , California . High temperatures in southern California , exceeding 100 ° F ( 37 @.@ 7 ° C ) in places , and cool ocean temperatures led to an estimated 575 @,@ 000 people going to beaches during the Labor Day weekend . One incident required 25 rescues as dozens of people were overwhelmed by 8 – 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 m ) waves . Officials in San Bernardino County advised residents to take precautions for the possibility of flooding as a result of moisture from the remnants of Howard . Following wildfires in 2003 , foothills were highly susceptible to flooding . Residents were advised to have sandbags ready , ensure their emergency supplies were stocked and have an evacuation plan . Despite all the preparations undertaken , Howard did not produced any rainfall in California . The moisture also enhanced rainfall across portions of Arizona . This led to minor rainfall accumulations throughout the state .

= Irving Gottesman =

Irving Isadore Gottesman ( December 29 , 1930 – June 29 , 2016 ) was an American professor of psychology who devoted most of his career to the study of the genetics of schizophrenia . He has written 17 books and more than 290 other publications , mostly on schizophrenia and behavioral genetics , and created the first academic program on behavioral genetics in the United States . He has won awards such as the Hofheimer Prize for Research , the highest award from the American Psychiatric Association for psychiatric research . Lastly , Gottesman was a professor in the psychology department at the University of Minnesota , where he received his Ph.D.

A native of Ohio , Gottesman studied psychology for his undergraduate and graduate degrees , became a faculty member at various universities , and spent most of his career at the University of Virginia and the University of Minnesota . He is known for researching schizophrenia in identical twins to document the contributions of genetics and the family , social , cultural , and economic environment to the onset , progress , and inter @-@ generational transmission of the disorder . Gottesman has worked with researchers to analyze hospital records and conduct follow @-@ up interviews of twins where one or both were schizophrenic . He has also researched the effects of genetics and the environment on human violence and variations in human intelligence . Gottesman and co @-@ researcher James Shields introduced the word epigenetics — the control of genes by biochemical signals modified by the environment from other parts of the genome — to the field of psychiatric genetics .

Gottesman has written and co @-@ written a series of books which summarize his work . These publications include raw data from various studies , their statistical interpretation , and possible conclusions presented with necessary background material . The books also include first @-@ hand accounts of schizophrenic patients and relatives tending to them , giving an insight into jumbled thoughts , the disorder 's primary symptom . Gottesman and Shields have built models to explain the cause , transmission , and progression of the disorder , which is controlled by many genes acting in concert with the environment , with no cause sufficient by itself .

= = Background = =

Gottesman was born in Cleveland , Ohio , in 1930 , to Bernard and Virginia Gottesman ( née Weitzner ) , who were Hungarian – Romanian Jewish immigrants . He was educated at Miles Standish Elementary and a public school in Cleveland 's Shaker Heights . After leaving school , Gottesman joined the United States Navy , where he was given a scholarship and the rank of midshipman , and was assigned to the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago . He first specialized in physics but changed to psychology , receiving his B.S. degree in 1953 .

Gottesman did his graduate work at the University of Minnesota , which then patterned its clinical psychology program on the Boulder model , which emphasized research theory and clinical practice . He joined the graduate program in 1956 after three years with the Navy , supported by the Korean War G.I. Bill . He began investigating personality traits in identical and fraternal twins who had filled out the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory ( MMPI ) . His Ph.D. thesis , submitted to Psychological Monographs , was rejected before a review on the grounds that the nature – nurture issue it addressed had already been settled in favor of nurture . On appeal , the thesis was reviewed and accepted for publication .

Gottesman began his career at Harvard University as a social relations and psychology lecturer . This non @-@ tenure @-@ track position ended after three years . Then he worked with researcher James Shields at the Maudsley – Bethlem hospital complex in London , using its twin registry to analyze traits of identical and fraternal twins at the lab of Eliot Slater , whom Gottesman met in Rome at the Second International Congress on Human Genetics in 1961 . After his return to the University of Minnesota in 1966 , Gottesman created a program on behavioral genetics , the first in the U.S. In 1972 – 1973 he received a Guggenheim fellowship to work with K.O. Christiansen in Denmark . In 1980 he left to join the Washington University School of Medicine , then moved to the University of Virginia in 1985 , where he started the clinical psychology training program . Gottesman continued vising London and collaborating with Shields , with whom he co @-@ wrote a series of books.After spending 16 years at the University of Virginia , Gottesman retired from an active role after 41 years of research , but continues research part @-@ time in psychology and psychiatry .

From 2011 till his death , Gottesman was a professor with an endowed chair in adult psychiatry and a senior fellow in psychology at the University of Minnesota ; a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Academy of Clinical Psychology , and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University ; a Guggenheim Fellow for 1972 – 1973 at the University of Copenhagen ; an emeritus in psychology with a chair endowment at the University of Virginia ; and an honorary fellow at the London Royal College of Psychiatrists . He has advised 35 graduate students , and an annual lecture on behavior and neurogenetics has been established in his name by the University of Virginia . Gottesman was married to Carol Applen , whom he wed on December 23 , 1970 ; they had two sons . Gottesman died June 29 , 2016 .

= = Scientific contributions = =

= = = Studies on schizophrenia and psychopathology = = =

Gottesman first studied the genetics of schizophrenia on a large scale using the Maudsley – Bethlem register of twin admissions for 16 years . Later he worked on psychiatric genetics and genomics . In his Twin Cities MMPI study , part of his Ph.D. thesis , Gottesman found high levels of inheritance in the scales related to schizophrenia , depression , anti @-@ social personality disorder , and social introversion . Genes strongly influenced social introversion and aggressive tendencies . This led to further studies on personality traits of identical twins such as the Minnesota Study of Identical Twins Reared Apart .

Analyzing the results of the Maudsley – Bethlem study , Gottesman and Shields devised the multi @-@ element , polygenic causation model for schizophrenia by modeling schizophrenia diagnoses using the recently introduced liability @-@ threshold model . The book that summarized and expanded on the study , Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point , argued that schizophrenia is a product of several genes acting together , and introduced the techniques of precise analysis in the field of behavioral genetics.Gottesman and Shields introduced terms such as " reaction ranges / surface " , " endophenotype " and " epigenetic puzzle " into the behavioral sciences . The threshold model hypothesized that both genetic and environmental risks combined to produce schizophrenia , and pushed an individual into a diagnosable condition when their influence grew strong enough . The reaction range concept is the idea that the genes and the environment control behavior , but with separate upper and lower limits on the strength of that control in each case , a concept now part of basic psychology . Before the study , the prevailing opinion was that schizophrenia originated from bad parental relationships . The researchers showed identical twins were more likely to either have or not have schizophrenia together , concluding the disorder was the " outcome of a genetically determined developmental predisposition " .

The Maudsley – Bethlem study also hypothesized that schizophrenia was caused by a mixture of many small traits working together . These endophenotypes could be used for diagnosis . Endophenotypes have been interpreted as a link between genes and the final behavior , acted on by the environment and chance elements , with biochemical and epigenetic influences changing the genome but not being passed on to children . Molecular @-@ biological studies in genetics have referred to endophenotypes to explain genetic causes of psychopathology . The researchers also examined how schizoids , those with mild , schizophrenia @-@ like personality disorders , were linked to schizophrenics . Gottesman and Shields extended the term to classes of mild psychological disorders in twins and relatives of schizophrenics . The researchers had hypothesized that schizoida in a twin was how a schizophrenia carrier gene , one in a non @-@ schizophrenic still passing on a genetic risk , expressed itself . The twin study did not confirm this .

In the Denmark study , the researchers evaluated the extent to which genes underpin psychopathology . Their twin studies of criminality found that a genetic disposition to poor self @-@ control caused both identical twins to become felons , or to not become felons . They also studied identical twins who were discordant for schizophrenia , where one twin was schizophrenic and the other not , and found children of such twins had equal genetic vulnerability to the disease . A later study in the mid @-@ 1980s , resulting in a paper awarded the Kurt Schneider Prize , concluded that children of identical twins were at higher risk than those of fraternal twins , indicating the non @-@ schizophrenic identical twin passed on a latent genetic disposition , even if it had not been expressed through schizoida . The Denmark study introduced the concepts of " unexpressed genotypes " — the latent genetic risk , and " epigenetic control " — the biochemical regulation of how genes work , into the new field of behavioral genetics .

= = = Studies on delinquency and violence = = =

In a 1989 review of the research on juvenile delinquency and violence , Lisabeth DiLalla and Gottesman found delinquency could be transitory or continuous , and genes contributed more to the continuous type . In 1991 the same authors published a critique of the then @-@ prevalent idea of antisocialism being transmitted through generations by child abuse alone in antisocial families . They stated that a review by Cathy Spatz Widom and the studies she cited had missed an element : children maltreated in families might have been targets because their genes might have influenced them into committing antisocial acts and attracting such treatment from parents .

Gottesman was one of the presenters at the 1995 conference at the Aspen Institute in Maryland on how strongly genes controlled a person 's leaning toward violence and crime . Gottesman presented results from studies on the influence of genes in criminality , stating that identical twins separated at birth were likely to show similar levels of criminal behavior . This concordance indicated that genes influenced such behavior . He did point out that behavioral patterns were strongly influenced by the environment and not set by genes alone . The conference , funded by the National Institutes of Health , was contentious , with detractors arguing that such studies would lead to minority groups , more likely to be criminals because they had lower social status or were poor , being targeted with gene therapy for violence . Protesters disrupted the conference and swarmed into the auditorium . Gottesman reasserted his belief that scientists should proceed with the research , not waiting for humanity to become ethical enough not to misuse it .

= = = Work on IQ = = =

In 1972 , Gottesman was called before the United States Senate by senator Walter Mondale to discuss the then 15 @-@ point IQ gap separating African Americans and white Americans . Gottesman testified that genes influenced IQ , but only in conjunction with elements such as schooling , money , and nutritious food from childhood onwards . In 2003 , he and colleagues published a study showing that heritability was higher for IQ differences within high socioeconomic status ( SES ) people than among low SES people . Genes influenced differences in test scores more in high SES children than in low SES children . Gottesman said that this was because genes have a weaker influence than poverty .

= = = Humanistic views = = =

Gottesman has researched and published about the abuse of genetic research in Nazi Germany , and has provided expert testimony in a Chinese human rights case involving schizophrenia in the family . His scholarly books on schizophrenia have also focused on the human costs of the disorder . In Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness , he provided chapters in which patients describe their experiences of the disease , and those of their families . Gottesman has emphasized that genetics influences patients ' behavior in concert with the family , social , economic , and cultural contexts . According to him , random events are the third element determining behavior and destiny , and the interaction between these elements is known only at the level of probabilities , and not as fixed and precise quantities .

= = Books = =

Gottesman has authored nine books , all related to schizophrenia and psychiatric genetics .

= = = Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point = = =

Gottesman and Shields published Schizophrenia and Genetics to document their twin @-@ study research at the Maudsley Hospital in London , the work that in part earned them the Hofheimer Prize for Research , the highest award for psychiatric research from the American Psychiatric Association . The study expanded on an earlier one by Eliot Slater at the same hospital , covering 24 identical and 33 fraternal twins , with at least one from every pair a schizophrenic being treated at the hospital between 1948 and 1964 . This study was one of eleven such in the contemporary literature , and the book detailed the methodology and analytic detail differentiating it from the others .

Chapters on methodology comprise a third of the book 's core . Identical and fraternal twins were classified using fingerprints and blood groups . Follow @-@ up interviews were recorded to monitor the progress of their patients ( the probands ) and their twins , some schizophrenic and others not . Two psychological tests — the MMPI and the Object Sorting Test ( Goldstein Scheerer Test of Concept Formation ) — were used to measure mental traits and functioning . Case summaries were prepared by the Scandinavian psychiatrist Erick Essen @-@ Moller , and these were sent , with data on identical @-@ or @-@ fraternal @-@ twin status and diagnosis @-@ of @-@ schizophrenia removed , to six judges from the U.S. , U.K. and Japan . The judges independently evaluated whether the patients were schizophrenic .

Results of studies comprise another third of the core of Schizophrenia and Genetics . The data showed that genes made a person likely to develop schizophrenia under environmental pressures . The study was not designed to find the genes responsible , but the authors hypothesized there would be several acting in tandem.Contextual elements responsible could not be identified , though some , such as an overly protective mother , birth order , natal weight , and social and economic elements were ruled out . Gottesman and Shields found roughly half of identical twins had a shared schizophrenic or non @-@ schizophrenic status , but only one @-@ eleventh of fraternal twins had such a shared diagnosis . MMPI scales coincided among identical twin pairs but not among fraternal twin pairs . The Object Sorting Test showed no useful relations . Those meeker than their twins were more liable to develop schizophrenia where their genes already put them at risk .

The book presents case histories of all the twin @-@ pairs studied and the raw data from the analyses . Its last chapters put the results in the context of existing studies , and presented a new theory and model to explain the causes and continuance of the disorder . The environmental aspects the researchers checked drew on existing literature , and multiple judgments were pooled to both compare and mutually cancel differing criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia . The theory in the book was that many genes work together to dispose a person to the disorder under certain environmental pressures . The model provided no specific therapeutic insight , but was useful as a guideline for further study .

= = = Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle = = =

Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle outlined the approaches , conclusions and models Gottesman used in his study of schizophrenia . He co @-@ wrote the book with James Shields , who died before it was published . The book introduces methods for diagnosing schizophrenia in a research setting , taking into account national differences in how the disorder was defined , debunked myths such as the mother transmitting schizophrenia , and introduced the concepts of the threshold model and the reaction range .

The book provided a tutorial on genetics to make the material self @-@ contained . Family , adoption and twin studies were investigated to determine the ways vulnerability to the disorder changed with genetic similarity to the patient . Together they supported the presence of a genetic contribution to the cause and the progress of schizophrenia . Contextual elements such as birth problems and stressful incidents were also analyzed to help the authors build a combined model to explain the disorder . The researchers analyzed populations to determine the role of genes using simplified mathematical models of the influence of genes and the environment on each other , and with no biochemical signal of the disorder to guide them . Rue L. Cromwell , writing in PsycCRITIQUES , wrote that this approach lacked rigor . The role of genes was less emphasized in the results , with a heritability of 70 % , than in earlier studies by Kallman . The researchers investigated neuroanatomy , and specifically the neurotransmitter dopamine , as a possible route by which genes influence the functioning of the brain to produce the symptoms of the disorder .

The authors investigated autism and psychiatric disorders among children , but found little relation to adult schizophrenia or genetic influence . They also covered the social implications of the disease , concluding that most schizophrenics were poor because the disorder eroded their resources and abilities . A chapter was devoted to social issues , violence , illnesses , death rates , sexual aspects , and the ability to father or bear children affecting schizophrenics . The authors provided data on the chance of relapse after an episode of the disorder . The book covered new methods and new models for studying schizophrenia . Because the disorder had no unanimously accepted diagnostic criteria , the researchers asked six clinicians and three colleagues to provide their analyses on the reports on 120 twins , and found an agreement of 86 % among the clinicians . Averaging the criteria of the clinicians produced a set close to that of Manfred Bleuler , who had adapted it from Emil Kraepelin .

= = = Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness = = =

Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness , written in 1991 , won the William James award from the American Psychological Association . It extensively reviewed how science has looked at schizophrenia . The book presented a vulnerability / diathesis – stress model to explain the causes of the disorder and a many @-@ cause , many @-@ gene model to explain how it is passed from parents to children . The book has been translated into Japanese and German . Schizophrenia Genesis was written for both the lay person and the clinical professional , and provides data , methods of interpreting the data , and an introduction to genetic analysis as used to analyze role of inheritance in behavior . The book also contains accounts of schizophrenics , with an artist depicting own suffering , saying , " I know ... it is craziness when every laugh is about me ... newspapers suddenly contain cures ... sparkles of light are demon eyes . "

Schizophrenia Genesis starts with the history of schizophrenia . Gottesman takes the view that schizophrenia is a disease of the industrial world. because it is not mentioned in the Bible , by the ancient Greeks , the ancient physicians , or authors including Shakespeare . He saw it first mentioned by physicians in 1809 and by Balzac in a short story in 1832 , showing minimally the disorder had by then been recognized as such . In 1896 , Kraepelin defined its symptoms , and his student Ernst Rüdin began a genetic study of its transmission in 1916 . } The book noted that schizophrenia existed across cultures and its rates had stayed steady for fifty years .

A chapter was devoted to criteria for determining schizophrenia , with Gottesman preferring those developed by Bleuler to those in the American Psychiatric Association ’ s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( version III @-@ R ) , the International Classification of Diseases ( ICD @-@ 9 ) and Kurt Schneider ’ s method . Diagnosis was based on the ways a person spoke and acted , and the standard measures were hallucinations , delusions , emotional apathy , jumbled thought , and sudden changes in a person . Gottesman mentioned a disparity in schizophrenia diagnosis after World War II across the Atlantic , when U.S. psychiatric diagnoses quadrupled those of British psychiatrists .

Family studies on schizophrenia were reviewed . That the disorder runs in families did not suggest it was genetically inherited , since cultural transmission occurs from parents to children . Twin and adoption studies were presented as the standard methods to disentangle contributions from genes and the environment . Gottesman used a computer @-@ based method for calculating the odds of becoming schizophrenic based on the many causes . The book examines the problems caused by schizophrenia for relatives of patients and for society at large , larger @-@ scale ones exemplified by the eugenics policies of states such as Nazi Germany . Two final chapters cover molecular biology and neuroanatomy briefly . Newer methods of behavioral genetics being researched at the time of publication , such as linkage analysis which used the likelihood of neighboring genes being inherited together , were not covered .

= = Committees and organizations = =

Gottesman is or has been :

an attendee at the Society for the Study of Social Biology 1967 conference at Princeton University which laid the groundwork for the Behavior Genetics Association ( BGA ) ;

president @-@ elect and program chair of the BGA in 1976 ;

American Psychological Association ( APA ) member from 1958 , and a fellow since 1975 ;

a fellow of the American Psychiatric Association ;

a fellow of the American Psychological Society ;

the vice @-@ president of the Society for the Study of Social Biology for 1976 – 1980 ;

the president of the Behavior Genetics Association in 1976 – 1977 ;

member of the American Society of Human Genetics ;

the president of the Society for Research in Psychopathology in 1993 ; and

a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences .

= = Awards = =

Gottesman has been recognized by professional organizations in the United States , Britain , and Japan . He has received the following awards :

Hofheimer Prize for Research in 1973 from the American Psychiatric Association ;

Dobzhansky Lifetime Achievement Award in 1990 from the Behavior Genetics Association ;

William James Book Award in 1991 from the APA Division of General Psychology ;

Kurt Schneider Prize from the University of Bonn ( Germany ) ( the first non @-@ German to win the prize ) ;

Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award in 2001 from the APA , is highest honor ( previous honorees include Jean Piaget and B.F. Skinner ;

Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the Science of Psychology in 2007 from the American Psychological Foundation ;

Outstanding Achievement for Research on Mental Health Disorders NARSAD ( National Alliance for Research in Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders ) Award in 2008 from the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation and

University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Psychology 2013

James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award from the Association for Psychological Science .

= = Books = =

Gottesman , Irving I. ; Erlenmeyer @-@ Kimling , L. ( 1970 ) . Differential Reproduction in Individuals with Mental and Physical Disorders : Conference Sponsored by the American Eugenics Society and the Biomedical Division of the Population Council Held at the Rockefeller University , Nov. 13 – 14 , 1970 . Chicago University Press. p . 136 .

Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1972 ) . Schizophrenia and Genetics : A Twin Study Vantage Point . Boston : Academic Press. p . 433 . ISBN 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 293450 @-@ 4 .

Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1973 ) . Schizophrenia and Genetics ( Personality and psychopathology ) . Boston : Academic Press. p . 433 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0122934506 .

— — ( 1982 ) . Schizophrenia . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press. p . 249 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0521295598 .

Gottesman , Irving I. ; Shields , James T. ( 1982 ) . Schizophrenia : The Epigenetic Puzzle . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press. p . 258 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29559 @-@ 9 .

— — ( 1991 ) . Schizophrenia Genesis : The Origins of Madness . San Francisco : Freeman. p . 296 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7167 @-@ 2147 @-@ 3 .

Shields , James T. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 1971 ) . Man , Mind , and Heredity : Selected Papers of Eliot Slater on Psychiatry and Genetics . The Johns Hopkins University Press. p . 432 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0801811180 .

Fuller , Torrey E. ; Bowler , Ann E. ; Taylor , Edward H. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 1995 ) . Schizophrenia and manic @-@ depressive disorder : The biological roots of mental illness as revealed by the landmark study of identical twins . Basic Books. p . 304 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0465072859 .

McGuffin , Peter ; Owen , Michael , J. ; Gottesman , Irving I. ( 2004 ) . Psychiatric Genetics and Genomics . Oxford University Press. p . 502 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0198564867 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )

= Third Amendment to the United States Constitution =

The Third Amendment ( Amendment III ) to the United States Constitution places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner 's consent , forbidding the practice in peacetime . The amendment is a response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the buildup to the American Revolutionary War , which had allowed the British Army to lodge soldiers in private residences .

The Third Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by James Madison as a part of the United States Bill of Rights , in response to Anti @-@ Federalist objections to the new Constitution . Congress proposed the amendment to the states on September 28 , 1789 , and by December 15 , 1791 , the necessary three @-@ quarters of the states had ratified it . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the amendment on March 1 , 1792 .

The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution and is rarely litigated , with the American Bar Association calling it the " runt piglet " of the U.S. Constitution . As of 2016 , it has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision .

= = Text = =

The amendment as proposed by Congress in 1789 reads as follows :

No Soldier shall , in time of peace be quartered in any house , without the consent of the Owner , nor in time of war , but in a manner to be prescribed by law .

= = Background = =

In 1765 , the British parliament enacted the first of the Quartering Acts , requiring the American colonies to pay the costs of British soldiers serving in the colonies , and requiring that if the local barracks provided insufficient space , that the colonists lodge the troops in alehouses , inns , and livery stables . After the Boston Tea Party , the Quartering Act of 1774 was enacted . One of the Intolerable Acts that pushed the colonies toward revolution , it authorized British troops to be housed wherever necessary , including in private homes . The quartering of troops was cited as one of the colonists ' grievances in the United States Declaration of Independence .

= = Adoption = =

After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation , a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17 , 1787 , featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes . George Mason , a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights , proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties be included . Other delegates — including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison — disagreed , arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other , unnamed rights were unprotected . After a brief debate , Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations .

For the constitution to be ratified , however , nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions . Opposition to ratification ( " Anti @-@ Federalism " ) was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties . Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification ( including Virginia , Massachusetts , and New York ) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights . Several state conventions specifically proposed a provision against the quartering of troops in private homes . At the 1788 Virginia Ratifying Convention , Patrick Henry stated , " One of our first complaints , under the former government , was the quartering of troops among us . This was one of the principal reasons for dissolving the connection with Great Britain . Here we may have troops in time of peace . They may be billeted in any manner — to tyrannize , oppress , and crush us . "

= = = Proposal and ratification = = =

In the 1st United States Congress , following the state legislatures ' request , James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the Bill of Rights 1689 ; one of these was a prohibition against quartering troops in private homes . Several revisions to the future Third Amendment were proposed in Congress , which chiefly differed in the way in which peace and war were distinguished ( including the possibility of a situation , such as unrest , which was neither peace nor war ) , and whether the executive or the legislature would have the authority to authorize quartering . However , the amendment ultimately passed Congress almost unchanged and by unanimous vote . Congress reduced Madison 's proposed twenty amendments to twelve , and these were submitted to the states for ratification on September 25 , 1789 .

By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification , opinions had shifted in both parties . Many Federalists , who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights , now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti @-@ Federalists ' most effective criticism . Many Anti @-@ Federalists , in contrast , now opposed it , realizing that the Bill 's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention , which they desired . Anti @-@ Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution , such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation , intact .

On November 20 , 1789 , New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments , rejecting Article II , which regulated Congressional pay raises . On December 19 and 22 , respectively , Maryland and North Carolina ratified all twelve amendments . On January 19 , 25 , and 28 , 1790 , respectively , South Carolina , New Hampshire , and Delaware ratified the Bill , though New Hampshire rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises , and Delaware rejected Article I , which regulated the size of the House . This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten , but the process stalled in other states : Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify , while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments , but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so .

In February through June of 1790 , New York , Pennsylvania , and Rhode Island ratified eleven of the amendments , though all three rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises . Virginia initially postponed its debate , but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791 , the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven . Vermont ratified on November 3 , 1791 , approving all twelve amendments , and Virginia finally followed on December 15 , 1791 . Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1 , 1792 .

= = Judicial interpretation = =

The Third Amendment is among the least cited sections of the U.S. Constitution . In the words of Encyclopedia Britannica , " as the history of the country progressed with little conflict on American soil , the amendment has had little occasion to be invoked . " As of 2015 , no major Supreme Court decision has used the amendment as its primary basis .

The Third Amendment has been invoked in a few instances as helping establish an implicit right to privacy in the Constitution . Justice William O. Douglas used the amendment along with others in the Bill of Rights as a partial basis for the majority decision in Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) , which cited the Third Amendment as implying a belief that an individual 's home should be free from agents of the state .

In one of the seven opinions in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer ( 1952 ) , Justice Robert H. Jackson cited the Third Amendment as providing evidence of the Framers ' intent to constrain executive power even during wartime :

" [ t ] hat military powers of the Commander in Chief were not to supersede representative government of internal affairs seems obvious from the Constitution and from elementary American history . Time out of mind , and even now in many parts of the world , a military commander can seize private housing to shelter his troops . Not so , however , in the United States , for the Third Amendment says ... [ E ] ven in war time , his seizure of needed military housing must be authorized by Congress . "

One of the few times a federal court was asked to invalidate a law or action on Third Amendment grounds was in Engblom v. Carey ( 1982 ) . In 1979 , prison officials in New York organized a strike ; they were evicted from their prison facility residences , which were reassigned to members of the National Guard who had temporarily taken their place as prison guards . The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled : ( 1 ) that the term owner in the Third Amendment includes tenants ( paralleling similar cases regarding the Fourth Amendment , governing search and seizure ) , ( 2 ) National Guard troops count as soldiers for the purposes of the Third Amendment , and ( 3 ) that the Third Amendment is incorporated ( that is , that it applies to the states ) by virtue of the Fourteenth Amendment . The case was remanded to the district court , which dismissed the case on the grounds that state officials could not have been aware of this interpretation .

In the most recent Third Amendment decision handed down by a federal court , on February 2 , 2015 , the United States District Court for the District of Nevada held in Mitchell v. City of Henderson that the Third Amendment does not apply to intrusions by municipal police officers since they are not soldiers .

In an earlier case , United States v. Valenzuela ( 1951 ) , the defendant asked that a federal rent @-@ control law be struck down because it was " the incubator and hatchery of swarms of bureaucrats to be quartered as storm troopers upon the people in violation of Amendment III of the United States Constitution . " The court declined his request . Later , in Jones v. United States Secretary of Defense ( 1972 ) , Army reservists unsuccessfully cited the Third Amendment as justification for refusing to march in a parade . Similar arguments in a variety of contexts have been denied in other cases .

= Psittacosaurus =

Psittacosaurus ( / ˌsɪtəkəˈsɔːrəs / SIT @-@ ə @-@ kə @-@ SOR @-@ əs ; " parrot lizard " ) is a genus of extinct ceratopsian dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of what is now Asia , existing between 123 @.@ 2 and 100 million years ago . It is notable for being the most species @-@ rich dinosaur genus . Up to 11 species are known , from across Mongolia , Siberia , China , and possibly Thailand . The species of Psittacosaurus were obligate bipeds at adulthood , with a high skull and a robust beak . One individual was found preserved with long filaments on the tail , similar to those of Tianyulong , and scales across the rest of the animal . Psittacosaurus probably had complex behaviours , based on the proportions and relative size of the brain . It may have been active for short periods of time during the day and night , and had well @-@ developed senses of smell and vision .

Psittacosaurus was one of the earliest ceratopsians , but closer to Triceratops than Yinlong . Once in its own family , Psittacosauridae , with other genera like Hongshanosaurus , it is now considered to be senior synonym of the latter and an early offshoot of the branch that led to more derived forms . The genera closely related to Psittacosaurus are all from Asia , with the exception of Aquilops , from North America . The first species was either P. lujiatunensis or closely related , and it may have given rise to later forms of Psittacosaurus .

Psittacosaurus is one of the most completely known dinosaur genera . Fossils of hundreds of individuals have been collected so far , including many complete skeletons . Most age classes are represented , from hatchling through to adult , which has allowed several detailed studies of Psittacosaurus growth rates and reproductive biology . The abundance of this dinosaur in the fossil record has led to the labelling of Lower Cretaceous sediments of east Asia the Psittacosaurus biochron .

= = Description = =

The species of Psittacosaurus vary in size and specific features of the skull and skeleton , but share the same overall body shape . The best @-@ known — P. mongoliensis — can reach 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in length . The maximum adult body weight was most likely over 20 kilogrammes ( 44 lb ) in P. mongoliensis . Several species approach P. mongoliensis in size ( P. lujiatunensis , P. neimongoliensis , P. xinjiangensis ) , while others are somewhat smaller ( P. sinensis , P. meileyingensis ) . The smallest known species , P. ordosensis , is 30 % smaller than P. mongoliensis . The largest are P. lujiatunensis and P. sibiricus , although neither is significantly larger than P. mongoliensis . Psittacosaurus postcranial skeletons are more typical of a ' generic ' bipedal ornithischian . There are only four digits on the manus ( ' hand ' ) , as opposed to the five found in most other ornithischians ( including all other ceratopsians ) , while the four @-@ toed hindfoot is very similar to many other small ornithischians .

The skull of Psittacosaurus is highly modified compared to other ornithischian dinosaurs of its time . Extremely tall in height and short in length , the skull has an almost round profile in some species . The portion in front of the orbit ( eye socket ) is only 40 % of total skull length , shorter than any other known ornithischian . The lower jaws of psittacosaurs are characterised by a bulbous vertical ridge down the centre of each tooth . Both upper and lower jaws sport a pronounced beak , formed from the rostral and predentary bones , respectively . The bony core of the beak may have been sheathed in keratin to provide a sharp cutting surface for cropping plant material . As the generic name suggests , the short skull and beak superficially resemble those of modern parrots . Psittacosaurus skulls share several adaptations with more derived ceratopsians , such as the unique rostral bone at the tip of the upper jaw , and the flared jugal ( cheek ) bones . There is still no sign of the bony neck frill or prominent facial horns which would develop in later ceratopsians . Bony horns protrude from the skull of P. sibiricus , but these are thought to be an example of convergent evolution .

= = = Species characteristics = = =

Skulls of P. mongoliensis are flat on top , especially over the back of the skull , with a triangular depression , the antorbital fossa , on the outside surface of the maxilla ( an upper jaw bone ) . A flange is present on the lower edge of the dentary ( the tooth @-@ bearing bone of the lower jaw ) , although it is not as prominent as in P. meileyingensis or P. major ( = P. lujiatunensis ) . P. mongoliensis is among the largest known species . The skull of the type specimen , which is probably a juvenile , is 15 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 6 in ) long , and the associated femur is 16 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) in length . Other specimens are larger , with the largest documented femur measuring about 21 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 25 in ) long .

P. sinensis is readily distinguished from all other species by numerous features of the skull . Adult skulls are smaller than those of P. mongoliensis and have less teeth . Uniquely , the premaxillary bone contacts the jugal ( cheek ) bone on the outside of the skull . The jugals flare out sideways , forming ' horns ' proportionally wider than in any other known Psittacosaurus species except P. sibiricus and P. lujiatunensis . Because of the flared cheeks , the skull is actually wider than it is long . A smaller ' horn ' is present behind the eye , at the contact of the jugal and postorbital bones , a feature also seen in P. sibiricus . The mandible ( lower jaw ) lacks the hollow opening , or fenestra , seen in other species , and the entire lower jaw is bowed outwards , giving the animal the appearance of an underbite . The skull of an adult P. sinensis can reach 11 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) in length .

P. sibiricus is the largest known species of Psittacosaurus . The skull of the type specimen is 20 @.@ 7 centimetres long ( 8 @.@ 25 in ) , and the femur is 22 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 75 in ) in length . It is also distinguished by its neck frill , which is longer than any other species , at 15 to 18 % of skull length . A very striking feature of P. sibiricus is the number of ' horns ' around the eyes , with three prominences on each postorbital , and one in front of each eye , on the palpebral bones . Similar horns found on the postorbital of P. sinensis are not as pronounced but may be homologous . The jugal has extremely prominent ' horns ' and may contact the premaxilla , both features also seen in the possibly related P. sinensis . There is a flange on the dentary of the lower jaw , similar to P. mongoliensis , P. meileyingensis , and P. sattayaraki . It can be told apart from the other species of Psittacosaurus by a combination of 32 anatomical features , including six that are unique to the species . Most of these are skull details , but one unusual feature is the presence of 23 vertebrae between the skull and pelvis , unlike the 21 or 22 in the other species where the vertebrae are known .

P. xinjiangensis is distinguished by a prominent jugal ' horn ' that is flattened on the front end , as well as some features of the teeth . The ilium , one of the three bones of the pelvis , also bears a characteristically long bony process behind the acetabulum ( hip socket ) . An adult femur has a published length of about 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) . P. meileyingensis has the shortest snout and neck frill of any species , making the skull nearly circular in profile . The orbit ( eye socket ) is roughly triangular , and there is a prominent flange on the lower edge of the dentary , a feature also seen in specimens of P. lujiatunensis , and to a lesser degree in P. mongoliensis , P. sattayaraki , and P. sibiricus . The complete type skull , probably adult , is 13 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long . The dentary of P. sattayaraki has a flange similar to that found in P. mongoliensis , P. sibiricus , P. lujiatunensis and P. meileyingensis , although it is less pronounced than in those species . The material appears to be roughly the same size as P. sinensis . The frontal bone of P. neimongoliensis is distinctly narrow compared to that of other species , resulting in a narrower skull overall . The ischium bone of the pelvis is also longer than the femur , which differs from other species in which these bones are known . The type specimen has a skull length of 13 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) and a femoral length of 13 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) , but is not fully grown . An adult P. neimongoliensis was probably smaller than P. mongoliensis , with a proportionately longer skull and tail . P. ordosensis can be distinguished by numerous features of the jugals , which have very prominent ' horns ' . It is also the smallest known species . One adult skull measures only 9 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 75 in ) in length .

The type skull of P. lujiatunensis measures 19 cm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) in length , while the largest known skull is 20 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 8 in ) long , so this species was similar in size to P. mongoliensis and P. sibiricus . There is a fossa in front of the eye , as in P. mongoliensis . The jugal bones flare outwards widely , making the skull wider than it is long , as seen in P. sinensis . Widely flared jugals are also found in P. sibiricus . Overall , this species is thought to exhibit several primitive characteristics compared to other species of Psittacosaurus , which is consistent with its greater geological age . P. gobiensis was small @-@ bodied ( 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long ) and differs from other species of Psittacosaurus by " significant , but structurally minor , details . " These include the presence of a pyramidal horn on the postorbital , a depression on the postorbital @-@ jugal contact , and enamel thickness . P. mongoliensis was a contemporary .

= = = Integument = = =

The integument , or body covering , of Psittacosaurus is known from a Chinese specimen , which most likely comes from the Yixian Formation of Liaoning Province , China . The specimen , which is not yet assigned to any particular species , was illegally exported from China , in violation of Chinese law , but was purchased by a German museum . It was described while awaiting repatriation .

Most of the body was covered in scales . Larger scales were arranged in irregular patterns , with numerous smaller scales occupying the spaces between them , similarly to skin impressions known from other ceratopsians , such as Chasmosaurus . A series of what appear to be hollow , tubular bristle @-@ like structures , approximately 16 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) long , were also preserved , arranged in a row down the dorsal ( upper ) surface of the tail . These were confirmed by the authors , as well as an independent scientist , to not represent plant material . The bristle @-@ like integumentary structures extend into the skin nearly to the vertebrae , and were likely circular or tubular before being preserved . Under ultraviolet light , they gave off the same fluorescence as scales , providing the possibility they were keratinized . As the authors of the study said , " At present , there is no convincing evidence which shows these structures to be homologous to the structurally different integumentary filaments of theropod dinosaurs " , however , they stated that all other feathery integument from the Yixian Formation is indeed feathers .

In 2008 , another study was published describing the integument and dermis of Psittacosaurus sp . , from two different specimens . The skin remains could be observed by a natural cross @-@ section to compare them to modern animals , showing that dinosaurian dermal layers evolved in parallel to those in many other large vertebrates . The collagen tissue fibres in Psittacosaurus are complex , virtually identical to all other vertebrates in structure but having an exceptional thickness of about forty layers . As the sections of dermis were collected from the abdomen , where the scales were eroded , the tissue may have assisted with the musculature of the stomach and intestines and offered protection against predators .

= = Paleobiology = =

The brain of P. lujiatunensis is well known ; a study on the anatomy and functionality of three specimens was published in 2007 . Until the study , it was generally thought the brain of Psittacosaurus would have been similar to other ceratopsians with low Encephalisation Quotients . Russell and Zhao ( 1996 ) believed " the small brain size of psittacosaurs implies a very restrictive behavioural repertoire relative to that of modern mammals of similar body size " . However , the 2007 study dispelled this theory when it found the brain to be more advanced . There is generally negative allometry for brain size with development in vertebrates , but this was shown not to be true in Psittacosaurus . The EQ score for P. lujiatunensis is 0 @.@ 31 , significantly higher than genera such as Triceratops . A higher EQ correlates with more complex behaviour , and various dinosaurs have high EQs , similar to birds , which range from 0 @.@ 36 to 2 @.@ 98 . Thus , Psittacosaurus behaviour could have been as complex as that in Tyrannosaurus , whose EQ ranges from 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 38 . Behaviours influenced by high EQs include nest @-@ building , parental care , and bird @-@ like sleeping , some of which have been shown to be present in Psittacosaurus .

The senses of Psittacosaurus can be inferred from the endocast . Large olfactory bulbs are present , indicating the genus had an acute sense of smell . The size of these bulbs are comparable to large predatory theropods , although they likely evolved to avoid predators instead of to seek out prey . The sclerotic rings in reptiles directly show the size of the eyeball . The rings are not well preserved in Psittacosaurus , with one individual preserving them likely contracted postmortem , but if they are similar to those of Protoceratops , Psittacosaurus would have had large eyes and acute vision . The curvature of the semicircular canals is related to the agility of reptiles , and the large curved canals in Psittacosaurus show that the genus was much more agile than later ceratopsians . Comparisons between the scleral rings of Psittacosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day and for short intervals at night .

Ford and Martin ( 2010 ) proposed that Psittacosaurus was semi @-@ aquatic , swimming with its tail like a crocodile , and paddling and kicking . They based their interpretation on evidence including : the lacustrine ( lake ) depositional setting of many specimens ; the position of the nostrils and eyes ; interpretations of the motions of the arms and legs ; tails with long chevrons ( and with the bristles on the tail interpreted as possibly skin @-@ covered , forming a fin ) , providing a propulsive surface ; and the presence of gastroliths , interpreted as ballast . They further suggested that some species of Psittacosaurus were more terrestrial than others .

= = = Diet = = =

Psittacosaurs had self @-@ sharpening teeth that would have been useful for cropping and slicing tough plant material . Unlike later ceratopsians , they did not have teeth suitable for grinding or chewing their food . Instead , they used gastroliths — stones swallowed to wear down food as it passed through the digestive system . Sometimes numbering more than fifty , these stones are occasionally found in the abdominal cavities of psittacosaurs , and may have been stored in a gizzard , as in modern birds .

Unlike many other dinosaurs , psittacosaurs had akinetic skulls : that is to say , the upper and lower jaws each behaved as a single unit , without internal joints . The only joint was the jaw joint itself , and psittacosaurs could slide their lower jaws forward and backward on the joint , permitting a shearing action . Unlike most ceratopsians , their beaks did not form curved tips , but were instead rounded and flattened . If the jaws were aligned , the beaks could be used to crop objects , but if the lower jaw was retracted so that the lower beak was inside the upper beak , the jaws may have served a nutcracking function . A nut- or seed @-@ rich diet would also match well with the gastroliths often seen in well @-@ preserved psittacosaur skeletons .

= = = Limb function = = =

Studies by Phil Senter in 2007 conducted on P. neimongoliensis and P. mongoliensis concluded that the forelimbs of these taxa ( and likely those of other Psittacosaurus species ) were too short ( only about 58 % as long as the hindlimbs ) to reach the ground , and their range of motion indicates they could neither be pronated nor generate propulsive force for locomotion , suggesting that Psittacosaurus was entirely bipedal . The forelimbs were also too short to be used in digging or bringing food to the mouth , and Senter suggested that if Psittacosaurus needed to dig depressions in the ground it may have used its hindlimbs instead . The forelimbs could be used for two @-@ handed grasping of objects or scratching the body , but due to their extremely limited flexibility and reach , they could have only been used to grasp objects very close to the belly or sides of the animal and could have scratched only the belly , flank and knees . Even though the hands could not reach the mouth , Psittacosaurus could have still used them to carry nesting material or food to a desired location .

However , Psittacosaurus may not have been entirely bipedal for its entire lifespan . Taking sections from the limb bones of 16 specimens of Psittacosaurus , ranging in age from less than a year old to ten @-@ year old adults , Qi Zhao from the University of Bristol found that Psittacosaurus was probably secondarily bipedal . The infants ' front limbs grew at faster rates than the hind limbs at between birth and three years of age . At the age of between four and six years , arm growth slowed and leg growth accelerated as the animal became mature . At this stage , Psittacosaurs would switch to a bipedal stance . These findings further reveal that the ancestor of Psittacosaurus was likely quadrupedal and eventually gained the ability to become bipedal as it evolved , with the young retaining the quadrupedal gait of the ancestor in question . These findings also lead to the hypothesis that many such dinosaur families may have evolved along this path at some point in their evolution .

= = = Growth rate = = =

Several juvenile Psittacosaurus have been found . The smallest is a P. mongoliensis hatchling conserved in the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH ) , which is only 11 to 13 centimetres ( 4 – 5 inches ) long , with a skull 2 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 1 in ) in length . Another hatchling skull at the AMNH is only 4 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 inches ) long . Both specimens are from Mongolia . Juveniles discovered in the Yixian Formation are approximately the same age as the larger AMNH specimen .

A histological examination of P. mongoliensis has determined the growth rate of these animals . The smallest specimens in the study were estimated at three years old and less than 1 kilogramme ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , while the largest were nine years old and weighed almost 20 kilogrammes ( 44 lb ) . This indicates relatively rapid growth compared to most reptiles and marsupial mammals , but slower than modern birds and placental mammals . An age determination study performed on the fossilized remains of P. mongoliensis by using growth ring counts suggest that the longevity of the basal ceratopsian was 10 to 11 years .

= = = Gregarious juveniles = = =

The find of a herd of six Psittacosaurus individuals killed and buried by a volcanic mudflow indicates the presence of at least two age groups from two distinct clutches gathered together . This find has been taken as evidence for group fidelity and gregariousness extending beyond the nest ; the earliest such evidence for any ceratopsian . Even very young psittacosaur teeth appear worn , indicating they chewed their own food and may have been precocial . Another juvenile @-@ only cluster shows that specimens of different ages grouped together . These juveniles may have associated together as a close knit , mixed @-@ age herd either for protection , to enhance their foraging , or as putative helpers at the parental nest . There is no evidence for parental care .

In 2004 , a specimen found in the Yixian Formation was claimed as evidence for parental care in dinosaurs . The specimen DNHM D2156 consists of 34 articulated juvenile Psittacosaurus skeletons , closely associated with the skull of an adult . The juveniles , all approximately the same age , are intertwined in a group underneath the adult , although all 34 skulls are positioned above the mass of bodies , as they would have been in life . This suggests that the animals were alive at the time of burial , which must have been extremely rapid , perhaps due to the collapse of a burrow . However , a 2013 paper pointed out that the adult specimen did not belong with the nest , its skull having no sedimentary connection to the main slab where the juveniles occurred , but had been glued onto it . This artificial association led to the inference that the skull belonged to an individual , possibly a " mother " , that was providing parental care for the 34 juveniles – a claim that is unfounded . Furthermore , the adult was also shown to be six years old , whereas histological studies have shown P. mongoliensis was unable to breed until it reached ten years of age . It is also unlikely that a single female would have so many offspring at one time .

A 2014 analysis of the same specimen concluded that the proximity of the six @-@ year @-@ old specimen to the post @-@ hatchlings may indicate post @-@ hatchling cooperation , making the six @-@ year @-@ old specimen a possible caretaker . Such behaviour is also found in cooperative breeding modern birds .

= = = Pathology = = =

Out of the hundreds of known Psittacosaurus specimens , only one has been described to possess any sort of pathology . The specimen in question , consisting of a complete adult skeleton and tentatively assigned to P. mongoliensis , was found in the lower beds of the Yixian Formation . There is no sign of a bone fracture , but very clear signs of an infection can be seen near the midpoint of the right fibula . The bone exhibits a large round pit , evidence of necrosis due to a lack of blood supply to the region . The pit is surrounded by a massive amount of swelling along the lower third of the bone . This large amount of bone deposited around the injury indicates that the animal survived for quite a while despite the injury and subsequent infection . As psittacosaurids were bipedal animals , a similar injury to a weight bearing bone in the leg would most likely have been fatal . Unlike the femur and tibia , the fibula is not a weight @-@ bearing bone , so this animal would still have been able to walk to some extent . The source of the injury remains unknown .

= = = Predation = = =

Another fossil from the Yixian Formation provides direct evidence of Psittacosaurus as a prey animal . One skeleton of Repenomamus robustus , a large triconodont mammal , is preserved with the remains of a juvenile Psittacosaurus in its abdominal cavity . Several of the juvenile 's bones are still articulated , indicating that the carnivorous mammal swallowed its prey in large chunks . This specimen is notable in that it is the first known example of Mesozoic mammals preying on live dinosaurs . Heavy predation on juvenile Psittacosaurus may have resulted in R @-@ selection , the production of more numerous offspring to counteract this loss .

= = Paleoecology = =

Psittacosaurus is known from hundreds of individual specimens , of which over 75 have been assigned to the type species , P. mongoliensis . All Psittacosaurus fossils discovered so far have been found in Early Cretaceous sediments in Asia , from southern Siberia to northern China , and possibly as far south as Thailand . The most common age of geologic formations bearing Psittacosaurus fossils is from the late Barremian through Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous , or approximately 123 to 100 mya ( million years ago ) . Many terrestrial sedimentary formations of this age in Mongolia and northern China have produced fossils of Psittacosaurus , leading to the definition of this time period in the region as the Psittacosaurus biochron .

The earliest known species is P. lujiatunensis , found in the lowest beds of the Yixian Formation . Over 200 specimens attributed to this genus have been recovered from these and other beds of the Yixian , the age of which is the subject of much debate . Although many early studies using radiometric dating put the Yixian in the Jurassic Period , tens of millions of years outside of the expected temporal range of Psittacosaurus , most recent work dates it to the Early Cretaceous . Using argon @-@ argon dating , a team of Chinese scientists dated the lowest beds in the formation to about 128 mya , and the highest to approximately 122 mya . A more recent Chinese study , using uranium @-@ lead dating , suggests that the lower beds are younger , approximately 123 @.@ 2 mya , while agreeing with an age of 122 mya for the upper beds .

= = History of discovery = =

Psittacosaurus was first described as a genus in 1923 , by Henry Fairfield Osborn . He named the type species P. mongoliensis , for the location of its discovery in Mongolia , placing it in the new family Psittacosauridae . Remains of this dinosaur were first discovered the year before , on the third American Museum of Natural History expedition to the Gobi Desert of Mongolia , when one of the expedition 's drivers found the type specimen ( AMNH 6254 ) , which preserves a nearly complete skull , as well as a post cranial skeleton lacking sections of the limbs . This same expedition turned up the remains of many other famous Mongolian dinosaurs , including Protoceratops , Oviraptor , and Velociraptor . Many later expeditions by various combinations of Mongolian , Russian , Chinese , American , Polish , Japanese , and Canadian paleontologists also recovered specimens from throughout Mongolia and northern China . In these areas , Psittacosaurus mongoliensis fossils are found in most sedimentary strata dating to the Aptian to Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous Period , or approximately 125 to 100 Ma ( million years ago ) . Fossil remains of over 75 individuals have been recovered , including nearly 20 complete skeletons with skulls . Individuals of all ages are known , from hatchlings less than 13 centimetres ( 5 in ) long , to very old adults reaching nearly 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in length .

When describing Psittacosaurus mongoliensis in 1923 , Osborn also gave the name Protiguanodon mongoliense to another skeleton found nearby , believing it to represent an ancestor of the ornithopod Iguanodon , in the new subfamily Protiguanodontinae . Protiguanodon mongoliense , AMNH 6523 , measured 1 @.@ 35 m ( 4 @.@ 4 ft ) long , and was known from much of the skeleton , although at the time of description the neck vertebrae were still covered by matrix . Osborn diagnosed his taxa on the basis of features of the teeth and snout . However , modern taxonomists find these features insignificant , instead placing Protiguanodon mongoliense within Psittacosaurus mongoliensis . When the skeleton was prepared further , it became clear that it was nearly identical to Psittacosaurus mongoliensis . In 1958 , Chinese paleontologist Yang Zhongjian ( better known as C. C. Young ) renamed the skeleton Psittacosaurus protiguanodonensis . Today the specimen is generally referred to as the species Psittacosaurus mongoliensis and the names Protiguanodon mongoliense and Psittacosaurus protiguanodonensis are considered junior synonyms of the name Psittacosaurus mongoliensis , which was coined first .

In 1931 , C. C. Young named a new species of Psittacosaurus for a partial skull discovered in Inner Mongolia , China . The skull was named P. osborni after Henry Fairfield Osborn . The validity of this species is now considered equivocal . Sereno ( 1990 ) considered it a synonym of P. mongoliensis , which is found in nearby strata of the same age . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) listed it as valid in a table , but not in their text . In a 2010 review , Sereno again regarded P. osborni as a synonym of P. mongoliensis , but noted it was tentative because of the presence of multiple valid psittacosaur species in Inner Mongolia . Young also described the species P. tingi in the same 1931 report which contained P. osborni . It is based on several skull fragments . He later synonymised the two species under the name P. osborni . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) followed this in a table , but Sereno regarded both species as synonyms of P. mongoliensis ; a table in the latter reported P. tingi as a nomen dubium , however . The front half of a skull from Guyang County in Inner Mongolia was described as Psittacosaurus guyangensis in 1983 . Disarticulated postcranial remains representing multiple individuals were found at the same locality and were assigned to the species . While it differs from the type specimen of P. mongoliensis , it falls within the range of individual variation seen in other specimens of that species and is no longer recognised as a valid species . You and Dodson ( 2004 ) included P. guyangensis in a table of valid taxa , but did not include it as such in their text .

= = = Assigned species = = =

Seventeen species have been referred to the genus Psittacosaurus , although only nine to eleven are considered valid today . This is the highest number of valid species currently assigned to any single dinosaur genus ( not including birds ) . In contrast , most other dinosaur genera are monospecific , containing only a single known species . The difference is most likely due to artifacts of the fossilisation process . While Psittacosaurus is known from hundreds of fossil specimens , most other dinosaur species are known from far fewer , and many are represented by only a single specimen . With a very high sample size , the diversity of Psittacosaurus can be analysed more completely than that of most dinosaur genera , resulting in the recognition of more species . Most extant animal genera are represented by multiple species , suggesting that this may have been the case for extinct dinosaur genera as well , although most of these species may not have been preserved . In addition , most dinosaurs are known solely from bones and can only be evaluated from a morphological standpoint , whereas extant species often have very similar skeletal morphology but differ in other ways which would not normally be preserved in the fossil record , such as behaviour , or colouration . Therefore , actual species diversity may be much higher than currently recognised in this and other dinosaur genera . As some species are known only from skull material , species of Psittacosaurus are primarily distinguished by features of the skull and teeth . Several species can be recognised by features of the pelvis as well .

In the 1950s , a new Chinese species of Psittacosaurus was found in the Aptian @-@ Albian Qingshan Formation of Shandong Province , southeast of Beijing . C. C. Young called it P. sinensis to differentiate it from P. mongoliensis , which had originally been found in Mongolia . Fossils of more than twenty individuals have since been recovered , including several complete skulls and skeletons , making this the most well @-@ known species after P. mongoliensis . Chinese paleontologist Zhao Xijin named a new species after his mentor , C. C. Young , in 1962 . However , the type specimen of P. youngi ( a partial skeleton and skull ) was discovered in the same rocks as P. sinensis and appears to be very similar , so P. youngi is generally considered a junior synonym of that better @-@ known species . As with P. guyangensis and P. osborni , You and Dodson ( 2004 ) listed it as valid in a table , but not in their text .

In 1988 , Zhao and American paleontologist Paul Sereno described P. xinjiangensis , named after the Xinjiang Autonomous Region in which it was discovered . Several individuals of different ages were discovered in the early 1970s by Chinese paleontologists and described by Sereno and Zhao , although the holotype and most complete skeleton belonged to a juvenile . An adult skeleton was later discovered at a different locality in Xinjiang . These specimens come from the upper part of the Tugulu Group , which is regarded as Aptian @-@ Albian in age . A second species described in 1988 by Sereno and Zhao , along with two Chinese colleagues , was P. meileyingensis from the Jiufotang Formation , near the town of Meileyingzi , Liaoning Province , northeastern China . This species is known from four fossil skulls , one associated with some skeletal material , found in 1973 by Chinese scientists . The age of the Jiufotang in Liaoning is unknown , but in the neighbouring province of Inner Mongolia , it has been dated to about 110 Ma , in the Albian stage of the Early Cretaceous .

French paleontologist Eric Buffetaut and a Thai colleague , Varavudh Suteethorn , described a partial upper and lower jaw from the Aptian @-@ Albian Khok Kruat Formation of Thailand in 1992 , giving it the name Psittacosaurus sattayaraki . In 2000 , Sereno questioned the validity of this species , citing its eroded and fragmentary nature , and noted an absence of features characteristic of the genus Psittacosaurus . However , in 2002 the original authors published new images of the fossil which seem to show teeth in the lower jaw that exhibit the bulbous vertical ridge characteristic of psittacosaurs . Other authors have also defended its validity , while some continue to regard it as dubious . Sereno ( 2010 ) proposed that the best assignment for the type material may be Ceratopsia incertae sedis .

Two new species of Psittacosaurus were described by Canadian Dale Russell and Zhao in 1996 . The first was named P. neimongoliensis , after the Mandarin Chinese name for Inner Mongolia . It is based on a nearly complete fossil skeleton , including most of the skull , found in the Early Cretaceous Ejinhoro Formation with seven other individuals . Russell and Zhao also named P. ordosensis in 1996 , after the Ordos prefecture of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region . The type specimen is a nearly complete skeleton , including part of the skull . However , only the skull , lower jaw , and foot have been described . Three other specimens were referred to this species but remain undescribed . Like P. neimongoliensis , this species was discovered in the Eijnhoro Formation . Sereno ( 2010 ) found the species as described to be indistinguishable from P. sinensis , another small species , but suggested that additional study of P. ordosensis might reveal diagnostic features . He provisionally designated P. ordosensis a nomen dubium .

Xu Xing , another Chinese paleontologist , named a new species of Psittacosaurus in 1997 , based on a complete skull with associated vertebrae and a forelimb . This material was recovered in Gansu Province , near the border with Inner Mongolia . This species is named P. mazongshanensis after the nearby mountain called Mazongshan ( Horse Mane Mountain ) and has been described in a preliminary manner . Unfortunately , the skull was damaged while in the care of the Chinese Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology ( IVPP ) , and several fragments have been lost , including all of the teeth . The remains were found in the Lower Xinminbao Formation , which have not been precisely dated , although there is some evidence that they were deposited in the late Barremian through Aptian stages . Sereno suggested in 2000 that P. mazongshanensis was a nomen dubium , with no unique features that separate it from any other species of Psittacosaurus . However , more recent authors have noted that it can be distinguished by its proportionally long snout compared to other species of Psittacosaurus , as well as a prominent bony protuberance , pointing outwards and downwards , on the maxilla of the upper jaw . The maxillary protuberance is also now missing . Other features originally used to distinguish the species have been recognised as the results of the deformation of the skull after fossilisation . Sereno ( 2010 ) remained unconvinced of its validity .

Beginning in the 1950s , Russian paleontologists began excavating Psittacosaurus remains at a locality near the village of Shestakovo in the oblast of Kemerovo in Siberia . Two other nearby localities were explored in the 1990s , one of which produced several complete skeletons . This species was named P. sibiricus in 2000 in a scientific paper written by five Russian paleontologists , but credit for the name is officially given to two of those authors , Alexei Voronkevich and Alexander Averianov . The remains were not completely described until 2006 . Two nearly complete , articulated skeletons and a variety of disarticulated material from other individuals of all ages are known from the Ilek Formation of Siberia , which ranges from the Aptian to Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous .

P. lujiatunensis , named in 2006 by Chinese paleontologist Zhou Chang @-@ Fu and three Chinese colleagues , is one of the oldest known species , based on four skulls from the lower beds of Yixian Formation , near the village of Lujiatun . While this bed has been dated differently by different authors , from 128 Ma in the Barremian stage , to 125 Ma in the earliest Aptian , revised dating methods have shown them to be about 123 million years old . P. lujiatunensis was contemporaneous with another psittacosaurid species , Hongshanosaurus houi , which was found in the same beds . It is potentially synonymous with H. houi ; Sereno ( 2010 ) , who proposed that Hongshanosaurus is a synonym of Psittacosaurus , opted to leave P. lujiatunensis and H. houi separate species due to the inadequacies of the latter 's type specimen . One nearly complete skeleton of P. lujiatunensis from the same lower beds of the Yixian Formation had previously been classified in its own species , Psittacosaurus major , named for the large size of its skull by Sereno , Zhao and two colleagues in 2007 . You and colleagues described an additional specimen and concurred that it was distinct from P. lujiatunensis . P. major was originally characterised by a proportionately large skull , which was 39 % of the length of its torso , compared to 30 % in P. mongoliensis , and other features . However , a 2013 study utilising morphometric analysis showed that the supposed differences between P. lujiatunensis and P. major were due to differences in preservation and crushing . The study concluded that both represented a single species .

A third species of Lujiatun psittacosaur , the first to be named , was described as Hongshanosaurus houi in 2003 . The generic name Hongshanosaurus was derived from the Mandarin Chinese words 紅 ( hóng : " red " ) and 山 ( shān : " hill " ) , as well as the Greek word sauros ( " lizard " ) . This name refers to the ancient Hongshan culture of northeastern China , who lived in the same general area in which the fossil skull of Hongshanosaurus was found . The type and only named species , H. houi , honours Hou Lianhai , a professor at the IVPP in Beijing , who curated the specimen . Genus and species were both named by Chinese paleontologists You Hailu , Xu Xing , and Wang Xiaolin in 2003 . Sereno ( 2010 ) regarded its distinct proportions as due to crushing and compression of the Hongshanosaurus skulls . He regarded Hongshanosaurus as a junior synonym of Psittacosaurus , and potentially the same as P. lujiatunensis . He did not synonymise the two species because of difficulties with the holotype skull of H. houi , instead considering new combination P. houi a nomen dubium within Psittacosaurus . Sereno 's hypothesis was supported by a morphometric study in 2013 , which found P. houi and P. lujiatunensis to be synonymous . While P. houi is the oldest available name , the researchers argued that because the type specimen of P. lujiatunensis was better preserved , the correct name for this species should be P. lujiatunensis rather than P. houi , which would normally have priority .

P. gobiensis is named for the region it was found in 2001 , and first described by Sereno , Zhao and Lin in 2010 . It is known from a skull and partial articulated skeleton with gastroliths . Many other specimens either cannot be determined to belong to any particular species , or have not yet been assigned to one . These specimens are generally all referred to as Psittacosaurus sp . , although it is not assumed that they belong to the same species . More than 200 specimens of Psittacosaurus have been found in the Yixian Formation , which is famous for its fossils of feathered dinosaurs . The vast majority of these have not been assigned to any published species , although many are very well preserved and some have already been partially described . Nearly 100 Psittacosaurus skeletons were excavated in Mongolia during the summers of 2005 and 2006 by a team led by Mongolian paleontologist Bolortsetseg Minjin and American Jack Horner from the Museum of the Rockies in Montana . Although only P. mongoliensis has been described from Mongolia so far , these specimens are still in preparation and have not yet been assigned to a species .

= = Classification = =

Psittacosaurus is the type genus of the family Psittacosauridae , which was also named by Osborn in 1923 . Psittacosaurids were basal to almost all known ceratopsians except Yinlong and perhaps the Chaoyangsauridae . While Psittacosauridae was an early branch of the ceratopsian family tree , Psittacosaurus itself was probably not directly ancestral to any other groups of ceratopsians . All other ceratopsians retained the fifth digit of the hand , a plesiomorphy or primitive trait , whereas all species of Psittacosaurus had only four digits on the hand . In addition , the antorbital fenestra , an opening in the skull between the eye socket and nostril , was lost during the evolution of Psittacosauridae , but is still found in most other ceratopsians and in fact most other archosaurs . It is considered highly unlikely that the fifth digit or antorbital fenestra would evolve a second time .

In 2014 , the describers of a new taxon of basal ceratopsian published a phylogenetic analysis encompassing Psittacosaurus . The below cladogram is from their analysis , placing the genus as one of the most primitive ceratopsians . The authors ( Farke et al . ) noted that all taxa outside of Leptoceratopsidae and Coronosauria with the exception of their genus Aquilops are from Asia , meaning the group likely originated there .

Although many species of Psittacosaurus have been named , their relationships to each other have not yet been fully explored and no scientific consensus exists on the subject . Several phylogenetic analyses have been published , with the most detailed being those by Alexander Averianov and colleagues in 2006 , Hai @-@ Lu You and colleagues in 2008 , and Paul Sereno in 2010 . The middle one is shown below .

In 2005 , Zhou and colleagues suggested that P. lujiatunensis is basal to all other species . This would be consistent with its earlier appearance in the fossil record .

= Wait & See ( Risk ) =

" Wait & See ( Risk ) " ( stylized as Wait & See ~ リスク ~ ) is a song recorded by Japanese – American recording artist Utada Hikaru for her third studio and second Japanese language album , Distance ( 2000 ) . It premiered on April 19 , 2000 as the second single from the album in Japan . It was written and composed by Utada , whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada and American duo Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . The single also included the two B @-@ side track 's ; " Hayatochiri " and " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) , to which the former song appeared on the parent album . Musically , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " is an R & B song , influenced by dance @-@ pop and rock .

Upon its release , the track garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics highlighted the track as one of Utada 's best singles , and commended the production and composition . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number one on both the Oricon Singles Chart and Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV singles chart . It was certified million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of one million units , and is amongst one of the best selling singles in Japan . An accompanying music video was shot by Wataru Takeishi ; it features Utada driving through Shibuya , Tokyo on a futuristic hover – cycle , with inter cut scenes of her dancing . It was performed on some of her concert tours , including the Bohemian Summer ( 2000 ) and Utada United tours ( 2006 ) .

= = Background and composition = =

" Wait & See ( Risk ) " was written and composed by Utada , whilst production and arrangement was handled by Utada and American duo Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . It was the second time Utada worked with Jam and Lewis , and not with her father Teruzane Utada and Miyake Akira . The song included live instrumentation by Xavier Smith ( drum machine ) and Dave Barry ( bass and acoustic guitar ) , whilst Jam and Lewis incorporated synthesizers and keyboards . The song was recorded and mixed by Steve Hodge , Indoh Mitsuhiro , and Ugajin Masaaki in 2000 at Flyte Tyme Studios , Minneapolis , Minnesota , and mixed at Flyte Tyme , Edina , Minnesota . It premiered on April 19 , 2000 as the second single from Utada 's third studio and second Japanese language album , Distance ( 2001 ) in Japan . Since then , the song has been remastered and re @-@ released twice ; the first on April 1 , 2004 , and the second time on December 9 , 2014 for Utada 's first greatest hits album Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) .

The single also included the two B @-@ side tracks ; " Hayatochiri " and " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " . The original version of " Hayatochiri " appears on the single , whilst a remixed version by Utada appeared on Distance . " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " is a cover version that was originally written and performed by Bart Howard and Kaye Ballard in 1954 ; a second cover version sung by Utada appeared eight years later on her single " Kiss & Cry " / " Beautiful World " . The maxi CD of the single contains all three new recordings , plus a remix by Baton Girl and instrumental version of " Wait & See ( Risk ) " . The cover artwork of the single featured four images of Utada in front of a brown backdrop , two of which are transparent . The DVD single was released on June 30 , 2000 , which included new artwork of Utada in the speed bike , and the music video and the behind the scenes video . Musically , " Wait & See " is an R & B song , influenced by rock and dance @-@ pop . Rock musician and music journalist David Bertrand Wilson had reviewed the parent album , and labelled it a " bouncy dance track " . Kano , editor in chief for Rockin 'On Japan magazine noted elements of R & B music through the song 's composition . When a staff editor from CD Journal reviewed Utada 's first greatest hits album , Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2004 ) , he labeled the composition as " urban " and " speedy " .

= = Critical reception = =

Upon its release , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " received positive reviews from most music critics . Nagasawa Tomonori from Barks.com selected the song as one of the album 's best tracks . Editor in chief for Rockin 'On Japan magazine Kano commended the " excellent " composition of the song , and the " innovative " production by Jam and Lewis . AllMusic 's Ian Martin praised Jam and Lewis ' involvement , saying that " providing a stark contrast to the cheap , tinny sound that characterized much Japanese pop of the previous decade , with " Wait & See " and " Addicted to You " both featuring the production talents of Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis . " A staff reviewer from Yahoo ! GeoCities was positive in their review , whom highlighted the single as one of the best tracks on the album .

Conversely , rock musician and music journalist , David Bertrand Wilson , had reviewed the parent album with journalist John Alroy , and gave it a mixed review ; whilst they praised the composition , they felt its production was " distressingly drab " . A staff review from CD Journal discussed Utada 's compilation Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 , and said although the vocal delivery " floats " and is " basic " , it molded into one of Utada 's " masterpieces " . At the 15th Japan Gold Disc Awards , Utada won the Song of the Year award for " Wait & See ( Risk ) " ; she had also won two same awards that year for her singles " For You " and " Time Limit " . In December 2015 , in honor of Utada 's comeback into the music business , Japanese website Goo.ne.jp hosted a poll for fans to rank their favourite songs by Utada out of 25 positions ; the poll was held in only twenty @-@ four hours , and thousands submitted their votes . As a result , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " was ranked at number 10 with 40 votes in total .

= = Commercial response = =

Commercially , " Wait & See ( Risk ) " was a success in Japan . It became her third single to debut at number one on the Oricon Singles Chart , with over 804 @,@ 570 units sold in its first week . Its first week sales made it the 13th highest on Oricon Database , her second single behind " Addicted to You " with 1 @.@ 067 million first week units , and the only female artist to occupy the top twenty with three entries . It stayed at number one for a sole week , and spent a total of 21 weeks on that chart . By the end of 2000 , the single was ranked at number three on Oricon 's Annual 2000 chart ; it sold 1 @,@ 662 @,@ 060 units by the end of the year . This became Utada 's highest entry in that annual chart , the highest selling female recording artist based on single sales , and made " Wait & See ( Risk ) " the highest selling single of 2000 by a female recording artist . The single was certfieid million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of one million units .

The single debuted at number one on Tokyo Broadcasting System 's ( TBS ) Count Down TV chart during the chart week of April 29 , 2000 , her fifth consecutive single to do so . The single stayed in the chart for 20 weeks , and was ranked at number four on their 2000 Annual Chart . The B @-@ side track , " Fly Me to the Moon ( In Other Words ) " , debuted at number 22 during the chart week of May 20 , 2000 . It slipped to number 87 the following week , and was present for two weeks . According to Oricon Style database , the single is Utada 's second highest selling single , and is currently ranked by Music TV Program as the fiftieth best selling single in Japanese music history , her third highest entry behind " Addicted to You " and " Automatic / Time Will Tell " .

= = Music video = =

An accompanying music video was directed by Wataru Takeishi . The video opens with Utada entering a warehouse , and lifts a tarp off a hover cycle . As the camera pans away from the bike , Utada sits down and starts the bike . The first verse opens with Utada singing to the camera in a warehouse , whilst intercut scenes have her driving throughout Shibuya , Japan . As the verse progresses , two more clones of Utada appear and sing behind the original Utada . As the chorus starts , the hover cycle starts grinding against the road as she rides through small streets and corners . During the second verse , Utada stops through a city centre as shots of the clones appear on city billboards . She takes of her goggles , and stares at the moon , while close @-@ up of the clone 's faces are seen singing to the track .

The second chorus has the clones singing in different parts of the warehouse , with scenes of Utada driving through the subways in Shibuya . By the bridge section , the clones disappear and the original Utada is singing in the warehouse . She is then driving through tunnels at night , and stops at the warehouse she started from . She turns it off during the final scene of the video , puts the tarp back on , and walks outside of the warehouse . The music video and the " behind the scenes " video was included on her Single Clip Collection Vol . 2 ( 2000 ) .

= = Live performances and promotion = =

The single has been performed on majority of Utada 's concert tours . Its first performance was during her Bohemian Summer Tour in 2000 , which was included on the live release on December 9 , 2000 . It was then included on Utada 's exclusive MTV Unplugged concert , serving as the opening number . It was included on the live DVD , released on November 28 , 2001 . She later performed it in 2004 , during her Bokuhan concert tour . It appeared on the live DVD , which was released on July 28 , 2004 . It was included on Utada 's debut English concert tour named Utada United , which was later included on the live DVD , released on December 20 , 2006 . Since the track 's release , it has appeared on three compilation releases : Utada Hikaru Single Collection Vol . 1 ( 2003 ) , it 's 2014 remastered version , and a special bundle of the compilation and the vol . 2 collection on a USB .

= = Track listings and formats = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Details adapted from the liner notes of the single 's CD release .

Recording

Recorded at Flyte Tyme Studios , Minneapolis , Minnesota , and mixed at Flyte Tyme , Edina , Minnesota .

Personnel

= = Charts = =

= = Certification = =

= Battle of Bonchurch =

The Battle of Bonchurch took place sometime in late July 1545 at Bonchurch on the Isle of Wight . No source of information states a specific date , although it could have happened on 21 July . The battle was a part of the wider Italian War of 1542 – 1546 , and took place during the 1545 French invasion of the Isle of Wight . Several landings were made by the French during the invasion of the Isle of Wight , including the one at Bonchurch . The two combatants were the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France . England won the battle , and the French advance across the Isle of Wight was halted .

The battle was fought between French regular soldiers , and English militiamen . The number of French soldiers involved is believed to be around 500 . The number of English militiamen is uncertain , with one source of information stating 300 , and another stating 2800 . English forces at the battle are understood to have been commanded by Captain Robert Fyssher , whilst French forces engaged were commanded by Le Seigneur de Tais . The battle was one of several that were fought between the English and the French on the Isle of Wight . The majority of sources of information regarding the battle state that the English won , although one source of information states that the French were victorious . The battle was fought because it was part of the French attempt to cause enough damage to the Isle of Wight to force the English ships standing off the coast of England to leave their defensive positions and attack in conditions favourable to the French . The landing at Bonchurch was one of several made by the French on the Isle of Wight , with others taking place at Sandown , Bembridge and St Helens .

= = Background = =

The Italian War of 1542 @-@ 1546 occurred because the disputes between the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Francis I of France had not been settled by the Italian War of 1535 @-@ 1538 , and those disputes resulted in a war between France , aided by the Ottoman Empire and Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg , and the Holy Roman Empire , aided by the Kingdom of England , Spain , Saxony , and Brandenburg . After two years of fighting Charles V , and Henry VIII of the Kingdom of England , invaded France . In September 1544 , English forces captured Boulogne . France attempted to re @-@ capture the city by force , but failed . Peace talks to end the fighting between England and France did not yield any positive results , partly because Henry VIII refused to consider returning Boulogne . As a result of the failure of diplomacy to get back Boulogne for France , Francis I decided to invade England , hoping that Henry VIII would return Boulogne to France in return for French forces leaving England . Thirty thousand French troops and a fleet of some 400 vessels were assembled . The fleet left Le Havre , in France , on 16 July .

On 18 July , the hostile engagement of French and English ships by the English coast marked the beginning of the Battle of the Solent . On that day , the outnumbered English ships withdrew . The English hoped to lure the French ships into the shallows and narrow channels of the Spithead , but the French wanted to attack the English in the more open waters of the eastern Spithead where the English ships could be encircled and annihilated . To entice the English ships to abandon their defensive position , and engage the numerically greater French ships , the French decided to invade the Isle of Wight , burning buildings and crops . France hoped that the residents of the Isle of Wight would support them , and rebel against England , and that the Isle of Wight could be used a base to challenge the English . French troops landed on the Isle of Wight , on 21 July . England would oppose this invasion of the Isle of Wight .

The Hundred Years War had resulted in the society which existed on the Isle of Wight being very militarised . Every male adult was obligated to fight when needed , and they participated in regular military training . The Captain of the Isle of Wight , Sir Richard Worsley of Appuldurcombe House , is considered to have been a “ capable and energetic commander ” . He was assisted by Sir Edward Bellingham , an officer in the regular English army , along with a headquarters staff . The English militiamen were equipped with " long pikes topped with a bill hook , and daggers , knives and clubs for close fighting " , as well as the Welsh longbow . The French soldiers were equipped with firearms , and steel blades . The militiamen had the advantage of superior morale , speed and agility .

The plan for the advance of the French soldiers at Bonchurch may have been to burn Wroxall and Appuldurcombe , capture and consolidate a position on the heights of St. Boniface Down , and then move towards Sandown to link up with a French landing there . The area around Bonchurch became important in its own right because Dunnose Point , near Bonchurch , offered a safe anchorage for French ships . There were also sources of fresh water nearby that could be used by the soldiers and sailors of the fleet .

= = Prelude = =

French troops were landed at three locations on the coast of the Isle of Wight , and the total number of French soldiers who were landed was 2000 . Bonchurch was one of the three places where French troops landed , and the number of soldiers who landed at Bonchurch is believed to be around 500 . The landing was unopposed and the French forces began to advance inland , up steep thickly wooded slopes . The Isle of Wight militia , however , learnt about the French invasion very quickly . 300 soldiers of the militia , under the command of Captain Robert Fyssher , were waiting at St. Boniface Down for the French to advance from Monks Bay .

= = Battle = =

Reports of the fighting are confused , and therefore no fully comprehensive account of the battle has been agreed upon . However , the battle could have taken place at dawn ( the day of the battle is unknown ) , and lasted until midday . Some records of the battle say that some women of the Isle of Wight participated in the battle by shooting arrows at the French .

= = = Did the French win the battle ? = = =

One source of information states that the French won the battle at Bonchurch . This source says that the English forces opposing the French were not local militiamen , but militiamen from Hampshire . The English forces took up a defensive position , a fact which is agreed upon by another account of the fighting , and were flanked by cliffs and screened by woods . According to this account , the number of English troops was 2 @,@ 800 . The first French attack was repelled but Le Seigneur de Tais , commander of the French forces involved in the battle , rallied his troops . A second French attack against the English forces was launched , with the French forces arranged into the ' array ' fighting formation . The account concludes its description of the fighting by saying that , after heavy casualties were sustained by both sides , the English line broke and the militia routed as a result of the second attack by the French . The account also states that Captain Robert Fyssher , which another source of information states commanded the English forces during the battle , is reported to have shouted out , as the militia routed , offering £ 100 for anyone who could bring him a horse , because he was too fat to run . A quote by Sir John Oglander is recorded , which reads that “ but none could be had even for a kingdom ” . The captain was never heard from again , and the account states that he was either killed , or captured and then buried at sea .

= = Aftermath = =

The casualties for both sides were heavy . The battle resulted in the French invasion of the Isle of Wight being stopped . Another skirmish took place at Bonchurch several days after the battle , when English forces engaged with French men who had disembarked from French ships retreating from Portsmouth looking for water . A senior French commander , Chevalier D 'Aux , was killed as a result of the engagement . The English victory at Bonchurch only had a marginal impact on the course of the Italian War of 1542 @-@ 1546 , because the battle only involved a very small number of men relative to the numbers of men that were engaged throughout the entirety of the war . The fact that it only had a marginal impact is also because , if the French had captured the Isle of Wight , it is unlikely that that capture would have drastically affected the course of the war , because there were more significant territories that were being contested . The Isle of Wight could have been used to support French operations against England had it been captured ; Claude d 'Annebault , commander of the French armada , recorded that “ having it [ the Isle of Wight ] under our control , we [ the French ] could then dominate Portsmouth ... and so put the enemy to extraordinary expense in maintaining a standing army and navy to contain us . ” Although some sources do state that the victory at Bonchurch was responsible for the French withdrawal from the Isle of Wight , the source of information which states that the French won the battle says that fighting at Bembridge was what drove the French from the island .

= Tim Rogers ( journalist ) =

Tim Rogers ( born June 7 , 1979 ) is an American video game journalist and developer . In games journalism , he is known for his association with mid @-@ 2000s New Games Journalism , his verbose writing style , and his video game reviews website ActionButton.net. The Guardian cited his 2005 " Dreaming in an empty room : a defense of Metal Gear Solid 2 " as a core example of New Games Journalism , a style of video game journalism that emphasizes the author 's subjective and personal experiences in relation to the game world . Rogers has also written for Next Generation , GamesTM , Play , Game Developer , and Kotaku .

In game development , he is a co @-@ founder of Action Button Entertainment , where he designed games including Ziggurat and Videoball . The four @-@ person studio specializes in simple aesthetics and controls , following from Rogers 's own video game aesthetic and minimalist eSports interests . He compared the studio 's design philosophy to the spartan menu selections of Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares .

= = Early and personal life = =

Tim Rogers graduated from Indiana University Bloomington in 2001 with a degree in East Asian Languages and Cultures . He is a " self @-@ avowed messy guitar player " in his rock band , Large Prime Numbers . He has written that Mother 2 made him a vegetarian .

= = Video games journalism = =

Rogers is a video games journalist known for his verbosity . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com described him as " infamous " in New Games Journalism , a style of subjective video game journalism in which authors emphasize their personal experiences in relation to the game world . The Guardian cited Rogers as one of the " unmissable examples of New Games Journalism " in 2005 for his Insert Credit piece on Metal Gear Solid 2 , " Dreaming in an empty room : a defense of Metal Gear Solid 2 " . Gaming journalist Kieron Gillen called the article " highly discussed and fairly brilliant " . In 2006 , Simon Carless of GameSetWatch remarked that online communities were fascinated with Rogers as an originator of New Games Journalism , which Carless found at odds with their mistreatment of him , citing a Something Awful mock review of Sonic Riders . The next year , the same author cited Rogers ' 80 @,@ 000 @-@ word article , " the insertcredit.com fukubukuro 2006 : GAME OF THE YEAR EDITION " , in calling Rogers " the Lester Bangs of video games " for being the only person " disruptive and iconoclastic enough " for the title . In 2011 , Jim Rossignol of Rock , Paper , Shotgun recommended " Who Killed Videogames ? " , a new Rogers essay , as a standout work .

Rogers started ActionButton.net , a video games reviews website , in early 2007 as an outgrowth from Insert Credit and its forums , SelectButton . At the time of its launch , Simon Carless of GameSetWatch called the site " great writing " in a signature " self @-@ conscious metacommentary " style . GamesRadar called Tim Rogers " loquacious " and " a character " as profiled in Cara Ellison 's " Embed With ... " profile series , where they discussed " sticktion " as the role of " sticky friction " in Super Mario Bros. 3 and how it was used in Rogers ' own Ziggurat and Videoball . Edge described Rogers as a " polarising author of so much ' publish @-@ now @-@ edit @-@ never ' brain spew " . In 2013 , Rogers was selected to publish in the first round of digital books on games criticism published by Press Select . Rogers has also written for Insert Credit , Next Generation , GamesTM , Play , N @-@ Revolution , Kotaku , Atomix , and Game Developer magazine . As of June 2016 , Rock , Paper , Scissors reported ActionButton.net to be " dormant " .

= = Action Button Entertainment = =

Rogers is a co @-@ founder of Action Button Entertainment , a four @-@ person studio that consists of Rogers , Brent Porter , Michael Kerwin , and Nicholas Wasilewski , who together have built all of the studio 's four games from Ziggurat through Videoball . Their games are consistently simple in their aesthetics and controls , following from Rogers 's own video game aesthetic interests . Rogers became known for producing " infomercial @-@ style trailers " . Rogers interest in minimalist eSports and simple games parlays into his design philosophy , which he compared to Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares , where Ramsay advises failing restaurants to improve by trimming their menus to a spartan few great dishes . Rogers also felt simple games were " less work " .

Rogers has said that he aspires for Action Button Entertainment to make games that share his preferred gaming styles and his hobbies . In finding that the common link between his top 25 video games ( including Panzer Dragoon , Cave Story , Canabalt , and his favorite , Out of This World ) was minimalist aesthetics with no overt story to tell other than through game mechanics , Rogers wanted Ziggurat and future games to live up to those expectations and used his gut to fine @-@ tune design decisions . The games also reflect aspects of Rogers 's personality , such as in the " scream sound effect " on Ziggurat made and distorted from his guitar based on sounds made by eccentric Japanese musicians whose records he owned . He also called Ziggurat a descendant of his hobbies : the video game Ibara : Black Label and the Rubik 's Cube .

= = = Ziggurat = = =

Ziggurat is a retro @-@ style arcade shooter video game where the player fights off incoming aliens as the world 's last human from atop a ziggurat . The player uses simple touch controls to charge and shoot the enemies away , and dies if hit by an enemy . The game has 16 @-@ bit graphics style and an 8 @-@ bit chiptune soundtrack .

Rogers co @-@ founded Action Button Entertainment while working on Ziggurat , which began with an idea Rogers had while playing Angry Birds about pushing back a swarm of bats by shooting projectiles at them . He decided that he could not make the game alone . Rogers put out a call for artists on Twitter with a submissions request of " fan art of the Japanese box art of Phantasy Star II " , and Action Button artist Brent Porter replied in under an hour with an entry Rogers called " incredible " . In mid 2011 , Rogers decided to work on an iPhone game for a few weeks as a break from a larger project . Rogers said the team was convinced by his design document — this game would become Ziggurat . Rogers contacted an Internet acquaintance who had previously mocked up a design idea from Rogers 's Kotaku column , programmer Michael Kerwin , who came through with a rough draft within a week . Andrew Toups converted a soundtrack created by Rogers 's rock band into an 8 @-@ bit soundtrack . After six months of hiatus and working at a social games company , Rogers rekindled development and the team finished the Ziggurat , which was released in February 2012 for iOS platforms .

Edge related the " unexpectedly poignant " red screen and sound effect that flashes upon the player 's death to Rogers 's personal interest in noise rock . They called it a " beguiling personal signature " .

= = = TNNS = = =

TNNS , pronounced " tennis " , is a brick @-@ breaking action game where players use a paddle along the screen 's left side to bounce a ball towards breakable objects on the right side of the screen , and to avoid getting the ball in their goal . It was released with little advanced notice in November 2012 for iOS as a universal app playable on iPhones , iPads , and iPods . Danny Cowan of IndieGames.com compared it with Sidhe Interactive 's Shatter and VG247 called it a rendition of Breakout . Pocket Gamer likened it to both and further compared it with Alleyway , Arkanoid , and Super Hexagon with a " telekinetic power " to alter the ball 's direction apart from the panel ( as in Shatter ) .

= = = 10 × 8 = = =

Ten by Eight , stylized as 10 × 8 , is a puzzle video game where players match tiles . Players align similarly colored blocks and trace the path they create when aligned . Star blocks act as power @-@ ups that extend combos . Rogers produced an " infomercial @-@ style trailer " for the game , which VG247 called one of his signature moves and that IndieGames.com called " glorious " . It was released on July 31 , 2013 in North America for PlayStation Mobile — the PlayStation Vita and compatible devices . Around the same time , Rogers presented at the GDC 2013 Indie Soapbox , where he told the story of how he " went indie " .

= = = Videoball = = =

In Videoball , players use solely one analog stick and one button to control triangles that shoot projectiles to knock a circular ball into the opposing team 's endzone . The triangle shoots a projectile , which charges the longer the button is held , such that a charged " slam " shot can sail across the full screen . Rogers , the game 's designer , describes the game as " an abstract minimalist electronic sport " . Its development began as a dare from QWOP developer Bennett Foddy , Rogers 's friend , to make a " one @-@ button StarCraft " . Rogers compared the game 's design process to Gordon Ramsay 's Kitchen Nightmares , where Ramsay convinces failing restaurants to provide fewer menu options and to make those dishes well . Rogers noted the role of noted basketball @-@ like strategy in its playtests , and the difficulty in crafting a minimalist game with a high importance on nuanced detail . He livestreams prerelease sessions of Videoball via Twitch and broadcast gameplay from Twitch 's booth at PAX East 2014 with indie publisher Midnight City . The game is expected for release in 2015 with cross @-@ platform multiplayer and support for more than six simultaneous players .

= Battle of Borgerhout =

The Battle of Borgerhout was a battle during the Eighty Years ' War , of the Spanish Army of Flanders led by Alexander Farnese , Prince of Parma , upon a fortified camp at the village of Borgerhout , near Antwerp , where several thousand French , English , Scottish and Walloon soldiers in service of the recently created Union of Utrecht were stationed . It took place during the reconquest by the armies of Philip II of Spain of the Burgundian Netherlands , whose different provinces had united in 1576 under the Pacification of Ghent to drive out the foreign troops out and to grant religious liberty to Protestants .

Despite the rebel victory at the Battle of Rijmenam in July 1578 , much of the Southern Netherlands were lost to the Spanish Army during the autumn ; Brussels was menaced , and the States General were moved to the safer Antwerp . Taking advantage of the Dutch rebel army 's indiscipline , Farnese decided at the beginning of 1579 to besiege Maastricht . As a feint to distract the Dutch rebels from his goal , but also aiming to scare Antwerp 's inhabitants , Farnese moved with his troops to surprise the village of Borgerhout , very close to Antwerp , where a part of the Dutch States Army had its quarters , namely 3 @,@ 000 or 4 @,@ 000 infantry which were the backbone of the rebel army and consisted of French Calvinists under François de la Noue , and English and Scottish troops under John Norrey 's orders .

On 2 March Farnese deployed elements of his army in a plain stretching between his position at the village of Ranst and the Dutch camp at Borgerhout , which Norreys and De la Noue had fortified with moats , palisades and earthworks . The assault was divided into three columns , each one provided with a mobile bridge to pass over the camp 's moat . After one of the attacks , undertaken by Walloon troops , succeeded in securing a bridge , the Spanish forces were able to attack the States @-@ General 's soldiers inside their camp . Norreys and De la Noue 's men opposed a strong defence , but Farnese , throwing his light cavalry to the battle , forced the Dutch troops to abandon Borgerhout and look for shelter under the artillery of Antwerp 's walls . William of Orange , leader of the Dutch revolt , and archduke Matthias of Habsburg , Governor @-@ General of the Netherlands appointed by the States General , witnessed the fight from Antwerp 's walls .

The battle meant the destruction of the villages of Borgerhout and Deurne and saw up to 1 @,@ 500 men killed between both armies . Farnese then proceeded to besiege Maastricht , which the Spanish Army invested less than a week after the battle and was taken by assault on 29 June of the same year . Farnese 's successful campaign opened the way to a nine @-@ year period of Spanish reconquest of much of the Netherlands .

= = Background = =

In 1566 the Burgundian Netherlands , Charles V of Habsburg 's original realm , which had passed to his son Philip II of Spain on his abdication in 1556 , were in disarray due to religious tensions between Protestants and Catholics and the nobility and cities ' unwillingnes of funding Philip 's wars and ceding its powers to the Royal administration . In 1567 Philip sent an army to the Netherlands under Fernando Álvarez de Toledo , Duke of Alba , to restore his authority , but Alba 's persecution of the religious and political dissenters led William of Orange , the leader of the nobility , to exile into Germany and prepare an invasion of the Netherlands to expel Alba . Orange invaded the Netherlands twice , in 1568 and 1572 , but in both occasions Alba defeated him . The second time , however , the revolt spread into the provinces of Holland and Zealand , and Alba was unable of quelling it . In 1576 , the lack of an authority due to the death of Alba 's successor Luis de Requesens , together with a Spanish general bankruptcy , led the Spanish mutinuous soldiers to sack several towns , including Antwerp . In reaction , the loyal and rebel provinces united to expel the foreign troops under the Pacification of Ghent .

John of Austria , the victor of Lepanto and replacement to Requesens , had no choice but to sign the Perpetual Edict in 1577 , accepting the Pacification of Ghent , but later , frustrated by the intransigence of Orange and his supporters , he seized the citadel of Namur and recalled his troops . John 's striking victory at the Battle of Gembloux in January 1578 , was followed by a tactical defeat at Rijmenam in July , and John himself died of plague in October . However , despite the Spanish failure to exploit militarily the victory of Gembloux , it rendered important political benefits to the royal cause in the Netherlands , as it shattered the unity of the Dutch rebels . As a consequence of the battle 's outcome , the leaders of the main families of the Southern provinces lost faith in Orange 's cause and the promises of aid made by the English queen Elizabeth I , which meant an important setback to Orange . Aiming to restore the military capability of the Dutch rebels , Elizabeth arranged with John Casimir , son to the Calvinist Elector Palatine , the raising of a German Army under English pay to assist the Dutch troops John Casimir brought to the Netherlands 11 @,@ 000 men , but instead of fighting the Spanish , he sided with the Calvinist extremists at Ghent and widened the gap between the Catholic and Protestant rebels . The States General also called for help Francis , Duke of Anjou , brother and heir of the King of France , who entered Mons in July 1578 , but was back in France in a short time .

The Catholic nobility and southern provinces ' defections , already started in the autumn 1578 , expanded further when the provinces of Hainaut and Artois concluded on 6 January 1579 , the Union of Arras , which the Walloon Flanders joined soon – the Catholic provinces of Namur , Luxembourg and Limburg were already controlled by the Spanish – . The Union of Arras opened talks in February with Alexander Farnese , who succeeded his uncle John of Austria as the Royal @-@ appointed Governor @-@ General of the Netherlands , to reconcile with Philip II . In response , a meeting took place in Utrecht shortly thereafter between deputies from the northern provinces of Holland , Zealand , Utrecht , Friesland , Gelderland and Ommelanden , which signed an alliance and union on 23 January . In the south , meanwhile , Farnese was planning the capture of Maastricht to use the city with its stone bridge over the Meuse as a base to conquer Brussels and Antwerp in the following campaigns . In November 1578 , the Spanish Army left Namur and crossed the Ardennes and Limburg . However , Farnese deemed too risky starting the siege of Maastrich at midwinter and with the John Casimir 's numerous cavalry on the countryside .

= = Campaign = =

For the 1579 campaign , Farnese planned two different movements . A portion of his army , under Cristóbal de Mondragón , was to clean the area between Maastricht and the German border from Dutch garrisons , while Farnese himself , ahead of the main army , decided to move against Atwerp with two objectives : to neutralize the Dutch field army , or primarily its German cavalry , before laying siege to Maastricht and to distract the Dutch from the campaign 's real objective . The first part of the plan was accomplished when Mondragón took the towns of Kerpen , Erkelenz and Straelen between 7 and 15 January . On 24 January , Farnese moved to attack the States General army , which was at Weert , east of Antwerp . Outnumbered , François de la Noue , who had taken to role of field commander of the States ' army after the Count of Bossu 's death , left some States ' troops in the Castle of Weert and withdrew to Antwerp with his unpaid men . They asked the city council to allow them to enter the city , but it was refused , and De la Noue had no choice but to entrench his army outside the walls , in the village of Borgerhout . This was a residential area for the wealthy inhabitants of Antwerp where they had country houses and gardens , among them Peeter van Coudenberghe 's botanical garden , which had more than 600 exotic plants .

In the meantime , Farnese entrusted to Count Hannibal d 'Altemps the capture of Weert and continued his advance upon the Dutch Army . D 'Altemps encircled Weert with 6 @,@ 000 men and breached its walls with a two @-@ cannon battery . The defenders of the castle surrendered at discretion but , on Farnese orders , were hanged on the windows , which the Count willingly did because his steward had lost an eye during the siege . Farnese , instead of following the Dutch Army to its quarters , lodged in Turnhout with his troops and his court to forage . Before moving to Antwerp he dealt with John Casimir 's German Army . Spanish troops attacked and defeated part of the German reiters near Eindhoven on 10 February . Moreover , while John Casimir himself was in England dealing with Elizabeth I , Farnese agreed with his lieutenant , Maurice of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , the withdrawal of the Calvinist Army , which the Spaniards allowed to leave the Netherlands freely . Once this matter was finished , Farnese advanced upon Borgerhout .

= = Order of battle = =

The Dutch States ' troops quartered in the village of Borgerhout numbered 25 or 40 infantry companies which comprised from 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 soldiers , plus 100 additional mounted troops . They were the backbone of the rebel army and William of Orange referred to them as " his braves " . Moreover , they were led by officers of renown such as François de la Noue and John Norreys . To confront the Spanish Army , they were detached along the village of Borgerhout , which they had fortified by digging a moat and building an earth rampart around the village , from the bridge of Deurne over the Groot Schijn stream , which flowed into the Scheldt , to the road of Voetweg , which ran parallel to the canal of Herentals . Orange deployed four additional French infantry regiments and Walloon troops from the nearby garrisons of Ath and Termonde behind Borgerhout and under the protection of Antwerp 's citadel and moat . The city 's civic guard , numbering 80 flags of armed and trained burghers , was ready to defend the city if necessary , but not willing to get out to join the battle nor to allow the regular troops to come within Antwerp . The Spanish soldier and chronicler Alonso Vázquez claimed that Orange 's army had , in all , 25 @,@ 000 men .

Farnese deployed a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ man vanguard , both infantry and cavalry , in the plain which separated his camp at Ranst from Borgerhout . Three small battalions , not surpassing 12 companies each one , but made up of chosen men , went in advance ; the right was taken by the Spanish tercio of Lope de Figueroa , the center by a Lower German regiment under Francisco de Valdés and the right by a Walloon regiment under Claude de Berlaymont , known as Haultpenne . Each formation was supported by a sleeve of 100 musketeers , a group of men armed with axes to cut the palissades and a wheeled bridge to cross the moat . A corps of light cavalry led by Antonio de Olivera followed the infantry at some distance with instructions to cover its withdrawal if the attack went bad , or to follow up the victory , if it took place . According to Alonso Vázquez , Farnese made the Walloon soldiers of the Spanish Army wear white shirts over their armors , a practise common in night attacks known as camisades , to distinguish themselves from the Walloons who fought for the Union of Utrecht . Thus the Walloons look , in his words , like " a very colorful procession of clerics and sacristans " .

In reserve , Farnese deployed a large battalion made up by the German regiments of Hannibal d 'Altemps and Georg von Frundsberg , flanked on its right by troops of reiters under Duke Francis of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , elder brother of Duke Maurice , John Casimir 's former lieutenant , and on its left by lancers under Pierre de Taxis . The remaining Spanish cavalry , led by Ottavio Gonzaga , covered the rear . Farnese led his troops personally , and before the battle was started , he scouted the Dutch position , having ordered his troops not to move until his return . On the Dutch side , while De la Noue and Norreys directed the men standing in Borgerhout , William of Orange witnessed the battle from the walls of Antwerp in company of archduke Matthias , brother of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II , whom the States General had elected as Governor of the Netherlands in opposition to the deceased John of Austria .

= = Battle = =

The fight started with the three battalions of the Spanish first line advancing upon the Dutch camp , each one trying to be the first to laid its bridge over the moat . Haultpenne 's Wallons , headed by Sergeant @-@ Major Camille Sacchino , moved up to Deurne , crossing the Schijn river at the small village of Immerseel . Valdés ' Germans advanced frontally to Borgerhout across the Borsbeek road , and Figueroa 's Spaniards took the Voetweg road to assault the Dutch camp from the south . While the sleeves of musketeers from the Spanish and German units exchanged fire with the Dutch troops covered by the rampart , Sacchino 's Walloons drove the defenders of Deurne behind the Groot Schijn stream and took its bridge . De la Noue sent reinforcements there to content the assault , but they arrived too late to prevent the Walloons from laying their bridge over the moat and began to climb the rampart , starting a close combat with the Dutch troops . In the meantime , the Spanish and German troops , supported by two or three artillery pieces , breached the rampart , crossed the moat and also started to come inside Borgerhout , where De la Noue and Norreys ' men reorganized and stood on the barricaded streets .

Farnese , seeing that his attack was going well , ordered Olivera to advance with his cavalry to support the infantry 's push . While the light horsemen penetrated into Borgerhout across the breach opened by Figueroa 's men , Farnese himself took the command of Taxis ' lancers and did the same across Valdés ' path . The French and English soldiers offered a strong resistance , but after two hours of battle inside the quarters , De la Noue began to withdraw his forces to Antwerp to avoid destruction . The retreating troops set fire to their lodgements and looked for shelter under the coverage of Antwerp 's artillery . Many of the Spanish soldiers went in persecution , despite their officers ordered them to stay together , and chased the rebels until Antwerp 's moat . At William of Orange 's orders , the artillery of the city walls fired then sharpnel over the Spanish troops with different results , depending on the sources . The Spanish soldier Alonso Vázquez claimed that the shots were ineffective because the battlefield was covered of the smoke produced by the fire of Borgerhout . On the other hand , the Flemish official Guillaume Baudart claimed that it was precise and made " arms and legs fly on the air " .

By then , Farnese , unwilling of having for a longer time his troops close to Antwerp 's cannons , made drums and trumpets to call for withdrawal and gathered his men at Borgerhout . Meanwhile , people from Antwerp sallied to carry the wounded French , British and Walloon officers and soldiers into the city to receive treatment . The Spanish soldiery , once the fire of Borgerhout was finished , looted the basements of the burned buildings and had a meal before praying to thank God . After that , the Spanish Army marched across the roads of Lier and Herentals to Turnhout , where Farnese wanted to arrive the next day . Fearing a new attack , Antwerp 's civic guards spent the night at their posts .

= = Aftermath = =

The number of casualties endured by both armies differs according to the authors . The Italian Jesuit Famiano Strada noted that Farnese , in a letter to his father Ottavio , Duke of Parma , put the Dutch loss as 600 men killed and gave eight men killed and 40 wounded amongst his troops . Strada also mentions that other estimations pointed to 1 @,@ 040 men killed in the Dutch ranks . On the other hand , the Flemish author Guillaume Baudart set the Dutch loss as 200 men killed and claimed that the Spanish Army lost 500 men . The villages of Deurne and Borgerhout were seriously damaged by the fire during the battle : in 1580 Deurne had 133 standing buildings , while 146 had been destroyed by the fire ; in Borgerhout 206 buildings remained and 280 were ruined .

Farnese 's attack achieved his goal of distracting the Dutch States forces from Maastricht . After the battle , the Spanish Army moved quickly to Turnhout , taking the castle of Grobbendonk on its way and appearing before Masstricht on 8 March , just six days after the battle of Borgerhout . François de la Noue followed the Spanish till Herentals with some troops , but when he realized that Farnese was to lay siege to Maastricht , it was too late for him to reinforce the city 's garrison . Moreover , mutinies and defections hampered the Dutch efforts to save the city . The English soldiers under John Norrey 's orders , who remained out of Antwerp , kidnapped the abbot of St. Michael 's Abbey in demand for back pays , and William of Orange 's had to mediate to placate them . In political terms , the battle increased the Walloon defections from the States General to the Spanish party in the following months . Emanuel Philibert de Lalaing joined the Spanish Army with 5 @,@ 000 Walloon troops of the Dutch States army and expelled from Menen a garrison loyal to the States General .

Farnese besieged Maastricht in command of 15 @,@ 000 infantry , 4 @,@ 000 cavalry , 20 cannons and 4 @,@ 000 sappers , joined later by 5 @,@ 000 additional troops . In May , while the siege developed , peace talks were held at Cologne under the mediation of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf to preserve the unity of the Netherlands . However , divisions become more serious during the process . In Brussels , fight erupted in early June between Catholics headed by Philip of Egmont , son of Lamoral of Egmont , whom the Royalist authorities had executed in 1568 and Calvinists under Olivier van den Tympel , resulting in the expulsion of Egmont and his supporters . At Mechelen , the Catholic inhabitants forced the Dutch garrison to leave , while in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch an armed struggle resulted in the magistrates declaring support to the Royalist side . The revolt took a character of civil war , and as a result of the religious problem , the peace conference at Cologne failed . Henceforth , Farnese reconquered Flanders and the Brabant town after town , even forcing Antwerp to surrender after a long and exhausting siege in 1585 .

= Lazarus W. Powell =

Lazarus Whitehead Powell ( October 6 , 1812 – July 3 , 1867 ) was the 19th Governor of Kentucky , serving from 1851 to 1855 . He was later elected to represent Kentucky in the U.S. Senate from 1859 to 1865 .

The reforms enacted during Powell 's term as governor gave Kentucky one of the top educational systems in the antebellum South . He also improved Kentucky 's transportation system and vetoed legislation that he felt would have created an overabundance of banks in the Commonwealth . Powell 's election as governor marked the end of Whig dominance in Kentucky . Powell 's predecessor , John J. Crittenden , was the last governor elected from the party of the Commonwealth 's favorite son , Henry Clay .

Following his term as governor , Powell was elected to the U.S. Senate . Before he could assume office , President James Buchanan dispatched Powell and Major Benjamin McCulloch to Utah to ease tensions with Brigham Young and the Mormons . Powell assumed his Senate seat on his return from Utah , just prior to the election of Abraham Lincoln as president . Powell became an outspoken critic of Lincoln 's administration , so much so that the Kentucky General Assembly asked for his resignation and some of his fellow senators tried to have him expelled from the body . Both groups later renounced their actions .

Powell died at his home near Henderson , Kentucky shortly following a failed bid to return to the Senate in 1867 .

= = Early life = =

Powell was born on October 6 , 1812 near Henderson , Kentucky , the third son of Lazarus and Ann McMahon [ a ] Powell . He attended the common schools of Henderson , and was tutored by George Gayle . He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Saint Joseph College in Bardstown , Kentucky in 1833 , and began studying law under John Rowan . He then enrolled in the Transylvania University School of Law , studying under Justice George Robertson and Judge Daniel Mayes . He was admitted to the bar in 1835 , and partnered with Archibald Dixon to start a law practice in Henderson . The two remained partners until 1839 .

On November 8 , 1837 , Powell married Harriet Ann Jennings . The couple had three sons [ b ] before Jennings died on July 30 , 1846 .

= = Political career = =

A Democrat in a Whig district , Powell 's political career began with an 1836 bid for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . He campaigned vigorously while his opponent , John G. Holloway , relied largely on his party affiliation to carry the election . This proved a critical misstep for Holloway , as Powell secured the surprise victory . Holloway apparently learned from his mistake . Upon the completion of Powell 's term in 1838 , Holloway challenged Powell again , and defeated him by a considerable majority . Six year later , Powell was chosen as a presidential elector on the Democratic ticket , supporting James K. Polk .

= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =

In 1848 , Kentucky Democrats nominated Linn Boyd for governor , but Boyd declined the nomination . Powell was chosen to replace Boyd on the ticket , largely due to the influence of James Guthrie . The Whig party nominated Senator John J. Crittenden , and the race was complicated by former Vice President Richard Mentor Johnson 's announcement that he would run as an independent Democratic candidate . Knowing the Democrats ' chances were dimmed by having two candidates in the race , Powell arranged a meeting with Johnson , following which the latter withdrew his candidacy and pledged his support to Powell . Nevertheless , Crittenden won the election .

In the gubernatorial election of 1851 , Powell was once again the Democratic Party nominee . The Whigs nominated Powell 's friend and law partner , Archibald Dixon . Powell and Dixon traveled the state together , eating at the same taverns , speaking from the same platforms , and generally showing cordiality and friendliness that was rare in Kentucky politics in those days . Powell 's margin of victory in the general election was a thin 850 votes , while Whig candidate John P. Thompson defeated the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor , Robert Wickliffe , by several thousand votes . A third candidate for governor , abolitionist Cassius M. Clay , received 3 @,@ 621 votes . Powell was the first Democrat elected to the office in almost twenty years . ( John L. Helm had ascended to the governorship on Crittenden 's resignation . )

The Whigs also maintained control of the General Assembly , and although Governor Powell was largely able to cooperate with his political opponents , some clashes did occur . As a result of the 1850 census , the General Assembly re @-@ apportioned the state into ten congressional districts . Powell vetoed the redistricting , noting that the districts had been gerrymandered to give the fading Whig party control over the state delegation . The legislature overrode the veto . The governor was successful , however , in vetoing legislation that he felt would have created an overabundance of banks in the Commonwealth .

Powell implemented the use of the state 's sinking fund to pay interest on school bonds , a measure which had passed over Governor Helm 's veto , but Helm refused to carry out . In 1855 , Kentucky 's voters passed by landslide a measure to raise the school tax from two cents per hundred dollars of taxable property to five cents per hundred dollars . The measure enjoyed the support of both Governor Powell and superintendent of public schools Robert Jefferson Breckinridge . Under the leadership of Powell and Breckinridge , Kentucky 's school system became among the strongest in the antebellum South .

Among Powell 's other successes as governor was his successful lobbying of the legislature to conduct a geological survey in 1854 . He also encouraged private investment in transportation in the state . During his term , the state went from having 78 miles ( 126 km ) of railroad track in operation to having 242 miles ( 389 km ) in operation .

= = = United States Senator = = =

In January 1858 , Powell was elected to the United States Senate . In April of that year , President James Buchanan appointed Powell and Major Benjamin McCulloch commissioners to negotiate settlements with the Mormons in Utah . On arriving in Utah , Powell and McCulloch issued a proclamation by President Buchanan offering clemency to Mormons who agreed to submit to Federal authority . The offer was accepted , and violence was averted .

Senator Powell favored Kentucky 's neutrality policy during the Civil War , but nationally , the conflict put him in a tenuous political situation . On one hand , he favored a strong national government and a strict interpretation of the U.S. Constitution . On the other hand , he was an opponent of coercion , and due to Kentucky 's proximity to the Southern states , maintained a more sympathetic view of the southern cause than legislators from more northern states . During his term as governor , Powell had been critical of Northern states that refused to abide by the Fugitive Slave Act .

In 1861 , Senator Powell vigorously condemned President Lincoln 's decision to suspend the writ of habeas corpus . In 1862 , he denounced the arrest of some citizens of Delaware — officially , the arrests were called " resolutions of inquiry " — as a violation of constitutional rights . These stances led to calls for his resignation by the Kentucky General Assembly in 1861 , and some of his colleagues , led by Kentucky 's other senator , Garrett Davis , unsuccessfully attempted to have him expelled from the Senate . Before the end of the war , both the General Assembly and Davis admitted being wrong in their attempts to remove him .

Following his successful defense against calls for his removal , Powell continued speaking against what he saw as violations of constitutional rights . In 1864 , he condemned General Order No. 11 , an edict of Ulysses S. Grant that barred Jews from the Department of Tennessee , which included regions of Kentucky . In the same speech , he rebuked federal military interference with the elections in Kentucky . In 1864 , he opposed a constitutional amendment aimed at freeing the slaves .

= = Later life and legacy = =

Following his term in the Senate , he returned to Henderson and resumed his law practice . He was a delegate to the Union National Convention in 1866 . In 1867 , he was again nominated to the U.S. Senate , but after several ballots over several months , the General Assembly had not elected him . Powell believed that many of the legislators had been elected as a result of election interference by Northern forces , and that their intent was to prevent Kentucky from electing a senator at all , diminishing her influence nationally . In light of this belief , he urged the Democrats to withdraw his name and nominate someone more palatable to Union sympathizers . This they did , putting forth the name of Garrett Davis , who was subsequently elected .

Powell died in his home on July 3 , 1867 . The cause of death was apoplexy , apparently the result of the toll years of rheumatism had exacted on his nervous system . He is buried at the Fernwood Cemetery in Henderson , Kentucky . The state erected a 22 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) high marble monument over his grave in 1870 . Powell County , Kentucky , is named in honor of Governor Powell .

= Gymnopilus maritimus =

Gymnopilus maritimus is a fungus species of the family Cortinariaceae first collected in northern Sardinia , Italy , in 2006 . The species produces moderately sized , sturdy mushrooms of a reddish @-@ orange colour . The cap , which can measure up to 70 millimetres ( 3 in ) across , is covered in orange fibrils , and sometimes has small scales . The yellowish stem measures up to 110 mm ( 4 in ) in length by 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in width , and sometimes shows remnants of the partial veil . The mushrooms have thick gills of a variable colour , ranging from yellow to rust but staining darker , and the yellow flesh has a mild taste . The mushrooms leave a rusty @-@ brown spore print , while the spores themselves measure from 7 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00030 – 0 @.@ 00045 in ) in length . The species is most similar in appearance to G. arenophilus and G. fulgens , but can be differentiated from both morphologically . Despite the similarities , it is not closely related to either , suggesting convergent evolution . Instead , within the genus Gymnopilus , it is most closely related to the spectabilis – imperialis clade . However , it is not particularly similar to any of its closest relatives .

The species has been found only on coastal sand dunes near Olbia , in Sardinia , where it was observed growing at the base of Juncus maritimus ( the sea rush ) , between the winter months of October and January . However , there is speculation that it may also grow elsewhere in Europe . Mushrooms were seen growing from both the sandy soil and decaying plants ; however , as a saprotrophic feeder , it is possible that the species would be able to grow on other substrates . The mushrooms grow in close groups or tight tufts .

= = Taxonomy = =

Gymnopilus maritimus was first described by mycologists Laura Guzmán @-@ Dávalos ( a specialist in Gymnopilus ) , Antonio Ortega , Marco Contu and Alfredo Vizzini in 2009 in an article in the journal Mycological Progress . The description was based on several specimens collected during field work by Contu in Sardinia between January 2006 and January 2007 ; the holotype was collected on 15 January 2006 . The discovery has contributed to Sardinia 's reputation as an area of mycological significance . The description was later published in Italian by Contu and Vizzini in the journal Micologia e Vegetazione Mediterranea , along with the description of G. purpuresquamulosus , because the original descriptions of both of these species were in English , and difficult for non @-@ specialists to obtain . The specific epithet maritimus refers to the typical habitat of coastal sand dunes , on sandy soil or decomposing Juncus maritimus . The holotype has been deposited in the University of Granada 's herbarium .

Within the genus Gymnopilus , it is located in the subgenus Gymnopilus and section Macrospori . The subgenus Gymnopilus was proposed by Henri Romagnesi as Cortinatae ( while the genus was known as Fulvidula ) in 1942 , though the name Gymnopilus was given later by Rolf Singer . The subgenus is characterised by mushrooms that feature either no veils , or veils that do not form rings . The section Macrospori , proposed by Guzmán @-@ Dávalos in 1995 , is made up of large @-@ spored species with ringless mushrooms . Molecular analysis revealed that G. maritimus forms a sister group to ( that is , shares an immediate common ancestor with ) the spectabilis – imperialis clade , a clade that includes G. imperialis , G. spectabilis , G. junonius ( often considered synonymous with G. spectabilis ) , G. pampeanus , and others . G. maritimus forms a more inclusive clade along with the members of spectabilis – imperialis ; while it produces the smallest fruit bodies , it shares with the other members strong , sturdy mushrooms , caps with fibrils ( sometimes with scales ) and large , warty spores that turn red in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's iodine .

= = Description = =

Gymnopilus maritimus mushrooms have a cap of between 15 and 70 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 and 3 in ) in width that is convex to flattened @-@ convex in shape . There is sometimes a broad umbo , and in older specimens , the cap is depressed in the centre . The margin of the cap is somewhat wavey . The cap surface is dry and dull , coloured red to red @-@ orange , and yellow towards the margin . It is covered in fibrils of an orange colour , and sometimes has minute scales . The dried cap turns blackish @-@ red when potassium hydroxide is applied . The stem is 35 to 110 mm ( 1 to 4 in ) in length by 4 to 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 3 in ) in width . It is attached centrally to the cap , and is either completely cylindrical , with equal thickness throughout its length , or slightly narrower towards the base , where whitish or cream mycelia are sometimes visible . It is dry , with fibres and furrows . It is a yellowish colour , bruising reddish @-@ brown . Traces of the partial veil are sometimes visible on the stem , though it does not form a ring . The yellow ( brown at the bottom of the stem ) flesh can be up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick in the cap and does not bruise . It dries dark brown . There is no distinctive odour , and the taste is mild or slightly bitter . The thick gills can be adnate ( connected to the stem by the entire depth of the gill ) or sinuate ( wavy , with the gills becoming shallower then deeper ) . They are subdistant ( neither close nor distant ) and swollen in the middle . In colour , they are yellow in the youngest mushrooms , turning an ochre @-@ orange , while the oldest mushrooms they are rust . The gill edges are paler than the faces , and the gills stain orange @-@ brown or darker . No reference is made in the original description to the edibility of the mushrooms .

= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =

Gymnopilus maritimus leaves a rusty @-@ brown spore print . The basidiospores can measure 7 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00030 – 0 @.@ 00045 in ) in length , though the typical range is 8 – 10 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00031 – 0 @.@ 00041 in ) . In width , they typically measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00022 – 0 @.@ 00030 in ) , but they can be up to 8 μm wide . In shape , they are ellipsoid or sometimes broadly ellipsoid . The top of the spore ( the side where it was once attached to the sterigma , the connection between the basidium and the spore ) is rounded and blunt . The spores are covered with fairly large warts , measuring from 0 @.@ 5 – 2 micrometres ( 2 @.@ 0 × 10 − 5 – 7 @.@ 9 × 10 − 5 in ) from the main spore in height . There is no germ pore or plage , and there is no clear depression around the hilum ( the area where the spore was attached to the sterigma ) . The spores turn an orange @-@ yellow to orange @-@ brown colour in potassium hydroxide , and turn reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent and in Lugol 's iodine , but they are not metachromatic .

The four @-@ spored basidia typically measure 24 – 35 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00094 – 0 @.@ 00138 in ) in length by 7 – 9 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00028 – 0 @.@ 00035 in ) in width , but can be as much as 10 @.@ 5 μm wide . They are club @-@ shaped , but narrower in the middle . They are hyaline ( translucent ) and yellow to yellowish @-@ brown . The sterigmata are between 1 @.@ 6 and 7 μm long . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of the gill ) are typically 30 to 42 ( though sometimes as much as 50 ) μm long by 6 – 10 @.@ 5 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00024 – 0 @.@ 00041 in ) wide . They are shaped like a flask or wine @-@ skin . The top of the cell suddenly widens , and the cell as a whole is thin @-@ walled , hyaline and yellowish , and sometimes appears to contain small grains . The caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) can be found in tufts at the top of the stem , and measure from 24 – 60 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00094 – 0 @.@ 00236 in ) by 3 – 9 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00012 – 0 @.@ 00035 in ) . They are cylindrical , or narrowly flask @-@ shaped , sometimes with a long neck . They are , again , yellow and hyaline .

The yellowish hyphae are between 15 and 13 @.@ 5 μm wide with a wall of variable thickness . There are clamp connections at the septa ( the walls dividing individual hypha cells ) . The flesh in the cap is radial , and is made up of yellowish hyphae of between 2 @.@ 4 and 20 μm wide . The pileipellis , the outermost layer of hyphae , forms a cutis , and on older specimens ( and on the small scales ) forms a trichoderm .

= = = Similar species = = =

There are five species similar in appearance to G. maritimus : G. arenophilus , G. decipiens , G. flavus , G. fulgens and G. pseudofulgens . G. arenophilus and particularly G. fulgens are the most similar . Though G. maritimus and G. arenophilus show similarities in their biogeography and ecology , the typically slightly smaller G. arenophilus differs from G. maritimus morphologically . While G. maritimus has a cap covered in fibrils with small scales , G. arenophilus can sometimes be completely smooth , and spore ornamentation differs , with G. maritimus typically displaying larger warts . Like G. maritimus , G. fulgens has been recorded growing on sand @-@ dune heathland ; further , the spores are similar in appearance to those of G. maritimus . However , G. fulgens requires soil rich in peat and must grow among moss . Moreover , there are a number of morphological differences ; G. maritimus mushrooms are larger and thicker , there are never remains of the partial veil on G. fulgens stems , the shape of the top of the spores differs between the two species , and the cheilocystidia and caulocystidia are significantly larger on G. maritimus . G. fulgens var. luteicystis is even more distinct from G. maritimus than the nominate variety . Despite the similarities between the three species , the three have been shown to be in different clades within Gymnopilus , suggesting ecological convergence between G. arenophilus and G. maritimus , and morphological convergence between G. fulgens and G. maritimus .

Gymnopilus flavus , despite also appearing on land near the Mediterranean , can be differentiated from G. maritimus as it lives among grass , especially Dactylis glomerata , and it has distinctly smaller spores , typically measuring 5 to 6 by 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 2 μm . G. pseudofulgens , also collected in Italy , shows two major morphological differences : it produces smaller mushrooms , and spores that are of a different shape with smaller warts . G. decipiens , another species that grows on sandy soil , again has spores that are markedly different . The American species G. arenicola also favours sandy soil , but has significantly smaller spores than G. maritimus . Two other species of Gymnopilus found around the Mediterranean are G. corsicus and G. spadiceus . G. corsicus has no veil remnants on the stem , and spores that do not turn red in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's iodine , and so can easily be differentiated from G. maritimus . G. spadiceus shows several similarities to G. maritimus , but grows only on pine wood and has rectangular spores .

Gymnopils maritimus is clearly a different species from other members of its clade , despite their close relation . All other species in the clade grow upon dead wood and have well @-@ developed rings on their stems . The spores also differ ; in the case of G. junonius and G. spectabilis ( often considered synonymous ) , as well as G. pampeanus , they are narrower , and in the case of G. imperialis , they are wider . Of the other members of the clade , only G. junonius and G. spectabilis also grow in Europe .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Gymnopilus maritimus is known only from a single site in Pittulongu , an area of Olbia , in Sardinia , Italy , which is the type locality . There , mushrooms were found growing in close groups and tufts on coastal sand dunes around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) from the high tide line . They were observed at the base of live Juncus maritimus ( sea rush ) plants , growing on sandy soil or decaying plants , where they were feeding as saprotrophs . As such , it is possible that the species would be able to grow on other substrates . They were observed growing from autumn to winter , between the end of October and January . In addition to the collections in Sardinia , Contu and Vizzini speculate that reports of G. fulgens growing in " sand @-@ dune heaths " on Great Britain , an unusual habitat for that species , may in fact show the presence of G. maritimus on the island .

= Brooks & Dunn =

Brooks & Dunn is an American country music duo consisting of Kix Brooks and Ronnie Dunn , both vocalists and songwriters . The duo was founded in 1990 through the suggestion of Tim DuBois . Before the foundation , both members were solo recording artists . Brooks wrote number one singles for John Conlee , Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , and Highway 101 ; both he and Dunn also charted two solo singles a piece in the 1980s , with Brooks also releasing an album for Capitol Records in 1989 . However , they began hitting the charts together in 1991 .

Signed to Arista Nashville in 1991 , the duo has recorded ten studio albums , one Christmas album , and three compilation albums for the label . They also have released fifty singles , of which twenty went to number one on the Hot Country Songs charts and nineteen more reached top ten . Two of these number @-@ one songs , " My Maria " ( a cover of the B.W. Stevenson song ) and " Ain 't Nothing ' Bout You " , were the top country songs of 1996 and 2001 , respectively , according to the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . The latter is also the duo 's longest @-@ lasting number one , at six weeks . Several of their songs have also reached the Billboard Hot 100 , with the number 25 peaks of " Ain 't Nothing ' bout You " and " Red Dirt Road " being their highest there . Brooks & Dunn also won the Country Music Association Vocal Duo of the Year award every year between 1992 and 2006 , except for 2000 . Two of their songs won the Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal : " Hard Workin ' Man " in 1994 and " My Maria " in 1996 . All but two of the duo 's studio albums are certified platinum or higher by the Recording Industry Association of America ; their highest @-@ certified is their 1991 debut Brand New Man , which is certified sextuple @-@ platinum for shipments of six million copies .

The duo 's material is known for containing influences of honky @-@ tonk , mainstream country , and rock , as well as the contrast between Brooks ' and Dunn 's singing voices and on @-@ stage personalities , although some of their music has also been criticized as formulaic . Their 1992 single " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " helped re @-@ popularize line dancing in the United States , and 2001 's " Only in America " was used by both George W. Bush and Barack Obama in their respective presidential campaigns . Brooks & Dunn has collaborated with several artists , including Reba McEntire , Vince Gill , Sheryl Crow , Mac Powell , Billy Gibbons , and Jerry Jeff Walker among others . Brooks and Dunn was deemed country music 's most successful duo .

After announcing their retirement in August 2009 , they performed their final concert on September 2 , 2010 at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville , Tennessee . Both Brooks and Dunn have continued to record for Arista Nashville as solo artists . Dunn released a self @-@ titled album in 2011 , which included the Top 10 country hit " Bleed Red " , while Brooks released New to This Town in September 2012 . The duo reunited in 2015 for a series of concerts with McEntire in Las Vegas , Nevada .

= = History = =

= = = Kix Brooks = = =

Leon Eric " Kix " Brooks III was born May 12 , 1955 in Shreveport , Louisiana and before moving to Nashville in 1979 , he played at various venues in Maine . He was also a neighbor of country singer Johnny Horton . Brooks worked as a songwriter in the 1980s , co @-@ writing the number @-@ one singles " I 'm Only in It for the Love " by John Conlee , " Modern Day Romance " by the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band , and " Who 's Lonely Now " by Highway 101 , plus The Oak Ridge Boys ' top 20 hit " You Made a Rock of a Rolling Stone " , Nicolette Larson 's " Let Me Be the First " , and Keith Palmer 's " Don 't Throw Me in the Briarpatch " . Brooks also released several singles through the independent Avion label , charting at number 73 on Hot Country Songs in 1983 with " Baby , When Your Heart Breaks Down " . In 1989 , he released a self @-@ titled studio album through Capitol Records . This album included " Baby , When Your Heart Breaks Down " and the number 87 single " Sacred Ground " , which McBride & the Ride covered and took to number two on the country charts in 1992 . Brooks and Pam Tillis co @-@ wrote and sang on " Tomorrow 's World " , a multi @-@ artist single released on Warner Bros. Records in 1990 in honor of Earth Day , which peaked at number 74 on the country charts . Brooks also produced and co @-@ wrote " Backbone Job " , a Keith Whitley outtake that appeared on his compilation Kentucky Bluebird .

= = = Ronnie Dunn = = =

Ronnie Gene Dunn was born June 1 , 1953 in Coleman , Texas . He played bass guitar in local bands during high school and he briefly studied theology at Hardin @-@ Simmons University with the intention of becoming a Baptist preacher . Dunn was " kicked out " of the school because he played in bars . Between 1983 and 1984 , he recorded for the Churchill label , taking both " It 's Written All Over Your Face " and " She Put the Sad in All His Songs " to number 59 on the country charts . In 1989 , session drummer Jamie Oldaker entered Dunn in a talent contest sponsored by Marlboro , which he won . The grand prize in the competition included a recording session in Nashville . The producer of that session , Scott Hendricks , recommended Dunn 's recordings to Tim DuBois , then an executive of Arista Nashville . DuBois paired Brooks and Dunn because he thought that they would work well together as songwriters , and after the two recorded a demo , he suggested that they form a duo . During this timespan , Dunn also wrote " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " , which Asleep at the Wheel recorded on their 1990 album Keepin ' Me Up Nights .

= = Musical career = =

= = = Brand New Man = = =

Brooks & Dunn 's first single , " Brand New Man " , entered the Hot Country Songs charts in June 1991 and went to number one . It was the title track to the duo 's debut album , Brand New Man , which was released two months later . Brooks and Dunn wrote this song and several other cuts in collaboration with songwriter Don Cook , who co @-@ produced the album with Hendricks . It was also Cook 's first credit as a producer . The next three single releases from Brand New Man ( " My Next Broken Heart " , " Neon Moon " , and their own rendition of " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " ) all made number one on the country music charts as well , making for the first time in country music history that a duo or group had sent its first four singles to the top of the charts . A fifth single , " Lost and Found " , peaked at number six . " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " , which had previously been the B @-@ side to " My Next Broken Heart " , also made number 50 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and its commercial success led to a renewed interest in line dancing throughout the United States . Brand New Man was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in August 1992 for shipments of one million copies ; by 2002 , the album had been certified sextuple @-@ platinum for shipments of six million . It spent more than 190 weeks on the Top Country Albums charts . In 1992 , the duo won the Duo of the Year Award from the Country Music Association ( CMA ) , which also nominated them for that year 's Album of the Year and Horizon awards . Brooks & Dunn won the association 's Duo award for every year from then until 2006 , except for 2000 when the award went to Montgomery Gentry . After the album 's release , Brooks & Dunn began touring as well .

Brand New Man received a positive review from Allmusic , whose critic Daniel Gioffre thought that the album showed the duo 's diversity of musical influences . Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly was less positive , criticizing the duo 's sound for being " imitative " .

= = = Hard Workin ' Man and Waitin ' on Sundown = = =

Hard Workin ' Man was the title of Brooks & Dunn 's second album , which was released in 1993 . The title track , also its first single , peaked at number 4 on the country music charts . The album included two number @-@ one singles in its third and fifth releases : " She Used to Be Mine " and its B @-@ side , " That Ain 't No Way to Go " . " We 'll Burn That Bridge " and " Rock My World ( Little Country Girl ) " ( respectively the second and fourth releases ) both made Top 5 on Billboard , with the former reaching number one on Radio & Records . Also included on the album was a remix of " Boot Scootin ' Boogie " . In 1994 , " Hard Workin ' Man " won the duo a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal , and the album was nominated for Best Country Album . Hard Workin ' Man earned its highest RIAA certification in 2002 , when it was certified quintuple platinum . Brian Mansfield gave a generally positive review in Allmusic , saying that its up @-@ tempo songs " rocked harder " than any of the songs from the first album .

By the end of 1994 , the duo released their third studio album , Waitin ' on Sundown . It also produced five charting singles , three of which made number one on the country charts : " She 's Not the Cheatin ' Kind " , " Little Miss Honky Tonk " and " You 're Gonna Miss Me When I 'm Gone " . The other two singles , " I 'll Never Forgive My Heart " and " Whiskey Under the Bridge " , both made top ten . Allmusic critic Thom Owens thought that the album 's singles were " solid " but that the rest of the songs were " filler " . A review of the single " She 's Not the Cheatin ' Kind " from the same site praised it for its " hard @-@ driving , honky @-@ tonk spirit " . Nash praised the honky @-@ tonk sound of " I 'll Never Forgive My Heart " , but thought that most of the other songs relied on " contrivance " . Randy Lewis of the Orlando Sentinel gave a generally positive review , saying that the " minidrama " of " A Few Good Rides Away " ( which Brooks co @-@ wrote ) was the strongest track on the album .

= = = Borderline = = =

The first single from Brooks & Dunn 's fourth album , Borderline , was a cover version of B.W. Stevenson 's 1972 single " My Maria " . Brooks & Dunn 's version of the song spent three weeks at number one in mid @-@ 1996 and peaked at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 ; it was also that year 's top country song according to the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . Dunn said that he was initially reluctant to record " My Maria " because the duo had not previously recorded any cover songs . The song won Brooks & Dunn its second Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Group or Duo , and the duo won the 1996 Entertainer of the Year award from both the Country Music Association and Academy of Country Music , making them the first duo to win that award from the former . In 1997 , Brooks & Dunn joined a double @-@ headliner tour with Reba McEntire . Borderline produced another number one in " A Man This Lonely " , along with the top ten hits " I Am That Man " and " Why Would I Say Goodbye " . " Mama Don 't Get Dressed Up for Nothing " , the third single and B @-@ side to " My Maria " , became their first release not to make the top ten .

Michael McCall of Allmusic and Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly both thought that the album 's material was " cliché " and that " My Maria " was the strongest song on it . A more positive review came from Larry Stephens of Country Standard Time , who thought that the album had " the right mix " of songs .

= = = The Greatest Hits Collection and If You See Her = = =

Their first greatest hits compilation was released on September 16 , 1997 . It comprised most of their singles to that point and three new songs : " Honky Tonk Truth " , " He 's Got You " , and " Days of Thunder " . The first two were released as singles , with respective peaks of three and two on the country charts . The Greatest Hits Collection was certified platinum in April 1998 , and double @-@ platinum in 2001 .

Brooks & Dunn collaborated with Reba McEntire to perform " If You See Him / If You See Her " , which was the lead @-@ off single to Brooks & Dunn 's If You See Her and McEntire 's If You See Him , both of which were released on the same day . Arista Nashville and MCA Nashville , the label to which McEntire was signed , both promoted the single . This cut went to number one , as did If You See Her 's next two singles : " How Long Gone " and a cover of Roger Miller 's " Husbands and Wives " , which also became the duo 's first top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 . Dunn recorded the vocals for " Husbands and Wives " in one take . Also included on the album was " Born and Raised in Black and White " , the first song of the duo 's career in which they alternated on lead vocals . The album 's fourth single was " I Can 't Get Over You " , which was a top five country hit . Following it was " South of Santa Fe " , which peaked at number 41 on the country charts and thus became the duo 's lowest @-@ peaking single there . In 2001 , If You See Her reached double @-@ platinum certification in the United States .

Jana Pendragon , in her review for Allmusic , praised Dunn 's vocal performances on " Husbands and Wives " and " You 're My Angel " , but thought that a couple of the other cuts were " formula " . Country Standard Time writer Kevin Oliver criticized the album for having " wildly uneven " material , calling the McEntire collaboration a " snoozer " and " South of Santa Fe " " wretched " .

= = = Tight Rope = = =

Tight Rope ( 1999 ) , the duo 's sixth album , was also its least commercially successful release . It included three singles : a cover of John Waite 's " Missing You " , followed by " Beer Thirty " and " You 'll Always Be Loved By Me " . The former two failed to make Top 10 , while the latter peaked at number 5 in 2000 . Dunn co @-@ wrote some songs on this album with McBride & the Ride lead singer and bassist Terry McBride ( who would later join Brooks & Dunn 's road band ) , and Brooks collaborated with Bob DiPiero . The duo shared production duties with Byron Gallimore on all three singles and four other songs on the album , while retaining Cook as producer on the other six . While " Beer Thirty " was climbing , the album cut " Goin ' Under Gettin ' Over You " charted as high as number 60 based on unsolicited airplay . Tight Rope was certified gold for U.S. shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies , but did not receive any higher certification .

Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave this album a mixed review , referring to the " Missing You " cover as a " misstep " . Jon Weisberger thought that the album was " consistent " but added that it did not have any " surprises " . Brooks revealed in 2015 that the album 's poor performance almost led to the duo splitting up , as he felt that “ We weren ’ t really writing together anymore , and we were just kind of done " , but they ultimately stayed together at the suggestion of Joe Galante , then the head of their label .

= = = Steers & Stripes = = =

In addition to persuading the duo to stay together , Galante suggested that they record the song " Ain 't Nothing ' Bout You " , because he felt it had potential as a hit . The song served as the lead single from their seventh album , 2001 's Steers & Stripes . It became their longest @-@ lasting number 1 , with a six @-@ week stay at that position . This song was the second song of the duo 's career to be named the top single of the year according to Billboard Year @-@ End ; it was also their highest peak on the Billboard Hot 100 at the time , peaking at number 25 there . For this album , the duo worked with producer Mark Wright , who also produced for Lee Ann Womack and Gary Allan at the time .

The next two singles from Steers & Stripes both made number 1 as well : " Only in America " and " The Long Goodbye " , the latter of which was written by Irish pop singers Ronan Keating and Paul Brady . After it , the duo charted at number 5 with " My Heart Is Lost to You " and number 12 with a cover of Kim Richey 's " Every River " , featuring a backing vocal from Richey . All of these other singles also made the pop charts . " Only in America " was later used by George W. Bush in his 2004 re @-@ election campaign , and again in 2008 by Barack Obama in his campaign . Noting that the song was used by both a Republican and a Democrat candidate , Brooks ( who wrote the song with Cook and Ronnie Rogers ) said that it was " very flattering to know our song crossed parties and potentially inspires all Americans . "

This album was generally well received , with the reviews in Allmusic and Country Standard Time noting that the album was more consistent than the previous ones . Nash was less favorable , referring to the up @-@ tempos as " retreads " but praising Dunn 's voice .

= = = It Won 't Be Christmas Without You and Red Dirt Road = = =

Brooks & Dunn released a Christmas album in 2002 titled It Won 't Be Christmas Without You . Four of its cuts made the country music charts based on seasonal airplay : the title track , " Hangin ' ' round the Mistletoe " , " Rockin ' Little Christmas " and a rendition of " Winter Wonderland " . It was followed in early 2003 by the duo 's eighth studio album , Red Dirt Road , whose title track became the duo 's eighteenth number one on Billboard . Two more singles were released from it : " You Can 't Take the Honky Tonk Out of the Girl " , which spent five weeks in the number three position , and " That 's What She Gets for Loving Me " at number six . On the Hot 100 , these songs respectively peaked at 25 , 39 and 53 . As with Steers & Stripes , Red Dirt Road was certified platinum .

Erlewine described Red Dirt Road as a concept album in his review of it , saying that its title track and other songs offered a " tribute to their roots and upbringing . " Nash gave the album an A @-@ minus rating , saying that Brooks & Dunn " dig even deeper " on the album ; she also referred to the title track as a " gutsy account of the terrible beauty of coming of age . " A less favorable review came from Country Standard Time , whose critic Jeffrey B. Remz called it " satisfactory , but not much more . " Both Nash and Remz compared " You Can 't Take the Honky Tonk Out of the Girl " to the sound of The Rolling Stones .

= = = The Greatest Hits Collection II and Hillbilly Deluxe = = =

Arista Nashville released Brooks & Dunn 's second Greatest Hits package , The Greatest Hits Collection II , in October 2004 . The album included singles from If You See Her , Steers & Stripes and Red Dirt Road , and the previously unreleased " That 's What It 's All About " and " It 's Getting Better All the Time " . Respectively , these cuts peaked at numbers two and one on the country music charts , as well as 38 and 56 on the Hot 100 .

In August 2005 , the duo released the single " Play Something Country " . According to Dunn and co @-@ writer Terry McBride , it was inspired by Gretchen Wilson , who was touring with Brooks & Dunn and Big & Rich on the Deuces Wild tour at the time . " Play Something Country " was the lead @-@ off to their ninth studio album , Hillbilly Deluxe . Brooks & Dunn co @-@ produced with Tony Brown , with further production from Mark Wright on " My Heart 's Not a Hotel " . A month after the album 's release , " Play Something Country " became the duo 's twentieth and final number one on Hot Country Songs , and went to number 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album 's second single , " Believe " , peaked at number eight , also winning the next year 's Single of the Year and Song of the Year awards from the Country Music Association . After it was " Building Bridges " , with guest vocals from Vince Gill and Sheryl Crow , which peaked at number four . Before the duo released this song , it had been released by co @-@ writer Larry Willoughby , a cousin of country singer Rodney Crowell , and later by Nicolette Larson . The final release from Hillbilly Deluxe was the title track , which peaked at number sixteen on Hot Country Songs . Erlewine gave this album a positive review , saying that it was not " quite as ambitious " as the previous two albums , but " just as satisfying " .

Brooks & Dunn began the Long Haul tour in mid @-@ 2006 , which featured Sugarland and Jack Ingram as opening acts . Of this tour , Brooks said , " They 've got a lot of shows under their belt , they 're really good at what they do , and they are great performers [ … ] We want everything about this show from opening act ' til the lights go down to be first class . "

= = = Cowboy Town = = =

Their tenth studio album , Cowboy Town , was released on October 2 , 2007 . Its lead @-@ off single " Proud of the House We Built " reached number 4 on the country charts and 57 on the Hot 100 . Following this song were " God Must Be Busy " at number 11 and " Put a Girl in It " at number 3 . After this song , the duo released " Cowgirls Don 't Cry " , which they later performed with Reba McEntire at the Country Music Association awards . Following this performance , the song was re @-@ released partway through its chart run with McEntire dubbed into the final chorus . In early 2009 , the song peaked at number two on the country charts . Although not released as a single , the title track spent three weeks on the charts and peaked at number 56 . Also included on the album is a collaboration with Jerry Jeff Walker on " The Ballad of Jerry Jeff Walker " . Cowboy Town was also the name of the duo 's 2009 tour , which featured Rodney Atkins and ZZ Top . The tour began on June 6 at the BamaJam festival in Enterprise , Alabama .

Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that " Brooks & Dunn have crafted these songs [ … ] with an eye on the middle of the road , and they do it well enough that this music will likely win them that audience yet again . " Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly rated it " B + " , saying that " even if the themes on their 11th studio CD are a bit predictable , their muscular riffs and handsome vocal harmonies give the material a boot @-@ scooting vibrancy " .

= = = Retirement and solo careers = = =

On August 10 , 2009 , Brooks & Dunn announced that they would be splitting up after a tour titled The Last Rodeo . According to Brooks , the decision to split was on good terms ; he told CMT that he and Dunn are " still good friends " , while Dunn said that " We 've ended up more like brothers . " The duo released its final compilation , # 1s … and Then Some , on September 8 of the same year . The album features 28 past hits and two new songs . Both of these new songs , " Indian Summer " and " Honky Tonk Stomp " ( featuring guest vocals from Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top ) , peaked at number 16 on the country music charts . On May 23 , 2010 , CBS aired a tribute show presented by the Academy of Country Music titled The Last Rodeo , on which various country music stars performed Brooks & Dunn songs while the duo received a Milestone Award . The academy donated proceeds from the concert to help victims of the 2010 Tennessee floods . Brooks & Dunn performed their last concert together at the Bridgestone Arena in Nashville on September 2 , 2010 , with proceeds from the concert benefiting the Country Music Hall of Fame .

Both members stayed with Arista Nashville as solo artists after the split . Dunn released his self @-@ titled solo album in June 2011 , which produced the top 40 country hits " Bleed Red " , " Cost of Livin ' " and " Let the Cowboy Rock " . Dunn announced via Facebook on June 7 , 2012 that he had exited Arista Nashville . Restaurant chain Cracker Barrel re @-@ issued the album in late May with two bonus tracks ; proceeds from the re @-@ issue benefit the Wounded Warrior Project . In late 2013 , Dunn sang duet vocals with Kelly Clarkson on a cover of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " from her Christmas album Wrapped in Red . Dunn 's second solo album , Peace , Love , & Country Music , was released in 2014 . In 2015 , he signed to Valory Music Group 's NASH Icon .

In February 2012 , Brooks released the solo single " New to This Town " , which features Joe Walsh on slide guitar . Brooks ' first Arista album , also titled New to This Town , was released in September 2012 .

On December 3 , 2014 , it was announced that Brooks & Dunn will reunite and perform a series of concerts in Las Vegas , Nevada with Reba McEntire during throughout mid @-@ late 2015 .

= = = Other works = = =

Brooks & Dunn have also contributed to several soundtracks and compilation albums . In 1994 , they recorded " Ride ' em High , Ride ' em Low " for the soundtrack to the 1994 film 8 Seconds , and a cover of " Corrine , Corrina " in collaboration with Asleep at the Wheel for a tribute album to Bob Wills . Both of these cuts peaked at number 73 on the country charts while " Rock My World " was climbing . In early September 1994 , the duo collaborated with Johnny Cash on a rendition of his song " Folsom Prison Blues " for the album Red Hot + Country , a charity album made by the Red Hot Organization to benefit AIDS awareness . Also that year , they covered " Best of My Love " on the Eagles tribute album Common Thread : The Songs of the Eagles . They covered Bob Seger 's " Against the Wind " for the soundtrack to the cartoon King of the Hill ; this rendition charted at number 55 in late 1999 based on unsolicited airplay . They also recorded " Keep On Swinging " , which Brooks wrote with Five for Fighting , for the soundtrack to the 2006 animated film Everyone 's Hero . Finally , they collaborated with Mac Powell on " Over the Next Hill " from the soundtrack to the 2008 film Billy : The Early Years , and took the song to number 55 on the country charts .

Dunn has sung guest vocals on other artists ' songs , including Lee Roy Parnell 's mid @-@ 1994 cover of the Hank Williams song " Take These Chains from My Heart " ( from Parnell 's album On the Road ) , " Try Me " on Trisha Yearwood 's 2005 album Jasper County , " Raise the Barn " on Keith Urban 's 2006 album Love , Pain & the Whole Crazy Thing , and Ashley Monroe 's 2006 single " I Don 't Want To " , which reached number 37 on the country charts . He also sang duet vocals with Carlene Carter on a cover of Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash 's " Jackson " for the 2007 tribute album Anchored in Love : A Tribute to June Carter Cash . In 2011 , he covered Gary Stewart 's " She 's Actin ' Single ( I 'm Drinkin ' Doubles ) " for the soundtrack of the film Country Strong , and contributed duet vocals to Cledus T. Judd 's parody of " God Must Be Busy " , titled " Garth Must Be Busy " .

Dunn and Dean Dillon co @-@ wrote Shenandoah 's 1994 single " Darned If I Don 't ( Danged If I Do ) " and the track " She Wants Me to Stay " on David Kersh 's debut album Goodnight Sweetheart . He also co @-@ wrote " Don 't Leave " on Toby Keith 's 2003 album Shock 'n Y 'all with Keith , and Reba McEntire 's 2010 single " I Keep On Loving You " with Terry McBride . Brooks & Dunn co @-@ wrote " Steady as She Goes " on Wade Hayes ' debut album Old Enough to Know Better and " Our Time Is Coming " ( originally an album cut from Hard Workin ' Man ) on his second album On a Good Night , while Dunn co @-@ produced his 2001 album Highways & Heartaches .

In January 2006 , Brooks succeeded Bob Kingsley as the host of the radio countdown show American Country Countdown , while Kingsley moved to his own show , Bob Kingsley 's Country Top 40 . Brooks received an Academy of Country Music nomination for National On @-@ Air Radio Personality in 2010 , and again in 2011 . Later that same year , he made his acting debut in an independent film called Thriftstore Cowboy . In 2011 , he starred in a second film , The Last Ride .

= = Musical style = =

Steve Huey of Allmusic contrasts Brooks ' and Dunn 's voices , saying that Dunn " was the quietly intense singer with the soulful voice , while Kix Brooks played the part of the high @-@ energy showman . " He also describes their sound as " a winning formula of rambunctious , rocked @-@ up honky tonk with punchy , danceable beats [ alternated with ] smooth , pop @-@ tinged ballads . " In the book The New Generation of County Music Stars , David Dicaire describes Dunn as " possess [ ing ] a soulful voice with a quiet intensity " and a " traditional country singer " , while calling Brooks " the opposite to Dunn 's musical personality , " " a high @-@ energy showman " and " the perfect accompaniment to his partner " . Brooks sang lead on " Lost and Found " , " Rock My World " , " You 're Gonna Miss Me When I 'm Gone " , " Mama Don 't Get Dressed Up for Nothing " , " Why Would I Say Goodbye " , and " South of Santa Fe " .

= = Slim & Howdy = =

In the liner notes to each of their studio albums , Brooks & Dunn wrote short stories about Slim & Howdy , fictionalized cowboy versions of themselves . The duo worked with Bill Fitzhugh in late 2008 and wrote a book titled The Adventures of Slim and Howdy .

= = Discography = =

= = = Studio albums = = =

1991 : Brand New Man

1993 : Hard Workin ' Man

1994 : Waitin ' on Sundown

1996 : Borderline

1998 : If You See Her

1999 : Tight Rope

2001 : Steers & Stripes

2003 : Red Dirt Road

2005 : Hillbilly Deluxe

2007 : Cowboy Town

= = = Compilation albums = = =

1997 : The Greatest Hits Collection

1999 : Super Hits

2004 : The Greatest Hits Collection II

2008 : Playlist : The Very Best of Brooks & Dunn

2009 : # 1 's ... and Then Some

= = = Holiday album = = =

2002 : It Won 't Be Christmas Without You

= = Awards = =

Brooks & Dunn has 17 Country Music Association awards , 26 Academy of Country Music awards and 2 Grammy Awards .

= E language =

E ( simplified Chinese : 诶话 ; traditional Chinese : 誒話 ; pinyin : Ē Huà ) or Wuse / Wusehua ( simplified Chinese : 五色话 ; traditional Chinese : 五色話 ; pinyin : Wŭsè Huà ; literally : " Colored Language " ) is a Tai – Chinese mixed language spoken primarily in Rongshui Miao Autonomous County , Guangxi , China . It contains features of both Tai and Chinese varieties , generally adopting Chinese vocabulary into Tai grammar . E is a tonal language — distinguishing between seven tones — and contains a few rare phonemes : voiceless versions of the more common nasal consonants and alveolar lateral approximant .

= = Etymology = =

The E language 's unusual pinyin @-@ transliterated name , which is also an autonym , consists of a single letter e . The character , which is written " 诶 " in Simplified Chinese and " 誒 " in Traditional Chinese , denotes an expression of affirmation . The language 's speakers also refer to their language as Kjang E. Wusehua is a derogatory name for E.

= = Geographical distribution = =

In 1992 , E was spoken by about 30 @,@ 000 people , but by 2008 this number had dwindled to 9 @,@ 000 . Most E speakers are classified as Zhuang by the Chinese government . E speakers live primarily in the Guangxi autonomous region of China , specifically in the Rongshui Miao county and border areas of Luocheng Mulao . Villages inhabited by E speakers include Xiatan , Simo , Xinglong , and the Yonglei district . Ethnologue classifies E as rank 6b ( Threatened ) . E speakers ' most commonly spoken other languages are Yue Chinese and the Guiliu variant of Southwestern Mandarin .

= = Phonology = =

E 's consonant and vowel inventories are mostly similar to those of its parent languages . However , it contains a few unusual consonants : the voiceless nasal consonants [ n ̥ ] , [ ŋ ̥ ] , [ m ̥ ] , and the voiceless alveolar lateral approximant [ l ̥ ] . All are voiceless versions of consonants that , in most languages , are always voiced . E allows syllabic consonants and diphthongs .

Like most Southeast Asian languages , including Tai and the varieties of Chinese , E is tonal . The language is described as having seven tones , with the seventh varying allophonically with the length of the vowel it is attached to . With numbers ranging from 1 to 5 , with 1 being the lowest tone and 5 the highest , the contours of the various tones in E are as follows .

= = Grammar and lexicon = =

E is usually classified as a mixed language deriving ultimately from the Tai @-@ Kadai and Sino @-@ Tibetan families , which both inhabit southern China and Southeast Asia . Some non @-@ Chinese scholars , however , consider it a Tai @-@ Kadai language with Chinese influence . Whatever its classification , the grammar resembles that of the Tai branch of Tai @-@ Kadai . Specifically , scholars consider E 's grammatical features a blend of Northern Zhuang , Mulam , and Kam . The Caolan language of Vietnam displays many similarities with E.

The vocabulary , however , is mostly Chinese , based on Guiliu and the Tuguai variant of Pinghua . Out of the 2 @,@ 000 most commonly used E words , only about 200 are of Tai @-@ Kadai origin . E also inherits elements of these Chinese dialects ' phonology and compound word formation . E morphology is primarily analytic , with concepts such as negation expressed with auxiliary words ( pat6 , m2 ) and no pronominal agreement .

In its pronouns , E distinguishes for person between first , second , and third ; in number between singular and plural ; and , in the case of the second @-@ person plural , between inclusive and exclusive we . E does not , however , make distinctions for grammatical gender .

= Barlow Road =

The Barlow Road ( at inception , Mount Hood Road ) is a historic road in what is now the U.S. state of Oregon . It was built in 1846 by Sam Barlow and Philip Foster , with authorization of the Provisional Legislature of Oregon , and served as the last overland segment of the Oregon Trail . Its construction allowed covered wagons to cross the Cascade Range and reach the Willamette Valley , which had previously been nearly impossible . Even so , it was by far the most harrowing 100 miles ( 160 km ) of the nearly 2 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) Oregon Trail .

Before the opening of the Barlow Road , pioneers traveling by land from the east followed the Oregon Trail to Wascopam Mission ( now The Dalles ) and floated down the Columbia River to Fort Vancouver , then a perilous and expensive journey . It was also possible to drive livestock over Lolo Pass on the north side of Mount Hood , but that trail was too rugged for vehicles and unsuitable for wagons .

The Barlow Road begins at The Dalles and heads south to Tygh Valley ( some consider Tygh Valley to be the beginning ) , then turns west and roughly parallels the White River on the north and then west , crosses the south shoulder of Mount Hood at Barlow Pass , follows Camp Creek and the Sandy River for some way , and finally leads to Oregon City . The road was rendered largely irrelevant in the early 1900s by the construction of the Mount Hood Highway . It still exists as a dirt road in some places , while many other parts have been paved over by new modern streets and highways .

= = Planning and construction = =

When Sam Barlow arrived at The Dalles late September 1845 , as many as sixty families were waiting for river transport . The expected wait was more than ten days , and the transportation " exorbitantly " priced . Local inquiries turned up little information about traveling over the mountains except that water , timber , and grazing were plentiful . Barlow and H. M. Knighton set out to determine the feasibility of a route , seeking a more expedient and less expensive way to the Willamette Valley . Knighton decided it was impractical after 20 or 25 miles ( 30 – 40 km ) and returned . Barlow forged on with a train of seven wagons , intending to return for river transport if the mountain passage proved impractical .

On October 1 , 1845 , Barlow and three men scouted ahead of their company and entered Mount Hood 's foothills from the east near Tygh Creek , about 35 miles ( 56 km ) from the mouth of the Deschutes River . They came within perhaps 12 miles ( 19 km ) of Mount Hood . They thought they had glimpsed the Willamette Valley , and learned from the Indians of a trail leading to Oregon City , but returned to Tygh Creek about five days after their departure . There Joel Palmer was waiting for him with a 23 wagon party . Palmer had followed Barlow for a better route , and had just returned from exploring the same area . The combined company organized road clearing through the forest , mostly by burning .

The clearing party made it to the top of a ridge , now known as Barlow Pass , where they were effectively lost . Barlow , Palmer , and a man named Lock hiked the south face of Mount Hood west of Palmer Glacier to scout a westward route off the mountain . Palmer , in better physical condition than his companions , climbed high on the glacier ( likely Zigzag Glacier ) , and took detailed notes on the surrounding ridges and rivers . They returned to the group , arranged for guards for their wagons at a place they named Fort Deposit . Several families in wagons ill @-@ suited for travel through the wilderness remained at Fort Deposit , while the remainder returned to The Dalles . Barlow 's group followed the Sandy River west on foot . Palmer noted an intersection with a trail coming from The Dalles by way of Lolo Pass , around the north side of Mount Hood , which had previously been the only overland trail traversed by pioneers . Near the present @-@ day city of Sandy , they turned southwest to reach Eagle Creek and Philip Foster 's farm near present @-@ day Clackamas .

That autumn , Barlow considered the route over the mountains and petitioned the Provisional Legislature of Oregon for permission to build a road on December 9 , 1845 , claiming that his estimated cost of $ 4000 was lower than that of others familiar with the route . Permission was granted with a vote of 8 @-@ 2 on December 17 , 1845 , approved by Speaker pro @-@ tem Henry A. G. Lee , and signed into law by Governor George Abernethy .

The road 's toll was authorized for two years effective January 1 , 1846 and specified toll rates at five dollars ( about a week 's wages ) for each wagon and ten cents for each head of horse , mule , ass , or horned cattle . The grant named the route " Mount Hood Road " — but it was immediately known as the " Barlow Road . "

The road was built with the financial backing of Philip Foster and a crew of forty men . Five toll gates were eventually built along the route . Barlow 's estimate of $ 4000 had underestimated the number of trees to be cut down and forgotten the numerous challenging bridges that would have to be built over rivers such as the Sandy , Zigzag , White , and Salmon . The White River continues to challenge its bridges to this day .

In its first season of operation , Barlow recorded the passage of 152 wagons , 1300 sheep , 1559 mules , horses , and cattle . Despite ongoing maintenance , the general condition of the road was considered to vary from " rough to barely passable . "

= = Early use = =

The direction of travel was effectively one @-@ way until 1861 , when a better road was blasted through Laurel Hill . Despite the expense and difficulties of passage , the road was very popular , with more than a thousand immigrants and 145 wagons recorded in the first year of operation . Approximately three @-@ quarters of the pioneers entering the Willamette Valley traveled the Barlow Road , with most of the remainder choosing the Columbia River route .

Barlow 's concession expired in 1848 , and he and Foster terminated their largely unprofitable partnership on November 29 , 1848 . Others continued to operate the toll road , but weather and mountain conditions made this a financial struggle . By 1863 , the toll had decreased to $ 2 @.@ 50 per wagon and team .

In 1849 , a military wagon train destined for Oregon forts passed over the road . It carried 250 tons of munitions in more than 400 wagons pulled by 1700 mules . From the beginning of Barlow Road to the camp the soldiers made at what has been known since as Government Camp , they abandoned 45 wagons after dozens of mules died of starvation .

= = Later use and historic designations = =

Various owners operated the road until 1882 . Ownership then passed to the Mount Hood & Barlow Road Company . E. Henry Wemme purchased that company in 1912 , and made improvements to the road . Wemme 's attorney , George W. Joseph , became the owner upon Wemme 's death in 1914 , in a probate dispute so contentious that it shaped the 1930 race for Governor of Oregon . Joseph and his wife donated the road to the people of Oregon in 1919 .

The 1923 Oregon Legislative Assembly designated the path from Idaho to the Pacific Ocean as the " Old Oregon Trail " route and approved signage with a prairie schooner and oxen for modern travelers to navigate . In 1978 , the entire Oregon Trail , including the Barlow Road , was named a National Historic Trail by the U.S. Congress . In 1992 , the Barlow Road was placed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district . In 2005 , part of it was incorporated into the Mount Hood Scenic Byway .

The Oregon Trail , Barlow Road Segment is a small segment of an alternate route , near Wemme , that was separately listed on the National Register in 1974 . Also Rock Corral on the Barlow Road , a campsite on the Barlow Road near Brightwood , was also separately NRHP @-@ listed in 1974 .

= = Today = =

On the western side of the Cascades , U.S. Route 26 follows more or less the same route from Sandy to Government Camp ; south of Government Camp , US 26 follows a valley just west of the Barlow Road 's route along Barlow Creek . The route is concurrent with a few miles of the southern end of Oregon Route 35 , and much of the Mount Hood Highway .

The Barlow Road is intact as a dirt road in a roughly north – south stretch along Barlow Creek ; other portions are pristine ruts up to six feet deep . The easternmost part of the original Barlow Road in Wasco County traverses an unpopulated area within Mount Hood National Forest and follows small Forest Service roads and " Jeep trails " , then Rock Creek Dam Road , and finally Wamic Market Road , north of the White River , from the Cascades to Tygh Valley . The areas east of Mount Hood National Forest have always been sparsely populated . Good rut viewing is possible at Pioneer Woman 's Grave near Bennett Pass and in several other places . Much of the Clackamas County side is buried under US 26 . Overall , about twenty percent of the road is still visible today .

A roadside marker and trail at Laurel Hill ( just west of Government Camp ) provides history and access to the portion where a sixty percent grade was present in the early Barlow Road . Wagons were lowered down the hill winched by ropes wrapped around trees .

= Barbados at the 2008 Summer Olympics =

Barbados sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The island nation made its tenth appearance as an independent nation upon its arrival in Beijing . Eight athletes across three sports and ten events represented Barbados , marking the smallest delegation in its history up to the Beijing Games . Its runners and swimmers advanced past the first rounds in their events in four of their nine events , although none advanced to their events ' final rounds or medaled . The nation 's flagbearer during the Beijing Games was swimmer Bradley Ally .

= = Background = =

Barbados is the easternmost of the islands located within the Caribbean Sea . Home to 280 @,@ 000 residents , Barbados was first settled by the British in the 1620s . The nation remained a British colony until it declared total independence from the United Kingdom in 1966 . The very first appearance of a uniquely Barbadian delegation at the Olympic games came two years after it declared independence from the United Kingdom . At its debut , nine male athletes arrived to participated at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City . Previously , Barbados ( as a British colony ) constituted a major part of the West Indies Federation along with Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago , which sent a delegation to participate at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome .

Between its 1968 debut and its appearance at the Beijing Olympics , Barbadian delegations appeared at every Summer Olympics except for the 1980 Summer Olympics , which took place in Moscow in the Soviet Union . With the exceptions of the 1968 and the 2008 Barbadian teams , every appearance by Barbados at the Olympics ( as of Beijing ) included at least ten athletes ; its smallest delegation arrived in 2008 , carrying only eight competitors . All the delegations except the one that arrived in 1968 have included female athletes . Prior to and including the 2008 Beijing Olympics , there had been one medalist from Barbados . Obadele Thompson won a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , Australia , as part of Barbados ' most successful showing at any Olympic games as of 2008 .

In Beijing , eight athletes participated across three sports ( swimming , track and field , and sailing ) in ten distinct events . Gregory Douglas , the nation 's only sailor in Beijing , was the youngest participant from Barbados at 18 years old ; runner Jade Bailey , the only female athlete in the delegation , was the oldest , at 25 years old . There were no medalists from Barbados at Beijing . Swimmer Bradley Ally bore the flag of Barbados at the ceremonies .

= = Athletics = =

In track and field events , there were two ways to qualify for later rounds . The first way , " qualifying by right " , involves ranking high enough in one 's heat . Athletes could also " qualify by result " ; if they did not rank high enough in their heats but were high enough in the event 's overall standings , they could also advance .

= = = Men 's competition = = =

Andrew Hinds participated for the Barbadian team at the Beijing Olympics , participating in the men 's 100 meters dash . Born in 1984 , he is the son of former Olympian Hadley Hinds , and has been affiliated in training with the MVP Track and Field Club in Kingston , Jamaica . Hinds participated in the Beijing Olympics at age 24 , and had not previously participated in any Olympic games prior to that . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 14 , Hinds participated in the third heat . He completed the race in 10 @.@ 35 seconds , placing fifth out of the heat 's eight athletes . Indonesia 's Suryo Agung Wibowo ranked behind him in sixth place ( 10 @.@ 46 seconds ) , while Ghana 's Aziz Zakari ranked ahead of him in fourth place ( 10 @.@ 34 seconds ) . Trinidad and Tobago 's Richard Thompson ( 10 @.@ 24 seconds ) and France 's Martial Mbandjock ( 10 @.@ 26 seconds ) led the Barbadian sprinter 's heat. of the 80 athletes participating in the event , Hinds tied Colombia 's Daniel Grueso and the Netherlands Antilles ' Churandy Martina for 27th place . He advanced to the quarterfinal round .

During the quarterfinal round , which took place on August 15 , Hinds was placed in the second heat . Eight athletes participated in the heat , and Hinds placed fifth with a time of 10 @.@ 25 seconds . Brazil 's Jose Carlos Moreira ranked directly behind him ( 10 @.@ 32 seconds ) , while Nigeria 's Olusoji Fasuba ranked directly ahead of him ( 10 @.@ 21 seconds ) . Hinds ' heat was led by Richard Thompson again ( 9 @.@ 99 seconds ) and the United States ' Tyson Gay ( 10 @.@ 09 seconds ) . Of the 40 athletes who advanced to quarterfinals in the event , Hinds tied Russia 's Andrey Epishin for 24th place . He did not advance to later rounds .

Ryan Brathwaite is a hurdler who competed for Barbados at the Beijing Olympics . Born in 1988 in the Barbadian capital city of Bridgetown , Brathwaite attended Barton County Community College in rural central Kansas , competing in the school 's athletic programs . He competed in Beijing at age 20 in a single track event , the men 's 110 meters hurdles . Brathwaite had not previously competed at any Olympic games . During the qualification round of his event , which took place on August 17 , Brathwaite participated in the third heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 13 @.@ 38 seconds , placing second in the event ahead of the Czech Republic 's Petr Svoboda ( 13 @.@ 43 seconds ) and behind Colombia 's Paulo Villar ( 13 @.@ 37 seconds ) . 43 athletes competed in the qualification round of the event , and 40 finished their races ; of those , Brathwaite ranked third . He advanced to the quarterfinal round .

Brathwaite participated in the third heat of the quarterfinal round in the men 's 110 meters hurdles , which took place on August 19 . His heat included eight athletes , although one was disqualified and did not rank . With a time of 13 @.@ 44 seconds , Brathwaite ranked second in the event behind Jamaica 's Maurice Wignall ( 13 @.@ 36 seconds ) and ahead of Villar , who led Brathwaite 's qualification heat ( 13 @.@ 46 seconds ) . The quarterfinal round included 32 advancing athletes , and 30 of those competitors finished their races . Of those , Brathwaite ranked tenth . He again advanced , this time to the semifinal round .

Semifinals in the hurdling event took place on August 20 . Brathwaite competed in the eight @-@ person second heat . Running the race in 13 @.@ 59 seconds , Brathwaite finished in seventh place , defeating France 's Samuel Coco @-@ Villoin ( 13 @.@ 65 seconds ) but falling behind Dutch sprinter Marcel van der Westen ( 13 @.@ 45 seconds ) . The heat was led by the United States ' David Oliver ( 13 @.@ 31 seconds ) and Poland 's Artur Noga ( 13 @.@ 34 seconds ) . Of the 16 semifinalists , Brathwaite ranked 12th . He did not advance to the final round .

= = = Women 's competition = = =

Jade Latoya Bailey participated at the Beijing Olympics in track and field events on Barbados ' behalf . Born in 1983 , Bailey was 25 at the time she entered the Beijing Olympics . She had not previously competed in any Olympic games or events . One of the events in which she participated was the women 's 100 meters dash . During the qualification round of the event , which occurred on August 15 , Bailey was placed in the ninth heat against eight other athletes . She ranked second in the heat after finishing the race in 11 @.@ 46 seconds , displacing Jamaica 's Sherone Simpson ( 11 @.@ 48 seconds ) and falling behind Russia 's Evgeniya Polyakova ( 11 @.@ 24 seconds ) . Of the 85 athletes who competed in and finished this round of the event , Bailey tied Tahesia Harrigan of the British Virgin Islands for 25th place . She advanced to the quarterfinal round .

The quarterfinal round of the women 's 100 meters took place on August 16 . Bailey competed in the first heat , which included eight athletes . Of those , Bailey placed last in the heat after finishing the race in 11 @.@ 67 seconds . Nigeria 's Franca Idoko ranked ahead of her ( 11 @.@ 66 seconds ) , while Cameroon 's Myriam Leonie Mani ranked ahead of Idoko ( 11 @.@ 65 seconds ) . The heat was led by Jamaica 's Shelly @-@ Ann Fraser ( 11 @.@ 06 seconds ) and Polyakova , who led Bailey 's previous heat ( 11 @.@ 13 seconds ) . 40 athletes advanced to the quarterfinal round . Of those , the Barbadian sprinter tied Brazil 's Lucimar Moura for 37th place . She did not advance to semifinals .

Jade Bailey also competed in the women 's 200 meters race . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 18 , Bailey was placed in the fourth heat , which included eight athletes . She finished in seventh place after finishing with a time of 23 @.@ 62 seconds , defeating Myanmar 's Lai Lai Win ( 24 @.@ 37 seconds ) but falling behind Uzbekistan 's Guzel Khubbieva ( 23 @.@ 44 seconds ) . Bailey 's heat was led by Bahraini sprinter Roqaya Al Ghasara ( 22 @.@ 81 seconds ) and Great Britain 's Emily Freeman ( 22 @.@ 95 seconds ) . 48 people competed in the qualification round , and 46 of those athletes finished the races . Bailey tied Slovenia 's Sabina Veit for 34th place overall . She did not advance to later rounds .

Key

Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only

Q

= Qualified for the next round

q =

Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target

NR

= National record

N / A =

Round not applicable for the event

Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round

Men

Women

= = Sailing = =

Then 18 @-@ year @-@ old Canada @-@ raised Gregory Douglas participated in the Beijing Olympics on behalf of Barbados . He was the only Barbadian sailor to participate in the Beijing Olympics . Douglas competed in the one person dinghy event , where he was assessed using a score derived from his participation in nine distinct races . In the first race , Douglas ranked 41st place out of 43 ; in the second , 43rd out of 43 ; in the third , 43rd out of 43 ; in the fourth , 34th out of 43 ; in the fifth , 33rd out of 43 ; in the sixth , 30th out of 43 ; in the seventh , 40th out of 43 ; in the eighth , 37th out of 43 ; and in the ninth , 41st out of 43 . His total final score was 342 , and his net final score was 299 . Overall , Douglas ranked 43rd out of 43 , falling behind 42nd place finalist Adil Mohammad of the United Arab Emirates by 27 points , and behind gold medalist Paul Goodison of Great Britain by 236 points .

Men

M

= Medal race ; EL =

Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race ; CAN = Race cancelled ;

= = Swimming = =

Qualifiers for the latter rounds of swimming events were decided on a time only basis , therefore positions shown are overall results versus competitors in all heats .

Bradley Ally was the only Barbadian swimmer at the Beijing Olympics who competed in multiple events . Born in Barbados in 1986 , Ally was involved in the Pine Crest Swim Team in Fort Lauderdale , a city in southern Florida . His first appearance at the Olympics was the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , when he represented Barbados in the men 's 100 meters breaststroke ; the men 's 200 meters breaststroke ; the men 's 200 meters individual medley ; and the men 's 400 meters individual medley . He was 17 years old at the time . Ally returned to the Olympics as a 21 @-@ year @-@ old . One of the events to which he returned was the men 's 200 meters individual medley . During the course of the men 's 200 meters IM , Ally was placed in the fourth heat of the August 13 preliminary round . He competed against seven other athletes in this heat . Completing the event in 1 : 58 @.@ 57 , Ally placed third ahead of British swimmer Liam Tancock ( 1 : 59 @.@ 79 ) and behind Japan 's Ken Takakuwa ( 1 : 58 @.@ 51 ) . The heat itself was led by Hungary 's László Cseh ( 1 : 58 @.@ 29 ) . Of the 46 athletes who finished their races in this round , Ally ranked fifth . He advanced to the next round .

The event 's semifinal round took place later on August 13 . Ally was placed in the second heat , which included seven other athletes again . During this race , he finished with a time of 1 : 59 @.@ 53 , placing fourth in the heat . Great Britain 's James Goddard ranked ahead ( 1 : 59 @.@ 63 ) , while Japan 's Takuro Fujii ( 1 : 59 @.@ 59 ) ranked behind . The heat 's headers included American swimmer Ryan Lochte ( 1 : 57 @.@ 69 ) and Brazil 's Thiago Pereira ( 1 : 58 @.@ 06 ) . 16 swimmers competed in the semifinal round ; Ally ranked ninth , falling one position short of advancing to the final round .

Bradley Ally also returned to compete in the men 's 400 meters individual medley , an event in which he had participated while at the Athens Olympics in 2004 . He competed in the preliminary round on August 9 , when he was placed in the second heat against seven other athletes . Ally finished the event in 4 : 14 @.@ 01 , placing third ; Italy 's Allesio Boggiatto placed ahead ( 4 : 10 @.@ 68 ) , while Israel 's Gal Nevo placed behind ( 4 : 14 @.@ 03 ) . László Cseh of Hungary led the heat ( 4 : 09 @.@ 26 ) . 29 competitors participated in this round of the event . Ally placed tenth , and did not advance to the final round , which occurred later that day .

Andrei Cross participated for Barbados as a swimmer while the nation participated in the Beijing Olympics . Born on Barbados , Cross was affiliated with TeamBath , the sports organization of England 's University of Bath . He was 24 years old when he participated at the Beijing Olympics in the men 's 100 meters breaststroke event . He had not previously competed at any Olympic games . During the course of the August 9 preliminary round , Cross was placed in the third heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 1 : 04 @.@ 57 , ending up in seventh place ; he defeated Uzbekistan 's Ivan Demyanenko ( 1 : 05 @.@ 14 ) , but fell behind Argentina 's Sergio Andres Ferreyra ( 1 : 03 @.@ 65 ) . The heat was led by Puerto Rican swimmer Daniel Velez ( 1 : 01 @.@ 80 ) and India 's Sandeep Sejwal ( 1 : 02 @.@ 19 ) . 65 athletes participated in the preliminary round , and 63 finished their races . Cross ranked 55th . He did not advance to later rounds .

Martyn Forde also swam on Barbados ' behalf at the Beijing Olympics . Born in Canada in 1985 , Forde was 23 years old when he made his appearance at the Beijing Olympics . He participated in the men 's 50 meters freestyle , which marked the first time he ever participated in an Olympic games . The preliminary round of his event took place on August 14 . Forde was placed in the seventh heat against seven other athletes . Finishing the race in 23 @.@ 08 seconds , the Barbadian swimmer placed sixth ahead of Josh Laban of the United States Virgin Islands ( 23 @.@ 28 seconds ) but behind Kazakhstan 's Stanislav Kuzmin ( 22 @.@ 91 seconds ) . The heat was led by Chile 's Oliver Elliot ( 22 @.@ 75 seconds ) and Romania 's Norbert Trandafir ( 22 @.@ 80 seconds ) . 97 athletes participated in the preliminary round of the event , with Forde ranking 51st . He did not advance to later rounds .

Terrence Haynes represented Barbados in the men 's 100 meters freestyle while at the Beijing Olympics . He was born in Canada in 1984 , and first participated on Barbados ' behalf as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old in the Athens Olympics of 2004 . During the 2004 Olympics , Haynes raced in the men 's 50 meters freestyle and ranked 56th in the preliminary round . He returned to the Olympics as a 23 @-@ year @-@ old . During the preliminary round of the men 's 100 meters freestyle , which took place on August 12 , Haynes competed in the third heat against six other athletes . He finished the race in 50 @.@ 50 seconds , placing third . Alexandr Sklyar of Kazakhstan placed behind him ( 51 @.@ 24 seconds ) , while Latvia 's Romans Miloslavskis placed ahead ( 50 @.@ 40 seconds ) . India 's Virdhawal Khade led the heat ( 50 @.@ 07 seconds ) . Of the 64 athletes who finished the preliminary round races , Haynes ranked 47th . He did not advance to later rounds .

Men

Legend : Q - Qualified

= 500 euro note =

The five hundred euro note ( € 500 ) is the highest @-@ value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro ( in its cash form ) in 2002 . It is one of the highest value circulating banknotes in the world , worth around 551 USD , 3 @,@ 677 CNY , 58 @,@ 254 JPY , 543 CHF or 417 GBP . The note is used in the 23 countries which have the euro as their sole currency ( with 22 legally adopting it ) , with a population of about 338 million .

It is the largest note measuring 160 × 82 mm and has a purple colour scheme . The five hundred euro banknotes depict bridges and arches / doorways in modern architecture ( around the late 20th century ) .

The five hundred euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks , invisible ink , holograms and microprinting that make counterfeiting very difficult . Initially the high denomination notes were introduced very rapidly so that in first 7 years ( by Dec 2008 ) there were 530 @,@ 064 @,@ 413 five hundred euro banknotes in circulation . Subsequently rate of increase was radically slowed . In January 2016 there were 611 @,@ 833 @,@ 416 in circulation .

The European Central Bank announced on 4 May 2016 that it would phase out the 500 euro note by the end of 2018 . “ Authorities increasingly suspect that they ( € 500 notes ) are being used for illegal purposes , an argument that we can no longer ignore , ” according to a high @-@ ranking bank official , Benoît Cœuré .

= = History = =

The euro was founded on 1 January 1999 , when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe . For the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency , only used in accountancy . Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002 , when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12 , such as the Luxembourgish franc .

Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007 , Cyprus and Malta in 2008 , Slovakia in 2009 , Estonia in 2011 , Latvia in 2014 and Lithuania joined on 1 January 2015 .

= = = The changeover period = = =

The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever .

= = = Changes = = =

Notes printed before November 2003 bear the signature of the first president of the European Central Bank , Wim Duisenberg , who was replaced on 1 November 2003 by Jean @-@ Claude Trichet , whose signature appears on issues from November 2003 to March 2012 . Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the third president of the European Central Bank , incumbent Mario Draghi .

As of June 2012 , current issues do not reflect the expansion of the European Union . Cyprus is not depicted on current notes as the map does not extend far enough east and Malta is also missing as it does not meet the current series ' minimum size for depiction . The European Central Bank is currently introducing a new series of Euro @-@ banknotes . The 500 euro denomination , however , will not be included in the new series as it was decided to phase out issuance of 500 euro banknotes .

= = Design = =

The five hundred euro note measures at 160 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) × 82 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) with a purple colour scheme . All bank notes depict bridges and arches / doorways in a different historical European style ; the five hundred euro note shows Modern architecture ( around the 20th century ) . Although Robert Kalina 's original designs were intended to show real monuments , for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era .

Like all euro notes , it contains the denomination , the EU flag , the signature of the president of the ECB and the initials of said bank in different EU languages , a depiction of EU territories overseas , the stars from the EU flag and twelve security features as listed below .

= = = Security features = = =

The five hundred euro note is protected by :

Colour changing ink used on the numeral located on the back of the note , that appears to change colour from purple to brown , when the note is tilted .

A see through number printed in the top corner of the note , on both sides , appear to combine perfectly to form the value numeral when held against the light .

A glossy stripe , situated at the back of the note , showing the value numeral and the euro symbol .

A hologram , used on the note which appears to see the hologram image change between the value and a window or doorway , but in the background , it appears to be rainbow @-@ coloured concentric circles of micro @-@ letters moving from the centre to the edges of the patch .

A EURion constellation ; the EURion constellation is a pattern of symbols found on a number of banknote designs worldwide since about 1996 . It is added to help software detect the presence of a banknote in a digital image .

Watermarks , which appear when held up to the light .

Raised printing in the main image , the lettering and the value numerals on the front of the banknotes will be raised .

Ultraviolet ink ; the paper itself does not glow , fibres embedded in the paper do appear , and be coloured red , blue and green , the EU flag is green and has orange stars , the ECB President 's , currently Mario Draghi 's , signature turns green , the large stars and small circles on the front glow and the European map , a bridge and the value numeral on the back appear in yellow .

Microprinting , on various areas of the banknotes there is microprinting , for example , inside the " EYPΩ " ( EURO in Greek characters ) on the front . The micro @-@ text is sharp , but not blurred .

A security thread , embedded in the banknote paper . The thread will appear as a dark stripe when held up to the light . The word " EURO " and the value is embedded in tiny letters on the thread .

Perforations in the hologram which will form the euro symbol . There are also small numbers showing the value .

A matted surface ; the note paper is made out of pure cotton , which feels crisp and firm , but not limp or waxy .

Barcodes ,

A serial number .

= = Crime = =

The value of the note is several times greater than many of the largest circulating notes of other major currencies , such as the United States 100 dollar bill . Thus a large monetary value can be concentrated into a small volume of notes . This facilitates crimes that deal in cash , including money laundering , drug dealing , and tax evasion . There have been calls to withdraw the note for this reason . However , some of the currencies the Euro replaced had widely used high @-@ value notes , including the 10 @,@ 000 Belgian francs ( € 247 @.@ 89 ) , 5 @,@ 000 Austrian schillings ( € 363 @.@ 36 ) , and 1 @,@ 000 Dutch guilders ( € 453 @.@ 78 ) , although these did not exceed the value of the € 500 note . Two exceptions were the 1 @,@ 000 Deutsche Marks , which had an equivalent value of € 511 @.@ 29 , and 500 Latvian lats , which had an equivalent value of € 711 @.@ 44 . But while these national currency banknotes had similar face value , the numbers of banknotes circulated was considerably smaller . For instance approx 93 million of the German 1000 DEM banknotes was circulating in the year 2000 , far fewer than the over five hundred million 500 Euro banknotes circulating in less than 7 years after the Euro banknotes were introduced .

In particular , Spain had a quarter of all these high @-@ value bills within its borders in 2006 . This concentration of € 500 notes is far greater than expected for an economy of Spain 's size , as prior to Euro conversion the largest banknote was 10 @,@ 000 Spanish peseta worth ~ € 60 . These notes are rarely seen in every @-@ day commerce – they have been nicknamed " Bin Ladens " by the populace ( as the presence and appearance of the notes are well @-@ known , but the notes themselves are very difficult to find ) . British and Spanish police are using the bills to track money laundering .

As of 20 April 2010 , money exchange offices in the United Kingdom stopped selling € 500 notes due to their use in money laundering . The Serious Organised Crime Agency claimed that " 90 % of all € 500 notes sold in the UK are in the hands of organised crime " , revealed during an eight @-@ month analysis . The € 500 note is worth in the region of £ 400 , depending on exchange rates ( more than eight times the value of the Bank of England 's largest publicly circulated note ) , and had become the currency choice for gangs to hide their profits .

In fact , historical banknotes of the UK had higher values than the € 500 note , even up to £ 1000 in civil hands circulation . In the case of other banknotes , such as dollars ( which generally have lower value notes ) , it doesn 't prevent money laundering , as in the case of Mexico City , where a cash total of $ 207 million was found . Also , nowadays bank accounts and modern money laundering schemes show that removing cash from the market does not guarantee stopping crime altogether .

The EU directive 2005 / 06 / EC on the prevention of the use of the financial system for the purpose of money laundering and terrorist financing tries to prevent such crime by requiring banks , real estate agents and many more companies to investigate and report usage of cash in excess of € 15 @,@ 000 .

= = Circulation = =

As of December 2015 , there were approximately 613 @,@ 559 @,@ 542 € 500 banknotes in circulation around the Eurozone , therefore it is the second @-@ least circulated banknote in the Eurozone . That is approximately € 306 @,@ 779 @,@ 771 @,@ 000 worth of € 500 banknotes . The European Central Bank closely monitors the stock and circulation of euro notes and coins . It is the Eurosystem ’ s task to ensure an efficient and smooth supply of euro notes and to maintain their integrity .

= = Legal information = =

Legally , both the European Central Bank and the central banks of the eurozone countries have the right to issue the 7 different euro banknotes . In practice , only the national central banks of the zone physically issue and withdraw euro banknotes . The European Central Bank does not have a cash office and is not involved in any cash operations .

= = Tracking = =

There are several communities of people at European level , most of which is EuroBillTracker , that , as a hobby , it keeps track of the euro banknotes that pass through their hands , to keep track and know where they travel or have travelled . The aim is to record as many notes as possible to know details about its spread , like from where and to where they travel in general , follow it up , like where a ticket has been seen in particular , and generate statistics and rankings , for example , in which countries there are more tickets . EuroBillTracker has registered over 155 million notes as of May 2016 , worth more than € 2 @.@ 897 billion .

= Tropical Storm Bret ( 1981 ) =

Tropical Storm Bret made a rare landfall on the Delmarva Peninsula in June 1981 . The fifth tropical cyclone and second named storm of the season , Bret developed as a subtropical storm from a large area of frontal clouds near Bermuda on June 29 . Moving westward , the subtropical storm intensified while producing deep convection , and was consequently reclassified as a tropical storm early on June 30 . Around that time , Bret peaked with sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The storm then began weakening and struck near Oyster , Virginia as a minimal tropical storm early on July 1 . Upon moving inland , Bret weakened to a tropical depression and subsequently accelerated prior to dissipating over northern Virginia that same day .

In its early stages , Bret dropped light rainfall on Bermuda , peaking at 3 @.@ 34 inches ( 85 mm ) . Impact in the United States was generally minor . In Virginia , the storm produced up to 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) of rain in Big Meadows section of Shenandoah National Park . Along the coast , minor beach erosion occurred due to tides up to 0 @.@ 9 feet ( 0 @.@ 27 m ) above normal . In western Pennsylvania , locally heavy rainfall flooded some streets and basements . Elsewhere , Bret dropped 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation to several states . One fatality was confirmed after a woman was killed by rip currents at Nags Head , North Carolina .

= = Meteorological history = =

A large band of frontal clouds became situated over the northwestern Atlantic Ocean on June 27 . By the following day , satellite imagery indicated that a low @-@ pressure area began developing northwest of Bermuda , along the northwest periphery of the frontal cloud band . Substantial amounts of deep convection eventually formed north and west of the low center . Thus , the system was designated as a subtropical storm at 1200 UTC on June 29 , while centered approximately 575 miles ( 925 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The system continued to gain convection and intensify while tracking westward toward the Mid @-@ Atlantic states at a forward speed of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . Early on June 30 , a well @-@ defined atmospheric circulation became apparent on infrared satellite imagery . As a result , subtropical storm transitioned into Tropical Storm Bret later that day at 0600 UTC .

Upon becoming a tropical cyclone early on June 30 , Bret attained maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . About six hours later , at 1200 UTC , the storm also attained its minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Around 2200 UTC on June 30 , a reconnaissance aircraft flight observed hurricane @-@ force winds , though Bret was not upgraded to a hurricane because the minimum barometric pressure was considered too high . About an hour later , the National Hurricane Center noted that Bret was moving westward toward Virginia at 20 mph ( 25 km / h ) and entering a region of colder sea surface temperatures , causing further intensification to become unlikely . Subsequently , the storm curved west @-@ northwestward and rapidly weakened . At 0500 UTC on July 1 , Bret made landfall near Oyster , Virginia on the Delmarva Peninsula as a minimal tropical storm . About an hour later , the storm emerged into the Chesapeake Bay and weakened to a tropical depression . Later on July 1 , Bret moved inland over mainland Virginia and continued to weaken , until dissipating over the northern portion of the state .

= = Preparations and impact = =

In its early stages , the subtropical precursor of Bret tracked north of Bermuda and dropped light rainfall on the island , peaking at 3 @.@ 34 inches ( 85 mm ) .

While Bret was approaching the East Coast of the United States , various National Weather Service offices issued gale warnings . At 2000 UTC on June 30 , a gale @-@ force warning was issued for a portion of the North Carolina coastline extending from Cape Hatteras northward , including Albemarle and Pamlico sounds . Simultaneously , another gale warning was issued for areas along the Chesapeake Bay south of the Patuxent River in Maryland and on the east coast from Ocean City , Maryland to Virginia Beach , Virginia . Around 0300 UTC on July 1 , all gale warnings were discontinued in North Carolina , while the remaining warnings in Maryland and Virginia were canceled about five hours later . Additionally , a small craft advisory was also posted for the North Carolina and Virginia coastlines . Officials in North Carolina closed off beaches at Nags Head , Kitty Hawk , and Kill Devil Hills from swimmers due to rip currents and tides . After Bret dissipated , the small craft warning remained in effect and mariners were told to remain in port until the weather calmed .

In Virginia , Bret produced relatively light rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 48 inches ( 114 mm ) in Big Meadows , a section of Shenandoah National Park . At the time of Bret 's landfall , portions of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states were experiencing a strong drought , though the amounts of precipitation were not enough for farmers in Virginia to save their crops . In Virginia Beach , local street flooding and a brief tornado were reported . Minor beach erosion occurred in the area due to tides reaching about 0 @.@ 9 feet ( 0 @.@ 27 m ) above normal . One fatality was confirmed in North Carolina when a woman was killed after getting stuck in rip currents at Nags Head . Offshore , two boats lost contact with the Coast Guard during the approach to land , one of which washed up at Cape May , New Jersey and the other on the Virginia coast . The Coast Guard began cleanup of an oil spill at Nags Head caused by Bret off the coast . About 8 miles ( 13 km ) of the shoreline was filled with oil , little of which polluted the water . Most of the oil was thin and easily cleanup private contractor . Locally heavy rainfall in western Pennsylvania flooded streets and basements in some areas . The town of Brookville was inundated with up to 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of water . Elsewhere , Bret dropped 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) of precipitation in several states . Overall , no considerable damage was reported .

= Operation Ironside =

Operation Ironside was a Second World War military deception undertaken by the Allies in 1944 . It formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic deception plan instigated by the Allies throughout the year to help cover the June 1944 invasion of Normandy . Ironside supported the overall deception by suggesting to the Germans that the Allies would subsequently land along the Bay of Biscay . It complemented efforts to deceive the Germans into believing that the Allies would also land in southern France at this time ( Operation Vendetta ) . Bordeaux was an important military port during the war and had already been a target of commando raids two years earlier . Ironside intended to play on German fears of an invasion in the region , with the aim of tying down defensive forces following Operation Overlord in June 1944 .

Planned by the London Controlling Section , Ironside was communicated to the Germans via double agents between May and June 1944 . Unlike other Bodyguard deceptions , the plan was put across entirely by double agents without support by physical deception . Agent Bronx took the lead with support from Tate , Rudloff and Garbo . Ironside 's story included an initial two @-@ division assault , using Overlord formations , staged out of the United Kingdom . This would then be followed up with six divisions sailing from the East Coast of the United States . Historians disagree on the impact of Ironside on German plans . There is no indication that the operation was successful in convincing the Germans of imminent Allied plans to invade the Bay of Biscay . On the other hand , Allied planners attributed the delay of a Panzer division moving to Normandy in part to the deception .

As Ironside was a marginal operation , and they were worried about exposing agents as false , the Twenty Committee for the most part utilised less important agents and added words of caution to the messages they sent , reducing the impact of the story . Allied landings around Bordeaux may also have seemed implausible because it was beyond air cover from the UK and lacked the normal physical elements ( such as Naval activities and dummy landing craft ) associated with an invasion .

After the operation closed , at the end of June 1944 , the threat of invasion from the US was informally kept alive . It was revisited as Ironside II in mid @-@ July as support for Operation Ferdinand . The invasion story was replaced with a supposed Allied plan to increase French resistance in the Bordeaux region to tie up German forces . Most of Ironside II was ignored by the Germans , whose interest had turned away from the Bordeaux region .

= = Background = =

Operation Ironside formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic military deception intended to confuse the Axis high command as to Allied intentions during the lead @-@ up to the Normandy landings . The overall aim of Bodyguard was to tie down German forces away from Normandy by threatening other targets . Ironside 's specific objective was to tie up the 17th SS and 11th Panzer divisions deployed in the south of France .

Overall planning for Bodyguard and Ironside rested with John Bevan and the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) . The LCS had been set up in 1942 following successes in deception in the Middle East by Dudley Clarke . After initial attempts at deception planning the department was tasked with bringing Bodyguard to fruition . One of their most useful deception channels was through double agents . During the early stages of the war , the Abwehr ( German intelligence ) had sent spies to Britain , but all of them either surrendered or were captured . Some , along with other volunteers , were used as an extensive misinformation network under the control of the Twenty Committee .

Bordeaux was an important port for the German war effort , receiving a great deal of cargo , mostly raw materials , from overseas . The Gironde estuary and Bordeaux had already been a target for the Allies . Operation Frankton was a 1942 commando raid targeting important shipping in the port . In January 1944 , the Allies intercepted communications indicating that German commanders were concerned by the possibility of landings in the Bay of Biscay region of France . The next month , German naval and air units undertook anti @-@ invasion exercises in the area . Ironside was intended to amplify these concerns .

According to the storyline for Ironside , ten days following D @-@ Day , Allied forces would land in the Bordeaux region . This force would spend around twelve days establishing a bridgehead before advancing to meet formations supposedly part of an invasion of the Mediterranean coast of France ( in reality these were fictional landings as well , part of another Bodyguard deception called Operation Vendetta ) . The supposed target of Ironside was the Gironde estuary ( on the river Garrone ) with landing sites at Royan and Accord .

At first , Bevan suggested that the fictional invasion force should stage from the American East Coast . Newman Smith , based out of New York and responsible for the US elements of the deception , felt this was an unrealistic story and suggested a large force from the US might conceivably reinforce a bridgehead established by units from the UK . Formations intended for Normandy could be " re @-@ purposed " for the initial invasion . The final plan earmarked two Overlord divisions for the assault with the supposed reinforcements consisting of six real divisions ( the 26th , 94th , 95th , and 104th Infantry , and the 10th and 11th Armored ) under the notional command of Lieutenant General Lloyd Fredendall .

= = Operation = =

Ironside began on 23 May 1944 with the aim of having the threat established by 29 May and continued until 28 June ( 22 days after the Normandy landings ) . It was implemented via double agents , in Britain and the United States , under the control of the Twenty Committee . The operation did not receive any resources from the Allied navies or airforce , so the deception had no physical element . This meant that Ironside had none of the traditional accompaniments to an invasion , including reconnaissance flights , bombardment , and naval operations . As a result , the Twenty Committee was cautious about using important agents to pass over the deception .

The lead was given to the less important Agent Bronx , a Peruvian socialite named Elvira Chaudoir , who communicated with her German handlers via letter . From April 1944 , she had also begun sending codes as telegrams , which were faster than letters in the event of an imminent invasion . Her code was based on a financial theme , assigning different amounts of money to possible invasion sites . Mentioning her doctor ( almost certain ) or dentist ( certain ) showed Chaudoir 's confidence in the information . Asking for the money " straight away " , " urgently " or " quickly " identified when the invasion would take place ( within a week , a fortnight or a month , respectively ) .

Agent Tate ( a Dane sent to England in 1941 and turned double shortly after ) opened the operation , on 23 May , in a message to his German handlers stating that a friend from the US had identified an expeditionary force , consisting of six divisions , preparing to sail . On 29 May , Bronx sent a telegram identifying an invasion targeted at the Bordeaux region within a month , using the code " dentist " to say she was certain of the information . She also sent a follow @-@ up letter explaining that the information came from a drunken British officer in the Four Hundred Club who had later sworn her to secrecy . According to Bronx , the officer had boasted about an airborne assault in the Bordeaux region that would be in the papers the following morning . The next day he had told her the operation had been delayed by a month .

Although many messages were sent by agents , the Twenty Committee considered that Ironside was quite unrealistic and as a result was cautious about promoting it too heavily . Most of the information was sent with words of caution or uncertainty to ensure that the agent would not be compromised . One of the most critical Bodyguard agents , Garbo , did become involved on 5 June , but only in forwarding the message of a fictional sub @-@ agent who he had already identified as unreliable ( MI5 hoped that this would cover for , in their opinion , the implausible nature of the story ) . The agent 's report explained that a US division based in Liverpool was preparing to head to Bordeaux .

Messages were also sent from the US . Rudloff , an agent based in the New York , sent four reports between 2 and 20 June . He identified the six divisions under Fredendall being sidelined for specialist training in bridge building but not amphibious assault and under heavy security . A last @-@ minute deception involved an MI6 transmitter in France . Known to be under German control , when the operator asked about routes to send escaped prisoners of war the handlers replied that they should , from 15 June , be sent toward Bordeaux .

= = Impact = =

German intelligence documents indicate that there was never strong belief that the Allies were ready to land in the Bordeaux region . Intercepted situation reports suggested that the Germans believed rumours of landings in the area to be " cover operations of small caliber " and part of the cover for a main Allied thrust at Calais ( in itself a deception called Operation Fortitude South ) . Axis commanders had considered the idea and conducted exercises in preparation , and training continued in the region after D @-@ Day . Following the Normandy invasion , the Allies had expected both German divisions in the Bordeaux area to mobilise . In the end , only the 17th SS Panzer Division moved north , and even they were delayed by several days , whilst the 11th Panzer Division remained to guard the region .

Historians are divided over whether the deception played a major role in the German response . Most , such as historian Ben McIntyre , agree that Ironside added to the general picture of confusion for the German commanders . McIntyre quotes senior Allied figures , such as John Masterman ( chair of the Twenty committee ) and Hugh Astor ( MI5 ) , who attributed the delayed German response in part to Ironside . Michael Howard dismisses the impact of the operation saying that there is " no evidence that anyone took them seriously " .

Part of the problem was that Bordeaux may not have appeared a plausible Allied target because it was out of range of fighter aircraft cover from the United Kingdom . Historian Terry Crowdy 's analysis is that Ironside may have suffered simply from lack of resources . In common with other , higher @-@ impact , Bodyguard deceptions it preyed on a concern that the Allies knew Hitler and the German High Command had discussed . Crowdy suggests that with physical deception , and more effort , Ironside could have succeeded in the same way as deceptions aimed against Calais , Normandy and the Mediterranean .

= = Ironside II = =

John Bevan had asked Newman Smith to retain the threat of a US invasion force beyond 28 June when the initial deception was supposed to have ended . Agent Rudloff sent messages on 10 , 12 and 18 July referring to the Ironside force . In mid @-@ July , the Allies began Operation Ferdinand , a cover deception for Operation Dragoon , the August 1944 invasion of southern France . The Ironside story was considered as an option in support of Ferdinand , but Noel Wild and Ops ( B ) , the SHAEF deception planners were worried about the impact of a theoretical US invasion force on the continuing Fortitude deception . It was decided that a new story would be presented to the Germans , suggesting that the Allies intended to bolster French resistance in the south of the country . The operation went largely unnoticed and German interest in the Bordeaux region dissipated .

= Cody Ross =

Cody Joseph Ross ( born December 23 , 1980 ) , nicknamed " Toy Cannon " and " Ross the Boss , " is a former American professional baseball outfielder . He is 5 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) tall and weighs 195 pounds ( 88 kg ) . Ross has played in MLB for the Detroit Tigers ( 2003 ) , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2005 – 2006 ) , Cincinnati Reds ( 2006 ) , Florida Marlins ( 2006 – 2010 ) , San Francisco Giants ( 2010 – 2011 ) , Boston Red Sox ( 2012 ) , Arizona Diamondbacks ( 2013 – 2014 ) and Oakland Athletics ( 2015 ) . He is one of the few Major League players to bat right @-@ handed but throw left @-@ handed .

Following high school , Ross embarked on his professional career , getting selected by the Detroit Tigers in the fourth round of the 1999 Major League Baseball draft . He reached the Major Leagues in 2003 , but suffered a torn ACL which caused him to miss most of September . He was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers following spring training in 2004 , appearing in a handful of games with them in 2005 . In 2006 , he played for the Los Angeles Dodgers , the Cincinnati Reds , and the Florida Marlins . It was in Florida that he finally established himself , as he played with the Marlins through 2010 . He was used mainly as a reserve outfielder in 2006 and 2007 , but during the 2008 season he took over a starting role . He would be a starting outfielder for the rest of his Marlins career , playing centerfield or right field . In 2009 , he hit a career @-@ high 24 home runs and won the Marlins ' Charlie Hough Good Guy award .

During the 2010 season , the Marlins placed Ross on waivers , and he was claimed by the San Francisco Giants . Named their starting right fielder for the 2010 playoffs , he went on to win the National League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award , hitting five home runs in the postseason while helping the Giants win the 2010 World Series . He re @-@ signed with San Francisco in 2011 , batting .240 during the year . In 2012 , he signed a one @-@ year contract with the Boston Red Sox , hitting 22 home runs while playing every day despite the fact that the Red Sox originally expected him to be a reserve player for them . The Arizona Diamondbacks signed him to a three @-@ year contract in December 2012 , but a season @-@ ending hip injury limited Ross to 94 games his first year with the team .

= = Early life = =

Ross was born in Portales , New Mexico . Ross 's father was a chiropractor and professional bull rider ; and as a youth , Ross wanted to become a rodeo clown . He used to attend his father 's bull @-@ riding matches in clown outfits , complete with makeup . He did not give up on the aspiration until his family moved to Dallas , Texas . The Ross 's eventually moved back to New Mexico , and Ross played high school baseball at Carlsbad High School . Ross also played football until ninth grade . During high school , he was a Baseball America All @-@ American selection . As a senior , he threw a five @-@ inning perfect game . He graduated in 1999 .

= = Minor League career = =

Ross was drafted by the Detroit Tigers in the fourth round of the 1999 Major League Baseball draft . He began his minor league career that year with the rookie Gulf Coast League Tigers , batting .218 with 31 hits , eight doubles , three triples , four home runs , and 18 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 42 games . In 2000 , he played for the A West Michigan Whitecaps of the Midwest League , getting named the Midwest League Player of the Week from June 18 – 24 after he scored four runs , had two doubles and a triple , drove in six runs , and batted .636 . In 122 games , he batted .267 with 116 hits , 17 doubles , nine triples , seven home runs , 68 RBI , and 11 stolen bases . His nine triples were tied for second in the league . After the season , Baseball America said he had the best outfield arm in the Detroit system .

Ross played for the A @-@ advanced Lakeland Tigers of the Florida State League in 2001 . He was the league 's player of the week from June 18 – 24 after stealing four bases and batting .516 with 11 runs scored , three doubles , two home runs , and five RBI . Then , he was named Player of the Week from August 13 to 19 after batting .385 . In 127 games ( 10th in the league ) , Ross batted .276 with 84 runs scored ( fifth ) , 133 hits ( eighth ) , 34 doubles ( second to Matt Padgett 's 37 ) , five triples ( tied with eight other players for seventh ) , 15 home runs ( tied with Jason Jones for eighth ) , 80 RBI ( seventh ) , and 28 stolen bases ( tied with Josh McKinley for eighth ) . After the season , Baseball America ranked him the ninth best Tigers ' prospect and again said he had the best outfield arm in the organization .

In 2002 , Ross played for the AA Erie SeaWolves of the Eastern League , getting named to both the regular season and postseason All @-@ Star teams for the league . He was named the Tigers ' Minor League Player of the Month in June after hitting .336 with 29 runs , 10 doubles , two triples , eight home runs , 30 RBI , and 10 stolen bases ; he earned the same honor from Topps . A broken toe forced him out of action from July 1 through August 2 and limited him to 105 games . He finished the year with 112 hits , 28 doubles , three triples , 72 RBI , and 16 stolen bases . His 19 home runs were tied with Andy Phillips and Aaron McNeal for ninth in the league . After the season , he played for the Mesa Solar Sox of the Arizona Fall League . For the third year in a row , Baseball America said he had the best outfield arm in the Tigers ' system .

Ross began 2003 with the AAA Toledo Mud Hens of the International League . On July 4 , he was called up by the Tigers . He made his Major League debut that day , going hitless in two at bats before exiting after getting hit by a pitch in the sixth inning as the Tigers lost 9 – 8 to the Kansas City Royals . He got his first hit on July 9 , an RBI single against Bartolo Colón in a 4 – 2 victory over the Chicago White Sox . After he had one hit in four games , he was optioned back to Toledo on July 16 to make room for Danny Patterson , who was returning from the disabled list . From July 27 to 29 , and again from August 17 to 18 , Ross homered in three consecutive games for the Mud Hens . In 124 games for the Mud Hens , Ross batted .287 with 135 hits , 35 doubles ( tied for sixth in the International League with Andy Abad and Luis Rodríguez ) , six triples ( tied for fourth with Ross Gload and Coco Crisp ) , 20 home runs ( tied for third with Brandon Larson behind Fernando Seguignol 's 28 and Ernie Young 's 21 ) , 61 RBI , and 15 stolen bases . He was recalled to the big leagues in September when rosters expanded . On September 2 , he hit a grand slam off Cliff Lee for his first Major League home run in an 8 – 6 victory over the Cleveland Indians , becoming the first Tiger since Milt Cuyler in 1991 to hit a grand slam for his first home run . In that same game , he tore his ACL running to first base , which required season @-@ ending surgery . In six games with the Tigers , Ross had four hits in 19 at bats , including five RBI . Ross was named the Tigers ' Minor League Player of the Year , and he was named to Baseball America 's postseason All @-@ Star team . For the final time , he was rated as having the best outfield arm in the Detroit organization .

In 2004 , Ross was supposed to begin the season in the minors for Detroit . However , with Detroit desperate for bullpen help , Ross was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers on April 1 for relief pitcher Steve Colyer . He was assigned to the AAA Las Vegas 51s of the Pacific Coast League , where he was teammates with Jayson Werth and Shane Victorino , whom he went on to face in the 2010 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . Injuries marred Ross 's 2004 campaign ; a knee injury kept him out for two weeks early in the season , he missed time from May 26 to July 15 after smashing his hand in a car door and breaking his finger , and he broke his wrist on August 25 which ended his season . In 60 games , he batted .273 with 65 hits , 17 doubles , 14 home runs , and 49 RBI . Ross spent most of 2005 with Las Vegas . From July 26 to August 11 , he hit 10 home runs and had 25 RBI in 17 games . In 115 games , he batted .267 with 105 hits , 21 doubles , 22 home runs , and 63 RBI .

= = Major League career = =

= = = Los Angeles Dodgers / Cincinnati Reds = = =

On July 24 , 2005 , Ross was recalled by the Dodgers to give them another bat during interleague play . He appeared in 14 games , batting .160 with four hits ( one double , no home runs ) and one RBI before getting sent back down on July 14 in favor of Steve Schmoll . He was not called up in September .

Ross was out of options in 2006 and made the Dodgers Opening Day roster as a backup outfielder only because of an injury to Kenny Lofton . On April 13 , he hit a tie @-@ breaking grand slam and a three run home run in a 13 – 5 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates . He batted .500 in eight games for the Dodgers before getting designated for assignment on April 17 to make room for Óscar Robles on the roster . A week later , he was traded to the Cincinnati Reds for cash or a player to be named later ( Ben Kozlowski ) .

Ross broke his finger in his debut with the Reds on April 29 and went on the disabled list . He returned to the Reds on May 23 and appeared in one more game before getting traded to the Florida Marlins on May 26 for cash considerations .

= = = Florida Marlins = = =

= = = = 2006 = = = =

Upon joining the Marlins in 2006 , Ross was forced to shave his beard , in order to comply with the Marlins ' no facial hair policy . Manager Joe Girardi quipped , " Maybe he can put it on top of his head . " He was used as a backup outfielder but got many starts at all three outfield positions throughout the year , especially from June 10 through 30 , July 21 through August 8 , and September 11 through the end of the season . On September 11 , Ross hit a three @-@ run home run against David Williams and a pair of two @-@ run home runs against Heath Bell and Royce Ring in a 16 – 5 win over the New York Mets . His three home runs and seven RBI in the game tied Marlins records . Ross 's five home runs and 14 RBI in September were more than he had in any other month that season . In 91 games ( 250 at bats ) with the Marlins in 2006 , Ross batted .212 with 53 hits , 11 doubles , 11 home runs , and 37 RBI .

= = = = 2007 = = = =

Again a reserve outfielder in 2007 , Ross batted .673 before going on the disabled list with a strained left hamstring on May 6 . He returned on July 19 and continued to be used in a variety of roles for the Marlins . For much of the year , he platooned with Alfredo Amézaga in centerfield . On April 20 , he hit his first career pinch @-@ hit home run against Chad Cordero to tie the Marlins with the Washington Nationals in the ninth inning ; however , the Marlins went on to lose 6 – 5 in 14 innings . Four days later , he homered and had five RBI against Mark Redman in an 11 – 6 loss to the Atlanta Braves . He had another pinch @-@ hit home run on August 23 against Brad Thompson in an 11 – 3 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . In 66 games ( 173 at bats ) , Ross hit .335 with 58 hits , 19 doubles , 12 home runs , and 39 RBI .

= = = = 2008 = = = =

Ross began 2008 platooning with Amézaga again in center field , though Amézaga was eventually replaced by Jacque Jones as Ross 's centerfield partner . Ross played against left @-@ handed pitchers as Amézaga and Jones faced right @-@ handers . Ross struggled in April , batting .159 with no home runs and two RBI . After receiving a text message from his father at the beginning of May saying he would improve , Ross declared that he was restarting his season and had 10 home runs and 18 RBI in the month . During the month , Ross had a stretch where nine out of 10 hits were home runs , becoming the first player to have a streak of that sort since Mark McGwire in 2001 . On May 14 , he hit a game @-@ tying three @-@ run ninth inning home run against Francisco Cordero in a 10 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 loss to the Reds . Then , on June 7 he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run in the bottom of the ninth inning against Cordero to give the Marlins an 8 – 7 victory over the Reds . Jones was designated for assignment on June 11 , putting Ross in sole control of centerfield . In a four @-@ game series with the Colorado Rockies from July 3 through 6 , Ross had 15 RBI , becoming the first player to have that many in a four @-@ game series since Carlton Fisk in 1977 . Fourteen of those RBI came from July 4 through 6 , the most in a three @-@ game span since Sammy Sosa had 16 in 2002 . In 145 games ( 461 at bats ) , Ross hit .260 with 120 hits , 29 doubles , 22 home runs , and 73 RBI .

= = = = 2009 = = = =

For the first time in his career in 2009 , Ross was a starting outfielder for the entire season . He began the year as the right fielder for the Marlins , who wanted prospect Cameron Maybin to play centerfield . On April 26 , he pitched a scoreless ninth inning for the Marlins to finish a 13 – 2 loss to the Philadelphia Phillies . After Maybin batted only .202 , Ross moved back to centerfield on May 10 when he was sent down . On June 12 , he hit his third grand slam of the season against Brandon League to give the Marlins a 7 – 3 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays . The grand slam tied Bobby Bonilla 's and Jeff Conine 's record for grand slams in a season by a Marlin . Dan Uggla and he hit back @-@ to @-@ back solo home runs against Kevin Gregg in the ninth inning on August 2 to give the Marlins a 3 – 2 victory over the Chicago Cubs . On August 16 , he set a team record by notching six hits in a doubleheader against the Rockies . Ross returned to right field on August 31 when Maybin was recalled . He set career @-@ highs in most categories in 2009 . In 151 games ( 559 at bats ) , he batted .270 with 151 hits , 37 doubles , 24 home runs , and 90 RBI . In the daytime , he batted .349 , the fourth @-@ highest mark in the NL . Following the season , he was named the Marlins Charlie Hough Good Guy award winner .

= = = = 2010 = = = =

Ross began 2010 in right field , but he moved to centerfield when Maybin was sent down on June 17 . He had four hits on April 7 in a 10 @-@ inning , 7 – 6 victory over the Mets . On May 10 , he stole home as part of a double steal with Maybin in a 4 – 2 victory over the Cubs , marking the first time a Marlin had stolen home since Reggie Abercrombie did so in 2006 . Six days later , he again had four hits in a 10 – 8 victory over the Mets . In his first 120 games ( 452 at bats ) , Ross batted .265 with 120 hits , 24 doubles , 11 home runs , and 58 RBI . After the Marlins fell out of contention in 2010 and with Ross due for a pay raise the following year , the Marlins put him on waivers in August in order save money and give their young players more playing time .

= = = San Francisco Giants = = =

On August 21 , 2010 , Ross was awarded to the San Francisco Giants on a waiver claim , partly to prevent him from being acquired by the San Diego Padres . He appeared in 33 regular season games for the Giants , batting .288 with three home runs . In 153 games combined with Florida and San Francisco ( 525 at bats ) , he batted .269 with 141 hits , 28 doubles , 14 home runs , and 65 RBI . The Giants went on to overtake the Padres late in the season to win the NL West Division title .

Ross was named the Giants ' starting right fielder for the playoffs because of a neck injury to José Guillén , according to Bruce Bochy at the start of the postseason . However , it was later revealed that Guillén had been left off the roster after a package of human growth hormone was intercepted as it was being shipped to his house . In the ensuing NL Division Series ( NLDS ) against the Atlanta Braves , Ross started all four games in right field , hit a home run to tie the deciding fourth game , and drove in the winning runs in two of the Giants ' three wins . Ross hit two home runs off of Roy Halladay in Game 1 in the following NLCS against the Phillies , and hit a solo home run against Roy Oswalt in Game 2 . Following the Giants ' Game 6 win of the NLCS , Ross was awarded the MVP award for the series , in which he hit .350 with three home runs , three doubles and recorded five RBI . Three of his five postseason home runs broke up no @-@ hitters . His home run off the Braves ' Derek Lowe was the Giants ' first hit in Game 4 of the NLDS . His first home run off Halladay in Game 1 of the NLCS , in addition to being the first hit off Halladay in the game , was the first hit off Halladay in 11 innings , as Halladay had thrown a no @-@ hitter in his previous start . Finally , his home run off Oswalt in Game 2 of the NLCS was the Giants ' first hit of the game . In Game 3 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers , he hit the first home run for the Giants off Colby Lewis ; however , the Giants went on to lose 4 – 2 . He won his first World Series ring as the Giants defeated the Rangers in five games to win their first World Series since 1954 .

In 2011 Ross re @-@ signed with the Giants on a one @-@ year contract worth $ 6 @.@ 3 million . Henry Schulman of the San Francisco Chronicle called it a " mild surprise " that Ross did not sign at least a two @-@ year deal . He began the season on the disabled list with a sprained right calf , but he assumed the Giants ' right field job upon his return on April 20 . On May 10 , Ross had a game @-@ ending single against David Hernandez in a 1 – 0 victory over the Diamondbacks . After May 10 , Ross began playing left field most of the time when Pat Burrell was moved to the bench . On May 18 , Ross hit a three @-@ run home run with two outs in the ninth inning against Lance Cormier to give the Giants an 8 – 5 victory over the Dodgers . From August through the end of the year , Ross began moving around between all three outfield positions , only once making four straight starts at the same position . He hit the 100th home run of his career against Alex White on September 16 in a 9 – 1 victory over Colorado . In the same game , Ross pulled his right hamstring , forcing him to miss the rest of the season . In 121 games ( 405 at bats ) , Ross hit .240 with 97 hits , 25 doubles , 14 home runs , and 52 RBI . He led the Giants with a career @-@ high 49 walks .

= = = Boston Red Sox = = =

On January 26 , 2012 , Ross finalized a one @-@ year contract with the Boston Red Sox . He was supposed to provide depth off the bench , but injuries , particularly to Carl Crawford , led to him holding a starting role for the entire season . He started almost every day for Boston in all three outfield positions , but mainly right field . On April 14 , Ross hit his first home run in a Red Sox uniform , a two @-@ run shot off the Tampa Bay Rays 's Dane De La Rosa in a 13 – 5 Red Sox victory . The next day , Ross hit a three @-@ run homer in the bottom of the second inning off Matt Moore in a 6 – 4 victory over the Rays . On May 18 , 2012 , Ross suffered a fractured foot after fouling a ball off his foot . He was placed on the disabled list and expected to miss from six to eight weeks .

On June 19 , Ross was activated from the disabled list . His first game back , he hit a home run against Mark Buehrle over the Green Monster at Fenway Park in a 7 – 5 victory over the Miami Marlins . Five days later , he hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 9 – 4 victory over the Braves . He hit two consecutive three @-@ run home runs against Pedro Hernández of the White Sox on July 18 in a 10 – 1 Red Sox victory . The next day , he hit a three @-@ run home run against Addison Reed for a walk @-@ off win against the White Sox . For the season , he had a .267 average , 127 hits , 34 doubles , 22 home runs , and 81 RBI in 130 games ( 476 at bats ) .

= = = Arizona Diamondbacks = = =

On December 22 , 2012 , Ross agreed to a three @-@ year contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks worth a reported $ 26 million , with a club option and a $ 1 million buyout . An injured left calf caused him to miss the beginning of the season ; he made his return April 13 . He began the 2013 season playing right field , but in May through the rest of the season he split time between right and left field . On June 19 , he hit a pinch @-@ hit three @-@ run home run against Mike Dunn in a 3 – 1 victory over the Marlins . He hit a three @-@ run home run against Matt Harvey to put the Diamondbacks ahead 3 – 2 on July 3 ; the Diamondbacks would wind up defeating the Mets 5 – 2 . Three days later , he set a career high with five hits and added three runs scored in an 11 – 1 victory over Colorado . On August 2 , he had four hits , two doubles , and three RBI , including a game @-@ winning solo home run against Pedro Beato in a 7 – 6 victory over Boston . On August 11 , Ross dislocated his right hip while running to first base . He was placed on the disabled list and missed the rest of the season . In 94 games ( 317 at bats ) in 2013 , Ross batted .278 with 88 hits , 17 doubles , eight home runs , and 38 RBI .

On April 4 , 2015 , Ross was released by the Diamondbacks .

= = = Oakland Athletics = = =

On April 8 , 2015 , Ross signed a one @-@ year deal with the Oakland Athletics for the league minimum salary of $ 507 @,@ 500 , with the Diamondbacks paying the remainder of his salary with them . He was released on May 3 , 2015 .

= = Legacy = =

Ross has been a streaky player throughout his career . He described this in 2006 : " I have gotten in grooves before , and you try to stay in it as long as you can until it ends . And it does end . I 've been notorious for that my whole career , where I 'll hit five or six in a week , where it seems like I can 't miss the pitch and I feel good in the batter 's box . " The most famous of these came in 2010 , when Ross 's torrid hitting in the playoffs helped San Francisco win the 2010 World Series .

During his career , Ross has earned a reputation for bringing energy to his teams and being a positive influence to his teammates . He has been a fan favorite in his career , especially in Florida and San Francisco , where he earned the nicknames " Toy Cannon " and " Ross the Boss " , respectively .

Ross bats right @-@ handed and throws left @-@ handed ; one of the rarest dominant bats / throws combinations in the history of Major League baseball . The only position player in the Baseball Hall of Fame with this combination of " bats / throws " is Rickey Henderson , who , like Ross , also had stints with the Dodgers and Red Sox .

= = Personal life = =

Ross and his wife , Summer , live most of the year in Scottsdale , Arizona , with their two children : Hudson and Haven Leigh . His father , Kenny , played strong safety at the University of New Mexico but became a chiropractor and bull rider after undergoing three knee surgeries in college . Ross has a sister , Sarah , who was a long @-@ jumper and basketball player growing up .

= Keith Houchen =

Keith Morton Houchen ( born 25 July 1960 ) is a former English professional footballer and football manager . A forward , he scored 184 goals in 687 league and cup games .

He started his professional career at Hartlepool United in February 1978 , after failing to win a contract at Chesterfield . He was coached by Billy Horner to become a strong centre @-@ forward , using his natural strength and power to retain possession in attacking positions . Financial difficulties forced the club to sell him on to Leyton Orient for £ 25 @,@ 000 in March 1982 . After failing to impress in his two years in London , he was moved on to York City for £ 15 @,@ 000 in March 1984 . He played seven games in the club 's Fourth Division title winning season in 1983 – 84 , before transferring to Scunthorpe United for £ 40 @,@ 000 in March 1986 . He did not settle at the club , but in the summer he was fortunate enough to win a £ 60 @,@ 000 move up through three tiers to First Division side Coventry City .

Though never a prolific player for the " Sky Blues " , he scored a spectacular headed goal in the 1987 FA Cup Final at Wembley , which earned him Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season award . He featured in the 1987 FA Charity Shield , but faded from the first team picture at Highfield Road , and in March 1989 he joined Scottish Premier Division side Hibernian for a fee of £ 325 @,@ 000 . He returned to England in August 1991 when he was sold to Port Vale for £ 100 @,@ 000 . After falling out with manager John Rudge he returned to Hartlepool on a free transfer in June 1993 . He was appointed as player @-@ manager in April 1995 , but endured a tough time at Victoria Park , and left the club in November 1996 . He later coached at the Middlesbrough Academy and entered the property market .

= = Playing career = =

= = = Early years = = =

Keith Morton Houchen was born in Middlesbrough to Ken and Vernie Houchen , who both worked in social clubs , and grew up some five minutes from Ayresome Park . He grew up with three brothers ; Jimmy , Dennis , and Patrick , who all joined the Coldstream Guards ; and one sister , Jackie . He attended St Mary 's College as a youth . A promising athlete and gifted footballer , as a youngster he travelled to London for a trial with Crystal Palace along with John and Terry Fenwick , but was told he was too lightweight at the time . After an unsuccessful trial with Aston Villa , he became an apprentice at Chesterfield in 1977 .

= = = Hartlepool United = = =

He was not offered a professional contract at Chesterfield by manager Arthur Cox and so left the club without making a senior appearance at Saltergate . However he was soon spotted playing amateur football in Nunthorpe by Hartlepool United manager Billy Horner . Houchen joined the " Monkey Hangers " on non @-@ contract terms , before turning professional in February 1978 , signing a one @-@ year contract on £ 30 a week . When he arrived at the Victoria Park , Hartlepool were a struggling Fourth Division club . He made his debut in a 1 – 1 home draw with Crewe Alexandra . Though grateful for the opportunity and training , Houchen lamented that " we used to have a mad rush to the bank to cash our cheques . Only about six of them would go through and the rest would bounce . " He scored his first senior goal against Barnsley on 24 March 1978 . He scored further goals against Darlington , Rochdale and Newport County to end the 1977 – 78 campaign with four goals in 13 games . He played regular first team football in 1978 – 79 , and scored 13 goals in 42 games to become the club 's top scorer . He then went on to score 14 goals in 44 games in 1979 – 80 , as the club finished 19th , just two points above the re @-@ election zone . His goalscoring record attracted the attention of bigger clubs , however club chairman Vince Barker told Reading that even if Houchen was available then they would not be able to afford him . His exploits continued into the following season , and the club rejected bids of up to £ 80 @,@ 000 from Plymouth Argyle and Cardiff City . He scored 17 goals in 48 appearances in 1980 – 81 , yet again becoming the club 's top scorer , as Hartlepool were in the promotion hunt until a late spell of bad form sent them down the table to ninth . He hit 19 goals in 38 games in 1981 – 82 to become the club 's top @-@ scorer for a fourth consecutive season . However , having scored 65 goals in 170 league appearances , Houchen wanted a move to a bigger club at a higher division ; he regularly handed in transfer requests , but all were ignored by the club .

= = = Leyton Orient = = =

Hartlepool United were in dire financial straits by March 1982 , and were £ 60 @,@ 000 in debt to the Inland Revenue . This crisis at the club allowed Leyton Orient manager Ken Knighton to take Houchen to Brisbane Road for a bargain price of £ 25 @,@ 000 . He signed a four @-@ year contract on £ 225 a week with a £ 1 @,@ 000 signing on fee . He scored one goal against Chelsea in 14 appearances , as the " O 's " finished in last place and were relegated out of the Second Division in 1982 . He missed the start of the 1982 – 83 campaign due to injury , but managed to hit ten goals in 38 games by the end of the season . His ten goals included one against Sheffield United on the last day of the season , in a win which kept Orient in the Third Division . He scored ten goals in 34 games in 1983 – 84 , but was not highly rated by new boss Frank Clark . For his part , Houchen said that Clark " would shout , and rant and rave , and tactically he wasn 't particularly brilliant . " He handed in a transfer request , which was accepted .

= = = York City = = =

On 22 March 1984 , York City manager Denis Smith signed Houchen for a £ 15 @,@ 000 fee , later saying that " anybody who could score sixty @-@ five goals playing for Hartlepool must have something " . He signed a two @-@ year contract on £ 225 a week . He scored on his debut against Aldershot at the Recreation Ground , despite missing a penalty ; he replaced Steve Senior in the second half , who had broken his leg . The " Minstermen " went on to win the Fourth Division championship by a 16 @-@ point margin , with Houchen featuring mostly as a substitute in the final seven games . With John Byrne and Keith Walwyn forming an effective striking partnership , Houchen played as an attacking midfielder . He hit a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 1 thrashing of Gillingham at Bootham Crescent , and also converted a penalty that he had won to knock Arsenal out of the FA Cup at the Fourth Round . He scored a total of 18 goals in 45 appearances in 1984 – 85 to become the club 's top scorer . However injuries helped to limit him to eight goals in 38 games in 1985 – 86 , and he decided to accept a move back down to the Fourth Division .

= = = Scunthorpe United = = =

He was sold on to Scunthorpe United for £ 40 @,@ 000 in March 1986 , signing a contract of £ 250 a week and receiving a car and an ex gratia payment of £ 10 @,@ 000 . Houchen later said that " it was the only time I ever gave up ... it wasn 't the right club because it wasn 't going anywhere ... I said to Yvonne , ' I 'm just going to take the money ' " . In doing so he rejected moves to Preston North End and Third Division Bury . He quickly regretted the move , and despite getting along well with manager Frank Barlow he found himself hating everything at the club , from the supporters to the Old Showground itself .

= = = Coventry City = = =

After 97 days with the " Iron " he moved on to Coventry City for a £ 60 @,@ 000 fee , after impressing in a reserve team game between the two clubs . The management team of George Curtis and John Sillett offered Houchen £ 350 a week , £ 50 an appearance , a £ 10 @,@ 000 signing @-@ on fee , as well the chance to play First Division football . He struggled with injuries at the start of the 1986 – 87 campaign , but recovered to ensure his name went down in the club 's history for his exploits in the FA Cup . He bagged five goals in their 1986 – 87 cup @-@ winning run , the first being the winning goal away at Old Trafford against Alex Ferguson 's Manchester United . He then scored two against Sheffield Wednesday in the quarter @-@ finals , and one against Leeds United in the semi @-@ finals , both games being held at Hillsborough . The final and most famous goal of the run came in the 1987 FA Cup Final in front of 98 @,@ 000 spectators at Wembley Stadium in a 3 – 2 win over Tottenham Hotspur . However Houchen almost missed the match after catching food poisoning from a trout caught by reserve goalkeeper Jake Findlay . The goal came from a Dave Bennett cross and was an instinctive full @-@ stretch diving header that was impossible for Ray Clemence to save . It levelled the score at 2 – 2 on 63 minutes , and an own goal from Gary Mabbutt in extra time won the game for Coventry . As well as his FA Cup winning medal , Houchen 's header also earned him the BBC Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season award for the 1986 – 87 season . This was due to the acrobatic effort involved and partly due to the incredible run he had made from deep midfield to meet the crossed ball . It is generally considered as one of the most famous goals scored at Wembley , and certainly the best headed goal .

" I never took my eyes off the ball . I ran looking over my shoulder , watching the ball on the turn , running , running , so if it came , that was where I went ... I couldn 't honestly say to you that I was consciously thinking that if the ball comes in I can dive and head it – it 's all instinct . I think all football is instinct and the only way I could get on the end of the ball was to throw myself . It all finishes up as perfect timing – the perfect ball , the perfect run – but in a lot of ways it 's a fluke . When it is all perfect timing , it is like a dance – it all comes together . I do remember actually heading it . I knew I was getting it , I knew I was going to get a good head on it , and you do think in the split second , ' Don 't head it wide , don 't head it over , don 't miss @-@ head it . ' ... I headed right past him [ Clemence ] , right in the corner . It was past him before he could move , so it was just the perfect header . "

Ironically , manager John Sillett spent much of the money from Coventry 's FA Cup run ( £ 750 @,@ 000 ) on Chelsea striker David Speedie , who would replace Houchen in front of goal . Sillett 's one consolation to Houchen was that he would play him in the 1987 FA Charity Shield , which ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to Everton . The 1987 – 88 season was poor for both club and player , as illness , injury and competition from Speedie , Gary Bannister and Cyrille Regis restricted Houchen to just three goals and 24 appearances . On 14 August 1988 , he was selected by Graham Taylor to represent the Football League in a game against Scunthorpe United to celebrate the opening of Glanford Park ; Houchen scored once in a 6 – 1 victory . He scored just twice in sixteen appearances in 1988 – 89 , though one of these goals was the winner against Midlands rivals Aston Villa in a 2 – 1 Boxing Day victory at Highfield Road . He also featured as a substitute in the infamous 2 – 1 defeat to Conference club Sutton United at Gander Green Lane . The result was all the more remarkable considering that Coventry went on to finish seventh in the league and that Houchen was one of ten Coventry players that day who had won the FA Cup less than two years previously .

= = = Hibernian = = =

In March 1989 , he took a £ 325 @,@ 000 transfer to Scottish Premier Division side Hibernian , banking a £ 65 @,@ 000 signing @-@ on fee . He had come close to signing for Queens Park Rangers , but was not willing to move to London following his experience with Orient . He scored on his debut , in a 2 – 1 defeat to Edinburgh rivals Hearts at Tynecastle . A further goal against Aberdeen gave him two goals in eight games at the end of the 1988 – 89 campaign . He hit 12 goals in 39 games to become the club 's top scorer in 1989 – 90 , including two in wins over Rangers at Easter Road and Ibrox , and one in Europe against Hungarian side Videoton . " Hibs " exited the UEFA Cup at the Second Round following defeat to Belgian club R.F.C. de Liège . Already riled by a telling off from manager Alex Miller , Houchen had a run in with his own supporters following a defeat to Raith Rovers at Stark 's Park . Following this confrontation he was singled out for abuse at Easter Road . He made his last appearance for the club in a Scottish Cup game against St Johnstone , during which he was sent off for kicking Tommy Turner . Houchen later said that he liked Scotland but did not enjoy Scottish football , and was particularly critical of the standard of refereeing ; referees were unwilling to punish fouls from defenders but quick to brandish cards for attackers who reacted poorly to being kicked .

= = = Port Vale = = =

In August 1991 he returned to England with a £ 100 @,@ 000 move to Port Vale ; he was one of three new arrivals , along with Peter Swan ( who took him in as a lodger ) and Martin Foyle . He scored a brace against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 3 September , but tore his hamstring later in the month . He finished 1991 – 92 with five goals in 24 games , and went on to help the " Valiants " to win the TNT Tournament in the summer . The club finished bottom of the Second Division , though the introduction of the Premier League meant that they were demoted to the Third Division , which was immediately re @-@ branded as the Second Division . He scored six goals in 28 league games in 1992 – 93 , and did not feature in the League Trophy final or the play @-@ off final . He fell out with manager John Rudge and the two stopped speaking to each other , and Houchen later admitted that " I should have knocked on the door and said , ' This is stupid ' " .

= = = Return to Hartlepool = = =

He left Vale Park on a free transfer in June 1993 and turned down a move to Cyprus outfit AC Omonia to return to former club Hartlepool United . Injury meant he did not play for the man who signed him , Viv Busby , and instead he made his second debut for the club under John MacPhail . Houchen went on to score eight goals in 37 games as Hartlepool were relegated into the bottom tier of the Football League in 1993 – 94 , finishing a massive 17 points behind Blackpool , who were one point above the relegation zone . MacPhail was quickly sacked and replaced by David McCreery ; MacPhail blamed the fact that the club was sometimes unable to pay the player 's wages as a reason for poor results on the field . Houchen was a coach at the club , but quickly fell out with temporary ' advisory coach ' Sandy Clark . Houchen scored a hat @-@ trick against Bury , though was later sent off in the match for allegedly swearing at referee Kevin Lynch ; at the time of the incident Houchen was receiving treatment for knee ligament damage which would keep him out of action for six weeks . McCreery resigned on 20 April 1995 , and chairman Harold Hornsey appointed Houchen as his replacement ; he became the 23rd manager at the club in 38 years . He appointed his former boss Billy Horner as youth team coach and also employed Brian Honour and Mick Tait . His first game in charge was a 4 – 0 home win over Hereford United , and a 3 – 0 defeat at Preston North End and a final day 3 – 2 victory over Mansfield Town ensured Hartlepool an 18th @-@ place finish . As a player , he was the club 's top scorer with 14 goals in 39 appearances in 1994 – 95 , and was voted Player of the Year by the club 's supporters .

The 1995 – 96 season was to be his only full season as a manager . He scored six goals in 41 games , leading " Pools " to a 20th @-@ place finish on a budget of £ 260 @,@ 000 a year . His team were beaten 8 – 0 by Arsenal over two legs in the League Cup and – more worryingly – were beaten 8 – 0 by Crewe Alexandra in the Football League Trophy . He sold Nicky Southall to Grimsby Town for £ 40 @,@ 000 and spent the same amount on striker Joe Allon . He proved a disappointment , and both Allon and Houchen were sent off against Gillingham on 28 October . Houchen 's final career goal came in a 3 – 0 win over Bury on New Year 's Day .

He released goalkeeper Brian Horne , who he described as a " fat slob " ; this proved to be an unpopular move with " a lot of nasty people who support Hartlepool ... who purport to support this club [ but ] would rather back fat professional players than people who really care about Hartlepool United " . As his replacement he signed Stephen Pears from Liverpool , as well as young defenders Glen Davies and Chris McDonald , teenage winger David Clegg , Exeter City midfielder Mark Cooper , and Blackpool midfielder Chris Beech . Hartlepool started the 1996 – 97 campaign with wins over Colchester United and Fulham , but his playing career came to an end after the fifth game of the season , against Wigan Athletic , when he retired due to a persistent knee injury . He continued to bemoan referring decisions which seemed to consistently go against Hartlepool . This in turn led to continued punishments from the FA over his use of foul language towards officials . With his team on a poor run of results at the foot of the table , he left the club by mutual consent on 4 November 1996 . His assistant Mick Tait led the club to a 20th @-@ place finish , and organised a benefit match for Houchen against Middlesbrough , which raised £ 23 @,@ 000 .

" I had to walk away from all that nonsense . I didn 't deserve it . I 'd put too much into the club to be treated like that . I 'd put in so many hours . I 'd tried and tried to get it going . I thought , ' I just can 't stand it . ' ... The whole ground was singing ' Houchen Out ' . I was standing behind the dug @-@ out and thinking , ' I don 't need this ' ... I felt very , very let down by the supporters of Hartlepool United Football Club ... There are a lot of shit people following every club . They are everywhere , that type , with brains the size of a pea . I wouldn 't keep the players they wanted , players who were patently not good enough and were really , really bad professionals ... the majority of them [ supporters ] are nasty people . There are more of them at Hartlepool than elsewhere – without a shadow of doubt . "

= = Style of play = =

Houchen was a big 6 ft 1 in ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) centre @-@ forward who had strength and power . Early in his career he broke his ribs and backbone , but learned the tricks of the trade , such as interlinking arms with opposition players to prevent them from jumping . Billy Horner compared him with Malcolm Poskett , and stated the only quality missing in Houchen 's game was aggression . Horner and his coaching team of George Smith and Willie Maddren taught Houchen how to protect himself from the highly physical centre @-@ halves that dominated the division , and the youngster learned how to hold the ball up and bring other players into the attack .

= = Personal life and post @-@ retirement = =

He married wife Yvonne on 17 July 1982 ; the couple had two children : Cara and Ross ( born 19 April 1987 ) . They now live in Thirsk , North Yorkshire . After retiring as a player , Houchen spent his time coaching at schools and at the Middlesbrough Academy , collecting football statistics for the Press Association , and renting out properties .

He was a supporter of Margaret Thatcher . He appeared as one of the players selected for the new Wembley Stadium 's ' Walk of Fame ' prior to the venue 's first FA Cup final in May 2007 . A 256 @-@ page biography of his footballing career entitled A Tenner and a Box of Kippers , written by Jonathan Strange , was published in 2006 . After reading the book , Houchen admitted that his comments about Hartlepool United came across as " a bit harsh " .

= = Career statistics = =

Source :

= = Managerial statistics = =

= = Honours = =

York City

Football League Fourth Division champion : 1983 – 84

Coventry City

FA Cup winner : 1987

FA Charity Shield runner @-@ up : 1987

Port Vale

TNT Tournament winner : 1992

Individual

Match of the Day 's Goal of the Season Award : 1986 – 87

Hartlepool United F.C. Player of the Year : 1994 – 95

= Bad Elk v. United States =

John Bad Elk v. United States , 177 U.S. 529 ( 1900 ) , was a case in which the United States Supreme Court held that an individual had the right to use force to resist an unlawful arrest and was entitled to a jury instruction to that effect . In 1889 , a tribal police officer , John Bad Elk , shot and killed another tribal police officer who was attempting to arrest Bad Elk without a warrant , on a misdemeanor charge , for a crime allegedly committed outside of the presence of the arresting officer . The Supreme Court reversed his conviction , noting that a person had the right to resist an unlawful arrest , and in the case of a death , murder may be reduced to manslaughter . The Supreme Court held the arrest to be unlawful due , in part , to the lack of a valid warrant . This case has been widely cited on the internet , but is no longer considered good law in a growing number of jurisdictions . Most states have , either by statute or by case law , removed the unlawful arrest defense for resisting arrest . The case also received negative treatment in 532 U.S. 318 ( 2001 ) holding that an arrest without a warrant , even for a misdemeanor , is lawful .

= = Background = =

= = = Common law history = = =

The English common law has long recognized the right of an individual to resist with reasonable force an attempt of a police officer to make an unlawful arrest . This offered a complete defense if nonlethal force was used , and would reduce a murder charge to manslaughter if a death ensued . In Hopkin Huggett 's case , English officials illegally seized a man to serve in the King 's army . Huggett and others observed this and fought to free the man . In the course of the fight one of the King 's men , John Barry , was killed and Huggett was put on trial for murder . The English court ruled that since the officer was making an unlawful arrest , the most that could be charged was manslaughter . In 1709 , in Queen v. Tooley , the English court again found that when resisting an unlawful arrest , the death of an individual would result in a manslaughter charge instead of a murder charge . When the United States separated from England , the common law was adopted by the new American courts and the right to resist unlawful arrest was clearly recognized .

= = = Death of John Kills Back = = =

On March 8 , 1899 , John Bad Elk fired several shots from his pistol from or near his home on the Pine Ridge Reservation . At the time Bad Elk was employed as a tribal police officer for the Oglala Lakota Sioux tribe . Captain Gleason , who was in charge of that part of the reservation , heard the shots and asked Bad Elk to stop by his office to discuss the matter , but Bad Elk did not show up . Gleason then ordered several other tribal police officers to arrest Bad Elk and to take him to the Pine Ridge Agency , about 25 miles away . Three officers contacted Bad Elk , who refused to go with them , telling them that he would go in the morning . The officers then tried to arrest Bad Elk , who shot and killed John Kills Back . Bad Elk claimed that Kills Back had reached for his pistol and that Bad Elk fired in self @-@ defense . Kills Back and the other officers did not have an arrest warrant , nor was the offense one that they could arrest for without a warrant .

= = = Trial = = =

In April 1899 at Sioux Falls , Bad Elk was tried in the United States Circuit Court for the District of South Dakota for murder . At trial , Bad Elk requested a jury instruction allowing the jury to consider that he had a right to resist an unlawful arrest . Instead , the court gave a jury instruction that stated that Bad Elk did not have the right to resist an arrest and that Bad Elk only had the right to resist if the arresting officers used excessive force in making the arrest . The jury convicted Bad Elk and sentenced him to death . His execution date was set at June 16 , 1899 .

= = Opinion of the Court = =

Justice Rufus Wheeler Peckham delivered the opinion of a unanimous court . Peckham noted that the prosecution 's case and the defendant 's case varied in their presentation of the facts . First he noted that the prosecution did not show and the court could not find a legal basis for the arrest , that at most the firing of the pistol was a misdemeanor if it were a crime at all . An officer could arrest for a felony without a warrant , but to arrest for a misdemeanor , the crime had to have occurred in the officer 's presence . They ruled that the captain also did not have the authority to order the arrest . The court noted that at common law , an individual had a right to use reasonable force to resist an unlawful arrest . Peckham said that the requested jury instruction was therefore material and that it was error for the trial court not to allow it . The court stated :

At common law , if a party resisted arrest by an officer without warrant and who had no right to arrest him , and if in the course of that resistance the officer was killed , the offense of the party resisting arrest would be reduced from what would have been murder if the officer had had the right to arrest , to manslaughter . What would be murder if the officer had the right to arrest might be reduced to manslaughter by the very fact that he had no such right . So an officer , at common law , was not authorized to make an arrest without a warrant , for a mere misdemeanor not committed in his presence .

The decision of the lower court was reversed and the case remanded for either a new trial or dismissal .

= = Subsequent developments = =

= = = Scholarly response = = =

The first response to the common law rule appeared in 1924 , when it was questioned in a law review note which advocated abrogating the rule . In 1942 , Harvard Law professor Sam Bass Warner , in his support of the Uniform Arrest Act , proposed that a citizen had a duty to submit to arrest , legal or not , if he reasonably believed that the arresting individual was a peace officer . Warner 's explanations and reasoning appear to have been " accepted without question by subsequent courts ... " In 1969 , during the height of the Civil Rights Movement , Paul Chevigny of the New York branch of the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) responded that an unlawful arrest was a trespass against the person and was not consistent with Warner 's explanations .

= = = Common and statutory law = = =

In the 1960s , courts began to limit the right to resist an unlawful arrest , apparently influenced by Warner and by the Model Penal Code , which had eliminated the right . In 1965 , the first court struck down the right in New Jersey .

Although a few states adopted the Uniform Arrest Act , a majority of the states did not . The Model Penal Code in 1962 eliminated the right to resist an unlawful arrest on two grounds . First , there were better alternative means of resolving the issue ; second , resistance would likely result in greater injury to the citizen without preventing the arrest . By 2012 , only fourteen states allowed a citizen to resist an unlawful arrest .

= = = Internet meme and myths = = =

The case has also been cited on various internet sites as giving citizens the authority to resist unlawful arrest . This claim is normally put forth in connection with a misquoted version of Plummer v. State . The most commonly quoted version is :

" Citizens may resist unlawful arrest to the point of taking an arresting officer 's life if necessary . ” Plummer v. State , 136 Ind . 306 [ sic ] . This premise was upheld by the Supreme Court of the United States in the case : John Bad Elk v. U.S. , 177 U.S. 529 . The Court stated : “ Where the officer is killed in the course of the disorder which naturally accompanies an attempted arrest that is resisted , the law looks with very different eyes upon the transaction , when the officer had the right to make the arrest , from what it does if the officer had no right . What may be murder in the first case might be nothing more than manslaughter in the other , or the facts might show that no offense had been committed . "

Modern sources citing Plummer and Bad Elk have tended to discuss the issue as defense against unlawful force ; under contemporary law in most jurisdictions , a person may not use force to resist an unlawful arrest . The Plummer quote has been noted to be a fabrication , not appearing in the text of the opinion .

= Ctenophora =

Ctenophora ( / tᵻˈnɒfərə / ; singular ctenophore , / ˈtɛnəfɔːr / or / ˈtiːnəfɔːr / ; from the Greek κτείς kteis ' comb ' and φέρω pherō ' carry ' ; commonly known as comb jellies ) is a phylum of invertebrate animals that live in marine waters worldwide . Their most distinctive feature is the ‘ combs ’ – groups of cilia which they use for swimming – they are the largest animals that swim by means of cilia . Adults of various species range from a few millimeters to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) in size . Like cnidarians , their bodies consist of a mass of jelly , with one layer of cells on the outside and another lining the internal cavity . In ctenophores , these layers are two cells deep , while those in cnidarians are only one cell deep . Some authors combined ctenophores and cnidarians in one phylum , Coelenterata , as both groups rely on water flow through the body cavity for both digestion and respiration . Increasing awareness of the differences persuaded more recent authors to classify them as separate phyla .

Ctenophores also resemble cnidarians in having a decentralized nerve net rather than a brain . Genomic studies have suggested that the neurons of Ctenophora , which differ in many ways from other animal neurons , evolved independently from those of the other animals .

Almost all ctenophores are predators , taking prey ranging from microscopic larvae and rotifers to the adults of small crustaceans ; the exceptions are juveniles of two species , which live as parasites on the salps on which adults of their species feed . In favorable circumstances , ctenophores can eat ten times their own weight in a day . Only 100 – 150 species have been validated , and possibly another 25 have not been fully described and named . The textbook examples are cydippids with egg @-@ shaped bodies and a pair of retractable tentacles fringed with tentilla ( " little tentacles " ) that are covered with colloblasts , sticky cells that capture prey . The phylum has a wide range of body forms , including the flattened , deep @-@ sea platyctenids , in which the adults of most species lack combs , and the coastal beroids , which lack tentacles and prey on other ctenophores by using huge mouths armed with groups of large , stiffened cilia that act as teeth . These variations enable different species to build huge populations in the same area , because they specialize in different types of prey , which they capture by as wide a range of methods as spiders use .

Most species are hermaphrodites — a single animal can produce both eggs and sperm , meaning it can fertilize its own egg , not needing a mate . Some are simultaneous hermaphrodites , which can produce both eggs and sperm at the same time . Others are sequential hermaphrodites , in which the eggs and sperm mature at different times . Fertilization is generally external , although platyctenids ' eggs are fertilized inside their parents ' bodies and kept there until they hatch . The young are generally planktonic and in most species look like miniature cydippids , gradually changing into their adult shapes as they grow . The exceptions are the beroids , whose young are miniature beroids with large mouths and no tentacles , and the platyctenids , whose young live as cydippid @-@ like plankton until they reach near @-@ adult size , but then sink to the bottom and rapidly metamorphose into the adult form . In at least some species , juveniles are capable of reproduction before reaching the adult size and shape . The combination of hermaphroditism and early reproduction enables small populations to grow at an explosive rate .

Ctenophores may be abundant during the summer months in some coastal locations , but in other places they are uncommon and difficult to find . In bays where they occur in very high numbers , predation by ctenophores may control the populations of small zooplanktonic organisms such as copepods , which might otherwise wipe out the phytoplankton ( planktonic plants ) , which are a vital part of marine food chains . One ctenophore , Mnemiopsis , has accidentally been introduced into the Black Sea , where it is blamed for causing fish stocks to collapse by eating both fish larvae and organisms that would otherwise have fed the fish . The situation was aggravated by other factors , such as over @-@ fishing and long @-@ term environmental changes that promoted the growth of the Mnemiopsis population . The later accidental introduction of Beroe helped to mitigate the problem , as Beroe preys on other ctenophores .

Despite their soft , gelatinous bodies , fossils thought to represent ctenophores , apparently with no tentacles but many more comb @-@ rows than modern forms , have been found in lagerstätten as far back as the early Cambrian , about 515 million years ago . The position of the ctenophores in the evolutionary family tree of animals has long been debated , and the majority view at present , based on molecular phylogenetics , is that cnidarians and bilaterians are more closely related to each other than either is to ctenophores . A recent molecular phylogenetics analysis concluded that the common ancestor of all modern ctenophores was cydippid @-@ like , and that all the modern groups appeared relatively recently , probably after the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago . Evidence accumulating since the 1980s indicates that the " cydippids " are not monophyletic , in other words do not include all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor , because all the other traditional ctenophore groups are descendants of various cydippids .

= = Distinguishing features = =

Ctenophores form an animal phylum that is more complex than sponges , about as complex as cnidarians ( jellyfish , sea anemones , etc . ) , and less complex than bilaterians ( which include almost all other animals ) . Unlike sponges , both ctenophores and cnidarians have : cells bound by inter @-@ cell connections and carpet @-@ like basement membranes ; muscles ; nervous systems ; and some have sensory organs . Ctenophores are distinguished from all other animals by having colloblasts , which are sticky and adhere to prey , although a few ctenophore species lack them .

Like sponges and cnidarians , ctenophores have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly @-@ like material , which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians and ctenophores ; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly @-@ like layer . Hence ctenophores and cnidarians have traditionally been labelled diploblastic , along with sponges . Both ctenophores and cnidarians have a type of muscle that , in more complex animals , arises from the middle cell layer , and as a result some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic , while others still regard them as diploblastic .

Ranging from about 1 millimeter ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in size , ctenophores are the largest non @-@ colonial animals that use cilia ( " hairs " ) as their main method of locomotion . Most species have eight strips , called comb rows , that run the length of their bodies and bear comb @-@ like bands of cilia , called " ctenes , " stacked along the comb rows so that when the cilia beat , those of each comb touch the comb below . The name " ctenophora " means " comb @-@ bearing " , from the Greek κτείς ( stem @-@ form κτεν- ) meaning " comb " and the Greek suffix -φορος meaning " carrying " .

= = Description = =

For a phylum with relatively few species , ctenophores have a wide range of body plans . Coastal species need to be tough enough to withstand waves and swirling sediment particles , while some oceanic species are so fragile that it is very difficult to capture them intact for study . In addition oceanic species do not preserve well , and are known mainly from photographs and from observers ' notes . Hence most attention has until recently concentrated on three coastal genera – Pleurobrachia , Beroe and Mnemiopsis . At least two textbooks base their descriptions of ctenophores on the cydippid Pleurobrachia .

Since the body of many species is almost radially symmetrical , the main axis is oral to aboral ( from the mouth to the opposite end ) . However , since only two of the canals near the statocyst terminate in anal pores , ctenophores have no mirror @-@ symmetry , although many have rotational symmetry , in other words if the animal rotates in a half @-@ circle it looks the same as when it started .

= = = Common features = = =

= = = = Body layers = = = =

Like those of cnidarians , ( jellyfish , sea anemones , etc . ) , ctenophores ' bodies consist of a relatively thick , jelly @-@ like mesoglea sandwiched between two epithelia , layers of cells bound by inter @-@ cell connections and by a fibrous basement membrane that they secrete . The epithelia of ctenophores have two layers of cells rather than one , and some of the cells in the upper layer have several cilia per cell .

The outer layer of the epidermis ( outer skin ) consists of : sensory cells ; cells that secrete mucus , which protects the body ; and interstitial cells , which can transform into other types of cell . In specialized parts of the body the outer layer also contains colloblasts , found along the surface of tentacles and used in capturing prey , or cells bearing multiple large cilia , for locomotion . The inner layer of the epidermis contains a nerve net , and myoepithelial cells that act as muscles .

The internal cavity forms : a mouth that can usually be closed by muscles ; a pharynx ( " throat " ) ; a wider area in the center that acts as a stomach ; and a system of internal canals . These branch through the mesoglea to the most active parts of the animal : the mouth and pharynx ; the roots of the tentacles , if present ; all along the underside of each comb row ; and four branches round the sensory complex at the far end from the mouth – two of these four branches terminate in anal pores . The inner surface of the cavity is lined with an epithelium , the gastrodermis . The mouth and pharynx have both cilia and well @-@ developed muscles . In other parts of the canal system , the gastrodermis is different on the sides nearest to and furthest from the organ that it supplies . The nearer side is composed of tall nutritive cells that store nutrients in vacuoles ( internal compartments ) , germ cells that produce eggs or sperm , and photocytes that produce bioluminescence . The side furthest from the organ is covered with ciliated cells that circulate water through the canals , punctuated by ciliary rosettes , pores that are surrounded by double whorls of cilia and connect to the mesoglea .

= = = = Feeding , excretion and respiration = = = =

When prey is swallowed , it is liquefied in the pharynx by enzymes and by muscular contractions of the pharynx . The resulting slurry is wafted through the canal system by the beating of the cilia , and digested by the nutritive cells . The ciliary rosettes in the canals may help to transport nutrients to muscles in the mesoglea . The anal pores may eject unwanted small particles , but most unwanted matter is regurgitated via the mouth .

Little is known about how ctenophores get rid of waste products produced by the cells . The ciliary rosettes in the gastrodermis may help to remove wastes from the mesoglea , and may also help to adjust the animal 's buoyancy by pumping water into or out of the mesoglea .

= = = = Locomotion = = = =

The outer surface bears usually eight comb rows , called swimming @-@ plates , which are used for swimming . The rows are oriented to run from near the mouth ( the " oral pole " ) to the opposite end ( the " aboral pole " ) , and are spaced more or less evenly around the body , although spacing patterns vary by species and in most species the comb rows extend only part of the distance from the aboral pole towards the mouth . The " combs " ( also called " ctenes " or " comb plates " ) run across each row , and each consists of thousands of unusually long cilia , up to 2 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) . Unlike conventional cilia and flagella , which has a filament structure arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern , these cilia are arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern , where the extra compact filament is suspected to have a supporting function . These normally beat so that the propulsion stroke is away from the mouth , although they can also reverse direction . Hence ctenophores usually swim in the direction in which the mouth is eating , unlike jellyfish . When trying to escape predators , one species can accelerate to six times its normal speed ; some other species reverse direction as part of their escape behavior , by reversing the power stroke of the comb plate cilia .

It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy , but experiments have shown that some species rely on osmotic pressure to adapt to water of different densities . Their body fluids are normally as concentrated as seawater . If they enter less dense brackish water , the ciliary rosettes in the body cavity may pump this into the mesoglea to increase its bulk and decrease its density , to avoid sinking . Conversely if they move from brackish to full @-@ strength seawater , the rosettes may pump water out of the mesoglea to reduce its volume and increase its density .

= = = = Nervous system and senses = = = =

Ctenophores have no brain or central nervous system , but instead have a nerve net ( rather like a cobweb ) that forms a ring round the mouth and is densest near structures such as the comb rows , pharynx , tentacles ( if present ) and the sensory complex furthest from the mouth .

The largest single sensory feature is the aboral organ ( at the opposite end from the mouth ) . Its main component is a statocyst , a balance sensor consisting of a statolith , a tiny grain of calcium carbonate , supported on four bundles of cilia , called " balancers " , that sense its orientation . The statocyst is protected by a transparent dome made of long , immobile cilia . A ctenophore does not automatically try to keep the statolith resting equally on all the balancers . Instead its response is determined by the animal 's " mood " , in other words the overall state of the nervous system . For example , if a ctenophore with trailing tentacles captures prey , it will often put some comb rows into reverse , spinning the mouth towards the prey .

= = = Cydippids = = =

Cydippid ctenophores have bodies that are more or less rounded , sometimes nearly spherical and other times more cylindrical or egg @-@ shaped ; the common coastal " sea gooseberry , " Pleurobrachia , sometimes has an egg @-@ shaped body with the mouth at the narrow end , although some individuals are more uniformly round . From opposite sides of the body extends a pair of long , slender tentacles , each housed in a sheath into which it can be withdrawn . Some species of cydippids have bodies that are flattened to various extents , so that they are wider in the plane of the tentacles .

The tentacles of cydippid ctenophores are typically fringed with tentilla ( " little tentacles " ) , although a few genera have simple tentacles without these sidebranches . The tentacles and tentilla are densely covered with microscopic colloblasts that capture prey by sticking to it . Colloblasts are specialized mushroom @-@ shaped cells in the outer layer of the epidermis , and have three main components : a domed head with vesicles ( chambers ) that contain adhesive ; a stalk that anchors the cell in the lower layer of the epidermis or in the mesoglea ; and a spiral thread that coils round the stalk and is attached to the head and to the root of the stalk . The function of the spiral thread is uncertain , but it may absorb stress when prey tries to escape , and thus prevent the collobast from being torn apart . In addition to colloblasts , members of the genus Haeckelia , which feed mainly on jellyfish , incorporate their victims ' stinging nematocytes into their own tentacles – some cnidaria @-@ eating nudibranchs similarly incorporate nematocytes into their bodies for defense . The tentilla of Euplokamis differ significantly from those of other cydippids : they contain striated muscle , a cell type otherwise unknown in the phylum Ctenophora ; and they are coiled when relaxed , while the tentilla of all other known ctenophores elongate when relaxed . Euplokamis ' tentilla have three types of movement that are used in capturing prey : they may flick out very quickly ( in 40 to 60 milliseconds ) ; they can wriggle , which may lure prey by behaving like small planktonic worms ; and they coil round prey . The unique flicking is an uncoiling movement powered by contraction of the striated muscle . The wriggling motion is produced by smooth muscles , but of a highly specialized type . Coiling around prey is accomplished largely by the return of the tentilla to their inactive state , but the coils may be tightened by smooth muscle .

There are eight rows of combs that run from near the mouth to the opposite end , and are spaced evenly round the body . The " combs " beat in a metachronal rhythm rather like that of a Mexican wave . From each balancer in the statocyst a ciliary groove runs out under the dome and then splits to connect with two adjacent comb rows , and in some species runs all the way along the comb rows . This forms a mechanical system for transmitting the beat rhythm from the combs to the balancers , via water disturbances created by the cilia .

= = = Lobates = = =

The Lobata have a pair of lobes , which are muscular , cuplike extensions of the body that project beyond the mouth . Their inconspicuous tentacles originate from the corners of the mouth , running in convoluted grooves and spreading out over the inner surface of the lobes ( rather than trailing far behind , as in the Cydippida ) . Between the lobes on either side of the mouth , many species of lobates have four auricles , gelatinous projections edged with cilia that produce water currents that help direct microscopic prey toward the mouth . This combination of structures enables lobates to feed continuously on suspended planktonic prey .

Lobates have eight comb @-@ rows , originating at the aboral pole and usually not extending beyond the body to the lobes ; in species with ( four ) auricles , the cilia edging the auricles are extensions of cilia in four of the comb rows . Most lobates are quite passive when moving through the water , using the cilia on their comb rows for propulsion , although Leucothea has long and active auricles whose movements also contribute to propulsion . Members of the lobate genera Bathocyroe and Ocyropsis can escape from danger by clapping their lobes , so that the jet of expelled water drives them backwards very quickly . Unlike cydippids , the movements of lobates ' combs are coordinated by nerves rather than by water disturbances created by the cilia , yet combs on the same row beat in the same Mexican wave style as the mechanically coordinated comb rows of cydippids and beroids . This may have enabled lobates to grow larger than cydippids and to have shapes that are less egg @-@ like .

An unusual species first described in 2000 , Lobatolampea tetragona , has been classified as a lobate , although the lobes are " primitive " and the body is medusa @-@ like when floating and disk @-@ like when resting on the sea @-@ bed .

= = = Beroids = = =

The Beroida , also known as Nuda , have no feeding appendages , but their large pharynx , just inside the large mouth and filling most of the saclike body , bears " macrocilia " at the oral end . These fused bundles of several thousand large cilia are able to " bite " off pieces of prey that are too large to swallow whole – almost always other ctenophores . In front of the field of macrocilia , on the mouth " lips " in some species of Beroe , is a pair of narrow strips of adhesive epithelial cells on the stomach wall that " zip " the mouth shut when the animal is not feeding , by forming intercellular connections with the opposite adhesive strip . This tight closure streamlines the front of the animal when it is pursuing prey .

= = = Other body forms = = =

The Ganeshida have a pair of small oral lobes and a pair of tentacles . The body is circular rather than oval in cross @-@ section , and the pharynx extends over the inner surfaces of the lobes .

The Thalassocalycida , only discovered in 1978 and known from only one species , are medusa @-@ like , with bodies that are shortened in the oral @-@ aboral direction , and short comb @-@ rows on the surface furthest from the mouth , originating from near the aboral pole . They capture prey by movements of the bell and possibly by using two short tentacles .

The Cestida ( " belt animals " ) are ribbon @-@ shaped planktonic animals , with the mouth and aboral organ aligned in the middle of opposite edges of the ribbon . There is a pair of comb @-@ rows along each aboral edge , and tentilla emerging from a groove all along the oral edge , which stream back across most of the wing @-@ like body surface . Cestids can swim by undulating their bodies as well as by the beating of their comb @-@ rows . There are two known species , with worldwide distribution in warm , and warm @-@ temperate waters : Cestum veneris ( " Venus ' girdle " ) is among the largest ctenophores – up to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long , and can undulate slowly or quite rapidly . Velamen parallelum , which is typically less than 20 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 66 ft ) long , can move much faster in what has been described as a " darting motion " .

Most Platyctenida have oval bodies that are flattened in the oral @-@ aboral direction , with a pair of tentilla @-@ bearing tentacles on the aboral surface . They cling to and creep on surfaces by everting the pharynx and using it as a muscular " foot " . All but one of the known platyctenid species lack comb @-@ rows . Platyctenids are usually cryptically colored , live on rocks , algae , or the body surfaces of other invertebrates , and are often revealed by their long tentacles with many sidebranches , seen streaming off the back of the ctenophore into the current .

= = = Reproduction and development = = =

Adults of most species can regenerate tissues that are damaged or removed , although only platyctenids reproduce by cloning , splitting off from the edges of their flat bodies fragments that develop into new individuals .

Almost all species are hermaphrodites , in other words they function as both males and females at the same time – except that in two species of the genus Ocryopsis individuals remain of the same single sex all their lives . The gonads are located in the parts of the internal canal network under the comb rows , and eggs and sperm are released via pores in the epidermis . Fertilization is external in most species , but platyctenids use internal fertilization and keep the eggs in brood chambers until they hatch . Self @-@ fertilization has occasionally been seen in species of the genus Mnemiopsis , and it is thought that most of the hermaphroditic species are self @-@ fertile .

Development of the fertilized eggs is direct , in other words there is no distinctive larval form , and juveniles of all groups generally resemble miniature cydippid adults . In the genus Beroe the juveniles , like the adults , lack tentacles and tentacle sheaths . In most species the juveniles gradually develop the body forms of their parents . In some groups , such as the flat , bottom @-@ dwelling platyctenids , the juveniles behave more like true larvae , as they live among the plankton and thus occupy a different ecological niche from their parents and attain the adult form by a more radical metamorphosis , after dropping to the sea @-@ floor .

At least in some species , juvenile ctenophores appear capable of producing small quantities of eggs and sperm while they are well below adult size , and adults produce eggs and sperm for as long as they have sufficient food . If they run short of food , they first stop producing eggs and sperm , and then shrink in size . When the food supply improves , they grow back to normal size and then resume reproduction . These features make ctenophores capable of increasing their populations very quickly .

= = = Colors and bioluminescence = = =

Most ctenophores that live near the surface are mostly colorless and almost transparent . However some deeper @-@ living species are strongly pigmented , for example the species known as " Tortugas red " ( see illustration here ) , which has not yet been formally described . Platyctenids generally live attached to other sea @-@ bottom organisms , and often have similar colors to these host organisms . The gut of the deep @-@ sea genus Bathocyroe is red , which hides the bioluminescence of copepods it has swallowed .

The comb rows of most planktonic ctenophores produce a rainbow effect , which is not caused by bioluminescence but by the scattering of light as the combs move . Most species are also bioluminescent , but the light is usually blue or green and can only be seen in darkness . However some significant groups , including all known platyctenids and the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia , are incapable of bioluminescence .

When some species , including Bathyctena chuni , Euplokamis stationis and Eurhamphaea vexilligera , are disturbed , they produce secretions ( ink ) that luminesce at much the same wavelengths as their bodies . Juveniles will luminesce more brightly in relation to their body size than adults , whose luminescence is diffused over their bodies . Detailed statistical investigation has not suggested the function of ctenophores ' bioluminescence nor produced any correlation between its exact color and any aspect of the animals ' environments , such as depth or whether they live in coastal or mid @-@ ocean waters .

In ctenophores , bioluminescence is caused by the activation of calcium @-@ activated proteins named photoproteins in cells called photocytes , which are often confined to the meridional canals that underlie the eight comb rows . In the genome of Mnemiopsis leidyi ten genes encode photoproteins . These genes are co @-@ expressed with opsin genes in the developing photocytes of Mnemiopsis leidyi , raising the possibility that light production and light detection may be working together in these animals .

= = Ecology = =

= = = Distribution = = =

Ctenophores are found in most marine environments : from polar waters to the tropics ; near coasts and in mid @-@ ocean ; from the surface waters to the ocean depths . The best @-@ understood are the genera Pleurobrachia , Beroe and Mnemiopsis , as these planktonic coastal forms are among the most likely to be collected near shore . No ctenophores have been found in fresh water .

= = = Prey and predators = = =

Almost all ctenophores are predators – there are no vegetarians and only one genus that is partly parasitic . If food is plentiful , they can eat 10 times their own weight per day . While Beroe preys mainly on other ctenophores , other surface @-@ water species prey on zooplankton ( planktonic animals ) ranging in size from the microscopic , including mollusc and fish larvae , to small adult crustaceans such as copepods , amphipods , and even krill . Members of the genus Haeckelia prey on jellyfish and incorporate their prey 's nematocysts ( stinging cells ) into their own tentacles instead of colloblasts . Ctenophores have been compared to spiders in their wide range of techniques from capturing prey – some hang motionless in the water using their tentacles as " webs " , some are ambush predators like Salticid jumping spiders , and some dangle a sticky droplet at the end of a fine thread , as bolas spiders do . This variety explains the wide range of body forms in a phylum with rather few species . The two @-@ tentacled " cydippid " Lampea feeds exclusively on salps , close relatives of sea @-@ squirts that form large chain @-@ like floating colonies , and juveniles of Lampea attach themselves like parasites to salps that are too large for them to swallow . Members of the cydippid genus Pleurobrachia and the lobate Bolinopsis often reach high population densities at the same place and time because they specialize in different types of prey : Pleurobrachia 's long tentacles mainly capture relatively strong swimmers such as adult copepods , while Bolinopsis generally feeds on smaller , weaker swimmers such as rotifers and mollusc and crustacean larvae .

Ctenophores used to be regarded as " dead ends " in marine food chains because it was thought their low ratio of organic matter to salt and water made them a poor diet for other animals . It is also often difficult to identify the remains of ctenophores in the guts of possible predators , although the combs sometimes remain intact long enough to provide a clue . Detailed investigation of chum salmon , Oncorhynchus keta , showed that these fish digest ctenophores 20 times as fast as an equal weight of shrimps , and that ctenophores can provide a good diet if there are enough of them around . Beroids prey mainly on other ctenophores . Some jellyfish and turtles eat large quantities of ctenophores , and jellyfish may temporarily wipe out ctenophore populations . Since ctenophores and jellyfish often have large seasonal variations in population , most fish that prey on them are generalists , and may have a greater effect on populations than the specialist jelly @-@ eaters . This is underlined by an observation of herbivorous fishes deliberately feeding on gelatinous zooplankton during blooms in the Red Sea . The larvae of some sea anemones are parasites on ctenophores , as are the larvae of some flatworms that parasitize fish when they reach adulthood .

= = = Ecological impacts = = =

Ctenophores may balance marine ecosystems by preventing an over @-@ abundance of copepods from eating all the phytoplankton ( planktonic plants ) , which are the dominant marine producers of organic matter from non @-@ organic ingredients .

On the other hand , in the late 1980s the Western Atlantic ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi was accidentally introduced into the Black Sea and Sea of Azov via the ballast tanks of ships , and has been blamed for causing sharp drops in fish catches by eating both fish larvae and small crustaceans that would otherwise feed the adult fish . Mnemiopsis is well equipped to invade new territories ( although this was not predicted until after it so successfully colonized the Black Sea ) , as it can breed very rapidly and tolerate a wide range of water temperatures and salinities . The impact was increased by chronic overfishing , and by eutrophication that gave the entire ecosystem a short @-@ term boost , causing the Mnemiopsis population to increase even faster than normal – and above all by the absence of efficient predators on these introduced ctenophores . Mnemiopsis populations in those areas were eventually brought under control by the accidental introduction of the Mnemiopsis @-@ eating North American ctenophore Beroe ovata , and by a cooling of the local climate from 1991 to 1993 , which significantly slowed the animal 's metabolism . However the abundance of plankton in the area seems unlikely to be restored to pre @-@ Mnemiopsis levels .

In the late 1990s Mnemiopsis appeared in the Caspian Sea . Beroe ovata arrived shortly after , and is expected to reduce but not eliminate the impact of Mnemiopsis there . Mnemiopsis also reached the eastern Mediterranean in the late 1990s and now appears to be thriving in the North Sea and Baltic Sea .

= = Classification = =

The number of known living ctenophore species is uncertain , since many of those named and formally described have turned out to be identical to species known under other scientific names . Claudia Mills estimates that there about 100 to 150 valid species that are not duplicates , and that at least another 25 , mostly deep @-@ sea forms , have been recognized as distinct but not yet analyzed in enough detail to support a formal description and naming .

The traditional classification divides ctenophores into two classes , those with tentacles ( Tentaculata ) and those without ( Nuda ) . The Nuda contains only one order ( Beroida ) and family ( Beroidae ) , and two genera , Beroe ( several species ) and Neis ( one species ) .

The Tentaculata are divided into the following eight orders :

Cydippida , egg @-@ shaped animals with long tentacles

Lobata , with paired thick lobes

Platyctenida , flattened animals that live on or near the sea @-@ bed ; most lack combs as adults , and use their pharynges as suckers to attach themselves to surfaces

Ganeshida , with a pair of small lobes round the mouth , but an extended pharynx like that of platyctenids

Cambojiida

Cryptolobiferida

Thalassocalycida , with short tentacles and a jellyfish @-@ like " umbrella "

Cestida , ribbon @-@ shaped and the largest ctenophores

= = Evolutionary history = =

= = = Fossil record = = =

Because of their soft , gelatinous bodies , ctenophores are extremely rare as fossils , and fossils that have been interpreted as ctenophores have been found only in lagerstätten , places where the environment was exceptionally suited to preservation of soft tissue . Until the mid @-@ 1990s only two specimens good enough for analysis were known , both members of the crown group , from the early Devonian ( Emsian ) period . Three additional putative species were then found in the Burgess Shale and other Canadian rocks of similar age , about 505 million years ago in the mid @-@ Cambrian period . All three apparently lacked tentacles but had between 24 and 80 comb rows , far more than the 8 typical of living species . They also appear to have had internal organ @-@ like structures unlike anything found in living ctenophores . One of the fossil species first reported in 1996 had a large mouth , apparently surrounded by a folded edge that may have been muscular . Evidence from China a year later suggests that such ctenophores were widespread in the Cambrian , but perhaps very different from modern species – for example one fossil 's comb @-@ rows were mounted on prominent vanes . The Ediacaran Eoandromeda could putatively represent a comb jelly .

The early Cambrian sessile frond @-@ like fossil Stromatoveris , from China 's Chengjiang lagerstätte and dated to about 515 million years ago , is very similar to Vendobionta of the preceding Ediacaran period . De @-@ Gan Shu , Simon Conway Morris et al. found on its branches what they considered rows of cilia , used for filter feeding . They suggested that Stromatoveris was an evolutionary " aunt " of ctenophores , and that ctenophores originated from sessile animals whose descendants became swimmers and changed the cilia from a feeding mechanism to a propulsion system .

520 million years old Cambrian fossils also from Chengjiang in China show a now wholly extinct class of ctenophore , named " Scleroctenophora , " that had a complex internal skeleton with long spines .

= = = Relationship to other animal phyla = = =

The relationship of ctenophores to the rest of Metazoa is very important to our understanding of the early evolution of animals and the origin of multicellularity . It has been the focus of debate for many years . Ctenophores have been purported to be the sister lineage to the Bilateria , sister to the Cnidaria , sister to Cnidaria , Placozoa and Bilateria , and sister to all other animal phyla . A series of studies that looked at the presence and absence of members of gene families and signalling pathways ( e.g. , homeoboxes , nuclear receptors , the Wnt signaling pathway , and sodium channels ) showed evidence congruent with the latter two scenarios , that ctenophores are either sister to Cnidaria , Placozoa and Bilateria or sister to all other animal phyla . Several more recent studies comparing complete sequenced genomes of ctenophores with other sequenced animal genomes have also supported ctenophores as the sister lineage to all other animals . This position would suggest that neural and muscle cell types were either lost in major animal lineages ( e.g. , Porifera ) or that they evolved independently in the ctenophore lineage . However , other researchers have argued that the placement of Ctenophora as sister to all other animals is a statistical anomaly caused by the high rate of evolution in ctenophore genomes , and that Porifera ( sponges ) is the earliest @-@ diverging animal phylum instead . Ctenophores and sponges are also the only known animal phyla that lack any true hox genes .

= = = Relationships within Ctenophora = = =

Since all modern ctenophores except the beroids have cydippid @-@ like larvae , it has widely been assumed that their last common ancestor also resembled cydippids , having an egg @-@ shaped body and a pair of retractable tentacles . Richard Harbison 's purely morphological analysis in 1985 concluded that the cydippids are not monophyletic , in other words do not contain all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor that was itself a cydippid . Instead he found that various cydippid families were more similar to members of other ctenophore orders than to other cydippids . He also suggested that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was either cydippid @-@ like or beroid @-@ like . A molecular phylogeny analysis in 2001 , using 26 species , including 4 recently discovered ones , confirmed that the cydippids are not monophyletic and concluded that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was cydippid @-@ like . It also found that the genetic differences between these species were very small – so small that the relationships between the Lobata , Cestida and Thalassocalycida remained uncertain . This suggests that the last common ancestor of modern ctenophores was relatively recent , and perhaps was lucky enough to survive the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 65 @.@ 5 million years ago while other lineages perished . When the analysis was broadened to include representatives of other phyla , it concluded that cnidarians are probably more closely related to bilaterians than either group is to ctenophores but that this diagnosis is uncertain .

= K @-@ 140 ( Kansas highway ) =

K @-@ 140 is a state highway in Ellsworth and Saline Counties in the U.S. state of Kansas . The highway travels 33 @.@ 224 miles ( 53 @.@ 469 km ) through mostly rural land between the cities of Ellsworth and Salina . In addition to connecting Ellsworth and Salina , K @-@ 140 travels through the communities of Carneiro , Brookville , and Bavaria . The highway has junctions with Kansas state highways K @-@ 14 , K @-@ 156 , K @-@ 111 , and K @-@ 141 , as well as Interstate 135 . The route was originally established as U.S. Route 40 and was redesignated K @-@ 140 after US @-@ 40 was made concurrent with Interstate 70 . K @-@ 140 is not a part of the United States National Highway System , and the entire route is paved with composite pavement . The western part of the highway is less traveled than the eastern part , with annual average daily traffic between 590 and 940 west of Brookville and between 700 and 1200 east of Brookville .

= = Route description = =

K @-@ 140 begins at a junction with K @-@ 14 north of Ellsworth . It heads 0 @.@ 495 miles ( 0 @.@ 797 km ) due east from here to meet K @-@ 156 . It then travels a farther 3 @.@ 519 miles ( 5 @.@ 663 km ) through mostly rural land to a junction with K @-@ 111 north of Kanopolis . After the junction with K @-@ 111 , K @-@ 140 continues through rural areas before it goes through the small unincorporated community of Carneiro . Just after passing through Carneiro K @-@ 140 turns more northerly , again passing through mostly rural areas . It then serves as the northern terminus of K @-@ 141 before continuing eastward into Saline County . K @-@ 140 travels a total of 16 @.@ 455 miles ( 26 @.@ 482 km ) in Ellsworth County .

Entering Saline County K @-@ 140 travels in a general east @-@ northeast direction through rural land for 3 @.@ 246 miles ( 5 @.@ 224 km ) until entering Brookville . After traveling one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) through the city of Brookville , K @-@ 140 travels east then northeast to the unincorporated community of Bavaria . From there , the highway continues northeast through rural lands to its eastern terminus at Interstate 135 , with the road continuing east into the city of Salina as State Street . K @-@ 140 travels a total of 16 @.@ 769 miles ( 26 @.@ 987 km ) in Saline County . The total route length for K @-@ 140 is 33 @.@ 224 miles ( 53 @.@ 469 km ) .

The entire route is paved with composite pavement ( concrete which has been overlaid with asphaltic pavement ) . K @-@ 140 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The route connects to the National Highway System at its junctions with K @-@ 156 and Interstate 135 . From the eastern city limits of Ellsworth to the end of the first 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the route , K @-@ 140 has an annual average daily traffic of 781 . Between miles 1 and 5 ( kilometers 1 @.@ 6 and 8 @.@ 0 ) , the annual average daily traffic ranges from a low of 730 to a high of 745 . From mile 5 ( kilometer 8 @.@ 0 ) to mile 14 ( kilometer 23 ) the annual average daily traffic drops to between 590 and 650 . The amount of traffic then starts to rise as the highway crosses into Saline County , with annual average daily traffic ranging between 815 and 940 from mile 14 ( kilometer 23 ) to the western city limits of Brookville . From Brookville to mile 30 @.@ 445 ( kilometer 48 @.@ 996 ) the annual average daily traffic is higher , with a range between 1131 and 1200 . From there to the eastern terminus at Interstate 135 traffic levels vary widely , with annual average daily traffic ranging from 700 to 1193 .

= = History = =

K @-@ 140 's route was established in 1925 as U.S. Route 40S . By 1936 , the route had become the primary route of US @-@ 40 , with the old US @-@ 40N becoming U.S. Route 24 . By 1969 , after the majority of Interstate 70 had been completed , US @-@ 40 was rerouted to be concurrent with the newly constructed highway , and the old route of US @-@ 40 between Ellsworth and Salina was resigned as K @-@ 140 . The routing of K @-@ 140 has remained unchanged since . The K @-@ 140 route has been a paved road since at least 1932 .

= = Major intersections = =

= Ianto Jones =

Ianto Jones is a fictional character in the BBC television series Torchwood , played by Welsh actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd . A series regular , Ianto appears in every episode of the programme 's first three seasons , as well as two crossover episodes of Torchwood 's parent show , Doctor Who . Additionally , Ianto appears in Expanded Universe material such as the Torchwood novels and audiobooks , comic books and radio plays . Within the narrative of the series , Ianto begins as general support officer for Torchwood Three , a team of alien hunters stationed in Cardiff , and develops into an active field agent . Initially the regular character with the least screen time , Ianto 's role expanded in response to growing cult appeal .

Reserved and efficient , Ianto was often used by writers to add humorous asides to the episodes ' scripts . The character becomes the main romantic interest of Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , who is the lead male of the series . Established to have had heterosexual relationships prior to the series , Ianto 's story forms a part of the show 's ongoing exploration of human sexuality . Expanded Universe material develops on Ianto 's sexual orientation and the nature of the relationship with Jack , describing Ianto as bisexual and his feelings for Jack as genuine love . Additionally , writers have used these other media to explore Ianto 's characterisation ; for example , some stories elaborate on Ianto 's backstory , or provide insight into his feelings .

Beginning as a casual relationship , with little on @-@ screen definition given , Ianto and Jack 's relationship deepened over the first three seasons of the programme . The character 's creator Russell T Davies chose to kill off Ianto in the third television series . Professional critics by and large gave the story extremely positive reviews . A number of fans , however , were upset by the death of the character , particularly with regards to the romantic storyline 's abrupt ending . Artistically , Davies felt that the relationship 's unexplored potential maximised the viewer 's sense of grief . Subsequent to the departure , fans set up websites in the character 's honour , petitioning the writers to resurrect him in future episodes of the series , raising money for charity . Torchwood writers and actors have expressed an unwillingness to reduce the weight of the death scene by bringing the character back , though David @-@ Lloyd penned a Torchwood comic book wherein an alternative universe Ianto survives .

= = Depictions = =

= = = Television = = =

The character of Ianto Jones is introduced in the first episode of Torchwood , in 2006 . Introduced as a mild @-@ mannered and quiet administrator working for Torchwood Three , the first episode to focus on him was " Cyberwoman " , which dealt with both his backstory and motivations . In the episode , Ianto is revealed as a former employee of Torchwood One in London ( first seen in parent series Doctor Who ) , whose girlfriend Lisa ( Caroline Chikezie ) has been partially converted into a Cyberman , a cyborg species seen repeatedly in Doctor Who . Ianto has been keeping her alive , concealed in the basement of the Hub , but she eventually breaks loose and kills two civilians . Ianto is forced into confrontation with team leader Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , who is later able to revive Ianto with a kiss when Lisa knocks him unconscious . Ultimately , the rest of Ianto 's team is forced to kill Lisa . Although Ianto 's thoughts continue to be concerned with Lisa , mid @-@ series he begins to develop a sexual relationship with Jack . By the penultimate episode of the series , Ianto is willing to shoot colleague Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) to protect Jack , and refutes claims he is merely his " part time shag " . In the series finale , an image of what appears to be Lisa 's ghost is used to bring Ianto to mutiny against Jack , but still later when Jack ( who cannot stay dead ) returns to life , he and Ianto immediately kiss one another .

Torchwood 's second series ( 2008 ) begins with the team working without Jack , who departed the Hub at the end of series one to reunite with the mysterious " Doctor " from his past . Ianto 's role within the team now more frequently includes field missions , to accommodate Jack 's absence . When Jack returns in the series two premiere , having seen the end of the world , he attempts to formalise his romantic relationship with Ianto , successfully asking him on a date . Jack and Ianto 's relationship becomes more overt , and Ianto 's character becomes less burdened by secrets and happier , beginning to express a newfound confidence and dour sense of humour . The penultimate episode of the series , " Fragments " explores Ianto 's backstory , specifically how he was recruited into Torchwood Three two years prior ; Ianto is persistent that Jack hire him after the destruction of Torchwood One , but only succeeds once he is able to aid Jack in capturing a stray pterodactyl . In the second series finale , Ianto and the team face Jack 's 51st @-@ century ex Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) and younger brother Gray ( Lachlan Nieboer ) , who has vengefully sought to destroy Jack 's world . After Gray kills his teammates Toshiko ( Naoko Mori ) and Owen , the Torchwood team is left with a membership of only three . Following from this , Ianto makes his first crossover appearance in Doctor Who alongside Gwen ( Eve Myles ) and Jack in the two @-@ part finale of the 2008 series , where Torchwood is called on to help contact series protagonist the Doctor ( David Tennant ) during a Dalek invasion .

Torchwood 's third series ( 2009 ) is a five @-@ part miniseries broadcast over one week , called Children of Earth . In part one , Ianto starts to express insecurity to Jack about their status as couple . The audience are introduced to Ianto 's sister Rhiannon ( Katy Wix ) and brother @-@ in @-@ law Johnny Davies ( Rhodri Lewis ) , who confront Ianto about sightings of him on a date with Jack . Ianto eventually admits to being involved with Jack , but concedes that he is not sure where he stands . When aliens called the 456 return to Earth , John Frobisher ( Peter Capaldi ) puts a hit on Torchwood 's lives to cover a conspiracy . In part two , Ianto and Gwen survive a Hub explosion that obliterates Jack . Once regenerated , Jack is sealed in cement by agent Johnson ( Liz May Brice ) until Ianto rescues him with a forklift truck . In part three , the group watch helplessly as the 456 demand a tribute : 10 % of the Earth 's children ; the government appears willing to comply . In part four , Ianto and Jack storm the Thames House to confront the 456 . The pair refuse to sacrifice any lives to the alien demands . In response , the aliens release a fatal virus into the atmosphere . Thames House locks down , and Ianto dies in Jack 's arms , telling him that he loved him and begging Jack never to forget about him , to which Jack replies he never could .

= = = Literature = = =

Ianto appears in the first six of the Torchwood novels , published by BBC Books . The first wave , Another Life by Peter Anghelides , Border Princes by Dan Abnett , and Slow Decay by Andy Lane , were published in January 2007 . Published in March 2008 , and tying in with the concurrently airing second series of Torchwood , Ianto appears in the novels Trace Memory by David Llewellyn , The Twilight Streets by Gary Russell , and Something in the Water by Trevor Baxendale . October 2008 saw the release of three more Torchwood books by Peter Anghelides , series writer Phil Ford and writer for the Doctor Who and Torchwood websites , James Goss , the latter 's cover for Almost Perfect reflecting changes to the cast after the episode 2008 finale episode " Exit Wounds " . The character next appears in Into the Silence , Bay of the Dead and The House that Jack Built in June 2009 , and Risk Assessment , The Undertaker 's Gift and the short story anthology Consequences in October of that year .

First published in January 2008 , the monthly Torchwood Magazine began occasionally including Torchwood comic strips , in which Ianto also appears . In 2010 , Shrouded is one such two @-@ part comic , written by Gareth David @-@ Lloyd . The comic posits a " what @-@ if " scenario wherein Ianto , " who struggles with his feelings for Jack from the offset " , sees a face from the future and embarks on a mission that could change the course of his life ( from that of his eventual death in Children of Earth ) . David Lloyd comments that he " knows [ the ] character implicitly " . In the first part , Ianto ( originating from the timeframe of Season Two ) is approached by Rhys and Captain John , both post @-@ Children of Earth , who warn Ianto not to believe the offer made by a seductive , time @-@ travelling woman ; they do not tell him that their mission is to preserve the timeline in which he dies . In part two , the woman , Mairwyn , informs Ianto of the events of " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth , and of Jack 's departure . Ianto tearfully watches the scene where Jack learns of Gwen 's engagement , and sleeps with Mairwyn . After learning of the devastating consequences of assisting Mairwyn , he defeats her and later " retcons " himself . However , in a divergent timeline Ianto appears with Mairwyn , observing his funeral , saying " I can 't believe there 's a reality where I said no . " In 2010 , " Shrouded " was republished in Titan 's dedicated Torchwood comic book .

During series two , the Torchwood website , www.torchwood.org.uk also hosted an interactive online game written by series writer Phil Ford . Updated weekly with the airing of the new episodes , the website features specially shot footage with Gareth David @-@ Lloyd in character as Ianto debriefing and informing the ' player ' with regards to their mission . Throughout both series one and two , the interactive websites co @-@ written by James Goss featured electronic literature content ( such as fictitious internet messaging conversations and letters ) which depict aspects of Ianto and the other Torchwood characters ' work and personal lives . The Torchwood Archives by Gary Russell collects much of this online literature in hardback form , along with new original material , some of which expands on what we know of Ianto . For example , it introduces his sister , Rhiannon and brother @-@ in @-@ law Johnny ; Rhiannon and Johnny later appear in 2009 's third televised series .

Spin @-@ off media has tried to fill in the gaps of Ianto 's character history from before he began working at Torchwood Three ; Ianto 's first week at Torchwood One is shown in a flashback in the novel Trace Memory . The segment also depicts his budding relationship with Lisa Hallett . Also expanding on Jones 's time living in London , the comic The Legacy of Torchwood One ! ( Torchwood # 1 ) shows how Ianto was taken under the wing of Rupert Howarth , a senior researcher , during his first few weeks at Torchwood One . Ianto 's characterisation is explored in The Twilight Streets , in which Ianto sheds some light on the difficulty he had " coming out " as a teenager ; Ianto 's mother tried to have a conversation with him about it , but he remarks " She didn 't work me out , Gwen . No one has . And if I ever do , I 'll let you know . " He then engages in a diatribe with Gwen about what it means to him to be bisexual after Gwen jokes to him that he has the " best of both worlds " . A scene in David @-@ Lloyd 's " Shrouded " , in which Ianto is emailing his sister , Owen is seen to wrestle control of the computer and tries to write to her that " I 've recently discovered that I 'm a Big Old Gay " ; Ianto rebukes him . In the storyline 's conclusion , an alternate timeline is created where Ianto did not die in the events of Children of Earth .

However , as with all Doctor Who and Torchwood spin @-@ off media , the canonicity in relation to the television series is unclear .

= = = Audio drama = = =

Ianto also appears in Torchwood audio books , the first two being Hidden written by Steven Savile and narrated by Naoko Mori , Everyone Says Hello written by Dan Abnett and narrated by Burn Gorman , released February 2008 , and In the Shadows by Joseph Lidster , released in September 2008 . Joseph Lidster also wrote a BBC Radio 4 Torchwood drama , " Lost Souls " which aired in Summer 2008 as an Afternoon Play featuring the voices of John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd and Freema Agyeman ( Martha ) . Set after the events of the 2008 series , Ianto and the team make their first international adventure to CERN in Geneva , as part of Radio 4 's special celebration of the Large Hadron Collider being switched on . The special radio episode 's plot focuses on the Large Hadron Collider 's activation and the doomsday scenario some predicted it might incite , as well as the team 's mourning of Toshiko and Owen 's recent deaths .

Three further BBC radio dramas were produced in 2009 for the Afternoon Play slot on Radio 4 , each of which feature Ianto Jones . Chronologically , these occur between the second and third televised series but after " Lost Souls " . Transmitted in July 2009 , the first drama is " Asylum " , the second is " Golden Age " , and the third is " The Dead Line " . " The Dead Line " in particular focuses on Ianto 's characterisation , particularly with respect to his relationship with Jack . AfterElton reviewers stated that the radio drama " delivers for Janto [ a portmanteau used by the shipping fandom ] fans " ; David @-@ Lloyd delivers a monologue as Ianto , verbalising his insecurities to a comatose Jack . When Jack awakens from his coma , he promises " You will never be just a blip in time , Ianto Jones . "

After his character was written out of the televised series , David @-@ Lloyd still lends his voice 2011 audio drama series The Lost Files , tying into the televised fourth series , Torchwood : Miracle Day . Of these , " The House of the Dead " by James Goss focuses the most on Ianto . Ianto encounters the spirit of his father , with the claim that he , Ianto 's mother , Owen , Toshiko and Lisa will all be resurrected if Ianto betrays Jack . Exploiting its radio format , the drama reveals that Ianto too is a spirit , and that the story is a Jack solo mission set after series three . Jack and Ianto say a final goodbye and tell each other they love one another for the first time . Jack attempts to return to the land of the living alongside Ianto , but Ianto stays behind to close the Cardiff Rift forever with Jack 's device .

= = Characterisation = =

= = = Conception = = =

Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has revealed that his character was originally named Idris Hopper . This has led to speculation that he was the same Idris Hopper played by Aled Pedrick who appeared in the 2005 Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " as Margaret Blaine 's ( Annette Badland ) personal assistant . Writer Stephen James Walker wonders if Russell T Davies intended Idris to become a major character on Torchwood in the same way as Toshiko Sato , who originated in Doctor Who 's " Aliens of London " . Idris Hopper has since appeared in Gary Russell 's Torchwood novel The Twilight Streets . Initially , Ianto is introduced as a quiet worker and the least active character in the supporting cast . David @-@ Lloyd started the role believing Ianto would be killed off at the end of the first series , and was surprised when they " worked the character to become more popular , and it started growing from there . "

When Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was cast in the role , the character was renamed Ianto Jones . This was inspired by the character of Yanto Jones , also played by David @-@ Lloyd , in Russell T Davies 's 2004 comedy @-@ drama Mine All Mine . Ianto shares the surname " Jones " with Doctor Who characters Martha Jones and family as well as Harriet Jones , Torchwood character Eugene Jones ( " Random Shoes " ) , and Stuart Allen Jones in Davies 's earlier Queer as Folk ; Davies states that reusing names ( such as Tyler , Smith , Harper , Harkness and Jones ) allows him to get a grip of the character on the blank page . In developing the character 's attire , costume designer Ray Holman comments : " Ianto has a very distinct look but his suits actually vary quite a lot . He started off with some nice but boring Marks and Spencers suits in series one , which were top @-@ end fitted ones but always very sober . Towards the end of series one , I also got him into a waistcoat , and everyone thought that looked really good .

= = = Development = = =

On how he views the character , David @-@ Lloyd says that " outwardly , he 's straight @-@ laced , but there 's a darker side to him and a very playful side too . " Initially , in series one , Ianto is a quiet and more reserved character . Throughout the first series , Ianto 's secrets are exposed to the team , particularly in " Cyberwoman " when his motives for joining Torchwood Three are exposed . David @-@ Lloyd was " bowled over " by the Ianto @-@ centric script for " Cyberwoman " and the " wide range of emotions " it allowed him to play . From this point , Ianto 's focus changes and he begins more and more to come out of his shell .

Appearing in series two , Ianto assists the team in field missions and is used by the writers as a vehicle for one @-@ liner jokes . Commenting on this , portrayer Gareth David @-@ Lloyd notes that " This season it 's much more relaxed and he 's not all about keeping secrets , he 's about Torchwood and Jack — he 's found his meaning and his place so his dry humour comes out a lot more and he 's happier . " The developments in Ianto 's character were also reflected in the wardrobe choice . " For series two , " comments Ray Holman , " we evolved the look quite a lot , and now his suits come from all over the place . It 's just a question of where I see something that looks right for Gareth , so I 've brought him a suit from Savile Row and suits from Zara and Next . We realised we could be a bit more flash with Ianto now he 's come out of the background and started to assert himself a bit more . So we moved him into coloured shirts and snazzier ties . He started off in white and grey shirts but we realised his skin tones can take the extra colour and now he 's evolving into something much sharper , which looks really good filmed in high definition . "

In Torchwood Magazine , actor Gareth David @-@ Lloyd comments on some original character developments intended for Ianto . Originally , his character was the one supposed to die at the end of series two episode " Reset " . Davies 's plan had originally intended for Ianto to be revived , as Owen eventually was , in episode seven . From this point on , the character was intended to be " the Living Dead — pale , but still sexy " . The night before filming , however , Davies changed his mind and seven scripts began a process of being rewritten . New lines had to be handed to the actors on the day of filming . Davies also called a discussion with the actors involved to explain the change in the storyline . In the discussion with executive producer Russell T Davies and Burn Gorman , who portrays Owen , it was decided that Owen would experience the zombification storyline as he is a character who more overtly enjoys life , making it more interesting from a narrative perspective .

David @-@ Lloyd described the character 's development in the third series as " really exciting " . He felt that it was " great to be a fully @-@ fledged member of the team now rather than just the administration man . " He felt flattered to have the writer and producers put so much confidence in him . In this series , the writers also explore Jones 's background ; David @-@ Lloyd was happy with the execution of this backstory , through meeting Ianto 's sister , and commented that it was quite beautifully written . Through meeting his family , we discover that his father has died and that Ianto has grown very distant from his relatives as per the demands of his job . David @-@ Lloyd first concluded that Ianto was being killed off when his agent told him he was only needed for four out of five episodes . Although there was " a bit of disappointment " , he considers himself " lucky " for lasting so long on the series , especially since Ianto was supposed to die in series two . He believed the character 's death was justified by " the impact and the drama , and to keep the dangerous reality of Torchwood ever present " . Although it was " a tragedy that [ Ianto ] died " , David @-@ Lloyd felt that the series had " addressed everything about him that needed to be said " .

Creator Russell T Davies felt that killing off Ianto was necessary for Children of Earth ; it was his first decision to create a " horrible war casualty " for the story , because it would be unrealistic to have a great threat and have the main characters all come out unscathed . Ianto 's death also precedes the death of Captain Jack 's grandson Steven ( Bear McCausland ) , and for that scene to occur it necessitated making Jack " badly , badly damaged " . Ianto 's death caused " maximum damage " to Jack , and the loss of his lover ( and grandson ) makes Children of Earth a tale of retribution , as Jack had given away twelve children to the same aliens in 1965 . Davies has said that Ianto is " absolutely dead " . He explains his reasoning ; because it 's a " much more real world in Torchwood " , it wouldn 't work to " regenerate or go to a parallel universe . " Davies feels that Barrowman and David @-@ Lloyd would both be dismayed were that to happen . He stated " it would devalue the entire plot if we brought him back " . Wired magazine described Ianto 's arc , ending in the third series , as an " evolution from meek office assistant to heroic warrior " .

= = = Relationship with Jack = = =

Much of Ianto 's character development is centred on the character 's relationship with Captain Jack . On the character 's evolution from minor character to romantic interest , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd has commented that " To have a storyline where you 're involved with the leading character for any actor is awesome . " On the character 's development , David @-@ Lloyd has said that through Jack 's relationship , " he 's found his meaning and ... he 's happier . " Asked what it is that Ianto receives from Jack , David @-@ Lloyd responds " Support , meaning . I think he lost meaning . He was tortured and Jack gave him that meaning back . And reliability that he 'll always be there , I think . " John Barrowman and Gareth David @-@ Lloyd have also opined that Jack 's relationship with Ianto has however brought out Jack 's empathy , and helped to ground him , with John Barrowman reported as saying that Ianto " brings out the ' human ' in him , it brings out more of the empathy because he 's actually fallen for someone and he really cares about somebody . So , it 's really great and I think that 's what makes him warm to other people . It makes him more approachable . " In the same interview , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd said of the relationship and his character that " I think Ianto 's always made him care and that is really the heart of the show . Ianto 's always bearing his emotional side and vulnerable side and keeping his feet on the ground . I think of all the characters , he 's the one who tries to keep everyone else 's feet on the ground . He brings everyone back to reality , often with a dry , witty remark or taking a dig at somebody just to sort of bring people back down . "

Comparing Jack 's relationship with Ianto to his romantic tension with Gwen , David @-@ Lloyd states " I think [ there are ] different sorts of love or lust , as it might be , and I think that 's an ongoing thing ... At the moment , I think there 's two different sorts of love going on there . " He also states that he feels that Ianto 's relationship with Jack is his first same @-@ sex relationship , and doesn 't feel that Ianto would be a " labelist " , but were he , he would identify as bisexual , but that he " wouldn 't regard himself the same way as Jack does because they 're from different times . " Author Stephen James Walker feels sorry for Ianto , perceiving his relationship with Jack as a one @-@ sided one . To him , Ianto views the relationship as " serious and committed " , as seen in " A Day in the Death " where he tells Owen that it is not just about sex . However , from dialogue in " Something Borrowed " , Walker believes that Jack appears to equate his relationship with Ianto to nothing more than a " recreational activity " . Walker also notes how important it was for Ianto when he cut in to dance with Jack , as this is the first time that his relationship with Jack is presented before the rest of the crew . The novel The House that Jack Built includes a scene where Gwen tries to clarify whether Ianto understands the nature of his relationship with Jack , saying " You do know he 's ... " , which Ianto finishes " Just a shag ? " before adding " Yes I know . I can 't help it , though . I 've never been much good at casual . " In radio play " The Dead Line " , set just prior to series three , Ianto expounds his insecurities to Jack , who refutes them , confirming that his feelings for Ianto are real . When asked if the relationship will continue in series three , executive producer Julie Gardner replied , " Yes , I like seeing them as a couple " , while director Euros Lyn stated that " the love story between Captain Jack and Ianto [ would continue ] to unfold " in the third series . While Gareth David @-@ Lloyd feels that the love story between Jack and Ianto was not fully resolved , which is " part of the tragedy " , the character and his relationship with Jack had been sufficiently explored in the third series for David @-@ Lloyd to be " happy to walk away from it . "

Ianto makes a post @-@ death appearance in 2011 audio drama " The House of the Dead " . Encountering Ianto 's spirit at a haunted location in Wales , Jack and Ianto are permitted a final goodbye . Without Ianto in his life , Jack wishes to be swept up into the Rift as it closes in an attempt at suicide . Ianto tricks Jack into leaving the House of the Dead , however , despite the possibility of resurrection . As they are forced to part forever by the closing of the Rift , the couple declare their love for one another for the first and last time .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical reception = = =

Awarding the character of Ianto the status of " Cult Spy Icon " , British entertainment news website Digital Spy describes him as a " cult legend " , citing his dour demeanour , one @-@ liners and " eye candy " label . Gay men 's website AfterElton placed Ianto as their seventh best gay and bisexual character in modern science fiction ( encompassing television , film and comic books ) , with Torchwood 's Jack , Ianto 's love interest , receiving first place . Wired magazine was impressed with the way Ianto 's romantic storyline was handled in the third series , and praised Davies 's writing for the " deft , sympathetic handling " of the Harkness @-@ Jones romance , compared with the " clumsiness " of the show 's homoerotic overtones in previous series . Because Ianto 's storyline grows out of the reality of the show , " it plays with such genuine sympathy and pathos that Jones 's eventual fate is easily the miniseries ' most powerful moment . " Wired describes David @-@ Lloyd 's performance as Jones as " a key element in the success of the five @-@ episode story arc . " One AfterElton contributor disliked the death scene partially for the loss of a " beloved gay character " , and because Ianto 's death was caused by Jack 's stupidity , goading on the aliens . They compared the death scene to that of Tara ( Amber Benson ) in Joss Whedon 's Buffy the Vampire Slayer which he felt was more satisfying , although " unbearably sad " because of its pivotal role in the character arc for Willow ( Alyson Hannigan ) , and as being " possibly the single most significant event in the whole seven @-@ season series . " He feels that both Joss Whedon and Russell T Davies toyed with their LGBT fans ' affections , and claim " neither Whedon nor Davies seem aware of the impact that these characters were having on viewers starved for such representations . " Later , AfterElton published an opposing view , which analysed the character 's death in view of the character 's earlier refusal to admit to his relationship with a man , and claimed that , instead of being an expression of homophobia , the death was a sign that the LGBT community was leaving behind its image of victimhood . In 2012 David Brown of the Radio Times described Ianto 's demise as one of televisions five most shocking death scenes and " surely [ Torchwood 's ] finest hour " .

The website Den of Geek praised Davies 's writing of Ianto 's death , and likened the tough story @-@ driven decision to those used in critically acclaimed shows The Sopranos , Battlestar Galactica and The Wire . Den of Geek felt the real tension of knowing any character could die , however popular , was " refreshing " in comparison to impossibly death @-@ defying characters such as 24 's Jack Bauer ( Kiefer Sutherland ) . In 2010 , Davies 's replacement as Doctor Who executive producer , Steven Moffat , commented saying " I thought his death scene was brilliant . " When the series screened in New Zealand , GayNZ compared the two contending perspectives , comparing those who viewed Ianto 's death from the perspective of " dramatic necessity " to those who disparaged it as the result of thoughtlessness on the part of the series creators about the relative absence of representations of enduring lesbian and gay couples within television series . Ianto 's death was compared to that of Tara as in the above critiques , but also contrasted to other television series where lesbian and gay couples were able to have enduring relationships , such as Six Feet Under 's David Fisher ( Michael C. Hall ) and Keith Charles ( Mathew St. Patrick ) and Bad Girls ' Nikki Wade ( Mandana Jones ) and Helen Stewart ( Simone Lahbib ) .

GayNZ writer Craig Young places Ianto , like Buffy 's Tara , in a larger literary tradition , commenting " just as Iphigenia 's sacrifice at the hands of Agamemnon was necessary to set in train the events of Aeschylus 's Oresteia ... just as Ophelia 's madness , suicide and accidental death led to the climatic duel between Hamlet and Laertes ... Ianto 's death can be argued to be a dramatic necessity which adds to character and narrative development . " The article acknowledged there being some validity in criticisms of modern TV dramas which uphold that it is frequently the gay relationships which " can never be seen to have long @-@ term , fulfilled relationships " . However , GayNZ questioned whether the pattern was solely gay , noting the equally tragic outcomes of homosexual and heterosexual relationships in American shows Buffy and Nip / Tuck . The website also took note of Ianto fans ' displeasure when Jack was introduced to a new romantic partner in Alonso Frame ( Russell Tovey ) in Doctor Who episode The End of Time ( 2010 ) , mirroring Willow 's romance with Kennedy ( Iyari Limon ) in Season Seven of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The article intentionally avoided making a definitive conclusion as to which " side " of the argument was correct . Young later compared Ianto 's death with the subsequent killing off of core heterosexual couples in two British shows , Misfits and Being Human . These latter deaths are described as even more heartbreaking than Ianto 's , and Young argues that these character deaths tell us more about transatlantic differences in storytelling than about portrayals of sexuality .

= = = Fan reaction to death = = =

Some fans expressed their displeasure following Ianto 's death in the third series . The website End of Show comments that " writer James Moran was so inundated with messages to his Twitter account that he posted a number of impassioned pleas to tone down the vitriol . " End of Show writer Kirsty Walker comments that fans on Twitter accused Moran of " deliberately egging on the ' shippers ' . " Moran noted in his blog that of the thousands of messages from viewers , the " vast majority " were extremely positive , managing to express that they were " upset , angry and shocked " without making personal attacks . Moran declared the response from other commentators to be unacceptable , describing their conduct as the spewing of insults and " passive aggressive nonsense " . He noted that fans had accused him of deliberately trying to " mislead " , " lie " and " hurt " them , said that he hated them , was " laughing at them " and " slapping [ them ] in the face " , and claimed that he had " killed the show " , had attempted to drive away existing fans to court newer and " cooler " viewers , and had deliberately hurt depressed people " with dark storylines . " In a poll conducted by Digital Spy shortly after Ianto 's death , 27 @.@ 4 % of voters claimed that they would no longer watch Torchwood . Responding to these results , Gareth David @-@ Lloyd thanked the fans for their dedication to the show and the character but urged them to have faith in the writers . On the show 's Facebook groups , fans expressed anger towards creator Russell T Davies and some claimed they would stop watching the show . Walker herself had felt that the end of Jack 's relationship with Ianto could " change the show beyond all recognition . "

io9 commented that fans on Moran 's blog accused him of homophobia ; one quoted fan likened it to 1950s @-@ style homophobia " where all the queer folks died ... and the straight people walk away completely unscathed . " io9 writer Charlie Jane Anders comments , however , that " as people have had a bit more time to consider the new series , more thoughtful discussions have arisen . " One such cited notes that it is unlikely that Children of Earth was intentionally homophobic since the writer ( Davies ) and lead actor ( John Barrowman ) are both openly gay . The same reviewer notes that however , " especially when viewed on its own , Children of Earth looks a lot like the same heteronormative , homophobic , biphobic and gratuitous tropes that appear in so many bad representations of queer people in popular culture . " In response to the accusations of " de @-@ gaying " Torchwood , Davies advised those people do some research into his career ( creator of Queer as Folk ) and " stop riding on a bandwagon that they actually don 't know anything about " . Asked to respond to viewers who felt " cheated " that Jack and Ianto 's relationship did not come to fruition , Davies said :

That 's the point actually . Both in fiction and in life . When someone dies you lose all that potential . You grieve over everything they could have been . Everything you hoped for them . Everything they might have achieved with their lives , everyone they could have loved . Every job they could have had . Every joy they could have had . It 's gone .

Soon after the death of Ianto Jones during Torchwood 's third series , a campaign to bring him back was started through networking sites such as LiveJournal , Twitter and Facebook . The resulting website , www.saveiantojones.com , has organised a protest which encourages fans to send coffee , along with postcards and letters of complaint , to the BBC , a reference to Ianto 's status as the " coffee boy " . Via the Save Ianto Jones website , fans are also campaigning to raise money for the BBC charity Children in Need in honour of the character . The fundraising site states that " Though we , his devoted fans , still hope that he 'll come back ... we mourn him . In the series , he died saving the children of Earth ; so it seems fitting to honour his memory by helping the Children in Need . " Torchwood Magazine reported that the site had raised nearly £ 4 @,@ 000 , with individual donations ranging from £ 2 to £ 50 . John Barrowman described the charity campaign as " a fun way to mourn Ianto " and stated that it was " the kind of thing that 's really appreciated " . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd was flattered by the strong fan reaction , saying it is " satisfying in drama when you create such an emotional response , because that 's what you set out to do in the first place " . He praised the fan donations , claiming " So far , they 've raised about £ 3 @,@ 000 for Children in Need , and £ 1 @,@ 000 for Lluest Horse and Pony Trust in West Wales , which I 'm a patron of , so that 's got to be a good thing " . Coventry Telegraph records that by 21 July 2009 , £ 4 @,@ 172 had been donated in Ianto 's name .

In an interview with io9 on 28 July 2009 , creator Russell T Davies was asked about the controversy surrounding Ianto 's death and the fan reaction campaign . He replied " There 's a campaign , because he was a coffee boy . But do you know how many packets of coffee they 've received so far ? Nine . So I think people writing online might sound like thousands of people , but they are nine . " However , those involved in the movement believe that this number is much higher due to a post tallying the coffee sent within the community . When asked about the backlash in a separate interview with Michael Ausiello , Russell T Davies said " It 's not particularly a backlash . What 's actually happening is , well , nothing really to be honest . It 's a few people posting online and getting fans upset " . He also stated that the character was gone for good , and that his resurrection would devalue the " entire plot . " He recommended that fans who wish to stop watching the show should watch Supernatural " because those boys are beautiful " , or " look at poetry " if they " can 't handle drama " . Following these statements , the Save Ianto Jones website encouraged fans to contact BBC Wales rather than Davies , and temporarily presented on its front page the message " Mr Davies has made it clear in recent interviews that he views his fans with contempt , and as disposable , which saddens us " and asked not to be " abused " . At Comic @-@ Con 2009 , a fan claimed that Davies " hurt " a lot of internet fans with his decision to kill Ianto , which she called " out of line . " Davies replied that he would not change his mind regarding the decision , adding , " I 've got to be blunt about this , there have been campaigns to send packets of coffee to BBC Wales in protest . There have been nine packets sent . I 'm not taking the mickey , but that 's a very small number . " Executive producer Julie Gardner stated " We want people to be engaged , discuss and not always agree with us . At the end of the day , I make drama to support each author 's vision . It 's not a democracy . Whether people like it or not , it 's storytelling . " Simon Brew of Den of Geek has criticised the Internet campaigns to resurrect the character , citing that the show would " lose far more credibility " if he were brought back . Brew also expressed doubt that the fans stating they would boycott a fourth series will do so . He summarised : " Torchwood now needs to continue to have the courage of its convictions , and for that to happen , the reset switch simply isn 't an option . "

On 31 July 2009 , Digital Spy conducted a poll asking if it was " time to move on " from Ianto . However , a week later the website did not immediately publish the results , announcing " unfortunately it seems that this particular Poll was the subject of a campaign by diehard fans to distort the outcome " . Neil Wilkes opined that this action by the fans " suggests the answer to the question ' Have people overreacted to Ianto 's death ? ' is quite obvious " . Later , a footnote amendment noted that 31 @.@ 4 % said it was time to move on , " while the remainder demanded RTD 's head on a plate " , a reference to his own wording of the original poll , which gave readers the option of moving on from Ianto , or the executive producer 's head on a plate . James McCarthy of Wales Online described the reaction from some fans as " sickening " and quoted " crazed " fans on DeviantArt and Facebook who made explicit death threats against the Children of Earth writers . Gareth David @-@ Lloyd stated he was very disappointed in those fans , whose message board conduct he does not support at all and called " completely unacceptable " . David @-@ Lloyd added that he " would hope the writers would be able to ignore comments like that " . A number of fans were upset by the tone of the first Wales Online article , and their response prompted a follow up from McCarthy . In their comments , fans pointed out that his article disproportionately highlights what they called the " ill @-@ conceived , knee @-@ jerk reactions " of a few individuals , and stressed that these reactions in no way represent the movement to bring Ianto Jones back , which they hold as fundamentally respectful towards the show 's actors and writers . Fans have distanced themselves from the small minority of extremists , and have been keen to stress their peaceful activism , described as " thousands of fans who are raising money for charity , sending polite letters , and doing what we can to be supportive of the character and actor " . In 2010 , Doctor Who executive producer Steven Moffat told fans who contacted him that he wouldn 't want to resurrect Ianto even if he could : " Not reversing it . Stop asking . " In a 2011 poll published by the Liverpool Daily Post as part of a live Interview with writer John Fay , 70 % of respondents replied that the decision to kill Ianto had been the right one , with 19 % responding " indifferent " and only 11 % stating that it had been the wrong decision , contrasting with the initial fan response . In response to a question , Fay also stated that he had not been affected by the " scary " fan reaction , maintaining that " a universe in which fictional characters aren 't ' allowed ' to die is ridiculous and limiting " .

The public reaction to the death of Ianto has had a wider @-@ reaching impact than simply the Torchwood fan community . For example , comic book writer Peter David cited the reaction to Ianto Jones 's death when reflecting on where to go with the gay relationship between the Marvel Comics characters Rictor and Shatterstar in X @-@ Factor v. 3 . He opined that in " virtually any happy relationship " , one of the characters has to die to " provide angst " to the more major character . His concern was " being tagged as against gay people " , the way Russell T Davies was , even though Davies is himself gay .

= Hurricane Iniki =

Hurricane Iniki ( / iːˈniːkiː / ee @-@ NEE @-@ kee ; Hawaiian : ʻiniki meaning " strong and piercing wind " ) was the most powerful hurricane to strike the U.S. state of Hawaii in recorded history . Forming on September 5 , 1992 , during the strong 1990 – 95 El Niño , Iniki was one of eleven Central Pacific tropical cyclones during that season . It attained tropical storm status on September 8 and further intensified into a hurricane the next day . After turning north , Iniki struck the island of Kauaʻi on September 11 at peak intensity ; it had winds of 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) and reached Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . It was the first hurricane to hit the state since Hurricane Iwa in the 1982 season , and the first major hurricane since Hurricane Dot in 1959 . Iniki dissipated on September 13 about halfway between Hawaii and Alaska .

Iniki caused around $ 1 @.@ 8 billion ( 1992 USD ) of damage and six deaths . At the time , Iniki was among the costliest United States hurricanes , and it remains one of the costliest hurricanes on record in the eastern Pacific . The storm struck just weeks after Hurricane Andrew , the costliest tropical cyclone ever at the time , struck Florida .

The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) failed to issue tropical cyclone warnings and watches 24 hours in advance . Despite the lack of early warning , only six deaths ensued . Damage was greatest on Kauaʻi , where the hurricane destroyed more than 1 @,@ 400 houses and severely damaged more than 5 @,@ 000 . Though not directly in the path of the eye , Oʻahu experienced moderate damage from wind and storm surge .

= = Meteorological history = =

The origin of Iniki is unclear , but it possibly began as a tropical wave that exited the African coast on August 18 . It moved westward across the unfavorable Atlantic Ocean and crossed Central America into the Pacific on the August 28 . The wave continued rapidly westward and remained disorganized . Conditions slowly became more favorable , and , as the convection concentrated around a center , the wave was classified Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on September 5 . At this time , the wave was located 1700 miles ( 2700 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas or 1550 miles ( 2500 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hilo . Initially , the thunderstorm activity was not concentrated towards the center and thus the depression was not expected to intensify beyond minimal tropical storm strength . The depression continued quickly westward and remained weak until the September 8 , when it slowed enough to strengthen to a tropical storm .

Located at the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge , Iniki continued westward and strengthened over the unusually favorable central Pacific ; it reached hurricane status on September 9 while 470 miles ( 760 km ) south @-@ southeast of Hilo . The subtropical ridge , which typically keeps hurricanes well away from the Hawaiian Islands , weakened due to an approaching upper level @-@ trough and allowed Iniki to turn to the northwest . With very favorable upper @-@ level outflow and warm water temperatures , Iniki steadily intensified , and attained major hurricane status on September 10 while south @-@ southwest of the island chain .

As Iniki turned to the north , it continued to strengthen , reaching a peak of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) winds on September 11 while 170 miles ( 270 km ) south @-@ southwest of Poʻipū on the island of Kauaʻi . It continued rapidly to the north @-@ northeast , and made landfall on south @-@ central Kauai early on the 11th with sustained winds of 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) , making Iniki a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The National Weather Service reported wind gusts of up to 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . The highest recorded wind speed from Hurricane Iniki was a 227 mph ( 365 km / h ) reading from the Navy 's Makaha Ridge radar station . According to the Honolulu Advertiser , that remarkable figure was recorded at a digital weather station whose wind gauging equipment blew off after taking the measurement during the storm . After crossing the island , Iniki rapidly accelerated north @-@ northeastward , weakened rapidly , and was absorbed by a cold front as it lost tropical characteristics and became extratropical on September 13 about halfway between Alaska and Hawaiʻi .

= = Preparations = =

The Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) failed to issue tropical cyclone warnings and watches for the hurricane well in advance . For several days prior to the disaster , the CPHC and the news media forecast Iniki to remain well south of the island chain , with the only effect being some high surf conditions . Some of the standard international computer models were indicating a northward turn towards the populated Hawaiian Islands , but these were rejected by the CPHC forecasters . As late as early September 11 , the CPHC suggested that Iniki would remain well to the south of the island group . It was not until a special bulletin was issued by the CPHC less than 24 hours before landfall — that any warning was given to the public .

A hurricane watch was issued for Kauaʻi early on September 11 and was upgraded to a hurricane warning later that day . Prior to Iniki 's arrival in Kauaʻi , 8 @,@ 000 people were housed in shelters , many of whom remembered Hurricane Iwa 10 years prior . Because schools were canceled , traffic was light during the evacuation , and streets were clear by mid @-@ morning . Rather than sending tourists to public shelters , two major hotels kept their occupants in the buildings during the storm 's passage .

The CPHC issued a tropical storm warning for Oʻahu on September 11 which was upgraded to a hurricane warning later that day . Though not hit by the hurricane , Iniki 's large wind field caused nearly 30 @,@ 000 people to evacuate to 110 public shelters in Oʻahu . Public school buildings acted as shelters , and were for refuge only , meaning they did not provide food , cots , blankets , medications or other comfort items . Roughly one @-@ third of Oʻahu 's population participated in the evacuation , though many others went to the house of a family member or friend for shelter . The execution of the evacuations went well , beginning with the vulnerable coastal area . For those in need , vans and buses gave emergency transportation , while police manned certain overused intersections . The two main problems that occurred during the evacuation were lack of parking at shelters and exit routes for the coastlines .

= = Impact = =

Hurricane Iniki was the costliest hurricane to strike the state of Hawaiʻi , causing $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in damage . Most damage was on the island of Kauaʻi , where the storm destroyed thousands of homes and left a large amount of the island without power , although Oʻahu also suffered significant damage . Iniki also was responsible for six deaths .

The hurricane nearly struck the Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Honolulu . Had it hit there , Iniki , along with Hurricane Andrew and Typhoon Omar , would have struck each of the three National Weather Service offices responsible for tropical cyclone warnings within a two @-@ month period .

= = = Kauaʻi = = =

Hurricane Iniki made landfall on the south @-@ central portion of Kauaʻi island , bringing its dangerous inner core to the entire island . Upon making landfall the hurricane produced storm tides of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) , with some portions of the coastlines having high @-@ water marks of up to 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) . In addition , strong waves of up to 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) in height crashed along the southern coastline for several hours , causing a debris line of more than 800 feet ( 250 m ) inland . Because it moved quickly through the island , there were no reports of significant rainfall .

Hurricane Iniki 's making landfall during daylight hours , combined with the popularity of camcorders , led many Kauaʻi residents to record much of the damage as it was occurring . The footage was later used to create an hour @-@ long video documentary . Airline service was down .

Hurricane Iniki 's high winds caused extensive damage in Kauaʻi . 1 @,@ 421 houses were destroyed , and 63 were lost from the storm surge and wave action . A total of 5 @,@ 152 homes were severely damaged , while 7 @,@ 178 received minor damage . On the south coast , hotels and condominiums received severe damage as well . A few were restored quickly , though some took several years to be rebuilt . One hotel — the Coco Palms Resort famous for Elvis Presley 's Blue Hawaii — never reopened after the hurricane . Destroyed housing across the island left more than 7 @,@ 000 people homeless after the storm 's passage .

Iniki 's high winds also downed 26 @.@ 5 % of the island 's transmission poles , 37 % of its distribution poles , and 35 % of its 800 mile ( 1300 km ) distribution wire system . The entire island lacked electricity and television service for an extended period of time . Electric companies restored only 20 % of the island 's power service within four weeks of Iniki , while other areas were without power for up to three months . Also affected by the storm was the agricultural sector . Though much of the sugar cane was already harvested , what was left was severely damaged . The winds destroyed tender tropical plants like bananas and papayas and uprooted or damaged fruit and nut trees .

Most of Iniki 's damage occurred in Kauaʻi . On the island , one person died when struck by debris , while another lost her life when a portion of her house fell on her . Offshore , two Japanese nationals died when their boat capsized . The reduced death toll was likely due to well @-@ executed warnings and preparation . More than 100 injuries can be attributed to Iniki , though most occurred in the aftermath of the hurricane .

Among those on Kauaʻi was filmmaker Steven Spielberg , who was preparing for the final day of on @-@ location shooting of the film Jurassic Park . He and the 130 of his cast and crew remained safely in a hotel during Iniki 's passage . According to Spielberg , " every single structure was in shambles ; roofs and walls were torn away ; telephone poles and trees were down as far as the eye could see . " Members of the film 's crew helped to clear some of the debris off of nearby roads .

The U.S. Coast Guard station at Nawiliwili Harbor was hard hit by the storm , which fatally damaged the service 's 82 @-@ foot ( 25 m ) cutter stationed there . The Coast Guard promptly established a humanitarian response detachment , commanded by Lt. Kenneth Armstrong , which helped to provide medical supplies , food , ice , water , and cash grants to island residents , as well as making temporary repairs to public buildings . Under Armstrong 's command , the port was recertified to receive gasoline and diesel fuel , which helped to relieve a major fuel shortage caused by the widespread use of personal electrical generators . A larger DoD contingent , nicknamed " Operation Garden Sweep , " provided large scale relief in the form of tent cities , utility repairs , road clearings , and major medical operations .

= = = Oʻahu = = =

Upon passing by Oʻahu , Iniki produced tides of 1 @.@ 7 – 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 9 m ) above normal . Prolonged periods of high waves severely eroded and damaged the southwestern coast of Oʻahu , with the areas most affected being Barbers Point through Kaʻena . The Waiʻanae coastline experienced the most damage , with waves and storm surge flooding the second floor of beachside apartments . In all , Hurricane Iniki caused several million dollars in property damage , and two deaths on Oʻahu .

= = = Big Island = = =

Damage on the big island was minor . Seas of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) were reported , along with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds . In Kona Harbor , three or four sailboats were tossed onto the rocks and one trimaran at another harbor was sunk . The Napoʻopoʻo Beach , in the Kealakekua Bay lost some sand and to this day has never been the same .

= = Aftermath = =

Immediately after the storm , many were relieved to have survived the worst of the Category 4 hurricane ; their complacency turned to apprehensiveness due to lack of information , as every radio station was out and there was no news available for several days . Because Iniki knocked out electrical power for most of the island , communities held parties to necessarily consume perishable food from unpowered refrigerators and freezers . Though food markets allowed those affected to take what they needed , many Kauaʻi citizens insisted on paying . In addition , entertainers from all of Hawaiʻi , including Graham Nash ( who owns a home on the north shore of Kauaʻi ) and the Honolulu Symphony , provided free concerts to the victims .

Looting occurred in the aftermath of Iniki , though it was very minor . A group of Army Corps of Engineers , who experienced the looting of Hurricane Andrew just weeks before , were surprised at the overall calmness and lack of violence on the island . Although electrical power was restored to most of the island approximately six weeks following the hurricane , students returned to Kauaʻi public schools two weeks after the disaster . Kauaʻi citizens remained hopeful for monetary aid from the government or insurance companies , though after six months they felt annoyed with the lack of help . The military effectively provided aid for their immediate needs , though , and help arrived before local officials requested aid .

Amateur radio proved to be extremely helpful during the three weeks after the storm , with volunteers coming from the neighboring islands as well as from around the Pacific to assist in the recovery . There was support of local government communications in Lihue in the first week of recovery as well as a hastily organized effort by local operators to assist with the American Red Cross and their efforts to provide shelters and disaster relief centers across Kauaʻi .

In the months after the storm , many insurance companies left Hawaiʻi . To combat this , State Governor John D. Waihee III enacted the Hurricane Relief Fund in 1993 to help unprotected Hawaiʻi residents . The fund was never needed for another Hawaiʻi hurricane , and it was stopped in 2000 when insurance companies returned to the island .

It is thought that Hurricane Iniki blew apart many chicken coops , some possibly used to house fighting chickens ; this caused a dramatic increase in the numbers of wild chickens roaming Kauaʻi .

The name Iniki was retired due to this storm , and was replaced with Iolana within the Central North Pacific tropical storm list . Less than three days after Iniki struck , Hurricane Orlene struck the Big Island as a depression .

= Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band =

The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band ( also known as the Noble Men of Kyle or just the Aggie Band ) is the official marching band of Texas A & M University . Composed of over 400 men and women from the school 's Corps of Cadets , it is the largest military marching band in the world . The band 's complex straight @-@ line marching maneuvers are performed exclusively to traditional marches .

Since its inception in 1894 , its members eat together , sleep in the same dormitories , and practice up to forty hours per week on top of a full academic schedule . The Aggie Band performs at all home football games , some away games , and university and Corps functions throughout the year . The band has also participated in inauguration parades for many United States Presidents and Texas Governors , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .

= = History = =

= = = Early years = = =

The Aggie Band owes its existence to Joseph Holick . In 1885 , Holick and his brother Louis boarded an empty boxcar bound for Orange , Texas so that they could gain employment in a lumber mill . En route , the two stopped in Bryan , Texas , near the campus of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas . The 22 @-@ year @-@ old Holick began to doubt his choice , stating , " I was a small boy and couldn 't do lumbering work " , and chose to remain in Bryan working under Raymond Blatherwick , owner of a prominent boot shop . Lawrence Sullivan Ross , the president of the nearby college and a former Governor of Texas , stopped into Blatherwick 's boot shop and noted how inconvenient it was for cadets to go to Bryan for their boots . Ross requested Holick be stationed at the new military college to perform cobbler duties .

Holick accepted the proposal and moved to work at Texas A & M. Shortly after his arrival , the Commandant 's staff discovered his musical talents . They requested him to play the bugle for Corps functions and for US $ 65 a month , he was assigned to play Reveille and Taps . Because the new job paid much more than his previous one , Holick wanted to give the school " more than just two tunes for its money and he asked the commandant for permission to start a cadet band " . The commandant agreed and named Holick its first bandmaster . Under his tutelage and the leadership of subsequent bandmasters , the band grew from 13 members at its inception in 1894 to 75 bandsmen in 1924 .

Early drum majors are credited with inspiring the band 's name . The first student drum major , H.A. " California " Morse , was asked to leave the college due to fighting . In addition , the early drum majors were chosen in physical combat ; insomuch that the candidates were placed in a locked room , with the best fighter / the one emerging victorious , being named to the coveted position . This tradition of aggressiveness and physical combat was noted by band members , who then took to calling themselves the Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band .

= = = Dunn years = = =

In 1924 , Lieutenant Colonel Richard J. Dunn was appointed as bandmaster . As a former member of John Philip Sousa 's Marine Band and with 26 years of military band leadership experience , Dunn quickly instituted changes within the band . The first was to the position of bugler , whose duties had fallen to the bandmaster since 1894 . When informed that he was expected to fill the role , Dunn told college officials , " I have blown enough bugles . I am the Bandmaster . Someone else can blow the bugle calls . " From then on , the Corps Bugler was chosen from the ranks of the Aggie Band .

Dunn also instituted uniform changes which added white canvas to the band uniform , resulting in a " flash effect " every other step . Dunn tried , to no avail , to rid the band of the Senior Boots , but this tradition was too well @-@ established . Other additions included crossed white belts , later discarded in favor of a white Sam Browne belt , silver buckles , and the addition of a bugle rank to lead the band in its maneuvers . Changes in the drills included the " Block T " , the band 's signature , and such intricate designs which led to talk amongst fans about the band " always winning halftime " .

Under Dunn 's experience , the band instituted some traditions that the university uses to the present . In 1925 , Marvin H. Mimms wrote the lyrics for an alma mater for the school . Dunn , who found the Aggie War Hymn " inappropriate " for social functions and solemn occasions , wrote its accompanying music and presented it to the student body titled Spirit of Aggieland . In 1926 , the tradition of Elephant Walk began when two seniors in the band led a procession of seniors throughout the school grounds visiting all the important places on campus . All the seniors in one single file was " quite a site to behold " , and one junior commented that they looked like a bunch of old elephants wandering around trying to find some place to die . The name stuck and the tradition continues to the present .

Beginning in 1939 , the U.S. Army required all cadets to be in either infantry or field artillery units . Therefore , the band was split into two separate units at opposite ends of the campus dormitories and named Infantry and Artillery Bands . When the two units performed together , they formed the Combined Band . 1942 saw the band expand to 250 members , but the need for manpower for the war effort caused membership to plummet . By the end of the 1942 – 1943 school year , it dropped it to only 90 bandsmen . As " a crusty old army man " , Dunn understood the nation 's urgent need for troops , and he accepted the fact that the Aggie Band could only return after the war was over .

Along with conducting the Aggie Band , Dunn started his own orchestra with the newly built A & M Consolidated High School on the Texas A & M Campus , called the " Little Symphony Orchestra " . Dunn was also the founder of the famous A & M Consolidated High School Tiger Band in 1947 .

= = = Adams era = = =

Dunn once told then @-@ cadet Edward Vergne Adams , " One day I want you to direct this band . " Adams thought the Colonel was joking , but " went to music school after graduation just in case he wasn 't " . After music school , he joined the Army and put his musical skills to rest for the duration of the war , with one exception : while on regimental staff during the retreat ceremony at the end of the day , the assigned bugler had no experience and couldn 't play a single note , so Adams stepped out of formation , took the bugle from the bugler 's hands , blew the appropriate calls , handed the bugle back , and marched back into his spot in the formation .

This intolerance for incompetence served him well when he accepted the invitation of Dunn to be his replacement as director of the Aggie Band . Adams began his tenure with an undisciplined band devoid of experience and ravaged by years of war , but in his first year of leadership , the ranks of the band quickly swelled to 225 members . Infantry and field artillery associations were no longer required by the Army and Adams changed the units ' names to the Maroon and White Bands .

Adams began to make the drills far more intricate and precise than they had been in the past by adding a countermarch , maneuvers from the Army Drill Manual , and established a 30 inch ( 76 cm ) step , or six steps for every five yards ( 4.57m ) , as the band standard . Adams also added the criss @-@ cross maneuver . First performed November 27 , 1947 at the annual Thanksgiving Day game with the University of Texas , the criss @-@ cross maneuver and its later variations became the band 's most anticipated maneuver . Other band directors said it was impossible to do because it required two people to be in the same place at the same time ( indeed , to this day computer programs that chart band formations say that this maneuver cannot be performed ) . To accomplish this , band members step between each other 's feet . In later years , people who did not know that the maneuver was first done in 1947 claimed that the drill was designed by a computer . Adams explained , " It 's all a matter of mathematics . One man can take up only a certain amount of space at one time and moves in one direction at a predictable rate of speed . "

The band 's reputation spread and other bands had begun to have some apprehension about performing in the same halftime as the Aggie Band . One Southwest Conference band director stated , " I dread going against the Aggie Band .... What is so humiliating is to see the Aggie Band do things band directors talk about as being impossible , and do them perfectly . It takes two weeks to recover from the trauma . " In 1960 , " one band gave up without a fight " : the Trinity Tiger Band opted to sit instead of perform and gave the Aggie Band the entire halftime to perform .

During Adams ' tenure , the college acquired a new mascot , the first since the original Reveille died in 1944 . Reveille II , like the original Reveille , was cared for and attended to by band members . During halftime performances , the young dog was allowed to be on the field with the band without her leash . During these breaks where she could get out and run , she had a tendency to " do her business " on Kyle Field 's playing surface . This didn 't bother the band members much , as Reveille stayed away from the band , but Adams discovered a gambling scheme whereby cadets were taking bets on what yardline the dog would defecate . He quickly ended the practice and turned the responsibility of caring for Reveille over to Company E @-@ 2 , which has since been called the Mascot Company .

On October 7 , 1967 , the first meeting of the Aggie Band Association took place to support the band . The organization , composed of former members and supporters , continue to assist the band through fundraising , scholarships , instrument repair , and general welfare of the cadets in the band . In 1970 , Adams acquired funds and built a new band hall which was named in his honor .

= = = Modernization and expansion = = =

Colonel Joe T. Haney took over the band in 1973 . He felt his obligation was , " not to build up the band ... [ but ] to keep it at its already exceptional level " . During Haney 's years , the band expanded to include a concert band , a symphonic band , the Aggieland Orchestra , and a Drum and Bugle Corps , and the names of the two subunits reverted to their earlier designations of Infantry and Artillery Bands .

This simple philosophy was tested as Texas A & M transitioned from an all @-@ male military college to a coeducational research university . The addition of women to the Corps presented some challenges , including one high @-@ profile lawsuit and fierce resistance from former Corps and Band members . When women were finally admitted to the band under court order ( Fall Semester , 1985 ) ; the first three women had to be housed in a separate dorm until accommodations could be made within the band dorms . Reporters were relentless and Haney finally called an open press conference with the three young ladies . The female cadets refused pictures unless their fish buddies ( members of their freshman class in their unit ) were included in the photos . With a band dropout rate of 33 % the odds were against all of the female cadets succeeding , only Andrea Abat remained in the band through her senior year . Haney realized the separate living conditions were not conducive to good order and discipline and integrated the dorms , grouping females at one end of the dorm and designating one bathroom for exclusive female use .

Amidst these drastic changes , large proportions of the freshmen classes ( some as high as 30 % ) contained all @-@ state high school band members . As the band 's experience and musical talents grew , the quality of the music improved dramatically . Haney even rewrote the drills to include a portion where the band stopped moving and played to the audience . This innovation was well received and became a staple of the band 's repertoire . In 1975 , at a televised game versus the University of Arkansas , the Aggie Band was repeatedly asked to play music during lulls in the game . By the fourth quarter , the Aggie Band had played on TV during every break and Colonel Haney , trying his best to be fair , told the cameraman that they really should let the Razorback Band play a little too . The cameraman called up to the broadcast booth to get guidance and then replied , " The director doesn 't want to hear the Arkansas band , he wants to hear the Aggie Band . "

The drills became even more complicated as Haney added formations and maneuvers never before seen . The excellence shown on the field belied its heavy dependence on precision . On October 24 , 1981 the band suffered a serious misstep during the halftime show at Rice University when four members of a lead element turned early and , before anyone could make a correction , colliding band members ground the drill to a halt . With so many members doing exactly what the person in front of them does with mere inches of clearance , the cascade effect was unrecoverable and the band simply stopped and left the field . Although it was first rumored that the collision was intended to mock the Rice Marching Owl Band , and later that Rice students were using whistles to throw off the band 's response to drum major whistle commands , all of the rumors proved to be unsubstantiated . Thereafter the band performed all drills in Houston without whistle commands .

The following weekend the band attempted their most complicated drill and performed flawlessly . Each subsequent week , the drills became more complicated . The Bryan @-@ College Station Eagle 's editor opined , " A & M is probably the only school anywhere that throws in a free football game with its performance . One of these days , I fully expect the band to be invited to a bowl game — and to be told it can bring along its football team if it wants to . "

= = = Into a new millennium = = =

Lieutenant Colonel Ray E. Toler , a Texas Christian University graduate , replaced Haney when he stepped down in 1989 . As a veteran of many Air Force Bands and with a Grammy Award nomination under his belt , Toler was quick to realize the potential and traditions of the Aggie Band and quickly set about publicizing it . Under his direction , the Aggie Band began a weekly television show ( the " Texas Aggie Band Show " ) that showcased the band , the Corps of Cadets , and the daily life of a band member . As of 2007 , the Aggie Band is the only university or college band with its own weekly television show . The Aggie Band was recognized nationally as the 2001 recipient of the Louis Sudler Trophy for collegiate marching bands , administered by the John Philip Sousa Foundation . During Toler 's leadership of the Aggie Band , its presence was personally requested by President @-@ elect George W. Bush for his inauguration parade .

During Toler 's tenure , many of the Aggie drills and music were written by Dr. Timothy Rhea , who succeeded Toler as Director of Bands in 2002 . Rhea actively arranges and composes music , which has been published by TRN Music Publisher , RBC Music Publisher , and Arranger 's Publishing Company .

= = Cadet life = =

The members of the band are called BQs and , since the band 's inception , are part of the Corps of Cadets . All BQs are assigned to one of six units : A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company or C @-@ Company . C @-@ Company and C @-@ Battery were reactivated on August 23 , 2013 . The band is a major unit within the Corps , comparable in size to a Brigade or a Wing . Due to its status as a Senior Military College all cadets are required to take ROTC classes at least their first two years , though follow @-@ on military service is not required .

The Aggie Band is unique among college bands ; no other band eats and lives together as a military unit , even at the Service Academies and military colleges . Bandsmen wear their cadet uniforms to class , drill , meetings , and other functions on campus . As a requested component of football away games , they perform at more football games than any other band . As of 1993 , the band performed at 125 of the last 131 football games , including a streak of 42 straight from 1981 to 1984 . Demand is extremely high for the band and one person , upon finding out the Aggie Band would not be performing at the local football game versus A & M , returned and requested a refund for 40 tickets .

The Aggie Band performs a new show each week during the football season and does not generally repeat drills from week to week . During the fall semester , the Aggie Band practices one to three hours every weekday morning and on Saturdays every week with a football game . In addition , some components of the band also practice on Sunday afternoons and planning of the drills takes place throughout the fall semester . During weeks with complicated drills , extra practice and planning time is sometimes also done on weekday afternoons . All told , drills can take up to 40 hours per week on top of a full academic schedule and Corps / ROTC activities .

All seniors in the Corps of Cadets wear distinctive cavalry riding boots with their uniforms . These boots usually cost more than US $ 1 @,@ 000 and are generally made at Victor 's or Holick 's , formerly owned by the family of Joseph Holick , the first Band Director .

= = = Leadership = = =

Unlike many bands , the drum majors are not in charge of the band as a whole . Since the band is part of the Corps , it has its own unit commander , a Cadet Colonel . Due to necessity for military functions , the Band Commander is accorded the privilege of the first file in bugle rank ( the lead rank of the band ) . During formal military ceremonies , the commander carries a sabre instead of a bugle , as do all other commanders . Subordinate to the Band Commander are the commanders of the Artillery and Infantry bands , each a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel ; and the unit commanders of A @-@ Battery , B @-@ Battery , C @-@ Battery , A @-@ Company , B @-@ Company , and C @-@ Company . The Batteries are called the Artillery Band and the Companies the Infantry Band . The two bands perform together for halftime shows , but are often split for minor performances such as local parades and functions where the entire band is not needed . Furthermore , the band is composed of three different ROTC programs and appoints commanders to manage and train the cadets within their respective ROTC affiliations .

On the field , the band is led by three drum majors and the twelve members of bugle rank . Each drum major carries a mace and directs the band based on its movements and whistle commands during a drill . The head drum major is a Cadet Lieutenant Colonel , while the two side drum majors , the Infantry Band Drum Major and the Artillery Band Drum Major , are Cadet Majors .

Bugle rank consists of the Band Commander and eleven other senior cadets who are well respected in the band and have impeccable marching abilities . Each bugle rank member carries a bugle with a banner , but are never played during a performance . Together , the drum majors and bugle rank lead the band through the maneuvers on the field . In addition to their primary functions within the band , the bugles and maces also serve a military ceremonial function and are used to salute commissioned officers , much as a rifleman would salute with a rifle or a commander would salute with a sabre .

= = = Composition = = =

The band has approximately 420 members with more than 90 trumpets and cornets , 70 trombones , 30 mellophones , 30 baritones , 45 bass horns , 50 drummers , and 80 assorted woodwinds , though the actual composition varies annually . There are no flutes in the Aggie Band , as their position while being played would hinder the intricate marching maneuvers . Piccolos are used instead . All members of the band must have high school marching experience , an audition during the spring semester leading into the first fall semester of attendance to include major scales and sight reading , and an individual interview with the band director . Prospective members are also encouraged to participate in the Spend the Night with the Corps program to better understand the rigors of life in the Corps of Cadets .

= = Marching = =

= = = Complex maneuvers = = =

The repertoire of the Aggie Band 's maneuvers is designed by the directors and drum majors and can include obliques , flanks , countermarches , and other Army marching maneuvers . The Band is generally led by the bugle rank with each person following the person in front of them , also known as follow @-@ the @-@ leader . Space between band members during countermarches is less than six inches ( 15 cm ) and during other maneuvers even less . This space is insufficient for the bass horns and some members must turn their horns to complete the maneuver . According to an article in The Battalion , " some of the Aggie band 's maneuvers are so complex that some drill @-@ charting software says that the drills are impossible because they require multiple people to be in the same place at the same time . " This is also discussed in a video by The Association of Former Students of Texas A & M University .

The Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band has performed at inauguration parades for many Presidents of the United States in Washington , D.C. , including at the personal request of President @-@ elect George H. W. Bush . Other events in which the band has participated include inauguration parades for Governors of Texas , major annual parades across the country , and the dedication ceremony for the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library .

= = = Typical halftime drill = = =

The halftime drill always begins with the band running into place at the command of the drum major 's whistle . The announcer ( Lieutenant Colonel Jay Brewer ) then states , usually in unison with the crowd , " Now forming at the north end of Kyle Field , the nationally famous Fightin ' Texas Aggie Band . " A whoop and cheers come from the audience . The drum majors then march out in front of the band and the head drum major calls the band to attention and vocally gives directions to the band , referencing the composition of the Aggie War Hymn , by shouting , " Recall ! Step off on Hullabaloo ! " ( Recall is a traditional Army bugle call – the first 34 notes , and intro of the Aggie War Hymn . " Hullabaloo " is the first word sung in the Aggie War Hymn . ) These directions are not amplified in any way , but can be heard across the entire stadium . After another whoop , the drum majors signal for the horns to be lifted into playing position with two quick whistle blasts and the bugle rank does a flourish .

The drill then begins with the band playing the opening notes of the War Hymn and stepping off into the initial formation . At some point in the drill , the band converts from Spread formation to Block formation . With no cessation of the music until the band leaves the field , the drill continues and often stops with the band playing the last stanza in place in the center of the field before moving into the signature " Block T " or " Block ATM " . When done playing , the band runs off the field . Specific maneuvers in the drill can include :

The Criss Cross : the band files split into two halves and march through each other at 90 ° angles

The Four @-@ way Cross : The band splits into four groups of three files and march through each other from each of the corners of the field ( this maneuver is one of the more popular among fans , due to its difficulty )

Minstrel Turns : band members pass through each other by stepping between each other 's feet .

Spread @-@ to @-@ Block : the band moves from being 30 files wide ( i.e. , across the width of the football field ) by 12 ranks deep ( i.e. , along the length of the football field ) to 12 files wide by 30 ranks deep

Block @-@ to @-@ Spread : the opposite of Spread @-@ to @-@ Block

Continuous Countermarch : the bugle rank leads two successive countermarches following the back of the band through the maneuver

Wheel Turns ( also known as a Gate Turn ) : A turn of a block of the band where the people on the inside of the turn reduce their step size . This is only done during parades when going around corners .

= = Music = =

As a military marching band , the Aggie Band exclusively plays traditional marches . Among many other marches , its primary repertoire includes :

Fightin ' Texas Aggie War Hymn

Spirit of Aggieland : The school 's alma mater

The Noble Men of Kyle : The group 's signature march ; also a nickname for the band

Ballad of the Green Berets

The main theme from the movie Patton

When Johnny Comes Marching Home

Strategic Air Command March

The Aggie Band frequently performs a number of standard military and circus marches :

The Trombone King

Stars and Stripes Forever

Bravura

National Emblem

Them Basses

Washington Post

Many contemporary works are also commonly played by the band , several of them arranged by Dr. Rhea . These include movie marches ( Theme from 1941 , Parade of the Charioteers ) , concert marches ( The Sinfonians ) , and even symphonic and orchestral music ( " Cathedral Chorus " from Russian Christmas Music , Great Gate of Kiev ) .

= Crucifixion darkness =

The Crucifixion darkness is an episode in three of the Canonical Gospels in which the sky becomes dark in daytime during the crucifixion of Jesus .

Ancient and medieval Christian writers treated this as a miracle , and believed it to be one of the few episodes from the New Testament which were confirmed by non @-@ Christian sources . Pagan commentators of the Roman era explained it as an eclipse , although Christian writers pointed out that an eclipse during Passover , when the crucifixion took place , would have been impossible ; a solar eclipse cannot occur during a full moon .

Modern scholarship , noting the way in which similar accounts were associated in ancient times with the deaths of notable figures , sees the phenomenon as a literary invention that attempts to convey a sense of the power of Jesus in the face of death , or a sign of God 's displeasure with the Jewish people . Scholars have also noted the ways in which this episode appears to draw on earlier biblical accounts of darkness from the Book of Amos and the Book of Exodus .

= = Biblical account = =

The oldest biblical reference to the crucifixion darkness is found in the Gospel of Mark , written around the year 70 . In its account of the crucifixion , on the eve of Passover , it says that after Jesus was crucified at nine in the morning , darkness fell over all the land , or all the world ( Greek : γῆν gēn can mean either ) from around noon ( " the sixth hour " ) until 3 o 'clock ( " the ninth hour " ) . It adds , immediately after the death of Jesus , that " the curtain of the temple was torn in two , from top to bottom " .

The Gospel of Matthew , written around the year 85 or 90 , and using Mark as a source , has an almost identical wording : " From noon on , darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon . " The author adds dramatic details , including an earthquake and the raising of the dead , which were stock motifs from Jewish apocalyptic literature : " The earth shook , and the rocks were split . The tombs also were opened , and many bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised . "

The Gospel of Luke , written around the year 90 and also using Mark as a source , has none of the details added in the Matthew version , moves the tearing of the temple veil to before the death of Jesus , and explains the darkness as a darkening of the sun :

It was now about noon , and darkness came over the whole land [ or , earth ] until three in the afternoon , while the sun 's light failed [ or , the sun was eclipsed ] ; and the curtain of the temple was torn in two .

It appears that the Luke Gospel originally explained the event as an eclipse . The majority of manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke have the Greek phrase " eskotisthe ho helios " ( " the sun was darkened " ) , but the earliest manuscripts say " tou heliou eklipontos " ( " the sun 's light failed " or " the sun was in eclipse " ) . This earlier version is likely to have been the original one , amended by later scribes to correct what they assumed was an error , since they knew that an eclipse was impossible during Passover . One early Christian commentator even suggested that the text had been deliberately corrupted by opponents of the Church to make it easier to attack .

The account of the crucifixion given in the Gospel of John is very different . It takes place on the day of Passover , the crucifixion does not take place until after noon , and there is no mention of darkness , the tearing of the veil , or the raising of the dead .

= = Later versions = =

= = = Apocryphal writers = = =

A number of accounts in apocryphal literature built on the accounts of the crucifixion darkness . The Gospel of Peter , probably from the second century , expanded on the canonical gospel accounts in creative ways . As one writer puts it , " accompanying miracles become more fabulous and the apocalyptic portents are more vivid " . In this version , the darkness which covers the whole of Judaea leads people to go about with lamps believing it to be night . The fourth century Gospel of Nicodemus describes how Pilate and his wife are disturbed by a report of what had happened , and the Judeans he has summoned tell him it was an ordinary solar eclipse . Another text from the fourth century , the purported Report of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius , claimed the darkness had started at the sixth hour , covered the whole world , and during the subsequent evening the full moon resembled blood for the entire night . In a fifth- or sixth @-@ century text by Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite , the author claims to have observed a solar eclipse from Heliopolis at the time of the crucifixion .

= = = Ancient historians = = =

No contemporary references to this darkness have been found outside of the New Testament . Later commentators speculated about a reference in a work by the chronicler Thallus . In the ninth century , the Byzantine historian George Syncellus quoted from the third @-@ century Christian historian Sextus Julius Africanus , who remarked that " Thallos dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse " . It is not known when Thallus lived , and it is unclear whether he himself made any reference to the crucifixion . Tertullian , in his Apologeticus , told the story of the crucifixion darkness and suggested that the evidence must still be held in the Roman archives .

Until the Enlightenment era , the crucifixion darkness story was often used by Christian apologists because they believed it was a rare example of the biblical account being supported by non @-@ Christian sources . When the pagan critic Celsus claimed that Jesus could hardly be a God because he had performed no great deeds , the third @-@ century Christian commentator Origen responded , in Against Celsus , by recounting the darkness , earthquake and opening of tombs . As proof that the incident had happened , he referred to a description by Phlegon of Tralles of an eclipse , accompanied by earthquakes felt in other parts of the Empire during the reign of Tiberius ( probably that of 29 CE ) .

In his Commentary on Matthew , however , Origen offered a different approach . Answering criticisms that there was no mention of this incident in any of the many non @-@ Christian sources , he insisted that it was local to Palestine , and therefore would have gone unnoticed outside . To suggestions it was merely an eclipse , Origen pointed out that this was impossible and suggested other explanations , such as heavy clouds , drawing only on the accounts given in Matthew and Mark , which make no mention of the sun .

= = Explanations = =

= = = Miracle = = =

Because it was known in ancient and medieval times that a solar eclipse could not take place during Passover ( solar eclipses require a new moon while Passover only takes place during a full moon ) it was considered a miraculous sign rather than a naturally occurring event . The astronomer Johannes de Sacrobosco wrote , in his The Sphere of the World , " the eclipse was not natural , but , rather , miraculous and contrary to nature " . Modern writers who regard this as a miraculous event tend either to see it as operating through a natural phenomenon — such as volcanic dust or heavy cloud cover — or avoid explanation completely . The Reformation Study Bible , for instance , simply states " This was a supernatural darkness . "

= = = Naturalistic explanations = = =

The Gospel of Luke account appears to describe the event as an eclipse , and some non @-@ Christian writers dismissed it in these terms . However , the biblical details do not accord with an eclipse : a solar eclipse could not have occurred on or near the Passover , when Jesus was crucified , and would have been too brief to account for three hours of darkness . The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse is seven minutes and 31 @.@ 1 seconds . The only total eclipse visible in Jerusalem in this era fell later in the year , on 24 November 29 CE at 11 : 05 AM . Around the Sea of Galilee , it would have been visible for just one minute and forty @-@ nine seconds , and would have been apparent only to those indoors .

In 1983 , Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington argued that the darkness could be accounted for by a partial lunar eclipse that had taken place on that day : lunar eclipses can last much longer than solar ones . Astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer , on the other hand , pointed out that the eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours . Humphreys and Waddington speculated that the reference in the Luke Gospel to a solar eclipse must have been the result of a scribe wrongly amending the text , a claim historian David Henige describes as " indefensible " .

Some writers have explained the crucifixion darkness in terms of sunstorms , heavy cloud cover , the aftermath of a volcanic eruption , or a khamsin dust storm that tends to occur from March to May . A popular work of the nineteenth century described it as an ' oppressive gloom ' and suggested this was a typical phenomenon related to earthquakes .

= = = Literary creation = = =

A common view in modern scholarship is that the account in the synoptic gospels is a literary creation of the gospel writers , intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event . Burton Mack describes it as a fabrication by the author of the Gospel of Mark , while G. B. Caird and Joseph Fitzmyer conclude that the author did not intend the description to be taken literally . W. D. Davies and Dale Allison similarly conclude " It is probable that , without any factual basis , darkness was added in order to wrap the cross in a rich symbol and / or assimilate Jesus to other worthies " .

The image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers as a cosmic sign , a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo , Dio Cassius , Virgil , Plutarch and Josephus . Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as " part of the Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord . It is to be treated as a literary rather than historical phenomenon notwithstanding naive scientists and over @-@ eager television documentary makers , tempted to interpret the account as a datable eclipse of the sun . They would be barking up the wrong tree " .

= = Interpretations = =

This sequence plays an important part in the gospel 's literary narrative . The author of Mark 's gospel has been described as operating here " at the peak of his rhetorical and theological powers " . One suggestion is that the darkness is a deliberate inversion of the transfiguration ; alternately , Jesus 's earlier discourse about a future tribulation mentions the sun being darkened , and can be seen as foreshadowing this scene . Striking details such as the darkening of the sky and the tearing of the temple veil may be a way of focusing the reader away from the shame and humiliation of the crucifixion ; one professor of biblical theology concluded , " it is clear that Jesus is not a humiliated criminal but a man of great significance . His death is therefore not a sign of his weakness but of his power . "

When considering the theological meaning of the event , some authors have interpreted the darkness as a period of mourning by the cosmos itself at the death of Jesus . Others have seen it as a sign of God 's judgement on the Jewish people , sometimes connecting it with the destruction of the city of Jerusalem in the year 70 ; or as symbolising shame , fear , or the mental suffering of Jesus . Fitzmyer compares the event to a contemporary description recorded in Josephus ' Antiquities of the Jews , which recounts " unlawful acts against the gods , from which we believe the very sun turned away , as if it too were loath to look upon the foul deed " .

Many writers have adopted an intertextual approach , looking at earlier texts from which the author of the Mark Gospel may have drawn . In particular , parallels have often been noted between the darkness and the prediction in the Book of Amos of an earthquake in the reign of King Uzziah of Judah : " On that day , says the Lord God , I will make the sun go down at noon , and darken the earth in broad daylight " . Particularly in connection with this reference , read as a prophecy of the future , the darkness can be seen as portending the end times .

Another likely literary source is the plague narrative in the Book of Exodus , in which Egypt is covered by darkness for three days . It has been suggested that the author of the Matthew Gospel changed the Marcan text slightly to more closely match this source . Commentators have also drawn comparisons with the description of darkness in the Genesis creation narrative , with a prophecy regarding mid @-@ day darkness by Jeremiah , and with an end @-@ times prophecy in the Book of Zechariah .

Roman literary sources have also been postulated , namely those on the apotheosis of the mythical king Romulus , and about the death of Julius Caesar .

= = Iconography = =

In traditional artistic representations of the crucifixion , the sun and moon sometimes appear above and to either side of the cross , in allusion to the darkening of the skies .

= Sleight of hand =

Sleight of hand ( also known as prestidigitation or legerdemain ) refers to fine motor skills when used by performing artists in different art forms to entertain or manipulate . It is closely associated with close @-@ up magic , card cheating , card flourishing and stealing .

Because of its heavy use and practice by magicians , sleight of hand is often confused as a branch of magic , but is in reality a separate genre of entertainment , as many artists practice sleight of hand without the slightest interest in magic .

Sleight of hand pioneers with worldwide acclaim include Dan and Dave , Ricky Jay , David Blaine , David Copperfield , Yann Frisch , Dai Vernon and Tony Slydini .

= = Etymology and history = =

The word sleight , meaning " the use of dexterity or cunning , especially so as to deceive " , comes from the Old Norse . The phrase sleight of hand means " quick fingers " or " trickster fingers " . Common synonyms from the Latin language include prestidigitation and legerdemain . Seneca the Younger , philosopher of the Silver Age of Latin literature , famously compared rhetoric techniques and illusionist techniques .

= = Association with close @-@ up magic = =

Sleight of hand is often used in close @-@ up magic , where the sleights are performed with the audience close to the magician , usually in physical contact or within 3 to 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) . This close contact eliminate theories of fake audience members and the use of gimmicks . It makes use of everyday items as props , such as cards , coins , rubber bands , paper , phones and even saltshakers . A well @-@ performed sleight looks like an ordinary , natural and completely innocent gesture , change in hand @-@ position or body posture . In addition to manual dexterity , sleight of hand in close @-@ up magic depends on the use of psychology , timing , misdirection , and natural choreography in accomplishing a magical effect .

= = Association with stage magic = =

Sleight of hand during stage magic performances is not common , as most magic events and stunts are performed with objects visible to a much larger audience , but is nevertheless done occasionally by many stage performers . The most common magic tricks performed with sleight of hand on stage are rope manipulations and card tricks , with the first typically being done with a member of the audience to rule out the possibility of stooges and the latter primarily being done on a table while a camera is live @-@ recording , allowing the rest of audience to see the performance on a big screen . Worldwide acclaimed stage magician David Copperfield often include illusions featuring sleight of hand in his stage shows .

= = Association with card cheating = =

Although being mostly used for entertainment and comedy purposes , sleight of hand is also notoriously used to cheat at casinos and gambling facilities throughout the world . Common ways to professionally cheat at card games using sleight of hand include palming , switching , ditching , and stealing cards from the table . Such techniques include extreme misdirection and years of practice . For these reasons , the term sleight of hand frequently carries negative associations of dishonesty and deceit at many gambling halls , and many magicians known around the world are publicly banned from casinos , such as British mentalist and close @-@ up magician Derren Brown , who is banned from every casino in Britain .

= = Association with cardistry = =

Unlike card tricks done on the streets or on stage and card cheating , cardistry is solely about impressing without illusions , deceit , misdirection and other elements commonly used in card tricks and card cheating . Cardistry , or card flourishes , are always intended to be visually impressive and appear extremely difficult to perform . Card flourishing is often associated with card tricks , but many sleight of hand artists perform flourishing without considering themselves magicians or having any real interest in card tricks .

= = Association with card throwing = =

The art of card throwing generally consist of throwing standard playing cards with excessively high speed and accuracy , powerful enough to slice fruits like carrots and even melons . Like flourishing , throwing cards are meant to be visibly impressive and does not include magic elements . Magician Ricky Jay popularized throwing cards within the sleight of hand industry with the release of his 1977 book entitled Cards as Weapons , which was met with large sales and critical acclaim . Some magic tricks , both close @-@ up and on stage , are heavily connected to throwing cards .

= = = Printed = = =

Henry , Hay ( 1975 ) . Cyclopedia of Magic . Dover Publications . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 21808 @-@ 3 .

Hugard , Jean ; Braué , Frederick , eds . ( 2012 ) . The Royal Road to Card Magic . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486156682 .

Jones , Jessica ( 2007 ) . The Art of Cheating : A Nasty Little Book for Tricky Little Schemers and Their Helpless Victims . Simon and Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 1416571384 .

Jay , Joshua ( 2008 ) . Magic : The Complete Course . Workman Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 0761159681 .

Longe , Robert ( 2003 ) . Clever Close @-@ up Magic . Sterling Publishing Company . ISBN 978 @-@ 1402700279 .

Ostovich , Helen ; Hopkins , Lisa , eds . ( 2014 ) . Magical Transformations on the Early Modern English Stage . Ashgate Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1472432865 .

Scarne , John ( 2003 ) . Scarne 's Magic Tricks . Courier Corporation . ISBN 978 @-@ 0486427799 .

Tarr , William ( 1976 ) . Now You See It , Now You Don 't ! Lessons in Sleight of Hand . Vintage Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 72202 @-@ 7 .

Whaley , Barton ; Bell , John , eds . ( 1991 ) . Cheating and Deception . Transaction Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1412819435 .

= = = Online = = =

Jones , Finn @-@ Olaf ( 22 April 2006 ) . " Houdini in the Desert " . Forbes . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .

Singer , Mark ( 5 April 1993 ) . " Ricky Jay 's Magical Secrets " . The New Yorker . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .

" Sleight " . Oxford Dictionary . 2015 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .

Wells , Dominic ( 26 January 2008 ) . " The Derren Brown Factor " . The Times . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .

= Southern Rhodesia in World War I =

When the United Kingdom declared war on Germany at the start of World War I in August 1914 , settler society in Southern Rhodesia , then administered by the British South Africa Company , received the news with great patriotic enthusiasm . The Company administrator , Sir William Milton , wired the UK government , " All Rhodesia ... ready to do its duty " . Although it supported Britain , the Company was concerned about the possible financial implications for its chartered territory should it make direct commitments to the war effort , particularly at first , so most of the colony 's contribution to the war was made by Southern Rhodesians individually — not only those who volunteered to fight abroad , but also those who remained at home and raised funds to donate food , equipment and other supplies .

Starting immediately after the outbreak of war , parties of white Southern Rhodesians paid their own way to England to join the British Army . Most Southern Rhodesians who served in the war enlisted in this way and fought on the Western Front , taking part in many of the major battles with an assortment of British , South African and other colonial units , most commonly the King 's Royal Rifle Corps , which recruited hundreds of men from the colony , and created homogenous Rhodesian platoons . Troopers from Southern Rhodesia became renowned on the Western Front for their marksmanship , a result of their frontier lifestyle . Some of the colony 's men served in the Royal Flying Corps , one of the two predecessors of the Royal Air Force . The Rhodesia Regiment , the Rhodesia Native Regiment and the British South Africa Police served in the African theatre of the conflict , contributing to the South @-@ West African and East African campaigns .

Though it was one of the few combatant territories not to raise fighting men through conscription , proportional to white population , Southern Rhodesia contributed more manpower to the British war effort than any other dominion or colony , and more than Britain itself . White troops numbered 5 @,@ 716 , about 40 % of white men in the colony , with 1 @,@ 720 of these serving as commissioned officers . The Rhodesia Native Regiment enlisted 2 @,@ 507 black soldiers , about 30 black recruits scouted for the Rhodesia Regiment , and around 350 served in British and South African units . Over 800 Southern Rhodesians of all races lost their lives on operational service during the war , with many more seriously wounded .

The territory 's contributions during the First World War became a major entry in many histories of the colony , and a great source of pride for the white community , as well as for some black Rhodesians . It played a part in the UK government 's decision to grant self @-@ government in 1923 , and remained prominent in the national consciousness for decades . When the colonial government unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965 , it deliberately did so on Armistice Day , 11 November , and signed the proclamation at 11 : 00 local time . Since the territory 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , the modern government has removed many references to the war , such as memorial monuments and plaques , from public view , regarding them as unwelcome vestiges of white minority rule and colonialism . The Zimbabwean cultural memory has largely forgotten the First World War ; the country 's war dead today have no official commemoration , either there or overseas .

= = Background = =

At the time of World War I ( also known as the First World War or the Great War ) , Southern Rhodesia was administered by the British South Africa Company , which had controlled it and Northern Rhodesia since acquiring them through diplomacy and conquest during the 1890s . The white population in Southern Rhodesia stood at 23 @,@ 606 in 1911 ( a minority of 3 % ) , while Northern Rhodesia had about 3 @,@ 000 white settlers ( less than half of 1 % ) . With the Company 's charter due to expire in late 1914 , most Southern Rhodesian public attention was focused on this issue before the outbreak of war . The settlers were split between those who backed continued administration by the Chartered Company and those who advocated responsible government , which would make Southern Rhodesia a self @-@ governing colony within the British Empire . Still others favoured the integration of Southern Rhodesia into the Union of South Africa , which had been formed in 1910 . Following the intervention of the war , the charter was renewed for 10 years in early 1915 .

Before 1914 , Southern Rhodesia 's police force was the British South Africa Police ( BSAP ) , first raised in 1889 and reconstituted into a more permanent form in 1896 . This paramilitary , mounted infantry force was theoretically also the country 's standing army . Organised along military lines , it served in the First and Second Matabele Wars of the 1890s , operated on Britain 's side in the Anglo @-@ Boer War of 1899 – 1902 ( alongside the specially @-@ raised Rhodesia Regiment ) , and by 1914 comprised about 1 @,@ 150 men ( including officers ) . Reserves existed in the form of the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers , an all @-@ white amateur force with a paper strength of 2 @,@ 000 intended for mobilisation against local uprisings . Few doubted the Volunteers ' enthusiasm , but they were not extensively trained or equipped ; though perhaps useful in a Rhodesian bush skirmish , most observers agreed they would be no match for professional soldiers in a conventional war . In any case , the Volunteers ' enlistment contracts bound them for domestic service only .

= = Outbreak of war = =

= = = Announcement and reception = = =

When Britain declared war on Germany at 23 : 00 Greenwich Mean Time on 4 August 1914 , the British Empire 's dominions and colonies automatically became involved as well . Word of this reached the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury during the night . Early on 5 August , the Company administrator Sir William Milton wired Whitehall : " All Rhodesia united in devoted loyalty to King and Empire and ready to do its duty . " A few hours later he officially announced to the populace that Southern Rhodesia was at war . The Rhodesia Herald and Bulawayo Chronicle newspapers published special editions the same day to spread the news ; it took about half a week for word to reach the whole country , but jingoistic demonstrations began in the major towns almost immediately .

In the words of the historian Peter McLaughlin , the Southern Rhodesian settlers " seemed to out @-@ British the British " in their patriotic zeal , so it was to the frustration of many of them that the Company did not immediately commit to any martial action . While it sent supportive messages to Whitehall , the Company felt it could not raise any kind of expeditionary force without first considering the implications for its administrative operations ; as a commercial concern , it was possible for the Company to go bankrupt . Who would foot the bill for war expenditure , its hierarchy pondered : the Company itself , the Rhodesian taxpayers or the British government ?

As the local newspapers filled with letters from readers clamouring for Rhodesian troops to be mustered and despatched to Europe post @-@ haste , the administration limited its initial contribution to posting a section of BSAP troopers to the Victoria Falls Bridge to guard against possible German attack from South @-@ West Africa though the Caprivi Strip . In early September , an indignant letter to the Rhodesia Herald from Colonel Raleigh Grey , a major figure in local business , politics and military matters , accused the Company of bringing " a slur on a British country " by doing so little .

= = = Rhodesian Reserves = = =

A few days after the war began , the Chartered Company formed the Rhodesian Reserves , an amorphous entity intended to accommodate the many white men who were keen to put on uniform , as well as to make a start towards organising what might eventually become an expeditionary force . Eminent citizens and elected leaders formed their own platoons , each bringing 24 volunteers ; three or four of these 25 @-@ man troops made a company . Units representing the Caledonian Society , the Lancashire and Yorkshire Society , the Legion of Frontiersmen and other local organisations mirrored the Pals battalions in Britain . Volunteers could opt to serve overseas , within Rhodesia or only locally ; around 1 @,@ 000 had volunteered in all by 13 August .

The Company suggested to the UK government that it might despatch 500 troopers from the Rhodesian Reserves to Europe to act as an all @-@ Southern Rhodesian unit on the Western Front ( in Belgium and France ) , but the War Office in London replied that such an expeditionary force would be more practically deployed in Africa , within the South African forces . When the Company relayed this idea south , the South Africans said they were happy to take the Southern Rhodesians , but only if they enlisted independently in existing Union regiments . The Company found itself in the unusual position of having a prospective expeditionary force that nobody wanted . Unwilling to wait , some Southern Rhodesian would @-@ be soldiers made their own way to England to join the British Army directly , as individuals or in groups . By the end of October 1914 , about 300 were on their way .

= = Europe = =

= = = Western Front = = =

In terms of fighting manpower , Southern Rhodesia 's main contribution to World War I was in the trenches of the Western Front . As the white Southern Rhodesians in this theatre joined the British Army separately , at different times and under their own steam ( or were already connected to specific units as reservists ) , they were spread across dozens of regiments , including the Black Watch , the Coldstream Guards , the Grenadier Guards , the Royal Engineers and the Royal Marines , as well as many South African units and others . During the war 's opening months , Southern Rhodesian volunteers who could not afford to travel to England were assisted by a private fund set up by Ernest Lucas Guest , a Salisbury lawyer and Anglo @-@ Boer War veteran who also organised an accompanying recruitment campaign for European service . Guest stopped recruiting at the Company 's request after it created the 1st Rhodesia Regiment , an expeditionary force to South and South @-@ West Africa , in October 1914 .

A link developed during the war with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps ( KRRC ) , whose Southern Rhodesian contingent — numbering a few hundred , chiefly in its 2nd and 3rd Battalions — was the largest on the Western Front . The connection with this particular corps began as the result of a chance conversation aboard the ship that took the first batch of Southern Rhodesians from Cape Town to Southampton in late 1914 . The 16th Marquess of Winchester , who had links with Rhodesia dating back to the 1890s , was also aboard the ship , returning from a visit to the colony . Encountering Captain John Banks Brady , the officer of Irish origin who led the volunteers , the Marquess asked where his party was headed . Brady enthusiastically replied that they were going to war together in France . The Marquess suggested to Brady that since it might be difficult to prevent his men from being split up during the enlistment process , it might be a good idea for the Rhodesians to join the KRRC , where he could keep an eye on them through his connections with the Winchester @-@ based regiment . The Southern Rhodesian contingent duly mustered into the KRRC . A designated Rhodesian platoon , widely referred to thereafter as " the Rhodesian Platoon " , was formed under Brady at the KRRC training camp at Sheerness , on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent .

As a rule , the white Rhodesians overseas combined stridently pro @-@ British attitudes with an even stronger pride in Rhodesia . Many of them saw participation in the war , particularly in distinct " Rhodesian " formations , as a step towards forging a distinctive national identity , like those of Australia and the other more mature British dominions , and building a case for Southern Rhodesian self @-@ government . The existence of an explicitly Rhodesian Platoon in the KRRC endeared the regiment to the Southern Rhodesian public , and attracted many of the colony 's volunteers who arrived in England later in the war ; in time , the KRRC formed further Rhodesian platoons from additional personnel . While the average Rhodesian colonial , living on the frontier of the Empire , was at least casually acquainted with rifles , most Englishmen had never held one . At Sheerness , Brady 's Rhodesian Platoon won a reputation for fine sharpshooting , and set a regimental record score at the shooting range .

Once posted to France in December 1914 , the Rhodesian Platoon almost immediately began suffering regular heavy casualties . Southern Rhodesian volunteers continued to arrive piecemeal in England throughout the conflict , so Rhodesian formations on the Western Front received regular reinforcements in small batches , but because casualties were usually concentrated in far larger groups it often took a few months for a depleted Southern Rhodesian unit to return to full numerical strength . A cycle developed whereby Rhodesian platoons in Belgium and France were abruptly decimated and then gradually built up again only to suffer the same fate on returning to action . When the KRRC 's Rhodesian platoons took part in British offensives , they were easily recognised by a distinctive battle cry that their men shouted as they went over the top . Sometimes the British and German positions were so close that troopers on each front line could hear what was said in the opposite trench ; one group of Southern Rhodesians avoided being understood in this situation by speaking a mixture of Shona and Sindebele ( two African languages ) instead of English .

Trench warfare was a dreadful ordeal for soldiers , and the Southern Rhodesians , coming from the open veld of southern Africa , had a particularly difficult time getting used to the cold and the mud . Brady reported that some of his men had contracted frostbite within 48 hours of reaching the trenches . Despite this , the KRRC 's Rhodesians acquitted themselves well in the eyes of their superiors ; Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sir Edward Hutton , who wrote a history of the KRRC , commented that the Southern Rhodesian contingent " earned for itself great reputation for valour and good shooting " . Southern Rhodesians became especially valuable to the KRRC as designated snipers , grenadiers , Lewis Gunners and other specialists . While discussing a KRRC sniper section , Hutton singles its Southern Rhodesian members out for their fine marksmanship , commenting that " accustomed to big game shooting , [ they ] particularly excelled in this system of ' snipers ' , and inflicted continual losses upon the enemy " . In their 2008 history of sniping , Pat Farey and Mark Spicer highlight the prowess of South African and Rhodesian sharpshooters on the Western Front , and claim that one group of 24 southern African colonials collectively accounted for over 3 @,@ 000 German casualties and fatalities .

So many Southern Rhodesians were withdrawn from the trenches for officer training that in mid @-@ 1915 Brady appealed through the Salisbury and Bulawayo presses for more volunteers to replace those who had been commissioned . A platoon of Southern Rhodesians with the 2nd Battalion , KRRC took part in the " big push " of 1 July 1916 , the first day of the Battle of the Somme , charging German positions elsewhere on the line early that morning . There were 90 Rhodesians on the eve of the attack and only 10 alive and unwounded afterwards . On the Somme battlefield itself , Rhodesians were among those at Delville Wood , which began on 14 July . This was the South African 1st Infantry Brigade 's first engagement , and some of the colonials blacked up and imitated Zulu battle cries and war dances . Despite suffering casualties of catastrophic proportions — about 80 % of the brigade 's personnel were killed , wounded or captured — they took the Wood and held it as ordered until they were relieved on 20 July . By the time of its withdrawal , the South African Brigade , originally numbering 3 @,@ 155 ( 123 officers and 3 @,@ 032 other ranks ) , had been reduced to 19 officers and 600 men . Delville Wood was later described by Sir B H Liddell Hart as " the bloodiest battle hell of 1916 " . " God knows I never wish to see such horrible sights again , " a Southern Rhodesian veteran of the battle wrote home ; " at times I wished it would come fast , anything to get out of that terrible death @-@ trap and murderous place . "

German gas attacks were among the most traumatic experiences for the Southern Rhodesians in Europe . One Rhodesian survivor of a gas attack described the sensation as like " suffocation , [ or ] slow drowning " . The Germans used both disabling agents , such as tear gas and the more severe mustard gas , and lethal chemicals like chlorine and phosgene . Though generally not fatal , gas attacks caused extreme physical discomfort and pain , often to the point where soldiers lost consciousness . Mustard gas in particular caused blistering of the skin , vomiting and internal and external bleeding . The British Army issued gas masks , but according to Brady these did little to help the men . Injuries sustained to the eyes , lungs and nasal passages in gas attacks were often extremely debilitating and lasting , remaining with the men for years after the war .

In July 1917 , a KRRC Rhodesian platoon received lofty praise from a senior British officer , who described the colonials as " absolutely first @-@ class soldiers and great gentlemen , every bit as good as soldiers ... as our old Expeditionary Force " . Around the same time , a platoon of Southern Rhodesians in the KRRC took part in an engagement near Nieuwpoort in Flanders , where it and the Northamptonshire Regiment manned positions on the eastern banks of the river Yser . After a heavy artillery bombardment , German infantry and marines charged the British positions and surrounded the Rhodesian platoon . Brutal hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting ensued in which most of the Southern Rhodesians were killed and some were taken prisoner . The Bulawayo Chronicle ran a eulogy for them soon after , comparing their last stand to that of Allan Wilson 's Shangani Patrol in 1893 . Later in 1917 , a Rhodesian platoon in the KRRC fought in the Battle of Passchendaele , near Ypres in western Flanders .

The Western Front continued to receive Southern Rhodesian troops right up to the end of the war , including veterans of the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment 's campaign in East Africa . During the conflict 's latter stages , the British Army sent some of its Southern Rhodesian officers to the Western Front to promote the colony 's benefits , hoping to encourage emigration there by British servicemen after the war .

= = = Salonika = = =

The KRRC 's 3rd Battalion , including a platoon of 70 Rhodesians , was transferred from France to the Salonika Front in 1915 . On this comparatively quiet front , they were slowly whittled down over the course of the war : 26 of them remained in January 1917 , and by the end of the war so few were left that the platoon no longer existed . Most of the men had been killed in action , while others were prisoners of the Bulgarians .

= = = Aviators = = =

Some Southern Rhodesians mustered into the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , which merged with the Royal Naval Air Service in April 1918 to form the Royal Air Force . Towards the end of the war , the service of airmen from the dominions and colonies was observed by the issuing of shoulder patches denoting the wearer 's country of origin : from October 1918 , Southern Rhodesians received labels marked " rhodesia " . One of the territory 's first military aviators was Lieutenant Arthur R H Browne , a fighter pilot from Umvuma in the Southern Rhodesian Midlands , who was attached to No. 13 Squadron , RFC . He was killed in action in a dogfight on 5 December 1915 ; his aircraft , donated by the people of Gatooma in western Mashonaland , was Gatooma No. 2 , one of five aeroplanes purchased by Southern Rhodesian public donations . From Dryden Farm , near the south @-@ western border town of Plumtree , came Lieutenant Frank W H Thomas , an RFC combat pilot who won the Military Cross , as well as the French Croix de Guerre ( with palms ) , before he died on 5 January 1918 from wounds attained on operational service .

Lieutenant Daniel S " Pat " Judson , born in Bulawayo in 1898 , became the first Rhodesia @-@ born airman in history when he joined the RFC in April 1916 . He was severely wounded while bombing enemy positions in March 1918 , but recovered and remained in the unit until April 1919 . The first flying ace born in Rhodesia was Major George Lloyd , nicknamed " Zulu " , who joined No. 60 Squadron in April 1917 , and won four aerial victories before transferring to No. 40 Squadron in July 1917 , where he won four more . He received the Military Cross in March 1918 for " conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty " , and also won the Air Force Cross later that year . Second Lieutenant David " Tommy " Greswolde @-@ Lewis , a born and bred Bulawayan , was the 80th and final pilot defeated by Manfred von Richthofen , the German ace widely known as the Red Baron . Richthofen downed Lewis just north @-@ east of Villers @-@ Bretonneux on 20 April 1918 ; the Rhodesian 's aircraft caught fire in mid @-@ air , and when it crashed he was thrown from the wreckage . The Baron 's bullets had hit Lewis ' compass , goggles , coat and trouser leg , but he was practically unhurt , having suffered only minor burns . He spent the rest of the war a German prisoner .

The Great War airman associated with Southern Rhodesia who ultimately earned the most distinction was Arthur Harris , originally from England , who joined the Royal Flying Corps in late 1915 after serving as a bugler with the 1st Rhodesia Regiment in South @-@ West Africa . Harris alternated between Britain and France during the latter part of the war . He led No. 45 Squadron over the Western Front in 1917 , destroying five German aircraft and winning the Air Force Cross , and afterwards commanded No. 44 Squadron in Britain . Intending to return to Southern Rhodesia after the war , he wore a " rhodesia " flash on his uniform during the hostilities , but ended up staying with the RAF as a career officer . He finished the war a major , rose through the ranks during the interwar period and became famous during World War II as " Bomber Harris " , the head of RAF Bomber Command .

= = Southern Africa = =

= = = Maritz Rebellion ; formation of 1st Rhodesia Regiment = = =

Apart from the capture of Schuckmannsburg in the Caprivi Strip by a combined force of BSAP and Northern Rhodesia Police on 21 September 1914 , the British South Africa Company 's own armed forces and police remained almost totally uninvolved in the war until the following month . The South African Prime Minister , the former Boer general Louis Botha , had told Britain that the Union could both handle its own security during the hostilities and defeat German South @-@ West Africa without help , so the Imperial garrison had been sent to the Western Front . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Manie Maritz — an ex @-@ Boer commander who now headed a column of Afrikaans @-@ speaking Union troops — defected to the Germans in mid @-@ September , hoping to spark an uprising that would overthrow British supremacy in South Africa and restore the old Boer Republics . Botha requested the 500 @-@ man column that the Chartered Company had raised , hoping to reduce the possibility of further defections by interspersing his own forces with firmly pro @-@ British Rhodesians . The expeditionary force was promptly formalised in Salisbury , and named the 1st Rhodesia Regiment after the unit of Southern Rhodesian volunteers that had fought in the Anglo @-@ Boer War . Apart from a small contingent of Matabele ( or Ndebele ) scouts , the unit was all white .

After six weeks ' training in the capital , the 1st Rhodesia Regiment travelled south by railway in late October 1914 . During its stopover in Bulawayo , it paraded in front of about 90 % of the town 's population ; Plumtree , the last stop before crossing the border , provided the soldiers with a lavish parting banquet . Notwithstanding these grand farewells , the Maritz Rebellion was all but over by the time the Southern Rhodesian contingent reached its destination at Bloemfontein . The vast majority of South African troops , including most of Boer origin , had remained loyal to the Union government , and the uprising had been quashed . The Rhodesians garrisoned Bloemfontein for about a month , then redeployed to Cape Town , where they underwent further training for the South @-@ West Africa Campaign as part of South Africa 's Northern Force , which Botha personally commanded .

= = = 1st Rhodesia Regiment in South @-@ West Africa = = =

During late December 1914 , Northern Force travelled to the South African exclave of Walvis Bay , about halfway up the coast of German South @-@ West Africa . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment disembarked on 26 December 1914 .

Northern Force made up the northern prong of a pincer movement designed by Botha to encircle the German forces in South @-@ West Africa . Two smaller South African columns came from the Cape and the Orange Free State ( the latter coming over the deserts of Bechuanaland ) . The principal target was Windhoek , the capital of South @-@ West Africa . The field of operations was arid and barren in the extreme ; water was a precious commodity , so the South Africans and Southern Rhodesians brought thousands of tons of it with them . In the 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of desert between Walvis Bay and Windhoek , temperatures could rise to above 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) in the daytime , then drop below freezing at night , all while desert winds blew sand and dust into every bodily and mechanical orifice . Germany based much of its defensive strategy in South @-@ West Africa around the assumption that no enemy commander could feasibly attempt to advance across the desert from Walvis Bay to Windhoek , but Botha resolved to do exactly that .

The South African offensive from Walvis Bay began in February 1915 , when Northern Force took Swakopmund — the nearest German coastal settlement , about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) north — without facing major resistance . The Germans almost immediately retreated , leaving behind explosive booby traps and other improvised weapons . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment first engaged the Germans while Northern Force moved east across the desert , taking part in a number of minor skirmishes and suffering its first two fatalities in a German ambush . To overcome the natural difficulties of the desert terrain , Botha used fast @-@ moving mounted or mechanised troops rather than regular infantry , so the Southern Rhodesian contingent played little part in the main advance on Windhoek . The Rhodesians guarded the construction of a railway inland for much of the campaign , but participated in Northern Force 's victory over the Germans at Trekkopjes , losing Lieutenant Hollingsworth ( killed in action ) and five enlisted men ( wounded ) . Windhoek surrendered to Botha in July 1915 , effectively ending the South @-@ West African front of the war . The local German population did not embark on a guerrilla campaign after Windhoek 's fall .

The 1st Rhodesia Regiment was soon posted back to Cape Town , where many of the troopers voiced their dissatisfaction at the lack of fighting in South @-@ West Africa , and requested discharge so they could join the war in Europe . Superiors assured the men that they would see action in East Africa if they stayed , but failed to convince most of them ; the 1st Rhodesia Regiment promptly disbanded due to a lack of personnel . The majority of the South @-@ West Africa veterans boarded ship for England to enlist in the British Army , while others mustered into South African units already billed for European service .

= = East Africa = =

German East Africa , acquired by Germany during the 1880s , covered roughly 900 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 350 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and by 1914 was home to about 5 @,@ 000 white settlers , most of whom were of German origin . German East African soldiery at the outbreak of war comprised 216 German officers and enlisted men , and 2 @,@ 450 askaris ( native soldiers ) ; police numbered 45 whites and 2 @,@ 154 askaris . Because of the British Royal Navy 's domination of the Indian Ocean , German East Africa was largely isolated from outside help . It therefore fought a war of improvisation , judicious resource management and unorthodox strategy . During the conflict , its military strength grew to a peak of 3 @,@ 300 whites and anywhere between 15 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 askaris , all commanded by Generalmajor Paul von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck .

= = = 2nd Rhodesia Regiment = = =

Based around the overflow of volunteers for the 1st Rhodesia Regiment , a core of personnel for a second Southern Rhodesian expeditionary unit was in place by November 1914 . This was made into the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment ( 2RR ) during December 1914 and January 1915 . The 1st Rhodesia Regiment 's lack of combat experience thus far influenced those men in Southern Rhodesia who were yet to enlist ; many Rhodesian colonials were keen to fight on the front lines , and some resolved that they might have to travel to Europe to be sure of doing so . Aware of this competition with the Western Front for the colony 's manpower , recruiters for the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment took great care to assure potential inductees that they would definitely see combat , in Africa , if they signed up for the new unit . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment ultimately had a paper strength of 500 men , the same as the 1st . Thirty black scouts , recruited in Southern Rhodesia , were also attached to the regiment .

Because it was raised with less urgency , the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment received better training than the 1st . The course lasted eight weeks , a fortnight longer than the original regiment 's training period , and focused heavily on route marching , parade drill , and , in particular , marksmanship — recruits were trained to shoot accurately at ranges of up to 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment left Salisbury on 8 March 1915 , moving east to the port of Beira in Portuguese Mozambique , from where they sailed to Mombasa in British Kenya , on German East Africa 's north @-@ eastern flank . Travelling aboard the SS Umzumbi , the battalion disembarked in Kenya less than a week after leaving Salisbury . It was immediately sent inland to the operational area around Mount Kilimanjaro , within sight of which it set up camp . On 20 March , the regiment was inspected by General J M Stewart of the Indian Army . " I had expected to see a regiment that would require some training , " Stewart said ; " I will pay you the highest compliment by sending you to the front today . " So began the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment 's contribution to the East African Campaign .

The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment operated with some success during its first year on the front . It usually defeated German units that it encountered , but the Germans , using proto @-@ guerrilla tactics , tended to retreat before they could be overrun . Though generally outnumbered and outgunned throughout the campaign , the Germans had the advantage early on of longer @-@ range artillery than the British ; from July to August 1916 , 2RR was prevented from moving out of the Kenyan town of Makindu for nearly a month by German bombardment . The huge marching distances , difficult terrain and uncertainty of surroundings meant that the regiment 's men were forced to develop enormous stamina and resilience if they were not to be invalided home .

Tropical disease killed or rendered ineffective far more 2RR men than the Germans did ; at times the regiment was reduced to an effective strength of under 100 by the vast myriad of potential ailments , including trench fever , blackwater fever , dysentery , pneumonia , sleeping sickness and many others . The 1 @,@ 038 personnel who served with 2RR in East Africa collectively went into hospital 2 @,@ 272 times , and there were 10 @,@ 626 incidences of illness — in other words , the average 2RR soldier was hospitalised twice and reported sick 10 times . In January 1917 , only 91 of the regiment 's men were considered fit for duty ; it was no longer an effective fighting force , and the white Southern Rhodesian manpower did not exist to continue reinforcing it . It was therefore withdrawn from East Africa that month . Those men who were healthy enough to return home arrived back in Salisbury on 14 April 1917 , receiving a tumultuous welcome , but the majority of 2RR remained in medical care overseas for some time afterwards .

The Company briefly considered sending a revived 2nd Rhodesia Regiment to the Western Front , but the British Army promptly rejected this idea , saying that the unit would be impractical for trench warfare because of its small size . The battalion was thereupon dissolved , but most of its remaining men went to war in Europe anyway , generally with South African units .

= = = Rhodesia Native Regiment = = =

By late 1915 , British forces in the border areas of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , on German East Africa 's south @-@ western flank , were severely stretched . Disease was a constant curse , decimating the ranks . Francis Drummond Chaplin , the British South Africa Company administrator in Southern Rhodesia , offered to provide the British with a column of between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 askaris , and Whitehall accepted this in March 1916 ; however , there was then disagreement regarding who would foot the bill for the organisation of this enterprise . After this was resolved in April 1916 — the Company agreed to pay , conditional on reimbursement by the British Colonial Office — recruitment began in May .

Initial recruitment efforts principally targeted the Matabele , who made up about 20 % of the colony 's black population , because they enjoyed a popular reputation among whites for being great warriors ; the unit was therefore originally called the " Matabele Regiment " . This was changed to the more inclusive " Rhodesia Native Regiment " ( RNR ) on 15 May 1916 , as the ranks proved to be more diverse than expected , and included large numbers of Mashonas and other ethnicities . In particular , a disproportionately high number of volunteers came from the Kalanga tribe , a numerically diminutive community in the colony 's south @-@ west . The RNR was organised largely along linguistic and cultural lines , with companies and platoons of Matabele , Mashona , Wayao and others . White officers attached to the unit were often recruited because they knew an African language , or could give orders in Chilapalapa , a pidgin of English and several African tongues often referred to by whites of the time as " kitchen kaffir " . The ranks ' diversity sometimes led to confusion when messages or directives were not properly understood . It became common for black troopers accused of disobeying or ignoring commands to claim ignorance of the language in which they had been ordered .

Commanded by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel A J Tomlinson , the RNR , comprising 426 askaris and about 30 white officers , left Salisbury in July 1916 for Beira . They continued on to Zomba , in Nyasaland , where they were to receive further training closer to the field of operations . When they arrived , the local situation had shifted significantly , so the RNR instead went to New Langenberg , in German East Africa , just north of Lake Nyasa . At New Langenberg the regiment went through a short training course , and was issued with six machine guns . When the unit 's training period ended in October 1916 it was divided ; one company of RNR men went to Buhora , about 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) north @-@ east , while the rest went 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) south to Weidhaven , on the north banks of Lake Nyasa , from where they moved 160 kilometres ( 99 mi ) east to Songea , which they were ordered to " hold ... until reinforced " . Apart from a company of men sent to patrol the road back to Weidhaven , the RNR proceeded to garrison Songea .

The Germans , who had left Songea only a few weeks before , sent two columns to retake it during early November 1916 — 250 askaris marched from Likuyu , and 180 more ( with two machine guns ) set off from Kitanda . The latter German column spotted the RNR company that was patrolling the road , and at Mabogoro attacked the advance guard , which was commanded by Sergeant ( later Lieutenant ) Frederick Charles Booth . The Rhodesians were caught by surprise , and many panicked , running about and firing randomly . Booth restored discipline and led the defence until reinforcements arrived . The Germans then retreated and continued towards Songea . During this contact , Booth advanced towards enemy fire to rescue a wounded scout who was lying in the open , and brought him back alive ; for this and subsequent actions , Booth received the Victoria Cross in June 1917 .

The German column from Kitanda reached Songea early in the morning on 12 November 1916 , and unsuccessfully attempted a frontal assault on the well @-@ entrenched Rhodesian positions . After the German column from Likuyu arrived in the afternoon , the Germans laid siege to Songea for 12 days before retreating towards Likuyu on the 24th . The Rhodesians were relieved the following day by a South African unit . The RNR then moved back to Litruchi , on the other side of Lake Nyasa , from where they sailed to the German East African town of Mwaya , where they were reunited with the RNR contingent that had gone to Buhora . This second column had ambushed a group of Germans , who were moving towards Northern Rhodesia with a naval gun salvaged from SMS Königsberg ( which had been sunk at Rufiji Delta about a year before ) ; after pocketing the Germans , the Rhodesians captured both them and the naval gun .

In Southern Rhodesia , Company officials judged the RNR to have been a success so far , and so decided in January 1917 to raise a second battalion . The unit already in the field was at this time designated 1st Battalion , abbreviated to " 1RNR " , while the new formation was called 2nd Battalion , or " 2RNR " . Recruitment was soon under way . Conscious of the difficulty that had been found in persuading rural Mashonas and Matabele to join the 1st Battalion in 1916 , organisers for 2RNR principally targeted black men from other countries , in particular migrant workers from Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia ; Nyasalanders eventually made up nearly half of the regiment . By the start of March , about 1 @,@ 000 recruits were training in Salisbury . Meanwhile , 1RNR was instructed to guard the Igali Pass , near the border with Northern Rhodesia , to prevent a column of Germans from threatening the settlements of Abercorn and Fife . When the Germans slipped through , the Rhodesians were pulled back to a position between the two towns and instructed to defend either one as circumstances dictated . The Germans did not launch an attack , however , instead setting up camp in their own territory at Galula .

The Southern Rhodesian commanders planned to destroy the German column by taking advantage of the regional geography ; the Germans had Lake Rukwa to their back , and the rivers Songwe and Saisi on their respective left ( eastern ) and right flanks , effectively hemming them in if they were attacked . The plan was that elements of 1RNR would hold the Saisi while a battalion of the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) manned the Songwe ; the rest of 1RNR would then push the Germans back towards the lake . But Tomlinson interpreted his orders as requiring immediate action , and attacked before the two flanking lines were in place on the rivers . The offensive had some successes at first , even though Tomlinson was outnumbered , but the 450 Germans , armed with three Königsberg field guns and 14 machine guns , soon withdrew to the higher ground at St Moritz Mission . The Germans counterattacked over the following week . Colonel R E Murray , who commanded a column of BSAP men about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away , did not assist Tomlinson , and 1RNR took great losses while repulsing the attack : 58 RNR men were killed , and the Germans captured three Rhodesian machine guns . Tomlinson was blamed by most for the debacle , but he insisted for years afterwards that he had only been following orders from Murray to hold his ground . He expressed incredulity at Murray 's failure to reinforce him . An enquiry into the matter was avoided when Tomlinson was wounded and invalided home soon after the battle .

On 5 April 1917 , 1RNR crossed the Songwe River into German East Africa and advanced south @-@ east towards Kitanda . It moved up the winding Lupa River , crossing it at each turn , for 53 days , and by mid @-@ June was 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of its target . When it was then ordered to backtrack north to Rungwe , it covered the 420 kilometres ( 260 mi ) in 16 days . Several scholars highlight the distances marched by the RNR , and comment that their physical endurance must have been remarkable , particularly given the speed at which they moved . " One can only marvel at the hardiness and fortitude of these men who matter @-@ of @-@ factly marched distances unthinkable to modern Western soldiers , " the historian Alexandre Binda writes . McLaughlin contrasts the RNR 's black troopers with the white soldiers of the 2nd Rhodesia Regiment , commenting that the former proved far more resilient to tropical diseases ( though not immune ) , and amazed white observers by not just adapting to the difficult East African conditions , but often marching 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) in a day . In June 1917 , Sergeant Rita ( or Lita ) , a black non @-@ commissioned officer later described by Tomlinson as " a splendid soldier " , received the highest award ever given to an RNR askari , the Distinguished Conduct Medal , " for conspicuous gallantry in action on many occasions . His example and influence with his men is incalculable " .

The 1st Battalion harassed the constantly moving German flying column during August and September 1917 . Two Military Medals were won by RNR soldiers during this time : Sergeant Northcote rescued a wounded askari under German fire in late August , and a few days later Corporal Suga , himself lightly injured , dragged his wounded commanding officer Lieutenant Booth out of the open and into cover . The 2nd Battalion , comprising Major Jackson at the head of 585 askaris and 75 whites , left Salisbury on 16 September 1917 , and joined the front on 16 October , when it arrived at Mbewa on the north @-@ eastern shore of Lake Nyasa , intending to ultimately merge with 1RNR . After 1RNR spent two months garrisoning Wiedhaven and 2RNR underwent further training , the two forces joined on 28 January 1918 ( becoming known as the 2nd Rhodesia Native Regiment ) , and immediately made their way south in pursuit of Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's Germans , who were by now down to an effective strength of less than 2 @,@ 000 , and moving through Portuguese Mozambique .

In late May 1918 , the two @-@ year service contracts signed by the original 500 RNR volunteers expired , and the majority of those who had not already been discharged — just under 400 men — went home . While passing through Umtali on their way to Salisbury , the soldiers encountered the RNR 's original commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Tomlinson , whom they promptly mobbed , excitedly chanting nkosi , nkosi ( which roughly means " chief " in Sindebele ) . In the capital , the RNR men were met at the railway station by thousands of people , including a number of prominent government , military and religious figures . Chaplin , the territorial administrator , gave a speech in which he applauded the troops for " upholding the good name of Rhodesia " and for having played " no insignificant part in depriving the Germans of their power in Africa " .

In Mozambique , the RNR encountered Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's supply column near Mtarika on 22 May 1918 . It wiped it out ( capturing two German officers , two German askaris , 34 Portuguese askaris and 252 carriers ) , but as the supply column had been marching between the main German column and its rearguard , Lettow @-@ Vorbeck was then able to attack the RNR from both sides . The contact lasted until darkness fell , and the RNR held its position . Lettow @-@ Vorbeck then moved further south , with the RNR following . This pursuit continued for the rest of the war , with Lettow @-@ Vorbeck avoiding contacts so far as was possible and constantly resupplying his men by briefly occupying isolated towns . The RNR chased the German column for over 3 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 200 mi ) around Mozambique and the eastern districts of Northern Rhodesia , but never caught up with him . After Lettow @-@ Vorbeck formally surrendered at Abercorn on 25 November 1918 , the RNR returned to Salisbury , where the men were discharged during 1919 . The regiment existed on paper for two more years before it was formally disbanded in February 1921 .

= = Home front = =

= = = Home service and conscription debate = = =

Southern Rhodesian troops during World War I were all volunteers . Particularly during the war 's early stages , not all male settlers of fighting age were expected to abandon their civilian lives for service abroad . Many of them were in vital industries like mining , and the Company administration did not grant financial allowances to support the families of married soldiers , so at least at first , only bachelors in non @-@ essential positions were generally considered to have any moral obligation to sign up . The 2nd Rhodesia Regiment , raised in early 1915 , explicitly barred married men from its ranks to preempt the tribulations that might befall their families while they were gone . Men of service age who remained at home were pressured by the national and local press to contribute to local security by joining the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers or the Rhodesian Reserves ; editorials told readers that men who failed to do so were not fulfilling their patriotic duty , and warned that conscription might be required if not enough joined up .

The idea of conscription ran contrary to British political tradition , but the sheer scale of the Western Front led to its institution in Britain in January 1916 . The Rhodesia Herald and Bulawayo Chronicle newspapers broadcast the news in special editions . While some settlers supported the extension of the same system to white Southern Rhodesians , it was also opposed in many quarters . The British South Africa Company feared that the loss of skilled white workers might jeopardise its mining operations , crucial to the colonial economy , while the Rhodesian Agricultural Union contended that white farmers had to stay on the land for similar reasons . Some , mindful of John Chilembwe 's anticolonial uprising in Nyasaland in early 1915 , felt that it was necessary to keep a core of male settlers in the colony to guard against a repeat of the Mashona and Matabele rebellions of the 1890s .

By late 1916 , most settlers in the colony who were inclined to volunteer had already done so . To free up white manpower , some suggested the recruitment of older men for local service so more of the younger volunteers could go overseas . In 1917 , the Chartered Company set up a committee to consider the question of national defence both during the war and thereafter ; its report , released in February 1918 , described reliance on volunteers as inefficient , and recommended the institution of compulsory service for whites , even after the war ( no mention was made of using black troops in the future ) . The Company published proposals the following month to register all white males aged between 18 and 65 with a view to some form of conscription , but this provoked widespread and vocal dissent , particularly from farmers . In the face of this opposition the administration vacillated until it quietly dropped the idea after the armistice .

= = = Economic impact = = =

The British South Africa Company had reservations about devoting all of Southern Rhodesia 's resources to the war effort , in part because of its desire to keep the colonial economy operating . There was indeed tightening of belts in the Rhodesias during the war , but not on the same scale as in Britain . The retail sector suffered , prices for many basic day @-@ to @-@ day items rose sharply , and exports plummeted as much of the white male citizenry went overseas to war , but mining , the industry on which Rhodesia 's economic viability hinged , continued to operate successfully , despite occasional difficulties in obtaining manpower . The Company administration posted record outputs of gold and coal during 1916 , and began to supply the Empire with the strategic metal ferrochrome . A flurry of new prospecting ventures led to the discovery of another strategic metal , tungsten , near Essexvale in southern Matabeleland in May 1917 .

Southern Rhodesia 's other main economic arm , farming , performed less strongly during the war , partly because the Chartered Company prioritised the strategically important mines at the behest of British officials . Southern Rhodesian farmers were optimistic at the outbreak of war , surmising that the Empire would become desperate for food and that they would be essentially immune to inflation because they grew their own crops . While these conclusions were on the whole accurate , logistical complications made it difficult for Rhodesian food to be exported , and as in mining there was often a shortage of labour . There were a number of drives to increase agricultural yield with the hope of feeding more people in Britain , but because Southern Rhodesia was so far away it was difficult for the colony to make much of an impact . One of the main culinary contributions the territory made to the British wartime marketplace was Rhodesian butter , which first reached England in February 1917 .

The war began to adversely affect the economy in late 1917 . The Company threatened petrol rationing in November 1917 , and in early 1918 it raised the colonial income tax to help balance the books . By the end of the hostilities the Company had spent £ 2 million on the war effort , most of which was covered by the Rhodesian taxpayers ; the Company covered some of the expenditure itself , and also received a small amount of financial aid from the UK government .

= = = Propaganda and public opinion = = =

Mass media on both sides in the conflict tried to motivate their respective populations and justify the war 's continuation by creating an image of the enemy so grotesque and savage that surrender became unthinkable . Like the major newspapers in Britain , the Rhodesia Herald and the Bulawayo Chronicle became key propaganda tools , regularly printing stories of German atrocities , massacres and other war crimes alongside articles simply entitled " War Stories " that told of British Army soldiers carrying out deeds of Herculean bravery . Anti @-@ German sentiment abounded in the territory throughout the conflict , and periodically intensified , often concurrently with the reporting of particularly unsavoury incidents .

During the initial peak of Germanophobia , which lasted the first few months of the conflict , many German and Austrian men of military age who lived in Rhodesia were arrested ( officially as " prisoners of war " ) and sent to internment camps in South Africa . Gertrude Page , one of the colony 's most famous novelists , wrote an open letter in response , vouching for the loyalty of a young German in her employ , and received a number of replies accusing her of being unpatriotic . The second period of intensification began following the sinking of the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania by a German U @-@ boat on 7 May 1915 . The Rhodesia Herald ran an editorial soon after calling on the Company administration to intern all remaining German and Austrian residents and to close their businesses . A town assembly in Umtali sent the administrator a resolution asking him to confiscate all property in the colony owned by subjects of Germany and Austria within 48 hours " in view of German barbarity " . Most of Southern Rhodesia 's remaining German and Austrian residents were soon sent to the camps in South Africa .

Further periods of intensified anti @-@ German feeling in the Rhodesias followed the execution by the Germans of the British nurse Edith Cavell in Belgium in October 1915 ( " the Crowning Crime " , the Bulawayo Chronicle called it ) , the escalation of bombing raids by German Zeppelins on British cities during 1917 , and the British reportage the same year of the Kadaververwertungsanstalt atrocity story — that the Germans supposedly rendered down battlefield corpses from both sides to make products such as nitroglycerine and lubricants .

A small elite of black urbanites , mostly raised and educated at Christian missions , existed in Southern Rhodesia by the time of the war , and these generally identified themselves strongly with settler society and , by extension , the war effort . But the vast majority of black people in the colony retained their traditional tribal lifestyles of rural subsistence farming , and for most of them , as McLaughlin comments , the war " could have been fought between aliens from different planets for all their connection with events in Europe " . Some felt obliged to " fight for their country " , seeing the travails of Rhodesia and the Empire as their own also , but the great bulk of tribal public opinion was detached , seeing the conflict as a " white man 's war " that did not concern them . Those who favoured the latter line of thinking cared not so much about the conflict itself but more about how its course might affect them specifically . For example , widespread interest was aroused soon after the outbreak of war when rumours began to fly between the rural black communities that the Company planned to conscript them . News of the Maritz Rebellion prompted a fresh rumour among the Matabele that Company officials might confiscate tribal livestock to feed the white troops going south . None of this actually occurred .

The Chartered Company 's native commissioners began to fear a possible tribal rebellion during early 1915 . Herbert Taylor , the chief native commissioner , believed that foreign missionaries were secretly encouraging rural black people to emulate the Chilembwe revolt in Nyasaland , and telling them ( falsely ) that the British were exterminating the natives there . There were few actual attempts to topple the administration in Southern Rhodesia , but the Company still took precautions . Aware that Mashona svikiro ( spirit mediums ) had been instrumental in inciting and leading insurgencies against Company rule during the late 1890s , the native commissioners enacted new legislation designed to imprison any svikiro who gained significant popularity .

The only real threat of a black rebellion in Southern Rhodesia during the war occurred in May 1916 , immediately after the Company instructed native commissioners in Matabeleland to start recruiting for the Rhodesia Native Regiment . Company officials attempted to make clear that the RNR comprised volunteers only , and most Matabele chiefs were not unreceptive to the idea — some , including Chief Ndiweni , attempted to encourage enlistment by sending their own sons off to war — but rumours spread in some quarters that black men were going to be involuntarily conscripted wholesale into the unit . Chief Maduna , in Insiza district , briefly threatened insurrection , issuing rifles to 100 men , but he backed down after a few weeks after it became self @-@ evident that conscription was not happening . Some attempted to dissuade potential RNR recruits from signing up , including a black man in Bulawayo who was fined £ 4 in July 1915 for spreading a false rumour around the city that the British East Africa Transport Corps ' black Southern Rhodesian drivers had had their throats cut by the Germans . Matthew Zwimba , founder of the syncretist Church of the White Bird in Mashonaland , received six months ' hard labour the following year for advising black men not to join the RNR on the grounds that the British had , he said , committed crimes against God in 1913 .

The colony 's small Afrikaner community was split on the issue of war . Some supported the United Kingdom out of loyalty to Rhodesia , but others were still bitter about the Anglo @-@ Boer War and showed little interest in fighting the Germans . In the rural areas , where Afrikaner nationalism was strongest , the Germans were perceived by some Boer farmers as potential liberators from British domination . Southern Rhodesian Afrikaners were often accused of undermining the British war effort . While some leaders of the community publicly came out in support of the war and offered to provide troops , others put pressure on Afrikaans @-@ speakers not to volunteer . When recruitment for the Rhodesia Native Regiment began in 1916 , there were reports of potential black recruits being urged not to join up by their Afrikaans @-@ speaking employers .

= = = Women = = =

As is common in frontier societies , the Southern Rhodesian settler community was mostly male : at the time of the First World War , white females were outnumbered by males almost two to one . Because white women were so marriageable and cheap black labour was easily available to handle domestic duties , most female settlers did not work and spent most of their days supervising the household and family . The average white woman in the colony continued to live this kind of life during the war , in marked contrast to her British counterpart , who in many cases went to replace the male factory workers and farm labourers who went to war . In Rhodesia little of this sort occurred : there were no munitions factories , and the idea of women working down the country 's mines was not considered practical . Some white farmers ' wives took over management of the land in their husbands ' absence , but this was quite unusual .

The contribution to the war made by Southern Rhodesia 's white female population generally comprised organising and running donation drives , comforts committees and other similar enterprises . They sent the troops " comforts parcels " , which contained balaclavas , mittens and scarves that they had knitted , as well as newspapers , soap , food ( including cakes and sweets ) , and minor luxuries . These packages did much to raise the morale of the men , particularly those who were in German captivity . Women were also largely responsible for handling mail between Rhodesian soldiers and their relatives and friends back home . After the armistice , they organised financial assistance for those discharged Southern Rhodesian men in England who could not afford to come home , and arranged visits for those convalescing in English hospitals .

As in Britain , some Southern Rhodesian women during the war presented men not wearing military uniform with white feathers ( symbolising cowardice ) . This campaign often went awry , as many of the men presented with the feathers were not in fact shirking from service . In 1916 , hoping to save them further harassment , the Rhodesia Herald and other newspapers began publishing lists of men who had volunteered only to be deemed medically unfit by the army doctors .

Black women played a minor role in units such as the Rhodesia Native Regiment , accompanying the black soldiers into the operational area and performing domestic tasks like washing and cooking . Many of these were local East African women who had formed attachments with RNR soldiers . Officers tolerated the presence of these women in the interest of morale , aware that attempting to take them away from the men would probably lead to mutiny .

= = = Donations and funds = = =

Southern Rhodesian settlers set up a number of wartime funds , including funds to aid war victims , funds to provide the troops with tobacco and other supplies , funds to assist orphans and widows , funds to buy aeroplanes , and others . These raised about £ 200 @,@ 000 in all . Much of this went to the Prince of Wales National Relief Fund in Britain , which was founded when the war started ; Southern Rhodesian branches of the fund were promptly organised in several towns and ultimately consolidated into the Rhodesian War Relief Fund . This body donated 25 % of its receipts to the Prince of Wales Fund and 75 % to local concerns .

The Tobacco Fund , set up in September 1914 , was particularly successful . Public donors bought Southern Rhodesian tobacco , cigarettes and pipe tobacco to send to the British forces . This was intended not only to comfort the troops , but also to advertise the prospect of post @-@ war emigration to Rhodesia . The labels on the tobacco tins depicted a map of Africa with the sun shining on Rhodesia , accompanied by the slogan " The World 's Great Sunspot " . In a similar vein , " Sunspot " was the name given to the Rhodesian cigarettes that British soldiers received . During the war , British and colonial soldiery collectively chewed and smoked 59 @,@ 955 two @-@ ounce ( 57 g ) tins of donated Southern Rhodesian tobacco , 80 @,@ 584 two @-@ ounce tins of equivalent pipe tobacco , and 4 @,@ 004 @,@ 000 Sunspot cigarettes ( in packs of 10 ) . Another similar undertaking saw six tons ( roughly 6 @,@ 100 kg ) of local citrus fruits sent to wounded British Army personnel in South Africa and England .

Starting in July 1915 , Southern Rhodesians raised funds to buy aeroplanes for the Royal Flying Corps . The colony ultimately bought three aircraft , each of which cost £ 1 @,@ 500 — they were named Rhodesia Nos. 1 , 2 and 3 . Residents of the town of Gatooma also set up their own drive , which funded the purchase of two more planes , Gatooma Nos. 1 and 2 .

The black elite in the towns donated to the settlers ' patriotic funds and organisations , and also set up their own . A war fundraising tea organised by black Salisburians in early March 1915 boasted entertainment in the form of a black choir , as well as the presence of Taylor and a junior native commissioner , each of whom gave speeches in English , Sindebele and Shona . Rural black people , by contrast , did not generally understand the concept of donating money to war funds , and misinterpreted encouragement to do so as being threatened with a new tax . When the Matabele chief Gambo began collecting war donations from his people in early 1915 , also urging other chiefs to do the same , he took care to thoroughly explain the war fund 's purpose and the voluntary nature of contributing , but some villagers still misunderstood and came to believe they would have livestock confiscated if they did not give money . The Company ultimately sent officials around the countryside to clarify the matter .

The Kalanga , a small community in the south @-@ west that provided a disproportionately large number of volunteers for the Rhodesia Native Regiment , also proved conspicuous for their extremely generous financial donations ; in June 1915 , they collectively donated £ 183 , " a staggering sum " , the historian Timothy Stapleton comments , to the Prince of Wales Fund .

= = = Flu pandemic = = =

The 1918 flu pandemic , often referred to at the time as " Spanish flu " , spread quickly into Southern Rhodesia from South Africa in October 1918 . A week after the first case was reported in Salisbury , over 1 @,@ 000 people were infected . Public buildings in the towns were converted into makeshift hospital wards , appeals were put out for trained nurses to attend the sick , and soup kitchens were set up to feed children whose parents were too ill to look after them . Newspapers in the colony published basic instructions on how to deal with the disease . The mine compounds , where hundreds of black labourers lived and worked together in close proximity , were worst affected . The whole country was ultimately infected , with even the most remote villages reporting deaths . Many members of the Rhodesia Native Regiment were infected , and 76 of them died from the disease having survived the war . By the time the pandemic had ended in Southern Rhodesia around mid @-@ November 1918 , thousands had been killed .

= = End of the war , aftermath and statistics = =

News of the armistice on 11 November 1918 reached Southern Rhodesia the same day , and was announced to the town of Salisbury by the repeated blowing of the klaxon at the Castle Brewery . Hysterical street parties started almost immediately , and in the evening the people let off fireworks and lit a huge bonfire on Salisbury kopje . Bulawayo celebrated with a street party that continued uninterrupted for over 48 hours . Smaller towns marked the armistice with their own celebratory functions and events .

Once the frivolities had ended , minds turned to post @-@ war policy , and particularly how soldiers returning from Europe would be reintegrated into society . The Company had already , in 1916 , set aside 250 @,@ 000 acres ( 100 @,@ 000 ha ) of farmland to be given free of charge to white war veterans . In early 1919 it set up a government department to help returning men find work . Many former soldiers failed to find jobs , and some remained unemployed for years after they returned home . Some of the more seriously wounded from the European theatre never came back at all , instead remaining in England because of the better medical facilities and public benefits . Demobilised Western Front veterans began to arrive back in Rhodesia in January 1919 , and continued to do so for nearly a year afterwards . On 30 May 1919 , the Southern Rhodesian Legislative Council passed a resolution thanking the territory 's veterans .

The Southern Rhodesian tribal chiefs collectively sent their own statement to King George V.

Proportional to white population , Southern Rhodesia had contributed more personnel to the British armed forces in World War I than any of the Empire 's dominions or colonies , and more than Britain itself . About 40 % of white males in the colony , 5 @,@ 716 men , put on uniform , with 1 @,@ 720 doing so as commissioned officers . Black Southern Rhodesians were represented by the 2 @,@ 507 soldiers who made up the Rhodesia Native Regiment , the roughly 350 who joined the British East Africa Transport Corps , British South Africa Police Mobile Column and South African Native Labour Corps , and the few dozen black scouts who served with the 1st and 2nd Rhodesia Regiments in South @-@ West and East Africa . Southern Rhodesians killed in action or on operational duty numbered over 800 , counting all races together — more than 700 of the colony 's white servicemen died , while the Rhodesia Native Regiment 's black soldiers suffered 146 fatalities .

= = Legacy = =

Accounts of white Southern Rhodesian soldiers ' wartime experiences started to be published in the 1920s . The conflict became a key entry in many national histories , though the role played by black troops was often minimised in these accounts . The colony 's wartime contributions became a source of great pride for much of the Southern Rhodesian white community , as well as for some black Africans ; whites were particularly proud that they had had the highest enlistment rate in the British Empire during the war . A national war memorial , a stone obelisk , 50 feet ( 15 m ) high , was funded by public donations and built in Salisbury in 1919 . Soldiers , one black and one white , were depicted in relief on plaques on each side ; the inscriptions below read " 1914 – 1918 — We fought and died for our King . " Five years later , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel J A Methuen organised the erection on a kopje near Umtali of a stone cross , 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) tall , to memorialise the country 's fallen black soldiers . This monument remains to this day , as does the bronze plaque at its foot , which reads " To the Glory of God and in Memory of Africans Who Fell . 1914 – 1918 . "

Southern Rhodesia 's contributions to the Imperial war effort helped it to become regarded by Britain as more mature and deserving of responsible government , which Whitehall granted in 1923 . The territory was made a self @-@ governing colony , just short of full dominion status . Charged with its own defence , Salisbury introduced the selective conscription of white males in 1926 , and reformed the Rhodesia Regiment the following year . The territory 's association with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps endured in the form of affiliation between the KRRC and the Rhodesia Regiment 's new incarnation , which adopted aspects of the KRRC uniform and a similar regimental insignia . The new Rhodesia Regiment was granted the original 's World War I battle honours and colours by George V in 1929 .

In World War II , Southern Rhodesia again enthusiastically stood behind the UK , symbolically declaring war on Germany in support of Britain before any other colony or dominion . Over 26 @,@ 000 Southern Rhodesians served in the Second World War , making the colony once more the largest contributor of manpower , proportional to white population , in all of the British Empire and Commonwealth . As in World War I , Southern Rhodesians were distributed in small groups throughout the British Army , Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . Dedicated Rhodesian platoons again served in the KRRC , and the Rhodesian African Rifles , raised in 1940 , were in many ways a resurrection of the Rhodesia Native Regiment . Military aviation , already associated with the colony following the First World War , became a great Southern Rhodesian tradition during the Second , with the colony providing No. 44 , No. 237 and No. 266 Squadrons and other personnel to the Royal Air Force , as well as training in Southern Rhodesia for 8 @,@ 235 Allied airmen .

By the 1960s , Southern Rhodesians ' service on Britain 's behalf in the World Wars , particularly the Second , was an integral part of the colony 's national psyche . The territory had also latterly contributed to British counter @-@ insurgency operations in Malaya , Aden and Cyprus , as well as Operation Vantage in Kuwait . The colonial government 's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965 was deliberately made on 11 November , Armistice Day , in an attempt to emphasise the territory 's prior war record on Britain 's behalf . The proclamation was signed at 11 : 00 local time , during the customary two @-@ minute silence to remember the fallen .

Since the country 's reconstitution and recognised independence as Zimbabwe in 1980 , Robert Mugabe 's administration has pulled down many monuments and plaques making reference to the fallen of the First and Second World Wars , perceiving them as reminders of white minority rule and colonialism that go against what the modern state stands for . This view is partly rooted in the association of these memorials with those commemorating the British South Africa Company 's dead of the Matabele Wars , as well as those memorialising members of the Rhodesian Security Forces killed during the Bush War of the 1970s . Many Zimbabweans today see their nation 's involvement in the World Wars as a consequence of colonial rule that had more to do with the white community than the indigenous black majority , and most have little interest in its contributions to those conflicts .

The country 's fallen of the two World Wars today have no official commemoration , either in Zimbabwe or overseas . The national war memorial obelisk still stands , but the relief sculptures and inscriptions have been removed . The stone cross monument near Mutare ( as Umtali is now called ) is one of the few memorials that remains intact and in its place , atop what is now called Cross Kopje ; its meaning has been largely forgotten .

= Road to Europe =

" Road to Europe " is the 20th episode of the third season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 7 , 2002 . The episode follows baby Stewie , who becomes obsessed with the fictional British children 's television series " Jolly Farm Revue " . He decides to run away from home to become part of the cast and his anthropomorphic dog Brian decides to chase him down in an attempt to bring him back home . Meanwhile , Peter and Lois go to a Kiss concert , where Lois reveals she knows nothing about the band , much to Peter 's embarrassment .

" Road to Europe " was written by Daniel Palladino and directed by Dan Povenmire . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and its many cultural references . The episode featured Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss . It also featured guest voices by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn , and voice actor Wally Wingert .

= = Plot summary = =

Stewie is entranced by a British television program entitled Jolly Farm Revue , a colorful children 's show featuring several imaginary characters . Lamenting his future in Quahog , Stewie decides to travel to " Jolly Farm " and live there forever . Desperate , he goes to the local airport and sneaks aboard a transatlantic flight , intending to travel to London , and to find the BBC studios where Jolly Farm Revue is filmed . Brian tries to stop Stewie from leaving Rhode Island , and follows him on board the plane . When he finally finds Stewie , the flight takes off and lands in the Middle East . Brian begins to search for a way to get back to the United States , but Stewie refuses to leave with him and insists they travel to London . Brian and Stewie search for a camel to use as transportation , and they perform a musical number as a diversion in order to steal one . They begin their journey , but the camel dies in the middle of the desert . They soon find a nearby Comfort Inn , however , in which to stay . They steal a hot air balloon from the hotel premises and make their way to the Vatican City , then traveling by train from Switzerland to Munich , and end up in Amsterdam . Upon finally arriving at the BBC Television Centre , Stewie is horrified to learn that the farm is a set , and his beloved characters are merely jaded actors . Disillusioned , Stewie decides to travel back home with Brian to Quahog after getting back the Mother Maggie actress for kicking him by defecating in her shoes . This ordeal also caused Stewie to lose interest in the show .

Meanwhile , Peter is overjoyed to hear about Kiss @-@ stock , a five @-@ night set of concerts in New England by his favorite band , Kiss . He and his wife , Lois , dress in face paint and leather to look like Kiss band members , as does the rest of the crowd , and they manage to stand only a few feet from the stage . When Gene Simmons points the microphone at Lois , encouraging her to sing the next line in the chorus of " Rock and Roll All Nite " , Peter is ashamed to discover that she does not know the lyrics . Deeply saddened by this , Gene and Paul Stanley leave the stage , leaving Ace Frehley and Peter Criss to perform " Chattanooga Choo Choo " to cheer the audience . After the concert , Peter accuses Lois of only pretending to be a Kiss enthusiast , and they leave the concert venue in disgrace . Later that night , Peter and Lois stop at a Denny 's on the way home from the concert . The members of Kiss are seated at another table , and Lois recognizes Gene without his makeup as Chaim Witz ( Gene 's birth name ) , an old classmate . Peter is amazed to discover that Lois had dated Gene when they were in school . Peter 's faith in Lois is then restored , and he proudly shares the news on public @-@ access television that his wife " did " Kiss .

= = Production = =

The episode was written by Daniel Palladino , his first official episode for the series , an executive producer for the show . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Dan Povenmire , in his fourth episode directing for the season ; the first three being " One If by Clam , Two If by Sea " , " To Love and Die in Dixie " , and " Brian Wallows and Peter 's Swallows " .

" Road to Europe " is the second episode of the " Road to ... " hallmarks of the series , which have aired throughout various seasons of the show , and is the second " Road to ... " episode to be directed by Povenmire . The episodes are a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby , Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour . The episode was inspired by the 1941 film Road to Morocco , including its musical number " ( We 're off on the ) Road to Morocco " , which was previously parodied by the two characters , then with alternate lyrics , in the Family Guy episode " Road to Rhode Island " . Fans originally believed that the original title of this episode was " Road to Baghdad " , but in an interview with IGN MacFarlane stated that it was not the case .

In addition to the regular cast , the episode featured guest appearances by comedian Andy Dick , actor and director Jon Favreau , actor Sean Flynn , actress and singer Lauren Graham , actress Michelle Horn and voice actor Wally Wingert . It also guest starred Kiss members Gene Simmons , Paul Stanley , Ace Frehley , and Peter Criss as themselves .

= = Cultural references = =

Every member in the rock band Kiss guest starred in the episode as themselves . " Road to Europe " features several cultural references . Brian compares Stewie 's look with Charlie Brown ; Stewie responds by comparing him with Charlie Brown 's dog Snoopy ; both these characters are from the comic strip Peanuts . At the Kiss concert , the song that the band plays , and the one that Lois does not know the lyrics to , is the single " Rock and Roll All Nite " . In the song Stewie and Brian sing , the Marquis de Sade , singer Ricky Martin and actress Phylicia Rashad are mentioned . Brian also uses Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog 's catch phrase , " For me to poop on " to insult Stewie .

While riding a tour bus in Germany , Brian looks at a history book that has no information regarding German history from 1939 – 1945 ; the years on which World War II started and ended . Brian questions the tour guide about the dates when Germany invaded Poland , but the guide denies that it happened . Brian keeps insisting until the guide yells " Sie werden sich hinsetzen ! Sie werden ruhig sein ! Sie werden nicht beleidigen Deutschland ! " , literally meaning " You will sit down ! You will be quiet ! You will not insult Germany ! " while making the Nazi salute with his left hand . The last sentence is grammatically incorrect , as the proper German statement would be , " Sie werden Deutschland nicht beleidigen ! " At the beginning of the episode , the credits are presented with title cards containing images of Brian and Stewie passing by various iconic places in Europe . These include France 's Eiffel Tower , Italy 's Leaning Tower of Pisa and a venetian gondola , the United Kingdom 's Stonehenge and Greece 's Parthenon . Other iconic items shown include the Union Flag and the Pope .

= = Reception = =

Reviews of the episode by television critics were mostly positive . Critic Ahsan Haque of IGN placed " Road to Europe " in the top ten of Stewie and Brian 's Greatest Adventures , ranking it fifth . Haque noted that the episode is not as entertaining as many of the other Stewie and Brian adventures , but the song included in the episode , " You and I Are So Awfully Different " made it worthy of an appearance on the list . " Road to Europe " is the lowest ranked Road to ... episode on the list with " Road to Germany " at number four , " Road to Rupert " at number three , " Road to the Multiverse " at number two and " Road to Rhode Island " ranked as the best . Television critic Ramsey Isler , also of IGN , commented positively about the episode in his review of the eighth season episode " Go Stewie , Go " , which contained an American version of " Jolly Farm Revue " . Isler went on to note , " for the most part the Jolly Farm concept is much less interesting than it was in the much more amusing and classic Family Guy episode , " Road to Europe " . "

= Three Horses Beer =

Three Horses Beer ( better known locally as THB ) is a pale lager that has been brewed by Star Breweries of Madagascar since 1958 . It is the highest selling beer in Madagascar and has been described as emblematic of the country . THB is sold nationwide and since 2005 has been exported to such markets as France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . The Malagasy beer is produced at two breweries in Madagascar , the first centrally located in Antsirabe and the other in the northern city of Antsiranana . THB Pilsener , the most common variant of THB , has a light taste and is produced from mostly local barley , corn and hops . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh ( a shandy with less than 1 % alcohol ) , THB Special ( 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol ) , and THB Lite ( 1 % alcohol ) . Recent investments in Star Brewery infrastructure have allowed a 20 % increase in production since 2011 .

After advertising alcohol in the media was banned under President Marc Ravalomanana , Star Breweries has increasingly promoted THB through unconventional means . These have included sponsoring the THB Champions League , Madagascar 's national football championship , and holding annual beer festivals . In addition , THB is a regular sponsor of local musicians through major annual festivals and tours . Star Breweries has also hired musicians to perform in music videos specifically created to promote the beer . In 2014 the THB label was significantly redesigned , and in 2015 a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( " THB always ! " ) was promoted alongside the beer 's longstanding trademark Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The beer is regularly promoted by Malagasy musical stars and other public figures .

= = History = =

In 1953 the French company Rochefortaise launched Société Tananarivienne d ’ Articles Réfrigérés ( STAR ) ( Antananarivo Company of Refrigerated Products ) and its associated factory in Antananarivo , Madagascar , for the exclusive production and distribution of Coca @-@ Cola in Madagascar . In 1957 , a brewer was recruited to develop a local beer . After developing 17 different recipes , he travelled throughout the island to test each one using primarily local ingredient ; the best of these was a pilsener chosen as the recipe to be produced at a Star brewery to be established in Antsirabe . The company first began producing Three Horses Beer ( THB ) in 1958 .

In 1968 Star Breweries opened a factory in Antsiranana for the production and distribution of THB as well as Coca @-@ Cola and other carbonated beverages throughout the island 's northern region . In 1980 , Star Breweries became partly state owned ; in 1989 Rochefortaise sold Star Breweries to Groupe Fraise , and the company obtained fully privatized status one year later . In 2005 , the production of THB in cans began at the Star brewery in Antsirabe . In 2011 Groupe Fraise sold Star Breweries to French brewer Castel .

= = Production = =

THB Pilsener , the oldest and most popular THB beer , is a 5 @.@ 4 % abv pale lager light in color with a medium body , thin head and balanced , mildly bitter flavor . THB Pilsener is sold in two sizes of returnable brown bottles : 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) . The pilsener is also sold in 33 centilitres ( 12 imp fl oz ; 11 US fl oz ) and 50 centilitres ( 18 imp fl oz ; 17 US fl oz ) aluminum cans , and has been available on tap at commercial establishments in Madagascar since 2006 . Star Breweries also produces THB Fresh , a shandy ( locally called panaché ) , with less than 1 % alcohol . It is only sold in 65 centilitres ( 23 imp fl oz ; 22 US fl oz ) glass bottles . The original Fresh shandy , which has a lemon taste , has also temporarily been offered in several other flavors , including mint , raspberry and apple . Other variants include THB Special , with 6 @.@ 2 % alcohol , and THB Lite , a low alcohol beer ( 1 % ) .

THB is produced in two breweries in Madagascar : the original brewery , located in Antsirabe , and a second in Antsiranana . Since its inception , THB has been sold in glass bottles tinted brown to protect the contents from the ultraviolet rays of the sun . The Antsirabe factory produces 100 million bottles and 100 @,@ 000 cans of THB per year . Antsirabe was selected for the original brewery because the water there is low in calcium and other minerals , lending itself well to beer production . Ingredients for the production of THB are sourced throughout the island . Barley grown in nearby Betafo and Fianarantsoa is blended with corn and hops from Toliara to produce the beer . Over 2 @,@ 500 tonnes of malt and 3 @,@ 500 tonnes of corn are grown annually in the surrounding Vakinankaratra region for the production of THB . The MALTO collective of 7 @,@ 000 farmers was formed around 1980 in Antsirabe to grow barley and transform it into malt for Star Breweries beer production . Certain special malts are used to produce variants on the original THB recipe , such as THB Special .

Fermentation of THB beer requires approximately eight hours for each mash of 130 hectoliters . The mash is a blend of malt ( sprouted barley ) and corn in an 80 / 20 ratio to which water and hops are added . The mash is heated in a vat for around two hours to support fermentation . The product is filtered and then heated to 100 degrees Celsius to concentrate and sterilize it . The beer is then decanted and cooled for an hour at 10 degrees Celsius . Finally , a type of mushroom is added as a leavening and fermenting agent ; the beer is allowed to ferment for a full week , and excess carbon dioxide produced by the process is collected for the production of soft drinks and other carbonated beverages at the factory . The beer is allowed to rest in vats for several more days before being filtered once more and then bottled and pasteurized at 62 degrees Celsius for three minutes . The automated bottling process yields crates of THB that are ready for shipment to regional wholesale distribution points .

Star Breweries invested over four million euros into improving its factories in the 2009 @-@ 11 period , resulting in a 20 % increase in production capacity . These improvements included refurbishing the production line equipment , including higher performing mixers and belts and a new bottle conveyor system . The Coca @-@ Cola Company issued international HACCP certification to Star Breweries in 2010 , confirming its adherence to international quality standards in beverage production . In 2011 , Coca @-@ Cola also awarded Star Breweries the Gold Medal among 27 competing African countries for the company 's standards of quality and environmental protection in the production of its beer and other beverages . Frequent brownouts resulting from the overtaxed national power grid produce power cuts to the THB breweries that have negatively affected the volume and cost effectiveness of production since the early 2000s .

= = Distribution = =

Star Breweries distributes THB through a network of regional wholesalers , who provide the product to local vendors . Orders are typically sent to the factories on a weekly basis and are filled within two weeks . In 2005 Star Breweries shifted manufacturing of THB in aluminum cans from Mauritius to Antsirabe in order to export the beer to international markets with high Malagasy expatriate populations , including France , Reunion Island , Comoros and Mayotte . All exported THB beer was packaged in aluminum cans manufactured at the Antsirabe brewery ; canned THB was also made available alongside the traditional glass bottles in markets in Madagascar that same year . In 2006 the Star Brewery , which employs 1 @,@ 500 staff , was producing 700 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer annually out of the total market share of 800 @,@ 000 ; 550 @,@ 000 hectoliters were produced at the Antsirabe Star Brewery alone . The Antsiranana factory employs 140 staff and produced 180 @,@ 000 hectoliters of beer ( 24 million bottles ) in 2010 .

= = Marketing = =

To create the original label for THB , Star Breweries opted to copy an existing label for a Dutch beer brand called The Holland Beer , which featured the image of three horses . This was done in part because of the association between Antsirabe and its history of horse breeding ; the brand took the name Three Horses Beer based on this design . The label also features the brand 's slogan , Soa Ny Fiarahantsika ( " The Pleasure of Being Together " ) . The labels were originally printed in the Netherlands and shipped to Madagascar before eventually being produced on the local market ; THB coasters continue to be produced in Europe . The bottle color and shape and its label have undergone adjustments over time . In 2005 , the label was enlarged and the colors brightened . The band around the neck of the bottle was also broadened with the addition of the image of a medal , in honor of the beer 's first international award in 2004 . A new logo was adopted for the canned THB before being expanded in 2014 to the 33 cl bottled THB . The new logo features three stylized , outlined white horses , now facing right to represent a focus on the future . Red remains the predominant color .

Advertising alcohol on television and in the press was outlawed under president Marc Ravalomanana . In order to maximize brand recognition of THB , the company altered the label for its Fresh shandy , which was exempt from this ban due to its low alcohol content , to match the THB Pilsener design but using a green background instead of the pilsener 's red . The pilsener is advertised in a variety of non @-@ traditional ways , such as through celebrity promotion in music videos and music and sporting event sponsorship . THB is considered by the public as a promoter of Malagasy culture and identity , particularly through its sponsorship of its annual THB Tour traveling music festival and the THB fête de la bière ( beer festival ) . Three Horses Beer sponsors the THB Champions League , the national football championship . Many popular musical artists have advertised THB , including superstars Jerry Marcoss , AmbondronA , Samoëla , Tsiliva , Tence Mena and Jaojoby .

THB launched its first website in 2008 . In 2015 , in honor of the 55th anniversary of national independence , Star Breweries launched a new campaign to promote the beer . The company announced a new slogan , " THB eo foana e ! " ( THB always ! ) to be promoted alongside its historic slogan . A song by the same name , written and performed by BIG MJ and the group Tambour Gasy , and an accompanying music video , will promote the beer and the new slogan .

= = Reception = =

In the Malagasy market , THB Pilsener remains the most popular Malagasy brand of beer , and the most popular of any brand of beer sold in Madagascar . It is estimated that four liters per person are sold each year in Madagascar . THB has been described as an " emblem " of the country and a " national symbol " . One Malagasy journalist described THB as symbolic of Fihavanana Malagasy , a cultural value that emphasizes the importance of brotherhood and friendship .

THB won its first ever international award in 2004 at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles international beverage competition in Brussels , Belgium . In 2010 , THB Pilsener was again recognized at this event , receiving the silver medal . THB Pilsener won a gold medal at the same competition in 2012 , and the silver medal in 2015 . THB Fresh also won a gold medal at the Monde Sélection de Bruxelles in 2012 .

= George Headley =

George Alphonso Headley OD ( 30 May 1909 – 30 November 1983 ) was a West Indian cricketer who played 22 Test matches , mostly before the Second World War . Considered one of the best batsmen to play for West Indies and one of the greatest cricketers of all time , Headley also represented Jamaica and played professional club cricket in England . West Indies had a weak cricket team through most of Headley 's playing career ; as their one world @-@ class player , he carried a heavy responsibility and the side depended on his batting . He batted at number three , scoring 2 @,@ 190 runs in Tests at an average of 60 @.@ 83 , and 9 @,@ 921 runs in all first @-@ class matches at an average of 69 @.@ 86 . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1934 .

Headley was born in Panama but raised in Jamaica where he quickly established a cricketing reputation as a batsman . He soon gained his place in the Jamaican cricket team , and narrowly missed selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 . He made his Test debut in 1930 , against England in Barbados , and was instantly successful . Further successes followed in series against Australia and in three more against England , as Headley dominated the West Indian batting of the period . Following his tour of England in 1933 , Headley signed as a professional at Haslingden in the Lancashire League , where he played until the outbreak of war in 1939 .

The war interrupted Headley 's career ; although he returned to Tests in 1948 he was hampered by injuries and did not achieve his previous levels of success . Even so , he was chosen as West Indies captain in 1948 against England , the first black player to be appointed to the position , although a combination of injuries and politics meant he only led his team for one Test match . He did not play Tests between 1949 and 1953 , but resumed his career in English league cricket , first in Lancashire and later in the Birmingham League . His playing career ended in 1954 on his return to Jamaica , after a public subscription paid his fare from England . After retiring as a player , Headley was employed as a cricket coach by the Jamaican government until 1962 . He lived until 1983 ; his son Ron and his grandson Dean each played Test match cricket , for West Indies and England respectively .

= = Early life = =

Headley was born in Colón , Panama on 30 May 1909 , the son of DeCourcy Headley and Irene Roberts . Neither of Headley 's parents was from Panama ; his father was from Barbados and his mother from Jamaica , but they had moved to Panama while DeCourcey worked on the construction of the Panama Canal . By the time Headley was five years old the Canal was complete , and the family moved to Cuba in search of further employment . In 1919 , concerned by the amount of Spanish being spoken by her son , Headley 's mother took him to Jamaica so he could be educated in an English @-@ speaking school .

Headley moved in with his mother 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Mrs Clarence Smith , in Rae Town , Kingston , and remained with her until her death in 1933 . His mother returned to Cuba , but regularly exchanged letters with her son . He attended Calabar Elementary School , where he played for the school cricket team as a wicket @-@ keeper , although a meagre sporting budget meant he had to do so without gloves . Later , he continued his education at Kingston High School . Taking part in all @-@ day cricket matches at the local Crabhole Park , Headley began to attract local attention , and aged 16 , he joined Raetown Cricket Club . In 1925 he scored his first century , batting at number three in the batting order in a match for Raetown against Clovelly .

On leaving school , Headley was appointed as a temporary clerk in a magistrate 's court ; this enabled him to play competitive cricket for the St Andrew 's Police side in 1926 , in a cup competition . Some impressive performances for the club earned him an invitation to practice with the Jamaica Colts team . However , his job made it impossible to attend , and he was not considered for the Jamaican side against Lord Tennyson 's English touring side in 1927 . That year , Headley began working for Keeling – Lindo Estates , in St Catherine . The firm were enthusiastic cricket patrons , allowing employees time off to play in matches , so that Headley was able to attend practice with the Jamaica team on a regular basis . He also moved to the St Catherine Cricket Club , captained by his immediate superior in Keeling – Lindo . To generate more income , Headley took a second job , working for the Jamaica Fruit and Shipping Company , but he wanted a secure profession . To this end , he planned to move to America to pursue a career in dentistry . However , he was now on the verge of the Jamaica team and a delay in the arrival of the application forms for his American work permit allowed him to make his first @-@ class debut for Jamaica against another touring team led by Lord Tennyson .

= = Early career = =

Headley made his Jamaica debut against Lord Tennyson 's XI at Sabina Park on 9 February 1928 , in a match won easily by the home team . Batting at number three , his first innings yielded 16 runs , but in the second innings , he scored 71 , reaching fifty runs in as many minutes . In the second game against Lord Tennyson 's XI which began in Kingston on 18 February , Headley scored his maiden first @-@ class century . Having scored 22 not out after the first day 's play , he reached 50 runs by playing very carefully but subsequently played more adventurous shots . He hit the bowling of Alan Hilder for four consecutive fours and twice hit Lord Tennyson for three fours in a row . At one point , thirteen of his scoring shots in a row went for four . He was finally out for 211 , the highest score at the time by a West Indian batsman against an English team . After the innings , Tennyson compared Headley to Victor Trumper and Charlie Macartney , batsmen considered among the best who ever played . Headley concluded the series against Tennyson 's team with innings of 40 and 71 , to give him an aggregate of 409 runs at an average of 81 @.@ 80 . He also took his maiden first class wicket .

Following his success , Headley abandoned his prospective career in dentistry . Although some critics expected his selection for the West Indies tour of England in 1928 , Headley was not chosen . While West Indies played their inaugural Test series during that tour , Headley continued to play for St Catherine 's . He had another opportunity against English opposition in 1929 , when a team led by Julien Cahn arrived to play two first @-@ class games . Jamaica 's distance from other Caribbean islands made it difficult for their cricketers to gain good @-@ quality playing experience , so the frequent visits by English sides were important to the development of Jamaican cricket . These tours also served to build Headley 's reputation . In the first match , Headley played a slow , defensive innings of 57 , but he did not reach fifty in his other three innings . Even so , he was chosen by the Jamaican selectors for a West Indies XI , which included players from other islands , to play Cahn 's team in their final tour match . The home side lost the toss and had to bat in very difficult conditions following rain . Headley found the fast bowlers difficult , but survived the period when the pitch was most difficult to bat on before he was out for 44 . In the second innings , he attacked from the start and used a wide range of shots to reach 143 before he was run out . In three matches against the tourists , Headley scored 326 runs , averaging 54 @.@ 33 .

A change in the location of his job meant that Headley moved to the Lucas Cricket Club in 1929 . He visited America and played some exhibition matches for the Jamaican Athletic Club in New York , scoring a century against a touring team from Bermuda ; his parents had moved to America by then , which enabled Headley to combine the cricket with his first visit to his parents in ten years .

= = Test match career = =

= = = Debut and first Test series = = =

In 1930 the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) undertook a tour of the West Indies which included four Test matches — the first Tests to be played in the West Indies . The MCC side was not at full international strength ; it included players who were either just beginning or just ending their international careers , and several star English bowlers were missing . The first Test was played in Barbados and Headley was selected , making his debut for the West Indies on 11 February 1930 — to the disapproval of some Barbadians who thought his place should have gone to a local player . Batting at number three , he played aggressively in the first innings but the crowd barracked him and he was bowled for 21 . However , in the second innings he scored 176 , becoming the first West Indian to score a century on his Test debut and only their second centurion overall . He shared century partnerships with both Clifford Roach and Frank de Caires , but these were insufficient to force victory , and the match was drawn . Headley remained in the Test side for the rest of the series , the only home player other than Roach to appear in all four Tests . In Trinidad , during the second Test , Headley found the unfamiliar conditions difficult — Trinidad was the only Test match ground in the Caribbean which was played on a pitch made from matting instead of grass . Headley scored eight and 39 as West Indies lost the match . The home side levelled the series with their first ever Test victory in the third match of the series , played in British Guiana . In this match Headley became the first West Indian , and only the fifth cricketer of any nation , to score two separate hundreds in a Test match . His first innings of 114 was played mainly in support of Roach , who scored a double century . In the second innings , Headley scored 112 as West Indies batted with a big first innings lead , attacking defensive English bowling .

While en route to the final Test in Jamaica , the West Indies team stopped in Panama and Costa Rica where official functions were held in Headley 's honour . In Jamaica , where there was widespread jubilation , Headley attended several receptions and celebrations . When the cricket resumed , Headley scored 64 , 72 and 55 in three innings against MCC for Jamaica . With the Test series level , it was agreed that the final match of the series would be played until one team won , regardless of how long it took — the other Tests had been limited to four days each . On the first three days , England scored 849 . In reply West Indies could only manage 286 , with Headley out for ten runs . England batted again , to set West Indies an eventual victory target of 836 . This time , Headley batted for 390 minutes , faced 385 balls and hit 28 fours while scoring 223 . He and Karl Nunes added 227 for the second wicket . Headley played the hook very effectively and hit many short deliveries for runs . When Headley was stumped , he had made what was at the time the fourth highest individual score in all Test cricket and the highest in a second innings . When West Indies still needed 428 runs , rain fell for two days and the match had to be abandoned after its ninth scheduled day . Headley ended the series with 703 runs at an average of 87 @.@ 87 .

= = = Australian tour = = =

Headley was selected for the West Indian tour of Australia in the 1930 – 31 season , under the captaincy of Jackie Grant . After a brief visit to New Zealand where they played a non @-@ first @-@ class match against Wellington , the tourists arrived in Sydney . Headley made a good start to the tour and attracted praise from the press in Australia and West Indies . The first match of the Australian leg was against New South Wales , where the West Indians were bowled out for 188 and Headley was stumped for 25 . However , his runs came in less than two overs and Learie Constantine later rated this as one of Headley 's best innings . In the second innings , Headley made 82 , the top score , but could not prevent the tourists losing . The next match was also lost , as Bert Ironmonger took thirteen wickets in the match for Victoria . In the first innings , Headley scored 131 out of 212 , regarded by one critic as one of the best centuries scored on the ground , and top @-@ scored again with 34 in the second innings . By this stage the Australian bowlers had realised that Headley excelled when hitting the ball through the off side , and they began to alter their tactics accordingly . In the final match before the Test series began , against South Australia , Headley had problems playing the Australian bowlers , particularly the leg spin of Clarrie Grimmett . The Australians bowled at Headley 's leg stump with fielders concentrated on the leg side , making it difficult for him to score runs . Headley scored 27 and 16 as his team were heavily defeated . These bowling tactics were used in subsequent matches , and Headley found difficulty in countering them .

At the beginning of the first Test , West Indies were bowled out 296 as Grimmett took seven wickets , including Headley first ball . In the second innings , with West Indies 80 behind , Grimmett again attacked Headley 's leg stump . After having his scoring restricted , Headley lost patience and after scoring 11 was stumped , trying to hit Grimmett . Bowled out for 249 , West Indies lost by ten wickets . After scoring only three in the following tour match against Tasmania , Headley contributed 14 and two in an innings defeat in the second Test . After two heavy Test defeats for the tourists , some critics believed that the series was too one @-@ sided and that some of the five Tests should be cancelled . Headley 's poor run of form continued in the West Indian victory over Queensland and , having put on weight , he was also struggling with his fitness . In an effort to overcome Australia 's leg stump attack Headley had altered his batting stance ; instead of standing at right angles to the bowler , he turned his body more front @-@ on , to enable him to improve his placement of the ball on the leg side . His quick footwork enabled him to alter his position if necessary to play the ball on the off side . He also eliminated from his strokes a risky cover drive he had developed on Caribbean pitches . During the third Test at Brisbane , Headley made his first substantial contribution to the series , after Australia scored 558 batting first . Facing Grimmett 's leg side tactics , Headley managed to score freely , and forced Grimmett to alter to an off stump attack . With ten fours in total , Headley became the first West Indian to score a century against Australia , and was left 102 not out when West Indies were bowled out for 193 . Forced to follow @-@ on , West Indies were dismissed for 148 of which Headley made 28 , the highest score of the innings . Ironmonger tricked him into playing the leg glance and he was caught by the wicket @-@ keeper who had moved across in anticipation of the shot .

Headley maintained his good form in matches against Victoria and South Australia after the third Test , scoring 77 and 113 in the first match and 75 and 39 in the second . Although neither match was won , the West Indians needed to take only one more wicket to win the first match when it ended drawn , and lost the second by a single wicket . However , the fourth Test was lost by an innings as Ironmonger again caused difficulties for the West Indies batsmen . Headley top @-@ scored with 33 out of the first innings total of 99 but made only 11 on his second attempt , being dismissed both times by Ironmonger . By now the tour was making a financial loss , forcing the tourists to take economy measures such as travelling by tram . In conversation with a member of the Australian Board of Control , Headley , Constantine and fellow tourist Tommy Scott suggested the authorities should produce faster pitches to enable the public to see more attacking cricket . It seems this advice may have been heeded ; the pitch was faster in a match against New South Wales , won by the West Indians , in which Headley scored 70 and two . In the fifth Test , West Indies won the toss and batted first , which proved an advantage in a match plagued by uncertain weather . Headley and fellow Jamaican Frank Martin scored centuries on the first day despite bowling from the Australians which the Jamaican newspaper Daily Gleaner described as good . Headley , playing Grimmett comfortably by now , batted for 146 minutes , and hit 13 fours . In the course of the innings he achieved the rare feat in Australia of reaching 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs on the tour . Grant , the West Indies captain , declared the innings closed after rain had fallen to make the pitch more difficult for batting . Australia were then bowled out for 224 , 126 runs behind West Indies . The tourists scored 124 more runs in their second innings , of which Headley made 30 , before more rain fell and Grant declared for the second time in the match . Subsequently , the bowlers dismissed Australia for 220 to give West Indies their first win over Australia , although the series ended 4 – 1 to the home side . Headley scored 336 runs in the Test matches at an average of 37 @.@ 33 , and 1 @,@ 066 runs at 44 @.@ 41 in all first @-@ class games .

On their return home , the West Indian players were well received by the public and officials ; Headley received praise and once again attended functions arranged in his honour . In Australia Donald Bradman , the star Australian batsman , praised Headley , particularly for the way in which he had overcome his problems against Grimmett . C. L. R. James , the writer and historian , later wrote that Headley 's success demonstrated his mastery of batting . Headley arrived in Australia as a primarily off @-@ side player which accounted for his difficulty against the Australian bowlers ' tactics . However , James notes : " What he did , under fire , so to speak , was to reorganise his batting to meet the new attack . " So successful was Headley that he was described by Grimmett as the best on @-@ side batsman against whom the bowler had played .

= = = Tour by Lord Tennyson 's team = = =

Headley resumed playing for Lucas on his return to Jamaica , attracting great crowds and high expectations . Once the cricket season ended , he embarked on another trip to America to play exhibition matches , visiting his parents on the journey . On his return for the 1931 – 32 season , he was appointed captain of Lucas and began preparing for the forthcoming tour of Jamaica by another team led by Lord Tennyson . In addition to his regular practice , Headley began a programme of running and swimming to improve his overall fitness . After performing well in the trial matches for Jamaica , he was selected in the first match against the tourists . Jamaica made an uncertain start , losing five wickets by the time their score reached 215 but Headley had scored 130 . He then shared a partnership of 487 for the sixth wicket with Clarence Passailaigue ; 236 not out after the first day 's play , Headley went on to score an unbeaten 344 , after batting for 407 minutes and hitting 39 fours . Jamaica totalled 702 , and won the match by an innings . During his innings , Headley passed the previous highest score by any West Indian batsman , 304 not out by Percy Tarilton in 1920 , and the highest score in the West Indies by any batsman , Andy Sandham 's 325 in 1930 . His partnership with Passailaigue took 248 minutes , and as of 2015 remains a world record for the highest sixth wicket partnership in a first @-@ class match . The success of two home batsmen led to celebrations in Jamaica and praise from the English bowlers for Headley 's batting . Headley continued his success in the second game , opening the batting and top @-@ scoring with 84 in the first innings . In the second innings , opening again , he made 155 not out to guide West Indies to their victory target of 363 . In the final match , Headley scored his third century of the series after returning to number three , accumulating 140 of Jamaica 's total of 561 . Jamaica won the match to win the series 3 – 0 ; Headley scored 723 runs at an average of 361 @.@ 50 . In the remainder of the season , Headley led Lucas to victory in the Senior Cup , scoring a century in the final .

= = = 1933 tour of England = = =

After playing in two trial matches , Headley was selected to tour England in 1933 under the continuing captaincy of Jackie Grant . The English press speculated on Headley 's ability to cope with English conditions , while expecting him to perform to a high standard . In the event , Wisden believed he justified the expectations and increased his reputation . In the first match of the tour he scored 52 out of a total of 129 against Northamptonshire , in difficult batting conditions on a wet pitch . He scored fifties in each of his next three matches before scoring a century against the MCC during his first appearance at Lord 's Cricket Ground . In the second innings of this match , a short ball from Bill Bowes struck Headley on the chest , and as a result of this injury he missed three games , but when he returned to the team he scored 129 against Glamorgan and 224 not out against Somerset . A quieter match followed against Middlesex , but Headley reached his second double century of the tour in the match against Derbyshire , which took him past 1 @,@ 000 runs for the season . Despite Headley 's contributions , the West Indians won only one of these matches and subsequently lost the first Test against England by an innings . Headley scored 13 in the West Indies first innings , and his 50 was the highest score when West Indies followed @-@ on . Critics were impressed by Headley 's second innings performance , in which he scored his runs out of 64 added while he was batting . Between the first and second Tests , in matches where conditions were difficult for batting and ideal for spin bowlers , Headley scored three fifties and achieved his side 's highest score in each of four innings .

West Indies drew the second Test , avoiding defeat for the first time in a Test in England . Headley scored 169 in 375 minutes with 18 fours , sharing a partnership of 200 in 205 minutes with Ivan Barrow — who became the first West Indian to score a Test century in England , minutes before Headley became the second . When the innings ended , Headley was still not out and the crowd gave him an excellent reception . Wisden described Headley 's batting as magnificent , displaying " a ready adaptability and perfection of timing . " The West Indies bowlers used Bodyline tactics in the England innings ; England 's Nobby Clark used the tactic in the West Indian second innings , in which Headley scored 24 runs . He was one of the few of his side 's batsmen able to resist the bowling tactics .

After scoring an unbeaten 257 in a minor match against Norfolk , Headley scored 89 in his team 's victory over Glamorgan and 182 against Warwickshire . However , he failed in the third and final Test , scoring nine and 12 as West Indies were defeated by an innings . The tourists thus lost the series 2 – 0 ; in the three Tests Headley 's aggregate was 277 runs at an average of 55 @.@ 40 , the best figures for the team . After the Test matches were over , Headley had an operation to remove a sebaceous cyst from his forehead and missed several games , before returning for an end @-@ of @-@ season festival match in which he scored 167 against an England XI . When the tour concluded , Headley had scored 2 @,@ 320 runs with seven hundreds , at an average of 66 @.@ 28 . This was over 1 @,@ 000 runs more than any other tourist and placed him third in the English first @-@ class batting averages for the season . Ivan Barrow believed Headley reached his batting peak during the tour . He recalled how many bowlers tried to hit his pads with the ball but Headley simply flicked the ball away . Headley 's performances earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The accompanying article called his tour " almost a triumphant march " and described him as " the best batsman the West Indies have ever produced . " Wisden editor Sydney Southerton also described him as a giant in the team and wrote : " From what we had been told by English players who had been to the West Indies , we were fully prepared for Headley 's success , but even so , he astonished most of us . " Headley bowled more than he had previously : prior to the tour , he had taken three first class wickets , but took 21 wickets in England at an average of 34 @.@ 33 , bowling off spin .

During the tour , Headley received news that his aunt had been killed by floods in Kingston which had also destroyed his home . Headley was greatly affected by the news , particularly the nature of her death . Although not able to attend the funeral , he wanted to leave England on an earlier ship than the rest of the team , but this could not be arranged in time .

= = = Lancashire League = = =

Following his success in England in 1933 , Headley was offered a two @-@ year contract to play professional cricket for Haslingden in the Lancashire League for £ 500 per season , the highest of several offers . The money was far more than he was earning from working as a fruit picker in Jamaica , and after consulting the Jamaican Cricket Board , who advised him to accept , he signed with the club on 8 September 1933 . There was a special provision which allowed Headley to be released to play for West Indies . Living in Haslingden where there were few , if any , other black people , Headley faced some prejudice from residents . However , he was generally welcomed and accepted . His first season was in 1934 and his first match was against Nelson , for whom Headley 's West Indian Test colleague Learie Constantine played . Headley had a difficult match . As the professional , he was expected to open the bowling although , as a spinner , he would normally have bowled later in an innings . When he batted he was run out for a duck by Constantine after facing one delivery , and Haslingden lost the match . After this poor start , Headley scored 1 @,@ 063 runs in the season at an average of 50 @.@ 62 , with three centuries . He changed his bowling style to medium pace and took 59 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 59 . In 1935 he scored over 900 runs at an average of 61 @.@ 13 , and took 34 wickets ; his contract was renewed for another two years . In 1936 he again scored over 900 runs , and took 54 wickets . In 1937 he broke the record for most runs scored by any player in a Lancashire League season , accumulating 1 @,@ 360 at an average of 97 @.@ 15 , with five centuries ; he also took 41 wickets . Headley 's final two @-@ year contract with the club covered the seasons 1938 and 1940 , since he was expected to tour England with the West Indies team in 1939 . The war prevented him playing in 1940 , so his last season with Haslingden was 1938 . Although in that year his overall batting performance declined , to 677 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 61 , he took 76 wickets at 9 @.@ 70 and had success in the Worsley Cup competition , including one innings of 189 not out in a match played over five evenings .

= = = Career in mid @-@ 1930s = = =

Headley did not play any first @-@ class cricket in the West Indies in 1933 – 34 , but returned to Jamaica in readiness for the 1934 – 35 MCC tour . The visiting team , under the captaincy of Bob Wyatt , was stronger than English teams that had previously toured the Caribbean ; despite some shortcomings , Wisden and other critics considered it strong enough for the task in hand .

The first Test in Barbados was badly affected by rain which made the pitch almost impossible to bat on . West Indies batted first and were bowled out for 102 ; Headley 's 44 was the highest score of the match . In reply , England had scored 81 for seven when Wyatt declared in an attempt to make West Indies bat while the pitch was difficult . In the second innings , Headley was out for a duck and Jackie Grant declared when West Indies had scored 51 for six , so that England required 73 to win ; they did so after losing six wickets . In the second Test , Headley scored 25 in his first innings ; in the second , he adopted a cautious approach as his team led by 44 , hitting 93 in 225 minutes . West Indies subsequently bowled out England to win the match and level the series . The rain @-@ affected third Test was drawn , with Headley 's 53 his side 's top score .

The MCC went to Jamaica for the final leg of their tour . Headley played two matches for Jamaica against the tourists ; he failed in the first game but scored 127 in the second . The teams went into the fourth and final Test with the series still level at one win apiece . West Indies batted first , facing accurate bowling . The local press criticised the West Indies batsmen for slow batting on the first day , but Headley scored 132 . The Daily Gleaner noted that Headley maintained the controlled approach he had established in the season . On the second day , he took his score to 270 not out , and the Gleaner described him as " the genius we all know , scoring with all his old freedom and audacity . " In total , he batted for 495 minutes and hit 30 fours , recording the highest score by a West Indian batsman . It remained a West Indian record until Garfield Sobers scored 365 not out in 1958 , and was the team 's highest against England until Lawrence Rowe scored 302 in 1974 . West Indies scored 535 for seven and bowled out England twice to record their first victory in a Test series . Headley contributed 485 runs at an average of 97 @.@ 00 .

Headley returned to England to play for Haslingden in the 1935 English season , and played a single first @-@ class game , scoring a century for Sir L Parkinson 's XI against Leicestershire . In the 1935 – 36 season , the Yorkshire team toured Jamaica , playing three first @-@ class matches , winning one and drawing the others . The touring county considered Headley the key batsman , and targeted him by bowling defensively in an attempt to frustrate him . Headley lost his wicket through impatience in the first match , although he scored a pair of fifties , but scored a century in the third game . In total , he scored 266 runs at an average of 53 @.@ 20 , but Yorkshire won the series after winning the first game , Jamaica 's first defeat at home in a first @-@ class game for ten years . The matches were played in a very competitive atmosphere , but scoring was slow and Yorkshire played attritional cricket . During the series , Headley demanded expenses , which were not normally granted to the players . The Jamaican Board were reluctant to pay but Headley pointed out that , as a professional cricketer , he was entitled to the same treatment as the Yorkshire players , whose expenses were provided . The Board eventually relented before the series ended .

= = = Second tour of England = = =

In 1936 Headley returned to England , and played no more first @-@ class cricket until the two trial matches for the 1939 tour of England . These matches were played in Trinidad where it was believed the matting pitches would most closely replicate English conditions ; Jamaica played Trinidad and a combination team . When Jamaica 's captain , Crab Nethersole , withdrew from the tour due to political commitments , Headley led Jamaica in both matches and scored 160 and 103 . Subsequently , he was chosen for his second tour of England , under the captaincy of Rolph Grant . Headley opened his tour with fifties in his first two matches and by the time the Test series started , although the tourists had lost three matches , he had scored three centuries — 103 against Cambridge University , 116 not out in a victory over Essex and 227 as the tourists defeated Middlesex .

In the first Test , West Indies suffered their only defeat of the series . However , Norman Preston , the editor of Wisden , wrote : " the match provided a personal triumph for Headley " , as he became only the second cricketer after Herbert Sutcliffe to make two hundreds in the same Test match on two separate occasions , having previously done so against England in 1930 . He became the first player to score two hundreds in a Lord 's Test , a feat not repeated until 1990 . In the first innings , Headley scored 106 with 13 fours . After sharing a big partnership with Jeff Stollmeyer , he received little help from the other batsmen . He played cautiously during his 250 @-@ minute innings , as he was aware that his team were relying on his success . By the time West Indies batted again , England had established a lead of 127 . Headley again batted defensively to score 107 , taking two hours to reach 50 , as West Indies needed to bat for a long time to secure a draw . However , he scored runs from any loose bowling and batted in all for 230 minutes , hitting eight fours . Preston , writing in Wisden , believed the West Indians relied too much on Headley 's batting . He also noted that Headley had to play cautiously for his team and although he hit powerful shots , " he was not the same dashing batsmen that England knew in 1933 . " Headley had scored three centuries in consecutive Test innings , but he could not prevent England winning this first Test by eight wickets . He continued to score heavily in the tour matches , making an unbeaten 234 in an innings win over Nottinghamshire , followed by 61 against Yorkshire on a sticky wicket , one of the best innings Neville Cardus had seen .

The second Test was drawn , after being badly affected by rain . Headley , although troubled by the English bowling on a difficult pitch , top @-@ scored with 51 in West Indies ' first innings but the other batsmen contributed little . Headley scored just five in West Indies ' brief second innings , bringing to an end a sequence of six fifties in successive Test innings . After the Test , Headley scored 93 against Surrey but failed to reach fifty in his next three games , which included three single figure scores . West Indies needed to win the final Test to level the series and the team established a first @-@ innings lead of 146 . Headley played cautiously for 140 minutes , attempting to tire out the bowlers , but was run out for 65 in a misunderstanding with Vic Stollmeyer . The remaining batsmen played well , attacking the English bowling . Preston believed this match demonstrated West Indies ' ability to compete at the highest level . However , England were able to bat long enough to secure a draw . In the Test series , Headley scored 334 runs at an average of 66 @.@ 80 , but did not play again on the tour after the final Test , as the team were advised to abandon the last seven matches because of the deteriorating political situation in Europe . They arrived in Canada on the day that Britain declared war on Germany . In all first @-@ class matches during the tour , Headley scored 1 @,@ 745 runs at 72 @.@ 70 , placing him at the top of the season 's first @-@ class averages .

Wisden judged Headley to be the best batsman of the 1939 season , while other critics rated him among the best batsmen in the world , with favourable comparisons to Bradman . C. B. Fry , a former England captain turned journalist , wrote that Headley 's " middle name should be Atlas " , suggesting that he carried the team on his shoulders .

= = Later career = =

= = = After the war = = =

Following the outbreak of war , the Lancashire League clubs cancelled professionals ' contracts , meaning Headley did not complete his final year with Haslingden . Having returned to Jamaica , he worked in the Labour Department for the government and played cricket for Lucas , enjoying batting success and captaining his team to victory in the Senior Cup on three occasions . Headley continued to play for the team until 1947 , when he left to play for the Kensington Club . Unlike other Caribbean teams , Jamaica did not take part in inter @-@ island competition , and although Headley played some exhibition matches in America in 1945 , it was not until June 1946 that he took part in his next first @-@ class match . Trinidad played three matches in Jamaica and Headley scored 52 in the second game but only reached his best form when he scored 99 in the third . However , he was successful as a bowler , taking five for 33 in the first game , the only five wicket return of his career . This included a spell of three wickets without conceding a run in 14 deliveries , prompting a pitch invasion by the crowd . Headley also captained Jamaica in the final two matches of the series against Trinidad after the official captain was injured during the home team 's win in the first match — the other two were drawn .

Prior to a visit by Barbados in March 1947 , Headley was officially appointed as Jamaican captain . Previous captains of island teams had been almost exclusively white . Around this time , Headley requested the Jamaican board provide support for low income players with their kit and transport costs . In the first game against Barbados , Headley scored 203 not out and 57 not out , took four for 40 in the tourists ' first innings and another wicket in the second . Although the game was drawn , he had recorded Jamaica 's highest score in a match between the Caribbean islands . The second match was also drawn ; Headley made 79 before he had to retire when he fell and injured his knee . Another American tour followed , in which Headley was accompanied by promising young players , before he led the Jamaican team to British Guiana in October 1947 . He played only two innings in the two matches , scoring 36 and 4 not out . A thumb injury in the first match meant he could not bat , although he bowled 44 overs in the game . Headley was verbally abused by a section of the crowd , who disapproved of a black captain ; he was also dissatisfied with the impartiality of the umpires . Crab Nethersole , the Jamaican manager for the tour , reported that injuries to key players and the poor attitude of the crowd made the tour difficult , although Headley 's captaincy was universally praised .

= = = Resumption of Test career = = =

For reasons related to class and race , it had been unthinkable before the war for the West Indies to appoint a black Test captain , but the postwar world saw social and political changes in the Caribbean . Although opinion was still divided over the merits of a black captain , Headley was appointed as one of the West Indian captains for the series against the England team which toured the Caribbean in 1948 . Crab Nethersole , the former Jamaican captain and member of the Board of Control for cricket , argued Headley should be outright captain but a compromise was reached . Headley was scheduled to captain the first and fourth Test matches , played in Barbados and Jamaica , and the white players Gerry Gomez and John Goddard were given the captaincy of the second and third matches . In the event , Headley only played in the first Test . In the first innings , he scored 29 but strained his back while fielding . Batting towards the end of West Indies ' second innings , he scored seven not out . Rain helped England to draw the match . Headley 's back caused him to miss the second and third Tests , but he was fit enough to play for Jamaica when the tourists arrived there to play two games against the island before the fourth and final Test . After the first island game , in which he scored 65 , Headley 's request to miss the second match to rest his back was refused by the Jamaican Board . He scored 36 not out , but aggravated his back pains and he withdrew from the final Test . West Indies won this game under the captaincy of Goddard , who had earlier led West Indies to victory in the third Test . He was subsequently chosen to captain West Indies in India in 1948 – 49 , despite Headley 's availability and apparently superior claims to the position .

Selected for the Indian tour after a specific request by the Indian cricket authorities , Headley did not have much success in the early matches and in the drawn first Test he scored only two in a total of 631 . West Indies then moved to Pakistan ; in a non first @-@ class game Headley took six wickets as a bowler , but then in a match against a representative Pakistan XI he fell and injured his side while attempting to take a catch . He batted in discomfort , scoring 57 not out . This injury meant that he played no further part in the five @-@ match Test series against India . Although he continued to travel with the team , he was unable to play in any further matches until the final game of the tour , when he scored 100 against Ceylon Schools as the tourists travelled home via Ceylon .

Headley played for the Kensington Club until 1950 , when he resumed league cricket in England ; he returned for a final season with Kensington in 1955 before retiring from Senior Cup cricket . Meanwhile , he took a new job as an insurance agent . This affected his availability for cricket as he was no longer able to take leave when playing for a team ; if he did not work , he received no wages . Consequently , he did not accept the captaincy of Jamaica during the Test trials for the 1950 tour of England and did not travel with the team . Press reaction was unfavourable towards Headley but the West Indies Board still wanted to select him for the tour . However , Headley accepted a contract with Bacup in the Lancashire League , to replace Everton Weekes who was in the touring party .

For Bacup Headley scored 909 runs and took 20 wickets in 1950 , before signing to play for Dudley in the Birmingham League in 1951 . He and his family moved to Birmingham , and in each the next four seasons Headley averaged over 65 with the bat and under 17 with the ball . In his second season , the club topped the league . In total , he scored 2 @,@ 878 runs for Dudley and , resuming off spin bowling , took 102 wickets . While in England during this time , he played several first @-@ class matches for a Commonwealth XI against an England XI ; he scored 20 in 1951 and accumulated 98 and 61 in 1952 .

= = = End of Test career = = =

Headley 's success for Dudley was watched keenly in Jamaica and commentators began to discuss his availability for the 1954 series against England . A public subscription to finance his travel to Jamaica , opened by the Daily Gleaner , raised over £ 1 @,@ 000 , and despite his reservations , Headley returned to Jamaica . Playing in a fund @-@ raising match , he sustained a hand injury and playing for the Combined Parishes in a minor match against the MCC , a short ball from Fred Trueman struck Headley 's arm . The latter injury kept him out of the first @-@ class match between Jamaica and the MCC , but he played in the second where , although hampered by his injury , he scored 53 not out . The Test selectors had seen enough to include Headley in the team for the first Test . Reaction among critics was mixed , and Headley , nearing his 45th birthday , remains the oldest man as of 2015 to play a Test match for West Indies . Headley batted at number six , and it appeared that England , under the captaincy of Len Hutton , let Headley score an easy run to begin his innings , which Hutton later confirmed to be the case . However , Headley later argued that the run was given to ensure that he was batting at the beginning of the next over , so that England could try to get him out before he settled down .

Headley scored 16 and 1 in the match , his final Test appearance . He used his experience to influence the captain , Jeff Stollmeyer , advising him not to enforce the follow on and to use leg theory bowling to slow down the tourists ' scoring . These tactics helped West Indies to a 140 @-@ run win in a match they might have lost ; Stollmeyer followed a similar approach in the following match . In 22 Tests , Headley scored 2 @,@ 190 runs at an average of 60 @.@ 83 .

Headley finished his career at Dudley at the end of 1954 ; his son Ron played for the club from 1957 , having already played for its second team in 1952 as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old . After his final Test match appearance , Headley 's only other first @-@ class match was in the Commonwealth XI fixture in 1954 , when he scored 64 in his final first @-@ class innings . In a career total of 103 first @-@ class games he aggregated 9 @,@ 921 runs at 69 @.@ 86 , with 33 centuries , and took 51 wickets at 36 @.@ 11 .

= = Style , technique and legacy = =

Headley is regarded by critics as one of the best batsmen from the Caribbean and one of the greatest batsmen of all time . In his history of West Indies cricket , Michael Manley described Headley as " the yardstick against whom all other West Indian batsmen are measured " . In 1988 , The Cricketer magazine placed him in an all @-@ time West Indian team , as did a panel of judges for another such team in July 2010 , while in 2004 , another panel of experts named him among the top five West Indian players . He was given the nicknames " the Black Bradman " and " Atlas " by commentators , and was the first world @-@ class batsman from the West Indies who was black . According to historian Gideon Haigh , his role was made harder by the weakness of his colleagues , as few outstanding players find it easy to play in teams which lose frequently . Although he was a naturally attacking player , Headley felt the need to play cautiously owing to the way his team depended on him . C. L. R. James believed that no other great batsman had to carry such a burden for so long . In the years before the war , Headley scored 25 @.@ 61 % of the runs scored in Tests by West Indies , more than twice as many as the next best batsman , and two @-@ thirds of the team 's centuries , scoring ten of the team 's first fourteen centuries in Test cricket . Headley usually batted at number three and as the opening batsmen were often dismissed quickly , he frequently began his innings early .

As of 2014 , Headley 's average in Test matches of 60 @.@ 83 is third highest among those with 2 @,@ 000 runs , behind Bradman and Graeme Pollock , and but for the Tests he played after the war , he would have been above Pollock . In all first @-@ class matches , he has the third highest average with 69 @.@ 86 , behind Bradman and Vijay Merchant among those who played 50 innings . He averaged a century every fourth innings in which he batted , second again to Bradman , and did not suffer a poor series in his career before the war .

Manley describes Headley as just under medium height with sloping shoulders . His movements were precise and economical on the cricket field ; his cap was usually at a slight angle and his sleeves were buttoned down to the wrist . Wisden noted in 1933 that his timing and placement of the ball was perfect . Exceptionally quick on his feet , he watched the ball onto the bat more than any other batsman . According to Wisden , all his shots were equally good but most notable was his on drive played from the back foot . He hit the ball hard and was very difficult to get out . He faced criticism for playing off the back foot so often , but R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow believed his square cut , late cut , and hook were exceptionally good . Headley was particularly effective on bad batting wickets . C. L. R. James calculated that Headley averaged 39 @.@ 85 and passed fifty on seven occasions in thirteen innings on difficult wickets . According to James 's reckoning , Bradman in similar conditions passed fifty once , and averaged 16 @.@ 66 in fifteen innings . Headley himself preferred batting when the odds favoured the bowlers as he had to go for his shots and play his natural attacking game . He stated : " On a bad wicket , it was you and the bowler ... no nonsense . "

Beyond cricket , Headley 's success was regarded as important . Of Headley 's meeting with the king of England in 1939 , the West Indian writer Frank Birbalsingh said : " That one of us — a black man — could shake the hand of a king introduced possibilities formerly undreamt of in our colonial backwater of racial inferiority , psychological subordination and political powerlessness . " Manley notes that Headley rose to success at a time of political awakening in Jamaica , when the black majority of the population were increasingly determined to end the minority rule of landowners and challenge the racism of the time . According to Manley , the middle classes saw in Headley " the reassurance which they needed . He demonstrated black capacity . " The white upper classes were proud of his achievements as a West Indian , but Manley writes " it was to the black masses that Headley had the deepest significance ... [ He ] became the focus for longing of an entire people for proof : proof of their own self @-@ worth , their own capacity . Furthermore , they wanted this proof to be laid at the door of the white man who owned the world which defined their circumstances . " Manley sees the title of " Atlas " not just in sporting terms , but in his carrying " the hopes of the black , English @-@ speaking Caribbean man ... He was black excellence personified in a white world and in a white sport . "

= = Personal life = =

= = = Coaching career = = =

Following the 1955 cricket season , Headley was invited to become a national coach , a post created by the Jamaican government , which involved working mainly with young people . Headley and his second son travelled back to Jamaica , while the rest of the family remained in England . Headley had a heavy workload , particularly in rural areas ; together with his assistant Dickie Fuller his role involved encouraging school children to watch and play cricket , and trying to improve standards and facilities throughout the country . Headley became involved in the selection of teams , taking some of them overseas . At this time , he discovered the future West Indian Test player Roy Gilchrist and future Jamaican cricketer Henry Sewell . However , critics in the 1960s complained that there were not enough Jamaicans in the Test side and blamed Headley and Fuller , although the government remained supportive of their performance . In 1961 , Headley coached for six months in Nigeria and earned praise from the Nigerian Cricket Association . His official coaching role in Jamaica ended after a new government withdrew funding for coaching in 1962 .

= = = Family and retirement = = =

Headley married Rena Saunders in 1939 . He had nine children in total , including Ron Headley who was born two days after the end of the Lord 's Test of 1939 . Ron Headley went on to play professional cricket for the English counties Worcestershire and Derbyshire , and represented Jamaica before playing two Tests for West Indies in 1973 . Another son , Lyndie , reached the semi @-@ finals of the 100 metres and came fourth in the 100 metres relay at the 1964 Olympics ; he also won a gold medal with Jamaican sprint relay teams in the Central American and Caribbean Games of 1966 and silver with the relay team at the Commonwealth Games of the same year . Ron 's son Dean , Headley 's grandson , played Test cricket for England ; the family thus became the first to have three generations play Test cricket .

After his retirement from coaching , Headley remained associated with cricket , presenting awards and playing in friendly matches . He was the official representative of the Jamaican Cricket Board at Constantine 's funeral in 1971 . Official recognition came Headley 's way when he was awarded the M.B.E. in 1956 and was made an honorary life member of the MCC in 1958 . In 1969 , a bronze sculpture of his head was unveiled in Jamaica 's National Stadium , and in 1973 the Norman Manley Foundation gave him the Award for Excellence in Sports . In the latter year , he also received the Order of Distinction . He died in Kingston on 30 November 1983 .

= Interstate 81 in West Virginia =

In the U.S. state of West Virginia , Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) crosses the Eastern Panhandle region , linking Virginia to Maryland . The Interstate Highway , completed in 1966 , spans 26 @.@ 00 miles ( 41 @.@ 84 km ) through Berkeley County , paralleling U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) for its entire length . I @-@ 81 enters the state near Ridgeway and travels northeast , bypassing the city of Martinsburg , and leaves the state at the Potomac River , which serves as the state line . The first solicitations for the construction of I @-@ 81 were published in 1959 , with the first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of freeway being opened in 1963 , and the full length was completed by 1966 . On average between 45 and 60 thousand vehicles use the freeway though the panhandle per day .

= = Route description = =

I @-@ 81 enters the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia just west of Ridgeway , paralleling US 11 ( also known as the Valley Pike ) . The highway passes through some light farmland before entering a wooded area , north of Ridgeway . A welcome center for northbound travelers is passed before the woodlands give way to a light urban setting . As the highway approaches the community of Inwood , a diamond interchange with West Virginia Route 51 ( WV 51 ) provides access to the community , as well as Gerrardstown to the west of the freeway , and Charles Town to the east . A small business park is passed by before I @-@ 81 intersects County Route 32 , providing access to Arden , the Eastern WV Regional Airport and Tablers Station . The freeway turns more towards the north as it approaches Martinsburg , intersecting WV 45 , County Route 15 and Dry Run Road while in the city limits . I @-@ 81 bypasses downtown , running along the western border of town while US 11 continues through the town .

Just northeast of Martinsburg the freeway passes over a CSX Transportation rail line while a cloverleaf interchange with WV 9 provides access back to Martinsburg and to Hedgesville . As the freeway curves back east , it intersects WV 901 between Hainesville and Falling Waters . WV 901 is a short connector route back to US 11 . North of Falling Waters and south of Marlowe , US 11 intersects the freeway and continues north while I @-@ 81 turns east towards the Maryland state line at the Potomac River . Just south of the river is a welcome center intended for southbound travelers from Maryland .

Out of the six states that I @-@ 81 passes through , the segment in West Virginia is the second shortest , only longer than the Maryland segment . Every year the West Virginia Department of Transportation ( WVDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WVDOT calculated that as few as 45 @,@ 000 vehicles traveled along the highway at the Virginia state line , and as many as 62 @,@ 500 vehicles used the freeway between County Routes 15 and 13 in Martinsburg . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .

= = History = =

I @-@ 81 roughly parallels the Great Indian Warpath , an old Indian trail which connected New York to the Carolina Piedmont via Virginia and West Virginia . A series of roads linking Virginia to Maryland through Martinsburg were present on maps as early as 1873 .

Bids for construction of I @-@ 81 by WVDOT were published in 1959 , with a budget of about $ 10 @.@ 6 million to complete the highway . Completion of I @-@ 81 in Virginia up to the West Virginia state line was completed by the Virginia Department of Transportation in November 1965 . The first 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the highway through West Virginia were completed between 1959 and 1963 . The construction of the remaining 20 miles ( 32 km ) of Interstate Highway through the Eastern Panhandle was completed by 1966 . Since then , there have been no major realignments , and the highway continues on its original path .

= = Future = =

In 2014 , WVDOT officials announced in conjunction with the Maryland State Highway Administration that the bridges over the Potomac River would be rehabilitated to accommodate three lanes of highway in each direction . The widening of the highway is proposed to head south along I @-@ 81 to exit 23 for US 11 . Construction is expected to start in the summer of 2016 .

= = Exit list = =

The entire route is in Berkeley County .

= Literature in early modern Scotland =

Literature in early modern Scotland is literature written in Scotland or by Scottish writers between the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the beginnings of the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution in mid @-@ eighteenth century . By the beginning of this era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands , but the tradition of Classic Gaelic Poetry survived . Middle Scots became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . The establishment of a printing press in 1507 made it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity .

James IV 's creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics . These included Gavin Douglas , whose Eneados ( 1513 ) was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language . James V was also a major patron of poets . George Buchanan founded a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry . In the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots and the minority of her son James VI , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature but secular poetry survived . In the 1580s and 1590s James VI promoted literature in Scots . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band . David Lyndsay 's The Thrie Estaitis ( 1540 ) is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . There were isolated Scottish plays , but the system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland .

The accession of James VI to the English throne in 1603 meant a loss of the court as a centre of patronage and he increasingly favoured the language of southern England . A number of Scottish poets accompanied the king to London , where they began to anglicise their written language . As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge , often undertaken by women . The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets , such as Elizabeth Melville , whose Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was the first book published by a woman in Scotland . This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors .

After the Union in 1707 , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Allan Ramsay led a " vernacular revival " that laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature . He also led the trend for pastoral poetry and his pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . Tobias Smollett was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry that mixed traditional forms with influences from the Lowlands . Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London . In Scotland drama was supplied by visiting English players and actors , but there were clashes with the Kirk . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing a small theatre in Edinburgh , but it closed soon after the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .

= = Sixteenth century = =

= = = Background = = =

By the early modern era Gaelic had been in geographical decline for three centuries and had begun to be a second class language , confined to the Highlands and Islands . The tradition of classic Gaelic poetry survived longer in Scotland than in Ireland , with the last fully competent member of the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were hereditary poets to the Lords of the Isles and then the Donalds of Clanranald , still working in the early eighteenth century . Nevertheless , interest in the sponsorship of panegyric Gaelic poetry was declining among the clan leaders . Gaelic was gradually being overtaken by Middle Scots , which became the language of both the nobility and the majority population . Middle Scots was derived substantially from Old English , with Gaelic and French influences . It was usually called Inglyshe and was very close to the language spoken in northern England , but by the sixteenth century it had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England . From the mid sixteenth century , written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England . With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England , most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion .

The establishment of a printing press under royal patent in 1507 would begin to make it easier to disseminate Scottish literature and was probably aimed at bolstering Scottish national identity . The first Scottish press was established in Southgait in Edinburgh by the merchant Walter Chepman ( c . 1473 – c . 1528 ) and the bookseller Andrew Myllar ( fl . 1505 – 08 ) . Although the first press was relatively short lived , beside law codes and religious works , the press also produced editions of the work of Scottish makars before its demise , probably about 1510 . The next recorded press was that of Thomas Davidson ( f . 1532 – 42 ) , the first in a long line of " king 's printers " , who also produced editions of works of the makars .

= = = Makars = = =

James IV 's ( r . 1488 – 1513 ) creation of a Renaissance court included the patronage of poets . These court poets , or makars , who were mainly clerics included Robert Henryson ( c . 1450 @-@ c . 1505 ) , who re @-@ worked Medieval and Classical sources , such as Chaucer and Aesop in works such as his Testament of Cresseid and The Morall Fabillis . William Dunbar ( 1460 – 1513 ) produced satires , lyrics , invectives and dream visions that established the vernacular as a flexible medium for poetry of any kind . Gavin Douglas ( 1475 – 1522 ) , who became Bishop of Dunkeld , injected humanist concerns and classical sources into his poetry . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados . It was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden that brought the reign to an end .

As a patron of poets and authors James V ( r . 1513 – 42 ) supported William Stewart and John Bellenden , who translated the Latin History of Scotland compiled in 1527 by Hector Boece , into verse and prose . David Lyndsay ( c . 1486 – 1555 ) , diplomat and the head of the Lyon Court , was a prolific poet . He wrote elegiac narratives , romances and satires . George Buchanan ( 1506 – 82 ) had a major influence as a Latin poet , founding a tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry that would continue in to the seventeenth century . Contributors to this tradition included royal secretary John Maitland ( 1537 – 95 ) , reformer Andrew Melville ( 1545 – 1622 ) , John Johnston ( 1570 ? – 1611 ) and David Hume of Godscroft ( 1558 – 1629 ) .

From the 1550s , in the reign of Mary , Queen of Scots ( r . 1542 – 67 ) and the minority of her son James VI ( r . 1567 – 1625 ) , cultural pursuits were limited by the lack of a royal court and by political turmoil . The Kirk , heavily influenced by Calvinism , also discouraged poetry that was not devotional in nature . Nevertheless , poets from this period included Richard Maitland of Lethington ( 1496 – 1586 ) , who produced meditative and satirical verses in the style of Dunbar ; John Rolland ( fl . 1530 – 75 ) , who wrote allegorical satires in the tradition of Douglas and courtier and minister Alexander Hume ( c . 1556 – 1609 ) , whose corpus of work includes nature poetry and epistolary verse . Alexander Scott 's ( ? 1520 – 82 / 3 ) use of short verse designed to be sung to music , opened the way for the Castalian poets of James VI 's adult reign .

Unlike many of his predecessors , James VI actively despised Gaelic culture . However , in the 1580s and 1590s he strongly promoted the literature of the country of his birth in Scots . His treatise , Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody , published in 1584 when he was aged 18 , was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue , to which he applied Renaissance principles . He became patron and member of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians , later called the Castalian Band , which included William Fowler ( c . 1560 – 1612 ) , John Stewart of Baldynneis ( c . 1545 – c . 1605 ) , and Alexander Montgomerie ( c . 1550 – 98 ) . They translated key Renaissance texts and produced poems using French forms , including sonnets and short sonnets , for narrative , nature description , satire and meditations on love . Later poets that followed in this vein included William Alexander ( c . 1567 – 1640 ) , Alexander Craig ( c . 1567 – 1627 ) and Robert Ayton ( 1570 – 1627 ) . By the late 1590s the king 's championing of his native Scottish tradition was to some extent diffused by the prospect of inheriting of the English throne .

= = = Dramatists = = =

Lyndsay produced an interlude at Linlithgow Palace for the king and queen thought to be a version of his play The Thrie Estaitis in 1540 , which satirised the corruption of church and state , and which is the only complete play to survive from before the Reformation . Buchanan was major influence on Continental theatre with plays such as Jepheths and Baptistes , which influenced Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine and through them the neo @-@ classical tradition in French drama , but his impact in Scotland was limited by his choice of Latin as a medium . The anonymous The Maner of the Cyring of ane Play ( before 1568 ) and Philotus ( published in London in 1603 ) , are isolated examples of surviving plays . The latter is a vernacular Scots comedy of errors , probably designed for court performance for Mary , Queen of Scots or James VI . The same system of professional companies of players and theatres that developed in England in this period was absent in Scotland , but James VI signalled his interest in drama by arranging for a company of English players to erect a playhouse and perform in 1599 .

= = Seventeenth century = =

= = = Poetry = = =

Having extolled the virtues of Scots " poesie " , after his accession to the English throne , James VI increasingly favoured the language of southern England . In 1611 the Kirk adopted the English Authorised King James Version of the Bible . In 1617 interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because Scots and Englishmen were now " not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther " . Jenny Wormald described James as creating a " three @-@ tier system , with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top " . The loss of the court as a centre of patronage in 1603 was a major blow to Scottish literature . A number of Scottish poets , including William Alexander , John Murray and Robert Aytoun , accompanied the king to London , where they continued to write , but they soon began to anglicise their written language . James 's characteristic role as active literary participant and patron in the English court made him a defining figure for English Renaissance poetry and drama , which would reach a pinnacle of achievement in his reign , but his patronage for the high style in his own Scottish tradition largely became sidelined . The only significant court poet to continue to work in Scotland after the king 's departure was William Drummond of Hawthornden ( 1585 – 1649 ) .

As the tradition of classical Gaelic poetry declined , a new tradition of vernacular Gaelic poetry began to emerge . While Classical poetry used a language largely fixed in the twelfth century , the vernacular continued to develop . In contrast to the Classical tradition , which used syllabic metre , vernacular poets tended to use stressed metre . However , they shared with the Classic poets a set of complex metaphors and role , as the verse was still often panegyric . A number of these vernacular poets were women , such as Mary MacLeod of Harris ( c . 1615 – 1707 ) .

The tradition of neo @-@ Latin poetry reached its fruition with the publication of the anthology of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum ( 1637 ) , published in Amsterdam by Arthur Johnston ( c.1579 – 1641 ) and Sir John Scott of Scotstarvet ( 1585 – 1670 ) and containing work by the major Scottish practitioners since Buchanan . This period was marked by the work of the first named female Scottish poets . Elizabeth Melville 's ( f . 1585 – 1630 ) Ane Godlie Dream ( 1603 ) was a popular religious allegory and the first book published by a woman in Scotland . Anna Hume , daughter of David Hume of Godscroft , adapted Petrarch as Triumphs of Love : Chastitie : Death ( 1644 ) .

This was the period when the ballad emerged as a significant written form in Scotland . Some ballads may date back to the late medieval era and deal with events and people that can be traced back as far as the thirteenth century , including " Sir Patrick Spens " and " Thomas the Rhymer " , but which are not known to have existed until the eighteenth century . They were probably composed and transmitted orally and only began to be written down and printed , often as broadsides and as part of chapbooks , later being recorded and noted in books by collectors including Robert Burns and Walter Scott . From the seventeenth century they were used as a literary form by aristocratic authors including Robert Sempill ( c . 1595 @-@ c . 1665 ) , Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw ( 1627 – 1727 ) and Lady Grizel Baillie ( 1645 – 1746 ) .

= = = Theatre = = =

The loss of a royal court also meant there was no force to counter the Kirk 's dislike of theatre , which struggled to survive in Scotland . However , it was not entirely extinguished . The Kirk used theatre for its own purposes in schools and was slow to suppress popular folk dramas . Surviving plays for the period include William Alexander 's Monarchicke Tragedies , written just before his departure with the king for England in 1603 . They were closet dramas , designed to be read rather than performed , and already indicate Alexander 's preference for southern English over the Scots language . There were some attempts to revive Scottish drama . In 1663 Edinburgh lawyer William Clerke wrote Marciano or the Discovery , a play about the restoration of a legitimate dynasty in Florence after many years of civil war . It was performed at the Tennis @-@ Court Theatre at Holyrood Palace before the parliamentary high commissioner John Leslie , Earl of Rothes . Thomas Sydsurf 's Tarugo 's Wiles or the Coffee House , was first performed in London in 1667 and then in Edinburgh the year after and drew on Spanish comedy . A relative of Sydsurf , physician Archibald Pitcairne ( 1652 – 1713 ) wrote The Assembly or Scotch Reformation ( 1692 ) , a ribald satire on the morals of the Presbyterian Kirk , circulating in manuscript , but not published until 1722 , helping to secure the association between Jacobitism and professional drama that discouraged the creation of professional theatre .

= = Early eighteenth century = =

= = = Vernacular revival = = =

After the Union in 1707 and the shift of political power to England , the use of Scots was discouraged by many in authority and education . Nevertheless , Scots remained the vernacular of many rural communities and the growing number of urban working @-@ class Scots . Literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation . Allan Ramsay ( 1686 – 1758 ) was considered the most important literary figure of the era , often described as leading a " vernacular revival " . He laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature , publishing The Ever Green ( 1724 ) , a collection that included many major poetic works of the Stewart period . He led the trend for pastoral poetry , helping to develop the Habbie stanza , which would be later be used by Robert Burns as a poetic form . His Tea @-@ Table Miscellany ( 1724 – 37 ) contained poems old Scots folk material , his own poems in the folk style and " gentilizings " of Scots poems in the English neo @-@ classical style . His pastoral opera The Gentle Shepherd was one of the most influential works of the era . He would also play a leading role in supporting drama in Scotland and the attempt to found a permanent theatre in the capital .

= = = Verse and prose = = =

Ramsay was part of a community of poets working in Scots and English . These included William Hamilton of Gilbertfield ( c . 1665 – 1751 ) , Robert Crawford ( 1695 – 1733 ) , Alexander Ross ( 1699 – 1784 ) , the Jacobite William Hamilton of Bangour ( 1704 – 54 ) , socialite Alison Rutherford Cockburn ( 1712 – 94 ) , and poet and playwright James Thompson 's ( 1700 – 48 ) , most famous for the nature poetry of his Seasons . Tobias Smollett ( 1721 – 71 ) was a poet , essayist , satirist and playwright , but is best known for his picaresque novels , such as The Adventures of Roderick Random ( 1748 ) and The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle ( 1751 ) for which he is often seen as Scotland 's first novelist . His work would be a major influence on later novelists such as Thackeray and Dickens .

The early eighteenth century was also a period of innovation in Gaelic vernacular poetry . Major figures included Rob Donn Mackay ( 1714 – 78 ) and Donnchadh Bàn Mac an t @-@ Saoir ( Duncan Ban MacIntyre ) ( 1724 – 1812 ) . The most significant figure in the tradition was Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair ( Alasdair MacDonald ) ( c . 1698 – 1770 ) . His interest in traditional forms can be seen in his most significant poem Clanranald 's Gallery . He also mixed these traditions with influences from the Lowlands , including Thompson 's Seasons , which helped inspire a new form of nature poetry in Gaelic , which was not focused on their relations to human concerns .

= = = Drama = = =

Drama was pursued by Scottish playwrights in London such as Catherine Trotter ( 1679 – 1749 ) , born in London to Scottish parents and later moving to Aberdeen . Her plays and included the verse @-@ tragedy Fatal Friendship ( 1698 ) , the comedy Love at a Loss ( 1700 ) and the history The Revolution in Sweden ( 1706 ) . David Crawford 's ( 1665 – 1726 ) plays included the Restoration comedies Courtship A @-@ la @-@ Mode ( 1700 ) and Love at First Sight ( 1704 ) . These developed the character of the stage Scot , often a clown , but cunning and loyal . Newburgh Hamilton ( 1691 – 1761 ) , born in Ireland of Scottish descent , produced the comedies The Petticoat @-@ Ploter ( 1712 ) and The Doating Lovers or The Libertine ( 1715 ) . He later wrote the libretto for Handel 's Samson ( 1743 ) , closely based on John Milton 's Samson Agonistes . James Thompson 's plays often dealt with the contest between public duty and private feelings , included Sophonisba ( 1730 ) , Agamemnon ( 1738 ) and Tancrid and Sigismuda ( 1745 ) , the last of which was an international success . David Mallet 's ( c . 1705 – 65 ) Eurydice ( 1731 ) was accused of being a coded Jacobite play and his later work indicates opposition to the Walpole administration . The opera Masque of Alfred ( 1740 ) was a collaboration between Thompson , Mallet and composer Thomas Arne , with Thompson supplying the lyrics for the his most famous work , the patriotic song Rule , Britannia !

In Scotland a troop of English players came to Edinburgh in 1715 where they performed Macbeth and a series of Restoration comedies , but they soon left , perhaps because of objections from local kirk presbyteries . By 1725 English actor Anthony Aston , a friend of Ramsay , was performing in Edinburgh , but seems to have fallen foul of the Scottish Master of the Revels , who licensed plays , companies and playhouses , and soon left . In 1727 the Kirk attacked theatres as immoral in the Admonition and Exhortation . The Edinburgh Company of Players were able to perform in Dundee , Montrose , Aberdeen and regular performances at the Taylor 's Hall in Edinburgh under the protection of a Royal Patent . Ramsay was instrumental in establishing them in a small theatre in Carruber 's Close in Edinburgh , but the passing of the 1737 Licensing Act made their activities illegal and the theatre soon closed . A new theatre was opened at Cannongate in 1747 and operated without a licence into the 1760s .

= Ridge Racer Revolution =

Ridge Racer Revolution is an arcade racing game developed and published by Namco for the PlayStation in 1995 . It is the PlayStation sequel of Ridge Racer ( the arcade sequel is Ridge Racer 2 ) . Like the original Ridge Racer , the player races computer @-@ controlled cars with the objective of winning a series of races , and supports Namco 's NeGcon controller . Ridge Racer Revolution adds two hidden cars , and two @-@ player support via the PlayStation Link cable , and took roughly the same time to develop as the first . The intention was to increase the depth and add features .

The game borrows most of its soundtrack from Ridge Racer 2 . Ridge Racer Revolution was re @-@ released in Japan for the PlayStation The Best range in June 1997 , and for the Platinum Range in PAL regions the following year . The game received generally positive reviews , although some criticised its similarity to the original . Ridge Racer Revolution was followed by a sequel , Rage Racer , in 1996 .

= = Gameplay = =

The gameplay system remains unchanged from Ridge Racer , with its checkpoint and time @-@ limit system remaining the same ; running out of time ends the game and passing through checkpoints grants additional time , although the car drifting is more like Ridge Racer 2 . The player drives using automatic transmission or manual transmission . Ridge Racer Revolution supports Namco 's NeGcon controller , and adds a rear @-@ view mirror when using the in @-@ car view . The game consists of three courses : ' Novice ' , ' Intermediate ' ( also called ' Advanced ' ) , and ' Expert ' , each having different sections opened , and incorporates modes from the original game ; Race , against eleven opponents , and Time Trial , against one . Ridge Racer Revolution adds a mode : Free Run , in which there are no other cars and the player practises driving . There is no lap limit . How fast the cars run depends on which of the four speed grades is used . The grade is selectable in Free Run , and can be unlocked for Race . It is not available in Time Trial . A new feature of the game is the option to select the time of day in which the race takes place . This is not available at the start of the game . Ridge Racer Revolution features a two @-@ player link @-@ up mode which allows the players access to the original Ridge Racer 's courses known as ' Special 1 ' and ' Special 2 ' . There are two modes in two @-@ player link @-@ up : Race , which is identical to its single @-@ player counterpart , and Versus , where only the players race against each other . Versus features a handicap option , which increases the speed of the trailing car .

Like the first Ridge Racer , the player normally starts with four cars . The remaining eight are selectable upon winning the mini game before the title screen ( the mini game is Galaga ' 88 instead of the original game 's Galaxian ) . They are mostly unchanged ; their names ( certain cars are named after other Namco titles ) and specifications are similar to the first game . After the player wins the first three circuits , reversed versions are unlocked , and Time Trial features an additional opponent driving a secret car . There are three secret cars ; the ' 13th Racing ' ( from the first Ridge Racer ) of the Novice course , and the new ' 13th Racing Kid ' ( of the Intermediate course ) and ' White Angel ' ( of the Expert course ) . These cars are unlocked upon winning the respective course 's Time Trial race .

Ridge Racer Revolution features two hidden modes ; ' Drift Contest ' , where the player earns points according to how well spins are performed on certain corners , and ' Pretty Racer ' ( also known as ' Buggy mode ' ) , in which the cars become buggies . Pocket Racer was inspired by this . Mirrored tracks that function identically to the original are accessible . As with the first game , the player can insert a music CD which can be listened to instead of the soundtrack . Unlike the first game , only the last course played is loaded into the PlayStation 's memory ; to switch , the player would need to reinsert the game disc before loading .

= = Development = =

Ridge Racer Revolution was developed over eight months by a team of more than twenty people , most of whom joined just for Ridge Racer Revolution . The biggest difficulties were the link @-@ up mode , rear @-@ view mirror , and running the game at high speeds . Each member had worked on other console games , and they commented that the graphics detail showed the improvements in skill and technique . The team wanted players to enjoy a more in @-@ depth game than the original , so rather than develop a port of Ridge Racer 2 , as many features as possible were added . The early designs for the new courses were made in a ' free run ' programme , and used to see how fast the cars went . The rear @-@ view mirror was added primarily with the two player link @-@ up mode in mind . The music was mostly taken from Ridge Racer 2 , and as a result , the sound was finished more quickly than the game . Soundtrack composition involved four musicians , who composed for Ridge Racer , Ridge Racer 2 , and Rave Racer . The team kept exploring the PlayStation 's capabilities to solve the high speed problem , although were confident it was possible . The designer , Hiroyuki Onada , commented that designing an original course was a challenge , and director Kazumi Mizuno believed that graphics quality would be degraded with a split @-@ screen multiplayer mode , so the team decided to focus on the PlayStation 's link @-@ up instead .

= = Reception = =

The game was a bestseller in the UK . The additional features and improvements over the original in particular were given high praise . Coming Soon Magazine praised its multiplayer mode , saying it " will furnish many hours of competitive fun ! " , and in their conclusion remarked that the game " is an excellent racing game that will yield much excitement and challenges " . Absolute PlayStation praised its playability , its ' greatly ' improved artificial Intelligence , and the two @-@ player link @-@ up feature . Electronic Gaming Monthly remarked that it is even better than the original due to the cleaner graphics and improved handling on the cars , which makes them easier to control . Maximum acknowledged the similarity to the original Ridge Racer but gave it a strong recommendation , arguing that removal of the slowdown and track updating of the original , the unlockables , and the two @-@ player mode make it worth buying . They concluded by remarking that the game is " an instantly playable arcade racer that oozes options and playability " .

The Electric Playground complimented the additions and improvements , including the " much improved " graphics and the scene changes , about which it was commented that it was a " serious improvement " . They commented that the colours are " sharp and pretty " , and the link @-@ up multiplayer mode , remarking that " Linked RR Revolution is worth the buy alone " , although the remixed music tracks were criticised because they " pale greatly in comparison to the original tracks " . Gamezilla commented that the new tracks are " always challenging and fun to race " and praised Free Run , saying it 's a " great way to learn the tracks " . GamePro praised the game , saying " Ridge Racer Revolution certainly upholds the Ridge Racer tradition by doing exactly what it should : It surpasses the original " , and Computer and Video Games Magazine commented that the game is " Everything Ridge Racer maniacs could have wanted from a sequel " .

Hugh Sterbakov of GameSpot was more critical . He called it " a clone of the original " , and criticised the lack of split @-@ screen multiplayer .

= Soul Sound =

" Soul Sound " is a song by British girl group Sugababes from their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) . It was written by Charlotte Gordon Cumming during a trip to Kenya , Africa , where she was inspired to compose it based on her experiences there . Produced by Ron Tom , " Soul Sound " is a pop song featuring guitar and bass instrumentation . It was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the album 's fourth and final single . Critics praised the song for the group 's demeanour although some regarded it as inferior in comparison to the album 's other tracks .

To promote the song , a music video was directed by Max & Dania ; it features the Sugababes in an apartment where their souls are released by the music . The trio performed " Soul Sound " at Manchester Ampersand and at the London Notre Dame Hall . The song became the group 's lowest @-@ charting single at the time , peaking at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , and remains one of their lowest @-@ selling singles to date . It was the final single that they released through London Records , and their last single to feature original member Siobhán Donaghy , who left the group in 2001 .

= = Background and composition = =

" Soul Sound " was written by the Scottish musician Charlotte Gordon Cumming during her trip to Kenya . Her inspiration to write the song stemmed from Africa , a continent which she visited frequently with her family as a child . According to Cumming , " In Africa I feel extremely alive , but also very small . The song was the essence of how I felt : seeing the beauty and horror of a place , and going into a heightened state . " She elaborated , " My songs are all about who I am and what I am feeling , which is why they can take so much out of me to perform – and I always feel a lot when I go to Africa " .

Cumming had spent a year with the Sugababes while they recorded their debut studio album One Touch ( 2000 ) ; according to the Daily Record , the trio 's management were desperate for them to sing " Soul Sound " . The song was produced by Ron Tom , who mixed and programmed it in collaboration with Mark Frank . Individuals who provide backing vocals on the song include Xavier Barnet and the Kenyan @-@ born British singer Lamya . " Soul Sound " was recorded at the Matrix Recording Studios in London , England .

" Soul Sound " is a pop record that experiments with pop @-@ rock balladry . The song features guitar and bass instrumentation , and according to the Daily Mail , evokes the music of harmony groups from the 1960s . John Mulvey of NME characteristed the song as having " tasteful slippery beats , tasteful acoustic guitars , [ and ] the usual indolent harmonies " . The song 's lyrics immediately begin with a sense of decision through the line " I Touch the sky " , and largely focus on the enjoyment of life .

= = Reception = =

= = = Critical = = =

" Soul Sound " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The Sunday Mirror 's Ian Hyland rated the song nine out of ten stars and described it as " [ p ] ure class from the ever @-@ smiling teens " . According to AllMusic 's Dean Carlson , " Soul Sound " is a representation that " the jitters of youth are [ on One Touch ] though tempered by shrewd ambition and a clever and unpredictable production aesthetic " . John Mulvey of NME stated that while the song lacked the quality of the trio 's debut single " Overload " , it " is pretty good nevertheless " . He elaborated , " the best thing about Sugababes is how they sound like they really can 't be arsed with anything , let alone any of this pop star business [ ... ] Enough with the dance routines and shit @-@ eating grins – does this mean total lack of enthusiasm 's the way forward for teen pop ? " Stylus Magazine writer Scott Plagenhoef described the single as " marvelous lilting [ and ] hopeful " , while Stephen Robinson from Hot Press was less favourable and criticised the song 's pop @-@ rock experimentation , which according to him " doesn 't work quite so well " . Neil Western of the South China Morning Post felt that " Soul Sound " , along with the album 's title track , " lack sparkle " .

= = = Commercial = = =

The song was released in the United Kingdom on 16 July 2001 as the fourth and final single from One Touch . Upon release , it debuted and peaked at number thirty on the UK Singles Chart , the group 's lowest @-@ charting single in the United Kingdom at the time . In the UK , " Soul Sound " is one of the group 's lowest @-@ selling singles to date . Unlike the previous singles from One Touch , " Soul Sound " failed to make an impact on the Irish Singles Chart . The song earned the Sugababes a 2001 MTV Awards nomination for Best European Single .

= = Promotion = =

= = = Music video = = =

The accompanying music video for " Soul Sound " was directed by Max & Dania and filmed in London . Band member Siobhán Donaghy stated that around the time of the video 's filming , her and the other group members were not performing as a group frequently : " It 's been fairly quiet recently , but it usually is between singles . The other two have been doing their exams , and I have been doing some interviews for newspapers and magazines abroad . Apart from the video for ' Soul Sound ' we have not been doing too much together . " During the video , the group 's members are featured in an apartment and are seated on couches and chairs . The plot involves their inner souls being released by the music , while outside in the neighbourhood the music takes control of other people 's lives and causes their souls to be lifted too . The video was included on the CD release of " Soul Sound " .

= = = Live performances = = =

The Sugababes played " Soul Sound " on 27 March 2001 at Manchester Ampersand , in conjunction with many of the album 's tracks such as " Overload " and " Run for Cover " . This was their second @-@ ever live performance , which was sponsored by NME . Donaghy commented ,

We were very lucky that the tour was done in conjunction with NME , and it meant that we were playing to an older audience . We never set out to appeal to under @-@ 10s , because of the kind of stuff we listened to ourselves . If we manage to incorporate even a hint of that in our own music , we should appeal to quite an adult audience . We were all very nervous at all the gigs , but that was just because we were so worried about it going well .

According to Kitty Empire of NME , during the performance , " ' Soul Sound ' [ grew ] lovelier with every croon of its chorus " . Later that month , the trio performed the song at London 's Notre Dame Hall as part of a set list . The Guardian 's John Aizlewood commented that during its performance , the group " [ created ] a tidal wave of melody " .

= = Impact = =

The group 's members were dissatisfied with the release of " Soul Sound " as a single , because they wanted to venture into an R & B sound whereas their record label London Records pushed them into a more pop direction . Soon after the song 's release , Donaghy left the group and was replaced by former Atomic Kitten member Heidi Range , making it the last Sugababes single to feature her vocals . Further , the sales of One Touch and its last three singles , " New Year " , " Run for Cover " and " Soul Sound " , failed to meet the expectations of London Records and the group was subsequently dropped . Band member Keisha Buchanan has stated that the song 's release and subsequent commercial underperformance was a positive experience because , saying : " Everything happens for a reason and it looks like it has all worked out " . " Soul Sound " was featured in the 2001 film Summer Catch , which stars such actors as Freddie Prinze , Jr. and Jessica Biel .

= = Track listings and formats = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Recording

Recorded at Matrix Recording Studios , London , England

Personnel

Songwriting – Charlotte Edwards

Production – Ron Tom

Mixing – Mark Frank , Ron Tom

Guitar – Andrew Smith

Lead guitar – Ron Tom

Bass – Pino Palladino

Backing vocals – Lamya , Xavier Barnet

Programming – Ron Tom

Additional programming – Mark Frank

Credits are taken from the liner notes of One Touch , courtesy of London Records .

= = Charts = =

= Miguel Treviño Morales =

Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales ( born 18 November 1970 ) , commonly referred to by his alias Z @-@ 40 , is a former Mexican drug lord and leader of the criminal organization known as Los Zetas . Considered a violent and dangerous criminal , he was one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords until his arrest in July 2013 .

Born into a family with six brothers and six sisters , Treviño Morales began his criminal career as a teenager , working for Los Tejas — a local gang from his hometown of Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas . His fluent English and experience of moving contraband along the U.S. – Mexico border enabled him to be recruited in the late 1990s by the drug lord Osiel Cárdenas Guillén , who headed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas . Around 2005 , he was appointed as the regional boss of Los Zetas in Nuevo Laredo and was given the task to fight off the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take over the lucrative drug trafficking routes to the United States . After successfully securing these routes in Nuevo Laredo in 2006 , Treviño Morales was moved to Veracruz and appointed as the Zetas leader in the state after the death of the drug lord Efraín Teodoro Torres . Two years later , his boss Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano sent him to Guatemala to wipe out his competitors ; after completing the task successfully , he appointed Treviño Morales as the national commander of Los Zetas in 2008 . In 2010 , Los Zetas gained their independence from the Gulf Cartel , their former allies , and both organizations went to war with each other .

As the national commander of Los Zetas , Treviño Morales earned a notorious reputation for intimidating officials and citizens throughout Mexico . The Mexican authorities believe that he is responsible for a significant part of the violence in Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people in 2011 . A common torture method of his was known as guiso ( stew ) , in which victims would be dumped into oil barrels , doused with gasoline and burned alive . Following the death of his boss Lazcano Lazcano in October 2012 , Treviño Morales became his successor and the top leader of Los Zetas drug cartel amid an internal power struggle within the organization .

Mexican Marines arrested Treviño Morales on 15 July 2013 in the state of Nuevo León without a single bullet being fired . At the time of his capture , the Mexican government was offering up to a 30 million pesos ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) reward for information leading to his arrest . The United States Department of Statewas offering up to US $ 5 million for information leading to his arrest and conviction . Authorities on both sides of the border believe that he was succeeded by his younger brother Omar Treviño Morales , a man who was also on the most @-@ wanted list .

= = Early life = =

Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales was born on 18 November 1970 in Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , Mexico . His parents , Rodolfo Treviño and María Arcelia Morales , created a large family with six daughters and seven sons , including Miguel . Like many families along the U.S.-Mexico border , the Treviño family travelled from Mexico to the United States and vice versa , where they bought properties and opened several businesses . His father abandoned his family at a very young age , forcing Treviño Morales to single @-@ handedly raise the whole family . Treviño Morales grew up in a lower @-@ class neighborhood in Nuevo Laredo , but as a teenager , he worked for the wealthy by fixing their yards and washing their cars . He also did chores for the local drug lord Héctor Manuel Sauceda Gamboa ( alias El Karis ) , who later became his mentor ; Treviño Morales eventually replaced him as a Zetas leader in Nuevo Laredo . Treviño Morales grew up disliking Mexico 's class disparity and developed so much resentment as to partially explain his violent behavior as an adult . Treviño Morales frequented Dallas , Texas with his family . In 1993 , he was apprehended in Dallas County and charged with avoiding police arrest , after he had tried to lose the cops in a police car chase that ended in a street dead end . He paid a $ 672 @-@ dollar fine and was subsequently released from the county prison . Few details are known of Treviño Morales 's life in Dallas ; the U.S. authorities believe he learned about " power , money , weapons and the vast consumer market for illegal drugs " while living in Texas . They also believe that he perceived an anti @-@ Mexican bias among Americans , and especially towards Mexican immigrants like him . However , Treviño Morales considered Dallas his home because of his large family network that lives in the surrounding areas . According to U.S. investigators , he was last seen in the Dallas area in 2005 after entering the United States illegally , where visited his family and was said to have been at a strip club .

= = Criminal origins and ascension = =

As a teenager , he began to work for Los Tejas , a gang that ran the criminal activities in his hometown of Nuevo Laredo . From washing cars , running errands , and stealing car parts in Nuevo Laredo , Treviño Morales turned to the drug trade , starting with small @-@ scale drug retail sales and smuggling . Unlike the first members of Los Zetas , he was never in the military . He was hired by them and the Gulf Cartel in the late 1990s for his experience moving contraband across the border . His fluent English and his criminal contacts on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border allowed him to gain the trust of the then @-@ leader of the Gulf Cartel , Osiel Cárdenas Guillén . When he joined the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas , Los Tejas , the local gang he once worked for , was absorbed by the former groups . Around 2005 , Treviño Morales became the regional boss of Nuevo Laredo ; he was in charge of fighting off the incursions of the Sinaloa Cartel , which was attempting to take control of the smuggling routes in the area . The Laredo – Nuevo Laredo area is a lucrative smuggling route for narcotics because of the Interstate 35 highway , which serves as a strategic pathway to San Antonio , Austin , and Dallas for future drug distribution . While in power , he orchestrated a number of assassinations in American cities and in Mexico by young U.S. citizens whom he put on his payroll . Treviño Morales was good at identifying and grooming young teenagers who he believed had the potential to become professional assassins for Los Zetas . These recruits , sometimes called Zetitas ( " Little Zetas " ) , usually joined organized crime as young as twelve @-@ years old to work first as smugglers and later as paid assassins .

By 2006 , the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas managed to defeat the forces of the Sinaloa Cartel in Nuevo Laredo . The latter cartel concentrated its efforts in northeastern Mexico , becoming dominant there . Los Zetas started to expand into other criminal activities beyond drug trafficking . Under Treviño Morales , the organization smuggled immigrants to the United States , carried out extortions and kidnappings , sold bootlegged CDs and DVDs , and intimidated and / or killed residents who failed to cooperate with them . Treviño Morales remained in charge of Los Zetas in the state of Nuevo León and in Piedras Negras , Coahuila , until March 2007 . He was reassigned to the coastal state of Veracruz , shortly after high @-@ ranking Zetas leader Efraín Teodoro Torres ( alias Z @-@ 14 ) was killed in a gun battle at a local horse race . Though Cárdenas Guillén was imprisoned in 2003 , he reportedly directed the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas behind bars ; when he was extradited to the United States in 2007 , Treviño Morales and Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano pushed for Los Zetas ' independence from the Gulf Cartel .

In November 2007 , the city of Laredo , Texas , issued an arrest warrant for Treviño in connection with a 2006 double homicide in Texas . In 2008 , Treviño Morales and Lazcano Lazcano , the two leaders of Los Zetas , forged an alliance with the Beltrán Leyva Cartel . It had just gone to war with the Sinaloa Cartel , believing that El Chapo Guzmán , their leader , had betrayed them . Treviño Morales subsequently joined them to kill the leader of the Sinaloa Cartel . Government sources said Los Zetas were fighting for control against La Federación ( The Federation ) , an alliance of several drug trafficking groups led by Joaquín El Chapo Guzmán and Ismael El Mayo Zambada , two drug lords who used to work for the Beltrán Leyva Cartel .

In February 2008 , Lazcano Lazcano sent Treviño Morales to kill rival drug traffickers and take control of the drug trafficking routes in Guatemala . Reportedly , he carried out a military @-@ like ambush that resulted in the death of the Guatemalan drug lord Juan José León Ardón ( alias Juancho ) in March . An unnamed U.S. official said that Treviño Morales may have been the man who fired the bullet that killed the drug kingpin . Having succeeded outside of Mexico , Treviño Morales was appointed by Lazcano Lazcano as the national commander of Los Zetas , a position traditionally reserved to Zetas members with military background . In this position , Treviño Morales had a say in nearly all the decisions Los Zetas made at a national level , creating some resentment among the old @-@ generation commanders of Los Zetas who , unlike him , had been in the Mexican Armed Forces before turning to the drug trade .

= = Leadership position = =

Treviño Morales acted as a cartel ' gate @-@ keeper , ' and his people collected a piso ( tariff ) at all drug territories controlled by Los Zetas . He controlled the highly lucrative Nuevo Laredo plaza ( turf ) , across the border from Laredo , Texas . He bribed and intimidated officials to help maintain control , and responded to any challenges to his authority or control with brutal violence . Treviño was feared and very few local journalists dared to write about him . He was alleged to favored a torture method known as the guiso ( stew ) , in which people are stuffed into an oil barrel , doused with gasoline , and set on fire to burn alive . His violent behavior gained him " the notoriety of a cult figure . " He reportedly survived gun battles unharmed , avoided making alliances with anyone , dismembered dozens of victims while they were still alive and dumped them , and " seemed unafraid to die . " Organization members claimed that Treviño Morales enjoyed driving around the city in a car , pointing at people randomly and saying , " kill this one and kill that one . " A former hitman who worked for him told the press in 2013 that Treviño Morales could not sleep at night if he did not kill someone . He also said that the drug lord would ask his victims how they wanted to be killed . Journalist Alfredo Corchado , head of The Dallas Morning News in Mexico , wrote in one of his books that Treviño Morales enjoyed eating out the hearts of his victims — even when they were still alive — because he believed that doing that would make him invincible among his enemies and authorities .

Treviño Morales reportedly coordinated several violent attacks throughout Mexico , including the murder of 72 migrants in 2010 and the massacre of 193 people a year later in San Fernando , Tamaulipas . He is also believed to have threatened to shoot down the plane of the former President Felipe Calderón in August 2012 while on a trip to the state of Tamaulipas . Although it was not the first time Calderón received death threats from organized crime , the authorities deemed the drug lord 's threat as credible , and urged the President to cancel his trip ( though he ultimately went anyway ) . Under Treviño Morales ' leadership , Los Zetas were considered by the Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) to be highly sophisticated , advanced , and one of the most dangerous criminal organizations operating in Mexico and the hemisphere . He was widely regarded as one of the most violent drug lords operating in Mexico .

Treviño Morales reportedly moved around through Mexico and Central America , and often met with Colombian drug lords in Mexico City , the nation 's capital , to do business . To escape law enforcement notice , he used " caravans " of purported businessmen and religious persons . In the northern part of the country , he reportedly maintained a close tie with a number of politicians . His brother Omar Treviño Morales ( Z @-@ 42 ) leads Los Zetas in the Gulf of Mexico .

= = Split between Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel = =

Cárdenas Guillén was arrested in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , in 2003 and extradited to the United States in 2007 . While in prison in Mexico , he reportedly coordinated the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas from his prison cell . But with his extradition , Treviño Morales 's organization experienced a leadership crisis . La Compañía ( The Company ) , a name used to describe the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas as a conglomerate , remained in a loose cooperation until early 2010 , when violence erupted between both groups . On 18 January 2010 , several members of the Gulf Cartel kidnapped Víctor Peña Mendoza ( alias Concord 3 ) , a leader of Los Zetas and close associate and friend of Treviño Morales . When he was held captive , Peña Mendoza was asked to switch alliances and join the Gulf Cartel , but he refused , earning a beating followed by execution , presumably carried out by Samuel Flores Borrego .

Treviño Morales heard about the incident and issued an ultimatum to Flores Borrego and Gulf Cartel leader Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez :

Hand over the assassin of my friend , you son of a bitch ... You have until the 25th , if you don 't comply , there will be war .

Both of the Gulf Cartel leaders ignored the command , and Treviño Morales moved swiftly to avenge the death of his former comrade . On 30 January 2010 , Treviño Morales kidnapped and slaughtered 16 Gulf Cartel members in Reynosa , Tamaulipas , marking the start of the cartel war between the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas in the Mexican states of Tamaulipas , Nuevo León , and Veracruz that has led to thousands of deaths . Los Zetas used violent and intimidatory tactics to expand , forging a reputation as Mexico 's most violent drug trafficking organization . It managed to take control of most of the territories owned by the Gulf Cartel when they had essentially served as a single organization . With Treviño Morales as the second @-@ in @-@ command of the criminal organization , Los Zetas began killing Gulf Cartel members and other rival drug traffickers en masse and winning their territories .

= = Infighting in Los Zetas = =

In 2011 , however , Treviño Morales 's criminal organization entered a new internal strife after Jesús Enrique Rejón Aguilar ( alias El Mamito ) , one of their highest @-@ ranking leaders , was arrested in July . Though he did not call out any names , he stated that someone within Los Zetas had betrayed him . Shortly thereafter , alleged organized crime members uploaded a narcocorrido music video on YouTube portraying Treviño Morales " as the New Judas " and accusing him of setting up the arrests and deaths of other commanders within the criminal organization and being disloyal to Lazcano Lazcano , his boss . In several articles published in August 2012 , a U.S. law enforcement official told the press that Treviño Morales had successfully taken the leadership of the cartel and displaced Heriberto Lazcano Lazcano , the long @-@ time leader . Treviño Morales began to take over the assets of Los Zetas and was working to remove Lazcano Lazcano as the head since early 2010 . Amidst the Zetas civil war , many high @-@ ranking members in Los Zetas began to fall . High @-@ ranking Zetas leader Iván Velázquez Caballero ( alias El Talibán ) was arrested in September 2012 , presumably set up either by rival gang members or gangsters aligned with a group related to Treviño Morales . On 6 October 2012 , drug lord Salvador Alfonso Martínez Escobedo ( alias La Ardilla ) was arrested in Nuevo Laredo by the Mexican Navy . After Velázquez 's fall , a split off group known as Los Legionarios ( The Legionaries ) was born in Nuevo Laredo and vowed to bring down Treviño Morales for allegedly betraying him . A second faction from Los Zetas , known as Sangre Zeta ( Zetas Blood ) , also broke up from the organization to join forces against him .

The active role of Treviño Morales got him the loyalty and respect of many in Los Zetas , and eventually many stopped paying to Lazcano Lazcano . In order to avoid his arrest or death from betrayal , Lazcano Lazcano reportedly fled the country and lived in Germany and Costa Rica for an unknown time with surrounding rumors that he had terminal cancer . Back in Mexico , Treviño Morales had become the stronger of the two in Los Zetas . Lazcano Lazcano was then killed by the Mexican Navy in the state of Coahuila on 7 October 2012 , and Treviño Morales succeeded him as the top leader of Los Zetas .

= = Bounty and indictments = =

In 2009 in New York and in 2010 in Washington , the U.S. Department of Justice released an indictment against Treviño Morales for conspiracy to manufacture and distribute cocaine into the United States from Mexico and Guatemala . There was a bounty for him in Mexico set at $ 30 million MXN ( US $ 2 @.@ 3 million ) and another one in the U.S. at US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) . Los Zetas are responsible for the smuggling of multiple tons of cocaine , marijuana , and heroin into the United States from Mexico annually . He was also considered one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords .

Treviño Morales is known by various aliases : L @-@ 40 ( 40 , Z @-@ 40 , Zeta 40 ) , Comandante Cuarenta , El Cuarenta , David Estrada @-@ Corado , and La Mona .

= = = Kingpin Act sanction = = =

On 20 July 2009 , the United States Department of the Treasury sanctioned Treviño Morales under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ( sometimes referred to simply as the " Kingpin Act " ) , for his involvement in drug trafficking along with three other international criminals . The act prohibited U.S. citizens and companies from doing any kind of business activity with him , and virtually froze all his assets in the U.S.

= = Arrest = =

A month before his capture , U.S. authorities had been passing down information to their counterparts in Mexico that Treviño Morales was making frequent visits to the Nuevo Laredo border area to see his newborn baby . They traded this intelligence information from wiretaps conversations and informants ' tips . Treviño Morales was apprehended by the Mexican Marines in Anáhuac , Nuevo León , near the border of Tamaulipas state , at around 3 : 45 a.m. on 15 July 2013 without a single shot fired . The truck he was traveling in was intercepted on the road by a Black Hawk helicopter from the Navy ; when the Marines got off the helicopter and tried to apprehend him , the capo attempted to escape by running through some bushes but was later caught . He was in possession of US $ 2 million ( $ 25 @,@ 316 @,@ 100 MXN ) in cash , eight weapons and hundreds of rounds of ammunition ; two other men were arrested with him and taken into custody . Rumors of Treviño Morales 's arrest and a mugshot of him in custody began to circulate through Twitter and other social media outlets around noon that day , but the Mexican government did not confirm the arrest , nor did the U.S. authorities receive a formal confirmation until hours later .

At the time of his arrest , Treviño Morales had pending charges for organized crime involvement , drug trafficking , torture , money laundering , and the illegal use of firearms under Mexican law , among other charges . However , he only declared the money and firearms that were confiscated during his arrest . Following his arrest , the drug lord was flown to Mexico City and kept at the SEIDO installations , Mexico 's organized crime investigatory agency . On 19 July 2013 , he was transferred to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 maximum security prison in Almoloya de Juárez , State of Mexico , via helicopter . On January 2014 , a New York federal district court issued other criminal charges against the drug lord . The investigation alleged that Treviño Morales conspired to order killings against rival gangsters of Los Zetas , members of his own criminal organization , and Mexican policemen and personnel of the Mexican Army from September 2004 to July 2013 . The court , which sought his extradition , also stated that the drug lord conspired to traffic drugs to the U.S.

= = Family = =

Miguel 's brother José Treviño Morales was arrested on 12 June 2012 by a combined U.S. federal task force . He has been indicted as one of the money launderers for the Zetas through an Oklahoma @-@ based American Quarter Horse racing operation . His son Alejandro Treviño Chávez was killed during a shootout in the state of Coahuila on 5 October 2012 by a law enforcement group ; in response , Miguel ordered the murder of José Eduardo Moreira , nephew of governor of Coahuila Rubén Moreira , and son of Humberto Moreira ( Governor of the State of Coahuila from 2005 to 2011 ) .

Omar Treviño Morales , his younger brother , is a high @-@ level leader in Los Zetas and one of Mexico 's most @-@ wanted drug lords . The U.S government is offering up to US $ 5 million ( $ 62 @.@ 4 million MXN ) for information that leads to his arrest and conviction . He is responsible for several murders and kidnappings carried out in Nuevo Laredo between 2005 and 2006 . The authorities consider him the successor and " heir " of Los Zetas following Miguel 's arrest .

Miguel 's older brother , Juan Francisco Treviño Morales , is currently imprisoned in the United States ; his son ( and nephew of Miguel ) , Juan Francisco Treviño Chávez , alias El Quico , was arrested in Monterrey on 15 June 2012 . Eduardo Treviño Treviño , another nephew of Miguel , was arrested in Nuevo Laredo in May 2013 and awaits an extradition to the United States for kidnapping and drug trafficking charges that date back to 2010 . Miguel 's wife Juanita del Carmen Ríos Hernández was included in the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act on February 2014 , banning U.S. citizens from doing any kind of business activities with companies under her name .

= R & B Junkie =

" R & B Junkie " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Janet Jackson from her eighth studio album , Damita Jo ( 2004 ) . Written by Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , the track was released as a promotional single in December 2004 by Virgin Records . " R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties soul , R & B funk , dance @-@ pop and synths , while it samples Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " ; it has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses .

" R & B Junkie " received positive reviews from music critics , who described it as " infectious " and one of the best tracks on Damita Jo . The song peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles , as it received a limited release . " R & B Junkie " was performed by Jackson during the 2004 BET Awards .

= = Recording and composition = =

" R & B Junkie " was recorded in 2003 , at Flyte Tyme Studios West at The Village , in Los Angeles , California . It was written by Janet Jackson , James Harris III , Terry Lewis , Tony " Prof T " Tolbert , Michael Jones and Nicholas Trevisick , while it was produced by Jackson , Jam and Lewis . The latter one also played the keyboards . The song had its drums and percussion played by IZ . Serban Ghenea did the mixing of " R & B Junkie " at MixStar Studios , Virginia Beach , with Tim Roberts being his assistant . Ian Cross engineered the song while Ghian Wright was an assistant . Additionally , the Pro @-@ Tools engineer was John Hanes .

" R & B Junkie " is an upbeat song which has a " retro " feel consisting of eighties funk , dance @-@ pop , and synths . It transforms a brief sample from Evelyn King 's 1981 song " I 'm in Love " into a new composition . According to LA Weekly , it worked in the context of a song that is " an ode to old @-@ school soul music and the dances those sounds inspired " . The magazine also considered the song a likely candidate for a summer club hit . " R & B Junkie " ' s positive vibe was described as a sonic " ambrosia " by Baltimore City Paper . Additionally , the song has " oh @-@ oh @-@ ohs " throughout the verses and on the chorus .

= = Critical reception = =

The song received positive reviews from music critics . Angus Batey from Yahoo ! Music described " R & B Junkie " as one of the high points from Damita Jo , describing it as a delicious throwback . BBC Music 's Ian Warde asserted that the song " is a nice Evelyn Champagne King infused number that parties like it 's 1982 " . Similarly , Michael Paoletta from Billboard called the song a " winner " from Damita Jo and noted that it " fabulously " referenced the sampled song . Mikael Wood from Baltimore City Paper commented that " R & B Junkie " had an enough positive vibe to shame American musician Michael J. Powell into early retirement . Ernest Hardy from LA Weekly described the song as the second best song from Damita Jo , after " Like You Don 't Love Me " . Spence D. from IGN called it as ultimately non @-@ descript , despite considering it infectious .

= = Live performance = =

Jackson performed a medley of " All Nite ( Don 't Stop ) " and " R & B Junkie " at the 2004 BET Awards . Following Jackson 's Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy , various performances on TV were aired with a time delay per the U.S. Federal Communications Commission 's guidelines , but the awards show was televised without a delay .

= = Track listing = =

US promo CD single

" R & B Junkie " – 3 : 10

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits and personnel adapted from Damita Jo album liner notes .

= = Chart performance = =

" R & B Junkie " was only released as promo single and was sent to Urban AC radio stations . It failed to chart on any main Billboard charts , but peaked at number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles .

= Todo a Su Tiempo ( Marc Anthony album ) =

Todo a Su Tiempo ( English : All in Due Time ) is the second studio album by American recording artist Marc Anthony , released by RMM Records on May 30 , 1995 . The album was produced by Sergio George , who was also involved with production of Anthony 's debut studio album , Otra Nota . The album comprises five new compositions , three of which were written by Omar Alfanno , and four cover versions . Eight singles were released from the album , all of which topped the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .

Todo a Su Tiempo peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart and debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart . The album garnered critical praise as a major improvement over his first album and for revolutionizing the salsa music genre . It received a Grammy nomination , a Billboard Latin Music award , and a Lo Nuestro award . Two years later , the album made history as the first salsa disc to be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Since the album 's release , it has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies .

= = Background = =

Following the release of his debut album , Otra Nota , in 1993 , Anthony continued to work with producer Sergio George for the recording of Todo a Su Tiempo . Recording for the album took place at the Sound on Sound Studios and the Quad Recording Studios in New York City . According to George , Otra Nota was an experimental album and was on a low budget . George allowed Anthony to choose his own material and described the recording as more " mixed and aggressive " . Anthony described naming the album :

The album took awhile , but I learned that you can 't be afraid of time , waiting . I also learned there is a right time for everything which is why I named the album " Todo a Su Tiempo "

= = Composition and covers = =

The album comprises nine tracks , four of which are covers of songs previously recorded by several performers . Panamanian songwriter Omar Alfanno composed three tracks from the album : " Te Conozco Bien " ( " I Know You Well " ) , " Nadie Como Ella " ( " Nobody Like Her " ) , and " Llegaste a Mi " ( " You Came to Me " ) . The ballad " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " ( " And You Still Being You " ) was composed by Puerto Rican composers Eduardo Reyes , Laura Reyes , and Guadalupe Garcia . " Vieja Mesa " ( " Old Table " ) was composed by Dominican musician Víctor Víctor . The song incorporates the sound of bachata @-@ influenced bolero . " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " ( " I 'm Still Forgetting " ) was first performed by José Feliciano on his 1986 album , Te Amaré . " Por Amar Se da Todo " ( " To Love Gives Everything " ) was performed by Danny Rivera on the 1993 album of the same name . Manny Delgado wrote the song " Hasta Ayer " ( " Until Yesterday " ) for the Venezuelan pop band Los Terrícolas in 1979 . In the album , Anthony recorded the song as a bolero . " Te Amaré " ( " I Will Love You " ) was written by The Barrio Boyzz member Angel Ramirez Jr. for their 1993 album , Donde Quiera Donde Estes .

= = Commercial reception = =

= = = Album = = =

Todo a Su Tiempo was released on May 30 , 1995 , in the United States and was distributed by Sony Music until 1996 , when it was distributed by Universal Music Group . The album debuted at number six on the Billboard Latin Albums chart for the week of June 17 , 1995 . The same week , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard Tropical Albums and remained in that position for five consecutive weeks . A year later , the album returned to number one on the chart , and held the position for a total of six non @-@ consecutive weeks . It was third @-@ best @-@ selling tropical album of 1996 in the United States . During the week of April 12 , 1997 , the album once again reached number one the chart and held the position for four weeks . Two years after the album was released , it became the first salsa disc to receive a gold certification by the RIAA for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units . The album has sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies as of 2001 .

= = = Singles = = =

" Te Conozco Bien " was the lead single from the album . It peaked at number seven on the Billboard Latin Song chart and became his first number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Song chart . The song spent eight weeks on top of the chart and was named the best @-@ performing tropical song of the year . The second single , " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart . It became his second number @-@ one single on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart ; it spent six weeks on top of the chart . The third single , " Nadie Como Ella " , peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Latin songs and became his third number @-@ one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fourth single , " Te Amaré " , reached number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and became his fourth single to reach number one on the Tropical Songs chart . The fifth single , " Llegaste a Mi " , reached number eleven on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and spent two weeks number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . " Hasta Ayer " was the sixth single to be released from the album . It peaked at number six on the Billboard Latin Songs chart and was number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs for three weeks . As the song was a bolero , RMM executive Ralph Mercado responded to the success of the song by stating that Anthony was no longer just a salsa musician . The seventh single , " Por Amar Se da Todo " , peaked at number seventeen on the Billboard Latin Songs and at number one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . The last single , " Vieja Mesa " , peaked at number seven on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .

= = Critical reception = =

Todo a Su Tiempo received praise from music critics . Evan Gutierrez of Allmusic gave the album a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , praising the album as a step forward over Otra nota . He described Anthony 's voice as " soaring " and " luminescent " . He cited the album as setting the bar for salsa music and closed the review by it calling the album " without question one of the finest salsa records of the ' 90s " . David Wilson of Wilson and Alroy 's Record Review felt the album was an improvement from his last album , and commended the George 's arrangements as " varied and interesting " . He referred " Por Amar Se da Todo " as a song that " doesn 't let up " and " Nadie Como Ella " as " obvious , but catchy " . Of the song " Y Sigues Siendo Tu " , Wilson said that Anthony is " one of the few current male singers who can really make you believe in a sappy ballad " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune gave the album a four @-@ star rating and enjoyed how Anthony put a variety of sounds , including hip @-@ hop and R & B , to " good use " . She referred to " Hasta Ayer " as " an oldie but goodie totally transformed by soulful crooning " . Billboard 's mentioned Anthony as " grafting his muy soulful baritone onto vivid romantic narratives " and acknowledged " Nadie Como Ella " and " Se Me Sigue Olvidando " as " upbeat " . A writer for the Village Voice penned that the tracks were " nine swirling , complex dance tunes " . In 2015 , Billboard listed Todo a Su Tiempo as one of the Essential Latin Albums of Past 50 Year stating that the album " launched Anthony to fame as an instant salsa superstar and it wasn ’ t long before he was a household name " .

At the 38th Grammy Awards , the album received a nomination for " Best Tropical Latin Performance " , which was awarded to Gloria Estefan 's Abriendo Puertas . Anthony received two Billboard Latin Music Awards , including " Tropical / Salsa Album of the Year " and " Tropical / Salsa Hot Latin Track of the Year " for the song " Te Conozco Bien " . In 1996 , the album received a Lo Nuestro Award nomination for " Tropical Album of the Year " which it won the following year .

= = Track listing = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

The following credits are from Allmusic and from Todo a Su Tiempo liner notes .

= = = Performance credits = = =

= = = Technical credits = = =

= = Chart performance = =

= = = Weekly charts = = =

= = = Certification = = =

= = Release history = =

= Hurricane Kristy ( 2006 ) =

Hurricane Kristy in 2006 was a relatively long @-@ lived tropical cyclone in the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . It developed on August 30 from a tropical wave off the southwest coast of Mexico , and quickly intensified to attain hurricane status , reaching peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Subsequently , Kristy weakened from cooler waters and increased wind shear from Hurricane John to its northeast . Steering currents weakened , and turning to a southerly drift , it weakened to a tropical depression by September 2 . The next day it briefly regained tropical storm status , only to again deteriorate to depression status . After turning to the west , Kristy encountered marginally favorable conditions and attained tropical storm status for a third time , though unfavorable conditions caused it to dissipate on September 9 . The storm never affected land , although initially there was a slight threat to Clarion Island . Within the National Hurricane Center area of warning responsibility east of 140 ° W , Hurricane Kristy was the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone of the season .

= = Genesis = =

A tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa on August 13 . With a large swirl of low clouds and little convection , the system tracked westward for two weeks across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , before crossing Central America on August 22 . On August 29 , the system became better organized , consisting of a broad low pressure area and thunderstorm activity . The convection persisted and organized further , and at 0000 UTC on August 30 it developed into Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E about 600 mi ( 970 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula .

Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was experiencing slight easterly wind shear , which distorted the convection to the west of the circulation . However , favorable conditions for strengthening were expected , and the depression was forecast to reach peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before weakening . It tracked slowly northwestward along the southern periphery of a ridge , and quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy after convection increased over its circulation center . By that time , wind shear had decreased to very low levels , and with very warm waters , the storm was expected to quickly intensify to reach hurricane status . By late on August 30 , the convection was wrapping into the center while an eye feature became intermittent . Organization continued , and Kristy attained hurricane status early on August 31 , about 30 hours after forming . Six hours after attaining hurricane status , an eye @-@ like featured was evident on satellite imagery , and it is estimated Kristy attained peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) about 550 mi ( 880 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California . However , satellite @-@ derived intensity estimates suggested the hurricane could have been as strong as 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , or as weak as a tropical storm .

= = Weakening and demise = =

Subsequently , wind shear increased , caused by the outflow of powerful Hurricane John to its east . Additionally , the hurricane moved into an area of cooler water temperatures , and as a result its appearance became ragged and amorphous . At the same time , steering currents weakened , and the future of Kristy was uncertain ; the NHC forecast the hurricane to continue slowly westward , dissipating within four days . However , other hurricane models suggested a motion to the southwest , and two models predicted a Fujiwhara effect , or an orbiting of two tropical cyclones , which would eventually result in Kristy being absorbed by Hurricane John . On September 1 , Kristy weakened to tropical storm status , and it weakened faster as dry air encroached the storm . It turned southeastward as the ridge to its north strengthened . On September 2 , the circulation became exposed from the convection , and it was forecast to degenerate into a remnant low within 24 hours . Later that day , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status .

By September 3 , Tropical Depression Kristy was without persistent deep convection for about 18 hours . However , thunderstorms increased around the center later that day , developing a shallow eye @-@ like feature . The convection persisted along the western periphery of the circulation , and it is estimated Kristy re @-@ attained tropical storm status about 24 hours after it was first downgraded to depression status . Around the same time , the cyclone began a steady motion to the southwest . Its re @-@ intensification was short @-@ lived , as continued wind shear weakened the convection and left the center devoid of any thunderstorms . On September 4 , Kristy weakened to tropical depression status , and though quick dissipation was predicted , officials noted that intermittent convection flares could develop . One such convection flare occurred on September 5 , which persisted around the center and warranted Kristy being upgraded to tropical storm status . By that time , wind shear had decreased somewhat and the storm had turned westward , and with a track through warm water temperatures , Kristy was forecast to maintain tropical storm status for five days .

At one point as a tropical storm , the thunderstorm activity around Kristy appeared to be organizing into hooking bands , and further intensification was considered likely , potentially as strong as 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , the thunderstorm activity decreased markedly on September 6 , primarily from dry air entrainment , and it weakened to tropical depression status for the last time . In one forecast , Kristy was predicted to move into the area of warning responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center , or west of 140 ° W. However , the depression was unable to maintain organized convection around its center for a few days , and Kristy degenerated into a remnant low on September 8 . The low turned to the southwest , degenerating into a tropical wave on September 9 about 1500 miles ( 2400 km ) southeast of the island of Hawaii , or about 1600 miles ( 2600 km ) southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . The remnant disturbance continued westward , and initially Kristy was believed to have developed into Tropical Depression Two @-@ C in the central Pacific Ocean ; however , post @-@ season analysis concluded the systems were separate .

= Baden @-@ Powell House =

Baden @-@ Powell House , colloquially known as B @-@ P House , is a Scouting hostel and conference centre in South Kensington , London , which was built as a tribute to Lord Baden @-@ Powell , the founder of Scouting . The house , owned by The Scout Association , hosts a small exhibition relating to Scouting in its current form and a granite statue by Don Potter .

The building committee , chaired by Sir Harold Gillett , Lord Mayor of London , purchased the site in 1956 , and assigned Ralph Tubbs to design the house in the modern architectural style . The foundation stone was laid in 1959 by World Chief Guide Olave , Lady Baden @-@ Powell , and it was opened in 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . The largest part of the £ 400 @,@ 000 cost was provided by the Scout Movement itself . Over the years , the house has been refurbished several times , so that it now provides modern and affordable lodging for Scouts , Guides , their families and the general public staying in London . The building also hosts conference and event space for hire .

= = History = =

Acting on a 1942 initiative by Chief Scout Lord Somers , a formal Baden @-@ Powell House Committee was established by The Scout Association in 1953 under the direction of Sir Harold Gillett , later Lord Mayor of London . The committee 's directive was to build a hostel to provide Scouts a place to stay at reasonable cost while visiting London . For this purpose , in 1956 the committee purchased a bombed @-@ out property at the intersection of Cromwell Road and Queen 's Gate at a cost of £ 39 @,@ 000 .

The Scout Movement raised the major part of the funding of £ 400 @,@ 000 for building and furnishing the building between 1957 and 1959 . Scouts throughout the Country collected ' ship ' halfpennies , and this raised the bulk of the money for the building . Money was also raised through public appeals supported by publication in Scout Movement magazines , a collection of donations in 15 @,@ 000 brick @-@ shaped boxes , and 5 @,@ 000 appeal letters signed personally by then Chief Scout Lord Rowallan . Scouts representing every county were present at the opening .

In a celebration on 17 October 1959 the foundation stone was laid by the World Chief Guide ( Olave Baden @-@ Powell ) , in the presence of Lord Mayor Sir Harold Gillett , the new Chief Scout Sir Charles Maclean , and 400 other guests . A casket was buried under the foundation stone which held 1959 Scout mementoes , stamps , coins , photographs , etc . , and a programme of the ceremony .

With 142 Queen 's Scouts as Guard of Honour , and live broadcast by the BBC ( commentator Richard Dimbleby ) , Baden @-@ Powell House was opened on 12 July 1961 by Queen Elizabeth II . Afterwards , she toured the house with the Chief Scout and the president of The Scout Association , her uncle Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester . A black marble panel with gold lettering was put on the balcony in the hall to commemorate the event .

= = Modern architecture = =

The house was designed by the architect Ralph Tubbs in 1956 , whose works included the Dome of Discovery , the highlight of the 1951 Festival of Britain . Tubbs ' floor plans and a model of his design were displayed during a fundraising campaign and exhibition on 21 February 1957 in the Egyptian Hall of the Mansion House .

The six storied Baden @-@ Powell House is designed in the modern architectural style , as pioneered by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier from the late 1920s onwards , and predominating in the 1950s . At Baden @-@ Powell House , Tubbs made the first floor overhang the ground floor , a Le Corbusier architectural design choice to free the building from the ground , such as seen in his Pavillon Suisse at the Cité Internationale Universitaire in Paris . Additionally , Le Corbusier 's Sainte Marie de La Tourette priory in Lyon shows two floors of monk 's cells with small windows , cantilevered over the more open floors below , another design choice used by Tubbs in the facade of Baden @-@ Powell House . While Tubbs created Baden @-@ Powell House in the modern architectural style of Le Corbusier , he used more architectural restraint in his own design choices . For example , he made the main visible building component brick rather than concrete . This heavier evolution of Le Corbusier 's style was popular in England throughout the post @-@ war years until replaced by the Brutalist style in the later 1960s .

Baden @-@ Powell House was built to Tubbs ' design by Harry Neal Ltd , for which they received the 1961 Gold Medal of the Worshipful Company of Tylers and Bricklayers . At the opening , the house received the building design award for ' The building of most merit in London.'

Thirty @-@ five years after its opening , Baden @-@ Powell House was refurbished in a six @-@ month £ 2 million programme , providing all modern amenities such as private facilities for all rooms , double glazing , and air conditioning , as well as enhancing conference facilities for large and small events . Upon completion of the programme , the house was opened by the president of The Scout Association , Prince Edward , Duke of Kent on 5 June 1997 . In 2002 a Starbucks coffee ( discontinued before 2015 ) and sandwich bar was opened , as well as an outdoor roof garden adjacent to the meeting conference rooms on the second floor .

= = Baden @-@ Powell collection = =

Although it has since been replaced with a number of smaller displays available to the public in the reception area showing some traditional Scouting skills , a notable collection of Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has been on display in the past for visitors in ' The story of B @-@ P ' exhibition . This included many drawings and letters by Baden @-@ Powell himself , such as the original of his Last Message to Scouts , Laws for me when I am old and several first editions of his books . The former exhibition also displayed the original painting by David Jagger , as presented to Baden @-@ Powell on 29 August 1929 at the ' Coming of Age ' 3rd World Scout Jamboree . This painting , a personal favourite of Baden @-@ Powell , is often used in publications throughout the Scout movement . The Baden @-@ Powell memorabilia has since been moved to the headquarters for Scouting in the UK , Gilwell Park .

As an introductory part of the collection , a nearly 3 meter high statue of Baden @-@ Powell has been erected in front of Baden @-@ Powell House , the only granite statue in London . The sculptor was Baden @-@ Powell 's personal friend Don Potter . It was unveiled on 12 July 1961 by the Duke of Gloucester , as part of the official opening of the house .

= = 21st century : Hostel and Conference centre = =

From 1974 to 2001 , Baden @-@ Powell House was the headquarters of The Scout Association , for which a dedicated extension to the house was completed in 1976 . In April 2001 , the headquarters formally moved to new accommodation at Gilwell Park . As the owner of Baden @-@ Powell House , The Scout Association receives a net income out of the revenues of approximately £ 1 @.@ 5 million .

Baden @-@ Powell House provides a hostel for people visiting London . In the period 2004 – 2006 the hostel participated in the Youth Hostel Association , after which the Scout Association entered into an agreement with German company Meininger City Hostels . The building is still owned by The Scout Association , but it is run by Meininger . As part of the arrangement with this company Scout members from the UK and abroad are able to stay at a reduced rate . It is also a conference and event space . Baden @-@ Powell House is rated Four Star by the Visit Britain Quality Assurance , and Mobility Level 1 ; also recent visitors rate it on average 4 out of 5 .

The hostel and conference centre is entered through a wide glazed atrium which serves as a large foyer containing the cafe and some Scouting displays . From the atrium the large hall is reached which can serve as an auditorium with seating for up to 300 people . The first floor has a restaurant seating 100 guests ; the second floor has meeting rooms , and conference facilities for groups up to 80 delegates per room . The upper floors contain 180 hostel bedrooms . In an average year , 30 thousand people spend the night , and 100 thousand meals are served in the restaurant .

= Botany =

Botany , also called plant science ( s ) , plant biology or phytology , is the science of plant life and a branch of biology . A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specializes in this field . The term " botany " comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη ( botanē ) meaning " pasture " , " grass " , or " fodder " ; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν ( boskein ) , " to feed " or " to graze " . Traditionally , botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively , with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress . Nowadays , botanists study approximately 400 @,@ 000 species of living organisms of which some 260 @,@ 000 species are vascular plants and about 248 @,@ 000 are flowering plants .

Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – edible , medicinal and poisonous plants , making it one of the oldest branches of science . Medieval physic gardens , often attached to monasteries , contained plants of medical importance . They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities , founded from the 1540s onwards . One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden . These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants . Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy , and led in 1753 to the binomial system of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day .

In the 19th and 20th centuries , new techniques were developed for the study of plants , including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging , electron microscopy , analysis of chromosome number , plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins . In the last two decades of the 20th century , botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis , including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately .

Modern botany is a broad , multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science and technology . Research topics include the study of plant structure , growth and differentiation , reproduction , biochemistry and primary metabolism , chemical products , development , diseases , evolutionary relationships , systematics , and plant taxonomy . Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics , which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues . Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods , materials such as timber , oil , rubber , fibre and drugs , in modern horticulture , agriculture and forestry , plant propagation , breeding and genetic modification , in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production , in environmental management , and the maintenance of biodiversity .

= = History = =

= = = Early botany = = =

Botany originated as herbalism , the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties . Many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee , which make up much of the Cherokee land today . The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications . Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC , in archaic Avestan writings , and in works from China before it was unified in 221 BC .

Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece , specifically to Theophrastus ( c . 371 – 287 BC ) , a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the " Father of Botany " . His major works , Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants , constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages , almost seventeen centuries later .

Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is De Materia Medica , a five @-@ volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides . De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1 @,@ 500 years . Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya 's Nabatean Agriculture , Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī 's ( 828 – 896 ) the Book of Plants , and Ibn Bassal 's The Classification of Soils . In the early 13th century , Abu al @-@ Abbas al @-@ Nabati , and Ibn al @-@ Baitar ( d . 1248 ) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner .

In the mid @-@ 16th century , " botanical gardens " were founded in a number of Italian universities – the Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location . These gardens continued the practical value of earlier " physic gardens " , often associated with monasteries , in which plants were cultivated for medical use . They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject . Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated . Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe ; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621 . Throughout this period , botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine .

German physician Leonhart Fuchs ( 1501 – 1566 ) was one of " the three German fathers of botany " , along with theologian Otto Brunfels ( 1489 – 1534 ) and physician Hieronymus Bock ( 1498 – 1554 ) ( also called Hieronymus Tragus ) . Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own . Bock created his own system of plant classification .

Physician Valerius Cordus ( 1515 – 1544 ) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance , the Dispensatorium in 1546 . Naturalist Conrad von Gesner ( 1516 – 1565 ) and herbalist John Gerard ( 1545 – c . 1611 ) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants . Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi ( 1522 – 1605 ) was considered the father of natural history , which included the study of plants . In 1665 , using an early microscope , Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells , a term he coined , in cork , and a short time later in living plant tissue .

= = = Early modern botany = = =

During the 18th century , systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys , where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups ( e.g. family , genus and species ) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters . The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification ( diagnostic keys ) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys . By the 18th century , new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide . In 1753 Carl von Linné ( Carl Linnaeus ) published his Species Plantarum , a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature . This established a standardised binomial or two @-@ part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus . For the purposes of identification , Linnaeus 's Systema Sexuale classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs . The 24th group , Cryptogamia , included all plants with concealed reproductive parts , mosses , liverworts , ferns , algae and fungi .

Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy , morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus had indicated . Adanson ( 1763 ) , de Jussieu ( 1789 ) , and Candolle ( 1819 ) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed . The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later classification by Bentham and Hooker , which was influential until the mid @-@ 19th century , was influenced by Candolle 's approach . Darwin 's publication of the Origin of Species in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity .

Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first " modern " textbook , Matthias Schleiden 's Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik , published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany . Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co @-@ founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831 . In 1855 , Adolf Fick formulated Fick 's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems .

= = = Modern botany = = =

Building upon the gene @-@ chromosome theory of heredity that originated with Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 ) , August Weismann ( 1834 – 1914 ) proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes . No other cells can pass on inherited characters . The work of Katherine Esau ( 1898 – 1997 ) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany . Her books Plant Anatomy and Anatomy of Seed Plants have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century .

The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming , who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities , and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today . The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles , Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements . Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology . Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle , Nikolai Vavilov ( 1887 – 1943 ) produced accounts of the biogeography , centres of origin , and evolutionary history of economic plants .

Particularly since the mid @-@ 1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration ( the transport of water within plant tissues ) , the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures . These developments , coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures , and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere . Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher , Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research . The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals . Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones . The synthetic auxin 2 @,@ 4 @-@ Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2 @,@ 4 @-@ D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides .

20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis , such as spectroscopy , chromatography and electrophoresis . With the rise of the related molecular @-@ scale biological approaches of molecular biology , genomics , proteomics and metabolomics , the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry , physiology , morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis . The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown in vitro ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait , or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed . These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides , antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals , as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield .

Modern morphology recognizes a continuum between the major morphological categories of root , stem ( caulome ) , leaf ( phyllome ) and trichome . Furthermore , it emphasizes structural dynamics . Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants . Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters , relying on DNA sequences as data . Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants , answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species . The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research .

= = Scope and importance = =

The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis , a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells . As a by @-@ product of photosynthesis , plants release oxygen into the atmosphere , a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration . In addition , they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils , preventing soil erosion . Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food , oxygen , medicine , and products for people , as well as creating and preserving soil .

Historically , all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals . Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles , cells , tissues , whole plants , plant populations and plant communities . At each of these levels , a botanist may be concerned with the classification ( taxonomy ) , phylogeny and evolution , structure ( anatomy and morphology ) , or function ( physiology ) of plant life .

The strictest definition of " plant " includes only the " land plants " or embryophytes , which include seed plants ( gymnosperms , including the pines , and flowering plants ) and the free @-@ sporing cryptogams including ferns , clubmosses , liverworts , hornworts and mosses . Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis . They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases . The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes , known as the gametophyte , nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life , even in the seed plants , where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte . Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria ( now studied in bacteriology ) , fungi ( mycology ) – including lichen @-@ forming fungi ( lichenology ) , non @-@ chlorophyte algae ( phycology ) , and viruses ( virology ) . However , attention is still given to these groups by botanists , and fungi ( including lichens ) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses .

Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants . Cyanobacteria , the first oxygen @-@ releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth , are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote , ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells . The new photosynthetic plants ( along with their algal relatives ) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria , changing the ancient oxygen @-@ free , reducing , atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years .

Among the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life 's basic ingredients : energy , carbon , oxygen , nitrogen and water , and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management , conservation , human food security , biologically invasive organisms , carbon sequestration , climate change , and sustainability .

= = = Human nutrition = = =

Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants , or indirectly from animals that eat them . Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere , converting them into a form that can be used by animals . This is what ecologists call the first trophic level . The modern forms of the major staple foods , such as maize , rice , wheat and other cereal grasses , pulses , bananas and plantains , as well as flax and cotton grown for their fibres , are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics . Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields , for example through plant breeding , making their work important to mankind 's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations . Botanists also study weeds , which are a considerable problem in agriculture , and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems . Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people . When applied to the investigation of historical plant – people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany . Some of the earliest plant @-@ people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants . This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists .

= = Plant biochemistry = =

Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants . Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and crassulacean acid metabolism . Others make specialized materials like the cellulose and lignin used to build their bodies , and secondary products like resins and aroma compounds .

Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as " algae " have unique organelles known as chloroplasts . Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors . Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue @-@ green pigment chlorophyll a . Chlorophyll a ( as well as its plant and green algal @-@ specific cousin chlorophyll b ) absorbs light in the blue @-@ violet and orange / red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms . The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy @-@ rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis , a process that generates molecular oxygen ( O2 ) as a by @-@ product .

The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons ( and later a proton gradient ) that 's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy . Their energy is used in the light @-@ independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3 @-@ carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate ( G3P ) . Glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesized . Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast . Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae , while inulin , a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae . Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose ( common table sugar ) for export to the rest of the plant .

Unlike in animals ( which lack chloroplasts ) , plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts , including synthesizing all their fatty acids , and most amino acids . The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things , such as providing material to build cell membranes out of and making the polymer cutin which is found in the plant cuticle that protects land plants from drying out .

Plants synthesize a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose , pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed . Vascular land plants make lignin , a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress . Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibers that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood . Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record . It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period . The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods . Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the C4 carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common C3 carbon fixation pathway . These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants .

= = = Medicine and materials = = =

Phytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism . Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock . Others , such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma , as flavourings and spices ( e.g. , capsaicin ) , and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies . Many medicinal and recreational drugs , such as tetrahydrocannabinol ( active ingredient in cannabis ) , caffeine , morphine and nicotine come directly from plants . Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products . For example , the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid , originally isolated from the bark of willow trees , and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy . Popular stimulants come from plants , such as caffeine from coffee , tea and chocolate , and nicotine from tobacco . Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate @-@ rich plant products such as barley ( beer ) , rice ( sake ) and grapes ( wine ) . Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years . This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by enthnobotanists and then in turn has been used by pharmaceutical companies as a way of drug discovery .

Plants can synthesise useful coloured dyes and pigments such as the anthocyanins responsible for the red colour of red wine , yellow weld and blue woad used together to produce Lincoln green , indoxyl , source of the blue dye indigo traditionally used to dye denim and the artist 's pigments gamboge and rose madder .

Sugar , starch , cotton , linen , hemp , some types of rope , wood and particle boards , papyrus and paper , vegetable oils , wax , and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products . Charcoal , a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood , has a long history as a metal @-@ smelting fuel , as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist 's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder . Cellulose , the world 's most abundant organic polymer , can be converted into energy , fuels , materials and chemical feedstock . Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane , wallpaper paste , biobutanol and gun cotton . Sugarcane , rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels , important alternatives to fossil fuels , such as biodiesel . Sweetgrass was used by NativeAmericanse to ward of bugs like mosquitoes . These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin .

= = Plant ecology = =

Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats — the environments where they complete their life cycles . Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras , their biodiversity , genetic diversity and fitness , the adaptation of plants to their environment , and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species . Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists . This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time . The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns , productivity , environmental impact , evolution , and responses to environmental change .

Plants depend on certain edaphic ( soil ) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too . For example , they can change their environment 's albedo , increase runoff interception , stabilize mineral soils and develop their organic content , and affect local temperature . Plants compete with other organisms in their ecosystem for resources . They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups , populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation . Regions with characteristic vegetation types and dominant plants as well as similar abiotic and biotic factors , climate , and geography make up biomes like tundra or tropical rainforest .

Herbivores eat plants , but plants can defend themselves and some species are parasitic or even carnivorous . Other organisms form mutually beneficial relationships with plants . For example , mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food , ants are recruited by ant plants to provide protection , honey bees , bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds .

= = = Plants , climate and environmental change = = =

Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity . For example , plant phenology can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology , and the biological impact of climate change and global warming . Palynology , the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from thousands or millions of years ago allows the reconstruction of past climates . Estimates of atmospheric CO2 concentrations since the Palaeozoic have been obtained from stomatal densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient land plants . Ozone depletion can expose plants to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation @-@ B ( UV @-@ B ) , resulting in lower growth rates . Moreover , information from studies of community ecology , plant systematics , and taxonomy is essential to understanding vegetation change , habitat destruction and species extinction .

= = Genetics = =

Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms . Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum ( peas ) . What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany . Similarly , " jumping genes " were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize . Nevertheless , there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms .

Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals , and cross species hybrids are often possible . A familiar example is peppermint , Mentha × piperita , a sterile hybrid between Mentha aquatica and spearmint , Mentha spicata . The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra @-@ specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids . Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self @-@ incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes . This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing . In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals . These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes .

Unlike in higher animals , where parthenogenesis is rare , asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms . The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example . Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats , where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare , plantlets or bulbs , may develop instead of flowers , replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent . This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants . Apomixis can also happen in a seed , producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent .

Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid , with paired chromosomes , but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis . This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism , or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid ( endopolyploidy ) , or during gamete formation . An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species . Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally , but may be unable to cross @-@ breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers . These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area , may be sufficiently successful to form a new species . Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis , forming clonal populations of identical individuals . Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid , while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid . The commercial banana is an example of a sterile , seedless triploid hybrid . Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed .

As in other eukaryotes , the inheritance of endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants is non @-@ Mendelian . Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants .

= = = Molecular genetics = = =

A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress , Arabidopsis thaliana , a weedy species in the mustard family ( Brassicaceae ) . The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA , forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants . Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced , in 2000 . The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes , of rice ( Oryza sativa ) and Brachypodium distachyon , has made them important model species for understanding the genetics , cellular and molecular biology of cereals , grasses and monocots generally .

Model plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast . Ideally , these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced , small stature and short generation times . Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in C4 plants . The single celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , while not an embryophyte itself , contains a green @-@ pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants , making it useful for study . A red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions . Spinach , peas , soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology .

Agrobacterium tumefaciens , a soil rhizosphere bacterium , can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus @-@ inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer , causing a callus infection called crown gall disease . Schell and Van Montagu ( 1977 ) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species . Today , genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops .

= = = Epigenetics = = =

Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism 's genes to behave ( or " express themselves " ) differently . One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not . Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed . Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant , and are responsible , for example , for the differences between anthers , petals and normal leaves , despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code . Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell 's life . Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable , while others are reset in the germ cells .

Epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation . During morphogenesis , totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo , which in turn become fully differentiated cells . A single fertilized egg cell , the zygote , gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma , xylem vessel elements , phloem sieve tubes , guard cells of the epidermis , etc. as it continues to divide . The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others .

Unlike animals , many plant cells , particularly those of the parenchyma , do not terminally differentiate , remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant . Exceptions include highly lignified cells , the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity , and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei . While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals , such as chromatin remodeling , an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate .

= = Plant Evolution = =

The chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical , structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria , ( commonly but incorrectly known as " blue @-@ green algae " ) and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterial resident .

The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions , some more closely related to plants than others . There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition , biochemistry , pigmentation , chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves . The algal division Charophyta , sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta , is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants . The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub @-@ kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina .

Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem . They include mosses , liverworts and hornworts . Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free @-@ living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian . Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day . By the end of the Devonian period , several groups , including the lycopods , sphenophylls and progymnosperms , had independently evolved " megaspory " – their spores were of two distinct sizes , larger megaspores and smaller microspores . Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore @-@ producing organs ( megasporangia ) of the sporophyte , a condition known as endospory . Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers ( integuments ) . The young sporophyte develops within the seed , which on germination splits to release it . The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage . Following the evolution of the seed habit , seed plants diversified , giving rise to a number of now @-@ extinct groups , including seed ferns , as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms . Gymnosperms produce " naked seeds " not fully enclosed in an ovary ; modern representatives include conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and Gnetales . Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary . Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms .

= = Plant physiology = =

Plant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life . Chemicals obtained from the air , soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism . The energy of sunlight , captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration , is the basis of almost all life . Photoautotrophs , including all green plants , algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis . Heterotrophs including all animals , all fungi , all completely parasitic plants , and non @-@ photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues . Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain , essentially the opposite of photosynthesis .

Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales . Subcellular transport of ions , electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes . Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream . Diffusion , osmosis , and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur . Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium , calcium , magnesium , and sulphur . In vascular plants , these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem . Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals . Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes .

= = = Plant hormones = = =

Plants are not passive , but respond to external signals such as light , touch , and injury by moving or growing towards or away from the stimulus , as appropriate . Tangible evidence of touch sensitivity is the almost instantaneous collapse of leaflets of Mimosa pudica , the insect traps of Venus flytrap and bladderworts , and the pollinia of orchids .

The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century . Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity , and concluded " It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle . . acts like the brain of one of the lower animals . . directing the several movements " . About the same time , the role of auxins ( from the Greek auxein , to grow ) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went . The first known auxin , indole @-@ 3 @-@ acetic acid ( IAA ) , which promotes cell growth , was only isolated from plants about 50 years later . This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity . The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA , followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification .

Cytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division or cytokinesis . The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn , Zea mays , and is a derivative of the purine adenine . Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division , bud development , and the greening of chloroplasts . The gibberelins , such as Gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway . They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy @-@ breaking in seeds , in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering . Abscisic acid ( ABA ) occurs in all land plants except liverworts , and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids . It inhibits cell division , promotes seed maturation , and dormancy , and promotes stomatal closure . It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission . Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine . It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission , and it , or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene , are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton , pineapples and other climacteric crops .

Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates , first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack .

In addition to being the primary energy source for plants , light functions as a signalling device , providing information to the plant , such as how much sunlight the plant receives each day . This can result in adaptive changes in a process known as photomorphogenesis . Phytochromes are the photoreceptors in a plant that are sensitive to light .

= = Plant anatomy and morphology = =

Plant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues , whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form . All plants are multicellular eukaryotes , their DNA stored in nuclei . The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose , hemicellulose and pectin , larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts . Other plastids contain storage products such as starch ( amyloplasts ) or lipids ( elaioplasts ) . Uniquely , streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division .

The bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses , ferns and seed plants ( gymnosperms and angiosperms ) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems . The shoots consist of stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves and reproductive structures . The underground vascularised roots bear root hairs at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll . Non @-@ vascular plants , the liverworts , hornworts and mosses do not produce ground @-@ penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis . The sporophyte generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts .

The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food , and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system . Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots . Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots . Roots that spread out close to the surface , such as those of willows , can produce shoots and ultimately new plants . In the event that one of the systems is lost , the other can often regrow it . In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf , as is the case with Saintpaulia , or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus ( a mass of unspecialised cells ) that can grow into a new plant . In vascular plants , the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots . Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch , as in sugar beets and carrots .

Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures , but can store water in succulent plants such as cacti , food as in potato tubers , or reproduce vegetatively as in the stolons of strawberry plants or in the process of layering . Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis . Large , flat , flexible , green leaves are called foliage leaves . Gymnosperms , such as conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and gnetophytes are seed @-@ producing plants with open seeds . Angiosperms are seed @-@ producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds . Woody plants , such as azaleas and oaks , undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues : wood ( secondary xylem ) and bark ( secondary phloem and cork ) . All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants . Some plants reproduce sexually , some asexually , and some via both means .

Although reference to major morphological categories such as root , stem , leaf , and trichome are useful , one has to keep in mind that these categories are linked through intermediate forms so that a continuum between the categories results . Furthermore , structures can be seen as processes , that is , process combinations .

= = Systematic botany = =

Systematic botany is part of systematic biology , which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships , particularly as determined by their evolutionary history . It involves , or is related to , biological classification , scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics . Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species . Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy . Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus , who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics . These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics . While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms , molecular phylogenetics , which uses DNA sequences as data , has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so . The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy . It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature . The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants ( ICN ) and administered by the International Botanical Congress .

Kingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukarya and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified . The order is : Kingdom ; Phylum ( or Division ) ; Class ; Order ; Family ; Genus ( plural genera ) ; Species . The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus , resulting in a single world @-@ wide name for each organism . For example , the tiger lily is Lilium columbianum . Lilium is the genus , and columbianum the specific epithet . The combination is the name of the species . When writing the scientific name of an organism , it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase . Additionally , the entire term is ordinarily italicised ( or underlined when italics are not available ) .

The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny . Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies . The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships . As an example , species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves . They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an Echinocactus . However , both Pereskia and Echinocactus have spines produced from areoles ( highly specialised pad @-@ like structures ) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related .

Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care , since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently . Some euphorbias have leafless , rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti , but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related . The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters , distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups ( homoplasies ) or those left over from ancestors ( plesiomorphies ) – and derived characters , which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor ( apomorphies ) . Only derived characters , such as the spine @-@ producing areoles of cacti , provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor . The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms : tree @-@ like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent .

From the 1990s onwards , the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been molecular phylogenetics , which uses molecular characters , particularly DNA sequences , rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles . The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships , instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to . Clive Stace describes this as having " direct access to the genetic basis of evolution . " As a simple example , prior to the use of genetic evidence , fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals . Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants .

In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants . As a result of this work , many questions , such as which families represent the earliest branches of angiosperms , have now been answered . Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants . Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence , there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa . Technological developments such as computers and electron microscopes have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed .

= Odin @-@ class coastal defense ship =

The Odin class was a pair of coastal defense ships built for the German Kaiserliche Marine in the late 19th century . The class comprised two ships : Odin , named after the Norse god Odin , and Ägir , named after the Norse god of the same name . The ships were very similar to the preceding Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ships , and are sometimes considered to be one class of ships .

Like the preceding Siegfried @-@ class ships , Odin and Ägir were obsolete by the time World War I had started . Regardless , they were still used in their primary role until 1915 , at which point they were withdrawn from active service . The ships performed a variety of secondary duties until the end of the war . On 17 June 1919 , both ships were struck from the naval register and sold to the A. Bernstein Company in Hamburg . The shipping company had the ships rebuilt as freighters ; Odin served in this capacity until she was scrapped in 1935 , however Ägir accidentally grounded near the Karlsö lighthouse on the island of Gotland in 1929 and proved to be a total loss .

= = Design = =

= = = General characteristics = = =

The Odin @-@ class ships were 76 @.@ 40 meters ( 250 @.@ 7 ft ) long at the waterline and 79 m ( 259 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 15 @.@ 20 m ( 49 @.@ 9 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 61 m ( 18 @.@ 4 ft ) forward and 5 @.@ 47 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . Like the preceding Siegfried class , Odin and Ägir were substantially rebuilt between 1901 – 03 and 1903 – 04 , respectively . The hulls were lengthened somewhat , to 84 @.@ 80 m ( 278 @.@ 2 ft ) at the waterline and 86 @.@ 15 m ( 282 @.@ 6 ft ) overall . The beam was also slightly increased , to 15 @.@ 40 m ( 50 @.@ 5 ft ) . Forward draft decreased slightly , to 5 @.@ 59 m ( 18 @.@ 3 ft ) , while the aft draft increased slightly , to 5 @.@ 49 m ( 18 @.@ 0 ft ) . The two ships had a designed displacement of 3 @,@ 550 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 490 long tons ; 3 @,@ 910 short tons ) and a maximum weight of 2 @,@ 754 t ( 2 @,@ 711 long tons ; 3 @,@ 036 short tons ) . After the reconstruction , displacement was increased to 4 @,@ 100 t ( 4 @,@ 000 long tons ; 4 @,@ 500 short tons ) designed , and a maximum of 4 @,@ 376 t ( 4 @,@ 307 long tons ; 4 @,@ 824 short tons ) for Odin and 4 @,@ 292 t ( 4 @,@ 224 long tons ; 4 @,@ 731 short tons ) for Ägir .

Odin and Ägir used the same transverse and longitudinal steel frame construction as the Siegfried @-@ class ships . The ships had eight watertight compartments and a double bottom for about 60 % of the length of the hull . As in the Siegfrieds , a ninth watertight compartment was added when the ships were lengthened . The ships were described as good sea boats ; they had gentle motion and were very responsive to commands from the helm . The ships lost significant speed in heavy seas , however . The ships had a crew of 20 officers and 256 enlisted men , with an additional 6 officers and 22 men when serving as a flagship . The refit increased crew requirements , to an additional 31 sailors normally , and the extra flagship crew increased to 9 officers and 34 men . The ships carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one pinnace , two cutters , one yawl , and one dinghy .

= = = Propulsion = = =

Odin and Ägir were equipped with the same propulsion system that was in Siegfried : two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines , each in its own engine room . These engines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) in diameter . Odin had eight marine type boilers , while Ägir 's engines were powered by eight Thornycroft boilers . The ships had similar maximum speeds , with Odin , at 14 @.@ 4 knots ( 26 @.@ 7 km / h ; 16 @.@ 6 mph ) , somewhat slower than her design speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) and Ägir slightly faster at 15 @.@ 1 knots ( 28 @.@ 0 km / h ; 17 @.@ 4 mph ) . Their engines were rated at 4 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 600 kW ) , though on trials Odin managed only 4 @,@ 650 ihp ( 3 @,@ 470 kW ) while Ägir reached 5 @,@ 129 ihp ( 3 @,@ 825 kW ) .

Odin had three electric generators that provided between 29 – 26 kilowatts at 67 volts , while Ägir was equipped with six generators that provided between 243 – 250 kW at 120 V. Because of her increased number of electrical generators , Ägir was nicknamed " Electrische Anna " ( " Electric Anna " ) . The ships stored up to 270 t ( 270 long tons ; 300 short tons ) of coal which enabled a range of 2 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 100 km ; 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . After the refit , fuel bunkerage was increased , to 370 t ( 360 long tons ; 410 short tons ) of coal . This increased the sailing range to 3 @,@ 000 nmi ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots . After 1909 , capacity to store 100 t ( 98 long tons ; 110 short tons ) of fuel oil was added .

= = = Armament = = =

The ships ' primary armament consisted of three 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 35 guns . In an arrangement that was very unusual for such large guns , two of the guns were mounted in a pair of MPL C / 88 turrets forward side @-@ by @-@ side , while the third was mounted in a single turret aft . The guns could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline , and depress to -4 degrees and elevate to 25 degrees . This enabled a maximum range of 13 @,@ 000 m ( 43 @,@ 000 ft ) . The guns had an ammunition storage of 174 rounds , or 58 shells per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 shells per minute . The 1895 design for the armor @-@ piercing shell weighed 140 kg ( 310 lb ) .

The ships also had a secondary battery of ten 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns with 2 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition . The 8 @.@ 8 cm gun fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 590 m / s ( 1 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . The guns could sustain a rate of fire of approximately 15 rounds per minute . The ships were also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Two were placed laterally in above water swivel mounts and the third was submerged in the bow . The torpedo tubes were supplied with a total of 8 torpedoes .

= = = Armor = = =

The ships used a similar Krupp compound steel and teak armor protection scheme as in the preceding Siegfried class . The upper section of the main armored belt was 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central portion of the ships , where the ships ' vitals were located . Behind this was 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of teak , which gave a total thickness of 400 mm ( 16 in ) . The bow and stern were unprotected . The lower section followed a similar pattern of steel armor distribution , although the thickness of the central portion of the belt was decreased to 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The main armored deck was between 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick ; more important areas of the ships were covered by the thicker armor . The conning tower roof was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and the sides were 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The barbettes for the main battery and cupolas for the secondary guns ranged in thickness between 30 to 200 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) , backed by 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of teak .

= = Service history = =

Odin and Ägir saw only limited service in their intended roles . The revolutions in capital ship building in the first decade of the 20th century rapidly made these ships obsolete . The Second Naval Law , passed on 27 March 1908 , reduced the service life of all capital ships from 25 years to 20 years . This meant that the Odin @-@ class ships , along with a number of other vessels , were to be replaced as soon as possible . Odin and Ägir were replaced by the Kaiser @-@ class battleships König Albert and Prinzregent Luitpold respectively .

As the new battleships were intended for offensive operations , the Odin class was still retained for coast defense duties . The ships served in this capacity through the start of World War I , until they were withdrawn from active service in 1915 , along with their half @-@ sisters of the Siegfried class . After she was pulled from combat duties , Odin served as a tender in Wilhelmshaven . She was struck from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to A. Bernstein Co . , a shipping company based in Hamburg . By 1922 , the ship had been rebuilt as a freighter , and she served in this capacity until she was scrapped in 1935 .

Ägir was also stationed in Wilhelmshaven after she was withdrawn from her coast defense duties , though she served as a barracks ship there . She was stricken from the navy list on 17 June 1919 , and also sold to A. Bernstein Co. for use as a freighter . On 8 December 1929 , the ship grounded off the Karlsö lighthouse on the Swedish island of Gotland . The situation proved to be unsalvageable . Her bow ornament is now on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial .

= Siege of Damascus ( 1148 ) =

The Siege of Damascus took place between 24 July and 29 July 1148 , during the Second Crusade . It ended in a decisive crusader defeat and led to the disintegration of the crusade . The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux 's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany . Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed , with most of their armies being destroyed . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa ( Urfa ) , but in Jerusalem , the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus . At the Council of Acre , magnates from France , Germany , and the Kingdom of Jerusalem decided to divert the crusade to Damascus .

The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . Having arrived outside the walls of the city , they immediately put it to siege , using wood from the orchards . On 27 July , the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi arrived with Muslim reinforcements and cut off the crusader 's route to their previous position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . The entire crusader army retreated back to Jerusalem by 28 July .

= = Second Crusade = =

The two main Christian forces that marched to the Holy Land in response to Pope Eugene III and Bernard of Clairvaux 's call for the Second Crusade were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany . Conrad 's force included Bolesław IV the Curly and Vladislaus II of Bohemia , as well as Frederick of Swabia , his nephew who would become Emperor Frederick I. The crusade had been called after the fall of the County of Edessa on 24 December 1144 . The crusaders marched across Europe and arrived at Constantinople in September and October 1147 .

Both faced disastrous marches across Anatolia in the months that followed , and most of their armies were destroyed . Louis abandoned his troops and travelled by ship to the Principality of Antioch , where his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine 's uncle , Raymond , was prince . Raymond expected him to offer military assistance against the Seljuk Turks threatening the principality , but Louis refused and went to Jerusalem to fulfil his crusader vow . Conrad , stricken by illness , had earlier returned to Constantinople , but arrived in Jerusalem a few weeks later in early April 1148 . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa , but in Jerusalem , the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus .

= = = Council of Acre = = =

The Council of Acre was called with the Haute Cour of Jerusalem at Acre on 24 June . This was the most spectacular meeting of the Cour in its existence : Conrad , Otto , Henry II , Duke of Austria , future emperor Frederick , and William V , Marquess of Montferrat represented the Holy Roman Empire . Louis , Thierry of Alsace , and various other ecclesiastical and secular lords represented the French . From Jerusalem King Baldwin , Queen Melisende , Patriarch Fulk , Robert de Craon ( master of the Knights Templar ) , Raymond du Puy de Provence ( master of the Knights Hospitaller ) , Manasses of Hierges ( constable of Jerusalem ) , Humphrey II of Toron , Philip of Milly , Walter I Grenier , and Barisan of Ibelin were among those present . Notably , no one from Antioch , Tripoli , or the former County of Edessa attended . Both Louis and Conrad were persuaded to attack Damascus .

Some of the barons native to Jerusalem pointed out that it would be unwise to attack Damascus , as the Burid dynasty , though Muslim , were their allies against the Zengid dynasty . Imad ad @-@ Din Zengi had besieged the city in 1140 , and Mu 'in ad @-@ Din Unur , a Mamluk acting as vizier for the young Mujir ad @-@ Din Abaq , negotiated an alliance with Jerusalem through the chronicler Usama ibn Munqidh . Conrad , Louis , and Baldwin insisted , Damascus was a holy city for Christianity . Like Jerusalem and Antioch , it would be a noteworthy prize in the eyes of European Christians . In July their armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus , around the Sea of Galilee by way of Baniyas . There were perhaps 50 @,@ 000 troops in total .

The general view now appears to be that the decision to attack Damascus was somewhat inevitable . Historians , such as Martin Hoch , regard the decision as the logical outcome of Damascene foreign policy shifting into alignment with the Zengid dynasty . King Baldwin III had previously launched a campaign with the sole objective of capturing the city . This damaged the Burid dynasty 's relations with the Kingdom of Jerusalem .

= = = Fiasco at Damascus = = =

The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . They arrived at Daraiya on 23 July , with the army of Jerusalem in the vanguard , followed by Louis and then Conrad in the rearguard . The densely cultivated gardens and orchards would prove to be a serious obstacle for the Crusaders . According to William of Tyre , the crusader army was prepared itself for battle :

At Daria [ Darayya ] , since the city was now so near , the sovereigns drew up their forces in battle formation and assigned the legions to their proper places in the order of march ... Because of its supposed familiarity with the country , the division led by the King of Jerusalem was , by common decision of the princes , directed to lead the way and open a path for the legions following . To the King of the Franks [ Louis VII ] and his army was assigned the second place or centre that they might aid those ahead if the need arose . By the same authority , the Emperor [ Konrad III ] was to hold the third or rear position , in readiness to resist the enemy if , perchance an attack should be made from behind .

The Muslims were well prepared and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus on 24 July . These orchards were defended by towers and walls and the crusaders were constantly pelted with arrows and lances along the narrow paths .

On Saturday 24 July the Crusaders began with an attack in the morning along the banks of the Barada river . There was ferocious combat in the orchards and narrow roads between the Christian force and a mixture of professional troops of Damascus , the ahdath militia and Turkoman mercenaries . William of Tyre reported :

The cavalry forces of the townsmen and those who had come to their assistance realized that our army was coming through the orchards in order to besiege the city and they accordingly approached the stream which flowed into the town . This they did with their bows and their balistas [ crossbows ] so that they could fight off the Latin army ... The emperor [ Konrad ] , in command of the forces following , demanded to know why the army did not advance . He was told the enemy was in possession of the river and would not allow our forces to pass . Enraged at this news , Konrad and his knights galloped swiftly forward through the king 's lines and reached the fighters who were tying to win the river . Here all leaped down from their horses and become foot soldiers , as is the custom of the Teutons when a desperate crisis occurs .

The historian David Nicolle wrote that William of Tyre did not explain how Conrad was able to bring his forces up from the rear to the front without totally disorganizing the Christian army " . According to Syrian chronicler Abu Shama :

Despite the multitude of ahdath [ militia ] , Turks , and common people of the town , volunteers and soldiers who had come from the provinces and had joined with them , the Muslims were overwhelmed by the enemy 's numbers and were defeated by the infidels . The latter crossed the river , found themselves in the gardens and made camp there ... The Franks ... cut down trees to make palisades . They destroyed the orchards and passed the night in these tasks .

Thanks to a charge by Conrad , the crusaders managed to fight their way through and chase the defenders back across the Barada river and into Damascus .

Having arrived outside the walls of the city , they immediately put it to siege , using wood from the orchards . The Crusaders began to build their siege position opposite the Bab al @-@ Jabiya gate where the Barada did not run past Damascus . Inside the city the inhabitants barricaded the major streets , preparing for what they believed to be an inevitable assault . Unur had sought help from Saif ad @-@ Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi of Aleppo , and personally led an attack on the crusader camp ; the crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards , where they were prone to ambushes and guerrilla attacks . During the counter @-@ attack on Sunday , July 25 the Damascus forces took heavy losses which included the 71 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer and well known scholar named Yusuf al @-@ Findalawi , the Sufi mystic Al @-@ Halhli and the soldier Nur al @-@ Dawlah Shahinshah . According to William of Tyre , on 27 July the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . During a raid on the Crusader camp on 26 July , according to Abu Shama :

A large group of inhabitants and villagers ... put to flight all the sentries , killed them , without fear of danger , taking the heads of all the enemy they killed and wanting to touch these trophies . The numbers of heads they gathered was considerable .

There were conflicts in both camps : Unur could not trust Saif ad @-@ Din or Nur ad @-@ Din from conquering the city entirely if they offered help ; and the crusaders could not agree about who would receive the city if they captured it . Guy Brisebarre , lord of Beirut , was the suggestion of the local barons , but Thierry of Alsace , Count of Flanders , wanted it for himself and was supported by Baldwin , Louis , and Conrad . It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position , and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad @-@ Din if the crusaders went home . Meanwhile Nur ad @-@ Din and Saif ad @-@ Din had by now arrived at Homs and were negotiating with Unur for possession of Damascus , something that neither Unur nor the crusaders wanted . Saif ad @-@ Din apparently also wrote to the crusaders , urging them to return home . With Nur ad @-@ Din in the field it was impossible to return to their better position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . First Conrad , then the rest of the army , decided to retreat back to Jerusalem on 28 July , though for their entire retreat they were followed by Turkish archers who constantly harassed them .

= = Aftermath = =

Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other . A new plan was made to attack Ascalon but this was abandoned due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege . This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat , to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land . Following the battle , Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel . As a result of the attack , Damascus no longer trusted the crusaders , and the city was formally handed over to Nur ad @-@ Din in 1154 . Bernard of Clairvaux was also humiliated , and when his attempt to call a new crusade failed , he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether .

= Tropical Storm Josephine ( 1996 ) =

Tropical Storm Josephine was an unusual Atlantic tropical storm that moved from west to east across the Gulf of Mexico in October 1996 . It formed on October 4 as a tropical depression from the remnants of a cold front . Early in its duration , the system interacted with a ridge over the central United States , which produced strong winds and high tides along the Texas coast . The outer rainbands caused flooding rainfall in southern Texas , and in Louisiana , high tides flooded roads and stranded residents on Grand Isle . Moving generally to the east due to a trough , the depression intensified into a tropical storm on October 6 , and the next day reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while approaching the west coast of Florida . Josephine made landfall in Taylor County near peak intensity early on October 8 , and soon after became extratropical . While moving ashore , the storm produced a high storm surge reaching 9 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee . High tides flooded about 3 @,@ 600 houses along the west coast . Josephine also produced heavy rainfall , which flooded hundreds of winds , and high winds , which left 400 @,@ 000 people without power . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes , one of which damaged 130 homes .

The extratropical remnants of Josephine moved along the eastern coast of the United States , producing wind gusts as strong as 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , Maryland . The winds caused widespread power outages , including 26 @,@ 000 in Virginia and 31 @,@ 000 in New Jersey . Heavy rainfall flooded low @-@ lying areas and rivers along the storm 's path , including in North Carolina which had previously been affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In the southeastern United States , the storm contributed to dozens of traffic accidents , which killed a person each in Georgia , North Carolina , and Virginia . Damage throughout the United States totaled about $ 130 million ( 1996 USD ) . Josephine later moved offshore , and after passing southeast of Cape Cod , moved through Atlantic Canada with moderate rainfall and gusty winds . The storm later restrengthened in the northern Atlantic Ocean before merging with another extratropical storm near Iceland on October 16 .

= = Meteorological history = =

In late September 1996 , a cold front stalled over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico , producing an area of convection . The thunderstorms were possibly related to the same tropical wave that spawned Hurricane Hernan in the eastern Pacific Ocean . A low pressure area formed in the Bay of Campeche by October 2 , although initially upper @-@ level conditions did not favor tropical cyclogenesis . The convection became more persistent on October 3 and gradually became better organized . On October 4 , classifications based on the Dvorak technique began , and later that day the Hurricane Hunters flew into the system . Based on the data from the flight , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Ten formed at 1800 UTC that day off the northeast coast of Mexico . During its formative stages , the depression interacted with a ridge near the Great Lakes to produce strong winds across the Gulf Coast of the United States . With weak steering currents , the depression moved slowly to the northeast , and initially , wind shear prevented further organization . On October 6 , a strong trough caused the system to accelerate to the east @-@ northeast . The storm 's west to east motion across the Gulf of Mexico was unusual although not unprecedented .

On October 6 , the banding features became better defined , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Josephine . Further intensification followed , and Josephine attained peak winds of about 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on October 7 . This was based on flight @-@ level winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , and while near peak intensity , the storm developed a partial eyewall . Josephine accelerated to the northeast while maintaining peak winds , and it made landfall in Taylor County , Florida at 0330 UTC on October 8 . By that time , Josephine was losing tropical characteristics , and shortly thereafter the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it moved over Georgia . The remnants continued to accelerate to the northeast , having weakened quickly to winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . It moved along the East Coast of the United States , emerging from North Carolina into the western Atlantic , and later crossed Atlantic Canada . On October 12 , the remnants of Josephine turned to the north and later to the northwest within the general flow of the north Atlantic Ocean . The next day , the storm strengthened to again reach its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . On October 16 , the storm merged with another extratropical storm near Iceland .

= = Preparations and impact = =

About 19 hours before landfall , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a tropical storm warning from Apalachicola to Venice , Florida , which was preceded by a tropical storm watch six hours prior . As the storm intensified further , the NHC issued a hurricane warning from Apalachicola to Anclote Key , and extended the tropical storm warning westward to Fort Walton Beach . The agency later issued a tropical storm warning for the Atlantic coast from Cape Canaveral to Little River Inlet in South Carolina . Officials ordered evacuations for barrier islands in nine Florida counties along the gulf coast , and about 3 @,@ 000 people stayed in shelters . Government offices closed along the storm 's projected path in the state . Later , the storm forced the cancellation of part of Bob Dole 's bus tour through New York , and postponed a search for the wreck of TWA Flight 800 . Game one of the 1996 World Series was postponed by one day due to the storm .

While Josephine was forming , it produced high tides of 3 to 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal that flooded coastal regions and eroded beaches along the Texas coast . Coastal flooding covered portions of Texas State Highway 316 and John F. Kennedy Memorial Causeway . The storm 's outer periphery dropped locally heavy rainfall that reached 10 @.@ 81 in ( 275 mm ) at Brownsville International Airport , which flooded homes in Brownsville and streets near San Benito . Light rainfall also occurred elsewhere along the gulf coast . In Louisiana , tides were 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal , which flooded portions of Louisiana Highway 1 and several houses . The floods damaged two houses in Mandeville , and damage statewide was estimated at $ 5 @.@ 5 million . After residents refused to evacuate Grand Isle , over 200 people were stranded when floodwaters rose .

Josephine made landfall in northwestern Florida along Apalachee Bay and produced a high storm surge of around 9 @.@ 3 ft ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) in Suwannee , causing minor to moderate beach erosion . The storm produced widespread tropical storm force wind gusts in the state , and the highest sustained winds were 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) along the Sunshine Skyway Bridge ; the same location reported a peak gust of 72 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Josephine dropped heavy rainfall in the state , peaking at 11 @.@ 39 in ( 289 mm ) in Fernandina Beach . The storm also spawned at least 16 tornadoes in northern Florida , most of which caused minor tree damage . One 400 yd ( 370 m ) wide tornado , rated an F2 , remained on the ground for 7 mi ( 11 km ) in Edgewater , which damaged 130 houses , 30 of them severely . The tornado caused a woman to have a heart attack in Edgewater , and its damage was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 4 million . In western Florida , the high tides flooded roads and buildings along the coast . Between Levy to Lee county along the gulf coast , Josephine flooded about 3 @,@ 600 homes , mostly west of U.S. Route 19 . The heaviest storm surge damage was in Pinellas County , where about 1 @,@ 400 homes were affected , causing $ 25 million in damage . One person was injured in the county when a man was surfing in rough seas . The high tides damaged three fishing piers along the west coast . In Clay County , flooding rains forced about a dozen families to seek shelter elsewhere , and a few roads were washed out . In Jacksonville , high rains flooded hundreds of roads and caused schools countywide to close . Street flooding occurred as far south as the Florida Keys . High winds caused sporadic wind damage across northern Florida , and about 400 @,@ 000 people lost power statewide . Following the storm , President Bill Clinton declared 16 counties as disaster areas , which made them eligible for federal assistance in reconstructing .

When the remnants of Josephine moved into Georgia , rainfall of over 7 in ( 180 mm ) flooded portions of Georgia State Route 40 and destroyed six houses along the St. Marys River . A woman died after driving into a downed tree in the state . In South Carolina , the storm caused flash flooding that covered roads and cars , after 6 in ( 150 mm ) of precipitation fell . Wind gusts in the state reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) along the coast , while high tides caused minor beach erosion . The remnants of Josephine spawned a weak tornado in Horry County that downed trees and power lines . Heavy rainfall , including reports of 4 in ( 100 mm ) in three and a half hours , also affected North Carolina , which flooded low @-@ lying areas , rivers , and portions of several roads including U.S. Route 70 . A woman and her child required rescue from a flooded road in Chadbourn . In some areas of eastern North Carolina , the storm raised river levels only weeks after they receded following Hurricane Fran . High winds of up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) downed trees and power lines , causing power outages and dozens of traffic accidents ; one man died while driving amid heavy rainfall . High tides flooded barrier islands and caused erosion in beaches , previously affected by hurricanes Bertha and Fran earlier in the year . In conjunction with a cold front , Josephine spawned three tornadoes in the state along the state 's central coastline . The tornadoes destroyed several mobile homes , uprooted trees , and brought down power lines .

After having tracked across the southeastern United States , Josephine emerged into the western Atlantic Ocean as a strong extratropical cyclone and remained near the coast . It continued to bring strong winds and heavy rainfall . In southeastern Virginia , where wind gusts reached 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the Chesapeake Bay Bridge – Tunnel , the storm left about 26 @,@ 000 people without power , while flooding contributed to over 70 traffic accidents . A three car accident killed a man in the state . In neighboring Maryland , the storm produced a peak wind gust of 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) in St. Mary 's County and in Ocean City , which knocked down trees onto houses and left about 7 @,@ 000 people without power . In the Chesapeake Bay , waves of 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in height caused minor coastal damage and flooded portions of the coastline , including along Maryland Route 238 . In Ocean City , a 160 ft ( 49 m ) barge broke from its moorings during the storm , which later washed ashore . About 4 @,@ 000 people lost power in Delaware , where winds reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) and high tides , peaking at 7 @.@ 6 ft ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) at Lewes , flooded oceanfront homes and portion of Delaware Route 1 . High rainfall caused the Christina River to crest at 10 @.@ 6 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) , causing some people to require rescue from their cars . About 1 @,@ 500 people lost power in southeastern Pennsylvania , when high winds knocked down some tree limbs onto power lines . In neighboring New Jersey , high winds of around 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) left about 31 @,@ 000 homes without power , and 12 houses lost their roofs during the storm . In both New Jersey and New York , rainfall was around 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) , causing minor street flooding . While passing offshore New England , the remnants of Josephine produced gusts as high as 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) at Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts . Minor street flooding occurred in the state after the storm dropped up to 4 @.@ 50 in ( 114 mm ) of rainfall on Cape Cod . Throughout New England , the high winds downed trees and branches , causing scattered power outages in Rhode Island , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , and Maine . Nationwide , damage was estimated at $ 130 million ( 1996 USD ) .

Later , the remnants of Josephine moved across Atlantic Canada , where rainfall peaked at 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) in northern Newfoundland . The strongest winds in the region were 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) , strong enough to cause ferry service to be canceled or delayed . In Amherst and Fort Lawrence , the storm caused power outages and school closings .

= Marry You =

" Marry You " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Bruno Mars for his debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . Written and produced by The Smeezingtons , the track serves as the record 's sixth track and was released as Mars 's fourth single outside of the United States . " Marry You " is a pop song featuring strong influences of doo @-@ wop . The recording focuses on spontaneous marriage and therefore , since its release , has frequently been used as a proposal song .

" Marry You " received generally positive reviews from music critics , with some complimenting its production and its reminiscence of 60 's pop style . Some criticized a perceived lack of creativity . Despite not being released as a single in the US , the song charted at number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100 and has since sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies there . It charted on most international markets within the top fifteen , reaching number 10 on the Canadian Hot 100 , number 8 in Australia , the top five in New Zealand , and charting at number 11 in the United Kingdom . The single was certified three times platinum by Music Canada and two times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . Mars performed " Marry You " on both of his worldwide tours , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 – 12 ) and the Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 – 14 ) . The song has been covered a number of times , most notably by the cast of Glee ; their cover outperformed the original song by reaching number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 .

= = Development and conception = =

" Marry You " is one of the eleven songs composed and produced by The Smeezingtons , the collaboration of Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , and Ari Levine , for Mars 's debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans . Lawrence explained the inspiration behind the song in an interview with American Songwriter stating , " [ w ] e had this image of a slow @-@ mo video in Vegas of a couple running , and she ’ s in her gown and he ’ s in his tux , the wedding party is behind them and everyone ’ s raging . This sort of crazy , daring , wedding feeling " . Lawrence was surprised at the impact of the song after watching some YouTube videos . He stated that " [ w ] e always thought it was a good song and catchy , but we didn ’ t think it would affect pop culture the way that it has . The first time we saw one of those YouTube videos , it changed everything for us . We were almost in tears , just the power of music ... the power of what it is we can create . These ideas , words , and lyrics and how they can get into the fabric of society and affect people ’ s lives in such an amazing way . "

" Marry You " was recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios in Hollywood and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles . The song was mixed by Manny Marroquin and assistants Christian Plata and Erik Madrid . Levine and Mars played and recorded all of the instruments on the track . Levine was also responsible for engineering the song at Levcon Studios . Stephen Marcussen mastered the song at Marcussen Mastering in Los Angeles .

= = Composition = =

" Marry You " was written by The Smeezingtons ( Mars , Lawrence , and Levine ) . It combines elements of pop and doo @-@ wop and lasts three minutes and fifty seconds . According to the digital sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing , it was composed in time signature of common time and in the key of F major with a tempo of 145 beats per minute . The track includes drums , double hand @-@ claps , piano , echoing church wedding bells and a sing @-@ songy chorus . Mars 's vocal range spans from C4 to D5 . His vocals in the song have been described as " plaintive " and " ach [ ing ] so gently " , while wooing throughout the track .

The song has been characterized as possessing " forceful velocity " and an " instantly hummable melody " with it being " buoyant " , " bubbly " and " Motown marriage track " . A love song , it lyrically tells about a couple that go to Las Vegas , give up their " capricious impulses " and spontaneously decide to get married . Although the song has since become a " classic marriage tune " , Lawrence has stated that the writers instead meant to imply a " racy kind of idea " . Critics have compared the song to 60 's girl groups and to the " surf pop of The Beach Boys " , and Coldplay .

= = Critical reception = =

" Marry You " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner gave it a strong review , rating it four out of five stars , with him labeling it as a song that " would not only impress the Elvis impersonator in any Vegas chapel , but is enough to make him a shoo @-@ in for ultimate seducer of 2011 " and a " 60s @-@ inspired jive @-@ starter " . NPR 's Ken Tucker and Emily Yang of The Signal said that the recording 's sound was reminiscent of 60 's pop . Nina Baniamer of Contactmusic.com found the track 's production " epic and ambitious " and called the " anthemic " song " sure fire hit " . The Boston Globe critic Ken Capobianco praised the song for its " artfully arranged throwback " and exalted Mars 's vocals on his love songs , such as " Marry You " . Leah Greenblatt , writing for Entertainment Weekly , stated that " Marry You " has " a malt @-@ shop heart " beating beneath its " digital skin " , which shows innovation and creativity . The Independent music critic , Andy Gill , flattered the single by calling it " overly ingratiating " . In a mixed review , Tim Sendra of Allmusic praised the song 's " dynamic and nuanced production " , yet founding the track " pleasantly silly " . In a negative review , Mike Diver of BBC Music thought confessed that the recording was a " too @-@ clingy and very creepy love song " and noted its lack of inspiration . Similarly , Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson suggested that the song was spun off of Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You " , where the word " fuck " was changed to " marry " . He further added that the single was a " bizarrely syncopated piledriver " .

= = Chart performance = =

In the United States , " Marry You " debuted at number 91 on the Billboard Hot 100 on December 11 , 2010 . It reached a peak of number 85 on January 15 , 2011 and remained on the chart for a total of 5 weeks . The song was never released as a single in the United States , despite its strong airplay on mainstream and adult top 40 radio stations . As of January 2015 , the track has sold 2 @.@ 2 million copies there and has yet to be certified by the Recording Industry Association of America .

The song 's reception was stronger outside of the United States , thus debuting at number 89 in Canada on December 11 , 2010 , after the Glee performance of the track . It reached its peak position of number 10 on the Canadian Hot 100 in early November 2011 . It was certified three times platinum by Music Canada . In the United Kingdom , " Marry You " debuted and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and remained on the chart for 39 weeks . The single performed well across the rest of Europe , reaching the top 10 in Austria , Czech Republic , Ireland , Luxembourg , and Slovakia and the top 20 in Belgium , Germany , Netherlands , and Switzerland . In 2014 , the song re @-@ entered the Spanish Charts two years after its first appearance and reached a new peak of 26 . It also made its debut on the Danish Charts at number 34 .

In Australia , " Marry You " debuted at number 50 on the ARIA Singles Chart on December 12 , 2010 and remained on the chart for three weeks . It reappeared on the chart on June 19 , 2011 , reaching a peak position at number 8 for two non @-@ consecutive weeks ; it dropped off the chart after 19 weeks . The single was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association in 2011 . The single reached number 5 on New Zealand 's RIANZ Singles Chart and spent five months on the chart . In Asia , the song peaked at number 3 on the Japan Hot 100 , and the track was awarded Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of Japan . The single reached number 12 in South Korea and sold 2 @,@ 152 @,@ 783 copies there as of 2015 .

= = Live performances and covers = =

Mars has performed the song at several shows , first at the Bowery Ballroom in New York City on August 25 , 2010 . On November 6 , 2011 , Mars and his band performed it live at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . He also sang it on December 8 , 2012 for the 2012 edition of Jingle Bell Ball , an event annually held and promoted by Capital FM at the O2 Arena in London . It was the eight song of his debut worldwide tour , The Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour ( 2010 ) , and was eight ( 2013 set list ) or sixth ( 2014 set list ) on his second worldwide tour , The Moonshine Jungle Tour ( 2013 ) .

The song has been covered several times , first on the " Furt " episode of the television show Glee , which aired on November 23 , 2010 . The show 's cover version achieved moderate success by peaking at number 27 in Australia , number 19 in Canada , number 31 in Ireland and number 32 in the United States . On January 1 , 2013 , the song was covered by Sunny , Sooyoung , and Yoona of South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their comeback special , Girls ' Generation 's Romantic Fantasy . Rapper and actor Donald Glover sang a cover of the song in the film Magic Mike XXL . The cover appeared on the movie 's soundtrack album , which was released on June 30 , 2015 .

= = Track listing = =

Promo CD Single

" Marry You " - 3 : 50

= = Credits and personnel = =

Recording and mixing

Recorded at Larrabee Recording Studios and Levcon Studios in Los Angeles , California ;

Mixed at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California .

Personnel

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans , Elektra Records :

= = Charts = =

= = Certifications = =

= = Release = =

= = = Process = = =

On August 15 , 2011 , a promo CD single containing the album version of " Marry You " became available for purchase through Elektra Records and Warner Music Group . A week later , the song was released in the United Kingdom . It was announced on September 13 , 2011 that " Marry You " would be released in Germany .

= = = History = = =

= Erie , Pennsylvania =

Erie / ˈɪəri / is a city located in northwestern Pennsylvania , United States . Named for the lake and the Native American tribe that resided along its southern shore , Erie is the state 's fourth @-@ largest city ( after Philadelphia , Pittsburgh and Allentown ) , with a population of 101 @,@ 786 at the 2010 census , and an estimated population of 99 @,@ 452 in 2014 . It was the third @-@ largest city in the state until 1999 . It is the second largest city in Western Pennsylvania ( after Pittsburgh ) . Erie 's metropolitan area , equivalent to all of Erie County , consists of approximately 280 @,@ 000 residents . The city is the seat of government for Erie County and the principal city of the Erie , PA Metropolitan Statistical Area .

Erie is between Buffalo , New York , Cleveland , Ohio , and Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Once teeming with heavy industry , Erie 's manufacturing sector remains prominent in the local economy , though service industries , healthcare , higher education , and tourism are emerging as greater economic drivers . Millions visit Erie for recreation at Presque Isle State Park , as well as attractions like the casino and horse racetrack named for the state park .

Erie is known as the " Flagship City " because of its status as the home port of Oliver Hazard Perry 's flagship Niagara . The city has also been called the " Gem City " because of the sparkling lake . Erie won the All @-@ America City Award in 1972 .

= = History = =

Cultures of indigenous peoples occupied the shoreline and bluffs in this area for thousands of years , taking advantage of the rich resources . The Sommerheim Park Archaeological District located in Millcreek Township , Pennsylvania west of the city , includes artifacts from the Archaic period in the Americas , as well as from the Early and Middle Woodland Period , roughly a span from 8,000BCE to 500CE .

The historic Iroquoian @-@ speaking Erie Nation occupied this area before being defeated by the five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the 17th century during the Beaver Wars . The Iroquois tribes had developed and five nations formed a political league in the 1500s , adding their sixth nation in the early 18th century . The Erie area became controlled by the Seneca , " keeper of the western door " of the Iroquois , who were largely based in present @-@ day New York .

Europeans first arrived as settlers in the region when the French constructed Fort Presque Isle near present @-@ day Erie in 1753 , as part of their effort to defend New France against the encroaching British colonists . The name of the fort refers to the peninsula that juts into Lake Erie , now protected as Presque Isle State Park . The French term " presque @-@ isle " means peninsula ( literally , " almost an island " ) . When the fort was abandoned by the French in 1760 during the French and Indian War ( Seven Years ' War ) , it was the last post they held west of Niagara . The British established a garrison at the fort at Presque Isle that same year , three years before the end of the French and Indian War .

Present @-@ day Erie is situated in what was the disputed Erie Triangle , a triangle of land that was claimed after the American Revolutionary War by the states of New York , Pennsylvania , Connecticut ( as part of its Western Reserve ) , and Massachusetts . It officially became part of Pennsylvania on March 3 , 1792 , after Connecticut , Massachusetts and New York relinquished their claims to the federal government , which in turn sold the land to Pennsylvania for 75 cents per acre or a total of $ 151 @,@ 640 @.@ 25 in Continental currency . The Iroquois released the land to Pennsylvania in January 1789 for payments of $ 2 @,@ 000 from Pennsylvania and $ 1 @,@ 200 from the federal government . The Seneca Nation separately settled land claims against Pennsylvania in February 1791 for the sum of $ 800 .

The General Assembly of Pennsylvania commissioned the surveying of land near Presque Isle through an act passed on April 18 , 1795 . Andrew Ellicott , who completed Pierre Charles L 'Enfant 's survey of Washington , D.C. and helped resolve the boundary between Pennsylvania and New York , arrived to begin the survey and lay out the plan for the city in June 1795 . Initial settlement of the area began that year . Lt. Colonel Seth Reed and his family moved to the Erie area from Geneva , New York ; they were Yankees from Uxbridge , Massachusetts . They became the first European @-@ American settlers of Erie , settling at what became known as " Presque Isle " .

President James Madison initiated the construction of a naval fleet during the War of 1812 in order to gain control of the Great Lakes from the British . Daniel Dobbins of Erie and Noah Brown of Boston were notable shipbuilders who led construction of four schooner − rigged gunboats and two brigs . Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry arrived from Rhode Island and led the squadron to success in the historic Battle of Lake Erie .

Erie was an important shipbuilding , fishing , and railroad hub during the mid @-@ 19th century . The city was the site where three sets of track gauges met . While the delays required cargo troubles for commerce and travel , they provided much needed local jobs in Erie . When a national standardized gauge was proposed , those jobs , and the importance of the rail hub itself , were put in jeopardy . In an event known as the Erie Gauge War , the citizens of Erie , led by the mayor , set fire to bridges , ripped up track and rioted to try to stop the standardization .

On August 3 , 1915 , the Mill Creek ( Lake Erie ) flooded downtown Erie . A culvert , or a tunnel , was blocked by debris , and collapsed . A four @-@ block reservoir , caused by torrential downpours , had formed behind it . The resulting deluge destroyed 225 houses and killed 36 people . After the flood , Mayor Miles Brown Kitts had the Mill Creek directed into another larger culvert , constructed for more than 2 miles under the city , before emptying into Presque Isle Bay on the city 's lower east side .

Downtown Erie continued to grow for most of the 20th century , based on its manufacturing base . It attracted numerous new waves of European immigrants for industrial jobs . Erie 's economy began to suffer in the later part of the 20th century as industrial restructuring took place and jobs moved out of the area ; it was considered part of the Rust Belt . The importance of American manufacturing , US steel and coal production , and commercial fishing began to gradually decline. before taking a major population downturn in the 1970s .

With the advent of the automobile age after World War II and government subsidies for highway construction , thousands of residents left Erie for suburbs such as Millcreek Township , which now has over 50 @,@ 000 people . This caused a decline in retail businesses , some of which followed to the suburbs .

Erie won the All @-@ America City Award in 1972 , and was a finalist in 1961 , 1994 , 1995 and 2009 .

= = Geography = =

Erie is situated in northwestern Pennsylvania at 42 ° 6 ′ 52 ″ N 80 ° 4 ′ 34 ″ W ( 42 @.@ 114507 , -80.076213 ) , on the southern shore of Lake Erie across from the Canadian province of Ontario . It is 100 miles ( 160 km ) northeast of Cleveland , Ohio , 90 miles ( 140 km ) southwest of Buffalo , New York , and 128 miles ( 206 km ) north of Pittsburgh . Erie 's bedrock is Devonian shale and siltstone , overlain by glacial tills and stratified drift . Stream drainage in the city flows northward into Lake Erie , then through Lake Ontario into the St. Lawrence River , and out to the Atlantic Ocean . South of Erie is a drainage divide , beyond which most of the streams in western Pennsylvania flow south into the Allegheny or Ohio rivers .

According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 19 @.@ 3 square miles ( 49 @.@ 9 km2 ) , with 19 @.@ 1 square miles ( 49 @.@ 4 km2 ) being land and the remaining 0 @.@ 2 square miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) , or 1 @.@ 03 % , being water . Presque Isle State Park ( known to the locals as " The Peninsula " ) , juts into Lake Erie just north of the city limits and has 7 miles ( 11 km ) of public beaches , wetlands , and fishing sites .

Erie is laid out in a grid surrounding Perry Square in the downtown area . The downtown buildings are separated from the waterfront by the Bayfront Parkway . The tallest structure in Erie is St. Peter Cathedral at 265 feet ( 81 m ) , and the tallest building is Renaissance Centre at 198 feet ( 60 m ) . Erie has generally small ethnic neighborhoods including a Little Italy . South of 38th Street , the grid gives way to curvilinear roads of post @-@ 1970 suburban development . Millcreek Township and upper Peach Street in Summit Township include the Erie metropolitan area 's newer developments .

Most of the cityscape includes renovated and refurbished factory buildings , mid − rise housing , single family homes , and office buildings . Erie 's waterfront includes the Burger King Amphitheater and surrounding parkland , which hosts numerous festivals . The Bayfront Convention Center is on Sassafras Pier next to Dobbins Landing . The Bicentennial Tower is centrally located in the skyline when viewed from Presque Isle State Park , with the high @-@ rise and mid @-@ rise buildings flanking the higher ground behind and to the east and west sides . On the east end of the waterfront , the Erie Maritime Museum and the city 's main library , and third largest in Pennsylvania , host the USS Niagara . Docks and marinas fill the freshwater shoreline in between .

= = = Climate = = =

The climate of Erie is typical of the Great Lakes . Erie is located in the snow belt that stretches from Cleveland to Syracuse and Watertown ; accordingly , its winters are typically cold , with heavy lake effect snow , but also with occasional stretches of mild weather that cause accumulated snow to melt . Erie lies on the typical humid continental zone ( Köppen Dfa ) . The city experiences a full range of weather events , including snow , ice , rain , thunderstorms and fog . The city 's lakeside location helps to temper summer heat , with an average of only 3 @.@ 8 days of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) + highs annually , and the highest temperature ever recorded was 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on June 25 , 1988 ; there is an average of 2 @.@ 5 days with lows of 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) or colder annually , and the lowest temperature ever recorded was − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) on January 19 , 1994 and February 16 , 2015 .

Erie is 6th on The Daily Beast list of snowiest places in the United States , averaging 78 @.@ 7 inches ( 200 cm ) ; however , the 1981 – 2010 normal seasonal snowfall is 100 @.@ 8 in ( 256 cm ) . The adverse winter conditions caused USAir Flight 499 to overrun the runway at Erie International Airport in 1986 , as well as causing whiteouts that were responsible for a 50 car pile @-@ up on Interstate 90 .

Erie was determined to be the snowiest city in the US in the 2013 @-@ 2014 snow season . Erie received 138 @.@ 4 inches of snow that season . According to the National Weather service , Erie was just ahead of Syracuse , NY by 6 inches of snow .

= = Demographics and religion = =

As of the 2010 United States Census , there were 101 @,@ 786 people , 40 @,@ 913 households , and 22 @,@ 915 families residing in the city . There were 44 @,@ 790 housing units at an average vacancy rate of 8 percent . Erie has long been declining in population due to the departure of factories and dependent businesses . The city has lost approximately 40 @,@ 000 people since the early 1960s , allowing Allentown to claim the position as Pennsylvania 's third @-@ largest city behind Philadelphia and Pittsburgh .

Erie 's population was spread evenly among all age groups , with the median being 34 . About 13 % of families and 19 % of the population were below the poverty line . Most of the people who reside in Erie are of European descent .

Since the mid @-@ 1990s , the International Institute of Erie ( IIE ) , founded in 1919 , has helped with the resettlement of refugees from Bosnia , Eritrea , Ghana , Iraq , Kosovo , Liberia , Nepal , Somalia , Sudan , the former Soviet Union , and Vietnam . The inclusion of refugees in Erie 's community augments religious diversity and prompts community events such as cultural festivals .

In the early 20th century , Erie had a significant Russian immigrant community , many of whom worked in the shipbuilding plants along the bayfront . Unusual for a Great Lakes city , a substantial number of these Russian immigrants were priestless ( Bespopovtsy ) Old Believers . In 1983 , most of this community united with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia and became an Old Ritualist priest within the canonical Orthodox Church . Even today , the gold @-@ domed Church of the Nativity , on the bayfront near the former heart of the Russian community , is an Old Ritualist church and home parish to the famed iconographer Fr . Theodore Jurewicz .

Erie has a Jewish community that is over 150 years old . Temple Anshe Hesed , a member of the Union for Reform Judaism , is served by its spiritual leader , Rabbi John L. Bush . Congregation Brith Sholom ( The Jewish Center ) is affiliated with the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism , and Rabbi Leonard Lifshen has been its spiritual leader since 1989 .

Erie is home to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Erie , covering 13 counties — at 9 @,@ 936 square miles ( 25 @,@ 734 km2 ) , it is the largest in the state . Its diocesan seat is the Saint Peter Cathedral in Erie , which has a 265 feet ( 81 m ) central tower flanked by two 150 feet ( 46 m ) towers . Lawrence Thomas Persico is Bishop of Erie , since October 1 , 2012 ; Donald Trautman is Bishop Emeritus of the diocese .

According to the Association of Religion Date Archives , Erie County had a total population of 280 @,@ 843 people in 2000 , of which 103 @,@ 333 claimed affiliation with the Catholic Church , 40 @,@ 301 with mainline Protestant houses of worship , and 12 @,@ 980 with evangelical Protestant churches .

= = Economy = =

Erie is the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 's primary access point to Lake Erie , the Great Lakes , and the Saint Lawrence Seaway . The city emerged as a maritime center after the American Revolution , then as a railroad hub during the great American westward expansion . Erie became an important city for iron and steel manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution and thrived well into the 20th century with big industry .

While only General Electric diesel @-@ electric locomotive building remains from the ranks of the large manufacturers in the early 21st century , a more diverse mix of mid @-@ sized industries has emerged . This broader economic base includes not only smaller and more agile steel and plastic plants , but also a vigorous service sector : health , insurance and tourism . As of December 2010 , Erie 's unemployment rate was 8 @.@ 9 percent , as compared to rates for Pennsylvania and the United States at 8 @.@ 5 and 9 @.@ 4 percent , respectively .

Erie is the corporate headquarters of the Erie Insurance Group , and Marquette Savings Bank . Lord Corporation was founded and has major operations in Erie . Along with GE and Erie Insurance , major employers in the county , and consequently , the city include the County , State and Federal governments , as well as the Erie City School District .

Over 10 percent of the USA 's plastics are manufactured or finished in Erie @-@ based plastics plants . Erie is an emerging center for biofuels and environmental research , producing over 45 million U.S. gallons of biofuel a year . Tourism plays an increasingly important role in the local economy with over 4 million people visiting Presque Isle State Park and other attractions . Shoppers from Ohio , New York , and the Canadian province of Ontario frequent the Millcreek Mall and Peach Street stores and attractions as a result of Pennsylvania 's tax exemption on clothing .

Both UPMC Hamot and Saint Vincent Health System are also major employers in Erie . Although both of these hospitals had been stand @-@ alone Erie entities , Hamot merged with the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center in 2011 , and St. Vincent joined became affiliated with the Cleveland Clinic in 2012 . , followed by Highmark 's Allegheny Health Network in 2013 . The United States Department of Veterans Affairs operates the Erie Veterans Affairs Medical Center on East 38th Street . The Shriners International operates Shriners Hospital for Children in Erie since 1927 .

= = Utilities = =

The Erie Water Works , which was incorporated in 1865 as the Erie Water and Gas Company , includes a reservoir , two water treatment plants , and an elaborate water works and pipe network that provides water for most of the city and suburbs . Penelec , a subsidiary of FirstEnergy , supplies electricity to the region , as well as the Northwestern Pennsylvania Rural Electric Cooperative . Time Warner Cable became the region 's cable television provider , after taking over Adelphia , and also provides digital phone and high @-@ speed internet to the region . Local telephone and high speed internet service is also provided by Verizon .

Sewage service in Erie is provided by the Erie Sewer Authority , and many outlying townships have partnerships with the Sewer Authority for service . The Authority cleans about 30 − 40 million US gallons ( 150 @,@ 000 m3 ) of wastewater every day .

The time and temperature number in Erie is 452 @-@ 6311 and was originally discontinued by Verizon in October 2008 before being restarted by a private individual two years later . The city of Erie and northwest Pennsylvania is located in area code 814 . On December 16 , 2010 , the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission ( PUC ) voted to split the area code , which was to take effect February 1 , 2012 . The North American Numbering Plan decided that northwest Pennsylvania would receive the new code of 582 . A local grassroots coalition began organizing an opposition to the plan , and generated numerous petitions for reconsideration . The PUC immediately voted to review their decision and ordered additional public input hearings and technical conferences as a response to the strong public outcry . In January 2011 , the PUC announced that it was placing the entire area code split plan on hold as NEUSTAR pushed the projected exhaustion date back two years to 2015 .

= = Arts and culture = =

Erie is home to several professional and amateur performing @-@ arts groups . The most significant is the Erie Philharmonic , in continuous existence since 1913 ( with the exception of an interregnum during World War II ) . This group of professional musicians also has a full chorus and a Junior Philharmonic division that tours the area . The Lake Erie Ballet is a professional company that performs well @-@ known programs throughout the year . The Erie Civic Music Association attracts , sponsors , and books performances by professional musicians , singers , entertainers , and ensembles from around the world .

The Erie Art Museum is the city 's main art gallery , located in the Old Customshouse on State Street . Its collection has an emphasis on folk art and modern art and it hosts a popular blues and jazz concert series . The Erie Art Museum also works on public art projects in an effort to revitalize and improve the city . In 2000 , the Erie Art Museum created a project entitled GoFish , similar to CowParade . 95 fiberglass fish were decorated by Erie artists and placed throughout the city . Patrons paid $ 3 @,@ 000 for a fish and the proceeds went to Gannon University 's Scholarship Fund and the Erie Public Art Endowment Fund . The Erie Art Museum created a similar public art project in 2004 that involved frogs rather than fish . In 2012 , the Erie Art Museum began a project to create forty artistic and functional bike racks , designed and created by local artists . The Museum 's intentions are to add color and interest to downtown Erie and to promote bicycling , encouraging healthy lifestyles and environmental awareness .

Downtown Erie 's historic and ornate Warner Theatre hosts a range of performances . Renovated in the 1980s and again in 2007 , the Warner is the hub of Erie 's Civic Center . The downtown area is the home of the Erie Playhouse , one of the leading community theaters in the country , and the third oldest community theater in the U.S. . Since 2007 , the annual Roar on the Shore motorcycle rally has taken place in Erie .

Along West 6th Street is Millionaires Row , a collection of 19th century Victorian mansions . The John Hill House is one of the notable residences . The Erie Land Light stands at the foot of Lighthouse Street . The lighthouse was built in 1818 and replaced in 1867 .

The Bicentennial Tower , on Dobbins Landing at the foot of State Street , was built in 1995 − 96 to celebrate the city 's bicentennial . It is 187 feet ( 57 m ) tall and gives a panoramic view of Lake Erie and downtown . The Blasco Library and Erie Maritime Museum are its neighbors to the east . Presque Isle Downs opened on February 28 , 2007 , and was the fourth slots parlor in the state and the first in Western Pennsylvania . Table games opened at the casino on July 8 , 2010 .

Erie has also been the location for many movies , including the hometown for fictional band " The Wonders " in That Thing You Do ! featuring Tom Hanks . It is also mentioned in the film Wall Street as the location of the fictional company Anacott Steel . Erie is the hometown of Train lead singer , Patrick Monahan . Erie is also the hometown of Marc Brown , the author and illustrator of Arthur books and TV series .

= = Media = =

Erie is served by Erie Times @-@ News , the city 's only daily newspaper . The Nielsen Company ranks Erie as 144 out of the 210 largest television market in the United States , as of the 2010 − 2011 report . The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including WICU @-@ TV ( NBC ) , WJET @-@ TV ( ABC ) , WFXP ( FOX ) , WSEE @-@ TV ( CBS ) , and WSEE @-@ DT2 ( CW ) . WQLN is a member of Public Broadcasting Service and also broadcasts in London , Ontario . Cable companies available for Erie include Time Warner Cable , DirecTV , and Dish Network . Erie is also served by several AM and FM radio stations based in the city , and dozens of other stations are received from elsewhere .

= = Sports = =

Erie plays host to a number of semi @-@ pro and professional sports teams . The Erie SeaWolves play AA baseball in the Eastern League as an affiliate of the Detroit Tigers . The Erie Otters play hockey in the Ontario Hockey League . The Erie BayHawks are a member of the NBA Development League . The Erie Illusion is a member of the United States Women 's Football League . Hockey and basketball games are played at Erie Insurance Arena , while Minor League Baseball games are held at Jerry Uht Park .

Gannon University , Mercyhurst University , Edinboro University , and Penn State Behrend have active NCAA collegiate sports programs . The local high schools compete in PIAA District 10 sporting events . Additionally , Cathedral Preparatory School hosts the annual high school basketball tournament featuring top national teams ; called the Burger King Classic since 2010 . Scholastic and intramural sports are held at school and park facilities around the city . The Mercyhurst Ice Center , the JMC Ice Arena , Family First Sports Park , and Erie Veterans Memorial Stadium are many sports arenas and stadiums available in and around the city .

The Lake Erie Speedway , a 3 ⁄ 8 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) NASCAR sanctioned race track is located in Greenfield Township . Horse racing is found at the Presque Isle Downs and Casino located near Summit Township .

= = Recreation = =

Erie 's location along the shores of Lake Erie provides a plethora of outdoor activities throughout the year . The region 's largest attraction is Presque Isle State Park , drawing over four million visitors a year . The region grows grapes and produces the third largest amount of wine in the United States .

Downtown Erie is surrounded by Presque Isle State Park , a National Natural Landmark . The Seaway Trail runs through downtown Erie along the lakefront . The Tom Ridge Environmental Center , at the foot of Presque Isle , features 7 @,@ 000 square feet ( 650 m2 ) of exhibit space .

Other tourist destinations include the Bayfront Convention Center ; the Bicentennial Tower that overlooks Lake Erie ; Dobbins Landing , a pier in downtown Erie ; the Erie Land Light , and the Erie Maritime Museum , the home port of the Niagara . The 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 240 @,@ 000 m2 ) Millcreek Mall , one of the largest shopping malls in the United States , is located on Peach Street in nearby Millcreek Township . The indoor waterpark Splash Lagoon , in Summit Township , is the largest indoor waterpark on the East Coast and third largest in the United States . Waldameer Park , located at the base of Presque Isle , is the fourth oldest amusement park in Pennsylvania , and the tenth oldest in the United States .

= = Government = =

The city of Erie is incorporated as a 3rd class city under Pennsylvania law . Incorporated under an " optional charter " , the city is governed by a mayor – council government . The government consists of a mayor , treasurer , controller and a seven @-@ member city council . All of whom are elected to four @-@ year terms , with the terms of the council designed to be overlapping . The mayor is chief executive ; the city council prepares legislation and conducts oversight . The city council meets in Mario S. Bagnoni Council Chambers at City Hall . Joseph E. Sinnott ( D ) is the mayor of the city of Erie and was first elected in 2005 . As of July 2016 , the Erie City Council consists of :

Robert Merski Council President

Sonya M. Arrington

David Brennan

Curtis Jones , Jr .

Casimir Kwitowski

James Winarski

Melvin Witherspoon

In exchange for tax revenue , the city of Erie provides its residents with police and fire protection . For separate quarterly payments , the city provides garbage , recycling , water and sewer services . The Erie Police Department provides law enforcement in the city and currently has a complement of 173 sworn personnel under the direct supervision of Chief of Police Randy Bowers . The City of Erie Fire Department is a full @-@ time career fire department and employs around 150 uniformed personnel . These employee 's are under the direct supervision of Chief Tony Pol . The City currently operates out of six fire houses and protects approximately 20 square miles ( 52 km2 ) . The city has six engines , two towers and one water rescue unit . The city provides mutual aid to fire departments of Millcreek Township , Summit Township and East County .

Erie is the largest city in Pennsylvania 's 3rd congressional district and is currently represented in Congress by Republican Mike Kelly , who was elected in 2010 . Republican Jane M. Earll of the 49th District has represented Erie in the Pennsylvania State Senate since 1997 . Senator Earll declined to run for a fifth term in 2012 and was succeeded by Democrat Sean D. Wiley . The city of Erie is split by the 1st and 2nd Districts of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives and is represented by Democrats Patrick Harkins and Florindo Fabrizio , respectively .

= = Education = =

Erie Public Schools enroll 12 @,@ 527 students in primary and secondary grades . The district has 23 public schools including elementary , middle , high , and one charter school . Other than public schools , the city is home to more than 40 private schools and academies . Bethel Christian School is in Erie .

The City of Erie is served by four city high schools , Central Tech High School , East High School , Northwest Pennsylvania Collegiate Academy , Strong Vincent High School , three Catholic high schools Cathedral Preparatory School , Mercyhurst Preparatory School , Villa Maria Academy , and nearby McDowell High School and Iroquois High School in adjacent Millcreek Township and Lawrence Park Township , respectively .

Erie is home to several colleges and universities . Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine ( LECOM ) , a large medical school , with branch campuses in Bradenton , Florida and Greensburg , Pennsylvania , has the largest enrollments of medical students in the country , with over 3 @,@ 000 .

Penn State Behrend offers more than 40 degrees at the associate , bachelor 's and master 's levels . It has an enrollment of 4400 , with housing for 1800 on campus .

Other notable colleges in the Erie area include Gannon University , a Catholic university , situated in downtown Erie . Another Catholic institution , Mercyhurst University , is in the southeast part of the city .

Ranking Erie city and county officials , as well as officials of the Erie School District , began looking into the need for a community college in the Erie area in 2006 . As of January 2008 , county officials and representatives of Penn State @-@ Behrend , Mercyhurst and Gannon were in serious discussions expected to lead to the creation of Northwest Pennsylvania Community College by September 2009 . Besides accreditation issues , officials must resolve whether to use local four @-@ year educational institutions or to build a separate site in Summit Township for community college classes .

Erie is also home of the Barber National Institute and its Elizabeth Lee Black School , which provides services and education for children and adults with mental disabilities . Erie is home to its main campus , and it provides services in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh . The Achievement Center also serves the needs of children from birth to age 21 with physical and mental health disabilities.The public libraries in Erie are part of the Erie County library system . The Raymond M. Blasco , M. D. Memorial Library , named for its benefactor , opened in 1996 . It is the third largest library in Pennsylvania . It is connected to the Erie Maritime Museum , both of which are part of a bayfront improvement project that includes the Bayfront Convention Center and the Bicentennial Tower on Dobbins Landing .

= = Transportation = =

Erie is well connected to the Interstate Highway System . There are six " Erie exits " along Interstate 90 , a major cross @-@ country thoroughfare running from Boston to Seattle . Erie is the northern terminus of Interstate 79 , which travels south to Pittsburgh and , ultimately , West Virginia . The western terminus for Interstate 86 , also called the " Southern Tier Expressway , " is at Interstate 90 between Erie and North East , Pennsylvania . Interstate 86 continues east through New York to Binghamton . The Bayfront Connector runs from Interstate 90 in Harborcreek to the Bayfront Parkway and downtown Erie , along the east side of the city , then connects to Interstate 79 on the west side of the city . Major thoroughfares in the city include 12th Street , 26th Street , 38th Street and Peach Street . Peach is also a part of U.S. Route 19 , whose northern terminus is in Erie and continues south eventually reaching the Gulf of Mexico . Other major routes running through Erie are Pennsylvania Route 5 , known as the Seaway Trail and is made up of parts of 6th Street , 8th Street , 12th Street , and East Lake Road in the city , U.S. Route 20 , which is 26th Street in the city . The city is divided between east and west by State Street .

The Erie Metropolitan Transit Authority ( EMTA ) operates the city 's transit bus system , known as the ' e ' . Buses run seven days a week in the city , with trips out to other parts of the county occurring a couple times a week . Intercity buses providing transportation between Buffalo , Cleveland and Pittsburgh are operated by Greyhound Lines . Service between Buffalo and Cleveland is also provided by Lakefront Lines . Both companies operate out of the Intermodal Transportation Center , which opened in 2002 at the foot of Holland Street .

The former " Water Level Route " of the New York Central Railroad travels directly through Erie . It is now the mainline for CSX freight trains . The mainline of the Norfolk Southern Railway , originally built by the Nickel Plate Railroad , also travels through Erie . At one time Norfolk Southern trains ran down the middle of 19th Street , but were removed in 2002 . Passenger rail service is provided by Amtrak 's Lake Shore Limited out of Union Station at 14th and State Streets . The Lake Shore Limited stops twice daily — one eastbound towards New York City , and one westbound towards Chicago .

Erie International Airport / Tom Ridge Field ( IATA code : ERI ; IACO code : KERI ) is located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of the city and hosts general aviation , charter , and airline service . Destinations with non @-@ stop flights out of Erie include Chicago O 'Hare International Airport via United Airlines , Philadelphia International Airport via US Airways and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport via Delta Air Lines . Erie International is in the midst of a $ 80 @.@ 5 million runway extension . The extension is slated to increase the runway 's length by 1 @,@ 920 feet ( 590 m ) , for a total runway length of 8 @,@ 420 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) , " to meet safety requirements " as well as allowing the airport to accommodate larger aircraft .

The Port of Erie is located on Presque Isle Bay , a natural harbor formed by Presque Isle . It offers some of the finest port facilities for cargo shipping on the Great Lakes , with direct rail access . The Erie − Western Pennsylvania Port Authority provides water taxi service in the summer months between Dobbins Landing and Liberty Park in downtown Erie , and the Waterworks ferry landing on Presque Isle .

= = Sister cities = =

Erie has four official sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International :

Dungarvan , Ireland ( 2007 )

Lublin , Poland ( 1999 )

Mérida , Yucatán , Mexico ( 1973 )

Zibo , Shandong , China ( 1985 )

= Sid Luckman =

Sidney Luckman ( November 21 , 1916 – July 5 , 1998 ) was an American football quarterback for the Chicago Bears of the National Football League ( NFL ) from 1939 through 1950 . During his twelve seasons with the Bears he led them to four NFL championships .

Luckman was the first modern T @-@ formation quarterback and is considered the greatest long range passer of his time . He was named the NFL 's Most Valuable Player in 1943 , and Pulitzer prize winning sports writer Ira Berkow wrote that Luckman was " the first great T @-@ formation quarterback " . Following his retirement from playing , Luckman continued his association with football by tutoring college coaches , focusing on the passing aspect of the game .

Luckman was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 , and in 1988 he was declared a joint winner of the Walter Camp Distinguished American Award .

= = Early life = =

Luckman was born in Brooklyn , New York , to Jewish immigrants from Germany . His father sparked his interest in football at age eight , by giving him a football to play with . He and his parents lived in a residence near Prospect Park and it was here as a youngster that Sid first started throwing the football around .

He played both baseball and football for Erasmus Hall High School , with his football skills impressing recruiters from about 40 colleges . Luckman chose Columbia University after meeting Lions coach Lou Little during a Columbia / Navy game at the university 's Baker Field athletic facility . Luckman was not admitted to Columbia College ; instead , he attended the New College for the Education of Teachers , an undergraduate school , which was within Teachers College at Columbia . He competed on the football team from 1936 until the New College closed in 1939 , when he transferred to Columbia College . Coach Little had a problem of getting good high school athletes because of the entrance requirements at Columbia , and Columbia didn ’ t have any physical education undergraduate program , and so , when New College was started Lou Little was happy because they had a P. E. Department . In fact , the 1936 varsity football squad had five other New College students , Hubert Schulze , Edward Stanzyk , Oscar Bonom , Harry Ream , and Antoni Mareski .

At Columbia Luckman was a member of the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity . Keen to remain in Columbia to stay close to his family , he took on jobs such as dish @-@ washing , baby @-@ sitting , and messenger delivery around the campus . At Columbia , as a part of the football team , he completed 180 of 376 passes for 2 @,@ 413 yards and 20 touchdowns and finished third in the 1938 Heisman Trophy voting , behind Davey O 'Brien and Marshall Goldberg .

= = Chicago Bears = =

= = = Draft = = =

Hearing of Sid Luckman 's exploits as a single @-@ wing tailback at Columbia University , Chicago Bears owner and coach George Halas believed Luckman had the ability to become an effective T @-@ formation quarterback , and traveled to New York to watch him play . Halas then convinced the Pittsburgh Pirates ( later the Steelers ) to draft Luckman second overall and then trade him to the Bears because he was interested in using Luckman 's skills to help him restructure the offensive side of the game . However , despite his successes at Columbia University , Luckman initially declined any further interest in pro football , instead preferring to work for his father @-@ in @-@ law ’ s trucking company . Halas went to work on convincing him otherwise . After gaining an invitation to Luckman 's tiny apartment for a dinner which Luckman 's wife Estelle prepared , Halas produced a contract for $ 5 @,@ 500 ( $ 92 @,@ 500 today ) which Luckman immediately signed . At that time both at the college and pro levels , offenses were a drab scrum of running the ball with only occasional passes . In what was then the predominant single @-@ wing formation , the quarterback was primarily a blocking back and rarely touched the ball . Most passing was done by the tailback , and then usually only on third down with long yardage to go . Halas and his coaches , primarily Clark Shaughnessy , invented a rather complex scheme building on the traditional T @-@ formation , but needed the right quarterback to run it properly .

Upon starting with Halas , Luckman mastered an offense that revolutionized football , and became the basis of most modern professional offenses . Eventually , Luckman tutored college coaches across the Big Ten , Notre Dame and West Point in the intricacies of the passing game .

= = = T @-@ formation = = =

In 1940 , during his second season with the Bears , Luckman took over the offense and led the Bears to the title game against Sammy Baugh and the Washington Redskins . The Redskins had beaten the Bears , 7 – 3 , during the regular season . Using the " man @-@ in @-@ motion " innovation to great advantage , the Bears destroyed the Redskins , 73 – 0 , stated to be " the most one @-@ sided game in the history of the sport " . Luckman passed only six times , with four completions and 102 yards in the rout .

From 1940 to 1946 the Bears displayed their dominance in the game , playing in five NFL championship games , winning four , and posted a 54 – 17 – 3 regular season record . In 1942 , the Bears posted a perfect 11 – 0 record and outscored their opponents , 376 – 84 , however they lost the championship game to the Redskins . Although the T @-@ formation had been used many years before Luckman joined the Chicago Bears , he was central to Chicago 's successful use of this style of play because of his game @-@ sense and versatility . Perfecting Halas ' complex offensive scheme of fakes , men in motion , and quick hitting runs , Luckman added the dimension of accurate downfield throwing . He was instrumental in his team 's record @-@ setting 73 – 0 win over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL championship game . Sportscaster Jimmy Cannon once said in reference to Luckman 's years at Columbia , " You had to be there to realize how great Sid was . " Luckman later became a sought @-@ after tutor and instructor for universities wishing to install the T @-@ formation as an offense .

= = = Service with the Merchant Marine = = =

In 1943 , as soon as the season had ended , Luckman volunteered as an ensign with the U. S. Merchant Marine . He was stationed stateside and while he could not practice with the team , he did receive permission to play for the Bears on game days during the following seasons . He returned again to the Bears , as a full @-@ time occupation , in 1946 and led them to a fifth NFL championship .

= = = Numbers and accomplishments = = =

During his career , Luckman completed 51 @.@ 8 % of his passes for 14 @,@ 686 yards and 137 touchdowns with 132 interceptions . He averaged 8 @.@ 4 yards per attempt , second all @-@ time only to Otto Graham ( 8 @.@ 6 ) , and also has a career touchdown rate ( percentage of pass attempts that result in touchdowns ) of 7 @.@ 9 percent .

In 1943 , Luckman completed 110 of 202 passes for 2194 yards and 28 touchdowns . His 13 @.@ 9 % touchdown rate that year is the best ever in a single @-@ season , while his 10 @.@ 9 yards per attempt is second all @-@ time . During one game that year , Luckman threw for 443 yards and seven touchdowns , still tied for the most passing touchdowns in one game ; it was also the first 400 @-@ yard passing game in NFL history . His 28 touchdown passes in 1943 ( in only 10 games ) was a record that lasted for many years .

Luckman led the NFL in yards per attempt an NFL record seven times , including a record five consecutive years from 1939 to 1943 , and led the NFL in passing yards three times . Luckman was a five @-@ time All @-@ NFL selection , was named the National Football League 's Most Valuable Player Award in 1943 , and led the " Monsters of the Midway " to championships in 1940 , 1941 , 1943 , and 1946 . Despite the fact that his career ended in 1950 , Luckman still owns several Bears ' passing records .

= = Career statistics = =

Bold text indicates career best

= = Later years = =

After retiring from the NFL , Luckman went to work for Cel @-@ U @-@ Craft , a Chicago @-@ based manufacturer of cellophane products , eventually becoming its president . The company was a part of the Rapid American Corporation of which he also obtained shares . In 1969 , RAC was the subject of an IRS investigation over the payment of these shares and dividends , a case that Luckman and his wife appealed .

Luckman 's wife Estelle Morgolin died of cancer in 1981 , and he underwent a triple heart bypass operation the following year . Luckman eventually retired to Aventura , Florida where he died on July 5 , 1998 at the age of 81 . He is survived by a son , Bob , and two daughters , Gale and Ellen .

= = List of honors = =

Joe F. Carr Trophy – National Football League Most Valuable Player in 1943 .

College Football Hall of Fame in 1960

Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 .

Walter Camp Distinguished American of the Year Award in 1988 .

Columbia University Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006 .

= Battle of Gospić =

Battle of Gospić ( Croatian : Bitka za Gospić ) was fought in the environs of Gospić , Croatia , from 29 August until 22 September 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence . The battle pitted the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) , stationed in five barracks in the town , and paramilitary elements of the Serbian Guard against the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) , police forces based in Gospić and police reinforcements from elsewhere in Croatia . Fighting in the eastern districts of Gospić , controlled by JNA forces with supporting artillery , was largely static but the balance shifted in favor of the Croatian forces following the capture of several JNA depots and barracks on 14 September . The remaining barracks were captured by 20 September leading to the expulsion of the JNA and Serbian Guard forces from the town .

The battle followed escalating ethnic tensions in the Lika region , including attacks on Croatian civilians in Lovinac , an attack on a Croatian police checkpoint in Žuta Lokva , and skirmishes at the Plitvice Lakes and the Ljubovo Pass on the Gospić – Plitvička Jezera road . The remainder of 1991 saw further deterioration of the situation in the region , resulting in war crimes against Serbs and Croats in the Gospić and Široka Kula massacres . Fighting in the region remained deadlocked , with little to no territorial gains to either side , until a lasting ceasefire was called with the signing of the Sarajevo Agreement of 2 January 1992 .

= = Background = =

In August 1990 , an insurrection took place in Croatia centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , as well as in parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . These regions became the newly formed SAO Krajina ( Serb Autonomous Oblast ) . The announcement of SAO Krajina 's intent to integrate with Serbia resulted in the Croatian Government declaring the insurrection a rebellion .

By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence and in June 1991 , with the Breakup of Yugoslavia , Croatia declared its independence . The declaration came into effect on 8 October after a three @-@ month moratorium . The SAO Krajina , renamed Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) on 19 December , then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croatian civilians .

Control of the growing tensions became hampered by increasing support of SAO Krajina being provided by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) . The inability of the Croatian Police to cope with the situation led to the establishment of the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) in May 1991 . However , the development of the ZNG into a military force was hampered by a UN arms embargo , introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate — the Battle of Vukovar started on 26 August .

= = Prelude = =

An already tense situation in the Lika region , following 1 April Plitvice Lakes incident when the first fatalities of the Croatian War of Independence occurred , deteriorated further in June when Croatia reaffirmed its sovereignty through a parliamentary declaration . This was reflected in the rise of violent incidents , setting up of unauthorized road checkpoints and occasional exchanges of small arms fire . On 22 June , three policemen were abducted on the road between Gospić and SAO Krajina @-@ controlled Gračac , and a series of attacks on the Croatian police occurred in various parts of Lika , including Gospić , on 27 – 28 June . In July 1991 , the JNA started to openly confront the Croatian police and the ZNG in Lika . On 1 July , Plitvice police station was surrounded by the JNA , and on 6 July , two ZNG troops were killed and another two wounded in a JNA ambush near Gospić . Further escalation of the fighting was seen at the Ljubovo pass on the Gospić – Korenica road , where the JNA and SAO Krajina troops fought and pushed the ZNG back on 28 – 29 July .

Ethnic violence continued to escalate when Serb paramilitaries abducted and killed five Croatian civilians from Lovinac in southern Lika on 5 August , and a police checkpoint in Žuta Lokva was attacked . In early August , the JNA moved the 236th Proletarian Motorized Brigade ( a brigade in name only , the 236th was actually only a company @-@ sized unit ) and a portion of the motorised battalion of the 4th Armoured Brigade , previously deployed to the Ljubovo pass , to Gospić as reinforcements for its garrison in the town . Other movements in that month include the assault and capture of the Plitvice police station on the 30th by SAO Krajina forces .

With the imminent capture of Plitvice and the withdrawal of the ZNG from Lički Osik on 31 August , 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) north of Gospić , the SAO Krajina and the JNA shifted their focus in Lika to Gospić itself , where Serbs comprised 38 @.@ 4 % of the total population of 12 @,@ 000 .

= = Order of battle = =

The JNA forces consisted of 70 officers and 200 soldiers garrisoned at the Stanko Opsenica barracks and four other smaller JNA facilities in Gospić . The garrison was supported by 128 Serbian Guard paramilitaries led by Đorđe Božović , which deployed to Gospić from Serbia using JNA transportation , according to an interview with the commanding officer of the southern Lika Territorial Defence in 1991 . Following a reorganization in 1991 , the JNA units based in Gospić were the 236th Motorized Brigade and the 1st Brigade of the 35th Partisan Division , both subordinated to the Rijeka Corps . Prior to this , the 10th Proletarian Infantry Regiment , a B @-@ class unit required to maintain only 15 % of wartime troop levels , was stationed in Gospić , but was amalgamated with the 9th Proletarian Infantry Regiment to form the 236th Motorized Brigade . The JNA garrison in Gospić was formally commanded by Colonel Petar Čavar , however effective command was taken over by his chief of staff , Yugoslav Counterintelligence Service Major Relja Tomić .

In early September , Croatian forces in Gospić comprised 427 troops , largely drawn from police forces based in Gospić , Rijeka and Zabok , volunteers from Gospić , Zagreb and Senj as well as Croatian Defence Forces troops . The only ZNG unit in Gospić was the 118th Infantry Brigade , which started to form around the ZNG 58th Independent Battalion on 14 August , but would not be fully assembled until after October . By mid @-@ September , the brigade comprised two battalions — one with four companies and the other one three . The 118th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac , while the head of the Croatian police in Gospić was Ivan Dasović .

= = Timeline = =

The JNA and the Serb paramilitary force bombarded Gospić with artillery stationed in the village of Divoselo and JNA Jasikovac Barracks on 29 August 1991 . The intensity of these attacks increased significantly towards mid @-@ September causing significant damage to Gospić ; one SAO Krajina report of the attack estimated that more than 50 % of structures in the city were damaged .

At the outset of the battle , the JNA and the paramilitaries pushed the Croatian force out of eastern Gospić . On 5 September , Croatian forces captured JNA Major General Trajče Krstevski , along with three armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and 32 soldiers , when he attempted to reach JNA barracks that were isolated in the centre of the town but released them the next day following the successful negotiation of a prisoner exchange ( POWs ) . The Croatian commanders in Gospić , however , declined a request that the APCs also be returned — contrary to the instructions of Croatian authorities in Zagreb . Following the capture of Krstevski , the JNA artillery bombardment intensified , averaging 1 @,@ 100 artillery shells per day . Despite the intense bombardment , the second week of the battle was a stalemate , without any changes in lines of control .

The ZNG and Croatian police planned to cut power , water and communications to all JNA facilities in the government @-@ controlled part of Croatia on 14 September . In Gospić , this action was brought forward to 13 September , the same day that the ZNG captured a JNA storage facility . This provided the Croatian troops with 14 @,@ 000 rifles and a substantial quantity of antitank weapons , more than sufficient for the Croatian forces to match the JNA in the town . The JNA barracks in Perušić and Kaniža Barracks in Gospić were captured the following day . The bulk of the JNA garrison in Gospić surrendered on 18 September , following three days of fighting for the Stanko Opsenica Barracks . An infantry attack aiming to support the JNA garrison was successfully repelled by Croatian forces on 16 September in the Divoselo area , where Božović was killed . After the city centre became relatively secure , the Croatian forces extended their offensive , capturing the Jasikovac Barracks and relieving two Croatian @-@ held pockets in villages of Ribnik and Bilaj by 20 September . As the JNA surrendered , the Serb forces retreated from the eastern parts of Gospić to a line 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) in front of Medak , as the Croatian forces completed mopping up in Gospić by 22 September .

= = Aftermath = =

Croatia captured approximately 300 JNA officers and soldiers , who were taken to Rijeka after their capture . They were later exchanged for Croatian POWs captured by the JNA in the Battle of Vukovar and elsewhere in Croatia . A large quantity of small arms and ammunition was captured as well as seven tanks and twelve 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortars . After the battle , the artillery bombardment of Gospić continued from positions around Divoselo and Lički Čitluk , approximately 5 to 8 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 0 miles ) south of Gospić . Skirmishes in Lika continued until January 1992 as each side sought to improve their positions on the ground , especially around Gospić and Otočac . On 23 September , a Croatian advance to the south was stopped by JNA and SAO Krajina forces , consisting of an infantry battalion and the Krajina Express armored train , which were defending a JNA storage depot in Sveti Rok . The JNA secured the depot and captured Lovinac on 26 September . By the end of September , Croatian defensive positions around Otočac were sufficiently reinforced that only minor attacks were launched and primarily near the village of Drenov Klanac . In late October and early December , fighting intensified around Divoselo near Gospić , but no territory changed hands . The intensity of artillery bombardment of Gospić peaked on 1 November 1991 , when 3 @,@ 500 artillery shells struck the town . In December , the JNA Knin Corps proposed to the JNA General Staff to advance from Gračac in an attempt to capture Gospić and Otočac , but the signing of the Sarajevo Agreement and ceasefire of 2 January 1992 largely halted further fighting , until the commencement of Operation Medak Pocket in September 1993 .

The continuing military confrontation in the region was accompanied by an escalation of ethnic violence , culminating in war crimes against civilians committed by military authorities in Gospić and the SAO Krajina military in the area around Lički Osik in October 1991 . In Gospić , approximately 50 Serb civilians were taken from the town and killed in the surrounding fields . The individuals responsible for the event , later known as the Gospić massacre , were prosecuted by the Croatian judiciary . This resulted in the conviction , in 2003 , of Norac and two other defendants to 12 years in prison . The killings in the Lički Osik area , known as the Široka Kula massacre , resulted in the deaths of 40 civilians , mostly Croats but also some Serbs suspected of supporting Croatia . In 2011 , a court in Belgrade , Serbia , convicted four former SAO Krajina militiamen of killing four Serbs and a Croat in Široka Kula .

In 1993 , Croatian authorities charged Marcel Dusper , Tomo Čačić , Jovo Kuprešanin , Bogdan Odanović , Relja Tomić , Duško Bajić , Dane Drakula , Mićo Vasić , Goce Koneski , Slobodan Dotlić , Dragoljub Lazarević , Radovan Radenković , Bratislav Milojković , Stevo Milošević and Miloš Bogdanović , 15 former JNA officers , posted in Gospić garrison in 1991 with war crimes against a civilian population . All of the defendants , except Drakula were tried in absentia . Drakula was acquitted , while Dusper , Tomić and Bajić were convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison each while the remaining defendants were sentenced to 15 years . The rulings were upheld by the Supreme Court of Croatia in 1994 . Dotlić was arrested on 18 October 2013 after he visited his parents living in Croatia . Prior to his arrest , Dotlić had requested a new trial , but after his arrest the charges against him were changed to armed insurrection but this was later dropped following the General Amnesty Act .

= Sidney Mashbir =

Sidney Forrester Mashbir ( 12 September 1891 – 13 June 1973 ) was a senior officer in the United States Army who was primarily involved in military intelligence . Born in New York , he served in the Arizona Army National Guard during the Mexican @-@ American Border War . Mashbir then held several posts in intelligence positions , taking credit for catching the first German spy in the United States , before departing for on a four @-@ year assignment as a language officer to Japan in 1920 . He resigned from the army in 1923 in an attempt to execute his own master plan devised to extract intelligence from Japan in event of a war . His plan failed as a result of the Great Kantō earthquake in September 1923 and he was left bankrupt ; he consequently returned to the US as an engineering businessman .

In 1937 , Mashbir returned to Japan in a second attempt to activate his plan on behalf of the Office of Naval Intelligence ; it again failed , and Mashbir was dis @-@ enrolled from the reserves in 1939 . However , following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Mashbir was re @-@ enrolled in January 1940 to lead the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section of Southwest Pacific Area , where he quickly rose to the rank of Colonel . He later served as the Executive Officer for the Army Adjutant General 's Office before retiring in 1951 .

= = Early life = =

Sidney Mashbir was born in Manhattan , New York , on 12 September 1891 , but moved to Safford , Arizona in 1899 . Sidney 's father was Professor Eliazar S. Mashbir , a Russian immigrant who was well @-@ educated and became the first Russian @-@ speaking attorney to practice Law in New York City . Sidney 's mother , Frieda Freudenthal was also well @-@ educated , and in 1906 became the postmistress of Safford , which included the area of Solomonville .

Mashbir attended public schools in Safford and Tucson , later studying engineering at the University of Arizona for six months each year until 1911 , whilst simultaneously maintaining a career as an engineering draughtsman , primarily for the engineering department of Tucson , and railroad companies . He married his first wife Blanche Beckwith on 12 September 1913 , with whom he had his first son , Forrester Mashbir ; the couple separated during the mid / late @-@ 1920s .

= = Military career = =

= = = Early service = = =

Mashbir joined the Arizona National Guard at a young age , and served as the bugler of Company B in 1904 . He later became the First Lieutenant and adjutant of the University Battalion whilst studying at the University of Arizona . In 1912 , he served as a Lieutenant in Company K of the National Guard encampment , which based at Fort Huachuca . The senior instructor at the time was Captain Louis Joseph Van Schaick .

In early 1916 , Mashbir received his first official intelligence assignment , when he was assigned as the Assistant Intelligence Officer of the Ajo @-@ Yuma district of Arizona as a part of the first Arizona Infantry under General Frederick Funston . The unit was at the time was involved in the Mexican @-@ American Border War . Mashbir 's duties included mapping roads , trails and waterholes in northern Sonora . Additionally he would scout Mexican towns with Papago Indian scouts , reporting on the strength and equipment of Mexican garrisons and installing primitive wiretaps on Mexican communication lines . Mashbir was also responsible for investigating Japan 's physical presence in Mexico at the time .

In late 1916 , Mashbir applied for a commission in the Regular Army and was accepted with General Funston 's support despite the Army ’ s policy that married men not be accepted . After attending the Army Service Schools at Fort Leavenworth , he joined the 22nd Infantry Regiment , which was stationed at Governors Island , New York , but was soon detailed for counter @-@ espionage duty and was recommended to join a new Counter Intelligence service that was being formed .

On 10 September 1917 Mashbir was detailed as assistant to the Department Intelligence Officer at Governors Island . He enrolled in the Military Intelligence Division G @-@ 2 Reserves , where he was promoted to temporary Lieutenant Colonel . During this time he wrote the Provisional Rules for Counter Espionage , Eastern Department , which would become a model for future counterintelligence manuals until World War II , as well as a 52 @-@ page book titled Ten Lessons in Bayonet Fighting published by George Banta Publishing Company at the end of 1917 . Mashbir is also credited with investigations as a Coast Defense Intelligence Officer at Fort Hamilton , which uncovered the first German spy to be apprehended in the United States , Paul Otto Kuhn .

= = = Between the wars = = =

Following World War I , Mashbir held a position teaching military science and tactics at Syracuse University , where he first considered studying the Japanese language and culture . In August 1919 , he asked the War Department if he could embark on this course of study , stating that it was his intention to apply for a posting to Japan for the purpose of learning the language if the War Department saw fit . Ranked Captain , Mashbir was assigned as one of four US Army Language Officers in Japan on 7 July 1920 . He relocated to Tokyo the following month to begin his four @-@ year tour . When he arrived he reported for duty to Lieutenant Colonel Charles Burnett , the military attaché . Having few Army colleagues , while in Tokyo Mashbir sought the company of other intelligence professionals in the Navy , one of whom was an assistant naval attaché , Lieutenant @-@ Commander Ellis M. Zacharias , with whom Mashbir began a lifelong friendship and collaboration . In July 1922 , at Zacharias ' request , Mashbir secretly worked day and night to produce a secret plan to gather intelligence and get information out of Japan in case of war ; it become known as M @-@ Plan , named after Mashbir . His undisclosed activities working for the naval attaché did not sit well with his superiors , however .

In order to establish a network of foreign businessmen in Japan who could be turned into an intelligence network in time of war , it was suggested by his commander , Colonel Burnett , that Mashbir resign his commission and become a businessman in Tokyo himself , in order to put the M @-@ Plan in effect . Consequently , Mashbir resigned in 1923 to pursue business interests and undercover secret intelligence operations , under the impression that he could be reinstated in the Army when his work was done . However the Great Kantō earthquake of September 1923 bankrupted him and , when he sought reinstatement in the military , discovered that it was not possible , because the reinstatement clause of the law under which he had resigned was no longer valid . Neither Mashbir nor Colonel Burnett , who had urged Mashbir to resign , was aware of this , and it become a sticking point for Mashbir in later life , noting that even in 1926 the law was still being reprinted without the correct clause . Consequently , the M @-@ Plan to establish an intelligence network in Japan was scrapped . Mashbir returned to the United States in 1926 under the impression that his military career was over , and sought employment selling refrigerators . He managed to rejoin the Military Intelligence Division G @-@ 2 Reserves , but only spent one year in active duty beginning in the summer of 1927 during which time he updated the Order of Battle documentation on Japan . For the next ten years he returned to his original profession of engineering , including some government work on technical standards .

In 1937 , Mashbir returned to Japan after an 11 @-@ year absence in a second attempt to launch the M @-@ Plan on behalf of the Office of Naval Intelligence and his friend , naval attaché Zacharias . This mission aroused suspicions among ill @-@ informed military attachés in Tokyo and an investigation was started into Mashbir . In a misunderstanding that would come close to damaging his career irreparably once more , Mashbir was investigated in Hawaii and , influenced by the military attaché suspicions , a prejudicial report based upon erroneous assumptions was delivered on 24 June 1937 . Colonel Mashbir was advised on 25 February 1939 that he was disenrolled from the Military Intelligence Division G2 Reserves for failure to report on the specified day for physical examination . However , it appeared that the actual cause of the disenrollment was due to suspicions aroused by failure to communicate to uninformed individuals the nature and the extent of the work on which he was actually engaged . Mashbir ’ s dismissal and the failure to implement an intelligence network such as that suggested in Mashbir 's M @-@ Plan has been described as a key factor in the United States ' failure to have more information on Japan before the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 .

= = = World War II and after = = =

Despite Mashbir 's dismissal , the outbreak of hostilities in World War II between Japan and the US , led to him being immediately sought after by the Signal Corps due to his military experience , wide technical skill and knowledge of the Japanese language . He was sworn in for active duty on 24 January 1942 and sent to Brisbane , Australia , and later Manila , Philippines to co @-@ ordinate the inter @-@ service joint Australian / American Allied Translator and Interpreter Section ( ATIS ) , within the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . It was at this time that the suspicions which lingered about Mashbir ’ s 1937 mission to Japan on behalf of Naval Intelligence were cleared up with the assistance of Admiral Zacharias , now Assistant Director of Naval Intelligence , interceding with the Assistant Chief of Staff of G2 .

The prompt accomplishments of the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section and Mashbir ’ s executive ability resulted in Mashbir being promoted to full Colonel by General Douglas MacArthur after only one month . Mashbir then joined the forefront of MacArthur ’ s intelligence activities and Japanese surrender negotiations , remaining the Commandant of ATIS until December 1945 . He was made famous at the time in the motion picture and still photograph of the preliminary surrender negotiations at Manila , as the man who pushed the ink @-@ well , indicating that General Richard K. Sutherland should correct the Japanese Instrument of Surrender ; and also as the man who thumbed the Japanese Lieutenant General Torashirō Kawabe along as he attempted to shake hands . The second incident provoked some mixed feelings , including sentiment that it could have damaged surrender talks . Mashbir also played a critical role retrieving and translating the Z Plan and in organizing the final surrender of Japan . In his autobiography , Mashbir explained that he was not permitted to shake hands , and that it would have been rude to point , which ultimately lead to the awkward thumbing motion that was photographed .

Colonel Mashbir left Japan on 8 December 1945 to serve on the management staff of the Adjutant General ’ s office in Washington , later becoming the executive officer . He retired in October 1951 , having reached the statutory age of 60 . As a result of his military service , Mashbir received several medals including the Army Distinguished Service Medal , Army Commendation Medal ( Silver Oak Leaf Cluster ) , Army of Occupation Medal , World War II Victory Medal , American Defense Service Medal and American Campaign Medal . He was also recommended to become an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( Honorary ) in 1946 by the Australian Governor @-@ General , as was presented OBE insignia in 1948 .

= = Later life = =

Two years after retiring , Mashbir published a 374 @-@ page memoir describing his military and intelligence career in I Was an American Spy ( New York : Vantage , 1953 ) . In Chapter 13 , " The Nisei " ( whom Mashbir used as translators in ATIS ) he pays tribute to Military Intelligence Service ( MIS ) soldiers in these words : " The United States of America owes a debt to these men and to their families which it can never fully repay . "

Because of the highly classified and secret nature of ATIS missions , and the work of many MIS soldiers , knowledge of Mashbir and his colleagues was largely missing during the war and even decades afterwards . The role and activities of the MIS was kept in secrecy for more than 30 years ; the few records about its activities were finally made available to the public in 1972 under the Freedom of Information Act , however much still remains unknown today . Consequently , many MIS soldiers did not receive recognition or decorations for their efforts . They became " unsung heroes " , unacknowledged for their contributions in wartime as well as postwar activities . An exception to this was the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame , of which Mashbir was inducted in 1988 .

Sidney Mashbir died on 13 June 1973 and was buried at Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery , Point Loma , California . His second wife , Mary Irene ( Donahue ) Mashbir ( born 10 April 1896 ) , with whom he had his second son , Don , and with whom he was buried , died earlier on 3 May 1964 . He was survived by his third wife , Alice Moore Mashbir ( 1928 – 2003 ) , and his two sons , Forrester Mashbir ( 1921 – 2003 ) and Don Stuart Mashbir ( 1931 – 2008 ) .

= Black Coffee ( All Saints song ) =

" Black Coffee " is a song recorded by English @-@ Canadian girl group All Saints for their second studio album , Saints & Sinners ( 2000 ) . It was released by London Records on 2 October 2000 as the second single from the album . The track was initially written and recorded under the working title , " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " , by Swiss model and singer Kirsty Bertarelli , after she met Swiss entrepreneur Ernesto Bertarelli in 1997 . All Saints ' later recording was produced by William Orbit who , together with group members Shaznay Lewis and Melanie Blatt , gave it a new arrangement and renamed it " Black Coffee " . A moderately fast ambient , electropop and R & B song , " Black Coffee " has a distinctly production @-@ laden and hazy sound , with obscure and breathy keyboard instruments , guitar , synths , and glitching electronics throughout . It is a sad love song about Kirsty 's love at first sight feelings for Ernesto .

The track has received universal acclaim from critics who have cited it as among the group 's best releases , commending Orbit 's obscure electronic production , and the group 's wistful harmonies . " Black Coffee " marked All Saints ' fifth number @-@ one single on the UK Singles Chart and , at the time , made them the girl group with the second most number @-@ one singles in the UK after the Spice Girls , surpassing B * Witched . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and is the group 's fourth best @-@ selling single in the UK . " Black Coffee " also achieved success internationally , reaching the top 10 in Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , New Zealand and Sweden , and the top 20 in Australia , Finland and Norway .

The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Bo Johan Renck . It made use of bullet time @-@ like effects and featured the group at a high rise apartment block , serenading an arguing couple . All Saints promoted " Black Coffee " with live performances on Top of the Pops , Children in Need , Later ... with Jools Holland and at the Smash Hits Poll Winners Party . Despite the single 's success , its release happened during a bitter rift within the group . This became visible publicly during tense live renditions of the song . As well , each member purposefully avoided the others filming their scenes separately during the making of the music video .

= = Background = =

Swiss model and singer Kirsty Bertarelli ( then Roper , stage name : Kirsty Elizabeth ) based " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " on her first experiences and feelings for Swiss entrepreneur Ernesto Bertarelli . The pair had met at a dinner on his yacht off the coast of Sardinia in 1997 , and fell in love . The track was later produced by Kirsty 's recording partner , and BBC Radio 1 DJ , Gary Davies who passed it on to songwriter Tom Nichols for input , in an attempt to establish " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " as a single for Kirsty . Nichols and Alexander Von Soos further modified the song and Kirsty later recorded the demo . Nichols developed it as a quirky pop song , something " slightly left of centre , not completely mainstream " and " slightly out of the ordinary " . While searching for a major label deal for Kirsty , Davies played the " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " demo to London Records executive Tracy Bennett who wanted the group All Saints to record it instead .

= = New arrangement and recording = =

Davies accepted Bennett 's offer , though much time had passed since their meeting leaving him and Nichols unsure if the song was going to be recorded at all . However , after the success of All Saints ' single " Pure Shores " in February 2000 , Bennett handed " I Wouldn 't Wanna Be " over to musician William Orbit who was approached for the production of the group 's 2000 album Saints & Sinners . Orbit and All Saints members Shaznay Lewis and Melanie Blatt did a new arrangement for the song and renamed it " Black Coffee " .

" Black Coffee " was recorded at Guerilla Beach and Larrabee West studios in Los Angeles , and at Sarm West and Olympic Studios in London . The recording sessions took place during a complex period for All Saints ; they had been developing Saints & Sinners for three years , having written over 40 songs for the album , and had to work around Orbit 's busy schedule for studio time with him . The " Black Coffee " sessions with Orbit were viewed by Blatt as beneficial for the group as he helped them to explore more experimental genres than those on their previous releases . Nichols found Orbit 's production " fantastic " and vastly different from that of the demo .

For group member Natalie Appleton , the " Black Coffee " sessions were more frustrating . She was optimistic that the song could feature her own lead vocals as well as those of her sister and fellow group member Nicole Appleton as it was the group 's first original single not written by Lewis . According to Natalie , before the Appletons arrived at the session , Lewis was already present and " staking her claim " to sing lead vocals on " Black Coffee " because Blatt had the lead vocals on " Pure Shores " . Natalie then suggested that each member should have a chance at the song as they were all fond of it . Eventually , the group 's management let Natalie cut a lead vocal , but she was nervous during the session and believed they were placating her . In the Appletons ' autobiography Together , she recalled : " Without support , it is hard to do your best . " Lewis was ultimately chosen as the track 's lead vocalist ; Natalie found this unsurprising , but felt " used and slacked off " .

= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =

" Black Coffee " is composed in 4 / 4 simple time with a moderately fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is an ambient , electropop , R & B song . The track has an unconventional sound ; it is complemented by being more production @-@ laden in comparison to other pop songs . The production is indebted to the genres of electronic and techno music with welding , clipped dance rhythms . It includes obscure and breathy keyboard instruments as well as guitar , synths , and glitching electronics throughout . The verses have a mellow , hazy , and sinister sound and are dislocated from one another with All Saints using eerie harmonies in the build @-@ up to the chorus . These segments generally follow a chord progression of Bm7 – E – Bm7 – E. In the chorus , the song becomes more wistful and changes to a sequence of E – Bm – D – A.

" Black Coffee " is a sad love song about Kirsty 's love at first sight feelings for Ernesto . It recalls how they met , during a time where they were frequently sailing and did not want to be elsewhere . The hook , " I wouldn 't want to be anywhere else but here , anywhere at all " , explains how Ernesto made Kirsty feel . The song 's first verse and outro narrates their romance : " Night swimming / Beach walking / Always silent / Never talking / Then you call my name / And I know inside I love you ... " The second verse details more domestic scenarios during their relationship : " Brush your teeth / Pour yourself a cup of black coffee . " Mary Ann A. Bautista of the Philippine Daily Inquirer opined that the lyrics manifested a role reversal in a romantic relationship : " Not only does the girl make the first move , but she also reveals her true emotions by saying ' I love you ' first ; along the way , she hopes to be loved and nurtured . "

= = Release and reception = =

" Black Coffee " was released on 2 October 2000 as the second single from Saints & Sinners . London Records commissioned the single in CD , cassette , 7 " and 12 " formats . It was accompanied by a B @-@ side , " I Don 't Wanna Be Alone " , written by Lewis , Ali Tennant , Wayne Hector and Karl Gordon , and produced by Gordon . Remixes by ATFC , the Shadow Snipers and Wideboys were also made available , as well as a remix by The Neptunes which featured a rap by American duo Clipse . The single 's cover art was photographed by Ellen von Unwerth . A second version of the song accompanied the release of the group 's 2001 single " All Hooked Up " .

= = = Critical response = = =

" Black Coffee " has received universal acclaim from critics . Sean O 'Brien of The Sunday People gave the song a rating of eight out of ten , opining that it was poised for great commercial success . David Brinn of The Jerusalem Post called the track " wistful " and " radio @-@ friendly " . Tim de Lisle of The Mail on Sunday considered it a " wispy but beguiling piece " and wrote that Orbit 's " floaty atmospheres proved to be perfectly suited to the girls ' slender voices " . Simon Evans writing in the Birmingham Post described the song as a " beautiful slice of haunting , hypnotic pop " . John Mulvey of The Scotsman praised its " sleek , scrupulously mature sound " . Siobhan Grogan of the NME found the track " almost perfect " and complimented its " mellow , glossy haziness " , adding that it was if the group recorded the track lying down . Grogan concluded : " It 's wistful in all the right places and makes sadness sound rather alluring like only the bitterest love songs can . " John Walshe of the Hot Press deemed the group 's harmonies " so saccharine they could have been copyrighted by NutraSweet " .

A Sunday Herald critic opined that the song was " impressively @-@ lacquered " and " undoubtedly [ helped ] tentpole the album proper " . Samuel McGuire of the same publication viewed the track as a " gem of a truly wondrous lustre " . Nigel Packer of the BBC News considered it to be a highlight of Saints & Sinners , complimenting its " pure pop " and " liquid techno sound " . Lindsay Baker of The Guardian cited " Black Coffee " as the album 's " particularly infectious " track . R.S. Murthi writing in the New Straits Times described it as " the most endearing " song on Saints & Sinners , deeming it " tasty " and " redolent of the Cocteau Twins " . Eva Simpson of the Daily Mirror regarded the track as " sassy " and a " curtain raiser " for Saints & Sinners , noting that Orbit 's production " brought the same high @-@ gloss sheen " as " Pure Shores " . Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail named " Black Coffee " , together with " Pure Shores " , as the two best tracks on the album , deeming them " brilliantly produced " . Russell Baillie of The New Zealand Herald considered " Black Coffee " , along with " Pure Shores " and " Surrender " , to " put most [ of the album ] in the shade " . A Western Mail critic said " Black Coffee " was as " equally tremendous " as " Pure Shores " .

Julie MacCaskill of the Daily Record believed that the song was a testament to the group 's " pop power " . Jon O 'Brien from AllMusic felt that " Black Coffee " was among All Saints ' most accomplished and mature work , praising its " lush electronic landscapes " . " Black Coffee " placed among 2000 year @-@ end lists compiled by Dotmusic ( number three ) , and the NME ( number 26 ) . In 2016 , Lewis Corner from Digital Spy placed the song at number three in his ranking of All Saints ' singles , commending its " euphoric " chorus and concluding : " It quite literally is pop @-@ form caffeine . "

= = = Chart performance = = =

" Black Coffee " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart for the week @-@ ending 14 October 2000 with first @-@ week sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies . At the time , this was the second lowest first @-@ week sales tally for a number @-@ one single in 2000 , beating only Westlife 's " I Have a Dream " / " Seasons in the Sun " . In spite of low sales , " Black Coffee " sold nearly 25 % more copies than the number @-@ two single that week - Mariah Carey and Westlife 's " Against All Odds " . It marked All Saints ' fifth number @-@ one single and , at the time , made them the girl group with the second @-@ most number one singles after the Spice Girls , surpassing B * Witched . The song was also Orbit 's third UK number @-@ one single as a producer in 2000 , following " Pure Shores " and Madonna 's " American Pie " . " Black Coffee " dropped to number three in its second week and went on to spend a total of 21 weeks on the chart . On 20 October 2000 , the single was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting UK shipments in excess of 200 @,@ 000 copies . By 2008 , " Black Coffee " had sold 230 @,@ 000 copies . It is the group 's fourth best @-@ selling single in the UK according to the Official Charts Company .

The song also had success across Europe , peaking at number five on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for two consecutive weeks . It reached the top 10 in Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands and Sweden , and the top 20 in Finland and Norway . In Australia , the track entered the ARIA Singles Chart issued for 15 October 2000 at number 29 and went on to peak at number 20 for two consecutive weeks . " Black Coffee " debuted at number 40 on the New Zealand Singles Chart dated 29 October 2000 and reached number seven in its seventh week , becoming All Saints ' fifth top 10 single there . The success of " Black Coffee " launched both Nichols and Kirsty 's musical careers . In an interview for HitQuarters , Nichols explained : " I owe a lot to the All Saints and to Tracy Bennett at London [ ... ] they are a large further reason why I have a career because suddenly when that song was released , the opportunities that [ I got ] certainly in the UK , but also Europe @-@ wide , [ were ] absolutely huge . " Kirsty received royalties of over £ 12 @,@ 000 .

= = Music video = =

The accompanying music video for " Black Coffee " was directed by Bo Johan Renck . It was filmed at Ealing Studios in London on 17 August 2000 . Special effects , similar to the bullet time from the 1999 film The Matrix , were used as they were considered state of the art at the time . The video was specially edited as each All Saints member filmed their scenes separately . The members requested that they not be put in the same room as each other because they were not on speaking terms during this period . The Daily Mirror reported : " The girls have formed camps with sisters Nicole and Natalie sticking together while Mel and Shaznay are the other duo . There are definitely tensions . " The video aired on 4 September 2000 .

The video opens with a view of a high rise apartment block at night and All Saints , in individual scenes , dancing and singing from its rooftop . An interracial couple is shown arguing in various rooms in their apartment as different members of the group appear invisible beside them at various points . Each time the pair engages in aggressive behaviour , their actions are frozen while All Saints serenade them . These actions include : throwing pillows , leaves , a suitcase full of clothes , splashing bathwater , and breaking a mirror . The girlfriend later sits in a corner and cries during her boyfriend 's rage . The video ends with frozen , individual visuals of each group member throughout the now empty apartment .

The music video received heavy rotation from MTV Europe . Corner noted that it signified when " cracks were initially starting to show " within All Saints , explaining : " There 's a reason they don 't appear alongside each other in the music video : by then , they couldn 't physically stand each other . " CBC Television placed " Black Coffee " at number five in its ranking of the group 's music videos , praising its special effects and the combination of " an angelic serenade during an argument " . Jon Stewart , author of Oh Blessed Holy Caffeine Tree : Coffee in Popular Music , felt that the music video 's " opulent location " identified " strongly with the culture industry 's image of coffee as a luxurious beverage whose consumption signifies prominent social status " . Stewart further opined that the visual put emphasis on the " romantic disharmony " of the song 's lyrics .

= = Live performances = =

To promote " Black Coffee " , All Saints first performed it at BBC 's People 's Awards on 6 October 2000 . The group also performed the song on Top of the Pops on 13 October 2000 , the Pepsi Chart Show on 15 October 2000 , and at G @-@ A @-@ Y on 11 November 2000 . The group also performed the song for BBC 's Children in Need telethon on 17 November 2000 . Prior to this performance , there was much backstage tension between the group 's members because Nicole had revealed her pregnancy to the other members the previous day . Spice Girls singer Melanie C described the atmosphere as " icy " , while Nicole 's then @-@ boyfriend Liam Gallagher recalled : " Nic and Nat are working really hard , but it doesn 't matter what they do – the other two have got it in for them . You don 't treat people like that , trying to control their lives . " All Saints performed " Black Coffee " along with " Pure Shores " and " Whoopin ' Over You " on Later ... with Jools Holland on 18 November 2000 .

The group next performed the song at the Smash Hits Poll Winners Party on 10 December 2000 . By this time , tensions within the group had become visible on stage ; and the Appletons , along with their make @-@ up artists and hairdressers , were ignored by Lewis and Blatt . Natalie recalled : " It was as if Nic and I were not there . " The performance received a negative review from Betty Clarke of The Guardian who wrote : " Only All Saints let the side down , going through the motions ... " All Saints performed " Black Coffee " and " Pure Shores " at Capital Radio 's Christmas Party later that month . However , a rift between the members was now palpable on stage with Lewis and Blatt on one side of the stage and the Appletons on the other . The tension was prompted by a row which erupted backstage between Lewis and Natalie over who would wear a particular jacket for the performance and nearly led to the two coming to blows . The rift ultimately caused All Saints to split up the following year .

In 2000 , Kirsty sang " Black Coffee " at her wedding to Ernesto . In an interview for The Daily Telegraph , she said : " Hearing my song on the radio brought mixed emotions , I have to be thankful to All Saints , they were so popular at the time they could make the song number one , but I knew the emotions behind that song . I wanted to sing it myself because there 'd have been real meaning behind it , which was my love for Ernesto . " In 2014 , All Saints reunited and performed " Black Coffee " as part of their set list for five dates as special guests on the Backstreet Boys ' In a World Like This Tour in Ireland and the UK ( 26 March – 5 April 2014 ) . The group dressed in tracksuit jackets , and casual leggings and trousers for their renditions . They also reprised the song at G @-@ A @-@ Y on 12 April 2014 , and performed it at the V Festival ( 16 @-@ 17 August 2014 ) . The group then performed " Black Coffee " at Manchester Pride on 25 August 2014 , dressed in matching military shirts , bomber jackets , leggings and trainers .

= = Legacy = =

According to Clem Bastow of The Sydney Morning Herald , " Black Coffee " , in particular , won All Saints " major critical points " over the Spice Girls and complemented the group 's " impeccable back catalogue " . Graeme Virtue of the Sunday Herald hailed it as one of " the best pop singles ever " . Kathy McCabe of the Herald Sun deemed the song " the benchmark of sassy , harmony @-@ laden pop " . Christie Leo of the New Straits Times wrote : " The aromatic shimmer of ' Black Coffee ' alone is all the evidence you 'll need to know that All Saints were truly heavenly . " Ian Sturgess of the Daily Mirror said the track : " boasts one of the most infectious pop choruses of all time " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian found " Black Coffee " superior to " Pure Shores " , praising its " beguiling treatment of a domestic scenario " and citing its lyrics as " easily the most alluring depiction of a bleary @-@ eyed morning routine ever recorded . " Q magazine placed " Black Coffee " in their list of 1010 Songs You Must Own .

In 2007 , " Black Coffee " was included in the competitive music video game series SingStar . According to Fiona Shepherd of The Scotsman , the " smart @-@ pop attack " of the song " paved the way " for later girl groups Girls Aloud and the Sugababes . Neil Hannon of the Irish band The Divine Comedy expressed admiration for " Black Coffee " , commending its production @-@ heavy sound which " adds to the sound of it , rather than taking anything away " , and noted that its sound later became apparent in singles by Girls Aloud : " Girls Aloud do pop like that now : songs like ' Biology ' are a bit weird , and they flout the general rules , and I admire that . But ' Black Coffee ' is better . " Writing for Metro in 2013 , Seamus Duff stated that " Black Coffee " still sounded as " fresh and relevant " .

= = Formats and track listings = =

= = Credits and personnel = =

Credits adapted from the liner notes of Saints & Sinners .

= = Charts = =

= = Certification = =

= Juniata County , Pennsylvania =

Juniata County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . At the 2010 census , the population was 24 @,@ 636 . Its county seat is Mifflintown . The county was created on March 2 , 1831 , from part of Mifflin County and named for the Juniata River .

Mountains in Juniata County include Tuscarora Mountain and Shade Mountain . Agricultural land and forested land make up most of the county 's area . Major rivers and creeks in the county include the Susquehanna River , the Juniata River , Tuscarora Creek , and West Branch Mahantango Creek . It borders six other counties . The county lies over 16 different rock formations ( which are from the Ordovician , Silurian , and Devonian ) and 51 different soils .

Juniata County has a relatively low population density . The most population @-@ dense parts of the county are the boroughs of Mifflintown and Mifflin . The most common races in the county are white ( 96 @.@ 8 % of all residents ) and black ( 0 @.@ 6 % of all residents ) . Between 1940 and 2005 , Juniata County 's population grew faster than all but two other counties in Pennsylvania . Susquehanna Township had the fastest @-@ growing population of any borough or township in the county during this time period . Livestock farming is the largest industry in the county , although there are other industries as well , including crop farming and tourism . Manufacturing jobs are the most common jobs in the county . The county 's median household income is $ 34 @,@ 698 per year and its median family income is $ 39 @,@ 757 per year . The poverty rate is 9 @.@ 5 % and the unemployment rate is 5 @.@ 4 % . The median house value in the county was $ 87 @,@ 000 in 2000 . The main roads in Juniata County are Pennsylvania Route 235 , Pennsylvania Route 35 , Pennsylvania Route 104 , U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 , U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 850 , and Pennsylvania Route 333 .

There are four boroughs and thirteen townships in Juniata County . The county is served by two school districts : the Juniata County School District and the Greenwood School District . There are five areas in Juniata County that are protected by the Central Pennsylvania Conservancy and 59 natural heritage sites in the county .

The first European settlers arrived in Juniata County in the 1750s . The county has historically been part of Mifflin County and before that , part of Cumberland County .

= = History = =

Juniata County was historically a part of Cumberland County and later Mifflin County . Juniata County was formed on March 2 , 1831 , from parts of Mifflin County . It is named after the Juniata River . The word " juniata " itself is a Seneca word that means either " people of the standing stone " or " blue waters " . The first boroughs in the county to be settled were Mifflintown and Thompsontown , which were settled in 1790 . Port Royal and Mifflin were settled in 1812 and 1848 , respectively . The first of these borough to be incorporated was Mifflintown , on March 6 , 1833 . The last one to be incorporated was Thompsontown , on February 7 , 1868 . However , squatters arrived in the county and were removed from it considerably earlier , by 1750 and one of the first warrants for land in the county was issued in 1755 . Many of the earliest landowners in Delaware Township were speculators as opposed to settlers . There was an Indian raid in the county in 1755 and 1756 , although Fort Bingham and Fort Peterson had been constructed . The Beale family was one of the earliest families to inhabit the county . More settlers arrived in the 1750s and 1760s and the first gristmill on the western side of the Juniata River was built in the county in 1767 . A public road was built in the county between Tuscarora Creek and a location near Shade Mountain in 1768 . John Hamilton constructed a sawmill and gristmill on Cocalamus Creek in Delaware Township in 1776 . The first known physician in the county , Dr. Ezra Doty , settled in Mifflintown in 1791 .

The first four townships in what would become Juniata County were formed on October 23 , 1754 . They were Lack Township , Aire Township , Fannett Township , and Tyrone Township . These early townships had no formal boundaries . By 1913 , the original townships had been divided into a total of 13 townships .

The Pennsylvania Canal began serving Juniata County in 1826 and closed in 1900 . The Pennsylvania Railroad reached the county in the late 1840s . The Tuscarora Valley Railroad was also in the county until it closed in 1934 .

During Hurricane Agnes in 1972 , a total of 6374 acres of Juniata County were flooded . 57 families were displaced during this flooding .

Juniata County was the last county in Pennsylvania to develop a modern comprehensive plan . It did , however , construct a comprehensive plan in 1974 .

In a 1997 survey , 66 @.@ 8 % of respondents found Juniata County a " very desirable " living place . In a similar survey in 2007 , however , only 56 @.@ 9 % of respondents found the county a " very desirable " living place .

= = = Historic places = = =

Eight locations in Juniata County are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . They were listed between 1972 and 1986 . They include the Academia Pomeroy Covered Bridge , the Tuscarora Academy , and the Book Site in Beale Township ; the Dimmsville Covered Bridge in Greenwood Township ; the Lehmans @-@ Port Royal Bridge in Milford Township ; and the East Oriental and North Oriental covered bridges . Eight additional places are eligible for a listing on the National Register of Historic Places . There are five Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission historical markers in Juniata County . They commemorate the Tuscarora Path , the Tuscarora Academy , Patterson 's Fort , Fort Bingham , and Juniata County itself .

The Academia Pomeroy Covered Bridge ( also known as the Pomeroy Academia Covered Bridge ) was built in 1901 . It is 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) wide and 278 feet ( 85 m ) long , making it one of the longest remaining covered bridges in Pennsylvania .

= = Geography = =

According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the county has a total area of 394 square miles ( 1 @,@ 020 km2 ) , of which 391 square miles ( 1 @,@ 010 km2 ) is land and 2 @.@ 2 square miles ( 5 @.@ 7 km2 ) ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) is water .

Juniata County is located between two major metropolitan areas . One is State College , which is northwest of the county . The other is Harrisburg , which is to the southeast of the county . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which is a four @-@ lane highway , leads from the county to these metropolitan areas .

Parts of Juniata County are fairly flat , but there are areas in the county with slopes of 25 % or greater . However , most development in the county is confined to areas with slopes of 15 % or less . Many of the county 's steepest slopes , with grades of 25 % of more , are located on the edges of the county . These slopes are generally found on mountainous ridges . However , there are some similarly steep slopes in the middle of the county . All four boroughs in the county have slopes with a grade of 25 % or more near them . Slopes of 15 % to 25 % can be found throughout the county .

Much of Juniata County is hilly . Mountains occupy many of the county 's borders . Tuscarora Mountain forms the county 's border with Perry County . Shade Mountain runs from Snyder County through Juniata County and into Huntingdon County .

There are two locations in Juniata County that the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan describes as " outstanding and unique scenic features " . These are Hawstone Overlook and the Concord Narrows . Hawstone Overlook is an overlook in Milford Township on Pennsylvania Route 333 , from which the Juniata River between Shade Mountain and Blue Mountain can be seen , as well as the Lewistown Narrows . The Concord Narrows are a narrow water gap where the Juniata River flows past Tuscarora Mountain . Quartizite from the Silurian Period can be found in this water gap .

= = = Rivers and watersheds = = =

There are several major streams and rivers in Juniata County . These include the Susquehanna River , the Juniata River , Tuscarora Creek , Cocolamus Creek , West Branch Mahantango Creek , Licking Creek , and Lost Creek .

112 @,@ 000 acres , or 45 % of Juniata County 's area is in the Tuscarora Creek watershed , including the borough of Port Royal . 59 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 % of the county 's area ) is in the Juniata River watershed . This area includes parts of all four of the boroughs in the county . 26 @,@ 000 acres of Juniata County are in the Cocolamus Creek watershed and a similar amount of the county is in the watershed of Lost Creek . 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 % of the counties area ) are in the West Branch Mahantango Creek watershed .

= = = Land use = = =

Residential land makes up more than 50 @,@ 000 acres , or one fifth , of Juniata County 's area . The bulk of residential land is single @-@ family dwellings , but seasonal homes and mobile homes also make up significant portions of it . The county 's residential land is concentrated along in its boroughs , but occurs along roads and in villages throughout the county . Multi @-@ family residential land is comparatively rare . Less than 1 % of the county 's land ( 430 acres ) is used for manufacturing purposes . Only approximately 370 acres are used for transportation and utilities . Roughly 300 acres are used for transportation and communication and 70 acres are used for other utilities . Businesses make up 0 @.@ 21 % of the county 's land , or 525 acres . 490 acres are devoted to retail businesses , while 35 acres are devoted to wholesale businesses . Services occupy 0 @.@ 67 % of the county 's area .

Land devoted to recreation in Juniata County makes up 0 @.@ 5 % , or 1000 acres , of its area . Agricultural land comprises 41 % ( 101 @,@ 000 acres ) of the county . A total of 167 @,@ 500 acres , or approximately two thirds of the county 's area , is forested land . Large portions of the southwestern part of the county are forested . 34 % of the county 's land is undeveloped , most of which ( 60 @,@ 000 acres ) is unused land .

The vast majority of Juniata County is rural land . However , there are a few rural hamlets and villages ( which have one to four housing units per acre ) scattered throughout the county . There is also an area termed a " high growth area " by the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan near the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown . It has between 8 and 17 housing units per acre . The Juniata County Comprehensive Plan also designates areas near Thompsontown and Port Royal as " rural growth area [ s ] " . These areas have three to six housing units per acre .

= = = Adjacent counties = = =

Juniata County borders Mifflin County , Pennsylvania to the northwest , Snyder County , Pennsylvania to the north , Northumberland County , Pennsylvania to the northeast , Dauphin County , Pennsylvania to the southeast , Perry County , Pennsylvania to the south , and Huntingdon County , Pennsylvania and Franklin County , Pennsylvania to the southwest .

= = Geology = =

Juniata County lies over 16 different rock formations , some of which contain limestone . These rock formations come from the Ordovician Period , the Silurian Period , and the Devonian Period . The northernmost part of the county contains rocks of the Juniata Formation , the Bald Eagle Formation , and undivided Juniata and Bald Eagle formations . All of these formations primarily consist of sandstone . South of these formations lie the Bloomsburg and Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Clinton Group , and the Tuscarora Formation . The first two of these consist mainly of shale , while the third is composed of quartzite . The rock formations in the southwestern part of the county include the Brallier and Harrell Formations undivided , the Hamilton Group , the Irish Valley member of the Catskill Formation , and others . The eastern part of the county lies almost entirely over the Hamilton Group , the Tuscarora Formation , and the Irish Valley member of the Cataskill Formation .

Other rock formations found in Juniata County include the Keyser through Mifflintown Formation undivided , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formation undivided , the Onondaga and Old Port Formations undivided , the Reedsville Formation , the Trimmers Rock Formation , the Wills Creek Formation , and the Wills Creek Formation through Mifflintown Formation undivided .

Four of the rock formations found in Juniata County come from def Ordovician Period , seven come from the Silurian Period , and seven come from the Devonian Period .

There are seven soil associations in Juniata County . One of these is the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association . It is a deep and fairly well @-@ drained soil that is found in 24 % of the county . It is mostly found in the county 's forested areas . The Berks @-@ Weikert @-@ Bedington Association is also found in the county . It is found in 33 % of the county 's area and is not as deep as the Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association , but is well @-@ drained . The soil is mostly found in agricultural lands and some forested areas . Another soil association in the county is the Edon @-@ Opequon @-@ Weikert Association , which is a well @-@ drained soil that occupies 17 % of the county . The Elliber @-@ Kreamer @-@ Mertz Association is a deep and well @-@ drained soil that makes up 12 % of the county . The Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly Association and the Morrison @-@ Hazelton @-@ Clymer Association make up 7 % and 6 % of the county , respectively . They are both deep and occur on gentle slopes . However , the former is poorly drained , while the latter is well @-@ drained . The Hazelton @-@ Laidig @-@ Buchanan Association is well @-@ drained and makes up 1 % of the county 's area .

There are 51 different soil types in Juniata County , of which 18 are considered prime farmland . There area few agricultural soils on the northern and southern edges of the county .

The main rock formations in the boroughs of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the undivided Keyser and Tonoloway Formations and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation . The same rock formations are found in the borough of Port Royal , along with the Clinton Group and the Hamilton Group to the northwest and southeast of the borough , respectively . The Hamilton Group , the Keyser and Tonoloway Formations , and the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation are found in or near the borough of Thompsontown .

= = Climate = =

Juniata County is in the Humid Continental climatic region . In the summer , highs are generally in between 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) and 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , but on occasion exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) . The lows in the summer are typically slightly below 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) . High temperatures in the winter are usually between 30 ° F ( − 1 ° C ) and 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) .

On average , Juniata County receives 38 inches ( 97 cm ) of precipitation per year . An average of 28 inches ( 71 cm ) of snow fall on the county each winter . The county rarely experiences long @-@ term droughts , but does experience short @-@ term droughts often .

= = Demographics = =

At the 2010 census , there were 24 @,@ 636 people , 9 @,@ 476 households , and 6 @,@ 839 families residing in Juniata County . The projected population of the county for 2020 is 26 @,@ 071 . The population density was 63 people per square mile ( 24 / km ² ) . There were 10 @,@ 978 housing units at an average density of 28 per square mile ( 10 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the county was 96 @.@ 8 % White , 0 @.@ 6 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 1 % Native American , 0 @.@ 3 % Asian ( 0 @.@ 1 % Indian , 0 @.@ 1 % Chinese , and 0 @.@ 1 % Korean ) , 1 @.@ 1 % from other races , and 1 % from two or more races .

There are eight Filipino people , five Vietnamese people , and two Samoans in Juniata County .

2 @.@ 5 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . These include 195 Puerto Ricans , 77 Mexicans , and 2 Cubans . The highest percentage of Hispanic people in any township or borough in the county is 8 @.@ 71 % , in Mifflintown . Between 1990 and 2000 , the Hispanic population in the county increased by 653 % . In 2000 , 45 @.@ 4 % of the population of Juniata County were of German , 20 @.@ 2 % American , 5 @.@ 7 % Irish and 5 @.@ 0 % English ancestry according to Census 2000 . 3 @.@ 95 % reported speaking Pennsylvania German , German , or Dutch at home ; 1 @.@ 63 % speak Spanish .

The housing density and population density of Juniata County is considerably below average for a Pennsylvania county .

The administrative subdivisions of Juniata County with the highest population density are Mifflintown ( with a density of 6 @,@ 184 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , Mifflin ( with a density of 3506 @.@ 9 people per square mile ) , and Thompsontown ( with a density of 2193 @.@ 1 people per square mile ) . The township with the highest population density in the county is Monroe Township , with 104 @.@ 0 people per square mile . The highest density of housing units in the county is in Mifflintown ( 2 @,@ 837 @.@ 4 per square mile ) , followed by Mifflin ( 1 @,@ 454 @.@ 2 per square mile ) and Thompsontown ( 1 @,@ 144 @.@ 4 per square mile ) . Greenwood Township has the third lowest population density of any administrative division in Juniata County : 27 @.@ 9 people per square mile . The second lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 24 @.@ 5 people per square mile ) and the lowest density is in Lack Township ( 13 @.@ 2 people per square mile ) . The lowest density of housing units in the county is in Lack Township ( 10 @.@ 0 per square mile ) , the second @-@ lowest density is in Greenwood Township ( 11 @.@ 3 per square mile ) , and the third @-@ lowest density is in Tuscarora Township ( 13 @.@ 7 per square mile ) .

Between 1940 and 2005 , the population of Juniata County was proportionally the third fastest @-@ growing population of any county in Pennsylvania , with only Snyder County 's and Perry County 's populations growing faster . In this time period , the county 's population has increased by 50 @.@ 69 % , or 7 @,@ 792 people . In the 1980s , the county 's rate of population growth was more than 50 times higher than the rate of population growth in Pennsylvania . The county 's rate of population growth in the 1970s was even higher .

Susquehanna Township 's population was the fastest @-@ growing population of any administrative division in Juniata County between 1990 and 2005 , with an increase of 35 @.@ 42 % . Other fast @-@ growing populations in the county include those of Milford Township ( 22 @.@ 53 % ) and Thompsontown 20 @.@ 1 % ) . The populations of Mifflin and Mifflintown are the only administrative divisions in the county whose populations decreased in that time period ( at a rate of -7.42 % and -3.7 % , respectively ) . However , between 2000 and 2005 , eight administrative divisions experienced decreasing populations . Between 1990 and 2000 , every borough and township in the county experienced an increase in population .

At the 2010 census , the average household size in Juniata County was 2 @.@ 57 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 01 . 23 @.@ 0 % of the county 's households were inhabited by a single individual .

In 2000 , there were 11 @,@ 353 males and 11 @,@ 468 females in Juniata County , or 98 @.@ 99 males per 100 females . The highest percentage of males in any administrative division in the county was 52 @.@ 07 % , in Beale Township . The highest percentage of females in any township or borough in the county was 52 @.@ 95 % , in Fermanagh Township .

At the 2010 census , the population in Juniata County was spread out with 6 @.@ 3 % under 5 years of age , 6 @.@ 8 % from 5 to 9 years of age , and the same percentage from 10 to 14 years of age . 6 @.@ 5 % of the county 's inhabitants were 15 to 19 years of age , 5 @.@ 4 % were 20 to 24 years old , 5 @.@ 3 % were 25 to 29 years old , and 5 @.@ 5 % were 30 to 34 years old . People of 35 to 39 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 1 % of the population , 40- to 44 @-@ year @-@ olds comprised 6 @.@ 6 % of the population , and 7 @.@ 6 % of the population consisted of 50- to 54 @-@ year @-@ olds . People of 55 to 59 years of age made up 7 @.@ 6 % of the population , people of 60 to 54 years of age comprised 6 @.@ 0 % of it , and 65- to 69 @-@ year @-@ olds made up 4 @.@ 9 % of the population . People of 70 to 74 years of age make up 3 @.@ 9 % of the county 's population , people of 75 to 79 years of age make up 3 @.@ 2 % of the population , people of 80 to 84 years old make up 2 @.@ 5 % of the population , and people older than 85 years make up 2 @.@ 3 % of the population .

= = Infrastructure , industry , and economy = =

In 2000 , the agricultural , hunting / fishing , forestry , and mining industries made up 5 @.@ 46 % of the industry in Juniata County . Livestock farming was more popular in the county than crop cultivation . In 2002 , the egg and poultry industry in the county generated $ 32 million in sales ( the 7th highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) and the dairy industry generated $ 17 million in sales ( the 23rd highest of the Pennsylvania counties ) . The hog and pig industry generated $ 7 million and the cattle industry generated $ 4 million in sales ( the 10th and 27th highest of Pennsylvania counties , respectively ) . The county 's grain industry generated $ 1 million ( the 35th highest of Pennsylvania counties ) . The county is the fourth most prolific poultry @-@ producing county in Pennsylvania . In addition to the aforementioned industries , there are also small @-@ scale clothing manufacturing businesses in the county .

There were 801 farms in Juniata County in 1997 , occupying a total of 96 @,@ 312 acres of farmland . By 2002 , there were only 644 farms and 86 @,@ 203 acres of farmland .

There is one public library in Juniata County : the Juniata County Library in Mifflintown . It has approximately 64 @,@ 000 materials and an annual circulation of 131 @,@ 940 materials . It will be celebrating its 50th anniversary in 2016 .

There are no hospitals in Juniata County . The county is served by a hospital in Lewistown , which was established in 1905 . The county has six emergency medical services units and eight fire companies , all of which are volunteer fire departments . As the county does not have its own police force , it is served by the Pennsylvania State Police .

There are more than 100 cemeteries in Juniata County .

= = = Economic and employment statistics = = =

In 2000 , the most common occupation in Juniata County was manufacturing . 23 @.@ 6 % of employed people over 16 years old in the county performed manufacturing jobs . 10 @.@ 5 % of employed people older than 16 worked in health services , 9 @.@ 5 % worked in other services , 9 @.@ 3 % each work in construction and retail , 6 @.@ 2 % worked in public administration , and 6 @.@ 1 % worked in transportation . 5 @.@ 6 % had an occupation in the field of education , and a similar number worked in finance , insurance , and real estate . 5 @.@ 5 % worked in agriculture , fishing , forestry , or mining , 3 @.@ 5 % worked in wholesale trade , 1 @.@ 7 % worked in communications , utilities , and related fields .

In 2000 , a total of 1 @,@ 955 households in Juniata County made less than $ 20 @,@ 000 per year and 3036 households made $ 20 @,@ 000 to $ 39 @,@ 999 per year . 1 @,@ 940 households made $ 40 @,@ 000 to $ 59 @,@ 999 per year , 1 @,@ 308 households made $ 60 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 per year , and 216 households made $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 per year . 125 households made more than $ 150 @,@ 000 per year . In 1999 , the median household income for the county was $ 34 @,@ 698 per year and the median family income was $ 39 @,@ 757 per year . Both of these figures are lower than the average for Pennsylvania . The per capita income in the county was $ 16 @,@ 142 per year in 1999 and $ 14 @,@ 539 in 1989 . The county 's poverty rate , 9 @.@ 5 % , is below the average poverty rate for Pennsylvania , which is 11 % . In 1999 , Mifflin had the highest poverty rate of any township or borough in the county , 17 @.@ 54 % . Greenwood Township had the lowest poverty rate , 6 @.@ 99 % . The county 's unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 3 % in 1999 and 5 @.@ 4 % in 2008 . According to the Juniata County Comprehensive Plan , the economic situation in the county " suggests a fairly healthy county economy " .

Of the boroughs and townships in Juniata County , Beale Township had the highest household and family income in 1999 : $ 41 @,@ 458 and $ 43 @,@ 625 , respectively . The borough of Mifflin had the lowest household and family income in 1999 : $ 26 @,@ 438 and $ 28 @,@ 750 , respectively .

94 @.@ 32 % of the houses in Juniata County have full plumbing facilities . This is below Pennsylvania 's average ( 98 @.@ 51 % ) , which may be due to the presence of cabins and other houses that are not permanently inhabited . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities of any township or borough in the county ( 100 % ) . Lack Township has the lowest percentage of houses with full plumbing facilities ( 72 @.@ 31 % ) . There are six public sewer companies in the county , the largest of which , the Twin Boroughs Sanitary Authority , is used at a rate of 450 @,@ 000 gallons per day . The county also has five public water companies , including the Port Royal Municipal Authority and the Mifflintown Municipal Authority . The Mifflintown Municipal Authority is the most @-@ used water company in the county , serving 465 @,@ 000 gallons of water per day .

On average , Juniata County generates 32 tons of solid waste per day .

Nine townships and all four boroughs in Juniata County receive electricity from Pennsylvania Power and Light . The remaining townships are given electricity by First Energy and Valley Rural Electric Cooperative , Inc .. Nittany Media Inc. and Dish and Direct TV provide cable services to the county .

= = = Housing = = =

In 2000 , 28 @.@ 70 % of the houses in Juniata County were built before 1939 , 6 @.@ 51 % were built in the 1940s , and 8 @.@ 26 % were built in the 1950s . 8 @.@ 53 % of the county 's houses were built in the 1960s , 17 @.@ 99 % were built in the 1970s , and 14 @.@ 18 % were built in the 1980s . 15 @.@ 82 % of the houses were built in the 1990s or in 2000 . The majority of the houses in Mifflin and Mifflintown were built before 1939 .

In 2000 , 14 @.@ 43 % of the houses in Juniata County were vacant . 9 @.@ 42 % of the county 's houses were vacant for seasonal or recreational reasons . The county 's vacancy rate is higher than average for Pennsylvania . Mifflintown had the lowest vacancy rate of any township or borough in the county ( 5 @.@ 18 % ) . Lack Township had the highest vacancy rate ( 48 @.@ 77 % ) . 66 @.@ 49 % of the county 's houses are occupied by their owner and 19 @.@ 08 % are occupied by a renter . Many of the houses in the southwestern part of the county are seasonally occupied .

13 @.@ 11 % of the houses in Juniata County cost less than $ 50 @,@ 000 and 51 @.@ 07 % cost $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 99 @,@ 999 . 17 @.@ 51 % of the county 's houses cost $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 124 @,@ 999 and 9 @.@ 74 % cost from $ 125 @,@ 000 to $ 149 @,@ 999 . 4 @.@ 62 % of the houses cost between $ 150 @,@ 000 and $ 174 @,@ 999 and 1 @.@ 21 % cost between $ 175 @,@ 000 and $ 199 @,@ 999 . 1 @.@ 92 % of the houses in the county cost between $ 200 @,@ 000 and $ 249 @,@ 999 , 0 @.@ 39 % cost between $ 250 @,@ 000 and $ 299 @,@ 999 , and 0 @.@ 43 % cost more than $ 300 @,@ 000 . Of the administrative divisions in the county , Fermanagh Township has the highest percentage of houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 1 @.@ 34 % ) and numerous townships and boroughs in the county do not have any houses costing over $ 300 @,@ 000 . Mifflin has the highest percentage of houses costing less than $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 56 @.@ 48 % ) and Delaware Township has the lowest percentage of such houses ( 4 @.@ 73 % ) .

In 1990 , the median house value in Juniata County was $ 51 @,@ 500 . This rose to $ 87 @,@ 000 by 2000 .

= = = Crime = = =

The most common crimes committed in Juniata County between 2005 and November 2007 were property crimes , with 996 recorded offenses . Other common crimes in the county are assaults , with 383 offenses between 2005 and 2007 and alcohol @-@ related crimes , with 306 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . Rarer crimes in the county include drug violations ( 71 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) , sex offenses ( 64 offenses between 2005 and 2007 ) and arson , with only 12 offenses between 2005 and 2007 . There were no homicides in the county in these years .

= = = Recreation = = =

There are municipal parks in all four boroughs of Juniata County . There are also five boat launches in the county , all of which are on or near the Juniata River . There are two golf courses in the central part of the county and one campground in the southern part of the county .

= = Transportation = =

= = = Roads = = =

The main roads in the eastern part of Juniata County are Pennsylvania Route 235 , Pennsylvania Route 35 , Pennsylvania Route 104 , and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 . The main roads in western Juniata County are U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 850 , and Pennsylvania Route 333 . U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 experiences the most traffic . It and U.S. Route 11 / U.S. Route 15 are considered major arterial roads . Pennsylvania Route 75 and Pennsylvania Route 35 northeast of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 are minor arterial roads . Major rural collector roads in the county include Pennsylvania Route 850 Pennsylvania Route 74 , Pennsylvania Route 235 , and Pennsylvania Route 35 southwest of U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 . Minor rural collector roads include Pennsylvania Route 333 and numerous less prominent roads . There are also many local roads throughout the county , most of which are in its northeastern and central parts .

There are approximately 735 miles ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) of roads in Juniata County 's road system . 372 @.@ 6 miles ( 599 @.@ 6 km ) of the roads are locally owned , 354 @.@ 9 miles ( 571 @.@ 2 km ) are owned by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , and 8 @.@ 0 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) are owned by Pennsylvania or the United States . 508 @.@ 3 miles ( 818 @.@ 0 km ) are local roads , 89 @.@ 7 miles ( 144 @.@ 4 km ) are minor collector roads , 68 @.@ 7 miles ( 110 @.@ 6 km ) are major collector roads , 46 @.@ 8 miles ( 75 @.@ 3 km ) are minor arterial roads , and 21 @.@ 4 miles ( 34 @.@ 4 km ) are major arterial roads .

The daily traffic of Juniata County 's arterial roads ranges from several dozen to several thousand vehicles per day . Pennsylvania Route 75 carries 50 vehicles per day in the southwestern part of the county and 7 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the northeastern part of the county . Pennsylvania Route 104 carries 2 @,@ 900 vehicles per day in the county . The most heavily traveled road there , however , is U.S. Route 22 / U.S. Route 322 , which carries 11 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The least @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is State Route 2026 , which is used by 350 vehicles per day and the most @-@ trafficked major rural connector road is Pennsylvania Route 35 , which gets up to 7100 vehicles per day . Traffic on minor rural collector roads ranges from 100 vehicles per day on Academia Road to over 1000 vehicles per day on several roads . The volume of vehicle traffic in the county has changed little since the late 1990s .

U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 allow Juniata County residents to access numerous locations in New York , Pennsylvania , and Maryland . It receives approximately 12 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in the county . Pennsylvania Route 35 allows access to Mifflin and Mifflintown from other locations in the county . Pennsylvania Route 75 is used by trucks in the county to access the Pennsylvania Turnpike .

There are 21 road intersections in Juniata County that were the site of five or more crashes between January 1 , 2002 , and December 31 , 2006 .

= = = Bridges = = =

There are 254 state @-@ owned bridges in Juniata County , of which 77 are considered structurally deficient by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation .

The longest bridge in Juniata County is the First Street Bridge over the Juniata River in Port Royal . It is 1 @,@ 087 feet ( 331 m ) long and was built in 1937 . The second @-@ longest bridge in the county crosses the Juniata River at Thompsontown Station and is 808 @.@ 1 feet ( 246 @.@ 3 m ) long . It was built in 1994 . All other bridges in the county are less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) long .

= = = Other transportation = = =

For air travel , Juniata County is served by the privately owned Mifflintown Airport and the Stottle Memorial Heliport in Tuscarora Township .

The BicyclePA Route J runs through Juniata County on U.S. Route 11 and U.S. Route 15 .

= = Education = =

= = = Schools and school districts = = =

There are two public school districts in Juniata County : the Juniata County School District and the Greenwood School District . Both of these are K @-@ 12 schools . The Greenwood School District serves Greenwood Township and parts of Perry County and the Juniata County School District serves the rest of Juniata County .

The Juniata County School District has nine elementary schools , one junior high school , and two high schools . In the 2006 – 2007 school year , there were 3 @,@ 123 students in the school district . The largest high school in the district is the Juniata High School , with 637 students . The largest elementary school in the district is the Fermanagh @-@ Mifflintown Elementary School , with 238 students and the smallest one is the Susquehanna Township Elementary School , with 63 students .

The Greenwood School District has an elementary school , a middle school , and a high school . They have 449 , 137 , and 278 students , respectively .

Additionally , there are 12 private schools in Juniata County , most of which are religious schools run by groups such as the Amish or other types of Mennonites . Nearly all are based in Mifflintown , McAlisterville , or Thompsontown , although one is based in Port Royal . In May 2014 , the largest private school in the county was the Juniata Mennonite School , which had 220 students , and the smallest private school was the Breezy Hollow Amish School , which had 18 students .

There are no colleges in Juniata County , although there are twelve in the county 's general vicinity .

= = = Statistics = = =

In 1990 , 16 @.@ 91 % of Juniata County residents over 25 years of age had less than a ninth @-@ grade education . 17 @.@ 93 % of residents over 25 years of age had a ninth @-@ grade education to a twelfth @-@ grade education and 46 @.@ 35 % had graduated from high school . 7 @.@ 80 % of the residents had attended college , but did not have a degree and 3 @.@ 76 % had an associate degree . 4 @.@ 67 % of Juniata County residents aged 25 years or more had a bachelor 's degree and 2 @.@ 59 % had a graduate or professional degree .

By 2000 , the percentage of people with less than a ninth @-@ grade education had decreased to 5 % and the percentage with a ninth @-@ grade to twelfth @-@ grade education had decreased to 13 % . The percentage of people who graduated high school decreased to 38 % , but the percentage of people who attended college but did not get a degree increased to 16 % . The percentage of people with an associate degree increased to 6 % , the percentage of people who had a bachelor 's degree increased to 14 % , and the percentage of people with a graduate or professional degree increased to 8 % .

Of the townships and boroughs in Juniata County , Lack Township has the highest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 42 @.@ 43 % ) . Spruce Hill Township has the lowest percentage of people without a high school diploma ( 18 @.@ 00 % ) . Mifflintown has the highest percentage of people with a higher education .

= = Biology = =

There are five areas in Juniata County that are protected by the Central Pennsylvania Conservancy : the Baker Easement , the Brady Bryner Preserve , the Gregory Alan Grening Preserve , the Grening Preserve Addition , the McLaughlin Easement , and the Port Royal Wetlands . The combined area of these lands is 415 acres . There are State Game Lands in the northwestern part of the county and state forests in the county 's northern and southern portions .

Four streams in Juniata County are considered high @-@ quality coldwater fisheries . There are also some Class A Wild Trout Waters in the northern and western parts of the county .

The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory lists 59 natural heritage sites in Juniata County . 11 are considered " exceptional significance " , 19 are considered " high significance " , 12 are considered " notable significance " , and 17 are considered " local significance " . Sites on the inventory are found in every township in the county except for Greenwood Township .

The largest remaining intact wetland in Juniata County may be the Cedar Spring Run Wetland , which is in Walker Township . The Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory considers it to be an " exceptional significance " site . Numerous wetland plants that are rare in the area inhabit this wetland , including Quercus shumardii . The wetland is a red maple @-@ black ash palustrine forest community . Another wetland on the Natural Heritage Inventory 's list of exceptional significance sites is the Locust Run Wetlands , which is in Walker Township and Delaware Township . These wetlands consist of two large groups of temporary pools and several permanent ones . The West Branch Mahantango Creek Vernal Pools are also in the county . This system consist of dozens of temporary pools that are inhabited by Leucothoe racemosa . The Slim Valley Wetlands are in Fayette Township and Fermanagh Township . They contain spotted pondweed and serve as a breeding ground for amphibians .

There are four sites on Tuscarora Creek and its tributaries on the " exceptional significance " list in the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory . The Doyle Run Floodplain is located on the creek in Beale Township . It contains a silver maple floodplain forest and is home to Ranunculus flabellaris and many species that are rare in Pennsylvania . Barton Hollow , a tributary of Tuscarora Creek in Lack Township , is home to plant species such as Carex careyana and Pinus echinata and animal species such as the Emperor Butterfly and a mussel species known as the Triangle Floater . Tuscarora Creek supports Carex shortiana downstream of Blair Hollow in Lack Township , as well as 350 plant species and 50 animal species . The creek 's valley downstream of Pennybaker Island in Lack Township is home to Samolus parviflorus and Quercus shumardii .

A woodland known as the Kurtz Valley Woodland is located in Delaware Township , Juniata County . It is listed as an " exceptional significance " site on the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory and contains a red cedar – redbud shrubland community , which is rare in Pennsylvania . The McAlister Limestone Glade is another " exceptional significance " site in the county . It is located in Fayette Township and contains a side @-@ oats grama calcareous grassland , which is described as a " very important " natural feature . The Westfall Prairie is also located in Fayette Township and is home to a number of rare species .

Allegheny Woodrats live on the slopes of the Lewistown Narrows in Milford Township , Juniata County and Northern Myotis bats feed there . The Lewistown Narrows are an " exceptional significance " site according to the Juniata County Natural Heritage Inventory .

= = Communities = =

Under Pennsylvania law , there are four types of incorporated municipalities : cities , boroughs , townships , and , in at most two cases , towns .

= = = Boroughs = = =

Boroughs in Juniata County include :

Mifflin

Mifflintown ( county seat )

Port Royal

Thompsontown

= = = Townships = = =

Townships in Juniata County include :

= = = Census @-@ designated places = = =

Census @-@ designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data . They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania . CDPs in Juniata County include :

East Salem

East Waterford

McAlisterville

Mexico

Richfield

= = = Population ranking = = =

The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Juniata County .

† county seat

= Olivia Shakespear =

Olivia Shakespear ( born Olivia Tucker ; 17 March 1863 – 3 October 1938 ) was a British novelist , playwright , and patron of the arts . She wrote six books that are described as " marriage problem " novels . Her works sold poorly , sometimes only a few hundred copies . Her last novel , Nurse Harry , is considered her best . She wrote two plays in collaboration with Florence Farr .

Olivia was the daughter of a retired Adjutant General , and had little formal education . She was well @-@ read however , and developed a love of literature . In 1885 she married London barrister Henry Hope Shakespear , and in 1886 gave birth to their only child , Dorothy . In 1894 her literary interests led to a friendship with William Butler Yeats that became physically intimate in 1896 . He declared that they " had many days of happiness " to come , but the affair ended in 1897 . They nevertheless remained lifelong friends and corresponded frequently . Yeats went on to marry Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , Olivia 's step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend .

Olivia began hosting weekly salon frequented by Ezra Pound and other modernist writers and artists in 1909 , and became influential in London literary society . Olivia 's daughter Dorothy Shakespear married Pound in 1914 , despite the less than enthusiastic blessing of her parents . After their marriage , Pound would use funds received from Olivia to support T. S. Eliot and James Joyce . When Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , in France in 1926 , Olivia assumed guardianship of the boy . He lived with Olivia until her death on 3 October 1938 .

= = Early life and marriage = =

Olivia 's father , Henry Tod Tucker ( b . 1808 ) , was born in Edinburgh and joined the British Indian Army as an ensign at age 16 . He rose to the rank of Adjutant General in Bengal , but retired in 1856 at age 48 owing to ill health . Within a year of returning to Britain he married Harriet Johnson ( b . 1821 ) of Bath . The couple moved to the Isle of Wight where their two daughters were born : Florence in 1858 and Olivia on 17 March 1863 . Soon after they relocated to Sussex where their third child , Henry , was born in 1866 . In 1877 the family moved to London and raised their daughters in a social world that encouraged the pursuit of leisure . Olivia often visited her many Johnson relatives in the country , and became particularly fond of her cousin Lionel Johnson — the only one of many uncles and cousins not to join the military — who went on to become a poet and friend to W. B. Yeats . It is likely that Olivia received little formal education ; she may have been educated by tutors , and appears to have become well @-@ read as a young woman .

In 1885 Olivia married Henry Hope Shakespear , a man described by Terence Brown in The Life of W.B. Yeats : A Critical Biography as " worthy " but " dull " . Born in India in 1849 , he was descended from 17th @-@ century East London ropemakers and , like Olivia , came from a military family , although of less prestige and wealth than the Tuckers and Johnsons . John Harwood , Olivia 's biographer and author of Olivia Shakespear and W. B. Yeats : After Long Silence believes Henry probably saw an opportunity to increase his social standing and annual income in wedding Olivia . He had attended Harrow , studied law , and joined a law practice in 1875 . The couple were married on 8 December 1885 , and honeymooned in Boulogne and Paris . Olivia 's father endowed them with a comfortable income in the form of a trust . Nine months after the wedding their only child , Dorothy , was born on 14 September 1886 ; they likely discontinued physical relations after the honeymoon , and Olivia realised quite soon that the marriage was devoid of passion . Yeats ' biographer Alexander Jeffares writes , " she was unselfcentered , unselfish , deeply imaginative and sympathetic and , until she met Yeats , she seems to have accepted the fact of her unhappy loveless marriage " .

Shakespear dissolved his legal partnership in the late 1880s — his partner may have been embezzling from clients ' trusts — and formed his own practice . Harwood writes that Shakespear 's attitude to the situation showed a certain amount of " timidity " on his part and a definite " dislike of scenes " . During this period Olivia moved from socialising with military wives to literary women : Valentine Fox ( unhappily married to a Kent brewer ) and Pearl Craighie , a divorced American writer who published as John Oliver Hobbes .

= = W. B. Yeats = =

= = = Friendship = = =

Accompanied by Pearl Craighie , on 16 April 1894 Olivia attended a literary lunch to launch The Yellow Book . Olivia was seated opposite W. B. Yeats . Recently returned from visiting Maud Gonne in Paris , Yeats was in London for the production of his play The Land of Heart 's Desire . The two were not introduced that evening but Yeats , probably through Lionel Johnson ( who became disruptively drunk at the dinner ) , enquired about the woman seated opposite . Yeats was deeply affected , later writing in his memoirs of the encounter : " I noticed opposite me .... a woman of great beauty ... She was exquisitely dressed ... and suggested to me an incomparable distinction . " Soon after Olivia attended a showing of The Land of Heart 's Desire , and found herself moved by the performance . She wanted to meet the " tall and black haired " poet and asked Johnson to invite Yeats to tea on 10 May 1894 , adding in her handwriting to the invitation , " I shall be so glad to see you " . In his Memoirs Yeats referred to her as " Diana Vernon " , writing , " In this book I cannot giver her real name — Diana Vernon sounds pleasantly in my ears and will suit as well as any other " .

They quickly established a strong friendship , with Olivia listening sympathetically to his obsessive love for Maud . When Yeats later described their friendship , he wrote , " I told her of my love sorrow , indeed it was my obsession , never leaving by day or night " . Writing in The Last Courtly Lover , Gloria Kline suggests Olivia and Yeats began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work . John Unterecker , writing in " Faces and False Faces " , sees friendship as the most important aspect in the relationship , explaining , " she found in Yeats , as he in her , a person who could discuss literature and ideas ... she was one of the few persons with whom he could be completely relaxed " . Comparing the difference between Maud and Olivia he writes , " Maud Gonne offered Yeats subject matter for poetry , the ' interesting ' life he had hoped for , and Olivia Shakespear offered him repose " . According to Kline , Yeats compared Olivia to Diana and Maud to Helen ; he was attracted to dark coloured women , describing Olivia 's skin as " a little darker than a Greek 's would have been and her hair was very dark " . Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes that Yeats ' impression of Olivia was one of a woman with " a profound culture , a knowledge of French , English , and Italian and seemed always at leisure . Her nature was gentle and contemplative , and she was content , it seems , to have no more of life than leisure and the talk of her friends " . Nevertheless she was working on her third novel , Beauty 's Hour , and it is likely that Yeats read the manuscript , suggested revisions , and may have contributed to the characterisations . Kline believes the two began a friendship based on the discussion of literature and his willingness to review her work ; Yeats biographer Foster adds they were drawn together by a mutual interest in the occult . For Yeats , then aged 30 , an important aspect of their friendship was the opportunity it presented for a sexual relationship with a woman , something he had not then experienced .

In August Yeats returned to Ireland , continuing his correspondence with Olivia , writing to her about Maud who had recently given birth to a daughter , Iseult . In her letters Olivia may have been honest about her feelings toward him ; in April 1895 he wrote to her , " I no more complain of your writing of love , than I would complain of a portrait painter keeping to portraits " .

= = = Love affair = = =

Yeats delayed visiting Olivia in London a month later ; he instead tended to Johnson who was involved in the Wilde case and descending into the alcoholism that would kill him . Yeats appeared to have persuaded himself that Olivia and her cousin shared a flaw , writing , " here is the same weakness I thought ... Her beauty ... dark and still , had the nobility of defeated things , and how could it help but wring my heart . I took a fortnight to decide what I should do " . He constructed a plan to reconcile his desire with what he believed to be her wickedness : he would ask that she leave her husband to live with him . Until then their friendship would remain platonic .

Yeats finally visited Olivia at her Porchester Circle home a few weeks later to present his well @-@ thought out intentions but , to his bewilderment , Olivia declared her love for him . Unsure of himself , he took another absence , during which he decided that if Maud was unattainable , or unavailable due to circumstances , he would have Olivia , writing " but after all if I could not get the woman I loved it would be a comfort for a little while to devote myself to another " . For Yeats , Olivia was willing to lose her daughter , financial security , social standing , and the goodwill of her family . Although her husband had grounds to sue Yeats and consequently destroy his reputation , her best hope against complete ruin was Shakespear 's strong dislike of public scenes . Then Yeats lost his nerve again , suggesting instead each seek advice from a friend ( a " sponsor " ) . He probably chose Florence Farr to be his sponsor while Olivia chose Valentine Fox — Harwood speculates that the sponsors advised the two to go ahead with the affair , perhaps to Yeats ' discomfort . On 15 July 1895 , Yeats and Olivia travelled to Kent to visit Valentine Fox ; the trip Harwood says " would have been , emotionally speaking a highly charged outing " . Of the railway trip , Yeats wrote in his memoirs , " when on our first railway journey together — we were to spend the day at Kent — she gave the long passionate kiss of love , I was startled & a little shocked " . They went on to share more passionate kisses in art galleries and at her home .

Still distressed about Lionel , Yeats turned to Arthur Symons for companionship , moving into a room adjacent to his in October 1895 . One day while preoccupied and thinking about Maud he locked himself out for a visit just before Olivia and her sponsor arrived to visit ; as soon as she left he stayed up all night telling Symons about Maud . She arrived in London a few weeks later for a brief visit . Yeats was ambivalent about Olivia despite the advice of the sponsors ; with no money to support her , he suggested she seek a legal separation ( instead of a divorce ) , sparing her social ostracism and financial ruin . Ezra Pound biographer Jay Wilhelm suggests Shakespear knew that Olivia loved Yeats but seemed more concerned about the loss of social status in the event of divorce , causing Yeats and Olivia to decide that " it was kinder to simply deceive him than totally abandon him " . In January 1896 Yeats moved again , into a small flat in Woburn Place , so as to be nearer to her . Finally after a charged bed @-@ buying session , with Yeats describing " an embarrassed conversation upon the width " , and his nervousness preventing them at first from becoming lovers , he eventually wrote in January 1896 , " at last she came to me in my thirtieth year .... and we had many days of happiness " . Yeats ' happiness is apparent in the poems he wrote at that period , and for the duration of their affair , Olivia appears to have acted as a muse to the poet .

Six months later he was in back in Ireland , and in August Olivia was visiting Valentine Fox with her husband where she received news of her father 's death . She left for an extended stay in Torquay where she stayed until September before leaving for a visit to Scotland with her husband . Yeats left Ireland for Paris to visit Maud in November , and did not return to London until January 1897 , with Maud following close behind and arriving in London in February . Yeats wrote of Maud 's visit : " Maud wrote to me ... she was in London & would I come to dine . I dined with her & my trouble increased — she certainly had no thought of the mischief she was doing – & at last one morning .... [ Olivia ] found my mood did not answer hers and & burst into tears — ' There is someone else in your heart ' she said . It was the breaking between us for many years " . The affair ended that spring when Yeats again returned to Ireland . Olivia did not visit him again at Woburn Place for many years , according to Yeats biographer Richard Ellmann .

= = Pembroke Mansions = =

Olivia 's life is not well documented between 1897 and 1908 . It is known that she visited her cousin Lionel for the last time in 1897 before he was isolated by his alcoholism . He died alone of a cerebral haemorrhage in 1902 . In 1899 the family suffered an unspecified financial setback that forced them to move into an apartment in Bayswater to Pembroke Mansions , which a friend described by as " an uninviting Bayswater slum " . A few months later Olivia 's mother died . Within a week Olivia received a letter of condolence from Yeats , which may have been the first letter she received from him in two years , since 1897 . Several scholars and biographers speculate that they resumed their love affair at some point between 1903 and 1910 ; Pound biographer Wilhelm believes they reconciled as early as 1903 , while Yeats biographers Jeffares and Ross suggest the affair likely reignited for a period in 1906 .

For a short time in 1901 Olivia held a position as a book reviewer for The Kensington Review , a small literary magazine , until it succumbed to poor sales . After , she dabbled in the occult and became friendly with prominent London occultists . In 1902 she co @-@ wrote with Florence Farr — who for a time led the Order of Golden Dawn — two plays on the occult , The Beloved of Hathor and The Shrine of the Golden Hawk , which were subsequently published as a pair .

Although the family received an inheritance from Olivia 's mother , they continued to live in Bayswater . For a period Dorothy was at boarding school , after which she was sent to a finishing school in Geneva . To save money , the family often left London during the summer , to take long visits to relatives in the country , in particular her brother Henry Tucker . Not until 1905 did the family lease a house in Brunswick Gardens , near Kensington Palace , when Dorothy returned home to live with her parents .

= = Dorothy and Ezra Pound = =

Records of Olivia 's life resume through Dorothy 's letters and diaries surrounding the arrival of the American poet Ezra Pound in London in 1909 . Following her friends in Kensington society , Olivia opened her home once a week for a salon , beginning an important period in her life . When Yeats returned to London that year , Olivia became the centre of a blossoming literary movement . Yeats held a Monday evening salon ; those who attended usually also visited Olivia 's . She hosted , and became a nexus for , much of the pre @-@ war literary activity in London . Notable attendees included Pound , H.D. ( Hilda Doolitle ) , Yeats , Wyndham Lewis , Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska , Walter Morse Rummel , Richard Aldington , William Carlos Williams , T. E. Hulme and John Cournos . The gatherings were held in her drawing room , a place Pound described in a letter as " full of white magic " . Olivia was by now a well @-@ known occultist and hosted séances in her drawing room . She became well @-@ versed in astrology and palmistry , passing on what she knew to Dorothy who shared her interest . Both read grimoires ; Olivia was an expert at " drawing occult symbols " and quite familiar with the symbology of the occult .

Olivia met Pound in January 1909 at a Kensington salon hosted by a friend ; she invited him for tea on 16 February 1909 , and at his insistence introduced Pound to Yeats in May 1909 . Yeats had recently returned to London and began a thorough investigation of spiritualism and the occult , turning to Olivia for advice . She took the young American poet to Yeats ' rooms at Woburn Place , fostering their relationship .

Dorothy soon fell in love with Pound . In late 1909 and early 1910 Olivia and Dorothy attended his lectures at the London Polytechnic Institution ; in June 1910 they joined him in Sirmione , Italy . For reasons unclear to biographers Olivia forbade the two from writing to each other during his extended visit to New York from 1910 to 1911 . Despite the restriction Dorothy seems to have considered herself engaged to Pound , although uncertain whether he intended to stay in New York or return to London .

In 1910 Yeats thought his horoscope suggested a return to Olivia ; he distanced himself from Maud and in June began to see Olivia more frequently . Pound was fond of Olivia , which may have caused Yeats some jealousy as when , for example , Pound met the two at the theatre and took them afterward to tea — an occasion when Yeats was extremely rude to Pound . A year later , Olivia introduced Yeats to Georgie Hyde @-@ Lees , her 18 @-@ year @-@ old step @-@ niece and Dorothy 's best friend , whom Yeats eventually married .

Pound returned from America in 1911 and resumed his visits to Olivia and Dorothy , adhering to Olivia 's restrictions . That October Pound formally asked to marry Dorothy ; her father refused on the basis of Pound 's meagre income . Neither Dorothy nor Pound gave up : he again asked for permission to marry her in March 1912 but was again rejected . In Dorothy 's mind they continued to be engaged , although they were only allowed short visits in the Family drawing room once a week or every two weeks .

Olivia became concerned about her daughter after Hilda Doolittle , who also believed she was engaged to Pound , arrived in London in 1911 . Olivia welcomed H.D. to her home , but she witnessed the interactions between Dorothy , Pound , H.D. and Richard Aldington , whom H.D. married in 1913 . In September 1912 Olivia wrote a stern letter to Pound , in which she pointedly told him to break off his friendship with Dorothy :

You told me you were prepared to see less of Dorothy this winter . I don 't know if you wd rather leave it to me to say I don 't think it advisable she should see so much of you etc. or whether you wd rather do it in your own way .... I don 't know if she still considers herself engaged to you — but she obviously can 't marry you — it 's hardly decent ! There 's another point too — which is the personal inconvenience & bother to myself — I had all last winter , practically to keep 2 days a week for you to come & see her ... She must marry — She & I can 't possibly go on living this feminine life practically à deux for ever , & we haven 't money enough to separate ... You ought to go away — Englishmen don 't understand yr American ways , & any man who wanted to marry her wd be put off by the fact of yr friendship ( or whatever you call it ) with her . If you had ₤ 500 a year I should be delighted for you to marry her !

In 1913 , Olivia introduced Pound to vorticist sculptor Henri Gaudier @-@ Brzeska at an art exhibition at the Albert Hall . At the same exhibition the sculptor met Nina Hamnett , whom he subsequently used as a model for a series of nudes bronzes , one of which Olivia bought . In 1914 Olivia translated a grimoire for Yeats and Pound , who spent November 1913 to January 1914 in the countryside at Stone Cottage in Ashdown Forest — Pound acting as secretary to Yeats — researching the occult . They read several grimoires , and Olivia provided for them a translation of the Abbot of Villar 's 1670 grimoire Le Comte de Gabalis . Her translation was serialised in the literary magazine The Egoist later that year .

By 1914 Olivia seems to have realised that Dorothy was determined to marry Pound , and finally consented ; ironically Pound was then earning less than he had in 1911 . Hope Shakespear relented when the couple agreed to a church wedding rather than a civil ceremony , which took place on 20 April 1914 . Olivia gave them two early circus drawings by Pablo Picasso .

= = Later life and death = =

After Dorothy 's wedding much of the documentation of Olivia 's life ceases . She moved out of Brunswick Gardens in 1924 , throwing away personal correspondence and giving away hundreds of books . Hope Shakespear died on 5 July 1923 ; within months Olivia moved to an apartment in West Kensington , taking with her two maids who had been with the family for decades . Her life continued unchanged , filled with social events . In September 1926 , Dorothy gave birth to a son , Omar Pound , who in 1927 was brought from France to be raised in England . Olivia became his guardian and Dorothy spent summers with her mother and son .

In 1926 Yeats spent several weeks in London , likely visiting Olivia frequently . He showed regret for his behaviour in 1897 , writing to her , " I came across two early photographs of you yesterday ... Who ever had a like profile ? — a profile from a Sicilian coin . One looks back to one 's youth as to a cup that a mad man dying of thirst left half tasted . I wonder if you feel like that ? " The two maintained their correspondence , as they had for many years .

Olivia continued to socialise and had many friends , one of whom , Wyndham Lewis , painted her portrait ; he enjoyed her company despite finding it difficult to relate to others . She stopped writing but remained an avid reader , turning to detective stories for light relief although she also kept up with literary authors . She became friendly with Thomas MacGreevy , whom she invited for tea , later writing to him , " WBY has given me the new edition of Reveries and the Veil , & I am re @-@ reading it all . It is very beautifully done . He was about 29 when I first knew him " . McGreevy told Yeats that Olivia was " always a symbol of elegance , a kind of gold and ivory image " . Harwood writes of her , " Olivia Shakespear was avant @-@ garde in literature , agnostic in religion , and conservative in politics , at least later in life " .

Olivia 's correspondence with Pound continued throughout the 1920s and 1930s , when she acted in part as his agent in London . In 1924 , at Pound 's request , she welcomed George Antheil into her social circle , procured artwork and books that were sent on to Dorothy and Ezra in Rapallo , and mediated in a dispute between Pound and Lewis . She was uninterested in Pound 's politics and economic views and particularly disliked his later Cantos . After her husband 's death , Olivia 's income was sufficient to support a comfortable lifestyle . During the 1920s and 1930s she gradually increased Dorothy 's income ( which was also increased by various family bequests ) , and in the 1930s she made investments in Dorothy 's name , sending the proceeds to Dorothy and Pound . In a very real sense , according to Harwood , Olivia Shakespear is the " unsung heroine " of the modernist period , because much of the money Ezra Pound generously used to support struggling writers such as T.S. Eliot and James Joyce came from her .

Olivia died of complications brought on by gall bladder disease on 3 October 1938 . The day before her death she wrote in a letter to Dorothy : " On Monday I was taken suddenly ill with gall bladder trouble — awful pain — sent for Doctor Barnes — he gave me dope & an injection and pain gradually went ... He says I am going on all right , but of course I feel rather a wreck " . She died the following day of a heart attack . John Unterecker believes Olivia 's death shattered Yeats , who died only months later , because she added warmth to his life . Yeats wrote of her death :

Olivia Shakespear has died suddenly . For more than forty years she has been the centre of my life in London and during all that time we have never had a quarrel , sadness sometimes but never a difference . When I first met her she was in her late twenties but in looks a lovely young girl . When she died she was a lovely old woman ... She came of a long line of soldiers and during the last war thought it her duty to stay in London through all the air raids . She was not more lovely than distinguished — no matter what happened she never lost her solitude ... For the moment I cannot bear the thought of London . I will find her memory everywhere .

Dorothy was ill when her mother died , unable to travel to London . She sent Pound to organise the funeral and to clear out the house . Ezra sorted through Olivia 's correspondence and returned to Yeats many of her letters . Unterecker writes that Yeats made an effort to keep the correspondence private : " Shortly before his death he methodically destroyed a large group of letters to Olivia Shakespear . These , returned to him after her death ... Yeats wanted no one to read " .

= = Novels : description and reception = =

Olivia had six novels published between 1894 and 1910 , which as described by Foster are about women unhappy in love , with insipid and uninspiring male characters . The heroines — frequently orphaned , educated by elderly tutors , and depicted in country house libraries — fall in love with much older men in the later novels .

The first two novels were published in 1894 to mixed reviews . Love on a Mortal Lease ( title from George Meredith ) was released in June , followed in November by The Journey of High Honour , at 30 @,@ 000 words considerably shorter than the 355 pages of Love on a Mortal Lease . Each novel sold only a few hundred copies . Harwood describes the early work such as Love on a Mortal Lease as showing stylistic similarities to contemporary women novelists such as Craighie and Rhonda Broughton , with witty dialogue in Craighie 's style , although he thinks Olivia brought a more serious voice to her work . He describes Love on a Mortal Lease as a work in which the heroine is well @-@ characterised but the background is weak .

She dedicated The False Laurel , published in 1896 , to Lionel Johnson . The plot features a poetess who falls in love with and marries an insipid young poet , giving up her own writing to attend to his needs . She becomes bored , writes a successful play , and then goes mad . The False Laurel was the least successful of her books , selling fewer than 200 copies . It received a poor review from The Bookman but a good one from The Athenaeneum .

Rupert Armstrong was published in 1899 by Harper and Brothers , dedicated to Valentine Fox . In this , the fourth of her novels , Harwood believes her writing and voice became more original . The complicated plot — a mother and daughter struggle for " possession of the [ father 's ] artistic soul " — shows hints of incestuous love , a theme found in her later work . Written during the affair with Yeats , Harwood sees the characters presented " in a precise , bitter intensity unlike anything in the earlier work " .

The Devotees was published by Heinemann in December 1900 . Like Rupert Armstrong , the plot of The Devotees depicts a mildly incestuous love : a young man and girl , raised together since childhood , devote themselves for decades to his drug @-@ addicted mother before they marry . The reviews were mostly unkind .

Olivia 's final novel , Uncle Hilary , was published in 1910 and is considered her best work . Of Uncle Hilary Jane Eldridge Miller writes in Rebel Women : Feminism , Modernism , and the Edwardian Novel , " Shakespear demonstrates the ways in which that ideal leads to disillusionment and resentment " . In the complicated plot a young woman unwittingly marries her stepfather , leaves him , and accepts a marriage proposal from her guardian . Harwood believes her loveless marriage , the love affair with Yeats , the frustration with Dorothy , and Pound 's unfaithfulness to Dorothy , built in her a strength and acceptance of life that bordered on the spiritual and she no longer needed to write . Miller writes that in the novel Olivia explores " marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy " , with a focus on the nature of romantic love — rejected in favour of spiritual and intellectual pursuits . Leon Surette writes in The Birth of Modernism , Olivia 's Uncle Hilary highlights the ties between spiritualism , occultism and feminism , seeing Uncle Hilary as a feminist novel which he describes as " quite readable " .

Jane Miller characterises the works as " marriage problem " novels in which the wife confronts the reality of marriage , its restrictions , and the need to achieve independence . By finding interests outside marriage the wife loses the overwhelming need for love within the marriage . Miller writes that in Uncle Hilary Olivia examines issues such as marriage laws , divorce , and bigamy , while focusing on the nature of romantic love . It was in Uncle Hilary that Olivia wrote of love : " Love is the worst slavery that exists ... it is the most persistent of illusions " .

= = List of works = =

Novels

Love on a Mortal Lease ( 1894 )

Beauty 's Hour ( 1894 )

The Journey of High Honour ( 1894 )

The False Laurel ( 1896 )

Rupert Armstrong ( 1898 )

The Devotees ( 1904 )

Uncle Hilary ( 1909 )

Plays

The Beloved of Hathor ( 1902 )

The Shrine of the Golden Hawk ( 1902 )

= Coelurus =

Coelurus ( / sᵻˈljʊərəs / si @-@ LEWR @-@ əs ) is a genus of coelurosaurian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic period ( mid @-@ late Kimmeridgian faunal stage , 153 – 150 million years ago ) . The name means " hollow tail " , referring to its hollow tail vertebrae ( Greek κοιλος , koilos

= hollow + ουρα , oura =

tail ) . Although its name is linked to one of the main divisions of theropods ( Coelurosauria ) , it has historically been poorly understood , and sometimes confused with its better @-@ known contemporary Ornitholestes . Like many dinosaurs studied in the early years of paleontology , it has had a confusing taxonomic history , with several species being named and later transferred to other genera or abandoned . Only one species is currently recognized as valid : the type species , C. fragilis , described by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1879 . It is known from one partial skeleton found in the Morrison Formation of Wyoming , United States . It was a small bipedal carnivore with elongate legs .

= = Description = =

Coelurus is known from most of the skeleton of a single individual , including numerous vertebrae , partial pelvic and shoulder girdles , and much of the arms and legs , stored at the Peabody Museum of Natural History ; however , the relative completeness of the skeleton was not known until 1980 . The fossils were recovered from Reed 's Quarry 13 at Como Bluff , Wyoming . Additionally , two arm bones possibly belonging to this genus are known from the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah . It was not a large dinosaur . Its weight has been estimated at around 13 to 20 kilograms ( 29 to 44 lb ) , with a length of about 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) and a hip height of 0 @.@ 7 meters ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) . From reconstructions of the skeleton , Coelurus had a relatively long neck and torso due to its long vertebrae , a long slender hindlimb due to its long metatarsus , and potentially a small slender skull .

The skull is unknown except for possibly a portion of lower jaw found at the same site as the rest of the known Coelurus material . Although it has the same preservation and coloring as the fossils known to belong to the Coelurus skeleton , it is very slender , which may mean it does not belong to the skeleton ; this bone is 7 @.@ 9 centimeters long ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) but only 1 @.@ 1 centimeters tall ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) . In general , its vertebrae were long and low , with low neural spines and thin walls to the bodies of the vertebrae . Its neck vertebrae were very pneumatic , with numerous hollow spaces on their surfaces ( pleurocoels ) ; these hollows were not evenly distributed among the vertebrae and varied in size . The neck vertebrae were very elongate , with bodies four times longer than wide , and they articulated with concave faces on both ends ( amphicoely ) . The back vertebrae were not as elongate , lacked surface hollows , and had less developed concave faces and bodies that were hourglass @-@ shaped . The tail vertebrae also lacked surface hollows .

The only bone known from the shoulder girdle is a fragment of scapula . The upper arm had a distinct S @-@ shaped curve in side view and was slightly longer than the forearm ( 11 @.@ 9 centimeters [ 4 @.@ 7 in ] versus 9 @.@ 6 centimeters [ 3 @.@ 8 in ] ) . The wrist had a semilunate carpal † similar to that of Deinonychus , and the fingers were long and slender . The only bone known from the pelvic girdle is paired and fused pubis bones , which had a prominent , long " foot " at the end . The thigh bones had an S @-@ shape when viewed from the front . The metatarsals were unusually long and slender , nearly the length of the thigh bones ( the best preserved thigh bone is about 21 centimeters long [ 8 @.@ 3 in ] ) .

= = = Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus = = =

The three best @-@ known small theropods of the Morrison Formation — Coelurus , Ornitholestes , and Tanycolagreus — were generalized coelurosaurs , and they have been mistaken for each other at various times . Now that Coelurus and Ornitholestes have been more fully described , it is possible to distinguish them by various characteristics of their anatomy . For example , they had visibly different proportions : Coelurus had a longer back and neck than Ornitholestes , and longer , more slender legs and feet . Coelurus and Tanycolagreus are more similar , but differ in a variety of details . Such details include the shape of the upper arm , forearm , and thigh bones ; the location of muscle attachments on the thigh bone , proportionally longer back vertebrae ; and , again , the very long metatarsus of Coelurus .

= = Classification = =

Since the growth of phylogenetic studies in the 1980s , Coelurus has usually been found to be a coelurosaurian of uncertain affinities , not fitting with the better @-@ known clades of the Cretaceous . Along with several other generalized coelurosaurians such as the compsognathids , Ornitholestes , and Proceratosaurus , it has had multiple placements around the base of Coelurosauria . The phylogenetic analysis conducted by Rauhut ( 2003 ) and Smith et al . ( 2007 ) found that Coelurus was more closely related to compsognathids than to other coelurosaurs . Oliver Rauhut ( 2003 ) proposed that Coeluridae was composed of Coelurus plus the compsognathids , but he and others have not since found the compsognathids to group with Coelurus . However , a work published by Phil Senter in 2007 following the description of Tanycolagreus found it and Coelurus to be closely related at the base of Tyrannosauroidea . Senter proposed that Coelurus and Tanycolagreus were the only coelurids and were actually tyrannosauroids , but the phylogenetic analysis of Turner et al . ( 2007b ) found that Coelurus was a basal coelurosaur , although more derived than the tyrannosaurids . Zanno in 2010 recovered Coelurus as a basal maniraptoran . Coelurus is sometimes put into its own family , Coeluridae , although the membership of the family has not been stable .

Before the use of phylogenetic analyses , Coeluridae and Coelurosauria were taxonomic wastebaskets used for small theropods that did not belong to other groups ; thus , they accumulated many dubious genera . As late as the 1980s , popular books recognized over a dozen " coelurids " , including such disparate forms as the noasaurid Laevisuchus and the oviraptorosaurian Microvenator , and considered them descendants of the coelophysids . A wastebasket Coeluridae lingered into the early 1990s in some sources ( and appears in at least one 2006 source ) but since then it has only been recognized in a much reduced form . Coeluridae received a formal phylogenetic definition in 2015 , when it was defined as all species more closely related to Coelurus fragilis than to Proceratosaurus bradleyi , Tyrannosaurus rex , Allosaurus fragilis , Compsognathus longipes , Ornithomimus edmontonicus , or Deinonychus antirrhopus by Hendrickx , Hartman and Mateus . It remains unclear whether or not this group contains any species other than Coelurus itself , and while Tanycolagreus is often included , support for this relationship has been weak in most of the studies that recovered it .

Below is a cladogram placing Coelurus in Coelurosauria by Cau et al. in 2015 .

= = History = =

Coelurus was described in 1879 by Othniel Charles Marsh , an American paleontologist and naturalist known for his " Bone Wars " with Edward Drinker Cope . At the time , he only described what he interpreted as vertebrae from the back and tail , found at the same location as the type specimen of his new genus and species Camptonotus dispar ( later renamed Camptosaurus because Camptonotus was already in use for a cricket ) . Marsh was impressed with the hollow interiors of the thin @-@ walled vertebrae , a characteristic that gave the type species its name : Coelurus fragilis . He thought of his new genus as an " animal about as large as a wolf , and probably carnivorous " . Coelurus would prove to be the first named small theropod from the Morrison Formation , although at the time Marsh was not certain that it was a dinosaur . He returned to it in 1881 and provided illustrations of some bones , along with putting it in a new order ( Coeluria ) and family ( Coeluridae ) .

From there , the story becomes more complex . Apparently , the skeleton was scattered throughout the quarry , with the remains being recovered from September 1879 to September 1880 . Marsh elected to place some of the material in a new species , C. agilis , on the strength of a pair of fused pubic bones he thought belonged to an animal three times the size of C. fragilis . He returned to the genus in 1888 to add C " . gracilis , based on unknown remains only represented today by a single claw bone pertaining to a small theropod from the Early Cretaceous Arundel Formation of Maryland . This species is not currently accepted as representing Coelurus in reviews of the genus , but has not been given its own genus .

Despite their professional animosity , Cope also assigned species to Coelurus ; in 1887 , he named fossils from the Late Triassic of New Mexico as C. bauri and C. longicollis . He later gave them their own genus , Coelophysis .

In 1903 , Henry Fairfield Osborn named a second genus of small theropod from the Morrison Formation , Ornitholestes . This genus was based on a partial skeleton from Bone Cabin Quarry , north of Como Bluff . Ornitholestes became intertwined with Coelurus in 1920 , when Charles Gilmore , in his influential study of theropod dinosaurs , concluded that the two were synonyms . This was followed in the literature for decades . The two genera were not formally compared , however , nor was there a full accounting of what actually belonged to Coelurus , until John Ostrom 's study in 1980 .

Gilmore had suspected that C. fragilis and C. agilis were the same , but Ostrom was able to demonstrate this synonymy . This greatly expanded the known material pertaining to C. fragilis , and Ostrom was able to demonstrate that Ornitholestes was quite different from Coelurus . At the time , Dale Russell had proposed that C. agilis was a species of Elaphrosaurus based on the incomplete information then published ; Ostrom was also able to demonstrate that this was not the case . Additionally , he showed that one of the three vertebrae Marsh had illustrated for C. fragilis was actually a composite of two vertebrae , one of which was later shown to come from another quarry and belonged not to Coelurus but to another , unnamed small theropod . This unnamed genus would not be the last small theropod from the Morrison Formation to be confused with Coelurus ; a later discovery ( 1995 ) of a partial skeleton in Wyoming was first thought to be a new larger specimen of Coelurus , but further study showed it belonged to a different but related genus , Tanycolagreus .

= = = Species = = =

Only one species of Coelurus , the type species C. fragilis , is still recognized as valid today , although six other species have been named over the years . C. agilis , as discussed , was named by Marsh in 1884 for what turned out to be additional parts of the skeleton of C. fragilis . Cope 's C. bauri and C. longicollis , named in 1887 from Late Triassic fossils from New Mexico , were transferred by Cope in 1889 to his new genus Coelophysis . C. daviesi was named by Richard Lydekker in 1888 for Harry Seeley 's Thecospondylus daviesi , a neck vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of England , but this species was later transferred to its own genus , Thecocoelurus . C. gracilis , another Early Cretaceous species , was also named in 1888 . It was coined by Marsh for what seems to be an assortment of limb remains , but Gilmore could only find a single claw when he reviewed the species in 1920 . This species has been proposed as outside Coelurus since the 1920s ( when Gilmore assigned it to Chirostenotes ) , and has been regarded as a dubious species outside of Coelurus in recent reviews . Finally , during the period when Ornitholestes was thought to be the same as Coelurus , its type species was recognized as distinct by Steel , as C. hermanni .

= = Paleobiology and paleoecology = =

= = = Provenance and occurrence = = =

The type specimen of Coelurus agilis , YPM 2010 ( now considered a synonym of Coelurus fragilis ) was recovered in the Brushy Basin member of the Morrison Formation , in Albany County , Wyoming . The specimen was collected by Reed in gray sandstone and brown / green claystone that were deposited during the Kimmeridgian stage of the Jurassic period , approximately 157 to 152 million years ago . This specimen is housed in the collection of the Yale Peabody Museum in New Haven , Connecticut .

= = = Fauna and habitat = = =

The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons , and flat floodplains . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of conifers , tree ferns , and ferns , to fern savannas with rare trees . It has been a rich fossil hunting ground , holding fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , ferns , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Other fossils discovered include bivalves , snails , ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles such as Uluops , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans like Fruitachampsa , several species of pterosaur like Kepodactylus , numerous dinosaur species , and early mammals such as docodonts , multituberculates , symmetrodonts , and triconodonts . Such dinosaurs as the theropods Ceratosaurus , Allosaurus , Ornitholestes , and Torvosaurus , the sauropods Apatosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus , and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Hesperosaurus , Drinker , Fruitadens , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus are known from the Morrison . Coelurus is regarded as a small terrestrial carnivore , feeding on small prey items like insects , mammals , and lizards . It is thought to have been a fast animal , certainly faster than the similar but shorter @-@ footed Ornitholestes . Coelurus is present in stratigraphic zones 2 and 5 of the Morrison Formation .

= Adam Gilchrist =

Adam Craig Gilchrist , AM ( / ˈɡɪlkrɪst / ; born 14 November 1971 ) , nicknamed " Gilly " or " Churchy " , is a former Australian cricketer and one of the most explosive batsmen in world cricket . He was the captain of Australia , and Middlesex . He is an attacking left @-@ handed batsman and record @-@ breaking wicket @-@ keeper , who redefined the role for the Australia national cricket team through his aggressive batting . He is widely regarded as the greatest wicket @-@ keeper – batsman in the history of the game . He held the world record for the most dismissals by a wicket @-@ keeper in One Day International ( ODI ) cricket until it was surpassed by Kumar Sangakkara in 2015 and the most by an Australian in Test cricket . His strike rate is amongst the highest in the history of both ODI and Test cricket ; his century against England at Perth in December 2006 is the fourth @-@ fastest century in all Test cricket . He is the first player to have hit 100 sixes in Test cricket . His 17 Test and 16 ODI centuries are the second most by a wicket @-@ keeper , only after Kumar Sangakkara . He holds the unique record of scoring at least 50 runs in successive World Cup finals ( in 1999 , 2003 and 2007 ) . His swashbuckling 149 off 104 balls against Sri Lanka in the 2007 World Cup final is rated one of the greatest World Cup innings of all time . He is one of only three players to have won three titles . Adam Gilchrist is also the first player to reach 1000 runs in the Indian Premier League . Gilchrist is renowned for walking when he considers himself to be out , sometimes contrary to the decision of the umpire . He made his first @-@ class debut in 1992 , his first One @-@ Day International appearance in 1996 in India and his Test debut in 1999 . During his career , he played for Australia in 96 Test matches and over 270 One @-@ day internationals . He was Australia 's vice @-@ captain in both forms of the game , captaining the team when regular captains Steve Waugh and Ricky Ponting were unavailable . He retired from international cricket in March 2008 .

In March 2013 , he announced that he would join the Caribbean Premier League , a Twenty20 tournament in the West Indies in July along with teammate Ricky Ponting .

= = Early and personal life = =

Adam Gilchrist was born in 1971 at Bellingen Hospital , in Bellingen , New South Wales , the youngest of four children . He and his family lived in Dorrigo , Junee and then Deniliquin where , playing for his school , Deniliquin South Public School , he won the Brian Taber Shield ( named after New South Wales cricketer Brian Taber ) . At the age of 13 , his parents , Stan and June , moved the family to Lismore where Gilchrist captained the Kadina High School cricket team . Gilchrist was selected for the state under @-@ 17 team , and in 1989 he was offered a scholarship by London @-@ based Richmond Cricket Club , a scheme he now supports himself . During his year at Richmond , he also played junior cricket for Old Actonians Cricket Club 's under 17 team , with whom he won the Middlesex League and Cup double . He moved to Sydney and joined the Gordon Club in Sydney Grade Cricket , later moving to Northern Districts .

Gilchrist is married to his high school sweetheart Melinda ( Mel ) Gilchrist ( née Sharpe ) , a dietitian , and they have three sons , Harrison , Archie and Ted , and a daughter , Annie Jean . His family came under the spotlight in the months leading up to the 2007 Cricket World Cup as Archie 's impending birth threatened his presence in the squad ; Archie was born in February and Gilchrist was able to take part in the tournament .

= = Domestic career = =

In 1991 , Gilchrist was selected for the Australia Young Cricketers , a national youth team that toured England and played in youth ODIs and Tests . Gilchrist scored a century and a fifty in the three Tests . Upon his return to Australia late in the year , Gilchrist was accepted into the Australian Cricket Academy . Over the next year , Gilchrist represented the ACA as they played matches against the Second XI of Australia 's state teams , and toured South Africa to play provincial youth teams .

Upon returning to Australia , Gilchrist scored two centuries in four matches for the state Colts and Second XI teams , and was rewarded with selection to make his first @-@ class debut for New South Wales during the 1992 – 93 season , although he played purely as a batsman , due to the presence of incumbent wicketkeeper Phil Emery . In his first season , the side won the Sheffield Shield , Gilchrist scoring an unbeaten 20 in the second innings to secure an easy win over Queensland in the final . Gilchrist made 274 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 44 in his debut season , a score of 75 being his only effort beyond fifty . He also made his debut in Mercantile Mutual limited overs competition . He struggled to keep his place in the side , playing only three first @-@ class matches in the following season . He scored on 43 runs at 8 @.@ 60 ; New South Wales won both competitions , but Gilchrist was overlooked for both finals and did not play a single limited overs match .

Due to a lack of opportunities in the dominant New South Wales outfit , Gilchrist joined Western Australia at the start of the 1994 – 95 , where he had to compete with former Test player Tim Zoehrer for the wicket @-@ keeper 's berth . Gilchrist had no guarantee of selection . However , he made a century in a pre @-@ season trial match and seized Zoehrer 's place . The local fans were initially hostile to the move , but Gilchrist won them over . He made 55 first @-@ class dismissals in his first season , the most by any wicketkeeper in Australian domestic cricket in 1994 – 95 . However , he struggled with the bat , scoring 398 runs at 26 @.@ 53 with seven single figure scores , although he recorded his maiden first @-@ class century in the latter stages of the season , with 126 against South Australia . Gilchrist was rewarded with selection in the Young Australia team that toured England in 1995 and played matches against the English counties . Gilchrist starred with bat , scoring 490 runs at 70 @.@ 00 with two centuries . His second season based in Perth saw him top of the dismissals again , with 58 catches and four stumpings , but , significantly , 835 runs at an impressive batting average of 50 @.@ 52 . The Warriors made it to the final of the Sheffield Shield , at the Adelaide Oval , where Gilchrist scored 189 not out in the first innings , from only 187 balls , including five sixes . The innings brought Gilchrist national prominence . The match ended in a thrilling draw as South Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair held on to fend off the visitors . The hosts thus took the title , having scored more points in the qualifying matches . Gilchrist also scored an unbeaten 76 to help Western Australia secure a narrow three @-@ wicket victory over New South Wales in the penultimate limited overs match of the season , which saw them into the final against Queensland , which was lost . Gilchrist 's form saw him selected for Australia A , a team comprising players close to national selection . At the start of the 1996 – 97 season , sections of the media advocated that he replace Ian Healy as the national wicket @-@ keeper , but Healy struck 161 in the First Test and maintained his position . Gilchrist continued to perform strongly on the domestic circuit he topped the dismissals count once again , with 62 , along with a batting average of just under 40 , although he failed to post a century . Team success came in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , where the Warriors won by eight wickets against Queensland in the March 1997 final ; Gilchrist was not required to bat .

The 1997 – 98 season ended with Gilchrist top of the dismissals chart for the fourth season in a row with an improved batting average of 47 @.@ 66 , despite playing in only six of the ten qualifying Shield matches due to his becoming a regular member of the national limited overs team . Gilchrist registered his maiden – first @-@ class double century with an unbeaten 203 against South Australia early in the season , before returning late in the season after his international commitments were over . He added 109 against Victoria , and played in the Sheffield Shield final victory over Tasmania , although he scored only eight . There was disappointment for the team in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , losing the semi @-@ final to Queensland . The following season saw Gilchrist 's domestic appearances diminish due to his international commitments : he made only a single appearance in the Mercantile Mutual Cup , but still managed to help Western Australia defend the Sheffield Shield , scoring a century in the qualifying rounds .

Gilchrist 's regular selection for Australia has meant that he is rarely available for domestic selection . He became the Test wicket @-@ keeper in late @-@ 1999 , and between 1999 and 2005 , he made only seven first @-@ class appearances for his state . He did not play in the 2005 – 06 Pura Cup and only appeared three times in the limited @-@ overs ING Cup .

= = International career = =

= = = Early one @-@ day seasons = = =

Gilchrist was called up for the Australian One Day International ( ODI ) team in 1996 , his debut coming against South Africa at Faridabad on 25 October 1996 as the 129th Australian ODI cap , after an injury to incumbent Ian Healy . While not particularly impressive with the bat on his debut , scoring 18 before being bowled by Allan Donald , Gilchrist took his first catch as an international wicketkeeper , Hansie Cronje departing for a golden duck from the bowling of Paul Reiffel . He was run out for a duck in his only other ODI on the tour . Healy resumed his place during the 1996 – 97 season . Gilchrist replaced Healy for the first two ODIs in the 1997 Australian tour of South Africa , after Healy was suspended for dissent . When Healy returned Gilchrist maintained his position in the team as a specialist batsman after Mark Waugh sustained a hand injury . It was during this series that Gilchrist made his first ODI half @-@ century , with an innings of 77 in Durban . He totalled 127 runs at 31 @.@ 75 for the series . Gilchrist went on to play in the Texaco Trophy later in 1997 in the 3 – 0 series loss against England , scoring 53 and 33 in two innings .

At the start of the 1997 – 98 Australian season , Healy and captain Mark Taylor were omitted from the ODI squad as the Australian selectors opted for Gilchrist and Michael di Venuto . Gilchrist 's elevation was made possible by a change in policy by selectors , who announced that selection for ODI and Test teams would be separate , with Test and ODI specialists selected accordingly , while Healy remained the preferred Test wicket @-@ keeper . This came after Australia failed to qualify for the previous season 's ODI triangular series final for the first time in 17 years . The new team was initially unconvincing , losing all four round robin matches against South Africa in the 1997 – 98 Carlton & United Series , with multiple players filling Taylor 's role as Mark Waugh 's opening partner without success . Gilchrist also struggled batting in the lower order at number seven , the conventional wicket @-@ keeper 's batting position , scoring 148 runs at 24 @.@ 66 in the eight qualifying matches . In the first final against South Africa at the Melbourne Cricket Ground Gilchrist was selected as Waugh 's opening partner . In a particularly poor start to the new combination , Waugh was run out after a mix @-@ up with Gilchrist . However , in the second final , Gilchrist struck his maiden ODI century , spearheading Australia 's successful run chase at the Sydney Cricket Ground , securing his position as an opening batsman . Australia won the third final to claim the title .

Touring New Zealand in February 1998 , Gilchrist topped that Australia averages with 200 runs at 50 @.@ 00 , including a match @-@ winning 118 in the first match . He also effected his first ODI stumping , the wicket of Nathan Astle in the Second ODI in Wellington . Australia then played two triangular tournaments in Asia . Gilchrist struggled in India , scoring 86 runs at 17 @.@ 20 . He went on to play in the Coca Cola Cup in Sharjah in April 1998 , a triangular tournament between Australia , India and New Zealand . Australia finished runners @-@ up in the tournament , with Gilchrist taking nine dismissals as wicketkeeper and averaging 37 @.@ 13 with the bat .

Gilchrist won a silver medal at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur , the only time cricket has been in the Commonwealth Games . The matches did not have ODI status , and after winning their first four fixtures , Australia lost the final to South Africa , Gilchrist making 15 . He then scored 103 and ended with 190 runs at 63 @.@ 33 as Australia took a rare 3 – 0 whitewash on Pakistani soil .

Gilchrist was in fine form ahead of the 1999 Cricket World Cup with a productive individual performance in the Carlton & United Series in January and February 1999 against Sri Lanka and England . He finished with 525 runs at a batting average of 43 @.@ 75 with two centuries — both against Sri Lanka — and a fifty , and a total of 27 dismissals in 12 matches . His 131 helped Australia set a successful run @-@ chase at the SCG , and he followed this with 154 at the MCG . The 1999 tour of the West Indies was Australia 's last campaign before the World Cup and continued to prove Gilchrist 's ability as a wicketkeeper @-@ batsman . Gilchrist , with a batting average of 28 @.@ 71 and a strike rate of nearly 90 @.@ 00 , and seven fielding dismissals in a seven @-@ match series which ended 3 – 3 with one tie .

= = = First World Cup success = = =

Gilchrist played in every match of Australia 's successful World Cup campaign , but struggled at first , with scores of 6 , 14 and 0 in the first three matches against Scotland , New Zealand and Pakistan . Australia lost the latter two matches and had to avoid defeat for six consecutive matches to reach the final . Gilchrist 's quick @-@ fire 63 runs in 39 balls against Bangladesh helped the Australians into the Super Six stage of the tournament , which was secured with a win over the West Indies , although Gilchrist made only 21 . Gilchrist continued to struggle in the Super Six phase , scoring 31 , 10 and 5 against India , Zimbabwe and South Africa . Australia won all three matches , the last in the final over , to scrape into the semifinals . Gilchrist made only 20 in the semifinal against South Africa , but completed the final act of the match . With the scores tied , South Africa were going for the winning run when Gilchrist broke the stumps to complete the run out of Allan Donald ; the match was tied , and Australia proceeded to the final as they had won the group stage match against South Africa . Gilchrist 's 54 in the final helped secure Australia 's first world title since 1987 with an eight wicket victory over Pakistan . It was a happy ending for Gilchrist , who had struggled through the tournament , with 237 runs at 21 @.@ 54 .

Success at the World Cup was followed by a defeat by Sri Lanka in the final of the Aiwa Cup in August 1999 , . Gilchrist was the most successful batsman and wicket @-@ keeper of the tournament , with 231 runs at 46 @.@ 20 . While the Test players battled against Sri Lanka , Gilchrist led Australia A in a limited overs series against India A in Los Angeles . He then scored 60 runs at 20 @.@ 00 as the Australians completed a 3 – 0 whitewash of Zimbabwe in October .

= = = Test debut = = =

Gilchrist made his Test match debut in the First Test against Pakistan at the Gabba in Brisbane in November 1999 becoming the 381st Australian Test cricketer . He replaced Healy , who was dropped after a run of poor form , despite the incumbent 's entreaties to the selectors to allow him a farewell game in front of his home crowd . Gilchrist 's entry into the Test arena coincided with a dramatic rise in Australia 's fortunes . Up to this point , they had played eight Tests in 1999 , winning and losing three .

Gilchrist 's icy reception at the Gabba did not faze him ; he took five catches , stumped Azhar Mahmood off Shane Warne 's bowling and scored a rapid 81 , mostly in partnership with ODI partner Waugh , in a match that Australia won comfortably by ten wickets . In his second Test match he made an unbeaten 149 to help guide Australia to victory in a game that looked well beyond their reach . Australia were struggling at 5 / 126 in pursuit of 369 for victory as he joined his Western Australian team @-@ mate , Justin Langer , but the pair put on a record @-@ breaking partnership of 238 to seal an Australian win . Gilchrist continued his strong run throughout his debut Test season , and ended the summer with 485 runs at 69 @.@ 28 in six matches , three each against Pakistan and India , adding two fifties against the latter .

Gilchrist was moderately successful in the following ODIs , the Carlton & United Series ; Australia defeated Pakistan 2 – 0 in a best @-@ of @-@ three final . Gilchrist scored 272 runs at 27 @.@ 20 ; his best effort was 92 in a 152 @-@ run victory over India on Australia Day . Gilchrist then scored 251 runs at 41 @.@ 66 in the ODIs during a tour of New Zealand . The highlight was a 128 in Christchurch that propelled Australia to a score of 6 / 349 . Gilchrist was named man of the match in two of the games .

In the Third Test against New Zealand in 2000 , Gilchrist recorded the third best Test performance ever by a wicketkeeper , and the best by an Australian , taking ten catches in the match . Although Gilchrist 's batting was modest , yielding 144 runs at 36 @.@ 00 , Australia took a 3 – 0 clean sweep . In two home and away ODI series against South Africa , Gilchrist had a quiet time , scoring 170 runs at 26 @.@ 66 . South Africa won three of the six matches , with one tie .

Later that year , he was handed the vice @-@ captaincy of the Australian team in place of Shane Warne , who had been plagued by a number of off @-@ the @-@ field controversies , including an altercation with some teenage boys , and a sex scandal with a British nurse .

The 2000 – 01 season saw a West Indian touring party and Gilchrist warmed up with consecutive first @-@ class centuries for Western Australia . Captaining his Test team for the first time in place of the injured Steve Waugh in the Third Test in Adelaide . Gilchrist scored only 9 and 10 not out , but a ten @-@ wicket haul from Colin Miller resulted in a hard @-@ fought five @-@ wicket victory for Australia . Gilchrist described the match as " the proudest moment of my career " . Waugh resumed the captaincy on his return to the team for the Fourth and Fifth Tests , with the series finishing in a 5 – 0 whitewash . Gilchrist scored 241 runs at 48 @.@ 20 with two fifties . In the ensuing ODI tournament , Gilchrist scored 326 runs at 36 @.@ 22 with a top @-@ score of 98 as the Australians won all ten matches .

Up to this point , Gilchrist had played in 14 Tests , all in Australasia , and all of which had been won . Australia 's run of 15 consecutive Test wins faced a steep challenge on the tour of India , where they had not won a Test series since 1969 – 70 .

Australia 's streak looked in danger during the First Test in Mumbai when they fell to 5 / 99 in reply to India 's 171 when Gilchrist came to the crease . He counterattacked savagely , scoring 122 in just 112 balls , and featuring in a 197 @-@ run partnership with Matthew Hayden in only 32 overs . This swung the momentum back to Australia , who reached 349 . Gilchrist took six catches and was named Man of the Match in a ten wicket victory , extending the world record run to 16 .

Gilchrist 's form dipped momentarily , with a rare king pair ( two golden ducks in the same match ) in the Second Test in Kolkata and just two runs in his two innings in Chennai . He was out LBW four consecutive times in the last two Tests , three of these to Harbhajan Singh , who took 32 wickets in the series to end Australia 's run by inflicting a 2 – 1 series loss . His one @-@ day form remained strong , with 172 runs at 43 @.@ 00 in the ODI series in India , as Australia bounced back to win the series 3 – 2 . During this series he captained the ODI team for the first time , winning all three of the matches under his captaincy .

= = = 2001 Ashes = = =

Gilchrist played a pivotal role in the 2001 Ashes series which Australia won 4 – 1 , with 340 runs at a batting average of 68 @.@ 00 and 26 dismissals in the five match series .

Gilchrist warmed up by putting his ODI struggles on English soil in 1999 behind him , scoring 248 runs at 49 @.@ 60 in the triangular tournament preceding the Tests , scoring an unbeaten 76 in the final win over Pakistan .

Gilchrist put the disappointment of India behind him in the First Test at Edgbaston , scoring 152 from only 143 balls . The allowed Australia to reach 576 in only 545 minutes , and set up an innings victory that set the tone for the series . Gilchrist then added 90 in the eight @-@ wicket win in the Second Test at Lord 's , before turning the tide in the Third Test at Trent Bridge . Australia slumped to 7 / 105 in reply to the hosts ' 185 , but Gilchrist 's 54 took the tourists to 190 before a seven @-@ wicket win resulted in the retention of the Ashes .

Gilchrist captained the team in the Fourth Test at Headingley after an injury to Steve Waugh . After persistent rain interruptions , Gilchrist declared with Australia four down at tea on the fourth day , leaving England with a target of 315 , which , despite losing two early wickets , they reached with six wickets to spare , ( Mark Butcher scoring an unbeaten 173 , including 24 boundaries ) . Gilchrist failed to pass 25 in the last two Tests , but it had been a productive season ; he scored centuries in both of Australia 's county matches .

Two home series followed in the 2001 – 02 season , a fully drawn ( 0 – 0 ) three match series against New Zealand and a whitewash over South Africa 3 – 0 . Gilchrist scored 118 in the First Test against New Zealand and an unbeaten 83 in the Third Test in Perth as the Australians held on for a draw with three wickets intact . However , Gilchrist did little in the triumph over South Africa , failing to pass 35 . He ended the summer Tests with 353 runs at 50 @.@ 42 .

In the ensuing ODIs , Gilchrist scored only 97 runs at 16 @.@ 16 . The Australian selectors sought to accommodate Hayden , who had been successful as a Test opener , into the ODI team by rotating him with Gilchrist and Waugh , but this appeared to unsettle the team . With a newly fragile top @-@ order , Australia failed to qualify for the finals , and the Waugh brothers were dropped from the team , ending Gilchrist 's four @-@ year partnership with Mark . Ricky Ponting was promoted to the captaincy ahead of vice captain Gilchrist .

The Australians then toured South Africa the next month and it was during the First Test in Johannesburg that Gilchrist broke the record for the fastest double century in Tests on 23 February , requiring 212 balls for the feat . This was eight balls quicker than Ian Botham 's innings against India at The Oval in 1982 . He ended unbeaten on 204 , having featured in a partnership of 317 with Damien Martyn at a run rate of 5 @.@ 5 . South Africa were demoralised and lost by an innings after being forced to follow on . The record lasted only one month , however , with New Zealand 's Nathan Astle taking 59 balls less to reach the milestone during an innings in March 2002 .

In the Second Test at Cape Town , Gilchrist struck 138 from 108 balls to set up a first innings lead and eventual four @-@ wicket win . He then top @-@ scored with 91 in the Third Test , and although Australia lost the match , Gilchrist ended the series with an astonishing 473 at 157 @.@ 66 from just 474 balls , in addition to 14 dismissals .

Gilchrist captained the ODI team , once again for a single match , against Kenya in Nairobi during the PSO Tri @-@ Nation Tournament . Despite Australia 's unbeaten run in the competition , the final , against Pakistan was abandoned due to rain , so the teams shared the trophy . During the six middle months of 2002 , Gilchrist played in 18 ODIs , scoring 562 runs at 31 @.@ 22 , including a century , recovering from his slump .

After scoring 122 runs at 40 @.@ 66 in the 3 – 0 Test series clean sweep over Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates , Gilchrist went on to help the Australians retain The Ashes 4 – 1 in 2002 – 03 , playing in all five matches of the series , finishing with 330 runs at 55 @.@ 50 and taking 25 dismissals as wicket @-@ keeper . After scoring fifties in the first two Tests , Gilchrist scored a counter @-@ attacking 133 from 121 balls in the Fifth Test at the SCG , but was unable to prevent Australia 's only loss of the series .

From the time of his debut up to the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist 's played in 40 Tests in series . With the exception of the 2001 tour of India , when he averaged 24 @.@ 80 ( he made 124 runs in the series ; 122 of them came in one innings ) , his performances with the bat were such that he was described at the time as the " finest batsman @-@ wicketkeeper to have graced the game " . At one point in March 2002 , Gilchrist 's Test average was over 60 ; the second @-@ highest for any established player in Test history , and he topped the ICC Test batting rankings in May 2002 .

Gilchrist warmed up for the World Cup in South Africa by scoring 310 runs at 44 @.@ 28 in the triangular tournament in Australia against England and Sri Lanka . His performances over the past year were recognised with the Allan Border Medal .

= = = 2003 World Cup = = =

Gilchrist played in all but one of the matches in Australia 's successful defence of their World Cup title ; he was rested for the group match against the Netherlands . He finished the tournament with 408 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 80 at a strike rate of 105 . He scored four half @-@ centuries , and was run out against Sri Lanka in the Super Six stage just a single run short of a century . In the semi @-@ final , he scored 22 before being caught off an inside @-@ edge onto pad off the bowling of Aravinda de Silva . The umpire gave no reaction , however Gilchrist walked off the pitch after a moment 's pause . In 2009 it was described as an " astonishing moment " drawing criticism from England 's Angus Fraser , who " objected to him being canonised simply for not cheating " , and from others who " thought that he walked almost by accident ; that having played his shot he overbalanced in the direction of the pavilion . " His actions nevertheless drew praise from the majority . In the final , India elected to field first and Gilchrist hammered 57 from 48 balls , featuring in a century opening stand with Hayden to seize the initiative . This laid the foundation for Australia 's 2 / 359 and a crushing 125 @-@ run win , ending an unbeaten campaign . Gilchrist was also the competition 's most successful wicketkeeper , making 21 dismissals .

Success in the World Cup was followed up by a tour of the West Indies where Gilchrist was part of a side that won both the ODI and Test series . He scored 282 runs at 70 @.@ 50 with one century in the four Tests , and 212 runs at 35 @.@ 33 in the ODIs . The Australians then defeated a touring Bangladeshi cricket team in short series in both forms of the game . Gilchrist was only sporadically required with the bat .

= = = Decline and revival = = =

After scoring his first Test century at his home ground in Perth , an unbeaten 113 against Zimbabwe , Gilchrist 's Test form dipped again during the 2003 – 04 season , with only 120 runs coming in the next 10 innings , during the home series against India ( drawn 1 – 1 ) and the away series in Sri Lanka ( won 3 – 0 ) . However , he returned to form in the Second Test Kandy , scoring a quickfire 144 in the second innings to set up a 27 @-@ run win after Australia conceded a 91 @-@ run first innings lead .

However , he maintained high standards in ODIs during this period , including 111 against India in Bangalore , 172 against Zimbabwe , just one run short of Mark Waugh 's Australian record , and two further half @-@ centuries in the VB Series in Australia . His success in One @-@ day cricket was underlined by his rise to the top of the ICC ODI batting rankings in February 2004 . However , he was unable to maintain this form on the 2004 tours of Sri Lanka , Zimbabwe and the Champions Trophy in England , accumulating 253 runs at 28 @.@ 11 in 11 innings .

Gilchrist then scored 115 runs at 28 @.@ 75 in two Tests at home to Sri Lanka in mid @-@ 2004 , and captained in the First Test win in Darwin with Ponting absent . Australia won the series 1 – 0 .

A 104 in the First Test against India in October 2004 proved to be a false renaissance ; he scored only 104 runs in the remaining seven innings on the Indian tour and 139 runs in eight ODI innings towards the end of the 2004 – 05 season , which formed the lowest average period of Gilchrist 's career until 2007 . He took the captaincy of the Test team once again , in place of the injured Ricky Ponting , and led the Australian side to an historic 2 – 1 series victory in India , a feat last achieved in 1969 . Ponting recovered to lead the team in the Fourth Test , Australia 's only loss .

Gilchrist returned to form when New Zealand toured Australia at the start of southern hemisphere season . He scored 126 and 50 in the 2 – 0 Test series clean sweep and scored fifties in both ODIs . He then scored 230 runs at 76 @.@ 66 in three Tests against Pakistan , including a rapid 113 in the Third Test at the SCG as Australia won all five Tests during the summer . He made it three successive Test centuries with 121 and 162 in the first two Tests on the tour of New Zealand , before ending with an unbeaten 60 in the Third Test ; he totalled 343 runs at 114 @.@ 33 for the series . His ODI form in the early part of 2005 remained moderate , with 308 runs at 28 @.@ 00 during the southern summer .

Gilchrist was in strong form ahead of the Tests , scoring 393 runs at 49 @.@ 13 in the ODIs in England . The highlight was the 121 not out in the final game of the one @-@ day NatWest Series , Gilchrist being awarded the man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match award . However , he performed poorly in the five Tests , with 204 runs at 25 @.@ 50 . Just as in India in 2001 , Australia lost 2 – 1 , and Gilchrist fell four times to man of the series Andrew Flintoff .

Australia and Gilchrist returned to form after the Ashes in the series against the ICC World XI . Gilchrist scored 45 , 103 and 32 as Australia swept the ODIs 3 – 0 , and top @-@ scored with 94 in the first innings of the one @-@ off Test , which Australia won . However , this did not transfer into the regular international matches . In six home Tests against the West Indies and South Africa in 2005 – 06 , Gilchrist managed only 190 runs at 23 @.@ 75 , but Australia was unhindered , winning 3 – 0 and 2 – 0 respectively .

His one @-@ day form also began to suffer , scoring only 11 runs in three ODIs in New Zealand and 13 in the first two matches of the VB Series . He was rested for two games and returned to form against Sri Lanka on 29 January 2006 on his home ground , the WACA , hitting 116 runs off 105 balls to lead Australia to victory . He continued in this vein with the fastest ever century by an Australian in just 67 balls against Sri Lanka at the Gabba , ending with 122 as Australia won the deciding third final by nine wickets . After a slow start , he ended the series with 432 runs at 48 @.@ 00 .

The purple patch ended on the tour of South Africa and then Bangladesh . He scored 206 runs at 29 @.@ 42 in five Tests and 248 runs at 35 @.@ 42 in eight ODIs , inflated by a 144 in the First Test against Bangladesh . Despite this , Australia won all five Tests . Gilchrist scored 130 runs at 26 @.@ 00 , including a 92 against the West Indies as Australia won the 2006 Champions Trophy in India .

On 16 December 2006 , during the Third Ashes Test at the WACA , Gilchrist scored a century in 57 balls , including twelve fours and four sixes , the second fastest recorded Test century . At 97 runs from 54 balls , Gilchrist needed three runs from the next delivery to better Viv Richards ' record set in 1986 . The ball delivered by Matthew Hoggard was wide and Gilchrist was unable to score from it . He later claimed that the " batting pyrotechnics " had been the result of a miscommunication with the Australian captain Ricky Ponting ; Gilchrist had actually been told not to score quick runs with a view to declaring the innings .

He ended the 2006 – 07 Ashes with a century and two fifties , totalling 229 runs at 45 @.@ 80 at a strike rate of over 100 as Australia regained the Ashes with a 5 – 0 whitewash . It was an inconsistent series ; aside from three scores mentioned , Gilchrist failed to pass one in his other three innings . Between Ashes series , Gilchrist had averaged only 25 with one Test century .

However , both he and Australia suffered a surprising string of poor results in the 2006 @-@ 07 Commonwealth Bank Series , Gilchrist managing an average of only 22 @.@ 20 during the tournament . Australia won seven of their eight qualifying matches , but England won with two finals victories over the Australians . Gilchrist scored 60 and 61 in the first two matches but did not pass 30 thereafter . He was then rested for Australia 's winless three @-@ match ODI tour of New Zealand , before his selection for the 2007 Cricket World Cup . Having previously indicated that it was highly likely that he would retire after the 2007 World Cup , he then stated a desire to play on aftwerwards .

= = = 2007 World Cup = = =

Gilchrist and Australia started their 2007 World Cup campaign by winning all three of their matches in Group A , against Scotland , the Netherlands and South Africa . Australia won all six of their matches in the Super8 stage with little difficulty — the margins of victory were exceeded 80 runs or six wickets in every instance . They topped the table and thus qualifying for a semi @-@ final rematch against fourth @-@ placed South Africa . Gilchrist opened the Australian batting in each match , taking a pinch @-@ hitting role in the opening powerplays . Initially successful in the group matches , scoring 46 , 57 and 42 , he failed in the first Super8 match against West Indies ( 7 ) , but bounced back to score a second half @-@ century ( 59 not out ) in a ten @-@ wicket victory against Bangladesh in a match drastically shortened due to rain . After a run of middling scores , he failed again in the final Super8 match against New Zealand .

As a batsman , Gilchrist was dismissed for a single run in the semi @-@ final against South Africa , despite which Australia won by seven wickets . As wicket @-@ keeper , however , he took four catches , equalling the most dismissals in one match in the tournament and bringing his total for the tournament to 14 , second behind Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara .

Gilchrist opened the batting against Sri Lanka in the final . This was Gilchrist 's third successive World Cup final , and the third time he scored at least a 50 runs in World Cup finals and he went on to make his only ever century in a world cup match . Gilchrist went on to score 149 runs off 104 balls with thirteen fours and eight sixes , the highest individual score in a World Cup final , eclipsing his captain Ricky Ponting 's score of 140 in the 2003 final . Australia won and he was named the man of the match . Subsequently there has been some controversy over Gilchrist 's use of a squash ball inside his glove during this innings . The MCC stated that Gilchrist had not acted against the laws or the spirit of the game , since there is no restriction against the external or internal form of batting gloves .

In September 2007 , Gilchrist played in the inaugural World Twenty20 . He scored 169 runs at 33 @.@ 80 as Australia were knocked out by India in the semifinals . Gilchrist then scored 208 runs at 34 @.@ 66 as Australia took an away ODI series against India 4 – 2 . In November , Gilchrist 's peers voted him the greatest Australian ODI cricketer ever , for which he was awarded an honour at an ACA function before Australia 's second Test against Sri Lanka . He was only required to bat once in the Tests , and made 67 not out as Australia swept Sri Lanka aside 2 – 0 .

= = = Retirement = = =

On 26 January 2008 during the 4th and final Test of the 2007 – 08 series against India , Gilchrist announced that he would retire from international cricket at the end of the season . A back injury kept Ricky Ponting off the field for sections of the Indian 's second innings , resulting in Gilchrist captaining the team for the part of final two days of his Test cricket career . India batted out the match for a draw , so Gilchrist 's 14 in the first innings was his final Test innings ; he took his 379th and final catch when Virender Sehwag was caught behind . Gilchrist had scored only 150 runs at 21 @.@ 42 in his final Test series .

John Buchanan , who coached Australia during most of Gilchrist 's international career , predicted that Gilchrist 's retirement would have more impact than the previous year 's retirements of Damien Martyn , Glenn McGrath , Shane Warne and Justin Langer and Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd asked Gilchrist to reconsider . Gilchrist later revealed that he chose to retire after dropping VVS Laxman during the first innings , and realising that he had lost his " competitive edge . " He played out the summer 's ODI series , before ending in disappointment when India beat Australia 2 – 0 in the 2007 @-@ 08 Commonwealth Bank Series finals . Gilchrist managed only seven and two in the finals . His highlight of the series was his scoring 118 and being named Man of the Match in his final match at his adopted home in Perth on 15 February 2008 , against Sri Lanka . He ended his final series with 322 runs at 32 @.@ 20 .

= = = Indian Premier League = = =

Gilchrist was contracted by the Hyderabad @-@ based Deccan Chargers in the inaugural season 's player auction for US $ 700 @,@ 000 . In Deccan 's fourth match of the inaugural 2008 season , Gilchrist hammered the second fastest hundred in the IPL , off just 42 balls , as Deccan recorded their first win , against Mumbai . Gilchrist led the Deccan Chargers in the second half of the IPL in the absence of regular captain VVS Laxman , who was ruled out for the rest of the tournament due to injury . Deccan came last , winning only two of 14 matches .

In the second season , Gilchrist was installed as captain in place of Laxman by new coach and former Australian teammate Darren Lehmann . The team started well and won their first four matches but stumbled and won only three of their remaining ten qualifying matches . They qualified fourth into the semifinals and Gilchrist led the team to the final by striking 85 off just 35 balls against the Delhi Daredevils . Although made a duck in the final against the Royal Challengers Bangalore , Deccan won by six runs to take the title . Gilchrist was named the Player of The Tournament .

In the fourth season , Gilchrist was contracted by Kings XI Punjab for US $ 900 @,@ 000 . He was chosen the captain for the team as Kumar Sangakkara ( former captain of Punjab ) had moved to Deccan Chargers . In March 2012 he was named " player @-@ coach " , replacing his friend and former Australia teammate Michael Bevan , whose contract as head coach was not renewed . Gilchrist had speculated on retiring from the IPL at the end of the 2012 season , after Kings XI Punjab failed to make it to the play @-@ offs .

In the sixth season , Gilchrist made a comeback for his final IPL stint . He stated the reason as being the Kings XI management 's decision to renew his contract for another season . An interesting change in the team staff was the induction of Darren Lehmann as the new Kings XI coach . This brought together the duo of Gilchrist and Lehmann who had guided their previous franchise , the Deccan Chargers to its 2009 IPL victory . Some good performances by the players led the Kings XI Punjab team eyeing for the fourth spot in the play @-@ offs and a possible maiden win under Gilchrist 's leadership . They were knocked out very late in the tournament . In his final game at IPL , Gilchrist decided to bowl the last over of the match against the Mumbai Indians , where he got the wicket of Harbhajan Singh of his first ball , securing KXIP 's victory in the match . In a recent press conference , Gilchrist has confirmed that this will be his final IPL season and that he was looking forward to a fresh start in the inaugural Caribbean Premier League in July 2013 .

= = = Middlesex = = =

He signed a short @-@ term contract in November 2009 to play English Twenty20 cricket for Middlesex between 3 and 24 June 2010 . He was appointed interim captain on 11 June upon the sudden resignation of Shaun Udal . In addition to the seven Twenty20 fixtures , he is also captaining the county versus the touring Australians in a fifty @-@ over friendly .

In addition to this he will be taking part in the major sporting events Titans of Cricket in October 2011 – an evening of exciting challenges for famous sportsmen , touring across the UK in Manchester and Birmingham , with the grand finale in London 's O2

In July 2014 , he played for the Rest of the World side in the Bicentenary Celebration match at Lord 's .

= = Style of play = =

Gilchrist 's attacking batting has been a key part of Australia 's one @-@ day success , as he usually opened the batting . He was a part of the successful 1999 , 2003 and 2007 Cricket World Cup campaigns . Gilchrist 's Test batting average in the upper 40s is unusually high for a wicket @-@ keeper . He is currently 45th on the all – time list of highest batting averages . He maintains a Test strike @-@ rate of 82 runs per hundred balls , the highest since balls were recorded in full . His combination of attack and consistency create one of the most dynamic world cricketers ever , playing shots to all areas of the field with uncommon timing . He second on the all @-@ time list of most sixes in Tests at 100 with only Brendon McCullum ahead of him with 107 . Gilchrist 's skills as a wicket @-@ keeper are sometimes questioned ; some people would claim that he is the best keeper in Australia while Victorian wicket @-@ keeper Darren Berry was regarded by many as the best Australian wicket @-@ keeper of the 1990s and early 2000s .

In this role , Gilchrist is perhaps disadvantaged by his relatively tall stature for a pure wicket @-@ keeper . However , while perhaps not as elegant as some , he has successfully kept wicket for spin bowler Shane Warne and fast bowlers Glenn McGrath and Brett Lee for most of his international career . His partnerships with McGrath and Lee are second and fourth respectively in both test and ODI history for the number of wickets taken . With Alec Stewart and Mark Boucher , he shares the record for most catches ( 6 ) by a wicketkeeper in a ODI match , however he has now achieved this feat five times , the most recent versus India in 2008 CB Series . The match in 2007 was also the second time he took six dismissals and scored a half century in the same ODI ; he remains the only player to do so even once . At Old Trafford in August 2005 , he passed Alec Stewart 's world record of 4 @,@ 540 runs as a Test wicketkeeper , Statistically , he is currently the most successful ODI wicket @-@ keeper in history ; with 417 catches and 55 stumpings , a total of 472 dismissals , his closest rival , Mark Boucher , is more than 80 dismissals behind .

= = Walking and discipline = =

Cricket has for many years debated whether batsmen should " walk " , that is to agree that they have been dismissed and leave the field of play without waiting for ( or contrary to ) an umpire 's decision . Gilchrist reignited this debate by walking during a high @-@ profile match , the 2003 World Cup semi @-@ final against Sri Lanka , after the umpire ruled him to be not out . He has since proclaimed himself to be " a walker " , or a batsman who will consistently walk , and has done so on numerous occasions . On one occasion against Bangladesh , Gilchrist walked but TV replays failed to suggest any contact between his bat and the ball . Without such contact , he could not have been caught out .

Gilchrist 's actions have sparked debate amongst current and former players and umpires . Ricky Ponting has declared on several occasions that he is not a walker but will leave it to each player to decide whether they wish to walk or not . While no other Australian top order batsmen have expressly declared themselves to be walkers , lower @-@ order batsmen Jason Gillespie and Michael Kasprowicz both walked during Test matches in India in 2004 . In 2004 , New Zealand captain Stephen Fleming accused Gilchrist of conducting a " walking crusade " when Craig McMillan refused to walk after Gilchrist had caught him off an edge from the bowling of Jason Gillespie in the First Test in Brisbane . After the appeal was turned down by the umpire , who did not hear the edge , Gilchrist goaded McMillan about the edge , and McMillan 's angry response was picked up by the stump microphone : " ... not everyone is walking , Gilly ... not everyone has to walk , mate ... " . The taunt was effective , however , as McMillan , perhaps distracted , missed the next ball and was given out leg before wicket . Gilchrist said in his autobiography that he had " zero support in the team " for his stance and that he felt that the topic made the dressing room uncomfortable . He added that he " felt isolated " and " silently accused of betraying the team . Implictly I was made to feel selfish , as if I was walking for the sake of my own clean image , thereby making everyone else look dishonest . "

Gilchrist has been noted for his emotional outbursts on the cricket field , and has been fined multiple times for dissent against umpiring decisions . In January 2006 , he was fined 40 % of his match fee in an ODI against South Africa . In another instance , in early 2004 in Sri Lanka , Gilchrist audibly argued with umpire Peter Manuel after batting partner Andrew Symonds was given out . After the argument concluded , Manuel consulted umpiring partner Billy Bowden and reversed his decision , recalling Symonds to the crease . Gilchrist was also reprimanded by the Australian Cricket Board for publicly questioning the legality of Muttiah Muralitharan 's bowling action in 2002 , as his comments were found to be in breach of the clause in the player code of conduct relating to " detrimental public comment " .

During the 2003 World Cup , Gilchrist accused Pakistani wicketkeeper Rashid Latif of making a racist remark towards him while the latter was batting in their group match . Latif who was cleared by match referee Clive Lloyd , threatened to sue Gilchrist for this claim .

= = Charity , media , business career and political work = =

Outside cricket , Gilchrist is an ambassador for the charity World Vision in India , a country in which he is popular due to his cricketing achievements , and sponsors a boy whose father has died . He was approached in early 2005 by the US baseball franchise , the Boston Red Sox , with a view to him playing for them when his cricket career ended . However , he was selected for the 2007 Cricket World Cup and announced his retirement from Test and One @-@ Day cricket in early 2008 .

In March 2008 , Gilchrist joined the Nine Network . Gilchrist has appeared as one of a panel of revolving co @-@ hosts for the revived Wide World of Sports Weekend Edition . He made his debut on the program in March 2008 , and commentates on Nine 's cricket coverage during the Australian summer . In 2013 Gilchrist joined Ricky Ponting and various other names in cricket to commentate for Channel Ten in the third series of the Big Bash League .

As Amway Australia Ambassador , Gilchrist has played a role in many of their charity events . In August 2010 , he presented the Freedom Wheels program , an initiative to provide modified bikes to kids with disabilities , a cheque for $ 20 @,@ 000 .

Gilchrist has been the chair of the National Australia Day Council since 2008 . In 2008 , Gilchrist supported debate on whether Australia Day should be moved to a new date because the current date marks European settlement and is offensive to many Aboriginal Australians . Gilchrist is considered to have left @-@ wing views ; Australian captain Ricky Ponting commented in his annual Captain 's Diary that his deputy had a penchant for reading Karl Marx while on tour .

Gilchrist has had a number of company directorships outside of cricket . His appointment to the board of ASX listed sandalwood company TFS Corporation , committee member of Commonwealth Business Forum in Perth and director of Travelex . The appointment to TFS Corporation was not without controversy when as a board member of TFS he was named as a plaintiff suing his own TFS shareholders for defamation

= = Autobiography = =

Gilchrist 's autobiography True Colours , published in 2008 , was the subject of much controversy . Gilchrist questioned the integrity of leading Indian batsman Sachin Tendulkar in relation to the evidence he presented in the Monkeygate dispute , which was about allegations of racism against Harbhajan Singh . The autobiography said that Tendulkar told the first hearing that he could not hear what Harbhajan said to Andrew Symonds ; Gilchrist said he was " certain he [ Tendulkar ] was telling the truth " because he was " a fair way away " . Gilchrist then questioned why Tendulkar then agreed with Harbhajan 's claim at the second hearing that the exchange was an obscenity , and concluded that the process was " a joke " . He also raised questions over Tendulkar 's sportsmanship and said he was " hard to find for a changing @-@ room handshake after we have beaten India " .

There was a backlash in India , which forced Gilchrist to clarify his position . Gilchrist later insisted that he did not accuse Tendulkar of lying in his testimony . He also denied calling the Indian a " bad sport " in regards to the handshake issue . Tendulkar responded by saying that " those remarks came from someone who doesn 't know me enough . I think he made loose statements ... I reminded him that I was the first person to shake hands after the Sydney defeat . " The autobiography also blamed the ICC for allowing Sri Lankan cricketer Muralitharan to bowl ; Gilchrist believes that ICC changed the throwing law to legitimise a bowling action that he regards as illegitimate . The law change was described as " a load of horse crap . That 's rubbish . " Gilchrist claimed that Muralitharan threw the ball and alleged that the ICC protected him because Sri Lankan cricket authorities portrayed any criticism of the bowler 's legitimacy as racism and a witchhunt conducted by whites . In response to these comments , former Sri Lankan captain Marvan Atapattu said that by questioning the credentials of players like Muralitharan and Tendulkar , Gilchrist had done no good to his own reputation .

= = Achievements = =

= = = Awards = = =

Gilchrist was one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Year for 2002 , and Australia 's One @-@ day International Player of the Year in 2003 and 2004 . He was awarded the Allan Border Medal in 2003 , and was the only Australian cricketer who was a current player at the time to have been named in " Richie Benaud 's Greatest XI " in 2004 . He was selected in the ICC World XI for the charity series against the ACC Asian XI , 2004 – 05 , was voted as " World 's Scariest Batsman " in a poll of international bowlers , and was named as wicket @-@ keeper and opening batsman in Australia 's " greatest ever ODI team . " In a poll of over ten thousand people hosted in 2007 by ESPNcricinfo , he was voted the ninth greatest all @-@ rounder of the last one hundred years . A panel of prominent cricket writers selected him in Australia 's all @-@ time best XI for ESPNcricinfo . Gilchrist has not only left his mark on Australian cricket but the whole cricketing world . In 2010 , Gilchrist was made a Member of the Order of Australia for his services to cricket and the community . He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2012 . On 9 @-@ December @-@ 2013 , ICC announced that they had inducted Gilchrist in the prestigious ICC Hall of Fame .

= = = Test match performance = = =

Test debut : vs Pakistan , Brisbane , 1999 – 2000 .

Gilchrist 's best Test batting score of 204 not out was made against South Africa , Johannesburg , 2001 – 2002 .

He has captained Australia in six Tests : four wins , one loss , one draw .

Holder of the second most sixes in a Test career , with 100 sixes .

Holder of fourth fastest Test hundred ( 100 in 57 deliveries ) vs England , 16 December 2006 .

Holder of the second most Test dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 416 ) , 4 February 2008 .

Holder of most Test centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 17 ) , 4 February 2008 .

= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( Test matches ) = = =

= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( Test match series ) = = =

= = = ODI highlights = = =

ODI debut : vs South Africa , Faridabad , 1996 – 97 .

Holder of most ODI dismissals by a wicketkeeper ( 472 ) , as of 4 November 2011 .

Gilchrist 's best ODI batting score of 172 was made against Zimbabwe , Hobart , 2003 – 04 .

He has captained Australia in 15 ODIs : 11 wins , 4 losses .

Holder for record of second fastest ODI century by an Australian ( 100 from 67 deliveries against Sri Lanka on 14 February 2006 ) .

Holder of most ODI centuries by a wicketkeeper ( 15 ) , 4 February 2008 .

= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match awards ( ODIs ) = = =

= = = Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series awards ( ODI series ) = = =

= = = Twenty20 Centuries = = =

= = Career Best Performances = =

= Carom billiards =

Carom billiards , sometimes called carambole billiards or simply carambole ( and in some cases used as a synonym for the game of straight rail from which many carom games derive ) , is the overarching title of a family of billiards games generally played on cloth @-@ covered , 1 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 3 @.@ 0 @-@ metre ( 5 by 10 ft ) pocketless tables , which often feature heated slate beds . In its simplest form , the object of the game is to score points or " counts " by caroming one 's own cue ball off both the opponent 's cue ball and the object ball ( s ) on a single shot . The invention as well as the exact date of origin of carom billiards is somewhat obscure but is thought to be traceable to 18th @-@ century France .

There is a large array of carom billiards disciplines . Some of the more prevalent today and historically are ( chronologically by apparent date of development ) : straight rail , cushion caroms , balkline , three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . There are many other carom billiards games , predominantly intermediary or offshoot games combining elements of those already listed , such as the champion 's game , an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline , as well as games which are hybrids of carom billiards and pocket billiards , such as English billiards played on a snooker table and its descendant games , American four @-@ ball billiards , and cowboy pool .

= = Etymology = =

The word carom , which simply means any strike and rebound , was in use in reference to billiards by at least 1779 , sometimes spelled " carrom " . Sources differ on the origin . It has been pegged variously as a shortening of the Spanish and Portuguese word carambola , or the French word carambole , which are used to describe the red object ball . Some etymologists have suggested that carambola , in turn , was derived from a yellow @-@ to @-@ orange , tropical Asian fruit also known in Portuguese as a carambola ( which was a corruption of the original name of the fruit , karambal in the Marathi language of India ) , also known as star fruit . But this may simply be folk etymology , as the fruit bears no resemblance to a billiard ball , and there is no direct evidence for such a derivation .

In modern French , the word carambolage means ' successive collision ' , currently used mainly in reference to carom or cannon shots in billiards , and to multiple @-@ vehicle car crashes ) .

= = Equipment = =

= = = Cloth = = =

Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century . The predecessor company of the most famous maker of billiard cloth , Iwan Simonis , was formed in 1453 . Most cloth made for carom billiards tables is a type of baize that is dyed green , and is made from 100 % worsted wool , which provides a very fast surface allowing the balls to travel with little resistance across the table bed . The green color of cloth was originally chosen to emulate the look of grass , and has been so colored since the 16th century . However , as in green eyeshades , the color also serves a useful function : Humans have a higher light sensitivity to green than to any other color , so green cloth permits play for longer periods of time without eye strain .

= = = Balls = = =

Modern billiard balls are made from highly resilient plastics with a typical diameter of 61 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . They are significantly larger and heavier than their pocket billiards counterparts , ranging between 205 and 220 grams ( 7 @.@ 2 and 7 @.@ 8 oz ) with a typical weight of 210 g ( 7 @.@ 5 oz ) . While UMB , the International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized world carom billiards authority , technically permits balls as small as 61 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , no major manufacturer produces such balls any longer , and the de facto standard is 61 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 42 in ) . The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of a completely white cue ball , a second cue ball with typically a red or black dot on it ( to aid in differentiation between the two cue balls ) , and a third , red ball . In some sets of balls , however , the second cue ball is solid yellow . Both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play .

Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game , including clay , wood , ivory , plastics ( including celluloid , Bakelite , crystalate , and phenolic resin , polyester and acrylic ) and even steel . The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid @-@ 20th century was ivory . The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters . It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 for a substitute material . The first viable substitute was celluloid billiard balls , invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868 , but the material was volatile and highly inflammable , sometimes exploding during manufacture .

= = = Cues = = =

Carom billiard cues have specialized refinements making them different from the typical pool cue with which many people are more familiar . Such cues tend to be shorter and lighter overall , with a shorter ferrule , a thicker butt and joint , a wooden joint pin ( in high @-@ end examples ) and collarless wood @-@ to @-@ wood joint ( for a one @-@ piece cue " feel " ) , a fast , conical taper , and a smaller tip diameter as compared with pool cues . Typical cues are 140 – 140 cm ( 54 – 56 in ) in length and 470 – 520 g ( 16 @.@ 5 – 18 @.@ 5 oz ) in weight — lighter for straight rail , heavier for three @-@ cushion — with a tip 11 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) in diameter . The specialization makes the cue significantly stiffer , which aids in handling the larger and heavier billiard balls as compared with pool cues . It also acts to reduce deflection ( sometimes called " squirt " ) , which may be defined as displacement of the cue ball 's path away from the parallel line formed by the cue stick 's direction of travel . It is a factor that occurs every time english ( side ) is employed , and its effects are magnified by speed . In some carom games , deflection plays a large role because many shots require extremes of english , coupled with great speed ; this is a combination typically minimized as much as possible , by contrast , in pool . The wood used in carom cues can vary widely , and most quality carom cues are handmade .

= = = Heated slate = = =

The slate bed of a billiard table is often heated to about 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) above room temperature , which helps to keep moisture out of the cloth to aid the balls rolling and rebounding in a consistent manner , and generally makes a table play faster . A heated table is required under international carom rules and is an especially important requirement for the games of three @-@ cushion billiards and artistic billiards . Heating table beds is an old practice . Queen Victoria ( lived 1819 – 1901 ) had a billiard table that was heated using zinc tubes , although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then @-@ used ivory balls from warping . The first use of electric heating was for an 18 @.@ 2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between Welker Cochran and Jacob Schaefer , Jr . The New York Times announced it with fanfare : " For the first time in the history of world 's championship balkline billiards a heated table will be used ... "

= = History of games = =

= = = Straight rail = = =

Straight rail , sometimes referred to as carom billiards , straight billiards , the three @-@ ball game , the carambole game , and the free game in Europe , is thought to date to the 18th century , although no exact time of origin is known . It was known as French caroms , French billiards or the French game in early times , taking those bygone names from the French who popularized it . The object of straight rail is simple : one point , called a " count " , is scored each time a player 's cue ball makes contact with both object balls ( the second cue ball and the third ball ) on a single stroke . A win is achieved by reaching an agreed upon number of counts .

At straight rail 's inception there was no restriction on the manner of scoring . However , the technique of crotching , or freezing two balls into the corner where the rails meet — the crotch — vastly increasing counts , resulted in an 1862 rule which allowed only three counts before at least one ball had to be driven away . Techniques continued to develop which increased counts greatly despite the crotching prohibition , especially the development of a variety of " nurse " techniques . The most important of these , the rail nurse , involves the progressive nudging of the object balls down a rail , ideally moving them just a few centimeters on each count , keeping them close together and positioned at the end of each stroke in the same or near the same configuration such that the nurse can be replicated again and again .

Straight rail is still popular in Europe , where it is considered a fine practice game for both balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards . Additionally , Europe hosts professional competitions known as pentathlons after the ancient Greek Olympic competitions , in which straight rail is featured as one of five billiards disciplines at which players compete , the other four being 47 @.@ 1 balkline , cushion caroms , 71 @.@ 2 balkline and three @-@ cushion billiards .

Straight rail was played professionally in the US from 1873 to 1879 , but is uncommon there today .

= = = The champion 's game = = =

The new game appearing in 1879 , called the champion 's game or limited @-@ rail , is considered an intermediary game between straight rail and balkline and was designed with the specific intent of frustrating the rail nurse . The game employed diagonal lines — balklines — at the table 's corners to regions where counts were restricted , thus " cutting off four triangular spaces in the four corners , [ taking ] away 711 mm ( 28 in ) of the ' nursing ' surface of the end rails and 1 @,@ 422 mm ( 56 in ) on the long rails . " Ultimately , however , despite its divergence from straight rail , the champion 's game simply expanded the dimensions of the balk space defined under the existing crotch prohibition which was not sufficient to stop nursing .

= = = Balkline = = =

Balkline succeeded the champion 's game , adding more rules to curb nursing techniques . There are many variation of balkline but all divide the table into marked regions called balk spaces . Such balk spaces define areas of the table surface in which a player may only score up to a threshold number of points while the object balls are within that region .

In the balkline games , rather than drawing balklines a few inches from the corners , the entire table is divided into rectangular balk spaces , by drawing balklines a certain distance lengthwise and widthwise across the length of the table a set number of inches parallel out from each rail . This divides the table into eight rectangular balkspaces . Additionally , rectangles are drawn where each balkline meets a rail , called anchor spaces , which developed to stop a number of nursing techniques that exploited the fact that if the object balls straddled a balkline , no count limit was in place .

For the most part , the differences between one balkline game to another is defined by two measures : 1 ) the spacing of the balklines , and 2 ) the number of points that are allowed in each balk space before at least one ball must leave the region . Generally , balkline games , and their particular restrictions , are given numerical names indicating both of these characteristics ; the first number indicated either inches or centimeters depending on the game , and the second , after a dot , indicates the count restriction in balk spaces , which is always either one or two . For example , in 18 @.@ 2 balkline , one of the more prominent balkline games and of U.S. origin , the name indicates that balklines are drawn 18 inches distant from each rail , and only two counts are allowed ( before the first short , we call " entrée " and for the second short " dedans " ) in a balk space before a ball must leave ( in 18 @.@ 1 , we call directly the first short " dedans " ) . By contrast , in 71 @.@ 2 balkline , of French invention , lines are drawn 71 centimeters distant from each rail , also with a two count restriction for balk spaces .

Over its history balkline has had many variations including 8 @.@ 2 , 10 @.@ 2 , 12 @.@ 2 , 13 @.@ 2 , 12 ½ .2 , 14 @.@ 1 , 14 @.@ 2 , 18 @.@ 1 , 18 @.@ 2 , 28 @.@ 2 , 38 @.@ 2 , 39 @.@ 2 , 42 @.@ 2 , 45 @.@ 1 , 45 @.@ 2 , 47 @.@ 1 , 47 @.@ 2 , 57 @.@ 2 and 71 @.@ 2 balkline . In its various incarnations , balkline was the predominate carom discipline from 1883 to the 1930s when it was overtaken by three @-@ cushion billiards ( and pocket billiards ) . Balkline is popular in Europe and the Far East .

= = = Cushion caroms = = =

Cushion caroms , sometimes called by its original name , the indirect game , is traceable to 1820 's Britain and is a descendant of the doublet game dating to at least 1807 . The game is sometimes referred to as one @-@ cushion or one @-@ cushion billiards , which is the direct translation of its name into English from various other languages such as Spanish ( " una banda " ) and German ( " einband " ) .

The object of the game is to score cushion caroms , meaning a carom off of both object balls with at least one rail being struck before the hit on the second object ball . Cushions caroms was defunct for a number of years , but was revived in the late 1860s as another alternative to straight rail , for the same reasons that balkline developed , i.e. , as an alternative to the tedium engendered by the use of the " rail nurse " ( see above ) . Cushion caroms is still popular in Europe .

= = = Three @-@ cushion billiards = = =

In three @-@ cushion billiards , sometimes called three @-@ cushion carom , or carambole , the object is to carom off both object balls with at least three rail cushions being contacted before the contact of the cue ball with the second object ball . Three @-@ cushion is a very difficult game . Averaging one point per inning is professional @-@ level play , and averaging 1 @.@ 5 to 2 is world @-@ class play . An average of one means that for every turn at the table , a player makes 1 point and misses once , thus making a point on 50 % of his or her shots .

The origin of the game is not entirely known . It is undisputed that one Wayman Crow McCreery of St. Louis , Missouri popularized the game in the 1870s . At least one publication categorically states he invented the game as well . The first three @-@ cushion billiards tournament took place January 14 – 31 , 1878 in St. Louis , with McCreery a participant and New Yorker Leon Magnus the winner . The high run for the tournament was just 6 points , and the high average a 0 @.@ 75 . The game was infrequently played , with many top carom players of the era voicing their dislike of it , until after the 1907 introduction of the Lambert Trophy . By 1924 , three @-@ cushion had become so popular that two giants in other billiard disciplines agreed to take up the game especially for a challenge match . On September 22 , 1924 , Willie Hoppe , the world 's balkline champion ( who later took up three @-@ cushion with a passion ) , and Ralph Greenleaf , the world 's straight pool title holder , played a well advertised , multi @-@ day , match to 600 points . Hoppe was the eventual winner with a final score in of 600 – 527 .

Three @-@ cushion billiards retains great popularity in parts of Europe , Asia , and Latin America , and is the most popular carom billiards game played in the US today , where pool is far more widespread . The principal governing body of the sport is the Union Mondiale de Billard ( UMB ) . It had been staging world three @-@ cushion championships since the late 1920s . The International Olympic Committee @-@ recognized World Pool @-@ Billiard Association ( WPA ) cooperates with the UMB to keep their rulesets synchronized .

= = = Artistic billiards = = =

In artistic billiards , sometimes called fantasy billiards or ( in French ) fantaisie classique , players compete at performing 76 preset shots of varying difficulty . Each set shot has a maximum point value assigned for perfect execution , ranging from a 4 @-@ point minimum for lowest level difficulty shots , and climbing to an 11 @-@ point maximum for shots deemed highest in difficulty level . There is a total of 500 points available to a player . The governing body of the sport is the Confédération Internationale de Billard Artistique ( CIBA ) .

Each shot in an artistic billiards match is played from a well @-@ defined position ( in some venues within an exacting two millimeter tolerance ) , and each shot must unfold in an established manner . Players are allowed three attempts at each shot . In general , the shots making up the game — even 4 @-@ point shots — require a high degree of skill , devoted practice and specialized knowledge to perform .

World title competition first started in 1986 and required the use of ivory balls . However , this requirement was dropped in 1990 . The highest score ever achieved in world competition was 374 , by the Frenchman Jean Reverchon in 1992 , while the highest score in competition overall is 427 set by Belgian Walter Bax on March 12 , 2006 at a competition held in Deurne , Belgium , beating his own previous record of 425 . The game is played predominantly in western Europe , especially in France , Belgium and the Netherlands .

= = Competition disciplines = =

Triathlon : Straight rail , Balkline and One @-@ cushion or Balkline , One @-@ cushion und Three @-@ cushion ( like the actually ANAG Billiard Cup ) .

Pentathlon : Straight rail , Balkline ( 47 @.@ 2 & 71 @.@ 2 ) , One @-@ cushion and Three @-@ cushion .

= 2012 Hawaii Bowl =

The 2012 Sheraton Hawaii Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game held on December 24 , 2012 at Aloha Stadium in Honolulu , Hawaii in the United States . The eleventh edition of the Hawaii Bowl began at 3 : 00 p.m. HAST and aired on ESPN . It featured the SMU Mustangs from Conference USA against the Mountain West Conference co @-@ champion Fresno State Bulldogs , and was the final game of the 2012 NCAA Division I FBS football season for both teams . The Mustangs accepted their invitation after earning a 6 @-@ 6 record in the regular season , while the Bulldogs accepted their invitation after a 9 @-@ 3 regular season record .

The pre @-@ game buildup focused primarily on the strong rushing attacks of both teams as well as the overall sound offense of Fresno State . Most analysts predicted a resounding victory by Fresno State . The point spread favored Fresno State as 12 @-@ point favorites over the Mustangs . Contrary to predictions , SMU won the game by a score of 43 @-@ 10 , largely thanks to the play of defensive end Margus Hunt , who forced two fumbles and totaled three sacks ( including one safety ) as well as two interceptions that were returned for touchdowns . Consequently , Hunt and Fresno State 's Davante Adams , who totaled 13 receptions for 144 yards and a touchdown , were named the game 's co @-@ Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) .

= = Teams = =

Conference USA has had its tie @-@ in to the Hawaii Bowl ever since the game 's establishment in 2002 . The Mountain West Conference started its affiliation with the game when the hometown Hawaii Warriors moved to said conference ( previously , Hawaii , and said tie @-@ in , belonged to the Western Athletic Conference ) . In fact , Hawaii has an automatic bid to the bowl game should it be eligible ; however , because of its 3 @-@ 9 record in 2012 , it was not bowl @-@ eligible , leaving the spot to the fifth bowl @-@ eligible Mountain West team . The 2012 Hawaii Bowl was the seventh meeting between Fresno State and SMU , the last one coming in 2004 .

This was the Mustangs ' second Hawaii Bowl , following the 2009 game where they defeated the Nevada Wolf Pack by a score of 45 @-@ 10 ( SMU 's first bowl bid since playing in Hawaii in the 1984 Aloha Bowl , and their first since the program was relaunched in 1989 after being shut down for two years due to massive NCAA rules violations ) . It also was the Mustangs ' final game as a member of Conference USA before they moved to the Big East Conference in 2013 .

= = Pregame buildup = =

One of the keys to the game , according to ESPN.com blogger Matt Fortuna , was to stop the run . Both teams had 1 @,@ 000 + yard rushers ( Zach Line for SMU , Robbie Rouse for Fresno State ) , but SMU 's rush defense ( 24th in FBS ) was better than Fresno State 's ( 73rd in FBS ) . Many analysts predicted that Fresno State would emerge victorious , some going as far as to predict a blowout , but said that for SMU to emerge victorious , they would have to win the field position battle as well as create turnovers .

= = = Fresno State = = =

In their first season in the Mountain West , the Bulldogs became co @-@ champions with a 7 @-@ 1 conference record . This was the Bulldogs ' first appearance in the Hawaii Bowl . Coming into the 2012 season , Bulldogs ' coach Tim DeRuyter said that his team would challenge for a Mountain West Conference title . After making good on that promise , the Bulldogs attempted to achieve their first bowl victory since the 2007 Humanitarian Bowl . A victory in the Hawaii Bowl would have given Fresno State a 10 @-@ win season for the first time since 2001 , when quarterback Derek Carr 's older brother David was the Bulldogs ' quarterback .

= = = = Offense = = = =

Fresno State was led offensively by their quarterback , junior Derek Carr , who finished 14th in the country in quarterback rating ( 155 @.@ 9 ) , 8th in passing yards ( 4 @,@ 104 ) , and tied for 3rd in touchdowns ( 37 ) . Carr was named the Mountain West Conference Player of the Year and announced before the game that he would return to Fresno State to play his senior season . The Bulldogs were riding a five @-@ game winning streak coming into the game ; the fewest points they scored during any game of that streak was 42 . The Bulldogs ' rushing attack was led by 5 @-@ foot , 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) 190 @-@ pound ( 86 kg ) senior running back Robbie Rouse , who rushed for 1490 yards , which ranked 14th in the country . Rouse , who rushed for over 100 yards in nine games during the regular season , was also Fresno State 's second @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , catching the ball 63 times for 435 yards . Carr 's top target in the passing game was redshirt freshman wideout Davante Adams , who had broken several school records during his freshman year including becoming just the seventh freshman in school history to record over 100 yards receiving in a single game and setting the single @-@ game school record for a freshman by recording 12 receptions against Oregon . In total , Adams amassed 102 catches for 1312 yards and 14 touchdowns , all of which led the team . His efforts earned him a spot on Phil Steele 's fourth @-@ team All @-@ America squad and accolades as the Mountain West Conference Freshman of the Year . Fresno State 's starter at tight end was senior Marcel Jensen , who totaled 20 receptions for 339 yards and 4 touchdowns , all of which were career highs . Jensen was an honorable mention all @-@ conference honoree . The Bulldogs ' offensive line was anchored by junior left tackle Austin Wentworth , who achieved first @-@ team all @-@ conference honors .

= = = = Defense = = = =

Described as " well @-@ rounded and explosive " by SBNation.com , Fresno State 's defense was paramount to their success during the season . Their 3 @-@ 4 defense was installed by their first @-@ year coach , DeRuyter , and proved effective throughout the season . They finished third in the NCAA in interceptions , amassing 22 of them . 8 of those 22 interceptions came from Fresno State 's defensive leader , Mountain West Conference Defensive Player of the Year , first @-@ team All @-@ American , and NCAA leader in interceptions senior safety Phillip Thomas , who also recorded a career high 82 tackles and finished second on the team with 4 sacks , the second @-@ most by a defensive back in the country . Fresno State 's defense was also successful rushing the passer ; they finished ninth in the NCAA in sacks with 39 of them . Fresno State 's front seven was led by sophomore Tyeler Davison , who achieved first team all @-@ conference accolades and recorded six tackles for loss during the season . The Bulldogs ' leader in sacks was junior nose tackle Andy Jennings , who achieved 5 @.@ 5 of them . The Bulldogs ' linebackers were led by senior Travis Brown . Brown totaled 68 tackles and was a first team all @-@ conference selection .

= = = SMU = = =

Coming into the 2012 season , SMU was widely expected to finish third in the Conference USA West Division . They exceeded that expectation by finishing second in the C @-@ USA West and earning a bid to the Hawaii Bowl . A year after his season ended due to a foot injury , running back Zach Line was poised to have a breakout year and was expected to win the Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year award .

= = = = Offense = = = =

At quarterback , University of Texas transfer Garrett Gilbert started for the Mustangs and struggled ; he totaled a 53 % completion percentage , 15 touchdowns , and 15 interceptions , the latter of which was tied for ninth @-@ most in the NCAA . The Mustangs ' offensive leader was three @-@ time All @-@ Conference USA player and 2012 Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year running back Zach Line , who had totaled 4 @,@ 185 rushing yards and 37 touchdowns in his career coming into the game . Line was also the Mustangs ' fourth @-@ leading receiver ( in terms of receptions ) , totaling 33 for 229 yards . SMU 's wide receiving corps featured a trio of standouts : senior Darius Johnson , junior Jeremy Johnson , and sophomore Der 'rikk Thompson . The former Johnson , who is one of just two SMU players ever to record three 60 @-@ catch seasons , led the Mustangs with 787 receiving yards from 64 receptions which included 5 touchdowns . The latter Johnson totaled 67 receptions , which led the team , for 679 yards and 3 touchdowns . Thompson , who led the trio by averaging 13 @.@ 0 yards per reception , caught the ball 41 times for 535 yards and 4 touchdowns during the regular season . Coach June Jones ' spread offense did not employ a tight end , and none were on the roster for the Mustangs . The Mustangs ' offensive line was led by senior Bryan Collins , who achieved 2nd team all @-@ conference honors .

= = = = Defense = = = =

The Mustangs were defensively anchored by senior defensive end Margus Hunt , who achieved eight sacks en route to a first @-@ team all @-@ conference selection . Prior to the game , there was significant hype surrounding the defensive matchup between Fresno State 's Davante Adams and SMU 's cornerback junior Kenneth Acker , who intercepted the ball three times during the season . Acker achieved second @-@ team all @-@ conference accolades . SMU 's defense also had an all @-@ conference honoree in the linebacking corps , senior Ja 'Gared Davis , who totaled 77 tackles during the season . The Mustangs were prolific in turnovers and led the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) in interceptions returned for touchdowns ( 8 ) , tied for fourth in interceptions ( 21 ) , and finished third in total takeaways ( 37 ) . Despite their success with turnovers , the Mustangs were far more mediocre in scoring defense , in which they allowed 25 @.@ 7 points per game ( tied for 54th nationally ) , and total defense , in which they gave up 396 @.@ 1 yards per game ( 62nd nationally ) .

= = Game summary = =

= = = Game notes = = =

= = = = First quarter = = = =

SMU received the ball to start the game and marched down the field on an 8 @-@ play , 52 @-@ yard drive highlighted by a 37 @-@ yard run by quarterback Garrett Gilbert to set up a 41 @-@ yard field goal attempt by Chase Hover which he missed . Fresno State 's subsequent drive lasted only two series and ended in a punt . The remainder of the first quarter 's drives ended in punts . There were a total of three drives that went three @-@ and @-@ out in the quarter , two by SMU and one by Fresno State .

= = = = Second quarter = = = =

SMU struck first in the second quarter via a 17 @-@ yard rush from Gilbert , their quarterback , to put the Bulldogs up 7 @-@ 0 . Fresno State 's ensuing drive started with a first down , but ended when quarterback Derek Carr was sacked by SMU defender Margus Hunt ; Hunt forced a fumble that was recovered by the Mustangs at the Fresno State 16 @-@ yard line . SMU gained only three yards on their drive , but due to their excellent field position , kicker Chase Hover was able to convert a 30 @-@ yard field goal making it 10 @-@ 0 .

Fresno State 's offensive woes continued on their next drive . On second down , Carr was sacked for a loss of 18 yards to the 6 @-@ yard line . On third down , Hunt recorded another sack which resulted in a safety to make the score 12 @-@ 0 SMU . Zach Line rushed for an 8 @-@ yard touchdown to cap an 11 @-@ play , 67 @-@ yard drive after the safety . This made the score 19 @-@ 0 .

Hunt continued his fantastic first @-@ half performance on Fresno State 's next drive , forcing running back Robbie Rouse to fumble . It was recovered by safety Taylor Reed . Hover kicked a 48 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 22 @-@ 0 . Fresno State finally started to put together a solid drive at the end of the half including three consecutive first @-@ down passes from Carr to Isaiah Burse for 16 yards , Greg Watson for 12 yards , and Davante Adams for 33 yards respectively that set up first and goal at the three @-@ yard line with 0 : 39 remaining in the half . The Bulldogs failed to execute , however , and ended the half without scoring at all . The final play of the half was a pass to tight end Marcel Jensen in the end zone , but he dropped the ball , thus ending the scoring threat .

= = = = Third quarter = = = =

Since SMU had received the ball to start the game , Fresno State got possession to start the second half . The first play from scrimmage of the half was a 38 @-@ yard pass from Carr to Burse which got the Bulldogs up to the Mustangs ' 41 @-@ yard line . The drive stalled from there , however , after a six @-@ yard loss on a pass play , a false start penalty , a pass completed for no gain , and an incomplete pass . After a 42 @-@ yard punt that was returned for 4 yards , SMU was set up at their 14 @-@ yard line . The ensuing drive for SMU showed promise after they got into Bulldog territory , but an interception by Sean Alston returned for 50 yards to the SMU 15 ended any chance of scoring for the Mustangs . Fresno State finally put points on the board after setting up in the red zone ; Carr threw a 6 @-@ yard pass to Adams making the score 22 @-@ 7 after Quentin Breshears tacked on the point after . On the ensuing drive , SMU ran 7 plays for 75 yards in 3 : 20 in a drive that culminated with a 21 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Gilbert to Darius Johnson ; the drive included a 27 @-@ yard rush by Zach Line as well as a 19 @-@ yard pass from Gilbert to Der 'rikk Thompson . After the TD , the score was 29 @-@ 7 SMU . The teams then exchanged punts for the remainder of the quarter .

= = = = Fourth quarter = = = =

Fresno State was able to run a 7 @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive to begin the fourth quarter that culminated with a 32 @-@ yard field goal by Breshears making the score 29 @-@ 10 . Any chance of a Bulldog comeback was quashed after Carr threw two interceptions returned for touchdowns to Reed and Hayden Greenbauer , the latter of which came with just 1 : 14 to play . The final score was 43 @-@ 10 , the Mustangs victorious .

= = = = Post @-@ game = = = =

SMU 's resounding victory was considered an upset , and during the game , the Mustangs set a single @-@ season record for most interceptions returned for a touchdown ( 8 ) , surpassing the 2011 Southern Miss Golden Eagles football team . Margus Hunt was named the game 's Most Valuable Player because of his two @-@ forced fumble , three @-@ sack ( including one safety ) performance . In total , the Mustangs achieved seven sacks , the most Fresno State had surrendered in a single game all year . Davante Adams ' third @-@ quarter touchdown reception lengthened his streak to eight consecutive games with a touchdown reception , tying a Fresno State record that was set by Henry Ellard in 1982 .

= = = Scoring summary = = =

= = = Statistics = = =

= = = = Team statistics = = = =

= = = = Individual statistics = = = =

= = = = = Passing = = = = =

= = = = = Rushing = = = = =

= = = = = Receiving = = = = =

Source :

= SM U @-@ 21 ( Germany ) =

SM U @-@ 21 was a U @-@ boat built for the Imperial German Navy shortly before World War I. The third of four Type U @-@ 19 @-@ class submarines , these were the first U @-@ boats in German service to be equipped with diesel engines . U @-@ 21 was built between 1910 and October 1913 at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig . She was armed with four torpedo tubes and a single deck gun , though a second was added during her career .

In September 1914 , U @-@ 21 became the first submarine to sink a ship with a self @-@ propelled torpedo when she destroyed the cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Firth of Forth . She also sank several transports in the English Channel and the Irish Sea later in the year , all in accordance with the cruiser rules then in effect . In early 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support the Ottoman Empire against the Anglo @-@ French attacks during the Gallipoli Campaign . Shortly after her arrival , she sank the British battleships HMS Triumph and HMS Majestic while they were bombarding Ottoman positions at Gallipoli . Further successes followed in the Mediterranean in 1916 , including the sinking of the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner in February .

Throughout 1916 , U @-@ 21 served in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as U @-@ 36 , since Germany was not yet at war with Italy and thus could not legally attack Italian warships under the German flag . She returned to Germany in March 1917 to join the unrestricted commerce war against British maritime trade . In 1918 , she was withdrawn from front line service and was employed as a training submarine for new crews . She survived the war and sank while under tow by a British warship in 1919 .

= = Design = =

U @-@ 21 was 64 @.@ 15 meters ( 210 @.@ 5 ft ) long overall with a beam of 6 @.@ 10 m ( 20 @.@ 0 ft ) and a height of 8 @.@ 10 m ( 26 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ; 720 short tons ) surfaced and 837 t ( 824 long tons ; 923 short tons ) submerged . The boat 's propulsion system consisted of a pair of 8 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ stroke diesel engines manufactured by MAN SE for use on the surface and two electric double motor @-@ dynamos built by AEG for use while submerged . U @-@ 21 and her sister boats were the first German submarines to be equipped with diesel engines . The electric motors were powered by a bank of two 110 @-@ cell batteries . U @-@ 21 could cruise at a top speed of 15 @.@ 4 knots ( 28 @.@ 5 km / h ; 17 @.@ 7 mph ) on the surface and 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 9 mph ) submerged . Steering was controlled by a pair of hydroplanes forward and another pair aft , and a single rudder .

U @-@ 21 was armed with four 50 @-@ centimeter ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , which were supplied with a total of six torpedoes . One pair was located in the bow and the other was in the stern . She was initially fitted with a machine gun for use on the surface , but by the end of 1914 this was replaced with a 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 gun . In 1916 , a second 8 @.@ 8 cm gun was added . U @-@ 21 had a crew of four officers and twenty @-@ five enlisted sailors .

= = Service history = =

U @-@ 21 was built at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) . She was laid down in 1910 and launched on 8 February 1913 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , she was commissioned into the fleet on 22 October 1913 .

= = = North Sea operations = = =

At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , U @-@ 21 was based at the island of Heligoland in the German Bight , commanded by Kapitänleutnant ( Captain Lieutenant ) Otto Hersing . In early August , Hersing took U @-@ 21 on a patrol into the Dover Straits but he found no British vessels . On 14 August U @-@ 21 went on a second patrol , this time in company with her sister boats U @-@ 19 and U @-@ 22 , to the northern North Sea between Norway and Scotland . The patrol was an attempt to locate the British blockade line and gather intelligence , but they spotted only a single cruiser and a destroyer off the Norwegian coast . Hersing attempted to enter the Firth of Forth — a major Royal Navy fleet base — later in the month but was unsuccessful .

On 5 September 1914 , U @-@ 21 encountered the British scout cruiser HMS Pathfinder off the Isle of May . Hersing had surfaced his U @-@ boat to recharge his batteries when a lookout spotted smoke from Pathfinder 's funnels on the horizon . U @-@ 21 submerged to make an attack , but Pathfinder turned away on her patrol line ; U @-@ 21 could not hope to keep up with the cruiser while submerged , so Hersing broke off the chase and resumed recharging his batteries . Shortly thereafter , Pathfinder reversed course again and headed back toward U @-@ 21 . Hersing maneuvered into an attack position and fired a single torpedo , which hit Pathfinder just aft of her conning tower . The torpedo detonated one of the cruiser 's magazines , which destroyed the ship in a large explosion . The British were able to lower only a single lifeboat before Pathfinder sank . Other survivors were found clinging to wreckage by torpedo boats that rushed to the scene . Pathfinder was the first warship to be sunk by a modern submarine . A total of 261 sailors were killed in the attack .

U @-@ 21 caught the French steamer SS Malachite on 14 November ; after forcing the ship to stop and examining her cargo manifest , Hersing ordered the crew to abandon ship before he sank Malachite with his deck gun . U @-@ 21 's next success came three days later with the British collier SS Primo , which he also sank in accordance with the cruiser rules that governed commerce raiding . These two ships were the first vessels to be sunk in the restricted German submarine offensive against British and French merchant shipping .

On 22 January , Hersing took his U @-@ boat through the Dover Barrage in the Channel before turning into the Irish Sea . He shelled the airfield on Walney Island , though a coastal battery quickly forced him to withdraw . The next day , U @-@ 21 stopped the collier SS Ben Cruachan ; after evacuating her crew , the Germans sank her with scuttling charges . Later that day , U @-@ 21 stopped and sank the steamers SS Linda Blanche and SS Kilcuan . In both cases , Hersing adhered to the prize rules , including flagging down a passing trawler to pick up the ships ' crews . After these successes , U @-@ 21 withdrew from the area to avoid the British patrols that would arrive in the aftermath of the sinkings . After passing back through the Dover Barrage , U @-@ 21 cruised back to Wilhelmshaven .

= = = In the Mediterranean 1915 – 17 = = =

In April 1915 , U @-@ 21 was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea to support Germany 's ally , Turkey . She left Kiel on 25 April , and the first leg of the voyage , from Germany to Austria @-@ Hungary , took eighteen days . Hersing took his submarine north around Scotland to avoid the Dover patrols , and rendezvoused with the supply ship SS Marzala off Cape Finisterre to refuel . Unfortunately for the Germans , Marzala carried poor quality crude oil that could not be burned in the boat 's diesel engines ; U @-@ 21 had less than half of her fuel supply remaining , and was only halfway on the voyage to Austria @-@ Hungary . Hersing was forced to run his U @-@ boat on the surface to conserve fuel , which increased the risk of detection by Allied forces . While en route the Germans managed to escape from patrolling British and French torpedo boats and transport ships that might have reported their location .

U @-@ 21 finally arrived in Cattaro on 13 May , with only 1 @.@ 8 t ( 1 @.@ 8 long tons ; 2 @.@ 0 short tons ) of fuel left in her tanks — she had left Germany with 56 t ( 55 long tons ; 62 short tons ) . She spent a week at the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine bases at Pola and Cattaro in mid @-@ May , where she was visited by Georg von Trapp , an Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boat commander . Several other German submarines joined U @-@ 21 in the following months , after calls for assistance from the Ottoman ground forces on the Gallipoli peninsula , who were taking heavy casualties from the bombardments from Allied warships . These U @-@ boats included U @-@ 33 , U @-@ 34 , U @-@ 35 , and U @-@ 39 .

U @-@ 21 arrived in her operational area off Gallipoli on 25 May ; that day , she encountered the British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship HMS Triumph . Hersing brought his U @-@ boat to within 300 yards ( 270 m ) of his target and fired a single torpedo , which hit Triumph . U @-@ 21 then dived under the sinking battleship to escape the destroyers hunting her . Hersing then took his boat to the sea floor to wait for the Allied forces to abandon the chase . After twenty @-@ eight hours on the sea floor , U @-@ 21 surfaced to recharge her batteries and bring in fresh air . On 27 May , Hersing attacked and sank his second battleship , HMS Majestic . This time , the British had attempted to protect her with torpedo nets and several small ships , but Hersing was able to aim a torpedo through the defenses . Majestic sank in the span of four minutes . These two successes brought significant dividends : all Allied capital ships were withdrawn to protected anchorages and were thus unable to bombard Ottoman positions on the peninsula . For these two successes , the crew of U @-@ 21 was awarded the Iron Cross by Kaiser Wilhelm II , while Hersing himself received the Pour le Mérite , Germany 's highest award for valor .

After sinking Majestic , Hersing took his submarine to refuel at a Turkish port before attempting the dangerous route through the Dardanelles to Constantinople . While transiting the straits , U @-@ 21 was nearly pulled into a whirlpool but the Germans managed to escape . After arriving in the Ottoman capital , the crew were given a large welcoming ceremony attended by Enver Pasha . U @-@ 21 required significant maintenance , and so the crew was given a month of shore leave while the repairs were carried out . Once the repair work was finished , U @-@ 21 sortied through the Dardanelles for another patrol . Hersing spotted the Allied munitions ship Carthage , which he sank with a single torpedo . Later on the patrol , a lookout on an Allied trawler spotted U @-@ 21 's periscope ; the Germans had to crash dive to escape from being rammed , but doing so brought them into a minefield . One mine exploded off the U @-@ boat 's stern but it caused no significant damage , and U @-@ 21 was able to withdraw to Constantinople .

U @-@ 21 thereafter moved to the Black Sea where she and UB @-@ 14 served as the nucleus of the newly formed Black Sea Flotilla . In September , U @-@ 21 undertook another patrol in the eastern Mediterranean . In the meantime , the Allies had finally managed to establish a complete blockade of the Dardanelles with mines and nets to prevent submarines from operating out of Constantinople . Unable to return to Constantinople , Hersing instead took his U @-@ boat back to Cattaro . Germany would not be in a formal state of war with Italy until August 1916 . As a result , German U @-@ boats could not legally attack Italian ships , despite the fact that Italy was at war with Austria @-@ Hungary . To circumvent this restriction , German submarines operating in the Mediterranean were commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , though their German crews remained aboard . Following her arrival in Cattaro , U @-@ 21 was commissioned as the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 36 . She served under this name until Italy declared war on Germany on 27 August 1916 .

In the meantime , U @-@ 36 began to have further successes against Allied maritime trade . On 1 February 1916 , she sank the British steamer SS Belle of France . A week later , U @-@ 36 torpedoed and sank the French armored cruiser Amiral Charner off the Syrian coast . The cruiser sank quickly with heavy loss of life ; 427 men went down with their ship . In the spring of 1916 , while patrolling off Sicily , U @-@ 36 encountered an Allied Q @-@ ship , an auxiliary cruiser disguised as an unarmed merchant ship . U @-@ 36 fired a shot across the Q @-@ ship 's bow , but it refused to stop and returned fire with a small deck gun . Hersing decided to close and sink the ship , which then revealed her heavy armament . Wounded by shell splinters , Hersing withdrew his submarine under cover of a smoke screen before submerging .

On 30 April , Hersing sank the British steamer City of Lucknow . He sank three small , Italian sailing vessels off Corsica between 26 and 28 October , and on 31 October U @-@ 21 sent the 5 @,@ 800 t ( 5 @,@ 700 @-@ long @-@ ton ) steamship Glenlogan to the bottom . Over the next three days , another four Italian ships — the steamships Bernardo Canale and Torero and two small sailing vessels — were sunk off Sicily . On 23 December , U @-@ 21 torpedoed the British steamer SS Benalder east of Crete , but the ship managed to reach Alexandria .

= = = Return to the North Sea = = =

In early 1917 , U @-@ 21 was recalled to Germany to join the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign being waged against Britain . While en route , she stopped and sank a pair of British sailing vessels off Oporto on 16 February and another pair of Portuguese sailing ships the next day . On 20 February , U @-@ 21 sank the French steamer Cacique in the Bay of Biscay . Two days later in the Western Approaches , she finished off the Dutch steamer Bandoeng , which had been damaged by the submarine UC @-@ 5 on 15 February . Seven more ships followed Bandoeng that day . They included six more Dutch steamers — Eemland , Gaasterland , Jacatra , Noorderdijk , Zaandijk , and Menado — and the Norwegian steamer Normanna . On another patrol in late April , Hersing caught four more ships : the Norwegian Giskö and Theodore William on 22 April and Askepot on 29 April , along with the Russian Borrowdale on 30 April . Another Russian vessel , Lindisfarne , followed on 3 May . The British steamers Adansi and Killarney were sunk on 6 and 8 May , respectively . The Swedish Baltic , which proved to be Hersing 's last victory , was sunk on 27 June .

Hersing attacked a convoy of fifteen merchant ships escorted by fourteen destroyers in August south @-@ west of Ireland . He took U @-@ 21 between two of the escorting destroyers and briefly used his periscope to gauge the speed and course of the transports before firing two torpedoes and diving . Hersing reported both torpedoes hit and the destroyers immediately rushed to begin their depth charge attacks . After a five @-@ hour hunt , the destroyers withdrew to rejoin the convoy . The experience led Hersing to change tactics in future attacks on escorted convoys ; instead of attacking the ships from as far away as possible , he chose to fire his torpedoes at closer range and then dive under the transport ships , where the destroyers would be unable to launch their depth charges for fear of damaging the transports . As of 1918 , she was assigned to the III U @-@ boat Flotilla . Later in 1918 , the submarine was used as a training boat for new crews . She survived the war , but on 22 February 1919 , she accidentally sank in the North Sea while under tow to Britain , where she would be formally surrendered .

In the course of her commerce raiding , U @-@ 21 sank forty ships for a combined 113 @,@ 580 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and damaged two more for a total of 8 @,@ 918 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The ships sunk included two battleships and two cruisers .

= = Summary of raiding history = =

= Homer the Whopper =

" Homer the Whopper " is the season premiere of The Simpsons ' twenty @-@ first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 27 , 2009 . In the episode , Comic Book Guy creates a new superhero called Everyman who takes powers from other superheroes . Homer is cast as the lead in the film adaptation . To get Homer into shape , the movie studio hires a celebrity fitness trainer , Lyle McCarthy , to help him . Homer gets into great shape and is really excited , but when McCarthy leaves to train another client , he starts over @-@ eating again and ultimately this leads to the film 's failure .

The episode was written by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , who are " obsessed " fans of the show , and directed by Lance Kramer . " Homer The Whopper " was intended to be a commentary on how Hollywood treats superhero films . Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Ricky Gervais was the first . " Homer the Whopper " has received mixed reviews from television critics and acquired a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 3 in its original broadcast .

= = Plot = =

Bart and Milhouse convince Comic Book Guy to publish a comic book he wrote titled Everyman , in which the title character can absorb superpowers from the characters of comic books he touches . The comic becomes an instant hit , and many Hollywood studios become interested in making it into a movie . Comic Book Guy agrees to let Everyman become a movie , but only if he can pick the star . When Comic Book Guy sees Homer , he considers Homer perfect for the role , as he wants Everyman to be played by a middle @-@ aged fat man . But the studio executives realize that audiences want a physically fit actor for the role , so they hire celebrity fitness trainer Lyle McCarthy to get Homer into shape . After a month , Homer becomes fit and the movie begins production .

Soon afterward , however , McCarthy leaves Homer for another client . Without McCarthy to keep him in shape , Homer starts eating again and gains all the weight back . Homer can no longer fit into his costume or even his trailer , and the movie begins to go over budget . The studio executives and Comic Book Guy worry that the film will not be successful . The final version of the movie features scenes with the fat Homer and the physically fit Homer merged , upsetting and confusing the audience . After the premiere of the film , McCarthy returns and offers to get Homer into shape again , which Homer accepts . The studio executives offer to let Comic Book Guy direct the sequel , on the condition that Comic Book Guy lie to the fans and say he liked the film . Though pleased by the offer , Comic Book Guy rejects it and openly criticizes the movie online , and thus it becomes a box office failure and Everyman is never adapted again .

= = Production = =

Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg , writers of the film Superbad , are " obsessed " fans of The Simpsons . After learning that The Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks was a fan of Superbad , they decided to ask the producers of the show if they could write an episode . In 2006 , Ricky Gervais , co @-@ creator of The Office , received credit for writing the season 17 episode " Homer Simpson , This Is Your Wife " . Rogen and Goldberg " thought if [ Gervais ] got to write one , maybe [ they ] could try . " They were invited to The Simpsons writers room , where they pitched several episode ideas . One was accepted , and they wrote an outline with the help of some feedback from the regular writers .

Rogen commented that he and Goldberg wanted to show with the episode how Hollywood generally ruins superhero films . He said that " the whole joke is that Homer is cast to play a guy who 's an everyman and they try to make him into this physically fit guy . " Rogen also noted that the plot mirrors the situation he was in while working on the film The Green Hornet , when he had to lose weight and do physical training for his role . Show runner Al Jean commented that the writers tried not to repeat the comic book film theme from the " Radioactive Man " episode . Instead they decided to parody the fact that almost every comic book has been turned into a film . Jean commented that that scene in the episode in which the studio executives " are trying to think up an idea that hasn 't been done really is what they are doing these days [ in real life ] . "

The table read took place in August 2008 , and production on the episode began soon after that . Rogen later said that " we sat down for a read @-@ through and three hours later I 'm in a studio improv @-@ ing with Homer Simpson , it was the single greatest day of my life . " Rogen also guest stars in the episode as the character Lyle McCarthy , making him the second guest star to both write an episode and appear in it ; Gervais also appeared in the episode he wrote . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening also makes an appearance in the episode .

= = Reception = =

In its original American broadcast in the United States on September 27 , 2009 , " Homer The Whopper " was watched in 8 @.@ 31 million homes and acquired a 4 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating / 12 % share . The rating was down seven percent from the previous season 's premiere , which was viewed in 9 @.@ 3 million homes the night it aired .

Since airing , " Homer The Whopper " has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Steve Fritz of Newsarama called the episode " amazing " and commented that the " overall comic book theme was perfect . " Reviewers for TV Guide cited Matt Groening 's cameo , the dinner table scene , Homer trying to lose weight at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , and the opening scene where Bart questions Comic Book Guy about Spider @-@ Man as the highlights of the episode .

Robert Canning of IGN was positive about " Homer The Whopper " , giving it an 8 @.@ 6 / 10 rating . He commented that the first act of the episode was the strongest , while the others were weaker . Canning believed the reason for this was that the viewers have already seen Homer " struggle with his weight countless times , and Rogen 's trainer , though funny much of the time , will likely never be remembered as a classic guest role . " He added , however , that Rogen and Goldberg are able to find " a few new angles with the weight jokes , so it 's not a complete loss . " Overall , Canning thought " Homer The Whopper " was a good start to the twenty @-@ first season , and although the plot may not be very original , the writers added " freshness to the proceedings . " The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff did not think the script was as good as Gervais ' , but commented that Rogen and Goldberg " managed to make a mostly amusing season premiere . " He added that he thought the Hollywood satirizing featured in this episode had been overused on the show , but " the specificity of what the [ episode ] was making fun of — trainers who help stars slim down ( in this case , helping Homer slim down ) — went a long way toward making the episode palatable . " VanDerWerff concluded that while the episode " didn ’ t try anything new [ ... ] , [ he ] had fun with it all the same . "

= Overhill Cherokee =

Overhill Cherokee was the term for the Cherokee people located in their historic settlements in what is now the U.S. state of Tennessee in the Southeastern United States , on the west side of the Appalachian Mountains . This name was used by 18th @-@ century European traders and explorers from British colonies along the Atlantic coast , as they had to cross the mountains to reach these settlements .

Situated along the lower Little Tennessee , lower Tellico , and lower Hiwassee rivers , the Overhill towns rose to prominence within the Cherokee Nation in the early 18th century , when they began to standardize trade with the British colonists . In the early part of the century , the Overhill towns ' remote location at the far end of the Trading Path meant they were reached only by those traders and explorers adventurous enough to make the difficult journey to the interior over the mountain range . By the middle of the century , the Overhill towns were consistently courted by both British and French emissaries , as the two powers struggled for the control of the continent and the lucrative fur trade .

During and following the American Revolutionary War , in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , the westward thrust of Euro @-@ American settlement led to the decline of the Overhill towns . The Cherokee were forced to cede most of their lands in this area through a series of unfavorable treaties with the United States , and they migrated to the south and west away from settler pressure for a time .

The Overhill town of Chota , in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , was recognized as the de facto capital of the entire Cherokee Nation for most of the 18th century , when it was the major settlement . The town of Tanasi became the namesake for the state of Tennessee . Many prominent Cherokee leaders , including Attakullakulla , Oconastota , Nancy Ward , and Sequoyah , were born and raised in Overhill towns .

In the 1970s , most of the former Overhill sites were submerged by the impoundment of the Little Tennessee River in a Tennessee Valley Authority project . But , archaeologists conducted extensive excavations prior to this , during which they identified most of the Overhill towns and extracted thousands of artifacts , helping them develop volumes of invaluable information regarding the region 's Cherokee and pre @-@ Cherokee inhabitants . Different cultures of indigenous peoples had lived along the river for 12 @,@ 000 years .

= = Geographic area = =

The Overhill settlements were concentrated around three rivers at the base of the Great Smoky Mountains and the Unicoi Mountains , in what are now Monroe and Polk counties in Tennessee . The northernmost of these three rivers , the Little Tennessee , was the locus for a string of prominent Overhill settlements situated between modern @-@ day Vonore and Calderwood Dam . Other important settlements were situated along the Hiwassee River south of modern Etowah and along the Tellico River in modern Tellico Plains .

Although Native Americans used most of the Tennessee side of the Great Smoky Mountains primarily as a hunting ground , early Euro @-@ American explorers recalled abandoned villages and temporary hunting camps scattered around the region . These were often found in the game @-@ rich coves of the northern part of the range and near the junctions of major streams .

= = = Prominent Overhill villages = = =

Mialoquo ( Amaye 'le 'gwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , on a now @-@ submerged island in the middle of the Little Tennessee River . This was just north of the modern U.S. Route 411 bridge . Mooney believed Mialoquo might have been the village of Nilaque , which the naturalist John Bartram recorded visiting . The term " Mialoquo " means " Great Island . " 35 @.@ 61534 ° N 84 @.@ 24048 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 61534 ; -84.24048

Tuskegee ( Taskigi ) – located at the confluence of the Tellico and Little Tennessee rivers south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . Tuskegee was the birthplace of Sequoyah , noted as the first person to independently create a written alphabet , which he did for the Cherokee language . 35 @.@ 59167 ° N 84 @.@ 20222 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 59167 ; -84.20222

Tomotley – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Toqua along the Little Tennessee River . Timberlake reported a councilhouse in Tomotley that would sound a " death hallow " to signify the return of a war party . 35 @.@ 57182 ° N 84 @.@ 18697 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 57182 ; -84.18697

Toqua ( Dakwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Toco Creek and the Little Tennessee River , just south of modern @-@ day Fort Loudoun State Park . 35 @.@ 56984 ° N 84 @.@ 17248 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 56984 ; -84.17248

Tanasi – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , adjacent to Chota along the Little Tennessee River . The town was the capital of the Overhill Cherokee c . 1721 – 1730 . The Little Tennessee was originally simply called the " Tennessee , " which was an alternate spelling of " Tanasi . " European @-@ American settlers eventually applied the name to the entire state . 35 @.@ 55005 ° N 84 @.@ 13374 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 55005 ; -84.13374

Chota ( Itsa 'sa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , along the Little Tennessee River , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of modern @-@ day Vonore . Chota was the de facto Cherokee capital in the mid @-@ 18th century , and birthplace of several prominent chiefs . At the time of Timberlake 's visit in 1761 , Chota consisted of a large councilhouse , which could seat 500 , and about 60 houses . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Echota . " 35 @.@ 55507 ° N 84 @.@ 13104 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 55507 ; -84.13104

Citico ( Si 'tiku ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , at the confluence of Citico Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The town 's name is sometimes spelled " Settaco . " 35 @.@ 54887 ° N 84 @.@ 09891 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 54887 ; -84.09891

Chilhowee ( Tsu 'lun 'we ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee River . The junction of modern U.S. Route 129 and Foothills Parkway is nearby . 35 @.@ 55231 ° N 84 @.@ 00737 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 55231 ; -84.00737

Tallassee ( Ta 'lasi ) – located in present @-@ day Blount and Monroe counties along the Little Tennessee River , a mile or so downstream from the modern Calderwood Dam . The modern town of Tallassee is situated much further downstream , and its location should not be confused with that of the ancient village . The Cherokee Tallassee is sometimes referred to as " Tallassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 50556 ° N 84 @.@ 00028 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 50556 ; -84.00028

Great Tellico ( Talikwa ) – located in present @-@ day Monroe County , Tennessee , in Tellico Plains , where the Tellico River levels out at the base of the Unicoi Mountains . Great Tellico rose to prominence in early 18th century under its chief Moytoy . Sir Alexander Cuming , who visited the town in 1730 , reported that Great Tellico had the fiercest warriors of all the Overhill towns . Great Tellico 's sister town , Chatuga , was also located in the valley . 35 @.@ 36627 ° N 84 @.@ 28745 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 36627 ; -84.28745

Great Hiwassee ( Ayouwasi ) – located in present @-@ day Polk County , Tennessee , along the Hiwassee River at the base of the Unicoi Mountains , where the river levels into a fertile plain . The site has been developed as farmland . The term Hiwassee means " savanna " or " plain . " Hiwassee is sometimes called " Hiwassee Old Town . " 35 @.@ 24314 ° N 84 @.@ 58149 ° W ﻿ / 35 @.@ 24314 ; -84.58149

= = = Trails and paths = = =

The Overhill settlements were connected by a series of well @-@ established Native American trails :

The Great Indian Warpath ran parallel to the base of the Appalachians , connecting the Overhill settlements to Cherokee villages in Georgia and Virginia .

The Trading Path ( later called the Unicoi Turnpike ) connected the Overhill towns with the Middle settlements in North Carolina , the Lower towns in South Carolina , and extended to Charleston , South Carolina .

The Warriors ' Path connected Hiwassee Old Town , Great Tellico , and Chota , which were the main villages along the three rivers in the Overhill country .

A branch of the Tuckaleechee and Southeastern Trail connected the Overhill towns along the Upper Little Tennessee with the Kitawha towns in North Carolina via Tuckaleechee Cove , Cades Cove and Ekaneetlee Gap ( near Gregory Bald ) .

The War Trace ran from the Upper Cherokee area , through southeast Kentucky , along Mason 's Creek or Mace 's Creek , and present @-@ day Viper , Kentucky , passing through the Overhill towns and reaching the Georgia Cherokee towns . It also had connections to the Warrior 's Path and the Cumberland Gap , Tennessee , area , and the Cherokee villages of Sullen Possum and Wildcat .

= = History = =

Early Euro @-@ American explorers in Southern Appalachia noted that the Cherokee were concentrated around three general regions . The " Lower Towns " were centered on the town of Keowee in the hills of South Carolina and northeastern Georgia . The " Middle Towns " were centered on Nequassee and Tassetchee amidst the Great Balsam Mountains and eastern Unicoi Mountains in western North Carolina . The Overhill Cherokee lived in settlements located between the Appalachian Mountains and the Tennessee Valley in what is now Tennessee . The Overhill capital , or " mother town , " shifted between Great Tellico , Tanasi , and Chota .

The Overhill settlements were established sometime between the late 16th century and the late 17th century , although scholars disagree as to a more exact timeframe . The major towns were well settled by the time the first Euro @-@ American explorers arrived in the late 17th century . The Overhill Cherokee were recognized as speaking a dialect distinctive from that found in the Middle and Lower towns , although all the people identified as Cherokee .

= = = Early accounts = = =

For most of the 17th century , the British colonies on the Atlantic coast dealt with the Cherokee via representatives of other tribes acting as middlemen . As the fur trade expanded in importance with rising demand in European markets , traders and trappers went to the Overhill settlements for direct contact with the Cherokee and other western tribes . In 1673 , Virginia merchants sent agents James Needham and Gabriel Arthur on a trip west of the Appalachians , hoping to open a direct trade route . While Needham was killed on the return trip , Arthur stayed behind . He later claimed to have accompanied the natives ( possibly the Cherokee ) on raids of Spanish settlements in Florida .

In 1725 , South Carolina sent Col. George Chicken on a diplomatic mission to the Overhill towns to address the issue of unlicensed traders , who were underselling merchants conducting business legally . Chicken arrived in Great Tellico in July . He described the village as " compact and thick settled ; " the town and tribe had long competed in the region with the Creek tribe . Chicken followed the Warriors ' Path north to the Little Tennessee River , where he met the " Head Warrior " of Tanasi and the chiefs of Citico and Tallassee .

= = = Alexander Cuming , 1730 = = =

Sir Alexander Cuming ( c . 1690 – 1775 ) arrived in Charleston , South Carolina in December 1729 . Although he lacked official diplomatic credentials , Cuming managed to convince several Charlestonians that he was an agent of King George II of Great Britain on a mission to gain the loyalty of the Cherokee . Cuming set out for the Overhill town of Tanasi in March 1730 , his stated goal being to gain the fabled " Crown of Tannassy . "

Cuming moved quickly along the Trading Path , interacting briefly with Lower and Middle chiefs . In just under a month , Cuming had crossed the Unicoi Mountains into the Overhill country , a dangerous place at the time due to the Cherokees ' ongoing war with the Creeks .

Years later colonial trader Ludovick Grant , who lived in Great Tellico and briefly accompanied Cuming during his tour , described the latter 's techniques . In each town , Cuming arranged a meeting with local Cherokee leaders . He arrived fully armed at the meeting at the town council house , in defiance of custom . There he made a prepared speech saying that he was a private citizen wishing only to see their country , and that if any Indians wished to return to England with him , he would take them . He asked them to join his party in a toast to the health of King George II , and to kneel in allegiance . He told his guides that he would have set fire to the townhouse and killed the assembled Indians if they refused .

During his stay in Great Tellico , Cuming was impressed by the display of its chief Moytoy . He described the encounter in his journal ( referring to his party in third person ) :

They arrived at great Telliquo in the Afternoon , saw the petrifying Cave , a great many Enemies Scalps brought in and put upon Poles at the Warriors Doors , made a Friend of the great Moytoy , and Jacob the Conjurer .

Cuming learned that Moytoy was trying to gain control of the entire Cherokee people , who were highly decentralized , with power associated with regional settlements . Cuming agreed to help Moytoy if the chief would help him get the Crown of Tanasi . On March 30 , 1730 , Cuming followed the Warriors ' Path from Great Tellico to Tanasi , which he found " pleasantly situated " along the Little Tennessee . Cuming met with the Tanasi Warrior , whom he understood to be the de facto leader of the Overhill at the time . After gaining the Tanasi Warrior 's allegiance , Cuming returned to Great Tellico . He accompanied Moytoy back across the Unicoi Mountains to Nequassee , and helped the chief be crowned as " Emperor of the Cherokee . "

Cuming returned to England on June 5 , 1730 , accompanied by several Cherokee and carrying a possum @-@ hair headdress , which he referred to as the " Crown of Tannassy . " Although he had planned to present the party and crown to King George II , a delegation from Charleston arrived claiming Cuming had defrauded them . While Cuming 's schemes led to his own downfall , his visit to the Overhill towns helped to solidify an alliance between the Cherokee and the English .

= = = Christian Priber , 1730s = = =

Around 1736 , Christian Priber , a German utopian idealist , reached Great Tellico . Although initially working as a French agent , Priber quickly abandoned his mission . He adopted Cherokee customs , learned the language , and quickly gained the tribe 's trust .

Priber attempted to organize Cherokee society in accordance with early 18th @-@ century European idealism . He promoted the idea that all things should be held in common , including wives and children . Claiming the English were fraudulent and greedy , he suggested moving the Cherokee capital to modern @-@ day Alabama , where it would be closer to the French colonial territory of La Louisiane . The English tried to arrest Priber in 1739 , but were prevented by the Cherokee . He was finally captured by the Creek people in 1743 and turned over to South Carolina authorities .

= = = Fort Loudoun , 1756 – 1760 = = =

At the outbreak of the Seven Years ' War ( or the French and Indian War as it was known in North America ) , the Cherokee aligned with the British . The Overhill towns agreed to provide military support , but asked that a fort be built to protect the area 's women and children while the warriors were away . In 1756 , the colonies dispatched Captain Raymond Demeré and engineer John DeBrahm to the area with several wagon loads of supplies for the construction of a fort along the Little Tennessee River . The fort , named after John Campbell , 4th Earl of Loudoun , stood at the junction of the Little Tennessee and the Tellico rivers . The Cherokee village of Tuskegee developed in its vicinity .

Shortly after the fort 's construction , relations between the English and the Cherokee soured . Several Cherokee returning home from battle were killed by settlers , and an increase in horse thefts created tension in Virginia . After a contingent of Cherokee chiefs were detained at Fort Prince George in late 1759 , the Cherokee , under Chief Standing Turkey , laid siege to Fort Loudoun . The fort 's garrison held out until August 1760 , when a lack of provisions forced them to surrender .

= = = Timberlake Expedition , 1761 = = =

The British colonies responded swiftly to the fall of Fort Loudoun . South Carolina sent Colonel James Grant against the Lower Towns , Virginia dispatched Colonel William Byrd to attack the Middle Towns in western North Carolina , and Colonel Adam Stephen detached from Byrd 's regiment and marched to Long Island on the Holston ( near modern @-@ day Kingsport , Tennessee ) with plans to attack the Overhill Towns . The Cherokee immediately sued for peace , which was granted . To help solidify the peace , Colonel Stephen dispatched Lieutenant Henry Timberlake and Sergeant Thomas Sumter to accompany a Cherokee delegation on a tour of the Overhill towns .

After a five @-@ day journey down the Holston , French Broad , and Little Tennessee rivers , Timberlake arrived in the Overhill town of Tomotley . There he was greeted by Ostenaco and witnessed a ceremonial return of a Cherokee war party . After smoking a peace pipe with Ostenaco , Timberlake proceeded southward to Chota , where he was met by some 400 Cherokee . Timberlake smoked a peace pipe with several tribal leaders , and recorded the layout and design of the town 's large council @-@ house .

The following day , Timberlake arrived in the town of Citico , where the residents greeted him with a long dance . After smoking a peace pipe with the town leader Cheulah , Timberlake proceeded southward to Chilhowee , where he gained similar assurances of peace . He returned via the trail to Long Island on the Holston . Timberlake 's journals , published in the 1760s , contain detailed descriptions of Cherokee councilhouses , residences , canoes , and other facets of everyday Cherokee life ; these were invaluable to historians .

= = = American Revolution = = =

At the close of the Seven Years ' War , Euro @-@ American settlers began trickling into east Tennessee from the eastern colonies . In 1772 , several pioneers negotiated a lease for Cherokee lands in northeast Tennessee and formed the Watauga Settlement . In spite of the agreement , tensions between the pioneers and the Cherokee rose steadily . By the outbreak of the American Revolution , the Cherokee were allied with the British against the rebellious American colonies , hoping to push the encroaching settlers out of their territory .

In 1776 , the Cherokee initiated a plan to drive the settlers out of the Washington District , North Carolina and invade Virginia . Virginia merchant , Isaac Thomas — later a co @-@ founder of Sevierville — was warned of the invasion by Nancy Ward , a Cherokee Beloved Woman . Thomas passed on the warning to the settlers , who prepared their defenses . The first prong of the attack , led by Dragging Canoe , was defeated by colonists at Heaton 's Station . The second prong , led by Abraham of Chilhowee , was routed at Fort Watauga . In response to these attacks , several thousand militia led by William Christian invaded the Overhill towns and burned Tuskegee and Citico . The Cherokee made peace shortly thereafter , under the Treaty of De Witt 's Corner . Chiefs Dragging Canoe and Ostenaco refused to sign another treaty , and fled south with their followers to continue the armed struggle , in what became known as the Cherokee – American wars .

In 1780 , while the North Carolina militia from the Washington District , often referred to as the " overhill militia " , were away at the Battle of Kings Mountain , the Cherokee launched sporadic raids against the settlers here . Upon returning , Colonel John Sevier , who had gained fame as a co @-@ commander at Kings Mountain , was dispatched , along with several thousand militia , to the south on a punitive expedition to the Overhill towns . After defeating the Cherokee in a fierce battle at Boyd 's Creek ( in modern @-@ day Sevier County ) , Sevier proceeded southward . He destroyed most of the remaining , lightly defended villages , including the capital of Chota .

= = = Cherokee – American wars = = =

After the Cherokee defeats at Heaton 's Station and Fort Watauga in 1776 , most Cherokee chiefs , including Attakullakulla and Oconastota , signed the Treaty of De Witt 's Corner . Dragging Canoe and Ostenaco refused to recognize this treaty , claiming the settlers were unlikely to abide by the treaty 's terms . Along with several renegade tribesmen from across the Cherokee tribes , they moved south to Chickamauga Creek , in the vicinity of what is now Chattanooga , and set up a series of villages .

Settlers called them the " Chickamauga Cherokee " after their location and to distinguish them from the greater Cherokee tribe . The Chickamauga ( or " Lower Cherokee " as they were also sometimes called ) proceeded to carry on an unconventional war against the encroaching Euro @-@ American settlers , ambushing small patrols and attacking small settlements . After Oconastota 's death in the early 1780s , Chief Old Tassel was recognized as the leader of the Overhill Cherokee . He sought more distance from the Chickamauga . After an expedition by Sevier destroyed the Chickamauga towns in 1782 , Dragging Canoe moved the Chickamaugas southwest to modern @-@ day Marion County , Tennessee , where he continued his struggle .

The end of the Revolutionary War released more energy for postwar settlement from the eastern states , and the Cherokee had to contend with new migrants in their territories . In 1788 , a renegade band of Cherokees massacred much of the family of John Kirk on Nine Mile Creek ( in modern Blount County , Tennessee ) , enraging the already uneasy settlers . Sevier rallied the militia at Hunter 's Station ( near Maryville ) and marched across Chilhowee Mountain to the Little Tennessee River . After capturing and burning Tallassee , Sevier entered Chilhowee and placed Abraham of Chilhowee and Old Tassel under arrest , while negotiating a truce . One of Kirk 's surviving sons got to the chiefs and tomahawked both of them to death . The killing of chiefs under a flag of truce was considered a grave insult by the Cherokee , and this event revived the dwindling power of the Chickamaugas for warfare .

After the massacre at Chilhowee , John Watts ( Old Tassel 's son ) and Doublehead ( Old Tassel 's brother ) aligned with Dragging Canoe ; together they carried on a protracted series of attacks against the settlers . Sevier again marched south , capturing and burning several villages before being forced to turn back . Although Dragging Canoe died in 1792 , John Watt and Doublehead continued to make sporadic attacks against Euro @-@ American settlements . Such raids gradually shifted and were conducted against settlements in the Cumberland region .

= = = Tellico Agency = = =

After the assassination of Old Tassel in 1788 , Chief Hanging Maw was recognized as the leader of the Overhill towns . With violence spiraling out of control , Hanging Maw petitioned the territorial governor , William Blount , for a fort to protect the peaceful Overhill villages from vengeful settlers . In 1794 , Hanging Maw donated land at the junction of Nine Mile Creek and the Little Tennessee River to the U.S. government for the construction of the Tellico Blockhouse .

Along with a small garrison of federal soldiers , the Tellico Blockhouse was the headquarters of the Tellico Agent , William Blountt , he official liaison between the U.S. and the Cherokee . On November 8 , 1794 , Blount met Hanging Maw ( representing the Overhill Cherokee ) and John Watt ( representing the Lower Cherokee ) to sign a treaty ending the Cherokee – American wars . Over the next ten years , the US made several other treaties with the Cherokee , persuading Cherokee leaders to cede large portions of land in East and Middle Tennessee , including the Overhill towns along the Little Tennessee , in an attempt to gain peace . With the cession of Overhill lands , the Cherokee Nation 's center of power shifted south to New Echota in Georgia . Settlers migrating throughout the Southeast kept up pressure to gain Cherokee lands .

= = Overhill sites today = =

In 1967 , the Tennessee Valley Authority began construction on Tellico Dam just above the mouth of the Little Tennessee . The impoundment created Tellico Lake and effectively flooded all of the original known Overhill sites along the Little Tennessee River . Before the flooding , the University of Tennessee conducted extensive archaeological excavations , identifying Chota 's townhouse and the grave of Oconastota . The site of Chota 's townhouse was covered with fill , raising it above water levels . A monument with eight pillars — one for the Cherokee Nation and each of its seven clans — was placed at the site along with the reinterred grave of Oconastota . Nearby , a small monument was erected marking the site of Tanasi , and recalling it as the root of the state 's name . Both sites are managed by the Eastern Band of the Cherokee .

Further upstream , Chilhowee Dam was named after the now @-@ submerged site of Chilhowee . Tennessee Reservoir Development Agency ( TRDA ) boat ramps have been named after the submerged former sites of Toqua and Tallassee . Abrams Creek , which traverses Cades Cove and empties into the Little Tennessee , is named after chief Abraham of Chilhowee .

In the 20th century , Fort Loudon was reconstructed by state teams , as well as a replica of a 17th @-@ century village dwelling of Tuskegee ; these are located within the Fort Loudoun State Park . The state park also manages the Tellico Blockhouse site , the foundations of which have been identified and marked . The Sequoyah Birthplace Museum , near Fort Loudoun in Vonore , is dedicated to the creator of the Cherokee alphabet . The Unicoi Trail , a cross @-@ country hiking trail , now connects the Sequoyah Museum with Murphy , North Carolina , roughly following the ancient Trading Path . The Frank H. McClung Museum at the University of Tennessee contains hundreds of Cherokee artifacts obtained from various excavations which the university has conducted in the Tennessee Valley over the past century .

= = Prominent Overhill Cherokee figures = =

Moytoy of Tellico ( c . 1687 – 1760 ) – headman at Great Tellico at the time of Cuming 's visit

Old Tassel ( Onitositaii ) ( c . 1700 – 1788 ) — headman of Toqua

Ostenaco ( c . 1700 – 1780 ) – head chief , Tomotley , at the time of Timberlake 's visit

Attakullakulla ( c.1710 – 1777 ) – born in Chota

Oconastota ( c . 1710 – 1783 ) – born and died in Chota

Jacob the Conjurer ( fl. ca . 1730 ) – in Great Tellico at the time of Cumming 's visit

Dragging Canoe ( c . 1738 – 1792 ) – born in Chota , onetime headman of Great Island Town

Nancy Ward ( c . 1738 – 1824 ) – born in Chota

John Watts ( 1753 – 1802 ) – nephew of Old Tassel , leader of the Chickamauga / Lower Cherokee after Dragging Canoe died in 1792 .

Moytoy of Citico ( 1759 – 1761 ) - began the Anglo @-@ Cherokee War

Sequoyah ( c . 1767 – 1843 ) – born in Tuskegee

Savanukah ; participated in the 1776 offensive into the Washington District , North Carolina , served as headman of the Overhills 1780 – 1781 .

Abraham of Chilhowee ( or Abram ) ( d . 1788 ) – led Cherokee assault against Fort Watauga in 1776

= Least weasel =

The least weasel ( Mustela nivalis ) , or simply weasel in the UK , is the smallest member of the genus Mustela and of the family Mustelidae ( as well as the smallest of the Carnivora ) , native to Eurasia , North America and North Africa , though it has been introduced to New Zealand , Australia , Malta , Crete , Bermuda , Madeira Island , the Azores , the Canary Islands , Sao Tome , the Falkland Islands , Argentina and Chile . It is classed as being of least concern by the IUCN , due to its wide distribution and presumed large population .

Least weasels from various parts of its range vary greatly in size . The body is slender and elongated and the legs and tail are relatively short . The colour varies geographically , as does the pelage type and length of tail . The dorsal surface , flanks , limbs and tail of the animal are usually some shade of brown while the underparts are white . The line delineating the boundary between the two colours is usually straight . At high altitudes and in the northern part of its range , the coat becomes pure white in winter . Eighteen subspecies are recognised .

Small rodents form the largest part of the least weasel 's diet , but it also kills and eats rabbits and other mammals , and occasionally birds , birds ' eggs , fish and frogs . Males mark their territories with olfactory signals and have exclusive home ranges which may intersect with or include several female ranges . Least weasels use pre @-@ existing holes to sleep , store food and raise their young . Breeding takes place in the spring and summer , and there is a single litter of about six kits which are reared exclusively by the female . Due to its small size , fierce nature and cunning behaviour , the least weasel plays an important part in the mythology and legend of various cultures .

= = Taxonomy and evolution = =

The least weasel was given its scientific name Mustela nivalis by Carl Linnaeus in his 12th edition of Systema Naturae in 1766 . The type locality was Westrobothnia in Sweden . As an animal with a very wide distribution , the morphology of the least weasel varies geographically . The species was reviewed by Reichstein in 1957 and again by van Zyll de Jong in 1992 and Reig in 1997 . Youngman ( 1982 ) placed it in the subgenus Mustela while Abramov ( 1999 ) considered it should be included in the subgenus Gale . Based on skull characteristics , Reig ( 1997 ) proposed that the taxon should be split into four species , M. subpalmata , M. rixosa , M. vulgaris and M. eskimo . Abrimov and Baryshinikov ( 2000 ) disagreed , recognising only M. subpalmata as a separate species .

Within the genus Mustela , the least weasel is a relatively unspecialised form , as evidenced by its pedomorphic skull , which occurs even in large subspecies . Its direct ancestor was Mustela praenivalis , which lived in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene and Villafranchian . M. praenivalis itself was probably preceded by M. pliocaenica of the Pliocene . The modern species probably arose during the Late Pleistocene . The least weasel is the product of a process begun 5 – 7 million years ago , when northern forests were replaced by open grassland , thus prompting an explosive evolution of small , burrowing rodents . The weasel 's ancestors were larger than the current form , and underwent a reduction in size to exploit the new food source . The least weasel throve during the Ice Age , as its small size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow , as well as hunt in burrows . It probably crossed to North America through the Bering land bridge 200 @,@ 000 years ago .

= = = Subspecies = = =

The least weasel has a high geographic variation , a fact which has historically led to numerous disagreements among biologists studying its systematics . Least weasel subspecies are divided into 3 categories :

The pygmaea – rixosa group ( small weasels ) : Tiny weasels with short tails , pedomorphic skulls , and pelts that turn pure white in winter . They inhabit northern European Russia , Siberia , the Russian Far East , Finland , northern Scandinavian Peninsula , Mongolia , northeastern China , Japan and North America .

The boccamela group ( large weasels ) : Very large weasels with large skulls , relatively long tails and lighter coloured pelts . Locally , they either do not turn white or only partially change colour in winter . They inhabit Transcaucasia , from western Kazakhstan to Semirechye and in the flat deserts of Middle Asia . They are also found in Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia .

The nivalis group ( average weasels ) : Medium @-@ sized weasels , with tails of moderate length , representing a transitional form between the former two groups . They inhabit the middle and southern regions of European Russia , Crimea , Ciscaucasus , western Kazakhstan , southern and middle Urals and montane parts of Middle Asia , save for Koppet Dag .

As of 2005 , 18 subspecies are recognised .

= = Description = =

The least weasel has a thin , greatly elongated and extremely flexible body with a small , yet elongated , blunt @-@ muzzled head which is no thicker than the neck . The eyes are large , bulging and dark coloured . The legs and tail are relatively short , the latter constituting less than half the body length . The feet are armed with sharp , dark @-@ coloured claws , and the soles are heavily haired . The skull , especially that of the small rixosa group , has an infantile appearance when compared with that of other members of the genus Mustela ( in particular , the stoat and kolonok ) . This is expressed in the relatively large size of the cranium and shortened facial region . The skull is , overall , similar to that of the stoat , but smaller , though the skulls of large male weasels tend to overlap in size with those of small female stoats . There are usually four pairs of nipples but these are only visible in females . The baculum is short , 16 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) , with a thick , straight shaft . Fat is deposited along the spine , kidneys , gut mesentries and around the limbs . The least weasel has muscular anal glands under the tail , which measure 7 by 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 by 0 @.@ 2 in ) , and contain sulphurous volatiles , including thietanes and dithiacyclopentanes . The smell and chemical composition of these chemicals are distinct from those of the stoat . The least weasel moves by jumping , the distance between the tracks of the fore and hind limbs being 18 to 35 cm ( 7 to 14 in ) .

Dimensions vary geographically , to an extent rarely found among other mammals . Least weasels of the vulgaris group , for example , may outweigh the smaller races by almost four times . In some large subspecies , the male may be 1 @.@ 5 times longer than the female . Variations in tail length are also variable , constituting from 13 – 30 % of the length of the body . Average body length in males is 130 to 260 mm ( 5 to 10 in ) , while females average 114 to 204 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 0 in ) . The tail measures 12 to 87 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 4 in ) in males and 17 to 60 mm ( 0 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in females . Males weigh 36 to 250 g ( 1 @.@ 3 to 8 @.@ 8 oz ) , while females weigh 29 to 117 g ( 1 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 1 oz ) .

The winter fur is dense , but short and closely fitting . In northern subspecies , the fur is soft and silky , but coarse in southern forms . The summer fur is very short , sparser and rougher . The upper parts in the summer fur are dark , but vary geographically from dark @-@ tawny or dark @-@ chocolate to light pale tawny or sandy . The lower parts , including the lower jaw and inner sides of the legs , are white . There is often a brown spot at the corner of the mouth . The dividing line between the dark upper and light lower parts is usually straight but sometimes forms an irregular line . The tail is brown , and sometimes the tip is a little darker but it is never black . In the northern part of its range and at high altitudes , the least weasel changes colour in the winter , the coat becoming pure white and exhibiting a few black hairs in rare circumstances .

= = Behaviour and ecology = =

= = = Reproduction and development = = =

The least weasel mates in April – July and there is a 34- to 37 @-@ day gestation period . In the Northern Hemisphere , the average litter size consists of 6 kits and these reach sexual maturity in 3 to 4 months . Males may mate during their first year of life , though this is usually unsuccessful . They are fecund in February – October , though the early stages of spermatogenesis do occur throughout the winter months . Anestrus in females lasts from September until February .

The female raises its kits without help from the male . They are 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 05 to 0 @.@ 16 oz ) in weight at birth . Newborn kits are born pink , naked , blind and deaf , but gain a white coat of downy fur at the age of 4 days . At 10 days , the margin between the dark upper parts and light under parts becomes visible . The milk teeth erupt at 2 to 3 weeks of age , at which point the young start to eat solid food , though lactation can last 12 weeks . The eyes and ears open at 3 to 4 weeks of age , and by 8 weeks , killing behaviour is developed . The family breaks up after 9 to 12 weeks . There is a single litter each year and least weasels can live for 7 or 8 years .

= = = Territorial and social behaviours = = =

The least weasel has a typical mustelid territorial pattern , consisting of exclusive male ranges encompassing multiple female ranges . The population density of each territory depends greatly on food supply and reproductive success , thus the social structure and population density of any given territory is unstable and flexible . Like the stoat , the male least weasel extends its range during spring or during food shortages . Its scent marking behaviour is similar to that of the stoat ; it uses faeces , urine and anal and dermal gland secretions , the latter two of which are deposited by anal dragging and body rubbing . The least weasel does not dig its own den , but nests in the abandoned burrow of another species such as a mole or rat . The burrow entrance measures about 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) across and leads to the nest chamber located up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) below ground . The nest chamber ( which is used for sleeping , rearing kits and storing food ) measures 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , and is lined with straw and the skins of the weasel 's prey .

The least weasel has four basic vocalisations ; a guttural hiss emitted when alarmed , which is interspersed with short screaming barks and shrieks when provoked . When defensive , it emits a shrill wail or squeal . During encounters between males and females or between a mother and kits , the least weasel emits a high @-@ pitched trilling . The least weasel 's way of expressing aggression is similar to that of the stoat . Dominant weasels exhibit lunges and shrieks during aggressive encounters , while subdominant weasels will emit submissive squeals .

= = = Diet = = =

The least weasel feeds predominantly on mouse @-@ like rodents , including mice , hamsters , gerbils and others . It usually does not attack adult hamsters and rats . Frogs , fish , small birds and bird eggs are rarely eaten . It can deal with adult pikas and gerbils , but usually cannot overcome brown rats and sousliks . Exceptional cases are known of least weasels killing prey far larger than themselves , such as capercaillie , hazel hen and hares . In England , a favoured prey item is the field vole ( Microtus agrestis ) . These have fluctuations in population size , and in years of abundance may form up to 54 % of the weasel 's diet . In years of scarcity , birds form a greater proportion of the diet and female least weasels may fail to breed .

Despite its small size , the least weasel is a fierce hunter , capable of killing a rabbit five to ten times its own weight . Although they are commonly taken , the rabbits are usually young specimens , and become an important food source during the spring , when small rodents are scarce and rabbit kits are plentiful . Male least weasels take a higher proportion of rabbits than females , as well as an overall greater variety of prey . This is linked to the fact that being larger , and having vaster territorial ranges than females , males have more opportunities to hunt a greater diversity of prey .

The least weasel forages undercover , to avoid being seen by foxes and birds of prey . It is adapted for pursuing its prey down tunnels , though it may also bolt prey from a burrow and kill it in the open . The least weasel kills small prey , such as voles , with a bite to the occipital region of the skull or the neck , dislocating the cervical vertebrae . Large prey typically dies of blood loss or circulatory shock . When food is abundant , only a small portion of the prey is eaten , usually the brain . The average daily food intake is 35 g ( 1 oz ) , which is equivalent to 30 – 35 % of the animal 's body weight .

= = = Predators and competitors = = =

The least weasel is small enough to be preyed upon by a range of other predators . Least weasel remains have been found in the excrement of red foxes , sables , steppe and forest polecat , stoats , eagle owls and buzzards . The owls most efficient at capturing least weasels are barn , barred , and great horned owls . Other birds of prey threatening to the least weasel include broad @-@ winged and rough @-@ legged buzzards . Some snake species may prey on the least weasel , including the black rat snake and copperhead . Aside from its smaller size , the least weasel is more vulnerable to predation than the stoat because it lacks a black predator deflection mark on the tail .

In areas where the least weasel is sympatric with the stoat , the two species compete with each other for rodent prey . The weasel manages to avoid too much competition by living in more upland areas , feeding on smaller prey and being capable of entering smaller holes . It actively avoids encounters with stoats , though female weasels are less likely to stop foraging in the presence of stoats , perhaps because their smaller size allows them to quickly escape into holes .

= = = Diseases and parasites = = =

Ectoparasites known to infest weasels include the louse Trichodectes mustelae and the mites Demodex and Psoregates mustela . The species may catch fleas from the nests and burrows of its prey . Flea species known to infest weasels include Ctenophthalmus bisoctodentatus and Palaeopsylla m. minor , which they get from moles , P. s. soricis , which they get from shrews , Nosopsyllus fasciatus , which they get from rodents and Dasypsyllus gallinulae which they get from birds .

Helminths known to infest weasels include the trematode Alaria , the nematodes Capillaria , Filaroides and Trichinella and the cestode Taenia . Least weasels are commonly infected with the nematode Skrjabingylus nasicola , adults of which are found in the nasal sinuses and can damage the skull . There is no evidence that this has serious detrimental effects on even heavily infested animals .

= = Distribution and habitat = =

The least weasel has a circumboreal , Holarctic distribution , encompassing much of Europe and North Africa , Asia and parts of northern North America , where it occurs mainly in places where the stoat is not found , though it has been introduced in New Zealand , Malta , Crete , the Azore Islands and also Sao Tome off west Africa . It is found throughout Europe and on many islands , including the Azores , Britain ( but not Ireland ) , and all major Mediterranean islands . It also occurs on Honshu and Hokkaido islands in Japan and on Kunashir , Iturup , and Sakhalin Islands in Russia .

The least weasel occupies a similar type of habitat as the stoat but it less often frequents wet places . It can be found in fields , open woodland , bushy or rocky areas , parks and gardens , and at altitudes of up to about 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) .

= = Conservation status = =

The least weasel has a very wide circumboreal range and a large total population and is therefore listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of " least concern " . Its chosen habitat is in areas of coarse vegetation and in some regions its numbers may be decreasing because of changes in agricultural practices , but altogether its population trend is thought to be steady . It is relatively common in Eurasia but less abundant in North America and is thought to be rare in the southeastern United States . It is subject to considerable variations in numbers in areas where its main rodent prey is liable to large population fluctuations . In years of rodent population booms , the least weasel numbers may rise by up to ten @-@ fold , only to slump again as prey becomes scarce again in the following years .

= = In folklore and mythology = =

The Ancient Macedonians believed that to see a least weasel was a good omen . In some districts of Macedon , women who suffered from headaches after having washed their heads in water drawn overnight would assume that a weasel had previously used the water as a mirror , but they would refrain from mentioning the animal 's name for fear that it would destroy their clothes . Similarly , a popular superstition in southern Greece had it that the least weasel had previously been a bride , who was transformed into a bitter animal which would destroy the wedding dresses of other brides out of jealousy . According to Pliny the Elder , the least weasel is the only animal capable of killing the basilisk ;

To this dreadful monster the effluvium of the weasel is fatal , a thing that has been tried with success , for kings have often desired to see its body when killed ; so true is it that it has pleased Nature that there should be nothing without its antidote . The animal is thrown into the hole of the basilisk , which is easily known from the soil around it being infected . The weasel destroys the basilisk by its odour , but dies itself in this struggle of nature against its own self .

The Chippewa believed that the least weasel could kill the dreaded wendigo giant by rushing up its anus . In Inuit mythology , the least weasel is credited with both great wisdom and courage , and whenever a mythical Inuit hero wished to accomplish a valorous task , he would generally change himself into a least weasel . According to Matthew Hopkins , a witch hunter general during the English Civil War , least weasels were the familiars of witches .

= Aseroe coccinea =

Aseroe coccinea is a species of stinkhorn fungus in the genus Aseroe . First reported in Japan in 1989 , it was not formally validated as a species until 2007 , the delay related to a publication error . The receptacle , or fruit body , begins as a partially buried whitish egg @-@ shaped structure , which bursts open as a hollow white stipe with reddish arms , then erupts and grows to a height of up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) . It matures into a star @-@ shaped structure with seven to nine thin reddish tubular " arms " up to 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) long radiating from the central area . The top of the receptacle is covered with dark olive @-@ brown spore @-@ slime , or gleba . A. coccinea can be distinguished from the more common species A. rubra by differences in the color of the receptacle , and in the structure of the arms . The edibility of the fungus has not been reported .

= = Taxonomy = =

The fungus was first described provisionally ( denoted by ad interim ) as Aseroe coccinea by the Japanese mycologists Yoshimi and Tsuguo Hongo in a 1989 publication with a Japanese description , based on a specimen collected on September 29 , 1985 in Utsunomiya , Tochigi Prefecture , Japan . The name , however , was not published validly ( nomen invalidum ) , according to Article 36 @.@ 1 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , which requires that " in order to be validly published , a name of a new taxon ( algal and all fossil taxa excepted ) must ... be accompanied by a Latin description or diagnosis or by a reference to a previously and effectively published Latin description or diagnosis " . Taiga Kasuya reexamined the type specimen and validated the species in a 2007 Mycoscience publication . The holotype specimen is kept at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Tokyo .

The specific epithet coccinea is derived from the Latin word coccineus , and means " bright red " . The mushroom 's Japanese name is Aka @-@ hitode @-@ take ( アカヒトデタケ ) .

= = Description = =

Like all Phallaceae species , A. coccinea begins its development in the form of a roughly spherical whitish " egg " that is 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) in diameter , lying on or partially submerged in the substrate . On the base of the egg is a white strand of mycelium . The exoperidium ( the outer tissue layer ) is white to cream @-@ colored with a fibrous surface . The inner layer is membranous , with a hyaline ( translucent ) endoperidium ( inner tissue layer ) . The slimy spore @-@ bearing mass , the gleba , is olive @-@ brown to greenish @-@ black , with a slightly fetid odor . When the mushroom is mature , it covers the upper surface of a disc on the top of the receptacle . The receptacle has a cylindrical stipe , 10 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) tall , 7 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) in diameter at the top , somewhat fusiform ( tapered at both ends ) or sometimes just tapered towards the base . The stipe is pale pink near the top , white to cream at the base , spongy in texture , and hollow . The top of the receptacle is flattened to form a disc that bears 7 – 9 , narrow , tapering " arms " . The arms consist of a single bright red tube @-@ like chamber , that is 4 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) long and 0 @.@ 7 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 0 – 0 @.@ 1 in ) thick .

The thick @-@ walled spores are ellipsoid to cylindrical , and measure 4 – 5 by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 μm . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , have a smooth surface , and are sometimes truncated at the base . The peridium of the " egg " is divided into two distinct layers of tissue . The outer is up to 250 – 400 μm thick , and made of filamentous , interwoven hyphae measuring 2 @.@ 5 – 5 μm in diameter . These hyphae are thick @-@ walled , septate , and hyaline . Also present in this outer layer are thick @-@ walled pseudoparenchymatous cells ( angular , randomly arranged , and tightly packed ) that are 7 – 50 μm thick , spherical or nearly so , and yellowish @-@ brown to pale brown . The inner tissue layer of the peridium is 100 – 250 μm thick and made of elongated filamentous hyphae that are 2 – 5 μm in diameter . These thick @-@ walled hyphae are arranged in a roughly parallel fashion , septate , and hyaline . The receptacle consists of thick @-@ walled , roughly spherical pseudoparenchymatous cells 5 – 15 @.@ 5 μm thick , that contain intracellular pigment .

= = = Similar species = = =

A. coccinea closely resembles A. arachnoidea , but may be distinguished from the latter by its bright red arms , and its larger spores ( 4 – 5 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 μm in A. coccinea compared with 2 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 by 1 @.@ 5 μm in A. arachnoidea ) . A. arachnoidea is known from Asia and West Africa . A. rubra is a relatively common pantropical species , and differs from A. coccinea in its reddish receptacle ( compared with pink to cream @-@ colored in A. coccinea ) and bifurcating arms that are typically multichambered .

= = Habitat and distribution = =

Although Kasuya did not explicitly define the mode of nutrition for A. coccinea , most Phallaceae species are suspected to be saprobic — decomposers of wood and plant organic matter . The fruit bodies of A. coccinea , known only from temperate regions of Japan ( Tochigi Prefecture ) , grow solitarily or in groups on rice husks , straw , or dung . They are found from summer to autumn .

= Spit & Eggs =

" Spit & Eggs " is the ninth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ third episode overall . Written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas , the episode premiered on November 28 , 2006 , on The CW . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .

In this episode , when the Greek system at Hearst College is suddenly reinstated , Veronica enlists the help of her friends in patrolling a party to look for date rape drugs . Eventually , she learns the identity of the Hearst serial rapist and puts herself in danger to catch him . In addition , Dean O 'Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) acts increasingly erratically before he mysteriously appears dead in his office with a gunshot wound to the head . Meanwhile , Veronica and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) both deal with the emotional aftereffects of O 'Dell 's death .

" Spit & Eggs " was the second episode to be both written and directed by Thomas , who included several camera and prop changes that were not originally in the script . Series regular Tina Majorino returns to the series beginning in this episode after an absence since " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " , a hiatus which was due to her filming Big Love . In addition , during production , the crew decided to change their narrative plan for the season , maintaining two of the shorter story arcs but removing the planned third .

The episode was viewed by 3 @.@ 44 million viewers in its initial airing , a series high . The episode received critical acclaim , with many critics praising the return of Mac and the increased role of peripheral characters , the resolution to the rape mystery , and the setup of the next major story arc . Eric Goldman of IGN praised the various plotlines converging , while Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club wrote that the plot twist " plays on everyone 's expectations . "

= = Plot synopsis = =

Beginning in medias res , while Piz ( Chris Lowell ) and Mac ( Tina Majorino ) are at a party , a bloodied Veronica stumbles to Piz ’ s door and collapses . The episode flashes back to two days earlier . As the Lilith House celebrates the end of the Greek system , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) abruptly breaks up with Veronica . Weevil helps Dean O ’ Dell ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) fix his TV . A man comes into the Dean ’ s office and implicitly threatens to remove his funding if the Greek system stays closed . The Dean tells Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) to track his wife , and Veronica sobs in the shower due to her breakup with Logan . The Dean unexpectedly reinstates the Greek system , to the delight of Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) . The Dean and Veronica spot a classified ad that states that a mysterious person will find his next victim at a party . After receiving an A on her paper , she visits Tim Foyle ( James Jordan ) and sees an investigation board . Veronica enlists Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , Piz , and Mac for help in investigating an upcoming Pi Sig party .

At the party , Veronica notices that the “ rape coasters ” which test for date rape drugs do not actually work . Veronica , Mac , and Piz test various peoples ’ cups and find nothing . After Keith tells Dean O ’ Dell that his wife is cheating on him with Veronica ’ s criminology professor , he pulls out a gun . Wallace and Piz find a drink that was tested positive for GHB , and Wallace and Piz dash to her dorm . Dean O ’ Dell finds and enters into the room in which his wife and the criminology professor are carrying on their affair as Veronica learns that they have tracked the wrong girl . Just as Mercer ( Ryan Devlin ) ( the actual rapist ) is about to rape his next victim , he abruptly learns that Veronica has changed places with his victim . Veronica tases Mercer , and they have a quick fight before Veronica escapes . She is let into Moe ’ s ( Andrew McClain ) room .

Moe hands Veronica a drink . Immediately after discovering a picture of Mercer and Moe , Veronica experiences the effects of a date rape drug . She hides in the closet and struggles to remain conscious . Mercer and Moe enter the room and are about to miss her , but Veronica ’ s cell phone rings and they knock her out . Parker ( Julie Gonzalo ) calls attention to Mercer . In addition to a bomb threat against Hearst , Dean O ’ Dell notices his window being egged before a mysterious man enters and the Dean asks “ What are you doing here ? ” Keith arrests Mercer and Moe . Logan intentionally gets himself arrested so he can go into the cell with Mercer and Moe .

= = Production = =

= = = Development = = =

The episode was written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas , marking his seventh writing credit and second and final directing credit for the series ( after " Donut Run " ) . Starting with this episode , Thomas and the crew 's plan for the season changed — while they had initially scheduled three major story arcs for the season , this number was now bumped down to two , while the last few episodes would be standalone . The creative team decided that their choices for major mysteries had not worked since season one ; Thomas elaborated , " One feeling is that the big mysteries keep away the casual TV viewers , and the other is the thing that has been the least successful since season one [ … ] the big mysteries . " Thomas also recalled that his major design for the first season that was because Lilly had been murdered , everyone had a stake in the solving of the mystery and that the crew were finding it impossible to keep the same amount of emotional involvement since the first season ; Thomas thought that the new format would be a way of trying to return to a more emotionally driven format .

In addition , Thomas turned what was scheduled to be the third major mystery into a two @-@ episode storyline , with the last five episodes of the season being stand @-@ alone . He stated , " It seems like a good time to do it — a good fun test balloon . " Nevertheless , he confirmed that there would be ongoing stories in Veronica 's personal life . A week prior to the episode 's airing , Michael Ausiello received an advance screening of the episode , revealing several details that the network allowed him to divulge .

= = = Writing and directing = = =

On the Season Three DVD Commentary , Thomas remarks on his experience directing " Spit & Eggs " and shares his thoughts on several scenes of the episode . He called the scene in which Mercer attacks Veronica the one he was " happiest with for any number of reasons . " The scene was shot with 27 camera angles , the most for any Veronica Mars episode , and it took 10 or 11 hours to film . The scene also features a number of fake unicorns in various forms ; unicorns were an in @-@ joke among the cast and crew after one season 2 script involved Veronica calling a store " Unicornicopia . " While directing the scene , Thomas wanted to find an unusual weapon to be used , and " a unicorn struck [ him ] as funny . " The scene in which Moe removes the unicorn horn from Mercer 's leg was initially intended to be Moe bandaging Mercer , but Thomas thought that the final product would be more " interesting " while preparing for the scene .

Thomas included Piz dancing humorously at the fraternity party because he " could watch it over and over " , and there were roughly fifteen minutes of footage of him dancing . The band that plays at the party , the Diamond Smugglers , is from Thomas 's hometown of Austin , Texas , and they played at Thomas 's wedding and 40th birthday party . The scene near the end with Logan smashing a police car to get intentionally thrown in prison confused the crew , who doubted its artistic and technical plausibility . However , Thomas was pleased with the final output , and producer Dan Etheridge called it " one of the most compact and interesting visual storytelling pieces in the episode . " The episode went over budget . In this episode , Mac wears a shirt that says " Ask Me About My STD " , something which several critics commended for its comedic value . Thomas came up with the idea for the shirt and hired one of the other guest actors in the scene for another episode , commenting " It 's funny , I actually made that up , and I now have one , too . " In addition , because Thomas was so pleased with the acting in the scene from the boy who hands Mac a whiskey , he hired the actor for a role in a subsequent episode as an important witness to Dean O 'Dell 's death .

= = = Acting = = =

" Spit & Eggs " features the return of series regular Tina Majorino , who plays Mac on the show , after an absence of six episodes . Majorino had not appeared since the second episode of the season , " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " . At the time , Majorino was also a series regular on the HBO series Big Love , so her schedule was difficult to determine . She stated : " It 's a little tough , but Big Love and Veronica Mars have both been really great about juggling the schedule so I could do both shows . " On October 24 , 2006 , the cast and crew were filming the episode . Because of this other commitment , Majorino appeared in eleven episodes of the season instead of the scheduled twelve . On that same date , Majorino revealed that she would be returning in " Spit & Eggs " , that it resolved the Hearst rapist storyline , and that it would introduce the show 's next major story arc . On her role in the episode and in the season as a whole in light of the events in the second season finale , Majorino commented , " It 's not like all of the sudden she 's over everything that happened . "

" Spit & Eggs " features the reveal that Mercer Hayes , played by Ryan Devlin , is the Hearst serial rapist . Devlin was unaware that he would be the perpetrator until reading the episode 's script ; he stated , " To tell you the truth , I 'm not even sure the writers knew where my story was headed . But I was happy to do it – it 's way more fun being bad than good ! " The episode also marks the final appearance by Ed Begley , Jr . , after his character is killed . The mystery surrounding his murder would be the next major story arc .

= = Reception = =

In its original broadcast , the episode received 3 @.@ 44 million viewers , marking a series high and ranking 88th of 97 in the weekly rankings . Thomas was very pleased by the ratings .

The episode received critical acclaim , with many critics praising the return of Mac and the increased role of peripheral characters , the resolution to the rape mystery , and the setup of the next major story arc . Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He wrote that " Spit & Eggs " was a welcome episode for longtime fans , as it involved several plots converging in a way that he found satisfactory . He praised the final few scenes , writing that the episode transitions well into the next mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's death by developing it slowly over the course of the season 's prior episodes , but he was more mixed towards the reveal of Mercer as the rapist , commenting " the ultimate revelation can 't help but be a little underwhelming , since not enough time has been spent on any of the credible suspects to really have a good handle on them or be invested in them one way or another . " Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , who was quite critical of the rape storyline in earlier episodes , said that the conclusion made the storyline slightly better overall . He praised the double reveal of Mercer and Moe as accomplices , stating , " That twist overall is effective because it plays on everyone 's expectations . The characters all believe there is a single culprit here . [ … ] It makes the revelations more plausible , while also making the need for those revelations less intense ( the two are related ) . "

Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B + " . Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , was also relatively positive towards the episode . While calling the reveal of the rapist " out of left field " , he noted that there was some material in " My Big Fat Greek Rush Week " that pointed to this conclusion . In addition , he praised Parker rescuing Veronica and the start of the Dean O 'Dell mystery , writing " Rob quite cleverly threw the start of the new mystery into the tail end of the first one . " However , there were several plot issues that he found as well as that the nine @-@ episode storyline didn 't fully do the reveal justice , opining that Thomas and the crew had to rush to give the audience important information in this format . Cortney Martin of the Houston Chronicle enjoyed the major roles played by Wallace , Mac , Weevil , Piz , and Parker in the episode , writing " the show belongs to Veronica 's sidekicks this week . " Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune gave praise as well . While being lukewarm regarding the season as a whole , she thought that " Spit & Eggs " was " appropriately suspenseful . " In addition , she enjoyed that Veronica was less sarcastic and contemptuous in the episode , in contrast to previous episodes of the season .

Film.com praised the episode as well , lauding the in medias res opening scene , suspenseful tone , and Mac 's reappearance , and the setup for the next mystery arc , mong other aspects of the episode . Conversely , Keith McDuffee , writing for AOL TV , was more critical , calling it " way too fast for a partial season @-@ ender " , arguing that there were too many unanswered questions left after the episode 's conclusion .

= United Nations =

The United Nations ( UN ) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co @-@ operation . A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations , the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict . At its founding , the UN had 51 member states ; there are now 193 . The headquarters of the United Nations is in Manhattan , New York City , and experiences extraterritoriality . Further main offices are situated in Geneva , Nairobi , and Vienna . The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states . Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security , promoting human rights , fostering social and economic development , protecting the environment , and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine , natural disaster , and armed conflict .

The United Nations Charter was drafted at a conference in April – June 1945 ; this charter took effect 24 October 1945 , and the UN began operation . The UN 's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies . The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo , as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947 . The organization 's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s , and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping . After the end of the Cold War , the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success .

The UN has six principal organs : the General Assembly ( the main deliberative assembly ) ; the Security Council ( for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security ) ; the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) ( for promoting international economic and social co @-@ operation and development ) ; the Secretariat ( for providing studies , information , and facilities needed by the UN ) ; the International Court of Justice ( the primary judicial organ ) ; and the United Nations Trusteeship Council ( inactive since 1994 ) . UN System agencies include the World Bank Group , the World Health Organization , the World Food Programme , UNESCO , and UNICEF . The UN 's most prominent officer is the Secretary @-@ General , an office held by South Korean Ban Ki @-@ moon since 2007 . Non @-@ governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN 's work .

The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 , and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize . Other evaluations of the UN 's effectiveness have been mixed . Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development , while others have called the organization ineffective , corrupt , or biased .

= = History = =

= = = Background = = =

In the century prior to the UN 's creation , several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations , such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 . Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War , the Paris Peace Conference established the League of Nations to maintain harmony between countries . This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail , aviation , and opium control , some of which would later be absorbed into the UN . However , the League lacked representation for colonial peoples ( then half the world 's population ) and significant participation from several major powers , including the US , USSR , Germany , and Japan ; it failed to act against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 , the Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War in 1935 , the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 , and German expansions under Adolf Hitler that culminated in the Second World War .

= = = 1942 " Declaration of United Nations " by the Allies of World War II = = =

The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939 . The text of the " Declaration by United Nations " was drafted by President Franklin Roosevelt , British Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins , while meeting at the White House , 29 December 1941 . It incorporated Soviet suggestions , but left no role for France . " Four Policemen " was coined to refer four major Allied countries , United States , United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and China , which was emerged in Declaration by United Nations . Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries . " On New Year 's Day 1942 , President Roosevelt , Prime Minister Churchill , Maxim Litvinov , of the USSR , and T. V. Soong , of China , signed a short document which later came to be known as the United Nations Declaration and the next day the representatives of twenty @-@ two other nations added their signatures . " The term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration . One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom , which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted . By 1 March 1945 , 21 additional states had signed .

A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA , THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND , THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS , CHINA , AUSTRALIA , BELGIUM , CANADA , COSTA RICA , CUBA , CZECHOSLOVAKIA , DOMINICAN REPUBLIC , EL SALVADOR , GREECE , GUATEMALA , HAITI , HONDURAS , INDIA , LUXEMBOURG , NETHERLANDS , NEW ZEALAND , NICARAGUA , NORWAY , PANAMA , POLAND , SOUTH AFRICA , YUGOSLAVIA

The Governments signatory hereto ,

Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14 , 1941 , known as the Atlantic Charter ,

Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life , liberty , independence and religious freedom , and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands , and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world ,

DECLARE :

( 1 ) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources , military or economic , against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war .

( 2 ) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies .

The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are , or which may be , rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism .

During the war , the United Nations became the official term for the Allies . To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis .

= = = Founding the UN 1945 = = =

The United Nations was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the Soviet Union , the UK , the US and China at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 . After months of planning , the UN Conference on International Organization opened in San Francisco , 25 April 1945 , attended by 50 governments and a number of non @-@ governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter . " The heads of the delegations of the sponsoring countries took turns as chairman of the plenary meetings : Anthony Eden , of Britain , Edward Stettinius , of the United States , T. V. Soong , of China , and Vyacheslav Molotov , of the Soviet Union . At the later meetings , Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden , Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong , and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov . " The UN officially came into existence 24 October 1945 , upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council — France , the Republic of China , the Soviet Union , the UK and the US — and by a majority of the other 46 signatories .

The first meetings of the General Assembly , with 51 nations represented , and the Security Council took place in London beginning 6 January 1946 . The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the United Nations , and the facility was completed in 1952 . Its site — like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi — is designated as international territory . The Norwegian Foreign Minister , Trygve Lie , was elected as the first UN Secretary @-@ General .

= = = Cold War era = = =

Though the UN 's primary mandate was peacekeeping , the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization , generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the Cold War . ( A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US @-@ led coalition to repel the North Korean invasion of South Korea , passed in the absence of the USSR . ) In 1947 , the General Assembly approved a resolution to partition Palestine , approving the creation of the state of Israel . Two years later , Ralph Bunche , a UN official , negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict . In 1956 , the first UN peacekeeping force was established to end the Suez Crisis ; however , the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR 's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following that country 's revolution .

In 1960 , the UN deployed United Nations Operation in the Congo ( UNOC ) , the largest military force of its early decades , to bring order to the breakaway State of Katanga , restoring it to the control of the Democratic Republic of the Congo by 1964 . While travelling to meet with rebel leader Moise Tshombe during the conflict , Dag Hammarskjöld , often named as one of the UN 's most effective Secretaries @-@ General , died in a plane crash ; months later he was posthumously awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . In 1964 , Hammarskjöld 's successor , U Thant , deployed the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus , which would become one of the UN 's longest @-@ running peacekeeping missions .

With the spread of decolonization in the 1960s , the organization 's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations . In 1960 alone , 17 new states joined the UN , 16 of them from Africa . On 25 October 1971 , with opposition from the United States , but with the support of many Third World nations , the mainland , communist People 's Republic of China was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the Republic of China that occupied Taiwan ; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization . Third World nations organized into the Group of 77 coalition under the leadership of Algeria , which briefly became a dominant power at the UN . In 1975 , a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed a resolution , over strenuous US and Israeli opposition , declaring Zionism to be racism ; the resolution was repealed in 1991 , shortly after the end of the Cold War .

With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the Middle East , Vietnam , and Kashmir , the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange . By the 1970s , the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget .

= = = Post @-@ Cold War = = =

After the Cold War , the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties , taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades . Between 1988 and 2000 , the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled , and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold . The UN negotiated an end to the Salvadoran Civil War , launched a successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia , and oversaw democratic elections in post @-@ apartheid South Africa and post @-@ Khmer Rouge Cambodia . In 1991 , the UN authorized a US @-@ led coalition that repulsed the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . Brian Urquhart , Under @-@ Secretary @-@ General from 1971 to 1985 , later described the hopes raised by these successes as a " false renaissance " for the organization , given the more troubled missions that followed .

Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another , in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous , serious crises within nations such as Somalia , Haiti , Mozambique , and the former Yugoslavia . The UN mission in Somalia was widely viewed as a failure after the US withdrawal following casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu , and the UN mission to Bosnia faced " worldwide ridicule " for its indecisive and confused mission in the face of ethnic cleansing . In 1994 , the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda failed to intervene in the Rwandan Genocide amid indecision in the Security Council .

Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War , American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption . In 1984 , the US President , Ronald Reagan , withdrew his nation 's funding from UNESCO ( the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization , founded 1946 ) over allegations of mismanagement , followed by Britain and Singapore . Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali , Secretary @-@ General from 1992 to 1996 , initiated a reform of the Secretariat , reducing the size of the organization somewhat . His successor , Kofi Annan ( 1997 – 2006 ) , initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues .

In the late 1990s and 2000s , international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms . The UN mission in the Sierra Leone Civil War of 1991 – 2002 was supplemented by British Royal Marines , and the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by NATO.In 2003 , the United States invaded Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization , prompting a new round of questioning of the organization 's effectiveness . Under the current Secretary @-@ General , Ban Ki @-@ moon , the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the War in Darfur in Sudan and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the Syrian Civil War . In 2013 , an internal review of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the organization had suffered " systemic failure " . One hundred and one UN personnel died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake , the worst loss of life in the organization 's history .

= = Structure = =

The United Nations ' system is based on five principal organs : the General Assembly , the Security Council , the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) , the Secretariat , and the International Court of Justice . A sixth principal organ , the Trusteeship Council , suspended operations in 1994 , upon the independence of Palau , the last remaining UN trustee territory .

Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City . The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague , while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva , Vienna , and Nairobi . Other UN institutions are located throughout the world . The six official languages of the United Nations , used in intergovernmental meetings and documents , are Arabic , Chinese , English , French , Russian , and Spanish . On the basis of the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations , the UN and its agencies are immune from the laws of the countries where they operate , safeguarding the UN 's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries .

Below the six organs sit , in the words of the author Linda Fasulo , " an amazing collection of entities and organizations , some of which are actually older than the UN itself and operate with almost complete independence from it " . These include specialized agencies , research and training institutions , programmes and funds , and other UN entities .

The United Nations obey the Noblemaire principle , which is binding on any organization that belongs to the united nations system . This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest , and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee 's nationality . Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations .

= = = General Assembly = = =

The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations . Composed of all United Nations member states , the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions , but emergency sessions can also be called . The assembly is led by a president , elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis , and 21 vice @-@ presidents . The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall Westminster in London and included representatives of 51 nations .

When the General Assembly votes on important questions , a two @-@ thirds majority of those present and voting is required . Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security ; election of members to organs ; admission , suspension , and expulsion of members ; and budgetary matters . All other questions are decided by a majority vote . Each member country has one vote . Apart from approval of budgetary matters , resolutions are not binding on the members . The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN , except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council .

Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the General Assembly by eight committees :

General Committee – a supervisory committee consisting of the assembly 's president , vice @-@ president , and committee heads

Credentials Committee – responsible for determining the credentials of each member nation 's UN representatives

First Committee ( Disarmament and International Security )

Second Committee ( Economic and Financial )

Third Committee ( Social , Humanitarian , and Cultural )

Fourth Committee ( Special Political and Decolonization )

Fifth Committee ( Administrative and Budgetary )

Sixth Committee ( Legal )

= = = Security Council = = =

The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries . While other organs of the United Nations can only make " recommendations " to member states , the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member states have agreed to carry out , under the terms of Charter Article 25 . The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions .

The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states , consisting of five permanent members — China , France , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States — and ten non @-@ permanent members — Angola ( term ends 2016 ) , Chad ( 2015 ) , Chile ( 2015 ) , Jordan ( 2015 ) , Lithuania ( 2015 ) , Malaysia ( 2016 ) , New Zealand ( 2016 ) , Nigeria ( 2015 ) , Spain ( 2016 ) , and Venezuela ( 2016 ) . The five permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions , allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution , though not debate . The ten temporary seats are held for two @-@ year terms , with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis . The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month .

= = = Secretariat = = =

The UN Secretariat is headed by the Secretary @-@ General , assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide . It provides studies , information , and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings . It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council , the General Assembly , the Economic and Social Council , and other UN bodies .

The Secretary @-@ General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN . The position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization 's " chief administrative officer " . Article 99 of the charter states that the Secretary @-@ General can bring to the Security Council 's attention " any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security " , a phrase that Secretaries @-@ General since Trygve Lie have interpreted as giving the position broad scope for action on the world stage . The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues .

The Secretary @-@ General is appointed by the General Assembly , after being recommended by the Security Council , where the permanent members have veto power . There are no specific criteria for the post , but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years , that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation , and that the Secretary @-@ General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states . The current Secretary @-@ General is Ban Ki @-@ moon , who replaced Kofi Annan in 2007 and was elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016 .

= = = International Court of Justice = = =

The International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , located in The Hague , in the Netherlands , is the primary judicial organ of the UN . Established in 1945 by the UN Charter , the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice . The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9 @-@ year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly ; every sitting judge must be from a different nation .

It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague , sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law , a private centre for the study of international law . The ICJ 's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states . The court has heard cases related to war crimes , illegal state interference , ethnic cleansing , and other issues . The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions .

= = = Economic and Social Council = = =

The Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co @-@ operation and development . ECOSOC has 54 members , which are elected by the General Assembly for a three @-@ year term . The president is elected for a one @-@ year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC . The council has one annual meeting in July , held in either New York or Geneva . Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co @-@ ordinates , ECOSOC 's functions include information gathering , advising member nations , and making recommendations . Owing to its broad mandate of co @-@ ordinating many agencies , ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant .

ECOSOC 's subsidiary bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , which advises UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous peoples ; the United Nations Forum on Forests , which co @-@ ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management ; the United Nations Statistical Commission , which co @-@ ordinates information @-@ gathering efforts between agencies ; and the Commission on Sustainable Development , which co @-@ ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working toward sustainable development . ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non @-@ governmental organizations ; by 2004 , more than 2 @,@ 200 organizations had received this status .

= = = Specialized agencies = = =

The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfill its duties . Some best @-@ known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Food and Agriculture Organization , UNESCO ( United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ) , the World Bank , and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) . The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies . Examples include mass vaccination programmes ( through WHO ) , the avoidance of famine and malnutrition ( through the work of the WFP ) , and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people ( for example , by UNHCR ) .

= = Membership = =

With the addition of South Sudan 14 July 2011 , there are 193 United Nations member states , including all undisputed independent states apart from Vatican City . The UN Charter outlines the rules for membership :

Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace @-@ loving states that accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and , in the judgment of the Organization , are able and willing to carry out these obligations .

The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council . Chapter II , Article 4

In addition , there are two non @-@ member observer states of the United Nations General Assembly : the Holy See ( which holds sovereignty over Vatican City ) and the State of Palestine . The Cook Islands and Niue , both states in free association with New Zealand , are full members of several UN specialized agencies and have had their " full treaty @-@ making capacity " recognized by the Secretariat .

= = = Group of 77 = = =

The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations , designed to promote its members ' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations . Seventy @-@ seven nations founded the organization , but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries . The group was founded 15 June 1964 by the " Joint Declaration of the Seventy @-@ Seven Countries " issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) . The group held its first major meeting in Algiers in 1967 , where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures .

= = Objectives = =

= = = Peacekeeping and security = = =

The UN , after approval by the Security Council , sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities . Since the UN does not maintain its own military , peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states . These soldiers are sometimes nicknamed " Blue Helmets " for their distinctive gear . The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 .

In September 2013 , the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions . The largest was the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( MONUSCO ) , which included 20 @,@ 688 uniformed personnel . The smallest , United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan ( UNMOGIP ) , included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir . UN peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization ( UNTSO ) have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948 , the longest @-@ running active peacekeeping mission .

A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts . It compared efforts at nation @-@ building by the United Nations to those of the United States , and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace , as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace . Also in 2005 , the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars , genocides , and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War , and presented evidence , albeit circumstantial , that international activism — mostly spearheaded by the UN — has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period . Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War ( 1950 – 53 ) and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War ( 1990 – 91 ) .

The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures . In many cases , member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions . Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the Bangladesh genocide in 1971 , the Cambodian genocide in the 1970s , and the Rwandan genocide in 1994 . Similarly , UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the Srebrenica massacre in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992 – 93 during the Somali Civil War . UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape , soliciting prostitutes , and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Haiti , Liberia , Sudan and what is now South Sudan , Burundi , and Ivory Coast . Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the 2010 – 13 Haiti cholera outbreak , which killed more than 8 @,@ 000 Haitians following the 2010 Haiti earthquake .

In addition to peacekeeping , the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament . Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation . The advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter , resulting in the first resolution of the first General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for " the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction " . The UN has been involved with arms @-@ limitation treaties , such as the Outer Space Treaty ( 1967 ) , the Treaty on the Non @-@ Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ( 1968 ) , the Seabed Arms Control Treaty ( 1971 ) , the Biological Weapons Convention ( 1972 ) , the Chemical Weapons Convention ( 1992 ) , and the Ottawa Treaty ( 1997 ) , which prohibits landmines . Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues : the International Atomic Energy Agency , the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons , and the Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission .

= = = Human rights = = =

One of the UN 's primary purposes is " promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race , sex , language , or religion " , and member states pledge to undertake " joint and separate action " to protect these rights .

In 1948 , the General Assembly adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights , drafted by a committee headed by Franklin D. Roosevelt 's widow , Eleanor , and including the French lawyer René Cassin . The document proclaims basic civil , political , and economic rights common to all human beings , though its effectiveness toward achieving these ends has been disputed since its drafting . The Declaration serves as a " common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations " rather than a legally binding document , but it has become the basis of two binding treaties , the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic , Social and Cultural Rights . In practice , the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a Security Council resolution , though it does substantial work in investigating and reporting abuses .

In 1979 , the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women , followed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 . With the end of the Cold War , the push for human rights action took on new impetus . The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues for the UN , following the recommendation of that year 's World Conference on Human Rights . Jacques Fomerand , a scholar of the UN , describes this organization 's mandate as " broad and vague " , with only " meager " resources to carry it out . In 2006 , it was replaced by a Human Rights Council consisting of 47 nations . Also in 2006 , the General Assembly passed a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples , and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of LGBT people .

Other UN bodies responsible for women 's rights issues include United Nations Commission on the Status of Women , a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946 ; the United Nations Development Fund for Women , created in 1976 ; and the United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women , founded in 1979 . The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues , one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples , held its first session in 2002 .

= = = Economic development and humanitarian assistance = = =

Another primary purpose of the UN is " to achieve international co @-@ operation in solving international problems of an economic , social , cultural , or humanitarian character " . Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal , primarily under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC . In 2000 , the 192 United Nations member states agreed to achieve eight Millennium Development Goals by 2015 .

The UN Development Programme ( UNDP ) , an organization for grant @-@ based technical assistance founded in 1945 , is one of the leading bodies in the field of international development . The organization also publishes the UN Human Development Index , a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty , literacy , education , life expectancy , and other factors . The Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) , also founded in 1945 , promotes agricultural development and food security . UNICEF ( the United Nations Children 's Fund ) was created in 1946 to aid European children after the Second World War and expanded its mission to provide aid around the world and to uphold the Convention on the Rights of the Child .

The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) are independent , specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework , according to a 1947 agreement . They were initially formed separately from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944 . The World Bank provides loans for international development , while the IMF promotes international economic co @-@ operation and gives emergency loans to indebted countries .

The World Health Organization ( WHO ) , which focuses on international health issues and disease eradication , is another of the UN 's largest agencies . In 1980 , the agency announced that the eradication of smallpox had been completed . In subsequent decades , WHO largely eradicated polio , river blindness , and leprosy . The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) , begun in 1996 , co @-@ ordinates the organization 's response to the AIDS epidemic . The UN Population Fund , which also dedicates part of its resources to combating HIV , is the world 's largest source of funding for reproductive health and family planning services .

Along with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement , the UN often takes a leading role in co @-@ ordinating emergency relief . The World Food Programme ( WFP ) , created in 1961 , provides food aid in response to famine , natural disasters , and armed conflict . The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year . The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) , established in 1950 , works to protect the rights of refugees , asylum seekers , and stateless people . UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions from governments , corporations , and individuals , though the UNHCR 's administrative costs are paid for by the UN 's primary budget .

= = = Other = = =

Since the UN 's creation , over 80 colonies have attained independence . The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers . The UN works toward decolonization through groups including the UN Committee on Decolonization , created in 1962 . The committee lists seventeen remaining " Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing Territories " , the largest and most populous of which is Western Sahara .

Beginning with the formation of the UN Environmental Programme ( UNEP ) in 1972 , the UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda . A lack of success in the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , which sought to give new impetus to these efforts . In 1988 , the UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , another UN organization , established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which assesses and reports on research on global warming . The UN @-@ sponsored Kyoto Protocol , signed in 1997 , set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states .

The UN also declares and co @-@ ordinates international observances , periods of time to observe issues of international interest or concern . Examples include World Tuberculosis Day , Earth Day , and the International Year of Deserts and Desertification .

= = Funding = =

The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states . The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member . This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay , as measured by its gross national income ( GNI ) , with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income . The two @-@ year budget for 2012 – 13 was $ 5 @.@ 512 billion in total .

The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly dependent on any one member to finance its operations . Thus , there is a " ceiling " rate , setting the maximum amount that any member can be assessed for the regular budget . In December 2000 , the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to pressure from the United States . As part of that revision , the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25 % to 22 % . For the least developed countries ( LDCs ) , a ceiling rate of 0 @.@ 01 % is applied . In addition to the ceiling rates , the minimum amount assessed to any member nation ( or " floor " rate ) is set at 0 @.@ 001 % of the UN budget ( $ 55 @,@ 120 for the two year budget 2013 @-@ 2014 ) .

A large share of the UN 's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security , and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget . The peacekeeping budget for the 2015 – 16 fiscal year was $ 8 @.@ 27 billion , supporting 82 @,@ 318 troops deployed in 15 missions around the world . UN peace operations are funded by assessments , using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members , who must approve all peacekeeping operations . This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries . In 2013 , the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were the United States ( 28 @.@ 38 % ) , Japan ( 10 @.@ 83 % ) , France ( 7 @.@ 22 % ) , Germany ( 7 @.@ 14 % ) , the United Kingdom ( 6 @.@ 68 % ) , China ( 6 @.@ 64 % ) , Italy ( 4 @.@ 45 % ) , the Russian Federation ( 3 @.@ 15 % ) , Canada ( 2 @.@ 98 % ) , and Spain ( 2 @.@ 97 % ) .

Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget , such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme , are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments , corporations , and private individuals .

= = Evaluations , awards , and criticism = =

A number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of their work . Two Secretaries @-@ General , Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan , were each awarded the prize ( in 1961 and 2001 , respectively ) , as were Ralph Bunche ( 1950 ) , a UN negotiator , René Cassin ( 1968 ) , a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , and the US Secretary of State Cordell Hull ( 1945 ) , the latter for his role in the organization 's founding . Lester B. Pearson , the Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs , was awarded the prize in 1957 for his role in organizing the UN 's first peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez Crisis . UNICEF won the prize in 1965 , the International Labour Organization in 1969 , the UN Peace @-@ Keeping Forces in 1988 , the International Atomic Energy Agency ( which reports to the UN ) in 2005 , and the UN @-@ supported Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in 2013 . The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981 , becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice . The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001 , sharing it with Annan .

Since its founding , there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations but little consensus on how to do so . Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs , while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work . There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council 's membership to be increased , for different ways of electing the UN 's Secretary @-@ General , and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly . Jacques Fomerand states the most enduring divide in views of the UN is " the North – South split " between richer Northern nations and developing Southern nations . Southern nations tend to favor a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly , allowing them a greater voice in world affairs , while Northern nations prefer an economically laissez @-@ faire UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism .

After World War II , the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France , and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that created the new organization . The future French president Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN , famously calling it a machin ( " contraption " ) , and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace , preferring direct defence treaties between countries . Throughout the Cold War , both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favoring the other . In 1953 , the USSR effectively forced the resignation of Trygve Lie , the Secretary @-@ General , through its refusal to deal with him , while in the 1950s and 1960s , a popular US bumper sticker read , " You can 't spell communism without U.N. " In a sometimes @-@ misquoted statement , President George W. Bush stated in February 2003 ( referring to UN uncertainty towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam Hussein regime ) that " free nations will not allow the United Nations to fade into history as an ineffective , irrelevant debating society . " In contrast , the French President , François Hollande , stated in 2012 that " France trusts the United Nations . She knows that no state , no matter how powerful , can solve urgent problems , fight for development and bring an end to all crises ... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance . " Critics such as Dore Gold , an Israeli diplomat , Robert S. Wistrich , a British scholar , Alan Dershowitz , an American legal scholar , Mark Dreyfus , an Australian politician , and the Anti @-@ Defamation League consider UN attention to Israel 's treatment of Palestinians to be excessive . In September 2015 , Saudi Arabia 's Faisal bin Hassan Trad has been elected Chair of the United Nations Human Rights Council panel that appoints independent experts , a move criticized by human rights groups .

Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency , waste , and corruption . In 1976 , the General Assembly established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system . During the 1990s , the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced . In 1994 , the Office of Internal Oversight Services ( OIOS ) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog . In 1994 , former Special Representative of the Secretary @-@ General of the UN to Somalia Mohamed Sahnoun published " Somalia : The Missed Opportunities " , a book in which he analyses the reasons for the failure of the 1992 UN intervention in Somalia , showing that , between the start of the Somali civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre regime in January 1991 , the UN missed at least three opportunities to prevent major human tragedies ; when the UN tried to provide humanitarian assistance , they were totally outperformed by NGOs , whose competence and dedication sharply contrasted with the UN 's excessive caution and bureaucratic inefficiencies . If radical reform was not undertaken , warned Mohamed Sahnoun , then the UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvisation . In 2004 , the UN faced accusations that its recently ended Oil @-@ for @-@ Food Programme — in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions — had suffered from widespread corruption , including billions of dollars of kickbacks . An independent inquiry created by the UN found that many of its officials had been involved , as well as raising " significant " questions about the role of Kojo Annan , the son of Kofi Annan .

In evaluating the UN as a whole , Jacques Fomerand writes that the " accomplishments of the United Nations in the last 60 years are impressive in their own terms . Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions . " Evaluating the first 50 years of the UN 's history , the author Stanley Meisler writes that " the United Nations never fulfilled the hopes of its founders , but it accomplished a great deal nevertheless " , citing its role in decolonization and its many successful peacekeeping efforts . The British historian Paul Kennedy states that while the organization has suffered some major setbacks , " when all its aspects are considered , the UN has brought great benefits to our generation and ... will bring benefits to our children 's and grandchildren 's generations as well . "

= 12 Days =

12 Days is a debut graphic novel / global manga written and illustrated by June Kim . Basing the plot partially on a story told to her by a stranger , Kim began an early version of 12 Days as a sophomore in college to help herself cope with the end of a relationship . After moving on emotionally with her break @-@ up , she stopped developing the comic and later left South Korea to attend the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan , New York , United States , from which she graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in cartooning . Following her successful pitch of 12 Days to manga publisher Tokyopop , she resumed work on it in early 2005 and finished in the middle of August 2006 . 12 Days focuses on Jackie Yuen , who decides to drink the ashes of her former lover for twelve days in beverages as a way to cope with her grief over her death .

Tokyopop published 12 Days in North America on 7 November 2006 , to generally positive reviews . Critics praised the manga for its mature portrayal of grief and relationships , and its realistic artwork , although the choice of print for the dialogue was considered distracting . Reviewers also discussed the comic 's treatment of the issues of love , loss , and lesbian elements . In May 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its North American publishing branch , with the status of its original , global manga titles left unclear .

= = Plot = =

For the first eight chapters , 12 Days centers on Jackie Yuen , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old part Cantonese and part Korean editor . After the death of her former lover , the Korean American school nurse Noah Yoon , she decides to drink her ashes over twelve days in beverages as a way of coping with her grief . Nicholas " Nick " Yoon , Noah 's younger half brother , steals some of Noah 's ashes for her to use , and soon joins her in mourning . She reminisces on how she met her and became involved in a lesbian relationship ; however , Noah ended their relationship to marry a man to appease her father , and died returning from her honeymoon in a car accident a month ago . As Jackie continues her ritual , she begins to feel ill and eventually faints . Nick takes her to the hospital , where she recovers . On New Year 's Day , she parts from Nick and returns to her apartment to find that he has taken the engagement ring she had wanted to give Noah , and unknown to her , he mixes it in with the remaining ashes . 12 Days concludes with " Chapter 0 " , set before the events in the rest of the comic : Noah finds Nick studying for exams , and they briefly discuss Artemisia II of Caria , an ancient Greek queen who drank the ashes of her husband . Noah then hints that she has found someone whose ashes she would drink .

= = Style and issues = =

June Kim , the author and illustrator for 12 Days , primarily drew the artwork in the realism style , although she occasionally rendered characters as super @-@ deformed versions of themselves . While the cover art incorporates red and silver coloring , the artwork primarily appears in black and white , with occasional gray shading . Kim used pen and ink as the artistic medium , then toned her art with the software application ComicStudio . For the narrative , she explores the characters ' pasts through dreams , and periodic , nonlinear flashbacks . Several character traits , such as Jackie 's chocolate allergy , are presented to the reader through inference rather than exposition . Additionally , Kim uses a brief , untranslated Korean song alongside the predominantly English text .

Critics have focused on the issues of love and loss . 12 Days primarily deals with " a love affair and its aftermath , " according to Dirk Deppey of The Comics Journal . He considered it " a meditation on loss , " which explores " a relationship neither fully ended nor easily forgotten by either party . " Theron Martin of Anime News Network considered it a story about " trying to find a way to cope with a devastating loss " . According to Katherine Dacey , the former senior manga editor for PopCultureShock , 12 Days contains " lovely , quiet observations about the way we grieve , define family , express desire , and remember moments of hurt and betrayal . " Johanna Draper Carlson , a reviewer for Publishers Weekly , wrote that Jackie 's action of consuming the ashes serves as " a transition period , a way to indulge her grief and then a time to be able to be herself again . " AfterEllen.com 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief Karman Kregloe stated that the comic " explores the impact of loss , and how relationships are supported and broken in times of grief . "

To a lesser extent , critics also discussed the lesbian aspect . Martin felt that the lesbian element of 12 Days had been addressed , without becoming overstated . Casey Brienza , a fellow reviewer for Anime News Network , suggested that the shame Jackie and Noah felt as lesbians " ultimately destroyed their relationship . " In her comparison of Alison Bechdel 's 2006 graphic memoir Fun Home and 12 Days , Erica Friedman , the founder of the lesbian @-@ themed anime convention Yuricon , considered neither story to be " lesbian narratives " , but rather " narratives of grief , of relationships and of missed opportunities for communication and closeness . "

= = Production = =

Partially modeled on a story told to Kim by a stranger , 12 Days began during her sophomore year in college as a way of coping with the end of a relationship . Kim soon abandoned the unfinished comic after moving on emotionally from the breakup , and considered the early concept " poorly built . " After completing her junior year in college in Seoul , South Korea , where she had been studying Japanese language and literature , Kim moved to New York , United States . There , she attended the School of Visual Arts in Manhattan , New York , for four years , and graduated in 2002 with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in cartooning . In addition to illustrating the cover of Australian rock band Jet 's 2003 debut album Get Born , she had three of her short comics published in anthologies : " SheepSheepSleep " ( 2003 ) in Broad Appeal , " B @-@ 612 " ( 2003 / 4 ) in New Thing Vol.2 , and " Repeat " ( 2005 ) in SheWolf Vol.1.

At the 2004 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , she encountered now @-@ former Tokyopop editors Mark Paniccia and Lillian M. Diaz @-@ Przybyl , who helped to pitch 12 Days to their publisher . Kim later expressed surprise for her successful pitch of 12 Days , and commented : " It made me believe there is room for diverse stories . " Resuming work on 12 Days in early 2005 , Kim felt that her " slow speed , other projects and family matters " delayed its production . Additionally , the South Korean @-@ native Kim , who speaks Korean , English , and Japanese fluently , would think of ideas in Korean that did not translate well over to English , ultimately leading her to change her method of thinking for the comic . She considered her creation of a global manga " a bit ironic , " because she " wanted to do something different from manhwa or manga , " which she had grown up around . Completed in the middle of August 2006 , 12 Days was published by Tokyopop in North America in November of the same year . However , in May 2011 , Tokyopop shut down its North American branch , with the status of global manga titles left unclear . 12 Days is also published in Germany by Tokyopop Germany .

= = Reception = =

12 Days received generally positive reviews from critics . Caroline Ryder of The Advocate , a LGBT @-@ interest magazine , highlighted 12 Days as " a dark , deeply emotional graphic novel . " Brienza complimented Kim 's artistic attention to the background and setting 's details , and summed up the comic as " a sensitive depiction of lesbians that strives for literariness " . While not personally enjoying the comic , Friedman considered it " excellent and well worth reading . " Noting the potentially confusing flashblacks , Martin stated : " 12 Days doesn 't easily fall into any of the normal manga ( or manga @-@ like ) categories . It avoids any kind of sensationalism in providing a mature piece about a difficult topic , which may limit its appeal but certainly makes it worth reading . " While Deppey praised it as " an ambitious and partly satisfying work that very nearly succeeds , " he considered it not " as daring or complex a work " as Fun Home . Although Dacey disliked the backgrounds and the " self @-@ consciously literary " ashes @-@ in @-@ beverages aspect , she enjoyed the plot and Kim 's use of naturalism in her artwork . She later placed it on her list of the top ten global manga . Draper Carlson recommended it , commenting : " The emotions the book carries will be familiar to anyone who ’ s suffered a loss in love . It ’ s a work to meditate on . " Conversely , A. E. Sparrow of IGN wrote that the story sacrificed its coherency in its attempt " for a deeper level of understanding " ; Sparrow concluded : " 12 Days is simply trying too hard , burying some absolutely beautiful illustrations in a sea of chaotic storytelling . "

= Salesforce Marketing Cloud =

Salesforce Marketing Cloud ( formerly known as ExactTarget ) is a provider of digital marketing automation and analytics software and services . It was founded in 2000 under the name ExactTarget . The company filed for an IPO in 2007 , but then withdrew its filing two years later and raised $ 145 million in funding . It acquired CoTweet , Pardot , iGoDigital and Keymail Marketing . In 2012 , it raised $ 161 @.@ 5 million in an initial public offering , before being acquired by Salesforce for $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in 2013 . ExactTarget was renamed to Salesforce Marketing Cloud in 2014 after the acquisition by Salesforce .

= = Corporate history = =

Salesforce Marketing Cloud was founded under the name ExactTarget in late 2000 by Scott Dorsey , Chris Baggott , and Peter McCormick with $ 200 @,@ 000 in financing.Joanna Milliken , joined ExactTarget as the first employee in 2001 . It raised $ 10 @.@ 5 million in funding from Insight Venture Partners in 2004 . The firm grew from $ 11 @.@ 5 million in its second year of operations to $ 41 @.@ 1 million in 2006 , which was its first profitable year . In December 2007 , ExactTarget filed an intent for an initial public offering with the Securities Exchange Commission , but withdrew its filing in May 2009 . Instead , it announced $ 70 million in venture funding had been raised for international expansion , which was followed by another $ 75 million round later that year . An office was established in London with the acquisition of a UK @-@ based ExactTarget reseller , Keymail Marketing , in September 2009 . The company also hired 200 additional employees . In 2010 , ExactTarget acquired CoTweet , a company founded in 2008 that develops and markets software for managing multiple Twitter accounts .

ExactTarget went public in March 2012 and raised $ 161 @.@ 5 million in funding on the New York Stock Exchange . In late 2012 , it acquired a marketing automation vendor , Pardot , for $ 96 million , and the developers of a product recommendation engine , iGoDigital , for $ 21 million . In 2012 , its revenues grew 40 percent over the preceding year . The following June , ExactTarget was acquired by salesforce.com for $ 2 @.@ 5 billion . A few months later , salesforce.com said it was laying off 200 staff due to overlaps after the ExactTarget acquisition . That September at the ExactTarget Connections conference , salesforce.com said it was integrating ExactTarget into a new division called Salesforce ExactTarget Marketing Cloud .

In May 2014 , Scott Dorsey stepped down as CEO of ExactTarget and was replaced by Scott McCorkle . The company was renamed in October 2014 to " Salesforce Marketing Cloud " , removing " ExactTarget " from its name , as part of its integration with Salesforce .

= = Software and services = =

Salesforce Marketing Cloud develops marketing automation and analytics software for email , mobile , social and online marketing . It also offers consulting and implementation services . The software is sold primarily on a multi @-@ year subscription basis . The price of the subscription is based on what features are enabled , number of users and level of customer service .

The software 's Interactive Marketing Hub was released in 2010 , when the software 's user interface was re @-@ done . It serves as the software 's primary user interface for managing communications and content through different mediums . The Salesforce Marketing Cloud software is offered in a hosted , online subscription model . The company owns the CoTweet , Pardot , and iGoDigital tools . Its mobile features , as well as many of its workflow and collaboration tools , were released in July 2013 .

Salesforce Marketing Cloud was originally founded as an email marketing vendor . Its email management software maintains mailing lists and schedules and modifies email messages based on what recipients read , click @-@ on or forward .

In September 2014 the company introduced the Journey Builder for Apps , which is intended to create customer lifecycle maps of mobile app users . That month , at the September 2014 ExactTarget Connections conference , they announced numerous updates to their software . This included integration with software products owned by Salesforce.com , such as Buddy Media and Social Studio , as well as improvements to workflow and content management tools .

In November 2014 the company released a new version of Social Studio . This release expanded Social Studio beyond Salesforce ’ s Marketing Cloud , where it started , integrating it with the Service Cloud and the Sales Cloud . This enabled sending leads over to the Sales Cloud — the salesperson can see the full context of the company ’ s social media interactions with the lead .

= = Operations = =

As of December 2012 , about two thirds of ExactTarget 's 1 @,@ 500 employees were located in Indianapolis . The company hosts an annual user conference called the ExactTarget Connections Event ; the first Connections event in 2007 attracted 500 attendees , and it has since grown into one of the largest conferences on digital marketing . The event was located in Indianapolis from 2007 until 2014 , New York City in 2015 , Atlanta in 2016 and is planned for Chicago in 2017 .

= Belgian ship A4 =

Patrol vessel A4 ( French : Patrouilleur A4 ) was a small Mersey @-@ class naval trawler operated by Belgium during the Second World War . Originally built for the British Royal Navy , as HMS John Ebbs , the ship is notable for its role in evacuating Belgian gold reserves to England during the Battle of Belgium in May 1940 . The success of the operation not only allowed the Belgian government in exile to fund its operations but deprived the German occupiers of an important asset to support their war effort . After the Belgian surrender , the vessel and its crew interned themselves in neutral Spain . In 1946 , the vessel and its crew were released and the ship was scrapped soon afterwards .

= = Background = =

Pilote 4 ( later renamed Patrouilleur A4 ) was purchased by the Belgian Corps de Marine in 1920 , having previously served in the British Royal Navy during the First World War as HMS John Ebbs ( FY3566 ) . The vessel was a Mersey @-@ class naval trawler , built by Cochranes in Selby , North Yorkshire , and was launched on 2 October 1917 . Displacing 334 long tons ( 339 t ) , the vessel was 148 feet ( 45 m ) long , and had a draught of 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) . Fitted with engines that were capable of producing 600 horsepower ( 450 kW ) , it could travel at between 9 and 10 knots . With a complement of 27 , the Belgians armed the ship with two Maxim machine guns on the bridge and a 47mm gun at the stern . In 1939 , A4 was waiting to be scrapped , but the deteriorating international situation caused by German expansionism led to its reactivation by the Ministry of National Defence .

Because of Belgium 's neutral status in the early stages of the Second World War , A4 had large Belgian tricolours painted on each side of its hull , as well as the word " BELGIË " ( Dutch for " Belgium " ) in white , to prevent it being mistaken for a belligerent ship . After Belgium was invaded by German forces on 10 May 1940 , it was not repainted .

= = Evacuation of Belgian gold = =

During the interwar period , Belgium had created a gold @-@ based currency , called the Belga , which ran parallel to the Belgian franc . The Belga was intended for international trading and meant that the National Bank of Belgium amassed considerable gold reserves , amounting to some 600 tonnes by 1940 .

During the escalating international tensions in the 1930s , the Belgian government began moving large amounts of gold to the United States , Great Britain and Canada , but was forced to retain some gold in the country to maintain the Belga 's value .

By the time the Germans invaded Belgium in May 1940 , there were still 40 tonnes of gold left in Belgium , held at the bank 's offices in the port of Ostend . The only ship available in the area was A4 , commanded by Lieutenant Van Vaerenbergh . On 19 May 1940 , the vessel was loaded with the gold and , avoiding Dunkirk which was being bombed by the Luftwaffe , headed for the British coast , accompanied by the ship P16 which was carrying refugees . After being transferred from port to port because of concerns for the safety of the cargo during unloading , the gold was landed at Plymouth on 26 May , two days before the Belgian surrender . The gold was finally deposited at the Bank of England . A4 also carried Hubert Ansiaux , the civil servant charged with overseeing the evacuation of the gold to England and the future Governor of the National Bank .

The fact that so much Belgian gold had been rescued before the German occupation allowed the Belgian government in exile to finance its own operations , unlike most other exiled governments which had to rely on British financial support .

= = Aftermath = =

Since Belgium had officially surrendered on 28 May and no official Belgian government yet existed in England , the crew of A4 took their ship to Bilbao in neutral Spain to avoid having to return to Belgium and become German prisoners of war . They arrived in Spain on 26 June and spent the rest of the war interned . Control of the ship was returned to Belgium in 1946 and it was scrapped in 1948 .

For his role in the evacuation of the gold , Lieutenant Van Vaerenbergh was awarded the Order of Leopold II .

= Egypt at the 2012 Summer Olympics =

Egypt competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , from 27 July to 12 August 2012 , sending one of its largest delegations ever . A total of 110 Egyptian athletes participated in 83 events across 20 sports , with more women taking part than ever before . The nation 's flagbearer in the opening ceremonies was Hesham Mesbah , a judoka who was its only medalist from the 2008 Summer Olympics . Egypt won two medals in London : Alaaeldin Abouelkassem earned silver in the men 's foil , becoming the first competitor from an African nation to win a fencing medal , while Karam Gaber captured silver in the men 's 84 kg Greco @-@ Roman wrestling event . Among other achievements , Mostafa Mansour was the nation 's first competitor in sprint canoeing while fencer Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the first Egyptian female to appear in four editions of the Olympics .

Prior to 2012 , Egypt had sent athletes to nineteen editions of the Summer Olympic Games , the 1906 Intercalated Games , equestrian at the 1956 Summer Olympics , and the 1984 Winter Olympics . Before the Games began , the Egyptian Olympic Committee distributed counterfeit Nike gear to its athletes , due to its financial troubles following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . Nike , however , ended up donating legitimate equipment to the Egyptians . In addition to the success of the silver medalists , one weightlifter , Tarek Yehia , finished just off the podium in fourth in the men 's 85 kg event , while three others , Ibrahim Ramadan , Abeer Abdelrahman , and Nahla Ramadan , were fifth in their respective events . Tamer Bayoumi , a 2004 Olympic bronze medalist and the nation ’ s most successful taekwondo practitioner at the 2012 edition , was chosen to carry Egypt ’ s flag at the closing ceremony .

Aside from the team sport of football , which had 16 participants , fencing and wrestling were the sports in which Egypt participated the most , sending 12 representatives to each . Of them , wrestling was almost exclusively male with only one female , Rabab Eid , taking part . The sport with the most Egyptian female participation was synchronized swimming , an all @-@ woman tournament at the Olympics , with eight , while the nation sent six women to fencing , the highest amount for a mixed sport . Among tournaments with the potential for both men and women to take part , Egypt qualified females , but not males , for badminton , and males , but not females , for track and field athletics , boxing , canoeing , equestrian , football , judo , and sailing .

= = Medalists = =

= = Background = =

Prior to 2012 , Egypt had sent athletes to nineteen editions of the Summer Olympic Games ( three times as the United Arab Republic ) , the 1906 Intercalated Games , equestrian at the 1956 Summer Olympics , and the 1984 Winter Olympics . With the exception of the Soviet @-@ boycotted 1984 Summer Olympics , Egypt 's 2012 delegation was the largest ever , and chose Hesham Mesbah , a 2008 Olympic medalist in judo , as its flagbearer in the opening ceremony . A total of 110 Egyptians , 76 men and 34 women , travelled to London and competed in 20 different sports . It was the largest delegation of women in the country 's Olympic history . Prior the start of the Olympic Games , the Egyptian Olympic Committee ( EOC ) distributed counterfeit Nike gear from a Chinese distributor to its athletes , due to its financial troubles following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . Nike ended up donating equipment to the Egyptians , despite the EOC 's eventual willingness to pay .

= = Competitors = =

Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the nation 's first female to appear in her fourth Olympic games , while former Olympic medalists Tamer Bayoumi ( taekwondo ) , Karam Gaber ( Greco @-@ Roman wrestling ) , and Hesham Mesbah ( judo ) returned to compete again . Middleweight boxer Mohamed Hikal and skeet shooter Mostafa Hamdy also made a fourth appearance at the Games , while Gaber , Mesbah , and six other athletes made their third Olympic appearance : discus thrower Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly , modern pentathlete Aya Medany , table tennis player El @-@ sayed Lashin , Greco @-@ Roman wrestlers Ashraf El @-@ Gharably and Mohamed Abdelfatah , and judoka Islam El Shehaby . Skeet shooter Mona El @-@ Hawary , aged 49 , was the oldest athlete on the team , while sprint freestyle swimmer Farida Osman was the youngest at age 17 . Bayoumi was selected as Egypt 's flagbearer for the closing ceremony .

= = Archery = =

Two Egyptian archers , one male and one female , qualified for the Olympics , both of whom earned their berths at the 2012 African Archery Championships . Ahmed El @-@ Nemr finished second at that tournament , behind Philippe Kouassi of Côte d 'Ivoire , and entered the men 's individual event . El @-@ Nemr had won three medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , gold in the individual recurve 90 metres and silver in the individual recurve FITA and the team event . In London he scored 644 points in the ranking round and placed 57th overall out of 64 competitors . In the round of 64 he defeated eighth @-@ ranked Crispin Duenas of Canada three sets to one and then faced Kuo Cheng @-@ wei , who was representing Chinese Taipei . El @-@ Nemr lost this round three sets to one and was eliminated from the tournament , leaving with a final ranking of 17th . Nada Kamel , who had earned seven medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , won the women 's event at the 2012 African Championships and entered the individual tournament . There she scored 611 points in the ranking round and placed 56th overall out of 64 participants . She was defeated by Ksenia Perova of Russia three sets to none in the opening round and finished the event joint @-@ 33rd and last .

Key : W

= Competitor won the match ; L =

Competitor lost the match ; BM = Bronze medal match

= = Athletics = =

Seven Egyptian athletes , six men and one woman , qualified for the Olympics , although one did not compete . Noura Elsayed , the lone woman , was slated to run in the 800 metres , but withdrew due to injury . The only Egyptian to participate in more than one event was Amr Ibrahim Mostafa Seoud , a veteran of the 200 metre event at the 2008 Summer Olympics . Seoud , who had won gold medals in the 100 metres at the 2007 Pan Arab and 2011 All @-@ African Games , and the 200 metres at the 2007 Pan Arab and 2009 Mediterranean Games , as well as the 2010 African Championships , met the " A " qualifying standard for both the 100 metres and 200 metres . In the 100 he drew the same heat as world record @-@ holder and defending Olympic champion Usain Bolt of Jamaica and finished fourth , which was insufficient to advance . He had the same result in the opening heats of the 200 . Hamada Mohamed met the " A " qualifying standard for the 800 metres and won his opening heat in London , advancing to the semifinals . He was placed in the same heat as David Rudisha of Kenya , the world @-@ record holder and upcoming gold medalist , and finished eighth out of nine competitors , failing reach the final .

The remaining Egyptians , all of whom qualified through the B standard , competed in field events . Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly , in the discus , was the most experienced of the quartet , with senior international medals going back to bronze at the 2002 African Championships in Athletics , in addition to past Olympic appearances in 2004 and 2008 . In London he finished 26th among 41 participants with a best throw of 60 @.@ 26 meters . Ihab El @-@ Sayed , in the javelin throw , had missed the 2008 Summer Olympics , despite having been a silver medalist at the 2007 Pan Arab Games , but had won the event at the 2010 African Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he placed 29th out of 44 competitors with a best throw of 77 @.@ 35 meters . Mostafa Al @-@ Gamel , in the hammer throw , was the gold medalist from the 2011 All @-@ African Games and a silver medalist from the 2008 African Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he was 29th among 41 participants with a best throw of 71 @.@ 36 meters . Mohamed Fathalla Difallah , who had come in fourth at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , was 37th out of 41 competitors in the qualifying round of the long jump in London , with a distance of 7 @.@ 08 meters , and did not advance to the final .

Men

Track & road events

Field events

Women

Track & road events

Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only

Key : Q

= Qualified for the next round ; N / A =

Round not applicable for the event ; DNS = Athlete failed to start the event

= = Badminton = =

One Egyptian badminton player qualified for the Olympics , Hadia Hosny El Said . A veteran of the 2008 Summer Games , she trained for London at the University of Bath , where she was a graduate student in bioscience . Ranked 102nd in the world , she qualified by being the top player on the African continent . In the women 's singles , she lost to Pi Hongyan of France and Chloe Magee of Ireland , finished in the bottom of her group , and was eliminated from the tournament .

Key : L

= Competitor lost the match ; BM =

Bronze medal match

= = Boxing = =

Five Egyptian boxers qualified for the Olympics , all of whom were men and earned their spots at the 2012 African Boxing Olympic Qualification Tournament . The only Egyptian to win a bout in London was Hesham Yehia , in the flyweight division , who defeated Benson Gicharu of Kenya before losing to Jasurbek Latipov of Uzbekistan in the round of 16 . Yehia 's most successful major international tournament had been the 2011 Pan Arab Games , where he had been the flyweight runner @-@ up . The most experienced boxer was Mohamed Hikal , who had competed in the light @-@ middleweight , welterweight , and middleweight categories of the 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 Summer Olympics respectively . Among his international boxing distinctions , he was 1999 and 2003 All @-@ African champion , 2005 Mediterranean champion , 2007 and 2011 Pan Arab champion , and 2007 African champion , and won a bronze medal at the 2005 World Championships . In 2012 he was once again representing Egypt as a middleweight and lost his first bout to Soltan Migitinov of Azerbaijan . Ramy Helmy El @-@ Awadi , a bronze medalist from the 2007 Pan Arab Games , received a bye in the opening round of the light flyweight class and was defeated by Ferhat Pehlivan of Turkey in the round of 16 . Mohamed Ramadan and Eslam El @-@ Gendy lost their first bouts to eventual silver medalist Han Soon @-@ Chul of South Korea and Gyula Káté of Hungary in the lightweight and light welterweight events respectively .

Men

Key : W

= Competitor won the match ; L =

Competitor lost the match ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round

= = Canoeing = =

Egypt 's first ever Olympic competitor in canoe and kayak , Mostafa Mansour , qualified for the 2012 Games . Having taken up the sport in 2007 , after abandoning his initial pursuit of rowing , Mansour qualified for the K @-@ 1 200 metres by coming in third in the event at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . The Olympic spots were originally meant to go to the top two finishers , Greg Louw of South Africa and Mohamed Mrabet of Tunisia , but South Africa did not select Louw for the Games . Mansour 's best time in the K @-@ 1 1000 metres earned him a spot in that event as a continental wildcard . He was eliminated in the opening round of both events in London , after finishing last in his heats .

= = = Sprint = = =

= = Equestrian = =

One Egyptian equestrian qualified for show jumping for the Olympics . Karim El @-@ Zoghby , a veteran of the 2008 Games , qualified with his horse Wervel Wind due to his ranking at the 2010 FEI World Equestrian Games . In the months leading up to the Olympics , he trained full @-@ time in the Netherlands and won a silver medal in the team jumping event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London , Zoghby survived the first qualifying course by finishing joint @-@ 53rd with five penalties , but was eliminated after placing 51st in round two with an additional five penalties .

= = = Show jumping = = =

Key : Q = Qualified for the next round

= = Fencing = =

Twelve Egyptian fencers , six men and six women , qualified for the Olympics . Both the men and women qualified their foil teams by being the top African nation in this category , while Ayman Mohamed Fayez and Salma Mahran were selected as the second highest @-@ ranked Africans in the men 's épée and the women 's sabre respectively . The final competitors , Mona Hassanein in the women 's épée and Mannad Zeid in the men 's sabre , won an African qualifier to earn their spots . Both foil teams lost their opening rounds against Great Britain and were eliminated from the tournament .

In the men 's events , Alaaeldin Abouelkassem , who captured gold in the individual and team foil events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , won a silver medal in the men 's foil , after the losing the final against Lei Sheng of China . To qualify for the final he defeated American Miles Chamley @-@ Watson , Germany 's Peter Joppich , Italy 's Andrea Cassarà , and South Korea 's Choi Byung @-@ Chul , and became the first African to win an Olympic fencing medal . One of his teammates , Tarek Ayad , who had also been part of the gold medal @-@ winning foil team at the 2011 Pan Arab Games and had won bronze individually , defeated fellow Egyptian Anas Mostafa in the opening round , before losing to Aleksey Cheremisinov of Russia in the round of 32 . Fayez , who won gold in the individual and team épée events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , and Zeid were defeated in their opening rounds by eventual gold medalist Rubén Limardo of Venezuela and Malaysia 's Yu Peng Kean respectively . None of the women won any bouts in London , but Shaimaa El @-@ Gammal became the first Egyptian female to compete in four Olympics , having taken part in the 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 editions .

Men

Women

Key : W

= Competitor won the match ; L =

Competitor lost the match ; BM

= Bronze medal match ; N / A =

Round not applicable for the event ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round

= = Football = =

= = = Men 's tournament = = =

The Egyptian national football team qualified for the Olympics after its third @-@ place finish at the 2011 CAF U @-@ 23 Championship . It was the nation 's first Olympic appearance since the 1992 Games and they chose Mohamed Aboutrika , Ahmed Fathy , and Emad Moteab as their three over @-@ 23 players . The squad was coached by Hany Ramzy . In the tournament , Egypt was drawn into Group C. It lost its first match against Brazil 3 – 2 , but tied New Zealand 1 – 1 and defeated Belarus 3 – 1 to advance to the knockout stage . This was their fifth time in eleven tournaments that Egypt progressed out of the group stage . Egypt met Japan in the quarterfinals and lost 3 – 0 , eliminating them from the tournament .

Team roster

The following is the Egypt squad in the men 's football tournament of the 2012 Summer Olympics .

Coach : Hany Ramzy

* Indicates that player was born prior to 1 January 1989 . According to FIFA regulations , only three such players are permitted on an Olympic squad .

Group play

Quarterfinal

= = Gymnastics = =

Four Egyptian gymnasts , three artistic and one rhythmic , qualified for the Olympics . Mohamed El @-@ Saharty , the lone male , was invited to London as the highest @-@ ranked African in the individual all @-@ around at the 2011 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships . He was individual all @-@ around Arab Champion in 2011 and 2012 , African Champion in 2010 and 2012 , and Pan Arab Champion in 2011 . At the latter tournament , he had also taken gold in the horizontal bar , the pommel horse , the vault , and the team event . In London his best event was the vault , where he finished 12th . He was 52nd in the horizontal bar , 56th in the floor , 57th in the pommel horse , 61st in the rings , and 65th in the parallel bars . His final rank in the individual all @-@ around was 37th .

Salma El @-@ Said and Sherine El @-@ Zeiny qualified for the Olympics as the second and third @-@ ranked Africans at the 2011 World Championships , with El @-@ Zeiny having been offered a spot after the highest @-@ placed African , Nicole Szabo of South Africa , turned down the invitation due to injury . El @-@ Said had taken a break from active competition while recovering from an injury of her own and came back shortly before the World Championships . Since then she had taken the individual all @-@ around title at the 2011 Arab Games and the 2012 African Championships . El @-@ Zeiny was a veteran of the 2008 tournament and both had been a part of Egypt 's victorious all @-@ around team at the 2012 African Championships . In London , El @-@ Said 's best event was the balance beam , in which she placed 42nd . She was also 63rd in the uneven bars , 69th in the floor exercise , and was ranked 41st overall in the individual all @-@ around . El @-@ Zeiny was 53rd on the balance beam , but finished 82nd and last in the floor exercise after suffering an injury . Yasmine Rostom , the rhythmic gymnast , qualified by being the top performer from Africa at the 2011 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships . In London she was 23rd in the ball and the hoop , 20th in the clubs , and last in the ribbon to finish 23rd out of 24 competitors overall .

= = = Artistic = = =

Men

F

= Floor exercise ; PH =

Pommel horse ; R

= Rings ; V =

Vault ; PB

= Parallel bars ; HB =

Horizontal bar ; N / A

= Round not applicable for the event

Women

F =

Floor exercise ; PH

= Pommel horse ; UB =

Uneven bars ; BB

= Balance beam ; N / A =

Round not applicable for the event

= = = Rhythmic = = =

= = Judo = =

Five Egyptian judoka qualified for the Olympics , all men , two of which advanced beyond the round of 32 . Ahmed Awad , who was the 2011 African and All @-@ Africa Games champion , as well as the runner @-@ up at the 2009 Mediterranean Games and a bronze medalist at the 2012 African Championships , earned a spot in the 66 kg event by being the highest ranked African in the division . He defeated Humaid Al @-@ Derei of the United Arab Emirates before losing against Tarlan Karimov of Azerbaijan in the round of 16 . Hussein Hafiz , who was the 2011 Pan Arab and 2012 African Champion , as well as the 2011 African runner @-@ up and a bronze medalist at the 2009 and 2010 editions and the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , qualified for London by being ranked 18th in the world in the 73 kg class . He won his opening match against Osman Murillo Segura of Costa Rica before being defeated by France 's Ugo Legrand , an eventual bronze medalist . Hesham Mesbah , who was Egypt 's only medalist at the 2008 Summer Olympics , returned to the 90 kg division by being ranked 13th in the world , but was eliminated his first match , against Timur Bolat of Kazakhstan .

Islam El Shehaby had participated in the 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics and had international judo titles in the + 100 kg division as far back as the 1999 Pan Arab Games . He was most recentely African Champion in the + 100 kg and open classes at the 2011 African Championships , and was runner @-@ up in the former category at the 2012 edition . Coming into the 2012 Olympics he was ranked fourth in the world , but lost in the opening round against Ihar Makarau of Belarus . The final judoka , Ramadan Darwish , had won every African championship in the 100 kg class since 2009 , was the 2009 Mediterranean champion and 2011 All @-@ Africa Games runner @-@ up , and had earned a bronze medal at the 2009 World Judo Championships . He qualified for the 100 kg event at the Olympic Games by being ranked ninth worldwide , but was defeated in his first match by France 's Thierry Fabre .

Key : W

= Competitor won the match ; L =

Competitor lost the match ; N / A

= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =

Athlete not required to compete in round

= = Modern pentathlon = =

Three Egyptian athletes qualified for the Olympic modern pentathlon tournament , two men and one woman . Aya Medany , a veteran of the 2004 and 2008 Games , was the most experienced of the three , having competed internationally since 1999 at the age of 10 . She won the 2011 African Championships to earn her spot in London , which was her fifth title at the tournament since 2004 . In the women 's event in London , she won 20 of her fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ eighth after the first round . She was 18th in swimming , 19th in riding , and 21st in the combined running / shooting portion to finish 16th overall . On the men 's side , Yasser Hefny won the 2011 African Championships and entered the men 's event in London , where he won 17 of his fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ thirteenth after the first round . He was 19th in the swimming , 28th in riding , and 31st in the combined running / shooting competition to finish 28th overall .

Amro El Geziry was a veteran of the 2008 Games , having won the 2006 and 2007 African Championships , and was following his brother Emad , who had participated in the 2000 edition . He won a bronze medal with another brother , Omar , at the 2009 World Modern Pentathlon Championships and eventually qualified for the 2012 Olympics by virtue of his world ranking . He received a berth during the second round of Olympic allocations , when spots won by nations who qualified more than the maximum two athletes were redistributed . In London he was victorious in 18 of his fencing bouts and was ranked joint @-@ 11th after the first round , but then won the swimming event with an Olympic record time of 1 : 55 @.@ 70 . He placed 33rd and 34th in the riding and combined riding / shooting competition , however , and finished 33rd overall .

Key : MP Points

= Points earned towards total score ; WR =

World record ; OR

= Olympic record ; NR =

National record

= = Rowing = =

Five Egyptians in three events qualified for the Olympic rowing tournament , all of whom earned their places at the African Continental Qualification Regatta in November 2011 . A member of the national team since 2007 , Nour El Din Hassanein normally rowed in the double sculls and , with Moustafa Fathy , finished last in the " C " final and 15th overall in that event at the 2010 World Rowing Championships . In London , however , he competed in the men 's single sculls and placed second in the " D " final and 20th overall . In the men 's lightweight double sculls , Omar Emira and Mohamed Nofel , who were first in the " E " final and 25th overall at the 2011 World Rowing Championships , finished 20th overall and last . In the women 's version , Sara Baraka and Fatma Rashed , the latter of whom replaced Baraka 's regular partner Ingy Hassem El Din also finished last .

Men

Women

Key : FA

= Qualified for final A ( medal ) ; FB =

Qualified for final B ( non @-@ medal ) ; FC

= Qualified for final C ( non @-@ medal ) ; FD =

Qualified for final D ( non @-@ medal ) ; FE

= Qualified for final E ( non @-@ medal ) ; FF =

Qualified for final F ( non @-@ medal ) ; SA / B

= Qualified for semifinals A / B ; SC / D =

Qualified for semifinals C / D ; SE / F

= Qualified for semifinals E / F ; QF =

Qualified for quarterfinals ; R

= Qualified for repechage ; WR =

World record ; OR

= Olympic record ; NR =

National record ; N / A

= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =

Athlete not required to compete in round

= = Sailing = =

One Egyptian windsurfer qualified for the Olympics , Ahmed Habash , who took up the sport as a teenager , but quit prior to the 2008 Games due to a serious injury . He re @-@ entered competition in 2012 and won the Egyptian National Championships . This qualified him for the World Championships , where he performed well enough to earn a spot on the national delegation to London . In the sailboard , Habash finished last overall , with 334 net points , and was eliminated prior to the medal round .

Men

Key : M *

= Medal race ; EL =

Eliminated – did not advance into the medal race ; X = Points from this race were discarded as being the competitor 's worst race

= = Shooting = =

Egypt earned seven quota places for shooting events , five of which went to men and two of which were for women . Mona El @-@ Hawary , competing in the women 's skeet , was 17th and last in her event , but still ranked higher than any other Egyptian shooter . She was also a veteran of the 2008 Summer Olympics . The other woman , Nourhan Amer , was 41st of 56 competitors in the 10 metre air rifle . She had won three medals in team events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . Egypt 's best @-@ ranked man was Mostafa Hamdy , a veteran of the 1996 , 2000 , and 2004 Olympic tournaments , who was 18th among 36 participants in the men 's skeet . Azmy Mehelba , the 2011 Pan Arab runner up , also competed in the skeet , but was last . Ahmed Zaher , in the trap , was 22nd of 34 competitors , while Karim Wagih was 38th of 44 participants in the 10 metre air pistol . Amgad Hosen , a team gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games , finished 29th out of 47 competitors in the 10 metre air rifle .

Men

Women

Key : WR

= World record ; OR =

Olympic record ; NR = National record

= = Swimming = =

Three Egyptian swimmers , one female and two males , qualified for the Olympics . American @-@ born Farida Osman , the woman , was the youngest member of the 2012 national delegation and qualified for the Games based on having made the Olympic Standard Time in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle . In the lead up to the Olympics , she won seven gold medals at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , as well as the 50 @-@ metre butterfly title at that year 's All @-@ Africa Games and World Junior Championships . In London she was sixth in her heat in the 50 @-@ metre freestyle and was eliminated from the tournament , ranking 42nd overall . On the men 's side , Shehab Younis qualified for the 50 @-@ metre freestyle by meeting the Olympic Selection Time of 22 @.@ 88 at an international meet in Eindhoven , Netherlands , with a result of 22 @.@ 85 . Prior to the Olympics he had won a bronze medal in the event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he was third in his heat and 34th overall , failing to advance to the semifinals . Mazen Metwaly , a Saudi @-@ born Egyptian training and studying at Southern Illinois University Carbondale , made the team at an Olympic qualifier in Setúbal , Portugal in June 2012 , the second of his two opportunities ( his first having been the 2011 World Championships ) . At the Games , in the marathon 10 kilometre , he was 24th out of 25 competitors .

Men

Women

Key : Q

= Qualified for the next round ; WR =

World record ; OR

= Olympic record ; NR =

National record ; N / A

= Round not applicable for the event ; Bye =

Athlete not required to compete in round

= = Synchronized swimming = =

Egypt 's synchronized swimming team qualified for the Olympics by being the top African nation at the 2011 World Aquatics Championships . It was the second time that the nation had qualified for the team event , having previously appeared in 2008 . Shaza Abdelrahman and Dalia El @-@ Gebaly , veterans of the 2008 tournament , represented Egypt in the duet , where they placed 24th and last . In the team competition , the nation finished seventh out of eight nations , ranking higher than Australia .

Key : N / A = Round not applicable for the event

= = Table tennis = =

Six Egyptian table tennis players , three men and three women , qualified for the Olympics , four for the singles and an additional two for the team events . The four singles competitors , Omar Assar , El @-@ sayed Lashin , Nadeen El @-@ Dawlatly , and Dina Meshref , all qualified based on their achievements at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games . At this tournament , Assar won the singles event , was part of the victorious Egyptian team , finished second in the doubles with Emad Moselhy , and placed third in the mixed doubles alongside Meshref . He also won silver in the singles and gold in the team event at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London he defeated Yaroslav Zhmudenko of Ukraine in the opening round , but lost to Greece 's Panagiotis Gionis in round two . Lashin was the runner @-@ up in the singles at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , as well as the winner of the doubles ( with Ahmed Saleh ) , a bronze medalist in the mixed doubles ( alongside El @-@ Dawlatly ) , and a member of the gold medal @-@ earning Egyptian team . His list of international medals stretched back to the 1996 African Championships , where he won a gold medal in the team event , and he had previously appeared in the Olympic Games in 2000 and 2008 . In London he defeated Pär Gerell of Sweden and Zoran Primorac of Croatia before losing to Japan 's Jun Mizutani in the third round . For the team event , Assar and Lashin were joined by Saleh , a 2008 Olympic veteran whose victories went as far back at the doubles event at the 1996 Arab Championships , but they were eliminated in the opening round .

El @-@ Dawlatly had been fourth in the singles at the 2011 All @-@ Africa Games , as well as third in the doubles and mixed doubles ( with Meshref and Lashin respectively ) , and was a member of the gold medal @-@ winning Egyptian team . She had also earned gold in the team event and the doubles and silver in the singles at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London she was defeated in the opening round by Denmark 's Mie Skov . Meshref had the same results as El @-@ Dawlatly at the 2011 All @-@ African Games , except for being fifth in the singles , and took gold in the singles , doubles , and team events at the 2011 Pan Arab Games . In London she defeated Offiong Edem of Nigeria and Yana Noskova of Russia before being overcome by Romania 's Elizabeta Samara . For the team event , El @-@ Dawlatly and Meshref were joined by Raghd Magdy , who had been third in the doubles and mixed doubles , as well as runner @-@ up in the team competition , at the 2003 All @-@ Africa Games . The Egyptian women were defeated by the Dutch in the first round .

Men

Women

Key : BM

= Bronze medal match ; N / A =

Round not applicable for the event ; Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round

= = Taekwondo = =

Four Egyptian taekwondo practitioners , two men and two women , qualified for the Olympics , all of whom finished first at the African Qualification tournament , except for Abdelrahman Ossama in the men 's 80 kg class , who was second behind Morocco 's Issam Chernoubi . Tamer Bayoumi , a bronze medalist from the 2004 Olympics , was the most successful of the quartet . In the 58 kg class he defeated Nursultan Mamayev of Kazakhstan in the round of 16 before losing in sudden death to Lee Dae @-@ Hoon of South Korea , the eventual silver medalist , in the quarterfinals . In the repechage he was defeated by Thailand 's Pen @-@ Ek Karaket . The only other Egyptian to win a match was Hedaya Malak , in the women 's 57 kg , who overcame Robin Cheong of New Zealand before being defeated by Marlène Harnois of France , an eventual bronze medalist . In his first bout , Ossama lost to Tommy Mollet of the Netherlands in sudden death , while Seham El @-@ Sawalhy , the 2010 and 2012 African champion , was eliminated by Sweden 's Elin Johansson in the round of 16 of the women 's 67 kg class .

Key : Bye

= Athlete not required to compete in round ; SDP =

Decision by sudden death point

= = Weightlifting = =

Five Egyptian men , Ahmed Saad , Mohamed Abdelbaki , Ibrahim Ramadan , Ragab Abdelhay , and Tarek Yehia , qualified for the Olympic weightlifting tournament by ranking seventh overall after the 2010 and 2011 World Weightlifting Championships , and three women , Esmat Mansour , Abeer Abdelrahman , and Nahla Ramadan , by ranking fourteenth . For the women , Ramadan , a gold medalist at the 2003 World Weightlifting Championships and the 2011 Pan Arab Games , bronze medalist at the 2002 World Championships , and veteran of the 75 kg class at the 2004 Summer Olympics , finished fifth in the + 75 kg class . Abdelrahman , another gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games and veteran of the 69 kg class at the 2008 Summer Olympics , was fifth in the 75 kg division . Mansour , contesting the 69 kg class , was ninth in her event .

For the men , Yehia , a silver medalist at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , bronze medalist at the 2010 World Championships , and veteran of the 69 kg class at the 2008 Summer Olympics , had the nation 's best result , with a fourth @-@ place finish in the 85 kg division . His countryman Abdelhay , the gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games , was sixth in the same event . Saad , a silver medalist at the 2011 Pan Arab Games who had taken part in the 56 kg class at the 2004 Summer Olympics , was ninth in the 62 kg event . Abdelbaki , another gold medalist from the 2011 Pan Arab Games and a veteran of the 62 kg event at the 2008 Summer Olympics , was tenth in the 69 kg class , while Ramadan , also a gold medalist at the 2011 Pan Arab Games , was fifth in the 77kg event .

Men

Women

Key : WR

= World record ; OR =

Olympic record ; NR = National record

